Election Fraud – History & Importance, Myths vs Reality, Future

Outline

¶
6 (or 7?) of the 11 post-WW-II US presidents had careers crucially affected by election fraud
⇒ is one of most important factors shaping history.
(& Even the perception of fraud is enough to end a country.)

¶
What is "election fraud"? No clear definition...
A democratic country is like a host organism and election fraud like a parasite.
Parasites do not want to kill the host in a brief blatant orgy of gluttony.
More evolved parasites instead want to enjoy host quietly forever.
Recent election fraud trends are like that. There are a vast variety of ploys
but the common theme is inserting biases into statistics and legislating the "legality" of
the fraud when it is an easy-to-prove type.
exclude,
alter,
stuff,
spoil,
buy,
repeaters,

Importance of election fraud: myth 1 versus reality

Myth 1: Election fraud, while perhaps important in the "bad old days," has
not been important to the development of world history
in the modern era (after World War II).

Reality 1: Election fraud has been one of the most important factors that has
shaped world history since WW II. (Bet you didn't learn that in school.)

Proof: Of the 11 US Presidents since WW II, the careers of 6
(perhaps even 7) are known to have been
crucially altered by election fraud. Since there are few or maybe no
other factors which brought
us a majority of US presidents post WW II, and since the US has been the most important
country for world history in this era, election fraud has been one of the most important
drivers of world history. Q.E.D.
(details & sources)

Election in 1960 over Nixon involved heavy fraud in IL & TX amounting to
100s of thousands of "votes." Employed Daley Chicago "machine", Texas "machines,"
and secret deals with top mobster Sam Giancana.
Then appointed brother Attorney General (despite zero courtroom experience)
and got him to shut down all federal election fraud investigations.
(If Nixon had won IL & TX, would have presidency. Both Kennedy's IL victory
definitely and
his 113,000-vote national popular vote "moral victory" almost certainly, were
due to fraud, but plausibly JFK would have won TX even without fraud in which case his
presidential victory was "deserved.")

Watergate scandal in which he had the 1972 Democratic Party headquarters "bugged,"
and also used the Internal Revenue Service to intimidate
and "shake down" campaign money donors.
Impeachment averted by resignation & pardon.
[Also Nixon's career jumpstarted by his fraudulent behavior in Alger Hiss "communist spy" case
– faked evidence – but that was not election fraud. Also there was
pro-Nixon fraud
in Southern IL in the IL 1960 election versus Kennedy,
but it was not enough to counterbalance Chicago.]

Only "good guy" in the fraud list; Carter career started with massive
1962 fraud against him by Hurst machine in Quitman County GA.
Carter's political
career would have been ended but with aid of great luck, evidence, and
Atlanta Journal reporter John Pennington, was able to prove the fraud, overturn &
win the election, and soon after rose to GA governor.
Faked ballot box seals, "lost" ballot stubs, "lost" absentee ballots,
more votes than voters, voters who were in
penitentiary at the time, etc.
(Only US President ever successfully to
prove election fraud against him.)

RW Reagan

National Security Council member & Navy Captain
Gary Sick's 1991 October Surprise
alleged that Reagan (whose 1980 running mate was former
CIA-head G.H.W.Bush, whose campaign head was
former CIA-head W.Casey, and many of whose campaign
operatives were former CIA officers including covert ones and CIA former associate director
T.Shackley, a prime mover behind the Bay of Pigs invasion; nothing comparable had ever happened
in any previous presidential campaign) had emissaries meet with
Iranian emissaries and Israelis to arrange that

their US hostages
were to be released after the election thus helping Reagan defeat Carter in 1980,

in return the USA would unfreeze most Iranian assets and provide covert arms shipments,
some through Israel.

Theory re-examined by former GOP strategist Kevin Phillips
on pages 282-292 of his 2004 book.
The evidence these two authors uncovered and reviewed fell short of being convincing.
(Since this, if true, was the quintessential small conspiracy with little or
nothing written down, it would easily have been
kept secret and hence is extremely hard to prove or disprove; sources
mostly insisted on anonymity or were members of foreign intelligence services hence with suspect
motivations. E.g, a released
Russian intelligence report confirmed the W.Casey+R.Gates+Iranians
meeting and asserted it had disrupted Carter's negotiations;
Israeli prime
minister Yitzhak Shamir and involved Mossad man Ari Ben-Menashe
publicly claimed Sick was right, and Yasir Arafat said
he'd personally been approached by Reagan emissaries to arrange arms deal if hostages could be kept until after elections. Former Iranian president Bani-Sadr also confirmed in
letter to US House of Reps and in press.
The head of & another source in French intelligence confirmed he'd set up the meet.
In the reverse direction
a later congressional investigation found some of the alleged Reagan
emissaries could not have been
meeting Iranians in Europe because their credit card records said
they were in the US at the time.)
There were arms flowing
from Israel to Iran... and the hostages were released immediately after Reagan's inauguration.
And, it definitely is true that later,
the Reagan administration fell into a stunning scandal involving covert arms sales
to Iran, with the money they got being used secretly to fund a CIA "contra"
army in Nicaragua
in direct defiance of laws forbidding that!
Supposedly President Reagan was unaware of
all this!
Phillips concludes Sick's October surprise theory is probable but not proven.

Think your absentee ballot will get counted?
Over 500,000 absentee ballots were rejected nationwide in 2004.
After Gore contested,
the absentee ballots, especially
the late ones, became crucial since they were the
only class that had not yet been counted.
The NY Times (Front page, 15 July 2001) examined the
2490 late-arriving overseas ballots in FL 2000.
They found that 680 violated state election laws and rules
and hence should have been rejected.
Here's how they got counted:

In Bush-won counties:

530 accepted, 523 rejected and hence uncounted.

In Gore-won counties:

150 accepted, 666 rejected.

Of the 680 uncompliant but accepted ballots 80% were in Bush counties. (Bush-Gore margin: 537.)
(The NY Times also examined the 1824 flaw-free late-overseas ballots, but
there was almost no bias there since only
11 were rejected.)

Importance of Election Fraud – myth 2 vs reality

Myth 2:Gerrymandering and changing the voting method
to (e.g.) range voting,
are minor concerns. (Ballot access laws?
They're so "minor," most "experts" do not
even know what they are!)
Getting rid of fraud and manipulation
should be our top concern (and sure enough, 99% of
USA election reform effort is about that).
If you can't get rid of fraud,
what is the point of changing gerrymandering or plurality voting?

Reality 2: Exact opposite.
The numbers say
gerrymandering
and the
plurality
voting system both yield far larger distortions/removal of democracy
than USA's estimated fraud levels during 1990-2010. Ballot access laws are an
important factor preventing US democracy and, obviously, not being allowed on ballot
at all goes far beyond any fraud in severity. (In combination with reality 1, this
means these factors are perhaps the single largest influence on
world history!)

Even in Ohio 2004 and Florida 2000, known fraud and manipulation methods amounted to
the equivalent of reversing ≈60,000 and 15,000 votes, respectively,
i.e. 1/100 and 1/400 of the votes cast. That's tiny compared to gerrymandering effects,
inherent voting system flaws, and ballot access denial.

A wins, although 65% of voters consider A worst.

#voters

their vote

35

A>B>C

33

C>B>A

32

B>C>A

Even if all voting were
100% secure, then the USA's
voting system would still be very far from
"democracy."
Democracy is: people express what they want as votes, and then the
voting system gives
it to them.
Our voting system often fails that even with zero fraud. Example at right:

To compensate, voters often vote dishonestly. E.g,
the B-voters might dishonestly vote for C to prevent A winning.

That "works" here (but also can fail)
but the long term effect is that third-parties such as B's get killed off.
Then voters effectively have only two choices – minimum possible.
E.g. in 1968 & 2004 (and probably 2008),
US voters got to vote for the pro-war
candidate... or the other
pro-war candidate, even though about 50% or more of the voters were anti-war
(over 70% in 2008).
In 2004 they got to vote for the pro-NAFTA, pro-WTO, pro-PATRIOT-act
candidate... or the other one, even though
about 50% or more of the voters were against these. And so on.

Also, in the USA there really is usually only 1 choice (i.e. zero
choice) not two.
(US elections are 98% predictable
over 1 year ahead of time – far
worse than any comparable
"democracy.")
The net effect is voters are simply squelched with no opportunity
whatever to alter policy, but the delusion they control things.
This is all "legal."

2004 approx. results:

Candidate

Plur

RV

AV

Bush(Rep)

50.7

40

39

Kerry(Dem)

48.3

55

61

Nader

0.38

25

21

Badnarik

0.32

9

0.6

Cobb

0.10

5

2

Peroutka

0.12

6

1

Calero

0.003

4

0

Total3rd

0.92

49

25

Many other voting systems have been invented besides the plurality
count system
(one of the worst) the USA uses.
Almost all of them would elect B above – but not "instant runoff" which
would (unwisely, in my view) elect C. These effects are far larger:

With gerrymandering plus
2-party domination, and computer-aided redistricting just before every election
(supreme court: now legal)
party can remain in majority control, forever, with 26% of the vote.
Is that a larger, or smaller anti-democratic effect than
5% frauded elections altered by 5% of the vote inside them?

Which matters more as a threat to democracy: 98% election predictability
(greater chance of dying in office than being defeated; less turnover in US house than
old Soviet politburo),
or (say) 5% frauded elections altered by 5% of the vote inside them?

Here's some gerry-districts during the last 15 years.
These samples collected
by fairvote.org.

And how about the fact that the USA has a crazy quilt of
ridiculously biased nonuniform ballot access laws?
It is essentially
impossible
for a third party candidate to get on ballot in Georgia. Since 1943
it has never happened in a GA congressional race. Not once in ≈800 races.
(This not about
3rd-party candidates being unable to win.
This about them
being unable to run at all. By law.)
Which do you think has a bigger impact on GA democracy –
no candidates beyond two allowed to even run, or the fact the two may have some fraud
in their elections?

Computer-based election fraud – myths 3 & 4 vs reality

Myth 3:
Voting machine manufacturers (and also, unfortunately, the expert
M.I.Shamos in a notorious 2006 paper)
commonly state that there has been
no example of computerized election fraud.

Myth 4:
Shamos also implied that a conspiracy of 100,000
(which would necessarily "unravel") would
be required for a computerized election fraud and that tampering with
only one machine could only alter a small number of votes. E.g.

Florida Secretary of State: (defending paperless touch screen voting machines,
criticism=conspiracy theories)
"You'd have to go machine by machine, all over the state [to rig an election]."

Reality 4:
Refuted by the Princeton
hackers
[FeldmanHF],
the Sony rootkit, the Greek phone scheme, and the
Trojan-horse-in-OS scenario (known examples in microsoft OSs); even a single person can suffice
to affect hundreds of thousands of machines.

Reality 3a:
The 1988 election of Carlos Salinas as president
of Mexico was a fraud perpetrated with the
aid of both computers and a large number of human
conspirators
[CastanedaChand],
as was admitted in 1994 public statements by
Arturo Nunez, then-director of Mexico's Federal Electoral Institute
[Roberson].

Reality 3b:
James H. Gundlach has presented convincing statistical evidence that
computer-based fraud in Baldwin County elected Bob Riley governor of Alabama in 2002.
(Future work by JHG & WDS aims to increase the confidence from about 99.99%
to 99.9999%.)

Initial count showed Siegelman won. Then in Baldwin
County – one of the few where all of the county officers in charge of elections
were Republicans – the probate judge for elections (a Republican) corrected the
tabulation, after midnight and long after poll watchers and other staff had
gone, due to his conclusion that Siegelman had 6334 too many votes.
Hence Riley won.

(The alteration in the absence of watchers violated Alabama law.) County
officials were vague about the cause of supposed error ("lightning strike,"
"computer glitch").

Gundlach's hypothesis was the "correction of the error" actually
consisted, basically, of simply removing about 20% of Siegelman's votes and
awarding them instead to Riley, in each Baldwin precinct. This fraud, if such it
was, could presumably have been detected by examining the "poll tapes" from
every voting machine in the county to see what the original (as opposed to
altered) data were. But attempts by Siegelman's Democrats to have such an
examination failed, because Alabama's attorney general William H. Pryor took
it to the Alabama supreme court to insist on the state's right not to have that
data ever revealed and not to have any recount done with Democratic party or
independent observers. He won the case.

All the judges (and Pryor) were either elected Republicans or appointed by
Republicans.

Alabama law was later changed so that, supposedly, with the present law Pryor
would not have won the case. However, this law change, being ex post facto,
left the 2002 election unaffected.

With these data now permanently sealed, what evidence was there for fraud?
Gundlach employed this statistical idea. Predict the 2002 Riley and
Siegelman votes in Alabama precincts (both in Baldwin and in other counties)
from corresponding counts in other races and/or in other years. These
predictions exhibit 96-98% correlations with the official vote counts in both
Baldwin and the other counties but, amazingly, all of the Baldwin
precincts in 2002 showed a remarkably uniform percentage drop of Siegelman votes
below the predictions. This happened only for Baldwin precincts and not
for precincts in other counties.

Postscript (28 June 2007): Siegelman just received 7.3 years jail for accepting $500,000 in
bribes from HealthSouth Chairman Richard Scrushy (6.9 years jail)
while serving (1999-2003) as AL governor. But the bribe
money was not actually paid to Siegelman but rather to
the "Campaign for an Education Lottery" in exchange for Scrushy getting re-appointed to
State Hospital Board (also appointed by 3 previous governors).
This seems less of a crime that the common never-prosecuted
practice of Presidents awarding Ambassadorships to big
campaign contributors... [Meanwhile Jack Abramoff in released emails reveals
how he diverted millions in Choctaw Indian lobbying money into GOP AL races using fake
Christian and Family groups...]
In a new scandal
it has now been revealed by Riley lawyer Dana Jill Simpson
in an Affadavit
that Riley aides talked about initiating this prosecution with Karl Rove
aides... she quoted Republican Op William Canary as saying to Riley's son in the 2002
conference call (phone records confirm
it existed):
"not to worry about Don Siegelman because his girls would take care of him" and he
"had already gotten it worked out with Karl and Karl had spoken with the Department of
Justice and the Department of Justice was already pursuing Don Siegelman."
(The "girls" were Canary's wife Leura and Alice Martin, both US Attorneys in Alabama.)
Post-postscript: The US district judge in the case that jailed Siegelman, Mark Fuller,
later was accused by both his wives of beating them and their chilren;
also abusing drugs and alcohol. Fuller evaded most of the legal consequences of this because
of what Retired Senior Judge Richard G. Kopf described as
"a sweet deal when prosecutors allowed him to enter some type of diversion program
that will allow him to erase his criminal conviction for beating the crap out of his
wife in a fancy hotel room while reeking with booze." Kopf advised maneuvers
to try to stop Fuller ever from hearing another case because
"given what happened in that hotel room, no one should trust his judgment
in a federal trial courtroom", but Kopf considered impeaching
him politically impossible despite numerous Alabama press and politicians from both parties
(e.g. both Alabama's senators)
calling for his impeachment and/or resignation.
As of October 2014 Fuller continues to refuse to resign nor
has he been impeached or otherwise forced off the bench.

Reality 3c:
Al Gore got 16022 negative votes from precinct 216
in Volusia County Florida during 2000 Presidential election.
Supposedly due to a faulty memory card and happened despite parity check bits on
the memory card designed to make the probability of undetected random data
alteration be at most 1/65536. Amazingly, the same memory card delivered
about 4000 erroneous Bush votes and 10000 votes for the Socialist Worker's Party
candidate (approximately equal to his total in the entire rest of the USA),
which positive votes exactly canceled Gore's negative votes so that the
total vote number came out correct. This was later shown by a CBS internal
investigation to be the direct cause of television networks calling Florida for
Bush, which in turn was the direct cause of Gore's concession (which Gore later
retracted, and a later upload from a different memory card repaired these
particular data). Only discovered by luck. Later email from Talbot Iredale,
Vice President of R&D at Global/Diebold, concluded

There is always the possiblity that the
'second memory card' or 'second upload' came from an
unauthorised source.

Quite. [Diebold sued the Dartmouth students who released these emails,
(which Diebold had accidentally posted on the web like usual) for "copyright violation,"
but the judge ruled in the students' favor...]

Computer-based election fraud – myths 5 & 6 vs reality

Myth 5:
Hand counting
is way more expensive and laborious than machine vote counting, so we can never return.

Reality 5:
Hand counting is actually often cheaper than machine counting.
The point is that most voting machines are rarely used (once a year?) and count few votes (500?).
They have to be stored, transported, and maintained, and people have to be trained to use them.
(As a businessman: would you even consider buying a machine to count 500 votes once a year)?
Add up the costs of that and compare. Usually you'll find manual counting is cheaper.
Unger's calculation.

Numerical Example: HAVA="Help America Vote Act"
allocated $2.3 billion in federal aid to buy new voting machines.
The USA counts 100 million votes
per presidential election, so say it counts 150 million votes per year.
Say voting machine lasts 20 years before replace.
Say human counters require 30-120 seconds per vote and cost $7-12 per hour.
Then the machines – even assuming this HAVA money alone
would pay for every voting machine
in the USA and there are
zero machine transport and storage and additional human user-training
costs – would cost 2-13 times as much as manual counting.

Many countries, e.g. Denmark, still use manual counting.

Myth 6:
We only need to worry about lone hackers or small conspiracy teams –
large conspiracies (1000s)
or attackers with huge resources (world's largest corporations and governments) need not be
a concern, that's just crazy conspiracy theories.

Reality 6:
Corporations have in the past overthrown governments, including democratic governments,
not to their liking.
So have secret services like the CIA.
(Known Examples: Honduras 1910, Guatemala 1953, Iran 1953, Chile 1973).
Think we don't have to worry about big money and big corporations for local elections?
Wrong: Wal-Mart spent over $850,000 in 2004 – and increasing about
50% per year –
to influence hundreds of local US elections (typically contributing $5000 to $20,000 per
local election they're interested in)
[Warner]. In 2014, Chevron Corp. topped that
by spending at least $3 million – unsuccessfully! –
to influence local elections in Richmond CA,
swamping out opposition spending by a factor of order 100.
Chevron attempted to disguise the source of the money by routing it through a labryinth
of other entities, and imported candidates who actually did not even live in Richmond to e.g,
run for Mayor. But these efforts were exposed by journalists.

G.W. Bush is known to have successfully organized CIA agents to stuff ballot boxes in the
30 Jan 2005 Iraq election
[Hersh].
Iran supposedly also was trying to fraud that election but the latter story may have been
a US intelligence "plant" since a story about "tanker truck filled with ballots being
caught at the Iran-Iraq border" later was shown false.
Successful conspiracies of
hundreds minimum (perhaps even 10,000s) frauding elections have happened throughout
US and world history (Tammany, Taiwan, Ukraine...).
The NSA is
known
to be attempting, apparently largely successfully,
to wiretap and database every email from anybody to anybody & store forever.
The entire
Greek government was recently wiretapped (by unknown people)
[PrevS07].

Wiretapping, denial of vote privacy, email shenanigans

During the G.W.Bush administration, the Republicans had the US congress's internal
email system "tapped" so GOP aides could read the
emails between Democrats. This gave them a large tactical advantage in legislative battles.
But supposedly once higher-up, responsible Republicans found out about
this practice, they stopped it and announced to the press they were very sorry to hear
this had been going on.

Similarly in Brazil in 2001,
the computerized voting system used by the Brazilian government was equipped
with secret trapdoors allowing some people to know what was going on, and others not,
including in supposed "secret ballot" votes. This led to a
scandal.

The NSA is
known
to be attempting, apparently largely successfully,
to wiretap and database every email from anybody to anybody & store forever.

One shock from the 2004 Johns Hopkins report on Diebold
voting machine code
was Diebold used a single DES key (F2654hD4) to encrypt all
election data.
So, an attacker with access to the source or executable code (i.e. anybody on
the internet since they
accidentally published it...) would have
the ability to modify voting and auditing records.
Doug Jones warned Diebold in 1997 about their sloppy key management.
Jones (CS professor at U. of Iowa & on Iowa Board of Examiners for
Voting Machines and e-Voting Equipment):

[N]either the technical staff nor salespeople at Global Election Systems [purchased by Diebold in 2001] understood cryptographic security. They were happy to assert that they used the Federally approved Data Encryption Standard, but nobody seemed to understand key management, in fact, the lead programmer to whom my question was forwarded, by cell-phone, found the phrase key management to be unfamiliar and he needed explanation. On continued questioning, it became apparent that there was only one key used, company wide, for all of their voting products. The implication was that this key was hard-coded into their source code!

Threat:
Suppose President ordered the NSA to fake the votes and make him permanent dictator while
preserving the illusion of democracy. Or: Suppose president is part of a small cabal of
rich guys that include Bill Gates.

Historically Realistic? Yes: This is one of the most, if not the historically most,
common way democracies end,
except that much more overt conspiracies had been used historically since the
technology for this kind of thing was not available previously.

* In 33 of the 50 US states, the top election official is an elected partisan;
plus in some other states is appointed by the governor.
(It is common for voting machine companies to make large campaign contributions in these races.)
This defies international norms. Examples:
Katherine Harris (R, FL);
Ken Blackwell (R, OH), Susan Bysiewicz (D, CT). Blackwell and Th.Jefferson supervised &
counted own election (Bysiewicz on track to try same, but abandoned race).

Also many manipulation methods that have been declared "legal"
and hence are not "fraud";
and as we've seen there are other methods beyond our top 6;
and computer-based fraud methods are now possible which
could be a far greater nightmare.

Ballot box stuffing

According to investigative reporter Seymour [Hersh],
US president G.W.Bush paid former CIA agents
to stuff Iraq's ballot boxes in the 30 January 2005 Iraq "election."

Mass exclusion of undesired types of voters

Over 130,000 blacks were registered to vote in Louisiana in 1896,
but after adopting "Jim Crow" there were
only 1342 on the rolls in 1904.

Blacks in Florida in 2000 were known to be about 90% pro-Gore,
as opposed to, e.g, Hispanics, who were pro-Bush.
Florida excluded a list of 57,000 "felons" from
voting. They were 54% black, although Florida as a whole was only 15% black.
But of the 694 "felons" in Tallahassee, only 33 (5%) were actually
convicted criminals.
But most of Florida simply used the list without
checking, whereupon Bush duly beat Gore by an official margin of 537 votes.
(DBT, a company now owned by ChoicePoint of Atlanta, was paid $4.3 million to
produce the list, replacing a firm that charged $5,700 per year for the same service.)
The 2004
"new and corrected" felons list was kept secret, but finally exposed to public view by
lawsuit on 1 July,
and on 2 July
the Miami Herald reported that
more than 2100 names on the list actually had received clemency –
and, amazingly,
the list contained
fewer than 0.1% Hispanics, in a state where nearly 1 in 5 is Hispanic.
FL Governor Jeb Bush said that all was "an oversight and mistake."

Colorado Felons in 2004

Colorado Secretary of State Donetta Davidson, just weeks before the 2004 election,
removed 6000 "felons" from the voter rolls. But there were a few problems with this step.

Federal law bars voter purges within 90 days of an election, so Davidson's move
was illegal, except she declared it was an "emergency" to do it, hence it
was legal.

By Colorado law, felons lose their vote
only while actually serving prison time.
No Colorado con has ever been known to vote while
in prison. So this was not exactly a suddenly necessary emergency move.

Conveniently for (Republican) Davidson, the list of felons was overwhelmingly Democratic.

The GOP agreed to a 1982 court order to cease this practice. But reporter Greg Palast found it
continues – the parody site georgewbush.org was
emailed caging lists from RNC headquarters! (Other recipients included
Rove aide Tim Griffin [griffin@rnchq.org] who later was appointed US Attorney and
then later explained how he was astonished he'd been accused of having anything
to do with caging and had never even heard of the concept...)

The idea is to do
selective voter purges. Works best with homeless or transient (e.g. in Iraq) people.
You send them postcards. If they do not reply that is "evidence" they
no longer reside there. They then are purged from registration rolls
and/or selectively challenged
at polls. The intercepted caging list for Duval County FL was mostly blacks:

Ohio law gave county officials the
optional power to purge large classes of voters from the rolls.
This option was chosen highly
preferentially in the most Democratic areas.
E.g. 150,000 voters were purged from the rolls in
(Democrat-dominated) Cincinnati
for not voting in the last two federal elections within the last four years, 25% of
the voters in Cleveland were purged (Cleveland went 83% for Kerry).
Also 8000-10000 were purged "accidentally" by Diebold in "electronic glitch" – all in
heavily Democrat areas.
This by itself was easily mathematically sufficient
to swing the presidency from Kerry to Bush – official margin 120K, but about 500K voters
purged. (H.Wassermann: "we have no evidence of purges in Republican areas.")

Registration spoofing

Private voter-registration company "Voters
Outreach of America" (paid $488,000 by the RNC)
employed up to 300 part-time workers
to collect hundreds of voter registrations per day in Las Vegas, NV.
But, its former employees said, Voters Outreach only wanted
Republican registrations. Two told George Knapp of
KLAS TV they personally witnessed company
supervisors rip up registration forms signed by Democrats.
Employee Eric Russell managed
grab some shredded forms, all signed by Democrats, from the garbage
and KLAS TV took them to the
Clark County Election Department and confirmed that
they had not been filed with the county as required by law.
Russell also left some with the FBI.
Many who thought they would be able to vote on
Election Day were therefore mistaken.

Voters Outreach then vanished from Nevada, leaving their landlord complaining
about nonpayment of rent.

Voters Outreach also operated in Portland, Oregon under the name "America Votes,"
which is in fact the name of a Democratic organization.
Employees in Las Vegas say they too were told that the name of the company was America Votes.
"They confused us with the name. They told us one thing and told the temp force
something else. They told us America Votes," Russell said.

Another "recurring classic."

Intimidation

The "Mighty Texas Strike Force" showed up in Ohio
2 weeks in advance, stayed at the Columbus Holiday Inn,
did data mining. Paid for by Ohio Repub. Party. Phoned
voters (using payphones only) and they knew who had
parking & traffic tickets, who was behind on their child support, and were caught
making phone calls telling people if they showed up at the polls, they would be arrested.
Also calling people on probation to make the same threats.
[Affadavit by hotel clerk described activities, published in Columbus Free Press.]

When Columbus Free Press contacted the Mighty Texas Strike Force, they
proudly said that they were linked to the White House and Karl Rove and bragged about their role.
1500 people total in MTSF.

Spy versus Spy

BBC Reporter Greg Palast
filmed a
private detective filming every
Jacksonville FL early voter (most black)
from a vehicle with blacked-out windows.
The private detective claimed not to know who was paying for his all-day services.

The "80 pound paper" ploy

Brilliant!
Blackwell, confronted with the annoying news from his offices statewide
that Democrats seemed to be recruiting far more
new voters in registration drives than Republicans,
suddenly noticed – and realized he "had" to enforce –
a long-abandoned law
demanding that all voter registrations be on
"white, uncoated paper of not less than 80 lb. text weight."
To appreciate, need to realize 80-pound paper is
the stock used for business cards. Most xerox & printing machines won't handle it.
Every state I've ever been in, registration
forms have been printed on normal typing/printing/xeroxing "bond" paper, which is
20-pound. And that is not merely my perception:
The League of Women Voters reported that
Blackwell's was the only policy of its kind in the country.
So with this sudden directive on 7 September by Blackwell, Ohio's own
printed forms as well as those used in all the registration drives (and forms
printed in newspapers as a service to their readers) were suddenly invalidated.
Delaware County posted a notice online saying it could no longer accept its
own registration forms!
The Columbus Dispatch reported that Blackwell's
own staff distributed registration forms on lighter-weight paper illegal
under his rule! Thousands of registrations rejected; everything chaos.
Eventually – on 28 September, 6 days before the registration policy –
Blackwell relented under threat of court action, but
damage was done; no way to process all the forms in 6 days.
Mission accomplished. The result, according to a
postmortem study (pdf)
by Norman Robbins, was between 10,000 and 100,000 missing votes or voters!

Voter Misdirection, phone bank games

The Republican phone bank jamming scandal in New Hampshire was to jam Democratic phone banks.
John E. Sununu (R) won the close race. Four imprisoned, including James Tobin
(Northeast field director for NRSC); some guilty pleas;
James Tobin made well over 100 calls to the White House Office of Political Affairs,
including two dozen calls in the 3-day period when the phone jamming scheme was being executed.
Mississippi Governor Haley Barbour arranged financing for,
and had ownership stake in, GOP Marketplace, the company paid to carry out the
phone jamming scheme. Over $6M spent by Republican party for their legal defenses.

Another "recurring classic" is annoying 3am robot
calls from "candidate X" which really are from
X's opponent...

Although only 11% of Floridians are black, it was claimed
in a speech in Congress on 21 Sept. 2004 that over half the state's invalid ballots appear
to have been cast by blacks, and indeed a report by the US Civil Rights commission
estimated that over half the
invalid ballots USA-wide in 2000 appear
to have been cast by blacks, even though blacks
are 12% of the USA population.
If you were black in FL 2000, your chances of having your vote "spoiled"
10 times higher than if you were white –
and that's assuming you hadn't already
been purged by the felon list.

In 2004 in New Mexico, non-Anglo (Black, Mexican-American, and Native American) voters
cast at least 89% of the no-choice-counted-for-President ballots despite being
only about 55% of the population, i.e. an over 4× higher rate. (Supposedly
21084 NM ballots "did not indicate any choice" for US president; Bush won NM
by 5988 over Kerry.)

How'd they do that? Nonuniform ballot rejection standards

We don't always know how.
But it is known that many voting machines can be set up so that if you feed in
an invalid ballot, it says "error! invalid ballot! please try again to cast a valid vote!"
(if you are in a white area) or silently accepts (and silent discards) erroneous ballot
(if you are in a black area).
Such nonuniformity enables intentional biasing of ballot spoilage &
is "legal." It is known all the voting machines in FL were
set up outside Jeb Bush's office so the high-ups could make sure the settings were
"correct" for each area of FL.

(Which includes Cincinnati) Bush won
with 222616 votes to Kerry's 199679.
There were exactly 26 precincts with more than 8% of the votes left uncounted.
Kerry overwhelmingly won all 26 of them, by an aggregate margin of 10 to 1.

Montgomery County:

Had exactly 588 precincts, and exactly
47 of them had more than 4.0% of the
regular ballots uncounted.
Kerry won every one of those 47 precincts, by an aggregate margin of 7 to 1.
The countywide official vote totals, meanwhile, were
142997 for Kerry and 138371 for Bush.
In these 47 precincts the rate of ballot "spoilage" was
5.16%, compared to 1.31% for rest of county.

Stark County:

There were exactly
28 precincts with more than 3.33% of the regular ballots
uncounted. Kerry won all 28 precincts, by an aggregate margin of 2.7 to 1.
Meanwhile the countywide totals were
Kerry 95337, Bush 92215.

Spoiled ballots and ghost voters...

The first picture shows a map of New Mexico voting precincts around Albuquerque
with Republican majority precincts in white. Also 19 little pictures of ghosts are
drawn in every precinct that in 2004 featured more votes than voters ("ghost voters").

The second picture shows voting precincts in the area around Cleveland Ohio,
with a greyscale plot so you can see which precincts had which percentage of
votes uncounted ("spoiled ballots"). Beside it you see another greyscale plot showing
percentage of blacks in the populations in those precincts.

Voting machine availability – a useful thing to bias

Ohio 2004:
Of the 82 precincts for which voters reported that one or more voting machines were not working,
the vast majority were in neighborhoods where over 75% of the population were black;
non-working machines were reported in only five precincts where less than 5% of
the population were black.

Walter Mebane study compared voters per machine in
Franklin County precincts during the primary and later real election:

Fake and repeater voters

Gumbel [p88]
mentions the (intercepted and published)
1888 letter from
Republican National Committee treasurer Col. William W. "two dollar" Dudley
to an operative in Indiana authorizing him to finance "floaters"
(repeater voters) to travel up and down the state in blocks of five
to get a 10,000-vote plurality. (Dudley escaped trial on a technicality
after he threatened to expose entire inside workings of the RNC in
court.)

Quote from Dudley's letter:
Your committee will certainly receive from chairman Huston the assistance necessary to
hold our floaters and doubtful voters... divide the floaters into blocks of five, and
put a trusted man, with the necessary funds, in charge of those five,
and make him responsible that none get away, and that all will vote our ticket.
[New York Times 3 Nov. 1888, page 1.]

One approach to try to stop that would be requiring voters to provide
identification.
However, that can engender fraud [Chai]:
In the early 1990s Taiwanese politicians would buy ID cards from voters for
about $US100, thus preventing them
from voting later (and also perhaps also allowing falsely voting as that voter).
Also, by charging money for the right kind of ID, or making it difficult to obtain
for, e.g. disabled people, you can bias elections against poorer voters, or disabled ones, or
ones afraid of government IDs.
To have a valid birth certificate or a passport,
which only 25-27% of citizens have, is something that not a lot of people can do and
suitable ID can cost about $50.

Another issue:
Most "Jim Crow" laws were not explicitly anti-Black. Instead they were,
e.g, "literacy tests." However, the decision as to who was "literate" was left up to
the examiner, and in practice
all examiners were appointed by one party and not the other,
allowing them to discriminate hugely totally legally, which
oddly enough enabled that party to
remain in power and found that 99% of Blacks were illiterate.
Requiring IDs could
re-open the door to such maneuvers.

Absent observers

Ohio Secretary of State J. Kenneth Blackwell,
illegally sought to keep reporters and election observers at least 100 feet away from the
polls. But the Sixth Circuit ruled that attempt unconstitutional.

So in Warren County (official total: Bush 68035, Kerry 26043),
did the reporters and observers therefore get to observe? No.
The Warren County Board of Elections declared that a "Homeland Security alert"
authorized them to throw out all independent and media observers and lock the
building, both during the count and a later recount.
County officials said this was due to a terrorist threat
"that ranked a 10 on a scale of 1 to 10"
received from the FBI.
But the FBI denied to a later congressional investigation
that it had issued any such warning or had
any information about a terror threat in Warren County;
the county officials refused to name their FBI source;
and the Cincinnati Enquirer found
emails between election officials and the county's
building services director
indicating that the Republican lockdown plans
– "down to the wording of the signs that would be posted on the locked doors" –
had been in the works for at least 8 days prior to the election.

Rigged Recounts

The Libertarian and Green parties – not the Democrats – filed
for a recount of the Bush v Kerry Ohio 2004 race.
Then Bush still won with only small alterations.
But
both claimed that the "recount" they got was wholy inadequate and illegal under
Ohio law – a contention later supported by a
special prosecutor
and then the
jury's convictions.
Pre-arranged nonrandom precincts were picked for the recount.

So far, the Greens and Libertarians have not gotten a second (in their view genuine) recount...

More direct methods

More directly,
US presidents are also known to have used the CIA to overthrow democratic
governments whose elected leaders were not to their liking, for example
"Operation AJAX" overthrowing Iran's Prime Minister Dr. Mohammad
Mossadeq to install Shah Mohammed Pahlevi in 1953, who then commenced a reign
of terror lacking 26 years ;
and
the CIA's "Operation SUCCESS" which overthrew
Social Democratic President Jacobo Arbenz Guzman
in Guatemala
[CullatherWiseR]
at about the same time to commence
a 42-year period of military rule during which ≈200,000
were killed by death squads.

Vote buying, selling, and coercion

Taiwan was under single-party KMT control
for many years but the KMT found it convenient (e.g. for public relations
in the USA) to pretend to have a democracy. Their solution
was massive vote buying fueled by government-scale
financial resources.
This became clear in the 1990s when the KMT began to lose
both political and media control.
E.g. [WuH] during the 1990-1999
decade in nine counties in Southwest Taiwan, there were 5091 trials of
defendants for vote-buying (over 4200 convicted) in local courts,
plus 1158 trials in high courts (1137 guilty),
for a sustained rate of slightly under 1 vote-buying conviction per day.
Approximately one-quarter
[EFT]
of all Taiwanese registered voters received "gifts"
from the candidates each election in the early 1990s.

Mining, banking, and railroad magnate
William Andrews Clark
famously got elected as the US senator from Montana (1899)
by simply bribing over half the members of the Montana legislature to declare
him senator
[Malone]
and expunge the old senator!

More recently, "absentee" and "postal" ballots (now the majority of
votes in Oregon and Washington States) have enabled
both vote-buying and vote-fabrication fraud.
Miami Mayor Xavier Suarez's 1997 election depended on a 2:1 lead
in about 5000 absentee ballots.
It was annulled by the courts as the product
of a "massive, well-conceived and well orchestrated absentee ballot fraud scheme."
One of the absentee ballots was signed by Manuel Yip (died 1993) and witnessed by
an aide to the City Commission Chair; others had forged signatures
or were cast by nonresidents.
City Commissioner Humberto Hernandez was also indicted on 23
counts of mortgage and medicare fraud, money laundering, fabricating evidence, etc.
Over 100 absentee ballots were found in a raid on the home of
Suarez's ally, political boss Alberto Russi, 92 of whose friends voted absentee.

More on ballot box stuffing and vote buying

Saltman
discusses various technical means introduced
in the USA during 1860-1890 – such as glass-walled ballot boxes and ballot boxes
equipped with input-counters – to try to stop ballot box stuffing
and ballot boxes with false bottoms and hidden compartments.
He quoted [McCormick p.159-162] about how
a special committee of the NJ state legislature found in
1883 that "a large proportion of... the
voting population depended upon election day [vote buying]
as a regular source of income" and how
"ward workers were given stacks of money at the same time they picked up
stacks of ballots..."; the number of bribable voters statewide was
estimated to be 50,000
out of 270,000 votes cast for governor that year.
Gumbel [p.117-118] notes
that a 1902 Ohio judge found 26% of
Adams County voters sold votes routinely
and 85% at some point in their lives.

Simply altering the counts

was a method favored by Tammany. Testimony from
Tammany's leader William Marcy "Boss" Tweed (quoted
[Gumbel p.86-87])
explained they would just "count ballots in bulk" and
decide counts ahead of time. Such count-alteration is not possible (at
least unaccompanied by other efforts)
if the ballots are made publicly inspectable.
It works best once a political "machine" gains so much control of
the electoral machinery that they can simply evict all inspectors,
observers, judges,
etc they do not favor, then produce whatever "counts" they want.

An attack on paper-based
voting systems (known by other names, e.g. "the caterpillar" in other parts of world; has
been observed in several), a buyer hands a voter a pre-marked ballot.
She casts it as "her" vote, then gives the blank ballot she should
have used to the vote-buyer, who views it as proof she obeyed instructions &
pays her (and cycle begins anew).

Usual remedy: numbered tear-off stubs on ballots to assure
you use the one you are officially given.

Transition to democracy – election fraud crucial

According to D.J.Solinger,
reduction of election fraud through better technology and procedures was
crucial for the conversions of Mexico
[CastanedaChand]
S.Korea, and Taiwan from
pseudo-democratic single-party rule
to more genuine democracy.

Mere perception of election fraud suffices to alter history & end democracy

Not only has election fraud altered history, changed governments, and caused
the death of thousands, even
the mere perception of election fraud can suffice.

After a court ordered Prime Minister Indira Gandhi removed from office because
she was elected with the aid of fraud, Gandhi (1975) responded by
refusing to step down,
jailing thousands of both her political rivals and
journalists she disliked, dissolving many state governments, cutting off
electricity to opposition media,
and terminating Indian democracy in favor of
rule by decree. Fortunately the resulting period of
authoritarian rule only lasted 19 months.
Costa Rica's 1948 civil war was triggered by
allegations of election fraud and with the sitting government refusing
to accept the election result. Although both these examples ended comparatively
happily, that was not the
case in Nigeria where this same scenario in 1965 led to a civil war followed by
military rule interspersed with brief periods of pseudo-democracy
for the next 34 years.

Worries about computerization

Could make fraud less-detectable, safer, cheaper & easier to do,
by fewer conspirators, who are less identifiable,
than ever before.

Could lead to a permanent dictatorshippermanently disguised as a democracy,
a new form of government.

EAC is dysfunctional and does whatever voting machine manufacturers (VMMs) want.
(Plus toothless anyhow.) VMMs are utterly incompetent at security and often lie
and commit crimes. Several top VMM executives are convicted
felons (bribery, fraud, theft, computer-tampering fraud, drug trafficking); some VMM owners
are foreigners or high US politicians; one was a top fundraiser for Bush/Cheney.

Princeton researchers recently announced
[FeldmanHF]
that the Diebold AccuVote-TS computerized voting machine
("[together with] its newer relative the AccuVote-TSx... the most widely
deployed electronic voting platform in the United States") could
be infected with a virus in 1 minute which would then spread
to other machines via data card, where it could then
change election results, and/or erase itself and all
trace of itself from all logs. In many locations in the USA it is common
for election workers to take voting machines home with them overnight,
hence one minute's access by one corrupt individual is hardly
an unrealistic possibility.

It also was recently shown
[Berkeley]
that Diebold "GEMS tabulator" totals
could be altered in 30 seconds,
by somebody with no computer expertise, writing no program,
with no password, and with no
record in GEMS's extensive logs. This because GEMS, idiotically, stores all data in
unencrypted form, unprotected by any kind of hash,
in the same format as Microsoft Access.
The fact GEMS requires passwords and keeps logs
is then irrelevant.

Many voting machines run, e.g, Microsoft Windows operating system,
an enormous piece of software written by thousands, many
of whom are foreign nationals, and whose code is both secret and known
to contain a very large number of "bugs." If, say, some country's
secret service wished to insert their own "Trojan horse" code inside,
say, some graphics library routine, it is difficult to see what would stop
them, after which point almost every Microsoft Windows
computer would become easily subverted by that government, or,
for that matter, by Microsoft Corporation leadership.
Microsoft is known to have hacked their own operating system to

Cause information about what software users had installed, to be secretly transmitted
to Microsoft headquarters when you logged in to "Microsoft.net" (suspected purpose:
to keep track of rival software companies)

"In Short" column, page 88, Information Week 22 May 1995:
Microsoft officials confirm that beta versions of Windows 95 include a small viral routine called Registration Wizard. It interrogates every system on a network gathering intelligence on what software is being run on which machine. It then creates a complete listing of both Microsoft's and competitors' products by machine, which it reports to Microsoft when customers sign up for Microsoft's Network Services, due for launch later this year.
Packet sniffers have shown:
When you try out the free demo time on Microsoft.net,
it silently transmits your entire directory structure in background.

Microsoft managers used the company's e-mail system to secretly spy on employee work habits
and award bonuses to the ones that worked weekends, etc. (But some employees rigged automated
"call in" gimmicks to make it look like they were working on weekends...)

But, even if the source code were examined – which
US voting machine companies have prevented government inspectors
from doing by lawsuit
[e.g Gumbel p.227-8] – then the
subversions still could be made completely invisible by Ken Thompson's
"trojan horse" techniques
[ThompsonK].

Some politicians own or are closely connected to the companies
that manufacture the voting machines that (in significant part) elected
them. For example Nebraska's Sen. Chuck Hagel was the head of
the company (American Information Systems) that owned ES&S,
which installed, programmed, and largely ran the voting machines
used by 80% of the citizens of Nebraska to elect Hagel in
what the Washington Post called the biggest upset of
that (1996) election cycle.
The brother-in-law of Mexico's recently elected president
Felipe Calderon
was paid to write the vote-counting software;
Diebold Corp.'s president Wally O'Dell
famously raised $600,000 for vice president Dick Cheney at a party, stayed
at President Bush's ranch in Crawford Texas, and in a letter noted that he was
"committed to helping Ohio deliver its electoral votes to the president next year."

Sony Corp. in 2005 secretly distributed "rootkit spyware" on music CDs
which replaced standard Microsoft system calls
with its own shadow routines, cloaked its presence and operations,
and which caused
your computer, without your consent or knowledge, to send
information about you to Sony
[Krebs].
It also, in Sony's words, included
"a feature that may make a user's computer susceptible to a virus written specifically
to target the software."
(Trying to remove it destroyed the functionality of the computer's
CD player.)
Sony then (in response to outcry) distributed software to "remove"
the rootkit – but it actually did not remove it!
The Sony rootkit was later found on US Department of Defense computers
and was estimated to have infected 500,000.
Sony later settled numerous lawsuits.

The Greek cellphone caper:
Persons unknown tapped the phones of apparently
essentially all high members of the Greek government and their families
by hacking Vodaphone Greece
company computers to abuse their built-in wiretapping capability.
Eventually exposed by accident when an update of
the hacked version of the software contained a bug
that destroyed text messaging.
Vodaphone electrical engineer
Costas Tslikidis then
was found hanged in his Athens apartment in March 2005. (Suicide?)

A January 2004 special election in Broward County, Florida, with only one
contest on ballot, had 134 votes for "nothing" out of 10,844 cast.
(ES&S=Election Systems & Software paperless touch screen voting machines).
Winner won by 12 votes.
No way to tell what happened to the 134 missing votes.

How we got HAVA

Primary author of HAVA was Rep. Bob Ney, the GOP chairman of
U.S. House Administration Committee.
Ney had close ties to lobbyist Jack Abramoff,
whose firm received at least $275,000 from Diebold to lobby for its touch-screen machines
and (allegedly) against any paper-trail requirement in HAVA.
Ney's former chief of staff, David DiStefano, also worked as a registered lobbyist for
Diebold, receiving at least $180,000 from the firm to lobby for HAVA
and "other election reform issues."
Ney accepted campaign contributions from DiStefano and
Diebold's then-CEO O'Dell was among his constituents.

Ney also made sure that Diebold and other companies would not be required to equip
their machines with printers to provide paper records that could be verified by voters.
HAVA pressures every precinct to provide at least one
voting device that has no paper trail – supposedly so that vision-impaired citizens can
vote secretly.
The provision was backed by two little-known advocacy groups: the
"National Federation of the Blind," which accepted $1 million from Diebold to build a new
research institute, and the "American Association of People with Disabilities,"
which pocketed at least $26,000 from voting-machine companies.
The NFB maintained that a paper voting receipt would jeopardize its
members' civil rights – a position not shared by other blind-advocacy groups.

Ney & Abramoff later were imprisoned
on corruption charges.
When 212 congressmen from both parties sponsored a bill to mandate a paper trail for all votes,
Ney used his position as chairman to prevent the measure from even getting a hearing.

References

Nationwide data gathered by Harvard Law School Civil Rights Project again
indicate that, of the
2 million ballots spoiled in a typical presidential election, about half are cast by
minority voters. Cleveland State University Professor Mark Salling analyzed ballots
thrown into Ohio's electoral garbage can in 2004. Salling found that, "overwhelmingly," the
voided votes come from African-American precincts.
Cornell University professor Walter Mebane Jr. analysed
ballot-level data from the NORC Florida ballots project and ballot-image files,
and concluded that "overvoted ballots
in the 2000 presidential election in Florida included more than 50,000 votes that
were intended to go to either Bush or Gore but instead were discarded. The primary reason for
this was defective election administration in the state, especially the failure to use
systems that warn
the voter when there are too many marks on the ballot and allow the voter to make corrections.
If the best type of vote tabulation system
used in the state in 2000 – precinct-tabulated optical scan
ballots –
had been used statewide then [due to inequities in the distribution
of voting machines & settings of those machines]
Gore would have won by more
than 30,000 votes."
W.Mebane Jr.:
The Wrong Man is President! Overvotes in the 2000 Presidential Election in Florida,
Perspectives on Politics 2,3 (September 2004) 525-535.

Two secret histories of the Guatemala/SUCCESS affair by CIA historian
Nicholas Cullather were later declassified and appeared on the
online "National Security Archives" of George Washington University.
This operation was undertaken at the behest of the United Fruit Company.

Election Fraud in Taiwan,
Taiwan National Academy of Arts and Sciences 1992.

James H. Gundlach:
A statistical analysis of possible electronic ballot box stuffing:
The case of Baldwin county Alabama Governor's race in 2002,
http://www.auburn.edu/~gundljh/Baldwin.pdf
(Paper Presented at Annual Meeting of Alabama Political Science Association,
Troy AL, 11 April 2003.)
Updated version of the paper (Presented at the Jacksonville AL 2 April 2005 meeting):
Baldwin2.pdf

Michael P. Malone:
The Battle for Butte: Mining and Politics on the Northern Frontier 1864-1906,
Univ. of Washington press (1st ed. 1981; there also is a 2nd ed. 2006).

Richard P. McCormick:
The History of Voting in New Jersey: A Study of the Development of Election Machinery, 1664-1911,
Rutgers University Press 1953 (studies in history \#8) New Brunswick, New Jersey.

New York Times articles on
the Shah of Iran's coup include:
29 May 1997 "The CIA destroyed files on 1953 Iran
coup d'etat"
16 April 2000 "The CIA in Iran"
18 June 2000 "Overthrow of premier
Mossadeq of Iran."
The NY Times has made this material available electronically at
http://www.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/041600iran-cia-index.html.
These articles were mostly or entirely by
James Risen and were based on
the 200-page CIA Clandestine Service History, `"Overthrow of Premier Mossadeq of Iran,
November 1952-August 1953," by Dr. Donald Wilber in March 1954.
The entirety of Wilber's report has since been declassified and is now
electronically available at
http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB28/index.html.
The Iran coup was undertaken by the USA's CIA and Britain's SIS
at the behest of
the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company,
and the chief CIA agent in charge,
Kermit Roosevelt, was awarded the US's
national security medal for his role.

Gary Sick: October Surprise,
America's Hostages in Iran and the Election of Ronald Reagan. New York: Random House 1991.