Politics and Change in the Middle East: Sources of Conflict and Accommodation

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Politics and Change in the Middle East presents the politics of this area by discussing the economic, historical, social science, popular culture, and religious issues. It incorporates historical perspectives with contemporary material, giving readers the necessary background to make informed judgments on the politics of the region today. Comprehensive in its scope, this book covers traditional cultures of the region, the foundations of Islam, issues and events in the region from A.D. 632 to 1990, religious politics, culture, and social life, political leaders, the economic setting, and the events of 9/11/2001. For employees in corporations that deal with the region of the Middle East, where an understanding of the history and culture is necessary.

Preface

xi

Introduction

xv

Politics and Conflict

xvi

Approaches to Social Change

xvii

CHAPTER ONE Traditional Cultures of the Middle East: The Cradle of Civilization and Politics

1

(10)

Foundations of Social Diversity

3

(5)

Unity in Diversity

8

(3)

CHAPTER TWO The Foundations of Islam

11

(15)

Central Beliefs of Islam

12

(2)

Pre-Islamic Arab Ethics

14

(1)

The Social Setting of Mecca

15

(2)

Muhammad's Ministry

17

(5)

Five Popular Misconceptions about Islam

22

(3)

Conclusion

25

(1)

CHAPTER THREE The Political Legacy of Islam, A.D. 632-1800

26

(17)

The Establishment of the Islamic State

27

(1)

The Golden Age of the Caliphate

28

(3)

Mongol Destruction and the Rebirth of Empire

31

(3)

Growth and Decline in the Islamic State

34

(1)

Legitimacy in Government

35

(1)

The Sharia Law

36

(1)

The Shia

37

(1)

Sufism

38

(1)

Islam and Radical Politics

39

(1)

The Kharijites

39

(1)

Ismailis and Qarmatians

39

(2)

Diversity in Islamic Political Thought

41

(2)

CHAPTER FOUR Western Imperialism, 1800-1914

43

(13)

Setting the Stage

44

(1)

The Ottomans

45

(2)

Egypt

47

(2)

The Levant

49

(1)

The Arabian Peninsula

50

(1)

Iran

51

(3)

Conclusion

54

(2)

CHAPTER FIVE The Rise of the State System, 1914-1950

56

(16)

The McMahon-Husein Correspondence

57

(3)

The Mandates

60

(2)

Egypt

62

(2)

Saudi Arabia

64

(1)

Turkey and Iran

65

(2)

From Palestine to Israel

67

(3)

Conclusion

70

(2)

CHAPTER SIX The Drive for Self-Determination, 1950-1990

72

(33)

Arab Nationalism

73

(10)

Iran, the Gulf States, and Petroleum

83

(6)

Israel

89

(10)

The Palestinians and the 1988 Uprising

99

(5)

Conclusion

104

(1)

CHAPTER SEVEN Turning Points

105

(21)

Globalization

107

(3)

Arab Nationalism

110

(3)

Economic Liberalization

113

(6)

From Oslo to Jerusalem

119

(5)

Conclusion

124

(2)

CHAPTER EIGHT The Politics of Religion, Culture, and Social Life

126

(27)

The Politics of Culture

127

(2)

The Contemporary Politics of Islam

129

(3)

Turkey: Radical Westernization and the Durability of Islam

132

(3)

Egypt: The Labyrinth of Possibilities

135

(3)

Saudi Arabia: An Islamic Camelot?

138

(4)

Iran and the Islamic Republic

142

(4)

Sexual Politics

146

(5)

Conclusion

151

(2)

CHAPTER NINE Political Elites

153

(24)

Traditional, Transitional, and Technically Modernizing Elites

156

(20)

Conclusion

176

(1)

CHAPTER TEN Political Leadership in the Contemporary Middle East

177

(24)

Traditional Leadership

177

(4)

Charismatic Leadership

181

(3)

Modern Bureaucratic Leadership

184

(2)

Consequences of Leadership Styles

186

(1)

Traditional States

187

(2)

Modern Bureaucratic States

189

(7)

Charismatic Rule

196

(4)

Conclusion

200

(1)

CHAPTER ELEVEN The Economic Setting

201

(34)

The Economic Record

204

(1)

Organization of Economic Activity

205

(6)

Liberalization and Globalization

211

(1)

Land Policies

211

(4)

Agricultural Policies

215

(1)

Water

216

(3)

Population

219

(7)

Industry

226

(1)

Petroleum

227

(6)

Conclusion

233

(2)

CHAPTER TWELVE International Relations in the Contemporary Middle East, 1945-1990

235

(17)

The Great-Power System and the Middle East

238

(2)

U.S. Foreign Policy

240

(6)

Soviet Foreign Policy

246

(3)

Britain and France

249

(1)

China and Japan

250

(1)

Conclusion

251

(1)

CHAPTER THIRTEEN International Relations in the Contemporary Middle East, 1945-1990: The Regional Actors

252

(27)

Palestinian International Action

256

(3)

OPEC and Islam

259

(1)

The Foreign Policies of Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Israel

260

(18)

Conclusion

278

(1)

CHAPTER FOURTEEN The Middle East and the Changing International Order, 1991-2001

279

(30)

Dimensions of the Emerging International Order

281

(1)

The Middle East in the Emerging International Order

282

(9)

The Arabs and the Israelis

291

(6)

Superpowers and Great Powers

297

(2)

Middle Eastern States

299

(8)

Conclusion

307

(2)

CHAPTER FIFTEEN Did 9/11 Change Everything?

309

(15)

The Reemergence of Iraq

310

(2)

Two Coalitions

312

(1)

The Middle East Quartet

313

(1)

Regional Actors

314

(3)

World Public Opinion

317

(1)

War

318

(5)

Conclusion

323

(1)

Internet Resources

324

(2)

Glossary

326

(3)

Index

329

This book has grown out of the authors' conviction that a proper understanding of present events in the Middle East requires knowledge of the cultural, social, and economic, as well as the political, background of these events. It is, more specifically, an outgrowth of the authors' attempts to develop an undergraduate course sequence aimed at such understanding. We found that, despite the abundance of excellent scholarship on the Middle East, there was a paucity of works that brought together the diverse disciplinary perspectives in a way suitable to our pedagogic aims. It is our belief that this book, with its combination of historical and contemporary materials and its integrated perspective, provides something of value that is not elsewhere available to the undergraduate student or educator. Many profound changes have occurred since the original publication of this book. As we published our first edition in 1982, the first signs were evident of the inevitable decline of the bipolar international system, a system in which the overarching conflict between the United States and the U.S.S.R gave substance and meaning to a wide range of international interactions. Now, the U.S.S.R. no longer exists, replaced by a loose confederation of states, autonomous areas, and dependencies that is only a shadow of the old order. It must now compete for power and influence with its former allies in Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, the Czech Republic, and Kazakhstan, as well as its old enemies in the West. It has been necessary to incorporate these new realities into our analysis of governments and politics in the Middle East. But the long-term consequences of these changes are not yet clear; they are, in fact, in the process of evolution. The new Russia is not the powerhouse that the old U.S.S.R. was reputed to be; but Russia still sees a role for itself in the Middle East. Regaining an element of its dominance in the areas of Central Asia is an emergent theme in its domestic politics--yet another example of the "domesticization of international politics and the internationalization of the domestic." Changes in the Middle East itself have also been drastic. OPEC, for instance, was in its robust maturity as we began our initial work, a dominant player in the international energy system, capable of ostensible control of both supply and price of petroleum. Indeed it can be demonstrated that as Middle Eastern leaders "played the petroleum card" they were able to extract concessions from East and West. But by 2400, OPEC was not nearly the dominant influence it had been, despite a 1999 rally of prices engineered by OPEC. Its influence was diluted by a combination of new non-OPEC sources of petroleum, new technology squeezing new life and profits out of older fields, and modest conservation measures. The oil-rich monarchies of the Middle East are still rich, it is true; but they now live in an age of tough economic constraints in which important choices must be made, economically and politically. The cushion upon which they have relied for two decades has dramatically thinned. If ever there was an issue or conflict considered architectonic in the Middle East, it was surely the Arab-Israeli conflict. Many regional issues and prospects were held hostage to this seemingly intractable problem. Parties directly involved in the conflict--Israel and the PLO--seemed inexorably headed in opposite directions. Even moderate Israelis seriously considered the merits of "transfer," a euphemism for the coercive expulsion of all Palestinians from Gaza and the West Bank. Many Palestinians committed themselves to violent confrontation with Israel, joining and working within a range of parties and groups dedicated to the destruction of Israel. Even the heavy-handed intervention of the United States failed to break the emotional and political deadlock between Israeli and Palestinian. In the spring of 1993, Norway and indepen