Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī

Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī, in full Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī al-Sayyid Muḥammad ibn Ṣafdar al-Ḥusayn, also called Jamāl al-Dīn al-Asadābādi, (born 1838, Asadābād, Persia [now Iran]—died March 9, 1897, Istanbul), Muslim politician, political agitator, and journalist whose belief in the potency of a revived Islamic civilization in the face of European domination significantly influenced the development of Muslim thought in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Very little is known about Afghānī’s family or upbringing. Despite the appellation Afghānī, which he adopted and by which he is best known, some scholars believe that he was not an Afghan but a PersianShīʿite (i.e., a member of one of the two major divisions of Islam) born in Asadābād near Hamadan in Persia. An appreciable part of Afghānī’s activities took place in areas where Sunnism (the other major division of Islam) was predominant, and it was probably to hide his Persian and Shīʿite origin, which would have aroused suspicion among Sunnis, that he adopted the name Afghānī. As a young man, he seems to have visited, perhaps in order to extend and perfect his theological and philosophical education, Karbalāʾ and Al-Najaf, the Shīʿite centres in southern Mesopotamia, as well as India and perhaps Istanbul. The intellectual currents with which he came in contact remain obscure, but whatever they were, they made him early into a religious skeptic.

Only from about November 1866, when Afghānī appeared in Kandahar, Afghanistan, can evidence be pieced together to form a consecutive and coherent picture of his life and activities. From the death in 1863 of the famous Dōst Moḥammad Khān, who had ruled for more than 20 years, Afghanistan had been the scene of civil wars occasioned by the quarrels of his sons over the succession. In 1866 one of these sons, Shīr ʿAlī Khān, was established in the capital, Kabul, but two of his brothers, Moḥammad Afḍal Khān and Moḥammad Aʿẓam Khān, were threatening his tenure. In January 1867 Shīr ʿAlī was defeated and expelled from Kabul, where Afḍal and, upon his death shortly afterward, Aʿẓam reigned successively in 1867–68. At the end of 1866 Aʿẓam captured Kandahar, and Afghānī immediately became Aʿẓam’s confidentialcounselor, following him to Kabul. He remained in this position until Aʿẓam was in turn deposed by Shīr ʿAlī, who succeeded in regaining his throne in September 1868.

That a foreigner should have attained so quickly such a position was remarked upon in the contemporary accounts; some scholars speculate that Afghānī (who then called himself Istanbulī) was, or represented himself to be, a Russian emissary able to obtain for Aʿẓam Russian money and political support against the British, with whom Aʿẓam was on bad terms. When Shīr ʿAlī succeeded in regaining the throne, he was naturally suspicious of Afghānī and expelled him from his territory in November 1868.

Afghānī next appeared in Istanbul in 1870, where he gave a lecture in which he likened the prophetic office to a human craft or skill. This view gave offense to the religious authorities, who denounced it as heretical. Afghānī had to leave Istanbul and in 1871 went to Cairo, where for the next few years he attracted a following of young writers and divines, among them Muḥammad ʿAbduh, who was to become the leader of the modernist movement in Islam, and Saʿd Pasha Zaghlūl, founder of the Egyptian nationalist party, the Wafd. Again, a reputation of heresy and unbelief clung to Afghānī. The ruler of Egypt then was the khedive Ismāʿīl, who was both ambitious and spendthrift. By the mid-1870s his financial mismanagement led to pressure by his European creditors and great discontent among all his subjects. Ismāʿīl tried to divert their wrath from himself to the creditors, but his maneuvers were clumsy, and, in response to French and British pressure, his suzerain, the Ottoman sultan, deposed him in June 1879. During this period of political effervescence, Afghānī attempted to gain and manipulate power by organizing his followers in a Masonic lodge, of which he became the leader, and by delivering fiery speeches against Ismāʿīl. He seems to have hoped to attract thereby the favour and confidence of Muḥammad Tawfīq Pasha, Ismāʿīl’s son and successor, but the latter, reputedly fearing that Afghānī was propagating republicanism in Egypt, ordered his deportation in August 1879.

Afghānī then went to Hyderabad, India, and later, via Calcutta (now Kolkata), to Paris, where he arrived in January 1883. His stay there contributed greatly to his legend and posthumous influence as an Islamic reformer and a fighter against European domination. In Paris, Afghānī, together with his former student ʿAbduh, published an anti-British newspaper, al-ʿUrwat al-wuthqā (“The Indissoluble Link”), which claimed (falsely) to be in touch with and have influence over the Sudanese Mahdī, a messianic bearer of justice and equality expected by some Muslims in the last days. He also engaged Ernest Renan, the French historian and philosopher, in a famous debate concerning the position of Islam regarding science. He tried unsuccessfully to persuade the British government to use him as intermediary in negotiation with the Ottoman sultan, Abdülhamid II, and then went to Russia, where his presence is recorded in 1887, 1888, and 1889 and where the authorities seem to have employed him in anti-British agitation directed to India. Afghānī next appeared in Iran, where he again attempted to play a political role as the shah’s counselor and was yet again suspected of heresy. The shah, Nāṣer al-Dīn Shāh, became very suspicious of him, and Afghānī began a campaign of overt and violent opposition to the Iranian ruler. Again, in 1892, his fate was deportation. For this, Afghānī revenged himself by instigating the shah’s murder in 1896. It was his only successful political act.

From Iran, Afghānī went to London, where he stayed briefly, editing a newspaper attacking the shah and urging resistance to him and particularly to the tobacco concession that had been granted to a British subject. He then went to Istanbul, in response to an invitation made by an agent of the sultan. The sultan may have hoped to use him in pan-Islamic propaganda, but Afghānī soon aroused suspicion and was kept inactive, at arm’s length and under observation. He died in Istanbul. His burial place was kept secret, but in 1944 what was claimed to be his body, owing to the mistaken impression that he was an Afghan, was transferred to Kabul, where a mausoleum was erected for it.