Carbon black

The outstanding black pigment is the versatile product known as carbon black. Carbon black is one of the most important industrial chemical products. Carbon black is considered a petrochemical because it is made from natural gas or petroleum residues. There are several processes involving either incomplete combustion (burning off the hydrogen of a hydrocarbon, such as methane, and leaving the carbon) or by externally applied heat in a furnace, splitting the hydrocarbon into hydrogen and carbon.

The most important of all the uses of carbon black is in compounding rubber to be used in tires. An average tire of a passenger automobile contains about four pounds of carbon black. Carbon black is not only used as a pigment but also is employed in printingink, an ink being little different from an applied coating. Carbon black creates the principal difficulty in recycling newsprint because no practical way has been found to destroy the black ink. A specialized use of carbon black is as an additive to phonograph records. A special form of carbon black, derived from acetylene, has its principal use in electrochemical dry cells.

Alcohols and their derivatives

Methanol

The important product methanol (Figure 1) is obtained from synthesis gas in the form of carbon monoxide and hydrogen (sometimes carbon dioxide and hydrogen). The terms methyl alcohol and methanol are synonymous, the former being used more in Great Britain and the latter expression universal in United States industry. The term wood alcohol, sometimes employed, refers to the fact that this alcohol was formerly obtained by the distillation of wood.

Methanol is a large-volume chemical; about half of the production goes to making formaldehyde (CH2O), a very reactive chemical with a large number of uses. A small amount of formaldehyde comes from non-methanol sources, via the direct oxidation of hydrocarbons. Methanol also enters into the production of various plastics; leads to such useful derivatives as methyl chloride, a solvent for inks and dyes; and is used in the purification of steroidal and hormonal medicines.

Formaldehyde

The greatest uses of formaldehyde are in the formation of important groups of plastics, the urea-formaldehyde resins and the phenol-formaldehyde resins. In addition, it is used as a fungicide and as a preservative, in paper and textile treatments, and in the synthesis of further products.

Ethanol and its products

Methanol (CH3OH) is the simplest of the alcohols. The next number of the series, called either ethanol or ethyl alcohol (CH3CH2OH), has two carbon atoms. It is most familiar as the active constituent of fermented beverages, but it is also widely used in industry. When intended for human consumption ethyl alcohol is always produced by fermentation of some suitable material to form beer, wine, or distilled spirits of various kinds. For industrial use it is sometimes produced by fermentation from some cheap material, such as molasses, but more often it is made from ethylene by causing it to combine with water under the influence of a catalyst, which may be sulfuric acid or phosphoric acid.

A major industrial use of ethanol is to convert it by oxidation into acetaldehyde (CH3CHO). Ethanol could have been shown in Figure 3 between ethylene and the block containing acetaldehyde and several related chemicals. Ethanol is also used in the preparation of various derivatives, such as ethyl chloride (used in the production of tetraethyllead), in the course of making various plastics, and in the usual further syntheses.

Acetaldehyde made from ethanol is generally used in the next step by the same company, most often in the same plant, so that the ethanol is really an intermediate that is used at once. For other uses ethanol is often shipped from one plant to another. Alcohol intended for human consumption, however, is in all countries subject to a tax, which would make the cost of ethanol prohibitive for any industrial use. Industrial alcohol, therefore, is denatured by the addition of small amounts of substances that are carefully chosen to be highly unpleasant in taste and hard to remove but that do not interfere with the intended industrial use.

In the alcohols with three carbon atoms, there are two possible structures, or isomers. One is called n-propyl alcohol (or 1-propanol), the other isopropyl alcohol (or 2-propanol).

The alcohol 1-propanol, not manufactured in very large quantities, finds major use in printing inks. The alcohol 2-propanol, on the other hand, is manufactured on the million-ton scale. It is made from propylene by a process similar to that used to convert ethylene to ethanol, and manufacture of 2-propanol by this process initiated the petrochemical industry in the 1920s.

The principal use of 2-propanol is in the manufacture of acetone, which is used extensively as a solvent and as a starting material in the manufacture of numerous other organic compounds. Smaller amounts of 2-propanol are converted to other chemical products or used as a solvent, as rubbing alcohol, or as a denaturing agent for ethyl alcohol.

Higher alcohols—that is, with more than three carbon atoms—too numerous to detail here, are also manufactured. Mention should also be made of the dihydric alcohol, ethylene glycol. This chemical is produced in large volume and is made from ethylene by an indirect route. Its principal use is in antifreeze mixtures for automobile radiators. It is also used in brake fluids and has numerous derivatives used in resins, paints, and explosives and in the manufacture of polyester fibres. Similar reactions for propylene give propylene glycol, the principal use of which is as a moistening agent in foods and tobacco.