Two Treatises of Government--John Locke, 1689From Wikipedia: The Two Treatises of Government was published anonymously in 1689 by John Locke. The First Treatise attacks the patriotic state, and the Second Treatise outlines his thoughts on civil society based on natural rights and contract theory.

Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765-1769), by William BlackstoneWilliam Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England divides the history of English common law into four categories: rights of persons, rights of things, private wrongs (torts), and public wrongs (crimes). Written to be understood by non-lawyers, this work became an important source of legal information for the American colonists.

Complete Works, by MontesquieuMontesquieu (Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brede et de Montesquieu) was a French nobleman and lawyer, recognized as one of greatest thinkers of Enlightenment. He first gained fame for a satire, the Persian Letters, in 1721, pointing out absurdities of modern European, especially French, life. He also published Considerations of the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and of their Decline (anonymously) in 1734. His masterpiece, The Spirit of the Laws, published 1748, was placed on the Index of Forbidden Books by Catholic Church because of "liberal" views.

De Officiis (On Moral Duties), by Marcus Tullius CiceroCicero's De Officiis is a profound meditation on morality and moral duty, including moral principles as applied to public life. The book has deeply influenced Western civilization since its writing in 44 BC. De Officiis was so influential that when the printing press was invented, it was the second book to be printed after the Bible.

Declaration of Independence (1776)The Declaration of Independence is a proclamation passed by Congress on July 2, 1776, and issued on July 4, announcing the separation of the "United Colonies" from Britain and the formation of a new nation, the United States of America. The document listed reasons for the separation and a philosophical argument in defense of the action.

Habeas Corpus Act 1679The Habeas Corpus Act 1679 is an act of the English Parliament defining and strengthening habeas corpus, by which a detainee who has appealed to the judiciary must either be set free or have a charge brought against him.

John Locke's Second Treatise of Government (1690)John Locke's Second Treatise of Government (1690) was widely read by the colonists. Important ideas found in it (as well as in the works of English republican writers) are also to be found in the Declaration of Independence, especially his theories of natural rights and defense of violent revolution after "a long train of abuses" of power by rulers. Two verbatim phrases of Locke's are found in the Declaration.

Leviathan, by Thomas HobbesLeviathan argues that humans without government live in a "state of nature," which is a "state of war" against all. Life in such conditions is "solitary, poore, nasty brutish, and short." Thus in a state of nature, all fear violent death; and violent death is what people fear most. To avoid violent death, they agree to set up a state with strict authority and the power to protect life. People agree to leave this state of nature through "social contract" and to give all power to the Leviathan state, which Hobbes characterized as a "mortal god." Hobbes was accused of atheism for the views he expressed in Leviathan, where Hobbes pilloried various theological ideas. The English Parliament asserted that Leviathan helped cause the plague of 1665 and the Great Fire of 1666. The book was placed on the Index of Forbidden Books by the Catholic Church because it undermined the theory of divine right of kings.

Montesquieu--The Spirit of Laws, 1748In this political treatise Montesquieu advocates the idea that political and legal institutions ought to reflect the social and geographical character of each particular community, that governments need not be permanent.

Pericles' Funeral OrationPericles' speech given at the annual public funeral for fallen soldiers, as told in Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War, which extols the virtues and accomplishments of Athens.

The Constitution of the United States of America (1787)The Constitution is the supreme law of the United States that provides the framework for the government. The Constitution outlines the nation's institutions of government and the most important rights of the people. The document was created in 1787 during the Philadelphia Convention. The government created by the Constitution took effect on March 4, 1789.

The First Charter of Virginia, 1606From Wikipedia: Document in which King James I of England grants land rights to the Virginia Company for the stated purpose of spreading Christianity in the New World.

The Spirit of the Laws (1748), by MontesquieuMontesquieu (Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu) was a French nobleman and lawyer, recognized as one of greatest thinkers of Enlightenment. His masterpiece, The Spirit of the Laws, published 1748, was placed on the Index of Forbidden Books by Catholic Church because of its "liberal" views.

The Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776)The Virginia Declaration of Rights was the first state declaration of rights. It was adopted on June 12, 1776, and served as a model for other state declarations of rights and the Bill of Rights and influenced the Declaration of Independence.

Thomas Hobbes--Leviathan, 1651In Leviathan, Hobbes set out his doctrine of the foundation of states and legitimate governments--based on social contract theories.

Treaty of Paris (1783)The Treaty of Paris is an agreement signed on September 3, 1783, between Great Britain and the United States that ended the Revolutionary War. With the treaty, Great Britain recognized the independence of the United States. Also called the Peace of Paris.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Two Treatises of Government--John Locke, 1689From Wikipedia: The Two Treatises of Government was published anonymously in 1689 by John Locke. The First Treatise attacks the patriotic state, and the Second Treatise outlines his thoughts on civil society based on natural rights and contract theory.

Aristotle--Politics, 350 BCEAristotle's work on such topics as the political community, economics, property rights, citizenship, leadership, constitutions and the ideal state.

Montesquieu--The Spirit of Laws, 1748In this political treatise Montesquieu advocates the idea that political and legal institutions ought to reflect the social and geographical character of each particular community, that governments need not be permanent.

Pericles' Funeral OrationPericles' speech given at the annual public funeral for fallen soldiers, as told in Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War, which extols the virtues and accomplishments of Athens.

New Atlantis--Francis Bacon, 1627From Wikipedia: Released in English in 1627, this utopian novel was Bacon's creation of an ideal land where "generosity and enlightenment, dignity and splendor, piety and public spirit" were the commonly held qualities of its inhabitants.

Abolition of Star ChamberThe Star Chamber was a court that heard criminal and civil cases against prominent Englishmen, who, it was believed, would not receive a fair trial in the regular courts. In 1641, it was abolished by Parliament after controversial incidents with religious dissenters.

Declaration of Independence 1776From Wikipedia: The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American Colonies then at war with Great Britain were now independent states, and thus no longer a part of the British Empire.

Federalist No. 37From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 37 is an essay by James Madison, published on January 11, 1788 discussing some of the political questions raised at the Constitutional Convention, such as the question of the authority of the state versus the liberty of the people.

Act of Supremacy 1533From Wikipedia: The first Act of Supremacy granted King Henry VIII of England Royal Supremacy which is still the legal authority of the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. Royal Supremacy is specifically used to describe the legal sovereignty of the civil laws over religious ones, which validated Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn.

Blackstone Commentaries on the Laws of EnglandFrom Wikipedia: The Commentaries on the Laws of England are an influential 18th century treatise on the common law of England by Sir William Blackstone, originally published by the Clarendon Press at Oxford, 1765-1769.

De Libellis Famosis (1606)From Wikipedia: The crime of seditious libel was defined and established in England during the 1606 case De Libellis Famosis by the Star Chamber. The case defined seditious libel as criticism of public persons, the government, or King.

Declaration of Independence 1776From Wikipedia: The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American Colonies then at war with Great Britain were now independent states, and thus no longer a part of the British Empire.

Habeas Corpus Act 1679The Habeas Corpus Act 1679 is an act of the English Parliament defining and strengthening habeas corpus, by which a detainee who has appealed to the judiciary must either be set free or have a charge brought against him.

Montesquieu--The Spirit of Laws, 1748In this political treatise Montesquieu advocates the idea that political and legal institutions ought to reflect the social and geographical character of each particular community, that governments need not be permanent.

Abolition of Star ChamberThe Star Chamber was a court that heard criminal and civil cases against prominent Englishmen, who, it was believed, would not receive a fair trial in the regular courts. In 1641, it was abolished by Parliament after controversial incidents with religious dissenters.

Articles of Association 1774The First Continental Congress drafted the Articles of Association in 1774 to implement a trade boycott against Britain without severing allegiance to the crown.

Bacon's Declaration 1676The declaration of grievances issued to Governor William Berkeley by wealthy planter Nathaniel Bacon and his army.

Charter of Georgia, 1732Document by King George II establishing a colony for the "poor people" of Britain to relocate to Georgia.

Declaration of Independence 1776From Wikipedia: The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American Colonies then at war with Great Britain were now independent states, and thus no longer a part of the British Empire.

Indenture Contract of William Buckland 1755The agreement between William Buckland and Thomas Mason granting Buckland would work for Mason in Virginia in exchange for transportation, food and drink, washing and lodging, as well as a salary of 20 pounds per year.

Maryland Toleration Act, 1649The Maryland Toleration Act, passed by the assembly of the Maryland colony, mandated tolerance for Christians who did not practice Anglican Christianity.

The First Charter of Virginia, 1606From Wikipedia: Document in which King James I of England grants land rights to the Virginia Company for the stated purpose of spreading Christianity in the New World.

Albany Plan of Union 1754From Wikipedia: Benjamin Franklin's early attempt at forming a union of the colonies "under one government as far as might be necessary for defense and other general important purposes."

Articles of Association 1774The First Continental Congress drafted the Articles of Association in 1774 to implement a trade boycott against Britain without severing allegiance to the crown.

Boston Port Act, 1774An act of British Parliament in response to the Boston Tea Party, the Boston Port Act blockaded the Port of Boston, preventing the loading or shipping of any goods until restitutions were made for loss of customs duties to the crown and damages to the East India Company.

Declaration of Independence 1776From Wikipedia: The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American Colonies then at war with Great Britain were now independent states, and thus no longer a part of the British Empire.

Olive Branch PetitionA document attempting to reconcile with King George III, stating that the colonists were merely seeking to regulate taxes and trade with Great Britain.

Quartering Act of 1765This act, passed by the British Parliament, required colonies to house and provide food for British soldiers.

Quartering Act of 1774This act amended the Quartering Act of 1765 and was part of the group of acts of Parliament known as the Intolerable Acts.

Quebec ActThe act enlarged the boundaries of the Province of Quebec and instituted reforms generally favorable to the French Catholic inhabitants of the region, although denying them an elected legislative assembly.

Royal Proclamation of 1763From Wikipedia: The purpose of the proclamation was to organize Great Britain's new North American empire after the French and Indian War and to stabilize relations with the Native Americans through regulation of trade, settlement, and land purchases on the western frontier.

Stamp Act of 1765From Wikipedia: The Stamp Act of 1765 was a tax imposed by the British Parliament on the American colonists requiring that many printed materials in the colonies carry a tax stamp in order to help pay for troops stationed in North America following the Seven Years' War.

The Administration of Justice ActThis act of Parliament allowed the trials of royal officials to be moved to other colonies or back to Britain if it was thought that the official could not receive a fair trial in the original jurisdiction.

Virginia Declaration of RightsFrom Wikipedia: The Virginia Declaration of Rights is a document drafted in 1776 stating what the writers saw as the inherent natural rights of men, including the right to rebel against "inadequate" government. It influenced a number of later documents, including the U.S. Declaration of Independence and Bill of Rights.

Lesson 7

Two Treatises of Government--John Locke, 1689From Wikipedia: The Two Treatises of Government was published anonymously in 1689 by John Locke. The First Treatise attacks the patriotic state, and the Second Treatise outlines his thoughts on civil society based on natural rights and contract theory.

Constitution of Pennsylvania 1776A highly democratic early constitution, creating a unicameral legislature, a council of censors, a legislatively elected judiciary and a legislatively elected president.

Declaration of Independence 1776From Wikipedia: The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American Colonies then at war with Great Britain were now independent states, and thus no longer a part of the British Empire.

Montesquieu--The Spirit of Laws, 1748In this political treatise Montesquieu advocates the idea that political and legal institutions ought to reflect the social and geographical character of each particular community, that governments need not be permanent.

The Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776)The Virginia Declaration of Rights was the first state declaration of rights. It was adopted on June 12, 1776, and served as a model for other state declarations of rights and the Bill of Rights and influenced the Declaration of Independence.

Virginia Act for Establishing Religious FreedomFrom Wikipedia: The Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom was written in 1779 by Thomas Jefferson to place a separation between church and state. In 1786, the Virginia General Assembly enacted the statute into the state's law.

Virginia Declaration of RightsFrom Wikipedia: The Virginia Declaration of Rights is a document drafted in 1776 stating what the writers saw as the inherent natural rights of men, including the right to rebel against "inadequate" government. It influenced a number of later documents, including the U.S. Declaration of Independence and Bill of Rights.

Lesson 8

Annapolis Convention ReportThe report of the Annapolis Convention of 1786, noting that delegates were unable to make sufficient progress toward a resolution, and called for a meeting the following May, which would be known as the Philadelphia Convention.

Articles of ConfederationThe Articles of Confederation were, in effect, the first constitution of the United States. Drafted in 1777 by the same Continental Congress that passed the Declaration of Independence, the articles established a "firm league of friendship" between and among the 13 states.

Constitution of the Iroquois LeagueThe Iroquois nations' political union and democratic government has been credited as one of the influences on the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.

Governor Bowdoin's Proclamation, 1786Governor Bowdoin issued this strongly worded proclamation after hundreds of Regulators prevented the Court of Common Pleas from opening in Northampton on August 29, 1786.

Treaty of ParisFrom Wikipedia: The Treaty of Paris, signed on September 3, 1783, ratified by the Congress of the Confederation on January 14, 1784 and by the King of Great Britain on April 9, 1784, formally ended the American Revolutionary War.

The Virginia Plan (1787)The Virginia Plan was presented by Virginia delegate Edmund Randolph to the Philadelphia Convention on May 29, 1787. It provided for a national government composed of three branches. It proposed a Congress of two houses, both of which would be based on proportional representation. The Virginia Plan favored a strong national government.at the Philadelphia Convention that provided for a national government composed of three branches. It proposed a Congress of two houses, both of which would be based on proportional representation. The Virginia Plan favored a strong national government.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Great Compromise of 1787From Wikipedia: The Connecticut Compromise, also known as the Great Compromise, was an agreement between large and small states reached during the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 that resulted in a bicameral legislature.

Hamilton Plan for a National GovernmentAlexander Hamilton introduced a plan for a national government at the Philadelphia Convention on June 18, 1787. Hamilton's plan consisted of eleven resolutions. It advocated three branches for the national government: the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The Convention adjourned without discussion of his plan.

New Jersey Plan (1787)The New Jersey Plan was presented by William Paterson of New Jersey to the Constitutional
Convention in Philadelphia on June 15, 1787. It called for a one-house national legislature, in which each state would have equal representation. This arrangement would favor small states. The New Jersey Plan followed the framework of the Articles of Confederation and favored a weak national government.

The Virginia Plan (1787)The Virginia Plan was presented by Virginia delegate Edmund Randolph to the Philadelphia Convention on May 29, 1787. It provided for a national government composed of three branches. It proposed a Congress of two houses, both of which would be based on proportional representation. The Virginia Plan favored a strong national government.at the Philadelphia Convention that provided for a national government composed of three branches. It proposed a Congress of two houses, both of which would be based on proportional representation. The Virginia Plan favored a strong national government.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Federal Farmer No. 8An Anti-Federalist argument for a federal republic with authority resting in the state governments.

Federalist No. 1From WIkipedia: Federalist No. 1 is an essay by Alexander Hamilton and the first of the Federalist Papers, a preface in broad terms of the forthcoming arguments in favor of the proposed constitution.

Federalist No. 10From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 10 is an essay by James Madison arguing for the ratification of the United States Constitution. It addresses the question of how to guard against "factions" with interests contrary to the rights of others or the interests of the whole community.

Federalist No. 33Hamilton's arguments in favor of the necessary and proper clause and the supremacy clause.

Federalist No. 37From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 37 is an essay by James Madison, published on January 11, 1788 discussing some of the political questions raised at the Constitutional Convention, such as the question of the authority of the state versus the liberty of the people.

Federalist No. 48From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 48 is an essay by James Madison, building on Federalist No. 47 in which Madison argued for separation of powers; in this one he argues that the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government must not be totally divided.

Federalist No. 51From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 51 is an essay by James Madison, published on February 6, 1788. No. 51 addresses means by which appropriate checks and balances can be created in government.

Federalist No. 71From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 71 is an essay by Alexander Hamilton, titled, "The Duration in Office of the Executive," published on March 18, 1788. It is the fifth in a series of 11 essays discussing the powers and limitations of the executive branch.

Great Compromise of 1787From Wikipedia: The Connecticut Compromise, also known as the Great Compromise, was an agreement between large and small states reached during the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 that resulted in a bicameral legislature.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Brutus No. 7An argument against a strong national government in favor of more power resting in the states. Brutus speaks specifically to the idea of taxation and government debt to fund protection and defense.

Centinel No. 5Anti-Federalist paper questioning the power that the necessary and proper clause gives to the federal government under the proposed constitution.

Federal Farmer No. 17An argument for a federal republic over what the author calls "consolidated government." The Federal Farmer claims that the proposed constitution would make all citizens subjects of the legislature.

Federalist No. 39From Wikipedia: In No. 39, James Madison argues that the operation of the government will be republican but the principles of that operation will be democratic.

Federalist No. 42From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 42 is an essay by James Madison, contending that the grant of specific powers to the federal government actually operates to limit the power of the federal government to act with respect to the states.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

An Old Whig No. 2Anti-Federalist paper questioning the power that the necessary and proper clause gives to the federal government under the proposed constitution.

Brutus No. 1Anti-Federalist argument for a federal republic with authority resting in the state governments.

Brutus No. 2An Anti-Federalist paper arguing in favor of a bill of rights.

Brutus No. 7An argument against a strong national government in favor of more power resting in the states. Brutus speaks specifically to the idea of taxation and government debt to fund protection and defense.

Centinel No. 5Anti-Federalist paper questioning the power that the necessary and proper clause gives to the federal government under the proposed constitution.

Federal Farmer No. 11Anti-Federalist paper suggesting improvements to the proposed organization of the legislative branch to increase representation and representativeness.

Federal Farmer No. 17An argument for a federal republic over what the author calls "consolidated government." The Federal Farmer claims that the proposed constitution would make all citizens subjects of the legislature.

Federal Farmer No. 18An Anti-Federalist paper addressing the powers of state militias and federal armed forces, the relationship between bankruptcy and government seizures of property, and of a town that houses the government but is not part of any of the 13 states.

Federal Farmer No. 4Anti-Federalist paper questioning the proposed constitution in the areas of the necessary and proper clause, taxation, the office of the vice president, popular sovereignty and the need for a bill of rights.

Federal Farmer No. 8An Anti-Federalist argument for a federal republic with authority resting in the state governments.

Federalist No. 8From Wikipedia: In this paper, Hamilton argues for the utility of the Union to the well-being of Americans, specifically addressing the negative consequences if the Union were to collapse and conflict arise between the states. It is titled, "Consequences of Hostilities Between the States."

Ratification of the Constitution by the state of North CarolinaThe North Carolina Convention met from July 21 through August 4, 1788, but after debate agreed only to neither ratify or reject the Constitution, but did adopt a resolution containing a Declaration of Rights and a list of proposed Amendments to the Constitution on August 2, 1788. After the Constitution had been ratified by a sufficient number of states, the members of the convention reconvened and, apparently without further debate, ratified the Constitution November 21, 1789, and announced the linked declaration, which includes the resolution of August 2, 1788.

United States Bill of RightsFrom Wikipedia: In the United States, the Bill of Rights is the name by which the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution are known. They were introduced by James Madison to the First United States Congress in 1789 as a series of articles, and came into effect on December 15, 1791, when they had been ratified by three quarters of the states.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Lesson 14

The Federalist PapersA collection of eighty-five essays advocating the ratification of the constitution proposed at the Philadelphia Convention, properly called The Federalist, written between October, 1787 and May, 1788 by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay.

Alexander Hamilton, The Examination #12Hamilton's thoughts on Article 3, Section 1 of the Constitution:
"The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish."

Centinel No. 11Anti-Federalist paper published in the Philadelphia Independent Gazetteer and Philadelphia Freeman's Journal, arguing that people a fear or anarchy is not enough reason to justify ratifying the Constitution.

Federalist No. 1From WIkipedia: Federalist No. 1 is an essay by Alexander Hamilton and the first of the Federalist Papers, a preface in broad terms of the forthcoming arguments in favor of the proposed constitution.

Federalist No. 10Federalist No. 10, written by James Madison and continuing a theme begun in Hamilton's Federalist No. 9, is the most famous of Federalist Papers. It examines how best to eliminate or minimize the effect of factionalism.

Federalist No. 10From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 10 is an essay by James Madison arguing for the ratification of the United States Constitution. It addresses the question of how to guard against "factions" with interests contrary to the rights of others or the interests of the whole community.

Federalist No. 14From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 14 is an essay titled, "Objections to the Proposed Constitution From Extent of Territory Answered" by James Madison addressing a major objection of the Anti-Federalists to the proposed Constitution: that the sheer size of the United States would make it impossible to govern justly as a single country.

Federalist No. 34From Wikipedia: Hamilton's aim is to demonstrate that a government must have unlimited power of taxation for such circumstances as war and natural disaster.

Federalist No. 37From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 37 is an essay by James Madison, published on January 11, 1788 discussing some of the political questions raised at the Constitutional Convention, such as the question of the authority of the state versus the liberty of the people.

Federalist No. 39From Wikipedia: In No. 39, James Madison argues that the operation of the government will be republican but the principles of that operation will be democratic.

Federalist No. 42From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 42 is an essay by James Madison, contending that the grant of specific powers to the federal government actually operates to limit the power of the federal government to act with respect to the states.

Federalist No. 43Federalist No. 43, written by James Madison and titled, ""The Same Subject Continued: The Powers Conferred by the Constitution Further Considered," continues Federalist No. 42 on ratification.

Federalist No. 45Federalist No. 45 was written by James Madison and published January 26, 1788 and addresses the concern of balancing the power between federal and state governments.

Federalist No. 47From Wikipedia: Like the other Federalist Papers, No. 47 advocated the ratification the United States Constitution. In No. 47, Madison addressed criticisms that the Constitution did not create a sufficient separation of powers among the executive, judiciary, and legislature.

Federalist No. 47Federalist No. 47 was written by James Madison and addresses concerns that the proposed constitution did not provide enough separation of powers.

Federalist No. 48From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 48 is an essay by James Madison, building on Federalist No. 47 in which Madison argued for separation of powers; in this one he argues that the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government must not be totally divided.

Federalist No. 51From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 51 is an essay by James Madison, published on February 6, 1788. No. 51 addresses means by which appropriate checks and balances can be created in government.

Federalist No. 68Federalist No. 68 was written by Alexander Hamilton and discusses the process of electing the president and vice president.

Federalist No. 70Federalist No. 70 was written by Alexander Hamilton and examines the question of a plural executive, arguing that having multiple presidents introduces conflict and difference of opinion.

Federalist No. 78From Wikipedia: The essay was published May 28, 1788 and was written to explicate and justify the structure of the judiciary under the proposed Constitution; it is the first of six essays by Hamilton on this issue. In particular, it addresses concerns by the Anti-Federalists over the scope and power of the federal judiciary, which would have comprised unelected, politically insulated judges that would be appointed for life.

Federalist No. 8From Wikipedia: In this paper, Hamilton argues for the utility of the Union to the well-being of Americans, specifically addressing the negative consequences if the Union were to collapse and conflict arise between the states. It is titled, "Consequences of Hostilities Between the States."

Federalist No. 84From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 84, titled, "Certain General and Miscellaneous Objections to the Constitution Considered and Answered," was written by Alexander Hamilton and asserted that the Bill of RIghts was not a necessary component of the proposed constitution.

James Madison's Original 17 AmendmentsJames Madison originally submitted 17 amendments to become the Bill of RIghts. All were passed by the House of Representatives, but only 12 were passed by the Senate and the states ratified 10 of them.

United States Bill of RightsFrom Wikipedia: In the United States, the Bill of Rights is the name by which the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution are known. They were introduced by James Madison to the First United States Congress in 1789 as a series of articles, and came into effect on December 15, 1791, when they had been ratified by three quarters of the states.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Federalist No. 78From Wikipedia: The essay was published May 28, 1788 and was written to explicate and justify the structure of the judiciary under the proposed Constitution; it is the first of six essays by Hamilton on this issue. In particular, it addresses concerns by the Anti-Federalists over the scope and power of the federal judiciary, which would have comprised unelected, politically insulated judges that would be appointed for life.

United States Bill of RightsFrom Wikipedia: In the United States, the Bill of Rights is the name by which the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution are known. They were introduced by James Madison to the First United States Congress in 1789 as a series of articles, and came into effect on December 15, 1791, when they had been ratified by three quarters of the states.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Lesson 16

Federalist No. 10Federalist No. 10, written by James Madison and continuing a theme begun in Hamilton's Federalist No. 9, is the most famous of Federalist Papers. It examines how best to eliminate or minimize the effect of factionalism.

Federalist No. 70Federalist No. 70 was written by Alexander Hamilton and examines the question of a plural executive, arguing that having multiple presidents introduces conflict and difference of opinion.

Mississippi Black Codes of 1865The Mississippi Black Code is one of many Black Codes adopted at state and local levels in southern states to limit the newly acquired rights of African Americans.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Lesson 17

"Left Wing Manifesto" (1919)The "Left Wing Manifesto" was a document by Benjamin Gitlow, used as the basis for his prosecution on anarchy charges by the state of New York. While the U.S. Supreme Court upheld his conviction, its opinion held for the first time that the Fourteenth Amendment's due process clause protected personal rights from infringement by the states.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Lesson 18

Magna CartaFrom Wikipedia: Magna Carta, is an English legal charter, originally issued in 1215. Magna Carta required King John to proclaim certain rights, respect certain legal procedures, and accept that his will could be restricted by the law.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Treaty of Guadalupe HidalgoFrom Wikipedia: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is the treaty that ended the Mexican-American war. The treaty provided for the Mexican Cession in which Mexico gave up 1.36 million square kilometers of its pre-war territory to the U.S.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Lesson 20

Alabama Literacy test in 1965Alabama's Literacy Test in 1965. Such tests were used as a requirement to register to vote until restrictions in the Voting Rights Act of 1965 made them all but illegal.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Lesson 21

Federalist No. 10From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 10 is an essay by James Madison arguing for the ratification of the United States Constitution. It addresses the question of how to guard against "factions" with interests contrary to the rights of others or the interests of the whole community.

Federalist No. 51From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 51 is an essay by James Madison, published on February 6, 1788. No. 51 addresses means by which appropriate checks and balances can be created in government.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Lesson 22

Articles of Impeachment Against William J. ClintonFrom Wikipedia: President Bill Clinton, was impeached by the House of Representatives on December 19, 1998. The House drafted a total of four articles of impeachment related to the Paula Jones lawsuit and Monica Lewinsky scandal. It was only the second impeachment of a president in American history, following the impeachment of Andrew Johnson in 1868.

Contract with AmericaAn agenda to reform many aspects of American national government championed by Republican Speaker Newt Gingrich.

Impeachment Proceedings of Andrew JohnsonAndrew Johnson was impeached in 1868 after removing Secretary of War Edwin Stanton from office and replacing him with Adjutant General Lorenzo Thomas in violation of the Tenure of Office Act, a law that limited the president's ability to remove or appoint cabinet members without Senate approval. Johnson was charged with 11 articles of impeachment but was acquitted in the Senate.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Lesson 23

Federal RegisterThe Federal Register is the official journal of the U.S. federal government, and contains unclassified public notices from federal agencies.

Federalist No. 51From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 51 is an essay by James Madison, published on February 6, 1788. No. 51 addresses means by which appropriate checks and balances can be created in government.

Federalist No. 68Federalist No. 68 was written by Alexander Hamilton and discusses the process of electing the president and vice president.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Lesson 24

Federal RegisterThe Federal Register is the official journal of the U.S. federal government, and contains unclassified public notices from federal agencies.

Federalist No. 47Federalist No. 47 was written by James Madison and addresses concerns that the proposed constitution did not provide enough separation of powers.

Federalist No. 68Federalist No. 68 was written by Alexander Hamilton and discusses the process of electing the president and vice president.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Lesson 25

Federalist No. 39From Wikipedia: In No. 39, James Madison argues that the operation of the government will be republican but the principles of that operation will be democratic.

Federalist No. 45Federalist No. 45 was written by James Madison and published January 26, 1788 and addresses the concern of balancing the power between federal and state governments.

Federalist No. 51From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 51 is an essay by James Madison, published on February 6, 1788. No. 51 addresses means by which appropriate checks and balances can be created in government.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Lesson 26

Federalist No. 45Federalist No. 45 was written by James Madison and published January 26, 1788 and addresses the concern of balancing the power between federal and state governments.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Lesson 27

Abolition of Star ChamberThe Star Chamber was a court that heard criminal and civil cases against prominent Englishmen, who, it was believed, would not receive a fair trial in the regular courts. In 1641, it was abolished by Parliament after controversial incidents with religious dissenters.

Constitution of South AfricaFrom WIkipedia: The Constitution of South Africa is the supreme law of the country of South Africa. It provides the legal foundation for the existence of the Republic of South Africa, sets out the rights and duties of the citizens of South Africa, and defines the structure of the Government of South Africa.

Federalist No. 84From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 84, titled, "Certain General and Miscellaneous Objections to the Constitution Considered and Answered," was written by Alexander Hamilton and asserted that the Bill of RIghts was not a necessary component of the proposed constitution.

James Madison's Original 17 AmendmentsJames Madison originally submitted 17 amendments to become the Bill of RIghts. All were passed by the House of Representatives, but only 12 were passed by the Senate and the states ratified 10 of them.

Magna CartaFrom Wikipedia: Magna Carta, is an English legal charter, originally issued in 1215. Magna Carta required King John to proclaim certain rights, respect certain legal procedures, and accept that his will could be restricted by the law.

Patient's Bill of RightsFrom Wikipedia: A patient's bill of rights is a statement of the rights to which patients are entitled as recipients of medical care.

Petition of RightFrom Wikipedia: The Petition of Right is a major English constitutional document, which sets out specific liberties of the subject that the king is prohibited from infringing.

The Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776)The Virginia Declaration of Rights was the first state declaration of rights. It was adopted on June 12, 1776, and served as a model for other state declarations of rights and the Bill of Rights and influenced the Declaration of Independence.

United States Bill of RightsFrom Wikipedia: In the United States, the Bill of Rights is the name by which the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution are known. They were introduced by James Madison to the First United States Congress in 1789 as a series of articles, and came into effect on December 15, 1791, when they had been ratified by three quarters of the states.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Universal Declaration of Human RightsFrom Wikipedia: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. The Declaration arose directly from the experience of World War II and represents the first global expression of rights to which all human beings are respectfully entitled.

Virginia Declaration of RightsFrom Wikipedia: The Virginia Declaration of Rights is a document drafted in 1776 stating what the writers saw as the inherent natural rights of men, including the right to rebel against "inadequate" government. It influenced a number of later documents, including the U.S. Declaration of Independence and Bill of Rights.

Lesson 28

Act of Supremacy 1533From Wikipedia: The first Act of Supremacy granted King Henry VIII of England Royal Supremacy which is still the legal authority of the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. Royal Supremacy is specifically used to describe the legal sovereignty of the civil laws over religious ones, which validated Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn.

United States Bill of RightsFrom Wikipedia: In the United States, the Bill of Rights is the name by which the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution are known. They were introduced by James Madison to the First United States Congress in 1789 as a series of articles, and came into effect on December 15, 1791, when they had been ratified by three quarters of the states.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Virginia Act for Establishing Religious FreedomFrom Wikipedia: The Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom was written in 1779 by Thomas Jefferson to place a separation between church and state. In 1786, the Virginia General Assembly enacted the statute into the state's law.

Lesson 29

An Apology for Printers by Benjamin Franklin (1731)Franklin believed in the trade of printing as indispensable to his highest goals for society: the spread of knowledge and ideas necessary to self-governance. He laid out these views in his essay "An Apology for Printers."

Blackstone Commentaries on the Laws of EnglandFrom Wikipedia: The Commentaries on the Laws of England are an influential 18th century treatise on the common law of England by Sir William Blackstone, originally published by the Clarendon Press at Oxford, 1765-1769.

De Libellis Famosis (1606)From Wikipedia: The crime of seditious libel was defined and established in England during the 1606 case De Libellis Famosis by the Star Chamber. The case defined seditious libel as criticism of public persons, the government, or King.

Magna CartaFrom Wikipedia: Magna Carta, is an English legal charter, originally issued in 1215. Magna Carta required King John to proclaim certain rights, respect certain legal procedures, and accept that his will could be restricted by the law.

United States Bill of RightsFrom Wikipedia: In the United States, the Bill of Rights is the name by which the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution are known. They were introduced by James Madison to the First United States Congress in 1789 as a series of articles, and came into effect on December 15, 1791, when they had been ratified by three quarters of the states.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Abolition of Star ChamberThe Star Chamber was a court that heard criminal and civil cases against prominent Englishmen, who, it was believed, would not receive a fair trial in the regular courts. In 1641, it was abolished by Parliament after controversial incidents with religious dissenters.

Constitution of the State of Alaska 1956The Constitution of the State of Alaska is the basic governing document of the State of Alaska, which was ratified in 1956 and took effect in 1959 when Alaska became the 50th state to join the United States.

Equal Access Act of 1984From Wikipedia: The Equal Access Act is a U.S. federal law passed in 1984 to compel federally-funded secondary schools to provide equal access to extracurricular clubs.

Habeas Corpus Act 1679The Habeas Corpus Act 1679 is an act of the English Parliament defining and strengthening habeas corpus, by which a detainee who has appealed to the judiciary must either be set free or have a charge brought against him.

Magna CartaFrom Wikipedia: Magna Carta, is an English legal charter, originally issued in 1215. Magna Carta required King John to proclaim certain rights, respect certain legal procedures, and accept that his will could be restricted by the law.

United States Bill of RightsFrom Wikipedia: In the United States, the Bill of Rights is the name by which the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution are known. They were introduced by James Madison to the First United States Congress in 1789 as a series of articles, and came into effect on December 15, 1791, when they had been ratified by three quarters of the states.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Habeas Corpus Act 1679The Habeas Corpus Act 1679 is an act of the English Parliament defining and strengthening habeas corpus, by which a detainee who has appealed to the judiciary must either be set free or have a charge brought against him.

Magna CartaFrom Wikipedia: Magna Carta, is an English legal charter, originally issued in 1215. Magna Carta required King John to proclaim certain rights, respect certain legal procedures, and accept that his will could be restricted by the law.

United States Bill of RightsFrom Wikipedia: In the United States, the Bill of Rights is the name by which the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution are known. They were introduced by James Madison to the First United States Congress in 1789 as a series of articles, and came into effect on December 15, 1791, when they had been ratified by three quarters of the states.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Federalist No. 80From Wikipedia: Federalist No. 80 is an essay by Alexander Hamilton. Its title is "Powers of the Judiciary," and is the third in a series of six essays discussing the powers and limitations of the judicial branch.

Habeas Corpus Act 1679The Habeas Corpus Act 1679 is an act of the English Parliament defining and strengthening habeas corpus, by which a detainee who has appealed to the judiciary must either be set free or have a charge brought against him.

Magna CartaFrom Wikipedia: Magna Carta, is an English legal charter, originally issued in 1215. Magna Carta required King John to proclaim certain rights, respect certain legal procedures, and accept that his will could be restricted by the law.

Montesquieu--The Spirit of Laws, 1748In this political treatise Montesquieu advocates the idea that political and legal institutions ought to reflect the social and geographical character of each particular community, that governments need not be permanent.

Petition of RightFrom Wikipedia: The Petition of Right is a major English constitutional document, which sets out specific liberties of the subject that the king is prohibited from infringing.

The Spirit of the Laws (1748), by MontesquieuMontesquieu (Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu) was a French nobleman and lawyer, recognized as one of greatest thinkers of Enlightenment. His masterpiece, The Spirit of the Laws, published 1748, was placed on the Index of Forbidden Books by Catholic Church because of its "liberal" views.

United States Bill of RightsFrom Wikipedia: In the United States, the Bill of Rights is the name by which the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution are known. They were introduced by James Madison to the First United States Congress in 1789 as a series of articles, and came into effect on December 15, 1791, when they had been ratified by three quarters of the states.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Virginia Declaration of RightsFrom Wikipedia: The Virginia Declaration of Rights is a document drafted in 1776 stating what the writers saw as the inherent natural rights of men, including the right to rebel against "inadequate" government. It influenced a number of later documents, including the U.S. Declaration of Independence and Bill of Rights.

Lesson 33

Emile, or On Education by RousseauFrom Wikipedia: Emile, or On Education is a treatise on the nature of education but also on the nature of man, written by Rousseau. It tackles fundamental political and philosophical questions about the relationship between the individual and society.

Aristotle--Politics, 350 BCEAristotle's work on such topics as the political community, economics, property rights, citizenship, leadership, constitutions and the ideal state.

Articles of ConfederationThe Articles of Confederation were, in effect, the first constitution of the United States. Drafted in 1777 by the same Continental Congress that passed the Declaration of Independence, the articles established a "firm league of friendship" between and among the 13 states.

Declaration of Independence 1776From Wikipedia: The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American Colonies then at war with Great Britain were now independent states, and thus no longer a part of the British Empire.

The Meriam Report (1928)The Meriam Report was a survey of conditions on Indian reservations in 23 states. Titled The Problem of Indian Administration, the report was called the most important treatise on Indian affairs since Helen Hunt Jackson's Century of Dishonor (1881).

Civil Disobedience by Henry David ThoreauFrom Wikipedia: Civil Disobedience (Resistance to Civil Government) is an essay by Henry David Thoreau first published in 1849. It argues that people should not permit governments to overrule or atrophy their consciences, and that people have a duty to avoid letting the government make them the agents of injustice.

Alabama Literacy test in 1965Alabama's Literacy Test in 1965. Such tests were used as a requirement to register to vote until restrictions in the Voting Rights Act of 1965 made them all but illegal.

Letter from Birmingham Jail -- Martin Luther King Jr.From Wikipedia: The Letter from Birmingham Jail or Letter from Birmingham City Jail, is an open letter written on April 16, 1963, by Martin Luther King Jr., written from the city jail in Birmingham, Alabama, where he was confined after being arrested for his part in the Birmingham campaign.

Lesson 36

Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany, 1949From Wikipedia: The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany serves as the constitution of Germany. It was formally approved on May 8, 1949, and, with the signature of the Allies, came into effect on May 23, 1949, as the constitution of West Germany.

Declaration of Independence (1776)The Declaration of Independence is a proclamation passed by Congress on July 2, 1776, and issued on July 4, announcing the separation of the "United Colonies" from Britain and the formation of a new nation, the United States of America. The document listed reasons for the separation and a philosophical argument in defense of the action.

Declaration of Independence 1776From Wikipedia: The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American Colonies then at war with Great Britain were now independent states, and thus no longer a part of the British Empire.

French Constitution of 1791From Wikipedia; The short-lived French Constitution of 1791 was the first written constitution of France. One of the basic precepts of the revolution was adopting constitutionality and establishing popular sovereignty, following the steps of the U.S.

International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights 1976From Wikipedia: The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is a multilateral treaty adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 16, 1966, and in force from March 23, 1976. It commits parties to respect the civil and political rights of individuals, including the right to life, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, electoral rights and rights to due process and a fair trial.

International Covenant of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1976)From Wikipedia: The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) is a multilateral treaty adopted by the UN General Assembly on December 16, 1966, and in force from January 3, 1976. It commits parties to work toward the granting of economic, social, and cultural rights (ESCR) to individuals, including labor rights and rights to health, education, and an adequate standard of living.

United States Bill of RightsFrom Wikipedia: In the United States, the Bill of Rights is the name by which the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution are known. They were introduced by James Madison to the First United States Congress in 1789 as a series of articles, and came into effect on December 15, 1791, when they had been ratified by three quarters of the states.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Universal Declaration of Human RightsFrom Wikipedia: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. The Declaration arose directly from the experience of World War II and represents the first global expression of rights to which all human beings are respectfully entitled.

Lesson 37

Oregon Death with Dignity Act 1994Oregon enacted in 1994 the Death with Dignity Act, which allows terminally-ill citizens of that state to end their lives by requesting a lethal dose of medication from their doctor.

Redesigned Naturalization Test QuestionsThe United States Citizenship and Immigration Cervices (USCIS) redesigned its naturalization test in 2008, concentrating on wider civic concepts rather than facts. Applicants must correctly answer six of ten questions drawn from a pool of 100.

United States Bill of RightsFrom Wikipedia: In the United States, the Bill of Rights is the name by which the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution are known. They were introduced by James Madison to the First United States Congress in 1789 as a series of articles, and came into effect on December 15, 1791, when they had been ratified by three quarters of the states.

Lesson 38

The Prince by MachiavelliFrom Wikipedia: The Prince is a political treatise by the Italian public servant and political theorist Niccolo Machiavelli. It was originally written in 1513, but not published until 1532, five years after Machiavelli's death. The Prince was one of the first works of modern philosophy, in which pragmatic ends, opposed to teleological concepts, are the purpose.

Atlantic Charter, 1941From Wikipedia: The Atlantic Charter was the blueprint for the world after World War II, and is the foundation for many of the international treaties and organizations that currently shape the world.

Federalist No. 43Federalist No. 43, written by James Madison and titled, ""The Same Subject Continued: The Powers Conferred by the Constitution Further Considered," continues Federalist No. 42 on ratification.

Marshall Plan, 1947The Marshall Plan, officially the European Recovery Program, was the U.S. policy of granting large amounts of aid to western European countries following World War II.

Monroe Doctrine, 1823From Wikipedia: The Monroe Doctrine was a U.S. policy introduced on December 2, 1823, which said that further efforts by European governments to colonize land or interfere with states in the Americas would be viewed by the United States as acts of aggression requiring U.S. intervention. In return, the United States would not interfere with existing European colonies nor in the internal concerns of European countries.

The Truman DoctrineFrom Wikipedia: The Truman Doctrine is a set of principles of U.S. inland policy created on March 12, 1947 by President Truman. In his speech to Congress, Truman declared that the United States, as "leader of the free world," must support democracy worldwide and fight against communism.

United States ConstitutionFrom Wikipedia: The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the federal government of the United States.

Lesson 39

Federalist No. 39From Wikipedia: In No. 39, James Madison argues that the operation of the government will be republican but the principles of that operation will be democratic.