2 Neural and Hormonal Systems The Endocrine System 4 History of the Mind Ancient conceptions about mind Plato correctly located mind in the brain, however his student Aristotle believed that mind was in the heart. Today we believe mind and brain are faces of the same coin. Everything that is psychological is simultaneously biological. 5 History of the Mind Phrenology In 1800, Franz Gall suggested, that bumps of the skull represented mental abilities. His theory though incorrect, nevertheless proposed different mental abilities were modular. Bettman/ Corbis 6 Psychology 7e in Modules 2

3 Neural Communication The body s information system is built from billions of interconnected cells called neurons. 7 Neural Communication Neurobiologists and other investigators understand that information processing in humans and animals operate similarly. Note similarity of brain regions involved with information processing of similar kind. 8 Neuron A nerve cell or a neuron consists of many different parts. 9 Psychology 7e in Modules 3

4 Parts of a Neuron Soma (Cell Body): Life support center of the neuron. Dendrites: Branching extensions at the cell body. Receives messages from other neurons. Axon: Long single extension of a neuron, covered with myelin [MY-uh-lin] sheath to insulate and speed up messages through neurons. Terminal Branches (Buttons) of axon: Branched ending of axons. Transmitting messages to other neurons. Synapses (synaptic gap): The junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another. Glia (literally glue ): Cells that are found throughout the nervous system that provide various types of support for neurons. 10 Action Potential A neural impulse. A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon s membrane. 11 Depolarization & Hyperpolarization Depolarization: Depolarization occurs, when positive ions enter the neuron, making it more susceptible to fire an action potential. When negative ions enter the neuron making it less susceptible to fire, hyperpolarization occurs. 12 Psychology 7e in Modules 4

5 Threshold Threshold: Each neuron receives depolarizing and hyperpolarizing currents from many neurons. When the depolarizing current (positive ions) minus the hyperpolarizing current (negative ions) exceed minimum intensity (threshold) the neuron fires an action potential. 13 Refractory Period & Pumps Refractory Period: After a neuron has fired an action potential it pauses for a short period to recharge itself to fire again. Sodium-Potassium Pumps: Sodium-potassium pumps pump positive ions out from the inside of the neuron, making them ready for another action potential. 14 Action Potential (that makes sense) 15 Psychology 7e in Modules 5

6 Action Potential Properties All-or-None Response: When depolarizing current exceeds the threshold a neuron will fire, and below threshold it will not. Intensity of an action potential remains the same, throughout the length of the axon. A STRONG STIMULUS will NOT affect the strength or speed of an impulse, but it can trigger more neurons to fire. 16 Synapse Synapse [SIN-aps] a junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. This tiny gap is called the synaptic gap or cleft. 17 Neurotransmitters (chemicals) released from the sending neuron, travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing it to generate an action potential. Neurotransmitters 18 Psychology 7e in Modules 6

7 Reuptake Neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed into the sending neurons through the process of reuptake. This process applies brakes on neurotransmitter action. 19 How Neurotransmitters Influence Us Each neurotransmitter has a designated path in the brain and has a particular effect on behavior and emotions. Acetylcholine (ACh) is one of the BEST understood neurotransmitters. ACh enables muscle action, learning, and memory. From Mapping the Mind, Rita Carter, 1989 University of California Press 20 Other Pathways Serotonin pathways are involved with mood regulation. Dopamine pathways are involved with diseases like schizophrenia and Parkinson s disease. From Mapping the Mind, Rita Carter, 1989 University of California Press 21 Psychology 7e in Modules 7

9 Antagonists 25 Nervous System Central Nervous System (CNS) Brain & Spinal Cord Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Links the CNS with the body s sense receptors, muscles, and glands. 26 The Nervous System Nervous System: Consists of all the nerve cells. It is the body s speedy, electrochemical communication system. Central Nervous System (CNS): the brain and spinal cord. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. 27 Psychology 7e in Modules 9

10 The Nervous System 28 Kinds of Neurons Sensory Neurons carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the CNS. Motor Neurons carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands. Interneurons connect the two neurons. Interneuron Neuron (Unipolar) Sensory Neuron (Bipolar) Motor Neuron (Multipolar) 29 Peripheral Nervous System Somatic Nervous System: The division of the PNS that controls the body s skeletal muscles. (voluntary movement) Autonomic Nervous System: Part of the PNS that controls the glands and other muscles. (involuntary) 30 Psychology 7e in Modules 10

12 Central Nervous System The Brain and Neural Networks Interconnected neurons form networks in the brain. Theses networks are complex and modify with growth and experience. Complex Neural Network 34 The Endocrine System Endocrine System is the body s slow chemical communication system. Communication is carried out by hormones synthesized by a set of glands. 35 Hormones Hormones are chemicals synthesized by the endocrine glands and secreted in the bloodstream. Hormones affect the brain many other tissues of the body. For example, epinephrine (adrenaline) increases heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar and feelings of excitement during emergency situations. 36 Psychology 7e in Modules 12

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