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Urea Economics Urea must become comparable in price (based on MJ/kg) to methanol or ammonia. Urea fuel-cell efficiency would need to exceed methanol or ammonia fuel cell efficiency Otherwise confined to niches where flammability of methanol or toxicity of ammonia present problems.

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Ammonia as energy carrier No need to make urea CO 2 can be sequestered at hydrogen plant Carbon neutral: green hydrogen + atmospheric nitrogen = ammonia Ammonia fuel cells have head start. First direct ammonia fuel cell was Potential to make ammonia electrolytically from just water and nitrogen.

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Urea as hydrogen carrier 2 Hydrogen carrier – requires electricity to free hydrogen from urea Experimental cell only uses 30 % less energy than freeing hydrogen from water Theoretically limited to 70% less energy than freeing hydrogen from water Process development is for remediation of urea production wastewater or urine as fuel

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Further research Urea fuel cell improvement for use with urea waste or biomass derived urea Ammonia more promising than urea as energy carrier Ammonia fuel cell improvement Possible electrolytic production of ammonia from water and atmospheric nitrogen