The phenomenon of stigmata is the
miraculous appearance of wounds, like those of the crucified Jesus Christ,
without any natural explanation. Those who have and continue to receive the
stigmata have been examined by many different doctors, psychiatrists, and Roman
Catholic Church officials. These
individuals have not been able to find an explanation for the origin of the
wounds other than the Catholic Church’s explanation that they are a gift from
God. Those who receive the stigmata are typically devout Christians who have
devoted their lives to Christ. The stigmata are manifested in many different
ways depending on the individual receiving them; there is no “correct” way to
receive the stigmata. Despite much study of stigmata, many questions and
skeptics remain.

II. Scope and Purpose
of the System:

Michael Freze defines Stigmata as
“the imprint of our Lord’s wounds upon the bodies of His most chosen souls, who
become transformed into living crucifixes by sharing in His Passion for the
redemption of the world.”[1]
True stigmata are inexplicable by the laws of nature and are seen as a miracle
from God. The stigmata correspond to the wounds of Jesus Christ in the
Christian tradition when he was crucified on the cross for the sins of the
world. Those who receive his wounds today are viewed as models for the rest of
the Christian community. The Church views stigmatists as “extraordinary souls,
holy and pure, who by imitating Christ so intensely have been invited to become
one with him. They are his beloved.”[2]
Stigmata prove God’s presence within the world and remind all Christians that
God continues to perform miracles even now. They are not reserved for any
special age group or denomination, which can be seen in the profiles of the
most recent stigmatists.

For instance, two years before he
died, St. Francis of Assisi
received wounds which did not bleed, but rather were impressions of nails.[3]
However, St. Catherine of Siena
received her first pains of Christ at 26, followed by the wounds of Christ at
28. For eight years she did not eat or drink anything except the Sacrament, and
when she died at the age of 33, her body did not compose normally. Years later,
one could still see the marks of stigmata on her.[4] George
H., another stigmatist, received the marks at a time in his life when he was
not very devout, but he was studying St. Francis of Assisi
at the time.[5] These
all show different manifestations of stigmata, although the first examples are
more common than the last.

III. Authority
Structure:

A. Sources and Criteria of Valid Knowledge

Much of the background for stigmata comes
from the Bible. The story of Christ’s crucifixion, which is the basis for
belief about miraculous stigmata, comes from the Bible. The full stigmata of
Jesus Christ include the agony of sweating blood at Gethsemane (Luke 22:39-45)
the scourging, crowning of thorns, beating, shoulder wounds from carrying the
cross, and the Five wounds of the crucifixion, including the nails in his
wrists and feet and his side pierced with a spear (John 19:1-36). This sentence
is a bit confusing – maybe b/c I am not familiar with this info! Many other
passages in the Bible discuss the attribute of suffering as an important
redemptive factor in Christianity.[6] The
Gospel of Matthew records Jesus as saying “whoever does not take up the cross
and follow me is not worthy of me” (Matthew 10:38),
and “If any want to become my followers, let them deny themselves and take up
their cross and follow me” (Matthew 16:24).
In addition, in 2 Corinthians 4:7-12, Paul writes,

But we have this treasure in clay jars,
so that it may be made clear that this extraordinary power belongs to God and
does not come from us. We are afflicted in every way, but not crushed;
perplexed, but not driven to despair; persecuted, but not forsaken; struck
down, but not destroyed; always carrying in the body the death of Jesus, so
that the life of Jesus may also be made visible in our bodies. For while we
live, we are always being given up to death for Jesus’ sake, so that the life
of Jesus may be made visible in our mortal flesh.

Although this passage can be
interpreted many different ways and does not directly point to the phenomena of
stigmata, many believers cite it as proof of the existence of stigmata.

Job 18 also
describes how God tests those He loves in order to prove their faith in Him, as
he does with the Stigmatists through their extreme pain and temptations from
the devil. One of the additional supernatural gifts of the stigmatics is that
of imperishability, which Paul mentions in his first letter to the Corinthians,
“So it is with the resurrection of the dead. What is sown is perishable, what
is raised is imperishable” (I Corinthians 15:42).

Separate from Biblical Authority,
there are also legends about stigmata, including one which states that there
are always twelve stigmatics living, representing the twelve disciples. When
one of these stigmatists dies, the divine gift is passed on to another. This is
not necessarily true, because there have been times when the Church has
declared more than twelve stigmatists to be alive at one time. This shows how
legends sometimes overshadow truth, especially when dealing with a phenomenon
people do not understand.

B. Methods of Inquiry

Stigmata are difficult to explain
because no natural explanations have been found for this phenomenon. Everyone
who knows about it interprets and believes in it according to their individual
views about God. It is a phenomenon which is hard to believe unless it is seen
with one’s own eyes. Michael Freze defines it as a “supernatural state that is
experiential in nature and not based upon reason or intellect.”[7]
Because belief in it requires faith in Jesus Christ, stigmata typically offers
more proof for true believers than for those questioning their faith.[8] Because
stigmata are so extreme, they require more faith than merely believing in the
existence of God.

In the
medieval ages, the focus was not on the origin on the wounds but on the fact
that they appeared at all. In the present, self-inflicted wounds are viewed as
fraudulent and great emphasis is placed on determining the basis of the wounds.[9] It
is typically easy for medics to determine when the wounds are self-inflicted
because these wounds typically “show signs of reddening, inflammation,
infection or signs of healing over a prolonged period.”[10]
True stigmatics, on the other hand, sometimes bleed with no lesions or
indentations, and no reason can be found for their bleeding. These wounds are
definitely not self-inflicted.[11] In
addition, some blisters and reddening of the skin can be caused by a biological
or mental imbalance,[12]
or by unconscious, emotional stress, such as blushing and eczema.[13]
Psychiatrists have also found that minds under hypnosis can make marks show up
on their bodies,[14] and it
has often been found that people sometimes interpret what they see according to
what they want to see.[15]
Those who claim to experience stigmata may actually be in a drug-induced state
or a dream, and what they see may be an optical illusion.[16]
In addition, those with false stigmata do not have additional supernatural
gifts which accompany their stigmata.These
individualsare
more likely to want to “show off” their wounds to others, and they are not
usually in much pain from the wounds.[17] However,
even if stigmata can be defined in terms of known natural laws, that does not
mean they do not have a divine origin. To Christians, God created the natural
laws, and therefore stigmata.[18]

C. Institutions and
Professional Structure

Each possible case of stigmata must
be fully investigated to determine that the wounds are not false. However, it
is now generally accepted that “the wounds have appeared in many people without
any deliberate conscious physical intervention.”[19]
The Roman Catholic Church is very cautious in crediting a case as stigmata, but
it does accept stigmata in general[20].
The Church does not want to lose its credibility by hastily crediting a false
stigmatic. The Church necessitates medical and psychiatric evaluations for all
stigmata candidates.[21]
In 1977, the Natural of Catholic Bishops reported that,

While some private manifestations can
occur, claims of these are to be approached with caution. Alleged heavenly
messages or miraculous events must be investigated and approved by the local
bishop before being given any credence.[22]

When investigating stigmatic cases, every source of
knowledge possible is used in examination. For example, Therese Neumann was
examined by medical doctors, theologians, psychiatrists, and authorities from Rome.[23]
In addition, she was photographed and videotaped during her Passion ecstasies.[24]
Psychiatric evaluations of stigmatists have found that they are “well-balanced
mentally and emotionally and sound in character.”[25]
However, the Church can only fully investigate stigmatic cases after death,[26]
because it is at this time that authorities can do a full examination of the
body with no hindrances.[27]
However, even when the wounds are genuine they may not be supernatural. It is
possible that modern science may not have an explanation yet.[28]

IV. History

The
earliest reference to a human being other than Jesus Christ receiving the stigmata
comes from Paul’s letter to the Galatians 2:19-20,[29]
“I have been crucified with Christ; it is no longer I who live, but Christ who
lives in me; and the life I now live in the flesh I live by faith in the Son of
God, who loved me and gave himself for me,” and Galatians 6:17 “From now on,
let no one make trouble for me; for I carry the marks of Jesus branded on my
body.” However, there is no way of knowing if Paul’s words are simply meant
symbolically because the first documented example of stigmata did not come
until 1224 with Saint Francis of Assisi in Italy.

Researchers
have found that there is more interest in miracles during hard times,[30]
for they are seen as signs of reassurance. During the times when doubt was
overwhelming, miracles such as the stigmata were strong proof of God’s
existence,[31] as C.S.
Lewis described;

How likely is it that you or I will be
present when a peace-treaty is signed, when a great scientific discovery is
made, when a dictator commits suicide? That we should see a miracle is even
less likely. Nor, if we understand, shall we be anxious to do so. ‘Nothing
almost sees miracles but misery.’ Miracles and martyrdoms tend to bunch about
the same areas of history – areas we have naturally no wish to frequent.[32]

In addition to this economic hardship, during the eleventh
and twelfth centuries, there was also a religious revival present in Europe[33]
with a new focus on the sufferings of Christ.[34]The
art of the time became much more graphic and detailed in its displays of the

Crucifixion. It moved away from symbolism towardsa much more realistic display of the pain Jesus felt
while on the cross.[35]

At this time, many people were also
frustrated with the corruptions of the Catholic Church because at the time the
only access to God for Catholics was through mass or a priest. Since women
could not be priests, their only direct access to Christ was to share in His
wounds and suffer with Him.[36]
As a result of this, many women inflicted themselves with the wounds in order
to become closer to Christ as well.[37] Women
learned to use personal devotion in the same manner that men used the
priesthood.[38]
Therefore, the majority of the first cases of stigmata were found in women,
with a ratio of seven to one women to men,[39] especially
those who were members of religious orders. St. Francis of Assisi,
the first documented stigmatist, fits this description because he was not a
priest, even though he was male.[40]

In the first centuries that
stigmata was present, there were no known cases outside of Europe,
and it only became present in America
with the Roman Catholic immigrants. One major reason for this was that “while
the Eastern Church emphasized the transfiguration and the fact that God was the
light of the world, the WesternChurch
emphasized the crucifixion, bleeding hearts, gibbets, and the dark night of the
soul.”[41]
At the present time, cases of stigmata continue to be more prevalent in Europe,
and most cases occur at times and places where they can be absorbed in the
culture,[42]
and often in communities overwhelmed with piety. Many of those with the
stigmata continue to be Roman Catholics, however among the stigmatists alive
today, there is one Baptist, one Anglican, and one member of a small CelticChurch.[43] The
stigmata have been documented in people of all different ages and races,
although few have received it after forty years of age.[44] Most
die at the age of 33, which is the age at which the Bible says that Christ
died.

V. Representative
Examples of Argumentation

Doctors
continue to do tests on those who claim to have the stigmata. Although they
still see patients whose wounds tend to have no natural explanation, they have
termed Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS) as “the modern stigmata.”[45]
Patients with CTS often feel the same pain as those with a nail through the thick
median nerve of the

wrist.Some of these
symptoms include “incapacitating pain, numbness, and weakness in the hands,
arms, shoulders, and neck.”[46] However,
CTS is not a common explanation for those who claim to have the stigmata because
they do not have the visual signs most stigmatics receive, including nail
wounds, bleeding, and the wounds from a crown of thorns.

In terms of
validating stigmata as truly from divine origin, Freze comments that
stigmatists are “examples of holiness, faithfulness, and the Gospel principles
that we must try to live by…a realization of God’s enduring love among his
faithful ones.”[47] Freze
has done extensive research and believes that stigmatists are truly “God’s
chosen souls.”[48] His
explanations about stigmata attempt to leave no doubt that stigmata are a true
miracle from God, stating that “in the Christian soul which knows Christ and
loves Him, suffering is a fuel for love; it serves marvelously to increase it.”[49] It
is hard to doubt the existence of stigmata with all the many modern day
technological “proofs,” but because stigmata are such extraordinary phenomena,
they are also hard to believe without witnessing firsthand.

IV. Suggested
Position in Comparative Scales

tradition(1) ---- experience(10): 7

Although the basis of stigmata
comes from tradition, most of the truth about it

comes from actual experience. The
reality of stigmata comes from the testimony of individual experience, as it is
only manifested through experience. This experience is validated through
authority, but the main emphasis is on individual experience.

centralized authority(1) ---- decentralized authority(10):
8

Once again, stigmata emphasize more
of the decentralized authority, because of the importance of individual
inquiry. Stigmata come from the individual and therefore depend on the
individual.

emphasis on the individual realm (1)
---- visible realities (10): 3

In stigmata, there is an emphasis
on heavenly realities as well as earthly ones. The stigmata come from divine
origin, but the stigmatist also has supernatural abilities. He is able to
perform miracles such as healing the sick and raising people from the dead.
While the human is able to do this, his powers come from God, so the credit is
all given to God and the emphasis is on this heavenly realm.

spiritual/moral goal (1) ---- pragmatic objectives (10): 5

The purpose of stigmata is twofold.
It serves to remind people of God’s presence on the earth as well as His
continued ability to perform miracles. In addition, it has pragmatic objectives
in that those with the stigmata often have powers to help other people through
means such as predictions and healings.

primarily divine power (1) ---- individual power (10): 2

The focus in stigmata is on the
divine power. The stigmatist receives the wounds as a gift from God and all of
his or her other supernatural powers come directly from God. The purpose of
stigmata is to glorify God. However, there is some focus on the individual
because many people tend to look to the individuals with the stigmata, and many
of them become saints, thereby emphasizing the individual.

Annotated Bibliography

Primary Sources:

Freze, Michael. They
Bore the Wounds of Christ: The Mystery of the Sacred Stigmata. Indiana:
Our Sunday Visitor, 1989.

This entire
book was focused on stigmata, although it did include many other types of
miracles and supernatural gifts. In addition, this book gave a lot of detail,
including a separate section describing individual cases of stigmata. The
author also included pictures in the book, which were very interesting and
helpful for me to form a better picture in my mind of what stigmata actually
looks like. Although the author does detailed research for this book, he is a
devout Christian who believes strongly in stigmata and allows that belief to
come through in his work, sometimes creating an unfair bias.

Harrison, Ted. Stigmata: A Medieval Mystery in a Modern
Age. Penguin USA,
1996.

This book’s
content was entirely devoted to stigmata. It included detailed information
about stigmata as well as many individual cases. It described possible
alternatives to the mystical phenomenon yet usually returned to divine origin
as the most likely possibility.

This book’s
focus was more on other miracles, such as moving crucifixes, rather than
stigmata, and therefore did not have a large section of information about
stigmata. In researching other modern miracles, I think that this book would be
very helpful.