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3.
Somatoform and Dissociative Disorders <ul><li>Somatoform disorders are problems that appear to be medical but are due to psychosocial factors </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Unlike psychophysiological disorders, in which psychosocial factors interact with genuine physical ailments, somatoform disorders are psychological disorders masquerading as physical problems </li></ul></ul>

4.
Somatoform and Dissociative Disorders <ul><li>Dissociative disorders are patterns of memory loss and identity change that are caused almost entirely by psychosocial factors rather than physical ones </li></ul>

5.
Somatoform and Dissociative Disorders <ul><li>The somatoform and dissociative disorders have much in common: </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Both may occur in response to severe stress </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Both have traditionally been viewed as forms of escape from stress </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>A number of individuals suffer from both a somatoform and a dissociative disorder </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Theorists and clinicians often explain and treat the two groups of disorders in similar ways </li></ul></ul>

6.
Somatoform Disorders <ul><li>When a physical ailment has no apparent medical cause, doctors may suspect a somatoform disorder </li></ul><ul><li>People with somatoform disorders do not consciously want, or purposely produce, their symptoms </li></ul><ul><ul><li>They believe their problems are genuinely medical </li></ul></ul><ul><li>There are two main types of somatoform disorders: </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Hysterical somatoform disorders </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Preoccupation somatoform disorders </li></ul></ul>

7.
What Are Hysterical Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>People with hysterical somatoform disorders suffer actual changes in their physical functioning </li></ul><ul><ul><li>These disorders are often hard to distinguish from genuine medical problems </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>It is always possible that a diagnosis of hysterical disorder is a mistake and that the patient’s problem has an undetected organic cause </li></ul></ul>

10.
What Are Hysterical Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>Conversion disorder </li></ul><ul><ul><li>In this disorder, a psychosocial conflict or need is converted into dramatic physical symptoms that affect voluntary or sensory functioning </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Symptoms often seem neurological, such as paralysis, blindness, or loss of feeling </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Most conversion disorders begin between late childhood and young adulthood </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>They are diagnosed in women twice as often as in men </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>They usually appear suddenly and are thought to be quite rare </li></ul></ul>

11.
What Are Hysterical Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>Somatization disorder </li></ul><ul><ul><li>People with somatization disorder have many long-lasting physical ailments that have little or no organic basis </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Also known as Briquet’s syndrome </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>To receive a diagnosis, a person must have a range of ailments, including several pain symptoms, gastrointestinal symptoms, a sexual symptom, and a neurological symptom </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Patients usually go from doctor to doctor in search of relief </li></ul></ul>

12.
What Are Hysterical Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>Somatization disorder </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Patients often describe their symptoms in dramatic and exaggerated terms </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Most also feel anxious and depressed </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Between 0.2% and 2% of all women in the U.S. experience a somatization disorder in any given year (compared with less than 0.2% of men) </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>The disorder often runs in families and begins between adolescence and young adulthood </li></ul></ul>

13.
What Are Hysterical Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>Somatization disorder </li></ul><ul><ul><li>This disorder lasts much longer than a conversion disorder, typically for many years </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Symptoms may fluctuate over time but rarely disappear completely without psychotherapy </li></ul></ul>

14.
What Are Hysterical Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>Pain disorder associated with psychological factors </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Patients may receive this diagnosis when psychosocial factors play a central role in the onset, severity, or continuation of pain </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Although the precise prevalence has not been determined, it appears to be fairly common </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>The disorder often develops after an accident or illness that has caused genuine pain </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>The disorder may begin at any age, and more women than men seem to experience it </li></ul></ul>

15.
What Are Hysterical Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>Hysterical vs. medical symptoms </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Because hysterical somatoform disorders are so similar to “genuine” medical ailments, physicians sometimes rely on oddities in the patient’s medical picture to help distinguish the two </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>For example, hysterical symptoms may be at odds with the known functioning of the nervous system, as in cases of glove anesthesia </li></ul></ul></ul>

17.
What Are Hysterical Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>Hysterical vs. factitious symptoms </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Hysterical somatoform disorders are different from patterns in which individuals are purposefully producing or faking medical symptoms </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Patients may be malingering – intentionally faking illness to achieve external gain (e.g., financial compensation, military deferment) </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Patients may be manifesting a factitious disorder – intentionally producing or faking symptoms simply out of a wish to be a patient </li></ul></ul></ul>

18.
Factitious Disorder <ul><li>People with a factitious disorder often go to extremes to create the appearance of illness </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Many give themselves medications secretly to produce symptoms </li></ul></ul><ul><li>Patients often research their supposed ailments and are impressively knowledgeable about medicine </li></ul><ul><li>Psychotherapists and medical practitioners often become annoyed or angry at such patients </li></ul>

19.
Factitious Disorder <ul><li>Munchausen syndrome is the extreme and long-term form of factitious disorder </li></ul><ul><li>In Munchausen syndrome by proxy, a related disorder, parents make up or produce physical illnesses in their children </li></ul>

20.
What Are Preoccupation Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>Preoccupation somatoform disorders include hypochondriasis and body dysmorphic disorder </li></ul><ul><ul><li>People with these problems misinterpret and overreact to bodily symptoms or features </li></ul></ul><ul><li>Although these disorders also cause great distress, their impact on one’s life differs from that of hysterical disorders </li></ul>

22.
What Are Preoccupation Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>Hypochondriasis </li></ul><ul><ul><li>People with hypochondriasis unrealistically interpret bodily symptoms as signs of serious illness </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Often their symptoms are merely normal bodily changes, such as occasional coughing, sores, or sweating </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Although some patients recognize that their concerns are excessive, many do not </li></ul></ul>

23.
What Are Preoccupation Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>Hypochondriasis </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Although this disorder can begin at any age, it starts most often in early adulthood, among men and women in equal numbers </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Between 1% and 5% of all people experience the disorder </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>For most patients, symptoms rise and fall over the years </li></ul></ul>

24.
What Are Preoccupation Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) </li></ul><ul><ul><li>People with this disorder, also known as dysmorphophobia, become deeply concerned over some imagined or minor defect in their appearance </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Most often they focus on wrinkles, spots, facial hair, swelling, or misshapen facial features (nose, jaw, or eyebrows) </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Most cases of the disorder begin in adolescence but are often not revealed until adulthood </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Up to 5% of people in the U.S. experience BDD, and it appears to be equally common among women and men </li></ul></ul>

26.
What Causes Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>Theorists typically explain the preoccupation somatoform disorders much as they do the anxiety disorders: </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Behaviorists: classical conditioning or modeling </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Cognitive theorists: oversensitivity to bodily cues </li></ul></ul><ul><li>In contrast, the hysterical somatoform disorders are widely considered unique and in need of special explanation </li></ul><ul><ul><li>No explanation has received much research support, and the disorders are still poorly understood </li></ul></ul>

27.
What Causes Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>The psychodynamic view </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Freud believed that hysterical disorders represented a conversion of underlying emotional conflicts into physical symptoms </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Because most of his patients were women, Freud centered his explanation on the psychosexual development of girls and focused on the phallic stage (ages 3 to 5)… </li></ul></ul>

28.
What Causes Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>The psychodynamic view </li></ul><ul><ul><li>During this stage, girls develop a pattern of sexual desires for their fathers (the Electra complex) and recognize that they must compete with their mothers for his attention </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Because of the mother’s more powerful position, however, girls repress these sexual feelings </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Freud believed that if parents overreact to such feelings, the Electra complex would remain unresolved and the child might re-experience sexual anxiety throughout her life </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Freud concluded that some women hide their sexual feelings in adulthood by converting them into physical symptoms </li></ul></ul>

30.
What Causes Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>The psychodynamic view </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Psychodynamic theorists propose that two mechanisms are at work in the hysterical disorders: </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Primary gain: hysterical symptoms keep internal conflicts out of conscious awareness </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Secondary gain: hysterical symptoms further enable people to avoid unpleasant activities or receive sympathy from others </li></ul></ul></ul>

31.
What Causes Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>The behavioral view </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Behavioral theorists propose that the physical symptoms of hysterical disorders bring rewards to sufferers </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>May remove individual from an unpleasant situation </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>May bring attention from other people </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>In response to such rewards, people learn to display symptoms more and more </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>This focus on rewards is similar to the psychodynamic idea of secondary gain </li></ul></ul>

33.
What Causes Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>The cognitive view </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Some cognitive theorists propose that hysterical disorders are a form of communication, providing a means for people to express difficult emotions </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Like psychodynamic theorists, cognitive theorists hold that emotions are being converted into physical symptoms </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>This conversion is not to defend against anxiety but to communicate extreme feelings </li></ul></ul></ul></ul>

34.
What Causes Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>The multicultural view </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Some theorists believe that Western clinicians hold a bias that sees somatic symptoms as an inferior way of dealing with emotions </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>The transformation of personal distress into somatic complaints is the norm in many non-Western cultures </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>As we saw in Chapter 5, reactions to life’s stressors are often influenced by one’s culture </li></ul></ul></ul>

35.
What Causes Somatoform Disorders? <ul><li>A possible role for biology </li></ul><ul><ul><li>The impact of biological processes on somatoform disorders can be understood through research on placebos and the placebo effect </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Placebos: substances with no known medicinal value </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Treatment with placebos has been shown to bring improvement to many – possibly through the power of suggestion or through the release of endogenous chemicals </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Perhaps traumatic events and related concerns or needs can also trigger our “inner pharmacies” and set in motion the bodily symptoms of hysterical somatoform disorders </li></ul></ul>

36.
How Are Somatoform Disorders Treated? <ul><li>People with somatoform disorders usually seek psychotherapy only as a last resort </li></ul><ul><li>Individuals with preoccupation disorders typically receive the kinds of treatments applied to anxiety disorders, particularly OCD: </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Antidepressant medication </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Exposure and response prevention (ERP) </li></ul></ul>

37.
How Are Somatoform Disorders Treated? <ul><li>Treatments for hysterical disorders often focus on the cause of the disorder and apply the same kind of techniques used in cases of PTSD, particularly: </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Insight – often psychodynamically oriented </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Exposure – client thinks about traumatic event(s) that triggered the physical symptoms </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Drug therapy – especially antianxiety and antidepressant medications </li></ul></ul>

38.
How Are Somatoform Disorders Treated? <ul><li>Other therapists try to address the physical symptoms of the hysterical disorders, applying techniques such as: </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Suggestion – usually an offering of emotional support that may include hypnosis </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Reinforcement – a behavioral attempt to change reward structures </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Confrontation – an overt attempt to force patients out of the sick role </li></ul></ul><ul><li>Researchers have not fully evaluated the effects of these particular approaches on hysterical disorders </li></ul>

39.
Dissociative Disorders <ul><li>The key to one’s identity – the sense of who we are and where we fit in our environment – is memory </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Our recall of the past helps us to react to present events and guides us in making decisions about the future </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>People sometimes experience a major disruption of their memory: </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>They may not remember new information </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>They may not remember old information </li></ul></ul></ul>

40.
Dissociative Disorders <ul><li>When such changes in memory lack a clear physical cause, they are called dissociative disorders </li></ul><ul><ul><li>In such disorders, one part of the person’s memory typically seems to be dissociated, or separated, from the rest </li></ul></ul>

43.
Dissociative Disorders <ul><li>Keep in mind that dissociative symptoms are often found in cases of acute or posttraumatic stress disorders </li></ul><ul><ul><li>When such symptoms occur as part of a stress disorder, they do not necessarily indicate a dissociative disorder (a pattern in which dissociative symptoms dominate) </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>On the other hand, research suggests that people with one of these disorders also develop the other as well </li></ul></ul></ul>

44.
Dissociative Amnesia <ul><li>People with dissociative amnesia are unable to recall important information, usually of an upsetting nature, about their lives </li></ul><ul><ul><li>The loss of memory is much more extensive than normal forgetting and is not caused by physical factors </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Often an episode of amnesia is directly triggered by a specific upsetting event </li></ul></ul>

45.
Dissociative Amnesia <ul><li>Dissociative amnesia may be: </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Localized – most common type; loss of all memory of events occurring within a limited period </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Selective – loss of memory for some, but not all, events occurring within a period </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Generalized – loss of memory beginning with an event, but extending back in time; may lose sense of identity; may fail to recognize family and friends </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Continuous – forgetting of both old and new information and events; quite rare in cases of dissociative amnesia </li></ul></ul>

46.
Dissociative Amnesia <ul><li>All forms of the disorder are similar in that the amnesia interferes primarily with a person’s memory of personal material </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Memory for abstract or encyclopedic information usually remains intact </li></ul></ul><ul><li>Clinicians do not known how common dissociative amnesia is, but many cases seem to begin during times of serious threat to health and safety </li></ul>

47.
Dissociative Fugue <ul><li>People with dissociative fugue not only forget their personal identities and details of their past, but also flee to an entirely different location </li></ul><ul><ul><li>For some, the fugue is brief – a matter of hours or days – and ends suddenly </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>For others, the fugue is more severe: people may travel far from home, take a new name and establish new relationships, and even a new line of work; some display new personality characteristics </li></ul></ul>

48.
Dissociative Fugue <ul><li>~0.2% of the population experience dissociative fugue </li></ul><ul><ul><li>It usually follows a severely stressful event </li></ul></ul><ul><li>Fugues tend to end abruptly </li></ul><ul><ul><li>When people are found before their fugue has ended, therapists may find it necessary to continually remind them of their own identity </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>The majority of people regain most or all of their memories and never have a recurrence </li></ul></ul>

50.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality Disorder) <ul><li>At any given time, one of the subpersonalities dominates the person’s functioning </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Usually one of these subpersonalities – called the primary, or host, personality – appears more often than the others </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>The transition from one subpersonality to the next (“switching”) is usually sudden and may be dramatic </li></ul></ul>

51.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality Disorder) <ul><li>Cases of this disorder were first reported almost three centuries ago </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Many clinicians consider the disorder to be rare, but some reports suggest that it may be more common than once thought </li></ul></ul>

52.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality Disorder) <ul><li>Most cases are first diagnosed in late adolescence or early adulthood </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Symptoms generally begin in childhood after episodes of abuse </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Typical onset is before age 5 </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><li>Women receive the diagnosis three times as often as men </li></ul>

53.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality Disorder) <ul><li>How do subpersonalities interact? </li></ul><ul><ul><li>The relationship between or among subpersonalities varies from case to case </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Generally there are three kinds of relationships: </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Mutually amnesic relationships – subpersonalities have no awareness of one another </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Mutually cognizant patterns – each subpersonality is well aware of the rest </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>One-way amnesic relationships – most common pattern; some personalities are aware of others, but the awareness is not mutual </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Those who are aware (“co-conscious subpersonalities”) are “quiet observers” </li></ul></ul></ul></ul></ul>

54.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality Disorder) <ul><li>How do subpersonalities interact? </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Investigators used to believe that most cases of the disorder involved two or three subpersonalities </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Studies now suggest that the average number is much higher – 15 for women, 8 for men </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>There have been cases of more than 100 </li></ul></ul></ul></ul>

55.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality Disorder) <ul><li>How do subpersonalities differ? </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Subpersonalities often display dramatically different characteristics, including: </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Identifying features </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Subpersonalities may differ in features as basic as age, sex, race, and family history </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Abilities and preferences </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Although encyclopedic knowledge is usually not affected by dissociative amnesia or fugue, in DID it is often disturbed </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>It is not uncommon for different subpersonalities to have different abilities, including being able to drive, speak a foreign language, or play an instrument </li></ul></ul></ul></ul>

57.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality Disorder) <ul><li>How common is DID? </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Traditionally, DID was believed to be rare </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Some researchers even argue that many or all cases are iatrogenic – that is, unintentionally produced by practitioners </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>These arguments are supported by the fact that many cases of DID first come to attention while the person is already in treatment </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Not true of all cases </li></ul></ul></ul></ul></ul>

58.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality Disorder) <ul><li>How common is DID? </li></ul><ul><ul><li>The number of people diagnosed with the disorder has been increasing </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Although the disorder is still uncommon, thousands of cases have been documented in the U.S. and Canada alone </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Two factors may account for this increase: </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>A growing number of clinicians believe that the disorder does exist and are willing to diagnose it </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Diagnostic procedures have become more accurate </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Despite changes, many clinicians continue to question the legitimacy of the category </li></ul></ul>

59.
How Do Theorists Explain Dissociative Disorders? <ul><li>A variety of theories have been proposed to explain dissociative disorders </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Older explanations have not received much investigation </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Newer viewpoints, which combine cognitive, behavioral, and biological principles, have captured the interest of clinical scientists </li></ul></ul>

61.
How Do Theorists Explain Dissociative Disorders? <ul><li>The psychodynamic view </li></ul><ul><ul><li>In this view, dissociative amnesia and fugue are single episodes of massive repression </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>DID is thought to result from a lifetime of excessive repression, motivated by very traumatic childhood events </li></ul></ul>

62.
How Do Theorists Explain Dissociative Disorders? <ul><li>The psychodynamic view </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Most of the support for this model is drawn from case histories, which report brutal childhood experiences, yet: </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Some individuals with DID do not seem to have these experiences of abuse </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Why might only a small fraction of abused children develop this disorder? </li></ul></ul></ul></ul>

63.
How Do Theorists Explain Dissociative Disorders? <ul><li>The behavioral view </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Behaviorists believe that dissociation is a response learned through operant conditioning: </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Momentary forgetting of trauma leads to a drop in anxiety, which increases the likelihood of future forgetting </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Like psychodynamic theorists, behaviorists see dissociation as escape behavior </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Also like psychodynamic theorists, behaviorists rely largely on case histories to support their view of dissociative disorders </li></ul></ul>

64.
How Do Theorists Explain Dissociative Disorders? <ul><li>State-dependent learning </li></ul><ul><ul><li>If people learn something when they are in a particular state of mind, they are likely to remember it best when they are in the same condition </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>This link between state and recall is called state-dependent learning </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>It has been theorized that people who are prone to develop dissociative disorders have state-to-memory links that are unusually rigid and narrow; each thought, memory, and skill is tied exclusively to a particular state of arousal, so that they recall a given event only when they experience an arousal state almost identical to the state in which the memory was first acquired </li></ul></ul></ul></ul>

65.
How Do Theorists Explain Dissociative Disorders? <ul><li>Self-hypnosis </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Although hypnosis can help people remember events that occurred and were forgotten years ago, it can also help people forget facts, events, and their personal identity - “hypnotic amnesia” </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>The parallels between hypnotic amnesia and dissociative disorders are striking and have led researchers to conclude that dissociative disorders may be a form of self-hypnosis </li></ul></ul></ul>

66.
How Are Dissociative Disorders Treated? <ul><li>People with dissociative amnesia and fugue often recover on their own </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Only sometimes do their memory problems linger and require treatment </li></ul></ul><ul><li>In contrast, people with DID usually require treatment to regain their lost memories and develop an integrated personality </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Treatment for dissociative amnesia and fugue tends to be more successful than treatment for DID </li></ul></ul>

67.
How Are Dissociative Disorders Treated? <ul><li>How do therapists help people with dissociative amnesia and fugue? </li></ul><ul><ul><li>The leading treatments for these disorders are psychodynamic therapy, hypnotic therapy, and drug therapy </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Psychodynamic therapists guide patients to search their unconscious and bring forgotten experiences into consciousness </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>In hypnotic therapy, patients are hypnotized and guided to recall forgotten events </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Sometimes intravenous injections of barbiturates are used to help patients regain lost memories </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Often called “truth serums,” the key to the drugs’ success is their ability to calm people and free their inhibitions </li></ul></ul></ul></ul>

68.
How Are Dissociative Disorders Treated? <ul><li>How do therapists help individuals with DID? </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Unlike victims of dissociative amnesia or fugue, people with DID do not typically recover without treatment </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Treatment for this pattern, like the disorder itself, is complex and difficult </li></ul></ul></ul>

69.
How Are Dissociative Disorders Treated? <ul><li>How do therapists help individuals with DID? </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Therapists usually try to help the client by: </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Recognizing the disorder </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Once a diagnosis of DID has been made, therapists try to bond with the primary personality and with each of the subpersonalities </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>As bonds are formed, therapists try to educate the patients and help them recognize the nature of the disorder </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Some use hypnosis or video as a means of presenting other subpersonalities </li></ul></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Many therapists recommend group therapy </li></ul></ul></ul></ul>

70.
How Are Dissociative Disorders Treated? <ul><li>How do therapists help individuals with DID? </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Therapists usually try to help the client by: </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Recovering memories </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>To help patients recover missing memories, therapists use many of the approaches applied in other dissociative disorders, including psychodynamic therapy, hypnotherapy, and drug treatment </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>These techniques tend to work slowly in cases of DID </li></ul></ul></ul></ul></ul>

71.
How Are Dissociative Disorders Treated? <ul><li>How do therapists help individuals with DID? </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Therapists usually try to help the client by: </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Integrating the subpersonalities </li></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>The final goal of therapy is to merge the different subpersonalities into a single, integrated entity </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Integration is a continuous process; fusion is the final merging </li></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Many patients distrust this final treatment goal and many subpersonalities see integration as a form of death </li></ul></ul></ul></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Once the subpersonalities are integrated, further therapy is typically needed to maintain the complete personality and to teach social and coping skills to prevent later dissociations </li></ul></ul></ul></ul>