Contents

John Brayne builds the Red Lion theatre just east of the City of London, a playhouse for touring productions and the first known to be purpose-built in the British Isles since Roman times. However, there is little evidence that the theatre survives beyond this summer's season, the only play known to be presented here is The Story of Sampson.[1][2]

Approximate date – Isabella Whitney becomes the earliest identified woman to publish secular poetry in the English language with The Copy of a Letter, Lately Written in Meter by a Young Gentlewoman: to her Unconstant Lover (signed "I.W."), The Admonition by the Author to all Young Gentlewomen: And to all other Maids being in Love and An Order Prescribed, by Is. W., to two of her Younger Sisters Serving in London.[4]

1.
1575 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1575. September 26 – Miguel de Cervantes is captured by Barbary pirates, sir Philip Sidney meets Penelope Devereux, the inspiration for his Astrophel and Stella. The first primer in the Estonian language is published, first printed version of Don Juan Manuels Tales of Count Lucanor appears. It was originally written in 1335

2.
1560s in architecture
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1560 Villa Foscari, one of the Palladian villas of the Veneto, is completed. Wat Xieng Thong Buddhist temple at Luang Prabang in the kingdom of Lan Xang is completed, Construction of the Uffizi in Florence, designed by Giorgio Vasari, begins. Construction of Mexico City Cathedral begins,1561 Saint Basils Cathedral, Moscow, designed by Postnik Yakovlev, is completed. The Tian Yi Ge library in Ningbo is established, 1562–64 Façade of the church of San Francesco della Vigna in Venice, designed by Andrea Palladio, is built. Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri in Rome, 1562–67 - Church of San Pedro and San Pablo, Zacatlán, Sierra Norte de Puebla, Mexico, is built. 1562 - Dome of Basilica of Our Lady of Humility, Pistoia, Tuscany,1563 - Construction of El Escorial palace in Spain, designed by Juan de Herrera, begins. 1564 Vasari Corridor in Florence, designed by Giorgio Vasari, is built, somersal Herbert Hall near Ashbourne, Derbyshire, England, is built. 1565–66 Church of San Giorgio Maggiore in Venice is designed by Palladio, temple of Haw Phra Kaew in Vientiane, Laos, is built. 1565–69 - Church of Santo Stefano dei Cavalieri, Pisa, designed by Giorgio Vasari, is built,1566 The Tomb of Humayun in Delhi, India is completed. Construction of the city of Valletta on Malta, designed by Francesco Laparelli, 1566–67 - Stari Most bridge crossing the Neretva at Mostar in the Ottoman Empire, built by Mimar Hayruddin, is completed. 1567 First Royal Exchange, London, completed as the Bourse, Construction of Villa Capra La Rotonda in Vicenza, designed by Andrea Palladio, begins. 1568 The Palace of Charles V in Madrid, Spain, is completed, Construction begins of, Church of the Gesù in Rome, designed by Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola. Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, Turkey, designed by Mimar Sinan, longleat House in England, designed by Robert Smythson. 1562, Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola - Publication of Regola delli cinque ordini darchitettura,1563, John Shute - Publication of The First and Chief Groundes of Architecture, the first work in English on architecture. 1568, Giorgio Vasari - Second, enlarged, edition published of Le Vite delle più eccellenti pittori, scultori, ed architettori

3.
John Brayne
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John Brayne was a member of the Worshipful Company of Grocers. He built the Red Lion playhouse, and financed, with his brother-in-law, James Burbage and he also leased the George Inn in Whitechapel with a friend, Robert Miles. The latter two ventures, particularly the financing of the Theatre, bankrupted him, and he fell out with both James Burbage and Robert Miles and it was suspected that his death in 1586 was caused by blows received during an altercation with Miles. His widow, Margaret, backed financially by Miles, was involved in litigation with Burbage over Braynes half interest in the Theatre until her own death in 1593. John Brayne, born in about 1541, was the eldest child of Thomas Brayne, a London tailor and he had a sister, Ellen Brayne, who on 23 April 1559 married James Burbage. On 13 March 1554 he was apprenticed to the London grocer John Bull, after completing his apprenticeship he carried on business in Bucklersbury in London, where he also had a house. In 1567 Brayne hired two carpenters to build a playhouse in the yard of the Red Lion, a farmhouse east of Aldgate near Mile End, according to Berry this was the first professional playhouse in the British Isles specifically built for that purpose since Roman times. It consisted of a stage, with scaffolds for seating the audience, the first play scheduled to be performed there was The Story of Sampson, on 8 July 1567, but nothing further is known about the performance or the theatre itself. Braynes earliest financial involvement with his brother-in-law, James Burbage, was in 1568, eight years later, on 13 April 1576, Burbage leased part of the grounds of the dissolved Holywell Priory in Shoreditch from Giles Allen for the purpose of building a playhouse. Brayne sold his business and house in Bucklersbury, and by 1577–8 was no longer active as a grocer, there was no written agreement governing the terms of the partnership, and Brayne and Burbage soon fell out. On 12 July 1578 the arbitrators submitted the articles containing their decision, on 26 September 1579 Burbage borrowed £125 8s 11d from the London grocer John Hyde, in return for which he mortgaged the ground lease of the Theatre for a one-year term. Hyde was not repaid, and the lease was forfeited to Hyde on 27 September 1580. Hyde allowed Burbage to continue operating the Theatre and extended the lease, Hyde had Burbage arrested for debt in June 1582, and tried to put Brayne out as part owner of the Theatre. Meanwhile in January 1580 Brayne had taken a 24-year lease on the George Inn in Whitechapel, in order to evade his creditors for debts incurred in connection with both the Theatre and the George Inn, Brayne signed various deeds of gift of his property. He died in June 1586, allegedly as a result of blows at the hands of Robert Miles, in his will dated 1 July 1578 he left his property to his wife, Margaret, and to his brother-in-law, Edward Stowers of Alphamstone, Essex. Braynes widow, Margaret, initially sued Miles for her share in the George Inn and she then gave birth to a daughter, Katherine, and she and Miles became close friends. Despite this, Miles did not grant her a share in the George Inn, at the time of Braynes death, the only legal documents that established that he had had any financial interest in the Theatre were the two bonds which he had managed to get Burbage to sign. Burbage allowed Margaret Brayne a share of the profits for a short time, in the same year the executors of Robert Gardner, to whom Brayne had made one of his deeds of gift, also sued Burbage

4.
City of London
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The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, the City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London, however, the City of London is not a London borough. The City of London is widely referred to simply as the City and is colloquially known as the Square Mile. Both of these terms are often used as metonyms for the United Kingdoms trading and financial services industries. The name London is now used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 London boroughs and this wider usage of London is documented as far back as 1888, when the County of London was created. The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council and it is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, the current Lord Mayor, as of November 2016, is Andrew Parmley. The City is a business and financial centre. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the primary business centre. London came top in the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index, published in 2008, the insurance industry is focused around the eastern side of the City, around Lloyds building. A secondary financial district exists outside of the City, at Canary Wharf,2.5 miles to the east, the City has a resident population of about 7,000 but over 300,000 people commute to and work there, mainly in the financial services sector. It used to be held that Londinium was first established by merchants as a trading port on the tidal Thames in around 47 AD. However, this date is only supposition, many historians now believe London was founded some time before the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. They base this notion on evidence provided by both archaeology and Welsh literary legend, archaeologists have claimed that as much as half of the best British Iron Age art and metalwork discovered in Britain has been found in the London area. One of the most prominent examples is the famously horned Waterloo Helmet dredged from the Thames in the early 1860s and now exhibited at the British Museum. Also, according to an ancient Welsh legend, a king named Lud son of Heli substantially enlarged and improved a pre-existing settlement at London which afterwards came to be renamed after him, the same tradition relates how this Lud son of Heli was later buried at Ludgate

5.
Coimbra
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Coimbra is a city and a municipality in Portugal. The population at the 2011 census was 143,397, in an area of 319.40 square kilometres, the fourth-largest urban centre in Portugal, it is the largest city of the district of Coimbra, the Centro region and the Baixo Mondego subregion. About 460,000 people live in the Região de Coimbra, comprising 19 municipalities, among the many archaeological structures dating back to the Roman era, when Coimbra was the settlement of Aeminium, are its well-preserved aqueduct and cryptoporticus. Similarly, buildings from the period when Coimbra was the capital of Portugal still remain, during the Late Middle Ages, with its decline as the political centre of the Kingdom of Portugal, Coimbra began to evolve into a major cultural centre. This was in part helped by the establishment the University of Coimbra in 1290. Apart from attracting many European and international students, the university is visited by tourists for its monuments. The city, located on a hill by the Mondego River, was called Aeminium in Roman times and it fell under the influence, administratively, of the larger Roman villa of Conímbriga, until the latter was sacked by the Sueves and Visigoths between 569 and 589 and abandoned. It became the seat of a diocesis, replacing Conímbriga, the limestone table on which the settlement grew has a dominant position overlooking the Mondego, circled by fertile lands irrigated by its waters. Vestiges of this history include the cryptoporticus of the former Roman forum. The move of the settlement and bishopric of Conimbriga to Aeminium resulted in the change to Conimbriga. The first Muslim campaigns that occupied the Iberian peninsula occurred between 711 and 715, with Coimbra capitulating to Musa bin Nusair in 714, remnants of this period include the beginnings of the Almedina, Arrabalde and the fortified palace used by the citys governor. The Christian Reconquista forced Muslim forces to abandon the region temporarily, successively the Moors retook the castle in 987–1064 and again in 1116, capturing two castles constructed to protect the territory, in Miranda da Beira and in Santa Eulália. Henry expanded the frontiers of the County, confronting the Moorish forces, in order to confirm and reinforce the power of the concelho he conceded a formal foral in 1179. The city was encircled by a wall, of which some remnants are still visible like the Almedina Gate. Meanwhile, on the periphery, the municipality began to grow in various agglomerations, notably around the monasteries and convents that developed in Celas, Santa Clara, Santo António dos Olivais. It stood too close to the river, and frequent floods forced the nuns to abandon it in the 17th century, the Queens magnificent Gothic tomb was also transferred to the new convent. The ruins of the old convent were excavated in the 2000s, in the 15th and 16th centuries, during the Age of Discovery, Coimbra was again one of the main artistic centres of Portugal thanks to both local and royal patronage. The University of Coimbra, was founded as a Studium Generale in Lisbon in 1290 by King Dinis I, the University was relocated to Coimbra in 1308, but in 1338 the King D. Afonso IV make the University return to Lisbon

6.
Lisbon
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Lisbon is the capital and the largest city of Portugal, with a population of 552,700 within its administrative limits in an area of 100.05 km². Its urban area extends beyond the administrative limits with a population of around 2.7 million people. About 2.8 million people live in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area and it is continental Europes westernmost capital city and the only one along the Atlantic coast. Lisbon lies in the western Iberian Peninsula on the Atlantic Ocean, the westernmost areas of its metro area is the westernmost point of Continental Europe. Lisbon is recognised as a city because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, education. It is one of the economic centres on the continent, with a growing financial sector. Humberto Delgado Airport serves over 20 million passengers annually, as of 2015, and the motorway network, the city is the 7th-most-visited city in Southern Europe, after Istanbul, Rome, Barcelona, Madrid, Athens and Milan, with 1,740,000 tourists in 2009. The Lisbon region contributes with a higher GDP PPP per capita than any region in Portugal. Its GDP amounts to 96.3 billion USD and thus $32,434 per capita, the city occupies 32nd place of highest gross earnings in the world. Most of the headquarters of multinationals in the country are located in the Lisbon area and it is also the political centre of the country, as its seat of Government and residence of the Head of State. Lisbon is one of the oldest cities in the world, julius Caesar made it a municipium called Felicitas Julia, adding to the name Olissipo. Ruled by a series of Germanic tribes from the 5th century, in 1147, the Crusaders under Afonso Henriques reconquered the city and since then it has been a major political, economic and cultural centre of Portugal. Unlike most capital cities, Lisbons status as the capital of Portugal has never been granted or confirmed officially – by statute or in written form. Its position as the capital has formed through constitutional convention, making its position as de facto capital a part of the Constitution of Portugal. It has one of the warmest winters of any metropolis in Europe, the typical summer season lasts about four months, from June to September, although also in April temperatures sometimes reach around 25 °C. Although modern archaeological excavations show a Phoenician presence at this location since 1200 BC, another conjecture based on ancient hydronymy suggests that the name of the settlement derived from the pre-Roman appellation for the Tagus, Lisso or Lucio. Lisbons name was written Ulyssippo in Latin by the geographer Pomponius Mela and it was later referred to as Olisippo by Pliny the Elder and by the Greeks as Olissipo or Olissipona. The Indo-European Celts invaded in the 1st millennium BC, mixing with the Pre-Indo-European population and this indigenous settlement maintained commercial relations with the Phoenicians, which would account for the recent findings of Phoenician pottery and other material objects

7.
Lope de Rueda
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Lope de Rueda was a Spanish dramatist and author, regarded by some as the best of his era. A very versatile writer, he wrote comedies, farces. He was the precursor to what is considered the age of Spanish literature. He was born early in the century in Seville, where, according to Cervantes. His works were issued posthumously in 1567 by Timoneda, who toned down certain passages in the texts and his works have been reprinted by the marqués de Fuensanta del Valle in the Colección de libros raros curiosos, vols. xxiii. and xxiv. Nineteen of the 26 pasos were translated into English between 1980 and 1990 by Joan Bucks Hansen, and staged by Steve Hansen and the St. George Street Players of St. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Rueda

8.
Ottoman Serbia
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The territory of what is now the Republic of Serbia was part of the Ottoman Empire throughout the Early Modern period. Ottoman culture significantly influenced the region, in architecture, cuisine, language, and dress, especially in arts, in the 14th and 15th centuries, the Serbian Despotate was subdued by the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans. The Ottomans defeated the Serbs at the Battle of Maritsa in 1371, the most powerful of these, Tsar Lazar, a Duke of present-day central Serbia, stood against the Ottomans at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. The result was indecisive, but it resulted in the subsequent fall of Serbia, Stefan Lazarević, the son of Lazar, succeeded as ruler, but had by 1394 become an Ottoman vassal. In 1402 he renounced Ottoman rule and became an Hungarian ally, in 1453, the Ottomans conquered Constantinople, and in 1458 Athens was taken. In 1459, Serbia was annexed, Greece as well, a year later, several minor, unsuccessful and short-lived revolts were conducted against Ottoman rule mostly with the help of the Habsburgs,1594, 1688–1691, 1718–1739 and 1788. In 1799, the took over the Sanjak of Smederevo, renouncing the Sultan. In 1804, they murdered the most notable intellectuals and nobles, in 1813, Serbs suffered a huge defeat, an unsuccessful rebellion followed in 1814, and in 1815 the Second Serbian Uprising began. In 1817, Serbia was de facto independent, the article deals with the history, culture and structure of Serbs in the Ottoman Empire. This battle pitted vassal troops commanded by Prince Lazar against the Turkish Sultan Murad I, according to Serbian folk tradition, the contest ended with the legendary sudden departure of Brankovićs Serbian troops. Obilić himself was executed by the sultans Janissary bodyguards as a response. The Battle of Kosovo defined the fate of Serbia, because after that it had no force capable of standing up to the Turks. This was a period marked by the rule of Prince Lazars son — despot Stefan Lazarević — a true European-style knight, a military leader. Along with his cousin Đurađ Branković, he moved the capital north to the newly built fortified town of Smederevo, the Turks continued their conquest until they finally seized all of northern Serbian territory in 1459 when Smederevo fell into their hands. The only free Serbian territories were parts of Bosnia and Zeta, after the fall of the Bosnian kingdom in 1496, Serbia was ruled by the Ottoman Empire for almost three centuries. A Serbian principality under Hungarian protection was created after the fall of the Serbian despotate by the Brankovics in what is now Slavonia, Vojvodina, the state spent its entirety fighting the Ottomans and represented the continuation of what was left of the Serbian Kingdom. It fell in 1540 when the Ottoman conquest of the Serbian lands, from the 14th century onward an increasing number of Serbs began migrating north to the region today known as Vojvodina, which was then under the rule of the Kingdom of Hungary. The Hungarian kings encouraged the immigration of Serbs to the kingdom, therefore, the Serb population of this region highly increased

9.
Bishop of the Isles
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The Bishop of the Isles or Bishop of Sodor was the ecclesiastical head of the Diocese of Sodor, one of Scotlands thirteen medieval bishoprics. The bishopric, encompassing both the Hebrides and Mann, probably traces its origins as a unity to the careers of Olaf, King of the Isles. Previously, there had been numerous bishoprics, and recorded bishoprics include Kingarth, Iona, Skye, there were very likely numerous others. Kingarth was a church on the Isle of Bute, supposedly founded by Saint Chattan, three abbots are known, but only two bishops. Sadly, little is known about the abbey, bishopric and individual clerics, the list of bishops known to have ruled the whole of what became the Diocese of the Isles. The bishopric of the Isles became divided, primarily because the see became divided between the kings of England and Scotland, the English had taken over Mann, leaving the other islands to the north under Scottish overlordship. Anderson, Alan Orr, Early Sources of Scottish History, AD 500–1286,2 Vols, Anderson, Alan Orr, Scottish Annals from English Chroniclers, AD 500–1286, republished, Marjorie Anderson Dowden, John, Thomson, John Maitland, ed. E. R. Bishops in the Isles before 1203, Bibliography and Biographical Lists, in The Innes Review, Volume 45,1994, pp. 99–119 Watt, D. E. R. Murray, A. L. eds

10.
John Knox
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John Knox was a Scottish minister, theologian, and writer who was a leader of the Reformation and is considered the founder of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. He is believed to have been educated at the University of St Andrews, influenced by early church reformers such as George Wishart, he joined the movement to reform the Scottish church. He was caught up in the ecclesiastical and political events that involved the murder of Cardinal Beaton in 1546 and he was taken prisoner by French forces the following year and exiled to England on his release in 1549. While in exile, Knox was licensed to work in the Church of England and he exerted a reforming influence on the text of the Book of Common Prayer. In England, he met and married his first wife, Margery Bowes, when Mary Tudor ascended the throne and re-established Roman Catholicism, Knox was forced to resign his position and leave the country. Knox moved to Geneva and then to Frankfurt, in Geneva, he met John Calvin, from whom he gained experience and knowledge of Reformed theology and Presbyterian polity. He created a new order of service, which was adopted by the reformed church in Scotland. He left Geneva to head the English refugee church in Frankfurt but he was forced to leave over differences concerning the liturgy, on his return to Scotland, Knox led the Protestant Reformation in Scotland, in partnership with the Scottish Protestant nobility. The movement may be seen as a revolution, since it led to the ousting of Mary of Guise, Knox helped write the new confession of faith and the ecclesiastical order for the newly created reformed church, the Kirk. He continued to serve as the leader of the Protestants throughout Marys reign. In several interviews with the Queen, Knox admonished her for supporting Catholic practices, when she was imprisoned for her alleged role in the murder of her husband Lord Darnley and King James VI was enthroned in her stead, he openly called for her execution. He continued to preach until his final days, John Knox was born sometime between 1505 and 1515 in or near Haddington, the county town of East Lothian. His father, William Knox, was a merchant, All that is known of his mother is that her maiden name was Sinclair and that she died when John Knox was a child. Their eldest son, William, carried on his fathers business, Knox was probably educated at the grammar school in Haddington. In this time, the priesthood was the path for those whose inclinations were academic rather than mercantile or agricultural. He proceeded to further studies at the University of St Andrews or possibly at the University of Glasgow and he studied under John Major, one of the greatest scholars of the time. Knox first appears in records as a priest and a notary in 1540. Rather than taking up duties in a parish, he became tutor to two sons of Hugh Douglas of Longniddry

11.
Goidelic languages
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The Goidelic /ɡɔɪˈdɛlɪk/ or Gaelic languages form one of the two groups of Insular Celtic languages, the other being the Brittonic languages. Goidelic languages historically formed a dialect continuum stretching from Ireland through the Isle of Man to Scotland, there are three modern Goidelic languages, Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx, the last of which died out in the 20th century but has since been revived to some degree. The word Gaelic by itself is used to refer to Scottish Gaelic and is thus ambiguous. The names used in the languages themselves are derived from Old Irish Goídelc, the medieval mythology of the Lebor Gabála Érenn places its origin in an eponymous ancestor of the Gaels, and inventor of the language, Goídel Glas. Medieval Gaelic literature tells us that the kingdom of Dál Riata emerged in western Scotland during the 6th century, the traditional view was that Dál Riata was founded by Irish migrants, but this is no longer universally accepted. Dál Riata grew in size and influence, and Gaelic language, the oldest written Goidelic language is Primitive Irish, which is attested in Ogham inscriptions from about the 4th century. The forms of speech are very close, and often identical, to the forms of Gaulish recorded before. Classical Gaelic, otherwise known as Early Modern Irish, covers the period from the 13th to the 18th century and this is often called Classical Irish, while Ethnologue gives the name Hiberno-Scottish Gaelic to this standardised written language. As long as written language was the norm, Ireland was considered the Gaelic homeland to the Scottish literati. Later orthographic divergence has resulted in standardised pluricentristic orthographies, Manx orthography, which was introduced in the 16th and 17th centuries, was based on English and Welsh practice and so never formed part of this literary standard. Irish is one of the Republic of Irelands two official languages along with English, historically the predominant language of the island, it is now mostly spoken in parts of the south, west, and northwest of Ireland. At present, the Gaeltachtaí are primarily found in Counties Cork, Donegal, Mayo, Galway, Kerry, in the Republic of Ireland 1,774,437 regard themselves as able to speak Irish. Of these,77,185 speak Irish on a daily basis outside school, the 2001 census in Northern Ireland showed that 167,487 people had some knowledge of Irish. Combined, this means that one in three people on the island of Ireland can understand Irish to some extent, although a large percentage of these do not speak it fluently. The Irish language has been recognised as an official and working language of the European Union, Irelands national language was the twenty-third to be given such recognition by the EU and previously had the status of a treaty language. Some people in the north and west of mainland Scotland and most people in the Hebrides still speak Scottish Gaelic, but the language has been in decline. There are now believed to be approximately 60,000 native speakers of Scottish Gaelic in Scotland and its historical range was much larger. For example, it was the language of most of the rest of the Scottish Highlands until little more than a century ago

12.
Latin script
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Latin script is used as the standard method of writing in most Western and Central European languages, as well as in many languages in other parts of the world. Latin script is the basis for the largest number of alphabets of any writing system and is the most widely adopted writing system in the world, Latin script is also the basis of the International Phonetic Alphabet. The 26 most widespread letters are the contained in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The script is either called Roman script or Latin script, in reference to its origin in ancient Rome, in the context of transliteration, the term romanization or romanisation is often found. Unicode uses the term Latin as does the International Organization for Standardization, the numeral system is called the Roman numeral system, and the collection of the elements, Roman numerals. The numbers 1,2,3. are Latin/Roman script numbers for the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, the Latin alphabet spread, along with Latin, from the Italian Peninsula to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The Latin script also came into use for writing the West Slavic languages and several South Slavic languages, the speakers of East Slavic languages generally adopted Cyrillic along with Orthodox Christianity. The Serbian language uses both scripts, with Cyrillic predominating in official communication and Latin elsewhere, as determined by the Law on Official Use of the Language and Alphabet. As late as 1500, the Latin script was limited primarily to the languages spoken in Western, Northern, the Orthodox Christian Slavs of Eastern and Southeastern Europe mostly used Cyrillic, and the Greek alphabet was in use by Greek-speakers around the eastern Mediterranean. The Arabic script was widespread within Islam, both among Arabs and non-Arab nations like the Iranians, Indonesians, Malays, and Turkic peoples, most of the rest of Asia used a variety of Brahmic alphabets or the Chinese script. It is used for many Austronesian languages, including the languages of the Philippines, Latin letters served as the basis for the forms of the Cherokee syllabary developed by Sequoyah, however, the sound values are completely different. In the late 19th century, the Romanians returned to the Latin alphabet, under French rule and Portuguese missionary influence, a Latin alphabet was devised for the Vietnamese language, which had previously used Chinese characters. In 1928, as part of Mustafa Kemal Atatürks reforms, the new Republic of Turkey adopted a Latin alphabet for the Turkish language, kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Iranian-speaking Tajikistan, and the breakaway region of Transnistria kept the Cyrillic alphabet, chiefly due to their close ties with Russia. In the 1930s and 1940s, the majority of Kurds replaced the Arabic script with two Latin alphabets, although the only official Kurdish government uses an Arabic alphabet for public documents, the Latin Kurdish alphabet remains widely used throughout the region by the majority of Kurdish-speakers. In 2015, the Kazakh government announced that the Latin alphabet would replace Cyrillic as the system for the Kazakh language by 2025. In the course of its use, the Latin alphabet was adapted for use in new languages, sometimes representing phonemes not found in languages that were written with the Roman characters. These new forms are given a place in the alphabet by defining an alphabetical order or collation sequence, a digraph is a pair of letters used to write one sound or a combination of sounds that does not correspond to the written letters in sequence. Examples are ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ng⟩, ⟨rh⟩, ⟨sh⟩ in English, a trigraph is made up of three letters, like the German ⟨sch⟩, the Breton ⟨c’h⟩ or the Milanese ⟨oeu⟩

13.
Edinburgh
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Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls

14.
Joan Perez de Lazarraga
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Joan Perez de Lazarraga, Lord of Larrea Tower was a Basque writer, who was born and died in Larrea, Álava. Lazarraga, the lord of Larrea, and a member of a family originating in Oñati, as a writer, he was one of the few Renaissance authors writing in Basque. In around 1567, he left a collection of papers, together forming a pastoral novel titled Silbero, Silbia, Doristeo. In 2004, the manuscript was discovered in a shop in Madrid. It is one of very few Basque-language texts to have survived from the 16th century, the Foral Government of Gipuzkoa purchased the text and made it available via the internet. Patri Urkizu prepared the first edition, titled Dianea and Couplets and this first edition appeared as a collection of papers and was made quickly, without the necessary checks, so a group of Basque experts is preparing a better edition. Bernard Etxepare - another Renaissance Basque writer High-resolutions images of the manuscript together with transcription

15.
Basque language
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Basque is the language spoken by the Basques. Linguistically, Basque is unrelated to the languages of Europe and indeed, as a language isolate. The Basques are indigenous to, and primarily inhabit, the Basque Country, the Basque language is spoken by 27% of Basques in all territories. Of these, 93% are in the Spanish area of the Basque Country, native speakers live in a contiguous area that includes parts of four Spanish territories and the three ancient provinces in France. However, in those Basque-speaking regions that supported the uprising the Basque language was more than merely tolerated, overall, in the 1960s and later, the trend reversed and education and publishing in Basque began to flourish. As a part of process, a standardized form of the Basque language. Besides its standardised version, the five historic Basque dialects are Biscayan, Gipuzkoan, and Upper Navarrese in Spain and they take their names from the historic Basque provinces, but the dialect boundaries are not congruent with province boundaries. Euskara Batua was created so that Basque language could be easily understood by all Basque speakers—in formal situations. In both Spain and France, the use of Basque for education varies from region to region, a language isolate, Basque is believed to be one of the few surviving pre-Indo-European languages in Europe, and the only one in Western Europe. Basque has adopted a good deal of its vocabulary from the Romance languages, the Basque alphabet uses the Latin script. In Basque, the name of the language is officially Euskara, three etymological theories of the name Euskara are taken seriously by linguists and Vasconists. In French, the language is normally called basque, though in recent times euskara has become common, Spanish has a greater variety of names for the language. Today, it is most commonly referred to as el vasco, la lengua vasca, both terms, vasco and basque, are inherited from Latin ethnonym Vascones, which in turn goes back to the Greek term οὐασκώνους, an ethnonym used by Strabo in his Geographica. The Spanish term Vascuence, derived from Latin vasconĭce, has acquired negative connotations over the centuries and is not well-liked amongst Basque speakers generally, Basque is geographically surrounded by Romance languages but is a language isolate unrelated to them. It is the last remaining descendant of one of the languages of Western Europe. Consequently, its prehistory may not be reconstructible by means of the comparative method except by applying it to differences between dialects within the language. Little is known of its origins, but a form of the Basque language likely was present in Western Europe before the arrival of the Indo-European languages to the area. Others find this unlikely, see the aizkora controversy, Latin inscriptions in Gallia Aquitania preserve a number of words with cognates in the reconstructed proto-Basque language, for instance, the personal names Nescato and Cison

16.
Magdeburg Centuries
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The Magdeburg Centuries is an ecclesiastical history, divided into thirteen centuries, covering thirteen hundred years, ending in 1298, it was first published from 1559 to 1574. It was compiled by several Lutheran scholars in Magdeburg, known as the Centuriators of Magdeburg, the chief of the Centuriators was Matthias Flacius. Due to its revolutionary critical method of presenting history, it is the basis of all modern church history and it is said that Baronius undertook his Annales Ecclesiastici purely to oppose the Magdeburg Centuriators. The Magdeburg Centuries demonstrates the continuity of the Christian faith throughout the ages, as the Centuries put it, Church history shows a perpetual agreement in the teaching of each article of faith in all ages. The view of the work is generally pessimistic after the century, in keeping with the writers objective of presenting the origins. Another characteristic of the work is the use of primary sources rather than secondary or tertiary ones. In order to accomplish this, scholars traveled and borrowed manuscripts from all over Europe, with such diverse sources, one might expect a fractured or incoherent presentation of history. Instead, it provides a perspective that is independent from any of its sources, even though they are as wide ranging as Gregory of Nazianzus. Catholics have dissented from controversial historical arguments in the Centuries, examples of controversial claims made in the Centuries, in their effort to discredit the papacy, include identifying the pope as the Anti-Christ, and the legend of Pope Joan. The first three volumes of the work appeared in 1559 at Basel. The originator of the idea and the spirit of the organization which produced the work was Matthias Vlacich, also known as Francovich. All attempts to restore peace failed, and the University of Jena, after Martin Luthers death in 1546, anti-Catholic controversy tended to lose its dogmatic character and to become historical. Some four hundred anti-papal witnesses were cited, Pope Gregory I, the German princes, and the burghers particularly of Augsburg and Nuremberg, helped him generously, but no support was forthcoming from the followers of Melanchthon. He travelled through Germany in search of material while his co-worker, Marcus Wagner, searched the libraries of Austria, Bavaria, Scotland, when approved, the materials were worked up into chapters and again submitted before the final form was fair-copied. Even when at Jena, and during his subsequent wanderings, Flacius retained the direction of the work, each century was systematically treated under sixteen headings bearing uniform titles in the various volumes. A third edition appeared at Nuremberg 1757-1765, but did not get beyond the fifth century, baudouin, Flacius, and the Plan for the Magdeburg Centuries Herbermann, Charles, ed. Centuriators of Magdeburg

17.
Bible translations into Welsh
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The Beibl Cymraeg Newydd was published in 1988 and revised in 2004. Beibl. net is a new translation in colloquial Welsh which was recently completed, however, Professor Glanmor Williams dismisses the theory that the whole Bible had been translated into Welsh before William Morgans Bible appeared in 1588. Following the English Reformation, translations were made from the Greek versions, the New Testament translation of William Salesbury was printed in 1567 by Humphrey Toy. Salesburys New Testament was followed by William Morgans translation of the whole Bible in 1588, Morgan soon began work on a revision of his 1588 Bible, which contained a number of printing errors. The revised version of the Bible was published in 1620 and it occupies a similar place in the Welsh language to that of the venerated King James Version in English. An original copy of the Welsh Bible is displayed in St Asaph Cathedral, in St Asaph and it was used at the investiture of Prince Charles as Prince of Wales in 1969. The translation of the Bible into Welsh was important to the survival of the Welsh language and it had the effect, along with the Welsh translation of the Book of Common Prayer, of conferring status on Welsh as a liturgical language and a vehicle for worship. This in turn contributed to the continued use as a means of everyday communication down to the present day. Today the William Morgan Bible is still printed by the Trinitarian Bible Society, a revision, Y Beibl Cymraeg Newydd Diwygiedig, was released in March 2004. Professor John Tudno Williams and Professor S. I. Enoch were members of the New Testament Panel, the revision received attention after it was revealed that the new Bibles were printed and typeset in Korea and Scotland, respectively. This led Welsh Assembly member Nick Bourne to wonder why production wasnt carried out in Wales, both the William Morgan and BCN versions are in literary Welsh, a translation in a more colloquial register was made by Arfon Jones as part of the beibl. net project. The complete Bible was printed in 2015 and is available from the Bible Society and it is also hosted in the Digital Bible Library. It is available on-line at bibles. org and for the YouVersion app, the text of Y Beibl Cymraeg Newydd is available as a module for the e-Sword program. Mary Jones Richardson, Ruth Elizabeth,2007, Mistress Blanche Queen Elizabeth Is Confidante, Richardson, Ruth Elizabeth, Blanche Parry & Queen Elizabeth I2012 calendar has frontispiece of Welsh Bible 1588, see website, www. blancheparry. com. Iwan Rhys Jones, C. H. Dodd and the Welsh Bible, A Fading Influence, The Expository Times,119,8, the Bible in Welsh/Beibl Cymraeg, Beibl Cymraeg Newydd Welsh language Bible of 1588 View digital images of the entire Bible online. Other articles, BBC news story on the Revised New Welsh Bible History Today article, William Morgan and the Welsh Bible E. Wyn James, Bala and the Bible, Thomas Charles, Ann Griffiths and Mary Jones

Latin or Roman script is a set of graphic signs (script) based on the letters of the classical Latin alphabet, which is …

Image: A Specimen by William Caslon

The distribution of the Latin script. The dark green areas show the countries where the Latin script is the sole main script. Light green shows countries where Latin co-exists with other scripts. Latin-script alphabets are sometimes extensively used in areas coloured grey due to the use of unofficial second languages, such as French in Algeria and English in Egypt, and to Latin transliteration of the official script, such as pinyin in China.