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Contents

Preface VII

Section 1

Present and Future of Electric Vehicles

1

Chapter 1

Present and Future Role of Battery Electrical Vehicles in Private

and Public Urban Transport

3

Adolfo Perujo, Geert Van Grootveld and Harald Scholz

Chapter 2

The Contribution and Prospects of the Technical Development

on Implementation of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Zoran Nikolić and Zlatomir Živanović

The rapid development of science and technology leads to improvement of human life, but also creating of new crisis situation. Mankind is confronted with risks that have not been seen before in human history. Global worming is one of the typical examples. Although ma‐ jority of the experts that are studying climate changes claim that global worming is a fact and that it is caused by human, there are also scientists that doubt those statements. One of the main problems related to critical situations is – mater of responsibility. World Govern‐ ments have to consult with experts and to estimate when to announce risk situation. Strong political initiative is needed to start dealing with serious ecological problems such as global worming.

Electric drive vehicles present one of the most important technological advances having in mind spread of this kind of nature pollution. Lately there is increased world interest for so called hybrid vehicles that have reduced fuel consumption and much less pollutants emis‐ sion than regular vehicles. Hybrid vehicles can in broadest sense be described as vehicles utilizing combination of production and storage of energy. Good properties of conventional vehicles (long range and acceleration, very good supply network) are combined with electri‐ cal vehicles (zero emission, quiet operation, regenerative use of braking energy).

After 1970, environmental problems and oil crises increased the interest in electric vehicles. Especially in the United States people develop interest in EV and made it a habit to use widely electric vehicles for golf courses, for airports, for parks and fairs. According to some sources, one third of vehicles intended for driving on gravel roads were with electric trac‐ tion. So there was a need to develop a new industry. Late 20th century contributed to an even greater exacerbation of conditions around the EV application. Scientists have become aware that environmental pollution is becoming larger, the emission of exhaust gases and particles affect climate change and that non-renewable energy sources under the influence of high demand and exploitation are becoming more expensive and slowly deplete. On the development of modern EV have been working both large and small manufacturers of mo‐ tor vehicles. EV still has significant problems arising from low-volume production so that these vehicles are still expensive and thus less attractive. In the first place it is air-condition‐ ing for passengers and a relatively small possibility of storing electricity in batteries.

Barriers associated with implementation of the electrical technologies may be significant. These barriers may include technological feasibility, cost, legal and regulatory issues, public concerns, infrastructure, energy efficiency and other factors. Reduction or removal of these

VIII

Preface

barriers and providing appropriate incentives will have a strong influence on the desirabili‐ ty and effectiveness of these programs.

Goal of this book is to bring closer to the readers new drive technologies that are intended to environment and nature protection.

The book is divided into two sections. The first section deals with the current status and trends of development of electric vehicles, while the second section deals with the modeling and computer design of EV.

Present and Future Role of Battery Electrical Vehicles in Private and Public Urban Transport

Adolfo Perujo, Geert Van Grootveld and Harald Scholz

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/54507

1. Introduction

"Electricity is the thing. There are no whirring and grinding gears with their numerous levers to confuse. There is not that almost

terrifying uncertain throb and whirr of the powerful combustion engine. There is no water circulating system to get out of order –

no dangerous and evil-smelling gasoline and no noise." 1

The OECD estimates that more than 70% of the developed world population lives in urban environments 2, which explains a larger concentration of vehicles there. In the EU-27, there were about 230 million passenger vehicles in 2007 and the new vehicle sales were nearly 16 million vehicles in that year. Notwithstanding the improvements in regulated air pollutants from road transport, the urban population remains at higher risk levels by directly suffering the impact of conventional vehicles because of their closeness to the pollutant source. On one hand urbanization means that people when travelling in their urban environment will typically travel less than 100 km a day. And on the other, that a large percentage of all trans‐ port and delivery of goods will take place in urban areas. Acceleration and deceleration fre‐ quency, traffic jams, thus energy efficiency and pollution per km are worst within urban traffic. Many business cases exist for urban electrified road transport because these offer a lower Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) than conventional means already today. The above

1 Thomas Alva Edison (February 11, 1847 – October 18, 1931)

2 See e.g., p. 17 in " Trends in Urbanisation and Urban Policies in OECD Countries: What Lessons for China?", OECD and CDRF, http://www.oecd.org/urban/roundtable/45159707.pdf

4

New Generation of Electric Vehicles

reasons make the urban area the cradle where the electrification of road transport can de‐ ploy its full potential of positive impact, both environmentally and energetically.

There are several bottlenecks on the take-up by economic operators and the public at large of this technology, mainly: price of purchasing of an electric vehicle (EV), its limited range (range anxiety) and long charging time. Most of them are related to the present available battery technology. Improved batteries, maybe together with super-capacitors (so called hy‐ brid power-packs) will most likely represent the core of the developments. The integration of the electrically recharging vehicle into the smart electric grid of the future, which calls for automatic communication technologies, is another frontline of research. Advances in these areas will probably reduce the obstacles for battery powered EVs in near future.

In the last 30 years the batteries' energy density (Wh/kg) has increased by a factor of four in three very well distinctive development waves: i.e. the development in 1995 of Ni-Cd batteries (with about 70 Wh/kg), that of Ni-MH in 2000 (~100 Wh/kg) and the third wave with the development of Li-ion batteries in 2005 leading to currently about 200 Wh/kg. With the present battery’s energy density a pure battery electric vehicle (BEV) can drive ca. 150 km with one charge, already opening the door for a substantial portion of series-produced EV models notably in urban environments. This already ach‐ ievable all-electric range is larger than most of the daily average distance of city dwell‐ ers (in the USA about 90% of automobiles travel about 110 km daily and in Europe this distance is even smaller, as GPS-coupled monitoring analyses of ten-thousands of urban based cars have meanwhile proven also experimentally).

In any introduction of a new technology the role of stakeholders (public, commercial and private) is very important and their needs have to be understood and addressed. Because of the role of EVs in reducing the level of ambient pollution in urban conglomerations, this chapter will also look to different efforts and programs that some stakeholders as for in‐ stance different municipalities and regional and national governments, are setting up in or‐ der to actively support and stimulate the introduction of EVs.

Finally, the chapter will address how the above developments will support the introduction of EVs in the urban environment; it will also describe how reduced TCO will translate into more business cases and how this will impinge in a more general electrification of public transport with the consequent improvement of urban ambient air quality, noise levels, etc.

2. City vehicles

There is a very noticeable development effort on small city vehicles indicating that for the automobile industry (OEMs) the urban area represents the main niche in order to roll out the electrification of road transport. This effort is a globalised one with examples not only in Europe, but also in the US, China, Japan and India. In many cases demonstration is im‐ plemented by consortia of OEMs, or OEMs together with a university, or in public-private partnership.

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Table 1 gives some examples of these cars besides the already launched ones in the market like, e.g. in Europe, the Smart for two Electric Drive, i-Miev, Peugeot-ION, Citroen C-Zero, Think City, etc

We can conclude that OEM’s are focusing on specific market segments within cities:

• The Smart for two for instance is part of a Car sharing project in Amsterdam;

• The HIRIKO will be used in Bilbao (Spain) to study the interest of the public for ‘mobility on demand’;

• The Renault Twizy is focused on very low purchase price and young customers;

• The VW Nils and the Audi concept are focused on individual transport.

It is noteworthy that for the city cars the OEMs are in particular concentrating in pure elec‐ tric vehicles (BEV). Also hybridization of small cars is in development, and some technolo‐ gies involved in hybridizing down-sized conventional engines, like capacitor banks of a few hundred Farad of capacity, might be cross-fertilizing the advent of advanced technologies also for pure electric solutions.

In the appendix further information on market share, number of BEVs per country and oth‐ er data is presented.

3. Rechargeable Energy Storage Systems (RESS) for vehicles

Rechargeable Energy Storage Systems (RESS) in vehicles include a variety of technologies, each one providing different sizes and different levels of maturity/development. Among these technologies we can name: Electrochemical Storage (Batteries, capacitors and notably super capacitors), Fuel-cell (often containing also a buffer battery) electricity provision with e.g., a hydrogen or on-board reformer fuel storage system, and (more in a niche situation) Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES), and Flywheels. It is noteworthy to indicate that whatever is the chosen RESS for electrified vehicles it will be a key enabling technology for the penetration of this class of vehicles, because it influences in a decisive way their weight, energy efficiency, maintenance complexity and thus longevity and usability – and thus gen‐ erally their acceptance-level achievable in the market.

In figure 1 some RESS are presented. From this figure the benefits of a hybrid power pack can be seen. These packs combine a high power density of fuel cells and batteries with a high energy density of (super) capacitors. Also the flywheels can be located in this figure.

This section intends to give an overview on battery, super-capacitors and hybrid power- pack (batteries plus super capacitors) developments that in a near future will probably re‐ duce the obstacles, questions and doubts that potential users might have, and thus helping to bridge the gap between early adopters of the technology and the public at large.

6

New Generation of Electric Vehicles

Model

Characteristics

View

Peugeot BB

Concept car, 4 seats, range of 120 km

VW E-Up

4 seats and a range of 130 km (announced to come on the market in 2013)

Toyota iQ FT-EV

Range 150 km (it will be in 2012 on the market)

Gordon Murray T-27

Range up to 160 km, weight under 680 kg, now entering the investment phase

Kia Pop

Range of 160 km, still a concept car

HIRIKO

New concept of urban mobility, developed by MIT, it will be introduced in Bilbao in 2013

VW Nils

One seater, light weight city car. It is a concept, for 2020

Audi City Car

It is still a concept car

Mahindra REVAi

Range of 80 km and a lead battery. It is a cheap car, coming soon to the EU market.

Visio.M city EV (BMW & Daimler)

The aim is to develop a car with low price and low weight

Renault Twizy

A low priced and low weight (500kg) city car. The battery is leased. The range is 100 km. The car is on the market since 2012.

Table 1. Some examples of small city vehicles either in the process of being launched into the market or at concept stage

Present and Future Role of Battery Electrical Vehicles in Private and Public Urban Transport

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Figure 1. Energy density versus power density of different systems 3

3.1. Batteries

There are many possible chemistries (battery technologies) that are considered as possible viable options to be used in an electrified vehicle (either BEV or HEV). They range from the very well-established, but comparatively heavy lead-acid batteries to others still in its re‐ search stage as Li-air, Al-air or Fe-air batteries passing through Li-ion batteries that repre‐ sent currently the most used battery-type in commercial BEV.

It is not the intention of this chapter to give an exhaustive insight 4on the chemistries of each of these batteries but rather to indicate the advantages and drawbacks as well as the possible gains in the future of new battery types still at the laboratory stage in terms of cost and spe‐ cific energy/power, as these will strongly influence the viability of electrified vehicles.

McKinsey argued in a paper that there are three important factors that could accelerate the development of electric vehicles. These are the manufacturing at (large industrial) scale, lower component prices, and boosting of battery capacity [1].

Table 2 shows some target performance parameters stated for batteries in electrified vehi‐ cles for the years 2015, 2020 and 2030 in a Technology Roadmap published by the IEA in 2009 [2].

Energy density (Wh/kg)

Power density (W/kg)

Costs (Euro/kWh)

2010

100

1000

- 1500

1000 - 2000

2015

150

1000

- 1500

250

- 300

2020

200 - 250

1000

– 1500

150

- 200

2030

500

1000

- 1500

100

Table 2. Expectations on battery performances [2]

Table 2 indicates that the energy density is expected to improve by a factor 5 and that the costs are expected to be reduced by a factor 10 within the next 20 years. These two parame‐ ters (energy density and costs) are seen to be the limiting factors of today’s BEV. By increas‐ ing the energy density the range an electric vehicle can drive will be extended substantially

Present and Future Role of Battery Electrical Vehicles in Private and Public Urban Transport

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leading to fewer stops for recharging. This should boost EV usability especially in typical urban use. Decreasing the costs of the battery will lead to substantially cheaper electric vehi‐ cles, enabling more purchases by the public and fleet investors, due to more sound business cases for commercial use of BEVs.

The cycle-stability is an equally important parameter in applied battery chemistry. The at‐ tractiveness for automotive applications is not only dependent on the costs, the power den‐ sity and the energy density of a battery, but also on the number of battery cycles that can be guaranteed.

3.1.1. Lead-acid batteries

The use of lead-acid batteries in electrified vehicles is mainly in industrial vehicles (e.g. fork‐ lifts, which must be heavy) because although at very affordable cost levels (100 – 150 $/ kWh), the weight of lead representing about 60% of the weight of the battery translates into a low specific energy (30-50 Wh/kg), making this technology not competitive for most of electric road transport vehicles (even HEVs). It also suffers from a limited lifetime (3 – 5 years). It remains to be seen if lead-acid battery companies can substantially enter the mar‐ ket of micro-hybrid cars in view of small intermediate storage batteries as compared to the concurring battery technologies or modern, compact and lighter capacitor banks / superca‐ pacitor units. At stake is a potential for growth of micro-hybridisation for small cars in the medium term (5-10 years).

3.1.2. Nickel-metal hydride batteries

The use of Nickel-metal hydride batteries (NiMH) had been considered a sufficiently good intermediate stage for application in electrified vehicles (see e.g., the more than one million Toyota Prius sold with NiMH technology, and ca. two million hybrid cars running on NiMH world-wide.) Clearly outperforming NiCd batteries, they were the choice as long as there were still concerns on the maturity, safety and cost of Li-ion batteries. As NiMHs’ spe‐ cific energy (< 100 Wh/kg) cannot meet the requirements for full electric vehicles, it has been mainly used in hybrid vehicles (both HEVs and PHEVs) of limited storage capacity require‐ ments. For PHEVs, NiMH on-board storage capacity arrived at electrical ranges of typically 30 km. There exist concerns on the supply of rare earths (typically mischmetal) and nickel in their anode respectively, cathode. The relatively high content of Ni and possibly rising Ni prices limit further the prospects of reducing their cost and thus use in future EVs.

3.1.3. Lithium-ion batteries

These batteries represent the most actual, wide-spread application in new BEVs world-wide. Nowadays BEVs with ranges above 150 km have all in common that the on-board storage is provided by Li-ion battery packs, often containing some sort of thermal control devices. The name of Li-ion batteries covers a large number of chemistries; indeed, if only a small num‐ ber of them are actually in use, the list of potential electrode materials is quite large. On the other hand, possible electrolytes range from the mostly used solutions of lithium salts in or‐

10

New Generation of Electric Vehicles

ganic liquids to ionic conducting polymers or ceramics additions to polymers. The current advantage position for this technology is based on its relatively high specific energy (it has reached 160 Wh/kg respectively, 450 Wh/l) however, at present, cost is still a drawback (700 – 1000 $/kWh). The main efforts are thus directed to decrease its cost and to increase its per‐ formance level keeping the system safe. There seems to exist a trade-off between perform‐ ance of the cathode material and its safety. While cathodes made of LiFePO 4depict good safety records its performance in terms of specific energy is poorer than, for example, Li‐ CoO 2. However, the latter has a worse safety performance. LiFePO 4also have a compara‐ tively high amount of useful charging cycles during their life-time.

Present research concentrates on the development of an advanced Li-ion batteries exploring the capacity limits of the system through the development of new cathode and anode mate‐ rials in combination with higher voltage (up to 5V) which will require new electrolytes and binders. Breakthroughs are expected from the combination of so called 5V or high capacity (and then lower voltage) new positive electrode materials and intermetallic new anodes [3].

3.1.4. High temperature Na - β alumina batteries (Na-S and Na-NiCl 2)

The first prototypes of this battery type were introduced at the end of the 60s and contained sulphur as the positive electrode and the sodium β”-alumina as solid electrolyte. This mate‐ rial is an electronic insulator and exhibits sodium ion conductivity comparable to that of many aqueous electrolytes. However, to achieve enough electrochemical activity the Na-S battery operates between 300 and 350°C. Because of safety concerns, a derivative of this technology, based on the use of NiCl 2instead of sulphur and termed ZEBRA battery [4], was later developed and evaluated for use in automotive applications. It has the advantage of being assembled in the discharged state and hence without the need of handling liquid so‐ dium. As far as performance is concerned, its specific energy is relatively close to that of Li- ion batteries (115 Wh/kg), it has strongly improved its specific power (400 W/kg) and it has a relative low cost (600 $/kWh) although still between 4 to 6 time higher than the target set in many EV developing programs [5].

3.1.5. Other battery technologies

There are other battery technologies in the research stage that might in future meet the tar‐ gets needed in electrification of road transport. We can mention among others Li-S [6], [7] and Li-air [8], [9] batteries (see figure 3). In particular they have demonstrated a specific en‐ ergy 5about 300 Wh/kg. However, other aspects as life-time, achievable cycles over lifetime and specific power still need further research to meet the challenge.

In the line of using ambient air (oxygen) as the cathode, other materials such as Zn, Al and Fe can be used instead of Li. However, those systems are still in their infancy and at differ‐ ent stages of development. Developments on their recharge ability, air electrodes (porous design) cycle stability and safety are among the areas to be addressed.

5 This value is at cell level (research object) as for a battery pack is expected to be lower due to the extra weight of materials used for packing and interconnection of the cells.

Present and Future Role of Battery Electrical Vehicles in Private and Public Urban Transport

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Figure 3. Scheme of a Li-air battery

3.2. Electrochemical capacitors

These devices are sometimes referred to as 'ultra-capacitors' or 'supercapacitors' but these latter are rather commercial names.

Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitors refer to devices that store electrical energy in the electric double layer (EDL), which is formed at the interface between an electron conducting surface and an electrolyte. The EDL may be considered as a capacitor with two electrodes; the capacitance is proportional to the area of the plates and is inversely proportional to the distance between them. Their capacitance is very large because the distance between the plates is very small (several angstroms). The energy stored by such capacitors may reach 5 Wh/kg but they are power systems which can deliver their storage energy in a few seconds (up to 5s). Therefore, they are intermediates between batteries (high energy, low power den‐ sity) and conventional capacitors (high power low energy density) and thus, they are com‐ plementary to batteries and are not in competition with them.

Supercapacitors are already used in transportation applications. They have been announced to be used in the starter/alternator of micro-hybrid cars and are under study by many car manufacturers (Toyota, BMW, Renault, PSA). Recently Ford and Ricardo UK announced 6the results of the HyBoost project, powering a small additional electric turbo-charging tur‐ bine for a down-sized thee-cylinder engine via such a fast ultracapacitor device of ca. 200 F capacity. Together with their outstanding cycle life, another key feature of EDLC systems is that, unlike Li-ion batteries, they can be recharged as fast as discharged. This is why they are used today in large-size applications for energy recovery in trams in Madrid, Paris, Man‐ nheim and Cologne. There is hope, that a certain cross-fertilization in this area will happen

between different improved road transport technologies, which may enable mass-produc‐ tion of EDLC systems sooner than later.

Supercapacitors (ultra-capacitors) have the ability to charge in a very short time however, its energy density is quite low and therefore by using only supercapacitors the electric range of an EV would not be sufficient. Consequently, the ideal situation would be combining both batteries and supercapacitors, which however requires a much more complicated voltage management.

3.3. Challenges

The performance of BEV and its competitiveness are closely linked to the performance of available battery systems in term of their specific power, efficiency and battery cost. In a re‐ cent paper Gerseen-Gondelach and Faaij [10] explored the performance of batteries for elec‐ tric vehicles in the short and longer term. They review the different battery systems in term of performance and cost projection including sustainability aspects and learning curves. They concluded that well-to-wheel (WtW) energy consumption and emissions of BEVs are lowest for those with lithium-ion batteries, and that in the medium term only Li-ion batter‐ ies will have a specific power level of 400 W/kg or higher. Other battery systems like Li-S, Li-Air need efficiency improvements towards 90% to reach Well-to-Wheel (WtW) energy consumption of the BEV as low as found with Li-ion batteries. The author argued that al‐ ready today, despite improvable efficiency levels, all batteries-types can enable similar or lower WtW energy consumption of BEVs compared to traditional internal combustion en‐ gine (ICE) vehicles: The WtW emissions are 20 – 55% lower using the EU electricity genera‐ tion mix. Battery prices turned out to be of course the main parameter for improving the economics of BEVs e.g., if ZEBRA batteries attain a very low cost of 100 $ /kWh, such BEVs become cost competitive to diesel cars for driving ranges below 200 km. Such cost assump‐ tions however were judged "unlikely" for the next and medium term.

With years of market introduction passing, an issue becoming provable will become battery ageing. With their use in extended time, batteries’ performance can significantly reduce in terms of peak power capability, energy density and safety. Different auto manufacturers have set goals or targets for calendar life, deep cycle life, shallow cycle life and operating temperature range. However, it is still an issue of technological research to what extend cur‐ rent battery technologies can meet them.

Some examples of these targets are: for calendar life, the goals are typically for 15 years at a tem‐ perature of 35 oC, but current targets are for 10 years at which point a battery retains at least 80 per cent of its power and energy density. For deep cycle life, where the charge cycles go from 90 to 10 per cent of SOC 7, the goal is typically 5000 cycles, while the shallow cycle life expectation is 200,000 to 300,000 cycles. Goals for the temperature range as extreme as -40 to +66 oC can be found, such the question arises, whether batteries shall be specified for ambient conditions harsher than it has been done for any normal conventional ICE-vehicle. One extra difficulty that some of the results obtained on batteries performance are valid only for some specific

7 SOC means State of Charge

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charging and discharging rate and some specific range of ambient temperature exposure. It is still not clear if the test rates are more or less severe than the actual cycles a battery will be sub‐ jected to in an EV, and the interaction of ambient temperature with deep SOC cycling is also an unknown factor. A lot of pre-normative research is in front of us.

4. Cities are the natural environment to develop and to implement e- mobility

Cities are very important for the development and implementation of e-mobility, because the energetic and environmental benefits of BEVs replacing conventional vehicles are largest in city traffic. Moreover,

• About 70% of Europeans live in urban areas [11]. Most of the people live in cities with more than 50,000 inhabitants, and there are about 1,000 of such cities in Europe.

• Cities contribute substantially to the economics of Europe, 85% of European GDP is gen‐ erated in cities [12].

• They contribute substantially to new knowledge (for instance from research being done on universities) and innovations by (high-tech) small and medium enterprises. Therefore cities have the potential to contribute to a better international competiveness of Europe.

The service sector is the most important source of employment in European urban economies. For example, in London, Paris, Berlin, Madrid and Rome the service sector accounts for be‐ tween 80% and 90% of total employment. Examples of services are: government, telecommuni‐ cation, healthcare/hospitals, waste disposal, education, insurance, financial services, legal services, consulting, information technology, news medias, tourism, and retail sales.

Providing and using these services lead to large transportation needs and activities of peo‐ ple and goods, and this, in turn, leads to a high use of energy and to the generation of an‐ thropogenic emissions, like CO 2, NO x, ozone, fine particles, noise, etc.

Let’s focus in some of these aspects.

The energy consumption in European cities is high. About 80% of Europe’s energy is used in cities [13]. It is expected [14] that this number will increase in future, because the urban pop‐ ulation will grow and also the economic activities and the prosperity will grow.

We have about the same figures for CO 2. Cities are the largest emitters of CO 2. About 75% of the European’s CO 2is emitted in cities. On average the CO 2-emissions for European cities are in the neighbourhood of 1 ton CO 2per capita per year [15]. Of course these emissions are dependent on the modalities of transportation which are used in the different cities. The higher the share in public transport, walking, cycling the lower the CO 2-emissions will be per capita.

Some examples: In Berlin [16], in 2008 32% of the people choose a car for transportation, 29% walked, 26% public transport and 13% took the bike. In London [17], in 2007 41% choose the car, 25% public transport, and 30% walked.

14

New Generation of Electric Vehicles

In some situations the concentration of NO xand fine particles exceed the air quality limits. These situations are also called: hot spots. NO xcontributes to the formation of smog. Also acid rain can be formed out of NO x.

Figure 4, depicts a street canyon in Copenhagen [18]. In many European cities the dispersion of air pollution is restricted by the geometry of buildings. This creates so-called street can‐ yons. These canyons lead to elevated concentrations of local pollution, and therefore people living in (or in the neighbourhood of) these hot spots have a higher risk for getting ill.

Figure 5 depicts the concentration of NO xin ambient air in a city (London) [19]. As can be seen from this picture the NO x-concentrations exceed the maximum regulated value, which is 40 μg/m 3.

Figure 4. An example of a street canyon in Copenhagen [18]

Figure 5. NO x-emissions in the city of London [19]

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Figure 6 shows the NO x-concentrations in European regions [19]. The intensively populated zones can be recognized easily. These are mainly cities and intensively used highways be‐ tween the cities.

4.1. E-mobility can tackle these problems; many stakeholders are willing to contribute

The big advantage of e-mobility is that it gives direct results for improving ambient air quality. An electric vehicle does neither emit NO xand PM, nor VOC (volatile organic compounds). So, when electric vehicles are introduced to replace conventional vehicles, these emissions decrease directly and ambient air quality will improve. Because ozone is formed by a photo-catalytic reaction between VOC and NO x, also the ozone concentra‐ tion will be reduced.

Figure 6. NO x-emissions in Europe

A large number of stakeholders have parallel interests in the development and implementa‐

tion of e-mobility in cities. The citizens want a clean city to live in. So, the ambient air quali‐

ty needs to improve in several situations.

These ambient air problems are also a main driver for the politicians and administrations of cities to stimulate electro-mobility. The Covenant of Mayors which is signed on February

2009 is a good example of this. The main goal of this covenant, which now has about 4,000

signatories, is to increase energy efficiency and to use renewable energy sources. Within the framework of this covenant the Sustainable Energy Action Plans (SEAP) play a central role.

A Sustainable Energy Action Plan (SEAP) is the key document in which the Covenant signa‐

tory outlines how it intends to reach its CO 2reduction target by 2020. Already more than

1400 of these plans are submitted. A lot of these plans contain actions on the stimulation of

electro-mobility in cities.

Also business leaders are major stakeholders. A first reason for that is that e-mobility can lead to sound Total Costs of Ownership (TCO). This means that economic activities can be done more cost effectively with e-mobility than with the petrol based vehicles. A sec‐

16

New Generation of Electric Vehicles

ond reason is that the spin-off of this technological development can be enormous. It is already stated that there are about 1,000 middle large cities in Europe. This is a big mar‐ ket for small and medium sized enterprises that develop new technologies for imple‐ menting e-mobility-systems.

4.2. Cities as living labs: some European experiences

Cities can be regarded as a living lab. This means that they have the possibility to test new concepts under real life circumstances. The behaviour of consumers working with new con‐ cepts can be studied, and the feedback of the consumer can be used by the supplier to modi‐ fy and improve the concept. So, a cyclic process can be organized leading to the rapid development of new concepts. The administrations can take the lead in organizing these processes. They have all the ingredients to do so: the consumers, the suppliers, the infra‐ structure, and also the challenges and the solutions.

There are a lot of interesting projects going on in European cities on the development and implementation of electric vehicles. Some examples are the projects started within the Euro‐ pean Green Cars Initiative [22].

Most of them concern electric mobility, for instance the Green eMotion project [23]. This project is supported by 43 partners from industry, the energy sector, electric vehicles manu‐ facturers, municipalities as well as universities and research institutions. The goals of Green eMotion are:

• Comparing the different technology approaches to ensure the best solutions prevail for the European market;

• Creating a virtual marketplace to enable the different actors to interact;

• To demonstrate the integration of electro mobility into electrical networks (smart grids);

• Contribute to the improvement and development of new and existing standards for elec‐ tro mobility interfaces.

In several projects ICT is introduced to facilitate the implementation of electromobility. One of these is the project MOBI.Europe [24]. In this project the users of electric vehicles are get‐ ting access to an interoperable charging infrastructure, independently from their energy util‐ ity and region. It is built on the e-mobility initiatives of Portugal, Ireland, the Spanish region of Galicia and the Dutch city of Amsterdam.

Another project is the smartCEM [24] project in which four European cities/regions are participating: Barcelona (ES), Gipuzkoa-San Sebastian (ES), Newcastle (UK) and Turin (IT). The goal of this project is to demonstrate the role of ICT 8solutions in addressing shortcomings of e-mobility, by applying advanced mobility services, like EV-navigation, and EV-efficient driving.

8 ICT = Information and Communication Technologies

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One part of the VIBRATe (VIenna BRATislava E-mobility) [25] project is to identify the pos‐ sibilities of connecting two neighboring metropolitan areas—Bratislava (Slovakia) and Vien‐ na (Austria) with a “green” highway. This highway will interconnect the two cities with a network of public charging stations for electric vehicles. In this project IBM is working to‐ gether with Západoslovenská energetika, a.s. (ZSE) and the concerned municipalities.

Autolib [26] is an electric car-sharing program which is launched in Paris at the end of 2011. This program will start with 250 vehicles. The amount of vehicles will grow to 2,000 in the summer of 2012. This number will grow to 3,000 in the summer of 2013. In this car-sharing program the compact Blue car is introduced. This four-seat car is the result of a collaboration of the Italian car designer Pininfarina and the French conglomerate Groupe Bollore.

Car2Go [27] is a subsidiary of Daimler AG that provides car sharing services in several cities in Europe and North America. In November 2011 a fleet of 300 smart for two electric vehi‐ cles was deployed in Amsterdam.

In London the “Electric 10” is formed. This is an initiative of 10 companies that use electric commercial vehicles for their activities. The Electric 10 partnership was formed in autumn 2009, bringing together 10 major companies who are already using electric fleet vehicles on daily basis: Sainsbury's, Tesco's, Marks and Spencer, UPS, TNT Express, DHL, Amey, Go Ahead, Speedy, Royal Mail. The Municipality of London is working with these companies to learn from their experiences and encourage others to take their lead [28]. The use of elec‐ tric vehicles for goods delivery not only benefits the environment, it also has a positive total cost of ownership (TCO).

4.3. Cities have the power to implement; and they are already doing so

City administrations have the possibility to develop new concepts under real life circum‐ stances, as we have seen in paragraph 4.2. and to set projects to bring e-mobility to a reality. Of equal importance is that they also have the ability to implement using their legal instru‐ ments. Many cities are already doing this.

The instruments they use can be divided in three categories [29]:

Financial incentives

Examples of financial incentives are exemptions from vehicles registration taxes or license fees. Or exemptions from congestion charge. Another financial incentives are of operational nature e.g. the electric vehicle gets a discount on parking costs.

Non-financial incentives

There are cities which give non-financial incentives. For instance, free or discount cost for a parking place in the city centre. Or that the owner will get access to restricted highway lanes. An important incentive is also to get easy access to public charging facilities.

Their purchasing power

Municipalities are not only regulators. They also have a vehicle fleet and they give licenses to public transport systems. With these possibilities they also can stimulate the e-mobility.

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New Generation of Electric Vehicles

They can buy electric vehicles for their municipal fleet and they can add hybrid buses to public transport systems. Municipalities can install charging stations on the public area, like:

libraries, parking garages, city halls, or other public buildings.

4.4. Some remarks to this section

In paragraph 4.2 a total of 7 projects which are presently going on in Europe are described shortly. It should be stated that these are just illustrations. There are many more interesting projects on e-mobility. What we see is a steep increase in the amount of battery electric vehi‐ cles (BEV) in Europe [30]. In 2010 in total 765 BEVs were introduced on the EU-27-market, and in 2011 already ca. 9,000 BEVs. This took place predominantly in France, Germany, UK, the Netherlands, and Austria. The main BEVs types were Peugeot-ION, Mitsubishi-i-MIEV, Smart for two, Nissan-Leaf, and Citroen-C-Zero.

We expect that this steep increase will continue, because of the battery developments we described in the beginning of this chapter and also because of the strong efforts of stake‐ holders, like member states, municipalities, car manufacturers, and the EU. Indeed, in the 2011 Transport White Paper 'Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area – Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system' (COM (2011) 144 final), the Europe‐ an Commission proposes 10 goals for a competitive and resource efficient transport sys‐ tem which serve as benchmarks for achieving the 2050 60% GHG emission reduction target. One of these goals is to halve the use of 'conventionally-fuelled' cars in the urban transport sector by 2030 and to phase them out by 2050, thereby also reducing the trans‐ port system’s dependence on oil.

5. Enabling technologies for the introduction of electricity in road transport

Another reason why electric vehicles are promising is because of the fact that it can contrib‐ ute to the development and introduction of smart grids. With smart grids the share of green electricity by means of wind and solar can be better managed to increase. Electric vehicles can serve as storage for electricity (spinning reserves ) in those times when the households don’t need the amount of electricity produced at a certain moment, and the vehicles can de‐ liver electricity to the grid in times when the households need more electricity than pro‐ duced at that moment. The benefits are that with these smart grids the CO2 emissions will decrease as well as the use of fossil energy. The CO2 emissions will go down even more, because from well-to-wheel-analyses it can be seen that in most cases the CO2-performance of electric vehicles is better that petrol based vehicles [21].

It is generally considered that smart grid and V2X where X represents another vehicle (V2V), the grid (V2G) or sometime the user’s home (V2H) are essential technologies for the early introduction of electrified vehicles as these provide an added value to the vehicle re‐ spectively, reduce its TCO.

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5.1. What is a smart grid?

The concept of Smart Grid 9was developed in 2006 by the European Technology Platform for

Smart Grids, and concerns an electricity network that can intelligently integrate the actions

of all actors connected to it - generators, consumers and those that do both - in order to effi‐

to Smart grids promises an increase of the EVs' overall energy efficiency and cost benefits.

Decentralized supply of electricity is growing. There are at least three types of decentralized supply options:

• More and more wind turbines are in operation;

• (micro) Combined Heat and Power (CHP) is up-coming.

• The generation by means of solar PV is increasing;

This development means that the fluctuations over time in the supply of electricity would be increasing in a near future with the consequent challenge to harmonize it with the demand

of electricity.

There are some options to deal with this challenge. The first one is to influence the regulate the supply. When at a certain moment more wind and solar electricity is produced then the supply of electricity from fossil sources should be limited. To realize this real-time commu‐ nication between consumers and producers should take place. This can be done by means of smart meters. To reduce the supply of electricity from fossil sources is, however, not always an easy task.

A second option is to realize a situation in which the fluctuations which might appear on the

supply side will be match on the demand side. This can be realized by introducing fluctuat‐ ing prices, which again can be realized by means of smart meters. So when the supply is high then the price will be low and then the smart meter can for instance start charging an electric vehicle or it can start other appliances e.g. the washing machine. And when the de‐

mand is high then the price will be high and then the electric vehicle will supply electricity

to the house. Thus, by means of the price mechanism and the smart metering the supply and

the demand can stay in balance, despite of the fluctuations occurring in the supply side.

A third option is by introducing a storage facility. This can be done by means of fly-wheels,

ultra-capacitors, compressed air, and batteries. In this third option the batteries of the elec‐ tric vehicles can play a role (see section 3).

A fourth option is that when there is an oversupply of electricity, it is used for the electroly‐

sis of water and the formed hydrogen is either used directly or it is coupled with CO2 to produce methane. When there is a shortage of electricity the hydrogen and/or methane can be used to produce electricity by means of a Combined Heat and Power Plant (CHP). Of course the hydrogen can also be used to fuel a Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEV’s).

Hence, with a smart grid it is possible to:

9 http://www.smartgrids.eu/documents/TRIPTICO%20SG.pdf

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New Generation of Electric Vehicles

• Better facilitate the connection and operation of electrical generators of all sizes and technologies;

• Allow consumers to play a part in optimizing the operation of the system;

• Provide consumers with more information and options for choosing an energy supply;

• Organize a symbiotic relation between the grid and the electric vehicle. The vehicle can be charged when the price is low, and the vehicle can contribute to the grid when electricity is needed there;

• Charge the electric vehicle with low-CO2-containing electricity, which contributes to low CO2-emissions when driving the vehicle;

• Maintain or improve the existing high levels of system reliability, quality and security of supply;

• Maintain or improve the efficiency of existing services;

• Foster the development of an integrated European market.

5.2. Some European efforts on a practical scale on smart grids including electric vehicles

There are considerable efforts in Europe (the same thing can be said on other developed markets; i.e. USA, Japan…) on smart grids 10by supporting and carrying out many projects. In several of these projects electric vehicles are included and studied. Some examples are:

InovCity concept in Évora (Portugal)

The goal of this project is that the entire municipality of Évora will be connected to an intel‐ ligent electricity system which includes 30,000 customers.

Some characteristics of this project are:

• The project is initiated by EDP 11Distribuição, with support from national partners in in‐ dustry, technology and research (EDP Inovação; Lógica; Inesc Porto; Efacec; Janz and Contar);

• The electricity grid is provided with ICT, so that the grid can be controlled automatically. This is done by monitoring the grid in real time;

• The Energy Box plays a central role in this system. All consumers will have such a box, and this box connects the consumers to the intelligent grid. In the box the amount of elec‐ tricity used and/or produced is recorded. And by means of the box the consumers can

10 A survey can be found on http://www.smartgridsprojects.eu/map.html

11

http://www.inovcity.pt/en/Pages/media-center.aspx

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program devices, like washing machines, when the price of electricity is low. This process of programming devices can be automated fully;

• The electricity grid is also facilitating the charging and discharging of electric vehicles. The batteries of these vehicles will serve as a buffer when there is an oversupply and the batteries will serve as a producer of electricity when more electricity is needed in the homes.

• By means of ICT all these devices are connected to the Network Control Center, where these are monitored and controlled.

Harz.EE-Mobility (Germany) 13

This project has been initiated by Siemens CT in cooperation with 14 partners – including research institutes, the Deutsche Bahn (German Railroad Company), and wireless provider Vodafone. The goal is to make Germany’s Harz district a model region for electric mobility. Wind, solar, and other alternative energy sources already contribute more than half of the power generated in the Harz district. Sometimes in windy periods some wind turbines have to switch off. This problem could be solved using electric vehicles as small energy storage units allowing for useful demand shift.

The project focuses on Vehicle-to-grid-technology (V2G). Electric cars would recharge their batteries whenever winds are strong, especially at night. Conversely, during calm periods they could feed electricity back into the grid at higher prices. Ultimately, V2G aims at bidir‐ ectionality of both, car / grid communication and their energy flow.

In this project an energy management system is developed. All the 2,000 energy genera‐ tion devices are connected and automatically controlled (PV, wind turbines, biogas, and

electric vehicles). The project also monitors and studies the movement profiles of electric vehicles. With this information is can be predicted how many electricity in what period is needed to recharge the vehicles. This will also be important control data for the elec‐ tricity generation devices.

The above examples indicate the important role that information and communication tech‐ nology play in an early uptake of electrical vehicles by their seamless integration in the elec‐ trical distribution and control network ("smart grid" of the future).

6. Discussion

This chapter has focussed on the technological requirements that electrical vehicles need in order to break into the (primarily urban) main stream as a valid personal or commercial transport means. However, their cost/price and environmental impact have not been ad‐ dressed. This section intends to indicate some of the recent efforts that can be found in the open literature, both to forecast when this vehicle technology will become possibly a prefer‐ ence of the user and what policies could be put in place to better address the environmental benefit of increasingly electrifying road transport.

In a recent paper [31] Weiss et al. have forecasted the price for hybrid-electric and bat‐ tery-electric vehicles using ex-post learning rates for HEVs and ex-ante price forecasts for HEVs and BEVs. They forecasted that price breakeven with these vehicles may only be achieved by 2026 and 2032, when 50 and 80 million BEVs, respectively, are expected to have been produced worldwide. They estimated that BEVs may require until then global learning investments of 100–150 billion € which is less than the global subsidies for fos‐ sil fuel consumption paid in 2009. Their findings suggested that HEVs, including plug-in HEVs, could become the dominant vehicle technology in the next two decades, while BEVs may require long-term policy support. In line with what it has been pointed out in this chapter, the authors indicated that the performance/cost ratio of batteries is critical for the production costs of both HEVs and BEVs. If current developments persist, vehi‐ cles with smaller, and thus less costly, batteries such as plug-in HEVs and short-range BEVs for city driving could present the economically most viable options for the electrifi‐ cation of passenger road transport until 2020.

More studies on specifically urban electrification of road transport might move the quantita‐ tive arguments to some extent, and show that there are several niches of earlier cost-effec‐ tiveness even for BEVs.

There is a debate on how to consider the environmental impact of this class of vehicles. Un‐ like their counterpart fossil-fuelled vehicles, the emissions generated by electrified vehicles are produced “upstream”, that is where the electricity is generated. Should they be consid‐ ered to have GHG emissions of "0 g/km"? Lutsey and Sperling [32] argue that considering electric vehicles as 0 g/km and assuming 10% of cars sold by 2020 to be electric, this could result in a loss of 20% of the conventionally calculated benefit from USA regulations aimed

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at reducing vehicle GHG emissions – so one has to pay attention of what is summed up. They also found that if upstream emissions were included, an electric vehicle powered from the America electricity grid would on average emit about 56% less CO2 than their petrol counterpart (104 g/mile compared to 238 g/mile). It is clear that the exact amount will de‐ pend upon the particular electricity generation fuel mix and thus generation efficiency in the given State where the BEV was charged. These authors support the idea of using a full life‐ cycle analysis as regulatory option rather than the "0 g/km". This approach, although more complicated, would ensure that GHG regulations were scientifically rigorous and could ac‐ commodate future energy technology development.

7. Conclusions

In the 2011 Transport White Paper 'Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area – To‐ wards a competitive and resource efficient transport system' (COM (2011) 144 final), the Eu‐ ropean Commission proposes 10 goals for a competitive and resource efficient transport system which serve as benchmarks for achieving the 2050 60% GHG emission reduction tar‐ get. One of these goals is to halve the use of 'conventionally-fuelled' cars in the urban trans‐ port sector by 2030 and to phase them out by 2050, thereby also reducing the transport system’s dependence on oil. Among the possible options to support this target, the electrifi‐ cation of road transport seems to be a winning one - as we have indicated in this chapter. We have addressed the technological challenges that electrified vehicles have to face in or‐ der to overcome the present status quo. These are mainly due to the storage system on board of a BEV. There are promising technologies that can positively support the introduc‐ tion of electric vehicles in our streets and roads (e.g. V2G and interoperability with smart grids through standardised communication). Finally, the areas of cost and environmental impact has been also addressed by commenting recent efforts in both forecasting the price reduction in the future and addressing full life-cycle analysis as possible policy options to include the full picture of the impact of vehicles in GHG emissions.

The Contribution and Prospects of the Technical Development on Implementation of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles

Zoran Nikolić and Zlatomir Živanović

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51771

1. Introduction

Population growth in the world had a constant value since the beginning of a new era to the 19th century when the population was 1 billion. The technological revolution is largely in‐ fluenced by that in this century, the population increase by 68 %. The population in the world increased by about 270 %, or over 6 billion people just in the 20 century. Although the UN in [1], estimates three possible scenarios of population growth in this century, the pic‐ ture 1, is the most possible one that predicts that the world population will increase by 2050. to about 8,9 billion, and afterwards it will be a slowdown so that by the end of the 21st cen‐ tury, and in the next few, does not expect the growth of population in the country. In any case, in the near future over the next four decades strong growth of the population is expect‐ ed. With the growth of population in the world there is a need to increase transportation of people, goods and raw materials as a prerequisite for the growth of production and con‐ sumption and the standards of living.

The 19th century was the age of industrial revolution. Thee more factors enabled the indus‐ trial revolution. The first was the new steam and textile technology and then the new agri‐ culture and population growth crating both the labor force for the new industrial factories and the markets to buy their manufactured goods. Development of a superior transporta‐ tion system for getting raw materials was basis that colonials provided raw materials for the factories as well as more markets for their goods.

The result of all this was an industrial revolution of vast importance in a number of ways. For one thing, it would spawn the steam powered locomotive and railroads which would revolutionize land transportation and tie the interiors of continents together to a degree nev‐

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New Generation of Electric Vehicles

er before imagined. It would trigger massive changes in people's living and working condi‐ tions as well as the structures of family and society. No invention of the 1800's played a more vital role in the Industrial Revolution than the steam locomotive and railroad, trigger‐ ing the biggest leap in transportation technology in history. Railroads cut travel time by 90 % and dramatically reduced freight costs, see [2].

Figure 1. World population estimation and Prediction 1700th – 2300th, in reference [1].

With factories more closely connected to markets and the larger population of potential con‐ sumers, many more people could afford consumer goods. This stimulated sales, providing more jobs, increased production, and lower prices. With business booming, companies devel‐ oped new products, triggering a virtual explosion of new technological advances, inventions, and consumer products in the latter 1800's. All these advances led to a higher standard of liv‐ ing, which further increased the consumer market, starting the process all over again.

The first step most countries took to industrialize was to build railroads to link coal to iron deposits and factories to markets. Once a transportation system was in place, factory build‐ ing and production could proceed. By 1900. railroads had virtually revolutionized overland transportation and travel, pulling whole continents tightly together (both economically and politically), helping create a higher standard of living, the modern consumer society, and a proliferation of new technologies.

From the start, industrialization meant the transformation of countries' populations from be‐ ing predominantly rural to being predominantly urban. By 1850. Britain had become the

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first nation in history to have a larger urban than rural population, and London had become the largest town in the world.

These early industrial cities created problems in three areas: living conditions, working conditions, and the social structure. First of all, cities built so rapidly were also built shoddily. Tenement houses were crammed together along narrow streets, poorly built, and incredibly crowded.

But in second half of 19 thcentury, the standard of living of the common people improved, they had money to buy goods. Sales and profits led to more production and jobs for more people, who also now had money to spend. This further improved the standard of living, leading to more sales, production, jobs, and so on, all of which generated the incentive to create new products to sell this growing consumer market. It was the age of progress.

Steam powered ships reduced travel time at sea much as the steam locomotives did on land since ships were no longer dependent on tail winds for smooth sailing.

By 1900, the automobile, powered by the internal combustion engine, was ushering in an age of fast personal travel that took individuals wherever and whenever they wanted independently of train schedules. In 1903. the internal combustion engine also allowed human beings to ach‐ ieve their dream of powered flight. The sky was now the limit, and even that would not hold up, as the latter twentieth century would see flights to the moon and beyond.

Fuelling these new developments were new sources of energy. Petroleum powered the auto‐ mobile, while natural gas was used extensively for lighting street lamps. Possibly most im‐ portant of all was electricity, which could be transmitted over long distances and whose voltage could be adapted for use by small household appliances. Among these was Thomas Edison's light bulb, providing homes with cheaper, brighter, and more constant light than the candle ever could provide.

The 19th century was the age of electricity. For the development of electric vehicles is impor‐ tant 1800. when for the first time Allessandro Volta (Italian) produces an electrical power from a battery made of silver and zinc plates. After many other more or less successful at‐ tempts with relatively weak rotating and reciprocating apparatus the Moritz Jacobi created the first real usable rotating electric motor in May 1834 that actually developed a remarkable mechanical output power. His motor set a world record which was improved only four years later. On 13 September 1838 Jacobi demonstrates on the river Neva an 8 m long electri‐ cally driven paddle wheel boat, in [3]. The zinc batteries of 320 pairs of plates weight 200 kg and are placed along the two side walls of the vessel. The motor has an output power of 1/5 to 1/4 hp (300 W). The boat travels with 2,5 km/h over a 7,5 km long route, and can carry a dozen passengers. He drives his boat for days on the Neva. A contemporary newspaper re‐ ports states the zinc consumption after two to three months operating time was 24 pounds.

In 1887 Nikola Tesla (Serbian, naturalized US-American) files the first patents for a two- phase AC system with four electric power lines, which consists of a generator, a transmis‐ sion system and a multi-phase motor. Presently he invention the three-phase electric power system which is the basis for modern electrical power transmission and advanced

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New Generation of Electric Vehicles

electric motors. The inventor for the three-phase power system was Nikola Tesla, see ref‐ erence [4]. But, the highly successful three-phase cage induction motor was built first by Michael Dolivo-Dobrowolsky in 1889.

2. Beginning of the EV development

The first attempt of electric propulsion was made on railways in the first half of the 19 thcen‐ tury. It was not about cars, but as a locomotive fed by batteries, it is reasonable that this is considered a forerunner of the current prototype electric vehicles.

Robert Davidson (Scottish) also developed electric motors since 1837th in [5]. He made sev‐ eral drives for a lathe and model vehicles. In 1839. Davidson manages the construction of

the first electrically powered vehicle. In September 1842. he makes trial runs with a 5-ton, 4,8

m long locomotive on the railway line from Edinburgh to Glasgow. Its electromotor makes

about 1 hp (0,74 kW) and reaches a speed of 4 mph (6,4 km/h); a vehicle could carry almost

no payload. Therefore, the use of the vehicles was very limited. Gaston Plante found a suita‐

At the world exhibition in Berlin 1879th years, Siemens has demonstrated the first practical

electric vehicle applicable for, for example, a small electric battery tractor on rails, which was able to pull three small carriages full of people. Motor has had almost all the character‐ istics of today's motors for electric traction.

Already in 1881st year after on the streets of Paris was driven tricycle powered from lead-

acid batteries. A year later, a horse power-drawn tram with electric propulsion was rebuilt,

so that up to 50 passengers could be driving these carriages without horses. Several years

later, Thomas Edison had constructed a little better first electric vehicle with nickel-alkaline batteries that are powered electric vehicle with nominal power of 3,5 kW. Immediately after‐ wards, the electric bus was built as well.

In England J.K.Starley constructed in 1888th the small electric vehicle [6]. Several years later,

on 1893. Bersey constructed a postal vehicle and a passenger vehicle with four seats using a battery brand Elwell - Parker.

Since then, efforts are continuing, especially in America. According to some sources, the first electric vehicle in the United States was constructed by Fred M.Kimball 1888th, from Boston.

In commercial use, the vehicle began to produce the first company Electric Carriage and

Wagon Co. of Philadelphia, which has produced a vehicle 1894 th, and the 1897 thNew York City has delivered a number of electric taxis. Another company, Pope Manufacturing Co. from Hartford, began producing electric vehicles 1897 thyears and has evolved considerably. Company produced 2.000 taxis as well as buses and electric trucks. However, they did not have great commercial success.

The first small batch production of EV had began in 1892. in Chicago. These vehicles had been very cumbersome but even so had a very good pass by customers also. They had car‐

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riages of look like (Figure 2), with large wheels, no roof, with eaves that protected passen‐ gers from rain and sun. They were used for trips, in order to perform some business, and even as a taxi to transport more passengers. Passenger's EV had the engine up to several kilowatts, which were allowed at the maximum speed of about 20 km / h, and cross a dis‐ tance over a hundred kilometers on a single charge of batteries. Series DC electric motors were used, usually. Batteries have a high capacity, as far as 400 Ah, and voltages up to 100 V. Proportion of battery weight, compared to a fully loaded vehicle with passengers, was over half, which allowed so many autonomous movement radius.

Figure 2. First EV,s were possible to cross up to 100 km, moving with speed below 20 km/h.

The first production of small batch EV had began in 1892. in Chicago. These vehicles had been very cumbersome but even so had a very good pass by customers also. They had look like of carriages (figure 2), with large wheels, no roof, with eaves that protected passengers from rain and sun. They were used for trips, in order to perform some business, and even as a taxi to transport more passengers. Passenger’s EV had the engine up to several kilowatts, which were allowed at the maximum speed of about 20 km/h, and cross a distance over a hundred kilometers on a single charge of batteries. Series DC electric motors were used, usually. Batteries have a high capacity, as far as 400 Ah, and voltages up to 100 V. Propor‐ tion of battery weight, compared to a fully loaded vehicle with passengers, was over half, which allowed so many autonomous movement radius.

In Europe, the first real electric vehicle was constructed by the French and Jeantaud Raffard in 1893 rd. Electric motor power was 2,2 to 2,9 kW (3-4 hp), a battery capacity of 200 Ah was placed behind and had a weight of 420 kg.

In 1894, five electric vehicles participated in the first automobile race held from Paris to Rouen, a distance of 126 km. One steam vehicle won, from manufacturers De Dion.

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New Generation of Electric Vehicles

The first race of motor vehicles was won by electric. Five vehicles with internal combustion engine and two cars with electro propulsion were racing on the road, which consisted of five sections, each one mile long (1.609 m). The winners in all five sections were electric with an average speed of 43 km/h.

Bright moment for electric vehicles in Europe was the 1899 th, when on the May 1, an electric ve‐ hicle in the form of torpedo, called James Contente or "dissatisfied" reference [7], reached a speed of 100 km/h. Electric vehicle weight about 1.800 kg and was constructed by Belgian Ca‐ mille Jenatzy, in [8].

The next world record speed was achieved a few years later with the vehicle which had a gasoline engine and electric vehicles were never more able to develop greater speed than ve‐ hicles with internal combustion engine.

Waldemar Junger in 1899. first patented alkaline battery in the world. In the summer 1900th he demonstrated its capacity before the wondering audience of professionals. One battery is kept at the Waverly American Run car with which the inventor was able to drive around Stockholm in an electric vehicle for about 12 hours and with whom he went 92,3 miles (148,5 km) before the battery was discharged.

Given the fact that at the end of the 19th and early 20th century EV were moving at low speeds when the power required for handling the air resistance is negligible, the power ob‐ tained from batteries was mainly used for handling the rolling resistance, which is generally small. On the other hand, less power drain causes battery operation with a higher efficiency level so a large quantity of batteries loaded allowed a relatively large radius of movement.

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3. The development of EV in 20 thcentury

The twentieth century has been a century of change. It has been a century of unprecedented world population growth, unprecedented world economic development and unprecedented change in the earth’s physical environment.

From 1900 to 2000, world population grew from 1,6 billion to 6,1 billion persons, about 85 per cent of the growth having taken place in Asia, Africa and Latin America.

In 1900, about 86 per cent of the world populations were rural dwellers and just 14 per cent were city dwellers, but by 2000, the share of the world population living in rural areas had declined to 53 per cent, while the number of urban-dwellers had risen to 47 per cent, in [9]. By 2030, over three fifths of the world will be living in cities. Virtually all the population growth expected during 2000-2030 will be concentrated in the urban areas of the world.

The enormous expansion in the global production of goods and services driven by techno‐ logical, social and economic change has allowed the world to sustain much larger total and urban populations, and vastly higher standards of living, than ever before. For example, from 1900 to 2000, world real GDP increased 20 to 40 times, while world population in‐ creased close to 4 times and the urban population increased 13 times.

The first motor show held in New York 1901st was shown 23 and 58 steam electric and pet‐ rol cars were presented together. At the beginning of this century were used three types of motor vehicles with internal combustion engines that used: gasoline, steam or electricity. Statistics show that in 1900. from 8.000 cars driven on the roads in America, 38 % were pow‐ ered by electricity. Almost equally, the third of the total number of vehicles, at the time was powered to electric power, steam vehicles and vehicles with internal combustion engines.

The car with the internal combustion engine has received increasing popularity due to its ease of charging, mobility, speed and autonomy, although the electric vehicle was still kept. Electric vehicles are especially favored by women, whom thought of the car with petrol as dirty and difficult to drive, and in the same time those looked like the features for which they were more preferred by men, driven by passion for the sport.

Defect of those electric vehicles then has been relatively short range between charges. In the late 19th century, the specific energy in the battery pack was about 10 Wh/kg. Already in the early 20 century, this value improved to the level of 18 Wh/kg, which would amount to only a decade later to 25 Wh/kg. In addition, the charging stations were not sufficiently widespread, although the situation began to improve in the early 20 thcentury. However, sources of oil found in that period caused the low price of gasoline and the advancement of technology in the production of internal combustion engines has created the conditions for rapid progress on these cars. Therefore, the development of electric vehicles remained on the sidelines.

Studebaker developed in 1905 five models of electric traction, using the same chassis. From 1900. to 1915. year a hundred manufacturers of electric vehicles appeared. In 1904. about a third of U.S. vehicles were produced with electro propulsion. In 1912. about 10.000 electric vehicles were produced, of which about 6.000 as passenger’s vehicles and 4.000 for the

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New Generation of Electric Vehicles

transportation of goods. The total traffic had approximately 20.000 vehicles to transport peo‐ ple and about 10.000 for freight transport. 1913th twenty companies manufacturing electric vehicles produced about 6.000 electric cars and trucks.

Figure 4. The external appearance of the first EV in early 20 thcentury.

In the rally ride in the long run, from Beijing to Paris 1907 th, gasoline cars definitely won over steam and electricity vehicles.Wide publicity made Dey and Harry Staymez invention in 1915. Their electric car instead of the differential had motor that was designed in the way that the rotor and stator, each connected to one half of axle, were able to turn in relation to one another. Thus, power shared between the two axles was able to turn at different speeds when cornering. Upon driving on downhill, the electric motor was turning into a dynamo serving as brakes and converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.

One passenger electric vehicle in 1917. crossed the distance from Atlantic City to New York (200 km) at an average speed of 33 km per hour.

In the twenties of this century in Germany, France and Italy, electric vehicles were designed mainly for special purposes, where it did not require more speed and autonomy. Stigler from Milan, a company specialized in electric products, constructed in 1922 more then one car with electric drive power of 4.5 kW (6 KS) and battery capacity of 250 Ah, which could speed up to 25 km/h to cross 100 km without recharging.

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Before and after World War II many electric vehicles were on the streets of America, West‐ ern Europe and South Africa. The Last Car Show in America where a new type of electric vehicle was shown was in 1923. year.

1930 was the year when the appearance of the Fords model T, for some time, marked the dissolution of the companies that produced electric vehicles.

Soon after t interest in electric vehicles was lost, even in Europe and the success of the vehi‐ cles with internal combustion engine was triumphant. The performance of electric vehicles compared to internal combustion vehicles was fairly weak. The problem of batteries that were heavy and inefficient remained unresolved. Performance of the car made for special purposes, with a short radius of movement, could not be accepted for cars that could com‐ pete with gasoline powered ones.

World War II re-emphasized in the foreground electrical traction. For convenience in the normal production some vehicles were transferred to vehicles with electro propulsion. In Italy, you could have seen the car Fiat 500 (old Topolino), accumulator battery-powered weighing over 400 kg, as well as the bigger vehicles s with batteries stored in the engine and trunk space. During this period was specially designed and manufactured in a number elec‐ tric Peugeot VLV. These vehicles have an advantage over the vehicles with internal combus‐ tion engines due to significantly lower maintenance costs and longer service life, making them seem more economical for exploitation.

After World War II, electric traction has remained largely reserved for special transportation and the smaller vehicles that are commonly used in the city.

3.1. Early development of drive systems

In the first EV were mostly used serious DC motors with a simple speed control solutions. In these electric motors are the excitation coil and the inductive coil connected to the serious so that the current that passes through the inductors passes through the excitation coil. This means that is in the great parts of range machine, until it comes into part of the saturation, flux is proportional to the loaded current. Only at higher loads and currents when the mag‐ netic material enters the saturation, there is no proportionality between the magnetic flux and current, because the increase in current does not produce increase in flux.

For the operation of the serious DC motors are characteristic the great changes in flux with the load. Electric motor speed is changed in wide limits as a function of load change.

At idle load current are small and the excitation flux, so there is a risk of engine ran. There‐ fore, the engine should never be put into operation, under full power, without at least 20 – 30 % rated load.

At idle, load current is small as the excitation flux, so there is a risk of electromotor over speed. Therefore, the engine should never be put into operation under full voltage without at least 20 – 30 % rated load.

Speed regulation of DC electromotor can be making by changing the supply voltage or by load changing. Because DC electromotor has feature, that torque increase with the increas‐

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New Generation of Electric Vehicles

ing of load and rotation speed falling, these electromotor are sometimes called traction. DC electromotor can be very hardly move in the regenerative mode and only if we make a re‐ connection of the winding.

• Start-up with additional resistance

Additional resistance is connected into the serious with a driving motor and thus lowers the voltage at the ends of the motor and reduces the starting current. With more resistance, which allows successively excluding, it is possible step-shaped voltage and speed regulator. This is a wasteful method with a low degree of usefulness.

• Commissioning and speed control via contactors (controller)

Relatively inexpensive and efficient method, but not enough good for regulation of electric ve‐ hicle speed. The necessary condition is that the voltages of all electric sources have to be equal, so appropriate involvement of the switches can get the basic voltages on the electric motor.

Additional regulation of the speed of rotation of electric motors can be done by additional rheostat for the step by step decreasing of flux, by which the speed increases and the torque decreases. Former methods of starting the electric motor and speed control of the vehicle were less quality but good enough to move the EV with relatively low speeds. In addition, there were certain losses in the resistor for speed control of electric motors and did not pro‐ vide recuperative braking.

3.2. The first oil crisis

Since 1869, US crude oil prices adjusted for inflation averaged 23,67 $ per barrel (1 barel = 159 l) in 2010 dollars compared to 24,58 $ for world oil prices. Fifty percent of the time prices U.S. and world prices were below the median oil price of 24,58 $ per barrel.

Figure 5. Long-term oil prices, 1861-2008 (orange line adjusted for inflation, blue not adjusted). Due to exchange rate fluctuations, the orange line represents the price experience of U.S. consumers only, in [10].

If long-term history is a guide, those in the upstream segment of the crude oil industry should structure their business to be able to operate with a profit, below 24,58 $ per barrel

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half of the time. The very long-term data and the post World War II data suggest a "normal" price far below the current price.

From 1948 through the end of the 1960s, crude oil prices ranged between 2,50 $ and 3,00 $. The price oil rose from 2,50 $ in 1948 to about 3,00 $ in 1957. When viewed in 2010 dollars, a different story emerges with crude oil prices fluctuating between 17 $ and 19 $ during most

of the period. The apparent 20 % price increase in nominal prices just kept up with inflation.

From 1958 to 1970, prices were stable near 3,00 $ per barrel, but in real terms the price of crude oil declined from 19 $ to 14 $ per barrel. Not only was price of crude lower when ad‐ justed for inflation, but in 1971 and 1972 the international producer suffered the additional effect of a weaker US dollar.

OPEC was established in 1960 with five founding members: Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. Two of the representatives at the initial meetings previously studied the Texas Railroad Commission's method of controlling price through limitations on produc‐ tion. By the end of 1971, six other nations had joined the group: Qatar, Indonesia, Libya, United Arab Emirates, Algeria and Nigeria. From the foundation of the Organization of Pe‐ troleum Exporting Countries through 1972, member countries experienced steady decline in the purchasing power of a barrel of oil.

Throughout the post war period exporting countries found increased demand for their crude oil but a 30 % decline in the purchasing power of a barrel of oil. In March 1971, the balance of power shifted. That month the Texas Railroad Commission set proration at 100 percent for the first time. This meant that Texas producers were no longer limited in the vol‐ ume of oil that they could produce from their wells. More important, it meant that the pow‐ er to control crude oil prices shifted from the United States (Texas, Oklahoma and Louisiana) to OPEC. By 1971, there was no spare production capacity in the U.S. and there‐ fore no tool to put an upper limit on prices.

A little more than two years later, OPEC through the unintended consequence of war ob‐

tained a glimpse of its power to influence prices. It took over a decade from its formation for OPEC to realize the extent of its ability to influence the world market.

In 1972, the price of crude oil was below 3,50 $ per barrel. The Yom Kippur War started with an

attack on Israel by Syria and Egypt on October 5, 1973. The United States and many countries in the western world showed support for Israel. In reaction to the support of Israel, several Arab exporting nations joined by Iran imposed an embargo on the countries supporting Israel. While these nations curtailed production by five million barrels per day, other countries were able to increase production by a million barrels. The net loss of four million barrels per day ex‐ tended through March of 1974. It represented 7 percent of the free world production. By the end of 1974, the nominal price of oil had quadrupled to more than 12,00 $.

Any doubt that the ability to influence and in some cases control crude oil prices had passed from the United States to OPEC was removed as a consequence of the Oil Embargo. The ex‐ treme sensitivity of prices to supply shortages, became all too apparent when prices in‐ creased 400 percent in six short months.

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From 1974 to 1978, the world crude oil price was relatively flat ranging from 12,52 $ per bar‐ rel to 14,57 $ per barrel. When adjusted for inflation world oil prices were in a period of moderate decline. During that period OPEC capacity and production was relatively flat near

30 million barrels per day. In contrast, non-OPEC production increased from 25 million bar‐

rels per day to 31 million barrels per day.

In 1979 and 1980, events in Iran and Iraq led to another round of crude oil price increases. The Iranian revolution resulted in the loss of 2,0-2,5 million barrels per day of oil production between November 1978 and June 1979. At one point production almost halted.

The Iranian revolution was the proximate cause of the highest price in post-WWII history. However, revolution's impact on prices would have been limited and of relatively short du‐ ration had it not been for subsequent events. In fact, shortly after the revolution, Iranian pro‐ duction was up to four million barrels per day.

In September 1980, Iran already weakened by the revolution was invaded by Iraq. By No‐ vember, the combined production of both countries was only a million barrels per day. It was down 6,5 million barrels per day from a year before. As a consequence, worldwide crude oil production was 10 percent lower than in 1979.

The loss of production from the combined effects of the Iranian revolution and the Iraq-Iran War caused crude oil prices to more than double. The nominal price went from 14 $ in 1978 to 35 $ per barrel in 1981.

3.3. Renaissance of EV

In the seventies began the renaissance of EV. Fixed price of oil, which is less and less availa‐ ble, and the problems associated with its production and transport, leads to renewed inter‐ est in electric vehicles. At that time, it seemed that the coal and oil reserves would exhaust quickly, predicted at the beginning of the third millennium, so the world began to think about the "energy conservation". In addition, ongoing technical advances made with high quality and effective solutions of speed regulator for electric motor, lighter batteries and lighter materials for the body.

After 1970. environmental problems and oil crises increased the actuality of electric vehicles. Especially in the United States the interest of the citizens awoke who have acquired a habit to use widely electric vehicles for golf courses, for airports, for parks and fairs. According to some sources, one third of vehicles intended for driving on gravel roads were with electric traction. So there was a need to develop a new industry.

1974 Sebring - Vanguard began producing electric vehicles on the lane. City Car with two-seat, weighs 670 kg, and an electric voltage 48 V, 2,5 kW power only, achieved a maximum speed of

45 km/h. With an improved variant of this operation the maximum speed of 60 km/h was ac‐

complished. The vehicle exceeded up to 75 kW with a single charge of batteries and the cost was about 3.000 US$. Only between the 1974th and 1976. about 2.000 of these vehicles was pro‐ duced 1974. Copper Development Association Inc. made a prototype electric passenger vehi‐

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cle. Although it used lead-acid batteries, it could develop a top speed of 55 mph (90 km/h), and could go over 100 mph (161 km/h with one battery charge at a speed of 40 mph (65 km/h).

Among the achievements of the General Motors company at the time was the GM 512 vehicle designed for drive in urban areas that are closed for classic cars. These are two types of small passenger vehicles with a carriage-body constructed partly of glass resin, but one is with pure electro propulsion and the other is a hybrid. Basic data on pure electric version are: weight 560 kg, the engine of 6 kW, a maximum speed of 70 km/h. With a 150 kg lead acid batteries could be run without charge from 50 to 70 km. It was supplied even with an air conditioning.

The largest exhibition of electric vehicles ever made till then, EV Expo 78, in [11], was held in Philadelphia. Expo displayed more than 60 electric vehicles with prices from 4.000 $ to as much as 120.000 $.

The first electric vehicle, General Motors, a prototype car with four seats cost 6.000 $. It was planned as a second family vehicle.

Secondly there is an electric vehicle Electric Runabouth Copper, who is a manufacturer of Copper Development Association Inc. said that it can be produced for 5.000 $. The vehicle mass of 950 kg, with four seats, made of fiberglass, had a top speed around 110 km/h could not move without charge to 130 km before its battery runs out of battery. It has a 10 kW elec‐ tric motor that could, in one-hour mode, it delivers up to 15 kW and ups eliminates up to 22 %. Weight of batteries was about 380 kg.

Figure 6. A typical city car (City Car) with two seats, weighs only 670 kg had a top speed of 28 mph (45 km/h) and radius of movement up to 65 km.

Most EV were relatively modestly equipped, but the Electric Car Corporation of Michigan, he believed the first luxury electric vehicle called the Silver Volt. The prototype of this five-

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New Generation of Electric Vehicles

seat EV has achieved a top speed of movement 110 km/h had a radius of 160 km between charges the battery. Silver Volt owned air conditioning and was sold for about 15.000 $.

Some companies also produce and display luxury EV priced up to 120.000 $ the most expen‐ sive ever built passenger car of this type.

Figure 7. Copper City Electric Car Runabouth power 15 kW made on the basis of cooperation for the use components of Renault R5.

The majority of EV is driven by a conventional lead-acid batteries that are found even 1868th years and are still the mainstay of the vehicles. But the lead-acid batteries have also already been the primary limiting factor for the development of EV. Pointed out that at least 40 million vehicles in the U.S., a total of 110 million, can be electrically driven second family vehicle as meeting the ecology and urban and suburban driving conditions. However, lead batteries and still remain a limiting factor in EV that time.

Laden vehicle

Empty vehicle

total weight 1.134kg

Curb weight 934 kg

46,3 %

Body 542 kg

56,1 %

27,3 %

Batteries 310 kg

33,2 %

8,8 %

Electric propulsion 100 kg

10,7 %

13,2 %

2 passengers 150 kg

4,4 %

Payload 50 kg

Table 1. Percentage distribution of the reconstructed mass of the vehicle YUGO-E when it is empty and loaded.

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From this period, the EV was largely rebuilt vehicles from the existing series production ve‐ hicle with the drive IC. And with a maximum weight of lead acid batteries, the performan‐ ces of these cars were quite limited. As an example, the percentage distribution of the reconstructed mass of the vehicle can serve example of the reconstructed vehicle YUGO-E when it is empty and loaded, reference [12, 13].

1. Body YUGO - E

Type of vehicle passanger

dimensions 3,49*1,542*1,392 m

Empty vehicle weight 934 kg

Useful load 2 persons + 50 kg

drive front-wheel

Brakes disk, front and back

Control over the rack

2.

Direct current electric motor

Power 6,3 kW

Voltage 72 V

Rated current 113 A

Number of revolution 2.800 min -1

Weight 38 kg

3.

battery

Type traction

Total voltage 72 V

Capacity ( 20h ) 143 Ah

Pieces 6

Total Weight 294 kg

4.

Voltage regulator

Type transistor chopper

Current limit 180 A

Voltage drop at current of 100 A 0,7 V

Undervoltage disconnection 48 V

Weight 4 kg

5. Battery charger

Battery charger characteristic IUUo

Voltage 72 V

Current 18 A

Power 1.800 W

Weight 38 kg

6. DC / DC converter

Type with galvanic isolation

Output voltage 13,5 V

Maximum output currant 22,2 A

power 300 W

Weight 2 kg

Table 2. Technical data of electric drive Yugo-E, in [13].

3.4. Impact of the development of power electronics on the development of EV

The invention of the transistor in 1948 revolutionized the electronics industry. Semiconduc‐ tor devices were first used in low power level applications for communications, information processing, and computers. In 1958, General Electric developed the first Tyristor, which was at that time called SCR, in [14]. Since around 1975, more turn-off power semiconductor ele‐ ments were developed and implemented during the next 20 years, which have vastly im‐ proved modern electronics. Included here are improved bipolar transistors (with fine structure, also with shorter switching times), Field Effects Transistors (MOSFETs), Gate Turnoff Thyristors (GTOs) and Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs).

Although they initially made Chopper with thyristors, later almost exclusively were made with transistors. The main difference is that Chopper with thyristors operates up to several hundred Hz, and the power transistors and up to several tens of kHz. For use the EV used Chopper with mutual influence (for lowering and raising the voltage), because this type of chopper allows propulsion and recuperative or regenerative braking drive motors. In this way it is possible to drive DC generator machine brake or braking to convert mechanical en‐ ergy into electrical energy in [17].

It is well known, there are two modes of operation of electric vehicles. In the electric motor drive mode, in the operation is step down chopper and the average voltage on the electric motor is less then battery voltage. In the electric braking mode, in the operation is step up chopper, so the less voltage of the electric motor supply battery on higher level voltage and on that way there is recuperative braking.

3.5. End of the 20th century

Late 20th century contributed to an even greater exacerbation of conditions around the EV application. Scientists have become aware that environmental pollution is becoming larger, the emission of exhaust gases and particles affect climate change and that non-renewable en‐ ergy sources under the influence of high demand and exploitation are becoming more ex‐ pensive and slowly deplete.

Technology is certainly a double edged sword that has also created new problems such as pollution, overpopulation, the greenhouse effect, depletion of the ozone layer, and the threat of extinction from nuclear war. It has also been used to give us prosperity our ancestors could never have dreamed about. Whether it is ultimately used for our benefit or destruc‐ tion is up to us and remains in the balance

In 2010, the world's population reached 6,9 billion persons in [18]. It is expected to attain 9,3 billion in 2050 and 10,1 billion by the end of the century. The proportion of the population living in urban areas grew from 29 per cent in 1950 to 50 per cent in 2010. By 2050, 69 per cent of the global population, or 6,3 billion people, are expected to live in urban areas. The atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2), the main gas linked to global warming,

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has increased substantially in the course of economic and industrial development. CO2 emissions are largely determined by a country's energy use and production systems, its transportation system, its agricultural and forestry sectors and the consumption patterns of the population. In addition to the impact of CO2 and other greenhouse gases on the global climate, the use of carbon-based energy also affects human health through local air pollu‐ tion. Currently, CO2 emissions per person are markedly higher in the more developed re‐ gions (12 metric tons per capita) than in the less developed regions (3,4 metric tons per capita) and are lowest in the least developed countries (0,3 metric tons per capita). Industrial and household activities as well as unpaved roads produce fine liquid or solid particles such as dust, smoke, mist, fumes, or smog, found in air or emissions. Protracted exposure to Par‐ ticulates is detrimental to health and sudden rises of concentration may immediately result in fatalities. Concentration of particulate matter in the air of medium and large cities is in‐ versely correlated with the level of development.

Ownership of passenger cars has increased considerably worldwide and the transportation of goods and services by road has intensified. Rising demand for roads and vehicles is asso‐ ciated with economic growth but also contributes to urban congestion, air and noise pollu‐ tion, increasing health hazards, traffic accidents and injuries. Motor vehicle use also places pressure on the environment, since transportation now accounts for about a quarter of the world's energy use and half of the global oil consumption, and is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. In the more developed regions there are more than 500 motor ve‐ hicles per 1000 population. In the less developed regions this ratio is only 70 vehicles per 1000 population, but it is increasing more rapidly than in the more developed regions.

Energy generated by the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass often results in air pollu‐ tion, affecting the health of ecosystems and people. This type of combustion is also the main source of greenhouse gases and rising atmospheric temperatures.

However, in the late 20th century has made improvements in electric drives. Quality inver‐ ters are designed with the ability to control the voltage and frequency, enabling the use of induction motors to drive the EV in [19]. Asynchronous (induction) motor is simpler, light‐ er, more efficient and robust than DC motors. Despite all that, its price is considerably lower than the DC motor. Maximum speed is increased by 50% to 150% of maximum speed DC motor which is limited because of problems with commutation. The efficiency of induction motors is from 95% to 97%, and is higher than that of DC motor from 85% to 89% for DC motors. Inverters are power converters that convert the DC voltage alternating current, the required frequency and amplitude [20, 21].

4. Start of the 21st century

The unprecedented decrease in mortality that began to accelerate in the more developed parts of the world in the nineteenth century and expanded to all the world in the twentieth century is one of the major achievements of humanity. By one estimate, life expectancy at

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New Generation of Electric Vehicles

birth increased from 30 to 67 years between 1800 and 2005, leading to a rapid growth of the population: from 1 billion in 1810 to nearly 7 billion in 2010, in [22].

With the growth of population in the world there is a need to increase transportation of peo‐ ple, goods and raw materials as a prerequisite for the growth of production and consump‐ tion and the standard of living. This constant growth is natural and expected process of development of civilization and one of the most important indicators of development of so‐ ciety and humanity so that today a life without road traffics considered unthinkable.

Big boost for electric vehicle development was given by the developed countries where air pollution is receiving alarming values.

In cities with large population, and where there is a big environmental pollution, the city authorities have taken some steps to the special places provided for movement and recrea‐ tion citizens to reduce air pollution. In places where there are a large number of urban popu‐ lations, city governments often support the eco-drive vehicles.

First of all vehicles are required city services that are moving in the streets intended for pe‐ destrians, such as travel or vehicle inspection. In addition, various types of tourist vehicles moving at pedestrian areas or in city parks. Then, various kinds of utility and delivery vehi‐ cles that work in limited areas such as rail bus stations or airports.

In order to significantly reduce oil consumption and pollution in the world that creates traf‐ fic especially in big cities it is necessary to make the transition from today's cars with inter‐ nal combustion engines to electric drives. Given the poor performance of EV on the market there are fewer of these vehicles, although almost all major manufacturers of passenger ve‐ hicles operate on the development of these vehicles.

Although scientist Nikola Tesla wrote and discussed the use of EV with the alternate (induc‐ tion) engine until 1904. in [23], when the EV is already contained in the traffic in the United States a decade ago founded the company bearing his name, Tesla Motors, which is produc‐ ing very interesting and modern sports EV.

EV "Tesla Roadster" is a sport, the first serial built car that used lithium-ion battery in [24], and the first one which had a radius greater than 320 km on a single charge.

The vehicle has a length of 3.946mm, 1.851mm width and a curb weight is 1.234 kg. Use‐ ful load is for 2 persons, and the weight of batteries is 450 kg. The AC drive motor has a power 185 kW and a maximum speed of rotation 14.000 min -1. Voltage Li-ion battery is a 375 V and capacity 145 Ah. Charger of the rechargeable battery is inductive (contactless). The vehicle can travel up to 231mile (372 km) in city driving with standard EPA testing procedure. Speed of 60 mph (97 km/h) can be achieved only by 3,9 s, top speed is elec‐ tronically limited to 125 mph (201 km/h). This vehicle has made the largest radius of movement on single charge EV batteries 311 miles (501 km). Electricity consumption is only 145 Wh per kilometer of road travelled.

Mass production of this vehicle was started in early 2008. year. Despite the crisis that is evi‐ dent and the prices of over 100,000 USD in the beginning of sales, has so far sold more than 1000. pieces of this vehicle in [25].

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Figure 9. Tesla Roadster electric car of the firm Tesla Motors.

On The development of modern EV worked both large and small manufacturers of motor ve‐ hicles. EV still has significant problems arising from low-volume production so that these ve‐ hicles are still expensive and thus less attractive. In the first place it is air-conditioning for passengers and a relatively small possibility of storing electricity in batteries. The necessity of development of plant components specially developed for series production will be affected by the low price of these components. Great stimulus to the occurrence of EV on the World Fair is given by Far eastern markets provide producers in [26, 27], which also made a series of large vehicles substantially at lower prices and affordable to most buyers in developed countries.

4.1. Hybrid Vehicle (HV)

Oil prices value on world markets in spring 2008. exceeded 100 $/barrel, with previous ana‐ lyzes have designated this value as the marginal cost of EV use. Oil prices reached a value of 147 $/barrel in early July 2008., and shortly thereafter dropped to a value of only 40 $/barrel, it is nowday stabilized at value around 100 $/barrel.

One of the objectives of the new plan, which President Obama has described as "historic", is to replace the existing complex system of federal and state laws and regulations on exhaust emissions and fuel economy. Announcing the plan in [28], President Obama said that "the status quo is no longer acceptable," as it creates dependency on foreign oil and contributes to climate change. Effects of new measures will be as if from the roads in America 177 mil‐ lion vehicles have been removed and that the state saves as much oil as in 2008. was import‐ ed from Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Libya and Nigeria.

Since then it speeds up the development and improvement of a mostly EV batteries or "power tank" which the vehicle carries. Parallely is working on improving the use of EV which now can be used for some applications, as well as the use of HV.

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New Generation of Electric Vehicles

Not finding the opportunity to meet the existing types of EV driving habits with conventional drive vehicles, and vehicles with conventional drive to meet certain environmental require‐ ments, motor vehicle manufacturers have come to the medium solution, so called. hybrid drive. If the hybrid has a higher capacity battery that can be recharged via connection to an ex‐ ternal source and distribution network, then it is a "plug in" hybrid vehicle (PHV)

HV makes real breakthrough in terms of reducing consumption of fossil fuels, as well as in terms of environmental benefits, and improving air quality in cities, which is encour‐ aged by governments in some western countries. Using PHV reduces smog emissions es‐ tablished in the cities, in [29].

Although PHV will never become a "zero-emission vehicles" (ZEV) due to their internal com‐ bustion engine, the first PHV which appeared on the market reduce emissions by one third to half in [30], and is expected from more modern models to reduce emissions even more.

There are several types of applications in hybrid drive vehicles. Common to all is that a shorter time in the city center, vehicle can move with the electric drive as an environmentally clean and then to aggregate that includes the IC engine that runs at the optimal point of operation. In this way the HV has minimal emissions and minimal consumption of petroleum products.

Figure 10. Diagram of the specific consumption of diesel engine as a function of maximum continuous power, [31, 32].

HV has two drives, and practically unlimited radius of movement. In the regime of pure electric drive with modest performance with maximum speed of 80 km/h small autonomous movement of about 80 km radius, but because of that the hybrid drive doubles the speed and radius becomes practically unlimited. Because the two types of power, HV is about 35 % more expensive than the equivalent of cars with internal combustion engine, but to create habits of drivers, some states stimulated by reducing taxes for these vehicles.

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The general conclusion is that is a positive step towards the introduction of environmental drive vehicles. However, since no definitive solution is found, experiments with pure elec‐ tric and hybrid solutions carried out, as well as various types of technical drive solutions. Despite the turbulent development of EV and HV, some experts believe that vehicles with ICE will dominate for more 15 years, but even after that will not disappear in [33].

The main reason for the production and purchase of hybrid vehicles down to fuel economy in city driving, but are often cited and highlight information on saving energy and reducing pollution in [34, 35]. Best-selling HV Prius in [36], has a fuel-efficiency of 51 mpg (21,7 km/l) in the city and 48 mpg (20,4 km/l) on the open road. Typically, in our present data on con‐ sumption per 100km distance traveled, so that consumption in the city is 4,6 l/100 km and on the open road is about 4,9 l/100 km.

4.2. Plug in EV (PEV)

EV with batteries still have a small market share in the sale and use of cars, but different types of EV, especially the Army, that made significant progress. This was especially fa‐ vored new legislation announced by the U.S. administration.

It is known that the EV motor vehicle was powered by an electric motor fed from an electro‐ chemical power sources. Often, an electric vehicle (EV) is called the zero vehicle emissions (ZEV), because it emits no harmful particles into the atmosphere. In the older literature, for EV use the terms electric vehicle (EM) or autonomous electric vehicle (AEV) [37].

The basic components of the EV are battery pack as a "reservoir of power" and drive electric motor with speed regulator.

Figure 11. Experts' forecasts of consumption of hybrid vehicles by 2030. in [38].

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New Generation of Electric Vehicles

If someone install aggregate in the EV that has a combustion engine and generator, we get a hybrid variant of EV and then it is always possible when driving or when necessary to re‐ charge the battery. With this solution the drive gets slightly higher consumption of oil prod‐ ucts in long-distance driving and slightly lower performance with the drive in vehicles with internal combustion engine. But, in the city center, when the internal combustion engine is not in operation, the car behaves ecologically and uses less oil derivatives per kilometer of road vehicles then vehicle with internal combustion engine.

Hybrid vehicles are vehicles in which exists a combination of internal combustion engines (gasoline or diesel) and electric drive, but have limited features of the electric drive mode and can be supplemented from the power grid.

"Plug in" HV are vehicles that can move a distance of 15 to 60 km with a charged battery pack and then the batteries need to be supplemented from the power grid or by combustion engines. Often embedded computer determines the optimal conditions to charge.

The main differences between HV and "Plug in" HV Prius becomes obvious if one looks at the range or increase the radius of the vehicle in electric mode, approximately 2 km (Prius) to 23,4 km (PHV), in [39].

In addition, it is improved specific fuel consumption in the hybrid mode. Studies have shown that in Japan, 90 % of drivers exceed the average daily distance below 50 km and 60

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km and 75 in the EU and the U.S. respectively. In this case, the expected cost of vehicles greatly influences the price of electricity which during the day in Japan is about 20 cents/kWh and late at night around 8 cents/kWh. It should be noted that the average price of electricity in Serbia amounts to only 5 EU cents/kWh.

The best-selling hybrid car in the U.S. "Toyota Prius", has the highest demand when fuel pri‐ ces rise. The state encourages the producer price of 6.400$, in [40], so that the standard mod‐ el sells for just 21.610 US$). The fuel economy of this vehicle is 48 mpg (4,9 l/100 km) in city driving and 45 mpg (5,2 l/100 km) on the open road. Translated into fuel consumption per 100 km is 5,2 l/100 km in city driving and 4,9 l/100 km on the open road.

Large oil producers, such as BP33, consider that in future, up to 2030. PHV will be domi‐ nant, primarily due to a reduction in fuel consumption per kilometer of the road, figure 11.

5. Factors that influence the further development of the EV

Transport in cities today is based on other petroleum derivatives. With today's technical sol‐ utions existing EV’s does not have enough energy so that it can achieve a radius of move‐ ment and performance competitive with internal combustion powered vehicles. On the other hand, the absence of exhaust emissions and low noise make the EV attractive for some specific purposes such as short trips with frequent stops in which vehicles with internal combustion engines would have inefficient work.

In addition to high economic dependence on oil and oil products, is a common problem and protecting the environment, reducing emissions and greenhouse gases. It is anticipated that, due to technology development, energy consumption in production systems, despite the larger volume of production in the coming years largely be stagnant.

There are several factors that influence the development of EV:

• Growth in world population and transportation needs

• Energy demand in the world

• Crude oil as an energy source

• Pollution and global warming

• World production and consumption

• Efficiency of electric drives

5.1. The growth in world population and transportation needs

As the main means of mass transportation, cars with internal combustion engines marked the twentieth century. However, the consequences of this form of mass transportation are a large amount of harmful exhaust substances that pollute the environment. Finding alternative ener‐ gy sources that would move the vehicle could solve this problem. One possible solution is EV.

50

New Generation of Electric Vehicles

Country

Number of vehicles

01 China

13.897.083

02 Japan

8.307.382

03 Germany

5.552.409

04 South Korea

3.866.206

05 Brazil

2.828.273

06 India

2.814.584

07 US

2.731.105

08 France

1.922.339

09 Spain

1.913.513

10 Mexico

1.390.163

Table 4. Production of passenger cars in the world's 2010th in [41].

The world in 2010. year, according to OICA in [41], produced 58,305,112 passenger vehicles used to transport passengers. China topped the list with almost 24% of produced cars fol‐ lowed by Japan, Germany and South Korea. Despite the large car manufacturers for which she is known in the world, the U.S. ranks only seventh in the world,

5.2. Energy demand in the world

Population growth in the world and general technical advances cause a growing need for all types of energy. Percentage of growth energy use needs in the world is greater than the per‐ centage of population growth. Today, more than half, or 56 % of the world's energy con‐ sumed in the U.S., Japan and the European Union. As these countries are relatively poor in energy resources, they represent the largest energy importers.

250

200

150

100

50

0

1990

1995

2000

2007

2015

2020

2025

2030

2035

(PWh)Energy

Year

Figure 12. Consumption or total primary energy in the world since 1990. to the date and forecast till 2035.

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The statistical overview of the total consumption of primary energy in the world since 1.990. to date, as well as forecast till 2.035. years is shown in figure 12 and expressed in PWh. in [42].

Estimates are that due to increasing consumer demands, and especially because of increas‐ ing demands for the transportation of goods and people, energy demand increased by about 1.5 to 2 % per annum. It is believed that in the period from 2000. to 2050. The demand for energy will be more than doubled.

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

1990

2000

2007

2015

2025

2035

(PWh)Energy

Year

Nuclear

Renewab

le

Natural

Gas

Coal

Liquid

fuel

Figure 13. Types of suitable monitoring of energy in the world in the period since 1990. year to date and fore‐ cast by 2035.

The different energy sources in total or primary energy consumption in the world in the same period and forecast up until 2035. is presented in figure 13. This balance includes oil, natural gas, solid fuels, nuclear energy and renewable energy sources with heat recovery lost during combustion of other fuel types. Weaker energy sources, such as wood, biomass and other sources in these considerations are not taken into account.

It may be noted that the share of nuclear 'energy significantly increases and the prediction indicate that, despite all the concern and dissatisfaction of the "green" this type of energy will be exploited more and more. There are expectations that all types of renewable energy products and exploit all the more. Although these sources are currently produced per unit of energy even more expensive than others, it is believed that in the future primarily due to new technologies and mass production price significantly reduced.

Coal remains the main source of energy. Consumption and production of natural gas is in‐ creasing. Production of hydropower is poor because the share of water flows in the produc‐ tion of electricity is utilized enough.

5.3. Oil as an energy source

Although the share of oil in total primary energy percentage decreases, production, con‐ sumption of oil is generally increasing. There are opposing tendencies: on the one hand, in‐

52

New Generation of Electric Vehicles

creased daily transport of people and goods, while the second reduction of imported energy, environment and the negative economic balance. Over 97 % of fuel consumed in the transport sector, U.S. in [43], is based on oil, and this represents about two-thirds of the total national oil consumption. Although the specific consumption of liquid fuels in vehicles since 1970. The steadily declining, population growth and the length of distance traveled per capi‐ ta is increasing and contributing to the total consumption of liquid fuels for transport.

And if efforts are made to find new sources and new facts indicate that this type of energy is slowly decreasing and scientists expect that for some time all sources of energy will dry up.

Figure 14. Prices of petroleum products on the market in Rotterdam in [44]. since 1993. expressed in U.S. $ per barrel.

Figure 15. Forecast of global production of liquid fuels by 2035.

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According to a statistical review of BP (British Petroleum) [44], in 2.011., figure 14 shows the increase in prices of petroleum products in Rotterdam since 1993. expressed in U.S. dollars per barrel.

Forecast of production of petroleum products in the world by 2.035. year, according to the Energy Information Administration (EIA) in [42], is shown in figure 15. We hope to discover new oil fields, and activate the existing drain current, so that the next 25 years, production of crude oil will mainly keep the existing values. Expected to increase consumption of natu‐ ral gas and non-conventional liquid fuels. At the same time certain redistribution of the con‐ sumption of liquid fuels will be made. Expected increase in consumption of liquid fuels for transport and to a lesser extent for other consumers.

Taking into account today and proven preset fossil fuel reserves can be estimated that up to half of the century the transport sector and transport of energy resources was largely satis‐ fied, but certainly not after the 2050th year, if only with today's fuel reserves appeared a new energy crisis, in [45].

5.4. Environmental pollution and global warming

Modern transport has contributed to overall economic progress but also caused problems and environmental pollution, traffic congestion and problems of energy supply - particular‐ ly in times of energy crisis.

Air pollution by burning fuel in motor vehicles becomes the most important global issue, especially in urban areas worldwide. Emission of pollutants originating from motor vehi‐ cles caused by the level of traffic, possibility of roads and weather conditions. Pollutants from the exhaust system of motor vehicles reach the atmosphere and are dependent com‐ position, and fuel volatility.

In terms of impact on global atmospheric pollution and problems associated with it, the most important effect is the increase in global mean temperature. From the standpoint of global warming the greatest danger represents carbon dioxide, an unavoidable component of the combustion products of petroleum products, in [46].

Human activities in the past two centuries have been based on the large use of hydrocar‐ bons to obtain the necessary energy. Therefore, the amount of "greenhouse gases" in the at‐ mosphere has increased and is expected to lead to increase in average global temperature.

In addition to air pollution in violation of the environment and space as a significant natural resource waste oils are participating, as well as uncontrolled release of oil, in [47]. to con‐ taminate surface and groundwater.

In contrast to the natural greenhouse effect, an additional effect caused by human activi‐ ty contributes to global warming and may have serious consequences for humanity. Earth's average surface temperature has increased by about 0,6 °C in [48], only during the twentieth century.

In addition, if we can not take any steps toward limiting emissions of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, concentrations of carbon dioxide by 2100. can be expected to reach values

54

New Generation of Electric Vehicles

between 540 and 970 million particles of the volume. This concentration of carbon dioxide is leading to global temperature increase between 1,4 and 5,8 °C by the end of this century.

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

2007

2015

2020

2025

2030

2035

(tm3)CO2

Year

OECD

Not OECD

Figure 16. Forecast comparison of carbon emissions in the period since 2007. until 2035. The OECD countries and oth‐ er countries.

The temperature rise of this magnitude would also have impacted on the entire Earth's cli‐ mate, and would be manifested trough the frequent rainfall, more tropical cyclones and nat‐

ural disasters every year in certain regions, or on the other hand, in other regions such as long periods of drought, which would overall have a very bad effect on agriculture. Entire ecosystems could be severely threatened extinction of species that could not be fast enough

to

adapt to climate change.

In

order to reduce air pollution from vehicles and to make more economical cars in the fight

against global warming and reducing dependence on oil in the U.S. are preparing new standards for reducing automobile emissions and reduce consumption of fossil fuels. The in‐ tention of the U.S. administration is that these measures by 2016. reduce he emissions from vehicles by 30 %. Under the new standards for passenger vehicles, fuel consumption must be reduced to a level of 35,5 miles/gallon (6,62 l/100 km) in [49]. It is expected that new pro‐ posals for new vehicles in the average rise in price by about 1,300 $ in 2016. year. It should be noted that the U.S. is the largest automobile market in the world with about 250 million registered vehicles

5.5. World production and consumption of electric energy in the World

A necessary precondition for economic development and growth of each country and the re‐

gion is safe and reliable electricity supply. Electricity consumption per capita is highest in the Nordic countries (to a maximum of 24,677 kWh, Iceland) and in North America. Almost half of EU countries have nuclear power plants so that in France and Lithuania almost 75 %

of electricity is obtained from nuclear power plants in [50].

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The growth and forecast growth of electricity production in the world and the total energy consumption in the period 1990 - 2035, according to the Energy Information Administration (EIA) is shown in Figure 17.

Base for observation of this comparison was taken 1990. year. It may be noted that the real growth of electricity consumption in the period since 1990. to 2006. is 59 % and overall ener‐ gy consumption 36 %. Forecasted growth in electricity consumption by 2025. amounts to 181 % and overall energy consumption 95 %.

Production and consumption of electricity for years has a steady growth of around 3.3 % per year. Normal for middle-income countries has a slightly higher growth. Electricity produc‐ tion is obtained mostly by burning solid fuel 40 % and natural gases about 20 %. About 16 % of electricity obtained from hydropower and only slightly less, 15 % from nuclear power plants. Less than 10 % is obtained from petroleum.

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

2007

2015

2020

2025

2030

2035

(PWh)Energy

Year

Liquid

fuel

Coal

Natural

Gas

Renewab

le

Nuclear

Figure 17. The share of energy in electricity generation in the world since 1971. to 2001, [50] Last few decades, the share of electricity derived from nuclear power plants have increased considerably and from hydro has declined, al‐ though the total growth in electricity production obtained from hydropower continued. It is believed that the near future will experience significant increase in production of electricity from nuclear power plants, to a lesser extent from natural gas, and later also from renewable sources.

5.6. Efficiency of electric drives

Efficiency of electric vehicles was marked several times when lead-acid batteries were used. It can be divided into two parts: the degree of usefulness in the charging and dis‐ charging the batteries.

Batteries with a charger efficiency of 85 % conditioned that 15 % of the total power dissipat‐ ed in heat, all for process for charging batteries or refill the tank "of electricity." Charging process is followed by the inevitable losses, so that for certain conditions and the charge cur‐

56

New Generation of Electric Vehicles

rent was 82 %. This creates a loss of primary energy by 15,3 %. This implies that already in the charging of batteries about 30 % of the total electrical energy is converted into losses.

The process of discharging the battery is quite complex. How discharge current overcome five- hour discharge current and they belong to one-hour mode current to or even lower, there is a significant drop in efficiency. For example. one-hour discharge mode, discharge current is about 3,7 times higher than the five-hour, and a level of efficiency is 0,65. In discharge mode for 0,5 h, discharge current is about 5,5 times higher and the efficiency is only 0,45. In the tested ve‐ hicle we had a 45-minute discharge mode in which the utilization rate of 0,56, so that the pri‐ mary energy from the power grid consumes an additional 30.7%. Practically, this much power is necessary to drive electric cars and overcoming all resistance to traction.

Assembly drive motor and voltage regulator exceeds the value of the degree of utilization of 94 % with the direction of growth, regardless of whether the DC or AC powered. For these components not more than 7 % is lost of electricity drawn from the power grid. Transmis‐ sion along with the transmission gear has high efficiency of about 96 %, so that the compo‐ nents of the electric drive consumes only 1,5 % of primary energy.

Taking into account all the losses in transport of the electricity from the power grid to power the drive wheels of the vehicle may be test requirements for electric vehicles Yugo – E, in [51] obtain overall efficiency:

h h

=

·

h h

·

h

·

h

·

h

=

0,85

·

0,82

·

0,65

pa

a

1

·

a

2

r

em

t

Figure 18. Diagram of losses and efficiency of electric vehicles.

·

0,94

·

0,96

=

0, 41

Charger 85%

Charging 82%

Discharging 65%

Electromotor and

regulator 94%

Transmission 96%

Total efficiency 51%

(1)

The efficiency of primary energy is much better than machines with conventional drive. Useful power is consumed in four parts and to overcoming of resistance: frictional, wind

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(aerodynamic), climb and acceleration. Computer data indicates that at a constant speed on flat road of 60 km/h, about 60 % of output used for overcoming the friction force, and about 40 % to overcoming aerodynamic drag.

In order to analyze the total energy efficiency level of the energy source to the wheels of the vehicle, it is necessary to bear in mind the following:

• The efficiency of exploitation from the mine of natural fuels (fossil fuel or nuclear energy),

• Electricity production and

• The network transport.

Efficiency of electricity production can vary widely. According to European measurements, ranges from 39 % for plants with coal production to 44 % for power plants with natural gas, or the average value of 42 %. Combined cycle power plant with natural gas can reach the level of efficiency over 58 %. If we multiplied the average value of 42 % by the transfer efficiency of 92 %, the sources of efficiency of the reservoir of 38 % is obtained. Battery charger recharges the battery, and transmission losses in the electric motor give the utility of the reservoir of energy to the wheels of 65-80 %. Thus the total utility from the source to the wheels is from 25 to 30 %.

Exploitation of natural fuel and transport network are dependent of the type of energy but have an average efficiency of about 92 %. Together with the losses in transport and process‐ ing of getting the total level of efficiency from source to reservoir of about 83 %. But the in‐ ternal combustion engine is only 15-20 % of energy into useful work. Thus the total utility of the source to the wheels is 12 to 17 %.

Energy efficiency is extremely important information on the consumption of electricity from power grid to travel kilometer of the road. It is obtained as the ratio of distance traveled per unit of electricity consumed. Measurements have been made in Serbia, in [51, 53]. driving a constant speed along a straight road in the hilly city driving. The results showed that the energy efficiency of a flat open road is about 5,1 km/kWh, while in the hilly city driving about 4,5 miles/kWh. The specific energy consumed, defined as the ratio of electrical energy from the power grid per unit distance traveled, or as the reciprocal of the energy economy, is on a flat open road below 0,2 km/kWh in the hilly city driving around 0,22 km/kWh.

ICE

EV

From source to reservoir

83 %

38 %

From the reservoir of energy to the wheels

15–20 %

65-80 %

Total: From the source to the wheels

12–17 %

25-30 %

Table 5. The current level of utility vehicles with ICE and the EV, in [52].

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New Generation of Electric Vehicles

6. Problems and Prospects "energy reservoir"

Development and implementation of future EV largely depend on the technical characteris‐ tics of the components of the drive. It is difficult to change established habits of drivers in the world, with the expectation from a motor vehicle to transport them quickly from one lo‐ cation to another. The main disadvantage of EV is in the battery pack and that they still can not accumulate more than 200 Wh/kg energy. If compared to liquid fuels about 12.000 Wh/kg, this very fact means that the tank cars with conventional internal combustion en‐ gine, which weighs about 40 kg can store approximately 480 kWh of energy in modern Li ion battery heavy around 300 kg only about 60 kWh electricity.

Promising system Li-air batteries with 1.700 Wh/kg will be able to fully provide the compa‐ rative characteristics of the EV and to thereby make the transition to a completely pure EV.

It is interesting to note that the investigation of an aluminum-air battery has started several decades ago because of the high energy potential, because of the opportunities for quick re‐ placement of worn out mechanical anode and the economy, in [54]. It was worked on the development of aluminum-air battery with the anode of aluminum which is alloyed with small amounts of alloying components and a neutral aqueous solution of sodium chloride NaCl as the electrolyte in [55]. The prototype battery achieved 34/39 W/kg specific power and specific energy of 170-190 Wh/kg, the optimal current density between 50 and 100 mA/cm 2, which at the present level of development of chemical power sources is a battery of exceptional quality. The lack of battery life is relatively high cost of components which are used for alloying aluminum anode.

The energy density of gasoline is 13.000 Wh/kg, which is shown as "a theoretical energy den‐ sity" (Figure 19). The average utilization rate of passenger cars with IC engine, from the fuel tank to the wheels, is about 13 % in US, so that "useful energy density" of gasoline for vehi‐ cles use is around 1.700 Wh/kg. It is shown as "practical" energy density of gasoline. The ef‐ ficiencie of autonomous electric propulsion system (battery-wheels) is about 85 %. Significantly improvement of current Li-ion energy density of batteries is about 10 times, which today is between 100 and 200 Wh/kg (at the cellular level), could make that electric propulsion system be equated with a gasoline powered, at least, to specific useful energy. However, there is no expectation that the existing batteries, as Li-ion, have ever come close to the target of 1,700 Wh/kg.

Oxidation of 1 kg of lithium metal, releases about 11.680 Wh/kg, which is slightly lower than gasoline. This is shown as a theoretical energy density of lithium-air batteries. However, it is expected that the real energy density of Li-ion batteries will be much smaller.

The existing metal-air batteries, such as Zn-air, usually have a practical energy density of about 40-50 % of its theoretical energy density. However, it is safe to assume, that even fully devel‐ oped Li-air cells will not achieve such a great relationship, because lithium is very lightweight, and therefore, the mass of the battery casing and electrolytes will have a much bigger impact.

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Figure 19. Energy density of different types of batteries and gasoline in [56].

Fortunately, the energy density of 1700 Wh/kg for a fully charged battery pack fits only 14.5 % of the theoretical energy content of lithium metal. It is realistic to expect, achieve mint of such energy density, at the cellular level, considering the intense and long team’s development in [54]. Energy density of complete batteries is only a half of density, realizedat the cellular level.

It is interesting to mention, that the significant results in development this type of battery are achieved in the laboratories of the Institute of Electrochemistry ICTM and the Institute of Technical Sciences SASA, where they were working on development of aluminum-air bat‐ tery with the aluminium anode alloyed with small amounts of alloying components and the neutral aqueous solution NaCl, as the electrolyte in [57]. The prototype of such batteries, had achieved a power density of 34/39 W/kg, and energy density of 170-190 Wh/kg, by opti‐ mal current density between 50 and 100 mA/cm 2.

Volumetric energy (in Wh/l) in the storage batteries is an important feature of the design consid‐ erations also. This requirement is the best expressed by condition that there is a maximum ca‐ pacity of 300 dm 3(family car) for battery pack and auxiliary systems. A driving range of 500 miles (800 km) requires that the reservoir of energy, store energy of 125 kWh (with power con‐ sumption of 250 Wh/km), so that the volume of 300 dm 3is limiting specific gravity of the bat‐ tery pack, including space for air circulation, must not be less than 0,5 kg/dm 3.

Power density: While Li-air systems imply an extremely high energy density, their power densi‐ ty (measured in W/kg of batteries weight) is relatively low. The prototype of Li-air cells ach‐ ieves current density, in average 1mA/cm 2, which is insufficient and is expecting significantly increase of the current density for at least 10 times. One way to achieve the required power density is the creation of a hybrid electric drive system, where a small, high power battery, for

60

New Generation of Electric Vehicles

example, on the basis of Li-ion technology, would provide the power in short periods of high demand, such as it is acceleration. Supercapacitors could be used instead of these batteries.

Duration: The current Li-air cells show a possibility of full charge cycles, only about 50, with less capacity loss. Future research efforts must be directed towards improving the accumu‐ lated capacity in multiple discharges. In addition, the total number of charge cycles and dis‐ charge do not mean to be very large, due to the high energy capacity of Li-ion cells. For example, a battery, designed for duration of 250.000 km, and projected to cross the EV radi‐ us of movement of 800 km, should be charged only 300 times (Full cycle equivalent) in [58]. It is necessary to keep in mind that a lot of air will go through the battery during operation, and even a short-term accumulation of moisture, can be harmful to duration.

Safety: EV batteries will be, especially in the beginning of the application, complying with extremely high safety standards, even more strictly than at gasoline car.

Price: Design requirements of high-capacity battery for the drive EV are quite strict, but they are quite well defined. They will serve as guidelines for the scientific research, con‐ ducted on the Li-air battery system. Batteries for EV power have been just carrying out the transition from nickel metal hydride to Li-ion batteries, after years of researching and developing. Transition to the Li-ion batteries should be viewed in terms of a similar de‐ velopment cycle. It is known that, the price of each product, decreases with increasing mass production. It is expecting that the EV prices will decline, because of falling down prices of Li-air batteries, including the price of EV. However, support to introduction of new vehicles in traffic would be systematically addressed.

Battery

Energy density

Specific

Number

Energy

Self disch.

Duration

Price

types

Wh/kg/

power

of rechar.

efficiency

for 24

years

US$/kWh

Wh/litar

W/kg

cycles

hours

PbO

40/60-75

180

500

82 %

1 %

2,5-4

100-150

NiCd

50/50-150

150

1.350

72,5 %

5 %

NiMH

70/140-300

250-1000

1.350

70,0 %

2 %

5-7

300-500

Li-ion

125/270

1800

1.000

90,0 %

1 %

5-10

"/"/1000

Li-ion

200/300

"/3000

-

-

-

polymer

NaNiCl

125/300

-

1.000

92,5 %

0 %

(Zebra)

Table 6. Characteristics of different types of batteries.

Accommodation of batteries as a power source, for vehicles with electric drive, is a big prob‐ lem also depending on technological solution of batteries. As it can be seen, in table 6 in [59], lead-acid batteries have a low energy, per unit mass and volume and a relatively small num‐ ber of charge cycles. In contrast, modern Li-ion batteries and NaNiCl, have significant ener‐

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gy capacity, with a larger number of charges and are of a stable voltage. However, the latter ones are sensitive to warming and may have an energy loss up to 7,2 %.

Battery duration should be, always, taken into account, when their price is consideration. The duration depends on several factors, such as how often the vehicle is in use and how many times the batteries have been filled up. In table 6, there are data on duration expectan‐ cy of certain batteries types and price per unit of energy.

7. Conclusion

It can be concluded that the future and the past belong to the EV. Nevertheless, new sources of liquid fuels are still to be found, their exploitation is more expensive and there is less of it in the world. In addition, it is necessary to preserve oil as a resource to other industry where you can not find an alternative. On the other hand, electricity is usually sufficient. If in the meantime renewable energy booms, the possibility of its cheap produc‐ tion will open. This means that, in addition to the environmental, economic and condi‐ tions for wider use of electric vehicles will gain.

Almost all the problems related to the production of EV technology are sufficiently well re‐ solved, with high efficiency. The biggest problem is the electrical energy storage. Fuel cells, electrochemical sources, supercapacitors, or new sources that could be made sufficiently compact and inexpensive, would allow in the near future, the transition from vehicles that use liquid fuels to electric vehicles.

It is likely that the transition from internal combustion vehicles to EV won’t be quick. Still these ones are inferior and can not meet potential customers in all circumstances. Battery develop‐ ment has made great progress but still not enough. In addition, if the battery problem will be solved, there are still many problems that need to be better addressed. Some of these problems will resolve themselves, as prices fall with the increased production, but others, supporting the introduction of new vehicle traffic will be much harder to resolve spontaneously.

So far EV‘s are more expensive than existing and have certain restrictions of applications you still can not replace the existing vehicles of most vehicle owners in the world. In order to create habits of the driver for the purchase and use of EV, economically strong countries are introducing incentive funds for the EV and HV, which gives definite results. First, there are certain financial incentives for the purchase of the vehicle. In addition, the purchase of EV are not paying taxes, in the cities parking is free for them, vehicles do not pay a toll and in the cities they can move in traffic bands reserved for public transport vehicles. The most important thing is to develop a refilling station for batteries which often offer free recharge EV.EV should not be that expensive investment, especially in large-scale production. So far, the most expensive and also less than perfect for use in EV its battery. Therefore, the most intensive scientific research carried out exactly in this area.

In a situation of permanent oil price increases and increased air pollution, especially in cit‐ ies, two solutions to the problem occurred.

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New Generation of Electric Vehicles

In accordance with the statements of U.S. President, U.S. moved in the direction of energy efficiency and savings in transportation of petroleum products. This means that it is headed in the direction of HV use with the aim to reduce consumption of the average U.S. vehicle to 6,62 l/100km. Although the U.S. made the extremely popular EV Tesla Roadstar, more U.S. government supports all major car manufacturers to start producing HV.

At the same time as the major importers of oil turned to the study and making Plug in EV or pure EV. First who did it is Germany ahead of the EU, but also China and other countries.

8. Nomenclature

AC-Alternating current

BP-British Petroleum

DC-Direct current

EIA-Energy Information Administration (EIA)

EU-European Union

EV-Electric Vehicle

HV-Hybrid vehicle

Li-air-Lithium- air

Li-ion-Lithium- ion

OIC-AInternational Organization of Motor Vehicle

OPEC-Organization of Petroleum Exporting States

PHV-Plug-in Hybrid

IC-Internal combustion engine

UN-United Nations

ZEV-Zero Emissions Vehicle

Acknowledgements

This work was financially supported by the Ministry of Education and Science Republic of Serbia through projects TR 35041, TR 35042 and TR 35036

The Contribution and Prospects of the Technical Development on Implementation of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles

United Nations. (2001). Department of Economic and Social Affairs ST/ESA/SER.A/ 202, Population Division, Population, Environment and Development, The Concise Report, New York, 44-45, http://www.un.org/spanish/esa/population/, accessed 1 July 2012.

Pucar, M., & Josimović, B. (2002). The influence of transport on energy and environ‐ mental crisis and some possible solutions to these problems. Žabljak. Proceedings of the meeting: Road and Environment, 27-34.

Electric vehicles (EVs) have been gaining attention in the last few years due to growing pub‐ lic concerns about urban air pollution and other environmental and resource problems. The technological evolution of the EVs of different types: Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV), battery electric vehicles (BEV) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), will probably lead to a progressive penetration of EV´s in the transportation sector taking the place of vehicles with internal combustion engines (ICEV). The interesting feature of EVs (only available for BEVs and PHEVs) is the possibility of plugging into a standard electric power outlet so that they can charge batteries with electric energy from the grid.

While a large penetration of plug-in EVs is expected to increase electricity sales, extra gener‐ ation capacity is not needed if the EVs are recharged at times of low demand, such as over‐ night hours. EVs, as a local zero emissions’ vehicle, could only provide a good opportunity to reduce CO 2emissions from transport activities if the emissions that might be saved from reducing the consumption of oil wouldn´t be off-set by the additional CO 2generated by the power sector in providing for the load the EVs represent. Therefore, EVs can only become a viable effective carbon mitigating option if the electricity they use to charge their batteries is generated through low carbon technologies.

In a scenario where a commitment was made to reduce emissions from power generation, the build-up of large amounts of renewable power capacity raises important issues related to the power system operation (Skea, J, et al., 2008), (Halamay et al., 2011), as a result, power system operators need to take measures to balance an increasingly volatile power genera‐ tion with the demand, and to keep the system reliability. To perform these actions, the SO (system operator) needs to access active and reactive power reserves which are either con‐ tractually established with the power generators or traded in the ancillary system market

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(Estanqueiro, A. et al., 2010). These requirements represent an extra cost for the system which might adequately quantify the negative effect of the variability and uncertainty of each renewable generation technology.

Practically speaking, there are additional external costs of integrating renewable inflexible generation in the power systems, namely in terms of backup capacity, needed to balance power generation and demand when the renewable generation is lower than forecasted, and some kind of storage or demand shift, needed to integrate excesses of renewable generation, especially likely to occur in the off-peak periods.

In this context, electric vehicles can bring techno-economical advantages for the electric power system because of their great load flexibility and increase the system storage capaci‐ ty. In fact, EVs are parked 93% of their lifetime, making it easy for them to charge either at home, at work, or at parking facilities, hence implying that the time of day in which they charge, can easily vary and, furthermore, for future energy systems, with a high electrifica‐ tion of transportation, Vehicle to Grid (V2G), where the EV works also as an energy suppli‐ er, can offer a potential storage capacity and use stored energy in batteries to support the grid in periods of shortage (Kempton and Tomic, 2005). Although each vehicle is small in its impact on the power system, a large number of vehicles can be significant either as an addi‐ tional charge or a source of distributed generating capacity.

While the aggregate demand for electricity is increasing, decentralized power generation is gaining significance in liberalized electricity markets, and small size electricity consumers are becoming also potential producers. Prosumer is a portmanteau derived by combining the word producer, or provider, with the word consumer. It refers to the evolution of the small size passive consumer towards a more active role in electricity generation and the pro‐ vision of grid services.

This chapter is concerned with studying how the electric vehicle can work as a “prosumer” (producer and consumer) of electricity. The benefits to the electric utilities and the costs of services provided by EVs in each type of power market will be addressed. The potential im‐ pacts of the EVs on the electricity systems, with a great amount of renewable sources in the generation mix will be studied with a focus on the additional power demand and power supply an EV can represent, the role of a new agent on the power market – The EV aggrega‐ tor – and the economic impacts of EVs on electric utilities.

The analysis of the impact on the electric utilities of large-scale adoption of plug-in electric vehicles as prosumers will be illustrated with a real case study.

Many studies regarding battery electric vehicles and Plug in hybrids have been, and contin‐ ue to be performed in different countries. In the US, for instance, the capacity of the electric power infrastructure in different regions was studied for the supply of the additional load due to PHEV penetration (Kintner-Meyer et al., 2007) and the economic assessment of the impacts of PHEV adoption on vehicles owners and on electric utilities (Scott et al., 2007). Other studies (Hadley, 2006) considered the scenario of one million PHEVs added to a US sub-region and analyzed the potential changes in demand, impacts on generation adequacy, transmission and distribution and later the same analysis was extended to 13 US regions

with the inclusion of GHG estimation for each of the seven scenarios performed for each re‐ gion (Hadley, 2008). The ability to schedule both charging and very limited discharging of PHEVs could significantly increase power system utilization. The evaluation of the effects of optimal PHEV charging, under the assumption that utilities will indirectly or directly con‐ trol when charging takes place, providing consumers with the absolute lowest cost of driv‐ ing energy by using low-cost off-peak electricity, was also studied (Denholm and Short, 2006). This study was based on existing electricity demand and driving patterns, six geo‐ graphic regions in the United States were evaluated and found that when PHEVs derive 40% of their miles from electricity, no new electric generation capacity was required under optimal dispatch rules for a 50% PHEV penetration. A similar study was made also by NREL (National Renewable Energy Laboratory) but here the analysis focused only one spe‐ cific region and four scenarios for charging were evaluated in terms of grid impact and also in terms of GHG emissions (Parks et al., 2007). The results showed that off-peak charging would be more efficient in terms of grid stress and energy costs and a significant reduction on CO 2emissions was expected thought an increase in SO 2emissions was also expected due to the off peak charging being composed of a large amount of coal generation. Studies made for Portugal (Camus et al., 2011) of the impacts in load profiles, spot electricity prices and emissions of a mass penetration of EV showed that reductions in primary energy consump‐ tion, fossil fuels use and CO 2emissions of up to 3%, 14% and 10% could be achieved by year 2020 in a 2 million EVs’ scenario, energy prices could range 0.9€ to 3.2€ per 100 km accord‐ ing to the time of charging (peak and off-peak) and the electricity production mix. A recent report (Grunig M. et al., 2011) that analyzed the EV market for the next years concluded that, the market penetration of EVs will remain fairly low compared to conventional vehi‐ cles. The estimation based on several government announcements, industry capacities and proliferation projects sees more than five million new Electric Vehicles on the road globally until 2015 (excluding two- and three-wheelers), the majority of these in the European Union. The main markets for Electric Vehicle are in order of importance the EU, the US and Asia (China and Japan). Some further target markets like Israel and the Indian subcontinent are also expected to evolve. In the long term, the share of EVs will most likely increase as addi‐ tional countries adopt technologies and initiate projects.

The first description of the key concepts of V2G appeared in 1996, in an article (Kempton and Letendre, 1996) written by researchers at the University of Delaware. In this report the approach was to describe the advantages of peak power to be supplied by EDVs connected to the grid. Further work from the same researchers was continued (Kempton and Letendre, 2002) and the possible power services provided for the grid by vehicles were increased by the analysis of spinning reserve and regulation. The formulation of the business models for V2G and the advantages for a grid that supports a lot of intermittent renewable were descri‐ bed specially for the case of wind power shortage (Kempton and Tomic, 2005a; Kempton and Tomic, 2005b). The use of a fleet for providing regulation down and up was studied and how the V2G power could provide a significant revenue stream that would improve the eco‐ nomics of grid-connected electric-drive vehicles and further encourage their adoption were evaluated (Tomic and Kempton, 2007). The potential impact of renewable generation on the ancillary service market, with a focus on the ability of EVs to provide such services via de‐

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mand response (DR) and V2G were analyzed. The document also presents a revenue model that incorporates potential scenarios regarding EV adoption, electricity prices, and driver behavior. The output of the model determines the overall revenue opportunity for aggrega‐ tors who plan to provide DR-EV (Leo M. et al., 2011), although, there is a significantly large market for these services, the limited revenue opportunity for aggregators on a per car basis is unlikely to be compelling enough to justify a business model. According to a recent report from Pike Research (Gibson B., Gartner J., 2011), EVs compete with traditional generation sources as well as emerging technologies, such as stationary battery storage, for revenue from ancillary services such as frequency regulation and demand response.