African Liturgy

African
Liturgy.—This liturgy was in use not only in the old Roman
province of Africa of which Carthage was the capital, but also in
Numidia and Mauretania; in fact, in all of Northern Africa from the
borders of Egypt west to the Atlantic Ocean. Christianity was
introduced into proconsular Africa in the latter half of the second
century, probably by missionaries from Rome, and then spread rapidly
through the other African provinces. The language of the liturgy was
Latin, modified somewhat by the introduction of many Africanisms. It
is probably the oldest Latin liturgy, since it had been in use long
before the Roman Church changed her official language from the Greek
to the Latin idiom. A study of the African liturgy might thus be
very useful to trace the origin and development of the different
rites, and to determine what influence one rite had upon another.
Since the African Church was always dependent upon Rome, always
devoted to the See of St. Peter, and since there was constant
communication between Africa and Rome concerning ecclesiastical
affairs, it may easily be supposed that liturgical questions were
raised, different customs discussed, and possibly the customs or
formulas of one church adopted by the other. At a later date the
African liturgy would seem to have exercised some influence upon the
Mozarabic and Gallican liturgies. The great similarity in some of
the phraseology, etc., would show a common origin or a mutual
dependence of the liturgies. The African liturgy may be considered
in two different periods: the ante-Nicene period, when the Church
was suffering persecution and could not freely develop the forms of
public worship, and when the liturgical prayers and acts had not
become fixed; and the post-Nicene period, when the simple,
improvised forms of prayer gave way to more elaborate, set
formularies, and the primitive liturgical actions evolved into grand
and formal ceremonies.

I. ANTE-NICENE
PERIOD

It is a difficult
matter to reconstruct the ancient African liturgy since there are so
few available data; for instance, owing to the ravages of time and
of the Saracens, no liturgical codices now survive; in the works of
the early Fathers or ecclesiastical writers, and in the acts of the
councils there are but few quotations from the liturgical books, and
not many references to the words or ceremonies of the liturgy. In
the first, or ante-Nicene period, it may be said there were only two
writers who furnish useful information on the subject--Tertullian
and St. Cyprian. The writings of Tertullian are especially rich in
descriptions of ecclesiastical customs, or in clear allusions to
existing rites and usages. Some additional information may be gained
from the acts of the early martyrs, e. g. the Acts of St. Perpetua
and St. Felicitas, which are quite authentic and authoritative.
Finally, the inscriptions on Christian monuments give much
confirmatory evidence on the beliefs and practices of the time. From
these various sources one may learn some of the customs which were
peculiar to the African Church, and what formularies and ceremonies
were common to all the Western churches. The prayers of the
Christians were either private or liturgical. Privately they prayed
every morning and evening, and many of them prayed frequently during
the day; for example, at the third, sixth, and ninth hours, before
meals, and before undertaking any unusual work or enterprise. The
liturgical prayers were said chiefly during the reunions of the
faithful to observe the vigils, or to celebrate the agape and the
Holy Eucharist. These Christian assemblies in Africa seem to have
been modelled on the same plan as those in other countries. They
imitated, in a certain measure, the services of the Jewish
synagogue, adding thereto the Eucharistic sacrifice and some
institutions peculiar to Christianity. In these reunions three
elements are easily distinguishable: psalmody, the reading of
passages from the Old and New Testaments, and prayer, to which a
homily on the Scripture was generally added. Such meetings were
sometimes distinct from the Mass, but sometimes they formed a
preparation for the celebration of the divine mysteries. The elders
of the Church presided over the assembly, instructions and
exhortations were given, prayers recited for the needs of the
Church, the necessities of the brethren were considered and provided
for, and various business pertaining to the Christian community was
transacted; and finally, the agape was celebrated as a fitting
conclusion to a reunion of the disciples of Christ. The agape seems
to have been celebrated in Africa in the same manner as in other
countries, and to have degenerated into an abuse to be suppressed
here, as well as elsewhere.

These
liturgical meetings generally took place at night, or just before
dawn, and hence Tertullian speaks of such an assembly as a coetus
antelucanus, a "meeting before the dawn" (Apol., ii),
while others speak of it as a vigil. Possibly the hour was chosen to
commemorate the time of the Resurrection of the Lord, or perhaps it
was selected to enable the Christians in times of persecution to
evade their persecutors. The true Christian liturgy, in a strict
sense of the word, is the celebration of the Holy Eucharist, the
sacrifice of the New Law. This generally followed the long prayers
of a vigil, and even to-day some traces of the vigil survive, since
a similarity may easily be noticed between the prayers for the
ancient vigils, and the first, or preparatory part of the Mass; or
perhaps even more clearly in the first part of the Masses for the
Ember days, or the Mass of the Pre-sanctified on Good Friday. Thus
the Holy Eucharist was celebrated very early in the morning
ordinarily, and the regular day chosen for assisting at the
sacrifice and partaking of Holy Communion was the Sunday, in
commemoration of the Resurrection of Christ. The Sabbath was not
observed by the Christians in the Jewish sense, and the Jewish
festivals were also abandoned, as is evident from the words of
Tertullian (De idolatria, xiv), speaking of the observance of
festivals by Christians, "to whom Sabbaths are strange, and the
new-moons and festivals formerly beloved by God". The Sunday
was now the Lord's day, a day of rejoicing, on which it was
forbidden to fast and to pray in a kneeling posture. "We count
fasting or kneeling in worship on the Lord's day to be unlawful".
(Tert., De corona, iii.)

When
Sunday was thus kept in honour of the Resurrection it was only
natural that Friday should be considered the appropriate day for
commemorating the passion and death of Christ and hence the early
Christians met for prayer on Friday. There was also a reunion on
Wednesdays, whose origin cannot be satisfactorily accounted for. The
Wednesday and Friday meetings were known to Tertullian by the name
of stations (stationes). In Africa it appears to have been the
custom to celebrate the Holy Eucharist on station days, although it
does not seem to have been the practice in other churches.
Everywhere these were days of fasting, but as the fast lasted only
until the ninth hour, the liturgy would be celebrated and communion
distributed about that time in the afternoon. Of all the Sundays,
the feast of Easter was the greatest, and was celebrated with
special solemnity. Good Friday, called by Tertullian "Pascha",
was a day of strict fast, which was prolonged through Holy Saturday.
This latter day was only a day for the preparation for the feast of
Easter; but still it was the most solemn vigil during the year, and
the one on which all the vigils were modelled. Holy Saturday does
not seem to have had any special liturgical service assigned, the
present service being the ancient Easter vigil anticipated. Possibly
the vigil of Easter was observed so solemnly on account of the
tradition that the Lord would return to judge the world on the feast
of Easter, and the early Christians hoped He would find them
watching. Easter in Tertullian's time was followed by a period of
fifty days' rejoicing until Pentecost, which was considered as the
close of the Easter season rather than as a solemn feast with a
special significance. In the third century Lent, as a period of
forty days' fasting, was unknown in Africa. Of the greater immovable
feasts the earlier writers appear to know nothing; hence Christmas,
the Circumcision, the Epiphany, the festivals of the Blessed Virgin
and the feasts of the Apostles do not seem to have been celebrated.
The festivals of local martyrs seem to have taken precedence over
what are now regarded as the greatest feasts of the Church, and
their anniversaries were celebrated long before the great immovable
feasts were introduced. Such celebrations were purely local, and it
was only at a much later date that commemorations of foreign saints
were made. The early Christians had a great devotion towards the
martyrs and confessors of the faith, carefully preserved and
venerated their relics, made pilgrimages to their tombs, and sought
to be buried as near as possible to the relics of the martyrs, and
hence the anniversaries of the local saints were celebrated with
great solemnity. Thus the calendar of the African Church in the
ante-Nicene period was rather restricted, and contained but a
comparatively small number of feast days.

Among the
liturgical functions, the celebration of Mass, or of the Holy
Eucharist, occupies the most important place. Although the early
writers speak in a guarded manner concerning these sacred mysteries,
still they give much precious information on the liturgy of their
age. The Mass seems to have been divided into the Mass of the
catechumens, and the Mass of the faithful, and among the orthodox
Christians the catechumens were rigidly excluded from assisting at
the sacrifice proper. Bread and wine are used as the matter of the
sacrament, but a little water is added to the wine to signify the
union of the people with Christ. St. Cyprian severely condemns
certain bishops who used only water in the chalice, declaring that
water is not the essential matter of the sacrifice, and its
exclusive use renders the sacrament invalid. Both Tertullian and St.
Cyprian have passages which seem to give the form of the Eucharist
in the very words of Christ as quoted in the Holy Scripture.
Sometimes there is great similarity between their words and the
phraseology of the Roman canon. There are allusions to the Preface,
the Sanctus, the commemoration of Christ, the Pater noster, and to
different acclamations. Tertullian speaks often of the kiss of
peace, and considers the ceremony very important. References are
also made to a litany which was recited during the Mass, but no
precise information is given concerning its place in the liturgy. At
Mass the faithful received communion under both species, under the
species of bread from the bishop or priest, and under the species of
wine from the deacon, and each one, after receiving communion,
answered "Amen" to profess his faith in the sacrament.
Sometimes the faithful carried the Host home, and there communicated
themselves, especially in times of persecution. Communion seems to
have been received fasting, as Tertullian implies when he inquires
what a pagan husband will think of the food of which his Christian
wife partakes before any other food. The early Christians appear to
have communicated frequently, even every day, especially during a
period of persecution. The greatest reverence was shown to the
Sacred Species, so the faithful strove to be free from all stain of
grievous sin, and deemed it a serious fault to allow any of the
consecrated elements to fall to the ground.

Baptism, as the
initiatory rite of Christianity, is mentioned frequently by the
early writers; Tertullian wrote a special treatise on this
sacrament, describing the preparation required for it, and the
ceremonies accompanying it. The catechumens should prepare for the
reception of baptism by frequent prayers, by fasts, and vigils.
Although he usually speaks of the baptism of adults, still he admits
the baptism of infants, but seems to be somewhat opposed to this
practice, which was commended by St. Cyprian. The time set for the
solemn administration of baptism was Easter, or any day between
Easter and Pentecost, but Tertullian declares that as every day
belongs to the Lord it might be conferred at any time. He holds that
it should be administered by the bishop, who, however, may delegate
a priest or deacon to act in his place, although in certain cases he
would permit laymen to baptize. Any kind of water may serve as the
matter of the sacrament, and the water is used to baptize the
catechumen "in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the
Holy Ghost". The mode of baptizing was by triple immersion in
the font, which had already been blessed. Many beautiful symbolical
ceremonies accompanied the rite of baptism. Before the candidate for
baptism entered the font he renounced the devil with his pomps and
his angels. There was also a creed to be recited by the candidate
for baptism, probably an African form of the Apostles' Creed.
Tertullian gives several different forms of this rule of faith.
After the neophyte ascended from the font he received a drink of
milk and honey, and was then anointed with consecrated oil.
Tertullian also states that the neophyte was signed with the sign of
the cross, that he received the imposition of hands with the
invocation of the Holy Ghost, and that the newly baptized Christian
then partook of his first holy communion. Tertullian explains many
of these ceremonies in his treatise on the Resurrection (viii). "The
flesh indeed is washed in order that the soul may be cleansed; the
flesh is anointed, that the soul may be consecrated; the flesh is
signed (with the sign of the cross) that the soul too may be
fortified; the flesh is shadowed with the imposition of hands, that
the soul also may be illuminated by the spirit; the flesh feeds on
the Body and Blood of Christ, that the soul likewise may fatten on
its God."

The testimonies
relating to the Sacrament of Penance describe principally the public
penances imposed for grievous sins, and the absolution of the
penitents after the public penances had been performed to the
satisfaction of the Church. Tertullian at first asserted that the
Church had the power of forgiving all kinds of sins, but after
becoming a Montanist he denied that this power extended to certain
most heinous crimes, and then ridiculed the practice of the Pope and
the Roman Church, who denied absolution to no Christian that was
truly penitent for his sins. In writing sarcastically of the mode of
procedure in use at Rome in the time of Pope St. Callixtus, he
probably gives a good description of the manner in which a penitent
sinner was absolved and readmitted into communion with the faithful.
He narrates how the penitent, "clothed in a hair-shirt and
covered with ashes, appears before the assembly of the faithful
craving absolution, how he prostrates himself before the priests and
widows, seizes the hem of their garments, kisses their footprints,
clasps them by the knees", how the bishop in the meantime,
addresses the people, exhorting them by the recital of the parable
of the lost sheep to be merciful and show pity to the poor penitent
who asks for pardon. The bishop prayed for the penitents, and the
bishop and priests imposed hands upon them as a sign of absolution
and restoration into the communion of the Church. Although
Tertullian in these words wished to throw ridicule on what he deemed
excessive laxity at Rome, still he describes faithfully rites which
seem to have been in use in the Church of Africa also, since
elsewhere in his writings he mentions doing penance in sack-cloth
and ashes, of weeping for sins, and of asking the forgiveness of the
faithful. St. Cyprian also writes of the different acts of penance,
of the confession of sin, of the manner in which the public penance
was performed, of the absolution given by the priest, and of the
imposition of the hands of the bishop and priests through which the
penitents regained their rights in the Church.

Tertullian speaks
of the nuptial blessing pronounced by the Church on the marriage of
Christians, asking "how he could sufficiently extol the
happiness of that marriage which is cemented by the Church,
confirmed by the oblation, sealed with the benediction, which the
angels proclaim, which is ratified by the Heavenly Father".
Christian marriage thus seems to have been celebrated publicly
before the Church with more or less solemnity, but the nuptial
blessing would appear to have been optional and not obligatory,
except perhaps by force of custom.

Both
Tertullian and St. Cyprian mention ordination and the various orders
in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, but unfortunately do not give much
information which is strictly liturgical. Tertullian speaks of
bishops, priests, and deacons whose powers and functions are pretty
well defined, who are chosen on account of their exemplary conduct
by the brethren, and are then consecrated to God by regular
ordination. Only those who are ordained, says St. Cyprian, may
baptize and grant pardon of sins. St. Cyprian distinguishes the
different orders, mentioning bishops, priests, deacons, sub-deacons,
acolytes, exorcists, and lectors, and in describing the election of
St. Cornelius at Rome declares that Cornelius was promoted from one
order to another until finally he was elected by the votes of all to
the supreme pontificate. All the orders except the minor order of
ostiary are enumerated by the early African writers. Both exorcists
and lectors appear to have occupied a much more important liturgical
position in the early ages than in later times. The exorcist, for
example, was frequently called upon to exercise the power he had
received at ordination. Tertullian speaks of this extraordinary
power which was exercised in the name of Christ. Sometimes the
exorcist used the rite of exsufflation, and sometimes, as St.
Cyprian states, adjured the evil spirit to depart per Deum verum (by
the true God). Lectors also had many liturgical functions to
perform. The lector, for example, recited the lessons from the Old
and New Testaments, and even read the Gospel from the pulpit to the
people. In later ages his duties were divided, and some were given
to the other ministers, some to regular chanters.

Among
other liturgical ceremonies the early writers often allude to the
rites accompanying the burial of the dead, and particularly the
entombment of the bodies of the martyrs and confessors. From the
earliest times the Christians showed great reverence to the bodies
of the faithful, embalmed them with incense and spices, and buried
them carefully in distinctively Christian cemeteries. Prayers were
said for the repose of the souls of the dead, Masses were offered
especially on the anniversary of death and their names were recited
in the Memento of the Mass, provided that they had lived in
accordance with Christian ideals. The faithful were taught not to
mourn for their dead, but to rejoice that the souls of the departed
were already living with God and enjoying peace and refreshing
happiness after their earthly trials and labours. Tertullian, St.
Cyprian, and the Acts of St. Perpetua, all give testimony to the
antiquity of these customs. The cemeteries in Africa (called areae)
were not catacombs like those in Rome, but above ground in the open
air, and often had a chapel (cella) adjoining them, where the
reunions of the faithful took place on the anniversaries of the
martyrs and of the other Christians who were buried there. The
inscriptions on the tombs often state that the departed had lived a
life of Christian peace, in pace vixit, or often beautifully express
their faith and hope of the faithful in a future life of happiness
together with the Lord--spes in Deo--in Deo vivas.

Finally, some
ceremonial acts might be considered to which reference is often made
by the early writers. Prayers were said sometimes kneeling,
sometimes standing; for example, on Sundays, and during the fifty
days following Easter, it was forbidden to kneel, while on fast days
the kneeling posture was considered appropriate. The Christians
prayed with the arms stretched out somewhat in the form of a cross.
The sign of the cross was made very frequently, often on some object
with the intention of blessing it, often on the forehead of
Christians to invoke God's protection and assistance. Tertullian in
his "De Corona" writes: "At every forward step and
movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and
shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps,
on couch, on seat, in all ordinary actions of daily life, we trace
upon the forehead the sign of the cross". The early Christians
were also accustomed to strike their breasts in sign of guilt and
contrition for sin. Tertullian believed that the kiss of peace
should be given often; in fact, that it should accompany every
prayer and ceremony. Not only are there many ceremonial acts such as
those just mentioned which existed in the third century and have
been preserved even to the present in the liturgy, but there are
also many phrases and acclamations of the early African Church which
have found a permanent place in the liturgical formularies. These
expressions, and perhaps also the measured style in which they were
composed, may have had considerable influence in the development of
the other Latin liturgies.

II. POST-NICENE
PERIOD

After the edict
of Constantine granting freedom of worship to the Christian
religion, and especially after the Council of Nicaea, there was a
great development in the liturgy of the Church. It was only natural
that for some time after the foundation of the new religion, its
liturgy should contain only the essentials of Christian worship, and
that in the course of time it should develop and expand its ritual
according to the needs of the people. Moreover, the first period was
an age of persecution and hence the ceremonial was necessarily
curtailed. But when persecution ceased, the Church began immediately
to expand her ceremonial, changing and modifying the old forms and
introducing new rites according to the requirements of public
liturgical worship, so that the liturgy would be more dignified,
more magnificent, and more impressive. In the beginning great
liberty was allowed the individual celebrant to improvise the
prayers of the liturgy, provided that he adhered to the strict form
in essentials and followed the theme demanded, but at a later date
the Church felt the need of a set of formularies and fixed
ceremonies, lest dogmatic errors should find expression in the
liturgy and thus corrupt the faith of the people. In the fourth
century all these tendencies to expansion and development are very
noticeable in all the liturgies. This is true, also, of the Church
in Africa in the second period of the history of the African liturgy
which embraces the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries to
the beginning of the eighth century, when Christianity in Africa was
practically destroyed by the Mohammedans. No liturgical books or
codices belonging to this period are extant, so the liturgy must be
reconstructed from contemporary writings and monuments. Of the
writers of the period St. Augustine is richest in allusions to
ceremonies and formularies, but St. Optatus, Marius Victorinus,
Arnobius, and Victor Vitensis give some useful information. The
inscriptions, which are more numerous in this period, and the
archaeological discoveries also furnish some liturgical data.The
beginning of a real ecclesiastical calendar, with definitely fixed
feasts and fasts, now appears. The great feast of Easter, upon which
all the movable feasts depended, is celebrated with even greater
solemnity than in the time of Tertullian. Before Easter there was a
period of forty days' preparation, devoted to fasting and other
works of penance. The vigil of Easter was celebrated with the usual
ritual, but the length of the offices seems to have been increased.
The Paschal solemnity was followed by a season of fifty days'
rejoicing until Pentecost day, which, in the fourth century, appears
to have a distinctive character as the commemoration of the descent
of the Holy Ghost upon the Apostles rather than as the close of the
Easter season. In Holy Week, Holy Thursday commemorated the
institution of the Holy Eucharist, and according to St. Augustine,
besides the morning Mass, a Mass was also celebrated in the evening
in order to carry out all the circumstances of the institution at
the Last Supper. Good Friday was observed by attending the long
liturgical offices, while Holy Saturday was celebrated in about the
same manner as in the time of Tertullian. Ascension Day seems to
have been introduced in the fourth century, but in the time of St.
Augustine it was universally observed. As for the immovable feasts,
Christmas and Epiphany, which were unknown to Tertullian, were
celebrated with the greatest solemnity in the fifth century. The
first of January was observed not as the feast of the Circumcision,
but as a fast day which had been instituted for the purpose of
turning the people away from the celebration of the pagan
festivities which took place at that time of the year. Feasts of
other than local saints were introduced, for instance, immediately
after Christmas, the feast of St. Stephen, of the Holy Innocents and
of Sts. John and James, and later in the year, the feasts of St.
John the Baptist, of Sts. Peter and Paul, of the Maccabees, of St.
Lawrence, St. Vincent, etc. The festivals of the local martyrs were
celebrated with even greater solemnity than in early times, and were
often accompanied by feasting which was frequently condemned in the
sermons of the time, on account of abuses. When such a large number
of feasts was annually observed, it was to be expected that a list
or calendar would be drawn up, and, in truth, a calendar was drawn
up for the use of the Church of Carthage in the beginning of the
sixth century, from which very important information concerning the
institution and history of the great feast days may be obtained.
When Christianity received legal recognition in the Empire, the
Christians began to construct churches and adorn them fittingly to
serve their purpose. Most of these were built in the old basilica
style, with some few differences. The churches were dedicated in
honour of the holy martyrs frequently, and relics of the martyrs
were placed beneath the altars. The inscriptions of the period
mention the dedication to the martyrs and also the fact that the
relics were placed in the church or in the altar. The altar itself,
called mensa (table), was generally made of wood, but sometimes of
stone, and was covered over with linen cloths. There was a special
rite for dedicating churches and also for consecrating altars, in
which blessed water and the sign of the cross were used.

The
Mass became a daily function celebrated every morning when the
Christians could meet frequently without fear of persecuting, and
when the increased number of feasts required a more frequent
celebration of the liturgical offices. Little is known with
precision and certitude of the composition of the different parts of
the Mass, but still there are many allusions in various authors
which give some valuable information. The Mass of the catechumens
consisted of psalms and lessons from the Scriptures. These lessons
were chosen from both the Old and New Testaments, and it would seem
that there were three lessons as in some of the Oriental liturgies,
one from the Old Testament, one from the Epistles in the New
Testament, and one from the Gospels. The Third Council of Carthage
decreed that only lessons from the canonical books of Scripture or
from the acts of the martyrs on their feast days might be read in
the churches. Between the Epistle and Gospel a psalm containing some
idea in harmony with the feast of the day was recited, and
corresponded to the gradual or tract in the Roman Mass. An alleluia
was also sung, more or less solemnly, especially on Sundays and
during the fifty days' prolongation of the Easter festival. The
lessons from the Scriptures were generally followed by a homily,
after which both the catechumens and the penitents were dismissed,
and the Mass of the faithful commenced. This rule of dismissing the
catechumens, etc., seems to have been strictly observed, since
nearly all the African writers in their sermons or other works use
expressions which indicate that their words would be intelligible
only to the initiated, and that the catechumens were ignorant of the
mysteries celebrated in the Mass of the faithful. The litany may
have been recited after the Gospel, although its precise position
cannot be determined with certainty. The litany consisted of short
petitions for the various needs of the Church, resembling somewhat
the petitions in the present Litany of the Saints, or perhaps the
prayers for different classes of persons, or necessities of the
Church which are now recited on Good Friday. The people very
probably responded with some acclamation like Kyrie eleison, or Te
rogamus audi nos.

In
the time of St. Augustine a chant for the Offertory was introduced
in the Church of Carthage; it consisted of a psalm having some
reference to the oblation, and was sung while the people were making
their offerings. Each of the faithful was supposed to bring an
offering for his communion. The offerings were received by the
bishop and placed upon the altar, with the appropriate prayers, and
then the bishop proceeded with the Mass. The Dominus vobiscum
preceded the Preface, which properly began with the words Sursum
corda, Habemos ad Dominum, Gratias agamus Domino Deo nostro, Dignun
et justum est. The canon of the Mass was known in Africa as the
actio, or agenda, and was mentioned but very seldom on account of
the "discipline of the secret". There are, however, some
passages in the African writers which show that there was a great
similarity between the African actio and the Roman canon, so much so
that some of the texts when put in juxtaposition are almost
identical. The actio contained the usual prayers, the commemoration
for the living and the dead, the words of institution and
sanctification of the sacrifice, the commemoration of Christ, the
Pater Noster, and the preparation for Communion. The Pater Noster
seems to have held the same position that it now has in the Roman
canon, and it was said before the Communion, as St. Augustine
states, because in the Lord's Prayer we beseech God to forgive our
offences, and thus we may approach the communion table with better
dispositions. The kiss of peace followed shortly after the Pater
Noster, and was closely connected with the Communion, being regarded
as a symbol of the fraternal union existing between all those who
partook of the Body and Blood of Christ. The faithful received
communion frequently, and were encouraged in the practice of
receiving daily communion. At the proper time the communicants
approached the altar and there partook of the Eucharist under both
species, answering "Amen" to the formula pronounced by the
priest in order to profess their faith in the sacrament just
received. During the distribution of communion the thirty-third
psalm was recited or sung, because that psalm contained some verses
considered appropriate for the Communion. Prayers of thanksgiving
were then said, and the people dismissed from the church with a
benediction.

The prayers
accompanying the administration of the other sacraments seem to have
become more fixed and to have lengthened since the time of
Tertullian. For the more decorous and convenient administration of
the Sacrament of Baptism, large baptisteries were erected, in which
the ceremony was carried out with great solemnity. The African
Church seems to have followed practically the same ritual as the
Roman Church during the catechumenate, which lasted for the forty
days preceding Easter. St. Augustine, for instance, speaks of
teaching the catechumens the Apostles' Creed and the Lord's Prayer,
and of the rites for the Vigil of Easter, as if they were in accord
with those in use at Rome; but there appears to be only one unction,
that after baptism, and the kiss of peace after baptism is still
given as in the days of St. Cyprian. Victor Vitensis asserts that
the African Church admitted the feast of the Epiphany as a day
appointed for the solemn administration of baptism according to the
custom prevailing in Oriental churches. The neophytes were confirmed
after baptism through the imposition of hands and the unction with
chrism on the forehead in the form of a cross, and on the same day
they seem to have received their first holy communion with about the
same ceremonies as in the ante-Nicene period. The rite for the
Sacrament of Penance shows few peculiarities in Africa, so public
penances were imposed and the reconciliation of penitents was
effected in the same manner as in the age of Tertullian.

Matrimony is
often mentioned, especially by St. Augustine, who speaks of the
nuptial blessing and the various other ceremonies, civil and
religious, connected with it, as for instance the tabulae nuptiales,
etc.

As
the Sacrament of Holy Orders had a more public character like the
Eucharist, it is frequently alluded to in the writings and
inscriptions of the time. Allusions are made to the various orders
and to ordination, but there is scarcely ever a description of the
rite of ordination, or an explanation of the formulas. It might be
noted that the archdeacon now appears and has special functions
assigned to him. Clerics began their ecclesiastical career as
lectors often at a tender age, and the lectors formed a schola
(school), which sang the ecclesiastical offices. Later on, the
lectors became chanters, and their duties were given to the other
ministers. St. Augustine also speaks frequently of the ceremony of
the consecration of virgins, which seems to have been reserved to
the bishops. The veil might be received at a much younger age in
Africa than at Rome.

The faithful
showed the same loving care and respect to the bodies of the
departed as in the ante-Nicene period, but now the funeral rites
were longer and more solemn. Prayers were said for the dead, Mass
was offered for the souls of the faithful departed, and special
rites took place while the funeral procession was on the way and
when the body was entombed. The names of the dead were recited in
the diptychs, and Mass was offered for them on the anniversaries of
death. Moreover, the inscriptions of this age contain beautiful
sentiments of hope in a happy future life for those who had lived
and died in the peace of the Lord, and beseech God to grant eternal
rest and beatitude to those who trust in His mercy. Many of these
expressions are very similar to the phrases now used in the
obsequies of the dead.

The
Divine Office was gradually developing, but was still in a very
rudimentary state. It consisted of the recitation or chanting of
psalms and canticles, of versicles and acclamations, and the reading
of portions of the Scriptures. There was a special collection of
canticles taken from the Old Testament in use in the African Church,
and perhaps, also, a collection of hymns composed by uninspired
writers, in which were the hymns of St. Ambrose. Many of the
versicles quoted in the writings of the time may be now found in the
present Roman liturgy. St. Augustine was evidently opposed to the
growing tendency to abandon the simple recitative tone and make the
chant of the offices more solemn and ornate as the ceremonial became
more formal. Gradually the formularies became more fixed, and
liberty to improvise was curtailed by the African councils. Few,
however, of the prayers have been preserved, although many shorter
verses and acclamations have been quoted in the writings of the
period, as for example, the Deo Gratias, Deo Laudes, and Amen, with
which the people approved the words of the preacher, or the
doxologies and conclusions of some of the prayers. The people still
used the sign of the cross frequently in their private devotions as
in the days of Tertullian. Other ceremonial acts in common use were
striking the breast as a sign of penance, extending the arms in the
form of a cross, kneeling during prayers, etc., all of which had
been handed down from primitive times. Such are some of the most
important data furnished by the early writers and inscriptions
concerning the liturgy of the African Church, and they are useful to
show the peculiarities of the Latin rite in Africa as well as the
similarity between the African and other liturgies.