Cancers of the endometrium, ovary and cervix share
certain characteristics. However, etio-pathogenesis of all
the gynecological malignancies is yet to be explored. Even
though the etiologic factors are generally environmental,
the exact cause of each gynecological cancer is not known
(Senate Community Affairs References Committee,
Commonwealth of Australia, 2006). Worldwide, cancer
incidence rates vary widely between different geographic
regions and ethnic groups.

Thus, to date, women have not featured prominently as business leaders within
the veterinary profession, nor have they been perceived as potential entrepreneurs or
innovators. This point is particularly important, because based on what we know about
women and business ownership/entrepreneurship generally (see, for example, Brush, 1997;
Brush, Carter, Gatewood, Green & Hart, 2001; Henry & Treanor, 2010), it is unlikely that
current levels of veterinary entrepreneurship will be maintained or, indeed, increased in a
female dominated veterinary sector. ...

Other Organ Systems and the Future The use of stem cells in regenerative medicine has been studied for many other organ systems and cell types, including skin, eye, cartilage, bone, kidney, lung, endometrium, vascular endothelium, smooth muscle, striated muscle, and others. In fact, the potential for stem cell regeneration of damaged organs and tissues is virtually limitless. However, numerous obstacles must be overcome before stem cell therapies can become a widespread clinical reality.

COMBINED ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES Mechanism of action
The combined oral contraceptive (COC) pills currently available in the UK are shown in Table 2. They combine an estrogen (ethinylestradiol (EE) in all cases but one) with one of seven progestogens. Aside from secondary contraceptive effects on the cervical mucus and to impede implantation, COCs primarily prevent ovulation. This makes the method highly effective in ‘perfect’ use (Table 1), but it removes the normal menstrual cyle and replaces it with a cycle that is user-produced and based only on the end-organ, i.e. the endometrium.

ASRM and the College of American Pathologists administer a reproductive
laboratory accreditation program for embryology labs to assure that they conform
to high national standards of quality. ASRM also produces ethics and practice
guidelines. Its affiliate, the Society for Assisted Reproductive Technology
(SART), strictly monitors member clinics for adherence to ASRM guidelines,
accreditation of their embryology labs, qualification of their staff, and submission
of data to the CDC.

Getting treatment of an endometrium problem before it becomes cancer is another way to
lower the risk of endometrial cancer. Most endometrial cancers develop over many years.
Many are known to follow, and maybe start from, less serious problems of the lining of
the uterus, such as increased growth of this lining (hyperplasia). Some cases of
hyperplasia will go away without treatment. But sometimes it needs to be treated with
hormones or even surgery. Treatment can prevent hyperplasia from becoming cancer.

Role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis in the etiology of amenorrhea. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion from the hypothalamus stimulates follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion from the pituitary to induce ovarian folliculogenesis and steroidogenesis. Ovarian secretion of estradiol and progesterone controls the shedding of the endometrium, resulting in menses and, in combination with the inhibins, provides feedback regulation of the hypothalamus and pituitary to control secretion of FSH and LH.

Chemoprevention of Breast Cancer Hormonal manipulation is being tested in the primary prevention of breast cancer. Tamoxifen is an antiestrogen with partial estrogen agonistic activity in some tissues, such as endometrium and bone. One of its actions is to upregulate transforming growth factor β, which decreases breast cell proliferation. In randomized placebo-controlled trials to assess tamoxifen as adjuvant therapy for breast cancer, tamoxifen reduced the number of new breast cancers in the opposite breast by more than a third.

Uterine Cancer
Incidence and Epidemiology
Carcinoma of the endometrium is the most common female pelvic malignancy. Approximately 39,080 new cases are diagnosed yearly, although in most (75%), tumor is confined to the uterine corpus at diagnosis, and therefore most can be cured. The 7400 deaths yearly make uterine cancer only the eighth leading cause of cancer death in females.

There are 20 subtypes of cytokeratin (CK) intermediate filaments with different molecular weights and differential expression in various cell types and cancers. Monoclonal antibodies to specific CK subtypes have been used to help classify tumors according to their site of origin; commonly used CK stains in CUP are CK7 and CK20. CK7 is found in tumors of the lung, ovary, endometrium, and breast and not in those of the lower gastrointestinal tract, whereas CK20 is normally expressed in the gastrointestinal epithelium, urothelium, and Merkel's cells.

Imaging has become such an integral part of clinical care in the assisted reproductive technologies that it is difﬁcult to imagine how in vitro fertilization (IVF) was done before we had the ability to visualize the ovaries and uterus easily.

The aim of this chapter is to bring the reader up to date with current thinking about the role of uterine receptivity in in vitro fertilization (IVF). The contents have been substantially revised and updated since the last edition, including information on the wealth of new data currently emerging on global gene expression proﬁling of human endometrium.

The grade of an endometrioid adenocarcinoma is based on how much the cancer cells
form glands that look like the glands found in normal, healthy endometrium. In lower-
grade cancers (grades 1 and 2), more of the cancer cells form normal-looking glands. In
higher-grade cancers (grade 3), more of the cancer cells are kind of jumbled up and do
not form normal glands. Higher grade cancers tend to grow faster and are more likely to
spread than lower grade cancers.
Uterine carcinosarcoma (CS) is another cancer that starts in the endometrium and is
covered here.

Less common uterine cancers that do not come from glandular tissue of the endometrium
are called uterine sarcomas. These types of cancer are not covered here because their
treatment and outlook for survival are different from the most common cancers of the
endometrium. If you would like to know more about this type of cancer please see our
document called Uterine Sarcoma.
Cervical cancers
Cancers that start in the cervix and then spread to the body of the uterus are different
from cancers that start in the body of the uterus.

The uterus (womb) is a hollow organ, about the size and shape of a medium-sized pear.
The uterus is where a fetus grows when a woman is pregnant. It has 2 main parts. The
lower part, which extends into the vagina, is called the cervix. The upper part is the body
of the uterus (also called the corpus). The body of the uterus has 2 layers. The inner layer
is the endometrium. The outer layer of muscle is known as the myometrium. This thick
layer of muscle is needed to push the baby out during birth. The tissue coating the...