If Issue Number 1 is any indication – WOW –
this is first class.
Dave Pym, Managing Director
Canadian Snowsports Association

Great work on this. Congratulations. We look
forward to continuing the partnership.
Alex Baumann, Chief Executive Officer Own the
Podium

Thanks very much for the High Performance
SIRcuit….it is very well done!! Excellent
information and delivery format.
Vicki Harber, Faculty of Physical Education &
Recreation
University of Alberta
HP SIRCuit is partially funded by

Editorial
This latest issue of the HP SIRCuit is packed with cutting edge high
performance knowledge for both coaches and the sport scientist.
Be sure to review Dr Chuck Samuels, first in a three part series, on
sleep-recovery and human performance.
Long term planning is critical for successful research projects.
Dr. Jason Vescovi, a physiologist with the Canadian Sport Centre
Ontario, presents the innovative work he has developed utilizing
GPS for training and competition in women’s soccer. The timing is
now to plan for application of this technology for many team sports
as we look beyond London to Rio in 2016.
Coinciding with the flurry of national activity on talent identification
and development, Nancy Rebel shares an extensive literature
review on the topic. And be sure to view the interview with JaseyJay Anderson.......even more exciting now that he has come out of
retirement!
Many thanks for your continued support, and we look forward to your comments
and suggestions as we work towards the merger of the art of coaching with the
science of sport.
Cheers
Jon Kolb, PhD
Director, Sport Science, Medicine and Innovation
Directeur, Sciences du sport, Médecine et l’innovation
Debra Gassewitz
President & CEO
SIRC

Contents

Performance
Performance
4
8

Off-season Physical Preparation for the Elite Athlete
Optimizing the Warm-Up

The off-season is one of the most important periods of time when preparing an athlete to compete
at the highest-level deep into the long competition schedule. This training lays the groundwork
from which to build to have a successful, injury-free season and career. The topics covered in
this article will include physical testing and when it should implemented, various methods of
training periodization, the specific components of physical training and recovery, and athlete
monitoring throughout the off-season. Although the main topic of discussion surrounds physical
preparation for the elite athlete, many of the testing and training techniques described can also
be applied to a broad range of skill level and are not specifically reserved for athletes at the
highest level of competition.

rior to commencing the off-season training plan each
individual athlete should be assessed in areas of
anthropometry (body composition), biomechanics and
movement quality, general performance, and physiological
variables relevant to the sport in question. These assessments
are important for a number of reasons including: observation of
the physical ‘starting’ point in which to build and guide the offseason training plan, identifying areas of weakness or concern,
and tracking the athlete’s long term progress from month to
month and year to year.

muscle mass, which is important in an elite setting. Measurement
of muscle is more time consuming and often requires a skilled
anthropometrist to conduct the measurements.

Biomechanics and Movement Quality
Today, strength coaches are realizing the importance of
movement quality and how it relates to injury prediction and
possibly athletic performance. Assessing movement quality,
however, can be difficult to objectively measure. The coach
needs to identify the differences between the fundamental
biomechanical principles of the movement (i.e. technique) and
the athlete’s individual style of performing the movement. A
Anthropometry
Anthropometry is the science that deals with measurement simple screen, known as the Functional Movement Screen
of size, weight, and proportions of the human body. There (FMS), can add an element of objectivity to assessing movement
are several ways to determine the composition of the body, technique in certain fundamental patterns. This screen cannot
which include: underwater weighing, dual-energy x-ray predict athletic performance, but can give the coach a good
absorptiometry (DEXA), skinfold measurement of subcutaneous idea of where certain deficiencies and imbalances lie within the
fat, bioelectrical impedance analysis, magnetic resonance individual athlete. To take the concept of the movement screen a
imaging, and ultrasound technology. When athlete numbers step further, we as coaches need to identify where the individual
are high the skinfold measurement method is the most practical athlete lies on a normal curve and assess their mobility, stability,
and provides reliable data provided the tester is experienced. and motor control on a daily basis relative to their training
There are a number of different methods in determining body fat load. If the athlete falls outside of their ‘normal’ they will be
through skinfold measurement, all with pros and cons, but the at a greater risk of injury. This type of screen is referred to as
Jackson and Pollock seven-site test (triceps, pectoral, midaxilla, the Quotidian Movement Screen (QMS) – See video by Matt
subscapula, abdomen, suprailiac, and quadriceps) is very simple Jordan of the Canadian Sport Centre – Calgary on the QMS and
and effective in determining adiposity of an individual 1. This how it is implemented.
technique, however, does not provide a direct measurement of
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SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

See video by Matt Jordan of the Canadian Sport Centre –
Calgary on the QMS and how it is implemented.

Performance Testing
The performance testing battery should be specific to the
requirements necessary to demonstrate success at the given
sport. The coach needs to evaluate these specific physiological
and performance needs and design the testing battery to satisfy
them. Specific performance variables include: muscular power,
muscular strength and endurance, speed, energy systems,
flexibility/mobility, and sport specific to name a few. A number
of different methods or tests can be used to evaluate each
variable and they can be tracked over time to ensure continued
athletic progress and also be used as evaluation criteria.

Movement Training
The main goals of the movement session are to develop
movement efficiency, speed, and power in areas that mirror the
demands of the sport and are tailored to the athlete’s individual
needs. Typically the movement sessions have a linear or
multidirectional focus and are broken down into movement
skill training (i.e. technique) and movement application (i.e.
Off-Season Training
Off-season training can take on many forms and directions. force and power production). These are progressive in nature
There is no ‘right way’ as there are numerous methods to to allow the athlete to master movement skills and techniques
at low velocity and low technical demand
achieve the same results. The key is that
(i.e. programmed drills). As the sessions
these results are achieved by designing
progress throughout the off-season the
a program that fits your philosophy and
technical components become more
your athletes’ needs. That being said,
difficult, the velocity increases, and
the training program should include the
elements of randomness are incorporated
following variables: warm-up, movement
to prepare the athlete for their sport. Far
training, power and strength training,
too often coaches will implement speed,
energy systems training, sport specific
agility, quickness, and plyometric drills
training, and regeneration and recovery.
with high velocities and multiple changes
in direction when the athlete is not able
Warm-Up
to perform these movements efficiently.
The warm-up is essential for preparing
This aspect of training is no different than
the body to perform at the highest level
any other and needs to progress gradually
possible while minimizing risk of injury.
with each drill and session building off
It should be progressive in nature (i.e. low
the previous and be appropriate for the
intensity to higher intensity), be specific
individual’s skill level.
to the training to follow (i.e. for a linear
movement training session the warm-up
Strength and Power Training
should prepare the athlete to move in a
Development of appropriate strength and
linear fashion), and also be a time where
power qualities to support the individual’s
corrective exercises can be done if any
needs is a requirement of every successful
deficiencies exist.
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SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

•
•
•
•

of the movement.
Often thought of as the most important quality in sport
performance.
Starting strength is the speed with which the
neuromuscular system develops force from zero
velocity.
Explosive strength is the ability to continue to develop
the already initiated force.
Reactive or elastic strength is the ability to change
from eccentric to concentric muscle action 3.

Strength/Power Endurance Facts:
• Strength endurance is the capacity to resist fatigue
during repeated contractions with loads greater than
30% of maximum concentric strength.
• Power endurance is the ability to sustain high levels of
power output.

Table 1. Various loading and programming parameters associated
with the different strength and power qualities.

off-season program. Specific strength and power qualities
include: muscle hypertrophy/muscle mass, maximal strength,
power, and strength/power endurance.
Muscle Hypertrophy Facts:
• Muscle hypertrophy is characterized by an increase in
the size of the muscle cells.
• The cross-sectional area (CSA) of the muscle is directly
related to the force generating capacity of the muscle.
• Increase hypertrophy of all fibre types, but fast twitch
muscle fibres have the greatest potential for growth.
Maximal Strength Facts:
• Maximal strength is the maximum force developed
by a muscle or muscle group in a single voluntary
contraction and is irrespective of time.
• Increases in strength at the beginning of training not in
proportion with increases in hypertrophy.
• Improvements
in
intermuscular
coordination
(coordination between muscle groups) and
intramuscular coordination (coordination within a
muscle, i.e. rate of motor unit firing, number of motor
units recruited, motor unit synchronization) account for
much of the initial increases in maximal strength 2.
Power Facts:
• Power is the force produced multiplied by the velocity

Principles of Strength and Power Training
One of the keys to strength and power training is mastery of the
basic movement patterns (i.e. squat, deadlift, upper body push,
and upper body pull) before progressing to more complicated
movements. If the athlete masters these basic patterns the
program will be successful. The main priority in the strength
and power program should be compound movements involving
multiple joints and large muscle groups and the assistant lifts
should target areas of weakness or secondary physiological
priorities. In general, the exercise order should go as follows:
Fast to slow, hard to easy, and multi joint to single joint 4. Table
1 outlines the various loading and programming parameters
associated with the different strength and power qualities.
Energy Systems Training
When it comes to energy systems most think of either the
aerobic or anaerobic in a general sense. However, these global
systems can be broken down further into aerobic capacity,
aerobic power, lactate capacity, lactate production, and pure
speed. Sport requirements need to be determined in order to
prescribe the appropriate energy systems training to meet those
needs. Table 2 gives a comprehensive outline of the specific
qualities and recommendations for duration, repetitions, and rest
and the primary outcomes of each type.
Sport Specific Training
Sport specific training is essential to mastery of the skills required
to achieve elite status in the given sport. The type of specific

Table 2. Energy system training recommendations.

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SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

training is normally guided by the expertise of the technical
coach for the sport. For example, the Canadian National Luge
team completes a number of one to two week blocks of sport
specific training (i.e. flat ice start training, wheel sliding, start
ramp training, and start training on a track with a wheeled
sled) where the emphasis is on the technical and physiological
components specific to the sport of Luge. During this period,
minimal time is spent training in the general areas of strength
and conditioning.
Recovery and Regeneration
The off-season training schedule for many elite athletes is
extremely demanding both physically and mentally. Recovery
and regeneration techniques between sessions and training
days are essential in order to have the highest quality training
possible.
Factors Affecting Recovery Post-Training
There are several factors that can affect recovery post training,
below are some of the most common:
1. Metabolic Disturbances - Increases in lactate and
associated hydrogen ion (controversial evidence on
effects) - Oxidative stress (radical formation)
2. DOMS (Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness) - Pain
normally occurring 1-2 days post-exercise
3. Nervous system changes/disruptions
4. Nutrition (Pre, During, and Post Training) Rehydration, protein and carbohydrate intake, other
supplementation
5. Inflammation in Muscle - May impair muscle repair
and adaptation (mechanisms not completely known)
6. Imbalance between stress and recovery over time Previous recovery may not have been enough relative
to the amount of stress on the system.
Although this area of research is relatively young, the list below
outlines several modalities that have been shown to have benefit
in various areas of recovery:
1. Massage/Self Myofascial Release
2. Active Recovery (i.e. light aerobic activity, dynamic
movement patterns)
3. Cryotherapy (i.e. cold water immersion)
4. Contrast Temperature Water Immersion
5. Compression
6. NSAIDS (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs)
7. Stretching
8. Electromyostimulation (EMS)
These recovery methods should be structured and periodized
in a way that optimizes the outcome of the program. For
example, during periods of high muscle adaptation (i.e. muscle
hypertrophy training), the inflammatory response to the
training is often beneficial to the adaptation itself and therefore
eliminating this inflammation may attenuate the very muscle
adaptation you were hoping for.
www.sirc.ca

The off-season is one of the most important times of the year for
athlete preparation. A coach once told me, “The off-season is
where champions are made”. To become a champion the athlete
must become great at the basics, a process that takes years of
hard work and dedication to achieve. The process of building
champions involves following an appropriately periodized plan
including an initial evaluation, properly structured training, and
continuous monitoring and with these characteristics anything
is possible. ∆
For references, click here

Ryan holds a Master of Science in Neuromuscular
Physiology (University of Calgary), Bachelor of
Science - Life Sciences (Queen’s University), and
a Bachelor of Physical and Health Education
(Queen’s University). He is a Certified Strength and
Conditioning Specialist (NSCA), a Certified Exercise
Physiologist (CSEP), and an NCCP Level 1 coach:
Coaching Theory and Technical Olympic Weightlifting.

The purpose of a warm-up is to prime the body for impending exercise or competition. In reality, most warm ups are often based on commonly accepted
practices within a sport rather than on desired physiological responses. As such, achieving optimal state of readiness can be limited by the strategies
used. The sport specific characteristics of warm up strategies should be dictated by the physiological, neurological, and psychological demands
of competition. With a focus on physiology, there are a number of responses following a warm-up that are well accepted. These include but are not
limited to increases in muscle temperature, alterations of metabolic function, and elevations in baseline levels of oxygen consumption. To complicate
matters, the physiological state of readiness can be influenced by environmental and logistical factors beyond an athlete‘s control. By taking into
account the intensity and duration of warm-up, as well as the amount of recovery allowed between warm-up cessation and the onset of performance,
these concerns can be largely managed. Where issues do exist, careful prior planning and the use of strategies such as micro warm-ups may prove
useful. The purpose of this paper is to identify challenges that are faced and provide solutions in order for warm-up responses to be optimised.

arming up is common to nearly all sporting activities
with strategies typically based on the trial and error
experiences of athletes and coaches 1. Although these
can be effective, it is recommended that they be dictated more
by the physiological and psychological demands of the specific
characteristics of a sport. The purpose of this article is to focus
on the physiological components of a warm-up, highlight the
desired responses, and provide strategies for optimising the
effectiveness of a warm-up. For the sake of clarity; the use of
the term warm-up in this article refers to the use of an active
process where it is exercise that is used to induce physiological
change prior to activity2.

Physiological responses to a warm-up

It is perhaps not surprising that warming up results in an actual
increase in body temperature. This is primarily due to an
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8

elevated conversion of chemical energy to mechanical work in
the muscle in order to meet the demands of physical activity.
This response produces a number of physiological changes that
can improve subsequent performance.
Elevated muscle temperature can affect the body in a variety of
ways (Table 1) and although some of the effects on performance
may be small2, small changes at the elite level can have a
significant impact on results. Increased muscle temperature
enhances muscle contractile speed through decreased muscle
stiffness and joint resistance to movement 3-4, as well as
accelerated neural signalling
2-3
. The relationship between muscle temperature and jump
height is well established – the cooler the muscle, the poorer the
performance3. Higher body temperatures also increase muscle
blood flow5, the rate at which oxygen is released by the red
SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

Warm-­‐up
effects

Temperature-­‐
specific

Decreased
muscle
and
joint
resistance



each of these factors in order to optimise the performance state.
Physiological
Neurological

Greater
release
of
oxygen
from
blood
to
muscles





Speeding-­‐up
of
metabolic
reactions





Improved
nervous
system
function





Increased
contractile
force
(PAP/Non-­‐PAP)



Increased
muscle
blood
flow



Enhanced
muscle
activation



Increased
oxygen
consumption





Table 1. Advantageous responses to a warm-up and their primary causes

blood cells and utilised by the muscle2, and enzyme activity5.
These changes can have significant performance implications
by raising oxygen consumption levels early in competition.
This decreases anaerobic energy use in this period6, and so vital
energy stores are conserved for later in performance.
A warm-up also induces a number of other advantageous
physiological responses (Table 1). Warming up can change
metabolic function through increases in muscle blood perfusion
and elevated blood lactate levels6. Increased blood lactate
concentrations may not seem beneficial to performance, however
a slight acidaemia prior to exercise is associated with increased
time to exhaustion in supra-maximal trials6.
Neurologically, a warm-up can increase muscle recruitment
in subsequent activity7. The metabolic demand (e.g. energy
stores) on individual muscle fibres thereby decreases as more of
the muscle is used at a given workload6. Another neurological
adaptation is post-activation potentiation (PAP). This effect
results from the performance of maximal contractions and can
temporarily improve muscle performance8. Performance in
power events, for example, is considered to improve when a
maximal back squat is performed prior to activity9.
It is clear that a number of advantageous physiological responses
can result from warm-up. Although neurological function also
undergoes some ‘tuning’, these effects are linked mainly to
increased muscle temperature and metabolic changes which
serve to increase oxygen consumption, preserve anaerobic
energy stores and enhance the ability of a muscle to perform.
The important question is how to structure the warm-up .

Warm-up Intensity and Duration
All physiological, neurological and thermal warm-up responses
are influenced by the intensity of warm-up. Since warmup duration is dependent upon the intensity and the desired
response, both elements shall be discussed together.
Muscle temperature is directly related to the intensity of exercise
being performed 2. The higher the warm-up intensity, the quicker
muscle temperature increases with the maximum intensity of the
warm-up governed by the demands of the sport and the need
to minimise fatigue (acidaemia, fuel supply, etc). Warm-up
duration consequently requires adjustment to provide sufficient
time to achieve the desired effects while avoiding those that are
unwanted. For short term performance, high energy phosphate
fuel stores in the muscle are of limited supply and while
higher intensity activities increase muscle temperature faster,
they also deplete fuel stores quicker10 and result in increased
muscle acidaemia11. Fortunately lower intensity exercise can
achieve muscle temperature increases without depleting these
fuel supplies. In practice, at least 10-15 minutes of continuous
exercise at 60-70% heart rate maximum (HRmax) has been
found to increase muscle temperature by 2-3°C (Figure 2 unpublished data).
Warm-up intensity also influences the extent to which the body
is primed metabolically (i.e. – increased oxygen uptake and
utilisation, enhanced blood flow, enzyme activity). To elevate
these factors prior to moderate to long duration exercise, the
intensity needs to be sufficient enough to do so at a rate that
would benefit subsequent performance (at least 70-80%
HRmax). Increases in oxygen consumption do not occur
immediately6 and so a warm-up should be of long enough
duration for the body to be able to match oxygen supply to its
demand. The caveat though is that performance can be limited
following an inappropriately long or unsuitably high intensity
warm-up through a reduction in energy stores10. Similar to
high energy phosphates for short-term performance, reducing
glycogen stores in a warm-up for moderate and long-term efforts
will cause subsequent performance to deteriorate sooner than it

Warm-up structure

It goes without saying that in order to structure a warm-up
appropriately, sufficient understanding of the physiological
and neurological demands of the performance is needed. With
this information, the warm-up strategy can be tailored to the
variables with the greatest impact (Figure 1) on the desired
outcome (Table 2). Development of the warm-up strategy will
require coaches, athletes, and practitioners to carefully balance
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strategy to improve the readiness of an athlete to perform both
neurologically and psychologically. From a physiological
point of view, as long as these activities do not induce fatigue,
or increase the likelihood of fatigue in competition, then they
could be a useful warm-up component. Additionally, if a PAP
response is desired, then the maximal movement performed
should involve a movement specific to the activity.
Warm-ups including task specific movements are often referred
to as functional warm-ups. Although this makes intuitive sense,
it is important that one does not confuse functional movement
with physiological function. If too much focus is placed on
the specificity of movement, the possibility exists that some
beneficial physiological aspects of a warm-up can be missed.

Table 2. The desired warm-up responses according to activity duration.

would had energy stores been more conserved, clearly reducing
exercise capacity.
Neurological changes meanwhile, specifically improvements in
contractile force via PAP, are only likely if the prior ‘activating’
activity was performed at near-maximal or higher intensities9.
This concern, equally relevant to warm-up duration, highlights
the importance of optimising the intensity of a warm-up so that
only the desired responses present themselves.

Length of Recovery

The length of recovery following a warm-up is important for
optimising the responses elicited. When designing a warm-up
one needs to consider the time course of the various responses
returning to baseline. Delicate balance is required to maintain
the beneficial effects of warm-up while providing sufficient time
for the potentially negative responses (energy store depletion)
to recover.
Short-term performance is dependent upon muscle temperature,
high energy phosphate stores 10 and PAP 9. Muscle temperature
following warm-up typically returns to baseline within 15-30
minutes (Figure 2). However, energy stores are likely to be
reduced immediately following warm-up. Muscular fatigue
will also mask any effect resulting from PAP unless sufficient
recovery is allowed, considered to be 8-12 minutes following
the maximal contraction9. Careful adjustment of the recovery
period is therefore required to optimise energy stores whilst
maintaining muscle temperature at sufficient levels and
maximising any potentiation effect.

Environmental conditions

Environmental factors can affect physiological function. Shortterm performance is heavily influenced by muscle temperature,
and so performance may be positively affected by a hot
environment, but impaired by a cold one3. Figure 2 highlights
the rate of muscle temperature decay once warm-up has stopped
in a cool environment (10°C). Within 5-minutes of warm-up
completion, muscle temperature begins to drop. The rate at
which these changes in muscle temperature occur is influenced
by the thermal gradients from muscle to skin to clothing to
environment. In winter sport environments, the gradients can be
significant with sub-zero environmental temperatures common
and muscle temperature >35°C. Our work with the 2010 OTP
Top Secret Program has shown that in -10°C, this decay can occur
within 10 minutes even with winter clothing worn. Furthermore,
the effect is amplified by body composition with leaner athletes
experiencing more rapid decreases in muscle temperature. If
competition isn’t occurring within 10 minutes, performance is
likely sub-optimal. In warm environments, muscle temperature
will likely be warmer to begin with, increase faster, and decrease
slower which may allow warm-up strategy to be modified to
include more prior-competition recovery.
Hot environments can also hamper long-term performance

Long duration activity, and to a lesser extent moderate duration
activity, require oxygen consumption to be raised. The recovery
period should therefore be short enough so that oxygen
consumption is still elevated at the onset of activity.

Specificity

Warm-up specificity refers to the performance of task-specific
movements within the warm-up protocol. This is a useful
www.sirc.ca

Figure 1 again highlights the influence that such issues can have
on the physiological responses achieved through warming up.
If, for example, the time between warming up and performance
is extended for a significant period then muscle temperature
will return to baseline values. These results suggest that this can
occur within 20-30 minutes in the environment in which the
data was collected.

by excessive elevation of core temperature during warm-up.
It is important that the warm up duration and intensity are
tailored to minimize this effect. Different warm-up strategies
should therefore be adopted when changes in conditions occur.
Dramatic changes are not necessarily required, with simple
tweaks to warm-up structure generally sufficient. Examples
of a modification would include increasing the duration and
reducing the recovery time of a warm-up in a cold environment.
Care should always be taken when adjusting warm-up intensity
and duration in response to environmental challenges to ensure
the desired results are achieved.

Logistical issues

Logistical considerations are factors affecting warm-up
effectiveness that are related to the activity or competition.
Some examples from select winter sports are included in Table
3. Issues such as these can be encountered regularly during
competition and will influence the physiological condition that
an athlete will begin performance.

Dr Ben Sporer is an applied sport physiologist working in
high performance sport in Canada for the last 13 years. He
is currently a consultant and has held positions of Senior
Physiologist and Lead of Performance Preparation with
the Canadian Sport Centre Pacific over the last 10 years.
Ben is also a partner physiologist with the Own the Podium
Top Secret program focusing on warm up optimization.

www.sirc.ca

Situations such as these should be planned for prior to
competition, with strategies utilised to lessen their impact. One
such strategy is the use of ‘micro’ warm-ups which involve
quick bursts of activity with the intention of sustaining the
physiological responses achieved through the initial warm-up.
Our experience has found that techniques such as these are very
useful in improving the perceptions of performance readiness in
athletes immediately before performance.

Summary

It is clear that a warm-up appropriate to the activity being
undertaken can improve performance. To maximise the
responses, a warm-up should be structured according to a sound
physiological rationale10 in addition to previous experiences. The
primary focus in short-term performance should be on increasing
muscle temperature whilst allowing energy store restoration.
Warm-up’s for intermediate and long-term performance should
increase oxygen consumption but minimise energy store
usage, whilst warming up for long-term performance should
also attempt to avoid unnecessary core temperature increases.
By understanding the physiological bases behind warming up
in your activity and structuring the warm-up accordingly the
chances of an athlete beginning performance in an optimal state
can be improved dramatically. ∆

Rob Gathercole is a PhD student in Exercise
Physiology at the University of Victoria, BC.
Prior to arriving in Canada, he completed
his BSc (Hons) in Sport and Exercise Science
and MSc in Sport and Exercise Nutrition
at Leeds Metropolitan University, UK.
Alongside his studies, Rob is also involved
with both the Canadian Sport Centre Pacific
and the Sport Innovation Centre.

Sleep extension and circadian rhythm research have provided objective evidence indicating that the amount and quality of sleep, as well as the
circadian timing of sleep and activity, are important factors that determine an athlete’s ability to train and recover. More importantly, the ability
of coaches to maintain the volume and intensity of training regimens over the lifecycle of the athlete are a function of the recovery process. In
an effort to understand the relationship of the sleep to the recovery process, the Canadian Sport Centre Calgary, University of Calgary Sport
Medicine Centre, and Own the Podium have collaborated with the Centre for Sleep and Human Performance to develop a comprehensive sleep
and recovery research program. A pilot sleep screening project prior to the Vancouver 2010 Olympics revealed an unexpected high prevalence of
poor sleep quality among the athletes. In response to this finding, a research protocol was designed to develop a valid and reliable sleep screening
tool – the Athlete Sleep Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ). The research would also provide sleep and recovery education to the ISTs and athletes,
and deploy sleep screening to all teams and athletes across the country. This article will summarize the work to date and provide the future plans
for research and clinical application of this project.

he relationship between sleep and post-exercise recovery
(PER) and performance in elite athletes has become a
topic of great interest because of the growing body of
scientific evidence confirming a link between critical sleep
factors, cognitive processes, and metabolic function. There is
interest within the sport science community in understanding the
effect of sleep and circadian rhythms on athletic performance,
recovery, and regeneration.1 Sleep extension and circadian
rhythm research have provided objective evidence in well
designed studies in support of this focus.2-4 The amount and
quality of sleep, as well as the timing of the sleep period, are
considered to be important factors that affect an athlete’s ability
to train, maximize the training response, and recover.5

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12

The Role of Sleep in the Recovery Process

Insufficient sleep and inadequate PER are collectively
characterized by a perceived state of mental impairment and
physical exhaustion. The physical symptoms (e.g., staring
blankly, eyes going in and out of focus, head nodding) and
cognitive symptoms (e.g., negative mood, slips and lapses,
impaired problem solving)6 of poor recovery are numerous
and can increase in severity until reaching the point where the
individual strains to retain normal functions. To the elite athlete,
inadequate recovery which dampens their ability to stay on task,
to focus, and perform with optimal discipline can be the crucial
factor between winning and losing. Sleep extension studies
have added solid foundation to the importance of sufficient
recovery sleep on athletic performance. A recent study by Mah
SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

(2011) at Stanford University found that increasing the nightly
sleep period of varsity basketball players to at least 10 hours,
for a duration of 5-7 weeks led to faster sprint times, increased
accuracy, and improved overall ratings of physical and mental
well-being during practices and games.4

Circadian and Homeostatic Balance

The circadian process regulates the timing of sleep and wake
in the 24-hour day. This process is controlled by the circadian
clock (suprachiasmatic nucleus) housed in the anterior
hypothalamus that controls the daily rhythm of all bodily
functions at a cellular, tissue, and organ level. The circadian
clock is set daily by exposure to sunlight through the retina in
the morning upon waking. Circadian factors follow a specific
rhythm and determine the levels of alertness throughout the day
and night. The regulation of this rhythm is controlled, in part,
by the endogenous release of the hormone melatonin from the
pineal gland. Recent studies have determined that there may
be a role for circadian rhythms on athletic performance. Kline
(2007), tested the maximal effort swimming performance in
experienced swimmers following a strict 3 hour “ultra-short”
sleep-wake cycle, involving 1 hour of sleep in darkness and
2 hours of wakefulness in dim light (to control for possible
environmental and behavioural influences).3 Performance
peaked 5–7 hours before the lowest body temperature recorded
during the experiment (~2300). The worst performance (a 5.8
second variation) was observed from 1 hour before to 1 hour
after (~0500) the lowest body temperature recorded, providing
strong evidence that there is a definite circadian effect on athletic
performance independent of environmental and behavioural
factors.3
In concert with the circadian process, the homeostatic sleep
process regulates the balance between sleep and wake. It is an
endogenous drive that is sleep-dependent; meaning the need
for sleep is driven by lack of sleep. The accumulation of sleep
debt over the day increases the propensity to sleep, and sleep
lasts longer following a period of sleep deprivation. As the body
recovers (during sleep), the sleep pressure is relieved. If sleep
load is not relieved, the propensity to sleep is accompanied by
sleepiness and cognitive impairment. The relationship of sleep to
PER and performance can be articulated in a structured fashion
and has been used to guide the development of the Athlete Sleep
Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ). Sleep length (total sleep
requirement: hours/night), sleep quality (sleep disturbance or
fragmentation), and sleep phase (circadian timing of sleep) are
considered to be the key factors affecting the overall recuperative
outcome of the sleep state.

(AMES), and the Adjusted Neck Circumference (ANC). PSQI
scores can range from 0 – 21 with scores above 5 indicating
an increasing degree of sleep disturbance in a general medical
population. The prevalence of poor sleep quality in the pilot
study (using a conservative PSQI cut-off score > 8) was 23%
(15/65). Twelve percent (8/65), scored above 10, identifying the
most severe cases within the group (figure 1). The prevalence
of poor sleep quality in the follow-up study using the same
conservative cut-off score was 15% (17/116). Again, 12%
(14/116) scored above 10, allowing the most severe cases to be
identified (figure 1). The results of the two studies seemed to
indicate a higher prevalence of poor sleep quality in the younger
athlete population. This is contrary to the expectation that poor
sleep quality would not be likely in a young, healthy athletic
population. Additionally, the results allowed for the important
identification and referral of 22 athletes suffering from severe
clinical sleep problems for specialized assessment. These
findings not only emphasized the importance of sleep screening
for athletes, but also indicated the weakness of using standard
sleep screening methods in a specialized (athlete) population.

Figure 1: PSQI scores for the pilot and follow-up studies. The
younger athletes in the pilot study indicated a higher prevalence of
poor sleep quality.

The Psychometric Development of the ASSQ

The initial findings raised two questions: 1) what is the true
prevalence of sleep disturbance and sleep related impairment in
a population of elite athletes, and 2) what is the validity and
reliability of the methods used. A convenience sample of 80
athletes was selected from 300 eligible athletes who train out
of the Canadian Sport Centre – Calgary. Sixty athletes were
consented and randomized into a new study; 30 were assigned
to Phase I, and another 30 were assigned to Phase II.
PHASE I
The goal of Phase I was to identify weaknesses in the current
self-report methods in an athlete population. The information
gathered was then meant to inform and guide the development
the ASSQ. During Phase I, the athletes completed a selfreport sleep screen (SRSS) composed of the Pittsburgh Sleep
Quality Index (PSQI), Adjusted Neck Circumference (ANC),
and Athlete Morningness/Eveningness Scale (AMES). Each
SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

athlete subsequently had a clinical interview by an expert sleep
specialist based on the PSQI. Findings from Phase I supported
a concordance rate of 53% between the SRSS and the PSQI
retested by the sleep specialist. The findings also supported a
concordance rate of 57% between the SRSS and the AMES
retested by the sleep specialist. The results showed poor
concordance (close to chance) and identified the weaknesses in
the current self-report tools that were selected for use to assess
total sleep time, sleep quality, insomnia, and chronotype when
compared to a sleep expert.
PHASE II
Following the assessment of data from Phase I, the SRSS was
revised (SRSSR) to include the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI),
whereas the AMES and ANC were replaced with the Composite
Scale of Morningness (CSM) and the Maislin Apnea Risk
Index (MAP), respectively. The athletes completed the SRSSR
once, and then repeated it 24 hours later to provide test-retest
reliability. Each athlete had a structured clinical interview (SCI)
by the expert sleep specialist. Clinical sleep outcomes (none,
mild, moderate, or severe sleep problem) were generated from
the results of the SRSSR and SCI. The SCI sessions were video
recorded to facilitate rescoring by the expert sleep specialist for
intra-rater reliability; and to be viewed and scored by two other
sleep physicians (one general sleep clinician, and one sleep
clinician practiced in assessing athletes) for inter-rater reliability
testing (figure 2).

PHASE III
A review of sleep-related items from the Patient Reported
Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS)7, in
addition to a review of the SRSSR questions that indicated
good concordance with the SCI (clinical outcomes) and best
theoretical grounding (as determined by a subject-matter expert)
were used to further guide the development process for the
ASSQ. The 51 questions from the SRSSR were reduced to 15
and structured around the four clinical domains used to assess
sleep: total sleep time, sleep quality, insomnia, and chronotype.

Athlete Monitoring

The current version of the ASSQ will be deployed through
the Canadian Athlete Monitoring Program (CAMP) electronic
database to all the National Sport Organization national team
athletes. An aggregate Sleep Difficulty Score (SDS) based
on responses from each domain will be used to guide referral
decisions. Individuals scoring below the cut-off do not suffer
from a clinically significant sleep problem and are directed
to general sleep education or monitoring by their integrated
support team (IST). Individuals scoring higher than the cutoff value are referred through the lead IST to either a sports
medicine physician for moderate clinical problems, or to one
of the sleep physicians dedicated to the program in Vancouver,
Calgary, Toronto, or Montreal to treat severe clinical problems.
Additionally, certain combinations of responses to questions
corresponding to sleep disordered breathing, chronotype, or
travel disturbance can either act as modifiers to the SDS, or in
some cases result in a recommendation for referral on their own.
Data from this large scale screen and monitoring of outcomes
(referral versus no referral) will inform further validity and
reliability testing and determination of the SDS. The goal
will be to determine the validity of each item, the strength of
each domain and the SDS that accurately predicts the clinical
outcome in an athlete population. â&#x2C6;&#x2020;
For references, click here

Analysis of Phase II data supports the findings that common
tools from sleep medicine do not associate well with clinical
outcomes as determined by an expert sleep specialist â&#x20AC;&#x201C; in this
sample of athletes. Although athlete test-retest correlations were
high (0.94 on average) for the PSQI, ISI, MAP, and the CSM,
there was poor association with the clinical judgment of the sleep
expert (Sleep disturbance, 10.3%; Sleep quality, 31.0%; sleep
www.sirc.ca

apnea, 72.4%; chronotype, 24.1%; insomnia, 6.9%). Additional
results of intra and inter-rater reliability are yet to be established.
Current Phase II data continue to support the need for selection
and refinement of the questions (items) for inclusion into the
sleep screening questionnaire that would associate more strongly
with clinical interview and provide a valid and reliable ASSQ.

14

Dr. Charles Samuels is a board certified sleep
physician with primary research interests focused on
understanding the prevalence and effects of sleep
disturbances in specialized populations. His aim is
to facilitate both broad and individualized clinical
treatment strategies and foster effective knowledge
transfer initiatives in these groups.

SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

Sport Innovation
CAMP Launches EMR at PanAm Games in Guadalajara
The Pan-American Games in Guadalajara showcased the talents of our Canadian athletes
and introduced the newest member of the team: the CAMP system. The Canadian
Athlete Monitoring Program (CAMP) launched the first module for testing at the
PanAm games in October in Guadalajara.
The first weeks of the games provided opportunity for custom development. Listening
to the feedback from our subject matter experts, the development team tailored the
application to meet the requirements of physicians, therapists and other care providers
supporting our athletes within the unique major games environment.
CAMP EMR Project Vision:
The vision for CAMP was to enable an easy to use, secure and reliable pan-Canadian
electronic medical record (EMR) that is available to all team medical personnel, team
managers and athletes. The focus on the athlete is unique to CAMP and provides
visibility to various sections of the athlete’s record based on the appropriate level of
permission. For example, to protect the privacy of the athlete, a team RMT would be
able to view a relevant part of the athlete record, the dietician another section customized
for their needs and the Physician would be able to view the entire record. Coaches and
sports science personnel will also be able to utilize performance specific modules.

The portability of CAMP, here used on the Therapists’ own
iPad, support efficient clinical practice. Khatija Westbrook
uses CAMP to review patient history prior to treatment

CAMP Scope:
CAMP currently supports over 3000 national level athletes. The 500 PanAm athletes
all have electronic medical records that can be accessed anywhere, anytime; regardless
of internet connectivity. There is also the opportunity to develop comprehensive athlete
profiles. The management of the data profile, and ownership of the health record
remains with the athlete. With the soon to be available sport science features, French/
English capability, focus on user-friendly design, and advantage of direct access to their
records, CAMP expects a significant increase in the number of athlete records within
the EMR leading up to London Olympic games in 2012.
CAMP continues to work with subject matter experts to ensure the most complete EMR
is available to support our teams. We have also invited the 500 athletes participating in
the PanAm Games to use CAMP and share their insights to improve the user experience.
CAMP Research support:
It is widely anticipated that the integration of health and performance information will
support essential research. CAMP can produce randomized data sets using a variety
of filters, meeting the needs of researchers while protecting the privacy of the athlete.

Next Steps for CAMP:
Thanks to continued support from Own the Podium, development efforts will turn
to assessing the needs of the sport science and performance community. At the SPIN
Summit in Toronto, subject matter experts in physiology and sport science will
be invited to participate in working groups to help determine the requirements and
development priorities. An aggressive timeline to develop, test, and add content to the
database in advance of the 2012 London Games is required. Collaboration will be an
essential component of success.
In keeping with the necessity of efficient development, CAMP will integrate with many
of the data collection tools currently in use by sport professionals. CAMP’s intention is
not to reinvent wheels, but to work with professionals to create better, faster and stronger
data management capacity. CAMP will be accessible through different platforms, will
import data from applications such as Excel and Access and accept downloaded data
from some modalities.
CAMP makes a Canadian debut at the SPIN Summit in Toronto.
(http://spinsummit.ownthepodium.org)

www.sirc.ca

Our athletes have welcomed the system and the new access
they have to their own data. Dinah Hampson used CAMP to
help chart notes about high performance athletes in the clinic.

Participation in field sports such as soccer, field hockey, lacrosse and rugby continues to grow worldwide, however there is limited information
available describing the physical demands experienced by female players during matches or training. This substantial knowledge gap prevents
us from maximizing our ability to train, monitor and develop female athletes. New tracking devices that use Global Positioning System (GPS)
technology have been developed and are now a viable option for match and training analysis in team sports.
By utilizing GPS technology we can begin to reduce the knowledge gap for a variety of women’s team sports by examining competitive matches,
position specific demands, fatigue rates, specific drills during training sessions as well as the relationship between match performance and fitness
indices. The aim of this article is to describe the utility of GPS technology within the team sport structure and provide an overview of some unique
outcomes that have been recently acquired from soccer and field hockey.

omen’s participation in field sports such as soccer,
field hockey, lacrosse and rugby continues to grow
worldwide, however there is limited information
available describing the physical demands experienced by female
players during matches or training. This substantial knowledge
gap prevents us from maximizing our ability to train, monitor
and develop female athletes for these sports. Video analysis
has long been recognized as the standard for determining
movement pattern characteristics in time motion studies,
however limitations in this labor intensive method have led to
the development of newer devices that use Global Positioning
System (GPS) technology. Investigators have demonstrated
good validity and reliability for GPS for evaluating distance and
speed during simulated match activities, thus making it a viable
option for match analysis. Applied sports science research in
contemporary field sports can begin to reduce the knowledge
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16

gap for a variety of women’s team sports by utilizing GPSbased time motion systems to determine work-rate profiles
during competitive matches, examine positional demands,
evaluate fatigue during a game and across a season as well as
determine the relationship between match performance and
fitness performance profiles. The aim of this article is to describe
the utility of GPS technology within the team sport structure and
provide an overview of some unique outcomes for matches and
training sessions that have been recently gathered from women’s
soccer and field hockey.

Match analysis

Finding match profiles for female field sports remains elusive,
yet the importance of this type of information at all levels cannot
be understated. GPS technology provides a unique way to assess
an athlete’s potential or readiness to take a step to the next level
SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

making them specific to each player’s respective position based
on the demands of the game.
Information about the physical performance of players at
various stages of a season have only been reported for male
soccer players5. To date, investigations on time motion for
female soccer players have not evaluated changes in match
performance that might occur across an entire season. Although
speculative, it is plausible that a substantial reduction in match
performance, as evidenced by a decrease in total distance
or high intensity and sprint distance, could be an indication
of maladaptation (i.e., overtraining or under-recovery) that
requires a change in the approach to training and/or recovery.
Figure 1. Relative amount of high intensity running performed during a
On the other hand, an increase in the amount of work performed
match in women’s soccer.
during competitive matches later in the season could represent
successful adaptations to the training loads and attainment of
by capturing work-rates or the amount of high intensity running peak performance. Therefore, using GPS technology to monitor
and comparing them to players competing at higher standards. the physical demands of competitive matches throughout the
Indeed, investigators have reported that elite male and female season might allow for the early detection of fatigue and aid
soccer players perform more total work and more high intensity in the development of more effective training and recovery
work compared to sub-elite players4, 5 and evidence now exists strategies in order to optimize performance later during the
that shows the developmental changes that occur for women’s season.
soccer. Figure 1 illustrates the percent of high intensity distance
covered during women’s soccer matches at the youth, college A wide variety of field tests are routinely used by sports
and professional levels. It is not surprising that there is an scientists, fitness professionals and coaches to evaluate physical
increase from one level to the next, however when taken in performance. The Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test is a valid
conjunction with the total distance covered in matches at each and reliable field test commonly used to assess fitness for
level then the absolute amount of high intensity running covered intermittent sports1. Performance on the Yo-Yo test has a positive
during a match can be determined - which is nearly 1.8 and 2.3 correlation with total distance2 as well as the relative amount of
times greater at the college and professional levels compared to high intensity running achieved by female soccer players during
youth games. This information is critical for sport scientists and competitive matches. Similar, yet slightly weaker, relationships
fitness coaches to understand and for coaches to consider within have also been recently determined for women’s field hockey.
the context of player development.
So from a simple field test we can gain valuable insight into
There is also evidence that positional differences in total distance
and high intensity distance exist for high level female soccer 4
and field hockey players. In women’s soccer defenders cover less
high intensity distance compared to forwards and midfielders;
however the total distance covered during a match tends to be
similar between all three field positions in the women’s game
(9-10 km). Female field hockey players cover less total distance
(5-6km) compared to soccer players because games are shorter
(70 vs. 90 min); however the positional distinctions identified
to date indicate that defenders cover the greatest total distance
in a game (~6,300 m) compared to forwards and midfielders
(5,000-5,500 m); whereas midfielders covered the most high
intensity running (~1,900 m) compared to defenders and
forwards (<1,800 m). These differences in the absolute amount
of distance covered are likely the result of varying substitution
patterns for each position because the relative amounts of high
intensity running for field hockey players is about 28%, 34% and
35% for defenders, midfielders and forwards, respectively. In
contrast, the average relative amount of high intensity distance
is less than 30% for professional female soccer players. Fitness
coaches can utilize this information and have a very meaningful
impact on the design of training plans for high level athletes by
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17

potential game performance ability – that is how much high
intensity work a player can perform.

Training Sessions

Developing a greater understanding of the specific demands
imposed during competitive matches for female team sport

SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

Figure 2. Work-rate of small sided games with varying field sizes
and players compared to actual game demands (red line).

athletes using GPS technology has implications for the design
and implementation of more appropriate training and recovery
regimens, with the ultimate goals being enhanced performance,
reduced injury risk, and possibly increased career longevity.
Indeed, by knowing the demands imposed during competitive
matches, in conjunction with monitoring practices, coaches
will have the ability to create a menu of drills and small sided
games that can ultimately mimic the workloads and intensities
associated with competition3, 6. A periodized plan can then be
developed by selecting drills that impose demands which are
above or below those experienced during games depending on
the training objectives.
The inclusion of small sided games is a common way to
incorporate fitness training with tactical and technical elements
of a practice session. The overall demands of small sided games
are manipulated by modifying the number of players (e.g., 8v8)
and/or size of the field (e.g., ½ field). The utility of determining
the demands of various small sided games is clearly demonstrated
in Figure 2, with each small sided game showing a unique profile
that can then be compared to game demands (red line). There

are three key points to highlight from this figure: 1) reducing
the dimensions of the field while keeping the number of players
constant results in a reduction in the workrate; 2) reducing the
number of players while keeping the field dimensions constant
(e.g., ¼ field) increases the demands; and 3) there are some
small sided games with workrates near or above actual game
demands whereas other drills have lower demands. With this
knowledge a coach will be able to select small sided games for a
particular day to elicit appropriate demands for his/her players.
For example, when a high intensity training session is planned
(e.g., after a recovery day) the coach could select a drill that
is equal to or exceeds game demands (e.g., 8v8 or 6v6 on ½
field). Alternatively, a training session within 1-2 days following
a match would require low level demands and so specific small
sided games could be appropriately chosen to suit the needs of
the day. Interestingly the same small sided game doesn’t always
produce the same demands. Figure 3 illustrates the workrate of
identical 6v6 small sided games repeated 11 times over 3 days
during field hockey training sessions. The workrate ranged was
from 99 m/min to 124 m/min which spans above and below
game demands, thus minimizing the potential effectiveness
(from a physical demands perspective) for this particular drill.
In addition to understanding the overall demands of a drill
or small sided game, GPS technology can also be used to
evaluate an individual athlete’s ability to handle the demands
for a given training session. As an example, Figure 4 shows
the sprint profile of two female players for a single practice
session during the early preparation phase of the season – each
line on the figure represents one sprint with the number above
indicating the duration (seconds) of the sprint. Both players were
midfielders and performed identical drills during practice, yet
the player in the top panel performed nearly double the number
of sprints compared to the player in the bottom panel (41 vs.
22). In addition to the large discrepancy between the number of
sprints performed the player in the top panel covered more high
intensity distance – 32% or 3 km out of 9.4 km – compared to
the player in the bottom panel – 28% or 2.5 km out of 9 km. A
subsequent conversation with the coach after practice revealed
that the player in the top panel returned from the off-season
more fit, in turn allowing for a greater amount of sprints and
high intensity work to be performed.

Summary

The integration of GPS technology within the team sport
structure has grown over the last several years, predominately
with men’s teams. Despite the limited use of GPS systems with
female field sports, sport scientist and fitness trainers as well
as coaches can begin to use the information currently available
to improve the development and training for female athletes.
Current and future research in this area will continue to expand
our knowledge about the demands of matches as well as the
daily training environment, ultimately providing a stronger
foundation from which to develop young athletes into elite
performers. ∆

Figure 3. Variability of workrate for 6v6 small sided game (11
repetitions were from 4 training sessions performed over 3
consecutive days).

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SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

Figure 4. Sprint profile of two midfielders during the same practice session.

Dr. Jason Vescovi is currently leading the single largest
study designed to determine the physical demands of
women’s soccer at all levels using GPS technology. To
date the study includes players from top youth leagues,
NCAA programs, Women’s Professional Soccer as
well as elite international athletes. His research in this
area is now expanding to field hockey and lacrosse.

Jasey-Jay is one of the sport’s most versatile and intense riders. With seven FIS coveted crystal globes to his credit, Jasey-Jay is at
the top of his mountain.
An international career which took off in earnest eighteen years ago has catapulted Jasey-Jay onto some of the world’s most extreme
slopes and to numerous podiums in three disciplines of this Olympic sport. Jasey-Jay Anderson keeps the hammer down.
Anderson is Canada’s most decorated snowboarder having achieved a World Championship gold medal in all 3 slalom events
over his career, and an Olympic gold medal in parallel giant slalom. In addition to being a 4 time world champion Anderson has
achieved success across the board. Anderson won four consecutive overall FIS Snowboard World Cup titles from 2000–2004 and
two world cup overall titles in snowboard cross in 2001-02 and 2005-06. These titles included 19 podiums in parallel giant slalom
and 19 podiums in snowboard cross.
Anderson is also a four-time Olympic athlete, having represented Canada in the 1998 Nagano, 2002 Salt Lake, 2006 Turin, and
2010 Vancouver Winter Olympic games. Anderson’s best result in the Olympics prior to Vancouver 2010 was a 5th place finish in
snowboard cross in Turin. Anderson finished 20th in the parallel giant slalom event at the 2006 Turin games.
When he is not snowboarding, Anderson lives on a blueberry farm in Mont-Tremblant, Quebec.
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20

SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

As someone who is always open
to new challenges, Anderson
works to continually succeed
in overcoming adversity. He
frequently comments on the
competence of the support teams
around him, from the Canadian
Snowboard Federation medical
and support group to his family
and friends, private trainers and
technical advisors.

Jasey-Jay talks about his
journey to gold; the training
and the team that got him
there.

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21

SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

Competitive Intelligence

K

nowledge can give an athlete the competitive edge.
Competitive intelligence equips coaches, sport scientists and
practitioners with the latest information that may assist in
the quest to put an athlete on the podium. SIRC receives thousands
of publications from around the world each year ranging from peer
reviewed journals to practical guides and our information specialists
are constantly reviewing and indexing the various articles.

Talent Identification
and Development
A Commentary on the Literature

M

any young athletes these days compete with the eyes
of being the next World or Olympic Champion or
the next professional athletic star. But research tells
us that while many young athletes show potential for athletic
talent, only a very small minority will ever reach international
levels never mind become the ultimate champion. Athletically
talented children are the minority, and increasingly talent is
often the focus of parents, kids, and coaches when it comes to
sport participation, with the notion being that to become the best
you must engage in one sport from an early age and play it yearround.
But how do we know which athlete has talent and which one
will succeed? Although talent identification programs have
gained popularity in the last decade, there is a noted lack
of consensus in how talent is defined and identified. There is
disagreement among researchers as to what talent is, and what
can reliably used in the talent identification process. Talent has
been identified as having a specific aptitude that is amenable
to further development. And expert performances have been
defined as those that are acquired through extended deliberate
practice (Malina, 2010). Yet other authors go a step deeper and
define sport skill expertise as a dynamic interaction between
biological, psychological and sociological factors, the proper
combination of which can lead to high levels of performance
and the improper blending of which can lead to burnout and/or
dropout from sport (Baker, 2005).
Many countries are trying to develop programs and structures
that will identify gifted athletes at the earliest age so as to be
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22

able to focus expenditures on those most likely to succeed
and to promote their abilities. A number of early theories and
speculations about the success of early talent identification
stem from the former communist countries of Eastern Europe.
It is commonly believed that these programs encouraged
systematic training and included early specialization and yearround participation. However, many of these programs, with the
exception of sports like gymnastics, diving, and figure skating,
rather supported the notion of exposure to a variety of activities
and skills with specialization occurring in the post-puberty
stage (Malina, 2010). Almost no one doubts the importance
of talent identification, however, what is suggested to be more
important is the dynamic relationship between identification
and cultivation of that talent. High identification rate does not
necessarily mean high success rate.

Early Specialization

Research contains a variety of contradictory theories of elite
sport skill development and the best pathway to follow for
international success. The assumption has long been that
competitive success has a positive correlation with volume of
training hours and that early success is a predictor of later elite
success (Gullich & Emrich, 2007). A commonly held theory in
sport is that at least 10 years of experience and 10,000 hours
of deliberate practice are needed for achieving success at
the international level. This view has been promoted by the
popular press and has most likely helped fuel the fire of early
specialization. However, research provides data that suggest that
early onset and higher volume of discipline-specific training and
competition, and an extended involvement in institutional talent
SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

development programs, during adolescence are not necessarily
associated with greater success at senior elite levels (Vaeyens
et al, 2009).
We are also seeing a social environment that is playing a large
role in encouraging early specialization (Malina, 2010). With
less free playtime for kids, structured time is taking over. Time
in organized activities is increasing and in all aspects of these
activities the need to see children achieve is often a measure of
success of these programs. At the same time, people are also
influenced by sensationalized stories of successful people who
start at early ages. Securing the future for their kids can also
drive specialization decisions. Many parents see sport, whether
elite, professional or college/university, as an avenue to provide
a better life for their kids. Earlier success in sport might mean
scholarship or scouting opportunities.
However, there are inherent risks in specialization:
• Social isolation
• Overdependence
• Burnout
• Blind faith in the system
• Injury including overuse injury
• Compromised growth and maturation

Variable Sampling

What is also noted in the research on youth sporting activities is
the concept that with the move to more organized activities, key
elements of unorganized play that are identified as contributing
factors to success are missed out on. Research has shown that
less structured sport activities often encourage experimentation
and creativity, both of which are often associated with high
level performance (Malina, 2010). Skills are also better learned
when there is less fatigue and stress, which may happen when
only one sport is targeted. This is an area in which research is
expanding.
Many studies agree that success and quantity of sport-specific
training at early ages do not seem to contribute significantly to
explaining later performance in elite sport. However, results do
suggest that early success combined with higher accumulated
training volume in a variety of sports seems to benefit the
development of potential (Gullich & Emrich (2007). An early
diversification path seems to be a more constructive path to
successful elite sport performance. The benefits of variable
sampling (early age practice of a variety of sports) (Vaeyens
et al, 2009):
1. may increase the probability of finding the right sport
to match with the talent displayed;
2. may increase the variety of the motor skill development,
through variations on training and competition
experience, thereby improving the progress in the
specific sport developed;
3. may reduce the risk of burnout or “plateau”-ing;
4. may increase the likelihood of mature decision making
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23

in focusing on a single sport; and
5. may create a larger total talent pool at the collective
level

Talent Identification & Development

Much of the research on talent identification and early
specialization now emphasizes how physiological characteristics
and biological development of youth are also remarkably
variable. This variability does lend itself to challenges in early
talent identification. Different sport requirements will inevitably
require different physiological and chronological maturations.
Markers such as biological maturation, relative-age effect,
and psychological maturation are reduced and often disappear
on reaching adulthood. At the same time, some of the critical
attributes of elite senior athletic success are not evident until
later adolescence. In the same vein, newer training modalities,
evolving technologies and new competition rules may prove to
be more advantageous to different types of athletes and are also
not brought into play until later down the time spectrum (Baker,
2005). Observations from the literature suggest that for senior
level success in some sports it is not imperative that an athlete
be part of a talent identification and development program at an
early age. It is also indicated that it is possible for an athlete to
be involved with, or switch to, different sports at different ages
and still achieve high level sporting success.
In reviewing past research it can be argued that talent
development programs should move beyond looking at
common optimal performance models and physical tests that
are based on group norms and look to the individual nature
of pathways to expertise and elite performance (Phillips et
al, 2010). What is recommend is that talent identification and
development programs need to take into consideration the large
number of physiological, psychological, and environmental
variables that go into developing athletic potential and provide
the opportunity to identify and develop this potential at different
ages and different levels in the process. ∆

For references, click here

Nancy Rebel is the Director of Library Services at SIRC. Nancy
is responsible for content management of SIRC’s collection and
its catalog database design. Nancy has been responsible for:
the content submissions for the world-renowned SportDiscus
database; aiding in the coordination of in-house and
international terminology submissions and organizational
structure of SIRCs internationally recognized SIRCThesaurus
as Editor.

SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

Stay Informed with SIRC
Dear SIRC:
I received an email from one of my athletes wondering if their lack of sleep was having an
impact on their athletic performance during a hard training session and recovery day. They had
noticed that they were not able to train effectively in the last several sessions. I tried searching
for “sleep & recovery” but didn’t find much that seemed really relevant. Any chance you could
point me in the right direction?

Answer

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I am doing a presentation to a local group on steroid use in adolescents. Could you suggest a list
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Answer

Did you know...

The development of an elite athletic career generally consists of 10
years building experience necessary to become an elite performer and
5-10 years competing at the highest level.

Read report

Did you know...

Coaching behaviors in practice, at games, and away from the sport
have strong influences on players and can impact both players’
performances and continued participation.

The High Performance training process has changed a great deal over the past thirty years. Training athletes today outside the field of play
is not just about improving measurable performance (bigger, faster, stronger, etc.). There has been a recognition that there is much more that
can be done through an integrated model of training support. Sports performance professionals now offer effective systems for assessing and
improving the fundamental foundation of athletic movement within an integrated model in which the coach still remains an integral link to
the athlete. An understanding of this assessment and training process by the coach will allow off-field training and on-field skill development
to occur more productively and seamlessly. This article will describe the changes that have occurred in the systematic process of athlete
preparation with regard to athletic movement foundation, and use practical examples of how this process, supported by the coach, can lead to
more efficient, effective and resilient athlete development.

he high performance athlete training process has changed
a great deal over the past 30 years. In order to deliver on
expectations for higher levels of performance year after
year, athletes and their coaches have integrated performance
development methods, prescribed and created in various sport
performance domains, into their programs.
There has been a progressive enhancement of a systematic
approach to athlete development built on the backbone of
the bigger, faster, and stronger philosophy. The utilization of
strength training methodology from Olympic lifting and power
lifting in conjunction with power, quickness, and agility training
methods, as well as linear speed development systems has
provided the infrastructure for performance improvements in
many sports.
Over-loading to produce adaptation is the fundamental premise
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26

of training for performance improvement. Over-load can be
delivered in a myriad of ways and means to produce an effective
response by the physiological systems of the human body.
The human body has an ever-impressive capacity to adapt and
reach higher levels. In certain phases of programming, it is
expected that there will be tissue breakdown in order to create
an adaptive response. Unfortunately, this process occasionally
leads to structural failure thus requiring rest, rehabilitation, and
re-integration back into the training environment. This reaction
by the system can be attributed to overloading that goes beyond
the recovery capacity of the tissues and physiological systems.
However, it is the healthy state of an athletes’ foundation
for performance that can determine an individuals’ relative
resiliency and their ability to recover throughout the ongoing
training process. The state of this foundation can be assessed
and improved, just as any other element of conditioning can be
enhanced in an athlete.
SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

Understanding the Foundation for Performance

In order to determine an individualsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; current state of physical
preparation it is important to assess these 4 pillars.

Strength/Power - the ability of a muscle or a group of

anthropometry assessment, physiological tests of energetics,
strength and power evaluations, timed speed, quickness and,
agility drills, medical assessment, and more recently the addition
of functional movement screens. While the other components of
testing are likely more familiar, there may be less understanding
of the role or the importance of a movement screen.
Pre-participation medical assessments are often joint specific
evaluations, that may flag regional problems and direct access
to therapy services, but unless there are pain symptoms present,
this testing rarely influences or affects strength and conditioning
programming.

muscles to produce force

Stability - the efficient co-ordination of the muscular system
to mange force and the transfer of loads

Mobility - the combined flexibility of specific muscles

and joints through segmental and multi-regional movement
patterns

Energetics - the capacity for the delivery and utilization of

oxygen and the supporting nutrients in providing fuel to the
muscles for sport specific physical demands

When there are specific imbalances or inadequacies in any
of these pillars, especially if they are determined to be key
requirements for a specific sport, the actual capacity for physical
performance may be reduced, as well as the risk of injury to that
athlete may rise. The improvement of that specific deficit should
become a priority within their current training program.

Individual Athlete Evaluations

All too often, the key performance indicators are driven
primarily by the achievement of set objective numbers. This can
lead to a crossover assumption that good strength must mean
good stability. If an athlete can lift a certain weight, they must
be producing that force with optimal and healthy mechanics.
There is limited accountability as to HOW an athlete performed
the tasks and whether or not the pattern they employed may
place them at risk for stress on regional soft tissue structures.
Identifying poorly controlled compensation strategies is the role
of the functional movement assessment.
If an athlete engages in a training program with an unidentified
dysfunction that prohibits effective and efficient movement
patterning, then one of three likely results will ensue:
1. Inability to perform at their highest level
2. Compensation that reduces efficiency and therefore
increases the physical energy cost of producing
movement
3. Repetitive strain on tissue structures that may lead to
injury

In order to enhance durability, and build more resilient athletes,
each training cycle should begin with a form of physical screen.
The specific tests that are performed should be selected by
discussions between the coach, physiologist and integrated
therapy team leader. Sport specific demands, technical skill
development and common injury presentations are all important Identifying where these dysfunctions in movements occur and
considerations to determining what is to be evaluated at which then providing solution based methodology to correct these
dysfunctions, is becoming a relevant implication of the multitimes in the yearly training plan.
domain professional or well-organized integrated support team.
Physical testing is often a combination of blood testing,

BobsleighImproving spine management and positioning in training, creates a better transitional power link between the upper and lower body and
directly relates to improving hit position on the sled at the start.

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27

SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

prepare the athlete for the next phases of the program.
Any developed screening process may have itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own method
of recording dysfunction, but each will have a communal
purpose: to evaluate and categorize how well an athlete was
able to complete each movement. In a generalized breakdown,
all of these testing results would fall into one of the following
categories:
Category 1 - Athlete performs the test without compensation or
pain
This athlete is ready for the next stage of high performance
loading. These are movements that this athlete performs well.
If this individual produces symptoms with other test positions,
these movements can still be used in their training program.
Category 2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Is able to perform the test, but utilizes poor
stabilization strategies or compensatory movement patterns
In this category, it is important to be able to identify the regional
risk areas that have poor load transfer strategies. The type of
movement that was performed (i.e.: max vertical jump, 2 leg
jump to one leg landing, lunges, ability to maintain spinal neutral
with squats etc.) will assist in determining if there is an issue
with proprioceptive awareness, neuro-muscular coordination,
inability to deal with speed, or difficulty managing concentric
and/or eccentric forces.

Cross CountryInefficient load transfer when moving to one leg stance on the left
leg. In discussions with his coach, this correlates to break down in
technique over the left ski with fatigue.

Functional Movement Assessments

The current trend in the model of HP athlete preparation with
regard to movement assessment is to use initial pre-participation
movement screens. There are some evaluations that will use
the same base testing parameters for every sport, such as the
Gray Cook functional movement screen (FMS). This type of
testing is one example of a starting point to provide an initial
appraisal of an athleteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s movement foundation. The ability to
also incorporate selected tests and document movement faults
that are specific for the required training, plus assess how the
athlete manages applicable loads and/or speeds associated with
their sport, will provide even more relative results to the coach,
the medical staff and the service providers for that organization.
The key concept with movement screening is that it is the first
step in a greater process. When the goal of the coaching staff and
the integrated support team is to understand the full underlying
capacity of an athlete, it can provide the basis for a more
detailed assessment, therapeutic interventions, or corrective
reprogramming of the movement deficits that are residing in
that athlete.
The ideal opportunity for an initial movement assessment
would be at the end of the season and the beginning of the offseason preparation period. The training volumes are low, there
is unlikely to be much speed or power work, therefore it is an
excellent time to start corrective strategies and develop efficient
motor patterns. This evaluation will provide the strength and
conditioning professional, in collaboration with the medical
staff, the information with which to build a foundation that will
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28

Examples of movement dysfunctions that may be noted in this
category would be high load muscle bracing with co-contraction
rigidity or breath holding for low level proprioceptive
challenges, early motion at a segment that will result in stress to
the ligaments throughout the movement, the inability to stabilize
one region and produce motion above or below it, poorly
controlled rotational stress with linear movements, delayed
anticipation and stabilization of deceleration forces resulting in
body sway or segmental instability.
The failure of specific tests, guides the corrective reprogramming.
By providing the athlete with more movement options and
enhancing stability through a variety of positional loads and
speeds, they will develop more muscle recruitment options and
patterns to integrate into competitive sport participation.
Category 3 - Reproduces pain in a specific region during test
movement
These athletes will often be getting concurrent treatment with
programming recommendations or modifications from the
sports medicine team. It is important to keep in mind that the
symptoms from a trauma or injury can completely resolve, but
an underlying movement dysfunction may still be present. If
uncorrected, a dysfunction will be reinforced and strengthened
that can lead to injury recurrence. Repeated assessment will
present insight into an individuals enhanced functional capacity
and further corrective drills that may be required as part of their
re-integration to the training environment.
SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

It is also important to consider the psychological impact on
athletes dealing with major traumatic injuries or the frustrations
of ongoing recurrent issues that consistently limit their ability to
participate in training or competition. The underlying cognitive
effect can lead to functional rigidity, fear avoidance, or adaptive
compensation strategies when loading through the injured
region. A referral to a sports psychologist for athletes dealing
with these types of injuries can be one of the critical factors in
their successful return to high performance competition.

Integrating Corrective Cueing

Movement pattern correction takes time, repetition and
ongoing re-evaluation. It requires continual feedback during
dry-land exercises, weight room and on field training sessions.
Continuous reinforcement of good patterning will deliver a new
model of movement options under the pressures and stress of
game day competition.

Tips for functional integration of unfamiliar motor
patterns:
•
•
•
•

•

•

•
•
•

Review in the training environment with lots of
feedback until athlete understands the difference
between a corrected and a dysfunctional pattern.
Develop a short routine with a lot of proprioceptive
feedback and challenge to this recruitment pattern
in a variety of positions.
Initiate these corrective exercises at the start of
standard training.
Develop these exercises into focused warm up
drills. This will ensure ongoing repetitions and
allow the athlete to self-monitor their activation
awareness and positional control prior to training or
sport participation.
S&C professional and the technical coach review
the corrective feedback and cueing in order to
link improved patterns during overload or speed
programs plus technical drills on the field.
Cue change repeatedly, but for a short interval
within each training session. Then as long as there
is not a safety issue, accept that compensation will
still occur in the residual drills. It doesn’t have to be
perfect immediately.
Athlete should get more responsive to verbal cueing,
plus find it easier to maintain positional efficiency.
Gradual automated integration of improved patterns
into training and competition.
Key phrases or cues are used as reminders for the
athlete to implement strategy during performance
under pressure.

www.sirc.ca

Linking Training to Technical Skill Development

The current value of the movement screen or assessment is often
lost to the coaching fraternity because a clear link to the higher
potential technical skill procurement, improved movement
efficiency, and enhanced durability of the athlete has not been
clearly established. It is beneficial if the coach is able to sit in
on movement evaluations, as these often link to technical faults
that present in the arena of competition. The inability of the
athlete to respond to video feedback or coaching is often a result
of ingrained compensatory strategies required to perform that
task. Although they are able to see and understand how they
should change, their body is unable to efficiently reproduce
the requested change. The better the coach can understand
the specific priorities in training and important feedback or
corrective cues, the more likely the integration of improved
awareness of positioning during skill drills, or in competition.
Integrating an applied sports biomechanist or utilizing
technological advancements in movement evaluation imaging
and software will produce more quantifiable results. Coaches
may then see more and more relevance as to how this information
coincides with skill acquisition or technical faults. This is
definitely an area for further corroborative research projects in
the future.

Accountability to Progress

Once a plan of action has been established, it is imperative
that there are quality control checkpoints built into the yearly
training plan. This will ensure inter-professional communication
plus enable progression and ongoing adaptation of the primary
training objectives. A short re-evaluation could be done just
prior to the beginning of any new training phase where the focus
and loading parameters are to change in order to determine an
athletes’ readiness for increasing work volume or intensity.
It is beneficial for training accountability to re-assess at the
beginning of preseason to understand the improvements that
have been obtained and/or the current deficits that may still
exist after the off-season program has been completed. This
information, combined with other assessments of the 4 pillars
of athletic performance, will allow the coach to understand the
level of readiness for competition of each athlete. This may
be especially important when a team is not centralized in their
training and athletes are working with professionals that are not
associated with that team’s IST.
It would also be valuable to have a mid-season assessment
of movement combined with the results from supporting
physiological, anthropometrical and strength evaluations. This
would produce a comprehensive athlete ‘snapshot’ that would
allow the supporting service experts to see how the rigors of the
season have affected the ability to maintain preseason gains and
also identify athletes that may be on the verge of break down.
The medical staff and IST team would then be in a position to set

29

SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

up proactive strategies to minimize this risk.

Conclusion

The concept of the coach being the driver of all training
planning and methodology has been transitioning. Increasingly,
the development of highly specialized professionals in the areas
of sports science, strength and conditioning, sports medicine,
mental preparation, nutrition, etc., has created the necessity
to provide teams of working support professionals around
individual athletes and/or sport teams. It is essential that the
coach remains an integral part of the planning process. They
should be the primary link to athlete. A key role for the coach
in this new paradigm is to coordinate the results from testing

and establish clear communication of objectives for each athlete
between the sport scientists, medical doctors, S&C professionals,
and therapy team members.
The goal of this system of assessment and categorization is
to create an adaptive fluid process of ongoing evaluation that
becomes part of the sporting culture and guides the performance
preparation of each athlete. It builds on the input and
communication that is fostered amongst the professional support
staff and the head coach. The ability to select sport specific tests,
assess and establish key priorities for development, plus hold
the athlete and the IST staff accountable to improvement, will
lead to athletes that are more efficient, effective and resilient. ∆

Video 1:
“Assessment and strategies to continue with overload
training and power development.”

Scott Livingston has been working in the field of athletic
performance for over twenty years as both an athletic
therapist and strength and conditioning coach. He currently
owns and operates his own business, High Performance
Sport, in performance training and reconditioning with
his wife Jaime. Scott worked for eleven seasons in the
National Hockey League with the Montreal Canadiens,
New York Rangers, and New York Islanders. Prior to
that he worked for nine years in Concordia University’s
Athletics Department, as well as serving in a part time
faculty position in the Exercise Science Department.

www.sirc.ca

Damien Moroney is a physiotherapist and a
certified strength and conditioning specialist.
He has provided sport specific conditioning
programs and/or therapy to athletes from a
variety of Canadian National teams, including
bobsleigh, skeleton, ski-cross, ski jumping, cross
country skiing, bmx and athletics.
Damien has been hired as a consultant for the
Montreal Canadiens training staff, the Canadian
Athletic Coaching Centre, the Canadian Olympic
Centre (Calgary), and Cirque Du Soleil (Alegria) .

The IST Journal Club
The goal of the IST Journal Club is to share ‘must reads’ on cutting edge
performance based applications, training/competition variables, and proactive
medical interventions, selected by performance service experts representing various
professional disciplines associated with Integrated Support Teams.

Commentary by Dr. Judy Goss
Having just returned from the Pan
American Games in Guadalajara,
Mexico, I am recovering from some
type of illness most likely acquired
in the athlete’s village or on our
18 hour trip home. I write this as I
prepare to attend a competition in
Toronto (my hometown) before the
SPIN Summit and then return to
Guadalajara for Para Pan American
Games. I chose to highlight this
article because all Integrated Support
Team (IST) members more than
likely have experienced some type of
job related stress. Being conscious/
aware/proactive about stress is key
to sustaining your professional career
and flourishing instead of floundering.
This article elaborates on the factors
specific to those individuals in
academics and consulting which is
applicable to most IST members.
Issues such as presentation skills,
evaluation in the workplace and ethical
obligations are also identified. Some
of the challenges outlined included
a balanced provision of services to
multiple clients such as athletes,
coaches and organizational personnel.
This article also elaborated on stress
created by the ethical code of conduct
when conflicts occur between the
client’s wishes and the organizational
requirements. This is more than likely
difficult as most sport psychologists
have little training in these types of
ethical dilemmas. Suggestions or
www.sirc.ca

methods of how to reduce stress from
a behavioural change perspective are
not mentioned, however, bringing
awareness to this issue is the first step.
Sport psychologists are able to provide
stress management techniques to others
but sometimes they must practice what
is preached. As an IST member, one
must be aware of the stress that you
may bring to a group along with the
stress other members may bring. Be
aware of your stress response and how
it affects your behaviour, thoughts and
emotions. This goes down the line of
emotional intelligence which will be
the topic next time. ∆

itamin D has many known
functions within the body
and it is recognized that a
high percentage of the population
is deficient or maintains suboptimal
levels of vitamin D. Research with
an athletic population is limited but
this review article highlights the
importance of vitamin D screening and
discusses the impact that suboptimal
vitamin D status may have on bone
health and sports performance. It is
important to mention that as you read
this review article that the current
Recommended Dietary Allowance
(RDA) values for vitamin D and the
Upper Limit (UL) values set by the
Institute of Medicine were revised in
2010; the current values are 600 IU/
day for individuals between 9-70 yrs
and the UL is currently set at 4,000 IU/
day.
Vitamin D can be obtained from a few
33

dietary sources; fatty fish, egg yolks,
fortified cereals and dairy products. The
main source of vitamin D is through
direct sun exposure during the summer
months. Of concern for Canadian
athletes is the lack of exposure for
the long winter months and due to our
geographical location (above 35 to 37°
degrees latitude) vitamin D cannot be
synthesized even on a sunny winter
day. The best indicator of vitamin D
status is to monitor serum 25(OH)D
concentrations. Sport physicians and
sports dietitians should be requesting
frequent assessments during the
training year; especially for athletes
who train indoors (combative sports,
gymnastics, etc.), have a history
of bone injuries, who limit dietary
sources or who train in the early or
later part of the day. This research
article highlights key factors when
conducting a clinical assessment of
vitamin D status. Understanding the
symptoms of vitamin D deficiency is
very important for high performance
coaches. Musculoskeletal pain and
weakness are mentioned as symptoms
that are often overlooked or ignored.
Supplementation protocols at or above
the current RDA values may be needed
during the winter months to ensure
optimal vitamin D status. ∆

Developing Maximal
Neuromuscular
Power : Part
2-Training
Considerations for
Improving Maximal Power
Production

Commentary by Mathieu Charbonneau
This review discusses the parameters of
power output and training with links to
specific sport movement characteristics.
The force-velocity relationship is the
main topic and parameters we can

SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

manipulate to train power output are
presented with evidence and practical
examples. Training modalities are
discussed in terms of motion pattern,
velocity, and loading, regarding
sport specificity. This paper helps in
logically selecting training modalities.
Topics covered :
• Neuromuscular elements in force and
power production
• Movement pattern specificity of
training modalities
• Load specificity: How heavy; Why;
What does it enhance?
• Velocity specificity: Move an object
rapidly or twitch your muscle fast
(rate of force development)?
• Windows of adaptation: It is difficult
for the high level athlete to advance
to the next level. There is a necessity
to target the right parameters at the
appropriate time (low-/high-velocity
strength, rate of force development,
stretch-shortening cycle, intra-/intermuscular coordination, skills)
• Integration of modalities within
periodization

to his power capabilities, the more
competent an athlete can be on a given
day.
This paper brings scientific literature to
common principles: train from simple
to complex, work on the weakest
link to get most benefit, plan to work
smarter. Speed, load, and movement
coordination must be adapted to meet
the specific requirements of your
sport. ∆

Two emerging
concepts for elite
athletes: the short term

effects of testosterone
and cortisol on the
neuromuscular system
and the dose response training role of
these endogenous hormones. Crewther,
BT et al (2011). Sports Medicine 41(2) p
103-123

Since strength is a major constituent
of power production, strength training
is discussed as a neuromuscular base
before emphasizing load- and speedspecificity. The proposed order is:
heavy load/slow velocity, low load/
high velocity, plyometrics, sport
specific coordination, and skills. I
like the idea on the versatility of
load-modality combinations to raise
an athlete’s competence in a wide
spectrum of the strength-velocity
curve. It will help build a strong,
healthy athlete through training and
competition. Power capability should
be fine tuned, depending on sport type
and load characteristics the athlete
must face: high load/high speed for
opponent sports (with body contact,
combat sports), low load/high speed
for athletics type sports (running,
jumping, throwing).

Commentary by Leo Thornley

The athlete has to manage his strength/
power to produce optimal performance.
It’s not always an all-out effort, but
controlled muscle contraction (force)
to produce a given motion sequence to
win. The more aware and accustomed

Crewther et al remind us that workout
design, nutrition, genetics as well
as training status and training type
all contribute to the testosterone and
cortisol response; which in turn play a
large role in regulating muscle growth

www.sirc.ca

U

nderstanding
the
hormonal
response to training has led us to
refine the design of a given workout
and indeed the structure for the wider
training program. While the body
responds to a training stimulus with
a milieu of different hormones two
of the more commonly discussed by
athletes, coaches and sport science
staff are steroid hormones testosterone
and cortisol.
This review paper by Crewther et
al looks at the research from both a
short term effect on the neuromuscular
system and the dose (training) response
relationship. This paper highlights that
as our understanding of a topic evolves
some concepts may become more
complex.

34

and therefore performance.
Planning the workout with the
stimulus in mind and using the
hormone response to get the most
out of the workout is good practice.
The idea that utilizing hypertrophy
workouts in order to stimulate a large
testosterone response and over time
enhance muscle form and function is
common practice. This paper suggests
that the notion that these hormones
have little short term effects may be
too simplistic. In the more acute sense
these hormones may have beneficial
effects on neuromuscular signaling
and activation as well as contractile
properties of the muscle. These more
acute benefits may enhance subsequent
strength and power exercises. While
early gains in strength training may
be mostly attributed to neural factors
the elevated testosterone and cortisol
may play a permissive role in these
adaptations, their role being perhaps
wider than previously considered.
Crewther et al highlight that individual
differences particularly when looking
at an athlete’s career point or training
status may require us to measure the
these hormonal response factors in
order to determine the best workout
design and indeed the trainability of an
athlete.
This paper is a good read for anyone
prescribing strength training workouts.
It is clear that more research is
required on elite athletes in particular
to better understand the multifactorial
contributions these hormones play in
the athletic training environment. ∆

SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

Low-Load High
Volume Resistance
Exercise Stimulates
Muscle Protein
Synthesis More Than
High-Load Low
Volume Resistance Training in
Young Men

Burd et al., 2010, Plos One, August 2010,
Volume 5, Issue 8

Commentary by Matt Jordan
Background
Muscle hypertrophy (increase in
fiber size) is an important outcome of
resistance training. Typical guidelines
for developing muscle hypertrophy
include repetitions in the range of 5-12
and loads in the range of 70-85% of
1 Repetition Maximum (RM). This
type of loading mechanically stresses
the muscle fiber and recruits the entire
motor unit pool.
Not only can muscle fiber hypertrophy
be stimulated by muscle contractions
against high load but also by other
forms of stress such as low load muscle
contractions that restrict muscle fiber
blood flow.

This may be an attractive option for
developing muscle hypertrophy in
populations who are unable to perform
high load resistance training like
athletes recovering from injury or in
young developing athletes.
Purpose of the Study
This study attempted to evaluate the
effectiveness of low load resistance
training for stimulating muscle protein
synthesis in the leg muscles of young
recreationally trained male subjects.
Study Design
The investigators used three load
conditions: (1) 90% of 1RM lifted
until failure; (2) 30% of 1RM lifted
for a controlled number of repetitions
(equivalent to the work performed in
the 90% condition); (3) 30% of 1RM
lifted until failure.
Main Findings:
1. The low-load to failure condition
was as effective as the high load
condition for stimulating muscle
protein synthesis at the 4-hour
mark and more effective when
measured at the 24-hour mark.
2. The load-load failure condition
increased mitochondrial protein
synthesis, which might benefit the
aerobic system.
3. Muscle hypertrophy is not only a
load dependent process but also a
volume dependent process.
Limitations and Future Considerations:
1. They didn’t study an athlete
population.
2. A training study should be done to
confirm the benefits of this type of
loading.
3. Future studies should consider
loads in between 30% and 90% of
1RM as this is a very large range
in intensity. ∆

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35

Strengthening and
Neuromuscular
Reeducation of the
Gluteus Maximus
in a Triathlete With
Exercise-Associated
Cramping of the Hamstrings

Commentary by Bruce Craven
Every High Performance Athlete is a
“CASE STUDY”
When working with high performance
athletes, we need to remember that
most of these individuals do not fit
within the normal population bell
curve. This distribution becomes a
problem when developing a treatment
plan for them, as the majority of
evidence based research for therapy
intervention is based on normal
individuals using parametric statistics.
The plan that every therapist working
with high performance athletes must
remember, is to utilize evidence based
research to create a theory behind
the causative nature of the injury and
then approach the athlete’s care like a
case study. To complete the analysis
and test the theoretical model that is
directing the athletes’ treatment, it is
imperative that the entire Integrated
Support Team (IST) and Coach are
involved in the process.
The researchers of this article have
presented two possible causes for
the exercise-associated cramping 1)
electrolyte imbalance and 2) local
muscle fatigue. Although each of
these theories is unlikely to occur in
isolation, it is important to involve all
IST members with the development
and testing of the treatment theories.
The IST must dissect each theory to
determine the appropriate causative
factor. If there is not long-term success
in management of the condition, the
IST must accept the possibility of not

SIRCuit Volume 2 (1) Fall / automne 2011

identifying the correct etiology of the
problem.
In this article, the athlete had been
attempting to correct the problem
through modification of training
to address the muscle fatigue and
correcting his electrolyte/nutrition
status. There had been no long-term
success in his treatment. Further
investigation into the theory of
isolated muscle fatigue must identify
what muscles in the kinematic chain
are fatiguing and what muscles over
activated. To start this assessment, the
athlete underwent the following:
• Clinical history of presenting
condition
• Presenting complaints
• Medical Screening to rule out any
“red flags” for major illnesses or
conditions
• Differential diagnosis screening
to localize the problem within the
lower quadrant
• Clinical tests for flexibility,
strength and motor function
• Dynamic Assessment looking at
gait, and other movement tasks.
Following this assessment, it was
determined that the athlete’s condition
was consistent with the muscle fatigue
theory. Further testing was required;
as the assessment to date only
identified that there was diminished
hip extensor muscle performance.
Although the manual muscle testing
can not differentiate between the
hamstring function and the gluteus
maximus function in certain tasks,
the testing provided insight into the
dysfunction as there was excessive hip
internal rotation and adduction during
hip extension testing.
To further develop the causative
theory the authors indicated that the
gluteus maximus and hamstrings are
agonist muscles during running. If the
gluteus maximus was either weak or
had impaired motor function, then the
hamstrings would exert a greater effort
during running causing it to fatigue
earlier than it’s contralateral limb
www.sirc.ca

resulting in the cramping.

minutes of rest between each set.

In this case, the athlete underwent
a biomechanical evaluation of his
running gait using EMG to differentiate
the gluteus maximus and hamstring
contribution during running. EMG
found that the triathlete’s hamstring
muscle was over activated during
terminal swing and the first half of
the stance phase during running. This
supported the developed theory that the
over-activation of the hamstrings may
be causing the fatigue and resulting
cramping.
The theoretical model implemented
to guide the rehabilitation process;
focused on the need to improve
the gluteus maximus strength and
neuromuscular control to provide
better recruitment during terminal
swing and the first half of stance. If the
gluteus maximus improved its function
during these phases of gait, the load
requirement and resulting decrease in
work done by the hamstrings would
decrease the likelihood of muscle
fatigue and the resulting cramping.
The physical therapy program
consisted of strengthening and
neuromuscular reeducation of the
gluteus maximus, with exercises being
progressed over 3 phases.
Phase One:
• non–weight-bearing
exercises
to
emphasize isolated muscle recruitment
• exercises
focused
on
muscle
recruitment
• 3 sets of 8 to 15 repetitions were
prescribed, with 1 to 2 minutes of rest
between each set

For each phase the exercises were
performed on the right and left lower
extremity.
During the 8 months of intervention,
the athlete’s strength, dynamic control
and hamstring and glut activation
improved; allowing him to complete
3 half Ironman competitions without
hamstring cramping issues. The
case report supports the theory that
improving strength and neuromuscular
control of the gluteus maximus resulted
in a decrease in hamstring activation
during terminal swing and the first half
of the stance phase during running.
The authors caution the reader to take
care in establishing cause and effect,
based on a single case study.
This paper I feel guides us to an
important reminder that when
evaluating and treating our high
performance athletes with chronic
musculo-skeletal injuries. It is
imperative that we develop a theoretical
model to guide our treatment plan
based on evidence based practice and
to test this theory using the rigors of
science from all members of the IST.
As with every case study report, care
must be taken in establishing cause
and effect, based on a single patient;
however, it is also important to
remember that in high performance
sport there is very little evidence to
support cause and effect when it comes
to a successful performance. ∆