AdvancedMusic Theory ​Resourcesfor Pop Creators

Tonal ambiguity is pretty common in pop music. I know quite a few songs that can easily be heard in their relative major or minor. What I’ve never encountered, though, is ambiguity between different key signatures in a song that is on paper entirely diatonic to one key.

In comes the new Calvin Harris and Dua Lipa collab:​

​“One Kiss” (written by Harris, Lipa, and Jessie Reyez) is in the key of F major, at least according to the official sheet music published by EMI, which places a Bb in the key signature. Yet I hear it as being in the key of A minor, and to be honest I can’t imagine anyone hearing it differently.

Maybe it’s a Laurel/Yanny thing, which would be fitting given the ambiguity of Lipa’s 'reserved passion' in this song.

On paper, there is no reason to question the official key: The seven-note collection used in this song spells F major; the chords exclusively use these seven notes as well; and the vocal melody falls in line, or at least does not contradict F major. On its face, there is nothing in the sheet music that would lead one to believe that this song is in any key other than F major.

But every time the chords loop back to Am I hear it as the tonic chord. And when Lipa sings “One kiss is all it takes” in the chorus I hear these scale degrees:

​NOT these scale degrees:​

​​But someone decided that this song is in F major. It could be the songwriters (Lipa, Adam Wiles, Jessie Reyez), Harris, the person who produced the sheet music for EMI, or all of them unanimously.

​It’s possible that some of the people responsible for creating this song and disseminating the public information about it did so without really thinking about it too much and just went with what seemed to be obvious on paper, but I assume that at least one or two people in that chain listened carefully and thought it through before deciding on F major.

And to be clear, I’m not saying they are necessarily wrong. Harris, Lipa, and the EMI people may read this one day and think that I’m a moron for even suggesting that “One Kiss” could be in anything other than F major. You may even think so too, and that’s fine. But from my perspective this is something worth exploring, so here is my defense of hearing this song in A minor.

​The Makeup of the Chords​

I think the most important (and most interesting) reason for my hearing “One Kiss” in A minor lies in how the chords are constructed. Harris does something similar to what he did in his 2011 collab with Rihanna, “We Found Love” (I assume this was Harris’s doing because of this similarity): The bass line implies diatonic, root position triads, but the upper voices are made up of a repetitive keyboard riff that doesn’t quite follow the implied harmony. Instead, it colors the chords and makes the progression somewhat more ambiguous:

​

Click for full size

​The bass motion is A-Bb-F-G. Assuming each bass note initially implies a root position triad in F major, here is how the keyboard riff transforms the chords:

Am remains AmBb becomes Bbmajor7F becomes Fmajor7

So far these are not substantial changes in terms of determining the tonal center and quality of the key. But here is the really significant one:

Gm became G7sus2

(sus2 is the commonly used representation of chords in which 2 replaces 3 in a root position chord, even when it doesn’t behave like a traditional suspension)

As with the previous chords, the added 7th doesn’t change much, but what makes this last chord so important is the sus2.

(Note: from this point forward, for the sake of clarity and brevity, I will ignore the sevenths of these chords.)

The official sheet music lists the last chord in the loop as Gm9. However, the note Bb, which would be responsible for the minorness of this chord, is not actually present in this sonority. Even in sections of the song where the makeup and/or the order of the chords is slightly changed, there is still no Bb over the bass note G: In the bridge (2:35–3:07) the sus2 turns into a sus4 (which, like the sus2, is not an actual suspension and therefore does not resolve to Bb); In the postchorus (1:18–1:34 for example) we only hear the bass note G as a passing note with no upper voices.

In other words, the sus2 and sus4 neutralize the minorness of the chord we hear over the bass note G, making it possible to hear it as an unrealized major chord.

Combine this with the fact that the chord Am is on the strongest hyperbeat of this chord loop (and even in the bridge it’s on the third hyperbeat, which is still a strong hyperbeat) and just like that, the bass motion F-G-A that’s embedded within the loop starts to sound a lot like VI–VII–i in A minor rather than I–ii–iii in F major.

And this is important because VI–VII–i is an extremely common progression in pop music and is strongly associated with its final chord being the tonic chord of a minor key. In a genre that has significantly weakened the role of functional harmony and has all but done away with common practice cadences, the VI–VII–i progression is as close to a cadence as you will find, in the sense that it reinforces the ‘tonicness’ of i. So if you hear this F-G-A bass motion as representing VI–VII–i (which I do), it’s hard not to hear this song in A minor.

​The Other Side of the Story​

In order to make the case for “One Kiss” being in A minor, I need to acknowledge and address the elephant in the room: the presence of a B-flat chord and the absence of any B-natural in this song. So here it is:

Although I said that the F–G–A bass motion represents a VI–VII–i in A minor to my ears, I should acknowledge that the Bb–F motion sounds a lot like a pseudo plagal cadence (a cadential IV–I motion, as opposed to the more prevalent V–I). In fact, this is even strengthened if we consider the previous chord, making it an Am–Bb–F chord progression—If we call the IV chord in a plagal cadence an ‘alternative dominant’ then a iii that precedes can be heard as an ‘alternative predominant’ because it provides the up-by-step bass motion that precedes the cadence. Just like the aforementioned VI–VII–i, the progression iii–IV–I (or III–iv–I, or in some cases I6–IV–I) is also a common pseudo-cadential move. You can hear it, for example, as part of the chord loop of the chorus in Taylor Swift’s “Ready for It”, or in Tove Lo’s “Timebomb” (1:12–1:25), where it forms a rare complete cadence that reaches a resting point on the tonic, both harmonically and melodically.

Which is the True Tonic?​

​This is truly interesting—There are only four chords (with occasional minor changes in their makeup and order) that loop throughout the song. Yet, this seemingly diatonic and simple loop contains two competing pseudo-cadential progressions and constantly tick-tocks between the two possible tonal centers. So which one wins out?

Is it this one?​

Or this one?​

​Personally, I can only hear the latter, just like I can only hear Laurel and can only see white and gold.

While on paper, the F major plagal cadence should clearly take precedence, I hear the Bb–F motion not as an actual cadence, but as a plagal tonicization of F.

What does that mean? Tonicization is when you momentarily make a non-tonic chord sound like a tonic by creating tonal gravity toward it. Unlike a modulation, in which the music establishes a new tonal center and stays on it for a substantial period of time, a tonicization is brief and the music immediately adjusts back to the real tonal center.

​Although the B-flat never adjusts to B-natural, the sus2 alteration of the G chord allows us to complete the missing information in our brain and actively adjust it for ourselves, especially since the Am chord falls on the strongest hyperbeat almost throughout the song.

The Vocal Melody​

​Had I only heard the chord progression without the vocals, I believe I would still hear it in A minor, but I would also be able to hear it in F major if I really tried. However, the vocal melody seals the deal for me.

The main thing about it is that aside from a few touches on F as a passing note in the verse, Lipa’s melody throughout the song sticks to the five notes that make up the A minor pentatonic scale. And although I mentioned that the vocal melody does not contradict F major, it also does nothing to confirm it. Lipa sings neither B-flat nor B-natural, and seems to purposefully avoid any tonal closure. ​

Final Experiment​​

None of the above points on their own would ‘transform’ a song from F major to A minor: Just because a chord is on the strong hyperbeat doesn’t make it the tonic; the F-G-A bass motion could easily exist as I-ii-iii in F major; and a note doesn’t need to be heard in every part of the texture in order to ‘count’.

But while I don’t have a single decisive ‘on paper’ winning argument, my ears have decided for me that “One Kiss” is in A minor, and the combination of the factors I laid out in this article suggests that I might not be crazy.

Just to be sure, I decided to conduct one more experiment—I created several new chord progressions that are firmly in F major and ones that are firmly in A minor and played Lipa’s vocal melody over each of them. I may be biased, but this experiment certainly confirmed my initial hearing. Singing the melody over the A minor progressions sounded very similar to what I hear in the original song, while trying to sing it over the F major progressions sounded different and awkward, despite there not being harsh dissonant clashes.

I also tried to change the Gsus2 chord to Gm, and I still heard the song in A minor–The Gm chord just sounded out of place, although I must admit that changing it to a G-major chord still sounded strange. For whatever reason the sus2 sonority feels by far the most fitting.

So there you have it. I’m in the A minor camp and cannot imagine this song being heard in any other key.

​If you hear otherwise, or if you have more conclusive reasoning one way or another, I would love to hear from you, either in the comments below, on my Facebook page, or via email.

Wait---What About A Phrygian?

One last thing–I’m quite sure that at some point someone will suggest to me that maybe I should hear this song in A Phrygian, agreeing that A sounds like the tonal center but that the presence of Bb transforms the minor (Aeolian) mode into Phrygian.

So to address this point: Technically, this could be a valid way of viewing the modal makeup of this song. However, Phrygian mode implies that the Bb would be an upper leading tone to the tonic (A), and since the Bb in “one Kiss” does not behave this way but instead tonicizes F, I don’t think the tonal behavior of this song would be accurately represented by the Phrygian mode.

Top40 Theory is a project aimed at providing advanced music theory knowledge and composition tools to pop songwriters and producers. Join the small but growing community of highly accomplished songwriters, producers, theorists, and composers at the Top40 Theory Facebook group. You can also follow Top40 Theory’s Twitter account and Facebook page, as well as join the mailing list via the form located in the sidebar, to receive updates about new posts and other pop music theory related musings.

It's hard to call something a trend when it's been around for ages, but lately I get the feeling that a lot of pop artists try to outdo each other when it comes to showcasing their vocal range, and particularly its highest end. I hear artists reaching for their falsetto range so often that in my mind I started calling it The Vocal Range Wars, to paraphrase the Loudness Wars from the 1990s and early 2000s.

Even when the main vocal stays in a relatively narrow range, it's often doubled with a falsetto (or digitally transposed) line in some sections of the song, like in Ed Sheeran's "Shape of You" (0:46) or in Bieber's "Love Yourself" (0:48).

Shifting from one part of the singer's vocal range to another, especially to the extremes, is a very effective tool for grabbing and keeping the listener's attention. It's impressive, it makes the vocal melody sound more dynamic, but most of all it creates attention grabbing contrast, the kind that stops you from switching to a different station while you commute to work.

Contained Extremes: "Never Be the Same"

One song that has done a great job of preventing me from switching the station is Camila Cabello’s “Never Be the Same”:​

​At 0:45, when Cabello starts singing "nicotine, heroin, morphine", my attention is all hers, no matter what random musings were going on in my head previously. It’s not the list of addictive substances that hooks me into the prechorus of "Never Be the Same", though. What grabs my attention every time is Cabello's sudden shift to the very top of her vocal range, which, combined with the thinning out of the instrumental texture, places a very potent sonic spotlight on her voice.This would be effective enough in any context, but what really makes this a home run has a lot to do with the melody that came before it.

​Cabello starts the song in what is probably the very bottom of her vocal range and stays there for quite a while. This is her first two-measure phrase:​

"Never Be the Same" first phrase - click image for full size

​Now, let's compare this side-by-side with the first two measures of the prechorus:​

Vocal range gap between verse and prechorus - click image for full size

​As you can see, I had to zoom out quite a bit to get the piano roll to cover enough ground in order to make that comparison. The shift from a phrase that goes as low as E2 to one that goes as high as G4 is pretty significant.

In fact, it might have been too startling for the listener had she gone directly between these two phrases. It would also be very difficult for any singer to go from the lowest end of her chest voice straight to borderline falsetto. Which is probably why there are two glue elements bridging this gap.

The first glue element is the climb to E3 at the very end of the verse, moving to the middle of Cabello's chest voice range ("you intoxicate me"). The second is a two-note pickup to the prechorus ("just like"), which lets her both breathe and comfortably switch to her head voice before hitting those high notes.​

Transition from verse to prechorus - click image for full size

​But wait... did I just describe what happened as both a sudden shift and a smooth transition? Which is it?

Well, it's kind of both. Yes, the gradual melodic climb does smooth the transition to a certain degree. Still, as a listener, it's hard not to hear it as an extremely stark contrast because the verse 'lives' in one extreme vocal range and the prechorus in the other. The transition does just enough to help this shift avoid being too disorienting, but is also short enough to keep the effect potent.

Generating Tension

​Cabello's extreme vocal shift is not only great for capturing our attention in the moment. It is also extremely effective in amping up tension and anticipation toward the chorus.

Let me explain: Tension and release in music relies in large part on gravity. In nearly any musical aspect there is an element that acts as a center of gravity. Moving away from this element generates tension. For example, in functional tonality the center of gravity is the tonic, and every other tonal function generates varying levels of tension that are only completely resolved when returning to the tonic. In rhythm and meter, strong beats (and hyperbeats) similarly act as centers of gravity, which is why an attack on a weak beat that isn't followed by another attack on a strong beat generates rhythmic tension known as syncopation. Even in sound production there is usually a baseline of sonic energy that acts as a 'sonic tonic' (think of the first verse in most pop songs).

In "Never Be the Same", the push-and-pull between the extremes of Cabello's vocal range dramatically enhances the feeling of anticipation, because neither extreme feels stable. Arriving at the chorus feels like a cathartic 'landing', since it's the first time we hear her sing in her cleanest and and most powerful range.​

Free Movement: "How Long"

I mentioned a number of artists who use vocal range shifts in their songs, but one in particular who really gives Cabello a run for her money in my imaginary vocal range war is Charlie Puth.

​Take, for example, one of Puth's latest hits, "How Long":​

​Like Cabello, Puth showcases his ridiculous range throughout the song, which follows a similar vocal trajectory to "Never Be the Same"--He goes as low as C#2 in the verse (0:12-0:30), climbs two octaves up to C#4 in the prechorus (0:30-0:46), and 'lands' on his mid-high range in the chorus (0:46-1:04). In both songs the artists later revisit the highest range in their postchoruses.

But the melodic content in "How Long" is a different animal than that of "Never Be the Same".

While Cabello's verse centers around a single note, as I showed above, this is the first half of Puth's verse:

Charlie Puth - "How Long" opening phrase - click for full size

​This is a much more dynamic melody. Puth moves freely between the different areas of his vocal range, and does so in the other sections of his song as well.

While doing this showcases his immense virtuosity as a singer, it makes for less of a stark contrast between adjacent sections. Instead of extreme contrast between sections, the melodies in "How Long" feature fast-paced, abrupt changes in both the vocal timbre/range and the vocal production. Nearly every mini-phrase is different--either the main vocal line switches range, or it's harmonized/doubled differently.

These changes are more subtle than the single extreme change in "Never Be the Same", but they are extremely impressive and lend themselves well to repeated listening, because the listener can discover new details even after hearing the song multiple times.

Chart-wise, however, "How Long" didn't climb quite as high as "Never Be the Same" (though it still did very well, reaching #2 and #3, respectively, in Billboards Adult Top 40 and Mainstream Top 40 charts), which may suggest something about which type of contrast has more potential for mass appeal.

The Big-Picture Takeaway

​Chart performance aside, comparing these two songs is a good lesson in big-picture planning. The obvious lesson is that making a melody stand out is not only about the melody itself but also about its surroundings.

But this principle can be generalized to something like this:

Contrast and space are great tools for making any musical element stand out.

A specific note will stand out more if it is surrounded by rests or if it is approached by a melodic leap rather than by step.

A simple hook will be catchier if it comes after a complex melody.​A chorus will sound bigger if it follows a sonic break or a very thin texture (which is probably why "washout" effects like Dada Life's Endless Smile are so popular with producers these days).

A sonic texture will sound smoother if it's preceded by a rough texture (see the chorus of Taylor Swift's "Ready for It").

​This is not to say that every song needs to have these types of contrasts. Music would be very boring if all songs did exactly the same things. However, contrast is one of the most effective tools in music, especially in relatively repetitive music like pop, and is an important tool in the toolbox of any songwriter or producer.

Top40 Theory is a project aimed at providing advanced music theory knowledge and composition tools to pop songwriters and producers. Join the small but growing community of highly accomplished songwriters, producers, theorists, and composers at the Top40 Theory Facebook group. You can also follow Top40 Theory’s Twitter account and Facebook page, as well as join the mailing list via the form located in the sidebar, to receive updates about new posts and other pop music theory related musings.