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Sunday, August 30, 2015

The BMW R75 is a World War II-era motorcycle and sidecar combination produced by the German company BMW.In the 1930s BMW were producing a number of popular and highly
effective motorcycles. In 1938 development of the R75 started in
response to a request from the German Army.Preproduction models of the R75 were powered by a 750 cc side valve
engine, which was based on the R71 engine. However it was quickly found
necessary to design an all new OHV 750 cc engine for the R75 unit. This
OHV engine later proved to be the basis for subsequent post-war twin BMW
engines like the R51/3, R67 and R68.The third side-car wheel was driven with an axle connected to the rear wheel of the motorcycle. These were fitted with a locking differential and selectable road and off-road gear ratios
through which all four and reverse gears worked. This made the R75
highly manoeuvrable and capable of negotiating most surfaces. A few
other motorcycle manufactures, like FN and Norton, provided an optional
drive to sidecars.The BMW R75 and its rival the ZündappKS 750 were both widely used by the Wehrmacht in Russia and North Africa,
though after a period of evaluation it became clear that the Zündapp
was the superior machine. In August 1942 Zündapp and BMW, on the urging
of the Army, agreed upon standardization of parts for both machines,
with a view of eventually creating a Zündapp-BMW hybrid (designated the
BW 43), in which a BMW 286/1 side-car would be grafted onto a Zündapp KS
750 motorcycle. They also agreed that the manufacture of the R75 would
cease once production reached 20,200 units, and after that point BMW and
Zündapp would only produce the Zündapp-BMW machine, manufacturing
20,000 each year.Since the target of 20,200 BMW R75's was not reached, it remained in production until the Eisenach
factory was so badly damaged by Allied bombing that production ceased
in 1944. A further 98 units were assembled by the Soviets in 1946 as
reparations.However the standardisation programme meant that machines that were
produced by BMW and Zündapp used 70% of the same components. This
simplifies the supply of spare parts for these vehicles, many of which
are still in the hands of historic motorcycle enthusiasts. These
vehicles are still highly desirable as collector's items because of
their complex and durable technology, and are correspondingly expensive.
A well-restored R75 can be still used for everyday purposes, on or
off-road without problems.During World War 2 the Soviet Union quietly purchased five units via
Swedish intermediaries to study and subsequently build their own
version, the M-72, which Stalin approved for production.In 1954 a small number of modified R75 models were produced at Eisenach (then in Soviet-controlled East Germany) for testing under the designation AWO 700, but were not put into full production.The success and reliability of the shaft-driven R75 during the war led to the US Army requesting that Harley-Davidson
produce a similar shaft-driven cycle for American troops. This led to
Harley producing their first ever shaft-driven model, the Harley-Davidson XA, which was a near duplicate of the R75.

Friday, August 28, 2015

From Wikipedia"The Titan IIIC was an expendable launch system used by the United States Air Force from 1965 until 1982. It was the first Titan booster to feature large solid rocket motors and was planned to be used as a launcher for the Dyna-Soar and Manned Orbiting Laboratory,
though both programs were cancelled before any astronauts flew. The
majority of the launcher's payloads were DoD satellites, namely for
military communications and early warning, though one flight was
performed by NASA. The Titan IIIC was launched exclusively from Cape
Canaveral while its sibling, the Titan IIID, was launched only from Vandenberg AFB.

The Titan rocket family was established in October 1955 when the Air Force awarded the Glenn L. Martin Company (later Martin Marietta and now Lockheed Martin) a contract to build an intercontinental ballistic missile (SM-68). It became known as the Titan I, the nation's first two-stage ICBM, and replaced the Atlas ICBM as the second underground, vertically stored, silo-based ICBM. Both stages of the Titan I used kerosene (RP-1) and liquid oxygen (LOX) as propellants. A subsequent version of the Titan family, the Titan II, was similar to the Titan I, but was much more powerful. Designated as LGM-25C, the Titan II was the largest USAF missile at the time and burned Aerozine 50 and nitrogen tetroxide (NTO) rather than RP-1 and LOX.The Titan III family consisted of an enhanced Titan II core with or
without solid rocket strap-on boosters and an assortment of upper
stages. All SRM-equipped Titans (IIIC, IIID, IIIE, 34D, and 4) launched
with only the SRMs firing at liftoff, the core stage not activating
until SRM jettison at two minutes into launch. The Titan IIIA (an early
test variant flown in 1964-65) and IIIB (flown from 1966-87 with various
upper stages) had no SRMs. The Titan III launchers provided assured capability and flexibility for launch of large-class payloads.As the IIIC consisted of mostly proven hardware, launch problems were
generally only caused by the upper stages and/or payload. The second
flight in October 1965 failed when the Transstage disintegrated in orbit
and a flight the following August was lost when the shroud broke up at
T+78 seconds, triggering an RSO destruct. The only other total failure
was in 1978 when the Titan's second stage malfunctioned and had to be
destroyed.The first Titan IIIC flew on June 18, 1965 and was the most powerful
launcher used by the Air Force until it was replaced by the Titan 34D in 1982. The last IIIC was launched in March 1982.

The Titan IIIC weighed about 1,380,000 lb (626,000 kg) at liftoff and
consisted of a two-stage Titan core and upper stage called the Titan Transtage, both burning hypergolic liquid fuel, and two large UA1205 solid rocket boosters.The solid boosters were ignited on the ground and were designated
"stage 0". Each booster composed of five segments and was 10 ft (3.0 m)
in diameter, 85 ft (26 m) long, and weighed nearly 500,000 lb
(230,000 kg). They produced a combined 2,380,000 lbf (10,600 kN) thrust
at sea level and burned for approximately 115 seconds. Solid booster jettison occurred at approximately 116 seconds.[3]About two seconds later, the first core stage ignited. Designated the Titan 3A-1, this stage was powered by two Aerojet LR-87-11 engines that burned about 240,000 lb (110,000 kg) of Aerozine 50 and nitrogen tetroxide
(NTO) and produced 526,000 lbf (2,340 kN) thrust over 147 seconds. The
Aerozine 50 and NTO were stored in structurally independent tanks to
minimize the hazard of the two mixing if a leak should have developed in
either tank.The second core stage, the Titan 3A-2, contained about 55,000 lb (25,000 kg) of propellant and was powered by a single Aerojet LR-91-11, which produced 102,000 lbf (450 kN) for 145 seconds.The upper stage, the Titan Transtage, also burned Aerozine 50 and NTO. Its two Aerojet AJ-10-138
engines were restartable, allowing flexible orbital operations
including orbital trimming, geostationary transfer and insertion, and
delivery of multiple payloads to different orbits. This required complex
guidance and instrumentation. Transtage contained about 22,000 lb (10,000 kg) of propellant and its engines delivered 16,000 lbf (71 kN).

Wednesday, August 12, 2015

From Wikipedia"The M4 Sherman, officially the Medium Tank, M4, was the primary battle tank used by the United States and the other Western Allies
in World War II, and proved to be a reliable and highly mobile
workhorse, despite being outmatched by heavier German tanks late in the
war. Thousands were distributed to the Allies, including the British Commonwealth and the Soviet Union, in the lend-lease program. The M4 was the second most produced tank of the World War II era, after the Soviet T-34,
and its role in its parent nation's victory was comparable to that of
the T-34. The tank took its name from the American Civil War General William Tecumseh Sherman.The M4 Sherman evolved from the M3 Medium Tank (a.k.a. Grant and Lee), which had an unusual side-sponson
mounted 75 mm gun. It retained much of the previous mechanical design,
but added the first American main 75 mm gun mounted on a fully
traversing turret, with a gyrostabilizer enabling the crew to fire with reasonable accuracy while the tank was on the move.
The designers stressed mechanical reliability, ease of production and
maintenance, durability, standardization of parts and ammunition in a
limited number of variants, and moderate size and weight. These factors
made the M4 superior in some regards to the earlier German light and medium tanks
of 1939–41. The M4 went on to be produced in very large numbers. It
formed the backbone of most offensives by the Western Allies, starting
in late 1942.When the M4 tank arrived in North Africa in 1942, it was clearly superior to both the German Panzer III medium tank, with its 50 mm gun, and the older versions of the Panzer IV
armed with the short barreled 75 mm gun. For this reason, the US Army
believed the M4 would be adequate to win the war, and no pressure was
exerted for further tank development. Logistical and transport
restrictions (roads, ports, bridges, etc.) also would complicate the
introduction of a more capable, but heavier tank.Independent tank destroyer (TD) battalions, including the M36 tank destroyer
using vehicles built on the M4 hull and chassis, but with open-topped
turrets and more lethal, high-velocity guns, also entered widespread use
among American army corps. By 1944, the M4 Sherman and the TD units
proved to be outmatched by the 45 ton Panther tank, and wholly inadequate against the 56 ton Tiger I and later 70 ton Tiger II heavy tanks, suffering high casualties against their heavier armor and more powerful 88 mm L/56 and L/71 cannons. Mobility, mechanical reliability and sheer numbers, supported by growing superiority in supporting fighter-bombers and artillery, helped offset these disadvantages strategically.The relative ease of production allowed huge numbers of the M4 to be
produced, and significant investment in tank recovery and repair units
paid off with more disabled vehicles being repaired and returned to
service. These factors combined to give the Americans numerical
superiority in most battles, and allowed many infantry divisions their
own M4 and TD assets. By 1944 a typical U.S. infantry division had as
semi-permanently attached units an M4 Sherman battalion, a TD battalion,
or both. By this stage of the war, German panzer divisions
were rarely at full strength, and some U.S. infantry divisions had more
fully tracked armored fighting vehicles than the depleted German panzer
divisions did, providing a great advantage for the Americans.
The Americans also started to introduce the M4A3E8 variant, with
horizontal volute spring suspension and an improved high-velocity 76 mm
gun previously used only by TDs.Production of the M4 Sherman was favored by the commander of the
armored ground forces, albeit controversially, over the heavier M26 Pershing, which resulted in the latter being deployed too late to play any significant role in the war. In the Pacific Theater,
the M4 was used chiefly against Japanese infantry and fortifications;
in its rare encounters with much lighter Japanese tanks with weaker
armor and guns, the Sherman's superiority was overwhelming. Almost
50,000 vehicles were produced, and its chassis also served as the basis
for numerous other armored vehicles such as tank destroyers, tank retrievers, and self-propelled artillery.The Sherman would finally give way to post-war tanks developed from
the M26. Various original and updated versions of the Sherman, with
improved weapons and other equipment, would continue to see combat
effectively in many later conflicts, including the Korean War, Arab-Israeli Wars, and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 (where it was used by both sides) into the late 20th century.

Tuesday, August 11, 2015

Here are some more images of Bronco models 1/35 scale T-17 Armored Car Staghound. From Wikipedia"The T17 and the T17E1 were two Americanarmored car designs produced during the Second World War. Neither saw service with frontline US forces but the latter was supplied, via the United Kingdom, to British and Commonwealth forces during the war and received the service name Staghound. A number of countries used the Staghound after the war, with some of the vehicles continuing to serve into the 1980s.

In July 1941, the US Army Ordnance issued specifications for a medium armored car alongside a specification for heavy armored car (which resulted in the T18 Boarhound). Ford Motor Company built a six wheels, all driven (6 x 6) prototype which was designated T17 and Chevrolet a four wheels, all driven (4 x 4) model designated T17E1. At the same time, the British Purchasing Commission was also looking for medium and heavy armored cars for use in the war in North Africa. Had the U.S. adopted this, it would have been called the M6.Both the T17 and T17E used the same turret which was designed by Rock
island Arsenal with British requirements driving some of the design
features such as putting at least two crew in the turret and placing the
radio in the turret so that it was close to the commander.The T17 was armed with a 37 mm gun in a rotating turret, a coaxial machine gun
and a bow machine gun. Power was from two Hercules JXD engines. In the
interests of standardization, these replaced Ford's initial 90 hp
engines.The British gave the name Deerhound to the T17. Production started in October 1942. The US military eventually decided to adopt the lighter M8 Greyhound
vehicle instead; as an interim measure T17 production continued until
M8 production could be started. These were to be supplied as
"International Aid" but US Army tests in early 1943 showed the T17 was
lacking compared to the T17E and so Britain turned them down. The 250
units produced were disarmed and given to the United States Army Military Police Corps for use in the States.The British allocated the name Staghound to the T17E series.
British liaison officers had had contact with Macpherson, the Chevrolet
engineer in charge of the project and felt they had influenced him
sufficiently to produce something that met all their requirements.
Accordingly in December the British Purchasing Commission "formally
requested" production of 300 vehicles; the US Army authorized production
of 2000 in January 1942. The British order was confirmed in March 1942
when the pilot T17E was delivered to the Aberdeen Proving Ground. Testing showed flaws but these were expected to be correctable and a further 1,500 were contracted for.
Production started in October 1942. The US Army convened a board to
examine the state of the multitude of armored car projects and
recommended in December 1942 the cancellation of the larger designs and
standardization on a smaller vehicle. This lighter vehicle would appear
as the M8 Greyhound
vehicle. However the British applied for T17E1 production to be
continued for the United Kingdom under Lend-Lease. Approximately 4,000
Staghounds were produced in total.The Staghound was an innovative design that incorporated some
advanced features. It had two rear-facing 6-cylinder engines with
automatic transmissions (with 4 forward and 1 reverse gears) feeding
through a transfer case to drive both axles. Either two- or four-wheel
drive could be selected. Either engine could be shut down while in
motion and taken out of the drive train. Additionally, a power steering
pump was incorporated that could be switched on or off manually from the
driver's instrument panel depending on steering conditions. Steering
and suspension components were directly attached to the hull as the
structure was rigid enough to dispense with the need for a separate
chassis.

The Staghound entered service too late for use in the North African Campaign where its combination of armor, range and main armament would have been an advantage in a light forces reconnaissance role.
As a result, it first saw operational service in Italy, where many
units found its large physical size too restrictive in the narrow roads,
and streets of Europe. It saw most service at squadron and regimental
headquarter level;
an armoured car regiment having three Staghounds with the Regimental HQ
and three with each HQ of the four squadrons in the regiment.
Conditions for the Staghound improved when the Italian campaign became
more mobile in the middle of 1944, and the Staghound was also used in
north-west Europe campaign.After the war, the Staghounds were distributed among smaller NATO countries in Europe and to the Middle East.

Entering the 1930s, Packard attempted to beat the stock market crash
and subsequent Great Depression by manufacturing ever more opulent and
expensive cars than it had prior to October 1929. While the Eight five-seater sedan had been the company's top-seller for years, the Twin Six, designed by Vincent, was introduced for 1932, with prices starting at $3,650 at the factory gate; in 1933,
it would be renamed the Packard Twelve, a name it retained for the
remainder of its run (through 1939). Also in 1931, Packard pioneered a
system it called Ride Control, which made the hydraulic shock absorbers adjustable from within the car. For one year only, 1932, Packard fielded an upper-medium-priced car, the Light Eight, at a base price of $1,750 (about $27,933 in 2014), or $735 ($11,732) less than the standard Eight.As an independent automaker, Packard did not have the luxury of a larger corporate structure absorbing its losses, as Cadillac did with GM and Lincoln
with Ford. However, Packard did have a better cash position than other
independent luxury marques. Peerless ceased production in 1932, changing
the Cleveland manufacturing plant from producing cars to brewing beer
for Carling Black Label Beer. By 1938, Franklin, Marmon, Ruxton, Stearns-Knight, Stutz, Duesenberg, and Pierce-Arrow had all closed.Packard also had one other advantage that some other luxury
automakers did not: a single production line. By maintaining a single
line and interchangeability between models, Packard was able to keep its
costs down. Packard did not change cars as often as other manufacturers
did at the time. Rather than introducing new models annually, Packard
began using its own "Series" formula for differentiating its model
changeovers in 1923. New model series did not debut on a strictly annual
basis, with some series lasting nearly two years, and others lasting as
short a time as seven months. In the long run, though, Packard averaged
around one new series per year. By 1930, Packard automobiles were
considered part of its Seventh Series. By 1942, Packard was in its
Twentieth Series. The "Thirteenth Series" was omitted.

To address the Depression, Packard started producing more affordable
cars in the medium-price range. In 1935, the company introduced its
first car under $1000, the 120.
Sales more than tripled that year and doubled again in 1936. To produce
the 120, Packard built and equipped an entirely separate factory. By
1936, Packard's labor force was divided nearly evenly between the
high-priced "Senior" lines (Twelve, Super Eight, and Eight) and the
medium-priced "Junior" models, although more than 10 times more Juniors
were produced than Seniors. This was because the 120 models were built
using thoroughly modern mass production techniques, while the Senior
Packards used a great deal more hand labor and traditional
craftsmanship. Although Packard almost certainly could not have survived
the Depression without the highly successful Junior models,
they did have the effect of diminishing the Senior models' exclusive
image among those few who could still afford an expensive luxury car.
The 120 models were more modern in basic design than the Senior models;
for example, the 1935 Packard 120 featured independent front suspension
and hydraulic brakes, features that would not appear on the Senior
Packards until 1937.

Packard was still the premier luxury automobile, even though the majority of cars being built were the 120 and Super Eight model ranges. Hoping to catch still more of the market, Packard decided to issue the Packard 115C
in 1937, which was powered by Packard's first six-cylinder engine since
the Fifth Series cars in 1928. While the move to introduce the Six, priced at around $1200,
was brilliant, for the car arrived just in time for the 1938 recession,
it also tagged Packards as something less exclusive than they had been
in the public's mind, and in the long run hurt Packard's reputation of
building some of America's finest luxury cars. The Six, redesignated 110 in 1940–41, continued for three years after the war, with many serving as taxicabs.In 1939, Packard introduced Econo-Drive, a kind of overdrive, claimed able to reduce engine speed 27.8%; it could be engaged at any speed over 30 mph (48 km/h).
The same year, the company introduced a fifth, transverse shock
absorber and made column shift (known as Handishift) available on the
120 and Six.

Wednesday, August 5, 2015

From the Entex instructions"
"One of the most impressive Duesenbergs assembled", said road and track of the 1933 Duesenberg Boattail SJ "Weymann Speedster".
This
car, one of only 35 SJ's built, is a higher powered version of the 1932
Model J. The SJ is one of the first U.S. production automobiles to
incorporate
a supercharger. body was designed by Gordon Buehrig and
executed by Weymann American Body Company of Indianapolis, Chassis
Serial No. 2537 and Engine serial No. J-508.
The car's 153.5 inch
wheelbase qualifies it as one of the largest two seaters built. The
single carburated 429 cu. in., duel-overhead cam, straight eight engine
is boosted by a centrifugal
engine driven water heated supercharger.
This power package produced 320 BHP at 4750 rpm and could propel the
Speedster from 0 to 100 MPH in 17 seconds. Top speed in first gear was
85 MPH and a maximum speed of 129 MPH was claimed.
Among the many
innovative features is a self contained lubrication system for engine
and chassis that is automatically actuated every 75 miles from an
odometer signal.
Four wheel vacuum boosted hydraulic brakes of 15
inches in diameter and 3 inches width provided the stopping performance
for this heavy car.
The boattail deck compartment houses the spare
tire, tools and has room for considerable luggage. The large fire engine
siren and red light mounted in front of the grille were installed at
the factory for the cars original owner. Captain George Whittel of Lake
Tahoe, California
who was an honorary Fire Marshall. Due to its
tremendous crowd appeal the car was hardly ever driven and was sold to
the Harrah collection with approximately 1400 miles on the odometer.
It has been shown throughout the United States and is one of the prize displays of the Harrah collection in Reno Nevada.

The ship was ordered as part of the "Programme for the Needs of the Far East", authorised by TsarNicholas II in 1898 to defend Russia's newly acquired ice-free port of Port Arthur in Manchuria.
Russian shipyards were already at full capacity so the Naval Ministry
decided to order ships from abroad. Specifications were issued on 14
June 1898 and a few days later the chief designer of the French shipyard
Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée proposed a design based on that of the French battleship Jauréguiberry. The Naval Technical Committee approved the design with a few changes to which the French readily agreed. The General Admiral, Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich selected the French design over a competing proposal from the Baltic Works. A contract was signed on 20 July 1898 at a cost of 30.28 million francs (11.355 million rubles) for delivery in 42 months.Tsesarevich‍ '​s most obvious design feature was her tumblehome hull. This had several advantages because it allowed greater freeboard since the narrow upper decks reduced the structural weight of the vessel's hull, it increased the field of fire of guns mounted on the sides, and it reduced the ship's roll in heavy seas. Its great disadvantage was that it reduced buoyancy and stability which contributed to excessive heel during turns. During the Battle of the Yellow Sea in August 1904, Imperial Japanese Navy observers thought the Tsesarevich was going to capsize when she suddenly turned out of the battleline.Tsesarevich was 118.5 metres (388 ft 9 in) long overall, had a beam of 23.2 metres (76 ft 1 in) and a draught of 7.92 metres (26 ft 0 in). The ship displaced 13,105 tonnes (12,898 long tons). Her crew consisted of 28–29 officers and 750 enlisted men.The ship was powered by two vertical triple-expansion steam engines using steam generated by 20 Belleville boilers at a working pressure of 19 kg/cm2 (1,863 kPa; 270 psi). The boilers were fitted with economizers that preheated their feed water. The engines were rated at 16,300 indicated horsepower (12,200 kW) and designed to reach a top speed of 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph). Tsesarevich
handily exceeded her design speed and reached 18.77 knots (34.76 km/h;
21.60 mph) from 15,254 indicated horsepower (11,375 kW) during her
official machinery trials in July–August 1903. She normally carried 800
long tons (810 t) of coal, but could carry a maximum of 1,350 long tons
(1,370 t). This allowed the ship to steam for 5,500 nautical miles (10,200 km; 6,300 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). Tsesarevich was fitted with six steam-driven generators with a total capacity of 550 kilowatts (740 hp).

Tsesarevich‍ '​s main armament consisted of two pairs of 40-calibre12-inch guns mounted in center-pivot, electrically powered, twin-gun turrets
fore and aft. The guns and their mountings were Russian-built, but the
turrets themselves were made in France. The guns could be loaded at all
angles of elevation and the turrets could traverse 270°. Trials revealed
that the ammunition hoists tended to jam when the ship was rolling; the
shipyard shipped new hoists to Port Arthur because the Russians wanted
the ship in the Far East as soon as possible and they were installed in
January 1904. 70 rounds per gun were carried. The guns fired one shell every 90–132 seconds. They fired a 731.3-pound (331.7 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2,598 ft/s (792 m/s) to a range of 16,010 yards (14,640 m) at an elevation of 15°.The secondary armament of the ships consisted of a dozen 45-caliber Canet Model 1892 6-inch (150 mm) (QF) guns
mounted in six electrically powered twin-gun turrets on the upper deck.
The corner turrets had an 150° arc of fire and the center turrets could
cover 180°. Each six-inch gun was provided with 200 rounds. Their rate of fire was 2–4 rounds per minute. They fired shells that weighed 91 lb (41.4 kg) with a muzzle velocity of 2,600 ft/s (792.5 m/s). They had a maximum range of approximately 12,600 yards (11,500 m).A number of smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats. These included twenty 50-calibre Canet QF 75-millimetre (3.0 in) guns; 14 in hull embrasures and the remaining six mounted on the superstructure. The ship carried 300 shells for each gun.
They fired a 11-pound (4.9 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2,700 ft/s
(820 m/s) to a maximum range of 7,005 yards (6,405 m) at an elevation
of 13°.Tsesarevich also mounted twenty 47-millimetre (1.9 in) Hotchkiss guns in the superstructure.They fired a 2.2-pound (1.00 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1,400 ft/s (430 m/s) at a rate of around 15 rounds per minute. Eight smaller 37-millimetre (1.5 in) Hotchkiss guns were also fitted, but their locations are unknown.The ship carried four 381-millimetre (15.0 in) torpedo tubes; two of these were mounted above water in the bow and stern, and the two broadside underwater tubes were located near the forward 12-inch magazine. Tsesarevich carried a total of 14 torpedoes. The ship also carried 45 mines to be laid to protect her anchorage in remote areas.The ship was fitted with two Barr and Stroudcoincidence rangefinders
that used two images that had to be superimposed to derive the range.
The gunnery officer then calculated the proper elevation and deflection required to hit the target and transmitted his commands via a Geisler electro-mechanical fire-control transmission system to each turret.

Tsesarevich used the latest Krupp armor in a version of the French cellular armor scheme. This consisted of a full-length waterlinearmoured belt with armored decks
above and below. Behind the belt were well-subdivided compartments
mostly used to store coal. This was intended to keep the ship afloat
regardless of the damage inflicted above the upper armoured deck. The
waterline armor belt was 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) high, with 1.5 metres
(4 ft 11 in) below the waterline at normal load. It had a maximum
thickness of 250 millimetres (9.8 in) for a length of 60 metres (196 ft
10 in) amidships which gradually reduced to a thickness of 180
millimetres (7.1 in) at the bow and 170 millimetres (6.7 in) at the
stern. The belt tapered to a thickness of 170 millimetres at its bottom
edge amidships and presumably tapered proportionally along its length.
Above the waterline belt was an upper strake
of armour that was 1.67 metres (5 ft 6 in) high and had a maximum
thickness of 200 millimetres (7.9 in). It was slightly shorter than the
waterline belt and similarly reduced in thickness towards the ends of
the ship. Forward it consisted of 120-millimetre (4.7 in) armour plates
and 130 millimetres (5.1 in) aft.The armor of the main gun turrets and their supporting tubes was 250
millimetres thick with roofs 63 millimetres (2.5 in) thick. Below the
upper armour deck the armour of the support tubes decreased to 100
millimetres (3.9 in). The turrets of the secondary armament had
150-millimetre (5.9 in) sides with 30 millimetres (1.2 in) roofs. The
sides of the conning tower
were 254 millimetres (10.0 in) thick and it had a 63-millimetre roof.
It had a communications tube that extended down to the upper armoured
deck that was protected by 100-millimetre armour. The funnel uptakes were protected by 19 millimetres (0.7 in) of armour for the height of one deck above the upper armoured deck.Above the upper armour belt there was a deck that ran the full length
of the ship that consisted of a 50-millimetre (2.0 in) armour plate
laid on 10-millimetre (0.39 in) deck plating. At the top of the
waterline belt was two layers of 20-millimetre (0.79 in) armour. It also
extended the full length of the ship, but not the full width; it curved
downward behind the belt and was connected to the lower edge of the
belt by a 20-millimetre plate. It continued downward to the ship's inner
bottom plates and formed a sort of torpedo bulkhead.
This bulkhead was 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) from the side of the ship and
extended for a length of 84 metres (275 ft 7 in). It was backed with
coal bunkers.

Construction began on Tsesarevich, named after the title of the heir to the Russian throne, on 18 May 1899 at the Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne-sur-Mer, France. The ship was laid down on 8 July 1899 and launched on 23 February 1901. Construction was supervised by Captain Ivan Grigorovich, who became the ship's first captain. Tsesarevich entered service in August 1903 and was assigned to the Far East. She arrived in Port Arthur on 2 December 1903. Upon completion, the Tsesarevich was the Russian Navy's best battleship at the beginning of the Russo-Japanese War.

Russo-Japanese War

She was one of three ships to be struck by Japanese torpedoes during
the surprise attack on Port Arthur during the night of 8/9 February
1904. Tsesarevich was hit abaft the portside torpedo bulkhead and the ship took on an 18° list
that was partially corrected by counterflooding compartments on the
starboard side. She got underway, but ran aground at the narrow harbor
entrance. She was refloated and moved into the harbour for repairs that
lasted until 7 June. Some of the ship's guns were removed during the
summer to reinforce the defenses of the port. Tsesarevich lost a total of four 75-millimeter, two 47-millimeter and two 37-millimeter guns.
The ship was hit twice on 7 August by Japanese 4.7-inch (120 mm) shells
fired at long range; a fragment from one of them lightly wounded
Vitgeft.On the morning of 10 August 1904, the First Pacific Squadron sortied from Port Arthur in an attempt to break through the Japanese fleet blockading the port and reach Vladivostok. The Russian squadron consisted of five battleships, Tsesarevich, Retvizan, Pobeda, Peresvet, Sevastopol and Poltava, along with four protected cruisers and eight destroyers. The Japanese fleet, commanded by Admiral Togo, was comprised four battleships, Mikasa, Asahi, Fuji, Shikishima, two armoured cruisers Nishin and Kasuga, as well as seven protected cruisers.Tsesarevich and Pobeda both suffered mechanical
problems within an hour of departure that forced the fleet to slow down
to a speed of 13 knots (24 km/h; 15 mph). Togo failed in his attempt to cross the Russian's T
after spotting them around 12:25 and a general engagement began around
13:25 with the Japanese ships concentrating their fire on Tsesarevich and Retvizan,
but the effective Russian fire forced Togo to disengage around 15:20.
He closed with the Russians about two hours later and opened fire at
17:35. Neither side was able to mortally damage any ships while the
Russians were still in the lead with about a half-hour of daylight left
when two 12-inch shells fired by Asahi struck near Tsesarevich‍
'​s conning tower at 18:40. Shell fragments bounced off the conning
tower's overhanging roof into the conning tower, killing Vitgeft, two
staff officers and the helmsman. The ship turned to port with the steering wheel jammed and was followed by several other battleships. Tsesarevich became the focus of attention from every Japanese ship so the captain of Retvizan decided to charge the Japanese battleline to buy time for Tsesarevich to fix her steering problem. He succeeded in doing so and the squadron's second-in-command, Rear Admiral Prince Pavel Ukhtomsky gradually asserted command over the scattered Russian ships and ordered them back to Port Arthur in the darkness.Tsesarevich
attempted to head north to Vladivostok in the dark, but her damaged
funnels greatly increased her coal consumption and reduced her speed to
only 6 knots (11 km/h; 6.9 mph) so that she was forced to head for the
German treaty port of Tsingtau instead with three destroyers for escort. Upon arrival the following day, Tsesarevich and her companions were interned and disarmed. The ship had been hit by thirteen 12-inch and two 8-inch (200 mm) shells that killed 12 and wounded 47 members of her crew.

Post Russo-Japanese War and WWI

At the end of the Russo-Japanese war, the ship was transferred to the Baltic in early 1906 and helped to suppress the Sveaborg Rebellion later that year. Around 1906, her fighting top was removed and her superstructure was cut down. The 75 mm guns in the superstructure were apparently removed as well. Tsesarevich
made regular winter cruises to the Mediterranean before World War I and
aided survivors of the Messina earthquake in December 1908. In 1909–10
the ship's machinery was overhauled and her amidships casemated 75 mm guns were removed and plated over four years later. Tsesarevich was not very active during the early part of World War I and she reportedly received two 37 mm anti-aircraft guns during the war. Because of her inactivity her bored sailors joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet in early 1917. She was renamed Grazhdanin (Russian: Гражданин (meaning Citizen)) on 13 April 1917 after the February Revolution. The ship took part in the Battle of Moon Sound in October 1917. During the climatic part of the battle, Grazhdanin engaged the German minesweepers on 17 October with little effect while Slava engaged the German dreadnoughts König and Kronprinz. The latter fired at Grazhdanin
and hit her twice, killing one and wounding four crewmen, although
neither hit caused significant damage. The German dreadnoughts outranged
Grazhdanin and she was forced to retreat and abandon Moon Sound in the face of German pressure.By December the ship was in Kronstadt where she came under the control of the Bolsheviks and she was hulked there in May 1918. Grazhdanin was scrapped beginning in 1924, although she was not officially stricken from the Navy List until 21 November 1925.