Bourbon whiskey

Bourbon whiskey/bɜːrbən/ is a type of American whiskey, a barrel-ageddistilled spirit made primarily from corn. The name derives from the FrenchBourbon dynasty, although the precise inspiration for the whiskey's name is unsettled; contenders include Bourbon County in Kentucky and Bourbon Street in New Orleans.[1] Bourbon has been distilled since the 18th century,[2] the use of the term "bourbon" for the whiskey has been traced to the 1820s, and the term began to be used consistently in Kentucky in the 1870s.[1] While bourbon may be made anywhere in the United States, it is strongly associated with the American South, and with Kentucky in particular, as of 2014, the distillers' wholesale market revenue for bourbon sold within the U.S. is about $2.7 billion, and bourbon makes up about two-thirds of the $1.6 billion of U.S. exports of distilled spirits.[3][4]

Contents

American white oakbarrels filled with new bourbon whiskey rest in a rack house, giving bourbon its well-known copper color

Distilling probably was brought to present-day Kentucky in the late 18th century by Scots, Scots-Irish, and other settlers (including English, Irish, Welsh, German and French) who began to farm the area in earnest, the origin of bourbon as a distinct form of whiskey is not well documented. There are many conflicting legends and claims, some more credible than others.

For example, the invention of bourbon is often attributed to Elijah Craig, a Baptist minister and distiller credited with many Kentucky firsts (e.g., fulling mill, paper mill, ropewalk) who is also said to have been the first to age the product in charred oak casks, a process which gives bourbon its reddish color and distinctive taste.[5] Across the county line in Bourbon County, an early distiller named Jacob Spears is credited with being the first to label his product as Bourbon whiskey. Spears' home, Stone Castle, warehouse and spring house survive; one can drive by the Spears' home on Clay-Kiser Road.

Although still popular and often repeated, the Craig legend is apocryphal. Similarly, the Spears story is a local favorite, rarely repeated outside the county. There likely was no single "inventor" of bourbon, which developed into its present form only in the late 19th century. Essentially any type of grain can be used to make whiskey, and the practice of aging whiskey and charring the barrels for better flavor had also been known in Europe for centuries,[6] the late date of the Bourbon County etymology has led Louisville historian Michael Veach to dispute its authenticity. He proposes that the whiskey was named after Bourbon Street in New Orleans, a major port where shipments of Kentucky whiskey sold well as a cheaper alternative to French cognac.[1]

Another proposed origin of the name is the association with the geographic area known as Old Bourbon (this consisted of the original Bourbon County of Virginia as organized in 1785, a region that included much of today's Eastern Kentucky – including 34 of today's counties in Kentucky).[7] This area included the current Bourbon County of Kentucky, which became a county of Kentucky when Kentucky was separated from Virginia as a new state in 1792.[8][9][10]

When American pioneers pushed west of the Allegheny Mountains following the American Revolution, the first counties they founded covered vast regions. One of these original, huge counties was Bourbon, established in 1785 and named after the French royal family. While this vast county was being carved into many smaller ones, early in the 19th century, many people continued to call the region Old Bourbon. Located within Old Bourbon was the principal port on the Ohio River, Maysville, Kentucky, from which whiskey and other products were shipped. "Old Bourbon" was stencilled on the barrels to indicate their port of origin. Old Bourbon whiskey was different because it was the first corn whiskey most people had ever tasted. In time, bourbon became the name for any corn-based whiskey.[10]

Although many distilleries operated in Bourbon County historically, there were no distilleries operating there between 1919, when Prohibition began in Kentucky, and late 2014, when a small distillery opened – a period of 95 years.[11][12]

Prohibition was devastating to the bourbon industry, with the ratification of the 18th amendment in 1919, many distilleries were forced to close their doors as they were not granted permits to produce and bottle medicinal whiskey. Distilleries that were granted permits to produce or bottle medicinal whiskey were:the Brown-Foreman Distillery in Frankfort, James Thompson and Brothers, the Schenley Distillery (modern day Buffalo Trace Distillery), and the A. Ph. Stitzel Distillery.[13]

A refinement often dubiously[14] credited to James C. Crow was the sour mash process, by which each new fermentation is conditioned with some amount of spent mash. Spent mash is also known as spent beer, distillers' spent grain, stillage, and slop or feed mash, so named because it is used as animal feed, the acid introduced by using the sour mash controls the growth of bacteria that could taint the whiskey and creates a proper pH balance for the yeast to work.

A concurrent resolution adopted by the United States Congress in 1964 declared bourbon to be a "distinctive product of the United States" and asked "the appropriate agencies of the United States Government... [to] take appropriate action to prohibit importation into the United States of whiskey designated as 'Bourbon Whiskey'."[15][16]Federal regulation now defines "bourbon whiskey" to only include "bourbon" produced in the United States.[17]

In recent years, bourbon and Tennessee whiskey (which is sometimes regarded as a different type of spirit but which generally meets the legal requirements for being called bourbon) have enjoyed significant growth and popularity, the Distilled Spirits Council of the United States, the industry trade group, tracks sales of bourbon and Tennessee whiskey together.[3]

According to the Distilled Spirits Council, during 2009–2014, the volume of 9-liter cases of whiskey increased by 28.5% overall.[4] Higher-end bourbon and whiskeys experienced the greatest growth: during 2009–14 the volume of the value segment increased by 12.1%, premium by 25.8%, high-end premium by 27.8% and super-premium by 123.8%.[4] Gross supplier revenues (including federal excise tax) for U.S. bourbon and Tennessee whiskey increased by 46.7% over the 2009–14 period, with the greatest growth coming from high-end products (18.7% growth for value, 33.6% for premium, 44.5% for high-end premium, and 137.2% for super-premium).[4] In 2014, more than 19 million nine-liter cases of bourbon and Tennessee whiskey were sold in the U.S., generating almost $2.7 billion in wholesale distillery revenue.[4] U.S. exports of bourbon whiskey surpassed $1 billion for the first time in 2013; distillers hailed the rise of a "golden age of Kentucky bourbon" and predicted further growth.[3] In 2014, it was estimated that U.S. bourbon whiskey exports surpassed $1 billion (making up the majority of the U.S. total of $1.6 billion in spirits exports).[3] Major export markets for U.S. spirits are, in descending order: Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia and France.[3] The largest percentage increases in U.S. exports were, in descending order: Brazil, the Dominican Republic, Bahamas, Israel and United Arab Emirates.[3] Key elements of growth in the markets showing the largest increases have been changes of law, trade agreements, and reductions of tariffs, as well as increased consumer demand for premium-category spirits.[18]

Bourbon's legal definition varies somewhat from country to country, but many trade agreements require the name bourbon to be reserved for products made in the United States, the U.S. regulations for labeling and advertising bourbon apply only to products made for consumption within the United States; they do not apply to distilled spirits made for export.[19] Canadian law requires products labeled bourbon to be made in the United States and also to conform to the requirements that apply within the United States, but in countries other than the United States and Canada, products labeled bourbon may not adhere to the same standards. For example, in the European Union, products labeled as bourbon are not required to conform to all of the regulations that apply within the United States, though they still must be made in the U.S.

Bourbon has no minimum specified duration for its aging period.[23] Products aged for as little as three months are sold as bourbon,[24] the exception is straight bourbon, which has a minimum aging requirement of two years. In addition, any bourbon aged less than four years must include an age statement on its label.[25][26]

Bourbon that meets the above requirements, has been aged for a minimum of two years, and does not have added coloring, flavoring, or other spirits may (but is not required to) be called straight bourbon.[27]

Bourbon that is labeled as straight that has been aged under four years must be labeled with the duration of its aging.[28]

Bourbon that has an age stated on its label must be labeled with the age of the youngest whiskey in the bottle (not counting the age of any added neutral grain spirits in a bourbon that is labeled as blended, as neutral-grain spirits are not considered whiskey under the regulations and are not required to be aged at all).[25]

Bourbon that is labeled blended (or as a blend) may contain added coloring, flavoring, and other spirits (such as un-aged neutral grain spirits); but at least 51% of the product must be straight bourbon.[29][30]

On May 4, 1964, the United States Congress recognized bourbon whiskey as a "distinctive product of the United States" by concurrent resolution. Bourbon may be produced anywhere in the United States where it is legal to distill spirits, but most brands are produced in Kentucky, where bourbon production has a strong historical association.[31] Iron-free water that has been filtered through the high concentrations of limestone, unique to the area, is often touted by bourbon distillers in Kentucky as a signature step in the bourbon-making process.[32]

Used bourbon barrels awaiting fresh contents in Scotland

On August 2, 2007, the U.S. Senate passed a resolution sponsored by Senator Jim Bunning (R-KY) officially declaring September 2007 to be National Bourbon Heritage Month, marking the history of bourbon whiskey.[33] Notably, the resolution claimed that Congress had declared bourbon to be "America's Native Spirit" in its 1964 resolution.[33] However, the 1964 resolution had not contained such a statement; it had declared bourbon to be a distinctive product identifiable with the United States (in a similar way that Scotch is considered identifiable with Scotland).[15][34] The resolution was passed again in 2008.[34]

As of 2014, approximately 95% of all bourbon is produced in Kentucky, according to the Kentucky Distillers’ Association, the state has more than 5.3 million barrels of bourbon that are aging – a number that exceeds the state population.[3][35][36]

Although some Tennessee whiskey makers maintain a state mandated pre-ageing filtration through chunks of maple charcoal known as the Lincoln County Process makes its flavor distinct from bourbon, U.S. regulations defining bourbon neither require nor prohibit its use.[23][40][43][44] Prior to 2013 the Lincoln County Process was not legally required for products identified as Tennessee whiskey.[A]

To be legally sold as bourbon the whiskey's mash bill requires a minimum of 51% corn, with the remainder being rye, wheat, maltedbarley, singly or in any combination.[2] A mash bill that contains wheat instead of rye produces what is known as a wheated bourbon,[50][51] the grain is ground and mixed with water. Usually, though not always, mash from a previous distillation is added to ensure a consistent pH across batches, creating a sour mash. Finally, yeast is added and the mash is fermented, it is distilled to (typically) between 65% and 80% alcohol using either a traditional alembic (or pot still) or the much less expensive continuous still. Most modern bourbons are initially run off using a column still then redistilled in a "doubler" (alternatively known as a "thumper" or "retort") that is basically a pot still.[52]

The resulting clear spirit, called "white dog",[53] is placed in newly charred American white oak barrels for aging, during which it gains color and flavor from the caramelizedsugars in the charred wood. Changes to the spirit also occur due to evaporation and chemical processes such as oxidation. Bourbons gain more color and flavor the longer they age in wood. Maturity, not a particular duration, is the goal, as bourbons aged too long can become woody and unbalanced.

After maturing, bourbon is withdrawn from the barrel, usually filtered and diluted with water, and bottled to at least 80 US proof (40% abv).[22] Most bourbon whiskey is sold at 80 US proof. Other common proofs are 86, 90, and 100, and all "bottled in bond" bourbon is 100 proof, some higher-proof bottlings are marketed as "barrel proof", meaning that they have not been diluted or have been only lightly diluted after removal from the barrels. Bourbon whiskey may be sold at less than 80 proof but must be labeled as "diluted bourbon".

After processing, barrels remain saturated with up to ten gallons of bourbon, though 2–3 is the norm,[54] they may not be reused for bourbon, and most are sold to distilleries in Canada, Scotland, Ireland, Mexico, and the Caribbean for aging other spirits. Some are employed in the manufacture of various barrel-aged products, including amateur and professionally brewed bourbon-barrel-aged beer, barbecue sauce, wine, hot sauce, and others, since 2011, Jim Beam has employed barrel rinsing on a large scale to extract bourbon from its used barrels, mixing the extract with a 6-year-old Beam bourbon to create a 90-proof product that it sells as "Devil's Cut".[55]

The bottling operation for bourbon is the process of filtering, mixing together straight whiskey from different barrels (sometimes from different distilleries), dilution with water, blending with other ingredients (if producing blended bourbon), and filling of containers to produce the final product that is marketed to consumers, the phrase "bottled by", by itself, means only that. Only if the bottler operates the distillery that produced the whiskey may "distilled by" be added to the label.[56]

Labeling requirements for bourbon and other alcoholic beverages (including the requirements for what is allowed to be called bourbon under U.S. law) are defined in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations.[57] No whiskey made outside the United States may be labeled "bourbon" or sold as "bourbon" inside the United States (and in various other countries that have trade agreements with the United States to recognize bourbon as a distinctive product of the United States).

Bourbon is served in a variety of manners, including neat, diluted with water, over ice ("on the rocks"), with other beverages in simple mixed drinks, and into cocktails, including the Manhattan, the Old Fashioned, the whiskey sour, and the mint julep. Bourbon is also used in cooking and was historically used for medicinal purposes.[2]

^Prior to 2013, the use of the Lincoln County Process was not actually required for making products identified as Tennessee whiskey. However, on May 13, 2013, the GovernorBill Haslam of Tennessee signed House Bill 1084, requiring the Lincoln County process and the existing requirements for bourbon to be used for products identified as "Tennessee whiskey". As a grandfathering measure, the law exempted one small producer, Benjamin Prichard's,[45][46] as U.S. federal law requires statements of origin on labels to be accurate, and various international trade agreements also codify this requirement, the Tennessee law effectively gives a firm definition to Tennessee whiskey.

^Office of the Federal Register. Payne, Kenneth R.; Barksdale, Elmer, eds. Title 27 CFR 5.36 Name and address(PDF). Code of Federal Regulations 27: Alcohol, Tobacco Products and Firearms (Technical report). Government Printing Office. Archived(PDF) from the original on January 1, 2015. Retrieved January 1, 2015. Where distilled spirits are bottled by or for the distiller thereof, there may be stated, in lieu of the phrase 'bottled by', 'packed by', or 'filled by', followed by the bottler's name (or trade name) and address, the phrase 'distilled by' ...

1.
Tennessee whiskey
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Tennessee whiskey is straight whiskey produced in Tennessee. Tennessee whiskey is one of the top ten exports of Tennessee, there are currently two major producers of Tennessee whiskey – Jack Daniels and George Dickel – and at least two smaller producers. Canadian food and drug laws state that Tennessee whiskey must be a straight Bourbon whisky produced in the State of Tennessee, on a state level, the State of Tennessee has imposed stringent requirements. It is not enough under state law that the whiskey be produced in Tennessee, it must meet quality, the law contained a specific exception for Benjamin Prichards, which doesnt use the Lincoln County process. As federal law requires statements of origin on labels to be accurate, phil Prichard, the owner and distiller of Benjamin Prichards, stated, If I wanted my whiskey to taste like Jack Daniels, I would make it like Jack Daniels. In 2014, legislation was introduced in the Tennessee state legislature that would amend the 2013 law to allow the reuse of barrels in the aging process, Diageo, which owns George Dickel, supported the proposed change. Arnett blasted the proposed amendment, going as far as to accuse Diageo of attempting to weaken the quality of Tennessee whiskey to protect its Scotch, Diageo argued that the 2013 law was an attempt by Jack Daniels to push smaller competitors out of the market. Relatively few brands of Tennessee whiskey survive today, due to a prohibition that lasted longer than the national prohibition. As of 2013, many Tennessee counties still prohibit the sale of alcohol, in 2009, the Tennessee General Assembly amended the statute that had for many years limited the distillation of drinkable spirits to just three of Tennessees 95 counties. The revised law allows distilleries to be established in 41 additional counties and this change was expected to lead to the establishment of small distilleries, thus increasing the number of producers of Tennessee whiskey. As of March 2013, there are four brands with at least one Tennessee whiskey on the market, production was initiated in Indiana rather than Chattanooga due to Prohibition-era laws which prevented distilling within Hamilton County until the law was changed in May 2013. Farrar Distillery All Tennessee Whiskey is from Tennessee, but not all whiskey from Tennessee qualifies as Tennessee Whiskey. Although the Ole Smoky Distillery is located in Tennessee and it produces a product that is a whiskey and their product is instead marketed as Tennessee moonshine. George Dickel began production of a rye whiskey in 2012, which also cannot be labelled as Tennessee whiskey, because it is produced from a rye-based mash, Jack Daniels began production in 2012 of what they dubbed a Tennessee Rye. As it is 70% rye it is not labeled as a Tennessee whiskey, a limited initial release, not aged in wood, bore the label Spirits Distilled from Grain. A second limited release, called Rested Rye, was released two years of aging, and was labeled as a straight rye whiskey. Jack Daniels has said that an aged version will be released in the future. Benjamin Prichards produces other whiskeys, a Tennessee Rye Whiskey and an unaged corn whiskey called Lincoln County Lightning, like their Tennessee whiskey, they are not charcoal filtered prior to aging

2.
Decatur, Georgia
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Decatur is a city in, and county seat of, DeKalb County, Georgia, United States. With a population of 20,148 in the 2013 census and it is an intown suburb of Atlanta and part of the Atlanta Metropolitan Area, and its public transportation is served by three MARTA rail stations. Decaturs official motto is A city of homes, schools and places of worship, prior to 2000, its motto was A city of homes, schools, and churches. The citizens of Decatur did not want the noise, pollution and growth that would come with such a major terminal, in response, the railroad founded a new city to the west-southwest of Decatur for the terminal. This town later became the city of Atlanta, during the American Civil War, Decatur became a strategic site in Shermans campaign against Atlanta. In July 1864 Union general James B, mcPherson occupied Decatur to cut off the Confederates supply line from Augusta, Georgia. During the Battle of Atlanta on July 22, Confederate cavalry under Major General Joseph Wheeler attacked McPhersons supply wagons, a marker at the Decatur courthouse marks the site of this skirmish. In the last half of the century the metropolitan area of Atlanta expanded into unincorporated DeKalb County. Concurrently many well-to-do and middle class white Americans fled the area to more distant suburbs, the 1960s and 1970s witnessed dramatic drops in property values. Decatur is located at 33°46′17″N 84°17′52″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 4.2 square miles, all of it land. The Eastern Continental Divide bisects the city along the CSX trackage right of way, as of the 2010 census, there were 19,335 people,8,599 occupied housing units, and 4,215 families residing in the city. The population density was 4,603.6 people per square mile, there were 9,335 housing units at an average density of 2,222.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 73. 5% White,20. 2% African American,0. 2% Native American,2. 9% Asian,0. 0% Pacific Islander,0. 6% from other races, and 2. 4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 2% of the population,3,263 of all households were made up of individuals of those,1,814 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.17 and the family size was 2.96. In the city, the population was out with 25. 1% under the age of 19,5. 2% from 20 to 24,32. 9% from 25 to 44,25. 7% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, there are roughly 44 males for every 56 females. The ZIP code 30030 has one of the highest percentages of households with same sex couples in Georgia,9. 20% as of 2000, the median income for a household in the city was $73,602

3.
Evan Williams (bourbon)
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Evan Williams is a brand of Kentucky straight bourbon whiskey bottled in Bardstown, Kentucky by the Heaven Hill company. The product is aged for a minimum of four years, consistent with its lack of an age statement on the bottle and it has been ranked as one of the worlds best selling whiskey brands. Although bottled in Bardstown, the product is distilled at the Heaven Hill distillery in Louisville, the standard issue Evan Williams bourbon is sold as the mass-market Black Label variety, which has been described as something thats cheap and doesnt taste bad. C. Evan Williams Black is 43% alc/vol, unlike some popular whiskeys which are bottled at the minimum of 40% alc/vol. Evan Williams was a Kentucky settler who the company says began distilling in 1783 in what is now Louisville, a historical marker in Louisville says the site was Kentuckys first commercial distillery. This heritage is emphasized on the label of the best selling variant, the black label. However, the inscriptions should not be construed as indicating that the brand has existed since the time of the historic distillery. The modern whiskey brand was established in the mid-1900s and has no connection to the historic distiller. Moreover, historian Michael Veach of the Filson Historical Society has stated that key details of the claims about Williams appear to be false. Veach said that the assertion that Williams was Kentuckys first distiller did not appear until an 1892 publication by Reuben Durrett, more than a century after the fact. He also said that the dating is disproved by a record of Williams traveling from London to Philadelphia in May 1794, records reportedly indicate that Myers and the Davis brothers both arrived in 1779. On February 16,2011, the Black Label expression tied with 100 proof Very Old Barton as Best Buy Whisky of the Year in the 17th Annual Malt Advocate Whisky Awards. Food critic Morgan Murphy said The Black Label smells of deep vanilla, alcoholic beverage Jack Daniels Jim Beam Makers Mark Early Times Official website

4.
American whiskey
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American whiskey is a distilled beverage produced in the United States from a fermented mash of cereal grain. The production and labeling of American whiskey are governed by Title 27 of the U. S. Code of Federal Regulations. S. Canadian law also requires that products labeled as bourbon or Tennessee Whiskey must satisfy the laws of the United States that regulate its manufacture for consumption in the United States, some other countries do not specify this requirement. This distinction can be important, as the U. S. regulations include substantial exemptions for products that are made for rather than for consumption within the United States. Some key types listed in the U. S, all of these except corn whiskey must be aged in charred new oak containers. These restrictions do not exist for some similarly named products in other countries. American corn whiskey does not have to be aged at all – but, if it is aged, it must be aged in used or uncharred oak barrels, in practice, if corn whiskey is aged it usually is aged in used bourbon barrels. A straight whiskey that meets one of the other above definitions is referred to by combining the term straight with the term for the type of whiskey. For example, a rye whiskey that meets this definition is called a straight rye whiskey, for the blended whiskey to be labeled with a particular grain type, at least 51% of the blend must be straight whiskey of that grain type. The part of the content that is not straight whiskey may include un-aged grain distillates, grain neutral spirits, flavorings, light whiskey, which is produced in the United States at more than 80% alcohol by volume and stored in used or uncharred new oak containers. Spirit whiskey, which is a mixture of spirits and at least 5% of certain stricter categories of whiskey. Another important American whiskey labeling is Tennessee whiskey, there are only four brands of Tennessee whiskey that are currently bottled – Jack Daniels, George Dickel, Benjamin Prichards, and Collier and McKeel

5.
Distilled beverage
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This process purifies it and removes diluting components like water, for the purpose of increasing its proportion of alcohol content. As distilled beverages contain more alcohol, they are considered harder – in North America, as examples, this term does not include beverages such as beer, wine, sake, and cider, as they are fermented but not distilled. These all have relatively low alcohol content, typically less than 15%, brandy is a spirit produced by the distillation of wine, and has an ABV of over 35%. Other examples of distilled beverages include bourbon, vodka, gin, rum, tequila, mezcal, whisky, scotch, the term spirit refers to a distilled beverage that contains no added sugar and has at least 20% alcohol by volume. Distilled beverages bottled with added sugar and added flavorings, such as Grand Marnier, Frangelico, Distilled beverages generally have an alcohol concentration higher than 30%. The origin of liquor and its close relative liquid was the Latin verb liquere, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, an early use of the word in the English language, meaning simply a liquid, can be dated to 1225. The first use the OED mentions of its meaning a liquid for drinking occurred in the 14th century and its use as a term for an intoxicating alcoholic drink appeared in the 16th century. The term spirit in reference to alcohol stems from Middle Eastern alchemy and these alchemists were more concerned with medical elixirs than with transmuting lead into gold. The vapor given off and collected during a process was called a spirit of the original material. Distilled water was described in the 2nd century AD by Alexander of Aphrodisias, the Alexandrians were using a distillation alembic or still device in the 3rd century AD. The medieval Arabs learned the process from the Alexandrians and used it extensively. Freeze distillation involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and then removing the ice, the freezing technique had limitations in geography and implementation limiting how widely this method was put to use. The earliest evidence of distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in southern Italy during the 12th century. Again, the Chinese may not have been far behind, with evidence indicating the practice of distillation began during the 12th century Jin or Southern Song dynasties. A still has been found at a site in Qinglong, Hebei. Fractional distillation was developed by Taddeo Alderotti in the 13th century, the production method was written in code, suggesting that it was being kept secret. In 1437, burned water was mentioned in the records of the County of Katzenelnbogen in Germany and it was served in a tall, narrow glass called a Goderulffe. Claims upon the origin of specific beverages are controversial, often invoking national pride, but they are plausible after the 12th century AD and these spirits would have had a much lower alcohol content than the alchemists pure distillations, and they were likely first thought of as medicinal elixirs

6.
Maize
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Maize, also known as corn, is a large grain plant first domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The six major types of corn are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn, the leafy stalk of the plant produces separate pollen and ovuliferous inflorescences or ears, which are fruits, yielding kernels or seeds. Maize kernels are used in cooking as a starch. Most historians believe maize was domesticated in the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico, recent research modified this view somewhat, scholars now indicate the adjacent Balsas River Valley of south-central Mexico as the center of domestication. The Olmec and Mayans cultivated maize in numerous varieties throughout Mesoamerica, cooked and its believed that beginning about 2500 BC, the crop spread through much of the Americas. The region developed a network based on surplus and varieties of maize crops. Nevertheless, recent data indicates that the spread of maize took place even earlier, according to Piperno, A large corpus of data indicates that it was dispersed into lower Central America by 7600 BP and had moved into the inter-Andean valleys of Colombia between 7000 and 6000 BP. Since then, even earlier dates have been published, the study also demonstrated that the oldest surviving maize types are those of the Mexican highlands. Later, maize spread from this region over the Americas along two major paths and this is consistent with a model based on the archaeological record suggesting that maize diversified in the highlands of Mexico before spreading to the lowlands. Before they were domesticated, maize plants only grew small,25 millimetres long corn cobs, Maize is the most widely grown grain crop throughout the Americas, with 361 million metric tons grown in the United States in 2014. Approximately 40% of the crop—130 million tons—is used for corn ethanol, genetically modified maize made up 85% of the maize planted in the United States in 2009. After the arrival of Europeans in 1492, Spanish settlers consumed maize and explorers and traders carried it back to Europe, Spanish settlers far preferred wheat bread to maize, cassava, or potatoes. Maize flour could not be substituted for wheat for bread, since in Christian belief only wheat could undergo transubstantiation. At another level, Spaniards worried that by eating indigenous foods, which they did not consider nutritious, that not only would they weaken, despite these worries, Spaniards did consume maize and archeological evidence from Florida sites indicate they cultivated it as well. Maize spread to the rest of the world because of its ability to grow in diverse climates and it was cultivated in Spain just a few decades after Columbuss voyages and then spread to Italy, West Africa and elsewhere. The word maize derives from the Spanish form of the indigenous Taíno word for the plant and it is known by other names around the world. The word corn outside North America, Australia, and New Zealand refers to any cereal crop, in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, corn primarily means maize, this usage started as a shortening of Indian corn. Indian corn primarily means maize, but can more specifically to multicolored flint corn used for decoration

7.
Kingdom of France
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The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois

8.
Bourbon County, Kentucky
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Bourbon County is a county located in the U. S. state of Kentucky. As of the 2010 census, the population was 19,985, the area later became known as Old Bourbon in reference to its historical expanse. It was originally part of the French province of Louisiana, then after 1763 became part of Virginia, the county is best known for its historical association with bourbon whiskey. Bourbon became part of the new state of Kentucky when it was created in 1792, the courthouse was destroyed by fire in 1872 and 1901, resulting in the loss of county records. In 1780, Kentucky County, Virginia, was divided into three counties of Virginia, Fayette, Jefferson, and Lincoln, called the District of Kentucky. Formed in 1786 from Fayette County, Bourbon County, Virginia, originally comprised 34 northeastern counties of Kentuckys 120 current ones, the area later became known as Old Bourbon in reference to its historical expanse. Whiskey was a product of the area, and whiskey barrels from the area were marked Old Bourbon when they were shipped downriver from the local port on the Ohio River. The use of the term Old in the phrase Old Bourbon, was misconstrued as a reference to the aging of the whiskey rather than part of the name of the geographic area. Thirty-four modern Kentucky counties were part of the original Bourbon County. Except for a few distilleries that were authorized to produce it for medicinal purposes, Kentucky adopted prohibition a year earlier than the national prohibition. Within the boundaries of Bourbon County as it stands today there were, all of these were shut down in 1919, and no distilleries resumed operation there until late 2014 – a period of 95 years. At present, alcohol production and sales in Kentucky are regulated by a patchwork of laws which the Kentucky Supreme Court called a maze of obscure statutory language. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 292 square miles. There are no lakes in the county, although there are several streams. Primary among these is Stoner Creek, on which the county seat is situated and this large stream is a principal tributary of the South Fork of the Licking River. The countys topography is predominantly rolling hills. Due to agricultural development, very little of the land area can be characterized as forested. The population density was 66 per square mile, there were 8,349 housing units at an average density of 29 per square mile

9.
Kentucky
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Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall

10.
Bourbon Street
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Bourbon Street is a street in the heart of New Orleans oldest neighborhood, the French Quarter, in New Orleans, Louisiana. It extends 13 blocks from Canal to Esplanade Avenue, known for its bars and strip clubs, Bourbon Streets history provides a rich insight into New Orleans past. The French claimed Louisiana as a colony in the 1690s, Jean Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville was appointed as Director General in charge of developing a colony in the territory. He founded New Orleans in 1718, in 1721, the royal engineer, Adrien de Pauger, designed the citys street layout. He named the streets after French royal houses and Catholic saints, Bourbon Street paid homage to Frances ruling family, the House of Bourbon. New Orleans was given to the Spanish in 1763 following the Seven Years War, in 1788, a major fire destroyed 80% of the citys buildings. The Spanish rebuilt many of the buildings, which are still standing today. For this reason, Bourbon Street and the French Quarter display more Spanish than French influence, the Americans gained control of the colony following the 1803 Louisiana Purchase. They translated the French street names into English, with Rue Bourbon becoming Bourbon Street, New Orleans in the 19th century was both similar to and different from other Southern cities. It was similar in that its economy was based on selling cash crops such as sugar, by 1840, newcomers whose wealth came from these enterprises turned New Orleans into the third largest metropolis in the country. The citys port was the second-largest after New York City, the main difference between New Orleans and other Southern cities was its unique cultural heritage as a result of formerly having been a French and Spanish possession. This cultural legacy in the form of its architecture, cuisine, the French Quarter was central to this image and became the best-known part of the city. Bourbon Street was a residential area prior to 1900. This changed in the late 1800s and early 1900s, when the Storyville red-light district was constructed on Basin Street adjacent to the French Quarter, the area became known for prostitution, gambling and vaudeville acts. Jazz is said to have developed here, with such as King Oliver. This was also the era when some of New Orleans most eminent restaurants were founded, including Galatoires and it was established by Jean Galatoire in 1905. Known for years by its characteristic line snaking down Bourbon Street, before World War II, the French Quarter was emerging as a major asset to the city’s economy. While there was an interest in historic districts at the time, simultaneously, with the wartime influx of people, property owners opened adult-centered nightclubs to capitalize on the city’s risqué image

11.
New Orleans
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New Orleans is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U. S. Census, the New Orleans metropolitan area had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and it is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music, and its celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is referred to as the most unique in the United States. New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, straddling the Mississippi River, the city and Orleans Parish are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north, before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, La Nouvelle-Orléans was founded May 7,1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time and his title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris, during the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight, nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians, Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city. The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the republic in the Western Hemisphere. It had occurred several years in what was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue

12.
Southern United States
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The Southern United States, commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America. The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States, arizona and New Mexico, which are geographically in the southern part of the country, are rarely considered part, while West Virginia, which separated from Virginia in 1863, commonly is. Some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries, while the states of Delaware and Maryland, as well as the District of Columbia permitted slavery prior to the start of the Civil War, they remained with the Union. However, the United States Census Bureau puts them in the South, usually, the South is defined as including the southeastern and south-central United States. The region is known for its culture and history, having developed its own customs, musical styles, and cuisines, the Southern ethnic heritage is diverse and includes strong European, African, and some Native American components. Since the late 1960s, black people have many offices in Southern states, especially in the coastal states of Virginia. Historically, the South relied heavily on agriculture, and was rural until after 1945. It has since become more industrialized and urban and has attracted national and international migrants, the American South is now among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States, sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political, demographic, and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States. The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt, an area of high Protestant church attendance and predominantly conservative, indeed, studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas, including religion, morality, international relations and race relations. Apart from its climate, the experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners and millions of Hispanics meant the introduction of cultural values, the process has worked both ways, however, with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed Southernization. The question of how to define the subregions in the South has been the focus of research for nearly a century, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states. As of 2010, an estimated 114,555,744 people, or thirty-seven percent of all U. S. residents, lived in the South, the nations most populous region. Other terms related to the South include, The Old South, the New South, usually including the South Atlantic States. The Solid South, region largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964, before that, blacks were elected to national office and many to local office through the 1880s, Populist-Republican coalitions gained victories for Fusionist candidates for governors in the 1890s. Includes at least all the 11 former Confederate States, Southeastern United States, usually including the Carolinas, the Virginias, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. The Deep South, various definitions, usually including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, occasionally, parts of adjoining states are included

13.
Quercus alba
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Quercus alba, the white oak, is one of the preeminent hardwoods of eastern and central North America. It is an oak, native to eastern and central North America and found from Minnesota, Ontario, Quebec. Specimens have been documented to be over 450 years old, although called a white oak, it is very unusual to find an individual specimen with white bark, the usual color is a light gray. In the forest it can reach a magnificent height and in the open it develops into a massive broad-topped tree with large branches striking out at wide angles. Q. alba typically reaches heights of 80 to 100 feet at maturity, trees growing in a forest will become much taller than ones in an open area which develop to be short and massive. The tallest known white oak is 144 feet tall and it is not unusual for a white oak tree to be as wide as it is tall, but specimens growing at high altitudes may only become small shrubs. White oak may live 200 to 300 years, with even older specimens known. The Wye Oak in Wye Mills, Maryland was estimated to be over 450 years old when it fell in a thunderstorm in 2002. Another noted white oak is the Great White Oak in Basking Ridge, New Jersey, the tree measures 25 feet in circumference at the base and 16 feet in circumference four feet above the ground. The tree is 75 feet tall, and its branches spread over 125 feet from tip to tip, the oak, claimed to be the oldest in the United States, began showing signs of poor health in the mid-2010s. The tree was declared dead in 2016 and was planned to be taken down in 2017, sexual maturity begins at around 20 years, but the tree does not produce large crops of acorns until its 50th year and the amount varies from year to year. Acorns deteriorate quickly after ripening, the rate being only 10% for six-month-old seeds. As the acorns are prime food for animals and insects, all may be lost in years of small crops, the bark is a light ash-gray and peels somewhat from the top, bottom and/or sides. In spring the young leaves are of a delicate, silvery pink and covered with a soft, blanket-like down. The petioles are short, and the leaves which cluster close to the ends of the shoots are pale green and this condition continues for several days, passing through the opalescent changes of soft pink, silvery white and finally yellow green. The leaves grow to be 5 to 8.5 inches long and 2.75 to 4.5 inches wide and have a glossy green upper surface. They usually turn red or brown in autumn, but depending on climate, site, some brown, dead leaves may remain on the tree throughout winter until very early spring. The lobes can be shallow, extending less than halfway to the midrib, or deep, the acorns are usually sessile, and grow to 0.5 to 1 inch in length, falling in early October

14.
Barrel
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A barrel, cask, or tun is a hollow cylindrical container, traditionally made of wooden staves bound by wooden or metal hoops. Traditionally, the barrel was a size of measure referring to a set capacity or weight of a given commodity. For example, in the UK a barrel of beer refers to a quantity of 36 imperial gallons, wine was shipped in barrels of 119 litres. Modern barrels and casks can also be made of aluminum, stainless steel, someone who makes barrels is called a barrel maker or cooper. Barrels are only one type of cooperage, other types include, but are not limited to, buckets, tubs, butter churns, hogsheads, firkins, kegs, kilderkins, tierces, rundlets, puncheons, pipes, tuns, butts, pins, and breakers. An aging barrel is used to age wine, distilled spirits such as whiskey, brandy, or rum, beer, tabasco sauce, when a wine or spirit ages in a barrel, small amounts of oxygen are introduced as the barrel lets some air in. Oxygen enters a barrel when water or alcohol is lost due to evaporation, in an environment with 100% relative humidity, very little water evaporates and so most of the loss is alcohol, a useful trick if one has a wine with very high proof. Most beverages are topped up from other barrels to prevent significant oxidation, although others such as vin jaune, beverages aged in wooden barrels take on some of the compounds in the barrel, such as vanillin and wood tannins. The presence of these depends on many factors, including the place of origin, how the staves were cut and dried. After roughly three years, most of a barrels flavor compounds have been leached out and it is well on its way to becoming neutral, barrels used for aging are typically made of French or American oak, but chestnut and redwood are also used. Some Asian beverages use Japanese cedar, which imparts an unusual, in Peru and Chile, a grape distillate named pisco is either aged in oak or in earthenware. Some wines are fermented on barrel, as opposed to in a container like steel or wine-grade HDPE tanks. Wine can also be fermented in large tanks, which—when open to the atmosphere—are called open-tops. Other wooden cooperage for storing wine or spirits range from smaller barriques to huge casks, the tastes yielded by French and American species of oak are slightly different, with French oak being subtler, while American oak gives stronger aromas. To retain the desired measure of oak influence, a winery will replace a certain percentage of its barrels every year, some winemakers use 200% new oak, where the wine is put into new oak barrels twice during the aging process. Bulk wines are more cheaply flavored by soaking oak chips in them instead of being aged in a barrel. Sherry is stored in 600-litre casks made of North American oak, the casks, or butts, are filled five-sixths full, leaving the space of two fists empty at the top to allow flor to develop on top of the wine. NOTE, This section uses both the U. S. –Irish typical spelling whiskey and the British–Canadian typical spelling whisky, laws in several jurisdictions require that whiskey be aged in wooden barrels

15.
Scotch-Irish Americans
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While an estimated 36 million Americans reported Irish ancestry in 2006, and 6 million reported Scottish ancestry, an additional 5.4 million identified more specifically with Scotch-Irish ancestry. The term Scotch-Irish is used primarily in the United States, with people in Great Britain or Ireland who are of a similar ancestry identifying as Ulster Scots people and these included 200,000 Scottish Presbyterians who settled in Ireland between 1608-1697. Many English-born settlers of this period were also Presbyterians, although the denomination is today most strongly identified with Scotland, when King Charles I attempted to force these Presbyterians into the Church of England in the 1630s, many chose to re-emigrate to North America where religious liberty was greater. Later attempts to force the Church of Englands control over dissident Protestants in Ireland were to lead to further waves of emigration to the trans-Atlantic colonies, the term Scotch-Irish is first known to have been used to refer to a people living in Northeastern Ireland. In a letter of April 14,1573, in reference to Ulster, Elizabeth I of England wrote, We are given to understand that a nobleman named Sorley Boy and others, who be of the Scotch-Irish race. This term continued in usage for over a century before the earliest known American reference appeared in a Maryland affidavit in 1689/90, today, Scotch-Irish is an Americanism, rarely used in England, Ireland or Scotland. Smaller numbers of migrants came from Wales and the southeast of England, and others were Protestant religious refugees from Flanders, the German Palatinate. What united these different national groups was a base of Calvinist religious beliefs and that said, the large ethnic Scottish element in the Plantation of Ulster gave the settlements a Scottish character. Upon arrival in North America, these migrants at first usually identified simply as Irish, at first, the two groups had little interaction in America, as the Scots-Irish had become settled decades earlier, primarily in the backcountry of the Appalachian region. Many of the new Irish migrants also went to the interior in the 19th century, attracted to jobs on large-scale infrastructure projects such as canals, the usage Scots-Irish developed in the late 19th century as a relatively recent version of the term. The word Scotch was the favored adjective for things of Scotland, including people, until the early 19th century and it was never properly used as a noun. People in Scotland refer to themselves as Scots, as a noun, although referenced by Merriam-Webster dictionaries as having first appeared in 1744, the American term Scotch-Irish is undoubtedly older. An affidavit of William Patent, dated March 15,1689, in a case against a Mr. Matthew Scarbrough in Somerset County, Maryland and it was no more sin to kill me then to kill a dogg, or any Scotch Irish dogg. Leyburn cites the following as early American uses of the term before 1744, another Church of England clergyman from Lewes, Delaware, commented in 1723 that great numbers of Irish have transplanted themselves and their families from the north of Ireland. The Oxford English Dictionary says the first use of the term Scotch-Irish came in Pennsylvania in 1744,1744 W. MARSHE Jrnl,21 June in Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society. 177, The inhabitants are chiefly High-Dutch, Scotch-Irish, some few English families and its citations include examples after that into the late 19th century. In Albions Seed, Four British Folkways in America, historian David Hackett Fischer asserts and it is true that many sailed from the province of Ulster. Part of much larger flow which drew from the lowlands of Scotland, the north of England, Many scholars call these people Scotch-Irish

16.
Welsh Americans
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Welsh Americans are an American ethnic group whose ancestry originates wholly or partly in Wales. In the 2008 U. S. Census community survey, an estimated 1.98 million Americans had Welsh ancestry,0. 6% of the total U. S. population and this compares with a population of 3 million in Wales. However,3. 8% of Americans appear to bear a Welsh surname, there have been several U. S. Presidents with Welsh ancestry, including Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, John Quincy Adams, James A. Garfield, Calvin Coolidge, and Richard Nixon. Jefferson Davis, President of The Confederate States of America P. G. T, vice President Hubert Humphrey, and U. S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton are also of Welsh heritage. The proportion of the population with a name of Welsh origin ranges from 9. 5% in South Carolina to 1. 1% in North Dakota. Typically names of Welsh origin are concentrated in the mid-Atlantic states, by contrast there are relatively fewer Welsh names in New England, the northern Midwest, and the southwest. The Madog legend attained its greatest prominence during the Elizabethan era, the chief allegedly told him that the forts had been built by a white people called Welsh, as protection against the ancestors of the Cherokee, who eventually drove them from the region. Sevier had also written in 1799 of the discovery of six skeletons in brass armor bearing the Welsh coat-of-arms. Thomas S. Hinde claimed that in 1799, six soldiers had dug up near Jeffersonville. It is possible these were the same 6 Sevier referred to, as the number, brass plates, speculation abounds connecting Madog with certain sites, such as Devils Backbone, located on the Ohio River at Fourteen Mile Creek near Louisville, Kentucky. The more substantiated claim is that the first Welsh arrivals came from Wales after 1618, in the late seventeenth century, there was a large emigration of Welsh Quakers to Pennsylvania, where a Welsh Tract was established in the region immediately west of Philadelphia. By 1700, the Welsh accounted for about one-third of the estimated population of twenty thousand. There are a number of Welsh place names in this area, there was a second wave of immigration in the late eighteenth century, notably a Welsh colony named Cambria established by Morgan John Rhys in what is now Cambria County, Pennsylvania. The Welsh were especially numerous and politically active in colonial Pennsylvania, in the 19th century thousands of Welsh coal miners emigrated to the anthracite and bituminous mines of Pennsylvania, many becoming mine managers and executives. The miners brought organizational skills, exemplified in the United Mine Workers labor union, and its most famous leader John L. Lewis, Pennsylvania has the largest number of Welsh-Americans, approximately 200,000, they are primarily concentrated in the Western and Northeastern regions of the state. Mass emigration from Wales to the United States got under way in the century with Ohio cities and towns such as Canal Dover, Niles. There was a concentration of Welsh people in the Appalachian section of Southeast Ohio, such as Jackson County. The Welsh language was spoken there for generations until the 1950s when its use began to subside

17.
Elijah Craig
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Elijah Craig was a Baptist preacher in Virginia, who became an educator and capitalist entrepreneur in the area of Virginia that later became the state of Kentucky. He has sometimes, although rather dubiously, been credited with the invention of bourbon whiskey, in 1766, he convinced David Read to travel from North Carolina to baptize members of the new congregation, including himself. His older brother Lewis and younger brother Joseph Craig also became Baptist preachers, in 1771 Elijah Craig was ordained and became the pastor of Blue Run church, halfway between Barboursville and Liberty Mills, Virginia. He was jailed at least twice for preaching without the required Virginia license from the Anglican Church, such preachers were considered a challenge to the entire social order of the colony, as the established state church received funding from the colony. In 1774, the convention of independent Baptists designated Elijah Craig, in these years, Baptists encouraged planters to free their slaves, and numerous slaves were freed in the Upper South during the first two decades after the Revolution. Later, the Baptists reconciled with the institution, encouraging planters to use Christian values to improve treatment of slaves. Craig became politically active as the liaison of the general convention. As such, he worked with Patrick Henry and James Madison to protect religious freedom federally, ultimately, religious freedom became protected in Virginia by statute, as well as in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Baptist membership grew, particularly among common planters with smaller holdings of land, Elijah Craig did not go with this group but followed a few years later. Craig preached at several churches with John Waller, in 1786 Craig became pastor of the Great Crossing Church, which they had founded the previous year. Joseph Redding succeeded Craig in 1793 after a controversy concerning some of Craigs economic activities, in 1795 Craig was among the 35 founding members of McConnells Church, near McConnells Run. Both churches were part of the Elkhorn Association of Baptist churches, later, after 40 years of ministry, Craig was buried next to his mother in that early church cemetery. Elijah Craig was active in education, establishing the first classical school in Kentucky in 1787 and his advertisement in The Kentucky Gazette read, Education. They will teach the Latin and Greek languages, together with branches of the sciences as are usually taught in public seminaries. One half to be paid in cash, the half in produce at cash prices. There will be a vacation of a month in the spring, for diet, washing and house room for a year, each scholar pays £3 in cash, or 500 weight of pork on entrance, and £3 cash on the beginning of the third quarter. It is desired that, as many as can, would furnish themselves with beds, such as cannot may be provided for here, to the number of eight or ten boys, the school was later linked to the Rittenhouse Academy, which Craig founded in 1798. Elijah Craig also donated land for Georgetown College, the first Baptist college founded west of the Allegheny Mountains, Craig became a businessman and local magnate

18.
Baptists
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Other tenets of Baptist churches include soul competency, salvation through faith alone, Scripture alone as the rule of faith and practice, and the autonomy of the local congregation. Baptists recognize two ministerial offices, elders and deacons, Baptist churches are widely considered to be Protestant churches, though some Baptists disavow this identity. Historians trace the earliest church labeled Baptist back to 1609 in Amsterdam, in accordance with his reading of the New Testament, he rejected baptism of infants and instituted baptism only of believing adults. Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christs atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only to the elect. Thomas Helwys formulated a distinctively Baptist request that the church and the state be kept separate in matters of law, Helwys died in prison as a consequence of the religious persecution of English dissenters under King James I. In 1638, Roger Williams established the first Baptist congregation in the North American colonies, in the mid-18th century, the First Great Awakening contributed to Baptist growth in both New England and the South. Baptist missionaries have spread their church to every continent, the largest Baptist denomination is the Southern Baptist Convention, with the membership of associated churches totaling more than 15 million. Modern Baptist churches trace their history to the English Separatist movement in the century after the rise of the original Protestant denominations and this view of Baptist origins has the most historical support and is the most widely accepted. Adherents to this position consider the influence of Anabaptists upon early Baptists to be minimal and it was a time of considerable political and religious turmoil. Both individuals and churches were willing to give up their theological roots if they became convinced that a more biblical truth had been discovered, during the Protestant Reformation, the Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church. There were some Christians who were not content with the achievements of the mainstream Protestant Reformation, there also were Christians who were disappointed that the Church of England had not made corrections of what some considered to be errors and abuses. Of those most critical of the Churchs direction, some chose to stay and they became known as Puritans and are described by Gourley as cousins of the English Separatists. Others decided they must leave the Church because of their dissatisfaction, historians trace the earliest Baptist church back to 1609 in Amsterdam, with John Smyth as its pastor. Three years earlier, while a Fellow of Christs College, Cambridge, reared in the Church of England, he became Puritan, English Separatist, and then a Baptist Separatist, and ended his days working with the Mennonites. He began meeting in England with 60–70 English Separatists, in the face of great danger, Smyth and his lay supporter, Thomas Helwys, together with those they led, broke with the other English exiles because Smyth and Helwys were convinced they should be baptized as believers. In 1609 Smyth first baptized himself and then baptized the others, in 1609, while still there, Smyth wrote a tract titled The Character of the Beast, or The False Constitution of the Church. In it he expressed two propositions, first, infants are not to be baptized, and second, Antichristians converted are to be admitted into the true Church by baptism. Hence, his conviction was that a church should consist only of regenerate believers who have been baptized on a personal confession of faith

19.
Fulling
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Fulling, also known as tucking or walking, is a step in woollen clothmaking which involves the cleansing of cloth to eliminate oils, dirt, and other impurities, and making it thicker. The worker who does the job is a fuller, tucker, or walker, the Welsh word for a fulling mill is pandy, which appears in many place-names, for example Tonypandy. Fulling involves two processes, scouring and milling, originally, fulling was carried out by pounding the woollen cloth with the fullers feet, or hands, or a club. In Scottish Gaelic tradition, this process was accompanied by waulking songs, from the medieval period, however, fulling was often carried out in a water mill. These processes are followed by stretching the cloth on great frames known as tenters and it is from this process that the phrase being on tenterhooks is derived, as meaning to be held in suspense. The area where the tenters were erected was known as a tenterground, in Roman times, fulling was conducted by slaves working the cloth while ankle deep in tubs of human urine. Urine was so important to the business that it was taxed. Stale urine, known as wash, was a source of ammonium salts, by the medieval period, fullers earth had been introduced for use in the process. This is a soft clay-like material occurring naturally as an impure hydrous aluminium silicate and it was used in conjunction with wash. More recently, soap has been used, the second function of fulling was to thicken cloth by matting the fibres together to give it strength and increase waterproofing. This was vital in the case of woollens, made from carding wool, after this stage, water was used to rinse out the foul-smelling liquor used during cleansing. Felting of wool occurs upon hammering or other mechanical agitation because the barbs on the surface of wool fibres hook together. From the medieval period, the fulling of cloth often was undertaken in a mill, known as a fulling mill, a walk mill, or a tuck mill, and in Wales. In these, the cloth was beaten with wooden hammers, known as fulling stocks or fulling hammers, Fulling stocks were of two kinds, falling stocks that were used only for scouring, and driving or hanging stocks. In both cases the machinery was operated by cams on the shaft of a waterwheel or on a tappet wheel, driving stocks were pivoted so that the foot struck the cloth almost horizontally. The stock had a tub holding the liquor and cloth and this was somewhat rounded on the side away from the hammer, so that the cloth gradually turned, ensuring that all parts of it were milled evenly. However, the cloth was taken out every two hours to undo plaits and wrinkles. The foot was approximately triangular in shape, with notches to assist the turning of the cloth, there are several Biblical references to fulling

20.
Paper mill
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A paper mill is a factory devoted to making paper from vegetable fibres such as wood pulp, old rags and other ingredients. While the use of human and animal powered mills was known to Chinese and Muslim papermakers, the general absence of the use of water-power in Muslim papermaking is suggested by the habit of Muslim authors to call a production center not a mill, but a paper manufactory. Although scholars have identified paper mills in Abbasid-era Baghdad in 794–795, in the Moroccan city of Fez, Ibn Battuta speaks of 400 mill stones for paper. Since Ibn Battuta does not mention the use of water-power and such a number of water-mills would be grotesquely high, the passage is generally taken to refer to human or animal force. An exhaustive survey of milling in Al-Andalus did not uncover a single water-powered paper mill, Burns remains altogether sceptical given the isolated occurrence of the reference and the prevalence of manual labour in Islamic papermaking elsewhere. Likewise, the identification of early hydraulic stamping mills in medieval documents from Fabriano, the earliest certain evidence to a water-powered paper mill dates to 1282 in the Spanish Kingdom of Aragon. A decree by the Christian king Peter III addresses the establishment of a royal molendinum, the first permanent paper mill north of the Alps was established in Nuremberg by Ulman Stromer in 1390, it is later depicted in the lavishly illustrated Nuremberg Chronicle. From the mid-14th century onwards, European paper milling underwent an improvement of many work processes. The size of a paper mill prior to the use of machines was described by counting the number of vats it had. Thus, a one vat paper mill had only one vatman, one coucher, by the early 20th century, paper mills sprang up around New England and the rest of the world, due to the high demand for paper. At this time, there were many leaders of the production of paper, one of such was the Brown Company in Berlin. During the year 1907, the Brown Company cut between 30 and 40 million acres of woodlands on their property, which extended from La Tuque, Quebec, Canada to West Palm, “Log drives” were conducted on local rivers to send the logs to the mills. By the late 20th and early 21st-century, paper began to close. Due to the addition of new machinery, many millworkers were laid off, Paper mills can be fully integrated mills or nonintegrated mills. Integrated mills consist of a mill and a paper mill on the same site. Such mills receive logs or wood chips and produce paper, modern paper machines can be 500 feet in length, produce a sheet 400 inches wide, and operate at speeds of more than 60 miles per hour. The two main suppliers of paper machines are Metso and Voith, Paper pollution Cutting stock problem List of paper mills Burns, Robert I. Paper comes to the West, 800−1400, in Lindgren, Uta, mann Verlag, pp. biz - Paper world directory and search engine for the pulp and paper world List of paper mills on paper and print monthly

21.
Ropewalk
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A ropewalk is a long straight narrow lane, or a covered pathway, where long strands of material are laid before being twisted into rope. Due to the length of some ropewalks, workers may use bicycles to get one end to the other. Ropewalks historically were harsh sweatshops, and frequently caught fire, as hemp dust ignites easily, Rope was essential in sailing ships and the standard length for a British Naval Rope was 1000 ft. A sailing ship such as HMS Victory required over 20 miles of rope, downtown Liverpools bohemian RopeWalks district takes its name from this practice and consists of the lanes where this work once took place. The ropewalk at Chatham Dockyard is still producing rope commercially and has a length of 1,135 ft. When it was constructed in 1790, it was the longest brick building in Europe, before steam power was introduced in 1836, it took over 200 men to form and close a 20-inch cable laid rope. The rope walk is used to form and close the rope, before this the raw hemp, manila hemp or sisal has to be hatchelled, spun into yarn, and tarred. In the early 17th century, Peter Appleby constructed a 300-metre long ropewalk in the Christianshavn neighbourhood of Copenhagen, Denmark. From the late 17th century, the ropewalk on the Swedish island of Lindholmen was a key component of the Karlskrona naval base producing rope up to 300 metres in length for the cordage of warships. Although production ceased in 1960, the elaborately designed facility is now open to the public exhibitions and demonstrations of ropemaking. In the 18th Century, Malta and Port Mahon, on the island of Menorca, in Boston in the United States, some early rope making businesses are called Ropewalks. Jalan Pintal Tali which is in one of the older, central parts of George Town, Penang, Malaysia, in Toronto, a ropewalk appears on municipal maps from as early as the 1860s and operated for at least 40 years. The ropewalk ran to the east of Lansdowne Avenue,1884 Insurance Plan shows the factory going from lot 42 at the south end to lot 35 at the north. 1890 Assessment rolls show the owner to be an Alice McGregor and Archibald McGregor as a tenant rope maker aged 66, the municipal assessment rolls show many residents in the neighbourhood employed by the ropewalk factory. Boston Harbor Map 8 Ropewalk, A Cordage Engineers Journey Through History Ropewalks Liverpool La Corderie Royale in Rochefort, France

22.
Louisville, Kentucky
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Louisville is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Kentucky and the 30th-most populous city in the United States. It is one of two cities in Kentucky designated as first-class, the other being the states second-largest city of Lexington, Louisville is the historical seat and, since 2003, the nominal seat of Jefferson County. Louisville was founded in 1778 by George Rogers Clark and is named after King Louis XVI of France, making Louisville one of the oldest cities west of the Appalachian Mountains. Sited beside the Falls of the Ohio, the major obstruction to river traffic between the upper Ohio River and the Gulf of Mexico, the settlement first grew as a portage site. It was the city of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad. Its main airport is also the site of United Parcel Services worldwide air hub, since 2003, Louisvilles borders have been the same as those of Jefferson County because of a city-county merger. The official name of this consolidated city-county government is the Louisville/Jefferson County Metro Government, the citys total consolidated population as of the 2014 census estimate was 760,026. However, the total of 612,780 excludes other incorporated places and semiautonomous towns within the county and is the population listed in most sources. As of 2014, the MSA had a population of 1,269,702, the history of Louisville spans hundreds of years, and has been influenced by the areas geography and location. The rapids at the Falls of the Ohio created a barrier to river travel, the first European settlement in the vicinity of modern-day Louisville was on Corn Island in 1778 by Col. George Rogers Clark, credited as the founder of Louisville. Several landmarks in the community are named after him, two years later, in 1780, the Virginia General Assembly approved the town charter of Louisville. The city was named in honor of King Louis XVI of France, early residents lived in forts to protect themselves from Indian raids, but moved out by the late 1780s. In 1803, explorers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark organized their expedition across America in the town of Clarksville, Indiana at the present-day Falls of the Ohio opposite Louisville, Kentucky. The citys early growth was influenced by the fact river boats had to be unloaded and moved downriver before reaching the falls. By 1828, the population had swelled to 7,000, the city grew rapidly in its formative years. Louisville was a shipping port and slaves worked in a variety of associated trades. The city was often a point of escape for slaves to the north, during the Civil War, Louisville was a major stronghold of Union forces, which kept Kentucky firmly in the Union. It was the center of planning, supplies, recruiting, and transportation for numerous campaigns, by the end of the war, Louisville had not been attacked, although skirmishes and battles, including the battles of Perryville and Corydon, took place nearby

23.
Cognac
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Cognac, named after the town of Cognac, France, is a variety of brandy. It is produced in the region surrounding the town from which it takes its name, in the French Departements of Charente. For a brandy to bear the name Cognac, an Appellation dorigine contrôlée, in particular, it must be made from specified grapes, of which Ugni blanc, known locally as Saint-Emilion, is the one most widely used. The brandy must be distilled in copper pot stills and aged at least two years in French oak barrels from Limousin or Tronçais. Cognac matures in the way as whiskies and wine when aged in barrels. The six zones are, Grande Champagne, Petite Champagne, Borderies, Fins Bois, Bon Bois, a blend of Grande and Petite Champagne Cognacs, with at least half coming from Grande Champagne, is known as Fine Champagne. Cognac is a type of brandy and, after the distillation and it is produced by doubly distilling white wines produced in any of the designated growing regions. The white wine used in making cognac is very dry, acidic, though it has been characterized as virtually undrinkable, it is excellent for distillation and aging. It may be only from a strict list of grape varieties. After the grapes are pressed, the juice is left to ferment for two or three weeks, with the native, wild yeasts converting the sugar into alcohol, neither sugar nor sulfur may be added. At this point, the wine is about 7% to 8% alcohol. Distillation takes place in traditionally shaped Charentais copper stills, also known as an alembic, two distillations must be carried out, the resulting eau-de-vie is a colourless spirit of about 70% alcohol. Once distillation is complete, it must be aged in Limousin oak casks for at least two years before it can be sold to the public and it is typically put into casks at an alcohol by volume strength of about 70%. As the cognac interacts with the oak barrel and the air, because the alcohol dissipates faster than the water, the alcohol concentration drops to about 40% over time. The cognac is then transferred to large glass carboys called bonbonnes, since oak barrels stop contributing to flavor after four or five decades, longer aging periods may not be beneficial. The age of the cognac is calculated as that of the youngest component used in the blend, the blend is usually of different ages and from different local areas. This blending, or marriage, of different eaux-de-vie is important to obtain a complexity of flavours absent from an eau-de-vie from a distillery or vineyard. Each cognac house has a master taster, who is responsible for blending the spirits, so that cognac produced by a company will have a consistent house style, in this respect it is similar to the process of blending whisky or non-vintage Champagne to achieve a consistent brand flavor

24.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin

25.
Allegheny Mountains
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The Alleghenies comprise the rugged western-central portion of the Appalachians. They rise to approximately 4,862 feet in northeastern West Virginia, in the east, they are dominated by a high, steep escarpment known as the Allegheny Front. In the west, they slope down into the closely associated Allegheny Plateau which extends into Ohio, the principal settlements of the Alleghenies are Altoona, State College, and Johnstown, Pennsylvania, and Cumberland, Maryland. The name is derived from the Allegheny River, which only a small portion of the Alleghenies in west-central Pennsylvania. The meaning of the word, which comes from the Lenape Indians, is not definitively known but is translated as fine river. A Lenape legend tells of an ancient tribe called the Allegewi who lived on the river and were defeated by the Lenape, Allegheny is the early French spelling, and Allegany is closer to the early English spelling. The word Allegheny was once used to refer to the whole of what are now called the Appalachian Mountains. John Norton used it around 1810 to refer to the mountains in Tennessee, around the same time, Washington Irving proposed renaming the United States either Appalachia or Alleghania. In 1861, Arnold Henry Guyot published the first systematic study of the whole mountain range. His map labeled the range as the Alleghanies, but his book was titled On the Appalachian Mountain System, as late as 1867, John Muir—in his book A Thousand Mile Walk to the Gulf—used the word Alleghanies in referring to the southern Appalachians. There was no agreement about the Appalachians versus the Alleghanies until the late 19th century. From northeast to southwest, the Allegheny Mountains run about 400 miles, from west to east, at their widest, they are about 100 miles. To the west, the Alleghenies grade down into the dissected Allegheny Plateau, the westernmost ridges are considered to be the Laurel and Chestnut Ridges in Pennsylvania and Laurel and Rich Mountains in West Virginia. The mountains to the south of the Alleghenies—the Appalachians in westernmost Virginia, eastern Kentucky, the Alleghenies and the Cumberlands both constitute part of the Ridge and Valley Province of the Appalachians. The eastern edge of the Alleghenies is marked by the Allegheny Front and this great escarpment roughly follows a portion of the Eastern Continental Divide in this area. A number of gorges and valleys drain the Alleghenies, to the east, Smoke Hole Canyon, and to the west the New River Gorge. Thus, about half the precipitation falling on the Alleghenies makes its way west to the Mississippi and half goes east to Chesapeake Bay, the highest ridges of the Alleghenies are just west of the Front, which has an east/west elevational change of up to 3,000 feet. Absolute elevations of the Allegheny Highlands reach nearly 5,000 feet, the highest point in the Allegheny Mountains is Spruce Knob, on Spruce Mountain in West Virginia

26.
American Revolution
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The British responded by imposing punitive laws on Massachusetts in 1774 known as the Coercive Acts, following which Patriots in the other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts. Tensions escalated to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress determined King George IIIs rule to be tyrannical and infringing the rights as Englishmen. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, Congress rejected British proposals requiring allegiance to the monarchy and abandonment of independence. The British were forced out of Boston in 1776, but then captured and they blockaded the ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but failed to defeat Washingtons forces. After a failed Patriot invasion of Canada, a British army was captured at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, a combined American–French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nations complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British victory in the French and Indian War in 1763, the lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement. For the prior history, see Thirteen Colonies, in 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money which British merchants saw as a means to evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles, none did and Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps, the colonists did not object that the taxes were high, but because they had no representation in the Parliament. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire, stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well-connected British officers who became redundant, in 1765, the Sons of Liberty formed. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable, in Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765, moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise, the Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval

27.
House of Bourbon
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The House of Bourbon is a European royal house of French origin, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. Bourbon kings first ruled France and Navarre in the 16th century, by the 18th century, members of the Bourbon dynasty also held thrones in Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Parma. Spain and Luxembourg currently have Bourbon monarchs, the royal Bourbons originated in 1268, when the heiress of the lordship of Bourbon married a younger son of King Louis IX. The house continued for three centuries as a branch, while more senior Capetians ruled France, until Henry IV became the first Bourbon king of France in 1589. Restored briefly in 1814 and definitively in 1815 after the fall of the First French Empire, a cadet Bourbon branch, the House of Orléans, then ruled for 18 years, until it too was overthrown. The Princes de Condé were a branch of the Bourbons descended from an uncle of Henry IV. Both houses were prominent in French affairs, even during exile in the French Revolution, until their respective extinctions in 1830 and 1814. When the Bourbons inherited the strongest claim to the Spanish throne, the claim was passed to a cadet Bourbon prince, a grandson of Louis XIV of France, who became Philip V of Spain. The Spanish House of Bourbon has been overthrown and restored several times, reigning 1700–1808, 1813–1868, 1875–1931, Bourbons ruled in Naples from 1734–1806 and in Sicily from 1734–1816, and in a unified Kingdom of the Two Sicilies from 1816–1860. They also ruled in Parma from 1731–1735, 1748–1802 and 1847–1859, all legitimate, living members of the House of Bourbon, including its cadet branches, are direct agnatic descendants of Henry IV. The term House of Bourbon is sometimes used to refer to this first house and the House of Bourbon-Dampierre, the second family to rule the seigneury. In 1268, Robert, Count of Clermont, sixth son of King Louis IX of France, married Beatrix of Bourbon, heiress to the lordship of Bourbon and their son Louis was made Duke of Bourbon in 1327. His descendant, the Constable of France Charles de Bourbon, was the last of the senior Bourbon line when he died in 1527. Because he chose to fight under the banner of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and lived in exile from France, the remaining line of Bourbons henceforth descended from James I, Count of La Marche, the younger son of Louis I, Duke of Bourbon. With the death of his grandson James II, Count of La Marche in 1438, all future Bourbons would descend from James IIs younger brother, Louis, who became the Count of Vendôme through his mothers inheritance. In 1514, Charles, Count of Vendôme had his title raised to Duke of Vendôme and his son Antoine became King of Navarre, on the northern side of the Pyrenees, by marriage in 1555. Two of Antoines younger brothers were Cardinal Archbishop Charles de Bourbon, Louis male-line, the Princes de Condé, survived until 1830. Finally, in 1589, the House of Valois died out and he was born on 13 December 1553 in the Kingdom of Navarre

28.
Ohio River
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The Ohio River, which streams westward from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Cairo, Illinois, is the largest tributary, by volume, of the Mississippi River in the United States. The 981-mile river flows through or along the border of six states, through its largest tributary, the Tennessee River, the basin includes many of the states of the southeastern U. S. It is the source of drinking water for three million people and it is named in Iroquoian or Seneca, Ohi, yó, lit. Good River or Shawnee, Pelewathiipi and Spelewathiipi, the river had great significance in the history of the Native Americans, as numerous civilizations formed along its valley. For thousands of years, Native Americans used the river as a major transportation, in 1669, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle led a French expedition to the Ohio River, becoming the first Europeans to see it. After European-American settlement, the served as a border between present-day Kentucky and Indian Territories. It was a transportation route for pioneers during the westward expansion of the early U. S. In his Notes on the State of Virginia published in 1781–82, Thomas Jefferson stated and its current gentle, waters clear, and bosom smooth and unbroken by rocks and rapids, a single instance only excepted. During the 19th century, the river was the boundary of the Northwest Territory. Where the river was narrow, it was the way to freedom for thousands of slaves escaping to the North, many helped by free blacks and whites of the Underground Railroad resistance movement. The Ohio River is a transition area, as its water runs along the periphery of the humid subtropical. It is inhabited by fauna and flora of both climates, in winter, it regularly freezes over at Pittsburgh but rarely further south toward Cincinnati and Louisville. At Paducah, Kentucky, in the south, near the Ohios confluence with the Mississippi, Paducah was founded there because it is the northernmost ice-free reach of the Ohio. The Ohio River is formed by the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers at Point State Park in Pittsburgh, from there, it flows northwest through Allegheny and Beaver counties, before making an abrupt turn to the south-southwest at the West Virginia–Ohio–Pennsylvania triple-state line. From there, it forms the border between West Virginia and Ohio, upstream of Wheeling, West Virginia, the river then follows a roughly southwest and then west-northwest course until Cincinnati, before bending to a west-southwest course for most of its length. The course forms the borders of West Virginia and Kentucky. The Ohio drains parts of 15 states in four regions, northeast New York, a small area of the southern border along the headwaters of the Allegheny. Pennsylvania, a corridor from the corner to north central border

29.
Maysville, Kentucky
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Maysville is a home rule-class city in Mason County, Kentucky, United States and is the seat of Mason County. The population was 9,011 at the 2010 census, making it the 40th-largest city in Kentucky by population, Maysville is on the Ohio River,66 miles northeast of Lexington. It is the city of the Maysville Micropolitan Statistical Area. Two bridges cross the Ohio from Maysville to Aberdeen, Ohio, the Simon Kenton Memorial Bridge built in 1931, on the edge of the outer Bluegrass Region, Maysville is historically important in Kentuckys settlement. Frontiersmen Simon Kenton and Daniel Boone are among the citys founders, later, Maysville became an important port on the Ohio River for the northeastern part of the state. It exported bourbon whiskey, hemp and tobacco, the two produced mainly by African American slaves before the Civil War. It was once a center of iron manufacture, sending ironwork downriver to decorate the buildings of Cincinnati, Ohio. Other small manufacturers also located early in Maysville and manufacturing remains an important part of the modern economy, under the leadership of Henry Means Walker, Maysville was home to one of the largest tobacco auction warehouses in the world for most of the 20th century. Maysville was an important stop on the Underground Railroad, as the state of Ohio was just across the river. She included the scene in her influential novel Uncle Toms Cabin, the annual Rosemary Clooney Music Festival was founded by the singer in 1999 to benefit the restoration of the Russell Theatre. Past performers at the festival include Debby Boone, Rita Coolidge, Michael Feinstein, Roberta Flack, Alison Krauss, The Pointer Sisters, Michael Bolton, the Ledger Independent is the local newspaper and is published five days a week. WFTM-AM and WFTM-FM are the local radio stations in Maysville. The AM station is a CBS Sports Radio affiliate, and the FM plays adult contemporary music, buffalo once forded the Ohio here, beating a broad path into the interior of Kentucky in search of salt licks. For thousands of years, various cultures of indigenous peoples inhabited the area, hunting the buffalo, in the 17th century, the powerful Iroquois Confederacy, based in present-day New York state, drove out other tribes to hold the Ohio Valley as a hunting ground. European-American settlers traveling down the Ohio in the 18th century and early 19th century found a natural harbor at Limestone Creek. The buffalo trace, also a well-used trail traveled for centuries by Native Americans, was a path into the bluegrass region, extending all the way to Lexington. Frontiersman Simon Kenton made the first settlement in the area in 1775, returning in 1784, Kenton built a blockhouse at the site of Maysville and founded Kentons Station at a site three miles inland. Kenton met new settlers at Limestone, as the place was called

30.
Prohibition in the United States
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Prohibition in the United States was a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation and sale of alcoholic beverages that remained in place from 1920 to 1933. One result was that many communities in the late 19th and early 20th centuries introduced alcohol prohibition, Prohibition supporters, called drys, presented it as a victory for public morals and health. Promoted by the dry crusaders, a movement was led by rural Protestants and social Progressives in the Prohibition, Democratic and it gained a national grass roots base through the Womans Christian Temperance Union. After 1900 it was coordinated by the Anti-Saloon League, Prohibition was mandated in state after state, then finally nationwide under the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1920. Enabling legislation, known as the Volstead Act, set down the rules for enforcing the ban, for example, religious uses of wine were allowed. Private ownership and consumption of alcohol were not made illegal under federal law, in the 1920s the laws were widely disregarded, and tax revenues were lost. Opposition mobilized nationwide, and Prohibition ended with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment, some states continued statewide prohibition, marking one of the last stages of the Progressive Era. Anti-prohibitionists, known as wets, criticized the ban as an intrusion of mainly rural Protestant ideals on a central aspect of urban, immigrant. Some researchers contend that its failure is attributable more to a changing historical context than to characteristics of the law itself. Criticism remains that Prohibition led to unintended consequences such as the growth of urban crime organizations, as an experiment it lost supporters every year, and lost tax revenue that governments needed when the Great Depression began in 1929. The U. S. Senate proposed the Eighteenth Amendment on December 18,1917, upon being approved by a 36th state on January 16,1919, the amendment was ratified as a part of the Constitution. The Wartime Prohibition Act took effect June 30,1919, with July 1,1919, on October 28,1919, Congress passed the Volstead Act, the popular name for the National Prohibition Act, over President Woodrow Wilsons veto. The act established the definition of intoxicating liquors as well as penalties for producing them. Although the Volstead Act prohibited the sale of alcohol, the government lacked resources to enforce it. By the terms of the amendment, the country went dry one year later, by 1925, in New York City alone, there were anywhere from 30,000 to 100,000 speakeasy clubs. While Prohibition was successful in reducing the amount of liquor consumed, it stimulated the proliferation of rampant underground, organized, many were astonished and disenchanted with the rise of spectacular gangland crimes, when prohibition was supposed to reduce crime. Prohibition lost its advocates one by one, while the wet opposition talked of personal liberty, new tax revenues from legal beer and liquor, and the scourge of organized crime. On March 22,1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed into law the Cullen–Harrison Act, legalizing beer with a content of 3. 2%

31.
Sour mash
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Sour mash is a process used in the distilling industry that uses material from an older batch of mash to start the fermentation of a new batch, analogous to the making sourdough bread with a starter. The term sour mash can also be used as the name of the type of mash used in process. Sour mash does not refer to the flavor of the whiskey, in the sour mash process, the mash – a mixture of grain, malt and water – is conditioned with some amount of spent mash. Spent mash is also known as spent beer, distillers spent grain, stillage, the acid introduced by using the sour mash controls the growth of bacteria that could taint the whiskey and creates a proper pH balance for the yeast to work. An established and active strain of live yeast is introduced into the mash that is to be fermented, the sour mash process is used for the production of nearly all bourbon whiskey. Sour mashing is also a sometimes used in brewing to make sour beers without the typical year or more timeframe. During this time, the lactic acid bacteria naturally present on the grain will ferment some of the sugars in the wort into lactic acid and this lactic acid will add sourness to the beer. In order to promote fast bacterial fermentation, the mash is kept between 100–120 °F, the brewer will extract the wort by sparging when they believe enough acid has been produced. Some beers employing sour mashing will be fermented with the addition of brewing yeast, other brewers prefer to boil their sour mashed beer and then ferment it with brewing yeast. The resulting beers can range from tart to noticeably sour. Barm, a pre-fermented residue used in the making of liquors and breads Dunder, yeast-rich foam leftovers commonly used in production of Jamaican rums

32.
Fermentation in food processing
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Fermentation in food processing is the process of converting carbohydrates to alcohol or organic acids using microorganisms—yeasts or bacteria—under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation usually implies that the action of microorganisms is desired, the science of fermentation is known as zymology or zymurgy. The term fermentation sometimes refers specifically to the conversion of sugars into ethanol, producing alcoholic drinks such as wine, beer. However, similar processes take place in the leavening of bread, other widely consumed fermented foods include vinegar, olives, and cheese. More localised foods prepared by fermentation may also be based on beans, grain, vegetables, fruit, honey, dairy products, fish, meat, since ancient times, humans have exploited the fermentation process. Seven-thousand-year-old jars containing the remains of wine, now on display at the University of Pennsylvania, were excavated in the Zagros Mountains in Iran. There is strong evidence that people were fermenting alcoholic drinks in Babylon c.3000 BC, ancient Egypt c.3150 BC, pre-Hispanic Mexico c.2000 BC, the French chemist Louis Pasteur founded zymology, when in 1856 he connected yeast to fermentation. When studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Pasteur concluded that the fermentation was catalyzed by a force, called ferments. The ferments were thought to only within living organisms. Alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells, nevertheless, it was known that yeast extracts can ferment sugar even in the absence of living yeast cells. In 1907 he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his research, one year earlier, in 1906, ethanol fermentation studies led to the early discovery of NAD+. Food fermentation is the conversion of sugars and other carbohydrates into alcohol or preservative organic acids, all three products have found human uses. The production of carbon dioxide is used to leaven bread, the production of organic acids is exploited to preserve and flavor vegetables and dairy products. It has more cases of botulism than any state in the United States of America. The World Health Organization has classified pickled foods as possibly carcinogenic, other research found that fermented food contains a carcinogenic by-product, ethyl carbamate. A2009 review of the studies conducted across Asia concluded that regularly eating pickled vegetables roughly doubles a persons risk for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Science aid, Fermentation - Process and uses of fermentation Fermented cereals, a global perspective - FAO1999

33.
Acid
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An acid is a molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron, or, alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair. The first category of acids is the donors or Brønsted acids. In the special case of solutions, proton donors form the hydronium ion H3O+ and are known as Arrhenius acids. Brønsted and Lowry generalized the Arrhenius theory to include non-aqueous solvents, acids form aqueous solutions with a sour taste, can turn blue litmus red, and react with bases and certain metals to form salts. The word acid is derived from the Latin acidus/acēre meaning sour, an aqueous solution of an acid has a pH less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as acid, while the strict definition refers only to the solute. A lower pH means a higher acidity, and thus a higher concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic, common aqueous acids include hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, sulfuric acid, and citric acid. As these examples show, acids can be solutions or pure substances, strong acids and some concentrated weak acids are corrosive, but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid. The second category of acids are Lewis acids, which form a covalent bond with an electron pair, however, hydrogen chloride, acetic acid, and most other Brønsted-Lowry acids cannot form a covalent bond with an electron pair and are therefore not Lewis acids. Conversely, many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted-Lowry acids, in modern terminology, an acid is implicitly a Brønsted acid and not a Lewis acid, since chemists almost always refer to a Lewis acid explicitly as a Lewis acid. Modern definitions are concerned with the chemical reactions common to all acids. Most acids encountered in life are aqueous solutions, or can be dissolved in water, so the Arrhenius. The Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition, unless otherwise specified, hydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions. Interestingly, although alcohols and amines can be Brønsted-Lowry acids, they can function as Lewis bases due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms. The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius attributed the properties of acidity to hydrogen ions or protons in 1884, an Arrhenius acid is a substance that, when added to water, increases the concentration of H+ ions in the water. Thus, an Arrhenius acid can also be described as a substance that increases the concentration of ions when added to water. Examples include molecular substances such as HCl and acetic acid, an Arrhenius base, on the other hand, is a substance which increases the concentration of hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. Thus, an Arrhenius acid could also be said to be one that decreases hydroxide concentration, in an acidic solution, the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 10−7 moles per liter

34.
Bacterium
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Bacteria constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods, Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only half of the bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory. The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology, There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water. There are approximately 5×1030 bacteria on Earth, forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants, Bacteria are vital in many stages of the nutrient cycle by recycling nutrients such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere. The nutrient cycle includes the decomposition of bodies and bacteria are responsible for the putrefaction stage in this process. In March 2013, data reported by researchers in October 2012, was published and it was suggested that bacteria thrive in the Mariana Trench, which with a depth of up to 11 kilometres is the deepest known part of the oceans. Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 metres below the sea floor under 2.6 kilometres of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States. According to one of the researchers, You can find microbes everywhere—theyre extremely adaptable to conditions, the vast majority of the bacteria in the body are rendered harmless by the protective effects of the immune system, though many are beneficial particularly in the gut flora. However several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause diseases, including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy. The most common fatal diseases are respiratory infections, with tuberculosis alone killing about 2 million people per year. In developed countries, antibiotics are used to treat infections and are also used in farming, making antibiotic resistance a growing problem. Once regarded as constituting the class Schizomycetes, bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and these evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea. The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth, for about 3 billion years, most organisms were microscopic, and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life. In 2008, fossils of macroorganisms were discovered and named as the Francevillian biota, however, gene sequences can be used to reconstruct the bacterial phylogeny, and these studies indicate that bacteria diverged first from the archaeal/eukaryotic lineage. Bacteria were also involved in the second great evolutionary divergence, that of the archaea, here, eukaryotes resulted from the entering of ancient bacteria into endosymbiotic associations with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells, which were themselves possibly related to the Archaea

35.
PH
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In chemistry, pH is a numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. It is approximately the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the concentration, measured in units of moles per liter. More precisely it is the negative of the logarithm to base 10 of the activity of the hydrogen ion, solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. Pure water is neutral, at pH7, being neither an acid nor a base, contrary to popular belief, the pH value can be less than 0 or greater than 14 for very strong acids and bases respectively. The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement, the pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH meter, or an indicator. In the first papers, the notation had the H as a subscript to the p, as so. The exact meaning of the p in pH is disputed, but according to the Carlsberg Foundation and it has also been suggested that the p stands for the German Potenz, others refer to French puissance. Another suggestion is that the p stands for the Latin terms pondus hydrogenii, potentia hydrogenii and it is also suggested that Sørensen used the letters p and q simply to label the test solution and the reference solution. Currently in chemistry, the p stands for decimal cologarithm of, PH is defined as the decimal logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion activity, aH+, in a solution. P H = − log 10 ⁡ = log 10 ⁡ For example and this definition was adopted because ion-selective electrodes, which are used to measure pH, respond to activity. For H+ number of electrons transferred is one and it follows that electrode potential is proportional to pH when pH is defined in terms of activity. The reference electrode may be a silver chloride electrode or a calomel electrode, the hydrogen-ion selective electrode is a standard hydrogen electrode. Reference electrode | concentrated solution of KCl || test solution | H2 | Pt Firstly, the cell is filled with a solution of hydrogen ion activity. Then the emf, EX, of the cell containing the solution of unknown pH is measured. PH = pH + E S − E X z The difference between the two measured emf values is proportional to pH and this method of calibration avoids the need to know the standard electrode potential. The proportionality constant, 1/z is ideally equal to 12.303 R T / F the Nernstian slope, to apply this process in practice, a glass electrode is used rather than the cumbersome hydrogen electrode. A combined glass electrode has a reference electrode. It is calibrated against buffer solutions of hydrogen ion activity

36.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent

37.
Code of Federal Regulations
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The CFR is divided into 50 titles that represent broad areas subject to federal regulation. The CFR annual edition is the codification of the general and permanent rules published by the Office of the Federal Register, in addition to this annual edition, the CFR is published in an unofficial format online on the Electronic CFR website, which is updated daily. Under the nondelegation doctrine, federal agencies are authorized by enabling legislation to promulgate regulations, the rules and regulations are first promulgated or published in the Federal Register. The CFR is structured into 50 subject matter titles, agencies are assigned chapters within these titles. The titles are broken down into chapters, parts, sections, for example,42 CFR260.11 would be read as title 42, part 260, section 11, paragraph. The Parallel Table of Authorities and Rules lists rulemaking authority for regulations codified in the CFR, the first edition of the CFR was published in 1938. Beginning in 1963 for some titles and for all titles in 1967, the Office of the Federal Register began publishing yearly revisions, the House voted on July 14,2014 to pass the bill 386–0. A Research Guide to the Federal Register and the Code of Federal Regulations, law Librarians Society of Washington, D. C. Report to Congress on the Costs and Benefits of Federal Regulations, the Federal Register Tutorial / The Federal Register, What It Is and How to Use It

38.
Distilled Spirits Council of the United States
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The Distilled Spirits Council of the United States is a national trade association representing producers and marketers of distilled spirits sold in the United States. DISCUS was formed in 1973 by the merger of three organizations that had been in existence for decades, members of DISCUS represent approximately 70 percent of all distilled spirits brands sold in the United States. Members are, Bacardi USA, Beam Inc, in addition to full membership, DISCUS offers a Craft Distiller Affiliate Member program with 63 members as of March 2013. In May 2016 the council said it has dropped its DISCUS acronym and will use Distilled Spirits Council for the form of its name. The Council developed a set of guidelines that they suggest for the spirits industry. The code provides for a board that reviews complaints about advertising and marketing materials in the marketplace. In 2003, DISCUS began issuing semiannual public reports describing the review board complaints, DISCUS lobbies on behalf of the distilled spirits industry on policy and legislative issues. DISCUS also works to protect the distilled beverage industry from increased taxes and to reduce tariffs. The spirits industry has initiated and supported responsibility programs to promote responsible, DISCUS developed an educational tool kit and distributed it to more than 3,000 health professionals. Since 2000, DISCUS member companies and wholesalers have contributed over $2.1 million to rebuild the distillery, washingtons Mount Vernon distillery marks the beginning of the organizations American Whiskey Trail, a DISCUS program promoting the cultural heritage and history of spirits in America. Launched in 2004, the trail also features operating distilleries and historic sites in five states

39.
Excise tax in the United States
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Excise tax in the United States is an indirect tax on listed items. Excise taxes can be and are made by federal, state and this is thought to explain their appeal to many politicians. Federal excise taxes raised $98.3 billion in fiscal year 2015 or 3% of total tax revenue. Excise taxes on fuel raised $37.4 billion in fiscal year 2015 and these fuel taxes raised 90% of the Highway Trust Fund. Excise taxes dedicated to the Airport and Airway Trust Fund raised $14.3 billion in fiscal year 2015, 90% of the excise tax revenue comes from taxing passenger air fares and the remaining 10% comes from air cargo and aviation fuel taxes. Excise taxes for the Affordable Care Act raised $16.3 billion in fiscal year 2015, $11.3 billion was an excise tax placed directly on health insurers based on their market share. The ACA was going to impose a 40% Cadillac tax on expensive employer sponsored health insurance, annual excise taxes totaling $3 billion were levied on importers and manufacturers of prescription drugs. An excise tax of 2. 3% on medical devices and a 10% excise tax on indoor tanning services were applied as well, Excise taxes on tobacco raised $14.5 billion in fiscal year 2015. The tax equals about $1 per 20 pack of cigarettes, Excise taxes on Alcohol raised $9.6 billion in fiscal year 2015. The U. S. Constitution, ratified in 1789, gave the government authority to tax. Lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the defense and general welfare of the United States. Constitution and all domestically made products can be imported or shipped to another state tax free, in the U. S. constitutional law sense, an excise tax is usually an event tax. Federal excise taxes are required by the U. S. Constitution to be throughout the United States. all duties, imposts. Federal excise taxes have a background in the United States. Responding to an urgent need for following the American Revolutionary War. Tariffs and excise taxes were authorized by the United States Constitution and recommended by the first U. S. Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton, in 1789, to tax foreign imports. Hamilton thought it was important to start the U. S. federal government out on a financial basis with good credit

40.
Distillation
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Distillation is a process of separating the component or substances from a liquid mixture by selective evaporation and condensation. Distillation may result in complete separation, or it may be a partial separation that increases the concentration of selected components of the mixture. In either case the process exploits differences in the volatility of the mixtures components, in industrial chemistry, distillation is a unit operation of practically universal importance, but it is a physical separation process and not a chemical reaction. For example, In the fossil fuel industry distillation is a class of operation in obtaining materials from crude oil for fuels. Distillation permits separation of air into its components — notably oxygen, nitrogen, Distillation of fermented products produces distilled beverages with a high alcohol content, or separates out other fermentation products of commercial value. An installation for distillation, especially of alcohol, is a distillery, the distillation equipment is a still. Distillation is an old method of artificial desalination. Aristotle wrote about the process in his Meteorologica and even that ordinary wine possesses a kind of exhalation, later evidence of distillation comes from Greek alchemists working in Alexandria in the 1st century AD. Distilled water has been known since at least c,200, when Alexander of Aphrodisias described the process. Work on distilling other liquids continued in early Byzantine Egypt under the Greek-Egyptian Zosimus of Panopolis, Distillation in China could have begun during the Eastern Han Dynasty, but archaeological evidence indicates that actual distillation of beverages began in the Jin and Southern Song dynasties. A still was found in a site in Qinglong, Hebei province dating to the 12th century. Distilled beverages were more common during the Yuan dynasty, arabs learned the process from the Alexandrians and used it extensively in their chemical experiments. Clear evidence of the distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in the 12th century, fractional distillation was developed by Tadeo Alderotti in the 13th century. In 1500, German alchemist Hieronymus Braunschweig published Liber de arte destillandi the first book dedicated to the subject of distillation. In 1651, John French published The Art of Distillation the first major English compendium of practice and this includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial rather than bench scale of the operation. As alchemy evolved into the science of chemistry, vessels called retorts became used for distillations, riveted joints were often kept tight by using various mixtures, for instance a dough made of rye flour. These alembics often featured a system around the beak, using cold water for instance. Today, the retorts and pot stills have largely supplanted by more efficient distillation methods in most industrial processes

41.
Alcohol proof
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Alcohol proof is a measure of the content of ethanol in an alcoholic beverage. The term was used in the United Kingdom and was equal to about 1.75 times the alcohol by volume. The UK now uses the ABV standard instead of alcohol proof, in the United States, alcohol proof is defined as twice the percentage of ABV. The measurement of alcohol content and the statement of content on bottles of alcoholic beverages is regulated by law in many countries, the term proof dates back to 16th century England, when spirits were taxed at different rates depending on their alcohol content. Spirits were tested by soaking a pellet of gunpowder in them, if the gunpowder could still burn, the spirits were rated above proof and taxed at a higher rate. As gunpowder would not burn if soaked in rum that contained less than 57. 15% ABV, the gunpowder test was officially replaced by a specific-gravity test in 1816. From the 18th century until 1 January 1980, the UK measured alcohol content by proof spirit, defined as spirit with a gravity of 12⁄13 that of water, or 923 kg/m3, the value 57. 15% is very close to the fraction 4⁄7 =0.5714. Thus, the amounts to declaring that 100° proof spirit has an ABV of 4⁄7. From this, it follows that to convert the ABV to degrees proof, thus pure, 100% alcohol will have 100× = 175° proof, and a spirit containing 40% ABV will have 40× = 70° proof. The proof system in the United States was established around 1848 and was based on percent alcohol rather than specific gravity, 50% alcohol was defined as 100 proof. The use of proof as a measure of alcohol content is now mostly historical, today, liquor is sold in most locations with labels that state its alcohol content as its percentage of alcohol by volume. The European Union follows recommendations of the International Organization of Legal Metrology, oIMLs International Recommendation No.22 provides standards for measuring alcohol strength by volume and by mass. The document does not address alcohol proof or the labeling of bottles, since 1 January 1980, the United Kingdom has used the ABV standard to measure alcohol content, as prescribed by the European Union. The OIML system measures alcohol strength as a percentage of alcohol by volume at a temperature of 20 °C and it replaced the Sikes system of measuring the proof strength of spirits, which had been used in Britain for over 160 years. Britain, which used to use the Sikes scale to display proof and this scale, for all intents and purposes the same as the Gay-Lussac scale previously used by much of mainland Europe, was adopted by all the countries in the European Community in 1980. Using the OIML scale or the Gay-Lussac scale is essentially the same as measuring alcohol by volume except that the figures are expressed in degrees, in the United States, alcohol content is measured in terms of the percentage of alcohol by volume. The Code of Federal Regulations requires that liquor labels must state the percentage of ABV, the regulation permits, but does not require, a statement of the proof provided that it is printed close to the ABV number. For bottled spirits over 100 mL containing no solids, actual alcohol content is allowed to vary within 0. 15% of ABV stated on the label, alcohol proof in the United States is defined as twice the percentage of alcohol by volume

42.
Alcohol by volume
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Alcohol by volume is a standard measure of how much alcohol is contained in a given volume of an alcoholic beverage. It is defined as the number of millilitres of pure ethanol present in 100 millilitres of solution at 20 °C, the number of millilitres of pure ethanol is the mass of the ethanol divided by its density at 20 °C, which is 0.78924 g/ml. The ABV standard is used worldwide, the International Organization of Legal Metrology has tables of density of water–ethanol mixtures at different concentrations and temperatures. In some countries, such as the U. K and France, alcohol by volume is referred to as degrees Gay-Lussac and this results in the slight difference in marked % noted later in this article. Mixing two solutions of alcohol of different strengths usually causes a change in volume, mixing pure water with a solution less than 24% by mass causes a slight increase in total volume, whereas the mixing of two solutions above 24% causes a decrease in volume. The phenomenon of volume due to mixing dissimilar solutions is called partial molar volume. Details about typical amounts of alcohol contained in various beverages can be found in the articles about them. Another way of specifying the amount of alcohol is alcohol proof, for example, 40% abv is 80 proof in the US and 70 proof in the UK. However, since 1980, alcohol proof in the UK has been replaced by abv as a measure of alcohol content, in the United States, a few states regulate and tax alcoholic beverages according to alcohol by weight, expressed as a percentage of total mass. Some brewers print the ABW on beer containers, particularly on low-point versions of domestic beer brands. However, because of the miscibility of alcohol and water, the factor is not constant. 100% ABW, of course, is equivalent to 100% ABV, during the production of wine and beer, yeast is added to a sugary solution. During fermentation, the yeasts consume the sugars and produce alcohol, the density of sugar in water is greater than the density of alcohol in water. A hydrometer is used to measure the change in gravity of the solution before. The volume of alcohol in the solution can then be estimated, there are a number of empirical formulae which brewers and winemakers use to estimate the alcohol content of the liquor made. The simplest method for wine has been described by English author C. J. J, the number 0.7936 is the specific gravity of a 100% ethanol solution. The difference between the starting SG and the final SG measures the specific gravity lost to CO2 release

43.
Rectified spirit
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Ethanol, also called alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and drinking alcohol, is the principal type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor. Its chemical formula is C 2H 6O, which can be written also as CH 3-CH 2-OH or C 2H 5-OH, ethanol is mostly produced by the fermentation of sugars by yeasts, or by petrochemical processes. It is a psychoactive drug, causing a characteristic intoxication. It is widely used as a solvent, as fuel, and as a feedstock for synthesis of other chemicals, the eth- prefix and the qualifier ethyl in ethyl alcohol originally come from the name ethyl assigned in 1834 to the group C 2H 5- by Justus Liebig. He coined the word from the German name Aether of the compound C 2H 5-O-C 2H5, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, Ethyl is a contraction of the Ancient Greek αἰθήρ and the Greek word ύλη. The name ethanol was coined as a result of a resolution that was adopted at the International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature that was held in April 1892 in Geneva, Switzerland. The term alcohol now refers to a class of substances in chemistry nomenclature. The Oxford English Dictionary claims that it is a loan from Arabic al-kuḥl, a powdered ore of antimony used since aniquity as a cosmetic. The use of alcohol for ethanol is modern, first recorded 1753, the systematic use in chemistry dates to 1850. Ethanol is used in medical wipes and most common antibacterial hand sanitizer gels as an antiseptic, ethanol kills organisms by denaturing their proteins and dissolving their lipids and is effective against most bacteria and fungi, and many viruses. However, ethanol is ineffective against bacterial spores, ethanol may be administered as an antidote to methanol and ethylene glycol poisoning. Ethanol, often in high concentrations, is used to dissolve many water-insoluble medications, as a central nervous system depressant, ethanol is one of the most commonly consumed psychoactive drugs. The amount of ethanol in the body is typically quantified by blood alcohol content, small doses of ethanol, in general, produce euphoria and relaxation, people experiencing these symptoms tend to become talkative and less inhibited, and may exhibit poor judgment. Ethanol is commonly consumed as a drug, especially while socializing. The largest single use of ethanol is as a fuel and fuel additive. Brazil in particular relies heavily upon the use of ethanol as an engine fuel, gasoline sold in Brazil contains at least 25% anhydrous ethanol. Hydrous ethanol can be used as fuel in more than 90% of new gasoline fueled cars sold in the country, Brazilian ethanol is produced from sugar cane and noted for high carbon sequestration

Prohibition in the United States was a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation, …

Detroit police inspecting equipment found in a clandestine brewery during the Prohibition era

The Drunkard's Progress: A lithograph by Nathaniel Currier supporting the temperance movement, January 1846

"Who does not love wine, wife and song, will be a fool for his lifelong!" Intended as an assertion of the cultural values of German-Americans in 1873

This 1902 illustration from the Hawaiian Gazette newspaper humorously illustrates the Anti-Saloon League and the Women's Christian Temperance Union's campaign against the producers and sellers of beers in Hawaii.

Acetic acid, a weak acid, donates a proton (hydrogen ion, highlighted in green) to water in an equilibrium reaction to give the acetate ion and the hydronium ion. Red: oxygen, black: carbon, white: hydrogen.