The following discourse is a translation of an article written in Bengali, entitledPanca-samskara, by Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda. The article was originally published in the journal, Sajjana Tosani, (vol. 2/1) in 1885. I have added portions, indicated by square brackets, from a supplementary article of the same title also from Sajjana Tosani (vol. 4/1) published in 1892. Translation by Shukavak N. Dasa

It is said in the sastra that a person who receives panca-samskara can practice two kinds of devotion [1] and gain permanent happiness in the eternal abode ofSri Hari:

Persons who read this instruction with faith will want to understand the meaning of the expression panca-samskara. In order to help them, we will first explain the conventional understanding of the term and then give its deeper significance.

“Tapa, pundra, nama, mantra, and yaga-these five items comprise panca-samskara. They are the cause of intense devotion to Lord Hari.” [3]

When a faithful person learns about panca-samskara, he approaches a religious teacher and humbly requests him for initiation, or diksa. After considering the student’s sincerity, the teacher mercifully gives tapa and pundra to the student in order to sanctify his body. Some religious groups give tapa by marking the student’s body in various places with the symbols of Sri Visnu’s conch, disc, club and lotus using hot iron brands. Other religious groups imprint the name of Hari with clay using a sandalwood stamp. [In reference to tapa the smrti sastrasfurther state:

“One who marks his body with the syllables of Hari’s name using sandal paste purifies the world and after death attains the kingdom of God.”

[In the Sri Sampradaya of Ramanuja tapa is given by branding the body with the symbols of conch and disc, but Sri Caitanyadeva has instructed that we mark the body with Harinama using sandal paste etc. instead of brands. This rule is a blessing for the souls of kali-yuga.]

Pundra, or tilaka marks, are vertical lines drawn on the body. The sastrasinterpret these vertical marks either as symbols representing the Temple of Hari, or as His footprints. Accordingly each religious group has its own prescription for pundra which is universally accepted within that particular group. [5]

Nama or name is the third samskara. Mercifully the teacher utters the name of Hari into the ear of the faithful student. This name is to be recited daily by the student. [Receiving name means that one understands one’s self to be a servant of Hari. During initiation the teacher also gives a personal name to the student which indicates devotion to Hari. In the Sri Sampradaya of Ramanuja, names like Rama Krsna Dasa, Narayana Dasa, Ramanuja Dasa, etc. are given. In the Gaudiya Sampradaya names such as Sri Govinda Dasa, Sri Nityananda Dasa,Sri Caitanya Dasa, etc. are used. Since the time of Srimad Mahaprabhu names like Ratnabahu, Kavikaranapura, Premanidhi, etc. have been used. Subsequently, even names such as Bhagavatabhusana, Gitabhusana, Bhaktibhusana, etc. are employed.]

The fourth samskara is mantra. Out of his mercy the teacher gives an 18 syllable mantra to his beloved student. [Mantra is the recitation of a short prayer which corresponds to the particular deity one worships. In the worship of Krsna an 18 syllable mantra is given.]

The fifth and final samskara is yaga or deity worship. Using the mantra which he has received from his teacher, the student begins the worship of salagramasila or sri murti, the Deity of Visnu. This is known as yaga. By receivingpanca-samskara, the five sacraments, a faithful person enters into bhajana-kriya or the personal worship of God, which eventually leads to pure love forSri Hari.

When we analyze the stages that lead to love of God, we understand that faith or sraddha is the first stage. Without sraddha, there is no way to obtain love of God. From faith, one seeks saintly association, called sadhu-sanga. This leads to shelter at the feet of a spiritual teacher. Thereafter, panca-samskara or initiation follows. Panca-samskara gives rise to bhajana-kriya or the personal worship of God. Bhajana-kriya leads to anartha-nivrtti, which is the stage where one clears up unwanted things from his heart. After anartha-nivrtti one’s faith can develop and one enters the stage called nistha or mature faith. Fromnistha, taste or ruci develops. This leads to the stage called asakti or deep attachment. From asakti spiritual emotions called bhava spring forth. This eventually ripens into the stage called love of God, prema. Therefore, everyone should seek shelter at the feet of a spiritual teacher and receive panca-samskara, which is the source of bhajana. Without panca-samskara, bhajana is not spontaneous. Instead, it is performed with difficulty.

Some people think that prema or love of God can be obtained without panca-samskara. This is incorrect. The conditioned soul in this world has become hostile to the Divine, and consequently his original spiritual nature has become distorted. As a result he must sanctify himself before his true spiritual nature can develop. And what is the means to attain this pure state? The best way is through samskara or sanctification. Without samskara how can his distorted nature be given up? If we see someone whose nature is not distorted then we think that in a previous birth, through the mercy of a spiritual teacher, he must have received samskara, and on the strength of that samskara he has attained his true spiritual nature wherein prema or love of God has arisen. Otherwise we think that this person has been imperceptibly sanctified by the inconceivable mercy of the Lord Himself. No matter how you look at it, samskara is always there. On the other hand, samskara is not necessary for liberated persons because their nature is not distorted. Distortion of the soul’s original spiritual nature is the cause of his bondage in this world. For this reason, withoutsamskara the life of the conditioned soul is impure. Even if a person has attained prema on account of previous samskara, still in his present life he again receives samskara in order set a proper example for the good of all.

Samskara exists in all religions and in all countries. The purer a particular religion is, the more its samskaras are sacred and complete. Although we have not had the opportunity to thoroughly study the samskaras of all religions, we at least can say that the samskaras of the Aryan religion appear to be of a higher order than the samskaras of other religions. In particular, the samskarasof Vaisnava culture are the best part of the Aryan religion. No other practise is as sacred and complete.

The question arises, “if the practise of samskara found in Vaisnava culture is so good, then why are those who practise it still bound by distorted natures?” The answer is that Vaisnava samskara is the best, but at the present time [6] it is practised in name only. Both the spiritual teacher and the student block their own spiritual advancement by being content with only the external aspects ofsamskara, as I’ve just described. Today, the deeper significance of samskara is not understood. When the student submits himself to the teacher, the teacher gives panca-samskara and then abondons him. What good can come frompanca-samskara of this type? Externally the student looks good, but internally there is nothing. The symbols of divine conch, disc and the name of Hari mark the body. The tongue utters the name of Hari and worship of salagrama sila orsri-murti with mantra is performed, but the student is addicted to endless sinful practises. At night, he takes intoxicants and practises debauchery! Oh good teacher, how have you benefited your student? What is the difference in him before and after diksa? In fact, he is worse. He is a hypocrite. There is no remorse, “I am sinful. It is my fault. How can my sin be given up?” These days no one thinks like this when they take shelter of a spiritual teacher. Sinful activities are performed without the slightest concern. What misfortune!

Why is this? The reason is that the wrong kind of relationship exists between teacher and student. The sastras give rules to guide this relationship, but they are not followed. The student who is burning in the fire of material life, who analyses his predicament and concludes, “My relationship with material nature is not permanent, therefore I must take shelter of a spiritual teacher in order to obtain the feet of God,” has reached the stage of faith and is qualified to take shelter of a spiritual teacher. The teacher should study the student for one year and observe his atonement. This is called tapa. During this examination period the student is encouraged to atone even more and when the teacher is satisfied, he brands the student with the symbols of conch and disc. These marks are permanent and they symbolize the purity that the student must maintain for the rest of his life. This is tapa, the faithful soul’s first samskara. In English we define the word tapa as “repentance, atonement, and the permanent impression of higher sentiment on the soul.” Tapa applies not only to the body, but also to the mind and the soul. If it is only physical, in the form of branding or stamping, then tapa has not actually taken place and religious practise becomes hypocritical. At the present time this kind of hypocrisy has weakened Vaisnava culture. Without tapa or inner repentance, the soul cannot live as a Vaisnava. Without tapa the whole process becomes useless. Without tapa the heart remains impure. Therefore good friends, seek atonement without delay!

When the teacher sees that the student has received tapa properly, (in other words, genuine atonement has occurred) then out of his mercy, the teacher gives him urdhva–pundra. What is urdhva–pundra? It is effulgence! It is also known as urdhva-gati, the path of advancement. After receiving tapa the student voluntarily accepts a suitable amount of renunciation from worldly activities. This is the path of advancement. However, if the student accepts no renunciation then his tapa or atonement, is useless. So much trouble! So much asceticism! So much renunciation of one’s happiness! So much work to control lust, anger and greed, but it is all useless labor if one does not perform these austerities in order to obtain Vaikuntha, the kingdom of God. In other words, by taking shelter of Sat Cit Ananda Lord Hari, a soul follows the path of advancement, urdhva–gati. The illumination of the soul, the mind and the body is called urdhva–pundra. Aversion to material life and attachment to the Supreme Lord is called tapa, and pundra and these two ornaments are absolutely necessary for the conditioned soul. Without urdhva–pundra the body is as good as dead. Realizing this we must bathe in atonement. Withouturdhva–pundra the mind drifts and becomes attached to lowly sense objects and then wastes its time discussing the lowest subjects. O repentant soul! Do not delay, mark the body, mind and soul with urdhva–pundra and follow the path of advancement which leads to the kingdom of God. Without urdhva–pundrathe soul’s real nature is extinguished. Therefore adopt urdhva–pundra.

Seeing the beloved student shining with tapa and urdhva–pundra, the teacher gladly gives nama, the holy name of God that awakens the soul’s eternal nature. The eternal nature of the soul is servitude to the Lord, and by tasting the nectar of the Lord’s holy name the soul is carried to the supreme abode. Then he says, “I am Hari Dasa. I am not the enjoyer of this world. Even Maya herself is eternally connected to Krsna and I must utilize her in the service of Krsna.” The eternal soul is then enchanted by singing the name of Hari. By taking shelter in the nectar of the Lord’s holy name, the soul becomes aware of his own spiritual nature. Intelligent men, always sing the name of Hari! Let the mind always remember the name of Hari. May the soul always be adorned with the name of Hari.

Out of affection, the teacher next gives a mantra that allows his student to easily experience the nectar of the Lord’s holy name. A mantra is a kind of prayer that contains the name of God that is inflected grammatically in the dative case. [7]The mantra also includes certain adjectives that qualify the name of God and allows it to express a particular mood or taste. By giving a mantra the teacher helps his student taste the holy name by selecting a suitable “flavor” for him. When we say “namah”, obeisance to Hari, we employ the 4th or the dative case ending. The dative case expresses the proper relationship between the worshipper, the worshiped and the worship that allows the taste of the holy name to be easily experienced. There is no end to the happiness of a person who has received a mantra. Those who analyze the meaning of the 18 syllable mantra, generally used in the worship of Sri Krsna, know that it is a condensed sampling of the taste available from the Lord. [8] The same also applies to the 24 syllable gayatri and other mantras that are often used to worship the Lord.[9] Those who have not received a mantra can only speculate about the taste of the holy name, but unfortunately most of their considerations are useless. Therefore you must receive a mantra. Those who have received it consider it to be a most important samskara. There are those who are aware of these principles and yet still are not on solid ground in the matter of worship because they have not received tapa, pundra, nama, and mantra from a qualified teacher. Every subject has its rules and regulations and those who reject the rules and regulations of worship often experience difficulty. Therefore it is said:

“Devotional service of the Lord that ignores the authorized Vedic literatures like the Upanisads, Puranas and Narada-pancaratra is simply an unnecessary disturbance in society.” [10]

Therefore my friends! With logic and pure reasoning receive tapa, pundra,nama and mantra from a qualified teacher. Not only will you become happy, but by establishing this divine link with God you will benefit all the people around you.

Out of love the teacher next explains the procedure of yaga or Deity worship to his student. Without Deity worship the conditioned soul cannot advance properly. Even though one has received tapa, pundra, nama, and mantra the soul’s material condition has not fully abated. Only when one has pleased Lord Hari is the soul freed from this material world at the time of death. Therefore, until the end of life, yaga is necessary even for those who have received mantra. Even though one lives in this world without attachment to matter, still there is danger from matter. Therefore, yaga, or the path of Deity worship, is the proper way to deal with matter. Yaga is the procedure of worshipping the Lord by employing all the physical and mental faculties of seeing, touching, smelling, tasting, thinking, discriminating and acting. Utilizing each of these faculties in the worship of salagrama, for example, is a good way to cultivate love of God. Service to Sri Vigraha, the Deity, is called Vaisnava yaga. No matter what our situation, we must live in this world by working. Therefore, a person who has received mantra has the duty to spend his life worshipping God with devotion following the rules of Deity worship. By teaching yaga the compassionate teacher rescues his student from the ocean of material existence.Yaga is the fifth and final samskara. A person without yaga has no life and he is forced to accept the results of his karma. Therefore, one should live in this world as a Vaisnava and engage in Deity worship. A detailed explanation of the principles of Deity worship is offered in the book Sri Caitanya-siksamrta in the discussion under vaidhi-bhakti. [11]

I have now explained both the conventional understanding and the inner significance of the expression panca-samskara. But still one question arises. “Why do teachers not give this kind of instruction to their students today?” The answer is that due to the degenerative effects of time, man’s understanding about the role of the spiritual teacher has become extremely corrupt. Today people take instruction from kula-gurus, hereditary family teachers or similar such persons, and therefore they are unable to take shelter of a qualified teacher. It is said in the sastras that the seriously inquisitive student must approach a spiritual teacher who has attained shelter and faith in the Vedas and God, and surrender to him.

When one surrenders in this way, the material ocean diminishes to the size of a calf’s hoofprint. However, if that surrender is in name only, then it is pointless. At the present time most people do not want the shelter of a genuine teacher because very few want to solve the problems of life. However, it is the responsibility of the living soul in this world to search for a teacher and solve these problems. The Lord reveals Himself to the serious student as a teacher to rescue him. It is good to have a strong desire for a teacher, but it is wrong to accept just any person simply to satisfy one’s desire. A genuine teacher will come to one who is sincerely searching, but before the student accepts the teacher he should also examine him for one year. Without examination the teacher-student relationship is only a disturbance.

After close study we conclude that without proper acceptance of panca-samskara the conditioned soul cannot develop intense devotion to Sri Hari. Therefore panca-samskara is extremely necessary.

[1]. Devotion is of two kinds, namely viddhi-bhakti, devotional service performed according to rules and regulations and raganuga-bhakti, devotional service performed by following the moods of Krsna’s Vrindavan associates.

[5]. For more information about tilaka see A. W. Entwistle’s work, Vaisnava Tilakas, published in the International Association of the Vrindavan Reasearch Institute’s bulletin, number 11 and 12 1981-2.

The North Indian Wedding

Introduction to Hinduism

Hindus believe in the existence of a Supreme Being. This Being is described in the Vedas (scripture) as “unmanifest, unthinkable, and unchanging.” The Supreme Being manifests in this world in different forms and at different times as Rama, Krishna, Vishnu, Shiva, etc. Hindus also believe that the soul is divine and eternal. It is neither created nor destroyed, but is reborn through many lifetimes in this world. When a soul has found release from this cycle of rebirth is it said to have achieved liberation (moksha).

Hindus also accepts all religions as true and valid paths to God. In theBhagavad Gita, Shri Krishna says, “Whenever there is a decline indharma (righteousness) and an increase in adharma (unrighteousness), at that time I manifest Myself.” In this way, all religions are seen as the manifestation of the Divine into this world.

The Hindu Wedding

The traditional Hindu wedding is a deeply meaningful and symbolic combination of rituals and traditions. It is a ceremony that is about 4000 years old. Each phase of the ceremony has a symbolic, philosophical, and spiritual meaning. The ceremony not only to joins the souls of the bride and groom, but also creates a strong tie between two families. The ceremony is traditionally performed in Sanskrit, which is the language of ancient India and Hinduism. Today the ceremony will be performed both in Sanskrit and English. The following sequence of rituals represents the highlights of the ceremony.

The Sanskrit word for marriage is vivaha, which literally means “what supports or carries.” The Vivaha ceremony is therefore a sacred ceremony meant to create a union that supports and carries a man and woman throughout their married life in the pursuit of righteousness (dharma).

Mangala Vadyam

The wedding ceremony begins with Mangala Vadyam, or the playing of the auspicious Shenai, a trumpet-like instrument.

Milanam

The bride’s family greets the groom. He receives the red tilaka (red powder) mark on his forehead signifying the Lord’s blessing upon him. He is led to the, wedding canopy (mandapa) under which the ceremony will take place.

Kashi Yatra

For a higher spiritual purpose the groom is given a final opportunity to leave before the bride enters. He is asked if he would like to abandon worldly life and lead the life of an ascetic. The father of the bride requests the groom not to leave, but to stay and marry his daughter.

Kanya Gamanam/Jaya Mala

The bride, hidden behind a curtain, is escorted to the mandapam. The groom may be teased about the bride he has not yet seen. The priest will lower the curtain and the bride and groom will shower each other with rice. The rice represents prosperity, but is also said to establish dominance in the marriage. The person who throws the rice first will be the most authoritative in the marriage! The bride and groom exchange flower garlands signifying their acceptance of each other.

Ganesha Puja

The wedding ceremony begins with the worship of Shri Ganesha, the remover of all obstacles and provider of good luck. All traditional Hindu ceremonies begin with invocation of Ganesha. Other pujas are also performed evoking the presence of other forms God to preside over the wedding ceremony.

Kanya Danam

Kanya Danam literally means the “giving of the bride”. The parents of the bride place hands of their daughter into the hands of the groom. The bride’s parents ask the groom to except their daughter as his equal partner throughout life. The groom greatfully accepts.

Vivaha Homam

The great messenger of the Gods, Agnideva the fire God, is evoked to witness the proceedings. The priest lights a sacred fire in the presence of the bride and groom. Throughout the ceremony, the bride, groom and the priest add ghee, clarified butter, to the fire to keep it burning. Rice and other ingredients are added to the fire at various times.

Pani Grahanam

The bride and groom hold hands as a symbol of their union.

Granthi Bandhanam

The bride and groom exchange seats, as a married woman is given a place of honor at her husband’s left side. One corner of groom’s shawl is tied to the end of the brides sari. This signifies the union of two souls.

Aajya Homam

The groom places offerings of ghee into the sacred fire, asking for the protection of the bride.

Ashma Kramana/ Laaja Homam

The bride places her right foot onto a stone and with the assistance of her brothers makes offerings of puffed rice into the sacred fire, asking for the protection of her husband. The stone symbolizes the earth. The act of placing the bride’s foot upon the stone means that she should become strong and fixed like the earth.

Druva Darshana

The bride and groom gaze up at the pole star (Druvaloka) and meditate on stability in the marriage union. Each night as the stars rotate in the sky, the pole star always remains fixed. In the same way as life is constantly changing the union of the bride and groom should remain fixed like the pole star, Druvaloka.

Pradakshinam

The bride and groom walk around the holy fire four times, symbolizing the walk of life. Human life is seen to have four great goals calledpurusharthas: dharma, artha, kama and moksha. The bride leads the groom through the first three rounds while the groom leads the bride through the last round. The first round represents the attainment ofdharma, or righteous conduct and the fulfillment of civic and religious responsibilities. The second round is for the attainment of artha, the accumulation of wealth and prosperity. This leads to the third round which is for the attainment of kama, life’s enjoyments. Finally, the bride and groom exchange places and the groom leads the bride around the fire on the fourth round enacting the attainment of moksha, life’s spiritual values.

Saptapadi

The bride and groom take seven steps together, symbolizing the beginning of their journey through life as partners. These seven steps reflect their guiding principles in life. As they take each step, the bride and groom exchange the following vows:

Together we will:

Share in the responsibility of the home

Fill our hearts with strength and courage

Prosper and share our worldly goods

Fill our hearts with love, peace, happiness, and spiritual values

Be blessed with loving children

Attain self-restraint and longevity

Be best friends and eternal partners

Sindura Danam

The groom places a special red powder between the parting of the bride’s hair. This red line identifies the bride as a married woman.

Mangalya Dharanam/Ring Exchange

The groom gives the bride a mangala sutra, a necklace made of gold and onyx, which also identifies her as a married woman. The mangalasutrais the equivalent of the wedding ring, which may also be exchanged at this time.

Declaration

The bride and groom make an oath to each other declaring that they love each other and will remain devoted to each other through all times.

Purusha Sukta Homam

The priest chants an ancient hymn of praise to God while the couple places offerings of rice and ghee into the fire. This act of worship is the couple’s first act of dharma as husband and wife.

Prasadam

The newly married couple feed each other sweets representing their first meal together.

Purnaahuti

This is the final offering to God before concluding the wedding ceremony.

Aashirvaad

The priest gives blessings to the couple. The newly married couple then seeks the blessings of the priest and family and friends. The family and friends bestow their blessings by showering them with flower petals.

5. The Feeding of the Brahmanas/Honoring the Pitrs

Along similar lines it was prescribed that during a sraddha ceremony it was also required that brahmanas be fed. The brahmanas were not to be considered as mere human beings, but as representative of the pitrs. The position of thebrahmana in a sraddha rite was therefore very high and they were regularly worshiped by the performer of the sraddha. When the brahmanas ate they ate on behalf of the pitrs. Their satisfaction was the satisfaction of the fathers. Although the germ of paying homage to the brahmanas is found in the Rg-Veda, the practice of feeding brahmanas was not in practice. In the Vedic period offerings for the dead were poured directly into the fire, which then carried the food to the fathers. The feeding of brahmanas was a practice that developed from the Grhya period. In the later periods, the brahmanas even came to occupy the position of the sacrificial fire. And so food and other such articles formally offered to the pitrs began to be offered to the brahmanas as their representatives on earth. In a further extension to this idea the brahmanabegan to represent, not only the pitrs, but even Brahman Itself. Consequently, when a brahmana ate Brahman ate, which meant that the whole world also ate.

The Time for Honoring the Pitrs

It is prescribed that the pitrs be worshiped during the dark times. As such, the new moon (amavasya), the dark side of the lunar month (krsna-paksa), the southern half of the sun’s course (daksayana),[1] the afternoon, during an eclipse, during the night, and so forth, became the times when the pitrs were to be most respected. In fact, any degree of diminution of light has come to be associated with the worship of pitrs.

The Satapatha–brahmana explains how darkness and some other details came to be selected for the worship of the dead: The gods once approached Prajapati and said, “Give us a means to live.” Thereupon the gods were properly invested with the sacred thread over the left shoulder and were taught to bend using the right knee. To the gods Prajapati said, “Sacrifice shall be your food, immortality your sap, svahyour call and the sun your light.” Then the pitrs approached Prajapati wearing the sacred thread over the right shoulder and bending from the left knee. To them Prajapati said, “Your eating shall be monthly, your call shall be svadha[2] and the moon shall be your light.” In this way the harmony between the gods and the pitrs was maintained. One is worshipped in light and the other is worshipped in darkness.

The operative rule underlying most of Hindu culture is that the light of the sun was used as a symbol for knowledge and consciousness. Vastu-sastraprescribes that temples and homes must open to the rising sun in the east. Temple images should also face the east. Uttarayana, the time of increasing daylight, is considered more auspicious than daksinayana, the time of diminishing daylight. In contrast, death, which is associated with the loss of consciousness, has come to be symbolized by darkness. As the sun is an eternal source of light and so has become a symbol for God and the divine life, so the moon, has become a symbol for the cycle of birth and death. The moon regularly moves between light and darkness. Similarly, the word deva is derived from the Sanskrit root div meaning to shine. The devas are, therefore, “the shining ones.” The pitrs, on the other hand, are bathed in the light of the moon and so in this way are distinguished from the gods.

Pitr-paksa

In the Satapatha-brahmana it is stated that three seasons, the spring, the summer and the rainy season belong to the gods.[3] These three seasons together make the uttarayana or the time when the sun is on the northern course. As noted above, this is the time of increasing light in the northern hemisphere. In contrast, autumn, early winter and late winter belong to the fathers. These three seasons comprise daksinayana, the time when the sun is on the southern course. This of course is the time of failing light in the northern hemisphere. In particular, the dark side of the month of bhadrapada(September October) has been singled out as the best time for the worship of fathers.[4] A sraddha performed in this period was said to produce special merit.

The manner in which the worship of the pitrs are worshiped during the month of bhadrapada is as follows. If one’s father happened to pass away on the 5th lunar day of any month (pancami-tithi) then the 5th tithi during the dark side of the month of bhadrapada would be used for honoring one’s father and the other pitrs of the family. If one’s relative happened to pass away on the 6th tithithen the 6thtithi during the dark side of the month of bhadrapada would be used for honoring one’s father and the other pitrs. In this way, all 16 tithis of the dark side of the month of bhadrapada cover all the possible lunar days on which a family member could expire.

[1]Daksayana occurs when the daylight is shortest in the northern hemisphere.

[2] During a fire sacrifice (yajna) oblations are offered into the fire with two expressions,svahand svadha. Offerings made to devas are made with the sound svahand offering for thepitrs are made using the sound svadha.

[4] Some sastras mention that the dark side of the month of asvina should be set aside for the worship of the fathers, but this works out to be the same time period as the dark side of the month of bhadrapada. This is because in some parts of South India the lunar month is calculated from the first day of the bright fortnight to the new moon, whereas in north India the month is calculated from the first day of the dark fortnight to the full moon. In this way, the dark fortnight after the full moon of the month of bhadrapada is equivalent to the dark side of asvina.

2. The Funeral (Antyesti)

In Sanskrit the term antyesti refers to the final sacrifice, the last of the 16samskaras or life sacraments that mark important events in an individual’s life. The antyesti ceremony is the funeral ceremony. This samskara is performed to dispose of the dead body, to give peace to the departed soul, and to enable it to enter the world of the ancestors (pitrs). From the earliest Vedic times cremation was the most common means of disposing of a body. There is, however, written evidence that burial and post burial ceremonies also occurred during the Vedic period. The Rg and Atharva Vedas mention both burial and cremation as legitimate methods for the disposal of the dead.[1] We find evidence in theAranyakas that the burial of incinerated bones and ashes was an important and elaborate ceremony. By the Grhya and Puranic periods, however, burial and post cremation burial are hardly mentioned. Cremation had become the only orthodox method for the disposal of the dead.[2]

Here is a summary of what we know about cremation from the Rg-veda:[3]

The fire deity, Agni, was invoked to carry the departing soul to the realm of Yama, the god of death.

In the case of a priest his sacrificial implements were burned along with his body.

Prayers were recited to various deities in order to transfer the departing soul to the world of the pitrs.

A cow or goat, known as an anustarani[4], was burned along with the body of the deceased.

In the case of a deceased husband, the wife would lay on the funeral pyre along side the body of her husband. Before the fire was lighted, she would be asked to rise from the side of her husband’s body and rejoin the living.[5]

The Atharva-veda (XVIII) adds the following information:

The body was dressed in new garments before cremation.

Grains and sesame seeds were scattered along side the body before cremation.

The pitrs were ritually invoked to attend the ceremony and invited to sit on the southern side of the fire.

Streams of ghee along with prayers were offered to the pitrs during the cremation.

Prayers and oblations made of rice cakes, milk, meat, whey, honey, and water were used in the worship of various gods in order to ensure long life and prosperity for the living relatives.

Prayers and oblations were offered to three generations of pitrs: the father, the grandfather, and the great grandfather, during the cremation.

Cakes of rice, sesame and other articles of food were buried along with the cremated bones.

It is evident from the Atharva-veda that the worship of pitrs had its origins in the earliest Vedic period.

The cremation process during the Grhyaperiod may be summarized as follows:

As soon as the person died a cremation pit called a smasana was dug. The pit was made in a fertile place inclined towards the south.

All hair, including head and facial hair, was removed from the body.

A funeral procession of four parts was organized. The immediate family members carried the sacred fire and the sacrificial vessels. Behind them an odd number of persons carried the dead body. Next, a cow or goat, preferably black in color, followed. Finally, the relatives and friends of the dead person followed.

Once the funeral pyre had been prepared the body was placed on sacred grass that lined the inside of the cremation pit along with wood. In the case of a husband who had died, his wife would lie to the north side of his body. A brother or some other representative of the deceased would ask her to rise before the fire was lighted. The sacrificial implements used by the deceased person would also be placed alongside the body.

The body would be covered with the skin of an anustarani cow or goat. If there was no animal then cakes of rice would serve the purpose.

The fire was lighted starting at the head.

When the entire body had been consumed, the mourners would circumambulate in a counter-clockwise direction and then leave without looking back. They would then go and bathe.

During the Puranic period the procedures were as follows.

At the time of death sacred verses were recited to revive the dead person. When these had failed the priest would announce the death. The cremation, if possible, was to be performed on the day of the death.

Professional mourners would be hired, who would gather around the deceased with disheveled hair, disordered garments, and dust covered bodies and begin wailing and sobbing.

The body was washed; the hair and nails were cut. The body was dressed in new garments and adorned with ornaments.

The body was carried on the shoulders of relatives, or pulled in a cart, followed by mourners who would recite sacred prayers until they reached the cremation site.

After arriving at the cremation site the body would be placed on the funeral pyre with the head facing the south.

The chief mourner placed ghee on the body to the accompaniment of sacred prayers.

All jewels and ornaments were removed from the body and a small mound of cow dung was placed on the stomach or chest. The chief mourner walked around the body three times in a counterclockwise direction while sprinkling water from an earthen vessel. The vessel was then broken on the ground near the head of the deceased.

The chief mourner lighted the fire at the head to the accompaniment of prayers.

Prayers were recited to direct the various parts of the deceased’s body to merge with the universal elements: the voice to the sky, the eyes to the sun, the vital breath to the wind, and so forth.

After the fire has consumed the body the mourning party returned home to bathe and purify themselves with prayers for peace.

Three days after the cremation the chief mourner returned to the burning area and ceremonially sprinkled the ashes with water. The ashes were later poured into the Ganges or other sacred body of water in a ceremony called visarjanam.

Current cremation practice in India generally follows this Puranic model.

Burning in Effigy (kusa-puttalika-daha)

If a person had died but the body could not be reclaimed, as in the case of a person who had drowned or had been killed in battle, it was still absolutely essential for a cremation to take place. The reason was simple: without cremation the departed soul could not begin the transition into a pitr. In lieu of a body an image could be cremated. The Bhavisya-purana describes an image made of 360 strands of kusa, a kind of sacred grass: Forty for the head, twenty for the neck, one hundred in the two arms, twenty in the chest, twenty in the belly, thirty in the hips, one hundred in the two thighs, and thirty in the knees and shanks. Another account uses a coconut for the head, a bottle gourd for the mouth, five gems for the teeth, a plantain for the tongue, two shells for the eyes, clay for the nose, plantain leaves for the ears, the shoots of the fig tree for the hair, lotus fibers for the entrails, earth and barley paste for the flesh, honey for the blood, the skin of an antelope for the skin, a lotus for the naval, eggplant for the scrotum, and tree bark for garments!

If a person became missing, but was not specifically known to be dead, as in the case of someone who had gone to a foreign land and not returned, the relatives were advised to wait 12 years before performing the cremation. In the case of a person who has been cremated in effigy, but who then returned home, the person needed to be reborn by being passed through the legs of a female and then, step-by-step, have all the purificatory ceremonies (samskaras) performed. This may even including a re-marriage if necessary.

There was also a special rite called Narayana-bali that was performed when a person had died under unusual circumstances, such as through suicide or accidental death. The Narayana-bali was atonement for the situation and made the deceased fit for receiving the regular funeral process and subsequent rites.

The Anustarani Animal

Both the Rg and the Atharva Vedas prescribe that the skin and organs of a cow or she-goat, called an anustarani animal, be burned along with the body. This was done in order to lessen the pain inflicted on the departing soul by the scorching fire. The hide of the animal covered the body. The vital organs of the animal were placed in the hands and around the body of the deceased. During the Grhya period this practice declined and by the Puranic period was stopped altogether. Instead, rice was spread around the body in lieu of the skin. During Ravana’s funeral Valmiki describes how an anustarani animal was used.

There is an interesting story in the Aitreya-brahmana that tells how rice became the substitute for the anustarani animal. “In the beginning the gods used human beings for sacrifice. Overtime the sap of life left the human being and entered the body of the horse. Thereafter, the horse became the object of sacrifice. In time this sap of life left the horse and entered the ox. The ox became the object of sacrifice. Then again when the sap of life left the ox and entered sheep, a sheep became the object of sacrifice. Soon this sap of life left the sheep and entered the goat, wherein the goat became the object of sacrifice. For a long time the goat remained the object of sacrifice. Eventually, the sap of life left the goat and entered the earth. Thereupon, the earth became rice and rice became the fit substitute for the sap of life.” Here we get the history of the sacrificial animal and the relationship between rice and the sacrificial animal.

Post cremation Burial (Pitr-medha)

During the Vedic and early Grhya periods it was common to bury the incinerated bones of a deceased person in an urn. This was the pitr-medhaceremony. The Grhya-sutras of Asvalayana describe how the burned bones were to be collected on the third lunar day (tithi) after death. In the case of a man who had died, the bones were to be collected by elderly men and placed into a male urn. In the case of a woman, the bones were to be collected by elderly women and placed into a female urn. Urns were designed by their shape to be male or female. The performers of this ceremony were to walk three times in a counterclockwise direction around the bones while sprinkling milk and water from a particular kind of twig (sami). The bones were then placed into the urn as they were picked up individually with the thumb and fourth finger. First the bones of the feet were to be gathered and then successively the other bones were to be gathered working toward the head. After the bones had been purified and gathered they were sealed and buried in a secure location.

By the end of the Grhya period the practice of burying bones in an urn declined.