Gross J (1903) - Behaviour and Ecology at Nottingham

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J Gross (1903)
Untersuchungen über die Histologie des Insektenovariums
[ Studies on the histology of insect ovaries ]
Zool Jb Anat 18: 71-186
[...previous sp = Tabanus tropicus]
5. Xanthogramma citrofasciata [=festivum]
The bushel-like ovaries contain numerous ovarioles. The end filaments (Fig 68) consist of a single row of cells with
transversely placed nuclei. It is clearly separated from the tip of the end chamber by the tunica propria. In addition to
the roundish germ nuclei, the germarium [“end chamber”] (Fig 68) always contains also a large number of epithelial
nuclei, which not only make the wall coating, but also lie inside between the germ nuclei. In the youngest of the
rounded compartments of the germarium, the egg cannot yet be differentiated from the nutritional cells. The germ
vesicles are differentiated first by changes and redirection of their coloured substance. Then the egg cell grows and soon
surpasses the nutritive cells in size (Fig 69). The epithelial nuclei, which at first formed only a very thin layer around
the follicles [“chambers”], multiply greatly during development and arrange themselves into a cylindrical epithelium, as
the cell boundaries appear between them. The nutritive cells also clearly grow, but are left behind in their growth
compared to the egg cell. Because of the strong growth of the cells, the epithelium becomes extensive in the anterior
part of the follicle. It becomes here a flat plate epithelium whose cell nuclei are separated by large spaces, and whose
cell walls dissolve again (Fig 70). The epithelium anteriorly therefore takes on the same character again in its entire
expanse as in the youngest follicle. Now the nutritive cells begin to shrink. Their cell bodies become obviously smaller,
whilst their nuclei still retain their size and fomer appearance. Soon they become separated from the egg cell by a
partition, the creation of which happens in a special manner that has yet to be described. In young follicles one sees pale
cytoplasm at the anterior wall under the epithelium in small vesicles containing a number of nuclei, about 10 (Fig 69).
These nuclei must have been cut off from the epithelium, and could not have come directly from the wall of the
germarium into the nutritive cells of the follicle during the creation of the follicle. For actually they are not present in all
young follicles. This group of nuclei migrate between the nutritive cells throughout the egg cell, as I was able to follow
through all stages. I have drawn three stages in Figs 68-70. If the migrating nuclei reach the boundary of the egg cell,
they precipitate into a small lamella, which in its somewhat lighter colour contrasts with the yolk (Fig 71).
Then the nuclei extend to the anterior pole of the egg, and while the epithelium of the wall grows from there
towards them, a complete septum comes into being between the egg- and nutritive cells. Thus at this time one can talk
about distinct egg and nutritive follicles [“chambers”]. The separation is only completed very late, when the nutritive
cells have given up most of their cytoplasm to the egg. The nutritive follicle therefore creates only a small attachment to
the egg follicle, consisting almost entirely of the nuclei of the nutritive cells (Fig 72). In addition, these die quickly, and
on mature eggs there is nothing left of the nutritive cells.
Soon after these proceedings, the epithelial cells start secreting the chorion, which has a very special structure.
The endochorion is smooth, obviously chitinized, and shows nothing special. In contrast the exochorion consists of a
substance that has a completely different appearance. It is colourless throughout, in cross section appears granular, and
also lacks completely the light refractive ability of chitin. According to Leuckart (1855) and Weismann (1863), the
chorion of Muscidae seems to be similar. The exochorion is at first smooth like the endochorion. However, strips soon
appear at the boundaries of the epithelial cells (Fig 73), which at first are rather broad, but later from hardening of their
constituents they become much narrower. The final result is a very delicate patterning of the egg shell. Study of the
surface (Fig 74) shows that the strips have a zigzag course by which very characteristically shaped shapes are delimited.
Leuckart described a similar shell structure in Eristalis tenax. However in the Dronefly the strips are always double and
grow strongly upwards so that little cells are created separated from one another. The size of the fields on the chorion of
Xanthogramma [festivum] corresponds rather well to that of the follicle cells, as a comparison of Figs 74 and 75 shows.
However, the strips follow a completely different course than do the cell boundaries. These are rather irregular, but
never zigzag-shaped. Yet the cell boundaries are soon lost during the creation of the shell, so that their shape can no
longer be seen in the last stages. During the secretion of the chorion, the epithelial cells take on a frothy appearance due
to strong vacuolisation (Fig 76). Finally they degenerate completely and their nuclei perish (Fig 77). The sparse residue
remains as dark flecks lying on the chorion. The follicle is therefore decaying already before the ejection and complete
release of the egg, which is why [in this species] one never finds empty follicles as in other insects.
At the anterior pole of the egg the markings of the shell are only rudimentary, as Leuckart also found to be the
case in Eristalis tenax. Here one notices a roundish, smooth, somewhat depressed area which contains the micropyle
(Fig 78). Its structure comes about in the following manner. We see that each group of epithelial nuclei which are
responsible for the origin of the partition between the egg and the nutritive follicle, precipitates a small lamella by their
arrival at the egg cell. This thickens into a cushion-like structure. During the creation of the endochorion, a gap [in the
endochorion] is left over the top of the cushion. Then the protoplasm lying in front of this spot sends out a process that
pierces the cushion. Then the process is withdrawn, leaving behind it a canal that passes through the cushion, and the
micropyle is ready. Under this structure the yolk shows a somewhat aberrant character, with a darker colour and
containing numerous fine granulations. There are similar places also at the anterior pole in other insects, and in fact they
signify a kind of fertilization spot. The cushion, which contains the true micropyle canal, is coloured exactly as the yolk,
or at most somewhat lighter. One could take it for a thickening of the yolk skin [vitellin envelope], but the manner of its
creation contradicts this, since as we have seen it becomes separated from the follicle cells. It must therefore be
attributed to the chorion, which is therefore three-layered in the region of the micropyle. As in most Diptera, the eggs
have an elongated shape with a blunt anterior pole.
6. Helophilus floreus [=Myathropa florea]
With regard to the shape of the ovaries, and the number and arrangement of the ovarioles, Myathropa is wholly similar
to the preceeding species. The terminal portion shows equally the same character, and also the only deviation of the
germarium can be seen as an accumulation of epithelial nuclei at its tip (Fig 79), which is lacking in Xanthogramma. In
contrast, Myathropa florea shows a different behaviour in so much as the egg cell differentiates significantly earlier.
Already in the youngest of the follicles separated from the germarium one can clearly tell it apart from the nutritive
cells from the nature of its nucleus. Also the behaviour of the nutritive cells is somewhat different than in the syrphid
described above. While in the previous species these always maintain their rounded shape, in the present species up to a
particular time they show irregular contours, as can be seen in Fig 80, which shows a section through a young
compartment, in which the egg and nutritive cells are still of similar size. As well as numerous chromatin particles, they
always contain several nucleoli. The separation of the egg and nutritive follicles proceeds in the same manner as in the
previous species, with one difference in that cell walls are acquired between the immigrating nuclei.
The chorion consists of two layers. In inner layer is smooth and shows fine, dark cross-lines which were not
analysed any further under high power, and may be pore canals. The exochorion is completely different from that of
Xanthogramma, but equally has a very characteristic construction. On a very thin membrane are raised strips and pillars
which carry the characteristic elongated chorion islands. I have drawn cross-sections through the exochorion in Figs 82
and 83, in the latter parallel to the long axis of the egg. Fig 82 gives a section at right angles to this. The combination of
both figures clearly allows recognition of the shape of the islands, and makes possible the creation of the pattern. As in
many insects, in addition a mucous or eggwhite-like coating is precipitated onto the chorion. It fills up the islands and
covers the very delicate lines of the shell markings. In pictures of sections it is normally also recognisable as a pale film.
At the anterior pole the exochorion is lacking, and here is the micropyle. It consists of a single piercing of the
endochorion around which is a crater-like elevation (Fig 84). Around the crater the otherwise completely smooth
endochorion bears small protuberances. The micropylar canal is created by a cytoplasmic process of an epithelial cell
(Fig 85). The cushion lying under the endochorion of Xanthogramma is missing in Myathropa.
7. Chrysotoxum vernale
The ovary resembles so exactly that of Xanthogramma [festivum] in its anatomy and histology that everything said
above also holds of Chrysotoxum vernale. Only the eggshell calls for separate consideration. The endochorion is again
smooth and structureless, and shows the same behaviour in colour and refraction of light. The substance of the
exochorion shows the same distinctive character as in Xanthogramma. However it is pierced through with numerous
pore canals. Looking at the surface, the exochorion shows a very characteristic pattern (Fig 86). The sculpture is also
created from strips, as in Xanthogramma, but these do not enclose areas delimited on all sides. Rather the individual
strips remain isolated and create all-different kinds of shapes that are not joined with their neighbours. According to
Leuckart (1855), in the genus Syrphus there is a similarly decorated eggshell. In Chrysotoxum vernale there is another
peculiarity. On the one side the egg bears tall spines. This side is more strongly arched and analagous to other diptera it
should be regarded as the ventral side. The spines (Fig 87) only sit on the exochorion and are not fused to it. They are
somewhat thickened at the tip, and consist of two layers, a homogenous mantle and a granular central mass. This is
pierced by a canal, which however does not always reach the outer end, but sometimes ends blinds at its exterior end.
Although moreover the spine canals do not continue through the exochorion and also are not in communication with the
its pore canals, I consider it possible that they serve to aerate the eggshell. Already Leuckart (1855) has shown that the
shell of dipteran eggs contains innumerable small airspaces, and these could obtain their air very well through the spine
canals. Spines on the chorion are not uncommon in insect eggs. I have for example described them from various
Hemiptera. Whilst they are mostly created between neighbouring cells, in Chrysotoxum vernale they arise in a different
way. Cross-sections through the eggshell with the follicle epithelium lying over it (Fig 87) could certainly give the
impression that the spines were created just as in other insects. Plane sections show however unmistakably that this is
not the case. In Fig 88 for example, we see that cross-sections of the spines are lying inside the cells. The cell nuclei are
therefore pushed against the wall and have become kidney-shaped. That the cytoplasm stands off far from the spines is
connected with their already complete construction. At the same place we still see also besides the fine cytoplasmic
strands going up to the spines. The portrayed manner of creation of the spines is not completely unique, but has an
analogue in the large egg-strands of Nepa and Ranatra which, as Korschelt (1887a,b) and later de Bruyne (1899a) have
shown, were created likewise in the interior of a cell.
At the anterior pole, the exochorion creates a thin, roundish, homogeneous, strongly refractive plate, which has
completely the appearance of the chorion substance of most insect eggs (Fig 89). In its centre the micropyle is found as
a single opening that also pierces the endochorion. The cushion described in Xanthogramma [festivum] is also present,
and also is created from the plugging cells of the egg follicle. It is fused almost completely to the overlying
endochorion, which confirms that I am right when I ascribe it to the chorion and not to the yolk skin [vitelline
envelope]. Strangely enough, the micropylar canal seems not to pierce the cushion completely. Rather it reaches, so far
as I can tell, only some way into the cushion. However it is always possible that I have been deceived, and that the
micropyle advances right to the yolk. Such a fine canal naturally allows one to trace its entire length with certainty
neither in total preparations nor in sections. On the other hand, the cushion which is always coloured similarly to the
yolk, could also be supple enough so that in insects known to have very sharp sperm heads, penetration could also be
possible without any previously created opening.
[next sp Empis morosa]