British Prime Minister Theresa May’s
endorsement of Islam as a ‘religion of peace’ in a recent conference speaks of
the inherent spiritual strength of Islam and a glaring testimony to its
peaceful character.

The purpose of this article is not to
discuss about the spate of terror attacks as the whole world knows about each
major attack, whether in Orlando, Paris, Brussels, Munich, Medina, Baghdad,
Kabul, Dhaka – to cite the grisly attacks fresh in memory – but to elaborate on
Theresa May’s summary remarks. She partly quoted only two verses of the Qur’an
whose full renditions are:

“(There is) no compulsion in religion. Truth
stands out clearly from falsehood; so whoever rejects false deities and
believes in God, has grasped a firm handhold, which will never break.
(Remember,) God is All-Knowing and Aware” (2:256).

“O People! We have created you as male and
female, and made you into races and communities (lit., ‘tribes) for you to get
to know each other. The noblest among you near God are those of you who are the
most heedful (morally upright). Indeed, God is All-Knowing and Informed”
(49:13).

The sceptic may regard Theresa May’s words
as mere platitude aimed at appeasing the sizeable British Muslim population and
getting their full support in curbing radicalization. One can quote ten times
as many verses out of context to disprove her and to claim that the Prophet
amassed large armies, crushed his opponents, compelled them to convert and
forced the pagan women to enter Islam or become sex-slaves. There is ample
material in Islam’s secondary sources to support such claims.

The purpose of this article is to let the
Qur’an – which was recorded and memorized by its direct audience and preserved
verbatim through an unbroken chain of memorizers, speak for itself.

Accordingly, this essay pieces together
some 280 verses of the Qur’an to establish the captioned claim and to remove
any doubts about the sincerity of Theresa May with regard to what she said. The
essay is divided into three parts to cover four different phases of the
revelation as informed by its historical setting, challenges and
priorities:

Phase-I

The Initial Non-Violent Phase – The
Meccan Period (610-622)

During the first twelve years of the
revelation (610-622) the Prophet was stationed at his hometown, Mecca. He
preached by reciting the passages of the Qur’an as they were revealed. Barring
exceptions, his fellow Meccans dismissed his claims to the revelations. As
the Qur’an records, the Meccans called him impostor (30:58), insane (44:14,
68:51), and an insane poet (37:36), and ridiculed the Qur’anic revelation
(18:56, 26:6, 37:14, 45:9). They found the revelation strange and unbelievable
(38:5, 50:2), and condemned it as the legends of the ancients (6:25, 23:83,
27:68, 46:17, 68:15, 83:13). They questioned why Muhammad could not show any
miracles (6:37, 11:12, 13:7, 17:90-9321:5, 25:7/8, 29:50), and why the Qur'an
was not revealed to a man of importance from the two cities (43:31) and
declared that other people coached Muhammad or dictated to him morning and
evening (25:5). They also charged him with forging lies and witchcraft (34:43,
38:4), forging lies against God, forgery and making up tales (11:13, 32:3,
38:7, 46:8), witchcraft (21:3, 43:30, 74:24), bewildering witchcraft (10:2,
37:15, 46:7)and of being possessed by a Jinn (17:47, 23:70, 34:8).

The foregoing Qur’anic allusions (in
italics) leave no doubt that the Meccans were bitterly opposed to and enraged
with Muhammad and found his claims to revelation outrageous and a monstrous
lie. The prevalent clan ties and fear of revenge, however, prevented the
Meccans from any recourse to violence against Muhammad, but they hoped for a
misfortune to befall him any time (52:30). But they captured and persecuted
those converts who were weak and helpless (8:26, 85:10). They also barred (the
believers) from the Sacred Mosque (8:34) and eventually schemed against
Muhammad to take him captive, or kill him or drive him away (from Makkah)
(8:30).

The Qur’an, consoles the Prophet in his
grief (36:76), and anguish (7:2, 15:97, 20:2), and (asks him) not to feel
depressed by their (Meccans’) plots (16:127, 27:70), nor to be unsettled by
them (30:60). (It exhorts him) not to let his enemies divert him from the
messages of God after it had been revealed to him (28:87), to endure patiently
what they say, to ignore their insults and to trust in God (26:217, 33:3,
33:48, 67:29) and seek refuge in Him (7:200, 41:36). It assures him that God
was enough for him against those who ridiculed him (15:95), and devotes the following passage in his defence at an early stage
of the revelation:

“Nun. By the Pen and what they write
with it line by line. You are not, by the grace of your Lord, crazy. And yours
for sure is a reward constant and beyond measure. You are surely of a sublime
character and do act by a sublime pattern of conduct. Soon you will see and
they will see, which of you is afflicted with madness. (68:1-6)

Conclusion (Part-I): Not one single verse of the Qur’an from this period (610-622)
carries any instruction or suggestion to the Prophet to taking to any form of
violence in the face of bitter opposition, unmitigated fury, hostility and
persecution. Islam, during this period remained completely non-violent,
espoused complete freedom in religion and enjoined repelling evil with good:

“If your Lord
so willed, everyone on earth would have believed, all together. Will you then
compel people until they become believers” (10:99)?

“We know
best what they say; but you (O Muhammad,) are not to force them. So remind with
the Qur'an those who fear My warning” (50:45).

“So remind
(them, O Muhammad) – for you are one who reminds (88:21); and have no power
over them” (88:22).

Those who patiently
seek the Countenance of their Lord, keep up prayer and spend out of what We
have provided them, secretly or publicly and repel evil with good – such will
attain the eternal life” (13:22).

“Repel evil
with that which is good. Indeed, We are aware of what they are working (in
their minds)” (23:96).

“Goodness and
evil are not equal. Therefore, repel the latter with that which is good, and
then the one between whom and you is hatred, will indeed become your friend
(41:34). None can attain this except those who show perseverance; and none can
attain this except the very fortunate” (41:34).

The question is, did Islam change its
character with time.

The answer is No.

The Qur’anic verses of the Meccan period
form an integral part of the Qur’anic message through to the end of the
revelation as they remain to this day and the diverse egalitarian and
humanistic themes of the Meccan revelations reverberate through the Medinite
period (622-632).

With this back up of the Meccan period, we
now move to the first eight years (612-620) of the Medinite period, when
organized warfare was permitted to defend against oppression, attack and
persecution.

Phase-II

Meccans’ Attacks and Internal
Conspiracies – first five years of the Medinite Period (622-627)

The Meccans’ increasing hostility towards
the believers and their plan to capture, kill or expel the Prophet made them
flee Mecca to Medina after some twelve years of their struggle in Mecca
(610-622). This marked the beginning of the Medinite period. The Qur’anic allusion
to this historical event is sparse and obliquely captured in these verses:

If you (O
Meccans) do not help him (the Messenger), yet for certain God helped him when
those who disbelieve drove him out (of his home), and when he and his only
accomplice (literally, the second of the two) were in the cave (to hide from
their pursuers), and he said to his companion (Abu Bakr, not named in the
Qur’an): "Do not grieve. God is surely with us." Then God sent down
His gift of inner peace (sakinah) and reassurance on him, supported him with
hosts you cannot see, and brought the word (the cause) of the unbelievers
utterly low…. (9:40)

“The first and
foremost (to embrace Islam) among the Emigrants (who migrated to Medina) and
the Helpers (the Muslims of Medina who sheltered them), and those who follow
them in devotion to doing good, aware that God is seeing them – God is
well-pleased with them, and they are well-pleased with Him, and He has prepared
for them Gardens throughout which rivers flow, therein to abide forever. That
is the supreme triumph” (9:100)

From moment of his arrival in Medina, the
Prophet earned the unreserved respect of its people that included some native
pagans who had embraced Islam during the concluding years of the Prophet’s stay
in Mecca, and the native Jewish tribes. With passing of days, his popularity as
a Messenger of God grew and conversion picked up through social contacts and
word of mouth. Before long, he entered into a joint peace and defence treaty
with the mixed Medinite community that comprised the native pagan tribes
(notably the Aws and the Khazraj), the Jewish tribes (the Qaynuqah, the Nadir
and the Qurayzah), and the upcoming Muslim community - the Emigrants
(Muhajirin) and the Helpers (Ansar) (9:100 above). The Prophet was appointed as
the civil head (Chief arbiter of tribal disputes) of Medina. Thus, in less than
a year he was transformed from the most helpless and despised man in his native
city, Mecca, to the most respected and politically powerful man in the host
city, Medina through his exemplary conduct and trust worthiness rather than any
coercion or violence – a transformation that is impossible to explain in
political terms. Meanwhile his following also grew and the Muslims gained their
identity as a growing community under the spiritual and temporal leadership of
the Prophet. This greatly alarmed the Prophet’s Meccan enemies who had seen his
tenacity and resilience through the twelve-year span of the Meccan period and
dreaded his revolutionary ‘Deen’ (code of life)that was antithetical to their
ancestral customs, practices, notions, taboos and believes that they cherished
and were proud of. They had to stop him at any cost. Accordingly, in the
ensuing years (624, 625, 627) they sent powerful armies against the Prophet
that precipitated in three major battles (Badr, Uhud and Trench), each fought
in the vicinity of Medina. Meanwhile a faction of Medinite converts wavered
in faith. They pretended to believe but in their hearts mocked at the new faith
(2:8, 2:14). (Referred to as) the hypocrites (munafiqun) (at a later stage of
the revelation), they opposed the Prophet (47:32) and conspired with the
native Jewish tribes to foil the Prophet’s mission.

With this snap-shot on the Prophet’s role
as a leader of the believers and the Chief Arbiter of Medina, we take a window
at the battles and sieges that he encountered in this period.

At the outset it needs explaining that the
Qur’an only captures the high points of the Prophet’s mission and omits any
details and historical contexts. The Prophet’s followers had no difficulty in
comprehending its related verses as they were witnessing the details of what
was happening. For the later and present day audience, some additional remarks
are needed to be inserted into Qur’anic allusions to say what the Qur’an
omitted but its audience understood. These remarks are added in bracket ‘[]’ in
the review below and it is hoped that even an unfamiliar reader will be able to
read the Qur’an’s mind. Some explanatory words are added in semi-circle brackets
‘(...)’ to make the cryptic Qur’anic diction easy to understand. Rendition of
Qur’anic verses is in italics in green ink.

II.1 Battle of Badr (624)

The Prophet departed Medina on a true
cause though some of the believers were averse to this mission (not knowing
where they were heading for) (8:5).

[As a home-bound Meccan trading caravan was
scheduled to pass through a close by caravan route], some of them hoped that
they were going to raid it (8:7). Meanwhile, a powerful Meccan army had set off
boastfully taking the expedition as an easy way to fame (8:47).

[As the story goes, the Prophet had secret
plans to raid the caravan. But if so, he could have disclosed it and get more
people to join him as such a mission would have carried little risk and
promised great rewards. But he was silent about the destination. This can only
mean that he apprehended an engagement with the approaching Meccan army, and
left Medina to have his nascent community of believers fight against the
non-believers. Or possibly he himself did not know which of the two parties he
was going to encounter.]

When the Prophet’s party was at the
nearer end of the valley (some 35 miles en-route Mecca which lay a further 215
miles to the south) the Meccan army was at the farther end and the trading
caravan was close by (but out of sight) (8:42). God showed this army to be
fewer in the believers’ dream and in the battle-field. Had God showed it to be
numerous (as it really was), the believers might have lost heart and disputed
over the decision to engage it in battle (8:43, 8:44). But as the truth dawned,
the believers were struck with horror and argued about it with the Prophet
(8:6) without realizing that it was God’s scheme to verify the truth of His
Words and to cut the root of the pagans (8:7). They implored God for help. (The
Qur’an responded that) God will help them with one thousand angels, swooping
down host after host (8:9), but this promise was merely to reassure them
(8:10). It commanded the Prophet to inspire his followers and assured them that
if they persevered patiently, they would overcome the attackers, even if they
were twice or ten times as many (8:65/66).But the hypocrites and those weak in
faith thought that their faith had deluded them (8:49).(The revelation
reassures them that) if they could but see how the angels will strike them (the
attackers) on the faces and the backs (saying): "Taste the punishment of
the scorching Fire! (8:50).

(The Qur’an also touches on the essential
military code relevant to the era). It commands the believers “to strike at
their necks and strike at every finger (which holds a sword or bow)” (8:12) as
they had defied God and His Messenger (8:13).It warns them not turn their backs
in flight (8:15), – except for tactical manoeuvring to fight again or joining
another troop of believers (8:16).

[Many of the Meccans killed in the battle
were close relatives and friends of the Prophet and his followers. This must
have greatly saddened the believers. The Qur’an reassures them that they did
not kill them but God killed them; and when they shot (arrows at them), it was
not they who shot – but it was all part of God’s scheme to put the believers to
a severe test from Him and to thwart the evil design of the pagans (8:17/18).

The Muslims took many captives; the
revelation, however, reproves the Prophet for taking captives before completely
subduing the enemy (8:67). (In other words, the
Qur’an warned him that showing compassion in the battle-field where the only
the heartless killer survives is not the best tactics). It, however, asks
him to tell the captives that if God recognizes any good in their hearts, God
will give them better than what was taken from them (8:70).

(The revelation tells the Meccans), if
they wanted a judgment it was before them, and warns them to desist from any
further attack and declares that their army, however large, will avail them
nothing (8:19)

[With the military encounter at the Badr,
Islam acquired a political dimension that it retained through the end of the
Prophet’s mission and has reeled from through the course of Islamic history
till this day. But Badr was a purely historical development triggered by the
departure of a powerful army from Mecca, whose commander was over-confident of
victory (8:47 above). The Prophet had to defend against this army with his
small band of followers who did not even know the destination of their mission
and some among them were not happy about it(8:5 above)].

Post Badr Conspiracies of the Jewish
tribes

[The native Jews were thoroughly Arabised,
and had independent tribal identity as mentioned earlier. As revelation had
acknowledged their Prophet and first Patriarch Abraham as the epitome of pure
monotheism (3:95, 4:125, 16:123) and the leader of all humanity (2:124) and the
believers turned towards Jerusalem in their prayers, they welcomed him in
Medina as a Semitic Prophet and supported him in his mission. But one incident
upset them.]

(During a prayer) the revelation
commanded a change in the direction of prayer (from Jerusalem to the Ka‘bah)
(2:143).

[This virtually meant turning away from the
focal point of the Jewish faith, and facing towards a pantheon of idols that
the Kaba represented at that stage. Since the revelation had described the Ka‘bah,
as the first House of worship built by Abraham (2:127, 3:96), the new
prayer direction (qiblah) virtually appointed the Muslims as the true
representatives or spiritual successors of the Prophet Abraham, From the Jewish
perspective, Muhammad had hijacked their spiritual heritage and laid the
foundation of an independent Semitic faith that could claim greater genuineness
and purity than their own. Not many months later, they got the news of
Muhammad’s victory at Badr. They were shattered and began to harbour suspicion
against the Muslims.]

However, the Muslims loved them, but
they did not love the Muslims, and they wouldn’t have done so even if the
Muslims believed in the whole of their scripture. When they met the Muslims,
they would pretend to believe but when they were alone, they bit their
fingertips at them (the Muslims) in rage (3:119). Moreover, if any good befell
the Muslims it grieved them; but if something bad happened to them, they
rejoiced at it (3:120). Thus they loved what distressed the Muslims, spoke
maliciously against them, and what their breasts concealed was even worse
(3:118).

[With time their malice turned into
treachery leading to Treaty violations. The Qaynuqas, whose settlement was
close to the city and who were allies of the hypocrites of Medina posed an
immediate threat.]

(The revelation had meanwhile declared
to Muhammad) “If you fear treachery from a people (with whom you have a
treaty), reciprocate to them (by dissolving the treaty) … and inflict crushing
defeat in war to those of their allies who repeatedly broke their treaty (8:56-58).

[The Qaynuqas were put under a siege. They
expected in vain for the hypocrites to come forward to defend them and finally
surrendered. None of the vanquished was killed, enslaved or taken captive and
the whole community was allowed to leave Medina with whatever personal
belongings they could carry.]

Post Badr Conspiracies of the
hypocrites

[The Badr victory established hitherto
little known Muhammad as an emerging political power. This greatly alarmed the
hypocrites and they launched a campaign to marginalize him and dismissed his
prophetic claims.]

When asked to come to what God revealed
and to the Prophet, they turned their faces in aversion (4:61). The Qur’an
warns that God will not forgive nor guide those who embrace faith, then deny it
and yet again come to believe and then become more stubborn in their denial
(4:137) and took the pagans as their friends in preference to the believers
(4:139) and warns them of severe punishments (4:138). They now openly denied
and ridiculed the revelation (4:140), and waited to see the Prophet’s downfall.
If he succeeded, they readily claimed their allegiance to him but if the pagans
had good luck, they secretly claimed to be on their side (4:141). They tried to
deceive God; when they stood for prayer, they stood lazily merely for others to
see (4:142).Some of them pretended obedience to the Prophet in public, but
schemed against him by night (4:81). The Prophet’s followers were, however, in
two minds about these hypocrites (4:88). (The revelation commands them) not to
argue or plead on their behalf (4:105, 4:107) and declares the hypocrites will
be in the lowest depth of the Fire and will never find for them any helper
(4:145).

[The Meccans meanwhile made massive
preparations and sent a powerful army to avenge their defeat at Badr. It camped
at the plane facing Mount Uhud, a few miles from Medina, awaiting a defensive
encounter from the Prophet. The second major battle against the Muslims was
soon to begin.]

II.2 Battle of Uhud (624):

The Qur’an commands the Prophet to
prepare with whatever arms and cavalry they could muster to strike terror (into
the hearts of) the enemies of God and theirs (8:60), but to avert fighting if
their enemies were inclined toward peace (8:61). But the Meccans were not
inclined to peace.

The community leaders advised the
Prophet to stay back in Medina and avert a direct encounter (3:168).The
revelation, however, commands Muhammad to urge the believers to fight, but not
to compel anyone to march with him (4:84).On way to the battleground a faction
of Muslims (hypocrites) withdrew saying, if they knew how to fight, they would
have followed the Prophet (3:167).(It reminded the believers) that at Badr also
they were weak and helpless (3:123) and inspired them with God’s promise of
sending down three thousand angels (3:124). It further said, if they stood firm
and dutiful in the face of a sudden attack, God would assist them with five
thousand angels, swooping down (3:125) (It, however, clarified that, as at
Badr, - 8:10 above), God had made this (promise) only to set their hearts at
peace (3:126), and thus to enable them to overthrow their enemies and repulse
their attack (3:127).

(On the day of the encounter), the
Prophet left early in the morning to put his people at battle stations
(3:121).Initially, the Muslims made decisive gains, when some of the fighters
weakened: they argued over the order and disobeyed after God showed them what
they loved of this world (booty) (3:152). They ran off, paying attention to no
one and ignoring the Prophet calling them from behind. (The attackers struck
back in full force and thus) God repaid them (the Muslims) with affliction upon
affliction so that they would not sorrow over what slipped away from them
(3:153). Two of the factions of believers almost lost hope (3:122). (The
revelation urged the believers) not to despair or grieve (3:139) (and consoled
them that) if they were wounded, their enemies had also sustained injuries. (It
reminded them that) these were the days of changing fortune to which God subjects
humankind to know which of them truly believe (3:140). The hypocrites were
assailed with the thoughts of pagan ignorance. They said, ‘if we had any say in
the matter our men would not have been killed (3:154). Those, who had stayed
back, said of their brethren: ‘Had they obeyed us, they would not have been
killed (3:168).

[The survivors were traumatized, and lay
wounded and lifeless in the field, struck with grief at the loss of some 62 of
their men. Meanwhile a word spread that the Prophet was killed. The Muslims
were terribly shocked and broke into a rout while the attackers left in glory,
fully sure of their success in eliminating the Prophet.]

(The revelation reminds them that)
Muhammad was merely a messenger, other messengers had passed away before him,
(and asks,) if he died or was killed would they turn on their heels? (3:144).
God sent down after their grief a sense of security - slumber overtook a group
of them (who were firm in faith), while others (the hypocrites) who had been
anxious about themselves, were assailed with the thoughts of pagan ignorance.
They said, ‘if we had any say in the matter our men would not have been killed
(3:154).

[But the Prophet was not dead – he was
wounded. Seeing the attackers retreating, he planned to chase them on their way
back home.]

(The revelation promised) the wounded
followers of the Prophet who responded to his call: those among them who did
good and remained active in taqwa (morally upright), a splendid reward
(3:172)and exhorted them not to let up in pursuit (4:104). (Meanwhile, a rumour
arose that) a host had gathered against them (at Medina), so they had to be
wary. But this only increased their faith (3:173), and they returned home by
the grace and blessings of God, untouched by harm (3:174). (The revelation
consoles the Prophet’s followers that) it is not for God to leave them in the
(dire) state they were in until He separates the bad ones form the good and it
is not for God to inform them of the unseen (3:179).

It was due to mercy from God that the Prophet
was mild to the dissenters (who had defied his orders) (3:159). The revelation
commands the Prophet to consult with them, asks his followers to put their
trust in God and assures them that no prophet could be false to his trust (by
giving his own decision in God’s name) (3:160-161)

With this ends the Qur’an’s very sketchy
account of this battle, which was nothing short of an ordeal for the Prophet
and his followers.

[The expulsion of the Qaynuqas prior to the
battle of Uhud and the Prophet’s virtual defeat at Uhud at the expense of heavy
casualties was deeply distressing to the twin internal enemies of the Prophet -
the native Jewish tribes and the hypocrites. From the Jewish perspective, one
out of their three tribes was expelled and it was only a matter of time that
their turn came. The hypocrites held the Prophet singularly responsible for the
loss of life and injuries Uhud inflicted upon many fellow Medinites who took
part in the battle. As the hypocrites concealed their true feelings, they
secretly instigated the neighbouring Jewish tribe- the Nadirs to openly defy
the Prophet and promised their active assistance if he attacked them. They
also promised the Nadirs that if they were driven away (from Madinah), they
will certainly go out with them and will never obey anyone against them
(59:11).

[Meanwhile, as the story goes, an
assassination plot leaked out, and the Prophet demanded their expulsion from
the oasis for breaking their treaty. Finally, on their refusal to comply, he
laid siege on their settlement.

They(Nadirs) thought that their
strongholds would protect them, but (the punishment of) God came upon them from
where they failed to reckon. (59:2). Besides, they did not fight as a united
body, with each fortified settlement defending on its own from within fortified
strongholds or from behind high walls. (59:14). To make matter worst, the
hypocrites went back on their promise and did not turn up(59:12).

Finally, when (as a prelude to an
attack) the Prophet ordered to cut down the tender palms (59:5), the Nadirs
were overwhelmed with dread of the believers (59:13). Like those (the Jews of
Banu Qaynuqah) who, a short time before them suffered on account of their own
doings(59:15), they surrendered without a battle (59:2).Had God not decreed
banishment for them, He would certainly have punished them (more grievously) in
this world (59:3). [They were allowed to depart
with as much of their possessions as their camels could carry]. However, the
Muslims made material gains in terms of what was left behind by the people of
the settlement (the Nadirs), without having to drive horses or camels for it.
(59:6) (The revelation reserved) it for God and His Messenger, the close ones
(qurba), the orphans, the needy and the traveller (in distress), so that it
didn’t circulate among the rich in their midst (59:7). It was also for the poor
Emigrants, who had been driven from their homes and their property, seeking
favour with God and His approval and good pleasure (59:8).

II.3 Trench War/ Siege – Coordinated
attack on Medina (627)

[The exile of Banu Nadir only exacerbated
the frustration of the hypocrites.] They came to Muhammad to bear witness
that he was a Messenger of God, but they were simply crying lies (58:18, 63:1).
They used their faith as a cover to lead others away from God and the Prophet
thus acted in an evil way (58:16, 63:2) first embracing faith and then denying
it - It was as if their hearts were sealed up and they were unable to think
coherently (63:3)

The hypocrites were charming in looks,
deceitful in speech, commanded profound self-confidence and turned away from
the believers in arrogance (63:4-5). They discouraged the people of Madinah
from spending anything for those who are with the Prophet [the Emigrants] until
they are forced to leave and looked forward to the expulsion of the humble ones
(Muhammad and the Emigrants) after their return to Medina from the Uhud
(63:7-8). Thus, they contended against God and His Messenger in brazenly
despicable manner for which the revelation singles them out as the comrades of
Satan (58:19/20).

[They now colluded with the remaining
native Jewish tribe, the Qurayzah, and invited the Meccans (led by the powerful
Quraysh tribe which was native to the Prophet) to launch an all-out attack on
the Muslims in Medina. Accordingly, the Quraysh formed a military confederation
with the powerful Jewish tribe of Khaybar (a settlement some 85 miles from
Medina) and the nomadic tribes opposed to the Prophet. Their armies approached
Medina in a coordinated manner, while the Qurayzah of Medina stood by to strike
the believers from the rear. It was almost checkmate in a war game. The
attackers were soon to arrive.]

(As the Prophet’s followers watched over
the horizon) the attackers came on them, waves upon waves. Their eyes dimmed
and their hearts rose up to their throats and they conceived (weird) thoughts
about God (33:10). This was a moment of
trial for the believers as they were shaken by a most violent shock (33:11).

The hypocrites wished they were in the
desert with the Bedouins, inquiring about the news of the believers
(33:20).They said what God and the Prophet of God had promised was mere
illusion and some of them sought the Prophet’s permission saying that their
homes were exposed, though they were not exposed and they only wanted to flee
(33:13).

[Not being in a position to face the
attackers, Muhammad, got a deep trench dug at the approach side of the town,
otherwise protected by inaccessible hills, to keep the invaders at bay. This
forced them to lay a siege on Medina. The siege threatened the very survival of
the believers].

Had the enemy broken the siege and
entered (the city) from the sides and asked them (the hypocrites) to dissent
and join a civil war, they would have readily done so (33:14), despite their
oaths that they will not turn their backs (33:15). Thus, they broke the trust
that is placed exclusively on humankind (3:72). Accordingly, God pronounced his
curse upon the hypocrites, men and women and upon the Meccan pagans, men and
women (33:73).

It was only the Qur’anic exhortations
and the Prophet’s exemplary conduct and behaviour (Uswatun hasana) that kept
the Muslims from surrendering (33:21).Finally, God repulsed the pagans in their
rage by a severe storm (33:25)and forces invisible (33:9),and spared the
believers any combat (33:25). And God brought down from their strongholds those
of the People of the Book (the Qurayzas) who backed them (the attackers) and He
threw terror into their hearts. A group of them was killed and a group was
taken as captive (33:26), and their land, their homes, and their possessions
were seized (33:27).

[The classical biography of the Prophet
reports that some 800-900 Jews were slain one after another – single handedly
by the Prophet, in a sword wielding feat. But the classical biography is based
on the work of Ibn Ishaq, pieced together some 150 years after the Prophet’s
death in the form of a story. Like all stories of that era, the Prophet’s story
is based entirely on oral accounts (pious tales), is highly romanticized,
speculative and embellished and its bits and pieces can be highly exaggerated,
grossly inaccurate and patently legendary. This is expounded in the writer’s
duly authenticated co-authored work, Essential Message of Islam, Amana
Publications, Maryland, USA 2009.]

[In the days of relative peace that
followed the Trench war, the Prophet had a dream that promised an end to the
fear and anxiety in which he had lived for almost two decades - since he began
his Prophetic career (610).]

He saw himself and his followers
entering the Sacred Mosque (the Ka‘bah) in complete security, heads shaved or
hair cut short and without fear (48:27). [He
decided to realize this dream.]The nomadic Arabs who were weak in faith
preferred to stay back (48:11), as they thought the Prophet and the believers
would never be able to return to their families (48:12). As a soft punishment,
the revelation barred the Prophet from taking them along during any military
campaign that promised spoils (48:15).

[The Prophet set off for pilgrimage with
some one thousand of his followers, all in pilgrim garb, not geared for any
combat. The Quraysh sent a cavalry squadron under the command of Khalid Ibn
al-Walid, a veteran of the battle of Uhud and Trench, to intercept the caravan.
The pilgrims made a detour and camped at Hudaybiyah, some nine miles from
Mecca; and a powerful Quraysh army camped nearby threatening them with total
destruction, as they had not come with any preparations for war. The pilgrims
waited in gnawing uncertainty - tormented, agonized and utterly confused about
what fate had in store for them].

(Before long) God sent divine peace
(sakinah) down into their hearts to add faith to their faith (48:4), [and the Prophet sought an oath of allegiance from his followers]. God
was pleased with them when they swore allegiance to him under the tree for He
knew what was in their hearts, and He sent divine peace (sakinah) down on them
and rewarded them with an opening (fatah - putatively ‘victory) (48:18).

[Finally, a peace treaty was signed. The
Meccans dictated the terms of the treaty in a high-handed manner. It undermined
the position of Muhammad as the Prophet of God, and was offensive and
humiliating to the Muslims and seemingly to the sole advantage of the
Quraysh.The Prophet’s companions were quite perplexed, though they remained
unwavering in their faith, and in their allegiance to the Prophet. However,
soonthe Qur’an removes their confusion with its following declaration]:

Indeed, We have (now) given you (O
Muhammad!) a clear opening (fatah, 48:1). God has promised you an abundance of
gains that you will take, and He has expedited this for you, and it was God who
held back the hands of your enemies from you as a sign for the believers
(48:20). Even if the pagans fight you, they will turn their backs and will not
be able to find any protector or any helper (48:22).

[As the revelation had declared, the
Hudaybiyah Peace treaty turned out to be a great opening (Fatah -
putatively ‘victory). It allowed for increased interaction between the Muslims
and the nomadic tribes who were now free to form alliance with the Quraysh or
the Prophet as they chose. In a year or two following the signing of this peace
treaty, the Prophet made as many converts as he had made in the preceding
eighteen years. Thanks to this Peace Treaty, the Muslims had grown sufficiently
in number to contain their perennial foes, the Meccans.]

III.2 Peace treaty with the Jews of
Khaybar (629)

[The oasis Khaybar lay to the north of
Medina and was home to the most prosperous of Jewish settlements outside Medina
that had given refuge to the exiled Nadirs.
They had taken a lead role in the launching of the recent coordinated
attack on Medina.] They colluded with the hypocrites, listened to lies and
to what other people who had not even met the Prophet said, and altered the
wordings of the revelation from their contexts to distort their meanings
(5:44).

[Hearing about their schemes to pull off
yet another coordinated invasion of Medina, the Prophet decided to launch a
campaign against them.Prevented from taking those nomadic Arabs who had stayed
back during the pilgrimage to campaigns that promised spoils (48:15 above), the
Prophet set off for Khaybar with a small group (reportedly some 600) of his
devout followers. After a series of encounters and sieges, the Jews surrendered.
The Prophet concluded a peace treaty with them granting full liberties and
military protection against a levy that was no different from what they paid to
their old Bedouin protectors].

III.3 Peaceful Integration of Mecca (630)

[Muhammad now envisioned integrating his
own people – the Quraysh, whom he loved (42:23), but could not bring to
his faith (28:56). The Hudaybiyah Treaty prevented him from interfering with
the Meccans, and he waited for an opportunity to realize his vision. This came
about when the Quraysh took up arms against one of the Meccan tribes who had
treaty alliance with him for defending them when attacked. The Prophet set off
for Mecca with all his men, all armed for battle if needed.]

(As the Muslims began to enter the
city), the most fanatic among theMeccans harboured intense animosity – the
fiery passion of the days of Ignorance, when God sent divine peace (sakinah) upon His Messenger and on the believers, and imposed on them the
Word of restraint (taqwa), as they were entitled to it and worthy of it (48:26).

God withheld the hands of the Meccans
from the Muslims and the hands of the Muslims from the Meccans (48:24). Had it
not been so, the Muslims would have trampled on those believing men and
believing women (among the Meccans) they were not aware of (as those Meccans
had secretly become Muslims), and thus guilt and stigma would have befallen
them unawares? Had the (Meccan) Muslims been separated out, God would surely
have punished the disbelievers among them (the Meccans) (48:25).

[Muhammad would have been within his rights
to bring to justice the tormentors and killers of the unprotected converts
during the Meccan period, execute the leaders of the tribes who had plotted to
kill him, who attacked Medina and broke treaty alliances. But all he is
reported to have said to a group of Meccans was: There is no blame upon you
today. God will forgive you. He is the Most Merciful of the merciful (12:92)
- words of forgiveness that in the Qur’an, Joseph had spoken to his brothers
who had been unjust to him when he was a child.]

(In the ensuing days), the Meccans came
in throngs to the Prophet to embrace the new faith (110:2), and the revelation
reminded the Prophet to glorify God and seek His forgiveness (110:3).

[Thus, the Qur’an commanded Muhammad to
remain humble at the greatest and most unexpected political cum military
achievement of his life, and to seek forgiveness (for any feeling of arrogance
or grandeur that might have assailed him)]

Conclusion – Phase III

The Prophet’s determination to travel to
Mecca virtually unarmed for pilgrimage speaks loudly of his faith in peace and
reconciliation as a tool to win over the most bitter of enemies. Occurring soon after the Trench war, this
unarmed journey into the bastion of his powerful enemies demonstrates that he
would have never crossed limits – let alone committing the alleged massacre of
the Qurayzas just a little while ago in historical terms. The peace treaty with
the Jews of Khyber who had surrendered under siege is another example of mercy
in military history that is replete with most gory accounts of massacre of
besieged people upon surrender. The bloodless integration of Mecca can stand
out as a unique example of compassion and reconciliation in human history.

[Shocked at the un-resisted fall of Mecca
and voluntary conversion of flocks upon flocks of the Meccans, the Hawazins, a
powerful tribe proud of Arab paganism, sent a strong army to retake the Ka‘ba
and reinstall Arab paganism.]

The numerical superiority of the Muslims
that delighted them came to no benefit, and the earth, spacious though it was,
narrowed on them and they were forced to retreat (9:25). God sent divine peace
(sakinah) upon the Prophet and on his followers and forces invisible and thus
helped them to defeat the pagans (9:26).

IV.2 Tabuk Expedition (630)

[In the aftermath of the pilgrimage (628)
the Qur’an had warned the nomadic Arabs who had not participated in the
pilgrimage that they shall be summoned (to fight) against a nation of great
might (48:16). So, the Prophet was revelation-bound to mount an expedition
against a mighty nation. As the neighbouring Byzantium posed a threat to the
nascent Muslim community, and at that point in history was the mightiest in the
region, the Prophet decided to lead an expedition up north to the frontiers of
Byzantium.]

If there were immediate gains and a
convenient trip, the Prophet’s followers would have readily agreed; but (they
knew) the journey was going to be too long, (about 350 miles) strenuous and
dangerous. They swore their inability to go out on the expedition, though God
knew they were liars (9:42). The Prophet allowed them exemption without even
verifying if they were telling lies (9:43). The sincere believers, however, did
not seek any exemption and came forward with their possessions, ready to lay
down their lives (9:44). But those who did not believe in God and the Last Day
and wavered in their doubts (the hypocrites) sought to stay back (9:45). They
swore by God that they supported the expedition, but in truth, they were in
such mortal fear (9:56) that if only they could find any place of refuge, a
cave or a crevice, they would have resorted to it (9:57). They swore to God,
only to please the Prophet, but it was more proper for them to please God and
His Messenger (by going forth with the Prophet) (9:62). They also feared if any verse was revealed
disclosing what was in their breast (9:64). Had they any intention to go forth,
they would have made some preparations for it, but God was averse to their
participation (9:46). Some nomadic Arabs came to the Prophet in Medina with
excuses seeking exemption; others, who belied God and the Prophet, remained at
home (9:90). (God knew,) had they gone out with them (the believers), they
would have only added to their difficulties seeking to spread rumours among
them and some of the believers might have listened to them (9:47).

[Given the nature of this dangerous –
virtually suicidal mission, and the dread it inspired], the hypocrites
requested the Prophet not to put them to such a hard test (9:49). They ridiculed the Prophet in their hearts,
privately joked about him (9:64), and tried to stir up discord and upset
matters for him (9:48). They blamed and
ridiculed the believers for their voluntary donations to the Prophet, and
criticized those without any means for rendering physical services (9:79).
Cognizant of their antipathy to their faith, the Qur’an asked the Prophet not to
accept any donation from them (9:53/54). Some of the affluent believers wished
to stay back with those who were to sit it out, though the believers who had
faith in the Prophet were ready for the ordeal (9:86-87). The revelation,
exempted the sick and those who had no role in the expedition (the women,
children or physically challenged) (9:91), while those eager to join the
expedition but having no means of transport for the journey, turned back with
tears overflowing their eyes (9:92). However, the hearts of some of the
believers nearly swerved (9:117), while three persons among the devout
believers stayed back (9:118) and some of the hypocrites aimed at something
that was beyond their reach – (kill the Prophet) (9:74).

[The imperial Byzantine army was massive,
well organized, well equipped and regularly drilled, had strong cavalry
divisions and extensive combat experience, and did not risk any supply shortage
as it stood on home ground. The Prophet’s army on the other hand consisted of
an assemblage of warriors drawn from diverse Arab tribes on a relatively short
notice, and was no match to the Byzantine army on any military criteria. Any
military strategist of the era would have instantly predicted an utter defeat
and annihilation for the Prophet’s army, attacking the mighty Byzantines - some
300 miles away from their own base (Medina) across barren and blazing desert
terrain without any supply line or plans to sustain an attack or safe passage
for retreat in case of a rout. So the hypocrites must have questioned the
Prophet’s sanity, and planned to finish him off.]

[The Qur’an omits any reference to the
destination of the expedition or any military engagement of the of the
Prophet’s party in course of the expedition. It, however, gives the following
instruction on making a peace treaty with the Christian and Jewish settlements
that lay en-route the Prophet’s path]:

“Fight those
from among the People of the Book (Christians and Jews) who do not have faith
in God, nor in the Last Day, and do not consider forbidden what God and His
messenger have forbidden, and do not acknowledge the religion of truth - until
they pay tribute (jizyah) willingly as subjects” (9:29).

[The significance of this verse in peaceful
spread of Islam lies the argument that had this verse not been revealed, the
newly converted Arabs with their pre-Islamic economy of collecting booties by
raiding caravans and culture of blood vendetta would have unleashed a reign of
terror – a train of loot, plunder, slaughter and arson that would have reduced
Islam to a cult of violence and extinguished its spark with the demise of the
Prophet.

It is a well-established historical fact
the above verse informed the benevolent and supremely tolerant (in historical
relativism) terms of surrender of the countries that the Muslim army conquered
in its initial sweep. Thus, the world-famous historian of Islam, Philip K.
Hitti records the following terms of surrender of Damascus (AH 13/ 635) to
Khalid ibn al Walid (History of the Arabs, 1937, 10th edition; London
1993, p. 150):

“In
the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful! This is what Khalid ibn al
Walid will offer to the inhabitants of Damascus if he enters therein: he
promises to give them the security for their lives, property and churches.
Their city wall will not be demolished, neither shall any Moslem be quartered
in their houses. Thereunto we give to them the pact of God and the protection
of the Prophet, the caliphs and the believers. So long as they pay the poll
tax, nothing shall befall them."

Thomas Arnold, another iconic figure in
Islamic history records the terms of surrender of Jerusalem in these words (Preaching
of Islam, 2nd revised edition, 1913, reprinted Delhi 1990, p. 56):

“In
the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate! This is the security which
Umar, the servant of God, the Commander of the faithful, grants to the people
of Elia. He grants to all, whether sick or sound, security for their lives,
their possessions, their churches and their crosses, and for all that concerns their
religion. Their churches shall not be changed into dwelling places, nor
destroyed, neither shall they nor their appurtenances be in any way diminished,
nor the crosses of the inhabitants nor aught of their possessions, nor shall
any constraint be put upon them in the matter of their faith, nor shall any one
of them be harmed.”

With this we revert to the Qur’anic
allusions relating to the concluding years of the revelation (630-632),
notably, the advent of Surah al-Tawbah which is cited as an example of Islam’s
use of sword to spread Islam and its hostility against the Jews, Christians and
polytheists.]

[The bloodless integration of Mecca could
not possibly turn the entire population of this city from hostile pagans to
devout and loving Muslims overnight. For the preceding twenty years, the Meccan
leaders had regarded Muhammad as their archenemy and had done everything
possible to destroy him and therefore could not be expected to reconcile with
him even if they cooperated with him. Besides, the sudden integration also
meant an abrupt change in the established norms, social order and inter-tribal
political equation. This created a highly heterogeneous mix of people under the
extended political domain of Islam - the diverse pagan tribes of Mecca and
Medina (there was no compulsion in religion, so many Arabs did not covert) -
the diverse Muslim groups, namely the Emigrants who had fled to Medina some
eight years ago (622) the Helpers - Medinite converts who sheltered them, with
each of these groups having vestiges of pre-Islamic tribal ties but united
under the Prophet as a single umma (inclusive community). It was like a great
big mansion with bricks, slabs, arches and domes of different shapes and
designs pieced together with raw glue that needed time to cure.

The internal volatility apart, Islam had
formidable foes:

The desert
Arabs who were opposed to the Prophet’s preaching and wanted to see the end of
him and his newfound faith as it challenged their gods and their ancestral ways
they held sacred and were proud of.

The
hypocrites of Medina, who actively conspired against the Prophet, and even
planned to expel him and his followers from Medina.

The
neighbouring Christian Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) that was conceivably
threatened by the newly unified Arab power that combined its military skills as
fearless tribal warriors with intense religious zeal and readiness to die in
the battlefield.

In the divine scheme, the Prophet had only
two years left, and unless the hostile pagans and the hypocrites were
integrated and the Byzantine threat diffused, Islam risked extinction soon
after the Prophet’s death. The Qur’an, though, had to achieve the unachievable
in just about two years’ time. It was in this historical setting that the Surah
Tawbah was revealed. It had the almost impossible mission of neutralizing the
above mentioned formidable foes of Islam and establishing it as a historical
reality.

This Surah, apart from its popular title
(Al Tawbah – Repentance) is also known as al-Bara’at, which means, the immunity
– It contains a declaration of divine immunity from obligations with such of
the unscrupulous pagans of Mecca and desert Arabs, who had repeatedly broken
treaty with the Muslims. As such, the Qur’an, issues the following ultimatum
(9:5)]:

“When the
Sacred Months have passed, kill the polytheists wherever you find them. And
capture them, and besiege them, and lie in wait for them at every conceivable
place. But if they repent, and perform the prayers, and pay the alms, then let
them go their way. God is Most Forgiving, Most Merciful.”

[The above verse is often quoted in
isolation to project the Qur’an as a religion of violence and the verse is
often called the ‘sword verse’. However, the verses preceding and
succeeding it clarify that the above instruction was in relation to those pagan
tribes who were repeatedly breaking the Hudaybiyah Peace Treaty, but this
historical context is totally lost in reading of Qur’anic verses in isolation, whether
in the original Arabic or translation. The historical context of the verse
becomes clear if onereads them in thematic order as attempted below]:

Whenever they (the hostile Arabs) came
upon the Muslims, they defied the peace treaty (of Hudaybiyah) and disregarded
even blood ties (9:10). They pleased the Muslims with their mouths, but there
was hatred in their hearts (9:8). The revelation authorizes the Muslims to kill
such archetypes of defiance (kufr) who broke their oaths (treaty obligations)
after pledging them, and defamed their religion (9:12) and who had done all
they could to drive the Messenger away (from Mecca) and were the first to
attack (9:13). It assures them that God will help them against their enemies,
bring disgrace upon them and soothe the bosoms of those who believe
(9:14).Finally, on the day of the Great hajj(631), the revelation gives an
ultimatum of four months to the hostile pagans who were repeatedly breaking
their treaty obligations (9:1-3). It commands the Muslims to kill them wherever
they come upon them, capture them,besiege them, and lie in wait for them at
every conceivable place (take all possible measures as advisable in warfare)
after the expiry of the treaty period (9:5) unless they repented, kept up
prayer and gave the Zakat (9:5, 9:11). However, the pagans who were honouring
their treaty of peace and not helping anyone against the Muslims were to be
given time until the treaty term expired (9:4). At the same time, those pagans
who sought protection were to be given protection, until they heard the word of
God and then to be delivered to a place of security (i.e. their tribal
homelands) (so that they were not harmed by any other victimized Muslim) (9:6).

[Meanwhile, the integration of Mecca had
created a duality in the mode of worship in Kaba - the pagans, who did not opt
to enter Islam, used it to worship their deities and the followers of the
Prophet dedicated it to the One and Only God (Allah). This needed to be
resolved to avoid any confusion in the status of the Kaba in the backdrop of
the Prophet’s imminent death.]

(Accordingly), the Qur’an calls the
pagans spiritually impure and forbids their entry into it (reserving it for
only pure worship of God without any association) (9:28). It commands the
Muslims to fight those of the pagans who were around them with firmness and
determination (9:123). At another occasion, it commands the Prophet to be firm
against the hypocrites (9:73) who were conspiring with the pagans to destroy
the Prophet and Islam. It warns the believers that there were hypocrites all
around them and among the people in Medina, who had grown bold in hypocrisy
(9:101). It curses the hypocrites (9:68), calls them liars (9:42, 9:107) and
deviants (9:96, 9:67). It charges some of the believing nomadic Arabs to being
intense in kufr and hypocrisy (9:97) and forbids the Prophet to pray over any
of them who had died, nor to stand by their graves (9:84). As the Prophet may
still have prayed for all his followers, including the hypocrites, the
revelation warns him that even if he sought forgiveness for them seventy times,
God will never forgive them (9:80).

Conclusion Phase-IV – Militarily
Active Phase (630-6320)

Human history is a succession of events
that follow each other, sometimes in the cause and effect sequence - as
historical necessity, and sometimes as a result of hegemonic aspirations or
despotic and irrational whims of its rulers and leaders. Sometimes they bring
good to collective humanity and posterity, and sometimes they bring evil to
humankind and cause enduring sufferings to the posterity. The concluding
militarily vibrant phase of Islam must be judged against these criteria. The
battle of Hunayn was to be fought to defending the recently integrated Mecca.
The Tabuk expedition pitted an assortment of tribal warriors with no experience
of fighting an organized, drilled, resourceful and seasoned Royal army.
Apparently not a historical necessity or rationally driven, the expedition
fully exposed the treacherous character of the hypocrites and demonstrated the
supreme trust of the Prophet in God. The expedition was beset with incalculable
odds and fraught with colossal risks and no one other than a prophet of God
could have embarked on it. Finally, Surah Tawbah was needed to set Islam on a
permanent footing and rid the world – at least the Islamic world of the culture
of loot, murder and arson that conquering armies committed through the Medieval
ages for want of a model of treaty that offered peace with dignity and full
religious, civil and economic rights in lieu of a levy that all militarily weak
nations pay to their powerful neighbours.

Summary:
Since the historical settings, priorities and the tone and responses of the
Qur’an have varied across the different phases of the revelation as tabled in
this work, it has been necessary to cover each phase separately. Any further
summarization of the key events of the Prophetic mission and of his responses
will be merely repetitious and is therefore avoided. A casual reader, not
interested in details may take a look at the remarks under the Conclusions for
each of the four phases of the mission. This division is based on the changing
context of the revelation and correspondingly changing response of the Qur’an
and not in line with the classical history of the Prophet’s mission that lumps
up the highly dynamic and eventful Medinite period (622-632) as one corridor of
history. What is of essence is that this discourse, unlike the Classical
history of Islam has the Qur’an speaking for itself. And since the historical
authenticity of the Qur’an is above debate, so are the findings, deliberations
and conclusions of this work – though the author cannot claim to be above
error.

To wrap up this essay and put a seal of
peace and pluralism on the Prophet’s mission we quote below the following
verses that make it amply clear that the eventual goal was peace, moral
uprightness (taqwa) and justice and not war, injustice and ‘Sword’:

“You who
believe, be upright before God as witnesses to justice), and let not the hatred
of any people prompt you to detract from justice. Deal justly: this is nearest
to heedfulness (taqwa); and heed God. Surely God is Informed of what you do”
(5:8).

“... And let not the
hatred of a people who (once) obstructed
you from (entering the) Sacred House, lead you to be
hostile. Therefore, help each other to virtue and uprightness (taqwa), and do
not collaborate with each other in sin and enmity. Heed God, and (remember,)
God is severe in punishment” (5:2).

“It may be that
God will bring about love between you and those of them you (now) regard as
your enemies. (Remember,) God is Able (to do anything) and God is Most
Forgiving and Merciful (60:7). God does not forbid you to be virtuous and just
to those who did not fight you over religion, nor drove you from your
homelands. Indeed, God loves the just (60:8). God only forbids you to befriend
those who fought against you over religion, and expelled you from your
homelands, and backed (others) in your expulsion; and whoever befriends them –
it is they who are unjust” (60:9).

The Qur’anic verses relating to all the
major expeditions as captured in this work from Qur’anic allusions were
specific to given contexts, and since the contexts cannot be recreated as much
as the Prophet and his companions cannot be brought back to life, they are not
of any direct relevance this day – and this must be true for all so-called
‘fighting verses’ of the Qur’an. Their presence in the Qur’an is essential to
establish Islam as a religion of peace as this discourse aims at.

Muhammad Yunus, a Chemical Engineering graduate from Indian Institute of
Technology, and a retired corporate executive has been engaged in an in-depth
study of the Qur’an since early 90’s, focusing on its core message. He has
co-authored the referred exegetic work, which received the approval of al-Azhar
al-Sharif, Cairo in 2002, and following restructuring and refinement was
endorsed and authenticated by Dr. Khaled Abou El Fadl of UCLA, and published by
Amana Publications, Maryland, USA, 2009.