Deforestation

Deforestation, the clearing or thinning of forests, the cause of which is normally implied to be human activity. As such, deforestation represents one of the largest issues in global land use in the early 21st century. Estimates of deforestation traditionally are based on the area of forest cleared for human use, including removal of the trees for wood products and for croplands and grazing lands. In the practice of clear-cutting, all the trees are removed from the land, which completely destroys the forest. In some cases, however, even partial logging and accidental fires thin out the trees enough to change the forest structure dramatically.

In Belize and elsewhere in Central America, deforestation has caused serious problems.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

History

Conversion of forests to land used for other purposes has a long history. The Earth’s croplands, which cover about 15 million square km (5.8 million square miles), are mostly deforested land. More than 11 million square km (4.2 million square miles) of present-day croplands receive enough rain and are warm enough to have once supported forests of one kind or another. Of these 11 million square km, only 1 million (390,000 square miles) are in areas that would have been cool boreal forests, as in Scandinavia and northern Canada. Two million square km (770,000 square miles) were once moist tropical forests. The rest were once temperate forests or subtropical forests including forests in eastern North America, western Europe, and eastern China.

The extent to which forests have become Earth’s grazing lands is much more difficult to assess. Cattle or sheep pastures in North America or Europe are easy to identify, and they support large numbers of animals. At least 2 million square km of such forests have been cleared for grazing lands. Less certain are the 5 to 9 million square km (1.9 to 3.5 million square miles) of humid tropical forests and some drier tropical woodlands that have been cleared for grazing. These often support only very low numbers of cattle, but they may still be considered grazing lands by national authorities. Almost half the world is made up of “drylands”—areas too dry to support large numbers of trees—and most are considered grazing lands. There, goats, sheep, and cattle may harm what few trees are able to grow.

The coastal forest of Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil, badly fragmented as portions were cleared for …

Although most of the areas cleared for crops and grazing represent permanent and continuing deforestation, deforestation can be transient. About half of eastern North America lay deforested in the 1870s, almost all of it having been deforested at least once since European colonization in the early 1600s. Since the 1870s the region’s forest cover has increased, though most of the trees are relatively young. Few places exist in eastern North America that retain stands of uncut old-growth forests. In addition, while some forests are being cleared, some are being planted. The United NationsFood and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that there are approximately 1.3 million square km (500,000 square miles) of such plantations on Earth. These are often of eucalyptus or fast-growing pines—and almost always of species that are not native to the places where they are planted.

Elsewhere, forests are shrinking. The FAO estimates that the annual rate of deforestation is about 1.3 million square km per decade. About half of that is primary forest—forest that has not been cut previously (or at least recently). The greatest deforestation is occurring in the tropics, where a wide variety of forests exists. They range from rainforests that are hot and wet year-round to forests that are merely humid and moist, to those in which trees in varying proportions lose their leaves in the dry season, and to dry open woodlands. Because boundaries between these categories are inevitably arbitrary, estimates differ regarding how much deforestation has occurred in the tropics.

Dry forests in general are easier to deforest and occupy than moist forests and so are particularly targeted by human actions. Worldwide, humid forests once covered an area of about 18 million square km (7 million square miles). Of this, about 10 million square km (3.9 million square miles) remained in the early 21st century. Given the current annual rates of deforestation, most of these forests will be cleared within the century. Indeed, in some places, such as West Africa and the coastal humid forests of Brazil, very little forest remains today.

The human activities that contribute to tropical deforestation include commercial logging and land clearing for cattle ranches and plantations of rubber trees, oil palms, and other economically valuable trees. Another major contributor is the practice of slash-and-burn agriculture, or swidden agriculture (see alsoshifting agriculture). Small-scale farmers clear forests by burning them and then grow their crops in the soils fertilized by the ashes. Typically, the land produces for only a few years and then must be abandoned and new patches of forest burned.

Deforestation of the Amazon River basin has followed a pattern of cutting, burning, farming, and …

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The Amazon Rainforest is the largest remaining block of humid tropical forest, and about two-thirds of it is in Brazil. (The rest lies along that country’s borders to the west and to the north.) Detailed studies of Amazon deforestation from 1988 to 2005 show that the rate of forest clearing has varied from a low of about 11,000 square km (4,200 square miles) per year in 1991 to a high of about 30,000 square km (11,600 square miles) per year in 1995. The high figure immediately followed an El Niño, a repeatedly occurring global weather anomaly that causes the Amazon basin to receive relatively little rain and so makes its forests unusually susceptible to fires. Studies in the Amazon also reveal that 10,000–15,000 square km (3,900–5,800 square miles) are partially logged each year, a rate roughly equal to the low end of the forest clearing estimates cited above. In addition, each year fires burn an area about half as large as the areas that are cleared. Even when the forest is not entirely cleared, what remains is often a patchwork of forests and fields or, in the event of more intensive deforestation, "islands" of forest surrounded by a "sea" of deforested areas.

Effects

The effects of forest clearing, selective logging, and fires interact. Selective logging increases the flammability of the forest because it converts a closed, wetter forest into a more open, drier one. This leaves the forest vulnerable to the accidental movement of fires from cleared adjacent agricultural lands and to the killing effects of natural droughts. As fires, logging, and droughts continue, the forest can become progressively more open until all the trees are lost.

Although forests may regrow after being cleared and then abandoned, this is not always the case. About 400,000 square km (154,000 square miles) of tropical deforested land exists in the form of steep mountain hillsides. The combination of steep slopes, high rainfall, and the lack of tree roots to bind the soil can lead to disastrous landslides that destroy fields, homes, and human lives. Steep slopes aside, only about one-fourth of the humid forests that have been cleared are exploited as croplands. The rest are abandoned or used for grazing land that often can support only low densities of animals, because the soils underlying much of this land are extremely poor in nutrients. (To clear forests, the vegetation that contains most of the nutrients is often burned, and the nutrients literally “go up in smoke” or are washed away in the next rain.)

Deforestation has important global consequences. Forests sequester carbon in the form of wood and other biomass as the trees grow, taking up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (seecarbon cycle). When forests are burned, their carbon is returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that has the potential to alter global climate (seegreenhouse effect; global warming), and the trees are no longer present to sequester more carbon. In addition, most of the planet’s valuable biodiversity is within forests, particularly tropical ones. Moist tropical forests such as the Amazon have the greatest concentrations of animal and plant species of any terrestrial ecosystem. Perhaps two-thirds of Earth’s species live only in these forests. As deforestation proceeds, it has the potential to cause the extinction of increasing numbers of these species.

Countries with the largest forest losses and gains

The countries with the largest changes in total forested area between 1990 and 2005 are listed in the table.

Forests of the world: Changes in land area 1990–2005

country or region

land area (1,000 ha)

total forest in 1990 (1,000 ha)

total forest in 2005 (1,000 ha)

percentageof land area in 2005

percentage change 1990–2005

Kiribati

81

28

2

3.0

−92.86

Kazakhstan

269,970

9,758

3,337

1.2

−65.80

Comoros

186

12

5

2.9

−58.33

Togo

5,439

719

386

7.1

−46.31

Lesotho

3,035

14

8

0.3

−42.86

The Bahamas

1,001

842

515

51.5

−38.84

Brunei

527

452

278

52.8

−38.50

Mozambique

78,638

31,238

19,262

24.6

−38.34

Burundi

2,568

241

152

5.9

−36.93

Nigeria

91,077

17,501

11,089

12.2

−36.64

Afghanistan

65,209

1,351

867

1.3

−35.83

Mauritania

103,070

415

267

0.3

−35.66

Niger

126,670

1,945

1,266

1.0

−34.91

Haiti

2,756

158

105

3.8

−33.54

Pakistan

77,088

2,755

1,902

2.5

−30.96

Libya

175,954

311

217

0.1

−30.23

Benin

11,062

3,349

2,351

21.3

−29.80

Uganda

19,710

5,103

3,627

18.4

−28.92

Ghana

22,754

7,535

5,517

24.2

−26.78

Albania

2,740

1,069

794

29.0

−25.72

Lebanon

1,023

37

137

13.3

+270.27

Federated States of Micronesia

70

24

63

90.6

+162.50

Ethiopia

100,000

4,996

13,000

11.9

+160.21

Cape Verde

403

35

84

20.7

+140.00

Northern Mariana Islands

46

14

33

72.4

+135.71

Mauritius

203

17

37

18.2

+117.65

Tunisia

15,536

499

1,056

6.8

+111.62

Kuwait

1,782

3

6

0.3

+100.00

Oman

30,950

1

2

*

+100.00

Sierra Leone

7,162

1,416

2,754

38.5

+94.49

Uruguay

17,502

791

1,506

8.6

+90.39

Iceland

10,025

25

46

*

+84.00

Saudi Arabia

214,969

1,504

2,728

1.3

+81.38

Puerto Rico

887

234

408

46.0

+74.36

Uzbekistan

42,540

1,923

3,295

8.0

+71.35

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

39

7

11

27.4

+57.14

El Salvador

2,072

193

298

14.4

+54.40

Iran

162,855

7,299

11,075

6.8

+51.73

East Timor

1,487

541

798

53.7

+47.50

Cyprus

924

119

174

18.9

+46.22

South America

1,760,726

922,731

831,540

47.7

−9.88

Africa

2,963,666

702,502

635,412

21.4

−9.55

Europe

2,208,811

1,030,475

1,001,394

44.3

−2.82

North and Central America

2,112,080

555,002

699,875

33.1

+26.10

Asia

3,096,597

551,448

571,576

18.5

+3.65

Oceania

849,091

201,271

206,254

24.3

+2.48

world

13,013,868

3,963,429

3,952,025

30.3

−0.29

*Negligible. Source: State of the World’s Forests 2009, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Britannica Web sites

Deforestation is the clearing, or cutting down, of forests. The word is normally used to describe the actions of humans in removing forests from the planet, rather than destruction caused by such natural events as hurricanes.

Deforestation is the clearing or thinning of forests, the cause of which is normally implied to be human activity. As such, deforestation represents one of the largest issues in global land use in the early 21st century. Estimates of deforestation traditionally are based on the area of forest cleared for human use, including removal of the trees for wood products and for croplands and grazing lands. In the practice of clear-cutting, all the trees are removed from the land, which completely destroys the forest. In some cases, however, even partial logging and accidental fires thin out the trees enough to change the forest structure dramatically.