In Switzerland, the teachings of the reformers and especially those of Zwingli and Calvin had a profound effect, despite the frequent quarrels between the different branches of the Reformation.
В Швейцарии, учение реформаторов и особенно Цвингли и Кальвина оказали глубокое влияние, несмотря на частые ссоры между различными ветвями Реформации.

John Calvin
was one of the leading figures of the Protestant Reformation.Джон Кальвин
был одним из ведущих деятелей Реформации.His legacy remains in a variety of churches.
Его наследие остается во множестве церквей.

The
English Reformation
followed a different course from the Reformation in continental Europe.Английской Реформации
последовал другой курс от Реформации в континентальной Европе.There had long been a strong strain of anti-clericalism.
Там давно сильный штамм антиклерикализм.England had already given rise to the
Lollard
movement of John Wycliffe
, which played an important part in inspiring the Hussites
in Bohemia
.
Англия уже дал начало лоллардов
движения Джона Уиклифа
, который сыграл важную роль в вдохновляя гуситов
в Чехии
.Lollardy was suppressed and became an underground movement, so the extent of its influence in the 1520s is difficult to assess.
Лолларды был подавлен и стал подпольным движением, поэтому степень ее влияния в 1520-е годы трудно оценить.The different character of the English Reformation came rather from the fact that it was driven initially by the political necessities of Henry VIII.
Разный характер английской Реформации пришел, а из-за того, что он был изначально приводимого политическими потребностями Генриха VIII.

There were some notable opponents to the Henrician Reformation, such as
Thomas More
and Bishop John Fisher
, who were executed for their opposition.
Были некоторые известные противники Henrician Реформации, такие как Томаса Мора
и епископа Джона Фишера
, которые были казнены за их оппозиции.There was also a growing party of reformers who were imbued with the Calvinistic, Lutheran and Zwinglian doctrines now current on the Continent.
Был также растущая партия реформаторов, которые были пропитаны доктрины кальвинизма, лютеранских и Zwinglian ныне действующих на континенте.When Henry died he was succeeded by his Protestant son
Edward VI
, who, through his empowered councillors (with the King being only nine years old at his succession and fifteen at his death) the Duke of Somerset and the Duke of Northumberland, ordered the destruction of images in churches, and the closing of the chantries
.
Когда Генри умер , он сменил его протестантской сына Эдуарда VI
, который, через его уполномоченных членов совета (с королем быть всего девять лет в его преемнике и пятнадцать в его смерти) герцог Сомерсет и Нортумберленд, приказал уничтожить изображений в церквях, а также закрытия часовен
.Under Edward VI the
Church of England
moved closer to continental Protestantism.
Под Эдуарда В.И. Церковь Англии
переехал ближе к континентальной протестантизма.

Yet, at a popular level, religion in England was still in a state of flux.
Тем не менее, на популярном уровне, религии в Англии был еще в состоянии потока.
Following a brief Roman Catholic restoration during the reign of Mary
1553–1558, a loose consensus developed during the reign of Elizabeth I
, though this point is one of considerable debate among historians. It is this " Elizabethan Religious Settlement
" which largely formed Anglicanism
into a distinctive church tradition. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme Calvinism
on the one hand and Roman Catholicism on the other, but compared to the bloody and chaotic state of affairs in contemporary France, it was relatively successful in part because Queen Elizabeth lived so long, until the Puritan Revolution or English Civil War
in the 17th century.

Oliver Cromwell
was a devout Puritan and military leader, who came to power in the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland.

The success of the Counter-Reformation
on the Continent and the growth of a Puritan
party dedicated to further Protestant reform polarised the Elizabethan Age
, although it was not until the 1640s that England underwent religious strife comparable to what its neighbours had suffered some generations before.

The early Puritan movement
(late 16th–17th centuries) was Reformed
or Calvinist
and was a movement for reform in the Church of England
. Its origins lay in the discontent with the Elizabethan Religious Settlement
. The desire was for the Church of England to resemble more closely the Protestant churches of Europe, especially Geneva
. The Puritans objected to ornaments and ritual in the churches as idolatrous
(vestments, surplices, organs, genuflection), which they castigated as " popish
pomp and rags". (See Vestments controversy
.) They also objected to ecclesiastical courts. Their refusal to endorse completely all of the ritual directions and formulas of the Book of Common Prayer
and the imposition of its liturgical order by legal force and inspection sharpened Puritanism into a definite opposition movement.

The most famous emigration to America was the migration of Puritan separatists from the Anglican Church of England. They fled first to Holland, and then later to America, to establish the English colony of Massachusetts in New England, which later became one of the original United States.

These Puritan separatists were also known as "the Pilgrims
". After establishing a colony at Plymouth
(which became part of the colony of Massachusetts
) in 1620, the Puritan pilgrims received a charter from the King of England
that legitimised their colony, allowing them to do trade and commerce with merchants in England, in accordance with the principles of mercantilism
. This successful, though initially quite difficult, colony strengthened the Protestant presence in America, which had started in the previous decade with the establishment of New Netherlands
(the earlier French, Spanish and Portuguese settlements had been Roman Catholic) and became a kind of oasis of spiritual and economic freedom
, to which persecuted Protestants and other minorities from the British Isles and Europe (and later, from all over the world) fled to for peace, freedom and opportunity. The Pilgrims of New England disapproved of Christmas, and celebration was outlawed in Boston from 1659 to 1681. The ban was revoked in 1681 by Sir Edmund Andros
, who also revoked a Puritan ban against festivities on Saturday night. Despite the removal of the ban, it wouldn't be until the middle of the 19th century that Christmas would become a popular holiday in the Boston region.

The original intent of the colonists was to establish spiritual Puritanism, which had been denied to them in England and the rest of Europe, to engage in peaceful commerce with England and the natives
, and to Christianize the peoples of the Americas.

The Reformation in Scotland's case culminated ecclesiastically in the establishment of a church along reformed
lines, and politically in the triumph of English influence over that of France. John Knox
is regarded as the leader of the Scottish reformation.

Although Protestantism triumphed relatively easily in Scotland, the exact form of Protestantism remained to be determined. The 17th century saw a complex struggle between Presbyterianism
(particularly the Covenanters
) and Episcopalianism
. The Presbyterians eventually won control of the Church of Scotland
, which went on to have an important influence on Presbyterian churches worldwide, but Scotland retained a relatively large Episcopalian minority
.

Protestantism also spread from the German lands into France, where the Protestants were nicknamed Huguenots
; this eventually led to decades of civil warfare.

Though not personally interested in religious reform, Francis I
(reigned 1515–1547) initially maintained an attitude of tolerance, in accordance with his interest in the humanist
movement. This changed in 1534 with the Affair of the Placards
. In this act, Protestants denounced the Catholic Mass
in placards that appeared across France, even reaching the royal apartments. The issue of religious faith having been thrown into the arena of politics, Francis came to view the movement as a threat to the kingdom's stability. This led to the first major phase of anti-Protestant persecution in France, in which the Chambre Ardente
("Burning Chamber") was established (1535) within the Parlement of Paris
to deal with the rise in prosecutions for heresy. Several thousand French Protestants fled the country, most notably John Calvin
, who emigrated to Basel in 1535 before eventually settling in Geneva
in 1536.

Calvin continued to take an interest in the religious affairs of his native land and, from his base in Geneva, beyond the reach of the French kings, regularly trained pastors to lead congregations in France. Despite heavy persecution by King Henry II of France
(reigned 1547–1559), the Reformed Church of France
, largely Calvinist
in direction, made steady progress across large sections of the nation, in the urban bourgeoisie
and parts of the aristocracy
, appealing to people alienated by the obduracy and the complacency of the Catholic establishment.

French Protestantism, though its appeal increased under persecution, came to acquire a distinctly political character, made all the more obvious by the conversions of nobles during the 1550s. This established the preconditions for a series of destructive and intermittent conflicts, known as the Wars of Religion
. The civil wars gained impetus with the sudden death of Henry II
in 1559, which began a prolonged period of weakness for the French crown. Atrocity
and outrage became the defining characteristics of the time, illustrated at their most intense in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre
of August 1572, when the Roman Catholic party annihilated between 30,000 and 100,000 Huguenots across France. The wars only concluded when Henry IV
, himself a former Huguenot, issued the Edict of Nantes
(1598), promising official toleration of the Protestant minority, but under highly restricted conditions. Roman Catholicism remained the official state religion, and the fortunes of French Protestants gradually declined over the next century, culminating in Louis XIV's Edict of Fontainebleau
(1685) – which revoked the Edict of Nantes and made Roman Catholicism the sole legal religion of France. In response to the Edict of Fontainebleau, Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg
declared the Edict of Potsdam
(October 1685), giving free passage to Huguenot refugees, and tax-free status to them for ten years.

In the late 17th century many Huguenots fled to England, the Netherlands, Prussia, Switzerland, and the English and Dutch overseas colonies. A significant community in France remained in the Cévennes
region. A separate Protestant community, of the Lutheran
faith, existed in the newly conquered (1639– ) province of Alsace
, its status not affected by the Edict of Fontainebleau.

Spain had a different political and cultural milieu from its Western and Central European neighbors in several aspects during the early 16th century, and these unique aspects affected the mentality and the reaction of the nation towards the Protestant Reformation. Spain, which had only recently managed to reconquer the Peninsula from the Moors
in 1492, had been preoccupied with converting the Muslim and Jewish population of the newly conquered regions through the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition
in 1478. The rulers of the nation stressed political, cultural, and religious unity, and by the time of the Lutheran Reformation the Spanish Inquisition was already 40 years old and had the capability of quickly dealing with any new movement that the Catholic Church perceived or interpreted to be religious heterodoxy. [34]Charles V
did not wish to see either Spain nor the rest of Habsburg Europe divided, and in the light of a continual threat from the Ottomans, preferred to see the Catholic Church reform itself from within. This led to a Counter-Reformation
in Spain in the 1530s. During the 1520s, the Spanish Inquisition had created an atmosphere of suspicion, and sought to root out any religious thought seen as suspicious. As early as 1521, the Pope had written a letter to the Spanish monarchy warning against allowing the unrest in Northern Europe to be repeated in Spain. Between 1520 and 1550, printing presses in Spain were tightly controlled, and any books of Protestant teaching were prohibited.

Between 1530 and 1540 Protestantism in Spain was still able to gain followers clandestinely, and in cities such as Seville
and Valladolid
adherents would secretly meet at private houses to pray and study the Bible. [35]
Protestants in Spain were estimated at between 1000 and 3000, mainly among intellectuals who had seen writings such as those of Erasmus
. Notable reformers included Dr. Juan Gil and Juan Pérez de Pineda who subsequently fled and worked alongside others such as Francisco de Enzinas
to translate the Greek New Testament
into the Spanish language, a task completed by 1556. Protestant teachings were smuggled into Spain by Spaniards such as Julián Hernández, who in 1557 was condemned by the Inquisition and burnt at the stake. Under Philip II
conservatives in the Spanish church tightened their grip, and those who refused to recant such as Rodrigo de Valer were condemned to life imprisonment. In May 1559 16 Spanish Lutherans were burnt at the stake: 14 were strangled before being burnt, two were burnt alive. In October another thirty were executed. Spanish Protestants that were able to flee the country were to be found in at least a dozen cities in Europe such as Geneva
, where some of them embraced Calvinist
teachings. Those that fled to England were given support by the Church of England
.

Erasmus
was a Catholic priest who inspired some of the Protestant reformers.

The Reformation in the Netherlands, unlike in many other countries, was not initiated by the rulers of the Seventeen Provinces
, but instead by multiple popular movements, which in turn were bolstered by the arrival of Protestant refugees from other parts of the continent. While the Anabaptist
movement enjoyed popularity in the region in the early decades of the Reformation, Calvinism, in the form of the Dutch Reformed Church
, became the dominant Protestant faith in the country from the 1560s onward.

Much of the population of the Kingdom of Hungary
adopted Protestantism during the 16th century. After the 1526 Battle of Mohács
, the Hungarian people were disillusioned by the ability of the government to protect them and turned to the faith they felt would infuse them with the strength necessary to resist the invader. They found this in the teaching of the Protestant reformers such as Martin Luther
. The spread of Protestantism in the country was aided by its large ethnic German minority, which could understand and translate the writings of Martin Luther
. While Lutheranism
gained a foothold among the German- and Slovak-speaking populations, Calvinism
became widely accepted among ethnic Hungarians.

In the more independent northwest the rulers and priests, protected now by the Habsburg Monarchy
, which had taken the field to fight the Turks, defended the old Roman Catholic faith. They dragged the Protestants to prison and the stake wherever they could. Such strong measures only fanned the flames of protest, however. Leaders of the Protestants included Matthias Biro Devai, Michael Sztarai, and Stephen Kis Szegedi.

Protestants likely formed a majority of Hungary's population at the close of the 16th century, but Counter-Reformation
efforts in the 17th century reconverted a majority of the kingdom to Roman Catholicism. A significant Protestant minority remained, most of it adhering to the Calvinist faith.

In 1558 the TransylvanianDiet
of Turda
declared free practice of both the Catholic
and Lutheran
religions, but prohibited Calvinism
. Ten years later, in 1568, the Diet extended this freedom, declaring that "It is not allowed to anybody to intimidate anybody with captivity or expelling for his religion". Four religions ( Unitarianism
became official in 1583, following the faith of the only Unitarian King John II Sigismund Zápolya
1541–1571) were declared as accepted (recepta) religions, while Eastern Orthodox Christianity
was "tolerated" (though the building of stone Orthodox churches was forbidden). During the Thirty Years' War
, Royal (Habsburg) Hungary joined the Roman Catholic side, until Transylvania joined the Protestant side.

There were a series of other successful and unsuccessful anti-Habsburg (requiring equal rights and freedom for all Christian religions) uprisings between 1604 and 1711; the uprisings were usually organised from Transylvania. The constrained Habsburg Counter-Reformation efforts in the 17th century reconverted the majority of the kingdom to Roman Catholicism.

The Reformation in Ireland was a movement for the reform of religious life and institutions that was introduced into Ireland by the English administration at the behest of King Henry VIII of England. His desire for an annulment of his marriage was known as the King's Great Matter
. Ultimately Pope Clement VII
refused the petition; consequently it became necessary for the King to assert his lordship over the Roman Catholic Church in his realm to give legal effect to his wishes. The English Parliament
confirmed the King's supremacy over the Church in the Kingdom of England. This challenge to Papal supremacy
resulted in a breach with the Roman Catholic Church. By 1541, the Irish Parliament
had agreed to the change in status of the country from that of a Lordship
to that of Kingdom of Ireland
.

Unlike similar movements for religious reform on the continent of Europe, the various phases of the English Reformation as it developed in Ireland were largely driven by changes in government policy, to which public opinion in England gradually accommodated itself. However, a number of factors complicated the adoption of the religious innovations in Ireland; the majority of the population there adhered to the Roman Catholic Church. However, in the city of Dublin
the reformation took hold under the auspices of George Browne (Archbishop of Dublin)
.

Word of the Protestant reformers reached Italy in the 1520s, but never caught on. Its development was stopped by the Counter-Reformation, the Inquisition and also popular disinterest. Not only was the Church highly aggressive in seeking out heresy and suppressing it, but there was a shortage of Protestant leadership. No one translated the Bible into Italian; few tracts were written. No core of Protestantism emerged. The few preachers who did take an interest in "Lutheranism," as it was called in Italy, were suppressed or went into exile to northern countries where their message was well received. As a result, the Reformation exerted almost no lasting influence in Italy, except for strengthening the Roman Catholic Church and motivating the Counter-Reformation. [36][37]

Jan Łaski
sought unity between various Christian churches in the Commonwealth, and participated in the English Reformation.

In the first half of the 16th century, the enormous Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
was a country of many creeds, but Roman Catholic Church remained the dominating religion. Reformation reached Poland in the 1520s, and quickly gained popularity among mostly German-speaking inhabitants of such major cities as Gdańsk
, Toruń
and Elbląg
. In Koenigsberg
, in 1530, a Polish-language edition of Luther's Small Catechism
was published. The Duchy of Prussia
, which was a Polish fief
, emerged as key center of the movement, with numerous publishing houses issuing not only Bibles, but also catechisms, in German, Polish and Lithuanian.

The 16th century Commonwealth was unique in Europe, because of widespread tolerance confirmed by the Warsaw Confederation
. In 1563, the Brest Bible
was published (see also Bible translations into Polish
). The period of tolerance ended during the reign of King Sigismund III Vasa
, who was under the strong influence of Piotr Skarga
and other Jesuits
. After the Deluge
, and other wars of the mid-17th century in which all enemies of Poland were either Protestant or Orthodox Christians, the Poles' attitude changed. The Counter-Reformation
prevailed: in 1658 the Polish Brethren were forced to leave the country, and in 1666, the Sejm
banned apostasy
from Catholicism to any other religion, under punishment of death. Finally, in 1717, the Silent Sejm
banned non-Catholics from becoming deputies of the Parliament.

Primož Trubar
is notable for consolidating the Slovene language
and is considered to be the key figure of Slovenian cultural history and in many aspects a major Slovene historical personality. [40]
He was the key figure of the Protestant Church of the Slovene Lands
, as he was its founder and its first superintendent. The first books in Slovene, Catechismus
and Abecedarium
, were written by Trubar. [41]

The Protestant teachings of the Western Church were also briefly adopted by Eastern Orthodox Church through the GreekPatriarchCyril Lucaris
in 1629 with the publishing of the Confessio
(Calvinistic doctrine) in Geneva
. Motivating factors in their decision to adopt aspects of the Reformation included the historical rivalry
and mistrust between the Greek Orthodox
and Roman Catholic church along with their concerns of Jesuit
priests entering Greek lands in their attempts to propagate the teachings of the Counter-Reformation
to the Greek populace He subsequently sponsored Maximos of Gallipoli
's translation of the New testament
into the Modern Greek language
and was published in Geneva in 1638. Upon Lucaris's death in 1638, the conservative factions within the Eastern Orthodox Church held two synods: the Synod of Constantinople (1638) and Synod of Jassy
(1642) criticizing the reforms and in the 1672 convocation led by Dositheos
, they officially condemned the Calvinistic doctrines.

The Reformation led to a series of religious wars
that culminated in the Thirty Years' War
(1618–1648), which devastated much of Germany
, killing between 25 and 40% of its population. [42]
From 1618 to 1648 the Roman Catholic House of Habsburg
and its allies fought against the Protestant princes of Germany, supported at various times by Denmark, Sweden and France. The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, the Crown of Bohemia
, Hungary
, Slovene Lands
, the Spanish Netherlands
and much of Germany and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Roman Catholic Church. Some historians believe that the era of the Reformation came to a close when Roman Catholic France allied itself, first in secret and later on the battlefields, with Protestant states against the Habsburg dynasty. For the first time since the days of Luther, political and national convictions again outweighed religious convictions in Europe.

All parties would now recognise the Peace of Augsburg
of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism (the principle of cuius regio, eius religio
)

Christians living in principalities where their denomination was not
the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.

However, this treaty did not mean that the Reformation was concluded. [
citation needed
]
It would be about another century (ca. 1750) before the Reformation could truly be considered to have ended. Meanwhile, other reform movements continued to spring up, even within the Reformation churches. One such movement was Pietism
, which impacted the Low Countries (hence the Reformed churches), Germany (hence also Lutheranism), and Great Britain, which led to a split in Anglicanism and which brought about the creation of some new churches (most notably Methodism
). In turn, Pietism would branch out into a "normative" form and Radical Pietism
.

Margaret C. Jacob argues that there has been a dramatic shift in the historiography of the Reformation. Until the 1960s, historians focused their attention largely on the great leaders and theologians of the 16th century, especially Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. Their ideas were studied in depth. However, the rise of the new social history
in the 1960s look at history from the bottom up, not from the top down. Historians began to concentrate on the values, beliefs and behavior of the people at large. She finds, "in contemporary scholarship, the Reformation is now seen as a vast cultural upheaval, a social and popular movement, textured and rich because of its diversity." [70]

^In the end, while the Reformation emphasis on Protestants reading the Scriptures was one factor in the development of literacy, the impact of printing itself, the wider availability of printed works at a cheaper price, and the increasing focus on education and learning as key factors in obtaining a lucrative post, were also significant contributory factors.
[19]

^In the first decade of the Reformation, Luther's message became a movement, and the output of religious pamphlets in Germany was at its height.
[22]