Chapter 3

SUPERVISION
OF INSTRUCTION

Cheryl F. Fischer

Through
the effective supervision of instruction, administrators can reinforce and
enhance teaching practices that will contribute to improved student learning. By
skillfully analyzing performance and appropriate data, administrators can
provide meaningful feedback and direction to teachers that can have a profound
effect on the learning that occurs in each classroom. Because student learning
is the primary function of the schools, the effective supervision of
instruction is one of the most critical functions of the administrator. If
schools are to provide equal access to quality educational programs for all
students, administrators must hold teachers accountable for providing an
appropriate and well-planned program. These programs include a variety of

teaching
strategies designed to meet the diverse needs of all students in our complex
society.

This
chapter reviews areas of focus for teacher evaluation, the components of
effective teaching, some basic strategies and procedures for data gathering and
conferencing, and steps administrators should consider in the effective
preparation of conference memorandums and letters of reprimand. Approaches that
are discussed which differ from existing procedures in the district should be
used to stimulate discussion and prompt a review of current practices. This
process may lead to a restructuring of practices and procedures that could
result in the enhancement of student learning.

Teacher Evaluation

To
enhance the professional effectiveness of the teaching staff administrators
must be skilled in these areas: (a) what to evaluate, (b) how to observe and
analyze classroom observation information and other data, and (c) how to translate
the results of observations and the summary of data into meaningful conference
feedback that guides and encourages teachers to improve instruction.
Expectancies for teacher performance were enacted by California State Senate
Bill 813 and are included in Section 44662 of the California Education Code.
This section requires the governing board of each school district to establish
standards of expected pupil achievement at each grade level in each area of
study. Under this code, evaluation and assessment

of
certificated employee competency are required in four areas. These include: (1)
the progress of pupils toward the district-adopted standards, (2) the
instructional strategies and techniques utilized by the teacher, (3) the
teacher's adherence to curricular objectives, and (4) the establishment and
maintenance of a suitable learning environment. Although this code section
prohibits the evaluation and assessment of certificated employee competence by
the use of published norms established by standardized tests, it does give the
board of education of each district authority to adopt additional evaluation
guidelines and criteria. In addition, the school board in each district is
required to establish and define job responsibilities of other certificated

non-instructional
personnel (supervision or administrative positions) whose responsibilities
cannot be evaluated in the aforementioned four areas.

The
ability to assess teacher competence in California in the four areas outlined
in SB 813 is a critical factor in achieving educational excellence and a
positive learning experience for all students. In the following sections,
methods that can be used to assess the competency of teachers in each of the
four areas will be addressed.

Assessing Pupil Progress

To
assess student progress toward the established district standards and to
facilitate the planning of various types of instruction, administration should
ensure that teachers are utilizing information from a variety of valid and
appropriate sources before they begin planning lessons or teaching. This could
include data regarding students' backgrounds, academic levels, and interests,
as well as other data from student records to ascertain academic needs and to
facilitate planning appropriate initial learning. It is important for the
administration to note that information regarding students and their families
is used by the staff for professional purposes only and is kept confidential as
a matter of professional ethics.

Administrators
should determine if teachers are using the numerous formative and summative
diagnostic processes available to assist in planning meaningful instruction.
Formative measures include ongoing teacher monitoring of student progress
during the lessons, practice sessions, and on daily assignments. Measures
administered periodically like criterion-referenced tests, grade level
examinations, or placement tests that are teacher-made or part of
district-adopted material, also provide helpful information on the status of
student learning as instruction progresses.

Summative
measures like minimum competency examinations, district mastery tests, the
California Assessment Program examinations, and standardized tests provide a
different perspective from the ongoing formative measures. This type of data
enables the teacher to evaluate the long-term retention rate of their students
and to compare student learning on a regional, state, or national basis.

The
administrators should verify that teachers are preparing and maintaining
adequate and accurate records of student progress. This will include the
regular and systematic recording of meaningful data regarding student progress
on specific concepts and skills related to the standards for each subject for
the grade level or course they are teaching. Once students' success levels have
been identified from the records, the teacher should use the information to
plan instruction and any necessary remediation and enrichment. By utilizing
ongoing information on achievement, teachers can maintain consistent and
challenging expectations for all students. Students and parents should be
informed of the students' progress toward achieving district goals and

objectives
through comments on individual work, progress reports, conferencing, report
cards, and other measures. Students should be encouraged to participate in
self-assessment as a way of motivating students to improve academic
achievement.

Instructional Strategies

When
a profession deals with people, cause-and-effect relationships are never identified
as certainties, only as possibilities. Therefore, there are no certainties in
teaching. It is a situational process requiring constant decision-making which,
when properly implemented, increases the probability of learning. Research on
teacher effectiveness has been intensified in the last two decades. The results
have helped identify an instructional process that provides a solid and basic
framework for planning instruction which is helpful in guiding the
administrator in what to look for when visiting a classroom. These steps
include planning, preparing, presenting the lesson, monitoring student
progress, and conducting practice sessions.

Planning the Lesson

Formulating
a well-defined objective of the lesson is a critical first step as it provides
the direction and framework for the decisions which will follow. The objective
should describe the specific content to be learned and the observable behavior
the student will exhibit to demonstrate that learning has occurred. No matter
how expertly the objectives are stated, objectives facilitate learning only if
they are appropriate to the academic achievement of students. A well-written
objective includes specific information on what is to be included in the lesson
and what is not. This specifically expedites the next step, which is the
identification of sub-skills or sub-objectives. A task analysis of each of the
sub-objectives enables the teacher to sequence them in order of difficulty to
provide a logical sequence to the lesson.

Preparing the Lesson

Administrators
will know if the appropriate planning for instruction has taken place when the
teacher is able to design a lesson that achieves the objective. This means
everything the teacher and students do during the lesson is related to the
objective. Birdwalking is a term coined by Madeline Hunter that refers to the
inability of a teacher to focus on the objective of the lesson (Gentile, 1987).
Instead, the teacher birdwalks, pecking at interesting ideas with what seems to
be worthwhile or informative digressions, distracting the students' thinking
processes and leaving the students confused about the topic of the lesson.
Avoiding birdwalking does not mean there can never be spontaneity. The decision
to adjust a lesson must be a conscious one where the advantage of postponing or
interrupting the lesson is weighed against the disadvantage of interrupting the
logic of the lesson (Gentile, 1987).

Presenting the Lesson

The
beginning of each lesson provides the challenge of how to change the focus of
students' attention from previous classes or discussions with friends to the
objective of the lesson. The importance of eliciting appropriate associations
prior to presenting a lesson can be found in research on positive transfer and
advanced organizers (Ausubel, 1960; Bransford & Johnson, 1972; Emmer &
Evertson, 1979).

Research
indicates that the learning of facts is greatly facilitated when memories of
organized principles and prerequisite concepts related to the lesson are
reviewed at the beginning of the lesson. The focus portion, or anticipatory set
as it is called by Madeline Hunter, requires the student overtly or covertly
have the prerequisites in memory. The activity must be designed effectively to
elicit information related to the lesson objective.

During
the opening it is important for students to know the direction of the
instruction, the relevance of what they are learning, and to have a sense of
continuity. Students are often not able to see the relationship between today's
work and the work from yesterday. Sharing the objective of the lesson
informally with students would include teacher statements such as "what we
are going to do today" and "the reason we are studying thisconcept."

The
body of the lesson includes the presentation of information; what Rosenshine
(1986) would call the

explanation-demonstration
stage of the lesson. To implement this phase of the lesson, administrators
should note that teachers have a wide variety of different styles and models of
teaching from which to choose. The larger the number of alternative teaching
styles teachers are comfortable utilizing, the more likely they will select
techniques that match the desired objectives, learning styles, and academic
levels of their students. Publications that describe a wide variety of models
of teaching include Joyce and Weil (1986) and Bellon, Bellon, and Handler
(1977). Other authors have described specialized models like cooperative
learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1975) and Ethna Reid's ERIC model. Current
literature is in agreement that there is

no
single right way of teaching or one approach that will be effective for all
learning objectives. To determine if the best teaching strategy was selected
administrators should determine if the teacher achieved the objective.

While
well over a hundred instructional strategies have been identified, there are
some attributes common to all strategies (Joyce & Weil, 1986). Classroom
observers should be aware that each strategy has a set of activities with a
distinct purpose and role for the teacher and students. Each strategy has a
logical sequence which is necessary if students are to accomplish the objective
of the lesson. Therefore, the selection of an instructional strategy is a
complex task because there are numerous effective strategies that could be
used, depending on the instructional goal. Joyce and Weil (1986) drew from a
wide range of teaching studies to organize the methods of instruction into four
major categories which they refer to as families of instruction.

Based
upon research in education and psychology, the four families categorize
strategies according to the intended learning outcomes.

The
families include information processing, personal, social interaction, and
behavioral. The information processing family promotes a discovery process of
learning. Methods included in this family stress thinkingkills and the content and process of
learning. There is no single right answer. Motivation comes from the natural
curiosity of the students. Models in the information processing family are
based upon the findings of Bruner, Piaget, Taba, Suchman, and others. Some
examples of teaching styles that promote information processing are inquiry,
concept attainment, and advanced organizers.

The
personal family, derived from the work of Rogers, Perls, Gordon, and A.S.
Neill, emphasizes individual student development and problem-solving
techniques. In this model the teacher assists the students in developing
interpersonal and cognitive skills and creativity. It enables the students to
determine and evaluate their own learning. Some examples from this family
include non-directive teaching, synectics, and the classroom meetings.

The
work of Dewey, Thelen, Staffel, Glasser, and others is the basis for models in
the social interaction family. The focus is on group problem-solving skills and
the relationship of the individual to society or other people. Selecting a
model of instruction from this family is appropriate when the goal of the
lesson is to teach group process and academic skills. Examples include various
forms of cooperative learning and role-playing.

The
behavioral family emphasizes convergent thinking and a linear learning process
where learning is broken down into small, sequenced behaviors with frequent
rewards for correct responses. This family includes the work of Skinner,
Bandura, Gagne, Walper, and others who share an emphasis on changing the
behavior of the learner. It is an appropriate method of instruction when the
objective of the lesson is to teach facts, concepts, or skills. Examples of
teaching strategies included in this family are direct instruction and
contingency management.

An
ability to utilize several models in each of the four families enables teachers
to review the needs of the students and the objectives of the lesson, and
select the particular approach that is most likely to facilitate achievement of
the learning objective. Classroom observers should understand that the four
families provide a valuable source of information for staff development
training sessions.

Monitoring Student Progress

It
is clear that good teaching requires diagnosing student progress during the
lesson and adjusting instruction accordingly (Good, 1983; Rosenshine &
Stevens, 1986; Hunter, 1982). Periodic and formal assessments of student
learning through a mid-term or final examination may be helpful in formulating
grades, but are not frequent enough to enable the teacher to adjust the
teaching to correct for misconceptions. When observing a lesson, administrators
should note points in the lesson where teachers should monitor instruction as
itprogresses to enable them to
immediately respond to students' misunderstandings and insure that all students
are learning the material. Checking for understanding can be done in large
groups by having all of the students signal the response at the same time to
the same question. This can be done with the use of their fingers to signal
multiple choice answers 1, 2, or 3, the first letter of a word, or thumbs up or
down to indicate true or false (Hunter, 1982). Other techniques for group
signaling include the use of individual chalkboards, ceramic tiles, or
laminated cards on which students record their responses with a grease pencil
or crayon and flash the answer. A group choral response can also be used.
Students' understanding can also be checked through the use of brief written
responses, or mini-diagnostic tests. As students are completing the quick quiz
the teacher walks around the room monitoring the approach the students are
using to solve the problems as well as their answers, and determines if
adjustment in teaching needs to be made. Another method would be a pair share
where students take turns telling each other the answers to two different
questions related to the sameobjective
while the teacher monitors. Although some measures may not indicate
specifically which students are confused, they do provide the teacher with the
information needed to determine if the direction or pace of the lesson needs to
be adjusted.

Teachers
who monitor progress as part of their teaching have all students perform some
observable behavior congruent with the objective of the lesson while they check
the behavior. They analyze the correctness and completeness of the responses
and determine if it is necessary to reteach certain segments of the lesson
before they move on. Once this is completed they proceed to the next
concept--teaching, re-teaching if necessary, and providing the necessary
practice.

Conducting Practice Sessions

Once
students have an adequate level of understanding, research concludes that it is
extremely important that students be given the opportunity to practice the new
skill and its application (Russell & Hunter, 1977). In the initial phase,
practice should be conducted under the direct supervision of the teacher.
Hunter refers to the process as guided practice. The teacher moves about the
room providing support, encouragement, praise, individual assistance, and
re-teaching. It can be particularly effective during this portion of the lesson
if the teacher utilizes cooperative learning groups or heterogeneous grouping
strategies to form practice groups. This provides an opportunity for
peer-tutoring while the teacher circulates among the groups and keeps them on
task while monitoring their level of understanding.

It
is important to remember that individuals are only able to assimilate a certain
amount of information before it needs to be organized. Otherwise, new learning
interferes with the old and produces confusion. For longer or more complicated
lessons it may be critical to stop and get closure at several points throughout
the lesson as well as at the end. Students who actively participate in the
process are able to reorganize the material and achieve greater retention and
clarity of the information.

Prior
to allowing students time for independent practice, the use of summary or
review statements helps students put the information into perspective and
identify the key points. It is also helpful if the teacher identifies how it
will relate to the lesson planned for the following day. Providing closure, at
any point in the lesson, provides students with the opportunity to consolidate
and organize what they have learned.

After
providing adequate explanation and practice in a monitored setting, students
should be provided the opportunity to practice the new skill independently. To
insure that this practice session is positive andproductive, the material must relate directly to the lesson just
mastered.

Adherence to Curricular Objectives

The
third area supervisors are required to evaluate and assess is the teacher's
ability to adhere to curricular objectives. To comply with this requirement of
SB 813, administrators should assure that teachers are utilizing state
frameworks, district curriculum guides, scope and sequence charts, and course
outlines to assist them in planning instruction. Lesson plans should have a
clearly defined objective that is appropriate to the class learning level and
consistent with established district, school, department, or grade level
curriculum standards for expected achievement. Further, plans should
incorporate the needs, interests, and special talents of students in the class
and include enrichment or acceleration activities for students who complete
basic tasks early. Activities in the lesson should revolve around the
acquisition of new learning.

Planning
should include a time line so the teacher can monitor the pace of instruction to
insure that the intended curricular objectives are taught and mastered in the
allocated time. Administrators should verify that a variety of ongoing
assessment measures are being utilized by the teacher to monitor achievement of
intended objectives. Information from these measures should be used to make
adjustments to the pace, objectives, or sequence when necessary. Teachers
should utilize district-adopted materials and appropriate supplemental
materials to meet individual student's academic needs and learning styles.

Teachers
should be encouraged by administrators to participate in recommending texts and
supplementary materials and developing curriculum so they can utilize their
knowledge of students' skills, needs, and interests in selecting a product that
will more closely meet the needs of students in the school or grade level.

Suitable Learning Environment

The
fourth and final requirement of SB 813 is that evaluators verify that teachers
establish and maintain a suitable learning environment. Therefore, each teacher
should develop and implement clear classroom routines and appropriate standards
at the beginning of each school year to insure the health, safety, and welfare
of their students. This includes maintaining a clean, safe, and orderly learning
environment that includes establishment of good work habits and discipline.
Teachers should post and communicate the classroom standards and procedures as
well as the consequences for misbehavior with students and their parents.
Students should show evidence of respect for the rules in the classroom and on
the campus. Teachers should strive to be fair, firm, and consistent as they
maintain effective student control in the classroom and uphold the rules
throughout the school. Teachers should refer students to support staff when
necessary to maintain the appropriate learning environment.

Administrators
should ensure that appropriate behavior is supported with regular and ongoing
recognition and reinforcement activities. Mutual respect among pupils, teachers,
and staff should be evident on campus and in classrooms. Everyone should work
together cooperatively, communicate with sensitivity, and utilize appropriate
language. Administrators and teachers should serve as role models for students
in developing self-control, a sense of responsibility, and attitudes of
tolerance and sensitivity.

Emergency
procedures should be reviewed with students and practiced regularly. In
addition, administrators should verify that materials and supplies that will be
needed in an emergency, including exit routes and student information, are
readily available.

Teachers
should adjust the heating, lighting, and ventilation to promote comfort. The
classroom arrangement should make good use of space, foster good study habits,
and enable students to see and hear instruction. The classroom should have
attractive and appropriate visuals and decorations that do not distract from
learning.

Good
home-school relationships help create a positive learning environment and can
be enhanced by regular communication. This can include information on what is
to be taught as well as the methods and materials that will be used to achieve
the objectives. Evaluators should check to see that systems have been
established to communicate with parents on a regular basis regarding student
progress. Parents should have opportunities for classroom visitations as well
as parent conferences. Teachers should make every effort to promptly return
parents' phone calls.

Supervision Strategies

Supervision
of instruction must be built on the observer's thorough understanding and
in-depth knowledge of instructional theory, not on a check list of what should
be in a lesson.

Gathering Data

Three
main sources of information help identify a teacher's competency on the four SB
813 criteria. They include: observations, interviews, and documents.

Observations
should include walk-throughs conducted on at least a weekly basis. These brief
visits, lasting only a minute or two, provide a quick look at teacher
performance and classroom environmental factors. Walk-throughs are helpful in
identifying ongoing patterns of behavior. An informal observation is an
unannounced visit lasting more than 10 minutes during which the teacher's
behaviors or classroom factors may be observed to document consistent trends or
patterns of behavior. The informal observation can be followed by a written
summary or conference with the teacher.

A
formal observation is an announced visit lasting an agreed-upon amount of time.
During the observation, the administrator records what was said by the teacher
and the students. The formal observation also includes a pre- and
post-conference and a written summary. The summary includes a description of
the conference, observation, observer's judgments, and agreements or directions
for changes in teacher behaviors, activities, or classroom environment. A peer
observation is agreed upon by the teacher and peer and can be used to verify a
trend or pattern of behavior perceived by the evaluator.

Interviews
are also a helpful source of obtaining information. They can include
discussions with students to verify perceptions. At times, parents request a
conference to discuss their perceptions. In addition, other members of the
administrative team or classified employees who are assigned to work in the
classroom can be interviewed to provide their perceptions.

The
review of various types of documents can be helpful in identifying trends or
behaviors. These include written parent and student letters or complaint forms.
Individual pieces of students' work, folders, or portfolio assessments which
contain a number of samples of students' work also provide helpful information
on their achievement. Documents should include both formative (ongoing
assessment measures) and summative measures (culminating assessment) including
homework, practice exercises completed in class, examinations, and student
projects.

Reviewing
student work on district developed criterion-referenced tests is also helpful.
An analysis of the lesson plans in respect to required or recommended district
curriculum requirements or course outlines is also beneficial.

Teacher Conferencing

Conferences
throughout the year provide a means to communicate the evaluation of the
teacher's performance. Decisions shared during the conference are based upon
the data collected through observations, review of documents, and interviews
that relate to the assessment and evaluation of the teacher's ability to meet
the requirements of SB 813 as adopted by the local district governing board.
The conference should provide the teacher with the means to change
unsatisfactory behavior or options for enhancement of performance. The
conference should provide an opportunity to expand the teacher's knowledge and
concepts and reinforce his or her understanding of the missions of the school.
The pre-conference is held before a formal observation and provides the
administrator with the opportunity to obtain as much information about the
upcoming observation as possible.

Post-conferences
can be collaborative, guided, or directive in nature. Each type of conference
is planned by the supervising administrator to achieve a different goal. A
collaborative conference is effective when the teacher is able to identify
problem areas, suggest alternatives, develop a plan, and is ready and willing
to grow professionally, needing little support. This conference is designed to
conclude with mutually determined follow-up activities that will enhance the
teacher's capabilities. The conference begins with the teacher presenting an
overview and analysis of the lesson that was observed. The teacher identifies
the strengths and weaknesses of the lesson while the administrator listens to
the teacher's perceptions. The administrator then verifies the teacher's
perceptions and offers his or her own opinions. After this mutual exchange,
possible activities for the next steps are discussed and the conference
concludes with agreement on a final plan.

A
guided conference is effective for teachers who have difficulty identifying
problem areas and alternatives to current practices and need support to carry
out the action plan. In addition, the guided conference is effective with a
teacher who has little or no difficulty identifying areas that need improvement
but is unwilling or not committed to making the necessary changes. During a
guided conference it is important that the principal provides prompts to
encourage the teacher's thinking, to allow the teacher freedom to explore
various possibilities, and to enable the teacher to make a commitment.

During
the guided conference the teacher is encouraged to describe the lesson
observed. The administrator probes for further information and possible plans
for growth and time frames. The administrator paraphrases his or her understanding
of the teacher's messages and asks for clarification when necessary. At the
culmination of the guided conference the teacher restates the criteria for
action and the time frame.

A
directive conference is effective for teachers who cannot identify problem
areas, require a great deal of support, and are unwilling or unable to change.
In conducting the directive conference the administrator identifies the
problems and allows the teacher to provide input. The administrator shares the
details of a plan for support and assistance that is designed to enable the
teacher to meet the desired expectations. Following the conference the
administrator directs and monitors the follow-up activities. It is the
administrator's responsibility to provide support, monitor the time line
activities, and to evaluate the degree of effectiveness resulting from the
assistance.

During
each conference it is important to stay on the topic and focus on the data and
documentation regarding the lessons observed. If the data collected clearly
indicate a change must occur to increase student learning, a directive for
change is appropriate. Some administrators find this type of conference
difficult. It is important to avoid compromising statements that provide an
excuse for poor performance like, "I know this is asking a lot since it's
your first year in advanced science," or "You shouldn't be concerned
that the lesson didn't go well, it happens to everyone." When teachers
make threats or caustic statements, the administrator must remember that
teachers who use this strategy are often diverting attention from the task at
hand. It is important to avoid this diversion and remain on task.

At
the close of a collaborative, guided, or directive conference there should be
an agreed-upon or directed statement clearly outlining the changes expected in
the undesirable patterns of behavior, and whereappropriate, the specific professional growth activities that
will be utilized to achieve the desired changes. The statement should include
the support and assistance, monitoring process, time lines for skill transfer,
observable changes, and which data will be reviewed. When preparing the
statement it is important to select several changes that will have the greatest
effect on students' learning. Once the focus is established it is important to
consider what is reasonable to achieve in the given time frame. The
administrator who will monitor

and
conduct the review should consider all data needed to document whether the
desired changes have taken place.

Planning the Conference

In
preparation for the conference, the administrator will need to review the data
and identify the strengths and areas of concern. The administrator should
select only one or two behavioral changes and the professional growth activity
or activities that will have the greatest effect on the learning for the
largest number of students. These selected areas will be the focus or objective
of the conference. It will be necessary to identify specific aspects of the
data collected that support the need for growth in these areas. It is helpful
to formulate questions before the conference that will help the teacher focus
on these issues or clarify aspects of the lesson for the administrator. The
administrator should identify possible resources and personnel that could
assist in a follow-up plan prior to the conference. The recommendations
considered should be doable and reasonable based on the teacher's readiness and
the time available. The administrator should select the type of conferencecollaborative, guided, or directive) and
prepare a conference outline. A good conference should last 30-40 minutes.
Longer sessions become an ordeal for both the teacher and the administrator. It
is the administrator's responsibility to have his or her thoughts
well-organized and to keep the conference on task so it can be completed in a
timely manner.

During
the conference the teacher and/or administrator should cite purpose, strengths,
and areas of concern with reference to supporting data. A follow-up plan with
the desired specific outcome, activities, and a summary of decisions should be
developed.

The
evaluation conference should be held at the close of the evaluation period or
at the end of the year. The purpose of the conference is to communicate the
teacher's rating based upon the SB 813 performance criteria adopted by the
district and should include any commendations for exemplary performance.
Additionally, the conference should provide an opportunity to expand the
teacher's thinking and develop means to strengthen performance. The conference
provides yet another forum to communicate and clarify the school's missions,
goals, and values. The administrator prepares for the evaluation conference in
much the same manner as other conferences. The administrator should review all
of the data collected to-date, including conference memoranda and data prepared
during the evaluation period. He or she should determine the teacher's ratings,

commendations,
and recommendations, then prepare the evaluation forms. In addition, the
administrator should identify the objectives that will have the greatest effect
on student learning, recommendations for improvement, methods of improvement
and support, and a reasonable time line. The administrator should select the
type of conference (collaborative, guided, or directive) and formulate
questions that help guide the staff to review specific areas of performance.

The
teacher and administrator should develop plans for enhancement or improvement.
Following the conference the administrator should prepare a legally sound
evaluation conference memorandum following the format suggested in the next
section. Summative evaluation written documentation is required by law and must
be delivered in person to the teacher no later than thirty days prior to the
end of the school year.

Memorandum and Letters of Reprimand

In
education, a memorandum is often defined as any written material given to a
teacher regarding his or her performance or conduct. There are a wide variety
of administrative correspondence that qualify as memoranda. These include
observation checklists, letters regarding an observation or conference, and
letters summarizing a conference. To insure that the desired results are
achieved it is important that memoranda be legally sound. Memorandum, as well
as letters of reprimand, must be written in a timely manner, should include a
reference date, and state specific facts. These can include the date, time,
place, and names of others who were present and/or witnesses of the actions of
the staff member being evaluated or reprimanded. These actions should be
described in an explicitly factual and objective manner using sensory facts
(what was seen, heard, touched, tasted, or smelled). Subjective opinions,
conclusions, or educational jargon should be avoided. The consequences of the
performance or action on students, teachers, classified staff, administrators,
or the work unit, should be described.

Extenuating
or enhancing circumstances surrounding the performance should also be noted, as
well as the teacher's reasons or motives for the action if they were expressed.
The appropriate and related teaching certificates of the staff member should be
referenced as well as related staff development efforts. Letters which cite
unsatisfactory behavior should reference the contract provision, rules,
regulations, students' rights, guidelines, and curriculum guides that were
upheld or violated. Previous oral or written commendations or reprimands or
warnings, including compliments or complaints from students or parents that are
related to the actions described in the memo, should be noted. Efforts related
to this area that have been made in the past to

assist
the staff member and the employer's reactions to these efforts (positive and
negative) should beteviewed. The
author should state his or her belief regarding the likelihood of recurrence.
If it is a letter of reprimand; it must be specifically stated. If this is the
case, the letter should indicate that the staff member is being given another
opportunity to improve their performance with the hope they will be successful.
The letter should state that if the staff member does not improve, further
disciplinary action will follow, although the specific action should not be
noted. On both the memorandum and letter of reprimand it must indicate that the
staff member has the right to respond. The letter should be handed, not mailed,
to the employee with a copy

forwarded
to the personnel office for inclusion in the staff member's personnel file.

Staff Development

The
quality of student learning is directly related to the quality of classroom
instruction. Therefore, one of the most important aspects of instructional
leadership is to provide the necessary climate to promote ongoing instructional
improvement. To accomplish this, the instructional supervisor must be able to
plan and deliver effective staff development programs. The leadership needs to
insure that staff development efforts have the appropriate financial resources;
adequate time set aside to plan, conduct, and implement the programs; and time
for staff to practice the new skills. Further, teachers need the verbal support
and physical attendance at sessions by the supervisors to verify their
commitment. Teachers should be involved in the identification of their own
staff development needs. They must be involved in the planning and delivery of
staff development activities to gain the greatest acceptance. Collaboration of
teachers and supervisors will enhance the staff developmentprogram and lead to improved student
learning. Staff development programs need to be comprehensive and continuous
programs that are carefully designed for personal and organizational growth.
The activities should be founded upon strong theoretical, conceptual, or
research bases. The information must be related to practice with ample
opportunities provided for modeling and coaching. Professional training
sessions developed for teachers must be consistent with adult learning theory.
A well-planned and administered staff development program may be one of the
most critical factors in the improvement of instruction and subsequently in the
increase in student learning.

Conclusion

The
supervision of instruction is by design a developmental process with the main
purpose of improving the instructional program, generally and teaching,
specifically. Only when this process is carefully planned and executed can
success be assured.

The
supervisory function is best utilized as a continuous process rather than one
that responds only to personnel problems. Administrators with supervisory
responsibility have the opportunity to have tremendous influence on the school
program and help ensure the benefits of a strong program of instruction for
children.

Discussion Questions

1.
Make a list of adjectives that describe the characteristics of an effective
school supervisor. Identify any items that would not apply to an administrator.
Why not?

2.
What are the five most important skills a supervisor must possess to improve
the quality and diversity of instruction in the school?

3.
List questions that could be asked in a pre-observation conference to obtain a
clear idea of what is planned for the lesson you will observe. What questions
could be used in the post-conference to encourage teachers to discuss portions
of the lesson that did not achieve the desired outcomes?

4.
Which strategies can supervisors use to help teachers view evaluation as a way of
improving instructional opportunities for students?

Suggested Projects or Activities

1.
Interview two teachers to determine what processes and behaviors displayed by
their supervisors are most effective in helping them improve their teaching.
Summarize the interview, describe the differences and similarities in the two
viewpoints. Conclude with your reactions.

2.
Interview two practicing school administrators to determine the steps they use
forteacher evaluation and what they
look for when conducting a classroom observation.Summarize the interviews, compare the two interviews, and react
to the findings.

3.
Observe a lesson. Submit your notes, or script, from the observation as well as
the objectives you would have selected for a conference with the teacher.

4.
Work with a colleague and go through the steps from pre-conference,
observation, to conference; to complete the clinical supervision of a classroom
lesson.

5.
Interview at least three teachers to determine their perceptions of the
strengths and weaknesses of inservice and staff development programs. Summarize
and conclude with your reactions and observations.