British Travellers to Morocco and their Accounts,
from mid-16th to mid-20th Centuries: A Bibliography

Khalid Chaouch, University of Ben Mellal

There are, and always have
been, two North Africa's available to English eyes: one real, the other
highly coloured by our collective imagination.

Barnaby Rogerson

This is of necessity not an exhaustive bibliography of British travellers
to Morocco and their accounts. It is undoubtedly impossible to trace
back to the dawn of humanity all the British travellers who crossed
the straits to Mauritania, (West) Barbary, Marokko, or Moghreb-el-Acksa.
The bibliography is intended to cover the period from the mid-16th
to the mid-20th century, which encompasses most of the written
travel accounts that have some historical, literary, documentary, exotic
and artistic interest. Self-evidently, the difficulty of finding written
accounts belonging to the period before the mid-16th century
is due the rarity of contact between the two countries. But thanks to
commercial then political incentives that began during the reigns of
Tudor and early Saadian monarchs, Morocco and Great Britain established
a series of diplomatic contacts, and, as a result, ‘a considerable number
of English traders, ambassadors and adventurers started visiting Morocco
and a few accounts of this country started to emerge.’ (1)
After the mid-20th century, travel narratives became less
important in literary and documentary terms, especially with the decline
of the Empire. Between the two World Wars, ‘the sun, which , as every
schoolboy knew, never set on the British territory and British trade,
went down below the horizon.’ (2) According to Ricoux-Faure,
it was Evelyn Waugh who sounded the knell of travel-writing soon after
the Second World War:

The travel-writer, a product
of a class of gentlemen adventurers, or of a cosmopolitan intelligentsia,
had to disappear with the Empire. The old world crumbled down; it was
bristling with frontiers; and after all, what was still there to discover?
Waugh saw, with dread, mass tourism replacing adventure. (3)

The status and motives of such travellers were diverse and multiple
to the extent that we can not categorise them together. The difficulty
of classifying them emanates, in fact, from the different roles they
had: we can find among them the tradesman, the ambassador, the adventurer,
the buccaneer, the pirate, the spy, the explorer, the missionary, the
soldier, the captive, the painter, the physician, the journalist, and
the researcher. (4) Needless to say that some of them
performed more than one function. But, regardless of their positions
and functions, these travellers had at least three things in common:
they were British; they travelled in Morocco for a certain period of
their life; and they wrote a record of Morocco. It is, indeed, the third
point which is perhaps the most important. .

Most of these travellers recorded their memories, impressions, remarks
and comments in the forms of travel accounts, books, memoirs, letters,
and extensive reports. Whatever the degree of objectivity and authenticity
of such writings, they played, in fact, a significant role in conditioning
and inspiring a great number of attitudes, judgements and prejudices
that the British have had towards Morocco throughout history. Even today,
this enormous corpus still accounts for the present attitudes, prejudices,
and attempts at (mis)representation made by British – and even American
and English-speaking – writers, researchers, and policy makers.

Besides, the momentous import of these travel accounts, in particular,
and of English travel-writing, in general, remains a particular phenomenon
in the literary landscape. A French critic confesses that this genre
(travel-writing) is a British product par excellence: "Travel-writing
is a British speciality as inimitable as roast beef with mint sauce:
such a consistent and fanciful, surprising and unforgettable meal."
(5) The recent republication of many books, the recovery
of forgotten books and papers, and the burgeoning colloquia on ‘Otherness’,
‘Cross-Cultural issues’ and ‘pre-colonial Morocco’, all attest to the
revival of interest in such writings. Furthermore, the increasing number
of English-speaking Moroccan researchers has favoured a tendency to
reconsider the historical ties and cultural contacts with Britain. The
translation of certain captivity accounts into Arabic (or French) has
been of great importance to Moroccan historians.

Since the present bibliography aims to provide a list of those English
travellers who wrote about Morocco, it is also necessary to mention
British painters who travelled to this country and produced paintings
of Morocco. Their works are even richer than many accounts since the
artist has the ability to summarise, in one painting, the whole scene,
the stand and the perspective – things that the writer might express
in pages and pages within a text. Moreover, before the end of the 19th
century, painting was the sole visual ‘witness’ in the absence of photography
and film technology. Such artists were not only agents, but they were
affected by their own travels. Some of them were profoundly influenced
by the Moroccan landscape and architecture.

The corpus here will prove a useful reference for the Moroccan researcher
and historian. What the mainstream, official, state historians have
overlooked, or at least could not state, was well documented by those
overseas. Once in their mother country, travellers were, to
a great extent, free to embroider their accounts. In their metropolitan
surroundings, travellers were in a privileged position: the position
of the one among the very few who had been there, who had seen
sights with their own eyes.

The works that most attract our curiosity and attention are the captivity
accounts. The first thing that stares us in the face is the kind of
words used in the titles of some of them, words such as ‘True’, ‘by
Himselfe’, or ‘Authentick’. This insistence on authenticity apparent
in such titles presupposes the existence of false accounts and evokes
probable scepticism about authorship. Frank Lebel explains this phenomenon
by the fact that most of these captivity accounts were intended to warn
other travellers, and consequently – according to him – many were mere
plagiarisms. (6) He offers the example of Henry Boyde’s
book, Several Voyages to Barbary…, which is – according to Lebel
– nothing but the English copy of the account of the Frères de la Trinité,
published in Paris in 1725 under the title Relation en forme de
journal du voyage pour la rédemption des captifs aux royaumes de Maroc
et d’Alger… Lebel even presumes that it was, in fact, Morgan the
plagiarist who wrote the account under the name of an authentic captive
(Boyde) to secure good sales for the book. (7) On the
same subject, Barnaby Rogerson, a contemporary writer, asserts that
‘many of these accounts were specifically produced by redemption societies
who would only free those Christian captives who were prepared to sign
contracts to go on long European-wide fund raising tours dressed in
rags and chains.’ (8)

The list presented here is chronologically ordered for many reasons.
First, any researcher desiring to trace the different stages of the
evolution of Moroccan society, identity, history, ethnicity, and culture
in general, will surely have to follow this order. Second, in the case
of these very accounts, the chronological order is, strangely enough,
a thematic one at the same time. Since they reflect the relationships
of the two nations, the accounts thus listed offer a parallel list of
the kinds of groups of travellers: the early tradesmen, the first ambassadors,
the corsairs, the war captives, the missionaries, the painters, the
touring novelists, etc. This sketchy division is not a cut and dry classification,
and overlapping is inevitable. Third, the chronological presentation
offers the researcher the possibility of making comparisons between
the different centuries and to perceive the fluctuating number of travels
from one period to another (although it should be repeated that this
is not an exhaustive list). For instance, we have only seven travellers
in the second half of the 16th century, whereas we have at
least twenty six travellers (and more than thirty accounts) in the last
20 years of the 19th century.

As for the whole number of English travel accounts on Morocco, it is
very difficult to give an exact number or to pretend to make an exhaustive
list. In terms of writing on Morocco in general, Sir Lambert Playfair
and Dr. Robert Brown advanced, as early as 1891, the number of 2200
titles. (9) It is clear, then, that the number of travel
narratives that I have collected in this paper is relatively meagre.
But, I hope it is a representative cross-section of all the English
travel writings about Morocco.

The date in bold type refers to the first publication; if no
edition is mentioned, then the bold numerals refer to the date
of the first trip into Morocco. (This can, in many cases, be inferred
from the title itself.) To simplify research, an alphabetical list of
names with their classification number in this paper is given at the
end of this bibliography.

1-James Aldy, The First voyage of traffique into
the Kingdom of Marocco in Barbarie, begun in the yeere 1551,
with a tall ship called "the Lion" of London whereof went
as a capitain Master Thomas Windham. (A letter to Michael Lok).

He made two journeys to Morocco. The first one was made in 1551 with
Captain Thomas Windham (1510?-1553?), and the second in 1552. (10)

2- James Thomas, "The second voyage to Barbary in the
yeere 1552, set forth by the right worshipful Sir John Yorke,
Sir William Gerard, Sir Thomas Wroth, master Francis Lambert, master
Cole, and others, written by the relation of master James Thomas, then
page to master Thomas Windham, chiefe Capitaine of this voyage."

James Thomas was one of the travellers who accompanied Captain Thomas
Windham in 1552. In this voyage they stopped in Safi to deliver some
goods which were destined for Marrakech, then they resumed their trip
to Agadir. His account contains a description of the situation of trade
in Safi and Agadir.(11)

3- Roger Bodenham, A Voyage Made by M. Roger Bodenham to
S. John of Ullua in the Bey of Mexico, in the Yeere 1564.
(Published in Hakluyt’s book, vol. III, p. 455)

This trader and traveller came to Morocco before he made his voyage
to Mexico in 1564. In his memoirs on his travels he advised English
politicians to make secret treaties with Morocco as a defence against
their rivals, the Spaniards. (12)

The Ambassage of Mr Edmund Hogan, one the sworne esquires of her
Majesties person, from her Highness to Mully Abd el-Melech Emperour
of Marocco, and King of Fes and Sus, in the Yeere 1577, written
by himselfe. This account was also Published in: R. Hakluyt, The
Principal Navigations… of the English Nation. Edition of 1598-1600,
vol. II, 2nd part, pp. 64-67;

Robert Kerr, A General Kerr, A General History and Collection of Voyages
and Travels… vol. VII, p. 320; and James Grey Jackson, An Account of
Timbuctoo and Housa Territories… by El Hage Abd Salam Shabeeny… To which
is added, Letters descriptive of Travels through West and South Barbary…
(p. 494.)

In both accounts, Edmund Hogan describes his embassy travel, how he
arrived to Safi, and how he was received in Marrakech by the Moroccan
Sultan Moulay Abd El Malik in 1577.(13)

5- John Williams: A Discourse of John Williams dealyinge
in Barbarie for the provision of saltpeter from thence, to serve the
King there of yron pellets from hence.

This account is in fact signed by Edmund Hogan. This one sent his agent,
John Williams, to investigate the possibility of importing saltpetre
and sugar from Morocco, and, as a counterpart, exporting English munitions.
John Williams also gave the Moroccan King the answer of Queen Elizabeth
about the possibility of establishing friendly relations between the
two countries. (14)

6- Francis Fletcher, The first part of the second voyage
about the world, attempted, continued, and happily accomplished … by
M. Francis Drake … written and faithfully layed downe by Francis Fletcher,
Minister of Christ and Preacher of the Gospell, adventurer and traveller
in the same voyage.

A traveller, an adventurer and a missionary, he accompanied Francis
Drake on his circumnavigation of the world. In this account, he gave
a description of Tit (which he called ‘the city of lions’, near
Azemmour), Safi, Mogador (Essaouira), and the snowy Atlas. Drake’s trip
is also described by another traveller named JohnCooke.
(15)

7- Henry Roberts, The Ambassage of master Henry Roberts…
from her Highnesse to Mully Hamet, Emperour of Marocco and the King
of Fesse, and Sus, in the yeere 1585… written briefly by himselfe.

He arrived in Safi on 14 September 1585 and spent three years and a
half in Morocco. He also wrote his memoirs about this voyage in 1589.
But in 1603, he suggested to James I that he should conquer Morocco,
to Christianise its people, and to lay claim to its riches for England
and all Christendom.(16)

8- Robert Cottington,

He wrote an account of his travel to Morocco, in which he describes
this country during the reign of the Saadian Sultan, Al-Mansour. (17)

9- Anthony Sherley (1565 – after 1635)

This famous traveller and adventurer was in Venice (1599), Constantinople,
Persia, Moscow, Prague, Rome (1601), Venice (1603). In 1605
he came – once again – to Morocco as an ambassador of the Austrian emperor
to incite the Moroccan Sultan to make war against the Turks in Algeria.
He stayed about five months in Safi, then he moved to Marrakech. His
biography is recorded in these two books:

The Three Brothers, or the Travels and Adventures of Sir Anthony,
Sir Robert and Sir Thomas Sherley in Persia, Russia, Turkey and Spain,
with Portraits. London, 1885.

Evelyn-Philipp Shirley, The Sherley Brothers, by one of the Same
House. Chiswick, 1848.(18)

10- William Lithgow, The Total Discourse of the rare Adventures
and painfulle Peregrinations of Long nineteen yeares Travailes from
Scotland to the most famous Kingdomes in Europa, Asia and Africa…
(London: I. Okes, 1640, 514 p. Earlier editions, 1614, 1616,
1632.)

De Castres casts doubts about the voyage of William Lithgow (1582-1645?)
to Morocco, because of errors in the descriptions of certain facts about
Morocco.(19) Roland Lebel asserts that
this book contains the first detailed description of Fez in English.
This city of one million people, 120.000 houses, 460 little mosques,
in addition to a mosque of 900 lamps, is considered by William Lithgow
as "the goodliest place of all north Affrick. Truly this is a world
for a city." He also describes its luxurious hostels, and brothels
. (20)

John Smith (1580-1631) visited many European countries (France, Italy,
Dalmatia, Hungary, Germany, Spain). He came to Morocco in 1604. When
he went to America in 1606 he settled in Virginia and was elected president
of the colony (in 1608). He came back at last to London, where he published
brochures and maps to encourage colonisation.

In his True Travels, there is a description of some Moroccan
cities such as Ceuta, Tangier, Safi, Marrakech, and Fez. (21)

12- John Harrison, The Tragical Life and Death of Muley
Abdala Malek, the Late King of Barbarie. (1633)

John Harrison made eight voyages as an ambassador to Morocco between
1610 and 1632. He wrote about Morocco in his book which he published
in 1633. (22)

13-John Dunton, A true Journal of the Sally Fleet, with
the Proceedings of the Voyage, 1637.

This is the captivity account of "mariner" John Dunton, who
advocates, like Lithgow, the idea that the ‘Sally rovers’ used the skills
of the mariners they captured. The account also includes a list of captives
in Salé. (23)

14- Robert Blake (1599-1657): A true copy of my journal
duering the tyme of my agency to the King of Moroco. (1638)

He made commercial and consular voyages to Morocco between 31 May 1638
and 5 January 1639. After accomplishing these missions, Robert Blake
became a prominent admiral during the rule of Oliver Cromwell. (24)

15- Stephen Scot: He travelled for seven years in the region
of Sous. He wrote his Memoirs about these travels in 1638 and
sent them to the English political officials. He asked them to take
his records into consideration while making treaties and political relations
with Morocco. (25)

He made his trip to Morocco in 1638 (from 30 April to 11 November)
and made an important report on Morocco (in 27 pages) which he sent
to Lord Algernon Percy. The report was wholly reprinted by Bois Penrose
in 1929 under this title.

17- Lancelot Addison, The Moors Baffled. (1668)

West Barbary. A Short Narrative of the Revolutions of the Kingdoms
of Fez and Morocco, with an Account of the Present Customs, Sacred,
Civil and Domestic. (1671)

The Present State of the Jews in Barbary. (1675)

The first book mentions both the difficulties caused by the agitator
Ghaylan to the English garrison at Tangier in 1664, and another memorable
siege that took place a few years later (1668). The second book offers
a broad knowledge about the country that Addison had visited and provides
information which Addison discovered through his conversations with
the Moors. The third book, as the title shows, is an account of the
beliefs, ceremonies, and religious customs of Moroccan Jews.(27)

18- John Balthorpe, The Streights Voyage. (A poem)

John Balthorpe was among the English expedition against the ‘pirates’
of Algiers, which anchored in Tangier in August 11, 1669. The
poem describes, among other things, the siege of Tangier by Ghaylan,
the usurper of Fez. (28)

The Life, Journals and Correspondence of S. Pepys, Including a
Narrative of his Voyage to Tangier (Published by Rev. John Smith)

When in London, Pepys was a member of the "Committee for the affairs
of Tangier" as a treasurer. In 1683 he accompanied Lord Dartmouth
to Morocco, as a secretary and a councillor. The latter was sent by
King Charles II to Tangier to repatriate the garrison after having destroyed
the fortress. In his Diary, he twice insists on the difficult
position of this city ‘overseen by the Moors.’ (29)
As a document of social history, Pepys’ Diary is "unsurpassed for
its rich detail, honesty, and immediacy… It gives us the sense of …
what it was like to live in the Restoration, and what it was like to
see through the eyes of Pepys." (30)

20- Hugh Cholmley, Account of Tangier.

Cholmley’s account confirms the very provincial character of garrison
life in Tangier. (31)

21- John Ross, Tangier Rescue, or Relation of the Late Memorable
Passages at Tangier and of the Bloody Engagement (1681).

This account refers to the siege of Tangier by Ghaylan. It was written
in verse, and is not simply an account of the siege, but a recapitulation
of all the skirmishes that preceded the attack of 1680. (32)

22- Captain Johnson, An Account from Fez. (1682)

Johnson was a member of the embassy under colonel Kirke to Muolay Ismaël
in Meknes. (33)

23- Adam Elliot, A Narrative of my Travels, Captivity and
Escape from Salle in the Kingdom of Fez. (published 1682)

Elliot, a priest in the Anglican Church, gives in his account details
of the tactics of Sale ‘pirates’ and the high risks run by the captives
who attempted to escape from the country. (34)

24- Thomas Phelps, A True Account of Thomas Phelps at Machanes
[Meknes] in Barbary and of his Strange Escape in Company of Edmund
Baxter and Others, as also of the Burning of Two of the Greatest Pirateships
Belonging to that Kingdom in the River of Mamora. (1685)

Even though the style of this account is "rough and simple",
it contains very interesting information on the attacking methods of
"Salli rovers" and the poor treatment of prisoners and slaves.
(35)

25- Francis Brooks, Barbarian Cruelty, Being a true History
of the Distress Condition of the Christian Captives under the Tyranny
of Muley Ismael. [1693]

Francis Brooks spent 10 years in Meknes as a prisoner of war during
the reign of Moulay Ismael.(36)

26- Simon Ockley, An Account of South-West Barbary; Containing
What is most Remarkable in the Territories of the King of Fez and Morocco.
London, 1713.

Ockley, who was sent to Morocco by the English, wrote his account on
what was most attractive in Morocco at that time.(37)
But the real author of the original account is unknown. This is clear
from the full title given by Roland Lebel, "...written by a person
who has been a slave there a considerable time, and published from his
auhentick manuscript by Simon Ockley." The account aimed both at
showing the deplorable state of Christians under the Muslim yoke, and
providing a general survey of the country and its people. (38)

27- John Windus: A Journey to Mequinez, the Residence of
the Present Emperor of Fez and Morocco, on the Occasion of Commodore
Stewart’s Ambassy Thither for the Redemption of the British Captives
in the Year 1721. London, 1725. Dublin, 1726. (39)

John Windus made his trip to Morocco as part of the diplomatic mission
sent by Georges I to Sultan Moulay Ismael. The object of the embassy
was to negotiate the release of the English prisoners in Meknes. In
this highly important account, John Windus recorded his descriptions,
impressions and commentaries on the different places he visited (from
Tetouan to Meknes). When he went back to England he completed his travel
account by consulting other references. The book was soon translated
into German in 1726, and it was reprinted a third time in Henry Boyde’s
Several Voyages to Barbary in 1930. (40) The
book was also translated into Arabic by Zahra Ikhwan in 1993.(41)

28- Captain John Braithwaite: The History of the Revolutions
in the Empire of Morocco, upon the Death of the Late Emperor Muley Ismael;
Being a most exact Journal of what happen’d in those Parts in
the last and part of the present Year. With Observations Natural, Moral
and Political, relating of that Country and People…

Captain Braithwaite accompanied the English Consul-General, John Russel,
to Morocco in 1727, and was ‘an eye-witness to the most remarkable occurrences
therein mentioned.’ (pp. 48-49) The mission of this delegation, which
stayed about five months in Morocco, was to free some English prisoners
under former treaties signed between the two countries. The book, which
also includes a map of the country, was printed in London by J. Darby
and T. Browne in Bartholomew-Close, in 1729. It was translated
into Arabic by Mina Madini as a DES thesis. (42)Its success was confirmed by the fact that it was translated into
French as early as 1931, then into German and Dutch. (43)
It was reprinted by Mnemosyne Publishing Co., Inc., Miami, Florida,
1969 (from a copy in the University of Miami).

Henry Boyde was also a prisoner of war in Meknes. He was among the
English subjects who were freed by Charles Stewart, the English ambassador
to Moulay Ismael.(44) But this
is, in fact, only an English copy of the French account published in
1725 under the title, Relation en forme de journal du voyage pour
la rédemption ds captifs aux royaumes de Maroc et d’Alger, par les PP.
Jean de La Faye, Denis Mackar, Augustin d’Arcisas et Henry Le Roy, députés
de l’ordre de Sainte Trinité. Boyde added only a list of captives
and engravings to illustrate the text. (45)

30- Thomas Shaw:

This theologian traveller made many visits to different parts of North
Africa and the Middle East. Then, in 1738, he published a book
about all his travels. The account provides a wealth of information
on different disciplines ranging from geography to physics and jurisprudence.
(46)

31- Thomas Pellow (1704 – after 1738): The History of the
Long Captivity and Adventures of Thomas Pellow, In South-Barbary….Written
by Himself. The Second Edition. Printed for R. Goadby, and sold
by W. Owen, Bookseller, at Temple Bar, London. The first edition was
between 1742 and 1745.

Thomas Pellow spent most of his life in Morocco, first as a war captive
(in 1716), then as a soldier in the army of Mullay Ismael. After his
conversion to Islam, he married a Moroccan woman from Tamesna in 1721.
During his military service he contributed to military campaigns that
gave him the opportunity to see different parts of Morocco and places
such as Meknes, Oujda, Marrakech, Ait ‘Attab, Kasbat Tadla, Agadir,
Safi, and Oualidiyyah. After 23 years in Morocco, he managed at last
to escape and return to his native Cornwall, England. He then wrote
this long account of his life and adventures in Morocco. But after this
date (1738) he disappeared. The book is also – as the long title of
the original edition puts it – ‘a particular Account of the Manners
and Customs of the MOORS; the astonishing Tyranny and
Cruelty of their EMPERORS, and a relation of all those great
Revolutions and Bloody Wars which happen’d in the Kingdoms
of Fez and Morocco, between the Years 1720 and 1736.’(47) This account is an important historical
document about 18th-century Morocco. It was translated into
French by Magali Morsy in 1983. (48)

32- Thomas Troughton, Barbarian Cruelty, or an Accurate
and Impartial Narrative of the Unparalleled Sufferings and Almost Incredible
Hardships of he British Captives…, 1751.

Troughton was among the English sailors captured in the bay of Tangier
after the wreck of their ship, the "Inspector". Employed in
the army of Moulay Abdallah, they suffered ill-treatment and hunger.
Eight of them died in the country; about twenty of them became Muslims;
four were given by the Sultan to King George II; and the rest were later
released for a ransom.(49)

Jardine was appointed as a representative of the English government
to Sultan Mohammed Ibn Abdallah. But the part of this text which deals
with Morocco is very brief . (50)

34- William Lemprière, A Tour from Gibraltar to Tangier,
Sallée, Mogador, Santa-Cruz, Tarudant, and Thence over Mount Atlas to
Morocco, Including a Particular Account of the Royal Harem. London,
1791 & 1973. (51)

Lemprière is an English surgeon who came from Gibraltar to Sultan Mohamed
Ibn Abdallah who needed a doctor for his son. He travelled to Tangier
in 1789 and to Marrakech – in the company of a Jewish guide and traveller
– through the different cities and places mentioned in the title of
the book. The book deals with topics such as geography, ethnology, and
economy in Morocco at the end of the 18th century, to the
extent that it became an important reference-book for historians.(52) Nevertheless, the book was harshly criticized
by a contemporary witness, Caid Dris, on account of the ‘complete incredibility’
of Lemprière when he analysed manners, religion, institutions, dynastic
and monarchic principles. Caid Dris’ real name is Jonas Francisco Zigers,
who was originally Dutch ; he converted to Islam and lived in Morocco
from 1778 to 1792 for intelligence reasons. (53) The
whole text of his critique of Lempriere’s book is edited in Hespéris
Tamuda, 1988-1989 under the title, Lempriere, Cirujano ingles.
Refutacion de su obra: Un viaje a Marruecos. (54)

35- James Curtis, A Journal of Travels in Barbary in the
Year 1801. (Published in 1803)

This account was written by anEnglish doctor who practiced in Morocco.
Curtis was sent from Gibraltar to Fez. (55)

36- James Grey Jackson, Account of the Empire of Morocco
and the District of Suse (1809).

The book is an example of the geographic literature about Morocco that
flourished at the beginning of the 19th century. Being a
consular agent at Mogador and Agadir, Jackson was well placed to give
such a ‘precious study of physical and economic geography’ of Morocco
at the time. (56)

37- John Buffa, Travels Through the Empire of Morocco,
(published in 1810).

These two accounts were written by two other English doctors who practiced
in Morocco. The first – Curtis – was sent from Gibraltar to Fez. The
second – Buffa – went to Larache, in 1806, to treat its governor, then
he visited Meknes and Fez. (57)

38- Keatinge, Travels in Europe and Africa (1816)

Colonel Keatinge accompanied M. Payne who was sent to Sultan Moulay
Abdallah. The book includes a travel narrative of his trip from Mogador
to Marrakech and Tangier. It also includes documentary information about
the country: its social life, its agricultural production, and some
historical references. (58)

44- David Urquhart, The Pillars ofHercules
or A Narrative of Travels in Spain and Morocco in 1848. London,
1850.

Urquhart, who was a member of the House of Commons, came to Morocco
in 1848. (64) During his voyage in Morocco, he was
interested in the relation between Berbers and the Celts. (65)

45- Elizabeth Murray (1815-1882): Sixteen Years of an Artist’s
Life in Morocco, Spain and the Canary Islands. (London, 1859,
2 vols.)

She made a trip to Tangier and recorded her impressions of the city
and its people in this book. She wrote that the city reminded her of
the Arabian Nights and the Bible, and as though she had gone
back two thousand years. (66)

46- Frederick Hardman, The Spanish Campaign in Morocco,
(1860).

Hardman, who had been an accredited correspondent of the Times,
gathered the articles and letters that he had sent from Spain about
the different operations of the Spanish in their march on Tetouan. (67)

A Memoir of Sir John Drummond Hay, Sometime Minister at the Court
of Morocco, Based on his Journals and Correspondence. London, 1891.
(70)

He travelled to the northern regions of Morocco in 1838. Then he was
nominated as the representative of England in Morocco from 1844 to 1886.
Moroccan historians consider him a false friend to Morocco, who pretended
that England, unlike France and Spain, was willing to aid Morocco. (71)

49- David Roberts (1796-1864):

He is among the most famous Orientalist painters. He made several trips
to Egypt, Palestine and Morocco. In his trip from Tetouan to Tangier,
he said, he wore Arab clothes, rode an Arab horse and lived in an Arab
tent. (72) His Moroccan adventures whetted his appetite
for other travels to the Middle-East. (73)

Hodgson visited and painted North Africa, mainly Tunis and Tangier.
Thanks to the Orientalist subject of his paintings, Hodgson was classified
as an "ethnographic" painters. In 1869, he exhibited The
Arab Story Teller. Hodgson always preferred to illustrate scenes
of confrontation between the East and the West, as in his painting Far
From Home (1889), where curiosity seems to be reciprocal between
a British sailor in uniform and a throng of Moors. The other paintings
include Army Reorganization in Morocco (1872)

52- George Maw, Ascent of the great Atlas, (1872).

Maw, who explored this part of the country, also wrote a chapter on
the geology of Morocco and included it in the book of Sir Joseph Hooker
(cf).

53- John Bagnold Burgess (1829-1897)

During a short period after 1872, Moorish subjects appeared
among the paintings that he sent to the Royal Academy. The Presentation
(1874) shows an English lady introduced into a Moroccan residence.
Guarding the Hostages (1880) seems to be his last Orientalist painting.
Such paintings, which also include The Rush for Water, Scene During
Ramadan in Morocco (1873), indicate that he made several trips to
Morocco.(75)

54- Amelia Perrier, A Winter in Morocco, (1873).

Perrier tells, in a ‘very sincere accent’, about her Tangerine residence
during a less agitated period.(76)

Arthur Leared came to Morocco in September, 1872. Then his trip led
him from Tangier down the coast through places such as Al-Kasru’ l-Kabir,
‘Casa Blanca’, Mogador, Marocco (Marrakech), Saffi, and Azamoor. In
the first book Leared describes his itinerary in the first chapter,
then he dedicates the remaining chapters to the country, its people
and different issues as government, law, military power, education,
religion, education, religion, history, drugs and even sport. The appendix
includes an account of Volubilis and an important list of drugs and
plants in use among the Moroccans, of which he "made an extensive
collection of specimens. The information obtained by this means was
communicated to the Pharmaceutical Society… and published in their journal."
(78)

In the other book, A Visit to the Court of Morocco, we find,
among other things, a description of a Portuguese demonstration on the
occasion of the accession of the new Sultan in Fez (79)

56- Joseph D. Hooker and J. Ball, Journal of a Tour in Morocco
and the Great Atlas. London, Macmillan, 1878.

Hooker was president of the Royal Geographical Society. He published
this book just after having travelled into the Moroccan Atlas. (80)
He was a botanist and the director of Kew Gardens (London). He came
to Morocco to collect samples of plants; he took a great many species
back to England, some of which are still in Kew. (81)
This is one of the books on which Wyndham Lewis relied in writing his
travel accounts.

57- Sarcelle (alias Payton), Moss from a Rolling
Stone, (1879).

The author devotes the major part of "Rambling Reminiscence"
in his book to his hunting experiences in Morocco. (82)

58- Dr Spence Watson, A Visit to Wazzan, (1880).

The author is an example of those Christian travellers who dared to
visit Moroccan cities they considered as sacred. But the book is rather
biased. (83)

59- Captain Colville, A Ride in Petticoats and Slippers,
(1880).

Dressed as a Moroccan , Captain Colville travelled, with his wife,
from Fez to Oujda and gathered useful information in spite of the difficulty
of the journey. (84)

60- Philip Durham Trotter, Our Mission to the Court of Marocco
in 1880, Under Sir John Drummond Hay, K.C.B., Minister Plenipotentiary
and Envoy Extraordinary to his Majesty the Sultan, 1881.
(85)

This is the detailed account of the mission that was entrusted to Sir
John Drummond Hay as minister plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary
to Mulai Hassan in Fez. The author described everything he saw during
the trip of the mission from Tangier to Fez and Meknes, and their coming
back through Rabat, Larache and Azîla. This included descriptions of
courtesans, king’s substitutes, snake charmers, ceremonies, places,
ethnic groups, ... etc. But his descriptions were not always accurate:
"The art of printing," Trotter says, "is, of course,
unknown, and, with a few exceptions, no one can read or write."
On the aims of the mission, Trotter stated that "negotiations are,
however, to be entered into at Tangier for the improvement of trade,
for which purpose a port on the coast, south of Mogador, is to be opened."
(86) The political results of the mission, according
to Trotter, were "the Revision of the Convention of Commerce and
Navigation of 1856 between Greta Britain and Marocco, and the establishment
of diplomatic relations between the Sultans of Turkey and of this country…
A better supply of water is also guaranteed for the town of Tangier,
between which place and Gibraltar heliographic communication… is to
be established." (pp. 292-293) Of the various ingredients of the
Moroccan population, Trotter thought ‘the Berber element the fairest-complexioned
and best-looking, the Bokhari, the biggest-limbed and most powerful,
while the Arab of the plain – of whom the Beni Hassan are an excellent
type – is the most wiry and enduring-looking of the lot..' (87)

Almost the whole account is dedicated to the author’s experience of
hunting in Morocco.

64- Charles Robertson (1844-1891)

He came to North Africa in 1882, and in the next year he exhibited
at the Royal Academy. While in Tangier, he finished many of his Moroccan
paintings such as the Fruiterer, Tangier and Story-Teller,
Morocco (1883). (92) His paintings also include
A Story Teller, Morocco (1883) and The Flower Market, Damascus.
(93)

65- Edward Waltham, Our Journey to Fez, (1882).

Waltham went to Fez in the company of his wife and his son, and recorded
his impressions in a ‘charming’ style. (94)

66/67- Cowan & Johnston, Moorish Lotos Leaves,
(1883)

The book gives descriptive and copious "glimpses of southern Morocco,"
between Mogador [Essaouira], Marrakech and Agadir. (95)

68- Joseph Crawhall (1861-1913):

He made studies of animal behaviour for his paintings. Among his paintings:
An Arab Raid and Snake Charmer. He spent 10 years in North
Africa, but most of this period was spent in Morocco, particularly in
Tangier, where he met John Lavery and Cunninghame Graham. The latter
dedicated an edifying chapter of his memories, Writ in Sand (London,
1932), to Crawhall in his Tangerine period (1884-1893). (96)

69- Thomas Alexander Ferguson Graham (1840-1906)

In 1885 Tom Graham came to Morocco and probably executed Kismet,
showing a young lady surprised by her horoscope drawn on the floor with
a piece of chalk. Ackerman states that such a painting was so conventional
in its conception of the Orient that it could have been executed in
London. A year after this journey, he exhibited The Moor of Mequinez
at the Royal Academy. (97)

70- Donald Mackenzie, The Flooding of the Sahara… Description
of Sudan and Western Sahara. London, 1877.

The Khalifat of the West, Being a General Description of Morocco.
London, 1911. (98)

A Report on the Condition of the Empire of Morocco. London,
1886. (99)

71- Robert S. Watson, A Visit to Wazan, the Sacred City
of Morocco. London, 1880. (100)

72- Rev. Verschoyle, Among the Arabs of West Africa,
(1885).

Rev. Verschoyle travelled through the country from Tangier to Fez,
and describes in this account the manners and customs of the local people.
(101)

73- Hind-Smith, A Boy’s Rambles, (1886).

In this volume, the author tells of his travels in Larache, Meknes
and Fez. (102)

This is the second – and more detailed – of Thomson's books. The first
one is entitled, A Journey to Southern Morocco and the Atlas Mountains.
Both books include a description of explorations made by the author
in these regions of the country.(104)

75- Walter B. Harris, The Land of an African Sultan,
1889.

Tafilelt: the Narrative of a Journey of Exploration in the Atlas
Mountains and the Oases of the North-West Sahara. Edinburg, 1895.
(105)

Walter Harris, the correspondent of the Times in Morocco, travelled
through the regions of Wazzan and Chechaouen maybe for hidden political
reasons. (107) The first book is one of the books
used by Wyndham Lewis in his own travel accounts. By wandering through
the country in native clothes, Walter Harris ‘crosses cultural bridges,
violates national barriers, and denies difference by becoming artificially
Other.’ (108) Living in Tangier from the 1890s to
1933, he could see and describe Morocco at probably the strangest stage
in its history – the last years of "Old Morocco" in its feudal
isolation and the first of French occupation. (109)

76- Henry Finck, Studies in Local Colour, (1891).

The ‘studies’ are limited to describing a very restricted region of
Morocco: Tangier and Tetouan. (110)

The account of this American Correspondent of the New York World
is a trite report on the diplomatic mission of Sir Charles Smith to
Fez in 1892. He was sent to different places in Europe and came to Morocco
in November 1891 and stayed for several months. Among the things that
he described in Morocco, "the most striking scene of all"
was the entry of the rebels to the town to take the oath of loyalty
to the new Pasha.(113)

79- Frank Brangwyn (1867-1956):

A traveller painter who spent several months in Tangier in 1894.
He painted architecture and settings of Tangier such as: The Kasbah,
Tangier and Arabs, Tangier.

While in Tangier in the company of Dudley Hardy, another artist, they
hired a Moroccan to provide them with models to paint. Gerald M. Ackerman
reports that one day the Moroccan brought them two snake-charmers who
put their bags down and started to play their instruments. The snakes
began to crawl around the floor, thus terrorising Brangwyn and Hardy
who took refuge in the rafters of the roof. (114)
In this year, he exhibited his Buccaneers at the Salon de la
Société Nationale des Beaux Arts in Paris. In his paintings, ‘Brangwyn
showed a brilliant sense of attitudes and composition, served with theatrical
exaggeration and a dramatic instinct.’ (115)

80- G. Montbard, Among the Moors, (1894).

The account includes "sketches of oriental life" in Fez and
other Cherifian capitals. (116)

Cunninghame Graham came to Morocco at the end of the 19th
century and sojourned in places such as Tangier, Safi, Mogador (Essaouira),
Amezmiz, Marrakech, ... etc. He recorded his impressions in this book
which he first edited in December 9, 1898. The author has a keen eye
as regards the country, its people and their culture, and comments on
everything he sees while moving from one place to another and learning
from different kinds of people. A cross-section of Morocco is represented
in tirades like this one:

"The truth is, in Morocco, when one reflects upon the inconveniences
of the country, the lonely roads, the places apparently designed by
Providence to make men brigands, and the fact that almost every Arab
owns a horse and is armed at least with a stout knife, that the inhabitants
are either cowardly to a degree, are law-abiding to a fault, or else
deprived by nature of initiative to such extent as to be quite Arcadian
in the foolish way in which they set about to rob. When I remembered
Mexico (…) So Morocco seemed to me a perfect paradise."(118)

The book is seen as important by British and Americans. Edward Garnett
hails it as ‘that rare thing, a spontaneous work of art. It is written
with a verve and a brilliancy of tone that make it unique in English
books of travel.’ (119) Cunnigham Graham is also
the author of Writ in Sand, (London,1932) in which he gives a
particular description of ‘international’ Tangier.

When Barnaby Rogerson mentions Walter Harris (N° 77) and Robert Cunninghame
Graham, he evokes a particular aspect of their writings: "You do
not have to scratch very deeply beneath their writing to realise that
both Harris and Cunninghame Graham aspired to some form of British protection
for Morocco, like that which would later be established over the Arab
states of the Persian Gulf." (120)

Budgett Meakin was the first chief editor of The Times of Morocco,
the only journal in English at the time in Morocco; the journal appeared
first as a monthly in Tangier in 1884, then as a weekly in 1886. Budgett
Meakin studied spoken Arabic in Morocco, and became, in fact, a historian
of Morocco and Moroccans. Commenting on Mabel Collins’ novel Ida,
an Adventure in Morocco (1890), Budgett Meakin remarks: ‘No wonder
people have strange ideas about Morocco if they read such stuff.’ (122)

Francis Macnab visited different places of Morocco at a crucial time
when this country was being divided between the colonial powers. He
visited places such as Tangier, Tetouan, the Riff, Rabat, Casablanca,
Marrakech, and Safi. ‘This geographical journey,’ Sadik Rddad points
out, ‘is undertaken in a parallel with a retrospective journey into
the history of Morocco and an exploration of architecture, social activities,
festivities, ceremonies, beliefs, the Harem, the confraternity "savage"
practices of the Aissaouas and Gnaoua.’ (123)

Isabella Bird (1831-1904) travelled on doctor's orders. She suffered
back pains and insomnia, and she was advised that a sea voyage and a
'change of air' would restore her health. At the age of forty, she began
her travels to many parts of the world to the extent that for the next
thirty years she scarcely had time to unpack. She crossed the Atlas
Mountains in Morocco at the age of seventy. Her writing is notable for
its immediacy, which is the result of her basing her books on letters
written home to her sister, or on voluminous notebooks compiled at the
time. (126)

87- Major A. Gibbon Spilsbury, The Tourmaline Expedition,
With an Appendix on South-West Barbary as a Field for Colonization by
W. B. Stewart. London, 1906. (127)

88- Augustus Osborne Lamplough (1877-1930): Cairo and its
Environs, London, 1909, and Egypt and How to See it, London,
1911.

This painter, who was also a Professor at the School of Arts in Leeds,
came to North Africa in 1904. From that date on, the subjects of his
paintings were inspired by what he had seen in Morocco, Algeria and
Egypt. Among his tableau are Desert Scout.(128)

89- George Edmund Hott, Morocco the Piquant, or Life in
Sunset Island, London, 1914. (129)

This book consists of two books: Filibusters in Barbary, published
in 1932, and Kasbahs and Souks, which was not published before.
(134) A writer and a painter, Wyndham Lewis came
to Morocco in the Spring of 1931. He sojourned in many places from the
north-west (Oujda) to the South (Rio de Oro) through Fez, Casablanca,
Marrakech, Agadir and Sous… In his travel accounts he was inspired by
the travel writings of his predecessors. The result is that the book
is full of prejudice. It also contains drawings on Morocco, ‘representing
a fanciful, purely visual savouring of the landscape, architecture and
people.’ (135)

94- James McBey (1883-1959):

He came to Morocco in 1932 and bought a house in Tangier. Then
he made a trip through North Africa crossing the Atlas. After the Second
World War he came back to Morocco and founded a painting studio in Tangier.
(136)

95- E. W. Bovil, Caravans of the Old Sahara. An Introduction
to the Western Sudan, London, 1933. (137)

96- Michel Vienchange, Smara, the Forbidden City. Being
the Journal of Michel Vienchange While Travelling Among the Independent
Tribes of South Morocco and Rio de Oro. London, 1933. (138)

This book is Price’s account of his Moroccan experience. Being the
special correspondent of the Daily Mail, he came to Morocco especially
to pay a visit to the Moroccan leader of the Rif war, Mohamed Ben Abdelkarim
Khattabi, whom he met in April 1924. In his reports, he described his
dangerous trip from French Morocco to the headquarters of this leader.
Ward Price was the first one to give an external view of ‘Abdelkrim.’
Unlike many journalists of the moment, he presented a positive image
of this leader to the English and American readers of the Daily Mail
and Herald Tribune. (140)

98- John Lavery (1856-1941): Autobiography, London,
1940.

This painter spent 30 winters in Tangier between 1890 and 1920. In
1906, he made an excursion into the country with Walter Harris and Selwyn
Brinton. The latter made a detailed account of this visit in his article
"An English Artist in Morocco", Connoisseur, vol. 19,
1907. John Lavery recorded his impressions of Morocco in his Autobiography,
and in paintings like At the Mosque Gate, 1891, Habiba,
1892, and CSS Delhi [ship], Sidi Cassam, Morocco. He was a painter
of North Africa, but he never penetrated the life of its population.
The Moroccan landscape and atmosphere and the Tangerine architecture
are painted with great love, but the indigenous people of the places
and terraces are mere indistinct spots. (141)

100- Peter Mayne (1908-1979), A Year in Marrakech, 1953.
First published as ed as The Alleys of Marrakech. London: Eland,
1990.

When Peter Mayne came to Marrakech, he bought a house in one of the
streets of this city in order to settle there. In his book, he describes
Marrakech, its people, their way of life and their customs. (143)

Robin Bryans’ tour included Tanger, Tetouan, Chaouen, Fez, Ifrane,
Meknes, Moulay Idris, Volubilis, Rabat, Casablanca, Marrakech, Ouarzazate,
Taroudant, Agadir, Essaouira, Safi, and El-Jadida, that he considered
as ‘the farthest west I would go during that journey’ (p. 226). In his
accounts of these places, he gives information about their history,
people, ethnic groups, traditions, in addition to his own experiences
as a tourist, all in a mock-heroic, mock-scholarly style. He also mentions,
comments on and quotes some travellers who preceded him to Morocco,
such as Samuel Pepys (p. 17), Thomas Pellow of Penryn (p. 92), Simon
Ockley (p. 93), John Windus (p. 96), and Colonel Trotter (p. 105). The
‘Preliminaries’ of his travel account can be considered as an homage
to Morocco and Moroccans on the part of a traveller who tries to be
different from his predecessors: "The first thing a visitor learns
in Morocco is not to be suspicious of friendliness. The second is not
to be surprised (…) Moroccans love to talk and to laugh, and the stranger
is welcome who does the same. Friendship is sacred. Under those blue
skies it is simple. It also imposes an obligation to return to their
sun one day." (pp. 13-14).

102 – Gavin Maxwell, Lords of the Atlas, 1966.

Maxwell's book, a vivid mixture of history, investigative journalism
and anecdote, was destined to take a particularly strong hold over the
British imagination. It is an obsessive work that took the author over
a decade to complete and is strongly fuelled by his own experience and
personal sympathies. But he also quotes great chunks of Harris verbatim. (145).

42. Mina Madini, The History of Revolutions in the
Empire of Morocco after the Death of Sultan Mwlay Ismail. (Rabat :
Mohamed V University, Faculty of Letters and Human Sciences, Department
of History, 1999-2000) 329.

77. Arthur Leared, Marocco and the Moors :
Being an Account of Travels, with a General Description of the Country
and Its People. 2nd edn. (London: Sampson Low, Marson, Searle, Rivington,
1891) xii-352.

112. Stephen Bonsal, Morocco as It is. With
an Account of Sir Charles EuanSmith’s Recent Mission to Fez
(London: Allen, 1893). Illus. Photographs. Index. Also London &
New York editions, 1894. Quoted from Priscilla H. Roberts, "Nineteenth
Century Tangier, Its American Visitors: Who they were, Why They Came
and What They Wrote" in Tanger 1800-1956 : Contribution à l’histoire
récente du Maroc (Rabat: Publications of the Universities of Mohamed
V and Tangier: Abdelmalek Es-Saadi, 1991) 149-150.

122. Roland Lebel, Le Maroc chez les auteurs anglais,140,
147, 152. Roland Lebel also reports that Budgett Meakin says in The
Moorish Empire: "French writers realise more fully than those
of other nations all that lies behind the word Morocco, and during the
present century they have produced the most important works." (157).