[194] Many communications
that are essential for the space traveler will not occur under face
to face conditions. Interorganizational communications between
physically remote units, such as a satellite and a surface explorer
or a space vehicle and the Earth, must be transmitted electronically.
Although there are numerous similarities between direct and mediated
communication, these forms of communication differ in many obvious
and not so obvious ways. In this section we will consider the special
characteristics of mediated communication.

Planning Considerations

We are in a period of rapid growth in computer
applications. At the same time, we are witnessing the long predicted
revolution in the field of communication. But more important than the
growth of either of these industries is the fact that these two
giants are now merging to provide capabilities far in excess of the
added possibilities of both. Distinctions that formerly existed
between communication and computers have blurred as computers control
and direct communication operations while voices and dynamic video
images are digitized, compressed, stored, and even sent over
telephone lines. New and exciting products that promise to change the
way we conduct our businesses and run our homes and our lives appear
with a frequency that bedazzles even the most committed electronic
communications buff. It is in this rapidly changing milieu that
planners must attempt to address the communication needs and
possibilities of extended spaceflight. In technological development,
production trails knowledge, leaving innovations outmoded even as
they are disseminated; when the vehicle using the technology is in
space, the planning problem is truly challenging.

[195] From the design
perspective, one of the most pressing requirements for communication
systems for space is that they be capable of adapting to industry
changes. In the early evolution of computer technology, emphasis was
placed almost entirely on hardware design. A shift in attitude
occurred with the realization that software could introduce enormous
flexibility to a system. A third phase evolved when it became obvious
that the software portion of the system, being skilled labor
intensive, was the most costly component of the system. The present
and presumably final stage of the process acknowledges the high costs
of software by placing even greater emphasis on this component. The
emerging view is that hardware may last only a short period, but that
software must be preserved. With this view, the emphasis shifts to
the coordination and integration of programming packages and
interfaces that will allow developed techniques to be used with each
other and with any equipment. Although the hardware to be used in
space cannot follow the throwaway approach, the current direction of
systems' development toward greater flexibility and compatibility
should benefit the space application by providing a wide range of
opportunities to update the system without changing the
equipment.

Systems Requirements

A distinction that is often drawn in the
communication literature is that between "data" (emphasizing the
capacity of the carrier or the rate of the transmission) and
"information" (emphasizing the intelligence in the
message).1 Great quantities of data can contain little
information, whereas important information can be conveyed in a
single (yes/no) bit.

Following STS-1, astronauts commented on the
excessive amount of useless data they had received during the flight.
Similarly, principle investigators reported receiving so much data
that were irrelevant to them during the Spacelab simulation
(Helmreich, et al., 1979a) that important information may have been
overlooked. A significant consideration for any system, but
especially for one in space, is that the communication contain a high
percentage of useful information. Although the goal of providing
useful information is easy to enunciate, it can be difficult to put
into operation.

[196] What is "useful"
information depends both on the particular circumstances surrounding
the event and on other considerations. Dervin (1981) draws an
interesting distinction between two contrasting assumptions
concerning the utility of information. The first view of information
is that it has some intrinsic or objective value which the user must
be persuaded to adopt. The second view is that information gains its
value only through interpretation and use by the individual. The
importance of Dervin's distinction lies primarily in the standards it
suggests for communication systems. For instance, the objective view
could be satisfied by a system that is predominantly one dimensional;
the subjective or interpretive view would require a highly
interactive system. As Dervin points out, the objective or
persuasional approach is the dominant model of most delivery systems
in use today. It is perhaps overly ambitious to expect that spacecrew
systems will be among the first to deviate from this pattern. Yet
neither should we feel bound by limiting or inappropriate models. In
designing systems for future spacecrews, we must attempt to eliminate
unnecessary data and to strike some balance between providing
necessary information (as judged by others) and meeting the perceived
needs of involved individuals.

Even the best designed communication systems
have finite information processing capabilities. Information overload
occurs when the system is confronted with more information than it
can effectively or efficiently process. Miller (1960, 1978) has
identified several possible responses to input overload which are
common to all information systems. These include queueing, selective
processing, omission, and error. Two general procedures are available
to ensure that important information is not missed. One is a system
of prioritization such that critical information is given
preferential treatment in the course of queueing and filtering. The
other involves the establishment of reserve or emergency
communication channels. Both of these procedures are probably needed
to ensure that the communications systems used in each mission will
make provision for identifying and promptly processing crucial
information, even under overload conditions.

Systems Effects

During the last two decades there has been
increased interest in understanding the effects resulting from the
use of mediated communication systems, such as those which will
provide the link between the spacecraft and the ground. This area of
investigation is [197] directly applicable to the requirements of spacecrews
and is presented here in some detail.

An operating communication system involves a
complex mix of hardware and people variables. Several authors have
developed descriptive taxonomies in attempting to put into order the
many variables which influence systems use and impact (Bailey,
Nordic, and Sistrunk, 1963; Casey Stahmer and Havron, 1973; Johansen,
Miller, and Vallee, 1975). Broadly represented, these taxonomies
divide the various influencing factors into antecedent variables
(conditions which precede the interaction, such as the physical
environment and the hardware/software system), and intervening
variables (conditions which operate during a particular interaction,
such as "gatekeeping" activities or the availability of feedback).
Criteria variables are the measures by which the system is assessed.
Criteria variables include both effectiveness and satisfaction
measures.

Mediated systems influence the dynamics of the
communication process in two related but distinct ways. First, there
are the effects common to all mediated modes. Second, there are the
effects specific to particular classes of systems.

Overview of mediated systems
effects- Numerous studies (see
Chapanis, Ochsman, Parrish, and Weeks, 1972; Westrum, unpublished
Ph.D. Thesis, Purdue University, 1972) have shown that mediated
communication differs most from direct face to face communication
when the activities engaged in require a high level of interaction
among participants, and when the expression of emotion and its
accurate perception are related to the outcome. Compared with direct
communication, mediated communication contains reduced socioemotional
content. As a result, mediated communication tends to be less
effective for tasks such as getting acquainted with another or tasks
involving bargaining or negotiation, than for tasks such as giving
and receiving information, asking questions, and exchanging opinions
(see reviews by Short, Williams, and Christie, 1976; Hough and Panko,
1977; Johansen, Vallee, and Spangler, 1979). Studies by the
Communications Studies Group (Champness, 1971) also indicate that
people are more willing to compromise or "go along" in a direct
exchange and are less easily moved from their established positions
in a mediated exchange. If follows from the various findings that
mediated communication is better equipped to handle routine,
businesslike, and formal exchanges than significant, social, and
informal exchanges.

[198] Various hypotheses
have been offered to explain the differences observed between face to
face communication and mediated communication. These hypotheses can
be subsumed under three general categories. The social presence
hypothesis (see Short et al., 1976) emphasizes how real or immediate
other individuals seem to the communicating individual. The channel
hypothesis assumes that changes in the nature of the exchange are a
result of changes in the amount of information received. Direct
contact brings into play numerous communication channels such as
visual, auditory, olfactory, and tactile. With information flowing
over so many pathways, the system is more than adequate, it is
naturally redundant. As the number of channels is reduced, redundancy
is lost; as the number of channels is further reduced, information is
lost. The task/ socioemotional ratio hypothesis states that, as the
medium of communication changes, the relative importance of
interpersonal information and task related information changes. Here
the emphasis is not on the net gain or loss of total information, but
rather on the relative emphasis given to different kinds of
information.

Some data are better explained by one
hypothesis than another. For instance, it has been demonstrated that
channel impairment can adversely affect the assessment of another's
opinion and the reaching of an agreement in bargaining situations
(Communications Studies Group, 1972). In support of the
task/socioemotional ratio hypothesis, it has been found that real
opinion change (as opposed to willingness to compromise) is greater
after an audio only conversation than after a face to face meeting
(Communications Studies Group, 1972; Short, 1972a, 1972b, 1973).
However, all three explanations describe many of the differences
observed between direct and mediated communications. They are
distinguished primarily by the value they assign to particular modes
of communication. The social presence and channel hypotheses suggest
an overall superiority of direct communication; the
task/socioemotional ratio hypothesis does not suggest a superiority
of one system over the other, except in relationship to a particular
task or goal.

Differences among media- As discussed above, face to face communication can be
contrasted with mediated communication. It can also be conceptualized
as one point on a communication continuum. Other major points are
full motion video, audio, and computer or telegraphic communication.
Full motion video is often referred to as broadband communication
because its transmission requires approximately one thousand times
the bandwidth of an audio link. Audio, computer, or slow scan video
can be transmitted over [199] physical links
which have only limited capacity, and thus are called narrowband
communication.

Differences among media parallel those of face
to face versus mediated communication. Interactions involving tasks
with little affective component, such as exchanging information, are
not as influenced by the particular medium of communication;
interactions with high affect, such as bargaining sessions, are more
influenced by the choice of medium. Knowing the other person well can
offset some of the problems of, for instance, remote negotiations;
however, tasks with an emotional component are generally handled
better with direct communication or via a video link than with audio
only or computer communication. Some interactive tasks such as
problem solving may or may not be influenced by the medium, depending
on the particular exchange.

Differences among media can also be explained
in terms of social presence, channels, and the task/socioemotional
ratio. For instance, extending the channel hypothesis, we can
consider the various media as differing in the number of modes of
verbal and nonverbal channels that they employ. As shown in table 1,
when compared with direct communication, video, audio, and computer
or telegraphic systems employ successively fewer modes.

Video systems- As noted above, direct communication, and to some
extent systems with a video component, convey affective information.
The visual dimension also serves another important function - it
helps regulate the conduct of an interactive meeting. Eye movement
and body position announce who wishes to speak and with what urgency,
aiding the smooth flow of an interaction (Argyle, 1969) In a group
situation, visual information also provides a continuous status
update, keeping the remote participants aware of who has joined and
who has left. Visual information also serves to "refresh" impressions
of participants.

When more than two people are communicating,
the presence of nonverbal cues makes a direct or a video supported
exchange far easier to control than an audio or a
computer/telegraphic exchange. However, there is no required
relationship between the presence of these cues and the management of
the interaction. Management without visual cues can be accomplished
by providing a system that can identify speakers and give
participants a way of indicating their wish to talk. (For a
description of such a system, see Stapley, 1973.)

[200] TABLE 1. COMMUNICATION
MODES AS A FUNCTION OF MEDIA

Mode

Face-to-face

Video

Audio

Computer/teletype

Proxemic (distancing or placement)

X

Kinesic (facial expression and gestures)

X

X

Paralinguistic (amplitude, rate, and tenor of speech)

X

X

X

Linguistic (written or spoken word)

X

X

X

X

Among the media, video most closely
approximates the effects of direct communication (Goldmark, 1973);
however, significant differences remain For instance, in a video
exchange someone must decide who or what to focus on, whether to show
close ups or distant views, etc. This preplanned selection and
focusing requirement considerably limits the choice and ease of
viewing that is available in a face to face interaction. Also, the
direction of gaze in a video exchange can introduce anomalies. When
meeting face to face, people alternately establish and break eye
contact. When meeting over video, one tends to fix on the monitor;
this can result in the perception of being ignored (if the camera is
displaced from the monitor) or of being stared down. One highly
advanced (and costly) video design attempts to deal with some of the
problems of direction of gaze. Decisions and Designs Inc., under
contract to the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, have
developed a concept which they call "virtual space." Through the use
of multiple cameras and monitors, participants at each location
appear to turn toward the particular individual they are addressing.
Evaluators report that the system has been well received (Sticha,
Hunter, and Randall, 1981), suggesting that the verisimilitude of
direction of gaze may be a significant factor in the smooth flow of
an exchange.

Audio systems- Audio systems can provide a great deal of
information, not only of the subject being discussed, but also of the
[201]
attitudes of the participants. However, achieving high technical
quality in an audio exchange involving groups of individuals is a
challenging task. Free arrangements (i.e., where individuals are not
attached to microphones and earphones) are routinely beset by
problems of feedback, loss of signal, etc. A fully duplex system
where both locations can speak at will further compounds these
problems. Yet any compromise with this open approach to communication
usually results in reduced satisfaction and sometimes with reduced
use of the system. If the technical barriers can be overcome, audio
exchanges can satisfy the requirements for a high percentage of
exchanges. It has been concluded that about 40% of the interactions
which now take place face to face could readily be handled by an
audio only medium (Cornell, 1974; Short et al., 1976). The audio only
medium may have the advantage of perceived privacy. Goldmark (1973)
found that participants judge a telephone conversation to be more
private than even a face to face interaction.

Audio transactions can be augmented as
necessary by the transmission of limited motion visual materials.
Pictures, graphs, textual materials, or slow scan video can be
transmitted over the same narrowband linkages which serve the audio
connection. These visuals are limited in providing the socioemotional
information that makes participants aware of each other as
individuals (Morley and Stephenson, 1969) and in providing the
important procedural/ control information available with full motion
video. However, they can accommodate substantial informational
exchange in support of a given task.

Computer/telegraphic
systems- Although capable of
transmitting only textual or graphic materials, computer/telegraphic
systems are emerging as a flexible and powerful means of
communication through work processing, text construction and editing,
document manipulation, store and forward messaging, and computing
capabilities. An advantage of computer based communication systems is
that they do not require simultaneous interactions. Senders can input
messages at their leisure, and receivers can acquire and respond to
these messages as they choose. Alternately, all participants can
input at once without conflict. Received messages can be ordered and
prioritized. Such systems have a high capacity for storing and
retrieving messages and are useful for transmissions that may require
later documentation.

Written communication, as represented by
computer/telegraphic systems, tends to be the most formal mode of
exchange. [202] As mentioned previously, face to face interactions
result in a greater willingness to compromise than does mediated
communication. When compared with other forms of mediated
communication, written communication tends to result in the most
intransigent positions (Sinaiko, 1963; Smith, 1969). Of course, the
willingness to compromise speaks only to the likelihood of consensus,
not to a change in opinion or to the quality of the decision.

Media preference- Communication systems begin by emulating and
extending the functions of the systems they replace. In the mass
media, television began its existence by imitating radio, as radio
had imitated the printed media which preceded it. Exchanges between
separated individuals or groups of individuals are now paralleling
this development, with face to face communication often the assumed
standard with which other systems are compared (Hough and Panko,
1977).

Face to face or video interactions are judged
more positively than either audio or written interactions, and people
encountered over video are perceived more positively than those
encountered over other mediated systems (Weston and Kristen,1973;
Ryan and Craig, 1975). For complex tasks and for tasks involving
considerable social interaction, there is often a preference
expressed for a video channel, and, as we have seen, video aids these
interactions.

However, the preference for video is far from
universal, especially among experienced users. Broadband systems can
have disadvantages for certain types of businesslike communication
and for negatively toned communication involving such issues as
criticism and censure (Hough and Panko, 1977) in which one would
choose to deemphasize the interpersonal aspects of the exchange.
Narrow band communication emphasizes the argument rather than the
presenter, and individuals tend to prefer it if their arguments are
strong and to avoid it in favor of face to face or video
communication if their arguments are weak (Morley and Stephenson,
1969, 1970; Short, 1971, 1974). Because of the tendency of narrowband
media to emphasize rational rather than social considerations, some
users express a general preference for it. One user (in Johansen,
Vallee, and Collins, 1977) expressed this view poetically in
describing computer communications as acting (p. 383):

...as a filter, filtering out irrelevant
and irrational interpersonal "noise" and enhanc(ing) the
communication of highly informed "pure reason"-a quest of
philosophers since ancient times . .

[203] It can be
concluded, then, that although there is a basic preference for direct
communication, mediated communication is not a poor substitute for
face to face exchanges. Rather, it is another form (or several other
forms) of communication. Although all forms of mediated communication
seem to be aided by the previous acquaintance of the participants,
preference for one system over another is highly dependent on the
specific conditions.

System acceptance- Any communication system, whatever its capability,
will fail if it is not used by its intended beneficiaries. Many
systems have been resisted because (1) the designers did not
understand fully the users' needs, (2) the potential benefits were
never made clear to users, or (3) the users were never properly
trained in the system (Elton and Carey, 1980). Systems have also
failed because of unanticipated user fears or because users felt that
the new medium would somehow disrupt the normal pattern of their
lives. Elton and Carey have offered a number of useful suggestions on
planning and implementing communication systems.

First, potential users should be included in
the planning and implementation process as early as possible. There
are three reasons for this: User involvement helps designers
understand user attitudes and needs, users become committed to
choices to which they themselves have contributed, and there develops
a cadre of users who have sufficient familiarity with the system to
be able to explain it to their peers.

Second, planning should take the psychological
aspects of the physical arrangement into account. The physical
arrangement refers to such variables as equipment location, physical
setup, and operator machine interface. A location should be sought
which is at once accessible and private. Although it may be necessary
to locate the equipment in a multipurpose area, steps should be taken
to minimize the extent to which the system's use and other area
activities interfere with one another. The equipment should be as
simple and gimmick free as possible in order to provide minimal
distraction from the messages themselves. In general, users resist
systems that are remote or inaccessible, that are difficult to use,
or that raise issues of territoriality or privacy.

Third, system planning should take the social
context into account. The social context includes such variables as
group norms, expected degree of formality during the communication,
user social status, and the like.

[204] Fourth, hardware
development should be accompanied by the development of a protocol
that specifies who uses the system, how it is used, and under what
conditions it is used. The intent of such protocols is to facilitate
interaction, reduce the potential for embarrassment, and eliminate
uncertainties which can contribute to negative attitudes. For
example, an appropriate protocol would overcome such problems as the
uncertainties generated by not knowing that others have entered or
left the assemblage.

Fifth, once systems have been designed and
installed, efforts must be taken to ensure that all of the system's
potential users understand its strengths, limitations, and procedures
for operation. The expectations of users have been found to play a
significant role in system acceptance or rejection. Training should
precede the system's first use, as users' initial experiences are
likely to have a disproportionate impact on their attitudes about the
system. Users will often balk if a system fails to perform to their
expectations on demand. However, these same users will frequently
persevere with a lesser system, provided its limitations are
understood in advance. Similarly, the perceived reliability of a
system may be at least as important in user acceptance as its actual
reliability, with operational/environmental factors playing a
significant role in the shaping of perceived reliability (Bair,
1978).

Finally, ongoing evaluations should continue
throughout the life of the system. Such assessment should address the
system's performance, its impact on relevant aspects of the users'
lives, and users' attitudes. Maintaining a high level of rapport with
users is essential to effective systems evaluation.

In summary, the abruptness with which
communication systems can be dismissed or devalued suggests that the
planning and implementation of communication systems is a major task
and requires a high degree of effort and attention.

Application to Space

Careful planning can help avoid some of the
problems associated with matching the requirements of users and the
offerings of communication systems for space. However, the findings
reported above suggest that some difficulties could persist, whatever
the system or implementation plan. Mediated communication systems
handle simple tasks better than complicated tasks, information
exchange better than persuasion or influence, and work related
[205]
activity better than social activity. Yet it is anticipated that
extended missions will increase the need to deal with complex tasks,
to reach agreement on issues, and to engage in affective exchanges
with those at home. Among mediated systems, broadband systems are
more effective than narrowband systems in handling tasks that are
complicated or that contain high emotional content. Yet it is
anticipated that for extended missions, narrowband computer based
systems will have certain technical advantages that may counter other
considerations. For missions involving very large distances,
transmission delays may render simultaneous or quasi simultaneous
communication impossible. Here, computer communication would have an
advantage, since it is easily used in a sequential mode.

Although suggestive, studies reported to date
on the impact of mediated communication systems are not definitive
for space application. First, the subjects of these studies have been
neither isolated nor confined. Second, these studies have cast
electronic exchanges as an option rather than a necessity for
interaction, and users have not been required to rely on these
systems exclusively for prolonged periods of time. Third, studies to
date have focused on goal oriented groups functioning specifically in
their work roles, rather than on socioemotional groups functioning in
their family or friendship roles - one of the requirements for space.
Many of the questions concerning the relationship of media variables
and social interaction will have to be reexamined to take into
consideration the unusual conditions of space.