Warfare in the Balkans

In this section we set out a brief history of warfare in the Balkans until 1453.

The sources for most of this period are limited and consequently are open to several interpretations. In the Balkans, with the fierce nationalistic position taken by a number of national historians, this is a particular problem. None the less there are reliable historians who have done much to bring this subject to the general reader and this is reflected in the BMH bibliography.

The aim of this section is to provide an introductory guide to the history of warfare in the Balkans. It is primarily aimed at wargamers although I hope it may also appeal to general readers interested in this fascinating part of Europe.

For the military historian and wargamer the Balkans have a particular fascination. There can be few parts of Europe where warfare has been such a recurring historical theme. Of course political, social and economic factors are important to our understanding of the area, but it is warfare which has been the dominant feature.

It is an area which has been influenced, often unwillingly, by many of the great Western and Eastern empires who will frequently impinge on our story. In ancient times the Greeks and Romans followed by massive barbarian invasions. Medieval Byzantium lead to the dominant influence of the Ottoman Empire. It was the decline of that empire from the eighteenth century that brought the Habsburg and Russian empires into the region. Finally in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the modern Balkan states emerge. At various times other European states play an important role including France, Germany, Italy and Britain.

My own interest goes back some years and has been fuelled by contacts with others from around the world, greatly assisted by the internet. This interest has resulted in an ever growing collection of books, figures and other resources on the subject. I would wish to pay particular thanks to the many people I have met during my visits to the Balkans. The friendly and helpful responses to my many enquiries have been an inspiration.

In an introductory guide the treatment of particular periods must of necessity be somewhat superficial. However, I have provided directions to resources for further study and I welcome comments and enquiries from those with an interest in this subject. I hope this introduction whets your appetite.​Dave WatsonEditor: Balkan Military History​

Introduction

For the purposes of this study the Balkans will be taken as the Eastern Mediterranean peninsula bounded by the Adriatic, Ionian, Aegean and Black seas. The Northern land boundary is usually regarded as the Drava and Danube rivers. However, we will also cover nations to the north of those rivers because of their influence on Balkan history.

The word Balkan comes from the Turkish for a chain of wooded mountains. This perfectly describes the nature of the terrain which has inevitably influenced warfare in the region. From the Carpathians in the north through the Transylvanian Alps to the Balkan Mountains themselves. In the West the Dinaric Alps cover much of former Yugoslavia to the Southern ranges of the Pindus and Rhodope Mountains. In such terrain river valleys have been important invasion routes. The Danube River has given access to the region from both the Steppes in the east and from Central Europe. From Belgrade the Morava River provides a southern route through the mountains. At Nis two routes form. The Vardar River down to the Aegean port of Salonika and the Dragoman Pass to Sofia and on to Edirne (Adrianople) and eventually Istanbul (Constantinople). The long coastline also opened up the region to attack by sea, most famously by Venice. ​ In this study we will take an overall look at each period of history with a focus on particular conflicts and armed forces which reflect the nature of warfare in that era.

Early Times to 500AD

This was the period dominated by the Greeks and the Romans who both had a significant influence on warfare in the Balkans.

The Greeks The early Greeks migrated to the Balkans from the steppes north of the Danube around 1500 B.C. displacing the Minoan civilisation which had spread from Crete to the coast of southern Greece. They established independent states and colonised the Mediterranean shores. Armies of the 'Heroic period' as described by Homer were based on elite chariot forces supported by massed foot armed with javelin, sword and shield.

The most famous of the Greek states was Sparta. Founded in 1000 B.C. Sparta was a military society in which the Spartan citizen soldier, with his iron discipline, formed the most effective small army in the known world. Following the Messenian wars they dominated the southern Peloponnesus.The Spartan Army 5th C. BCThe basic unit was the ENOMOTIA of 30 men. 2-4 Enomotiae constitued a PENTEKOSTYS. 4 Pentekostyes made up a LOCHUS (533 men). There were 6 Lochi recruited on a territorial basis with an additional elite unit called Sciritae. The other half of a Spartan army would be made up of Laconians with limited citizen rights.

By the 6th century B.C. it was the hoplite which dominated the battlefield. Recruited from the middle and upper classes these infantrymen formed the centre of the battle line between 8 and 16 men deep. They were armed with a long (8 to 10 foot) spear, sword and large round shield, protected by helmet, breastplate and greaves1. Limited numbers of cavalry, mostly from the plains of Thessaly formed on the wings with light skirmishing infantry in front of the battle line. Thus the basis of a tactical formation which arguably survived until the 20th century2.

Persian Wars The main threat to Greece came from the Persian Empire which also controlled modern Turkey and already occupied Thrace. The Persian army was a huge polyglot force recruited from all parts of the empire. The core was the Guard Corps "The Immortals" supported by 29 other Corps each of which could be 60,000 strong. The main strength was based on Iranian infantry and cavalry partly armoured. The remaining troop types included Assyrian and Bactrian spearmen and bowmen from India, Arabia and Ethiopia. Significant numbers of Asian Greeks also fought for the Persians.

In the Marathon campaign of 490 B.C. the Persian fleet aimed at Athens landed north of the city in good cavalry country at Marathon plain. The Athenian army blocked the road to Athens and awaited the promised Spartan assistance. The Persians then embarked their cavalry and part of the army. Some historians argue that this was for a direct attempt on Athens, others point to the embarcation of cavalry as part of a general withdrawal. Either way the infantry screen was attacked by the Athenians who came down to the plain. By strengthening the flanks the Athenians achieved a double envelopment killing 6,400 Persians. The remainder retreated by sea to Asia.

In 480 B.C. the Persians returned under Xerxes with an army of 150,000 supported by a large fleet. After crossing the Hellespont by pontoon bridge the army moved along the coast until it reached the Pass of Thermopylae which was blocked by a small Greek army led by Leonidas and his Spartans. The respective fleets were engaged forcing Xerxes to make frontal attacks with his best spearmen. These were defeated by the superior hoplites until a local traitor showed the Immortals a path to the rear of the Greek position. Assailed from all sides the remaining Greeks were destroyed.

This gave Xerxes control over most of Greece north of the Isthmus including Athens which was destroyed. Several Greek states defected to the Persians. The largely Athenian fleet held the island of Salamis. The Persian fleet attacked and after 7 hours of fighting lost more than half the fleet. With his seaborne supply line cut Xerxes was forced to retreat back to Asia.

Xerxes left Mardonious with a mixed Persian and Greek army in Thrace. The following year the Greek army commanded by the Spartan King Pausanias defeated Mardonious at Platea. This victory coupled with the destruction of the remaining Persian ships at Mycale ended the Persian threat.

With the external enemy defeated the victors quarrelled and the remainder of the 5th century was taken up with a series of wars between coalitions led by Athens and Sparta. Sparta was eventually victorious with the surrender of Athens in 404 B.C. Spartan hegemony in Greece was only ended after a revolt of almost all the other states ended with Spartan defeat at Leuctra in 371 B.C.

These wars saw a slight move away from the rigidity of hoplite warfare. Increasing use of light troops (including peltasts) and cavalry anticipated the later reforms of Philip of Macedon.

Beyond Greece The Hellenic civilisation never reached further than Macedonia. The rest of the Balkans were occupied by tribes of Thracians and Illyrians. These fierce mountain tribes traded with Greek coastal settlements but were never overun. Illyrian pirates based on the unhospitable Adriatic coast raided far to the west.

In the North a very different force, the Scythians dominated the plains from their base in the steppes. They were predominantly a cavalry army with light horse archers and an armoured core of heavy cavalry3. The Scythians reached as far south as Thrace and fought several wars against Macedon before pressure from the East forced a withdrawal and eventual destruction in the Crimea.

Macedonia The hoplite warfare of classical Greece came to an end with the emergence of Macedonia under Philip II. His well balanced force formed around a deep Phalanx consisting of lightly armoured infantry armed with an 18 foot pike. These were supported by Hypaspists (Peltasts) and light troops including javelins and archers. The cavalry consisted of Companion heavy cavalry and Thessalian and other light cavalry.

Philip consolidated his position in the north by conquering Epirus, Thessaly and southern Illyria as well as defeating the tribes up to the Danube. His domination of Greece was confirmed at the Battle of Chaeronea 338 B.C. Philip's son Alexander the Great (336-323 B.C.) consolidated Macedonian control over the Balkans before invading Persia. Alexander's subsequent conquests are outside the scope of this study but they confirmed the superiority and flexibility of the Macedonian military system.

Philip V & Hannibal In 215 BC Philip despatched envoys to Hannibal in Southern Italy. It was agreed that Philip would dispatch an army to assist Hannibal in Italy. When Rome was defeated Hannibal would bring his army to Greece to assist Philip. Sadly for both men the envoys were captured by the Roman fleet on the return journey 4. Such a combination could well have ended what became the Roman Empire with fascinating consequences for the development of western civilisation. All thanks to a vigilant Roman ship's captain!

Upon his death Alexander's empire was fought over by his successors, the Diadochi, for a century. Antipater inherited Greece and Macedonia. The Antigonid dynasty fought off Greek rebellions and Celtic invasions from the north for most of the century as well as intervening in Asia. Other notables included Pyrrhus of Epirus (he of the Pyrric victory) who invaded Italy and his son Alexander who briefly held most of Macedonia. The 3rd Century BC ended with the rise of the Achaean League of Greek states in the South and Macedon controlling the North.

Rome Rome's early involvement in the Balkans came as a result of Philip V of Macedon's links with Hannibal. While Rome was fighting for its very existence it responded by supporting the Aetolian Greek states in their war with Philip and the Achaean league led by Philopoemen.

In the Second Macedonian War (200-196 B.C.) Rome following the defeat of Hannibal contributed ground forces to the struggle. At the Battle of Kynoskephalia 197 B.C. the flexible legion defeated the phalanx in open battle. Philip was forced to withdraw to his Macedonian heartland.

Rome's war with Seleucid Syria spilt over into the Balkans when Antiochus III invaded Greece in 192 BC. With Aetolian support he attempted to hold the Roman army at Thermopylai. Elephants on both sides battled in the pass while a Roman force under Cato flanked the position causing the Seleucids to flee back to Asia Minor. The Romans went on to control Western Asia Minor after the decisive victory at Magnesia 190 BC.

In 172 BC Rome entered the Third Macedonian War in support of its ally Pergamum. Perseus of Macedonia repulsed two Roman invasions from Illyria and bought off the Illyrian and Gallic tribes to the north. The decisive battle of the war took place at Pydna in the Elpeus valley (168 BC). Roman elephants broke the Macedonian left wing but their centre was forced back by the phalanx. Only when the phalanx hit rough ground and became disordered did the flexible maniples of the Roman legions gain the advantage. Macedonian losses of 25,000 ended the monarchy and Macedonia was split into four republics. In 146 BC the Achaean League was defeated at Corinth and all Greece fell under Roman control.

The Roman Civil War 88-82 BC provided an opportunity for rebellion in Greece supported by Mithridates VI of Pontus. A Roman army led by Sulla captured Athens (86 BC) and then defeated the Pontic armies at Chaeronea and Orchomenus. Internal Roman difficulties came to a conclusion at the Battle of Actium 31 BC (near Prevesa on the Ionian coast). Octavian's fleet commanded by Agrippa defeated the fleet of Anthony and Cleopatra.

Imperial Rome The early AD years of the Balkans were dominated by the expanding Roman Empire. The frontier was on the Danube with the Balkans divided into the provinces of Illyricum, Pannonia, Moesia, Thracia, Macedonia and Achaea. There were numerous revolts against Roman rule (e.g. Pannonia AD6-9) and frontier fighting with the Dacians over the Danube. This period saw the strengthening of the legion to over 5,000 men divided into 10 cohorts. Each cohort consisted of 6 centuriae, somewhat confusingly, of 80 men. These reforms introduced by Augustus formed the basis for the Pax Romana of the next 200 years.

The Dacians The Dacians were related to the Thracians although mixed with Germans and Sarmations all living in an area covered largely by modern Romania, including Transylvania and the Banat. Our main primary source for these peoples comes from the reliefs on Trajan's Column5. They show generally unarmoured infantry warriors, often with the distinctive 'Phrygian' crested cap and large richly decorated oval shields. Weapons included long celtic swords, spears, javelins, battleaxes, bows and the scythe-like falxes.

In 85AD the Dacian King Decebalus invaded Roman Moesia. A Roman counter invasion into Eastern Dacia was defeated in 89 AD and Emperor Domitian was forced to sue for peace. Dacia prospered with the development of towns and well organised trade.Previous humiliations and the growing civilisation of Dacia attracted the Emperor Trajan who eventually conquered Dacia defeating the Dacian king Decebalus at Tapae 101 AD and Hulpe 102AD. The Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa was occupied. In 105 AD the Dacians retook their capital and again ravaged Moesia. Trajan responded the following year with a successful two pronged assault on Sarmizegethusa and the destruction of the Dacian army. The Roman frontier was extended to the Carpathians and the Dniester creating the new province of Dacia.

Danube Frontier 166-192 From the middle of the 2nd century the Danube frontier came under increasing pressure from Germanic tribes. In the West the Marcomanni, Quadi, Lombards, Gepids and Vandals crossed the Danube as part of what is known as the 'barbarian conspiracy'. In a series of wars between 166-179 AD Marcus Aurelius and then his son Lucius repelled invasions by these tribes. Similar incursions were made into Moesia by the Scythians and Sarmations. Whilst Rome stood firm the outcome was only temporary. The great migrations continued to put pressure on the Danube frontier.

Gothic Wars 214-270 The Goths who originated in Scandinavia and Northern Prussia dominated the area north of the Danube by the end of the 2nd century6 . The Western Goths who became known as Visigoths were originally mostly infantry. Their Eastern relatives the Ostrogoths took up the use of heavy cavalry from the Sarmatians supported by mostly bow armed infantry. In addition the Goths developed the use of wagon laagers as mobile forts providing a useful base in hostile territory.

Early raids by the Goths into Thrace and Moesia were repulsed but as the Empire suffered internal strife Gothic raids increased. Cuiva, King of the Goths defeated a Roman army at Philippopolis in 250 and Forum Terebronii (Danube Marshes) the following year before being bought off by Emperor Gallus. The Goths quickly broke the agreement but were held on the Danube line by new Roman commanders. They had more success with sea raids through the Bosporus controlling most of the Aegean except Greece by 268.

There was a Roman revival under the Illyrian Emperor Claudius II ('Gothicus') who defeated the Goths at Nish in 269 before destroying their naval base at Thessalonika. Claudius's death resulted in further attacks driven off by Aurelian although Dacia was abandoned (270).

The Empire Divides 286 After years of civil war Diocletian divided the Empire East-West with 4 major administrative regions/armies. The Balkans were split between 3 of these regions, although the main Danube frontier was in Illyricum with a HQ at Sirmium (Mitrovica).

Constantine 305-337 Diocletian's abdication lead to further civil war between Constantine and Licinius. Constantine's victorious Balkan campaign of 314 (battles of Cibalae and Mardia) pushed Licinius into Asia. War broke out again in 323 with further victories at Adrianople and a naval battle at the Hellespont. The decisive victory took place in September 323 at Chrysopolis (Scutari) following which Licinius was executed. Constantine established his capital as sole Emperor at the renamed Constantinople. While the Romans fought each other the Goths sought to expand their territory. Constantine succeeded in holding the Danube line with a divide and rule policy between the Goths and Sarmatians. The Goths were eventually victorious and the remaining Sarmatians were allowed to settle in the Empire.

The Later Roman Army The armies of Constantine bore little resemblance to the Imperial force described earlier. The old infantry legions were based on the borders, on the Danube known as Ripenses. They provided a local defence backed up by mobile field legions called Palatini and Comitatenses. The legions were much smaller with more cavalry, light infantry and a greater reliance on missile weapons. In the 5th Century 'Roman' armies increasing consisted of Barbarian Foederati commanded by their own tribal chiefs.

Goths 350-376 Ermanaric united the Ostrogoths and Visigoths in a kingdom which included all the Balkans North of the Danube. The Romans lurched into yet another round of civil wars with one of Constantine's sons, Constantius holding the Balkans after defeating Magnentius at Mursa (Osijek) in 351. For the next four years Constantius dealt with a series of invasions from Sarmatians and Quadis following these up with a punitive raid across the Danube in 357.

Following a further period of civil war Ermanaric sent a Visigothic army across the Danube to force the release of Gothic mercenaries imprisoned by Emperor Valens. Between 367 and 369 the Goths and Romans fought both sides of the Danube until a treaty recognised the status quo with the Danube forming the boundary between the Roman and Gothic Empires.

With the Huns invading the Gothic Empire to the north the Goths lead by Fritigern were driven to seek Roman protection. Following a treacherous Roman attack the Goths rebelled defeating the Romans at Marianopolis (Shumla) 377. They escaped Emperor Valens army at Salices and joined with other Germanic tribes who erupted across the entire border.

In 378 the Roman armies had some initial success in holding Thrace with the Roman General Sebastian defeating the Goths at the Maritsa River. Fritigern was pinned into his wagon laager at Adrianople with his infantry and the women and children totalling some 200,000 people. Valens arriving with a reinforcing army rejected negotiations and attacked the Gothic camp. As the Romans engaged the Gothic cavalry returned from their foraging and crashed into the Roman flanks. 40,000 Roman troops perished including Valens in a decisive defeat for the legions.

Alaric The Romans gradually recovered led by Theodosius and in a series of campaigns (379-383) drove the Goths across the Danube. Others settled peacefully within the Empire. Theodosius incorporated Goths lead by Alaric into his army (390). After his death in 395 there were further barbarian uprisings lead by Alaric. The Empire was just held together largely through the intervention from the West of their commander, the Vandal Stilicho. Over the next 15 years Alaric used the Balkans as his base to launch a series of invasions of Italy beaten back by Stilicho. When Stilicho was murdered in 408 Alaric and his Visigoths tried again. The Western Emperor Honorius held the impregnable Ravenna whilst Alaric sacked Rome in 410. After Alaric's death the Visigoths went on to create an empire in Southern France and Spain.

The Huns By the 5th Century a new Asiatic horde had swept over the tribes north of the Danube, the Huns. 90% of their early armies consisted of light horse archers with a core of heavy noble cavalry. Later they incorporated subdued tribes of Gepids, Goths and Sarmatians giving a better balance of heavy and light cavalry.

In the early years of the 5th Century Hun raids were beaten off, but as they increased in numbers Constantinople decided to pay tribute and recognise Hun sovereignty over large parts of the Balkans (432-441). In 441-443 Attila destroyed the imperial army and reached Constantinople before exacting increased tribute from the Emperor Theodosius. In 447 he was back, though partially checked at the Battle of the Utus the Romans were forced to treble the tribute and concede extensive territory south of the Danube. Attila then moved West out of our area until his defeat at Chalons (451) and subsequent death in 453.

After Attila's death the Ostrogoths regained their influence in the Balkans usually allied to the imperial army.

Conclusion So ended what Schevill described as the Greek and Roman epoch of Balkan History. During this period the Balkans played an important role in the development of warfare from the early Greeks to the Macedonians. Imperial Rome left an important legacy on the peninsula albeit drifting into the anarchy of the last few centuries. From this period the Eastern Roman Empire is usually described as the Byzantine Empire reflecting its Greek rather than Roman basis although its citizens continued to describe themselves as Roman.

28mm Huns from the collection of Andy McGeary

Byzantine Organisation and Tactics

The normal tactical formation was based on two defensive infantry lines consisting of heavy infantry (Skoutatoi) with light bow armed Psiloi on the flanks. They resisted enemy attacks whilst the heavy cavalry protected the flanks and then delivered counter attacks enveloping the enemy line.

Slav infantry

Bulgaria The Bulgars established an independent kingdom between the Balkan Mountains and the lower Danube plus parts of modern day Romania under Isperich (643-701). Under Terbelis they defeated the Byzantines at Anchialus 708. There was a brief alliance with Byzantium in 718 when a Bulgarian army helped defeat the invading Arab armies at Adrianople. Constantine V gained the upper hand in the wars of 755-772 with victories at Marcellae 759 and Anchialus 763. However, by the end of the century Kardam of the Bulgars was once again forcing Byzantium to pay tribute. The army of this period relied heavily on Slav infantry armed with either javelin or bow. Usually only a third of the force would be the effective Bulgar cavalry.

The 9th Century Bulgars under Khan Krum raided westwards into Croatia and Serbia as well as southwards. Emperor Nicephorus sacked the Bulgar capital of Pliska in 811 before being trapped in a mountain pass, dying with his army. In 813 Krum besieged Constantinople after defeating another Byzantine army at Versinikia, but without a fleet he was powerless to capture the city. After Krums death his son Omortag was defeated at the Battle of Mesembria 817 by Leo V and the Bulgars agreed to a thirty year peace. In 866 Emperor Michael III and his uncle Bardas invaded Bulgaria. Bulgarian King Boris I (852-889) was forced to accept Christianity and was unsuccessful in attempts to expand westwards into Croatia and Serbia.

His second son Symeon (893-927) fought a series of wars with the Byzantine Empire gaining Macedonia, Thessaly and Albania. In 895 he allied with the Pechenegs (another nomadic race of horse archers) defeating the Magyars in the north before turning south to defeat the Byzantines driving them to the gates of Constantinople. He finally brought Serbia under Bulgar control in 918, although he failed in Croatia. However, in the North he lost Transylvania and Pannonia to the Magyars and Wallachia to the Pechenegs.

After Symeon's death the Bulgar state declined. In 967-69 a concerted invasion by the Byzantines from the south and the Russians by sea overran the country. The invaders fell out over the spoils and a victorious Byzantine Empire (Battles of Arcadioplois 970 and Dorostalon 971) annexed all of Eastern Bulgaria up to the Danube in 972. The Serbs also revolted and the Magyars raided southwards at will.

Samuel (976-1014) re-established the Bulgarian state in 976 and defeated an invading Byzantine army near Sofia in 981. He went on to occupy all of Thessaly by 989. Samuel established himself in Macedonia around the great lakes, Ochrid and Prespa, with fortifications and a mobile field army. Byzantine Emperor Basil II returned from his difficulties with the Arabs to capture Eastern Bulgaria and then defeating Samuel at Spercheios 996 recovering Greece and Macedonia. Samuel counter-attacked and the war continued until the decisive Battle of Balathista (Macedonia) 1014 where a fortified Bulgar army in the Kleidon Pass was surprised by a Byzantine force which traversed the mountains. After the battle Basil blinded 15,000 captives earning himself the title 'Basil the Bulgar Slayer'. Samuel died of shock when the captives returned home. Basil went on to capture the Macedonian forts and Bulgaria became a Byzantine province for the next 168 years.

The Magyars The Magyars (or Hungarians) were the last steppe peoples to settle in the Balkans. Unlike most of the steppe tribes previously described, the Magyars belonged to the Finno-Ugric language group rather than Turkic or Mongol. However, they were still mounted archers and their method of warfare was similar to the Huns and Avars who preceded them.

The Magyars were driven from the steppe by the Pechenegs3 and established themselves in Hungary from 899 under their chieftain Arpad, driving the Slavs south out of the Danube valley. Their main invasion effort concentrated on Germany. For more than a century they invaded Northern Italy, Germany and France until their decisive defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955. As the poet Bishop Liutprand exclaimed "No man ever wished more desperately for food or water than these savages desire a fight ... their only joy is in battle". After Lechfeld Hungary became a settled European state converted to Christianity by Bavarian missionaries.

Serbia The Slav tribes West of the Bulgars known as Serbs coalesced as a state in the 9th Century. They acknowledged the suzerainty of the Byzantines and were converted to Christianity by the missionary work of Cyril and others. Their loose affiliation to the Empire was insufficient to fend off the Bulgars. Conquered by Symeon of Bulgaria in 918 there was a brief period of independence under Prince Chaslav in 931 before again being conquered by the Bulgars. The Serbs did not regain autonomy until the 11th Century.

Croatia To the West of the Serbs were found another Slav tribal group, the Croats. Although the original Croats were probably Iranian and became assimilated by the Slavs. The Croats original twelve tribes were invited to occupy lands in Dalmatia under Byzantine rule, as confirmed in a treaty in 678.

In the 9th and early 10th centuries Croatia was overrun at different times by Franks, Moravians, Bulgars, Magyars, and the Byzantines. The Franks held most of Slavonia and Croatia following the peace of Aachen 812, with the Byzantines retaining the coastal towns of Dalmatia4. At this time both of the Croatian Dukes converted to Christianity. Duke Trpimir (845-864) gained considerable autonomy from the Western Empire and defeated a Byzantine army in 846. At the end of his reign the Croats came under the religious sway of Rome, dividing them from their Slavic cousins to the East.

After internal squabbles Duke Branimir gained papal recognition as the first independent ruler of Croatia in 879. The new state fought off the growing strength of Venice and although Slavonia was overrun by the Magyars, Duke Tomislav held them off establishing the Kingdom of the Croats in 925. This state probably included modern Croatia, Slavonia and much of Northern and Western Bosnia including the Dalmation coast. The settled state was rocked by civil war in 949 losing Bosnia to the Serbs and control of the Dalmatian towns to Venice. Drzislav (969-997) supported the Byzantines against the Bulgars and was recognised as an independent monarch in 988.​Conclusion The Dark Ages in the Balkans were dominated by the invasions from the steppes. Whilst on some occasions the effects were transitory, other groups established themselves permanently. The outline of the modern Balkans can be seen with the establishment of the states of Croatia, Serbia and Bulgaria. The Byzantine Empire was the dominant influence on the Balkans particularly in the South and at the end of this period was in revival.

Bulgar light horse

1000AD to 1453AD

In Western Europe medieval armies were dominated by the mailed knight, with increasingly heavy armour. By the end of the period the foot soldier makes something of a comeback through the crossbow and longbow. Whilst these developments did impact on the Balkans the horse archer albeit often armoured remained important. Armour was lighter and other types of light troops formed a substantial element of Balkan armies. Fortification, particularly for the Byzantines remained an essential base for both defensive and offensive operations.

The period neatly divides into two parts reflecting the fortunes of the Byzantine Empire. The years up to the sack of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204 and the fall of the city to the Ottomans in 1453.

Byzantium Following the destruction of Bulgaria the Byzantines consolidated their control over the Balkans and even had the resources to intervene in Italy and Sicily. However, revolts by the Bulgars and Pecheneg raids over the Danube continued to weaken the Byzantine military machine.

The death blow to the Byzantine military system came at the hands of the Seljuk Turks who controlled much of Anatolia as well as vast lands to the East. At Manzikert in 1071 the Sultan Alp Arslan destroyed a large Byzantine army commanded by the Emperor Romanus. Whilst this decisive battle is outwith our area of study the consequences were crucial for the whole empire. The Seljuks ravaged Anatolia depriving the Empire of its best recruiting grounds. From this time the Empire was forced to rely increasingly on mercenaries rather than native troops.

There followed an inevitable period of civil war which culminated in the Battle of Calavrtya 1079 in Thessaly when the Byzantine General Alexius Comnenus defeated the rebels. This was a highly disciplined cavalry battle with extensive use of flank attacks and hidden movement2. Two years later Alexius deposed the Emperor and began yet another Byzantine revival under the Comnenus dynasty.

Pechenegs and Cumans raided south of the Danube, the Bulgars revolted and the Seljuks reached the Asiatic gates of Constantinople. Alexius skilfully made peace with the Seljuks enabling him concentrate on the Balkans. The campaign began badly with the Bulgarians allied with Pechenegs and Cumans defeating Alexius at Silistra in 1086. However, he recovered suppressing the Bulgar revolt and defeated the Pechenegs at Leburnion 1091.

​Byzantine Organisation​Manzikert ended the classical Byzantine organisation. After that disaster the provincial forces of the Themata were increasingly replaced by mercenaries and contingents from the landowning aristocracy. There were five main 'regiment's in the central army: Vardariots - Christianised TurksLatinikon - Frankish knightsVarangian - Scandinavian then mainly English mounted infantry axemen.Skythikon - Pechenegs then CumansTurcopouli - Usually Seljuks.

Byzantine Cavalry

The Normans The Normans had established themselves in Southern Italy and Sicily since 1027. In 1081 Robert Guiscard crossed the Adriatic, captured Corfu and laid siege to the Albanian port of Durazzo. Despite the defeat of his fleet Robert maintained the siege over the winter until Alexius arrived with a relief army. At the Battle of Durazzo 1082 a second charge (after effective crossbow fire) by Norman cavalry destroyed Alexius's Varangian Guard which included Anglo-Saxon axemen who had left Britain following the Norman conquest. As at Hastings it was the premature advance of these troops which contributed to the defeat. Robert's son Bohemund advanced to the Vardar river but was repulsed at Larissa by Alexius. With the death of his father in 1085 Bohemund returned to Italy.

After a period of crusading activity in Syria Bohemond returned to attack Durazzo in 1106. However, Alexius had prepared a large fleet to counter him. Blockaded in his siege lines Bohemond was forced into a humiliating peace treaty. He died in 1108. War broke out again in the early 12th Century with clashes from Sicily to North Africa. Between 1146-49 the Norman fleet commanded by George of Antioch captured Corfu and sacked Athens Thebes and Corinth. He even brought his fleet to Constantinople in 1149. In 1155 the Byzantines took the war to Italy before being defeated at Brindis in 1156.

William II launched a new Norman invasion in 1185 capturing Durazzo and Thessalonika. His advance on Constantinople was halted by Emperor Isaac II Angelus at the Battle of the Strymon in September 1185. This effectively ended the Norman attempts on the Byzantine Empire.

Whilst due credit for Norman success has to be given to their mailed knights it was the combination of knights and crossbowmen which were responsible for land victories. Most warfare revolved around sieges and in this form of warfare the Norman fleets were vital. Horse transports were particularly useful enabling the Normans to deliver battle winning troops to key points by sea.

The Northern Balkans CROATIAAt the beginning of this period Croatia was again in internal turmoil until Stephan I (1030-58) re-established control and settled religious matters. Peter Kresimir IV (1058-1075) established a united Croatia and Dalmatia with a boundary at the River Drina. Peter's death left an uncertain succession which encouraged the Normans and Venetians to grab coastal territory. The succession was eventually settled through papal intervention and Zvonimir (1075-1089) fought a series of wars as a papal vassal which economically ruined the country. On his death without a son there was a period of troubles. Koloman, King of Hungary reached agreement with leading Croatian nobles in 1102, uniting the kingship although the two countries retained their separate identities.

In 1116 Venice again gained the Dalmatian towns with Byzantine support. Hungarian attempts to recover them in 1117 and 1124 failed. The second half of the 12th Century was dominated by civil war with parts of the country coming under Byzantine rule. By the end of the century King Bela III had recovered the lost territory including Dalmatia. The office of Duke of Croatia was usually held by a son or brother of the Hungarian King. Slavonia while part of the Dukedom developed closer ties with Hungary than Croatia itself. During this period the Croats developed within a Western military tradition following the adoption of feudalism from Hungary. However, the nature of the terrain continued to place greater importance on light troops.

Whilst Northern Bosnia came under Hungarian control the south retained a fragile independence from the Serbs. Even in the north a large degree of autonomy was achieved particularly under Ban Kulin (1180-1204). Militarily they were similar to the Serbs.

SERBIASerbia during this period was under the loose control of the Byzantine Empire. The various Serb Zhupans (the largest being Rascia and Duklja) had a large degree of autonomy and regularly rebelled often with the support of Hungary. Details of these rebellions are sparse but we know that a Byzantine army led by Constantine Monomachus was destroyed by Vojislav in 1042 or 10435. For the rest of the century Dukljan entered a period of civil war finally settled after yet another Byzantine invasion. In the 12th Century John Comnenus crushed Bolkan, the Zhupan of Rascia after he defeated the Hungarian invasion of Serbia in 1128. Many Serbs were resettled in Anatolia. Another Serb rebellion was subdued in 1152 and further conflict with Hungary was settled at the Battle of Semlin 1168. Hungary was forced to cede Dalmatia.

Stephen Nemania became Grand Zhupan of Rascia in 1165 (possibly a few years later) and proceeded to unify both the western (Rascia) and inland regions (Duklja or Zeta) of Serbia. Following a long war (1180-96) the Serbs gained a large degree of autonomy from the Empire. Although after his abdication in 1196 his sons warred with the elder Vukan grabbing Rascia from his base in Zeta. Stephen’s annointed successor, also Stephen, regained Rascia around 1204 possibly with Bulgarian or Bosnian help. By 1216 Zeta had been brought under Stephen’s control and he was crowned King of Serbia in 1217.

The Serbian army during this period was primarily an infantry force armed with spear, javelin or bows. With the increasing wealth from mining mercenary knights were recruited to complement noble cavalry armed with bow and lance. This enabled the Serbs to fight effectively outwith their mountain strongholds.

BULGARIAFollowing the collapse of the First Bulgarian Empire the country came under increasing oppressive Byzantine rule for nearly two centuries. There were several rebellions mainly social rather than nationalist in origin. The most serious was led by Petur Deljan who captured Skopje in 1040. However, the following year he was betrayed and captured by Byzantine Varangians commanded by Harold Hardrada, the later Prince of Norway and loser at the Battle of Stamford Bridge 1066.

The Pecheneg threat was finally destroyed following their invasion of Bulgaria in 1122. At the Battle of Eski Zagra the Varangians and mercenary knights led by John II Comnenus broke into the wagon-laager and slaughtered the Pechenegs en masse. The Pechenegs disappear from this time being replaced by the Cumans.

The Bulgarians under John and Peter Asen revolted in 1186 following a further attempt to impose exorbitant taxes. An important element of the rebel armies came from the Vlachs who dwelt on the mountain slopes. They defeated Emperor Issac at Berrhoe 1189 and retained their territory despite losing at Arcadiopolis in 1194. The Kingdom was stabilised under Tsar Kaloyan (1197-1207) and peace was signed with the Byzantines in 1202.

The core of the army consisted of armoured Boyars and Bulgar horse archers supplemented by Vlach cavalry and Cuman horse archers.

The CrusadesThe Crusades, whilst primarily aimed at the Holy Land impacted on Byzantium and the Balkans.

The First Crusade (1096-1099) choose Constantinople as its assembly point. German contingents traveling through the Balkans (often at swordpoint). The Byzantines and Crusaders were suspicious of each others motives and it was with some relief that Alexius assisted the Crusading army Eastwards to their eventual capture of Jerusalem and the establishment of the crusader states. The Second and Third Crusades also involved conflict at Constantinople on route reinforcing the religious antagonism between Byzantium and Western Europe. It was however Western Europe who gained useful experience from their wars in the East. Byzantine fortifications with their double and triple walls influenced castle building in the West as did the use of mounted archers and a new understanding of the importance of reconnaissance and logistics.

It was however the Fourth Crusade (1202-04) which was to be fatal to the Byzantine Empire. Assembling at Venice the Crusader army agreed to pay off its debts to the Venetians by capturing the Dalmatian port of Zara from the Hungarians. At Zara, encouraged by Alexius, son of the deposed Byzantine Emperor Isaac II they agreed with the Venetians to attack Constantinople. The land attacks failed, but the Venetians led by the 95 year old Doge, Dandolo gained a foothold on the sea wall and the Byzantine nobles agreed to elect Alexius as Emperor. When Alexius could not raise the promised cash, the Crusaders again attacked the city. After valiant resistance for several days the defenders panicked and the city was sacked. The Latin Empire of Constantinople under Count Baldwin of Flanders was established.

Venice By the time the Fourth Crusade arrived in Venice the city was already an important player in the Balkans. The activities of Dalmatian pirates had forced the city to occupy coastal areas in the Adriatic and develop a strong fleet. Most of the northern territories were lost to Hungary in a war between 1097 and 1102. The Hungarians repulsed an attempt to retake them between 1172 and 1196. The alliance with Byzantium ended when Venice supported the Normans in 1170 seizing Ragusa (Dubrovnik) and Chios.

It was the capture of Constantinople which turned Venice into an imperial power. Carefully selecting strategic ports, largely ignoring the hinterland, Venice carved out an empire based on the lucrative trade routes along the Adriatic and Aegean. Eventually including Crete, purchased for 30lbs of gold. Venetian naval power was challenged in this period by Genoa. It took three major wars (1253-99, 1353-55 and 1378-81) before the Genoese fleet was captured and Venetian maritime supremacy assured.

Venetian power was dependent on its fleet. By the end of this period Venice had 3000 merchant ships many of which could be easily converted into warships or transports manned by 36,000 sailors. War galleys escorted trading vessels in a convoy system. Tactics had switched from ramming to firepower with Greek fire, catapults, bombards and crossbows.

The overseas possessions became heavily fortified and defended by communal crossbow armed militias (30,000 men) supplemented by local feudal forces. Mercenaries formed an increasing part of Venetian armies following the Italian condotta system. The Arsenal in Venice had 16,000 workers, a third of the city's active male population. ​In the twenty years following victory over the Genoese in 1380, Venice expanded its territory to include most of Dalmatia, Corfu, the Greek Morea, Cyclades and Dodecanese islands. Despite several rebellions they held onto Crete and eventually gained Cyprus in 1489. The middle ages were the high tide of Venetian expansion. From the 16th century Venice would be on the defensive.

The Latin EmpireThe capture of Constantinople resulted in the establishment of the Latin Empire under Emperor Baldwin. The remnant of the Byzantine Empire became the Empire of Nicaea (Western Anatolia) under Theodore Lascaris. Latin kingdoms were established in Thessalonica and much of Greece except Epirus which became a Greek Despotate.

Baldwin's elevation was short lived. Whilst besieging Adrianople in 1205 he was attacked by a Bulgarian army which included 14,000 Cumans. The harassing fire of the Cumans tempted Baldwin out of his defensive formation only to be turned and routed. A relief force led by the Venetian Doge Dandolo covered the retreat but Baldwin was never seen again.

Military OrganisationThe Latin Empire including Achea was organised along western feudal lines with estates held by knights, the church and the military orders. In addition to the standard 4 months garrison duty estates were required to provide troops for a further 4 months a year. Auxiliary troops were provided by the local population as well as Slavs, Cumans and Bulgars.

His brother Henry took the throne and established the Empire in Thrace. Allied to the Seljuks he attacked the Nicean Empire in 1211. The Niceans defeated the Seljuks and in 1224 drove the Latins out of Asia Minor and then Thrace. In Epirus the Despot Theodore Dukas took Macedonia (1215) and Thessalonica after the Battle of Serres 1221. Dukas was only halted by the Bulgarians at Klokonista 1230.

In 1234 Nicean Emperor John Vatatzes besieged Constantinople in alliance with the Bulgarian Tsar John Asen II. The city was saved by the intervention of the Venetian fleet. Despite this setback John took advantage of Bulgarian weakness following the death of Tsar John Asen II and the Mongol invasion of Hungary and Northern Bulgaria. He extended the Empire into Macedonia and took the borders to Epirus by 1252. His death encouraged a Bulgarian counter attack which was defeated at Adrianople in 1255. The Bulgarian state was to play only a minor role in the Balkans for the rest of this period.

In 1259 Michael VIII Paliaologos, arguably the ablest of the late Byzantine Emperors usurped the Nicean throne. His western border was immediately threatened by a shaky alliance of Epirus and Achea supported by King Manfred of Sicily. At Pelagonia 1259 the Nicean mercenary knights took the sting out of the Frankish charge while horse archers mowed down the Franks from the flanks. His borders stabilised Michael besieged Constantinople in 1261 supported by a Genoan fleet. The city fell almost by accident thanks to the betrayal of a gate by a group of farmers known as Thelematarioi. The Latin Empire ceased to exist although the Latin states in Greece survived.

The Late Byzantine Empire With the Byzantine Empire re-established at Constantinople Michael rebuilt the army and navy. The Latin Principality of Achaea broke the treaty and defeated Michael's brother Constantine at Prinitza 1262 and Makry Plagi 1263 securing the Latin state for a generation. A more serious threat came from the Angevin, Charles of Anjou who after securing Sicily sought to expand in the Balkans. He inherited Achea in 1278 and Prince Nicephorus of Epirus declared himself a vassal the following year. With this base Charles poured troops into Albania and besieged Berat. The relieving army fortunately captured the Angevin commander panicking the rest of the army which was destroyed in the retreat. The war of the Sicilian Vespers ended the Angevin threat to Byzantium.

The Late Byzantine ArmyBy the 14th century the Imperial Guard regiments were limited to palace and ceremonial duties. The bulk of ‘native’ units were composed of pronoia troops who held the income from land in return for military service. The main field armies increasingly consisted of foreign contingents either mercenary or allied. Turks, Alans, Serbs and Bulgars all served at different times in substantial numbers.Tactics were similar to western armies although allies fought in their own style. Most Byzantine warfare in this period was in any case limited to sieges and fortress defence,

With Michael's death the new Emperor Andronicus II allowed the army and navy to deteriorate. In 1302 after being defeated by the first arrival of Ottoman forces at Nicomedia he hired the Catalan Company. This was a mercenary company of some 6000 troops led by Roger De Flor 8. After a successful campaign against the Turks, Roger was murdered by Alans at Adrianople in 1305. The Catalan vengeance resulted in the devastation of Thrace and much of northern Greece. Walter, Duke of Athens employed the company in 1310. However, he failed to pay them and they rebelled. At armies clashed at Kephissos in 1311 when Walter's knights charged into a mire created by the Catalans. The light infantry Almogavars who formed the bulk of the Catalan company destroyed the Latins. They went on to conquer Athens establishing themselves there until its capture in 1388.

The rest of the 14th Century was dominated by civil war with Serbs and Turks increasingly being used by both sides. By the end of the century the Empire only consisted of Constantinople, Thessalonika and the Morea. The Ottoman Turks surrounded Constantinople and the first siege lasted 8 years from 1391 to 1399.​ SERBIAN EMPIREStefan the first king of Serbia died in 1227. Under Radoslav and then Vladislav the country was under pressure from Hungary and allied itself to Bulgaria. Under King Uros (1243-76) the decline of Bulgaria and Epirus, together with economic growth associated with the mining industry, helped Serbia to become a significant Balkan power. Uros gained control of significant parts of Hum (Herzgovinia) and fought several wars with Dubrovnik before the city state bought off the Serbians with long term payments. His eldest son Dragutin rebelled with Hungarian support and deposed his father in 1276. His brother Milutin gained the throne in 1282 after Dragutin was injured, although he was probably deposed by the nobility who wanted a more aggressive foreign policy.

Milutin raided south against the Empire invading Macedonia and repelling Byzantine inspired attacks by Nogaj Tartars. In the 1290’s he captured Skopje and swept westwards, briefly capturing Durazzo. By the end of the century a treaty was agreed with Byzantium which enabled Milutin to concentrate on his northern border held as an appendage9 by his deposed brother Dragutin. Civil war raged between the brothers until 1312 when they agreed peace terms which strengthened Milutin’s position.

Milutin died in 1321 and after a period of civil war amongst his sons and nephew, the eldest, Stefan Decanski gained the throne. He expanded down the Vardar valley after defeating a Bulgarian army at Velbuzd 1330. The Serbian army 15,000 strong included 1000 Spanish mercenaries reflecting the increasing importance mercenaries had on warfare during the period and the value of Serbian mines to pay for them. Decanski took advantage of the victory to extend Serbian control over Bulgaria but did not attack the Empire. The Serbian nobility as usual were more anxious to gain booty from the rich Byzantine lands. They encouraged his son Stefan Dushan to grab the throne in 1331.​ Reflecting the wishes of his nobility Dushan raided south rather than supress the Bosnians in the west. After years of raiding he made significant gains in 1334 when peace was forced upon him by a strengthening Empire and Hungarian invasions in the north. The war with Hungary continued at a low level until 1346. This war did not stop Dushan from taking most of Albania during this period. The Byzantine civil war provided an opportunity for Dushan to consolidate his position in Albania and to advance into Macedonia. By 1346 he had proclaimed himself Tsar of Serbia, Albania and the coast. With expansion Dushan was able to consolidate his own power base adopting a Byzantine style imperial administration and his own code of laws in 1349. Taking advantage of the plague he captured Epirus in 1347 and Thessaly from the Catalans the following year. In the latter years of his reign he failed to take Bosnia but repelled invasions from the Byzantine Empire and Hungary. The lack of a fleet (Venice declined an alliance) impaired his dream of capturing Constantinople when he died in 1355. Stefan Dushan succeeded in doubling Serbia’s borders although his achievements should not be exaggerated. The Byzantine Empire was subjected to internal strife during the period and other gains were only won in the aftermath of the plague. He also failed to create the institutions which would hold the Serbian Empire together after his death.

Dushan’s heir Uros (1356-71) could not hold together the Serbian Empire. Thessaly, Epirus and Albania seceded and other parts of the empire were only nominally under Uros’ control. The fate of the Serbian empire was sealed at the battle of Marica in 1371. A Serbian army led by Vukashin advanced on Adrianople only to be surprised in a dawn attack by an inferior Ottoman force commanded by Lala Shahin. The Serbian leaders were killed and Serbian lands were grabbed by various independent nobles as well as the Ottomans. Marica was a decisive defeat for Serbia, probably more significant than the more famous disaster at Kossovo in 1389.

Serbian foot

Ottoman Janissaries

Frankish States in the Aegean Following the capture of Constantinople in 1204 French ‘crusaders’ captured Thessalonika and most of central Greece east of the Pindos mountains, as well as much of the Peloponnese. They established a complex patchwork of states with in excess of thirty different dynasties of lordlings. The Byzantine Greek reconquest of Thessalonika (1224) and Constantinople (1261) left four main territories; Duchy of Athens and Thebes, Duchy of the Archipelago, Triarchies of Euboea and the Principality of Achaia. In addition there were smaller holdings linked to these territories and the islands usually under the colonial control of Venice or Genoa.

These states fought primarily against the Byzantine Greeks who retained a foothold in the Peloponnese and to the north in the Despotate of Epiros. They were organised on western feudal lines although they integrated with the local population to a degree that has only recently been given proper recognition 10. Whilst subject to western power struggles particularly in Italy, the sword proved more powerful than dynastic connections as the Catalan Company and later the Navarrese companies aptly demonstrated. The states gradually collapsed, finally falling to the Ottoman tide by the end of the 15th century. Although Venice held on until the 17th century in the islands.

The Ottoman Tide Whilst the Ottoman origins are disputed the dynasty was founded by Osman I in northeastern Anatolia around 1280. Due to the declining Byzantine Empire these nomadic warriors, the Gazis (religious warriors) found it easier to expand westwards than against more powerful Muslim and Turkish neighbours. After establishing a strong base in Anatolia the first major appearance in the Balkans was ironically at the invitation of the Empire. In 1346 Orhan led 5500 Ottoman horsemen across the Dardanelles in support of John VI Cantacuzene. In return he gained the Emperor’s daughter as a bride. In 1349 he sent 20,000 troops to retake Thessalonika for John VI from the Serbs and decided to keep the Gallipoli base donated by the Empire.

From this base the Ottoman forces raided into Thrace and it was Murat I who captured Edirne (Adrianople) in 1361 making it his capital. The weakness of the Serbian and Bulgarian empires enabled the Ottomans to push out into the Balkans leaving Constantinople isolated. The two battles of Marica 1364 and 1371 (see above) saw off the Serbian offensive and the Ottomans expanded into Macedonia and Bulgaria. By 1386 they had reached Nis and forced the Serbian Prince Lazar to accept Ottoman suzerainty. Troubles in Anatolia enabled Lazar to create a Balkan union which defeated an Ottoman army at Plosnik, on the Morava River in 1388. Murat returned to smash the Bulgarians detaching them from the Balkan union forces. After defeating Karaman in Anatolia he returned to the Balkans to face Lazar at Kossovo (1389).

There are as many versions of this celebrated battle as chroniclers! However, it appears that the Serbian army which included allied Wallachian, Bosnian and Albanian troops fought off the first Ottoman attack but their counter attack failed to cross the Ottoman defensive ditch defended by archers and a few cannon. Murat’s son Bayezid then counterattacked together with other rallied cavalry and the Serbian forces began to collapse. There may have been some desertions to the Ottomans at this stage of the battle but more likely they simply routed. Murat was killed during the battle (probably by a deserter) and Prince Lazar and the other Serbian leaders were executed by Bayezid. The battle destroyed organised resistance to the Ottomans in the Balkans leaving only Hungary as the major enemy.

Hungary succeeded in mobilising a European Crusade army which in 1396 advanced to besiege Nicopolis. Bayezid brought a relief army to a defensive position near the city. The western knights charged through the light horse and into the defensive ditches and stakes. Ottoman horse struck in the flank with a decisive ambush charge from their Serbian vassals. The crusader army was routed with heavy losses.

The death of Bayezid at the hands of Tamerlane’s army at Ankara in 1402 resulted in a period of civil war which ended in the triumph of Mehmet I in 1413. He stabilised the Ottoman Empire and put down revolts in Albania and Transylvania as well as finally conquering Bosnia. His son Murat II (1421-51) developed the institutions of state and army which enabled the Ottoman Empire to complete its dominance of the Balkans. The Ottoman-Venice war (1425-30) ended with the capture of Salonika from the Venetians.

Albania During this period Albania was held by the Byzantine Empire and then Serbia with Venice controlling the coast at various times. In the more mountainous north this control was at best limited with the Albanian tribes having a degree of autonomy. After the death of Dushan northern and central Albania was abandoned to loose groupings of tribes headed by clan chieftains.

The Ottomans under Mehmet I swept into Albania and by 1417 had captured the main towns and established Ottoman rule. The Venetians still held many of the important coastal ports. Warfare continued led by the most important clan chieftain Gjon Kastrioti. His son Gjergi was sent as a hostage to the Sultan’s court, converted to Islam with the name of Skender. He rose to the rank of Beg before deserting and joining the revolt. Skenderbeg as he became known succeeded in partially uniting the Albanian tribes for the first time. For 25 years he led forces which rarely exceeded 10,000 in a series of victories against larger Ottoman armies. Most famously at Torviolli (1444) when he trapped 25,000 Ottomans under Ali Pasha and Abulena (1457) when he scattered an army of up to 80,000 Turks.

Skenderbeg’s resistance was widely admired in western Europe and he received some supplies and troops from Venice and Naples. The core of his army remained his own tribal troops of light horsemen, a type that was to become better known in renaissance armies as Stradiots.

By 1466 superior numbers began to take there toll on Albanian manpower. Sultan Mehmet II captured Kruja with an army reputed to be 150,000 strong. Skenderbeg died two years later and resistance finally ended in 1479.

​Hungary Whilst Skenderbeg resisted in the west a Hungarian Janos Hunyadi was having similar success against the Ottomans in the north, primarily in Transylvania. In 1443 he was a leading figure in the Crusade of Varna in which a Hungarian/Polish/Serbian army crossed the Danube, captured Smederevo and defeated an Ottoman army at Nis. Co-ordinated attacks were mounted from Albania, the Morea and in Anatolia by the Karamanlis. The Sultan Murat II reached a peace agreement with the crusaders which recognised Serbia under George Brankovic. However, under Papal pressure the crusaders returned the following year, albeit without Brankovic who had gained his objective. The two armies met at Varna. The crusader right wing was routed by the Anatolians and disaster was only averted by a desperate counter attack led by Hunyadi. The Polish King Vladislav then rashly charged the Janissaries central position and was killed causing the rest of the army to flee. Serbia and Wallachia reaffirmed their vassal status the following year.

Hunyadi tried again in 1448 this time plundering Serbia with an army which included Wallachians, Poles, Bohemians and Germans. Murat caught him with a larger army at Kossovo. In the third day of the battle the Wallachians switched sides and Hunyadi was forced back to his wagon-fortress which covered his retreat.

Fall of Constantinople Mehmet II became Sultan in 1451 and immediately made the capture of Constantinople his primary objective. The city had been attacked at least six times previously by the Ottomans but never with this level of organisation. Forts were built north of the city to cut off the waterway and a diversionary raid into the Morea kept the only immediate source of Greek support busy. The assault began on 7 April 1453. For seven weeks the garrison of only a few thousand troops held off the Ottoman assaults with little outside assistance.

On 29 May the walls were breached and Constantine XI the last Byzantine Emperor died with his troops.

Whilst Constantinople no longer had the strategic significance of former years it gave the Ottomans a new imperial capital and commercial centre, Istanbul. It also deprived the west of a base from which to attack the Sultan’s defences. It also effectively ended the Byzantine Empire severing the link to the west since Roman times.

Conclusion The fall of Constantinople ended an era of considerable complexity in the Balkans. Although states came and went with some rapidity three key states, Serbia, Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire dominated. Despite the coming of the Ottomans the medieval period established the much disputed outline of the modern nation states of the Balkans.

500AD to 1000AD

The Dark Ages or Early Middle Ages confirmed the increasing importance of cavalry in conjunction with the bow, even in the Balkans with its wooded mountainous terrain. The region was dominated by the Byzantine Empire which sought to resist new barbarian invasions from north of the Danube. However, by the end of this period these invaders had established themselves in the Balkans.

Bulgars, Slavs & Avars 500-600 New barbarian tribes, the Bulgars and the Slavs were pushed south into the Balkans by the Avars.

The Slavs began to infiltrate the Balkans around 500. They came in small groups first to raid and later to settle in fortified earthworks called grads (eg. modern Belgrade). Each clan was lead by a Zupan. These were grouped into tribes with chieftains called Voivodes or Grand Zupan. Early Slav armies consisted almost entirely of javelin armed infantry with some archers and other ill-armed peasants. As they became more settled the chieftains developed a small retinue of cavalry called Druzhinas. Militarily they were most effective in broken terrain and when allied with Bulgars or Avars who provided a strong cavalry element. Despite reverses such as Sardica (Sofia) in 550 they occupied most of the Balkans by the end of the century.

The Bulgars in contrast were Asiatic horseman related to the Huns. The core of their armies consisted of heavy noble cavalry supported by swarms of light horse archers. In the 6th Century they were subjects of the Avars who had absorbed the remnants of the Huns. Their raids reached Constantinople in 559 when Belisarius was brought out of retirement to force them back from Thrace. The Avars were heavy bow armed cavalry who after initially being paid by Justinian to attack the Slavs, allied themselves with the Balkan Slavs, Gepids and Bulgars to ravage the Balkans. Under the great chief Bayan they reached as far south as the Aegean in 591. They were finally defeated in a series of battles on the Danube at Viminacium by the Emperor Maurice in 601. The mobility of the Avars and their allies being negated by disciplined squares of Byzantine troops.

Whilst the Avars, Bulgars and Slavs occupied the Balkans the Byzantine Empire reached its greatest extent under Justinian (527-565). Byzantine armies under Belisarius and Narses fought successful wars against the Ostrogoths in Italy, the Vandals in Africa and the Persians.

Byzantine Empire 602-800 The Byzantine Empire spent the 7th Century on the defensive in the Balkans while it fought most of its wars in the East resisting Sassanid and then Arab invasions. The Avars regularly swept through the Balkans with peace being bought with tribute. In 626 a 100,000 strong Avar army (including Slavs and Bulgars) invested Constantinople in conjunction with the Persians. In a desperate siege the Emperor Heraclius fought off the combined assaults. He went on to save the Empire defeating the Sassanids at Nineveh in 627. In the later 7th and 8th Centuries the Empire was limited to the coastal regions and Thrace largely due to Arab invasions from the East which culminated in yet another epic siege of Constantinople in 717.

The Slavs occupied Illyricum, Macedonia and Greece as semi-independent tribes, eventually throwing off Avar control. Four distinct groups developed; Slovenes, Croats, Serbs and those who intermixed with the Bulgars.

Intermittent wars with the Byzantines continued throughout the century. Emperors came to accept that the tide of Slav tribes could not be halted and therefore negotiated treaties and sent punitive expeditions into the Balkans when agreements were broken or dues not paid. Unlike the Asiatic nomads the Slavs transformed themselves from marauders to settlers. The original settlers did not disappear. The Illyrians were forced westward into the mountains of Albania and the Greeks south to modern Greece and the islands. The Latin speaking provincials were forced to the uplands preserving a degree of individuality reflected to this day in modern Romania. The Franks made some inroads into the western fringes of the Balkans assisting both the Byzantines and Slavs by destroying the Avars by the end of the 8th century.