"We were at war, and in war you don't have friendly relationships,
you're out to kill each other. That's how it was at the Courier. We were
trying to kill Jim Crow, and racism . They didn't seem to understand that
we had every right to fight for full citizenship at home if we were expected
to give our lives overseas."

Edna Chappell McKenzie, journalist/historian

During World War II, African Americans faced a new dilemma. Thousands
of black soldiers served willingly in the armed forces. At the same time,
many African Americans wondered how they could support the war effort
and even give their lives if called upon to fight, while Jim Crow laws
and de facto segregation remained in place. Some black newspapers reflected
these concerns, and openly criticized the segregation of the military
and other policies. As a result, the black press faced harassment by government
agencies. Still, its readership continued to soar, and as the war ended,
black troops returned, more dedicated than ever to fighting injustice
at home.

In 1941, the United States entered World War II. Most mainstream papers
lauded the war effort. Patriotism among black publishers and journalists,
however, was tempered by the pressing reality of segregation. While thousands
of African Americans served willingly in the armed forces, many others
felt that they could not support the war wholeheartedly.

Among the latter was a cafeteria worker named James Thompson. This young
man wrote a letter to the Pittsburgh Courier, troubled by the fact that
he might be called upon to defend a nation in which he was treated like
a second-class citizen. He suggested that African Americans espouse a
'double V' campaign. The symbol stood for victory at war over enemies
'from without,' and victory at home against the enemy of prejudice 'from
within.' When other readers wrote to congratulate Thompson on his idea,
the Courier launched a huge publicity campaign, complete with lapel pins
and stickers, 'double V' hair styles and songs.

The campaign kept awareness of the injustices of segregation alive during
the war. It also brought attention to Jim Crow-style segregation in the
armed forces. The troops themselves were segregated, but black outfits
were assigned white commanding officers. Even the military's blood supply
for the wounded was segregated by race. White soldiers brutalized black
soldiers, and race riots took place in camps where troops of both races
resided. The military tried to suppress word of these events, with partial
success; only the black press reported discrimination and discord within
the troops.

Such controversial reporting, coupled with the double V campaign and
the new international mobility and visibility of the few black war correspondents,
made those in various branches of the government nervous. The power of
the black press to influence public opinion and excite its readers never
seemed more threatening. Concerned that the black press would actually
discourage its readers from supporting the war (it didn't), the military
banned black newspapers from its libraries. It confiscated black papers
from newsboys, and burned the papers to keep them out of the hands of
black soldiers.

J. Edgar Hoover saw the double V campaign as an act of sedition. With
President Franklin D. Roosevelt's approval, he sought to indict black
publishers for treason. Hearing of Hoover's intentions, John Sengstacke,
who had replaced Robert S. Abbott as publisher of the Chicago Defender,
insisted on meeting with Attorney General Francis Biddle. Sengstacke convinced
Biddle that it was the black press's duty to print the truth, and that
African Americans only sought their due rights and privileges as citizens.
Biddle agreed to block the indictments so long as the black press did
not escalate its criticism of the war. Without the cooperation of the
Attorney General's office, Hoover's plan was foiled.

Attempts, such as Hoover's, to destroy the black press failed. In fact,
the papers' combined circulation reached a record high of two million
readers each week by the end of the war in 1945. For soldiers stationed
overseas, the Allied victory, and news from home instilling hope for the
future, bolstered their spirits. African American soldiers returned from
the war with redoubled commitment to fight for equality and dignity on
American soil.

Witnesses

George Barbour, journalist

Timuel Black, historian

Frank Bolden, journalist

Vernon Jarrett, journalist

Robert R. Lavelle, Pittsburgh Courier staff

Edna Chappell McKenzie, journalist/historian

Christopher Reed, historian

John Sengstacke, publisher

Patrick Washington, historian

Discussion Questions

What was the role of the black press in influencing black public opinion
about foreign policy?

Why were some black newspapers seen as a threat to the war effort?

How did the war contribute to the increasing visibility of the black
press?