Tag: printing

Simple Text and Graphics

Note: This article was originally written by Jonathan Cauldwell and is reproduced here with permission.

Introduction

So you’ve read the Z80 documentation, you know how the instructions affect the registers and now you want to put this knowledge to use. Judging by the number of emails I have received asking how to read the keyboard, calculate screen addresses or emit white noise from the beeper it has become clear that there really isn’t much in the way of resources for the new Spectrum programmer. This document, I hope, will grow to fill this void in due course. In its present state it is clearly years from completion, but in publishing the few basic chapters that exist to date I hope it will be of help to other programmers.

The ZX Spectrum was launched in April 1982, and by today’s standards is a primitive machine. In the United Kingdom and a few other countries it was the most popular games machine of the 1980s, and through the joys of emulation many people are enjoying a nostalgic trip back in time with the games of their childhoods. Others are only now discovering the machine for the first time, and some are even taking up the challenge of writing games for this simple little computer. After all, if you can write a decent machine code game for a 1980s computer there probably isn’t much you couldn’t write.

Purists will hate this document, but writing a game isn’t about writing “perfect” Z80 code – as if there were such a thing. A Spectrum game is a substantial undertaking, and you won’t get around to finishing it if you are too obsessed with writing the very best scoring or keyboard reading algorithms. Once you’ve written a routine that works and doesn’t cause problems elsewhere, move on to the next routine. It doesn’t matter if it’s a little messy or inefficient, because the important part is to get the gameplay right. Nobody in his right mind is going to disassemble your code and pick faults with it.

The chapters in this document have been ordered in a way designed to enable the reader to start writing a simple game as soon as possible. Nothing beats the thrill of writing your first full machine-code game, and I have set out this manual in such a way as to cover the very basic minimum requirements for this in the first few chapters. From there we move on to cover more advanced methods which should enable the reader to improve the quality of games he is capable of writing.

Throughout this document a number of assumptions have been made. For a start, it is assumed that the reader is familiar with most Z80 opcodes and what they do. If not there are plenty of guides around which will explain these far better than I could ever do. Learning machine code instructions isn’t difficult, but knowing how to put them together in meaningful ways can be. Familiarity with the load (ld), compare (cp), and conditional jump (jp z / jp c / jp nc) instructions is a good place to start. The rest will fall into place once these are learned.

Tools

These days we have the benefit of more sophisticated hardware, and there is no need to develop software on the machine for which it is intended. There are plenty of adequate cross-assemblers around which will allow Spectrum software to be developed on a PC and the binary file produced can then be imported into an emulator – SPIN is a popular emulator which has support for this feature.

For graphics there’s a tool called SevenUp which I use, and can thoroughly recommend. This can convert bitmaps into Spectrum images, and allows the programmer to specify the order in which sprites or other graphics are sorted. Output can be in the form of a binary image, or source code. Another popular program is TommyGun.

Music wise I’d recommend the SoundTracker utility which can be downloaded from the World of Spectrum archives. There’s a separate compiler program you’ll also need. Bear in mind that these are Spectrum programs, not PC tools and need to be run on an emulator.

As editors and cross-compilers go I am not in a position to recommend the best available, because I use an archaic editor and Z80 Macro cross-assembler written in 1985, running in DOS windows. Neither are tools I would recommend to others. If you require advice on which tools might be suitable for you, I suggest you try the World of Spectrum development forums. This friendly community has a wide range of experience and is always willing to help.

Personal Quirks

Over the many years that I have been writing Spectrum software a number of habits have formed which may seem odd. The way I order my coordinates, for example, does not follow the conventions of mathematics. My machine code programs follow the Sinclair BASIC convention of PRINT AT x,y; where x refers to the number of character cells or pixels from the top of the screen and y is the number of characters or pixels from the left edge. If this seems confusing at first I apologise, but it always seemed a more logical way of ordering things and it just stuck with me. Some of my methodology may seem unusual in places, so where you can devise a better way of doing something by all means go with that instead.

One other thing: commenting your code as you go along is important, if not essential. It can be hellishly difficult trying to find a bug in an uncommented routine you wrote only a few weeks ago. It may seem tedious to have to document every subroutine you write, but it will save development time in the long run. In addition, should you wish to re-use a routine in another game at some point in the future, it will be very easy to rip out the required section and adapt it for your next project.

Other than that, just have fun. If you have any suggestions to make or errors to report, please get in touch.

Jonathan Cauldwell, January 2007.

Hello World

The first BASIC program that most novice programmers write is usually along these lines:

10 PRINT "Hello World"
20 GOTO 10

Alright, so the text may differ. Your first effort may have said “Dave is ace” or “Rob woz ere”, but let’s face it, displaying text and graphics on screen is probably the most important aspect of writing any computer game and – with the exception of pinball or fruit machines – it is practically impossible to conceive a game without a display. With this in mind let us begin this tutorial with some important display routines in the Spectrum ROM.

So how would we go about converting the above BASIC program to machine code? Well, we can PRINT by using the RST 16 instruction – effectively the same as PRINT CHR$ a – but that merely prints the character held in the accumulator to the current channel. To print a string on screen, we need to call two routines – one to open the upper screen for printing (channel 2), then the second to print the string. The routine at ROM address 5633 will open the channel number we pass in the accumulator, and 8252 will print a string beginning at de with length bc to this channel. Once channel 2 is opened, all printing is sent to the upper screen until we call 5633 with another value to send output elsewhere. Other interesting channels are 1 for the lower screen (like PRINT #1 in BASIC, and we can use this to display on the bottom two lines) and 3 for the ZX Printer.

Running this listing fills the screen with the text until the scroll? prompt is displayed at the bottom. You will note however, that instead of each line of text appearing on a line of its own as in the BASIC listing, the beginning of each string follows directly on from the end of the previous one which is not exactly what we wanted. To achieve this we need to throw a line ourselves using an ASCII control code. One way of doing this would be to load the accumulator with the code for a new line (13), then use RST 16 to print this code. Another more efficient way is to add this ASCII code to the end of our string thus:

string defb '(your name) is cool'
defb 13
eostr equ $

There are a number of ASCII control codes like this which alter the current printing position, colours etc. and experimentation will help you to decide which ones you yourself will find most useful. Here are the main ones I use:

13 NEWLINE sets print position to the beginning of the next line.

16,c INK Sets ink colour to the value of the following byte.

17,c PAPER Sets ink colour to the value of the following byte.

22,x,y AT Sets print x and y coordinates to the values specified in the following two bytes.

Code 22 is particularly handy for setting the coordinates at which a string or graphic character is to be displayed. This example will display an exclamation mark in the bottom right of the screen:

Printing Simple Graphics

Moving asterisks around the screen is all very fine but for even the simplest game we really need to display graphics. Advanced graphics are discussed in later chapters, for now we will only be using simple Space Invader type graphics, and as any BASIC programmer will tell you, the Spectrum has a very simple mechanism for this – the User Defined Graphic, usually abbreviated to UDG.

The Spectrum’s ASCII table contains 21 (19 in 128k mode) user-defined graphics characters, beginning at code 144 and going on up to 164 (162 in 128k mode). In BASIC UDGs are defined by poking data into the UDG area at the top of RAM, but in machine code it makes more sense to change the system variable which points to the memory location at which the UDGs are stored, which is done by changing the two-byte value at address 23675.

We can now modify our moving asterisk program to display a graphic instead with a few changes which are underlined.

Of course, there’s no reason why you couldn’t use more than the 21 UDGs if you wished. Simply set up a number of banks of them in memory and point to each one as you need it.

Alternatively, you could redefine the character set instead. This gives a larger range of ASCII characters from 32 (SPACE) to 127 (the copyright symbol). You could even mix text and graphics, redefining the letters and numbers of your font to the style of your choice, then using up the symbols and lowercase letters for aliens, zombies or whatever your game requires. To point to another set we subtract 256 from the address at which the font is placed and place this in the two byte system variable at address 23606. The default Sinclair font for example is located at ROM address 15616, so the system variable at address 23606 points to 15360 when the Spectrum is first switched on.

This code copies the Sinclair ROM font to RAM making it “bolder” as it goes, then sets the system variable to point to it:

Displaying Numbers

For most games it is better to define the player’s score as a string of ASCII digits, although that does mean more work in the scoring routines and makes high score tables a real pain in the backside for an inexperienced assembly language programmer. We will cover this in a later chapter, but for now we’ll use some handy ROM routines to print numbers for us.

There are two ways of printing a number on the screen, the first of which is to make use of the same routine that the ROM uses to print Sinclair BASIC line numbers. For this we simply load the bc register pair with the number we wish to print, then call 6683:

ld bc,(score)
call 6683

However, since BASIC line numbers can go only as high as 9999, this has the disadvantage of only being capable of displaying a four digit number. Once the player’s score reaches 10000 other ASCII characters are displayed in place of numbers. Fortunately, there is another method which goes much higher. Instead of calling the line number display routine we can call the routine to place the contents of the bc registers on the calculator stack, then another routine which displays the number at the top of this stack. Don’t worry about what the calculator stack is and what its function is because it’s of little use to an arcade games programmer, but where we can make use of it we will. Just remember that the following three lines will display a number from 0 to 65535 inclusive:

The quickest and simplest way to set the border colour is to write to port 254. The 3 least significant bits of the byte we send determine the colour, so to set the border to red:

ld a,2 ; 2 is the code for red.
out (254),a ; write to port 254.

Port 254 also drives the speaker and Mic socket in bits 3 and 4. However, the border effect will only last until your next call to the beeper sound routine in the ROM (more on that later), so a more permanent solution is required. To do this, we simply need to load the accumulator with the colour required and call the ROM routine at 8859. This will change the colour and set the BORDCR system variable (located at address 23624) accordingly. To set a permanent red border we can do this: