Southeast

Natural Ecosystems Will Be Transformed

The Southeast’s diverse natural systems, which provide many benefits to society, will be transformed by climate change. Changing winter temperature extremes, wildfire patterns, sea levels, hurricanes, floods, droughts, and warming ocean temperatures are expected to redistribute species and greatly modify ecosystems. As a result, the ecological resources that people depend on for livelihood, protection, and well-being are increasingly at risk, and future generations can expect to experience and interact with natural systems that are much different than those that we see today.

Ecosystems in the Southeast span the transition zone between tropical and temperate climates. The region’s more temperate ecosystems include hardwood forests, spruce-fir forests, pine-dominated forests, and salt marshes. The region’s more tropical ecosystems include mangrove forests, coral reefs, pine savannas, and the tropical freshwater wetlands of the Everglades. Ecological diversity in the Southeast is high,113,114,115,116,117 and southeastern ecosystems and landscapes provide many benefits to society. In addition to providing habitat for fish and wildlife species, ecosystems in the Southeast provide recreational opportunities, improve water quality, provide seafood, reduce erosion, provide timber, support food webs, minimize flooding impacts, and support high rates of carbon sequestration (or storage).118,119,120 These ecological resources that people depend on for livelihoods, protection, and well-being are increasingly at risk from the impacts of climate change.

Climate greatly influences the structure and functioning of all natural systems (Ch. 7: Ecosystems). An analysis of ecological changes that have occurred in the past can help provide some context for anticipating and preparing for future ecological changes. In response to past climatic changes, many ecosystems in the Southeast were much different than those present today. For example, since the end of the last glacial maximum (about 19,000 years ago—the most recent period of maximum ice extent),121 forests in the region have been transformed by warming temperatures, sea level rise, and glacial retreat.122,123 Spruce species that were once present in the region’s forests have moved northward and have been replaced by oaks and other less cold-tolerant tree species that have expanded from the south.124 And along the coast, freeze-sensitive mangrove forests and other tropical coastal species have been expanding northward and upslope since the last glacial maximum.125,126,127,128,129

In the coming decades and centuries, climate change will continue to transform many ecosystems throughout the Southeast,6,130,131,132,133,134,135 which would affect many of the societal benefits these ecosystems provide. As a result, future generations can expect to experience, interact with, and potentially benefit from natural systems that are much different than those that we see today (Ch. 7: Ecosystems).136,137

Warming Winter Temperature Extremes

Changes in winter air temperature patterns are one aspect of climate change that will play an especially important role in the Southeast. By the late 21st century under the higher scenario (RCP8.5), the freeze-free season is expected to lengthen by more than a month. Winter air temperature extremes (for example, freezing and chilling events) constrain the northern limit of many tropical and subtropical species.138,139,140,141,142,143,144 Certain ecosystems in the region are located near thresholds where small changes in winter air temperature regimes can trigger comparatively large and abrupt landscape-scale ecological changes (in other words, ecological regime shifts).135,145 Reductions in the frequency and intensity of cold winter air temperature extremes can allow tropical and subtropical species to move northward and replace more temperate species. Where climatic thresholds are crossed, certain ecosystem and landscapes will be transformed by changing winter air temperatures.

Figure 19.15: Projected Changes in Plant Hardiness Zones

Figure 19.15: Increasing winter temperatures are expected to result in a northward shift of the zones conducive to growing various types of plants, known as plant hardiness zones. These maps show the mean projected changes in the plant hardiness zones, as defined by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), by the late 21st century (2070–2099) under a higher scenario (RCP8.5). The USDA plant hardiness zones are based on the average lowest minimum temperature for the year, divided into increments of 5°F. Based on these projected changes, freeze-sensitive plants, like oranges, papayas, and mangoes, would be able to survive in new areas.142 Note that large changes are projected across the region, but especially in Kentucky, Tennessee, and northern Arkansas. Sources: NOAA NCEI and CICS-NC.

Plant hardiness zone maps help convey the importance of winter air temperature extremes for species and natural systems in the Southeast. To help gardeners and farmers, the U.S. Department of Agriculture has produced plant hardiness zone maps that can be used to determine which species are most likely to survive and thrive in a given location. The plant hardiness zones are reflective of the frequency and intensity of winter air temperature extremes in a specific region. Already, in response to climate change, plant hardiness zones in certain areas are moving northward and are expected to continue their northward and upslope progression.139,142,146,147 Continued reductions in the frequency and intensity of winter air temperature extremes are expected to change which species are able to survive and thrive in a given location (Figure 19.15). For example, citrus species are sensitive to freezing and chilling temperatures.148 However, in the future, climate change is expected to enable the survival of citrus in areas that are north of the current tolerance zone.142

The effects of changing winters reach far beyond just agricultural and garden plants. Along the coast, for example, warmer winter temperatures are expected to allow mangrove forests to move northward and replace salt marshes (Figures 19.16 and 19.17).135,149,150,151,152 Coastal wetlands, like mangrove forests and salt marshes, are abundant in the Southeast.153,154 The societal benefits provided by coastal wetlands are numerous.119 Hence, where coastal wetlands are abundant (for example, the Mississippi River Delta), their cumulative value can be worth billions of dollars each year and trillions of dollars over a 100-year period.155 Coastal wetlands provide seafood, improve water quality, provide recreational opportunities, reduce erosion, support food webs, minimize flooding impacts, and support high rates of carbon sequestration.118 Foundation species are species that create habitat and support entire ecological communities.156,157 In coastal wetlands and many other ecosystems, foundation plant species play an especially important role. Hence, the loss and/or replacement of foundation plant species, like salt marsh grasses, will have ecological and societal consequences in certain areas.135,145,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164 While salt marsh and mangrove wetlands both contain valuable foundation species, some of the habitat and societal benefits provided by existing salt marsh habitats will be affected by the northward expansion of mangrove forests.145,158,160,161,164,165

Transitioning Coastal Ecosystems

Figure 19.17: In Louisiana and parts of northern Florida, future coastal wetlands are expected to look and …

In addition to plants, warmer winter air temperatures will also affect the movement and interactions between many different kinds of organisms. For example, certain insect species, including mosquitoes and tree-damaging beetles, are expected to move northward in response to climate change, which could affect human health and timber supplies.30,144,166,167,168,169,170,171,172 And some bird species, including certain ducks, are not expected to migrate as far south in response to milder winters,173 which could affect birding and hunting recreational opportunities. Many recreational fishery populations in tropical coastal areas are freeze-sensitive138,174,175,176,177,178 and are, therefore, expected to move northward in response to warmer water and air temperatures. Although the appearance of tropical recreational fish, like snook for example, may be favorable for some anglers, the movement of tropical marine species is expected to greatly modify existing food webs and ecosystems (Ch. 7: Ecosystems, Figure 7.4).179 Some problematic invasive species are expected to be favored by changing winters. For example, in South Florida, the Burmese python and the Brazilian pepper tree are two freeze-sensitive, nonnative species that have, respectively, decimated mammal populations and transformed native plant communities within Everglades National Park.180,181,182,183,184,185,186,187,188 In the future, warmer winter temperatures are expected to facilitate the northward movement of these problematic invasive species, which would transform natural systems north of their current distribution.

Warm Winters Favor Invasive Species

Figure 19.18: Burmese pythons are apex predators (not preyed upon by other animals) that are sensitive to cold …

Changing Patterns of Fire

In the Southeast region, changing fire regimes (defined by factors including frequency, intensity, size, pattern, season, and severity) are expected to have a large impact on natural systems. Fire has historically played an important role in the region, and ecological diversity in many southeastern natural systems is dependent upon fire.115,116,134,189 Although the total area burned by wildfire is greatest in the western United States, the Southeast has the largest area burned by prescribed fire (see Case Study “Prescribed Fire”) and the highest number of wildfires.134,190 In the future, rising temperatures and increases in the duration and intensity of drought are expected to increase wildfire occurrence and also reduce the effectiveness of prescribed fire.3,4,5,6 Moreover, rapid urban expansion near managed forests has the potential to reduce opportunities to use prescribed fire, which could lead to native species declines, increased wildfire occurrence, and economic and health impacts.134,191

A recent example of the importance of fire lies in the forests of the southern Appalachians. Over the last century, invasive insects, logging, and pathogens have transformed forests in the region.192 Warmer temperatures and insects have led to the loss of cold-adapted boreal communities, and flammable, fire-adapted tree species have been replaced by less flammable, fire-sensitive species—a process known as mesophication.193,194 However, intense fires, like those observed in 2016, can halt the mesophication process. High temperatures, increases in accumulated plant material on the forest floor, and a four-month seasonal drought in the fall of 2016 collectively produced the worst wildfires the region has seen in a century. Intra-annual droughts, like the one in 2016, are expected to become more frequent in the future.6 Thus, drought and greater fire activity134 are expected to continue to transform forest ecosystems in the region (see Ch. 6: Forests, KM 1).

Case Study: Prescribed Fire

With wildfire projected to increase in the Southeast,6,191 prescribed fire (the purposeful ignition of low-intensity fires in a controlled setting), remains the most effective tool for reducing wildfire risk.4,195 Department of Defense (DoD) lands represent the largest reservoirs of biodiversity and native ecosystems in the region.117 Military activities are a frequent source of wildfires, but increases in prescribed fire acres (Figure 19.19) show a corresponding decrease in wildfire ignitions for DoD.4 Climate resilience by DoD is further achieved through restoration of native longleaf pine forests that occupy a wide range of site types, including wetland and well-drained soils—the latter leading many to characterize this forest as being drought resistant.196,197,198,199 In addition to proactive adaptation through prescribed fire, DoD has been a leader in climate strategies that include regional conservation planning, ecosystem management, endangered species recovery, and research funding.

Rising Sea Levels and Hurricanes

Rising sea levels and potential changes in hurricane intensity are aspects of climate change that are expected to have a tremendous effect on coastal ecosystems in the Southeast (Ch. 8: Coastal, KM 2; Ch. 9: Oceans, KM 1). Since coastal terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems are highly sensitive to increases in inundation and salinity, sea level rise will result in the rapid conversion of these systems to tidal saline habitats. Historically, coastal ecosystems in the region have adjusted to sea level rise by vertical and horizontal movement across the landscape.125,129,200,201 As sea levels rise in the future, some coastal ecosystems will be submerged and converted to open water, and saltwater intrusion will allow salt-tolerant coastal ecosystems to move inland at the expense of upslope and upriver ecosystems.128,202,203,204,205,206,207,208 Where barriers are present (for example, levees and other coastal infrastructure), the potential for landward migration of natural systems will be reduced and certain coastal habitats will be lost (Ch. 20: U.S. Caribbean, KM 3).204 With higher sea levels and increasing saltwater intrusion, the high winds, high precipitation rates, storm surges, and salts that accompany hurricanes will have large ecological impacts to terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems.209,210

An example of the effects of rising sea levels can be found in Louisiana, which faces some of the highest land loss rates in the world. The ecosystems of the Mississippi River Delta provide at least $12–$47 billion (in 2017 dollars) in benefits to people each year.155 These benefits include hurricane storm protection, water supply, furs, habitat, climate stability, and waste treatment. However, between 1932 and 2016, Louisiana lost 2,006 square miles of land area (see Case Study “A Lesson Learned for Community Resettlement”),211 due in part to high rates of relative sea level rise.212,213,214,215 The rate of wetland loss during this period equates to Louisiana losing an area the size of one football field every 34 to 100 minutes.211 To protect and restore the Louisiana coast, the Louisiana Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority (CPRA) has worked with local, state, and federal partners to iteratively develop a 2017 Coastal Master Plan that identifies investments that can provide direct restoration and risk reduction benefits.216 The aim of the 50-year, $50-billion strategy is to sustain Louisiana’s coastal ecosystems, safeguard coastal populations, and protect vital economic and cultural resources.216

Drought and Extreme Rainfall

Climate change is expected to intensify the hydrologic cycle and increase the frequency and severity of extreme events like drought and heavy rainfall. Drought and extreme heat can result in tree mortality and transform the region’s forested ecosystems (Ch. 6: Forests, KM 1).217,218,219,220,221,222,223 Drought can also affect aquatic and wetland ecosystems,224 for example by contributing to mortality and ecological transformations in salt marshes,225,226 mangrove forests,227,228,229,230,231 and tidal freshwater forests.232 In addition to drought, extreme rainfall events are also expected to become more frequent and severe in the future. The prolonged inundation and lack of oxygen that results from extreme rainfall can also result in mortality, such as the dieback of critical foundation plant species, and other large impacts to natural systems.233 In combination, future increases in the frequency and severity of both extreme drought and extreme rainfall are expected to transform many ecosystems in the Southeast region. Natural systems in the region will have to become resistant and resilient to both too little water and too much water. The ecological transformations induced by these extreme events will affect many of the benefits that natural systems provide to society.

Warming Ocean Temperatures

Warming ocean temperatures due to climate change are expected to have a large effect on marine and coastal ecosystems (Ch. 9: Oceans, KM 3).234,235,236 Many species are sensitive to small changes in ocean temperature; hence, the distribution and abundance of marine organisms are expected to be greatly altered by increasing ocean temperatures. For example, the distribution of tropical herbivorous fish has been expanding in response to warmer waters, which has resulted in the tropicalization of some temperate marine ecosystems and decreases in the cover of valuable macroalgal plant communities.179 A decrease in the growth of sea turtles in the West Atlantic has been linked to higher ocean temperatures.237 Due to climate change, warming ocean temperatures in the coming decades are expected to transform many marine and coastal ecosystems across the Southeast. However, the impacts to coral reef ecosystems in the region have been and are expected to be particularly dire. Coral reefs are biologically diverse ecosystems that provide many societal benefits, including coastal protection from waves, habitat for fish, and recreational and tourism opportunities.238,239 However, coral reef mortality in the Florida Keys and across the globe has been very high in recent decades, due in part to warming ocean temperatures, nutrient enrichment, overfishing, and coastal development.240,241,242,243,244 Small increases in ocean temperature can cause corals to expel the symbiotic algae upon which they depend for nourishment. When this happens, corals lose their color and die in a process known as coral bleaching (Ch. 9: Oceans, KM 1). Coral elevation and volume in the Florida Keys have been declining in recent decades,245 and present-day temperatures in the region are already close to bleaching thresholds; hence, it is likely that many of the remaining coral reefs in the Southeast region will be lost in the coming decades.246,247 In addition to warming temperatures, accelerated ocean acidification is also expected to contribute to coral reef mortality and decline.248,249 When coral reefs are lost, coastal communities lose the many benefits provided by these valuable ecosystems, including lost tourism opportunities, a decline in fisheries, and a decrease in wave protection.246,247