Youngest
son of Don Beltran Yanez de On y Loyola and Marina Saenz de Lieona y Balda (the
name Lopez de Recalde, though accepted by the Bollandist Father Pien, is a
copyist's blunder), b. in 1491 at the castle of Loyola above Azpeitia in
Guipuscoa; d. at Rome, 31 July, 1556. The family arms are: per pale, or, seven
bends gules (vert) for Onez; argent, pot and chain sable between two grey wolves
rampant, for Loyola. The saint was baptized Inigo, after St. Enecus (Innicus),
Abbot of Ona: the name Ignatius was assumed in later years, while he was
residing in Rome. For the saint's genealogy, see Perez (op. cit. below, 131);
Michel (op. cit. below, II, 383); Polanco (Chronicon, I, 51:6-46). For the date
of birth cfr. Astrain, I, 3 S.

At an early age he was made a cleric. We do not know when, or why he was
released from clerical obligations. He was brought up in the household of Juan
Velasquez de Cuellar, <contador mayor> to Ferdinand and Isabella, and in
his suite probably attended the court from time to time, though not in the royal
service. This was perhaps the time of his greatest dissipation and laxity. He
was affected and extravagant about his hair and dress, consumed with the desire
of winning glory, and would seem to have been sometimes involved in those darker
intrigues, for which handsome young courtiers too often think themselves
licensed. How far he went on the downward course is still unproved. The balance
of evidence tends to show that his own subsequent humble confessions of having
been a great sinner should not be treated as pious exaggerations. But we have no
details, not even definite charges. In 1517 a change for the better seems to
have taken place; Velasquez died and Ignatius took service in the army. The
turning-point of his life came in 1521. While the French were besieging the
citadel of Pampeluna, a cannon ball, passing between Ignatius' legs, tore open
the left calf. and broke the right shin (Whit-Tuesday, 20 May, 1521). With his
fall the garrison lost heart and surrendered, but he was well treated by the
French and carried on a litter to Loyola, where his leg had to be rebroken and
reset, and afterwards a protruding end of the bone was sawn off, and the limb,
having been shortened by clumsy setting, was stretched out by weights. All these
pains were undergone voluntarily, without uttering a cry or submitting to be
sound. But the pain and weakness which followed were so great that the patient
began to fail and sink. On the eve of Sts. Peter and Paul, however, a turn for
the better took place, and he threw off his fever.

So far Ignatius had shown none but the ordinary virtues of the Spanish
officer. His dangers and sufferings has doubtless done much to purge his soul,
but there was no idea yet of remodelling his life on any higher ideals. Then, in
order to divert the weary hours of convalescence, he asked for the romances of
chivalry, his favourite reading, but there were none in the castle, and instead
they brought him the lives of Christ and of the saints, and he read them in the
same quasi-competitive spirit with which he read the achievements of knights and
warriors. "Suppose I were to rival this saint in fasting, that one in
endurance, that other in pilgrimages." He would then wander off into
thoughts of chivalry, and service to fair ladies, especially to one of high
rank, whose name is unknown. Then all of a sudden, he became conscious that the
after-effect of these dreams was to make him dry and dissatisfied, while the
ideas of falling into rank among the saints braced and strengthened him, and
left him full of joy and peace. Next it dawned on him that the former ideas were
of the world, the latter God-sent; finally, worldly thoughts began to lose their
hold, while heavenly ones grew clearer and dearer. One night as he lay awake,
pondering these new lights, "he saw clearly", so says his
autobiography, "the image of Our Lady with the Holy Child Jesus", at
whose sight for a notable time he felt a reassuring sweetness, which eventually
left him with such a loathing of his past sins, and especially for those of the
flesh, that every unclean imagination seemed blotted out from his soul, and
never again was there the least consent to any carnal thought. His conversion
was now complete. Everyone noticed that he would speak of nothing but spiritual
things, and his elder brother begged him not to take any rash or extreme
resolution, which might compromise the honour of their family.

When Ignatius left Loyola he had no definite plans for the future, except
that he wished to rival all the saints had done in the way of penance. His first
care was to make a general confession at the famous sanctuary of Montserrat,
where, after three days of self-examination, and carefully noting his sins, he
confessed, gave to the poor the rich clothes in which he had come, and put on
garment of sack-cloth reaching to his feet. His sword and dagger he suspended at
Our Lady's altar, and passed the night watching before them. Next morning, the
feast of the Annunciation, 1522, after Communion, he left the sanctuary, not
knowing whither he went. But he soon fell in with a kind woman, Ines Pascual,
who showed him a cavern near the neighbouring town of Manresa, where he might
retire for prayer, austerities, and contemplation, while he lived on alms. But
here, instead of obtaining greater peace, he was consumed with the most
troublesome scruples. Had he confessed this sin? Had he omitted that
circumstance? At one time he was violently tempted to end his miseries by
suicide, on which he resolved neither to eat nor to drink (unless his life was
in danger), until God granted him the peace which he desired, and so he
continued until his confessor stopped him at the end of the week. At last,
however, he triumphed over all obstacles, and then abounded in wonderful graces
and visions. It was at this time, too, that he began to make notes of his
spiritual experiences, notes which grew into the little book of "The
Spiritual Exercises". God also afflicted him with severe sicknesses, when
he was looked after by friends in the public hospital; for many felt drawn
towards him, and he requited their many kind offices by teaching them how to
pray and instructing them in spiritual matters. Having recovered health, and
acquired sufficient experience to guide him in his new life, he commenced his
long-meditated migration to the Holy Land. From the first he had looked forward
to it as leading to a life of heroic penance; now he also regarded it as a
school in which he might learn how to realize clearly and to conform himself
perfectly to Christ's life. The voyage was fully as painful as he had conceived.
Poverty, sickness, exposure, fatigue, starvation, dangers of shipwreck and
capture, prisons, blows, contradictions, these were his daily lot; and on his
arrival the Franciscans, who had charge of the holy places, commanded him to
return under pain of sin. Ignatius demanded what right they had thus to
interfere with a pilgrim like himself, and the friars explained that, to prevent
many troubles which had occurred in finding ransoms for Christian prisoners, the
pope had given them the power and they offered to show him their Bulls. Inatius
at once submitted, though it meant altering his whole plan of life, refused to
look at the proferred Bulls, and was back at Barcelona about march, 1524.

Ignatius left Jerusalem in the dark as to his future and "asking himself
as he went, <quid agendum>" (Autobiography, 50). Eventually he
resolved to study, in order to be of greater help to others. To studies he
therefore gave eleven years, more than a third of his remaining life. Later he
studied among school-boys at Barcelona, and early in 1526 he knew enough to
proceed to his philosophy at the University of Alcala. But here he met with many
troubles to be described later, and at the end of 1527 he entered the University
of Salamanca, whence, his trials continuing, he betook himself to Paris (June,
1528), and there with great method repeated his course of arts, taking his M.A.
on 14 March, 1535. Meanwhile theology had been begun, and he had taken the
licentiate in 1534; the doctorate he never took, as his health compelled him to
leave Paris in March, 1535. Though Ignatius, despite his pains, acquired no
great erudition, he gained many practical advantages from his course of
education. To say nothing of knowledge sufficient to find such information as he
needed afterwards to hold his own in the company of the learned, and to control
others more erudite than himself, he also became thoroughly versed in the
science of education, and learned by experience how the life of prayer and
penance might be combined with that of teaching and study, an invaluable
acquirement to the future founder of the Society of Jesus. The labours of
Ignatius for others involved him in trials without number. At Barcelona, he was
beaten senseless, and his companion killed, at the instigation of some
worldlings vexed at being refused entrance into a convent which he had reformed.
At Alcala, a meddlesome inquisitor, Figueroa, harassed him constantly, and once
automatically imprisoned him for two months. This drove him to Salamanca, where,
worse still, he was thrown into the common prison, fettered by the foot to his
companion Calisto, which indignity only drew from Ignatius the characteristic
words, "There are not so many handcuffs and chains in Salamanca, but that I
desire even more for the love of God."

In Paris his trials were very varied—from poverty, plague, works of
charity, and college discipline, on which account he was once sentenced to a
public flogging by Dr. Govea, the rector of College Ste-Barbe, but on his
explaining his conduct, the rector as publicly begged his pardon. There was but
one delation to the inquisitors, and, on Ignatius requesting a prompt
settlement, the Inquisitor Ori told him proceedings were therewith quashed. We
notice a certain progression in Ignatius' dealing with accusations against him.
The first time he allowed them to cease without any pronouncement being given in
his favour. The second time he demurred at Figueroa wanting to end in this
fashion. The third time, after sentence had been passed, he appealed to he
Archbishop of Toledo against some of its clauses. Finally he does not await
sentence, but goes at once to the judge to urge an inquiry, and eventually he
made it his practice to demand sentence, whenever reflection was cast upon his
orthodoxy. (Records of Ignatius' legal proceedings at Azpeitia, in 1515; at
Alclla in 1526, 1527; at Venice, 1537; at Rome in 1538, will be found in "Scripta
de S. Ignatio", pp. 580-620.) Ignatius had now for the third time gathered
companions around him. His first followers in Spain had persevered for a time,
even amid the severe trials of imprisonment, but instead of following Ignatius
to Paris, as they had agreed to do, they gave him up. In Paris too the first to
follow did not persevere long, but of the third band not one deserted him. They
were (St.) Peter Faber (q.v.), a Genevan Savoyard; (St.) Francis Xavier (q.v.),
of Navarre; James Laynez, Alonso Salmeron, and Nicolas Bobadilla, Spaniards;
Simon Rodriguez, a Portuguese. Three others joined soon after—Claude Le Jay, a
Genevan Savoyard; Jean Codure and Paschase Broet, French. Progress is to be
noted in the way Ignatius trained his companions. The first were exercised in
the same severe exterior mortifications, begging, fasting, going barefoot, etc.,
which the saint was himself practising. But though this discipline had prospered
in a quiet country place like Manresa, it had attracted an objectionable amount
of criticism at the University of Alcala. At Paris dress and habits were adapted
to the life in great towns; fasting, etc., was reduced; studies and spiritual
exercises were multiplied, and alms funded. The only bond between Ignatius'
followers so far was devotion to himself, and his great ideal of leading in the
Holy Land a life as like as possible to Christ's. On 15 August, 1534, they took
the vows of poverty and chastity at Montmartre (probably near the modern
Chapelle de St-Denys, Rue Antoinette), and a third vow to go to the Holy Land
after two years, when their studies were finished. Six months later Ignatius was
compelled by bad health to return to his native country, and on recovery made
his way slowly to Bologna, where, unable through ill health to study, he devoted
himself to active works of charity till his companions came from Paris to Venice
(6 January, 1537) on the way to the Holy Land. Finding further progress barred
by the war with the Turks, they now agreed to await for a year the opportunity
of fulfilling their vow, after which they would put themselves at the pope's
disposal. Faber and some others, going to Rome in Lent, got leave for all to be
ordained. They were eventually made priests on St. John Baptist's day. But
Ignatius took eighteen months to prepare for his first Mass.

By the winter of 1537, the year of waiting being over, it was time to offer
their services to the pope. The others being sent in pairs to neighboring
university towns, Ignatius with Faber and Laynez started for Rome. At La Storta,
a few miles before reaching the city, Ignatius had a noteworthy vision. He
seemed to see the Eternal Father associating him with His Son, who spoke the
words: <Ego vobis Romae propitius ero>. Many have thought this promise
simply referred to the subsequent success of the order there. Ignatius' own
interpretation was characteristic: "I do not know whether we shall be
crucified in Rome; but Jesus will be propitious." Just before or just after
this, Ignatius had suggested for the title of their brotherhood "The
Company of Jesus". Company was taken in its military sense, and in those
days a company was generally known by its captain's name. In the Latin Bull od
foundation, however, they were called "Societas Jesu". We first hear
of the term <Jesuit> in 1544, applied as a term of reproach by
adversaries. It had been used in the fifteenth century to describe in scorn
someone who cantingly interlarded his speech with repetitions of the Holy Name.
In 1522 it was still regarded as a mark of scorn, but before very long the
friends of the society saw that they could take it in a good sense, and, though
never used by Ignatius, it was readily adopted (Pollen, "The Month",
June, 1909). Paul III having received the fathers favourably, all were summoned
to Rome to work under the pope's eyes. At this critical moment an active
campaign of slander was opened by one Fra Matteo Mainardi (who eventually died
in open heresy), and a certain Michael who had been refused admission to the
order. It was not till 18 November, 1538, that Ignatius obtained from the
governor of Rome an honourable sentence, still extent, in his favour. The
thoughts of the fathers were naturally occupied with a formula of their intended
mode of life to submit to the pope; and in March, 1539, they began to meet in
the evenings to settle the matter.

Hitherto without superior, rule or tradition, they had prospered most
remarkably. Why not continue as they had begun? The obvious answer was that
without some sort of union, some houses for training postulants, they were
practically doomed to die out with the existing members, for the pope already
desired to send them about as missioners from place to place. This point was
soon agreed to, but when the question arose whether they should, by adding a vow
of obedience to their existing vows, form themselves into a compact religious
order, or remain, as they were, a congregation of secular priests, opinions
differed much and seriously. Not only had they done so well without strict
rules, but (to mention only one obstacle, which was in fact not overcome
afterwards without great difficulty), there was the danger, if they decided for
an order, that the pope might force them to adopt some ancient rule, which would
mean the end of all their new ideas. The debate on this point continued for
several weeks, but the conclusion in favour of a life under obedience was
eventually reached unanimously. After this, progress was faster, and by 24 June
some sixteen resolutions had been decided on, covering the main points of the
proposed institute. Thence Ignatius drew up in five sections the first
"Formula Instituti", which was submitted to the pope, who gave a viva
voce approbation 3 September, 1539, but Cardinal Guidiccioni, the head of the
commission appointed to report on the "Formula", was of the view that
a new order should not be admitted, and with that the chances of approbation
seemed to be at an end. Ignatius and his companions, undismayed, agreed to offer
up 4000 Masses to obtain the object desired, and after some time the cardinal
unexpectedly changed his mind, approved the "Formula" and the Bull
"Regimini militantis Ecclesiae" (27 September, 1540), which embodies
and sanctions it, was issued, but the members were not to exceed sixty (this
clause was abrogated after two years). In April, 1541,Ignatius was, in spite of
his reluctance, elected the first general, and on 22 April he and his companions
made their profession in St. Paul Outside the Walls. The society was now fully
constituted.

V. The Book Of The Spiritual Exercises

This work originated in Ignatius' experiences, while he was at Loyola in
1521, and the chief meditations were probably reduced to their present shapes
during his life at Manresa in 1522, at the end of which period he had begun to
teach them to others. In the process of 1527 at Salamanca, they are spoken of
for the first time as the "Book of Exercises". The earliest extant
text is of the year 1541. At the request of St. Francis Boria. the book was
examined by papal censors and a solemn approbation given by Paul III in the
Brief "Pastoralis Officii" of 1548. "The Spiritual
Exercises" are written very concisely, in the form of a handbook for the
priest who is to explain them, and it is practically impossible to describe them
without making them, just as it might be impossible to explain Nelson's
"Sailing Orders" to a man who knew nothing of ships or the sea. The
idea of the work is to help the exercitant to find out what the will of God is
in regard to his future, and to give him energy and courage to follow that will.
The exercitant (under ideal circumstances) is guided through four weeks of
meditations: the first week on sin and its consequences, the second on Christ's
life on earth, the third on his passion, the fourth on His risen life; and a
certain number of instructions (called "rules", "additions",
"notes") are added to teach him how to pray, how to avoid scruples,
how to elect a vocation in life without being swayed by the love of self or of
the world. In their fullness they should, according to Ignatius' idea,
ordinarily be made once or twice only; but in part (from three to four days)
thet may be most profitably made annually, and are now commonly called
"retreats", from the seclusion or retreat from the world in which the
exercitant lives. More popular selections are preached to the people in church
and are called "missions". The stores of spiritual wisdom contained in
the "Book of Exercises" are truly astonishing, and their author is
believed to have been inspired while drawing them up. (See also next section.)
Sommervogel enumerates 292 writers among the Jesuits alone, who have commented
on the whole book, to say nothing of commentators on parts (e.g. the
meditations), who are far more numerous still. But the best testimony to the
work is the frequency with which the exercises are made. In England (for which
alone statistics are before the writer) the educated people who make retreats
number annually about 22,000, while the number who attend popular expositions of
the Exercises in "missions" is approximately 27,000, out of a total
Catholic population of 2,000,000.

VI. The Constitutions Of The Society

Ignatius was commissioned in 1541 to draw them up, but he did noy begin to do
so until 1547, having occupied the mean space with introducing customs
tentatively, which were destined in time to become laws. In 1547 Father Polaneo
became his secretary, and with his intelligent aid the first draft of the
constitutions was made between 1547 and 1550, and simultaneously pontifical
approbation was asked for a new edition of the "Formula". Julius III
conceded this by the Bull "Exposcit debitum", 21 July, 1550. At the
same time a large number of the older fathers assembled to peruse the first
draft of the constitutions, and though none of them made any serious objections,
Ignatius' next recension (1552) shows a fair amount of changes. This revised
version was then published and put into force throughout the society, a few
explanations being added here and there to meet difficulties as they arose.
These final touches were being added by the saint up till the time of his death,
after which the first general congregation of the society ordered them to be
printed, and they have never been touched since. The true way of appreciating
the constitutions of the society is to study them as they are carried into
practice by the Jesuits themselves, and for this, reference may be made to the
articles on the SOCIETY OF JESUS. A few points, however, in which Ignatius'
institute differed from the older orders may be mentioned here. They are:

the vow not to accept ecclesiastical dignities; increased probations. The
novitiate is prolonged from one year to two, with a third year, which usually
falls after the priesthood. Candidates are moreover at first admitted to simple
vows only, solemn vows coming much later on;

the Society does not keep choir; it does not have a distinctive religious
habit; it does not accept the direction of convents; it is not governed by a
regular triennial chapter; it is also said to have been the first order to
undertake <officially> and <by virtue of its constitutions> active
works such as the following: foreign missions, at the pope's bidding; the
education of youth of all classes; the instruction of the ignorant and the poor;
ministering to the sick, to prisoners, etc. The above points give no conception
of the originality with which Ignatius has handled all parts of his subject,
even those common to all orders. It is obvious that he must have acquired some
knowledge of other religious constitutions, especially during the years of
inquiry (1541-1547), when he was on terms of intimacy with religious of every
class. But witnesses, who attended him, tell us that he wrote without any books
before him except the Missal. Though his constitutions of course embody
technical terms to be found in other rules, and also a few stock phrases like
"the old man's staff", and "the corpse carried to any
place", the thought is entirely original, and would seem to have been
God-guided throughout. By a happy accident we still possess his journal of
prayers for forty days, during which he was deliberating the single point of
poverty in churches. It shows that in making up his mind he was marvelously
aided by heavenly lights, intelligence, and visions. If, as we may surely infer,
the whole work was equally assisted by grace, its heavenly inspiration will not
be doubtful. The same conclusion is probable true of "The Spiritual
Exercises".

VII. Later Life And Death

The later years of Ignatius were spent in partial retirement, the
correspondence inevitable in governing the Society leaving no time for those
works of active ministry which in themselves he much preferred. His health too
began to fail. In 1551, when he had gathered the elder fathers to revise the
constitutions, he laid his resignation of the generalate in their hands, but
they refused to accept it then or later, when the saint renewed his prayer. In
1554 Father Nadal was given the powers of vicar-general, but it was often
necessary to send himm abroad as commissary, and in the end Ignatius continued,
with Polanco's aid, to direct everything. With most of his first companions he
had to part soon. Rodriguez started on 5 March, 1540, for Lisbon, where he
eventually founded the Portuguese province, of which he was made provincial on
10 October, 1546. St. Francis Xavier (q.v.) followed Rodriguez immmediately, and
became provincial of India in 1549. In September, 1541, Salmeron and Broet
started for their perilous mission to Ireland, which they reached (via Scotland)
next Lent. But Ireland, the prey to Henry VIII's barbarous violence, could not
give the zealous missionaries a free field for the exercise of the ministries
proper to their institute. All Lent they passed in Ulster, flying from
persecutors, and doing in secret such good as they might. With difficulty they
reached Scotland, and regained Rome, Dec., 1542. The beginnings of the Society
in Germany are connected with St. Peter Faber (q.v.), Blessed Peter Canisius
(q.v.), Le Jay, and Bobadilla in 1542. In 1546 Laynez and Salmeron were
nominated papal theologians for the Council of Trent, where Canisius, Le Jay,
and Covillon also found places. In 1553 came the picturesque, but not very
successful mission of Nunez

Barretto as Patriarch of Abyssinia. For all these missions Ignatius wrote
minute instructions, many of which are stll extant. He encouraged and exhorted
his envoys in their work by his letters, while the reports they wrote back to
him form our chief source of information on the missionary triumphs achieved.
Though living alone in Rome, it was he who in effect lad, directed, and animated
his subjects all the world over.

The two most painful crosses of this period were probably the suits with
Isabel Roser and Simon Rodriguez. The former lady had been one of Ignatius'
first and most esteemed patronesses during his beginnings in Spain. She came to
Rome later on and persuaded Ignatius to receive a vow of obedience to him, and
she was afterwards joined by two or three other ladies. But the saint found that
the demands they made on his time were more than he could possibly allow them.
"They caused me more trouble", he is reported to have said, "than
the whole of the Society", and he obtained from the pope a relaxation of
the vow he had accepted. A suit with Roser followed, which she lost, and
Ignatius forbade his sons hereafter to become <ex officio> directors to
convents of nuns (Scripta de S. Igntio, pp. 652-5). Painful though this must
have been to a man so loyal as Ignatius, the difference with Rodriguez , one of
his first companions, must have been more bitter still. Rodriguez had founded
the Province of Portugal, and brought it in a short time to a high state of
efficiency. But his methods were not precisely those of Ignatius, and, when new
men of Ignatius' own training came under him, differences soon made themselves
felt. A struggle ensued in which Rodriguez unfortunately took sides against
Ignatius' envoys. The results for the newly formed province were disastrous.
Well-nigh half of its members had to be expelled before peace was established;
but Ignatius did not hesitate. Rodriguez having been recalled to Rome, the new
provincial being empowered ti dismiss him if he refused, he demanded a formal
trial, which Ignatius, foreseeing the results, endeavoured to ward off. But on
Simon's insistence a full court of inquiry was granted, whose proceedings are
now printed and it unanimously condemned Rodriguez to penance and banishment
from the province (Scripta etc., pp. 666-707). Of all his external works, those
nearest his heart, to judge by his correspondence, were the building and
foundation of the Roman College (1551), and of the German College (1552). For
their sake he begged, worked, and borrowed with splendid insistence until his
death. The success of the first was ensured by the generosity of St. Francis
Borgia, before he entered the Society. The latter was still in a struggling
condition when Ignatius died, but his great ideas have proved the true and best
foundation of both.

In the summer of 1556 the saint was attacked by Roman fever. His doctors did
not foresee any serious consequences, but the saint did. On 30 July, 1556, he
asked for the last sacraments and the papal blessing, but he was told that no
immediate danger threatened. Next morning at daybreak, the infirmarian found him
lying in peaceful prayer, so peaceful that he did not at once perceive that the
saint was actually dying. When his condition was realized, the last blessing was
given, but the end came before the holy oils could be fetched. Perhaps he had
prayed that his death, like his life, might pass without any demonstration. He
was beatified by Paul V on 27 July, 1609, and canonized by Gregory XV on 22 May,
1622. His body lies under the altar designed by Pozzi in the Gesu. Though he
died in the sixteenth year from the foundation of the Society, that body already
numbered about 1000 religious (of whom, however, only 35 were yet professed)
with 100 religious houses, arranged in 10 provinces. (Sacchini, op.cit. infra.,
lib.1, cc,i, nn. 1-20.) For his place in history see COUNTER-REFORMATION. It is
impossible to sketch in brief Ignatius' grand and complex character: ardent yet
restrained, fearless, resolute, simple, prudent, strong, and loving. The
Protestant and Jansenistic conception of him as a restless, bustling pragmatist
bears no correspondence at all with the peacefulness and perseverance which
characterized the real man. That he was a strong disciplinarian is true. In a
young and rapidly growing body that was inevitable; and the age loved strong
virtues. But if he believed in discipline as an educative force, he despised any
other motives for action except the love of God and man. It was by studying
Ignatius as a ruler that Xavier learnt the principle, "the company of Jesus
ought to be called the company of love and conformity of souls". (Ep., 12
Jan., 1519).