He first gained attention with the 1959 novellaGoodbye, Columbus, an irreverent and humorous portrait of American Jewish life for which he received the U.S. National Book Award for Fiction.[2][3] Roth's fiction, regularly set in his birthplace of Newark, New Jersey, is known for its intensely autobiographical character, for philosophically and formally blurring the distinction between reality and fiction, for its "supple, ingenious style" and for its provocative explorations of Jewish and American identity.[4] His profile rose significantly in 1969 after the publication of Portnoy's Complaint, the humorous and sexually explicit psychoanalytical monologue of "a lust-ridden, mother-addicted young Jewish bachelor," filled with "intimate, shameful detail, and coarse, abusive language."[3][5]

Philip Roth was born in Newark, New Jersey, and grew up in its Weequahic neighborhood, he is the second child of Bess (née Finkel) and Herman Roth, an insurance broker.[6] Roth's family was Jewish, and his parents were first-generation Americans, whose families were from Galicia, he graduated from Newark's Weequahic High School in or around 1950.[7] "It has provided the focus for the fiction of Philip Roth, the novelist who evokes his era at Weequahic High School in the highly acclaimed Portnoy's Complaint.... Besides identifying Weequahic High School by name, the novel specifies such sites as the Empire Burlesque, the Weequahic Diner, the Newark Museum and Irvington Park, all local landmarks that helped shape the youth of the real Roth and the fictional Portnoy, both graduates of Weequahic class of '50." The Weequahic Yearbook (1950) describes Roth as "A boy of real intelligence, combined with wit and common sense." Roth was known as a comedian during his time at school.[8] Roth attended Bucknell University, where he earned a B.A., magna cum laude in English and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa. He pursued graduate studies at the University of Chicago, where he received an M.A. in English literature in 1955 and worked briefly as an instructor in the university's writing program. Roth taught creative writing at the University of Iowa and Princeton University, he continued his academic career at the University of Pennsylvania, where he taught comparative literature before retiring from teaching in 1991.

While at Chicago, Roth met the novelist Saul Bellow, as well as Margaret Martinson in 1956, who became his first wife in 1959, their separation in 1963, along with Martinson's death in a car crash in 1968, left a lasting mark on Roth's literary output. Specifically, Martinson was the inspiration for female characters in several of Roth's novels, including Lucy Nelson in When She Was Good, and Maureen Tarnopol in My Life as a Man.[9] Between the end of his studies and the publication of his first book in 1959, Roth served two years in the United States Army and then wrote short fiction and criticism for various magazines, including movie reviews for The New Republic. Events in Roth's personal life have occasionally been the subject of media scrutiny. A post-operativebreakdown mentioned in the pseudo-confessional novel Operation Shylock (1993) and others[10][11][12] drew on Roth's experience of the temporary side effects of the sedative Halcion (triazolam), prescribed post-operatively in the 1980s.[13][14] (It was subsequently discovered that unfavorable studies had been suppressed by triazolam's manufacturer, Upjohn, which showed the drug carried a high risk of causing short-term psychiatric disturbance.[15] When this became known, the drug was banned in some countries[16] and its withdrawal due to high risk and poor clinical benefit was also discussed in the United States.[17][18])

Roth is an atheist who has said, "When the whole world doesn't believe in God, it'll be a great place."[19][20] He also said during an interview to The Guardian: "I'm exactly the opposite of religious, I'm anti-religious. I find religious people hideous. I hate the religious lies. It's all a big lie", and "It's not a neurotic thing, but the miserable record of religion—I don't even want to talk about it. It's not interesting to talk about the sheep referred to as believers. When I write, I'm alone. It's filled with fear and loneliness and anxiety—and I never needed religion to save me."[21]

In 1990, Roth married his longtime companion, English actress Claire Bloom; in 1994 they separated, and in 1996 Bloom published a memoir, Leaving a Doll's House, that described the couple's marriage in detail, much of which was unflattering to Roth. Certain aspects of I Married a Communist have been regarded by critics as veiled rebuttals to the accusations in Bloom's memoir.

Roth's novel Everyman, a meditation on illness, aging, desire, and death, was published in May 2006, for Everyman Roth won his third PEN/Faulkner Award, making him the only person so honored. Exit Ghost, which again features Nathan Zuckerman, was released in October 2007. It was the last Zuckerman novel.[27]Indignation, Roth's 29th book, was published on September 16, 2008. Set in 1951, during the Korean War, it follows Marcus Messner's departure from Newark to Ohio's Winesburg College, where he begins his sophomore year; in 2009, Roth's 30th book, The Humbling, was published. It tells the story of the last performances of Simon Axler, a celebrated stage actor. Roth's 31st book, Nemesis, was published on October 5, 2010. According to the book's notes, Nemesis is the last in a series of four "short novels," after Everyman, Indignation and The Humbling.

In October 2009, during an interview with Tina Brown of The Daily Beast to promote The Humbling, Roth considered the future of literature and its place in society, stating his belief that within 25 years the reading of novels will be regarded as a "cultic" activity:

I was being optimistic about 25 years really. I think it's going to be cultic. I think always people will be reading them but it will be a small group of people. Maybe more people than now read Latin poetry, but somewhere in that range. ... To read a novel requires a certain amount of concentration, focus, devotion to the reading. If you read a novel in more than two weeks you don't read the novel really. So I think that kind of concentration and focus and attentiveness is hard to come by—it's hard to find huge numbers of people, large numbers of people, significant numbers of people, who have those qualities[.][28]

When asked about the prospect of digital books and e-books possibly replacing printed copy, Roth was equally downbeat:

The book can't compete with the screen, it couldn't compete [in the] beginning with the movie screen. It couldn't compete with the television screen, and it can't compete with the computer screen. ... Now we have all those screens, so against all those screens a book couldn't measure up.[29]

The interview was not the first time Roth had expressed pessimism about the future of the novel and its significance in recent years. Talking to the Observer's Robert McCrum in 2001, he said, "I'm not good at finding 'encouraging' features in American culture. I doubt that aesthetic literacy has much of a future here."[28] In an October 2012 interview with the French magazine Les Inrockuptibles, Roth announced that he would be retiring from writing[30] and confirmed subsequently in Le Monde that he would no longer publish fiction.[31] In May 2014, Roth claimed in an interview with Alan Yentob for the BBC that "this is my last appearance on television, my absolutely last appearance on any stage anywhere."[32]

Much of Roth's fiction revolves around semi-autobiographical themes, while self-consciously and playfully addressing the perils of establishing connections between Roth and his fictional lives and voices.[33] Examples of this close relationship between the author's life and his characters' include narrators and protagonists such as David Kepesh and Nathan Zuckerman as well as the character "Philip Roth", who appears in The Plot Against America and of whom there are two in Operation Shylock. Critic Jacques Berlinerblau noted in The Chronicle of Higher Education that these fictional voices create a complex and tricky experience for readers, deceiving them into believing they "know" Roth.[33] In Roth's fiction, the question of authorship is intertwined with the theme of the idealistic, secular Jewish son who attempts to distance himself from Jewish customs and traditions, and from what he perceives as the sometimes suffocating influence of parents, rabbis, and other community leaders.[34] Roth's fiction has been described by critics as pervaded by "a kind of alienation that is enlivened and exacerbated by what binds it".[34]

Roth's first work, Goodbye, Columbus, was an irreverently humorous depiction of the life of middle-class Jewish Americans, and met controversy among reviewers, who were highly polarized in their judgments;[3] one criticized it as infused with a sense of self-loathing. In response, Roth, in his 1963 essay "Writing About Jews" (collected in Reading Myself and Others), maintained that he wanted to explore the conflict between the call to Jewish solidarity and his desire to be free to question the values and morals of middle-class Jewish Americans uncertain of their identities in an era of cultural assimilation and upward social mobility:

The cry 'Watch out for the goyim!' at times seems more the expression of an unconscious wish than of a warning: Oh that they were out there, so that we could be together here! A rumor of persecution, a taste of exile, might even bring with it the old world of feelings and habits—something to replace the new world of social accessibility and moral indifference, the world which tempts all our promiscuous instincts, and where one cannot always figure out what a Jew is that a Christian is not.[35]

In Roth's fiction, the exploration of "promiscuous instincts" within the context of Jewish lives, mainly from a male viewpoint, plays an important role; in the words of critic Hermione Lee:

Philip Roth's fiction strains to shed the burden of Jewish traditions and proscriptions. ... The liberated Jewish consciousness, let loose into the disintegration of the American Dream, finds itself deracinated and homeless. American society and politics, by the late sixties, are a grotesque travesty of what Jewish immigrants had traveled towards: liberty, peace, security, a decent liberal democracy.[36]

While Roth's fiction has strong autobiographical influences, it has also incorporated social commentary and political satire, most obviously in Our Gang and Operation Shylock, since the 1990s, Roth's fiction has often combined autobiographical elements with retrospective dramatizations of postwar American life. Roth has described American Pastoral and the two following novels as a loosely connected "American trilogy", each of these novels treats aspects of the postwar era against the backdrop of the nostalgically remembered Jewish-American childhood of Nathan Zuckerman, in which the experience of life on the American home front during the Second World War features prominently.[citation needed]

In much of Roth's fiction, the 1940s, comprising Roth's and Zuckerman's childhood, mark a high point of American idealism and social cohesion. A more satirical treatment of the patriotism and idealism of the war years is evident in Roth's comic novels, such as Portnoy's Complaint and Sabbath's Theater; in The Plot Against America, the alternate history of the war years dramatizes the prevalence of anti-Semitism and racism in America at the time, despite the promotion of increasingly influential anti-racist ideals during the war. In his fiction, Roth portrayed the 1940s, and the New Deal era of the 1930s that preceded it, as a heroic phase in American history. A sense of frustration with social and political developments in the US since the 1940s is palpable in the American trilogy and Exit Ghost, but had already been present in Roth's earlier works that contained political and social satire, such as Our Gang and The Great American Novel. Writing about the latter, Hermione Lee points to the sense of disillusionment with "the American Dream" in Roth's fiction: "The mythic words on which Roth's generation was brought up—winning, patriotism, gamesmanship—are desanctified; greed, fear, racism, and political ambition are disclosed as the motive forces behind the 'all-American ideals'."[36]

The May 21, 2006 issue of The New York Times Book Review announced the results of a letter that was sent to what the publication described as "a couple of hundred prominent writers, critics, editors and other literary sages, asking them to please identify 'the single best work of American fiction published in the last 25 years.'" Six of Roth's novels were among the 22 selected: American Pastoral,The Counterlife,Operation Shylock,Sabbath's Theater,The Human Stain, and The Plot Against America.[41] The accompanying essay, written by critic A.O. Scott, stated, "If we had asked for the single best writer of fiction of the past 25 years, [Roth] would have won."[42] In 2009, he was awarded the Welt-Literaturpreis of the German newspaper Die Welt.[43]

In May 2011, Roth was awarded the Man Booker International Prize for lifetime achievement in fiction on the world stage, the fourth winner of the biennial prize.[47] One of the judges, Carmen Callil, a publisher of the feminist Virago house, withdrew in protest, referring to Roth's work as "Emperor's clothes", she said "he goes on and on and on about the same subject in almost every single book. It's as though he's sitting on your face and you can't breathe ... I don’t rate him as a writer at all ...".[48] Observers quickly noted that Callil had a conflict of interest, having published a book by Claire Bloom (Roth's ex-wife) that criticized Roth and lambasted their marriage;[48] in response, one of the two other Booker judges, Rick Gekoski, remarked:

In 1959 he writes Goodbye, Columbus and it's a masterpiece, magnificent. Fifty-one years later he's 78 years old and he writes Nemesis and it is so wonderful, such a terrific novel ... Tell me one other writer who 50 years apart writes masterpieces ... If you look at the trajectory of the average novel writer, there is a learning period, then a period of high achievement, then the talent runs out and in middle age they start slowly to decline. People say why aren't Martin [Amis] and Julian [Barnes] getting on the Booker prize shortlist, but that's what happens in middle age. Philip Roth, though, gets better and better in middle age; in the 1990s he was almost incapable of not writing a masterpiece—The Human Stain, The Plot Against America, I Married a Communist. He was 65–70 years old, what the hell's he doing writing that well?[49]

^Roth, Philip. The Facts: A Novelist's Autobiography. New York, 1988. Roth discusses Martinson's portrait in this memoir, he calls her "Josie" in When She Was Good on pp. 149 and 175. He discusses her as an inspiration for My Life as a Man throughout the book's second half, most completely in the chapter "Girl of My Dreams," which includes this on p. 110: "Why should I have tried to make up anything better? How could I?" Her influence upon Portnoy's Complaint is seen in The Facts as more diffuse, a kind of loosening-up for the author: "It took time and it took blood, and not, really, until I began Portnoy's Complaint would I be able to cut loose with anything approaching her gift for flabbergasting boldness." (p. 149)

^p. 5, Philip Roth, The Facts: A Novelist's Autobiography, Random House, 2011: "I'm talking about a breakdown. Although there's no need to delve into particulars... what was to have been minor surgery... led to an extreme depression that carried me right to the edge of emotional and mental dissolution. It was in the period of post-crack-up medication, with the clarity attending the remission of an illness..."

^p. 79, Timothy Parrish (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Philip Roth, Cambridge University Press, 2007: "In point of fact, Roth's surgeries (one the knee surgery, which is followed by a nervous breakdown, the other heart surgery) span the period..."

^The Wit and Blasphemy of Atheists: 500 Greatest Quips and Quotes from Freethinkers, Non-Believers and the Happily Damned. Ulysses Press. 2011. p. 190. ISBN9781569759707. When the whole world doesn't believe in God, it'll be a great place. – Philip Roth

^Rita Braver. "Philip Roth on Fame, Sex and God". CBS Interactive Inc. Retrieved May 5, 2014. 'Do you consider yourself a religious person?' 'No, I don't have a religious bone in my body,' Roth said. 'You don't?' 'No.' 'So, do you feel like there's a God out there?' Braver asked. 'I'm afraid there isn't, no,' Roth said. 'You know that telling the whole world that you don't believe in God is going to, you know, have people say, "Oh my goodness, you know, that's a terrible thing for him to say,"' Braver said. Roth replied, 'When the whole world doesn't believe in God, it'll be a great place.'

Swirski, Peter, "It Can't Happen Here, or Politics, Emotions, and Philip Roth's The Plot Against America." American Utopia and Social Engineering in Literature, Social Thought, and Political History. New York, Routledge, 2011.

1.
Newark, New Jersey
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Newark is the most populous city in the U. S. state of New Jersey and the seat of Essex County. For 2015, the Census Bureaus Population Estimates Program calculated a population of 281,944, Newark is the second largest city in the New York metropolitan area, located approximately 8 miles west of lower Manhattan. Settled in 1666 by Puritans from New Haven Colony, Newark is one of the oldest European cities in the United States and its location at the mouth of the Passaic River, has made the citys waterfront an integral part of the Port of New York and New Jersey. Today, Port Newark-Elizabeth is the container shipping terminal of the busiest seaport on the American East Coast. In addition, Newark Liberty International Airport was the first municipal airport in the United States. Several leading companies have their headquarters in Newark, including Prudential, PSEG, Panasonic Corporation of North America, Audible. com, IDT Corporation, the U. S. District Court for the District of New Jersey sits in the city as well. Local cultural venues include the New Jersey Performing Arts Center, Newark Symphony Hall, The Prudential Center and the Newark Museum. Newark is divided into five wards, the East, West, South, North and Central wards. Newarks Branch Brook Park is the oldest county park in the United States and is home to the nations largest collection of cherry blossom trees, Newark was settled in 1666 by Connecticut Puritans led by Robert Treat from the New Haven Colony. It was conceived as an assembly of the faithful, though this did not last for long as new settlers came with different ideas. On October 31,1693 it was organized as a New Jersey township based on the Newark Tract, Newark was granted a Royal charter on April 27,1713. It was incorporated on February 21,1798 by the New Jersey Legislatures Township Act of 1798, during its time as a township, portions were taken to form Springfield Township, Caldwell Township, Orange Township, Bloomfield Township and Clinton Township. Newark was reincorporated as a city on April 11,1836, replacing Newark Township, the previously independent Vailsburg borough was annexed by Newark on January 1,1905. In 1926, South Orange Township changed its name to Maplewood, as a result of this, a portion of Maplewood known as Ivy Hill was re-annexed to Newarks Vailsburg. During the American Revolutionary War British troops made several raids into the town, the city has experienced revitalization since the 1990s. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had an area of 26.107 square miles. It has the third-smallest land area among the 100 most populous cities in the U. S. behind neighboring Jersey City and Hialeah, the citys altitude ranges from 0 in the east to approximately 230 feet above sea level in the western section of the city. Newark is essentially a large basin sloping towards the Passaic River, historically, Newarks high places have been its wealthier neighborhoods

2.
Bucknell University
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Bucknell University is a private liberal arts college located alongside the West Branch Susquehanna River in the town of Lewisburg, in central Pennsylvania, United States. The university consists of the College of Arts and Sciences, School of Management, and it offers nearly 50 majors and over 60 minors. It is primarily a school, and has about 50 graduate students. Students come from all 50 states and from more than 66 countries, Bucknell has nearly 200 student organizations and a large Greek presence. The schools mascot is Bucky the Bison and the school is a member of the Patriot League in NCAA Division I athletics, more than 4,000 subscribers ultimately contributed, including a small boy who gave 12 cents. In 1846, the school preparatory to the University opened in the basement of the First Baptist Church in Lewisburg, known originally as the Lewisburg High School, it became in 1848 the Academical and Primary Department of the University at Lewisburg. In 1850, the department moved into the first building completed on campus, built for $8,000, the building housed both womens and mens studies until the opening of the Female Institute in 1852. While studying together, women were required to face east while men faced west, the schools first commencement was held on August 20,1851, for a graduation class of seven men. Among the board members attending was James Buchanan, who would become the 15th President of the United States, stephen Taylor officiated as his last act before assuming office as president of Madison University. One day earlier, the trustees had elected Howard Malcom as the first president of the university, although the Female Institute began instruction in 1852, it wasn’t until 1883 that college courses were opened to women. Bucknell, though, was committed to educational opportunities for women. Within five years of opening, enrollment had grown so sharply that the university built a new hall–Larison Hall–to accommodate the Female Institute, women could venture into town only in the company of a female teacher who had a minimum of six years’ experience in handling girls. In 1881, facing dire financial circumstances, the university turned to William Bucknell and his donation of $50,000 saved the university from ruin. In 1886, in recognition of Bucknells support of the school, Bucknell Hall, the first of several buildings given to the university by Bucknell, was initially a chapel and for more than a half century the site of student theatrical and musical performances. Today, it houses the Stadler Center for Poetry, the 40 years from 1890 until 1930 saw a steady increase in the number of faculty members and students. When the Depression brought a drop in enrollment in 1933, several members of the faculty were loaned to found a new institution, Bucknell Junior College in Wilkes-Barre, today, that institution is a four-year university, Wilkes University, independent of Bucknell since 1947. Significant new construction in the 1970s included the Elaine Langone Center, the Gerhard Fieldhouse, during the early 1980s, the capacity of the Bertrand Library was doubled and facilities for engineering were substantially renovated. In 1988, the Weis Center for the Performing Arts was completed, New facilities for the sciences included the renovation of the Olin Science Building, the construction of the Rooke Chemistry Building in 1990 and the completion of a new Biology Building in 1991

3.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme

4.
University of Chicago
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The University of Chicago is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois. It holds top-ten positions in national and international rankings and measures. The university currently enrolls approximately 5,700 students in the College, Chicagos physics department helped develop the worlds first man-made, self-sustaining nuclear reaction beneath the viewing stands of universitys Stagg Field. The university is home to the University of Chicago Press. With an estimated date of 2020, the Barack Obama Presidential Center will be housed at the university. Both Harper and future president Robert Maynard Hutchins advocated for Chicagos curriculum to be based upon theoretical and perennial issues rather than on applied sciences, the University of Chicago has many prominent alumni. 92 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the university as professors, students, faculty, or staff, similarly,34 faculty members and 16 alumni have been awarded the MacArthur “Genius Grant”. Rockefeller on land donated by Marshall Field, while the Rockefeller donation provided money for academic operations and long-term endowment, it was stipulated that such money could not be used for buildings. The original physical campus was financed by donations from wealthy Chicagoans like Silas B, Cobb who provided the funds for the campus first building, Cobb Lecture Hall, and matched Marshall Fields pledge of $100,000. Organized as an independent institution legally, it replaced the first Baptist university of the same name, william Rainey Harper became the modern universitys first president on July 1,1891, and the university opened for classes on October 1,1892. The business school was founded thereafter in 1898, and the law school was founded in 1902, Harper died in 1906, and was replaced by a succession of three presidents whose tenures lasted until 1929. During this period, the Oriental Institute was founded to support, in 1896, the university affiliated with Shimer College in Mount Carroll, Illinois. The agreement provided that either party could terminate the affiliation on proper notice, several University of Chicago professors disliked the program, as it involved uncompensated additional labor on their part, and they believed it cheapened the academic reputation of the university. The program passed into history by 1910, in 1929, the universitys fifth president, Robert Maynard Hutchins, took office, the university underwent many changes during his 24-year tenure. In 1933, Hutchins proposed a plan to merge the University of Chicago. During his term, the University of Chicago Hospitals finished construction, also, the Committee on Social Thought, an institution distinctive of the university, was created. Money that had been raised during the 1920s and financial backing from the Rockefeller Foundation helped the school to survive through the Great Depression, during World War II, the university made important contributions to the Manhattan Project. The university was the site of the first isolation of plutonium and of the creation of the first artificial, in the early 1950s, student applications declined as a result of increasing crime and poverty in the Hyde Park neighborhood

5.
Claire Bloom
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Patricia Claire Blume CBE is an English film and stage actress whose career has spanned over six decades. She is famous for leading roles in such as A Streetcar Named Desire, A Doll’s House, and Long Days Journey into Night. After an uprooted and unstable childhood in war-torn England, Bloom studied drama and she had her debut on the London stage when she was sixteen, and soon took roles in various Shakespeare plays. They included Hamlet, in which she played Ophelia alongside Richard Burton, with whom she would have a long and stormy first love affair. For her Juliet in Romeo and Juliet, critic Kenneth Tynan stated it was “the best Juliet Ive ever seen. ”And after she starred as Blanche in A Streetcar Named Desire, its playwright, Tennessee Williams, was exultant, stating, I declare myself absolutely wild about Claire Bloom. It became Blooms major film debut and made her into a film star. During her lengthy career, she starred alongside numerous major actors, including Richard Burton, Laurence Olivier, John Gielgud, Paul Scofield, Ralph Richardson, Yul Brynner. Scott, James Mason, Paul Newman and Rod Steiger, whom she would marry, in 2010, Bloom played the role of Queen Mary in the British film, The Kings Speech, and she currently acts in British films. She was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 2013 Birthday Honours for services to drama, Bloom was born as Patricia Claire Blume in the North London suburb of Finchley, the daughter of Elizabeth and Edward Max Blume, who worked in sales. Bloom attended secondary school at the independent Badminton School in Bristol, after the Germans began bombing London during the Blitz in 1940, her family had a number of narrow escapes as bombs dropped close to their home. She and her brother John were sent to safety in the country, and then to the United States and she recalls, It was 1941, I was ten, John was nearly six. We were to sail from Glasgow in a convoy, on a ship that was evacuating children. During her year stay in Florida, she was asked by the British War Relief Society to help raise money by entertaining at various benefits, thus I broke into show business singing, she writes. Bloom, along with her mother and brother, next lived in New York for another eighteen months before returning to England, thats what I was looking for—something more moving even than my own plight as a little English girl driven from my home by the Gods of War. Blooms brother is film editor John Bloom, after training at the Guildhall School of Music & Drama and the Central School of Speech and Drama, Bloom made her debut on BBC radio programmes. She made her debut in 1946, when she was 15. She debuted at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre as Ophelia to Paul Scofields Hamlet, Bloom has written that during the production she had a crush on Scofield. As Scofield was happily married and the father of a son, Bloom hoped only, to be flirted with and taken some notice of

6.
Goodbye, Columbus
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Goodbye, Columbus is a 1959 collection of fiction by the American novelist Philip Roth, comprising the title novella Goodbye, Columbus—which first appeared in The Paris Review—and five short stories. It was his first book and was published by Houghton Mifflin, the book was a critical success for Roth and won the 1960 U. S. National Book Award for Fiction That earned his name as an up-and-coming young writer. The book was not without controversy, as people within the Jewish community took issue with Roths less than flattering portrayal of some characters, the short story Defender of the Faith, about a Jewish sergeant who is exploited by three shirking, coreligionist draftees, drew particular ire. When Roth in 1962 appeared on a panel alongside the black novelist Ralph Ellison to discuss minority representation in literature. Many accused Roth of being a self-hating Jew, a label that stuck with him for years and it is often speculated that the obscene comedy of Portnoys Complaint was Roths defiant reply to early Jewish critics. The title novella was made into the 1969 film Goodbye, Columbus, starring Ali MacGraw and it was controversial with reviewers, who were highly polarized in their judgments. The story is told by the narrator, Neil Klugman, who is working in a position in the Newark Public Library. He lives with his Aunt Gladys and Uncle Max in a neighborhood of Newark. One summer, Neil meets and falls for Brenda Patimkin, a student at Radcliffe College who is from a family living in the affluent suburb of Short Hills. The novella explores the classism which afflicts the relationship, despite the fact that Brendas father, Ben, the issue of assimilation is intrinsic, since Brenda is more assimilated than Neil. The title, Goodbye, Columbus refers to a record that Brendas brother Ron listens to from his years as an athlete at The Ohio State University, as the story proceeds, Neil finds that their relationship is falling apart. Thus, the title may be seen as a metaphor for Neil saying goodbye to the affluent, Ozzies mother, though she loves her son dearly, is a more conventional thinker and cant understand why Ozzie courts trouble at school for posing such unorthodox queries. During an argument, she slaps him across the face, back at school, Rabbi Binder interprets Ozzies question about the virgin birth as impertinent, though Ozzie sincerely wishes to better understand God and his faith. When Ozzie continues to ask challenging questions, Binder too slaps him on the face, Ozzie calls Binder a bastard and, without thinking, runs to the roof of the synagogue. Once there, Ozzie threatens to jump, the rabbi and pupils go out to watch Ozzie from the pavement and try to convince him not to leap. He finally ends by jumping off the roof onto a glowing yellow net held by firemen, the story caused consternation among Jewish readers and religious groups, as recounted in chapter five of Roths 1988 memoir The Facts, A Novelists Autobiography. An unnamed narrator recalls the events surrounding his meeting Alberto Pelagutti, the assimilated Jews of a small community express fear that their peaceful coexistence with the Gentiles will be disturbed by the establishment of an Orthodox yeshiva in their neighborhood

7.
Jewish identity
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Jewish identity is the objective or subjective state of perceiving oneself as a Jew and as relating to being Jewish. Under a broader definition, Jewish identity does not depend on whether a person is regarded as a Jew by others, or by a set of religious, or legal. Jewish identity does not need to imply religious orthodoxy, accordingly, Jewish identity can be cultural in nature. Jewish identity can involve ties to the Jewish community, orthodox Judaism bases Jewishness on matrilineal descent. According to Jewish law, all born of a Jewish mother are considered Jewish. Jews who are atheists may have a Jewish identity, Jewish identity can be described as consisting of three interconnected parts, Jewish peoplehood, an ethnic identity composed of several subdivisions that evolved in the Diaspora. Jewish religion, observance of spiritual and ritual tenets of Judaism, Jewish culture, celebration of traditions, secular and religious alike. Jewish identity can be cultural, religious, and/or through ancestry, however, Jewish identity is firmly intertwined with Jewish ancestry dating back to the historical Kingdom of Israel, which was largely depopulated by the Roman Empire c. First century CE, leading to what is known as today as the Jewish Diaspora, Jewish identity began to gain the attention of Jewish sociologists in the United States with the publication of Marshall Sklares Lakeville studies. Among other topics explored in the studies was Sklares notion of a good Jew, the good Jew was essentially an idealized form of Jewish identity as expressed by the Lakeville respondents. According to the social-psychologist Simon Herman, antisemitism plays a part in shaping Jewish identity and this view is echoed by religious leaders such as Rabbi Jonathan Sacks who writes that modern Jewish communities and the modern Jewish identity are deeply influenced by antisemitism. What makes Jewish Identity on the web, HERMAN, Simon N. Jewish Identity, A Social Psychological Perspective. GOLDBERG, David Theo & KRAUSZ, Michael, half-jewish Three Intellectuals and a People, by Laurent Cohen

8.
Culture of the United States
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The culture of the United States of America is primarily a mix of various European, Native American, African, Asian, and Polynesian cultures. It also has its own social and cultural characteristics, such as dialect, music, arts, social habits, cuisine, the United States of America is an ethnically and racially diverse country as a result of large-scale migration from many countries throughout its history. Its chief early European influences came from English settlers of colonial America during British rule, due to colonial ties with Britain that spread the English language, British culture, legal system and other cultural inheritances, had a formative influence. Other important influences came from parts of Europe, especially Germany. Original elements also play a role, such as Jeffersonian democracy. American culture includes both conservative and liberal elements, scientific and religious competitiveness, political structures, risk taking and free expression, materialist, despite certain consistent ideological principles, American culture has a variety of expressions due to its geographical scale and demographic diversity. The flexibility of U. S. culture and its symbolic nature lead some researchers to categorize American culture as a mythic identity. Many American cultural elements, especially from popular culture, have spread across the globe through modern mass media, the United States has traditionally been thought of as a melting pot. However, beginning in the 1960s and continuing on in the present day, the trends towards cultural diversity, pluralism. Due to the extent of American culture, there are many integrated, the percentage of non-religious people is the highest in the northeastern state of Vermont at 34%, compared to the Bible Belt state of Alabama, where it is 6%. Strong cultural differences have a history in the U. S. with the southern slave society in the antebellum period serving as a prime example. David Hackett Fischer theorizes that the United States is made up today of four regional cultures. According to Fischer, the foundation of American culture was formed from four mass migrations from four different regions of the British Isles by four distinct socio-religious groups. New Englands earliest settlement period occurred between 1629 and 1640 when Puritans, mostly from East Anglia in England, settled there, the next mass migration was of southern English cavaliers and their working class English domestic servants to the Chesapeake Bay region between 1640 and 1675. This facilitated the development of the Southern American culture, then, thousands of English and Welsh Quakers, led by William Penn, settled in the Delaware Valley followed by large numbers of German Lutherans. S. From the mid-Atlantic states to the Pacific Coast, finally, Scotch-Irish, English and Scottish settlers from the borderlands of Britain and Ireland migrated to Appalachia between 1717 and 1775. They formed the culture of the Upland South, which has since spread west to such areas as West Texas. Fischer suggests that the U. S. today is not a country with one General American culture and he asserts that the country is composed of just regional cultures, and that understanding that helps one to understand many things about modern American life

9.
Portnoy's Complaint
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The novel tells the humorous monologue of a lust-ridden, mother-addicted young Jewish bachelor, who confesses to his psychoanalyst in intimate, shameful detail, and coarse, abusive language. Many of its characteristics went on to become Roth trademarks, in 1998, the Modern Library ranked Portnoys Complaint 52nd on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. Time included this novel in its TIME100 Best English-language Novels from 1923 to 2005, the title also alludes to the common literary form of complaint, such as The Lovers Complaint, which typically presents the speakers comments on being a spurned lover. Portnoys Complaint is also emblematic of the times during which it was published, most obviously, the books sexual frankness was both a product of and a reflection on the sexual revolution that was in full swing during the late 1960s. And the books style, a huge departure from the stately. Roth had begun work on Portnoys Complaint in 1967, before publication of his novel When She Was Good that year, the piece had its genesis in a satirical monologue Roth had written to accompany a slide show proposed for inclusion in the risqué revue Oh. Calcutta. that would focus on the organs of the rich. While the slide show would never come to fruition, Roth found part of the monologue about masturbation salvageable. Roth re-fashioned the material for the novel and sold a chapter of the book, entitled Whacking Off, in May 1968 Martinson was killed in a car crash in Central Park. Roths writers block lifted and following Martinsons funeral he traveled to the Yaddo literary retreat to complete the manuscript, the publication of the novel caused a major controversy in American public discourse. It sparked an uproar in the Jewish community, even among New York intellectuals such as Irving Howe and Diana Trilling. In 1969 the book was declared a prohibited import in Australia, though the Australian publisher, Penguin Books, resisted and had printed in secret. Several attempts to prosecute Penguin and any bookseller carrying the book failed, many libraries in the United States banned the book because of its detailed discussion of masturbation and its explicit language. The popularity of the novel has caused the title to become a sort of shorthand for any form of sexual malaise or activity, gore Vidal once quipped to Claire Bloom, Roths second wife, You have already had Portnoys complaint. Do not involve yourself with Portnoy, in her metafictional novel Culture Shock, Valerie Grosvenor Myer wrote of a satirically presented married couple among her characters, Let us consider my Jean and Jack. I weighted the scales by presenting them in the rôle of parents, fictional parents are usually set up as Aunt Sallies to be knocked down. Mrs Bennet, Mrs Nickleby, Mrs Portnoy, Old Capulet, Mr Dorrit, in the Get Smart original TV series, in the fifth-season episode Do I Hear a Vaults. Aired on May 8,1970, Maxwell Smart alludes to the book being hidden in a public library, the Mad Men character, Don Draper, is briefly shown reading the novel in the season seven episode of the series titled, The Monolith

10.
National Book Critics Circle
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The National Book Critics Circle is an American nonprofit organization with nearly 600 members. It is the association of American book review editors and critics, known primarily for the National Book Critics Circle Awards. The organization was founded April 1974 in New York City by John Leonard, Nona Balakian and it was formally chartered October 1974 as a New York state non-profit corporation and the Advisory Board voted in November to establish annual literary awards. At that time there were 140 members, with outreach to freelance critics planned for that year, NBCC first presented its Awards in January 1976 to books published during 1975 in four categories. Only active review editors and reviewers may be voting members, they elect the 24 Directors who formally make nominations, a fifth award category for books was added for 1983 and divided in two for 2005. Since 2005 there are eight awards, annually the most accomplished reviewer among its members is recognized by the Nona Balakian Citation for Excellence in Reviewing. The NBCC also recognizes no more than one person or organization for contributions to books with the Ivan Sandrof Lifetime Achievement Award. All eight awards are officially dated in the preceding year, as a professional association, NBCC also works to improve the quality of reviews and provides services to its members. How National Book Critics Circle Chooses Its Awards, by NBCC President Jane Ciabattari, The Daily Beast, January 22,2011

11.
Pulitzer Prize for Fiction
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The Pulitzer Prize for Fiction is one of the seven American Pulitzer Prizes that are annually awarded for Letters, Drama, and Music. It recognizes distinguished fiction by an American author, preferably dealing with American life, as the Pulitzer Prize for the Novel, it was one of the original Pulitzers, for the program was inaugurated in 1917 with seven prizes, four of which were awarded that year. Finalists have been announced from 1980, ordinarily a total of three, in 31 years under the Novel name, the prize was awarded 27 times, in its first 69 years to 2016 under the Fiction name,62 times. In 11 years, no novel received the award and it has never been shared by two authors. Three writers have won two each in the Fiction category, Booth Tarkington, William Faulkner, and John Updike. Ernest Hemingway was selected by the 1941 and 1953 juries, but the former was overturned and no 1941 award was given

12.
American Pastoral
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For the 2016 film adaptation, see American Pastoral. American Pastoral is a Philip Roth novel published in 1997 concerning Seymour Swede Levov, levovs happy and conventional upper middle class life is ruined by the domestic social and political turmoil of the 1960s during the presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson, which in the novel is described as a manifestation of the indigenous American berserk, the framing device in American Pastoral is a 45th high school reunion attended by frequent Roth alter ego Nathan Zuckerman, who is the narrator. At the reunion, in 1995, Zuckerman meets former classmate Jerry Levov who describes to him the tragic derailment of the life of his deceased older brother. In these encounters, which take place early in the novel, in Zuckermans reimagining of Seymours life, this second marriage has no part, it ends in 1973 with Watergate unraveling on TV while the previous lives of the protagonists completely disintegrate. American Pastoral won the Pulitzer Prize in 1998 and was included in Times All-TIME100 Greatest Novels, the film rights to it were later optioned by Paramount Pictures. In 2006, it was one of the runners-up in the What is the Greatest Work of American Fiction in the Last 25 Years, contest held by the New York Times Book Review. Seymour Irving Levov is born and raised in the Weequahic section of Newark, New Jersey, in 1927 as the son of a successful Jewish American glove manufacturer, Lou Levov. Zuckerman and Seymours younger brother, Jerry—who grows into a curmudgeonly, irascible heart surgeon with little empathy for the Swede—are schoolmates, the Swede eventually takes over his fathers glove factory and marries Dawn Dwyer, a former beauty queen from nearby Elizabeth, whom he met in college. Seymour establishes what he believes to be a perfect American life with a wife and daughter, a satisfying business career. In February 1968, Merry plants a bomb in the Old Rimrock post office, Seymour finds Merry five years later, living in deplorable conditions in inner-city Newark. During this reunion, Merry reveals that she was responsible for several more bombings, at a dinner party, Seymour discovers that his wife Dawn has been having an affair with Princeton-educated architect William Orcutt III, for whom she undergoes a facelift. Seymour then realizes that his wife is planning to leave him for Orcutt and he is forced to see the truth about the chaos and discord rumbling beneath the American pastoral, which has brought about profound personal and societal changes he no longer can ignore. Simultaneously, the dinner party underscores the fact no one ever truly understands the hearts of other people. The novel alludes extensively to the upheavals of the late 1960s. The novel quotes from Frantz Fanons A Dying Colonialism, which Zuckerman imagines as one of the texts that inspires Merry to carry out her bombing of a local post office, in the novel, Merrys bombing takes place in February 1968, during the presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson, after which she flees her parental home, by that time she has had a Weathermen motto tacked up in her room for many months. In reality this would have been impossible, the Weathermen group was, in fact, formed in the summer of 1969

13.
The Human Stain
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The Human Stain is a novel by Philip Roth set in late 1990s rural New England. Zuckerman acts largely as an observer as the story of the protagonist, Coleman Silk. A national bestseller, The Human Stain was adapted as a film by the same name directed by Robert Benton, released in 2003, the film starred Anthony Hopkins, Nicole Kidman, and Gary Sinise. The story is told by Nathan Zuckerman, a writer who lives quietly in New England, Silk is a former professor and dean of faculty at nearby Athena College, a fictional institution in the Berkshires of western Massachusetts. Silk is accused of racism by two African American students, the uproar leads to Silks resignation. Soon after, his wife Iris dies of a stroke, which Silk feels is caused by the stress of his being forced out of the college, Silk begins a relationship with Faunia Farley, a 34-year-old local woman who works as a janitor at the college and is illiterate. Silk is criticized by feminist scholars at the college for this and it is slowly revealed through Zuckermans musings that Silk is an African American who has been passing as Jewish since a stint in the Navy. He completed graduate school, married a woman and had four children with her. He never told his wife and children of his African American ancestry, as Roth wrote in the novel, Silk chose to take the future into his own hands rather than to leave it to an unenlightened society to determine his fate. The Human Stain is set in 1998 in the United States, during the period of President Bill Clintons impeachment hearings and it is the third of Roths postwar novels that take on large social themes. Roth described in 2012, in The New Yorker, how his novel was inspired by an event in the life of his friend Melvin Tumin, a professor of sociology at Princeton for some thirty years. Tumin was subject to a hunt but was ultimately found blameless in a matter involving use of allegedly racial language concerning two African American students. The Human Stain is the third in a trilogy, following American Pastoral and I Married a Communist, in which Roth explores American morality, here he examines the cut-throat and, at times, petty, atmosphere in American academia, in which political correctness was upheld. The journalist Michiko Kakutani said that, in The Human Stain, Roth explores issues of identity, when stripped of its racial overtones, Roths book echoes a story he has told in novel after novel. He wanted to pursue an independent course unbounded by racial restraints, other writers in the academic and mainstream press made the same suggestion. After Broyards death in 1990, it had revealed that he racially passed during his many years employed as a critic at The New York Times. He was of Louisiana Creole ancestry, in 2008, Roth stated in an interview that he had not known of Broyards ancestry when he started writing the book and had only learned of it months later. Thus was created the occasion for this open letter, after failing to get a change made through the usual channels, I don’t know how else to proceed

14.
Prague
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Prague is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. It is the 14th largest city in the European Union and it is also the historical capital of Bohemia. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city has a temperate climate, with warm summers and chilly winters. Prague has been a political, cultural, and economic centre of central Europe with waxing and waning fortunes during its history and it was an important city to the Habsburg Monarchy and its Austro-Hungarian Empire. Prague is home to a number of cultural attractions, many of which survived the violence. Main attractions include the Prague Castle, the Charles Bridge, Old Town Square with the Prague astronomical clock, since 1992, the extensive historic centre of Prague has been included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. The city has more than ten major museums, along with theatres, galleries, cinemas. An extensive modern public transportation system connects the city, also, it is home to a wide range of public and private schools, including Charles University in Prague, the oldest university in Central Europe. Prague is classified as an Alpha- global city according to GaWC studies, Prague ranked sixth in the Tripadvisor world list of best destinations in 2016. Its rich history makes it a popular tourist destination, and the city more than 6.4 million international visitors annually. Prague is the fifth most visited European city after London, Paris, Istanbul, the region was settled as early as the Paleolithic age. In the last century BC, the Celts were slowly driven away by Germanic tribes, around the area where present-day Prague stands, the 2nd century map of Ptolemaios mentioned a Germanic city called Casurgis. In the following century, the Czech tribes built several fortified settlements in the area, most notably in Levý Hradec, Butovice and in the Šárka valley. The construction of what came to be known as the Prague Castle began near the end of the 9th century, the first masonry under Prague Castle dates from the year 885 at the latest. The other prominent Prague fort, the Přemyslid fort Vyšehrad, was founded in the 10th century, Prague Castle is dominated by the cathedral, which was founded in 1344, but completed in the 20th century. The legendary origins of Prague attribute its foundation to the 8th century Czech duchess and prophetess Libuše and her husband, Přemysl, legend says that Libuše came out on a rocky cliff high above the Vltava and prophesied, I see a great city whose glory will touch the stars. She ordered a castle and a town called Praha to be built on the site, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the city was founded as Boihaem in c.1306 BC by an ancient king, Boyya. The region became the seat of the dukes, and later kings of Bohemia, under Roman Emperor Otto II the area became a bishopric in 973

15.
Franz Kafka Prize
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The Franz Kafka Prize is an international literary award presented in honour of Franz Kafka, the German language novelist. The prize was first awarded in 2001 and is co-sponsored by the Franz Kafka Society, at a presentation held annually in the Old Town Hall, the recipient receives $10,000, a diploma, and a bronze statuette. Each award is called the Kafka Prize or Kafka Award. List of literary awards List of Czech literary awards Official website

16.
Weequahic, Newark
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Weequahic is an unincorporated community and neighborhood within the city of Newark in Essex County, New Jersey, United States. The name Weequahic is Lenni-Lenape for head of the cove, the area was farmland until the late nineteenth century when it was developed into a middle-class, non-industrial neighborhood of detached single-family homes oriented around Weequahic Park. Later a few residential modernist highrises were built, Weequahic was largely a middle class Jewish neighborhood prior to the 1960s, home to many synagogues, yeshivas, and Jewish restaurants. Newark Beth Israel Medical Center, the largest hospital in Newark, was built under auspices of the Jewish community, author Philip Roth grew up in Weequahic, graduated from Weequahic High School in 1950, and many of his novels are set there. Principal Ron Stone wears a bulletproof vest and inspires the students, including gang members to graduate and he partners with the Jewish and African alumni association to help the current students. The only remaining connection to the Jewish community is Bragmans Delicatessen, the post-World War II growth of suburbs and Second Great Migration of African Americans altered the demographic make-up of Newark in general and the Weequahic section in particular. The neighborhood might have stayed middle class if not for the effects of real estate blockbusting. I-78 tore Weequahics fragile urban fabric and separated the neighborhood from the rest of Newark, the 1967 Newark riots were also devastating to the district. The Weequahic district also experienced white flight, though the point of the riots was in the Central Ward. The jewel of the neighborhood is the 311 acre Olmsted Brothers-designed Weequahic Park and this lovely park has a 2. 2-mile rubberized jogging path around its 80-acre lake, and the oldest public golf course in the United States. Part of the Weequahic neighborhood has been designated a historic district, the neighborhoods major streets are Lyons Avenue, Bergen Street, and Chancellor Avenue. Newark Public Schools operates public schools, Weequahic High School serves the neighborhood. The Weequahic Branch Library of the Newark Public Library serves the neighborhood, the branch, which opened in May 1929, was the sixth NPL branch to open between 1923 and 1946

17.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי‎ ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו‎, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס‎, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד‎ Yid, ייִדן‎, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group

18.
Galicia (Eastern Europe)
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Galicia is a historical and geographic region in Central-Eastern Europe, once a small Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria that straddled the modern-day border between Poland and Ukraine. The area, which is named after the city of Halych, was first mentioned in Hungarian historical chronicles in the year 1206 as Galiciæ. The nucleus of historic Galicia lies within the regions of western Ukraine, Lviv, Ternopil. In the 18th century, territories that became part of the modern Polish regions of Lesser Poland Voivodeship, Subcarpathian Voivodeship. There is considerable overlap between Galicia and south-west Ruthenia, especially a cross-border region that is inhabited by various nationalities, Halych-Volhynia cut a swathe as a mighty principality under the reign of Roman the Great in 1170–1205. After the expulsion of the Hungarians in 1221, Ruthenians took back rule of the area, Romans son Daniel of Galicia was crowned king of Halych-Volhynia. He founded Lviv, named in honour of his son Leo I, the Ukrainian name Halych comes from the Khwalis or Kaliz who occupied the area from the time of the Magyars. They were also called Khalisioi in Greek, and Khvalis in Ukrainian, the Lypytsia culture supposedly replaced the existing Thracian Hallstatt and Vysotske cultures. Others assert that the name has Slavic origins – from halytsa, meaning a naked hill, the jackdaw was used as a charge in the citys coat of arms and later also in the coat of arms of Galicia. The name, however, predates the coat of arms, which may represent canting or simply folk etymology, although the Hungarians were driven out from Halych-Volhynia by 1221, Hungarian kings continued to add Galicia et Lodomeria to their official titles. In 1527, the Habsburgs inherited those titles, together with the Hungarian crown, in 1772, Empress Maria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary, decided to use those historical claims to justify her participation in the first partition of Poland. In fact, the territories acquired by Austria did not correspond exactly to those of former Halych-Volhynia, Volhynia, including the city of Volodymyr-Volynskyi – after which Lodomeria was named – was taken by Russia, not Austria. On the other hand, much of Lesser Poland – Nowy Sącz and Przemyśl, Zamość, Lublin, the full official name of the new Austrian province was Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria with the Duchies of Auschwitz and Zator. After the incorporation of the Free City of Kraków in 1846, it was extended to Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, each of those entities was formally separate, they were listed as such in the Austrian emperors titles, each had its distinct coat-of-arms and flag. For administrative purposes, however, they formed a single province, the duchies of Auschwitz and Zator were small historical principalities west of Kraków, on the border with Prussian Silesia. Lodomeria, under the name Volhynia, was not ruled by Austria, dale Dwellers, Krakowiacy, Mazury, Grębowiacy, Głuchoniemcy, Bełżanie, Bużanie, Opolanie, Wołyniacy, Pobereżcy or Nistrowianie. During the Great Migration period of Europe, a variety of nomadic groups invaded the area, overall, Slavs came to dominate the Celtic-German population. In the 12th century, a Rurikid Principality of Halych formed there, Galicia and Volhynia had originally been two separate Rurikid principalities, assigned on a rotating basis to younger members of the Kievan dynasty

19.
Newark Museum
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The Newark Museum, in Newark, Essex County, New Jersey, United States, is the states largest museum. It holds fine collections of American art, decorative arts, contemporary art, and arts of Asia, Africa, the Americas, the Newark Museums Tibetan galleries are considered among the best in the world. The collection was purchased from Christian missionaries in the twentieth century. The Tibetan galleries have an in-situ Buddhist altar that the Dalai Lama has consecrated, in addition to its extensive art collections, the Newark Museum is dedicated to natural science. It includes the Dreyfuss Planetarium and the Victoria Hall of Science which highlights some of the museums 70,000 specimen Natural Science Collection, the Alice Ransom Dreyfuss Memorial Garden, located behind the museum, is the setting for community programs, concerts and performances. The garden is home to a 1784 old stone schoolhouse. The kernel of the museum was a collection of Japanese prints, silks, originally located on the fourth floor of the Newark Public Library, the museum moved into its own purpose-built structure in the 1920s on Washington Park after a gift by Louis Bamberger. It was designed by Jarvis Hunt who also designed Bambergers flagship Newark store, at that time much of the Museum, including the new addition, was redesigned by Michael Graves. The Museum had a mini-zoo with small animals for some twenty years, New Jersey Digital Highway Alexander, Edward P. Museum Masters, Their Museums and Their Influence, Newark Museum Dreyfuss Planetarium Jan 11,2009 New York Times article on Museum

20.
B.A.
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme

21.
Phi Beta Kappa Society
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The Phi Beta Kappa Society - the oldest honor society for the liberal arts and sciences in the United States - is widely recognized and considered as the nations most prestigious honor society. Phi Beta Kappa aims to promote and advocate excellence in the arts and sciences and to induct the most outstanding students of arts. Phi Beta Kappa stands for Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης or in Latin letters Philosophia Biou Cybernētēs, according to Phi Beta Kappa, they have chapters in about 10% of American higher learning institutions, and about 10% of these schools Arts and Sciences graduates are invited to join the society. Although most students are elected their senior year, many colleges elect a limited number of extremely select students in their junior year. There is an initiation fee, which is sometimes covered by the inductees university. There had been earlier fraternal societies at the College, but these, Society, founded in 1750, were Latin-letter societies, their names were taken from initial letters of a secret Latin motto. William and Mary alumnus and third U. S. President Thomas Jefferson was perhaps the most famous member of the F. H. C, other notable members of the original Society included Col. James Innes, St. George Tucker, and George Wythe. Jefferson noted that When I was a student of Wm. & Mary college of this state, Society, confined to the number of six students only, of which I was a member, but it had no useful object, nor do I know whether it now exists. The best opinion is that the society did not survive the invasion by British forces during the Revolution, a second Latin-letter fraternity at William and Mary was the P. D. A. John Heath, chief organizer of Phi Beta Kappa, according to tradition earlier sought but was refused admission to the P. D. A, though he may instead have disdained to join it. The new society was intended to be purely of domestic manufacture, without any connexion whatever with anything European, either English or German. The founders of Phi Beta Kappa declared that the society was formed for congeniality and to good fellowship, with friendship as its basis and benevolence. Like the older, Latin-letter fraternities, the Phi Beta Kappa was a secret society, the new society was given the motto, Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης or in Latin letters Philosophia Biou Kybernētēs, which means in English The Love for Knowledge be the Guide of Life. Greek was chosen, because Greek was in Roman times the language of science like Latin in medieval times, one official historian of the society, William T. The heading on the original list of states, A List of the members. This new complex of gestures was created to allow the recognition of members in any foreign country or place. A second chapter was founded at Yale College in late 1780, a third, at Harvard College in 1781, from these new chapters, the Phi Beta Kappa evolved from a fraternity with principally academic and some social purposes to an entirely honorary organization recognizing scholastic achievement. Further chapters appeared at Union College in 1817, Bowdoin College in 1825, the original chapter at William and Mary was re-established

22.
English literature
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However, until the early 19th century, it only deals with the literature of the United Kingdom and Ireland. It does not include literature written in the languages of Britain. The English language has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years, the earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the fifth century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible as well as the Great Vowel Shift. Through the influence of the British Empire, the English language has spread around the world since the 17th century. 450, after the withdrawal of the Romans, and ending soon after the Norman Conquest in 1066. These works include such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English, from the 9th century, that chronicle the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The poem Battle of Maldon also deals with history and this is a work of uncertain date, celebrating the Battle of Maldon of 991, at which the Anglo-Saxons failed to prevent a Viking invasion. Oral tradition was strong in early English culture and most literary works were written to be performed. Epic poems were popular, and some, including Beowulf, have survived to the present day. Beowulf is the most famous work in Old English, and has achieved national status in England. The only surviving manuscript is the Nowell Codex, the date of which is debated. Beowulf is the title, and its composition is dated between the 8th and the early 11th century. Cædmon is the earliest English poet whose name is known, and it is also one of the earliest recorded examples of sustained poetry in a Germanic language. The poem, The Dream of the Rood, was inscribed upon the Ruthwell Cross, Two Old English poems from the late 10th century are The Wanderer and The Seafarer. Classical antiquity was not forgotten in Anglo-Saxon England, and several Old English poems are adaptations of late classical philosophical texts, the longest is King Alfreds 9th-century translation of Boethius Consolation of Philosophy. After the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the form of the Anglo-Saxon language became less common. Under the influence of the new aristocracy, French became the language of courts, parliament

23.
University of Iowa
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The University of Iowa is a flagship public research university in Iowa City, Iowa. Founded in 1847, Iowa is the oldest university in the state, the University of Iowa is organized into eleven colleges offering more than 200 areas of study and seven professional degrees. The university was the developer of the Master of Fine Arts degree. The Iowa alumni network exceeds 250,000, and the university budgeted revenues and expenses of $3.513 billion for 2015, the University of Iowas athletic teams, the Hawkeyes, compete in Division I of the NCAA and are members of the Big Ten Conference. The Hawkeyes field 24 varsity teams and have won 27 national championships, the University of Iowa was founded on February 25,1847, just 59 days after Iowa was admitted to the Union. The Constitution of the State of Iowa refers to a State University to be established in Iowa City without branches at any other place. The legal name of the university is the State University of Iowa, the first faculty offered instruction at the university beginning in March 1855 to students in the Old Mechanics Building, located where Seashore Hall is now. In September 1855, there were 124 students, of whom forty-one were women, the first president of the university was Amos Dean. The original campus consisted of the Iowa Old Capitol Building and the 10 acres of land on which it stood, until that date, it had been the third capitol of the Territory of Iowa. When the capitol of Iowa was moved to Des Moines in 1857, in 1855, Iowa became the first public university in the United States to admit men and women on an equal basis. The university offered its first doctorate in 1898, the university was the first state university to recognize the Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Allied Union. Also, the University of Iowa was the first Big Ten institution to promote an African American to the position of vice president. A shooting took place on campus on November 1,1991, in the summer of 2008, flood waters breached the Coralville Reservoir spillway, damaging more than 20 major campus buildings. Several weeks after the waters receded university officials placed a preliminary estimate on flood damage at $231.75 million. Later, the university estimated that repairs would cost about $743 million, later in 2008, UNESCO designated Iowa City the worlds third City of Literature, making it part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network. Iowa legislators ultimately did not support the plan, in 2015, the Iowa Board of Regents selected Bruce Harreld, a business consultant with limited experience in academic administration, to succeed Sally Mason as president. In July 2016, the university took over the former AIB College of Business in Des Moines, Four bachelors programs are offered in Des Moines, an additional four masters-level programs are offered in Des Moines at the universitys site in the citys Western Gateway Park. The University of Iowas main campus, located in Iowa City, was designed by architect D. Elwood Cook

24.
Princeton University
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Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides

25.
University of Pennsylvania
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The University of Pennsylvania is a private Ivy League research university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Incorporated as The Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania, Penn is one of 14 founding members of the Association of American Universities, the university coat of arms features a dolphin on the red chief, adopted directly from the Franklin familys own coat of arms. Penn was one of the first academic institutions to follow a multidisciplinary model pioneered by several European universities and it was also home to many other educational innovations. The first school of medicine in North America, the first collegiate school. With an endowment of $10.72 billion, Penn had the seventh largest endowment of all colleges in the United States, all of Penns schools exhibit very high research activity. In fiscal year 2015, Penns academic research budget was $851 million, over its history, the university has also produced many distinguished alumni. S. House of Representatives,8 signers of the United States Declaration of Independence, in addition, some 30 Nobel laureates,169 Guggenheim Fellows, and 80 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, have been affiliated with Penn. In addition, Penn has produced a significant number of Fortune 500 CEOs, in 1740, a group of Philadelphians joined together to erect a great preaching hall for the traveling evangelist George Whitefield, who toured the American colonies delivering open air sermons. The building was designed and built by Edmund Woolley and was the largest building in the city at the time and it was initially planned to serve as a charity school as well, however, a lack of funds forced plans for the chapel and school to be suspended. According to Franklins autobiography, it was in 1743 when he first had the idea to establish an academy, however, Peters declined a casual inquiry from Franklin and nothing further was done for another six years. Unlike the other Colonial colleges that existed in 1749—Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, Franklin assembled a board of trustees from among the leading citizens of Philadelphia, the first such non-sectarian board in America. At the first meeting of the 24 members of the Board of Trustees the issue of where to locate the school was a prime concern. The original sponsors of the dormant building still owed considerable construction debts and asked Franklins group to assume their debts and, accordingly, on February 1,1750 the new board took over the building and trusts of the old board. On August 13,1751, the Academy of Philadelphia, using the hall at 4th and Arch Streets. A charity school also was chartered July 13,1753 in accordance with the intentions of the original New Building donors, June 16,1755, the College of Philadelphia was chartered, paving the way for the addition of undergraduate instruction. All three schools shared the same Board of Trustees and were considered to be part of the same institution, the institution of higher learning was known as the College of Philadelphia from 1755 to 1779. In 1779, not trusting then-provost the Rev. William Smiths Loyalist tendencies, the result was a schism, with Smith continuing to operate an attenuated version of the College of Philadelphia. In 1791 the Legislature issued a new charter, merging the two institutions into a new University of Pennsylvania with twelve men from each institution on the new Board of Trustees

26.
Saul Bellow
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Saul Bellow was a Canadian-American writer. For his literary work, Bellow was awarded the Pulitzer Prize, the Nobel Prize for Literature, and he is the only writer to win the National Book Award for Fiction three times and he received the National Book Foundations lifetime Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters in 1990. His best-known works include The Adventures of Augie March, Henderson the Rain King, Herzog, Mr. Sammlers Planet, Seize the Day, Humboldts Gift, widely regarded as one of the 20th centurys greatest authors, Bellow has had a huge literary influence. Bellow said that of all his characters Eugene Henderson, of Henderson the Rain King, was the one most like himself, Bellow grew up as an insolent slum kid, a thick-necked rowdy, and an immigrant from Quebec. As Christopher Hitchens describes it, Bellows fiction and principal characters reflect his own yearning for transcendence, Bellows protagonists, in one shape or another, all wrestle with what Corde called the big-scale insanities of the 20th century. This transcendence of the unutterably dismal is achieved, if it can be achieved at all, through a ferocious assimilation of learning and an emphasis on nobility. Saul Bellow was born Solomon Bellows in Lachine, Quebec, two years after his parents, Lescha and Abraham Bellows, emigrated from Saint Petersburg, Russia, Bellows family was Lithuanian-Jewish, his father was born in Vilnius. Bellow celebrated his birthday in June, although he may have born in July. Of his familys emigration, Bellow wrote, The retrospective was strong in me because of my parents and they were both full of the notion that they were falling, falling. They had been prosperous cosmopolitans in Saint Petersburg and my mother could never stop talking about the family dacha, her privileged life, and how all that was now gone. She was working in the kitchen, there had been servants in Russia. But you could always transpose from your humiliating condition with the help of a sort of embittered irony, when Bellow was nine, his family moved to the Humboldt Park neighborhood on the West Side of Chicago, the city that formed the backdrop of many of his novels. Bellows father, Abraham, had become an onion importer and he also worked in a bakery, as a coal delivery man, and as a bootlegger. Bellows mother, Liza, died when he was 17 and he was left with his father and brother Maurice. His mother was religious, and wanted her youngest son, Saul. But he rebelled against what he called the suffocating orthodoxy of his religious upbringing. Bellows lifelong love for the Bible began at four when he learned Hebrew, Bellow also grew up reading William Shakespeare and the great Russian novelists of the 19th century. In Chicago, he took part in studies at the Anthroposophical Society of Chicago

27.
My Life as a Man
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My Life as a Man is American writer Philip Roths seventh novel. The work is split into two sections, the first section, Useful Fictions, consisting of two stories, titled Salad Days and Courting Disaster. My Life as a Man is the first of Roths work that tackles the issue of the relationship to his work. Thanks to Portnoys Complaint a good slice of contemporary fiction seems to come verbatim from the writers own hours on the couch, to get the story out Roth is willing to look not only ignoble and self-centered, but also foolish, helpless, even a little ugly. New York Times Book Review on My Life as a Man

28.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President

29.
The New Republic
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The New Republic is a liberal American magazine of commentary on politics and the arts published since 1914, with influence on American political and cultural thinking. It supported American entry into World War One, but discarded much of its faith in the possibility of a scientific liberalism, after the 1980s it incorporated elements of conservatism. In early 2016, Hughes announced he was putting the magazine up for sale, indicating the need for new vision and it was sold in February 2016 to Win McCormack. As of 2004, however, some, like Anne Kossedd and Steven Rendall, the magazine endorsed Barack Obama in the 2008 general election. Supply side economics, especially the idea of reducing higher marginal tax rates. Moreover, The New Republic is strongly in favor of health care. On certain high-profile social issues, such as its support of same-sex marriage, in its March 2007 issue, The New Republic ran an article by Paul Starr where he defined the type of modern American liberalism in his article War and Liberalism, Liberalism wagers that a state. Can be strong but constrained – strong because constrained, rights to education and other requirements for human development and security aim to advance equal opportunity and personal dignity and to promote a creative and productive society. The New Republic does not focus solely on domestic policy, as it also brings analysis, Support for Israel has been another strong theme in The New Republic. According to Martin Peretz, former owner of The New Republic, unsigned editorials prior to the 2003 invasion of Iraq expressed strong support for military action, citing the threat of Weapons of mass destruction as well as humanitarian concerns. In the November 27,2006 issue, the editors wrote, At this point, it seems almost beside the point to say this, the past three years have complicated our idealism and reminded us of the limits of American power and our own wisdom. We were against the confirmation of Justice Alito, in its May 2007 issue the magazine ran an editorial pointing to the humanitarian beliefs of liberals as being responsible for the recent plight of the American left. Such editorials and articles exemplify the political orientation of The New Republic. The magazines first issue was published on November 7,1914, the magazine is widely considered important in changing the character of liberalism in the direction of governmental interventionism, both foreign and domestic. Among the most important of these was the emergence of the U. S. as a Great Power on the international scene, and in 1917 TNR urged Americas entry into World War I on the side of the Allies. One consequence of World War I was the Russian Revolution of 1917 and it reversed course with the start of the Cold War in 1947 and the 1948 departure of leftist editor Henry A. Wallace to run for president on the Progressive ticket. After Wallace, TNR moved towards positions more typical of mainstream American liberalism, during the 1950s it was critical of both Soviet foreign policy and domestic anti-communism, particularly McCarthyism. During the 1960s the magazine opposed the Vietnam War, but was often critical of the New Left

30.
Post-operative
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An act of performing surgery may be called a surgical procedure, operation, or simply surgery. In this context, the verb means to perform surgery. The adjective surgical means pertaining to surgery, e. g. surgical instruments or surgical nurse, the patient or subject on which the surgery is performed can be a person or an animal. A surgeon is a person who practices surgery and an assistant is a person who practices surgical assistance. A surgical team is made up of surgeon, surgeons assistant, anesthesia provider, circulating nurse, Surgery usually spans minutes to hours, but it is typically not an ongoing or periodic type of treatment. The term surgery can also refer to the place where surgery is performed, or simply the office of a physician, dentist, Surgery is a technology consisting of a physical intervention on tissues. As a general rule, a procedure is considered surgical when it involves cutting of a patients tissues or closure of a previously sustained wound, surgical procedures are commonly categorized by urgency, type of procedure, body system involved, degree of invasiveness, and special instrumentation. Based on timing, Elective surgery is done to correct a condition, and is carried out at the patients request, subject to the surgeons. A semi-elective surgery is one that must be done to avoid permanent disability or death, emergency surgery is surgery which must be done promptly to save life, limb, or functional capacity. Based on purpose, Exploratory surgery is performed to aid or confirm a diagnosis, therapeutic surgery treats a previously diagnosed condition. Cosmetic surgery is done to improve the appearance of an otherwise normal structure. By type of procedure, Amputation involves cutting off a part, usually a limb or digit. Resection is the removal of all or part of an organ or part of the body. Replantation involves reattaching a severed body part, reconstructive surgery involves reconstruction of an injured, mutilated, or deformed part of the body. Excision is the cutting out or removal of an organ, tissue, transplant surgery is the replacement of an organ or body part by insertion of another from different human into the patient. Removing an organ or body part from a human or animal for use in transplant is also a type of surgery. By body part, When surgery is performed on one system or structure. Examples include cardiac surgery, gastrointestinal surgery, and orthopedic surgery, by contrast, an open surgical procedure such as a laparotomy requires a large incision to access the area of interest

31.
Operation Shylock
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Operation Shylock, A Confession is novelist Philip Roths 19th book and was published in 1993. The ensuing struggle between this doppelgänger-like stranger and Roth, played against the backdrop of the Demjanjuk trial and the First Intifada, a major concern of Roths fiction since the 1970s has been the relationship between a novelists life and work. Despite this effort, separating the real from the fictional in Operation Shylock is not wholly impossible, for example, several minor characters from the novel are actual people including John Demjanjuk, Claire Bloom, and Israeli writer and Roth friend Aharon Appelfeld. In March 1993, he maintained the veracity of his novel to The New York Times Esther B, the book is true, Roth said the other day. As you know, at the end of the book a Mossad operative made me realize it was in my interest to say this book was fiction, and I became quite convinced that it was in my interest to do that. So I added the note to the reader as I was asked to do, Roths long-time professional acquaintance John Updike gave the novel a famously caustic review in The New Yorker. Updike found the book an orgy of argumentation, Updike closed with the admonition, It should be read by anyone who cares about Israel and its repercussions, the development of the postmodern, deconstruction-minded novel, Philip Roth. In The New York Times Book Review, novelist and poet D. M, thomas called the novel an impassioned quarrel. Despite the seriousness of its theme, the book carries the feeling of creative joy. One feels that Roth feels that hes let rip, the novel appears to have grown in stature since publication. The most notable fruits of Roths Indian summer, 1995s Sabbaths Theater and American Pastoral, but two slightly earlier novels stand out for me, both of them hectically metafictional works partly set in Israel, The Counterlife and Operation Shylock. Operation Shylock received the 1993 PEN/Faulkner Award for best novel, Roth would eventually become the first three-time winner of the award, for Shylock, 2001s The Human Stain, and 2007s Everyman. Roth on Operation Shylock in The New York Times D. M, thomas on Operation Shylock in The New York Times Book Review

32.
Side effect
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Occasionally, drugs are prescribed or procedures performed specifically for their side effects, in that case, said side effect ceases to be a side effect, and is now an intended effect. For instance, X-rays were historically used as an imaging technique, buprenorphine has been shown experimentally to be effective against severe, refractory depression. Bupropion, an anti-depressant, is used as a smoking cessation aid, this indication was later approved. In Ontario, Canada, smoking cessation drugs are not covered by provincial drug plans, elsewhere, Zyban is priced higher than Wellbutrin, therefore, some physicians prescribe Wellbutrin for both indications. Dexamethasone and Betamethasone in premature labor, to enhance pulmonary maturation of the fetus, doxepin has been used to treat angiodema and severe allergic reactions due to its strong antihistamine properties. Hydroxyzine, an antihistamine, is used as an anxiolytic. Magnesium sulfate in obstetrics for premature labor and preeclampsia, methotrexate, approved for the treatment of choriocarcinoma, is frequently used for the medical treatment of an unruptured ectopic pregnancy. The SSRI medication sertraline is approved as an antidepressant but delays conjugal climax in men, sildenafil was originally intended for pulmonary hypertension, subsequently, it was discovered that it also produces erections, for which it was later marketed. Terazosin, an α1-adrenergic antagonist approved to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia, echinacea – more than 20 different types of reactions have been reported, including asthma attacks, loss of pregnancy, hives, swelling, aching muscles and gastrointestinal upsets. Feverfew – pregnant women should avoid using this herb, as it can trigger uterine contractions, in animal experiments, the use of feverfew was found to trigger spontaneous abortions. Asteraceae plants – which include feverfew, echinacea, dandelion and chamomile, side effects include allergic dermatitis and hay fever

33.
Clinical trial
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Clinical trials are experiments or observations done in clinical research. Clinical trials generate data on safety and efficacy and they are conducted only after they have received health authority/ethics committee approval in the country where approval of the therapy is sought. These authorities are responsible for vetting the risk/benefit ratio of the trial – their approval does not mean that the therapy is safe or effective, only that the trial may be conducted. Clinical trials can vary in size and cost, and they can involve a research center or multiple centers. Clinical study design aims to ensure the validity and reproducibility of the results. Trials can be costly, depending on a number of factors. The sponsor may be an organization or a pharmaceutical, biotechnology or medical device company. Certain functions necessary to the trial, such as monitoring and lab work, may be managed by an outsourced partner, only 10 percent of all drugs started in human clinical trials become an approved drug. Some clinical trials involve healthy subjects with no pre-existing medical conditions, other clinical trials pertain to patients with specific health conditions who are willing to try an experimental treatment. When participants are healthy volunteers who receive financial incentives, the goals are different than when the participants are sick, during dosing periods, study subjects typically remain under supervision for one to 40 nights. Usually pilot experiments are conducted to gain insights for design of the trial to follow. There are two goals to testing medical treatments, to whether they work well enough, called efficacy or effectiveness. The benefits must outweigh the risks, in the US, the elderly constitute only 14 percent of the population, while they consume over one-third of drugs. Women, children and people with unrelated medical conditions are frequently excluded. For women, a reason for exclusion is the possibility of pregnancy. If the sponsor cannot obtain enough test subjects at one location investigators at other locations are recruited to join the study, during the trial, investigators recruit subjects with the predetermined characteristics, administer the treatment and collect data on the subjects health for a defined time period. The researchers send the data to the sponsor, who then analyzes the pooled data using statistical tests. Except for small, single-location trials, the design and objectives are specified in a document called a clinical trial protocol

34.
Upjohn
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The Upjohn Company was a pharmaceutical manufacturing firm founded in 1886 in Kalamazoo, Michigan by Dr. William E. Upjohn, an 1875 graduate of the University of Michigan medical school. The company was formed to make friable pills, which were specifically designed to be easily digested. These could be reduced to a powder under the thumb, a strong marketing argument at the time, in 1995, Upjohn merged with Pharmacia AB, to form Pharmacia & Upjohn. Upjohn developed a process for the large production of cortisone. The oxygen atom at the 11 position in this steroid is a requirement for biological activity. There are however no known sources for starting materials that contain that feature. The only method for preparing this drug prior to 1952 was a lengthy synthesis starting from cholic acid isolated from bile, over the next several years a group of chemists headed by John Hogg developed a process for preparing cortisone from the soybean sterol stigmasterol. The microbiological oxygenation is a key step in this process, vanRheenen, R. C. Kelly and D. Y. Upjohns most well-known drugs before the acquisition by Pfizer were Xanax, Halcion, Motrin, Lincocin, Upjohn Institute for Employment Research Upjohn Co. v. United States Memories of The Upjohn Company http, //www. michmarkers. com/startup. asp. startpage=S0582. htm

35.
Atheist
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Atheism is, in the broadest sense, the absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism is the rejection of belief that any deities exist, in an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there are no deities. Atheism is contrasted with theism, which, in its most general form, is the belief that at least one deity exists, the etymological root for the word atheism originated before the 5th century BCE from the ancient Greek ἄθεος, meaning without god. The term denoted a social category created by orthodox religionists into which those who did not share their religious beliefs were placed, the actual term atheism emerged first in the 16th century. With the spread of freethought, skeptical inquiry, and subsequent increase in criticism of religion, application of the term narrowed in scope, the first individuals to identify themselves using the word atheist lived in the 18th century during the Age of Enlightenment. The French Revolution, noted for its unprecedented atheism, witnessed the first major movement in history to advocate for the supremacy of human reason. Arguments for atheism range from the philosophical to social and historical approaches, although some atheists have adopted secular philosophies, there is no one ideology or set of behaviors to which all atheists adhere. Since conceptions of atheism vary, accurate estimations of current numbers of atheists are difficult, an older survey by the British Broadcasting Corporation in 2004 recorded atheists as comprising 8% of the worlds population. Other older estimates have indicated that atheists comprise 2% of the worlds population, according to these polls, Europe and East Asia are the regions with the highest rates of atheism. In 2015, 61% of people in China reported that they were atheists, the figures for a 2010 Eurobarometer survey in the European Union reported that 20% of the EU population claimed not to believe in any sort of spirit, God or life force. Atheism has been regarded as compatible with agnosticism, and has also been contrasted with it, a variety of categories have been used to distinguish the different forms of atheism. Some of the ambiguity and controversy involved in defining atheism arises from difficulty in reaching a consensus for the definitions of words like deity, the plurality of wildly different conceptions of God and deities leads to differing ideas regarding atheisms applicability. The ancient Romans accused Christians of being atheists for not worshiping the pagan deities, gradually, this view fell into disfavor as theism came to be understood as encompassing belief in any divinity. Definitions of atheism also vary in the degree of consideration a person must put to the idea of gods to be considered an atheist, Atheism has sometimes been defined to include the simple absence of belief that any deities exist. This broad definition would include newborns and other people who have not been exposed to theistic ideas, as far back as 1772, Baron dHolbach said that All children are born Atheists, they have no idea of God. Similarly, George H. Smith suggested that, The man who is unacquainted with theism is an atheist because he does not believe in a god. This category would include the child with the conceptual capacity to grasp the issues involved. The fact that this child does not believe in god qualifies him as an atheist, ernest Nagel contradicts Smiths definition of atheism as merely absence of theism, acknowledging only explicit atheism as true atheism

Many older buildings of the University of Chicago employ Collegiate Gothic architecture like that of the University of Oxford. For example, Chicago's Mitchell Tower (left) was modeled after Oxford's Magdalen Tower (right).

The Statue of Liberty in New York City, is an important cultural symbol in the United States, and the values that it symbolizes—the virtues of freedom and liberty—are likewise integral to United States culture.