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West Sulawesi (Mamuju) North Sulawesi (Manado) Central Sulawesi (Palu) South Sulawesi (Makassar) South East Sulawesi (Kendari) Gorontalo (Gorontalo) Largest city Makassar Demographics Population 16 million (as of 2005) Density 92 /km 2 (238 /sq mi) Ethnic groups Makassarese, Buginese, Mandar, Minahasa, Gorontalo, Toraja, Bajau, Mongondow Sulawesi (formerly known as Celebes /ˈsɛlɨbiːz/ or /sɨ ˈliːbiːz/ ) is one of the four larger Sunda Islands of Indonesia and the world's eleventh-largest island . It is situated between Borneo and the Maluku Islands. In Indonesia, only Sumatra, Borneo, and Papua are larger in territory, and only Java and Sumatra have largerIndonesian populations. Sulawesi has a distinctiveshape, dominated by fourlarge narrow peninsulas: thenorth Semenanjung Minahassa; the East Peninsula; the South Peninsula; and the South-east Peninsula. Three gulfs separate thesepeninsulas: Gulf of Tomini between northern Minahassapeninsula and East Peninsula;Tolo Gulf between East andSoutheast Peninsula; and Bone Gulf between while South and Southeast Peninsula. The Strait of Makassar runs along the western side of the island andseparates the island fromBorneo. Etymology The Portuguese were the first to refer to Sulawesi as'Celebes'. The name 'Sulawesi'possibly comes from thewords sula ('island') and besi('iron') and may refer to thehistorical export of iron from the rich Lake Matano iron deposits.[1] Geology According to plate reconstructions, the island is believed to have been formedby the collision of terranes from the Asian Plate (forming the west and southwest),from the Australian Plate (forming the southeast and Banggai), and from island arcs previously in the Pacific(forming the north and east peninsulas).[2] Because of its tectonic origin, several faults scar the land; as a result, theisland is prone to earthquakes . The contour of the islandpresents a sharp contrast,from deep seas surroundingthe island to a mountainousinterior forming a backbonealong the narrow peninsulas. The central part of Sulawesi isa high mountaineous area, butmostly non-volcanic. Activevolcanoes are found in thenorthern Minahassa Peninsula, continuously stretching to thenorth to the Sangihe Islands. The northern peninsulacontains active volcanoes suchas Mount Lokon , Mount Awu , Soputan, and Karangetang . Prehistory See also: Prehistoric Indonesia The settlement of SouthSulawesi by modern humansis dated to c. 30,000 BC on thebasis of radiocarbon datesobtained from rock shelters in Maros.[3] No earlier evidence of human occupation has beenfound, but the island almostcertainly formed part of theland bridge used for thesettlement of Australia andNew Guinea by at least 40,000 BC[4] There is no evidence of Homo erectus having reachedSulawesi; crude stone toolsfirst discovered in 1947 on theright bank of the Walennaeriver at Berru, which werethought to date to the Pleistocene on the basis oftheir association with vertebrate fossils, [5] are now thought to date to perhaps 50,000 BC[6] Following Bellwood's modelof a southward migration ofAustronesian-speaking farmers (AN), [7] radiocarbon dates from caves in Marossuggest a date in the mid-second millennium BC for thearrival of an AN group fromeast Borneo speaking a Proto-South Sulawesi language (PSS) . Initial settlement wasprobably around the mouthof the Sa'dan river, on thenorthwest coast of thepeninsula, although the southcoast has also been suggested. [8] Subsequent migrations across the mountainouslandscape resulted in thegeographical isolation of PSSspeakers and the evolution oftheir languages into the eightfamilies of the South Sulawesi language group.[9] If each group can be said to have ahomeland, that of the Bugis – today the most numerousgroup – was around lakesTémpé and Sidénréng in theWalennaé depression. Here forsome 2,000 years lived thelinguistic group that would become the modern Bugis; thearchaic name of this group(which is preserved in otherlocal languages) was Ugiq.Despite the fact that todaythey are closely linked with the Makasar, the closestlinguistic neighbors of theBugis are the Toraja. Pre-1200 CE Bugis society wasorganized into pettychiefdoms, which would havewarred and, in times of peace,exchanged women with eachother. Personal security would have been negligible, andhead-hunting an establishedcultural practice. The politicaleconomy would have been amixture of hunting andgathering and swidden or shifting agriculture.Speculative planting of wetrice may have taken placealong the margins of the lakesand rivers. Megalithic stone in Central Sulawesi In Central Sulawesi there areover 400 granite megaliths, which various archaeologicalstudies have dated to be from3000 BC to 1300 AD. They varyin size from a few centimetresto ca.4.5 metres (15 ft). Theoriginal purpose of the megaliths is unknown. About30 of the megaliths representhuman forms. Other megalithsare in form of large pots(Kalamba) and stone plates (Tutu'na).[10][11] History 'Padjogé' dancers in Maros, Sulawesi, in the 1870s. Starting in the 13th century,access to prestige trade goodsand to sources of iron startedto alter long-standing culturalpatterns, and to permitambitious individuals to build larger political units. It is notknown why these twoingredients appearedtogether; one was perhaps theproduct of the other. By 1400,a number of nascent agricultural principalities hadarisen in the western Cenranavalley, as well as on the southcoast and on the east coast near modern Parepare.[12] The first Europeans to visit theisland (which they believed tobe an archipelago due to itscontorted shape) werePortuguese sailors in 1525, sentfrom the Moluccas in search of gold, which the islands hadthe reputation of producing. [13] The Dutch arrived in 1605 and were quickly followed bythe English, who established a factory in Makassar. [14] From 1660, the Dutch were at warwith Gowa , the major Makasar west coast power. In1669, Admiral Speelmanforced the ruler, SultanHasanuddin, to sign the Treaty of Bongaya , which handed control of trade to the Dutch East India Company. The Dutch were aided in their conquestby the Bugis warlord ArungPalakka, ruler of the Bugiskingdom of Bone. The Dutchbuilt a fort at Ujung Pandang,while Arung Palakka became the regional overlord andBone the dominant kingdom.Political and culturaldevelopment seems to haveslowed as a result of thestatus quo. In 1905 the entire island became part of theDutch state colony of the Netherlands East Indies until Japanese occupation in World War II. During the Indonesian National Revolution , the Dutch Captain 'Turk' Westerling murdered at least 4,000 people during the South Sulawesi Campaign .[15] Following the transfer ofsovereignty in December 1949,Sulawesi became part of the federal United States ofIndonesia, which in 1950 became absorbed into the unitary Republic of Indonesia . [16] Central Sulawesi The Portuguese wererumoured to have a fort inParigi in 1555 (Balinese ofParigi, Central Sulawesi (Davis1976), however she gives nosource). The Kaili were an important group based in thePalu valley and related to the Toraja. Scholars relate[citation needed] that their control swayed under Ternate andMakassar but this in realityseems to be a decision by theDutch to give their vassals achance to govern a difficultgroup. Padbruge commented that in the 1700 Kaili numberswere significant and a highlymilitant society. In the 1850s awar erupted between theKaili groups including theBanawa in which the Dutch decide to intervene. Acomplex conflict alsoinvolving the Sulu islandpirates and probablyWyndham (a British merchantwho commented on being involved in arms dealing tothe area in this period andcausing a row). In the late 19th century theSarasins journeyed throughthe Palu valley as part of amajor initiative to bring theKaili under Dutch rule. Somevery surprising and interesting photographs weretaken of shamen calledTadulako. Further Christianreligious missions entered thearea to make one of the mostdetailed ethnographic studies in the early 20th century(Kruyt & Adriani). A Swedeby the name of WalterKaudern later studied much ofthe literature and produced asynthesis. Erskine Downs in the 1950s produced asummary of Kruyts andAndrianis work: The religionof the Bare'e-speaking Toradjaof Central Celebes which isinvaluable for English speaking researchers. One ofthe most recent publications isWhen the bones are left: astudy of the material cultureof central Sulawesi Eija-MaijaKotilainen – History – 1992. This too offers some excellentanalysis. Also worthy ofstudy is the brilliant works ofMonnig Atkinson on the Wanashamen who live in the Moriarea. Religious conflict Sulawesi has been plagued byMuslim-Christian violence inrecent years. The most seriousviolence occurred between1999 and 2001 on the oncepeaceful island, with heavy involvement of Islamist militias such as Laskar Jihad. Over 1,000 people were killedin violence, riots, and ethniccleansing that ripped through Central Sulawesi. [17] The Malino II Accord was made in 2001. However, this did noteradicate the violence. In thefollowing years, tension andsystematic attacks persisted. [18] In 2003, 13 Christian villagers were killed in the Poso District by unknown masked gunmen. And in 2005 three Christian schoolgirlswere beheaded in Poso by Islamic militants. Amessage next to one of theheads allegedly read: "A lifefor a life. A head for a head". [19] Riots erupted again inSeptember 2006 in Christiandominated areas of CentralSulawesi, as well as other partof Indonesia, after the execution by firing squad of Fabianus Tibo, Dominggus da Silva and Marinus Riwu, threeCatholics convicted of leadingChristian militants during theviolence of the early firstdecade of the 21st century.Their supporters claimed that Muslims who participated inthe violence received verylight sentences and that nonewere sentenced to death, andthat the government used a double standard.[20] The riots appeared to be aimed atgovernment authorities, not Muslims.[20] Geography Sulawesi is the world's eleventh-largest island , covering an area of 174,600 km2 (67,413 sq mi). The island is surrounded by Borneo to the west, by the Philippines to the north, by Maluku to the east, and by Flores and Timor to the south. It has adistinctive shape, dominatedby four large peninsulas: the Semenanjung Minahassa; the East Peninsula; the South Peninsula; and the South-east Peninsula. The central part of the island is ruggedlymountainous, such that theisland's peninsulas havetraditionally been remotefrom each other, with betterconnections by sea than by road. Three bays dominate theisland: Gulf of Tomini, Tolo Gulf, and Bone Gulf, while the Strait of Makassar runs the western side of the island. Minor islands Selayar Islands make up a peninsula stretchingsouthwards from SouthwestSulawesi into the Flores Sea are administratively part ofSulawesi. The Sangihe Islands and Talaud Islands stretch northward from thenortheastern tip, while Buton Island justs southeast, Togian Islands are in the Gulf of Tomini, and Peleng Island and Banggai Islands form a cluster between Sulawesi and Maluku. All the above mentioned islands areadministratively part ofSulawesi. Administration The island is subdivided intosix provinces: Gorontalo, West Sulawesi , South Sulawesi , Central Sulawesi , Southeast Sulawesi , and North Sulawesi . West Sulawesi is a newprovince, created in 2004 frompart of South Sulawesi. Thelargest cities on the island are Makassar, Manado, Palu, Kendari. Provin ce Area in sq.km Popula tion (2010 Census ) Densit y per sq.km South Sulawes i 46,717. 48 8,032, 551 171.9West Sulawes i 16,787. 18 1,158, 336 69.0 Central Sulawes i 61,841. 29 2,633, 420 42.6 Southea st Sulawes i 38,067. 70 2,230, 569 58.6 Goronta lo 12,215. 44 1,038, 585 85.0 North Sulawes i 13,851. 64 2,265, 937 163.6 Sulawe si 189,480. 73 17,359, 398 91.6 City Provin ce contai ning city Popula tion (2010 Census ) Makassa r South Sulawes i 1,339, 374 Manado North Sulawes i 408,354 Palu Central Sulawes i 335,297 Kendari Southea st Sulawes i 289,468 Goronta lo Goronta lo 179,991 Flora and fauna Nomorhamphus liemi female in an aquarium; there are at least 19 species of Nomorhamphus, most of which are only found on Sulawesi. Sulawesi is part of Wallacea, meaning that it has a mix ofboth Asian and Australasianspecies. There are 8 national parks on the island, of which 4 are mostly marine. The parks with the largest terrestrialarea are Bogani Nani Wartabone with 2,871 km² and Lore Lindu National Park with 2,290 km². Bunaken National Park which protects a rich coral ecosystem has beenproposed as an UNESCO World Heritage Site. There are 127 knownmammalian species inSulawesi. A large percentageof these mammals, 62% (79species) are endemic, meaning that they are found nowhereelse in Indonesia or the world.The largest native mammals inSulawesi are the two speciesof anoa or dwarf buffalo. Other mammalian speciesinhabiting Sulawesi are the babirusas, which are aberrant pigs, the Sulawesi palm civet , and primates including anumber of tarsiers (the spectral, Dian's, Lariang and pygmy species) and several species of macaque, including the crested black macaque , the moor macaque and the booted macaque. Although virtually all Sulawesi's mammals are placental, and generally have close relatives in Asia, severalspecies of cuscus, marsupials of Australasian origin, alsooccur. By contrast, because manybirds can fly between islands,Sulawesian bird species tendto be found on other nearbyislands as well, such as Borneo; 34% of Sulawesi's birds arefound nowhere else. Oneendemic bird is the largelyground-dwelling, chicken-sized Maleo, a megapode which uses hot sand close tothe island's volcanic vents toincubate its eggs. There arearound 400 known birdspecies in Sulawesi. Aninternational partnership of conservationists, donors, andlocal people have formed theAlliance for Tompotika Conservation, [21] in an effort to raise awareness and protectthe nesting grounds of thesebirds on the central-easternarm of the island. The Ornate Lorikeet is endemic to Sulawesi. Sulawesi also has severalendemic species of freshwater fish, such as those in the genus Nomorhamphus, a species flock of livebearing freshwater halfbeaks containing at least 19 distinctspecies, most of which are only found on Sulawesi. [22] [23] There are also many species offreshwater shrimp that areendemic to Sulawesi. Severalof these species have becomevery popular in the aquariumhobby. Several of these shrimp species are found onlyin specific lakes in Sulawesi,making them even more rare. [24] Orange Delight Shrimp from Sulawesi. Some freshwater snails are also endemic to Sulawesi. [25] Due to the small habitat andunique environment it iscritical that all freshwaterspecies from Sulawesi beconserved properly. Anexpedition was conducted by Mimbon Aquarium to theisland of Sulawesi todocument and collect some ofthe species of fish, shrimp andsnails mentioned. There areseveral photos of the landscape, underwater habitatand some of the collectedspecimens from the expedition journal. [26] The island was recently thesubject of an EcoregionalConservation Assessment,coordinated by The Nature Conservancy . Detailed reports about the vegetation of the island are available. [27] The assessment produced adetailed and annotated list of'conservation portfolio' sites.This information was widelydistributed to localgovernment agencies and nongovernmentalorganizations. Detailedconservation priorities havealso been outlined in a recent publication.[28] The lowland forests on theisland have mostly been removed. [29] Because of the relative geological youth ofthe island and its dramatic andsharp topography, thelowland areas are naturallylimited in their extent. Thepast decade has seen dramatic conversion of this rare andendangered habitat. The islandalso possesses one of thelargest outcrops of serpentine soil in the world, which support an unusual and largecommunity of specializedplant species. Overall, the floraand fauna of this uniquecenter of global biodiversity isvery poorly documented and understood and remainscritically threatened. Environment The largest environmentalissue in Sulawesi isdeforestation. In 2007,scientists found that 80percent of Sulawesi's foresthad been lost or degraded, especially centered in thelowlands and the mangroves. [30] Forests have been felled for logging and largeagricultural projects. Loss offorest has resulted in many ofSulawesi's endemic speciesbecoming endangered. Inaddition 99 percent of Sulawesi's wetlands havebeen lost or damaged. Other environmental threatsincluded bushmeat hunting and mining.[31] Parks The island of Sulawesi has sixnational parks and nineteennature reserves. In addition,Sulawesi has three marineprotected areas. Many ofSulawesi's parks are threatened by logging,mining, and deforestation for agriculture.[31] Population The 2000 census population ofthe provinces of Sulawesi was14,946,488, about 7.25% ofIndonesia's total population. [32] By the 2010 Census the total had reached 17,359,416.The largest city is Makassar. Religion Circumcision ceremony, Gorontalo, North Sulawesi. Islam is the majority religion in Sulawesi. The conversion ofthe lowlands of the southwestern peninsula (SouthSulawesi) to Islam occurred inthe early 17th century. Thekingdom of Luwu in the Gulf of Bone was the first to acceptIslam in February 1605; theMakassar kingdom of Goa-Talloq, centered on themodern-day city of Makassar, followed suit in September. [33] However, the Gorontalo and the Mongondow peoplesof the northern peninsulalargely converted to Islamonly in the 19th century. MostMuslims are Sunnis. Christians form a substantial minority on the island.According to the demographer Toby Alice Volkman, 17% of Sulawesi'spopulation is Protestant and less than 2% is Roman Catholic. Christians are concentrated onthe tip of the northernpeninsula around the city of Manado, which is inhabited by the Minahasa, a predominantly Protestant people, and thenorthernmost Sangir and Talaud Islands. The famous Toraja people of Tana Toraja in Central Sulawesi have largelyconverted to Christianity sinceIndonesia's independence.There are also substantialnumbers of Christians around Lake Poso in Central Sulawesi, among the Pamona speaking peoples of Central Sulawesi,and near Mamasa. There hasalso been growth in theChristian population of the Banggai Islands and the Eastern Peninsula in CentralSulawesi, traditionallythought of as Muslim areas. Though most people identifythemselves as Muslims orChristians, they oftensubscribe to local beliefs anddeities as well. It is notuncommon for Christians to make offerings to local gods,goddesses, and spirits. Smaller communities of Buddhists and Hindus are also found on Sulawesi, usuallyamong the Chinese, Balinese and Indian communities.﻿