Welcome to the Distance Learning phase of the Intermediate Law of Armed Conflict course. As a Canadian Forces member, you are about to begin a very important component of your development as an officer or as an NCM. It has been designed to give you the right tools to address the complexities of today's battlefield. It will require time and dedication on your part but it will undoubtedly expand your appreciation of the legal considerations embedded within the planning and execution of military operations in the full spectrum of conflicts.

During the classroom portion of the course, there will be lectures, syndicate discussions and exercises. The syndicate activities will require some individual preparation, most of which will occur on the evening prior to the activity. Furthermore, you can anticipate a moderate workload in the evenings in order to prepare the following day.

The syndicate discussions and exercises will be lead by a legal officer who will act as a DS. The regular CFC DS are not required to prepare any formal contribution, but they will be provided with all the course material and will be welcomed to actively participate in the discussions and exercises.

General Description of LOAC Courses Program

Rationale for the Course and Context of its Development

This course has been designed to deliver a graduate standard of LOAC training to CF leaders, in order to prepare them to conduct operational missions in a lawful manner, having in mind the CDS stated end-state for transformation:

“A CF that is strategically relevant, operationally responsive and tactically decisive, supported by an effective, efficient and adaptable defence institution; capable of operating within a dynamic and evolving security spectrum.”

It also supports the JAG’s stated strategy, which emanates from the vision “that justice be done in the defence of Canada" and embodies a value system that fosters respect for human rights and international humanitarian law.

Description of the ILOAC

Course Structure, Expectations, Time Management Planning and Sequence of Phases

The Intermediate LOAC course is comprised of two phases, a Distance Learning (DL) phase followed by an in-residence phase. The Distance Learning phase of the ILOAC is a pre-requisite for the attendance to the residence phase that

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concludes the ILOAC course. In class, we will deepen and expand the notions already covered through lectures and panels, syndicate exercises and discussions.

As you progress through the DL phase, you will be exposed to mandatory readings, informative films and illustrative videos. It is essential that you invest sufficient quality time in this personal work. The residence phase needs to be thoroughly prepared in order for you to contribute meaningfully to the lectures, discussions and exercises. You should expect the DL phase to take approximately five hours of constant attention.

During this phase, you will also have access to supplementary readings that would not only prepare you further for the residence phase, but also constitute an excellent personal reference library. These texts and references reflect the state of the law, current debates and emerging areas of interest.

The completion of the Distance Learning will allow you to register for the five-day residence portion of the ILOAC course. Upon completion, you will have 12 months to register through your unit, formation training officer, or CFMLC. The details of the registration process will be given to you at the end of the DL phase.

Introduction to Module 1

LOAC Key concepts

In this module, we will examine the general concepts that are essential to understand the nature and the scope of LOAC. It also covers the key definitions and rules governing the applicability of the various bodies of the LOAC. These questions are instrumental in determining which rules will apply to a given CF international operation.

The module will be concluded by the video "Fighting by the Rules”, which shows how LOAC has to be applied during various types of conflicts as well as the importance of LOAC training.

International Law

International law is the body of law, which governs relations between sovereign states. It is a system of rules and principles created primarily by states, which cover almost every facet of inter-state activity. It is the vital mechanism without which an increasingly interdependent world could not function. International law deals with issues such as nationality, the use of armed force and the human rights of individuals. The practice of International Law is directly related to diplomacy, politics and the conduct of foreign relations.

From: LOAC OP/TAC Level

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Description and Purpose

The LOAC 1has been defined as the body of international law which sets out rules of behaviour in an armed conflict. “It sets out minimum standards applicable to the conduct of hostilities designed to limit unnecessary human suffering, ensure respect for human dignity, and facilitate the restoration of peace.” 2

International law includes both treaty law and customary international law. From a CF perspective, the relevant treaty law of the LOAC is identified in the CF publication B-GG-005-027/AF-022, Collection of the Documents on the Law of Armed Conflict. Key treaties include the Hague Conventions, 3the Geneva Conventions, 4the Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions, 5as well as key weapons control treaties such as the Ottawa Convention 6and the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons. 7

References

1See William Fenrick, “The Development of the Law of Armed Conflict through the Jurisprudence

of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia” (1998) 3 Jn of Armed Conflict 197; McCoubrey, International Humanitarian Law: The Regulation of Armed Conflicts (Aldershot:

Dartmouth Publishing Company Limited, 1990); Fleck, The Handbook of Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflicts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); McCoubrey and White, International Law and Armed Conflict (Aldershot: Dartmouth Publishing Company Limited, 1992); Dinstein, The

Conduct of Hostilities in International Armed Conflict, 3

rd

ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 2004); Bothe et al., New Rules for Victims of Armed Conflicts: Commentary on the Two 1977 Protocols Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 (The Hague and Boston: M.

Nijhoff, 1982); Rogers, Law on the Battlefield, 2 nded (Manchester: Manchester University Press,

2004).

2See B-GG-005-027/AF-023, Code of Conduct for CF Personnel, p. 1-2.

3Hague Conventions of 1907, 18 October 1907: Convention III Relative to the Opening of Hostilities, Convention IV Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, Convention V Respecting the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and Persons in Case of War on Land, (VI) Relating to the Status of Enemy Merchant Ships at the Outbreak of Hostilities, (VII) Relating to the Conversion of Merchant Ships Into Warships, Convention VIII Relative to the Laying of Automatic Submarine Contact Mines, Convention IX Concerning Bombardment by Naval Forces in Time of War, Convention XI Relative to Certai n Restrictions with Regard to the Exercise of the Right of Capture in Naval War, Convention XIII Concerning the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers in Naval War and Convention XIV Prohibiting the Discharge of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons.

4Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field of August 12, 1949, 12 August 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 31; Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed at Sea of August 12, 1949, 12 August 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 85; Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War of August 12, 1949, 12 August 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 135; Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War of August 12, 1949, 12 August 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 287.

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5Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts (Protocol I), 6 August 1977, [AP I]; Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts (Protocol II), 6 August 1977[AP II].

6Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti- Personnel Mines and on their Destruction, 18 September 1997, 2056 U.N.T.S. 211.

7Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons which may be Deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to have Indiscriminate Effects, 10 October 1980, 1342 U.N.T.S. 137.

Origins

Writers delve back through the history of centuries to the ancient civilizations of India and Egypt to find in their writings evidence of practices intended to alleviate the sufferings of war. This evidence is to be found in agreements and treaties, in the works of religions leaders and philosophers, in regulations and articles of war issued by military leaders and in the rules of chivalry. 1It is said that the first systematic code of war was that of the Saracens and was based on the Koran. 2The writers of the Age of Enlightenment, notably Grotius 3and Vattel, 4were especially influential. It has been suggested that more humane rules were able to flourish in the period of limited wars from 1648 to 1792 but that they then came under pressure in the drift towards continental warfare, the concept of the nation in arms and the increasing destructiveness of weapons from 1792 to 1914. 5Efforts had to be made in the middle of the last century to re-impose on war limits, which up to that time had been based on custom and usage. 6

2See R.C. Algase, Protection of civilians lives in warfare: a comparison between Islamic law and modern international law concerning the conduct of hostilities, Military Law and Law of War Review, 1977 at p. 246.

6See further G.I.A.D. Draper, Humanitarianism in the modern law of armed conflict, in M.A. Law, 1989, at p. 3. A useful summary of the historical development of the law of armed conflict is to be found in H. McCoubrey and N.D. White, International Law and Armed Conflict, Dartmouth, 1992, pp. 209-23.

From: Green

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International Humanitarian Law

While the expression “LOAC” is primarily used in military and some academic communities, “IHL” is mostly referred to by the humanitarian organizations. Here is a definition of IHL as offered by the ICRC:

“International humanitarian law is a set of rules which seek, for humanitarian reasons, to limit the effects of armed conflict. It protects persons who are not or are no longer participating in the hostilities and restricts the means and methods of warfare.

International humanitarian law is also known as the law of war or the law of armed conflict. International humanitarian law is part of international law, which is the body of rules governing relations between States. International law is contained in agreements between States – treaties or conventions –, in customary rules, which consist of State practise considered by them as legally binding, and in general principles.

International humanitarian law applies to armed conflicts. It does not regulate whether a State may actually use force; this is governed by an important, but distinct, part of international law set out in the United Nations Charter”.

The basic sources of the LOAC are treaties and customary international law. Treaties, which include Protocols and Conventions, are agreements concluded by states whereby they accept a legal obligation to do or not do something. One can determine whether or not a State is bound by a treaty simply by determining whether or not it has ratified the treaty. Ratification implies that the treaty has been approved by the government of the state.

Customary international law, on the other hand, is more difficult to identify. The elements of customary international law are a uniform, consistent and general repetition of similar acts by competent state authorities (usage) and recognition by states that such practice is binding upon them as law. The existence of customary international law is dependent upon general agreement, not unanimous agreement. Thus, a state may be bound by a treaty that expresses customary international law, although it is not a party to that treaty. For example, a state that is not a party to the Geneva Conventions.

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Self-Defense Under CIL and UN Charter

Introduction

UN Charter to the general prohi bition on the use of force. This section provides an overview of the right of individual and collective self- defence and highlights some of the current key legal issues relating to its scope and ambit. The right of self-defence has been the legal basis for the deployment of the CF during the 1991 Gulf War and the current ‘Campaign Against Terrorism.’ Furthermore, the right of collective self-defence forms the legal foundation upon which the two most significant Canadi an defence treaties – The North Atlantic Treaty and The NORAD Agreement, rest. Article 51 and its Customary In ternational Law Counterpart Article 51 of the UN Charter states: UN Charter, 1945 UN Siege in New York Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or collective self-def ence if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the United Nations, until the Security Council has taken measures necessary to maintain international peace and security . Measures taken by Members in the exercise of this right of self-defence shall be immediately reported to the Security Council and shall not in any way affect the authority and responsibility of the Security Council under the present Charter to take at any time such action as it deems necessary in order to maintain or restore international peace and security. Public international law is comprised of both treaty law and customary international law. The right of individual and collective self-defence in customary international law operates and retains a ‘separate existence’ from Article 51 and continues to “exist and apply, separately from international treaty law…” THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF SELF-DEFENCE The 1990-1991 Gulf This section will overview some of the key legal issues which currently exist in relation to the law of self-defence and which may have an impact on the decision of whether to deploy the CF and on how force is to be used if such a decision to deploy is made. 6/190 " id="pdf-obj-5-6" src="pdf-obj-5-6.jpg">

The right of self-defence is one of the express exemptions found in the UN Charter to the general prohibition on the use of force. This section provides an overview of the right of individual and collective self-defence and highlights some of the current key legal issues relating to its scope and ambit. The right of self-defence has been the legal basis for the deployment of the CF during the 1991 Gulf War and the current ‘Campaign Against Terrorism.’ Furthermore, the right of collective self-defence forms the legal foundation upon which the two most significant Canadian defence treaties – The North Atlantic Treaty and The NORAD Agreement, rest. 1

UN Charter to the general prohi bition on the use of force. This section provides an overview of the right of individual and collective self- defence and highlights some of the current key legal issues relating to its scope and ambit. The right of self-defence has been the legal basis for the deployment of the CF during the 1991 Gulf War and the current ‘Campaign Against Terrorism.’ Furthermore, the right of collective self-defence forms the legal foundation upon which the two most significant Canadi an defence treaties – The North Atlantic Treaty and The NORAD Agreement, rest. Article 51 and its Customary In ternational Law Counterpart Article 51 of the UN Charter states: UN Charter, 1945 UN Siege in New York Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or collective self-def ence if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the United Nations, until the Security Council has taken measures necessary to maintain international peace and security . Measures taken by Members in the exercise of this right of self-defence shall be immediately reported to the Security Council and shall not in any way affect the authority and responsibility of the Security Council under the present Charter to take at any time such action as it deems necessary in order to maintain or restore international peace and security. Public international law is comprised of both treaty law and customary international law. The right of individual and collective self-defence in customary international law operates and retains a ‘separate existence’ from Article 51 and continues to “exist and apply, separately from international treaty law…” THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF SELF-DEFENCE The 1990-1991 Gulf This section will overview some of the key legal issues which currently exist in relation to the law of self-defence and which may have an impact on the decision of whether to deploy the CF and on how force is to be used if such a decision to deploy is made. 6/190 " id="pdf-obj-5-37" src="pdf-obj-5-37.jpg">

UN Siege in New York

Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or collective self-defence if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the United Nations, until the Security Council has taken measures necessary to maintain international peace and security. Measures taken by Members in the exercise of this right of self-defence shall be immediately reported to the Security Council and shall not in any way affect the authority and responsibility of the Security Council under the present Charter to take at any time such action as it deems necessary in order to maintain or restore international peace and security.

Public international law is comprised of both treaty law and customary international law. The right of individual and collective self-defence in customary international law operates and retains a ‘separate existence’ 2from Article 51 and continues to “exist and apply, separately from international treaty law…” 3

THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF SELF-DEFENCE

UN Charter to the general prohi bition on the use of force. This section provides an overview of the right of individual and collective self- defence and highlights some of the current key legal issues relating to its scope and ambit. The right of self-defence has been the legal basis for the deployment of the CF during the 1991 Gulf War and the current ‘Campaign Against Terrorism.’ Furthermore, the right of collective self-defence forms the legal foundation upon which the two most significant Canadi an defence treaties – The North Atlantic Treaty and The NORAD Agreement, rest. Article 51 and its Customary In ternational Law Counterpart Article 51 of the UN Charter states: UN Charter, 1945 UN Siege in New York Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or collective self-def ence if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the United Nations, until the Security Council has taken measures necessary to maintain international peace and security . Measures taken by Members in the exercise of this right of self-defence shall be immediately reported to the Security Council and shall not in any way affect the authority and responsibility of the Security Council under the present Charter to take at any time such action as it deems necessary in order to maintain or restore international peace and security. Public international law is comprised of both treaty law and customary international law. The right of individual and collective self-defence in customary international law operates and retains a ‘separate existence’ from Article 51 and continues to “exist and apply, separately from international treaty law…” THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF SELF-DEFENCE The 1990-1991 Gulf This section will overview some of the key legal issues which currently exist in relation to the law of self-defence and which may have an impact on the decision of whether to deploy the CF and on how force is to be used if such a decision to deploy is made. 6/190 " id="pdf-obj-5-71" src="pdf-obj-5-71.jpg">

The 1990-1991 Gulf

This section will overview some of the key legal issues which currently exist in relation to the law of self-defence and which may have an impact on the decision of whether to deploy the CF and on how force is to be used if such a decision to deploy is made.

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War

‘Armed Attack’

Six-Days War, 1967

While the UN Charter recognizes the right of self-defence “when an armed attack occurs,” it does not define what is meant by an ‘armed attack.’ There is a consensus on the proposition that an armed attack includes kinetic force applied by the armed forces of a state. 4

As a general statement ‘armed attack’ includes military force, 5which usually takes the form of kinetic force but may include, depending on the circumstances, activities like a computer network attack when the scale and effects of these activities have destructive consequences. International law makes a distinction between “most grave forms” (e.g., armed attacks) from “less grave forms.” In short, the “scale and effects” of a particular use of force will be assessed with some instances of force being of “lesser gravity than an armed attack.” Additionally, as the tragic events of 11 September 2001 have demonstrated armed attacks can be committed by non-state entities using non-military, unconventional or improvised means, i.e. hijacked civilian airlines.

A right of self-defence arises when an armed attack ‘occurs.’ Legal debates have focused on whether a state can respond in self-defence only after the blow has landed, when the threat of the attack is imminent or merely a possibility. 6

Generally speaking, the right of self-defence arises whenever an armed attack has occurred or when the threat of an armed attack is imminent rather than merely possible. In what is referred to as the Caroline Formula, the right of self-defence arises when there is “a necessity of self defence, instant, overwhelming, leaving no choice of means, and no moment of deliberation.” 7

The nature of the threat and the means of attack will be considerations in predicting the attack and determining whether the threat is imminent. Consequently, activities taken by terrorists who do not distinguish themselves from the civilian population when preparing and carrying out an attack will be relevant. Likewise, the characteristics of a weapon system will also be considered. This would include consideration of not only the procedures involved in activating the system but its destructive capacity as well. For example, the

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nature of launching a weapon of mass destruction (WMD), when contrasted with the firing of a rifle, will be considered in the determination of imminence. 8

The use of force in defence of a threat that is imminent has sometimes been referred to as anticipatory self defence. Generally speaking, states that have responded to imminent threats have characterized their actions as self-defence rather than anticipatory self defence. 9This is primarily for two reasons: first, there is no need to qualify self-defence as anticipatory given that the law of self- defence allows for action when a threat is imminent. Second, terms such as ‘anticipatory’ or ‘pre-emptive’ are used in a variety of ways and any qualification of self-defence as anticipatory will inevitably lead to unnecessary debate. Consequently, when states act in self-defence to threats that are imminent, reference is made to self defence, not anticipatory self defence.

Defence of Nationals Outside the Territory of the State

Evacuation of non combatants

Armed attacks on state property and state officials outside the territory of a victim state (e.g. warships and military members), will give rise to a right of self defence. 10With respect to private citizens it is expected that the host state will defend those nationals in situations where citizens are being attacked or threatened. Where a host nation is unwilling or unable to defend those foreign nationals, a legal right to protect nationals abroad exists. This right is viewed either as an act of self-defence or a right that exists in customary law independent from the right of self defence. 11

On occasion, a situation may arise when the legal authority for self-defence exists and the Security Council then issues one or more resolutions. At this moment, the complexity of the legal framework authorizing the use of force increases. An immediate issue will be whether the Security Council has triggered the ‘until clause’ and has taken ‘measures necessary’ sufficient to extinguish the right of self defence. If not, the resolution will have to be scrutinized in order to precisely determine what, if anything, it authorizes beyond what would be permissible under the right of self defence.

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The existence of a right of self-defence coupled with Security Council resolutions addressing the same situation have arisen in a number of international operations involving the CF. These include Korea in the 1950s, the 1991 Gulf War and the ‘Campaign Against Terrorism.’ Issues such as whether troops can cross into North Korea or Iraq as an exercise of self-defence or as part of the authorization to “restore international peace and security in the area” arose. Likewise, the relationship between a mandate to “restore international peace and security” or “the maintenance of security in Kabul” is different than acting in self- defence against Al-Qaeda. 12These types of issues will have a direct impact on the OPLAN, ROE, and the targeting framework. Consequently, it will be important to identify the distinct legal bases upon which an operation may rest as well as the precise scope of operations which each legal basis may provide.

Collective Self-Defence

The legal prerequisites for the exercise of individual self-defence are equally applicable to collective self-defence – an armed attack having occurred or the imminent threat of an armed attack about to occur. Consequently, when a state is the victim of an armed attack it may ‘request’ other states to assist in its defence. NATO and NORAD are the two most relevant Canadian ‘regional arrangements’ which facilitate the collective implementation of self defence. 13On 2 October 2002, Canada and the other NATO states invoked the collective self-defence mechanism contained within Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty.

References

1See generally Bowett, Self-Defence in International Law (New York: Fredrick A. Praeger, 1958); Brownlie, International Law and the Use of Force By States (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963); Brownlie, “The Use of Force in Self Defence” (1961) 37 BYIL 183; Alexandrov, Self-Defence

Against the Use of Force in International Law (Kluwer Law International, 1996); Dinstein, War, Aggression and Self defence, 4 thed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Schachter, “Self-defence and the Rule of Law” 83 AJIL 259; Gray, International Law and the Use of Force,

I.C.J. Rep 3 [Tehran Hostages Case]; Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), [1986] I.C.J. Rep 14 [Nicaragua Case]; Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict, Advisory Opinion, [1996] I.C.J. Rep 66 [Legality of Nuclear Weapons]; Iranian Oil Platforms (Iran v. United States of America), [2003] ICJ Reports [Oil Platforms]; Legal consequences of the construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory [2004] ICJ Reports [The Wall Case].

2Nicaragua Case, supra note 1 at 178 and 179.

3Ibid. at 179.

4The ICJ in the Nicaragua Case used the Definition of Aggression GAR 3314 (XXIX) 1974 [Definition] as guidance when defining ‘armed attack.’ Many examples cited in the Definition refer to classic military uses of force including bombardment, “[a]n attack by the armed forces of a state on the land” and “[t]he invasion …of the territory of another state…”

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5In making this general statement it is recognized that some degree of controversy exists as to whether the force must pass a certain level of intensity, non kinetic military activities such as computer network attack fall within the definition, non-state entities not acting on behalf of a state can commit an armed attack, and economic or political coercion can constitute an armed attack. In the Nicaragua Case, the distinction made by the ICJ between uses of force that are ‘most grave’ and ‘less grave’ has been the source of considerable controversy. Many commentators feel that the requirements of necessity and proportionality are applicable when responding to any use of force, regardless of its scale and effects, when acting in self defence. (See Higgins, Problems and Process (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994). One writer has properly noted that

The criteria of ‘scale and effects’ …are particularly relevant in appraising what counter-action

taken in self-defence, in response to an armed attack, is

legitimate.

.But unless the scale and

effects are trifling, below the de minimis threshold, they do not contribute to a determination

If indeed the difference between an armed attack and ‘less grave’ uses of force is “one of degree

rather than of kind” (Gray, supra note 1 at 46) then the de minimis threshold must be very low. In the Oil Platforms case, supra note 1 at 73, the Court noted that it does not exclude the possibility that the mining of a single military vessel might be sufficient to bring into play the ‘inherent right of self-defence.’ See generally Schmitt and O’Donnell, eds., “Computer Network Attack and International Law” (2002) 76 Int’l Law Studies; Schmitt, “Computer Network Attack and the Use of Force in International Law: Thoughts on a Normative Framework” (1999) 37 Col. J. Transnat’l L. 855; Barkham, “Information Warfare and International Law on the Use of Force” (2001) 34 N.Y.U.J. Int’l L. & Pol. 57. The ICJ in Nicaragua conceded, that irregulars acting on behalf of a state could commit an armed attack. This is consistent with the Definition of Aggression, which included in its definition of aggression, “[t]he sending by or on behalf of a state of armed bands, groups, irregulars or mercenaries, which carry out acts of armed force against another state….” However, a distinct legal issue arises in the case of whether a non-state entity, acting on its own, can commit an ‘armed attack.’ This situation arose from the events of 11 September 2001. In response to the attack carried out by Al-Qaeda the Security Council issued SCR 1368 (2001) and

1373 (2001), which recognized and reaffirmed the right of self defence. Implicit in this was a

finding that an armed attack (a prerequisite for self defence) must have occurred. On 24 October

2001 Canada informed the Security Council that it was taking military action against Al-Qaeda as

an exercise of individual and collective self defence. Clearly, from a Canadian perspective, a non- state entity can commit an armed attack and self-defence can be exercised. See Murphy, “Terrorism and the concept of “Armed Attack” in Article 51 of the U.N. Charter” (2002) 43:1 Harvard Int’l L.J. 1; Gaja, “In What Sense Was There An “Armed Attack”?” (2002) E.J.I.L. 3. In the Wall Case supra note 1, the ICJ gave an advisory opinion concerning the “legal consequences arising from the construction of the wall being built by Israel…”

In the course of addressing the question the Court noted at para. 139 that:

Article 51 of the Charter thus recognizes the existence of an inherent right of self-defence in the case of an armed attack by one State against another. However, Israel does not claim that the attacks against it are imputable to a foreign State.

The Court continues by noting that the threats, which Israel claims it is responding to in self- defence

originate within, and not outside, that territory. The situation is thus different from that contemplated by Security Council resolutions 1368 (2001) and 1373 (2001) and therefore Israel could not in any event invoke those resolutions in support of its claims to be exercising a right of

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self-defence. Consequently, the Court concludes that Article 51 of the Charter has no relevance in this case.

The ambiguity of those passages raises a number of issues. It appears to suggest that self- defence can only be exercised if a state is attacked by another state. This is problematic given post 9/11 state practice in relation to non-state actors and both SCR 1368 and SCR 1373.

6Within this debate, various concepts such as ‘anticipatory,’ ‘pre-emptive,’ ‘preventive’ or ‘interceptive’ have been used to qualify self defence. Further confusion has developed as these adjective terms have been defined differently on various occasions. See Brownlie, supra note 1 as representative of those who do not precisely define armed attack but imply that the blow must land or trespass must occur. Bowett, supra note 1 suggests that an attack which has not yet landed but is ‘imminent’ creates a legal basis for ‘anticipatory’ self defence. Dinstein, supra note 1 is of the view that self-defence only arises when the armed attack occurs. His sophisticated analysis distinguishes between attacks, which are ‘merely foreseeable,’ ‘preventable’ or ‘conceivable’ and those attacks, which begin with an ‘irreversible course of action’ where ‘the die is cast.’ Others have held out a ‘pre-emptive’ notion of self defence. See Wedgwood, “The Fall of Saddam Hussein: Security Council Mandates and Pre-emptive Self defence” (2003) 97 A.J.I.L. 576; Sapiro, “Iraq: The Shifting Sands of pre-emptive Self defence” (2003) 97 AJIL 599; Taft and Buchwald, “Pre-emption, Iraq and International Law” (2003) 97 A.J.I.L. 557. Greenwood, “Pre- emptive Force: Afghanistan and Iraq” (2003) 4 San Diego Int’l L.J. 7-37.

7The Caroline Formula was created during an exchange of letters between the US Secretary of State and a UK Minister, which attempted to resolve whether an attack by British forces on a ship named the Caroline, anchored in US waters with Canadian rebels on board who were preparing to attack Canada fell within an act of self defence. See Jennings, (1938) A.J.I.L. 32. The Caroline stands as authority for not only the right to use force in defence of an imminent threat but also the right to exercise self-defence against non-state entities. Within the context of using force in self- defence against Al-Qaeda – a non state entity – see Greenwood “International Law and the War Against Terrorism” (2002) 78 Int’l Affairs 2 at 301.

10For example, the Definition of Aggression, supra note 4, cites “[a]n attack…on the…marine and air fleets of another state.” See also the Oil Platforms decision, supra note 1 at 72, where it is stated that it does “not exclude the possibility that the mining of a single military vessel might be sufficient to bring into play the inherent right of self-defence.” Article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty contemplates an attack on NATO military assets in the North Atlantic as an example of an armed attack.

13See Gray, supra note 1 and Alexandrov, supra note 1. Article 52 of the UN Charter recognizes the existence of ‘regional arrangements’ as an entity that may promote international peace and security.

Introduction to Peacekeeping

Canada has a long history of involvement in peace support operations (PSO). 1Establishing a PSO is one of the options available to the international community to assist in the resolution of a conflict. They are authorized in support of the political objectives of internationally recognized organisations such as the United Nations (UN). PSOs include conflict prevention, peacemaking, traditional and complex peacekeeping, and peace building. This section identifies the legal characteristics of peacekeeping, the legal basis upon which peacekeeping operations may rest, and some of the more common contemporary legal issues that may impact on the planning and conduct of peacekeeping operations.

Peacekeeping has been defined in many operational, political and legal ways. Central to any legal definition are three legal characteristics or prerequisites: the consent of the states involved, the limitation of the use of force by peacekeepers to situations of self-defence and neutrality. Fundamentally, the traditional legal basis for peacekeeping rests on the consent of the parties to a conflict, in particular the host state, to the creation and presence of a peacekeeping force within its territory. This consent to allow a peacekeeping force to supervise a peace agreement may be facilitated by the General Assembly, the Security Council or other organs of the UN. Customary international law, based on state consent and agreement, can also support a peacekeeping operation without reliance on the UN Charter.

While many legal issues arise with reference to peacekeeping operations, some of the more significant ones center on the nature and scope of the requisite consent and the parameters of self defence. Other legal issues of operational significance relate to command and control, mandate ambiguity and the transformation of a peacekeeping operation into a peace enforcement operation. 2

The Legal Characteristics of Peacekeeping

UN peacekeeping has traditionally relied on the consent of the opposing parties and involves the deployment of neutral forces to implement an agreement approved by those parties. By contrast, in cases of enforcement action, the Security Council gives Member States the authority to take ‘all necessary measures’ to achieve a stated objective. Unlike peacekeeping, consent of the parties is not necessarily required for enforcement actions.

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The Legal Basis for Peacekeeping

The UN Charter

Peacekeeping 3is not expressly provided for in the UN Charter, nor did the drafters of the UN Charter ever envisage peacekeeping. Whether based in part under the authority of the UN Charter, or solely upon customary international law, the fundamentally important legal basis upon which peacekeeping rests is the consent of the parties to a conflict and the troop contributing nations. 4Any deployment of forces within the territory of the parties to a conflict for the purposes of supervising a peace agreement without their consent must rest upon some other binding legal authority (i.e., usually a Chapter VII Security Council resolution), and consequently places the international operation outside the legal definition of peacekeeping.

Given the legal requirement of states’ and parties’ consent, it would be legally incorrect to state that the UN Charter is the legal basis that creates peacekeeping. Rather, the UN Charter provides legal authority for both the General Assembly and the Security Council to facilitate (i.e., organize, plan or finance), the creation of a peacekeeping force when the consent of the parties involved is obtained. 5

The General Assembly

UN Charter , nor did the drafters of the UN Charter ever env isage peacekeeping. Whether based in part under the authority of the UN Charter, or solely upon customary international law, the fundamentally important legal basis upon which peacekeeping rests is the consent of the parties to a conflict and the troop contributing nations. Any deployment of forces within the territory of the parties to a conflict for the purposes of supervising a peace agreement wit hout their consent must rest upon some other binding legal authority (i.e., usually a Chapter VII Security Council resolution), and consequently places the inte rnational operation outside the legal definition of peacekeeping. Given the legal requirement of states’ and parties’ consent, it would be legally incorrect to state that the UN Charter is the l egal basis that creates peacekeeping. Rather, the UN Charter provides legal authority for both the General Assembly and the Security Council to facilitate (i.e., organize, plan or finance), the creation of a peacekeeping fo rce when the consent of the parties involved is obtained. The General Assembly UN General Assembly The General Assembly has the legal authority to consider, to discuss, and to make recommendations (but not to make decisions) “relating to the maintenance of international peace and security…” The General Assembly may also, subject to limitations identified below, “recommend measures for the peaceful adjustment of any situation…” These limits on the powers of recommendation are twofold: any recommendation “on which action is necessary shall be referred to the Security Council…” and “the General Assembly shall not make any recommendation…” regarding any dispute or situation while the Security Council is exercising its function with res pect to that matter. Within this legal framework the General Assembly passed the Uniting For Peace Resolution , which became the General Assembly ’s focal point, or outline, for facilitating the creation of peacekeeping fo rces and monitoring situations related to international peace and security. Duri ng its active period between 1945 and 1970 the General Assembly facilitated the creation of the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) and the United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC). The utilization of its powers to fi nance these forces was challenged in 13/190 " id="pdf-obj-12-46" src="pdf-obj-12-46.jpg">

UN General Assembly

The General Assembly has the legal authority to consider, to discuss, and to make recommendations (but not to make decisions) “relating to the maintenance of international peace and security…” 6The General Assembly may also, subject to limitations identified below, “recommend measures for the peaceful adjustment of any situation…” 7These limits on the powers of recommendation are twofold: any recommendation “on which action is necessary shall be referred to the Security Council…” and “the General Assembly shall not make any recommendation…” regarding any dispute or situation while the Security Council is exercising its function with respect to that matter. 8

Within this legal framework the General Assembly passed the Uniting For Peace Resolution, 9which became the General Assembly’s focal point, or outline, for facilitating the creation of peacekeeping forces and monitoring situations related to international peace and security. During its active period between 1945 and 1970 the General Assembly facilitated the creation of the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) 10and the United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC). 11The utilization of its powers to finance these forces was challenged in

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a case before the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which ruled in favour of the General Assembly’s authority in relation to UNEF and ONUC. 12

The Security Council’s Peacekeeping Powers

The Security Council likewise has the legal authority to issue recommendations that are non-binding but which relate to any dispute likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security. 13As with the powers of the General Assembly, this Security Council authority, contained within Chapter VI of the UN Charter, should be interpreted broadly, applying the doctrines of implied and inherent powers. 14Also, as is the case with the General Assembly, the legal authority to create a Chapter VI peacekeeping force is dependant on the consent of the parties. 15

The Security Council could also create a peacekeeping force under Chapter VII, Article 40, with a mandate to supervise a peace agreement between two or more parties, but without authorization to “use all necessary means.” This arrangement would be consented to by the parties. 16It is important to note that in this Chapter VII peacekeeping scenario, two distinct legal bases would exist: first, state consent (customary international law), possibly expressed through a treaty (the peace agreement), and second, a binding decision of the Security Council. 17The Security Council has also authorized a peacekeeping force to supervise a peace agreement, with the consent of the parties, while giving the force Chapter VII enforcement powers for very limited purposes unrelated to monitoring the peace agreement. 18

These scenarios can be legally complex and it is important to be aware of the parameters of action permitted under each legal authority. This is particularly so in cases where the CF is deployed under dual authorities (host state consent and a Chapter VII mandate) and there is the possibility of one legal base being removed, either through the withdrawal of state consent or in non-renewal of the mandate. 19

The key points for the purposes of this Section are threefold. First, with state consent, the Security Council has the authority to facilitate the creation of a peacekeeping force under Chapter VI. Second, it is possible for a peacekeeping force to be created under Chapter VII, if the parties consent and force is restricted to self defence. Third, any force that is created without the consent of the parties, even if force is limited to self defence, would not fall within the legal definition of a peacekeeping force.

The Customary International Legal Basis for Peacekeeping

The fundamental legal requirement for peacekeeping is the consent of the parties. For conflicts between states this involves the consent of the states parties to the conflict and the peace agreement. For non-international armed

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conflict 20, this involves the consent of the parties to the conflict. Customary international law provides a distinct and separate legal basis for peacekeeping, which is independent of the UN Charter, resting on the parties’ consent to accept a peacekeeping force. 21

Contemporary Operational Law Issues

While on the surface peacekeeping appears straight forward, a number of legal issues of significance to operational planners and commanders may arise. These include issues relating to the nature and scope of consent and self defence, mixed or dual legal authorities, mandate ambiguity, and, command and control issues.

Consent

It has been noted that the key legal requirement for a peacekeeping operation is consent. The precise scope and ambit of consent may require definition. Consequently, individual contributing countries, as well as the UN, often rely upon Status of Forces Agreements (SOFAs) that define many of the above issues. The key point to emphasize is that operational planners should identify exactly what the requirements are for a particular CF mission and through policy advisors obtain the consent of the host state, by way of a SOFA, Memoranda of Understanding (MOU) or Diplomatic Note, in advance of arriving in theatre. At times this will be done in coordination with the UN. 22

Self-Defence

Traditionally, peacekeeping forces have been restricted to using force in self- defence only. 23Indeed, self-defence, neutrality and consent have been the hallmarks of peacekeeping. Historically, self-defence has been viewed as being restricted to defending members of the peacekeeping forces. However, from the early 1990s onward there have been attempts to redefine ‘self defence.’ Generally speaking, these redefinitions of self-defence have usually emerged in situations where the security situation on the ground is deteriorating but the political will to alter the mandate to an enforcement operation does not exist. An example of this occurred when the CF was deployed in the Former Yugoslavia as part of UNPROFOR. 24Such an expanded self-defence concept has historically been included within UN Rules of Engagement or been expressly provided for in a Security Council resolution. 25At other times, self-defence may be expanded to include protecting local civilians from serious crimes or to defend the increasingly present humanitarian or civilian UN personnel. 26More broadly, UN peacekeeping forces at times have been authorized to simply defend the mission as a whole.

The authorization for the Canadian Forces to operate within an expanded concept of self-defence would require Government of Canada approval implemented by the Chief of Defence Staff. Such authority would be found in the

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operations order or fragmentary orders and rules of engagement. 27This issue may impact not only national rules of engagement but also the coordination of the use of force amongst the various troop contributing nations, which may very well have divergent national approaches to this issue.

Another continuing area of legal complexity is the potential for a peacekeeping operation to rely on dual or distinct legal authorities that will not be identical, but generally are overlapping and mutually reinforcing. As discussed in the preceding section, this occurs when consent is obtained and legal authority is also provided under a Chapter VII mandate. While in stable circumstances this would not trigger ongoing legal issues of operational consequence, it has the potential to do so if one of the legal bases (consent or the UN mandate) is revoked or modified. This has typically occurred through a legal and operational mandate shift from peacekeeping to enforcement actions. Some of the historic moments when these types of shifts occurred have involved the CF. For example, shifts during UNPROFOR, the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) and the United Nations Operation in Somalia 2 (UNOSOM2) all involved the blurring of the line (in an operational and legal sense) between traditional understandings of peacekeeping and enforcement operations.

at c. 7; Bothe & Dörschel, eds., UN Peacekeeping: A Documentary Introduction (London: Kluwer Law International, 1999); and Franck, “The United Nations as Guarantor of International Peace and Security: Past, Present and Future” in Tomuschat, ed., The United Nations at Age Fifty: A

Legal Perspective (The Hague: Kluwer International Law, 1995) 25.

3As has been stated by White, supra note 2 at 208:

To the international lawyer peacekeeping represents an intriguing puzzle, raising in particular such questions as the constitutional basis for such operations; whether nations hosting peacekeeping operations are surrendering their sovereignty; whether such forces can use force beyond that required for self defence; and which political organ of the United Nations can authorize such forces.

4White, ibid. at 232. See also Di Blase, “The Role of the Host State’s Consent with Regard to Non-Coercive Actions by the United Nations” in Cassese, ed., United Nations Peace-keeping (The Netherlands: Sijthoff & Noordhoff International Publishers, 1978) at 55; Higgins, “A General Assessment of United Nations Peace-keeping” in Cassese, ibid. Gray, supra note 2 at 232 indicates that not only should the consent of the host state be sought, but also of the warring factions. Not so much as a legal obligation but to secure the effectiveness of the operation. See Gray, “Case Study: Host-State Consent and United Nations Peacekeeping in Yugoslavia” (1996)

5According to White, ibid at 225, both the Security Council and the General Assembly have the powers to create peacekeeping forces, however politically speaking the peacekeeping function of the United Nations falls with the Security Council as it is this organ that possesses primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security.

10UNEF was established by the General Assembly in 1956 in response to an invasion of Egypt by British, French and Israeli forces. It was mandated to secure the cease-fire with the co- operation of the parties to the conflict, to supervise the withdrawal of foreign troops and to patrol the armistice line. The Secretary General of the United Nations stated that UNEF had no rights other than those necessary for the execution of the functions assigned to it by the General Assembly.

11ONUC was established in 1960 when the Secretary General of the United Nations invoked Article 99 of the UN Charter allowing him to bring to the attention of the Security Council the matter involving Belgium and the Congo. Several resolutions were subsequently passed by the Security Council but failed to give ONUC a proper mandate. The only authoritative mandate of ONUC came from the International Court of Justice in the Certain Expenses Case, infra note 12.

The competence of the Security Council in the area of peacekeeping is much less controversial. Although there is no express power granted in the UN Charter allowing for the creation of Peacekeeping forces, the arguments for recognizing that the Council has power to create a Peacekeeping force are much clearer than those put forward for the Assembly. First, according to Article 24(1), …“primary responsibility….[in matters] of international peace and security.” Given that the main aim of the UN is to achieve international peace and security it is recognized that Article 24(1) confers upon the Council general powers to achieve these purposes. This is implicitly recognized in Article 24(2) which states that “the Security Council shall act in accordance with the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations.”

16See SCR 1320 (2000) on the situation between Eritrea and Ethiopia and SCR 981 (1995) on establishment of the UN Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia (UNCRO).

17See SCR 1270 (1999) on the situation in Sierra Leone. Peacekeeping whose presence was based on host state consent and force limited to self-defence and whose creation was based upon General Assembly resolutions (UNEF1 Egypt 1956 GA Res. 998), the same but based on SC Chapter VI powers (SCR 858 (1993) on the creation of the UNOMIG in Georgia, SCR 1320 (2001), on the situation in Ethiopia and Eritrea deploying peacekeeping personnel within UNMEE), peacekeeping again based on host state consent in Yugoslavia, SCR 743 (1992).

18See SCRs 1547, 1585, 1588 and 1590 in relation to Sudan.

19As threatened by Croatia in 1992 UNCRO (SCR 981) operations.

20For a definition of international armed conflict and non-international armed conflict, see chapter

17.

21See Gray, supra note 2 at 232. There is some debate as to whether the consent of non-state parties to the conflict is legally required. From a practical viewpoint the consent of the parties to a conflict will be required. Two examples of peacekeeping occurring based on the consent of the parties without a UN role would be the long standing Multinational Force and Observers (MFO) between Egypt and Israel in the Sinai, and the Australian-led operation in 2003 in the Solomon Islands. As stated by White, supra note 2 at 231:

A genuinely consensual peacekeeping operation undertaken by an organisation outside the UN does not require the permission of the UN before it is undertaken…Consensual, neutral peacekeeping conforms with the UN Charter and is a mechanism developed to facilitate the settlement of disputes.

22See Bothe & Dörschel, supra note 2 at 59 for the UN Model SOFA; see also Garvey “United Nations Peacekeeping and Host State Consent” (1970) 64 A.J.I.L. 241and Di Blasé, supra note 4. For a discussion on SOFAs see Chapter 26. For examples of where the UN Model SOFA has been implemented in a SCR, see SCR 1529 dealing with Haiti in 2004 and SCR 1590 dealing with the Sudan in 2005.

23For further reading on the use of force in self-defence see Findlay, The Use of Force in UN Peace Operations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).

26See SCR 1101 (1997) on the situation in Albania or SCR 1125 (1997) on the situation in the Central African Republic

27See Cox, supra note 30. As has been noted by Annan, “Peacekeeping in Situations of Civil War” (1994) Int’l Law & Pol. 26:6 at 623:

[T]he definition of peace-keeping itself has been forced to expand with the rest of the parameters. For more than forty of forty-five years, peace-keeping was broadly understood to involve the use of multinational military personnel, armed or unarmed, under international command and the consent of the parties, to help control and resolve conflict…. In the last five years, however,

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hardly a single one of these parameters has remained untouched. The need for consent ….was overridden… [v]olatile situations in the field made it necessary to expand the definitions of both self-defence and justified use of force.

Introduction to Un Mandate Enforcement

The Security Council, unlike the General Assembly, has the legal authority to make decisions that are binding on states. This Security Council power includes the legal ability to authorize measures, up to and including the use of force against a target state or non-state actor. Consequently, the Security Council has the legal authority not only to impose non-coercive sanctions on a target state, but also to authorize the use of force in a variety of scenarios. For example, this could include authorizing force to enforce sanctions, provide a secure environment to deliver humanitarian aid, enforce the terms of a peace agreement, or restore international peace and security in a particular region. Sometimes these operations have been referred to as “complex peace support and stabilization missions” and, within the context of naval operations, “maritime interdiction operations.”

UN Enforcement vs. Peacekeeping Operations

The two key legal points distinguishing UN enforcement operations from peacekeeping 1are that in enforcement operations, states are expressly authorized to use force beyond self-defence to enforce a particular Security Council mandate and that the use of this force within, or against the ‘target’ state is not based on the specific consent of that state. 2In short, enforcement operations are coercive while peacekeeping operations are consensual. 3

As noted, peacekeeping and peace enforcement are separate concepts: The two should not be confused. UN peacekeeping has traditionally relied on the consent of the opposing parties and involves the deployment of peacekeepers to implement agreements approved by those parties. In the case of enforcement action, the Security Council gives Member States the authority to take all necessary measures to achieve a stated objective. Consent of the parties is not necessarily required. 4

The Legal Basis for UN Enforcement Operations

As the title of Chapter VII of the UN Charter suggests – “Action With Respect to Threats to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace and Acts of Aggression” – decisions of the Security Council pursuant to this Chapter deal with measures to restore international peace and security, including resort to the use of force in certain circumstance.

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Binding Authority

Pursuant to Article 25 of the UN Charter, “Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council.” Consequently, when the Security Council makes a decision in the form of a Security Council resolution that obliges Member States to act, or to refrain from acting, that decision is ‘binding.’ 5

Article 39 – The Existence of Any Threat to the Peace

Under the authority of Chapter VII, the Security Council has the legal ability to take decisions involving coercive and non-coercive measures once it makes an “Article 39 determination.” 6

Article 39 states:

The Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression and shall make recommendations, or decide what measures shall be taken in accordance with Articles 41 and 42, to maintain or restore international peace and security.

Consequently, an Article 39 determination that a particular situation constitutes a threat to or breach of the peace, or an act of aggression, is the legal ‘tripwire’ or ‘trigger’ that allows the Security Council to authorize coercive action. While ‘aggression’ is a concept which is defined by law (albeit that that definition is not without controversy), there is no accepted definition of ‘threat to the peace’ or ‘breach of the peace’ and the SC enjoys a wide discretion in the application of those terms. In recent years it has treated international terrorism and situations of violence inside certain countries as constituting threats to the peace.

Article 41 – Measures Not Involving The Use of Force

Pursuant to Article 41 the Security Council is authorized to:

Decide what measures not involving the use of armed force are to be employed to give effect to its decisions, and it may call upon Members of the United Nations to apply such measures. These may include complete or partial interruption of economic relations and of rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio and other means of communication, and the severance of diplomatic relations.

Article 41 decisions, therefore, may include binding decisions for all or some Member States to impose trade restrictions or economic sanctions with respect to a particular target state or entity. It is important to note that while Article 41 is binding on all States, it expressly precludes the use of military force to ensure

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compliance with the measures adopted. Consequently, in the context of a resolution imposing economic sanctions, Member States are expected to self- regulate through import and export restrictions.

Article 42 – Measures Involving The Use of Force

By contrast, Article 42 does create a legal basis for the Security Council to authorize the use of force. Article 42 states:

Should the Security Council consider that measures provided for in Article 41 would be inadequate or have proved to be inadequate, it may take such action by air, sea, or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security. Such action may include demonstrations, blockade, and other operations by air, sea, or land forces of Members of the United Nations.

Article 42, therefore, authorizes “action… as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security.” The action may include “operations by air, sea, or land forces.” In short, Article 42 is the legal basis upon which the UN Security Council can authorize the use of force against a state or other entity. 7In this sense the force used is coercive in that it is applied without the specific consent of the target state and is not limited to self-defence. 8Rather, a level of force that is “necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security” may be authorized.

Authorizing UN Enforcement Operations

Authorizing the Use of Force

The collective security structure envisaged by the UN Charter did not fully develop. Rather than having armed forces at its disposal, pursuant to ‘Article 43 Agreements’ and commanding them through the Military Staff Committee, the Security Council has instead authorized enforcement activity by ‘coalitions of the willing’ or ‘regional agencies,’ which have retained authority for planning as well as strategic direction. The current practice is for the Security Council to authorize Member States to carry out enforcement actions against target states or entities by way of resolutions issued under the authority of Chapter VII. 9

Generally, the practice of the Security Council since Resolution 661 (1990 – Gulf War) is to make an express ‘Article 39 determination’ of the existence of a threat or breach of the peace in the preamble of a resolution, usually in the penultimate paragraph. 10This is generally followed by an express statement in the last paragraph of the preamble of the resolution that the Security Council is acting under the authority of Chapter VII. In the subsequent numbered and operative paragraphs of the resolution, the Security Council calls upon all Member States, or authorizes designated states or regional agencies, to carry out a specific

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mandate or mission, often within a specified geographic area or region, against a designated state or entity. Finally, and importantly, the Security Council may additionally authorize Member States to enforce the mandate using up to and including ‘all necessary means’ or ‘all means necessary.’ It is the authorization of ‘all necessary means’ or some variation thereof, that usually provides international legal authorit y for the coalition or regional agency to use force beyond that required for self defence. 11Consequently, when relying upon a Chapter VII mandate to deploy the CF for the purposes of enforcing a Security Council mandate, legal advisors must study the relevant resolution(s) to determine who is authorized to do what, against whom, and with what level of force.

Historically, the CF has participated in a number of international operations that have enforced UN mandates. These included the use of naval power to enforce sanctions in the Arabian Sea and Gulf Region 12and off the Yugoslavian 13and Haitian coasts. 14CF-18s have been involved with enforcement actions over Bosnia, 15and later Kosovo, 16while other CF air assets have been involved with enforcement activities in Haiti, 17Bosnia, 18Somalia, 19East Timor, 20and Afghanistan, 21to name a few. CF land forces have conducted enforcement operations in Bosnia, 22Kosovo, 23East Timor, 24Haiti, 25Somalia 26and Afghanistan. 27

Main Types of UN Enforcement Operations

While there are a variety of ways in which enforcement of a UN mandate may be authorized some of the most common types are canvassed in the following paragraphs, including enforcing sanctions, restoring international peace and security in a geographic area, implementing a peace agreement and enforcement for specific tasks.

Enforcing Sanctions

Under Article 41, which relates to “measures not involving the use of force,” the Security Council may adopt a binding resolution that requires all Member States to refrain from importing or exporting particular items (such as military equipment) from or to a target state. The creation of a sanctions regime or embargo within the context of Article 41 requires Member States to regulate their own conduct and that of their citizens. There is no authority under Article 41 itself to enforce the compliance of other Member States. However, if Member States are subsequently authorized under Article 42 to “use all necessary means” to enforce sanction compliance, they could use force, typically either through a ‘coalition of the willing’ or through a regional agency (such as NATO). The CF naval forces have been actively involved in a number of maritime interdiction operations that have been designed to ensure that all Member States comply with sanctions imposed by the Security Council. These include naval operations off the coast of Haiti, 28the former Yugoslavia 29and Iraq. 30

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Restoring International Peace and Security in a Geographic Area

The Security Council has at times authorized the use of force to “restore international peace and security in the area” 31or to “create a secure environment” in a designated geographical area, “for a humanitarian relief operation.” 32

Implementing a Peace Plan or Agreement

More common is an authorization to use force to implement the military aspects of a peace plan. This type of operation is legally distinct from a peacekeeping operation in which force is limited to self-defence and the mission is typically to monitor and survey the implementation of a peace agreement by consenting parties. In this type of enforcement operation, force is authorized beyond that necessary for self-defence to ensure that relevant portions of a peace agreement identified in the resolution are implemented and completed. The creation of a peace agreement consented to by the parties, subsequently backed by a Chapter VII mandate, has occurred in the Balkans 33(the Dayton Accord), Kosovo, 34East Timor 35and Afghanistan. 36The CF has participated in all of these enforcement operations. 37

Enforcement for Specific Tasks

At times a military operation will only be authorized to use force beyond that required for self-defence for precisely defined purposes, rather than through a broader mandate (such as creating a secure environment). These types of authorizations can sometimes be added to a previously mandated peacekeeping operation through Chapter VII. In such situations, the nature of the international operation begins to legally transform from a peacekeeping to a peace enforcement operation. 38Alternatively, an enforcement operation can be created initially with precisely defined parameters that clearly identify the circumstances within which “all necessary means” may be employed. 39

Conclusion

UN enforcement operations or complex peace support and stabilization missions have been the most common type of international operation carried out by the CF since the end of the Cold War. These include enforcement operations involving land, sea and air assets in a variety of geographic locations including Bosnia, Cambodia, the Central African Republic, Sudan, Rwanda, East Timor, Afghanistan and Haiti to name a few.

When planning and seeking governmental authorization to deploy, CF planners, policy advisors, operators and legal advisors must pay particular attention to the authorizing Security Council resolution(s) that establish the mission mandate. Usually the mandate will define the mission goals, establish its geographic and temporal parameters, expressly authorize the level of force to be used, and

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outline command and reporting relationships. It is the authorizing Security Council resolution(s) that will form the parameters for defining the scope of operations, any strategic objectives set by the Government of Canada, the Strategic Initiating Directive, the OPLAN, ROE and possibly targeting restrictions.

It is not unusual for the scope of the mission’s mandate to be imprecisely defined. In such a case, both governmental direction and CDS direction through the Strategic Initiating Directive will give further precision. In this regard, within the context of coalition operations, it is not uncommon for various troop- contributing nations to have slightly divergent approaches to defining the mission and the nature of force to be used, given national policy and domestic legal considerations.

Additionally, an added layer of complexity may exist during the planning authorization and execution of a UN enforcement operation if the international deployment is based on more than one legal basis (e.g., a Chapter VII mandate as well as the collective right of self-defence or host state consent). In such circumstances, operations may be expanded or narrowed beyond what would otherwise be authorized in a Security Council resolution. This may impact ROE and targeting parameters, and also the way the operation is carried out, particularly if it occurs within a coalition where not all nations choose to rely on all possible legal bases.

References

1See Clemons, "No Peace to Keep: Six and Three Quarters Peacekeepers" (1993) 26 N.Y.U.J. Int'l &Pol. 107 and Fink," From Peacekeeping to Peace Enforcement: the Blurring of the Mandate for the Use of Force in Maintaining International Peace and Security" (1995) 19 Md. J. Int'l L. &Trade 1.

2Instead, state consent is expressed through that state’s prior acceptance of the provisions of the UN Charter that authorize enforcement actions by the Security Council.

3See White, supra note 1 at 233 where he states that “What is clear is that if the consent of the government concerned is not given or is withdrawn, then the peacekeeping operation cannot remain on that State’s territory, unless the UN is prepared to change its mandate to one of enforcement”; See also Gray, supra note 1 at 232-239 for examples of the withdrawal of consent in the cases of UNEF in Egypt and UNAMIR in Rwanda effectively ending those operations; Simma, supra note 1.

4United Nations Dept. of Public Information, A Note on the Authorization Enforcement Action of Others, online: United Nations <http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/intro/enforce.htm>.

5See United Nations Charter, Article 103:

In the event of a conflict between the obligations of the Members of the United Nations under the present Charter and their obligations under any other international agreement, their obligations under the present Charter shall prevail.

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See also ICJ 27 Feb 1998, Case Concerning Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial instance at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom; Judgement of the Court of Firs t Instance (Second Chamber, Extended Composition) 21 Sept 2005, Yassin Abdullah Kadi v. Council of the European Union and Commission of the European Communities.

7In order for the Security Council to rely on Article 42 it must be of the opinion that the measures provided for in Article 41 would be inadequate or that they have already proved to be inadequate. It is not necessary that Article 41 measures have actually been ordered and implemented and proven ineffective, but rather only that, in the opinion of the Security Council, any measures implemented under Article 41 would be ineffective if implemented. See Frowein and Krisch, “Article 42” in Simma, supra note 1 at 753.

8Measures taken against a state pursuant to Article 42 constitute enforcement measures against a state and as a sanction it must, by definition, be carried out against the will of the state concerned. Once a state is in agreement with the stationing of military forces in its territory the measures no longer constitute a sanction and the deployment of troops into the territory of the state may no longer be justified under Article 42. See Frowein and Krisch, “Article 42” in Simma, ibid at 753.

9The legal framework in which the Security Council authorizes enforcement actions is discussed in chapter 15.

31See SCR 83 (1950) in the case of Korea and SCR 678 (1990) in the case of Iraq’s annexation of Kuwait. Both these resolutions have been the subject of debate over whether they simply reaffirm the right of self-defence or go beyond that and authorize the use of force in ways that would not be possible if a State was simply acting in collective self defence. See Gray, supra note 1 at 135.

The UN Charter provides a legal basis allowing the Security Council to authorize military intervention for humanitarian purposes. For example, the CF deployed to Somalia, Haiti and East Timor in the early 1990s for what has been generally viewed as Security Council authorized humanitarian intervention. 1

This section, however, focuses on humanitarian intervention that is not authorized by the Security Council and which instead relies upon customary international law as its legal basis.

The issue of whether a customary international right of humanitarian intervention exists surfaced during the 1999 Kosovo air campaign in which the CF and other NATO militaries halted acts of genocide and crimes against humanity being inflicted by the Milosevic regime. Largely as a result of this intervention, the existence of a right of humanitarian intervention has been one of the most debated international legal issues over the last five years. 2

Those who argue that no such right currently exists generally anchor their position on the UN Charter. In particular they rely on Article 2(4), 3which creates a general prohibition on the use of force subject only to the exceptions of self- defence (Article 51) and Security Council authorization (Chapter VII). Those with a restrictive view of the issue generally argue that in the absence of express authorization by the Security Council to use force, a legal basis for humanitarian intervention does not exist. Only those interventions for humanitarian purposes that have been authorized by a Security Council resolution, such as Somalia or East Timor, would be lawful. 4

Importantly, most legal experts in this group acknowledge that international law is dynamic and subject to change. The UN Charter can be reinterpreted over time as a result of state practice, through the development of customary international law. For members of this group, an international right to use military force for humanitarian purposes has not yet crystallized, but they acknowledge that there is a possibility that the law can evolve and may already be developing in this area. 5

The key argument for those rejecting a customary right of humanitarian intervention is that there is currently not sufficient evidence of state practice based upon opinio juris – a belief that the action is in accordance with international law – to support the argument that a right to use military force to address serious violations of human rights exists, in the absence of Security Council authorization.

Other lawyers in this group, including the former President of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), have argued that customary international law could provide a legal basis to intervene militarily for limited

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humanitarian purposes and, indeed, that international law is moving in this direction. For example, following an overview of historic state practice relating to international human rights, it was concluded that:

based on these nascent trends in the world community, I submit that under certain strict conditions resort to armed force may gradually become justified, even absent any authorization by the Security Council. 6

The evolution of international practice based on the UN Charter and customary international law is driven increasingly by an acceptance of the need for effective protection of human rights and a diminishing of the influence of traditional Westphalian respect for the sovereignty of the state. It is the engine of human rights that has propelled the emergence of a doctrine of humanitarian intervention and a continual redefinition of both “the domestic jurisdiction” under Article 2(7) 7and a “threat to international peace and security” under Article 39 8of the UN Charter. Increasingly, serious violations of human rights within the territory of a state that it is unable or unwilling to prevent are being met by military and non-military forms of intervention.

Importantly, largely as a result of this evolution, there is also a body of legal opinion asserting that an international legal right of humanitarian intervention already exists. 9For proponents of such a right, the UN Charter is a ‘living tree’ subject to changing interpretations as customary norms develop. In short, the UN Charter is not a static legal document, nor is it the sole source of international law. A leading proponent of the existence of a right of humanitarian intervention has observed the following:

It has been argued that, because the United Nations Charter contains a prohibition of the use of force and no express exception for humanitarian intervention, there can be no question of international law recognizing a right of humanitarian intervention. That is, however, to take too rigid a view of international law.

This approach ignores the fact that international law in general and the United Nations Charter in particular do not rest exclusively on the principles of non- intervention and respect for the sovereignty of the State. The values on which the international legal system rests also include respect for human rights… Upholding those rights is one of the purposes of the United Nations and of international law… Moreover, international law is not confined to treaty texts. It includes customary international law. That law is not static but develops through a process of State practice, of actions and the reaction to those actions. Since 1945, that process has seen a growing importance attached to the preservation of human rights. Where the threat to human rights has been of an extreme character, States have been prepared to assert a right of humanitarian intervention as a matter of last resort. 10

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Those who advocate the existence of a customary international law basis for humanitarian intervention cite a long history of state practice as evidence supporting the crystallization of a legal right. This includes various historic moments where military intervention into another sovereign state’s territory has occurred without prior Security Council authorization, in situations of humanitarian crisis. Commonly advanced examples include the 1971 Indian intervention into Pakistan, Vietnam’s 1978 intervention into Pol Pot’s Cambodia, Tanzania’s invasion of Uganda (also in 1978), ECOWAS’s interventions into Liberia (in 1990), and Sierra Leone (in 1997), the imposition of ‘no-fly zones’ in northern and southern Iraq, in 1991 and 1992, respectively, and of course, Kosovo.

By way of summary, the current debate on whether a right of humanitarian intervention exists focuses on the central point of whether the weight of evidence is sufficient to conclude that such a right has crystallized. Most lawyers in the debate, on either side, acknowledge that customary international law and interpretations of the UN Charter can evolve and support the emergence of a right of humanitarian intervention.

The Canadian approach to the issue of humanitarian intervention has resulted in some key moments of state practice. As noted, Canada deployed the CF and participated in the NATO-led Kosovo air campaign in 1999. 11Furthermore, the Government of Canada is playing a leading role in developing clear and precise rules under which states can and should intervene militarily for humanitarian purposes. 12In 2000, the Government of Canada announced before the UN General Assembly that it would establish the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS) to address issues relating to the responsibility of states when confronted with humanitarian crises. The ICISS produced a report entitled the Responsibility to Protect 13which offers a framework defining when and how military forces may be deployed into another state to address humanitarian catastrophes. The notion of a “Responsibility to Protect” has been advanced by Canada at the UN. During the UN Summit in September 2005, world leaders endorsed the principle that States have a primary responsibility to protect their own populations and that the international community has a responsibility to act when these governments fail in that duty. 14While this document, like the Report, do not provide a legal basis for humanitarian intervention, they are evidence of opinio juris.

References

1Greenwood, “International Law and the NATO Intervention in Kosovo” (2000) 49 I.L.C.Q. 927.

2For a general review of the various perspectives within the legal debate, useful references include: “Kosovo: House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee 4 thReport, June 2000” (2000) 49 I.C.L.Q. 876; “Editorial Comments: NATO’s Kosovo Intervention – Kosovo and the Law of “Humanitarian Intervention” (1999) 93 A.J.I.L. 824; Greenwood, ibid.; Chesterman, Just War of

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Just Peace: Humanitarian Intervention and International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001). Pitzul et al., “The Responsibility to Protect: A Military Legal Comment” (2005) 5:4 Can. Mil. J. 31. The following analysis concerning the debate has been extracted from this article. Other useful readings include: Wheeler, Saving Strangers: Humanitarian Intervention in International Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000); Franck, Recourse to Force: State Action Against Threats and Armed Attacks (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), ch. 9; Henkin, “NATO’s Kosovo Intervention: Kosovo and the Law of Humanitarian Intervention” (1999) 93 A.J.I.L. 824.

3Article 2(4) of the UN Charter states: “All members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations.”

5See e.g. Cassese, “A Follow-up: Forcible Humanitarian Countermeasures and Opinio Necessitatis” (1999) 10 E.J.I.L. 791. As Brownlie noted before the United Kingdom House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee following the Kosovo air campaign: “[t]he proponents of humanitarian intervention are distinctly in a minority. More significant, however, is the position in customary international law, which depends upon the practice of States based upon opinio juris, that is to say a belief that the action is in ac cordance with international law. … But there is a burden of proof upon proponents of a change in the customary law. The central point is the absence of evidence of a change of view by a majority of States.” Brownlie, “Kosovo Crisis Inquiry: Memorandum on the International Law Aspects” (2000) 49 I.C.L.Q. 894.

6Cassese, “Ex incuria ius oritur: Are We Moving Towards International Legitimization of Forcible Humanitarian Countermeasures in the World Community?” (2000) 10 E.J.I.L. 27.

7Article 2(7) provides in part that “nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state,” subject only to enforcement measures adopted by the Security Council pursuant to its Chapter VII authority.”

8Article 39 reads, in part: “The Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression and shall … decide what measures shall be taken in accordance with Articles 41 and 42 ….” As noted in Chapter 7, Section 4 the interpretation, which states have given to Article 2(7) and Article 39 has transformed over time. The developments, driven largely by a concern for human rights, have been to give an expansive view of what constitutes a “threat to the peace” and a narrower view of what constitutes “within the domestic jurisdiction of any state.”

9See especially Greenwood, supra note 1. See also the pleadings of Belgium before the International Court of Justice in Legality of Use of Force (Belgium v. Serbia and Montenegro), (Provisional Measures), 10 May 1999, CR 99/15.

10Greenwood, ibid. at 929.

11Prior to the commencement of the air campaign the Security Council had passed resolutions SCR 1160 (1998), SCR 1199 (1998) and SCR 1203 (1998), all which determined the situation in Kosovo to be a threat to international peace and security but did not expressly authorize the use of force. During the campaign a Russian sponsored draft resolution condemning the air campaign did not pass. In 1999 the Former Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) commenced legal action against Canada and 9 other NATO states before the. On 15 Dec 2004 the ICJ ruled that Serbia and

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Montenegro (formerly the FRY) could not proceed with the matter on the basis of jurisdiction issues. See the ICJ decision of Legality of Use of Force (Canada v. Serbia and Montenegro), [2004] I.C.J., online: ICJ <http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ipresscom/ipress2004/ipresscom2004-

04_yca_summary_20041215.htm>.

12See for example, International Commission in Intervention and State Security (ICISS), Responsibility to Protect Document – Report of the International Commission on Intervention and

State Sovereignty, December 2001, online: ICISS <http://www.iciss.ca/report2-en.asp> [ICISS Report]. The report notes that “[t]he starting point…should be the principle of non- intervention…Yet there are exceptional circumstances in which the very interest that all states have in maintaining a stable international order requires them to react when all order within a state has broken down or when civil conflict and repression are so violent that civilians are threatened with massacre, genocide or ethnic cleansing on a large scale…Generally expressed, the view was that these exceptional circumstances must be cases of violence which so genuinely “shock the conscience of mankind,” or which present such a clear and present danger to international security, that they require coercive military intervention.”

Paul Martin have advanced the ideas contained in the ICISS Report. See, for example, Prime Minister Chrétien’s speeches at the opening of the 58 thSession of the UN General Assembly, 23 September 2003, and during his Roundtable Discussion at the Progressive Governance Summit, hosted by the United Kingdom Prime Minister Blair in London on 12 July 2002. More recently, Prime Minister Martin promoted the ICISS Report during the 3 February 2004 and also the 5 October 2004 Throne Speeches, in the “Address by the Prime Minister in Reply to the Speech

from the Throne.” In addition, on 22 September 2004, at the opening of the 59

th

Session of the UN

General Assembly, Prime Minister Martin stated: “International law is moving in the right direction…Thus, customary international law is evolving to provide a solid basis in the building of

a normative framework for collective humanitarian intervention. To speed it along, member states should now adopt a General Assembly resolution recognizing the evolution of sovereignty to encompass the international responsibility to people.” See also paras. 138-140 of the subsequent Resolution adopted by the General Assembly, 60/1. 2005 World Summit Outcome, 24 October 2005, online: United Nations <www.un.org/summit2005/> [World Summit Outcome].

14World Summit Outcome, ibid. at paras. 138-140.

When Does the Law of Armed Conflict Apply?

Also as a general statement, the LOAC 1applies to the conduct of CF international operations whenever Canada is a party to an armed conflict or in belligerent occupation of foreign territory. 2

International law recognizes two types of armed conflict: international armed conflict and non-international armed conflict 3(sometimes referred to as internal armed conflict or armed conflict not of an international nature). 4

Generally speaking international armed conflict has been defined as the “resort to armed force between States,” while non-international armed conflict has been defined as “protracted armed violence between governmental authorities and organized armed groups or between such groups within a State.” 5

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The Application of the LOAC Generally

As noted, LOAC applies whenever there is a state of “armed conflict.” A widely

accepted decision of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) has stated:

International humanitarian law applies from the initiation of such armed conflicts and extends beyond the cessation of hostilities until a general conclusion of peace is reached; or, in the case of internal conflicts, a peaceful settlement is achieved. Until that moment, international humanitarian law continues to apply in the whole territory of the warring States or, in the case of internal armed conflicts, the whole territory under the control of a party, whether or not actual combat takes place there. 6

LOAC Application as a Matter of Law

Treaty Law

The LOAC is composed of both treaty law and customary international law. The key treaties expressly establish whether they apply to international or to non- international armed conflict, or to both. Most treaties, including the Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol I (AP I) apply (as a matter of treaty law) only to international armed conflicts between states party to them. In some cases treaties may expressly apply to non-international armed conflict. For example this would include Additional Protocol II (AP II). The Rome Statute 7as well as the Amended Protocol II of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons apply to both types of armed conflict.

The Geneva Conventions and AP I apply to “all cases of declared war or of any other armed conflict which may arise between two or more of the High Contracting Parties, even if the state of war is not recognized by one of them” 8or in “all cases of partial or total occupation of the territory of a High Contracting Party…” 9AP I also covers situations in “which peoples are fighting against colonial domination and alien occupation and against racist regimes in the exercise of their right of self-determination…” 10

Treaties on the LOAC are normally applicable only in conflicts between states party to them. 11It is possible, however, for the Geneva Conventions and AP I to apply in times of armed conflict between a High Contracting Party and a party to the conflict, which is not a High Contracting Party in certain circumstances. AP I 12and the Geneva Conventions allow a “non-High Contracting Party” to be bound by their terms if the non-High Contracting Party “accepts and applies the provisions thereof.” 13

The Geneva Conventions and AP I do not apply (as a matter of treaty law) to situations of non-international armed conflict, or, in the words of the Geneva

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Conventions, “armed conflict not of an international character," 14with the exception of Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions.

Armed conflicts “not of an international character” are governed by Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions and in certain circumstances, AP II. The threshold for application of the two instruments is different. Common Article 3 applies to any conflict not of an international character whether it is between government and rebel forces or different rebel factions. There is no requirement that the violence reach a particular level of intensity, although the statement in AP II Article 1(2) that “situations of internal disturbances and tensions, such as riots, isolated and sporadic acts of violence and other acts of a similar nature” are not armed conflicts reflects customary law and is probably applicable to common Article 3 as well. By contrast, AP II applies only to armed conflicts which take place in the territory of a High Contracting Party between its armed forces and dissident armed forces or other organized armed groups which, under responsible command, exercise such control over a part of its territory as to enable them to carry out sustained and concerted military operations and to implement this Protocol. 15

Based upon the above discussion, it is apparent that caution must be used when determining whether a particular LOAC treaty applies, as a matter of treaty law, to a particular CF international operation. As a threshold issue, the legal advisor must first determine whether Canada is a party to an “armed conflict.” If so, the nature of the armed conflict – international or non-international – must be determined. Then, an assessment must be made as to whether the nature of the armed conflict falls within a particular treaty’s scope of application. Subsequently, it must then be determined whether Canada has ratified that treaty. Lastly, the analysis must be made as to whether or not the opposing party to the armed conflict is a High Contracting Party or otherwise agrees to accept and apply the provisions of the treaty. 16The CF Publication B-GG-005-027/AF-022, Collection of the Documents on the Law of Armed Conflict, 17is a valuable tool in identifying which treaties Canada has ratified.

Customary International Law of Armed Conflict

The scope of LOAC application is far broader under customary international law 18than it is under treaty law. This is for two reasons. First, treaties apply only to states that are parties to the treaties (often referred to as High Contracting Parties in the LOAC context) and only between such states. In contrast, the customary international LOAC applies to all states that are parties to the armed conflict in question. This is because, customary international law is binding on all states in addition to their individual treaty obligations. Second, while the applicability of the various LOAC treaties is defined by the terms of the treaties themselves, it has generally been held that much of the content of these treaties reflects customary international law and in turn, that this customary LOAC is often applicable to both international and non-international armed conflict. 19

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The combined effect of these two developments is that customary international LOAC obligations of parties to armed conflict, particularly non-international conflicts, are often more comprehensive and restrictive than their treaty law obligations.

In Tadic, the ICTY addressed the issue of what body of LOAC was included within the term “violations of the laws or customs of war.” A key issue involved identifying the customary rules of IHL governing non-international armed conflicts. Following a lengthy analysis the Court noted: 20

The emergence of the aforementioned general rules on internal armed conflicts does not imply that internal strife is regulated by general international law in all its aspects. Two particular limitations may be noted:

(i) only a number of rules and principles governing international armed conflicts have gradually been extended to apply to internal conflicts; and (ii) this extension has not taken place in the form of a full and mechanical transplant of those rules to internal conflicts; rather, the general essence of those rules, and not the detailed regulation they may contain, has become applicable to internal conflicts.

…

Notwithstanding these limitations, it cannot be denied that customary rules have developed to govern internal strife. These rules, as specifically identified in the preceding discussion, cover such areas as protection of civilians from hostilities, in particular from indiscriminate attacks, protection of civilian objects, in particular cultural property, protection of all those who do not (or no longer) take active part in hostilities, as well as prohibition of means of warfare proscribed in international armed conflicts and ban of certain methods of conducting hostilities.

…

Applying the foregoing criteria to the violations at issue here, we have no doubt that they entail individual criminal responsibility, regardless of whether they are committed in internal or international armed conflicts. Principles and rules of humanitarian law reflect “elementary considerations of humanity” widely recognized as the mandatory minimum for conduct in armed conflicts of any kind. No one can doubt the gravity of the acts at issue, nor the interest of the international community in their prohibition.

While it is important to note that much of the treaty law of LOAC may also reflect customary international law, which, in turn, may be applicable equally to both international and-non international armed conflicts, operational commanders and legal advisors must not take a general approach and act as if all LOAC is equally applicable to all types of conflict in all circumstances. This is particularly so in the

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area relating to targeting, combatancy, detainee and prisoner of war status, where significant differences between these legal regimes remain. The determination of whether a particular rule is legally applicable should be made with the assistance of legal advice. The ICRC has recently completed a report identifying what it feels constitutes customary IHL. While this report has not, and may not in the future, be adopted by the Government of Canada as a definitive statement of customary law binding upon states, the study is an important research tool contributing to our understanding of LOAC. 21

LOAC Application as a Matter of Policy

Independent of the legal issue of what body of LOAC applies, both the CDS (on behalf of the CF), as well as the Secretary-General of the UN, have issued separate policy statements on when forces operating under their respective authority will apply the LOAC during the conduct of their military operations.

The Canadian Forces

The Code of Conduct for CF Personnel, issued under the authority of the CDS, states:

National Defense

Headquarters

The Law of Armed Conflict applies when Canada is a party to any armed conflict. During peace support operations the spirit and principles of the Law of Armed Conflict apply. The CF will apply, as a minimum, the spirit and principles of the Law of Armed Conflict in all Canadian military operations other than Canadian domestic operations. 22

This is an important direction to the operational commander and CF members responsible for the planning and conduct of operations. Its effect is that CF members are to conduct international military operations applying the spirit and principles of LOAC as a minimum, regardless of whether it applies as a matter of law.

The United Nations Policy

In 1999, the UN Secretary-General issued the “Bulletin On The Observance By United Nations Forces of International Humanitarian Law” (Bulletin). 23The Bulletin is applicable to “United Nations forces conducting operations under United Nations command and control.” Consequently, as a general statement, the Bulletin would most commonly apply to traditional peacekeeping rather than coalition operations enforcing a Chapter VII mandate. To the extent that the Bulletin applies to a particular operation:

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UN

Headquarters

The fundamental principles and rules of international humanitarian law set out in the present bulletin are applicable to United Nations forces when in situations of armed conflict they are actively engaged therein as combatants, to the extent and for the duration of their engagement. They are accordingly applicable in enforcement operations, or in peacekeeping operations when the use of force is permitted in self-defence. 24

References

See especially Greenwood, supra note 1. See also the pleadings of Belgium before the International Court of Justice in Legality of Use of Force (Belgium v. Serbia and Montenegro), (Provisional Measures), 10 May 1999, CR 99/15.

2There has been, however, some debate concerning whether the recent campaign against terrorism in Afghanistan constitutes a continuing armed conflict, and whether the armed conflict is of an international or a non-international character. See e.g. Jinks, “September 11 and the Laws of War” (2003) 28 Yale J. Int’l L. 1; Fitzpatrick, “Jurisdiction of Military Commissions and the Ambiguous War on Terrorism” (2002) 96 A.J.I.L. 345.

7Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 17 July 1997 2002 C.T.S. 13.

8This has always been interpreted as applying to any armed conflict even if the state of war has not been recognized by any of the parties – see Greenwood, “The Concept of War in International Law” 36 I.C.L.Q. 283.

9See Common Article 2 of the Geneva Conventions, as well as Article 1(3) of AP I which adopts Common Article 2 in its definition of jurisdiction. “High Contracting Party” refers to a state that has ratified the Geneva Convention and/or the Additional Protocol.

10AP I, supra note 5, art. 1(4).

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11Afghanistan is an example of a conflict where Canada is not bound by AP I because the rival belligerent is not a party.

16Reciprocity is a legal issue affecting the application of certain treaties as a matter of treaty law. However, some basic legal principles apply to military operations during armed conflict regardless of their acceptance in practice by opposing belligerent forces. See e.g., Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions.

17See also Roberts and Guelff, ed., Documents on the Laws of War, 2 nded. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989) as a useful reference book listing that have ratified the key LOAC treaties.

18For further reading on the application of customary international law in the law of armed conflict see Greenwood, supra note 9; Humanitarian Law of Armed Conflict : Challenges Ahead : Essays in Honour of Frits Kalshoven (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1991) 93; Meron, “The Geneva

Conventions as Customary Law” (1987) 81 A.J.I.L. 348; Greenwood, “Customary International Law and the First Geneva Protocol of 1977 in the Gulf Conflict” in Rowe, ed., The Gulf War 1990-

91 in International and English Law (London: Sweet and Maxwell, 1993) 63; Meron, “The

Continuing Role of Custom in the Formation of International Humanitarian Law” (1996) 90 A.J.I.L. 238; Meron, “The Geneva Conventions as Customary Law” (1987) 81 A.J.I.L. 348; Kontou, The Termination and Revision of Treaties in the Light of New Customary International Law (Oxford:

19See generally Tadic, supra note 13 at paras. 79 to 141. See also, Henckaerts and Doswald- Beck, eds., Customary International Humanitarian Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) as a general reference tool to guide the determination of whether a rule may be customary.

23Bulletin On The Observance By United Nations Forces of International Humanitarian Law, 38 I.LM. 1656 (1999).

24Ibid., s.1.

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Introduction

The LOAC is traditionally divided into two components or streams, The Law of The Hague and the Law of Geneva, each named after the city where most of the relevant agreements were devised. The Law of The Hague is concerned essentially with the actual conduct of military operations including the methods and means of combat. The law of Geneva on the other hand is concerned with the protection of persons not involved in a conflict such as civilians, PWs and the sick and wounded. Following the adoption in 1977 of the Additional Protocols I and II to the Geneva Conventions, there has been a tendency for the two components to merge as the Additional Protocols deal with the conduct of hostilities as well as the protection of the victims of armed conflict.

Primary Concepts

Three primary concepts underlie the LOAC: military necessity, humanity and chivalry.

Military Necessity

Military necessity is related to the primary aim of armed conflict - the complete submission of the enemy at the earliest possible moment with the least possible expenditure of personnel and resources. The concept of military necessity justifies the application of force not forbidden by International Law, to the extent necessary, for the realization of the purpose of armed conflict.

The concept of military necessity presupposes:

a.

the force used can be and is being controlled;

b.

the use of force is necessary to achieve the submission of the enemy;

and

c.

the amount of force used is limited to what is needed to achieve prompt

submission.

Military necessity is not a concept that can be considered in isolation. In particular, it does not justify violation of the LOAC, as military necessity was a factor taken into account when the rules governing the conduct of hostilities were drafted.

For example, military necessity is not the 19th Century German Doctrine of Kriegsraison which asserted that war could justify any measures - even in violation of the laws of war - when the necessities of any particular situation purportedly justified it. War crimes trials after World War II clearly rejected this view. Military necessity cannot justify actions absolutely prohibited by law, as the

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means to achieve military victory are not unlimited. Armed conflict must be carried on within the limits set by International Law.

Humanity

Related to the concept of necessity and implicitly contained within it is the concept of humanity which forbids the infliction of suffering, injury or destruction not actually necessary for the accomplishment of legitimate military purposes. This concept of humanity results in a specific prohibition against unnecessary suffering, a requirement of proportionality, and a variety of more specific rules. The concept of humanity also confirms the basic immunity of civilian populations and civilians from being objects of attack during armed conflict. This immunity of the civilian population does not preclude unavoidable incidental civilian casualties that may occur during the course of attacks against legitimate targets and that are not excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated.

Chivalry

The concept of chivalry is difficult to define. It refers to the conduct of armed conflict in accordance with certain recognized formalities and courtesies. An armed conflict is rarely a polite contest. Nevertheless, the concept of chivalry is reflected in specific prohibitions such as those against dishonourable or treacherous conduct and against misuse of enemy flags or flags of truce. The concept of chivalry makes armed conflict slightly less savage and more civilized for the individual combatant.

Fundamental Principles

Humanitarian Principle

Military necessity must always be compatible with respect for the human person. Even in an armed conflict, there are certain basic human rights that must be respected.

Principle of the Law of Geneva

Persons rendered hors de combat (out of combat) and those not directly participating in hostilities shall be respected, protected and treated humanely. This principle specifies three duties towards the victims of war: to respect them, protect them and treat them humanely. These three requirements constitute a harmonious whole. To understand what they imply requires only common sense and good faith. It is the minimum treatment, which must be accorded to allow the individual to lead an acceptable existence.

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Principle of the Law of War (or Law of the Hague)

This principle is the corollary to the Martens Clause . It states that the right of the parties to a conflict to choose the methods and means of warfare is not unlimited. This is directly related to the concept of military necessity, which implies that combatants shall not inflict harm on their adversaries out of proportion with the object of armed conflict, which is the prompt submission of the enemy. Any use of military force that is not essential to this purpose is superfluous. For example, any use of unlawful weapons is prohibited.

HlVR Arts 22 & 23 (e)

Operational Principles

Distinction

The principle of distinction imposes an obligation on commanders to distinguish between legitimate targets and civilian objects and the civilian population. It is of primary importance when selecting targets.

This obligation is, of course, dependent on the quality of the information available to commanders at the time decisions are made. Commanders must make reasonable, good faith efforts to gather intelligence and to review the intelligence available to them.

Reservation made by Canada at the time of ratification of AP I relative to Arts 48, 51-60 inclusive, 62 & 67

Non-Discrimination

The principle of non-discrimination must be considered in two aspects. First, the LOAC binds both sides in a conflict. Although one side may label the other an aggressor, it is not entitled to apply the law in a different way because of that assertion. Second, the LOAC is to be applied without any adverse distinction founded on race, colour, religion or faith, gender, birth or wealth, or any other similar criteria. The fact that the enemy is of a different colour or a different religion does not allow the other party to apply the law in a different fashion.

In deciding whether the principle of proportionality is being respected, the standard of measurement is the anticipated contribution to the military purpose of an attack or operation considered as a whole. The anticipated military advantage must be balanced against other consequences of the action, such as the adverse effect upon civilians or civilian objects. It involves weighing the interests arising from the success of the operation on the one hand, against the possible harmful effects upon protected persons and objects on the other.

Reservation made by Canada at the time of ratification of AP I in relation to Arts 51 (5) (b), 52 (2) & 57 (2) (a) (iii)

There must be a rational balance between the legitimate destructive effect and undesirable collateral effects. As an example, you are not allowed to bomb a refugee camp if its only military significance is that refugees in the camp are knitting socks for soldiers. As a converse example, you are not obliged to hold back an air strike on an ammunition dump simply because a farmer is ploughing a field beside it. Unfortunately, most applications of the principle of proportionality are not quite so clear cut.

AP I Art 51 (5) (b) & (7)

Reciprocity

The principle of reciprocity refers to the premise that all should be treated as you would like to be treated. Compliance with the LOAC is not only required by law, it is also to our operational advantage. If, for example, you commit a breach of the LOAC, the result is likely to be:

a.

your enemy may commit the same breach towards your force;

b.

your enemy may commit all kinds of other breaches against your force;

and

c.

in any event, you will strengthen your enemy’s will to fight to the bitter

end.

GC Common Art 2

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Martens Clause

Definition and Scope of Application

Fedor Fedorovich Martens (1845-1903)

The link between treaty law and customary international law dealing with the LOAC is represented by what is known as the Martens Clause. This clause is a declaration adopted by the delegates at the 1899 Hague Conference as the preamble to the Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land. The content of this declaration is not merely of historic interest as it is equally relevant today:

“The High Contracting Parties clearly do not intend that unforeseen cases should, in the absence of a written undertaking, be left to the arbitrary judgement of military commanders. Until a more complete code of the laws of war is issued, the High Contracting Parties deem it expedient to declare that in cases not included in the Regulations adopted by them, the inhabitants and the belligerents remain under the protection and the rule of the principles of the law of nations, as they result from the usage established between civilized nations, from the laws of humanity, and dictates of the public conscience."

The Martens Clause means that insofar as the LOAC treaties are silent on a specific issue, customary international law continues to govern the situation. Furthermore, the Martens Clause implies that that is not expressly forbidden by the LOAC is not necessarily permitted.

Although the Martens Clause was initially adopted for a specific purpose, it has reappeared in many subsequent LOAC treaties and has become of general application just like its corollary which states that, “In any armed conflict the right of Parties to the conflict to choose methods or means of warfare is not unlimited.”

From LOAC OP/TAC Level

Introduction to Module 2

This module studies the important question of the regulation of the use of means and methods of warfare. This area of the LOAC has seen a long evolution since the first customary rules centuries ago. More recently, treaties addressed directly the weapons systems and their employment through various instruments. This module also includes the rules governing the precautions in the attack, primarily found in the Customary International Law (CIL) and in the first Additional Protocol to the Geneva Convention (AP I).

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These notions will be further explored in class during the lecture discussions and syndicate work.

Restrictions to the Types of Weapons

General

Diderot-Dalembert

Encyclopedia

The LOAC limits the types of weapons that may be used and the manner in which those weapons are used. Weapons, projectiles, materials and means of warfare that cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering are prohibited.

HlVR Art 23 (e); AP l Art 35 (2)

A weapon, projectile, material or means of warfare must not cause injury or suffering which is out of proportion to its military effectiveness. Likewise, weapons which cannot be directed at specific legitimate targets or the effects of which cannot be limited are prohibited.

In an armed conflict, it may often be necessary to wound or even kill an adversary. To accomplish a mission a soldier is normally armed with a rifle and a bayonet. Soldiers may use their rifles to wound or kill an adversary. They may not, however, use ammunition that expands or flattens on impact ("dum-dum" bullets) which will cause a gaping wound that is extremely difficult to treat. Likewise, soldiers may use their bayonets against an adversary. However, they may not “notch” their bayonets to cause a jagged wound that result in suffering out of proportion to the aim of using the bayonets in the first place.

The aim of the use of force in the course of military operations is to enable members of the Canadian Forces (CF) to accomplish their assigned mission. Although “suffering” is likely to be inevitable, it is to the CF’s operational advantage to limit the force used to what is required to accomplish the mission.

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Limitation of the Use of Weapons

The limitations on the use of weapons fall into two broad categories:

a. prohibited weapons; and

b. restrictions on the use of lawful weapons.

Weapons and Ammunition Issued by the Canadian Forces

C7 Rifle

While CF members can be confident that weapons and ammunition issued to them comply with the LOAC, they must be careful to ensure that their weapons and ammunition are used in a manner that B-GJ-005-104/FP- 021 5-2 complies with the LOAC. The use of a weapon or ammunition will be unlawful under the LOAC where it causes superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering.

HlVR Art 23 (e); AP l Art 35 (2)

Use of Captured Weapons and Ammunition

SKS Rifle

In a conflict, CF members may have to use captured enemy weapons and ammunition. While it is recognized that such weapons and ammunition may be used, they shall only be used if they do not cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering and are not indiscriminate in their effect. Standard military pattern weapons normally meet these criteria.

HlVR Art 23 (e); AP l Art 35 (2)

Prohibited Weapons

General

Some weapons are totally prohibited by the LOAC because they are either indiscriminate in their effect or cause superfluous injury and/or unnecessary suffering.

HlVR Art 23 (e); AP l Arts 35 (2) & 51

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Weapons Indiscriminate to Their Effect

Weapons that are indiscriminate in their effect are prohibited. A weapon is indiscriminate if it might strike or affect legitimate targets and civilians or civilian objects without distinction. Therefore, a weapon that cannot be directed at a specific legitimate target or the effects of which cannot be limited as required by the LOAC is prohibited. For example, it may be argued that the Scud missile used in the Gulf War falls in that category.

AP l Art 51

Prohibited Ammunition

The following types of ammunition are prohibited:

a. projectiles of a weight below 400 grams that are either

explosive or charged with fulminating (exploding) or

Dum-Dum

Bullets

inflammable substances;

b. bullets that expand or flatten easily in the human body, such

as bullets with a hard envelope that does not entirely cover the core or is pierced with incisions (that is, hollow point or “dum- dum” bullets); and.

c. bullets that have been dipped in poison.

However, tracer rounds are not prohibited so long as they are used for marking.

The possession or use of anti-personnel land mines is prohibited by the Anti-Personnel Mines Convention signed in 1997 by over 100 states. Canada has already ratified the Convention. While many nations may continue to possess and use anti-personnel land mines, the CF is bound not to do so.

An “anti-personnel mine” is a mine designed to be exploded by the presence, proximity or contact of a person and that will incapacitate, injure or kill one or more persons.

G CW P ll Art 2 (3); APM Convention Art 2 (1)

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Any mine that inflicts injury or death when an innocent act is carried out by a non- combatant is included in the above definition of anti-personnel mine. The use of an anti-personnel mine that is manually detonated (for example, by land line or electronic signal from a remote or protected position) by a CF member is not prohibited. Therefore, the use of an explosive device such as a “Claymore Mine” is not prohibited if it is manually detonated. Any anti-personnel mine that is designed to be exploded automatically by the “presence, proximity or contact of a person” cannot be lawfully used by the CF. The "Claymore Area Defence System" is not prohibited, if it is command detonated. If horizontal fragmentation weapons which propel fragments in a horizontal arc of less than 90 degrees, such as the Claymore, are placed on or above the ground, they may be used for a maximum period of 72 hours if they are located in the immediate proximity to the military unit that emplaced them, and the area is monitored by military personnel to ensure the effective exclusion of civilians.

G CW P ll Art 5 (6)

CF members serving with or training in cooperation with the armed forces of a nation using antipersonnel land mines shall follow the guidelines in Annexes A and B. Explosive booby traps are not to be employed as, or used as, a substitute for anti-personnel mines.

Canada's obligation to clear minefields after the cessation of hostilities will vary depending upon circumstances such as the degree of jurisdiction or control exercised over the territory, the terms of any peace accord and any other bilateral or multilateral arrangement. There is no legal obligation to clear mines simply because Canada is conducting operations in an Area of Responsibility (AOR) during peace support or any other operation.

Poison

Poison or poisoned weapons are illegal because of their potential to be indiscriminate. For example, the poisoning or contamination of any source of drinking water is prohibited. Posting a notice that the water has been contaminated or poisoned does not make this practice legal, as both civilians and combatants might drink from that water source and be equally affected.

HlVR Art 23 (a); AP I Arts 51 (4) (b) & (c) & 57 (1)

Non-Detectable Fragments

Weapons that cause injury by the use of fragments undetectable by X-ray in the human body are prohibited.

G CW P l para 1

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Environment-Altering Weapons

Environmental modification techniques having widespread, long lasting or severe effects are prohibited.

1976 Convention on the Prohibition of Military or any Hostile use of Environmental Modification Techniques

Gas

The use of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases is prohibited at all times and under all circumstances.

1925 Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the use of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare

WW I Gas attack

However, smoke grenades, smoke ammunition from indirect fire weapons and tank smoke ammunition are not prohibited so long as they are used to conceal position or movement or to mask a target.

Bacteriological/Biological Weapons

Bacteriological/biological methods of warfare are prohibited. Nations are prohibited from manufacturing, storing and using biological weapons. Both bacteriological and biological weapons are prohibited because they cause unnecessary suffering and may affect the civilian population in an indiscriminate fashion.

1972 Convention on the Prohibition of the Development Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction Art 1

Chemical Weapons

Chemical weapons, which include toxic chemicals and their precursors (those chemicals which can cause death, permanent harm or temporary incapacity to humans or animals) and munitions or devices designed to carry such chemicals, are banned.

C CW Arts 1 (1) & 2 (1) - (3)

Riot control agents

Riot control

agents

The use of riot control agents, including tear gas and other gases that have debilitating but non-permanent effects, as a means of warfare is prohibited.

C CW Arts 1 (5) & 2 (7)

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Blinding Laser Weapons

Laser weapons specifically designed, as their sole combat function or as one of their combat functions, to cause permanent blindness to unenhanced vision (that is, to the naked eye or to the eye with corrective eyesight devices) are prohibited.

G CWP lV Art 1

"Permanent blindness” means irreversible and uncorrectable loss of vision that is seriously disabling with no prospect of recovery. Serious disability is equivalent to visual acuity of less than 20/200 vision.

G CWP lV Art 4

Blinding as an incidental or collateral effect of the legitimate military employment of laser systems is not covered by the prohibition. For example, the legitimate use of a laser targeting system in a tank is lawful even if one of its collateral effects may be to cause blindness. However, such a laser targeting system could not be deliberately used to blind enemy combatants.

G CWP lV Art 1

Limitations of Lawful Weapons

General

Diderot-

Dalembert

Encyclopedia

This section discusses the limitations placed on weapons that are otherwise lawful under the LOAC. Legal weapons are limited in the way in which they may be used. Specifically, no weapons may be used indiscriminately or in such a way as to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering.

HlVR Art 23 (e); AP l Arts 35 (2) & 51 (4) (b) & (c)

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Incendiary Weapons

Churchill Crocodile Flame thrower tank

Incendiary weapons include any weapon or munitions that is designed to set fire to objects or to cause burn injury to humans through the action of flame, heat or a combination of the two caused by a chemical reaction of a substance delivered on a target. Examples of incendiary weapons include napalm, flame-throwers, shells, rockets, grenades, mines, bombs and other containers of incendiary materials.

G CW P III Art 1

Incendiary weapons do not include:

a. munitions which have incidental incendiary effects (for example,

illuminants, tracers, smoke or signalling devices); or

b. munitions designed to combine penetration, blast or fragmentation

effects with an additional incendiary effect (for example, armour piercing projectiles, fragmentation shells, explosive bombs and similar combined effects ammunition) in which the incendiary effect is not specifically designed to cause burn injury to humans, but to be used against military objectives such as armoured vehicles, aircraft and installations and facilities.

G CW P III Art 1 (1) (b)

The use of incendiary weapons against combatants is not prohibited unless such use results in superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering. However, it is prohibited in all circumstances to make the civilian population, individual civilians or civilian objects the object of attack by incendiary weapons.

HlVR Art 23 (a); AP I Art 35 (2); G CW P III Art 2 (1)

The use of incendiary weapons is prohibited:

a. in all circumstances to make any legitimate target located within a

concentration of civilians the object of attack by air delivered incendiary

weapons ;

b. to make any legitimate target located within a concentration of civilians

the object of an attack by other than air delivered incendiary weapons,

except where that target is clearly separated from the civilians and all feasible precautions are taken to minimize collateral civilian damage; and

c. on forests or plant cover except when they are either being used to

cover, conceal or camouflage legitimate targets or are military objectives

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themselves (for example, if it is necessary to use incendiaries on a forest to clear a field of fire or facilitate an advance or attack against an enemy, the forest has become a military objective and may legitimately be attacked).

G CW P III Art 2 (2) - (4)

Booby Traps and Other Devices

A “booby trap” is any device or material which is designed, constructed or adapted to kill or injure, and which functions unexpectedly when a person disturbs or approaches an apparently harmless object or performs an apparently safe act. "Other Devices" means manually placed munitions and devices including improvised explosive devices designed to kill, injure or damage and which are activated manually, by remote control or automatically after a lapse of time.

G CW P ll Art 2 (4) & (5)

Booby traps and other devices, attached to or associated with the following objects, are prohibited:

a. internationally recognized protective emblems and signs;

b. sick, wounded or dead persons;

c. burial or cremation sites or graves;

d. medical facilities, equipment, supplies or transportation;

e. children's toys or objects designed for feeding, health, hygiene,

clothing or education of children;

f. food or drink;

g. kitchen utensils or appliances (except those in military

establishments, locations or supply depots);

h. objects of a religious nature;

i. historic monuments, works of art or places of worship which constitute the cultural or spiritual heritage of peoples; or

j. animals or their carcasses.

G CW P ll Art 7 (1)

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It is prohibited to use booby trap or other devices in the form of apparently harmless portable object which are specifically designed and constructed to contain explosive material.

G CW P ll Art 7 (2)

Explosive booby traps are not to be employed or used as a substitute for anti- personnel mines. Where booby traps are lawfully used, they must not cause unnecessary injury or suffering.

G CW P ll Art 3 (3)

Use of Authorized Land Mines, Booby Traps and Other Devices

As discussed above, anti-personnel mines are prohibited unless they are command detonated. Antitank mines, however, continue to be lawful. Land mines are any munitions on, under or near the ground or other surface area and designed to be detonated by the presence, proximity or contact of a person or a vehicle. Land mines include remotely delivered mines such as mines delivered by artillery, rocket, mortar or aircraft.

G CW P ll Art 2 (1) & (2); APM Convention Art 2 (2)

An “anti-tank mine” is a mine designed to be exploded by the presence, proximity or contact of a vehicle and that will damage or destroy that vehicle. The primary purpose of the anti-tank mine is in fact to damage or destroy the vehicle that detonates it. However, the occupants of the vehicle that detonates an anti-tank mine or those in the vicinity may also be injured or killed.

G CW P II Art 2 (1); APM Convention Art 2 (1)

All feasible precautions must be taken to protect civilians from the effects of land mines, booby traps and similar devices. They must not be directed at civilians nor may they be used indiscriminately. It is indiscriminate to:

a. place mines or booby traps so that they are not on or not directed at a

legitimate target;

b. use a means of delivery for mines or booby traps that cannot be

directed at a legitimate target; and

c. place mines or booby traps so that they may be expected to cause

collateral civilian damage that is excessive in relation to the concrete and

direct military advantage anticipated.

G CW P ll Art 3 (8)

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Booby traps and similar devices must not be used in areas containing civilian concentrations if combat between ground forces is neither imminent nor actually taking place unless:

a. they are placed on, or in the vicinity of, an enemy military objective; or

The location of all pre-planned minefields and areas in which there has been large scale and pre-planned use of booby traps must be recorded. A record should also be kept of all other minefields, mines and booby traps so that they may be disarmed when they are no longer required.

G CW P ll Arts 2 (9), 9 & 10 (1)

It is prohibited to use mines, booby traps or other devices that employ a mechanism or device specifically designed to detonate the munition by the presence of commonly available mine detectors as a result of their magnetic or other non-contact influence during normal use in detection operations.

G CW P ll Art 3 (5)

A ”self-deactivating mine” permanently stops functioning when a component (for example, battery) is exhausted. Self-deactivating mines are lawful unless they are used with an anti-handling device that continues to function after the mine has stopped functioning.

G CW P ll Arts 2 (12) & 3 (6)

An “anti-handling device” is part of, linked to or under a mine and detonates when an attempt is made to tamper with the mine. An example of an anti- handling device is a hand grenade with its safety pin removed that is placed under a mine such that the grenade explodes when the mine is moved. Under Canadian doctrine, anti-handling devices are used only with anti-tank mines.

G CW P ll Art 2 (14); APM Convention Art 2 (3)

Remotely-Delivered Mines

A “remotely-delivered mine” is a mine not directly emplaced but delivered by artillery, missile, rocket, mortar or similar means, or dropped from an aircraft. Mines delivered from a land-based system from less than 500 metres are not considered to be “remotely delivered”.

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G CW P ll Art 2 (2)

Remotely-delivered land mines can only be used within the area of a military objective if their location can be accurately recorded, and they can be neutralized when they no longer serve the military purpose for which they were placed in position. Each mine must have:

a. an effective self neutralizing or destroying mechanism; or

b. a remotely controlled mechanism designed to render the mine harmless

or destroy it.

G CW P ll Art 6 (3)

If circumstances permit, effective advance warning should be given where remotely-delivered mines are likely to affect civilians.

G CW P ll Art 6 (4)

Other Devices

“Other devices” are manually emplaced munitions and devices designed to kill, injure or damage and which are activated either remotely or by time delay. For example, time-delayed or remotely controlled explosives would fall into this category. The restrictions on the use of these “other devices” are the same as for land mines and booby traps.

G CW P ll Arts 2 (5) & 3 (1)

Nuclear Weapons

The United Nations General Assembly has condemned nuclear weapons as being illegal, although the international community itself is divided on this question. While nuclear weapons are not specifically prohibited by any international treaty, there is a strong argument to be made that the use of nuclear weapons would violate International Law on a variety of grounds including:

a. they would cause superfluous injury and unnecessary suffering;

b. their effect would be indiscriminate; or

c. their use would cause widespread, long-term and severe damage to the

natural environment.

HIVR Art 23 (e); AP l Arts 35, 51 & 57 (2)

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At the request of the United Nations General Assembly, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) issued an advisory opinion with respect to the legality of nuclear weapons in 1996. The majority of the judges ruled that the threat or use of nuclear weapons would generally be contrary to the LOAC and in particular the principles and rules of humanitarian law. However, the ICJ went on to state that it could not reach a final decision on whether the threat or use of nuclear weapons was illegal in extreme circumstances of self-defence where the very survival of a state is at stake.

When Canada deposited its ratification of Additional Protocol I, the following reservation was made:

“It is the understanding of the Government of Canada that the rules introduced by Protocol I were intended to apply exclusively to conventional weapons. In particular, the rules so introduced do not have any effect on and do not regulate or prohibit the use of nuclear weapons.”

Rockets, Missiles and Bombardment

With the advent of modern technology many armed forces are now able to deliver weapons on target with much greater precision. However, states are not limited to the use of precision weapons and munitions. An attack by conventional, free-fall weapons or “dumb” bombs is lawful provided that the overriding principles of proportionality and superfluous injury/unnecessary suffering as well as other applicable rules are not violated.

HIVR Art 23 (e); AP l Arts 35, 51 & 57

Sea Mines

There are very few restrictions on the use of sea mines. Sea mines must be able to self neutralize if control over them is lost. Their location must be recorded. They must not be laid in neutral waters. When sea mines are first laid in the territorial waters of a state, there must be provision for free exit of neutral shipping located in the ports of the state whose territorial waters have been mined.

HVIII Arts 1 (1) & (2) & 3 (2); SRM paras 82 (b) & 84 - 86

Torpedoes

It is prohibited to use torpedoes that do not sink or become harmless when they have missed their target or completed their run.

HVIII Art 1 (3); SRM para 79

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NEW WEAPONS

Development or Acquisition of New Weapons

In the study, development, acquisition or adoption of a new weapon, means or method of warfare, there is an obligation to determine whether its employment would, in some or all circumstances, be prohibited by the LOAC.

AP l Art 36

Case Study

Working Group on Explosive Remnants of War

Canadian Response to Working Paper CCW/GGE/X/WG.1/1/WP

International Humanitarian Law Questionnaire

GROUP OF GOVERNMENTAL EXPERTS OF CCW/GGE/XI/WWG.1/WP.

THE STATES PARTIES TO THE CONVENTION 16 June 2005

ON PROHIBITIONS OR RESTRICTIONS ON

THE USE OF CERTAIN CONVENTIONAL

WEAPONS WHICH MAY BE DEEMED TO BE

EXCESSIVELY INJURIOUS OR TO HAVE

INDISCRIMINATE EFFECTS Original: ENGLISH

________________________________________________________________

______________

Eleventh Session

Geneva, 2-12 August 2005

Item of the Agenda

Explosive Remnants of War

Working Group on Explosive Remnants of War

Canadian Response to Working Paper CCW/GGE/X/WG.1/1/WP.2

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International Humanitarian Law Questionnaire

Prepared by Canada

1. In his paper of 8 March 2004 the Coordinator suggested that the 2005 ERW

mandate of the Group of Government Experts to the CCW should include a “Three-Step” approach to consider the implementation of existing principles of International Humanitarian Law (IHL). The Coordinator suggested this approach noting that there did not seem to be consensus concerning the relevant IHL principles and rules to be considered during the planning, targeting, weapons selection and weapons use phases of military operations. Accordingly, step one of the Coordinator’s Three Step approach seeks to identify relevant IHL principles. Step two aims to establish the status of their implementation by the various States Parties. Step three includes an examination of the adequacy of

the implementation mechanisms as required by IHL.

2. Canada is of the view that there is considerable merit in addressing the issue

of the wider implementation of existing IHL principles via the Coordinator’s suggested Three-Step approach. In this regard, Canada, along with Australia, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States of America, and in close consultation with the International Committee of the Red Cross, advanced a framework for addressing steps one and two in the form of a questionnaire, which was submitted to the GGE during the March 2005

session as Working Paper CCW/GGE/X/WG.1/WP.2.

3. The questionnaire, while framed to specifically address aspects of state

practice concerning the wider implementation of IHL principles and rules applicable to the use of munitions that may become ERW, seeks to facilitate future discussion in which delegations may wish to engage concerning IHL principles implied through the questions posed. We note that the principles and rules outlined in the following responses are relevant to the use of all weapons systems, and not just to those weapons systems and munitions that may become

ERW.

Part 1. Applicability of Relevant IHL Principles

Which existing Principles of IHL applicable to the use of force during an armed conflict are considered relevant to the use of munitions, including sub-munitions that may become ERW? (i.e. military necessity, distinction, discrimination, proportionality, precautions taken before and during an attack, superfluous injury/unnecessary suffering, environmental protection)

4. From the Canadian perspective, the key relevant operational principles of IHL

applicable to the use of force during an armed conflict, which are considered relevant to the use of munitions, including sub-munitions that may become ERW, are those of military necessity, distinction and proportionality. Additionally there

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are other relevant rules and concepts which are either inherent in these principles or are ancillary to them, such as the concepts of humanity, superfluous injury and unnecessary suffering.

Military Necessity

5. Canada defines “military necessity” as the justification of the use of force not

forbidden by IHL, to the extent necessary in order to achieve the complete

submission of an enemy at the earliest possible moment with the least possible expenditure of personnel and resources.

6. Canada views the principle of military necessity as presupposing that the force

used can be and is being controlled, that the force used is necessary to achieve the military objective, and that the amount of force used is limited to that which is