The Doctrine of the Mean

Confucius
Translated by James Legge

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The Doctrine of the Mean

What Heaven has conferred is called The Nature; an accordance with this nature is called The Path of
duty; the regulation of this path is called Instruction.

The path may not be left for an instant. If it could be left, it would not be the path. On this account, the
superior man does not wait till he sees things, to be cautious, nor till he hears things, to be apprehensive.

There is nothing more visible than what is secret, and nothing more manifest than what is minute. Therefore the
superior man is watchful over himself, when he is alone.

While there are no stirrings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, or joy, the mind may be said to be in the state of
Equilibrium. When those feelings have been stirred, and they act in their due degree, there ensues what may be called
the state of Harmony. This Equilibrium is the great root from which grow all the human actings in the world, and this
Harmony is the universal path which they all should pursue.

Let the states of equilibrium and harmony exist in perfection, and a happy order will prevail throughout heaven and
earth, and all things will be nourished and flourish.

Chung-ni said, “The superior man embodies the course of the Mean; the mean man acts contrary to the course of the
Mean.

“The superior man’s embodying the course of the Mean is because he is a superior man, and so always maintains the
Mean. The mean man’s acting contrary to the course of the Mean is because he is a mean man, and has no caution.”

The Master said, “Perfect is the virtue which is according to the Mean! Rare have they long been among the people,
who could practice it!

The Master said, “I know how it is that the path of the Mean is not walked in:-The knowing go beyond it, and the
stupid do not come up to it. I know how it is that the path of the Mean is not understood:-The men of talents and
virtue go beyond it, and the worthless do not come up to it.

“There is no body but eats and drinks. But they are few who can distinguish flavors.”

The Master said, “Alas! How is the path of the Mean untrodden!”

The Master said, “There was Shun:-He indeed was greatly wise! Shun loved to question others, and to study their
words, though they might be shallow. He concealed what was bad in them and displayed what was good. He took hold of
their two extremes, determined the Mean, and employed it in his government of the people. It was by this that he was
Shun!”

The Master said “Men all say, ‘We are wise’; but being driven forward and taken in a net, a trap, or a pitfall, they
know not how to escape. Men all say, ‘We are wise’; but happening to choose the course of the Mean, they are not able
to keep it for a round month.”

The Master said “This was the manner of Hui:-he made choice of the Mean, and whenever he got hold of what was good,
he clasped it firmly, as if wearing it on his breast, and did not lose it.”

The Master said, “The kingdom, its states, and its families, may be perfectly ruled; dignities and emoluments may be
declined; naked weapons may be trampled under the feet; but the course of the Mean cannot be attained to.”

Tsze-lu asked about energy.

The Master said, “Do you mean the energy of the South, the energy of the North, or the energy which you should
cultivate yourself?

“To show forbearance and gentleness in teaching others; and not to revenge unreasonable conduct:-this is the energy
of southern regions, and the good man makes it his study.

“To lie under arms; and meet death without regret:-this is the energy of northern regions, and the forceful make it
their study.

“Therefore, the superior man cultivates a friendly harmony, without being weak.-How firm is he in his energy! He
stands erect in the middle, without inclining to either side.-How firm is he in his energy! When good principles
prevail in the government of his country, he does not change from what he was in retirement. How firm is he in his
energy! When bad principles prevail in the country, he maintains his course to death without changing.-How firm is he
in his energy!”

The Master said, “To live in obscurity, and yet practice wonders, in order to be mentioned with honor in future
ages:-this is what I do not do.

“The good man tries to proceed according to the right path, but when he has gone halfway, he abandons it:-I am not
able so to stop.

“The superior man accords with the course of the Mean. Though he may be all unknown, unregarded by the world, he
feels no regret.-It is only the sage who is able for this.”

The way which the superior man pursues, reaches wide and far, and yet is secret.

Common men and women, however ignorant, may intermeddle with the knowledge of it; yet in its utmost reaches, there
is that which even the sage does not know. Common men and women, however much below the ordinary standard of character,
can carry it into practice; yet in its utmost reaches, there is that which even the sage is not able to carry into
practice. Great as heaven and earth are, men still find some things in them with which to be dissatisfied. Thus it is
that, were the superior man to speak of his way in all its greatness, nothing in the world would be found able to
embrace it, and were he to speak of it in its minuteness, nothing in the world would be found able to split it.

It is said in the Book of Poetry, “The hawk flies up to heaven; the fishes leap in the deep.” This expresses how
this way is seen above and below.

The way of the superior man may be found, in its simple elements, in the intercourse of common men and women; but in
its utmost reaches, it shines brightly through Heaven and earth.

The Master said “The path is not far from man. When men try to pursue a course, which is far from the common
indications of consciousness, this course cannot be considered The Path.

“In the Book of Poetry, it is said, ‘In hewing an ax handle, in hewing an ax handle, the pattern is not far off. We
grasp one ax handle to hew the other; and yet, if we look askance from the one to the other, we may consider them as
apart. Therefore, the superior man governs men, according to their nature, with what is proper to them, and as soon as
they change what is wrong, he stops.

“When one cultivates to the utmost the principles of his nature, and exercises them on the principle of reciprocity,
he is not far from the path. What you do not like when done to yourself, do not do to others.

“In the way of the superior man there are four things, to not one of which have I as yet attained.-To serve my
father, as I would require my son to serve me: to this I have not attained; to serve my prince as I would require my
minister to serve me: to this I have not attained; to serve my elder brother as I would require my younger brother to
serve me: to this I have not attained; to set the example in behaving to a friend, as I would require him to behave to
me: to this I have not attained. Earnest in practicing the ordinary virtues, and careful in speaking about them, if, in
his practice, he has anything defective, the superior man dares not but exert himself; and if, in his words, he has any
excess, he dares not allow himself such license. Thus his words have respect to his actions, and his actions have
respect to his words; is it not just an entire sincerity which marks the superior man?”

The superior man does what is proper to the station in which he is; he does not desire to go beyond this.

In a position of wealth and honor, he does what is proper to a position of wealth and honor. In a poor and low
position, he does what is proper to a poor and low position. Situated among barbarous tribes, he does what is proper to
a situation among barbarous tribes. In a position of sorrow and difficulty, he does what is proper to a position of
sorrow and difficulty. The superior man can find himself in no situation in which he is not himself.

In a high situation, he does not treat with contempt his inferiors. In a low situation, he does not court the favor
of his superiors. He rectifies himself, and seeks for nothing from others, so that he has no dissatisfactions. He does
not murmur against Heaven, nor grumble against men.

Thus it is that the superior man is quiet and calm, waiting for the appointments of Heaven, while the mean man walks
in dangerous paths, looking for lucky occurrences.

The Master said, “In archery we have something like the way of the superior man. When the archer misses the center
of the target, he turns round and seeks for the cause of his failure in himself.”

The way of the superior man may be compared to what takes place in traveling, when to go to a distance we must first
traverse the space that is near, and in ascending a height, when we must begin from the lower ground.

It is said in the Book of Poetry, “Happy union with wife and children is like the music of lutes and harps. When
there is concord among brethren, the harmony is delightful and enduring. Thus may you regulate your family, and enjoy
the pleasure of your wife and children.”

The Master said, “In such a state of things, parents have entire complacence!”

The Master said, “How abundantly do spiritual beings display the powers that belong to them!

“We look for them, but do not see them; we listen to, but do not hear them; yet they enter into all things, and
there is nothing without them.

“They cause all the people in the kingdom to fast and purify themselves, and array themselves in their richest
dresses, in order to attend at their sacrifices. Then, like overflowing water, they seem to be over the heads, and on
the right and left of their worshippers.

“It is said in the Book of Poetry, ‘The approaches of the spirits, you cannot sunrise; and can you treat them with
indifference?’

“Such is the manifestness of what is minute! Such is the impossibility of repressing the outgoings of
sincerity!”

The Master said, “How greatly filial was Shun! His virtue was that of a sage; his dignity was the throne; his riches
were all within the four seas. He offered his sacrifices in his ancestral temple, and his descendants preserved the
sacrifices to himself.

“Therefore having such great virtue, it could not but be that he should obtain the throne, that he should obtain
those riches, that he should obtain his fame, that he should attain to his long life.

“Thus it is that Heaven, in the production of things, is sure to be bountiful to them, according to their qualities.
Hence the tree that is flourishing, it nourishes, while that which is ready to fall, it overthrows.

“In the Book of Poetry, it is said, ‘The admirable amiable prince displayed conspicuously his excelling virtue,
adjusting his people, and adjusting his officers. Therefore, he received from Heaven his emoluments of dignity. It
protected him, assisted him, decreed him the throne; sending from Heaven these favors, as it were repeatedly.’

“We may say therefore that he who is greatly virtuous will be sure to receive the appointment of Heaven.”

The Master said, “It is only King Wan of whom it can be said that he had no cause for grief! His father was King
Chi, and his son was King Wu. His father laid the foundations of his dignity, and his son transmitted it.

“King Wu continued the enterprise of King T’ai, King Chi, and King Wan. He once buckled on his armor, and got
possession of the kingdom. He did not lose the distinguished personal reputation which he had throughout the kingdom.
His dignity was the royal throne. His riches were the possession of all within the four seas. He offered his sacrifices
in his ancestral temple, and his descendants maintained the sacrifices to himself.

“It was in his old age that King Wu received the appointment to the throne, and the duke of Chau completed the
virtuous course of Wan and Wu. He carried up the title of king to T’ai and Chi, and sacrificed to all the former dukes
above them with the royal ceremonies. And this rule he extended to the princes of the kingdom, the great officers, the
scholars, and the common people. If the father were a great officer and the son a scholar, then the burial was that due
to a great officer, and the sacrifice that due to a scholar. If the father were a scholar and the son a great officer,
then the burial was that due to a scholar, and the sacrifice that due to a great officer. The one year’s mourning was
made to extend only to the great officers, but the three years’ mourning extended to the Son of Heaven. In the mourning
for a father or mother, he allowed no difference between the noble and the mean.

The Master said, “How far-extending was the filial piety of King Wu and the duke of Chau!

“Now filial piety is seen in the skillful carrying out of the wishes of our forefathers, and the skillful carrying
forward of their undertakings.

“In spring and autumn, they repaired and beautified the temple halls of their fathers, set forth their ancestral
vessels, displayed their various robes, and presented the offerings of the several seasons.

“By means of the ceremonies of the ancestral temple, they distinguished the royal kindred according to their order
of descent. By ordering the parties present according to their rank, they distinguished the more noble and the less. By
the arrangement of the services, they made a distinction of talents and worth. In the ceremony of general pledging, the
inferiors presented the cup to their superiors, and thus something was given the lowest to do. At the concluding feast,
places were given according to the hair, and thus was made the distinction of years.

“They occupied the places of their forefathers, practiced their ceremonies, and performed their music. They
reverenced those whom they honored, and loved those whom they regarded with affection. Thus they served the dead as
they would have served them alive; they served the departed as they would have served them had they been continued
among them.

“By the ceremonies of the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth they served God, and by the ceremonies of the ancestral
temple they sacrificed to their ancestors. He who understands the ceremonies of the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, and
the meaning of the several sacrifices to ancestors, would find the government of a kingdom as easy as to look into his
palm!”

The Duke Ai asked about government.

The Master said, “The government of Wan and Wu is displayed in the records,-the tablets of wood and bamboo. Let
there be the men and the government will flourish; but without the men, their government decays and ceases.

“With the right men the growth of government is rapid, just as vegetation is rapid in the earth; and, moreover,
their government might be called an easily-growing rush.

“Therefore the administration of government lies in getting proper men. Such men are to be got by means of the
ruler’s own character. That character is to be cultivated by his treading in the ways of duty. And the treading those
ways of duty is to be cultivated by the cherishing of benevolence.

“Benevolence is the characteristic element of humanity, and the great exercise of it is in loving relatives.
Righteousness is the accordance of actions with what is right, and the great exercise of it is in honoring the worthy.
The decreasing measures of the love due to relatives, and the steps in the honor due to the worthy, are produced by the
principle of propriety.

“When those in inferior situations do not possess the confidence of their superiors, they cannot retain the
government of the people.

“Hence the sovereign may not neglect the cultivation of his own character. Wishing to cultivate his character, he
may not neglect to serve his parents. In order to serve his parents, he may not neglect to acquire knowledge of men. In
order to know men, he may not dispense with a knowledge of Heaven.

“The duties of universal obligation are five and the virtues wherewith they are practiced are three. The duties are
those between sovereign and minister, between father and son, between husband and wife, between elder brother and
younger, and those belonging to the intercourse of friends. Those five are the duties of universal obligation.
Knowledge, magnanimity, and energy, these three, are the virtues universally binding. And the means by which they carry
the duties into practice is singleness.

“Some are born with the knowledge of those duties; some know them by study; and some acquire the knowledge after a
painful feeling of their ignorance. But the knowledge being possessed, it comes to the same thing. Some practice them
with a natural ease; some from a desire for their advantages; and some by strenuous effort. But the achievement being
made, it comes to the same thing.”

The Master said, “To be fond of learning is to be near to knowledge. To practice with vigor is to be near to
magnanimity. To possess the feeling of shame is to be near to energy.

“He who knows these three things knows how to cultivate his own character. Knowing how to cultivate his own
character, he knows how to govern other men. Knowing how to govern other men, he knows how to govern the kingdom with
all its states and families.

“All who have the government of the kingdom with its states and families have nine standard rules to follow;-viz.,
the cultivation of their own characters; the honoring of men of virtue and talents; affection towards their relatives;
respect towards the great ministers; kind and considerate treatment of the whole body of officers; dealing with the
mass of the people as children; encouraging the resort of all classes of artisans; indulgent treatment of men from a
distance; and the kindly cherishing of the princes of the states.

“By the ruler’s cultivation of his own character, the duties of universal obligation are set forth. By honoring men
of virtue and talents, he is preserved from errors of judgment. By showing affection to his relatives, there is no
grumbling nor resentment among his uncles and brethren. By respecting the great ministers, he is kept from errors in
the practice of government. By kind and considerate treatment of the whole body of officers, they are led to make the
most grateful return for his courtesies. By dealing with the mass of the people as his children, they are led to exhort
one another to what is good. By encouraging the resort of an classes of artisans, his resources for expenditure are
rendered ample. By indulgent treatment of men from a distance, they are brought to resort to him from all quarters. And
by kindly cherishing the princes of the states, the whole kingdom is brought to revere him.

“Self-adjustment and purification, with careful regulation of his dress, and the not making a movement contrary to
the rules of propriety this is the way for a ruler to cultivate his person. Discarding slanderers, and keeping himself
from the seductions of beauty; making light of riches, and giving honor to virtue-this is the way for him to encourage
men of worth and talents. Giving them places of honor and large emolument. and sharing with them in their likes and
dislikes-this is the way for him to encourage his relatives to love him. Giving them numerous officers to discharge
their orders and commissions:-this is the way for him to encourage the great ministers. According to them a generous
confidence, and making their emoluments large:-this is the way to encourage the body of officers. Employing them only
at the proper times, and making the imposts light:-this is the way to encourage the people. By daily examinations and
monthly trials, and by making their rations in accordance with their labors:-this is the way to encourage the classes
of artisans. To escort them on their departure and meet them on their coming; to commend the good among them, and show
compassion to the incompetent:-this is the way to treat indulgently men from a distance. To restore families whose line
of succession has been broken, and to revive states that have been extinguished; to reduce to order states that are in
confusion, and support those which are in peril; to have fixed times for their own reception at court, and the
reception of their envoys; to send them away after liberal treatment, and welcome their coming with small
contributions:-this is the way to cherish the princes of the states.

“All who have the government of the kingdom with its states and families have the above nine standard rules. And the
means by which they are carried into practice is singleness.

“In all things success depends on previous preparation, and without such previous preparation there is sure to be
failure. If what is to be spoken be previously determined, there will be no stumbling. If affairs be previously
determined, there will be no difficulty with them. If one’s actions have been previously determined, there will be no
sorrow in connection with them. If principles of conduct have been previously determined, the practice of them will be
inexhaustible.

“When those in inferior situations do not obtain the confidence of the sovereign, they cannot succeed in governing
the people. There is a way to obtain the confidence of the sovereign;-if one is not trusted by his friends, he will not
get the confidence of his sovereign. There is a way to being trusted by one’s friends;-if one is not obedient to his
parents, he will not be true to friends. There is a way to being obedient to one’s parents;-if one, on turning his
thoughts in upon himself, finds a want of sincerity, he will not be obedient to his parents. There is a way to the
attainment of sincerity in one’s self; — if a man do not understand what is good, he will not attain sincerity in
himself.

“Sincerity is the way of Heaven. The attainment of sincerity is the way of men. He who possesses sincerity is he
who, without an effort, hits what is right, and apprehends, without the exercise of thought;-he is the sage who
naturally and easily embodies the right way. He who attains to sincerity is he who chooses what is good, and firmly
holds it fast.

“To this attainment there are requisite the extensive study of what is good, accurate inquiry about it, careful
reflection on it, the clear discrimination of it, and the earnest practice of it.

“The superior man, while there is anything he has not studied, or while in what he has studied there is anything he
cannot understand, Will not intermit his labor. While there is anything he has not inquired about, or anything in what
he has inquired about which he does not know, he will not intermit his labor. While there is anything which he has not
reflected on, or anything in what he has reflected on which he does not apprehend, he will not intermit his labor.
While there is anything which he has not discriminated or his discrimination is not clear, he will not intermit his
labor. If there be anything which he has not practiced, or his practice fails in earnestness, he will not intermit his
labor. If another man succeed by one effort, he will use a hundred efforts. If another man succeed by ten efforts, he
will use a thousand.

“Let a man proceed in this way, and, though dull, he will surely become intelligent; though weak, he will surely
become strong.”

When we have intelligence resulting from sincerity, this condition is to be ascribed to nature; when we have
sincerity resulting from intelligence, this condition is to be ascribed to instruction. But given the sincerity, and
there shall be the intelligence; given the intelligence, and there shall be the sincerity.

It is only he who is possessed of the most complete sincerity that can exist under heaven, who can give its full
development to his nature. Able to give its full development to his own nature, he can do the same to the nature of
other men. Able to give its full development to the nature of other men, he can give their full development to the
natures of animals and things. Able to give their full development to the natures of creatures and things, he can
assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and Earth. Able to assist the transforming and nourishing
powers of Heaven and Earth, he may with Heaven and Earth form a ternion.

Next to the above is he who cultivates to the utmost the shoots of goodness in him. From those he can attain to the
possession of sincerity. This sincerity becomes apparent. From being apparent, it becomes manifest. From being
manifest, it becomes brilliant. Brilliant, it affects others. Affecting others, they are changed by it. Changed by it,
they are transformed. It is only he who is possessed of the most complete sincerity that can exist under heaven, who
can transform.

It is characteristic of the most entire sincerity to be able to foreknow. When a nation or family is about to
flourish, there are sure to be happy omens; and when it is about to perish, there are sure to be unlucky omens. Such
events are seen in the milfoil and tortoise, and affect the movements of the four limbs. When calamity or happiness is
about to come, the good shall certainly be foreknown by him, and the evil also. Therefore the individual possessed of
the most complete sincerity is like a spirit.

Sincerity is that whereby self-completion is effected, and its way is that by which man must direct himself.

Sincerity is the end and beginning of things; without sincerity there would be nothing. On this account, the
superior man regards the attainment of sincerity as the most excellent thing.

The possessor of sincerity does not merely accomplish the self-completion of himself. With this quality he completes
other men and things also. The completing himself shows his perfect virtue. The completing other men and things shows
his knowledge. But these are virtues belonging to the nature, and this is the way by which a union is effected of the
external and internal. Therefore, whenever he-the entirely sincere man-employs them,-that is, these virtues, their
action will be right.

Hence to entire sincerity there belongs ceaselessness.

Not ceasing, it continues long. Continuing long, it evidences itself.

Evidencing itself, it reaches far. Reaching far, it becomes large and substantial. Large and substantial, it becomes
high and brilliant.

Large and substantial;-this is how it contains all things. High and brilliant;-this is how it overspreads all
things. Reaching far and continuing long;-this is how it perfects all things.

So large and substantial, the individual possessing it is the co-equal of Earth. So high and brilliant, it makes him
the co-equal of Heaven. So far-reaching and long-continuing, it makes him infinite.

Such being its nature, without any display, it becomes manifested; without any movement, it produces changes; and
without any effort, it accomplishes its ends.

The way of Heaven and Earth may be completely declared in one sentence.-They are without any doubleness, and so they
produce things in a manner that is unfathomable.

The way of Heaven and Earth is large and substantial, high and brilliant, far-reaching and long-enduring.

The Heaven now before us is only this bright shining spot; but when viewed in its inexhaustible extent, the sun,
moon, stars, and constellations of the zodiac, are suspended in it, and all things are overspread by it. The earth
before us is but a handful of soil; but when regarded in its breadth and thickness, it sustains mountains like the Hwa
and the Yo, without feeling their weight, and contains the rivers and seas, without their leaking away. The mountain
now before us appears only a stone; but when contemplated in all the vastness of its size, we see how the grass and
trees are produced on it, and birds and beasts dwell on it, and precious things which men treasure up are found on it.
The water now before us appears but a ladleful; yet extending our view to its unfathomable depths, the largest
tortoises, iguanas, iguanodons, dragons, fishes, and turtles, are produced in it, articles of value and sources of
wealth abound in it.

It is said in the Book of Poetry, “The ordinances of Heaven, how profound are they and unceasing!” The meaning is,
that it is thus that Heaven is Heaven. And again, “How illustrious was it, the singleness of the virtue of King Wan!”
indicating that it was thus that King Wan was what he was. Singleness likewise is unceasing.

How great is the path proper to the Sage!

Like overflowing water, it sends forth and nourishes all things, and rises up to the height of heaven.

All-complete is its greatness! It embraces the three hundred rules of ceremony, and the three thousand rules of
demeanor.

It waits for the proper man, and then it is trodden.

Hence it is said, “Only by perfect virtue can the perfect path, in all its courses, be made a fact.”

Therefore, the superior man honors his virtuous nature, and maintains constant inquiry and study, seeking to carry
it out to its breadth and greatness, so as to omit none of the more exquisite and minute points which it embraces, and
to raise it to its greatest height and brilliancy, so as to pursue the course of the Mean. He cherishes his old
knowledge, and is continually acquiring new. He exerts an honest, generous earnestness, in the esteem and practice of
all propriety.

Thus, when occupying a high situation he is not proud, and in a low situation he is not insubordinate. When the
kingdom is well governed, he is sure by his words to rise; and when it is ill governed, he is sure by his silence to
command forbearance to himself. Is not this what we find in the Book of Poetry,-”Intelligent is he and prudent, and so
preserves his person?”

The Master said, Let a man who is ignorant be fond of using his own judgment; let a man without rank be fond of
assuming a directing power to himself; let a man who is living in the present age go back to the ways of antiquity;-on
the persons of all who act thus calamities will be sure to come.

To no one but the Son of Heaven does it belong to order ceremonies, to fix the measures, and to determine the
written characters.

Now over the kingdom, carriages have all wheels, of the-same size; all writing is with the same characters; and for
conduct there are the same rules.

One may occupy the throne, but if he have not the proper virtue, he may not dare to make ceremonies or music. One
may have the virtue, but if he do not occupy the throne, he may not presume to make ceremonies or music.

The Master said, “I may describe the ceremonies of the Hsia dynasty, but Chi cannot sufficiently attest my words. I
have learned the ceremonies of the Yin dynasty, and in Sung they still continue. I have learned the ceremonies of Chau,
which are now used, and I follow Chau.”

He who attains to the sovereignty of the kingdom, having those three important things, shall be able to effect that
there shall be few errors under his government.

However excellent may have been the regulations of those of former times, they cannot be attested. Not being
attested, they cannot command credence, and not being credited, the people would not follow them. However excellent
might be the regulations made by one in an inferior situation, he is not in a position to be honored. Unhonored, he
cannot command credence, and not being credited, the people would not follow his rules.

Therefore the institutions of the Ruler are rooted in his own character and conduct, and sufficient attestation of
them is given by the masses of the people. He examines them by comparison with those of the three kings, and finds them
without mistake. He sets them up before Heaven and Earth, and finds nothing in them contrary to their mode of
operation. He presents himself with them before spiritual beings, and no doubts about them arise. He is prepared to
wait for the rise of a sage a hundred ages after, and has no misgivings.

His presenting himself with his institutions before spiritual beings, without any doubts arising about them, shows
that he knows Heaven. His being prepared, without any misgivings, to wait for the rise of a sage a hundred ages after,
shows that he knows men.

Such being the case, the movements of such a ruler, illustrating his institutions, constitute an example to the
world for ages. His acts are for ages a law to the kingdom. His words are for ages a lesson to the kingdom. Those who
are far from him look longingly for him; and those who are near him are never wearied with him.

It is said in the Book of Poetry,-”Not disliked there, not tired of here, from day to day and night tonight, will
they perpetuate their praise.” Never has there been a ruler, who did not realize this description, that obtained an
early renown throughout the kingdom.

Chung-ni handed down the doctrines of Yao and Shun, as if they had been his ancestors, and elegantly displayed the
regulations of Wan and Wul taking them as his model. Above, he harmonized with the times of Heaven, and below, he was
conformed to the water and land.

He may be compared to Heaven and Earth in their supporting and containing, their overshadowing and curtaining, all
things. He may be compared to the four seasons in their alternating progress, and to the sun and moon in their
successive shining.

All things are nourished together without their injuring one another. The courses of the seasons, and of the sun and
moon, are pursued without any collision among them. The smaller energies are like river currents; the greater energies
are seen in mighty transformations. It is this which makes heaven and earth so great.

It is only he, possessed of all sagely qualities that can exist under heaven, who shows himself quick in
apprehension, clear in discernment, of far-reaching intelligence, and all-embracing knowledge, fitted to exercise rule;
magnanimous, generous, benign, and mild, fitted to exercise forbearance; impulsive, energetic, firm, and enduring,
fitted to maintain a firm hold; self-adjusted, grave, never swerving from the Mean, and correct, fitted to command
reverence; accomplished, distinctive, concentrative, and searching, fitted to exercise discrimination.

All-embracing is he and vast, deep and active as a fountain, sending forth in their due season his virtues.

All-embracing and vast, he is like Heaven. Deep and active as a fountain, he is like the abyss. He is seen, and the
people all reverence him; he speaks, and the people all believe him; he acts, and the people all are pleased with
him.

Therefore his fame overspreads the Middle Kingdom, and extends to all barbarous tribes. Wherever ships and carriages
reach; wherever the strength of man penetrates; wherever the heavens overshadow and the earth sustains; wherever the
sun and moon shine; wherever frosts and dews fall:-all who have blood and breath unfeignedly honor and love him. Hence
it is said,-”He is the equal of Heaven.”

It is only the individual possessed of the most entire sincerity that can exist under Heaven, who can adjust the
great invariable relations of mankind, establish the great fundamental virtues of humanity, and know the transforming
and nurturing operations of Heaven and Earth;-shall this individual have any being or anything beyond himself on which
he depends?

Call him man in his ideal, how earnest is he! Call him an abyss, how deep is he! Call him Heaven, how vast is
he!

Who can know him, but he who is indeed quick in apprehension, clear in discernment, of far-reaching intelligence,
and all-embracing knowledge, possessing all Heavenly virtue?

It is said in the Book of Poetry, “Over her embroidered robe she puts a plain single garment,” intimating a dislike
to the display of the elegance of the former. Just so, it is the way of the superior man to prefer the concealment of
his virtue, while it daily becomes more illustrious, and it is the way of the mean man to seek notoriety, while he
daily goes more and more to ruin. It is characteristic of the superior man, appearing insipid, yet never to produce
satiety; while showing a simple negligence, yet to have his accomplishments recognized; while seemingly plain, yet to
be discriminating. He knows how what is distant lies in what is near. He knows where the wind proceeds from. He knows
how what is minute becomes manifested. Such a one, we may be sure, will enter into virtue.

It is said in the Book of Poetry, “Although the fish sink and lie at the bottom, it is still quite clearly seen.”
Therefore the superior man examines his heart, that there may be nothing wrong there, and that he may have no cause for
dissatisfaction with himself. That wherein the superior man cannot be equaled is simply this,-his work which other men
cannot see.

It is said in the Book of Poetry, “Looked at in your apartment, be there free from shame as being exposed to the
light of Heaven.” Therefore, the superior man, even when he is not moving, has a feeling of reverence, and while he
speaks not, he has the feeling of truthfulness.

It is said in the Book of Poetry, “In silence is the offering presented, and the spirit approached to; there is not
the slightest contention.” Therefore the superior man does not use rewards, and the people are stimulated to virtue. He
does not show anger, and the people are awed more than by hatchets and battle-axes.

It is said in the Book of Poetry, “What needs no display is virtue. All the princes imitate it.” Therefore, the
superior man being sincere and reverential, the whole world is conducted to a state of happy tranquility.

It is said in the Book of Poetry, “I regard with pleasure your brilliant virtue, making no great display of itself
in sounds and appearances.” The Master said, “Among the appliances to transform the people, sound and appearances are
but trivial influences. It is said in another ode, ‘His Virtue is light as a hair.’ Still, a hair will admit of
comparison as to its size. ‘The doings of the supreme Heaven have neither sound nor smell. ‘That is perfect
virtue.”

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University of Adelaide
South Australia 5005