So What... About Copyright?

Transcription

1 So What... About Copyright? What Artists Need to Know About Copyright & Trademarks For filmmakers, visual artists, and writers Edited by David Bollier, Gigi Bradford, Laurie Racine and Gigi B. Sohn Produced by PUBLIC KNOWLEDGE The public s voice in the digital age.

2 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License. To view a copy of this license, visit or send a letter to Creative Commons, 559 Nathan Abbott Way, Stanford, California 94305, USA. Attribution. You may copy, distribute, display, and perform this work and derivative works based upon it only if you give credit to Public Knowledge and the authors of this work. Noncommercial. You may copy, distribute, display, and perform this work and derivative works based upon it but for noncommercial purposes only. Published by Public Knowledge First Edition Library of Congress Catalog Number: ISBN: Printed in the United States of America

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4 PREFACE Why Would You Read This Book? Overprotecting intellectual property is as harmful as underprotecting it. Culture is impossible without a rich public domain. Nothing today, likely nothing since we tamed fire, is genuinely new: Culture, like science and technology, grows by accretion, each new creator building on the works of those who came before. Overprotection stifles the very creative forces it s supposed to nurture. The post-industrial global world is based on ideas and creativity. Raw materials and industry are no longer the main engines of economic growth. Ideas and inventions zip around the world at lightning speed and have changed the way that we communicate, entertain, copy, produce, and prosper. More and more, our courts are being asked to weigh whether art and culture are the result of various discrete Eureka moments or the accumulation of new ways to interpret ageless emotions and questions. The laws we employ to nourish innovation and protect creation have changed. Some wonder if new restrictions hinder creative expression. Could it be the great intellectual land grab of our time? Is it the fencing of the prairie of ideas? Are the established gaining ground at the expense of the emerging? It s time for artists to understand their existing rights and how those rights may be shrinking. The stakes are enormous. Creators need to know how the public domain the store of words, sounds, images, and other memories that are free for all to use or build upon is being corralled. When thinking about copyright, most people focus on protecting completed expression. This is an important part of copyright and has always been so. But what once was the equal half of the equation is shrinking: the ability to tap into to a rich public domain available to all. Read this book. It will lay out in plain and accessible language the social balance written into the U.S. Constitution between access to content in the public domain and control over personal art and expression. It could change what you think is important. It could help you to protect your future work and your ability to make that work in a world that increasingly values, and tries to control, creativity and innovation in this century. Gigi Bradford Washington, DC 2005 Alex Kozinski, Judge, Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals

5 How To Use This Book Who this book is for and what this book is about: So What...About Copyright? is designed for artists, authors, and scholars of all kinds. It comprises a series of essays written with the creator in mind. The book is framed by a comprehensive overview chapter and then supported by subsequent chapters targeted to different creative groups filmmakers, visual artists, and writers. It attempts to give you a theoretical and practical understanding of the important and evolving concepts that make up copyright, trademark, fair use, and the public domain. Today s world relies more and more on creativity and on ideas. Consequently, courts and legislators are increasingly being asked to interpret intellectual property laws, many of which have changed a great deal in the last thirty years. Anyone who creates art or ideas and who values both intellectual property and the viability of a robust public domain will benefit from reading this clear and user-friendly book. What this book is not about: So What... is not designed to provide legal advice. It is designed to give readers an understanding of the historic balance between copyright and the public domain as it was written into the U. S. Constitution; how copyright and trademark laws have evolved over time; what they are intended to accomplish; and how you can make sure you understand, benefit from, and follow them. This book is not a how-to or a practical compendium, but rather a clear explanation of a topic that can appear so complex that those who need to know about it often avoid the topic altogether. How this book is organized: Begin with the overview section and the conclusion. Then, delve into sections that are targeted to specific creative genres filmmaking, visual arts, and writing. Don t forget to read the conclusion. It will tell you why these changing legal concepts are vitally important to you now. It will suggest ways to stay informed and will help you decide how you want to consider your own rights.

6 CONTRIBUTORS WHY WOULD YOU READ THIS BOOK? HOW TO USE THIS BOOK: OVERVIEW: VISUAL ARTS: FILMMAKERS: WRITERS: CONCLUSION: EDITORS: SO WHAT... ABOUT COPYRIGHT? What Artists Need to Know About Copyright & Trademarks For filmmakers, visual artists, and writers Produced by PUBLIC KNOWLEDGE The public s voice in the digital age. Gigi Bradford Gigi Bradford Jessica Litman, Kay Murray, Christine Steiner What Every Artist Should Know About Copyright and Trademark Law Christine Steiner Visual Arts and Intellectual Property Vivian Kleiman and Gretchen Stoeltje Picking the Lock: Filmmaking in the Digital Age Kay Murray Copyright, Contracts, & Publishing Realities for Authors Gigi B. Sohn David Bollier, Gigi Bradford, Laurie Racine and Gigi Sohn Jessica Litman is author of many publications including Digital Copyright. She teaches at Wayne State University Law School. Vivian Kleiman is an award-winning documentary filmmaker and Adjunct Professor at Stanford University; Gretchen Stoeltje is an independent filmmaker expert in legal issues. Christine Steiner is an attorney based in Los Angeles whose cutting-edge concepts and publications addressing intellectual property and copyright issues for visual artists and museums have achieved national and international recognition. Research assistance provided by Valerie Geyber & Sarah Conley. Kay Murray is General Counsel and Assistant Director of the Writers Guild. She is coauthor of The Writer s Legal Guide. David Bollier is a co-founder of Public Knowledge, the author of Brand Name Bullies: The Quest to Own and Control Culture, and the Editor of OntheCommons.org. Gigi Bradford has worked in arts and culture for over 25 years and is an editor of The Politics of Culture. Laurie Racine is the co-founder and Chair of Public Knowledge. She is also Chair of Doc Arts, Inc and Teacher's Without Borders. Gigi B. Sohn is President of Public Knowledge, an organization that advocates a balanced approach to copyright and technology policy. The opinions expressed herein are those of the individual writers and are not intended to provide legal advice or counsel.

7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS So What... About Copyright? What Artists Need to Know About Copyright & Trademarks is supported by the Center for the Public Domain and by grants from the Nathan Cummings Foundation, The Rockefeller Foundation, and the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts. Public Knowledge, the public s voice in the digital age, is a public-interest advocacy organization dedicated to fortifying and defending a vibrant information commons. This publication is part of its Empowering Creators in the Digital Age project, which is designed to address how digital technologies and restrictive copyright policies affect the ability of artists to create. Public Knowledge is: Gigi B. Sohn, President Mike Godwin, Legal Director Art Brodsky, Communications Director Alex Curtis, Government Affairs Manager Peter Suber, Director, Open Access Project Scott Burns, Staff Technologist Ann Oliverio, Office Manager Public Knowledge would also like to thank Nathan Mitchler, its former Intellectual Property Counsel, and Jef Pearlman and Heidi Wachs, its 2004 Summer Law Clerks, for providing valuable assistance with this project. Public Knowledge Board of Directors: Hal Abelson David Bollier, Secretary Reed Hundt, Treasurer Lawrence Lessig Jonathan Taplin Laurie Racine, Chair Gigi B. Sohn, President Empowering Creators Project Director: Gigi Bradford Publications Director: Stacey Mewborn Printer: LuLu Enterprises

11 What Every Artist Should Know About Copyright and Trademark Law OVERVIEW Jessica Litman, Kay Murray, and Christine Steiner

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13 Overview 1 3 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY & YOU Patent, copyright, trademark and trade secrecy are species of intellectual property, which is a legal right to control and license a tangible mental creation. Intellectual property rights particularly copyright and trademark have always been important for artists, authors, composers, musicians, filmmakers, painters, sculptors and other creators. They enable creators to earn money from the works they create while generating new art, knowledge, and information for the public. This primer focuses on copyright and trademark law. Copyright and trademark are different concepts, protecting different types of property through different enforcement mechanisms. Both are mechanisms of legal control created by Congress and enforced by the courts; both have registration schemes that offer distinct advantages; both have established fair use principles; and both are widely misunderstood. Since all writing, music, and art echoes and sometimes incorporates the creative expression of earlier authors, intellectual property protection potentially impedes new creativity and discourages authors from making their work available to the public. This primer seeks to help you understand your legal rights and obligations under copyright and trademark law and how these realities may affect your work as an artist. Copyrights and trademarks are like physical property in the sense that they can be owned, sold, leased, and borrowed. Intellectual property rights are both similar to and different from your rights in a house, a car, a sweater, or a turkey sandwich. Calling copyright and trademarks property gives us information about some of their characteristics in this case, that they can be licensed, bought and sold. But copyright and trademark have other important characteristics, such as limited terms and public usage rights, which make them very different from tangible property. COPYRIGHT Overview Copyright Defined Intellectual property is a legal right to control and license a tangible mental creation. A copyright is a form of protection provided to authors of original works of authorship including literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, choreographic, architectural and audiovisual works.

14 1 4 Jessica Litman, Kay Murray and Christine Steiner Copyright Highlights Copyright protection is automatic. Copyrights are limited in both time and scope. Copyright protects your expression, but not your ideas or the facts that you express. How Copyright Is Created Copyright protection is automatic. A copyright springs into being as soon as you create a copyrightable work and fix it in tangible form by writing it down or recording it. The copyright will only protect material that is original to you. If you photograph the Golden Gate Bridge, your copyright will automatically protect your photograph insofar as it embodies your expression of the way the bridge looks. However, your copyright will give you no rights to stop other people from taking their own photographs of the Golden Gate Bridge. Limitations of Copyrights Copyrights are limited in both time and scope. The Constitution requires that copyrights endure for limited times. Congress has set that duration at the length of the author s life plus 70 years or 95 years for older works and works made for hire. Copyrights give authors exclusive rights in particular uses The duration of copyright is life of the author plus 70 years, or 95 years for works made for hire and older works. of their works. The public has rights in copyrighted works, however, free of the copyright owner s control. For example, copyright law gives the copyright owner the exclusive right to perform the copyrighted work publicly or to authorize others to do so. It does not, however, give the copyright owner any right to control private performances. Copyrights may be sold or otherwise transferred, but the law requires that any transfer of copyright ownership be reflected in a signed, written contract. The Purpose of Copyright Contrary to popular opinion, the purpose of copyright is not to give authors or publishers control over their works. The copyright system exists to ensure that we have a wide variety of creative works available to consume, enjoy, learn from and use. In the 18 th Century language of the United States

15 Overview 1 5 Constitution, the purpose of copyright is to Promote the Progress of Science. The first United States copyright law was titled An Act for the Encouragement of Learning. The primary purpose of copyright law is to advance and spread knowledge. In that regard, most people would agree that the American copyright law has been fabulously successful. The copyright system is also designed to encourage artists and others to create new works. In theory, if you give every author a copyright in every work she creates, she can sell the copyright to a distributor, who will pay her money for the right to distribute her work to the rest of us. In practice, though, most distributors don t pay most creators very much. That isn t necessarily because record companies or book publishers, for example, are exploiting creators, but partly because most means of mass dissemination have required significant capital investments until recently. Historically, to transform a work of authorship into something that could be used by the public, and to get that work into people s homes, has required printing presses, paper, warehouses, trains, trucks, and broadcast towers. Copyright law was designed to make it easy for distributors to recoup their expenses and earn profits on distribution. This gives publishers, record labels and film studios strong incentives to invest in the distribution of works of authorship sometimes to the detriment of individual creators. Today, traditional distribution is still expensive, but we also have relatively new methods of digital distribution that are less costly and more efficient. This development makes it all the more important that we strike the right balance in copyright law between public access to creative works and the creator s ability to control and profit from his works. Several legal and other mechanisms provide that balance. One of the most important is the public domain. The Public Domain The public domain is a realm of information and culture where intellectual property protection does not apply. When copyrights and patents expire, innovations and creative works enter the public domain. Some works - such as facts and government documents - are not eligible for copyright and automatically are considered in the pub- The public domain is a realm of information and culture where intellectual property protection does not apply.

16 1 6 Jessica Litman, Kay Murray and Christine Steiner Selected List of Items in the Public Domain Patented and copyrighted works/inventions for which the term of protection has expired. This encompasses all copyrighted works published before Facts. Mathematical/scientific formulas, laws of nature. Government works The U.S. government may not copyright works. Disclaimer of Rights Works whose owners have relinquished their rights under the law. Laws, court opinions, regulations. How to Put Works in the Public Domain For a number of reasons, artists may wish to donate their works to be freely used, reproduced, distributed, etc. For more on Creative Commons, see p. 33. before the term of copyright expires. Although a copyright holder may choose not to enforce her rights, this alone does not make the work available or in the public domain. For instance, someone wishing to use the work cannot easily verify the creator s intent, and heirs may later choose to enforce copyrights. The key is making sure that people who encounter the work are aware that certain or unlimited uses are permitted. The easiest way to put a work into the Public Domain is by including a clear notice or licensing term with the work. This notice or license should clearly state that the copyright holder wishes to donate the work to the public domain and that she permits all uses of the work. For the first time, there is now an easy mechanism for placing works in the public domain. The Creative Commons (www. creativecommons.org) offers a variety of licenses that make it easy for creators to choose how they may wish to define their intellectual property rights including placing their works in the public domain.

17 Overview 1 7 lic domain. Anything in the public domain may be used by anyone without permission and without the payment of a licensing fee. The public domain is a treasure trove of information, resources, and inspiration that artists and creators constantly use to make new works. Fair Use The Copyright Act sets forth the exclusive rights that you have in your creations. It provides the rules for licensing rights, the remedies for infringement, and the procedure for litigating infringement suits. Federal courts interpret every aspect of the Act and have major influence over how the law works in real life. The Copyright Act also stipulates exceptions to these exclusive rights. One of the major exceptions is the doctrine of fair use. Fair use is an important concept, especially for artists, because it permits a creator to use copyrighted materials without permission, where the use is in the public interest. Copyright Law EXPLAINED Qualifying for Copyright More information on fair use and how to determine your rights as related to fair use is provided on page 20. To qualify for copyright, a work must be original and fixed in a tangible form. It need not be published or registered to be copyrighted. The moment you put your words on paper (or in an , tape recorder, or other discernible medium), they are fully protected. Copyright protection is automatic. It doesn t matter in what material object you fix your work. If you want to fix your short stories by pasting letters cut out from the newspaper on your floor, that s okay. Video games and computer programs are fixed in computer chips that s okay too. All that s required is a fairly permanent, tangible embodiment that will permit the work to be perceived, with or without the aid of a machine. To be original, the work must contain a grain of creativity. The amount of creativity required, however, is modest. The white pages of a metropolitan phone book listing every resident in alphabetical order are not original enough for copyright protection, but the material commonly included in phone books as front matter, which presents information about the phone company service and the local community, typically shows enough originality to qualify.

18 1 8 Jessica Litman, Kay Murray and Christine Steiner What Copyright Protects Copyright does not protect every element in any copyrighted work. The law protects your expression, but not your ideas or the facts that you express. Ideas and facts (including procedures, general themes, stock characters, processes, systems, concepts, principles and discoveries), no matter how unique, are not protected by copyright. Names, titles, slogans and short phrases are not copyrightable, but might be covered by trademark. Derivative Works & Compilations When you create a work that uses, copies, or incorporates a preexisting work, your contribution is automatically protected by copyright as long as your use of the preexisting work is lawful. Your new work is called a derivative work, and its copyright protects only the new elements. Scenario: Shakespeare s Richard III is in the public domain, so anyone can adapt it. If you were to translate it into 21 st Century vernacular, you would be entitled to copyright protection for Copyright does not protect every element in any copyrighted work. For more information on derivative works, refer to Adaptation on page 29. your version. However, the copyright wouldn t give you any rights to restrict someone else from using the original Shakespeare. If a literature professor were to write a new scholarly preface to Shakespeare s Richard III and copiously annotate the text with scholarly comments, her copyright would protect only her preface and comments. If you collect preexisting elements into an anthology, collage, or collection, the selection and arrangement of the preexisting elements are protected as a compilation. Again, your copyright covers only your additions, not the original works. Registering Your Copyright Registration of copyright is optional, although you must register before you file a copyright infringement suit. Because registration is inexpensive (the fee is currently $30) and confers significant

19 Overview 1 9 advantages in court, you should consider registering your copyright in any works that have meaningful commercial potential. You can find instructions for registering your copyrights on the United States Copyright Office website at Real World Example: Rocky IV What if your use of preexisting material is unlawful? Recent court cases have held that copyright does not protect a derivative work if the derivative author s use of the underlying work amounted to copyright infringement. In Anderson v. Stallone, a screenwriter created a treatment for a sequel to Rocky, sent it to Sylvester Stallone, and actually met with executives at MGM to discuss the treatment. MGM never followed up. When it released Rocky IV, the screenwriter concluded that the movie had been based on his treatment and filed a copyright infringement suit. He lost not just because the court concluded that Rocky IV wasn t based on his treatment, but also because he didn t have permission to write the treatment in the first place. The court held that the screenwriter s treatment, created on spec and without permission from Stallone or MGM, infringed the copyrights in the first three Rocky movies. Since he didn t have permission, the screenwriter had used copyrighted elements of the Rocky movies unlawfully, and therefore, his treatment was ineligible for copyright protection. 1 When You Don t Need Permission You don t always need permission before you may use copyrighted material to create a derivative work or a compilation. Sometimes there s a privilege granted by law; sometimes your use of the work is lawful because of fair use. Parodies are a familiar example. They are often (but not always) allowed under fair use. But if you don t seek permission, or are unable to secure it, there is a risk that you will lose copyright protection for that portion of your derivative work or compilation that incorporates copyrighted material without permission.

20 2 0 Jessica Litman, Kay Murray and Christine Steiner FAIR USE & Copyright Fair use strives to ensure that an author s exclusive bundle of property rights will not hinder the very creativity the law was designed to foster. The doctrine recognizes that new works draw inspiration from older works and that productive use of older works promotes the progress of science, the arts, and literature. Fair use permits someone to use copyrighted materials without permission where the use is in the public interest. The law specifically mentions criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research as exemplary fair uses, but there is no clear-cut rule. Fair use is determined on a case-by-case basis. An activity may qualify in one instance as fair use, while it would be an infringing activity in another context. The Fair Use Factors Fair use is determined on a case-by-case basis. An activity may qualify in one instance as fair use, while it would be an infringing activity in another context. In determining fair use, the copyright law sets forth four factors to be applied. These factors are outlined in the following table. These criteria cannot be evaluated in isolation as a mathematical formulation. Rather, the test is the totality of the circumstances. Although the flexibility inherent in the test often leaves users and providers unsure of whether the contemplated use is a fair use, these factors guide the courts in making case-by-case determinations. The four factors are described below in detail. T h e F o u r F a i r U s e F a c t o r s 1. The purpose and type (or character ) of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes; 2. The type of copyrighted work; 3. The amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole; and 4. The effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.

21 1. The Purpose and Type of Use Overview 2 1 Uses of a work that are transformative, and not merely duplicative, are more likely to be considered fair use. Transformative use means that the new work does more than simply recast the original work to create a derivative work. 2 Instead, the creator uses the underlying work to make a different work that stands on its own as an original expression. This is seen as advancing the policy goals of copyright to promote and disseminate knowledge. Generally speaking, not-for-profit uses are more likely to be held fair than for-profit uses. 3 Real World Example: The Wind Done Gone In a recent case, 4 Alice Randall s book The Wind Done Gone, based on Margaret Mitchell s Gone With the Wind, was found to be a transformative work. Despite the fact that the author of The Wind Done Gone used many of the original characters and story line, the court found that The Wind Done Gone transformed these elements in order to comment on the original work Type of Copyrighted Work In assessing whether a work is a fair use, courts also consider whether a copyrighted work is likely to be built upon and disseminated broadly. Thus, less copyright protection is given to factual works (e.g., scholarly or scientific works) than to creative works (paintings, novels, films). A court will also consider whether a work is unpublished in order to recognize an author s right to first publication. But use of an unpublished work may be considered a fair use, depending on the four-factor analysis. By contrast, European law protects an artist s absolute right to determine when and how a work is published. 3. The Amount and Substantiality Used In determining whether fair use is appropriate, a court will consider the amount and substantiality of what has been copied from the underlying work. The court may consider what proportion of the work has been copied and/or how important the copied portion is to the work as a whole. 6 That is, the analysis is both a quantitative and qualitative one, examining how much is

22 2 2 Jessica Litman, Kay Murray and Christine Steiner too much. A work of visual art is generally viewed as a whole and borrowing more than necessary is often difficult to assess. Using an entire work does not necessarily mean that the new use is not a fair one because the courts weigh all four factors. 4. The Effect of the Use Upon the Potential Market This final factor in determining whether the use of another s copyrighted work qualifies as fair is the commercial impact. A copyright owner may object that a use hurts the market for his work. The owner need not show actual harm; potential harm is sufficient to invalidate a fair use. 7 Real World Example: Photocopies of Scientific & Technical Journals Texaco was sued for its practice of photocopying and internally redistributing articles from commercial scientific and technical journals. The court found that although there was no established market for sales of individual articles, it was still appropriate that potential licensing revenues for photocopying be considered in a fair use analysis. The court, relying on the fourth fair use criterion, ruled that the photocopying had unfairly deprived the copyright holder of potential licensing revenue (the potential market), and secondarily, of potentially increased subscription rates (the existing market). Real World Example: Napster In deciding whether or not the users of Napster s digital music sharing service were engaged in fair use, a federal court cited the Supreme Court s assertion that the fourth factor was the most important factor, but said that the standards for finding commercial harm could vary with the nature of the use. For non-commercial use, for example, the party alleging infringement must show that either the particular use is harmful, or that if it should become widespread, it would adversely affect the potential market for the copyrighted work. Moreover, just because an established market is not harmed does not mean that the copyright holder loses the right to develop alternative markets for the works. In the Napster case, the court found that Napster both decreased sales of the copyrighted works among certain users (hurting the current market

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Judith Koss, Vice President of Legal and Business Affairs, SAFARI Montage, Library Video Company and Schlessinger Media IS IT LEGAL TO COPY A DVD ONTO MY SCHOOL DISTRICT S DIGITAL VIDEO DELIVERY SYSTEM?

Martin Steiger Steiger Legal 1. Copyright, database rights and design rights 1.1 Overview Internet content can be protected by copyright law in Switzerland; however, there are almost no specific provisions