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2 Abstract This thesis examines the local occurrence of two global trends on a local level in Sweden, the increased privatisation of security services and the increasing tension and security problems in urban areas. The local security networks in Angered (Gothenburg) and Rinkeby-Kista Stockholm are the cases examined in the thesis. Both Angered and Rinkeby-Kista has experienced riots in the communities and in order to enhance the security private security companies are a part of the local security network in both cases. The focus of the thesis is to enhance the understanding of how local security networks are designed and functions as well as understanding what role private security companies play: How are the local security networks designed in terms of actors, structures, roles and measures? How was the current design of the local security network decided? And how do the people involved in the local security network consider private security companies in terms of advantages and disadvantages? The tools used to answer these questions are document analysis of policy documents, evaluations and contract and interviews with the main actors in the local security network (City district municipalities, police, private security companies and youth centres). The most decisive factor of how the design of the security networks, the more private presence in the design stage the more likely it seems that private security companies are used to preform more tasks like patrolling and outreach activities. The main features of local security networks are proactive and preventive measures like outreach activities and different forums and projects to increase the trust and respect for authorities and society. One of the main problems seems to cooperation between private security companies and different actors involved in security networks, the security companies rarely have any cooperation with city district municipalities, social services, the police and youth centres. The main advantages with private security companies are almost exclusively that they are a pair of extra eyes on the ground and can work with traditional tasks like patrolling and manned guarding. Local security networks are still a new phenomenon, the design, structures and cooperation differs a lot from case to case and also depending on who is describing it. Word count: Keywords: Urban Governance, Private Security, Local Security Networks 1

4 1. Introduction Stockholm is burning; photos in Swedish newspapers show pictures of burning cars and buildings. During the spring 2013 youth riots started in Husby (Stockholm) and spread across Stockholm and Sweden, during a week clashes between police and rioters were a daily occurrence. This is not first time the riots in troubled communities occur in Sweden during 2009 both Stockholm and Gothenburg faced similar events with burning cars and clashes between police and youth. These events are good examples of the increasing tensions within cities in Sweden but also across Europe where major youth riots occurred in Paris and London. To solve these tensions and enhance the safety and security with cities is a major contemporary concern. In order to solve the security and safety concerns an increased use of private security companies has been seen. This follows a general trend were private actors are playing a more crucial part in our everyday life, taking over services that usually were preformed by the state. Service delivery, like healthcare, education and security, which traditionally have been delivered by the state are to a greater extent delegated to private actors. The pluralisation of actors involved in service delivering has made private actors to a natural part of our everyday life and is not often reflected upon. In the security sector this had lead to that private security to a greater extent patrol and secure a lot of ones everyday life spaces like the office, the university, and public places. The Privatization and pluralisation of actors involved in service delivering is leading to a reconfiguration of the state, giving the state new roles such as supervisor, mediator, and business partner. This reconfiguration of the state has also occurred in the security sector and the state now plays different role then only the provider. This thesis examines these two global trends appearance on local level in Gothenburg and Stockholm, by looking at how they solve security issues in troubled communities and what role private security companies play in the security network. This is done by looking at contracts, policy documents and interviewing the key actors from the security networks. In order to understand why this is of any significance one must first look at the notion of security. Security has traditionally been the state delivered by the state and by scholars like Weber (1919), the monopoly of violence is held as one of the single most important factors 3

5 for state legitimacy, the state should be the only actor allowed to use force. Nowadays security services are more frequently being outsourced and private security companies are key components of the current security networks in Europe (Johnston & Shearing, 2003). In 2008 the former French President Nicholas Sarkozy and at that moment acting president of European Union (EU) recognized the increased importance of private security; Examining the role of private security in overall security in Europe is a way of looking after the everyday security of European citizens since private security firms are being called upon more and more to assist states in providing this protection 1 (Sarkozy, 2008). There is evidence that all across the world the use of private security is increasing and new firms have emerged to deliver security services traditionally delivered by the state (Atkinson, 2003; Button, 2002; Briffault, 1999; Chesterman & Fisher, 2009). The increased use of private security has lead to a lot of academic debates around the notion and deliverance of security. The previous debates focused a lot on determining if private security was a threat to the state by intruding on a states monopoly of violence, the academic debate then shifted towards understanding how the public-private divide is reconfigured and how it is affecting the deliverance of security in forms of access and accountability (Euller, 1980; Kakalik & Wildhorn, 1977; Loader, 1997; Shearing & Stenning, 1983). The more recent research is focusing more on the security networks and assemblages looking at nodes of security, how they are governed by a mix private and public security companies and understanding how the notion of security is changing and what effects this might have had (Abrahamsen & Williams, 2011; Shearing & Johnston, 2003; Wood & Dupont, 2006). Still there is big gap in the security research especially on the understanding of how the new security networks and assemblages functions and how they are designed (Abrahamsen & Williams, 2011). The other global trend is that cities are becoming increasingly important from a security perspective but also from an economic and development perspective. Cities are considered centers for economic growth and development; networks of cities are driving forces for economic growth in many regions. Urban governance is therefore given more attention and 1 Preface from Nicholas Sarkozy, President of the French Republic, in Confederation of European Security Services (CoESS) and Institut National de Haute de Securite 4

6 how to govern growing cities is one of our main contemporary issues (Hall & Pfeiffer, 2000). The recent development of urbanization has changed the landscape of poverty and inequality; now the biggest inequalities are found within cities and not between rural and urban areas as before (UN-HABITAT, 2012). Urban areas are becoming centers for social tension and increasing segregation, and new modes of governance are developing to solve these problems (Jessop, 2002). Cities are not only competing with each other for investment and development but also inter-urban competition is becoming more common. Being an attractive community to invest and in, is crucial from communities within cities (Sites, 2006). Communities that fail to live up to this challenged are labeled as troubled communities and research shows that the social contract is weaker in parts of cities with high unemployment; widespread poverty and high immigrant population. This has lead to the creation of advanced marginality and stigmatized urban areas (Harvey, 2012; Munck, 2005; Sernhede, 2012; Wacquant, 2008). In order to makes cities and communities more attractive, governments try to redevelop socalled stigmatized or disadvantaged communities to increase business opportunities and profit. Local security networks are often a part of these initiatives to make the communities more attractive (Eick, 2006). The pluralisation of actors involved in services delivering has as mentioned lead to a reconfiguration of the state. The responsibilities for services deliverance have shifted from state level to cities or communities. The deliverance of security services follows the same pattern making cities and communities to more important nodes in security networks. Communities and cities can to a greater extent design their own security networks and choose different design with more or less private actors. In this thesis the focus will be on researching nodes in local security networks, the nodes in this thesis will be troubled communities in Gothenburg and Stockholm where private security companies are involved in the security governance. This is because cities are becoming centers for social tensions and economic growth but also because the reinvention of communities within cities is becoming more important in order to sustain growth and expand markets. As noted earlier, finding ways to govern cities are one of biggest cotemporary challenges. To focus on cities and communities is also in line with the cotemporary security research, which focuses more on nodes in security networks, rather then the overall networks 5

7 that is to grand to grasp. Sweden is the country with the fastest growing differences between the group top 10 % wealthiest and bottom 10-precent (Morel et al, 2011). Even if Sweden is a relatively equal country this growing gap between the top 10-precent and bottom 10-precent becomes relevant especially because cities is the new centers of inequalities, which makes Sweden to a suitable case to study. 1.1 Aim & Research Questions This study aims to contribute to the overall understanding of local security networks involving private security companies but also on how and why the security companies are used and involved in governance. To fulfill this aim the study uses they following research questions: How are the local security networks designed in terms of actors, structures, roles and measures? How was the current design of the local security network decided? How do the people involved in the local security network consider private security companies in terms of advantages and disadvantages? 1.2 Relevance & Limitations Private security companies as a part of governance is still under researched and several authors acknowledge that there are gaps in the understanding of the new local security networks (Shearing & Johnston, 2003; Wood & Dupont, 2006). The Swedish setting still is relatively unexplored and the studies that have been conducted on private security in Sweden focus on private security companies function in a mass private property with a strong emphasis on understanding the private-public divide (Berndtsson & Stern, 2011) and how common it is with local security solution in major cities in Sweden (Lindskog & Persson, 2012; Persson, 2012). The research on local security solutions shows that is becoming increasingly common and that there is shift from government to local level (Lindskog & Persson, 2012; Persson, 2012). By looking at the two biggest cities in Sweden (Gothenburg and Stockholm) and compare how they use private security in governance, the thesis will provide a foundation for further research on private security and enhance the understanding of the use of private security in Sweden. This thesis does not aim to make generalization across 6

8 time and places but rather aim to explain this cases in preparation for further studies. The cases are Angered in Gothenburg and Rinkeby-Kista in Stockholm, the thesis is limited to these cases due to the previous knowledge that they have local security network solutions and are considered as troubled communities with a high percentage and unemployment and past experiences of youth riots (Aftonbladet, 2007; Dagen Nyheter, 2010). 1.3 Case description In this section the two cases Angered (Gothenburg) and Rinkeby-Kista (Stockholm) first are presented and in the following section an overview of the private security situation in Sweden Angered (Gothenburg) Gothenburg has population of about 526,000 (Scb, 2012) and consist of 10 city districts and from Gothenburg, as previously mentioned Angered city district will serve as one the cases in this Study (Göteborgs Stad, 2013). Angered has a social situation with a high percentage of citizens being born abroad or with both parents born abroad (69.9 %) (Göteborgs Stad, 2013a). Angered is one of the city districts with the highest crime rates, and the district also has high unemployment and low average income (Göteborgs Stad, 2013a). In Angered property owners have contracts with private security companies to enhance the security in the district. Gothenburg city also have a general agreement with private companies for community outreach and security enhancing activities in neighborhoods (Göteborgs Stad Upphandlingskontoret, 2012). There is a project in Angered and the other communities around Angered called Utveckling Nordost. The project seeks to make the area more attractive to live in but also for companies to invest in. 37 % (45.5 Million SEK) of the project budget is spent on enhancing the urban environment, which safety and security measures are included in (Utveckling Nordost, 2010). Gothenburg city also have a citywide project called Tryggare & Mänskligare Göteborg (Safer & Humane Gothenburg), which seek to enhance security, reduce crime and improve living conditions across the city (Tryggare & Mänskligare, 2013). 7

9 1.3.2 Rinkeby-Kista (Stockholm) Stockholm has a population of (Scb, 2012) and consists of 14 city districts; one of the districts is Rinkeby-Kista, which serves as one of the cases in this thesis. Rinkeby-Kista has a population of and with a high percentage (79 %) of citizens born abroad or with both parents born abroad (Stockholms Stad, 2013). Rinkeby-Kista is overrepresented in areas of crime and insecurity; citizens in general have greater fear of crime, feel more insecure and are also to greater extent targets of crime, the most common type of crimes are robberies and theft (Stockholms Stad, 2013). In a report from 2008 youth gangs was targeted as the main problem in the district, they were said to be noisy, involved in vandalism and in general misbehavior (Stockholms Stad, 2008) 2. The municipality is actively trying to improve the situation and living conditions in Rinkeby- Kista and currently has a project called Järvalyftet, which seeks to improve the living standards and the social/economic situation (Stockholm, 2013a). A coalition of property owners in the community (Fastighetsägare i Järva) has contracted a private security firm to enhance the security and the feeling of safety (Cubsec, 2012) Private Security in Sweden In general the Swedish security industry has been growing with an average around 5% annually over the last ten years, and in 2010 the turnover for the Swedish security industry in 2010 was 840 million euro (CoESS, 2011). The largest segment in the security industry is general guarding, which in 2010 had a turnover of 525 million euro (CoESS, 2011). In Sweden there are about 250 companies preforming private security services, the companies have approximately 8000 contracts and employ about licensed guards (CoESS, 2011). Sweden is the Nordic country with the most licensed security guards, more than four times as much as Denmark (5000 licensed guards), more then twice as much as Norway (7750 licensed guards) and significantly more then Finland (12500 licensed guards) (CoESS, 2011). 2 In the report only 39% of Rinkeby-Kistas population responded which could make the numbers inaccurate and not representative for the area 8

10 In a Swedish Government Official Report on Safety against Crime 3 (SOU, 1995), local security solutions are highlighted and put forward as important pillar in the fight against crime. According to the report the municipalities are supposed to act as the main coordinator for safety measures and design of local security solutions, in cooperation with other agencies like the police. Private security companies are suggested to play a bigger part in the security network but also to work closer with the police and report more regularly (SOU, 1995). Even if the private security companies are suggested to play bigger part in the security network the report stills stress that the police is the most important actor and provider of security (SOU, 1995) 2. Definitions In order to grasp the multifaceted and complex notion of private security companies it is relevant to create a typology over the different function that they are involved in. The American Society for Industrial Security (ASIS) International is the largest association of private security professionals in the United States and they have identified 18 functions 4 that private security companies are involved in (ASIS Foundation, 2009). ASIS list of functions is another good example of how widespread and multifaceted the private security industry is. The ASIS Foundations list of functions is not central to the study but used to show the great variety of functions that private security companies preform. It also shows the importance of limitation, what functions that are researched when studying private security companies. To casually say that one is researching private security companies is not sufficient. In order to narrow down the broad definition of private security, the private security (industry) in this thesis describes a specific part of the private security sector, which regards contracts for security guarding a mix between physical and personnel security both listed by the ASIS Foundation. The study focuses on what Wakefield (2003) define as manned guarding; uniformed officers to protect distinct territorial areas. These areas are traditionally 3 Authors translation 4 Physical security, Personnel security, Information systems security, Investigations, Loss prevention, Risk management, Legal aspects, Emergency and contingency planning, Fire protection, Crisis management, Disaster management, Counterterrorism, Competitive intelligence, Executive protection, Violence in the workplace, Crime prevention, Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED), and Security architecture and engineering. 9

11 buildings or large, privately, controlled spaces. This has also spread to residential areas and town centers under the control of local authorities (Jacobson & Saville, 1999). It is important to notice that police and policing are different terms; the police is a particular organisation consisting of men and women employed by state who patrol streets, deal with crime, ensure order and who undertake a range of social service type functions (Reiner, 1994). Policing is a much more complex term, in order to facilitate the understanding of different functions of private security companies, Wakefield (2003) identifies five different features that policing can have; 1.) Policing as regulatory process, 2.) As work of the police, 3.) As a core set of activities, 4.) As order maintenance. In this thesis the focus will be on the fifth feature; Policing as governance, a notion of policing that is a more inclusive, it doesn t constrain policing to a set of tasks, but rather see policing as a complex of interlaced systems of agencies which work together to produce order (Kempa et al, 1999). Policing as Governance also recognizes the shift from state level to community level in policing, that is the scope of this study (Shearing, 2004). Even though the definition of policing as governance is used, the purpose of the policing might be more diversified then to only produce order. This notion of policing is closely connected to the term that will be used in order to explain the new landscape of security, that term is governance of security: Programmes for promoting peace in the face of threats (either realised or anticipated) that arise from collective life rather than from non-human sources such as the weather or threats from other species (Shearing & Johnston, 2003). The reason for using this term is because governance of security acknowledges that governing security is nothing that is natural or preordained, different modalities of governance are the product of different applications of human invention (Shearing & Johnston, 2003). To break it down even more security in this study will be defined as shaping the flows of events (Parker & Braithwaite, 2003) and governance as conscious attempts to shape and influence the conduct of individuals, groups and wide populations in furtherance of a particular objective (Wood & Dupont, 2006) When studying the use of private security from this perspective there is no ideal type of security deliverance but the concept tries to grasp how the current governance of security was created and what implications that might have for people that design the security governance and local security networks (Shearning & Johnston, 2003) 10

12 3. Literature Review This section provides an overview of the current literature on private security companies and the research that has been done within this topic. It is important to state before engaging with previous research that in this thesis the focus is on private security companies (PSC) and not private military security companies (PMSC), as explained above. In order to understand where the research on private security is today, it is necessary to look at the theoretical background on research of private security companies leading to the gaps in current research and empirical findings. 3.1 General theoretical background To grasp private security one must first look at privatizations from a theoretical perspective, privatizations takes place due to the fact that private enterprises in general are considered to be more efficient then public enterprises (Boycko et al, 1996; Kay & Thompson, 1986). By outsourcing services and functions to private enterprises or to employ private managers, eases the fiscal burdens for governments. From a privatization theory perspective it is easier for private enterprises and managers to slim down organizations. Governments are reluctant to slim down organization because it might upset possible voters by giving away the responsibility to private managers they are not held accountable in the same way. This might open up fiscal opportunities to engage in other projects due to increased efficiency from the new managerial style, this is referred as the base of New Public Management (NPM) (Boycko et al, 1996). Private security is often perceived as a new phenomenon but if one looks at the history various forms of private security and mercenaries have been used for a long period of time. Mercenaries were common during the medieval period and different forms of private security have been used ever since (Colas & Mabee, 2010). In a Swedish context the police used to be under the city (municipality) control until 1965 and the first measure to unify the police and create legislation was in 1925 with the national police law 5 (Munck et al, 2005). Until 1981 the police could give permission to private persons to preform police duties, that police as we know it today is therefore a relatively new phenomenon, which is important to keep in mind (Munck et al, 2005). To see the centralized police as the real police is only a façade and it 5 Authors translation 11

13 only reflects a short period of time, for longer period the police was something that was very closely connected to the community (Virta, 2002). One Study shows that about 50% of Sweden s police officers are proximity police officers working somewhat close to the community, the same study also show the proximity police offers primarily see their work as reactive (Holmberg, 2005). The expansion of private security has boomed and nowadays research shows that private security guards outnumber public police in many cases (Abrahamsen & Williams; Button, 2002; De Waard 1999; Wakefield, 2003). The trend within private security is overall expansion and scholars agree on that we can see an increased use of private security companies. In general there has been a big expansion of private security in developed countries since the 1970 s, the expansion has also spread to Keynesian states that traditionally are views as settled or strong states reluctant to outsourcing services for example the Nordic countries (Berndtsson & Stern, 2011; Walker & Loader, 2007). The increase of what we refer to as the modern type private security took place in 1960 s 1970 s, due to the increase of mass private property, neoliberal ideas (New Public Management), fiscal constraints and increasing crime rates (Abrahamsen & Williams, 2011; Jones & Newburn, 1998; Maguire, 2007; O Malley & Palmer, 1996; Shearing & Stenning, 1981). A lot of scholars were critical to the increased use of private security as it posed a threat to the social contract and the Weberian theory on monopoly of violence, as well as the Keynesian ideas of the state as the sole provider of key functions (Euller, 1980; Kakalik & Wildhorn, 1977; Loader, 1997; Shearing & Stenning, 1983). Because of this the general view of private security companies was quite negative and they were perceived as loose canons, unprofessional and some times even as oppressors (Kakalik & Wildhorn, 1977). 3.2 Old vs New Security paradigm Scholars also argue that during s the security paradigm shifted from the old perception of security where punishment and reactive measures were central and the state often was the single provider of security (Abrahamsen & Williams, 2011; Johnston & Shearing, 2003; Loader, 1997). After this shift the new or alternative paradigm came where more actors are involved in the delivery of security services and the focus is on 12

14 proactive measure. The new security approach is more inclusive and involves actors from civil, private and public entities. It emphasizes on proactive rather than reactive measures an example of this approach is that problems that traditionally would be solved by welfare interventions now are managed by security logistics (Abrahamsen & Williams, 2011; Johnston & Shearing, 2003). The new paradigm is a pro community-based solution, because it empowers communities, involves more actors, opens to re-invent communities and have a higher chance of producing outcomes (Johnston & Shearing, 2003). Private security companies often are a part of these community-based solutions, because they can provide security guards with local knowledge and diversified backgrounds. Critics say that the community-based solutions are still focusing a lot on the old punishment paradigm, new wine in a old bottle (Johnston & Shearing, 2003). There is a big difference between old and new security paradigm in the number actors involved and what functions they focus on. This a good way to capture what measures that are used in the local security networks and grasping if the measures that are used in the networks are focused on the new security paradigm (Proactive, community-based, empowering) or if they are reactive (Punishment, capturing criminals and using force or surveillance). A concept that is closely connected with the new security paradigm is risk; in order to be proactive security companies must be able to determine risk within a society or on a individual level. Beck (2008) argues that the new security paradigm has led to the creation of a risk society. Private security companies can become risk entrepreneurs in this new risk society, where the power to determine what is risk or not becomes a great asset (Beck, 2008). Krahmann (2011) identifies three processes that private security companies can influence; risk identification, risk assessment and risk mitigation. Giddens (1990) called this phenomenon distanciation, that security is affected by factors beyond people s immediate knowledge and control both spatially and temporally. There are examples in Great Britain and South Africa where both police and private security influence the risk assessment of communities (Abrahamsen & Williams, 2011; Johnston & Shearing, 2003; Wakefield, 2003). Johnston (1999) argues that communities are governed by risk, when decided on how to govern communities the perception of risk is the essential for determining from of governance in the community. 13

15 3.3 Security Networks Dupont (2004) have created four ideal types of security networks (local, institutional, international and virtual) to facilitate the understanding of the new security networks. In this thesis the focus is on the local level with some overlapping features of the institutional level. Local security networks consist of a mix of public and private actors, looking to solve a specific issues cooperating with a diverse field of actors. Local security networks strive to be efficient and must therefor incorporate local actors and be open to involve actors that traditionally not are involved in security networks, not only state or public actors (Dupont, 2004; Huey, 2008). This is also closely related to the new security paradigm where more actors are involved and community-based solutions are in focus. The institutional networks are much more closed involving a certain number of government agencies and are not as open to other actors, they usually work with more overlapping issues and not as specified as the local networks. Institutional networks gather know-how and resources in order to help individual nodes to become more efficient (Dupont, 2004; Huey, 2008). Institutional networks relate more to the old security paradigm where fewer actors are involved. By looking at the ideal types it is possible to determine what roles the different actors have and how it affects the function of the security network. 3.4 Political economy of private security In the previous academic research on private security White (2012) argues that the research either had a too strong focus on the economic factors or on the political factors. In order to truly understand the use and impacts of private security a researcher has to incorporate both concepts in a comprehensive way (White, 2012). When explaining the increased use of private security one cannot only say it was due to the growth of mass private property and the increased need for security guards or that it was only due to the roll back of the state and neoliberal ideas like New Public Management. White (2012) argues that two schools have emerged from this divide, the economic focus is often called nodal governance and the political focus is often called anchored pluralism. White is in favor of researching what he calls the political economy of private security, incorporating both factors. The first of questions that has to be answered in political economy of private security are the economic context, how did the supply and demand change to facilitate the expansion private security and how does this affect the deliverance of local security (White, 2012). The other set of 14

16 questions are connected to the political context, what political strategies are behind the descions to use private security and how does these strategies impact the deliverance of local security (White, 2012). According to the theory private security companies might change the scope of their expertise in order to match fluctuations in demand and supply and to match the current political context (White, 2012). In more recent research on private security the focus has somewhat shifted from talking about the rollback of the state to the reconfiguration of the state. Scholars argue that private security companies are not vigilante companies anymore but rather work together with the state and gains its legitimacy from the state or in some cases even are encouraged by the state, the security is beyond the state (Abrahamsen & Williams, 2011; Button, 2002; Howe, 1998). This kind of research focus on the governance of security or nodal governance of security, where the construction-sites of private security is in focus rather than trying to determine the exact private-public divide (Johnston & Shearing, 2003; Shearing & Wood, 2007). Even if the notion of public-private is given less attention in more recent research, scholars still argue that is has to be accounted for and especially the interaction between the public and private, especially in the decision process in order to determine who is inside and outside the process (Abrahamsen & Williams, 2011). Although Shearing and Johnston (2003) sees nodal governance as an important tool for stepping away from the state centered approach to security in order to progress, White (2012) argues the nodal governance school has a too strong economic focus trying to explain the use of private security through looking at increasing opportunities with new functions-sites for private security to embrace and expand within. The other school distinguished by White (2012) is anchored pluralism, the anchored pluralism focus more on the role of the state and normative questions. To explain the use and role of private security, the ideal role of the state and how the norm is formed around private security must be considered (Loader & Walker, 2007). Instead of looking at what new functions/sites that has opened up for private security the anchored pluralism focus on why these functions/site opened up for private security (Loader & Walker, 2007). The anchored pluralism has a stronger connection with the Keynesian ideal type of state and if one juxtaposes the two schools it is easier to distinguish the differences even though they are 15

17 somewhat overlapping. In this thesis the focus is on specific sites where private security is used, so the problem is approached from a nodal governance perspective but the normative questions from anchored pluralism will also be considered when understanding the construction of the sites. The nodal approach emphasizes that networks depend on mentalities, technologies, institutional arrangements, and resources of nodes, and that nodes and nodal assemblages should be a major focus of analyses of governance (Burris, 2004). As Castells (2000, p. 332) puts it, a network has nodes, not a center. The political economy of private security theory is a good tool to examine the driving forces behind the use of private security companies and also the way the current security networks are designed. This is due to that political economy of private security looks at driving forces behind the use of private security and in this case also the design of the security network looking at political and economic factors. 3.5 Previous Empirical Findings In empirical research the theoretical assumption that mass private property and the use of private security are related shows, the sites of empirical research have often been mass private property like shopping malls or university campuses (O'Dougherty, 2006; Shearing & Stenning, 1983; Wood & Shearing, 1998). Other sites of empirical research are city improvement districts or business improvement districts (CIDs/BIDs), areas of cities that are improved to enhance business opportunities and security. BIDs/CIDs are increasingly growing in both developed and developing countries and research on CIDs and BIDs shows that they can have a positive effect (for example Los Angeles) on business but they are also questioned for leading to increased segregation (for example South Africa) (Abrahamsen & Williams, 2011; Eick, 2006). The BIDs/CIDs are good examples of the reconfiguration of public/private space and also the public/private functions (Eick, 2006; Rigakos, 2002). The actors involved in BIDs/CIDs are often global companies and part of global security assemblages, patterns are found that global security firms influence the assemblages, being simultaneously involved in public and private, global and local contexts to promote their own interest (Abrahamsen & Williams, 2011). 16

18 In a European context there is some research in Germany on private security in governance, using private security guards to control squatters and cleanup communities often connected to forms of BIDs/CIDs but this research does not cover the causes of the use private security in communities and the interaction between different agencies (Eick, 2006; Eick, 2011; Holm & Kuhn, 2011). Research in skid row communities in Scotland shows that people living in these communities in general have more trust for non-police actors and are more likely to report crime to these non-police actors. The same study also shows that that police and service providers work closely together and benefit from each other through sharing information, service providers also feel that they gain legitimacy by working with the police (Huey, 2008). The results of research shows that the attitudes towards private security companies varies even though some of the more recent research shows that the public perception of private security is becoming more positive (Nalla & Heraux, 2003; Huey, 2008). Recent studies from Netherlands and Singapore shows a more positive attitude towards private security officers from Netherlands and they are being viewed as more professional than before (Nalla & Lim, 2003; Van Steden & Nalla, 2010). Other studies show that some important factors can influence the attitudes towards private security in a negative way for example ethnicity and level of income (Howell, Perry & Vile, 2004; Nalla & Lim 2003; Nalla & Heraux 2003) A major study in the US shows that the use of private security has a inverted U-curved, the use of private police is high in communities with low income and big Hispanic and Afro- American population, and the presence of private police is also high in communities with high income, so the scholars argue that private police can be used as an informal control on minorities and protection of elites rather then a response to serious crime (D Alessio et al, 2005). There is not much research conducted in Sweden, one of the few studies done focus on the public-private divide on Arlanda Airport in Stockhom (Berndtsson & Stern, 2011). There also some studies that shows that local security solutions are becoming more common in Sweden especially in bigger cities (Lindskog & Persson, 2012; Persson, 2012). These studies show that Sweden is following the trend of other traditionally strong or settled, states outsourcing more of its security services (Walker & Loader, 2007). Another study in Finland 17

19 on local security networks shows that different actors can have problems to cooperate due different views on security, police define it as reducing crime and other actors have a more holistic approach (Virta, 2002). These studies also conclude that countries like Sweden and Finland that have had a strong centralized police force might have troubles to implement local security network solutions due to the fact that they are not used to cooperate with other agencies (Virta, 2002). As shown in the literature review there is gap in the research of Swedish context and in general on the new functions of private security outside mass private property and BIDs/CIDs that incorporates both the economic and political factors. Finding out how cities design the local security solutions and how they use private security companies, is a key to understanding the new form of governance. 4. Theoretical Framework The overarching theoretical framework for the interviews and document analysis is Johnston and Shearing s (2003) eight dimensions of governance: 1. Who make the rules? - Who decided the to use private security? How and why? 2. What is the nature of the rules? - Whose concerns do the use of private security represent and how inclusive is it? 3. What is the focus of governance? - What problems to the solution want to solve? What are they based on? 4. Who implements/executes governance? - What is the relation between the different agencies and what are there responsibilities? 5. Modes of governance - How is the implementation achieved? 6. Process of governance - Coercion or negotiation? 7. Technologies of governance - What tools to they use to achieve the purpose? 8. Mentalities of governance - What perceptions and thoughts are translated into actions? 18

20 In order to match the aim of the study the eight dimension are narrowed down to five dimensions, the dimensions that are left out are: 2. What is the nature of the rules? Whose concerns do the use of private security represent and how inclusive is it, 7. Technologies of governance? What tools do they use to achieve the purpose? 8. Mentalities of governance? What perceptions and thoughts are translated into actions? These dimensions are left out because of the scope of the study and to align with the aim set for this thesis. It is clearly not possible to state how inclusive the process is if the residents in the area not are interviewed nor is this relevant to fulfill the aim, thus dimension 2 is excluded. The aim is neither to explore technical tools or mentalities of governance which dimension 7 and 8 regards. The remaining five dimensions are connected to theories concerning the use of private security, through using this framework that has its base in the governance of security notion, the idea is to capture both political and economic factors in the local security network and the use of private security companies. Even though the theory is foremost used to explain the use of private security, it is also a good tool for mapping the local security networks. For all five dimensions a primary statement is taken from the document analysis and compared with the results from the interview analysis. Each dimension is also compared with previous empirical findings. The five dimensions are used according to the following structure: 1. Who make the rules? Who decided the to use private security/design of the security network? How and why? Through White s (2012) political economy of private security in order to determine the driving forces behind the use private security and the current design of security network 2. What is the focus of governance? What problems to the solution want to solve? What are they based on? This dimension is only mapped through interviews, statistics and document analysis in order to understand the main problem and what they re based upon and only presented in the section local security network description and design in the analysis. 3. Who implements/executes governance? What is the relation between the different agencies and what are there responsibilities? This dimension is analyzed through Duponts (2004) ideal types of security networks in order to determine how the different agencies and 19

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