The fires of
the French revolution had scarcely flickered out when the bright flame of the
Romantic movement began to illuminate and transform the arts in Europe. The
romantic movement in ballet was born in Paris on November 21, 1831. The occasion
was the premiere of Mayerbeer’s opera Robert le diable which featured a ballet
sequence in which white-clad ghosts of dead nuns rose from their tombs and
danced a Valse infernale in eerie moonlight. Such an amazing success was this
episode - it became overnight the talk of Paris - that the tenor, Adolphe
Nourrit who was singing Count Robert, wrote a scenario for a new ballet with a
supernatural story, La Sylphide and offered it to the choreographer of the Valse
infernale, Filippo Taglioni. Taglioni’s daughter Marie, who had led the nuns in
the opera ballet, created the lead role in La Sylphide. There followed a spate
of ballets with supernatural themes of which the most famous was Giselle in
1842.

Petipa built his ballet La Bayadère on a strong Romantic base
using his own brand of classical aesthetic. Typical of the Romantic period is
the choice of exotic locale and the incorporation of ethereal beings. Petipa
based La Bayadère on the Indian classics by Kalidasa, Sakuntala and The Cart of
Clay. The Kingdom of the Shades seems to have been inspired by Gustav Doré’s
illustrations for Dante’s Paradiso. The Kingdom of the Shades is notable in that
it extended the frontiers of classical dance, providing an opportunity for the
dancers to showcase their pointe technique with classical purity in contrast to
the drama that surrounded it. It is regarded as the precursor of the white acts
of Swan Lake and Fokine’s famous Les Sylphides. La Bayadère also contained
monumental processional scenes including a live elephant and a tiger. (In
reference to the opera Aida, La Bayadère was tagged «Giselle, East of Suez.») La
Bayadère was first performed at the Maryinsky Theater, St. Petersburg, February
4, 1877.

Although Petipa enjoyed authority as sole ballet master of the
St. Petersburg theaters mounting a new ballet was fraught with difficulties. La
Bayadère was produced in a period when official policy discouraged the
invitation of foreign ballerinas to Russia. Leading Russian dancers were the
equivalent technically of their foreign counterparts but did not have the
ability to attract the audiences. There were also scheduling problems with the
Imperial Italian Opera which monopolized rehearsal time on stage and left only
two performances a week for the ballet. The opera also spent a lot of money
which placed fiscal restraint on the ballet by theater director Karl Karlovich.
It is reported that Petipa and his régisseur spent six months showing artists
their individual sections and could only put it all together once on stage.
There was only one dress rehearsal.

Despite being a benefit performance
for Ekaterina Vazem, with tickets being more expensive than for the opera, the
first performance of La Bayadère played to a full house. At the end of the
performance the audience applauded for more than half an hour. Among Mme Vazem’s
gifts was a ruby broach studded with diamonds, from the public, and flowers from
the opera star Adelina Patti. Reviews were uniformly complimentary although they
did register complaints of Petipa’s license in dealing with historical facts.
They also dwelt on the unavoidable mishaps that befall most first performances.
For example in the ‘Kingdom of the Shades’ scene the appearance of a magic
palace was mistimed and delayed until after Nikiya had turned to face it.

The original production of La Bayadère did not long survive Ekaterina
Vazem’s retirement. Between the premiere and Vazem’s farewell February 17, 1884,
it was given approximately 70 performances. Anna Johanson took over the lead
role five times in the 1884-85 season. After the second act alone was performed
in 1885, La Bayadère was dropped from the repertoire.

In 1900 a revival
was mounted to mark the 40th anniversary of dancer Pavel Gerdt’s artistic
career. He took the role of Solor in a largely unchanged production. The
entrance of the Shades was presented on a darkened stage (originally it had been
lit brilliantly), and the number of dancers expanded from 32 to 48. It appears
that much of the music was shortened. Although the dancers received glowing
reviews, Petipa’s choreography did not fare so well at this outing «perhaps more
boring than long and uninteresting.» The ballet was first seen outside Russia
(performed by the Kirov Ballet) in London, July 4, 1961 excerpted as The Kingdom
of the Shades. it was during this tour that Nureyev defected to the West. Two
years later he staged The Kingdom of the Shades for the Royal Ballet.The full
length ballet regained popularity with Nathalia Makarova’s sumptuous restaging
of the work for the American Ballet Theatre in 1980.

An
understanding of ballet productions of the period

It is
important to understand how ballets in this period were traditionally put
together. The librettist (or author) would select a story or legend that suited
his fancy and transpose it into a ballet in five or six acts, regardless of
weather it had sufficient dramatic content to support this length. The
librettist would also have little acquaintance with either the music,
choreography or design. The sole requisite for success was that everything
should center on one principal character to be interpreted by the prima
ballerina; the slightest incident, the feeblest action, served as excuse for
bringing in a dance.

Supernatural female creatures such as sylphs,
wilis, shades, water nymphs and later swans, enjoyed great popularity. They
appealed to the contemporary taste for idealized, fantasized womanhood and gave
an opportunity for abstract choreography for the corps de ballet.

Next a
composer was instructed to write the necessary music. It was usually the maître
de ballet (choreographer) who set out how many dances were needed in each act,
the types of music required (usually easily recognized marches, polkas or
waltzes), their length, tempo and beat. If a particular location was indicated
by the story, a liberal dose of appropriate national themes or instrumentation
was included. The composer was seldom familiar with the libretto, so often the
music was not a suitable match for the action. Since dance rehearsals were
usually accompanied on the piano, the orchestral coloration of the music was
seldom known before the first orchestra rehearsal. Therefore it was not uncommon
for a large ensemble piece to be danced to airs lightly scored in the strings,
and ethereal moments to be accompanied by the brass.

The maître de
ballet tended to hang the dances on a framework, the style and sequence of which
were based on established tradition. The prima ballerina must have her pas de
deux with variations and coda, and there had to be at least one «pas d’action»
for the dancer to display her abilities in mime. The premier danseur also was
due his variation, and the corps de ballet had their «ballabiles» to give the
principal characters a chance to rest and change costumes. It was also usual to
introduce a number of «pas de caractère» for the soloists. It was also an
important element to include processions for crowds who countermarched like
soldiers, in geometric formations. The scenery and costume designers also worked
in a vacuum. Although knowledgeable in historic ornamentation and styles of
architecture, the scenic designer’s chief concern was to provide a sense of
richness and spaciousness no matter what the subject matter. In almost every
ballet there was a lake-side scene, from which convention the members of the
corps de ballet in the last row became known as «les ballerines près de l’eau».
Convention also demanded that however historically correct the majority of the
costumes were, the dancers had to wear a ballet skirt, pink maillot and rose
colored ballet shoes. The dancers’ hairstyles always followed the prevailing
fashion of the day, often decorated with a diamond tiara. The public saw nothing
wrong in a dancer interpreting a humble peasant wearing jeweled bracelets or
pearls.

Finally if the leading dancers liked the choreography, all was
well and good. If not, the dance could be cut regardless of concern for musical
flow, or a dance from another ballet could be inserted.

Young warriors led by Solor are hunting a tiger. Before entering the forest
Solor asks a fakir, named Magedavia, to tell Nikia, a bayadere, that he will
wait for her near the temple.

The High Brahmin and priests are solemnly leaving the temple. The feast of
worshipping fire begins. Fakirs and votaries of the temple, bayaderes, are
performing sacred dances. Beautiful Nikia is among them. She adorns the
festival.

Having forgotten about his ordination and vow of celibacy, the High Brahmin
tells Nikia that he loves her and promises to place at her feet all the riches
of India. Nikia rejects his wooing. She will never love him. Nikia and other
bayaderes give the fakirs water from the sacred pool. Imperceptibly Magedavia
tells Nikia that Solor will come to see her. The bayadere is happy.

It is getting dark. Nikia comes to meet her beloved. Their secret rendezvous
is guarded by the fakir. But the High Brahmin manages to overhear the
conversation of the sweethearts.

Solor proposes that they elope. The bayadere agrees, but first she wants him
to vow fidelity to her at the sacred fire. Solor takes the oath. The High
Brahmin is infuriated. He appeals to the gods and demands punishment. His
revenge will be terrible.

Next morning the rajah Dugmanta, head of the principality, tells his daughter
Gamzatti that she will see her fiance that day. The rajah sends for the
fiance. It is the brave warrior Solor. The rajah shows Solor his beautiful
daughter and proclaims them bride and groom. The warrior is struck by Gamzatti’s
beauty. But he remembers the bayadere, his vow to her, and is thrown into
confusion.

It is time to hold the ceremony of consecrating Gamzatti’s betrothal. Nikia
is invited to the palace for the ceremony. The High Brahmin arrives. He
wants to tell the rajah a secret. Dugmanta sends everybody away. Gamzatti feels
that the High Brahmin’s arrival is somehow connected with her forthcoming
marriage and eavesdrops on the Brahmin’s conversation with her father.

The High Brahmin tells the rajah about Solor’s love for Nikia. Dugmanta is
infuriated but doesn’t change his mind to give his daughter in marriage to
Solor. The bayadere, who made Solor take the oath, must die.The High Brahmin who
had wanted to get rid of his rival, didn’t expect such a turn of events. He
threatens the rajah with punishment of the Gods for the bayadere’s death. But
the rajah is unrelenting.

Gamzatti orders her slave to bring Nikia. She sees that the bayadere is very
beautiful and can be a dangerous rival. The rajah’s daughter tells the bayadere
about her forthcoming marriage and invites her to dance at the feast. She
deliberately shows her the portrait of her fiance Solor. Nikia protests: Solor
loves only her and he made a vow of eternal fidelity. The rajah’s daughter
demands that Nikia should give up Solor. But the bayadere would rather die than
part with Solor. Gamzatti offers her jewels. Nikia throws them away with scorn.
Nothing will make her part with her beloved. She raises her dagger in a rage.
The slave stops her. But Gamzatti will never give her fiance back.

Act II

A sumptuous feast is being held on the occasion of Solor and Gamzatti’s
engagement. The bayadere Nikia is supposed to entertain the guests with dances.
She can’t hide her grief. Her eyes are fixed on her beloved Solor.

The fakir presents Nikia with a basket of flowers on behalf of Solor. The
bayadere’s dance is filled with happiness. But suddenly a snake crawls out of
the flowers and bites her fatally. Nikia realizes that the rajah’s daughter
is to blame for her death. The High Brahmin promises to save her life if she
will love him. But the bayadere is faithful to her love for Solor. Nikia dies.
Solor leaves the feast in despair.

Act III

Solor is inconsolable. He is gnawed by remorse. He enjoins the fakir to
distract him from his grievous thoughts. Fascinated by the sacred dance, Solor
sinks into the world of dreams.

Shadows appear to him out of the darkness. They are descending from mountains
in a long file. Solor sees fair Nikia among them… Solor comes out of his
dazed state and hurries to the temple. He prays to the gods to forgive him. But
it’s too late. The infuriated gods punish Solor for his betrayal of love.
Lightning and thunder destroy the temple. There is no more reality for Solor. He
follows the shadow of fair Nikia…