Contents

White fabrics acquire a slight color cast after use (usually grey or yellow), since blue and yellow are complementary colors in the subtractive color model of color perception, adding a trace of blue color to the slightly off-white color of these fabrics makes them appear whiter. Laundry detergents may also use fluorescing agents to similar effect. Many white fabrics are blued during manufacturing. Bluing is not permanent and rinses out over time leaving dingy or yellowed whites. A commercial bluing product allows the consumer to add the bluing back into the fabric to restore whiteness.

On the same principle, bluing is sometimes used by white-haired people in a blue rinse.

Blue colorings have been added to rinse water for centuries, first in the form of powder blue or smalt, or using small lumps of indigo and starch, called stone blue, after the invention of synthetic ultramarine and Prussian blue it was manufactured by many companies, including Mrs. Stewart's Bluing in the US, Reckitt's Crown Blue in Hull and the Lancashire Ultramarine Company's Dolly Blue at Backbarrow (later purchased by Reckitt & Sons).[1] It was popular until the mid-twentieth century in the UK and US, and is still widely used in India and Pakistan; in many places, it has been replaced by bleach for its primary purpose.

Bluing is usually sold in liquid form, but it may also be a solid. Solid bluing is sometimes used by hoodoo doctors to provide the blue color needed for "mojo hands" without having to use the toxic compound copper sulfate. Bluing was also used by some Native American tribes to mark their arrows showing tribe ownership.[citation needed]

Textiles
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A textile or cloth is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres. Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or felting. The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades as synonyms for textile, however, there are

White
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White is an achromatic color, a color without hue. An incoming light to the eye that stimulates all its three types of color sensitive cone cells in nearly equal amounts results in white. White is one of the most common colors in nature, the color of sunlight, snow, milk, chalk, limestone, in many cultures white represents or signifies purity, inno

Laundry
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Laundry is the washing of clothing and linens. Laundry processes are often done in a reserved for that purpose. An apartment building or student hall of residence may have a laundry facility such as a tvättstuga. A stand-alone business is referred to as a laundrette, the material that is being washed, or has been laundered, is also generally referr

Blue
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Blue is the colour between violet and green on the optical spectrum of visible light. Human eyes perceive blue when observing light with a wavelength between 450 and 495 nanometres, which is between 4500 and 4950 ångströms. Blues with a frequency and thus a shorter wavelength gradually look more violet, while those with a lower frequency. Pure blue

1.
Sky blue or pale azure, mid-way on the RBG colour wheel between blue and cyan.

2.
Blue

3.
Extract of natural indigo, the most popular blue dye before the invention of synthetic dyes. It was the colour of the first blue jeans.

Dye
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A dye is a colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied. The dye is applied in an aqueous solution, and may require a mordant to improve the fastness of the dye on the fiber. Both dyes and pigments are colored because they absorb some wavelengths of light more than others, in contrast to dyes, pigments are in

Ultramarine
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Ultramarine is a deep blue color and a pigment which was originally made by grinding lapis lazuli into a powder. The name comes from the Latin ultramarinus, literally beyond the sea, Ultramarine was the finest and most expensive blue used by Renaissance painters. It was often used for the robes of the Virgin Mary and it remained an extremely expens

Prussian blue
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Prussian blue is a dark blue pigment with the idealized chemical formula Fe 718. To better understand the situation in this complex compound the formula can also be written as Fe 43 · xH 2O. Another name for the color is Berlin blue or, in painting, Turnbulls blue is the same substance, but is made from different reagents, and its slightly differen

Grey
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Grey or gray is an intermediate color between black and white. It is a neutral or achromatic color, meaning literally that it is a color without color and this means that there are equal components of red, green, and blue. The variations in intensity of these colors uniformly produce different shades of grey and it is the color of a cloud-covered s

Yellow
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Yellow is the color between green and orange on the spectrum of visible light. It is evoked by light with a predominant wavelength of roughly 570–590 nm, in traditional color theory, used in painting, and in the subtractive color system, used in color printing, yellow is a primary color. In the RGB color model, used to create colors on television a

Complementary colors
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Complementary colors are pairs of colors which, when combined, cancel each other out. This means that combined, they produce a grey-scale color like white or black. When placed next to other, they create the strongest contrast for those particular two colors. Due to this striking color clash, the term opposite colors is considered more appropriate

1.
A Boutet color circle from 1708 showed the traditional complementary colors; red and green, yellow and violet, and blue and orange.

2.
A traditional color star developed in 1867 by Charles Blanc. The traditional complementary colors used by 19th-century artists such as Van Gogh, Monet and Renoir are directly opposite each other.

3.
The color wheel designed by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1810) was based on the idea that the primary colors yellow and blue, representing light and darkness, were in opposition to each other.

4.
Impression, Sunrise by Claude Monet (1872) featured a tiny but vivid orange sun against a blue background. The painting gave its name to the Impressionist movement.

Subtractive color
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The color that a surface displays depends on which parts of the visible spectrum are not absorbed and therefore remain visible. Subtractive color systems start with light, presumably white light, colored inks, paints, or filters between the watchers and the light source or reflective surface subtract wavelengths from the light, giving it color. If

1.
An 1877 color photo by Louis Ducos du Hauron, a French pioneer of color photography. The overlapping subtractive yellow, cyan and red (magenta) image elements can be seen clearly along the edges of the image.

2.
Subtractive color mixing

Color perception
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Color vision is the ability of an organism or machine to distinguish objects based on the wavelengths of the light they reflect, emit, or transmit. In essence, different people see the same illuminated object or light source in different ways, isaac Newton discovered that white light splits into its component colours when passed through a dispersiv

Laundry detergent
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While detergent is still sold in powdered form, liquid detergents have been taking major market shares in many countries since their introduction in the 1950s. Laundry detergent pods have also sold within the United States since 2012 when they were introduced by Procter & Gamble as Tide Pods. Earlier instances of laundry detergent pods include Salv

1.
Laundry powder

Fluorescent brightener
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Fluorescent emission is a short-lived period of light emission by a fluorophore, unlike phosphorescence, which is long-lived. The most common classes of compounds with this property are the stilbenes, e. g.4, 4′-diamino-2, older, non-commercial fluorescent chemicals include as umbelliferone, which absorbs in the UV portion of the spectrum and re-em

1.
Laundry detergent fluorescing under ultraviolet light

Crystal
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A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually identifiable by their geometrical shape, the scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as cryst

Salt
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Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about 35 grams of solids per litre, Salt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues, Salt is one of the oldest and most ubi

4.
Ponds near Maras, Peru, fed from a mineral spring and used for salt production since the time of the Incas.

Solution
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In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is a substance dissolved in another substance, the mixing process of a solution happens at a scale where the effects of chemical polarity are involved, resulting in interactions that are specific to solvation. The solution assumes the c

Swimming pool
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A swimming pool, swimming bath, wading pool, or paddling pool is a structure designed to hold water to enable swimming or other leisure activities. Pools can be built into the ground or built above ground, many health clubs, fitness centers and private clubs, such as the YMCA, have pools used mostly for exercise or recreation. Many towns and cities

4.
Moskva Pool, at one time the largest swimming pool in the world (1980)

Water
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Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earths streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen, Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance, that prevails at standard ambient temperat

1.
Water in three states: liquid, solid (ice), and gas (invisible water vapor in the air). Clouds are accumulations of water droplets, condensed from vapor-saturated air.

2.
Impact from a water drop causes an upward "rebound" jet surrounded by circular capillary waves.

Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to t

Folk remedy
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Traditional medicine comprises medical aspects of traditional knowledge that developed over generations within various societies before the era of modern medicine. In some Asian and African countries, up to 80% of the population relies on traditional medicine for their health care needs. When adopted outside of its culture, traditional medicine is

4.
Sometimes traditional medicines include parts of endangered species, such as the slow loris in Southeast Asia.

Mosquito
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Mosquitoes are small, midge-like flies that constitute the family Culicidae. Females of most species are ectoparasites, whose tube-like mouthparts pierce the skin to consume blood. The word mosquito is Spanish for little fly, thousands of species feed on the blood of various kinds of hosts, mainly vertebrates, including mammals, birds, reptiles, am

Sand fly
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Sandfly is a colloquial name for any species or genus of flying, biting, blood-sucking dipteran encountered in sandy areas. Outside the United States, sandfly may refer to members of the subfamily Phlebotominae within the Psychodidae, biting midges are sometimes called sand flies or no-see-ums. New Zealand sandflies are in the Austrosimulium genus,

Colloid
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A colloid, in chemistry, is a mixture in which one substance of microscopically dispersed insoluble particles is suspended throughout another substance. Sometimes the dispersed substance alone is called the colloid, the colloidal suspension refers unambiguously to the overall mixture. Unlike a solution, whose solute and solvent constitute only one

Smalt
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Cobalt glass—known as smalt when ground as a pigment—is a deep blue colored glass prepared by including a cobalt compound, typically cobalt oxide or cobalt carbonate, in a glass melt. Cobalt is a very intense glass colorant and very little is required to show a noticeable amount of color. Cobalt blue glass is used as an optical filter in flame test

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Cobalt glass for decoration

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Ming dish, with smalt blue decoration

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Smalt, historical dye collection of the Technical University of Dresden, Germany

Reckitt Benckiser
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Reckitt Benckiser Group plc is a British multinational consumer goods company headquartered in Slough, England. It is a producer of health, hygiene and home products and it was formed in 1999 by the merger of the UK-based Reckitt & Colman plc and the Netherlands-based Benckiser NV. It has operations in around 60 countries and its products are sold

1.
Stoke Holy Cross Mill, in Norwich, England, the home of Colman's mustard from 1814 to 1862

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Reckitt Benckiser Group plc

3.
Durex condoms

4.
Lysol multi-surface cleaner

Kingston upon Hull
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Kingston upon Hull, usually abbreviated to Hull, is a city and unitary authority in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England. It lies upon the River Hull at its confluence with the Humber estuary,25 miles inland from the North Sea, the town of Hull was founded late in the 12th century. The monks of Meaux Abbey needed a port where the wool from their e

Backbarrow
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Backbarrow is a village in the Lake District National Park in England. It lies on the River Leven about 5 miles northeast of Ulverston in Furness in the county of Cumbria, Backbarrow probably grew during the Elizabethan period, due to the corn mills that were built along the river. Earlier mills at the site had been owned by Furness Abbey, developm

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The bridge at Backbarrow

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Remains of Backbarrow ironworks

India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to

3.
Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595

Liquid
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A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a constant volume independent of pressure. As such, it is one of the four states of matter. A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter, such as atoms, water is, by far, the most common liquid on Earth. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flo

Toxicity
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Toxicity is the degree to which a substance can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on an organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism. By extension, the word may be used to describe toxic effects on larger and more complex groups. Sometimes the word is more or less synon

Copper sulfate
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Copper sulfate, also known as cupric sulfate, or copper sulphate, is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula CuSO4x, where x can range from 0 to 5. The pentahydrate is the most common form, older names for this compound include blue vitriol, bluestone, vitriol of copper, and Roman vitriol. The pentahydrate, the most commonly encountered sa

Textile
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A textile or cloth is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres. Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or felting. The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades as synonyms for textile, however, there are

Chemical substance
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A chemical substance is a form of matter that has constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. It cannot be separated into components by physical methods, i. e. without breaking chemical bonds. Chemical substances can be chemical elements, chemical compounds, ions or alloys, Chemical substances are often called pure to set them apar

1.
Steam and liquid water are two different forms of the same chemical substance, water.

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Colors of a single chemical (Nile red) in different solvents, under visible and UV light, showing how the chemical interacts dynamically with its solvent environment.

4.
Potassium ferricyanide is a compound of potassium, iron, carbon and nitrogen; although it contains cyanide anions, it does not release them and is nontoxic.

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Textiles
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A textile or cloth is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres. Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or felting. The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades as synonyms for textile, however, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres, a fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods. Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but is often a piece of fabric used for a specific purpose. The word textile is from Latin, from the adjective textilis, meaning woven, from textus, the word cloth derives from the Old English clað, meaning a cloth, woven or felted material to wrap around one, from Proto-Germanic kalithaz. The discovery of dyed flax fibres in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests textile-like materials were made even in prehistoric times. The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization, however, for the main types of textiles, plain weave, twill, or satin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods. Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for such as bags. In the household they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, in the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Textiles are used in traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting. Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for applications, medical textiles, geotextiles, agrotextiles. In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met, woven of threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires, laboratory fabric has been shown capable of self-powering nanosystems using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements. Fashion designers commonly rely on textile designs to set their fashion collections apart from others, armani, the late Gianni Versace, and Emilio Pucci can be easily recognized by their signature print driven designs. Textiles can be made from many materials and these materials come from four main sources, animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic. In the past, all textiles were made from natural fibres, including plant, animal, in the 20th century, these were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum. Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest gossamer to the sturdiest canvas, microfibre refers to fibres made of strands thinner than one denier

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White
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White is an achromatic color, a color without hue. An incoming light to the eye that stimulates all its three types of color sensitive cone cells in nearly equal amounts results in white. White is one of the most common colors in nature, the color of sunlight, snow, milk, chalk, limestone, in many cultures white represents or signifies purity, innocence, and light, and is the symbolic opposite of black, or darkness. According to surveys in Europe and the United States, white is the color most often associated with perfection, the good, honesty, cleanliness, the beginning, the new, neutrality, and exactitude. In ancient Egypt and ancient Rome, priestesses wore white as a symbol of purity, in the Middle Ages and Renaissance a white unicorn symbolized chastity, and a white lamb sacrifice and purity, the widows of kings dressed in white rather than black as the color of mourning. It was also used in 20th century modern architecture as a symbol of modernity, simplicity. White is an important color for almost all world religions, the Pope, the head of the Roman Catholic Church, has worn white since 1566, as a symbol of purity and sacrifice. In Islam, and in the Shinto religion of Japan, it is worn by pilgrims, in Western cultures and in Japan, white is the most common color for wedding dresses, symbolizing purity and virginity. In many Asian cultures, white is also the color of mourning, the white color on television screens and computer monitors is created with the RGB color model by mixing red, green and blue light at equal intensities. The word white continues Old English hwīt, ultimately from a Common Germanic *χwītaz also reflected in OHG wîz, ON hvítr, the root is ultimately from Proto-Indo-European language *kwid-, surviving also in Sanskrit śveta to be white or bright and Slavonic světŭ light. The Icelandic word for white, hvítur, is derived from the Old Norse form of the word hvítr. Common Germanic also had the word *blankaz, borrowed into Late Latin as *blancus, the antonym of white is black. Some non-European languages have a variety of terms for white. The Inuit language has seven different words for seven different nuances of white, Japanese has six different words, depending upon brilliance or dullness, or if the color is inert or dynamic. White was one of the first colors used in art, the Lascaux Cave in France contains drawings of bulls and other animals drawn by paleolithic artists between 18,000 and 17,000 years ago. Paleolithic artists used calcite or chalk, they sometimes as a background, sometimes as a highlight, along with charcoal and red, in ancient Egypt, white was connected with the goddess Isis. The priests and priestesses of Isis dressed only in white linen, in Greece and other ancient civilizations, white was often associated with mothers milk. In Greek mythology, the chief god Zeus was nourished at the breast of the nymph Amalthea, in the Talmud, milk was one of four sacred substances, along with wine, honey, and the rose

White
White
White
White

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Laundry
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Laundry is the washing of clothing and linens. Laundry processes are often done in a reserved for that purpose. An apartment building or student hall of residence may have a laundry facility such as a tvättstuga. A stand-alone business is referred to as a laundrette, the material that is being washed, or has been laundered, is also generally referred to as laundry. Laundry was first done in watercourses, letting the water carry away the materials which could cause stains, laundry is still done this way in some less industrialized areas and rural regions. Agitation helps remove the dirt, so the laundry is often rubbed, twisted, wooden bats or clubs could be used to help with beating the dirt out. These were often called washing beetles or bats and could be used by the waterside on a rock, on a block and they were once common across Europe and were also used by settlers in North America. Similar techniques have also identified in Japan. When no watercourses were available, laundry was done in vats or vessels. Sometimes large metal cauldrons were filled with water and heated over a fire. Wooden or stone scrubbing surfaces set up near a water supply or portable washboards, including corrugated metal ones. A posser could be used to agitate clothes in a tub, once clean, the clothes were wrung out — twisted to remove most of the water. Then they were hung up on poles or clotheslines to air dry, before the advent of the washing machine, laundry was often done in a communal setting. In poor parts of the world today, laundry is still done beside a river or lake, villages across Europe that could afford it built a wash-house. Water was channelled from a stream or spring and fed into a building, such facilities were much more comfortable than washing in a watercourse because the launderers could work standing up instead of on their knees, and were protected from inclement weather. Also, they didnt have to go far, as the facilities were usually at hand in the village or at the edge of a town and these facilities were public and available to all families, and usually used by the entire village. Many of these village wash-houses are still standing, historic structures with no modern purpose. This job was reserved for women, who washed all their familys laundry, washerwomen took in the laundry of others, charging by the piece

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Blue
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Blue is the colour between violet and green on the optical spectrum of visible light. Human eyes perceive blue when observing light with a wavelength between 450 and 495 nanometres, which is between 4500 and 4950 ångströms. Blues with a frequency and thus a shorter wavelength gradually look more violet, while those with a lower frequency. Pure blue, in the middle, has a wavelength of 470 nanometers, in painting and traditional colour theory, blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments, along with red and yellow, which can be mixed to form a wide gamut of colours. Red and blue mixed together form violet, blue and yellow together form green, Blue is also a primary colour in the RGB colour model, used to create all the colours on the screen of a television or computer monitor. The clear sky and the sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. When sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the wavelengths are scattered more widely by the oxygen and nitrogen molecules. An optical effect called Tyndall scattering, similar to Rayleigh scattering, explains blue eyes, distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called atmospheric perspective. Blue has been used for art and decoration since ancient times and it is the most important color in Judaism. In the Middle Ages, cobalt blue was used to colour the stained glass windows of cathedrals, beginning in the 9th century, Chinese artists used cobalt to make fine blue and white porcelain. Blue dyes for clothing were made from woad in Europe and indigo in Asia, in 1828 a synthetic ultramarine pigment was developed, and synthetic blue dyes and pigments gradually replaced mineral pigments and vegetable dyes. Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Vincent van Gogh and other late 19th century painters used ultramarine and cobalt blue not just to depict nature, in the late 18th century and 19th century, blue became a popular colour for military uniforms and police uniforms. In the 20th century, because blue was associated with harmony, it was chosen as the colour of the flags of the United Nations. Surveys in the US and Europe show that blue is the colour most commonly associated with harmony, faithfulness, confidence, distance, infinity, the imagination, cold, and sometimes with sadness. In US and European public opinion polls it is the most popular colour, Blue is the colour of light between violet and green on the visible spectrum. Blues also vary in shade or tint, darker shades of blue contain black or grey, darker shades of blue include ultramarine, cobalt blue, navy blue, and Prussian blue, while lighter tints include sky blue, azure, and Egyptian blue. Today most blue pigments and dyes are made by a chemical process, the modern English word blue comes from Middle English bleu or blewe, from the Old French bleu, a word of Germanic origin, related to the Old High German word blao. In heraldry, the azure is used for blue

Blue
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Sky blue or pale azure, mid-way on the RBG colour wheel between blue and cyan.
Blue
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Blue
Blue
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Extract of natural indigo, the most popular blue dye before the invention of synthetic dyes. It was the colour of the first blue jeans.
Blue
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A block of lapis lazuli, originally used to make ultramarine.

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Dye
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A dye is a colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied. The dye is applied in an aqueous solution, and may require a mordant to improve the fastness of the dye on the fiber. Both dyes and pigments are colored because they absorb some wavelengths of light more than others, in contrast to dyes, pigments are insoluble and have no affinity for the substrate. Some dyes can be precipitated with a salt to produce a lake pigment. The majority of natural dyes are from plant sources, roots, berries, bark, leaves, and wood, fungi, textile dyeing dates back to the Neolithic period. Throughout history, people have dyed their textiles using common, locally available materials, scarce dyestuffs that produced brilliant and permanent colors such as the natural invertebrate dyes Tyrian purple and crimson kermes were highly prized luxury items in the ancient and medieval world. Plant-based dyes such as woad, indigo, saffron, and madder were raised commercially and were important trade goods in the economies of Asia, across Asia and Africa, patterned fabrics were produced using resist dyeing techniques to control the absorption of color in piece-dyed cloth. Dyes from the New World such as cochineal and logwood were brought to Europe by the Spanish treasure fleets, dyed flax fibers have been found in the Republic of Georgia in a prehistoric cave dated to 36,000 BP. Archaeological evidence shows that, particularly in India and Phoenicia, dyeing has been carried out for over 5,000 years. The dyes were obtained from animal, vegetable or mineral origin, by far the greatest source of dyes has been from the plant kingdom, notably roots, berries, bark, leaves and wood, but only a few have ever been used on a commercial scale. The discovery of synthetic dyes late in the 19th century ended the large-scale market for natural dyes. These dyes are made from synthetic resources such as petroleum by-products, the first human-made organic aniline dye, mauveine, was discovered serendipitously by William Henry Perkin in 1856, the result of a failed attempt at the total synthesis of quinine. Other aniline dyes followed, such as fuchsine, safranine, many thousands of synthetic dyes have since been prepared. These may be natural or synthetic, other than pigmentation, they have a range of applications including organic dye lasers, optical media and camera sensors. This is the basic classification Dyes are classified according to their solubility, acid dyes are water-soluble anionic dyes that are applied to fibers such as silk, wool, nylon and modified acrylic fibers using neutral to acid dye baths. Attachment to the fiber is attributed, at least partly, to salt formation between anionic groups in the dyes and cationic groups in the fiber, acid dyes are not substantive to cellulosic fibers. Most synthetic food colors fall in this category, basic dyes are water-soluble cationic dyes that are mainly applied to acrylic fibers, but find some use for wool and silk. Usually acetic acid is added to the dye bath to help the uptake of the dye onto the fiber, basic dyes are also used in the coloration of paper

6.
Ultramarine
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Ultramarine is a deep blue color and a pigment which was originally made by grinding lapis lazuli into a powder. The name comes from the Latin ultramarinus, literally beyond the sea, Ultramarine was the finest and most expensive blue used by Renaissance painters. It was often used for the robes of the Virgin Mary and it remained an extremely expensive pigment until a synthetic ultramarine was invented in 1826. The pigment consists primarily of a mineral containing small amounts of polysulfides. It occurs in nature as a component of lapis lazuli containing a blue cubic mineral called lazurite. The pigment color code is P, the major component of lazurite is a complex sulfur-containing sodium-silicate, which makes ultramarine the most complex of all mineral pigments. Some chloride is present in the crystal lattice as well. The blue color of the pigment is due to the S−3 radical anion, the preparation is typically made in steps. The first part of the takes place at 700 to 750 °C in a closed furnace, so that sulphur, carbon. This yields a yellow-green product sometimes used as a pigment, in the second step air or sulphur dioxide at 350 to 450 °C is used to oxidise sulphide sulphur in the intermediate product to S2 and Sn chromophore molecules, resulting in the blue pigment. The mixture is heated in a kiln, sometimes in brick-sized amounts, the resultant solids are then ground and washed as per any other insoluble pigment manufacturing process. The chemical reaction produces large amounts of sulfur dioxide, meaning that flue-gas desulfurization is an part of its manufacture to comply with pollution regulations. Large chimneys were used to disperse sulfur dioxide produced in the process, resulting in ultramarine tinting the surrounding ground surfaces, Ultramarine poor in silica is obtained by fusing a mixture of soft clay, sodium sulfate, charcoal, sodium carbonate and sulfur. The product is at first white, but soon turns green green ultramarine when it is mixed with sulfur, the sulfur burns, and a fine blue pigment is obtained. Ultramarine rich in silica is obtained by heating a mixture of pure clay, very fine white sand, sulfur. A blue product is obtained at once, but a red tinge often results, the different ultramarines—green, blue, red and violet—are finely ground and washed with water. Its color is unaffected by light nor by contact with oil or lime as used in painting, hydrochloric acid immediately bleaches it with liberation of hydrogen sulfide. Even a small addition of oxide to the reddish varieties especially causes a considerable diminution in the intensity of the color

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Prussian blue
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Prussian blue is a dark blue pigment with the idealized chemical formula Fe 718. To better understand the situation in this complex compound the formula can also be written as Fe 43 · xH 2O. Another name for the color is Berlin blue or, in painting, Turnbulls blue is the same substance, but is made from different reagents, and its slightly different color stems from different impurities. Prussian blue was the first modern synthetic pigment and it is employed as a very fine colloidal dispersion, as the compound itself is not soluble in water. It is famously complex, owing to the presence of variable amounts of other ions, the pigment is used in paints, and it is the traditional blue in blueprints. In medicine, Prussian blue is used as an antidote for certain kinds of metal poisoning, e. g. by thallium. In particular it was used to absorb 137Cs+ from those poisoned in the Goiânia accident, the therapy exploits Prussian blues ion exchange properties and high affinity for certain soft metal cations. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Prussian blue lent its name to prussic acid, which was derived from it. In Germany, hydrogen cyanide is called Blausäure, and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac gave cyanide its name, from the Greek word κυανός, because it is easily made, cheap, nontoxic, and intensely colored, Prussian blue has attracted many applications. It was adopted as a pigment very soon after its invention and was almost immediately used in oil, watercolor. The dominant uses are for pigments, about 12,000 tonnes of Prussian blue are produced annually for use in black, a variety of other pigments also contain the material. Engineers blue and the pigment formed on cyanotypes—giving them their common name blueprints, certain crayons were once colored with Prussian blue. It is also a popular pigment in paints, similarly, Prussian blue is the basis for laundry bluing. Prussian blues ability to incorporate monocations makes it useful as a agent for certain heavy metal poisons. Pharmaceutical-grade Prussian blue in particular is used for people who have ingested thallium or radioactive caesium, according to the International Atomic Energy Agency, an adult male can eat at least 10 g of Prussian blue per day without serious harm. The U. S. Prussian blue is a common stain used by pathologists to detect the presence of iron in biopsy specimens. The original stain formula, known historically as Perls Prussian blue after its inventor, German pathologist Max Perls, used separate solutions of potassium ferrocyanide, iron deposits in tissue then form the purple Prussian blue dye in place, and are visualized as blue or purple deposits. The formula is known as Perls Prussian blue and as Perls Prussian blue

8.
Grey
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Grey or gray is an intermediate color between black and white. It is a neutral or achromatic color, meaning literally that it is a color without color and this means that there are equal components of red, green, and blue. The variations in intensity of these colors uniformly produce different shades of grey and it is the color of a cloud-covered sky, of ash and of lead. The first recorded use of grey as a name in the English language was in AD700. Grey is the dominant spelling in European and Commonwealth English, although remained in common usage in the UK until the second half of the 20th century. Gray has been the preferred American spelling since approximately 1825, although grey is an accepted variant, in Europe and the United States, surveys show that grey is the color most commonly associated with neutrality, conformity, boredom, uncertainty, old age, indifference, and modesty. Only one percent of respondents chose it as their favorite color, Grey comes from the Middle English grai or grei, from the Anglo-Saxon graeg, and is related to the Dutch grauw and grijs and German grau. The first recorded use of grey as a name in the English language was in AD700. In antiquity and the Middle Ages, grey was the color of undyed wool, and thus was the color most commonly worn by peasants and the poor. It was also the color worn by monks of the Franciscan order, Cistercian Order, Franciscan monks in England and Scotland were commonly known as the Grey friars, and that name is now attached to many places in Great Britain. During the Renaissance and the Baroque, grey began to play an important role in fashion, Black became the most popular color of the nobility, particularly in Italy, France, and Spain, and grey and white were harmonious with it. Grey was also used for the drawing of oil paintings. The painting would first be composed in grey and white, and then the colors, made with thin transparent glazes, the grisaille beneath would provide the shading, visible through the layers of color. Sometimes the grisaille was simply left uncovered, giving the appearance of carved stone, Grey was a particularly good background color for gold and for skin tones. It became the most common background for the portraits of Rembrandt Van Rijn and for many of the paintings of El Greco, the palette of Rembrandt was composed almost entirely of somber colors. Over this he put a layer of glaze made of mixture of blue smalt, red ochre. Using these ingredients and many others, he made greys which had, according to art historian Philip Ball, the warm, dark and rich greys and browns served to emphasize the golden light on the faces in the paintings. Grey became a fashionable color in the 18th century, both for womens dresses and for mens waistcoats and coats

9.
Yellow
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Yellow is the color between green and orange on the spectrum of visible light. It is evoked by light with a predominant wavelength of roughly 570–590 nm, in traditional color theory, used in painting, and in the subtractive color system, used in color printing, yellow is a primary color. In the RGB color model, used to create colors on television and computer screens, yellow is made by combining red, the word yellow comes from the Old English geolu, geolwe, meaning yellow, yellowish, derived from the Proto-Germanic word gelwaz yellow. It has the same Indo-European base, gʰel-, as the gold and yell. In Iran it has connotations of pallor/sickness, but also wisdom and it plays an important role in Asian culture, particularly in China, where it is seen as the color of happiness, glory, wisdom, harmony, and culture. The word yellow comes from the Old English geolu, geolwe, meaning yellow, yellowish and it has the same Indo-European base, gʰel-, as the words gold and yell, gʰel- means both bright and gleaming, and to cry out. The English term is related to other Germanic words for yellow, namely Scots yella, East Frisian jeel, West Frisian giel, Dutch geel, German gelb, and Swedish and Norwegian gul. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the oldest known use of word in English is from The Epinal Glossary in 700. Yellow, in the form of yellow pigment made from clay, was one of the first colors used in prehistoric cave art. The cave of Lascaux has an image of a horse colored with yellow estimated to be 17,300 years old, in Ancient Egypt, yellow was associated with gold, which was considered to be imperishable, eternal and indestructible. The skin and bones of the gods were believed to be made of gold, the Egyptians used yellow extensively in tomb paintings, they usually used either yellow ochre or the brilliant orpiment, though it was made of arsenic and was highly toxic. A small paintbox with orpiment pigment was found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun, men were always shown with brown faces, women with yellow ochre or gold faces. The ancient Romans used yellow in their paintings to represent gold and it is found frequently in the murals of Pompeii. During the Post-Classical period, yellow became firmly established as the color of Judas Iscariot, from this connection, yellow also took on associations with envy, jealousy and duplicity. The tradition started in the Renaissance of marking non-Christian outsiders, such as Jews, in 16th century Spain, those accused of heresy and who refused to renounce their views were compelled to come before the Spanish Inquisition dressed in a yellow cape. The color yellow has been associated with moneylenders and finance. The National Pawnbrokers Associations logo depicts three golden spheres hanging from a bar, referencing the three bags of gold that the saint of pawnbroking, St. Nicholas, holds in his hands. Additionally, the symbol of three golden orbs is found in the coat of arms of the House of Medici, a fifteenth century Italian dynasty of bankers and lenders

10.
Complementary colors
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Complementary colors are pairs of colors which, when combined, cancel each other out. This means that combined, they produce a grey-scale color like white or black. When placed next to other, they create the strongest contrast for those particular two colors. Due to this striking color clash, the term opposite colors is considered more appropriate than complementary colors. Opponent process theory suggests that the most contrasting color pairs are red–green, in the traditional representation, a complementary color pair is made up of a primary color and a secondary color. For example, yellow is a color, and painters can make purple by mixing of red and blue, so when yellow and purple paint are mixed. Since paints work by absorbing light, having all three primaries together results in a black or gray color, in more recent painting manuals, the more precise subtractive primary colors are magenta, cyan and yellow. Complementary colors can create some striking optical effects, the shadow of an object appears to contain some of the complementary color of the object. For example, the shadow of a red apple will appear to contain a little blue-green and this effect is often copied by painters who want to create more luminous and realistic shadows. Also, if you stare at a square of color for a period of time. Placed side by side as tiny dots, in color mixing. In the RGB model, the colors are red, green. The complementary primary–secondary combinations are red–cyan, green–magenta, and blue–yellow, if the light is not fully intense, the resulting light will be gray. In some other models, such as the HSV color space. Complementary colors lie opposite each other on any horizontal cross-section, for example, in the CIE1931 color space a color of a dominant wavelength can be mixed with an amount of the complementary wavelength to produce a neutral color. Color printing, like painting, also uses subtractive colors, but the colors are different from those used in painting. As a result, the logic applies as to colors produced by light. Color printing uses the CMYK color model, making colors by overprinting cyan, magenta, yellow, in printing the most common complementary colors are magenta–green, yellow–blue, and cyan–red

Complementary colors
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A Boutet color circle from 1708 showed the traditional complementary colors; red and green, yellow and violet, and blue and orange.
Complementary colors
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A traditional color star developed in 1867 by Charles Blanc. The traditional complementary colors used by 19th-century artists such as Van Gogh, Monet and Renoir are directly opposite each other.
Complementary colors
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The color wheel designed by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1810) was based on the idea that the primary colors yellow and blue, representing light and darkness, were in opposition to each other.
Complementary colors
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Impression, Sunrise by Claude Monet (1872) featured a tiny but vivid orange sun against a blue background. The painting gave its name to the Impressionist movement.

11.
Subtractive color
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The color that a surface displays depends on which parts of the visible spectrum are not absorbed and therefore remain visible. Subtractive color systems start with light, presumably white light, colored inks, paints, or filters between the watchers and the light source or reflective surface subtract wavelengths from the light, giving it color. If the incident light is other than white, our visual mechanisms are able to compensate well, conversely, additive color systems start with darkness. Light sources of various wavelengths are added in proportions to produce a range of colors. Usually, three colors are combined to stimulate humans’ trichromatic color vision, sensed by the three types of cone cells in the eye, giving an apparently full range. RYB is the standard set of subtractive primary colors used for mixing pigments. It is used in art and art education, particularly in painting and it predated modern scientific color theory. Red, yellow, and blue are the colors of the standard color wheel. The secondary colors, violet, orange, and green make up another triad, formed by mixing equal amounts of red and blue, red and yellow, in color printing, the usual primary colors are cyan, magenta and yellow. Cyan is the complement of red, meaning that the cyan serves as a filter that absorbs red, the amount of cyan applied to a white sheet of paper controls how much of the red in white light will be reflected back from the paper. Ideally, the cyan is completely transparent to green and blue light and has no effect on those parts of the spectrum, magenta is the complement of green, and yellow the complement of blue. Combinations of different amounts of the three can produce a range of colors with good saturation. In inkjet color printing and typical mass production photomechanical printing processes, additive color Color mixing Color motion picture film Color space Color theory Primary color Berns, Roy S. Billmeyer and Saltzmans Principles of Color Technology, 3rd edition. Stroebel, Leslie, John Compton, Ira Current, and Richard Zakia, basic Photographic Materials and Processes, 2nd edition. CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Wyszecki, Günther & W. S. Stiles, colour Science, Concept and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae. Stanford University CS178 interactive Flash demo comparing additive and subtractive color mixing

Subtractive color
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An 1877 color photo by Louis Ducos du Hauron, a French pioneer of color photography. The overlapping subtractive yellow, cyan and red (magenta) image elements can be seen clearly along the edges of the image.
Subtractive color
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Subtractive color mixing

12.
Color perception
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Color vision is the ability of an organism or machine to distinguish objects based on the wavelengths of the light they reflect, emit, or transmit. In essence, different people see the same illuminated object or light source in different ways, isaac Newton discovered that white light splits into its component colours when passed through a dispersive prism. Newton also found that he could recombine these colours by passing them through a different prism to make white light, the characteristic colours are, from long to short wavelengths, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and purple. In very low levels, vision is scotopic, light is detected by rod cells of the retina. Rods are maximally sensitive to wavelengths near 500 nm, and play little, if any, in brighter light, such as daylight, vision is photopic, light is detected by cone cells which are responsible for colour vision. Cones are sensitive to a range of wavelengths, but are most sensitive to wavelengths near 555 nm, between these regions, mesopic vision comes into play and both rods and cones provide signals to the retinal ganglion cells. The shift in colour perception from dim light to daylight gives rise to differences known as the Purkinje effect, the perception of white is formed by the entire spectrum of visible light, or by mixing colours of just a few wavelengths in animals with few types of colour receptors. In humans, white light can be perceived by combining wavelengths such as red, green, perception of color begins with specialized retinal cells containing pigments with different spectral sensitivities, known as cone cells. In humans, there are three types of cones sensitive to three different spectra, resulting in color vision. Each individual cone contains pigments composed of opsin apoprotein, which is linked to either 11-cis-hydroretinal or more rarely 11-cis-dehydroretinal. The cones are conventionally labeled according to the ordering of the wavelengths of the peaks of their spectral sensitivities, short, medium and these three types do not correspond well to particular colors as we know them. For example, while the L cones have been referred to simply as red receptors, similarly, the S- and M-cones do not directly correspond to blue and green, although they are often described as such. The RGB color model, therefore, is a convenient means for representing color, two complementary theories of color vision are the trichromatic theory and the opponent process theory. Ewald Hering proposed the opponent process theory in 1872 and it states that the visual system interprets color in an antagonistic way, red vs. green, blue vs. yellow, black vs. white. Both theories are now accepted as valid, describing different stages in visual physiology, green ←→ Magenta and Blue ←→ Yellow are scales with mutually exclusive boundaries. In the same way that there cannot exist a slightly negative positive number, a range of wavelengths of light stimulates each of these receptor types to varying degrees. Yellowish-green light, for example, stimulates both L and M cones equally strongly, but only stimulates S-cones weakly, the brain combines the information from each type of receptor to give rise to different perceptions of different wavelengths of light. The opsins present in the L and M cones are encoded on the X chromosome, the OPN1LW gene, which codes for the opsin present in the L cones, is highly polymorphic

13.
Laundry detergent
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While detergent is still sold in powdered form, liquid detergents have been taking major market shares in many countries since their introduction in the 1950s. Laundry detergent pods have also sold within the United States since 2012 when they were introduced by Procter & Gamble as Tide Pods. Earlier instances of laundry detergent pods include Salvo tablets sold in the 1960s and 1970s, from ancient times, chemical additives were used to facilitate the mechanical washing of clothing with water. The Italians used a mix of sulfur and water with charcoal to clean cloth, egyptians added ashes and silicates to soften water. The detergent effects of certain synthetic surfactants were noted in Germany in 1917, such detergents were mainly used in industry until after World War II. By then, new developments and the conversion of aviation fuel plants to produce tetrapropylene, used in household detergents. The use of enzymes for laundry was introduced in the part of the 1900s by Otto Rohm. Only in the part of the century with the availability of thermally robust bacterial enzymes did this technology become mainstream. Soap is, by weight, relatively ineffective and it is sensitive to deactivation by hard water. By the 1950s, soap had almost been completely replaced by branched alkylbenzenesulfonates, linear alkylbenzenesulfonates, however, proved to be both highly effective in cleaning and more biodegradable than the branched relatives. LABs remain the main detergents used domestically, other detergents that have been developed include the linear alkylsulfonates and olefinsulfonates, which also resist deactivation by hard water. Both remain specialty products, for only an estimated 60 million kilograms of the sodium alkylsulfonates are produced annually. Early in the introduction of sulfonate-based detergents, concerns were voiced over the low rates of biodegradation of the branched alkylbenzenesulfonates and this problem was addressed by the introduction of linear alkylbenzenesulfonates. A more profound problem arose from the use of sodium triphosphate. The discharge of soluble phosphates into natural waters has led to problems with eutrophication, or the growth of living things, of lakes and streams, the replacement of sodium triphosphate by zeolites offers some relief to this problem. With respect to the additives, between 1940 and 1970 the amount of phosphates in city wastewater increased from 20,000 to 150,000 tons per year. They can also indirectly cause oxygen depletion at greater depths, through microbial breakdown of dead algal cells, most modern laundry detergents do not contain phosphates, but bring about water softening using zeolites. In general, laundry detergents contain water softeners, surfactants, bleach, enzymes, brighteners, fragrances, the formulation is strongly affected by the temperature of the cleaning water and varies from country to country

Laundry detergent
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Laundry powder

14.
Fluorescent brightener
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Fluorescent emission is a short-lived period of light emission by a fluorophore, unlike phosphorescence, which is long-lived. The most common classes of compounds with this property are the stilbenes, e. g.4, 4′-diamino-2, older, non-commercial fluorescent chemicals include as umbelliferone, which absorbs in the UV portion of the spectrum and re-emit it in the blue portion of the visible spectrum. A white surface treated with an optical brightener can emit more light than that which shines on it. The blue light emitted by the brightener compensates for the blue of the treated material and changes the hue away from yellow or brown. Approximately 400 brightener types are listed in the Colour Index, but fewer than 90 are produced commercially, FBA number can be assigned to a specific substance, however, some are duplicated, since manufacturers apply for the index number when they produce it. The global OBA production for paper, textiles, and detergents is dominated by just a few di- and tetra-sulfonated triazole-stilbenes, the stilbene derivatives are subject to fading upon prolonged exposure to UV, due to the formation of optically inactive cis-stilbenes. They are also degraded by oxygen in air, like most dye colorants, all brighteners have extended conjugation and/or aromaticity, allowing for electron movement. Some non-stilbene brighteners are used in more permanent applications such as whitening synthetic fiber, brighteners can be boosted by the addition of certain polyols, such as high molecular weight polyethylene glycol or polyvinyl alcohol. These additives increase the visible blue light emissions significantly, excess brightener will often cause a greening effect as emissions start to show above the blue region in the visible spectrum. Brighteners are commonly added to laundry detergents to make the clothes appear cleaner, normally cleaned laundry appears yellowish, which consumers do not like. Optical brighteners have replaced bluing which was used to produce the same effect. Brighteners are used in papers, especially high brightness papers. Paper brightness is measured at 457 nm, well within the fluorescent activity range of brighteners. Paper used for banknotes does not contain optical brighteners, so a method for detecting counterfeit notes is to check for fluorescence. Optical brighteners have also use in cosmetics. Some advanced face and eye powders contain optical brightener microspheres that brighten shadowed or dark areas of the skin, a side effect of textile optical whitening is to make the treated fabrics more visible with Night Vision Devices than non-treated ones. This may or may not be desirable for military or other applications, optically brightened paper is often not useful in exacting photographic or art applications, since the whiteness decreases with time

15.
Crystal
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A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually identifiable by their geometrical shape, the scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification, the word crystal derives from the Ancient Greek word κρύσταλλος, meaning both ice and rock crystal, from κρύος, icy cold, frost. Examples of large crystals include snowflakes, diamonds, and table salt, most inorganic solids are not crystals but polycrystals, i. e. many microscopic crystals fused together into a single solid. Examples of polycrystals include most metals, rocks, ceramics, a third category of solids is amorphous solids, where the atoms have no periodic structure whatsoever. Examples of amorphous solids include glass, wax, and many plastics, Crystals are often used in pseudoscientific practices such as crystal therapy, and, along with gemstones, are sometimes associated with spellwork in Wiccan beliefs and related religious movements. The scientific definition of a crystal is based on the arrangement of atoms inside it. A crystal is a solid where the form a periodic arrangement. For example, when liquid water starts freezing, the change begins with small ice crystals that grow until they fuse. Most macroscopic inorganic solids are polycrystalline, including almost all metals, ceramics, ice, rocks, solids that are neither crystalline nor polycrystalline, such as glass, are called amorphous solids, also called glassy, vitreous, or noncrystalline. These have no periodic order, even microscopically, there are distinct differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids, most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the latent heat of fusion, but forming a crystal does. A crystal structure is characterized by its cell, a small imaginary box containing one or more atoms in a specific spatial arrangement. The unit cells are stacked in three-dimensional space to form the crystal, the symmetry of a crystal is constrained by the requirement that the unit cells stack perfectly with no gaps. There are 219 possible crystal symmetries, called space groups. These are grouped into 7 crystal systems, such as cubic crystal system or hexagonal crystal system, Crystals are commonly recognized by their shape, consisting of flat faces with sharp angles. Euhedral crystals are those with obvious, well-formed flat faces, anhedral crystals do not, usually because the crystal is one grain in a polycrystalline solid. The flat faces of a crystal are oriented in a specific way relative to the underlying atomic arrangement of the crystal. This occurs because some surface orientations are more stable than others, as a crystal grows, new atoms attach easily to the rougher and less stable parts of the surface, but less easily to the flat, stable surfaces

16.
Salt
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Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about 35 grams of solids per litre, Salt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues, Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings, and salting is an important method of food preservation. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites, Egyptians, and the Indians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, the scarcity and universal need for salt has led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in ceremonies and has other cultural significance. Salt is processed from salt mines, or by the evaporation of seawater or mineral-rich spring water in shallow pools. Its major industrial products are caustic soda and chlorine, and is used in industrial processes including the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride, plastics, paper pulp. Of the annual production of around two hundred million tonnes of salt, only about 6% is used for human consumption. Other uses include water conditioning processes, de-icing highways, and agricultural use, edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt which usually contains an anti-caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency. As well as its use in cooking and at the table, sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute. Excessive salt consumption can increase the risk of diseases, such as hypertension, in children. Such health effects of salt have long been studied, accordingly, numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods. The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium, humans have always tended to build communities either around sources of salt, or where they can trade for it. All through history the availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization, the word salary comes from the Latin word for salt because the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt. The Natron Valley was a key region that supported the Egyptian Empire to its north, because it supplied it with a kind of salt that came to be called by its name, natron. Even before this, what is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata, in Bulgaria, even the name Solnisata means salt works. A very ancient salt-works operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a spring in Lunca, Neamț County

17.
Solution
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In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is a substance dissolved in another substance, the mixing process of a solution happens at a scale where the effects of chemical polarity are involved, resulting in interactions that are specific to solvation. The solution assumes the characteristics of the solvent when the solvent is the fraction of the mixture. The concentration of a solute in a solution is the mass of that solute expressed as a percentage of the mass of the whole solution, a solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The particles of solute in a solution cannot be seen by the naked eye, a solution does not allow beams of light to scatter. The solute from a solution cannot be separated by filtration and it is composed of only one phase. Homogeneous means that the components of the form a single phase. Heterogeneous means that the components of the mixture are of different phase, the properties of the mixture can be uniformly distributed through the volume but only in absence of diffusion phenomena or after their completion. Usually, the present in the greatest amount is considered the solvent. Solvents can be gases, liquids or solids, one or more components present in the solution other than the solvent are called solutes. The solution has the physical state as the solvent. If the solvent is a gas, only gases are dissolved under a set of conditions. An example of a solution is air. Since interactions between molecules play almost no role, dilute gases form rather trivial solutions, in part of the literature, they are not even classified as solutions, but addressed as mixtures. If the solvent is a liquid, then almost all gases, liquids, here are some examples, Gas in liquid, Oxygen in water Carbon dioxide in water – a less simple example, because the solution is accompanied by a chemical reaction. Liquid in liquid, The mixing of two or more substances of the same chemistry but different concentrations to form a constant, alcoholic beverages are basically solutions of ethanol in water. Solid in liquid, Sucrose in water Sodium chloride or any other salt in water, solutions in water are especially common. Counterexamples are provided by liquid mixtures that are not homogeneous, colloids, body fluids are examples for complex liquid solutions, containing many solutes

Solution
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Making a saline water solution by dissolving table salt (NaCl) in water. The salt is the solute and the water the solvent.
Solution
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Water is a good solvent because the molecules are polar and capable of forming hydrogen bonds (1).
Solution
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Diving medicine:

18.
Swimming pool
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A swimming pool, swimming bath, wading pool, or paddling pool is a structure designed to hold water to enable swimming or other leisure activities. Pools can be built into the ground or built above ground, many health clubs, fitness centers and private clubs, such as the YMCA, have pools used mostly for exercise or recreation. Many towns and cities provide public pools, many hotels have pools available for their guests to use at their leisure. Educational facilities such as universities typically have pools for physical education classes, recreational activities, hot tubs and spas are pools filled with hot water, used for relaxation or hydrotherapy, and are common in homes, hotels, and health clubs. Special swimming pools are used for diving, specialized water sports, physical therapy as well as for the training of lifeguards. Swimming pools may be heated or unheated, the Great Bath at the site of Mohenjo-Daro in modern-day Pakistan was most likely the first swimming pool, dug during the 3rd millennium BC. This pool is 12 by 7 metres, is lined with bricks, ancient Greeks and Romans built artificial pools for athletic training in the palaestras, for nautical games and for military exercises. Roman emperors had private swimming pools in which fish were also kept, the first heated swimming pool was built by Gaius Maecenas of Rome in the 1st century BC. Gaius Maecenas was a rich Roman lord and considered one of the first patrons of arts, ancient Sinhalese built pairs of pools called Kuttam Pokuna in the kingdom of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka in the 4th century BC. They were decorated with flights of steps, punkalas or pots of abundance, Swimming pools became popular in Britain in the mid-19th century. As early as 1837, six indoor pools with diving boards existed in London, the Maidstone Swimming Club in Maidstone, Kent is believed to be the oldest surviving swimming club in Britain. It was formed in 1844, in response to concerns over drownings in the River Medway, the club used to swim in the River Medway, and would hold races, diving competitions and water polo matches. The South East Gazette July 1844 reported an aquatic breakfast party, coffee, the coffee was kept hot over a fire, club members had to tread water and drink coffee at the same time. The last swimmers managed to overturn the raft, to the amusement of 150 spectators, the Amateur Swimming Association was founded in 1869 in England, and the Oxford Swimming Club in 1909. The presence of indoor baths in the area of Merton Street might have persuaded the less hardy of the aquatic brigade to join. So, bathers gradually became swimmers, and bathing pools became swimming pools, in 1939, Oxford created its first major public indoor pool at Temple Cowley. The modern Olympic Games started in 1896 and included swimming races, in the US, the Racquet Club of Philadelphia clubhouse boasts one of the worlds first modern above-ground swimming pools. The first swimming pool to go to sea on an ocean liner was installed on the White Star Lines Adriatic in 1907, the oldest known public swimming pool in America, Underwood Pool, is located in Belmont, Massachusetts

Swimming pool
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Backyard swimming pool
Swimming pool
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Olympic swimming pool and starting blocks used for the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne, Australia
Swimming pool
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Modern replica ancient Roman baths in Bath Spa, England
Swimming pool
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Moskva Pool, at one time the largest swimming pool in the world (1980)

19.
Water
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Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earths streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen, Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance, that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often refers also to its solid state or its gaseous state. It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, Water covers 71% of the Earths surface. It is vital for all forms of life. Only 2. 5% of this water is freshwater, and 98. 8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0. 3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, a greater quantity of water is found in the earths interior. Water on Earth moves continually through the cycle of evaporation and transpiration, condensation, precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land, large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals. Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. There is a correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in developing regions of the world. Water plays an important role in the world economy, approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a variety of chemical substances, as such it is widely used in industrial processes. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, water is a liquid between the temperatures of 273.15 K and 373.15 K

20.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia

Australia
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Aboriginal rock art in the Kimberley region of Western Australia
Australia
Australia
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Portrait of Captain James Cook, the first European to map the eastern coastline of Australia in 1770
Australia
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Tasmania's Port Arthur penal settlement is one of eleven UNESCO World Heritage-listed Australian Convict Sites.

21.
Folk remedy
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Traditional medicine comprises medical aspects of traditional knowledge that developed over generations within various societies before the era of modern medicine. In some Asian and African countries, up to 80% of the population relies on traditional medicine for their health care needs. When adopted outside of its culture, traditional medicine is often called alternative medicine. Core disciplines which study traditional medicine include herbalism, ethnomedicine, ethnobotany, the line between alternative medicine and quackery is a contentious subject. Traditional medicine may include formalized aspects of medicine, that is to say longstanding remedies passed on. Folk medicine may also be referred to as traditional medicine, alternative medicine, indigenous medicine and these terms are often considered interchangeable, even though some authors may prefer one or the other because of certain overtones they may wish to highlight. Similarly, a remedy is a treatment to cure a disease or ailment that employs certain spices, vegetables. Home remedies may or may not have medicinal properties that treat or cure the disease or ailment in question, in the written record, the study of herbs dates back 5,000 years to the ancient Sumerians, who described well-established medicinal uses for plants. In Ancient Egyptian medicine, the Ebers papyrus from c.1552 BC records a list of folk remedies, the Old Testament also mentions herb use and cultivation in regards to Kashrut. Many herbs and minerals used in Ayurveda were described by ancient Indian herbalists such as Charaka, Latin manuscripts of De Materia Medica were combined with a Latin herbal by Apuleius Platonicus and were incorporated into the Anglo-Saxon codex Cotton Vitellius C. III. These early Greek and Roman compilations became the backbone of European medical theory and were translated by the Persian Avicenna, the Persian Rhazes, Arabic indigenous medicine developed from the conflict between the magic-based medicine of the Bedouins and the Arabic translations of the Hellenic and Ayurvedic medical traditions. Spanish indigenous medicine was influenced by the Arabs from 711 to 1492, islamic physicians and Muslim botanists such as al-Dinawari and Ibn al-Baitar significantly expanded on the earlier knowledge of materia medica. The most famous Persian medical treatise was Avicennas The Canon of Medicine, the Canon was translated into Latin in the 12th century and remained a medical authority in Europe until the 17th century. The Unani system of medicine is also based on the Canon. Translations of the early Roman-Greek compilations were made into German by Hieronymus Bock whose herbal, the book was translated into Dutch as Pemptades by Rembert Dodoens, and from Dutch into English by Carolus Clusius, published by Henry Lyte in 1578 as A Nievve Herball. This became John Gerards Herball or General Hiftorie of Plantes, each new work was a compilation of existing texts with new additions. Womens folk knowledge existed in undocumented parallel with these texts, forty-four drugs, diluents, flavouring agents and emollients mentioned by Dioscorides are still listed in the official pharmacopoeias of Europe. The Puritans took Gerards work to the United States where it influenced American Indigenous medicine, both Hernandez and Ximenez fitted Aztec ethnomedicinal information into the European concepts of disease such as warm, cold, and moist, but it is not clear that the Aztecs used these categories

22.
Mosquito
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Mosquitoes are small, midge-like flies that constitute the family Culicidae. Females of most species are ectoparasites, whose tube-like mouthparts pierce the skin to consume blood. The word mosquito is Spanish for little fly, thousands of species feed on the blood of various kinds of hosts, mainly vertebrates, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and even some kinds of fish. Some mosquitoes also attack invertebrates, mainly other arthropods, though the loss of blood is seldom of any importance to the victim, the saliva of the mosquito often causes an irritating rash that is a serious nuisance. Much more serious though, are the roles of species of mosquitoes as vectors of diseases. The oldest known mosquito with a similar to modern species was found in 79-million-year-old Canadian amber from the Cretaceous. An older sister species with more primitive features was found in Burmese amber that is 90 to 100 million years old, two mosquito fossils have been found that show very little morphological change in modern mosquitoes against their counterpart from 46 million years ago. These fossils are also the oldest ever found to have blood preserved within their abdomens, the Old and New World Anopheles species are believed to have subsequently diverged about 95 million years ago. The mosquito Anopheles gambiae is currently undergoing speciation into the M and S molecular forms, consequently, some pesticides that work on the M form no longer work on the S form. Over 3,500 species of the Culicidae have already been described and they are generally divided into two subfamilies which in turn comprise some 43 genera. These figures are subject to change, as more species are discovered. The two main subfamilies are the Anophelinae and Culicinae, with their genera as shown in the subsection below, the distinction is of great practical importance because the two subfamilies tend to differ in their significance as vectors of different classes of diseases. Roughly speaking, arboviral diseases such as fever and dengue fever tend to be transmitted by Culicine species. Some transmit various species of malaria, but it is not clear that they ever transmit any form of human malaria. Some species do however transmit various forms of filariasis, much as many Simuliidae do, Anopheline mosquitoes, again not necessarily in the genus Anopheles, sometimes bear pathogenic arboviruses, but it is not yet clear that they ever transmit them as effective vectors. However, all the most important vectors of malaria are Anopheline. Anophelinae Culicinae Mosquitoes are members of a family of nematocerid flies, superficially, mosquitoes resemble crane flies and chironomid flies. In particular, the females of species of mosquitoes are blood-eating pests and dangerous vectors of diseases

23.
Sand fly
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Sandfly is a colloquial name for any species or genus of flying, biting, blood-sucking dipteran encountered in sandy areas. Outside the United States, sandfly may refer to members of the subfamily Phlebotominae within the Psychodidae, biting midges are sometimes called sand flies or no-see-ums. New Zealand sandflies are in the Austrosimulium genus, a type of black fly, while horse flies are large flies, noseeums and some Old-World sandflies are tiny midges. Sandfly bites may leave large, red bumps that may turn into a rash. These bumps are frequently several times as itchy as mosquito bites, some sandfly genera of the Phlebotominae subfamily are the primary vectors of leishmaniasis and pappataci fever, both diseases are confusingly referred to as sandfly fever. In the New World, leishmaniasis is spread by flies of the genus Lutzomyia, in the Old World. Belize and Honduras are notorious in the Caribbean for their sandfly populations, among the viruses that sandflies can carry is the Chandipura virus, which, as a cousin of rabies, is very deadly. There was an outbreak in India in 2010, leishmaniasis, a disease caused by several species of the genus Leishmania, is transmitted by various sandflies. Leishmania donovani causes spiking fevers, hepatosplenomegaly, and pancytopenia and it can be diagnosed though microscopic review by visualizing amastigotes in containing macrophages, and is treatable with sodium stibogluconate. Over-the-counter repellents with high concentrations of DEET or picaridin are proven to work, a particular extract of Lemon Eucalyptus oil has now been shown to be as effective as DEET in various studies. Most information on repellents focuses on mosquitoes, but mosquito repellents are effective for sandflies and midges as well, New Zealand sandflies have a native Māori legend wherein the god Tu-te-raki-whanoa had just finished creating the landscape of Fiordland, it was absolutely stunning. So stunning that it stopped people from working and they just stood around gazing at the beauty instead. The goddess Hine-nui-te-pō became angry at these people, so she created the sandfly to bite them. These sand flies were able, according to another Māori legend, biting midges and no-see-ums --University of Florida

24.
Colloid
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A colloid, in chemistry, is a mixture in which one substance of microscopically dispersed insoluble particles is suspended throughout another substance. Sometimes the dispersed substance alone is called the colloid, the colloidal suspension refers unambiguously to the overall mixture. Unlike a solution, whose solute and solvent constitute only one phase, a colloid has a dispersed phase, to qualify as a colloid, the mixture must be one that does not settle or would take a very long time to settle appreciably. The dispersed-phase particles have a diameter between approximately 1 and 1000 nanometers, such particles are normally easily visible in an optical microscope, although at the smaller size range, an ultramicroscope or an electron microscope may be required. Homogeneous mixtures with a phase in this size range may be called colloidal aerosols, colloidal emulsions, colloidal foams, colloidal dispersions. The dispersed-phase particles or droplets are affected largely by the surface chemistry present in the colloid, some colloids are translucent because of the Tyndall effect, which is the scattering of light by particles in the colloid. Other colloids may be opaque or have a slight color, Colloidal suspensions are the subject of interface and colloid science. This field of study was introduced in 1861 by Scottish scientist Thomas Graham, because of the size exclusion, the colloidal particles are unable to pass through the pores of an ultrafiltration membrane with a size smaller than their own dimension. The smaller the size of the pore of the ultrafiltration membrane, the measured value of the concentration of a truly dissolved species will thus depend on the experimental conditions applied to separate it from the colloidal particles also dispersed in the liquid. This is particularly important for solubility studies of readily hydrolyzed species such as Al, Eu, Am, Cm, the colloid particles are attracted toward water. They are also called reversible sols, hydrophobic colloids, These are opposite in nature to hydrophilic colloids. The colloid particles are repelled by water and they are also called irreversible sols. In some cases, a colloid suspension can be considered a homogeneous mixture and this is because the distinction between dissolved and particulate matter can be sometimes a matter of approach, which affects whether or not it is homogeneous or heterogeneous. The following forces play an important role in the interaction of particles, Excluded volume repulsion. Electrostatic interaction, Colloidal particles often carry a charge and therefore attract or repel each other. The charge of both the continuous and the phase, as well as the mobility of the phases are factors affecting this interaction. Van der Waals forces, This is due to interaction between two dipoles that are permanent or induced. Even if the particles do not have a permanent dipole, fluctuations of the electron density gives rise to a dipole in a particle

25.
Smalt
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Cobalt glass—known as smalt when ground as a pigment—is a deep blue colored glass prepared by including a cobalt compound, typically cobalt oxide or cobalt carbonate, in a glass melt. Cobalt is a very intense glass colorant and very little is required to show a noticeable amount of color. Cobalt blue glass is used as an optical filter in flame tests to filter out the yellow flame caused by the contamination of sodium. Cobalt glass such as Bristol blue glass is popular with collectors and it is appreciated for its attractive color. Cobalt aluminate, also known as blue, can be used in a similar way. The earliest known example of cobalt aluminate glass dates to a lump from about 2000BC in ancient Mesopotamia, very possibly intended for use as a pigment, it is then rare until the modern era. About five centuries later cobalt oxide smalt appears as a pigment in Egyptian pottery, and soon after in the Aegean region, in paintings, smalt has a tendency to lose its colour over a long period and is little used today. Chinese porcelain used smalt glazes from the Tang Dynasty onwards, though Chinese cobalt glass is found from the Zhou dynasty, Cobalt was used as a pigment in Central Asia from the 13th century. A fragment of a mud painting in the ancient Tangut city of Khara-Khoto has been found to contain smalt, a large quantity of smalt was purchased for the decoration of the gallery of Francis I of France at Fontainebleau in 1536. Smalt, normally now discoloured, is common in European paintings from the 15th to 17th centuries, for example, it was found in Hans Holbein the Youngers portrait of Sir William Butts, in Michael Pachers painting The Early Fathers Altar, and in the frescos of Domenico Ghirlandaio. The invention of a European smalt process has traditionally been credited to a Bohemian glassmaker named Christoph Schürer, however, its presence in Dieric Bouts The Entombment from circa 1455 proves that it was used at least a century earlier. The result was an intensive blue glass-like substance that was ground and sold to producers of glassware, Cobalt blue Cobalt Smalt, Bruno Mühlethaler and Jean Thissen, Studies in Conservation, Vol.14, No. 2, pp. 47–61, JSTOR Smalt Pigments through the Ages Bromo-Seltzer, Cobalt Blue bottles - Brief Summary M-inside-a-circle, Maryland Glass Corporation, Baltimore

26.
Reckitt Benckiser
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Reckitt Benckiser Group plc is a British multinational consumer goods company headquartered in Slough, England. It is a producer of health, hygiene and home products and it was formed in 1999 by the merger of the UK-based Reckitt & Colman plc and the Netherlands-based Benckiser NV. It has operations in around 60 countries and its products are sold in almost 200 countries, RB is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index. It had a capitalisation of approximately £44 billion as of December 2015. Johann A. Benckiser founded a business in Germany in 1823 and its main products were industrial and consumer goods industrial chemicals. Reckitt & Sons started in 1840 when Isaac Reckitt rented a mill in Hull. He diversified into other products and after his death in 1862. In 1886, Reckitt opened its first overseas business in Australia, the firm was first listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1888. Harpic Lavatory Cleaners was acquired in 1932, and that same year, Dettol was launched. In 1938 Reckitt & Sons merged with J. & J. Colman, the company made several acquisitions, including the Airwick and Carpet Fresh brands, the Boyle-Midway division of American Home Products, and the Lehn & Fink division of Sterling Drug. It acquired several brands from DowBrands in 1998, Reckitt & Colman sold the Colmans food business in 1995. The company was formed by a merger between Britains Reckitt & Colman plc and the Dutch company Benckiser NV in December 1999, Bart Becht became CEO of the new company and has been credited for its transformation, focusing on core brands and improving efficiency in the supply chain. The new management teams strategy of innovation marketing, – a combination of increased marketing spend and product innovation, focusing on consumer needs – has been linked to the companys ongoing success. For example, in 2008, the rapid succession of well publicised new product variants were credited for helping them to capture shoppers imagination. Business Week has also noted that 40% of Reckitt Benckisers $10.5 billion in 2007 revenues came from products launched within the three years. In October 2005, RB agreed to purchase the over-the-counter drugs manufacturing business of Boots Group, Boots Healthcare International, the three main brands acquired were Nurofens analgesics, Strepsils sore throat lozenges, and Clearasil anti-acne treatments. In January 2008, RB acquired Adams Respiratory Therapeutics, Inc. a pharmaceutical company, for $2.3 billion, in July 2010, RB agreed to buy SSL International, the makers of Durex condoms and Scholls footcare products, in a £2.5 billion deal. On 27 August 2011, RB recalled all remaining stock of its major product, Nurofen Plus

27.
Kingston upon Hull
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Kingston upon Hull, usually abbreviated to Hull, is a city and unitary authority in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England. It lies upon the River Hull at its confluence with the Humber estuary,25 miles inland from the North Sea, the town of Hull was founded late in the 12th century. The monks of Meaux Abbey needed a port where the wool from their estates could be exported and they chose a place at the confluence of the rivers Hull and Humber to build a quay. The exact year the town was founded is not known but it was first mentioned in 1193, renamed Kings-town upon Hull by King Edward I in 1299, Hull has been a market town, military supply port, trading hub, fishing and whaling centre and industrial metropolis. Hull was a theatre of battle in the English Civil Wars. Its 18th century Member of Parliament, William Wilberforce, took a prominent part in the abolition of the trade in Britain. The city is unique in the UK in having had a municipally owned telephone system from 1902, sporting cream, not red, telephone boxes. After suffering heavy damage in the Second World War, Hull weathered a period of decline, gaining unfavourable results on measures of social deprivation, education. In the early 21st century spending boom before the late 2000s recession the city saw large amounts of new retail, commercial, housing, tourist attractions include the historic Old Town and Museum Quarter, Hull Marina and The Deep, a city landmark. The redevelopment of one of Hulls main thoroughfares, Ferensway, included the opening of St Stephens Hull, spectator sports include Premier League football and Super League Rugby. The KCOM Stadium houses Hull City football club and Hull F. C. rugby club, Hull is also home to the English Premier Ice Hockey League Hull Pirates. The University of Hull was founded in 1927 and now more than 16,000 students. It is ranked among the best in the Yorkshire and the Humber region and located in the leafy Newland suburb, in 2013, it was announced that Hull would be the 2017 UK City of Culture. In 2015 it was announced that the Ferens Art Gallery will be hosting the annual art prize. The prize is held outside London every other year, Kingston upon Hull stands on the north bank of the Humber estuary at the mouth of its tributary, the River Hull. The valley of the River Hull has been inhabited since the early Neolithic period, the area was attractive to people because it gave access to a prosperous hinterland and navigable rivers but the site was poor, being remote, low-lying and with no fresh water. It was originally a part of the hamlet of Myton. The name is thought to either from a Scandinavian word Vik meaning inlet or from the Saxon Wic meaning dwelling place or refuge

Kingston upon Hull
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Hull skyline from Princes Quay car park
Kingston upon Hull
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Hull in 1866
Kingston upon Hull
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The Guildhall
Kingston upon Hull
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Panorama of Hull from further along the north bank of the Humber near Paull, with the Yorkshire Wolds rising behind the city

28.
Backbarrow
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Backbarrow is a village in the Lake District National Park in England. It lies on the River Leven about 5 miles northeast of Ulverston in Furness in the county of Cumbria, Backbarrow probably grew during the Elizabethan period, due to the corn mills that were built along the river. Earlier mills at the site had been owned by Furness Abbey, development increased due to the iron furnace that was built in Backbarrow in 1711. The furnace has been described as the first efficient blast furnace, the cotton mills continued to grow in size during the Victorian period. In 1868 an extension of the Furness Railway was built through the village to transport iron, though the line was closed in the 1960s with the demise of the ironworks, the section from Haverthwaite to Lakeside, which passes through Backbarrow, remains open as a heritage railway. Backbarrow was particularly associated with the production of the pigment ultramarine. The ultramarine factory was established in an old building by the Lancashire Ultramarine Company. The blue mill was well-known locally, as dust from its production gave a blue tint to most of the village, production of this continued until 1981. The factory, which was known locally as the bluemills, is now a popular hotel, a display of machinery used in the old factory is maintained by the hotels proprietors.3 miles further down the river. In 2010 the Lakeland Motor Museum relocated from Holker Hall to the site of the Reckitts Blue Dye Works carton packaging sheds in Backbarrow. The growth of the National Park led to an increase in tourism in the region, in particular, Backbarrow has great views of the turbulent nature of the River Leven, just south of Windermere. The river has also used to develop a small hydro-electric plant, installed in 2000. Listed buildings in Haverthwaite BBC page about the Dolly Blue factory

29.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety

30.
Liquid
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A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a constant volume independent of pressure. As such, it is one of the four states of matter. A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter, such as atoms, water is, by far, the most common liquid on Earth. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container, most liquids resist compression, although others can be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, a distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension, leading to wetting phenomena. The density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid, therefore, liquid and solid are both termed condensed matter. On the other hand, as liquids and gases share the ability to flow, although liquid water is abundant on Earth, this state of matter is actually the least common in the known universe, because liquids require a relatively narrow temperature/pressure range to exist. Most known matter in the universe is in form as interstellar clouds or in plasma form within stars. Liquid is one of the four states of matter, with the others being solid, gas. Unlike a solid, the molecules in a liquid have a greater freedom to move. The forces that bind the molecules together in a solid are only temporary in a liquid, a liquid, like a gas, displays the properties of a fluid. A liquid can flow, assume the shape of a container, if liquid is placed in a bag, it can be squeezed into any shape. These properties make a suitable for applications such as hydraulics. Liquid particles are bound firmly but not rigidly and they are able to move around one another freely, resulting in a limited degree of particle mobility. As the temperature increases, the vibrations of the molecules causes distances between the molecules to increase. When a liquid reaches its point, the cohesive forces that bind the molecules closely together break. If the temperature is decreased, the distances between the molecules become smaller, only two elements are liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure, mercury and bromine. Four more elements have melting points slightly above room temperature, francium, caesium, gallium and rubidium, metal alloys that are liquid at room temperature include NaK, a sodium-potassium metal alloy, galinstan, a fusible alloy liquid, and some amalgams

Liquid
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The formation of a spherical droplet of liquid water minimizes the surface area, which is the natural result of surface tension in liquids.
Liquid
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Thermal image of a sink full of hot water with cold water being added, showing how the hot and the cold water flow into each other.
Liquid
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Surface waves in water

31.
Toxicity
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Toxicity is the degree to which a substance can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on an organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism. By extension, the word may be used to describe toxic effects on larger and more complex groups. Sometimes the word is more or less synonymous with poisoning in everyday usage, toxicity is species-specific, making cross-species analysis problematic. Newer paradigms and metrics are evolving to bypass animal testing, while maintaining the concept of toxicity endpoints, disease-causing microorganisms and parasites are toxic in a broad sense, but are generally called pathogens rather than toxicants. The biological toxicity of pathogens can be difficult to measure because the dose may be a single organism. Theoretically one virus, bacterium or worm can reproduce to cause a serious infection, in some cases, e. g. cholera, the disease is chiefly caused by a nonliving substance secreted by the organism, rather than the organism itself. Such nonliving biological toxicants are generally called toxins if produced by a microorganism, plant, or fungus, Physical toxicants are substances that, due to their physical nature, interfere with biological processes. Examples include coal dust, asbestos fibers or finely divided silicon dioxide, corrosive chemicals possess physical toxicity because they destroy tissues, but theyre not directly poisonous unless they interfere directly with biological activity. Water can act as a physical toxicant if taken in high doses because the concentration of vital ions decreases dramatically if theres too much water in the body. Asphyxiant gases can be considered physical toxicants because they act by displacing oxygen in the environment but they are inert, as already mentioned, radiation can have a toxic effect on organisms. Toxicity can be measured by its effects on the target, one such measure is the LD50. When such data does not exist, estimates are made by comparison to known similar toxic things, then, safety factors are added to account for uncertainties in data and evaluation processes. Similarly, an extra protection factor may be used for individuals believed to be susceptible to toxic effects such as in pregnancy or with certain diseases. Obviously, this approach is approximate, but such protection factors are deliberately very conservative. In addition, it is possible that a single cell transformed into a cell is all it takes to develop the full effect. Common mixtures include gasoline, cigarette smoke, and industrial waste, even more complex are situations with more than one type of toxic entity, such as the discharge from a malfunctioning sewage treatment plant, with both chemical and biological agents. The preclinical toxicity testing on various biological systems reveals the species-, organ-, the toxicity of substances can be observed by studying the accidental exposures to a substance in vitro studies using cells/ cell lines in vivo exposure on experimental animals

32.
Copper sulfate
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Copper sulfate, also known as cupric sulfate, or copper sulphate, is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula CuSO4x, where x can range from 0 to 5. The pentahydrate is the most common form, older names for this compound include blue vitriol, bluestone, vitriol of copper, and Roman vitriol. The pentahydrate, the most commonly encountered salt, is bright blue and it exothermically dissolves in water to give the aquo complex 2+, which has octahedral molecular geometry. The structure of the solid pentahydrate reveals a structure wherein copper is again octahedral. The Cu4 centers are interconnected by sulfate anions to form chains, anhydrous copper sulfate is a white powder. Copper sulfate is produced industrially by treating copper metal with hot concentrated sulfuric acid or its oxides with dilute sulfuric acid, for laboratory use, copper sulfate is usually purchased. Copper sulfate can also be produced by slowly leaching low grade ore in air. Commercial copper sulfate is usually about 98% pure copper sulfate, and may contain traces of water. Anhydrous Copper sulfate is 39.81 percent copper and 60.19 percent sulfate by mass, four types of crystal size are provided based on its usage, large crystals, small crystals, snow crystals, and windswept powder. Copper sulfate pentahydrate decomposes before melting and it loses two water molecules upon heating at 63 °C, followed by two more at 109 °C and the final water molecule at 200 °C. Dehydration proceeds by decomposition of the moiety, two opposing aqua groups are lost to give a diaquacopper moiety. The second dehydration step occurs with the final two groups are lost. Complete dehydration occurs when the only unbound water molecule is lost, at 650 °C, copper sulfate decomposes into copper oxide and sulfur trioxide. Copper sulfate reacts with concentrated acid to give tetrachlorocuprate, Cu2+ +4 Cl− → CuCl2−4 Copper sulfate is commonly included in childrens chemistry sets. It is often used to grow crystals in schools and in copper plating experiments, Copper sulfate is often used to demonstrate an exothermic reaction, in which steel wool or magnesium ribbon is placed in an aqueous solution of CuSO4. It is used to demonstrate the principle of mineral hydration, the pentahydrate form, which is blue, is heated, turning the copper sulfate into the anhydrous form which is white, while the water that was present in the pentahydrate form evaporates. When water is added to the anhydrous compound, it turns back into the pentahydrate form, regaining its blue color. Copper sulfate pentahydrate can easily be produced by crystallization from solution as copper sulfate is quite hygroscopic, in an illustration of a single metal replacement reaction, iron is submerged in a solution of copper sulfate

33.
Textile
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A textile or cloth is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres. Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or felting. The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades as synonyms for textile, however, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres, a fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods. Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but is often a piece of fabric used for a specific purpose. The word textile is from Latin, from the adjective textilis, meaning woven, from textus, the word cloth derives from the Old English clað, meaning a cloth, woven or felted material to wrap around one, from Proto-Germanic kalithaz. The discovery of dyed flax fibres in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests textile-like materials were made even in prehistoric times. The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization, however, for the main types of textiles, plain weave, twill, or satin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods. Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for such as bags. In the household they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, in the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Textiles are used in traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting. Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for applications, medical textiles, geotextiles, agrotextiles. In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met, woven of threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires, laboratory fabric has been shown capable of self-powering nanosystems using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements. Fashion designers commonly rely on textile designs to set their fashion collections apart from others, armani, the late Gianni Versace, and Emilio Pucci can be easily recognized by their signature print driven designs. Textiles can be made from many materials and these materials come from four main sources, animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic. In the past, all textiles were made from natural fibres, including plant, animal, in the 20th century, these were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum. Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest gossamer to the sturdiest canvas, microfibre refers to fibres made of strands thinner than one denier

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Chemical substance
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A chemical substance is a form of matter that has constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. It cannot be separated into components by physical methods, i. e. without breaking chemical bonds. Chemical substances can be chemical elements, chemical compounds, ions or alloys, Chemical substances are often called pure to set them apart from mixtures. A common example of a substance is pure water, it has the same properties. Other chemical substances commonly encountered in pure form are diamond, gold, table salt, however, in practice, no substance is entirely pure, and chemical purity is specified according to the intended use of the chemical. Chemical substances exist as solids, liquids, gases, or plasma, Chemical substances may be combined or converted to others by means of chemical reactions. Forms of energy, such as light and heat, are not matter, a chemical substance may well be defined as any material with a definite chemical composition in an introductory general chemistry textbook. According to this definition a chemical substance can either be a chemical element or a pure chemical compound. But, there are exceptions to this definition, a substance can also be defined as a form of matter that has both definite composition and distinct properties. The chemical substance index published by CAS also includes several alloys of uncertain composition, in geology, substances of uniform composition are called minerals, while physical mixtures of several minerals are defined as rocks. Many minerals, however, mutually dissolve into solid solutions, such that a rock is a uniform substance despite being a mixture in stoichiometric terms. Feldspars are an example, anorthoclase is an alkali aluminium silicate. In law, chemical substances may include both pure substances and mixtures with a composition or manufacturing process. For example, the EU regulation REACH defines monoconstituent substances, multiconstituent substances and substances of unknown or variable composition, the latter two consist of multiple chemical substances, however, their identity can be established either by direct chemical analysis or reference to a single manufacturing process. For example, charcoal is a complex, partially polymeric mixture that can be defined by its manufacturing process. Therefore, although the chemical identity is unknown, identification can be made to a sufficient accuracy. The CAS index also includes mixtures, polymers almost always appear as mixtures of molecules of multiple molar masses, each of which could be considered a separate chemical substance. However, the polymer may be defined by a precursor or reaction

Chemical substance
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Steam and liquid water are two different forms of the same chemical substance, water.
Chemical substance
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Colors of a single chemical (Nile red) in different solvents, under visible and UV light, showing how the chemical interacts dynamically with its solvent environment.
Chemical substance
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Native sulfur crystals. Sulfur occurs naturally as elemental sulfur, in sulfide and sulfate minerals and in hydrogen sulfide.
Chemical substance
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Potassium ferricyanide is a compound of potassium, iron, carbon and nitrogen; although it contains cyanide anions, it does not release them and is nontoxic.