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Captive breeding programmes for the Asian elephant Elephas maximus have failed to establish self-sustaining zoo populations. Birth rates are low and calf mortality rates are high. The zoo population is widely dispersed, with few animals being moved on breeding loan. New techniques may increase birth rates but current predictions suggest demographic extinction within 50 years. It would be difficult to justify importing elephants from sustainable zoo reserves in Asia to participate in ex situ breeding programmes where reproductive success is low. Zoos should either urgently regroup animals to form breeding units, or accept that Asian elephants will die out in zoos and that funds should be diverted to in situ conservation projects.

The real role of zoos in the conservation of threatened animals is increasingly coming under public scrutiny, and this is perhaps natural in the case of intelligent, charismatic animals such as elephants.

Since my summary of the global fate of Asian elephants in zoos (this issue) was written Clubb & Mason (2002) have published a review of the welfare of zoo elephants in Europe, commissioned by the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in the UK.

Between 1998 and 2001 I carried out surveys in four areas in the Baltistan district of the Northern Areas of Pakistan to estimate the population of the snow leopard and to examine the threats to its future conservation. I estimate that a total of 36–50 snow
leopards are present in the areas surveyed. Based on the availability of suitable snow leopard habitat and of its prey species, I estimate that 90–120 snow leopards are potentially present in Baltistan and 300–420 throughout its range within Pakistan's borders. Although this estimate is higher than extrapolations based on earlier surveys, the long-term future of the snow leopard is under threat. This is mainly due to retaliatory killings by farmers, and poaching for pelts and other body parts. Species-focused conservation policies, particularly those targeting ungulates for the promotion of trophy hunting, may constitute an additional threat to snow leopard conservation in the region. However, all forms of threats to the snow leopard in Baltistan appear to emanate from the relatively poor economic conditions of the local people.

Kerinci Seblat National Park (KSNP) is the largest protected area in which Asian tapir Tapirus indicus occurs. Data collected during 3 years of biodiversity surveys indicated that KSNP is one of the most important remaining areas for Asian tapir. Evidence of tapirs was collected by photo-trapping, recording of tapir signs, and interviewing local people. Photo-trapping was carried out in four locations, each representing a different forest type. The results showed that the Asian tapir is widespread throughout the Park and found in a variety of habitats, from montane cloud forests to the degraded fragments of remaining lowland forest. Although formerly believed to be solitary, tapirs were often photo-trapped in pairs. Repeat ‘recapture’ of the same individuals suggests that these pairings may be of long duration. Evidence of distribution and threats throughout the Park and adjacent forests was collected to produce a greater understanding of how best to safeguard the future of this species in KSNP. Deliberate hunting of tapirs in KSNP was found to be rare, and habitat loss and fragmentation poses the most serious threat.

The Sumatran tiger, categorized as Critically Endangered on the 2002 IUCN Red List, is threatened by poaching for domestic and international markets, by prey depletion from human hunting and by habitat loss from illegal and commercial logging, oil palm production, pioneer farming, mining operations and forest fires. Kerinci Seblat National Park (KSNP) in west-central Sumatra still has large blocks of forest that support tiger populations. In this paper we present information on photo-trapping and tiger distribution in KSNP and adjoining forest. Tigers were found to be present in all habitat types across KSNP. The poaching pressures on tigers and their prey species were evaluated from confiscations of snare traps by Tiger Protection and Conservation Units (TPCU). Poaching pressures were found to be highest for muntjac, then sambar, tiger, and serow and mouse deer. We determined the effectiveness of TPCU patrol size from the number of arrests, and chainsaw and snare trap confiscations per patrol. The success of forest patrols increased with the number of TPCU staff per patrol. We looked at general law enforcement for KSNP, which appeared to be inadequate. To reduce the threat posed by poaching and illegal logging extra TPCU staff are required for patrols, and extra patrol units are required for the northern and southern sections of the Park. In KSNP it is necessary to monitor habitat loss, establish an unambiguous scheme to mitigate human-tiger conflict, and develop a photo-trapping programme to monitor the tiger population.

The Sumatran orang-utan Pongo abelii is categorized as Critically Endangered on the 2002 IUCN Red List. Although several reports have suggested that the species occurs in the region to the south of Lake Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia, their distribution is poorly known. In order to determine whether orang-utans still occur in this region we surveyed areas in which orang-utans have been reported as well as a number of other forested areas. Orang-utan signs were found in only two areas. This indicates that habitat loss and hunting have recently caused local extinctions. We combine these results with other available information to provide a summary of the current distribution of P. abelii in Sumatra and, based on our surveys, previous population estimates, and estimates of losses, we speculate that only c. 3,500 orang-utans still occur in the wild in Sumatra at the end of 2002.

Kinaka or Chikanda has been eaten by people in parts of Zambia,
northern Malawi and south-western Tanzania for hundreds of years. Prepared from the
boiled root tubers of terrestrial orchids, and principally from species of the
genera Disa, Habenaria and Satyrium, it was formerly a traditional
village delicacy and did not pose a threat to orchid populations. However, the past
decade has witnessed a dramatic rise in demand in Zambia, particularly in urban
areas. This has triggered a burgeoning commercial market and has now prompted
traders to seek tubers from Tanzania's Southern Highlands, an important centre
of endemism for upland species of orchid. The resulting cross-border trade, its
dynamics and the implications for Tanzanian orchids are reported here for the first
time. Whilst all orchid species are in CITES Appendix II, collectors are currently
harvesting between 2.2 and 4.1 million tubers per year for export to, and
consumption in, neighbouring Zambia. As many as 85 species may be at risk from this
trade, and there is evidence that large areas in Ufipa, Mbeya and Kipengere have
already been stripped of their orchids. A decline in traditional Tanzanian
consumption of Kinaka seems to be having little or no impact on harvesting
volumes. Orchid collection across the Southern Highlands is now escalating at a rate
that may be far from sustainable. The consequences for Tanzanian biodiversity and
for one of Africa's most important areas for orchids are profound.

The Ethiopian wolf Canis simensis is endemic to the Afroalpine highlands of Ethiopia. Half of the world population, estimated at c. 500 individuals, lives in the Bale Mountains of southern Ethiopia. Little is known, however, about the presence of wolves and suitable habitat in other Afroalpine ranges. Assessing the distribution, abundance and threats to all extant populations is a conservation priority for this Critically Endangered canid. With these objectives in mind, surveys were conducted between 1997 and 2000 in the little known regions of Arsi, Wollo, Gondar and Shoa. Suitable habitat and resident wolves were found in all regions. Outside Bale the existence of six other isolated populations, including two previously undescribed, was confirmed. All were small, estimated at no more than 50 individuals, and some with <25 individuals. Two population extinctions were documented, and habitat loss to agriculture largely explained local extinctions in small habitat patches. While Bale remains crucial for the long-term persistence of this species, the finding of several small and threatened populations highlights the need for in situ conservation actions to be expanded to other regions of the Ethiopian highlands.

Knowledge of conflicts between people and protected areas is required for the design of sustainable conservation strategies for the management of most protected areas. This study identifies the causes of conflicts between local people and the Bénoué Wildlife Conservation Area (BWCA), which includes the Bénoué National Park, in northern Cameroon. Informal interviews and questionnaires were administered to 114 households in three communities, and to 17 Park staff and seven professional hunting guides. Crop damage affected 86% of the surveyed households, with 31% of crop income lost on average, and with the damage varying significantly between communities. Elephants, baboons, patas monkeys, warthogs and green parrots accounted for 97% of crop damage, with the staple foods maize and millet being most affected. Of the respondents, 28% experienced livestock depredation, with 18% of livestock income lost on average. The civet cat was the main predator. The involvement of local people in illegal activities, their lack of access to natural resources, and damage by wildlife were identified as principal causes of conflicts. Local people, park staff and professional hunting guides had diverse and differing perceptions about the causes of the conflicts, and made various suggestions for reduction of wildlife damage including animal scaring and controlled shooting. We conclude that, under current wildlife policy, conflict between people and BWCA is difficult to resolve. To reduce conflicts and promote sustainable conservation, we suggest co-management of wildlife involving all stakeholders, establishment of crop damage control teams, and promotion of tangible benefits to local people. There may be a requirement for site-specificity inmanagement strategies.

Managers attempting to reduce crop damage by elephants encounter a range of complex technical and social issues. Subsistence farmers bear the costs associated with maintaining wild elephant populations and this can confound interventions designed to improve the livelihood security of farmers. We present a review of the issues that influence the success and failure of methods used to reduce crop damage, and suggest that an integrated, community-based, low-tech approach will be the most sustainable solution to this conflict.

The genuine mahoganies (Swietenia spp., Meliaceae) are the most valuable timber species in Latin America. Only one species, bigleaf mahogany S. macrophylla, is still traded. Because of concerns regarding logging it is regulated under Appendix III of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). We analyze implementation of CITES regulations by the USA, which is the major importer, comparing CITES statistics with data from US Customs to determine if shipments entering the USA have proper CITES documentation. Based on summary data for 1997–1999 (the most recent available), US Customs reports substantially more mahogany imports than CITES, although >90% of imports were accompanied by the proper CITES documents. The discrepancies resulted from (1) changes in shipment volume made after permits were issued, (2) data transcription and unit conversion errors, (3) mistaken inclusion of other species in Customs data, and (4) imports that might or might not have been accompanied by the appropriate CITES documents. The analysis demonstrates that the USA is properly implementing CITES requirements. However, mahogany may be smuggled under different species names. Furthermore, the numerous credible reports of widespread illegal mahogany logging suggest that a substantial proportion of US imports might have been obtained in a manner inconsistent with the domestic laws of the exporting countries. Thus illegally obtained mahogany might have been ‘legalized’ through the CITES process, with Appendix III providing a veneer of legality to what is otherwise illegal wood.

Following the well documented extinctions of many species of endemic tree snail (family Partulidae) throughout French Polynesia, field surveys were undertaken on four islands in the Society archipelago to provide up to date information for the international conservation programme for this group of invertebrates. These surveys have confirmed the loss of all species of Partula in the wild on the Society Islands other than Tahiti. Thirty-three species have been lost from Raiatea, thereby eliminating one of the most outstanding examples of island evolutionary radiation. On Huahine the disappearance of P. varia and P. rosea, used for making lei (shell jewellery), had an economic and social effect on the local community: many of the women of the villages lost their livelihoods, and the artisan's association folded. The seven species of Partula on Moorea were extinct in the wild by the mid 1980s, terminating almost 100 years of biological research. It now seems that the remnant populations of Samoana attenuata discovered only 5 years ago are the only species of partulid still surviving beyond Tahiti on the Society Island group. The mixed species populations in the Te Pari area of Tahiti-Iti are still extant, but the predatory snail Euglandina rosea has now spread to the last valley on the Peninsula that did not have previous evidence of predator activity. On Tahiti-Nui populations of partulid, without the predator, were found near the crest of Mount Tahiti above Orofero Valley. Partulidae are clearly a highly threatened family of invertebrates, and in need of the most intense conservation focus.

Surface fires have recently become a widespread pantropical phenomenon that could trigger revolutionary changes in the structure and functioning of tropical forests and result in a catastrophic impoverishment of the vertebrate fauna. Here we describe the short- and medium-term responses of bird and mammal assemblages to an unprecedented wildfire that scorched the understorey of 1,100 km2 of forest in the Arapiuns-Maró river basin of central Brazilian Amazonia. Fire-induced mortality in the aftermath of this burn was high for a wide range of plant and animal populations monitored. This included an average of 36% of all large trees in eight quarter-hectare plots sampled in burnt forest, which dramatically altered the post-burn understorey light environment. The Arapiuns wildfire also resulted in significant socioeconomic costs to local forest dwellers, namely crop losses and the decimation of many forest resources, including key game vertebrate species pursued by subsistence hunters, vines and woody lianas, and many fruit species. The conservation prospects of the vertebrate fauna in fire-prone Amazonian forests are discussed with respect to the increasingly more frequent and severe El Niño-mediated dry seasons.

Habitat-use by Steller's sea eagle Haliaeetus pelagicus, categorized as Vulnerable on the 2002 IUCN Red List, was studied using satellite-tracking. This migratory species breeds in eastern Russia and mostly overwinters in Hokkaido, Japan, and the southern Kuzíl islands. Locations of eagles were classified as being river, sea, lake, or other habitat. In autumn, eagles mainly used river habitats, probably because of the availability of abundant post-spawn dead salmon. In winter about one third of eagles continued to be located on rivers, with others on sea coasts and lake sides. During the spring migration and breeding season habitat use by adult eagles probably reflected the variety of habitats in which breeding occurs. At that time, sub-adult eagles were located mainly on the sea coast, probably in places where food supply was sufficient and there were few territorial eagles. In Hokkaido 35% of overwintering eagles used mountain areas for at least some time. It is known that eagles using mountain areas in Japan in winter scavenge upon the carcasses of sika deer Cervus nippon killed by hunters, and are thus exposed to possible lead poisoning. The satellite tracking highlights the importance of several habitats within the range of this species, changes in which could affect its conservation status.

Bones were obtained from the temporary camp of raffia palm fibre harvesters in the Parc National d'Ankarafantsika in north-western Madagascar. Based on the context of their deposition, knife-cut marks, and burn marks these animals were consumed for food. The minimum number of individuals (MNI) of wild animals represented in the sample was 49, and included turtles (MNI = 5), birds (MNI = 4), tenrecs (MNI = 4), Carnivora (MNI = 2), lemurs (MNI = 32), and bush pigs (MNI = 2). The majority of these animals are protected by Malagasy law and are endemic to the island.