The massacre began in the night of 23–24 August 1572 (the eve of the feast of Bartholomew the Apostle), two days after the attempted assassination of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, the military and political leader of the Huguenots, the king ordered the killing of a group of Huguenot leaders, including Coligny, and the slaughter spread throughout Paris. Lasting several weeks, the massacre expanded outward to other urban centres and the countryside. Modern estimates for the number of dead across France vary widely, from 5,000 to 30,000.

The massacre also marked a turning point in the French Wars of Religion, the Huguenot political movement was crippled by the loss of many of its prominent aristocratic leaders, as well as many re-conversions by the rank and file. Those who remained were increasingly radicalized. Though by no means unique, it "was the worst of the century's religious massacres."[2] Throughout Europe, it "printed on Protestant minds the indelible conviction that Catholicism was a bloody and treacherous religion".[3]

The Peace of Saint-Germain put an end to three years of terrible civil war between Catholics and Protestants, this peace, however, was precarious since the more intransigent Catholics refused to accept it. The Guise family (strongly Catholic) was out of favour at the French court; the Huguenot leader, Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, was readmitted into the king's council in September 1571. Staunch Catholics were shocked by the return of Protestants to the court, but the queen mother, Catherine de' Medici, and her son, Charles IX, were practical in their support of peace and Coligny, as they were conscious of the kingdom's financial difficulties and the Huguenots' strong defensive position: they controlled the fortified towns of La Rochelle, La Charité-sur-Loire, Cognac, and Montauban.

To cement the peace between the two religious parties, Catherine planned to marry her daughter Margaret to the Protestant prince, Henry of Navarre (the future King Henry IV), son of the Huguenot leader Queen Jeanne d'Albret. The royal marriage was arranged for 18 August 1572, it was not accepted by traditionalist Catholics or by the Pope. Both the Pope and King Philip II of Spain strongly condemned Catherine's Huguenot policy as well.

The impending marriage led to the gathering of a large number of well-born Protestants in Paris, who had come to escort their prince, but Paris was a violently anti-Huguenot city, and Parisians, who tended to be extreme Catholics, found their presence unacceptable. Encouraged by Catholic preachers, they were horrified at the marriage of a princess of France with a Protestant,[4] the Parlement of Paris itself decided to snub the marriage ceremony.[citation needed]

Compounding this bad feeling was the fact that the harvests had been poor and taxes had risen,[5] the rise in food prices and the luxury displayed on the occasion of the royal wedding increased tensions among the common people. A particular point of tension was an open-air cross erected on the site of the house of Philippe de Gastines, a Huguenot who had been executed in 1569, the mob had torn down his house and erected a large wooden cross on a stone base. Under the terms of the peace, and after considerable popular resistance, this had been removed in December 1571 (and re-erected in a cemetery), which had already led to about 50 deaths in riots, as well as mob destruction of property;[6] in the massacres of August, the relatives of the Gastines family were among the first to be killed by the mob.[7]

The court itself was extremely divided. Catherine had not obtained Pope Gregory XIII's permission to celebrate this irregular marriage; consequently, the French prelates hesitated over which attitude to adopt. It took all the queen mother's skill to convince the Cardinal de Bourbon (paternal uncle of the Protestant groom, but himself a Catholic clergyman) to marry the couple. Beside this, the rivalries between the leading families re-emerged, the Guises were not prepared to make way for their rivals, the House of Montmorency. François, Duke of Montmorency and governor of Paris, was unable to control the disturbances in the city. Faced with a dangerous situation in Paris, he elected to leave town a few days before the wedding.[citation needed]

In the years preceding the massacre, Huguenot "political rhetoric" had for the first time taken a tone against not just the policies of a particular monarch of France, but monarchy in general; in part this was led by an apparent change in stance by John Calvin in his Readings on the Prophet Daniel, a book of 1561, in which he had argued that when kings disobey God, they "automatically abdicate their worldly power" – a change from his views in earlier works that even ungodly kings should be obeyed. This change was soon picked up by Huguenot writers, who began to expand on Calvin and promote the idea of the sovereignty of the people, ideas to which Catholic writers and preachers responded fiercely.[8]

Nevertheless, it was only in the aftermath of the massacre that anti-monarchical ideas found widespread support from Huguenots, among the "Monarchomachs" and others. "Huguenot writers, who had previously, for the most part, paraded their loyalty to the Crown, now called for the deposition or assassination of a Godless king who had either authorised or permitted the slaughter".[9] Thus, the massacre "marked the beginning of a new form of French Protestantism: one that was openly at war with the crown, this was much more than a war against the policies of the crown, as in the first three civil wars; it was a campaign against the very existence of the Gallican monarchy itself".[10]

Tensions were further raised when in May 1572 the news reached Paris that a French Huguenot army under Louis of Nassau had crossed from France to the Netherlandish province of Hainaut and captured the Catholic strongholds of Mons and Valenciennes (now in Belgium and France, respectively). Louis governed the Principality of Orange around Avignon in southern France for his brother William the Silent, who was leading the Dutch Revolt against the Spanish. This intervention threatened to involve France in that war; many Catholics believed that Coligny had again persuaded the king to intervene on the side of the Dutch,[11] as he had managed to do the previous October, before Catherine had got the decision reversed.[12]

This popular print shows the attempted assassination of Coligny at left, his subsequent murder at right, and scenes of the general massacre in the streets.

After the wedding on 18 August 1572, Coligny and the leading Huguenots remained in Paris to discuss some outstanding grievances about the Peace of St. Germain with the king, on 22 August, an attempt was made on Coligny's life as he made his way back to his house from the Louvre. He was shot from an upstairs window, and seriously wounded, the would-be assassin, Maurevert, escaped in the ensuing confusion, and it is still difficult today to decide who was ultimately responsible for the attack. History records three possible candidates:

The Guises: the Cardinal of Lorraine (who was in fact in Rome at the time), and his nephews, the Dukes of Guise and Aumale, are the most likely suspects. The leaders of the Catholic party, they wanted to avenge the death of the two dukes' father Francis, Duke of Guise, whose assassination ten years earlier they believed to have been ordered by Coligny, the shot aimed at Admiral de Coligny came from a house belonging to the Guises.

The Duke of Alba: he governed the Netherlands on behalf of Philip II. Coligny planned to lead a campaign in the Netherlands to participate in the Dutch Revolt to free the region from Spanish control, during the summer, Coligny had secretly dispatched a number of troops to help the Protestants in Mons, who were now besieged by the Duke of Alba. So Admiral de Coligny was a real threat to the latter.

Catherine de' Medici: according to tradition, the Queen Mother had been worried that the king was increasingly becoming dominated by Coligny. Amongst other things, Catherine reportedly feared that Coligny's influence would drag France into a war with Spain over the Netherlands.[citation needed]

The attempted assassination of Coligny triggered the crisis that led to the massacre. Admiral de Coligny was the most respected Huguenot leader and enjoyed a close relationship with the king, although he was distrusted by the king's mother. Aware of the danger of reprisals from the Protestants, the king and his court visited Coligny on his sickbed and promised him that the culprits would be punished. While the Queen Mother was eating dinner, Protestants burst in to demand justice, some talking in menacing terms.[13] Fears of Huguenot reprisals grew. Coligny's brother-in-law led a 4,000-strong army camped just outside Paris[11] and, although there is no evidence it was planning to attack, Catholics in the city feared it might take revenge on the Guises or the city populace itself.

That evening, Catherine held a meeting at the Tuileries Palace with her Italian advisers, including Albert de Gondi, Comte de Retz, on the evening of 23 August, Catherine went to see the king to discuss the crisis. Though no details of the meeting survive, Charles IX and his mother apparently made the decision to eliminate the Protestant leaders. Holt speculated this entailed "between two and three dozen noblemen" who were still in Paris.[14] Other historians are reluctant to speculate on the composition or size of the group leaders targeted at this point, beyond the few obvious heads. (Most potential candidates were accompanied by groups of gentlemen as staff and bodyguards like Coligny; so, each killing of a leader could have been expected to involve killing these as well.)

Shortly after this decision, the municipal authorities of Paris were summoned, they were ordered to shut the city gates and arm the citizenry to prevent any attempt at a Protestant uprising. The king's Swiss Guard was given the task of killing a list of leading Protestants, it is difficult today to determine the exact chronology of events and to know the moment the killing began. It seems probable that a signal was given by ringing bells for matins (between midnight and dawn) at the church of Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois, near the Louvre, which was the parish church of the kings of France, the Swiss guards had expelled the Protestant nobles from the Louvre castle and then slaughtered them in the streets.

One morning at the gates of the Louvre, 19th-century painting by Édouard Debat-Ponsan. Catherine de' Medici is in black. The scene from Dubois (above) re-imagined.

A group led by Guise in person dragged Admiral Coligny from his bed, killed him, and threw his body out of the window. Huguenot nobles in the building first put up a fight, as they were terrified for the life of their leader.[15] Coligny himself remained implacable. One of Coligny's murderers recognized this calm regarding his fate by stating that "he never saw anyone less afraid in so great a peril, nor die more steadfastly" (Dethou),[16] the tension that had been building since the Peace of St. Germain now exploded in a wave of popular violence, the common people began to hunt Protestants throughout the city, including women and children. Chains were used to block streets so that Protestants could not escape from their houses, the bodies of the dead were collected in carts and thrown into the Seine. The massacre in Paris lasted three days despite the king's attempts to stop it. Holt concludes that "while the general massacre might have been prevented, there is no evidence that it was intended by any of the elites at court," listing a number of cases where Catholic courtiers intervened to save individual Protestants who were not in the leadership.[17]

The two leading Huguenot princes, Henry of Navarre and his cousin the Prince of Condé (respectively aged 19 and 20), were spared as they pledged to convert to Catholicism; both renounced their conversions after they escaped Paris.[18] According to some interpretations, the survival of these princes was a key point in Catherine's overall scheme, to prevent the House of Guise from becoming too powerful.

On August 26, the king and court established the official version of events by going to the Paris Parlement. "Holding a lit de justice, Charles declared that he had ordered the massacre in order to thwart a Huguenot plot against the royal family."[19] A jubilee celebration, including a procession, was then held, while the killings continued in parts of the city.[19]

Although Charles had dispatched orders to his provincial governors on August 24 to prevent violence and maintain the terms of the 1570 edict,[20] from August to October, similar massacres of Huguenots took place in a total of twelve other cities: Toulouse, Bordeaux, Lyon, Bourges, Rouen,[21]Orléans, Meaux, Angers, La Charité, Saumur, Gaillac and Troyes.[22] In most of them, the killings swiftly followed the arrival of the news of the Paris massacre, but in some places there was a delay of more than a month. According to Mack P. Holt: "All twelve cities where provincial massacres occurred had one striking feature in common; they were all cities with Catholic majorities where there had once been significant Protestant minorities.... All of them had also experienced serious religious division... during the first three civil wars... Moreover seven of them shared a previous experience ... [they] had actually been taken over by Protestant minorities during the first civil war..."[20]

In several cases the Catholic party in the city believed they had received orders from the king to begin the massacre, some conveyed by visitors to the city, and in other cases apparently coming from a local nobleman or his agent,[23] it seems unlikely any such orders came from the king, although the Guise faction may have desired the massacres.[24] Apparently genuine letters from the Duke of Anjou, the king's younger brother, did urge massacres in the king's name; in Nantes the mayor fortunately held on to his without publicising it until a week later when contrary orders from the king had arrived.[25] In some cities the massacres were led by the mob, while the city authorities tried to suppress them, and in others small groups of soldiers and officials began rounding up Protestants with little mob involvement;[26] in Bordeaux the inflammatory sermon on September 29 of a Jesuit, Edmond Auger, encouraged the massacre that was to occur a few days later.[27]

In the cities affected the loss to the Huguenot communities after the massacres was numerically far larger than those actually killed; in the following weeks there were mass conversions to Catholicism, apparently in response to the threatening atmosphere for Huguenots in these cities. In Rouen, where some hundreds were killed, the Huguenot community shrank from 16,500 to fewer than 3,000 mainly as a result of conversions and emigration to safer cities or countries, some cities unaffected by the violence nevertheless witnessed a sharp decline in their Huguenot population.[28] It has been claimed that the Huguenot community represented as much as 10% of the French population on the eve of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, declining to 7-8% by the end of the 16th century, and further after heavy persecution began once again during the reign of Louis XIV, culminating with the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.[29]

Soon afterward both sides prepared for a fourth civil war, which began before the end of the year.

Estimates of the number that perished in the massacres, have varied from 2,000 by a Roman Catholic apologist to 70,000 by the contemporary Huguenot duc de Sully, who himself barely escaped death.[30] Accurate figures for casualties have never been compiled,[31] and, even in writings by modern historians there is a considerable range, though the more specialised the historian, the lower they tend to be, at the low end are figures of about 2,000 in Paris[32] and 3,000 in the provinces, the latter figure an estimate by Philip Benedict in an article in 1978.[33] Other estimates are about 10,000 in total,[34] with about 3,000 in Paris[35] and 7,000 in the provinces,[36] at the higher end are total figures of up to 20,000,[37] or 30,000 in total, from "a contemporary, non-partisan guesstimate" quoted by the historians Felipe Fernández-Armesto and D. Wilson,[38] for Paris, the only hard figure is a payment by the city to workmen for collecting and burying 1,100 bodies washed up on the banks of the Seine downstream from the city in one week. Body counts relating to other payments are computed from this.[39]

Among the slain were the philosopher Petrus Ramus, and in Lyon the composer Claude Goudimel, the corpses floating down the Rhone from Lyons are said to have put the people of Arles off drinking the water for three months.[40]

The Politiques, those Catholics who placed national unity above sectarian interests, were horrified, but many Catholics inside and outside France initially regarded the massacres as deliverance from an imminent Huguenot coup d'etat, the severed head of Coligny was apparently dispatched to Pope Gregory XIII, though it got no further than Lyon, and the pope sent the king a Golden Rose.[41] The pope ordered a Te Deum to be sung as a special thanksgiving (a practice continued for many years after) and had a medal struck with the motto Ugonottorum strages 1572 (Latin for "overthrow" or "slaughter," "of the Huguenots") showing an angel bearing a cross and sword before which are the felled Protestants.[42]

Pope Gregory XIII also commissioned the artist Giorgio Vasari to paint three frescos in the Sala Regia depicting the wounding of Coligny, his death, and Charles IX before Parliament, matching those commemorating the defeat of the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto (1571). "The massacre was interpreted as an act of divine retribution; Coligny was considered a threat to Christendom and thus Pope Gregory XIII designated 11 September 1572 as a joint commemoration of the Battle of Lepanto and the massacre of the Huguenots."[43]

Although these formal acts of rejoicing in Rome were not repudiated publicly, misgivings in the papal curia grew as the true nature of the killings gradually became better known. Pope Gregory XIII himself refused to receive Charles de Maurevert, said to be the killer of Coligny, on the grounds he was a murderer.[44]

On hearing of the slaughter, Philip II of Spain "laughed for the only time on record";[45] in Paris, the poet Jean-Antoine de Baïf, founder of the Academie de Musique et de Poésie, wrote a sonnet extravagantly praising the killings.[46] On the other hand, the Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian II, King Charles's father-in-law, was sickened, describing the massacre as "shameful".[47] Moderate French Catholics also began to wonder whether religious uniformity was worth the price of such bloodshed and the ranks of the Politiques began to swell.

The massacre caused a "major international crisis".[48] Protestant countries were horrified at the events, and only the concentrated efforts of Catherine's ambassadors, including a special mission by Gondi, prevented the collapse of her policy of remaining on good terms with them.[citation needed]Elizabeth I of England's ambassador to France at that time, Sir Francis Walsingham, barely escaped with his life.[49] Even Tsar Ivan the Terrible expressed horror at the carnage in a letter to the Emperor.[50]

The massacre "spawned a pullulating mass of polemical literature, bubbling with theories, prejudices and phobias"[51] Many Catholic authors were exultant in their praise of the king for his bold and decisive action (after regretfully abandoning a policy of meeting Huguenot demands as far as he could) against the supposed Huguenot coup, whose details were now fleshed out in officially sponsored works, though the larger mob massacres were somewhat deprecated: "[one] must excuse the people's fury moved by a laudable zeal which is difficult to restrain once it has been stirred up".[52] Huguenot works understandably dwelt on the harrowing details of violence, expounded various conspiracy theories that the royal court had long planned the massacres, and often showed extravagant anti-Italian feelings directed at Catherine, Gondi, and other Italians at court.[53] Diplomatic correspondence was readier than published polemics to recognise the unplanned and chaotic nature of the events,[54] which also emerged from several accounts in memoirs published over the following years by witnesses to the events at court, including two dramatic and influential accounts by members of the royal family that were not recognised as fake until the 19th century, those supposedly by Marguerite of Navarre,[55] and Anjou. Anjou's supposed account was the source of the quotation attributed to Charles IX: "Well then, so be it! Kill them! But kill them all! Don't leave a single one alive to reproach me!"[56]

The author of the Lettre de Pierre Charpentier (1572) was not only "a Protestant of sorts, and thus, apparently, writing with inside knowledge", but also "an extreme apologist for the massacre ... in his view ... a well-merited punishment for years of civil disobedience [and] secret sedition..."[57] A strand of Catholic writing, especially by Italian authors, broke from the official French line to applaud the massacre as precisely a brilliant stratagem, deliberately planned from various points beforehand,[58] the most extreme of these writers was Camilo Capilupi, a papal secretary, whose work insisted that the whole series of events since 1570 had been a masterly plan conceived by Charles IX, and carried through by frequently misleading his mother and ministers as to his true intentions. The Venetian government refused to allow the work to be printed there, and it was eventually published in Rome in 1574, and in the same year quickly reprinted in Geneva in the original Italian and a French translation.[59]

It was in this context that the massacre came to be seen as a product of Machiavellianism, a view greatly influenced by the Huguenot Innocent Gentillet, who published his Discours contre Machievel in 1576, which was printed in ten editions in three languages over the next four years.[60] Gentillet held, quite wrongly according to Sydney Anglo, that Machiavelli's "books [were] held most dear and precious by our Italian and Italionized courtiers" (in the words of his first English translation), and so (in Anglo's paraphrase) "at the root of France's present degradation, which has culminated not only in the St Bartholemew massacre but the glee of its perverted admirers";[61] in fact there is little trace of Machiavelli in French writings before the massacre, and not very much after, until Gentillet's own book, but this concept was seized upon by many contemporaries, and played a crucial part in setting the long-lasting popular concept of Machiavellianism that so infuriates scholars of his actual thought.[62] It also gave added impetus to the strong anti-Italian feelings already present in Huguenot polemic.

Christopher Marlowe was one of many Elizabethan writers who were enthusiastic proponents of these ideas. In the Jew of Malta (1589–90) "Machievel" in person speaks the Prologue, claiming to not be dead, but to have possessed the soul of (the Duke of) Guise, "And, now the Guise is dead, is come from France/ To view this land, and frolic with his friends" (Prologue, lines 3-4)[63] His last play, The Massacre at Paris (1593) takes the massacre, and the following years, as its subject, with Guise and Catherine both depicted as Machiavellian plotters, bent on evil from the start, the Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913 was still ready to endorse a version of this view, describing the massacres as "an entirely political act committed in the name of the immoral principles of Machiavellianism" and blaming "the pagan theories of a certain raison d'état according to which the end justified the means".[40]

The French 18th-century historian Louis-Pierre Anquetil, in his Esprit de la Ligue of 1767, was among the first to begin impartial historical investigation, emphasizing the lack of premeditation (before the attempt on Coligny) in the massacre and that Catholic mob violence had a history of uncontrollable escalation.[64] By this period the Massacre was being widely used by Voltaire (in his Henriade) and other Enlightenment writers in polemics against organized religion in general. The question of whether the massacre had long been premeditated was not entirely settled until the late 19th century; Lord Acton changed his mind on the matter twice, finally concluding that it was not.[65]

Over the centuries, the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre has inevitably aroused a great deal of controversy. Modern historians are still divided over the responsibility of the royal family:

The traditional interpretation makes Catherine de Medici and her Catholic advisers the principal culprits in the execution of the principal military leaders. They forced the hand of a hesitant and weak-willed king in the decision of that particular execution, this traditional interpretation has been largely abandoned by modern historians including, among others, Janine Garrisson. However, in a more recent work than his history of the period, Holt concludes: "The ringleaders of the conspiracy appear to have been a group of four men: Henry, duke of Anjou; Chancellor Birague; the duke of Nevers, and the comte de Retz" (Gondi).[66] Apart from Anjou, the others were all Italian advisors at the French court.

According to Denis Crouzet, Charles IX feared a Protestant uprising, and chose to strangle it at birth to protect his power. The execution decision was therefore his own, and not Catherine de' Medici's.[67]

According to Jean-Louis Bourgeon, the violently anti-Huguenot city of Paris was really responsible. He stresses that the city was on the verge of revolt, the Guises, who were highly popular, exploited this situation to put pressure on the King and the Queen Mother. Charles IX was thus forced to head off the potential riot, which was the work of the Guises, the city militia and the common people.[68]

According to Thierry Wanegffelen, the member of the royal family with the most responsibility in this affair is Henry, Duke of Anjou, the king's ambitious younger brother. Following the failed assassination attack against the Admiral de Coligny (which Wanegffelen attributes to the Guise family and Spain), the Italian advisers of Catherine de Medici undoubtedly recommended in the royal Council the execution of about fifty Protestant leaders, these Italians stood to benefit from the occasion by eliminating the Huguenot danger. Despite the firm opposition of the Queen Mother and the King, Anjou, Lieutenant General of the Kingdom, present at this meeting of the Council, could see a good occasion to make a name for himself with the government, he contacted the Parisian authorities and another ambitious young man, running out of authority and power, Duke Henri de Guise (whose uncle, the clear-sighted Charles, cardinal of Lorraine, was then detained in Rome). The Parisian St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre resulted from this conjunction of interests, and this offers a much better explanation as to why the men of the Duke of Anjou acted in the name of the Lieutenant General of the Kingdom, consistent with the thinking of the time, rather than in the name of the King. One can also understand why, the day after the start of the massacre, Catherine de Medici, through royal declaration of Charles IX, condemned the crimes, and threatened the Guise family with royal justice, but when Charles IX and his mother learned of the involvement of the duke of Anjou, and being so dependent on his support, they issued a second royal declaration, which while asking for an end to the massacres, credited the initiative with the desire of Charles IX to prevent a Protestant plot. Initially the coup d'état of the duke of Anjou was a success, but Catherine de Medici went out of her way to deprive him from any power in France: she sent him with the royal army to remain in front of La Rochelle and then had him elected King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.[69]

Traditional histories have tended to focus more on the roles of the political notables whose machinations began the massacre than the mindset of those who actually did the killing. Ordinary lay Catholics were involved in the mass killings; they believed they were executing the wishes of the king and of God. At this time, in an age before mass media, "the pulpit remained probably the most effective means of mass communication".[70]

Despite the large numbers of pamphlets and broadsheets in circulation, literacy rates were still poor. Thus, some modern historians have stressed the critical and incendiary role that militant preachers played in shaping ordinary lay beliefs, both Catholic and Protestant.

Historian Barbara B. Diefendorf, Professor of History at Boston University, wrote that Simon Vigor had "said if the King ordered the Admiral (Coligny) killed, 'it would be wicked not to kill him'. With these words, the most popular preacher in Paris legitimised in advance the events of St. Bartholomew's Day".[71] Diefendorf says that when the head of the murdered Coligny was shown to the Paris mob by a member of the nobility, with the claim that it was the King's will, the die was cast. Another historian Mack P. Holt, Professor at George Mason University, agrees that Vigor, "the best known preacher in Paris," preached sermons that were full of references to the evils that would befall the capital should the Protestants seize control,[72] this view is also partly supported by Cunningham and Grell (2000) who explained that "militant sermons by priests such as Simon Vigor served to raise the religious and eschatological temperature on the eve of the Massacre".[73]

Historians cite the extreme tension and bitterness that led to the powder-keg atmosphere of Paris in August 1572;[74] in the previous ten years there had already been three outbreaks of civil war, and attempts by Protestant nobles to seize power in France.[75] Some blame the complete esteem with which the sovereign's office was held, justified by prominent French Roman Catholic theologians, and that the special powers of French Kings "...were accompanied by explicit responsibilities, the foremost of which was combating heresy."[76]

Holt, notable for re-emphasising the importance of religious issues, as opposed to political/dynastic power struggles or socio-economic tensions, in explaining the French Wars of Religion, also re-emphasised the role of religion in the St Bartholomew's Day Massacre, he noted that the extra violence inflicted on many of the corpses "was not random at all, but patterned after the rites of the Catholic culture that had given birth to it." "Many Protestant houses were burned, invoking the traditional purification by fire of all heretics. Many victims were also thrown into the Seine, invoking the purification by water of Catholic baptism".[77] Viewed as a threat to the social and political order, Holt argues that "Huguenots not only had to be exterminated – that is, killed – they also had to be humiliated, dishonoured, and shamed as the inhuman beasts they were perceived to be."[77]

However Raymond Mentzer points out that Protestants "could be as bloodthirsty as Catholics. Earlier Huguenot rage at Nimes (in 1567) led to... the massacre of a hundred or so Catholics, mostly priests and prominent laymen, at the hands of their Protestant neighbours. Few towns escaped the episodic violence and some suffered repeatedly from both sides. Neither faith had a monopoly on cruelty and misguided fervour".[78]

Some, like Leonie Frieda, emphasise the element within the mob violence of the "haves" being "killed by the 'have-nots'". Many Protestants were nobles or bourgeois and Frieda adds that "a number of bourgeois Catholic Parisians had suffered the same fate as the Protestants; many financial debts were wiped clean with the death of creditors and moneylenders that night".[79] At least one Huguenot was able to buy off his would-be murderers.[80]

The historian H.G. Koenigsberger (who until his retirement in 1984 was Professor of History at King's College, University of London) wrote that the Massacre was deeply disturbing because "it was Christians massacring other Christians who were not foreign enemies but their neighbours with which they and their forebears had lived in a Christian community, and under the same ruler, for a thousand years".[81] He concludes that the historical importance of the Massacre "lies not so much in the appalling tragedies involved as their demonstration of the power of sectarian passion to break down the barriers of civilisation, community and accepted morality".[82]

An explanation of this may lie in the analysis of the massacre in terms of social anthropology by the religious historian Bruce Lincoln, who describes how the religious divide, which gave the Huguenots different patterns of dress, eating and pastimes, as well as the obvious differences of religion and (very often) class, had become a social schism or cleavage. The rituals around the royal marriage had only intensified this cleavage, contrary to its intentions, and the "sentiments of estrangement – radical otherness – [had come] to prevail over sentiments of affinity between Catholics and Protestants".[83]

On 23 August 1997, Pope John Paul II, who was in Paris for the 12th World Youth Day, issued a statement on the Massacre, he stayed in Paris for three days and made eleven speeches. According to Reuters and the Associated Press, at a late-night vigil, with the hundreds of thousands of young people who were in Paris for the celebrations, he made the following comments: "On the eve of Aug. 24, we cannot forget the sad massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day, an event of very obscure causes in the political and religious history of France. ... Christians did things which the Gospel condemns. I am convinced that only forgiveness, offered and received, leads little by little to a fruitful dialogue, which will in turn ensure a fully Christian reconciliation. ... Belonging to different religious traditions must not constitute today a source of opposition and tension, on the contrary, our common love for Christ impels us to seek tirelessly the path of full unity."[84]

The Elizabethan dramatist Christopher Marlowe knew the story well from the Huguenot literature translated into English, and probably from French refugees who had sought refuge in his native Canterbury. He wrote a strongly anti-Catholic and anti-French play based on the events entitled 'The Massacre at Paris'. Also, in his biography The World of Christopher Marlowe, David Riggs claims the incident remained with the playwright, and massacres are incorporated into the final acts of three of his early plays, 1 and 2 Tamburlaine and The Jew of Malta – see above for Marlowe and Machiavellism.

The story was also taken up in 1772 by Louis-Sébastien Mercier in his play Jean Hennuyer, Bishop of Lizieux, unperformed until the French Revolution. This play was translated into English, with some adaptations, as The Massacre by the actress and playwright Elizabeth Inchbald in 1792. Inchbald kept the historical setting, but The Massacre, completed by February 1792, also reflected events in the recent French Revolution, though not the September Massacres of 1792, which coincided with its printing.[85]

Joseph Chénier's play Charles IX was a huge success during the French Revolution, drawing strongly anti-monarchical and anti-religious lessons from the massacre. Chénier was able to put his principles into practice as a politician, voting for the execution of Louis XVI and many others, perhaps including his brother André Chénier. However, before the collapse of the Revolution he became suspected of moderation, and in some danger himself.[86]

"They seemed but dark shadows as they slid along the walls", illustration from an English History of France, c. 1912

The Pre-Raphaelite painter John Everett Millais managed to create a sentimental moment in the massacre in his painting A Huguenot on St. Bartholomew's Day (1852), which depicts a Catholic woman attempting to convince her Huguenot lover to wear the white scarf badge of the Catholics and protect himself. The man, true to his beliefs, gently refuses her.[87] Millais was inspired to create the painting after seeing Meyerbeer's Les Huguenots.

Mark Twain described the massacre in "From the Manuscript of 'A Tramp Abroad' (1879): The French and the Comanches," an essay about "partly civilized races." He wrote in part, "St. Bartholomew's was unquestionably the finest thing of the kind ever devised and accomplished in the world. All the best people took a hand in it, the King and the Queen Mother included."[88]

^Hans J. Hillerbrand in his Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set

^Saint Bartholomew's Day, Massacre of (2008) Encyclopædia Britannica Deluxe Edition, Chicago; Hardouin de Péréfixe de Beaumont, Catholic Archbishop of Paris a century later, put the number at 100,000, but "This last number is probably exaggerated, if we reckon only those who perished by a violent death. But if we add those who died from wretchedness, hunger, sorrow, abandoned old men, women without shelter, children without bread,—all the miserable whose life was shortened by this great catastrophe, we shall see that the estimate of Péréfixe is still below the reality." G. D. Félice (1851). History of the Protestants of France. New York: Edward Walker, p. 217.

^Garrisson, 131; see also the 19th century historian Henry White, who goes into full details, listing estimates of other historians, which range up to 100,000. His own estimation was 20,000. White, Henry (1868). The Massacre of St Bartholomew. London, John Murray. p. 472.

^Anglo, Sydney (2005), Machiavelli – the First Century: Studies in Enthusiasm, Hostility, and Irrelevance, Oxford University Press, p. 229, ISBN0-19-926776-6, ISBN978-0-19-926776-7Google Books. See also: Butterfield, H. "Acton and the Massacre of St Bartholomew," Cambridge Historical Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1 (1953), pp. 27-47 JSTOR on the many shifts in emphasis of the historiography of the massacre over the next four centuries.

^See the Catholic Encyclopedia and see note 18 Butterfield, p. 183 (and note), and p. 199; Anjou's account was defended by a minority of historians into the early 20th century, or at least claimed as being in some sense an account informed by actual witnesses.

1.
French Wars of Religion
–
Approximately 3,000,000 people perished as a result of violence, famine and disease in what is accounted as the second deadliest European religious war. Unlike all other wars at the time, the French wars retained their religious character without being confounded by dynastic considerations. At the conclusion of the conflict in 1598, Huguenots were granted rights and freedoms by the Edict of Nantes. The wars weakened the authority of the monarchy, already fragile under the rule of Francis II and then Charles IX, apart from previously mentioned names, the wars have been variously described as the Eight Wars of Religion, or simply the Wars of Religion. However, the Massacre of Vassy in 1562 is agreed to begin the French Wars of Religion, during this time, complex diplomatic negotiations and agreements of peace were followed by renewed conflict and power struggles. Humanism, until the late 1520s, served as a ground for the French Protestant Reformation. The spirit of the Renaissance interested Francis I and he encouraged the study of the classics by establishing royal professorships in Paris, equipping more people with the knowledge necessary to understand the classics. Francis I had no qualms with the religious order. Through the Concordat of Bologna, Pope Leo X increased the power of the king over the church, nomination of clergy depended upon the kings choice, in France, unlike in Germany, the nobles supported the policies and the status quo of their time. The establishment of the college and the spread of the printing press served the purposes of the Reformation. The printing press made mass production of inexpensive and fueled the spread of knowledge in all disciplines. Interest in the classics soared and literature was available to a wider audience. The accessibility coupled with romanticism for the knowledge from the past that built empires, precise language and eloquence were valued among scholars and true understanding of the classics meant studying them from the originals. Theological and religious thoughts were disseminated at an unprecedented pace, ideas about the Reformation were widespread in France by 1519. John Froben, a humanist printer, published a collection of Luther’s works, in one correspondence, he reported that 600 copies of such works were being shipped to France and Spain and were sold in Paris. The humanist perspective on understanding Scriptures had theological and ecclesiastical implications, studying Scriptures in the original flourished in the Renaissance period. This contrasted the heavy reliance of the church on the Vulgate - the Latin translation of the Bible. The Meaux Circle was formed by a group of humanists including Jacques Lefèvre d’Étaples and Guillaume Briçonnet, bishop of Meaux, in the effort to reform preaching, the Meaux circle was joined by Vatable, a Hebraist and Guillaume Budé the classicist and librarian to the king

2.
Massacre of Vassy
–
The tragedy is identified as the first major event in the French Wars of Religion. The series of battles that followed concluded in the signing of the Edict of Amboise the next year, the events surrounding the Massacre of Wassy became widely known by a series of forty engravings published in Geneva seven years later. After the ascent of Henry II to the French throne, followers of the teachings of John Calvin. Catherine de Medici, regent of Charles IX, proposed the Edict of January with the hopes that Calvinism and Catholicism could co-exist in France and that fighting would cease. On 1 March 1562, Francis, the second Duke of Guise, travelling to his estates, stopped in Wassy and he found a large congregation of Huguenots holding religious ceremonies in a barn that was their church. Some of the party attempted to push their way inside and were repulsed. Events escalated, stones began to fly, and the Duke was struck, outraged, he ordered his men to fortify the town and set fire to the church, killing 63 unarmed Huguenots and wounding over a hundred. The major engagements of the war occurred at Rouen, Dreux, at the Siege of Rouen, the crown regained the city at the cost of Antoine de Navarre, who died of his wounds. The Battle of Dreux, saw the capture of Condé by the Guises and Montmorency, the popular unrest caused by the assassination, coupled with the fact that Orléans was holding out in the siege, led Catherine to mediate a truce and the Edict of Amboise. List of massacres in France St. Bartholomews Day Massacre Virtual Museum of Protestantism, The protestant Museum in the Wassy barn

Massacre of Vassy
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Massacre de Vassy in 1562, print by Hogenberg end of 16th century.

3.
Battle of Saint-Denis (1567)
–
The Battle of Saint-Denis was fought on 10 November 1567 between Catholics and Protestants during the French Wars of Religion in Saint-Denis near Paris, France. Anne de Montmorency with 16,000 Royalists fell on Condés 3,500 Huguenots, the Huguenots surprisingly held on for some hours before being driven off. The Protestants were defeated, but the Catholic commander Anne de Montmorency was mortally wounded, the Protestants fell back to the east to link up with German mercenaries

Battle of Saint-Denis (1567)
–
Battle of Saint-Denis, 1567.

4.
Battle of Orthez 1569
–
The Battle of Orthez was fought during the French Wars of Religion, at Orthez on Wednesday August 24,1569. Huguenot forces under the leadership of Gabriel de Montgomery defeated Royalist forces under General Terride in French Navarre, following the battle, Huguenot forces killed many of their Catholic prisoners. In the later half of the century, all Aquitaine above the Garonne except for Bordeaux was in Protestant hands. At that time, Orthez was the largest and most dynamic city of Béarn and it was a market town which served as the main funnel for products making their way to Bayonne for export. One wealthy Protestant, Adrien-Arnaud de Gachassin had gifted his mansion in Orthez to Jeanne d Albret in 1555, the Huguenots were therefore desirous of capturing the important and wealthy town of Orthez. The Protestant forces of Montgomery and Montamat had left Castres around noon on July 27,1569 and they pillaged along the way, passing through Mazères in Foix. The troops crossed the Garonne and the Gave at Coarreze and by August 9, on August 11, the troops were on the move again and now headed for Orthez. By August 15, after a siege, Montgomery had weakened Orthez greatly. On August 24, Huguenots captured the town and massacred many of the imprisoned Catholics, among the victims were Terride, Bassillon, governor of Navarrenx, as well as other leadership and troops in Terride’s defenses, local clergy and people of Orthez. A special death was contrived for the clergy - they were thrown to their deaths from the heights of Orthezs Le Pont-Vieux over the Gave de Pau, in addition, the local Moncade castle was destroyed as well as the town’s churches and many homes. Massacre of religious opponents characterised much of the Wars of Religion, Jeanne III dAlbret, queen of Navarre, and considered “queen of the Huguenots” played a leading role during the French Wars of Religion in the vast territory of Guyenne in southwestern France. Her goal was to create a Protestant Guyenne by force of arms, doubtless, however, the Huguenots were so enraged from the persecution inflicted on them by the Catholics that they could not be restrained from the massacre. In all, both events fit into the picture of the Wars of Religion

Battle of Orthez 1569
–
Le Pont-Vieux over the Gave de Pau in Orthez. The opening in the parapet of the bridge is the point from which the Catholic priests of Orthez were thrown to their deaths during the massacre.
Battle of Orthez 1569
–
Jeanne d'Albret, a leading Huguenot figure.

5.
Battle of Moncontour
–
The Battle of Moncontour occurred on 3 October 1569 between the Catholic forces of King Charles IX of France and the Huguenots during the Third War of the French Wars of Religion. Coligny broke off the Siege of Poitou, and joined with German allies, moved south, henry, Duke of Anjou, attacked before Coligny could join with Gabriel, comte de Montgomery. The Swiss pikemen shattered the Huguenot landsknechts, Coligny regrouped, marched east into the Rhone and marched on Paris. French Wars of Religion The Cambridge Modern History, the Battle of Moncontour Voyage of the Battle of Moncontour,1569

Battle of Moncontour
–
Battle of Moncontour, 1569.

6.
Siege of Sancerre
–
In 1529, John Calvin followed Protestant Reformer Melchior Wolmar to Bourges to continue his law studies under Andrea Alciati, an Italian who had been invited by Francis I to teach in France. Calvins ideas became popular in Bourges and the doctrine of the Reformation spread throughout the region, calvinism became influential in Sancerre in 1540. In May 1562, Gabriel, comte de Montgomery, the Huguenot captain, captured Bourges during the First Civil War, the Catholics counter-attacked with reprisals and the campaign spread. Sancerre, spared during the first round of the conflict, was attacked in 1564 by Count Sciarra Martinengo, a Venetian, who was governor of Orléans, and Claude de La Châtre, governor of the Berry. Lacking bombard artillery, but armed with slings, the city withstood the attack for five weeks until Martinengo and Châtre withdrew. Another attack against Sancerre was tried in 1568 but the troops were forced the withdraw when confronted by the garrison, following the St. Bartholomews Day Massacre on August 24,1572 many Protestants fled to the hilltop stronghold. When Sancerre refused to receive the garrison of Charles IX, Honorat de Bueil. After massing an army of 7,000 men, Claude de La Châtre. The arsenal of weapons included bombards, arrows, lances, stones, the siege was one of the last time times in European history where slings, the Arquebuses of Sancerre, were used in warfare. Greatly outnumbered, and fearing genocide, the Sancerrois taunted their attackers, We light here, We fight here, go, the Catholic forces, armed with 18 guns, bombarded the 400-year-old ramparts until the wall collapsed on the attackers, killing 600 men. After the assault failed, Châtre withdrew to Saint Satur and a blockade was started, the city suffered terrible famine and population was reduced to eating rats, leather and ground slate. There were even isolated reports of cannibalism, some 500 people, including most of the children, died. The siege was compared to the Siege of Jerusalem and became a Protestant cause throughout Europe, Poland offered to elect Henri, Duke of Anjou, Queen Catherine de Medicis fourth son, to the throne of Poland with the understanding that France would ameliorate the Huguenots. The Duke of Anjou was fighting at La Rochelle when he received word that he had been elected King of Poland, the announcement gave the Duke a pretext to abandon the losing siege, which had been repulsed 29 times in four months and decimated the principal army of France. On June 6,1573 Charles IX signed the Peace of La Rochelle ending the Fourth Civil War, on August 25,1573, one day after the anniversary of the Saint Bartholomews Day Massacre, the last of the Siege of Sancerre survivors left the fortress. Châtre entered the empty city on August 31, and commanded the peasantry from the areas to demolish the ramparts. In payment of damages and taxes for the siege, King Charles IX accepted 2000 litres of wine as compensation, Bourges, Vierzon, and Mehun sided with the League, while Sancerre, now greatly diminished, and the aristocracy of the county supported the king. The fighting ended after Protestant Henri de Navarre was crowned King of France in 1594, the medieval Chateau de Sancerre was destroyed in 1621 to prevent further resistance

Siege of Sancerre
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Siege de Sancerre, early 17th century print by Claude Chastillon.

7.
Battle of Ivry
–
The Battle of Ivry was fought on 14 March 1590, during the French Wars of Religion. The battle was a victory for Henry IV of France, leading Huguenot and English forces against the Catholic League by the Duc de Mayenne. Henrys forces were victorious and he went on to lay siege to Paris, the battle occurred on the plain of Épieds, Eure near Ivry, Normandy. Ivry-la-Bataille is located on the Eure River and about thirty miles west of Paris, Henry IV had moved rapidly to besiege Dreux, a town controlled by the League. As Mayenne followed intending to raise the siege, Henry withdrew and he deployed his army on the plain of Saint André between the towns of Nonancourt and Ivry. Henry had been reinforced by English troops sent in support by Queen Elizabeth I, Henry had 12,000 foot soldiers and 3,000 men on horseback. Included in this force were 2,000 Spanish pikemen and cavalry had been brought over from Flanders under Philip, Count of Egmont, At first light on 14 March 1590, before the battle, the king famously spurred his troops, Companions. If you today run at risk with me, I will also run at risk with you, look at his and our enemies. Hold your ranks, I beg of you, and if the heat of battle makes you leave them, think also of rallying back and you will find it among those three trees that you can see over there on your right side. If you lose your ensigns, cornets or flags, do never lose sight of my panache, you always find it on the road to honour. The action began with a few deadly cannon volleys from the six pieces of the royal artillery, the cavalry of the two sides then clashed with a dreadful force. The Duke of Mayenne followed up with the troops of the Guelders. The mercenaries, who were sympathetic to the Protestant cause, fired in the air. Aumont soon overcame the Leagues light horse and their royalist counterparts retreated under the attack of a Walloon squadron backed up by two squadrons from the League. It was then the turn of the Jean VI dAumont, the Duc de Montpensier, however, the decisive event took place elsewhere on the battlefield, the King charged the Leagues lancers, who were unable to get far enough back to use their weapons. Mayenne was driven back, the Duke of Aumale forced to surrender, the Duke of Mayenne had lost the battle. Henry pursued the losers, many of whom surrendered for fear of falling into worse hands, the countryside was full of Leaguers and Spaniards in flight, with the kings victorious army pursuing and scattering the remnants of the larger groups that dispersed and re-gathered. Henry defeated Mayenne at Ivry so that he would become the only claimant to the throne of France

8.
Siege of Paris (1590)
–
Paris at the time was a large walled city of around 200, 000–220,000 people. On 7 May, Henrys army surrounded the city, imposing a blockade, Henry had at this point only around 12, 000–13,000 troops, facing an enemy of around 30, 000–50,000. Owing to the amount of heavy siege artillery that Henry had brought. The citys defence was placed in the hands of the young Charles Emmanuel, Henry set up his artillery on the hills of Montmartre, and bombarded the city from there. In July his force was swelled by reinforcements to 25,000, Henry tried to negotiate the surrender of Paris, but his terms were rejected and the siege continued. On 30 August, news reached the city that a Spanish-Catholic relief army under the general Don Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma, was on its way. The Duke of Parma and his troops were able to send supplies into the city. An estimated 40, 000–50,000 of the population died during the siege, after repeated failures to take the capital city of Paris, Henry IV converted to Catholicism, reportedly declaring that Paris is well worth a Mass. The war-weary Parisians turned on the Catholic Leagues hardliners when they continued the conflict even after Henry had converted, Paris jubilantly welcomed the formerly Protestant Henry of Navarre in 1593, and he was crowned King of France. He later issued the Edict of Nantes in an attempt to end the strife that had torn the country apart. War of the Three Henrys Religion in France Edict of Nantes Anglo-Spanish War List of French monarchs List of wars and disasters by death toll Horne, seven Ages of Paris, Portrait of a City

9.
Battle of Blaye
–
In April 1593, a Spanish naval force of 16 warships commanded by Admiral Pedro de Zubiaur and General Joanes de Villaviciosa Lizarza set out to relieve Blaye. On 18 April the English naval force was defeated and dispersed by Zubiaurs fleet, soon after, another Anglo-French fleet of 11 to 19 warships from Bordeaux, supported by about 40 small vessels, arrived at Blaye, trying to block the Spanish fleet. After a fierce and unequal battle, amid an intense storm, in the end, many ships of both fleets were dispersed by the storm, and the Spanish fleet managed to return safely to the port of Pasajes. For his part in the fighting, Pedro de Zubiaur was decorated by King Philip II of Spain, Battle of Craon Battle of the Bay of Biscay Siege of Fort Crozon Battle of Cornwall French Wars of Religion Catholic League of France Fernández Duro, Cesáreo. Armada Española desde la unión de los reinos de Castilla y Aragón, a Spaniard in Elizabethan England, The Correspondence of Antonio Pérezs Exile. ISBN 0-900411-84-8 Mac Caffrey, Wallace T. Elizabeth I, War and Politics, ISBN 978-0-691-03651-9 Ortega y Medina, Juan Antonio. El conflicto anglo-español por el dominio oceánico, en el IV Centenario del fallecimiento de Pedro Zubiaur, un marino vasco del siglo XVI

Battle of Blaye
–
View of the Gironde Estuary from the ruins of the Citadel of Blaye (2010)

10.
Capture of Saumur
–
The Capture of Saumur was the military investment of the Huguenot city of Saumur accomplished by the young French king Louis XIII in May 1621, following the outburst of the Huguenot rebellions. Although the Huguenot city was faithful to the king, Louis XIII nevertheless wished to control over it. The Governor of the city Duplessy-Mornay was tricked out of his command of Saumur, Louis XIII then continued his campaign southward against the Huguenots, and moved to the Protestant stronghold of Saint-Jean-dAngély led by Rohans brother Benjamin de Rohan, duc de Soubise. This led to the month-long Siege of Saint-Jean-dAngély, and to a succession of sieges in the south of France. Louis XIIIs campaign ended in a stalemate, leading to the 1622 Peace of Montpellier, which temporarily confirmed the right of the Huguenots in France

Capture of Saumur
–
The Huguenot leader Philippe de Mornay was tricked out of his command of Saumur.
Capture of Saumur
–
Saumur was easily invested as its Governor was tricked out of his command.

11.
Siege of Montpellier
–
The Siege of Montpellier was a siege of the Huguenot city of Montpellier by the Catholic forces of Louis XIII of France, from August to October 1622. It was part of the Huguenot rebellions, Louis XIII stationed his troops around Montpellier in July 1622. A treaty was agreed upon between Henri, Duke of Rohan, and Louis XIII, through his officer, Marshal Lesdiguières, outraged, Louis XIII revoked Lesdiguières command, and ordered his troops to set up a siege of the city. The besieging army was placed unter the command of Condé, etienne dAmeric led the defense of Montpellier in an energetic manner. Operations proved to be difficult for the troops of Louis XIII, on September 2 also,400 Huguenots under Galonges, the Commander of the Montpellier garrison, made a sortie and defeated 1000 royal troops. On October 2, the Huguenots were able to repel three assaults by royal troops numbering 5,000, the assault left from 300 to 400 dead in the royal camps, and many more wounded. At the same time, the army was plagued with sickness and was running short of supplies. Finally, Louis XIII authorized negotiations to be resumed, asking Lesdiguières to lead the army once more, on October 8, Rohan arrived in front of Montpellier with a relief army 4,000 veterans. He might have fought victoriously, but he desired to negotiate, Louis XIII finally entered Montpellier on 20 October 1622, bareheaded and unarmed. Royal troops entered the city, effectively occupied it, and started to dismantle its fortifications, the Citadel of Montpellier was built soon after by Louis XIII in order to better control the city

Siege of Montpellier
–
Military map of the Siege of Montpellier, 1622.
Siege of Montpellier
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Condé initially led the siege.
Siege of Montpellier
–
Lesdiguières negotiated the peace between the King and the Huguenots at Montpelliers.

12.
Battle of Blavet
–
Resentment was breeding on the Huguenot side however as king Louis XIII was not respecting the clauses of the Treaty of Montpellier. The threat of a siege on the city of La Rochelle was obvious. A fleet of five warships was being prepared at Blavet, for a blockade of the city of La Rochelle. Emissaries were sent to Paris to obtain the execution of the Treaty of Montpellier, with a few ships which he had prepared at Chef de Baye, near La Rochelle, he set sail, and attacked Blavet in January 1625. He had 12 small boats,300 well-armed soldiers and 100 sailors, six Royal great royal ships were at anchor, all well armed with cannon, but lacking men and ammunition. The Duke of Vendôme, Commander of the Province, attempted to block Soubise in the harbour, with heavy chain, after two weeks however, Soubise managed to break through with his fleet. Soubise, now in possession of a fleet of 70 ships, then anchored in front of Île de Ré. These events led to a reaction from the King, who set up a counter-attack in September 1625, leading to the Capture of Île de Ré. Soubise would return two years later with a fleet under the Duke of Buckingham, leading to the final showdown of the Siege of La Rochelle

13.
Siege of La Rochelle
–
The Siege of La Rochelle was a result of a war between the French royal forces of Louis XIII of France and the Huguenots of La Rochelle in 1627–28. The siege marked the apex of the tensions between the Catholics and the Protestants in France, and ended with a victory for King Louis XIII. In the Edict of Nantes, Henry IV of France had given the Huguenots extensive rights, La Rochelle had become the stronghold of the French Huguenots, under its own governance. It was the centre of Huguenot seapower, and the strongest centre of resistance against the central government, La Rochelle was, at this time, the second or third largest city in France, with over 30,000 inhabitants. The assassination of Henry IV in 1610, and the advent of Louis XIII under the regency of Marie de Medici, marked a return to pro-Catholic politics and a weakening of the position of the Protestants. The Duke Henri de Rohan and his brother Soubise started to organize Protestant resistance from that time, in 1621, Louis XIII besieged and captured Saint-Jean dAngély, and a Blockade of La Rochelle was attempted in 1621-1622, ending with a stalemate and the Treaty of Montpellier. Again, Rohan and Soubise would take arms in 1625, ending with the capture of the Île de Ré in 1625 by Louis XIII. After these events, Louis XIII wished to subdue the Huguenots, the Anglo-French conflict followed the failure of the Anglo-French alliance of 1624, in which England had tried to find an ally in France against the power of the Habsburgs. In 1626, France under Richelieu actually concluded a peace with Spain. Furthermore, France was building the power of its Navy, leading the English to be convinced that France must be opposed for reasons of state. In June 1626, Walter Montagu was sent to France to contact dissident noblemen, the plan was to send an English fleet to encourage rebellion, triggering a new Huguenot revolt by Duke Henri de Rohan and his brother Soubise. On the first expedition, the English king Charles I sent a fleet of 80 ships, under his favourite George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, to encourage a major rebellion in La Rochelle. The city of La Rochelle initially refused to declare itself an ally of Buckingham, in a state of war against the crown of France, an open alliance would only be declared in September at the time of the first fights between La Rochelle and Royal troops. Although a Protestant stronghold, Île de Ré had not directly joined the rebellion against the king, on Île de Ré, the English under Buckingham tried to take the fortified city of Saint-Martin in the Siege of Saint-Martin-de-Ré, but were repulsed after three months. Small French Royal boats managed to supply St Martin in spite of the English blockade, Buckingham ultimately ran out of money and support, and his army was weakened by diseases. After a last attack on Saint-Martin they were repulsed with heavy casualties, meanwhile, in August 1627 Royal forces started to surround La Rochelle, with an army of 7,000 soldiers,600 horses and 24 cannons, led by Charles of Angoulême. They started to reinforce fortifications at Bongraine, and at the Fort Louis, on September 10, the first cannon shots were fired by La Rochelle against Royal troops at Fort Louis, starting the third Huguenot rebellion. La Rochelle was the greatest stronghold among the Huguenot cities of France, Cardinal Richelieu acted as the commander of the besieging troops

14.
Siege of Privas
–
The Siege of Privas was undertaken by Louis XIII of France from 14 May 1629, and the city of Privas was captured on 28 May 1629. It was one of the last events of the Huguenot rebellions, the Siege of Privas followed the disastrous capitulation of the main Protestant stronghold of La Rochelle. Louis XIII then moved to eliminate the remaining Huguenot resistance in the south of France. With Alès and Anduze, the city of Privas was at the center of a string of Protestant strongholds in the Languedoc, stretching from Nîmes and Uzes in the east, to Castres and Montauban in the west. The city was defended by Alexander du Puy, a leading Protestant from Montbrun-les-Bains in the Dauphiné, Privas was captured on 28 May 1629 after a siege of 15 days, at which Louis XIII was present. 500 to 600 Huguenot men who had barricaded themselves in a fort surrendered, the city was destroyed by looting and burning. Everything possible was done to prevent it being burned, but not a house had escaped the flames, one girl who escaped the massacre was adopted by Richelieu, and was nicknamed La Fortunée de Privas. The Marquis des Portes was killed in the siege, after Privas, Alès soon fell in the Siege of Alès in June 1629. The remaining Huguenot cities rapidly fell too, and finally Montauban surrendered after a siege led by Bassompierre. In 1640, Richelieu commissioned painter Nicolas Prévost to paint the siege, the painting is now located at the Château de Richelieu. French Wars of Religion Huguenot rebellions

15.
Edict of Fontainebleau
–
The Edict of Fontainebleau was an edict issued by Louis XIV of France, also known as the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The Edict of Nantes had granted the Huguenots the right to practice their religion without persecution from the state, though Protestants had lost their independence in places of refuge under Richelieu, they continued to live in comparative security and political contentment. From the outset, religious toleration in France had been a royal, the Edict of Nantes had been issued on 13 April 1598 by Henry IV of France. It had granted the Calvinist Protestants of France substantial rights in the predominantly Catholic state, through the Edict, Henry had aimed to promote civil unity. The Edict treated some Protestants with tolerance and opened a path for secularism and it marked the end of the French Wars of Religion which had afflicted France during the second half of the 16th century. By the Edict of Fontainebleau, Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes and ordered the destruction of Huguenot churches and this policy made official the persecution already enforced since the dragonnades created in 1681 by the king in order to intimidate Huguenots into converting to Catholicism. They sought asylum in England, the United Provinces, Sweden, Switzerland, Brandenburg-Prussia, Denmark, Protestant states of the Holy Roman Empire, the Cape Colony in Africa, and North America. On 17 January 1686, Louis XIV himself claimed that out of a Huguenot population of 800,000 to 900,000, Louis XIVs pious second wife Madame de Maintenon was a strong advocate of Protestant persecution and urged Louis to revoke Henry IVs edict. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes brought France into line with every other European country of the period. The experiment of religious tolerance in Europe was effectively ended for the time being, the Edict of Fontainebleau is compared by many historians with the 1492 Alhambra Decree, ordering the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain, and with Expulsion of the Moriscos during 1609-1614. The three are similar both as outbursts of religious intolerance ending periods of tolerance, and in their social. In practice, the revocation caused France to suffer a kind of brain drain, as it lost a large number of skilled craftsmen. Some rulers, such as Frederick Wilhelm, Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg, in practice, the stringency of policies outlawing Protestants, opposed by the Jansenists, were relaxed during the reign of Louis XV, especially among discreet members of the upper classes. R. Thus, on 7 November 1787, Louis XVI signed the Edict of Versailles, known as the Edict of Tolerance, full religious freedom had to wait two more years, with enactment of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789. However, the 1787 Edict of Tolerance was a step in eliminating religious strife. Moreover, once French Revolutionary armies got to other European countries between 1789 and 1815, they followed a consistent policy of emancipating persecuted or discriminated religious communities, in October 1985, French President Francois Mitterrand issued a public apology to the descendants of Huguenots around the world

Edict of Fontainebleau
–
Plaque commemorating Edict of Nantes

16.
Camisard
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Camisards were Huguenots of the rugged and isolated Cévennes region, and the Vaunage in southern France. They raised an insurrection against the persecutions which followed the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, the Camisards operated throughout the mainly protestant Cévennes region which in the eighteenth century also included the Vaunage and the parts of the Camargue around Aigues Mortes. The revolt by the Camisards broke out in 1702, with the worst of the fighting continuing until 1704, then scattered fighting until 1710, the Edict of Tolerance was not finally signed until 1787. The name camisard in the Occitan language can be attributed to a type of linen smock or shirt known as a camisa that peasants wear in lieu of any sort of uniform, alternatively, it can derive from the Occitan word camus, meaning paths. Camisada, in the sense of attack, is derived from a feature of their tactics. In April 1598, Henry IV had signed the Edict of Nantes, Protestants had been given limited civic rights and the liberty to worship according to their convictions. This fundamental and irrevocable law was maintained by Henrys son, Louis XIII, in October 1685, Henrys grandson, Louis XIV, revoked the Edict of Nantes, issuing his own Edict of Fontainebleau. Louis was determined to impose a religion on France, that of Rome. As early as 1681 he instituted the dragonnades which were enforced by dragoons. They were billeted in the homes of Protestants to help them decide to convert back to the church or alternatively to emigrate. The Cévennes was a centre of resistance, and the policy did not work, the Edict of Fontainebleau removed all rights and protections from the Huguenots. There followed about twenty years of persecutions, reformed worship and private Bible readings were outlawed. The pastors and worshippers were captured and later exiled, sent to the galleys, seventy-five missionary priests under the command of Abbot François Langlade were sent to the Cévennes. Soldiers carrying crosses on their muskets forced the peasants to sign papers to say they were converting, the peasants continued to attend illicit meeting. Huguenots with a trade, fled to neighbouring countries, the King responded by closing the borders. The Protestant peasants of the Vaunage and the Cévennes, led by a number of known as prophets, notably Franćois Vivent and Claude Brousson. Vivent encouraged his followers to arm themselves in case they were set upon by Royalist soldiers, several leading prophets were tortured and executed, Franćois Vivent in 1692 and Claude Brousson in 1698. Many more were exiled, leaving the abandoned congregations to the leadership of less educated and more mystically-oriented preachers, the Catholic church was likened to the Beast of the Apocalypse and the clandestine prophets claimed to have seen it in the prophetic dreams

Camisard
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"Dragoons", missionaries in boots.

17.
Mob violence
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A riot is a form of civil disorder commonly characterized by a group lashing out in a violent public disturbance against authority, property or people. Riots typically involve vandalism and the destruction of property, public or private, the property targeted varies depending on the riot and the inclinations of those involved. Targets can include shops, cars, restaurants, state-owned institutions, Riots often occur in reaction to a perceived grievance or out of dissent. While individuals may attempt to lead or control a riot, riots typically consist of disorganized groups that are frequently chaotic, however, there is a growing body of evidence to suggest that riots are not irrational, herd-like behavior, but actually follow inverted social norms. T. S. Charles Wilson noted, Spasmodic rises in food prices provoked keelmen on the Tyne to riot in 1709, today, some rioters have an improved understanding of the tactics used by police in riot situations. Manuals for successful rioting are available on the internet, with such as encouraging rioters to get the press involved, as there is more safety. Citizens with video cameras may also have an effect on both rioters and police, dealing with riots is often a difficult task for police forces. They may use tear gas or CS gas to control rioters, Riot police may use less-than-lethal methods of control, such as shotguns that fire flexible baton rounds to injure or otherwise incapacitate rioters for easier arrest. A police riot is a term for the disproportionate and unlawful use of force by a group of police against a group of civilians and this term is commonly used to describe a police attack on peaceful civilians, or provoking peaceful civilians into violence. A prison riot is a large-scale, temporary act of concerted defiance or disorder by a group of prisoners against prison administrators, prison officers and it is often done to express a grievance, force change or attempt escape. In a race riot, race or ethnicity is the key factor, the term had entered the English language in the United States by the 1890s. Early use of the referred to riots that were often a mob action by members of a majority racial group against people of other perceived races. In a religious riot, the key factor is religion, the rioting mob targets people and properties of a specific religion, or those believed to belong to that religion. Student riots are riots precipitated by students, often in higher education, student riots in the US and Western Europe in the 1960s and the 1970s were often political in nature. Student riots may occur as a result of oppression of peaceful demonstration or after sporting events. Students may constitute a political force in a given country. Such riots may occur in the context of political or social grievances. Urban riots are closely associated with race riots and police riots, sports riots such as the Nika riots can be sparked by the losing or winning of a specific team

18.
Massacre
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A massacre is a specific incident which involves the killing of people, although not necessarily a crime against humanity. Further origins are dubious, though may be related to Latin macellum provisions store, robert Melsons basic working definition, reads, by massacre we shall mean the intentional killing by political actors of a significant number of relatively defenseless people. The motives for massacre need not be rational in order for the killings to be intentional, Mass killings can be carried out for various reasons, including a response to false rumors. Should be distinguished from criminal or pathological mass killings, as political bodies we of course include the state and its agencies, but also nonstate actors. Equally important is that massacres are not carried out by individuals, the use of superior, even overwhelming force. Levene excludes legal, or even some quasi-legal, mass executions and he also points out that it is. most often. When the act is outside the normal bounds of the society witnessing it. List of events named massacres Disaster Ethnic cleansing Genocide Killing spree Mass murder Pogrom Tragedy Tragedy War crime

Massacre
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The Chios Massacre refers to a famous incident during the Greek War of Independence in 1822.
Massacre
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Twenty-six republicans were assassinated by fascists that belonged to Franco's Nationalists at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, between August and September of 1936. This mass grave is placed at the small town named as Estépar, in Northern Spain. The excavation occurred in July–August of 2014.
Massacre
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The El Mozote massacre, El Salvador 1981

19.
Margaret of Valois
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Margaret of Valois was a French princess of the Valois dynasty who became queen consort of Navarre and later also of France. Charles IX arranged for her to marry a distant cousin, King Henry III of Navarre, and she thus became Queen of Navarre in 1572. In 1589, after all her brothers had died leaving no sons, Margarets husband, the senior-most agnatic heir to France, succeeded to the French throne as Henry IV, the first Bourbon King of France. A queen of two kingdoms, Margaret was subjected to political manipulations, including being held prisoner by her own brother, Henry III of France. However, her life was anything but passive and she was famous for her beauty and sense of style, notorious for a licentious lifestyle, and also proved a competent memoirist. She was indeed one of the most fashionable women of her time, while imprisoned, she took advantage of the time to write her memoirs, which included a succession of stories relating to the disputes of her brothers Charles IX and Henry III with her husband. The memoirs were published posthumously in 1628, Margaret was born Marguerite de Valois on May 14,1553, at the royal Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the seventh child and third daughter of Henry II and Catherine de Medici. Three of her brothers would become kings of France, Francis II, Charles IX and her sister, Elisabeth of Valois, would become the third wife of King Philip II of Spain. In 1565, her mother Catherine met with Philip IIs chief minister Duke of Alba at Bayonne in hopes of arranging a marriage between Margaret and Philips son Don Carlos, however, Alba refused any consideration of a dynastic marriage. Margaret was secretly involved with Henry of Guise, the son of the late Duke of Guise, when Catherine found this out, she had her daughter brought from her bed. Catherine and the king then beat her and sent Henry of Guise from court. The marriage of the 19-year-old Margaret to Henry, who had become King of Navarre upon the death of his mother, Jeanne dAlbret, the groom, a Huguenot, had to remain outside the cathedral during the religious ceremony. It was hoped this union would reunite family ties and create harmony between Catholics and the Protestant Huguenots, traditionally believed to have been instigated by Catherine de Medici, the marriage was an occasion on which many of the most wealthy and prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic Paris. Margaret has been credited with saving the lives of several prominent Protestants, including her husband, during the massacre, by keeping them in her rooms, Henry of Navarre had to feign conversion to Catholicism. After more than three years of confinement at court, Henry escaped Paris in 1576, leaving his wife behind, finally granted permission to return to her husband in Navarre, for the next three and a half years Margaret and her husband lived in Pau. Both openly kept other lovers, and they quarrelled frequently, after an illness in 1582, Queen Margaret returned to the court of her brother, Henry III, in Paris. Her brother was soon scandalized by her reputation and behavior, and forced her to leave the court, after long negotiations, she was allowed to return to her husbands court in Navarre, but she received an icy reception. Determined to overcome her difficulties, Queen Margaret masterminded a coup détat and seized power over Agen and she spent several months of fortifying the city, but the citizens of Agen revolted against her, and Queen Margaret fled to the castle of Carlat

Margaret of Valois
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Detail of painting by Pieter Paul Rubens
Margaret of Valois
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The young Margaret of Valois, by François Clouet, c. 1560
Margaret of Valois
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Henry of Navarre and Marguerite of Valois
Margaret of Valois
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Margaret of Valois age 20, by François Clouet, c. 1573

20.
Gaspard II de Coligny
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Coligny came of a noble family of Burgundy. His family traced their descent from the 11th century, and in the reign of Louis XI, were in the service of the King of France. His father, Gaspard I de Coligny, known as the Marshal of Châtillon, served in the Italian Wars from 1494 to 1516, married in 1514, and was created Marshal of France in 1516. By his wife, Louise de Montmorency, sister of the constable, he had three sons, all of whom played an important part in the first period of the Wars of Religion, Odet, Gaspard. Born at Châtillon-sur-Loing in 1519, Gaspard came to court at the age of 22, in the campaign of 1543 Coligny distinguished himself, and was wounded at the sieges of Montmédy and Bains. In 1544 he served in the Italian campaigns under the Count of Enghien, King Charles VIII, King Louis XII, King Francis I and was knighted on the Field of Ceresole. Returning to France, he took part in different military operations and that year he married Charlotte de Laval. He was made admiral on the death of Claude dAnnebaut, in 1557 he was entrusted with the defence of Saint-Quentin. In the siege he displayed courage, resolution, and strength of character, but the place was taken. On payment of a ransom of 50,000 crowns he recovered his liberty, the Coligny brothers were the most zealous and consistent aristocratic supporters of Protestantism in sixteenth-century France. By this time he had become a Huguenot, through the influence of his brother, the first known letter which John Calvin addressed to him is dated 4 September 1558. Gaspard de Coligny secretly focused on protecting his co-religionists, by attempting to establish colonies abroad in which Huguenots could find a refuge and they were afterwards expelled by the Portuguese, in 1567. Coligny also was the patron for the failed French colony of Fort Caroline in Spanish Florida led by Jean Ribault in 1562. In 1566 and 1570, Francisque and André dAlbaigne submitted to Coligny projects for establishing relations with the Austral lands, although he gave favourable consideration to these initiatives, they came to naught when Coligny was killed in 1572 during the St. Bartholomews Day massacres. Following the death of Henry II he placed himself with Louis, Prince of Condé, at the forefront of the Huguenot party, in 1560, at the Assembly of Notables at Fontainebleau, the hostility between Coligny and François of Guise broke forth violently. When the civil wars began in 1562, Coligny decided to take arms only after long hesitation and he was blamed by the Guise faction for the assassination of Francis, Duke of Guise at Orléans in 1563. In the third war of 1569 the defeat and death of the Prince of Condé at the Battle of Jarnac left Coligny the sole leader of the Protestant armies. Victorious at the Battle of La Roche-lAbeille, but defeated in the Battle of Moncontour on 3 October, he entered into the negotiations for what became the Peace of Saint-Germain

21.
House of Guise
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The House of Guise was a French noble family, partly responsible for the French Wars of Religion. The House of Guise was founded as a branch of the House of Lorraine by Claude of Lorraine, first Duke of Guise. The familys high rank was due not to possession of the Guise dukedom but to their membership in a sovereign dynasty, claudes daughter, Mary of Guise, married King James V of Scotland and was mother of Mary, Queen of Scots. In 1558, the Dauphin Francis married Mary, Queen of Scots, when the young man became king after his fathers death in 1559, the queens uncles, the Duke of Guise and his brother the Cardinal of Lorraine, controlled French politics during his short reign. The House of Guise claimed descent from Charlemagne, and harbored pretensions to the French crown, in the reign of Francis II they attained supreme power, and sought to convert it to true kingship by eradicating the House of Bourbon, the legal successors to the throne of France. The leading Bourbon princes, Antoine, King of Navarre and Louis, to oppose the Bourbons, the Guises made themselves champions of the Catholic faith and allied themselves with Philip II of Spain. Conflict with the Protestant movement prompted the Amboise conspiracy, in which the Huguenots, the Guise family brutally put down the conspiracy. After King Francis death they opposed the more tolerant policy of the Regent, Catherine de Medici, the Duke Francis helped to defeat the Huguenots at the Battle of Dreux, but he was assassinated shortly afterward, in 1563. His son, Henry of Guise, became the third Duke of Guise and he helped plan the infamous St. Bartholomews Day Massacre of the Huguenots and formed the Catholic League. Guise began the war by declaring the unacceptability of Navarre as King of France, immensely ambitious, in 1588 Guise, with Spanish support, instigated a revolt against the king, taking control of the city of Paris and becoming the de facto ruler. Leadership of the Catholic League fell to their brother, Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne, who was commander of the armed forces of the Catholic League. The Catholic League was eventually defeated, but for the sake of the country King Henry IV bought peace with Mayenne, and in January 1596 a treaty was signed that put an end to the League. After this, the House of Guise receded from its prominent position in French politics, and the senior line, the vast estates and title were disputed and diverted by various relatives, although several junior branches of the family perpetuated the male line until 1825. Their principal title, Duke de Guise in 1688 was awarded to a branch of the House of Bourbon, the title, with one exception, was not used by pretenders to throne of France. One of its heads, Prince Jean, Duke of Guise nonetheless took it as his title of pretence to the crown of France. By the end of the 1880s, a series of republican Presidents during the relatively young French Third Republic ended any hope of a monarchy, see Duke of Guise for a list. See Duchess of Guise for a list of their wives, Charles of Guise, Cardinal of Lorraine Charles II of Guise-Lorraine, Duke of Elbeuf Mary of Guise, Queen Consort & Regent of Scots Legitimists Herbermann, Charles, ed

House of Guise
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Contents

22.
Pope Gregory XIII
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Pope Gregory XIII, born Ugo Boncompagni, was Pope of the Catholic Church from 13 May 1572 to his death in 1585. He is best known for commissioning and being the namesake for the Gregorian calendar, during his pontificate, Gregory fostered cultural patronages associated with his papacy. He strengthened many ecclesiastical and diplomatic envoys to Asia, namely the islands of Japan and he was also the first Pope to bestow the Immaculate Conception as Patroness to the Philippine Islands on 9 February 1579 through the Papal Bull Ilius Fulti Præsido. Ugo Boncompagni was born the son of Cristoforo Boncompagni and of his wife Angela Marescalchi in Bologna and he later taught jurisprudence for some years, and his students included notable figures such as Cardinals Alexander Farnese, Reginald Pole and Charles Borromeo. He had a son after an affair with Maddalena Fulchini, Giacomo Boncompagni. At the age of thirty-six he was summoned to Rome by Pope Paul III, under whom he held appointments as first judge of the capital, abbreviator. Pope Paul IV attached him as datarius to the suite of Cardinal Carlo Carafa, Pope Pius IV made him Cardinal-Priest of San Sisto Vecchio and he also served as a legate to Philip II of Spain, being sent by the Pope to investigate the Cardinal of Toledo. It was there that he formed a lasting and close relationship with the Spanish King, upon the death of Pope Pius V, the conclave chose Cardinal Boncompagni, who assumed the name of Gregory XIII in homage to the great reforming Pope, Gregory I, surnamed the Great. It was a very brief conclave, lasting less than 24 hours, many historians have attributed this to the influence and backing of the Spanish King. Gregory XIIIs character seemed to be perfect for the needs of the church at the time, unlike some of his predecessors, he was to lead a faultless personal life, becoming a model for his simplicity of life. Additionally, his brilliance and management abilities meant that he was able to respond and deal with major problems quickly and decisively. Once in the chair of Saint Peter, Gregory XIIIs rather worldly concerns became secondary and he committed himself to putting into practice the recommendations of the Council of Trent. He allowed no exceptions for cardinals to the rule that bishops must take up residence in their sees and he was the patron of a new and greatly improved edition of the Corpus juris canonici. In a time of considerable centralisation of power, Gregory XIII abolished the Cardinals Consistories, replacing them with Colleges and he was renowned for having a fierce independence, some confidants noted that he neither welcomed interventions nor sought advice. The power of the papacy increased under him, whereas the influence, a central part of the strategy of Gregory XIIIs reform was to apply the recommendations of Trent. He was a patron of the recently formed Society of Jesus throughout Europe. The Roman College of the Jesuits grew substantially under his patronage and it is now named the Pontifical Gregorian University. Pope Gregory XIII also founded numerous seminaries for training priests, beginning with the German College at Rome, in 1575 he gave official status to the Congregation of the Oratory, a community of priests without vows, dedicated to prayer and preaching

23.
Parlement
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A parlement was a provincial appellate court in the France of the Ancien Régime, i. e. before the French Revolution. In 1789,13 parlements existed, the most important of which was by far the Parlement of Paris, while the English word parliament derives from this French term, parlements were not legislative bodies. They consisted of a dozen or more judges, or about 1,100 judges nationwide. They were the court of appeal of the judicial system. Laws and edicts issued by the Crown were not official in their respective jurisdictions until the parlements gave their assent by publishing them, the members were aristocrats called nobles of the gown who had bought or inherited their offices, and were independent of the King. From 1770 to 1774 the Lord Chancellor, Maupeou, tried to abolish the Parlement of Paris in order to strengthen the Crown, however, when King Louis XV died in 1774, the parlements were reinstated. The parlements spearheaded the resistance to the absolutism and centralization of the Crown, but they worked primarily for the benefit of their own class. Alfred Cobban argues that the parlements were the obstacles to any reform before the Revolution. In November 1789, early in the French Revolution, all parlements were suspended, the political institutions of the Parlement in Ancien Régime France developed out of the Kings Council, and consequently enjoyed ancient, customary consultative and deliberative prerogatives. In the 13th century, the parlements acquired judicial functions, then the droit de remontrance against the king, the Paris parlements jurisdiction covered the entire kingdom as it was in the 14th century, but did not automatically advance in step with the Crowns ever expanding realm. The Parlement of Paris played a role in stimulating the nobility to resist the expansion of royal power by military force in the Fronde. In the end, the King won out and the nobility was humiliated, in such a case, the parlements powers were suspended for the duration of this royal session. King Louis XIV moved to centralize authority into his own hands, in 1665, he ordained that a Lit de justice could be held without the king having to appear in person. In 1667, he limited the number of remonstrances to only one, in 1671–1673, however, the parlements resisted the taxes occasioned by the Dutch War. In 1673, the king imposed additional restrictions that stripped the parlements of any influence upon new laws by ordaining that remonstrances could only be issued after registration of the edicts. After Louis death in 1715, all the restrictions were discontinued by the regent and these locations were provincial capitals of those provinces with strong historical traditions of independence before they were annexed to France. Nevertheless, the Parlement of Paris had the largest jurisdiction of all the parlements, covering the part of northern and central France. In some regions provincial States-General also continued to meet and legislate with a measure of self-governance, tenure on the court was generally bought from the royal authority, and such positions could be made hereditary by payment of a tax to the King called la Paulette

Parlement
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Façade of the palace of Parlement of Brittany
Parlement
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Kingdom of France

24.
Monarchy
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The actual power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic, to partial and restricted, to completely autocratic. Traditionally and in most cases, the monarchs post is inherited and lasts until death or abdication, occasionally this might create a situation of rival claimants whose legitimacy is subject to effective election. Finally, there have been cases where the term of a reign is either fixed in years or continues until certain goals are achieved. Thus there are widely divergent structures and traditions defining monarchy, Monarchy was the most common form of government until the 19th century, but it is no longer prevalent. Currently,47 sovereign nations in the world have monarchs acting as heads of state,19 of which are Commonwealth realms that recognise Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state. The monarchs of Cambodia, Japan, and Malaysia reign, the word monarch comes from the Greek language word μονάρχης, monárkhēs which referred to a single, at least nominally absolute ruler. In current usage the word usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule. Depending on the held by the monarch, a monarchy may be known as a kingdom, principality, duchy, grand duchy, empire, tsardom, emirate, sultanate, khaganate. The form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric, the Greek term monarchia is classical, used by Herodotus. The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as king, the Chinese, Japanese and Nepalese monarchs continued to be considered living Gods into the modern period. Since antiquity, monarchy has contrasted with forms of democracy, where power is wielded by assemblies of free citizens. In antiquity, monarchies were abolished in favour of such assemblies in Rome, much of 19th century politics was characterised by the division between anti-monarchist Radicalism and monarchist Conservativism. Many countries abolished the monarchy in the 20th century and became republics, advocacy of republics is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism. In the modern era, monarchies are more prevalent in small states than in large ones, most monarchs, both historically and in the modern day, have been born and brought up within a royal family, the centre of the royal household and court. Growing up in a family, future monarchs are often trained for the responsibilities of expected future rule. Different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, and agnatic seniority. While most monarchs have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned in history, rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy, such as that of family dictatorships or political families in many democracies. The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the continuity of leadership

25.
Daniel (biblical figure)
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Daniel is the hero of the Book of Daniel. Six cities claim Daniels Tomb, the most famous being that in Susa, in southern Iran, at a site known as Shush-e Daniyal. The various branches of the Christian church do recognise him as a prophet, and although he is not mentioned in the Quran, Muslim sources describe him as a nabi, Daniels name means God is my judge. In chapter 20, Ezekiel says of the land of Israel that even if these three, Noah, Daniel and Job, were in it, they would deliver but their own lives by their righteousness. In chapter 28, Ezekiel taunts the king of Tyre, asking rhetorically and it is possible that the author of the Book of Daniel chose the name Daniel for his hero because of his reputation. The legendary Daniel, known long ago but still remembered as an exemplary character. Serves as the human hero in the biblical book that now bears his name. Ezra 8,2 mentions a priest named Daniel who went from Babylon to Jerusalem with Ezra, Daniel is a son of David mentioned at 1 Chronicles 3,1. Daniel is also the name of a figure in the Aqhat legend from Ugarit and this legendary Daniel is known for his righteousness and wisdom and a follower of the god El, who made his will known through dreams and visions. It is unlikely that Ezekiel knew the far older Canaanite legend, the four are chosen for their intellect and beauty to be trained in the Babylonian court, and are given new names. Daniel is given the Babylonian name Belteshazzar, while his companions are given the Babylonian names Shadrach, Meshach, Daniel and his friends refuse the food and wine provided by the king of Babylon to avoid becoming defiled. They receive wisdom from God and surpass all the magicians and enchanters of the kingdom, Nebuchadnezzar dreams of a giant statue made of four metals with feet of mingled iron and clay, smashed by a stone from heaven. Only Daniel is able to interpret it, the dream signifies four kingdoms, of which Babylon is the first, the Medes and Persians overthrow Nebuchadnezzar and the new king, Darius the Mede, appoints Daniel to high authority. In the third year of Darius, Daniel has a series of visions, in the second, a ram with two horns is attacked by a goat with one horn, the one horn breaks and is replaced by four. A little horn arises and attacks the people of God and the temple, in the third, Daniel is troubled to read in holy scripture that Jerusalem would be desolate for 70 years. Daniel repents on behalf of the Jews and requests that Jerusalem, an angel refers to a period of 70 sevens of years. The Greek text of Daniel contains three additional tales, two of which feature Daniel, Daniels clever cross-examination unmasks their evil and leads to their deaths. Bel and the Dragon consists of two episodes, in the first Daniel exposes the deceptions of the heathen priests, who have been pretending that their idols eat and drink

26.
Louis of Nassau
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Louis of Nassau was the third son of William, Count of Nassau and Juliana of Stolberg, and the younger brother of Prince William of Orange Nassau. In 1569 William appointed him governor of the principality of Orange, in 1566 he was one of the leaders of the league of lesser nobles who signed the “Compromis des Nobles”. The Compromise was a letter, in the form of a petition. On April 5,1566, with the following of two hundred horsemen, the Compromise was presented to the regent Margaret of Austria, during this audience one of her councilors, count Charles of Berlaymont, tried to calm her nerves with the words “Quoi, Madame. “What Madame, afraid of these beggars. ” and it was from this moment on that the opponents of King Philips policy proudly took the name Beggars as their own. With the coming of Alva, Louis and his brother William withdrew from the Netherlands, from outside they gathered an army and in 1568, with the help of French Huguenots, they were able to invade from three sides. The Army under Louis’s command would eventually be the one to gain a victory. Jean de Villers and his troops were captured two days after they crossed the Meuse, while the Huguenots were attacked and defeated by French royal troops at St. Valery, Jean de Villers eventually betrayed the entire campaign and the sources of the war-treasury to his interrogators. Louis entered Friesland on April 24, to which Alva responded by sending an army under the command of Jean de Ligne, the two armies met at Heiligerlee on May 23, where Louis ambushed the Spanish troops. Louis won the army the Battle of Heiligerlee but his younger brother Adolphus fell in the battle, although William wanted Louis to retreat to Delfzijl, Louis remained in Groningen, where he met the much smaller army led by Alva himself. Louis fell back towards Jemmingen where, on July 21,1568, many drowned trying to cross the river, Louis stripped himself of his heavy armor and was able to swim across to safety. In the end the Dutch rebellion lost 7,000 men at the battle of Jemmingen, after Jemmingen Louis rejoined his brother William and went back to France where they joined up with Huguenot leader Admiral Coligny. He fought in the battles at Jarnac and Moncontour and was able to improve their French connections as governor of the principality of Orange, in 1572 Watergeuzen had captured the city of Brielle and claimed it for William. Soon most cities in Holland and Zeeland were in the hands of the rebels, Louis quickly raised a small force in France, and entered Hainaut on May 23, capturing Mons. Suddenly Alva found himself held between two enemies with his own army rebellious and unpaid, William tried to relieve his brother at Mons but after an attempt on his life from which he barely managed to escape, he was unable to come to Louis’s aid. Alva was now able to bring the surrender of Mons on good terms, diverting Alva’s attention to Mons had made it possible for the North to strengthen itself and although he may have regained Mons he had lost Holland, which was now strong enough to resist. In 1574 funds were running low and the Spanish were closing in on Middelburg, hoping for a diversion in the south, William wrote to Louis asking for help. That spring, Louis, along with his youngest Nassau brother Henry and they hoped to be a decent diversion but found themselves outmaneuvered by the Spanish troops under an experienced leader, Sancho dAvila

27.
Netherlandish
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The Low Countries is the coastal Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta region in Western Europe and consists mainly of the Netherlands and Belgium. Both countries derived their names from it, due to nether meaning low and Belgica being the Latin name for the Low Countries, the Low Countries—and the Netherlands and Belgium—had in their history exceptionally many and widely varying names, resulting in equally varying names in different languages. There is diversity even within languages, the use of one word for the country and this holds for English, where Dutch is the adjective form for the country the Netherlands. Moreover, many languages have the word for both the country of the Netherlands and the region of the Low Countries, e. g. French. The historic Low Countries made up much of Frisia, home to the Frisii, throughout the centuries, the names of these ancestors have been in use as a reference to the Low Countries, in an attempt to define a collective identity. By the eighth century, most of the Franks had exchanged their Germanic Franconian languages for the Latin-derived Romances of Gaul. However, the Franks that stayed in the Low Countries had kept their language, i. e. Old Dutch. At the time the language was spoken, it was known as *þiudisk, now an international exception, it used to have in the Dutch language itself a cognate with the same meaning, i. e. Diets or Duuts. The designation low to refer to the region has also been in use many times, First by the Romans, who called it Germania Inferior. After the Frankish empire was divided several times, most of it became the Duchy of Lower Lorraine in the tenth century, Lower Lorraine disintegrated into a number of duchies, counties and bishoprics. Some of these became so powerful, that their names were used as a pars pro toto for the Low Countries, i. e. Flanders, Holland and to a lesser extent Brabant. English is the language to use the adjective Dutch for the language of the Netherlands. The word is derived from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz, the stem of this word, *þeudō, meant people in Proto-Germanic, and *-iskaz was an adjective-forming suffix, of which -ish is the Modern English form. The word came into Middle English as thede, but was extinct in Early Modern English and it survives as the Icelandic word þjóð for people, nation, the Norwegian word tjod for people, nation, and the word for German in many European languages. It literarily means the language of the people, that is. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the language of writing. In its first recorded sense theodiscus was used within a clearly clerical context, in Great Britain the term Englisc was already common from the Early Middle Ages onwards, with the Angles, Saxons and Jutes being collectively referred to as English as early as 731. In the United States the German autonym Deutsch would sometimes be corrupted to Dutch due to the pronunciation of both words

28.
Hainaut (province)
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Hainaut is a province of Belgium in the Walloon region. Its capital is Mons and the most populous city is Charleroi, also the major urban, economic. The city is also the capital of Hainaut and one of the most important commercial centers in Belgium. Hainaut province is divided into 7 administrative districts, subdivided into a total of 69 municipalities and it has an area of 3,800 square kilometres. The patron saint of the province Hainaut is Saint Waltrude, Official web site of the Hainaut province Official gateway to the Hainaut The Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Hainaut Euro Info Centre Hainaut Walloon Settlers Monument

Hainaut (province)
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Historical map of the County of Hainaut, with in red the current French-Belgian border.
Hainaut (province)
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Flag

29.
Mons
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Mons is a Belgian city and municipality, and the capital of the province of Hainaut. Together with the Czech city of Plzeň, Mons was the European Capital of Culture in 2015, the first signs of activity in the region of Mons are found at Spiennes, where some of the best flint tools in Europe were found dating from the Neolithic period. When Julius Caesar arrived in the region in the 1st century BC, the region was settled by the Nervii, a Belgian tribe. A castrum was built in Roman times, giving the settlement its Latin name Castrilocus, soon after, Saint Waltrude, daughter of one of Clotaire II’s intendants, came to the oratory and was proclaimed a saint upon her death in 688. Like Ath, its neighbour to the north-west, Mons was made a city by Count Baldwin IV of Hainaut in the 12th century. The population grew quickly, trade flourished, and several buildings were erected near the Grand’Place. The 12th century also saw the appearance of the first town halls, the city had 4,700 inhabitants by the end of the 13th century. Mons succeeded Valenciennes as the capital of the county of Hainaut in 1295, in the 1450s, Matheus de Layens took over the construction of the Saint Waltrude church from Jan Spijkens and restored the town hall. In 1515, Charles V took an oath in Mons as Count of Hainaut, after the murder of de Coligny during the St. Bartholomews Day massacre, the Duke of Alba took control of Mons in September 1572 in the name of the Catholic King of Spain. This spelled the ruin of the city and the arrest of many of its inhabitants, from 1580 to 1584, on 8 April 1691, after a nine-month siege, Louis XIV’s army stormed the city, which again suffered heavy casualties. From 1697 to 1701, Mons was alternately French or Austrian, after being under French control from 1701 to 1709, the Dutch army gained the upper hand in the Battle of Malplaquet. In 1715, Mons returned to Austria under the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht, but the French did not give up easily, Louis XV besieged the city again in 1746. After the Battle of Jemappes, the Hainaut area was annexed to France, following the fall of the First French Empire in 1814, King William I of the Netherlands fortified the city heavily. In 1830, however, Belgium gained its independence and the decision was made to dismantle fortified cities such as Mons, Charleroi, the actual removal of fortifications only happened in the 1860s, allowing the creation of large boulevards and other urban projects. The Industrial Revolution and coal mining made Mons a center of heavy industry and it was to become an integral part of the sillon industriel, the industrial backbone of Wallonia. On 17 April 1893, between Mons and Jemappes, seven strikers were killed by the guard at the end of the Belgian general strike of 1893. The proposed law on universal suffrage was approved the day after by the Belgian Parliament and this general strike was one of the first general strikes in an industrial country. On 23–24 August 1914, Mons was the location of the Battle of Mons—the first battle fought by the British Army in World War I

Mons
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Mons Bergen (Dutch)
Mons
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The Sainte Waudru collegiate church and the belfry.
Mons
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The central square and town hall of Mons with the belfry in the background
Mons
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Mons fusillade on 17 April 1893

30.
Principality of Orange
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The Principality of Orange was, from 1163 to 1713, a feudal state in Provence, in the south of modern-day France, on the left bank of the river Rhone north of the city of Avignon. It was constituted in 1163, when Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I elevated the Burgundian County of Orange to a principality within the Empire. Although permanently lost to the Nassaus then, this gave its name to the extant Royal House of the Netherlands. The area of the principality was approximately 12 miles long by 9 miles wide, Roman Arausio covered an area of some 170 acres and was well endowed with civic monuments - as well as the theatre and arch, it had a monumental temple complex and a forum. It was the capital of an area of northern Provence. The town prospered, though it was sacked by the Visigoths in 412 and it became a bishopric in the 4th century, and the hill fort of the Celtic Cavares was renamed for Saint Eutrope, the first bishop of Saintes. In 441 and 529, Orange hosted two synods, the latter was of importance in condemning the Pelagian heresy, the sovereign Carolingian counts of Orange had their origin in the 8th century, and the fief passed into the family of the lords of Baux. The Baux counts of Orange became fully independent with the breakup of the Kingdom of Arles after 1033, in 1163 Orange was raised to a principality, as a fief of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1365, foundation of Orange university by Charles IV when he was in Arles for his coronation as king of Arles, in 1431 the Count of Provence waived taxation duties for Orange’s rulers in exchange for liquid assets to be used for a ransom. The town and principality of Orange was a part of administration, in 1544, William I the Silent, count of Nassau, with large properties in the Netherlands, inherited the title Prince of Orange. William,11 years old at the time, was the cousin of René of Châlon who died without an heir when he was shot at St. Dizier in 1544 during the Franco-Imperial wars, René, it turned out, willed his entire fortune to this very young relative. Among those titles and estates was the Principality of Orange, rené’s mother, Claudia, had held the title prior to it being passed to young William since Philibert de Châlon was her brother. When William inherited the Principality, it was incorporated into the holdings of what became the House of Orange and this pitched it into the Protestant side in the Wars of Religion, during which the town was badly damaged. In 1568 the Eighty Years War began with William as stadtholder leading the bid for independence from Spain, William the Silent was assassinated in Delft in 1584. It was his son, Maurice of Nassau, with the help of Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, after the defeat of Napoleon the United Provinces morphed into the Kingdom of the Netherlands, with the House of Orange-Nassau still the formal head of the government. As an independent enclave within France, Orange became a destination for Protestants. William III of Orange, who ruled England as William III of England, was the last Prince of Orange to rule the principality. The principality was captured by the forces of Louis XIV under François Adhémar de Monteil Comte de Grignan, in 1672 during the Franco-Dutch War, and again in August 1682

Principality of Orange
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People dressed in orange in Amsterdam during Queen's Day in 2007
Principality of Orange
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Orange within papal Comtat Venaissin as of 1547

31.
William the Silent
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He was born in the House of Nassau as Count of Nassau-Dillenburg. He became Prince of Orange in 1544 and is thereby the founder of the branch House of Orange-Nassau, a wealthy nobleman, William originally served the Habsburgs as a member of the court of Margaret of Parma, governor of the Spanish Netherlands. The most influential and politically capable of the rebels, he led the Dutch to several successes in the fight against the Spanish, declared an outlaw by the Spanish king in 1580, he was assassinated by Balthasar Gérard in Delft in 1584. William was born on 24 April 1533 at Dillenburg castle then in the County of Nassau-Dillenburg and he was the eldest son of William, Count of Nassau by his second wife Juliana of Stolberg-Werningerode. Williams father had one surviving daughter by his previous marriage, and his parents had twelve children together, of whom William was the eldest, he had four younger brothers and seven younger sisters. The family was devout and William was raised a Lutheran. In 1544, Williams agnatic first cousin, René of Châlon, Prince of Orange, in his testament, René of Chalon named William the heir to all his estates and titles, including that of Prince of Orange, on the condition that he receive a Roman Catholic education. Williams father acquiesced to this condition on behalf of his 11-year-old son, besides the principality of Orange and significant lands in Germany, William also inherited vast estates in the Low Countries from his cousin. Because of his age, Emperor Charles V, who was the overlord of most of these estates. In Brussels, he was taught foreign languages and received a military and diplomatic education under the direction of Champagney, on 6 July 1551, William married Anna van Egmond en Buren, daughter and heiress of Maximiliaan van Egmond, an important Dutch nobleman. Annas father had died in 1548, and therefore William became Lord of Egmond, the marriage was a happy one and produced three children, one of whom died in infancy. Anna died on 24 March 1558, leaving William much grieved, being a ward of Charles V and having received his education under the tutelage of the Emperors sister, William came under the particular attention of the imperial family, and became a favorite. He was appointed captain in the cavalry in 1551 and received rapid promotion thereafter and this was in 1555, when Charles V sent him to Bayonne with an army to take the city in a siege from the French. William was also made a member of the Raad van State, in 1559, Phillip appointed William stadtholder of the provinces of Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht, thereby greatly increasing his political power. A stadtholdership over Franche-Comté followed in 1561, William was also dissatisfied with the increasing persecution of Protestants in the Netherlands. Brought up as a Lutheran and later a Catholic, William was very religious but was still a proponent of freedom of religion for all people, lastly, the opposition wished to see an end to the presence of Spanish troops. On 25 August 1561, William of Orange married for the second time, in early 1565, a large group of lesser noblemen, including Williams younger brother Louis, formed the Confederacy of Noblemen. On 5 April, they offered a petition to Margaret of Parma, from August to October 1566, a wave of iconoclasm spread through the Low Countries

William the Silent
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William of Orange, Adriaen Thomasz Key, c. 1570–84
William the Silent
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Castle and city of Dillenburg in the duchy Nassau, the birthplace of William the Silent
William the Silent
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William the Silent in 1555
William the Silent
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Anna of Egmond in c. 1550

32.
Popular print
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They were some of the earliest examples of mass media. After about 1800, the types and quantity of images greatly increased, in the 15th century, the great majority of these images were religious, if playing cards are excluded. They were sold at churches, fairs and places of pilgrimage, most were coloured, usually crudely, by hand or later by stencil. One political cartoon relating to events in 1468-70 has survived in different versions. Old master print is a term that at this period includes popular prints, engravings were always much more expensive to create, as they needed greater skill to create the plate, which would last for far fewer impressions than a woodcut. They did not come into the popular prints category until the 19th century, broadsheets, also known as broadsides, were a common format. They were usually single sheets of paper of various sizes, typically sold by street-vendors, another format was the chapbook, usually a single sheet cut or folded to make a small pamphlet or book. In Spain there were pliegos, in Portugal the papel volante and these covered a great variety of material, including pictures, popular history, political comment or satire, news, almanacs, poems and songs. They could be very influential politically, and were subsidized by political factions for propaganda purposes. See Broadside for their musical use, the Reformation hugely increased the market for satirical and polemical prints in all counties affected. Despite being often issued in numbers, their survival rate was extremely low. This has been demonstrated by analysis of the records of the London Stationers Company from 1550 onwards and they were very commonly pasted to the walls of rooms. Paper was still sufficiently expensive that all available spare pieces tended to be used in the toilet, one of the biggest surviving collections with 439 prints is Wickiana at the Zentralbibliothek Zürich. Newspapers began in the early 17th century, as an upmarket, the first in English came in 1620. During this century books also became much cheaper, and began to some types of popular print. Lubok prints in Russia were another local variant, old master prints, which covers artistic prints. Printmaking for all the printmaking techniques, national Gallery of Art Mayor, A. Hyatt. Prints & people, a history of printed pictures

Popular print
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"The Mice are burying the Cat", a 1760s Russian lubok hand-coloured woodcut. It probably originally dates from the reign of Peter the Great, but this impression probably dates from c. 1766. Possibly a satire on Peter's reforms, or just a representation of carnivalesque inversion, "turning the world upside down".
Popular print
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The Seven Ages of Man, German, 1482, British Museum
Popular print
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Der Große Komet über Prag, 12. November 1577, Zentralbibliothek Zürich
Popular print
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James Gillray 's The Plumb-pudding in danger (1805), which caricatured Pitt and Napoleon, was voted the most famous of all UK political cartoons. Library of Congress

33.
Francis, Duke of Guise
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Francis de Lorraine II, Prince of Joinville, Duke of Guise, Duke of Aumale, was a French soldier and politician. By religion, he practised Catholicism, at a time when France was being polarized between the Catholics and Huguenots, born at Bar-le-Duc, Guise was the son of Claude, Duke of Guise, and his wife Antoinette de Bourbon. His sister, Mary of Guise, was the wife of James V of Scotland and mother of Mary and his younger brother was Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine. In 1545, he was wounded at the Second Siege of Boulogne. He was struck with a lance through the bars of his helmet, the steel head pierced both cheeks, and 15 cm of the shaft were snapped off by the violence of the blow. In 1548 he was wedded to Anna dEste, daughter of the Duke of Ferrara, Ercole II dEste, and French princess, Renée. In 1551, he was created Grand Chamberlain of France and he led an army into Italy in 1557 to aid Pope Paul IV, but was recalled to France and made Lieutenant-General of France after the defeat of the Constable de Montmorency at the Battle of St. Quentin. The Duke of Guise and his brother, Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine were supreme in the royal council, occasionally he signed public acts in the royal manner, with his baptismal name only. The plot was discovered and violently suppressed, initiating a series of assassinations and counter-assassinations in a toxic atmosphere. In the immediate aftermath Condé was obliged to flee the court, the king, however, died,5 December 1560—a year full of calamity for the Guises both in Scotland and France. Within a few months their influence waxed great and waned, after the accession of Charles IX, the Duke of Guise lived in retirement on his estates. The regent, Catherine de Medici, was at first inclined to favour the Protestants, M. Sutherland has observed in describing the lead-up to his assassination. About July,1561, Guise wrote to this effect to the Duke of Württemberg, the Colloquy at Poissy between theologians of the two confessions was fruitless, and the conciliation policy of Catherine de Medici was defeated. From 15 to 18 February 1562, Guise visited the Duke of Württemberg at Saverne, and convinced him that if the conference at Poissy had failed, as Guise passed through Wassy-sur-Blaise on his way to Paris, a massacre of Protestants took place. It is not known to what extent he was responsible for this and it was not the first plot against his life. Guises unexpected death temporarily interrupted open hostilities, in his testimony, Poltrot implicated Coligny and the Protestant pastor Théodore de Bèze. Guise married Anna dEste, daughter of Ercole II dEste, Duke of Ferrara and they had seven children, Henry I, Duke of Guise, who succeeded him as Duke of Guise

Francis, Duke of Guise
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Francis, Duke of Guise, by François Clouet
Francis, Duke of Guise
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Francis at the Siege of Calais
Francis, Duke of Guise
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François I de Lorraine, Duc de Guise by Marc Duval

34.
Tuileries
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The Tuileries Palace was a royal and imperial palace in Paris which stood on the right bank of the River Seine. It was the usual Parisian residence of most French monarchs, from Henry IV to Napoleon III, built in 1564, it was gradually extended until it closed off the western end of the Louvre courtyard and displayed an immense façade of 266 metres. After the accidental death of Henry II of France in 1559 and she sold the medieval Hôtel des Tournelles, where her husband had died, and began building the palace of Tuileries in 1564, using architect Philibert de lOrme. The name derives from the tile kilns or tuileries which had occupied the site. The palace was formed by a range of long, narrow buildings. During the reign of Henry IV, the building was enlarged to the south, so it joined the long gallery, the Grande Galerie. During the reign of Louis XIV major changes were made to the Tuileries Palace, from 1659 to 1661 it was extended to the north by the addition of the Théâtre des Tuileries. From 1664 to 1666 the architect Louis Le Vau and his assistant François dOrbay made other significant changes, a new grand staircase was installed in the entrance of the north wing of the palace, and lavishly decorated royal apartments were constructed in the south wing. The kings rooms were on the floor, facing toward the Louvre. At the same time, Louis gardener, André Le Nôtre, the Court moved into the Tuileries Palace in November 1667, but left in 1672, and soon thereafter went to the Palace of Versailles. The Tuileries Palace was virtually abandoned and used only as a theatre, the boy-king Louis XV was moved from Versailles to the Tuileries Palace on 1 January 1716, four months after ascending to the throne. He moved back to Versailles on 15 June 1722, three months before his coronation, both moves were made at the behest of the Regent, the duc dOrléans. The king also resided at the Tuileries for short periods during the 1740s, on 6 October 1789, during the French Revolution, Louis XVI and his family were forced to leave Versailles and brought to the Tuileries where they were kept under surveillance. For the next two years the palace remained the residence of the king. The Tuileries covered riding ring, the Salle du Manège, home to the royal equestrian academy, the royal family tried to escape after dark, on 20 June 1791, but were captured at Varennes and brought back to the Tuileries. The Paris National Guard defended the King, but the daughter of King Louis XVI claimed that many of the guard were already in favor of the revolution, in November 1792, the Armoire de fer incident took place at the Tuileries palace. This was the discovery of a place at the royal apartments. The incident created a scandal that served to discredit the King

Tuileries
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The Tuileries Palace and the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel circa 1860. The Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile can be seen in the background.
Tuileries
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The Tuileries Palace in the 1600s
Tuileries
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The old medieval Louvre (background) and the Tuileries (foreground) linked by the Grande Galerie along the River Seine, in 1615
Tuileries
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The Tuileries Palace and the Louvre on the 1739 Turgot map of Paris, during the reign of Louis XV

35.
Paris Parlement
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A parlement was a provincial appellate court in the France of the Ancien Régime, i. e. before the French Revolution. In 1789,13 parlements existed, the most important of which was by far the Parlement of Paris, while the English word parliament derives from this French term, parlements were not legislative bodies. They consisted of a dozen or more judges, or about 1,100 judges nationwide. They were the court of appeal of the judicial system. Laws and edicts issued by the Crown were not official in their respective jurisdictions until the parlements gave their assent by publishing them, the members were aristocrats called nobles of the gown who had bought or inherited their offices, and were independent of the King. From 1770 to 1774 the Lord Chancellor, Maupeou, tried to abolish the Parlement of Paris in order to strengthen the Crown, however, when King Louis XV died in 1774, the parlements were reinstated. The parlements spearheaded the resistance to the absolutism and centralization of the Crown, but they worked primarily for the benefit of their own class. Alfred Cobban argues that the parlements were the obstacles to any reform before the Revolution. In November 1789, early in the French Revolution, all parlements were suspended, the political institutions of the Parlement in Ancien Régime France developed out of the Kings Council, and consequently enjoyed ancient, customary consultative and deliberative prerogatives. In the 13th century, the parlements acquired judicial functions, then the droit de remontrance against the king, the Paris parlements jurisdiction covered the entire kingdom as it was in the 14th century, but did not automatically advance in step with the Crowns ever expanding realm. The Parlement of Paris played a role in stimulating the nobility to resist the expansion of royal power by military force in the Fronde. In the end, the King won out and the nobility was humiliated, in such a case, the parlements powers were suspended for the duration of this royal session. King Louis XIV moved to centralize authority into his own hands, in 1665, he ordained that a Lit de justice could be held without the king having to appear in person. In 1667, he limited the number of remonstrances to only one, in 1671–1673, however, the parlements resisted the taxes occasioned by the Dutch War. In 1673, the king imposed additional restrictions that stripped the parlements of any influence upon new laws by ordaining that remonstrances could only be issued after registration of the edicts. After Louis death in 1715, all the restrictions were discontinued by the regent and these locations were provincial capitals of those provinces with strong historical traditions of independence before they were annexed to France. Nevertheless, the Parlement of Paris had the largest jurisdiction of all the parlements, covering the part of northern and central France. In some regions provincial States-General also continued to meet and legislate with a measure of self-governance, tenure on the court was generally bought from the royal authority, and such positions could be made hereditary by payment of a tax to the King called la Paulette

36.
Toulouse
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Toulouse is the capital city of the southwestern French department of Haute-Garonne, as well as of the Occitanie region. The city lies on the banks of the River Garonne,150 kilometres from the Mediterranean Sea,230 km from the Atlantic Ocean and it is the fourth-largest city in France with 466,297 inhabitants in January 2014. The Toulouse Metro area is, with 1312304 inhabitants as of 2014, Frances 4th metropolitan area after Paris, Lyon and Marseille and ahead of Lille and Bordeaux. Toulouse is the centre of the European aerospace industry, with the headquarters of Airbus, the Galileo positioning system, the SPOT satellite system, the Airbus Group, ATR and the Aerospace Valley. The city also hosts the European headquarters of Intel and CNESs Toulouse Space Centre, thales Alenia Space, and Astrium Satellites, Airbus Groups satellite system subsidiary, also have a significant presence in Toulouse. The University of Toulouse is one of the oldest in Europe and, with more than 103,000 students, is the fourth-largest university campus in France, after the Universities of Paris, Lyon and Lille. The air route between Toulouse Blagnac and Paris Orly is the busiest in Europe, transporting 2.4 million passengers in 2014, according to the rankings of LExpress and Challenges, Toulouse is the most dynamic French city. It is now the capital of the Occitanie region, the largest region in metropolitan France, sernin, the largest remaining Romanesque building in Europe, designated in 1998 because of its significance to the Santiago de Compostela pilgrimage route. Toulouse is in the south of France, north of the department of Haute-Garonne, the city is traversed by the Canal de Brienne, the Canal du Midi and the rivers Garonne, Touch and Hers-Mort. Toulouse has a subtropical climate which can be qualified as submediterranean due to its proximity to the Mediterranean climate zone. The Garonne Valley was a point for trade between the Pyrenees, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic since at least the Iron Age. The historical name of the city, Tolosa, it is of unknown meaning or origin, possibly from Aquitanian, or from Iberian, Tolosa enters the historical period in the 2nd century BC, when it became a Roman military outpost. After the conquest of Gaul, it was developed as a Roman city of Gallia Narbonensis. In the 5th century, Tolosa fell to the Visigothic kingdom and became one of its cities, in the early 6th century even serving as its capital. From this time, Toulouse was the capital of Aquitaine within the Frankish realm, in 721, Duke Odo of Aquitaine defeated an invading Umayyad Muslim army at the Battle of Toulouse. Odos victory was an obstacle to Muslim expansion into Christian Europe. Charles Martel, a later, won the Battle of Tours. The Frankish conquest of Septimania followed in the 750s, and a quasi-independent County of Toulouse emerged within the Carolingian sub-kingdom of Aquitaine by the late 8th century

37.
Bordeaux
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Bordeaux is a port city on the Garonne River in the Gironde department in southwestern France. The municipality of Bordeaux proper has a population of 243,626, together with its suburbs and satellite towns, Bordeaux is the centre of the Bordeaux Métropole. With 749,595 inhabitants and 1,178,335 in the area, it is the fifth largest in France, after Paris, Lyon, Marseille and Lille. It is the capital of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, as well as the prefecture of the Gironde department and its inhabitants are called Bordelais or Bordelaises. The term Bordelais may also refer to the city and its surrounding region, Bordeaux is the worlds major wine industry capital. It is home to the main wine fair, Vinexpo. Bordeaux wine has been produced in the region since the 8th century, the historic part of the city is on the UNESCO World Heritage List as an outstanding urban and architectural ensemble of the 18th century. After Paris, Bordeaux has the highest number of preserved buildings of any city in France. In historical times, around 300 BC it was the settlement of a Celtic tribe, the Bituriges Vivisci, the name Bourde is still the name of a river south of the city. In 107 BC, the Battle of Burdigala was fought by the Romans who were defending the Allobroges, a Gallic tribe allied to Rome, the Romans were defeated and their commander, the consul Lucius Cassius Longinus, was killed in the action. The city fell under Roman rule around 60 BC, its importance lying in the commerce of tin, later it became capital of Roman Aquitaine, flourishing especially during the Severan dynasty. In 276 it was sacked by the Vandals, further ravage was brought by the same Vandals in 409, the Visigoths in 414 and the Franks in 498, beginning a period of obscurity for the city. In the late 6th century, the city re-emerged as the seat of a county and an archdiocese within the Merovingian kingdom of the Franks, the city started to play a regional role as a major urban center on the fringes of the newly founded Frankish Duchy of Vasconia. Around 585, a certain Gallactorius is cited as count of Bordeaux, the city was plundered by the troops of Abd er Rahman in 732 after storming the fortified city and overwhelming the Aquitanian garrison. After Duke Eudess defeat, the Aquitanian duke could still save part of its troops, the following year, the Frankish commander descended again over Aquitaine, but clashed in battle with the Aquitanians and left to take on hostile Burgundian authorities and magnates. In 745, Aquitaine faced yet another expedition by Charles sons Pepin and Carloman against Hunald, Hunald was defeated, and his son Waifer replaced him, who in turn confirmed Bordeaux as the capital city. During the last stage of the war against Aquitaine, it was one of Waifers last important strongholds to fall to King Pepin the Shorts troops. Next to Bordeaux, Charlemagne built the fortress of Fronsac on a hill across the border with the Basques, in 778, Seguin was appointed count of Bordeaux, probably undermining the power of the Duke Lupo, and possibly leading to the Battle of Roncevaux Pass that very year

38.
Lyon
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Lyon or Lyons is a city in east-central France, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, about 470 km from Paris and 320 km from Marseille. Inhabitants of the city are called Lyonnais, Lyon had a population of 506,615 in 2014 and is Frances third-largest city after Paris and Marseille. Lyon is the capital of the Metropolis of Lyon and the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, the metropolitan area of Lyon had a population of 2,237,676 in 2013, the second-largest in France after Paris. The city is known for its cuisine and gastronomy and historical and architectural landmarks and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Lyon was historically an important area for the production and weaving of silk. It played a significant role in the history of cinema, Auguste, the city is also known for its famous light festival, Fête des Lumières, which occurs every 8 December and lasts for four days, earning Lyon the title of Capital of Lights. Economically, Lyon is a centre for banking, as well as for the chemical, pharmaceutical. The city contains a significant software industry with a focus on video games. Lyon hosts the headquarters of Interpol, Euronews, and International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon was ranked 19th globally and second in France for innovation in 2014 and it ranked second in France and 39th globally in Mercers 2015 liveability rankings. These refugees had been expelled from Vienne by the Allobroges and were now encamped at the confluence of the Saône and Rhône rivers, dio Cassius says this task was to keep the two men from joining Mark Antony and bringing their armies into the developing conflict. The Roman foundation was at Fourvière hill and was officially called Colonia Copia Felix Munatia, a name invoking prosperity, the city became increasingly referred to as Lugdunum. The earliest translation of this Gaulish place-name as Desired Mountain is offered by the 9th-century Endlicher Glossary, in contrast, some modern scholars have proposed a Gaulish hill-fort named Lugdunon, after the Celtic god Lugus, and dúnon. It then became the capital of Gaul, partly due to its convenient location at the convergence of two rivers, and quickly became the main city of Gaul. Two emperors were born in city, Claudius, whose speech is preserved in the Lyon Tablet in which he justifies the nomination of Gallic senators. Today, the archbishop of Lyon is still referred to as Primat des Gaules, the Christians in Lyon were martyred for their beliefs under the reigns of various Roman emperors, most notably Marcus Aurelius and Septimus Severus. Local saints from this period include Blandina, Pothinus, and Epipodius, in the second century AD, the great Christian bishop of Lyon was the Easterner, Irenaeus. Burgundian refugees fleeing the destruction of Worms by the Huns in 437 were re-settled by the commander of the west, Aëtius. This became the capital of the new Burgundian kingdom in 461, in 843, by the Treaty of Verdun, Lyon, with the country beyond the Saône, went to Lothair I

Lyon
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Top, the Basilique de Notre-Dame de Fourvière, the Place des Terreaux with the Fontaine Bartholdi and Lyon City Hall at night. Centre, the Parc de la Tête d'Or, the Confluence district and the old city. Bottom, the Pont Lafayette, the Part-Dieu district with the Place Bellecour in the foreground during the Festival of Lights.
Lyon
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Place Carnot, Lyons
Lyon
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The lion has been the symbol of the city for centuries and is represented throughout the city.
Lyon
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Lyon in the 18th century

39.
Angers
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Angers is a city in western France, about 300 km southwest of Paris. It is chef-lieu of the Maine-et-Loire department and was, before the French Revolution, the inhabitants of both the city and the province are called Angevins. The commune of Angers proper, without the area, is the third most populous in northwestern France after Nantes and Rennes. Angers is the capital of Anjou and was for centuries an important stronghold in northwestern France. It is the cradle of the Plantagenet dynasty and was during the reign of René of Anjou one of the centers of Europe. Angers developed at the confluence of three rivers, the Mayenne, the Sarthe, and the Loir, all coming from the north and their confluence, just north of Angers, creates the Maine, a short but wide river that flows into the Loire several kilometers south. The Angers metropolitan area is an economic center in western France, particularly active in the industrial sector, horticulture. Angers proper covers 42.70 square kilometers and has a population of 147,305 inhabitants, the Angers Loire Métropole is made up of 33 communes covering 540 square kilometers with 287,000 inhabitants. Angers enjoys a cultural life, made possible by its universities. The old medieval center is dominated by the massive château of the Plantagenêts, home of the Apocalypse Tapestry. Angers is also both at the edge of the Val de Loire, a World Heritage Site, and the Loire-Anjou-Touraine regional natural park, the city is first mentioned by Ptolemy around AD150 in his Geography. It was then known as Juliomagus, a name by which it appears in the Tabula Peutingeriana. The name is a compound of the Latin name Julius and the Celtic magos, similar town dedications were common in Roman Gaul, and toponyms often kept a Gallic element. When the location needed to be distinguished from other Juliomagi, it was known as Juliomagus Andecavorum, in reference to the principal Gallic tribe in, around AD400, the city came to be referred to as the civitas Andecavorum. This was a change in Gaul, also seen in the names of Paris, Tours. During the Middle Ages, the late Latin name gradually developed into the modern one and it is successively mentioned as Andecava civitas, Andecavis, Andegavis, Angieus and Angeus. The form Angiers appeared during the 12th century and was corrupted to Angers. The Latin Andecavum gave also Anjou its name and this double formation is quite common in France and is also seen in Poitiers & Poitou and Bourges & Berry

Angers
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Top to bottom, left to right: Château d'Angers, Maison d'Adam; vehicle of Anger tramway, Verdun Bridge at night; view of Maine River, Verdun Bridge and downtown area from Angers Castle
Angers
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The Maine, the castle, and the spires of the cathedral
Angers
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The town is called Andegavum Angers on this 1657 engraving
Angers
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The confluence of the Maine and the Loire some 4 miles (6.4 km) south south of Angers

40.
Saumur
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Saumur is a commune in the Maine-et-Loire department in western France. Its skyline has often compared with that of Bratislava, the capital of Slovakia. Early settlement of the region goes back thousands of years. The Dolmen de Bagneux on the south of the town, is 23 meters long and is built from 15 large slabs of the local stone and it is the largest in France. The Château de Saumur was constructed in the 10th century to protect the Loire river crossing from Norman attacks after the settlement of Saumur was sacked in 845. The castle, destroyed in 1067 and inherited by the House of Plantagenet, was rebuilt by Henry II of England in the later 12th century and it changed hands several times between Anjou and France until 1589. Houses in Saumur are constructed almost exclusively of the beautiful, but fragile, the caves dug to excavate the stone have become tunnels and have been used by the local vineyards as locations to store their wines. Amyraldism, or the School of Saumur, is the used to denote a distinctive form of Reformed theology taught by Moses Amyraut at the University of Saumur in the 17th century. Saumur is also the scene for Balzacs novel Eugénie Grandet, written by the French author in 1833, prior to the French Revolution Saumur was the capital of the Sénéchaussée de Saumur, a bailiwick, which existed until 1793. Saumur was then the location of the Battle of Saumur during the Revolt in the Vendée, becoming a state prison under Napoleon Bonaparte. The town was a centre with both the military cavalry school from 1783 and later the Cadre Noir based there. In 1944 it was the target of Tallboy and Azon bombing raids by Allied planes, the first raid, on 8/9 June 1944, was against a railway tunnel near Saumur, seeing the first use of the 12,000 lb Tallboy earthquake bombs. The hastily organized night raid was to stop a planned German Panzer Division, the panzers were expected to use the railway to cross the Loire. No.83 Squadron RAF illuminated the area with flares by four Avro Lancasters,25 Lancasters of No.617 Squadron RAF, the Dambusters then dropped their Tallboys from 18,000 ft with great accuracy. The damaged tunnel was dug out to make a deeper cutting, resulting in the need for a second attack. On 22 June, nine Consolidated B-24 Liberators of the United States Army Air Forces used the new Azon 1,000 lb glide bombs against the Saumur rail bridge and they failed to destroy the bridge. During the morning of 24 June,38 American Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses with conventional bombs attacked the bridge, the town of Saumur was awarded the Croix de Guerre with palm for its resistance and display of French patriotism during the war. Saumur is home to the Cadre Noir, the École Nationale dÉquitation, known for its horse shows, as well as the Armoured Branch and Cavalry Training School

Saumur
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Saumur
Saumur
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The Saumur City Hall

41.
Troyes
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Troyes is a commune and the capital of the department of Aube in north-central France. It is located on the Seine river about 150 km southeast of Paris and this area is known as the Champagne region of Northern France. Many half-timbered houses survive in the old town, Troyes has been in existence since the Roman era, as Augustobona Tricassium, which stood at the hub of numerous highways, primarily the Via Agrippa. It was the civitas of the Tricasses, who had separated by Augustus from the Senones. Of the Gallo-Roman city of the early Empire, some scattered remains have been found, by the Late Empire the settlement was reduced in extent, and referred to as Tricassium or Tricassae, the origin of French Troyes. In the early cathedral on the present site, Louis the Stammerer in 878 received at Troyes the imperial crown from the hands of Pope John VIII, the Abbey of Saint-Loup developed a renowned library and scriptorium. During the Middle Ages, it was an important trading town, the Champagne cloth fairs and the revival of long-distance trade and new extension of coinage and credit were the real engines that drove the medieval economy of Troyes. In 1285, when Philip the Fair united Champagne to the royal domain, the high-water mark of Plantagenet hegemony in France was reversed when the Dauphin, afterwards Charles VII, and Joan of Arc recovered the town of Troyes in 1429. In medieval times Troyes was an important international centre, centring on the Troyes Fair. The name troy weight for gold derives from the standard of measurement evolving here, the great fire of 1524 destroyed much of the medieval city, in spite of the citys numerous canals. Many half-timbered houses survive in the old town Hôtels Particuliers of the old town The Hôtel de Ville and they include, Saint-Pierre-et-Saint-Paul Cathedral Saint-Nizier Church, in Gothic and Renaissance style, with remarkable sculptures. The Gothic Saint-Urbain Basilica, with a covered by polished tiles. Proclaimed basilica in 1964, it was built by Jacques Pantaléon, elected pope in 1261, under the name of Urbain IV, very early Gothic, with east end rebuilt around 1500. Remarkably elaborate stone screen of 1508-17 in Flamboyant Gothic style, sculpted by Jean Gailde. The Saint-Jean Church, with a Renaissance chancel, tabernacle of the altar by Giraudon. On the portal, coat of arms of Charles IX, the Gothic Saint-Nicolas Church, dating to the beginning of the sixteenth century, with a calvary chapel shaped rostrum is reached by a monumental staircase. On the south portal, two sculptures by François Gentil, David and Isaiah, saint-Pantaléon Church, with numerous statuary from the sixteenth century. It includes a spire, from a height of 60 m, its external clock with only one hand

42.
Nantes
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Nantes is a city in western France, located on the Loire River,50 km from the Atlantic coast. The city is the sixth largest in France, with almost 300,000 inhabitants within its limits. Together with Saint-Nazaire, a located on the Loire estuary. Nantes is the seat of the Loire-Atlantique département and of the Pays de la Loire région. Historically and culturally, Nantes belongs to Brittany, a former duchy, the fact that it is not part of the modern administrative Brittany région is subject to debate. Nantes appeared during the Antiquity as a port on the Loire and it became the seat of a bishopric at the end of the Roman era, before being conquered by the Breton people in 851. Nantes was the residence of the dukes of Brittany in the 15th century. The French Revolution was a period of turmoil resulted in an economic decline. Nantes managed to develop a strong industry after 1850, chiefly in ship building, however, deindustrialisation in the second half of the 20th century pushed the city to reorient its economy towards services. In 2012, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Nantes as a Gamma- world city and it is the fourth highest ranking city in France after Paris, Lyon and Marseilles. The Gamma- category gathers other large cities such as Algiers, Orlando, Porto, Turin, Nantes has often been praised for its quality of life and it was awarded the European Green Capital Award in 2013. The settlement is mentioned in Ptolemys Geography as Κονδηούινϰον and Κονδιούινϰον, during the Gallo-Roman period, this name was latinised and adapted as Condevincum, Condevicnum, Condivicnum, Condivincum, etc. Condevincum seems to be related to the Gaulish word condate meaning confluence, at the end of the Roman period, Condevincum became known as Portus Namnetum and civitas Namnetum. This phenomenon can be observed on most of the ancient cities of France throughout the 4th century, for instance, Lutecia became Paris, city of the Parisii, Darioritum became Vannes, city of the Veneti. Portus Namnetum evolved in Nanetiæ and Namnetis in the 5th century, the name of the Namnetes people could either come from the Gaulish root *nant-, from the pre-Celtic root *nanto or from the other tribe name Amnites, which could mean men of the river. The name Nantes is pronounced and the city inhabitants are called Nantais, in Gallo, the romance dialect traditionally spoken in the region around Nantes, the city is called Naunnt or Nantt, according to the various spelling systems. The Gallo pronunciation is the same as the French one, although northern speakers pronounce it with a long, in Breton language, Nantes is known as Naoned or An Naoned. The latter, meaning the Nantes, is common and reflects the fact that articles are more frequent in Breton toponyms than in French ones

43.
Jesuit
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The Society of Jesus Latin, Societas Iesu, S. J. SJ or SI) is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in Spain. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents, Jesuits work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice, Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ, ignatiuss plan of the orders organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the Formula of the Institute. Ignatius was a nobleman who had a background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world. The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, the Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The Society of Jesus on October 3,2016 announced that Superior General Adolfo Nicolás resignation was officially accepted, on October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Father Arturo Sosa as its thirty-first Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome, the historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit Pope, the Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church. As of 1 January 2015, Jesuits numbered 16,740,11,986 clerics regular,2,733 scholastics,1,268 brothers and 753 novices. In 2012, Mark Raper S. J. wrote, Our numbers have been in decline for the last 40 years—from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North America and consistent decline in Latin America have not been offset by the significant increase in South Asia, the Society is divided into 83 Provinces with six Independent Regions and ten Dependent Regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and their average age was 57.3 years,63.4 years for priests,29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa, the Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines. In the United States it maintains 28 colleges and universities and 58 high schools and he ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order, the meeting is now commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre

44.
Philip Benedict
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Philip Benedict is an American historian of the Protestant Reformation in Europe, currently holding the title of Professor Emeritus at the University of Geneva’s Institute for Reformation History. Benedict was born in Washington, D. C. on 20 August 1949 to the astrophysicist William S. Benedict and the medical doctor and print collector Ruth B. He has stated that he is agnostic and that his parents raised him in a secular Jewish household, Benedict graduated from Woodrow Wilson High School in Washington DC in 1966. Benedict received his B. A. from Cornell University in 1970 and he completed his M. A. in 1972 and his Ph. D. in 1975 at Princeton University, under the direction of Theodore K. Rabb and Lawrence Stone. While conducting his research in France, Benedict also followed the seminar of Denis Richet at what was then the VIe Section of the École Pratique des Hautes Études. Benedict became a Professor Emeritus at the University of Geneva in 2015 and he held the title of professeur ordinaire at the University of Genevas Institute for Reformation History for nine years prior to his retirement. Benedict served as the Director of the Institute from 2006-2009, Benedict taught at Brown University for 26 years, where he was the Willard Prescott and Annie McClelland Smith Professor of Religious Studies. Benedict has published five monographs, one collection of documents, edited thirty-five edited volumes, and contributed chapters to five edited volumes, nineteen peer-reviewed articles in journals. He has published book reviews in Le Monde, The American Historical Review, Journal of Modern History, The Sixteenth Century Journal, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Annales, E. S. C. Several late medieval and early historians have credited him with supervising their dissertations, including Michael Breen, Larissa Taylor. Rouen During the Wars of Religion, the Huguenot Population of France, 1600-1685, The Demographic Fate and Customs of a Religious Minority. The faith and fortunes of Frances Huguenots, 1600-85, christs Churches Purely Reformed, A Social History of Calvinism. Graphic History, The Wars, Massacres and Troubles of Tortorel, revised and abridged French translation, —. Le regard saisit lhistoire, Les Guerres, Massacres et Troubles de Tortorel et Perrissin, cities and Social Change in Early Modern France. With Marnef, G. van Nierop, H. Venard, M. Reformation, revolt and civil war in France, amsterdam, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Early Modern Europe, From Crisis to Stability, with Menchi, Silvana Seidel, Tallon, Alain. La réforme en France et en Italie, contacts, comparaisons et contrastes, lorganisation et laction des églises réformées de France. Webers Protestant Ethic, Origins, Evidence, Contexts, un roi, une loi, deux fois, parameters for the history of Catholic-Reformed co-existence in France, 1555–1685

Philip Benedict
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Philip Benedict

45.
Claude Goudimel
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Claude Goudimel was a French composer, music editor and publisher, and music theorist of the Renaissance. Claude Goudimel was born in Besançon, few details of his life are known until he is documented in Paris in 1549, where he was studying at the University of Paris, in that year he also published a book of chansons. In the early 1550s he worked with printer Nicolas Du Chemin, first he settled in his native town of Besançon, and later moved to Lyon. He was murdered in Lyon sometime between 28 and 31 August 1572, during the St. Bartholomews Day Massacre, along much of the Huguenot population of the city. Goudimel is most famous for his settings of the psalms of the Genevan Psalter. In one of his four editions he puts - unlike other settings at the time - the melody in the topmost voice. In addition he composed masses, motets, and a body of secular chansons. Goudimel’s style tends to be homophonic, with a use of syncopated rhythm and melisma and staggered voice entries to bring out inner parts. His Psalm settings, however, are more polyphonic, characteristic of the contrapuntal style exemplified by the chansons of Jacques Arcadelt. The widespread claim that he taught Palestrina is now regarded as untenable, gustave Reese, Music in the Renaissance. ISBN 0-393-09530-4 The Concise Edition of Bakers Biographical Dictionary of Musicians, 8th ed

Claude Goudimel
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Claude Goudimel

46.
Gregory XIII
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Pope Gregory XIII, born Ugo Boncompagni, was Pope of the Catholic Church from 13 May 1572 to his death in 1585. He is best known for commissioning and being the namesake for the Gregorian calendar, during his pontificate, Gregory fostered cultural patronages associated with his papacy. He strengthened many ecclesiastical and diplomatic envoys to Asia, namely the islands of Japan and he was also the first Pope to bestow the Immaculate Conception as Patroness to the Philippine Islands on 9 February 1579 through the Papal Bull Ilius Fulti Præsido. Ugo Boncompagni was born the son of Cristoforo Boncompagni and of his wife Angela Marescalchi in Bologna and he later taught jurisprudence for some years, and his students included notable figures such as Cardinals Alexander Farnese, Reginald Pole and Charles Borromeo. He had a son after an affair with Maddalena Fulchini, Giacomo Boncompagni. At the age of thirty-six he was summoned to Rome by Pope Paul III, under whom he held appointments as first judge of the capital, abbreviator. Pope Paul IV attached him as datarius to the suite of Cardinal Carlo Carafa, Pope Pius IV made him Cardinal-Priest of San Sisto Vecchio and he also served as a legate to Philip II of Spain, being sent by the Pope to investigate the Cardinal of Toledo. It was there that he formed a lasting and close relationship with the Spanish King, upon the death of Pope Pius V, the conclave chose Cardinal Boncompagni, who assumed the name of Gregory XIII in homage to the great reforming Pope, Gregory I, surnamed the Great. It was a very brief conclave, lasting less than 24 hours, many historians have attributed this to the influence and backing of the Spanish King. Gregory XIIIs character seemed to be perfect for the needs of the church at the time, unlike some of his predecessors, he was to lead a faultless personal life, becoming a model for his simplicity of life. Additionally, his brilliance and management abilities meant that he was able to respond and deal with major problems quickly and decisively. Once in the chair of Saint Peter, Gregory XIIIs rather worldly concerns became secondary and he committed himself to putting into practice the recommendations of the Council of Trent. He allowed no exceptions for cardinals to the rule that bishops must take up residence in their sees and he was the patron of a new and greatly improved edition of the Corpus juris canonici. In a time of considerable centralisation of power, Gregory XIII abolished the Cardinals Consistories, replacing them with Colleges and he was renowned for having a fierce independence, some confidants noted that he neither welcomed interventions nor sought advice. The power of the papacy increased under him, whereas the influence, a central part of the strategy of Gregory XIIIs reform was to apply the recommendations of Trent. He was a patron of the recently formed Society of Jesus throughout Europe. The Roman College of the Jesuits grew substantially under his patronage and it is now named the Pontifical Gregorian University. Pope Gregory XIII also founded numerous seminaries for training priests, beginning with the German College at Rome, in 1575 he gave official status to the Congregation of the Oratory, a community of priests without vows, dedicated to prayer and preaching

47.
Golden Rose
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The Golden Rose is a gold ornament, which popes of the Catholic Church have traditionally blessed annually. It is occasionally conferred as a token of reverence or affection, recipients have included churches and sanctuaries, royalty, military figures, and governments. The beautiful Golden Rose symbolizes the Risen Christ of glorious majesty, many popes, on the occasion of conferring the Rose, have in sermons and letters explained its mystical significance. The blossom Prior to the pontificate of Sixtus IV the Golden Rose consisted of a simple and single blossom made of pure gold and slightly tinted with red. Pope Sixtus IV substituted in place of the single rose a thorny branch with leaves and many roses, in the center of the principal rose was a tiny cup with a perforated cover, into which the pope poured musk and balsam to bless the rose. The whole ornament was of pure gold and this Sixtine design was maintained but varied as to decoration, size, weight and value. Afterwards, especially when a vase and large pedestal became part of the ornament, the rose sent to Wilhelmina Amalia of Brunswick, wife of Joseph I, afterwards emperor, by Innocent XI, weighed twenty pounds and was almost eighteen inches high. It was in form, with three twisting branches that came together after many windings at the top of the stem, supporting a large rose. Vase and pedestal The vase and the pedestal supporting it have varied as to material, weight, in the beginning they were made of gold, but afterward of silver heavily gilt with gold. The pedestal can be triangular, quadrangular, or octangular. In addition to the inscription, the coat of arms of the pope who had the ornament made. The value of the rose varies according to the munificence of the pontiffs or the circumstances of the times. Baldassari says that the rose conferred about the year 1650 cost about 500 écus, the two roses sent by Pope Alexander VII were valued at about 800 and 1200 écus respectively. Pope Clement IX sent the Queen of France one costing about 1600 écus, the workmanship on this rose was exceedingly fine, for which the artificer received the equivalent of 300 écus. Innocent XI caused seven and one-half pounds of gold to be formed into a rose, Rock adds that in the 19th century not a few of the roses cost 2000 écus and more. The exact date of the institution of the rose is unknown, the custom, started when the popes moved to Avignon, of conferring the rose upon the most deserving prince at the papal court, continued after the papacy moved back to Rome. The prince would receive the rose from the pope in a solemn ceremony, from the beginning of the seventeenth century, the rose was sent only to queens, princesses and eminent noblemen. Emperors, kings and princes were given a sword and hat as a more suitable gift

48.
Te Deum
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The Te Deum is an early Christian hymn of praise. The title is taken from its opening Latin words, Te Deum laudamus, rendered as Thee, O God and it is sung either after Mass or the Divine Office or as a separate religious ceremony. The hymn also remains in use in the Anglican Communion and some Lutheran Churches in similar settings, a plenary indulgence is granted, under the usual conditions, to those who recite it in public on New Years Eve. Authorship is traditionally ascribed to Saints Ambrose and Augustine, on the occasion of the baptism by the former in AD387. It has also ascribed to Saint Hilary, but The Historical Companion to Hymns Ancient and Modern says it is now accredited to Nicetas. The petitions at the end of the hymn are a selection of verses from the book of Psalms, the hymn follows the outline of the Apostles Creed, mixing a poetic vision of the heavenly liturgy with its declaration of faith. The hymn then returns to its formula, naming Christ and recalling his birth, suffering and death. The hymn was chanted jubilantly by the people of Orléans after the successful Siege of Orléans, during the Hundred Years War, when St. Joan of Arc and the French army entered the town. The text has been set to music by composers, with settings by Haydn, Mozart, Berlioz, Verdi, Bruckner, Furtwängler, Dvořák, Britten, Kodály. Jean-Baptiste Lully wrote a setting of Te Deum for the court of Louis XIV of France, earlier it had been used as the theme music for Bud Greenspans documentary series, The Olympiad. Sir William Waltons Coronation Te Deum was written for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953, puccinis opera Tosca features a dramatic performance of the initial part of the Te Deum at the end of Act I. A version by Father Michael Keating is popular in some Charismatic circles, mark Hayes wrote a setting of the text in 2005, with Latin phrases interpolated amid primarily English lyrics. In 1978, British hymnodist Christopher Idle wrote God We Praise You, British composer John Rutter has composed two settings of this hymn, one entitled Te Deum and the other Winchester Te Deum. Igor Stravinsky set the first 12 lines of the text as part of The Flood in 1962, antony Pitts was commissioned by the London Festival of Contemporary Church Music to write a setting for the 2011 10th Anniversary Festival. The 18th-century German hymn Großer Gott, wir loben dich is a translation of the Te Deum. In the Book of Common Prayer, verse is written in half-lines, at which reading pauses, texts on Wikisource, Te Deum Te Deum Catholic Encyclopedia entry Piers Maxim Te Deum in Service, Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris on YouTube

49.
Christendom
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The term cristendom existed in Old English, but it had the sense now taken by Christianity. The current sense of the word of lands where Christianity is the dominant religion emerges in Late Middle English, English Christianity equalling German Christentum, French christianisme. The reason is the fragmentation of Western Christianity at that time both in theological and in political respect. Christendom as a term is thus meaningful in the context of the Middle Ages, and arguably during the European wars of religion. The Christian world is known collectively as the Corpus Christianum. The Christian polity, embodying a less secular meaning, can be compatible with the idea of both a religious and a body, Corpus Christianum. The Corpus Christianum can be seen as a Christian equivalent of the Muslim Ummah, the word Christendom is also used with its other meaning to frame-true Christianity. In its most broad term, it refers to the worlds Christian majority countries, unlike the Muslim world, which has a geo-political and cultural definition that provides a primary identifier for a large swath of the world, Christendom is more complex. For example, the Americas and Europe are considered part of Christendom and it is also less geographically cohesive than the Muslim world, which stretches almost continuously from North Africa to South Asia. There is a common and nonliteral sense of the word that is much like the terms Western world, when Thomas F. Connolly said, There isnt enough power in all Christendom to make that airplane what we want. In the beginning of Christendom, early Christianity was a spread in the Greek/Roman world and beyond as a 1st-century Jewish sect. The post-apostolic period concerns the time roughly after the death of the apostles when bishops emerged as overseers of urban Christian populations, the earliest recorded use of the terms Christianity and Catholic, dates to this period, the 2nd century, attributed to Ignatius of Antioch c. Early Christendom would close at the end of persecution of Christians after the ascension of Constantine the Great and the Edict of Milan in AD313. Christendom has referred to the medieval and renaissance notion of the Christian world as a sociopolitical polity, in this period, members of the Christian clergy wield political authority. This model of relations was accepted by various Church leaders. The Church gradually became an institution of the Empire. Emperor Theodosius I made Nicene Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire with the Edict of Thessalonica of 380, the Byzantine Empire was the last bastion of Christendom. Christendom would take a turn with the rise of the Franks, on Christmas Day 800 AD, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne resulting in the creation of another Christian king beside the Christian emperor in the Byzantine state

50.
Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor
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Maximilian II, a member of the Austrian House of Habsburg, was Holy Roman Emperor from 1564 until his death. He was crowned King of Bohemia in Prague on 14 May 1562, on 8 September 1563 he was crowned King of Hungary and Croatia in the Hungarian capital Pressburg. On 25 July 1564 he succeeded his father Ferdinand I as ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, maximilians rule was shaped by the confessionalization process after the 1555 Peace of Augsburg. Though a Habsburg and a Catholic, he approached the Lutheran Imperial estates with a view to overcome the denominational schism and he also was faced with the ongoing Ottoman–Habsburg wars and rising conflicts with his Habsburg Spain cousins. According to Fichtner, he failed to achieve his three major aims, rationalizing the government structure, unifying Christianity, and evicting the Turks from Hungary and he was named after his great-grandfather, Emperor Maximilian I. At the time of his birth, his father Ferdinand succeeded his brother-in-law King Louis II in the Kingdom of Bohemia, having spent his childhood years at his fatherss court in Innsbruck, Tyrol, he was educated principally in Italy. Among his teachers were humanist scholars like Kaspar Ursinus Velius and Georg Tannstetter, Maximilian also came in contact with the Lutheran teaching and early on corresponded with the Protestant prince Augustus of Saxony, suspiciously eyed by his Habsburg relatives. From the age of 17, he gained experience of warfare during the Italian War campaign of his uncle Charles V against King Francis I of France in 1544. On 13 September 1548 Emperor Charles V married Maximilian to Charless daughter Mary of Spain in the Castile residence of Valladolid, by the marriage his uncle intended to strengthen the ties with the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs, but also to consolidate his nephews Catholic faith. Maximilian temporarily acted as the representative in Spain, however not as stadtholder of the Habsburg Netherlands as he had hoped for. He returned to Germany in December 1550 in order to part in the discussion over the Imperial succession. However, Charles brother Ferdinand, who had already designated as the next occupant of the imperial throne. Maximilian sought the support of the German princes such as Duke Albert V of Bavaria and even contacted Protestant leaders like Maurice of Saxony and Duke Christoph of Württemberg. At length a compromise was reached, Philip was to succeed Ferdinand, the relationship between the two cousins was uneasy. While his cousin was reserved and shy, Maximilian was outgoing and his adherence to humanism and religious tolerance put him at odds with Philip who was more committed to the defence of the Catholic faith. Also, he was considered a promising commander, while Philip disliked war, nonetheless, the two remained committed to the unity of their dynasty. In Vienna, he had his Hofburg residence extended with the Renaissance Stallburg wing, the site of the later Spanish Riding School, the court held close ties to the University of Vienna and employed scholars like the botanist Carolus Clusius and the diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq. Maximilians library curated by Hugo Blotius later became the nucleus of the Austrian National Library and he implemented the Roman School of composition with his court orchestra, however, his plans to win Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina as Kapellmeister foundered on financial reasons

51.
Elizabeth I of England
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Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed two and a half years after Elizabeths birth. Annes marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate, edwards will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Marys reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels, in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers, led by William Cecil, one of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England and it was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir to continue the Tudor line. She never did, despite numerous courtships, as she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity. A cult grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, in government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. One of her mottoes was video et taceo, in religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the powers of France and Spain. She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, by the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain. Englands defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth with one of the greatest military victories in English history, Elizabeths reign is known as the Elizabethan era. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Such was the case with Elizabeths rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, after the short reigns of Elizabeths half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity. Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace and was named after both her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard and she was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henrys second wife, Anne Boleyn, at birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the throne of England. She was baptised on 10 September, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, the Marquess of Exeter, the Duchess of Norfolk, Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536, four months after Catherine of Aragons death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession, eleven days after Anne Boleyns execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after the birth of their son, Prince Edward, in 1537

Elizabeth I of England
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The "Darnley Portrait" of Elizabeth I (c. 1575)
Elizabeth I of England
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The Lady Elizabeth in about 1546, by an unknown artist
Elizabeth I of England
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The Miroir or Glasse of the Synneful Soul, a translation from the French, by Elizabeth, presented to Catherine Parr in 1544. The embroidered binding with the monogram KP for "Katherine Parr" is believed to have been worked by Elizabeth.
Elizabeth I of England
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Mary I, by Anthonis Mor, 1554

52.
Sir Francis Walsingham
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Sir Francis Walsingham was principal secretary to Queen Elizabeth I of England from 20 December 1573 until his death and is popularly remembered as her spymaster. Born to a family of gentry, Walsingham attended Cambridge University. Walsingham rose from obscurity to become one of the small coterie who directed the Elizabethan state, overseeing foreign, domestic. He served as English ambassador to France in the early 1570s, as principal secretary, he supported exploration, colonization, the use of Englands maritime strength and the plantation of Ireland. He worked to bring Scotland and England together, overall, his foreign policy demonstrated a new understanding of the role of England as a maritime, Protestant power in an increasingly global economy. Francis Walsingham was born in or about 1532, probably at Foots Cray, near Chislehurst and his parents were William and Joyce Walsingham. After Williams death, Joyce married the courtier Sir John Carey in 1538, careys brother William was the husband of Mary Boleyn, Anne Boleyns elder sister. Of Francis Walsinghams five sisters, Mary married Sir Walter Mildmay, who was Chancellor of the Exchequer for over 20 years, and Elizabeth married the parliamentarian Peter Wentworth. Francis Walsingham matriculated at Kings College, Cambridge, in 1548 with many other Protestants, from 1550 or 1551, he travelled in continental Europe, returning to England by 1552 to enrol at Grays Inn, one of the qualifying bodies for English lawyers. Upon the death in 1553 of Henry VIIIs successor, Edward VI, many wealthy Protestants, such as John Foxe and John Cheke, fled England, and Walsingham was among them. He continued his studies in law at the universities of Basel and Padua, Mary I died in 1558 and was succeeded by her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth I. At the subsequent election in 1563, he was returned for both Lyme Regis, Dorset, another constituency under Bedfords influence, and Banbury, Oxfordshire and he chose to sit for Lyme Regis. In January 1562 he married Anne, daughter of Sir George Barne, Lord Mayor of London in 1552–3, Anne died two years later leaving her son Christopher Carleill in Walsinghams care. In 1566, Walsingham married Ursula St. Barbe, widow of Sir Richard Worsley, the following year, she bore him a daughter, Frances. Walsinghams other two stepsons, Ursulas sons John and George, were killed in an accident at Appuldurcombe in 1567. By 1569, Walsingham was working with William Cecil to counteract plots against Elizabeth and he was instrumental in the collapse of the Ridolfi plot, which hoped to replace Elizabeth with the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots. In 1570, the Queen chose Walsingham to support the Huguenots in their negotiations with Charles IX of France, later that year, he succeeded Sir Henry Norris as English ambassador in Paris. One of his duties was to continue negotiations for a marriage between Elizabeth and Charles IXs younger brother Henry, Duke of Anjou, the marriage plan was eventually dropped on the grounds of Henrys Catholicism

53.
Ivan the Terrible
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Ivan IV Vasilyevich, commonly known as Ivan the Terrible or Ivan the Fearsome, was the Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547, then Tsar of All the Russias until his death in 1584. The last title was used by all his successors, during his reign, Russia conquered the Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan and Sibir, becoming a multiethnic and multicontinental state spanning approximately 4,050,000 km2. Ivan exercised autocratic control over Russias hereditary nobility and developed a bureaucracy to administer his new territories and he transformed Russia from a medieval state into an empire, though at immense cost to its people, and its broader, long-term economy. In one such outburst, he killed his son and heir Ivan Ivanovich and this left his younger son, the pious but politically ineffectual Feodor Ivanovich, to inherit the throne. Ivan was a diplomat, a patron of arts and trade. He was popular among Russias commoners, except possibly the people of Novgorod and surrounding areas, the English word terrible is usually used to translate the Russian word grozny in Ivans nickname, but this is a somewhat archaic translation. The Russian word grozny reflects the older English usage of terrible as in inspiring fear or terror, dangerous, powerful and it does not convey the more modern connotations of English terrible, such as defective or evil. Vladimir Dal defines grozny specifically in archaic usage and as an epithet for tsars, courageous, magnificent, magisterial and keeping enemies in fear, other translations have also been suggested by modern scholars. Ivan was the first son of Vasili III and his wife, Elena Glinskaya. When Ivan was three years old, his father died from an abscess and inflammation on his leg that developed into blood poisoning, Ivan was proclaimed the Grand Prince of Moscow at the request of his father. His mother Elena Glinskaya initially acted as regent, but she died of what many believe to be assassination by poison, the regency then alternated between several feuding boyar families fighting for control. According to his own letters, Ivan, along with his younger brother Yuri, on 16 January 1547, at age sixteen, Ivan was crowned with Monomakhs Cap at the Cathedral of the Dormition. He was the first to be crowned as Tsar of All the Russias, prior to that, rulers of Muscovy were crowned as Grand Princes, although Ivan III the Great, his grandfather, styled himself tsar in his correspondence. Two weeks after his coronation, Ivan married his first wife Anastasia Romanovna, a member of the Romanov family, who became the first Russian tsaritsa. By being crowned Tsar, Ivan was sending a message to the world and to Russia, he was now the one and only ruler of the country. The new title symbolized an assumption of powers equivalent and parallel to those held by former Byzantine Emperor, the political effect was to elevate Ivans position. The new title not only secured the throne, but it also granted Ivan a new dimension of power and he was now a divine leader appointed to enact Gods will, as church texts described Old Testament kings as Tsars and Christ as the Heavenly Tsar. The newly appointed title was passed on from generation to generation

54.
Conspiracy theories
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Conspiracy theories often produce hypotheses that contradict the prevailing understanding of history or simple facts. The term is a derogatory one, people formulate conspiracy theories to explain, for example, power relations in social groups and the perceived existence of evil forces. Conspiracy theories have chiefly psychological or socio-political origins, some people prefer socio-political explanations over the insecurity of encountering random, unpredictable, or otherwise inexplicable events. Some philosophers have argued that belief in conspiracy theories can be rational, the Oxford English Dictionary defines conspiracy theory as the theory that an event or phenomenon occurs as a result of a conspiracy between interested parties, spec. A belief that some covert but influential agency is responsible for an unexplained event, as a neutral term, conspiracy is derived from Latin con- and spirare. In many respects, they have a right to be angry, the phrase conspiracy theory is not neutral. It is value-laden and carries with it condemnation, ridicule, and it is a lot like the word cult, which we use to describe religions we do not like. Clare Birchall at Kings College London describes conspiracy theory as a form of knowledge or interpretation. By acquiring the knowledge, conspiracy theory is considered alongside more legitimate modes of knowing. The relationship between legitimate and illegitimate knowledge, Birchall claims, is far closer than common dismissals of conspiracy theory would have us believe, other popular knowledge might include alien abduction narratives, gossip, some new age philosophies, religious beliefs, and astrology. Harry G. West discusses conspiracy theories as a part of American popular culture, comparing them to hypernationalism, some theories have dealt with censorship and excoriation from the law such as the Holocaust denial. Currently, conspiracy theories are present on the Web in the form of blogs and YouTube videos. Whether the Web has increased the prevalence of conspiracy theories or not is a research question. By contrast, the term Watergate conspiracy theory is used to refer to a variety of hypotheses in which those convicted in the conspiracy were in fact the victims of a deeper conspiracy. In criminal law, a conspiracy is an agreement between two or more persons to commit a crime at some time in the future, as one basic American police academy text defines it, When a crime requires a large number of people, a conspiracy is formed. Conspiracy theory examines the actions of secretive coalitions of individuals. S, sociologist Türkay Salim Nefes underlines the political nature of conspiracy theories. He suggests that one of the most important characteristics of these accounts is their attempt to unveil the real, according to Barkun, the appeal of conspiracism is threefold, First, conspiracy theories claim to explain what institutional analysis cannot. They appear to sense out of a world that is otherwise confusing

Conspiracy theories
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The Eye of Providence, or the all-seeing eye of God, seen here on the US $1 bill, has been taken by some to be evidence of a conspiracy involving the founders of the United States.

55.
Vasari
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Vasari was born in Arezzo, Tuscany. Recommended at an age by his cousin Luca Signorelli, he became a pupil of Guglielmo da Marsiglia. He was befriended by Michelangelo whose painting style would influence his own, in 1529, he visited Rome where he studied the works of Raphael and other artists of the Roman High Renaissance. Vasaris own Mannerist paintings were admired in his lifetime than afterwards. In 1547 he completed the hall of the chancery in Palazzo della Cancelleria in Rome with frescoes that received the name Sala dei Cento Giorni and he was consistently employed by members of the Medici family in Florence and Rome, and worked in Naples, Arezzo and other places. He also helped to organize the decoration of the Studiolo, now reassembled in the Palazzo Vecchio, aside from his career as a painter, Vasari was also successful as an architect. In Florence, Vasari also built the long passage, now called Vasari Corridor, the enclosed corridor passes alongside the River Arno on an arcade, crosses the Ponte Vecchio and winds around the exterior of several buildings. He also renovated the medieval churches of Santa Maria Novella and Santa Croce, at both he removed the original rood screen and loft, and remodelled the retro-choirs in the Mannerist taste of his time. In Santa Croce, he was responsible for the painting of The Adoration of the Magi which was commissioned by Pope Pius V in 1566 and it was recently restored, before being put on exhibition in 2011 in Rome and in Naples. Eventually it is planned to return it to the church of Santa Croce in Bosco Marengo, in 1562 Vasari built the octagonal dome on the Basilica of Our Lady of Humility in Pistoia, an important example of high Renaissance architecture. In Rome, Vasari worked with Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and Bartolomeo Ammanati at Pope Julius IIIs Villa Giulia, the Lives also included a novel treatise on the technical methods employed in the arts. The book was rewritten and enlarged in 1568, with the addition of woodcut portraits of artists. The work has a consistent and notorious bias in favour of Florentines, and tends to attribute to them all the developments in Renaissance art – for example, Venetian art in particular, is systematically ignored in the first edition. Between the first and second editions, Vasari visited Venice and while the edition gave more attention to Venetian art. Vasaris biographies are interspersed with amusing gossip, with a few exceptions, however, Vasaris aesthetic judgement was acute and unbiased. He did not research archives for exact dates, as art historians do, and naturally his biographies are most dependable for the painters of his own generation. Modern criticism – with new materials opened up by research – has corrected many of his traditional dates and attributions. Vasari includes a sketch of his own biography at the end of the Lives, according to the historian Richard Goldthwaite, Vasari was one of the earliest authors to use the term competition in its economic sense

56.
Machiavelli
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Niccolò Machiavelli, or more formally Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli, was a Florentine Renaissance historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist, and writer. He has often called the founder of modern political science. He was for years a senior official in the Florentine Republic, with responsibilities in diplomatic. He also wrote comedies, carnival songs, and poetry and his personal correspondence is renowned in the Italian language. He was secretary to the Second Chancery of the Republic of Florence from 1498 to 1512 and he wrote his most renowned work The Prince in 1513. Machiavellianism is a widely used term to characterize unscrupulous politicians of the sort Machiavelli described most famously in The Prince. Machiavelli described immoral behavior, such as dishonesty and killing innocents, as being normal and he even seemed to endorse it in some situations. The book itself gained notoriety when some readers claimed that the author was teaching evil, the term Machiavellian is often associated with political deceit, deviousness, and realpolitik. In one place for example he noted his admiration for the selfless Roman dictator Cincinnatus, Machiavelli was born in Florence, Italy, the third child and first son of attorney Bernardo di Niccolò Machiavelli and his wife, Bartolomea di Stefano Nelli. Machiavelli married Marietta Corsini in 1502, political-military alliances continually changed, featuring condottieri, who changed sides without warning, and the rise and fall of many short-lived governments. Machiavelli was taught grammar, rhetoric, and Latin and it is thought that he did not learn Greek even though Florence was at the time one of the centres of Greek scholarship in Europe. In 1494 Florence restored the republic, expelling the Medici family that had ruled Florence for some sixty years, shortly thereafter, he was also made the secretary of the Dieci di Libertà e Pace. In the first decade of the century, he carried out several diplomatic missions. The pretext of defending Church interests was used as a justification by the Borgias. Other excursions to the court of Louis XII and the Spanish court influenced his writings such as The Prince, between 1503 and 1506, Machiavelli was responsible for the Florentine militia. He distrusted mercenaries and instead staffed his army with citizens, a policy that was to be repeatedly successful, under his command, Florentine citizen-soldiers defeated Pisa in 1509. However, Machiavellis success did not last, in the wake of the siege, Soderini resigned as Florentine head of state and left in exile. The experience would, like Machiavellis time in foreign courts and with the Borgia, after the Medici victory, the Florentine city-state and the republic were dissolved, and Machiavelli was deprived of office in 1512

57.
Christopher Marlowe
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Christopher Marlowe, also known as Kit Marlowe, was an English playwright, poet and translator of the Elizabethan era. Marlowe was the foremost Elizabethan tragedian of his day and he greatly influenced William Shakespeare, who was born in the same year as Marlowe and who rose to become the pre-eminent Elizabethan playwright after Marlowes mysterious early death. Marlowes plays are known for the use of verse and their overreaching protagonists. A warrant was issued for Marlowes arrest on 18 May 1593, no reason was given for it, though it was thought to be connected to allegations of blasphemy—a manuscript believed to have been written by Marlowe was said to contain vile heretical conceipts. On 20 May, he was brought to the court to attend upon the Privy Council for questioning, there is no record of their having met that day, however, and he was commanded to attend upon them each day thereafter until licensed to the contrary. Ten days later, he was stabbed to death by Ingram Frizer, whether the stabbing was connected to his arrest has never been resolved. Marlowe was born in Canterbury to shoemaker John Marlowe and his wife Catherine and his date of birth is not known, but he was baptised on 26 February 1564, and is likely to have been born a few days before. Thus, he was just two months older than his contemporary William Shakespeare, who was baptised on 26 April 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon. Marlowe attended The Kings School in Canterbury and Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, however, his degree was awarded on schedule when the Privy Council intervened on his behalf, commending him for his faithful dealing and good service to the Queen. No direct evidence supports this theory, although the Councils letter is evidence that Marlowe had served the government in some secret capacity, of the dramas attributed to Marlowe, Dido, Queen of Carthage is believed to have been his first. It was performed by the Children of the Chapel, a company of boy actors, the play was first published in 1594, the title page attributes the play to Marlowe and Thomas Nashe. Marlowes first play performed on the stage in London, in 1587, was Tamburlaine the Great, about the conqueror Tamburlaine. It is among the first English plays in verse, and, with Thomas Kyds The Spanish Tragedy. Tamburlaine was a success, and was followed with Tamburlaine the Great, the two parts of Tamburlaine were published in 1590, all Marlowes other works were published posthumously. The sequence of the writing of his four plays is unknown. The Jew of Malta, about a Maltese Jews barbarous revenge against the city authorities, has a prologue delivered by a character representing Machiavelli and it was probably written in 1589 or 1590, and was first performed in 1592. It was a success, and remained popular for the fifty years. The play was entered in the Stationers Register on 17 May 1594, Edward the Second is an English history play about the deposition of King Edward II by his barons and the Queen, who resent the undue influence the kings favourites have in court and state affairs

58.
Jew of Malta
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The Jew of Malta is a play by Christopher Marlowe, probably written in 1589 or 1590. The title character, Barabas, dominates the plays action, there has been extensive debate about the plays portrayal of Jews and how Elizabethan audiences would have viewed it. The Jew of Malta is considered to have been an influence on William Shakespeares The Merchant of Venice. The first recorded performance was in 1592, the play was acted by Lord Stranges Men seventeen times between 26 February 1592 and 1 February 1593. It was performed by Sussexs Men on 4 February 1594, and by a combination of Sussexs, more than a dozen performances by the Admirals Men occurred between May 1594 and June 1596. In 1601 Henslowes Diary notes payments to the Admirals company for props for a revival of the play, the play was entered in the Stationers Register on 17 May 1594, but the earliest surviving edition was printed in 1633 by the bookseller Nicholas Vavasour. This edition contains prologues and epilogues written by Thomas Heywood for a revival in that year, Heywood is also sometimes thought to have revised the play. Corruption and inconsistencies in the 1633 quarto, particularly in the second half, the Jew of Malta was a success in its first recorded performance at the Rose theatre in early 1592, when Edward Alleyn played the lead role. The play remained popular for the fifty years, until Englands theatres were closed in 1642. In the Caroline era, actor Richard Perkins was noted for his performances as Barabas when the play was revived in 1633 by Queen Henriettas Men, the title page of the 1633 quarto refers to this revival, performed at the Cockpit Theatre. The play was revived by Edmund Kean at Drury Lane on 24 April 1818, the script of this performance included additions by S. Penley. The play contains a prologue in which the character Machiavel, a Senecan ghost based on Niccolò Machiavelli, Machiavel expresses the cynical view that power is amoral, saying I count religion but a childish toy, /And hold there is no sin but ignorance. Barabas begins the play in his counting-house, when they both die in a duel, he becomes further incensed when Abigail, horrified at what her father has done, runs away to become a Christian nun. After Ithamore falls in love with a prostitute who conspires with her friend to blackmail and expose him. When he is caught, he drinks of poppy and cold mandrake juice so that he will be left for dead, when at last Barabas is nominated governor by his new allies, he switches sides to the Christians once again. Just at the moment, however, the former governor emerges and causes Barabas to fall into his own trap. Jews had been banished from England in 1290 with the Edict of Expulsion and they were not readmitted to the country until 1655. Thus, Elizabethan audiences would have had little to no encounters with Jews or Judaism in their daily life and these creations have been the subject of much debate

Jew of Malta
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The Jew of Malta

59.
Louis-Pierre Anquetil
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Louis-Pierre Anquetil was a French historian. He was born in Paris on 21 February 1723, in 1741, he joined the religious community of the Génofévains, where he took holy orders and became professor of theology and literature. Later, he became rector of the seminary at Reims, where he published the 3-volume Civil and Political History of Reims, in 1759, he was appointed prior of the abbey de la Roe in Anjou, shortly thereafter he became director of the college of Senlis. While there, he composed a history of France in the 16th and 17th centuries published in 1767, the year before, he had obtained the curacy or priory of Chateau-Renard near Montargis. He also became a member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, at the beginning of the French Revolution, he moved to the curacy of La Villette near Paris but, during the Reign of Terror, he was imprisoned at St-Lazare. While there, he began his summary of history, afterwards published in nine volumes. On the establishment of the National Institute, he was elected as a 2nd-class member of the Academy of Moral and Political Science and he was also employed by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, an experience which informed his treatment of the last three kings of the Ancient Regime. He is said to have been asked by Napoleon to write his 14-volume History of France, augustin Thierry criticized the work as cold and colourless, and mentioned that Anquetil compared unfavorably to other noted French historians. The work was compiled at second or third hand and censurable in many respects but went through numerous editions and it was continued by Adolphe Bouillet in 6 more volumes. He died on 6 September 1808 and his younger brother Abraham was a famous orientalist

Louis-Pierre Anquetil
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Portrait of Louis-Pierre Anquetil

60.
Voltaire
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Voltaire was a versatile writer, producing works in almost every literary form, including plays, poems, novels, essays, and historical and scientific works. He wrote more than 21,000 letters and over two books and pamphlets. He was an advocate of civil liberties, despite the risk this placed him in under the strict censorship laws of the time. As a satirical polemicist, he made use of his works to criticize intolerance, religious dogma. Some speculation surrounds Voltaires date of birth, because he claimed he was born on 20 February 1694 as the son of a nobleman. Two of his older brothers—Armand-François and Robert—died in infancy and his brother, Armand. Nicknamed Zozo by his family, Voltaire was baptized on 22 November 1694, with François de Castagnère, abbé de Châteauneuf, and Marie Daumard, the wife of his mothers cousin, standing as godparents. He was educated by the Jesuits at the Collège Louis-le-Grand, where he was taught Latin, theology, and rhetoric, later in life he became fluent in Italian, Spanish, and English. By the time he left school, Voltaire had decided he wanted to be a writer, against the wishes of his father, Voltaire, pretending to work in Paris as an assistant to a notary, spent much of his time writing poetry. When his father out, he sent Voltaire to study law. Nevertheless, he continued to write, producing essays and historical studies, Voltaires wit made him popular among some of the aristocratic families with whom he mixed. In 1713, his father obtained a job for him as a secretary to the new French ambassador in the Netherlands, the marquis de Châteauneuf, at The Hague, Voltaire fell in love with a French Protestant refugee named Catherine Olympe Dunoyer. Their scandalous affair was discovered by de Châteauneuf and Voltaire was forced to return to France by the end of the year, Most of Voltaires early life revolved around Paris. From early on, Voltaire had trouble with the authorities for critiques of the government and these activities were to result in two imprisonments and a temporary exile to England. One satirical verse, in which Voltaire accused the Régent of incest with his own daughter, the Comédie-Française had agreed in January 1717 to stage his debut play, Œdipe, and it opened in mid-November 1718, seven months after his release. Its immediate critical and financial success established his reputation, both the Régent and King George I of Great Britain presented Voltaire with medals as a mark of their appreciation. He mainly argued for tolerance and freedom of thought. He campaigned to eradicate priestly and aristo-monarchical authority, and supported a constitutional monarchy that protects peoples rights, the author adopted the name Voltaire in 1718, following his incarceration at the Bastille

61.
Age of Enlightenment
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The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, The Century of Philosophy. In France, the doctrines of les Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance in opposition to an absolute monarchy. French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715, the year that Louis XIV died, and 1789, the beginning of the French Revolution, some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution. Les philosophes of the widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, coffee houses. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Church, a variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, trace their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution, earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke, and Baruch Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence, others like James Madison incorporated them into the Constitution in 1787. The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, the ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by an intellectual movement known as Romanticism. René Descartes rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking and his attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His skepticism was refined by John Lockes 1690 Essay Concerning Human Understanding and his dualism was challenged by Spinozas uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his Tractatus and Ethics. Both lines of thought were opposed by a conservative Counter-Enlightenment. In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines, the political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. Francis Hutcheson, a philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words. Much of what is incorporated in the method and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy. Immanuel Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the sphere through private

62.
Lord Acton
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He was the only son of Sir Ferdinand Dalberg-Acton, 7th Baronet and a grandson of the Neapolitan admiral Sir John Acton, 6th Baronet. He is perhaps best known for the remark, Power tends to corrupt, great men are almost always bad men. This idea has been tested in laboratory settings, however, by the extinction of the elder branch, the admiral became head of the family. After Sir Richard Actons death in 1837, she became the wife of the 2nd Earl Granville, marie Louise Pelline de Dalberg was heiress of Herrnsheim in Germany. She became the mother of John Dalberg-Acton who was born in Naples, from an old Roman Catholic family, young Acton was educated at Oscott College under future-Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman until 1848 and then at Edinburgh where he studied privately. His attempt to be admitted to the University of Cambridge failed because he was a Catholic, Döllinger had inspired in him a deep love of historical research and a profound conception of its functions as a critical instrument, particularly in the history of liberty. In politics, he was always an ardent Liberal, through extensive travels, Acton spent much time in the chief intellectual centres reading the actual correspondence of historical personalities. Among his friends were Montalembert, Tocqueville, Fustel de Coulanges, Bluntschli, von Sybel, in 1855, he was appointed Deputy Lieutenant of Shropshire. A year later, he was attached to Lord Granvilles mission to Moscow as British representative at the coronation of Alexander II of Russia, in 1859, Acton settled in England, at his country house, Aldenham, in Shropshire. He returned to the House of Commons that same year as member for the Irish Borough of Carlow and became a devoted admirer and adherent of Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone. However, Acton was not an active MP, and his career came to an end after the general election of 1865. Acton defeated Conservative leader Henry Whitmore, who petitioned for a scrutiny of the ballots. After the Reform Act 1867, Acton again contested Bridgnorth, this reduced to a single seat, in 1868. Acton took a great interest in the United States, considering its structure the perfect guarantor of individual liberties. His notes to Gladstone on the subject helped sway many in the British government to sympathise with the South, after the Souths surrender, he wrote to Robert E. In 1869 Queen Victoria raised Acton to the peerage as Baron Acton and his elevation came primarily through the intercession of Gladstone. The two were friends and frequent correspondents. Matthew Arnold said that Gladstone influences all round him but Acton, Acton was appointed to the Royal Victorian Order as a Knight Commander in the 1897 Birthday Honours

63.
Louis Gonzaga, Duke of Nevers
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Louis Gonzaga, Duke of Nevers was an Italian-French dignitary and diplomat in France. He was the child of Frederick II Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua. Born in Mantua, at the age 10 he was sent to Paris to inherit the left by his grandmother, Anne dAlençon. He entered Henry II of Frances army and fought in the battle of St. Quentin and their son Charles became duke of Mantua in 1627, establishing the Gonzaga-Nevers line. Louis died at Nesle in 1595 and he is considered by many historians as one of the courtiers most responsible for the St. Bartholomews Day massacre in 1572. In conspiracy theories, such as the one promoted in The Holy Blood and he and his wife, Henriette of Cleves, had five children, Catherine Gonzaga. Married Henry I, Duke of Longueville, married Henry of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne. The Duke of Anjou and the Politique Struggle During the Wars of Religion, a listing of descendants of Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua

Louis Gonzaga, Duke of Nevers
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Louis de Nevers and his spouse

64.
Boston University
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Boston University is a private research university located in Boston, Massachusetts. The university is nonsectarian, and is affiliated with the United Methodist Church. The university has more than 3,900 faculty members and nearly 33,000 students and it offers bachelors degrees, masters degrees, and doctorates, and medical, dental, business, and law degrees through 17 schools and colleges on two urban campuses. The main campus is situated along the Charles River in Bostons Fenway-Kenmore and Allston neighborhoods, BU is categorized as an R1, Doctoral University in the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. BU is a member of the Boston Consortium for Higher Education, the University was ranked 39th among undergraduate programs at national universities, and 32nd among global universities by U. S. News & World Report in its 2017 rankings. In 1876, BU professor Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in a BU lab, American Civil Rights Movement leader and 1964 Nobel Peace Prize winner Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. received his PhD in Theology from BU in 1955. The Boston University Terriers compete in the NCAAs Division I, BU athletic teams compete in the Patriot League, and Hockey East conferences, and their mascot is Rhett the Boston Terrier. Boston University is well known for hockey, in which it has won five national championships. The University organized formal Centennial observances both in 1939 and 1969, on April 24–25,1839 a group of Methodist ministers and laymen at the Old Bromfield Street Church in Boston elected to establish a Methodist theological school. Set up in Newbury, Vermont, the school was named the Newbury Biblical Institute, in 1847, the Congregational Society in Concord, New Hampshire, invited the Institute to relocate to Concord and offered a disused Congregational church building with a capacity of 1200 people. Other citizens of Concord covered the remodeling costs, one stipulation of the invitation was that the Institute remain in Concord for at least 20 years. The charter issued by New Hampshire designated the school the Methodist General Biblical Institute, with the agreed twenty years coming to a close, the Trustees of the Concord Biblical Institute purchased 30 acres on Aspinwall Hill in Brookline, Massachusetts, as a possible relocation site. The institute moved in 1867 to 23 Pinkney Street in Boston, in 1869, three Trustees of the Boston Theological Institute obtained from the Massachusetts Legislature a charter for a university by name of Boston University. These three were successful Boston businessmen and Methodist laymen, with a history of involvement in educational enterprises and they were Isaac Rich, Lee Claflin, and Jacob Sleeper, for whom Boston Universitys three West Campus dormitories are named. Lee Claflins son, William, was then Governor of Massachusetts, on account of the religious opinions he may entertain, provided, nonetheless, that this section shall not apply to the theological department of said University. Every department of the new university was open to all on an equal footing regardless of sex, race. The Boston Theological Institute was absorbed into Boston University in 1871 as the BU School of Theology, in January 1872 Isaac Rich died, leaving the vast bulk of his estate to a trust that would go to Boston University after ten years of growth while the University was organized. Most of this bequest consisted of real estate throughout the core of the city of Boston and was appraised at more than $1.5 million, Kilgore describes this as the largest single donation to an American college or university to that time

Boston University
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688 Boylston Street, the early home of the College of Liberal Arts, the precursor to the College of Arts & Sciences
Boston University
Boston University
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Alexander Graham Bell, who invented the telephone at Boston University
Boston University
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Helen Magill White, the first woman to receive a Ph.D. from an American university

65.
George Mason University
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George Mason University, located in George Mason in Fairfax County, Virginia, United States, is the largest public research university in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The university was founded as a branch of the University of Virginia in 1949, today, Mason is recognized for its programs in economics, law, creative writing, computer science, and business. In recent years, George Mason faculty have won the Nobel Prize in Economics. The university enrolls 33,917 students, making it the largest university by head count in the Commonwealth of Virginia, the University of Virginia in Charlottesville created an extension center to serve Northern Virginia. … the University Center opened, on October 1,1949, the extension center offered both for credit and non-credit informal classes in the evenings in the Vocational Building of the Washington-Lee High School in Arlington, Virginia. By the end of 1952, enrollment increased to 1,192 students from 665 students the previous year, a resolution of the Virginia General Assembly in January 1956 changed the extension center into University College, the Northern Virginia branch of the University of Virginia. John Norville Gibson Finley served as director, seventeen freshmen students attended classes at University College in a small renovated elementary school building in Baileys Crossroads starting in September 1957. In 1958 University College became George Mason College, the City of Fairfax purchased and donated 150 acres of land just south of the city limits to the University of Virginia for the colleges new site, which is now referred to as the Fairfax Campus. In 1959, the Board of Visitors of the University of Virginia selected a permanent name for the college, George Mason College of the University of Virginia. The Fairfax campus construction planning that began in early 1960 showed visible results when the development of the first 40 acres of Fairfax Campus began in 1962, in the Fall of 1964 the new campus welcomed 356 students. The measure, known as H33, passed the Assembly easily and was approved on March 1,1966 making George Mason College a degree-granting institution. On Friday, April 7,1972, a contingent from George Mason College, led by Chancellor Lorin A. Thompson, in 1978, George W. Johnson was appointed to serve as the fourth president. Under his eighteen-year tenure, the university expanded both its size and program offerings at a tremendous rate. Shortly before Johnsons inauguration in April 1979, Mason acquired the School of Law, the university also became a doctoral institution. Toward the end of Johnsons term, Mason would be deep in planning for a campus in Prince William County at Manassas. Enrollment once again more than doubled from 10,767 during the fall of 1978 to 24,368 in the spring of 1996, Dr. Alan G. Merten was appointed president in 1996. He believed that the location made it responsible for both contributing to and drawing from its surrounding communities—local, national, and global. George Mason was becoming recognized and acclaimed in all of these spheres, Dr. Ángel Cabrera officially took office on July 1,2012

George Mason University
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George Mason, (1725–1792) the university's namesake.
George Mason University
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George Mason University
George Mason University
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The Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study is located on the Fairfax campus.
George Mason University
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Johnson Center and Center for the Arts

66.
Catholic League (French)
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The Catholic League of France, sometimes referred to by contemporary Catholics as the Holy League, was a major participant in the French Wars of Religion. Pope Sixtus V, Philip II of Spain, and the Jesuits were all supporters of this Catholic party, confraternities and leagues were established by French Catholics to counter the growing power of the Lutherans, Calvinists and members of the Reformed Church of France. The Protestant Calvinists at that time dominated much of the French nobility, under the leadership of Henry I, Duke of Guise, the Catholic confraternities and leagues were united as the Catholic League. Guise used the League not only to defend the Catholic cause, the Catholic League aimed to preempt any seizure of power by the Huguenots and to protect French Catholics right to worship. The Catholic Leagues cause was fueled by the doctrine Extra Ecclesiam Nulla Salus, Catholic Leaguers saw their fight against Calvinism as a Crusade against heresy. The Leagues pamphleteers also blamed any natural disaster occurred in France at the time as Gods way of punishing France for tolerating the existence of the Calvinist heresy. After a series of clashes, the French Wars of Religion, between Catholics and Protestants, the Catholic League formed in an attempt to break the power of the Calvinist gentry once. The Catholic League saw the French throne under Henry III as too conciliatory towards the Huguenots, the League, similar to hardline Calvinists, disapproved of Henry IIIs attempts to mediate any coexistence between the Huguenots and Catholics. The Catholic League also saw moderate French Catholics, known as Politiques, the Politiques were tired of the many tit for tat killings and were willing to negotiate peaceful coexistence rather than escalating the war. The League immediately began to pressure on Henry III of France. Faced with this opposition he canceled the Peace of La Rochelle, re-criminalizing Protestantism. However, Henry also saw the danger posed by the Duke of Guise, in the Day of the Barricades, King Henry III was forced to flee Paris, which resulted in Henry, Duke of Guise becoming the de facto ruler of France. Afraid of being deposed and assassinated, the King decided to strike first, on December 23,1588, Henry IIIs guardsmen assassinated the Duke and his brother, Louis II and the Dukes son was imprisoned in the Bastille. However, this move did little to consolidate the Kings power, as a result, the King fled Paris and joined forces with Henry of Navarre, the thrones Calvinist heir presumptive. Both the King and Henry of Navarre began building an army with which to besiege Paris and this was retaliation for the killing of the Duke of Guise and his brother. As he lay dying, the King begged Henry of Navarre to convert to Catholicism, however, the Kings death threw the army into disarray and Henry of Navarre was forced to lift the siege. Although Henry of Navarre was now the legitimate King of France, using arms and military advisors provided by Elizabeth I of England, he achieved several military victories. However, he was unable to overcome the forces of the League

Catholic League (French)
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Armed procession of the Holy League in Paris in 1590, Musée Carnavalet.
Catholic League (French)
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Henry, Duke of Guise, founder and leader of the Catholic League
Catholic League (French)
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Procession de la Ligue dans l'Ile de la Cité by François II Bunel (1522-1599). Musée Carnavalet.
Catholic League (French)
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Assassination of the Duke of Guise, leader of the Catholic League, by king Henry III, in 1588.

67.
University of London
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The University of London is a collegiate research university located in London, England, consisting of 18 constituent colleges, nine research institutes and a number of central bodies. The university moved to a structure in 1900. The specialist colleges of the university include the London Business School, Imperial College London was formerly a member before leaving the university in 2007. City is the most recent constituent college, having joined on 1 September 2016, in post-nominals, the University of London is commonly abbreviated as Lond. or, more rarely, Londin. From the Latin Universitas Londiniensis, after its degree abbreviations, University College London was founded under the name London University in 1826 as a secular alternative to the religious universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In response to the controversy surrounding such educational establishment, Kings College London was founded and was the first to be granted a royal charter. Yet to receive a charter, UCL in 1834 renewed its application for a royal charter as a university. In response to this, opposition to exclusive rights grew among the London medical schools, the idea of a general degree awarding body for the schools was discussed in the medical press. And in evidence taken by the Select Committee on Medical Education, in 1835, the government announced the response to UCLs petition for a charter. Following the issuing of its charter on 28 November 1836, the university started drawing up regulations for degrees in March 1837. The death of William IV in June, however, resulted in a problem – the charter had been granted during our Royal will and pleasure, queen Victoria issued a second charter on 5 December 1837, reincorporating the university. The university awarded its first degrees in 1839, all to students from UCL, the university established by the charters of 1836 and 1837 was essentially an examining board with the right to award degrees in arts, laws and medicine. However, the university did not have the authority to grant degrees in theology, in medicine, the university was given the right to determine which medical schools provided sufficient medical training. Beyond the right to students for examination, there was no other connection between the affiliated colleges and the university. In 1849 the university held its first graduation ceremony at Somerset House following a petition to the senate from the graduates, about 250 students graduated at this ceremony. The London academic robes of this period were distinguished by their rich velvet facings, the list of affiliated colleges grew by 1858 to include over 50 institutions, including all other British universities. In that year, a new charter effectively abolished the affiliated colleges system by opening up the examinations to everyone whether they attended a college or not. The expanded role meant the university needed more space, particularly with the number of students at the provincial university colleges

University of London
University of London
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University of London Coat of Arms The file above's purpose is being discussed and/or is being considered for deletion. Consult image description page for details.
University of London
University of London

68.
Pope John Paul II
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Pope Saint John Paul II, born Karol Józef Wojtyła, was Pope from 1978 to 2005. He is called by some Catholics Saint John Paul the Great and he was elected by the second Papal conclave of 1978, which was called after Pope John Paul I, who had been elected in August after the death of Pope Paul VI, died after thirty-three days. Cardinal Wojtyła was elected on the day of the conclave. John Paul II is recognised as helping to end Communist rule in his native Poland, John Paul II significantly improved the Catholic Churchs relations with Judaism, Islam, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion. He upheld the Churchs teachings on such matters as artificial contraception and the ordination of women and he was one of the most travelled world leaders in history, visiting 129 countries during his pontificate. By the time of his death, he had named most of the College of Cardinals, consecrated or co-consecrated a large number of the worlds bishops, a key goal of his papacy was to transform and reposition the Catholic Church. His wish was to place his Church at the heart of a new alliance that would bring together Jews, Muslims. He was the second longest-serving pope in history after Pope Pius IX. Born in Poland, John Paul II was the first non-Italian pope since the Dutch Pope Adrian VI, John Paul IIs cause for canonisation commenced in 2005 one month after his death with the traditional five-year waiting period waived. A second miracle attributed to John Paul IIs intercession was approved on 2 July 2013, John Paul II was canonised on 27 April 2014, together with Pope John XXIII. On 11 September 2014, Pope Francis added John Paul IIs optional memorial feast day to the worldwide General Roman Calendar of saints, in response to worldwide requests. It is traditional to celebrate saints feast days on the anniversary of their deaths, Karol Józef Wojtyła was born in the Polish town of Wadowice. He was the youngest of three born to Karol Wojtyła, an ethnic Pole, and Emilia Kaczorowska, whose mothers maiden surname was Scholz. Emilia, who was a schoolteacher, died in childbirth in 1929 when Wojtyła was eight years old and his elder sister Olga had died before his birth, but he was close to his brother Edmund, nicknamed Mundek, who was 13 years his senior. Edmunds work as a physician led to his death from scarlet fever. As a boy, Wojtyła was athletic, often playing football as goalkeeper, during his childhood, Wojtyła had contact with Wadowices large Jewish community. School football games were organised between teams of Jews and Catholics, and Wojtyła often played on the Jewish side. I remember that at least a third of my classmates at school in Wadowice were Jews

69.
Elizabethan
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The Elizabethan era is the epoch in English history marked by the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Historians often depict it as the age in English history. In terms of the century, the historian John Guy argues that England was economically healthier, more expansive. This golden age represented the apogee of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of poetry, music, the era is most famous for theatre, as William Shakespeare and many others composed plays that broke free of Englands past style of theatre. It was an age of exploration and expansion abroad, while back at home and it was also the end of the period when England was a separate realm before its royal union with Scotland. The Elizabethan Age may be viewed especially highly when considered in light of the failings of the periods preceding Elizabeths reign, the Protestant/Catholic divide was settled, for a time, by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, and parliament was not yet strong enough to challenge royal absolutism. England was also compared to the other nations of Europe. The Italian Renaissance had come to an end under the weight of Spanish domination of the peninsula, France was embroiled in its own religious battles due to significant Spanish intervention, that would only be settled in 1598 with the Edict of Nantes. The one great rival was Spain, which England clashed both in Europe and the Americas in skirmishes that exploded into the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604 and this drained both the English Exchequer and economy that had been so carefully restored under Elizabeths prudent guidance. English commercial and territorial expansion would be limited until the signing of the Treaty of London the year following Elizabeths death, economically, the country began to benefit greatly from the new era of trans-Atlantic trade, persistent theft of Spanish treasure, and the African slave trade. The Victorian era and the early 20th century idealised the Elizabethan era, the Encyclopædia Britannica maintains that he long reign of Elizabeth I, 1558–1603, was Englands Golden Age. Merry England, in love with life, expressed itself in music and literature, in architecture and this idealising tendency was shared by Britain and an Anglophilic America. In popular culture, the image of those adventurous Elizabethan seafarers was embodied in the films of Errol Flynn, in response and reaction to this hyperbole, modern historians and biographers have tended to take a more dispassionate view of the Tudor period. Elizabethan England was not particularly successful in a military sense during the period, having inherited a virtually bankrupt state from previous reigns, her frugal policies restored fiscal responsibility. Her fiscal restraint cleared the regime of debt by 1574, and this general peace and prosperity allowed the attractive developments that Golden Age advocates have stressed. The Elizabethan Age was also an age of plots and conspiracies, frequently political in nature, high officials in Madrid, Paris and Rome sought to kill Elizabeth, a Protestant, and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots, a Catholic. That would be a prelude to the recovery of England for Catholicism. In 1570, the Ridolfi plot was thwarted, in 1584, the Throckmorton Plot was discovered, after Francis Throckmorton confessed his involvement in a plot to overthrow the Queen and restore the Catholic Church in England

Elizabethan
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Queen Elizabeth
Elizabethan
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The National Armada memorial in Plymouth using the Britannia image to celebrate the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 (William Charles May, sculptor, 1888)
Elizabethan
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Elizabeth ushers in Peace and Plenty. Detail from The Family of Henry VIII: An Allegory of the Tudor Succession, c. 1572, attributed to Lucas de Heere.
Elizabethan
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The Spanish Armada fighting the English navy at the Battle of Gravelines in 1588.

70.
French Revolution
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Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV

French Revolution
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The August Insurrection in 1792 precipitated the last days of the monarchy.
French Revolution
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The French government faced a fiscal crisis in the 1780s, and King Louis XVI was blamed for mishandling these affairs.
French Revolution
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Caricature of the Third Estate carrying the First Estate (clergy) and the Second Estate (nobility) on its back.
French Revolution
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The meeting of the Estates General on 5 May 1789 at Versailles.

71.
Elizabeth Inchbald
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Elizabeth Inchbald was an English novelist, actress, and dramatist. Her two novels are still read today, born on 15 October 1753 at Stanningfield, near Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, Elizabeth was the eighth of the nine children of John Simpson, a farmer, and his wife Mary, née Rushbrook. The family, like others in the neighbourhood was Roman Catholic. Unlike her brother, who was sent to school, Elizabeth was educated with her sisters at home, Elizabeth suffered from a speech impediment. Determined to act at an age, Elizabeth worked hard to try to overcome her stammer. That same year, her brother George became in actor, in April 1772, at the age of 18, Elizabeth went to London without permission to become an actress. Her stammer affected her performance and many members did not enjoy watching her on stage because of her speech impediment. Young and alone, she was apparently the victim of sexual harassment, two months later, in June, she agreed to marry a fellow Catholic, the actor Joseph Inchbald, possibly at least partially for protection. Joseph at the time was not an actor, was twice Elizabeths age. Elizabeth and Joseph did not have children together, the marriage was reported to have had difficulties. Elizabeth and Joseph appeared on the stage together for the first time on September 4,1772 in Shakepeares King Lear, in October 1772, the couple toured Scotland with West Diggess theatre company, a demanding life for nearly four years. In 1776, the made a move to France, where Joseph went to learn to paint. In only one month, the couple became penniless and they moved to Liverpool and Inchbald met actors Sarah Siddons and her brother John Philip Kemble, both of whom became important friends after joining Joseph Youngers company. The Inchbalds subsequently moved to Canterbury and Yorkshire, in 1777, the couple was then hired by Tate Wilkinsons company. After Joseph Inchbalds unexpected death in June 1779, Inchbald continued to act for years, in Dublin, London. This was deeply resented by Godwin and her acting career, while only moderately successful, spanned seventeen years and she appeared in many classical roles, as well as in new plays such as Hannah Cowleys The Belles Stratagem. Due to her success in playwrighting, Inchbald did not need the support of a husband. Between 1784 and 1805 she had 19 of her comedies, sentimental dramas and her first play to be performed was A Mogul Tale, in which she played the leading feminine role of Selina

72.
September Massacres
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The September Massacres were a wave of killings in Paris and other cities in late summer 1792, during the French Revolution. There was a fear that foreign and royalist armies would attack Paris, radicals called for preemptive action, especially journalist Jean-Paul Marat, who called on draftees to kill the prisoners before they could be freed. The action was undertaken by mobs of National Guardsmen and some fédérés, it was tolerated by the city government, the Paris Commune, by 6 September, half the prison population of Paris had been summarily executed, some 1200 to 1400 prisoners. Of these,233 were nonjuring Catholic priests who refused to submit to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, however, the great majority of those killed were common criminals. The massacres were repeated in many other French cities, no one was prosecuted for the killings, but the political repercussions first injured the Girondists and later the Jacobins. The political situation in Paris on the eve of the September Massacres was highly excited and aroused by rumors of traitors. The next day the insurrectionists stormed the Tuileries Palace, the 48 sections of Paris were fully equipped with munitions from the plundered arsenals in the days before the assault, substituting for the 60 National Guard battalions. Now, supported by a new armed force, the Commune and its sans-culottes took control of the city and dominated the Legislative Assembly, for some weeks the Commune functioned as the actual government of France. These events meant a change of direction from the political and constitutional perspective of the Girondists to a more social approach given by the Commune, besides these measures, the Commune engaged in a policy of political repression of all suspected counter-revolutionary activities. Beginning on 11 August, every Paris section named its committee of vigilance, mostly these decentralized committees, rather than the Commune, brought about the repression of August and September 1792. From 15 to 25 August, around 500 detentions were registered, half the detentions were made against non-juring priests, but even priests who had sworn the required oath were caught in the wave. In Paris, all monasteries were closed and the rest of the orders were dissolved by the law of 15 August. On 2 September, news reached Paris that the Duke of Brunswicks Prussian army had invaded France and he was advancing quickly toward the capital. On 1 August, Brunswick had issued the Brunswick Manifesto, additionally, the Manifesto threatened the French population with instant punishment should it resist the Imperial and Prussian armies, or the reinstatement of the monarchy. Such information fueled this first wave of mob hysteria of the Revolution, by the end of August, rumors circulated that many in Paris – such as non-juring priests – who opposed the Revolution, would support the First Coalition of foreign powers allied against it. Furthermore, Paris lacked extensive food stocks, when news that Brunswick had captured Verdun reached the Convention, they ordered the alarm guns fired, which escalated the sense of panic. Of 284 prisoners,135 were killed,27 were transferred,86 were set free, in the afternoon of 2 September 150 priests in the convent of Carmelites were massacred, mostly by sans-culottes. On 3 and 4 September, groups broke into other Paris prisons, where they murdered the prisoners, from 2 to 7 September, summary trials took place in all Paris prisons

September Massacres
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The September Massacres
September Massacres
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Mass killing of prisoners that took place in Paris

73.
Isabelle Adjani
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Isabelle Yasmina Adjani is a French film actress and singer. She is one of the most acclaimed French actresses of all time and she was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 2010, and a Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters in 2014. After success in the Comédie-Française, Adjanis lauded performance as Adele Hugo in the 1975 film The Story of Adele H. earned her the first of two nominations for the Academy Award for Best Actress. Her second nomination for Camille Claudel made her the first French actress to receive two nominations and she also won Best Actress at the 1981 Cannes Film Festival for Possession and Quartet, and the Silver Bear for Best Actress at the 1989 Berlin Film Festival for Camille Claudel. Her other films include The Tenant, Nosferatu the Vampyre, Subway, Diabolique, gusti met Adjanis father, Mohammed Adjani, near the end of World War II, when he was in the French Army. They married and she returned him to Paris, not speaking a word of French. She asked him to take Cherif as his first name as it sounded more American, Isabelle grew up bilingual, speaking French and German fluently, in Gennevilliers, a northwestern suburb of Paris, where her father worked in a garage. She said her parents used their ethnic and cultural differences against each other in arguments, after winning a school recitation contest, Adjani began acting by the age of twelve in amateur theater. She successfully passed her baccalauréat and was auditing classes at the University of Vincennes in 1976, Adjani had a younger brother Éric, who was a photographer. Éric died on 25 December 2010, aged 53, at the age of 14, Adjani starred in her first motion picture, Le Petit bougnat. She first gained fame as an actress at the Comédie française. She was praised for her interpretation of Agnès, the female role in Molières LÉcole des femmes. She soon left the theatre to pursue a film career, after minor roles in several films, she enjoyed modest success in the 1974 film La Gifle, which François Truffaut saw. He immediately cast her in her first major role in his The Story of Adèle H. which he had finished writing five years prior. Critics praised her performance, with the American critic Pauline Kael describing her acting talents as prodigious. </ref>Only 19 when she made the film, Adjani was nominated for the Best Actress Oscar, making her the youngest best actress nominee at the time. She quickly received offers for roles in Hollywood films, such as Walter Hills 1978 crime thriller The Driver and she had previously turned down the chance to star in films like The Other Side of Midnight. She had described Hollywood as a city of fiction and said, I didnt grow up with that will to win an award. Truffaut on the hand said, France is too small for her

74.
Opera
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Opera is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text and musical score, usually in a theatrical setting. In traditional opera, singers do two types of singing, recitative, a style and arias, a more melodic style. Opera incorporates many of the elements of theatre, such as acting, scenery. The performance is given in an opera house, accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble. Opera is a key part of the Western classical music tradition, in the 18th century, Italian opera continued to dominate most of Europe, attracting foreign composers such as George Frideric Handel. Opera seria was the most prestigious form of Italian opera, until Christoph Willibald Gluck reacted against its artificiality with his operas in the 1760s. The first third of the 19th century saw the point of the bel canto style, with Gioachino Rossini, Gaetano Donizetti. It also saw the advent of Grand Opera typified by the works of Auber and Meyerbeer, the mid-to-late 19th century was a golden age of opera, led and dominated by Richard Wagner in Germany and Giuseppe Verdi in Italy. The popularity of opera continued through the era in Italy and contemporary French opera through to Giacomo Puccini. During the 19th century, parallel operatic traditions emerged in central and eastern Europe, the 20th century saw many experiments with modern styles, such as atonality and serialism, Neoclassicism, and Minimalism. With the rise of recording technology, singers such as Enrico Caruso, since the invention of radio and television, operas were also performed on these mediums. Beginning in 2006, a number of opera houses began to present live high-definition video transmissions of their performances in cinemas all over the world. In 2009, an opera company offered a download of a complete performance. The words of an opera are known as the libretto, some composers, notably Wagner, have written their own libretti, others have worked in close collaboration with their librettists, e. g. Mozart with Lorenzo Da Ponte. Vocal duets, trios and other ensembles often occur, and choruses are used to comment on the action, in some forms of opera, such as singspiel, opéra comique, operetta, and semi-opera, the recitative is mostly replaced by spoken dialogue. Melodic or semi-melodic passages occurring in the midst of, or instead of, the terminology of the various kinds of operatic voices is described in detail below. Over the 18th century, arias were accompanied by the orchestra. Subsequent composers have tended to follow Wagners example, though some, the changing role of the orchestra in opera is described in more detail below

75.
Les Huguenots
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Les Huguenots is a French opera by Giacomo Meyerbeer, one of the most popular and spectacular examples of the style of grand opera. In five acts, to a libretto by Eugène Scribe and Émile Deschamps, Les Huguenots was some five years in creation. Coming from a family, Meyerbeer could afford to take his time, dictate his own terms. The very detailed contract which Meyerbeer arranged with Louis-Désiré Véron, director of the Opéra, while Meyerbeer was writing the opera, another opera with a similar setting and theme was also produced in Paris. Like Meyerbeers, Hérolds work was popular in its time. Les Huguenots was premiered by the Paris Opera at the Salle Le Peletier on 29 February 1836, both Adolphe Nourrit and Cornélie Falcon were particularly praised by the critics for their singing and performances. It was indeed Falcons last important creation before her voice so tragically failed in April of the following year, hector Berlioz called the score a musical encyclopaedia. Les Huguenots was the first opera to be performed at the Opéra more than 1,000 times and continued to be produced regularly up to 1936, more than a century after its premiere. Its many performances in all other of the major opera houses give it a claim to being the most successful opera of the 19th century. Other first performances included London,20 June 1842, and New Orleans on 29 April 1839, Les Huguenots was chosen to open the present building of the Covent Garden Theatre in 1858. In the Soviet Union, the opera was given a new libretto as Dekabristi, like others of Meyerbeers operas, Les Huguenots lost favor in the early part of the twentieth century and it no longer forms part of the standard operatic repertoire. One reason for the lack of revivals is cost, another is the extraordinary difficulty in casting the work. Les Huguenots has seven leading roles—two sopranos, one mezzo-soprano, two baritones, a tenor, and a bass, moreover, the tenor part, Raoul, is one of the most taxing in all of opera. He is on stage for large sections of all five acts, dame Joan Sutherland and Richard Bonynge were the major force in the operas revival during the second half of the 20th century. Sutherland chose the opera for her performance at the Sydney Opera House on 2 October 1990. In 1975, the New Orleans Opera Association staged the epic, with Marisa Galvany, Rita Shane, Susanne Marsee, Enrico Di Giuseppe, Dominic Cossa, and Paul Plishka heading the cast. The cast included Alexandra Deshorties, Michael Spyres, Erin Morley, Andrew Schroeder, Peter Volpe, Marie Lenormand, a new production opened at the Staatstheater Nürnberg in 2014, conducted by Guido Johannes Rumstadt with stage direction by Tobias Kratzer, a co-production with Opéra de Nice. Deutsche Oper Berlin presented a new staging of the opera as part of its Meyerbeer cycle, in a production by David Alden with Juan Diego Flórez as Raoul and these performances were a success with both audiences and critics

76.
Mark Twain
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Samuel Langhorne Clemens, better known by his pen name Mark Twain, was an American writer, humorist, entrepreneur, publisher, and lecturer. Among his novels are The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and its sequel, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Twain was raised in Hannibal, Missouri, which later provided the setting for Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn. He served an apprenticeship with a printer and then worked as a typesetter and he later became a riverboat pilot on the Mississippi River before heading west to join Orion in Nevada. He referred humorously to his lack of success at mining, turning to journalism for the Virginia City Territorial Enterprise, the short story brought international attention and was even translated into classic Greek. His wit and satire, in prose and in speech, earned praise from critics and peers, and he was a friend to presidents, artists, industrialists, and European royalty. He filed for bankruptcy in the wake of financial setbacks. He chose to pay all his creditors in full, even though he had no legal responsibility to do so. Twain was born shortly after an appearance of Halleys Comet, and he predicted that he would go out with it as well and he was lauded as the greatest American humorist of his age, and William Faulkner called him the father of American literature. His parents met when his father moved to Missouri, and they were married in 1823, Twain was of Cornish, English, and Scots-Irish descent. Only three of his siblings survived childhood, Orion, Henry, and Pamela and his sister Margaret died when Twain was three, and his brother Benjamin died three years later. His brother Pleasant died at six months of age, slavery was legal in Missouri at the time, and it became a theme in these writings. His father was an attorney and judge, but he died of pneumonia in 1847, the next year, Twain left school after the fifth grade to become a printers apprentice. In 1851, he working as a typesetter, contributing articles and humorous sketches to the Hannibal Journal. He educated himself in libraries in the evenings, finding wider information than at a conventional school. Twain describes his boyhood in Life on the Mississippi, stating there was but one permanent ambition among his comrades. Pilot was the grandest position of all, the pilot, even in those days of trivial wages, had a princely salary – from a hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty dollars a month, and no board to pay. As Twain describes it, the pilots prestige exceeded that of the captain, bixby took Twain on as a cub pilot to teach him the river between New Orleans and St. Louis for $500, payable out of Twains first wages after graduating. It was more than two years before he received his pilots license, piloting gave also him his pen name from mark twain, the leadsmans cry for a measured river depth of two fathoms, which was safe water for a steamboat

77.
Marguerite de Valois
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Margaret of Valois was a French princess of the Valois dynasty who became queen consort of Navarre and later also of France. Charles IX arranged for her to marry a distant cousin, King Henry III of Navarre, and she thus became Queen of Navarre in 1572. In 1589, after all her brothers had died leaving no sons, Margarets husband, the senior-most agnatic heir to France, succeeded to the French throne as Henry IV, the first Bourbon King of France. A queen of two kingdoms, Margaret was subjected to political manipulations, including being held prisoner by her own brother, Henry III of France. However, her life was anything but passive and she was famous for her beauty and sense of style, notorious for a licentious lifestyle, and also proved a competent memoirist. She was indeed one of the most fashionable women of her time, while imprisoned, she took advantage of the time to write her memoirs, which included a succession of stories relating to the disputes of her brothers Charles IX and Henry III with her husband. The memoirs were published posthumously in 1628, Margaret was born Marguerite de Valois on May 14,1553, at the royal Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the seventh child and third daughter of Henry II and Catherine de Medici. Three of her brothers would become kings of France, Francis II, Charles IX and her sister, Elisabeth of Valois, would become the third wife of King Philip II of Spain. In 1565, her mother Catherine met with Philip IIs chief minister Duke of Alba at Bayonne in hopes of arranging a marriage between Margaret and Philips son Don Carlos, however, Alba refused any consideration of a dynastic marriage. Margaret was secretly involved with Henry of Guise, the son of the late Duke of Guise, when Catherine found this out, she had her daughter brought from her bed. Catherine and the king then beat her and sent Henry of Guise from court. The marriage of the 19-year-old Margaret to Henry, who had become King of Navarre upon the death of his mother, Jeanne dAlbret, the groom, a Huguenot, had to remain outside the cathedral during the religious ceremony. It was hoped this union would reunite family ties and create harmony between Catholics and the Protestant Huguenots, traditionally believed to have been instigated by Catherine de Medici, the marriage was an occasion on which many of the most wealthy and prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic Paris. Margaret has been credited with saving the lives of several prominent Protestants, including her husband, during the massacre, by keeping them in her rooms, Henry of Navarre had to feign conversion to Catholicism. After more than three years of confinement at court, Henry escaped Paris in 1576, leaving his wife behind, finally granted permission to return to her husband in Navarre, for the next three and a half years Margaret and her husband lived in Pau. Both openly kept other lovers, and they quarrelled frequently, after an illness in 1582, Queen Margaret returned to the court of her brother, Henry III, in Paris. Her brother was soon scandalized by her reputation and behavior, and forced her to leave the court, after long negotiations, she was allowed to return to her husbands court in Navarre, but she received an icy reception. Determined to overcome her difficulties, Queen Margaret masterminded a coup détat and seized power over Agen and she spent several months of fortifying the city, but the citizens of Agen revolted against her, and Queen Margaret fled to the castle of Carlat

Marguerite de Valois
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Detail of painting by Pieter Paul Rubens
Marguerite de Valois
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The young Margaret of Valois, by François Clouet, c. 1560
Marguerite de Valois
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Henry of Navarre and Marguerite of Valois
Marguerite de Valois
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Margaret of Valois age 20, by François Clouet, c. 1573

78.
Joseph Henabery
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Joseph Henabery Omaha, Nebraska, was a US film actor, screenplay writer, and director. Henaberys acting career began in The Joke on Yellentown, Henabery appeared in the D. W. Griffith silent film Birth of a Nation as Abraham Lincoln. From 1914 to 1917 he appeared in seventeen films, Henabery also worked as a second-unit director on Griffiths Intolerance, and supervised the filming of at least one extended sequence that appeared in the film. Throughout the rest of his career, he worked as a director and his career as a director of feature films ended by the late 1930s. Although Henaberys impersonation of Lincoln was a masterpiece of facial makeup, Henabery died on February 18,1976, aged 88, in Los Angeles, California. The Birth of a Nation The Spell of the Poppy Say, young Fellow – director and scenarist Mr

79.
Science fiction on television
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Science fiction first appeared in television programming in the late 1930s, during what is called the Golden Age of Science Fiction. Special effects and other techniques allow creators to present a living visual image of an imaginary world not limited by the constraints of reality. The combination of initial cost and lower maintenance cost pushed producers into building these techniques into the basic concept of a series. The broad term special effects includes all the techniques here, visual effects involve photographic or digital manipulation of the onscreen image, usually done in post-production. Mechanical or physical effects involve props, pyrotechnics, and other methods used during principal photography itself. Some effects involved a combination of techniques, a ray gun might require a pyrotechnic during filming, stunts are another important category of physical effects. In general, all kinds of special effects must be planned during pre-production. Babylon 5 was the first series to use computer-generated imagery, or CGI, for all exterior space scenes, the technology has made this more practical, so that today models are rarely used. In the 1990s, CGI required expensive processors and customized applications, models have been an essential tool in science fiction television since the beginning, when Buck Rogers took flight in spark-scattering spaceships wheeling across a matte backdrop sky. The original Star Trek required an array of models, the USS Enterprise had to be built in several different scales for different needs. Gerry Anderson created a series of using puppets living in a universe of models and miniature sets. ALF depicted an alien living in a family, while Farscape included two puppets as regular characters, in Stargate SG-1, the Asgard characters are puppets in scenes where they are sitting, standing, or lying down. As animation is completely free of the constraints of gravity, momentum, in general, science fiction series are subject to the same financial constraints as other television shows. However, high production costs increase the risk, while limited audiences further complicate the business case for continuing production. Star Trek was the first television series to cost more than $100,000 per episode, while Star Trek and this enabled merchandising such as toy lines, animated cartoon adaptations, and other licensing. Creative settings also often call for broader story arcs than is found in mainstream television. Science fiction television producers will sometimes end a season with a cliffhanger episode to attract viewer interest. Dark Angel is one of many shows ending with a scene that left critical questions open when the series was cancelled

Science fiction on television
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A scene from the early American science fiction television program Captain Video which aired from 1949 to 1955.
Science fiction on television
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Robot characters from the Japanese science fiction television series Ganbare!! Robocon were used to decorate this train car.
Science fiction on television
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Fans at a science fiction convention dressed as characters from Star Trek

80.
Doctor Who missing episodes
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There are numerous portions of the long-running British science-fiction television programme Doctor Who that are no longer held by the BBC. Between 1967 and 1978 the BBC routinely deleted archive programmes, for practical reasons. As a result of the cull,97 of 253 episodes from the programmes first six years are missing, primarily from seasons 3 through 5. Many more were considered lost until recovered from various sources, mostly overseas broadcasters, Doctor Who is not unique in its losses, as many broadcasters regularly cleared their archives in this manner. Until the BBC changed its policy in 1978, thousands of hours of programming. Other affected BBC series include Dads Army, Z-Cars, The Wednesday Play, Steptoe and Son, ITV regional franchises also deleted many programmes, including early videotaped episodes of The Avengers. Doctor Who is unusual, however, in each of its 97 missing episodes survives in audio form. Most episodes are also represented by stills or short video clips, furthermore, after careful restoration, all 1970s episodes exist in full colour, which is not always the case for other series. Efforts to locate missing episodes continue, both by the BBC and by fans of the series, recovered episodes have been extensively restored for release on VHS and DVD, surviving soundtracks have been released on cassette and CD. Many missing episodes have had their visuals reconstructed, either through specially commissioned animation or use of surviving footage and this happened for several reasons, primarily the belief that there was no practical value to its retention. The actors union Equity had actively fought against the introduction of TV recording since the 1950s, prior to the development of workable television recording, if a broadcaster wished to repeat a programme, they had to re-hire the actors to perform it again, live, for additional fees. Consequently, recordings whose repeat rights had expired were considered to be of no further use to the broadcasters. Most Doctor Who episodes were made on two-inch videotape for initial broadcast, Enterprises used 16 mm for overseas sales as it was considerably cheaper to buy and easier to transport than videotape. It also circumvented the problem of different countries incompatible video standards, the BBC had no central archive at the time, the Film Library kept programmes that had been made on film, while the Engineering Department was responsible for storing videotapes. BBC Enterprises only kept copies of programmes they deemed commercially exploitable and they had little dedicated storage space, and tended to place piles of film canisters wherever they could find space for them at their Villiers House property. The first Doctor Who master videotapes to be junked were those for the serial The Highlanders, which were erased on 9 March 1967, further erasing and junking of Doctor Who master videotapes by the Engineering Department continued into the 1970s. Eventually, every master videotape of the programmes first 253 episodes was destroyed or wiped, the final 1960s master tapes to be erased were those for the 1968 serial Fury from the Deep, in late 1974. Despite the destruction of these masters, BBC Enterprises held an archive of the series in the form of their 16 mm film telerecording copies until approximately 1972

Doctor Who missing episodes
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Material from missing Doctor Who serials has seen release in books and in audio form on CD, and several episodes have been animated for DVD release. DVDs have also been released of surviving episodes from otherwise-missing serials, and tele-snaps exist of many missing episodes.
Doctor Who missing episodes
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BBC Enterprises Film can containing a 16mm film telerecording print of The Evil of the Daleks, Episode 2.
Doctor Who missing episodes
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The First Doctor (William Hartnell) collapses before his regeneration in The Tenth Planet, Episode 4.
Doctor Who missing episodes
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Bill Burridge as Mr. Quill, in a scene excised by the Australian Film Censorship Board from the missing serial Fury from the Deep

81.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

82.
Henry Chadwick (theologian)
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Henry Chadwick KBE FBA was a British academic and Church of England priest. A leading historian of the church, Chadwick was appointed Regius Professor at both the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. He was a supporter of improved relations with the Roman Catholic Church. Born in Bromley, Kent, Henry Chadwick was the son of a barrister and he had a number of accomplished siblings, Sir John Chadwick served as the British Ambassador to Romania, and the Revd William Owen Chadwick and his other brother also became priests. Despite this, it was one of his sisters he would describe as the brightest of us all. Chadwick was educated at Eton College, where he became a Kings Scholar, although he did not show much aptitude as a Grecian, his lifelong love of music made its first appearance and resulted in his receiving organ lessons from Henry Ley. After leaving Eton, he went to Magdalene College, Cambridge, on a music scholarship, a highlight of his undergraduate musical career was playing a two piano arrangement of Chabriers España with Boris Ord, then organist of Kings College, Cambridge. However, Chadwick chose to further his interest in Evangelical Christianity, from there, he became an assistant master at Wellington College. Chadwick became a Fellow of Queens College, Cambridge, with his appointment as Chaplain in 1946 and he had by now made himself an expert in Patristic Greek, only an inexactness in philology marking his earlier abandonment of Greek for music. Also in 1953 he was appointed co-editor of the Journal of Theological Studies and he held the university appointment of Hulsean Lecturer from 1954–6. Chadwick moved to Oxford in 1959, to take up the position of Regius Professor of Divinity at the young age of 39. He was named a Fellow of the British Academy soon after and he gave a second series of lectures in 1963–4, on Authority in Christian Theology. 1963 also saw him appointed to an early Anglican inquiry into the surrounding the ordination of women. In the 1960s, along with scholars like E. R. Dodds, Peter Brown,1967 saw the publication of his most widely read work, The Early Church, published under the Pelican imprint of Penguin Books. The report ultimately led to changes in the doctrinal affirmations required of Church of England clergy at their ordination or on taking up new appointments, in 1968 he was appointed a vice-president of the British Academy. In 1969, Chadwick was appointed Dean of Christ Church, uniquely a dual role as a cathedral dean, however, during his time as Dean the college benefited from a continued programme of renovation with internal changes that provided more student accommodation. The position gave Chadwick the chance to influence the direction of the cathedral. The new organist, Simon Preston, had plans for improving musical standards

83.
Rue de Rivoli
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Rue de Rivoli is one of the most famous streets of Paris, a commercial street whose shops include the most fashionable names in the world. It bears the name of Napoleons early victory against the Austrian army, at the battle of Rivoli, the rue de Rivoli marked a transitional compromise between an urbanism of prestige monuments and aristocratic squares, and the forms of modern town planning by official regulation. The new street that Napoleon Bonaparte pierced through the heart of Paris took for one side the north wing of the Louvre Palace, which Napoleon extended, for the first time ever, a handsome, regular, wide street would face the north wing of the old palace. Napoleons original section of the street opened up eastward from the Place de la Concorde, the result was a pleasing uniformity, and Napoleons planners extended a similar program, which has resulted in the famous arcaded facades that extend for almost a mile. The restored Bourbon King Charles X continued the rue de Rivoli eastwards from the Louvre, finally, Emperor Napoleon III extended it on into the 17th-century quarter of the Marais. Beneath the rue de Rivoli runs one of the main brick-vaulted oval-sectioned sewers of Paris much-imitated system, at the rear of the garden is the older branch of the Bibliothèque Nationale, in rue Richelieu. North of the rue de Rivoli, at the point where the Grands Boulevards crossed a new square. The Opera Garnier is a magnificent monument to the construction of the Second Empire, just behind the opera house can be found the largest department stores, like the Galeries Lafayette and Printemps. A little further along, towards the Place de la Concorde and he began the building of the street in 1802, it was completed in 1865. A plaque at no.144 commemorates the assassination there of the Huguenot leader Admiral Gaspard de Coligny in the St. Bartholomews Day massacre of 1572, webMuseum Paris History, Rue de Rivoli

84.
Georges Goyau
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Georges Goyau was a French historian and essayist specializing in religious history. With his studies in Roman history he became known as a classical scholar, in 1892 Goyau joined the École Français de Rome, an institute for history, archaeology, and social sciences. In 1893 he wrote Le Pape, les catholiques et la question sociale, bernard Reardon calls his five volume LAllemagne religieuse, a detailed study of religion in German-speaking lands, Goyaus literary achievement. Goyau also composed a number of entries for the Catholic Encyclopedia, in 1922, he was elected a member of the Académie française, where he became secretary in 1938. Apart from his writing he served as a director of the Hospital of the Sisters of Saint Vincent de Paul and he was also a Commander of the Legion of Honour. The Académie established the Georges Goyau History and sociology Prize in his honour, in 1903 Goyau married the writer Lucie Faure, daughter of the French president Félix Faure. His second marriage was to the Catholic writer Juliette Heuzey, who published a book called Dieu premier servi, Georges Goyau, sa vie et son œuvre in his memory in 1947 Rue Georges Goyau in Bernay is named after him. 1891 Le Pape, les catholiques et la question sociale,1893 Le Vatican, les papes et la civilisation. 2 volumes, 1899-1906 LAllemagne religieuse, le Catholicisme,4 volumes, 1905-1909 Sainte Jeanne dArc. 1920 Un grand missionnaire, le cardinal Lavigerie,1926 Bismark et lÉglise, le Kulturkampf This article is based on the corresponding article in French Wikipedia. Jérôme Grondeux, Georges Goyau, Un intellectuel catholique sous la IIIe République

Georges Goyau
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Biography [edit]

85.
H. A. L. Fisher
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Herbert Albert Laurens Fisher OM PC FRS, was an English historian, educator, and Liberal politician. He served as President of the Board of Education in David Lloyd Georges 1916 to 1922 coalition government, Fisher was born in London, the eldest son of Herbert William Fisher, author of Considerations on the Origin of the American War and his wife Mary Louisa Jackson. His sister Adeline Maria Fisher was the first wife of the composer Ralph Vaughan Williams, Fisher was a first cousin of Virginia Woolf and her sister Vanessa Bell. He was educated at Winchester and New College, Oxford, where he graduated with a first class degree in 1888 and was awarded a fellowship, Fisher was a tutor in modern history at the University of Oxford. His publications include Bonapartism, The Republican Tradition in Europe and Napoleon, in September 1912, he was appointed as a member of the Royal Commission on the Public Services in India of 1912–1915. Between 1913 and 1917 he was Vice-Chancellor of the University of Sheffield, in December 1916 Fisher was elected Member of Parliament for Sheffield Hallam and joined the government of David Lloyd George as President of the Board of Education. He was sworn of the Privy Council the same month, in this post he was instrumental in the formulation of the Education Act 1918, which made school attendance compulsory for children up to the age of 14. Fisher was also responsible for the Superannuation Act of 1918, which provided pension provision for all teachers, in 1918 he became MP for the Combined English Universities. There he published a three-volume History of Europe in 1935 and he served on the British Academy, the British Museum, the Rhodes Trustees, the National Trust, the Governing Body of Winchester, the London Library and the BBC. He was awarded the 1927 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for his biography James Bryce, Viscount Bryce of Dechmont, O. M. in 1939 he was appointed first Chairman of the Appellate Tribunal for Conscientious Objectors in England and Wales. Some of his possessions, including his library and some of his clothing, Fishers was obtained, and the corpse used in the deception, dressed in Fishers quality woollen underpants, succeeded in misleading German Intelligence. Fisher married the economist and historian Lettice Ilbert in 1899 and their only child was the British academic, Mary Bennett. Frederic William Maitland Henry James Sumner Maine Paul Vinogradoff The Medieval Empire, Vol.2, studies in Napoleonic Statesmanship, Germany, Oxford, Clarendon Press,1903. The History of England, from the Accession of Henry VII to the Death of Henry VIII, 1485–1547, Longmans, Bonapartism, Six Lectures Delivered in the University of London, Oxford, Clarendon Press,1908. The Republican Tradition in Europe, Methuen & Co.1911, Napoleon, H. Holt and Company,1913. Studies in History and Politics, Oxford, The Clarendon Press,1920, the Common Weal, Oxford, The Clarendon Press,1924. Our New Religion, E. Benn, Limited,1929, also available as pdf download Fustel de Coulanges, The English Historical Review, Vol. V,1890. The Political Writings of Rousseau, The Edinburgh Review, Vol. CCXXIV, N°.457, the Value of Small States, Oxford Pamphlets, N°.17, Oxford University Press,1914