Part-based models for finding people and estimating their pose

Transcription

1 Part-based models for finding people and estimating their pose Deva Ramanan Abstract This chapter will survey approaches to person detection and pose estimation with the use of part-based models. After a brief introduction/motivation for the need for parts, the bulk of the chapter will be split into three core sections on Representation, Inference, and Learning. We begin by describing various gradientbased and color descriptors for parts. We will next focus on Representations for encoding structural relations between parts, describing extensions of classic pictorial structures models to capture occlusion and appearance relations. We will use the formalism of probabilistic models to unify such representations and introduce the issues of inference and learning. We describe various efficient algorithms designed for tree-structures, as well as focusing on discriminative formalisms for learning model parameters. We finally end with applications of pedestrian detection, human pose estimation, and people tracking. 1 Introduction Part models date back to the generalized cylinder models of Binford [3] and Marr and Nishihara [40] and the pictorial structures of Fischler and Elschlager [24] and Felzenszwalb and Huttenlocher [19]. The basic premise is that objects can be modeled as a collection of local templates that deform and articulate with respect to one another. Contemporary work: Part-based models have appeared in recent history under various formalisms. Felzenszwalb and Huttenlocher [19] directly use the pictorial structure moniker, but also notably develop efficient inference algorithms for matching them to images. Constellation models [20, 7, 63] take the same approach, but use a sparse set of parts defined at keypoint locations. Body plans [25] are another rep- Deva Ramanan, Department of Computer Science, University of California at Irvine 1

2 2 Deva Ramanan Fig. 1 One the left, we show a pictorial structure model [24, 19] which models objects using a collection of local part templates together with geometric constraints, often visualized as springs. One the right, we show a pictorial structure for capturing an articulated human puppet of rectangular limbs, where springs have been drawn in red for clarity. resentation that encodes particular geometric rules for defining valid deformations of local templates. Star models: A particularly common form of geometric constraint is known as a star model, which states that part placements are independent within some root coordinate frame. Visually speaking, one think of springs connecting each part to some root bounding box. This geometric model can be implicitly encoded in an implicit shape model [38]. One advantage of the implicit encoding is that one can typically deal with a large vocabulary of parts, sometimes known as a codebook of visual words [57]. Oftentimes such codebooks are generated by clustering candidate patches typically found in images of people. Poselets [4] are recent successful extension of such a model, where part models are trained discriminatively using fully supervised data, eliminating the need for codebook generation through clustering. K-fan models generalize star models [9] by modelling part placements as independant given the location of K reference parts. Tree models: Tree models are a generalization of star model that still allow for efficient inference techniques [19, 28, 45, 51]. Here, the independence assumptions correspond to child parts being independently placed in a coordinate system defined by their parent. One common limitation of such models is the so-called doublecounting phenomena, where two estimated limbs cover the same image region because their positions are estimated independently. We will discuss various improvements designed to compensate for this limitation. Related approaches: Active appearance models [8, 41] are a similar object representation that also decomposes an object into local appearance models, together with geometric constraints on their deformation. Notably, they are defined over continuous domains rather than a discretized state space, and so rely on continuous optimization algorithms for matching. Alternatively, part-based representations have also been used for video analysis be requiring similar optical flow for pixels on the same limb [32, 5].

3 Part-based models for finding people and estimating their pose 3 2 Part models In this section, we will overview techniques for building localized part models. Given an image I and a pixel location l i = (x i,y i ), we write φ(i,l i ) for the local descriptor for part i extracted from a fixed size image patch centered at l i. It is helpful to think of part models as fixed-size templates that will be used to generate part detections by scanning over the image and finding high-scoring patches. We will discuss linearly-parameterized models where the local score for part i is computed with a dot product w i φ(i,l i ). This allows one to use efficient convolution routines to generate scores at all locations in an image. To generate detections at multiple scales, one can search over an image pyramid. We will discuss more detailed parameterizations that include orientation and foreshortening effects in Section Color models Fig. 2 One the left, show pixels used to train a color-based model for an arm. Pixels inside the red rectangle are treated as positive examples, while pixels outside are treated as negatives. On the left-center, we show the discriminant boundary learned by a classifier (specifically, logistic regression defined on quadratic RGB features). On the right two images, we show a test image and arm-pixel classification results using the given discriminant boundary. The simplest part model is one directly based on pixel color. A head part should, for example, contain many skin pixels. This suggests that augmenting a a head part template with a skin detector will be beneficial. In general, such color-based models will not work well for limbs because of intra-class variation; people can appear in a variety of clothes with various colors and textures. Indeed, this is one of the reasons why human pose estimation and detection is challenging. In some scenarios, one may know the appearance of clothing a priori; for example, consider processing sports footage with known team uniforms. We show in Section 4.2 and Section 6.3 that one can learn such color models automatically from a single image or a video sequence. Color models can be encoded non-parametrically with a histogram (e.g., 8 bins per RGB axis resulting in a 8 3 = 512 descriptor), or a parametric model which is typically either a gaussian or a mixture of gaussians. In the case of a simple gaussian, the corresponding color descriptor φ RGB (I,l i ) encodes standard sufficient

4 4 Deva Ramanan statistics computed over a local patch; the mean (µ R 3 ) and covariance (Σ R 3 3 ) of the color distribution. 2.2 Oriented gradient descriptors Fig. 3 On the left, we show an image. On the center left, we show its representation under a HOG descriptor [10]. A common visualization technique is to render an oriented edge with intensity equal to its histogram count, where the histogram is computed over a 8 8 pixel neighborhood. We can use the same technique to visualize linearly-parameterized part models; we show a head part model on the right, and its associated response map for all candidate head location on the center right. We see a high response for the true head location. Such invariant representations are useful for defining part models when part colors are not known a priori or not discriminative. Most recognition approaches do not work directly with pixel data, but rather some feature representation designed to be more invariant to small changes in illumination, viewpoint, local deformation, etc. One of the most successful recent developments in object recognition is the development of engineered, invariant descriptors, such as the scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT) [39] and the histogram of oriented gradient (HOG) descriptor [10]. The basic approach is to work with normalized gradient orientation histograms rather than pixel values. We will go over HOG, as that is a particular common representation. Image gradients are computed at each pixel by finite differencing. Gradients are then binned into one of (typically) 9 orientations over local neighborhoods of 8 8 pixel. A particularly simple implementation of this is obtained by computing histograms over non-overlapping neighborhoods. Finally, these orientation histograms are normalized by aggregating orientation statistics from a local window of pixels. Notably, in the original definition of [10], each orientation histogram is normalized with respect to multiple (4, to be exact) local windows, resulting in vector of 36 numbers to encoding the local orientation statistics of a 8 8 neighborhood cell. Felzenszwalb et al [18] demonstrate that one can reduce the dimensionality of this descriptor to 13 num-

5 Part-based models for finding people and estimating their pose 5 bers by looking at marginal statistics. The final histogram descriptor for a patch of n x n y neighborhood cells is φ(i,l i ) R 13n xn y. 3 Structural constraints In this section, we describe approaches for composing the part models defined in the previous section into full body models. 3.1 Linearly-parameterized spring models Assume we have a K-part model, and let us write the location of the k th part as l k. Let us write z = {l 1,...,l K } for a particular configuration of all K parts. Given an image I, we wish to score each possible configuration z: S(I,z) = K i=1 w i φ(i,l i ) + w i j ψ(i,l i,l j ) (1) i, j E We would like to maximize the above equation over z, so that for a given image, our model can report the best-scoring configuration of parts. Appearance term: We write φ(i,l i ) for the image descriptor extracted from location l i in image x, and w i for the HOG filter for part i. This local score is akin to the linear template classifier described in the previous section. Deformation term: Writing dx = x j x i and dy = y j y i, we can now define: ψ(i,l i,l j ) = [ dx dx 2 dy dy 2] T (2) which can be interpreted as the negative spring energy associated with pulling part j from a canonical relative location with respect to part i. The parameters w i j specify the rest location of the spring and its rigidity; some parts may be easier to shift horiontally versus veritically. In Section 3.3, we derive these linear parameters from a Gaussian assumption on relative location, where the rest position of the spring is the mean of the Gaussian, and rigidity is specified by the covariance of the Gaussian. We define E to be the (undirected) edge set for a K-vertex relational graph G = (V,E) that denotes which parts are constrained to have particular relative locations. Intuitively, one can think of G as the graph obtained from Figure 1 by replacing parts with vertices and springs with edges. Felzenszwalb and Huttenlocher [19] show that this deformation model admits particularly efficient inference algorithms when G is a tree (as is the case for the body model in the right of Figure 1). For greater flexibility, one could also make the deformation term depend on the image I. For example, one might desire consistency in appearance between left and

6 6 Deva Ramanan right body parts, and so one could augment ψ(i,l i,l j ) with squared difference between color histograms extracted at locations l i and l j [61]. Finally, we note that the score can be written function of the part appearance and spatial parameters: S(I,z) = w Φ(I,z) 3.2 Articulation The classic approach to modeling articulated parts is to augment part location l i with pixel position, orientation, and foreshortening l i = (x i,y i,θ i,s i ). This requires augmenting the spatial relational model (2) with model relative orientation and relative foreshortening, as well as relative location. Notably, this enhanced parameterization increases the computational burden of scoring the local model, since one must convolve an image with a family of rotated and foreshortened part templates. While [19] advocate explicitly modeling foreshortening, recent work[49, 45, 48, 1] appear to obtain good results without it, relying on the ability of the local detectors to be invariant to small changes in foreshortening. [48] also demonstrate that by formulating the above scoring function in probabilistic terms and extracting the uncertainty in estimates of body pose (done by computing marginals), one can estimate foreshortening. In general, parts may also differ in appearance due to other factors such as out-of-plane rotations (e.g., frontal versus profile faces) and semantic part states (e.g., an open versus a closed hand). In recent work, [64] foregoe an explicit modeling of articulation, and instead model oriented limbs with mixtures of non-articulated part models - see Figure 10. This has the computational advantage of sharing computation between articulations (typically resulting in orders of magnitude speedups), while allowing mixture models to capture other appearance phenomena such as out-of-plane orientation, semantic part states, etc. 3.3 Gaussian tree models In this section, we will develop a probabilistic graphical model over part locations and image features. We will show that the log posterior of part locations given image features can be written in the form of (1). This provides an explicit probabilistic motivation for our scoring function, and also allows for the direct application of various probabilistic inference algorithms (such as sampling or belief propagation). We will also make the simplifying assumption that the relational graph G = (V, E)

7 Part-based models for finding people and estimating their pose 7 is a tree that is (without loss of generality) rooted at part/vertex i = 1. This means we can model G as a directed graph, further simplyifying our exposition. Spatial prior: Let us first define a prior over a configuration of parts z. We assume this prior factors into a product of local terms P(z) = P(l 1 ) P(l j l i ) (3) i j E The first term is a prior over locations of the root part, which is typically the torso. To maintain a translation invariant model, we will set P(z 1 ) is to be uninformative. The next terms specify spatial priors over the location of a part given its parent in the directed graph G. We model them as diagonal-covariance Gaussian density defined the relative location of part i and j: [ ] σ P(z j z i ) = N(z j z i ; µ j,σ j ) where Σ j = j,x 0 (4) 0 σ j,y The ideal rest position of part j with respect to its parent is given by µ j. If part j is more likely to deform horizontally rather an vertically, one would expect σ j,x > σ j,y. Feature likelihood: We would like a probabilistic model that explains all features observed at all locations in an image, including those generated by parts and those generated by a background model. We write L for the set of all possible locations in an image. We denote the full set of observed features as {φ(i,l ) l L} If we imagine a pre-processing step that first finds a set of candidate part detections (e.g., candidate torsos, heads, etc.), we can intuitively think of L as the set of locations associated with all candidates. Image features at a subset of locations l i L are generated from an appearance model for part i, while all other locations from L (not in z) generate features from a background model: P(I z) = P i (φ(i,l i )) P bg (φ(i,l )) (5) i l L\z = Z r(φ(i,l i )) i where r(φ(i,l i )) = P i(φ(i,l i )) P bg (φ(i,l i )) and Z = P bg (φ(i,l )) l L We write P i (φ(i,l i )) for the likelihood of observing feature φ(i,l i ) given an appearance model for part i. We write P bg (φ(i,l ) for the likelihood of observing feature φ(i,l ) given a background appearance model. The overall likelihood is, up to a constant, only dependent on features observed at part locations. Specifically, it depends on the likelihood ratio of observing the features given a part model versus a background model. Let us assume the image feature likelihood in (5) are Gaussian densities with a part or background-specific mean α and a single covariance Σ:

8 8 Deva Ramanan P i (φ(i,l i )) = N(φ(I,l i );α i,σ) and P bg (φ(i,l i )) = N(φ(I,l i );α bg,σ) (6) Log linear posterior: The relevant quantity for inference, the posterior, can now be written as a log-linear model: P(z I) P(I z)p(z) (7) exp w Φ(I,z) (8) where w and Φ(I, z) are equivalent to their definitions in Section 3.1. Specifically, one can map Gaussian mean and variances to linear parameters as below, providing a probabilistic motivation for the scoring function from (1). w i = Σ 1 (α i α bg ), [ µ j,x w i j = σ 2 j,x 1 µ j,y 2σ 2 j,x σ 2 j,y 1 2σ 2 j,y ] T (9) Note that one can relax the diagonal covariance assumption in (4) and part-independant covariance assumption in (6) and still obtain a log-linear posterior, but this requires augmenting Φ(I,z) to include quadratic terms. 3.4 Inference Fig. 4 Felzenszwalb and Huttenlocher [19] describe efficient dynamic programming algorithms for computing the MAP body configuration, as well as efficient algorithms for sampling from the posterior over body configurations. Given the image and foreground silhoette (used to construct part models) on the left, we show two sampled body configurations on the right two images. MAP estimation: Inference corresponds to maximizing S(x, z) from (1) over z. When the relational graph G = (V,E) is a tree, this can be done efficiently with dynamic programming (DP). Let kids( j) be the set of children of j in E. We compute the message part j passes to its parent i by the following: score j (z j ) = w j φ(x,z j ) + k kids( j) m k (z j ) (10) m j (z i ) = max z j score j (z j ) + w i j ψ(x,z i,z j ) (11)

9 Part-based models for finding people and estimating their pose 9 Eq. (10) computes the local score of part j, at all pixel locations z j, by collecting messages from the children of j. Eq. (11) computes for every location of part i, the best scoring location of its child part j. Once messages are passed to the root part ( j = 1), score 1 (z 1 ) represents the best scoring configuration for each root position. One can use these root scores to generate multiple detections in image x by thresholding them and applying non-maximum suppression (NMS). By keeping track of the argmax indices, one can backtrack to find the location and type of each part in each maximal configuration. Computation: The computationally taxing portion of DP is (11). Assume that there are L possible discrete pixel locations in an image. One has to loop over L possible parent locations, and compute a max over L possible child locations and types, making the computation O( L 2 ) for each part. When φ(p i p j ) is a quadratic function and L is a set of locations on a pixel grid (as is the case for us), the inner maximization in (11) can be efficiently computed for each combination of t i and t j in O( L ) with a max-convolution or distance transform [19]. Message passing reduces to O( L ) per part, making the overall maximization O( L K) for a K-part model. Sampling: Felzenszwalb and Huttenlocher [19] also point out that tree models allow for efficient sampling. As opposed to traditional approaches to sampling, such as Gibbs sampling or Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods, sampling from a tree-structured model requires zero burn-in time. This is because one can directly compute the root marginal P(l 1 I) and pairwise conditional marginals P(l j l i,i) for all edges i j E with the sum-product algorithm (analogous to the forward-backward algorithm for inference on discrete Hidden Markov Models). The forward pass corresponds to upstream messages, passed from part j to its parent i: P(l j l i,i) P(l j l i )a j (l j ) (12) a j (l j ) exp w j φ(i,l j ) P(l k l j,i) l k (13) k kids(j) When part location l i is parameterized by an (x,y) pixel position, one can represent the above terms as 2D images. The image a j is obtained by multiplying together response images from the children of part j and from the local template w j. When P(l j l i ) = f (l j l i ), the summation in (13) can be computed by convolving image a k with filter f. When using a Gaussian spatial model (4), the filter is a standard Gaussian smoothing filter, for which many efficient implementations exist. At the root, the image a 1 (l 1 ) is the true conditional marginal P(l 1 x). Given cached tables of P(l 1 I) and P(l j l i,i), one can efficiently generate samples by the following: Generate a sample from the root z 1 P(l 1 I), and then generate a sample from the next ordered part given its sampled parent: l j P(I j l i,i). Each involves a table lookup, making the overall sampling process very fast. Marginals: It will also be convenient to directly compute singleton and pairwise marginals P(l i I) and P(l j,l i I) for parts and part-parent pairs. This can be done by first computing the upstream messages in (13), where the root marginal is given by P(l 1 I) = a 1 (l 1 ). and then computing downstream messages from part i to its child part j:

10 10 Deva Ramanan Fig. 5 One can compute part marginals using the sum-product algorithm [45]. Given part marginals, one can render a weighted rectangular mask at all image locations, where weights are given by the marginal probability. Lower limbs are rendered in blue, upper limbs and the head are rendered in green, and the torso is rendered in red. Regions of strong color correspond to pixels that likely to belong to a body part, according to the model. In the center, part models are defined using edge-based templates. On the right, part models are defined using color models. P(l j,l i I) = P(l j l i,i)p(l i I) P(l j I) = l i P(l j,l i I) (14) 4 Non-tree models In this section, we describe constraints and associated inference algorithms for nontree relational models. 4.1 Occlusion constraints Tree-based models imply that left and right body limbs are localized independently given a root torso. Since left and right limb templates look similar, they may be attracted to the same image region. This often produces pose estimates whose left and right arms (or legs) overlap, or the so-called double-counting phenomena. Though such configurations are physically plausible, we would like to assign them a lower score than a configuration that explains more of the image. One can do this by introducing a constraint that an image region an only be claimed by a single part. There has been a body of work [58, 34, 55] developing layered occlusion models for part-based representations. Most do so by adding an additional visibility flag v i {0,1} for part i: P(I z,v) = i P i (φ(i,l i )) v i l L\z P bg (φ(i,l )) (15) P(v z) vis(v C,z C ) (16) C

11 Part-based models for finding people and estimating their pose 11 Fig. 6 Sigal and Black [55] demonstrate that the double-counting in tree models (top row) can be eliminated with an occlusion-aware likelihood model (bottom row). where C is a collection of cliques of potentially overlapping parts, and vis is a binary visibility function that assigns 1 to valid configurations and visibility states (and 0 otherwise). One common approach is to only consider pairwise cliques of potentially overlapping parts (e.g., left/right limbs). Other extensions include modeling visibility at the pixel-level rather than the part-level, allowing for parts to be partially visible [55]. During inference, one may marginalize out the visibility state z and simply estimate part locations z, or one simultaneously estimate both. In either case, probabilistic dependancies between left and right limbs violate classic tree independence assumptions - e.g., left and right limbs are no longer independently localized for a fixed root torso. 4.2 Appearance constraints People, and objects in general, tend to be consistent in appearance. For example, left and right limbs often look similar in appearance because clothes tend to be mirror symmetric [42, 46]. Upper and lower limbs often look similar in appearance, depending on the particular types of clothing worn (shorts versus pants, long-sleeves versus short sleeves) [61]. Constraints can even be long-scale, as the hands and face of a person tend to have similar skin tones. Finally, an additional cue is that of background consistency; consider an image of a person standing on a green field. By enforcing the constraint that body parts are not green, one can essentially subtract out the background [45, 21]. Pairwise consistency: One approach to enforcing appearance constraints is to break them down into pairwise constraints on pairs of parts. One can do this by

12 12 Deva Ramanan defining an augmented pairwise potential ψ(i,l i,l j ) = φ RBG (I,l i ) φ RGB (I,l j ) 2 (17) where φ RBG (I,l i ) are color models extracted from a window centered at location l i. One would need to augment the relational graph G with connections between pairs of parts with potential appearance constraints. The associated linear parameters would learn to what degree certain parts look consistent. Tran and Forsyth show such cues are useful [61]. Ideally, this consistency should depend on additional latent factors; if the person is wearing pants, that both the upper,lower,left, and right leg should look consistent in appearance. We see such encodings as a worthwhile avenue of future research. Additionally, one can augment the above potentials with additional image-specific cues. For example, the lack of a strong intervening contour between a putative upper and lower arm location may be further evidence of a correct localization. Sapp et al. explore such cues in [52, 53]. Global consistency: Some appearance constraints, such as a background model, are non-local. To capture them, we can augment the entire model with latent appearance variables a. [ φ(i,l i,a) = φ(i,l i ) f (φ RGB (I,l i ),a i,a bg ) where we define a i to be appearance of part i and a BG is the appearance of the background. Ramanan [45] treats these variables as latent variables that are estimated simultaneously with part locations l i. This is done with an iterative inference algorithm whose steps are visualized in Figure 5. Ferrari et al. [21] learn such variables by applying a foreground-background segmentation engine on the output of a upright person detector. ] (18) 4.3 Inference with non-tree models As we have seen, tree models allow for a number of efficient inference procedures. But we have also argued that there are many cues that do not decompose into tree constraints. We briefly discuss a number of extensions for non-tree models. Many of them originated in the tracking literature, in which (even tree-structured) part-based models necessarily contain loops once one imposes a motion constraint on each part - e.g., an arm most not only lie near its parent torso, but must also lie near the arm position in the previous frame. Mixtures of trees: One straightforward manner of introducing complexity into a tree model is to add a global, latent mixture model z = {l 1,...,l K,z global }. For example, the latent variable could specify the viewpoint of the person; one may expect different spatial locations of parts given this latent variable. Given this latent variable, the overall model reduces to a tree. This suggests the following inference procedure:

13 Part-based models for finding people and estimating their pose 13 max z S(I,z) = max max z global {l 1,...l K } S(I,z) (19) where the inner maximization can exploit standard tree-based DP inference algorithms. Alternatively, one can compute a posterior by averaging the marginals produced by inference on each tree. Ioffe and Forsyth use such models to capture occlusion constraints [27]. Lan and Huttenlocher use mixture models to capture phases of a walking cycle [36], while Wang and Mori [62] use additive mixtures, trained discriminatively in a boosted framework, to model occlusion contraints between left/right limbs. Tian and Sclaroff point out that, if spring covariances are shared across different mixture components, one can reuse distance transform computations across mixtures [60]. Johnson and Everingham [31] demonstrate that part appearances may also depend on the mixture component (e.g., faces may appear frontally or in profile), and define a resulting mixture tree-model that is state-of-theart Generating tree-based configurations: One approach is to use tree-models as a mechanism for generating candidate body configurations, and scoring the configurations using more complex non-tree constraints. Such an approach is similar to N-best lists common in speech decoding. However, in our case, the N-best configurations would tend to be near-duplicates - e.g., one-pixel shifts of the best-scoring pose estimate. Felzenszwalb and Huttenlocher [19] advocate the use of sampling to generate multiple configurations. These samples can be re-scored to obtain an estimate of the posterior over the full model, an inference technique known as importance sampling. Buehler et al. [6] argues that one obtains better samples by sampling from max-marginals. One promising area of research is the use of branch-and-bound algorithms for optimal matching. Tian and Sclaroff [60] point out that one can use tree-structures to generate lower-bounds which can be used to guide search over the space of part configurations. Loopy belief propagation: A successful strategy for dealing with loopy models is to apply standard tree-based belief propagation (for computing probabilistic or max-marginals) in an iterative fashion. Such a procedure is not guaranteed to converge, but often does. In such situations it can be shown to minimize a variational approximation to the original probabilistic model. One can reconstruct full joint configurations from the max-marginals, even in loopy models [65]. Continuous state-spaces: There has also been a family of techniques that directly operate on a continuous state space of l i rather than discretizing to the pixel grid. It is difficult to define probabilistic models on continuous state spaces. Because posteriors are multi-model, simple Gaussian parameterizations will not suffice. In the tracking literature, one common approach to adaptively discretize the search space using a set of samples or particles. Particle filters have the capability to capture non-gaussian, multi-modal distributions. Sudderth et al. [59], Isard [29], and Sigal et al. [56] develop extensions for general graphical models, demonstrating results for the task of tracking articulated models in videos. In such approaches, samples for a part are obtained by a combination of sampling from the spatial prior P(l j l i ) and the likelihood P i (φ(i,l i )). Techniques which focus on the latter are known as data-driven sampling techniques [37, 26].

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