Distinct lack of unity in the region when the First Crusade began in 1095.

5 of 112

A Bitter Rivalry...

Sunni:

Dominant apart from in Egypt.

BUT - Not just Sunni Muslims living in those territories. Often there were some Shi'ias and also some Chrsitians.

Shia:

Controlled several areas later taken by the Crusaders such as Tyre and Acre.

Had controlled Jerusalem until 1071 when it was taken by a Turkish general.

Took it back in 1098 when the Turks were preoccupied with the arrival of the First Crusade.

Rivalry:

Prepared to ally with the Crusaders against each other rather than form a united front against the Christians.

6 of 112

Crusader Advantage

The situation in the East was of advantage to the Crusaders. They faced a disunited region where individual local eladers could be overcome and were more concerned with fighting each other.

Sunni leadership was distracted by troubles closer to home.

Muslim leaders didn't recognise the Crusader army as one of conquest + consolidation - thought it was just another Byzantine raid.

7 of 112

Byzantium Before 1095

Byzantium dominated the Mediterranean world in the early Middle Ages.

Resisted rapid expansion of Islam from 630s onwards.

Held off two determined and prolonged attempts to capture Constantinople by Muslim forces.

What was Byzantium?

Greek-speaking Roman Empire.

Capital - Constantinople.

Was a continuation of the Roman Empire; Rome was capital of the West, and fell to the barbarians. East survived as Byzantium.

Greatest extent during 500s AD, although it revived in power and influence during the 10th-11th century.

At death of Emperor Basil II in 1025 it was the premier poer of Europe + the Middle East.

8 of 112

But Half a Century Later...

Byzantium lost control of Asia Minor to the Seljuk Turks (after Manzikert, 1071).

Empire had to fight desperately to resist invasion from the Normans based in Southern Italy.

Why the Dramatic Reversal?

Periods of misrule.

Military breakdown.

Nature of Turkish settlement in Asia Minor.

Structural changes in economy and society which made maintenance of the self-contained and centralised Byzantine state more difficult.

9 of 112

Alexius Comnenus

A strong leader:

Since 1081 the Empire at least had an able and extremely determined ruler: Alexius Comnenus, aided by a number of able family members and colleagues (e.g. Anna Dalessa).

Requesting help:

Alexius requested for help for Eastern Christians which was used as part of the justification for Pope Urban II's call to arms in 1095.

Doubtful he expected such an overwhelming response.

Alexius probably wanted some western mercenaries that he could employ to defend his frontiers against the Turks and other potential invaders.

Instead he received a vast army of westerners bound on conquest of the Holy Land, and, by implication, a danger to the territory of Byzantium itself.

10 of 112

The Spanish Reconquista

Most of the Iberian Peninsula had been conquered by Muslims from North Africa in the 8th century but they were eventually halted.

By the middle of the 11th century the small Christian kingdoms in northern Spain were firmly established and the first stirrings of the Reconquista were felt.

The second half of the 11th century was a time of Latin (e.g. Western European) expansion in Spain.

In the Iberian peninsula the small Christian states in the north were learning to exploit the weaknesses in the Muslim state of an-Andalus.

The most impressive gain was made in 1085 when Toledo fell to King Alfonso VI of Leon-Castile.

The popes generally supported this expansion, which was mirrored in Sicily in 1061-91. They could do little more than encourage these efforts and supervise the reintroduction of the church into the re-conquered areas.

The Reconquista is significant at least partly because the Church's central authorities had two generations to come to see the West as engaged in a single struggle of a religious nature. This was crucial for the preaching + planning of the First Crusade.

11 of 112

Urban II + the Preaching of the First Crusade (1)

Alexius' Appeal:

Appealed to the pope to encourage westerners to help defend the Eastern Church against the Turks.

A way of paying off penance (punishment for sins) + avoiding hell. People were cleansed of sins for taking part.

Battle for eternal life was very important - religion was in every aspect of life + people lived short and brutal lives.

14 of 112

The People's Crusade (1)

15000 people joined the People's Crusade.

Peter the Hermit:

A preacher who had been active in central France.

Not attractive - dirty + muddy as he rode on a donkey around country tracks.

Eloquent + 'radiated an unusual power'. Reputation was before him which must have contributed to his huge success.

Preached around France then headed to Germany en route to the East.

Were the people on the People's Crusade poor?

Traditional interpretation that People's Crusade made up of poor peasants + knights, explaining why they were defeated so easily in the East.

Modern view: Fewer nobles + mounted knights than the main crusade but not a disorganised rabble - had cohesion, funds + leadership.

Leader called Walter Sans-Avior (known as Walter the Penniless) but may have just been his family name.

Managed to make it to Constantinople largely intact.

15 of 112

The People's Crusade (2)

In the East:

Some clashed on the way but arrived mostly intact.

At Constantinole Peter left to attend audience by Emperor who gave him rich presents + good advice (wait for the other Crusaders).

Others were impatient + plundered until Byzantines advised them to cross to Turks' frontier.

Raided in Turkish territory and one got trapped. Main army set off to rescue but Turks destroyed them on 21 October 1096.

Only a few survived, including Peter.

Consequences:

Accomplished nothing for Christianity.

Unfavourable impression of Christians for the Byzantines - Distrust built, leading the Byzantines to look skeptically on future Crusading armies.

Peter accompanied the First Crusade to Jerusalem.

16 of 112

Other Armies in 1096

There were other contingents from Germany. They didn't reach Constantinople.

Behaved like barbarians: looting and ravaging Hungary before being slaughtered.

Slaughtered German Jews (anti-Semitic massacres). Jews were under the protection of the Holy Roman Emperor but Crusaders were inflamed by irresponsible preachers + were looking for wealth. 10000 Jews killed.

The argument for this violence was that Jews, enemies of Christ, deserved to be punished. More likely motive was greed.

Another argment: Early crusaders did not have an effective image of their enemy (Muslims) so Jews provided a convenient substitute.

17 of 112

The First Crusade in Constantinople (1)

Eastern arrival:

Main armies arrived between November 1096 and May 1097.

Discipline problems in such large forces + language barriers.

Questions over leadership - Adhemar spiorital but no clear secular.

Alexius' worries:

Large force: 300000 - 700000.

People's Crusade caused a lot of trouble.

Size + strengt of force was enormous - could turn on Constantinople.

Bohemond - old enemy of the Byzantines.

Wanted to make an agreement about conquered lands.

Solution:

Quarter troops outside the city in suburbs.

Lavish rich gifts on leaders.

Receive them at court.

Ask them to swear an oath.

18 of 112

The First Crusade in Constantinople (2)

The Oath - allegiance and fealty:

Return captured lands to Byzantium that had previously belonged to them.

Obey Alexius as overlord.

Crusader response:

Not all agreed.

Godfrey did, Hugh of Vermandois + Robert of Normandy also agreed.

Bohemond did as he was determined to make a good impression.

Raymond was the most stubborn.

19 of 112

The First Crusade in Constantinople (3)

Raymond's refusal:

Claimed the oath of fealty wasn't compatible with his crusading vow to serve God (and probably didn't want to lose face in his demand to be crusade leader).

Much negotiation (helped by Adhemar) including a threat to withdraw supplies.

Took a much less binding oath to maintain Emperor's life + honour.

Oath's effect:

Crusade off to an awkward start.

Westerners relied on Greeks for supplies + expected full military support.

Atmosphere of distrust which increased as the Crusade progressed.

20 of 112

About Nicaea

Captured by the Seljuks in 1081.

Capital of Seljuk Sultan Kilij Arslan.

Godfrey + Normans left Constantinople with Nicaea as first objective in April 1097.

On Stephen's retreat across Asia Minor he met Alexius who was coming to the aid of the Crusaders.

He convinced him they were doomed so the Greeks turned back.

Further consequence: Bohemond claimed the Byzantines had broken their agreement to provide military support, so the oath was now invalid.

31 of 112

Antioch (5) - A Miracle?

A pilgrim claimed to have a vision in which St. Andrew revealed the location of the Holy Lance (which had pierced Christ's side in the crucifixion).

St. Andrew promised that whoever carried it in battle would triumph.

14 June 1098:

Relic was discovered - religious fervour and morale transformed.

Christians faced their enemy with a new determination.

28 June 1098:

Franks lined up outside the city and after performing some complex military manoeuvres they forced the Muslims to flee. Seeing no relief, the defenders of the citadel surrendered and Antioch was taken.

Bohemond able to establish his principality, breaking his oath.

Greeks intended to re-establish their influence in the area so were obviously frustrated and led to poor relations in the future between Antioch and Byzantium.

32 of 112

Jerusalem (1)

December 1098:

Crusaders besieged Ma'arrat an Nu'man.

Supplies became a problem again + there were reports of cannibalism.

First months of 1099 marked by quarrels between leaders and a pressure from army who wanted to press on to Jerusalem to fulfil their vows to God.

7 June 1099:

Franks reached Jerusalem.

Controlled by Egyptian Shi'ias.

Little progress in early stages of the siege.

Spiritual strength renewed by the fact they were so close to their goal.

Fast proclaimed for 8 July and barefoot, carrying relics, the bishops + clergy led army to Mount of Olives and begged for God's help.

33 of 112

Jerusalem (2)

15 July 1099:

An attack was prepared and on 15 July Godfrey's men filled the moat and crossed onto the ramparts, entering the city.

Jerusalem fell and the accumulated tensions + toil of the march resulted in an appalling massacre of the Muslim + Jewish defenders. Religious fervour and extreme brutality.

Result and consequences:

3 weeks later an Egyptian force was defeated at Ascalon and the success of the First Crusade was assured.

The capture of Jerusalem was an amazing achievement and the Crusaders believed they must have been blessed by God.

Many Crusaders left for home as heroes.

Those remaining had to stabilise their new territories + establish a rule of government.

Muslim world was shocked + outraged. People lamented the failure of Muslims to act. Seljuk Sultan had been preoccupied and Islam divided.

Political and Religious Divisions in the Muslim Wo

Muslims failed to recognise Crusaders an an army of religious colonisation. They viewed it as another Byzantine raid. This made them underestimate the Crusader threat.

Muslims used it as an excuse to gain territory - in 1098 when Turks were preoccupied with the First Crusade, Fatamids reoccupied Jerusalem, taken from them in 1071 (demonstrates Muslim disunity + not thinking crusaders were a threat).

Precedent of the People's Crusade - Kilij Arslan defeated them easily so underestimated the First Crusade.

Went to Damascus + Ascalon in 1125, and back to Damascus in 1126 with success in all.

1126 - further victories at Rapharia and Egypt.

60 of 112

1127 - Baldwin II

3 issues in 1127 required Baldwin II to make important choices.

1) Encouraged Hugh of Payns, master of the Templars, to go to the West for papal endorsement for the order + raise money and men for them.

2) Also instructed Hugh to recruit men from Europe for another Crusade to expand Christian territory, especially Damascus. Demonstrates Baldwin's confidence + belief Christians could conquer major Muslim city.

People did go on Crusade, though little evidence.

3) Wife dead, had 4 daughters (issue of succession).

Melisende married to military leader Fulk, who assisted Hugh in Crusade in 1129 (but achieved little success).

First child born in 1130 - Baldwin.

61 of 112

King Fulk (1131 - 1143)

Early years of rule marked by a struggle for supremacy betwen newly arrived Angevins and native Levantine nobles.

Franks took action to contain threat from Egyptian Ascalon.

Considerable pressure on Antioch from Christians & Muslims.

Fulk attempted to bring his own men into positons of influence at the expense of native nobility - generated serious antagonism.

62 of 112

Problems at Antioch

Near civil war caused by actions of Alice, Bohemond II's widow, who wanted to rule in her own right until her infant daughter Constance came of age.

Baldwin II (1130), Fulk (1133 + 1135) had to march to Antioch to answer calls from disaffected nobles who wanted Alice to remarry or be replaced.

Finally, Raymond of Poitiers married Constance in 1136 to bring some stability.

In 1137-38 and 1142-43 John Comnenus and Byzantine army came to Antioch, furious that as overlord he hadn't been involved in choosing Constance's husband + opportunity to influence area missed.

He demanded city submitted to him in 1137. Raymond swore homage + acknowledged overlordship.

1138 - Tried to take Shaizar (if succeeded Franks would get that and Byzantines would have Antioch). Didn't get it, but John still wanted Antioch.

John left after an anti-Byzantine riot and was distracted by unrest elsewhere.

1142 - John threatens Antioch again.

Antiochenes manage to delay a full-scale assault.

Good fortune: Byzantines withdrew to Cilicia for winter and John suffered a fatal hunting accident. Threat lifted.

63 of 112

Edessa Falls - 1144

Fulk died in 1143 and the throne passed to their son - Baldwin III but Melisende governed on hos behalf as he had not come of age.

She ordered a relief force to Edessa when she heard it had fallen.

Undoubtedly played a prominent part in ruling Jerusalem during the remainder of Fulk's reign.

64 of 112

Melisende and Baldwin III (1)

Melisende's Power:

When Baldwin came of age (15) in 1145 she continued to govern.

June 1148 - leaders of Second Crusade met both Baldwin and Melisende in the great council at Palmarea that decided to attack Damascus.

Was the leading partner, much to Baldwin's displeasure.

Overcame her inability to participate in warfare by her formidable political skills + position as carrier of blood-line.

Involved in high-level politics for almost 20 years.

Strength to hold onto the crown for 7 years after Baldwin III reached maturity - the excuse to remove Melisende could have been brought into play very quickly had there been doubts to her abilities (evidence of her strength as a leader).

65 of 112

Melisende and Baldwin III (2) - Baldwin Fights Bac

Aged 22, Baldwin gathered enough backers (partly due to effective military exploits in northern Syria and the Harran) in 1152 to try and force his mother to step down.

Polarised kingdom's nobility - reached point of armed conflict when Baldwin besieged Melisende in citadel of Jerusalem and forced her to surrender her lands and abstain from politics.

Melisende continued to exert considerable influence until her death in 1161, but Baldwin III was now in control.

66 of 112

The Military Orders

This was one of the most important events of Baldwin II's reign. Military orders had a long-lasting impact on the Crusades in the Holy Land, the Crusader states and later Crusades in Europe.

Two main orders:

The Templars.

The Hospitallers (Knights of St. John).

67 of 112

The Templars (1)

Who's idea?

Apparently Hugh of Payns, a knight from Champagne (France).

Order set up in 1119.

Significant time: Easter 1119 300 pilgrims massacred near River Jordan and defeat at the Field of Blood in June 1119.

What idea?

It would be pleasing to God if a monk's way of life was combined with fighting against heathen - a new knightly ideal.

Step forward from Holy War - purpose to defend Holy Land and destroy evil.

Took over castles even though not within feudal system as they couldn't hold anything from anyone. Applied to Templars after 1139, Knights of St. John after 1186 and Teutonic Knights after 1220.

In 1153 a group of Templars broke into Muslim Ascalon ahead of Crusaders + refused them entry as they wanted the booty for themselves.

Position enhanced by fact they received gifts of land from Western Europe - anyone granting land, money or goods would receive a Papal Indulgence. King of Aragon, Alfonso I, donated his entire kingdom.

Developed into a financial organisation of great importance.

73 of 112

The Templars (7)

Territory where?

Given more territory as financial strength grew.

First castle: Baghras in Antioch, a strategic region that controlled the Belen Pass, a main route to Syria.

The Hospitallers (3)

Gradual development from original charitable function that was completed in 1179 when Pope transferred tasks previously carried out by paid knights to the Hospitallers.

Became an exclusively knightly order to war against infidel.

Played major role in political divisions in 1180s.

Wore:

Not settled until 1259.

Red tunic with a while 8 pointed cross.

77 of 112

Bitter Rivals... and Other Orders

Templars and Hospitallers became bitter rivals.

Other orders e.g. St. Lazarus (enabled knights that had leprosy to war against infidel) existed in 1142.

Also Order of Teutonic Knights of St. Mary's Hospital in Jerusalem, founded in Acre in 12th century.

Hospitallers likely developed militarily encouraged by the Templars' developments.

Both were controversial and a major influence on divisions in 1180s.

78 of 112

Outremer: 1130s & 1140s - Lack of Stability! (1)

Fulk:

Succeeded Baldwin II in August 1131.

Early years of rule saw a struggle between newly arrived nobles from Anjou (where Fulk came from) and the native nobles of the Levant.

Jerusalem also had to contain a threat from Muslim controlled territories such as Ascalon.

Antioch:

State of near civil war caused by the actions of Alice, widow of Bohemond II of Antioch.

Alice wanted to rule in her own right at least until their infant daughter Constance came of age.

No less than 3 occasions first Baldwin II (in 1130) then Fulk (1133 & 1135) had to answer calls from disaffected nobles who wanted Alice to marry again or be forced from power.

Raymon of Poitiers married Constance in 1136 to bring some stability to the situation.

79 of 112

Outremer: 1130s & 1140s - Lack of Stability! (2)

Byzantines:

Raymond had to contend with John Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor, from 1137-1138 and 1142-1143. Reflects lack of unity between Byzantines + Franks.

Emperor angry that he as overlord of Antioch hadn't been involved in choosing Constance's husband - missed opportunity for Byzantium to gain influence in the area.

1137 - John arrived at Antioch and compelled Raymond to swear homage to him and acknowledge him as overlord (claimed ancient rights to Antioch existing before the First Crusade).

They agreed that if Franks + Byzantines regained Aleppo + Shaizar then Byzantines would have Antioch and Franks would have other 2 instead.

Failed to conquer them but John tried to compel Raymond to hand back Antioch anyway. Anti-Byzantine revolt broke out forcing John to leave.

1142 - John returned, but died in a hunting accident before the full-scale assault that he'd planned.

This meant Antioch was occupied with its own concerns as Zengi threatened Outremer.

80 of 112

Zengi's Rise (1)

During the 1130s, Zengi (atabeg of Mosul and Aleppo) became the most powerful challenger yet to the Christians. Ruthless personality who inflicted terror and cruelty, both on his own army and his enemies. Feared.

Building up Power:

Zengi spent many years building up power in the Muslim world + raiding Frankish lands.

1127 - Ruler of Aleppo, 1128 - Ruler of Mosul.

Preached jihad against Franks from 1127.

Appointed by Caliph of Baghdad.

Chief objective was Muslim state of Damascus.

Unsuccessful in attempts to conquer Damascus in 1130 and 1135.

Caught up in long-lasting succession dispute in Iraq, which followed the death of the Sultan, Mahmud, in 1131.

81 of 112

Zengi's Rise (2)

Damascus:

Recovered and began an aggressive policy against Franks, invading Galilee which Fulk found difficult to put down.

3 years later Damascenes launched a campaign against Tripoli, during which the Count of Tripoli died and his son, Raymond II, succeeded him.

82 of 112

Zengi's Rise (3)

Zengi and Damascus:

Events not to his liking so he moved from Iraq to Syria to deal with Damascus.

1137 - besieged Homs (city under control of Muslim ruler of Damascus) until a Frankish army under Fulk approached.

Zengi attacked them at the castle of Montferrand in Tripoli territory where he besieged them until July 1137. Raymond of Tripoli taken prisoner here.

Truce - Franks surrendered the castle to Zengi, unaware that a relieving army from Jerusalem, Antioch + Edessa was on the way.

Zengi was very aware that an army of Byzantines under John was approaching.

83 of 112

Zengi's Rise (4)

Returning to Damascus:

Zengi returned in 1139 to deal with Damasucs, who made an alliance with Jerusalem against him. The citizens feared his brutality + saw that the alliance would relieve Frankish pressure on their agricultural lands at Hauran.

Fall of Edessa - 1144 (3)

Zengi was celebrated in Muslim poetry, which depicted him as a mujahid (holy fighter) and for the first time jihad became an active force to push towards the ultimate reconquest of Jerusalem.

His achievement was rewarded by the Sunni Caliph of Baghdad, with a string of titles, 'The adornment of Islam, the King helped by God, the helper of the believers.'

This was despite the fact that Zengi had few associations with men of religion.

87 of 112

Fall of Edessa - 1144 (4)

Frankish Disaster:

This was a disaster for Franks - greatest setback they had faced since they conquered Jerusalem.

Muslim forces followed up their success to take much of the country east of the River Euphrates.

The Edessans sent messengers to Antioch and Jerusalem pleading for help, and this, in turn, resulted in the appeals to Europe that prompted the Second Crusade.

City fell mainly due to remote situation + speed of Zengi's attack, but also a lack of support from Byzantines and divided Franks was significant.

88 of 112

Preaching the Second Crusade

Two key figures in the religious call to arms before the Second Crusade:

Pope Eugenius III

Bernard of Clairvaux

Both made a contribution to the recruitment of the crusade in defence of Outremer.

89 of 112

Pope Eugenius III

Issued the Papal Bull calling for Crusade on 1 December 1145 in response to the settlers' requests for help following the fall of Edessa on 24 December 1144.

First bull that has survived calling for a crusade to the Holy Land. Document was clear evidence of Papacy regaining command of Crusading movement. Reinforced the fact that Pope was head of Christendom politically + spiritually.

Formed basis of crusading appeals in future. Set down in writing indulgences, remission of sins + conditions of service on Crusade.

Addressed to King Louis VII of France. Intended to be read out at great assembles of King + nobles when they gathered to take the cross.

Vezelay Easter Sunday (31 March 1146) - Theatrically organised and coincided with major festivals. Came prepared to be stirred into religious frenzy by preachers, e.g. Bernard.

90 of 112

What did the Papal Bull Say?

It was known as the Quantum Praedecessores from its starting words, designed to appeal to as wide an audience as possible.

Key themes:

Drawing a historical link between current pope and Urban, emphasising legitimacy of the Crusade (Urban mentioned 3 times - repetition).

Linking new Crusade with divenly inspired success of First Crusade.

Sacrifice of those who lost lives in service of God - referring to fathers & sons (strong theological background + appeal to bravery of next generation of crusaders). Links past and present - efforts of fatehrs on First Crusade wated if sons didn't answer this call to Crusade.

Fight against infidel + Muslim outrages commited against Christians in the East.

Bernard's Preaching

Preached about the need for personal salvation and the great opportunity offered by God to a 'lucky generation'.

The atmosphere at preaching rallies could become highly charged, with widespread reports of miracles happening.

Many thousands are said to have responded to Bernard's appeals.

Why were official preachers carefully controlled?

Stop anti-Semitic preaching.

Stop unofficial incorrect preaching.

Prevent events like the People's Crusade happening again. Avoid the frenzied explosion of religious passion like Peter the Hermit which led to the massacre of 1000s of Jews.

96 of 112

Anti-Semitic Preaching

Once again, unofficial preachers in northern Germany spread messages of hatred against the Jews.

Temporarily diverted the attention of Bernard, who objected to the Crusade being preached against Jews - the Bible forbade killing of Jews in case one day they might be converted.

The preacher, Ralph (Rudolph), did not the proper authorisation to preach.

Killings were not as bad as before the First Crusade.

King Conrad was responsible for the anti-Semitic preachers and was supposed to control them + prevent massacres of Jews.

97 of 112

Other Forms of Recruitment

Popular songs:

Thee circulate widely.

Musical entertainment very popular (not many alternatives).

Visual imagery:

There were crusading windows in churches, such as that at the abbey of Saint Denis in Paris.

Provided a visual depiction of the triumph of the First Crusade + Louis VII's involvement in the Second Crusade.

98 of 112

How Successful was Recruitment?

This was a matter of debate for historians.

Papal Bull may have been largely ignored until Louis VII had the idea to embark on an armed pilgrimage (the fact that kings went attracted nobles).

Despite this, large armies were recruited, with King Conrad of Germany and Louis VII of France leading the main forces.

Included nobles like Count of Flanders, Count of Nevers and the future Count of Champagne, plus papal legates.

Through spring 1147 the main armies prepared to set out and in May + June they began to march to the East.

99 of 112

Conrad's Reluctance?

Historians argue whether he was reluctant to go on Crusade.

Conrad was an experienced Crusader + had visited the Holy Land 1123-4.

Traditional view: Conrad was reluctant + Bernard talked him into joining the crusade - Bernard had sorted out Conrad's problems in Germany so he should go on Crusade in return.

Phillips disagrees: Bernard's actions in resolving crises in northern Germany during recruitment played a large part in persuading him to join - Bernard had hoped getting him involved would avoid anti-Semitic massacres.

100 of 112

The Armies & Their Motivations

The Armies:

Louis VII's and Conrad's armies were joined in the East by contingents from Southern France + Northern Italy who had sailed to the Holy Land rather than travelling overland, and by a group of north European crusaders who sailed around the Iberian peninsula via Lisbon.

Motivations:

Privileges (legal + spiritual).

Living up to their fathers' reputations (family traditions).

Remission of sins (indulgences).

Religious - fighting for God and defending the Church against the infidel.

He tempted the French to cross to Asia Minor with promise of better markets + was relieved when they left Byzantine territory.

Odo of Devil (chaplain to Louis) wrote that Louis was heading to Antioch. Conrad seems to confirm this in a letter he wrote in late February 1148.

[Continued overleaf]

108 of 112

Journey to the East - French Army (2)

The Crusade was originally intended to campaign in northern Syria. That would have probably made Manuel less helpful to the Crusaders, afraid they would gain control over more of his territory.

Manuel's control over Asia Minor was limited and his allies, Seljuks, could move into Byzantine territory + harass the Crusaders from an early stage of their march.

109 of 112

The Crusade in Asia Minor - German Army

Unknown to the French, the German army had been crushingly defeated a short time into its march across the East.

Caused by: Conrad's enthusiasm, poor discipline within the army and possible treachery of the guides.

Conrad's army marched into a trap + was wiped out by the Turks.

Conrad managed to escape and joined up with the French army, continuing his Crusade.

110 of 112

The Crusade in Asia Minor - French Army (1)

Louis' army marched via Ephesus (Turkey) + along the Meander valley, scoring a clear victory over the Turks in late December 1147. Presence of a white-clad knight seen as an apparent sign of God's hand in their triumph.

French coped with range of Turkish tactics of feigning + retreat and attacking quickly, mounting a successful cavalry charge.

Evidence that the armies of the Second Crusade were capable of military success, especially when managed properly.

Cadmus Mountains:

7 January 1148 - army became too stretched out when traversing the Cadmus mountains.

Vanguard (front) lost contact with the rest of the army and upon seeing the disorganisation the Turks struck.

The Crusading army lost substantial numbers of men, horses and materials. This broke the spirit and strength of Louis' Crusading army.

The survivors regrouped, ensuring that discipline was maintained in the future.

111 of 112

The Crusade in Asia Minor - French Army (2)

Templars Given Control:

The Templars were given control of the order of the march and they organised the Crusaders into confraternities - temporary associations bound together by oath.

This shows how highly the Crusaders were regarded after a relatively short time.

The Crusaders recorded several victories on the rest of the journey and reached Antioch with few further losses (evidence of the Templars' superior leadership to that of Louis).