2.
Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 2.5
You are free:
• to copy, distribute, display, and perform the work
• to make derivative works
Under the following conditions:
Attribution. You must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author
or licensor.
Noncommercial. You may not use this work for commercial purposes.
Share Alike. If you alter, transform, or build upon this work, you may distribute
the resulting work only under a license identical to this one.
For any reuse or distribution, you must make clear to others the license terms of this
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Any of these conditions can be waived if you get permission from the copyright holder
Your fair use and other rights are in no way affected by the above.
This is a human-readable summary of the Legal Code
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Disclaimer
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3.
Podcasting Legal Guide, v 1.0
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................. iii
FOREWORD (By Lawrence Lessig)................................................................................................................ v
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... vii
1. Legal Issues In Creating Your Own Podcast .................................................................................. 1
1.1. Overview Of The Legal Issues You Need To Consider ....................................................... 1
1.1.1. Why Is Copyright Law Relevant? .............................................................................. 1
1.1.2. Why Are Publicity Rights Relevant?.......................................................................... 2
1.1.3. How Is Trademark Law Relevant? ............................................................................ 2
1.1.4. What Other Issues Should I Be Thinking About?..................................................... 2
1.2. Copyright Issues....................................................................................................................... 2
1.2.1. Using Written Content Created By Someone Else: Permission Is
Generally Required. ................................................................................................... 2
1.2.2. The Good News: 5 Instances Where Permission Is Not Required ......................... 3
1.2.2.1. You Are Using A Fact, An Idea, A Theory Or Slogan, Title
Or Short Phrase......................................................................................... 3
1.2.2.2. You Are Using Works That Are In The Public Domain ........................... 4
1.2.2.3. You Are Using A US Government Work .................................................. 6
1.2.2.4. You Are Making A “Fair Use”.................................................................... 7
1.2.2.5. You Are Using Creative Commons-Licensed Or “Podsafe”
Content....................................................................................................... 7
1.2.3. Special Rules For Librarians Or Teachers.............................................................. 10
1.2.4. Using Your Own Written Content ............................................................................ 10
1.2.5. Incorporating Pre-Existing Audio Voice Recordings .............................................. 11
1.2.6. Interviewing Someone Or Asking Someone To Join You In
Conversation As Part Of Your Podcast................................................................... 11
1.2.7. Using Music............................................................................................................... 12
1.2.7.1. Two Types Of Works Involved In A Copyrighted Song ........................ 12
1.2.7.2. Two Types Of Copyright “Rights”. .......................................................... 14
1.2.7.3. Licenses You Will Need .......................................................................... 16
1.2.7.4. The “Fair Use” Exception ........................................................................ 19
1.2.8. Using Video/Images. ................................................................................................ 19
1.2.9. Fair Use Under Copyright Law And Its Application To Podcasts.......................... 20
--i--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice.

4.
Podcasting Legal Guide, v 1.0
1.2.9.1. Two Misconceptions About Fair Use .................................................... 20
1.2.9.2. Examples Of Fair Use That May Apply In Podcasting.......................... 21
1.3. Publicity Rights Issues ........................................................................................................... 21
1.4. Trademark Issues................................................................................................................... 22
1.4.1. Infringement And Dilution......................................................................................... 22
1.4.2. When Do I Need Permission? ................................................................................. 23
1.4.3. A Note About Using Trademark Disclaimers .......................................................... 23
1.5. Finding “Podsafe” Content To Include In Your Podcasts .................................................... 24
1.5.1. Finding CC-Licensed Materials ............................................................................... 24
1.5.2. Other Sites That Offer Podsafe Content ................................................................. 25
2. Legal Issues Surrounding How You Distribute Your Podcast .................................................. 25
2.1. Implied Licenses..................................................................................................................... 25
2.2. Express Licenses ................................................................................................................... 26
2.2.1. Applying A CC License To Your Podcast ............................................................... 26
2.2.2. Using the “All Rights Reserved” Model For Your Podcast .................................... 27
2.3. Using A Service To Distribute And/Or Promote Your Podcasts ......................................... 27
3. Basic Background Of Podcasting .................................................................................................. 27
3.1. A (Very, Very) Brief History ................................................................................................... 27
3.2. What Is Podcasting? What Are Podcasts?........................................................................... 28
3.3. How Does It Work? ................................................................................................................ 28
3.4. What Is RSS? How Does It Work With Podcasts? .............................................................. 28
4. Background And Further Resources. ............................................................................................ 29
4.1. General Information ............................................................................................................... 29
4.2. How To Make A Podcast ....................................................................................................... 29
4.3. Open-Source Podcast Players .............................................................................................. 29
4.4. Search Engines And Directories For Podcasts.................................................................... 30
4.5. Podcatcher Programs ............................................................................................................ 30
4.6. Finding Podsafe Content ....................................................................................................... 30
4.7. Websites With Legal Information On The Issues In This Guide ......................................... 30
4.8. Public Domain ........................................................................................................................ 30
4.9. IP Law (Copyright, Trademark, Publicity Rights, Etc.) ........................................................ 30
4.10. Books About Podcasting........................................................................................................ 31
4.11. Other Resources About Copyright Law ................................................................................ 31
4.12. Other Resources About Trademark Law .............................................................................. 31
4.13. Other Resources About Digital Rights, Copyright, Free Expression .................................. 31
--ii--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice

5.
Podcasting Legal Guide, v 1.0
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Writing this Guide was made possible through the assistance, support and feedback of
many. Stanford Law School’s Center for Internet & Society provided a forum for
discussion and support of this project. Lawrence Lessig, the program’s founder, and
Jennifer Stisa Granick, the Executive Director, have created an atmosphere that has
fostered my growth as a lawyer and my ability to take on a project like this. I am
extremely grateful for the support of my co-author, Mia Garlick, who was instrumental in
drafting portions of the Guide, acting as a liaison with Harvard’s Berkman Center, and
being a supportive colleague on many fronts. The Berkman Center provided much of the
research and writing on the music section, which was a tremendous help. I am also
thankful for Lauren Gelman, who among other things, spearheads the speaker series at
Stanford where I presented my initial work on the Guide in November 2005, and who
provided feedback on early drafts of the material contained in the Guide. A number of
other people (podcasters, lawyers, and some who are both) have helped with feedback
on the early drafts including Elizabeth Townsend Gard
(http://academiccopyright.typepad.com/), Joe Gratz (http://www.joegratz.net/), Denise
Howell (http://bgbg.blogspot.com/), Chris MacDonald (http://www.indiefeed.com), and
Matthew May (http://www.staccatomusic.org/), Martin Schwimmer
(http://www.schwimmerlegal.com/), and Matthew Wayne Selznick
(http://www.mwsmedia.com/). The Guide is certainly a better product as a result of their
feedback and comments. Finally, I am very thankful for Creative Commons’ assistance in
hosting the web-version of the Guide, and in particular I am thankful for Mike Linksvayer
and Alex Roberts who created the cool logo and took care of all the technical details of
getting the Guide on line, and putting the wiki together.
Colette Vogele
San Francisco, California
March 2006
--iii--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice

6.
Podcasting Legal Guide, v 1.0
--iv--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice

7.
Podcasting Legal Guide, v 1.0
FOREWORD
By Lawrence Lessig
Federal law regulates creativity. That regulation is insanely complex. Indeed, the law is
more complex today than at any point in our history. It seems the more the lawyers work
on the law, the less useable the law becomes.
For the first time in our history, this complex regulation of creativity effectively regulates
consumers, or users, as well as the businesses that support creativity. For the first time,
its regulation reaches far beyond commercial creativity, and instead burdens
noncommercial, or amateur creativity (where “amateur” means not second rate, or inferior
creativity, but instead creativity done for the love of creating and not for the money). And
that regulation now threatens one of the most important new venues for citizen speech —
podcasting.
This Guide is an excellent resource for anyone who wants to figure out how best to follow
the law. It is also an outstanding recommendation for the non-profit I run, Creative
Commons, for as you will see as you work through the insanity that copyright law has
become, Creative Commons is a simple alternative to this complex mess.
But my hope for this Guide (which in addition to copyright addresses publicity rights and
trademark law) is that it will begin to make obvious what digital creators have been saying
for some time — that it is time we update copyright law to the digital age. Something
fantastic has changed: technology now invites the widest range of citizens to become
speakers and creators. It is time that the law remove the unnecessary burdens that it
imposes on this creativity.
“Copyright law” is essential in a digital age. But it ought to be a copyright law made for a
digital age. Ours is not. And this fantastic Guide for those wanting to obey the rules
should be evidence enough to convince anyone of that fact.
--v--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice

8.
Podcasting Legal Guide, v 1.0
--vi--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice

10.
Podcasting Legal Guide, v 1.0
1. Legal Issues In Creating Your Own Podcast.
1.1. Overview Of The Legal Issues You Need To Consider.
When creating your own podcast, it is important to make sure all necessary rights and
permissions are secured for the material included in your podcasts. This is relatively easy
if you create all of the material that is included in your podcast but can become
progressively more complex the more you include material created by other people. If
you do not obtain the necessary rights and permissions, you may get into legal trouble for
incorporating third party material into your podcast and for also authorizing others to use
that material as part of your podcast.
The main legal issues that you will likely face that are unique to podcasters are related to
copyright, publicity rights and trademark issues.
Podcasters share similar concerns to bloggers in relation to defamation, privacy,
reporter’s privilege, media access, election and labor laws and adult materials.
Consequently, if the content your podcast is likely to involve one of these issues, you
should check the corresponding section of the EFF Bloggers FAQ
(http://www.eff.org/bloggers/lg/).
1.1.1. Why Is Copyright Law Relevant?
Copyright law is relevant to podcasts because it applies to creative and expressive
works, which are most of the things that are included in a podcast. This includes, for
example, performances, scripts, interviews, musical works and sound recordings. Under
current US copyright law, copyright attaches automatically to creative, expressive works
once they have been “fixed”, i.e. written down or recorded. This means that when you
come across such a work, you should, as a general rule and subject to some exceptions
noted in Sections 1.2.2 — “The Goods News: 5 Instances Where Permission Is Not
Required,” 1.2.3 — “Special Rules for Librarians & Teachers” and 1.2.9 — “Fair Use
Under Copyright Law And Its Application To Podcasts,” assume that it is protected by
copyright.
Copyright law gives the owner of copyright the exclusive right to control certain activities
in relation to the work. For example, under US law, a copyright owner can control
whether another person makes a copy of their work, makes changes to their work,
distributes it to the public or makes a public performance of it. Consequently, any person
other than the copyright owner who wishes to do any of the protected acts in relation to
the work must secure permission from the copyright owner before doing so, unless an
exception or exclusion applies.
When you make a podcast, you potentially invoke several of copyright’s exclusive rights,
such as:
Copying the work to include it into a podcast;

Adapting or changing the work to include it into the podcast;

Making a work available as part of a podcast for transmission to members of

the public;
Authorizing members of the public to make a copy of the podcast and use it

according to the terms you apply to the podcast.
This Guide sets out some of the issues that need to be considered to identify whether
you own the necessary copyright and/or have the appropriate permission so that you do
not infringe someone else’s copyright. Learn more in Section 1.2 — “Copyright Issues.”
--1--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice

11.
Podcasting Legal Guide, v 1.0
1.1.2. Why Are Publicity Rights Relevant?
Publicity rights allow individuals to control how their voice, image or likeness is used for
commercial purposes in public. These rights are relevant to podcasting because, in many
instances, a podcaster will conduct audio or video interviews, perform plays, sing songs,
and produce all sorts of other spoken or visual content. When transmitting this sort of
content, including the voices or images of anyone other than yourself, you may need to
get permission from those individuals if you are using their voice or images for
commercial purposes. For example, if you have images from an interview with someone
on your podcast and you use those images to promote your podcast, solicit advertising,
or make other commercial uses, you may need consent from the individual appearing in
the image. Learn more in Section 1.3 — “Publicity Rights Issues.”
1.1.3. How Is Trademark Law Relevant?
Trademark law is designed to protect consumers from being misled or deceived as to the
source of goods and services, or the endorsement, sponsorship or affiliation of one good
or service with another. In other words, trademark law works to ensure that you can rely
on particular branding to equate to certain product features. So for example, Joe Citizen
cannot use the name CNN and apply it in such a way as to suggest that his podcasts
come from CNN, or are endorsed by or affiliated with CNN.
While there may be little risk that you are going to use someone else’s trademark to
associate with your podcast (‘cause you want to establish your own reputation, right?),
trademark law can be implicated in what you do and say in relation to your podcast in
other ways. Because you may want to comment on a high-profile company or their
branding, you should have some familiarity with trademark law so that you can minimize
your risk of infringing trademark rights. Learn more in Section 1.4 — “Trademark Issues.”
1.1.4 What Other Issues Should I Be Thinking About?
As a podcaster, you will face many of the same legal questions that bloggers face. EFF’s
Legal Guide to Blogging (http://www.eff.org/bloggers/) addresses many additional issues
that you should consider. These include: rights related to the Digital Millennium Copyright
Act (DMCA), the Communications Decency Act (aka “Section 230), on-line defamation,
privacy, reporter’s privilege, media access, election law, and labor law.
1.2. Copyright Issues.
1.2.1. Using Written Content Created By Someone Else: Permission Is Generally
Required.
As a general rule, if you incorporate text that has been written by someone else into your
podcast—text that appears either on a blog, in a book, a journal, magazine or newspaper
(or wherever)—you will need the express and specific permission of the person who
owns copyright in that material (note that sometimes the copyright owner is different to
the original writer).
Written works do not have to be full of flourish and artistic merit, like novels and poetry, to
qualify for copyright protection. Textual works only need have minimal creativity to attract
copyright protection; so, most textual works that are committed to paper (or computer),
including those that lack literary merit such as, for example, institutional reports,
newspaper articles and unimaginative blog postings, are likely to be protected by
copyright.
--2--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice

13.
Podcasting Legal Guide, v 1.0
Finally, an idea is not protected by copyright. This is addressed by the Copyright
Act which expressly excludes any quot;idea procedure, process, system, method of
operation, concept, principle, or discovery regardless of form in which it is
described, explained, illustrated, or embodiedquot; from protection. This rule (called
the quot;idea-expression distinctionquot;) means, for example, that you can include in
your podcast a discussion of factual events reported in a newspaper—such as
facts about historical or current events—without obtaining permission from the
copyright owner of the newspaper. It also means you could describe and discuss
cooking recipes in your podcast, because they do not generally receive copyright
protection. Recipes (the mere list of ingredients and instructions for combining
the ingredients to achieve an end product) are seen as quot;a system, process or
method of operationquot;. In practice, the distinction is often difficult to know. As the
Copyright Office’s notes: “Mere listings of ingredients as in recipes, formulas,
compounds or prescriptions are not subject to copyright protection. However,
where a recipe or formula is accompanied by substantial literary expression in
the form of an explanation or directions, or when there is a combination of
recipes, as in a cookbook, there may be a basis for copyright protection.” (See
http://www.copyright.gov/fls/fl122.html and http://www.copyright.gov/help/faq/faq-
protect.html).
1.2.2.2. You Are Using Works That Are In The Public Domain.
You can use any work that is in the public domain without obtaining permission of
the original author or copyright owner.
A work is in the public domain in the US either when (a) the copyright term has
expired or if copyright protection for that work was not maintained in the manner
required prior to 1989, (b) the work is an unpublished work and special rules
indicate it has fallen into the public domain, or (c) the author or copyright owner
dedicated the work to the public domain. You will find helpful websites for
determining public domain status of a work in Section 4 — “Background and
Further Resources” of this Guide. We also explain below in part (d) of this section
one wrinkle that arises when using public domain works that you need to
consider to ensure that your use does not infringe anyone’s copyright.
(a) Published Works – Term, the term of copyright protection in the US has
varied considerably over the history of US copyright law. Currently, the copyright
term is life of the author plus 70 years for content created by individuals. For
works created in circumstances of employment or works known as “works for
hire” the term of copyright is 95 years from the date the work was first published
(for more discussion of what constitutes a “work for hire” see Section 1.2.4. —
“Using Your Own Written Content”).
In the US, as a general rule, the copyright term will only have expired in relation
works published before 1923. Works published in 1923 or later have had their
term of copyright protection extended and so will not join the public domain until
2019 or later unless copyright protection was not properly maintained.
It is also possible that a work has lost copyright protection because the
affirmative steps that were necessary prior to 1989 under then-applicable US
copyright law were not followed by the copyright owner. After 1989, copyright
protection became automatic; no affirmative step was required to secure
copyright. Consequently, a work can only have inadvertently fallen into the public
domain prior to 1989 under these circumstances:
--4--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice

14.
Podcasting Legal Guide, v 1.0
For works published after 1923 and prior to 1964, copyright protection

th
had to be renewed in the 28 year after publication of the work. If the
work was not renewed, then the work joined the public domain.
From 1964 to 1989, copyright could only be secured by publishing a

work with the necessary copyright notice. Failure to do so meant that
copyright protection was lost unless the lack of a copyright notice came
within one of these exceptions.
As you can see, a fair amount of research may be required to determine whether
a published work inadvertently joined the public domain.
(b) Unpublished Works -- Term. Some unpublished works are also part of the
public domain. This is a new development in US copyright law. Like with
published works, the general term is life of the author plus seventy years for
individuals, or 120 years from creation for works for hire, but there is a transition
period that can be a bit tricky.
Unpublished works, i.e. works that were created but not published or registered
for copyright before January 1, 1978, regardless of when their author died,
continued to be protected under copyright until December 31, 2002.
For unpublished works that were published after January 1, 1978 and on or
before December 31, 2002, copyright protection was extended so that if the
copyright holder of an unpublished civil war diary published the work by
December 31, 2002, then, the new published version of the diary would gain
copyright protection through December 31, 2047. After the December 31, 2002,
deadline, the standard term for all unpublished works became life of the author
plus seventy years. This means that as of January 1, 2003, all unpublished works
that continued to be unpublished and not registered with the Copyright Office as
of January 1, 1978 of authors who have been dead for more than seventy years
are in the public domain. As of 2006, this means all unpublished works of authors
who died before 1936 (and that were not published for the first time between
1978 and 2002) are part of the public domain.
If you are a podcaster thinking about using unpublished materials found on the
Internet, here are a couple of tips on how to deal with unpublished works. First,
make note that if the unpublished work you want to use was published between
1978 and 2002, to obtain the extended period of protection that is given to these
kinds of works under US copyright law, it had to be published by the copyright
holder. This means that some works that were published during that period did
not gain additional protection because someone other than the copyright holder
published the work on the Internet. Second, understand that this extended
protection applies to both U.S. and foreign works. Every unpublished work from
around the world of authors who died before 1936 is in the public domain in the
United States. That means that the unpublished diary of an Australian who died
in 1930 will be in the public domain in the U.S.; however, that same diary may
still be subject to copyright under Australian copyright law in Australia. So, if you
are marketing or targeting your podcast for a particular territory, you need to be
aware of the copyright laws in that country as well as in the U.S. Moreover,
because of the borderless nature of the Internet, you can’t really stop your
podcast from distributing to Australia, in which case you may be violating laws in
another country (We raise this here as a flag, but please note that the scope of
this Guide does not cover international copyright questions at this time). Third,
often websites have not included when they posted a particular unpublished
--5--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice

15.
Podcasting Legal Guide, v 1.0
work, and so one is not sure whether the unpublished work was considered
published before the December 31, 2002 deadline. If you find yourself in that
situation, the Internet Archive’s Wayback Machine (http://www.archive.org/) is
very useful to help determine what material was published on the Internet before
the December 31, 2002. This tool tells you when a particular page or image was
first put onto the web.
(c) Dedication To Public Domain -- Finally, a work may be in the public domain
because an author or copyright owner has dedicated their work to the public
domain, such as for example, by using the Creative Commons Public Domain
Dedication (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/publicdomain/).
(d) One Wrinkle -- One additional wrinkle when using public domain works is
that those public domain works may be incorporated into another work that is
copyright-protected. When this happens, although the public domain portions
remain unprotected by copyright, the author’s new expressive content may be
protected by copyright. For example, as a general rule, slavish photographs of
public domain works such as the Mona Lisa are not considered to attract
copyright protection because they are designed to replicate the original public
domain work as much as possible. However, a photograph of a sculpture, even a
public domain sculpture, may be protected by copyright because of the skill and
creativity involved in setting up the shot.
Another example is of a book that is in the public domain. Although the text of a
public domain work, say, Shakespeare’s The Comedy of Errors
(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1504), may be free to use (for example to record
a reading of the text); an image of a recently published edition of the book -- e.g.
http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0743484886/qid=1140144444/sr=2-
1/ref=pd_bbs_b_2_1/002-2073566-5466404?s=books&v=glance&n=283155) --
may implicate the publisher’s copyright in the layout and formatting of that text,
the cover art, etc., thus necessitating the publisher’s consent to use an image of
that book in your podcast or a determination as to whether your use amounts to a
fair use of the published edition.
1.2.2.3. You Are Using A US Government Work.
Works that are created by a US government employee or officer, as part of their
official duties, are not protected by copyright. Similarly, federal and state statutes
and judicial opinions are not protected by copyright. However, this extends only
to federal officials and also, only to employees. This means that works created by
state and local officials are usually copyright-protected and similarly, material
created by private persons who are commissioned by the US government to
prepare a work may be protected by copyright.
If you do incorporate government works into your podcast, you should also
consider including in any copyright notice that accompanies the podcast a
statement that identifies which portions of your podcast are protected by
copyright and which are US government works. This is important for several
reasons: (1) it allows people to know which works they can freely use and
repurpose; (2) it removes the ability, if you bring an action against someone for
infringement, for that person to argue that they did not have proper notice of the
copyrighted status of your work.
--6--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice

16.
Podcasting Legal Guide, v 1.0
1.2.2.4. You Are Making A “Fair Use.”
You may make a “fair use” of a copyrighted text without obtaining permission of
the copyright owner. We discuss quot;fair usequot; in more detail, and provide some
examples, in Section 1.2.9 — “Fair Use Under Copyright Law And Its Application
To Podcasts” of this Guide.
1.2.2.5. You Are Using Creative Commons-Licensed Or “Podsafe” Content.
Creative Commons’ licensed content is generally “podsafe” (i.e. is pre-cleared for
use in podcasts) when your use is consistent with the applicable license terms.
Creative Commons’ licenses clearly signal to the public which uses you may
make under the terms of the license and which uses require separate and
specific permission is necessary. This means that it is important to check the
terms of the applicable Creative Commons license to identify the relevant uses
that are authorized in advance. Compliance with the terms of the Creative
Commons license is necessary because otherwise the license terminates and
then your use will become infringing.
If you use Creative Commons-licensed work in your podcast, you will need to
provide attribution in the manner specified by the author and/or licensor. In
addition, you must keep intact any copyright notices that accompany the work;
include the title of the work; and, any Uniform Resource Indicator that is provided
by the licensor which also includes copyright or licensing information about the
work. You also need to retain a notice or URL for the license and the warranty
disclaimer that applies to the work with each copy you make and distribute of it.
Briefly, the common Creative Commons license conditions from Creative
Commons core licensing suite may limit your use of a CC-licensed work in the
following ways:
NoDerivatives – this license requires that any copy of the work you make is

verbatim; in other words, you may not change the work, such as, for
example, translating a textual work into another language or dramatizing an
existing work.
You can, however, still include a NoDerivatives licensed work as part of
another, larger work (known as “collective works”). For example, you can
include several pieces of music together to form a collective work, as long as
the work itself is unaltered. You cannot, however, mash up a NoDerivatives-
licensed recording with another recording because that would constitute a
derivative work.
NonCommercial – this license condition means that you cannot make

money from the work. This would, for example, mean that you cannot include
a Creative Commons licensed piece of music that was NonCommercially
licensed in a podcast, where the music is the primary draw and/or a
substantial amount of the podcast and then charge people money to
download your podcast. You also cannot include advertising before or after
the piece of music or as part of the podcast if the work is the primary draw
and/or a substantial amount of the podcast.
An important thing to note about Creative Commons NonCommercially
licensed content is that, under the license, the licensor retains the right to
--7--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice

17.
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collect royalties through statutory and voluntary collective rights management
schemes for commercial uses of their content. In other words, if you are a
for-profit podcaster you will likely still need to obtain the necessary
permissions for your use of Creative Commons NonCommercially-licensed
music. Learn more about music-related rights in Section 1.2.7 — “Using
Music” — of this Guide.
ShareAlike – this license condition requires that, if you make a derivative

work of a Creative Commons licensed piece of content, you license your own
podcast under the same or similar Creative Commons license terms. For
example, if you take a Creative Commons licensed book and read it aloud as
part of your podcast, your podcast must then be licensed under a Creative
Commons license that contains the same license elements (such as
Attribution, ShareAlike etc.) The ShareAlike requirement is not, however,
viral; in other words, you can include a mash up of a ShareAlike licensed
musical track (provided it is licensed under the same CC-license terms)
together with other tracks in a podcast to form a “collective work;” you do not
have to release all of the tracks, that are not derived from the ShareAlike-
licensed work, under the same CC-license terms.
If a Creative Commons licensed work is not licensed with one of these license
restrictions, you are then free to use the work in one of the above manners. For
example, a piece of content that is published under the Creative Commons
Attribution license may be used for commercial and noncommercial purposes
and can be used verbatim or adapted and turned into derivative works, without
those derivatives needing to be “shared-alike” (so long as attribution is given). A
Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial licensed work can be used to
make derivative works (so long as attribution is given and the work is used
noncommercially). A Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives licensed work
can be used for commercial and noncommercial purposes (provided attribution is
given and the work is used only verbatim), and so on.
As part of Creative Commons customized licensing, the Creative Commons
Sampling licenses permit you to make the following uses of content published
under these licenses:
Sampling – under this license you may only make a partial use of the

original licensed content or, if you use the whole original, it must be
insubstantial in proportion to the whole or transformed into something totally
different to the original; this use can be for either noncommercial or
commercial purposes. Mere synching (i.e., matching or “synching” audio with
images) is not sufficiently transformative when you are using the whole work
and no advertising and promotional uses not allowed (except for promoting
your derived work).
Sampling Plus – this license contains the same requirements as the

Sampling license but also permits you to copy and distribute the entire
licensed original in verbatim form for noncommercial purposes, hence the
“plus.”
NonCommercial Sampling Plus – this license contains the same

requirements as the Sampling license but only permits the transformative use
for noncommercial purposes. Similarly, noncommercial copying and
distribution are allowed.
--8--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice

18.
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All of the Sampling licenses require that you attribute the original work and retain
notice of the applicable license, similar to the corresponding requirements
discussed in relation to the core CC-licensing suite (see the discussion above at
the start of this section). One additional thing to note to ensure your compliance
with the Sampling licenses’ terms is that when you attribute the original work and
its creator, you must acknowledge that your derived work is a remix or includes
only a portion of the original work.
One thing to note about Creative Commons licensed content generally -
you should be aware that all of the licenses contain a disclaimer of warranties, so
there is no assurance whatsoever that the licensor has all the necessary rights to
permit reuse of the licensed work. (Note: this applies to version 2.0 licenses and
up; the version 1.0 CC licenses included a warranty of title). The disclaimer
means that the licensor is not guaranteeing anything about the work, including
that she owns the copyright to it, or that she has cleared any uses of third-party
content that her work may be based on or incorporate.
This is typical of so-called “open source” licenses, where works are made widely
and freely available for reuse at no charge. In open content licensing, warranties
and indemnities are best determined separately by private bargain, so that each
licensor and licensee can determine the appropriate allocation of risk and reward
for their unique situation. One option thus would be to use private contract to
obtain a warranty and indemnification from the licensor, although it is likely that
the licensor would charge for this benefit.
As a result of the warranty disclaimer, before using a Creative Commons
licensed work, you should satisfy yourself that the person has all the necessary
rights to make the work available under a Creative Commons license. You
should know that if you are wrong, you could be liable for copyright infringement
based on your use of the work.
Example: Ron starts distributing the new Coldplay album under a Creative
Commons Attribution-only license despite the fact that Ron does not have the
authority from Coldplay or its record label to do so. You copy it into your podcast
(giving attribution as required by Ron’s license). Coldplay (or, more accurately,
it’s record company Sony) then sues you for copyright infringement. In this
scenario, in the lawsuit you are liable directly to Coldplay; you cannot make a
claim against Ron for indemnification or breach of warranties on the terms of the
Creative Commons license. Of course, Coldplay may sue Ron separately, but as
to your own use of the album or songs in it, you will have to pay Coldplay without
being able to make any contractual counter-claim against Ron.
You should learn about what rights need to be cleared and when a fair use or fair
dealing defense may be available. It could be that the licensor is relying on the
fair use or fair dealing doctrine, but depending on the circumstances, that legal
defense may or may not actually protect her (or you). You should educate
yourself about the various rights that may be implicated in a copyrighted work,
because creative works often incorporate multiple elements such as, for
example, underlying stories and characters, recorded sound and song lyrics. If
the work contains recognizable third-party content, it may be advisable to
independently verify that it has been authorized for reuse under a Creative
Commons license. In addition, you may need to think about what other rights
may attach to the content you wish to use, such as trademark or publicity rights.
--9--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice

19.
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1.2.3. Special Rules For Librarians Or Teachers.
It should be noted that there are special rules for using copyrighted works in the context
of teaching and for libraries. In general, these rules allow for performance and display of
certain copyrighted works in the face-to-face classroom setting. Other rules apply (under
the “TEACH Act”) for distance learning. Librarians also have special rights. The details of
these case-specific rules are beyond the scope of this Guide at this time. Suffice it to say
that if you are using a podcast in a classroom setting (either face-to-face or through
distance learning), or if you’re a librarian, you should look into these special rules. For
further information see sections 110(1) and 110(2) of the Copyright Act (17 U.S.C.
§ 110), http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#110, Copyright Office Circular 21
(http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ21.pdf). Laura Glassway’s table found at
http://www.unc.edu/~unclng/TEACH.htm, also helps to explain the various rules.
1.2.4. Using Your Own Written Content.
If you create your own creative, expressive material for use in your podcast, you should,
as a general rule, have no issues in terms of copyright clearances. If you are the creator
of a sufficiently original work, then you will generally also be the first owner of copyright in
that work once you have committed pen to paper, hit “save” or “record” and thus, able to
exercise any and all of copyright’s exclusive rights as you choose.
It is, however, important to be aware that there are circumstances in which, even though
you are the creator of a copyrighted work, you are not the “author” or first owner of
copyright. In the US, this split between first creator and first owner can generally occur in
two instances: (i) if your work comes within the definition of being a “work for hire;” or (ii)
if you sign an agreement transferring ownership rights to someone else. Additionally, you
may not be the sole author or sole owner of copyright if you created a copyrighted work
with someone else collaboratively.
Under US law, the first category of a “work for hire” is a work made in the circumstances
of employment. As a general rule, an employer becomes the first owner of copyright in
anything created by their employees so if you create your material as part of your job you
need to consider whether you or your employer owns the copyright to the material you
wish to include in your podcast.
In the US, there is an additional category of works made for hire that can apply to work
created by non-employees. To qualify as one of these works for hire (outside of the
employment relationship), the work must come within one of nine categories of works, be
specially commissioned and be the subject of a written and signed agreement that the
work is a work for hire. For more information about works for hire under United States
law, check out information circular number 9 from the United States Copyright Office
(http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ9.html).
Someone other than you can also become the copyright owner of your work by an
express written agreement, signed by you, transferring ownership of the copyright.
Consequently, if you have signed away your rights to your work you may no longer be
free to incorporate it in your podcast.
Finally, if you work collaboratively with another artist to create some expressive work,
then you may be a joint author and owner (rather than a sole author/owner) of the work.
In that case, you will need to check the terms of any agreement between you and your
fellow collaborators to see if you are able to freely exercise your rights as a joint
author/owner and incorporate it into a podcast or whether you need the permission of
your co-author. As a general rules, each joint author has an independent right to use or
--10--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice

20.
Podcasting Legal Guide, v 1.0
license the copyright without the permission of the other, subject only to a duty to account
to the other co-owners for any profits; however this may be varied by an agreement
between the joint authors.
1.2.5. Incorporating Pre-Existing Audio Voice Recordings.
If you wish to incorporate pre-existing audio voice recordings that have been prepared by
someone else, you need to think about both copyright and publicity rights issues. In at
least California, you also need to consider the property interest in appropriating
someone’s voice. Copyright and the property right in one’s voice are discussed here. For
publicity rights, see the discussion in Section 1.3 —“Publicity Rights Issues” of this Guide.
As regards the copyright issues, in audio voice recordings there are generally two
copyrights—one in the work being recorded (generally referred to as the “underlying
work”) such as the text, script or performance and one in the actual recording, the fixation
of sounds. To use an audio voice recording created by someone else, you need to make
sure you have the necessary permissions to use both if you want to include it in your
podcast. So for example, if the recording is Creative Commons licensed, you need to
ensure that the license applies to both the underlying work and the recording.
Copyright protection of the recording as a general rule means that a person cannot,
without the express permission of the copyright owner, duplicate or rearrange the actual
sounds that make up the recording. Even taking a small amount of the original sounds
will implicate a copyright right; in the words of one recent appellate court decision: “get a
license or do not sample.” Consequently, even minor reproduction or arrangements
require express permission of the copyright owner.
This does not prevent a person, however, from creating a new recording of independently
fixed sounds, even if the end result sounds the same as a pre-existing copyrighted
recording—but copyright in the underlying work may still need to be cleared. So, for
example, if you come across a recording of a person reading aloud a chapter of a
recently published book, you can record yourself reading that chapter aloud without
infringing the first person’s copyright in their recording; but you may need to get
permission to use the book chapter from the book’s author or copyright owner. (Note that
permission to record the book chapter should not be necessary if the book is in the public
domain.)
In California, there is also a tort of misappropriating identity. For example, if you imitate
the voice of a “widely known” professional singer, you need to be concerned about
violating that singer’s property interest in her or his voice. This is the result of a court
decision from 1988 involving Bette Midler. In that case, Ford Motor Company used a
sound alike singer to sing “Do You Want to Dance” (a song made famous by Midler) for a
commercial, after Midler had declined to allow her rendition of the song to be used. The
court found that although there were no copyright or right of publicity interests in the
voice, Ford had nevertheless “appropriated what is not theirs” – Midler’s identity. The
take home lesson for podcasters is this: if you’re going to (1) imitate the “distinctive voice
of a professional singer” which is “widely known” and (2) you “deliberately imitate” the
voice “in order to sell a product”, you may run into a misappropriation of identity problem.
1.2.6. Interviewing Someone Or Asking Someone To Join You In Conversation As
Part Of Your Podcast.
If you interview someone for your podcast, you need to consider both copyright and
publicity rights issues. For publicity rights, see the discussion in Section 1.3 — “Publicity
Rights Issues” of this Guide.
--11--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice

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As regards, copyright there may be two different owners of copyright in one interview –
you as the interviewer and the interviewee in their response to your questions —
depending on how the interview is presented.
In general, an interviewee will likely own copyright in their verbatim responses. As an
interviewer, you will likely own copyright in your questions and any commentary you
make during the interview and in any version you create of the interviewee’s conversation
or any organization and arrangement of interview responses. As an interviewer, you may
also own copyright in the overall compilation of an interview that incorporates different
answers to multiple interviewees.
As an interviewer, you should make sure the interviewee agrees to the interview, your
adaptation of their responses (assuming you intend to adapt them) and to the inclusion of
their responses in your podcast and the circulation of your podcast on the terms you
choose. In many interview scenarios, you may have an implied license to use the
materials, but it safest to get your interviewee’s written consent or (at minimum) record
the interviewee’s verbal consent before you use the interview in your podcasts. (See
discussion about the legal terms on which you can distribute your podcast in Section 2 —
“Legal Issues Surrounding How You Distribute Your Podcast”).
1.2.7. Using Music.
Using music in your podcast opens up many specific copyright issues that we will
address in this section. If the music you use is created by someone else and does no fall
within one of the 5 types of content for which you don’t need permission (see Section
1.2.2 — “The Good News: 5 Instances Where Permission Is Not Required”), then these
rules will apply to your use of that music. If you write and/or record all of the music you
wish to use in your podcast, then you should consider the issues outlined in Section 1.2.4
— “Using Your Own Written Content” of this Guide to make sure you own the rights to
your music. If you do, then you should be able to include it in your podcast without having
to traverse the issues laid out in this section.
To understand the complex web of copyright issues in relation to music, you need to
understand four basic principles: (i) that two types of copyright protected works are
incorporated in most pieces of music; (ii) that two types of rights attach to each of these
works and attach in different ways; (iii) what kinds of licenses you may need to obtain and
from which entities; and, (iv) when and whether your use of music can constitute a fair
use. You can see why music needs its own section. This section is split into four parts.
1.2.7.1. Two Types Of Works Involved In A Copyrighted Song.
When you use copyrighted music in a podcast you are implicating two different
types of copyrighted works: the musical composition and the sound recording.
Although the practical distinction between these types of works is not obvious
when you listen to a recording (i.e. when you listen to and use a piece of music,
you are typically listening to and hearing both intertwined), it is nevertheless
important because each of the two types of work is protected by its own copyright
and is subject to its own rules. This means that a podcaster may need to
approach multiple different rights holders just to obtain permission to use a single
recorded song. The different entities that may own rights in that song will be
discussed in Section 1.2.7.3 — “Licenses You Will Need”. First, however, it is
worth taking a moment to explain the differences between the two types of
copyright protected works that exist in most recorded music.
--12--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice

22.
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(a) Musical Composition. A copyright in a musical composition encompasses a
song’s music and lyrics. It can be helpful to think of this work as what would
appear in a sheet music arrangement of the song (the notes, score, markings,
etc.). Copyright protects compositions from the moment a songwriter fixes the
work in a tangible medium, such as writing the sheet music or by hitting “save” in
a software program that creates music.
In practice, most songwriters do not retain the copyrights in their musical
compositions, but instead assign the copyright to a publishing company — a
business entity that specializes in commercially exploiting musical compositions.
Most publishing companies, in turn, authorize collective rights management
agencies to license and collect royalties for certain specific uses of their
compositions. In the US, the Harry Fox Agency is typically authorized to issue so-
called “mechanical licenses,” that is, the ability to reproduce and distribute the
musical composition. The publishing company then also authorizes one of the
performing rights organizations (e.g., ASCAP, BMI, or SESAC) to issue licenses
for “non-dramatic public performances” of the composition (“non-dramatic”
performances generally means performances other than for opera or musicals
and would include broadcasts). For more on the Harry Fox Agency and the
performing rights organizations, as well as on the reproduction/distribution and
public performance rights, see the discussion in Section 1.2.7.3 — “Licenses You
Will Need,” of this Guide.
(b) Sound Recording. A copyright in the sound recording protects the recording
of a musical composition as it was performed and recorded by an artist or group.
Think of this work as what you would actually hear when you play your favorite
CD: the singer’s voice, the sound of the musical instruments, and all of the
engineering that goes into making the recording. It is important to note, however,
that federal copyright protection of sound recordings only attaches for recordings
created after 1971.
Under state common law, copyright may attach to sound recordings created on
February 15, 1972 or earlier. Use of pre-1972 sound recordings is subject to
protection under state common law copyright. To determine who has the rights to
a pre-February 15, 1972 sound recording and what rights they are entitled to
exploit exclusively, you will need to look at the applicable state law – usually the
law of the place where the recording was made.
As with musical compositions, the recording artist generally does not hold the
sound recording copyright. Instead, whatever rights the artist has (and they
usually are not copyright rights) are assigned to a record company in return for a
share of the royalties from the sale and/or licensing of the sound recording. If you
want to obtain permission to use someone else’s sound recording, however, you
face a more complex situation than you do in relation to musical compositions
and the permission you need to secure depends on how you are distributing the
recording. For example: (1) no license is required to use a sound recording in an
over-the-air radio broadcast; (2) digital transmissions that are considered non-
interactive digital streams (in other words, listeners can’t pick the songs they
hear) may be eligible for a statutory (non-negotiated) license (depending on
whether they meet the statutory requirements), with royalties payable to
SoundExchange (performance rights organization designated by the Copyright
Office to collect and distribute statutory royalties to sound recording copyright
owners and others); (3) digital transmissions that are considered interactive
digital streams (such as an on-demand service where users can pick the songs),
and digital downloads, require permission be obtained from the record company
--13--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice

23.
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that owns the copyright in the sound recording. Unfortunately for podcasters, it is
not always clear into which of these categories a podcast fits; as a result, it is not
certain to whom you should turn for licenses. These complications are discussed
in Section 1.2.7.3 — “Licenses You Will Need.”
1.2.7.2. Two Types Of Copyright “Rights”.
In addition to appreciating that there are two types of works (the musical
composition and the sound recording) at stake in any recorded song (and
therefore, potentially, two copyrights), the use of a song in a podcast might
implicate two or more different exclusive rights that copyright owners are granted
under the Copyright Act in different ways, specifically: the right to reproduce and
distribute copies of a work, and the separate right to perform the work publicly.
Because, as noted above in Section 1.2.7.1 – “Two Types of Works Involved In A
Copyrighted Song”, these rights also are frequently owned by different rights-
holders and licensed by different entities and may or may not be implicated in the
making and delivery of a podcast, it is worth taking a moment to explain the
differences between them.
(a) The Reproduction Right. Copyright holders in both musical works and
sound recordings (see Section 1.2.7.1 — “Two Types of Works Involved In A
Copyrighted Song”) hold the exclusive right to “reproduce,” or make copies of,
the copyrighted work. If you create a new copy of someone else’s song, for
example, by downloading an MP3 file, burning it to CD, or causing it to be
transferred to an iPod or other MP3 player, you may violate the copyright holder’s
exclusive right to reproduce the work.
The simplest case of copying music involves reproducing an entire song. If you
take an entire music track of someone else's song from a CD and use a CD
burner to make a copy of it, you might violate the rights of reproduction in both
the musical work and the sound recording – absent fair use (see Section 1.2.9 —
“Fair Use Under Copyright Law And Its Application To Podcasts”). However, if
you record your own rendition of a song, based on a song you heard, you only
violate the right of reproduction in the musical work, but not in the sound
recording. This is because the reproduction right in a sound recording only
extends to copying the actual sounds included in the sound recording; it does not
extend to the independent creation of similar sounds.
If your podcast includes all or part of someone else’s recording of a copyrighted
song, you may infringe the reproduction rights in both the musical work and the
sound recording. So if you create an audio file that contains the music (whether
ripped from a CD or taken from a downloaded music file) you make a
reproduction of two copyrighted works and, unless any of the exceptions
described in Section 1.2.2 — “The Goods News: 5 Instances Where Permission
Is Not Required” apply, you need to have express permission from the
rightsholder(s) (this means permission in writing, such as,an email giving you
permission from a source you can confirm is indeed the person with authority to
give the right, followed by a confirming letter from you noting the specific rights
granted in the email, and the right-holder’s signature on the letter). This would be
true even if you never post the podcast online. If you do in fact post the file for
others to download and you have not obtained the copyright holders’ permission,
in addition to direct infringement you could be also be secondarily liable for
copyright infringement (under theories of “contributory” or “vicarious”
infringement”) each time someone downloads it, because your act of putting it
online enables others to create unauthorized copies. Copyright infringement
--14--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice

24.
Podcasting Legal Guide, v 1.0
lawsuits potentially could result in thousands or even millions of dollars in
damages and attorney’s fees. Therefore, the only truly safe course under current
law is to secure express permission to use, in your podcasts, any copyrighted
music and sound recordings that are created by others unless you are sufficiently
certain that it falls under the so-called “fair use” exception (discussed in Section
1.2.9 — “Fair Use Under Copyright Law And Its Application to Podcasts”) or
otherwise falls within an exception (see Section 1.2.2 — “The Goods News: 5
Instances Where Permission Is Not Required”).
(b) The Public Performance Right. In addition to controlling reproductions of
their music, the holders of copyrights in musical works, and in sound recordings
that are transmitted digitally (e.g., over the Internet), also have the exclusive right
to publicly perform their works. This right is less straightforward than the
reproduction right, and courts have not resolved the question of whether it
applies to podcasting. In this context, “performance” does not have its usual
dictionary meaning; instead, it is defined in the Copyright Act to include
essentially anything that allows music to be heard. “Performing” a song can
include singing it, broadcasting or webcasting it, or just having a radio turned on
and music playing. But in order to infringe the public performance right, a
performance must also be “public.” A performance is public if it takes place
where many people are gathered (except in a home among family and friends) or
if it involves transmitting a work either to a place where many people are
gathered or generally to the public (as with a radio broadcast). The “public”
requirement means that playing legitimately acquired music at home, like on your
iPod or stereo, does not infringe the public performance right.
A podcast is probably “public” within the meaning of the Copyright Act (since it
can be freely downloaded by all), but it may not be a “performance.” Although
normal Internet “streaming” webcasts plainly constitute “performances” because
the transmissions from the webcasting server are immediately made audible by
the listener’s computer (just as songs broadcast over the air immediately are
emitted as sounds by the radio), the way in which music included in a podcast is
made audible is at least one-step less direct. In the ordinary case, a podcast is
first downloaded as a copy onto the user’s computer; the user, acting on his own
initiative and timing, then plays the podcast and any music in it on her computer,
iPod or other portable player.
Although your actions in creating a podcast ultimately enable a willing listener to
hear the music (and other contents) contained in your podcast, it is currently still
an undecided question whether you are therefore “publicly performing” a work
merely by making it available for download; the US Copyright Office has declared
this “an unsettled point of law that is subject to debate.” (U.S. Copyright Office,
DMCA Section 104 Report, August 2001, available at
http://www.copyright.gov/reports/studies/dmca/sec-104-report-vol-1.pdf, xxvii.)
No court has yet squarely addressed the issue, which means that podcasting is
currently operating in a realm of considerable uncertainty.
Some of the leading copyright law commentators have suggested that non-
simultaneous transmissions, such as podcasts, probably do not implicate the
public performance right. (See Bruce P. Keller & Jeffrey P. Cunard, Copyright
Law: A Practitioner’s Guide, 2004 ed., § 14.2(E). Cf. Melville B. Nimmer & David
Nimmer, Nimmer on Copyright, August 2005 ed., § 8.14(B)(1) (noting that
internal operations of a computer do not seem to constitute a performance).)
Performance rights organizations, by contrast, have asserted that “[e]very
Internet transmission”, streaming or download, is a public performance. For
--15--
Discussion in this Guide represents the authors’ understanding of the law in the U.S. at it presently exists. It does not necessarily
represent what the authors believe the law should be on these subjects. This Guide provides general information about legal
topics but it is not a complete discussion of all legal issues that arise in relation to podcasting nor is it a substitute for legal advice