1.
Jmol
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Jmol is computer software for molecular modelling chemical structures in 3-dimensions. Jmol returns a 3D representation of a molecule that may be used as a teaching tool and it is written in the programming language Java, so it can run on the operating systems Windows, macOS, Linux, and Unix, if Java is installed. It is free and open-source software released under a GNU Lesser General Public License version 2.0, a standalone application and a software development kit exist that can be integrated into other Java applications, such as Bioclipse and Taverna. A popular feature is an applet that can be integrated into web pages to display molecules in a variety of ways, for example, molecules can be displayed as ball-and-stick models, space-filling models, ribbon diagrams, etc. Jmol supports a range of chemical file formats, including Protein Data Bank, Crystallographic Information File, MDL Molfile. There is also a JavaScript-only version, JSmol, that can be used on computers with no Java, the Jmol applet, among other abilities, offers an alternative to the Chime plug-in, which is no longer under active development. While Jmol has many features that Chime lacks, it does not claim to reproduce all Chime functions, most notably, Chime requires plug-in installation and Internet Explorer 6.0 or Firefox 2.0 on Microsoft Windows, or Netscape Communicator 4.8 on Mac OS9. Jmol requires Java installation and operates on a variety of platforms. For example, Jmol is fully functional in Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Opera, Google Chrome, fast and Scriptable Molecular Graphics in Web Browsers without Java3D

2.
ChemSpider
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ChemSpider is a database of chemicals. ChemSpider is owned by the Royal Society of Chemistry, the database contains information on more than 50 million molecules from over 500 data sources including, Each chemical is given a unique identifier, which forms part of a corresponding URL. This is an approach to develop an online chemistry database. The search can be used to widen or restrict already found results, structure searching on mobile devices can be done using free apps for iOS and for the Android. The ChemSpider database has been used in combination with text mining as the basis of document markup. The result is a system between chemistry documents and information look-up via ChemSpider into over 150 data sources. ChemSpider was acquired by the Royal Society of Chemistry in May,2009, prior to the acquisition by RSC, ChemSpider was controlled by a private corporation, ChemZoo Inc. The system was first launched in March 2007 in a release form. ChemSpider has expanded the generic support of a database to include support of the Wikipedia chemical structure collection via their WiChempedia implementation. A number of services are available online. SyntheticPages is an interactive database of synthetic chemistry procedures operated by the Royal Society of Chemistry. Users submit synthetic procedures which they have conducted themselves for publication on the site and these procedures may be original works, but they are more often based on literature reactions. Citations to the published procedure are made where appropriate. They are checked by an editor before posting. The pages do not undergo formal peer-review like a journal article. The comments are moderated by scientific editors. The intention is to collect practical experience of how to conduct useful chemical synthesis in the lab, while experimental methods published in an ordinary academic journal are listed formally and concisely, the procedures in ChemSpider SyntheticPages are given with more practical detail. Comments by submitters are included as well, other publications with comparable amounts of detail include Organic Syntheses and Inorganic Syntheses

3.
European Chemicals Agency
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ECHA is the driving force among regulatory authorities in implementing the EUs chemicals legislation. ECHA helps companies to comply with the legislation, advances the safe use of chemicals, provides information on chemicals and it is located in Helsinki, Finland. The Agency, headed by Executive Director Geert Dancet, started working on 1 June 2007, the REACH Regulation requires companies to provide information on the hazards, risks and safe use of chemical substances that they manufacture or import. Companies register this information with ECHA and it is freely available on their website. So far, thousands of the most hazardous and the most commonly used substances have been registered, the information is technical but gives detail on the impact of each chemical on people and the environment. This also gives European consumers the right to ask whether the goods they buy contain dangerous substances. The Classification, Labelling and Packaging Regulation introduces a globally harmonised system for classifying and labelling chemicals into the EU. This worldwide system makes it easier for workers and consumers to know the effects of chemicals, companies need to notify ECHA of the classification and labelling of their chemicals. So far, ECHA has received over 5 million notifications for more than 100000 substances, the information is freely available on their website. Consumers can check chemicals in the products they use, Biocidal products include, for example, insect repellents and disinfectants used in hospitals. The Biocidal Products Regulation ensures that there is information about these products so that consumers can use them safely. ECHA is responsible for implementing the regulation, the law on Prior Informed Consent sets guidelines for the export and import of hazardous chemicals. Through this mechanism, countries due to hazardous chemicals are informed in advance and have the possibility of rejecting their import. Substances that may have effects on human health and the environment are identified as Substances of Very High Concern 1. These are mainly substances which cause cancer, mutation or are toxic to reproduction as well as substances which persist in the body or the environment, other substances considered as SVHCs include, for example, endocrine disrupting chemicals. Companies manufacturing or importing articles containing these substances in a concentration above 0 and they are required to inform users about the presence of the substance and therefore how to use it safely. Consumers have the right to ask the retailer whether these substances are present in the products they buy, once a substance has been officially identified in the EU as being of very high concern, it will be added to a list. This list is available on ECHA’s website and shows consumers and industry which chemicals are identified as SVHCs, Substances placed on the Candidate List can then move to another list

4.
PubChem
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PubChem is a database of chemical molecules and their activities against biological assays. The system is maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information, a component of the National Library of Medicine, PubChem can be accessed for free through a web user interface. Millions of compound structures and descriptive datasets can be downloaded via FTP. PubChem contains substance descriptions and small molecules with fewer than 1000 atoms and 1000 bonds, more than 80 database vendors contribute to the growing PubChem database. PubChem consists of three dynamically growing primary databases, as of 28 January 2016, Compounds,82.6 million entries, contains pure and characterized chemical compounds. Substances,198 million entries, contains also mixtures, extracts, complexes, bioAssay, bioactivity results from 1.1 million high-throughput screening programs with several million values. PubChem contains its own online molecule editor with SMILES/SMARTS and InChI support that allows the import and export of all common chemical file formats to search for structures and fragments. In the text search form the database fields can be searched by adding the name in square brackets to the search term. A numeric range is represented by two separated by a colon. The search terms and field names are case-insensitive, parentheses and the logical operators AND, OR, and NOT can be used. AND is assumed if no operator is used, example,0,5000,50,10 -5,5 PubChem was released in 2004. The American Chemical Society has raised concerns about the publicly supported PubChem database and they have a strong interest in the issue since the Chemical Abstracts Service generates a large percentage of the societys revenue. To advocate their position against the PubChem database, ACS has actively lobbied the US Congress, soon after PubChems creation, the American Chemical Society lobbied U. S. Congress to restrict the operation of PubChem, which they asserted competes with their Chemical Abstracts Service

5.
International Chemical Identifier
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Initially developed by IUPAC and NIST from 2000 to 2005, the format and algorithms are non-proprietary. The continuing development of the standard has supported since 2010 by the not-for-profit InChI Trust. The current version is 1.04 and was released in September 2011, prior to 1.04, the software was freely available under the open source LGPL license, but it now uses a custom license called IUPAC-InChI Trust License. Not all layers have to be provided, for instance, the layer can be omitted if that type of information is not relevant to the particular application. InChIs can thus be seen as akin to a general and extremely formalized version of IUPAC names and they can express more information than the simpler SMILES notation and differ in that every structure has a unique InChI string, which is important in database applications. Information about the 3-dimensional coordinates of atoms is not represented in InChI, the InChI algorithm converts input structural information into a unique InChI identifier in a three-step process, normalization, canonicalization, and serialization. The InChIKey, sometimes referred to as a hashed InChI, is a fixed length condensed digital representation of the InChI that is not human-understandable. The InChIKey specification was released in September 2007 in order to facilitate web searches for chemical compounds and it should be noted that, unlike the InChI, the InChIKey is not unique, though collisions can be calculated to be very rare, they happen. In January 2009 the final 1.02 version of the InChI software was released and this provided a means to generate so called standard InChI, which does not allow for user selectable options in dealing with the stereochemistry and tautomeric layers of the InChI string. The standard InChIKey is then the hashed version of the standard InChI string, the standard InChI will simplify comparison of InChI strings and keys generated by different groups, and subsequently accessed via diverse sources such as databases and web resources. Every InChI starts with the string InChI= followed by the version number and this is followed by the letter S for standard InChIs. The remaining information is structured as a sequence of layers and sub-layers, the layers and sub-layers are separated by the delimiter / and start with a characteristic prefix letter. The six layers with important sublayers are, Main layer Chemical formula and this is the only sublayer that must occur in every InChI. The atoms in the formula are numbered in sequence, this sublayer describes which atoms are connected by bonds to which other ones. Describes how many hydrogen atoms are connected to each of the other atoms, the condensed,27 character standard InChIKey is a hashed version of the full standard InChI, designed to allow for easy web searches of chemical compounds. Most chemical structures on the Web up to 2007 have been represented as GIF files, the full InChI turned out to be too lengthy for easy searching, and therefore the InChIKey was developed. With all databases currently having below 50 million structures, such duplication appears unlikely at present, a recent study more extensively studies the collision rate finding that the experimental collision rate is in agreement with the theoretical expectations. Example, Morphine has the structure shown on the right, as the InChI cannot be reconstructed from the InChIKey, an InChIKey always needs to be linked to the original InChI to get back to the original structure

6.
Simplified molecular-input line-entry system
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The simplified molecular-input line-entry system is a specification in form of a line notation for describing the structure of chemical species using short ASCII strings. SMILES strings can be imported by most molecule editors for conversion back into two-dimensional drawings or three-dimensional models of the molecules, the original SMILES specification was initiated in the 1980s. It has since modified and extended. In 2007, a standard called OpenSMILES was developed in the open-source chemistry community. Other linear notations include the Wiswesser Line Notation, ROSDAL and SLN, the original SMILES specification was initiated by David Weininger at the USEPA Mid-Continent Ecology Division Laboratory in Duluth in the 1980s. The Environmental Protection Agency funded the project to develop SMILES. It has since modified and extended by others, most notably by Daylight Chemical Information Systems. In 2007, a standard called OpenSMILES was developed by the Blue Obelisk open-source chemistry community. Other linear notations include the Wiswesser Line Notation, ROSDAL and SLN, in July 2006, the IUPAC introduced the InChI as a standard for formula representation. SMILES is generally considered to have the advantage of being slightly more human-readable than InChI, the term SMILES refers to a line notation for encoding molecular structures and specific instances should strictly be called SMILES strings. However, the term SMILES is also used to refer to both a single SMILES string and a number of SMILES strings, the exact meaning is usually apparent from the context. The terms canonical and isomeric can lead to confusion when applied to SMILES. The terms describe different attributes of SMILES strings and are not mutually exclusive, typically, a number of equally valid SMILES strings can be written for a molecule. For example, CCO, OCC and CC all specify the structure of ethanol, algorithms have been developed to generate the same SMILES string for a given molecule, of the many possible strings, these algorithms choose only one of them. This SMILES is unique for each structure, although dependent on the algorithm used to generate it. These algorithms first convert the SMILES to a representation of the molecular structure. A common application of canonical SMILES is indexing and ensuring uniqueness of molecules in a database, there is currently no systematic comparison across commercial software to test if such flaws exist in those packages. SMILES notation allows the specification of configuration at tetrahedral centers, and these are structural features that cannot be specified by connectivity alone and SMILES which encode this information are termed isomeric SMILES

7.
Chemical formula
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These are limited to a single typographic line of symbols, which may include subscripts and superscripts. A chemical formula is not a name, and it contains no words. Although a chemical formula may imply certain simple chemical structures, it is not the same as a full chemical structural formula. Chemical formulas can fully specify the structure of only the simplest of molecules and chemical substances, the simplest types of chemical formulas are called empirical formulas, which use letters and numbers indicating the numerical proportions of atoms of each type. Molecular formulas indicate the numbers of each type of atom in a molecule. For example, the formula for glucose is CH2O, while its molecular formula is C6H12O6. This is possible if the relevant bonding is easy to show in one dimension, an example is the condensed molecular/chemical formula for ethanol, which is CH3-CH2-OH or CH3CH2OH. For reasons of structural complexity, there is no condensed chemical formula that specifies glucose, chemical formulas may be used in chemical equations to describe chemical reactions and other chemical transformations, such as the dissolving of ionic compounds into solution. A chemical formula identifies each constituent element by its chemical symbol, in empirical formulas, these proportions begin with a key element and then assign numbers of atoms of the other elements in the compound, as ratios to the key element. For molecular compounds, these numbers can all be expressed as whole numbers. For example, the formula of ethanol may be written C2H6O because the molecules of ethanol all contain two carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen atom. Some types of compounds, however, cannot be written with entirely whole-number empirical formulas. An example is boron carbide, whose formula of CBn is a variable non-whole number ratio with n ranging from over 4 to more than 6.5. When the chemical compound of the consists of simple molecules. These types of formulas are known as molecular formulas and condensed formulas. A molecular formula enumerates the number of atoms to reflect those in the molecule, so that the formula for glucose is C6H12O6 rather than the glucose empirical formula. However, except for very simple substances, molecular chemical formulas lack needed structural information, for simple molecules, a condensed formula is a type of chemical formula that may fully imply a correct structural formula. For example, ethanol may be represented by the chemical formula CH3CH2OH

8.
Royal jelly
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Royal jelly is a honey bee secretion that is used in the nutrition of larvae, as well as adult queens. It is secreted from the glands in the hypopharynx of worker bees and this type of feeding triggers the development of queen morphology, including the fully developed ovaries needed to lay eggs. Royal jelly has long been sold as both a dietary supplement and alternative medicine, in the United States, the Food and Drug Administration has taken legal action against companies that have used unfounded claims of health benefits to market royal jelly products. There have also documented cases of allergic reactions, namely hives, asthma. However despite this, some studies have shown possible remedial effects against certain types of inflammation. Royal jelly is secreted from the glands in the heads of bees and is fed to all bee larvae, whether they are destined to become drones, workers. After three days, the drone and worker larvae are no longer fed with royal jelly, and it is harvested by humans by stimulating colonies with movable frame hives to produce queen bees. Royal jelly is collected from each individual queen cell when the larvae are about four days old. Therefore, only in cells is the harvest of royal jelly practical. A well-managed hive during a season of 5–6 months can produce approximately 500 g of royal jelly, since the product is perishable, producers must have immediate access to proper cold storage in which the royal jelly is stored until it is sold or conveyed to a collection center. Sometimes honey or beeswax is added to the jelly, which is thought to aid its preservation. Royal jelly is composed of 67% water,12. 5% crude protein, including amounts of many different amino acids. The main acid is the 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid, the component of royal jelly that causes a bee to develop into a queen is said to be a single protein that has been called royalactin. The effect seems to be mediated by epidermal growth factor receptor, Royalactin also induced similar phenotypical change in the fruit fly, marked by increased body size and ovary development. However, there is a debate on the reproducibility of this function of Royalactin, the honey bee queens and workers represent one of the most striking examples of environmentally controlled phenotypic polymorphism. Queens constitute the sexual caste and have active ovaries, whereas workers have only rudimentary. The queen/worker developmental divide is controlled epigenetically by differential feeding with royal jelly, a female larva destined to become a queen is fed large quantities of royal jelly, this triggers a cascade of molecular events resulting in development of a queen. It has been shown that this phenomenon is mediated by a modification of DNA known as CpG methylation

9.
Pharmacology
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More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals, the two main areas of pharmacology are pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. The former studies the effects of the drug on biological systems, Pharmacology is not synonymous with pharmacy and the two terms are frequently confused. In either field, the primary contrast between the two are their distinctions between direct-patient care, for practice, and the science-oriented research field, driven by pharmacology. Clinical pharmacology owes much of its foundation to the work of William Withering, Pharmacology as a scientific discipline did not further advance until the mid-19th century amid the great biomedical resurgence of that period. The first pharmacology department was set up by Rudolf Buchheim in 1847, in recognition of the need to understand how therapeutic drugs, early pharmacologists focused on natural substances, mainly plant extracts. Pharmacology developed in the 19th century as a science that applied the principles of scientific experimentation to therapeutic contexts. The discipline of pharmacology can be divided into many sub disciplines each with a specific focus, neuropharmacology is the study of the effects of medication on central and peripheral nervous system functioning. This is similar to the closely related ethnopharmacology, psychopharmacology is an interdisciplinary field which studies behavioral effects of psychoactive drugs. Another goal of behavioral pharmacology is to develop animal behavioral models to screen chemical compounds with therapeutic potentials, study of drugs which affect behavior. Ethopharmacology is a term which has been in use since the 1960s and derives from the Greek word ethos meaning character and pharmacology the study of drug actions, cardiovascular pharmacology is the study of the effects of drugs on the entire cardiovascular system, including the heart and blood vessels. Pharmacogenetics is clinical testing of genetic variation that gives rise to differing response to drugs, pharmacogenomics is the application of genomic technologies to drug discovery and further characterization of older drugs. Pharmacoepidemiology is the study of the effects of drugs in large numbers of people, systems pharmacology is the application of systems biology principles to the field of pharmacology. Toxicology is the study of the effects, molecular targets. Theoretical pharmacologists aim at rationalizing the relation between the activity of a drug, as observed experimentally, and its structural features as derived from computer experiments. They aim to find structure—activity relations, more ambitiously, it aims to predict entirely new classes of drugs, tailor-made for specific purposes. Posology is the study of how medicines are dosed and this depends upon various factors including age, climate, weight, sex, elimination rate of drug, genetic polymorphism and time of administration. It is derived from the Greek words posos meaning how much, environmental pharmacology is a new discipline

10.
Neurogenesis
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Neurogenesis is the process by which neurons are generated from neural stem cells and progenitor cells. Through precise genetic mechanisms of cell fate determination, many different varieties of excitatory and inhibitory neurons are generated from different kinds of stem cells. Neurogenesis occurs during embryogenesis in all animals and is responsible for producing all the neurons of the organism, prior to the period of neurogenesis, neural stem cells first multiply until the correct number of progenitor cells is achieved. The process of neurogenesis then involves a cell division of the parent neural stem cell. The molecular and genetic factors influencing neurogenesis notably include the Notch pathway, all neurons are thus post-mitotic, and most neurons of the human central nervous system live the lifetime of the individual. In mammals, adult neurogenesis has been shown to occur in three places of the brain, the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, subventricular zone. In some vertebrates, regenerative neurogenesis has also shown to occur. Likewise, many antidepressants have been shown to increase the rate of neurogenesis within the hippocampus

11.
Progenitor cell
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The most important difference between stem cells and progenitor cells is that stem cells can replicate indefinitely, whereas progenitor cells can divide only a limited number of times. Controversy about the exact definition remains and the concept is still evolving, the terms progenitor cell and stem cell are sometimes equated. Most progenitors are described as oligopotent, in this point of view, they may be compared to adult stem cells. But progenitors are said to be in a stage of cell differentiation. They are in the “center” between stem cells and fully differentiated cells, the kind of potency they have depends on the type of their parent stem cell and also on their niche. Some progenitor cells were found during research, and were isolated, after their marker was found, it was proven that these progenitor could move through the body and migrate towards the tissue where they are needed. Many properties are shared by adult stem cells and progenitor cells, progenitor cells are found in adult organisms and they act as a repair system for the body. They replenish special cells, but also maintain the blood, skin and they can also be found in developing embryonic pancreatic tissue. The majority of progenitor cells lie dormant or possess little activity in the tissue in which they reside and they exhibit slow growth and their main role is to replace cells lost by normal attrition. In case of injury, damaged or dead cells, progenitor cells can be activated. Growth factors or cytokines are two substances that trigger the progenitors to mobilize toward the damaged tissue, at the same time, they start to differentiate into the target cells. Not all progenitors are mobile and are situated near the tissue of their target differentiation, when the cytokines, growth factors and other cell division enhancing stimulators take on the progenitors, a higher rate of cell division is introduced. It leads to the recovery of the tissue, the characterization or the defining principle of progenitor cells, in order to separate them from others, is based on the different cell markers rather than their morphological appearance. They play a role in muscle cell differentiation and injury recoveries. Intermediate progenitor cells formed in the subventricular zone, some of these transit amplifying neural progenitors migrate via rostral migratory stream to the olfactory bulb and differentiate further into specific types of neural cells. Radial glial cells found in developing regions of the brain, most notably the cortex and these progenitor cells are easily identified by their long radial process. Periosteum contains progenitor cells develop into osteoblasts and chondroblasts. Pancreatic progenitor cells are among the most studied progenitors and they are used in research to develop a cure against diabetes type-1

12.
Astrocyte
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Astrocytes, also known collectively as astroglia, are characteristic star-shaped glial cells in the brain and spinal cord. The proportion of astrocytes in the brain is not well defined, depending on the counting technique used, studies have found that the astrocyte proportion varies by region and ranges from 20% to 40% of all glia. Astrocytes are a type of cells and they hold various roles. Data suggest that astrocytes also signal to neurons through Ca2+-dependent release of glutamate, such discoveries have made astrocytes an important area of research within the field of neuroscience. Astrocytes are a sub-type of glial cells in the nervous system. They are also known as astrocytic glial cells, star-shaped, their many processes envelop synapses made by neurons. Astrocytes are classically identified using histological analysis, many of these express the intermediate filament glial fibrillary acidic protein. Several forms of astrocytes exist in the nervous system including fibrous, protoplasmic. The fibrous glia are located within white matter, have relatively few organelles. This type often has vascular feet that physically connect the cells to the outside of capillary walls when they are in proximity to them. The protoplasmic glia are the most prevalent and are found in grey matter tissue, possess a quantity of organelles. The radial glia are disposed in planes perpendicular to the axes of ventricles, one of their processes abuts the pia mater, while the other is deeply buried in gray matter. Radial glia are mostly present during development, playing a role in neuron migration, müller cells of the retina and Bergmann glia cells of the cerebellar cortex represent an exception, being present still during adulthood. When in proximity to the pia mater, all three forms of astrocytes send out processes to form the pia-glial membrane, Astrocytes are macroglial cells in the central nervous system. Astrocytes are derived from heterogeneous populations of cells in the neuroepithelium of the developing central nervous system. The resultant patterning along the neuraxis leads to segmentation of the neuroepithelium into progenitor domains for distinct types in the developing spinal cord. On the basis of several studies it is now believed that model also applies to macroglial cell specification. Studies carried out by Hochstim and colleagues have demonstrated that three distinct populations of astrocytes arise from the p1, p2 and p3 domains, previously in medical science, the neuronal network was considered the only important function of astrocytes, and they were looked upon as gap fillers

13.
Oligodendrocyte
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Oligodendrocytes, or oligodendroglia, are a type of neuroglia. Oligodendrocytes do this by creating the myelin sheath, which is 80% lipid, a single oligodendrocyte can extend its processes to 50 axons, wrapping approximately 1 μm of myelin sheath around each axon, Schwann cells, on the other hand, can wrap around only one axon. Each oligodendrocyte forms one segment of myelin for several adjacent axons, most oligodendrocytes develop during embryogenesis and early postnatal life from restricted periventricular germinal regions. Oligodendrocytes are found only in the nervous system, which comprises the brain. They are the last cell type to be generated in the CNS, myelination is only prevalent in a few brain regions at birth and continues into adulthood. The entire process is not complete until about 25–30 years of age, Oligodendrocyte formation in the adult brain is associated with glial-restricted progenitor cells, known as oligodendrocyte progenitor cells. SVZ cells migrate away from germinal zones to populate both developing white and gray matter, where they differentiate and mature into myelin-forming oligodendroglia, however, it is not clear whether all oligodendroglial progenitors undergo this sequence of events. It has been suggested that some undergo apoptosis and others fail to differentiate into mature oligodendroglia, remarkably, oligodendrocyte population originated in the subventricular zona can be dramatically expanded by administering epidermal growth factor. In addition, the system of mammals depends crucially on myelin sheaths. Myelin also increases speed, as saltatory propagation of action potentials occurs at the nodes of Ranvier in between Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes. Furthermore, impulse speed of myelinated axons increases linearly with the axon diameter, the insulation must be proportional to the diameter of the fiber inside. The optimal ratio of axon diameter divided by the fiber diameter is 0.6. In contrast, satellite oligodendrocytes are functionally distinct from other oligodendrocytes and they are not attached to neurons and, therefore, do not serve an insulating role. They remain apposed to neurons and regulate the extracellular fluid, satellite oligodendrocytes are considered to be a part of the gray matter whereas myelinating oligodendrocytes are a part of the white matter. Myelination is an important component of intelligence, neuroscientist Vincent J. Schmithorst proposes that there is a correlation with white matter and intelligence. People with greater white matter had higher IQs, a study done with rats by Janice M. Juraska showed that rats that were raised in an enriched environment had more myelination in their corpus callosum. Diseases that result in injury to the cells include demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis. Trauma to the body, e. g. spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, is largely congenital and caused by damage to the newly forming brain

14.
Neurological disorder
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A neurological disorder is any disorder of the nervous system. Structural, biochemical or electrical abnormalities in the brain, spinal cord or other nerves can result in a range of symptoms, examples of symptoms include paralysis, muscle weakness, poor coordination, loss of sensation, seizures, confusion, pain and altered levels of consciousness. There are many recognized neurological disorders, some common. They may be assessed by examination, and studied and treated within the specialities of neurology. Nerves tend to lie deep under the skin but can become exposed to damage. Individual neurons, and the networks and nerves into which they form, are susceptible to electrochemical and structural disruption. Neuroregeneration may occur in the nervous system and thus overcome or work around injuries to some extent. The problem may start in another system that interacts with the nervous system. Neurological disorders can be categorized according to the location affected. The broadest division is between central nervous system disorders and peripheral nervous system disorders, a neurological examination can to some extent assess the impact of neurological damage and disease on brain function in terms of behavior, memory or cognition. Behavioral neurology specializes in this area, alternatively, a condition might first be detected through the presence of abnormalities in mental functioning, and further assessment may indicate an underlying neurological disorder. In practice, cases may present as one type but be assessed as more appropriate to the other, neuropsychiatry deals with mental disorders arising from specific identified diseases of the nervous system. One area that can be contested is in cases of neurological symptoms - conditions where the cause cannot be established. Classic examples are functional seizures, sensory numbness, functional limb weakness, such cases may be contentiously interpreted as being psychological rather than neurological. At one extreme this may be diagnosed as depersonalization disorder, theories and assumptions about consciousness, free will, moral responsibility and social stigma can play a part in this, whether from the perspective of the clinician or the patient. Conditions that are classed as mental disorders, or learning disabilities, biological psychiatry seeks to understand mental disorders in terms of their basis in the nervous system, however. In clinical practice, mental disorders are usually indicated by a state examination. In general, numerous fields intersect to try and understand the processes involved in mental functioning

15.
Estrogen
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Estrogen or oestrogen is the primary female sex hormone as well as a medication. It is responsible for the development and regulation of the reproductive system. Estrogen may also refer to any substance, natural or synthetic, the estrane steroid estradiol is the most potent and prevalent endogenous estrogen, although several metabolites of estradiol also have estrogenic hormonal activity. They are one of three types of sex hormones, the others being androgens/anabolic steroids like testosterone and progestogens like progesterone, estrogens are synthesized in all vertebrates as well as some insects. Their presence in both vertebrates and insects suggests that sex hormones have an ancient evolutionary history. The three major naturally occurring forms of estrogen in women are estrone, estradiol, and estriol, another type of estrogen called estetrol is produced only during pregnancy. Quantitatively, estrogens circulate at lower levels than androgens in both men and women, while estrogen levels are significantly lower in males compared to females, estrogens nevertheless also have important physiological roles in males. Like all steroid hormones, estrogens readily diffuse across the cell membrane, once inside the cell, they bind to and activate estrogen receptors which in turn modulate the expression of many genes. Additionally, estrogens bind to and activate rapid-signaling membrane estrogen receptors, the three major naturally occurring estrogens in women are estrone, estradiol, and estriol. Estradiol is the predominant estrogen during reproductive years both in terms of serum levels as well as in terms of estrogenic activity. During menopause, estrone is the predominant circulating estrogen and during pregnancy estriol is the predominant circulating estrogen in terms of serum levels. Though estriol is the most plentiful of the three estrogens it is also the weakest, whereas estradiol is the strongest with a potency of approximately 80 times that of estriol. Thus, estradiol is the most important estrogen in non-pregnant females who are between the menarche and menopause stages of life, however, during pregnancy this role shifts to estriol, and in postmenopausal women estrone becomes the primary form of estrogen in the body. Another type of estrogen called estetrol is produced only during pregnancy, all of the different forms of estrogen are synthesized from androgens, specifically testosterone and androstenedione, by the enzyme aromatase. Estradiol, estrone, and estriol have all been approved as drugs and are used medically. Estetrol is currently under development for medical indications, but has not yet approved in any country. A variety of synthetic estrogen esters, such as estradiol valerate, estradiol cypionate, estradiol acetate, estradiol undecylate, polyestradiol phosphate, the aforementioned compounds behave as prodrugs to estradiol, and are longer-lasting in comparison. Esters of estrone and estriol also exist and are employed in clinical medicine, ethinylestradiol is a more potent synthetic analogue of estradiol that is used widely in hormonal contraceptives

16.
Food and Drug Administration
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The Food and Drug Administration is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments. As of 2017, 3/4th of the FDA budget is funded by the pharmaceutical companies due to the Prescription drug user fee act and these include regulating lasers, cellular phones, condoms and control of disease on products ranging from certain household pets to sperm donation for assisted reproduction. The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice, the Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Dr. Robert M. Califf, MD is the current commissioner, who took over in February 2016 for Dr. Stephen Ostroff, the FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, in 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. The site was renamed from the White Oak Naval Surface Warfare Center to the Federal Research Center at White Oak, the first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees on the campus in December 2003. Only one original building from the facility was kept. All other buildings are new construction, the project is slated to be completed by 2017, assuming future Congressional funding While most of the Centers are located in the Washington, D. C. The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the eyes and ears of the agency, the Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the divisions of the federal court system. Each district comprises a main office and a number of Resident Posts. ORA also includes the Agencys network of laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, the Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases. Unlike ORA Investigators, OCI Special Agents are armed, and dont focus on aspects of the regulated industries. In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving Title 18 violations, OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol. OCI receives cases from a variety of sources—including ORA, local agencies, OCI is a smaller branch, comprising about 200 agents nationwide. The FDA frequently works with federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection. Often local and state government agencies also work with the FDA to provide regulatory inspections, the FDA regulates more than US$1 trillion worth of consumer goods, about 25% of consumer expenditures in the United States

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PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby

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Bee
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Bees are flying insects closely related to wasps and ants, known for their role in pollination and, in the case of the best-known bee species, the European honey bee, for producing honey and beeswax. Bees are a lineage within the superfamily Apoidea, presently considered as a clade Anthophila. There are nearly 20,000 known species of bees in seven to nine recognized families, though many are undescribed and they are found on every continent except Antarctica, in every habitat on the planet that contains insect-pollinated flowering plants. Some species including honey bees, bumblebees, and stingless bees live socially in colonies, Bees are adapted for feeding on nectar and pollen, the former primarily as an energy source and the latter primarily for protein and other nutrients. Most pollen is used as food for larvae, Bee pollination is important both ecologically and commercially, the decline in wild bees has increased the value of pollination by commercially managed hives of honey bees. The most common bees in the Northern Hemisphere are the Halictidae, or sweat bees, vertebrate predators of bees include birds such as bee-eaters, insect predators include beewolves and dragonflies. Human beekeeping or apiculture has been practised for millennia, since at least the times of Ancient Egypt, apart from honey and pollination, honey bees produce beeswax, royal jelly and propolis. Bees have appeared in mythology and folklore, again since ancient times, and they feature in works of literature as varied as Virgils Georgics, Beatrix Potters The Tale of Mrs Tittlemouse, yeatss poem The Lake Isle of Innisfree. Bee larvae are included in the Javanese dish botok tawon, where they are steamed with shredded coconut. The ancestors of bees were wasps in the family Crabronidae, which were predators of other insects. The switch from insect prey to pollen may have resulted from the consumption of insects which were flower visitors and were partially covered with pollen when they were fed to the wasp larvae. This same evolutionary scenario may have occurred within the vespoid wasps, until recently, the oldest non-compression bee fossil had been found in New Jersey amber, Cretotrigona prisca of Cretaceous age, a corbiculate bee. A bee fossil from the early Cretaceous, Melittosphex burmensis, is considered an extinct lineage of pollen-collecting Apoidea sister to the modern bees. Derived features of its place it clearly within the bees. By the Eocene there was considerable diversity among eusocial bee lineages. The highly eusocial corbiculate Apidae appeared roughly 87 Mya, and the Allodapini around 53 Mya, the Colletidae appear as fossils only from the late Oligocene to early Miocene. The Melittidae are known from Palaeomacropis eocenicus in the Early Eocene, the Megachilidae are known from trace fossils from the Middle Eocene. The Andrenidae are known from the Eocene-Oligocene boundary, around 34 Mya, the Halictidae first appear in the Early Eocene with species found in amber

Medical Officer Alexander Fleming, M. D., examines a portion of a 240-volume new drug application around the late 1980s. Applications grew considerably after the efficacy mandate under the 1962 Drug Amendments.

Astrocytes (Astro from Greek astron = star and cyte from Greek "kytos" = cavity but also means cell), also known …

An astrocytic cell from rat brain grown in tissue culture and stained with antibodies to GFAP (red) and vimentin (green). Both proteins are present in large amounts in the intermediate filaments of this cell, so the cell appears yellow. The blue material shows DNA visualized with DAPI stain, and reveals the nuclei of the astrocyte and other cells. Image courtesy of EnCor Biotechnology Inc.

Astrocytes are depicted in red. Cell nuclei are depicted in blue. Astrocytes were obtained from brains of newborn mice