Monthly Archives: July 2014

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Exceptionally extreme discomfort has been reported just after envenomation of people by C. adamanteus, even though whether this kind of pain is due to a specic toxin is just not clear. We detected 3 dierent nucleotidases and ve dierent phosphodiesterases from the venom gland transcriptome of C. adamanteus. Just one of the NUCs and 3 on the PDEs had signal peptides, and we thus only thought of these as probable toxins NUC, PDE, PDE four, and PDE 6. The roles of these enzymes in venoms are uncertain, but their principal perform could be to liberate toxic nucleosides. Signicant PDE activity continues to be detected previously within the venom of C. adamanteus. The C. adamanteus venom gland transcriptome con tained three Kunitz sort protease inhibitors. Two of these shared in excess of 75% animo acid identity with a KUN from Austrelaps labialis, an Australian elapid. All 3 KUNs have domains that area them during the superfamily of bovine pan creatic trypsin like inhibitors, and snake toxins from this family members are recognized to inhibit plasma serine proteinases. Although KUNs are frequently observed in snake selleck venoms, their purpose in envenomation will not be effectively dened. The three KUNs detected for C. adamanteus are all at rel atively low abundances, suggesting they are not significant elements with the venom. We identied two transcripts, HYAL 1 and HYAL 2, encoding hyaluronidase like proteins. Hyaluronidases are generally thought to be venom elements that encourage the dissemination of other venom parts by degrad ing the extracellular matrix in the web page of injection, even though they could have more direct toxic eects.selleckchem ONX-0914 The coding sequences of our two transcripts dier only while in the presence of a 765 nt deletion in HYAL 2 relative to HYAL 1. Truncated hyaluronidases this kind of as HYAL 2 are actually detected inside the venoms of other viperid species and may well signify an instance of choice splicing. We also identied a transcript encoding a glutaminyl peptide cyclotransferase. Many snake venom elements have N termini blocked by pyrogluta mate, and GCs catalyze the formation of this block. This part is connected additional to maturation and protection of other toxins and in all probability contributes only indirectly to toxicity. We identied 6 growth issue linked sequences in the venom gland transcriptome of C. adamanteus a nerve development element, a neurotrophic element, two vascular endothelial development variables within a sin gle cluster, and a cysteine rich with EGF like domain protein. The NGF transcript encodes a 241 amino acid precursor protein and shares 99% amino acid identity using a NGF from C. durissus. The NF transcript encodes a 180 amino acid precursor that shares homology with mes encephalic astrocyte derived neurotrophic things.

For ex ample, PDK4 expression was up regulated 18 fold by a 5 hour fast in adipose tissue, but only 1. five fold following a sixteen hour quick in liver. Even though differences in sensitivity amongst the 2 array platforms need to be kept in thoughts, these data propose that adipose tissue metabolism in chicken is a minimum of as sensitive to power standing as hepatic metabolic process. Our results indicate that both fatty acid syn thesis and storage are dynamically regulated by energy sta tus in chicken adipose tissue, in spite of its modest contribution on the quantity of stored fatty acids. Both fasted and insulin neutralized birds exhibited sig nificant increases in plasma glucagon. Parallel elevations in plasma NEFA advised that this resulted in significant lip olysis of stored triacylglycerol in each remedy groups. In the course of fasting, a substantial percentage of your liberated fatty acids are re esterified in adipocytes, and only a compact fraction typically are actually imagined to get oxidized during the mitochondria of adipocytes via beta oxidation. On the other hand, latest studies in mice and in human adi pose tissue show that in some selleck chemical disorders fatty acid oxidation in white adipose tissue is significant and might be a vital determinant of obesity. Constant with this particular notion, we discovered sizeable increases in the num ber of key enzymes that mediate mobilization of fatty acids and their oxidation, such as the fee limiting enzymes in the two mitochondrial and peroxisomal fatty acid oxidation. We measured tissue amounts of beta hydroxybutyrate, a ketone product or service of beta oxidation, to confirm that modifications in gene expression had practical consequences and found them for being signifi cantly elevated in adipose great post to read tissue of fasted vs. fed chickens. Levels had been numerically but not statistically increased in insulin neutralized adipose tissue. Qualitatively, fasting induced changes in gene expression resemble people induced through the fibrate class of medicines, which activate PPAR and promote fatty acid oxidation in white adipose tissue and are utilised clinically to treat hyper lipidemia. These data recommend that dietary acti vation of PPAR, as an example by supplementation with fatty acids that preferentially bind and activate this member of the PPAR family, could be a implies to at tenuate unwanted fat deposition in commercial broilers. This kind of action might underlie the lowered abdominal body fat mass reported in broilers that have been fed diet plans wealthy in n 3 PUFA. Both fasting and insulin neutralization elicited marked upregulation of PDK4. PDK4 is really a nutrient sensing fuel switch that phosphorylates and inactivates pyruvate de hydrogenase, which shifts fuel use from glucose to fatty acids and spares glucose for the brain throughout intervals of fasting.

These cells were injected intra venously into SCID mice. In the case of T cell depleted transfer, T cells were removed from the same population of donor cells by immunomagnetic separation, and the remaining non T cells were injected intravenously into the SCID hosts. Although a number of SCID mice receiving complete populations of donor cells developed arthritis beginning on day 8 or 9 after transfer, we injected them once again with the same number and same type of donor cells between days 15 and 35 to achieve 100% disease incidence. All cell transfers were accompanied with intraperitoneal injection of hPG with out adjuvant. Cell recipient SCID mice were inspected for arthritis symptoms every second or fourth day from day 8 and scored for disease severity as described for the donor BALBc mice. SCID mice were administered FTY720 via gavage at a dose reported to have a therapeutic effect in autoimmune disease models. FTY720 was admi nistered daily on the first 3 days following the first transfer of complete donor cell populations and every second selleckchem Microtubule Inhibitor day afterwards. Control mice also received com plete cell transfers and were fed with placebo. The second control group of SCID mice did not receive any other treatment. In separate experiments, immunocompetent BALBc mice were fed with placebo or FTY720 under the same dosing regime, beginning 1 week after the last PG injec tion or beginning on the day of the first PG immunization. Blood sam ples were collected weekly from the facial veins by means of sterile lancets, and changes in peripheral leu kocyte subsets were monitored by flow cytometry. Histology and immunohistochemistry The hindlimbs of mice were this article dissected, fixed in 10% buf fered formalin, decalcified, and embedded in paraffin. Serial sections were cut, stained with hematoxylin and eosin, and examined under a Nikon Microphot bright field microscope. Histology images were prepared using a digital color CCD camera and MetaMorph soft ware. For frozen sections, hindpaws and JDLNs of SCID mice were embedded in OCT compound and snap frozen. Sections were cut on a MICROM HM 550 cryostat and stored at 20 C until use. Cryosections were fixed in cold acetone and blocked with 5% normal goat serum and 5 ugmL anti CD1632 monoclonal antibody in phosphate buffered saline. Sections were then probed with Alexa Fluor 488 conjugated mAbs against CD3, CD4, or Gr 1. Following post fixation with 10% formalin, fluorescent cells within the sections were visualized using TPM. Cell harvest for flow cytometry Blood samples were collected in heparin containing tubes, and red blood cells were eliminated by hypotonic lysis. The white blood cell pellet was washed and pro cessed for flow cytometry as described below. Single cell suspensions were prepared separately from the spleens and JDLNs of donor cell reconstituted SCID mice at the end of FTY720 treatment experiments.

This experiment confirmed that the attachment of chondrocytes to fibronectin coated plates was principally mediated by 5B1 integrin. Because the degree of expression of 5BB1 integ rin modified minor inside that culture time period, this end result was thought to be to indicate an increase inside the exercise of 5B1 integrin. Offered this end result, we up coming examined if RRAS is certainly involved in the observed increase in integrin ac tivity. From the experiment, chondrocytes cultured in monolayers for seven days have been contaminated with all the adenovi ruses carrying CA or DN mutants of 5 small GTPases, plus the attachment with the cells to fibronectin coated plates was evaluated 3 days later. These 5 small GTPases are recognized to get involved in the regulation of integrin exercise in particular forms of cells. On this experiment, cell attachment was drastically enhanced from the overexpression of the CA mutant of RRAS, molecule library and tended to get reduced by that of the DN mu tant. Such a alter in cell at tachment was not observed with any other tiny GTPases. Induction of form I and form III procollagen expression and AKT phosphorylation was indeed regulated by RRAS in monolayer cultured chondrocytes The following experiments had been carried out to confirm the involvement of RRAS in the induction of kind I and style III procollagen expression and AKT phosphory lation. If our above presumption is appropriate, phosphory lation of AKT really should be modulated by RRAS by means of the change during the exercise of 5B1 integrin. To examine this hypothesis, CA RRAS or DN RRAS was in excess of expressed in monolayer cultured chondrocytes by way of adenoviral transduction, and phosphorylation of AKT was evaluated. As anticipated, the phosphorylation was enhanced through the overexpression selleck inhibitor of CA RRAS, and tended for being lowered by that of DN RRAS. Regularly, in people chondrocytes, the expression of variety I and style III procollagen was appreciably ele vated through the overexpression of CA RRAS. For even more confirmation, we suppressed the expression of RRAS by RNAi and observed whether or not any improvements occurred in AKT phosphorylation and noncartilaginous procollagen expression. Within this experiment, AKT phos phorylation and procollagen expression were reduced, as predicted, through the suppression of RRAS expression. Echistatin inhibited dedifferentiation of monolayer cultured chondrocytes From our present and previous observations, it is actually expected that dedifferentiation of chondrocytes might be prevented or minimized through the inhibition of engagement of 5B1 and vB5 integrins. We examined this probability by experiments applying echistatin, a disintegrin that potently inhibits ligation of ligands to a variety of integrins.

These earlier findings indicate the distinct re ceptors for LRP5 and LRP6 manage unique functions, presumably by interacting with distinct ligands of your Wnt loved ones. In an energy to additional confirm the catabolic regula tion of Lrp5, we examined the expression amounts of Lrp5 and Lrp6 in differentiating chondrocytes, human OA motor vehicle tilage and cartilage samples from numerous experimental mouse versions of OA. We observed distinct expression patterns for Lrp5 and Lrp6 during chondrogenesis plus the IL 1B induced dedifferentiation of chondrocytes. LRP5 ex pression in OA cartilage was increased, constant with past reviews, whereas LRP6 expression was unaltered. These findings give further proof that LRP5 and LRP6 have distinct expression patterns and may well play distinctive roles in OA cartilage destruction. Former studies have suggested kinase inhibitor Midostaurin that LRP5 might con tribute to OA pathogenesis, but its perform in OA carti lage destruction is the subject of some controversy. LRP5 expression was found to be drastically upregulated in human OA cartilage, along with a cohort review suggested that haplotypes of your Lrp5 gene are possibility elements for OA. Conversely, even so, mild instability induced OA in Lrp5 mice was reportedly associated with greater cartilage degradation. Our information are incon sistent together with the latter observation, though the 2 research appear constant in terms of the system employed to induce OA, the duration immediately after surgical treatment plus the utilized mouse strain. To examine no matter if whole entire body Lrp5 deficiency order NPS-2143 could impact gene expression in other tissues by altering the sus ceptibility to pathogenic stimulation, we examined the chondrocyte exact in vivo perform of LRP5 in condi tional KO mice to exclude any unex pected unwanted effects from the reduction of Lrp5 in other tissues. On the other hand, we noticed that the inhibitory result of Lrp5 defi ciency on DMM surgeryinduced OA cartilage de gradation in Lrp5flfl.Col2a1 cre mice was steady with all the outcomes from complete Lrp5 mice. These data indicate that LRP5 has catabolic results all through OA cartilage degradation. Inside the recent research, we utilised recombinant Wnt3a and Wnt7a as representative ligands of the canonical Wnt B catenin signaling pathway to assess the perform of Lrp5. We didn’t examine the upregulation of Wnt molecules in the OA cartilage of our experimental sys tems, but Wnt3a is regarded to activate the canonical Wnt pathway and stimulate the expression of Mmp13 and Adamts4 in mouse chondrocytes. We previously showed that IL 1B upregulates Wnt7a expression, thereby inhibiting form II collagen expression in chon drocytes. Furthermore, we identified that the expression ranges of several Wnt and Fz receptor isotypes have been reg ulated by IL 1B.

Ahead of 2004, the proposed minimal threshold for significant familial threat was set by several pointers issued, which broadly required a single to start with degree relative diagnosed with breast cancer before age 40 or two close family members each diagnosed ahead of age 60. In 2004, Great issued in depth recommendations during which the age necessity for two impacted relatives was removed. Having said that, it can be extensively recognised that the proof base for just about any specific minimum threshold is constrained and that there is a desire for empirical scientific studies to validate existing and potential suggestions. That’s the object with the current research. Tactics Records in the 4 Scottish Breast Cancer Family members clinics have been scrutinised for your time period January 1994December 2003 to recognize any girls referred but discharged mainly because the degree of familial possibility was judged to fall under the threshold. From dates mTOR activation of birth and dates of discharge, the number of gals years of observation within each 5 12 months age group was calculated. With permission from your Privacy Committee, the list was then checked against Scottish Cancer Registry information and any breast cancers recorded have been rechecked from hospital notes. Expected cancer rates for an age matched Scottish population were derived from Cancer Registry Statistics. Success A total of 2,074 minimal danger women have been recognized, offering in excess of eight,000 girl many years of observation. Twenty eight invasive breast cancers were recorded though 14. four would are anticipated. A even further eight invasive breast cancers are recorded because 2003. One particular third in the cancers were in women who would have met the brand new Nice criteria for surveillance, whereas only some 10% of the complete cohort had Nice moderate relatives histories. The superb bulk on the cancers occurred in gals among age 45 and selleck chemicals 56. For them the relative chance approached two even if Wonderful reasonable girls were excluded. Conclusion The brand new Wonderful relatives history guidelines are far more exact than earlier ones in identifying females who need to be incorporated in breast surveillance programmes, but consideration should really be given to producing some provision specifically for ladies concerning age 45 and 56 with constrained family members histories of breast cancer. The cohort we now have identified must proceed for being followed up considering that cancers are continuing to accrue and each year offers a additional 2,000 woman many years of observation. Breast Cancer Research 2006, eight P43 Background The aim was to create a murine model to study the function of macrophages within the initiation of angiogenesis by human breast tumour spheroids in vivo. Despite the raising entire body of proof, each experimental and clinical, implicating macrophages in breast tumour angiogenesis, there have been no previous in vivo research demonstrating proangiogenic tumour activity.

Each drugs were left on the cells for 120 hours. On day five cell viability was meas ured applying the Cell Titer Blue assay. Cell Titer Blue reagent was added straight to the cells and incubated for two hours at 37 C. Fluores cence at 560ex590em nm was measured employing a Tecan infinite m200 plate reader. Right after correction for medium only and no drug controls, data points were fitted to a sigmoidal dose response curve with variable slope working with GraphPad Prism Version five. 00Y100 HillS lope. At least three independent experiments were applied to establish the half maximal inhibitory concentration val ues for each and every drugcell line mixture. RNA interference and DZNep drug remedy The SMARTpool tiny interfering RNA targeting Ezh2 as well as the non targeting handle were bought from Dhar macon. Before all knock down experi ments optimal transfection situations had been determined for all cell lines. Cells have been plated on day 0 and either transfected with Navitoclax ABT-263 2M siRNA employing DharmaFECT transfection reagent according to companies protocol or supplied with 5M DZNep on day 1. For protein and RNA analysis cells were harvested 48, 72 and 96 hours immediately after transfection. The impact on cell development was quantified working with a Cell Titer Blue cell viability assay as described above. Cells had been plated on day 0 within a density to allow exponential development through the entire experiment and either transfected with siRNA or treated with 5M DZNep on day 1. Fluores cence was recorded 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours right after transfec tion. Cell culture images were obtained making use of a Zeiss Axiovert 25 microscope with ten objective on a Sony Cybershot. In all instances, information are presented from a minimum of 3 independent experiments. Benefits Ezh2 expression is elevated in BRCA1 deficient mouse mammary tumors To define the molecular adjustments connected with BRCA1 deficient breast cancer, we previously compared BRCA1 defi cient mammary tumors derived from our conditional K14cre.Brca1FF.p53FF mouse NU6027 CDK inhibitor model for hereditary breast cancer with BRCA1 proficient mammary tumors derived from K14cre.Brca1w. tw. t.p53FF mice. Gene expression micro array evaluation showed that KB1P tumors expressed markers of basal like breast cancer, one example is p63 and keratin five, com pared using the KP tumors. Strikingly, the polycomb repressor EZH2 can also be higher expressed in BRCA1 deficient tumors than in BRCA1 proficient control tumors. Whereas there is heterogeneity within the BRCA1 proficient group, practically all BRCA1 deficient tumors show increased Ezh2 expression, suggesting that in the absence of BRCA1 elevated levels of EZH2 may perhaps be necessary. To determine regardless of whether the increase in mRNA levels translates to higher EZH2 protein expression, we analyzed tissue sections from each KB1P and KP tumors by immunohistochemistry. We certainly discovered that BRCA1 deficient mouse mammary tumors have higher EZH2 protein levels than handle tumors, also indicated by the larger percentage of tumor cells with EZH2 expression above background.

There is certainly now ample evidence that Smad2 and Smad3 have distinct functional and non overlapping roles in TGF b signalling implying that intracellular elements which manage the relative activation state of Smad2 ver sus Smad3 signalling have a central role in determining the final outcome of the TGF b response. Here, we showed that PANC 1 cells responded to inhibition of Rac1 with a pronounced reduce in TGF b1 mediated p Smad2 and a slight enhance in p Smad3. In agreement with these information, dn Rac1 expression not just decreased Smad2 specific transcriptional activity but enhanced common Smad3 particular transcriptional activity. Moreover, dn Rac1 also elevated p21WAF1 protein expression that is in line with data showing that p21WAF1 was transcriptionally induced by TGF b within a Smad3 dependent manner in pancreatic, hepatic and skin cells. Having said that, TGF b induced transcription of yet another reporter gene in HepG2 cells was properly inhibited by Rac1 N17 expression which could possibly be explained by the fact that this plasmid is partially responsive to non Smad signalling. With respect for the functional antagonism observed, a most likely explanation is the fact that Smad2 and Smad3 compete with each other either i for binding to TbRI selleckchem Mocetinostat ALK5, ii capture of Smad4 within the cytoplasm, or iii recruitment of transcriptional core pressors to SBEs in the nucleus, the latter of which is normally performed by Smad2. As a consequence, a reduction in Smad2 expression or activation would improve the capability of Smad4 to bind Smad3 around the SBEs of target gene promoters. In agreement with this possibility selleck chemical are experiments in PANC 1 cells, in which direct silencing of Smad2 by way of siRNA transfection didn’t only augment TGF b1 induced Smad3 phosphorylation, p21WAF1 expression and development inhibition, but in addition poten tiated TGF b1 induction of Smad3 regulated genes which include MMP2 and BGN. Indirect evidence that the endogenous ratio of Smad2 and Smad3 deter mines the high quality with the TGF b response was observed in Hep3B cells, in which the expression of Smad3 Smad4 dependent TGF b target genes was additional enhanced just after selective knockdown of SMAD2, and in mouse keratinocytes, in which Smad2 loss led to a substantial raise in Smad3 Smad4 binding towards the promoter of your transcription aspect Snail, Snail upregu lation, and EMT. Indirect proof that competitors can be mutual comes from a study with Smad2 and Smad3 deficient fibroblasts, in which activation of your pAR3 luc reporter, although strongly suppressed in Smad2 deficient fibroblasts, was enhanced in Smad3 null cells. Concerning the intracellular web site of compe tition our data favour Smad recruitment or binding to ALK5 considering that dn Rac1 stimulated a shift from p Smad2 to p Smad3.

Antibodies sources are as follows, anti phospho PKD1 Ser744 748, anti phospho PKD1 Ser916, anti phospho ERK Thr202 Tyr204, anti PKD1 have been obtained from Cell Sig naling Technology. Anti phospho PKD2 Ser876 and anti PKD2 had been purchased from R D Systems. Anti PKD3 was obtained from Bethyl Laboratories. Measurement of intracellular Ca2 transient by FLIPRW Jurkat T cells were serum starved overnight inside the ab sence or presence of PTX then washed with Hanks balanced salt solution. Washed cells have been preloaded with Fluo four followed by incubation at 37 C for 1 h. These labeled cells were then transferred to a black walled and clear bottomed 96 nicely plate placed inside the Fluorometric Imaging Plate Reader, and 50 ul of HBSS was added to every single effectively. The resulting fluorescent signals that reflect the intracel lular Ca2 transients had been monitored by an excitation wavelength of 488 nm and detection together with the emission wavelength from 510 to 570 nm. Co immunoprecipitation assay Transfected cells had been lysed within the lysis buffer as de scribed ahead of. Cell lysates had been selleck chemicals centrifuged to take away cellular debris. Lysates had been incu bated at four C overnight with M2 affinity gels for the binding with Flag tagged GB subunits. The resulting immunoprecipitates were collected by centrifu gation at 1,000 g, four C, for three min then washed three times with 500 ul lysis buffer. Bound proteins had been eluted by 50 ul of lysis buffer and ten ul of 6? SDS containing sample buffer, and boiled ufor 5 min prior to separation by 12% SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophor esis. Flag tagged GB, HA tagged G? subunits, extra resources PLCB2 and PKD1 within the immunoprecipitates have been detected by their corresponding antisera followed with horseradish peroxidase conjugated secondary antisera in Western blotting analysis. Chemotactic assay The chemotactic capability of Jurkat T cells was evaluated utilizing transwell plates with polycarbonate inserts with 5 um pores. Decrease chambers have been loaded with 600 ul of migration media alone or containing SDF 1 at the concentration of 100 nM. Cells at 1 ? 106 ml have been added towards the best chamber of a 24 effectively transwell and incubated for 4 h at 37 C. The cells which passed through the membranes and migrated to the lower chambers were quantified under microscopy. Statistics The values shown in each and every figure represent imply SEM from at least 3 person experiments. Statistical analyses have been performed by ANOVA, followed by the Bonferronis post test. Differences with a value of P 0. 05 were regarded statistically important. Final results Prior studies on G subunit induced activation of PKD isoforms were mainly performed on the PKD1 prototype with Gq, leaving the activation profile of the PKD family members rather incomplete. Most of these studies employed aluminum tetrafluoride to elicit G protein mediated activation of PKD.

In cultures treated with ascorbate and BMP two addition of ERK1 two inhibitors resulted in ALP levels that have been 60% from the level noticed in cells devoid of inhibitor. The enhance triggered by BMP 2 addition, relative to ascorbate only treated cul tures was considerably lowered by remedy with U0126. The p38 inhibitor SB203580 didn’t lead to a statistically significant inhibition of alkaline phosphatase activity. PI3 kinase and PKC inhibitors had no significant effects on ALP activity. Discussion The present research demonstrate that ERK1 two inhibition increases activity on the BMP responsive area in the sort X collagen promoter. This indicates that ERK1 2 signaling interferes using the capacity of BMP induced signals to stim ulate form X collagen transcription. Interestingly ERK1 2 has also been shown to inhibit selleck inhibitor kind I collagen expression in an osteoblastic cell line suggesting there may well be a frequent pattern of ERK1 two inhibition of collagen tran scription pathways. In contrast towards the stimulatory effects of inhibiting the ERK pathway, p38 inhibition blocked BMP stimulated Col X promoter activity. Zhen et al. and Beier and Luvalle also showed that p38 signaling is significant for regu lation of Col X expression, Beier and Luvalle suggested that the proximal promoter contained a site for p38 action. Right here, we’ve confirmed these outcomes and nar rowed the area of p38 responsiveness to inside the region with the Col X promoter that may be also BMP responsive. Even though the classical pathway for BMP signaling is through acti vation of R Smads, there is also evidence for BMP signal ing by means of a TGF activated kinase leading to p38 signaling. Nevertheless, in preliminary experiments Smad1 more than expression increased BMP stimulated Col X promoter activity even inside the presence of DN TAK1. This suggests that BMP activated Smad sign selleck aling and not TAK1 signaling will be the key issue in Col X promoter regulation. Taken with each other these information suggest that the part of p38 is as a co activator of Smads or Runx two rather than a downstream effector of BMP signaling. Inhibiting either protein kinase C or phosphati dylinositol three kinase increased type X colla gen promoter activity both in BMP 2 treated cultures and controls. Each PKC and PI3 kinase happen to be reported to negatively regulate p38 and positively regulate ERK1 2. The complex effects in which these kinases stimulate basal Col X promoter activity but inhibit BMP 2 from stimulating added activity could be as a consequence of their simultaneously affecting both of those pathways. While alkaline phosphatase expression, like kind X col lagen expression, increases in the course of chondrocyte hypertro phy and is stimulated by BMPs, its regulation clearly differs from Col X in a number of respects.