Politics in Period 4

Governance in the early modern period

Politics in Period 4

Governance in the early modern period

OVERVIEW

A single government structure was ubiquitous across the global Empires during period 4: a strong centralized government headed by an autocrat and assisted by an extensive bureaucracy. This system of government had been the norm in China for centuries, where it continued with few changes, and became more and more popular across the world as executives like Ivan the Great and Akbar united myriad citystates, kingdoms and municipalities into empires.

Another common thread is expansion, whether overland or imperially, through acquisition of colonies, particularly in the New World by the Western European powers.

As the 18th century dawned, however, we saw stirrings of new forms- in England battles raged over autocratic and parliamentary power struggles and the Ottoman Empire waned as a result of its leaders' corruption and hoarding of power.

It was these circumstances- emphasis on powerful and deeply ingrained centralized government but the stirrings of republican, federalist, and democratic ideals, which perfectly set the stage for the upcoming French and American revolutions in the late 18th century.

Monday, Feb. 9th 1480 at 9pm

Russia

Mongols vanquished

When

Thursday, Oct. 2nd 1552 at 9pm

Where

Kazan, Russia

More information

Ivan III's son, Ivan IV (the Terrible) defeats the Kavan Khanate at Kazan after a six week siege, fending off the Tartars, who frequently invaded, and pushing the last of the Kavan Mongols out of Russia.

Expansion and Warfare

Following the casting off of Mongol rule by Russian/Muscovite forces, Russia focused on centralizing its government and expanding its borders under hereditary leaders called tsars, like Ivan the Great, Ivan the Terrible, and Peter the Great.

The power center of Russia was moved to Moscow when the Mongols took over, as the Mongols collected tributary funds from Moscow. The city maintained its power after the Mongols' departure.

After the Mongols' departure Russia was a group of connected states, rather than a unified country. This proved to be a challenge for leaders who tried to coalesce the states into one entity ruled by... them.

Russian expansion was centered on three objectives:

1. Security from nearby nomadic societies: pastoral peoples to the South and East often raided Russia's neighbors' cities and towns, sometimes selling their people into slavery. Russians worried one of these societies would rise to power and take control as the Mongols did. However, it was Russia, ultimately, which held political and military hegemony in the region.

2. Furs: to Russia's east was Siberia, home to exotic creatures like the snow leopard, whose fur was extremely valuable (such furs were nicknamed soft gold). Russian traders wanted access to that market.

3. Expanding Russian civilization: When Russia took Kazan, settlers tore down mosques and built Byzantine Christian churches. Russians felt the need to bring civilization and enlightenment to nearby societies, like the nomads to the south and east and Muslims to the west. Conquered native peoples were "Russified", forced to adopt Russian language and culture and give up their hunting and gathering, and converted to Christianity.

Ultimately this forceful expansion accumulated thousands of miles of territory. However, conflicts over leadership and ascension and intersocietal tensions led to decades of war and famine. Russia continually butted heads with the nearby Ottoman Empire and Qing Dynasty for territorial reasons.

The rise of the tsars

After Russians gained autonomy, the very top of the political hierarchy was the tsar, who had complete executive and military power. Some tsars, like Ivan the Terrible, were ruthless and used their power to behead (or boil alive) enemies. Others, like Peter the Great, implemented reforms and reached out to the global community.

Ivan (III) the Great

married the niece of the last Byzantine emperor so he could declare Moscow "New Rome"

cast off the Mongols

centralized government and expanded borders

(through a series of wars he legitimized by exploiting his new ties to the Orthodox Church)

Ivan (IV) the Terrible

Terrible

Beheaded or boiled his enemies (killed his own son in a fit of rage)

Defeated Kazan Khanate- last of the Mongols in Russia

Killed much of the aristocratic class (only people who could challenge the government in terms of power)

In doing so, set the precedent for Russian tsars as true autocrats with unfettered and unrivaled power

Peter the Great

As a boy, he often visited the suburb where foreigners lived in Moscow, picked up German ways and culture

Travelled often to Europe and brought back Western European ideas, convinced Russia needed to adopt them to become a great power

Revolutionized and strengthened Russian government by:

Military reform- implemented better pay, peasants as servants

Infrastructure- organized peasants to build roads

Expansion- defeated Swedish army to gain access to the Baltic Sea, a warm water port

Reorganization of bureaucracy- replaced autocratic bureaucracy with a merit-based system, which he used to tax

Relocation of the capital- from Moscow to St. Petersburg on the Baltic coast, "Window on the West"

Ivan (III) the Great

married the niece of the last Byzantine emperor so he could declare Moscow "New Rome"

cast off the Mongols

centralized government and expanded borders

(through a series of wars he legitimized by exploiting his new ties to the Orthodox Church)

Ivan (IV) the Terrible

Terrible

Beheaded or boiled his enemies (killed his own son in a fit of rage)

Defeated Kazan Khanate- last of the Mongols in Russia

Killed much of the aristocratic class (only people who could challenge the government in terms of power)

In doing so, set the precedent for Russian tsars as true autocrats with unfettered and unrivaled power

Peter the Great

As a boy, he often visited the suburb where foreigners lived in Moscow, picked up German ways and culture

Travelled often to Europe and brought back Western European ideas, convinced Russia needed to adopt them to become a great power

Revolutionized and strengthened Russian government by:

Military reform- implemented better pay, peasants as servants

Infrastructure- organized peasants to build roads

Expansion- defeated Swedish army to gain access to the Baltic Sea, a warm water port

Reorganization of bureaucracy- replaced autocratic bureaucracy with a merit-based system, which he used to tax

Relocation of the capital- from Moscow to St. Petersburg on the Baltic coast, "Window on the West"

Renaissance politics: Roman throwback

Italian governance

The Renaissance began in Italy, which was divided into many city-states (as Rome had been back in the day). These city-states carried out many actions typical of an autonomous government, like printing money and waging war on the other cities.

Florence, one of the Renaissance's most influential cities, was a Republic, in which citizens and leaders alike held and admired democratic values.

However, supremely wealthy families, like the Medicis (bankers who owed their wealth to converting money and goods travelling from one city state to another), wielded enormous influence over not only the economy, but also the government.

Spanish governance

Spain was headed by a monarchy, which held significant control over the country. Ferdinand and Isabella, for instance, tried to use their executive power to convert the country to Catholicism, persecuting and expelling Moors and Jews in the process. They also re-established an Inquisition, a severe religious court from centuries earlier- the Italians weren't the only ones looking to the past for their governmental structure!!

Spain was also one of the most important and expansive imperial powers, establishing many colonies in the New World.

French and English governance

During and following the tumultuous fifteenth century (including the Hundred Years War between the two forces), rulers succeeded in unifying small kingdoms and territories into powerful states in both France and England (in France's case, Louis Xi. In England's, Henry VII)

The countries were headed by centralized hereditary monarchies covetous of their power, and embroiled in disputes over ascension and family ties. These rulers, often young, were impacted by their courts and advisors.

Both countries were occasionally governed by queens but almost always headed by domineering autocrats, who often spurred conflict and genocide- Mary executed thousands of non-Catholics in England.

(Despite the best efforts of Parliament and other rights activists, who tried to reign in the leader's power- we see an early example of this in the Magna Carta of 1215)

International diplomacy became more and more important, and war became a less popular MO for settling disputes. Intermarriages between the royal families served as treaties and compacts, not just for France and England but Spain and others as well.

Additionally, both countries were involved in exploratory missions into the New World. Though not as expansive as Spain's originally, the English and French settlements in North America steadily grew and flourished by the eighteenth century.

Ottoman politics: Imperialism and isolationism

The takeover of Constantinople

When

Wednesday, Feb. 9th 1453 at 9pm

Where

Constantinople

More information

Mehmed II, the 21-year-old ruler of the burgeoning Ottoman Empire, led the battering of Constantinople, the longtime political, religious, and cultural capital of the Byzantine Empire. He assumes the city as the new Ottoman capital and it eventually gets renamed Istanbul.

Justice is served

At its peak the Ottoman Empire was vast, stretching from Central Europe to Arabia. In order for the Empire to survive and thrive, as it did for over 600 years, the people had to be organized and content, and the government centralized and organized. It was.

The Ottoman executive was the Sultan, who had complete control in every regard, much like Russia's tsar or China's emperor. He claimed the title "Caliph", the highest in Islam. The Sultan's job was to provide justice (adalet) to the people, a crucial idea in Islamic political science. In an ideal world the Sultan PROTECTED the people from the excesses of government and its power, rather than embodying it. Some Islamic historians argue the Ottoman Empire declined because Sultans took less and less interest in protecting justice in the Empire.

Fun fact: the Sultan was required to periodically tour local governments to ensure the magistrates and judges were acting justly.

Advancement in the governmental hierarchy was contingent upon military service; prestige was not given, but earned.

As the empire expanded, provincial leaders became more important and became more powerful.

Government was intentionally open- citizens could approach the Imperial Court (pictured with the Sultan below) with complaints about government officials

Though the Sultan had official executive power, as was the case with China, the government was run by a sprawling bureaucracy governed by a strict set of rules (the Sultan was also bound by these restrictions)

First came the Divian, essentially the Sultan's cabinet

The most powerful single person below the Sultan, however, was the Grand Vizier (comparable to a Prime Minister or President) who actually carried out executive decisions

Additionally, the Imperial Harem was ruled by the mother of the Sultan (known as the Valide Sultan) and occasionally impacted policy. The Valide Sultan could involve herself in political matters and decrease or expand the Sultan's power.

Below the Viziers and Courts were the Ministers, who controlled the departments- the most important of which was the Department of Justice.

Mughal politics: subcontinental federalism and bureaucracy

Mughal empire founded

When

Tuesday, Feb. 9th 1526 at 9pm

Where

Panipat

More information

The Mughal (an Indo-Aryan variation of 'Mongol', as its founder was of Mongol descent) Empire was founded in 1526 when Babur defeated the last of the Afghan sultans at the first Battle of Panipat. (This battle was also the first time gunpowder was used in India)

Mughal foundations

Mughals attempted to unify Muslims and Hindus into a united Indian state

Founded by Turkish Prince, descendant of Genghis Khan and Timur (Turkish conquerer)

Ousted from his domain in central Asia so turned to India to fulfill his conquering needs

His grandson, Akbar (who ascended at age THIRTEEN), was the greatest of the Mughal emperors. He annexed all of northern and part of southern India (via constant warfare)

Benevolent toward his Hindu subjects (though that’s partly because he married a Hindu princess); enlisted them in government and military

Akbar ended a tax on non-Muslims

1600s- British tried to set up trading posts on Indian coast to transport to East Indies, but after a while tensions flared up between the local and British government and the British were expelled after a war in 1686

In 1757 a British army of 3,000 defeated the Mughal empire and the British East India company left the decrepit Mughal court. Soon the British forces seized the Mughal Empire and the British now took over India. The British East India company expanded to generate revenues to pay for expensive military operations in India, further decreasing local power and handing India over to the British

British items were imported duty free, competing with local goods and ruining Indian industry

In the 1770s massive famine led to the death of 1/3 of the population in company-controlled areas

Mughal governance

Emperor was the center of government- he was head of state, commander in chief, and final word on judicial and legislative matters. Akbar had instituted a centralized government, which lasted until the 19th century

The emperor’s main focus, however, was foreign policy- he broke his administration into four parts:

1. Diwan- taxes and finances

2. Mir Bakshi- military affairs and intelligence

3. Mir Saman- ran the royal household, governed trade and production

4. Qazi- religious and legal affairs- ruled by Sharia law

Mughal military

Mansbdar system- Mansabs are officers- often provincial governors or military commanders- who provided troops for imperial service

Each Mansab could control 20-10,000 troops

Were hired and placed by the emperor, who made sure to move them around often to prevent gaining support and challenging the emperor

War elephants!

The Mughals used elephants in battle!

War elephants!

Just like Bronze Age Indian armies!

War elephants!

Look, here's a mosaic of a war elephant!

War elephants!

The Mughals used elephants in battle!

War elephants!

Just like Bronze Age Indian armies!

War elephants!

Look, here's a mosaic of a war elephant!

Qing politics: Ming to Manchus

Qing dynasty founded

When

Tuesday, Feb. 9th 1644 at 9pm

Where

China

More information

The Manchus, a northern power which had helped the Ming fight the Mongols, turned on the Ming once they realized how weak the dynasty was. In 1644 they took over and proclaimed a new dynasty- the Qing.