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2 Some preliminary considerationsOral communicationSpeaking is basically interactional, i.e. its principal aim is ‘to express personal feelings, to establish, reaffirm or maintain interpersonal relationships’ (Biber, 1988)Several factors intervene to build up a communicative situation, contributing to the utterance meaning and enriching the talk-exchange:Prosodic featuresParalanguageLinguistic strategiesIt is important to take account not only of what is said but also of how it is said

3 Task… Define Tag Questions Classification of the syntactic typesFunctionsSyntaxPragmaticsVarieties of EnglishIntonationExamples taken from Films

4 General definition Tag Questionanalytic and complex syntactic structure, typical of the English languageIt’s a linguistic phenomenon pertaining to oralityIt entails a declarative sentence to which a shortened form of question is appended

5 Main features It’s a nice day, isn’t it?TQs are characterized by a syntactic dependence on the preceding main sentence – operator & subject pronounThe operator of the tag is the same as the one present in the preceding statement; but if the main clause has no operator, the dummy operator do is used in the tag.The subject of the tag must be a pronoun which repeats or is in coreference with the subject in the main clause, and it agrees with it in number, person and gender.As regards polarity, if the main clause is positive, the tag is negative and vice versa.

7 (- / +) Case of negative tag with ain’t: functioning as BE or HAVERoxanne: He’s busy, ain’t he? (Secrets & Lies)Cynthia: You've got a bed-sit, ain't you, Paul? (Secrets & Lies)a non-standard contraction, typical of AmE and it is part of the traditional dialect system of the Southeast of England, BUT completely absent in IrE and ScE(- / +)DANIEL : Listen, you don't know where the loos are here, do you? (Bridget Jones’s Diary)WILL: Look, I never said he was my son, did I? (About A Boy)AIN’T

9 Dialects… The double negative tagThis structure occurs only when the main sentence preceding the tag is negativeEdinburgh Scots:Your name’s no Willie, isn’t it no?She didnae like him, didn’t she no?Tyneside Dialect – i.e. GeordieYou can’t do it, can’t you not?

10 Okay? / yeah? / no? / right? / all right? / eh?Invariant TagsNon-standard variants consisting in structures that are independent of that of the main sentence and are expressed by single lexical items.Invariant tags may be adverbial or interjectional particles.Okay? / yeah? / no? / right? / all right? / eh?WILL: Look, mate, nothing you do can make your mum happy, all right? I mean, not in the long term. She has to do that for herself. (About A Boy)The treatment of invariant tags is generally carried out within sociolinguistics (Stenström, 1997; Stenström, Andersen & Hasund, 2002), taking into consideration regional varieties of English, since both the form and the pronunciation may vary.

11 English Varieties… 1Eh? different phonological forms according to the varieties of EnglishAustralia, Scotland AmericaNew Zealand, Parts of CanadaCanada,England[ei] [e]No syntactic restrictions It can occur only after a positive sentence, having a negative connotationNELLIE: Now, if it's anything to do with the money, I've already told you, it doesn't matter any more, eh? (Eastenders)JAMES: Oh, oh. Ah, Beatles’ lyrics, e? (Sliding Doors)Hunh?Eh?E?

12 English Varieties … 2 Innit Typical of London areaThe major users are the various ethnic minorities (West-Indian, Jamaican) who live in London, who then have influenced the standard varietyIt can function either as a real TQ or Invariant TagMEL: It’s a bit backward, innit. (Bend it like Beckham)HORTENSE: That's all that matters, then, innit (Secrets & Lies)PINKY: (on the phone) Yeah? Mum! No, no, nothing. I’m just at work, innit. Yeah, I know Polly’s coming to do the suits. So Jess can get the tube, innit. Yeah, all right, all right. I’ll pick her up. (Bend it like Beckham)INDIAN man: [E] Time I got married, innit (Secrets & Lies)

13 Particular syntactic structures and TagsImperativesExhortativesEllipsisChange of auxiliary in the TagChange of subject in the Tag

14 Imperatives and Tags Imperative + will you?Positive Imperatives can either be followed by a positive or a negative taguse of a wide range of auxiliaries in the tagfrequent use of Invariant TagsDANIEL: Just give me a minute, will you, Simon? Thanks. (Bridget Jones’s Diary)HELEN: Yes, it is, so just bear that in mind in the future, would you? I’m getting over a major break-up. (Sliding Doors)MARCUS: Just shut up, right? (About A Boy)Negative Imperatives are hardly ever followed by TQs. More often they are followed by invariant tagsDon’t make a noise, will you?DAVE: Don’t ever call me a fat bastard, all right? All right? (The Full Monty)

16 Ellipsis + TQs Cases of TQs appended to elliptical sentencesTQs are important for the recovery of omitted items in the main sentence – i.e. Subj. and VEllipsis of Subj. + Lexical VerbPAMELA: [E] A bit snowy, isn’t it? (Bridget Jones’s Diary)Operator EllipsisIAN: Well, if not, [E] just have to struggle on, won’t we? (Eastenders)CINDY: Ah... [E] Been counting, have you? Anyway, I been busy. [E] Helpin' my husband open his business, haven’t I?Ellipsis of the SubjectGAZ: We do. [E] Don’t get your clothes dirty, do you? (The Full Monty)

17 Change of Aux. Or Subj. Change of Aux./ Tense Change of SubjectSONIA: It'd be a bit squashed , won't it? (Eastenders)BIANCA: Uh, I can't believe this. We can't win, couldn't we?Change of SubjectTOM: I think that deserves a toast, don't you? To Bridget... who cannot cook, but who we love... just as she is. (Bridget Jones’s Diary)WILL: Marcus wouldn’t kill a duck, would you, Marcus? (About A Boy)Elliptical Questions or Tag Questions?

18 Multifunctionality of TQsProsody of TQsTQs can have either a rising or falling tonePositive CP Tags often have a rising toneHe likes his job, doesn’t he?  RisingHe likes his job, doesn’t he.  FallingOn the basis of their intonational contour, TQs perform different functionsVarious functions may coexist in the same tagged utteranceMultifunctionality of TQs

20 1. Informational FunctionWhen the speaker entertains some doubts about the certainty or truth of the proposition in the main sentence  verification-seeking functionThe speaker is open to any kind of response from the addresseeGenerally, rising TQsNATHE: I don’t like Chinese.GAZ: ‘Course you do, … don’t ya?  (FM)HELEN: Off the top of my head, you could have told them you’d run out. It’s, it’s popular stuff. Bullshit,bullshit, bullshit… We are in PR. That’s what we do, isn’t it?  [Pause] But you didn’t do that, did you , Paul? [Pause] No. [Pause] So I’m out, am I ? (SD)[At Cynthia’s. On the phone with Hortense]CYNTHIA: Yes, what is it you want, darling? Hello? Did you want Roxanne? She's gone out.HORTENSE: No.CYNTHIA: She ain't in any trouble, is she? HORTENSE: No, it's about Elizabeth. (SL)

21 2. Confirmatory FunctionTags are used with statements whose truth the addressee is thought to accept. The Speaker is certain of the truth of the proposition and simply asks for confirmationGenerally, falling TQsNATHE: (walking on wooden stick on water) Can’t we do normal things sometimes?GAZ: This is normal, i’n’t it , Dave.DAVE: Oh, aye. Everyday stuff, this. (FM)HELEN: Off the top of my head, you could have told them you’d run out. It’s, it’s popular stuff. Bullshit,bullshit, bullshit… We are in PR. That’s what we do, isn’t it?  [Pause] But you didn’t do that, did you , Paul? [Pause] No. [Pause] So I’m out, am I ? (SD)

22 3. Facilitative FunctionTags are used to indicate a positive interest in the addressee, offering him the chance of intervening in the talk exchange and allowing for turn allocation  Interactional FunctionThe Facilitative and Confirmatory functions often overlapCYNTHIA: And here's another lavatory!MONICA: Oh, that bathroom's mine, the en suite.CYNTHIA: Oh, you've got one each, have you? That's nice, ain't it , Jane?JANE: It's like a hotel! (SL)JAMES: ‘Elastic Thrombosis’. They are guilty of lyric poaching.They’re Beatles’ lyrics, aren’t they? HELEN: I don’t know, sorry.JAMES: Of course you do. Come on, everyone is born knowing all the Beatles’ lyrics instinctively. (SD)

23 4. Challenging FunctionUsed to express disagreement, disbelief and surprise. It can be very aggressive and hostile. It can involve additional contextual attitudes, such as irony, sarcasm and mockery.CHRISTINE: Well, this is Imogene. You can hold her if you like.WILL: Yeah, got her. Yeah, she’s.. delightful, isn’t she. (AB)MANDY: Fine, whatever! If you want to go off and play your games, Gary, you can do that, but from now on, Nathan’s gonna have two parents. (FM)GAZ: Ah! And your bloody live-in lover’s gonna do that, is he! MARCUS: You don’t have a kid, do you. WILL: What?WILL: Of course, I’ve got a kid! What are you on about?MARCUS: No, you don’t. I’ve been watching you, and you don’t have a kid (AB)

24 5. Peremptory FunctionUsed to close off debate, on the basis of universal truths or evidence, in the form of an insult. Aggressive. No answer is expected.Generally, falling TQsMARCUS: I got the letter, thanks.FIONA: Oh, my God. I’d forgotten.MARCUS: You forgot? You forgot a suicide letter?FIONA: I didn’t think I’d have to remember it, did I . (Silence) Did you read the part where I said I’ll always love you?MARCUS: It’s a bit hard for you to love me when you’re dead, isn’t it. FIONA: I’m sorry. (AB)CYNTHIA: Listen, I don't mean nothing by it, darling, but I ain't never been with a black man in my life. No disrespect, nor nothing. I’d have remembered, wouldn't I!  (SL)

25 6. Antagonistic FunctionTQ follows a statement whose truth the addressee could not possibly know, since the content of the proposition represents new info for the addressee. It is very rude and impolite. Aggressive.Generally, falling TQsMARCUS: Sometimes. I sing out loud without noticing.WILL: That’s not a brilliant idea, is it.MARCUS: I said I did it without noticing, didn’t I? It just happens! I’m not going to do that on purpose, am I!  I’m not stupid, you know? (AB)

26 7. Aggravating FunctionIncreasing aggressiveness, especially when tags are appended to Imperative constructionsRising TQ functions as an aggravator and strengthens the illocutionary force of the order in the main clause, together with the use of hostile and rude overtonesGERALD: (taking the remote to the Policeman) Look … Excuse me, can I borrow this for a second? Look, (to Policemen laughing out loud) shut up, will ya?!  Watch. (AB)TEACHER: Get over here right now!WILL: Just bugger off, will you?  (FM)

27 8. Softening Functionit aims at reducing the strength of an utterance that may appear as threatening or disagreeable to the addressee, rendering it more acceptable and not offensive, especially with Imperatives → mitigationHELEN: I had a really nice time, James.JAMES: Did you? Oh, shit! Sorry, that’s against the rules, isn’t it. HELEN: Yes, it is, so just bear that in mind in the future, would you?  I’m getting over a major break-up. (SD)

28 9. Hedge FunctionTQ aims at establishing common ground, still not expecting any answerGenerally, falling TQsJENNY: What do you do?HORTENSE: I’m an optometrist.JENNY: Oh, really? Oh, God! It's one of those things you keep putting off and putting off, isn't it.  And I’ve got to the stage with the Guardian crossword where I’m going like this. (mimicking) So I think the time has come, I’ll have to pop in, you can give me a test. Where do you live? (SL)MONICA: And this is the... oops!CYNTHIA: Oh, that's a big lavatory!MONICA: This is the downstairs toilet.JANE: Oh, that's handy, isn't it, 'cos if you're in the garden...