Miter joint

A miter joint (mitre in British English), sometimes shortened to miter, is a joint made by beveling each of two parts to be joined, usually at a 45° angle, to form a corner, usually a 90° angle.[1] For woodworking, a disadvantage of a miter joint is its weakness, but it can be strengthened with a spline[i].[2] There are two common variations of a splined miter joint, one where the spline is long and runs the length of the mating surfaces and another where the spline is perpendicular to the joined edges.

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For miter joints occurring at angles other than 90°, for materials of the same cross-section the proper cut angle must be determined so that the two pieces to be joined meet flush (i.e. one piece's mitered end is not longer than the adjoining piece). To find the cut angle divide the angle at which the two pieces meet by two. Technically, two different cut angles are required; one for each piece, where the second angle is 90° plus the aforementioned cut angle, but due to angular limitations in common cutting implements (hand circular saws, table saws) a single angle is required and is used to cut the first piece in one direction and the second piece in the opposite direction.

When a piece is beveled at both ends, such that the two attached pieces do not lie in the same plane, a three-dimensional structure is obtained. In that case, it is also necessary either to rotate the piece in its longitudinal axis, or, to tilt the saw blade before beveling the second end.

When employing the miter joint to connect two pieces that have a non-circular cross-section it typically is desirable to have the longitudinal edges of the joined pieces match up properly at the joint. It always is possible to close a [3]structure constructed with pieces having non-circular cross section into a loop through properly matched miter joints (e.g. a picture frame), however, a three-dimensional loop from pieces with non-circular cross section need not close properly when attempting to miter it all the way around. In general, a twist occurs, causing the edges at the last joint to be misaligned.

^S 'spline' is a thin wafer of wood, inserted into a slot. They are usually arranged so that their long grain is across the short grain of the frame timber.

^Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2009. A usually right-angled joint in wood or other material in which the angle made by the joined pieces is bisected by the line or plane of junction; more fully mitre joint

Verhoeff, Tom and Koos Verhoeff, PDF "The Mathematics of Mitering and Its Artful Application", Bridges Leeuwarden: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music, and Science, Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Bridges Conference, in The Netherlands, pp. 225–234, July 2008.

1.
Bevel
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A bevelled edge or beveled edge refers to an edge of a structure that is not perpendicular to the faces of the piece. The words bevel and chamfer overlap in usage, in general usage they are often interchanged, a bevel is typically used to soften the edge of a piece for the sake of safety, wear resistance, or aesthetics, or to facilitate mating with another piece. Most cutting tools have an edge which is apparent when one examines the grind. Bevel angles can be duplicated using a sliding T bevel, typographic bevels are shading and artificial shadows that emulate the appearance of a 3-dimensional letter. The bevel is a common effect in graphic editors such as Photoshop. As such, it is in use in mainstream logos. Bevelled edges are a common aesthetic nicety added to window panes, geologists refer to any slope of land into a stratum of different elevation as a bevel. In waterskiing, a bevel is the area between the side of the ski and the bottom of the ski. Beginners tend to prefer sharp bevels, which allow the ski to glide on the water surface, with a deck of cards, you can slide the top portion back so that the back of the deck is at an angle. This can be used in card tricks, in the semiconductor industry, wafers have two typical edge types, a slanted beveled shape or a rounded bullet shape. The edges on the types are called the bevel region. Beveling and chamfering are applied to pieces of metal prior to welding. The bevel provides a clean edge to the plate or pipe. Simple Bevels can be used with a Backup Strip with chamfers being used on Open Root welds, particularly thick plate will have a J shaped chamfer or U shaped groove to reduce the amount of welding Filler metal used. Correct joint preparation is the first step in producing a quality weld with the correct profile, greater welding skill and thinner metal can reduce the exactness of the edge preparation necessary. Chamfer Choosing and Using Squares – This Old House

2.
Strength of materials
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Strength of materials, also called mechanics of materials, is a subject which deals with the behavior of solid objects subject to stresses and strains. An important founding pioneer in mechanics of materials was Stephen Timoshenko, the study of strength of materials often refers to various methods of calculating the stresses and strains in structural members, such as beams, columns, and shafts. In materials science, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand a load without failure or plastic deformation. The field of strength of materials deals with forces and deformations that result from their acting on a material, a load applied to a mechanical member will induce internal forces within the member called stresses when those forces are expressed on a unit basis. The stresses acting on the material cause deformation of the material in various manners, deformation of the material is called strain when those deformations too are placed on a unit basis. The applied loads may be axial, or rotational, the stresses and strains that develop within a mechanical member must be calculated in order to assess the load capacity of that member. This requires a description of the geometry of the member, its constraints, the loads applied to the member. With a complete description of the loading and the geometry of the member, once the state of stress and strain within the member is known, the strength of that member, its deformations, and its stability can be calculated. The calculated stresses may then be compared to some measure of the strength of the such as its material yield or ultimate strength. The calculated deflection of the member may be compared to a deflection criteria that is based on the members use, the calculated buckling load of the member may be compared to the applied load. The calculated stiffness and mass distribution of the member may be used to calculate the dynamic response. The ultimate strength refers to the point on the engineering stress–strain curve corresponding to the stress that produces fracture, transverse loading - Forces applied perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a member. Transverse loading causes the member to bend and deflect from its position, with internal tensile. Transverse loading also induces shear forces that cause shear deformation of the material, axial loading - The applied forces are collinear with the longitudinal axis of the member. The forces cause the member to either stretch or shorten, uniaxial stress is expressed by σ = F A where F is the force acting on an area A. The area can be the area or the deformed area. A simple case of compression is the uniaxial compression induced by the action of opposite, compressive strength for materials is generally higher than their tensile strength. However, structures loaded in compression are subject to additional failure modes, such as buckling, that are dependent on the members geometry

3.
Picture frame
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A picture frame is a decorative edging for a picture, such as a painting or photograph, intended to enhance it, make it easier to display or protect it. The frame along with its mounts protects and often complements the artwork, Art work framed well will stay in good condition for a longer period of time. Joan Miró once did a work specifically to frame with a flea market frame, as picture frames can be expensive when purchased new, some people remove pictures from a frame and use the frame for other pictures. Picture frames have traditionally made of wood, which is still the most common material, although other materials are used including silver, bronze, aluminum. A picture frame may be of any color or texture, but gilding is common, some picture frames have elaborate molding which may relate to the subject matter. Complicated older frames are made of moulded and gilded plaster over a plain wood base. Picture frames come in a variety of profiles, but generally the lengths of moulding feature a lip and rabbet, the lip extends usually about a quarter of an inch past the edge of the rabbet. The picture frame may contain a pane of picture framing glass or a glass substitute such as acrylite or plexiglas to protect the picture. In some instances where the art in the frame is dispensable or durable, glass is common over watercolors and other artwork on paper, but rare over oil paintings, except very valuable ones in some museums. Picture framing glass may be treated with anti-reflective coatings to make the glass virtually invisible under certain lighting conditions, for pieces to be framed under glass, except for the most disposable and inexpensive posters or temporary displays, the glass must be raised off the surface of the paper. This is done by means of matting, a lining of plastic spacers, if the paper were to touch the glass directly, any condensation inside the glass would absorb directly into the art, having no room to evaporate. This is harmful to almost any medium and it causes art sticking to the glass, mildew or mold spore growth, and other ill effects. Raising the glass is necessary when a piece is done in a loose media such as charcoal or pastel. Care should be taken with these works however, if acrylic glass is used, using real glass helps to prevent this. Certain kinds of pieces do not usually need glass when framed, including paintings done in acrylic or oil paint, stained glass or tiles, and laminated posters. These kinds of pieces are sometimes put under glass though, if for example they are framed using mats. The use of backing boards is common with watermedia and other art on paper, usually paper dust covers will be inexpensive craft paper or heavy duty archival papers Plique-à-jour picture frames, made of enamel by Bulushoff, are among the most expensive frames in the world. Picture frames are generally square or rectangular, though circular and oval frames are not uncommon, Frames in more unusual shapes such as football shapes, stars, hearts can be hand carved by a professional wood carver or carpenter There are also picture frames designed to go around corners

4.
Pipe (fluid conveyance)
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It can also be used for structural applications, hollow pipe is far stiffer per unit weight than solid members. In common usage the words pipe and tube are usually interchangeable, but in industry and engineering, depending on the applicable standard to which it is manufactured, pipe is generally specified by a nominal diameter with a constant outside diameter and a schedule that defines the thickness. Tube is most often specified by the OD and wall thickness, Pipe is generally manufactured to one of several international and national industrial standards. While similar standards exist for specific industry application tubing, tube is made to custom sizes. Many industrial and government standards exist for the production of pipe, the term tube is also commonly applied to non-cylindrical sections, i. e. square or rectangular tubing. In general, pipe is the common term in most of the world. Both pipe and tube imply a level of rigidity and permanence, Pipe assemblies are almost always constructed with the use of fittings such as elbows, tees, and so on, while tube may be formed or bent into custom configurations. For materials that are inflexible, cannot be formed, or where construction is governed by codes or standards, additionally, pipe is used for many purposes that do not involve conveying fluid. Handrails, scaffolding and support structures are constructed from structural pipe. There are three processes for metallic pipe manufacture, centrifugal casting of hot alloyed metal is one of the most prominent process. Ductile iron pipes are manufactured in such a fashion. Seamless pipe is formed by drawing a solid billet over a rod to create the hollow shell. As the manufacturing process does not include any welding, seamless pipes are perceived to be stronger, historically, seamless pipe was regarded as withstanding pressure better than other types, and was often more available than welded pipe. Advances since the 1970s in materials, process control, and non-destructive testing, Welded pipe is formed by rolling plate and welding the seam. The weld flash can be removed from both inner and outer surfaces using a scarfing blade, the weld zone can also be heat-treated to make the seam less visible. Welded pipe often have tighter dimensional tolerances than the seamless type, there are a number of processes that may be used to produce ERW pipes. Each of these leads to coalescence or merging of steel components into pipes. Electric current is passed through the surfaces that have to be welded together, as the components being welded together resist the electric current, ERW pipes are manufactured from the longitudinal welding of steel

5.
Moulding (decorative)
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Moulding, also known as coving, is a strip of material with various profiles used to cover transitions between surfaces or for decoration. It is traditionally made from solid milled wood or plaster, in classical architecture and sculpture, the molding is often carved in marble or other stones. A sprung molding has bevelled edges that allow mounting between two planes, with an open space behind the molding. Other types of molding are referred to as plain, at their simplest, moldings are a means of applying light- and dark-shaded stripes to a structural object without having to change the material or apply pigments. The contrast of dark and light areas gives definition to the object, imagine the vertical surface of a wall lit by sunlight at an angle of about 45 degrees above the wall. Adding a small overhanging horizontal molding to the surface of the wall will introduce a dark horizontal shadow below the molding, adding a vertical fillet to a horizontal surface will create a light vertical shadow. Other varieties of concave molding are the scotia and congé and other convex moldings the echinus, the torus, placing an ovolo directly above a cavetto forms a smooth s-shaped curve with vertical ends that is called an ogee or cyma reversa molding. Its shadow appears as a light at the top and bottom. Similarly, a cavetto above an ovolo forms an s with horizontal ends and its shadow shows two dark bands with a light interior. Together the basic elements and their variants form a vocabulary that can be assembled and rearranged in endless combinations. This vocabulary is at the core of classical architecture and Gothic architecture. Decorative moldings have been made of wood, stone and cement, recently moldings made of Expanded Polystyrene as a core with a cement-based protective coating have become popular. These moldings have environmental, health and safety concerns that were investigated by Doroudiani et al, there are a variety of common moldings, Astragal — A semi-circular molding attached to one of a pair of especially fire doors to cover the air gap where the doors meet. Baguette — Thin, half-round molding, smaller than an astragal, sometimes carved, when enriched with ornaments, it was also called chapelet. Bandelet — Any little band or flat molding, which crowns a Doric architrave and it is also called a tenia (from Greek ταινία an article of clothing in the form of a ribbon. Baseboard, base molding or skirting board — used to conceal the junction of a wall and floor, to protect the wall from impacts. A speed base makes use of a base cap molding set on top of a plain 1 thick board, see also, chin-beak Bed molding — a narrow molding used at the junction of a wall and ceiling. Bed moldings can be either sprung or plain, bolection — a molding which is raised, projecting proud of the face frame

6.
Mitre clamp
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Miter clamps are designed to hold miter joints together. The earliest miter clamps are a spring in a C-shape with sharpened points that are sprung onto the outside corner of the miter joint. The right angled plates are higher than the screws and the red holder, the screws go under the frame to be held, and the red bit clamps down on the lower-edge of the frame. Recent designs are complicated, a rigid body holds one fixed. Examples of the clamps are Jim Chestnuts Clam Clamp and the Maestro Miter Clamp

7.
Miter saw
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A miter saw is a saw used to make accurate crosscuts and miters in a workpiece. A power miter saw, also known as a saw, is a power tool used to make a quick. Common uses include framing operations and the cutting of molding and trim, most miter saws are relatively small and portable, with common blade sizes ranging from eight to twelve inches. The miter saw makes cuts by pulling a spinning saw blade down onto a workpiece in a short. The workpiece is held against a fence, which provides a precise cutting angle between the plane of the blade and the plane of the longest workpiece edge. In standard position, this angle is fixed at 90°, a primary distinguishing feature of the miter saw is the miter index that allows the angle of the blade to be changed relative to the fence. While most miter saws enable precise one-degree incremental changes to the miter index, there are several types of power miter saws, Miter saws are dedicated cross cut saws, long rip cuts are not possible. A laser guide provides a visual indication of where the cut will be positioned on the workpiece in the current configuration. Some models provide a reference line for one side of the kerf. A blade guard is a cover for the teeth of the cutting blade, most modern miter saws have self-retracting blade guards, which automatically retract when the saw is lowered onto a workpiece and re-cover the blade when the saw is raised. It is very dangerous to use the saw if these guards are removed or damaged, a dust bag connects directly to the saw, and helps to collect sawdust away from the workpiece during cutting. Optionally, many manufacturers sell adapters to connect an industrial vacuum cleaner in lieu of a bag to capture more of the dust, dust removal with these saws is notoriously poor. A safety clamp helps to lock a workpiece into position prior to making a cut and this is an especially important feature when cutting smaller workpieces. The miter table is typically less than 24 in diameter, typically, the work will need to be supported on the far end to stabilize the piece while cutting. Miter saws are inherently low hazard as the workpiece is held stationary against a fence while the saw head moves, making kick back almost impossible, also the saw head is usually drawn back, then lowered and fed forward through the material so that binding is unlikely. Sliding compound miter saws are relatively portable, easy to set up, because they cut from above it is not necessary to adjust blade depth for different thicknesses of work piece and, like any bench machine, repeat cuts are very easy. Most saws have an adjustable scale plate for table swiveling with positive stops at commonly used angles, also, there are usually adjustable stops at 90 and 45 degrees for head tilting allowing easy and very accurate adjustment of the saw. Table swiveling in both directions is universal but most saws allow head tilting only in one direction, although some saws allow head tilting in both directions

8.
Notching
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Notching is a metal-cutting process used on sheetmetal or thin barstock, sometimes on angle sections or tube. A shearing or punching process is used in a press, so as to cut vertically down and perpendicular to the surface, notching is a low-cost process, particularly for its low tooling costs with a small range of standard punches. The capital cost of the press can be expensive though. Notching of large or heavy sections, particularly for large tube fabrication or HVAC, is carried out by plasma cutting rather than punch tools. The accuracy of punch notching is good, depending on the care with which its carried out, for manual folding work, prior notching can often improve resultant accuracy of the folding itself. The speed of notching is usually limited by manual handling when loading the workpieces into the press, pieces some feet long may be manually loaded into a single-stroke press. Smaller pieces are still generally hand-fed, limiting speeds to perhaps 100 strokes / minute, almost any workable metal can be notched. Its particularly suitable where the metal is otherwise awkward to drill, such as stainless steels, either one or both tubes may be notched before assembly. A familiar example of tube notching is in the manufacture of bicycle frames, end notching works the end of the tube, such as a semicircular concavity to make the base of a tee, or a convex vee to fit into a mitre. Side notching works the side of a tube with a vee notch for bending, tube being hollow, its not practical to use a simple punch operation to notch it, as it would be squashed. Although punching is possible, it requires support mandrels and awkward handling, where tube is worked with a punch press other than for side notching, this is generally described as slotting. Rather than using large presses, such saw notching may only require a simple jig, a much more accurate way of notching the end of tube stock is to use a specially made milling cutter called an end mill. The stock to be notched is clamped into a vise and can then be fed slowly and accurately into a rotating, hardened metal, end mill. This method of end notching is much faster and thus minimizes the chance of damaging the stock either by warping due to heat build up or by squashing as can still happen with a hole saw. Notching in thin-wall tube may also be carried out by abrasive tools and this also allows more complex shapes to be performed, such as vee notches. In some cases, an end mill cutter may be used. Computer numerical control notching is enabling designers to work with complex geometries. Vee notches in tube, particularly square tube, may be cut so deep as to cut almost through the tube and this then allows torner, usually finished by welding

9.
Woodworking
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Woodworking is the activity or skill of making items from wood, and includes cabinet making, wood carving, joinery, carpentry, and woodturning. Along with stone, clay and animal parts, wood was one of the first materials worked by early humans, microwear analysis of the Mousterian stone tools used by the Neanderthals show that many were used to work wood. The development of civilization was closely tied to the development of increasingly greater degrees of skill in working these materials, among early finds of wooden tools are the worked sticks from Kalambo Falls, Clacton-on-Sea and Lehringen. The spears from Schöningen provide some of the first examples of hunting gear. Flint tools were used for carving, since Neolithic times, carved wooden vessels are known, for example, from the Linear Pottery culture wells at Kückhofen and Eythra. Examples of Bronze Age wood-carving include tree trunks worked into coffins from northern Germany and Denmark, there is significant evidence of advanced woodworking in Ancient Egypt. Woodworking is depicted in extant ancient Egyptian drawings, and a considerable amount of ancient Egyptian furniture has been preserved. Tombs represent a collection of these artefacts and the inner coffins found in the tombs were also made of wood. The metal used by the Egyptians for woodworking tools was originally copper and eventually, commonly used woodworking tools included axes, adzes, chisels, pull saws, and bow drills. Mortise and tenon joints are attested from the earliest Predynastic period and these joints were strengthened using pegs, dowels and leather or cord lashings. Animal glue came to be used only in the New Kingdom period, Ancient Egyptians invented the art of veneering and used varnishes for finishing, though the composition of these varnishes is unknown. Woodworking was essential to the Romans and it provided, sometimes the only, material for buildings, transportation, tools, and household items. Vitruvius dedicates a chapter of his De architectura to timber. Pliny, while not a botanist, dedicated six books of his Natural History to trees and woody plants which provides a wealth of information on trees, the progenitors of Chinese woodworking are considered to be Lu Ban and his wife Lady Yun, from the Spring and Autumn period. Lu Ban is said to have introduced the plane, chalk-line and his teachings were supposedly left behind in the book Lu Ban Jing. Despite this, it is believed that the text was written some 1500 years after his death. This book is filled largely with descriptions of dimensions for use in building various items such as pots, tables, altars, etc. It mentions almost nothing of the intricate glue-less and nail-less joinery for which Chinese furniture was so famous, with the advances in modern technology and the demands of industry, woodwork as a field has changed

10.
History of wood carving
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Wood carving is one of the oldest arts of humankind. Wooden spears from the Middle Paleolithic, such as the Clacton Spear, the North American Indian carves his wooden fish-hook or his pipe stem just as the Polynesian works patterns on his paddle. Figure-work seems to have been universal, the texture of the material, too, often proves challenging to the expression of features, especially in the classic type of youthful face. On the other hand, magnificent examples exist of the rugged features of age, the beetling brows. In ancient work the surface may not have been of such consequence, for figures as a rule being painted for protection and especially color. It is not always realized at the present day to what extent color has even from the most ancient times used to enhance the effect of wood-carving. The modern Colour prejudice against gold and other tints is perhaps because painted work has been vulgarized, the arrangement of a proper and harmonious scheme of colour is not the work of the house painter, but of the specially trained artist. In the early 20th century, the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, on much of this entry is based, commented. The work is slow and requires substantial skill, making the works expensive. Other and cheaper methods of decoration have driven carving from its former place, machine work has much to answer for, and the endeavor to popularize the craft by means of the village class has not always achieved its own end. The gradual disappearance of the individual artist, elbowed out as he has been, the extreme dryness of the climate of Egypt accounts for the existence of a number of woodcarvings from this remote period. Some wood panels from the tomb of Hosul Egypt, at Sakkarah are of the III, the carving consists of Egyptian hieroglyphs and figures in low relief, and the style is extremely delicate and fine. A stool shown on one of the panels has the legs shaped like the fore and hind limbs of an animal, in the Cairo museum may be seen the statue of a man from the period of the Great Pyramid of Giza, possibly 4000 B. C. The expression of the face and the realism of the carriage have never been surpassed by any Egyptian sculptor of this or any other period, the figure is carved out of a solid block of sycamore, and in accordance with the Egyptian custom the arms are joined on. The IV. V. and VI. dynasties cover the finest period of Egyptian sculpture, the statues found in the tombs show a freedom of treatment which was never reached in later times. They are all portraits, which the artist strove his utmost to render exactly like his model, for these are not, like mere modern statues, simply works of art, but had primarily a religious signification. As the spirits of the deceased might inhabit, these Ka statues, sometimes the animal would be carved in the round and its hollowed body used as the case itself. Of furniture, folding seats like the camp stool, and chairs with legs terminating in the heads of beasts or the feet of animals

11.
Wood
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Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees, and other woody plants. It is a material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers which are strong in tension embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, in a living tree it performs a support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients between the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots, Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fiber. In 2005, the stock of forests worldwide was about 434 billion cubic meters. As an abundant, carbon-neutral renewable resource, woody materials have been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy, in 1991 approximately 3.5 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested. Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction, a 2011 discovery in the Canadian province of New Brunswick discovered the earliest known plants to have grown wood, approximately 395 to 400 million years ago. Wood can be dated by carbon dating and in species by dendrochronology to make inferences about when a wooden object was created. People have used wood for millennia for many purposes, primarily as a fuel or as a material for making houses, tools, weapons, furniture, packaging, artworks. Constructions using wood date back ten thousand years, buildings like the European Neolithic long house were made primarily of wood. Recent use of wood has changed by the addition of steel. The year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abundances gives clues to the climate at that time. This process is known as growth, it is the result of cell division in the vascular cambium, a lateral meristem. These cells then go on to form thickened secondary cell walls, composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, if the distinctiveness between seasons is annual, these growth rings are referred to as annual rings. Where there is little seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent, if the bark of the tree has been removed in a particular area, the rings will likely be deformed as the plant overgrows the scar. It is usually lighter in color than that near the portion of the ring. The outer portion formed later in the season is known as the latewood or summerwood. However, there are differences, depending on the kind of wood

12.
Lumber
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Lumber, or timber is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber may also refer to currently un-needed furniture, as in Lumber room, or an awkward gait, ultimately derived from the look of unfashionable, Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more of its faces. Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and it is available in many species, usually hardwoods, but it is also readily available in softwoods, such as white pine and red pine, because of their low cost. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes but has other uses as well. It is classified more commonly as a softwood than as a hardwood, in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and Britain, the term timber describes sawn wood products, such as floor boards. In the United States and Canada, generally timber describes standing or felled trees, before they are milled into boards, Timber there also describes sawn lumber not less than 5 inches in its smallest dimension. The latter includes the often partly finished lumber used in timber-frame construction, remanufactured lumber is the result of secondary or tertiary processing/cutting of previously milled lumber. Specifically, it is cut for industrial or wood-packaging use. Lumber is cut by ripsaw or resaw to create dimensions that are not usually processed by a primary sawmill, resawing is the splitting of 1-inch through 12-inch hardwood or softwood lumber into two or more thinner pieces of full-length boards. For example, splitting a ten-foot 2×4 into two ten-foot 1×4s is considered resawing, structural lumber may also be produced from recycled plastic and new plastic stock. Its introduction has been opposed by the forestry industry. Blending fiberglass in plastic lumber enhances its strength, durability, logs are converted into timber by being sawn, hewn, or split. Sawing with a rip saw is the most common method, because sawing allows logs of lower quality, with grain and large knots. There are various types of sawing, Plain sawn —A log sawn through without adjusting the position of the log, quarter sawn and rift sawn—These terms have been confused in history but generally mean lumber sawn so the annual rings are reasonably perpendicular to the sides of the lumber. Boxed heart—The pith remains within the piece with some allowance for exposure, heart center—the center core of a log. Free of heart center —A side-cut timber without any pith, free of knots —No knots are present. Dimensional lumber is lumber that is cut to standardized width and depth, carpenters extensively use dimensional lumber in framing wooden buildings. Common sizes include 2×4, 2×6, and 4×4, the length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth

13.
Boat building
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Boat building, one of the oldest branches of engineering, is concerned with constructing the hulls of boats and, for sailboats, the masts, spars and rigging. Anchor- a heavy, pick like device, attached to a boats stem by a warp, common types are Plow or Fisherman and Danforth. Modern anchors are made of steel but in pre-industrial societies rocks were used, the chain is added to the lower anchor end to add weight and prevent chafing of the rope warp on rocks or shellfish beds. A Norsemen invention used in sailing ships from about the 10th century AD that predates blocks. They served the purpose of a block/jamb cleat in one unit and it was a flat section of wood about 150 high x 120 wide shaped like an angel/butterfly used in attaching stays to the hull. The V-shape at the part of the wings acted as a V jam cleat. Bitts - Two short strong posts often made of steel, located on the fore and aft decks of a heavily built boat or ship. Bilge - the lowest part of the interior, under the sole. Often water and or fuel tanks are placed in the bilges to lower the centre of gravity, bilge keel - a longitudinal, external, underwater member used to reduce a ships tendency to roll. In Britain twin bilge keels are often used on small boats moored in estuaries with a tidal range so the boat stay upright when dried out. With their much shallower draft yachts of this type can be sailed in shallow waters, not as hydro dynamically efficient as a fin keel. Bilge pump - a pump, either manual or electric with the set at the lowest point in the bilges where water will collect when the boat is upright. The inlet is protected by a screen to stop blockages Block a fitting with a wheel inside 2 cheeks designed to hold the turn of a rope. Originally made of wood, they are now made of plastic and they are mainly used in rigging in pairs or quads to allow a single person to operate a sail that creates a lot of force. Similar to a pulley or sheave, bow - The front and generally sharp end of the hull. It is designed to reduce the resistance of the cutting through water. Bowsprit - A spar that extends forward from the foredeck, outboard of the hull proper, common in square rigged ships where they were used to attach the outer or flying jib. In modern sailboats they are made of lightweight carbon and used for attaching the luff of lightweight down-wind sails

14.
Bow and arrow
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The bow and arrow is a projectile weapon system that predates recorded history and is common to most cultures. Archery is the art, practice, or skill of applying it, a bow is a flexible arc that shoots aerodynamic projectiles called arrows. A string joins the two ends of the bow and when the string is drawn back, the ends of the bow are flexed, when the string is released, the potential energy of the flexed stick is transformed into the kinetic energy of the arrow. Archery is the art or sport of shooting arrows from bows, today, bows and arrows are used primarily for hunting and for the sport of archery. Someone who makes bows is known as a bowyer, and one who makes arrows is a fletcher —or in the case of the manufacture of arrow heads. The bow and arrow appears around the transition from the Upper Paleolithic to the Mesolithic, at the site of Nataruk in Turkana County, Kenya, obsidian bladelets found embedded in a skull and within the thoracic cavity of another skeleton, suggest the use of stone-tipped arrows as weapons. After the end of the last glacial period, use of the bow seems to have spread to every inhabited continent, including the New World, the oldest extant bows in one piece are the elm Holmegaard bows from Denmark which were dated to 9,000 BCE. High-performance wooden bows are made following the Holmegaard design. Microliths discovered on the south coast of Africa suggest that arrows may be at least 71,000 years old, the bow was an important weapon for both hunting and warfare from prehistoric times until the widespread use of gunpowder in the 16th century. Organised warfare with bows ended in the mid 17th century in Europe, the British upper class led a revival of archery from the late 18th century. Sir Ashton Lever, an antiquarian and collector, formed the Toxophilite Society in London in 1781, under the patronage of George, the basic elements of a bow are a pair of curved elastic limbs, traditionally made from wood, joined by a riser. Both ends of the limbs are connected by a known as the bow string. By pulling the string backwards the archer exerts compressive force on the section, or belly, of the limbs as well as placing the outer section, or back. While the string is held, this stores the energy released in putting the arrow to flight. The force required to hold the string stationary at full draw is used to express the power of a bow. Other things being equal, a draw weight means a more powerful bow. The various parts of the bow can be subdivided into further sections, the topmost limb is known as the upper limb, while the bottom limb is the lower limb. At the tip of each limb is a nock, which is used to attach the bowstring to the limbs, the riser is usually divided into the grip, which is held by the archer, as well as the arrow rest and the bow window

15.
Bush carpentry
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The phrase bush carpentry is a familiar Australian usage, but finding an exact description of its practice is rare. The Macquarie Dictionary for example, defines a bush carpenter as an amateur carpenter. The Macquarie in turn defines rough-and-ready as rough, rude or crude, wannan says that a bush carpenter is a very rough, unorthodox artisan indeed, and includes a sardonic excerpt from Henry Lawson to exemplify it. In his Bushcraft series Ron Edwards describes hut and furniture building, Tocal Agricultural College offers a course in Traditional bush timber construction, The word traditional appears six times in the course outline, but not bush carpentry. Cox and Lucas, writing in 1978 of Australian pioneer buildings, perhaps because it has been the symbol of hardship and country toil, perhaps because it was thought too crude and rude to be treated seriously as architecture by the academics. There have been few books and articles written on the subject, the vernacular, often, is a fragile architectural form, evolved for expedience and resulting—especially in the case of the more primitive examples—in early decay and disappearance. Within the vernacular building, function is the dominant factor, a similar and familiar phrase is traditional bush carpentry, this implies that its principles are well-known, but informally transmitted. Like folk music, bush carpentry exists within an oral and demotic culture, the tradition of Australian inventiveness, however, has an extensive literature. Vigorous attitudes to innovation prevailed in the Colonies in the nineteenth century, lessons from these attitudes both underline the continuing importance of the lone inventor and hold relevance for education, management, and technology policies today. There is sometimes a sardonic sense included in the phrase bush carpentry, one which implies slip-shod work by a careless practitioner, the milk is set in dishes made of kerosene-tins, cut in halves, which are placed on bark shelves fitted round against the walls. The shelves are not level and the dishes are brought to a horizontal position by means of chips and bits of bark. The milk is covered by soiled sheets of old newspapers supported on sticks laid across the dishes and this protection is necessary, because the box bark in the roof has crumbled away and left fringed holes—also because the fowls roost up there. Sometimes the paper sags, and the cream may have to be scraped off an article on dairy farming, in Australian parlance, the bush includes not only all remote and rural areas, but ways of living there, especially the limitations and hardships endured. The expression bush carpentry includes two criteria of remoteness, the first, that the builder is separated from regular methods of construction. The second, separation from regular resources such as milled timber, fasteners, specialized tools and those in both remote circumstances are forced to invent and improvise. They produce a structure or object via unorthodox procedures, and it will be serviceable. These two criteria allow the use of manufactured materials—e. g, milled timber—in an irregular manner, and materials other than wood. The Australian Aborigines were probably the first bush carpenters, from the Aborigines, European settlers learned how to strip bark in large sheets from particular tree species, and use this for roofs and walls

16.
Cabinetry
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A cabinet is a box-shaped piece of furniture with doors or drawers for storing miscellaneous items. Some cabinets stand alone while others are built into a wall or are attached to it like a medicine cabinet, cabinets are typically made of wood or, now increasingly, of synthetic materials. Commercial grade cabinets, which differ in the used, are called casework. Cabinets usually have one or more doors on the front, which are mounted with door hardware, many cabinets have doors and drawers or only drawers. Short cabinets often have a surface on top that can be used for display, or as a working surface. A cabinet intended for clothing storage is usually called a wardrobe or an armoire, before the advent of industrial design, cabinet makers were responsible for the conception and the production of any piece of furniture. In the last half of the 18th century, cabinet makers, such as Thomas Sheraton, Thomas Chippendale, Shaver, cabinet Constructors, and George Hepplewhite, also published books of furniture forms. These books were compendiums of their designs and those of other cabinet makers, in parallel to this evolution there came a growing demand by the rising middle class in most industrialised countries for finely made furniture. This eventually resulted in a growth in the number of traditional cabinet makers. Before 1650, fine furniture was a rarity in Western Europe, generally, people did not need it and for the most part could not afford it. They made do with simple but serviceable pieces, the arts and craft movement which started in the United Kingdom in the middle of the 19th century spurred a market for traditional cabinet making, and other craft goods. It rapidly spread to the United States and to all the countries in the British Empire and this movement exemplified the reaction to the eclectic historicism of the Victorian era and to the soulless machine-made production which was starting to become widespread. After World War II woodworking became a hobby among the middle classes. The more serious and skilled amateurs in this field now turn out pieces of furniture which rival the work of professional cabinet makers and this style of design is typified by clean horizontal and vertical lines. Compared to other designs there is an absence of ornamentation. While Scandinavian design is easy to identify, it is more about the materials than the design. This style of design is very ornate, French Provincial objects are often stained or painted, leaving the wood concealed. Corners and bevels are often decorated with gold leaf or given some kind of gilding

17.
Carpentry
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Carpentry in the United States is almost always done by men. With 98. 5% of carpenters being male, it was the fourth most male-dominated occupation in the country in 1999, Carpenters are usually the first tradesmen on a job and the last to leave. Carpenters normally framed post-and-beam buildings until the end of the 19th century and it is also common that the skill can be learned by gaining work experience other than a formal training program, which may be the case in many places. The word carpenter is the English rendering of the Old French word carpentier which is derived from the Latin carpentrius, the Middle English and Scots word was wright, which could be used in compound forms such as wheelwright or boatwright. An easy way to envisage this is that first fix work is all that is done before plastering takes place, second fix is done after plastering takes place. Second fix work, the construction of such as skirting boards, architraves. Carpentry is also used to construct the formwork into which concrete is poured during the building of such as roads. In the UK, the skill of making timber formwork for poured, or in situ, although the. work of a carpenter and joiner are often combined. Joiner is less common than the finish carpenter or cabinetmaker. The terms housewright and barnwright were used historically, now used by carpenters who work using traditional methods. Someone who builds custom concrete formwork is a form carpenter, wood is one of mankinds oldest building materials. The ability to shape wood improved with technological advances from the age to the bronze age to the iron age. The oldest surviving, complete text is Vitruvius ten books collectively titled De architectura which discusses some carpentry. By the 16th century sawmills were coming into use in Europe, the founding of America was partly based on a desire to extract resources from the new continent including wood for use in ships and buildings in Europe. In the 18th century part of the Industrial Revolution was the invention of the steam engine and these technologies combined with the invention of the circular saw led to the development of balloon framing which was the beginning of the decline of traditional timber framing. The 19th century saw the development of engineering and distribution which allowed the development of hand-held power tools, wire nails. In the 20th century portland cement came into use and concrete foundations allowed carpenters to do away with heavy timber sills. Also, drywall came into common use replacing lime plaster on wooden lath, plywood, engineered lumber and chemically treated lumber also came into use

18.
Chainsaw carving
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The art of chainsaw carving is a fast-growing form of art that combines the modern technology of the chainsaw with the ancient art of woodcarving. The oldest chainsaw artist records go back to the 1950s, which include artists Ray Murphy, in 1952 Ray Murphy used his fathers chainsaw to carve his name into a piece of wood. In 1961 Ken Kaiser created 50 carvings for the Trees of Mystery, many new artists began to experiment with chainsaw carving, including Brenda Hubbard, Judy McVay, Don Colp, Cherie Currie, Susan Miller, Mike McVay, and Lois Hollingsworth. At this time chainsaw carvers started loading up their carvings in the back of their trucks, in the 1980s the art form really began to grow with Art Moe getting much exposure for the craft at the Lumberjack World Championships held in Hayward, Wisconsin. The addition of carving contests from the west coast to the east coast brought carvers together to test their skills, the first Chainsaw Carving World Championships was held in 1987 and won by then 24-year-old Barre Pinske. The 80s also brought the first book on chainsaw carving, Fun and Profitable Chainsaw Carving by William Westenhaver and Ron Hovde, other books soon followed, including a book by Hal MacIntosh published in 1988 titled Chainsaw Art and in 2001 Chainsaw Carving, The Art and Craft. He published material on chainsaw carving that predated the popularity of the Internet, the first booking agency dedicated to promoting and preserving the integrity of performance chainsaw art was founded by Brian Ruth in 1992. It was appropriately named Masters of the Chainsaw, the company has represented some of the most respected artists in the U. S. such as Brian Ruth, Ben Risney, Josh Landry, Mark Tyoe and Marty Long, as well as select artists from other countries. In 2007, Masters of the Chainsaw, under the direction of Jen Ruth, featured in this all-female team are greats like Stephanie Huber, Angela Polglaze, Lisa Foster, Alicia Charlton, Uschi Elias, and Sara Winter. Brian Ruth introduced the art as an art to Japan in 1995. Since then, he has established a division of Masters of the Chainsaw, although the general impression of the public is that it is largely performance art, there are a few chainsaw carvers now producing stunning works of art. These works can be produced in a fraction of the time that would normally be expected if only conventional tools such as mallet, although many carvers continue to use other tools alongside the chainsaw, the chainsaw remains the primary tool. With the growth of the Internet, chainsaw carving has become a phenomenon with chainsaw carvers all over the world. In the United Kingdom, the English Open Chainsaw Competition draws thousands of visitors annually, in 1989 Duncan Kitson was the first British carver, with notable success, to represent Wales and The UK in international competition. His work is recognized for its individual, engineered and tactile qualities, English chainsaw artist Matthew Crabb has carved the largest wooden statue of the Virgin Mary in the world, at 9 meters high, in Schochwitz, Germany. Welsh veteran, Harry Thomas of Thomas Carving is highly respected in the industry and specialises in bears, Harry has appeared on ITVs Daybreak, where he carved Queen Elizabeth IIs head, in celebration of her Diamond Jubilee. In Canada, many wooden statues produced by the chainsaw artist Pete Ryan decorate the town of Hope. In Japan, the Toei Chainsaw Art Club established the World Chainsaw Art Competition, the 2011 World Chainsaw Art Competition at the Toei Dome was to be dedicated to raising money for disaster relief due to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster that has affected the country

19.
Chip carving
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Chip carving or chip-carving, kerbschnitt in German, is a style of carving in which knives or chisels are used to remove small chips of the material from a flat surface in a single piece. The style became important in Migration Period metalwork, mainly Animal style jewellery and this was very probably a transfer to metalworking of a technique already used in woodcarving, but no wooden examples have survived. Famous Anglo-Saxon examples include the jewellery from Sutton Hoo and the Tassilo Chalice, in modern wood carving, the style is also called spoon carving. The style is traditional in the art of many countries. Patterns can be free form style or based on geometric figures, in America it is mostly used with basswood, butternut, pine, or mahogany. Chip carving knives can also be used for whittling, cabinet making, and general workbench purposes

20.
Clog
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Clogs are a type of footwear made in part or completely from wood. Clogs are used worldwide and although the form may vary by culture, traditional clogs remain in use as protective footwear in agriculture and in some factories and mines. Clogs are also used in different styles of dance. When worn for dancing an important feature is the sound of the clog against the floor and this is one of the fundamental roots of tap, but with the tap shoes the taps are free to click against each other and produce a different sound from clogs. The Oxford English Dictionary defines a clog as a piece of wood, and later as a wooden soled overshoe. Welsh traditional clog maker Trefor Owen identified three main varieties of clogs, wooden upper, wooden soled and overshoes, Wooden upper clogs, are made by hollowing out a lump of solid wood to make a combined upper and lower. Two main variants can be seen, whole foot clogs, where the upper covers the whole of the foot to near the ankle. They are also known as wooden shoes, whole foot clogs can give sufficient protection to be used as safety footwear without additional reinforcements. Half open clogs, where the wooden upper extends over the toes or slightly further, the upper is similar in outline to a court shoe. Half open clogs may have additional covering or securing straps in some sort of fabric or leather, Wooden soled clogs, use wood for the sole only. Wooden soled clogs come with a variety of uppers, complete uppers made from leather or similar material, for more protection, they may have steel toecaps and/or steel reinforcing inserts in the undersides of the soles open sandal type fitting. For example, Japanese geta toe peg styles, for example, Indian paduka Overshoes, are wooden soles with straps designed to be worn over other footwear for protection, commonly known as pattens. Patten style clogs are not used anymore, however the derivative galoshes are common world-wide. The type of upper determines how the clogs are worn, whole foot clogs need to be close fitting and can be secured by curling the toes. In contrast wooden soled clogs are fastened by laces or buckles on the welt, half open clogs may either be secured like whole foot clogs, or have an additional strap over the top of the foot. Some sandal types, and in particular toe peg styles, are more like flip-flops. Being wood, clogs cannot flex under the ball of the foot as softer shoes do, to allow the foot to roll forward most clogs have the bottom of the toe curved up, known as the cast. Some styles of clogs have feet, such as Spanish albarca, the clog rotates around the front edge of the front feet

21.
Fretwork
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Fretwork is an interlaced decorative design that is either carved in low relief on a solid background, or cut out with a fretsaw, coping saw, jigsaw or scroll saw. Most fretwork patterns are geometric in design, the materials most commonly used are wood and metal. Fretwork is used to adorn furniture and musical instruments, the term is also used for tracery on glazed windows and doors. Fretwork patterns originally were ornamental designs used to decorate objects with a grid or a lattice, designs have developed from the rectangular wave Greek fret to intricate intertwined patterns. A common misconception is that fretwork must be done with a fretsaw, however, a fretwork pattern is considered a fretwork whether or not it was cut out with a fretsaw. Computer numerical control has brought change in the method of timber fretwork manufacture. Lasers or router/milling cutting implements can now fashion timber and various materials into flat

22.
Intarsia
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Intarsia is a form of wood inlaying that is similar to marquetry. The start of the practice dates before the seventh century and it is thought that the word intarsia is derived from the Latin word interserere which means to insert. The technique of intarsia was already perfected in Islamic North Africa before it was introduced into Christian Europe through Sicily, the most elaborate examples of intarsia can be found in cabinets of this period, which were items of great luxury and prestige. After about 1620, marquetry tended to supplant intarsia in urbane cabinet work, in the 1980s, intarsia began to gain popularity in the United States as a technique for creating wooden art using a band saw or scroll saw. Early practitioners made money both by selling their art, and also selling patterns used to create intarsia, intarsia is a woodworking technique that uses varied shapes, sizes, and species of wood fitted together to create a mosaic-like picture with an illusion of depth. Intarsia is created through the selection of different types of wood, using their natural grain pattern, after selecting the specific woods to be used within the pattern, each piece is then individually cut, shaped, and finished. Sometimes areas of the pattern are raised to create more depth, marble intarsia, called pietre dura in English for the semi-precious hardstones combined with colored marbles that are employed, is an intarsia of coloured stones inlaid in white or black marble. Later complex designs and refinement of the art developed in Naples circa the beginning of the 17th century, the floor of St. Peters Basilica in Rome is a particularly notable example of marble intarsia. Later this form of decoration became a feature of interior design. Today intarsia can be made from purchased patterns, to make intarsia from a pattern, first wood is chosen based on color and grain pattern. Next the pattern is transferred onto the wood and individual pieces are cut out on the band saw or scroll saw. Those pieces are then sanded individually or in groups to add depth to the piece, once the sanding is completed, the wood pieces are fitted together to form the final result. A finish can be applied to the pieces before gluing. Intarsia is also used to refer to a technique used with small

23.
Japanese carpentry
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Japanese carpentry is carpentry in Japan. It is closely related to Japanese architecture and uses distinguished woodworking joints, teahouse and residential carpenters, known as sukiya-daiku 数奇屋大工, are famed for their delicate aesthetic constructions using rustic materials. Furniture makers are known as sashimono-shi 指し物師, and interior finishing carpenters, though it is rare to find a sashimono-shi or tateguya practising outside of their field, it is not uncommon for a carpentry workshop to work simultaneously as both miyadaiku and sukiyadaiku. This allows the blades to be thin in comparison to the Western saw. There are two kinds of cutting teeth on Japanese saws, rip and crosscut. The rip and crosscut are combined in one blade, known as a ryoba, the rip and crosscut patterns are also made in single-edged saws, kataha nokogiri 片刃, both with stiffening back pieces and without. The stiff-backed saws, known as douzuki are typically used in cutting fine joinery, there are many other types of Japanese saws as well, osae-biki 押さえ引き鋸, used for flush-cutting pegs to a surface without marring the surface. The saw teeth have no set to one or both sides to accomplish this feat, there is the azebiki, which has cutting both rip and crosscut teeth, and is short and rounded in profile. It is used for sawing in confined areas and starting cuts in the middle of surfaces, there are many other types and sub-types of saw. Most saws sold in the West are mass-produced items with induction-hardened teeth, the handmade forged saws are very laborious to make and involve more manufacturing steps in the forging to complete than planes or chisels. Japanese plane, is most commonly a wooden block, or dai containing a laminated blade, sub-blade and this is similar in respects to the archaic type of European wooden plane, in which the blade is fixed in place by tapping down upon a wooden wedge. In the Japanese plane, the blade is fixed in position primarily by the confines of the planes throat opening, unlike a western plane, the support bed for the blade is not a flat surface in a Japanese plane - rather it is convex. The blade itself is tapered both in thickness and in width so as to wedge tightly into the dai when tapped down into place, Japanese planes are operated by pulling rather than pushing, and much work is done in the seated position or alongside a planing beam. Considered part of the family, the yarigana is an archaic type of Japanese plane resembling a spear. The yarigana is a piece of steel with one end being used as a handle. The carpenter holds the yarigana with two hands, perpendicular to his arms, and pulls towards his body producing a concave gouge in the timber and these come in a larger variety of types and gradations than the Western chisel. There are bench chisels, paring chisels, striking chisels, heavy timber chisels and slicks, like the planes, the blades are of laminated hard steel/soft steel construction. Bevel angle varies from 20˚ to 35˚ typically, with mortising and heavy chisels featuring steep angles and it is common in Japan to work with softwoods, so many chisels are made with that in mind, and require the bevels be steepened if employed for harder woods

24.
Log building
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Log buildings and structures can be categorized as historic and modern. A diverse selection of their forms and styles with examples of elements is discussed in the following articles. Log cabin - a rustic dwelling Log home - a style and method of building a quality house Izba - a type of Russian peasant house, the Cabin of Peter the Great is based on an izba. Crib barn - a type of barn built using log cribs Some barns are log barns such as the earliest of the Pennsylvania barn types, blockhouse, garrison house - some blockhouse or garrison house structures are tightly fitted timber or stacked plank construction buildings to help withstand an attack. Azekurazukuri - a Japanese style of building using triangular log construction Some granarys are of log or plank construction, timber dam - timber crib dams are used to dam rivers. Zakopane Style architecture – inspired by the art of Poland’s highland region known as Podhale uses log construction. Hogan - this Native American dwelling evolved to be built of logs

25.
Marquetry
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Marquetry is the art and craft of applying pieces of veneer to a structure to form decorative patterns, designs or pictures. The technique may be applied to case furniture or even seat furniture, to small objects with smooth. Marquetry differs from the ancient craft of inlay, or intarsia. The word derives from a Middle French word meaning inlaid work, the veneers used are primarily woods, but may include bone, ivory, turtle-shell, mother-of-pearl, pewter, brass or fine metals. Marquetry using colored straw was a specialty of some European spa resorts from the end of the 18th century, the French cabinet maker Andre-Charles Boulle specialized in furniture using metal and either wood or tortoiseshell together, the latter acting as the background. The simplest kind of marquetry uses only two sheets of veneer, which are glued together and cut with a fine saw. Marquetry as a craft most commonly uses knife-cut veneers. However, the technique usually requires a lot of time. For that reason, many marquetarians have switched to fret or scroll saw techniques, other requirements are a pattern of some kind, some brown gummed tape, PVA glue and a base-board with balancing veneers on the alternate face to compensate stresses. Finishing the piece will require fine abrasive paper always backed by a sanding block, either ordinary varnish, special varnishes, modern polyurethane -oil or water based- good waxes and even the technique of french polish are different methods used to seal and finish the piece. Sand shading is a used to make a picture appear to be more three-dimensional. A piece of veneer to be incorporated into a picture is partially submerged into hot sand for a few seconds, another process is engraving fine lines into a picture and filling them with a mixture of India ink and shellac. The technique of veneered marquetry had its inspiration in 16th century Florence, Marquetry elaborated upon Florentine techniques of inlaying solid marble slabs with designs formed of fitted marbles, jaspers and semi-precious stones. This work, called opere di commessi, has parallels in Central Italian Cosmati-work of inlaid marble floors, altars. The technique is known in English as pietra dura, for the used, onyx, jasper, cornelian, lapis lazuli. In Florence, the Chapel of the Medici at San Lorenzo is completely covered in a colored marble facing using this demanding jig-sawn technique, techniques of wood marquetry were developed in Antwerp and other Flemish centers of luxury cabinet-making during the early 16th century. Boulle marquetry dropped out of favor in the 1720s, but was revived in the 1780s, in the decades between, carefully matched quarter-sawn veneers sawn from the same piece of timber were arranged symmetrically on case pieces and contrasted with gilt-bronze mounts. Floral marquetry came into favor in Parisian furniture in the 1750s, employed by cabinet-makers like Bernard van Risenbergh, Jean-Pierre Latz, the most famous royal French furniture veneered with marquetry are the pieces delivered by Jean Henri Riesener in the 1770s and 1780s

26.
Millwork (building material)
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Millwork building materials are historically any woodmill-produced building construction interior-finish, exterior-finish, or decorative components. Stock profiled and patterned millwork building components fabricated by milling at a planing mill can usually be installed with minimal alteration, today, millwork also encompasses items that are made using alternatives to wood, including synthetics, plastics, and wood-adhesive composites. Millwork building materials include the ready-made carpentry elements usually installed in any building, many of the specific features of the space are created using different types of architectural millwork, doors, window casings, and cabinets to name just a few. The materials used in millwork items today are most often graded-lumber, code compliant fasteners, various glasses, most millwork building materials can be installed with little or no modification as part of the construction process. Historically, the term applied to building elements made specifically from wood. During the Golden Age of millworking, virtually everything in the house was made from wood, during this time, the millwork produced in the United States became standardized nationwide. This includes products that use of pressed-wood chips in the design. There are two types of manufacturers of millwork goods, in one, referred to as stock millwork, commodity fabricators mass-produce trims and building components—with the end product being low cost, interchangeable items for commercial or home builders. In another, the product is produced for individuals or individual building projects—usually a costlier option which is referred to as architectural millwork. Millwork building materials are used for decoration and to increase the utility of buildings

27.
Parquetry
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Parquet is a geometric mosaic of wood pieces used for decorative effect. The two main uses of parquetry are as wood veneer patterns on furniture and block patterns for flooring, parquet patterns are entirely geometrical and angular—squares, triangles, lozenges. The most popular parquet flooring pattern is herringbone, the word derives from the Old French parchet, literally meaning a small enclosed space. Such parquets en losange were noted by the Swedish architect Daniel Cronström at Versailles, while not technically a wood, bamboo is also a popular material for modern floors. Parquet floors were formerly usually adhered with hot bitumen, today modern cold adhesives are usually used. Wood floors may be brushed clean, and mopped when necessary, upright vacuum cleaners can scratch and wear the surface, as grit particles become embedded in the spinning brushes. Parquet floors are long lasting and require little or no maintenance. Bitumen-glued blocks require use of hot bitumen or a cold bitumen emulsion. Parquet floors are found in bedrooms and hallways. They are considered better than regular floor tiles since they feel warmer underfoot, however they do little to absorb sounds such as walking, vacuum cleaning and television, which can cause problems in multi-occupancy dwellings. One of the most famous parquet floors is the one used by the Boston Celtics of the NBA, the floor remained intact and in use until it was cut up and sold as souvenirs in 1999, after the 1998 demolition of Boston Garden. The Celtics today play on a parquet floor inside TD Garden that combines old, similar square-paneled parquet floors were made for the Orlando Magic, Minnesota Timberwolves, Denver Nuggets, and New Jersey Nets. Of the four, only the Magic continue to use a square-paneled parquet floor, the Nets debuted their parquet at the Meadowlands Arena in 1988, and continued to use the floor until 1997. The said floor remained in use with the Seton Hall basketball team until 2007, the Nuggets used a parquet floor from 1990 to 1993 at the McNichols Sports Arena, while the Timberwolves played on the parquet from 1996 to 2008 at the Target Center. In 1995, the Toronto Raptors debuted with a herringbone parquet, the Nets revived the use of the herringbone upon moving to the Barclays Center in 2012. While the Charlotte Hornets unveiled a parquet-like floor at the Time Warner Cable Arena for the 2014–15 season, it is not considered a true parquet floor. Instead, it simulated the pattern of the parquet by alternately painting light and dark trapezoid sections through the use of varnish, forming a beehive pattern that is synonymous with the franchise

28.
Pyrography
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Pyrography or pyrogravure is the art of decorating wood or other materials with burn marks resulting from the controlled application of a heated object such as a poker. It is also known as pokerwork or wood burning, the term means writing with fire, from the Greek pur and graphos. It can be practiced using specialized modern pyrography tools, or using a metal implement heated in a fire, Pyrography dates from the 17th century and reached its highest standard in the 19th century. In its crude form it is pokerwork, a large range of tones and shades can be achieved. Varying the type of tip used, the temperature, or the way the iron is applied to the material all create different effects, after the design is burned in, wooden objects are often coloured. Light-coloured hardwoods such as sycamore, basswood, beech and birch are most commonly used, however, other woods, such as maple, pine or oak, are also used. Pyrography is also applied to items, using the same hot-iron technique. Leather lends itself to bold designs, and also very subtle shading to be achieved. Specialist vegetable-tanned leather must be used for pyrography, typically in light colours for good contrast, Pyrography is also popular among gourd crafters and artists, where designs are burned onto the exterior of a dried hard-shell gourd. The process has been practiced by a number of cultures including the Egyptians, Pyrographer Robert Boyer hypothesises that the art form dates back to prehistory, when early humans created designs using the charred remains of their fires. It was known in China from the time of the Han dynasty and this improved the pokerwork process by allowing the addition of tinting and shading that were previously impossible. Pyrography is a folk art in many parts of Europe, including Romania, Hungary and Flanders, as well as Argentina. Traditional pyrography can be performed using any heated metal implement, modern pyrography machines exist, and can be divided into three main categories. Solid-point burners are similar in design to a soldering iron and they have a solid brass tip which is heated by an electrical element, and operate at a fixed temperature. Wire-nib burners have variable temperature controls, the writing nib is heated by an electric current passing directly through it. Some models have interchangeable nibs to allow for different effects, laser cutters can be set to scorch the material instead of cutting all the way through it. Many laser cutters provide software facilities to import image files and transfer them onto a sheet of wood, some laser systems are sufficiently sensitive to perform pyrography on thin card or even paper. Woods differ in hardness, grain, figure, texture, color, hardness, All woods can be classified into hard or soft

29.
Relief carving
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Relief carving as a type of wood carving in which figures are carved in a flat panel of wood. The figures project only slightly from the rather than standing freely. Depending on the degree of projection, reliefs may also be classified as high or medium relief, Relief carving can be described as carving pictures in wood. The process of carving involves removing wood from a flat wood panel in such a way that an object appears to rise out of the wood. Relief carving begins with an idea, usually put to paper in the form of a master pattern which is then transferred to the wood surface. Most relief carving is done with hand tools - chisels and gouges - which often require a mallet to drive them through the wood, as wood is removed from the panel around the objects traced onto it from the pattern, the objects themselves stand up from the background wood. Modeling of the objects can take place as soon as enough background has been removed, in order to secure the wood panel, a workbench with fixtures like bench-dogs, carvers screw or clamps, is necessary. Carving tools come in a variety of shapes and sizes, some aimed strictly at the hobbyist. Some carving tools are held one hand while the carving is held in the other. But most relief carving requires that the wood panel be secured so that both hands may be on the carving tool, much of the skill required for relief carving lies in learning to grip and manipulate tools to get the desired effect. Tool sharpening is also a skill to learn, and dull tools are a severe obstacle to effective carving. Create a pattern, drawn on paper, prepare a wood panel for carving. This may be a piece of wood or a laminated panel. Transfer the pattern to the panel, using paper as the transfer medium. Remove wood around the objects that comprise the pattern, model the objects Detail the objects Tidy the background behind the objects Apply a suitable finish to the panel 1. High relief, usually between 1/2 and 2 in depth, bas relief, or Low relief usually under 1/2 in depth. Deep relief, usually over 2 in depth, pierced relief, where holes are carved clear through the wood. Some carvers prefer to finish their carving with a clear finish, but others incorporate color and pyrography into their relief carvings

30.
Root carving
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Root carving is a traditional Chinese art form. It consists of carving and polishing tree roots into various artistic creations, using roots to make necessities has been practiced since primitive society. Like other artistic crafts, art of roots produced from primitive labor, the earliest root carvings are “辟邪” and “角形器” showing up in the Warring States period. In the Sui and Tang dynasties, root carving not only prevailed in folk. In the Tang dynasty, people laid emphasis on the forms of roots, cleverly taking advantage of the effect of corrosion. In the Song and Yuan dynasties, art of root carving not only developed in the court and folk, roots were used to carve the statues of the Buddha, always comparing favorably with the clay. Ancient artists created lifelike and vivid works by a technique using expression based on the roots natural forms. This kind of creation is not completely artificial, but created by human beings and nature. Root carving is different from engraving, although its aesthetic principals share common ground with engraving, at the same time they are applied uniquely. The common ground is that they share expressive techniques of wood carving, sculpture, stone carving and so on, the difference lies in the natural shape of roots. During the creative process, root carving mostly maintains the form of the root. In other words, root carving is guided by the inherent qualities of the root, creation effects of the same material can be entirely different vary from creator to creator. To make better works, three points are indispensable, peculiar roots To some degree, root carving is an art of discovery in need of seeking. Having peculiar roots is half done, which results from rich experience, Rich cultural foundation Rich cultural foundation, referring to the overall quality for the entire creative process, highlights the natural beauty, with a splendid blend of artificial beauty. Superb craftsmanship The natural beauty of roots can be manifested by fertile imagination and marvelous composition

31.
Sawdust
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Sawdust or wood dust is a by-product of cutting, grinding, drilling, sanding, or otherwise pulverizing wood or any other material with a saw or other tool, it is composed of fine particles of wood. It is also the byproduct of certain animals, birds and insects live in wood. It can present a hazard in manufacturing industries, especially in terms of its flammability, sawdust is the main component of particleboard. A major use of sawdust is for particleboard, coarse sawdust may be used for wood pulp, sawdust has a variety of other practical uses, including serving as a mulch, as an alternative to clay cat litter, or as a fuel. Until the advent of refrigeration, it was used in icehouses to keep ice frozen during the summer. It has been used in displays, and as scatter in miniature railroad. It is also used to soak up liquid spills, allowing the spill to be easily collected or swept aside. As such, it was common on barroom floors. It is used to make Cutlers resin, mixed with water and frozen, it forms pykrete, a slow-melting, much stronger form of ice. Sawdust is used in the manufacture of charcoal briquettes, the claim for invention of the first commercial charcoal briquettes goes to Henry Ford who created them from the wood scraps and sawdust produced by his automobile factory. Cellulose, fibre starch that is indigestible to humans, and a filler in some low calorie foods, can be and is made from sawdust, sawdust-derived cellulose has also been used as a filler in bread. Airborne sawdust and sawdust accumulations present a number of health and safety hazards, wood dust becomes a potential health problem when, for example, the wood particles, from processes such as sanding, become airborne and are inhaled. Wood dust is a human carcinogen. Certain woods and their dust contain toxins that can produce allergic reactions. Water-borne bacteria digest organic material in leachate, but use up much of the available oxygen and this high biological oxygen demand can suffocate fish and other organisms. People can be exposed to wood dust in the workplace by breathing it in, skin contact, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set the legal limit for wood dust exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has set a recommended limit of 1 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. Sawdust is flammable and accumulations provide a source of fuel

32.
Segmented turning
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Segmented turning is turning on a lathe where the initial workpiece is composed of multiple glued-together parts. The process involves gluing up several pieces of wood to create patterns, Segmented turning is also known as polychromatic turning. In traditional wood turning, the template is a piece of wood. The size, grain orientation and colors of the wood, will frame how it can be turned into an object like a bowl, platter, with segmented turning, the size and patterns are limited only by imagination, skill and patience. Examples include pens, bowls, vases, salt, pepper mills, by cutting and re-assembling pieces after they are turned, unique forms can be created, crossing over to pure art. See for example the work of Malcolm Tibbetts, in addition to design skills, segmented turning demands precision woodworking skills as well as turning skills. Design and construction of a bowl blank—the wood piece mounted on the lathe for turning a vessel—requires angled miter joints cut to tolerances of as little as a tenth of one degree or better. There are essentially two different techniques for constructing a bowl blank, ring construction and stave construction, ring construction is the most common. A ring-constructed blank comprises rings glued in a cylindrical stack, though a platter or shallow bowl could be made from a single ring, stacking many rings is more typical. Apart from a lid or a base made and added after the fact, the height of the piece is a function of number of rings, and the height of each ring. Each ring comprises three or more cut and glued to form a triangle, square, pentagon, hexagon. The more pieces in a ring, the challenging for the turner, because there are more opportunities for precision errors—gaps. The individual pieces making up a ring themselves are assembled from smaller pieces of contrasting or complementary colors to achieve striking patterns in the finished piece. This too adds to the complexity and challenge for the turner, native American pottery, basket, and textile designs, particularly from the southwest U. S. frequently inspire form and design features. These patterns are geometric in design and thus are easier to recreate than more fluid forms found in nature. Stave constructions are assembled like barrels—cylinders constructed from long, vertically oriented pieces. As a rule, the grain in a ring-constructed turning runs horizontally in the piece, while the grain in a stave-constructed turning runs vertically. Another category of segmented turning called Open Segmented Turning is similar to ring construction, successive rings are offset so the segments interlock with the ring above and below

33.
Shipbuilding
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Shipbuilding is the construction of ships and other floating vessels. It normally takes place in a facility known as a shipyard. Shipbuilders, also called shipwrights, follow a specialized occupation that traces its roots to before recorded history, Shipbuilding and ship repairs, both commercial and military, are referred to as naval engineering. The construction of boats is an activity called boat building. The dismantling of ships is called ship breaking, the ancestors of Australian Aborigines and New Guineans also went across the Lombok Strait to Sahul by boat over 50,000 years ago. Evidence from Ancient Egypt shows that the early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull as early as 3000 BC, the Archaeological Institute of America reports that some of the oldest ships yet unearthed are known as the Abydos boats. These are a group of 14 ships discovered in Abydos that were constructed of wooden planks which were sewn together, the ship dating to 3000 BC was about 25 m,75 feet long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh. According to professor OConnor, the 5, 000-year-old ship may have belonged to Pharaoh Aha. Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with treenails to fasten them together, early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with mortise and tenon joints. The oldest known tidal dock in the world was built around 2500 BC during the Harappan civilisation at Lothal near the present day Mangrol harbour on the Gujarat coast in India, other ports were probably at Balakot and Dwarka. However, it is probable that many small-scale ports, and not massive ports, were used for the Harappan maritime trade, ships from the harbour at these ancient port cities established trade with Mesopotamia. Shipbuilding and boatmaking may have been prosperous industries in ancient India, native labourers may have manufactured the flotilla of boats used by Alexander the Great to navigate across the Hydaspes and even the Indus, under Nearchos. The Indians also exported teak for shipbuilding to ancient Persia, other references to Indian timber used for shipbuilding is noted in the works of Ibn Jubayr. The ships of Ancient Egypts Eighteenth Dynasty were typically about 25 meters in length and they mounted a single square sail on a yard, with an additional spar along the bottom of the sail. These ships could also be oar propelled, the ocean and sea going ships of Ancient Egypt were constructed with cedar wood, most likely hailing from Lebanon. The ships of Phoenicia seem to have been of a similar design, the naval history of China stems back to the Spring and Autumn period of the ancient Chinese Zhou Dynasty. The Chinese built large rectangular barges known as ships, which were essentially floating fortresses complete with multiple decks with guarded ramparts. There is considerable knowledge regarding shipbuilding and seafaring in the ancient Mediterranean and this was dually met with the introduction of the Han Dynasty junk ship design in the same century

34.
Timber framing
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Timber framing and post-and-beam construction are methods of building with heavy timbers rather than dimensional lumber such as 2x4s. Traditional timber framing is the method of creating structures using heavy squared-off and it is commonplace in wooden buildings from the 19th century and earlier. The method comes from making out of logs and tree trunks without modern high tech saws to cut lumber from the starting material stock. Since this building method has been used for thousands of years in parts of the world. These styles are categorized by the type of foundation, walls, how and where the beams intersect, the use of curved timbers. Three basic types of frames in English-speaking countries are the box frame, cruck frame. The distinction presented here is the load is carried by the exterior walls. Purlins are also in a timber frame. A cruck is a pair of crooked or curved timbers which form a bent or crossframe, more than 4,000 cruck frame buildings have been recorded in the UK. Several types of frames are used, more information follows in English style below. True cruck or full cruck, blades, straight or curved, base cruck, tops of the blades are truncated by the first transverse member such as by a tie beam. Raised cruck, blades land on masonry wall, and extend to the ridge, middle cruck, blades land on masonry wall, and are truncated by a collar. Upper cruck, blades land on a tie beam, very similar to knee rafters, jointed cruck, blades are made from pieces joined near eaves in a number of ways. See also, hammerbeam roof End cruck is not a style, aisled frames have one or more rows of interior posts. These interior posts typically carry more load than the posts in the exterior walls. This is the concept of the aisle in church buildings, sometimes called a hall church. However, a nave is often called an aisle, and three-aisled barns are common in the U. S. the Netherlands, aisled buildings are wider than the simpler box-framed or cruck-framed buildings, and typically have purlins supporting the rafters. In northern Germany, this construction is known as variations of a Ständerhaus, the frame is often left exposed on the exterior of the building

35.
Treen (wooden)
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Treen, literally of a tree is a generic name for small handmade functional household objects made of wood. Treen is distinct from furniture, such as chairs, and cabinetry, as well as clocks, before the late 17th-century, when silver, pewter, and ceramics were introduced for tableware, most small household items, boxes and tableware were carved from wood. Today, treen is highly collectable for its beautiful patina and tactile appeal, anything from wooden plates and bowls, snuff boxes and needle cases, spoons and stay busks to shoehorns and chopping boards can be classed as treen. Domestic and agricultural tools are also usually classed with treen. Before the advent of metal wares in industrialized societies, and later plastic. Turning and carving were the key manufacturing techniques, Wooden objects have survived relatively less well than those of metal or stone, and their study by archaeologists and historians has been somewhat neglected until recently. Their strongly functional and undecorated forms have, however, been regarded by designers and collectors. The scholarly study of treen was greatly advanced by Edward Pinto, in 1965, when Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery purchased his collection, it contained over 7,000 items. Lovespoon Wooden spoon Daniel Cragin Mill Pinto, Edward, Wooden Bygones Of Smoking And Snuff Taking

36.
Whittling
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Whittling may refer either to the art of carving shapes out of raw wood using a knife or a time-occupying, non-artistic process of repeatedly shaving slivers from a piece of wood. Casual whittling is typically performed with a light, small-bladed knife, specialized whittling knives, with fixed single blades, are preferred for sculpting artistic work. They have thick handles which are easier to grip for long periods, allowing precise control. Occasionally the terms whittling and carving are used interchangeably, but they are different arts, carving employs the use of chisels, gouges, and a mallet, while whittling involves only the use of a knife. Carving frequently involves powered equipment such as lathes, in industrialized areas of the world, whittling is mainly a hobby and not an occupational activity as it was before powered wood working equipment enabled modern production. Splash whittling is a historical, decorative technique in Norway using an ax to create a herringbone pattern, always protect your thumb with a leather thimble and your holding hand with a carving glove. While any type of wood can be used for whittling, there are woods which are easier to work with, soft woods with a small grain, such as basswood, are easier to whittle and are relatively inexpensive. Hardwoods are more difficult to whittle

37.
Wood carving
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The phrase may also refer to the finished product, from individual sculptures to hand-worked mouldings composing part of a tracery. It therefore forms an important hidden element in the art history of many cultures, outdoor wood sculptures do not last long in most parts of the world, so it is still unknown how the totem pole tradition developed. Many of the most important sculptures of China and Japan in particular are in wood, and so are the majority of African sculpture. Wood is light and can take very fine detail so it is suitable for masks. It is also easier to work on than stone. Some of the finest extant examples of early European wood carving are from the Middle Ages in Germany, Russia, Italy and France, in England, many complete examples remain from the 16th and 17th century, where oak was the preferred medium. The gouge, a tool with a cutting edge used in a variety of forms and sizes for carving hollows, rounds. The coping saw, a saw that is used to cut off chunks of wood at once. The chisel, large and small, whose straight cutting edge is used for lines, the V-tool, used for parting, and in certain classes of flat work for emphasizing lines. The U-Gauge, a deep gouge with a U-shaped cutting edge. Sharpening equipment, such as stones and a strop, necessary for maintaining edges. The nature of the wood being carved limits the scope of the carver in wood is not equally strong in all directions. The direction in which wood is strongest is called grain and it is smart to arrange the more delicate parts of a design along the grain instead of across it. Less commonly, this principle is used in solid pieces of wood. Probably the two most common used for carving in North America are basswood and tupelo, both are hardwoods that are relatively easy to work with. Chestnut, butternut, oak, American walnut, mahogany and teak are also very good woods, while for fine work Italian walnut, sycamore maple, apple, pear, box or plum, are usually chosen. Decoration that is to be painted and of not too delicate a nature is often carved in pine, the type of wood is important. Hardwoods are more difficult to shape but have greater luster and longevity, softer woods may be easier to carve but are more prone to damage

38.
Woodturning
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Woodturning is the craft of using the wood lathe with hand-held tools to cut a shape that is symmetrical around the axis of rotation. Like the potters wheel, the lathe is a simple mechanism which can generate a variety of forms. The operator is known as a turner, and the skills needed to use the tools were known as turnery. In pre-industrial England, these skills were sufficiently difficult to be known as the misterie of the turners guild. The skills to use the tools by hand, without a point of contact with the wood, distinguish woodturning. Industrial production has replaced many of products from the traditional turning shop. However, the lathe is still used for decentralized production of limited or custom turnings. A skilled turner can produce a variety of objects with five or six simple tools. The tools can be reshaped easily for the task at hand, in many parts of the world, the lathe has been a portable tool that goes to the source of the wood, or adapts to temporary workspaces. 21st-century turners restore furniture, continue folk-art traditions, produce custom architectural work, woodturning appeals to people who like to work with their hands, find pleasure in problem-solving, or enjoy the tactile and visual qualities of wood. Wood lathes work with either reciprocating or continuous revolution, the reciprocating lathe is powered by a bow or a spring, rotating the wood first in one direction, and then in the other. The turner cuts on just one side of the rotation, as with the pole lathe, the reciprocating lathe may be human-powered with a bow, as well as with spring mechanisms. The reciprocating lathe, while primitive technology requiring considerable dexterity to operate, is capable of excellent results in skilled hands, for example, reciprocating bow lathes are still used to turn beads for the Arabian lattice windows called Meshrebeeyeh that so charmed Holtzapffel in the 1880s. Continuous revolution of the workpiece can be human-powered with a wheel, or achieved with water, steam. The style of cutting does not have the pause required by the reciprocating lathes rotation, even with continuous revolution, however, the turner controls the contact of tool and wood entirely by hand. The cutters are not fixed, nor advanced automatically, as with the metal-working lathe, the nature of wood defines woodturning techniques. The orientation of the grain, relative to the axis of the lathe, affects the tools. In spindle turning, the grain runs lengthwise along the lathe bed, grain is thus always perpendicular to the direction of rotation under the tool

Bevel
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A bevelled edge or beveled edge refers to an edge of a structure that is not perpendicular to the faces of the piece. The words bevel and chamfer overlap in usage, in general usage they are often interchanged, a bevel is typically used to soften the edge of a piece for the sake of safety, wear resistance, or aesthetics, or to facilitate mating with

2.
Side views of a bevel (above) and a chamfer (below)

Strength of materials
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Strength of materials, also called mechanics of materials, is a subject which deals with the behavior of solid objects subject to stresses and strains. An important founding pioneer in mechanics of materials was Stephen Timoshenko, the study of strength of materials often refers to various methods of calculating the stresses and strains in structur

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A material being loaded in a) compression, b) tension, c) shear.

Picture frame
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A picture frame is a decorative edging for a picture, such as a painting or photograph, intended to enhance it, make it easier to display or protect it. The frame along with its mounts protects and often complements the artwork, Art work framed well will stay in good condition for a longer period of time. Joan Miró once did a work specifically to f

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Wooden picture frames

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View of a frame-maker's workshop, oil on canvas, c 1900.

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The elaborate decoration on this frame may well be applied plaster pieces stuck to the wood beneath

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A passe-partout (or mat) can be put between the frame and picture. The passe-partout serves two purposes: first, to prevent the image from touching the glass, and second, to frame the image and enhance its visual appeal.

Pipe (fluid conveyance)
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It can also be used for structural applications, hollow pipe is far stiffer per unit weight than solid members. In common usage the words pipe and tube are usually interchangeable, but in industry and engineering, depending on the applicable standard to which it is manufactured, pipe is generally specified by a nominal diameter with a constant outs

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Steel pipes

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Plastic (PVC) pipes in USA

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Pipe installation on a street in Belo Horizonte, Brazil

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Historic water mains from Philadelphia included wooden pipes

Moulding (decorative)
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Moulding, also known as coving, is a strip of material with various profiles used to cover transitions between surfaces or for decoration. It is traditionally made from solid milled wood or plaster, in classical architecture and sculpture, the molding is often carved in marble or other stones. A sprung molding has bevelled edges that allow mounting

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Moldings from 1728 Table of architecture in the Cyclopedia

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Cavetto molding and resulting shadow pattern

Mitre clamp
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Miter clamps are designed to hold miter joints together. The earliest miter clamps are a spring in a C-shape with sharpened points that are sprung onto the outside corner of the miter joint. The right angled plates are higher than the screws and the red holder, the screws go under the frame to be held, and the red bit clamps down on the lower-edge

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Cheap miter clamp

Miter saw
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A miter saw is a saw used to make accurate crosscuts and miters in a workpiece. A power miter saw, also known as a saw, is a power tool used to make a quick. Common uses include framing operations and the cutting of molding and trim, most miter saws are relatively small and portable, with common blade sizes ranging from eight to twelve inches. The

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A manual miter saw.

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A motorized miter saw

Notching
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Notching is a metal-cutting process used on sheetmetal or thin barstock, sometimes on angle sections or tube. A shearing or punching process is used in a press, so as to cut vertically down and perpendicular to the surface, notching is a low-cost process, particularly for its low tooling costs with a small range of standard punches. The capital cos

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Bicycle frame in steel tube, notched at the joints before TIG welding or brazing

Woodworking
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Woodworking is the activity or skill of making items from wood, and includes cabinet making, wood carving, joinery, carpentry, and woodturning. Along with stone, clay and animal parts, wood was one of the first materials worked by early humans, microwear analysis of the Mousterian stone tools used by the Neanderthals show that many were used to wor

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Artists can use woodworking to create delicate sculptures.

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Ancient Egyptian woodworking

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Damascene woodworkers carving wood for hookahs, 19th century.

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Micronesian of Tobi, Palau, making a paddle for his wa with an adze.

History of wood carving
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Wood carving is one of the oldest arts of humankind. Wooden spears from the Middle Paleolithic, such as the Clacton Spear, the North American Indian carves his wooden fish-hook or his pipe stem just as the Polynesian works patterns on his paddle. Figure-work seems to have been universal, the texture of the material, too, often proves challenging to

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Detail from the carved portal, of St Sabina on the Aventine Hill, dating back from the 5th century

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Gothic beauty in carved wood

Wood
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Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees, and other woody plants. It is a material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers which are strong in tension embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, in a living tree it

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Diagram of secondary growth in a tree showing idealised vertical and horizontal sections. A new layer of wood is added in each growing season, thickening the stem, existing branches and roots, to form a growth ring.

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A knot on a tree at the Garden of the Gods public park in Colorado Springs, Colorado (October 2006)

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Wood knot in vertical section

Lumber
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Lumber, or timber is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber may also refer to currently un-needed furniture, as in Lumber room, or an awkward gait, ultimately derived from the look of unfashionable, Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more of its faces. Besid

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Timber in storage for later processing at a sawmill

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Wood cut from Victorian Eucalyptus regnans

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The harbor of Bellingham, Washington, filled with logs, 1972

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A 2×4.

Boat building
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Boat building, one of the oldest branches of engineering, is concerned with constructing the hulls of boats and, for sailboats, the masts, spars and rigging. Anchor- a heavy, pick like device, attached to a boats stem by a warp, common types are Plow or Fisherman and Danforth. Modern anchors are made of steel but in pre-industrial societies rocks w

Bow and arrow
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The bow and arrow is a projectile weapon system that predates recorded history and is common to most cultures. Archery is the art, practice, or skill of applying it, a bow is a flexible arc that shoots aerodynamic projectiles called arrows. A string joins the two ends of the bow and when the string is drawn back, the ends of the bow are flexed, whe

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A modern reconstruction, in fiberglass and wood, of a historical composite bow

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Polychrome small-scale model of the archer XI of the west pediment of the Temple of Aphaea, ca. 505–500 BCE.

Bush carpentry
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The phrase bush carpentry is a familiar Australian usage, but finding an exact description of its practice is rare. The Macquarie Dictionary for example, defines a bush carpenter as an amateur carpenter. The Macquarie in turn defines rough-and-ready as rough, rude or crude, wannan says that a bush carpenter is a very rough, unorthodox artisan indee

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Bush carpentry in Maldon, New South Wales

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Bush timber supporting deck of Maldon Suspension Bridge.

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Thomas Rowlandson: Naval carpenter, 1799

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Broadaxe

Cabinetry
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A cabinet is a box-shaped piece of furniture with doors or drawers for storing miscellaneous items. Some cabinets stand alone while others are built into a wall or are attached to it like a medicine cabinet, cabinets are typically made of wood or, now increasingly, of synthetic materials. Commercial grade cabinets, which differ in the used, are cal

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Cabinet

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Tortoise-shell cabinet of Polish king John III Sobieski, looted by the Germans from the Wilanów Palace during World War II

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Crafted by Hughes Sambin (1570-1600), double cabinet features the combination of architectural elements and relief carving that is characteristic of French furniture of the period.

Carpentry
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Carpentry in the United States is almost always done by men. With 98. 5% of carpenters being male, it was the fourth most male-dominated occupation in the country in 1999, Carpenters are usually the first tradesmen on a job and the last to leave. Carpenters normally framed post-and-beam buildings until the end of the 19th century and it is also com

Chainsaw carving
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The art of chainsaw carving is a fast-growing form of art that combines the modern technology of the chainsaw with the ancient art of woodcarving. The oldest chainsaw artist records go back to the 1950s, which include artists Ray Murphy, in 1952 Ray Murphy used his fathers chainsaw to carve his name into a piece of wood. In 1961 Ken Kaiser created

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A man carving a Bernese bear with a chainsaw in Brienz, Switzerland

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World's tallest Virgin Mary carving at Schochwitz, Germany

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Carving of owls, Brighton Recreation Area, Michigan

Chip carving
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Chip carving or chip-carving, kerbschnitt in German, is a style of carving in which knives or chisels are used to remove small chips of the material from a flat surface in a single piece. The style became important in Migration Period metalwork, mainly Animal style jewellery and this was very probably a transfer to metalworking of a technique alrea

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Chip carving in wood

Clog
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Clogs are a type of footwear made in part or completely from wood. Clogs are used worldwide and although the form may vary by culture, traditional clogs remain in use as protective footwear in agriculture and in some factories and mines. Clogs are also used in different styles of dance. When worn for dancing an important feature is the sound of the

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Clogs are often associated with whole foot style klompen from the Netherlands

Fretwork
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Fretwork is an interlaced decorative design that is either carved in low relief on a solid background, or cut out with a fretsaw, coping saw, jigsaw or scroll saw. Most fretwork patterns are geometric in design, the materials most commonly used are wood and metal. Fretwork is used to adorn furniture and musical instruments, the term is also used fo

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Timber fretwork

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Fretwork for a ventilation or light grill

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Gable end Fretwork

Intarsia
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Intarsia is a form of wood inlaying that is similar to marquetry. The start of the practice dates before the seventh century and it is thought that the word intarsia is derived from the Latin word interserere which means to insert. The technique of intarsia was already perfected in Islamic North Africa before it was introduced into Christian Europe

Japanese carpentry
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Japanese carpentry is carpentry in Japan. It is closely related to Japanese architecture and uses distinguished woodworking joints, teahouse and residential carpenters, known as sukiya-daiku 数奇屋大工, are famed for their delicate aesthetic constructions using rustic materials. Furniture makers are known as sashimono-shi 指し物師, and interior finishing ca

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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2015)

Log building
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Log buildings and structures can be categorized as historic and modern. A diverse selection of their forms and styles with examples of elements is discussed in the following articles. Log cabin - a rustic dwelling Log home - a style and method of building a quality house Izba - a type of Russian peasant house, the Cabin of Peter the Great is based

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General map of building materials used in European farmhouses; blue is the distribution of log buildings.

Marquetry
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Marquetry is the art and craft of applying pieces of veneer to a structure to form decorative patterns, designs or pictures. The technique may be applied to case furniture or even seat furniture, to small objects with smooth. Marquetry differs from the ancient craft of inlay, or intarsia. The word derives from a Middle French word meaning inlaid wo

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In contrast, this Tilt-top table is veneered in a parquetry pattern by Isaac Leonard Wise, circa 1934.

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Two Lovers - example of sand-shading and shellac-inking

Millwork (building material)
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Millwork building materials are historically any woodmill-produced building construction interior-finish, exterior-finish, or decorative components. Stock profiled and patterned millwork building components fabricated by milling at a planing mill can usually be installed with minimal alteration, today, millwork also encompasses items that are made

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Traditional interior millwork examples. Note the wall covers, as well as the door and window trim, are all custom-styled to compliment the central focus point of the room – the fireplace mantle.

Parquetry
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Parquet is a geometric mosaic of wood pieces used for decorative effect. The two main uses of parquetry are as wood veneer patterns on furniture and block patterns for flooring, parquet patterns are entirely geometrical and angular—squares, triangles, lozenges. The most popular parquet flooring pattern is herringbone, the word derives from the Old

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Intricate parquet flooring in entry hall.

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Parquet flooring, 18th century.

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Parquet Versailles

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The iconic parquet floor used by the Boston Celtics at TD Garden

Pyrography
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Pyrography or pyrogravure is the art of decorating wood or other materials with burn marks resulting from the controlled application of a heated object such as a poker. It is also known as pokerwork or wood burning, the term means writing with fire, from the Greek pur and graphos. It can be practiced using specialized modern pyrography tools, or us

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The White Horse, pyrography on poplar wood.

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The Tawny Eagle. Davide Della Noce pyrography.

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Deer I

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Pyrography artwork of the Mona Lisa

Relief carving
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Relief carving as a type of wood carving in which figures are carved in a flat panel of wood. The figures project only slightly from the rather than standing freely. Depending on the degree of projection, reliefs may also be classified as high or medium relief, Relief carving can be described as carving pictures in wood. The process of carving invo

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A low relief carving of a Viking ship

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Carving tools and a mallet

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1. A low relief carving of a Dragonfly

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2. Bas relief: A close-up of the crest for City of Grande Prairie, Alberta, Canada

Root carving
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Root carving is a traditional Chinese art form. It consists of carving and polishing tree roots into various artistic creations, using roots to make necessities has been practiced since primitive society. Like other artistic crafts, art of roots produced from primitive labor, the earliest root carvings are “辟邪” and “角形器” showing up in the Warring S

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A Chinese tea table carved from tree root. Note the flat "terraces". Each drains tea into a waste reservoir under the table.

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A craftsman works on a piece in Haikou City, Hainan Province. His shop is located in an area beside East Lake, part of Haikou People's Park. The area contains dozens of small shops dedicated to producing root carvings.

Sawdust
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Sawdust or wood dust is a by-product of cutting, grinding, drilling, sanding, or otherwise pulverizing wood or any other material with a saw or other tool, it is composed of fine particles of wood. It is also the byproduct of certain animals, birds and insects live in wood. It can present a hazard in manufacturing industries, especially in terms of

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Sawdust made with hand saw

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Ogatan, Japanese charcoal briquettes made from sawdust

Segmented turning
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Segmented turning is turning on a lathe where the initial workpiece is composed of multiple glued-together parts. The process involves gluing up several pieces of wood to create patterns, Segmented turning is also known as polychromatic turning. In traditional wood turning, the template is a piece of wood. The size, grain orientation and colors of

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A ring-constructed turning

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Examples of bowls from boards

Shipbuilding
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Shipbuilding is the construction of ships and other floating vessels. It normally takes place in a facility known as a shipyard. Shipbuilders, also called shipwrights, follow a specialized occupation that traces its roots to before recorded history, Shipbuilding and ship repairs, both commercial and military, are referred to as naval engineering. T

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An expedition's shipwrights building a brigantine, 1541

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A two-masted Chinese junk, from the Tiangong Kaiwu of Song Yingxing, published in 1637

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Illustration of some shipbuilding methods in England, 1858

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Babbitt's rotary engine

Timber framing
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Timber framing and post-and-beam construction are methods of building with heavy timbers rather than dimensional lumber such as 2x4s. Traditional timber framing is the method of creating structures using heavy squared-off and it is commonplace in wooden buildings from the 19th century and earlier. The method comes from making out of logs and tree t

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The market square of Dornstetten (Germany), showing an ensemble of half-timbered buildings

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A "true" or "full" cruck half-timbered building in Weobley, Herefordshire, England. The cruck blades are the tall, curved timbers which extend from near the ground to the ridge.

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Half timbered houses, Marbach am Neckar, Germany

Treen (wooden)
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Treen, literally of a tree is a generic name for small handmade functional household objects made of wood. Treen is distinct from furniture, such as chairs, and cabinetry, as well as clocks, before the late 17th-century, when silver, pewter, and ceramics were introduced for tableware, most small household items, boxes and tableware were carved from

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Nineteenth century carved walnut treen snuff box

Whittling
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Whittling may refer either to the art of carving shapes out of raw wood using a knife or a time-occupying, non-artistic process of repeatedly shaving slivers from a piece of wood. Casual whittling is typically performed with a light, small-bladed knife, specialized whittling knives, with fixed single blades, are preferred for sculpting artistic wor

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Whittling knife rounding a corner (filet) of a piece of wood.

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Specialized whittling or carving knives

Wood carving
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The phrase may also refer to the finished product, from individual sculptures to hand-worked mouldings composing part of a tracery. It therefore forms an important hidden element in the art history of many cultures, outdoor wood sculptures do not last long in most parts of the world, so it is still unknown how the totem pole tradition developed. Ma

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Carved wooden cranes

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Finely carved wooden door in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia.

Woodturning
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Woodturning is the craft of using the wood lathe with hand-held tools to cut a shape that is symmetrical around the axis of rotation. Like the potters wheel, the lathe is a simple mechanism which can generate a variety of forms. The operator is known as a turner, and the skills needed to use the tools were known as turnery. In pre-industrial Englan

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Illustration of carpentry (charpente) in the French Encyclopédie showing hewing, mortising, pit sawing on trestles. Tools include dividers, axes, chisel and mallet, beam cart, pit saw, trestles, and bisaigue. The men talking may be holding a story pole and rule (or walking cane). Shear legs are hoisting a timber. Below, the sticks on the log are winding sticks used to align the ends of a timber.