The Council of the District of Columbia is the legislative branch of the local government of the District of Columbia. As permitted in the United States Constitution, the District is not part of any U.S. state and is instead overseen directly by the federal government. Since 1973, the United States Congress has devolved certain powers to the Council that would typically be exercised by state legislatures, as well as many powers normally exercised by a city council in the rest of the country. However, the Constitution vests Congress with supreme authority over the federal district, and therefore all acts of the Council are subject to congressional review and may be overturned. Congress also has the power to legislate for the district, and can even revoke the home rule charter altogether.

Contents

Under the U.S. Constitution, the District remains under the jurisdiction of Congress. However, at various times in the city's history, Congress has devolved some of its authority to District residents and their elected representatives.

The possible paths of bills, emergencies, and temporaries through the power structure of Washington, DC as dictated by the Home Rule act.

When Congress passed the Residence Act on July 16, 1790, they called for a new permanent capital of the United States to be located on the Potomac River. The federal district originally comprised land in the form of a square measuring 10 miles (16 km) on each side donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia. The Residence Act also provided for the selection of a three-member board of commissioners, appointed by the President, charged with overseeing the construction of the new capital.[1] Two other incorporated cities that predated the establishment of the District were also included within the new federal territory: Georgetown, founded in 1751,[2] and the City of Alexandria, Virginia, founded in 1749.[3] A new "federal city" called the City of Washington was then constructed on the north bank of the Potomac, to the east of the established settlement at Georgetown.

In 1800, Congress created a joint commission to recommend the governance for what was then called the Territory of Columbia. The joint commission recommended a governorship and a 25-member legislative assembly.[4] This would have been the federal district's first legislature. However, the Organic Act of 1801 officially organized the entire federal territory under the control of Congress, but did not establish an overarching government for the entire District as recommended. In 1802, the original board of commissioners was disbanded and the City of Washington was officially incorporated. The city's incorporation allowed for a local municipal government consisting of a mayor appointed by the President and an elected six-member council.[5] The local governments of Georgetown and Alexandria were also left intact.[6] In 1820, the Congress granted the City of Washington a new charter, which allowed for an elected mayor.[7]

This piecemeal governmental structure remained essentially intact until the passage of the Organic Act of 1871, which created a new government for the entire District of Columbia. This Act effectively combined the City of Washington, Georgetown, and unincorporated area known then as Washington County, into a single municipality as Washington, D.C. exists today.[8] In the same Organic Act, Congress created a territorial government which consisted of a legislative assembly with an upper-house composed of eleven council members appointed by the President and a 22-member house of delegates elected by the people, as well as an appointed Board of Public Works charged with modernizing the city. In 1873, President Ulysses S. Grant appointed the board's most influential member, Alexander Robey Shepherd, to the new post of governor. Shepherd authorized large-scale projects to modernize Washington but overspent three times the approved budget, bankrupting the city. In 1874, Congress abolished the District's local government in favor of direct rule.[9]

The territorial government was replaced by a three-member Board of Commissioners; two members appointed by the President after approval by the Senate and a third member was selected from the United States Army Corps of Engineers. One of the three members would be selected to act as President of the Board.[10] This form of government continued for nearly a century. Between 1948 and 1966, six bills were introduced in Congress to provide some form of home rule, but none ever passed. The commissioner form of government was replaced in 1967 by a mayor-commissioner and a nine-member city council appointed by the President.[11]

Due to public pressure and the demands of handling the complex day-to-day affairs of the city, Congress eventually agreed to devolve certain powers over the District to an elected local government. However, lawmakers in Congress during the early 1970s had originally sought to re-institute the post of governor and create a 25-member legislative assembly. Local officials opposed this form of government, insisting that the District's status as a municipality be respected.[12] On December 24, 1973, Congress obliged the demands of local residents and enacted the District of Columbia Home Rule Act, providing for an elected mayor and the 13-member Council of the District of Columbia.[13] The Council has the ability to pass local laws and ordinances. However, pursuant to the Home Rule Act all legislation passed by the D.C. government, including the city's local budget,[14] remains subject to the approval of Congress.[15] After signing the bill, President Richard Nixon said, "I believe the legislation skillfully balances the local interest and the national interest in the way the District of Columbia is governed."[14]

The council is composed of thirteen members, each elected by District residents to a four-year term. One member is elected from each of the District's eight wards. Four at-large members represent the District as a whole. The chairman of the council is likewise elected at an at-large basis. The terms of the at-large members are staggered so that two are elected every two years, and each D.C. resident may vote for two different at-large candidates in each general election.[13]

According to the Home Rule Act, of the Chair and the at-large members, a maximum of three may be affiliated with the majority political party.[16] In the Council's electoral history, of the elected members who were not affiliated with the majority party, most were elected as at-large members. In 2008 and 2012, Democrats such as David Grosso, Elissa Silverman, and Michael A. Brown changed their party affiliation to Independent when running for council.

To become a candidate for Council an individual must be resident of the District of Columbia for at least one year prior to the general election, a registered voter, and hold no other public office for which compensation beyond expenses is received. If a candidate is running for a particular ward seat, he or she must be a resident of that ward.[13]

Like other legislatures, the Council has several standing committees and a full-time staff, including a council secretary, auditor, and general counsel. Given the limited number of council members, nearly every member of the council has, in effect, the opportunity to chair a committee.[17] Commentators have questioned the legislature's structure noting that with 13 members nearly any piece of legislation can pass with just seven votes, leading to accusations that the Council can too easily overreach in its powers. However, this unique governing structure has also allowed the Council to operate more efficiently in comparison to some state legislatures with regard to consideration and passage of laws.[18]

As of June 2015, the eight ward and four at-large council members receive an annual salary of $132,990.00 while the Council Chairman receives an annual salary of $190,000.00;[19] according to a 2011 article in the Washington Post, the DC Council were the second-highest-paid local representatives of large cities in the U.S.[20]

^"D.C. Code 1-221(d)(3)". Notwithstanding any other provision of this section, at no time shall there be more than three members (including the Chairman) serving at large on the Council who are affiliated with the same political party.

1.
Unicameralism
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In government, unicameralism is the practice of having one legislative or parliamentary chamber. Thus, a parliament or unicameral legislature is a legislature which consists of one chamber or house. Unicameral legislatures exist when there is no widely perceived need for multicameralism, many multicameral legislatures were created to give separate voices to different sectors of society. Multiple chambers allowed for guaranteed representation of different social classes, ethnic or regional interests, where these factors are unimportant, in unitary states with limited regional autonomy, unicameralism often prevails. Unicameral legislatures are also common in official Communist states such as the Peoples Republic of China, similarly, many formerly Communist states, such as Ukraine, Moldova and Serbia, have retained their unicameral legislatures, though others, such as Romania and Poland, adopted bicameral legislatures. Both the former Russian SFSR and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics were bicameral, the two chambers were the Soviet of Nationalities and the Soviet of the Union. The Russian Federation retained bicameralism after the dissolution of the USSR, the principal advantage of a unicameral system is more efficient lawmaking, as the legislative process is much simpler and there is no possibility of deadlock. Proponents of unicameralism have also argued that it costs, even if the number of legislators stay the same, since there are fewer institutions to maintain. There is also the risk that important sectors of society may not be adequately represented, approximately half of the worlds sovereign states are currently unicameral, including both the most populous and the least populous. Many subnational entities have unicameral legislatures, and all of the Brazilian states. In the United Kingdom, the devolved Scottish Parliament, National Assembly for Wales, Congress of Deputies of Second Spanish Republic was unicameral between 1931 and 1936. Dissolved at the end of Spanish Civil War, the actual Spanish Parliament is bicameral, Supreme Assembly of Uzbekistan was unicameral before being replaced in 2005 by the current, bicameral Supreme Assembly. National Assembly of Cameroon was unicameral before being replaced in 2013 by the current, chamber of Peoples Representative of Equatorial Guinea was unicameral before being replaced in 2013 by the current, bicameral Parliament of Equatorial Guinea. National Assembly of Kenya was the unicameral legislature before becoming the lower house of the bicameral Parliament of Kenya in 2013. National Assembly of Ivory Coast was the unicameral legislature before becoming the lower house of the bicameral Parliament of Ivory Coast in 2016. Nebraskas state legislature is also unique in the sense that it is the state legislature that is entirely nonpartisan. In 1999, Governor Jesse Ventura proposed converting the Minnesota Legislature into a unicameral chamber. Although debated, the idea was never adopted, if those constitutional changes had been approved, Puerto Rico could have switched to a unicameral legislature as early as 2015

2.
Phil Mendelson
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Philip Heath Phil Mendelson is an American politician from Washington, D. C. He is currently the Chairman of the Council of the District of Columbia, elected by the Council on June 13,2012, following the resignation of Council Chair Kwame R. Brown. He was elected to serve the remainder of Browns term in a special election on November 6,2012. Mendelson came to Washington from Cleveland Heights, Ohio, in 1970 to attend American University and he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree. In 1986, Mendelson ran unopposed to represent McLean Gardens in Advisory Neighborhood Commission 3C, in 1987, he was elected treasurer of Advisory Neighborhood Commission 3C. Mendelson fought against a developer who wanted to build a building on Wisconsin Avenue near Upton Street NW. Mendelson was opposed to the building an access road over a forested area. After his community group filed a lawsuit to block the road, Mendelson tried to block the work using his own body, for which he was arrested. The wooded area was razed, and the road was built. Mendelson was critical of a policy of assessing property taxes on a building until the roof is sealed, one particular developer saved $500,000 of property taxes from delaying the sealing of the roof until later in the construction timeline. Mendelson said the District of Columbia was losing significant amounts of tax revenue from what he called a loophole, in 1988, Mendelson was elected to the D. C. Democratic State Committee, representing Ward 3, in 1988 and he ran unopposed for reelection as an Advisory Neighborhood Commissioner, and he won the election. He was elected chair of Advisory Neighborhood Commission 3C soon thereafter, in 1990, Mendelson resigned from the D. C. Democratic State Committee to work for the campaign of Jim Nathanson. Also in 1990, Mendelson voiced his opposition to iron fences on the Duke Ellington Bridge in Rock Creek Park that were intended to prevent people jumping off the bridge. He said the fences did not prevent suicide because there were more suicide attempts from the bridge after the fences were erected, an increase in suicide attempts from the nearby Taft Bridge demonstrated that the fences merely diverted, rather than deterred, suicide attempts in his opinion. Mendelson argued against putting fences up again after the Duke Ellington Bridges scheduled reconstruction and he was also opposed to building fences on the Taft Bridge. A group of mental health physicians was in favor of the fences

3.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president

4.
John A. Wilson Building
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The John A. Wilson District Building, popularly known simply as the Wilson Building, houses the municipal offices and chambers of the Mayor and District Council of the District of Columbia. Originally called the District Building, it was renamed in 1994 to commemorate former Council Chair John A. Wilson, completed in 1908, during the administration of 26th President Theodore Roosevelt, the building is a contributing structure to the Pennsylvania Avenue National Historic Site. The original site of the John A. Wilson Building was a power station that had been destroyed by a fire in 1897. Previously, the D. C. government had been housed in the old District of Columbia City Hall, a competition held for the design of the new District Building called for classic design in the manner of the English Renaissance. The Philadelphia firm of Cope and Stewardson won the contract and construction started in 1904, the building was dedicated on July 4,1908 by Henry MacFarland, President of the Board of Commissioners. While the building has served as the municipal offices of the Districts local government. In 1977, a total of twelve gunmen took about 150 people hostage at three sites around Washington. During the crisis, later known as the 1977 Hanafi Siege, then-councilman Marion Barry was hit by a stray bullet during the commotion, which left two others dead, including DC Protective Services Police Officer Wesley Cantrell. The press room at the Wilson Building is named in memory of Maurice Williams, in 1995, two-thirds of the Wilson Building was leased to the Federal government for a period 20 years due to the Districts inability to pay for needed repairs. However, after the United States Congress approved funds for a major renovation, the offices of the mayor and council were temporarily relocated to One Judiciary Square while those repairs took place. The fully renovated Wilson Building reopened in September 2001, the base of the building is made of grey granite from Maine while the upper four stories are constructed of white marble from New York. The main entrance to the features an eagle with outstretched wings surrounded by two sculptures representing Justice and Law. The fifth story features alternating male and female sculptures of figures that represent, sculpture, painting, architecture, music, commerce, engineering, agriculture. It had been removed in 1979 during the first year of Mayor Marion Barrys administration, Council chamber, committee rooms, and legislative staff offices are also located in the building. In October 2006, the DC Commission on the Arts and Humanities opened the City Hall Arts Collection, art pieces from a diverse group of D. C. -area artists are on public display throughout the building. The portrait of John A. Wilson on display at the entrance is by renowned portrait painter Simmie Knox

5.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing

6.
United States Constitution
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The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. The Constitution, originally comprising seven articles, delineates the national frame of government, Articles Four, Five and Six entrench concepts of federalism, describing the rights and responsibilities of state governments and of the states in relationship to the federal government. Article Seven establishes the procedure used by the thirteen States to ratify it. In general, the first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, offer specific protections of individual liberty, the majority of the seventeen later amendments expand individual civil rights protections. Others address issues related to federal authority or modify government processes and procedures, Amendments to the United States Constitution, unlike ones made to many constitutions worldwide, are appended to the document. All four pages of the original U. S, according to the United States Senate, The Constitutions first three words—We the People—affirm that the government of the United States exists to serve its citizens. From September 5,1774 to March 1,1781, the Continental Congress functioned as the government of the United States. The process of selecting the delegates for the First and Second Continental Congresses underscores the revolutionary role of the people of the colonies in establishing a governing body. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was the first constitution of the United States and it was drafted by the Second Continental Congress from mid-1776 through late-1777, and ratification by all 13 states was completed by early 1781. Under the Articles of Confederation, the governments power was quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers, implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures. The Continental Congress could print money but the currency was worthless, Congress could borrow money, but couldnt pay it back. No state paid all their U. S. taxes, some paid nothing, some few paid an amount equal to interest on the national debt owed to their citizens, but no more. No interest was paid on debt owed foreign governments, by 1786, the United States would default on outstanding debts as their dates came due. Internationally, the Articles of Confederation did little to enhance the United States ability to defend its sovereignty, most of the troops in the 625-man United States Army were deployed facing – but not threatening – British forts on American soil. They had not been paid, some were deserting and others threatening mutiny, spain closed New Orleans to American commerce, U. S. officials protested, but to no effect. Barbary pirates began seizing American ships of commerce, the Treasury had no funds to pay their ransom, if any military crisis required action, the Congress had no credit or taxing power to finance a response. Domestically, the Articles of Confederation was failing to bring unity to the sentiments and interests of the various states

7.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance

8.
Federal government of the United States
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms

9.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent

10.
District of Columbia home rule
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District of Columbia home rule is the ability of residents of the District of Columbia to govern their local affairs. As the federal capital, the grants the United States Congress exclusive jurisdiction over the District in all cases whatsoever. At certain times, and presently since 1973, Congress has allowed certain powers of government to be carried out by locally elected officials, however, Congress maintains the power to overturn local laws and exercises greater oversight of the city than exists for any U. S. state. Furthermore, the Districts elected government exists at the pleasure of Congress, a separate yet related controversy is the Districts lack of voting representation in Congress. The citys unique status creates a situation where D. C. residents do not have control over their local government nor do they have voting representation in the body that has full control. James Madison explained the need for a district on January 23,1788. 43, arguing that the capital needed to be distinct from the states, in order to provide for its own maintenance. An attack on the Congress at Philadelphia by a mob of angry soldiers, however, the Founding Fathers envisioned that Congress would devolve some of this power to the local level. For example, Madison stated in the Federalist No.43 that a legislature for local purposes, derived from their own suffrages. On July 16,1790, the Residence Act provided for a new permanent capital to be located on the Potomac River, the exact area to be selected by President Washington. As permitted by the U. S. Constitution, the shape of the federal district was a square, measuring 10 miles on each side. The Residence Act also provided for the selection of a board of commissioners, appointed by the President. A new federal city called the City of Washington was then constructed on the bank of the Potomac. In 1802, the board of commissioners was disbanded and the City of Washington was officially incorporated, the citys incorporation allowed for a local municipal government consisting of a mayor appointed by the President and an elected six-member council. The local governments of Georgetown and Alexandria were also left intact, as such, the citizens of Georgetown retained their locally elected mayor. In 1812, the council was given the power to elect the mayor, in 1820, the Congress granted the City of Washington a new charter, which allowed for a mayor elected by voters. During these first few years of the development, the federal government maintained a laissez faire approach to the citys affairs. Most of the disputes between the federal and municipal governments involved financing for projects in the city

11.
History of Washington, D.C.
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The history of Washington, D. C. is tied to its role as the capital of the United States. Originally inhabited by an Algonquian-speaking people known as the Nacotchtank, the site of the District of Columbia along the Potomac River was first selected by President George Washington, the city came under attack during the War of 1812 in an episode known as the Burning of Washington. Upon the governments return to the capital, it had to manage reconstruction of public buildings, including the White House. The McMillan Plan of 1901 helped restore and beautify the downtown area, including establishing the National Mall, along with numerous monuments. Unique among cities with a percentage of African Americans, Washington has had a significant black population since the citys creation. As a result, Washington became both a center of African American culture and a center of Civil Rights Movement. Since the city government was run by the U. S. federal government, black and it was not until the administration of Woodrow Wilson, a southern Democrat who had numerous southerners in his cabinet, that federal offices and workplaces were segregated, starting in 1913. This situation persisted for decades, the city was segregated in certain facilities until the 1950s. Today, D. C. is marked by contrasts, neighborhoods on the eastern periphery of the central city, and east of the Anacostia River tend to be disproportionately lower-income. Following World War II, many whites moved out of the citys central and eastern sections to newer, affordable suburban housing. The assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. in 1968 sparked major riots in chiefly African American neighborhoods east of Rock Creek Park, large sections of the central city remained blighted for decades. During the early 20th century, the U Street Corridor served as an important center for African American culture in DC, the Washington Metro opened in 1976. A rising economy and gentrification in the late 1990s and early 2000s led to revitalization of many downtown neighborhoods, article One, Section 8, of the United States Constitution places the District under the exclusive legislation of Congress. Throughout its history, Washington, D. C. residents have therefore lacked voting representation in Congress, the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961, gave the District representation in the Electoral College. The 1973 District of Columbia Home Rule Act provided the government more control of affairs, including direct election of the city council. Archaeological evidence indicates Native Americans settled in the area at least 4,000 years ago, Early European exploration of the region took place early in the 17th century, including explorations by Captain John Smith in 1608. At the time, the Patawomeck and the Doeg lived on the Virginia side, as well as on Theodore Roosevelt Island, Native inhabitants within the present-day District of Columbia included the Nacotchtank, at Anacostia, who were affiliated with the Conoy. Another village was located between Little Falls and Georgetown, and English fur trader Henry Fleet documented a Nacotchtank village called Tohoga on the site of present-day Georgetown

12.
Residence Act
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The federal government was located in New York City at the time the bill was passed and had previously been located in Philadelphia, Annapolis, and several other locations. Congress passed the Residence Act as part of a compromise brokered between James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and Alexander Hamilton, Madison and Jefferson favored a southerly site for the capital on the Potomac River, but they lacked a majority to pass the measure through Congress. Meanwhile, Hamilton was pushing for Congress to pass the Assumption Bill, with the compromise, Hamilton was able to muster support from the New York State delegates for the Potomac site, while four delegates switched from opposition to support for the Assumption Bill. The Residence Act gave authority to President George Washington to select a site for the capital, along the Potomac. In the meantime, Philadelphia was chosen as a temporary capital, Washington had authority to appoint three commissioners and oversee the construction of Federal buildings in the District, something to which he gave much personal attention. Thomas Jefferson was a key adviser to Washington, and helped organize a competition to solicit designs for the United States Capitol, during the American Revolutionary War, the Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia at the Pennsylvania State House. On account of British military actions, the Continental Congress was forced to relocate to Baltimore, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, Congress requested that John Dickinson, the governor of Pennsylvania, call up the militia to defend Congress from attacks by the protesters. In what became known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, Dickinson sympathized with the protesters, as a result, Congress was forced to flee to Princeton, New Jersey on June 21,1783, and met in Annapolis and Trenton, before ending up in New York City. The United States Congress was established upon ratification of the United States Constitution in 1789, the question of where to establish the capital was raised in 1783. The Southern states refused to accept a capital in the North, another suggestion was for there to be two capitals, one in the North and one in the South. Congress approved a plan in 1783 for a capital on the Potomac, near Georgetown, in Maryland, and another capital on the Delaware River, this plan was rescinded the following year. Establishing the capital was put on hold for years, until the Constitutional Convention was held in 1787. The Constitution said nothing about where the district would be. The debate heated up in 1789 when Congress convened for the first time under the Constitution, two sites were favored by members of Congress, one site on the Potomac River near Georgetown, and another site on the Susquehanna River near Wrights Ferry. The Susquehanna River site was approved by the House in September 1789, while the Senate bill specified a site on the Delaware River near Germantown, Congress did not reach an agreement at the time. The selection of a location for the capital resurfaced in the summer of 1790, at the same time, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton was pushing for Congress to pass a financial plan. A key provision of Hamiltons plan involved the Federal government assuming states debts incurred during the American Revolutionary War, northern states had accumulated a huge amount of debt during the war, amounting to 21.5 million dollars, and wanted the federal government to assume their burden. The Southern states, whose citizens would effectively be forced to pay a portion of debt if the Federal Government assumed it

13.
Potomac River
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The Potomac River /pəˈtoʊmək/ is located along the mid-Atlantic Ocean coast of the United States and flows into the Chesapeake Bay. The river is approximately 405 miles long, with an area of about 14,700 square miles. In terms of area, this makes the Potomac River the fourth largest river along the Atlantic coast of the United States, over 5 million people live within the Potomac watershed. The river forms part of the borders between Maryland and Washington, D. C. on the left descending bank and West Virginia and Virginia on the right descending bank. The majority of the lower Potomac River is part of the State of Maryland, exceptions include a small tidal portion within the District of Columbia, and the border with Virginia being delineated from point to point. Except for a portion of its headwaters in West Virginia. The South Branch Potomac River lies completely within the state of West Virginia except for its headwaters, the Potomac River runs 405 miles from the Fairfax Stone in West Virginia on the Allegheny Plateau to Point Lookout, Maryland, and drains 14,679 square miles. The length of the river from the junction of its North and South Branches to Point Lookout is 302 miles, the average flow is 10,800 ft³/s. The largest flow recorded on the Potomac at Washington, D. C. was in March 1936 when it reached 425,000 ft³/s. The lowest flow recorded at the same location was 600 ft³/s in September,1966. The source of the North Branch is at the Fairfax Stone located at the junction of Grant, Tucker, the source of the South Branch is located near Hightown in northern Highland County, Virginia. The rivers two branches converge just east of Green Spring in Hampshire County, West Virginia, to form the Potomac. Once the Potomac drops from the Piedmont to the Coastal Plain at Little Falls, tides further influence the river as it passes through Washington, D. C. salinity in the Potomac River Estuary increases thereafter with distance downstream. The estuary also widens, reaching 11 statute miles wide at its mouth, Potomac is a European spelling of Patowmeck, the Algonquian name of a Native American village, perhaps meaning something brought. Native Americans had different names for different parts of the river, calling the river above Great Falls Cohongarooton, meaning honking geese and Patawomke below the fall, meaning river of swans. The spelling of the name has many forms over the years from Patawomeke to Patawomeck, Patowmack. The rivers name was decided upon as Potomac by the Board on Geographic Names in 1931. The river itself is at least two years old, likely extending back ten to twenty million years before present when the Atlantic Ocean lowered and exposed coastal sediments along the fall line

14.
Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)
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Georgetown is a historic neighborhood, commercial, and entertainment district located in northwest Washington, D. C. situated along the Potomac River. Founded in 1751 in the Province of Maryland, the port of Georgetown predated the establishment of the federal district, Georgetown remained a separate municipality until 1871, when the United States Congress created a new consolidated government for the whole District of Columbia. A separate act passed in 1895 specifically repealed Georgetowns remaining local ordinances, Georgetown is home to the main campus of Georgetown University and numerous other landmarks, such as the Volta Bureau and the Old Stone House, the oldest unchanged building in Washington. The embassies of Cameroon, France, Kosovo, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Mongolia, Sweden, Thailand, Ukraine, situated on the fall line, Georgetown was the farthest point upstream that oceangoing boats could navigate the Potomac River. In 1632, English fur trader Henry Fleet documented a Native American village of the Nacotchtank people called Tohoga on the site of present-day Georgetown, the area was then part of the Province of Maryland, an English colony. George Gordon constructed a tobacco inspection house along the Potomac in approximately 1745, the site was already a tobacco trading post when the inspection house was built. Warehouses, wharves, and other buildings were constructed around the inspection house. It did not take long before Georgetown grew into a port, facilitating trade. In 1751, the legislature of the Province of Maryland authorized the purchase of 60 acres of land from Gordon, a survey of the town was completed in February 1752. Since Georgetown was founded during the reign of George II of Great Britain, another theory is that the town was named after its founders, George Gordon and George Beall. The Maryland Legislature formally issued a charter and incorporated the town in 1789, robert Peter, an early area merchant in the tobacco trade, became Georgetowns first mayor in 1790. Col. John Beatty established the first church in Georgetown, a Lutheran church on High Street, Stephen Bloomer Balch established a Presbyterian Church in 1784. In 1795, the Trinity Catholic Church was built, along with a parish school-house, construction of St. Johns Episcopal Church began in 1797, but paused for financial reasons until 1803, and the church was finally consecrated in 1809. Banks in Georgetown included the Farmers and Mechanics Bank, which was established in 1814, other banks included the Bank of Washington, Patriotic Bank, Bank of the Metropolis, and the Union and Central Banks of Georgetown. Newspapers in Georgetown included the Republican Weekly Ledger, which was the first paper, the Sentinel was first published in 1796 by Green, English & Co. Charles C. Fulton began publishing the Potomac Advocate, which was started by Thomas Turner. Other newspapers in Georgetown included the Georgetown Courier and the Federal Republican, magruder, the first postmaster, was appointed on February 16,1790, and in 1795, a custom house was established on Water Street. General James M. Lingan served as the first collector of the port, in the 1790s, City Tavern, the Union Tavern, and the Columbian Inn opened and were popular throughout the 19th century. Of these taverns, only the City Tavern remains today, as a social club located near the corner of Wisconsin Avenue

15.
Alexandria, Virginia
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Arlington County is a county in the Commonwealth of Virginia. It is coterminous with the U. S. Census Bureau-census-designated place of Arlington, as a result, the county is often referred to in the region simply as Arlington or Arlington, Virginia. In 2015, the population was estimated at 229,164. The land that became Arlington was originally donated by Virginia to the United States government to form part of the new federal district of Columbia. In 1846, Congress returned the land southwest of the Potomac River donated by Virginia due to issues involving Congressional representation, the General Assembly of Virginia changed the countys name to Arlington in 1920 to avoid confusion with the adjacent City of Alexandria. The county is situated in Northern Virginia on the bank of the Potomac River directly across from Washington. Arlington is also bordered by Fairfax County and City of Falls Church to the northwest, west and southwest, as of the 2010 census, the population was 207,627. Due to the proximity to downtown Washington, D. C. It is also home to Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, the many federal agencies, government contractors, and service industries contribute to Arlingtons stable economy. It is the county in the United States by median family income. According to a 2016 study by Bankrate. com, Arlington is the best place to retire, the area that now constitutes Arlington County was originally part of Fairfax County in the Colony of Virginia. Land grants from the British monarch were awarded to prominent Englishmen in exchange for political favors, one of the grantees was Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron, who lends his name to both Fairfax County and the City of Fairfax. George Washington Parke Custis, grandson of First Lady Martha Washington, the estate was eventually passed down to Mary Anna Custis Lee, wife of General Robert E. Lee. The property later became Arlington National Cemetery during the American Civil War, the area that now contains Arlington County was ceded to the new United States federal government by the Commonwealth of Virginia. With the passage of the Residence Act in 1790, Congress approved a new permanent capital to be located on the Potomac River, the Residence Act originally only allowed the President to select a location within Maryland as far east as what is now the Anacostia River. However, President Washington shifted the federal territorys borders to the southeast in order to include the city of Alexandria at the Districts southern tip. In 1791, Congress amended the Residence Act to approve the new site, however, this amendment to the Residence Act specifically prohibited the erection of the public buildings otherwise than on the Maryland side of the River Potomac. As permitted by the U. S. Constitution, the shape of the federal district was a square, measuring 10 miles on each side

16.
District of Columbia Organic Act of 1871
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Though Congress repealed the territorial government in 1874, the legislation was the first to create a single municipal government for the federal district. The passage of the Residence Act in 1790 created a new district that would become the capital of the United States. A new capital city named in honor of President George Washington was founded to the east of Georgetown in 1791, shortly after establishing operations in the new capital, Congress passed the Organic Act of 1801, which organized the federal territory. The area west of the river became Alexandria County which was governed by Virginia law, in addition, Congress allowed the cities of Washington, Alexandria and Georgetown to each maintain their own municipal governments. In 1846 Alexandria County was returned by Congress to the state of Virginia, the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 led to notable growth in the capitals population due to the expansion of the federal government and a large influx of emancipated slaves. By 1870, the Districts population had grown 75% to nearly 132,000 residents, growth was even more dramatic within the County of Washington, where the population more than doubled as people escaped the crowded city. The individual local governments within the District were insufficient to handle the population growth, living conditions were poor throughout the capital, which still had dirt roads and lacked basic sanitation. The situation was so bad that some lawmakers in Congress even suggested moving the capital out further west, the new government consisted of an appointed governor and 11-member council, a locally elected 22-member assembly, and a board of public works charged with modernizing the city. The Seal of the District of Columbia features the date 1871, the Act did not establish a new city or city government within the District. Regarding a city of Washington, it stated that that portion of said District included within the present limits of the city of Washington shall continue to be known as the city of Washington. In the present day, the name Washington is commonly used to refer to the entire District, in 1873, President Grant appointed an influential member of the board of public works, Alexander Robey Shepherd, to the post of governor. Shepherd authorized large-scale municipal projects, which greatly modernized Washington, in doing so, however, the governor spent three times the money that had been budgeted for capital improvements, bankrupting the city. In 1874, Congress replaced the Districts quasi-elected territorial government with an appointed three-member Board of Commissioners, direct rule by Congress continued until the passage of the District of Columbia Home Rule Act in 1973. District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801 History of Washington, D. C. District of Columbia home rule An Act to provide a Government for the District of Columbia, Statutes at Large, Library of Congress

17.
Washington County, D.C.
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The County of Washington was one of five original political entities within the District of Columbia, the capital of the United States. The bed of the Potomac River was considered to be part of Washington County as well, Alexandria County, containing the City of Alexandria formed the portion of the District ceded by the state of Virginia. It was returned to Virginia by Congress in 1846, thereby making Washington County, at times, however, the term Washington County was used to refer to only the remainder of the District that was part of neither Georgetown nor Washington City. The board was again changed 1863 when it was reduced to nine members and these justices carried out the duties of county commissioners. Despite being within the territory, Congress left Washington County subject to the laws of Maryland. Washington County included Pleasant Plains, the estate of the Holmead family, Edgewood, home of Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase, and Petworth, also contained in Washington County was the U. S. Soldiers Retirement Home, where President Abraham Lincoln lived during his summers as President, despite its comparatively large geographic size, Washington County was sparsely populated until the end of the 19th century. Slavery was legal in Washington County, as it was in Maryland, slavery was ended in Washington County in April,1862 by the District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act. It was the last part of the United States to end slavery before the 13th Amendment ended throughout the country. During the American Civil War, Washington County contained a partial circle of fortifications that made Washington one of the most heavily fortified cities in the world at that time. The forts surrounding Union-held territory in Virginia completed the defense circle, the Battle of Fort Stevens, July 11–12,1864, took place in Washington County. After the Civil War, many of the old estates in Washington County were sold, among the earliest developments were LeDroit Park and Mount Pleasant, which eventually became the first streetcar suburb. Uniontown and Barry Farm, a settlement for freedmen, developed east of the Anacostia River, Washington County and the cities of Washington and Georgetown were abolished in 1871 following the passage of the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1871. Two of the council seats were reserved for representatives from the county outside of the cities of Washington. Three years later, Congress abolished the government in favor of direct rule over the District by an appointed three-member commission

18.
Ulysses S. Grant
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Ulysses S. Grant was the 18th President of the United States. As Commanding General, Grant worked closely with President Abraham Lincoln to lead the Union Army to victory over the Confederacy in the American Civil War and he implemented Congressional Reconstruction, often at odds with President Andrew Johnson. His presidency has often criticized for tolerating corruption and for the severe economic depression in his second term. Grant graduated in 1843 from the United States Military Academy at West Point, after the war he married Julia Boggs Dent in 1848, their marriage producing four children. Grant initially retired from the Army in 1854 and he struggled financially in civilian life. When the Civil War began in 1861, he rejoined the U. S. Army, in 1862, Grant took control of Kentucky and most of Tennessee, and led Union forces to victory in the Battle of Shiloh, earning a reputation as an aggressive commander. He incorporated displaced African American slaves into the Union war effort, in July 1863, after a series of coordinated battles, Grant defeated Confederate armies and seized Vicksburg, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River and dividing the Confederacy in two. After his victories in the Chattanooga Campaign, Lincoln promoted him to lieutenant general, Grant confronted Robert E. Lee in a series of bloody battles, trapping Lees army in their defense of Richmond. Grant coordinated a series of devastating campaigns in other theaters, as well, in April 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox, effectively ending the war. Historians have hailed Grants military genius, and his strategies are featured in history textbooks. After the Civil War, Grant led the armys supervision of Reconstruction in the former Confederate states and he also used the army to build the Republican Party in the South. After the disenfranchisement of some former Confederates, Republicans gained majorities, in his second term, the Republican coalitions in the South splintered and were defeated one by one as redeemers regained control using coercion and violence. In May 1875, Grant authorized his Secretary of Treasury Benjamin Bristow to shut down and his peace policy with the Indians initially reduced frontier violence, but is best known for the Great Sioux War of 1876. Grant responded to charges of corruption in executive offices more than any other 19th Century president and he appointed the first Civil Service Commission and signed legislation ending the corrupt moiety system. In foreign policy, Grant sought to trade and influence while remaining at peace with the world. His administration successfully resolved the Alabama claims by the Treaty of Washington with Great Britain, Grant avoided war with Spain over the Virginius Affair, but Congress rejected his attempted annexation of the Dominican Republic. His administration implemented a standard and sought to strengthen the dollar. Grant left office in 1877 and embarked on a two-year diplomatic world tour that captured the nations attention, in 1880, Grant was unsuccessful in obtaining the Republican presidential nomination for a third term

19.
Alexander Robey Shepherd
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He was head of the DC Board of Public Works from 1871 to 1873 and Governor of the District of Columbia from 1873 to 1874. He is known, particularly in Washington, as The Father of Modern Washington, born in southwest Washington on January 30,1835, Shepherd dropped out of school at 13 and took a job as a plumbers assistant. Eventually, he worked his way up to becoming the owner of the plumbing firm and he then invested the profits from that firm in real estate development, which made him a wealthy socialite and influential citizen of the city. Two days after the Battle of Fort Sumter that initiated the American Civil War, Shepherd, the term of enlistment at that time was only three months, after which Shepherd was honorably discharged. Approximately six months afterwards, he was married to Mary Grice Young, frederick Douglass would later say of him, I want to thank Governor Shepherd for the fair way in which he treated the colored race when he was in a position to help them. The Shepherd machine was able to sway popular support in favor of the notion. In the following year,1871, Shepherd was able to convince Congress to pass a bill that established the government he desired. Thus Grants inaugural appointment to the governorship was his friend, the financier Henry D. Cooke, a gentleman of unimpeachable integrity — and, secretly, Shepherd was appointed vice-chair of the citys five-man Board of Public Works. Cooke, however, rarely attended the Boards meetings, allowing Vice-Chair Shepherd to preside and he asserted himself as a leader to such an extent that he often did not bother to consult the other members of the Board before making decisions and taking sweeping action. His abilities as an operator, according to D. C. Louis — which would have led to ruin for the District of Columbia. Shepherd believed that if the government was to remain in Washington and he filled in the long-dormant Washington Canal and placed 157 miles of paved roads and sidewalks,123 miles of sewers,39 miles of gas mains, and 30 miles of water mains. In 1872, Boss Shepherd was responsible for the demolition of the Northern Liberties Market. Two individuals, a butcher who was still on the premises at the time of the demolition, Shepherd would be appointed his successor. Whether Governor Cooke retires before the end of his term or not, but despite the lack of finances, the massive public works project continued during Shepherds term as governor of the District of Columbia. However, the cost of the modifications was excessive, initially, Shepherd had estimated them at a $6.25 million budget, but by 1874, costs had ballooned to $9 million, despite a national panic that had befallen the nation the year before. Shepherd was investigated for financial misappropriation and mishandling, during time it was discovered that the project. Shepherd had raised taxes to such a degree that citizens had to sell their own property to pay them, in addition, Congress discovered that Shepherd had given preference to neighborhoods and areas of the District in which he or his political cronies held financial interests. Although President Grant nominated Shepherd to the first Board of Commissioners, the appointment of Shepherd became one of the many corruption scandals surrounding Grants administration

20.
United States Army Corps of Engineers
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The United States Army Corps of Engineers, also sometimes shortened to CoE is a U. S. Although generally associated with dams, canals and flood protection in the United States, the Corps of Engineers provides outdoor recreation opportunities to the public, and provides 24% of U. S. hydropower capacity. The corps mission is to Deliver vital public and military engineering services, partnering in peace and war to strengthen our Nations security, energize the economy and their most visible missions include, Planning, designing, building, and operating locks and dams. Other civil engineering projects include flood control, beach nourishment, design and construction of flood protection systems through various federal mandates. Design and construction management of military facilities for the Army, Air Force, Army Reserve and Air Force Reserve and other Defense and Federal agencies. The history of United States Army Corps of Engineers can be traced back to 16 June 1775, colonel Richard Gridley became General George Washingtons first chief engineer, however, it was not until 1779 that Congress created a separate Corps of Engineers. One of its first tasks was to build fortifications near Boston at Bunker Hill, the first Corps of Engineers was mostly composed of French subjects who had been hired by General Washington from the service of Louis XVI. that the said Corps. Shall be stationed at West Point in the State of New York, until 1866, the superintendent of the United States Military Academy was always an officer of engineer. During the first half of the 19th century, West Point was the major and, for a while, the General Survey Act of 1824 authorized the use of Army engineers to survey road and canal routes. Separately authorized on 4 July 1838, the U. S and it was merged with the Corps of Engineers on 31 March 1863, at which point the Corps of Engineers also assumed the Lakes Survey District mission for the Great Lakes. In 1841, Congress created the Lake Survey, the survey, based in Detroit, Mich. was charged with conducting a hydrographical survey of the Northern and Northwestern Lakes and preparing and publishing nautical charts and other navigation aids. The Lake Survey published its first charts in 1852, in the mid-19th century, Corps of Engineers officers ran Lighthouse Districts in tandem with U. S. Naval officers. The Army Corps of Engineers played a significant role in the American Civil War, many of the men who would serve in the top leadership in this institution were West Point graduates who rose to military fame and power during the Civil War. Some of these men were Union Generals George McClellan, Henry Halleck, George Meade, and Confederate generals Robert E. Lee, Joseph Johnston, the versatility of officers in the Army Corps of Engineers contributed to the success of numerous missions throughout the Civil War. They were responsible for building pontoon and railroad bridges, forts and batteries, the destruction of supply lines. The Army Corps of Engineers served as a function in making the war effort logistically feasible. This method of building trenches was known as the zigzag pattern, from the beginning, many politicians wanted the Corps of Engineers to contribute to both military construction and works of a civil nature. During World War II the mission grew to more than 27,000 military, included were aircraft, tank assembly, and ammunition plants, camps for 5.3 million soldiers, depots, ports, and hospitals, as well as the Manhattan Project, and the Pentagon

21.
Richard Nixon
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Richard Milhous Nixon was an American politician who served as the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until 1974, when he became the only U. S. president to resign from office. He had previously served as a U. S, Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California, after completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government and he subsequently served on active duty in the U. S. Navy Reserve during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 and his pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president and he waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968, he ran for the presidency again and was elected by defeating incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home, and ended the military draft. His administration generally transferred power from Washington D. C. to the states and he imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing, which signaled the end of the moon race and he was reelected in one of the largest electoral landslides in U. S. history in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern. The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo, gasoline rationing, the scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9,1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was issued a pardon by his successor, in retirement, Nixons work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image. He suffered a stroke on April 18,1994. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9,1913 in Yorba Linda, California and his parents were Hannah Nixon and Francis A. Nixon. His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith, Nixons upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers, Harold, Donald, Arthur, four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England, Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart. Nixons early life was marked by hardship, and he quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood, We were poor. The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the moved to Whittier

22.
David Grosso
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David Grosso is an American politician who is an at-large member of the Council of the District of Columbia. He is an attorney and lives in Brookland, a native Washingtonian, he graduated from Earlham College and Georgetown University Law Center. Grosso is a member of the D. C, bar and served on the board of directors of Planned Parenthood Metropolitan Washington. He is a member of the Sierra Club, NARAL Pro-Choice America, Grosso was born in Washington, D. C. During his childhood, he lived on a farm in Northern Virginia, as a teenager, he lived on Rock Creek Church Road in Petworth. Grosso graduated from Earlham College with a degree in philosophy and he received a J. D. from Georgetown University Law Center in 2001. Before attending college, Grosso volunteered helping refugees from El Salvador living in Honduras, Councilmember Sharon Ambrose working as a clerk for the Districts Economic Development Committee. He worked as Chief Counsel to Congresswoman Eleanor Holmes Norton and was a president of public policy for health insurance carrier CareFirst for several years. David and Serra live in the Brookland neighborhood of Ward 5 with their dogs Frida, in 2012, Grosso and six other individuals declared their candidacy for two seats as at-large member of the Council of the District of Columbia. Grosso ran as an independent candidate, in accordance with the Districts Home Rule Act, one of the seats up for election that year was reserved for an individual who is not affiliated with the Democratic Party. During a debate among the four candidates for the council seat. Grosso said he supported the five-cent tax on disposable bags, Grosso also said he would vote to censure Councilmember Jim Graham for violations of Metros code of ethics. In addition, Grosso said he was in favor of speeding cameras, saying that they were important because they slow drivers, Grosso supports giving tax incentives for private employers to move to the District. The Washington Post editorial board endorsed Grosso for at-large councilmember, citing Grossos experience with the development committee. Council member Tommy Wells and former Council member William Lightfoot endorsed Grossos candidacy, Grosso also earned the endorsements of the Current Newspapers, the D. C. chapter of the Sierra Club, and Greater Greater Washington. Grosso won one of two seats on the council with twenty percent of the vote. Official results from the District of Columbia Board of Elections, Grosso was sworn into office as an at-Large Member of the Council of the District of Columbia on January 2,2013. During Council Period 20, Grosso served on the committees, Business, Consumer and Regulatory Affairs, Education, Finance and Revenue, Health, and Transportation

23.
Elissa Silverman
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Elissa Silverman is an American politician who is an independent at-large member of the Council of the District of Columbia. Elissa Silverman was born to parents Jack and Ruth Silverman in Baltimore, Maryland and she majored in economics and history at Brown University. She has worked as a reporter for The Washington Post and, earlier, public Trust in its attempt to prohibit direct corporate contributions in local politics. In April 2009, she was hired as a policy analyst, fiscal Policy Institute, a position she held until resigning to run for public office in April 2014. She has attended University of Maryland, pursuing a degree in urban studies. When At-large Council Member Phil Mendelson was elected chairman in 2012. Silverman filed to run as a Democratic candidate for the at-large seat, Silverman ran against incumbent Anita Bonds, and Board of Education member Patrick Mara. Silverman said she would not accept contributions from corporations. Silverman supported increasing funding to government programs that subsidize affordable housing, Silverman said it is a problem that a quarter of District students attend their zoned neighborhood schools, saying more governmental resources should improve schools. Following a $440 million budget surplus in 2012, Bonds and Mara supported tax cuts, a political action committee criticized Silverman when she said she did not think residents minded paying taxes and minded poor city services more. Silverman and her campaign tried to negotiate a deal with rival candidate Matthew Frumin, Frumin declined the offer, saying he felt he still had a chance to win. Frumin said Silvermans offer may contradict her case for being a reformer and it was explicit that she would support me in a Ward 3 race, including against Mary Cheh, said Frumin, who has consistently said he has no interest in running against Cheh next year. The idea of a deal, maybe that is what happens in politics, but when you are claiming a whole new politics. Silvermans candidacy was endorsed by Council Member David Grosso former Council Member Sharon Ambrose and she was also endorsed by the editorial board of the Washington City Paper, Democracy for America, and the Office and Professional Employees International Union Local 2. Silverman finished second to Anita Bonds, by a margin of 31% to 28%. C, fiscal Policy Institute to consider another candidacy. Silverman publicly declared her candidacy for Council the next month, Silverman emphasized accountability of elected officials, accountability of public schools, quality education, affordable housing, and good public transportation. Silverman said she would not accept contributions from corporations. She was proud of helping increase the Districts minimum wage to $11.50 per hour, Silvermans candidacy was endorsed by Ward 8 Council Member Marion Barry, Ward 6 Council candidate Charles Allen, the D. C

24.
Michael A. Brown (Washington, D.C. politician)
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Michael Arrington Brown is a politician in Washington, D. C. In 2008 he was elected a member of the Council of the District of Columbia. He is currently serving a 39-month prison sentence for bribery to which he was sentenced in 2014 and his father Ron Brown was former United States Secretary of Commerce. Brown was born in Kassel, West Germany, while his father was stationed there for the Army and he moved to the District of Columbia at age six. He graduated from Mackin Catholic High School in Washington, then received a Bachelor of Science degree from Clark University in 1987 and he received a law degree from Widener University School of Law in 1991, but he did not pass the bar. In 1993, he served as director of Americas Fund. In 1997, Brown pleaded guilty to the misdemeanor of making a contribution to the 1994 reelection campaign of Sen. Edward M. Kennedy that exceeded the $2,000 limit. He was required to perform 150 hours of community service and pay $7,818 to cover the cost of supervised probation, Brown considered running for mayor of the District of Columbia in 1998, but he ultimately decided against it, saying his mother was adamantly against it. At the time, he was a lobbyist for Patton Boggs and president, from 1996 to 2005, Brown was vice chairman of the District of Columbia Boxing and Wrestling Commission. His efforts to bring a Mike Tyson-Lenox Lewis boxing match to the District were ultimately unsuccessful, in 2005, Browns wages were garnished by a court for defaulting on payments on a lease of an MCI Center suite. At the time, Brown was a partner for the lobbying firm of Alcalde & Fay. In September 2005, Brown announced the beginning of his campaign for mayor of the District of Columbia, Brown polled at 3 percent in August 2006 and was considered a long shot at best to become mayor in the election held that year. In an interview, his sister remembered that, at age 9, cropp lost to Adrian Fenty 57 to 31 percent in the Democratic primary five days later. Brown ran to represent Ward 4 on the Council of the District of Columbia, the seat was vacated by Adrian Fenty when he became mayor. Brown lost the May 1 special election in a field of 19 candidates to Muriel Bowser after she received the mayors endorsement, Brown later admitted that he accepted a $20,000 illegal donation from Jeff Thompson during this campaign. Board of Elections and Ethics, In 2008, Brown ran for a seat as a member of the council. Unlike Browns previous candidacies when he ran as a Democrat, Brown ran as an independent candidate, District law allows only three of the five at-large Council seats, including Chair, to be affiliated with the same political party. Chair Vincent Gray and Phil Mendelson, both Democrats, were not up for reelection in 2008, so one of the seats up for reelection could be won by a Democrat

25.
Anita Bonds
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Anita Bonds is a Democratic politician in Washington, D. C. She is a member of the Council of the District of Columbia. She has been the Chairman of the District of Columbia Democratic State Committee since 2006 and she worked as an executive at Fort Meyer Construction, a District contractor. Bonds was raised in Southeast Washington, D. C and she attended college at University of California, Berkeley, where she majored in chemistry. Bonds helped run Marion Barrys first campaign for the District of Columbia Board of Education in 1971 and she was elected Ward 2 delegate to the Black Political Convention in 1972. In 1973, she ran in an election for the Ward 2 seat on the District of Columbia Board of Education. Bill Treanor won the election with 62 percent of the vote, Bonds worked as ward and precinct coordinator for Clifford Alexanders campaign for District mayor in 1974. She served as deputy manager for Barrys 1978 and 1982 bids for District mayor. In 1979, Mayor Barry named Bonds special assistant for constituent services, Bonds served as manager of John L. Rays reelection campaign for at-large councilmember in 1980. In 1983, Bonds was director of the District of Columbia Office of Community Services and she served on Jesse Jacksons presidential campaign in 1984. She was campaign manager for Barrys bid for a term as District mayor in 1986. In 1990, Bonds helped the defense attorney in Marion Barrys drug, in 1994, Bonds became special assistant to District Mayor Sharon Pratt Kellys chief of staff, Karen A. Tramontano. In May 1998, Bonds was named manager for Councilmember Harold Brazils bid for District mayor. In August 1998, she left that role after a campaign reorganization, from 2004 to 2005, she served as director of the mayors Office of Community Affairs. In 2005, she became an adviser to Council member Kwame R. Brown. Bonds announced that she would seek to be selected to hold the at-large Council seat, douglass Sloan, a public affairs consultant and Advisory Neighborhood Commissioner for Riggs Park, and John Capozzi, former Shadow U. S. Representative and former member of the District of Columbia Democratic State Committee. Democratic State Committee, Bonds received 55 of the 71 votes cast, Bonds was sworn in as councilmember on December 11,2012

26.
Brianne Nadeau
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Brianne Nadeau is a Democratic politician in Washington, D. C. and a member of the Council of the District of Columbia representing Ward 1 since 2015. She defeated long-time incumbent Jim Graham in the Democratic Party primary, brianne K. Nadeau was born in Michigan, growing up in Grosse Pointe. A Girl Scout for 13 years, she earned a Gold Award, Nadeau has said that Girl Scouts taught her to look for work and to leave things better than you found them. Nadeau graduated from Boston College with a degree in political science in 2002. She also earned a degree in public policy from American University in 2006. She worked as a scheduler for Congressman John Sarbanes of Maryland, Nadeau worked as a public relations consultant and vice president for Rabinowitz Communications, where she promoted progressive causes for nonprofit organizations. Nadeau was a member of the board of directors of Jews United for Justice and she was active in the District of Columbia chapter of the Anti-Defamation League. Nadeau served as Advisory Neighborhood Commissioner for Single Member District 1B05 from 2006 to 2010 and she ran against four-term member of the Council of the District of Columbia Jim Graham in the Democratic Party primary election in 2014. During her campaign, Nadeau emphasized issues such as housing, transportation, constituent services. Nadeau was critical of Graham for actions he took in 2008, in exchange, Graham offered to support the firms bid for a lottery contract, violating the District employees code of conduct. The District Council also reprimanded Graham for his inappropriate actions, Graham said his actions may have been political horsetrading rather than anything illegal or unethical. Graham accused Nadeau of irregularities in connection to a home-buyer program, according to Graham, in 2009 Nadeau had asked Graham and then-Council Chair Vincent Gray for help with a home-buyer program. Nadeau had been approved for the two years earlier, but the income-based loan guarantee was reduced because her salary had increased since then. Graham said that signing her letters with her title as an Advisory Neighborhood Commissioner was inappropriate, Nadeau defended the letters, saying she was about the lose her home and simply advocated for herself the best way she could. Following an investigation, the Inspector General cleared Nadeau and found all the allegations were unsubstantiated. Nadeau defeated Graham in the election by a wide margin. In the general election, Nadeau was on the ballot with independent Ernest Johnson and Libertarian John Vaught LaBeaume, Nadeau went on to win the general election as well. In July 2015, Nadeau proposed emergency legislation to encourage the sale of land at 965 Florida Ave. NW to developers MRP Realty, Ellis Development, the deal sold the parcels at $400,000, well below its estimated value between $5 million and $27.6 million

27.
Jack Evans (D.C. politician)
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Jack Evans is an American Democratic Party politician and a lawyer for Manatt, Phelps & Phillips. Representing Ward 2 of Washington, D. C. since 1991, Councils longest serving lawmaker and a two-time mayoral candidate. Evans serves as the Chairman of the Board of the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority, Evans was born in Nanticoke, Pennsylvania, the son of a florist and a school teacher. He received a degree with honors from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania in 1975. He began practicing law in Washington, D. C. at the Securities, Evans married Noel Soderberg in 1994. She died in September 2003 after a battle with breast cancer. He married Michele Price in 2010, but as of January 2016 and he is the father of triplets. Evans has attended the Christ Church in Georgetown and the Foundry Methodist Church in Dupont Circle for which he served as Chair of the annual AIDS fundraiser from 2001–03, Evans was elected to the D. C. Council in 1991 in an election to replace John A. Wilson. He was sworn in on May 13,1991 and he had previously served as a member of Advisory Neighborhood Commission 2B in Dupont Circle. Evans was elected to serve as chairman of the ANC from 1989 to 1990, on the District Council, Evans serves as chairman of the councils Committee on Finance and Revenue, which oversees the districts finances and tax policy. The city has balanced its budget for 20 consecutive years and improved from a B− to a AAA bond rating, Evans authored the Earned Income Tax Credit and the Schedule H reforms. Democratic Party treasurer from 1988 to 1991 and he served as board chairman for the Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments/COG. In 2017, Evans attended the parade for the inauguration of Donald Trump, Evans opened his campaign for mayor on June 8,2013. By December 10, his campaign had raised over $1,000,000, making him the top fundraising candidate and the first to break the million-dollar mark. On January 27, the campaign had turned in more than 10,000 petition signatures, Evans finished in fourth place with 4,039 votes. During his time on the D. C, Council, Evans has also worked as an insurance executive for Central Benefits Mutual Insurance Co. and from 2001 until 2015 was of counsel attorney at the Squire Patton Boggs law firm. In October 2015, Evans became Counsel to the law firm of Manatt, Evans has been criticized for using his constituent service funds to purchase tickets to sporting events

28.
Mary Cheh
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Mary M. Cheh /ˈtʃeɪ/ is a Democratic politician from Washington, D. C. In November 2006, she won a seat on the Council of the District of Columbia representing Ward 3, Mary Cheh was born in Elizabeth, New Jersey. The first in her family to graduate high school, Cheh is a Phi Beta Kappa graduate of Douglass College and has law degrees from Rutgers School of Law-Newark. Cheh has been a resident of Ward 3 since 1980 and she has two daughters, Jane and Nora, who were born and raised in the District, attended Murch Elementary School and Georgetown Day School, and now work as lawyers. Upon graduation from law school, Cheh served as a law clerk to the Hon. Richard J. Hughes, Cheh then joined the Washington office of Fried, Frank, Shriver, Harris & Kempleman as an associate. In 1979, Cheh joined the George Washington University Law School, there, she has received teaching and service awards and serves as a member and former chair of the George Washington Law Public Interest Committee. Cheh is also a guest lecturer in Constitutional Law at the Concord School of Law, in 1983, Cheh took a sabbatical to do pro bono work in South Africa for the Centre for Applied Legal Studies. Then in 1986, she served as a Special Assistant United States Attorney in D. C and she has been a visiting professor at the Concord School of Law, University of North Carolina – Chapel Hill and the University of California – Hastings. She has been and continues to be a frequent speaker and media commentator on legal affairs, and, aside from her regular coursework at GW Law, she also teaches bar review lectures during the summer months. Cheh was first elected to the Council of the District of Columbia in 2006, Cheh replaced Kathy Patterson, who unsuccessfully ran for the seat of Chair of the Council. Cheh was reelected in 2010 by a margin over Republican candidate David Hedgepeth. As Councilmember, Cheh has chaired several committees, currently serving as Chair of the Committee on Transportation, previously, she chaired the Committee on Public Services and Consumer Affairs and the Committee on Government Operations. Outside of her role as District Councilmember, Cheh works as a professor at the George Washington University Law School, Cheh served as Chair Pro Tempore from 2010 until 2012, when she became the temporary chair due to the resignation of Chairman Kwame Brown on June 6,2012. She stepped down from that role when Phil Mendelson was elected chair on June 13,2012, during her time on the Council, Cheh has introduced over 850 separate bills and resolutions. Cheh has authored several comprehensive reform measures, and the Clean and Affordable Energy Act of 2008 created the District of Columbia Sustainable Energy Utility, which administers sustainable energy programs in the District. She similarly introduced emergency measures to keep application-based services like Uber, Lyft, criminal Procedure 2nd ed. St. Paul, MN, Thomson West, c2005. ISBN 0-314-16736-6 Mary Cheh Council Website Cheh Campaign Website Washington Post Endorsement of Cheh Washington Post Primary Election Endorsement of Cheh

29.
Brandon Todd (politician)
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Brandon Tristan Todd is a Democratic politician who represents Ward 4 on the Council of the District of Columbia in Washington, D. C. Todd previously worked in the Council office of Muriel Bowser and in various positions during her successful campaign for Mayor of the District of Columbia. Todd won an election on May 2015, succeeding Muriel Bowser. Todd was sworn in to office on May 14,2015 and he won the June 2016 Democratic primary and the November 2016 general election for the position. Todd was born and raised in Washington, DC and he graduated from Eastern High School and has a communications degree from Bowie State University and a Master in Business Administration from Trinity Washington University. Todd joined the Democratic Party in October 2007 after voting in five elections as a member of the Republican Party, in 2012, Todd managed Bowsers campaign for reelection as Ward 4 Councilmember. He served as Bowsers director of constituent services, in the same year, Todd was elected as a delegate to the Democratic National Convention representing wards 3,4,5, and 7. In March 2013, Todd coordinated a construction job fair for workers skilled in mechanical, electrical, plumbing, concrete, rough carpentry, masonry, roofing, on June 5,2013, Todd was elected chair of the Ward 4 Democrats. He launched a new web site and Twitter account for the organization, in 2014, he was Finance Director for Bowsers mayoral campaign. On December 4,2014, Todd announced his candidacy for councilmember for Ward 4 after the position was vacated when Bowser was elected Mayor, within three days of his announcement, Todd had raised $50,000. In the final campaign finance filing before the election, Todd had three times the financial reserves of his nearest rival, Todd accepted donations from LLCs owned by companies, which allowed companies to donate additional money to the campaign. Todd advertised his close relationship with the mayor, saying he was the candidate in the field who would be able to pick up the phone. At a debate, it was reported that Todd searched on Google when asked to name a historical figure whose leadership he admired and his campaign had no comment on the action. Todd won with 42% of the vote, in the June 14,2016 D. C Council Ward 4 Democratic primary election, Todd won with 49% of the vote. He received the endorsements of the Gertrude Stein Democratic Club, Democrats for Education Reform, Todd won reelection for a full four-year term in the general election on November 8,2016. Todd said that he opposed awarding the operation of DCs prisons to a private management company. After his election, Todd said that the Council should not be involved in awarding the contract, while campaigning, Todd was one of the few candidates who did not oppose pop-ups, or housing extensions above the original height. After winning office and in the wake of community protests, he said was not outright opposed to pop-ups and wanted to balance residents concerns with developers interests

30.
Kenyan McDuffie
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Kenyan R. McDuffie is a lawyer and Democratic politician in Washington, D. C. He is a member of the Council of the District of Columbia representing Ward 5 since 2012, McDuffie grew up in Stronghold, a neighborhood in Ward 5 in Washington, D. C. After graduating from Woodrow Wilson High School, he sold ice cream at the National Zoo in Washington D. C. and he later worked for the United States Postal Service, delivering mail in the Friendship Heights and Spring Valley neighborhoods. He received a doctor from University of Maryland School of Law in 2006. Following his graduation, he was hired by Prince Georges County, Maryland, first working as a law clerk, McDuffie later worked for Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton in both her local constituent services office and Capitol Hill office, where he drafted legislation. In 2008, he served as a lawyer in the civil rights division of the Department of Justice. In 2010, McDuffie became an advisor to Public Safety and Justice Deputy Mayor Paul Quander. He has also served as president of the Stronghold Civic Association, in February 2010, McDuffie resigned from his position in the mayors administration and declared his candidacy to represent Ward 5 on the Council of the District of Columbia. McDuffie supported expanding employment opportunities and tackling HIV and he criticized incumbent Harry Thomas Jr. for being reactive rather than proactive. Thomas won the Democratic Party primary election and went on to win the election as well. In January 2012, Thomas resigned from the Council and pleaded guilty to two federal crimes, theft and filing three years of tax returns. McDuffie confirmed that he would run in an election to fill the vacancy represent Ward 5 in the Council. McDuffie said that such as affordable housing should receive additional funding before other programs such as establishing a streetcar system. McDuffie supported community-oriented, responsible and sustainable development, McDuffie believed the Districts summer-jobs program should be changed so that only teenagers from low-income families would be eligible. He did not support requiring some charter schools in Ward 5 to have an admissions preference to assure some seats to local residents because it would restrict the schools flexibility. Councilmember Tommy Wells endorsed McDuffie for his agenda and emphasis on good government. Meanwhile, American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees District Council 20 endorsed Delano Hunter, McDuffie won the special election, receiving 43 percent of the votes. McDuffie ran for re-election in the 2014 election and won the primary against Kathy Henderson, Advisory Neighborhood Commissioner for Carver Langston, steptoe, Advisory Neighborhood Commissioner for Brookland

31.
Charles Allen (Washington, D.C. politician)
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Charles Allen is a Democratic politician in Washington, D. C. and member of the Council of the District of Columbia representing Ward 6. He took office on January 2,2015 after winning the Democratic Party primary, charles Allen grew up in a suburb of Birmingham, Alabama. He graduated from Homewood High School, Allen is married to Jordi Hutchinson. Allen graduated from Washington and Lee University, the summer after his sophomore year, he interned at a free clinic in South Boston. He earned a degree from the University of Alabama at Birmingham. Allen was hired as director of policy for the District of Columbia Primary Care Association in 2003. The following year, Allen served as the Ward 6 coordinator for Howard Deans presidential campaign and he was a delegate for Dean at the 2004 Democratic National Convention. As chairman of the grass roots Democratic organization D. C. for Democracy, Allen resigned from the District of Columbia Primary Care Association to manage Tommy Wells campaign for the Ward 6 seat on the Council of the District of Columbia in 2006. After Wells won the election, Wells hired Allen as his chief of staff, Allen was president of the Ward 6 Democrats from 2009 to 2013. While president, the group voted to urge the Council of the District of Columbia to pass a law legalizing same-sex marriage, Democratic State Committee chose the person to replace Phil Mendelson as at-large council member for 70 days before a special election was held. Allen was opposed to the process, saying only the voters should choose the replacement for an at-large vacancy. Allen was the chief of staff of Ward 6 Council Member Tommy Wells, after Wells decided not to run for reelection in order to run for mayor, Allen resigned from his position and announced his candidacy to succeed Wells seat in the Council representing Ward 6. Darrel Thompson, a deputy chief of staff of Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid. Pranav Badhwar ran in the Libertarian primary, when campaigning, Allen emphasized his work helping Ward 6 working for Wells, saying that gave him extensive knowledge and experience about Ward 6. Allen also did not access donations to his campaign from corporations, Thompson responded saying that he knew the District well because he was born in the District, unlike Allen. Thompson called Allen the anointed candidate, a reference to Wells choosing his own successor, Thompson also says that Allen is effectively asking for more time to carry out Wells agenda that should have been completed during Wells eight years on the Council. Allen was endorsed by the board of The Washington Post, Service Employees International Union, D. C. for Democracy, D. C. Chamber of Commerce PAC. Chapter of the National Organization for Women, the D. C. Association of Realtors, Clean Slate Now, the firefighters union

32.
Vincent C. Gray
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Vincent Condol Vince Gray is an American politician who served as the seventh Mayor of the District of Columbia. He served one term, from 2011 to 2015, losing his bid for reelection in the Democratic primary to D. C, Bowser would go on to win the 2014 election. Prior to his inauguration as mayor in January 2011, Gray served as Chairman of the Council of the District of Columbia, in the 1990s he also served as director of the DC Department of Human Services. In June 2016, he defeated incumbent Yvette Alexander in the Democratic primary for the seat he previously held in Ward 7. Gray was born on November 8,1942 in Washington, DC and he earned a B. A. in psychology at George Washington University, where he also took graduate courses. Gray was one of the first African Americans to join the Jewish fraternity, while in the fraternity, he was the first to serve two consecutive terms as President. Other school activities included the Newman Catholic Center, as well as football and basketball intramurals, Gray is also an avid participant in hand dancing, a D. C. -area derivative of Lindy hop. Gray began his career with the D. C. Association for Retarded Citizens. In 1991, then Mayor Sharon Pratt Kelly appointed Gray to the post of Director of the DC Department of Human Services, Gray became the founding executive director of Covenant House Washington in December 1994. Over a decade, Gray grew the agency from a van outreach program to an agency serving homeless youth in the citys Southeast and Northeast communities. He was sworn in as a member of the council on January 2,2005, and was a member of the councils Committees on Health, Economic Development, Human Services, Chairman Linda W. Cropp also appointed him to chair a Special Committee on Prevention of Youth Violence. In 2006, when Cropp decided not to run for another term as chairman but to run for mayor instead and he defeated his council colleague Kathleen Patterson in the Democratic primary, 57% to 43%, and then won the general election unopposed. Gray ran his campaign under the banner One City and focused on unity among the racial and economic groups in Washington. Gray formally entered the race for Mayor of the District of Columbia on March 30,2010 and his campaign adopted the slogan, commonly used during his time as Council Chairman, One City. The Washington Post noted that the results were an indication of voters disapproval of Fenty, rather than approval of Gray. An August Washington Post poll found Gray with a 17-point advantage among likely voters, in the event, Gray defeated Fenty by a 54 to 44 percent margin. In order to save the District $19 million in 2011, Gray proposed to furlough most District employees, workers would not be paid on four holidays, namely Presidents Day, Emancipation Day, Memorial Day, and Independence Day. The District Council voted in favor of the idea as part of a plan to save over $19 million for the District, on Presidents Day, February 21,2011, over 200 emergency calls made to 911 went unanswered since dispatchers were furloughed

33.
Neighborhoods in Washington, D.C.
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Neighborhoods in Washington, D. C. are distinguished by their history, culture, architecture, demographics, and geography. The names of 131 neighborhoods are unofficially defined by the D. C, neighborhoods can be defined by the boundaries of historic districts, Advisory Neighborhood Commissions, civic associations, and business improvement districts, these boundaries will overlap. As the capital of the United States, Washingtons local neighborhood history, Neighborhood websites DC Genealogical Database National Capital Planning Commission D. C. Guide Washington DC, street by street Street map of Ward 4

34.
National Park Service
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It was created on August 25,1916, by Congress through the National Park Service Organic Act and is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior. As of 2014, the NPS employs 21,651 employees who oversee 417 units, the National Park Service celebrated its centennial in 2016. National parks and national monuments in the United States were originally individually managed under the auspices of the Department of the Interior, the movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather, as well as J. Horace McFarland. With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard, Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior and they wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of a National Park Service, Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS. On March 3,1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933, the act would allow the President to reorganize the executive branch of the United States government. It wasnt until later that summer when the new President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Roosevelt agreed and issued two Executive orders to make it happen. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the National Park Service, the demand for parks after the end of the World War II had left the parks overburdened with demands that could not be met. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, he began Mission 66, New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery, Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas. Since its inception in 1916, the National Park Service has managed each of the United States national parks, Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no government to manage it. Yosemite National Park began as a park, the land for the park was donated by the federal government to the state of California in 1864 for perpetual conservation. Yosemite was later returned to federal ownership, at first, each national park was managed independently, with varying degrees of success. In Yellowstone, the staff was replaced by the U. S. Army in 1886. Due to the irregularities in managing these national treasures, Stephen Mather petitioned the government to improve the situation. In response, Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane challenged him to lobby for creating a new agency, Mather was successful with the ratification of the National Park Service Organic Act in 1916. Later, the agency was given authority over other protected areas, the National Park System includes all properties managed by the National Park Service

35.
Dayton, Ohio
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Dayton is the sixth-largest city in the U. S. state of Ohio and is the county seat of Montgomery County. A small portion of the city extends into Greene County, the Dayton-Springfield-Greenville Combined Statistical Area had a population of 1,080,044 in 2010, making it the 43rd-largest in the United States. Dayton is within Ohios Miami Valley region, just north of the Cincinnati–Northern Kentucky metropolitan area, Dayton also hosts significant research and development in fields like industrial, aeronautical, and astronautical engineering that have led to many technological innovations. Much of this innovation is due in part to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, with the decline of heavy manufacturing, Daytons businesses have diversified into a service economy that includes insurance and legal sectors as well as healthcare and government sectors. Other than defense and aerospace, healthcare accounts for much of the Dayton areas economy, hospitals in the Greater Dayton area have an estimated combined employment of nearly 32,000 and a yearly economic impact of $6.8 billion. It is estimated that Premier Health Partners, a network, contributes more than $2 billion a year to the region through operating, employment. In 2011, Dayton was rated the No.3 city in the out of the top 50 cities in the United States by HealthGrades for excellence in health care. Many hospitals in the Dayton area are consistently ranked by Forbes, U. S. News & World Report, and HealthGrades for clinical excellence. Dayton is also noted for its association with aviation, the city is home to the National Museum of the United States Air Force and is the birthplace of Orville Wright, other well-known individuals born in the city include poet Paul Laurence Dunbar and entrepreneur John H. Patterson. Dayton is also known for its patents, inventions, and inventors that have come from the area. In 2008,2009, and 2010, Site Selection magazine ranked Dayton the No.1 mid-sized metropolitan area in the nation for economic development, also in 2010, Dayton was named one of the best places in the United States for college graduates to find a job. Dayton was founded on April 1,1796, by 12 settlers known as The Thompson Party and they traveled in March from Cincinnati up the Great Miami River by pirogue and landed at what is now St. Clair Street, where they found two small camps of Native Americans. Among them was Benjamin Van Cleve, whose memoirs provide insights into the Ohio Valleys history, two other groups traveling overland arrived several days later. In 1797, Daniel C. Cooper laid out Mad River Road, Ohio was admitted into the Union in 1803, and the city of Dayton was incorporated in 1805. The city was named after Jonathan Dayton, a captain in the American Revolutionary War who signed the U. S, constitution and owned a significant amount of land in the area. Historically, Dayton has been the home for many patents and inventions since the 1870s, according to the National Park Service, citing information from the U. S. Patent Office, Dayton had granted more patents per capita than any other U. S. city in 1890, the Wright brothers, inventors of the airplane, and Charles F. Kettering, world-renowned for his numerous inventions, hailed from Dayton. Paul Laurence Dunbar – a famous African-American poet and novelist – penned his most famous works in the late 19th century, innovation led to business growth in the region

36.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

37.
Legislature
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A legislature is a deliberative assembly with the authority to make laws for a political entity such as a country or city. Legislatures form important parts of most governments, in the separation of model, they are often contrasted with the executive. Laws enacted by legislatures are known as legislation, legislatures observe and steer governing actions and usually have exclusive authority to amend the budget or budgets involved in the process. The members of a legislature are called legislators, each chamber of legislature consists of a number of legislators who use some form of parliamentary procedure to debate political issues and vote on proposed legislation. There must be a number of legislators present to carry out these activities. Some of the responsibilities of a legislature, such as giving first consideration to newly proposed legislation, are delegated to committees made up of small selections of the legislators. The members of a legislature usually represent different political parties, the members from each party generally meet as a caucus to organize their internal affairs, the internal organization of a legislature is also shaped by the informal norms that are shared by its members. Legislatures vary widely in the amount of power they wield, compared to other political players such as judiciaries, militaries. In 2009, political scientists M. Steven Fish and Matthew Kroenig constructed a Parliamentary Powers Index in an attempt to quantify the different degrees of power among national legislatures, such a system renders the legislature more powerful. Legislatures will sometime delegate their legislative power to administrative or executive agencies, legislatures are made up of individual members, known as legislators, who vote on proposed laws. For example, a legislature that has 100 seats has 100 members, by extension, an electoral district that elects a single legislator can also be described as a seat, as, for, example, in the phrases safe seat and marginal seat. In parliamentary systems of government, the executive is responsible to the legislature which may remove it with a vote of no confidence, names for national legislatures include parliament, congress, diet and assembly. A legislature which operates as a unit is unicameral, one divided into two chambers is bicameral, and one divided into three chambers is tricameral. In bicameral legislatures, one chamber is considered the upper house. In federations, the upper house typically represents the component states. This is a case with the legislature of the European Union. Tricameral legislatures are rare, the Massachusetts Governors Council still exists, tetracameral legislatures no longer exist, but they were previously used in Scandinavia. Legislatures vary widely in their size, among national legislatures, Chinas National Peoples Congress is the largest with 2987 members, while Vatican Citys Pontifical Commission is the smallest with 7

The history of Washington, D.C. is tied to its role as the capital of the United States. Originally inhabited by an …

Aerial photo of central Washington, D.C.

A contemporary reprint of Samuel Hill's 1792 print of Ellicott's "Plan of the City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia", published in "Massachusetts Magazine", Boston, May 1792, showing street names, lot numbers, coordinates and legends.

Map of Alexandria County (1878), including what is now Arlington County and the City of Alexandria. Map includes the names of property owners at that time. City boundaries roughly correspond with Old Town.

Map of Alexandria showing the forts that were constructed to defend Washington during the Civil War

A bird's eye view of Alexandria from the Potomac in 1863. Fort Ellsworth is visible on the hill in the center background.