A testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur.

Correlational study

Type of study that measures variables without manipulating any of them. It measures relationships of variables.

Experimental study

Type of study in which variables are manipulated and certain variables are controlled for. Participants are randomly assigned to conditions. It examines cause and effect chains.

Experimental condition

Condition in which the independent variable is "added".

Control condition

Condition in which there is an absence of the independent variable.

Self-knowledge (self-concept)

Knowing ourselves through introspection and self-awareness, self perception, and social comparison. Guides our cognition and behavior.

Introspection

Way to acquire knowledge in which we look inward and examine our own thoughts and feelings.

Nisbett & Wilson (1977)

"There may be little or no direct introspective access to higher order cognitive processes."

Nisbett & Wilson

Introspection does not lead to accurate self-knowledge because we don't know the reasons behind our behaviors and attitudes.

Causal theories

Theories that we have to explain our behavior and attitudes.

Reasons-generated attitude change

When you start listing reasons and you learn to like the object more.

Wilson et al. (1993)

Claude Money Painting Study. Two conditions. Condition 1 describes for liking or not liking a poster (introspect). Condition 2: Describe reasons for choosing their major. Three weeks later, they measured liking of the poster they chose. Participants who introspected why they liked the poster were less satisfied with their choice. Introspection can cause dissatisfaction with one's choice.

Self-awareness theory

Theory when attention is directed at the self, we evaluate our behavior to our internal standards and values. When self-awareness is increased, you act in more desirable ways.

Self-Perception Theory

We infer our attitudes and feelings by observing our behavior. Developed by Darryl Bem. We observe our attitudes and feelings when things are uncertain or ambiguous.

Over-justification effect

When you underestimate the influence of intrinsic motivations because you receive an extrinsic reward for a certain behavior. Moderators include> Rewards will help when 1) If no initial interest in activity, 2) If reward is performance-contingent, 3) if highly motivated.

Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett, 1973

Study in which children were asked to draw with markers and were in one of three conditions: 1) Expected reward, 2) Unexpected reward, 3) No reward. Liking of markers measured as percentage of time marker used.

Social Comparison Theory (Festinger)

We learn about ourselves by comparing ourselves to others when there are no objective standard to measure ourselves against and when we are uncertain.

Upward comparison

When you compare yourself to someone better than you in a specific domain.

Downward comparison

When you compare yourself to someone worst than you in a specific domain.

Self-improvement

When you compare yourself to someone better than you are, then you will get motivated to do better.

Wheeler et al. (1969)

Study in which participant's score on a positive trait (intelligence flexibility) among other participants. Your score was mid range and people were given option of looking at low or high scores.

Blanton et al. (1999)

Study in which researchers studied 9th grade students and listed students with whom they preferred comparing their grades. Those that made upward comparisons resulted better outcomes.

Pyszczynski et al. (1985)

Study where he manipulated self-esteem by telling them they did well on a test.

Wood, Taylor, & Lichtman (1985)

Study in which cancer patients who compared themselves to someone more ill than them were more optimistic.

Theory proposed by Leary in which humans have need to belong and that self-esteem is an indicator of social acceptance and it is functional.

Tesser et. al (1988)

Self evaluation maintenance theory that states that self-esteem is maintained when close others success, we distance ourselves from them or change the important of the domain. If close others is better in a domain you care about then you will feel bad. If close others is better in a domain not important to you then you will be happy for your close other.

Cialdini et al. (1976)

A field experiment in which they looked at clothes on Monday during football season. If school won, students more likely to wear shirt than if the team lost. When your team wins, you want to associate yourself with the winning team so you feel good about yourself.

Personal/Dispositional (internal attributions)

A self-serving bias when you attribute a cause for something internally, usually done when something goes well.

Situational (external) distribution

A self-serving bias when you attribute a cause for something externally, usually done when something does NOT go well.

Over judge their abilities

Self-serving bias in which a person thinks they are good at everything.

Bias blind spot

Self-serving bias in which you are aware these biases exist, but you say you don't have them.

social cognition

how people think about the social world

self-serving bias

Tendency to take credit for success (by making internal attributions) buy deny blame for failure (by making external attributions). This is used to maintain high self esteem.

Attribution

Process by which people explain causes of behavior either their own or other people. It helps us understand others and have control over what happens.

Internal Attribution

Type of attribution in which behavior is due to person's attitude, character, and personality. Often automatic.

External attribution

Type of attribution in which behavior is due to the situation.

Correspondent Inference Theory (Jones & Davies, 1965)

Theory that posits 3 factors that influence people's attributions of other's behaviors: 1) choice: is the behavior freely chosen, 2) noncommon effects: are the effects caused by one specific factor, 3) consequences: are the consequences low in social desirability.

Fundamental attribution error

When we make an internal attribution when making attributions for other's behavior. People overestimate the extent to which other's actions are due to their underlying personality dispositions or traits. We underestimate the "power of the situation" the person was in.

Perceptual salience

What is noticeable to us in a given situation.

Cognitive misers

The idea that we don't like to think that much when we don't have to.

Actor Observer Effect (contains the fundamental attribution error)

When we tend to make dispositional attributions when making attribution's for other's behaviors but make situational attributions for one's own behavior.

Kelley's Covariation Theory

Theory in which we look at more than one observation. Looks at consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus.

Depression and Attribution

Depressed individuals make self-defeating attributions. They make internal attributions for negative outcomes and external attributions for positive outcomes.

Romantic relationships and attribution

Satisfaction with relationship is correlated with attributions made about spouse's behavior. Satisfied spouses make internal attributions for positive behaviors and external attributions for negative behaviors.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts used to make judgements.

Availability heuristic

A type of mental shortcut based on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind.

False-consensus effect

The tendency to overestimate the extant to which others share one's own opinions, attitudes, values, beliefs

Base-rate fallacy

Tendency to ignore base rate information and be influenced by distinctive features of the case.

Representativeness heuristic

When we think something applies to us, we think of representative example that allows us to fit the description.

Baby face overgenarilization

When you extend baby face effect to adults.

Halo effect

When we see someone attractive, we make positive attributions to everything about them.

Priming

Tendency for recently used words, ideas to come to mind easily and influence the interpretation of new information.

Bargh, Chen, Burrows (1996)

Study in which participants in which they were primed with words related to elderly tended to walk slower.

Schemas

Mental structures used to organize knowledge about the social world.

Conformity

Change in behavior due to real or imagined influence of other people.

Sherif (1936)

Light bulb study that illustrated conformity effect.

Informational influence

One reason why people conform in which individuals need to know what's right.

Normative influence

Reason for confirming because of the need to be accepted. They went along with the group. Conformity rate groups up when group is 4-5. The group is important. No ally in group.

Conformity reduce

When you write answers on piece of paper. When an ally is a confederate. Confederates were outgroup members. If the task is important (high motivation to be correct)

Schacter (1951)

Studied consequences of nonconformity. The person who went againts the norm were ignored, assigned to boring tasks, was eliminated from group.

Bond & Smith (1996)

Meta-analysis of Asch studies conducted in 17 studies. Conformity occurred in all studies. Collectivistic cultures conformed more than less collectivistic cultures.

Cialdini's Study

Conformity to promote socially beneficial behavior.

Descriptive norms

Description of what people normally do.

Injunctive norms

Requiring people what ought to be done.

Compliance

Changes in behavior due to a direct request.

Langer et al (1978)

Study on mindless compliance that uses xerox machines.

Pique technique

People will comply more to strange or unusual request.

Underylying principles of compliance (cialdini)

Friendship/liking, commitment/consistency, scarcity, and reciprocity.

Friendship/liking

Princiciple of compliance in which we comply to friends and people we like.

Commitment/consistency

Principle of compliance in which we comply to requests that are consistent with the position or action that we have committed to previously.

Scarcity

Principle of compliance we comply to requests that focus on scarcity

Reciprocity

Principle of compliance in which we comply to someone who has done us a favor in the past.

Door in the face technique

Begin with a large request and when it's rejected, retreats to a smaller request. Consistent with the reciprocity principle.

Foot in the door technique

Begin with a small request and when it's granted, ask for a large request. Related to the principle of commitment/consistency.

Lowball technique

After the request has been accepted, it is changed to be less attractive.

When less powerful person in an unequal power relationship submits to the demands of the more powerful person.

Milgram (1962)

Yale study that explores obedience.

Milgram Results

Out of 40 male participants, no one stopped prior to level 20 (300 volks, with 120 learning as heart condition). 14 defied experimenter after 300 volts. 26 went all the way to 450 volts.

What made people obey in Milgram experiment

1.Person giving order was from a legitimate institution. 2) Authority of the experimenter 3) Physical distance to participant 4) Confidence of the one giving orders 5) experimenters take responsibility 6) Gradual escalations of orders from low level horribleness to high level

Burger (2009)

Study that partially replicates Milgram study. Participants were prescreened and were told they could leave and stop at any time. Sample was wider range in age and ethnicity.

Meeus & Raaijmakers (1986)

Studied psychological obedience where participants are asked to make 15 negative remarks during selection test. 22 out of 24 participants made all 15 negative remarks.