Road maps are perhaps the most widely used maps today, and form a subset of navigational maps, which also include aeronautical and nautical charts, railroad network maps, and hiking and bicycling maps. In terms of quantity, the largest number of drawn map sheets is probably made up by local surveys, carried out by municipalities, utilities, tax assessors, emergency services providers, and other local agencies. Many national surveying projects have been carried out by the military, such as the BritishOrdnance Survey (now a civilian government agency internationally renowned for its comprehensively detailed work).

In addition to location information maps may also be used to portray contour lines (isolines) indicating constant values of elevation, topography, temperature, rainfall etc.

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Orientation of maps

The orientation of a map is the relationship between the directions on the map and the corresponding compass directions in reality. The word "orient" is derived from Latinoriens, meaning East. In the Middle Ages many maps, including the T and O maps, were drawn with East at the top (meaning that the direction "up" on the map corresponds to East on the compass). Today, the most common – but far from universal – cartographic convention is that North is at the top of a map. Several kinds of maps are often traditionally not oriented with North at the top:

Maps from non-Western traditions are oriented a variety of ways. Old maps of Edo show the Japanese imperial palace as the "top", but also at the centre, of the map. Labels on the map are oriented in such a way that you cannot read them properly unless you put the imperial palace above your head.[citation needed]

Maps of cities bordering a sea are often conventionally oriented with the sea at the top.

Route and channel maps have traditionally been oriented to the road or waterway they describe.

Polar maps of the Arctic or Antarctic regions are conventionally centred on the pole, and the concept of orientation does not apply; the direction North would be towards or away from the centre of the map, respectively.

Reversed maps, also known as Upside-Down maps or South-Up maps, reverse the "North is up" convention and have South at the top.

Modern digital GIS maps such as ArcMap typically project north at the top of the map, but use math degrees (0 is east, degrees increase counter-clockwise), rather than compass degrees (0 is north, degrees increase clockwise) for orientation of transects. Compass decimal degrees can be converted to math degrees by subtracting them from 450.

Scale and accuracy

Many, but not all, maps are drawn to a scale, expressed as a ratio such as 1:10,000, meaning that 1 of any unit of measurement on the map corresponds exactly, or approximately, to 10,000 of that same unit on the ground. The scale statement may be taken as exact when the region mapped is small enough for the curvature of the Earth to be neglected, for example in a town planner's city map. Over larger regions where the curvature cannot be ignored we must use map projections from the curved surface of the Earth (sphere or ellipsoid) to the plane. The impossibility of flattening the sphere to the plane implies that no map projection can have constant scale: on most projections the best we can achieve is accurate scale on one or two lines (not necessarily straight) on the projection. Thus for map projections we must introduce the concept of point scale, which is a function of position, and strive to keep its variation within narrow bounds. Although the scale statement is nominal it is usually accurate enough for all but the most precise of measurements.

Large scale maps, say 1:10,000, cover relatively small regions in great detail and small scale maps, say 1:10,000,000, cover large regions such as nations, continents and the whole globe. The large/small terminology arose from the practice of writing scales as numerical fractions: 1/10000 is larger than 1/10000000. There is no exact dividing line between large and small but 1/100000 might well be considered as a medium scale. Examples of large scale maps are the 1:25000 maps produced for hikers; on the other hand maps intended for motorists at 1:250,000 or 1:1,000,000 are small scale.

It is important to recognize that even the most accurate maps sacrifice a certain amount of accuracy in scale to deliver a greater visual usefulness to its user. For example, the width of roads and small streams are exaggerated when they are too narrow to be shown on the map at true scale; that is, on a printed map they would be narrower than could be perceived by the naked eye. The same applies to computer maps where the smallest unit is the pixel. A narrow stream say must be shown to have the width of a pixel even if at the map scale it would be a small fraction of the pixel width.

Sometimes the scale of a map is distorted deliberately. For example the map of Europe shown here has been distorted to show population distributions. Clearly the basic scale is approximately uniform for the rough shape of the continent is still visible. This is an example of a cartogram.

Another example of distorted scale is the famous London Underground map. The basic geographical structure is respected but the tube lines (and the River Thames) are smoothed to clarify the relationships between stations. Near the center of the map stations are spaced out more than near the edges of map.

Further inaccuracies may be deliberate. For example, cartographers may simply omit military installations or remove features solely in order to enhance the clarity of the map. For example, a road map may or may not show railroads, smaller waterways or other prominent non-road objects, and even if it does, it may show them less clearly (e.g. dashed or dotted lines/outlines) than the highways. Known as decluttering, the practice makes the subject matter that the user is interested in easier to read, usually without sacrificing overall accuracy. Software-based maps often allow the user to toggle decluttering between ON, OFF and AUTO as needed. In AUTO the degree of decluttering is adjusted as the user changes the scale being displayed.

World maps and projections

Maps of the world or large areas are often either 'political' or 'physical'. The most important purpose of the political map is to show territorial borders; the purpose of the physical is to show features of geography such as mountains, soil type or land use. Geological maps show not only the physical surface, but characteristics of the underlying rock, fault lines, and subsurface structures.

Maps that depict the surface of the Earth also use a projection, a way of translating the three-dimensional real surface of the geoid to a two-dimensional picture. Perhaps the best-known world-map projection is the Mercator projection, originally designed as a form of nautical chart.

Airplane pilots use aeronautical charts based on a Lambert conformal conic projection, in which a cone is laid over the section of the earth to be mapped. The cone intersects the sphere (the earth) at one or two parallels which are chosen as standard lines. This allows the pilots to plot a great-circle route approximation on a flat, two-dimensional chart.

Richard Edes Harrison produced a striking series of maps during and after World War II for Fortune magazine. These used "bird's eye" projections to emphasize globally strategic "fronts" in the air age, pointing out proximities and barriers not apparent on a conventional rectangular projection of the world.

Electronic maps

From the last quarter of the 20th century, the indispensable tool of the cartographer has been the computer. Much of cartography, especially at the data-gathering survey level, has been subsumed by Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The functionality of maps has been greatly advanced by technology simplifying the superimposition of spatially located variables onto existing geographical maps. Having local information such as rainfall level, distribution of wildlife, or demographic data integrated within the map allows more efficient analysis and better decision making. In the pre-electronic age such superimposition of data led Dr. John Snow to discover the cause of cholera. Today, it is used by agencies of the human kind, as diverse as wildlife conservationists and militaries around the world.

Relief map Sierra Nevada

Even when GIS is not involved, most cartographers now use a variety of computer graphics programs to generate new maps.

Interactive, computerised maps are commercially available, allowing users to zoom in or zoom out (respectively meaning to increase or decrease the scale), sometimes by replacing one map with another of different scale, centered where possible on the same point. In-car global navigation satellite systems are computerised maps with route-planning and advice facilities which monitor the user's position with the help of satellites. From the computer scientist's point of view, zooming in entails one or a combination of:

replacing the map by a more detailed one

enlarging the same map without enlarging the pixels, hence showing more detail by removing less information compared to the less detailed version

enlarging the same map with the pixels enlarged (replaced by rectangles of pixels); no additional detail is shown, but, depending on the quality of one's vision, possibly more detail can be seen; if a computer display does not show adjacent pixels really separate, but overlapping instead (this does not apply for an LCD, but may apply for a cathode ray tube), then replacing a pixel by a rectangle of pixels does show more detail. A variation of this method is interpolation.

For example:

Typically (2) applies to a Portable Document Format (PDF) file or other format based on vector graphics. The increase in detail is, of course, limited to the information contained in the file: enlargement of a curve may eventually result in a series of standard geometric figures such as straight lines, arcs of circles or splines.

(2) may apply to text and (3) to the outline of a map feature such as a forest or building.

(1) may apply to the text (displaying labels for more features), while (2) applies to the rest of the image. Text is not necessarily enlarged when zooming in. Similarly, a road represented by a double line may or may not become wider when one zooms in.

The map may also have layers which are partly raster graphics and partly vector graphics. For a single raster graphics image (2) applies until the pixels in the image file correspond to the pixels of the display, thereafter (3) applies.

Conventional signs

The various features shown on a map are represented by conventional signs or symbols. For example, colors can be used to indicate a classification of roads. These signs are usually explained in the margin of the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet.[1]

Labeling

To communicate spatial information effectively, features such as rivers, lakes, and cities need to be labeled. Over centuries cartographers have developed the art of placing names on even the densest of maps. Text placement or name placement can get mathematically very complex as the number of labels and map density increases. Therefore, text placement is time-consuming and labor-intensive, so cartographers and GIS users have developed automatic label placement to ease this process.[2][3]

Non geographical spatial maps

Maps exist of the solar system, and other cosmological features such as star maps. In addition maps of other bodies such as the Moon and other planets are technically not geological maps.

Non spatial maps

Many diagrams such as Gantt charts display logical relationships between items, and do not display spatial relationships at all.

Many maps are topological in nature, and the distances are completely unimportant, and only the connectivity is significant.

From LoveToKnow 1911

MAP, a representation, on a plane and a reduced
scale, of part or the whole of the earth's surface. If specially
designed to meet the requirements of seamen it is called a chart, if on an exceptionally large
scale a plan. The words map and chart are derived from mappa and
charta, the former being the Latin for napkin or cloth, the latter for papyrus or parchment. Maps were thus named after the
material upon which they were drawn or painted, and it should be
noted that even at present maps intended for use in the open air, by cyclists, military men and
others, are frequently printed on cloth. In Italian, Spanish and Portuguese the word mappa
has retained its place, by the side of carta, for marine
charts, but in other languages both kinds of maps 1 are generally
known by a word derived from the Latin charta, as
carte in French, Karte in German, Kaart
in Dutch. A chart, in French, is called carte hydrographique,
marine or des cotes; in Spanish or Portuguese carta de
marear, in Italian carta da navigare, in German
Seekarte (to distinguish it from Landkarte), in
Dutch Zeekaart or Paskaart. A chart on Mercator's
projection is called
Wassende graadkaart in Dutch, carte reduite in
French. Lastly, a collection of maps is called an atlas, after the figure of Atlas, the Titan,
supporting the heavens, which ornamented the title of Lafreri's and
Mercator's atlases in the 16th century.

Classification of Maps

Maps differ greatly, not only as to the scale on which they are
drawn, but also with respect to the fullness or the character of
the information which they convey. Broadly speaking, they may be
divided into two classes, of which the first includes
topographical, chorographical and general maps, the second the
great variety designed for special purposes.

1 The ancient Greeks called a map Pinax, The RomansTabula geographica.
Mappa mundi was the medieval Latin for a map of the world
which the ancients called Tabula totius orbis
descriptionem Topographical maps and plans are drawn on a
scale sufficiently large to enable the draughtsman to show most
objects on a scale true to nature. 2 Its information should not
only be accurate, but also conveyed intelligibly and with taste.
Exaggeration, however, is not always to be avoided, for even on the
British 1 in. ordnance map
the roads appear as if they were 130 ft. in width.

Chorographical (Gr. XWpa, country or region) and general maps
are either reduced from topographical maps or compiled from such
miscellaneous sources as are available. In the former case the
cartographer is merely called upon to reduce and generalize the
information given by his originals, to make a judicious selection
of place names, and to take care that the map is not overcrowded
with names and details. Far more difficult is his task where no
surveys are available, and the map has to be compiled from a
variety of sources. These materials generally include reconnaissance
survey of small districts, route surveys and astronomical
observations supplied by travellers, and information obtained from
native sources. The compiler, in combining these materials, is
called upon to examine the various sources of information, and to
form an estimate of their value, which he can only do if he have
himself some knowledge of surveying and of the methods of determining
positions by astronomical observation. A knowledge of the languages
in which the accounts of travellers are written, and even of native
languages, is almost indispensable. He ought not to be satisfied
with compiling his map from existing maps, but should subject each
explorer's account to an independent examination, when he will
frequently find that either the explorer himself, or the
draughtsman employed by him, has failed to introduce into his map
the whole of the information available. Latitudes from the
observations of travellers may generally be trusted, but longitudes
should be accepted with caution; for so competent an observer as
Captain Speke placed the capital of Uganda in longitude 32° 44' E., when its true longitude
as determined by more trustworthy observations is 32° 26' E., an
error of 18'. Again, on the map illustrating Livingstone's " Last
Journals " the Luapula is shown as issuing from the Bangweulu in the
north-west, when an examination of the account of the natives who
carried the great explorer's remains to the coast would have shown
that it leaves that lake on the south.

The second group includes all maps compiled for special
purposes. Their variety is considerable, for they are designed to
illustrate physical and political geography, travel and navigation, trade and
commerce, and, in fact, every subject connected with geographical
distribution and capable of being illustrated by means of a map. We
thus have (1) physical maps in great variety, including geological,
orographical and hydrographical maps, maps illustrative of the
geographical distribution of meteorological phenomena, of plants
and animals, such as are to be found in Berghaus's " Physical
Atlas," of which an enlarged English edition is published by J. G.
Bartholomew of Edinburgh; (2) political maps, showing
political boundaries; (3) ethnological maps, illustrating the
distribution of the varieties of man, the density of population, &c.; (4) travel
maps, showing roads or railways and ocean-routes (as is done by
Philips' " Marine Atlas "), or designed for the special use of
cyclists or aviators; (5) statistical maps, illustrating commerce
and industries; (6) historical maps; (7) maps specially designed
for educational purposes.

Scale of Maps. - Formerly map makers contented
themselves with placing upon their maps a linear scale of miles,
deduced from the central meridian or the equator. They now add the proportion which
these units of length have to nature, or state how many of these
units are contained within some local measure of length. The former
method, usually called the " natural scale," may be described as "
international," for it is quite independent of local measures of
length, and depends exclusively upon the size and figure of
the earth. Thus a scale of i,000,000 signifies that each unit
of length on the map 2 Close, " The Ideal Topographical Map,"
Geog. Journal, vol. xxv. (2905).

represents one million of such units in nature. The second
method is still employed in many cases, and we find thus: In cases
where the draughtsman has omitted to indicate the scale we can
ascertain it by dividing the actual length of a meridian degree by
the length of a degree measure upon the map. Thus a degree between
50° and 51° measures 111,226,000 mm.; on the map it is represented
by i r r mm. Hence the scale is r: r,000,000 approximately.

The linear scale of maps can obviously be used only in the case
of maps covering a small area, for in the case of maps of greater
extension measurements would be vitiated owing to the distortion or
exaggeration inherent in all projections, not to mention the
expansion or shrinking of the paper in the process of printing. As an extreme
instance of the misleading character of the scale given on maps
embracing a wide area we may refer to a map of a hemisphere. The
scale of that map, as determined by the equator or centre meridian,
we will suppose to be i: 125,000,000, while the encircling meridian
indicates a scale of i: 80,000,000; and a " mean " scale, equal to
the square root of the proportion which the area of the map bears
to the actual area of a hemisphere, is r: 112,000,000. In adopting
a scale for their maps, cartographers will do well to choose a
multiple of loon if possible, for
such a scale can claim to be international, while in planning an
atlas they ought to avoid a needless multiplicity of scales.

Map
Projections are dealt with separately below. It will
suffice therefore to point out that the ordinary needs of the
cartographer can be met by conical projections, and, in the case of
maps covering a wide area, by Lambert's equal area projection. The
indiscriminate use of Mercator's projection, for maps of the world,
is to be deprecated owing to the inordinate exaggeration of areas
in high latitudes. In the case of topographical maps sheets bounded
by meridians and parallels are to be commended.

Paris (Obs. nationale) .

2°

20' 14" E. of Greenwich.

Pulkova (St Petersburg) .

30°

1 9' 39" E. „

Stockholm

18°

3' 30" E.

„

Rome (Collegio Romano) .

12°

28' 40" E.

„

Brussels (Old town)

4°

22' II' E.

„

Madrid

3°

41' 16" W.

„

Ferro (assumed). .

20°

o' 0" W. of Paris.

The meridian of Greenwich has been universally accepted as
the initial meridian, but in the case of most topographical maps of
foreign countries local meridians are still adhered to - the more
important among which are: The outline includes
coast-line, rivers, roads, towns, and in fact all objects capable
of being shown on a map, with the exception of the hills and of
woods, swamps, deserts and the like, which the draughtsman
generally describes as " ornament." Conventional signs and symbols are
universally used in depicting these objects.

Delineation of the Ground

The mole-hills and serrated
ridges of medieval maps were still in almost general use at the
close of the 18th century, and are occasionally met with at the
present day, being cheaply produced, readily understood by the
unlearned, and in reality preferable to the uncouth and misleading
hatchings still to be seen on many maps. Far superior are those
scenographic representations which enable a person consulting the
map to identify prominent landmarks, such as the Pic du Midi, which
rises like a pillar to the
south of Pau, but is not readily
discovered upon an ordinary map. This advantage is still fully
recognized, for such views of distant hills are still commonly
given on the margin of marine charts for the assistance of
navigators; military surveyors are encouraged to introduce sketehes
of prominent landmarks upon their reconnaissance plans, and the
general public is enabled to consult " Picturesque Relief Maps " -
such as F. W. Delkeskamp's Switzerland (1830) or his Panorama of the Rhine. Delineations such as
these do not, however, satisfy scientific requirements. All objects
on a map are required to be shown as projected horizontally upon a
plane. This principle must naturally be adhered to when delineating
the features of the ground. This was recognized by J. Picard and
other members of the Academy of Science whom Colbert, in 1668,
directed to prepare a new map of France, for on David Vivier's map of the
environs of Paris (1674, scale
r: 86,400) very crude hachures bounding the rivers have been
substituted for the scenographic hills of older maps. Little
progress in the delineation of 0 upon his chart of the FIG.

Channel, and intended to introduce similar contours or isohypses
(40s, height) for a representation of the land. DupainTriel, acting
upon a suggestion of his friend M. Ducarla, published his La
France consideree da p s les dijferentes hauteurs de ses
plaines (1791), upon which equidistant contours at intervals
of 16 toises found a place. The scientific value of these contoured
maps is fully recognized. They not only indicate the height of the
land, but also enable us to compute the declivity of the mountain slopes;
and if minor features of ground lying between two contours - such
as ravines, as also rocky precipices and glaciers - are indicated,
as is done on the Siegfried atlas of Switzerland, they fully meet
the requirements of the scientific man, the engineer and the
mountain-climber. At the same time it cannot be denied that these
maps, unless the contours are inserted at short intervals, lack
graphic expression. Two methods are employed to attain this: the
first distinguishes the strata or layers by colours; the second
indicates the varying slopes by shades or hachures. The first of
these methods yields a hypsographical, or - if the sea-bottom be
included, in which case all contours are referred to a common datum
line - a bathy hypsographical map. Carl Ritter, in 1806, employed
graduated tints, increasing in lightness on proceeding from the
lowlands to the highlands; while General F. von Hauslab, director
of the Austrian Surveys, in 1842, advised that the darkest tints
should be allotted to the highlands, so that they might not obscure
details in the densely peopled plains. The desired effect may be
produced by a graduation of the same colour, or by a
polychromatic scale - such as white, pale red, pale brown, various
shades of green, violet and purple, in ascending order. C.
von Sonklar, in his map of the Hohe Tauern (r: 144,000; 1864)
coloured plains and valleys green; mountain slopes in five shades
of brown; glaciers blue or white. E. G. Ravenstein's map of Ben Nevis (1887) first
employed the colours of the spectrum, viz. green to brown, in
ascending order for the land; blue, indigo and violet for the sea, increasing in
intensity with the height or the depth. At first cartographers
chose their colours rather arbitrarily. Thus Horsell, who was the
first to introduce tints the ground, however, was made until
towards the close of the 18th century, when horizontal contours and
hachures regulated according to the angle of inclination of all
slopes, were adopted. These contours intersect the ground at a
given distance above or below the level of the sea, and thus bound
a series of horizontal planes (see fig. r). Contours of this kind
were first utilized by M. S. Cruquius in his chart of the Merwede
(1728); Philip Buache (x737)
introduced such contours or isobaths (Gr. i csos, equal;
f aOin, deep) 1 -- Section of a Cone on his map of Sweden and Norway (1:600,000; 1835), coloured the lowlands
up to 300 ft. in green, succeeded by red, yellow and white for the
higher ground; while A. Papen, on his hypsographical map of Central
Europe (1857) introduced a
perplexing range of colours. At the present time compilers of
strata maps generally limit themselves to two or three colours, in
various shades, with green for the lowlands, brown for the hills
and blue for the sea. On the international map of the world,
planned by Professor A. Penck on a scale of 1: i,000,000, which has
been undertaken by the leading governments of the world, the ground
is shown by contours at intervals of ioo metres (to be increased to
200 and Soo metres in mountainous districts); the strata are in
graded tints, viz. blue for the sea, green for lowlands up to 300
metres, yellow between 300 and Soo metres, brown up to 2000 metres,
and reddish tints beyond that height.

The declivities of the ground are still indicated in most
topographical maps by a system of strokes or hachures, first
devised by L. Chr. Muller (Plan and Kartenzeichnen, 1788)
and J. G. Lehmann, who directed a survey of Saxony, 1780-1806, and published his Theorie
der Bergzeichnung in 1799. By this method the slopes are
indicated by strokes or hachures crossing the contour lines at right angles, in the direction
of flowing water, and varying in thickness according to the degree
of declivity they represent (cf. for example, the map of Switzerland in this
work). The light is supposed to descend vertically upon the country
represented, and in a true scale of shade the intensity increases
with the inclination from o° to 90°; but as such a scale does not
sufficiently differentiate the lesser inclinations which are the
most important, the author adopted a conventional scale,
representing a slope of 45° or more, supposed to be inaccessible,
as absolutely black, the level surfaces, which reflect all the
light which falls upon them, as perfectly white, and the
intervening slopes by a proportion between black and white, as in
fig. 2. The main principles of this system have been maintained,
Slope Degrees 80 75 ' '70 FIG. 2.

but its details have been modified frequently to suit special
cases. Thus the French survey commission of 1828 fixed the
proportion of black to white at one and a half times the angle of
slope; while in Austria,
where steep mountains constitute an important feature, solid black
has been reserved for a slope of 80°, the proportion of black to
white varying from 80:o (for 50) to 8: 72 (for 5°). On the map of
Germany (1:Ioo,000) a slope
of 50° is shown in solid black while stippled hachures are used for
gentle slopes up to 100. Instead of shading lines following the
greatest slopes, lines following the contours and varying in their
thickness and in their intervals apart, according to the slope of
the ground to be represented, may be employed' This method affords
a ready and expeditious means of sketching the ground, if the
draughtsman limits himself to characteristically indicating its
features by what have been called " form lines." This method can be
recommended in the case of plotting the results of an explorer's
route, or in the case of countries of which we have no regular
survey (cf. the map of Afghanistan in this work).

Instead of supposing the light to fall vertically upon the
surface it is often supposed to fall obliquely, generally at an
angle of 45° from the upper left-hand corner. It is claimed for
this method that it affords a means of giving a graphic
representation of Alpine districts where other methods of shading
fail. The Dufour map of Switzerland (i :ioo,000) is one of the
finest examples of this style of
hill-shading. For use in the field, however, and for scientific
work, a contoured map like Siegfried's atlas of Switzerland, or, in
the case of hilly country, a map shaded on the assumption of a
vertical light, will prove more useful than one of these,
notwithstanding that truth to nature and artistic beauty are
claimed on their behalf.

Instead of shading by lines, a like effect may be produced by mezzotint shading (cf. the
map of Italy, or other maps, in
this work, on a similar method), and if this be combined with
contour lines very satisfactory results can be achieved. If this
tint be printed in grey or brown, isohypses, in black or red, show
distinctly above it. The same combination is possible if hills
engraved in the ordinary manner are printed in colours, as is done
in an edition of the i-inch
ordnance map, with contours in red and hills hachured in brown.

Efforts have been made of late years to improve the available
methods of representing ground, especially in Switzerland, but the
so-called stereoscopic or relief maps produced by F. Becker, X.
Imfeld, Kummerly, F. Leuzinger and other able cartographers,
however admirable as works of art, do not, from the point of
utility, supersede the combination of horizontal contours with
shaded slopes, such as have been long in use. There seems to be
even less chance for the
combination of coloured strata and hachures proposed by K. Peucker,
whose theoretical disquisitions on aerial perspective are of interest, but have not
hitherto ' led to satisfactory practical results.' The above
remarks apply more particularly to topographic maps. In the case of
general maps on a smaller scale, the orographic features must be
generalized by a skilful draughtsman and artist. One of the best
modern examples of this kind is Vogel's map of Germany, on a scale
of i :500,000.

The nomenclature or " lettering " of maps is a subject deserving
special attention. Not only should the names be carefully selected
with special reference to the objects which the map is intended to
serve, and to prevent overcrowding by the introduction of names
which can serve no useful object, but they should also be arranged
in such a manner as to be read easily by a person consulting the
map. It is an accepted rule now that the spelling of names in
countries using the Roman alphabet should be retained, with such
exceptions as have been familiarized by long usage. In such cases,
however, the correct native form should be added within brackets,
as Florence (Firenze), Leghorn (Livorno), Cologne (Coln) and so on. At
the same time these corrupted forms should be eliminated as far as
possible. Names in languages not using the Roman alphabet, or
having 'no written alphabet should be spelt phonetically, as
pronounced on the spot. An elaborate universal alphabet, abounding
in diacritical marks, has been devised for the purpose by Professor
Lepsius, and various other systems have been adopted for Oriental
languages, and by certain missionary societies, adapted to the
languages in which they teach. The following simple rules, laid
down by a Committee of the Royal Geographical Society, will be
found sufficient as a rule; according to this system the vowels are
to be sounded as in Italian, the consonants as in English, and no
redundant letters are to be introduced. The diphthong ai is 1 K. Peucker,
Schattenplastik and Farbenplastik (Vienna, 1898);
Geograph. Zeitschrift (1902 and 1908).

to be pronounced as in aisle; au as ow in how; aw
as in law. Ch is always to be sounded as in church,
g is always hard; y always represents a consonant;
whilst kh and gh stand for gutturals. One accent only is to be used, the
acute, to denote the syllable on which stress is laid. This system
has in great measure been followed throughout the present work, but
it is obvious that in numerous instances these rules must prove
inadequate. The introduction of additional diacritical marks, such
as - and used to express quantity, and the diaeresis, as in
ai, to express consecutive vowels, which are to be
pronounced separately, may prove of service, as also such letters
as a, o and ii, to be pronounced as in German, and in lieu of the
French ai, eu or u.The United
States Geographic Board acts upon rules practically identical
with those indicated, and compiles official lists of place-names,
the use of which is binding upon government departments, but which
it would hardly be wise to follow universally in the case of names
of places outside America.

Measurement On Maps Measurement of Distance. - The
shortest distance between two places on the surface of a globe is
represented by the arc of a great circle. If the two places are upon
the same meridian or upon the equator the exact distance separating
them is to be found by reference to a table giving the lengths of
arcs of a meridian and of the equator. In all other cases recourse
must be had to a map, a globe or mathematical formula. Measurements
made on a topographical map yield the most satisfactory results.
Even a general map may be trusted, as long as we keep within ten
degrees of its centre. In the case of more considerable distances,
however, a globe of suitable size should be consulted, or - and
this seems preferable - they should be calculated by the rules of
spherical trigonometry. The problem then resolves
itself in the solution of a spherical triangle.

In the formulae which follow we suppose 1 and
l' to represent the latitudes, a and b the
co-latitudes (90° - 1 or 90° - l'), and t the difference
in longitude between them or the meridian distance, whilst D is the
distance required.

If both places have the same latitude we have to deal with an isosceles
triangle, of which two sides and the included angle are given. This
triangle, for the convenience of calculation, we divide into two
right-angled triangles. Then we have sin 2 D =sin a sin zt, and since sin a=sin (90°-1)
= cos1, it follows that
sin ID = cos 1 sin it. If the latitudes differ,
we have to solve an oblique-angled spherical triangle, of which two
sides and the included angle are given. Thus, cos D - cos a cos
b cos sin a sin b cos D = cos a cos b +
sin a sin b cos t = sin 1 sin l'
+ cos 1 cos l cost. In order to adapt this formula to logarithms, we
introduce a subsidiary angle p, such that cot p =
cot l cos t; we then have cos D = sin 1
cos( - p) I sin p. In the above formulae
our earth is assumed to be a sphere, but when calculating and
reducing to the sea-level, a base-line, or the side of a primary
triangulation, account must be taken of the spheroidal shape of the
earth and of the elevation above the sealevel. The error due to the
neglect of the former would at most amount to 1%, while a reduction
to the mean level of the sea necessitates but a trifling reduction,
amounting, in the case of a base-line 300,000 metres in length,
measured on a plateau of 3700 metres (12,000 ft.) in height, to 57
metres only.

These orthodromic distances are of course shorter than those
measured along a loxodromic line, which intersects all parallels at
the same angle. Thus the distance between New York and Oporto, following the former (great circle
sailing), amounts to 3000 m., while following the rhumb, as in
Mercator sailing, it would amount to 3120 m.

These direct distances may of course differ widely with the
distance which it is necessary to travel between two places along a
road, down a winding river or a sinuous coast-line. Thus, the
direct distance, as the crow
flies, between Brig and the hospice of the Simplon amounts to 4.42 geogr.
m. (slope nearly 9°), while the distance by road measures 13.85
geogr. m. (slope nearly 3°). Distances such as these can be
measured only on a topographical map of a fairly large scale, for
on general maps many of the details needed for that purpose can no
longer be represented. Space runners for facilitating these
measurements, variously known as chartometers, curvimeters,
opisometers, &c., have been devised in great variety. Nearly
all these instruments register the revolution of a small wheel of known circumference, which
is run along the line to be measured.

The Measurement of Areas is easily effected if the map
at our disposal is drawn on an equal area projection. In that case
we need simply cover the map with a network of squares - the area
of each of which has been determined with reference to the scale of
the map - count the squares, and estimate the contents of those
only partially enclosed within the boundary, and the result will
give the area desired. Instead of drawing these squares upon the
map itself, they may be engraved or etched upon glass, or drawn upon transparent celluloid or
tracing-paper. Still more expeditious is the use of a planimeter,
such as Captain Prytz's " Hatchet Planimeter," which yields fairly
accurate results, or G. Coradi's " Polar Planimeter," one of the
most trustworthy instruments of the kind.' When dealing with maps
not drawn on an equal area projection we substitute quadrilaterals
bounded by meridians and parallels, the areas for which are given
in the " Smithsonian Geographical Tables " (1894), in Professor H.
Wagner's tables in the geographical Jahrbuch, or similar
works.

It is obvious that the area of a group of mountains projected on
a horizontal plane, such as is presented by a map, must differ
widely from the area of the superficies or physical surface of
those mountains exposed to the air. Thus, a slope of 45° having a
surface of loo sq. m. projected upon a horizontal plane only
measures 59 sq. m., whilst 100 sq. m. of the snowclad Sentis in Appenzell are reduced to
10;sq. m. A hypsographical map affords the readiest solution of
this question. Given the area A of the plane between the two
horizontal contours, the height h of the upper above the
lower contour, the length of the upper contour 1, and the
area of the face presented by the edge of the upper stratum l.h
= A 1, the slope a is found to be tan a = h.l I (A -
A i); hence its superficies, A = A2 sec a. The result is an
approximation, for inequalities of the ground bounded by the two
contours have not been considered.

The hypsographical map facilitates likewise the determination of
the mean height of a country, and this height, combined
with the area, the determination of volume, or cubic contents, is a
simple matter.2 Relief Maps are intended to present a
representation of the ground which shall be absolutely true to
nature. The object, however, can be fully attained only if the
scale of the map is sufficiently large, if the horizontal and
vertical scales are identical, so that there shall be no
exaggeration of the heights, and if regard is had, eventually, to
the curvature of the earth's surface. Relief maps on a small scale
necessitate a generalization of the features of the ground, as in
the case of ordinary maps, as likewise an exaggeration of the
heights. Thus on a relief on a scale of 1: i,000,000 a mountain
like Ben Nevis would only rise
to a height of 1.3 mm.

The methods of producing reliefs vary according to the scale and
the materials available. A simple plan is as follows - draw an
outline of the country of which a map is to be produced upon a
board; mark all points the altitude of which is known or
can be estimated by pins or wires clipped off so as to denote the
heights; mark river-courses and suitable profiles by strips of
vellum and finally finish your model with the aid of a good map, in
clay or wax. If contoured maps are available it is easy to
build up a strata-relief, which facilitates the completion of the
relief so that it shall be a fair representation of nature, which
the strata-relief cannot claim to be. A pantograph armed with cutting-files a which
carve the relief out of a block of gypsum, was employed in1893-1900by C. Perron of Geneva, in producing his relief map of
Switzerland on a scale of 1: ioo,000. After copies of such reliefs
have been taken in gypsum, cement, statuary pasteboard, fossil dust mixed with vegetable oil, or some other suitable
material, they are painted. If a number of copies is required it
may be advisable to print a map
of the country represented in colours, and either to emboss this
map, backed with papier-mâché,
or paste it upon a copy of the
relief - a task of some difficulty. Relief maps are frequently
objected to on 2 Professor Henrici, Report on Planimeters
(64th meeting of the British Association, Oxford, 1894); J. Tennant, " The Planimeter "
(Engineering, xlv. 1903).

3 Kienzl of Leoben in 1891
had invented a similar apparatus which he called a Relief
Pantograph (Zeitschrift, Vienna Geog. Soc. 1891).

account of their cost, bulk and weight, but their great use in
teaching geography is undeniable.

Globes. I

It is impossible to represent on a plane the whole of the
earth's surface, or even a large extent of it, without a
considerable amount of distortion. On the other hand a map drawn on
the surface of a sphere representing a terrestrial globe will prove
true to nature, for it possesses, in combination, the qualities
which the ingenuity of no mathematician has hitherto succeeded in
imparting to a projection intended for a map of some extent,
namely, equivalence of areas of distances and angles. Nevertheless,
it should be observed that our globes take no account of the
oblateness of our sphere; but as the difference in length between
the circumference of the equator and the perimeter of a meridian ellipse only amounts to o 16%,
it could be shown only on a globe of unusual size.

The method of manufacturing a globe is much the same as it was
at the beginning of the 16th century. A matrix of wood or iron is covered with successive layers of papers,
pasted together so as to form pasteboard. The shell thus formed is then cut along the line of
the intended equator into two hemispheres, they are then again
glued together and made to revolve round an axis the ends of which
passed through the poles and entered a metal meridian circle. The sphere is then coated
with plaster or whiting, and
when it has been smoothed on a lathe and dried, the lines representing meridians
and parallels are drawn upon it. Finally the globe is covered with
the paper gores upon which the map is drawn. The adaption of these
gores to the curvature of the sphere calls for great care.
Generally from to 24 gores and two small segments for the polar regions
printed on vellum paper are used for each globe. The method of
preparing these gores was originally found empirically, but since
the days of Albert Darer it has also engaged
the minds of many mathematicians, foremost among whom was Professor
A. G. Kastner of Gottingen. One of the best instructions for
the manufacture of globes we owe to Altmutter of Vienna.

Larger globes are usually on a stand the top of which supports
an artificial horizon. The
globe itself rotates within a metallic meridian to which its axis
is attached. Other accessories are an hour-circle, around the north
pole, a compass placed beneath the globe, and a
flexible quadrant used for finding the distances between places.
These accessories are indispensable if it be proposed to solve the
problems usually propounded in books on the " use of the globes,"
but can be dispensed with if the globe is to serve only as a map of
the world. The size of a globe is usually given in terms of its
diameter. To find its scale divide the mean diameter of the earth
(1,273,500 m.) by the diameter of the globe; to find its
circumference multiply the diameter by Map Printing. -
Maps were first printed in the second half of the 15th
century. Those in the Rudimentum novitiarum published at
Lubeck in 1475 are from
woodcuts, while the maps in the first two editions of Ptolemy published in Italy in 1472 are from copper plates. Wood engraving
kept its ground for a considerable period, especially in Germany,
but copper in the end supplanted it, and owing to the beauty and
clearness of the maps produced by a combination of engraving and etching it still maintains its
ground. The objection that a copper plate shows signs of wear after
a thousand impressions have been taken has been removed, since
duplicate plates are readily produced by electrotyping, while transfers of copper
engravings, on stone, zinc or aluminium, make it possible
to turn out large editions in a printing-machine, which thus
supersedes the slow-working hand-press. 3 These impressions from
transfers, however, are liable to be inferior to impressions taken
from an original plate or an electrotype. The art of lithography greatly
affected the production of maps. The work is either engraved upon
the stone (which yields the most satisfactory result at half the
cost of copper-engraving), or it is drawn upon the stone by pen, brush M. Fiorini, Erdand
Himmelsgloben, frei bearbeitet von S. Giinther (Leipzig,
1895).

2 Jahrb. des polytechn. Instituts in Wien, vol. xv.

3 Compare the maps of Europe, Asia, &c., in this work.

or chalk (after the stone has
been " grained "), or it is transferred from a drawing upon
transfer paper in lithographic ink.
In chromolithography a stone is required for each colour. Owing to
the great weight of stones, their cost and their liability of being
fractured in the press, zinc plates, and more recently aluminium
plates, have largely taken the place of stone. The processes of
zincography and of algraphy (aluminium printing) are essentially
the same as lithography. Zincographs are generally used for
producing surface blocks or plates which may be printed in the same
way as a wood-cut. Another process of producing such blocks is
known as cerography
(Gr. !crtpbs), wax. A copper plate having been coated with
wax, outline and ornament are cut into the wax, the lettering is
impressed with type, and the intaglio thus produced is electrotyped. 4
Movable types are utilized in several other ways in the production
of maps. Thus the lettering of the map, having been set up in type,
is inked in and transferred to a stone or a zinc-plate, or it is
impressed upon transfer-paper and transferred to the stone.
Photographic processes have been utilized not only in reducing maps
to a smaller scale, but also for producing stones and plates from
which they may be printed. The manuscript maps intended to be
produced by photographic processes upon stone, zinc or aluminium,
are drawn on a scale somewhat larger than the scale on which they
are to be printed, thus eliminating all those imperfections which
are inherent in a pen-drawing. The saving in time and cost by
adopting this process is considerable, for a plan, the engraving of
which takes two years, can now be produced in two days. Another
process, photoor heliogravure, for obtaining an engraved image on a copper plate, was for
the first time employed on a large scale for producing a new
topographical map of the Austrian Empire in 718 sheets, on a scale
of I: 75,000, which was completed in seventeen years (1873-1890).
The original drawings for this map had to be done with exceptional
neatness, the draughtsman spending twelve months on that which he
would have completed in four months had it been intended to engrave
the map on copper; yet an average chart, measuring 530 by 630 mm.,
which would have taken two years and nine months for drawing and
engraving, was completed in less than fifteen months - fifty days
of which were spent in " retouching " the copper plate. It only
cost X169 as compared with £360 had the old method been
pursued.

History Of Cartography A capacity to understand the nature of
maps is possessed even by peoples whom we are in the habit of
describing as " savages." Wandering tribes naturally enjoy a great
advantage in this respect over sedentary ones. Our arctic voyagers - Sir E. W. Parry, Sir J. Ross, Sir F. L.
MacClintock and others - have profited from rough maps drawn for
them by Eskimos. Specimens of such maps are given in C. F. Hall's
Life with the Esquimaux (London, 1864). Henry Youle Hind, in his work on the Labrador Peninsula (London, 1863) praises the
map which the Montagnais and Nasquapee Indians drew upon
bark. Similar essays at map-making are reported in connexion with
Australians, Maoris and Polynesians. Tupaya, a Tahitian, who
accompanied Captain Cook in the "
Endeavour " to Europe, supplied his patron with maps; Raraka drew a
map in chalk of the Paumotu archipelago on the deck of Captain Wilkes's
vessel; the Marshall
islanders, according to Captain Winkler (Marine Rundschau,
Oct. 1893) possess maps upon which the bearings of the islands are indicated by small
strokes. Far superior were the maps found among the semi-civilized
Mexicans when the Spainiards first discovered and invaded their
country. Among them were cadastral plans of villages, maps of the
provinces of the empire of the Aztecs, of towns and of the coast. Montezuma
presented Cortes with a map,
painted on Nequen cloth, of the Gulf coast. Another map did the
Conquistador good service on his campaign against Honduras (Lorenzana,
Historia de nueva Espana,Mexico, 1770; W. H. Prescott, History of the
Conquest of Mexico, New 4 The great majority of the maps in
this work are made by this process.

York, 1843). Peru, the empire of the Incas, had not only
ordinary maps, but also maps in relief, for Pedro Sarmiento da
Gamboa (History of the Incas, translated by A. R. Markham,
1907) tells us that the 9th Inca (who died in 1191) ordered such
reliefs to be produced of certain localities in a district which he
had recently conquered and intended to colonize. These were the
first relief maps on record. It is possible that these primitive
efforts of American Indians might have been further developed, but
the Spanish conquest put a stop to all progress, and for a
consecutive history of the map and map-making we must turn to the
Old World, and trace this history from Egypt and Babylon, through Greece, to our own age.

The ancient Egyptians were famed as " geometers," and as early
as the days of Rameses II.
(Sesostris of the Greeks, 1 3331300 B.C.) there had been made a
cadastral survey of the country showing the rows of pillars which
separated the nomens as well as the boundaries of landed estates.
It was upon a map based upon such a source that Eratosthenes
(276-196 B.C.) measured the distance between Syene and Alexandria which he required for his
determination of the length of a degree. Ptolemy, who had access to
the treasures of the famous library of Alexandria was able, no
doubt, to utilize these cadastral plans when compiling his
geography. It should be noted that he places Syene only
two degrees to the east of Alexandria instead of three degrees, the
actual meridian distance between the two places; a difference which
would result from an error of only 7° is the orientation of the map used by Ptolemy.
Scarcely any specimens of ancient Egyptian cartography have
survived. In the Turin Museum
are preserved two papyri with rough drawings of gold mines established by Sesostris in the Nubian Desert.' These drawings have been commented upon
by S. Birch, F. Chabas, R. J.
Lauth and other Egyptologists, and have been referred to as the two
most ancient maps in existence. They can, however, hardly be
described as maps, while in age they are surpassed by several
cartographical clay tablets discovered in Babylonia. On another papyrus in
the same museum is depicted the victorious return of Seti I.
(1366-1333) from Syria, showing
the road from Pelusium to
Heroopolis, the canal from the Nile with crocodiles, and a lake (mod. Lake
Timsah) with fish in it. Apollonius of Rhodes who succeeded
Eratosthenes as chief librarian at Alexandria (196 B.C.) reports in
his Argonautica (iv. 27 9) that the inhabitants of Colchis whom, like Herodotus (ii., 104) he
looks upon as the descendants of Egyptian colonists, preserved, as
heirlooms, certain graven tablets (Kbp(€ls) on which land
and sea, roads and towns were accurately indicated. 2 Eustathius (since 1160 archbishop of
Thessalonica) in his commentary on Dionysius Periegetes, mentions
route-maps which Sesostris caused to be prepared, while Strabo (i., 1.5) dwells at length
upon the wealth of geographical documents to be found in the
library of Alexandria.

A cadastral survey for purposes of taxation was already at work in Babylonia in
the age of Sargon of Akkad, 3800 B.C. In the British
Museum may be seen a series of clay tablets, circular in shape and
dating back to 2300 or 2100 B.C., which contain surveys of lands.
One of these depicts in a rough way lower Babylonia encircled by a
" salt water river," Oceanus.

Development of Map-making among the Greeks 3 - Ionian
mercenaries and traders first arrived in Egypt, on the invitation
of Psammetichus I.
about the middle of the 7th century B.C. Among the visitors to
Egypt, there were, no doubt, some who took an interest in the
science of the Egyptians. One of the most distinguished among them
was Thales
of Miletus (6 4 o -543 B.C.), the founder of the Ionian school of
philosophy, whose pupil, Anaximander (611-546 B.C.) is credited by
Eratosthenes with having designed the first map of the world.
Anaximander looked upon the earth as a section of a cylinder, of Lepsius,
Urkundenbuch, Pl. XXII.

2 These Colchians certainly were not Egyptians. The maps
referred to may have been Assyrian.

3 We are indebted to Strabo for nearly all we know about Greek
cartographers anterior to Ptolemy, for none of their maps has been
preserved.

considerable thickness, suspended in the centre ' of the
circular vault of the heavens,
an idea perhaps borrowed from the Babylonians, for Job (xxvi. 7) already speaks of the earth as " hanging upon nothing." Like Homer he looked upon the habitable
world (oiKovp.. v) as being circular in outline and
bounded by a. circumfluent river. The geographical knowledge of
Anaximander was naturally more ample than that of Homer, for it
extended from the Cassiterides or Tin Islands in the west to the Caspian in the east,
which he conceived to open out into Oceanus. The Aegean Sea occupied the
centre of the map, while the line where ocean and firmament seemed to meet
represented an enlarged horizon.

Anaximenes, a pupil
of Anaximander, was the first to reject the view that the earth was
a circular plane, but held it to be an oblong
rectangle, buoyed up in the midst of the heavens by the compressed
air upon which it rested. Circular maps, however, remained in the
popular favour long after their erroneousness had been recognized
by the learned.

Even Hecataeus of Miletus (549-472
B.C.), the author of a Periodos or description of the
earth, of whom Herodotus borrowed the terse saying that Egypt was
the gift of the Nile, retained this circular shape and circumfluent
ocean when producing his map of the world, although he had at his
disposal the results of the voyage of Scylax of Caryanda from the Indus to the Red Sea, of Darius' campaign in Scythia (513), the information to be gathered
among the merchants from all parts of the world who frequented an
emporium like Miletus, and what he had
learned in the course of his own extensive travels. Hecataeus was probably the
author of the " bronze tablets
upon which was engraved the whole circuit of the earth, the sea and rivers "
(Herod. v. 49), which Aristagoras, the tyrant of Miletus, showed to Cleomenes, the king of Sparta, in 504, whose aid he
sought in vain in a proposed revolt against Darius, which resulted
disastrously in 494 in the destruction of Miletus. The map of the
world brought upon the stage in Aristophanes' comedy of The Clouds (423 B.C.),
whereon a disciple of the
Sophists points out upon
it the position of Athens and
of other places known to the audience, was probably of the popular circular
type, which Herodotus (iv. 36) not many years before had derided
and which was discarded by Greek cartographers ever after. Thus Democritus of Abdera (b.
c. 450, d. after 360), the great philosopher and founder,
with Leucippus, of the
atomic theory, was also the author of a map of the inhabited world
which he supposed to be half as long again from west to east, as it
was broad.

Dicaearcus of Messana in Sicily, a pupil of Aristotle (326-296 B.C.), is the author of a
topographical account of Hellas, with maps, of which only fragments
are preserved; he is credited with having estimated the size of the
earth, and, as far as known he was the first to draw a parallel
across a map. 4 This parallel, or dividing line, called diaphragm (partition)
by a commentator, extended due east from the Pillars of Hercules, through the
Mediterranean, and along the Taurus and Imaus (Himalaya) to the eastern
ocean. It divided the inhabited world, as then known, into a
northern and a southern half. In compiling his map
he was able to avail himself of the information obtained by the
bematists (surveyors who determined distances by pacing)
who accompanied Alexander the Great on his
campaigns; of the results of the voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates, and of the "
Periplus " of Scylax of Caryanda, which described the coast from
between India and the head of
the Arabian Gulf. On the other hand he unwisely rejected the
results of the observations for latitude made by Pytheas in 326 B.C. at his native town,
Massilia, and during a subsequent voyage to northern Europe. In the
end the map of Dicaearcus resembled that of Democritus.

Scientific geography profited largely from the labours of
Eratosthenes of Cyrene, whom
Ptolemy Euergetes appointed The gnomon was known to the Chinese in the 5th
century B.C., and reached the Greeks (Anaximander) through Babylon.
Pytheas, as far as known, was the first to utilize it for the
determination of a latitude.

keeper of the famous library of Alexandria in 247 B.C., and died
in that city in 195 B.C. He won fame as having been the first to
determine the size of the earth by a scientific method. Having
determined the difference of latitude between Alexandria and Syene
which he erroneously believed to lie on the same meridian, and
obtained the distance of those places from each other from the
surveys made by Egyptian geometers, he concluded that a degree of
the meridan measured 700 stadia.' Eratosthenes is the author of a
treatise which deals systematically with the geographical knowledge
of his time, but of which only fragments have been preserved by
Strabo and others. This treatise was intended to illustrate and
explain his map of the world. In this task he was much helped by
the materials collected in his library. Among the travellers of
whose information he was thus able to avail himself were Pytheas of
Massilia, Patroclus, who had visited the Caspian (285-282 B.C.),
Megasthenes, who visited Palibothra on the Ganges, as ambassador of Seleucus Nicator
(302-291 B.C.), Timosthenus of Rhodes, the commander of the fleet of Ptolemy
Philadelphus (284-246 B.C.) who wrote a treatise " On harbours,"
and Philo, who visited Meroe on the upper Nile. His map
formed a parallelogram measuring 75,800 stadia from Usisama (Ushant
island) or Sacrum Promontorium in the west to the mouth of the
Ganges and the land of the Coniaci (Comorin) in the east, and
46,000 stadia from Thule in the
north to the supposed southern limit of Libya. Across it were drawn seven parallels,
running through Meroe, Syene, Alexandria, Rhodes, Lysimachia on the
Hellespont, the mouth
of the Borysthenes and Thule, and these were crossed at right
angles by seven meridians, drawn at irregular intervals, and
passing through the Pillars of Hercules, Carthage, Alexandria, Thapsacus on the Euphrates, the Caspian
gates, the mouth of the Indus and that of the Ganges. The position
of all the places mentioned was supposed to have been determined by
trustworthy authorities. The inhabited world thus delineated formed
an island of irregular shape, surrounded on all sides by the ocean,
the Erythrean Sea freely communicating with the western ocean. In
his text Eratosthenes ignored the popular division of the world
into Europe, Asia and Libya, and
substituted for it a northern and southern division, divided by the
parallel of Rhodes, each of which he subdivided into
sphragides or plinthia - seals or plinths. The principles on which
these divisions were made remain an enigma to the present day.

This map of Eratosthenes, notwithstanding its many errors, such
as the assumed connexion of the Caspian with a northern ocean and
the supposition that Carthage, Sicily and Rome lay on the same meridian, enjoyed a high
reputation in his day. Even Strabo (c. 30 B.C.) adopted
its main features, but while he improved the European frontier, he
rejected the valuable information secured by Pytheas and retained
the connexion between the Caspian and the outer ocean. In the
extreme east his information extended no further than that of
Eratosthenes, viz. to India and Taprobane (Ceylon) and the Sacae
(Kirghiz).

Hipparchus, the
famous astronomer, on the other hand, (c. 150 B.C.) proved
a somewhat captious critic. He justly objected to the arbitrary
network of the map of Eratosthenes. The parallels or climata
2 drawn through places, of which the longest day is of equal
length and the decimation (distance) from the equator is the same,
he maintained, ought to have been inserted at equal intervals, say
of half an hour, and the meridians inserted on a like principle. In
fact, he demanded that maps should be based upon a regular
projection, several 1 If, with W. Dorpfeld, we assume an Atticstadium of 200 steps (500 ft.) to be equal to
164 metres, a degree of 700 stad. would be equal to 114,800 metres,
its actual length according to modern measurement being I Io,808
metres.

Climata based on the length of the longest day were
introduced by Hippocrates (c. 400 B.C.).
Zones similar to those already drawn out for the celestial
sphere were first introduced by the Pythagoreans. Parmenides of
Elea (544-430 B.C.) distinguishes five of these zones, viz. a
torrid zone, between the tropics of summer and winter, which was
uninhabitable on account of heat; two frigid zones, uninhabitable
on account of cold, and two intermediate temperate zones.

descriptions of which he had adopted for his star maps. He moreover accuses Eratosthenes,
(whose determination of a degree he accepts without hesitation)
with trusting too much to hypothesis in compiling his map instead of
having recourse to latitudes and longitudes deduced by astronomical
observations. Such observations, however, were but rarely available
at the time. A few latitudes had indeed been observed, but although
Hipparchus had shown how longitudes could be determined by the
observation of eclipses, this method was in reality not available
for want of trustworthy time-keepers. The determination of an ocean
surrounding the inhabited earth he declared to be based on a mere
hypothesis and that it would be equally allowable to describe the
Erythraea as a sea surrounded by land. Hipparchus is not known to
have compiled a map himself.

About the same time Crates
of Mallus (d. 145 B.C.) embodied the views of the Stoic school of
philosophy in a globe
which has become typical as one of the insignia of royalty. On this globe an
equatorial and a meridional ocean divide our earth FIG. 2. - The
Globe of Crates of Mallus.

into four quarters, each inhabited, thus anticipating the
discovery of North and South America and Australia.' The period between Eratosthenes
and Marinus of
Tyre was one of great political importance. Carthage had been
destroyed (146 B.C.), Julius
Caesar had carried on his campaign in Gaul (58-51 B.C.), Egypt had been occupied (30
B.C.), Britannia conquered (A.D. 41-79), and the Roman empire had
attained its greatest extent and power under the emperorTrajan (A.D. 98117). But although military
operations added to our knowledge of the world, scientific
cartography was utterly neglected.

Among Greek works written during this period there are several
which either give us an idea of the maps available at that time, or
furnish information of direct service to the compiler of a map.
Among the latter a Periplus or coastal guide of the Erythrean Sea,
which clearly reveals the peninsular shape of India (A.D. go) and
Arrian's Periplus Ponti Euxeni (A.D. 131) which Festus
Avienus translated into Latin. Among travellers Eudoxus of
Cyzicus occupies a foremost rank, since, between 115-87 B.C. he
visited India and the east coast of Africa, which subsequently he attempted in vain
to circumnavigate by Celestial globes were made much earlier than
terrestrial ones. In the museum of Naples there is a celestial globe, 2 metres in
diameter, supported upon the shoulders of an Atlas, which E. Heis,
j udging by the constellations engraved upon it (Atlas
coelestis novus,Bonn, 1872)
judges to date from the 4th century B.C. It may even be the work of
Eudoxus (d. 386 B.C.) the famous astronomer. Aratus of Soli in Cilicia, in his poetical Prognostics of
Stars and the World, refers to a globe in his possession. Archimedes, the famous
mathematician, had a celestial globe of glass, in the centre of
which was a small terrestrial globe. Hero of Alexandria (284-221 B.C.),
the ingenious inventor of " Hero's Fountain," is believed to have possessed a
similar apparatus. The celestial globe of Hipparchus still existed
in the Alexandrian library in the time of Ptolemy, who himself
refers to globes in his Almagest, as also in the
Geography.Leontius, who wrote a book on the manufacture
of globes (first published at Basel in 1539), is identified by Fiorini with a
bishop of Neapolis (Cyprus) of
the time of Constantine III. (642-668).

following the route of Hanno,
along the west coast. Among geographers should be mentioned Posidonius (13-551), the
head of the Stoic school of Rhodes, who is stated to be responsible
for having reduced the length of a degree to 500 stadia; Artemidorus of Ephesus, whose " Geographumena
" (c. Ioo B.C.) are based upon his own travels and a study
of itineraries, and above all, Strabo, who has already been
referred to. Among historians who looked upon geography as an
important aid in their work are numbered Polybius (c. 210-120 B.C.), Diodorus
Siculus (c. 30 B.C.) and Agathachidus of Cnidus (c. 120 B.C.) to whom we
are indebted for a valuable account of the Erythrean Sea and the
adjoining parts of Arabia and
Ethiopia. The
Periegesis of Dionysius of Alexandria is a popular
description of the world in hexameters, of no particular scientific
value (c. A.D. 130). He as well as Artemidorus and others
accepted a circular or ellipsoidal shape of the world and a
circumfluent ocean; Strabo alone adhered to the scientific theories
of Eratosthenes.

thus led to assume that the distance from the first meridian
drawn through the Fortunate islands to Sera (mod. Si-ngan-fu), the
capital of China, was equal to
225 °, which Ptolemy reduced to 177°, but which in reality only
amount to 126°. A like overestimate of the distances covering the
march of Julius Maternus to Agisymba, which Marinus places 24° south of the equator, a
latitude which Ptolemy reduces to 18°, but which is probably no
farther south than lat. 12° N. The map of Marinus was accompanied
by a list of places arranged according to latitude and longitude.
It must have been much in demand, for three editions of it were
prepared. Masudi (loth century) saw a copy of it and declared it to
be superior to Ptolemy's map.

Ptolemy (q.v.) was the author of a Geography' (c. A.D.
150) in eight books. " Geography," in the sense in which he
uses the term, signifies the delineation of the known
world, in the shape of a map, while chorography carries out
the same objects in fuller detail, with regard to a particular
country. In Book I.

FIG. 3. - Ptolemy's Map.

'revised

to

°

°

ii

ry

The credit of having returned to the scientific principles
innovated by Eratosthenes and Hipparchus is due to Marinus of Tyre (c. A.D. 120) which,
though no longer occupying the preeminent position of former times,
was yet an emporium of no inconsiderable importance, having
extensive connexions by sea and land. The map of Marinus and the
descriptive accounts which accompanied it have perished, but we
learn sufficient concerning them from Ptolemy to be able to
appreciate their merits and demerits. Marinus was the first who
laid down the position of places on a projection according to their
latitude and longitude, but the projection used by him was of the
rudest. Parallels and meridians were represented by straight lines
intersecting each other at right angles, the relative proportions
between degrees of longitude and latitude being retained only along
the parallel of Rhodes. The distortion of the countries represented
would thus increase with the distance, north and south, from this
central parallel. The number of places whose position had been
determined by astronomical observation was as yet very small, and
the map had thus to be compiled mainly from itineraries furnished
by travellers or the dead reckoning of seamen. The errors due to an
exaggeration of distances were still further increased on account
of his assuming a degree to be equal to Soo stadia, as determined
by Posidonius, instead of accepting the 700 stadia of Eratosthenes.
He was he deals with the principles of mathematical geography, map
projections, and sources of information with special reference FIG.
4.

to his predecessor Marinus. Books II. to VII. form an index to
the maps. They contain about 8000 names, with their 1 The oldest
MS. of Ptolemy's Geography is found in the Vatopedi
monastery of Mt Athos. It dates
from the 12th or 13th century and was published by Victor Langlois
in 1867. For the latest edition we are indebted to the late Carl
Muller (Paris, 1883-1906) to whom we are likewise indebted for an
edition of the Geographi graeci minores (1855-1861).

latitudes and longitudes, and with their aid it is possible to
reconstruct the maps. These maps existed, as a matter of course,
before such an index could be compiled, but it is doubtful whether
the maps in our available manuscript, which are attributed to Agathodaemon, are copies of
Ptolemy's originals or have been compiled, after their loss, from
this index. Book VIII. gives further details with reference to the
principal towns of each map, as to geographical position, length of
day, climata, &c.

Ptolemy's great merit consists in having accepted the views of
Hipparchus with respect to a projection suited for a map of the
world. Of the two projections proposed by him one is a modified
conical projection with curved parallels and straight meridians; in
the second projection (see fig. 3) both parallels and meridians are
curved. The correct relations in the length of degrees of latitude
and longitude are maintained in the first case along the latitude
of Thule and the equator, in the second along the parallel of
Agisymba, the equator and the parallels of Meroe, Syene and Thule.
Following Hipparchus he divided the equator into 360 drawing his
prime meridian through the Fortunate Islands (Canaries). The 26
special maps are drawn on a rectangular projection. As a map
compiler Ptolemy does not take a high rank. In the main he copied
Marinus whose work he revised and supplemented in some points, but
he failed to realize the peninsular shape of India, erroneously
exaggerated the size of Taprobane (Ceylon), and suggested that the
Indian Ocean had
no connexion with the western ocean, but formed Mare Clausum. Ptolemy
knew but of a few latitudes which had been determined by actual
observation, while of three longitudes resulting from simultaneous
observation of eclipses he unfortunately accepted the least
satisfactory, namely, that which placed Arbela 45° to the east of Carthage, while the
actual meridian distance only amounts to 34°. An even graver source
of error was Ptolemy's acceptance of a degree of Soo instead of 700
stadia. The extent to which the more correct proportion would have
affected the delineation of the Mediterranean is illustrated by
fig. 4. But in spite of his errors the scientific method pursued by
Ptolemy was correct, and though he was neglected by the Romans and
during the
middle ages, once he had become known, in the 15th century, he
became the teacher of the modern world.

Map-Making among the Romans

We learn from Cicero, Vitruvius, Seneca, Suetonius, Pliny and others, that the Romans
had both general and topographical maps. Thus, Varro (De
rustici) mentions a map of Italy engraved on marble, in the temple of Tellus, Pliny, a map of
the seat of war in Armenia,
of the time of the emperor Nero,
and the more famous map of the Roman Empire which was ordered to be
prepared for Julius Caesar (44 B.C.), but only completed in the
reign of Augustus, who placed a copy of it, engraved in marble, in
the Porticus of his sister Octavia (7 B.C.). M. Vipsanius Agrippa, the
son-in-law of Augustus (d. 12 B.C.), who superintended the
completion of this famous map, also wrote a commentary illustrating
it, quotations from which of Ammianus Marcellinus of Antioch (d. 330), Pliny and
others, afford the only means of judging of its character. The map
is supposed to be based upon actual surveys or rather
reconnaissances, and if it be borne in mind that. the Roman Empire
at that time was traversed in all directions by roads furnished
with mile-stones, that the Agrimensores employed upon such a duty
were skilled surveyors, and that the official reports of the
commanders of military expeditions and of provincial governors were
available, this map, as well as the provincial maps upon which
it'was based, must have been a work of superior excellence, the
loss of which is much to be regretted. A copy of it may possibly
have been utilized by Marinus and Ptolemy in their compilations.
The Romans have been reproached for having neglected the scientific
methods of mapmaking advocated by Hipparchus. Their maps, however,
seem to have met the practical requirements of political
administration and of military undertakings.

Only two specimens of Roman cartography have come down to us,
viz. parts of a plan of Rome, of the time of the emperor Septimius
Severus (A.D. 193-211), now
in the Museo Capitolino, and an itinerarium scriptum, or road map of
the world, compressed within a strip 745 mm. in length and 34 mm. broad. Of its
character the reduced copy of one of its 12 sections (fig. 5)
conveys an idea. The map, apparently of the 3rd century, was copied
by a monk at Colmar, in 1265, who fortunately contented
himself with adding a few scriptural names, and having been
acquired by the learned Conrad Peutinger of FIG. 5. - A Section of
Peutinger's Tabula.

Augsburg it became
known as Tabula peutingeriana. The original is now in the
imperial library of Vienna.' Map-Making in the Middle Ages. -
In scientific matters the early middle ages were marked by
stagnation and retrogression. The fathers of the church did not
encourage scientific pursuits, which Lactantius (4th century)
declared to be unprofitable. The doctrine of the sphericity of the
earth was still held by the more learned, but the heads of the
church held it to be unscriptural. Pope Zachary, when in 741 he condemned the views
of Virgilius, the learned bishop of Salzburg, an Irishman who had been denounced
as a heretic by St Boniface, declares it to be perversa et
iniqua doctrina. Even after Gerbert of Aurillac, better known as Pope Sylvester II.
(999-1063), Adam
of Bremen (1075), Albertus Magnus (d. 1286), Roger Bacon (d. 1294),
and indeed all men of leading had accepted as a fact and not a mere
hypothesis the geocentric system of the universe and
sphericity of the globe, the authors of maps of the world, nearly
all of whom were monks, still
looked in the main to the Holy Scriptures for guidance in outlining
the inhabited world. We have to deal thus with three types of these
early maps, viz. an oblong rectangular, a circular and an oval type, the latter being either
FIG. 6. - The World according to Cosmas Indicoplcustes (535) a compromise between the
two former, or an artistic development of the circular type. In
every instance the inhabited world is surrounded by the ocean. The
authors of rectangular maps look upon the Tabernacle as an image of the world at
large, and believe that such expressions as the " four corners of
the earth " (Isa. x. 12), could be reconciled only with a
rectangular world. On the other hand there was the expression "
circuit of the earth " (Isa. xl. 22), and the statement (Ezek. v.
5) that " God had set Jerusalem in the midst of the nations and
countries." In 1 Facsimiles of it have been published by
Desjardins(1869-1871), by K. Miller (1886), who ascribes it to
Castorius, A.D. 366, and by others.

w The Earth beyond the Ocean where men dwelt before the Flood The Earth beyond the
Ocean nearly every case the East occupies the top of the map.
Neither parallels nor meridians are indicated, nor is there a
scale. Other features frequently met with are the Paradise in the Far East,
miniatures of towns, plants, animals, human beings and monsters,
and an indication of the twelve winds around the margin.

The oldest rectangular map of the world is contained in a most
valuable work written by Cosmas, an Alexandrian monk, surnamed
Indicopleustes, after returning from a voyage to India (535 A.D.),
and entitled Christian Topography. According to Cosmas (fig.
6) the inhabited earth has the shape of an oblong rectangle
surrounded by an ocean which breaks in in four great gulfs - the
Roman or Mediterranean, the Arabian, Persian and Caspian Sea. Beyond
this ocean lies another world, which was occupied by man before the Deluge, and within
which Cosmas placed the Terrestrial Paradise. Above this rise the
walls of the heavens like unto the tent of the Tabernacle. Far more simple is a small
map of the world of the 8th century found in a codex in the library
of Albi, an archiepiscopal seat in
the department of Tarn. Its scanty
nomenclature is almost wholly derived from the " Historiae adversum
paganos " of Paulus Orosius (418). Far greater
interest attaches to the so-called AngloSaxon Map of the World in
the British Museum (Cotton MSS.), where it is bound up in a codex
which also contains a copy of the Periegesis of
Priscianus. Map and Periegesis are FIG. 8. - Anglo-Saxon Map of the
World (9th century). copies by the same hand, but no other
connexion exists between them. More than half the nomenclature of
the map is derived from Orosius, an annotated Anglo-Saxon version
of which had been produced by King Alfred (871-901). The Anglo-Saxons of the
time were of course well acquainted with Island (first thus named
in 870) Slesvic and Norweci (Norway), and there is no need to have
recourse to Adam of Bremen
(1076) to account for their presence upon this map. The broad
features of the map were derived no doubt from an older document
which may likewise have served as the basis for the map of the
world engraved on silver for
Charlemagne, and was
also consulted by the compilers of the Hereford and Ebstorf maps
(see fig. ii).

Oriens.

Septentrio.

Occidens.

FIG. 9. - T map from Isidor of Seville's Origines. The
map or diagram of which
Leonardo Dati in his poem on the Sphere (Della Spera) wrote in 1422
" un T dentre a uno 0 mostra it disegno " (a T within an 0 shows
the design) is one of the most persistent types among the circular
or wheel maps of the world. It perpetuates the tripartite division
of the world by the ancient Greeks and survives in the Royal Orb. A diagram of this description will
be found in Isidor of Seville's Origines (630), see fig.
9.

T maps of more elaborate design illustrate the MS. copies of
Sallust's Bellum jugurthinum; one of these taken from a
codex of the 11th century in the Leipzig town library is shown in fig. to.

The outlines of several medieval maps resemble each other to
such an extent that there can be no doubt that they are derived
from the same original source. This source by some o«,acns FIG. to.
- Map illustrating Sallust's Bellum jugurthinurn
(1 ith century, Leipzig). authors is assumed to
have been the official map of the Roman Empire, but if we compare
the crude outline given to the Mediterranean with the more correct
delineation of Ptolemy, who was certainly in a position to avail
himself of these official sources, such an assumption is untenable.
The earliest delineation of the description has already been
referred to as the AngloSaxon map of the world. Next in the order
of age, follows the oval map which Henry, canon of Mayence Cathedral, dedicated to Mathilda, consort of the emperor Henry V. (1110). Of far greater
importance is the map seen in Hereford Cathedral. It is the work of
Richard of Haldingham, and
has a diameter of 134 cm. (53 ins.). The " survey " ordered by
Julius Caesar is referred to in the legend, evidently derived from
the Cosmography of blare magnum sive medi-. u m.

Meridies.

O o ?

FIG. 7. - Map of Albi (8th century) Aethicus a work widely read at the time, but
this does not prove that the author was able to avail himself of a
map based upon that survey. A map essentially identical with that
of Hereford, but larger - its diameter is 156 cm. (6 in.), and
consequently Our little map (fig. 12) is taken from a copy of Beatus' work made in 1203, and
preserved at Burgo de Osma in Castille. Similar maps illustrating
the Commentaries exist at St Sever (1050), Paris (1203),
and Tunis; others are
rectangular, the oldest being in Lord Ashburnham's library (970).
Beatus, too, describes the southern land as inhabitabilis.
The habitable world is divided among the twelve apostles, whose
portraits are given. On the maps illustrating the encyclopaedic
Liber floridus by Lambert, Lambert Liber flori
dus 1120 FIG. I I. - The Hereford Map (c. 1280).

fuller of information - was discovered in 1830 in the old
monastery of Ebstorf in Hanover. Its date is 1484. Both maps abound in
miniature pictures of
towns, animals, fabulous beings and other subjects. The Hereford
map is surmounted by a picture of the Day of Judgment. Similar in
design, though much smaller of scale and oval in form, are the maps
which illustrate the popular Polychronicon of Ranulf
Higden, a monk of St Werburgh's Abbey of Chester (d. 1363).

5 Livanensis Fig. 12. - The Map of Beatus (776).

Pomponius
Mela tells us that beyond :the Ethiopian Ocean which
sweeps round Africa in the south and the uninhabitable torrid zone,
there lies an alter orbis, or fourth part of the world
inhabited by Antichthones. On a diagram illustrating the
origines of Isidore of Seville (d. 636) this
country is shown, but is described as a terra
inhabitabilis. It is shown likewise upon a number of maps
which illustrate the Commentaries on the Apocalypse, by Beatus, a Benedictine monk of the
abbey of Valcavado at the foot of the hills of Liebana in Asturia
(776).

FIG. 13.

a canon of St Omer (1120), this south land " unknown to the sons
of Adam," is stated to be
inhabited " according to the philosophers " by Antipodes. Lambert, indeed, seems to have
believed in the sphericity of the earth. Fig. 13 shows his map of
the world reduced from a MS. at Wolfenbiittel, to which is added a
diagram of the zones from a MS. at Ghent, which illustrates Macrobius' commentary on
Cicero's Somnium Scipionis. Diagrams illustrating the
division of the world into climata, are to be found in the opus majus of Roger Bacon (d. 1294) and in Cardinal Pierre d'Ailly's
De imagine Mundi 0410).

Among countries represented on a larger scale on maps, Palestine not unnaturally
occupies a prominent place in this age of pilgrimages and crusades (1095-1291). The
maps which accompany St Jerome's translation of the
Onomasticon of St Eusebius (388). The same subject is
illustrated by a picture-map in mosaic, portions of which were discovered in
1896 on the floor of the church of Madaba to the east of the Dead Sea. This is the oldest
original of a map in existence, for it dates back to the 6th
century. Among more recent maps of Palestine, that by Petrus
Vesconte (1320) is greatly superior to the earlier maps. It
illustrates Marino Sanuto's
Secreta fidelium crucis, in which its author vainly
appeals to Christendom to undertake another crusade. One of the
earliest plans of Jerusalem is contained in Gesta
Francorum, a history of the Crusades up to 1106, based upon
information furnished by Fulcherius of Chartres (c. 1109).

There existed, no doubt, special maps of
European countries, but the only documents of that description are
two maps of Great Britain,
the one of the 12th century, the other by Matthew of
Paris, the famous historiographer of the monastery of St Albans
(1236-1259).1 Celestial globes were known in the time of Bede; they formed part of the
educational apparatus of the monastic schools. Gerbert of Aurillac
is known to have made such globes (929). Their manufacture is
described by Afonso the Wise (1252), as also in De sphaera
solida of G. Campanus of Novara (1303). Terrestrial globes, however, are
not referred to.

Map-making among the Arabians and other Nations of the
East

Bagdad early became a
famous seat of learning. Indian astrono mers found apt pupils there
among the Arabs; the works of 1
R. Gough, British Topography (London 1768). His "
Histories " are published in Rerum brit. scriptores XL.
and Lvii. 1866-1869.

FIG. 14. - Matthew of Paris (1236-1259).

Ptolemy were translated into Arabic, and in 827, in the reign of
the caliph Abdullah al Mamun, an arc of the meridian was
measured in the plain of Mesopotamia. Most famous among these
Arabian astronomers were Al Batani (d. 998), Ibn Yunis of Cairo (d. io08), Zarkala
(Azarchel), who determined the meridian distance between his observatory in Toledo and Bagdad to amount to
51° 30', an error of 3° only, as compared with Ptolemy's error of
18°, and Abul Hassan (1230)
who reduced the great axis of the Mediterranean to 44°.

Further materials serviceable to the compilers of maps were
supplied by numerous Arabian travellers and geographers, among FIG.
15. - Idrisi (1154).

whom Masudi (915-940), Istakhri (950), Ibn Haukal (942970), Al Biruni (d. 1038), Ibn Batuta (1325-1356) and Abul Feda
(1331-1370), occupy a foremost place, yet the few maps which have
reached us are crude in the extreme. Masudi, who saw the maps in
the Horismos or Rasm el Ard, a description of which was engraved
for King Roger of Sicily upon a
silver plate, or the rectangular map in 70 sheets which accompanies
his geography (Nushat-ul Mushtat) take rank with Ptolemy's work.
These maps are based upon information collected during many years
at the instance of King Roger. The seven climates adopted by Idrisi
are erroneously supposed to be equal in latitudinal extent. The
Mediterranean occupies nearly half the inhabited world in
longitude, and the east coast of Africa is shown as if it extended
due east.

The Arabians are not known to have produced a terrestrial globe,
but several of their celestial globes are to be found in our
collections. The oldest of these globes was made at Valentia, and
is now in the museum of Florence. Another globe (of 1225) is at Velletri; a third by Ibn Hula
of Mosul (1275) is the property
of the Royal Asiatic Society of London; a fourth (1289) from the observatory of
Maragha, in the Dresden
Museum, two globes of uncertain age at Paris (see fig. 17) and
another in London. All these globes are of metal (bronze), or they
might not have survived so many years.

The charts in use of the medieval navigators of the Indian Ocean
- Arabs, Persians or Dravidas - were equal in value if not superior
to the charts of the Mediterranean. Marco Polo mentions such charts; Vasco da Gama
(1498) found them in the hands of his Indian pilot, and their nature is fully explained in the
Mohit or encyclopaedia of the sea compiled from
ancient sources by the Turkish admiral Sidi Ali Ben Hosein in 1554.1 These
charts are covered with a close network of lines intersecting each
other at right angles. The horizontal lines are parallels,
depending upon the altitude of the pole star, the Calves of the
Little Bear and the Barrow of the Great Bear
above the horizon. This altitude was expressed in isbas or
inches each equivalent to 1° 42' 50". Each isba was
divided into zams or eights. The interval between two
parallels thus only amounted to 12' 51". These intervals were
mistaken by the Portuguese occasionally for degrees, which account
for Malacca, which is in
lat. 2' 13" N., being placed on Cantino's Chart (1502) in lat. 14'
S. It may have been a map of this kind which accounts for Ptolemy's
moderate exaggerations of the size of Taprobana (Ceylon). A first
meridian, separating a leeward from a windward region, passed
through Ras Kumhari (Comorin) and
was thus nearly identical with the first meridian of the Indian
astronomers which passed through the sacred city of Ujjain (Ozere of Ptolemy) or the
meridian of Azin of the Arabs. Additional meridians sz R01, FIG.
16. - Idrisi (1154) the world by Abu Jafar Mahommed ben Musa
of Khiva, the librarian of the
caliph el Mamun (833), declares them to be superior to the maps of
Ptolemy or Marinus, but maps of a later date by Istakhri (950) or
Ibn
al Wardi (1349) are certainly of a most rudimentary type. Nor
can Idrisi's map of the world, were drawn at intervals of
zams, supposed to be equal to three hours' sail.

or stone, but after the 10th century they were printed from
wood-blocks. Among the more important productions of more recent
times, may be mentioned a map of the empire, said to be based upon
actual surveys by Yhang (721), who also manufactured FIG. 17. -
Globe in Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris a celestial globe (an older
globe by Ho-shing-tien, 4 metres in circumference was produced in
450), and an atlas of the empire on a large scale by Thu-sie-pun (1311-1312) of which new enlarged
editions with many maps were published in the 6th century and in
1799. None of these maps was graduated, which is all the
Mediterranean they embody materials available even in the days
before Ptolemy, while the correct delineation of the west seems to
be of a later date, and may have been due to Catalan seamen. These
charts are based upon estimated bearings and distances between the
principal ports or capes, the intervening coast-line being filled
in from more detailed surveys. The bearings were FIG. 19. - The
Eastern Mediterranean, by Petrus Vesconte (1311).

dependent upon the seaman's observation of the heavens, for
these charts were in use long before the compass had been
introduced on board ship (as early as 1205, according to Guiot de
Provins) although it became fully serviceable only after the needle had been attached to the
compass card, an improvement probably introduced by Flavio Gioja of
Amalfi in the beginning of A.
DUL CE T I 1339 45 a FIG. 18. - The Indian Ocean according to
Mohit, as interpreted by Dr Tomaschek.

more surprising as the Chinese astronomers are credited with
having made use of the gnomon as early as 1000 B.C. for determining
latitudes.

In the case of Japan, the
earliest reference to a map is of 646, in which year the emperor
ordered surveys of certain provinces to be made.

1908

?

D'.

10° 0' 20°

30° ? 40°

Portolano Maps. - During the long period of stagnation
in cartography, which we have already dealt with, there survived
among the seamen of the Mediterranean charts of remarkable
accuracy, illustrating the Portolani or sailing
directories in use among them. Charts of this description are first
mentioned in connexion with the Crusade of Louis XI. in 1270, but they originated long
before that time, and in the eastern part of the FIG. 20. - The
Mediterranean.

a, According to A. Dulceti, 1339, and b, On Mercator's
projection, according to modern maps.

the 14th century. The compass may of course have been used for
improving these charts, but they originated without its aid, and it
is therefore misleading to describe them as Compass or
Loxodromic charts, and they are now known as
Portolano charts.

Xvii. 21 b 7w ?

otrar ? None of these charts is graduated, and
the horizontal and vertical lines which cross many of them
represent neither parallels nor meridians. Their most
characteristic feature, and FIG. 2L - Map illustrating Marino
Sanuto's Liber secretorum fidelium crucis. one by which
they can most readily be recognized, is presented by groups or
systems of rhumb-lines, each group of these lines radiating from a
common centre, the central group being generally encircled by eight
or sixteen satellite
groups. In the course of time the centres of radiation of all these
groups had imposed upon them ornate rose dei venti, or windroses, such as may
still be seen upon our compass-cards. Each chart was furnished with
a scale of miles. These miles, however, were not the ordinary Roman
miles of l000 paces or 5000 ft., but smaller miles of Greek or
Oriental origin, of which six were equal to five Roman miles, and
as the latter were equal to 1480 metres, the Portolano miles had a
length of only 1233 metres, and 75 2 of the former, and 90 3 of the
latter were equal to a degree. The difference between these miles
was known, however, only to the more learned among the map-makers,
and when the charts were extended to the Atlantic seaboard the two were assumed to be
identical.

On these old charts the Mediterranean is delineated with
surprising fidelity. The meridian distance between the Straits of
Gibraltar and Beirut in Syria amounts upon them
to about 3000 Portolano miles, equal in lat. 36° N. to 40 9°, as
compared with an actual difference of 41 2°, and a difference of
61° assumed by Ptolemy. There exists, however, a serious error of
orientation, due, according to Professor H. Wagner, to the
inexperience of the cartographers who first combined the charts of
the separate basins of the Mediterranean so as to produce a chart
of the whole. This accounts for Gibraltar and Alexandria being
shown as lying due east and west of each other, although there is a
difference of 5° of latitude between them, a fact known long before
Ptolemy.

The production of these charts employed numerous licensed
draughtsmen in the principal seaports of Italy and Catalonia, and among seamen
these MS. charts remained popular long after the productions of the
printing-press had become available. The oldest of these maps which
have been preserved, the socalled " Pisan chart," which belongs
probably to the middle of the 13th century, and a set of eight
charts, known by the name of its former owner, the Cavaliere Tamar
Luxoro, of somewhat later date, are both the work of Genoese
artists. Among more eminent Genoese cartographers are Joannes da Carignano 1344), Petrus
Vesconte, who worked in 1311 and 1327, and is the draughtsman of
the maps illustrating Marino Sanuto's Liber secretorum fidelium
crucis, which was to have roused Christendom to engage in
another crusade (figs. 19 and 21) Battista Beccario (1426, 1435)
and Bartolomeo Pareto (14J5). Venice ranks next to Genoa as a centre of cartographic activity.
Associated with it are Francesco Pizigano (1367-1373), Francesco de
Cesanis (1421), Giacomo Giroldi (1422-1446), Andrea Bianco (43-44)
Giovanni Leardo (1442-1452), Alvise Cadamosto, who was associated with the
Portuguese explorers on the west coast of Africa (1454-1456) and
whose Portolano was printed at Venice in 1490, and Fra
Mauro (1457).

Associated with Ancona are
Grazioso Benincasa and his son Andreas, whose numerous charts were
produced between 1461 and 1508, and Count Ortomano Freducci
(1497-1538).

The earliest among Majorcan and Catalonian cartographers is
Angelino Dulcert (1325-1339) whom A. Managhi claims as a Genoese,
whose true name according to him was Angelino Dalorto.

Seric '?-? ' in A* ` iro }e6e[6ac/? Phison +barya L
op felice Other Catalans are, Jahuda Cresques, a Jew of Barcelona, the supposed
author of the famous Catalan map of the world (1375), Guglielmo
Solerio (1384), Mecia de Viladestes (1413-1433) Gabriel de Valleseche (1439-1447) and Pietro
Roselli, a pupil of Beccario of Genoa (1462).

These maps were originally intended for the use of seamen
navigating the Mediterranean and the coasts of the Atlantic, but in
the course of time they were extended to the mainland and
ultimately developed into maps of the whole world as then known.
Thus Pizigano's map of 1367 extends as far east as the Gulf of Persia, whilst the Medicean map
of 1356 (at Florence) is remarkable on account of a fairly correct
delineation of the Caspian, the Shari river in Africa, and the correct direction
given to the west coast of India, which had already been pointed
out in a letter of the friar
Giovanni da Montecorvino of 1252. Most of the expansions of
Portolano maps into maps of the world are circular in shape, and
resemble the wheel maps of an earlier period. This is the character
of the map of Petrus Vesconte of 1320 (fig. 21), of Giovanni Leardo
(1448) and of a Catalan map of 1450. Jerusalem occupies the centre
of these maps, Arab sources of information are largely drawn upon,
while Ptolemy is neglected and contemporary travellers are ignored.
Far superior to these maps is Fra Mauro's map (1457), for the
author has availed himself not only of the information collected by
Marco Polo and earlier travellers,
but *was able, by personal intercourse, to gather additional
information from Nicolo de' Conti, who had returned from
the east in 1440, and more especially from Abyssinians who lived in
Italy at that time. His delineation of Abyssinia, though unduly spread over a wide
area, is indeed wonderfully correct.

Very different in character is the Catalan map of 1375, for its
author, discarding Ptolemy, shows India as a peninsula. On FIG. 23.
- Catalan Map of the World (1375).

the other hand, an anonymous Genoese would-be reformer of maps
(14J7; fig. 24), still adheres to the erroneous Ptolemaic
delineation of southern Asia, and the same error is perpetuated by
Henricus Marvellus Germanus on a rough map showing the Portuguese
discoveries up to 1489. None of these maps is graduated, but if we
give the Mediterranean a length of 3000 Portolano miles, equivalent
in 36° N. to 41 °, then the longitudinal extent of the old world as
measured on the Genoese map of 1457 would be 136° instead of 177°
or more as given by Ptolemy.

The Revival of Ptolemy. - Ptolemy's great work became
known in western Europe after Jacobus Angelus de Scarparia had translated it into
Latin in 1410. This version was first printed in 1475 at Vicenza, but its contents had
become known through MS. copies before this, and their study
influenced the construction of maps in two respects. They led
firstly to the addition of degree lines to maps, and secondly to
the compilation of new maps of those countries which had been
inadequately represented by Ptolemy. Thus Claudius Clavus Swartha
(Niger), who was at Rome in 1424, compiled a map of the world,
extending westward as far as Greenland. The learned Cardinal Nicolaus
Krebs, of Cusa (Cues) on the Moselle, who died 1464, drew a map of
Germany which was first published in 1491; D. Nicolaus Germanus, a
monk of Reichenbach,
in 1466 prepared a set of Ptolemy's maps on a new projection with
converging meridians; and Paolo del Pozzo Toscanelli in 1474
compiled a new chart on a rectangular projection, which was to
guide the explorer across the western ocean to Cathay and India.

Of the seven editions of Ptolemy which were published up to the
close of the 15th century, all except that of Vicenza (1475)
contained Ptolemy's 27 maps, while Francesco Berlinghieri's version
(Florence 1478), and two editions published at Ulm (1482 and 1486), contained four or five modern
maps in addition, those of Ulm being by Nicolaus Germanus.

The geographical ideas which prevailed at the time Columbus started in search of
Cathay may be most readily gathered from two contemporary globes,
the one known as the Laon globe
because it was picked up in 1860 at a curiosity shop in that town, the other produced at Nuremberg in 1492 by Martin
Behaim.1 The
Laon globe is of copper gilt, and has a diameter of 170 mm. The
information which it furnishes, in spite of a legend intended to lead us to believe that it presents
us with the results of Portuguese explorations up to the year 1493,
is of more ancient date. The Nuremberg globe is a work of a more
ambitious order. It was undertaken at the suggestion of George
Holzschuher, a travelled member of the town council. The work was
entrusted to Martin Behaim, who had resided for six years in Portugal and the Azores, and was believed to be a
thoroughly qualified cosmographer.

1 E. G. Ravenstein, Martin Behaim, his Life and his
Globe (London, 1908). On the original only equator, ecliptics,
tropics, polar circles and one meridian 80° to the west of Lisbon are laid down.

ia __ - _ °_ - _ .? Q --. - a_= = The globe is of
pasteboard covered with whiting and parchment, and has a diameter
of 507 mm. The author followed Ptolemy not only in Asia, but also
in the Mediterranean. He did not avail himself of the materials
available in his day. Not even the coasts of western Africa are
laid down correctly, although the author claimed to have taken part
in one of the Portuguese expeditions. The ocean separating Europe
from he was dependent upon dead reckoning, for although various
methods for determining a longitude were known, the available
astronomical ephemerides were not trustworthy, and errors of 30 in
longitude were by no means rare. It was only after the publication
of Kepler's Rudolphine Table (1626) that more exact
results could be obtained. A further difficulty arose in connexion
with the variation of the compass, which induced Pedro Reinel
Behaim'S Globe 1492 Fig. 26.

Asia is assumed as being only 126° wide, in accordance with
Toscanelli's ideas of 1474. Very inadequate use has been made of
the travels of Marco Polo, Nicolo de' Conti, and of others in the
east. 1 On the other hand, the globe is made gay with flags and
other decorations, the work of George Glockendon, a well-known
illuminator of the time.

The maritime discoveries and surveys of that age of great
discoveries were laid down upon so-called " plane-charts," that is,
charts having merely equidistant parallels indicated upon them,
together with the equator, the tropics and polar FIG. 27.

circles, or, in a more advanced stage, meridians also. The astrolabe quadrant or
cross-staff enabled the mariner to determine"his latitude with a
certain amount of accuracy, but for his longitude 1 See fig. 23,
Catalan Map of the World (1375).

to introduce two scales of latitude on his map of the northern
Atlantic (1504; fig. 27).

The chart of the world by Juan de la Cosa, the companion of Columbus, is the earliest extant
which depicts the discoveries in the new world (150o), Nicolaus de
Canerio, a Genoese, and the map which Alberto Cantino caused to be
drawn at Lisbon for Hercules d'Este of Ferrara (1502), illustrating in addition the
recent discoveries of the Portuguese in the East. Other
cosmographers of distinction were Pedro Reinel (1504-1542), Nuno
Garcia de Toreno (1520), to whom we are indebted for 21 charts,
illustrating Magellan's voyage, Diogo Ribero (maps of the world
1527, 1529), 2 Alonzo de Santa Cruz, of Seville, whose Isolario general
includes charts of all parts of the world (1541), John Rotz or Rut
(1542), Sebastian Cabot
(1544), as also Nicolas Desliens, Pierre Desceliers, G. Breton and V. Vallard, all of
Argues, near Dieppe, whose
charts were compiled between 1541 and 1554.

Of the many general maps of the world or of particular
countries, a large number illustrate such works as G. Reisch's
Margarita
philosophica (1163), the cosmographies of Peter Apianus or Bienewitz (1520, 1522, 1530),
Seb. Minster (1544), J.
Honter (1546) and Gulielmus Postel (1561) or the
Geographia of Livio Sanuto 0588); others, and these the
more numerous and important, supplement the original maps of
several editions of Ptolemy. Thus the Roman edition of 1507, edited
by Marcus Benaventura and Joa Cota, contains 6 modern maps, and to
these was added in 1508 Joh. Ruysch's famous map of the world on a
modified conical projection. The next edition published at Venice
in 1511 contained a heart-shaped
world by Bernhard Sylvanus. The Strassburg Ptolemy of 1513 has a supplement
of as many as 20 modern maps by Martin Waldseemiiller or
Ilacomilus, several among which are copied from Portuguese
originals. Waldseemtiller was one of the most distinguished
cartographers of his day. He was born at Radolfzell in Baden in 1470, was associated with
Ringmann at the gymnasium of J. G. Kohl published facsimiles of the American section
of the maps (Weimar, 1860).

St Die, and died in 1521. He published in 1507 a huge map of the
world, in 12 sheets, together with a small globe of a diameter of I
10 mm., the segments for which were printed from wood-blocks. On
these documents the new world is called America, after Amerigo
Vespucci, its supposed discoverer. In 1511 Waldseemuller
published a large map of Europe, in 1513 he prepared his maps for
the Strassburg edition of Ptolemy, and in 1516 he engraved a copy
of Canerio's map of the world. The Strassburg Ptolemy of 1522
contains Waldseemiiller's maps,' edited on a reduced scale by
Laurentius Frisius, together with three additional ones. The same
set of maps is reprinted in the Strassburg edition of 1524, newly
translated by W. Pirckheimer with notes by Joh. Miller Regiomontanus, and
in the Lyon edition of 1535E edited by Michael Servetus. The new maps of the
Basel edition of 1540, twenty-one in number, are by Sebastian Munster; Jacob Gastaldo
supplied the Venice edition of 1548 with 34 modern maps, and these
with a few additions are repeated in Girolamo Ruscelli's Italian
translation of Ptolemy published at Venice in 1561.

Equally interesting with these Ptolemaic supplements are
collections like that of Anton Lafreri, which contains reprints of
142 maps of all parts of the world originally published between
1556 and 1572 (Geografica tavole moderne, Rome, n.d.), or
that of J. F. Camocio, published at Venice in 1576, which contains
88 reprints.

The number of cartographers throughout Europe was considerable,
and we confine ourselves to mentioning a few leading men. Among
them Germany is then represented by G. Glockedon, the author of an
interesting road-map of central Europe (1soi), Sebastian Munster
(1489-1552), Elias Camerarius,
whose map of the mark of Brandenburg won the praise of Mercator;
Wolfgang Latz von Lazius, to whom we are indebted for maps of
Austria and Hungary (1561),
and Philip Apianus, who made a survey of Bavaria (1553-1563), which was published 1568
on the reduced scale of 1:144,000, and is fairly described as the
topographical masterpiece of the 16th century. For maps of
Switzerland we are indebted to Konrad Tiirst (1495-1497), Johann Stumpf
(1548) and Aegidius Tschudi
(1538). A map, of the Netherlands from actual survey was produced
by Jacob ofDeventer (1536-1539). Leonardo da
Vinci, the famous artist, while in the service of Cesare Borgia as
military engineer, made surveys of several districts in central
Italy. Other Italian cartographers of merit were Giovanni Battiste
Agnese of Venice, whose atlases (1517-1564) enjoyed a wide
popularity; Benedetto Bordone (1528); Giacomo Gastaldo,
cosmographer of the Venetian Republic (1534-1568), and his
successor, Paolo Forlani. New maps of Spain and Portugal appeared in 1560, the former
being due to Pedro de Medina,
the latter to Fernando Alvarez Secco and Hernando Alvaro. Among the
French map-makers of this period may be mentioned Oronce Finee
(Finaeus), who in 1525 published a map of France, and Jean Jolivet
(c. 1560). Gregorio Lilly (1546) and Humphrey Lhuyd of Denbigh (d. 1510) furnished
maps of the British Isles, Olaus Magnus (1539) of Scandinavia, Anton
Wied (1542), Sigismund
von Herberstein (1549) and Anthony Jenkinson (1562) of Muscovy.

The cylindrical and modified conical projections of Marinus and
Ptolemy were still widely used, the stereographical projection of
Hipparchus, was for the first time employed for terrestrial maps in
the 16th century, but new projections were introduced in addition
to these. The earliest of these, a trapeziform projection with
equidistant parallels, by D. Nicolaus Germanus (1466), naturally
led to what is generally known as Flamsteed's projection. Joh.
Stabius (1502) and his pupil J. Werner (1514) devised three
heart-shaped projections, one of which was equivalent. Petrus
Apianus (1524) gave his map an elliptical shape. H. Glareanus
(1510) was the first to employ an equidistant zenithal polar
projection.

No reasonable fault can be
found with the marine surveyors of this period, but the scientific
cartographers allowed themselves too frequently to be influenced by
Ptolemaic traditions. Thus Facsimiles of the maps of 1507 and 1517
were published by J. Fischer and F. M. von Wieser (Innsbruck,
1903).

Gastaldo (1548) presents us with a map of Italy, which, except
as to nomenclature, differs but little from that of Ptolemy,
although on the Portolano charts the peninsula had long since
assumed its correct shape. Many of the local maps, too, were
excellent specimens of cartography, but when we follow any
cartographer of the period into regions the successful delineation
of which depended upon an intelligent interpretation of
itineraries, and of information collected by recent travellers,
they are generally found to fail utterly. This is illustrated by
the four sketch maps shown in fig. 28.

FIG. 28.

Columbus, trusting to Toscanelli's misleading chart, looked upon
the countries discovered by him as belonging to eastern Asia, a
view still shared about 1507 by his brother Bartolomeo.
Waldseemuller (1507) was the first to separate America and Asia by
an ocean of considerable width, but J. Ruysch (1508) returns to the
old idea, and even joins Greenland (Gruenlant) to eastern Asia.
Bologninus Zalterius on a map of 1566, and Mercator on his famous
chart of 1569, separates the two continents by a narrow strait
which they call Streto de Anian, thus anticipating the discovery of
Bering Strait by more
than a hundred and fifty years. Anian, however, which they place
upon the American coast, is no other than Marco Polo's Anica or
Anin, our modern Annam. Such an
error could never have arisen had the old compilers of maps taken
the trouble to plan Marco Polo's routes.

Globes, both celestial and terrestrial, became popular
after the discovery of America. They were included among the
scientific apparatus of ships and of educational establishments.
Columbus and Magellan had such globes, those of the latter produced
by P. Reinel (1519), and Conrad Celtes tells us that he illustrated
his lectures at the university of Vienna with the help of globes
(1501). Globes were still engraved on copper, or painted by hand,
but since 1507, in which year Waldseemuller published a small globe
of a diameter of 110 mm., covered with printed segments or gores,
this cheap and expeditious method has come into general use.
Waldseemuller constructed his gores graphically, A. Direr (1525)
and Hen. Loriti Glareanus (1527)
were the first who dealt scientifically with the principles
underlying their construction. Globes /obe.151s.

l. 'WALDSEEMiJLLER ' 0 .........

island-, covered with printed gores were produced by L.
Boulenger (1514), Joh. Schäner (1515), P. Apianus, Gemma Frisius
(1530) and G. Mercator (1541). Leonardo da Vinci's rough map of the
world in 8 segments (c. 1513) seems likewise to have been
intended for a globe. Of SchOner we know that he produced four
globes, three printed from segments (1515, 1523, 1 533), and p
SCF12MER.S FIG. 29.

one of larger size (diam. 822 mm.), which is drawn by hand, and
is preserved in the Germanic Museum at Nuremberg. Among engraved
globes, one of the most interesting is that which was discovered by
R. M. Hunt in Paris, and is preserved in the Lenox Library, New York. Its diameter is only 42
in. (127 mm.). The so-called " Nancy globe " is of chased silver, richly
ornamented, the earliest works are a map of Palestine (1537), a map
of the world on a double heart-shaped projection (1525), and a
topographical map of Flanders based upon his own surveys (1540), a
pair of globes (1541, diam. 120 mm.), and a large map of Europe
which has been praised deservedly for its accuracy (1554). He is
best known by his marine chart (1569) and his atlas. The projection
of the former may have been suggested by a note by W. Pirkheimer in
his edition of Ptolemy (1525). Mercator constructed it graphically,
the mathematical principles underlying it being first explained by
E. Wright (1594). The " Atlas " was only published after Mercator's
death, in 1595 It only contained nine maps, but after the plates
had been sold to Jodocus (Jesse) Hondius the number of maps was
rapidly increased, although Mercator's name was retained.
Mercator's maps are carefully engraved on copper. Latin letters are
used throughout; the miniatures of older maps are superseded by
symbols, and in the better-known countries the maps are fairly
correct, but they fail lamentably when we follow their author into
regions - the successful delineation of which depends upon critical
combination of imperfect information.

Even before Mercator's death, Antwerp and Amsterdam had become great centres
of cartographic activity, and they maintained their pre-eminence until the beginning
of the 18th century. Abraham Ortelius (1527-1592), of
Antwerp, a man of culture and enterprise, but not a scientific
cartographer, published the first edition of his Theatrum orbis
terrarum in 1570. It then contained 53 maps, by various
authors. By 1595 the number of maps had increased to 119, including
a Parergon or supplement of 12 maps illustrating ancient
history. In 1578 was published the Speculum orbis terrarum of Gerard de Jude or de Judaeis. Lucas
Janszon Waghenaer (Aurigarius) of Enkhuizen published the first edition of his
Spiegel der Zeevaart (Mariners' Mirror) at Leiden in 1585. It was the first
collection of marine maps, lived through many editions, was issued
in several languages and became known as Charettier and
Waggoner. In the same year Adrian Gerritsz published a
valuable Paskaarte of the European Sea. Ten years
afterwards, in 1595, W. Barentszoon published a marine atlas of the
Mediterranean, the major axis of which he reduced to 42 degrees.
Jodocus FIG. 30. - Lenox Globes (1510).

and formerly served the purpose of a pyx. Its diameter is 160 mm., its date about 1530.
About the same date is assigned to a globe by Robert de Bailly, engraved on copper and gilt
(diam. 440 mm.). Celestial globes were manufactured by
Regiomontanus (d. 1476) at Nuremberg, by Joh. Stoffier (1499), and
by G. Hartmann (1535).

Mercator and his Successors

Of Gerhard Kremer (1512-1594) Hondius has already been referred
to as the purchaser of Mercator's plates. The business founded by
him about 1602 was continued by his sons and his son-in-law, Jan
Janszon (Jansonius) and others. By 1653 this firm had already
produced atlases including 451 charts. Willem Janszon, the father
of Hondius's partner, published a collection of charts (1608), to
which he gave the title of Het Licht der Zeevaart (the
seaman's light).

Another cartographic publishing firm was established at Amsterdam
in 1612 by Willem Janszon Blaeu (1571-1638), a friend of Tycho Brahe, from 1633
" mapmaker " of the states-general, and a man of scientific
culture. He was succeeded by his son Jan (d. 1673) and grandson Cornelius, and before the
end of the century turned out a Zee-Spiegel of 108 charts
(1623), an Atlas novus (Nieuwe Atlas), 1642, enlarged in
the course of time until it consisted of 12 folio volumes containing hundreds of maps. J. A.
Colom in 1633 published a collection of maps under the quaint title of Vurig Colour
der Zeevaert (Fiery Column of and his heirs, are stated to
have published as many as 600 maps after 1700.

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In no other country of Europe was there at the close of the 16th
century a geographical establishment capable of competing with the
Dutch towns or with Sanson, but the number of those who produced
maps, in many instances based upon original surveys, was large.
Germany is thus represented, among others, by C. Henneberger (map
of Prussia, 1576), by M.
Oeder, (survey of Saxony, 1586-1607), A. Rauh (fine hill features
on a map of the environs of Wangen and Lindau, 1617), FIG. 31. - Mercator's Chart of
the World (1569).

Navigation). Among more recent Dutch map publishers are Nicolaus
Vischer (Piscator), R. Goos,
H. Doncker, F. de Wit, and J. and G. van Keulen, whose atlases were
published between 1681 and 1722. These Dutch maps and charts are
generally accompanied by descriptive notes or sailing directions
printed on the back of them. A similar work is the Arcano del
mare of Sir Robert Dudley, duke of Northumberland,
the numerous sheets of which are on Mercator's projection
(1631).

In France, in the meantime, an arc of the meridian had been
measured (1669-1670) by Jean Picard, numerous longitudes had been
observed between 1672 and 1680 by the same, and by Phil. de Lahire
(d. 1719), and these were utilized in a Carte de France "
as corrected from the observations of the members of the Academy of
Sciences " (1666-1699), in a map of the world (1694) by D. Cassini, as also in Le Neptune Francois (1693)
with contributions by Pene, D. Cassini and others. These corrected
longitudes were not yet available for the maps produced by Nicolas Sanson of
Abbeville, since 1627.
The cartographical establishment founded by him in that year was
carried on after his death in 1667 by his sons, his son-in-law, P.
Duval (d. 1683) and his grandson Robert du Vaugondy (d. 1766).
Among the cartographers whom he employed were M. Tavernier and
Mariette, and in many instances he mentioned the authors whose maps
he copied. By 1710 the maps published by the firm numbered 466.
Nicolas de Fer, the great rival of Sanson, W. Schickhardt (survey
of Wurttemberg,
1624-1635), and G. M. Vischer (map of Austria and Styrai,
1669-1786); Switzerland by H. C. Gyger (Canton of Zurich, a masterpiece, 1667); Italy by G. A.
Magini (1558-1610), and V. Coronelli, appointed cosmographer of the
Venetian Republic, 1685, and founder of the Ac. Cosmogr. dei
Argonauti, the earliest geographical society, and Diogo Hornem, a
Portuguese settled at Venice (1558-1574); Denmark by J. Mejer of Husum (1650); Sweden by A. Buraeus, the " father
of Swedish cartographers " (1650-1660); the British Islands by Ch.
Saxton (County Atlas of England and Wales 1 575), J. Speed (Theatrum of
Great Britain, 1610), TimothyPont
and Robert Gordon of
Strathloch (map of Scotland, 1608), and A. Moll. A Novus
atlas sinensis, based upon Chinese surveys, was published in
1655 by Martin Martini, S.J., a missionary recently returned from
China. Isaac Voss, in his work De Nili (1659), published a
map of central Africa, in which he anticipated D'Anville by
rejecting all the fanciful details which found a place upon Filippo
Pigafetta's map of that continent.

The first maps illustrating the variation of the compass were
published by Chris. Burrus (d. 1632) and Athanasius
Kircher (Magnes,
Rome, 1643), and maps of the ocean and tidal currents by the latter
in his Mundus subterraneus (1665). Edmund Halley, the
astronomer, compiled the first variation chart of scientific value
(1683), as also a chart of the winds (1686).

Globes manufactured for commercial purposes by Blaeu and others
have already been mentioned, but several large globes, for show
rather than for use, were produced in addition to these. Thus A.
Busch, of Limburg
(1656-1664), manufactured a globe for Duke Frederick of Holstein, formerly at Gottorp, but since 1713
at Tsarskoye Zelo. It has a diameter of II ft. (3-57 metres) and is
hollow, the inner surface of the shell being covered with a star
map, and the outer surface with a map of the world. Professor Erh.
Weigel (1696) produced a hollow celestial globe in copper, having a
small terrestrial globe in its centre. Its diameter is 3.25 metres.
Lastly there is a pair of giant
globes of artistic design, turned out by V. Coronelli (1623), and
intended as presents to Louis XIV. Their diameter is nearly
5 metres. A pair of globes of 1592 by Emeric Molineux
(diam. 61o mm.) is now in the Temple Library, and is referred to in
Blundeville's Exercises (1594). The Eighteenth Century. -
It was no mere accident which enabled France to enjoy a
pre-eminence in cartographic work during the greater part of the
18th century. Not only had French men of science and scientific
travellers done excellent work as explorers in different parts of
the world, but France could also boast of two men, Guillaume
Delisle and J. B. Bourguignon
d'Anville, able to utilize in the compilation of their maps the
information they acquired.

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Delisle (1675-1726) published 98 maps, and although as works of
art they were inferior to the maps of certain contemporaries, they
were far superior to them in scientific value. On one of his
earliest maps compiled under advice of his father Claude (1700), he
gave the Mediterranean its true longitudinal extension of 41°. It
was Delisle who assumed the meridian of Ferro, which had been
imposed upon French navigators by royal order (1634), to lie
exactly 20° to the west of Paris. The work of reform was carried
further by B. D'Anville (1697-1782). Altogether he published 211
maps, of which 66 are included in FIG. 32.

his Atlas general (1737-1780); he swept away the
fanciful lakes from off the face of Africa, thus forcibly bringing
home to us the poverty of our knowledge (fig. 32), delineated the
Chinese Empire in accordance with the map based on the surveys
conducted during the reign of the emperor Kanghi, with the aid of
Jesuit missionaries, and published in 1718; boldly refused to
believe in the existence of an Antarctic continent covering half the
southern hemisphere, and always brought a sound judgment to bear upon the materials which
the ever-increasing number of travellers placed at his disposal.
Among other French works of importance deserving notice are Le
Neptune oriental of Mannevillette (1745) and more especially
the Carte geometrique de la France, which is based upon
surveys carried on (1744-1783) by Cesar Francois Cassini de Thury
and his son Dominique de Cassini. It is on a transversal
cylindrical (rectangular) projection devised by Jacques Cassini (d.
1746). The hills are shown in rough hachures.

England, which had entered upon a career of naval conquest and
scientific exploration, had reason to be proud of J. F. W.
Desbarres, Atlantic Neptune (1774), a North-American Pilot (1779),
which first made known the naval surveys of J. Cook and of others;
and Tho. Jeff erys's West Indian and American Atlases
( 1 775, 1 77 8). James Rennell (1742-1830), who was
surveyor-general of India, published the Bengal Atlas (1781), and sagaciously
arranged the vast mass of information collected by British
travellers and others in India and Africa, but it is chiefly with
the name of AaronArrowsmith, who came to
London in 1778, and his successors, with which the glory of the older school of cartographers is
most intimately connected. His nephew John died in 1873. Among
local cartographers may be mentioned H. Moll (d. 1732), J. Senex,
whose atlas was published in 1725, and Dowet, whose atlas was
brought out at the expense of the duke of Argyll.

In Germany J. B. Homann (d. 1724) founded a geographical
establishment in 1702, which depended at first upon copies of
British and French maps, but in course of time published also
original maps such as J. M. Hase's Africa (1727) and
Tobias Meyer's Mappa critica of Germany (1780), J. T.
Giissfeld's map of Brandenburg (1773), John Majer's Wiirttemburg
(17,0), and J. C. Mailer's Bavaria, both based on trigonometrical
surveys. Colonel Schmettau's excellent survey of the country to the
west of the Weser (1767-1787)
was never published, as Frederick the Great feared it might prove
of use to his military enemies. Switzerland is represented by J. J.
Scheuchzer (1712), J. Gessner (d. 1790), G. Walser (Atlas novus
Helvetiae, 1769), and W. R. Meyer, Atlas der Schweiz
(1786-1802). Of the Austrian Netherlands, Count Joseph de Ferrari published a chorographic map
on the same scale as Cassini's Carte de la France (1777).
Of Denmark a fine map was published under the auspices of the
Academy of Science of Copenhagen (1766-1825) of Spain and Portugal
an atlas in 102 sheets by Thomas Lopez (1765-1802); of Russia a map by J. N. Delisle in
19 sheets (1739-1745); charts illustrating the variation of the
compass and of magnetic " dip " by
E. Dunn (1776), J. C. Wife (1768); a chart of the world by W.
Dampier (1789). Map projections were dealt with by two eminent
mathematicians, J. H. Lambert (1 772) and Leonh. Euler (1
777). On the maps of Delisle and d'Anville the ground is
still represented by " molehills." Hachures of a rude nature first
made their appearance on David Vivier's map of the environs of
Paris (1674), and on Cassini's Carte de la France. Contour
lines (isobaths) were introduced for the first time on a chart of
the Merwede by M. S. Cruquius (1728), and on a chart of the English Channel
by Phil. Buache (1737) Dupain-Triel, acting on a suggestion of Du.
Carla, compiled a contoured map of France (1791), and it only
needed the introduction of graduated tints between these contours
to secure a graphic picture of the features of the ground. It was
J. G. Lehmann (1783) who based his method of hill-shading or
hachuring upon these horizontal contours. More than 80 methods of
showing the hills have found advocates since that time, but all
methods must be based upon contours to be scientifically
satisfactory.

Two relief maps of Central Switzerland deserve to be mentioned,
the one by R. L. Pfyffer in wax, now in Lucerne, the other by J. R. Meyer of Aarau and Muller of Engelberg in papier mache,
now in Zurich. Globes of the usual commercial type were
manufactured in France by Delisle (1700), Forbin (1710-1731), R.
and J. de Vaugondy (1752), Lalande (1771); in England by E. and G.
Adams (1710-1766); Germany by
Homann and Seutter (1750). A hollow celestial globe 18 ft. in
diameter was set up by Dr Roger Long at Cambridge; the terrestrial
globe which Count Ch. Gravie of Vergennes presented to Louis XVI. in 1787 had a
diameter of 26 metres, or 85 ft.

Modern Cartography

The compiler of maps of the present day enjoys many advantages
not enjoyed by men similarly occupied a hundred years ago.
Topographical surveys are gradually extending, and explorers of
recent years are better trained for their work than they were a
generation ago, whilst technical processes of recent invention -
such as lithography, photography and heliogravure - facilitate
or expedite the completion of his task. This task, however, has
grown more difficult and exacting. Mere outline maps, such as
formerly satisfied the public, suffice no longer. He is called upon
more ] especially to give a satisfactory delineation of the ground,
he must meet the requirements of various classes of the public, and
be prepared to record cartographically all the facts of physical or
political geography which are capable of being recorded on his
maps. The ingenuity of the compiler is frequently taxed when called
upon to illustrate graphically the results of statistical
information of every description.

Germany since the middle of the 19th century has become the
headquarters of scientific cartography. This is due as much to the
inspiriting teachings of Ritter and Humboldt as to the general
culture and scientific training combined with technical skill
commanded by the men who more especially devote themselves to this
branch of geography, which elsewhere is too frequently allowed to
fall into the hands of mere mechanics. Men like H. Berghaus (1797-1884),
H. Kiepert (1818-1899), and A. Petermann (1822-1878) must always
occupy a foremost place in the history of cartography. Among the
geographical establishments of Germany, that founded by Justus Perthes (1785), at
Gotha, occupies the highest rank. Among its publications are A.
Stieler's Hand-Atlas (1817-1832), K. von Spruner's
Historical Atlas (1438-1488), H. Berghaus' Physical
Atlas (1838-1842), E. von Sydow's Wall Maps for
Schools (1838-1840) and School Atlas (1847). The
titles of these atlases survive, though the authors of the original
editions are long dead, and the maps have been repeatedly
superseded by others bringing the information up to the date of
publication. To the same firm we are indebted for Petermann's
Mitteilungen, started in 1855 by A. Petermann, after whose
death in 1902 they were successively edited by E. Behm, A. Supan
and P. Langhans, as also the Geographisches Jahrbuch
(since 1866), at first edited by E. Behm, afterwards by Professor
H. Wagner. Among other geographical institutes in Germany which
deserve mention are the Weimar
Institut, founded in 17 9 1 by F. J. Bertuch, and directed
in1845-1852by H. Kiepert; Paul Fleming at Glogau (K. Sohr's Handatlas, 1845), A.
Ravenstein at Frankfort,
D. Reimer at Berlin (H.
Kiepert, Handatlas, i 860); R. Andree
(Hand-Atlas, 1880), and E. Debes (Hand-Atlas,
1894) in Leipzig, and E. Holzer in Vienna (Vincenz von Haardt's
maps). France is represented by the publishing firms of Ch.
Delagrave (Levaseur's maps), Hachette (Vivien de St Martin's
Atlas universel, in progress since 1875, F. Schrader's
Atlas de geographie moderne, 1880), and Armand Colin
(Vidal de la Blache's Atlas general, 1894). In Great
Britain A. Arrowsmith established himself in London in 1770
(General Atlas, 1817), but the cartographical business
ceased on the death of John Arrowsmith in 1873. John Walker, to whose
initiative the charts published by the admiralty are indebted for
the perspicuous, firm and yet artistic execution, which facilitate
their use by the mariner, was also the author of the maps published
by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (1829-1840).
Among more recent firms are W. and A. K. Johnston (founded 1825;
Royal Atlas, 1855); J. Bartholomew & Co., now carried
on by J. G. Bartholomew (Reduced Survey maps, Atlas of the
World's Commerce, 1906); Philip & Sons (Imperial
Atlas, 1890; Systematic Atlas by E. G. Ravenstein,
1894; Mercantile
Marine Atlas, 1904, globes), and E. Stanford (London
Atlas). In 1890 Professor A. Penck proposed to prepare a map
of the world, including the oceans, on a scale of 1: 1,000,000, and
his scheme was promised the support of a committee which met in
London in 1909, and upon which were represented the leading powers
of the world. Maps on that scale of a great part of Africa, Asia
and America have been published by British, French, German and
United States authorities. A bathymetrical chart of the oceans, by
Professor J. Thoulet was published in 1904 at the expense of Prince Albert of Monaco.

Reliefs from printed maps were first produced. by Bauerkeller of
Darmstadt and Dondorf at
Frankfort, from originals furnished by A. Ravenstein (1838-1844).
The exaggeration in altitude, on these maps and on those of a later
date and on a larger scale, was very considerable. No such
exaggeration exists in the case of reliefs of parts of the Alps, on a large scale, by P. Keil
and Pelikan (1890), X. Imfeld (1891), P. Oberlerchner (1891-1895),
C. Perron (1893-1900), F. Becker (1900), A. Heim (1904) and others.
A relief globe. was first suggested in a letter of M. Maestlin to
J. Kepler (1596). The first globe of this description for the use
of the blind, was made by A. Zeune in 1810. H. Erben is the author
of a rough relief on a convex
surface (1842), but the finest example of this description is a
relief of Italy, by Cesar Pomba and H. Fritsche, on a scale of 1:
1,000,000 and without exaggeration of heights (1880-1884). A map of
Italy in the baptistery of St Peter at Rome has
occasionally been described as a relief, though it is merely a rude
outline map of Italy, by Carlo Fontana (1698), carved into a convex
surface.

Several globes of unusual dimensions were produced in the course
of last century. That which Colonel Langlois erected in the"Champs
Elysees(1824) had a diameter of 39 metres. James Wyld's hollow
globe, or " Georama," diam. 18 metres, occupied Leicester Square until
swept away as a nuisance.
The giant globe proposed by Elisee Reclus in 1895 has never been
erected; he has, however, produced maps on a concave surface, as
suggested by J. D. Hauber in 1742.

Authorities

-The history of maps is dealt with ably in Vivien de Saint
Martin's Histoire de la geographie (Paris, 1875), and in
Peschel's Geschichte der Erdkunde (2nd ed. by Sophus Ruge,
Berlin, 1877), as also by W. Wollkenhauer (Leitfaden zur
Geschichte der Kartographie,Breslau, 1895), and H. Zondervan
(Allgemeine Kartenkunde, Leipzig, 1901). J. Lelewel's
Geographie du moyen age, with an atlas (Brussels,
1850-1857), has in part been superseded by more recent researches.
There are, however, a number of works, beautifully illustrated,
which deal fully with particular periods of the subject. Among
these may be mentioned Konrad Miller's Die ¢ltesten
Weltkarten (Stuttgart, 1895-1897), which only deals with maps
not influenced by the ideas of Ptolemy. The contents of the
following collections are more varied in their nature, viz. E. F.
Jomard's Monuments de la geographie (Paris, 1862),
Santarem's Atlas compose de mappemondes et de portulans,
&c. (Paris, 1842-1853, 78 plates). A. E. Nordenskiold's
Facsimile Atlas (Stockholm, 1889), Gabriel Marcell,
Choix de cartes et de mappemondes X I V et X V siecles
(Paris, 1896). C. H. Coote's Remarkable Maps of the X Vth,
X Vlth and X VIIth Centuries reproduced in their Original Size
(Amsterdam, 1894-1897), and Bibliotheca lindesiana
(London, 1898) with facsimiles of the Harleian and other
Dieppese maps of the 16th century. Nautical charts are dealt with
in A. E. Nordenskiiild's Periplus (Stockholm, 1869), and
Th. Fischer's Sammlung mitteldlterlicher Weltand Seekarten
(Vienna, 1886). The discovery and mapping of America are
illustrated by F. Kunstmann's Entdeckung Amerikas (Munich,
1859), K. Kretschmer's Atlas zur Entdeckung Amerikas
(Berlin, 1892), G. Marcel's Reproductions de cartes et de
globes relatives a la decouverte de l'Amerique du XVI' au X VIII
siecle (Paris, 1893) and E. L. Stevenson's Maps
Illustrating the early Discovery and Exploration of America,
1502-1530 (New Brunswick, N.J., 1906). In addition to these
collections, numerous single maps have been published in
geographical periodicals or separately. See also V.
Hantzsch and L. Schmidt, Kartog. Denkmeiler zur
Entdeckungsgeschichte von Amerika, Asien, Australien and Afrika aus
der k. Bibliothek zu Dresden (Leipzig, 1903), and the
Crown Collection of photographs
of American maps (1600-1800), selected and edited by A. B. Hulbert
(Cleveland, 1904-1909).

For reports on the progress of cartography, see
Geographisches Jahrbuch (Gotha, since 1866); for
announcements of new publications, Bibliotheca
geographica, published annually by the Berlin Geographical
Society, and to the geographical Journal (London).

[TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS

Topographical Surveys. The year 1784 marks the
beginning of the ordnance survey, for in that year Major-General
Roy measured a base line of 27,404 ft. on HounslowHeath. Six additional base lines were measured up
to 1849, including the Lough Foyle, in 1827-1828, and that on Salisbury Plain, in 1849.
The primary triangulation was only completed in 1858, but in the
meantime, in 1791, the detail survey had begun. At first it was
merely intended to produce a map sufficiently accurate on a scale
of 1 in. to a mile (1: 63,360). Ireland having been surveyed (1824-1842) on a
scale of 6 in. to a mile (1: 10,560), it was determined in 1840,
after the whole of England and Wales, with the exception of Lancashire and Yorkshire, had been
completed on one-inch scales, to adopt that scale for the whole of
the United
Kingdom. Finally, in 1854, a cadastral survey of the whole of
the United Kingdom, only excepting uncultivated districts, was
resolved upon, on a scale of 1: 2500, still larger scales (1: 500
or 1: 1000) being adopted for town plans. Parish boundaries are
laid down with the help of local meresmen appointed by justices at
quarter. sessions. The
horizontal Xvii. 21 a contours are based upon instrumental
measurement, and as a whole these ordnance maps were undoubtedly
superior in accuracy, with rare exceptions, to similar maps
published by foreign governments. Even though the hill hachures on
the older one-inch maps are not quite satisfactory, this deficiency
is in a large measure compensated for by the presence of absolutely
trustworthy contours. Originally the maps were engraved on copper,
and the progress of publication was slow; but since the
introduction of modern processes, such as electrotyping (in 1840),
photography (in 1855) and zincography (in 1859), it has been rapid.
A plan, the engraving of which formerly took two years, can now be
produced in two days.

The one-inch map for the whole of the United Kingdom was
completed in 1890. It covers 697 sheets (or 488 of a " new series "
in large sheets), and is published in three editions, viz. (a) in
outline, with contours in black, (b) with hills hachured
in brown or black, and (c) printed in five colours.
Carefully revised editions of these and of the other maps are
brought out at intervals of 15 years at most. Since 1898 the
department has also published maps on a smaller scale, viz. a map
of England and Wales, on a scale of 2 m. to i in., in two editions,
both printed in colour, the one with hills stippled in brown, the
other coloured on the " layer system " as a strata-relief map; a
map of the United Kingdom on a scale of 4 m. to i in., also in two
editions, the one in outline, showing five classes of roads and
parish boundaries, the other in colours, with stippled hills; a map
on a scale of io m. to i in., also in two editions, and finally a
map of the United Kingdom on a scale of I: 1,000,000.

The geological surveys of Great Britain and Ireland were
connected from 1832 to 1853 with the ordnance survey, but are now
carried on independently. The ordnance survey, too, no longer
depends on the war office but upon the board of
agriculture and fisheries. A Bathymetrical Survey of the
Freshwater Lochs of
Scotland, under the direction of Sir John Murray and L. Pullar, was completed in
1908, and the results published by the Royal Geographical
Society.

Proposals for a new map of France, to replace the famous Cassini
map of1744-1793were made in 1802 and again by France. R.
Bonne in 1808, but owing to
the wars then devas tating Europe no steps were taken until 1817,
and the Carte de France de l'etat major on a scale of 1:
80,000 was only completed in 1880. It is engraved on copper. The
hachured hills are based upon contours, and are of admirable
commensurability. It has served as a basis for a Carte de la
France, published by the Service Vicinal on a scale of i:
100,00°, in 59 6 sheets, and of a general map prepared by the
ministere des travaux publics on a scale of I: 200,000 in 80
sheets. On both these maps the hills are printed in grey chalk. A
third topographical map of France is being published in accordance
with the recommendation of a committee presided over by General de
la Noix in 1897. The surveys for this map were begun in 1905. The
maps are based upon the cadastral plans (1: 1000), thoroughly
revised and connected with the triangulation of France and
furnished with contours at intervals of 5 m. by precise
measurement. These minutes are published on a scale of r:
10,000 or i: 20,000 for mountain districts, while the scale of the
general map is 1: 50,000. Each sheet is bounded by parallels and meridians. The
hills are shown in brown contours at intervals of io m. and grey
shading in chalk (Berthaut, La Carte de France, 1750-1898;
Paris, 189 9). A geological map of France on a scale of I: 80,000
is nearly completed, there are also a map (1: 500,000) by Carez and
Vasseur, and an official Carte geologique (1: i,000,000;
1906).

By the middle of the 19th century topographical maps of the
various German states had been completed, and in several instances
surveys of a more exact nature had been completed or begun, when in
1878 the governments of Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria and Wurttemberg
agreed to supersede local maps by publishing a map of the empire
(Reichskarte) in 674 sheets on a scale of i:roo,000. The
earlier sheets of this excellent map were lithographed, but these
are gradually being superseded by maps engraved on copper.
Colour-printing is employed since 1901. The hills are hachured and
in some instances contours at intervals of 50 metres are
introduced. The map was completed in 1909, but is continually
undergoing renewal. The Messtischblatter, called
Positionsblatter in Bavaria, are on a scale of 1:25,000.
The older among them leave much to be desired, but those of a later
date are satisfactory. This applies more especially to the maps of
Saxony (since 1879) and Wurttemberg (since 1893). The features of
the ground on most of these maps are shown by contours at intervals
of 10 metres. The map produced on this large scale numbers over
5000 sheets, and is used as a basis for the geological surveys
carried on in several of the states of Germany. A general map of
the German Empire (Uebersichtskarte) on a scale of
200,000, in 196 sheets, is in progress since 1893. It is printed in
three colours, and gives contours at intervals of io metres. In
addition to these maps there are D. G. Reymann's well-known
Specialkarte von Mittel Europa (: 200,000), acquired by the
Prussian government in 1874 (it will ultimately consist of 796
sheets), a government and Liebenow's map of central Europe
(1:300,000) and C. Vogel's beautiful map of Germany (1:
500,000).

The Specialkarte of Austria-Hungary on a scale of r:75,000
(765 sheets), based upon a triangulation and cadastral surveys
(1816-1867), was completed in 1889, and published in heliogravure.
This map was repeatedly revised, Antgria- g P P
Y ?

but as it no longer met modern requirements as to accuracy the
director of the military geographical establishment at Vienna,
Field Marshal Chr. von Steeb, in 1896, organized what practically
amounts to a re-survey of the entire monarchy, to be completed in
75 years. At the same time the cadastral plans, reduced to a scale
of 1:25,000, are being published in photo-lithography. A general
map of central Europe in 283 sheets published by the Austrian
government (1: 200,000) includes nearly the whole of the Balkan
Peninsula.

The famous map of Switzerland, with which is associated the name
of General H. Dufour (d. 1875), is based upon a triangulation
(1809-1833) and surveys on a scale of 1:25,000 for the lowlands,
r :50,000 for the alpine districts, and was published
(1842-1865) on a scale of r:roo,000. The hills are hachured, the
light, in the case of the loftier regions, being supposed to fall
obliquely. The original surveys, carefully revised, have been
published since 1870 as a Topographical Atlas of Switzerland -
the so-called Siegfried Atlas, in 552 sheets. They
are printed in three colours, contours at intervals of 10 and 20
metres being in brown, incidental features (ravines, cliffs,
glaciers) in black or blue. To mountain-climbers these contour maps
are invaluable, but for ordinary purposes " strata maps," such as
J. M. Ziegler's hypsometric maps (1856) or so-called " relief
maps," which attempt to delineate the ground so as to give the
impression of a relief, are generally preferred.

The new survey of Belgium
was completed in 1872 and there have been published 527 plane-table
sections or planchettes on a scale of 1: 20,000
(1866-1880), a " Carte topographique de la Belgique," in 72 sheets,
on a scale of g 1:40,000 (1861-1883), and a more recent
map in 26 sheets on a scale of 1:100,000 (1903-1912). The last is
printed in five colours, the ground is shown in contours of io
metres interval and grey stippling.

The new survey of the Netherlands, based upon General
Krayenhoff's primary triangulation (1802-1811) was completed in
1855. The results have been published on a scale of 1:25,000 (776
sheets, since 1866), 1:50,000 (Topographic and Military Map, 62
sheets, 1850-1864, and a Waterstaatskaart, 1864-1892), and
1:200,000 (Topographical Atlas, 21 sheets, 1868-1871).

In Denmark, on the proposal of the Academy of Science, a survey
was carried out in 1766-1825, but the maps issued by the Danish
general staff depend upon more recent surveys. These include
plane-table sections (Maalebordsblade), 1209 sheets on a
scale of 1:20,000, with contours at intervals of 5 to io ft.,
published since 1830; Atlasblade of Jutland and of De Danske Der, on a
scale of I :40,000, the former in 131 sheets, since 1870, the
latter, on the same scale, in 94 sheets, since 1890, and still in
progress, and a general staff map on a scale of 1: ioo,000, in 68
sheets, since 1890. Maps of the Faroer and of Iceland have likewise been issued.

Modern surveys in Sweden date from the organization of a corps
of " Landematare," known since 1874 as a topographical department
of the general staff. The maps issued by this authority include one
of southern Sweden, 1:100,000, another of northern Sweden,
1:200,000, and a general map on a scale of 1:1,000,000. In Norway a
geographical survey (Opmaaling) has been in progress since
1783, but the topographical map of the kingdom on a scale
of :ioo,000 in 340 sheets, has not yet been completed.

Of Russia in Europe only the more densely peopled governments
have been surveyed, since 1816, in the manner of other European
countries, while for most regions there R are only
so-called "military surveys." The most readily available map of the
whole country is the io-verst map (1:420,000), known as General J.
A. Strelbitzki's, and published 1865-1880. A topographic map (i:
126,000) embracing the whole of western Russia, with Poland and the country of the Don Cossacks, is
designed to be extended over the whole empire. Certain
governments-Moscow, Kief, Volhynia, Bessarabia, the Crimea, &c.-have been
published on a scale of 1: 24,000, while Finland, as far as 61° N., was re-surveyed in
1870-1895, and a map on a scale of 1:42,000 is approaching
completion.

Surveys in Asiatic Russia are conducted by the topographical
departments organized at Orenburg, Tashkent, Omsk, Irkutsk and Tiflis. To the latter we are indebted for a
valuable map of Caucasia,
1:210,000, which since the first publication (1863-1885) has
undergone careful revision. The Siberian departments have published
a number of maps on a scale of 1:420,000. In addition to these the
survey for the Trans-Siberian railway has been published on a scale
of 1:630,000, as also maps of the Russo-Chinese frontier districts,
1:210,000 and 1:1,168,000. A map of Asiatic Russia, 1:420,000, by
Bolshef, in 192 sheets, is in course of publication.

Passing to southern Europe we find that Portugal has completed a
Charta chorographica (1:10o,000) since 1856. In Spain a
plane-table survey on a scale of 1:20,000 Spain in 1078 sheets on a
scale of i: 50,000 only 150 had been issued by the deposito de la
guerra up to 1910. Meanwhile reference may be made to B. F.
Coello's Atlas de la Espana (1848-1890), the maps of which
are on a scale of I: 200,000.

In Italy Tavulette rilevata on a scale of 1: 25,000 or
1: 50,000, with contours, based on surveys made 1862-1890, are
being. published, and a Carta del regno d'Italia,
1:100,000, is practically complete. There are a Carta
idrologica and a Carta geologica on the same scale,
and a Carta orografica on a scale of 1: 500,000.

Greece is still dependent upon foreigners for its maps, among
which the Carte de Grece (1: 200,000) from rapid surveys
made. by General Palet in 1828, was published in a new
Greece edition in 1880. A similar map, mainly based upon
surveys made by Austrian officers and revised by H. Kiepert
(1:300,000), was published by the Military Geographical Institute
of Vienna in 1885. Far superior to these maps is the Karte von
Attika (1: ioo,000 and 1:25,000) based upon careful surveys
made by Prussian officers and published by E. Curtius and J. H.
Kaupert on behalf of the German Archaeological Institute in Athens
(1878), or A. Philippson's map of the Peloponnese (1:300,000;
1901).

For maps of the Balkan Peninsula we are still largely indebted
to the rapid surveys carried on by Austrian and Russian officers. The Austrian map of central
Europe embraces the whole of the Balkan Peninsula on a scale of
1:200,000; the Russian surveys (1877-1879) are embodied in a map of
the eastern part of the Balkan on a scale 1: 126,000, and a map of
Bulgaria and southern Rumelia, on a scale 1: 200,000,
both published in 1883. A map of Turkey in Europe, scale 1: 210,000, was
published by the Turkish general staff (1899), and another map,
scale 1:250,000, by the intelligence division of the British war
office is in progress since 1906. Bosnia and Herzegovina are now
included with the surveys of the Austrian Empire, the kingdom of Servia has been surveyed
(1880-1891) and the results published on a scale of 1: 75,000; in
eastern Rumania surveys have
been in progress since 1874 and the results have been published on
a scale of 1:50,000; a general map of the entire kingdom, scale
1:200,000, was published in 1906-1907; a map of Montenegro (1:75,000),
based on surveys by Austrian and Russian officers, was published at
Vienna in 1894.

In Asiatic Turkey several districts of historical interest have
been surveyed, and surveys have likewise been made in the interest
of railways, or by boundary commis- Asia. sions, but there
is no such thing as a general survey carried on under the direction
of government. We are thus, to a large extent, still dependent upon
compilations, such as R. Kiepert's Asia Minor (1:400,000; 1904-1908), a
map of eastern Turkey in Asia, Syria and western Persia
(1:2,000,000; 1910), published by the Royal Geographical Society,
or a Russian general map (1:630,000, published 1880-1885). Among
maps based upon actual surveys those of Palestine, by Lieutenant G.
R. Conder and H. H. (afterwards Lord) Kitchener (1:63,360, 1880),
of the Sinai Peninsula by Sir C.
W. Wilson and H. S. Palmer
(1:126,730, 1870), of Arabia Petraea by Dr A. T Iusil (1: 300,000,
1907) or of the Aden territory
(1905) are among the more interesting. Of Cyprus an excellent map from surveys by Major
(Lord) H. H. Kitchener was published in 1884 (1:63,360).

In the case of Persia and Afghanistan we are still dependent upon
compilations such as a Russian staff map (1:840,000, published in
1886), Colonel Sir T. H. Holdich's map of Persia (1:1,014,000, Simla, 1897-1899), or a smaller map
(1:2,028,000 and 1:4,056,000), published by the geographical
division of the general staff. The settlement of boundaries in
northern Afghanistan (1883) and in Seistan (1870) has necessitated surveys of some
interest.

A trigonometrical survey of British India was begun in 1800 and
the country can now boast of a survey which in most respects is
equal to those of most European states. The surveys are made on
scales varying according to the necessities of the case or the
nature of the country, and they have been extended since 1862
beyond the boundaries of India proper. Revenue surveys for land
settlement are published on a scale of 1:4000, but the usual scale
for topographical maps is 1:63,360. An Indian Atlas, on a
scale of 1: 255,660, includes also Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula, but although begun so
long ago as 1827 many of its sheets are unpublished. There are in
addition an official map of India (1:1,000,000), the first edition
of which was published in 1903, as also maps of the great provinces
of India, including Burma, all
on a scale of 1: 2,827,520, and a variety of physical and
statistical maps. Ceylon and the Straits Settlements, with the
Federal Malay
States, have their own surveyors-general. The British North Borneo Company published a
Map of British North Borneo, on a scale of 1:633,600
(1905).

In Siam a regular survey was
organized by Mr J. McCarthy (1881-1883), a former official of the
Indian survey, which did good work in connexion with the
determination of the FrancoSiamese frontier (1906). The surveys are
made on the scales of 1: 4000, 1:31,680 and 1:63,360.

In French
Indo-China surveys have been in progress since 1881. The Bureau of the Indo-Chinese
general staff, has published a map of Indo-China, including Cambodia, in 45 sheets (1:
200,000, 1895), while to the service geographique de l'Indo-Chine,
organized in 1899, we owe a Carte de l'Indo-Chine
(I :500,000).

For China we are still largely dependent upon careful
compilations like Baron F. von Richthofen's Atlas von
China (1:750,000, and Spain. has been in progress
since 1870, but of the map of [[[Topographical Surveys]] Berlin,
1885-1890) or Bretschneider's Map of China (1:4,600,000) a
new edition of which appeared at St Petersburg in 1900. There are good survey
maps of the British colony of
Hong-Kong, of Wei-hai-Wei and of the
country around Kiao-chou, and the establishment of topographical
offices at Peking and
Ngan-king holds out some promise of native surveys. In the meantime
large scale maps prepared by European authorities are to be
welcomed, such as maps of Chih-li and Shan-tung (1:200,000), from surveys by
Prussian officers, 1901-1905, maps on East China (1:1,000,000) and
of Yun-nan by British,
German and Indian officers, of the Indo-Chinese frontier
(1:200,000, Paris 1908), and of the upper Yangtsze-kiang by S. Chevalier
(Shanghai, 1900).

Japan has a regular survey department originated by Europeans
and successfully carried on by natives. The primary triangulation
was completed in 1880, a topographical map coloured geologically
(1 :200,000) was published 1889-1897, and in addition to this
there are being published an agronomical map on a scale of
1:100,000 (since 1887) and others. The Japanese government has
likewise published a map of Korea (1:1,000,000; 1898).

The Philippine Islands are represented
in a carefully compiled map by C. W. Hodgson (1:1,115,000, New
York, 1908). Of Java we possess an
excellent topographical map based upon surveys
made1850-1887(I:100,000). A similar map has been in progress for Sumatra since 1883, while the
maps for the remaining Dutch Indies are still based, almost exclusively, upon
flying surveys. For general purposes the Atlas der
Nederlandsche Bezittingen in Oost-Indie by J. N. Stemfoort and
J. J. Ten Siethoff, of which a new edition has been published since
1900, may be consulted with confidence.

In Africa nearly all the international boundaries have been
carefully surveyed and marked on the ground, since 1880, and yield
a good basis as a guide for the map compiler. Africa. A
general map of Africa, by Colonel Lannoy de Bissy, on a scale of i:
2,000,000 was first published in 1882-1888, but is carefully
revised from time to time. The geographical section of the British
general staff is publishing maps of all Africa on scales of i:
250,000 and i: 1,000,000. In Egypt excellent work has been done by
a survey department organized and directed by Captain H. G. Lyons up to 1909. It has published
a topographical map of the Nile valley (1:50,000), an irrigation map
(I:10o,000), a general map (1: 2 50,000), numerous cadastral plans,
&c. Work on similar lines is carried on in the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan. Algeria has been in course of survey since
1868, Tunis since 1878, and the results have been published on
scales of I :50,000 and 1:250,000. Of Morocco there are many maps, among which
several compiled by the French service geographique de 1'armee,
including a Carte du Maroc (1;200,000), in progress since
1909. In the British colonies of tropical and of South Africa' surveys
for the most part are carried on actively. Of the Gambia Colony there is a map by Major E. L.
Cowie (1:250,000, 1904-1905); the survey of the Gold Coast Colony is
being published by Major F. G. Guggisberg since 1907 (1:125,000 and
1:200,000); southern and northern Nigeria are adequately represented on the maps
of the general staff (1:250,000). The states of British South
Africa have each their surveyor-general, and a reconnaissance
survey has been in progress since 1903. It is based upon a careful
triangulation, superintended by Sir D. Gill, and carried in 1907
within 70 m. of Lake Tanganyika. This survey is rapidly
superseding other maps, such as the surveyor-general's map of Cape Colony
(I:127,000); A. Duncan's map of the Orange River State (1:148,705; 1902-1904)
and Jeppe's map of the Transvaal (1:476,000; 1899). The results of a
survey of southern Rhodesia are given on the map of the British
general staff (1:500,000; 1909), while of north-eastern Rhodesia we
have an excellent map compiled by C. L. Beringer in 1907
(1:1,000,000). Surveys in British Central Africa were taken up in
1894; a survey of Lake Nyasa, by
Lieut. E. L.

' See "The Survey in British Africa": the Annual Report
of the Colonial Survey Commission.

Rhoades and W. B. Phillips, was published in 1902. As regards British
East Africa and Uganda, the surveys in the latter (on scales of
i:io,000 and 1:125,000) have made considerable progress. The Victoria Nyanza
was surveyed by Captain B. Whitehouse (1898-1900), and the results
have been published on a scale of 1:292,000. These British
possessions, together with the whole of Somaliland and southern Abyssinia, are
satisfactorily represented on the maps of the British general
staff.

Maps of the French Africa Colonies have been
published by the service geographique de l'Afrique occidental and
the service geographique des colonies. A map of Senegal (1:100,000) is in progress since 1905.
The official maps of the other colonies have been compiled by A.
Meunier between 1902 and 1909. They include French West Africa,
(1:2,000,000; 2nd ed., 1908), French Guinea (1 :500,000; 1902) and
the Ivory Coast and
Dahomey (1:1,500,000;
1907-1908). A map of the French Congo by J. Hansen (1:1,500,000),
was published in 1907. In Madagascar a topographical bureau was
established by General J. S. Gallieni in 1896, and the surveys are
being published since 1900 on a scale of i:ioo,000.

As regards the German colonies we are dependent upon
compilations by R. Kiepert, P. Sprigade and M. Moisel. Good maps of
the Portuguese colonies are to be found in an Atlas colonial
Portugues, a second edition of which was published by the
Commissao de Cartographia in 1909. Of the Congo State
we have an official map on a scale of 1:1,000,000, published in
1907. Of Italian Eritrea we
have excellent maps on various scales of i :ioo,000, 1:200,000
and 1:500,000, based upon surveys made between 1888 and 1900.

In the states of Australia cadastral surveys conducted by
surveyors-general have been in progress for many years, as also
trigonometrical surveys (Western Australia excepted),
Australia. and the publication of parish
and township or county maps keeps pace with the settlement of the country; but with
the exception of Victoria
none of these states is in possession of a topographical
map equal in accuracy to similar maps published in Europe. In
Victoria the so-called geodetic survey was begun in 1858; the maps
are published on a scale of 1:126,730. There exists also a general
map, on a scale of 1:506,930. Maps on the same scale are available
of New South
Wales, South
Australia and Tasmania, on a scale of 1:560,000 for Western
Australia, on a scale of 1:253,460 for Queensland. There are likewise maps on
smaller scales, which undergo frequent revision. The map of British
New Guinea is on a
scale of 1:330,200 (1898). New Zealand has a good general map on a
scale of 1:633,700. A trigonometrical survey was given up and only
details of immediate practical use are required. The " Lands
Department " of the Fiji Islands
has published a map on a scale of 1:380,000 (1008).

The cadastral surveys in Canada are carried on by a commission of
Crown-lands in the old provinces and by a Dominion land office,
which lays out townships as in the United States, but with greater
accuracy. A surveyor general is attached to the department of the
interior, at Ottawa. He
publishes the topographical maps (i :63,366) since 1906. They
are based upon theodolite traverses 15 m. apart, and
connected with the United States lake and coast surveys, the
details being filled in by plane-table surveys on a scale of
i:31,680. The contours, 25 ft. apart, depend upon spirit-levelling.
In the Rocky Mountains surveys photographic apparatus is
successfully employed. The surveyor-general issues also " sectional
maps " (1:190,000 and 1:40,000) and so-called " Standard "
topographical maps for the thinly peopled west, on scales of
1:250,000 and 1:500,000. He is responsible likewise for maps of Yukon and of Labrador, supplied by
the geological survey, the former on a scale of 1:380,200, the
latter of 1:1,584,000. The intelligence branch of the Canadian
department of military defence is publishing since 1904
topographical maps on scales of 1:63,366 and 1:126,730, with
contours. A geodetic survey department, under Dr. W. F. King, chief
astronomer of the Dominion, was established in 1909.

Maps of Newfoundland, orographical as well as
geological, scale I: 1, 584, 200, have been published.

In the United States a " geological survey " was organized in
1879, under Clarence
King as director, whose successor, Major J. W. Powell, rightly
conceived that it was necessary to produce good topographical maps
before a geological survey could be pursued with advantage. It is
under his wise guidance that the survey has attained its present
efficiency. It is based upon a triangulation by the U.S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey. The maps of the more densely peopled parts of the
Union are published on a scale of 1: 62,500, and those of the
remainder of the country on half or a quarter of that scale. The
hills are shown by contours at intervals of 10 or loo ft. The
details given are considered sufficient to admit of the selection
of general routes for railways or other public works. The survey
progresses at the rate of about 40,000 sq. m. annually, and in
course of time it will supersede the map of the separate states,
based on older surveys. A " reconnaissance " map of Alaska (on a scale of 1: 250,000)
was published in 1908.

In Mexico the surveys are in charge of a comision
geograficaexploradora attached to the secretaria de Fomento, but
only about 140 sheets of a Carta general on a scale of
I : 100,000 have been published. There are
also a map of the state of S. Luis Potosi (1: 250,000), of the
environs of Puebla (1: 50,000)
and a Carta general de la republics mexicana (1:
250,000).

A useful map of Central America has been published by
the topographical section of the British general staff on a scale
of i: 170,300. Of great value for cartographical work is a careful
survey, carried out by American engineers (1897-1898), for a
continental railway running along the west coast from Mexico to Chile. In South America, in proportion to the area
of the country, only few surveys of a thoroughly scientific nature
have been made, and it is therefore satisfactory that the service
geographique of the French army should be publishing, since 1900, a
map of the entire continent on a scale of 1: 1,000,000.

Colombia is but
inadequately represented by rough maps. For Colombia we have F. L.
Vergara y Velasco's Atlas de geografia colombiana
(1906-1908); Ecuador is
fairly well represented by Th. Wolf (1892) and Hans Meier (1907); in the case of
Peru we still largely depend upon Paz Soldan's Atlas
geografica (1865-1867) and A. Raimondi's Mapa del
Peru (1 :500,000) based upon surveys made before 1869.
Sir Martin Conway's "Map of the Andes of La
Paz" (1: 600,000; 'goo) as well as Major P. H. Fawcett's survey
of the Brazilian boundary (1906-1907) are welcome additions to our
knowledge of Bolivia. In
Chile a comision topografico was appointed as long ago as 1848, but
the map produced under its auspices by Professor F. Pissis (1:
250,000, 1870-1877), leaves much to be desired. Since that time,
however, valuable maps have been published by an Oficina de
mensura de tierras, by a seccion de geografia y minas connected with the
department of public works, by the Oficina hidrografica,
and more especially in connexion with surveys necessitated by the
boundary disputes with Argentina, which were settled by arbitration in 1899 and
1902. The surveys which led to the latter were conducted by Sir
Thomas Holdich.

In Venezuela a
commission for producing a Plano militar or military map
of the country was appointed by General Castro in 1904, but little
progress seems to have been made, and meantime we are dependent
upon a revised edition of A. Codazzi's map of 1840 which was
published in 1884. In Brazil
little or nothing is done by the central government, but the
progressive states of Sao
Paulo and Mines Gerdes have commissaos geographicos e
geologicos engaged in the production of topographical maps.
Valuable materials have likewise been acquired by several river
surveys including those of the Amazonas by Azevedo and Pinto (1862-1864) and W. Chandless
(1862-1869) and of the Rio Madeira by Colonel G. Earl Church and
Keller-Leuzinger (1869-1875). The proposal of a committee presided
over by the Marshal H. de Beaurepaire-Rohan (1876) to prepare a map of Brazil on a
scale of I: 200,000 has never been acted upon, and in the meantime
we are dependent upon works like the Atlas do imperio do
Brazil by Mendes de Almeida (1868) or the maps in our general
atlases.

In Argentina an official geographical institute was established
in 1879, but neither A. Seelstrang's Atlas (1886-1892) nor
H. Hoskold's Mapa topografica (1: 2,000,000; London,
1895), which were published by it, nor any of the numerous
provincial maps are based upon scientific surveys.

It need hardly be said that hydrographic surveys have been of
great service to compilers of maps. There are few coast-lines,
frequented by shipping,
which have not yet been surveyed in a definite manner. In this work
the British hydrographic office may justly claim the credit of
having contributed the chief share. Great Britain has likewise
taken the lead in those deep-sea explorations which reveal to us
the configuration of the sea-bottom, and enable us to construct
charts of the ocean bed
corresponding to the contoured maps of dry land yielded by
topographical surveys.

The word "map" can also be used to talk about a chart or drawing that shows relationships between ideas, people, events, or anything else you can think about. This is why web developers call a list of web pages on a web site a site map.

Many maps today are made using GIS computer systems. These are database systems that organized by things on a map instead of named records.

If a map is on a piece of paper or a computer screen, it has to be projected. This is because the Earth is round and paper and screens are flat. There are a lot of ways that use mathematics to make projections. The only kind of map of the Earth that is not projected is one drawn on a sphere. This is called a globe.