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For centuries, the theory behind drug addiction was labored in the fogs of awkward myths and misconceptions. Drug abusers were then depicted as individuals with lack of morality and willpower, not as patients with a chronic brain disease.

Thanks to advances in scientific research. Drug addiction is now established as a disease that affects both brain and behavior. Revolutionary advances in neuroscience have revolutionized the views and understandings of drug addiction by scientists, enabling them to the development of newer approaches to the prevention and treatment.

Even with these advances in neuroscience, still there are many who live with the traditional set of beliefs about drug addiction, and don't understand how drugs change the brain over time. This article is written to cover that knowledge gap by providing scientific information about how the brain responds to addictive drugs and how drugs change the normal functioning of the brain.

The human brain is wired in a way that it can repeat life-sustaining activities by linking those activities with pleasure or reward. When any one does an action that satisfies a need or fulfills a desire, the brain's reward circuit is activated to produce pleasure feelings. The brain then records the action, making it a highly desired experience that needs to be performed again and again.

No one takes a drug intending to develop an addiction. Most often, people are caught in its snare because all drugs of abuse stimulate the same reward circuit. However, addictive drugs affect the brain much more intensely than natural rewards, such as eating, bonding, and sex. Di Chiara and Imperato (1988) suggested that drugs of abuse could release up to 10 times the amount of dopamine -- a neurotransmitter that regulates motivating behavior and feelings of pleasure -- that natural rewards produce.

Within a few minutes after entering the body, drugs cause significant changes in the brain's reward system by overstimulating the circuit with dopamine. The euphoric effects that the brain gets because of elevated dopamine levels strongly reinforce the behavior of drug use, and create the motivation for users to do it again.

To bring the overwhelming surges of dopamine in a manageable level, the brain adjusts by reducing normal dopamine activity. The brain's reward circuit, as a result, becomes less responsive to the abused drug. Consequently, the user's ability to feel any pleasure is also lessened, so he/she will need more of the substance next time to create a dopamine flood.

Continued use of addictive drugs has long-term effects on the brain's pleasure and reward system. Imaging studies on drug addicts have provided strong evidence of physical changes in brain regions that are connected to motivation, learning, decision-making, memory, and self-control. Hyman and Malenka (2001) suggested that these changes could be at the structural, cellular, molecular, and genomic levels.

Once the users start using the drug repeatedly, their reward circuit become increasingly desensitized. As a result, they need more high doses of the drug to bring dopamine levels up to normal. Eventually, they experience a loss of control over their drug use and develop a compulsive a drug-seeking behavior.

Over time, these changes outweigh the brain's normal hierarchy of needs and desires and substitute those with new priorities connected to drug seeking and using. Finally, everything that once held value in a user's life, such as job, family, and friends, are hijacked to the intense impulses for taking drugs. A drug user then turns into a drug addict.

Reference

Di Chiara G, & Imperato A (1988). Drugs abused by humans preferentially increase synaptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic system of freely moving rats. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 85 (14), 5274-8 PMID: 2899326

Do you know how stem cell therapy (SCT) is different from conventional therapies?

If you don't, then let me ask you another question: "Can you tell how conventional treatments help treat a disease or condition?"

Well, if you really don't have any understanding over how conservative treatments work, I believe the answer could be shocking for you. The truth is almost all chronic conditions have no cure. Except antibiotics, hormonal drugs, and chemotherapeutic agents, most standard pharmacological treatments just focus on alleviating symptoms associated with the condition and improving overall health-related quality of life, so that the immune system can do the rest. However, this is where SCT is different from other therapies.

What is Stem Cell Therapy, and How Does It Work?

SCT, also called regenerative medicine, uses stem cells, unspecialized biological cells that can develop into different cell types, or their derivatives to restore injured or dysfunctional tissue and organs in the body that are impaired due to age, disease, and genetic defects. Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) is the most familiar form of SCT, but some other therapies are also in use.

Stem cells are usually isolated from a tissue sample obtained from an individual. These cells are then grown and manipulated in a laboratory to develop them into specific types of cells, such as blood cells, nerve cells, or heart muscle cells. When these cells become specialized cells, they are then implanted into the individual. For example, if that individual has a heart disease, the healthy specialized heart cells could be injected directly into the heart muscle. The transplanted cells could then contribute to regenerate cardiac tissue and repair injured area.

Why Stem Cell Research is a Promising Field of Science?

Regenerative medicine is an emerging branch of medicine, and its research offers great promise for understanding basic mechanisms of how human cells develop and differentiate. As you know most of the serious medical conditions are because of underlying problems that occur within the body. Stem cell research promises a better understanding of the cell development process. Researchers believe this can allow us to find the root causes of those problems and possibly correct the errors.

Stem cells can self-renew and produce new stem cells. They have the potential to go to the injured areas and regenerate new cells and tissues by performing a repair and a restoration process. Scientist believe this regenerative process of stem cells can be used to treat a myriad of diseases conditions, and disabilities.

Already, many studies have demonstrated that SCT has the potential for providing cures for a wide range of problems, including diabetes, spinal cord injury, myocardial infarction, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and even targeting tumors. However, further research is underway to develop effective stem cell therapies that can be used in treating a wide variety of conditions, so it will likely take several more years to get the expected outcomes.

What Are the Cons?

Like any other therapies, SCT also has its own pros and cons. Some of the cons include:

Evidences to support the effectiveness of SCT are still limited, and yet, side effects are also unknown.

Currently, FDA has approved only a few stem cells therapies, and most of therapies available in the market are unapproved, so there is a strong chance that you'll just waste a great amount.

Research is underway and scientists are still looking for suitable methods to establish an effective therapy.

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Moreover, there has been much debate surrounding stem cell research and its therapy over the last several years. Many of you may have a general understanding of the controversy, but you need to know that stem cell therapies aren't new. For more than 30 years, doctors have been performing BMT. And, not all stem cell research are involved in ethical and political controversies.

The ethical controversy was ensued when embryonic stem cells research involved the creation, usage, and destruction of blastocytes (human embryos) in 1998. However, in 2006, researchers identified ways to stimulate an adult's own cells to act like embryonic stem cells. With the availability of this alternative method, the debate over stem cell research has become increasingly irrelevant.

A heart attack is not something that starts and ends within minutes; rather it is an ongoing event. The damage to your heart and body can be minimized by taking proper steps the minute the heart attack begins. The first thing you need to do is call 911 for help. Then, you may to take an aspirin.

How Does Aspirin Benefit the Heart?

When you cut yourself, the platelets clump together to make a blood clot and to seal the wound. This clumping action is useful since it stops the bleeding. However, if platelets build up on a small blood vessel, such as coronary artery, which is already narrowed due to heart disease, they can form blood clots.

Clots cause blocking of normal blood flow in vessels that supplies oxygen to the heart, which, eventually, results a heart attack or stroke. Aspirin dampens the clot-forming process by making blood platelets less sticky. This, in turn, lowers the odds of an artery blockage and prevents the risk of a fatal heart attack.

How Aspirin Works?

During a heart attack, plaque, substances that accumulate on the inner walls, rupture in the coronary artery. Once this rupture occurs, the body thinks there is an injury and calls upon platelets. The platelets go to work triggering a blood clot, similar to cutting a finger.

As the minutes tick by, the clot gets bigger. It continues to get larger until the artery is completely blocked. Blood no longer flows to the area of the heart that the artery is serving. Oxygen is no longer being carried to the heart by the blood. Without oxygen, this area of the heart starts to die. This is when a heart attack begins.

Inflammation is the body's natural response to infections and injuries. But, it is also a component for building-up of plaque. Aspirin prevents the plaque forming process by blocking the function of an enzyme called cyclooxygenase, which helps make a chemical called prostaglandin (a hormone-like substance that facilitates the inflammatory response).

However, prostaglandins don't just trigger the inflammatory reaction, they (not all, but some) can also cause the blood platelets to clump together and form clots. When aspirin blocks cyclooxygenase, this, in turn, inhibits the production of prostaglandins. Thus, aspirin prevents the formation of blood clots, as well.

Should I Take an Aspirin During a Heart Attack?

According to American Heart Association, aspirin isn't usually instructed during a stroke, because all heart attacks are not caused by blood clots. Ruptured blood vessels can also cause some strokes. The organization recommends that you shouldn't do anything before calling 911, as aspirin could actually make the bleeding from ruptured vessels more severe.

Yes, you may take an aspirin to reduce heart damage during a heart attack.

If you take an aspirin within the first 30 minutes, you will actually slow down the clumping of platelets and the formation of blood clots. This will help keep the flow of blood through the vessels, supplying the necessary oxygen to the heart. By taking aspirin, you may reduce the chances of severe damage resulting from a heart attack.

During a heart attack, chew one standard 325-milligram aspirin slowly, rather than swallowing the tablet. However, do not chew or break tablets or capsules that are extended-release -- swallow them whole.

Can I Take an Aspirin a Day?

In 2012, a large-scale population-based cohort study, published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, reported that daily intake of 300 milligrams or less of aspirin increased the incidence rate of major stomach or brain bleeding by 55 percent, greater than earlier research suggested.

No, daily aspirin therapy isn't for everyone. Review of data from clinical trials does not support a daily low dose of aspirin as a preventive medicine for strokes.

Just like you would for any other type of medication, be sure you ask your doctor prior to starting an aspirin therapy.

If aspirin is taken once a day without a doctor's consent, it can increase the risk of stomach ulcers and may cause abdominal bleeding. The once daily low dose is also not recommended for women over 60 or men over 50 who have diabetes.

If you have already had a stroke or have never had a heart attack but are at a high risk of getting one, you might benefit from a daily aspirin regimen unless you have a history of bleeding or aspirin allergy. However, it's better talk with your doctor first to make sure it is safe for you.

What Are the Risks of Taking Aspirin?

While aspirin benefits the heart inhibiting the clumping of platelets, it prevents the development of substances that keep the stomach's delicate lining. Although researchers have noted that aspirin is safe to use as directed, they can cause some side effects, as with any medication.

Some side effects of taking aspirin may include severe headache, nausea or vomiting, ringing in the ears, allergic reaction, stomach upset, stomach ulcers, and gastrointestinal bleeding.

Exercise is an essential component of a healthy lifestyle. It's not only great for you, but it makes you feel good and can improve your mood. The added benefits that you will see soon after starting is a great way to help keep you motivated for a new lifestyle. Everyone should find time for fitness in their schedule, whether they're a fitness-pro or a beginner!

For those who want to get started with a fitness routine, here are some of the basics. Read on for some fast facts, tricks and tips to start exercising and stick with it!

Let the health benefits be a motivating factor. First and foremost, exercise is good for you! It keeps weight under control, reduces the risk of life-threatening diseases – heart disease, cancer and type 2 diabetes to name a few – reduces stress, improves sleep patterns and increases life span. Know that every time you exercise, you’re doing something truly good for your body.

You don't need a lot of exercise to see a change. If you don't have lots of time to devote to fitness, don't worry –even small amounts can yield big benefits. Experts recommend 2.5 hours of moderate physical activity each week. This can be as simple as aerobic walking. Spread the time out over several days or do a few long workouts each week. It's up to you and what works best for your schedule!

Stick with it and you'll be able to do more difficult exercises. As your fitness level increases, combine moderate workouts with heightened physical activities. Vigorous exercise, like running, requires you to exert more energy, and with it comes more health benefits. Start slow and add an extra half mile or so and continue to challenge yourself and build on your work outs. Once you are ready, experts recommended 1.25 hours of vigorous activity a week. Learn: How to Strengthen the Body to Prevent Injuries?

Don't compare yourself with others. Keep in mind that each individual is different and not every fitness routine is right for everyone. The right amount and type of exercise will vary based on age and current fitness levels. To figure out what's right for you, use an online target heart rate tool to determine your target heart rate. This will help you determine what level of rigor you should be aiming for in your workouts.

Create fitness goals that are realistic. You shouldn't expect to see changes in your body overnight. It is important to remember that weight loss is not just tied to a number, so even if you do not see the scale move do not feel discouraged. To see results, you must be patient, dedicated, and realistic about what's attainable. Start on a small scale by creating goals for yourself each week. The success you feel as you reach these small goals will help keep you motivated. Learn: How to Set Realistic Weight Loss Goals

Workout with a friend. Ask a friend to join you in your exercise routine. This will make exercise fun – even something that you look forward to! Try running with a friend or participating in a group fitness class together. Not only will you have a reason to make time for exercise, but a friend can give you constant support and encouragement. This will be a good way to always have someone checking on you to make you accountable for your commitment to work out.

Sneak in ways to be active. Your exercise doesn't need to be limited to the gym. Find chances to incorporate additional activity into your daily life. Take a walk instead of a snack break, climb the stairs instead of using the elevator or walk somewhere instead of driving. These small amounts of physical activity add up and can help you make strides towards increasing your overall fitness.

Reward yourself. When you accomplish one of your fitness goals, reward yourself! Treat yourself to something when you run a certain distance, exercise for a certain number of hours or complete a challenging new routine. Buy a new item of clothing or a dinner that is special as well as healthy. These small rewards will remind you of your successes and keep you on track towards achieving your goals!

This is a guest post contributed by NorthShore University Health System, a comprehensive, fully integrated, healthcare delivery system that serves the Chicago region. With leading medical offices and hospitals in Chicago and the surrounding area, NorthShore provides patients with the care they need from certified nutritionists and other health specialists.

It’s just as important for haemophiliacs to lead active lifestyles as it is for those unaffected by the disease. There are a number of physical activities that haemophiliacs should avoid, but that doesn't mean that they can’t engage in physical activities and sports. They can participate in physical activities recommended by their physicians or doctors -- though with adequate caution.

The most well-known of these foods are those high in omega-3s such as salmon, sardines, green vegetables, nuts and whole grains, for instance wholemeal bread and pasta. However, these are not all -- many other foods can be beneficial for one’s joints and should therefore be included in haemophiliacs' meal plans.

Foods that are naturally antioxidant rich are particularly good for joint health because they help fight free radicals that may cause joint pain. The acronym 'ACES' is used for the powerful antioxidants Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Vitamin E and Selenium. The list of foods that are rich in these powerful antioxidants is quite a lengthy one; so, no doubt, you will have a variety of options.

Glucosamine, a naturally occurring fluid around the joints, is usually taken in supplement form. It’s also possible to get more glucosamine in one’s diet by eating more shellfish and also by consuming bone marrow and animal bones. So the next time you barbecue chicken, munch on the ends of the drumstick to increase your glucosamine and calcium intake.

PRICE – Essential for Athletes and All Haemophiliacs

The acronym ‘PRICE’ – Protection, Rest, Ice, Compression and Elevation – is something all haemophiliacs, whether they play sports or not, should learn and/or be taught from an early age because it’s essential for maintaining good joint health.

Haemophilia sufferers should be well acquainted with PRICE because applying the principle could help them to avoid surgical techniques – arthrodesis, arthroscopic, open and radionuclide synovectomy, orthopaedic surgery and total joint replacement – which are painful to say the least and often involve lengthy recovery times.

Protection – This entails protecting the affected area from further injury by, for instance, wearing a bandage, brace or a sling, or walking with crutches.

Rest – Haemophiliacs need adequate rest to allow their body to heal itself, plus resting reduces blood flow to the affected area which may result in further damage.

Ice – The best form of ice to apply to an injury is a pack of crushed ice. Ice should be applied to the injury for 20 minutes at a time and reapplied every two hours for as long as necessary.

Compression – A compression bandage or wrap should be applied after the ice pack has been removed to serve as a barrier that helps to minimise swelling.

Elevation – Elevating the injured area reduces blood flow and when possible the injured area should be elevated above the heart.

Physiotherapy – Every Active Haemophiliac Should Know a Physiotherapist

It’s a widely held belief that everyone who suffers from haemophilia should know a physiotherapist and pay them a visit on a regular basis -- though if you exercise and engage in sports, the need to have a relationship with a physiotherapist becomes even more essential.

Physiotherapy plays a major role in maintaining good joint health. Your physiotherapist can provide you with exercises that you may perform to keep your joints limber, in good health and at less risk of suffering joint bleeds.

Moreover, whenever you injure yourself or experience joint discomfort it’s important to pay your physiotherapist a visit to seek treatment.

Choose Low-Impact over High-Impact Sports

No doubt, low-impact sports usually aren't half the fun of high-impact sports, but they're much gentler and kinder on one's joints.

Most high-impact sports, notably boxing, rugby and hockey, aren't suitable for people with haemophilia, although some high-impact sports, like athletics and football, are OK. However, it is recommended that athletes should exercise caution and cease playing the moment they notice discomfort in their joints.

Low-impact sports, such as cycling, swimming and walking, are much easier on one's joints and are therefore preferable for people who suffer from haemophilia. However, whether you prefer low-impact or high-impact physical activities, it’s important to understand PRICE and cease exercising the moment you notice any discomfort in your joints because this could result in an internal bleed.

Maintaining good joint health as someone who suffers from haemophilia is extremely important if you’re to lead a relatively normal life and avoid the need for surgical procedures as a result of suffering a joint injury.

Asthma, a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways, causes breathing difficulty in affected people. There is no cure for asthma; the only thing you can do is keeping it under control.

While the root cause of asthma isn't revealed yet, several recent studies have come up with some new findings. These studies demonstrate that a number of environmental and biological factors are associated for developing asthma.

Signs and Symptoms of Asthma

Asthma symptoms range from mild to severe. Although the disease affects people of all ages but is very common among newborns and children -- especially those who are born with a low birth weight, have exposed to cigarette smoke, are black, and are grown up in a poor environment. Learn why children develop asthma.

Symptoms of asthma usually vary from person to person. You may experience completely different symptoms than others. One of the major reasons for that is our biological differences, as every human being is different in his/her biological set-up and lifestyle. Therefore, some people may experience an asthma attack with one or more symptoms while some others may experience it without any identified symptoms.

While not all people with the disease experience the same symptoms, but in most cases the early signs appear just before an asthma attack.

Mild asthma attacks are usually most common in patients with asthma. But with preventive measures, an asthmatic can easily keep the symptoms under control. On the other hand, severe asthma attacks are less common and can be life threatening. They can create an emergency where the asthmatic may need an immediate medical attention.

Mild asthma often doesn't come up with severe signs and symptoms, so you may not find any difficulty continuing your daily activities. However, the severity of an asthma attack can worsen drastically. Therefore, it is necessary for you to recognize these signs and symptoms and take preventive measures before your asthma worsen.

Asthma Triggers

Allergens, airborne irritants, viral infection, changes in the weather, sulfites in foods and drinks, some medicines, unhealthy lifestyle, and physical exercise have been identified as potential triggers for an asthma attack. Learn more about asthma triggers.

When to See a Doctor

If you are having breathing difficulty and experiencing any of the asthma symptoms mentioned above, consider consulting with your GP or an asthma specialist. Your GP may prescribe some medications and may suggest an action plan to control and prevent further asthma attacks.

Just by reading the title, it may seem to you that this article is biased -- and written to encourage the use of e-cigarettes. Well, it is not! I've written this article to discuss why this smokeless non-tobacco cigarette should be regulated like an usual cigarette.

I assume most of you have ample understanding about what an e-cigarette is and how it works. But I'm touching your knowledge base again, so that I could explain things in a better way.

E-cigarettes are an electronic -- battery-operated -- device that is intended to produce a sensation of smoking. They are smokeless and tobacco-free; don't deliver carbon monoxide or tars by burning tobacco leaves like usual cigarettes. Instead, they deliver smokers a hit of chemicals in vapor form. This vapor is a mixture of nicotine, propylene glycol, water, flavors, and other chemicals.

Over the past decade, e-cigarettes have rushed from a niche product to a booming market of nearly $2 billion a year. The manufacturers of e-cigarettes say or imply that they are far safer than conventional cigarettes and can be used as quit-smoking aids. Even many health experts agreed that they might be helpful for those who want to quit smoking. However, not enough scientific studies are done to evaluate the potential dangers of e-cigarettes, thus experts are still not sure what harm these might do to smokers.

As a result, there isn't any restriction on e- cigarettes from regulatory authorities as far, although FDA and EU recently proposed to regulate them. Yet, the makers can promote their products using catchy TV commercials as well as social media marketing. And, the users can use them in public places.

Many experts believe the use of e-cigarettes have been increased overtime among smokers due to no restriction of using them in places where tobacco smoking is banned or frowned upon. However, it is not evident that in public places, an e-cigarette smoker may not cause any harm to someone standing near him/her. But it has been suggested that the nonsmoker might have a strong possibility of getting a measurable nicotine level as well as formaldehyde and heavy metals ingestion.

Last December, a study published in the International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health reported that e-cigarettes impaired indoor air quality and increased airway inflammation. Moreover, because of finding high concentrations of PM2.5 during vaping sessions, and substantial amounts of propylene glycol, glycerin, and nicotine in the gas-phase, the researchers urged that e-cigarettes and nicotine liquids should be authoritatively regulated and labeled with proper warnings.

On the other hand, there is a growing fear among parents that their children will be more appealed to e-cigarettes -- and will eventually get addicted to nicotine, as they appear more safer than the conventional cigarettes. No doubt, this fear is obvious, because about 90 percent of smokers start smoking before age 16.

Furthermore, as there is no regulatory restriction, e-cigarettes have less oversight than any other consumer products in the market. Shockingly, they are often manufactured and/or imported from countries that are reported to taint pharmaceutical and food products.

I don't know whether it is really fair to regulate e-cigarettes or not. But, I believe if a fractional chance of health risk could arise from them, then they must be officially regulated.

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About Imtiaz Ibne Alam

Imtiaz is a certified health care professional (pharmacist) and a freelance medical writer. He holds a Bachelor's in Pharmacy from Bangladesh. After completing the bachelor’s degree in 2008, over the last 6 years, Imtiaz has been working in different medical and pharmaceutical projects. He has worked for three pharmaceutical companies in Bangladesh and is experienced in writing and updating pharmaceutical technical documents following local and international cGMP guidelines. Continue Reading