Archaeology and the Old Testament

Pat Zukeran

Understanding Archaeology

Christianity is a historical faith based on actual events
recorded in the Bible. Archaeology has therefore played a key role
in biblical studies and Christian apologetics in several ways.

First, archaeology has confirmed the historical accuracy of the
Bible. It has verified many ancient sites, civilizations, and
biblical characters whose existence was questioned by the academic
world and often dismissed as myths. Biblical archaeology has
silenced many critics as new discoveries supported the facts of the
Bible.

Second, archaeology helps us improve our
understanding of the Bible. Although we do not have the original
writings of the authors, thousands of ancient manuscripts affirm
that we have an accurate transmission of the original texts.{1}
Archaeology can also help us to understand more accurately the
nuances and uses of biblical words as they were used in their day.

Third, archaeology helps illustrate and explain Bible passages.
The events of the Bible occurred at a certain time, in a particular
culture, influenced by a particular social and political structure.
Archaeology gives us insights into these areas.
Archaeology also helps to supplement topics not covered in the
Bible. Much of what we know of the pagan religions and the
intertestamental period comes from archaeological research.

As we approach this study we must keep in mind the limits of
archaeology. First, it does not prove the divine inspiration of the
Bible. It can only confirm the accuracy of the events. Second,
unlike other fields of science, archaeology cannot re-create the
process under study. Archaeologists must study and interpret the
evidence left behind. All conclusions must allow for revision and
reinterpretation based on new discoveries. Third, how
archaeological evidence is understood depends on the interpreter's
presuppositions and world view. It is important to understand that
many researchers are skeptics of the Bible and hostile to its world
view.

Fourth, thousands of archives have been discovered, but an
enormous amount of material has been lost. For example, the library
in Alexandria held over one million volumes, but all were lost in
a seventh century fire.

Fifth, only a fraction of available archaeological sites have
been surveyed, and only a fraction of surveyed sites have been
excavated. In fact, it is estimated that less than two percent of
surveyed sites have been worked on. Once work begins, only a
fraction of an excavation site is actually examined, and only a
small part of what is examined is published. For example, the
photographs of the Dead Sea Scrolls were withheld from the public
for forty years after they were uncovered.

It is important to understand that the Scriptures remain the
primary source of authority. We must not elevate archaeology to the
point that it becomes the judge for the validity of Scripture.
Randall Price states, "There are indeed instances where the
information needed to resolve a historical or chronological
question is lacking from both archaeology and the Bible, but it is
unwarranted to assume the material evidence taken from the more
limited content of archaeological excavations can be used to
dispute the literary evidence from the more complete content of the
canonical scriptures."{2} The Bible has proven to be an accurate and
trustworthy source of history.

Noted archaeologist Nelson Glueck writes, "As a matter of fact,
however, it may be clearly stated categorically that no
archeological discovery has ever controverted a single biblical
reference. Scores of archeological findings have been made which
confirm in clear outline or exact detail historical statements in
the Bible."{3}

The Discovery of the Hittites

The Hittites played a prominent role in Old Testament
history. They interacted with biblical figures as early as Abraham
and as late as Solomon. They are mentioned in Genesis 15:20 as
people who inhabited the land of Canaan. 1 Kings 10:29 records that
they purchased chariots and horses from King Solomon. The most
prominent Hittite is Uriah the husband of Bathsheba. The Hittites
were a powerful force in the Middle East from 1750 B.C. until 1200
B.C. Prior to the late 19th century, nothing was known
of the Hittites outside the Bible, and many critics alleged that
they were an invention of the biblical authors.

In 1876 a dramatic discovery changed this perception. A British
scholar named A. H. Sayce found inscriptions carved on rocks in
Turkey. He suspected that they might be evidence of the Hittite
nation. Ten years later, more clay tablets were found in Turkey at
a place called Boghaz-koy. German cuneiform expert Hugo Winckler
investigated the tablets and began his own expedition at the site
in 1906.

Winckler's excavations uncovered five temples, a fortified
citadel and several massive sculptures. In one storeroom he found
over ten thousand clay tablets. One of the documents proved to be
a record of a treaty between Ramesses II and the Hittite king.
Other tablets showed that Boghaz-koy was the capital of the Hittite
kingdom. Its original name was Hattusha and the city covered an
area of 300 acres. The Hittite nation had been discovered!

Less than a decade after Winckler's find, Czech scholar Bedrich
Hronzny proved the Hittite language is an early relative of the
Indo-European languages of Greek, Latin, French, German, and
English. The Hittite language now has a central place in the study
of the history of the Indo-European languages.

The discovery also confirmed other biblical facts. Five temples
were found containing many tablets with details of the rites and
ceremonies that priests performed. These ceremonies described rites
for purification from sin and purification of a new temple. The
instructions proved to be very elaborate and lengthy. Critics once
criticized the laws and instructions found in the books of
Leviticus and Deuteronomy as too complicated for the time it was
written (1400 B.C.). The Boghaz-koy texts along with others from
Egyptian sites and a site along the Euphrates called Emar have
proven that the ceremonies described in the Jewish Pentateuch are
consistent with the ceremonies of the cultures of this time period.

The Hittite Empire made treaties with civilizations they
conquered. Two dozen of these have been translated and provide a
better understanding of treaties in the Old Testament. The
discovery of the Hittite Empire at Boghaz-koy has significantly
advanced our understanding of the patriarchal period. Dr. Fred
Wright summarizes the importance of this find in regard to biblical
historicity.

Now the Bible picture of this people fits in perfectly with
what we know of the Hittite nation from the monuments. As an empire
they never conquered the land of Canaan itself, although the
Hittite local tribes did settle there at an early date. Nothing
discovered by the excavators has in any way discredited the
Biblical account. Scripture accuracy has once more been proved by
the archaeologist.{4}

The discovery of the Hittites has proven to be one of the great
archaeological finds of all time. It has helped to confirm the
biblical narrative and had a great impact on Middle East
archaeological study. Because of it, we have come to a greater
understanding of the history of our language, as well as the
religious, social, and political practices of the ancient Middle
East.

Sodom and Gomorrah

The story of Sodom and Gomorrah has long been viewed as a
legend. Critics assume that it was created to communicate moral
principles. However, throughout the Bible this story is treated as
a historical event. The Old Testament prophets refer to the
destruction of Sodom on several occasions (Deut. 29:23, Isa. 13:19,
Jer. 49:18), and these cities play a key role in the teachings of
Jesus and the Apostles (Matt. 10:15, 2 Pet. 2:6 and Jude 1:7). What
has archaeology found to establish the existence of these cities?

Archaeologists have searched the Dead Sea region for many years
in search of Sodom and Gomorrah. Genesis 14:3 gives their location
as the Valley of Siddim known as the Salt Sea, another name for the
Dead Sea. On the east side six wadies, or river valleys, flow into
the Dead Sea. Along five of these wadies, ancient cities were
discovered. The northern most is named Bab edh-Drha. In 1924,
renowned archaeologist Dr. William Albright
excavated at this site, searching for Sodom and Gomorrah. He
discovered it to be a heavily fortified city. Although he connected
this city with one of the biblical "Cities of the Plains," he could
not find conclusive evidence to justify this assumption.

More digging was done in 1965, 1967, and 1973. The
archaeologists discovered a 23-inch thick wall around the
city, along with numerous houses and a large temple. Outside the
city were huge grave sites where thousands of skeletons were
unearthed. This revealed that the city had been well populated
during the early Bronze Age, about the time Abraham would have
lived.

Most intriguing was evidence that a massive fire had destroyed
the city. It lay buried under a coating of ash several feet thick.
A cemetery one kilometer outside the city contained charred remains
of roofs, posts, and bricks turned red from heat.

Dr. Bryant Wood, in describing these charnel houses, stated that
a fire began on the roofs of these buildings. Eventually the
burning roof collapsed into the interior and spread inside the
building. This was the case in every house they excavated. Such a
massive fiery destruction would match the biblical account that the
city was destroyed by fire that rained down from heaven. Wood
states, "The evidence would suggest that this site of Bab edh-Drha
is the biblical city of Sodom."{5}

Five cities of the plain are mentioned in Genesis 14: Sodom,
Gomorrah, Admah, Zoar, and Zeboiim. Remnants of these other four
cities are also found along the Dead Sea. Following a southward
path from Bab edh-Drha there is the city called Numeria. Continuing
south is the city called es-Safi. Further south are the ancient
cities of Feifa and Khanazir. Studies at these cities revealed that
they had been abandoned at the same time about 2450–2350 B.C. Many
archaeologists believe if Bab ed-Drha is Sodom, Numeria is
Gomorrah, and es-Safi is Zoar.

What fascinated the archaeologists is that these cities were
covered in the same ash as Bab ed-Drha. Numeria, believed to be
Gomorrah, had seven feet of ash in some places. In every one of the
destroyed cities ash deposits made the soil a spongy charcoal,
making it impossible to rebuild. According to the Bible, four of
the five cities were destroyed, leaving Lot to flee to Zoar. Zoar
was not destroyed by fire, but was abandoned during this period.

Although archaeologists are still disputing these findings, this
is one discovery we will be hearing more about in years to come.

The Walls of Jericho

According to the Bible, the conquest of Jericho occurred in
approximately 1440 B.C. The miraculous nature of the conquest has
caused some scholars to dismiss the story as folklore. Does
archaeology support the biblical account? Over the past century
four prominent archaeologists have excavated the site: Carl
Watzinger from 1907-1909, John Garstang in the 1930's, Kathleen
Kenyon from 1952-1958, and currently Bryant Wood. The result of
their work has been remarkable.

First, they discovered that Jericho had an impressive system of
fortifications. Surrounding the city was a retaining wall fifteen
feet high. At its top was an eight-foot brick wall strengthened
from behind by an earthen rampart. Domestic structures were found
behind this first wall. Another brick wall enclosed the rest of the
city. The domestic structures found between the two walls is
consistent with Joshua's description of Rahab's quarters (Josh.
2:15). Archeologists also found that in one part of the city, large
piles of bricks were found at the base of both the inner and outer
walls, indicating a sudden collapse of the fortifications. Scholars
feel that an earthquake, which may also explain the damming of the
Jordan in the biblical account, caused this collapse. The collapsed
bricks formed a ramp by which an invader might easily enter the
city (Josh. 6:20).

Of this amazing discovery Garstang states, "As to the main fact,
then, there remains no doubt: the walls fell outwards so
completely, the attackers would be able to clamber up and over the
ruins of the city."{6} This is remarkable because
when attacked city walls fall inward, not outward.

A thick layer of soot indicates that the city was destroyed by
fire as described in Joshua 6:24. Kenyon describes it this way.
"The destruction was complete. Walls and floors were blackened or
reddened by fire and every room was filled with fallen bricks."{7}
Archaeologists also discovered large amounts of grain at the site.
This is again consistent with the biblical account that the city
was captured quickly. If it had fallen as a result of a siege, the
grain would have been used up. According to Joshua 6:17, the
Israelites were forbidden to plunder the city, but had to destroy
it totally.

Although the archaeologists agreed Jericho was violently
destroyed, they disagreed on the date of the conquest. Garstang
held to the biblical date of 1400 B.C. while Watzinger and Kenyon
believed the destruction occurred in 1550 B.C. In other words, if
the later date is accurate, Joshua arrived at a previously
destroyed Jericho. This earlier date would pose a serious challenge
to the historicity of the Old Testament.

Dr. Bryant Wood, who is currently excavating the site, found
that Kenyon's early date was based on faulty assumptions about
pottery found at the site. His later date is also based on the
discovery of Egyptian amulets in the tombs northwest of Jericho.
Inscribed under these amulets were the names of Egyptian Pharaohs
dating from 1500-1386 B.C., showing that the cemetery was in use up
to the end of the late Bronze Age (1550-1400 B.C.). Finally, a
piece of charcoal found in the debris was carbon-14 dated to be
1410 B.C. The evidence leads Wood to this conclusion. "The pottery,
stratigraphic considerations, scarab data and a carbon-14 date all
point to a destruction of the city around the end of the Late
Bronze Age, about 1400 BCE."{8}

Thus, current archeological evidence supports the Bible's
account of when and how Jericho fell.

House of David

One of the most beloved characters in the Bible is King
David. Scripture says that he was a man after God's own heart. He
is revered as the greatest of all Israelite kings and the messianic
covenant is established through his lineage. Despite his key role
in Israel's history, until recently no evidence outside the Bible
attested to his existence. For this reason critics questioned the
existence of a King David.

In the summer of 1993, an archaeologist made what has been
labeled as a phenomenal and stunning discovery. Dr. Avraham Biran
and his team were excavating a site labeled Tell Dan, located in
northern Galilee at the foot of Mt. Hermon. Evidence indicates that
this is the site of the Old Testament land of Dan.

The team had discovered an impressive royal plaza. As they were
clearing the debris, they discovered in the ruins the remains of a
black basalt stele, or stone slab, containing Aramaic inscriptions.
The stele contained thirteen lines of writing but none of the
sentences were complete. Some of the lines contained only three
letters while the widest contained fourteen. The letters that
remained were clearly engraved and easy to read. Two of the lines
included the phrases "The King of Israel" and "House of David."

This is the first reference to King David found outside of the
Bible. This discovery has caused many critics to reconsider their
view of the historicity of the Davidic kingdom. Pottery found in
the vicinity, along with the construction and style of writing,
lead Dr. Biran to argue that the stele was erected in the first
quarter of the ninth century B.C., about a century after the death
of King David.

The translation team discovered that the inscription told of
warfare between the Israelites and the Arameans, which the Bible
refers to during this period. In this find, a ruler of the Arameans
probably Hazael is victorious over Israel and Judah. The stele was
erected to celebrate the defeat of the two kings. In 1994 two more
pieces were found with inscriptions which refer to Jehoram, the son
of Ahab, ruler over Israel, and Ahaziah, who was the ruler over the
"House of David" or Judah. These names and facts correspond to the
account given in chapters 8 and 9 of 2 Kings. Dr. Hershel Shanks of
Biblical Archaeological Review states, "The stele brings to
life the biblical text in a very dramatic way. It also gives us
more confidence in the historical reality of the biblical text."{9}

The find has confirmed a number of facts. First, the use of the
term "House of David" implies that there was a Davidic dynasty that
ruled Israel. We can conclude, then, that a historic King David
existed. Second, the kingdoms of Judah and Israel were prominent
political entities as the Bible describes. Critics long viewed the
two nations as simply insignificant states.

Dr. Bryant Wood summarizes the importance of this find this way.
"In our day, most scholars, archaeologist and biblical scholars
would take a very critical view of the historical accuracy of many
of the accounts in the Bible. . . . Many scholars have said there
never was a David or a Solomon, and now we have a stele that
actually mentions David."{10}

Although many archeologists remain skeptical of the biblical
record, the evidence for the historical accuracy of the Bible
continues to build.