Source:
Alba Sud
Tourism in Central America, Social conflict in a new setting
Even though the impact of the tourism industry is becoming increasingly well known and local conflicts are breaking
out across Central America, the capacity for global mobilization in the face of its expansion is still quite
limited. In many of these local conflicts, the communities are quite isolated and the capacity to respond is very
weak.
[see more]

Travel and tourism is one of the world's largest industries, responsible for more than 10 per cent of global GDP. About 694 million international arrivals were registered in 2003, a figure estimated to double by 2020. Currently, developing countries receive about one third of the tourism trade, a number sharply rising. Ten per cent of export earnings in developing countries come from tourism. The industry is one of the biggest global employers with more than 250 million jobs depending directly or indirectly on tourism. Sixty-five per cent of those jobs are in developing countries.

Although tourism has a big impact on local economies, cultures and ecosystems, it is one of the least regulated industries in the world. The recent wave of trade liberalization further contributes to deregulation, thereby opening destination countries further to the influx of foreign capital. This trend favours international hotel chains and tour operators at the expense of local enterprises. Ever more, big travel corporations dominate the market, selling everything from the airline ticket to “local art” in the souvenir shop. It is estimated that currently up to 50 per cent of revenues from tourism leave the country through foreign-owned businesses, imported goods, and promotional spending. In particular, the popular “all-inclusive” packages and the cruise industry leave hardly any profits for destination countries.

Of the money that stays in the country a huge proportion goes to the already better-off: local hotel owners and tour operators who co-operate with international investors to attract tourists. The economic situation of the poor, in contrast, sometimes even deteriorates as the arrival of tourist money often causes local inflation. Even for the people working in the tourist industry the benefits come at high costs: long and irregular working hours, minimal job security or seasonal work, and comparably low wages characterize employment in this sector. Additionally, tourism is a very volatile industry, susceptible to political unrest, exchange rate fluctuations and natural disasters. This makes it a dangerous path to development, in particular, for the poorest of the community. Once a fisherman or a peasant has become a cook in a tourist restaurant or a housekeeper in a hotel – likely built on the land he previously has cultivated – he hardly can return to his old occupation if the tourists stay away. In this way, tourism may turn a low, but reasonably stable and independent lifestyle into an equally low, but unstable and dependent form of living.

While the economic consequences of tourism are mixed, the environmental balance seems to be clearly negative. Globally, for instance, the increasing transport of people, in particular air traffic, accelerates the destruction of the ozone layer and causes global warming. Locally, hotel complexes, leisure parks, golf courses and the like require huge amounts of water and energy. These resources are often scarce and used at the expense of the local population. The huge amount of rubbish produced by the industry can contribute to the spread of diseases, such as cholera, among the poorest. On the other hand, tourism is said to save the environment in many parts of the world which would otherwise not have the funds to protect local fauna and flora. Fees to national parks, for example, are an important source of income for poverty-stricken governments in the South and represent an incentive to protect rather than exploit natural resources. Frequently, however, indigenous people are driven off their native land for the creation of national parks and nature reserves with exclusive access for paying tourists.

Moreover, it is not only the economic and environmental impact of tourism that is debated. The exchange of values, which is encouraged by tourism, is generally seen as a positive trend. Tourist money can help sustain indigenous culture, language or religion. Nevertheless, its influence can just as easily contribute to the destruction of the same cultures. In many cases indigenous people are exposed to tourists without prior consent and at little or no economic benefit to them. On a more general level, the spread of tourists and their habits often creates needs that had not previously existed in destination societies, thereby undermining local traditions and triggering conflicts between various interests within the population.

Travel can also be a highly politicized issue. Human rights abuses in relation to tourism are not uncommon in some parts of the world. The military regime in Burma, for instance, used forced labor to build tourist infrastructure. As a result of a huge NGO campaign, the country is now boycotted by most tour operators and independent tourists.

As tourism spreads quickly around the world, always in search of new, untouched destinations, looking for a sustainable path to tourism becomes more urgent. Some tour operators realize that the industry relies on natural and cultural diversity as well as security of the destination to attract customers. Sustainable tourism, therefore, is crucial not only for the people and environment in destination countries, but for the survival of the industry itself. Initiatives by governments, civil society groups and the travel industry include eco-tours, community-based tourism, or pro-poor tourism. All these approaches are based on various definitions as well as standards and come with their own set of problems. Eco-tourism frequently opens up formerly untouched environments to tourists and is consequently destroying local flora and fauna. Community-based tourism exposes the local population even more to the tourists, for example, in the form of home-stays, which can lead to conflicts caused by misconceptions on both sides. Considering this, even the most responsible forms of tourism contribute to a deterioration of environmental and cultural habitats. The only sustainable solution however - people staying at home - is not a feasible alternative since in many developed countries holidaying is seen as a basic right rather than a privilege.

Official websites

The World Tourism Organization (WTO) is the UN agency responsible for tourism with a central and decisive role in promoting the development of responsible, sustainable and universally accessible tourism. It aims at contributing to economic development, international understanding, peace, prosperity and universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms. In pursuing this aim, the organization pays particular attention to the interests of the developing countries in the field of tourism.

The World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) is the forum for global business leaders of 100 of the world's foremost companies. WTTC's mission is to raise awareness of the full economic impact of travel and tourism. Governments are encouraged to unlock the industry's potential by adopting the Council's policy framework for sustainable tourism development.

Overview of current negotiations and mandate of the WTO in tourism. The sector includes services provided by hotels and restaurants, travel agencies and tour operator services, tourist guide services and other related services. Tourism commitments have been made by 125 WTO members, more than in any other services sector.

The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) believes that tourism provides a significant potential for poverty reduction, economic growth and development. UNCTAD helps developing countries to strengthen their capacities to formulate sound policies for sustainable tourism, manage the sustainable development of their tourism sector, support their integration into international tourism operations, and participate in multilateral trade negotiations particularly in the context of services.

UNEP has developed a strategy for sustainable tourism which is aimed at promoting sustainable tourism among government agencies and the industry, developing sustainable tourism tools for protected/sensitive area management and supporting implementation of multilateral environmental agreements related to tourism.

Civil society

NACOBTA is a non-profit membership organization that supports communities in their efforts to develop tourism enterprises in Namibia. Through training, marketing, funding and advocacy it enables communities to take part in the tourism sector and to develop businesses, which provide employment opportunities and generate income in the respective region.

This organization aims to provide impartial and independent information to travelers, and to ensure the future ecological and cultural prosperity of Nepal through positive impact tourism and outreach project work.

UK-based collaborative research initiative between the International Centre for Responsible Tourism (ICRT), the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), and the Overseas Development Institute (ODI). The website provides up-to-date information on pro-poor tourism, tourism that results in increased net benefits for poor people. It is possible to download a range of research reports and studies that focus on how tourism's contribution to poverty reduction can be increased. Case studies include Ecuador, St. Lucia, South Africa, Namibia, Uganda and Nepal.

This Indian NGO works towards transforming the exploitative nature of mass tourism. It questions the real benefits of tourism to the host communities as well as its socio-cultural and economic impacts. Activities include documentation, publication, research, seminars, and the investigation of alternative tourism policies and structures.

Philippine NGO that lobbies for more responsible tourism and promotes alternative tourism projects. Its focus is Asia, current campaigns target the Mindanao provinces of the Philippines as well as East Timor and Burma. The education program consists of workshops, research projects, forums, publications and a resource center.

The tourism section of the TWN presents tourism articles in a developmental and environmental context, the bi-monthly bulletin New Frontiers that monitors tourism development in Southeast Asia's Mekong region, as well as tourism-related statements and action alerts. It focuses on tourism issues affecting local communities and the natural environment and highlights voices who usually have little opportunity to influence policy-making structures.

This non-profit organization undertakes collaborative environmental activities within the hotel and tourism sector, promotes the effective management of natural resources and provides access to expertise in sustainable tourism practices. It is also assisting hotel and tourism operators in the Caribbean region to achieve the goals of Agenda 21 for sustainable development.

This grassroots organization works to improve the conditions of mountain porters in the tourism industry. Its aim is for every porter to have access to adequate clothing, boots, shelter and food, appropriate to the altitude and weather, plus medical care when ill or injured. These aims are promoted through lobbying, education, monitoring and direct action through support of clothing banks, the construction of shelters and the provision of rescue posts.

Porters Progress aims at improving the working conditions for Nepali porters through programs that emphasize advocacy, education, and empowerment. The programs and the staff work to facilitate ideas generated by porters as their involvement and ideas ensures that the work remains appropriate and effective. The organization offers e.g. a clothing bank, free English lessons and empowerment courses.

This project is dedicated to improving working conditions and practices of all porters and muleteers, and helping to protect the environment in Peru and the Andes. The projects are based on the porters' own input, which helps them build a more powerful self-image through participating in practical, health and environmental projects. Website in English and Spanish.

This organization empowers local communities in sustainable development through small-scale tourism and handcraft enterprises. Its community-based approach aims at involving the local people in the planning, decision-making and implementation of tourism development activities. This form of tourism assures that the benefits stay as much as possible in the local community.

The vision of this program is for the Southern African tourism industry to become a vibrant pilot of pro-poor tourism strategies and for commercial development of tourism in the region to be effectively harnessed for poverty reduction. The project's role is to provide the means by which Southern African tourism enterprises can expand their understanding and use of pro-poor tourism strategies. The purpose is to increase the benefits from tourism to the poor.

This Indian foundation was set up to evaluate the environmental impact of government and private activities within the state of Goa and also act as a watchdog for the Goan public. Its activities cover a wide range of issues including protection of beaches and forests, pollution control, wildlife protection, aquaculture, mining and implementation of environmental laws.

Campaign against child sex tourism. ECPAT stands for “End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography and Trafficking of Children for Sexual Purposes”. The coordinating office is located in Bangkok, but the network has groups on all continents working together to eliminate the commercial sexual exploitation of children. Various resources including reports on child sex tourism in Goa, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Venezuela, South Africa, and Thailand.

This organization is dedicated to collaborating with Indigenous communities and networks to help protect native territories, rights and cultures. Its mission is to control the ways that tourism affects the communities, including the right to choose not to allow invasive tourism imposed from outside the community and to control community-based tourism in a socially appropriate and environmentally sustainable way.

This US-based network of individuals from tourism companies, education and conservation organizations is concerned about the impact of tourism and tourism development on local environments and cultures, particularly those of indigenous peoples. It believes that responsible tourism promotes positive cultural and environmental ethics and practices, and promotes travel which supports these goals.

This Swiss organization is concerned with the social, cultural, economic and ecological impacts of tourism on development. It aims to raise public awareness, advocates fair trade in tourism in a critical dialogue with the travel industry, and encourages travelers to be informed consumers. Information mainly in German, but some documents available in English.

This organization is dedicated to generating and disseminating information about ecotourism. It provides guidelines and standards, training, technical assistance, research and publications to foster ecotourism development. It aims at working with the communities to make tourism a viable tool for conservation, poverty alleviation, protection of culture and bio-diversity, sustainable development and educational, as well as enjoyable, travel.

Environmental destruction caused by tourism

At the 2nd International Conference on Climate Change and Tourism - organized by the UNWTO, the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and the UN World Meteorological Organization (WMO) from 1-3 October in Davos, Switzerland –, participants called for urgent action to face the challenges of climate change. This new discussion paper seeks to provide a critical perspective of the travel & tourism industry’s responses to the climate crisis. (doc). November 2007.

Disguised as a reconstruction plan, a second “tsunami” has struck the coasts of Sri Lanka. Tourist operators and private sector developers are taking advantage of the exclusion of local communities in the formulation of recovery plans and the availability of government and international funds for reconstruction. They have drawn up plans that push local people away from the coast to make room for luxury hotels and float plane docks, focussing the Government’s attention on tourism rather than the needs of local people. September 2005.

Hosting up to 5000 passengers and crew members cruise ships are floating cities. Combined they produce a tremendous amount of oil waste, sewage, garbage and chemicals. Yet, they are highly unregulated and regularly violate even the rather insufficient environmental regulations. New laws and improved control of the cruise industry is necessary (pdf-file)

North Goa’s most scenic spot is being squeezed of its water resources, choked by sewage, swamped by population pressures, and seeing its skyline and vegetation undergoing a drastic change, says a series of recently published studies on the subject. Unless something is done fast, the price to be paid could be serious. By Frederick Noronha, September 2004.

Increased tourist facilities have caused the loss of habitat and naturalness in the Masai Mara National Reserve in Kenya. Lodges have garbage and sewage disposal problems. Additionally, off-road driving of tourist vehicles damages the vegetation and disturbs the wildlife.

Tourism is of great economic importance to countries with significant areas of coral reef, such as the Caribbean states and territories. However, its related activities such as snorkeling, diving, motor-boating, collecting corals and finish can directly damage the reefs. Indirectly, the tourism infrastructure e.g. airports, resorts and restaurants harm the coral reefs, too.

This articles explores the origins and history of ecotourism and describes challenges and limits of various projects, in particular, in East Africa. It concludes that state-run tourism in socialist Tanzania lacks the flexibility, drive, and competitive spirit needed for the international market, but unregulated free trade by the private sector also is incapable of delivering sound ecotourism. However, ecotourism has a future, when the existing functioning projects become part of an overall sustainable strategy.

Political implications of tourism

It's the de rigeur stop off for caring foreign dignitaries. It reached a worldwide audience as a backdrop to the British blockbuster "The Constant Gardener". Any journalist wanting a quick Africa poverty story can find it there in half an hour. And now at least one travel agency offers tours round Kenya's Kibera slum, one of Africa's largest. An example of the new form of "pity tourism". February 2007.

This guide offers an introduction to the situation in Tibet and advice for the conscious traveler. It includes a “Things to look for and questions to ask” and a “Do’s and Dont’s” list while in Tibet and recommendations for actions after returning home.

Tourism can not only have social or economic consequences, it can also have political implications. The most prominent case of a tourism boycott for political reasons is Burma, where the military rulers ignored the results of a democratic election in 1990 and continue to suppress the population. The debate is circling around the question whether tourism supports the oppressive regime or can help ordinary people as well.

The Kenya Wildlife Service does not sufficiently control the expansion of wildlife. Outside of national parks and game reserves wildlife now causes damages to crops and herds of the local population. The human rights of these people, who are among the poorest of the country, are violated because of the needs of tourism and international conservation donors.

General information

This resource guide on sustainable tourism contains comprehensive link lists for tourism professionals, travelers, and residents of tourist destinations. Subsections include lists of international policy institutions, academic sites, and conservation groups. Features also a characterization of sustainable tourism.

Sustainable tourism in its purest sense, is an industry which attempts to make a low impact on the environment and local culture, while helping to generate income, employment, and the conservation of local ecosystems. It is responsible tourism which is both ecologically and culturally sensitive. This web theme covers issues related to both sustainable tourism and eco-tourism.

The impact of the tourist industry

Tourism in Central America, Social conflict in a new setting
Even though the impact of the tourism industry is becoming increasingly well known and local conflicts are breaking
out across Central America, the capacity for global mobilization in the face of its expansion is still quite
limited. In many of these local conflicts, the communities are quite isolated and the capacity to respond is very
weak.

This paper explores the current tourist destination trends and uses airline linkages and distribution systems as focal points to enquire if tourism can be an appropriate tool in alleviating poverty. (PDF). January 2008.

The case of Porto de Galinhas, a small village in Brazil's Northeast is in many ways illustrative of the challenges faced by small and mid-size communities in Brazil as an effect of the rapid growth of tourism. This is why SOMO, the Netherlands Committee for IUCN and the Rio de Janeiro-based research organisation CICLO decided to conduct research on the value chain of tourism in Porto de Galinhas. (PDF document). November 2006.

Map of the world showing the effects of tourism around the world. Categories are working conditions, environmental damage, Foreign Office travel advisories, cultural conflicts, child sex tourism, displacement, water abuse, and exploitation of women.

Cruise ships are seen as ‘cash cows’ in port cities, but their real economic benefits are very limited. Their environmental impact, however, is clearly negative and so are the working conditions for crew members. Port communities should take measurements, e.g. a passenger tax, to increase benefits from cruise ships and push the companies to improve waste management and working conditions on board (pdf-file).

The economic benefits of tourism on host countries can be rather limited. However, in the Cuban case tourism has contributed considerable to economic growth since 1995, mainly as a result of the implemented economic policies. However, the long-term sustainability of a tourism dependent growth strategy are still doubtful (pdf-file).

The WTO's General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) has pushed since its beginning for the liberalisation of the tourism sector. This has lead to privatisation, speculation and the exploitation of nature and people in tourist destinations. This report shows why such policies of liberalisation and deregulation run counter to effective strategies for poverty alleviation. (PDF document). July 2005.

This report argues that the experiences of the late 1990s show that competition from foreign banks in developing countries can weaken the local banks and make them susceptible to crises and often result in decreasing the access of small and medium-sized businesses to cheap credit, a problem for women and rural populations. At the same time, further commitments for liberalisation under the GATS will threaten the increasingly numerous initiatives for responsible tourism that benefits the local population while meeting women’s needs and protecting their livelihoods. By Marianne Hochuli, April 2005, pdf format.

This article argues that in the global tourism trade the world is for sale, probably more than in any other sector. The robbery of public land and resources is increasingly organized under corporate regimes and legalized through privatization and liberalization agreements between government and industry. Instead of cooperating with businesses to promote voluntary schemes of corporate responsibility, NGOs should lobby for binding rules to ensure corporate accountability in tourism (doc-file).

Indigenous peoples are paying a high price for tourism. Examples from East Africa and the Philippines show how, in particular, eco-tourism concepts displace people from their native land, destroy formerly untouched nature, and affect the local cultures and relationships. The process of globalization will only worsen the situation as more big tourist corporations will move towards “exotic” destinations as alternative to mass tourism.

This account describes the impact of tourism on the Indian state Goa, where mass tourism disturbs the local population in various ways. Swimming pools and golf courses take a toll on the water supply, plastic bottles and other waste is left everywhere, locals compete fiercely for tourist money, and the way of life of the youth is transformed into a Western
party culture.

The NGO document "Another tourism is possible!" is an input to a pre-event organised by NGOs in Peru which is planned to take place from 25th to 26th September in Lima prior to the World Tourism Day 2008 celebrated by the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) on 27th September. (PDF). September 2008.

There is a limited demand for eco-tourism and community-based tourism. However, in Thailand thousands of villages are encouraged to engage in these new forms of tourism. This will inevitable cause an oversupply in a very volatile industry, In the end such an unsustainable approach might cause more economic problems than it solves.

A practical account of community-based tourism from a Thai NGO which assists communities to set up tourism projects. The new opportunities generated can be an incentive to protect the environment. Economic benefits go to individual families who host tourists as well as the community as a whole. Challenges, however, remain as many tourists find it hard to accept the basic standards of accommodation and villagers are not always able and willing to fulfill the service demands of tour operators. Sometimes benefits are distributed unevenly across community members and local governments force a development towards mass tourism, destroying the original lifestyle of the people (pdf-file).

A collection of examples of community-based tourism from the Asia, Australia and North America. Projects described include a scheme in the Chinese Himalayas, where community-participation increased local employment and income, and how a Philippine resort initiated environmentally and socially responsible tourism.

This paper concludes that early experience of pro-poor strategies show that they do appear to tilt the benefits of tourism towards the poor. It finds that local or district level poverty reduction is achievable but that national level impacts on poverty through tourism will require a greater shift in business practice (pdf-file).

This paper aims at presenting a review of the major works undertaken on tourism and poverty reduction in Africa, providing some critiques and suggestions for future progress, in order to sensitize the development community and African governments on the potentialities that tourism may offer for pro-poor growth (pdf-file).

The Gambia has a strong all-inclusive tourism industry, which has partly led to the an exclusion of local shopkeepers and merchants from the tourist trade. After a number of initiatives were set up in order to help their businesses, the local economy became stronger integrated into the tourist industry. An example of how the poor can profit even from all-inclusive tourism (pdf-file).

This case study explores the approach of a the Dutch development agency SNV working with local communities through social mobilization, participatory planning and capacity building in a very poor and remote area of Nepal. The study provides an example of import substitution, whereby goods and services required by tourists are to be produced and supplied locally rather than from the capital. Includes critical reflections on the pro-poor tourism approach (pdf-file).

This articles explores the negative impact on so-called ecotourism in Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa. Not only were local indigenous people prevented from hunting and grazing their herds in newly created nature reserves, the accompanying infrastructure for tourists also took a heavy toll on the environment.

New forms of tourism and their limits

The World Tourism Organization in cooperation with the UN Commission on Sustainable Development has drawn up and adopted a Global Code of Ethics for Tourism. This aims to help minimize the negative impacts of tourism on the environment, the cultural heritage and the traditions of local populations including indigenous peoples, while maximizing the benefits for residents of tourism destinations.

Tourism generates much-needed revenue and employment at many destinations. Yet, it also brings a host of environmental, social and cultural problems. Uncontrolled tourism development stresses many of the planet's fragile ecosystems and cultures. Existing strategies for tourism development tend to concentrate the benefits in the hands of a few.
This report looks at what developed and developing countries can do to ensure that the impacts of this industry are positive for the world's people and their environment (pdf-file).

This article emphasizes that tourism is a pronounced form of consumerism. Sustainable tourism, therefore, needs to address the view of holiday as a right (as oppose to a privilege) which is based on an affordable, but unsustainable product. Educating all stakeholder, involving local communities and regulating the industry are among the proposed solutions.

In this statement tourist industry leaders call for a new approach to tourism. Instead of a short-term view companies should adopt long-term strategies that consider not only the profits of tourism companies, but also the benefits of the natural, social, and cultural environments of the people who are visited (pdf-file).

This article points out some paradoxes of tourism, which is meant to be stimulating economic growth and cultural understanding, but often ends up to be environmentally, socially and culturally destructive. Alternatives such as eco-tours or community-based tourism are often mislabeled, and can never serve a mass market without turning into something quite different.

In 2004, tourism was an issue at the WSF for the first time. This “Statement of Concern of the Tourism Intervention Group at the 4th World Social Forum” summarizes the future agenda of NGOs regarding tourism. Further liberalization of the industry within the WTO agreement needs to be prevented. Instead democracy, transparency as well as corporate and government accountability should ensure that tourism benefits reach the hosting communities (pdf-file).