Avraham Yaacov Papierna (1840-1919)
Teacher and Literary Critic

by Shlomo Greenspan

The above lived in Plotzk for 45 years. He came there when he was appointed as
a teacher of Jewish religion in the Russian governmental secondary school.
Being a Russophile, he advocated adherence of the Jews to Russian culture and
dissociation from Polish cultural influences, and soon became Inspector on
behalf of the Russian educational authorities for all the Jewish religious
schools (known by the name of "Heder") and advised the
authorities on the possibilities of modernizing these institutions.

He made a name for himself as a literary critic and his essays on Hebrew
literature exerted considerable influence on his contemporaries. In his essays
he fought for the raising of cultural standards and against the ornate and
unnatural pseudo-Biblical style employed by most of the "Haskala"
Hebrew writers. He also wrote books on modern methods for teaching Hebrew
and Russian.

Thanks to his activities he enjoyed great popularity in Plotzk and although the
extreme religious circles regarded him with suspicion, his personality was
respected by the general Jewish public and his home served as an important
cultural center.

The Jewish population of Plotzk celebrated his 70th birthday in 1910.

Avraham Yaacov Papierna is considered the most illustrious of the three great Jewish literary critics
of his time in Poland, who guided Hebrew literature onto new ways.

[Page 27]

Aharon Ben Moshe Kahanstam (Konstam)

by Eliyahu Eisenberg

This article is a tribute to the memory of Aharon ben Moshe Kahanstam
(1860-1920), a Plotzk-born outstanding Hebrew pedagogue who devoted his life
to the spreading of Hebrew education in several places in Poland and Russia. He
was a pioneer of modern Hebrew and established courses for Hebrew teachers who
later contributed a great deal to Zionism and Hebrew education.

As a young man he began to practice Law but soon decided to devote his life to
education. Upon leaving his job as an assistant in an advocate's firm in
Plotzk, he studied to become a teacher. When offered the directorship of a Lodz
Jewish religious school, he accepted this challenge enthusiastically and wrote
in his diary: "a new epoch begins in my life".

Kahanstam was soon regarded as a central figure of Hebrew education. He showed a lively
interest in his pupils' social background and was very active in social work.

From Lodz he moved to Petersburg, where he spent nine years in the Jewish
educational sphere. During all those years he was constantly in conflict with
sponsors, administrators and other officials who had no understanding of sound
educational principles. In 1907 he moved to Grodno where he founded and
directed the "Pedagogical Courses of Grodno", whose influence on
Hebrew education was outstanding.

Students and teachers who were privileged to study under Aharon ben Moshe
Kahanstam admired his fine personality and a number of them published in Tel-Aviv in
1936 a book called: "Rishonim" (The First), dedicated to their
unforgettable teacher and leader. These memories contain details about his
devotion to the cause of Hebrew education, his influence on all those who came
into contact with him, his struggles and zeal for progressive teaching methods,
and the appreciation of the assistance he gave Jewish girls who aspired to the
teaching profession from which they were barred in those years.

His last stage was the Ukrainian city of Kharkov, where he became the guardian
of Hebrew education till the last minute of his life. He succeeded in ignoring
the existence of the Bolsheviks who tried and finally succeeded to liquidate
all national and Hebrew schools in Russia.

When he died in 1920, one of the mourners, although an opponent, stated:
"With the death of Aharon ben Moshe Kahanstam the conscience of the
Hebrew teacher has passed away".

"Although the venues of his influential and blessed activities were
outside Plotzk", says the author of this article, "we can't publish
the Plotzk Memorial Book without paying tribute to a great son of our
town".

[Pages 28-32]

Lives of Famous Plotzk Rabbis

by Shlomo Greenspan

Rabbi Yehuda Leib Margolies  a Pioneer of Science and Fighter for Justice

It is to the credit of the community of Plotzk, that its rabbinical seat was
occupied during the eighties of the 18th century by an outstanding personality,
who did much to tear down the spiritual walls of the ghetto, with which the
Jews of that period were still surrounded. This man was Rabbi Yehuda Leib
Margolies, also known as Rabbi Yehuda Perle (1747-1811 or 1818).

New winds of freedom and equality, finally culminating in the French
Revolution, began to blow even in the hermetically closed world of Polish and
Russian Jewry, which frowned on any secular education whatsoever. The Talmud
was the sole source of knowledge, when Rabbi Y. L. Margolies took upon himself
to spread the knowledge of Nature amongst the Jews, for
which he was not even attacked by the most orthodox, due to the great authority
which he enjoyed. Margolies was labeled by Aharon Zeitlin as an "anti-Mendelsonian
enlightener", i.e. a "Maskil" who remained within the religious camp.
Dr. J. Zinberg describes him in his "Literary History of the Jews" as a fighter for
the ideals of enlightenment and against the forces of darkness. Dr. Joseph
Klausner, as well as Ben Zion Katz in his "History of the Enlightenment of
the Jews in Russia" quotes him as advocating the coexistence of secular
knowledge and science with piety and the fear of God.

Rabbi Y. L. Margolies was the author of nine books, mostly dealing with Natural
Sciences, Philosophy, Grammar and others. His foremost work, "Or
Olam", first appeared in 1777 and saw several editions. In this book he showed
himself to be a follower of the Aristotelian school of philosophy, which in his
opinion is not in conflict with the Law of Moses. In his book "Tal Orot
" (Pressburg, 1843), he comes out in favor of a more tolerant and liberal
attitude towards the Christian nations, amongst which the Jews dwelled, and
preaches higher moral and ethical standards in the relationship between the
well-to-do and the poorer segments of the Jewish communities. His fearless
stand in the forefront of humanitarian and social reform made him widely known,
far beyond the confines of Plotzk, so that he was well remembered as a
spiritual leader in Poland for many decades after his death in Frankfurt on the
Oder in 1811 (or 1818).

Rabbi Zysza Plotzker

A Monograph of an outstanding rabbi, who lived in Plotzk in the 19th century.
Since 1830 the above served as rabbi of Plotzk where he was very active in
establishing peaceful relations between various groups who fought for influence
in the community. His house became a Torah-center, frequented by many Chassidim
eager to hear his discourses on the Sacred Books.

He collected pious sayings of the Hassidic Rabbi of Przysucha, whom he revered,
in a book which was published after his death. Several other books of his were
published by his grandson several years before the outbreak of the Second World
War.

In 1940, when the Nazis were about to convert the old Jewish cemetery of Plotzk
into a garden and use the tombstones for street paving, some of his adherers
went to the cemetery (103 years after his death) and transferred his remains to
another place. The author adds that in spite of the long time which had elapsed
since the burial of Zysza Plotzker, his bones had remained intact

Rabbi Shmuel Ben Azriel

In the second half of the 18th century there served a rabbi in the community of
Plotzk, whose spiritual home was the school of German rabbis. His father,
Rabbi Azriel, had been rabbi of Landsberg and he himself had studied in his
youth at the Yeshivoth of Amsterdam. Having lived some years in Poznan
he was appointed rabbi of Kutno and later on of Plotzk, where he died in 1772.

Rabbi Shmuel published two books : "The pillars of the World" (Amude Olam),
Berlin 1741, and "Samuel's Belt" (Hagurath Shmuel), Frankfurt on the Oder.

His book "Amude Olam" contains several interesting biographical
notes, amongst which we find the description of a ritual-murder accusation leveled
against the Jews of Poznan as a result of which two-third of the Jewish community,
together with Rabbi Shmuel, had to flee from this city.

After lengthy negotiations the matter was finally brought to an end when the
Chancellor of Poland forced six witnesses from the Polish aristocracy to
testify to the innocence of the accused Jews of Poznan.

Rabbi Arye Leib Zunz (Reb Leibel Charif)

The Rabbinical chair of Plotzk was occupied during the first quarter of the
19th century by a great and well-known sage, Rabbi Arye Leib Zunz,
who was appointed at the age of thirty to the seat of Rabbi Y.L. Margolies. He
had already been famous in the Rabbinical world since his eighteenth year
of life, when he compiled a book by the name of "Yaelat Hen".

Having served in Plotzk for a period of ten years, he remained ever after
faithful to the town by giving the title "Rabbi of Plotzk" in all the
25 books written by him. He was known among the Jews as the "Plotzker
Rav".

After leaving Plotzk he served the community of Praga, near Warsaw, after which
time he retired in order to devote his latter years solely to the writing of
books. Most of them were actually published only after he passed away in 1833,
a number of them reaching several editions. Some of the greatest Polish Rabbis
were pupils of Rabbi Zunz; most famous amongst them  the founder of the
Chassidic Dynasty of "Ger", Rabbi Itche Meir Alter, the
"Baal Hidushey Harim".

Many stories about Reb Leibele Charif made the round amongst the common
people and it was widely believed that all his blessings and wishes would
come true. One of these tales concerns Rabbi Avramele of Ciechanow.

Rabbi Abraham of Ciechanow, the Plotzker Ilui

Rabbi Abraham the Zaddik of Ciechanow, one of the famous Chassidic
saintly men who influenced the Jewish community of Plotzk during the first half
of the 18th century, was descended from simple folk. His father,
Reb Rafael Dobrzinski had sent him as a youth to study Torah in Plotzk where
he very soon made a name for himself by his steady learning and thorough
knowledge of the Holy Books. One of the richest men of the community,
Reb Dan Landau, gave him his daughter for a wife. He remained in the house of his
father-in-law, even adopted his family name until he was called to serve as
Rabbi of Ciechanow, where he came under the influence of the Chassidic sect.
Although he was not at all eager to act as a Rebbe, the Chassidim of his town
and the surrounding area elected him as their Zaddik. Numerous tales are
told of his wisdom and erudition. (See Yitzhak Rafael  "History of
Chassidism", Tel-Aviv 1946).

After his death in 1875 several of his books such as "Abraham's
Virtues" were printed. The popular image of the Rabbi motivated his
great-grandson Zysche Landau, a poet who was born in Plotzk, to dedicate
one of his poems to the memory of that great man, 40 years after he had
passed away.

Rabbi Yissachar Dov Graubart  N. Sokolov's Rabbi

Rabbi Y. D. Graubart was born in 1842, at Shrensk, where he studied at the local
Yeshivah and from where he was called to serve as Rabbi of Plotzk. He married the
daughter of a local Dayan, Rabbi Ascher. Among his pupils we know Rabbi Yona Zlotnik
of Plotzk and Rabbi Yehuda Leib Zlotnik, who became a well known Rabbi in Canada
and carried out a great deal of research in the sphere of Jewish Folklore. Best
known among his pupils was Nachum Sokolov, later the President of the World
Zionist Organization.

Exceptional wisdom and knowledge, simplicity and humility were the outstanding
characteristics of Rabbi Graubart. Great love for and understanding of the
average simple Jew motivated him in all his Halakhicdecisions. He
gave the Hovevei Zion unofficial support. One year before his
death in 1912 he also participated in the Founding Conference of the Agudath
Israel movement which took place in Kattovitz. Rabbi Graubart passed away in
1913 at Bedzin, where his son Rabbi Yekutiel succeeded him until his immigration
to the U.S., where he served as rabbi in Brooklyn, Chicago and Canada. A daughter
of Rabbi Graubart, Rosa Jacobovitz, was well known in Poland after the first World
War as a Yiddish poetess. One of her poems is dedicated to "My Father".

Rabbi Eleazar Cohen

When Rabbi Eleazar Cohen was appointed to the Rabbinate of Plotzk, he was
already at the age of 65, but his bonds with the town go back to his early
youth. Born in 1791 in Warsaw, he was sent by his wealthy father at the age of
9 to study at the Plotzk Yeshiva. In Warsaw he continued his studies under
Rabbi Arie Leib Zunz, who had also served, at a different period, as Rabbi
of Plotzk. Many years passed, when Rabbi Eleazar, serving at that time
the community of Makov, received a call to become Rav of Plotzk. However,
he was very hesitant to accept this call, since he was well aware of the fact
that various factions, not all of them strictly orthodox, existed within the
community. He consulted, one after the other, Rabbi Abraham of Ciechanow,
the Zaddik of Kotzk and Rabbi Itche Meir, the Zaddik of Ger. Their consensus
of opinion was that he should not be deterred by any hindrances and proceed
immediately for Plotzk. Finally, he consented to serve there on condition that
a unanimous letter of appointment be sent to him over the signatures of all Plotzk
community leaders. The full text of the letter of appointment is quoted in the Hebrew
section.

The community received him with great joy, but became divided in their loyalty
to him, as soon as he had preached his first Sabbath sermon in which he
demanded the strictest possible observance of the day of rest. The more
enlightened opposed him vehemently, whilst the faithful were very happy to have
him as spiritual guide. During his 6 years of tenure of office in Plotzk
(1856-1862), Rabbi Eleazar was constantly embroiled in various frictions with
the Gabayimof the community; so that he had no interest in renewing
his contract and went on to serve in Pultusk and Sochaczew. His life-work
"Hidushey H'Redak" was published after his death (1913) by his son
Yehoshua.

One of Rabbi Elazar's young pupils was a student from Wyshogrod, Nahum Sokolov,
who describes in his memories the movement of the "Enlightenment",
which had penetrated the community and changed its old-worldly atmosphere, a
fact which made Rabbi Elazar's position there so complicated.

Rabbi Azriel Arye Leib Rakowsky  the Fighting Mitnaged

The rift which developed within the Jewries of Poland and Lithuania in the 19th
century, when the ideas of progress and enlightenment, originating in Prussia
and Eastern Germany, collided with the Hassidic way of life, did not bypass
Plotzk. The sect of the Chassidim became so strongly rooted there during the
second half of that century, that their opponents, who were in charge of
community affairs, decided to invite as their Rabbi a personality, who was
known as an uncompromising opponent of Chassidim. Their choice fell on Rabbi
A. A. L. Rakowsky.

When he arrived in town the Chassidim immediately fought him vigorously, so
that he was forced to leave Plotzk for Lomza. An epidemic, which broke out soon
thereafter was regarded as a punishment of Heaven and a delegation of notables
was sent to Lomza to persuade the Rabbi to return to his flock. From then on
his position in the community was considerably strengthened, although the
Chassidim never adopted a friendly attitude towards him. He persisted in
introducing modern teaching methods and other progressive innovations in the
local Talmud-Torah. The Chassidim retaliated by denouncing him to the Russian
authorities, which almost led to his arrest.

The establishment of a Jewish hospital in town and various improvements in the
situation of the poor are to his credit. He served the community for 17 years
until he could not bear the communal friction anymore and accepted in 1880 a
call for Mariampol, where he passed away in 1893.

[Pages 33-35]

Jewish Life in Plotzk in the Light of Hebrew Periodicals
of the Second Half of the 19th Century

by Shlomo Greenspan

Hamelitz on the Beginnings of Zionism in Plotzk

At the beginning of this article the author stresses the fact that the Zionist
idea had adherents in Plotzk, long before the Zionist organization was founded.
Yitzhak Lederberg (great-grandfather of the Nobel-prize winner Dr. Yehoshua
Lederberg) went to Eretz Israel in 1830 and a few decades later the Zionist activities
of Plotzk-born people were already widely-known.

In 1891, with the foundation of a branch of the "Hovevei Zion"
movement in Plotzk, formal Zionist activities began.

The author quotes excerpts from the then famous Hebrew periodical
"Hamelitz", reporting on Zionist conventions and daily Zionist
activities, including money-raising campaigns which took place in Plotzk.

Itzhak Grinbaum and Aharon Becker  Pillars of Zionism in Plotzk

In his essay "The Jews in Plotzk", I. Grinbaum, formerly a leader
of Polish Jewry and first Minister of the Interior of Israel, describes how a
Zionist youth-group was founded in Plotzk at the end of the 19th
century. That group was named "Mazkeret Shmuel", in honor of
Rabbi Shmuel Mohilever, a famous leader of the religious wing of the
Zionist movement.

I. Grinbaum, and A. Becker (from Lithuania) who had settled in Plotzk, were
the founders and initiators of that group. The latter became soon leader of the
younger generation, on which he exerted great influence.

The above-mentioned "Hamelitz" dedicates a special review to that
event and mentions the obligation undertaken by members of the group to pay
between 10 and 25 "kopeikas" (Russian coin) every month.

The same periodical published an article at the beginning of this century from
which we learn that the local Zionists earnestly endeavored to assume
responsibility for the affairs of the Jewish community (Kehila) in
accordance with the Zionist aim and slogan of "Kibbush Hakehilot"
(Conquest of the Communities).

The Pre-Zionist Epoch of Nahum Sokolov

The great Zionist leader and famous Hebrew journalist and writer
Nahum Sokolov was brought up in Plotzk. Before he joined Zionist groups formally, and took
part in manifold Zionist campaigns, there had been times when he dissociated
himself from Zionism. This information is contained in an article published in
another Hebrew periodical of those times, called "Hamaggid".

Education and Cultural Life

Articles written by Nahum Sokolov are a faithful source for the reader who
wishes to acquaint himself with the general trend and ideas of the younger
Jewish generation of Plotzk, which at the end of the 19th
century strove for the introduction of "general" studies side
by side with Jewish studies. In his articles Nahum Sokolov describes the
miserable conditions under which Jewish youth lived  without
proper clothes, half-hungry, arguing with their parents about the necessity of
general studies in order to change the depressing living conditions then
prevailing in the Jewish communities.

Under the influence of the "Haskala" (Enlightenment) ideas,
some families began to send their children to
general secondary schools but had to fight for their right to do so with
conservative groups who considered general education as the first step towards
the repudiation of Judaism. The problem of writing on Sabbath-days hindered
many parents, faithful to the Jewish religion, from sending their children to
"general" schools.

We also find in these periodicals letters about the financial difficulties
encountered by the Jewish community in maintaining its schools and paying the
teachers' salaries. In order to overcome those difficulties  we learn from the
"Hamelitz"  the communal leaders even agreed to organize a
theatre-show in order to collect some funds.

But in spite of the "Haskala" movement the rabbis were
very popular with the general public and leaders of the community showed
them great respect.

In the "Hamelitz" of 1890 we read an interesting story about a rabbi
who successfully passed an examination in Russian. The periodical adds that the
examiners admired his "thorough knowledge of the Russian language".

Public Institutions and Social Work

An 1891 issue of the above periodical describes the growing poverty of the
Jewish population and the necessity for overseas emigration. The retail
merchants were forced to pay high interest for goods purchased on credit from
wholesalers. A proposal was made to establish a wholesale store for the benefit
of the retail merchants but for some unknown reasons this plan never
materialized.

There existed in Plotzk a society whose members volunteered to visit sick
people at the hospital as well as to distribute among them tea and sugar. The
society "Bikur Holim" did a fine job in preventing a typhus epidemic in 1867.

Artisans were organized in various professional unions who aimed at rendering
social aid to members.

In another issue of "Hamelitz" we read about a legacy of a rich woman
(5000 Russian rubles) for building an asylum for old people, unable to earn
their living. The establishment of that institution was very important as from
other sources we learn that in those days many Jews in Plotzk reached a very
high age.

Relations with Polish Neighbours

Although there is no special evidence on anti-Jewish riots, we read about an
incident which occurred during a Jewish funeral. Two Polish landowners barred
the way of the mourners and did not let them enter the Jewish cemetery. As a
result 30 Jews were injured. Fortunately, the district governor, who was
friendly towards the Jews, helped them in restoring their rights to the
cemetery.

A certain Niemski used in his book, while describing the beauty of the town,
offending expressions with regard to the Jews of Plotzk and their way of life,
calling them "a caravan of Gipsy-Jews" etc.

Emigration

From many Polish towns a mass-emigration started at the end of the 19th
century. Plotzk's part in that emigration (especially to the U. S. A.) was not
considerable, because its Jewish inhabitants did not suffer in those days as
much from anti-Semitic riots as Jewish communities in the Ukraine and
Bessarabia.

Not far from Plotzk two important industrial centers, Warsaw and Lodz,
attracted many jobless Jewish young people who tried to find employment as
factory workers in those towns. This was not too easy because even Jewish
industrialists were not always willing to employ them out of fear of negative
reactions from Christian workers.

The Jewish emigrants had to sell all their belongings in order to be able to
buy boat-tickets to the U. S. A. or to cover at least their travel-expenses to
Berlin. Their sufferings on the way to America, not having any hope to earn
their living where they were born  are described in the periodicals of that
time.

A perusal of the Hebrew press at the outset of the 20th century convinces us
that the members of the Jewish community of Plotzk were among the first who
adjusted themselves to the new era of Jewish national renaissance.

[Page 36]

Nahum Sokolovs Youth

by Florian Sokolov

The author, who is the son of the famous late Zionist leader Nahum Sokolov,
describes his prominent father's youth in Plotzk.

It appears that young Sokolov was greatly influenced in his time by the Jewish
atmosphere of the community, its youth, Jewish national movements, rabbis and
centers of religious and secular education. Nahum Sokolov, throughout his life,
even while a resident of great European capitals, remembered his childhood in
Plotzk. In one of his letters to his daughter he reveals in nostalgic expressions
his great affection for "his beloved Plotzk".

[Page 36]

Beginnings of Zionism in Plotzk

by Itzhak Grinbaum

The author, who was a leader of Polish Jewry before World War II and the first
Minister of the Interior of the State of Israel, describes the period between
the first and second Zionist Congresses, when the first Zionist group was
organized in Plotzk. The author describes in this connection the various
cultural activities as well as the disputes prevailing between Zionists and
their opponents in the community. He mentions the names of local Zionist
leaders and of personalities of the different groups ("Bund", Polish
Socialist Party and others) with whom he maintained contacts during his
political career. He portrays, among others, the life of Esther Golde, a woman
fighting for socialism, who played an important role in the general
Polish Socialist Movement and did not display any interest in Jewish problems.
Grinbaum visited Plotzk after the war but found no Jews there.

The classical assumption that the disappearance of the Jews from the economic,
cultural and social life of the town would create a vacuum did not come true.

Itzhak Grinbaum was the Guest Speaker at a Memorial meeting of the Plotzk Association, which
was held in 1951 in Tel Aviv. On this occasion he delivered a thoughtful
speech, containing many reminiscences of the town in which he spend nine years
of study at the local gymnasium.

Mentioning the various cultural and educational institutions, he drew loving
portraits of the teachers Shmuel Penson and A. Y. Papierna, the revolutionary leader
Josef Kwiatek and others, who left their imprint on the minds of the young generation, and
thanks to whom the Jewish Youth in Plotzk became spiritually elevated and
intellectually more broad-minded.

[Page 37]

Inauguration of the Jewish Gymnasium

by Y. M. Zlotnik

Excerpts from a booklet, published in 1917, which includes the speech delivered
by the then rabbi of Plotzk, R' Yona Mordechai Zlotnik at the inauguration of the
first Jewish secondary school in Plotzk.

The attitude shown by the above to general and secular Jewish education was at
that time quite different from that of other rabbis. He understood the modern
spirit of the Jewish youth well and knew that their assimilatory trends would
not be checked by "Chadarim" and "Yeshivot"
alone. For that reason Rabbi Zlotnik saw in the establishment of Jewish secondary
schools a stronghold of Judaism. He demanded from his teachers' devotion to their
extraordinary responsibilities. "We are now on the eve" said the rabbi,
"of the establishment of Jewish secondary schools and you, the teachers,
have to be pioneers in this field, and in the future you will be recognized for your
work".

His speech contains a few sentiments directed to the Christian population. He
explains that for the good of both Jews and Christians primary education should
be separate because just as it is impossible to give Christian children a good
Christian education in Jewish schools  Jewish religious education is possible
only in schools established exclusively for Jewish children.

The late Rabbi Zlotnik expressed his hope that one day a Jewish central institute for higher
education  a university  would be established. The rabbi expressed already
then, in 1917, his longings for a Hebrew University to rise in Jerusalem.

He concluded his words to his pupils by expressing his hope that they would
adapt themselves through the influence of the new school to the aim of
returning to their homeland Eretz Israel.

[Pages 37-38]

Memories of the Past

by Shlomo Rozen

The author pays tribute to some personalities who lived in Plotzk at the
beginning of the century, especially of the Chassidic circles. He describes
their orthodox way of life, adherence to different Chassidic rabbis and their
influence on that part of the younger generation which devoted itself to the
study of Torah and its commentaries. He also mentions a famous cantor whose
prayers, together with a choir, afforded the listeners great spiritual
enjoyment.

The second chapter describes the various groups of Jewish orthodox youth who
gathered in the local Beit Hamidrash. Some of those young people later
became famous in Jewish life in Poland and elsewhere, among them Rabbi Zlotnik-Avida
and others.

The third chapter is dedicated to the new ideas of progress, within both
secular and religious Zionism, which shaped the ideologies of those young
people. The author mentions the activities of Itzhak Grinbaum, Rabbi Lifshitz and others.

The second part of this article deals with the assimilationist groups of the
Plotzk Jewish community (the Kempner family and others) and with the people who
lived in the vicinity of the "Iron Gate"  a market place where
simple folk (tailors, butchers, fishmongers) lived and worked. The author
nostalgically describes these types of Jews, who added a special flavor to
the multifaced Jewish population of Plotzk.

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