Relativity Science CalculatorLearn Einstein Special and General Relativity mathematics cosmology physics history and philosophy using Macintosh (Mac) Relativity Science Calculator software. This is not just another website with a Java relativity calculator on it. This site is a very comprehensive collection of all matters relating to relativity.https://www.relativitycalculator.com/
http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/tech/rssen-usWed, 18 Feb 2015 19:14:45 -0500Wed, 18 Feb 2015 18:49:20 -0500FeedForAll Mac v2.1 (2.1.0.1); http://www.FeedForAll.com/Relativity Science Calculator Home PageYou are about to enter a voyage of knowing and understanding your physical world. It is a voyage built upon the knowledge and understandings handed down to us by ancient Greek philosophers and thinkers, astronomers and mathematicians, right straight down thru to Einstein and other modern men and women of wisdom and insight into nature's ultimate secrets.

How, for instance, was the earth's circumference determined by simply pacing out steps on the earth's surface while at the same time thinking about this problem? Or, how was the distance to the sun and other planets determined with only their light coming into the eyes of those wise enough to understand and interpret its significance? Why, anyways, is it so significant to understand the nature of light and its distant travels? And how, by the way, do we literally count time and distances when simply standing on the earth's surface? Simply standing on either the moon or mars does not alter this basic question because their distances to the galaxies are not significantly different from that of the earth to these far off filaments in the universe.

As each of these questions - simple and not so simple - came into the minds of great thinkers past, an arduously built staircase of knowledge of experimental and mathematical latices came to be constructed. And what questions were heretofore never even imagined by the Ancients such as whether we exist in a multi-verse system of bubbling, interacting and competing universes, are now being asked by modern cosmologists possessing newer and more powerful tools of theoretical mathematics and applied experimentation.

Finally, of what importance is all this knowledge and understanding to human existence? This is not a minor question.

This is not an easy question to answer. We all intuitively "understand time" by the clocks and calendars we invent to "measure it". In a sense, therefore, the "concept of time" is given an "operational definition" by these invented instruments which ultimately relate back to earth's axis of rotation as well as its orbital transit about the solar system's sun.

Perhaps a more elegant definition of time would involve the relative motion of objects [ or event-objects ] such as the statement "this event-object occurred before that event-object" in a volume of human-perceived 3-d space.

And the "units of time" are suggested to the human mind by the regularity of recurring event-objects such as the periodicity of the sun's rising and falling. Other units of time were also suggested to the early Greek astronomer-philosophers as they studied the celestial movements of stars and planets.

Dictionary definition of time according to Webster's College Dictionary, 2001: " 1. the system of those sequential relations that any event has to any other, as past, present, or future; indefinite and continuous duration regarded as that in which events succeed one another."

A more precise yet simpler definition of time given by this author: time is an accounting of the relative motions of bodies. Or, time is a system of accounting for the relative motion of bodies. And how we keep "score" is by means of human - invented clocks and calendars.

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0691EDB8-79C1-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-00000012AFA98407-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:26:47 -0500Early Models of the Universe<DIV style="text-align: justify;">"What are the uniform and ordered movements, by the assumption of which the apparent movements of the planets can be accounted for?" - Plato 4th Century B.C.<BR></DIV><BR><DIV style="text-align: justify;">
The Anthropic Principle - From the Greek word for human being ( ἄνθρωπος - ánthrōpos ), the Anthropic Principle has come to mean that there exists in the universe finely tuned constants and forces such as space - time curvature, K, the fine - structure constant∗ or the Summerfeld fine-structure constant, which may or may not actually be constant, introduced into physics in 1916 by German theoretical physicist Arnold Summerfeld ( 1868 - 1951 ) ( consisting of the speed of light, Planck's Constant, elementary charge, and the permittivity of free space or space's ability as an intermediary to transmit forces ), and the four fundamental forces of nature ( strong nuclear force, weak nuclear force, electromagnetism, and gravity force ) together with dark energy, all of which conspire to produce the configuration of the present universe and thence the carbon necessary for intelligent human life on Planet Earth to have successfully evolved. Change one constant or one force, and intelligent human life on Planet Earth ceases to exist. [ note: whether intelligent human life continues successfully on Planet Earth is definitely up for debate ] This latter is also sometimes referred to as "carbon chauvinism" as there may actually be alternative bio-chemistries in the universe as the basis for the development and evolution of intelligent life forms different from our own. Nevertheless we are what we are in this carbon-based world of ours, and the Anthropic Principle still stands as a unifying philosophical statement as to why everything exists as it does.
</DIV>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/models_universe.shtml
08CB7B94-79C1-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-00000012B713F933-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:26:53 -0500The Earth's Circumference<DIV style="text-align: justify;">Or, how far is Paris from Ceyenne, French Guiana? This was a critical question for Giovanni Cassini in 1672 in his determination of the Mars Parallax. <BR></DIV><BR><DIV style="text-align: justify;">
The earliest Greek philosophers and mathematicians considered the sphere to be among the most perfect of all geometric figures. With a few exceptions such as Homer and Anaximenes, practically all Greek Era thinkers beginning with Pythagoras ( 569 - 475 BC ) and Aristotle ( 384 - 322 BC ) believed that Earth was God's creation of the perfect celestial body and hence was created as the perfect spherical object in the heavens. Plato guessed Earth's circumference as ≈ 40,000 miles while Archimedes ( 287 - 212 BC ) estimated it as ≈ 30,000 miles. Only Hellenistic philosopher and mathematician Eratosthenes ( 276 - 194 BC ), born in Cyrene ( modern Libya ), but working, studying and dying in Alexandria, Ptolemaic Egypt, first did devise the mathematics for determining Earth's circumference and hence its diameter. Besides studying in Athens and Alexandria, Eratosthenes was the 2nd appointed head in 236 BC of the Great Library at Alexandria succeeding Zenodotos. Cleomedes's "On the Circular Motion of the Celestial Bodies" gives the first reasonable description of Eratosthenes's Earth circumference mathematics where in 240 BC at the summer solstice on June 21st, the sun shone directly overhead in Syene ( now Aswan, southern Egypt ), but yet cast a shadow upon the ground at noontime by the Alexandria Spire equal to ≈ 1/8th the height of the large tower.</DIV>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/earth_circumference.shtml
0A8D2D7E-79C1-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-00000012BCEEEE51-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:26:57 -0500Phenomenon of Parallax<DIV style="text-align: justify;">Against a very distant seemingly "fixed star" background, any nearby star will display an apparent movement as the Earth revolves in its orbit about the Sun. This apparent movement produces an angle of perception called "angle of Parallax" which is used to measure the distance to the star from Earth. This phenomenon is similar as to when an object is held at arm's length and seems to move against a more distant background as each eye is opened and closed. However at extreme distances the angle of Parallax becomes infinitesimally small and hence unusable.</DIV> https://www.relativitycalculator.com/parallax_and_history.shtml
0C16B868-79C1-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-00000012C20EBA48-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:27:02 -0500Kepler's 1st Law ( Planetary Law of Ellipses )<DIV style="text-align: justify;">Kepler's 1st Law ( Planetary Law of Ellipses ) - All planetary orbits are ellipses with the Sun at one of the two foci.</DIV>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/Kepler_1st_Law.shtml
0D99E444-79C1-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-00000012C7194A59-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:27:06 -0500Kepler's 2nd Law: Equal Areas in Equal Times.<DIV style="text-align: justify;">The Law of Equal Areas states that a line joining a planet and its star sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.</DIV> https://www.relativitycalculator.com/Kepler_2nd_Law.shtml
0F17DDF8-79C1-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-00000012CC128091-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:27:10 -0500Kepler's 3rd Law ( Harmonic Law )<DIV style="text-align: justify;">Kepler's 3rd Law ( Harmonic Law ) - The square of a planet's orbital period is directly proportional to the cube of the planet's mean distance ( semi-major axis of the planet's elliptical orbit ) from the</DIV> https://www.relativitycalculator.com/Kepler_3rd_Law.shtml
10A890C2-79C1-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-00000012D14A26A1-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:27:14 -0500Galileo Galilei<DIV style="text-align: justify;">"Galileo ... is the father of modern physics -- indeed of modern science" - Albert Einstein ( 1879 - 1955 )</DIV>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/Galileo.shtml
C16C3E5C-4072-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-000000481F73964C-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:27:19 -0500The Earth-Sun DistanceOr, how far are the planets from the Sun?

To solve this problem, it was necessary in the History of Science for the following to have occurred:

• Tycho Brahe's planetary data, especially that of Mars

• The mathematics of Parallax utilized by Giovanni Cassini in 1672 at the Royal Observatory, Paris

• Kepler's Equations of Planetary Motion

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134192FC-79C1-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-00000012D9F2CB7C-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:27:23 -0500Olaf Roëmer and the speed of light<DIV style="text-align: justify;">Almost from ancient times, light has been acknowledged as the transmitter of information to human eyes. Without light hardly anything is known about the "external world". Aristotle ( 384-322 BC ) conceived of light as ubiquitous and instantaneous whereas Empedocles of Acragas ( 492-432 BC ), Sicilian philosopher-physician-poet and Socrates contemporary, philosophized that the time of transit of light thru an intervening space and bringing information to an observer's eye is finite. <BR></DIV><BR><DIV style="text-align: justify;">
More recently, however, the first acknowledged quantitative determination of the finite speed of light was performed by Danish Olaf Roëmer ( 1644-1710 ) in December 7, 1676 and officially published in "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, No. 136; June 25, 1677, by Olaf Roëmer".</DIV>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/Olaf_Roemer.shtml
14FFBA9C-79C1-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-00000012DFC1F416-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:27:27 -0500Isaac Newton's Axioms or Laws of MotionDEFINITIONS
by Isaac Newton:

§ Absolute, true, and mathematical time, of itself and from its own nature, flows equably without relation to anything external, and by another name is called "duration"; relative, apparent, and common time is some sensible and external (whether accurate or unequable) measure of duration by the means of motion, which is commonly used instead of true time, such as an hour, a day, a month, a year.

§ Absolute space, in its own nature, without relation to anything external, remains always similar and immovable. Relative space is some movable dimension or measure of the absolute spaces, which our senses determine by its position to bodies and which is commonly taken for immovable space; such is the dimension of a subterraneous, an aerial, or celestial space, determined by its position in respect of the earth. Absolute and relative space are the same in figure and magnitude, but they do not remain always numerically the same. For if the earth, for instance, moves, a space of our air, which relatively and in respect of the earth remains always the same, will at one time be one part of the absolute space into which the air passes; at another time it will be another part of the same, and so, absolutely understood, it will be continually changed.

§ Absolute motion is the translation of a body from one absolute place into another, and relative motion the translation from one relative place into another.

[ note: translated from the original Latin by Andrew Motte ( 1729 ), as revised by Florian Cajori ( Berkeley, University of California Press, 1934) ]

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3C727E05-4073-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-00000049B98359CF-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:27:32 -0500Isaac Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation<DIV style="text-align: justify;">Derivation of Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation based upon Kepler's equations ...</DIV> https://www.relativitycalculator.com/Newton_Universal_Gravity_Law.shtml
F98FB4A2-4073-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-0000004C2FDCF1AE-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:27:37 -0500The Calculus<DIV style="text-align: justify;">Besides inventing the <u>algorithmic calculus</u> during the respective periods 1665 - 66 for Isaac Newton and 1673 - 76 for Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, Newton also in his Methodus Fluxionum and De Quadratura effectively created <u>tables of integrals</u>, these two mathematical geniuses contemporaneously made the amazing discovery of the anti - derivative of the integral, viz., <u>The Fundamental Theorem of The Calculus</u>, where ... </DIV>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/philosophy_of_mathematics.shtml
67ADC0DC-4074-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-0000004D9EE73C2C-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:27:41 -0500Some Consequences of Kepler, Galileo and Newton<B>§ Determining the masses of near and distant disk galaxies:</B><BR><DIV style="text-align: justify;">
Amazingly, we use Newton's and Kepler's Laws of motion! This is accomplished first by astronomical observations of the outer most "spiral tail" of disk galaxies to determine both the radial distance to the galactic center as well as the period of rotation about the galactic center for these tails. Of course, both in terms of distances and rotational periods these quantitative elements are neither easy to obtain nor are they anything within normal human experience. In fact, everything regarding cosmic expanses is totally behind normal human experience. But the further amazing thing is that these cosmic quantities and their related cosmic galaxies are not beyond human knowledge and understanding!! This in turn leads to applying Newton's Law of Gravitational Attraction and Kepler's 3rd ( Harmonic ) Law as we previously did in the following manner ... </DIV>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/some_consequences_Kepler_Galileo_Newton.shtml
420FB6CF-4076-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-00000053CC1A3CF2-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:27:44 -0500Solution to The 2-Body Problem<DIV style="text-align: justify;">The center of mass ( barycenter ) will lay along a radial vector r connecting masses m1 and m2, where its position, cm, along the radial vector lies in exact proportion to the relative amount of mass at each end of the radial vector. That is, the ratios ... </DIV>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/2-body-problem.shtml
E9E9D6DA-4076-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-00000055FB951447-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:27:48 -0500Rocket Equations: Newton's 3rd Law of Motion<DIV style="text-align: justify;">"To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts"<BR></DIV>
<BR><DIV style="text-align: justify;">
"Houston, Tranquility Base here, the Eagle has landed!" - Neil Armstrong, Apollo 11, July 20, 1969</DIV>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/rocket_equations.shtml
9F8689FC-4077-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-0000005858ED43F4-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:27:54 -0500Distance and the John Harrison time clocks which measure it"The clock is a piece of machinery whose 'product' is seconds and minutes" - Louis Mumford ( 1895 - 1990 )

"The clock, not the steam engine, is central to the industrial revolution. The clock is the crowning achievement that all other machines aspire to."

Louis Mumford ( 1895 - 1990 )

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1C845C0A-79C1-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-00000012F8D1485D-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:28:00 -0500The Luminiferous Aether WindOr, what is the nature of light and how does it comes to our eyes?

According to Isaac Newton ( 1642 - 1727 ) in his "Opticks" ( 1704 ) light is transmitted at a finite speed by the "Luminiferous Aether Wind" which is the common or universal medium of propagation. This aether wind was further hypothesized as an absolute and stationary "frame of reference" for the measurement of time, especially as James Clerk Maxwell's ( 1831 - 1879 ) equations for electromagnetic radiation - including light - required it.

The Luminiferous Aether was imagined by physicists since Isaac Newton as the invisible "vapor" or "gas aether" filling the universe and hence as the carrier of heat and light to our eyes, although we now understand by Maxwell's equations that these are both a unified electromagnetic phenomena.

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1ECA1A04-79C1-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-0000001300645CF5-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:28:04 -0500A Deeper Understanding of the Mathematics of the Michelson-Morley ExperimentOk, so how does the FitzGerald-Lorentz Contraction Equation solve the Michelson-Morley null result?

Remember, at this stage of physics understanding ( 1895 ) the idea of the hypothetical luminiferous aether is still being maintained and that the FitzGerald-Lorentz Contraction Equation is being utilized in an ad-hoc fashion in order to rescue the concept of the aether! That is, the interpretation given by Lorentz for this "contraction effect" was wrong, nevertheless the equation was correct and it would shortly enter into a pantheon of other equations developed by Poincaré and others leading ultimately to the tensor mathematics of Special Relativity.

In truth the FitzGerald-Lorentz Contraction Equation only temporarily postponed the eventual abandonment of the concept of an invisible luminiferous aether. It will be Albert Einstein's publication in 1905 of the tensor mathematics of Special Relativity and Einstein's concept of space-time with the Lorentz Transformation Equations ( as the FitzGerald-Lorentz Contraction Equation came to be known ) at its core foundation to have finally "solved" the Michelson-Morley null result.

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31D7E112-79C1-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-000000133FE7538A-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:28:43 -0500Relativistic Sinusoidal Wave Function<DIV style="text-align: justify;">An observer in stationary S system would therefore view a sinusoidal wave form as ... but another observer in relatively moving S' system would view the same sinusoidal wave form as follows: </DIV>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/sinusoidal_wave_function.shtml
33544F76-79C1-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-0000001344DB6BEF-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:28:51 -0500Time as the 4th Dimension<DIV style="text-align: justify;">Ok, so we now know about the Lorentz Transformation Equations. So why is time the 4th dimension?</DIV>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/time_4th_dimension.shtml
34A62304-79C1-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-0000001349417B80-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:28:56 -0500Addition of Relativistic VelocitiesThe Problem:

At velocities approaching the speed of light, mass-particles and other object bodies contract in the direction of motion as well as the measurement of time dilates ( contracts ) as seen by an outside ( relatively ) stationary observer. In fact, the speed of light itself determines the very upper limit of velocity at which any object body or mass-particle can attain because otherwise the frame of reference of such an object body ( or mass-particle ) would "outrun" any light propagation from itself and would thus violate the Lorentz Transformation Equations upon which all has been derived up to this point in our discussion of Special Relativity by giving imaginary number results as can be viewed directly from the Lorentz equations themselves.

However for velocities simply approaching the speed of light, nevertheless no simple Galilean addition of velocities of two or more frames of references of bodies will suffice because of physical body distance contraction and time dilation effects.

How to solve this problem of Addition of Relativistic Velocities will now form the following text.

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35DE823E-79C1-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-000000134D52B3F7-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:29:00 -0500Nature's Laws of ConservationMass: Mass is the measure of resistance of an object body [ or mass-particle ] to change(s) in its velocity ( acceleration ).

Conservation of Mass: The total amount of mass contained in any aggregate of object bodies [ or mass-particles ] before any change(s) in motion will be equal to the total amount of aggregate mass after any change(s) in motion of this aggregation of object bodies [ or mass-particles ].

Conservation of Momentum:

According to Newton's 3rd Law ( Principle of Equality of Action and Reaction ) for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

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370913EA-79C1-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-000000135135EACE-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:29:04 -0500Law of Conservation of Orbital Angular Momentum<DIV style="text-align: justify;"><B>The Problem:</B> By what mathematical physics can the following phenomena of nature shown in this video be explained?</DIV>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/law_conservation_angular_momentum.shtml
67BD3AB9-4078-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-0000005AF445FE14-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:29:08 -0500Impulse and Momentum<DIV style="text-align: justify;">... <B> Maximum kinetic energy loss of a system of particles:</B><BR></DIV><DIV style="text-align: justify;">
What this signifies is that for any system of particles the maximum energy loss will never be more than the kinetic energy of its center of mass frame which is equivalent to the kinetic energy of the particles contained within the center of mass frame itself.</DIV>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/impulse_momentum.shtml
0AD87A14-4079-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-0000005D13EF6EFF-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:29:12 -0500The Law of Energy Conservation and the Doppler EffectJohann Christian Andreas Doppler ( born Salzburg, Austria, 1803 - died Venice, Italy 1853 ) is the Austrian mathematician and physicist after whom this observed wave - frequency shift is named; ironically it was as a result of the 1866 Seven - Weeks War that "shifted" Johann Doppler's grave site from Austria to Italy.

Doppler Effect: Up until now our perspective has been from the point of view of an oscillating atom as the source of the light - emitting ; however, each and every one of the previous equations can be almost transferred whole to the macro universe. That is, receding and approaching bodies and galaxies, each by themselves, define a self - contained inertial frame of reference.

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EFC15434-4079-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-000000600EEE2E5E-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:29:15 -0500The binomial expansion<DIV style="text-align: justify;">The binomial expansion is integral for eventually deriving Einstein's E=mc2 and hence is of vital importance!</DIV>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/binomial_series.shtml
529C592C-79C2-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-0000001702720CD0-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:29:20 -0500Mass as a Variable QuantityMass as a Variable Quantityhttps://www.relativitycalculator.com/mass_variable.shtml
546DF382-79C2-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-000000170882096D-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:29:23 -0500E=mc2, Law of Inertia of EnergyE=mc2, Law of Inertia of Energyhttps://www.relativitycalculator.com/E=mc2.shtml
563795BA-79C2-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-000000170E777684-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:29:27 -0500Some Consequences of E=mc2Because of different relative velocities for different observers in different frames of reference, the values of p and E ( momentum and energy respectively ) will accordingly be

different for different observers residing in different systems.

However ...

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57F8FCE0-79C2-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-0000001714517442-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:29:31 -0500Explaining Relativity for The LaymenNote: The following arises from a questioning email received from my sister, Bethie, about Relativity Science Calculator and my answer in return:

Dearest Bethie!

It's just Algebra.

And diagrams.

But truthfully it does defy ordinary common sense.

Think of it this way ...

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B1C5B60B-4079-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-0000005F4054ACA9-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:36:05 -0500Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle• The subatomic world of nature at its essentially reduced smallest is comprised of localized packets of energy best shown as waves comprised of a variety of wavelengths.

• Because these localized packets of energy are comprised of a variety of wavelengths of different waves, therefore a wave-particle also possesses a variety of momenta since ...

• We can now plainly see that in order to maintain constancy in the above equation, that as the composite variety of wave lengths for a mass-particle becomes overall shorter, the overall composite magnitude of the variety of momenta must become greater.

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5A6C84E2-79C2-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-000000171C7D31AE-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:29:38 -0500The Compton Effect<DIV style="text-align: justify;">The Compton Effect is whenever an incoming gamma- photon ( monochromatic beam of x rays or gamma rays ) hits a stationary electron, part of the photon's energy is transferred to the released electron with the consequent result of the scattered gamma-prime- photon having a lower energy level as well as concomitant lower frequency and longer ( increased ) wavelength. The collision will have enough energy to make a new wave-particle of the same type, in this case another electron. This is all summarized by Planck's relationship ... </DIV>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/compton_effect.shtml
5C16F25A-79C2-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-00000017220A9B31-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:29:41 -0500The Photoelectric EffectYour Majesty, Your Royal Highnesses, Ladies and Gentlemen.

There is probably no physicist living today whose name has become so widely known as that of Albert Einstein. Most discussion centres on his theory of relativity. This pertains essentially to epistemology and has therefore been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles. It will be no secret that the famous philosopher Bergson in Paris has challenged this theory, while other philosophers have acclaimed it wholeheartedly. The theory in question also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time.

... Similarly, when a quantum of light falls on a metal plate it can at most yield the whole of its energy to an electron there. A part of this energy is consumed in carrying the electron out into the air, the remainder stays with the electron as kinetic energy. This applies to an electron in the surface layer of the metal. From this can be calculated the positive potential to which the metal can be charged by irradiation. Only if the quantum contains sufficient energy for the electron to perform the work of detaching itself from the metal does the electron move out into the air. Consequently, only light having a frequency greater than a certain limit is capable of inducing a photo-electric effect, however high the intensity of the irradiating light. If this limit is exceeded the effect is proportional to the light intensity at constant frequency. Similar behaviour occurs in the ionisation of gas molecules and the so-called ionisation potential may be calculated, provided that the frequency of the light capable of ionising the gas is known.

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D79759CC-407D-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-0000006D138E6BFE-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:29:45 -0500The Big Bang - the earliest galaxy detected<DIV style="text-align: justify;">Astronomers say they may have detected the light from some of the earliest stars to form in the Universe.<BR></DIV>
<BR><DIV style="text-align: justify;">
They have pictures of what appear to be very faint galaxies that shone more than 13 billion years ago, a mere 500 million years after the Big Bang.</DIV>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/articles/Big_Bang/earliest_galaxy.html
237942BB-4086-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-00000088BCF77093-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:29:49 -0500COSMOLOGY: The Universe's Invisible HandDark energy does more than hurry along the expansion of the universe. It also has a stranglehold on the shape and spacing of galaxieshttps://www.relativitycalculator.com/articles/dark_energy/The_Universe's_Invisible_Hand.html
6103A5D8-79C2-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-000000173274E137-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:29:54 -0500Cosmos: Dark Energy's Hand in the Universe<DIV style="text-align: justify;">The universe gives up its deepest secret<BR></DIV><DIV style="text-align: justify;">
It is the invisible material that makes up most of the cosmos. Now, scientists have created the first image of dark matter</DIV>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/articles/dark_matter/scientists_have_created_the_first_image_of_dark_matter.html
6331D744-79C2-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-0000001739B98243-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:29:58 -0500A.D. 100 Billion: The Big Bang Goes Completely DarkCosmic expansion may leave astronomers of the far future with no hint of the big bang that started it allhttps://www.relativitycalculator.com/articles/dark_matter/A.D._100_Billion_Big_Bang_Goes_Bye-Bye.html
6512B97A-79C2-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-000000173FFC6D85-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:30:02 -0500Relative Motion of Solitons in the Light-Carrying EtherSeveral errors in the mathematical part of the special theory of relativity are found. The transformations of space and time are obtained provided all elementary particles, of which material bodies consist, are soliton formations of the light-carrying ether. The reverse transformations, and also the formula for the composition of velocities are obtained (these formulae differ from the appropriate formulae of the non-ether theory of relativity). It is shown that, in accordance with the proposed point of view, the interference pattern in the experiments with Michelson's interferometer must not depend on the orientation of the device. The formula for Doppler's effect is obtained provided photons are soliton formations of the ether.https://www.chavarga.iatp.org.ua/Soliton_engl.htm
673F5FD2-79C2-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-00000017473BE1D7-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:30:05 -0500Quantum Quirk: Stopped Laser Pulse Reappears a Short Distance AwayHarvard University researchers have halted a pulse of laser light in its tracks and revived it a fraction of a millimeter away. Here's the twist: they stopped it in a cloud of supercold sodium atoms, known as a Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC), and then restarted it in a second, distinct BEC as though the pulse had spookily jumped between the two locations.https://www.relativitycalculator.com/articles/Bose-Einstein-Condensate/Quantum_Quirk.html
68E56EEE-79C2-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-000000174CBABBF2-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:30:08 -0500Quantum Gravity - The Self-Organizing UniverseA new approach to the decades-old problem of quantum gravity goes back to basics and shows how the building blocks of space and time pull themselves together. https://www.relativitycalculator.com/articles/quantum_gravity_renate_loll/Self-Organizing_Quantum_Universe.pdf
4BEFA4E1-4087-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-0000008C9923C0F0-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:30:12 -0500The End of Cosmology?An accelerating universe wipes out traces of its own orginshttps://www.relativitycalculator.com/articles/the_end_of_cosmology/the_end_of_cosmology.html
CAB11A55-4087-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-0000008E3FA3C0EF-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:30:15 -0500Does Time Run Backwards?One of the most basic facts of life is that the future looks different from the past. But on a grand cosmological scale, they may look the same. https://www.relativitycalculator.com/articles/time_runs_backward/page_48.html
13E4DF82-4088-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-0000008F33A2C0D5-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:30:20 -0500Multiple UniversesFifty years ago Hugh Everett devised the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics, in which quantum effects spawn countless branches of the universe with different events occurring in each. https://www.relativitycalculator.com/articles/multiple_universes_hugh_everett/page_98.html
7611B5FE-4088-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-000000907ADEF582-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:30:24 -0500"The Universe on a String", by Brian Greene, New York Times, 2006The combined equations of general relativity and quantum mechanics yield similar problems. While the conflict rears its head only in environments that are both extremely massive and exceptionally tiny — black holes and the Big Bang being two primary examples — it tells of a fissure in the very foundations of physics.https://www.relativitycalculator.com/articles/string_theory/The_Universe_on_a_String.html
71171054-79C2-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-00000017680ABFF4-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:30:28 -0500Spectacular Hubble Telescope image of a barred spiral galaxyScience Daily — The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope has delivered an unrivalled snapshot of the nearby barred spiral galaxy NGC 1672. This remarkable image provides a high definition view of the galaxy’s large bar, its fields of star-forming clouds and dark bands of interstellar dust.https://www.relativitycalculator.com/articles/hubble_telescope/Spectacular_Hubble_Image_Barred_Spiral_Galaxy_NGC_1672/Barred_Spiral_Galaxy_NGC_1672.html
000A13B2-4089-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-0000009246BFDA63-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:30:31 -0500Early Clues to Human OriginsLost in a Million-Year Gap, Solid Clues to Human Origins ... The origin of Homo is one of the most intriguing and intractable mysteries in human evolution. New findings only remind scientists that answers to so many of their questions about early Homo probably lie buried in the million-year dark age.https://www.relativitycalculator.com/articles/miscellaneous/human_origins.html
5B5E84DC-4089-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-00000093772AE5CE-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:30:35 -0500"Village May Have Housed Builders of Stonehenge", New York Times, 2007<DIV style="text-align: justify;">New excavations near Stonehenge have uncovered hearths, timbers and other remains of what archaeologists say was probably the village of workers who erected the monoliths on Salisbury Plain in England.<BR></DIV><BR><DIV style="text-align: justify;">
The archaeologists announced yesterday that the 4,600-year-old ruins appear to form the largest Neolithic village ever found in Britain. The houses at the site known as Durrington Walls were constructed in the same period that Stonehenge, less than two miles away, was built as a religious center, presumably for worshipers of the sun and for their ancestors.</DIV>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/articles/miscellaneous/Village_May_Have_Housed_Builders_of_Stonehenge.html
75048DFE-79C2-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-0000001775225A67-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:30:38 -0500"Early Astronomical ‘Computer’ Found to Be Technically Complex", New York Times, 2006Decoding the Ancient Greek Astronomical Calculator Known as the Antikythera Mechanism (Nature)

But a century ago, pieces of a strange mechanism with bronze gears and dials were recovered from an ancient shipwreck off the coast of Greece. Historians of science concluded that this was an instrument that calculated and illustrated astronomical information, particularly phases of the Moon and planetary motions, in the second century B.C.

The instrument, the Antikythera Mechanism, sometimes called the world’s first computer, has now been examined with the latest in high-resolution imaging systems and three-dimensional X-ray tomography. A team of British, Greek and American researchers deciphered inscriptions and reconstructed the gear functions, revealing “an unexpected degree of technical sophistication for the period,” it said.

The researchers, led by the mathematician and filmmaker Tony Freeth and the astronomer Mike G. Edmunds, both of the University of Cardiff, Wales, are reporting their results today in the journal Nature.

They said their findings showed that the inscriptions related to lunar-solar motions, and the gears were a representation of the irregularities of the Moon’s orbital course, as theorized by the astronomer Hipparchos. They established the date of the mechanism at 150-100 B.C.]]>https://www.relativitycalculator.com/articles/miscellaneous/early_astronomical_computer.html
7716E6A0-79C2-11E4-8414-000D9337B6BA-760-000000177C0A2296-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:30:42 -0500Breaking Out of the Malthusian TrapFor thousands of years, most people on earth lived in abject poverty, first as hunters and gatherers, then as peasants or laborers. But with the Industrial Revolution, some societies traded this ancient poverty for amazing affluence.

Historians and economists have long struggled to understand how this transition occurred and why it took place only in some countries. A scholar who has spent the last 20 years scanning medieval English archives has now emerged with startling answers for both questions.

Gregory Clark, an economic historian at the University of California, Davis, believes that the Industrial Revolution — the surge in economic growth that occurred first in England around 1800 — occurred because of a change in the nature of the human population. The change was one in which people gradually developed the strange new behaviors required to make a modern economy work. The middle-class values of nonviolence, literacy, long working hours and a willingness to save emerged only recently in human history, Dr. Clark argues.

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F34A2370-4089-11DD-9D28-000D9370A646-1208-00000095718B5FDD-FFAWed, 18 Feb 2015 18:30:45 -0500"The Sideral Messenger" by Galileo Galilei
AND PROPOSING THEM TO THE ATTENTION OF EVERY ONE,
BUT ESPECIALLY PHILOSOPHER AND ASTRONOMERS
BEING SUCH AS HAVE BEEN OBSERVED BY
GALILEO GALILEI

A GENTLEMAN OF FLORENCE
PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PADUA,
WITH THE AID OF A
TELESCOPE