ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Partial funding for this project was graciously provided by Roche Carolina Inc. As most
South Carolinians know already, Roche Carolina Inc. is a major pharmaceutical company which
is locating in Rorence County, South Carolina. Chicora Foundation was fortunate to be selected
to work with Roche Carolina Inc. on a series of cultural resource projects, including large scale
excavations at several sites on their property. They chose to not only excavate these sites, but to
also ensure educational opportunities for area students by allowing schools to hold field trips to
see archaeologicats "at work." They also provided funding for the preparation of these materials
to help teachers integrate the heritage of the Pee Dee region into South Carolina history classes.
Through their "good neighbor" policy Roche Carolina Inc. is helping Chicora Foundation
bring the past to life and we thank them for their generosity.

II

PREFACE
The goal of this publication is to help teachers better present the unique and diverse
history of the Pee Dee region to their students. We have incorporated three basic "themes" of Pee
Dee history - - Native American, African American Slave and Plantation Life, and Postbellum
Tenancy. In each we have tried to not only provide teachers.with the background to integrate Pee
Dee regional material into their classroom studies of South Carolina history, but also to begin
implementing a integrated curricula which incorporates math and science. We have tried to
encourage the use of higher learning skills - - while still providing plenty of latitude so all
students could benefit from the materials.
An integrated curricula, while relatively new to many programs, is very simple. It
recognizes that our current method of teaching isolates both the student and the teacher from the
broad pattern of interdisciplinary understanding. Integrated curricula allow the student to better
understand how diverse concepts come together to promote a fuller understanding of the world
and essential concepts.
By integrating cultural heritage with components of math and science, this program
provides a more exciting, and more worldly, view of South Carolina. It promotes a greater interest
in both history and other disciplines. It also allows students and teachers to better understand the
dynamic relationship between history, agricultural endeavors, and economic factors. It encourages
students to understand, not simply to memorize and parrot. This integrated curricula is developed
to increase critical thinking and maximize the participation of the student in the learning process.
Coupled with a field trip to the archaeological site, students will have the opportunity to not only
better understand the history of their region, but also to see that history being uncovered and
explored through archaeology. This combination provides students and teachers with a rare
opportunity.
This booklet is organized to allow teachers to quickly identify the information essential for
curriculum development - - maximizing the educational potential of the program. Included is
information on the goals and objectives of this program, additional background information to
provide teachers with the cultural heritage and history content necessary to teach the lessons, three
individual teacher lesson plans, student worksheets, and extension activities.
While designed for use primarily in Grade 8, to correlate with the instruction of South
Carolina History, these materials have wide applicability. With relati vely little modification they
can be used in Grades 3 - 12.
Teachers should also be aware that not only does Chicora Foundation offer additional
programs and in-class room talks, but the Pee Dee Heritage Center, at Coker College, offers other
unique teaching opportunities, including a "Tobacco History Curriculum" which traces the history
of tobacco from Native American use to the early twentieth century. The Pee Dee Heritage Center
can be reached at 803/383-8000 and Chicora's address and telephone number are listed on the title
sheet of this publication.

III

CONTENTS
Acknowledgements

II

Preface

III

Introduction
Organization
Teaching History and Archaeology

1

Native Americans in the Pee Dee
Goals and Overview
Native American Prehistory
The Pedee at Contact
An Overview of Native American Life at Contact
Native Americans in the Pee Dee Lesson Plan
Native American Plants Word Puzzle
Indian Trails Across South Carolina

6

Plantations and Slave Life in the Pee Dee
Goals and Overview
Gibson Plantation History
Owners and Slaves in South Carolina
Slavery and Archaeology Lesson Plan
Population Graph
Slave Housing

20

Life After the Civil War in the Pee Dee
Goals and Overview
Gibson Plantation and Tenancy
Life After the Civil War Lesson Plan
Cost of Living
Oral History Project
Answer Sheet

32

Sources

44

IV

INTRODUCTION
These units will focus on several major themes in the history of the Pee Dee region:
â&#x20AC;˘ the early Native American lifeways and their fate at the hands of
Europeans,
â&#x20AC;˘ the growth of plantations and the associated growth of slavery,
â&#x20AC;˘ the postbellum rise of tenancy and its meaning to African
Americans.
While centered on the Pee Dee, these themes - - Native Americans, African-American slavery,
and economic collapse followed by the rise in tenancy - - are found repeated in other areas across
South Carolina. They are essential topics if students are to understand South Carolina today. The
focus on Native Americans is essential to understand who came before us and also to understand
how the colonial urge impacted indigenous people. Plantations and slavery are not only the
outgrowth of colonial mercantile interests, but also reflect the domination of West Indian and
Barbadian immigrants on South Carolina's political, social, and economic fabric. Further, the
economic system created by plantations and slavery lead South Carolina down an inescapable path
to the Civil War. Finally, postbellum tenancy is the result not only of economic collapse after the
Civil War, but also the historical emphasis on monocropping and the agrarian ideal, and the failure
of reforms put in place during reconstruction. The impacts of tenancy are still seen in South
Carolina today, in rural poverty, depleted soils, and a rural economy still tied to agriculture.
Good, bad, or indifferent, each of these themes offers students the opportunity to see the history
of their state more clearly. It also offers the student, African American, Native American, or Euro
American, the opportunity to better understand their place in that history.

Organization
The lesson plans are preceded by a section which provides the background information
that teachers will need for the various classes, as well as additional information which can be used
either by the teacher or the students. Each lesson plan is presented in a fairly standard approach
utilizing the BSAP (Basic Skills Assessment Program) model familiar to most teachers in South
Carolina.
Each lesson plan is organized in a two page format read horizontally. At the top of the
page is the lesson title. The "Getting Started" section is read vertically and contains the preplanning information necessary before the lesson is taught. It includes the time needed for each
lesson, although this can obviously be varied as necessary and desired. Also included are the
materials necessary to teach the lesson. Following the lesson plan are typically a variety of
worksheets suitable for a wide range of grade levels and needs.
The "Lesson Objectives" are presented in the next section and are correlated with the
"Instructional Approach." The Instructional Approach contains three important components:
exploration, development, and application. This approach has also been borrowed from BSAP

1

Science: Teaching Through Inquiry and its goal is to encourage hands-on inquiry, helping students
to learn through doing. This is a uniquely effective approach applicable not only to science, but
also to history and social studies.
The "Lesson Procedures" provide a detailed, step- by-step approach for teachers to follow
in the implementation of the various lesson plans. Obviously this organization can be modified by
teachers to incorporate additional information, or to fit shorter class periods. Finally, the "Full
Circle Questions" are designed for the student's use and are intended to complete the learning
inquiry process. These questions may form the basis for additional class discussion, student
notebooks, or essay questions.
Teaching History and Archaeology
Often students are unsure of the difference between archaeology and history. Or they fail
to see how history has any relevance to them or their world. Or they think that archaeology has
something to do with dinosaurs or cave men. All these, and other misconceptions, rob students of
the ability to appreciate the richness of the past. It also robs them of clearly understanding that
they have a place in that history.
Unfortunately, the history books traditionally used in South Carolina have failed to
provide students with a reason for studying their history. The text books have emphasized names,
. dates, and events, rarely providing the student with any understanding of the broader themes in
our history. Admittedly, even this curricula can't do that - - it has to be done by YOU, the
teacher. But, we hope that this section will provide some general guidance and some ideas that
may be useful in your class work.
What is the difference between archaeology and history?
Archaeology is the scientific study of our past through the careful excavation and analysis
of material objects, or artifacts, and other evidence preserved in the ground. Through the detailed
process of site discovery, excavation, laboratory analysis and preservation, and research,
archaeologists are able to reconstruct how Native Americans, African Americans, and Euro
Americans lived before us. Consequently, while the historian uses books, archives, and other
documents to reconstruct the past, the archaeologist uses the bits and pieces of refuse or garbage
that have been left behind.
Many people, upon hearing this are amazed. They wonder how the archaeologist could
possibly "compete" with the historian in the reconstruction of the past - - at least since South
Carolina was founded. After all, the historian has all that written documentation.
History and archaeology are partners in reconstructing the past. There are some things that
archaeology can't explain or explore as well as history. But beyond that, you should explain to
your students that history, by its very nature, is the story of the rich, the powerful, and the
literate. That makes many historical documents very one-sided. For example, when planters write
about slaves, they usually wrote about money matters - - how much slaves cost, how much it cost
to feed them, what it cost to clothe them, how much work they could do. Planters didn't write
about the home life of slaves, in fact they rarely even visited the slave settlement to see how the
slaves lived. As a result, from a historical perspective, slaves are the invisible people on the
plantation. If we want to know about the daily lives of slaves, we much look to archaeology.
History can also be distorted by those who wrote it originally. The plantation owner, for

2

whatever reason (perhaps as a counter to the abolitionist movement) could write about how well
he fed his slaves. It would be hard to prove, or disprove, that written statement today, 150 years
later. But archaeology can look at the food remains - - the animal bones discarded by the slaves,
even the carbonized bits and pieces of vegetable matter found around the fireplace, to reconstruct
what a slave family actually ate. There are many times that archaeology can provide information
to more accurately reconstruct the past.
What, exactly, do archaeologists study?
Archaeologists here in the Southeast study everything from the Native American's first
coming over to the "New World" about 12,000 B.C. to tenant farmers in the Great Depression.
Archaeologists study the physical remains - - the artifacts - - of these people. These may include
bits of pottery, called sherds, flakes, stone tools, and pieces of bone for Native Americans, or it
may include ceramics, glass, nails, utensils, food bones, and even architectural remains for
African Americans. If there are historical accoQnts available, the archaeologist will incorporate
them, as well.
Archaeologists, however, do not study dinosaurs, rocks, or fossils. And there were no "cave
men" in the Southeast.
And while archaeologists do some digging with dental picks, most is done with shovels. In
spite of that, all excavations are done with great care. Artifacts are excavated by levels from
"units" which are precisely located. And once excavated the artifacts are not only carefully
studied, but they are also conserved (to retard the natural deterioration of many materials) and
curated at a museum (to insure that the materials are available to others in the future). Finally, the
archaeologist is obligated to produce a report describing the results of the work. Chicora
Foundation makes sure that our reports are available not only to other professionals, but also to
the public. For example, we send copies to local public libraries and the S.c. State Library. This
way, anyone in South Carolina can borrow copies of our reports to learn more about the past.
Can't just anyone dig up artifacts?
Digging, even by a professional archaeologist, destroys the site. That is why archaeologists
are so careful. It is also why archaeologists take such great care with the artifacts, and write
reports, and make sure that those reports are available to the public. If someone goes out and digs
up "relics" for their collection, they are stealing our past. They are taking something that be~ongs
to each and everyone of us and converting it to their private ownership. Even if they later donate
the "relic" to a museum (and legitimate museums won't accept items that have been looted), no one
will ever know the story the item might have been able to tell, if it had been properly excavated,
conserved, and published.
While the past belongs to everyone, only individuals who have spent years in school
learning how to do archaeology should go out and excavate sites. But if you, or your students, are
interested in volunteering, Chicora Foundation welcomes volunteers at all of our projects. All you
need to do is call us for more information.
Why is the past important?
There are some students who see history, and archaeology, as "time-machines," allowing
them to visit the past. To them, simply bringing the past to life is reason enough to study history
or archaeology. Others, however, feel that "old stuff" has no relevance t6 them. That they have no
place in the past and therefore it is unimportant.
3

There is an old saying that "the past is prologue." We have already explained that the three
topics covered in this curricula are among the central themes in South Carolina history and much
of what we have today can't be understood, without understanding them. Students frequently fail
to realize that history is a slow (although not necessarily orderly or consistent) progression, with
each event affecting those which follow. In this sense it is likely that too many students are
required to memorize names, dates, and places, while too few students are required to think
logically about history. We hope this curricula will encourage more thought and less memorization
(although certainly we don't mean to imply that logical thought can exist without facts). Too few
students are taught that tbey, personally, have a place in history, and too often history stays just
beyond their grasp.
Thomas J. Schlereth, in Arlifacts and the American Past, offers a brief outline of historical
fallacies - - ways of looking at history that have distorted our understanding of the past and almost
guaranteed that our students will fail to grasp the iinportance of our heritage.
Fallacy # 1 - History is Progressive - that the history of our Country, or our State,
can be summed up in time lines and one success story after another. We lost no
battles, there have been no failures - - just events marching ever forward to
greatness.
Fallacy # 2 - History is Patriotic - that the reason for history is to promote cultural
nationalism and create historical shrines. The goal of history is to reinforce what
some have called the "American civil religion" and to create "good citizens."
Fallacy # 3 - History is Nostalgia - that the past was good and the reason for
history to be sure that others understand how good it was.
Fallacy # 4 - History is Consensus - that throughout history there have been few
"unfortunate" events such as the Civil War. The rest of the time was spent in
harmony, working for the common good, and homogeneity was the rule (rather
than the exception).
Fallacy # 5 - History is Simple - that there is a single version of the past which is
accurate and consistently adequate for explaining all events. History is often made
simple, even if a myth must be created and the richness of the past is lost.
Fallacy # 6 - History is Money - that history is not a dimension or context, but
instead as a thing, to be bought and sold in the marketplace like real estate. If it
has to do with the past, then it is fair game for someone, somewhere to make a
quick buck.
Keeping these fallacies in mind, Schlereth offers some reflections which may give history
a greater meaning to our students:
Reflection # 1 - History Should Be Inquiry - it should involve
critical thinking, evaluation, and reflection. History should not be
accepted without questioning and thought.
Reflection # 2 - History Should Be Communal - it should
emphasize not only research, but also communication. It should
encourage all of us to think about the interrelationships between

4

NATIVE AMERICANS IN THE PEE DEE REGION
Goals and Overview
The goal of this lesson is to help the student become more aware of Native Americans in
prehistory and history. It may also be useful to emphasize an ecological approach to this curricula,
integrating the history concepts with those from science and ecology.
This lesson correlates with Huff's The History of South Carolina in the Building of the
Nation, Chapter 2, "The Earliest Americans." It can also incorporate elements of the natural
sciences and biology.
Native Americans lived in South Carolina for nearly 14,000 years before the first
Europeans arrived. During that time the Indians adapted to a wide range of environmental
conditions in South Carolina. Along the coast they found abundant resources which eventually
allowed them to live permanently in settled villages until the sea level changed and this was no
longer possible. At that time the groups adopted a more mobile system. There is evidence that
groups were far ranging, using coastal resources during some periods and moving inland to use
different resources at other times. This lesson will help students better understand how the coastal
plain can support small groups of people "living off the land." This life in harmony with nature
can be contrasted with the European lifestyle which incorporated clear cutting forests and
intensive agriculture. While the Native Americans lived with nature, Europeans attempted to
change nature to suit their needs. While the Native Americans used almost everything they found
in nature for food, clothing, medicine, or other needs, the Europeans saw Carolina primarily in
terms of wealth. Does this make the Native Americans primitive? Does this make the Europeans
more advanced? What did each group do to the environment around them?
By comparing the two approaches - one of stewardship and one of unregulated use students can better understand the emerging environmental problems facing South Carolina. By
learning about the real Native Americans in South Carolina the student can better appreciate their
history and the way they Ii ved their lives. There are still descendants of South Carolina's Nati ve
Americans living in the Pee Dee area. These people, known as "Settlement Indians" chose to Ii ve
among the English settlements. Students may be interested to learn more about these people and
their efforts to have their ancestry recognized.
Native American Prehistory
About 12,000 B.C. the large amounts of water tied up in glaciers resulted in the lowering
of sea levels by up to 65 feet, opening up a land bridge between Siberia and Alaska. This land
bridge, called Beringia, allowed the movement of animals, plants, and, eventually, people, into
North and South America. The earliest inhabitants, known as Paleo-Indians, gradually moved into
the "new world," following the game they commonly hunted - - mammoths and mastodons.
The Paleo-Indian period, lasting from about 12,000 to 8,000 B.C., is evidenced by special
tools, such as a spear point known as Clovis (Figure 1). Long and distinct flakes, or flutes, were
removed from the spear points from the base to the midsection to facilitate hafting, ore
attachment, to the spear shaft. The Paleo-Indian occupation, while widespread, does not appear to

6

have been intensive. Artifacts are most frequently found along major river drainages. Several
Paleo-Indian projectile points have been recovered from the Florence County area, including two
from the northern part of the county and one from the southern.
Unfortunately, little is known about Paleo-Indian subsistence
strategies, settlement systems, or social organization. Generally
archaeologists agree that the Paleo-Indian groups consisted of small
bands, were nomadic, and were both hunters and foragers (relying on
both animals and plants for food). Comparing them to modern groups it
seems likely that they obtained most of their food from plants, probably
collected by the women. Although population density, based on the
isolated finds, is thought to have been low, toward the end of the period
there was an increase in population and groups began to become more
terri torial.
The Archaic period, which dates from 8000 to 2000 B.c., does not
form a sharp break with the Paleo-Indian period, but is a slow transition
characterized by a more modern climate and an increase in the diversity
of material culture. Archaic period assemblages are rare on the coast,
Figure 1. Fluted Clovis
although the sea level is anticipated to have been within 13 feet of its
projectile point.
present stand by the beginning of the succeeding Woodland period. Many
Archaic Indians lived inland, however, adjacent to the floodplain
swamps of major drainages, such as those associated with the Pee Dee River. These areas offered
extensive ecological diversity and provided a wide range of food sources.
Most Archaic period sites found in Florence County are small and contain relatively few
artifacts, primarily a wide range of spear points. The Archaic Indians, like the Paleo-Indians
before them, lived in small kinship-based groups, and frequently moved to follow game and visit
new areas for plant foods. The population began to increase during this period, resulting in a
sudden proliferation of sites dating from this period.
The Native Americans of this time period continued to use spear points, although their
form slowly changed from thin, corner-notched types, called Palmer and Kirk by archaeologists,
to broad stemmed points called Stanly and Savannah River Stemmed. Other stone tools include
knives, scrapers, grooved axes, drills, and grinding stones (probably used to process plant foods).
Bone awls and needles were probably common. A major technological change was the introduction
of the atl-atl, or throwing stick, which helped the Indians propel their spears with greater force
and accuracy. The introduction of carved soapstone bowls late in this period indicates that the
nomadic lifestyle was becoming more sedentary.
The Woodland period begins by definition with the introduction of fired clay pottery about
2000 B.C. along the South Carolina coast (the introduction of pottery, and hence the beginning of
the Woodland period, occurs much later in the Piedmont of South Carolina). The earliest pottery
made in North America is called Stallings and was first made in South Carolina. It is recognized
by the inclusion of Spanish Moss as "temper" to help hold the hand molded clay together. Slightly
later a pottery known as Thorn's Creek was made. Just like Stallings except for the use of sand,
rather than Spanish Moss, Thorn's Creek pottery was made up to about 1000 B.C.
An early type of site typical of this period are the "shell rings" found from McClellanville,
South Carolina south into Georgia. These doughnut-shaped rings measure 150 to 300 feet in
diameter and the ring may be anywhere from 3 feet to 30 feet in height. The rings, once thought
to be mysterious, are actually nothing more than giant trash piles. Composed of shell, animal bone,
7

broken artifacts, and soil, these shell rings are
composed of trash discarded by the Native
Americans路 who lived on them. Archaeologists
have found evidence of the houses, hearths or
fire pits, and even where the oysters were
steamed open, on and around these rings. The
clear interiors were communal areas and were
therefore kept clean.

Figure 2. Indian using an ad-atl or throwing stick.

The subsistence during this early period
was based primarily on deer hunting and
fishing, with supplemental inclusions of small
mammals, birds, reptiles, and shellfish.
Various calculations of the probable yield of
deer, fish, and other food sources identified
f rom shell ring sites indicate that sedentary
life was not only possible, but probable. The
Nati ve Americans learned very early that the
South Carolina coast was so rich in food that
they could easily live in one area year round,
simply by scheduling when they would use
different types of foods.

Toward the end of the Thorn's Creek phase there is evidence of sea level change and a number
of small, non-shell midden sites are found. Apparently the increasing sea level drowned the tidal
marsh (and sites) on which the Thorn's Creek people relied.
The succeeding Yadkin phase, which dates from 1100 Be. to A.D. 600, is characterized by fine
to coarse sandy paste pottery with a cord marked or check stamped surface treatment. The
Yadkin settlement pattern involves primarily inland sites. Coastal sites, which exhibit a very
similar style of pottery called Deptford, evidence a diffuse subsistence system and are frequently
small. The inland sites are also small, lack shell, and are situated on the edge of swamp terraces.
This "dual distribution" has suggested to some archaeologists that these Yadkin and Deptford
Indians may have moved back and forth between the coast and the interior of South Carolina.
The pottery made by the Native Americans during the Yadkin period is characterized by a
surface treatment using a wooden paddle either wrapped with cordage or carved to look like a
waffle iron. When stamped on the wet pottery the paddle left what archaeologists call a "cord
marked" or "check stamped" design. Through time the designs on these paddles changed and
archaeologists can use these different designs to date the pottery.
Curiously, these "designs" served a very functional purpose in the manufacture of hand
coiled pottery. The paddles were used to compact the wet clay, obliterating the coil lines which
would otherwise have been areas of weakness in the clay pots. But smooth paddles, because of the
surface tension of the wet clay, would have removed the surface of the pot, causing damage. The
various motifs carved into the wooded paddle, however, allowed the surface tension to be broken.
The Middle Woodland occupations in South Carolina are characterized by a pattern of
settlement mobility and short term occupation. This period is characterized by the use of sand
burial mounds and ossuaries along the Georgia, South Carolina, and North Catolina coasts.
Middle Woodland coastal plain sites continue the Early Woodland Yadkin pattern of mobility.
While sites are found all along the coast and inland to the fall line, shell midden sites evidence

8

sparse shell and few artifacts. Gone are the
abundant tools and artifacts used by the Thorn's
Creek people.
In many respects the South Carolina Late
Woodland may be characterized as a continuation
of previous Middle Woodland cultural
assemblages. While outside the Carolinas there
were major cultural changes, such as the
continued development and elaboration of
agriculture, the Carolina groups settled into a
lifeway not appreciably different from that
observed for the previous 500 to 700 years. This
situation would remain unchanged until the
development of the South Appalachian
Mississippian complex.
The South Appalachian Mississippian, dating
from about A.D. 1100 to 1600, is the most
elaborate level of culture attained by the Nati ve
American inhabitants and is followed by cultural
Figure 3. Example of paddle and a Yadkin pot.
disintegration brought about largely by European
disease. The period is characterized by complicated stamped pottery, complex social organization,
agriculture, and the construction of temple mounds and ceremonial centers.
The Santee Mound site, in nearby Clarendon County on the shore of Lake Marion, is an
example of one of the many South Appalachian Mississippian mounds in South Carolina.
Surrounding the mound would have been small villages and hamlets, where the Indians had their
agricultural fields. These groups produced pottery decorated with very elaborately carved wooded
paddles, often including vessels in their burials. Society was no longer egalitarian, as it had been
during the Woodland Period, but was sharply divided between the priests and the common people.
By A.D. 1400 we know that these groups were growing corn, beans, and squash, although hunting
was still very important, especially during the winter and spring, before the next crop was
planted. The temples and mounds were built to honor their gods and encourage agricultural
success.
By the Mississippian Period Native Americans were growing plants such as corn, beans,
and squash. Some groups were even using plants like sunflower, sumac, and chenopodium or
goose foot. Almost all groups were collecting nuts like hickory or acorn, and berries or fruits like
persimmon and blackberry. In fact, most the daily diet consisted of plant foods. Animals like deer,
raccoon, and opossum were also hunted, as were turkeys. Many groups also trapped fish in weirs
and nets, or used gigs. Shellfish, either fresh water clams or marsh oysters, were used by groups
wherever they were available. Even toads and snakes were used by the Mississippian people for
food.
The history of the numerous small coastal Nati ve American tribes is poorly known. These
tribes were of little political or economic importance to the English. They were also quickly
destroyed by alcohol, slavery, and disease.
The Pedee at Contact
The principal secondary sources for the Native Americans of South Carolina are Mooney
9

(1894), Hodge (1910), and Swanton (1952). Little can be added to these earlier, rather sketchy,
accounts of the primary group in the Florence area, the Pedee.

PERIOD

DATE RANGE

SUBSISTENCE METHOD

Paleo-Indian

12,000 - 8,000 S.c.

Hunting, Gathering

Archaic

8,000 - 1,000 B.c.

Hunting, Gathering

Early Woodland
Yadkin

1,000 - 500 B.c.
l,lOO S.C - A.D. 600

Hunting, Gathering

Middle Woodland

500 S.c. - A.D. 700

Hunting, Gathering

Late Woodland

A.D. 700 - 1200

Hunting, Gathering

Mississippian

A.D. 1200 - 1600

Hunting, Gathering, Cultivation

Figure 4. Periods of Native American prehistory in South Carolina.

The first Native American groups to make contact with the English settlers and explorers
were the "feeble and unwarlike coast tribes," such as the Cussoes, Wandos, Wineaus, Etiwans, and
Sewees. The Pedee are first mentioned in 1711 when they formed a small part of Colonel John
Barnwell's force against the Tuscarora in North Carolina (Milling 1969:118). Mooney (1894:76-77)
notes that their village, in 1715, was situated on the east bank of the Pee Dee, probably in the
vicinity of Marion County. A military map dating from 1715 shows the Pedees to be about 38
miles down river from the "Saraus" (Saras) and about 80 miles up river from the Atlantic Ocean.
This would place the Pedee very close to their location shown by DeBrahm on his 1757 map
(Figure 5).
During the early eighteenth century there was constant warfare between the southern and
northern Indian groups, with a tremendous loss of life. An account in the British Public Records
Office states:
Before the end of the said year [1716] we recovered the Charokees and North ward
Indians after several Slaughters and Blood Sheddings, which has lessened their
numbers and utterly Extirpating some little tribes as the Congarees, Santees,
Seawees, Pedees, Waxhaws and some Corsaboys, so that by Wan, Pestilence and
Civill Wan amongst themselves, the Charokess may be computed reduced to about
10,000 souls & the Northern Indians to about 2500 Souls (quoted in Mills
1972:223- 224).

10

While it is possible that the Pedee suffered a severe reduction in population, it is clear
from the historic accounts that some of their number survived. In February 1717 a Pedee, Tom
West, came to Charleston to arrange a peace between the English and the Charraw. Apparently the
peace was not formed, or at least was short lived. Late in 1717 the Pedee appealed to the English
not to move the trading post from Uauenee (or Great Bluff, today known as Yauhannah) to the
Black River.
At least as early as the 1740s some of the Pedee had joined with the Catawba in an uneasy
confederation, while the remaining Pedee were classified as "Settlement Indians," living among the
English. Mooney reports that the Settlement Pedee joined in a variety of Anglo activities, even
keeping black slaves. In 1752 the Catawba wrote Governor James Glen:
There are a great many Pedee Indians living in the Settlements that we want to
come and settle amongst us. We desire you to send for them and ad vise them to
this, and give them this String of Wampum in Token that we want them to settle
here, and will always live like Brothers with them. The Northern Indians want
them all to settle with us, for as they are now at Peace they may be hunting in the
Woods or stragling about killed by some of them except they join us and make but
one Nation, which will be a great Addition of Strength to us (McDowell 1958:362).
While many of the remaining Pedee apparently joined the Catawba, it did not provide total
protection. As late as 1753 the Northern Indians took at least one Pedee Indian slave during a
"visit" to the Catawba area. In 1755 a Settlement Pedee was killed by the Notchee and Cherokee.
De Brahm's "Map of South Carolina and a Part of Georgia," dated 1757 shows the "Peadea
Indian Old Town" situated almost immediately east of the survey tract (Figure 5). By the time of
Mouzon's "An Accurate Map of North and South Carolina" in 1775 no further evidence of the
Pedee was shown (Figure 6).
The last mention of the Pedee comes from Ramsay's History of South Carolina:
Persons now living remember that there were about thirty Indians, a remnant of
the Pedee and Cape Fear tribes that lived in the Parishes of St. Stephens and St.
Johns. King John was their chief. There was another man among the same tribe
who was called Prince. Governor Lyttelton give him a Commission of Captain
General and Commander-in-Chief of the two tribes, which superseded Johnny.
The latter took umbrage at the promotion of the former and attempted to kill him.
There were some shots exchanged, but no mischief was done. All this remnant of
these ancient tribes are now extinct except for one woman of a half-breed (Ramsay
1808:Appendix II).
No archaeological sites attributable to the Pedee have been identified and Swanton
observed, "no village names are known apart from the tribal name, which was sometimes applied
to specific settlements" (Swanton 1952:97). The presumed protohistoric remains in this region are
essentially identical (at least in a gross sense) to those found elsewhere. They include small,
triangular projectile points, often crudely made; complicated stamped pottery with motifs ranging
from finely applied to crudely stamped; and diminutive ground stone celts. Protohistoric to
historic Pedee villages, when found, are likely to be evidenced by a significant quantity of trade
goods, including glass beads, copper bangles, guns or gun parts, tobacco pipes, iron hatchets and
knives, and similar items.
The presence, and particularly the association, of these trade items may be of considerable
11

1--.

--t-

---

-~-=---+

-

------ - - -

./ :,

,~_< '(1A;

/.,,-<,~

:!";,

"f~"&"~-"'"
,...U,'In'J"
. . "'n.,r ...,'
.1 ",..,

o

',' *
.

R

,

i

1." "."

r.

;,';~/,{)

:'1 ..4 ,/
'I~I

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/f路,.,.. ..,."';-t

/(/~f_~, ~

1,..",.y~

Figure 6. A portion of Mouzon's "An Accurate Map of North and South Carolina" in 1775 showing
the same area as Figure 5.

12

importance. Work in North Carolina has revealed that at Siouan sites the trade goods assemblage
changes dramatically from the terminal seventeenth century through the early eighteenth century,
with an increase in kitchen, arms, and tobacco artifacts and the replacement of beaded clothing by
European fashions with buttons.
An Overview of Native American Life at European Contact
The coastal tribes, at the time of European settlement, represented a series of 19 small
groups, numbering probably less than 1000 individuals, based on a partial census taken in 1682. It
is clear from the combination of historic documents and archaeological research that the coastal
area was not always so sparsely populated. During the period of Spanish exploration in the mid to
late sixteenth century there were perhaps as many as 2000 Indians along the coast. Their numbers
were reduced primarily through the devastation of disease. Beginning even before DeSoto's travels
through the Southeast, Indians began to succumb to European diseases for which they had no
imm unity. Smallpox was the most lethal, with a mortality rate of 80%. Explorers often reported
deserted villages and abandoned territory - - mute testimony to the affects of European disease.
The Indian population was also reduced through warfare. Disease and the presence of
Europeans upset the Native American balance so that inter- tribal warfare greatly increased after
the sixteenth century. The Westo Indians killed up to 200 Indians just prior to 1670. And by the
mid-1670s there is evidence that northern groups were beginning to raid Carolina.
Most of the coastal groups are thought to have spoken either a Muskhogean or Siouan
dialect. Our linguistic understanding of the Carolina Indians, however, is limited since few
English paid any rea:! attention to the Native Americans. Several accounts, however, make it
obvious that the dialects were very different from one another and one Englishman, in 1682,
remarked that the Indians did not "converse, no well understand the Language of one another."
Regrettably, almost as little is known about the culture of South Carolina's small Native
American groups as is known about their languages. The English, who had the best opportunity to
comment on the Native Americans, did so rarely. Coming to the "New World" in search of profit,
their interest in the Indians was limited to either ensuring they were friendly or exporting them as
slaves. One Englishman, Thomas Ashe, described the original inhabitants in 1682 as:
of a deep chestnut color, their Hair black and straight ... their Eyes black and
sparkling, little or no Hair on their Chins, well lim'd and featured.
Several groups, such as the Etiwans and Waxsaw, in the central regions .of the state, practiced
cranial deformation - - artificially deforming the skulls of their children to conform with a
cultural ideal. One Coastal Plain group thought that the deformation made their male children
better hunters and an Englishman reported the group also thought that "he that is a good Hunter
never misses of being a Favorite amongst the Women."
The religion of these groups was of the greatest concern to Spanish missionaries, being of
little consequence to the English. Occasionally an English commentator would mention the
Indians' worship of the "Sun and Moon," or a "Great Spirit," or even a more personified force. We
do know that there was a well defined priestly class in many groups, although they were variously
referred to as "conjurers路 or even as "magicians." These priests apparently functioned as
physicians, practicing well developed herbal medicine. In fact, the use of medicinal plants is
perhaps the greatest Native American "gift" to the Old World settlers. A Spaniard, Nicolas
Monardes, wrote a text in the sixteenth century entitled, Joyful Newes Out of the Newe Fonde

13

War/de, describing all of the wonderful medicinal plants of the Native Americans.

An exceptional feature of these tribes was the status of women. At least two tribes had
women chiefs and a third tribe had as many women leaders as men. A fourth tribe had a woman
presiding to receive visitors. There is some indication of monogamy among the Native American
groups in South Carolina and women were allowed inside the houses of state. All of this is very
uncommon elsewhere in the Southeast.
Another unusual feature of the small Carolina tribes was their degree of autonom y
(reflected in their linguistic diversity). The coastal tribes clearly did not think of themselves as
"Cusabo" or "Muskhogean" or "Siouan," or even as a single people, such as the Cherokee. This, of
course, dismayed the Europeans who were used to dealing with a single leader (such as their own
king).
The houses of coastal plain groups varied tremendously - - although there were no "tepees"
in South Carolina. The moist weather would have quickly rotted the skins and made this type of
structure worthless. The remaining accounts suggest round huts made of upright posts, roofed
with palmetto fronds or other branches. One European described the houses as being dark and
smokey. Although no one made a drawing of any South Carolina villages, John White did make
water color drawings of Virginia groups. These were made popular as engravings by Theodor de
Bry in the early eighteenth century (Figure 7).
The clothing of the Coastal Plain groups was simple and probably made from hides, such
as deer. By the time White and de Bry began to draw the Indians their lives had already changed
dramatically, so that many European items show up in the illustrations.
â&#x20AC;˘

14

Figure 7. Theodor de Bry engraving of an Indian village. See how many plants you
recognize and how many different types of activities are taking place.
15

Instructional
Approach

Lesson
Objectives

Getting
Started

Exploration

First Session - tour ofarchaeological site

Time Needed
-1 - 2 hours for tour of Roche
Carolina archaeological site

1. The student will be introduced to the types
of plants and animals used by the Native
Americans in their daily lives.

-Two 45-55 minute class periods
(teacher may choose to expand
time spent in class or tour)

Whole Class
(visiting site
& discussion)

2. The student will be exposed to different
ways the Native Americans acquired
or used the various plants and
animals.

3. The students will be introduced to the
types of pottery used by the Native
Americans.

• background information package
(sent before tour)

Optional
(Available for donation of $5.00)
• Curricula Materials, including
lesson plans and activity sheets for
teachers to use on site and in
the classroom.

4. The students will understand how each of
these plants and animals affected the lives
of the Native Americans.

Development
Whole Class
(discussion)

5. The student will understand his place in
history by discovering how he may use
these plants and animals in his own daily
life.
6. The student will understand the impact of
European discovery on SC's Native
populations, and the importance of
archaeological research in the writing of
their history.

Remaining Sessions- conducted by teacher

Application
Whole Class
(discussion

7. The student will explore the impact of
European discovery of the New WorId in
terms of population changes or in
foodways.

&lor
writing project)

"Full Circle" Questions
(Questions which help relate the past to the lives of students today)

1. Did you recognize any of the plants (or animals) discussed at the Roche Carolina site?
2. Would any of these plants (or animals) grow (or live) in your neighborhood?
If they do, does your family use or recognize them?
Chicora Foundation, Inc.

Lesson Plan: Native Americans in the Pee Dee

16

(803) 787-6910

Lesson
Procedures
1. The tour of the Roche Carolina site will illustrate the various forms of native plants and animals that

were available to the Pre-Historic Native Americans in the Low Country:
turkey
blackberries
lima beans
corn
deer
potatoes
muscadine
rabbit
sweet potatoes
sunflower
raccoon
tomatoes
pumpkin
fish
squash
yaupon holly
chenopodium
2. The tour will explain how these plants and animals could have been acquired (hunting, gathering,
or cultivating) and used by the Native Americans for food, clothing, or decorative purposes.
3. The tour will examine the different Native American pottery types found in the Pee Dee area

4. Encourage students to discuss the availability of these plants or animals in their neighborhood or part of
the state; why may some not grow in your neighborhood or part of the state? How might this have
affected the lives of Pre-Historic Native Americans in your part of the state?
5. Encourage interaction with students in discussing how these plants or animals maybe used in their own
daily lives; what may be used today instead of some of these plants and animals? Which of these
plants or animals might now be considered "domesticated"?
6. Encourage students to discuss current Native American populations. Are they different from you in any
way (religion, housing, jobs, language, or foods)? How might this be different if SC had not been an
early colony? Encourage students to discuss how archaeological research mayor may not change our
understanding of SC history.

7. The teacher will assign students to research the use of certain native plants and animals by
Native Americans, African Americans, European Americans or people in other countries OR to
research the changes in Native American populations between the contact period and the present

"Full Circle" Questions (continued)
3. What are some of the plants (or animals) you use that were not available to the
Prehistoric Native Americans?
4.Did prehistoric or colonial period Native Americans live in your area or community?
How do you know? (artifacts or place names)
Chicora Foundation, Inc.

Lesson Plan: Native Americans in the Pee Dee

17

(803)787-6910

NATIVE AMERICAN PLANTS WORD PUZZLE

Listed below are the names of 12 plants used by the Native Americans. The names are
hidden in this puzzle, spelled from left to right, top to bottom, and diagonally.
Circle the words as you find them.

INDIAN TRAILS ACROSS SOUTH CAROLINA
Many Indian trails across South Carolina later became colonial roads, and are now used as highways.
The map below shows several of these Indian trails, and the locations of some of the colonial towns.
Examine the map and answer the questions.

",

f

\

,tI
~

\
\

,-

"_V'

,

"

I

"' : Catawba Reservation

,,/

""

""

--~

/
[J
-,,-'

.

B
c:J

' ...... _-....

-'

......

Indian Trail

River

Town

o

:!o

40

60

MILES

1. Locate your community on this map. How far away is it from an Indian trail?

2. Identify the major rivers on this map. Which do you think have Indian names?
How have some of the rivers changed?

3. Using a modem map, identify which Indian trails are now highways.
19

Chicora Cla~sroom Activities

FCG2

PLANTATIONS AND SLAVE LIFE IN THE PEE DEE
Goal and Overview

The goal of this lesson is to help the student better understand the lives of the plantation
owner and slave. This is presented within the context of one Florence County plantation.
This lesson correlates with Huff's The History of South Carolina in the Building of the
Nation, Chapter 8, "Life in the Carolina Low Country" and Chapter 16, "Life in the Antebellum
Years."
Some apologists for the South have argued that her "Negroes [were] well-eared-for and
happy." We know, however, that the great wealth of the Southern plantation owner was built on
the backs of the African American slave. In fact, when we look at a South Carolina plantation,
whether we are looking at the main house, the slave cabins, the gardens, the corn crop, or the rice
fields, we are looking at the labor of African Americans. Largely this labor profited the slave
owner. The differences in the lives of the owner and the slave on most plantations were as vast as
the difference between night and day.
Gibson Plantation History

The area today known as Florence County received little attention until the Yemassee War
of 1715 forced many of the Native Americans from the region, allowing a more aggressive
settlement policy in the region below the fall line, termed the "lower middle country." From about
1715 to 1727 there was a period of tremendous lust for land, with the accompanying fraud so
common to period politics. In 1730 Governor Robert Johnson began a policy of frontier
settlement, hinged on the creation of 11 townships and intended to increase the number of small,
white farmers. This increased settlement would provide protection from South Carolina's enemies
from within (as the African American slaves were viewed) and from without (including both the
Spanish and the Native Americans).
Only nine of the proposed 11 townships were actually established. One of these was
Oueensboro, 20,000 acres situated on the east and west sides of the Pee Dee River (Figure 8).
Although well south of what would eventually become the Gibson plantation, the Oueensboro
boundaries have frequently been extended to include a large portion of southern Florence County,
up to the Mars Bluff region. While not strictly a township, the Welch Tract was another center of
frontier settlement. Joining Oueensboro on the north west, the Welch Tract originated in 1736 and
was settled by a colony of Welsh Baptists from Newcastle County, Pennsylvania.
Settlement in Oueensboro was sporadic and limited, at least partially because the
topography and soils were better suited to large plantations than to small farms. The rather limited
high ground area was quickly obtained by a limited number of settlers. One early settler in the
Oueensboro Township was Jacob Burkholt, a native of Prussia, who obtained two tracJts in 1735.
Burkholt apparently obtained several additional parcels on the Pee Dee in 1738.
By the mid-eighteenth century Gideon Gibson was beginning to obtain small ttncts of land
on both sides of the Pee Dee River. Between 1755 and 1773, he obtained a total of 2662 acres in

20

the vicinity of the Pee Dee.
During this period the
econom y of the Pee Dee was
oriented toward both mixed
agricultural production, supplying
the needs of the Georgetown rice
plantations and also to the cash
crop of indigo.
Although relatively little is
known about the economic
activities of Gideon Gibson, his
political sentiments are at least
superficially understood. While
geographically part of the "low
country," the Florence and Pee Dee
region was too remote and isolated
from the seat of government in
Charleston to feel the "taming
influences of church and state."
More to the point, however, there
were a variety of serious
complaints the Pee Dee region (as
well as the rest of the "lower
middle country") had with
Charleston. In 1767 citizens of the

Married Women have been ravished - virgins deflowered, and other unheard of
cruelties committed by these barbarous Ruffians - who, by being let loose among
us (and connived at) by the Acting Magistrates, have thereby reduced numbers of
Individuals to Poverty (quoted in King 1981:7).
.
The region's repeated requests for assistance to stem the tide of lawlessness were rejected,
creating a division between the wealthy planter elite of Charleston and the small farmers of the
interior. In the wake of the broken trust the Regulator Movement was formed, the most
significant vigilante movement in the pre-Revolutionary back country. By the summer of 1768 the
Regulators, to many, had become the criminals. A skirmish of sorts was fought in July 1768
between a group of Regulators, led by Gideon Gibson, and a band of constables intent upon
restoring order. One of the constables was killed and several Regulators were wounded, with the
battle a victory for the Regulators. Shortly afterward a second effort by Provost Marshall Roger
Pinckney met similar, if not so severe, failure when the region's militia refused to take action.
In 1757 the white population of the region later to become Florence County was
approximately 4300, while there were only about 500 black slaves. This predominance of white
farmers was typical of the entire back country and, to soine degree, exacerbated the differences
between the low country and the back country. Certainly the back country was little concerned
with world affairs during the last half of the eighteenth century. Instead, the region continued to
turn inward, working to improve both land and river navigation. The first road in the region was
the Cheraw- Georgetown stagecoach road, established in 1747, but it wasn't until 1768 that a
public ferry across the Pee Dee was established.
21

In fact, the South Carolina Provincial Congress sent William H. Drayton into the region in
1774 to explain to the rural population how badly they were being treated by England and
engender support for the growing revolutionary movement. From the beginning of the war until
about 1780, the American Revolution in the Pee Dee region was little more than a civil war, with
occasional desultory raids by Whig and Tory factions. In 1780 this changed, as the British sought
to "Americanize" the war, bringing it to the South and encouraging "local participation" using large
numbers of Tories. At first the strategy was very successful, with Charleston falling in mid-1780
and Camden falling later that same year.
In an effort to consolidate their hold on South Carolina, the British, under Major General
James Wemyss, took up a savage war in the South Carolina back country. Ostensively to destroy
local resistance, and particularly to isolate and neutralize General Francis Marion, Wemyss
marched through the back country, leaving a trail of destruction 15 miles wide and 70 miles long.
Many of the plantations shown on the 1775 Mouzon map were likely destroyed by Wemyss. This
proved to be a mistake, as it encouraged even more aggressive resistance to British military rule.
Marion relentlessly attacked British lines of communication, camping at Snow Island (at the
confluence of Lynches and Pee Dee rivers).
Only four notable engagements were fought in the region (although most of the action
consisted of maneuvers and partisan activities). These include the capture of Snow Island by
British troops in March of 1781, the engagement at Witherspoon's Ferry that same month, a
skirmish at Black Creek, and the Lynches Creek Massacre. By September 1781 the British
abandoned the back country, fleeing to Charleston and fighting in the Pee Dee region ended with
the June 1782 surrender of Tory forces. On December 14, 1782 the British evacuated Charleston,
ending the southern campaign of the American Revolution.
The transition from war to peace appears to have come rapidly to the Pee Dee region.
Prince Frederick Parish, the political subdivision of Georgetown District which then encompassed
southern Florence County, sustained the majority of war activity. Yet by 1790 the Parish
contained 3500 whites and 4500 slaves, figures which one historian interprets to show that social
and economic recovery after the Revolution was reasonably rapid. The only evidence that the war
affected the survey tract comes from Gideon Gibson's claim for 49 hogs delivered to the
Revolutionary army.
Shortly after the Revolution efforts were again made to make the political divisions of the
region more responsive. In 1785 the new districts of Marlboro, Chesterfield, Darlington, and
Marion were created, with Marion called Liberty Precinct until 1795. Modern Florence County
was contained within Marion, Darlington, and Marlboro districts. The period from about 1784
until 1860 is characterized by a maturing of the economic and, especially, agricultural potential of
the region. By 1820 the Pee Dee had been made navigable up to Cheraw and it was noted that:
cotton has been carried from Chatham [Cheraw Hill] and Society Hill to
Georgetown fort seventy-five cents the bale; whereas it could not be carried the
same distance by land for less than two dollars, or by water by the former
navigation for less than one dollar and twenty- five cents (Kohn 1938:85).
The Pee Dee continued to be the major transportation route until the arrival of the railroads in the
late 1840s and early 1850s. Land transport continued to be unreliable at best and life threatening
at worst.
The map of Marion District prepared for Mills' Atlas of 1825 shows the Old River Road
running west of the Pee Dee River from Dubose's (formerly Witherspoon's) Ferry over the
22

Lynches River northward to Jefferies Creek and from there to the Darlington District line. This
road was also shown in Carolina maps of 1773 and 1775. By 1825, however, there are additional
roads shown, including one which 路runs west from the Darlington line, crossing the Pee Dee at
Mars Bluff and continuing to the Marion-Marlboro road (Figure 9). Two structures are shown on
this road in the project vicinity - - "Gibson's" and further south, a store.
The Gibson shown on this
map is Captain John Gibson, who
owned at least two tracts
encompassing over 3991 acres,
including the Mars Bluff ferry. A
plat showing Gibson's residence
(described as "Capt. Gibson's
Mansion House") provides a
detailed drawing of the structure.
It was a two story, frame structure
with end chimneys and a hipped
roof. It had a full facade porch on
at least three elevations. The
symmetry and scale of the
structure suggests a recently built
Georgian house. A "Ferry House" is
shown at the ferry.
Captain John Gibson later
acquired additional lands to the
north of Mars Bluff.
By 1820 Marion District
had a population of 10,201, of
which over a third, or 3463, were
African American slaves.
Compared to the 1800 census,
there was a slow increase in the proportion of black slaves in the district, largely the result of an
increasing emphasis on cotton (Mills 1972:623). Mills notes that the swamps, if properly drained,
yield the most valuable lands, bringing upwards of $50 an acre (still far below the $100 an acre
demanded for prime Georgetown rice lands). Vast amounts of the Marion swamps, however, were
classed as waste lands since no efforts had been made to either drain and reclaim them. These
tracts were most often used as cattle ranges, continuing a practice that was common in the low
country during the early eighteenth century, but abandoned as the region began to emphasize cash
crops (Mills 1972:628).
Sometime between 1830 and 1840 these vast Gibson holdings passed from John Gibson to
his son, James S. Gibson.
In 1850 the Agricultural Census for Marion County reveals that James S. Gibson owned
10,000 acres, 2,000 acres of which were improved. This holding was valued at $90,000, while the
plantation contained $900 worth of implements and equipment, and slaughtered $1130 worth of
animals the previous year. The plantation contained 15 horses, 3 asses or mules, 30 milk cows, 19
oxen, 100 other cattle, 93 sheep, and 300 swine, accounting for $6543 in livestock. Gibson's
plantation produced 30 bushels of wheat, 150 bushels of rye, 7500 bushels of corn, 1500 bushels
of oats, 1000 pounds of rice, 200 pounds of wool, 1000 pounds of peas and beans, 10 bushels of

Table 1. 1856 Inventory and Appraisement of the James S. -Gibson Estate.

Irish potatoes, 300 bushels of sweet potatoes, and 200 pounds of butter.
While this indicates a diversified plantation, maximizing its potential (such as using
waste lands for cattle and growing rice in the Pee Dee swamp), the most impressive
accomplishment is the cultivation of 206 bales of cotton. In fact, only one other planter, James'
brother, Samuel, reported more cotton and the district wide average was slightly more than 5.6
bales per farmer. Gibson's plantation represents one of the largest, most significant holdings in the
region and it appears, based on this evidence alone, that James S. Gibson was wealthy far in excess
of the smaller planters and farmers surrounding him.
On August 23, 1854 Gibson died and his estate was thrown into a lengthy battle for
partition, not settled until after the Civil War. The various appraisements, inventories, and court
papers, however, clearly reveal the wealth and prosperity of this unusual Pee Dee planter.
Gibson's estate consisted of a house and lot in Darlington (his principle residence at which he also
ran a store), 1161 acres in Darlington, and 10,000 acres in Marion. The court action to partition
the estate reveal that at least the Marion plantation was obtained by Gibson "as heir of his father,
John Gibson," from his mother, Martha Gibson, and from his brother, S.F. Gibson. A large
24

John Gibson," from his mother, Martha Gibson, and from his brother, S.F. Gibson. A large
number of slaves, plantation utensils, and $85,000 in cash, bonds, stocks, and notes also were part
of the estate: Gibson left complex directions for the division of his estate, which at least partially
resulted in it eventually taking the 1857 court case to decipher all of the requirements.
The inventory found a total of 231 slaves, valued at $119,325, on the Marion plantation.
The seven slaves, valued at $3900, tallied for Darlington District represented house servants and
consisted almost entirely of women and young children. The plantation furniture, with such items
as pine side board, pine tables, sitting chairs, and irons, linen sheets and pillow cases, a tin foot
tub, one silver tea spoon, one lot of crockery, and a tin watering pot, suggests a rather spartan
atmosphere, in spite of Gibson's wealth and prosperity. The appraisement of his Darlington
residence reveals that the bulk of his furnishings were found there, suggesting that he spent little
time on his Pee Dee plantation.
The inventory also divides the Marion property between a "Lower Plantation" and an
"Upper Plantation." The items at each are shown in Table 1. The total value of Gibson's estate was
nearly a quarter of a million dollars prior to the Civil War. The documents also reveal that
Gibson's plantation was operated by a Mr. Owens, listed as the overseer.
Apparently the plantation continued to be farmed while attempts were made to settle the
estate. Not surprisingly, by the time the Court eventually partitions the estate in 1866 its value
had declined considerably from the 1856 appraisal, with 25 shares of Confederate securities listed
as having "doubtful" returns. The life estate eventually established for Gibson's wife was slightly
over $16,000, while the children, exclusive of lands, received no more than about $1300 each. The
10,000 acre Marion County plantation was divided between Gibson's two sons, with Nathan
Gibson receiving what appears to be the ·Upper Plantation," composing the study tract, while his
brother J. Knight Gibson, received the "Lower Plantation."
Florence in some ways was better treated by the Civil War than it had been by the
Revolution. The Pee Dee Rifles were created in July 1861 and joined as Company D of the First
South Carolina Regiment, as well as the Pee Dee Light Artillery. In November 1862 a site just
above the Wilmington and Manchester Railroad was selected by the Confederate Navy for the Pee
Dee Navy Yard.
The closest the war ever got to Florence was the creation of a Confederate prison in
September 1864. Widely recognized, both then and now, as comparable to Andersonville in
brutality and cruelty, the camp functioned for only five months before the advancing Union army
necessitated its abandonment. At least 2800 Union soldiers, or about 560 a month, died at the 24
acre camp.
Owners and Slaves in South Carolina
From 1722 to 1762 the mean personal wealth of whites in South Carolina increased from
£2730 to £6039 (or from $21,157 to $46,802 in 1978 dollars) and mean total wealth increased from
£4093 to £9054 (or from $31,721 to $70,169 in 1978 dollars) during the same period. During this
period slave wealth as a percentage of total wealth increased from 45% in 1722 to 51% in 1762, an
indication of the increasing economic importance of slavery during this period. We also know that
the proportion of slaves in South Carolina who lived on plantations with more than 30 slaves went
from 29% in the 1720s to 64% in the 1770s, indicating that many Low Country plantation owners,
in their quest for wealth, amassed more slaves to do more work to produce more wealth.
Historians have also revealed that, on the eve of the Civil War, the economic position of
25

South Carolina had fallen to record lows. Although portions of the state (especiaIly the Low
Country) still led the rest of the nation in total wealth, the total non-human wealth (wealth not
considering slaves) per capita had fallen to a low of less than $400. This was less than that of
Massachusetts, New York, or Pennsylvania.
This economic rise and fall can be seen in the daily lives of both owners and slaves
through archaeological research. It can be seen in architecture, in foods consumed, in the material
possessions of each group (clothing, eating utensils), and even "luxury" items (such as wines and
clocks). Throughout this period the lives of slaves were harsh when compared to the lives of the
owners. In fact, one historian has stated, "the South Carolina planters' callous disregard for human
life and suffering was probably unmatched anywhere ... ."
The list shown below as Table 2 reveals some of the differences in the material possessions
of slaves and owners. Beyond this, however, there was constant control. Slaves were forced to have
passes to move from plantation to plantation, slaves were allowed to marry only with their owner's
permission, slave families could be split up and sold at will, the diet of slaves was controlled by
the owner, slaves were rarely allowed fire arms and were often unable to supplement their food
rations, slaves were allowed new clothing, cloth, and blankets usually once a year, slaves were not
allowed to work for pay after hours without the permission of their owner, even slave funerals
were controlled by the owner. Virtually every act, every aspect of the slave's life was controlled at
some level by the owner.
Archaeological studies, however, also reveal that the larger the plantation, the more slaves
present,and the earlier in time, the less control the owner actually had. Under some conditions the
slaves were able to obtain considerable autonomy and it is likely that many African cultural
practices continued into the early nineteenth century. Examples, including some religious
practices, rice baskets, and even the Gullah language, continue today.
Compared to the daily drudgery of the slaves, the plantation owner's life was varied. Often
living in Charleston, the owner might only occasionally visit his plantation, checking on the
planting or harvesting of crops. The plantation visit might also be an opportunity for the owner
and his family to leave the "fast-pace" of the city, or else provide a more healthful climate. Cities
like Charleston offered not only an active social life, but also allowed the owner to participate in
politics, trade, and commerce.
Virtually every part of the plantation was somehow affected by the African American
slave. Slave craftsmen and ~arpenters built the plantation houses from the ground up - - setting out
the foundation, building the structure, plastering the walls, and painting the wood. Even the
kitchens, dairies, smoke houses, ice houses, stables, black smith shops, and slave quarters were
built, largely from scratch, by the slaves. The landscaped grounds, including beautiful gardens,
were planted and cared for by slaves. The kitchen and herb garden was planted and tended by
slaves. The food on the owner's table was prepared by slaves. The clearing of woods, the building
of ditches to drain the Pee Dee swamp, planting and tending of the crops, and eventually the
harvest were all done by the African American slaves. It is impossible to ignore the forced
路contributions路 made by slaves.

26

HOUSES
Owner:

Slave:
Permanent, well built
Raised off ground for air circulation
Large, many rooms
Glass windows.
Large fireplaces
Many fine furnishings

Impermanent, poorly built
Frequently built on ground, damp
Small, often only one room
Wooden shutters
Small fireplaces
Few, rustic, hand-made pieces

Optional
(Available for donation of $5.00)
• Curricula Materials, including
lesson plans and activity sheets for
teachers to use on site and in
the classroom.

3. The student will understand how
archaeological artifacts reflect the lives
of the African Americans who lived at
this site.

Development
Whole Class
(discussion)

4. The students will understand how each of
the three types of history reflect different
aspects of the past.
5. The student will understand his place in
history by discovering how he has already
contributed to the past in the three types
of history.

Remaining Sessions- conducted by teacher

Application

6. The student will use historical evidence to
demonstrate his place in history.

Whole Class
(discussion
&Jor

writing project)

"Full Circle" Questions
(Questions which help relate the past to the lives of students today)

1. What does the (written record/archaeological object/oral tradition) from your home say about you or
your family?

2. Would your (written record/future archaeological object/oral tradition) be commonly found in other
students' homes? Are you and other students more alike or very different?
Chicora Foundation, Inc.

Lesson Plan: Slavery & Archaeology

28

(803)787-6910

Lesson
Procedures

1. The tour will explain the three types of history, and examine a variety of examples of each.
written history: books, letters. photographs
oral history: songs. stories, family history
archaeological history: broken. lost, or discarded objects, later discovered by the archaeologist
2. The tour will examine the different types of artifacts discovered during archaeological excavations.
including glass. ceramics. food remains. architectural remains and personal items.

3. Encourage students to discuss what these artifacts tell us about the lives of the African Americans who
lived at the Florence site. and how they compare to artifacts at other sites.
4. Encourage students to discuss how the three types of history work together to create a more complete
story of the past.Written history may reflect only the lives of the literate, while archaeology reflects the
actual physical remains of the past. Oral history may examine important aspects of life which are
seldom reflected by archaeology: religion, music/dance. crafts, language. or gender differences.
5. Encourage interaction with students in discussing how each of them has already created oral. written,
and archaeological histories of themselves or their families.

6. The teacher will assign students to bring to class one example of each of the three types of history from
home: written. future archaeological artifact. and oral tradition. Discuss how these objects are part of
their family history. community history. and state history.

"Full Circle" Questions

(continued)

3. What is your least favorite family oral tradition? Will you continue this tradition with your children?
4. What is your favorite written record about you or your family?
What is your favorite potential archaeological object?

Chicora Foundation, Inc.

Lesson Plan: Slavery & Archaeology

29

(803)787-6910

POPULATION GRAPH
Study the graphs. Then decide whether each statement is true.
If the statement is true, write T next to it. If it is false, write F.
Correct the facts in the false sentences.

Total SC Population, 1790

Total SC Population, 1820

~FreeBlaCk: .7%(1,801)

~ Free Blacl<: 1.4% (6,826)

-----

w

o

Slave: 43% (107.094)

Slave: 51.4% (258,475)

Vvtlite: 56.3% (140,178)

Vvtl/te: 47.2% (237,440)

_ _ 1. There were more peopl e inS C in 1790 than in 1820.

_ _ 4. There were more Free Blacks in 1820 than in 1790.

_'_ 2. Most of the people in SC in 1820 were Black.

_ _ 5, There were 258,475 Blacks in SC in 1820.

3. Most Blacks were free in 1790.
Chicora Classroom Materials
FeG: 3

_ _ 6. Thetotal population of SC in 1790 was 140,178.

SLAVE HOUSING
Window
with Shuttcr

Entrance in
Cciling 10 Lofl

o
I

1

2

3

4

5

I

I

!

I

SCALE IN FEET

Rn~
- -

- - - _ -

- -

-

- -

~~

-

-

-

-

~
====:l~

C='

Window

Door

with Shutter

=:::::=ll - - -

C : = '

-~:;:::::.J

Rnce

......

~-...-..--_

_-

Window

wilh Shutter

Above is the floor plan of a typical slave house. Most slave houses were not bigger than 15 feet
by 20 feet; many were smaller. Some family activities took place in the house, such as cooking, eating,
sleeping, bathing, sewing, and talking or singing when work was done, but many things we do indoors
today were done outside. Children often slept on the floor or in the loft, which could be reached by a
ladder going through a hole in the ceiling.
The houses were built on brick piers, to raise the wooden floor away from the ground, making it
less damp and easier to clean.
The windows did not have glass or screens. If the shutters were closed, the only light in the room
came from the fireplace, homemade candles, or lamps burning grease from raccoons or opossums. If the
shutters were left open for fresh air and light, insects would come into the house.
The roofs were covered with wood shingles, planks, or grass thatch. These roofs could leak
during rains, be drafty, encourage insects, or catch on fire.
There was not very much furniture, usually no more than a table, a chair or two, a bed with a
mattress (often stuffed with com shucks or grass), and a trunk to keep dishes or blankets in. The
furniture was often made by slaves on the plantation. Other possessions might include cups and bowls,
spoons, iron pots and kettles, a frying pan, a bucket, pot racks and pot hooks in the fireplace, and
wooden pegs in the walls for hanging up clothes.
The small yard around the house was often used for raising chickens or growing a garden. The
slaves could use these foods to sell, or to add to the rations provided by their owners. Some slaves were
also permitted by their owners to hunt, trap or fish for extra food.

Read the following sentences. If the sentence is true, write T in the blank. If it is false, correct the
sentence to make it true.
_ _ 1. Slaves got all their food from their owner.
_ _ 2. Slave houses did not have a problem with insects.
3. Slave houses were cold in the winter.
_ _ 4. Closets in the slave houses were used for storing clothes and dishes.
_ _ 5. The slave houses had electric lights.
Chicora ciassroom Materials
FCG:4

31

LIFE AFfER THE CIVIL WAR IN THE PEE DEE
Goals and Overview
The goal of this lesson is to help the student better understand the impact of the Civil War
- - not just that slavery no longer existed, or that the South was defeated, but that the entire
nature of Southern society and economy was suddenly changed. In spite of these changes, the lives
of the plantation owner and former slaves in many cases changed very little. This is presented
within the context of one Florence County plantation.
This lesson correlates with Huff's The History of South Carolina in the Building of the
Nation, Chapter 20, "Reconstruction," and Chapter 22, "Life and Work in the Postbellum Years."
One of the greatest legacies of the Civil War is tenancy - - farming of land by
sharecroppers and others who work for the owner, but who do not actually own the land they
farm. Another major legacy was the addiction of South Carolina to cotton, an addiction that
resulted in ruined lands, low prices, and poverty.
During the very late nineteenth century and early twentieth century many Pee Dee
counties turned to tobacco as a replacement for cotton. Chicora Foundation, in cooperation with
the Pee Dee Heritage Center, has developed a curriculum guide exclusively for teaching tobacco
history. Please contact us for this information to complete the Pee Dee story.
Gibson Plantation and Tenancy
Sherman's troops passed to the northwest of Florence, leaving the town and the Pee Dee
region little worse for the experience. Eventually, the 167th New York Infantry occupied
Florence, ensuring at least in the short term its reconstruction. The only account dealing with the
Gibson plantation is the May 8, 1865 murder of Gibson's overseer, Darius Gandy. A black man,
Jeff Gee, was arrested and quickly sentenced to be hung, although through the intervention of a
local leader, Gee was eventually pardoned by the military authorities. This was certainly not an
isolated event; violence was typical during the reconstruction period and Florence saw
considerable Klan activity into the early twentieth century.
There is, however, some evidence that both Nathan and Knight Gibson were not totally
intolerant of their new black neighbors. It was during the early days after the Civil War that the
kin-based community of Jamestown was formed by Freedmen immediately west of Nathan
Gibson's holdings. Similar communities are common in South Carolina and represent efforts by
the Freedmen to establish themselves as small farmers, while ensuring the support of family and
friends. These communities represent a unique response to the increasing discrimination and
threat of violence typical of South Carolina during the late nineteenth century.
It was also during this time that the railroads began to recover from the Civil War. In 1877
the Wilmington, Columbia and Augusta Railroad wanted to change the location of their track
through Nathan S. Gibson's plantation and he sold them a tract of land "for the purpose of
improving the alignment of said RR and getting earth to fill trestles in the Pee Dee Swamp". The
plat which accompanied the deed shows that the railroad was between the plantations of Nathan

32

and his brother, Knight.
The immediate post-Civil War economy was unstable at best, yet it appears that the
Gibson's managed to maintain their tracts relatively intact. The only major sale of Gibson land
was to dispose of the 4,482 acres of Pee Dee swamp land east and north of their highland tracts.
This property was sold to Benjamin F. Newcomer of Baltimore, Maryland. Nathan and J. Knight
Gibson, however, retained the Mars Bluff Ferry and ferry landing, as well as the right "to get and
use firewood on said lands herein granted for our plantation use, and also the oak and other
timber necessary for use for plantation purposes for ploughs, waggons &c, and the right to rake
surface from the same."
The 1870 agricultural census listed Knight Gibson's Lower Plantation, consisting of 500
acres of improved land, 300 acres of woodland, and 1400 acres of other unimproved land, with a
total value of $8573. The farm implements were valued at only $150. Livestock included two
horses, four mules or asses, and two oxen, valued at $900. Gibson produced 250 bushels of corn,
25 bushels of peas and beans, and 25 bushels of sweet potatoes. Only 26 bales of cotton were
produced by Gibson, although $1200 in wages were paid.
This suggests that farmers in Marion, like elsewhere in South Carolina, experimented with
wage labor immediately after the Civil War. Faced with uncertainty, but the need to begin
planting immediately, many accepted the wage labor solution begun by the Union Army and later
espoused by the Freedman's Bureau. To support the wage system no less than seven major types of
contracts were used by Southern planters. This system, however, was doomed to failure, being
disliked by both the Freedmen, who found it too reminiscent of slavery, and the plantation
owners, who found that it gave the Freedmen too much liberty. In response to both the
Freedman's Bureau and the growing freedom the blacks, the South Carolina legislature passed the
Black Codes in September 1865. These extended the restrictions placed on blacks and resulted in
only nominal freedom that was, in reality, a new form of slavery.
In 1886 J. Knight Gibson died, throwing his estate into nearly as much turmoil as that of
his father, over 30 years earlier. Nathan S. Gibson, as executor, eventually brought the case to
court in order to force a partition of the estate and to obtain payment for debts against the estate.
Nathan took over the operation of the Lower Plantation, as well as his brother's store, J.K. Gibson
and Company. According to one witness:
J.K. Gibson was very much involved and my opinion was confirmed when I looked
over his books. I regarded him utterly insolvent from the examination of his books
and from my knowledge of his affairs being intimately associated with him. From
my knowledge of his affairs he lived above his income .... At the time of the
death of J.K. Gibson the farm was very much out of repairs (Marion County Court
of Common Pleas, Case 195).
Nathan Gibson testified that he, "had a large number of stumps taken up; ditches cleaned out and
new ones cut; had a new set of stables built in the place of stables burnt; had fine tenement houses
built" on his brother's property, which he managed without payment. In addition, Nathan S.
Gibson and his mother, Amarintha D. Gibson, took in Knight's children, raising and educating
them, again without cost to the estate.
The Court eventually decided that Knight's plantation should be sold to settle the debts of
the estate, after a "Homestead" tract of 273 acres was struck off for his children. That "Homestead"
included Knight's residence, which was at the same location as Capt. John Gibson's early
nineteenth century house. The remainder of the plantation was purchased by his brother, Nathan
33

S. Gibson. This consolidated the bulk of the Gibson holdings initially split as a result of James S.
Gibson's death before the Civil War.
Beginning in 1887 there was a growing sentiment for the creation of a new county.
Individuals in the rural areas felt cut-off from both the legal affairs held at the Marion court
house and also from the available markets. The Pee Dee River swamp was still, at the end of the
nineteenth century, considered impenetrable, and ferries were dangerous. The trip from what is
today the City of Florence to Marion, only 22 miles away, required a full day of travel. Florence
was created as a county in 1888 - - carved out of neighboring Marion, Darlington, and Marlboro
counties.
The creation of the new county began an era of "boasterism," loudly proclaiming the
benefits of Florence. One example is the advertisement of Florence County at the 1895 Atlanta
Cotton Exposition:
...situated as she is, the great railroad center of eastern South Carolina, surrounded
by lands which produce corn, wheat, rye, oats, tobacco, rice, sugarcane, cotton,
potatoes, onion, and vegetables of all kinds, apples, pears, peaches, plums, grapes,
berries, melons in profusion, whose forests contain most of the woods of
commerce, with water power and easy access to fuel for manufacturing, Florence
County presents an inviting field for investment and immigration (quoted in King
1981:168).
This advertisement is interesting since it begins the promotion of tobacco in Florence County, as
well as encouraging immigration.
Tobacco was a growing concern during this period, with the first tobacco growers
association formed in 1895. Tobacco was referred to "Our Nicotiana Tobacum - Pearl of the Pee
Dee." That same year there were 139 tobacco growers, with most planting around 5 acres and the
largest planting only 40 acres. By the mid-1890s the average profit on an acre of tobacco was $150
to $200 an acre, well over the $10 an acre provided by cotton.
This last decade of the nineteenth century marked the culmination of 30 years of effort to
remove blacks from the political process and to re-assert white supremacy. The 1895 South
Carolina Constitutional Convention almost totally disenfranchised blacks and the Federal
government's retreat from its duty to protect the freedom of black citizens was symbolized by the
1896 Supreme Court decision of Plessy v. Ferguson which established the doctrine of "separate but
equal." The Ku Klux Klan remained active in Florence County well into the 1920s, with the 1923
Confederate Veteran's Reunion in 1923 marking the climax of their activity.
Being unable to vote in elections, an increasing number of Florence County blacks "voted
with their feet," leaving Florence and South Carolina for the north. This exodus spurred many to
encourage immigration into the region, in order to replenish the work force. In spite of this, by
1923 upwards of 100 blacks a month were leaving Florence.
In 1909 Nathan Gibson died, leaving his estate to his wife, Rebecca Gibson, in trust for
his daughter, Mary Savage Gibson, and his wife's children from a previous marriage, George
Hyman, Mary A. Hyman, and McCall Hyman. His plantation was described as a "large fifteen
horse farm stocked with mules, wagons, plows and all of the various paraphernalia generally used
in the conduct of a farm of equal size." Also included in his estate was his general store at Winona.
Inventoried were 304 bales of cotton packed and ready to be shipped out of Winona, over 73 tons
of cotton seed meal at the Darlington Oil Mill, and a car load of cotton seed on a siding at Winona.
34

The first activity by the executors was an effort in lanuary 1909 to rent the farm,
"together with the mules, farming implements, dwelling houses, grist mill, gin, and store which
are situated on and go with said land." By the end of February the farm was rented to H.S. Rose
and the executors requested the Court's permission to sell Rose the store stock for 65% of its
invoiced cost, noting that the' "stock of merchandise at Winona [is] old and of not much value, and
is only of special value to the party running the farm." This suggests that the primary function of
the store, like many others, was to supply Gibson's tenants.
Regrettably little is known about the operation of the plantation during this time, although
the Adams and Ervin 1913 "Map of Florence County, South Carolina" shows the Gibson estate
north of the railroad (Figure 10). l.S. Gibson to the south is the son of Knight Gibson who was
operating the Homestead. The 1914 Florence
County Soil Survey map provides the best plan
of the plantation found (Figure 11). Twelve
structures are found scattered across the
property, with an additional 15 structures
forming a double row at the north edge of the
plantation, adjacent to the Pee Dee swamp.
This row strongly resembles a nineteenth
century slave settlement that continued to be
used by freedmen into the twentieth century.
The scattered houses represent both laborers'
housing and also the dwelling of Nathan S.
Gibson. The 1amestown settlement is also
shown on the map as a loosely nucleated
settlement at the edge of the Pee Dee swamp.
In the most simple of terms, two types
of tenancy existed in the South -sharecropping and renting. Sharecropping
Figure 10. A portion of the Adams and Ervin 1913 required the tenant to pay the landlord part of
"Map of Florence County, South Carolina" showing the crop produced, while renting required the
tenant to pay a fixed rent in either crops or
the vicinity of the Gibson Plantation.
money. While similar, there were basic
differences, perhaps the most significant of
which was that the sharecropper was simply a wage laborer who received his portion of the crop
from the plantation owner, while the renter paid his rent to the landlord.
â&#x20AC;˘ J ...... 11&&.

Further distinctions can be made between sharecropping, share-renting, and cash-renting.
With sharecropping the tenant supplied the labor and one - half of the necessary fertilizer, while
the landlord supplied everything else, including the land, housing, tools, work animals, feed, and
seed. At harvest the crop would be divided, usually equally. In share-renting the landlord sup,plied
the land, housing, and either one - quarter or one - third of the fertilizer, while the tenant supplied
everything else necessary, including the animals, feed, seed, and tools. At harvest the crop was
divided equal to the portion of fertilizer each party provided. Finally, with cash-renting the
landlord supplied the land and the housing, while the tenant supplied everything else. The owner
received a fixed rent per acre in cash.
Agee et a1. provide some general information on agricultural activities during the early
twentieth century, observing that:
Farms operated by tenants are usually devoted mainly to the production of cotton,
35

corn, and tobacco. The ordinary
yield of cotton on such farms is a
little over one - half bale per acre,
while that of corn is about 16
bushels. These yields could easily
be increased, as is demonstrated by
the better farmers, who obtain 1
bale to 2 bales of cotton and 40 to
60 bushels of corn per acre....
About 65 per cent of the farms are
operated by tenants.... The
ordinary yield of tobacco in the
county is somewhat over 800
pounds per acre. The price has
averaged about 14 cents per pound
(Agee et al. 1916:9).
By the late 1920s the boll weevil
was reaching Florence County and one
newspaper editorial reported that the
weevil had "put a stop to the lazy man's
crop," and that now planting took "brains,
money, hard work, and poison to raise
cotton hereabouts these days."
The plantation had changed little
by 1940. A map from that period shows
the neighboring black community is
named Jamestown for the first time. A
series of six structures in the slave
settlement are shown as still standing. In
addition, 14 structures are shown scattered
over the property. These represent the
remains of tenant houses, sheds, and even
several tobacco barns
TENANCY
TYPE

Figure 11. A portion of the 1914 Florence County soil
survey showing the Gibson Plantation. Notice the
double row of structures which probably represents a
nineteenth century slave settlement still being used by
tenant farmers.

- -

LANDLORD
PROVIDES

TENANT
PROVIDES

LANDLORD
RECEIVES

Cash Renters

Land, house, fuel

Labor, animals, equipment,
seed, fertilizer

Fixed amount in
cash or crop

Share Tenant

Land, house, fuel, 1/4 or 1/3
f ertiliz.er

Labor, animals, equipment,
3/4 or 213 fertiliz.er

1/4 or 1/3 of crop

Share Cropper

Land, house, fuel, equipment,
animals, seed, 1/2 fertilizer

Labor, 1/2 of fertiliz.er

1/2 of crop

Figure 12. Different types of tenancy in South Carolina.

36

37

Lesson
Objectives

Getting
Started
Time Needed

First Session - tour ofsite

-1 - 2 hours for tour of Roche
Carolina site

1. The student will be introduced to the
changes in the lives of African
Americans from slavery to freedmen
and tenant farming.

-Two 45-55 minute class periods
(teacher may choose to expand
time spent in class or tour)

Optional
(Available for donation of $5.00)
• Florence Curricula Plan, including
lesson plans and activity sheets for
teachers to use on site and in
classroom.

3. The students will understand how
archaeological artifacts reflect the
changes in lifestyles of the African
Americans who lived at this site.
4. The student will understand the
important role Mrican Americans
have played in the development of
South Carolina heritage and history.

Remaining Sessions- conducted by teacher

5. The student will explore the role his
family/community played in early
twentieth century agriculture of South
Carolina.

Development
Whole Class
(discussion)

Application
Whole Class
(discussion

&lor
writing project)

"Full Circle" Questions
(Questions which help relate the past to the lives of students today)

1. Are there any historic buildings or sites in your neighborhood? What do they tell you about the
people of the past?
2. Does your home (or school) have outbuildings? What are they used for?
Chicora Foundation, Inc.

Lesson Plan: Life After the Civil War

38

(803) 787-6910

Lesson
Procedures
1. The tour of the archaeological site will explain how the Civil War and loss of slaves as a work force
resulted in an economic collapse in South Carolina. In an attempt at economic recovery, plantation
owners and farmers were forced to turn to tenancy.

2. The tour will explain the similarities and differences between slavery and tenant farming.

3. The tour will examine the different artifacts discovered during archaeological excavations, including
glass, ceramics, food remains, architectural remains and personal items.

4. Encourage students to discuss what these artifacts tell us about the lives of the African Americans
who lived at the Roche Carolina site, and how they compare to artifacts at other sites and from other
time periods.
5. Encourage interaction with students in discussing how African Americans have influenced the heritage
and history of South Carolina through their labor. While owning a small percentage of the land, the
African Americans have constructed buildings, raised crops, and built villages, towns, and
neighborhoods throughout South Carolina.

6. The teacher will assign students to research the the effect of agriculture on their family/community by
interviewing older members of the family/community. (See Oral History Project Sheet)

"Full Circle" Questions

(continued)

3. What does your home and yard tell people about your family?
4. What is your favorite story from your family history? What is your least favorite?
How do these reflect the history of your family?
Chicora Foundation, Inc.

Lesson Plan: Life After the Civil War

39

(803)787-6910

THE COST OF LIVING
Tenant farmers and sharecroppers grew most of their own food, but had little cash with which to
make additional purchases at the general store. Local general stores often extended credit to the farmers
for their purchases. Unfortunately, at the end of the year, many farmers found they earned only enough
money to pay their store bill. Some found they still owed money.
Below is a grocery list with prices from 1942. Fill in the spaces in the 1993 column with prices
from a grocery store in your neighborhood. Then answer the questions.

5. Prices have increased in the last 50 years. On a separate sheet of paper figure
the percentage increase for each food.
1942 Average Wages, South Carolina
Annual

CLASS DISCUSSION:
Looking at the average salaries for fanners in 1942,
how easy or difficult would it be for them to purchase
groceries for their families? To purchase other items, such as
food or clothing? To save money to purchase land or educate
children?

Monthly

Wage Earner

180,00

15.00

Sharecropper

321.00

26,75

Land Owner

2,600.00

216,67

Chicora Classroom Materials
FCG:5

40

ORAL HISTORY PROJECT
OBJECTIVE:
To gain a better understanding the effect of agriculture on the daily Jives of people in your
family or community.

Getting Started:
• Choose an older person in your family or community to interview. If you are new in the
community, you may meet an interesting person at the library, church, or retirement home.
Try not to be shy. Introduce yourself, and make a new friend who will have many interesting
stori es to tell!
• Be sure the person you have chosen understands that this is a school project, and that you will
be writing a report about their life.
• Use a tape recorder or notepad to record the interview. You may need to go back several times
to ask all your questions. If you have a camera, ask permission to take pictures.
• Be sure you spell any names correctly. No one likes to see his name mispelled.
• Listed below are a series of questions you may want to ask. Use your imagination to create
more questions. Do not read the questions, ask them naturally.
• Listen carefully to the other person. Their answers may give you ideas for new questions.
• If you are able to borrow photos, letters, or scrapbooks. be very careful! These items are very
precious to the other person.
• Write a report about the person's life. You should be able to answer these questions in your
report:
1. How is this persons life similar to or different from yours?
2. What was the effect of agriculture on this person and their family?
3. Are your opportunities better or worse ~han theirs were?

• Your class may choose to put all your interviews together in a book. Discuss with your teacher
how this can be done.

Chicora Classroom A.cli\'iICS
FCG: 6

41

Page 2 - Oral History Project

SAMPLE QUESTIONS:
I. Where did your family live?
2. How many people were in your family?
3. Did the family move when you were a child?
4. Can you describe your house?
5. When did your family get indoor plumbing for the first time? Electricity? Telephone?
6. What kind of stove did you have?
7. Were there any outbuildings? What were they used for?
8. Were the children in school?
9. What was your favorite part of school?
10. What was your least favorite part of school?
11. How far away was school? How did you get there?
12. What toys did you have?
13. What church did you go to? How often did you go?
14. What did people in your family wear?
IS. Did your family make their own clothes?
16. How did the women wear their hair?
17. Did they wear jewelry?
18. Did the men have beards or moustaches?
19. How did your family celebrate birthdays? Holidays? Weddings?
20. Did you get sick? What happened?
21. Did your family use mail order catalogues? What did you get?
22. What household chores were assigned to various members of the family?
23. What were the rules of your household?
24. What happened if yOll broke the rules?
25. How did you wash clothes?
26. How did you stay cool in the slimmer?
27. How did the people in your family earn a living?
28. Were they paid in cash or crops? Were they able to get credit?
29. Do you think your family was rich or poor? Why?
30. Did the women of the family work outside the home?
31. If you lived on a farm, what crops and animals did you raise?
Which ones were raised for sale?
33. Did your family hunt?
34. If you lived in town, were there paved streets? Street lights? Sidewalks? Parks?
35. Did the town or community practice segregation? How did this affect you?
36. What part did movies, radio, or sports play in your life?
37. Who was your hero or heroine?
38. Did you ever help in the fields? Did your friends?
39. Did you ever go to a tobacco auction?
40. Do you have any photos from the past?

Chicora
R:G:6

Cla~sroom

Materials

42

ANSWER SHEET
Activity #3
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6. F (249,073)

Activity #1

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Activity #4
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Please Note:
Several activities do not have answers listed here.
These are discussion activities, or the answers are
dependent on the area the student lives in.

Activity #5
Listed below are food prices gathered in a low price grocery store in Columbia, SC,
February 1993. These may serve as a guide to the teacher, although it is recommended that
he/she gather these prices in his/her own area.
1942
.08
.30
.03
.07

SOURCES
History and Archaeology
Bettmann, Otto L.
1974
The Good Old Days - They Were Terrible! Random House, New York.
Fischer, David Hackett
1970 Historians' Fallacies: Toward a Logic of Historical Thought. Colophon Books, New
York.
Harris, Marvin
1977 Cannibals and Kings: The Origins of Cultures. Random House, New York.
Nash, Gary B., editor
1975
The Private Side of American History: Readings in Everyday Life to 1877.
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York.
Schlereth, Thomas J.
1980 Artifacts and the American Past. American Association for State and Local History,
Nashville.
Schlereth, Thomas J., editor
1982 Material Culture Studies in America. American Association for State and Local
History, Nashvile.
Weitzman, David
1976
Underfoot: An Everyday Guide to Exploring the American Past. Charles Scribner's
Sons, New York.

American Ethnology. Washington, D.C.
Perdue, Theda
1985 Native Carolinians: The Indians of North Carolina. North Carolina Department of
Cultural Resources, Division of Arch ives and History, Raleigh.
Quattlebaum, Paul
1956
The Land Called Chicora: The Carolinas Under Spanish Rule With French
Intrusions, 1520-1670. University of Florida Press, Gainesville.
Ramsay, David
1809
The History of South Carolina. 2 vols. Charleston.
Swanton, John R.
1952
The Indian Tribes of North America. Bulletin 145. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau
of American Ethnology. Washington, D.C.
Waddell, Gene
1980 Indians of the South Carolina Lowcountry, 1562-1751. The Reprint Company,
Spartan burg.
Plantations and Slave Life
Coclanis, Peter A.
1989
The Shadow of a Dream: Economic Life and Death in the South Carolina Low
COllntry 1670-1920. Oxford University Press, New York.
Genovese, Eugene D.
1976 Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made. Vintage Books, New York.
Hurmence, Belinda, editor
1989 Before Freedom, WIzen I Just Can Remember: Twenty-seven Oral Histories of
Former South Carolina Slaves. John F. Blair, Winston-Salem, North Carolina.
Joyner, Charles
1984 Down By the Riverside: A South Carolina Slave Community. University of Illinois
Press, Urbana.
Kohn, David, editor
1938 Internal Improvement in South Carolina 1817-1828. n.p., Washington, D.C.
Otto, John S.
1984

Cannon's Point Plantation, 1794-1850: Living Conditions and Status Patterns in the
Old South. Academic Press, New York.

Life After the Civil War
Agee, J.H., J.A. Kerr, and W.E. McLendon
1916 Soil Survey of Florence County, South Carolina. USDA, Bureau of Soils,
Washington, D.C.

45

King, G. Wayne
1981
Rise Up So Early: A History of Florellce Coullty. South Carolina. The Reprint
Press, Spartanburg, South Carolina.
Maddox, Jerald c., editor
1973 Walker Evans: Photographs for the Farm Security Administration, 1935-1938. Da
Capo Press, New York.
Raper, Arthur F. and Ira De A. Reid
1941 Sharecroppers All. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.
Robinson, John L.
1981 Living Hard: Southem Americans ill the Great Depression. University Press of
America, Washington, D.C.
Terrill, Tom E. and Jerrold Hirsch
1979 Such as Us: Southem Voices of the Thirties. W.W. Norton and Company, New
York.
Williamson, Joel
1965 After S lavery: The Negro in South Carolina During Reconstruction, 1861-1877.
U ni versity of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.

46

Additional On-Line Sources
Native Americans
Go to http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/fsaquery.html and in the search box enter “Indians South
Carolina” for several examples of settlement Indians in South Carolina during the Depression
Brief information on South Carolina Indian tribes
South Carolina Indian Affairs Commission lists Native American groups today
Slave Housing
Brick slave house at Boone Hall Plantation, Charleston County, SC (brick slave houses were unusual)\
South Carolina Slave Houses
Gregg Slave Houses, Florence County, South Carolina
Double slave cabins on the South Carolina coast
Log slave house in Virginia
Tabby slave houses from the Georgia coast
Slave house street, Mulberry Plantation, South Carolina
Advertisement for the sale of African Americans in Charleston
Tenant Housing
Florence County, South Carolina map showing housing in 1914
Go to http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/fsaquery.html and in the search box enter “tenant house South
Carolina” for several examples of typical tenant housing in the 1930s
Gregg-Wallace Farm tenant house, Florence County, South Carolina