The aim of oiled wildlife rehabilitation is to care for oiled
individuals and, once they have recovered, to return them to their
natural environment as members, or potential members, of the breeding
population of their species. (B23.38.w2,
P24.335.w12, D183.w6)

When an individual casualty is found oiled, or during a spill affecting
only small numbers of wild animals,
where sufficient resources, including staff time, are available to treat
all casualties quickly and effectively, all oiled individuals (except those which are
suffering greatly and should be immediately euthanased on humane grounds), can be
treated, and there should be minimal delay in providing that treatment. (D214.2.w2,
P62.2.w1)

In the circumstances
of a large spill, when hundreds or thousands of individuals require care,
cleaning and rehabilitation, it will not be possible to treat all individuals
immediately and it may be impossible to give adequate treatment to all casualties.
Therefore it
is necessary to develop a system for triage, i.e. a systematic way to prioritise
animals for treatment (B335.11.w11)
and, sometimes, to decide quickly to euthanase some individuals in order to concentrate
scarce or finite resources on other individuals. (D159.III.w3,
D160.5.w5, D214.2.w2)

Even in a small spill, with resources not an issue, euthanasia may be
the most humane choice for some individuals. (B23.38.w2,
B188,
D32.3.w3, D135.5.w5, D160.5.w5,
D214.2.w2)

Note:

It is important that, if euthanasia/triage is required,
the need for this is explained to volunteers. (D220)

Criteria for euthanasia, together with information
about necessary consultation and authorisation, should preferably be
agreed in advance of when they are required, made available in writing and
displayed clearly so that all personnel are aware of them. (B363.App3.w16,
V.w73)

Following euthanasia, the handling of the dead individual should
be carried out in an appropriate manner, and processing of the
casualty (e.g. progression to necropsy) should be carried out
promptly. (B363.App3.w16,
P14.6.w2)

A triage strategy, agreed by all stakeholders should be
included within an oiled wildlife response contingency plan. (D183.w6)

Pre-determined triage criteria for field triage may be set down
as written instructions. (P14.7.w30)

General considerations in triage and
euthanasia

Factors which must be considered in
triage include species, resources, and the welfare of the animals concerned.
(D183.w6)

Prevention of unnecessary suffering:

Wild animals undergoing treatment and care are placed in a stressful
situation.

For individuals with severe injuries, which would require extensive
treatment and considerable handling of the casualty, immediate cessation of suffering by use of
euthanasia may be the best choice for the individual. (P24.335.w12)

For individuals which will never be suitable for release back to the
wild, euthanasia may be required to avoid unnecessary suffering. (P24.327.w4)

In the event of a large spill one of the resources likely to be
limited is the time of skilled personnel. (D159.III.w3,
J4.181.w3)
If an individual oiled
wildlife casualty requires an excessive additional amount of skilled
time,
this may compromise the survival of several other, less-severely
injured individuals which could otherwise have received the less
complicated care they required. (V.w5)

Facilities may also be a limited resource (D159.III.w3)
and overcrowding reduces
the chance of survival of casualties.

Even if it is decided that it will be possible to treat all
individuals, it is unlikely to be physically possible to treat all
individuals at one time; it will be necessary to prioritise and decide
which individuals are to be treated first. (B335.11.w11)

Species:

Individuals of rare or endangered species, and those protected by
international treaty, may be treated as a priority. (B363.8.w8,
D160.5.w5)

Some species which are very highly vulnerable to stress in captivity
may also be prioritised for treatment (e.g. divers (Gaviidae - Loons (Family))). (B188)

An individual carrying an infectious disease is a risk to other
individuals susceptible to that disease.

Individuals with an infectious disease need to be isolated (B363.8.w8,
D133.5.w5)

If isolation facilities (including personnel to look after
individuals in such facilities) are not available,
euthanasia may be required in order to avoid risking the spread of
disease to other individuals.

Even when isolation facilities are available, for gregarious species
it must be considered whether the time for which an individual must be
placed in isolation is acceptable. (V.w5)

It is important to consider the feasibility of treating the
individual diseased animal balanced against the risk of the disease
spreading to the rest of the casualties. (D133.5.w5)

If an oil spill occurs during an infectious disease outbreak, it
may be necessary to euthanase the oiled birds, rather than introduce
the disease into a rehabilitation centre. (V.w78)

Time and development of secondary problems:

As a general rule, the longer a wildlife casualty is in care the
greater the risk that it will develop a secondary problem associated
with its captivity. (D135.9.w9)

Individuals which are not only oiled, but also have another problem
requiring prolonged rehabilitation, are more likely to develop secondary
problems. (D32.3.w3)

Note:criteria for euthanasia, together with information
about necessary consultation and authorisation, should preferably be
agreed in advance of when they are required, made available in writing and
displayed clearly so that all personnel are aware of them. (B363.App3.w16,
V.w73)

Conditions
which are NOT considered to represent adequate conditions for euthanasia
include:

Degree of oiling, even if very severe. (D32.3.w3,
D135.7.w7,
D159.III.w3, D160.App5.w13,
D214.2.w2)

The length of time for which the casualty has been oiled and
exposed to absorption of toxins is more likely to affect outcome.
(B363.8.w8)

An individual with serious injuries which will require extended
treatment or would make the individual unable to survive in the wild. (B23.38.w2,
B363.App3.w16,
D32.3.w3,
D135.7.w7, D159.III.w3,
D160.5.w5,
D214.2.w2,
J29.8.w1) This includes:

If an individual
is from an endangered or threatened species, or is an unusual species with
small local population, or a species with a low reproductive potential, it
may be considered inappropriate to euthanase despite the individual
otherwise meeting the criteria for euthanasia. (D32.3.w3)

The aims of
triage are to concentrate available resources on those individuals which
are most likely to survive and be returned to the wild and those which are
endangered or threatened (B363.8.w8,
P24.327.w4,
P24.335.w12) and to prioritise which individuals will be treated first. (B335.11.w11)

In situations
with large numbers of casualties, it may be necessary to concentrate
available resources, including time of available personnel, on those
individuals with the greatest chance of survival, rehabilitation and
return to the breeding population, in order to ensure that the maximum
number of healthy individuals can be released back into their
environment. (B188,
D135.5.w5,
D159.III.w3,
D183.w6, J4.181.w3,
J29.8.w1,
P24.335.w12)

Note: a triage strategy and triage criteria should preferably be developed as part
of the oiled wildlife response plan and should be agreed by all
stakeholders. (D183.w6,
D183.w9)

Triage criteria should be documented and should be understood by all
personnel involved in making decisions about individual casualty
prioritisation. (B363.Intro.w21)

Pre-determined triage criteria for field triage may be set down
as written instructions. (P14.7.w30)

Triage is not straightforward:

An individual which initially appears well may deteriorate rapidly;
conversely one which appears unlikely to survive may improve rapidly
following initial treatment. (P24.327.w4,
P24.335.w12)

Birds will tend to hide their illness in the presence of a predator,
including a human being. (P24.327.w4,
P24.335.w12)

Severe injuries which may hinder recovery and return to the wild
may not be detected initially. (P24.327.w4,
P24.335.w12)

Triage should be
carried out by an experienced veterinarian, an experienced veterinary
nurse or an experienced wildlife rehabilitator. (B363.8.w8,
D159.III.w3,
P24.327.w4, P24.335.w12)

The person carrying out triage must understand the reasons behind
the necessity for triage and the limitations of resources,
particularly time of trained personnel, available for treatment of
casualties.

If triage is carried out by inexperienced personnel there is a
greater risk of those casualties in the worst condition being assisted
first, to the detriment of those with the greatest chance of survival.
(B363.8.w8, P24.327.w4)

Note: Triage should be carried out at the time of oiled
casualty intake, but also throughout the rehabilitation process. (J29.8.w1)

Birds that are behaviourally alert, not emaciated and not seriously
injured have the best chance of survival. (D214.2.w2)

Note: There are species differences in normal body
temperature, which should be taken into account. Petrels and
penguins, for example, may have lower normal body temperatures
therefore 37°C rather than 37.5°C may be considered as the
level below which euthanasia may be considered. (B363.App3.w16)

Hypothermia in
combination with low weight for the species and lower than other birds of
the same species and sex found in the same spill; (D32.3.w3,
D160.App5.w13,
J4.181.w3)

1) Endangered and threatened species, species protected by
international agreements and individuals, of whatever species, which
are oiled but otherwise appear healthy and thus have the best chance
of survival. (B188,
P24.327.w4,
P24.335.w12)

Individuals of endangered species, or species of special concern,
may be given priority over individuals of common species in the
same clinical condition or in worse condition. (D160.5.w5)

Endangered species, species of special cultural significance,
and species protected by international treaty are given priority.
(B363.8.w8)

Birds with a near normal body temperature (39 to 40.5°C), and
with blood values within the normal range for the species, have
the best chance of survival. (B363.8.w8)

2) Individuals of common species and individuals which, due to the
presence of complications such as hypothermia (body temperature below
39°C), signs of toxicity or injury (e.g. fractures), or poor blood
values, have less chance of survival.
These birds should be treated when time is available after the first
category birds have been treated. (B363.8.w8,
P24.327.w4,
P24.335.w12)

Basic methods to restore body temperature should be applied
while these birds are awaiting treatment. (J29.8.w1)

These individuals should be left in a warm, quiet place while
waiting for treatment. (B363.8.w8)

3) Individuals which, due to severe hypothermia (less than 37.5°C) and/or the presence
of severe injuries such as compound fractures, are least likely to
survive. These birds would be treated only if time allows after
treatment of those in the first two categories. N.B. Moribund
individuals and those with no chance of survival should be euthanased.
(P24.327.w4,
P24.335.w12)

Individuals with injuries such that they will not be releasable,
due to permanent eye injury, permanent injury to,
dysfunction or amputation of a limb, permanent feather
abnormalities, or chronic infectious disease unresponsive to
treatment, should be euthanased as soon as possible in order to
prevent unnecessary suffering. (P24.335.w12)

Immediate: In oiled otters, these individuals need immediate
washing plus treatment of minor medical problems; survival rates are
high if these animals are treated quickly. Examples include those with
moderate oiling, those heavily oiled with older (aged) oil, and
individuals with moderate respiratory distress, mild hypothermia or
hypothermia. It was noted that these individuals can tolerate short
waiting periods for treatment (under supervision), in a thermoneutral
environment (not causing panting or shivering) (B335.11.w11)

(For human war casualties, individuals presenting with severe,
life-threatening wounds that require procedures of moderately
short duration; these individuals have a high likelihood of
survival. (D163.12.w12))

Delayed: In oiled otters, individuals moderately oiled
with older (aged) oil, which are not showing clinical or behavioural
signs of distress, as well as those with light or no oiling but with
minor clinical signs such as periodic agitation or shivering; these
individuals should be given food, water and rest and held for 12 to 24
hours, for treatment after those in the "urgent" and
"immediate" categories. (B335.11.w11)

(For human war casualties, individuals for whom delay prior to
operation will not unduly compromise the likelihood of a
successful outcome; these individuals can be held until those in
the urgent and immediate categories have been cared for. (D163.12.w12))

Minimal: In oiled otters, these individuals are those needing
no cleaning or only minimal cleaning, and may only need a general
physical examination. It is recommended that such animals be allowed
24 to 36 hours for stabilisation, under supervision and with food and
water offered every three hours. These are otters with no or light
oiling and not showing any clinical signs of distress. (B335.11.w11)

Expectant: In oiled otters, these individuals show clinical
and behavioural signs indicating little chance of survival,
particularly those with severe subcutaneous emphysema (palpable),
which is usually irreversible. These individuals should be made
comfortable and observed for a short time.; euthanasia may be the most
humane treatment for such animals. (B335.11.w11)

(For human war casualties, individuals with wounds which are so
extensive that survival would be unlikely even if this was the
sole casualty and optimum medical resources could be applied for
their treatment. In a mass casualty situation such individuals
should be made comfortable and given attendance by minimal but
competent personnel. (D163.12.w12))

Consideration should also be given, in choosing a euthanasia technique,
to the emotional and aesthetic senses of other personnel involved in care
of the oiled animals. (B363.App3.w16)

The preferred method of euthanasia is chemical euthanasia using an
appropriate commercially available euthanasia solution such as a
barbiturate solution. (B363.App3.w16,
D32.3.w3,
D135.7.w7, D135.7.w7,
D159.III.w3,
D160.App5.w13)

In birds, euthanasia solution should usually be injected into the medial metatarsal,
right jugular or brachial vein. (D32.3.w3)

In mammals, euthanasia solution usually should be injected into the cephalic or
saphenous vein or by intracardiac injection. (D32.3.w3)

NOTE: It is important to ensure that animals euthanased by
injection of euthanasia solutions are disposed of safely so that they do not
become food for animals which eat carrion. (D32.3.w3,
D135.7.w7,
D160.App5.w13)

Animals which are euthanased in the field must not be left in
the field; they could be a source of secondary contamination or
poisoning. (D160.5.w5)

Forms of physical euthanasia include dislocation of the cervical
vertebrae, shooting, exsanguination and stunning. (D135.7.w7)

Following
euthanasia, the carcass should be wetted down and refrigerated to
await necropsy. (D32.3.w3,
D135.7.w7)

If at all possible, the carcass should be kept refrigerated and
necropsy should be carried out within 72 hours.

If necropsy cannot take place within 72 hours then the carcass
should be frozen. (D208.7.w7,
D133.7.w7)

Freezing carcasses reduces the information which can be
retrieved from them. If time does not permit full necropsy prior
to freezing, efforts should be made, if at all possible, for
samples of certain tissues (e.g. liver, kidney, lung, intestine)
to be taken and stored in formalin before the rest of the carcass
is frozen. (V.w5,
V.w6)

Note: It is preferable for discussions regarding necropsy activities to be
held with oil spill management authorities before a spill
occurs, to ensure that there is approval for the activities and their
associated costs. (D183.w6)

Reasons for necropsy

Necropsy findings from individuals which die or are euthanased may
assist in the development of treatment protocols for live individuals
during the spill. (D32.3.w3,
D135.7.w7,
D160.5.w5,
D160.App5.w13,
P24.335.w12)

All carcasses (preferably following necropsy) must be disposed of
properly. (D183.w6)

It is important to ensure that animals euthanased by
injection of euthanasia solutions are disposed of safely so that they do not
become food for animals which eat carrion. (D32.3.w3,
D135.7.w7,
D160.App5.w13)

Local regulations on the disposal of carcasses may vary. Disposal
of highly oiled carcasses may require incineration. (D60.8.w8)

In the UK, the Environmental Health Department of the local
authority should be consulted regarding Environmental Health
regulations. (D27)

Note: Temporary storage, e.g. in excavated pits lined with
plastic) may be required while appropriate disposal options are
considered. (D60.8.w8)