What Are Psychological Tests?

Transcription

1 CHAPTER 1 What Are Psychological Tests? CHAPTER 1: WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS? After completing your study of this chapter, you should be able to do the following: Define what a psychological test is and understand that psychological tests extend beyond personality and intelligence tests. Trace the history of psychological testing from Alfred Binet and intelligence testing to the tests of today. Describe the ways psychological tests can be similar to and different from one another. Describe the three characteristics that are common to all psychological tests, and understand that psychological tests can demonstrate these characteristics to various degrees. Describe the assumptions that must be made when using psychological tests. Describe the different ways that psychological tests can be classified. Describe the differences among four commonly used terms that students often get confused: psychological assessment, psychological tests, psychological measurement, and surveys. Identify and locate print and online resources that are available for locating information about psychological tests. When I was in the second grade, my teacher recommended that I be placed in the school s gifted program. As a result, the school psychologist interviewed me and had me take an intelligence test. Last semester I took a class in abnormal psychology. The professor had all of us take several personality tests, including the MMPI [Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory]. 3

2 4 SECTION I: OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING It was awesome! We learned about different types of psychological disorders that the MMPI can help diagnose. This year I applied for a summer job with a local bank. As a part of the selection process, I had to participate in a structured interview and an assessment center. Yesterday I took my driving test both the written and the road test. I couldn t believe everything they made me do. I had to parallel park, switch lanes, and make both right and left turns. If your instructor asked whether you have ever taken a psychological test, you would probably report the intelligence test you took as an elementary school student or the personality test you took in your abnormal psychology class. If your instructor asked what the purpose of psychological testing is, you would probably say its purpose is to determine whether someone is gifted or has a psychological disorder. Intelligence tests and personality tests are indeed psychological tests and they are indeed used to identify giftedness and diagnose psychological disorders. However, this is only a snapshot of what psychological testing is all about. There are many types of psychological tests, and they have many different purposes. In this chapter, we introduce you to the concept of psychological testing. We discuss what a psychological test is and introduce some tests you might never have considered to be psychological tests. Then, after exploring the history of psychological testing, we discuss the three defining characteristics of psychological tests and the assumptions that must be made when using these tests. We then turn our attention to the many ways of classifying tests. We also distinguish four concepts that students often get confused: psychological assessment, psychological tests, psychological measurement, and surveys. We conclude this chapter by sharing with you some of the resources (print and online) that are available for locating information about psychological testing and specific psychological tests. Why Should You Care About Psychological Testing? Before discussing what a psychological test is, we would like you to understand just how important it is for you to understand the foundations of psychological testing. Psychological testing is not just another subject that you may study in college; rather, it is a topic that personally affects many individuals. Each day, psychological tests are administered by many different professionals to many different individuals, and the results of these tests are used in ways that significantly affect you and those around you. For example, test scores are used to diagnose mental disorders, to determine whether medicines should be prescribed (and, if so, which ones), to treat mental and emotional illnesses, to select individuals for jobs, to select individuals for undergraduate and professional schools (for example, medical school, law school), and to determine grades. Good tests facilitate high-quality decisions, and bad tests facilitate low-quality decisions. The consequences of bad decisions can be significant. For example, a poor hiring decision can dramatically affect both the person being hired and the hiring organization. From the organization s perspective, a poor hiring decision can result in increased absenteeism, reduced morale of other staff, and lost productivity and revenue. From the employee s perspective, a poor hiring decision may result in a loss of motivation, increased stress leading to depression and anxiety, and perhaps loss of opportunity to

3 Chapter 1: What Are Psychological Tests? 5 make progress in his or her career. Although you might never administer, score, or interpret a test, it is very likely that you or someone you know may have a life-altering decision made about him or her based on test scores. Therefore, it is important that you understand the foundations of psychological testing, specifically how to tell whether a decision is a good or bad one. Being able to do this requires that you understand the foundations of psychological testing. What Are Psychological Tests? Each anecdote at the beginning of this chapter involves the use of a psychological test. Intelligence tests, personality tests, interest and vocational inventories, college entrance exams, classroom tests, structured interviews, assessment centers, and driving tests all are psychological tests. Even the self-scored tests that you find in magazines such as Glamour and Seventeen (tests that supposedly tell you how you feel about your friends, stress, love, and more) can be considered psychological tests. Although some are more typical, all meet the definition of a psychological test. Together, they convey the very different purposes of psychological tests. For a continuum of some of the most and least commonly recognized types of psychological tests, see Figure 1.1. Similarities Among Psychological Tests Psychological testing is best defined as the process of administering, scoring, and interpreting psychological tests (Maloney & Ward, 1976, p. 9). But what exactly is a psychological test? We can easily answer this question by considering what all psychological tests do. First, all psychological tests require a person to perform some behavior an observable and measurable action. For example, when students take a multiple-choice midterm exam, they must read the various answers for each item and identify the best one. When individuals take an intelligence test, they may be asked to define words or solve math problems. When participating in a structured job interview, individuals must respond to questions from the interviewer questions such as Tell me about a time when you had to deal with an upset customer. What was the situation, what did you do, and what was the outcome? In each of these cases, individuals are performing some observable and measurable behavior. Figure 1.1 A Continuum of Psychological Tests More Typical Less Typical Personality tests Intelligence tests Vocational tests Interest inventories Achievement tests Ability tests Self-scored magazine tests Classroom quizzes and exams Road portion of driving test Structured employment interviews Assessment centers

4 6 SECTION I: OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING Second, the behavior an individual performs is used to measure some personal attribute, trait, or characteristic that is thought to be important in describing or understanding human behavior. For example, the questions on a multiple-choice exam might measure your knowledge of a particular subject area such as psychological testing. The words you defined or the math problems you solved might measure your verbal ability or quantitative reasoning. It is also important to note that sometimes the behavior an individual performs is also used to make a prediction about some outcome. For example, the questions you answered during a structured job interview may be used to predict your success in a management position. So, what is a psychological test? It is something that requires you to perform a behavior to measure some personal attribute, trait, or characteristic or to predict an outcome. Differences Among Psychological Tests Although all psychological tests require that you perform some behavior to measure personal attributes, traits, or characteristics or to predict outcomes, these tests can differ in various ways. For example, they can differ in terms of the behavior they require you to perform, what they measure, their content, how they are administered and formatted, how they are scored and interpreted, and their psychometric quality (psychometrics is the quantitative and technical aspect of mental measurement). Behavior Performed The behaviors a test taker must perform vary by test. For example, a popular intelligence test, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale fourth edition (WAIS-IV), a general test of adult intelligence, requires test takers to (among other things) define words, repeat lists of digits, explain what is missing from pictures, and arrange blocks to duplicate geometric card designs. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a widely used and researched projective personality test designed at Harvard University in the 1930s, requires test takers to look at ambiguous pictures showing a variety of social and interpersonal situations and to tell stories about each picture. The Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) General Test, a graduate school admissions test that measures verbal and quantitative reasoning, critical thinking, and analytical writing skills, requires test takers to answer multiple-choice questions and respond to two analytical writing tasks. The road portion of an auto driving test typically requires test takers to do things such as start a car, change lanes, make right and left turns, use turn signals properly, and parallel park. Assessment centers require job applicants to participate in simulated job-related activities (that mimic the activities they would perform in the job) such as engaging in confrontational meetings with disgruntled employees, processing and paperwork, and conducting manager briefings. Attribute Measured and Outcome Predicted What a test measures or predicts can vary. For example, the WAIS-IV asks individuals to explain what is missing from pictures to measure verbal intelligence. The TAT requires individuals to tell stories about pictures to identify conscious and unconscious drives, emotions, conflicts, and so on in order to ultimately measure personality. The road portion of a driving test requires individuals to perform various driving behaviors to measure driving ability. The GRE requires students to answer different types of questions to predict success in graduate school.

5 Chapter 1: What Are Psychological Tests? 7 Some of the characteristics, attributes, and traits commonly measured by psychological tests include personality, intelligence, motivation, mechanical ability, vocational preference, spatial ability, and anxiety. Some of the outcomes that tests typically predict include success in college, worker productivity, and who will benefit from specialized services such as clinical treatment programs. More detail about the WAIS- IV can be found in Test Spotlight 1.1 in Appendix A. More detail about the GRE can be found in Test Spotlight 13.1 in Appendix A. Content Two tests that measure the same characteristic, attribute, or trait can require individuals to perform significantly different behaviors or to answer significantly different questions. Sometimes how the test developers define the particular characteristic, attribute, or trait affects how the test is structured. For example, the questions on two intelligence tests may differ because one author may define intelligence as the ability to reason and another author may define it in terms of emotional intelligence one s ability to understand one s own feelings and the feelings of others and to manage one s emotions (Gibbs, 1995). The difference in content may also be due to the theoretical orientation of the test. (We talk more about theoretical orientation and its relation to test content in Chapter 8.) Administration and Format Psychological tests can differ in terms of how they are administered and their format. A test can be administered in paper-and-pencil format (individually or in a group setting), on a computer, or verbally. Similarly, a psychological test may consist of multiple-choice items, agree/disagree items, true/false items, open-ended questions, or some mix of these. There are also tests that ask respondents to perform some behavior such as sorting cards, playing a role, or writing an essay. Scoring and Interpretation Psychological tests can differ in terms of how they are scored and interpreted. Some tests are completed on scannable sheets and are computer scored. Some are hand-scored by the person administering the test. Others are scored by the test takers themselves. In terms of interpretation, some tests generate results that can be interpreted easily by the test taker, and others require a knowledgeable professional to explain the results to the test taker. Psychometric Quality Last, but extremely important, psychological tests can differ in terms of their psychometric quality. For now, let us just say that there are a lot of really good tests out there that measure what they say they measure and do so consistently, but there are also a lot of really poor tests out there that do not measure what they say they measure. Good tests measure what they claim to measure, and any conclusions that are drawn from the test scores about the person taking the test are appropriate (they are what we call valid). Good tests also measure whatever they measure consistently (they are what we call reliable). The concepts of reliability and validity are central to determining

6 8 SECTION I: OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING whether a test is good or bad and are covered in detail later in this textbook. These concepts are so important that four chapters are devoted to them (Chapter 6 covers reliability, and Chapters 7 9 discuss validity). Because tests can differ in so many ways, to make informed decisions about tests, you must know how to properly critique a test. A critique of a test is an analysis of the test. A good critique answers many of the questions in Table 1.1. (These questions are also in Appendix B.) Your instructor may have additional ideas about what constitutes a good critique. INTERIM SUMMARY 1.1 SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES AMONG PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS Similarities All psychological tests require an individual to perform a behavior. The behavior performed is used to measure some personal attribute, trait, or characteristic. This personal attribute, trait, or characteristic is thought to be important in describing or understanding behavior. The behavior performed may also be used to predict outcomes. Differences Psychological tests can differ in terms of the following: The behavior they require the test taker to perform The attribute they measure Their content How they are administered and formatted How they are scored and interpreted Their psychometric quality The History of Psychological Testing Some scholars believe that the use of psychological tests can be traced to 2200 BCE in ancient China. For a summary of this history, see For Your Information Box 1.1. Most scholars agree that serious research efforts on the use and usefulness of psychological tests did not begin until the 20th century with the advent of intelligence testing. Intelligence Tests Alfred Binet and the Binet Simon Scale Late in the 19th century, Alfred Binet founded the first experimental psychology research laboratory in France. In his lab, Binet attempted to develop experimental techniques to measure intelligence and reasoning ability. He believed that intelligence was a complex characteristic that could be determined by evaluating a person s reasoning, judgment, and problem-solving abilities. Binet tried a variety of tasks to measure reasoning, judgment, and problem solving on his own children as well as on other children in the French school system. Binet was successful in measuring intelligence, and in 1905 he and Théodore Simon published the first test of mental ability, the Binet Simon Scale. Parisian school officials used this scale to decide which children, no matter how hard they tried, were unable to profit from regular school programs (Binet & Simon, 1905).

7 Chapter 1: What Are Psychological Tests? 9 Table 1.1 Guidelines for Critiquing a Psychological Test General descriptive information What is the title of the test? Who is the author of the test? Who publishes the test, and when was it published? (Include dates of manuals, norms, and supplementary materials) How long does it take to administer the test? How much does it cost to purchase the test? (Include the cost of the test, answer sheets, manual, scoring services, and so on) Is the test proprietary or nonproprietary? Purpose and nature of the test What does the test measure? (Include scales) What does the test predict? What behavior does the test require the test taker to perform? What population was the test designed for (for example, age, type of person)? What is the nature of the test (for example, maximal performance, behavior observation, self-report, standardized or nonstandardized, objective or subjective)? What is the format of the test (for example, paper-and-pencil or computer, multiple choice or true/false)? Practical evaluation Is the test manual comprehensive (does it include information on how the test was constructed, its reliability and validity, composition of norm groups, whether it is easy to read)? Is the test easy or difficult to administer? How clear are the administration directions? How clear are the scoring procedures? What qualifications and training does a test administrator need to have? Does the test have face validity? Technical evaluation Is there a norm group? Who comprises the norm group? What types of norms are there (for example, percentiles, standard scores)? How was the norm group selected? Are there subgroup norms (for example, by age, gender, region, occupation, and so on)? What is the estimate of the test s reliability? How was reliability determined? What is the evidence for the validity of the test? How was the evidence for validity gathered? What is the standard error of measurement? What are the confidence intervals? Test reviews What do reviewers say are the strengths and weaknesses of the test? What studies that use the test as a measurement instrument have been published in peer-reviewed journals? How did the test perform when researchers or test users, other than the test developer or publisher, used it? Summary Overall, what do you see as being the strengths and weaknesses of the test?

8 10 SECTION I: OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING F Y I 2200 BCE: Xia Dynasty FOR YOUR INFORMATION BOX 1.1 Psychological Tests: From Ancient China to the 20th Century Some scholars believe that the use of psychological tests dates back approximately 4,000 years to 2200 BCE, when the Chinese emperor Yushun examined officials every third year to determine whether they were suitable to continue in office (DuBois, 1970; Martin, 1870). However, modern scholars of ancient China say that there is little archaeological evidence to support these claims. Reliable writing systems were developed by the Chinese somewhere between 1766 and 1122 BCE (Shang dynasty; Bowman, 1989). Nowhere in these writings were there any hints suggesting that leaders were examined as just described. Even in 1115 BCE, with the advent of more elaborate writing systems, there were no inscriptions or writings to suggest the existence of such an examination process (Martin, 1870) BCE: Late Qin, Early Han Dynasty Most modern scholars of ancient China agree that royal examinations began around 200 to 100 BCE, in the late Qin (Ch in) or early Han dynasty (Eberhard, 1977; Franke, 1960; Pirazzoli-t Serstevens, 1982; Rodzinski, 1979). Hucker (1978) believes that the first written examinations in world history began in 165 BCE, when the emperor administered written examinations to all nominees. Pirazzoli-t Serstevens also believes that this was the beginning of all examination systems. Eberhard, on the other hand, admits that there may have been some assessment procedures before 165 BCE for selecting officials, who were probably tested more for literacy than for knowledge CE: T ang Dynasty Such examination systems seem to have been discontinued until the T ang dynasty, when their use increased significantly (Bowman, 1989) : Ming Dynasty During the Ming dynasty, the examinations became more formal. There were different levels of examinations (municipal, county, provincial, and national), and the results of examinations became associated with granting formal titles, similar to today s university degrees. On passing each level of examination, people received more titles and increasingly more power in the civil service (Bowman, 1989). These examinations were distressful, and this distress became a part of Chinese culture and also a part of folk stories and the literature (poems, comedies, and tragedies). Nonetheless, this examination system seemed to work well. Today, many scholars believe that this examination system kept talented men in the national government (Kracke, 1963) and kept members of the national government from becoming nobility because of their descent. Seeing the value of these examinations for making important decisions, European governments, and eventually the governments of the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, and other countries, adopted the use of such examination systems. 1791: France and Britain France initially began using this kind of examination system in However, soon after, Napoleon temporarily abolished them. The system adopted by France served as a model for a British system started in 1833 to select trainees for the Indian civil service the beginning of the British civil service.

9 Chapter 1: What Are Psychological Tests? s: United States Due to the success of the British system, Senator Charles Sumner and Representative Thomas Jenckes proposed to Congress in 1860 that the United States use a similar system. Jenckes s report, Civil Service in the United States, described the British and Chinese systems in detail. This report laid the foundation for the establishment of the Civil Service Act Health and Psychosocial Instruments (HAPI), passed in January th Century: Western Europe and the United States In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt introduced the first psychological laboratory, in Leipzig, Germany. At this time, psychology was the study of the similarities among people. For example, physiological psychologists studied how the brain and the nervous system function, and experimental psychologists conducted research to discover how people learn and remember. Strongly influenced by James McKeen Cattell, an American researcher in Wundt s laboratory, psychologists turned their attention to exploring individual differences. Cattell and others realized that learning about the differences among people was just as important as learning about the similarities among people. They believed that developing formal psychological tests to measure individual differences could help solve many social problems, such as who should be placed in remedial programs, who should be sent to battlefields, and who should be hired for particular jobs. At this time, scientists were particularly interested in finding a quantitative way of measuring general intelligence. During the early 20th century, serious research efforts began on the use and usefulness of various testing procedures. Research conducted by scholars in the United States and Germany eventually led to Alfred Binet s research on intelligence in children. Lewis Terman and the Stanford Binet More detail about the Binet s work influenced psychologists across the globe. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Psychological testing became a popular method of evaluation, and the Binet Simon Scale was adapted for use in many countries. In Scales can be found in Test Spotlight 1.2 in Appendix A. 1916, Lewis Terman, an American psychologist, produced the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scales, an adaptation of Binet s original test. This test, developed for use with Americans ages 3 years to adulthood, was used for many years. A revised edition of the Stanford Binet remains one of the most widely used intelligence tests today. The Wechsler Bellevue Intelligence Scale and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale By the 1930s, thousands of psychological tests were available, and psychologists and others were debating the nature of intelligence (what intelligence was all about). This dispute over defining intelligence prompted the development in 1939 of the original Wechsler Bellevue Intelligence Scale (WBIS) for adults, which provided an index of general mental ability (as did the Binet Simon Scale) and revealed patterns of a person s intellectual strengths and weaknesses. David Wechsler, the chief psychologist at Bellevue Hospital in New York More detail about the City, constructed the WBIS believing that intelligence is demonstrated based on an individual s ability to act purposefully, think log- can be found in Test fourth edition of the WAIS-IV ically, and interact/cope successfully with the environment (Hess, Spotlight 1.1 in Appendix A. 2001; Rogers, 2001; Thorne & Henley, 2001). Wechsler published the second edition, the WBIS-II, in In 1955, Wechsler revised the WBIS-II and renamed it the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). In 1981 and 1991 the WAIS was updated and published as the WAIS-R and WAIS-III, respectively. In a

10 12 SECTION I: OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING continuing effort to improve the measurement of intelligence, as well as the clinical utility and userfriendliness of the test, the fourth edition was published in 2008 (Pearson Education, 2009). Personality Tests In addition to intelligence testing, the early 1900s brought about an interest in measuring personality. The Personal Data Sheet During World War I, the U.S. military wanted a test to help detect soldiers who would not be able to handle the stress associated with combat. To meet this need, the American Psychological Association (APA) commissioned an American psychologist, Robert Woodworth, to design such a test, which came to be known as the Personal Data Sheet (PDS). The PDS was a paper-and-pencil psychiatric interview that required military recruits to respond yes or no to a series of 200 questions (eventually reduced to 116 questions) that searched for mental disorders. The questions covered topics such as excessive anxiety, depression, abnormal fears, impulse problems, sleepwalking, nightmares, and memory problems (Segal & Coolidge, 2004). One question asked, Are you troubled with the idea that people are watching you on the street? (cited in Cohen, Swerdlik, & Phillips, 1996). During a pilot study of the test, new recruits on average showed 10 positive psychoneurotic symptoms; recruits who were deemed unfit for service generally showed 30 to 40 positive psychoneurotic symptoms (Segal & Coolidge, 2004). Unfortunately, because Woodworth did not complete the final design of this test until too late in the war, the PDS was never implemented or used to screen new recruits. After World War I, Woodworth developed the Woodworth Psychoneurotic Inventory, a version of the PDS. Unlike the PDS, the Woodworth Psychoneurotic Inventory was designed for use with civilians and was the first self-report test. It was also the first widely used personality inventory. The Rorschach Inkblot Test and the TAT During the 1930s, interest also grew in measuring personality by exploring the unconscious. With this interest came the development of two important projective tests: the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the TAT. The Rorschach, a projective personality test (described further in Chapters 2 and 14), was developed by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach. The TAT, also a projective personality test, was developed by two American psychologists, Henry A. Murray and C. D. Morgan. Both tests are based on the personality theories of Carl Jung and continue to be widely used today for personality assessment. Vocational Tests During the 1940s, a need developed for vocational tests to help predict how successful an applicant would be in specific occupations. The Public Employment Services needed such tests because thousands of people had lost their jobs due to the Great Depression and thousands more were coming out of school and seeking work. Because there were not enough jobs, people were forced to look for new lines of work. As a result, psychologists developed large-scale programs to design vocational aptitude tests that would predict how successful a person would be at an occupation before entering it. In 1947, the Department

11 Chapter 1: What Are Psychological Tests? 13 of Labor developed the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) to meet this need. The GATB was used for a variety of purposes, including vocational counseling and occupational selection. By the mid-20th century, numerous tests were available and they were used by many to make important decisions about individuals. (We talk more about these decisions in Chapters 2 and 8.) Because of the increased use of psychological tests, to help protect the rights of the test taker, the APA (1953) published Ethical Standards of Psychologists. (We discuss these ethical standards in more detail in Chapter 3.) Testing Today In the 21st century, psychological testing is a big business. There are thousands of commercially available, standardized psychological tests as well as thousands of unpublished tests. Tests are published by hundreds of test publishing companies that market their tests very proactively on the web and in catalogs. Before the turn of this century, these publishers were earning close to $200 million per year (Educational Testing Service, 1996), and approximately 20 million Americans per year were taking psychological tests (Hunt, 1993). For the names and web addresses of some of the most well-known test publishers, as well as some of the most popular tests they publish, see On the Web Box 1.1. Publishing and marketing companies are capitalizing on the testing trend, creating and marketing a bonanza of new products and study aids. To read about some of these products and study aids, see In the News Box 1.1. Today, psychological testing is a part of the American culture. Psychological tests are in use everywhere. For example, let us take a look at Sylvan Learning Center (SLC), a provider of personal instructional services to children from kindergarten through 12th grade that has more than 1,100 centers worldwide. You might be familiar with SLC because of the test preparation programs they offer (for example, preparation for the SAT). However, did you know that much of SLC s business is focused on personalized programs to help children develop skills in areas such as reading, math, and writing? These personalized programs are created by administering and combining the results of standardized tests to capture a student s academic strengths and weaknesses and to identify skill gaps (Sylvan Learning, 2010). SLC uses identified skill gaps, often the reason for underperformance in school, to create a blueprint for an individual child s unique tutoring program. SLC also administers learning style inventories to help instructors understand how each child learns best. Trained and certified instructors integrate these learning styles into their tutoring sessions to promote individual student learning (SLC, 2010). Now let us take a look at the Society for Human Resources Management (SHRM). As the world s largest association devoted to human resources management, SHRM provides human resources professionals with essential information and resources (SHRM, 2010a). One of these resources is an online testing center, which provides SHRM members who are qualified testing professionals with electronic access to more than 400 tests, from over 50 test publishers, in areas such as personality and skills assessment, coaching and leadership, mechanical and technical skills, information technology skills, preemployment screening, and career exploration (SHRM, 2010b). The testing center allows qualified testing professionals to purchase individual tests, administer the tests online, and receive electronic reports.

13 Chapter 1: What Are Psychological Tests? 15 IN THE NEWS Box 1.1 SAT Prep Tools: From Cellphones to Handhelds to CDs Early in 2005, the College Board introduced thousands of high school juniors to the new SAT. No longer containing the much-dreaded analogy questions, the new SAT is longer and more difficult and, for the first time, contains a writing section (College Board, 2010). The writing section contains multiple-choice questions that assess how well test takers use standard written English language and a handwritten essay to assess how well they can develop a point of view on a topic. Not wanting to miss an opportunity, publishers capitalized on the updated SAT by creating and marketing a number of new and innovative products products promising to appeal to today s technologysavvy, music-hungry, multitasking teens. In 2005, The Wall Street Journal published an article introducing some of these unique products. In 2009, the products are still being marketed to students preparing to take the SAT. Princeton Review: This company offers private instruction and tutoring for standardized achievement tests. In partnership with Cocel, Princeton Review has developed a new software program called Prep for the SAT, which beams SAT practice questions, including reading passages, to cell phones so that students can prepare for the SAT at their convenience. Answers are quickly graded, and parents can even receive electronic reports. In 2005, Princeton Review also released Pocket Prep, an interactive, portable, handheld SAT prep device designed to help 21st-century high school students prepare for the SAT using a format and technology that suits their lifestyles and preferences. Pocket Prep features information about the new SAT; comprehensive verbal, math, and essay preparation; full-length timed practice exams; instant scoring; and personal diagnostic reports. It also includes practice drills, flash cards, and an extensive verbal and essay reference suite to help students maximize their grammar and essay scores. Kaplan: Another test preparation company, Kaplan has designed software for cell phones and handheld devices and is publishing books, such as Frankenstein and Wuthering Heights, that contain SAT vocabulary words in bold print as well as their definitions. An example of a sentence containing an SAT vocabulary word (desolation) might be Mr. Heathcliff and I are such a suitable pair to divide the desolation between us. SparkNotes: This Internet-based, youth-oriented education product (owned by Barnes & Noble) has published several Spuzzles books containing crossword puzzles in which the answers are commonly occurring SAT vocabulary words. For example, in U.S. History Spuzzle No. 56, the clue to 8 Across is English Quaker who founded Pennsylvania in Wiley Publishing: A well-known publisher of print and electronic products, Wiley has published a teen novel, The Marino Mission: One Girl, One Mission, One Thousand Words, that contains 1,000 need-to-know SAT vocabulary words. Not only are vocabulary words defined at the bottom of each page, but there also are self-tests at the end of the novel to help readers retain what they have learned. Defined Mind These independent recording artists, along with Kaplan, have produced Vocabulary Accelerator, a 12-track CD full of rock, folk-funk, and techno beats. What is unique is that the lyrics are studded with SAT vocabulary. SOURCE: Kronhold, J. (2005, March 8). To tackle the new SAT, perhaps you need a new study device. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved May 20, 2010, from

14 16 SECTION I: OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING One of the most significant and controversial uses of psychological testing in the 21st century has been a result of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB Act). The NCLB Act, which President George W. Bush signed into law on January 8, 2002, was intended to improve the performance of America s primary and secondary schools. The NCLB Act contains the following four basic strategies for improving the performance of schools strategies that were intended to change the culture of America s schools by defining a school s success in terms of the achievement of its students (U.S. Department of Education, 2004): 1. Increase the accountability that states, school districts, and schools have for educating America s children by requiring that all states implement statewide systems that (a) set challenging standards for what children in Grades 3 to 8 should know and learn in reading and math, (b) test students in Grades 3 to 8 on a yearly basis to determine the extent to which they know and have learned what they should have according to state standards, and (c) include annual statewide progress objectives to ensure that all students are proficient by the 12th grade. 2. Ensure that all children have access to a quality education by allowing parents to send their children to better schools if their schools do not meet state standards. 3. Increase the amount of flexibility that high-performing states and school districts have for spending federal education dollars. 4. Place more emphasis on developing children s reading skills by making grants available to states to administer screening and diagnostic assessments to identify children who may be at risk for reading failure and by providing teachers with professional development and resources to help young children attain the knowledge and skills they need to be readers. Years after the implementation of the NCLB Act, there remains significant controversy, some of which focuses on the overreliance on test scores that may distort teaching and learning in unproductive ways (Center for Public Education, 2006, para. 6). While tests have always played a critical role in the assessment of student achievement, the NCLB Act requires that students be tested more often and relies on test scores to make more important decisions than in the past. In Chapter 13, we talk more about how one state, Florida, has responded to the NCLB Act, focusing primarily on the role that psychological tests have played in assessing the extent to which children and schools measure up to state standards. The Defining Characteristics of Psychological Tests As we have already discussed, a psychological test is anything that requires an individual to perform a behavior for the purpose of measuring some attribute, trait, or characteristic or to predict an outcome. All good psychological tests have three characteristics in common:

15 Chapter 1: What Are Psychological Tests? They representatively sample the behaviors thought to measure an attribute or thought to predict an outcome. For example, suppose we are interested in developing a test to measure your physical ability. One option would be to evaluate your performance in every sport you have ever played. Another option would be to have you run the 50-meter dash. Both of these options have drawbacks. The first option would be very precise, but not very practical. Can you imagine how much time and energy it would take to review how you performed in every sport you have ever played? The second option is too narrow and unrepresentative. How fast you run the 50-meter dash does not tell us much about your physical ability in general. A better method would be to take a representative sample of performance in sports. For example, we might require you to participate in some individual sports (for example, running, tennis, gymnastics) and team sports (for example, soccer, basketball) that involve different types of physical abilities (for example, strength, endurance, precision). This option would include a more representative sample. 2. All good psychological tests include behavior samples that are obtained under standardized conditions. That is, a test must be administered the same way to all people. When you take a test, various factors can affect your score besides the characteristic, attribute, or trait that is being measured. Factors related to the environment (for example, room temperature, lighting), the examiner (for example, examiner attitude, how the instructions are read), the examinee (for example, disease, fatigue), and the test (for example, understandability of questions) all can affect your score. If everyone is tested under the same conditions (for example, the same environment), we can be more confident that these factors will affect all test takers similarly. If all of these factors affect test takers similarly, we can be more certain that a person s test score accurately reflects the attribute being measured. Although it is possible for test developers to standardize factors related to the environment, the examiner, and the test, it is difficult to standardize examinee factors. For example, test developers have little control over what test takers do the night before they take a test. 3. All good psychological tests have rules for scoring. These rules ensure that all examiners will score the same set of responses in the same way. For example, teachers might award 1 point for each multiple-choice question you answer correctly, and they might award or deduct points based on what you include in your response to an essay question. Teachers might then report your overall exam score either as the number correct or as a percentage of the number correct (the number of correct answers divided by the total number of questions on the test). Although all psychological tests have these characteristics, not all exhibit these characteristics to the same degree. For example, some tests may include a more representative sample of behavior than do others. Some tests, such as group-administered tests, may be more conducive to administration under standardized conditions than are individually administered tests. Some tests may have well-defined rules for scoring, and others might have general guidelines. Some tests may have very explicit scoring rules, for example, If Question 1 is marked true, then deduct 2 points. Other tests, such as those that include short answers, may have less explicit rules for scoring, for example, Award 1 point for each concept noted and defined.

16 18 SECTION I: OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING INTERIM SUMMARY 1.2 THE THREE DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS All psychological tests have three common characteristics: First, a good test should representatively sample the behaviors thought to measure an attribute or predict an outcome. This ensures that the test measures what it says it measures. Second, the behavior samples should be obtained under standardized conditions. That is, a test must be administered exactly the same way to all individuals so that we can be confident that a person s score accurately reflects the attribute being measured or the outcome being predicted. Third, there must be rules for scoring so that all examiners will score the test in the same way. Assumptions of Psychological Tests There are many assumptions that must be made when using psychological tests. The following are what we consider the most important assumptions: 1. Psychological tests measure what they purport to measure or predict what they are intended to predict. In addition, any conclusions or inferences that are drawn about the test takers based on their test scores must be appropriate. This is also called test validity. If a test is designed to measure mechanical ability, we must assume that it does indeed measure mechanical ability. If a test is designed to predict performance on the job, then we must assume that it does indeed predict performance. This assumption must come from a personal review of the test s validity data. 2. An individual s behavior, and therefore test scores, will typically remain stable over time. This is also called test retest reliability. If a test is administered at a specific point in time and then we administer it again at a different point in time (for example, two weeks later), we must assume, depending on what we are measuring, that an individual will receive a similar score at both points in time. If we are measuring a relatively stable trait, we should be much more concerned about this assumption. However, there are some traits, such as mood, that are not expected to show high test retest reliability. 3. Individuals understand test items similarly (Wiggins, 1973). For example, when asked to respond true or false to a test item such as I am almost always healthy, we must assume that all test takers interpret almost always similarly. 4. Individuals will report accurately about themselves (for example, about their personalities, about their likes and dislikes; Wiggins, 1973). When we ask people to remember something or to tell us how they feel about something, we must assume that they will remember accurately and that they have the ability to assess and report accurately on their thoughts and feelings. For example, if we ask you to tell us whether you agree or disagree with the statement I have always

17 Chapter 1: What Are Psychological Tests? 19 liked cats, you must remember not only how you feel about cats now but also how you felt about cats previously. 5. Individuals will report their thoughts and feelings honestly (Wiggins, 1973). Even if people are able to report correctly about themselves, they may choose not to do so. Sometimes people respond how they think the tester wants them to respond, or they lie so that the outcome benefits them. For example, if we ask test takers whether they have ever taken a vacation, they may tell us that they have even if they really have not. Why? Because we expect most individuals to occasionally take vacations, and therefore the test takers think we would expect most individuals to answer yes to this question. Criminals may respond to test questions in a way that makes them appear neurotic or psychotic so that they can claim they were insane when they committed crimes. When people report about themselves, we must assume that they will report their thoughts and feelings honestly, or we must build validity checks into the test. 6. The test score an individual receives is equal to his or her true ability plus some error, and this error may be attributable to the test itself, the examiner, the examinee, or the environment. That is, a test taker s score may reflect not only the attribute being measured but also things such as awkward question wording, errors in administration of the test, examinee fatigue, and the temperature of the room in which the test was taken. When evaluating an individual s score, we must assume that it will include some error. Although we must accept some of these assumptions at face value, we can increase our confidence in others by following certain steps during test development. For example, in Section III of this textbook, which covers test construction, we talk about how to design test questions that are understood universally. We also talk about the techniques that are available to promote honest answering. In Section II, which covers psychometric principles, we discuss how to measure a test s reliability and validity. Test Classification Methods As we have already discussed, there are tens of thousands of commercially available psychological tests, and professionals refer to these tests in various ways. Sometimes professionals refer to them as tests of maximal performance, behavior observation tests, or self-report tests. Sometimes professionals refer to tests as being standardized or nonstandardized, objective or projective. Other times professionals refer to tests based on what the tests measure. In this section, we discuss the most common ways that professionals classify and refer to psychological tests. Maximal Performance, Behavior Observation, or Self-Report Most psychological tests can be defined as being tests of maximal performance, behavioral observation tests, or self-report tests.

18 20 SECTION I: OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING Tests of maximal performance require test takers to perform a particular well-defined task such as making a right-hand turn, arranging blocks from smallest to largest, tracing a pattern, or completing mathematical problems. Test takers try to do their best because their scores are determined by their success in completing the task. Intelligence tests, tests of specific abilities (for example, mechanical ability), driving tests (road and written), and classroom tests all are good examples of tests of maximal performance. Behavior observation tests involve observing people s behavior and how people typically respond in a particular context. Unlike with tests of maximal performance, many times people do not know that their behavior is being observed and there is no single defined task for the individual to perform. Many restaurants use this technique to assess food servers competence in dealing with customers. Sometimes managers hire trained observers to visit their restaurant disguised as a typical customer. In exchange for a free meal or some predetermined compensation, observers agree to record specific behaviors performed by a food server. For example, observers may document whether a food server greeted them in a friendly manner. Other examples of behavior observations include documenting job performance for performance appraisals or clinical interviews. Self-report tests require test takers to report or describe their feelings, beliefs, opinions, or mental states. Many personality inventories, such as the Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI), are self-report tests. The HPI, a test used primarily for personnel selection and individualized assessment, asks test takers to indicate whether each of more than 200 statements about themselves is true or false. Most psychological tests fit one of the above categories, and some tests contain features of more than one category. For example, a structured job interview (which involves asking all job applicants a standard set of interview questions) could include both technical questions and questions about one s beliefs or opinions. Technical questions, which are well defined for the interviewee, qualify the interview as a test of maximal performance. Questions about beliefs and opinions qualify it as a self-report test. The interviewer may also observe the interviewees behaviors, such as their greetings, which would qualify the interview as a behavioral observation. Standardized or Nonstandardized Standardized tests are those that have been administered to a large group of individuals who are similar to the group for whom the test has been designed. For example, if a test is designed to measure the writing ability of high school students, the test would be administered to a large group of high school students. This group is called the standardization sample people who are tested to obtain data to establish a frame of reference for interpreting individual test scores. These data, called norms, indicate the average performance of a group and the distribution of scores above and below this average. For example, if you took the SAT, the interpretation of your score included comparing it with the SAT standardization sample to determine whether your score was high or low in comparison with others and whether you scored above average, average, or below average. In addition, standardized tests always have specific directions for administration and scoring. Nonstandardized tests do not have standardization samples and are more common than standardized tests. Nonstandardized tests are usually constructed by a teacher or trainer in a less formal manner for a single administration. For example, in many cases, the exams you take in your college courses are nonstandardized tests.

19 Chapter 1: What Are Psychological Tests? 21 Objective or Projective Sometimes people make a distinction between objective and projective tests. Objective tests are structured and require test takers to respond to structured true/false questions, multiple-choice More detail about the GRE can be found in Test questions, or rating scales. What the test taker must do is clear, for Spotlight 13.1 in Appendix example, answer true or false, circle the correct multiple-choice A. More detail about the Stanford answer, or circle the correct item on the rating scale. The GRE, Binet Intelligence Scales can be found Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, General Aptitude Test Battery, in Test Spotlight 1.2 in Appendix A. and most classroom tests are examples of objective tests. Another example of an objective test is the NEO Personality Inventory, an objective self-report instrument designed to identify what makes individuals unique in their thinking, feeling, and interaction with others. Although there are two forms of the inventory, both measure five broad personality dimensions: neuroticism, extroversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Test takers are asked to indicate whether they strongly disagree, disagree, are neutral, agree, or strongly agree with each of 240 statements. These statements are about their thoughts, feelings, and goals. For sample questions from the NEO Personality Inventory, see For Your Information Box 1.2. On the other hand, projective tests are unstructured. They require test takers to respond to unstructured or ambiguous stimuli such as incomplete sentences, inkblots, and abstract pictures. The role of the test taker is less clear than with a standardized test. People who use projective tests believe that test takers project themselves into the task they are asked to perform and that their responses are based on what they believe the stimuli mean and on the feelings they experience while responding. These tests tend to elicit highly personal concerns. They are often used to detect More detail about the NEO Personality Inventory can be found in Test Spotlight 1.3 in Appendix A. unconscious thoughts or personality characteristics, and they may be used to identify the need for psychological counseling. The TAT is an example of a projective test. (Chapter 14 contains more information on the TAT and other projective tests.) Dimension Measured Psychological tests are often discussed in terms of the dimensions they measure. For example, sometimes we distinguish among achievement tests, aptitude tests, intelligence tests, personality tests, and interest inventories. We refer to these as dimensions because they are broader than a single attribute or trait level. Often these types of tests measure various personal attributes or traits. Achievement Tests Achievement tests measure a person s previous learning in a specific academic area (for example, computer programming, German, trigonometry, psychology). A test that requires you to list the three characteristics of psychological tests would be considered an achievement test. Achievement tests are also referred to as tests of knowledge. Achievement tests are used primarily in educational settings to determine how much students have learned or what they can do at a particular point in time. Many elementary schools and high schools rely

20 22 SECTION I: OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING F Y I FOR YOUR INFORMATION BOX 1.2 Sample Items From the NEO Personality Inventory The NEO Personality Inventory is an objective self-report instrument designed to identify what makes individuals unique in their thinking, feeling, and interaction with others. The inventory measures five broad personality dimensions: neuroticism, extroversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Test takers are asked to indicate whether they strongly disagree (SD), disagree (D), are neutral (N), agree (A), or strongly agree (SA) with each of 240 statements. These statements are about their thoughts, feelings, and goals. In the following, we list a sample item from three of the five scales: Neuroticism Frightening thoughts sometimes come into my head. SD D N A SA Extroversion I don t get much pleasure from chatting with people. SD D N A SA Openness I have a very active imagination. SD D N A SA SOURCE: Reproduced by special permission of the publisher, Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc., North Florida Avenue, Lutz, Florida 33549, from the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised, by Paul T. Costa, Jr., PhD, and Robert R. McCrae, PhD, Copyright 1978, 1985, 1989, 1991, 1992 by Psychological Assessment Resources (PAR). Further reproduction is prohibited without permission from PAR. on achievement tests to compare what students know at the beginning of the year with what they know at the end of the year, to assign grades, to identify students with special educational needs, and to measure students progress. Aptitude Tests Achievement tests measure a test taker s knowledge in a specific area at a specific point in time. Aptitude tests assess a test taker s potential for learning or ability to perform in a new job or situation. Aptitude tests measure the product of cumulative life experiences or what one has acquired over time. They help determine what maximum can be expected from a person. Schools, businesses, and government agencies often use aptitude tests to predict how well someone will perform or to estimate the extent to which an individual will profit from a specified course of training. Vocational guidance counseling may involve aptitude testing to help clarify the test taker s career goals. If a person s score is similar to scores of others already working in a given occupation, the test will predict success in that field. Intelligence Tests Intelligence tests, like aptitude tests, assess the test taker s ability to cope with the environment, but at a broader level. Intelligence tests are often used to screen individuals for specific programs (for example, gifted programs, honors programs) or programs for the mentally challenged. Intelligence tests are typically used in educational and clinical settings.

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