BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engg.Sixth SemesterEI1351 - Biomedical InstrumentationUnit-I1.Explain the Cell StructureThe basic living unit of the body is a cell.Each organ in our body is an aggerate of manydifferent cells held together by intercellular supporting structures.Each type of cell is meant forperforming one particular function.Each cell consists of a centrally located nucleus,also calledcell core,,surrounded by cytoplasam. The nucleus is separated from thecytoplasam is separatedfrom the sorroundind fluids by a cell membarane. The different substances that make up thecell one collectively called protoplasam which is mainly composed ofwater,electrolytes,proteins,carbohydrates and lipids.2. What are the applications of piezo electric sensors?1) In cardiology2) In phono cardiography3) In blood pressure measurement4) In measuring physiological accelerations2. What are the different thermal sensors?1) Thermo couples2) Thermistors3) Radiation sensors4) Fibre optic detectors3. Give the different types of inductive sensors.1) Self inductance type2) Mutual inductance type3) Differential transformer type (LVDT)4. What are the advantages of LVDT?1) Wide range of linearity2) Change of phase by 180 Deg When the core passes through the center position3) Full-scale displacement is 0.1- 250mm.4) Sensitivity is 0.5- 2 mV.5. What are the limitations of capacitive sensor?1) Inadequate for measuring most physiological variables because of their lowfrequency components.6. What is the principle of piezo electric sensors?The piezo electric materials generate an electric potential when mechanically strained.Conversely, an electric potential can cause physical deformation of the materials7..Define Resting PotentialCertain type of cells within the body such as nerve and muscle cell are encasedina semi permeable membarane that permits same substances to pas through the membarane,while others are kept out,sorrounding the cells of the bosy are the bosdy fluids which areconductive solutions of charge ions.The principal ions are sodium(na+),Pottasiuum(e+) and chloride(cl-) the membarane of the excitable cells readily permits entry ofpotassium and chloride ions but blocks the entry of sodium ions .since the various ions seekbalance between inside the cell and outside.Equlibrium is reached with the potential differenceacross the membarane -ive on the inside and +ive on the outside of the cell.This membaranepotential is caleed the resting of the cell.7. .Define Action PotentialWhen a section of cell membaraneis excited by a flow of ionic current orsame form of externally applied voltage the membarane changes its permaliablity and begins toallow to some of the sodium ions to enter.This movement of sodium ions into the cell results inan ionic current flow that further reduces the barrier of membarane to sodium ion rush into thecell to try to reach to balance with the ions outside.At the same time potassium ions whichwere higer in the concentration inside the cell during the resting stage try to leave the cell, butare unable to move as rapidly as sodium ions. As a result the cell has a slightly positivepotential on the due to imbalance of potassium ions.This +ive potential is called actionpotential and this spproaxmately +20mv .A cell in the action potential stage is said to bedepolarized. The process of changing from resting stage to action potential stage is calleddepolarization.4. Explain Bioelectric PotentialBioelectric potential are generated at a cellular level.that is each cell is aminute voltage generator .because positive and negative ions tend to concentrate unequallyinside and outside the cell wall, a potential difference is established and the cell becomes atiny biological battery.In the normal resting state of the cell it interior is negative with respectto the outside when the cells "fires"however,the outside of the cell becomes momentarilynegative with respect to the interior .A short time later, the cell regains the normal state inwhich the inside I sagain negative with respect to outside.This "discharging" and "recharging"of the cell known as deploarisation and repolarisation respectively.5. Name the factors that are considered in the design of biomedical instrument system.1.Range2.Sensitivity3.Linearity4.Frequency Rsponse5.Accuracy6.Stability7.Isolation8.Simplicity9.Signal to noise ratio.6. Name the physcological systems of the body.1. Bio chemical System2. Cardio vascular System3. Regualted System4. Nervous System7.State the principal of the sodium pumpOnce the rush of sodium ions through the cell membarane has stopped that is a newsyage of equlibrium is reached, the ionic currents that lowered the barrier to sodium ions are nolonger present and the membarane comes back into its orginal selectively permeable condition,where in the passage of sodium ions from the outside to inside of the cell is again blocked.Thistake a long timw for thw resting potential to develop again .But by the activeprocess calledsodium pump,the sodium ions are quickly transported outside of the cell and the cell againbecomes polarized and assumes its restirict potential.This process is called repolarisation.8.Name the differenttypes of electrodes:1.Micro ElectrodeA) MettalicB) Non -Metallic2.Depth and needle Electrode3.Surface Electrode9.Draw the structure of the Nerve Cell10.Draw the Wave form of the resting and action potential.11)What are the requirements of physiological signal amplifier or biomedical pre amplifier?a)The voltage gain should be more than 100 db.b)It should have low frequency response.c)There is no drift in the amplifier.d)The output impedance of the amplifier should be very small.12)What are the different modes of operation of differential amplifier?a)single ended modeb)differential modec)common mode13)What is single ended mode?When either v1 or v2 is equal to zero,the operation of the differential amplifier is known assingle ended mode of operation.14)What is differential mode?The two input signals are equal but have opposite polarity at every instant of time.Vo=Rf/Ri(V2-V1)In this case,the input signals are called differential mode signals.15)What is common mode signal?The input voltages appearing at the input terminals 1 and 2 are identical both in amplitudeand phase at every instant of time and the circuit is said to be in common mode.V1=V2=VcmVo=0.16)What is CMRR in a differential amplifier?It is the ratio of the amplification of the differential voltage ti the amplification of thecommon mode voltage.CMRR=Ad/Ac.CMRR in db=20 log10 CMRR.17)What is noise figure?It is defined as the ratio of the signal to noise ratio at the input to the signal to noise ratio atthe output.18)What are the advantages of the pre amplifier or instrumentation amplifier?a)high stabilityb)higher fidelityc)high CMRRd)high input impedance with the required gain.19)What is chopper amplifier?The chopper amplifier is used convert the dc or low frequency signal into a high frequencysignal.Then this modulated high frequency signal is amplified by conventional acamplifier.Then this is demodulated and filtered to get low frequency or dc signal.20)What are the types of chopper amplifier?a)mechanical chopper amplifier.b)non mechanical chopper amplifier.21) Neuron:Neurons (also known as neurones, nerve cells and nerve fibers) are electricallyexcitable cells in the nervous system that function to process and transmit information.Neurons are typically composed of a soma, or cell body, a dendritic tree and an axon. Themajority of vertebrate neurons receive input on the cell body and dendritic tree, and transmitoutput via the axon. Neurons communicate via chemical and electrical synapses, in a processknown as synaptic transmissionUNIT - IIWhat is Electrocardiography?It deals with the study of the electrical activity of the heart muscles. The potentialsoriginated in the individual fibres of heart muscle are added to produce the ECGwaveform.1. What are the various parts of generalized instrumentation system?1.Measurand2.Primary sensing element3.Variable conversion element4.Signal processing unit5.Output display6.Control & feedback element2. Give the classifications of biomedical instruments.i) According to the quantity that is sensed, pressure, flow or temperature sensingdevices.ii) According to the principle of transduction used, resistive, inductive, capacitive,ultrasonic or electrochemical devices.iii) According to the measurement techniques, cardio vascular, pulmonary, nervous& endocrine systems.iv) According to the clinical medical specialities, pediatrics, obstetrics, cardiologyor radiology.1. What are the different types of ECG lead configurations?Bipolar limb leadsAugmented unipolar limb leadsChest leadsFrank lead system2. Define the Einthoven TriangleThe closed path RA to LA to LL and back to RA is called Einthoven triangle.According to Einthoven, in a frontal plane of the body, the cardiac electric fieldvector is a two dimensional one.3. Draw the Standard ECG.4. What are the important parts of ECG recorder?Patient cable and defibrillator protection circuit.Lead selector switchCalibratorBio- amplifierAuxilliary amplifierIsolated power supplyOutput unitPower switch5. Draw the ECG curve for Bundle block6. What is Electroencephalography?It deals with the recording and study of electrical activity of the brain. By means ofelectrodes attached to the skull of a patient, brain waves can be picked up andrecorded.7. What is Electromyography?It is the science of interpreting and recording the electrical activity of the musclesaction potentials. Meanwhile, the recording of the peripheral nerve's actionpotential is called electroneurography.8. Draw the block diagram of EMG recording setup.9. What is Electrooculography?It deals with the recording of the corneal- retinal potentials associated with eyemovements.10. What is Electroretinography?It deals with the recording and interpreting of the electrical activity of the eye. If theillumination of the retina is changed, the potential changes slightly in a complexmanner. The recording of these changes is called Electroretinograph.11. List the brain waves and their frequency.Alpha- 8 to 13Hz, Beta-13 to 30 Hz , Theta- 4 to 8 Hz, Delta- 0.5 to 4 Hz.12. Define latency.It is defined as the elapsed time between the simulating impulse and the muscle'saction potential.13. What are the different sounds made by the heart?Valve closure sounds, Ventricular filling sounds, Valve opening sounds,Extracardiac sounds14. Name the parts of the heart conduction system.Sino atrial node, Atrio ventricular node, Bundle of His , Purkinje fibres.15. What is the colour coding of the different leads?White -RA, Black- LA, Green- RL , Red- LL, Brown- Chest16. Mention any four specifications of the ordinary ECG recorder.Maximum sensitivity - 20 mm/mV, Input impedance -5 mega ohms, Outputimpedance -<100 ohms, cmrr- 10000:1.Unit III1. What are the types of measurements of blood pressure?A. 1. Indirect or noninvasive method.2. Direct or invasive method.2. How is the blood pressure measured in the indirect method?A. the indirect method of measuring blood pressure involves the use of asphygmomanometer and a stethoscope. The sphygmomanometer consists of aninflatable pressure cuff and a mercury or aneroid manometer to measure thepressure in the cuff. The cuff is normally manually inflated, with a rubber bulband deflated slowly through a needle valve.3. Explain the principle of sphygmomanometer.A. The sphygmomanometer works on the principle that when the cuff is placed onthe upper arm and inflated, the arterial blood can flow past the cuff only whenthe arterial pressure exceeds the pressure in the cuff. Further more, when thecuff is inflated to a pressure that only occludes the brachial artery, turbulence isgenerated in the blood as it spurts through the tiny arterial opening during eachsystole. The sounds generated by this turbulence, Korotkoff sounds, can beheard through the stethoscope placed over the artery downstream from the cuff.4. What are the methods involved in direct blood pressure measurement?A. 1. Auscultatory method2. Palpatory methodAuscultatory method locate the systolic and diastolic pressure valves bylistening to the Korotkoff. Diastoslic pressure can be easily measured.Palpatory method is a alternative method that the physician identifies theflow of blood in the artery by feeling the pulse of the patient downstream fromthe cuff instead of listening for the korotkoff sounds. In this method, systolicpressure can be easily measured.5. What is meant by mean arterial pressure(MAP)?A. Mean Arterial pressure is the weighted average of the systolic and diastolicpressure MAP falls about one- third of the way between the diastolic low andsystolic peak. Formula for calculating MAP is,MAP = 1/3 (systolic -diastolic) + diastolic6. What are the methods involved in direct blood pressure measurement?A. 1. Percutaneous insertion2. Catheterization(Vessel Cutdown)3. Implantation of a transducer in a vessel or in the heart.4. Other methods such as clamping a transducer on the intact artery have alsobeen used. But they are not common.7. Explain the two ways involved in measurement of blood pressure with a catheter?A. Measurement of blood pressure with a catheter can be achieved in two ways.1. The first is to introduce a sterile saline solution into catheter so the fluidpressure is transmitted to a transducer outside the body a complete fluidpressure system is set up with provisions for checking against atmosphericpressure and for establishing a reference point. The frequency response ofthis system is a combination of the frequency response of the transducer andthe fluid column in the catheter.2. In the second method, pressure measurements are obtained at the source.Here, the transducer is introduced into the catheter and pushed to the pointat which the pressure is to be measured, or the transducer is mounted at thetip of the catheter. This device is called a catheter-tip blood pressuretransducer.8. Discuss the technique involved in direct measurement?A. 1)A catheterization method involving the sensing of the blood pressure througha liquid column. In this method the transducer is external to the body and theblood pressure is transmitted through a saline solution column in a catheter tothis transducer.2) A catheterization method involving the placement of the tranducer throughthe catheter at the actual size of measurementIn the bloodstream or by mounting the transducer on the tip of the catheter.3)Percutaneous methods in which the blood pressure is sensed in the vessel justunder the skin by the use of a needle or catheter.4)Implantation techniques in which the transducer is more permanently placedin the blood vessels or the heart by surgical methods.9)What are the different types of bloodflow meters?1)Magnetic bloodflowmeter -Based on the principle of Magnetic induction.2)Ultrasonic bloodflowmeter-Based on the principle if Doppler.3)Thermal convection-The rate of cooling is proportional to the rate of the flow of themedium.This principle is also used to measure the gasflow.4)Determination by Radiographic method-By the injection of a contrast medium into abloodvessel,the circulation pattern can be made visible.Record of the X-ray image,obstructioncan be detected and the bloodflow in the bloodvessels can be estimated.This technique isknown as 'angiography'.10)What is cardiac output?The bloodflow at any point in the circulatory system is the volume of blood that passesthat point during a unit of time.It is measured normally in millimeter per min or litres permin.Blood flow is highest in the pulmonary artery and the aorta,where the blood vessels leavethe heart.The flow at these points is called 'cardiac output'.11)What is meant by pH?pH can be defined as the logarithm of the reciprocal of the H+ ion concentration.It is ameasure of the acid-base balance of a fluid.pH= - log10 [H+] = log10( 1/[H+])12)What is the pH value for blood?The pH value of normal arterial blood ranges between 7.38 and 7.42.The pHof venous blood is 7.35,because of the extra CO2.13)Define GSR.GSR is used for measuring variations in perspiration.In response to an externalstimulus,such as touching a sharp point,the resistance of the skin shows a characteristicdecrease and this is known as Galvanic Skin Response.The GSR is believed to be causedby the activity of the sweat glands.14)Give the name of the instrument used for respiratory volume measurements and what are itstypes?The most widely used instrument for respiratory volume measurements in therecording spirometer.The different types of spirometer areÃ‚Â· Standard spirometerÃ‚Â· Waterless spirometerÃ‚Â· Wedge spirometerÃ‚Â· Electronic spirometerÃ‚Â· Broncho spirometer15) Give the name of the instrument used for measuring airflow and explain its principle.Pneumotachometer can be used for measuring airflow.This device utilizes theprinciple that air flowing through an orifice produces a pressure difference across theorifice that is a unction of the velocity of the air.16) Define MVV.Maximal voluntary ventilation is a measure of the maximum amount of air thatcan be breathed in and blown out over a sustained interval, such as 15 or 20seconds.17)What is FVC?Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) is the total amount of air that can forcibly beexpired as quickly as possible after taking the deepest possible breath.18)What is FRC?The functional residual capacity(FRC) is the volume of gas remaining in thelungs at the end expiratory level.It the sum of the residual volume and the expiratoryreserve volume.19)Differentiate between tidal volume and residual volume.The tidal volume (TV) or normal depth of breathing, is the volume of gasinspired or expired during each normal, quiet, respiration cycle.The residual volume (RV), is the volume of gas remaining in the lungs at theend of a maximal expiration.20)Define total lung capacity.Total Lung Capacity is the amount of gas contained in the lungs at the end of amaximal inspiration .It is also the sum of residual volume and vital capacity.Unit - IV1.Which are the elements of bio-telemetry system?The essential elements are biological signal, transducer, conditioner, transmission link.2.What are the types of radio telemetry systems?Single channel telemetry systemRadio telemetry with a sub-carrierMultiple channel telemetry system3.What are the types of multiple channel telemetry systems?Frequency system multiplexTime division multiplex4.What are the measurements in single channel telemetry system?Active measurementsPassive measurements7.What are the types of transducer used in ultrasonography?LinearSectorConvex array8. .What are the types of display modes used in ultrasonography?A-modeB-modeM-mode9. .What are the recording devices used in ultrasonography?Strip chart recorderVideo printerVideo recordingPolaroid camera10. .What are the artifacts in ultrasonography?Related to instrument problemsImproper operator techniqueDue to interaction of sound.11. Give the characteristics of X- Ray radiation .When the fast moving electrons enters into the orbit of the anode material atom,itsvelocity is contionously decreased due to the scattering of the orbiting electrons.Thusthe loss of energy of that incident electron appears in the form of continuous X-Rays orwhite X-Rays which are called Bremsstrahlung Radiation.12. Define Efficiency.Effiency is defined as the ratio of X-Ray beam energy to the electron beam energywhich is normally 1.4*10-9ZVA. Where Z is the atomoc number of anode material ,VAanode voltage normally in diagnosting radiology ,tungsten is used as the anode materialwhich has high melting point of about 33700C its atomic numbet Z=74The minimum wavelength emitted by the X-Ray is given bylmin= hc/eva= 12408/VA Ao13. What is meant by soft and hard X-Ray ?The anode voltage increases the l min decreases and henace X-Rays are called as hardX-Ray .These are mainly used for therapeautic purpose .If the anode voltage VAdecreases then lmin increases and these are called softX-Ray .14.Listthe basic components of X-Ray Machine1.Power supply arrangement2.Collimator3.Diaphragm4.Flim5.Lead shield15.Define contrast.It is a measure of darkness of a desired image compare to its surroundings.Thecontrast between two tissues is given byC 12=10log I1/I2 Db16.State the use of Bucky Diaphragm.It is introduced between the patient and the film to improve the sharpness of theimage .It consists of thin lead veins separated by spaces of a low attenuation material.The lead veins are usually angled so that the primary radiation which carries theinformation can pass between them while these scattered radiation from the object areobserved17.Why aluminum filter is used in X-Ray tube.The emitted rays of unwanted frequencies increase the patient those and thedecrease the image contrast. Aliminuim filters observes the lowest X-Ray frequencyand hence the intensity of low X-Ray frequencies incident on the patient is ready in use.Hence the negative effects produce by low frequency X-Rays are reduced.18.Expalin the function of collimatorBetween the patient and the X-Ray tube the collimator is placed .I t is an aperturediaphragm which restricts the beam falling on the patient. the necessary shaping of theX-Ray beam is done by it19.State the classification of ArtifactIt can be classified into 4 types1.Noise Artifact2.Motion Artifact3.Artifact due to high differential absorption in the adjacent tissue4.Technical errors and computer Artifacts.20.Define NMRIn the presence of large magnetic field the spinning of nucleus in the atom and its axisof rotation willprecess about the magnetic field. Each spin state has different energy. Atequilibrium, the lower state has more nuclei than the higher state. Using RF radiationwith an energy exactly equal to the energy difference between two nuclear energystates. One state can achieve population inversion by raising the nuclei from the lowerenergy states to the higher energy state .The excited nuclear spins will slowly return toits equilibrium. Emitting the RF called Nuclear Magnetic ResonanceUnit V1. What is a pacemaker?Pacemaker is an electrical pulse generator that starts or maintains the normalheart rhythm (i.e) application of electrical pulses to the heart is pacing action.2. Explain the classification of pacemaker?Pacemaker is broadly classified into internal & external pacemaker.Total AV block requires internal pacemaker. It has a mini energy of 10Ã‚ÂµJ-100Ã‚ÂµJ(5V,10mA,2ms).At a level of 400Ã‚ÂµJ, it causes Ventricular Fibrillation. CardiacStandstill is obtained by external pacemaker.3. What are the types of pacemaker?i. Ventricular synchronous(fixed rate pulse)ii. Ventricular asynchronous(stand by pacemaker)iii. Ventricular inhibited(demand pacemaker)iv. Atrial synchronous pacemaker.v. Atrial sequential ventricular inhibited pacemaker.4. Explain the application of ventricular asynchronous or stand by pacemaker?Ventricular asynchronous orstand by pacemaker is basically a simpleastable multivibrator that produces a stimulus at a fixed rate irrespective of the heartrhythm.5. What are the application of ventricular inhibited pacemaker?i. The R wave inhibited pacemaker allows the heart to pace at its normal rhythmwhen it is able to. If the R wave is missing for a preset period of time, the pacerwill supply a stimulus.ii. When the sensor ( shielded inside the pacemaker) is slightly stressed or bent bythe patient's body activity, the pacemaker can automatically increase or decreaseits rate.Thus it can match with the greater physical effort.6. What is the application of atrial synchronous pacemaker?i. This type of pacing is used for young patients with a mostly stable block.ii. It is used in stress testing & coronary artery diseases, in the evaluation ofseverity of mitral stenosis & in the evaluation of various conductionmechanisms.iii. It has been used to terminate atrial flutter & paroxymal atrial tachycardia.iv. It can act as a temporary pacemaker for the atrial fibrillation.7. What is an atrial sequential ventricular inhibited pacemaker and mention itsadvantage?Atrial sequential ventricular inhibited pacemaker has the capability ofstimulating both the atria & ventricles and adopt its method of stimulation to the patient'sneed .If atrial function fails, this pacemaker will stimulate the atrium & then sense thesubsequent ventricular beat.8. What is a defibrillator?A defibrillator is an electronic device that creates a sustainedmyocardial polarisation of a patient's heart inorder to stop ventricular fibrillation or atrialfibrillation.9 Explain ventricular fibrillation and how can it be eliminated?Ventricular fibrillation is a serious cardiac energy resulting fromasynchronous contraction of the heart muscle.This uncoordinated movement of ventriclewalls of the heart may result from coronary occlusion, electric shock or abnormalities ofbody chemistry.10. What are the different types of defibrillators?i. Internal Defibrillatorii. External Defibrillatora. AC. Defibrillatorb. DC. Defibrillatorc. Synchronous DC. Defibrillatord. Square Pulse Defibrillatore. Double Square Pulse Defibrillatorf. Biphasic DC Defibrillator11.What are the different types of oxygenator?Bubble oxygenatorFilm oxygenatorMembrane oxygenatorLiquid-Liquid oxygenator12.Define Heart-Lung Machine?Heart Lung machine replaces the functions of heart and lungs thereby providing the restof the body with a continuous supply of oxygenated blood while the heart is stopped.13.What are the requirements of ideal oxygenator?Lower priming volumeMinimum trauma to bloodSimple, safe and reliable operationEnsured sterilizationNo microembolus formation andShort preparation time14.What is the principle of Liquid-Liquid oxygenator?The oxygen dissolved fluorides organic fluid and blood are flowing in the oppositedirections and oxygenation of the blood takes place.15.What is the principle of membrane oxygenator?Effective oxygenation is obtained when oxygen and blood are running in oppositedirections through a thin porous membrane.16.What is the principle of film oxygenator?Here the film of blood is spread on a rotating disc or metal screen and an oxygenmixture flows over this thin layer of blood.17.What is the principle of bubble oxygenator?By bubbling the oxygen through a large column of blood and the making the flow ofblood through a slanting path, the carbon di oxide is removed form the blood18.Define oxygenator.In oxygenator mixture of oxygen and 2 to 5 percentage of carbon dioxide is usuallyemployed to avoid respiratory alkalosis. Every oxygenator should oxygenate upto 5liters per minute of blood.19.What are the types of blood pumps?1.Pulsatile pumps2.Non pulsatile pumps20.Define heat exchangerHeat exchanger is used to regulate the blood temperature and compensate for the heatexchange in or out of the oxygenatoUnit I1) Draw the structure of cell & explain the various compositions with theirfunctions.Structure of Cell & its incredients- ExplanationRef : Biomedical Instrumentation- Dr. M. Arumugam2) Define resting potential & Action potential. Explain how these potentials are generatedin human body.Resting & Action Potential generationPolarization & Depolarization of cellSodium pump -descriptionRef : Biomedical Instrumentation & Measurements- Leslie CromwellFred J. WeibellErich A. Pfeiffer3) Explain in detail the different types of Electrodes used for biomedicalapplications.MicroelectrodesDepth & Needle electrodesSurface electrodesChemical electrodesRef : Biomedical Instrumentation- Dr. M. Arumugam4) Describe the different sensors used in biomedicine.Force transducersTransducers for Displacement, Velocity, AccelerationPressure transducersFlow transducersTransducers for digital outputRef : Biomedical Instrumentation & Measurements- Leslie CromwellFred J. WeibellErich A. Pfeiffer5)Explain in detail the electrical safety & grounding & isolation techniques.Physiological effects of Electrical currentShock hazards from electrical equipmentMethods of accident preventionRef : Biomedical Instrumentation & Measurements- Leslie CromwellFred J. WeibellErich A. PfeifferUnit -II1) With neat diagram explain ECG?Refer Page No. 122 - 128 in "Bio-medical Instrumentation" by Dr. M. Arumugam.2) With neat diagram explain EEG?Refer Page No. 149 - 152 in "Bio-medical Instrumentation" by Dr. M. Arumugam.3) With neat diagram explain EMG?Refer Page No. 153 - 156 in "Bio-medical Instrumentation" by Dr. M. Arumugam.4) With neat diagram explain EOG?Refer Page No. 156 - 159 in "Bio-medical Instrumentation" by Dr. M. Arumugam.5) Explain how recorders are selected with high accuracy?Refer Page No. 159 - 160 in "Bio-medical Instrumentation" by Dr. M. Arumugam.5) Explain Different lead system for recording ECG.In standard ECG recording there are 5 electrodes connected to the patient. Right arm,Left arm, Left leg, Right leg and chest. These electrodes are connected to the input of adifferential amplifier through a lead selector switch.The recording obtained across different pairs of electrodes results in different waveformshapes and amplitudes; each lead conveys a certain amount of unique information.The ecg machine uses the patients right leg as common electrode and the lead selectorconnects proper limb or chest electrodes to the diff amplifier input.The bipolar limb leads are those designated lead I , lead II and lead III and form what iscalled Einthoven triangle.1.leadI : LA is connected to the amplifiers non inverting input, while RA is connectedto the inverting terminal.2. lead II: The LL is connected to the amplifiers NI input, while RA is connected to theinverting input.3. LeadIII: the LL is connected to the NI terminal while LA is connected to theinverting input.Lead I: VI = FL - FRLead II: VII = FF - FRLead III: VIII = FF - FLVI : the voltage of Lead IVII : the voltage of Lead IIVII : the voltage of Lead IIIFL = potential at the left armFR = potential at the left armFF = potential at the left armEinthoven's Triangle and LawEinthoven, the father of electrocardiography, visualized the three standard limb leadsenclosing the heart in a triangle, often referred to as Einthoven's triangle Einthoven also founda relationship between the amplitude of the QRS complexes in each lead, such that lead I +lead III = lead II (Einthoven's law).The unipolar limb lead are also known as the augmented limb leads, examine thecomposite potential from all three leads simultaneously. In all augmented leads the signalsfrom two limbs are summed in a resistor network and then applied to the amplifiers invertinginput, while the signal from the remaining limb electrode is applied to the non inverting input.1. Lead aVR: RA is connected to the noninverting input, while LA and LL aresummed at the inverting terminal.2. Lead aVL: LA is connected to the noninverting input, while RA and LL aresummed at the inverting input.3. Lead aVF: LL is connected to the noninverting input , while RA and LA aresummed at the inverting input.The unipolar chest leads (V1 through V6) are measured with the signals from certainspecified locations on the chest applied to the amplifiers noninverting input, while theRA, LA and LL signals are summed in a resistor network at the amplifiers invertinginputs.Unit III1)Explain the different methods of blood pressure measurements in detail.Indirect measurementsAutomated indirect methodsDirect measurementsRef : Biomedical Instrumentation & Measurements- Leslie CromwellFred J. WeibellErich A. Pfeiffer2) What are bloodflowmeters? Explain in detail about the ultrasonicbloodflowmeter?Definition for bloodflowmeterUltrasonic bloodflowmeterRef : Biomedical Instrumentation & Measurements- Leslie CromwellFred J. WeibellErich A. Pfeiffer3)Explain in detail about the measurement of heart sounds.Measurement of heart soundRef : Biomedical Instrumentation & Measurements- Leslie CromwellFred J. WeibellErich A. Pfeiffer4) Describe the measurement of gas volume in detail.Lung volume & capacitiesMechanical measurementsInstrumentation for measuring the mechanics of breathingRef : Biomedical Instrumentation & Measurements- Leslie CromwellFred J. WeibellErich A. Pfeiffer5)Define pH. Explain in detail the measurements of blood pH with neat sketches.Definition for pHpH meterRef : Biomedical Instrumentation- Dr. M. ArumugamUnit - IV1) With neat diagram explain X-Ray machine?Refer Page No. 299 - 303 in "Bio-medical Instrumentation" by Dr. M. Arumugam.2) With neat diagram explain Computer Tomography?Refer Page No. 363 - 367 in "Bio-medical Instrumentation" by Dr. M. Arumugam.3) With neat diagram explain Ultrasonography?Refer Page No. 388- 389 in "Bio-medical Instrumentation" by Dr. M. Arumugam.4) With neat diagram explain MRI?Refer Page No. 399 - 400 in "Bio-medical Instrumentation" by Dr. M. Arumugam.5) With neat diagram explain Laser Instrumentation?Refer Page No. 351 - 355 in "Bio-medical Instrumentation" by Dr. M. Arumugam.Unit V1) What are pacemakers? Explain in detail the demand pacemaker with neatsketch.Definition for pacerDemand pacemakerRef : Biomedical Instrumentation- Dr. M. Arumugam2)What are defibrillators? Explain in detail any two types of defibrillators with neatdiagram.Definition for defibrillatorDC defibrillatorSync. DC defibrillatorRef : Biomedical Instrumentation- Dr. M. Arumugam3)With neat diagram, explain in detail about the muscle stimulator.Refer in "Bio-medical Instrumentation" by Dr. M. Arumugam.4) With neat diagram explain Heart - Lung machine?Refer Page No. 202 - 205 in "Bio-medical Instrumentation" by Dr. M. Arumugam.5) With neat diagram explain Endoscope?Refer Page No. 356 - 358 in "Bio-medical Instrumentation" by Dr. M. Arumugam.