Sedation in Acute Brain Injury: Less is More?

Over the past decades, landmark interventional studies in
general intensive1!care unit (ICU) patients have taught us that efforts to
reduce the use of sedatives, by daily interruption (Kress et al. 2000; Girard et
al. 2008), by not using sedatives as standard practice (Strøm et al. 2010), or
by tapering sedatives to an awake but comfortable state (Mehta et al. 2012),
lead to improvements in outcomes. Minimising sedation reduces the duration of mechanical
ventilation, reduces ICU and hospital length of stay, facilitates early
mobilisation and reduces healthcare cost. Additional advantages include a
reduced incidence of brain dysfunction (coma or delirium), and a reduction in the
need to perform technical examinations (such as CT, MRI or EEG) to assess
unexplained changes in mental status. Most ICUs have implemented these insights
in their clinical practice. Tapering sedatives might already be beneficial in
the early phase after ICU admission, as the early sedation depth already
independently predicts delayed extubation and increased mortality (Shehabi et
al. 2012).

Unfortunately, most of these studies have not included acute
brain injury patients, and specific large randomised clinical trials in the
neuro-ICU population are lacking. On the one hand, neurocritical care
physicians prefer to avoid unnecessary sedative drugs as much as possible, as
they interfere with the neurological evaluation of the patients. An expert
panel on the neurological examination of critically ill patients strongly recommends
to daily interrupt or to reduce sedation in mechanically ventilated patients, in
order to enhance neurological examination and improve short- and long-term
outcomes, but advocates against this approach in patients with intracranial
hypertension (Sharshar et al. 2014). On the other hand, sedatives are often prescribed
in the neuro-ICU, sometimes in a continuous way, to control agitation, to
reduce cerebral metabolism, to treat refractory seizures, to treat or prevent
intracranial hypertension, to allow for mechanical ventilation to control PaCO2
to facilitate temperature management or to control paroxysmal sympathetic
hyperactivity. This widespread use, however, is not supported by evidence from
randomised clinical trials. In the absence of such trials, it is important to understand
how sedatives can possibly have a major impact on the outcomes of patients.

Current Sedation
Practices in the Neuro-ICU

The fact that sedatives are frequently used in the neuro-ICU
is demonstrated in several posthoc analyses from clinical trials or surveys: 77
to 90% of patients were under sedation in the first days of ICU stay after
traumatic brain injury (TBI) (Hukkelhoven et al. 2002; Beretta et al. 2011). A
recent survey of sedation practices in all 16 Scandinavian neurocritical care
centres, over a ten-year period from 1999 to 2009 (Skoglund et al. 2013),
demonstrated that over this decade, sedation practice had not changed much, and
only half of the centres performed daily wake-up tests.

Daily Wake-Up Test
and Analgo- Sedative Protocols in Practice

To date, the role of the daily wake-up test in the neuro-ICU
is unclear. Only three small observational clinical studies have looked at the
effect of the wake-up test on monitored parameters in acute brain injury
patients (Skoglund et al. 2009; Helbok et al. 2012; Skoglund et al. 2014).
Although, on average, the daily wake-up test appeared safe, with only a small
increase in intracranial pressure (ICP) in the majority of patients, several
patients after subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) and TBI developed potentially
dangerous episodes of intracranial hypertension with reduced cerebral perfusion
pressure (CPP) (Skoglund et al. 2009). In selected TBI patients these episodes
occurred to a lesser extent and without changes in more advanced
neuromonitoring parameters such as microdialysis, jugular bulb saturation and
brain tissue oxygenation (Skoglund et al. 2014). In a prospective study
conducted in 82 patients with various causes of acute brain injury (Helbok et al.
2012), one-third of the wake-up tests had to be aborted because of important
side effects including ICP crises (>20 mmHg), agitation or systemic
desaturation. This study also looked at the potential benefit of the wake-up
test to detect a new neurological deficit, and found that this was the case in
only one patient. All three studies were underpowered to study clinical outcome,
and it is impossible to perform a benefit/risk analysis based on these small
trials.

Reducing the amount of sedation can also be obtained through
analgo-sedative protocols. An example of such a protocol for the neuro-ICU has
been proposed, where analgesics (remifentanil for short-term use and fentanyl
for longterm use) are to be used as first-line agents, followed by sedatives
titrated to sedative scores (first propofol, supplemental midazolam as needed
and barbiturates for refractory intracranial hypertension) (Egerod et al.
2010). In a before-after implementation study, this approach led to more
pain-free patients, a reduced use of propofol and midazolam, an increase in
remifentanil and fentanyl use and a faster awakening of patients without an increase
in the duration of sedation or in the incidence of unplanned extubation.

Choice of Sedative

The ideal sedative in the neuro-ICU reduces the metabolism
of the brain (CMRO2) while maintaining the coupling between cerebral blood flow
(CBF) and CMRO2, does not augment ICP, maintains CPP, has no effect on
cerebrovascular autoregulation, is anti-epileptic, short-acting and predictable
(Albanèse et al. 2004). Unfortunately, such an ideal sedative does not appear
to exist.

Synthetic opioids only have a minor effect on ICP and mean
arterial pressure (MAP), although after induction a small and short increase in
ICP and a decrease in MAP can be observed (Albanèse et al. 1999). Remifentanil
has the advantage of being short-acting with predictable kinetics, and therefore
could be first choice in those patients where early clinical assessment is
important.

The most frequently used sedatives in the neuro-ICU are
propofol and midazolam. The properties and drawbacks of both medications are
well known. Propofol is rapid-acting, predictable and reliable, with fast
awakening even after prolonged infusions. It reduces brain metabolism, with an
associated reduction in CBF and ICP, and acts as an anticonvulsant. Propofol
has important haemodynamic side effects. Particularly in the neuro-ICU, there
are concerns about propofol infusion syndrome, and hence the dose and duration
of propofol should be limited. Of the benzodiazepines, midazolam is the most frequently
used. Midazolam has only minor haemodynamic-depressing effects, and reduces brain
metabolism, CBF and ICP (albeit with a smaller effect than propofol). As with
all benzodiazepines, midazolam is an anticonvulsive drug. After a prolonged
infusion, the pharmacokinetics and thus the recovery become highly
unpredictable, which is a major drawback in the neuro-ICU setting. In addition,
benzodiazepine administration is an important and potentially modifiable risk
factor for the development of ICU delirium (Pandharipande et al. 2006). A
recent meta-analysis of 13 small randomised clinical trials, encompassing in
total 380 TBI patients (Roberts et al. 2011) could not demonstrate convincing
evidence that one sedative agent would be more efficacious than another. The
authors concluded: “Insufficient data exist regarding the effects of sedative
agents on neurologic outcome or mortality.”

The N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist ketamine
has long been banned in brain-injured patients, following earlier claims that
it could possibly increase the ICP. However, several prospective observational and
interventional trials have been able to demonstrate that these claims are
false. In fact, in patients after TBI, ketamine either did not influence ICP
(Bourgoin et al. 2005), resulted in a small but clinically insignificant
increase in ICP accompanied with an increased CPP (Kolenda et al. 1996) or even
significantly decreased ICP (Albanèse et al. 1997; Bar- Joseph et al, 2009).

Dexmedetomidine is a sedation agent targeting alpha-2
adrenergic receptors located in the locus coeruleus nucleus of the brainstem.
It is approved for mild sedation. The main side effects of dexmedetomidine are
hypotension and bradycardia. In a general ICU population dexmedetomidine
provides a safe and effective sedation for patients who are less deeply sedated
and thus more cooperative. At the same time dexmedetomidine reduces the
incidence and duration of ICU delirium, as compared to propofol or
benzodiazepines. In the neuro- ICU, only few data on its clinical use currently
exist. A couple of small observational trials in neurosurgical patients
indicate adequate sedation, with either no impact on or a reduction of ICP,
although there are some concerns regarding hypotensive episodes (Aryan et al. 2006;
James et al. 2012).

Sedatives and
Neuroregeneration/ Neuroprotection

In critical brain-injured states sedatives are often given
in order to reduce the metabolism of the brain, with the purpose of creating
the optimal circumstances for the brain to recover. It is unclear whether
sedatives possess specific neuroprotective properties with an impact on the
outcome in these patients. Animal
studies in experimental TBI in rats have indicated that midazolam as well as propofol have a negative impact on
neuroregeneration and neurocognitive
outcomes (Hertle et al. 2013; Thal et al. 2014). It is clear that these results
cannot be extrapolated to the human TBI setting, but these studies suggest that the impact of
sedatives on outcome is not necessarily
positive, and that further research is needed to further explore these findings.

Cortical spreading depressions (CSD) are depolarisation
waves that propagate across the grey matter of the brain at low velocity, and
are associated with perturbations of the brain ion homeostasis and the efflux of excitatory amino acids. It is
hypothesised that CSD might contribute to secondary brain injury after SAH or
TBI. In a small nonrandomised study, ketamine was effective in stopping CSD
(Sakowitz et al. 2009). A more recent retrospective study demonstrated that, of
all sedatives, only the administration of ketamine was independently associated
with a reduction of CSD, and that midazolam anaesthesia was even associated
with an increased incidence of CSD (Hertle et al. 2012). The hypothesis that blocking CSD
through NMDA antagonists could improve the outcome in brain-injured patients
will be further examined in ongoing studies.

Conclusion

The use of sedatives in the neuro-ICU remains a dramatically
underresearched field. In spite of that, sedatives are still frequently used in
a continuous way. Attempts to reduce sedation through analgo-sedative protocols
appears to be promising, but there are concerns about the risk versus benefit
of daily sedative stops. Propofol and midazolam are still the most frequently
used sedatives. There is a potential role for ketamine and dexmedetomidine in brain-injured
patients. The specific effects of the different sedatives on neuroprotection or
neuroregeneration warrant further research.

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