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You as pilot are responsible for the safe loading of your airplane and must ensure that
it is not overloaded. The performance of an airplane is influenced by its weight and
overloading it will cause serious problems. The take-off run necessary to become airborne
will be longer. In some cases, the required take-off run may be greater than the available
runway. The angle of climb and the rate of climb will be reduced. Maximum ceiling will be
lowered and range shortened. Landing speed will be higher and the landing roll longer. In
addition, the additional weight may cause structural stresses during maneuvers and
turbulence that could lead to damage.

The total gross weight authorized for any particular type of airplane must therefore
never be exceeded. A pilot must be capable of estimating the proper ratio of fuel, oil and
payload permissible for a flight of any given duration. The weight limitations of some
general aviation airplanes do not allow for all seats to be filled, for the baggage
compartment to be filled to capacity and for a full load of fuel as well. It is necessary,
in this case, to choose between passengers, baggage and full fuel tanks.

The distribution of weight is also of vital importance since the position of the center
of gravity affects the stability of the airplane. In loading an airplane, the C.G. must be
within the permissible range and remain so during the flight to ensure the stability and
maneuverability of the airplane during flight.

Airplane manufacturers publish weight and balance limits for their airplanes. This
information can be found in two sources:

1. The Aircraft Weight and Balance Report.

2. The Airplane Flight Manual.

The information in the Airplane Flight Manual is general for the particular model of
airplane.

The information in the Aircraft Weight and Balance Report is particular to a specific
airplane. The airplane with all equipment installed is weighed and the C.G. limits
calculated and this information is tabulated on the report that accompanies the airplane
logbooks. If alterations or modifications are made or additional equipment added to the
airplane, the weight and balance must be recalculated and a new report prepared.

B. WEIGHT

Various terms are used in the discussion of the weight of an airplane. They are as
follows:

Standard Weight Empty: The weight of the airframe and engine with all standard
equipment installed. It also includes the unusable fuel and oil.

Optional or Extra Equipment: Any and ail additional instruments, radio equipment,
etc., installed but not included as standard equipment, the weight of which is added to
the standard weight empty to get the basic empty weight. It also includes fixed ballast,
full engine coolant, hydraulic and de-icing fluid.

Basic Weight Empty: The weight of the airplane with all optional equipment
included. In most modern airplanes, the manufacturer includes full oil in the basic empty
weight.

Useful load (or Disposable load): The difference between gross take-off weight and
basic weight empty. It is, in other words, all the load which is removable, which is not
permanently part of the airplane. It includes the usable fuel, the pilot, crew,
passengers, baggage, freight, etc.

Payload: The load available as passengers, baggage, freight, etc., after the weight
of pilot, crew, usable fuel have been deducted from the useful load.

Operational Weight Empty: The basic empty weight of the airplane plus the weight of
the pilot. It excludes payload and usable fuel.

Usable Fuel: Fuel available for flight planning.

Unusable Fuel: Fuel remaining in the tanks after a runout test has been completed
in accordance with government regulations.

Operational Gross Weight: The weight of the airplane loaded for take-off. It
includes the basic weight empty plus the useful load.

Maximum Gross Weight: The maximum permissible weight of the airplane.

Maximum Take-Off Weight: The maximum weight approved for the start of the take-off
run.

Maximum Ramp Weight: The maximum weight approved for ground maneuvering. It
includes the weight of fuel used for start, taxi and run up.

Zero Fuel Weight: The weight of the airplane exclusive of usable fuel.

Passenger Weights: Actual passenger weights must be used in computing
the weight of an airplane with limited seating capacity. Allowance must be made for heavy
winter clothing when such is worn. Winter clothing may add as much as 14 lbs to a person's
basic weight; summer clothing would add about 8 lbs. On larger airplanes with quite a
number of passenger seats and for which actual passenger weights would not be available,
the following average passenger weights may be used. The specified weights for males and
females include an allowance for 8 lbs of carry-on baggage.

Summer

Winter

Males (12yrs&up)

182 lbs

188 lbs

Females (12yrs&up)

135 lbs

141 lbs

Children (2-11 yrs)

75 lbs

75 lbs

Infants (0-up to 2 yrs)

30 lbs

30 lbs

Fuel and 0il: The Airplane Flight Manuals for airplanes of U.S. manufacture give fuel
and oil quantities in U.S. gallons. Canadian manufactured airplanes of older vintage may
have manuals that give fuel and oil quantities in Imperial gallons. Some recently printed
manuals may give fuel and oil quantities in litres. At most airports in Canada, fuel is
now dispensed in litres. It is therefore necessary to convert from litres to U.S. or
Imperial gallons as required for your particular airplane. To convert litres to U.S.
gallons, multiply by .264178. To convert litres to Imperial gallons, multiply by.219975.

The following weights are for average density at the standard air temperature of 15°
C. At colder temperatures, the weights increase slightly. For example, at -40° C, one
litre of aviation gasoline weighs 1.69 lbs.

Litre

U.S. Gallon

Imp. Gallon

Aviation Gas

1.58 lb.

6.0 lb.

7.20 lb.

JP-4

1.76 lb.

6.6 lb.

8.01 lb.

Kerosene

1.85 lb.

6.0 lb.

8.39 lb.

Oil

1.95 lb.

7.5 lb.

8.5 lb.

Maximum Landing Weight: The maximum weight approved for landing touchdown. Most
multi-engine airplanes which operate over long stage lengths consume considerable weights
of fuel. As a result, their weight is appreciably less on landing than at takeoff.
Designers take advantage of this condition to stress the airplane for the lighter landing
loads, thus saving structural weight. If the flight has been of short duration, fuel or
payload may have to be jettisoned reduce the gross weight maximum or maximum landing
weight.

Maximum Weight - Zero Fuel: Some transport planes carry fuel in their wings, the
weight of which relieves; the bending moments imposed on the wings by the lift. The
maximum weight - zero fuel limits the load which may be carried in the fuselage. Any
increase in weight in the form of load carried fuselage must be counterbalanced by adding
weight in the form of fuel in the wings.

Float Buoyancy: The maximum permissible gross weight of a seaplane is governed by
the buoyancy of the floats. The buoyancy of a seaplane float is equal to the weight of
water displaced by the immersed part of the float. This is equal to the weight the float
will support without sinking beyond a predetermined level (draught line).

The buoyancy of a seaplane float is designated by its model number. A 4580 float has a
buoyancy of 4580 lb. A seaplane fitted with a pair of 4580 floats has a buoyancy of 9160
lbs.

Regulations require an 80% reserve float buoyancy. The floats must, therefore, have a
buoyancy equal to 180% of the weight of the airplane.

To find the maximum payload that can be transported a given distance and the amount of
fuel required.

A seaplane on contract with a mining company is required to transport a maximum load of
freight a distance of 300 nautical miles to a bush operation. The estimated groundspeed is
110 knots. The useful load for this airplane is 1836

pounds. Fuel capacity is 86 U.S. gallons. Fuel consumption is 20 gallons per hour or
120 lb of fuel per hour.

The time to fly 300 nautical miles is 164 minutes ((300/110) x 60). Add to that the 45
minutes required for reserve and the amount of fuel required must be sufficient for 209
minutes of flying time.

The fuel calculations can also be computed by using the weight of fuel consumed per
hour. The weight of fuel necessary for the flight is 418 lb. ((120/60) x 209).

The useful load is 1836 lb. The weight of the pilot (170 lb.) and fuel (418 lb.) is 588
lb. Therefore, the maximum payload permissible is 1248 lb.

What quantity of fuel in litres will be required? One U.S. gallon equals 3.785332
litres. The quantity of fuel required is, therefore, 263.8 litres (69.7 x 3.785332).

D. BALANCE LIMITS

The position of the center of gravity along its longitudinal axis affects the stability
of the airplane. There are forward and aft limits established by the aircraft design
engineers beyond which the C.G. should not be located for flight. These limits are set to
assure that sufficient elevator deflection is available for all phases of flight. If the
C.G. is too far forward, the airplane will be nose heavy, if too far aft, tail heavy. An
airplane whose center of gravity is too far aft may be dangerously unstable and will
possess abnormal stall and spin characteristics. Recovery may be difficult if not
impossible because the pilot is running out of elevator control. It is, therefore, the
pilot's responsibility when loading an airplane to see that the C.G. lies within the
recommended limits.

If the C.G. is too far forward, the airplane will be nose heavy, if too far aft, tail
heavy. An airplane whose center of gravity is too far aft may be dangerously unstable and
will possess abnormal stall and spin characteristics. Recovery may be difficult if not
impossible because the pilot is running out of elevator control. It is, therefore, the
pilots responsibility when loading an airplane to see that the C.G. lies within the
recommended limits.

Usually the Airplane Owner's Manual lists a separate weight limitation for the baggage
compartment in addition to the gross weight limitation of the whole airplane. This is a
factor to which the pilot must pay close attention, for overloading the baggage
compartment (even if the plane itself is not overloaded) may move the C.G. too far aft and
affect longitudinal control.

The Airplane Owner's Manual may also specify such things as the seat to be occupied in
solo flight (in a tandem seating arrangement) or which fuel tank is to be emptied first.
Such instructions should be carefully complied with.

As the flight of the airplane progresses and fuel is consumed, the weight of the
airplane decreases. Its distribution of weight also changes and hence the C.G. changes.
The pilot must take into account this situation and calculate the weight and balance not
only for the beginning of the flight but also for the end of it.

E. DEFINITIONS

The center of gravity (C.G.) is the point through which the weights of all the
various parts of an airplane pass. It is, in effect, the imaginary point from which the
airplane could be suspended and remain balanced. The C.G. can move within certain limits
without upsetting the balance of the airplane. The distance between the forward and aft
C.G. limits is called the center of gravity range.

The balance datum line is a suitable line selected arbitrarily by the
manufacturer from which horizontal distances are measured for balance purposes. It may be
the nose of the airplane, the firewall or any other convenient point .

The moment arm is the horizontal distance in inches from the balance datum line
to the C.G. The distance from the balance datum line to any item, such as a passenger,
cargo, fuel tank, etc. is the arm of that item.

The balance moment of the airplane is determined by multiplying the weight of
the airplane by the moment arm of the airplane. It is expressed in inch pounds. The
balance moment of any item is the weight of that item multiplied by its distance from the
balance datum line. It is, therefore, obvious that a heavy object loaded in a rearward
position will have a much greater balance moment than the same object loaded in a position
nearer to the balance datum line.

The moment index is the balance moment of any item or of the total airplane
divided by a constant such as 100, 1000, or 10,000. It is used to simplify computations of
weight and balance especially on large airplanes where heavy items and long arms result in
large unmanageable numbers.

If loads are forward of the balance datum line their moment arms are usually considered
negative (-). Loads behind the balance datum line are considered positive (+)*. The total
balance moment is the algebraic sum of the balance moments of the airplane and each item
composing the disposable load.

*In many cases the positive (+) sign is omitted, but the negative (-) sign is always
shown. To simplify matters, both are included in our example

The C.G. is found by dividing the total balance moment (in inch-pounds) by the total
weight (in lb.) and is expressed in inches forward (-) or aft (+) of the balance datum
line.

The center of gravity range is usually expressed in inches from the balance datum line
(i.e. +39.5" to +45.8"). In some airplanes, it may be expressed as a percentage
of the mean aerodynamic chord (25% to 35%). The MAC is the mean aerodynamic chord of the
wing.

To calculate the position of the C.G. in percent of MAC. Let us assume that the weight
and balance calculations have found the C.G. to be 66 inches aft of the balance datum line
and the leading edge of the MAC to be 55 inches aft of the same reference (Fig. 3). The
C.G. will, therefore, lie 11 inches aft of the leading edge of the MAC. If the MAC is 40
inches in length, the position of the C.G. will be at a position (11 ~ 40) 27% of the MAC.
If the calculated C.G. position is within the recommended range (for example, 25% to 35%),
the airplane is properly loaded.