This chapter is from the book

DAN Tedesco noticed two things while standing in front of the vending machine
down the hall from his desk. First, the machine was once again sold out of
Snickers bars and, once again, still held a stack of Mounds bars.
Secondand this was the thing that bothered himSnickers bars and
Mounds bars both sold for the same price. On this particular day this seemed
particularly wrong.

Incongruity is the mother of invention. Dan Tedesco is an expert in something
called "revenue management." He works at Walker Digital, the parent
company that created and spun off Priceline, the reverse auction company.
Priceline's original focus had been on selling seats on airplanes that
would have otherwise stayed empty. Prospective travelers offer to buy seats
between, say, Chicago and Phoenix at some price that they are willing to pay.
Then the airlines flying between Chicago and Phoenix survey the offers from
different buyers and decide whether they have seats that look like they will
otherwise go unfilled and whether the offers look attractive. If it looks like
accepting an offer will produce some additional revenue (the plane is flying in
any case, with or without customers in seats), the airline sells a seat at the
offered price. Consumers think of Priceline as a way to fly on the cheap. But
airlines think of Priceline as one component in their broader programs for
revenue management. Tedesco knew all about those programs.

Why couldn't you use revenue management to make vending machines more
profitable? Why should candy bars, chips, and the other products in vending
machines always sell for fixed prices rather than in response to the preferences
of the local market that the vending machine serves? Many new vending machines
have microprocessors; why not use the machines as point-of-sale devices in an
overall revenue management system? Tedesco went back to his office with a candy
bar that he didn't really want and began thinking about these
questions.

Tedesco works in an environment that takes such questions very seriously. His
business card says that his title is "Inventor." Walker Digital has
developed a set of procedures to help inventors determine whether questions such
as Tedesco's have answers that might lead to useful
inventions.1

The first step in the Walker Digital process involves making a quick
determination as to whether the inventor really has a new idea. Have other
people been thinking, talking, or writing about applying revenue management to
vending machines? If so, even if it is a great idea, it may be difficult to
protect. Walker Digital is not interested in business ideas that are just going
to be copied as soon as they are introduced. Instead, Walker is interested in
inventions that are unique enough to receive patent protection.

In the course of assessing the "protectability" of his potential
invention, Tedesco surveyed the structure and the state of technology in the
vending machine industry. His objective was to determine, first, whether the
idea looked viable from the 35,000-foot level. For example, if he had found that
digitally controlled vending machines were having a hard time finding acceptance
and that the industry was moving back to mechanical machines, that would have
been a cause for concern (and perhaps an indicator that there was another
potential invention lurking in the background).

What Tedesco found was reassuring. Microprocessors were being used in
increasing numbers of vending machines, but the focus was on bringing down
costs, on performing basic accounting, and in some cases on enabling purchases
against a debit card rather than requiring change. In other words, the vending
machine industry was still thinking of the machine's function in the same
way that it had for the last fifty years, as a dispensing and collection device.
Nobody was thinking in terms of the machine as a point-of-sale device within an
inventory and revenue management system. So, Tedesco's insight might really
be a new one, which is to say a protectable one.

Having established that the potential invention was worth a closer look,
Tedesco's next step was to arrange a "knockout" search. At Walker
Digital the small group of inventors is complemented by a small group of
top-notch patent attorneys. Since the potential value of an invention depends
both on its solving a business problem and its being protectable, attorneys and
inventors work together as a team from the outset. At Walker there is no
throwing an invention over the wall to "legal" to start the patent
process; the legal and business objectives are pursued in parallel. The purpose
of the knockout search, which involves an average of 10 hours of patent and
literature searching, is to uncover any prior art that might weaken or constrain
the invention's patentability and value.

Dan Tedesco's vending machine idea made it through the knockout search
without a hitch. That meant it was potentially valuable enough to bring before
the entire group of inventors at Walker for consideration, brainstorming, and
critiquing. The working group of inventors, led by founder Jay Walker, is small,
numbering between a half dozen and a dozen people. The size varies as inventors
move from the working group out to individual projects and back and as the group
looks at different technologies and businesses.

The inventors are generalists who have acquired lots of specific knowledge
over time. They proceed by asking questions. Why hasn't revenue management
been thought of before in the vending machine industry? How is ownership and
control of vending machines distributed: who would make the buying decisions?
How would the cost of the management compare with the expected revenues?

The objective is not to answer all the questions but instead to ensure that
there are no immediately negative answersno slapping of a palm against the
middle of a forehead. The questions, of course, also push and extend the
inventor's thinking. If the questions raise only interesting possibilities,
and if the impact and value of the invention looks large enough, the group
authorizes further investment in developing and patenting the invention.
Everybody at Walker Digital, attorneys and inventors alike, has an equity stake
in the outcome; everybody wants to develop a portfolio of inventions that builds
value, and nobody wants to waste time on marginal inventions.

Tedesco received authorization to proceed with developing his potential
invention. This meant weeks of intense research and work to define the scope of
the invention, develop and describe an implementation, and evaluate the business
case behind the invention's use. The research required analyzing the
structure of the vending machine industry and understanding current revenue
flows and bottlenecks. The analysis looked both for horizontal applications
across the different industry segments and for rich, vertical starting points.
Tedesco looked beyond U.S. practice to understand how the vending business works
in Japan and other countries where vending applications are radically different
than they are in the United States. He focused on understanding how the patent
would become an opportunity for Walker Digital to make money.

The research took about a month. Tedesco had been working with the patent
attorneys assigned to the team from the outset; now it was time to develop the
disclosure statement that would be used as the foundation for the patent. The
research team had been continuing its search for prior art and for possible
evidence that the invention might be obvious. At Walker Digital the average
amount of time invested in patent and literature research for a patent
application is 26 hours, in addition to the time spent on the knockout search.
Outside of Walker the average amount of time spent searching for prior art
related to an invention is more like 8 hours. The investment that Walker makes
in its research is a reflection of its focus on protectability. Walker intends
to make money by enjoying a protected monopoly on important ideas. It wants its
monopoly position to be a sure thing.

Walker Digital constructs its invention process around the fact that the U.S.
patent system grants patent rights to the person who is the "first to
invent" something, rather than first to file a complete patent application.
This means that Walker moves quickly once it has an interesting idea. It also
means that Walker is careful to document each step of the process, starting with
the initial idea and going forward. All documents are notarized. If it looks
like it will take more than a few weeks to define the claims that will be made
in the patent and to reduce the invention to practice, Walker will sometimes
file a provisional application, which requires only a description of the
invention but does not require claims. The purpose of the provisional
application is to establish an early filing date to support the other evidence
that a Walker Digital inventor was, in fact, the first to invent.

In the case of Tedesco's vending machine invention, the Walker team was
able to prepare an initial patent application after several months of work. But
filing the application, complete with claims, was in no way an end point. Walker
Digital is a business methods laboratory. The company's value is tied to
the value of its inventions. That value is determined, in part, by ensuring that
inventions can be protected. Protectability is what drives the company's
focus on rapid development of inventions and of patent applications. But the
other key determinant of an invention's value is its scope and its ability
to either increase a business's revenues or decrease costs. Walker Digital
wants inventions that are not only protectable but that also have a big
impact.

It would be very unusual to have developed the maximum scope and impact of a
new business method in just a few months. So, after the initial application
filing, Tedesco continued to study the vending machine industry. He also began
looking hard at the more general issues associated with revenue management in
retail sales. He began thinking about ways to sell slow-moving inventory, or
inventory that is reaching the end of its shelf life, by changing things other
than price. What would happen if, instead of dropping the price, you offered
package deals that bundled slow-moving products with ones that were in more
demand? In other words, the initial patent application was not an end point but
a beginning. Dan Tedesco had a lot more work ahead of him.

A Business Method Laboratory

Dan Tedesco and the company that he works for, Walker Digital, approach
business method patents from a different direction, with different objectives,
than Amazon, Signature Financial Group, and most other companies that we have
looked at in the preceding chapters. Walker is not selling books or managing
funds but is actually focused on inventing new ways to do business. Its
inventions center around the way that networks, distributed computing, and
encryption create new opportunities to access and use information.
Tedesco's vending machine invention is a good example: the key to the
invention was the realization that the vending machines with microprocessors
(and perhaps with an address on the Internet) have access to information that is
not currently being put to productive use.

At Walker Digital the process of invention is not a complement to the primary
business; it is the business. Success is measured in terms of the
company's ability to create inventions that can be spun off into new
companies or that can be licensed to other companies and perhaps traded for
equity in those companies. Patents are central to the Walker Digital strategy:
Walker is counting on receiving a limited monopoly that protects its exclusive
right to exploit its inventions.

Monopoly is a familiar game for Jay Walker, the company's founder and
driving force.2 As a student at Cornell University he took on the
task of mastering the Parker Brothers game of that name and, within a couple of
years, won the world championship. To describe the situation using one of Jay
Walker's favorite metaphors, he unraveled the DNA of Monopoly. Naturally,
he decided to profit from his research, and so, continuing the metaphor, he
published a book that contained the DNA sequencing for Monopoly, titled 1,000
Ways to Win Monopoly Games. One might have expected Parker Brothers to see
such a book as free promotion for the gamea good thing. But instead the
company reacted as if Walker really were publishing Monopoly's DNA
sequencing and, before the book appeared, sued Walker to stop publication.
Walker hired attorneys and fought the suit, arguing that Parker Brothers was
attempting to exercise prior restraint against his right to publish freely. He
won the case and ended up using the proceeds from the book to pay for his legal
expenses.

After graduating from Cornell, Walker started a number of publishing
ventures, including a magazine that focused on coupons and other promotions for
retail businesses. It seemed that every time he got a new idea, he started a new
business. By the early 1990s he had started more than a dozen of them. Some
didn't work out, but others, such as the businesses that grew from his idea
about ways to automate magazine subscription renewals, made a fair amount of
money.

In the early 1990s Walker began reading about encryption and the truly
revolutionary invention by Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman of a way
to exchange encrypted information without first exchanging encryption keys.
(This is the RSA public key cryptography algorithm, U.S. patent number
4,405,829. I provide an overview of this algorithm and its uses in Part III as
part of the description of electronic signatures.) Walker had been thinking
about casinos, and it struck him that encryption provided a way to create a
hand-held casino that would be immune from cheating and deception. But along
with this insight came a problem: his model for making money from his ideas had
always been to build a business around them. He wasn't going to open a
casino. Besides, it seemed to him that the idea of encryption was so powerful
and had the capability of transforming so many businessesnot just
casinosthat he felt suddenly overwhelmed by opportunity. He could not
possibly start and successfully manage the scores of businesses that
corresponded to all the applications that he could see for encryption. Was there
some way to ride above the details of all these individual businesses and make
money just by developing the ideas? Walker began reading up on patent law. In an
interview with Strategy+Business published in mid-2000, he described what
happened next:

I hired some lawyers and said, "Let me see if I've got this right.
If I invented the credit card and was able to describe it as a 'periodic
billing system for transaction charges,' I would have been able to own the
credit card?" And the patent lawyers said, "Yeah." I said,
"If I invented the frequent-flyer program as a 'rewards points
tracking system,' I could have owned any frequent-flyer program?"
"Sure, of course," they said. And I said, "Does it strike any of
you as odd that nobody owns those things?" And they said, "Business
does that all the time. They invent things and they don't realize they
could own them." . . . So I started raising and investing
millions of dollars on the basis that I could invent new solutions that were
indeed ownable. If they were useful, they'd be valuable. And if they
weren't useful, I would just own something useless. The only question was:
Was I going to own land in Montana or own land on Park Avenue. That's about
the quality of invention, not the quality of patents. It turns out I can own
land on Park Avenue.3

In short, when Jay Walker understood that he could patent business methods,
he realized that he had found just what he was looking for: a way to own a new
business idea, such as the idea to apply revenue management to vending machines,
just like he could own a car or land. If he could own enough really critical,
valuable patents, it would be just as good, maybe better, than owning a lot of
midtown Manhattan. In the past year Walker Digital has applied for around 150
patents, each one a piece of conceptual real estate located somewhere between
Montana and Park Avenue.

The most well-known Walker patents are the ones associated with Priceline. In
the case of these patents Walker fell back to his old model of starting a
business as a way of getting a return from his inventions. Walker describes this
as a kind of bootstrap strategya way to generate some immediate cash flow
while he waits for his other investments in inventions to mature. The intent
over the longer run is to demonstrate to established businesses how they could
benefit from the inventions. Once Walker Digital sells a company on the value of
a new invention, Walker and the partner company can work together to find ways
to cooperate and share in the upside. The options range from equity partnerships
to simple licensing agreements.

In summary, Walker Digital is playing a long game. It typically takes two to
three years to receive a patent, and in most cases Walker Digital will want to
wait until the patents are in place before beginning the sales, demonstration,
and negotiation process. Full patent protection increases Walker's leverage
in negotiations about licensing and ensures that anyone who decides to simply
copy the ideas and infringe on Walker's patents will be facing treble
damages. It's just like Monopoly: you want to make sure, if possible, that
you have hotels built on Boardwalk and Park Place before the other players land
on them.