Few regions of the world were free of military conflict during 1999. In Europe the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which had won the Cold War without firing a shot, launched a 78-day bombing campaign against Serbia in an effort to stop the government of Yugoslav Pres. Slobodan Milosevic from mistreating ethnic Albanians in the province of Kosovo. Russia once again engaged in military operations against the breakaway republic of Chechnya. India and Pakistan once more exchanged blows over Kashmir. The long-running civil wars in Afghanistan and Sri Lanka showed no signs of resolution. In Africa neighbours Ethiopia and Eritrea disputed a border region, while Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Congo [Kinshasa]), and Sierra Leone all were battlegrounds during the year. In Latin America the civil war in Colombia dragged on, while in Asia there were skirmishes between the two Koreas, and a UN peacekeeping force was called in to curb the violence in the Indonesian province of East Timor. The UN Security Council also authorized a peacekeeping force for Sierra Leone and opened negotiations on a 15,000-strong force for Congo (Kinshasa).

Arms Control and Disarmament

The U.S. Senate dealt a major blow to the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty when it rejected it in October. Opponents of the treaty, supported by a CIA report that said the agency could not precisely monitor low-level nuclear tests by Russia, charged that it was unverifiable. Supporters had warned that without U.S. ratification, known or potential nuclear powers such as India, Pakistan, and North Korea were unlikely to sign the treaty.

There was little progress during the year in other nuclear-arms negotiations. While Russia accepted a U.S. proposal to discuss possible amendments to the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, the Russians remained adamantly opposed to any significant changes. Russian spokesmen charged that U.S. missile defense legislation and testing indicated that the U.S. planned to abrogate the treaty unilaterally and warned that such an action would undermine all nuclear arms agreements between the two countries. Disturbed by this issue and by NATO’s actions against Yugoslavia, the Russian legislature continued to refuse to ratify the 1993 Strategic Arms Reduction Talks II treaty.

While the 1997 Ottawa Landmines Convention, which banned the use, stockpiling, production, or transfer of antipersonnel land mines, entered into force on March 1, it did not prevent the continued use of those weapons. Both ethnic Serbs and ethnic Albanians planted mines during the civil war in Kosovo, and Russian troops used them against Islamic insurgents in Dagestan.

In March the 30 signatories of the Conventional Forces in Europe treaty agreed on the basic steps they would take to “adapt” the Cold War-era treaty to the current security environment in Europe. The major change would be to replace the treaty’s bloc-to-bloc limits with a system of national and territorial ceilings. The new treaty was signed during the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe’s (OSCE’s) November summit meeting in Istanbul after Russia pledged to give up two of its military bases in Georgia and to withdraw its troops from Moldova. Russia admitted that because of the unrest in the Caucasus it had more military equipment in the treaty’s flanks region than was allowed. Several signatories said they would not ratify the new agreement until the Russians met their obligations in that region.

United States

The $288.8 billion defense authorization bill for fiscal 2000, $8.3 billion more than the administration had requested, included $56 billion for weapons procurement. The bill also provided for continued development of missile defense systems. Pres. Bill Clinton in July had signed a bill calling for the deployment of a ground-based national missile defense system “as soon as technologically possible.” During the year there were successes in testing system components. The Theater High-Altitude Area Defense missile scored successful intercepts in June and August after six consecutive failures. In October a prototype interceptor for the national missile defense system launched from Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands successfully intercepted a target Minuteman intercontinental ballistic missile that had been launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base, California.

The $267.8 billion defense appropriation bill provided $3.3 billion for weapons and programs that the military had not requested, including extra money for air force C-17 transports and F-15 fighters and for a navy amphibious assault ship. In a surprise move the House of Representatives vetoed production funds for the air force’s F-22 Raptor program, but money for continued development and evaluation was returned to the final version of the bill. The plane would have to pass stiff testing requirements before it could enter production.

A study commissioned by the Department of Defense said that it was possible that the mysterious “Gulf War syndrome” could have been caused by a drug given to troops during the 1991 conflict. Some 250,000 troops had received doses of an experimental drug, pyridostigmine bromide, to protect them against possible Iraqi use of Soman nerve gas. Defense officials reported that the program to inoculate all service personnel with anthrax vaccine was going well but admitted that several hundred had refused the mandatory shots.

Retention and recruiting continued to be a problem for all the services. In an attempt to meet its recruiting goals as the fiscal year drew to a close, the army offered a special $6,000 bonus to new enlistees. The air force, which had been forced to freeze retirements and resignations for some 120,000 personnel during the Kosovo bombing campaign, ended the fiscal year more than 10,000 persons under its mandated strength. In an effort to make military service more attractive, Congress voted a 4.8% pay raise for the military to take effect on Jan. 1, 2000. This figure was 0.4% higher than the Clinton administration’s request and would make the pay hike the largest for the military in 18 years.

The U.S. Joint Forces Command was established in October, replacing the U.S. Atlantic Command. In addition to assuming the latter’s geographic area of responsibility, the new command would be the lead agency in developing the training, doctrine, experimentation, and procedures for military operations involving more than one service. It was also given the mission of providing military assistance to U.S. civil authorities in the event of an attack or accident involving weapons of mass destruction. Concern about the possibility of “cyberattacks” against military computer networks prompted the creation of a Joint Task Force for Computer Network Defense within the U.S. Space Command.

The pilot of a U.S. Marine Corps jet that had caused the death of 20 skiers in Italy when the aircraft clipped the cable of their gondola in February 1998 was acquitted of manslaughter by a court-martial in March. He was, however, subsequently convicted of obstruction of justice for having helped destroy a videotape made during the flight and was sentenced to six months in prison. He and the plane’s navigator were also dismissed from the marines. After press reports that U.S. soldiers had massacred hundreds of South Korean villagers near the village of No Gun Ri in July 1950, early in the Korean War, Secretary of Defense William Cohen in October ordered an investigation of the allegations.

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