Oil Companies together with the Bush and Trump administration have kept the global warming debate alive long after most scientists believed that global warming was real and had potentially catastrophic consequences. We need to be aware and to change this policy before we get to the point of no return............Amor Patriae

ECOLOGY AND ENERGY PRODUCTION

Friday, June 12, 2015

Building the world's wonders: And The Modern Day Golden Gate Bridge

Building the world's wonders

From the pyramids to the Leaning Tower of Pisa, infographic details how iconic landmarks were made

Infographic details techniques used to build inspirational monuments

Includes Roman concrete, Greek geometry and Turkish cutting precision

Some mysteries are unsolved, including how stone was moved to build the pyramids and how the Incas created such sharp joins at Machu Picchu

From Casinos in Las Vegas to museum facades, modern architects and engineers take inspiration from ancient structures such as the Great Pyramids and Parthenon.

Now an infographic details some of the techniques used to build these inspirational and lasting monuments.

It includes the eco-friendly Roman concrete and the Incas' ability to cut stone and slot pieces together like a jigsaw to build Machu Picchu.

It also shares the latest thinking on how experts argue mysterious structures were made.

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From Casinos in Las Vegas to museum facades, modern architects and engineers take inspiration from ancient structures such as the Great Pyramids and Parthenon. Now an infographic details some of the techniques used to build monuments such as the Pyramids (illustrated), Taj Mahal and the Colosseum

The Great Pyramids of Giza in Egypt

Experts still debate about some feats of engineering, such as how vast stones were lifted into place to build the iconic pyramids at Giza.

It remains a mystery how the the last of the world’s ‘seven wonders’ was constructed 4,500 years ago.

The Great Pyramid is made from 2.4million limestone blocks weighing around 2.5 tonnes each and it is thought workers moved around 40 blocks a day, leading experts to assume ancient Egyptians must have had a technique for shifting them relatively easily.

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Experts are still arguing about some feats of engineering, such as how vast stones were lifted into place to build the iconic pyramids at Giza (pictured) It remains a mystery how the the last of the world’s ‘seven wonders’ was constructed 4,500 years ago

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Last year, researchers at the University of Amsterdam said that the Egyptians used wet sand to drag heavy blocks across the desert on sleds. This technique may be seen in hieroglyphs (shown above)

DIFFERENT IDEAS OF HOW HEAVY BLOCKS WERE TRANSPORTED

There are conflicting theories as to how the ancient Egyptians constructed pyramids.

An illustration of the 12th Dynasty Tomb of Djhuihotep shows 172 men pulling a statue along on a sledge, leading some experts to suggest huge blocks needed for the pyramids were transported using the same technique.

This theory has been built on, with some experts suggesting roads were coated in a layer of water to make them slippery.

Other experts have suggested that workers rolled stones along.

Alternative, a cradle-like machine could have been used, while another expert suggested wooden curves could have been fitted to each block to make cylinders.

Historical accounts suggest ramps were built for workers to carry blocks up the structure, but an engineer recently suggested the structures were built from the inside out.

The infographic, put together by construction specialists, Able Skills, lists different theories as to how the vast pyramids were constructed include stones being dragged, lifted or rolled into place.

The latest thinking is that tools and levers were used to manoeuvre blocks into position, while ramps allowed a workforce of 14,567 to carry them to the right place over the course of 20 years.

Last year, researchers at the University of Amsterdam said the Egyptians used wet sand to drag heavy blocks across the desert on sleds.

Their experiments demonstrated the correct amount of dampness in the sand halves the pulling force required, while a hieroglyph suggests the technique was used to build at least one structure.

'A sledge glides far more easily over firm desert sand simply because the sand does not pile up in front of the sledge as it does in the case of dry sand,' the team said.

Physicists at Indiana University suggested the blocks could - or should - have been moved by turning cuboids into dodecagons - 12 sided shapes - to make them easier to move.

More elaborate suggestions include the use of cradle-like machines, for example.

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Physicists at Indiana University suggested the blocks could - or should - have been moved by turning cuboids into dodecagons (pictured) - 12 sided shapes designed to make them easier to move

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The Ancient Greeks came up with the idea of the Golden Ratio - a formula for making anything aesthetically pleasing, which has inspired artists and architects such as Dali ans Le Corbusier. It is believed that Parthenon (illustrated) in Athens, built between 447 and 438 BC illustrates this

The Parthenon in Greece

The Ancient Greeks came up with the idea of the Golden Ratio - a formula for making anything aesthetically pleasing, which has inspired artists and architects such as Dali and Le Corbusier.

It is thought that Parthenon in Athens, built between 447 and 438 BC illustrates this, but some argue the concept was conceived after the iconic building was completed.

It was not until 300 BC that Euclid wrote about the ratio in 'Elements'.

The building, which is now in ruins, was built with as few straight or parallel lines as possible to make it more visually pleasing.

The infographic explains the building incorporates different kinds of limestone and marble, including 13,400 stones transported from Mount Pantelakos some nine miles (16km) to the Acropolis.

It is believed the spectacular temple took just 15 years to build and was reconstructed in 490 BC.

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The infographic says the Parthenon (shown) incorporates different kinds of limestone and marble, including 13,400 stones that were transported from Mount Pantelakos some nine miles (16km) to the Acropolis

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The Colosseum in Rome (illustrated), built in around 70 to 80 AD, could seat between 50,000 and 80,000 spectators for events such as gladiator tournaments

The Colosseum in Rome

The Colosseum in Rome, built in around 70 to 80 AD, could seat between 50,000 and 80,000 spectators for events such as gladiator tournaments.

Because the circular structure was built in a valley, the Romans fitted drains 26 ft (eight metres) beneath the amphitheatre to remove any water flowing from Rome's hills, according to the graphic.

They also buried supports 40 ft (12 metres) deep in the soil and used arches to support the vast weight of the tiered structure.

But perhaps the reason why the testament to Roman engineering has lasted so long is a secret concrete recipe, which experts are still trying to emulate today.

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Because the circular structure (pictured) was built in a valley, the Romans fitted drains 26 ft (8 metres) beneath the amphitheatre to remove any water flowing from Rome's hills, according to the graphic

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Experts at the University of California used X-ray beams to study volcanic ash-lime mortar, which binds together tuff and bricks used to build the Colosseum. This is a chunk they made themselves to replicate the Roman's super strong mortar

Experts at the University of California, Berkeley used X-ray beams to study volcanic ash-lime mortar, which binds together tuff and bricks used to build the Colosseum.

Scientists looked at the mineralogical changes that took place in the curing of replica mortar over a period of 180 days and compared the results to 1,900 year old samples of the original.

The team discovered that the volcanic ash creates a crystal structure that prevents tiny cracks from spreading.

The use of strätlingite crystals in the material showed no corrosion, with their smooth surface suggesting stability and as well as these positive qualities, experts said the mortar was greener too, adding that modern engineers could emulate it to produce more eco-friendly materials.

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It has been claimed that 7,000 slaves built the Basilica Cistern (illustrated) in Istanbul in 532 AD, but like with the pyramids in Egypt, there's some debate about whether specialist labourers were used

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The cathedral-sized cistern is an underground chamber measuring 105,000 square feet (9,800 square metres) in area to hold 2,800,000 cubic feet (80,000 cubic metres of water). Part of an elaborate pillar showing the face of Medusa is shown at the site

The Basilica Cistern in Turkey

It has been claimed that 7,000 slaves built the Basilica Cistern in Istanbul in 532 AD, but like with the pyramids in Egypt, there's some debate about whether specialist labourers were used.

Ancient texts said it originally contained gardens surrounded by colonnades and provided a water filtration system for the Great Palace of Constantinople and other buildings into modern times.

Like the carvings and paintings inside it, the construction of the Angkor Wat temple complex in Cambodia, built between 113 and 1150 AD, is a mystery.

It is composed of between six and 10 million sandstone blocks, each weighing around 1.5 tonnes, with some carvings stretching half a mile (1km) in length.

But experts think the carved stone building is held together using mortise and tenon joints, instead of cement.

Experts have hypothesised that builders used bamboo scaffolding, ropes and elephants to move carved blocks into place before locking them into position.

Last year, archaeologists used Nasa technology to reveal 200 hidden paintings on the building's walls, which are thought to have all been covered in paint originally.

While the faded pictures might be invisible to the naked eye, processed images show elephants, gods, musical instruments, boats and patterns, which are all thought to be ancient graffiti.

Experts believe the artistic markings were made by pilgrims visiting the holy site after it was abandoned in the 15th century, but the more elaborate paintings could have been created during earlier attempts to restore the temple to its former glory,Science reported.

The temple complex (pictured) is composed of between six and 10 million sandstone blocks which each weigh around 1.5 tonnes, with some carvings stretching half a mile (1km) in length

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The Leaning Tower of Pisa (illustrated) has defied gravity since the 12th century. Three stages of construction began in 1173, but the ground floor immediately sunk in unstable soil

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It was not until 2013 that the tower lost some of its tilt after an 11-year restoration project. This image shows the famous tower before work began

THE TOWER WAS TILTING FROM THE MOMENT BUILDING BEGAN...

The world-famous Tower of Pisa took nearly 200 years to build beginning with the foundations being laid in 1173.

The first stones were bought with 60 coins bequeathed by Donna Berta di Bernardo, a widow of a resident of the house of dell'Opera di Santa Maria, to the Opera Campanilis petrarum Sancte Marie. These stones still form the base of the bell tower.

The white marble ground floor was built and it took until 1178 before the second floor was also completed.

By this time, however, the problem with the tilt was already apparent, and construction was stopped for almost a century - although this was mainly because the Republic of Pisa was constantly engaged in battles.

Some say the lengthy pause acted as a settling period for the existing structure, however, and the soft top soil is said to have levelled somewhat.

By 1198 the third floor was almost completed and works did not continue again until 1292, under architect Giovanni di Simone.

Giovanni is famed for giving the tower its curved shape, by building the upper floors with one side taller than the other, in an attempt to compensate for the tilt

He added another three levels before works were halted by more conflict - this time the in 1284 when the Pisans were defeated by the Genoans.

After another lengthy pause, construction resumed in 1319 by Tommasino di Andrea Pisano who added a bell for each of the seven notes of the musical scale.

And finally to upper bell chamber was finally added in 1372.

The Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy

The Leaning Tower of Pisa has defied gravity since the 12th century.

Three stages of construction began in 1173, but the ground floor immediately sunk in unstable soil and construction was halted for a century when engineers built one side of the tower taller than the other to compensate for its tilt, making the upper floors curved.

The third stage, including the bell chamber with seven bells, was finished in 1372 and the monument clad in white marble.

However, it was not until 2013 that the tower lost some of its tilt after an 11-year restoration project.

Previously, the 184 ft (56 metre) bell tower’s tilt was increasing by more than a millimetre a year, creating a danger it could collapse altogether.

In 1993 it was leaning by 18 ft (5.4 metres) compared to 13 ft (3.8 metres) in 1817 and just 5ft (1.4 metres) in 1350.

The 14,500-tonne tower was shut for a decade while the foundations were reinforced and water was drained from beneath.

Supporting steel cables were placed in circles around the structure.

After the £25 million project, the tower straightened itself almost immediately by 15 inches (38 cm).

Giuseppe Bentivoglio, technical director of the monument, said the tower’s lean towards the south is shrinking.

The structural engineer explained: ‘The tower is moving. It is straightening towards the north. Between 2001 and 2013 it has recovered 2.5 cm of its incline.'

‘According to studies by researchers at Stuttgart University with whom we worked, the tower will continue to straighten another couple of millimetres and then stabilise before starting to lean again, but at a much slower rate than before.’

He added: ‘In theory it would be possible to straighten it completely.'

The 14,500-tonne tower was shut for a decade while the foundations were reinforced and water was drained from beneath. Supporting steel cables were placed in circles around the structure (shown above)

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Like the Basilica Cistern, Machu Picchu (illustrated) in Peru was built from blocks of stone that were cut to fit together like a jigsaw puzzle without using mortar

Machu Picchu in Peru

Like the Basilica Cistern, Machu Picchu in Peru was built from blocks of stone that were cut to fit together like a jigsaw puzzle without using mortar.

Some of the bricks are positioned so closely together that it’s impossible to put a knife in the space between.

It’s likely they were cut using a ‘wooden wedge’ technique, where holes were drilled into rocks and wedges inserted into them.

Builders then waited for freezing temperatures so that ice forced the blocks neatly apart, but it is a mystery how stones were cut perfectly straight and made smooth.

It has been suggested that around 5,000 people worked to build the temple complex in the mid 1400s, on the sleep slope, 8,038 ft (2,450 metres) above sea level in the Peruvian Andes with steps made from single pieces of granite.

Experts think the monument was a religious sanctuary for the Incas, offering an incredible view of the Urubamba Valley below.

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It is believed that around 5,000 people worked to build the temple complex (pictured) in the mid 1400s, on the sleep slope, 8,038 ft (2,450 metres) above sea level in the Peruvian Andes

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Despite being built just 350 years ago, the Taj Mahal (illustrated) is another monument still giving up its secrets

The Taj Mahal in India

Despite being built just 350 years ago, the Taj Mahal is another iconic monument still giving up its secrets.

Earlier this year, a researcher from Politecnico di Torino found a remarkable feature hidden in plain sight - the entire complex was built to align with the winter and summer solstice.

The remarkable discovery by Dr Amelia Carolina shows that as the sun sets and rises during the solstices, it aligns perfectly with the four corners of the garden near the central dome.

‘The Taj Mahal complex has a north-south axis,’ she wrote in her research, published in the journal Philica.

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The monument (pictured) took 22,000 labourers and 1,000 elephants 20 years to build from white marble and semi-precious stones

‘When an architectonic structure is aligned in this manner, it is aligned to the projection on the horizontal plane of the "axis mundi" - the axis about which the world is rotating.

‘However, in their planning, architects could also use some elements aligned in the directions of sunrise or sunset.’

The exact reasoning for aligning with the solstices, though, is not entirely clear.

The monument took 22,000 labourers and 1,000 elephants 20 years to build from white marble and semi-precious stones.

It has been rumoured that the four pillars surrounding the mausoleum were built slanting away from the dome to protect it in case any of the pillars ever collapsed.

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Earlier this year, a researcher from Politecnico di Torino found a remarkable feature hidden in plain sight - the entire complex was built to align with the winter and summer solstice (illustrated)

THE TAJ MAHAL: MARBLE, MAJESTIC BEAUTY AND MUGHAL MYTHS

The Taj Mahal was built on the banks of Yamuna River in a vast Mughal garden in Agra.

It was built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal between 1632 AD and 1648 AD.

The majestic marble mausoleum and grounds cover approximately 17 hectares and feature a mosque, a guest house, an outer courtyard and its cloisters.

Several historical and Quaranic inscriptions in Arabic script have been used to date the development of the Taj Mahal.

Masons, stone-cutters, inlayers, carvers, painters, calligraphers, dome builders and other artists were commissioned from India, Central Asia and Iran and the main architect was Ustad-Ahmad Lahori.

The Taj Mahal is a perfectly symmetrical planned building, with an emphasis of bilateral symmetry along a central axis on which the main features are placed.

The building material used is brick-in-lime mortar veneered with red sandstone and marble and inlay work of precious/semi precious stones.

A longstanding myth claims Shah Jahan had planned a mausoleum to be built in black marble as a Black Taj Mahal on the other side of the river.

It was suggested Shah Jahan was overthrown by his son Aurangzeb before it could be built.

Ruins of blackened marble across the river in Moonlight Garden, Mahtab Bagh, seemed to support this legend but excavations carried out in the 1990s found that they were discolored white stones that had turned black.

Another myth suggest that the hands of the builders were cut off when the Taj Mahal was built, so they could never build something so majestic again - although this has never been verified.

The Golden Gate Bridge

Construction on the Golden Gate Bridge began on January 5, 1933 and lasted a little more than four years, costing more than $35 million.

The Golden Gate Bridge was opened to vehicular traffic on May 28, 1937 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt pushed a button in Washington DC. Construction on the bridge began on January 5, 1933 and lasted a little more than four years, costing more than $35 million. The day before vehicle traffic was allowed, 200,000 people crossed the bridge by foot.

1 of 65 -The north tower of the Golden Gate Bridge is blanketed by fog as the sun rises October 8, 2007 in Sausalito, California. (Photo by Justin Sullivan/Getty Images)2 of 65 -View of the San Francisco Bay before the Golden Gate Bridge was built with sun shining through clouds on water, c1902. (Library of Congress)3 of 65 -An aerial view with the Golden Gate Bridge under construction, c1934. (Photo by Chas. M. Hiller, Library of Congress)4 of 65 -High in the fog, structural steel workers staged the traditional ceremony of raising flags when the structural steel work on the Marin County Towers of the Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco was completed, May 4, 1934. Group of steel workers atop one of the two towers which rise 734 feet above the water. (AP Photo)5 of 65 -The Golden Gate Bridge under construction, c1934. (Photo by Chas. M. Hiller, Library of Congress)6 of 65 -The construction of the Golden Gate Bridge, which would link Fort Point, bottom, with Marin County, Calif., top, is seen as work progressed, 1934. (AP Photo/Redwood Empire Association)7 of 65 -U.S. Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins, center, wears a steel helmet during an inspection tour of the San Francisco tower of the Golden Gate Bridge, Ca., March 25, 1935. Perkins, who is the first female cabinet officer in American history, talks with G.A. McClain, bridge superintendent, left, and S.E. Stanley, rivet foreman. (AP Photo)8 of 65 -Workers install the first section of a huge safety net, at a cost of $98,000, that will extend from shore to shore beneath the Golden Gate Bridge span during construction of the bridge in San Francisco, Ca., Sept. 2, 1935. (AP Photo)9 of 65 -Workmen wearing steel helmets lay the catwalks for the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, Ca., Sept. 19, 1935. Spinning of the big suspension cables will start after the two catwalks are laid high above the Golden Gate Strait. (AP Photo)10 of 65 -Preparations for spinning the cables of the Golden Gate Bridge between Marin Country and San Francisco occupied crews October 10, 1935. They were busy erecting storm cable system, telephone system and various units of the spinning equipment for the $35,000,000 structure. The cable, stretching from the tower in the foreground to the Marin Country or North side, will be 36 1/2 inches in diameter. The Catwalks with some of the storm cables is shown. (AP Photo)11 of 65 -Workers at the top of the tower, which will support the $35,000,000 suspension bridge, are shown during construction of one of the catwalks for the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, Ca., Oct. 17, 1935. Below in background is the Marin County shore, which will be connected to San Francisco by the bridge. (AP Photo)12 of 65 -Workers complete the catwalks for the Golden Gate Bridge, spanning the Golden Gate Strait, prior to spinning the bridge cables during construction in San Francisco, Ca., Oct. 25, 1935. (AP Photo)13 of 65 -The USS New Jersey BB-62 battleship, carrying Gen. Walter Krueger and crew aboard, glides under the Golden Gate Bridge at San Francisco, Ca. on Feb. 10, 1946. The United States Navy battleship is a veteran of Pacific Warfare. (AP Photo)14 of 65 -Picture dated May 1936 of the Golden Gate Bridge, in the San Francisco Bay, during its construction. (OFF/AFP/Getty Images)15 of 65 -A view of the Golden Gate Bridge, while under construction, with a warship seen passing underneath on its way to the opening of the Oakland Bay Bridge, on Nov. 12, 1936. (AP Photo)16 of 65 -This is a close up of one of the nearly completed cables which will hold up the floor of the $32,500,000 Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, Ca., May 4, 1936. Approximately 27,500 steel wires are in each cable, which are 36 1/2 inches in diameter and 7,700 feet long. The bridge spans the entrance to San Francisco harbor and joins the city with Marin County. (AP Photo)17 of 65 -Workmen with an intricate mechanism swung high above the rocky shores of San Francisco's Golden Gate on June 6,1936. The workmen are typing together the myriad strands of the 36 1/2 inch cables that will support the Golden Gate Bridge. (AP Photo)18 of 65 -Workmen assist the derrick operator, chief engineer Joseph Strauss, in joining the center of the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, Ca., Nov. 18, 1936. The bridge has a main span of 4,200 feet, 1,280 meters, making it the world's longest suspension structure. (AP Photo)19 of 65 -Ed Stanley drives the golden rivet to mark the completion of the $35,000,000 Golden Gate Bridge spanning the entrance to San Francisco Bay, Ca., April 29, 1937. Holding the rivet is Ed Murphy and leaning over them is Joseph B. Strauss, chief engineer of the project. The bridge will be opened to the public May 27. (AP Photo)20 of 65 -Military biplanes fly between the towers of the Golden Gate Bridge as pedestrians walk across the span during opening ceremonies in San Francisco on May 27, 1937. (AP Photo)21 of 65 -This is a view of the Golden Gate Bridge, linking San Francisco's Fort Point to Marin County, as it looked when it opened to pedestrians, May 27, 1937. The next day it officially opened to vehicular traffic. (AP Photo/Redwood Empire Association)22 of 65 -The U.S. Navy joined with San Francisco in celebration of the opening of the Golden Gate Bridge, May 30, 1937. A naval vessel had just passed under the world's longest suspension span, which crosses the famed entrance to San Francisco Bay. (AP Photo)23 of 65 -Motor traffic crosses the Golden Gate Bridge, Nov. 20, 1940, in San Francisco. (AP Photo)24 of 65 -Two armed guards patrol along the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, as a precaution against possible sabotage acts, December 10, 1941. (AP Photo)25 of 65 -San Francisco is resting comfortable on June 5, 1949 after a hot 4th of July holiday. With the Marin County hills in the background, the Golden Gate Bridge is partially obscured by the fog blanket. The incoming fog lowered the temperature by 23 degrees to a comfortable 69. (AP Photo)26 of 65 -Picture dated 1950's of the Golden Gate bridge, in the San Francisco Bay. (OFF/AFP/Getty Images)27 of 65 -General viewed of the over-crowded Mission district of San Francisco April 27, 1950. (Mission Street runs diagonally across the foreground from lower left to right center.) The building with a long row of vertical windows at upper right is the U.S. Mint, and upper left are the towers of the Golden Gate bridge. The highest point of Mt. Tamalpias across the Golden Gate in Marin County is just above the left tower. (AP Photo/EK Bennett)28 of 65 -Bill Gaure, maintenance worker on the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, nears the top of the north tower after nearly a half-mile uphill hike from the center of the span, May 15, 1952. In the background, at center, is a residential area of San Francisco, and at upper left is part of the Presidio. The bridge was built right where the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay meet. (AP Photo/Ernest K. Bennett)29 of 65 -The aircraft carrier U.S.S. Boxer creeps through the fog under the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco as it arrives from Korean waters, Sept. 25, 1952. It was the Boxer from which the Navy launched drone aircraft for an attack on Communist concentrations in Korea. Aboard the ship were more than 2,500 men of Air group two. She will later go to Hunter's Point, a South San Francisco Naval Base for complete overhaul. (AP Photo)30 of 65 -Morning commute traffic from Marin County enroute to San Francisco is seen, July 1, 1952. The bridge was then carrying approximately 11 million vehicles a year. (AP Photo/Ernest K. Bennett)31 of 65 -The battleship "Missouri" creeps under a fog enshrouded Golden Gate Bridge on Sept. 10, 1954, to begin a three day open house visit to his port city. The 58,000-ton vessel, aboard which the Japanese surrender was signed Sept. 2, 1945, was heading for the mothball fleet at Bremerton, Wash. (AP-Photo/U.S. Navy)32 of 65 -The Golden Gate Bridge, with Fort Point at bottom left, is seen Dec. 15, 1958. (AP Photo/Ernest K. Bennett)33 of 65 -Golden Gate bridge March 31, 1960, in San Francisco. (AP Photo)34 of 65 -A view of a portion of the Golden Gate Bridge was photographed from a Navy helicopter while covering the departure of the atomic powered submarine Woodrow Wilson on January 6, 1964. Beyond strands of bridge, is the Russian Hill and Pacific Heights apartment house skyline of San Francisco. (AP Photo / Robert Houston)35 of 65 -The scenic view at Ford Point was a wet one after a Pacific storm with winds gusting to more than 55 mph whipped through the Golden Gate in San Francisco, California, on Tuesday, Dec. 1, 1982. The storm toppled trees and left many Bay Area residents without power. (AP Photo/Eric Risberg)36 of 65 -An air-to-air front view of a C-5A Galaxy aircraft, in a camouflage paint scheme, as it flies over the San Francisco Bay. The Golden Gate Bridge can be seen in the background. (Photo by USAF, Getty Images)37 of 65 -The Golden Gate Bridge spans the bay in San Francisco, California. (Photo By Justin Sullivan/Getty Images)38 of 65 -A detail view of a tower on the Golden Gate Bridge, looking up from the bridge deck, 1984. (Photo by Jet Lowe, Library of Congress)39 of 65 -Looking north from the deck of the Golden Gate Bridge, 1984. (Photo by Jet Lowe, Library of Congress)40 of 65 -Looking south at the Golden Gate Bridge, spanning the mouth of San Francisco Bay, 1984. (Photo by Jet Lowe, Library of Congress)41 of 65 -Detail view of the cable seat on top of the southern tower of the Golden Gate Bridge, 1984. (Photo by Jet Lowe, Library of Congress)42 of 65 -General view from the south tower looking north on the Golden Gate Bridge, 1984. (Photo by Jet Lowe, Library of Congress)43 of 65 -The Californian, a revenue cutter replica, sails under the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, Calif., on May 24, 1987, as a parade of classic ships is kicked off to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the bridge. (AP Photo/Sal Veder)44 of 65 -A crowd estimated at 800,000 jams the deck of the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, Calif., on May 24, 1987, as a walk is kicked off to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the bridge that spans the San Francisco Bay. (AP Photo/Paul Sakuma)45 of 65 -The Golden Gate Bridge, the famous structure that spans the San Francisco Bay, is seen at dusk on May 21, 1987. (AP Photo/Eric Risberg)46 of 65 -General view of the Southern footing of the Golden Gate Bridge, Fort Point, San Francisco on November 17, 2002. Surfers congregate daily to surf at Fort Point and battle the harsh and dangerous conditions. (Photo by Daniel Berehulak/Getty Images)47 of 65 -The Golden Gate Bridge is seen as the sun rises on January 27, 2005 in San Francisco. (Photo by Justin Sullivan/Getty Images)48 of 65 -The Golden Gate Bridge is pictured December 20, 2006 in San Francisco, California. The Golden Gate Bridge is a suspension bridge spanning the Golden Gate, the opening into San Francisco Bay from the Pacific Ocean. It connects the city of San Francisco on the northern tip of the San Francisco Peninsula to Marin County as part of US Highway 101 and California State Highway 1. The largest suspension bridge in the world when it was completed in 1937, it has become an internationally recognized symbol of San Francisco and America. (GABRIEL BOUYS/AFP/Getty Images)49 of 65 -The Golden Gate Bridge is visible through the fence and barbed wire surrounding the prison recreation yard as the sun sets on Alcatraz Island, 14 June 2007 in San Francisco Bay of California. (ROBYN BECK/AFP/Getty Images)50 of 65 -People line up to see Cunard's Queen Mary 2, the largest ocean liner in the world, as it sails under the Golden Gate Bridge into the San Francisco Bay February 4, 2007 in San Francisco, California. The Queen Mary 2 made her maiden port call after sailing under the Golden Gate Bridge. The ship would dock in San Francisco overnight before continuing on her first world cruise. (Photo by Justin Sullivan/Getty Images)51 of 65 -An employee of The Marine Spill Response Corporation waits on a beach near the Golden Gate Bridge to put down a boon to protect from oil contamination November 8, 2007 in San Francisco, California. A container ship bumped into the San Francisco Bay Bridge November 7, 2007 spilling approximately 58,000 gallons of oil into bay waters. (Photo by Kimberly White/Getty Images)52 of 65 -People take part in an AIDS Lifecycle 27-mile bike ride from San Francisco over the Golden Gate Bridge to Mill Valley on December 1, 2007 in San Francisco, California. (Photo by David Paul Morris/Getty Images)53 of 65 -The Golden Gate Bridge is pictured from the Pacific Ocean on October 24, 2008. (GABRIEL BOUYS/AFP/Getty Images)54 of 65 -A fisherman stands on a pier as a bird lands near the Golden Gate Bridge May, 8, 2008 in San Francisco, California. (Photo by Justin Sullivan/Getty Images)55 of 65 -Tourists take photos from a vantage point on the span of the Golden Gate Bridge October 10, 2008 in San Francisco, California. (Photo by Justin Sullivan/Getty Images)56 of 65 -The Airship Ventures Zeppelin Eureka flies over the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, Sunday, Dec. 28, 2008. (AP Photo/Eric Risberg)57 of 65 -Boats sail past the Golden Gate Bridge during the Spinnaker Cup on May 22, 2009 in San Francisco, California. The Spinnaker Cup, which is one of six regattas in the San Francisco 2009 IRC Championship Series, is a distance race that starts in San Francisco and finishes in Monterey, California. (Photo by Ezra Shaw/Getty Images)58 of 65 -A span of the Golden Gate Bridge is seen through fog from Land's End in San Francisco, Wednesday, Sept. 29, 2010. (AP Photo/Jeff Chiu)59 of 65 -Athletes sail near the Golden Gate Bridge during day 1 of the US Windsurfing National Championships hosted by the St. Francis Yacht Club on July 20, 2010 in San Francisco, California. (Photo by Ezra Shaw/Getty Images)60 of 65 -A couple looks toward the Golden Gate Bridge from a vista point in Marin County, Calif., Monday, June 6, 2011. (AP Photo/Jeff Chiu)61 of 65 -The Golden Gate Bridge is seen at sunset in San Francisco, Wednesday, Jan. 11, 2012. (AP Photo/Marcio Jose Sanchez)62 of 65 -A view of suspender ropes and the south tower of the Golden Gate Bridge on May 24, 2012 in San Francisco, California. The Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District was preparing for the 75th anniversary of the iconic Golden Gate Bridge. The 1.7 mile steel suspension bridge, one of the modern Wonders of the World, opened to traffic on May 28, 1937. (Photo by Justin Sullivan/Getty Images)63 of 65 -Fireworks explode over the Golden Gate Bridge on May 27, 2012 in San Francisco, California. The Golden Gate Bridge celebrated its 75th anniversary. (Photo by Ezra Shaw/Getty Images)64 of 65 -A spectator takes a photo of the Space Shuttle Endeavor as it flies on top of a modified 747 jumbo jet over the Golden Gate Bridge while traveling to Los Angeles on September 21, 2012 in Sausalito, California. The Space Shuttle Endeavor did a 4-1/2 hour tour over California landmarks before heading to Los Angeles International Airport where it would be prepared to be moved to its new permanent home at the California Science Center in downtown Los Angeles. (Photo by Justin Sullivan/Getty Images)65 of 65 -The peloton makes its way over the Golden Gate bridge as they leave the start of Stage Eight of the 2013 Amgen Tour of California from San Francisco to Santa Rosa on May 19, 2013 in San Francisco, California. (Photo by Doug Pensinger/Getty Images)

Oil Companies together with the Bush and Trump administration have kept the global warming debate alive long after most scientists believed that global warming was real and had potentially catastrophic consequences. We need to be aware and to change this policy before we get to the point of no return............Amor Patriae

Man has been endowed with reason, with the power to create, so that he can add to what he was given. But up to now he has not been a creator, only a destroyer. Forest keep dissapearing, rivers dry up, wild life's become extinct, the climate's ruined, and the land grows poorer and uglier everyday.....Anton Chekhov

Gen. Gregorio del Pilar, P.A.

From morning till noon he repealed charge after charge tenaciously with a handful of men through the heat and agony of battle till he fell dead among his slained soldiers, On this mountain summit overlooking the plains and shores of his country a massive tremendous altar......