A School-based Management and Supervision Model in EFL Schools

This article offers a school-based reflective management model in EFL
schools that centers on reflective practice for EFL teachers and
administrators drawing on four bodies of literature (reflective
thinking, supervision, teacher inquiry in EFL context and
organizational learning). I introduce "reflective management and
supervision" and the terms "management" and "supervision" are used
interchangeably to describe the broadest contexts in which I advance
the concept of the teacher and administrator as both reflective
practitioner and instructional leader and take school administrator as
a "non-managerial" "consultative" curriculum developer/supervisor, and
head learner.

Introduction

Teachers and school administrators, as other learners, develop and
change from the inside out, through individual practice and reflection,
and from the outside in, through contact with the experiences and
theories of others. Growth is the most important variable in this
process. Growth can be reached through reflection and open learning
environments where people are critical friends.

Reflective phenomena have three major elements that foster teachers'
reflective thinking: cognitive, narrative, and critical. The cognitive
element fosters concern regarding broad teaching principles as well as
strategies of classroom management and organization that appear to
transcend subject matter (Shulman, 1987, p. 9). This element coincides
with the most personal form of reflective practice—the "inner dialog" a
teacher has with herself or himself. The narrative element of
reflection puts the classroom experience into a context for teachers
and others, thus providing them with a much richer understanding of
what takes place in the classroom and in the teachers' construction of
reality and it is one of the more effective ways to encourage
developmentally and culturally appropriate reflective practice.

Why Management and Supervision in EFL Schools Seem to Have Failed?

EFL teachers mostly complain about their administrators as they
primarily focus on administrative duties rather than instructional and
academic support. Thus, the image of instructional leadership has
become entrenched in the professional rhetoric but all too often is
lacking in administrative practice.

Although much research was conducted on collaboration and on the
importance viewing teachers as professionals and reflective
practitioners, little of the research has focused specifically on what
administrators need to do and how they should be involved in those
reflective practices. In this model three tools, which are reflective
journals, portfolios and peer coaching are highly recommended for both
the administrator and EFL teacher as we presuppose that they are
learners and critical friends.

Leaving aside all the above-mentioned factors, the EFL context itself
has highly different characteristics from the other subject area
teaching

What Makes EFL Contexts Different and Why Do They Need Reflective
Management?

EFL teaching market addresses a huge area where there are countries
from East Europe to Far East and the number of EFL teachers is much
larger than any other subject area teachers.

A noted gap in the foreign language teaching profession has been
underutilization of findings from the general teacher education
knowledge base (Richards, 1996).

In 1990, Jarvis and Taylor issued the call for teacher educators in
both general education and in specific fields to bridge the existing
gap between general teacher education and content specific teacher
education and this call was repeated by the foreign language teacher
educators (Hammadou, 1991; Richards, 1990) as the field has achieved a
sense of autonomy with its own research agenda.

Seven main components, which are absolutely different from those of
other subject area teaching, are considered in the EFL curriculum
evaluation process; managerial practice has proven not to be effective
evaluating these components (Goker, 2004. p.133).1. Teachers: The definition of 'EFL' teacher seems to change
every day. With little exception, most non-native English speaking
countries employ a native English speaker to teach English provided
that person presents any degree from his country's university. That
degree may range from Science with a major in Botany, to psychology. In
other words, anyone with a university degree can travel to a
non-English
speaking country and become a 'teacher of English language'.
(Carmichael, 2002)

One must briefly consider certificates, such as TEFL certificates or
the like (the market place is now amply endowed with short term
certificate courses) yet some courses are of minimal duration. I argue
the possession of such a certificate does not entitle the holders to
call themselves (qualified) English teachers and teaching English is
severely hampered by the fact that teachers are on the whole,
nonspecifically educated teachers.

2. Methodology: Methodology is
considered to be the main variable in implementing the curriculum and
it can be characterized as the materials, activities, tasks, and
learning experiences selected by the teacher.

In no other subject area of teaching has there been so much
material to choose from including textbooks, online teaching tasks,
handouts and activities. There are thousands of web pages for EFL
teachers. Many EFL researchers question the value of
commercially-produced textbooks as they are designed with an eye to
sales. Most are published in Britain and America and many EFL teachers
complain that they do not include cultural values of their home
countries.

3. Learners and needs analysis:
Goal analysis, performance analysis, environment analysis, task
analysis, content analysis, resource analysis and needs analysis make
EFL teaching differentiate from the other subject area teaching. All
curricula are firstly developed on needs analysis. Needs are associated
with individual learners, as they change and shift during the period of
a course, needs are best addressed at the level of classroom
instruction, where an EFL teacher can select appropriate techniques and
materials to accommodate individuals. And this places the teacher at
the center of the decision making process. In no other subject area, is
the teacher in such a complex situation like this.

4. Goals and objectives: Goals
and objectives are quite varied in EFL schools and rarely are goals
set, or situations and roles devised that are appropriate for foreign
language learners. Some focus on EAP (English for Academic Purposes),
some focus on ESP (English for Specific Purposes) and some others on
communicative competence. There is no consensus yet on what
communicative competence is and the validity of the pedagogical model
based on the native speaker-based notion of communicative competence is
questioned by researchers in the field. The notion of communicative
competence entails four competences, which are commonly referred to as
grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse
competence, and strategic competence. However, managerial practices in
EFL settings seem to have focused on grammatical competence.

5. Syllabus: Types of syllabi
are so complex and each EFL school has different syllabus type like
grammatical, lexical, grammatical-lexical, situational, topic-based,
notional, functional-notional, mixed or "multi-strand", procedural,
process.

6. Assessment and evaluation process:
What does language proficiency encompass? Unfortunately, it is at this
point in the assessment of language proficiency that a lack of
consensus begins. Language researchers openly acknowledge this dilemma.
The complexity of language and the lack of consensus as to the exact
nature of language proficiency are critical for one fundamental reason.
Each language proficiency test should be based on a defensible model or
definition of language proficiency. Each EFL school uses a different
checklist for English language proficiency test selection.
Many different types of tests like proficiency,
achievement, placement, diagnostic tests are administered in EFL
schools which you can hardly see in any other subject area teaching.

7. Resources: The amount and
kind of resources available are important, but especially important is
the way they are allocated. In EFL programs, the assignment of teachers
to classes is one of the most challenging considerations in resource
allocation. In EFL teaching, more resources such as a CALL or
audio-visual laboratory, T.V., tapes, and so on, are needed than for
any other subject area teaching.

Tools for Reflective Process in an EFL School-based Management

As learning from practical professional experience is an essential part
of reflective practice, three valuable tools, which are reflective
journals, portfolios, and peer coaching for both EFL teachers and
administrators are recommended.

1. Reflective Journals

Causing teachers to reflect on clinical experiences can improve the
quality of significant learning. Teaching experiences during clinical
practice are helpful in preparing new teachers, but reflecting on the
experience adds a critical dimension.

Each reflective-journal entry addresses at least two different topics:
a personal reflection of their experiences in the clinical setting that
day and a discussion related to the assigned topic for each day of the
school visit. Assigned topics for the reflective journals range from
observing the cooperating teachers' use of time management, classroom
management, assessment procedures, cultural diversity, accommodations
for disabled students with special needs, course-of-study requirements,
and code-of-conduct handbooks. Additionally, the teachers write about
topics or events important to them during a particular classroom visit.
Teachers write reflections about what concerned them or excited them,
or caused them to think, or caused them to learn.

2. Portfolios

The professional development portfolio has surfaced as a transitional
tool, connecting the teaching-learning endeavors of the teachers as
learner, teacher as expert, and teacher as scholar. We also realized
that monitoring and managing one's own professional development is not
only challenging, but also has the potential to change the culture of
schools and make them a place for teachers to be lifelong learners.
Through collaboration with teachers and administrators, portfolios can
be used to improve existing practices for profess.

In this model, the portfolio is considered a living document that
changes as the EFL teachers grow and that helps them develop their
techniques and philosophy. In an EFL school, portfolios may include
performance markers such as content, learners and learning, curriculum,
instruction, assessment, management, diversity, professionalism,
reflection, communication, and technology.

Teachers are encouraged to include artifacts and reflections from all
of the dimensions of the program implemented program in their
portfolios. This structure provides administrators and teachers with
access to a comprehensive evaluation model that captures many aspects
of the complexities of teaching and the process of teachers developing
expertise. The administrator guides the teachers in developing the
teaching portfolio.

3. Peer Coaching

Peer coaching can be an important means for instituting collaborative
efforts and it warrants consideration as a potentially serviceable
solution for improving teacher effectiveness.

Hoy, Hannum and Moran (1998) have argued that, when teachers are
supported by their peers as well as their principals, they are likely
to take greater risks to improve their instruction, remain in the
teaching profession and show more interest in building activities and
goals. Indeed, support and commitment are linked and have been shown to
be critical aspect of effective schools (Hoy, Tarter, & Witkoskie,
1992). Timely feedback after teaching episodes, which is believed
to be key factor in teacher development is often ignored under
traditional supervisory practices. To reconcile this problem,
researchers have considered peer coaching as an alternative model. Peer
coaching is a process in which teams of teachers regularly observe each
other to provide suggestions, assistance, and support (Joyce and
Showers, 1980).

Garmston (1989) describes three assumptions that underlie peer
coaching. The first is that we can get better at what we are doing.
Second, teaching performance is driven by invisible thinking or mental
processes that we use before, during, and after our teaching. Third,
teaching is a continuous decision-making.

Reflective Supervision and Teacher Commitment

This type of reflective management sees schools as communities rather
than organizations, and emphasizes the student-teacher relationship
rather than bureaucratic functions. The ultimate goal of reflective
supervision is to open the doors for teacher inquiry, a
teacher-administrator-driven form of professional growth, to unfold in
an EFL school.

This re-conceptualized meaning of supervision includes reconfigured
supervision roles and relationships. EFL schools can begin to challenge
an embedded traditional 'top-down,' hierarchical paradigm, with the
teachers at the bottom as passive recipients of training.

This model can illustrate one way that administrators and teachers can
work together without any outsider super "visor" to create a trusting,
collaborative school culture that supports reflective teaching and
reflective supervision. Something is wrong with the word "Supervisor."
Is it a super or special person? In educational organizations, there
should be no superiority of one individual in relation to others.

This view of supervision is consistent as well with recent perspectives
on site-based management and school restructuring, the importance of
building collaborative cultures and organizational learning communities
in schools, and the systemic nature and meaning of school-wide
organizational change and improvement. Collectively, these perspectives
suggest a much richer cultural view of supervision that reflects the
kinds of professional learning environments and organizational climates
that teachers and administrators create and sustain in schools where
teachers will monitor and adjust learning environments.

Conclusion

Language teaching professionals need to know where they are and where
they are going. EFL schools need to develop a policy, and manage this
in relation to their resources; they need to ensure that they and the
people in them can change and develop.

Changes in EFL teaching have been happening at ever-faster rates and in
ever-increasing complexity. Innovations are offered up for adoption;
some are accepted while others are not. Curriculum reforms have been
handed down from education ministries, IT innovations are being applied
at all levels, research from many disciplines is informing
classroom-based innovations, and action research is becoming more
commonplace, with resulting transformations of teachers at the local
level. All these are linked to a paradigm shift resulting in a greater
focus on reflective practice rather than on methods and methodology.

Involvement in reflective-based managerial activities will contribute
to the development of educators' perceptions of the nature and quality
of the total school climate and these perceptions, in turn, are linked
in important ways to school organizations and educational outcomes.

References

Carmichael, S. (2002). An Expose of 'What is an English Teacher', Asian EFL Journal, March, 2002

Garmston, R. (1989). Peer Coaching: An Interview with Professor
Robert Garmston. In The Teaching Newsletter published by the Faculty
Development Resource Center, California State University, Sacramento,
2(3), 5-6.