Recent

Problems with water supply, hydropower, agriculture and biodiversity all have drastic effects on human health. Agricultural problems will drive poverty and food insecurity primarily among people living in the mountains b...

The observed and predicted changes in precipitation, with more in the north-west and less in the south, will exacerbate the existing problems of water availability. Additionally, higher temperatures will increase evapora...

The clearest trend in the Tropical Andes is the increase in air temperature. The Tropical Andes are expected to experience some of the most drastic change in climate in South America (Urrutia and Vuille, 2009; Hijmans et...

Changing seasonality is perhaps the most important change in precipitation patterns observed so far. In the south in particular, there are indications that the rainy season has become more intense and more seasonally con...

Mountain environments provide a wide range of ecosystem services, from the cycling of nutrients, water and greenhouse gases to disease regulation and protection from landslides and floods. The Tropical Andes contain a wi...

The Tropical Andes region is the area of the Andean Mountain range from their northernmost point at 11°N in Colombia until 23°S on the southern border of Bolivia (Cuesta, 2012). This definition is based on national borde...

Grass- and wetlands cover the areas of the high Andes from the treeline and up to the edge of the snow. These unique ecosystems include the neotropical alpine grasslands, known as páramos, dry and wet puna grasslands and...

All countries in the region have high levels of urbanization and population growth. These trends will significantly increase and concentrate the demand for services and resources, which are already often threatened by cl...

Agriculture, being one of the most significant economic activities in the Andes Mountains, is particularly important to those living there but also to the wider economy. However, it is one of the human activities most af...

The main domestic sources of electricity generation in the region are lignite and hydropower. Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, FYR Macedonia and Kosovo depend mainly on lignite (coal)-fired thermal hydropower plants for e...

Large areas of the country are under threat from natural hazards. In Georgia, almost 70 per cent of the territory, home to some 57 per cent of the population, is at risk from disasters, including mudflows (32 per cent of...

Armenia’s main threats are from land- and mudslides, primarily on mountain slopes and hillsides. About one-fifth of all communities in Armenia have been affected by landslides. Areas with the highest risk of mudslides in...

Water constraints are perceived as the most severe
impact of climate change on the agricultural sector.
Climate change will inevitably increase the number of
areas needing irrigation, the water demand for crops,
and ...

The changes in crop yields, however, vary between locations. For certain crops in the mountain regionsthe changes may, in some cases, be beneficial. When assessing the impact of changes in temperature and precipitation, ...

In addition to having higher exposure to natural disasters, lower access to healthcare, poor household constructions and higher poverty rates make mountain communities even more vulnerable to such events (CENN and ITC 20...

The impacts of climate change may have severe consequences for the people and environment of the mountainous areas of the South Caucasus. The characteristics of these areas, including high risk of natural disasters, low ...

The capacity of farmers to adapt to the impacts of climate change is low due to poorly managed irrigation and drainage systems, limited financial resources restricting the use of new technologies, inadequate support from...

In Georgia, over 60 per cent of its forests are situated on mountain slopes at an elevation of 1,000 m.a.s.l or higher (MoENRP 2015; MoENR 2010; Ulander and Ter-Zakaryn 2012). Forest ecosystems protect biodiversity, stor...

The mountainous areas of the South Caucasus have a wide variety of climate zones, ranging from cold moderate alpine peaks to temperate, humid and arid landscapes.6 The variation in climate zones gives the region its uniq...

Climate change directly impacts human health and security. Natural disasters have the most obvious and immediate impact on people’s health and security as they abruptly destroy property, livelihoods, infrastructure, can ...

Primary energy supplies in the three countries vary according to their access to fossil fuels and water resources.16 Georgia relies on imported gas and oil, but also have renewable energy such as hydropower for electrici...

The mountainous areas of the South Caucasus have a wide variety of climate zones, ranging from cold moderate alpine peaks to temperate, humid and arid landscapes.6 The variation in climate zones gives the region its uniq...

All the countries of the South Caucasus made a commitment to develop separate policy documents on climate change adaptation, either internationally or nationally. Such commitments derive not only from international oblig...

Almost none of the development strategies (such as sustainable development and/or poverty reduction strategies) of the South Caucasus countries have an all-inclusive and adequate appreciation of climate change. Furthermo...

All the countries of the South Caucasus made a commitment to develop separate policy documents on climate change adaptation, either internationally or nationally. Such commitments derive not only from international oblig...

The findings of the study in Chapter 2: Analysis of adaptation policies for vulnerable sectors be summarised as follows (see also table on the right):
• None of the South Caucasus countries have specially designated l...

The analysis of the sectoral policies of the three countries of the South Caucasus reveals that:
• More recent policy documents are more comprehensive in their coverage of adaptation issues. For example, the National En...

Almost none of the development strategies (such as sustainable development and/or poverty reduction strategies) of the South Caucasus countries have an all-inclusive and adequate appreciation of climate change. Furthermo...

Aremnia:
The national trend of a warmer and drier climate that has been observed over the last 80 years is forecast to continue throughout the 21st century. Temperatures are predicted to increase 1.3–1.7°C by 2040, 2.6–...

Emerging policies and actions aim to increase the efficiency of energy production and consumption, and to promote a transition to low or zero-carbon energy sources. These policies, which are clearly relevant to climate c...

All countries are undergoing several important forest policy processes, such as developing national forest programmes, revising forest legislation, developing national action plans to combat illegal logging, forest certi...

Agricultural legislation defines the basis for sustainable agriculture in all Western Balkan countries. However, so far this legislation has not integrated climate change adaptation, nor are mountain areas reflected. The...

Even though the Western Balkan countries are facing serious land degradation threats and Albania has several laws focused on establishing the measures and structures for preventing land degradation),14 in general legisla...

Water sector legislation is quite similar in all of the Western Balkan countries, with the exception of Croatia due to its direct implementation of the key EU directive. The water sector is regulated at the state level i...

Climate-related natural disasters and extreme events, such as droughts, floods, and wildfires, also directly affect people’s health and well-being. Apart from the risk of being directly killed by floods, they (together w...

The Western Balkans has vast potential for sustainable tourism due to its rich cultural heritage and diversity, attractive coastlines and historic cities, and some of Europe’s largest and wildest landscapes. Tourism is o...

Renewable energy provides a significant share of the region’s energy and is higher than the EU-27 average (EEA, 2008). Almost all of the renewable energy comes from large hydropower plants; wind, solar and geothermal sou...

Renewable energy provides a significant share of the region’s energy and is higher than the EU-27 average (EEA, 2008). Almost all of the renewable energy comes from large hydropower plants; wind, solar and geothermal sou...

Renewable energy provides a significant share of the region’s energy and is higher than the EU-27 average (EEA, 2008). Almost all of the renewable energy comes from large hydropower plants; wind, solar and geothermal sou...

In the Western Balkans region, achieving efficient and modern internal transport networks and infrastructure and communication networks between the region’s countries will be a key enabler of economic growth and transiti...

Forests occupy a large proportion of the land area in the Western Balkans – from 28 per cent in Albania up to 44.7 per cent in Kosovo1 (Tomter et al., 2013, World Bank, 2012) – and play a significant social and economic ...

Climate change is also a very real risk for forests and their management. Forest fires are already a major hazard across the Balkans. A significant increase in the number and intensity of wildfires across the region has ...

The number and size of protected areas in the region has been increasing, although the share of protected land is still low if compared with that of the EU. Some protected areas have been established recently or are in t...

The mountain areas of Western Balkan countries are predominantly covered by forests very rich in biodiversity, both in terms of flora and fauna of either global or European conservation importance. There are vast areas o...

Presently the Western Balkan countries are some of the most water-rich in Europe with regards to the amount of water available per person (10,600 cubic metres, which is twice the European average) (World Bank, 2003). Mos...

Agriculture still plays an important role in the economies of the region and employment, despite its overall decline compared with industry and the services sector. Almost 50 per cent of land in the region is used for ag...

Higher temperatures will also shift the snowline upwards. By 2050, a reduction of up to 20 days in snow cover is expected across the Balkans and up to 50 days in the Dinaric Arc (Schneider et al., 2013). More intense rai...

Temperature:
Predicting the climate in mountainous regions is particularly diffcult due to the complex topography. Mountains create diverse microclimates, which require high density of measurement. The distinct local di...

The increased incidence and intensity of heatwaves are expected to shift temperature-related mortality from winter to summer, with fewer colder-related deaths and more heat-related ones. In the long-term, the net total n...

Temperature:
Temperatures have risen in the region in the last fifty years, and every country in the region has experienced warming with this trend accelerating in the most recent decades (UNFCCC National Communications...

The energy sector is considered highly important for the economic growth of the Western Balkan countries, where there is large potential for the development of this sector to bring new investments to the region. A high d...

Transportation, infrastructure and communication policies are key to economic growth and transition in the Western Balkans region. The transportation sector, in particular, has significant environmental implications; an ...

Albania, Croatia, Serbia, and Montenegro have developed active tourism strategies, while Kosovo1 has a draft document. The previous tourism strategy for FYR Macedonia, valid until 2014, has not been updated, although the...

Today, the countries of the Western Balkans are at a turning point in the development of their economies, societies and environment. A number of social, economic and other drivers will shape the region’s future. Integrat...

The Western Balkans is a designation used (most commonly by the European Union) for a region which includes Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, FYR Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Kosovo.
The region, consider...

The laws governing healthcare in the countries of the Western Balkans create the conditions to maintain and improve the health of their citizens. According to these laws, healthcare measures include prevention and protec...

The population of the Hindu Kush Himalayan region is approximately 210 million. The communities are largely agrarian, relying heavily on local natural resources and subsistence farming on small plots of land. Like many a...

Extreme rainfall is increasing in the southernmost part of the Mekong basin and southern and southwestern part of the Salween basin, while extremes are decreasing in most parts of the central and southern parts of the Me...

Rainfall:
The Salween and Mekong river basins receive an average of 1,226 mm of rainfall per year. Out of the total precipitation, 17% and 69% are received during the pre-monsoon and monsoon season, respectively, whils...

Like the Salween and Yangtze rivers, the Mekong river arises in the Three Rivers Source Area high in the Tibetan plateau in Qinghai, China. The Sanjaingyuan National Nature Reserve was established to protect the headwate...

Rainfall:
Rainfall projections in summer show an increasing trend over both upper basins, with an increase of about 5–10% over the southern areas where the normal precipitation is low. In the upper part of these basins...

Precipitation falls as either snow or rain, depending on the temperature, which is closely linked to elevation. Snow can be stored as long-term (perennial) snow or become ice and contribute to the growth of glaciers. Sno...

Depending on the stream flow composition (glacial melt, snow melt, rainfall, baseflow), different rivers within each of the basins will respond differently to climate change. Currently, the peak discharges within the upp...

Depending on the stream flow composition (glacial melt, snow melt, rainfall, baseflow), different rivers within each of the basins will respond differently to climate change. Currently, the peak discharges within the upp...

Temperatures in the upper Indus, upper Ganges, upper Brahmaputra, upper Salween and upper Mekong basins are projected to increase with considerable certainty between 1–2.2°C up until 2050, compared to the baseline period...

Shifts in the seasonality of flows can have major implications for regional food security, especially when the timing of peak flows and growing seasons do not coincide. However, this study suggests that significant seaso...

The topography, terrain, physical features and changing climate of the Hindu Kush Himalayas also make this region inherently unstable and prone to hazards. These include earthquakes, landslides, floods, droughts and othe...

Glaciers respond to climatic changes by gaining or losing mass in the form of snow and ice. Sustained climatic changes will eventually lead to glacier advance or retreat. Glaciers in the HKH region are losing mass and re...

Spread over an area of about 31,000 km2 the Kailash Sacred Landscape is an ecologically diverse, multi-cultural and fragile landscape. It is located in the remote southwestern portion of the Tibet Autonomous Region of Ch...

Extreme rainfall events have increased in intensity over the main mountain range in the upper basin, especially in the eastern section, while the number of rainy days has decreased. In summary, this area now receives mor...

Rainfall:
Overall, the upper basin receives more precipitation than the lower basin and plays an important role in water availability in the whole basin throughout the year. Within the upper basin, the main mountain ran...

Rainfall:
Precipitation is projected to increase in summer over the northern, central-eastern and southern parts of the Indus basin, while over the central-western part of the basin it is projected to decrease. In the r...

The Indus is the 12th largest river in the world and has its source at Lake Ngangla Rinco on the Tibetan plateau. The river basin contains seven of the world’s highest peaks in addition to Everest, including K2 (8,600 m)...

The Hindu Kush Himalayas (HKH) are the freshwater towers of South Asia and parts of Southeast Asia. Water originating from their snow, glaciers and rainfall feed the ten largest river systems in Asia. Together these rive...

The average annual rainfall over the HKH region (5 basins studied here) is approximately 880 mm, with variability of just 5% between years and high spatial variability. The highest rainfall amounts, accounting for more t...

Glaciers are some of the most sensitive indicators of climate change, as they respond rapidly to changes in temperature and precipitation. Glaciers can provide local water resources in the mountains as well as influence ...

To help meet the challenges emerging in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region, a pioneering programme was created to address critical knowledge gaps on water, climate and hydrology, and thus better understand the future impact...

There has been an almost worldwide recession of glaciers since the last ice age, including within the Himalayas. Most Himalayan glaciers have both retreated and lost mass since the mid-19th century, with some exceptions ...

There are changes in extreme rainfall events and the number of rainy days, but these changes vary across the basin, increasing in some locations and decreasing in others. Rainfall intensity shows a decreasing trend over ...

Rainfall:
In the summer, both scenarios project a 10–25% increase in rainfall over most of the basin, and exceeding 25% over the central north of the basin. RCP 8.5 results in projections with pockets of lower increase ...

The Ganges is one of the three main river basins in the Hindu Kush Himalayas. Its source is high in the Himalayan mountains where the Bhagirathi river flows out of the Gangotri Glacier in India’s Uttarakhand state. It ta...

Rainfall:
The Ganges basin receives nearly 1,000 mm of precipitation annually. The greatest amount of rain – 84% of the annual total – falls during the monsoon season. Of the remainder, 7% falls during the premonsoon se...

Asia is the most disaster-prone region in the world. In 2014, over 40% of the world’s natural disasters were reported in this region. It is also where most people have been killed, the greatest losses have been incurred,...

No specific trend of change in the amount of rainfall has been observed between the baseline period of 1951–1980 and 1981–2007. Extreme rainfall appears to be decreasing in the north, but increasing over eastern portions...

Starting from an elevation of 5,300 m, the Brahmaputra river flows across southern Tibet, passing through the Himalayas, descending onto the Assam plain, and finally emptying into the Bay of Bengal. The river undergoes a...

Rainfall:
The Brahmaputra basin receives an average of just over 1,100 mm of rain annually. Of the annual total, 70% is received during the monsoon season (June– September) and 20% in the pre-monsoon season. Winter is t...

The population of South Asia has tripled over the last 60 years and now accounts for around a quarter of the world’s population, with China alone accounting for around one-fifth.29 An estimated 210 million people living ...

Rainfall:
Future scenarios project a 5–25% increase in summer rainfall over most of the basin up until 2050. According to the wettest scenario (RCP 8.5), the increase could be more than 25%, especially in the northern a...

The rivers flowing from the Hindu Kush Himalayas provide the region with one of the most valuable resources: fresh water. Ten large Asian river systems originate in the HKH – the Amu Darya, Brahmaputra (Yarlungtsanpo), G...

The economies of the HKH countries and the livelihoods of the majority of people within them are highly water dependent. Agriculture accounts for about 90% of all water withdrawals in HKH countries (higher than the world...

The Amazon forest spans more than five million km2 and is by far the world’s largest rainforest area,1 representing some 55–60% of all rainforest. The well-known reduction of deforestation in Brazil since 2004 is globall...

The science is clear about two things. First, climate change poses a significant threat to human well-being, with developing societies and poor households most vulnerable to harm. The effects of extreme weather events, r...

The majority of illegal logging takes place in the tropical forest of the Amazon, Central Africa and Southeast Asia. Recent studies reveal that illegal logging accounts for as much as 50–90% of the total production from ...

A recent analysis of ‘Intact Forest Landscapes’ (IFLs) by World resources Institute and others9 warned that pristine forests are being degraded at an alarming rate. Over 1 million km2, an area three times the size of Ger...

The pressure on forests in Southeast Asia and Oceania will continue if strict measures are not taken to regulate the operations of plantation companies and extractive industries in natural forest areas. Malaysia, Accordi...

The rainforests of Southeast Asia and Oceania are under immense pressure. This rainforest region has lost a larger proportion of its original forest cover and has higher deforestation than any of the other main rainfores...