History of the book in Brazil

The history of the book in Brazil focuses on the development of the access to publishing resources and acquisition of the book in the country, covering a period extending from the beginning of the editorial activity during colonization to today's publishing market, including the history of publishing and bookstores that allowed the modern accessibility to the book.

It is believed that printing was only introduced by the settlers and colonisers in the colonies, which had a highly developed indigenous culture that the colonial power wanted to supplant or suppress. This idea is supported by the Brazilian historian Nelson Werneck Sodré[1] and others. Printing, in the first two centuries of Portuguese and Spanish colonization, was in part a result of Christian evangelization. It was deployed through religious initiative, so that its production was destined to meet the clergy's needs and that of the missions.[2]

Colégio Santo Inácio (St. Ignatius College) is believed to have crafted the first printed works in Brazil, in 1724.

"História da Companhia de Jesus no Brasil", by Serafim Leite,[3] says that the library of Colégio Santo Inácio, in O Morro do Castelo, Rio de Janeiro. (This was a landform that existed in the city of Rio, the hill being one of the foundation points of the city in the sixteenth century and which housed landmarks of great importance, such as colonial forts and buildings of the Jesuits. Nevertheless, it was destroyed in an urban reform in 1922.) This centre is believed to have undertaken some printed jobs around 1724, the accuracy of the claim not be ascertained. It could be referring to two books of the time, "Vocabulário de la lengua guarany", by Antônio Luiz Restrepo (1722), and "Arte de la lengua guarany", which were printed in a region that is currently part of Brazil, but which at the time belonged to Paraguay, Pueblo de Santa Maria la Mayor.[3]

In most colonies, the necessities of governance made it an imperative to accept printing, and only in Portuguese Latin America did the administration remained so elementary that this need was dispensed with. This need only become imminent when the government of the colony suffered the impact of the Napoleonic invasion, a few years later.

The first attempt to introduce effective printing into Brazil was made by the Dutch, during the period of their occupation of northeastern Brazil, between 1630 and 1650.

About 60 years later, Recife had the first printer of Brazil according to historians Ferreira de Carvalho[5] and Pereira da Costa,[6] but the identity of the printer is not known. Serafim Leite, in "Arts and Workshops of the Jesuits in Brazil,",[7] says the printer worked from 1703 to 1706, and argues that the typesetter was a Jesuit, Antonio da Costa, but there is no proof, however, the existence of such a printer.

In Rio de Janeiro, in 1747, there is definitive evidence is available that there was a printer, via leaflets printed at the time. The printer was Antonio Isidoro da Fonseca,[7] a recognized typographer of Lisbon, who had sold his business and come to [Brazil]. Isidoro had problems in Lisbon, with the Inquisition, being considered as "The Jew" editor. Antonio Jose da Silva, of Rio, was born in 1703 from a family of converted Jews, and that turned out to be burned later in an auto de fé of the Inquisition on 19 October 1739.[8] At the time, the governor of [Rio de Janeiro] and [Minas Gerais], Gomes Freire de Andrade, was interested in stimulating the intellectual life of the city of Rio de Janeiro. He encouraged the creation of Academia dos felizes in 1736, which became the Academia dos Selectos in 1752, which met at the Palácio do Governo itself.[9] Concrete proof of the existence of printing was a leaflet, 1747, whose authorship is attributed to Luiz Antonio Rosado, and a so-called volume "Hoc est Conclusiones real entity Metaphysicae, praeside RGM Francisco de Faria" in 1747. There are two other works, referring to bishop [Antonio do Desterro Malheyro]. As soon as the news reached Lisbon, however, there was order to close the letterpress, because printing in the colony was not considered appropriate at the time.

Isidoro returned to Portugal, and, after three years, requested a royal license to reinstate himself as a printer in the colony, in Rio de Janeiro or Salvador, promising never to print without the appropriate civil and ecclesiastical licenses. The request was rejected
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In 1792, there were only two bookstores in Rio de Janeiro,[11] and possibly one of these was run by Paul Martim, a native of Tours (in France) and the first Rio bookseller. His son, Paul Martim Filho kept the bookstore running until 1823. The books offered were usually pertaining to medicine or religion, and most of the books that arrived in Brazil at the time were smuggled in.

In 1808, when the royal family, under pressure from Napoleon's invasion, moved to Brazil, it took with them 60,000 volumes of the Royal Library.[12] Installed in the new capital, Rio de Janeiro, Dom João VI and his ministers created, among other developments, the Royal Library, now the National Library (Biblioteca Nacional), which was established in 1810. The impact of this development caused an increase in the number of bookstores, with two existing in 1808 (those of Paul Martin and Manuel Jorge da Silva) growing to five in 1809 (in addition to the above, those run by Francisco Luiz Saturnino da Veiga, Manuel Mandillo—which after 1814 was associated with José Norges Pine—and João Roberto Bourgeois); seven in 1812 (in addition to the previous, Manuel Joaquim da Silva Porto—which in 1815 was associated with Pedro Antonio Campos Bellos—and Jose Antonio da Silva); 12 in 1816 (the additional ones being those of Fernando José Pinheiro, Jeronimo Gonçalves Guimarães, Francisco José Nicolau Mandillo, Joao Batista dos Santos), and in 1818, 3 more (Antonio Joaquim da Silva Garcez, João Lopes de Oliveira Guimarães and Manuel Monteiro Trindade Coelho).[13] The newspaper Correio Braziliense", run by Hipólito José da Costa Pereira Furtado de Mendonça, was produced in England. In Paris, there was a development of the publishing trade in Portuguese, that would last a long time, almost until 1930.

There is disagreement over whether or not a printing press existed in Brazil on the occasion of the arrival of the royal family. Reportedly, a press with movable type was finally brought to Brazil by the government itself, which had earlier been forbidden so vehemently. António de Araújo e Azevedo, then Foreign Minister and later Count of Barca, brought and had installed the press in Rio de Janeiro, on the ground floor of his own home, 44 Rua do Passeio. Brother José Mariano da Conceição Veloso, a miner religious who had been to Lisbon in 1790, returned to Brazil with the royal family to work in the press of Rio, the Imprensa Régia. The new press was launched on May 13, 1808, with the publication of a 27 page booklet, accompanied by the Royal Charter. In the 14 years of the printing monopoly in Rio over a thousand items were produced.
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In Bahia, as soon as the royal family came to Brazil, a bookseller from Salvador, Manuel Antonio da Silva Serva, a native of Portugal, asked permission to go to England and get a printer to Bahia; such permission was granted in 1809, and began printing in 1811. One might speculate that there were two printers at that time. Serva died in 1819, and the press continued with his partner and son-in-law José Teixeira and Carvalho, becoming known as "Typographia da Viúva Serva, e Carvalho." Later, his son Manuel started working at the firm. The publication known as Silva Serva had 176 titles, and the publisher survived with several name changes until 1846, but lost its monopoly position in 1823. During the struggle for independence in Brazil, the troops of the joint pro-Portugal junta invaded "Typographia da Viúva Serva" to stop the publication of the nationalist newspaper "Constitucional". Its editors fled to Cachoeira, where they installed their own graphics to continue printing the weekly "O Independente Constitucional".[16] The Serva press continued producing the Gazeta da Bahia, which was pro-Portugal, but when the nationalist cause triumphed in June 1823, its publication had to be stopped.

With the death of Silva Serva, Bahia's literary production went into decline, only recovering in the 1890s. Standing out, at the time, were "Livraria J. L. da Fonseca Magalhães, editores," of the lawyer Clovis Bevilacqua between 1895 and 1910, and Livraria Catilina, founded by Carlos Pongetti on February 2, 1835, and which lasted until 1960, when it became the oldest bookstore in Brazil. In 1864, Sierra Teriga took over its direction, passing it to Xavier Catiline in 1877. The Catilina was a retail house, but had an impressive editorial stint, under the Romualdo dos Santos, and published works of Castro Alves, Coelho Neto, Ruy Barbosa, Xavier Marques, and Ernesto Carneiro Ribeiro. The actual printing, however, was usually undertaken in Portugal or other European countries, as was customary at the time.

Maranhão

Maranhão was one of the first provinces to have a printing press. It was one of the most prosperous of the empire, due to the production of cotton, which held value since the invention of Cartwright loom in 1787. During this period of development, there was a golden age cultural and intellectual activity in the region, under the influence of the Portuguese elite. The golden age of literature begins with the appearance of the first of Gonçalves Dias poems, in the 1840s, and goes on to the departure of Aluísio Azevedo to Rio de Janeiro, in the early 1880. Two printers stand out at this time: Belarmino de Mattos and José Maria Corrêa de Frias.

Printing was introduced in Maranhão in 1821, by the governor of Bernardo Silveira Pinto da Fonseca, when he installed an official printer to produce the government newspaper "Conciliador do Maranhão."[17] A pre "Columbian", the most modern of the time, was brought in from Lisbon, and then converted into the "Typographia Nacional Maranhense" later called "Typographia Nacional Imperial".

The first privately owned printer in Maranhão was Ricardo Antonio Rodrigues de Araújo, whose enterprise existed from 1822 until the 1850s, and "Typographia Melandiana" of Daniel G. de Melo, who produced his first job in 1825. Most important, however, was the "Typographia Constitucional" of Clementino José Lisboa, which began in 1830. Others were the "Ignacio Jose Ferreira", founded in 1833 by João Francisco Lisboa and Frederico Magno d'Abranches; the "J. G. Magalhães Pereira e Manuel Ramos "; the "Typographia Temperança" of Francisco de Sales Nines Cascais; the "Typographia Monárquica Constitucional" which was sold in 1848 to Fábio Alexandrino de Carvalho Reis, Theophilus A. de Carvalho Leal and A. Rego, and would produce "O Progresso", the first daily newspaper of Maranhão, started in 1847.[18]

Matos Belarmino has been considered by many historians as one of the best printers that Brazil has ever had.[19] He created a union, the "Associação Typographica Maranhense", inaugurated on 11 May 1857, one of the first organizations of Brazil's workers outside of Rio de Janeiro (it was preceded, in Rio de Janeiro, by the "Imperial Associação Typographica Fluminense", founded on December 25, 1853).

Pernambuco

In Pernambuco, Recife had the first typography, the "Oficina Tipográfica da República restaurada de Pernambuco" in 1817, which was soon closed by the government for political reasons. In 1820, governor Luís do Rego Barreto ordered the building of a "screw press," the traditional model, in the local arsenal, or on the train, then becoming known as "Officina do Trem de Pernambuco", and the design of French teacher Jean-Paul Adour, was appointed to run it. When Rego was dismissed, it came to be called "Officina do Trem Nacional" in 1821 and then "Typographia Nacional". Also in Recife was the competitor Manuel Clemente do Rego Cavalcante, who settled with newly brought equipment from Portugal, associating with Felipe Mena Calado da Fonseca and the Englishman James Prinches; former priest and Portuguese professor Antônio José de Miranda Falcão learned the art of typography. In addition to these, two other printers were "Typographia Fidedigna" run by Manuel Zeferino dos Santos, from 1827-1840, and Typographia do Cruzeiro, which began in 1829.

In Olinda, Manuel Figueroa de Faria opened in mid-1831, the "Pinheiro Faria e Companhia", which moved then to Recife, and that may have been responsible for the first books of Pernambuco; it published the "Diario de Pernambuco", having bought their rights of Antonio José de Miranda Falcão, in 1835. At the time, there were 14 printers and 4 lithographic establishments in Recife. One of the most important was the "União" of Santos e Cia., founded in 1836 by the priest Ignacio Francisco dos Santos.

Other printers of note are the Canon Marcelino Pacheco Amaral, who installed a printing press in his own house, only to publish his "Compendio de theologia moral (Compendium of moral theology)" in three volumes produced between 1888-1890, and then sold his "Imprensa Econômica" to a local publisher, Tobias Barreto, in 1847. He founded in Escada, in the interior of Pernambuco, the "Typographia Constitucional", which lasted until 1888.

Paraíba

In Paraiba, the "Typographia Nacional da Paraíba" stands out. It printed the first provincial newspaper.

Pará

In Pará, the printer João Francisco Madureira manufactured his own press. Already in 1822, the Liberal Press published the first newspaper of Pará, and the fifth in Brazil, "O Paraense", by the master printer Daniel Garção de Melo. The "Typographia de Santos e Menor" of Honorio José dos Santos, gave the first important publication, "Ensaio corográfico sobre a província do Pará", by António Ladislau Monteiro Baena. Then the press changed the name to "Santos e Filhos (Santos and Sons)" and later, "Santos e Irmão (Santos and Brother)."

The new Portuguese constitution, adopted on 15–16 February 1821, abolished censorship, and soon Brazil saw a flood of publications emerging.[24] Also ended was the monopoly of the government press. In 1821, the installation of "Nova Officina Typographica" by private owners was allowed, followed by "Typographia de Moreira e Garcez" in Rio de Janeiro. On the eve of the Independence of Brazil, the city already had about seven printing establishments. Manuel Joaquim da Silva Porto, poet and bookseller, who had introduced in Brazil the dramatic tragedy Phèdre, by the French dramatist, one of the three great playwrights of 17th-century France, Jean Racine, and was a printer the Royal Press, started his "Officina de Silva Porto e Cia.", along with Felizardo Joaquim da Silva Moraes, making this the first bookseller in the city to have its own printing press.[25]

The writer Victoriano José dos Santos and Silva set up the "Officina dos Anais Fluminenses" (Officina of Fluminenses Proceedings; there was also the modern "Typographia Astréia", which printed a newspaper with the same name, and the firm "Torres e Costa: Innocêncio Francisco Torres e Vicente Justiniano da Costa", which was soon replaced by "Typographia Innocencio Francisco Torres e Companhia." By along with the number of printing presses, there was also an increase in the number of bookstores in Rio de Janeiro.

In 1823, Paulo Martim Filho, who had moved to the Rua dos Pescadores, No. 14, was best known bookseller in Rio de Janeiro. Silva Porto, at Rua da Quitanda, was second in importance, but in all there were 11 other bookstores, and one of them was that of Francisco Luiz Saturnino da Veiga. To remarry, Francisco donated the dowry of his deceased wife to the older children, João Pedro Ferreira da Veiga and Evaristo da Veiga, who entered on their own into the book market, buying the establishment of Silva Porto.

The predominance of Rio de Janeiro in the literary market began in the 1840s and continued until 1880, despite the attempt of other provincial cities, such as the Casa Garraux, the famed bookstore of São Paulo, which had at the time 400 printed works in the province i.e. 11% of all the titles in the country.

Also noteworthy is the "Casa do Livro Azul" ("Blue Book House"), at Rua do Ouvidor, which ran from 1828 to 1852;[26] its owner, Albino Jourdan, lost his sight and hearing and was helped by two assistants, aged 14 and 17 years.

Pierre Plancher

Pierre René Constant Plancher de la Noah, became an official printer in France in 1798. After numerous political problems with the French government, went to Rio de Janeiro in 1824, and while waiting for the Customs to release their equipment, opened his provisional shop at 60, Rua dos Ourives, in March 1824. In June of that year, he moved to the Rua do Ouvidor, initially at No. 80, then No. 95, and soon began to publish in Portuguese. Much of his publications were administrative. Among his many publications, highlights included the "Annuario Histórico Brasiliense" in 1824, the year in an almanac, "Folhinhas de Algibeira e de Porta", and in 1827, the "Almanack Plancher."

Jornal do Commercio, of June 10, 1900.

Plancher published the first Brazilian soap opera, "Statira a Zoroastes" by Lucas Jose Alvarenga, in 1826, comprising 58 pages. Previously, Paul Martin published some novels, but these were translated from French. Plancher published the journal "Spectador Brasileiro", a newspaper that lasted until May 23, 1827. He later acquired the "Diário Mercantil", from Francisco Manuel Ferreira and Company, and changed its name to Jornal do Commercio, which became the oldest in the city of Rio from January. It is assigned to the new Plancher printing process known as lithography, which was invented in 1798 and only began to become widespread in 1815, replacing the recording on metal plates.

The printer working for Plancher was Hercule Florence, who gave up the post to follow a journey of exploration and anthropology with Baron Langsdorff. The first printer in Brazil, therefore, became Armand Marie Julien Pallière, who worked a while for the Military Archives in 1819, and was replaced by Johann Jacob Steinmann, who arrived in Rio de Janeiro in 1825 and some years later returned to Switzerland, where he published his collection of printed views, "Souvenirs of Rio de Janeiro".

Thanks to the apprentices of Steinmann, in 1846 Rio de Janeiro had four lithography printers. The oldest was that of Luis Aleixo Boulanger, founded on August 15, 1829, and the most important was the firm "Ludwig e Briggs," which existed between 1843 and 1877. The main competitor of Briggs was "Heaton e Rensburg" founded in 1840 (by Englishman George Mathia Heaton and the Dutchman Eduard Rensburg), whose main feature was the publication of music.
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Moveable type on a linotype.

After the abdication of D. Pedro I, in 1832, the book trade suffered the economic effects of political uncertainty, and Plancher sold his firm to two countrymen on 9 June 1832. The buyers were Junio Constancio de Villeneuve and Réol- Antoine Mougenot, and July 15, 1834, Mougenot sold his share to Villeneuve, who has owned the first mechanical press in the southern hemisphere,[28] after the first rotary and first Linotype. Its competitors were the "Typographia Nacional", "Paula Brito," "Laemmert", the "Typographia do Diário", and the printers Correio Mercantil and Correio da Tarde. At the time, two of the oldest registered Brazilian novels were produced: "O Aniversário de D. Miguel em 1828" by J. M. Pereira da Silva in 1838, and "Os Assassinos Misteriosos (The Mysterious Assassins)", by Justiniano José da Rocha, in 1839.[29]

Louis Mongie

Louis Mongie had a major bookstore at Ouvidor Street, from 1832 until 1853, the year of his death, at which time the bookstore was transferred to "Pinto & Waldemar," which became, around 1860, "F. L. Pinto & Cia., "And then to "J. Barboza e Irmão"- all of whom called themselves, however, "Imperial Library ".

Paula Brito

In 1831, Francisco de Paula Brito, who came from a humble family and learned to read from his sister, bought a small property of their relative Sílvio José de Almeida Brito, in Praça da Constituição (Constitution Square), No. 51. It was a stationery and bindery, besides selling tea. Brito installed a small printing press there, which he had purchased from E. C. dos Santos, and in the year 1833, Brito already had two establishments: the "Typographia Fluminense," the Rua da Constituição, 51, and "Typographia Imparcial" on No. 44; in 1837, he moved to No. 66 and expanded the store to number 64 in 1939. In 1848, Brito already had six manual printers and mechanics, and expanded its facilities to No. 68 and 78, a "corner shop" which became his bookstore and stationery outlet. He created branches in partnership with Antonio Goncalves Teixeira e Sousa and Candido Lopes, forming with the latter the "Tipografia e Loja de Lopes e Cia", in Niterói. Cândido Lopes would become later the first printer of Paraná.[30]

In his shop, Francisco de Paula Brito created the "Sociedade Petalógica" which had such a name because of the "freedom" Brito said that its members give to the imagination (a peta = a lie), and gathered together all the members of the Romantic movement of 1840-1860: Antonio Goncalves Dias, Laurindo Rabelo, Joaquim Manuel de Macedo, Manuel Antonio de Almeida, among others. All the elite of the time, among the politicians, artists and leaders, gathered at the "Paula Brito Bookstore."

A lithographic press.

In 1851, Brito entered the field of lithography; one of his magazines, "A Marmota na Corte (The Marmots in the Court)," included a costume. Brito brought the Paris lithographer Louis Thérier, who became the lithographer for the magazine. Created on December 2, 1850 the new "Imperial Typographia Dous de Dezembro," its name marking the anniversary date of Dom Pedro II, who became its shareholder. Paula Brito was the first non-specialized genuine editor of the country, which came up with a wide variety of works and subjects, unlike their predecessors, who were devoted to more technical matters.

Paula Brito edited the country's first women's magazine in 1832, "A Mulher do Simplício" or "A Fluminense Exaltada", which was printed by Plancher, his friend. The magazine lasted until 1846, when it was replaced by "A Marmota (The Woodchuck)", which lasted, with some title changes, from 1849 to 1864, three years after his death.

There are reports of 372 non-periodical publications made by Paula Brito, on quite varied themes, and of those, 83 were in the medical field, usually theses,[31] but most constituted dramas. Brito encouraged the growth of the national literature, still precarious. It can be considered the first Brazilian novel with some literary value has been "O Filho do Pescador (The Fisherman's Son)," by Antonio Goncalves Teixeira e Sousa, published by Brito in 1843. He used the poet Casimiro de Abreu and the young Machado de Assis, who began as a proofreader of Paula Brito and began the literary career as a collaborator of "A Marmota Fluminense".

In early 1857, dissatisfied shareholders oversaw the liquidation of "Typographia Dous de Dezembro." His firm was reduced to "Typographia de Paula Brito," with only one address, even that thanks to the financial support of the emperor. The publication of books fell, dropping to 12 in 1858 and 15 in 1861, the year of his death. His widow continued the business in partnership with their son in law until 1867, amidst falling production. In 1868 Mrs. Rufina Rodrigues da Costa Brito was alone, transferring the business to Rua do Sacramento, nº 10, which survived until 1875.

Garnier

Among the various bookstores in Rio de Janeiro, at Rua do Ouvidor, while some were owned by Frenchmen, such as Plancher and Villeneuve, others were other branches of existing companies in France such as Mongie, Aillaud and Bossange. Prominent among these the Brothers Firmin Didot, but in order of importance, the most prominent was the Garnier Frères, who worked in Brazil from 1844 to 1934.

The brothers Auguste (born in 1812) and Hippolyte (born in 1816) Garnier began working as bookstore clerks in Paris in 1828, and later opened their own business, at the age of 21 and 17 years. The younger brother, Baptiste Louis Garnier (born March 4, 1823), worked for his brother until 1844, and then went to Brazil, arriving in Rio de Janeiro on June 24, 1844. After two years of temporary accommodation, he settled at Rua do Ouvidor, nº 69, and remained there until 1878, moving to No. 71 in front of its main competitor, the "Livraria Universal" E. & H. Laemmert. By 1852, the firm was called the "Garnier Brothers" then "B. L. Garnier "and it is believed that the brothers separated between 1864 and 1865.[32]

In the early 1870s, Garnier had its own printing press, the "Tipografia Franco-americana." Overall, Garnier is credited with 655 works by Brazilian authors published between 1860 and 1890 and several translations, from the French, of the most popular novels. Garnier influenced the French format of books that Brazil adopted: octavo (16.5 x 10.5 cm) and 'in-doze' (17.5 x 11.0 cm, a size close to the A format paperback), an imitation of the Parisian firm Calmann-Levy.
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In 1891, in poor health, Baptiste started negotiations for the sale of his company, but dissatisfied with the price, gave up and died three years later, on 1 October 1893; the company passed on to his brother Hippolyte, who resided in Paris, thus returning to being the branch of the "Garnier Frères" in Rio de Janeiro.

Hippolyte Garnier was 77 years old when his brother Baptiste died. The Garnier in France ended up being in the 1890s and 1920s the leading publisher of Spanish-American literature worldwide. The death of Baptiste, as well as of the Laemmert brothers, caused a stagnation in the Brazilian book market, and the fall of the empire completely transformed the social climate. In 1898, Hyppolite sent to Rio de Janeiro a new manager, Julien Lansac, and his Jacinto Silva became his assistant, who had great autonomy, given the difficulties of Julien to speak Portuguese. Hippolyte was sent reform the Garnier facilities, which opened with fanfare. Each guest was presented with an autographed copy of the 2nd edition of Don Casmurro, by Machado de Assis. Around 1904, Jacinto Silva left the firm and was directing the Casa Garraux books department, in São Paulo, and in 1920 launched his own "Casa Editora O Livro," which was the center of the modernist movement.

Garnier Hippolyte died at age 95 in 1911, and Lansac returned to France in 1913; the business passed to a nephew, Auguste P. Garnier, who sent to Rio de Janeiro another French manager, Émile Izard (born in 1874). From then, Garnier went into decline, with few publications, and the end came close to 1934, when the Garnier Bookstore was sold to Ferdinand Briguiet who previously bought the Lachaud bookstore, on Rua Nova do Ouvidor.

Briguiet-Garnier

When Garnier was sold, it began to use the name Bookstore Briguiet-Garnier, and lasted until 1951, when the "Difusão Européia do Livro" (Difel) took the Brazilian subsidiary of Garnier. The Garnier building was demolished in 1953 to give place to a bank, and Briguiet was restricted to Rua Nova do Ouvidor. Briguiet then had been replaced by his nephew Ferdinand, who died without heirs in the mid 1970. Some of the firm's assets were purchased by "Library Itatiaia" of Belo Horizonte and the Briguiet shop was closed in 1973.

Lombaerts

Among the foreign bookstores in Rio de Janeiro, one that stood out was the BelgianJean Baptiste Lombaerts's (1821-1875) that of and his son Henri Gustave Lombaerts (1845-1897), which was the largest of lithographs mounted at the time at Rua do Ourives, No 17. It ran between 1848 and 1904 when the store was demolished to make way for Avenida Central. From 1871 to 1879, the library has produced a supplement in Portuguese to follow one of its main imported periodicals, the French magazine "La Saison". From 1879, it began to publish its own Brazilian edition of the magazine, named "A Estação".

Woodcuts of the sixteenth century illustrating the production of the woodcut. At first, the artist sketches the picture. Second, he uses a chisel to dig the wood block to receive the ink.

Another prominent firm was the Swiss Leuzinger, founded by Georg Leuzinger (1813-1892), who arrived in Rio de Janeiro in 1832, and until 1840 had saved enough to buy the oldest stationery outlet of the city, "the Red Book" of Jean Charles Bouvier, at Rua do Ouvidor, 31. In 1852, Leuzinger acquired Typographia Franceza, founded by Jean Soleil Saint Amand in 1837, and in 1841 published the first poems of Joaquim Norberto, "Modulações Poéticas", and the first two editions, in 1844 and 1845, of "A Moreninha", by Joaquim Manuel de Macedo. Under the direction of Leuzinger, this became one of the best equipped printing houses in the country. Leuzinger had much involvement in the development of wood engraving (woodcut) in the country, and in 1843, brought from Germany two talented engravers wood, Eduard Hüslemann and R. Rollenberger. In 1850, Rollenberger died of yellow fever and Hüslemann returned to Germany, but left behind many apprentices in Brazil. Leuzinger was responsible, among other things, for the introduction of illustrated postcards in the country, and ventured into photography too. The 54 woodcuts that illustrate the book of Louis and Elizabeth Agassiz, "Journey in Brazil", 1868, are by Leuzinger. As a press, the Leuzinger survived under the name "Gráfica Ouvidor".

Laemmert

The most important foreign bookshops was, however, Laemmert; between 1893 and the turn of the century, it was the main Brazilian publisher. Eduard Laemmert (born August 10, 1806) and Heinrich (born October 27, 1812) were children of F. W. Laemmert, a Protestant clergyman who educated them at home and at 14 sent them to learn the book trade. Leaving for Paris, Eduard was working in the firm of Bossange Martin and his son Hector. Two years later, Bossange decided to open a branch in Rio de Janeiro, and Eduard, as representative of Bossange, opened a company with a Portuguese called Souza, representative of JP Aillaud. They set up shop at Rua dos Latoeiros (now Gonçalves Dias), No. 88 under the Souza Laemmert name. When the contract expired in 1833, Eduard decided to stay in Brazil, married a Brazilian and started his own business in Quitanda Street # 77, the "Livraria Universal". His brother Heinrich came, at his request, to Brazil, and formed the "E. & H. Laemmert, mercadores de livros e de música (E. & H. Laemmert, dealers of books and music)" in 1838. Soon began to edit and in 1839 created their "Folhinha "annual. In 1844, they began the "Almanack Laemmert" which surpassed all competitors and, in 1875, came to have 1770 pages. They set up in 1868 at Rua do Ouvidor, 68. The printing press Laemmert was inaugurated on January 2, 1838, and named Typographia Universal.

In 1877, Eduard moved away from the firm, going to Karlsruhe, the city where he had learned the craft, and suddenly died there on January 18, 1880. Henry died four years later. All the business went over to a company formed by Gustave Massow, Henry's son-Edgon Widmann Laemmert and Arhur Sauer. In 1891 the firm was reorganized under the name of Laemmert & Companhia, and in 1898, had branches in São Paulo and Recife. In 1903, there was another change of partners, and Edgon was replaced by his son Hugo and Gustave by his brother Hilario. Laemmert had a library with a copy of each edition produced, but this was destroyed by fire in 1909, after which the library was never reopened. The copyright of their property were sold to Francisco Alves, who acquired the most famous of their titles, "Os Sertões", by Euclides da Cunha, whom Laemmert published in 1902 and sold three editions.

Printing continued, and the property, which had been with Arthur Sauer, went to Manuel José da Silva in 1910, who already owned the "Anuário Geral de Portugal (General Yearbook of Portugal)", then the almanac changed the name to "Anuário do Brasil (Brazil Yearbook)". The new organization has undergone several ownership changes, becoming "Sergio & Pinto" in 1919, "Alvaro Pinto & Cia." in 1920, Alexandre Henault & Cia. in 1921, and in 1925 was acquired by the Jockey Club of Rio de Janeiro, where it was called "Almanack Laemmerte Limited". Few books have been produced at that time, especially the "Livro de Ouro do Centenário a Independência do Brasil (Golden Centenary Book of the Independence of Brazil)", on September 7, 1922. In 1942, another fire destroyed the Almanac, and the last number was from 1943. The Gráfica Laemmert returned to publish books by 1970.[34]

Sellos & Couto

The Sellos & Couto firm was founded in 1815, when José Gonçalves Agra opened a bookstore in Rua do Sabão, No. 22. In the 1820s, the company passed into the hands of Agostinho Gonçalves de Freitas, who was succeeded in 1852 by his nephews Antonio and Agostinho Gonçalves Guimaraes, who added to it a printing workshop, "Typographia Episcopal". Antonio began to devote himself to banking and Augustine retired in 1887, selling the firm to his stepson John Antonio Pinto. When he died, bankrupt, the business was purchased by Antonio Joaquim de Sellos and Gaspar Pereira Couto, who began operating first as Sellos, Guimarães & Cia., Then as Sellos & Couto.

J. Ribeiro dos Santos

J. Ribeiro dos Santos, another major firm, was founded by the Portuguese Serafim José Alves, in 1871, at 11, Praça D. Pedro II, today Praça 15 de Novembro. At the end of the century, it moved to the Rua Sete de setembro, No. 83, and soon afterwards adopted the name of the heir of Alves, Jacintho Ribeiro dos Santos. Jacintho bought the Francisco Rodrigues da Cruz bookstore, successor to the Livraria Cruz Coutinho, the Livraria Popular, which was created by Antonio Augusto da Cruz Coutinho. The Library Jacintho Ribeiro dos Santos stood out for the good workmanship of its textbooks, use of images, and the high number of runs in any of its books, which reached the mark of over 100,000 copies in 1924, in a population of 1,157,141 in the city. As "Livraria Jacintho", it survived until 1945 when it was bought over by "Editora A Noite".

Livraria Quaresma

The Livraria de Serafim José Alves seems to have had some connection also with the Livraria Quaresma.[35]
Pedro da Silva Quaresma was the founder of the "Livraria do Povo" in 1879 inRua São José. The Livraria Quaresma lasted until the 1960s, with cheap books and those of a popular appeal, and was the training grounds for bookseller and used bookstore owner Carlos Ribeiro, who later founded the "Livraria São José", active in the 1950s and 1960s.

Antônio Joaquim Castilho

The bookseller and printer Castilho is also from this time, but the most important individual from this firm was his son, Antonio Joaquim Castilho. Castilho faced financial difficulties and in 1931, his firm became the "Livraria América", of A, Bedeschi, which lasted until the 1940s, and Castilho was working at Editora Civilização Brasileira.

Francisco Alves

Born on August 2 de1848, Francisco Alves d'Oliveira went to Rio in 1863, and got a job in a store of nautical items, and savings. He opened a used bookstore in Rua São José, then he sold it and went back to Porto. Upon receiving his uncle's invitation to work at his bookstore, he went to Brazil again, and was naturalized on 28 July 1883. The firm Francisco Alves, originally called Livraria Clássica, was founded on August 15, 1854, at Rua of Braziers, No. 54 (later changed to No. 48), by his uncle Nicholas Antonio Alves. Francisco ended up buying the shares of all partners and his uncle by 1897. Initially devoted to textbooks, due to the increasing of the number of schools in the country (in the last years of the Empire, schools increased from 3,561 to 7,500), Francisco Alves came to have a near monopoly of textbooks in Brazil.

Livraria Francisco Alves opened its first branch in São Paulo, on April 23, 1893, where Manuel Pacheco Leão, some of the education secretary and friend of Francis, Teófilo das Neves Leão, was charged with part of the shares of the company. In 1906, he opened a second branch in Belo Horizonte. In São Paulo, acquired the "N. Falconi "and "Livraria Melilo"; in Rio de Janeiro, he acquired "Lombaerts," the "Livraria Católica de Sauvin", the "Livraria Luso-Brasileira" of Lopes da Cunha, the "Empresa Literária Fluminense", of AA da Silva Lobo, the home of "Domingos de Magalhães ". He also bought the Portuguese firm "A Editora", formerly "David Corazzi". In 1909, he acquired the "Laemmert", acquiring the rights to "Os Sertões", by Euclides da Cunha, and Innocence, Taunay. He also bought a small bookstore "Viúva Azevedo" in Rio de Janeiro.

In the literary line, Francisco Alves published Afrânio Peixoto, Emílio de Menezes, Raul Pompeii, among others, but most of his books were printed abroad, for economic and technical reasons which prevented the internal printing, which was the cause of criticism from many nationalists. In his spare time, Francisco Alves wrote his own books under the pseudonym William Prado or F. d'Oliveira. They were cataloged after his death, totalling some 39 books of his own.
[36]

Alves was diabetic and acquired pneumonia that led to tuberculosis. When the member Leo Pacheco died on December 23, 1913, Alves acquired the share of the widow, but himself died on June 29, 1917, after complications from a broken leg in a railway accident. In his will, he left a great legacy and a lifetime pension to a lady who had been his mistress since 1891, Maria Dolores Braun. All the rest of his property would be left for the Brazilian Academy of Letters, but with the condition that the Academy should hold every five years, two competitions in his honor, each with a first prize of 10 short stories, a second five stories and a third of three stories. One of the contests should be for monographs on "the best way to expand primary education in Brazil," and the other for monographs on the Portuguese language.[37] Through the Academy is statutorily prevented from managing any type of business, it sold the bookshop to a group of former employees, led by Paulo Ernesto Azevedo Pacheco, Leão's successor in managing the affiliate of São Paulo, and Antonio de Oliveira Martins. The new company adopted the name "Paulo de Azevedo & Companhia", but continued to use the mark F. Alves, and to dominate the market of textbooks until the appearance of Companhia Editora Nacional, of Octalles Marcondes Ferreira, in the decade of the 1920s.

Paulo Azevedo died in 1946 and was succeeded by his children Ivo and Ademar. The latter admitted as members Alvaro Ferreira de Almeida, Raul da Silva Passos and Lelio de Castro Andrade, to work towards the revitalization of the bookshop. In 1972, the company was sold to Admiral José Celso de la Rocque Maciel Soares Guimarães, who changed its name to "Livraria Francisco Alves Editora"; in 1974, Netumar shipping company, owned by Ariosto Amado, acquired 80% of its capital and Carlos Leal took over its management.

Other publishers

Other major publishers and bookstores at the end of the nineteenth century were the publishing firm Editora Pimenta de Mello, founded in 1845 and which survived until 1937, and the Livraria Moderna, Domingos de Magalhaes e Companhia, a leading publisher in the field of literature in the 1890s.

In 1827, the city of São Paulo was chosen to host one of the two country's law schools, and student life there transformed the city. In 1836, a São Paulo press printed the book, "Questões sobre presas marítimas," by Jose Maria Avelar Brotero. This was followed by other works, and the first of the locally produced literature emerged: in 1849, Rosas e Goivos, by the then student José Bonifácio, o Moço and, in 1852, Cantos da Solidão, by Bernardo Guimaraes, printed in "Typographia Liberal" which was owned by Joaquim Roberto de Azevedo Marques.

In 1855, São Paulo had a population of only 25,000 inhabitants, while Rio de Janeiro had crossed a quarter million and Salvador and Recife were over 80,000. There were three bookstores, "Fernandes de Souza," "Gravesnes" and "Torres de Oliveira," and three presses, the "Typographia Liberal" of Azevedo Marques, the "Typographia Dous de Dezembro" (no connection with the Paula Brito) of Antonio Antunes Lousada, and "Typographia Litteraria". There also was a bookbinder, the German U. Knossel, whose business was acquired in 1880 by the German Jorge Seckler, and became important graphic with steam-powered printers. In the late 1860, also in operation were the "Typographia Litteraria", the "Typographia Americana" and "Typographia Americana" typography.

Casa Garraux

In 1860, the French publisher Baptiste Louis Garnier opened a branch in São Paulo and entrusted it to Anatole Louis Garraux (1833-1904). Three years later, Garraux became independent and opened the Livraria Acadêmica, in partnership with Guelfe de Lailhac and Raphael Suares. This publishing house was known as "Casa Garraux". It was in the Casa Garraux that José Olympio began to build an interest in the book market, getting a job tidying and cleaning books there.

Before 1920, Garraux did not publish, but became a prominent bookseller, becoming the bookstore with the most updated stock of the country.[39] From 1872, coffee was modifying the provincial scene, and in this year the Garraux moved from Largo da Sé to the Rua da Imperatriz (the future XV de Novembro), going on to play role important in the intellectual and cultural development of the region. Garraux passed on the direction of the store at that time to his son in law Willy Fischer, who retired in 1888, and his successor, Alexander Thiollier, ran the business until 1893, then moving the direction of the hands of the partner Charles Hildebrand, of Strasbourg.

'Other São Paulo bookstores'

From three bookstores in 1850, São Paulo grew to five in 1870, one of these being the "Great Library Paulista", which the brothers Antonio and Maria José Joaquim Teixeira opened in 1876.

In 1893, due to Italian immigration and also the trail of drought in the North East, São Paulo grew in size to have 192,409 inhabitants[40] and at the turn of the century, it equaled Rio de Janeiro, with 239,820 inhabitants. The paper industry installed in the state began to grow; one of the factories was the "Cia. Melhoramentos de São Paulo", formed in 1890 by Colonel Anthony Proost Brill, and in 1920 joined the paper industry for books, associating with the label of "Weiszflog Brothers". At the end of the century, however, São Paulo still had only eight bookstores. Among others, the prominent ones included "Casa Eclectica".

Till the First World War, Brazilian books were printed mostly in Europe. The Garnier Publisher, used by Machado and almost all Academic, was French and had their workshops in France. Coelho Neto was printed on Porto in Portugal, and edited by Lelo & Brother. Brazilian publishers and bookstores devoted themselves more to textbooks, and little was printed in Brazil.

Lobato took the initiative that changed the Brazilian publishing market. Printed on their own, in the newspaper presses of "O Estado de S. Paulo", his book Urupês, found that at the time, Brazil had only 30 bookstores that were able to receive and sell books.[41] He then wrote to all postmasters of Brazil (1300 in all), requesting the names and addresses of newsagents, stationers, warehouses and pharmacies interested in selling books.[42] Almost 100% of postal agents responded, providing a network of nearly two thousand distributors across the country. Lobato began publishing works of his friends and novice writers.

Lobato, one of the great supporters of the book in Brazil, Companhia Editora Nacional: "A country is made with men and books."

When the original firm of Cia. Gráfio-Editora Monteiro Lobato collapsed, Octalles Marcondes Ferreira (1899-1972), who was his assistant and became his partner, encouraged him to open another publishing venture, and in November 1925, the Companhia Editora Nacional was already established and was preparing to publish a version, supervised by Lobato, of the 1st book written in Brazil in the sixteenth century, the story of Hans Staden, "My Captivity Among the Brazilian Wild," with a print run of 5000 copies.[43]

While Octalles remained in São Paulo, Lobato ran the branch of Rio de Janeiro; traveling to the United States, due to speculation in the stock market and the crash of October 1929, Lobato had to sell to Octalles his publisher's shares, and went on to contribute just as an author and translator.[44]

The publisher began investing gradually in educational titles. In 1932, Octalles acquired Editora Civilização Brasileira, founded in 1929 by Getúlio M. Costa, Ribeiro Couto e Gustavo Barroso, and now, slowly, passed on to the son Enio Silveira. In 1934, the brand "Nacional" was almost entirely reserved for teaching and children's books. In 1943, there six teachers responsible for implementing the textbooks abandoning the company, they went on to found their own publishing house, the "Editora do Brasil", specializing in books relating to teaching. The assistant of Octalles, Arthur Neves (1916-1971), left and formed Editora Brasiliense, which launched its own bookstore, the "Livraria Brasiliense."

Octalles died in 1973, and presidency of the company passed on to his brother Lindolfo. In 1974 Livraria José Olympio Editora requested financial aid to buy the publisher,[45] However, this operation was never undertaken. "The company Jose Olimpio requested government aid: in this case, the total financing of the operation, so the National Bank for Economic Development (BNDES) acquired all the shares of the company [...] however, the economic situation of José Olympio made the desired transfer impossible and the Nacional eventually became property of the BNDE."[46]

In 1980, the Brazilian Institute of Pedagogical Issues (IBEP) acquired Companhia Editora Nacional, forming one of the largest publishing groups in the country. In 2009, Conrad Editora, specializing in Comic, was bought by IBEP-Group Company Editora Nacional[47]

'Jose Olympio'

The publisher started in 1931, also in São Paulo, with a successful book, "Know thyself by psychoanalysis," by the American J. Ralph, a work that today is known as a self-help title.[48] In the 1940s and 1950s, Olympio became the country's largest publisher, publishing 2 000 titles, with 5000 issues, which in the 1980s comprised 30 million books 900 national authors and 500 foreign authors books.

The Livraria José Olympio bookstore got into a crisis that began with the collapse in the stock market. In the 1970s, he tried to buy Companhia Editora Nacional. On May 3, 1990, when he died, José Olympio was no longer owner of the publishing house that bore his name, because after being taken over by the BNDES in the 70s, it was bought by Record in 2001; today it belongs to Grupo Editorial Record.[48]

'Publisher Martins'

José de Barros Martins decided to leave the job to open a bookstore in a small room on the first floor of a building in the Rua da Quitanda in São Paulo, in 1937.[49] He organized his own editorial department, under the direction of Edgard Cavalheiro and his first title in early 1940 was "Direito Social Brasileiro", dealing with the Brazilian social law, and authored by Antonio Ferreira Cesarino Junior.

Martins promoted the liquidation of his company in 1974, but tried to remain in the business, the most valuable negotiating publishing contracts with Editora Record.[50] Currently, Martins Editora is an imprint of Livraria Martins Fontes.

'Civilização Brasileira'

Founded by Getúlio M. Costa, Ribeiro Couto and Gustavo Barroso in 1929, the company Civilização Brasileira had at the time few titles, and in 1932 was acquired by Octalles Marcondes Ferreira,[51] becoming part of the Companhia Editora Nacional. Enio Silveira took part in the Civilização Brasileira, and increased its impact, and at the end of the 1950s, it had become already one of the leading publishers in the country. In 1963, Enio Silveira took full control of Civilização Brasileira[52] and the following year his book output was the same as that of the Companhia Editora Nacional, added 46 new titles. Civilização Brasileira eventually becoming the most important channel for modern Brazilian literature in the 1960s,[52] in addition to devote to translations of both the European countries as the US, Japanese and Latin American.

In 1982, Enio accepted an operational supply from DIFEL, a foreign company, to cooperate with his firm. At the same time, Banco Pinto de Magalhães, the Portuguese bank, and a Portuguese entity, Batista da Silva, acquired 90% stake in Civilização Brasileira, and Enio's share was 10%. In March 1984, it formalized the transfer of the Civilização Brasileira operations to São Paulo, maintaining a branch in Rio de Janeiro.[53] Silveira of Enio died in 1996. Currently, the Civilização Brasileira is part of Grupo Editorial Record.

'Publisher Attica'

Between 1964 and 1965, Editora Attica made an impact. On 15 October 1956, the Curso de Madureza Santa Inês was founded, for the education of youth and adults, by the brothers Anderson Fernandes Dias and Vasco Fernandes Dias Filho and his friend Antonio Narvaes Filho. Over time, through the increasing number of students, the mimeograph became insufficient to print handouts, and 1962 saw the creation of Sesil (Sociedade Editora do Santa Inês Ltda. or the Santa Inês Publishing Society Ltd.). Anderson Fernandes Dias, however, backed the creation of a publishing house. Thus, Editora Attica emerged in August 1965, and the following year, it already had 20 titles in its catalog.

In 1999, Attica was bought by Editora Abril, in partnership with the French group Vivendi. In 2002, Vivendi sold its publications branch companies to the French group Lagardère, but Editora Attica got out of that commercial transaction. In 2003, the two controlling shareholders of Attica - April and Vivendi - again put the publisher up for sale. After a year of negotiations, the financial assets of Vivendi were acquired by Editora Abril, in February 2004, becoming the majority owner of Editora Attica, ushering in a new phase in the company's history, which became part of Abril Education. In early 2005, the publisher began to work on building the Edifício Abril on Marginal Tiete.

'Bookstore Globe'

In the 1880s, the "Livraria Americana", originally set up in Pelotas, by Carlos Pinto, had several translations of foreign authors, not always with permission of the authors. Such cases, and many others, led to a reaction by the authors and the government, and began to establish laws in order to preserve those rights. The origins of Editora Globo belong to this time, but the publisher did not start a regular program of editions in 1928.[54] Thus, in the early 1930s, the Livraria do Globo emerged in Porto Alegre, and the beginning of the publishing industry seems to have given especially the disadvantageous position of the new government with respect to the copyright rights of others States. The magazine Globo, having no money to republished materials, also resorted to piracy[55]

The flourishing of publishing activity was also due to the development and growth of the Rio Grande do Sul, at the time of the Old Republic, 1889-1930. The Editora Globo started with a small stationery and bookstore, founded in 1883 by Portuguese immigrant Laudelino Pinheiro Barcellos, next to which was built a graphic workshop for custom work. José Bertaso, a boy admitted for minor services in 1890, became a partner and in 1919, the owner. Bertaso predicted shortages of paper with the First World War and cared enough to profit later from the sales. The "Barcellos, Bertaso and Co." acquired a linotype machine, the first in the state, and in 1922 began to publish books leading to a local literary revival, the counterpart of the modernist movement. Mansueto Bernardi, an Italian and director of the publicity department, was even more ambitious, and encouraged the publication of translated titles. He has assembled a team of reviewers, translators and graphic artists, and created the magazine Revista do Globo.

Bernardi in 1931 with the creation of the Estado Novo, exited the field of editorial activity and began to drive the Mint. The eldest of his three sons, Henry d'Avila Bertaso, who began in Livraria Globo bookstore in 1922, at age 15, took over the publishing industry, while the direction of the Globe Magazine was given to a young writer, Erico Verissimo, who becoma one of the main translators of the publisher. Verissimo's career as an author had begun in 1928 when Bernardi accepted his story "Ladrão de Gado" ("Cattle Thief") for theRevista do Globo magazine. His first book, "Fantoches" ("Puppets") was a collection of short stories that H. Bertaso accepted for publication in 1932. After a few books, the only commercial success came in 1935 with "Caminhos Cruzados", which received several awards.

Due to the economic situation, the Brazilian book became competitive, a fact that was capitalised on by the Livraria Globo bookstore. In 1936, the company already had three floors, 500 employees, 20 Linotype machines, and the publishing industry had about 500 titles. Verissimo passed on the control of the magazine to De Souza Júnior, and b H. Bertaso became editorial consultant, allowing for the gain of the literary publisher's quality. The policy emphasized the Anglo-American authors, due to the preponderance of translations from English. With the World War II, there was a sudden prosperity in the book business, and several translators were employed, such as Leonel Vallandro, Juvenal Jacinto, Herbert Caro, and Homero de Castro as permanent employees. In the early 1950s, with the rigor in Brazil over the control of remittance of foreign currency abroad, there was a decline in the production of translations of the globe. There then was a slight recovery in the 1960s, but without recovery of the old interest especially in other areas.

Verissimo began to devote more to his own literary production; José Bertaso died in 1948 and in 1956, when the Globo reached its 2,000th title since 1930, it was decided to transform the publishing part of the business into a legally separate development, creating Editora Globo.[56] Verissimo was gradually disengaging the Globo, and died in 1975. Henry Bertaso died in 1977, having passed on his business to his sons Jose Otavio, Fernando and Claudio. In 1986 the company was sold to Rio Gráfica Editora (GER) of Roberto Marinho. Rio Graphic started using only the Editora Globo name since.

'National Institute of Books'

With the revolution of 1930, the Rio Grande do Sul gained importance on the national scene. With the implementation of the Estado Novo, one of the consequences was the creation of the National Book Institute, the initiative of Minister Capanema in September / December 1937 (Decree-Law No. 93 of September 21 of 1937). The poet Augusto Meyer was the director until 1954 and again from 1961 to 1967.[57] It was created and encouraged by Getúlio Vargas with the objective of developing an encyclopedia and dictionary of the Brazilian language and to build the identity and national memory and support the implementation of public libraries throughout Brazil. Until 1945, however, they had not yet completed the encyclopedia and dictionary, but the number of public libraries has grown, especially in the states of cultural scarcity, thanks to the help provided by INL in the collection of the composition and technical training.

Other prominent publishers

Besides those already mentioned, in the early twentieth century among the other important ones were, in Rio de Janeiro Livraria H. Antunes founded by Hector Antunes in 1909, and Arthur Vecchi in 1913, which began with publication of books and later dedicated itself to comic books. Besides these, the Livraria Editora Leite Ribeiro e Maurillo, founded in Rio de Janeiro in 1917, and in the mid-1920s was renamed as Freitas Bastos; Livraria Católica, founded by the poet Augusto Frederico Schmidt, in 1930, which soon became a meeting point for intellectuals of the time. Those who attended became known as the "Catholic Circle". Schmidt took later removed the 'Catholic' word from its name and it became and was just Livraria Schmidt Editora, which remained so until 1939, when the business was absorbed and the facilities acquired by Zélio Valverde, in whose firm Schmidt became a partner. Others are the Gianlorenzo Schettino Livraria Editora, which existed from 1922 to 1931;Editora A. Coelho Branco, and Editora Ariel, of the writers Gastao Cruls and Agripino Grieco, which was exclusively a publisher.

Publishing in other states

In Rio Grande do Sul, apart from Editora Globo, the oldest publisher was the "Livraria e Editora Selbach", founded in 1931, having started its activity with "Farrapos!", by Walter Spalding. It ended around 1960, Other major publishers were "Livraria Sulina" founded in 1946 by the brothers Leopold and Nelson Boeck, which specialized in law, business administration and history. The "Tabajara" with textbooks, and L&PM Editores, created by Ivan Pinheiro Machado and Paulo de Lima, in 1974, at the time to publish a single book, "Rango, história em quadrinhos de um marginal" by Edgar Vasques, which had appeared before in the Porto Alegre newspaper "Folha da Manhã". Encouraged by the success, the two young editors began to publish a small number, but select titles, qustioning the government of the time, during the military dictatorship.[58] In the 1970s, other major publishers were Editora Movimento and Editora-Mercado-Aberto.

In Paraná, at Curitiba, in the 1930s Editora Guaira gained national reputation with titles like "Esperança" by André Malraux, "Doña Barbara" by Romulo Gallegos, among others. In the early 1940s, production was 40 titles per year. It declined after World War II. Also in Curitiba, Editora dos Professores, created by Ocyron Cunha in 1962, was intended to produce works of regional teachers, and is currently inactive.

Santa Catarina, despite having only a little publishing activity, has plenty of outlets, and most of its municipalities have bookstores, which got it the fifth national place in book sales in the 1980.[59]

In Bahia, between the 1940s and 1960s, the most important editorial brand was the "Livraria Progresso," by Aguiar and Souza Ltda. (not to be confused with the Progresso do Grupo Delta). Another was the Edições Macunaíma, founded in 1957 by Calasans Neto, Fernando da Rocha Peres, Glauber Rocha and Paulo Soares Gili as Macunaíma Editorials Empreendimentos Ltda. In 1974, the highlight was the Editora Itapuã of Dmeval Keys and Editora Janaína, or Jorge Amado.

In Recife, the highlights were the "Livraria Sete", and "Gráfica Amador", which changed its name to Editora Igarassu, and in 1980, Editora Guararapes.

There have been several attempts in Brazil to produce a lower-priced book.[60] In the "Coleção Globo" of Livraria do Globo, in the early 1930s,[61] 24 titles were released, including classics, adventures and police fiction, in the format 11x16 cm, cartoned. In 1942, Bertaso started the "Coleção Tucano" with fiction of good quality, such as works by André Gide, Thomas Mann, and others. In the 1960s, Globo launched the "Coleção Catavento" successfully. In 1944, there was the "Coleção Saraiva" of Brazilian classics.

There were distribution attempts through newsagents and kiosks at airports. In 1956, Editora Monterrey was constituted to produce popular light fiction (pulp) in paperback format, founded by the Spanish published O Coyote (The Coyote)[62] series and Brigitte Montfort.[63] An example of better quality was the Tecnoprint Gráfica, which later adopted the editorial brand of Edições de Ouro, its most famous title in the format being the series of German science fiction Perry Rhodan.[64]

The Editora Nova Fronteira was founded in Rio de Janeiro em1965, the political journalist Carlos Lacerda. Before he died in 1977, he built a formal link with the Editora Nova Aguilar, founded in 1958 by a nephew of the owner of his namesake in Madrid. With the death of Lacerda, his sons Sergio and Sebastian took over.

Editora Abril was responsible for the success of a kind of book sold on newsstands: the edition in fascicles (a section of a book or set of books being published in installments as separate pamphlets or volumes). Editora Abril was founded by Victor Civita and his friend Giordano Rossi in 1950, initially as a magazine publisher. It started with Donald Duck, working with the Walt Disney organization, and their first venture in the book market was in 1965, with an illustrated edition of the Holy Bible, in fortnightly installments, followed by others of general interest. The growth and acceptance it received were outstanding, and in 1974, its fascicles on philosophy, Os Pensadores (The Thinkers) of which it sold 100,000 copies a week. In 1982, they launched Os Economistas, including 20 titles that had never been published before in Portuguese.

The current situation of reading in Brazil

The National Union of Book Publishers (Sindicato Nacional dos Editores de Livros, SNEL), the Brazilian Book Chamber (Câmara Brasileira do Livro, CBL), the Brazilian Association of Book Publishers (Associação Brasileira de Editores de Livros, ABRELIVROS) and the Brazilian Association of Pulp and Paper (Associação Brasileira de Celulose e Papel, BRACELPA) research the reading habits of Brazilians and provide information for planning the market and public policies,[66] and currently has about 659 publishers registered.

A survey by the Associação Nacional de Livrarias (ANL), available on July 27, 2010, shows that in the country there are currently 2980 stores - 11% more than there were in 2006.[67] The ANL points out, however, that the Brazilians read only 1.9 books per year, which falls short of the average in other Latin American countries. Vitor Tavares, president of the ANL, gives examples: "In Argentina, we read about five. In Chile, three. In Colombia, reads 2.5 books a year. " Also according to Tavares, "More and more libraries are opened in big cities but in towns of up to 80,000 inhabitants, often there is no selling point." Also according to the ANL, the southeastern region has the largest number of shops; São Paulo, with 864 retailers specializing in books, has more than twice the second place, followed by Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais and Rio Grande do Sul. The Paraná is in fifth place in number of bookstores. Bahia has the largest number of bookstores in the Northeast, and the sixth in the country, tied with Santa Catarina; Roraima, despite having only 25 bookstores has, proportionally, in the North, the best national average.[68]

On 23 July 2010, the Valor Econômico newspaper held a poll with a group of critics and teachers to identify what is the best publisher in Brazil,[69] which resulted in the Companhia das Letras showing up in the first place (81%), and the Cosac Naify at second (76%). In the third spot were Editora 34, Martins Fontes and Record; in fourth was Editora UFMG; in fifth Ateliê Editorial, Editora Hedra, Editora Iluminuras, Editora da Unicamp;[70] and in the sixth spot Contraponto Editora, Difel, Edusp, Editora Escrituras, Editora Perspectiva, UnB, Editora Vozes, WMF Martins Fontes, Zahar Editores.

The survey conducted by the newspaper did not aim to measure business efficiency, but to focus on publishers who stand out culturally. Voting started with an emphasis on artistic and literary areas and the humanities, and the ability to intervene in the cultural life and to form readers with the criteria if measuring the quality of a publisher. The 21 experts surveyed were asked to name the best three publishing houses. The more specialized areas were excluded, such as technical books, self-help, textbooks and supplementary teaching material.

1.
National Library of Brazil
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The Biblioteca Nacional do Brasil is the depository of the bibliographic and documentary heritage of Brazil. It is located in Rio de Janeiro, at Cinelândia square, the largest library in Latin America and the 7th largest in the world, its collections include about 9 million items. It organized the first library science courses in Latin America and its staff has led the modernization of library services, the history of the National Library began on 1 November 1755, when Lisbon suffered a violent earthquake. The Royal Library was considered one of the most important libraries in Europe at that time and this irreparable loss to the Portuguese was the impetus for moving many of its contents to Brazil. The collection was brought in three stages, the first being in 1810 and two in 1811. The library of 60,000 books was accommodated initially in the rooms of the Hospital of the Third Order of Carmel. The facilities, however, were considered inadequate and could jeopardize valuable collection as well, in 1911 Manoel Cicero Peregrino da Silva Started a national union catalog for all Brazilian libraries. He set up the first library science course in South America, many librarians went on to study in European and North American universities. In 1907, presidential Decree no.1825 established the duty of all publishers to send one copy of each publication to then-called Bibliotheca Nacional, in 2004, this decree was revoked by congressional Law no. 10,994, still in force, upholding the same mandate, among the significant collections of the National Library of Brazil is the Teresa Cristina Maria photograph collection, which includes 21,742 photographs dating from the nineteenth century. These photographs were left to the Library by Emperor Pedro II in 1891 and this collection has been inscribed on UNESCOs Memory of the World Programme Register in 2003 in recognition of its world significance and outstanding universal value. It features images related to Brazils history and people from the 19th century, there are also photographs from Africa, North America, and Europe. Legal deposit National library Minuscule 2437 Official site Encarta

2.
Rio de Janeiro (state)
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Rio de Janeiro is one of the 27 states of Brazil. It has the second largest economy of Brazil, with the largest being that of the state of São Paulo, the state of Rio de Janeiro is located within the Brazilian geopolitical region classified as the Southeast. Rio de Janeiro shares borders with all the states in the same Southeast macroregion, Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo. It is bounded on the east and south by the Atlantic Ocean, Rio de Janeiro has an area of 43,653 km². The archaic demonym meaning for the Rio de Janeiro State is fluminense, taken from the Latin word flumen, from 1783 and during all the Imperial Regime, carioca remained only as a nickname by which other Brazilians called the inhabitants of Rio. During the first years of the Brazilian Republic, carioca was the given to those who lived in the slums or a pejorative way to refer the bureaucratic elite of the Federal District. Only when the City of Rio lost its status as Federal District and became a Brazilian State when the capital was moved to Brasilia, carioca was made a co-official demonym with guanabarino. In 1975, the Guanabara State was extinct by President Geisel becoming the present City of Rio de Janeiro, nowadays, social movements like Somos Todos Cariocas try to achieve the official recognition of carioca as a co-official demonym of Rio de Janeiro State. Rio de Janeiro is the smallest state in the Southeast macroregion, in the Brazilian flag, the state is represented by the Beta star in the Southern Cross. European presence in Rio de Janeiro is as old as Brazil itself, Rio de Janeiro originated from parts of the captainships of de Tomé and São Vicente. Between 1555 and 1567, the territory was occupied by the French, aiming to prevent the occupation of the Frenchmen, in March 1565, the city of Rio de Janeiro was established by Estácio de Sá. In 1763, Rio de Janeiro became the capital of Colonial Brazil, with the flight of the Portuguese royal family from Portugal to Brazil in 1808, the region soon benefited from urban reforms to house the Portuguese. The following years witnessed the creation of the Jardim Botânico and the Academia Real Militar, during this same time, the Escola Real de Ciências, Artes e Ofícios was founded as well. In 1834, the city of Rio de Janeiro was transformed into a city, remaining as capital of the state, while the captainships became provinces, with headquarters in Niterói. In 1889, the city became the capital of the Republic, the city became the federal district. In 1894, Petrópolis became the capital of Rio de Janeiro, with the relocation of the federal capital to Brasília in 1960, the city of Rio de Janeiro became Guanabara State. Niterói remained the capital for Rio de Janeiro state, while Rio de Janeiro served the same status for Guanabara. In 1975, the states of Guanabara and Rio de Janeiro were merged under the name of Rio de Janeiro, the symbols of the former State of Rio de Janeiro were preserved, while the symbols of Guanabara were kept by the city of Rio de Janeiro

3.
Bibliographic
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Bibliography, as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects, in this sense, it is also known as bibliology. Carter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books, carter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books and the systematic, description of books as physical objects. These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes, innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell, G. Thomas Tanselle. Bowers refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries, ” in a discipline, by an author, printer. He refers to descriptive bibliography as the description of a book as a material or physical artifact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all features of a book that yield evidence establishing a books history. Descriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description, titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Gregs groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles, D. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by W. W. Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, mcKenzies perspective contextualizes textual objects or artifacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy. Bibliography, generally, concerns the conditions of books how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books, now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites. An enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from works cited lists at the end of books and articles, to complete, a notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gows, A. E. Housman, A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers. As separate works, they may be in volumes such as those shown on the right. A library catalog, while not referred to as a bibliography, is bibliographic in nature, Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources. Enumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, an entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator, publication date and place of publication. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective, one noted example would be Tanselles bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a paper or academic term paper

4.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama

5.
Publishing
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Publishing is the dissemination of literature, music, or information—the activity of making information available to the general public. In some cases, authors may be their own publishers, meaning originators and developers of content also provide media to deliver, also, the word publisher can refer to the individual who leads a publishing company or an imprint or to a person who owns/heads a magazine. Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works such as books, Publishing includes the following stages of development, acquisition, copy editing, production, printing, and marketing and distribution. There are two categories of book publisher, Non-paid publishers, A non-paid publisher is a house that does not charge authors at all to publish their books. Paid publishers, The author has to meet with the expense to get the book published. This is also known as vanity publishing, at a small press, it is possible to survive by relying entirely on commissioned material. But as activity increases, the need for works may outstrip the publishers established circle of writers, for works written independently of the publisher, writers often first submit a query letter or proposal directly to a literary agent or to a publisher. Submissions sent directly to a publisher are referred to as unsolicited submissions, the acquisitions editors send their choices to the editorial staff. Unsolicited submissions have a low rate of acceptance, with some sources estimating that publishers ultimately choose about three out of every ten thousand unsolicited manuscripts they receive. Many book publishers around the world maintain a strict no unsolicited submissions policy and this policy shifts the burden of assessing and developing writers out of the publisher and onto the literary agents. At these publishers, unsolicited manuscripts are thrown out, or sometimes returned, established authors may be represented by a literary agent to market their work to publishers and negotiate contracts. Literary agents take a percentage of earnings to pay for their services. Some writers follow a route to publication. Such books often employ the services of a ghostwriter, for a submission to reach publication, it must be championed by an editor or publisher who must work to convince other staff of the need to publish a particular title. An editor who discovers or champions a book that becomes a best-seller may find their reputation enhanced as a result of their success. Once a work is accepted, commissioning editors negotiate the purchase of property rights. The authors of traditional printed materials typically sell exclusive territorial intellectual property rights that match the list of countries in which distribution is proposed. In the case of books, the publisher and writer must also agree on the formats of publication —mass-market paperback

6.
Bookselling
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Bookselling is the commercial trading of books, the retail and distribution end of the publishing process. People who engage in bookselling are called booksellers, bookwomen, or bookmen, the founding of libraries in 300 BC stimulated the energies of the Athenian booksellers. In Rome, toward the end of the republic, it became the fashion to have a library, and Roman booksellers carried on a flourishing trade. The spread of Christianity naturally created a demand for copies of the Gospels, other sacred books. The modern system of bookselling dates from soon after the introduction of printing, in the course of the 16th and 17th centuries the Low Countries for a time became the chief centre of the bookselling world. Modern book selling has changed dramatically with the advent of the Internet, with major websites such as Amazon, eBay, and other big book distributors offering affiliate programs, book sales have now, more than ever, been put in the hands of the small business owner. Bookstores may be part of a chain, or local independent bookstores. Stores can range in size offering from several hundred to several hundred thousands of titles and they may be brick-and-mortar stores or internet only stores or a combination of both. Sizes for the larger bookstores exceed half a million titles, bookstores often sell other printed matter besides books, such as newspapers, magazines and maps, additional product lines may vary enormously, particularly among independent bookstores. Another common type of bookstore is the used bookstore or second-hand bookshop which buys and sells used, a range of titles are available in used bookstores, including in print and out of print books. Book collectors tend to frequent used book stores, large online bookstores offer used books for sale, too. In the book of Jeremiah the prophet is represented as dictating to Baruch the scribe and these scribes were the earliest booksellers, and supplied copies as they were demanded. Aristotle possessed an extensive library, and Plato is recorded to have paid the large sum of one hundred minae for three small treatises of Philolaus the Pythagorean. When the Alexandrian library was founded about 300 BC, various expedients were used for the purpose of procuring books, in Rome, toward the end of the republic, it became the fashion to have a library as part of the household furniture. Roman booksellers carried on a flourishing trade and their shops were chiefly in the Argiletum, and in the Vicus Sandalarius. On the door, or on the posts, was a list of the books on sale, and Martial. In the time of Augustus the great booksellers were the Sosii, according to Justinian, a law was passed granting to the scribes the ownership of the material written, this may be the beginnings of the modern law of copyright. All references had to be certified by the local mayor, if the application was accepted, the bookseller would have to swear an oath of loyalty to the régime

7.
Printing
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Printing is a process for reproducing text and images using a master form or template. The earliest examples include Cylinder seals and other such as the Cyrus Cylinder. The earliest known form of printing came from China dating to before 220 A. D. Later developments in printing include the type, first developed by Bi Sheng in China around 1040 AD. Johannes Gutenberg introduced mechanical movable type printing to Europe in the 15th century, modern large-scale printing is typically done using a printing press, while small-scale printing is done free-form with a digital printer. Though paper is the most common material, it is frequently done on metals, plastics, cloth. On paper it is carried out as a large-scale industrial process and is an essential part of publishing. Woodblock printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns that was used widely throughout East Asia and it originated in China in antiquity as a method of printing on textiles and later on paper. As a method of printing on cloth, the earliest surviving examples from China date to before 220 A. D, the earliest surviving woodblock printed fragments are from China. They are of silk printed with flowers in three colours from the Han Dynasty and they are the earliest example of woodblock printing on paper appeared in the mid-seventh century in China. By the ninth century, printing on paper had taken off, by the tenth century,400,000 copies of some sutras and pictures were printed, and the Confucian classics were in print. A skilled printer could print up to 2,000 double-page sheets per day, Printing spread early to Korea and Japan, which also used Chinese logograms, but the technique was also used in Turpan and Vietnam using a number of other scripts. This technique then spread to Persia and Russia and this technique was transmitted to Europe via the Islamic world, and by around 1400 was being used on paper for old master prints and playing cards. However, Arabs never used this to print the Quran because of the limits imposed by Islamic doctrine, block printing, called tarsh in Arabic developed in Arabic Egypt during the ninth-tenth centuries, mostly for prayers and amulets. There is some evidence to suggest that these print blocks made from non-wood materials, possibly tin, lead, the techniques employed are uncertain, however, and they appear to have had very little influence outside of the Muslim world. Though Europe adopted woodblock printing from the Muslim world, initially for fabric, block printing later went out of use in Islamic Central Asia after movable type printing was introduced from China. Block printing first came to Europe as a method for printing on cloth, images printed on cloth for religious purposes could be quite large and elaborate. When paper became relatively easily available, around 1400, the medium transferred very quickly to small religious images

8.
Evangelism
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Evangelism is the preaching of the gospel or the practice of proselytizing a particular doctrine or set of beliefs to others with the intention of converting others to the Christian faith. Some Christian traditions consider evangelists to be in a leadership position, Christian groups who actively encourage evangelism are sometimes known as evangelistic or evangelist. The scriptures do not use the word evangelism, but evangelist is used in Acts 21,8, Ephesians 4,11, and 2 Timothy 4,5. The word evangelist comes from the Koine Greek word εὐαγγέλιον via Latinised evangelium as used in the titles of the Four Gospels, authored by Matthew, Mark, Luke. The Greek word εὐαγγέλιον originally meant a reward given to the messenger for good news, the verb form of euangelion, occurs rarely in older Greek literature outside the New Testament, making its meaning more difficult to ascertain. Parallel texts of the Gospels of Luke and Mark reveal a relationship between the verb euangelizo and a Greek verb kerusso, which means to proclaim. While evangelism is usually regarded as converting non-Christians to Christianity, this is not always the proper usage of the word, if converting to Christianity includes services or material benefits, evangelism is called proselytism. Different denominations follow different theological interpretations which reflect upon the point of who is doing the actual conversion, calvinists, for example, believe the soul is converted only if the Holy Spirit is effective in the act. Catholic missionary work in Russia is commonly seen as evangelism, not proselytism and it is entrance into the gift of communion with Christ. In recent history, certain Bible passages have been used to promote evangelism, breaking from tradition and going beyond television and radio a wide range of methods have been developed to reach people not inclined to attend traditional events in churches or revival meetings. Dramas such as Heavens Gates, Hells Flames have gained popularity since the 1980s. These dramas typically depict characters who die and learn whether they will go to heaven or hell. The child evangelism movement is a Christian evangelism movement that originated in the 20th century and it focuses on the 4/14 Window which centers on evangelizing children between the ages of 4 and 14 years old. Other entertainment-based Christian evangelism events include comedy, live theater and music, the Christian music industry has also played a significant role in modern evangelism. Evangelists such as Reinhard Bonnke conduct mass evangelistic crusades around the world, sometimes, the regular minister of a church is called a preacher in a way that other groups would typically use the term pastor. The evangelist in some churches is one that travels from town to town and from church to church, many Christians of various theological perspectives would call themselves evangelists because they are spreaders of the gospel. Many churches believe one of their functions is to function as evangelists to spread the evangelist belief that Jesus is savior of humanity. The title of evangelist is often associated with those who lead large meetings like those of Billy Graham, Luis Palau, pérez possibly in tents or existing church buildings, or those who address the public in street corner preaching, which targets listeners who happen to pass nearby

9.
Rio de Janeiro
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Rio de Janeiro, or simply Rio, is the second-most populous municipality in Brazil and the sixth-most populous in the Americas. The metropolis is anchor to the Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area, Rio de Janeiro is the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazils third-most populous state. Part of the city has designated as a World Heritage Site, named Rio de Janeiro. Founded in 1565 by the Portuguese, the city was initially the seat of the Captaincy of Rio de Janeiro, later, in 1763, it became the capital of the State of Brazil, a state of the Portuguese Empire. Rio stayed the capital of the pluricontinental Lusitanian monarchy until 1822 and this is one of the few instances in history that the capital of a colonising country officially shifted to a city in one of its colonies. Rio de Janeiro has the second largest municipal GDP in the country, the home of many universities and institutes, it is the second-largest center of research and development in Brazil, accounting for 17% of national scientific output according to 2005 data. The Maracanã Stadium held the finals of the 1950 and 2014 FIFA World Cups, the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, the city is divided into 33 administrative regions. Europeans first encountered Guanabara Bay on 1 January 1502, by a Portuguese expedition under explorer Gaspar de Lemos captain of a ship in Pedro Álvares Cabrals fleet, allegedly the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci participated as observer at the invitation of King Manuel I in the same expedition. The region of Rio was inhabited by the Tupi, Puri, Botocudo, in 1555, one of the islands of Guanabara Bay, now called Villegagnon Island, was occupied by 500 French colonists under the French admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon. Consequently, Villegagnon built Fort Coligny on the island when attempting to establish the France Antarctique colony, Rio de Janeiro was the name of Guanabara Bay. Until early in the 18th century, the city was threatened or invaded by several, mostly French, pirates and buccaneers, such as Jean-François Duclerc, on 27 January 1763, the colonial administration in Portuguese America was moved from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. The kingdoms capital was transferred to the city, which, thus, as there was no physical space or urban structure to accommodate hundreds of noblemen who arrived suddenly, many inhabitants were simply evicted from their homes. The first printed newspaper in Brazil, the Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, from the colonial period until the first independent decades, Rio de Janeiro was a city of slaves. There was an influx of African slaves to Rio de Janeiro, in 1819. In 1840, the number of slaves reached 220,000 people, the Port of Rio de Janeiro was the largest port of slaves in America. As a political center of the country, Rio concentrated the political-partisan life of the Empire and it was the main stage of the abolitionist and republican movements in the last half of the 19th century. Rio continued as the capital of Brazil after 1889, when the monarchy was replaced by a republic, until the early years of the 20th century, the city was largely limited to the neighbourhood now known as the historic city centre, on the mouth of Guanabara Bay. Expansion of the city to the north and south was facilitated by the consolidation and electrification of Rios streetcar transit system after 1905, though many thought that it was just campaign rhetoric, Kubitschek managed to have Brasília built, at great cost, by 1960

10.
Paraguay
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Paraguay lies on both banks of the Paraguay River, which runs through the center of the country from north to south. Due to its location in South America, it is sometimes referred to as Corazón de Sudamérica. Paraguay is one of the two landlocked countries that lie outside Afro-Eurasia, Paraguay is the smallest landlocked country in the Americas. The indigenous Guaraní had been living in Paraguay for at least a millennium before the Spanish conquered the territory in the 16th century, Spanish settlers and Jesuit missions introduced Christianity and Spanish culture to the region. Paraguay was a colony of the Spanish Empire, with few urban centers and settlers. Following independence from Spain in 1811, Paraguay was ruled by a series of dictators who generally implemented isolationist and protectionist policies and he was toppled in an internal military coup, and free multi-party elections were organized and held for the first time in 1993. A year later, Paraguay joined Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay to found Mercosur, as of 2009, Paraguays population was estimated to be at around 6.5 million, most of whom are concentrated in the southeast region of the country. The capital and largest city is Asunción, of which the area is home to nearly a third of Paraguays population. In contrast to most Latin American nations, Paraguays indigenous language and culture, Guaraní, in each census, residents predominantly identify as mestizo, reflecting years of intermarriage among the different ethnic groups. Guaraní is recognized as an official language alongside Spanish, and both languages are spoken in the country. There is no consensus for the derivation or meaning of the name Paraguay, the most common interpretations include, Born from water Riverine of many varieties River which originates a sea Fray Antonio Ruiz de Montoya said that it meant river crowned. The Spanish officer and scientist Félix de Azara suggests two derivations, the Payaguas, referring to the tribe who lived along the river. The French-Argentine historian and writer Paul Groussac argued that it meant river that flows through the sea, Paraguayan poet and ex-president Juan Natalicio González said it meant river of the inhabitants of the sea. Indigenous peoples have inhabited this area for thousands of years, pre-Columbian society in the region which is now Paraguay consisted of semi-nomadic tribes that were known for their warrior traditions. These indigenous tribes belonged to five language families, which was the basis of their major divisions. Differing language groups were generally competitive over resources and territories and they were further divided into tribes by speaking languages in branches of these families. Today 17 separate ethnolinguistic groups remain, the first Europeans in the area were Spanish explorers in 1516. The Spanish explorer Juan de Salazar de Espinosa founded the settlement of Asunción on 15 August 1537, the city eventually became the center of a Spanish colonial province of Paraguay

11.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously

12.
Pernambuco
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Pernambuco is a state of Brazil, located in the Northeast region of the country. The state of Pernambuco also includes the archipelago Fernando de Noronha and its capital and largest city, Recife, is one of the most important economic and urban hubs in the country. As of 2013 estimates, Recifes metropolitan area is the fifth most populous in the country, in 1982 the city of Olinda, the second oldest city in Brazil, was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Recife, the capital and Olinda have one of the most traditional Brazilian Carnivals. Both have architecture of Portugal, with centuries-old casarões and churches, kilometers of beaches, the proximity of the equator guarantees sunshine throughout the year, with average temperatures of 26 °C. Pernambuco comprises a narrow coastal zone, a high inland plateau. Ranges of these form the boundary lines with three states–the Serra dos Irmãos and Serra Vermelha with Piauí, the Serra do Araripe with Ceará. The coastal area is fertile, and was covered by the humid Pernambuco coastal forests. It is now place to extensive sugar cane plantations and it has a hot, humid climate, relieved to some extent by the south-east trade winds. The middle zone, called the region, has a drier climate and lighter vegetation, including the semi-deciduous Pernambuco interior forests. The inland region, called the sertão is high, stony, and dry, the climate is characterized by hot days and cool nights. There are two defined seasons, a rainy season from March to June, and a dry season for the remaining months. The interior of the state is covered mostly by the dry thorny scrub vegetation called caatinga, the Rio São Francisco is the main water source for this area. The climate is mild in the countryside of the state because of the Borborema Plateau. Some towns are located more than 1000 meters above sea level, the island of Fernando de Noronha in the Atlantic Ocean,535 km northeast of Recife, has been part of Pernambuco since 1988. The rivers of the include a number of small plateau streams flowing southward to the São Francisco River. The former are the Moxotó, Ema, Pajeú, Terra Nova, Brigida, Boa Vista and Pontai, a large tributary of the Uná, the Rio Jacuhipe, forms part of the boundary line with Alagoas. Originally inhabited by tribes of Tupi-Guarani speaking indigenous peoples, Pernambuco was first settled by the Portuguese in the 16th century

13.
Recife
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The population of the city proper was 1,625,583 in 2016. The city is located at the confluence of the Beberibe and Capibaribe rivers before they flow into the Atlantic Ocean and it is a major port on the Atlantic Ocean. Its name is an allusion to the reefs that are present by the citys shores. The many rivers, small islands and over 50 bridges found in Recife city centre characterise its geography, as of 2010, it is the capital city with the highest HDI in Northeast Brazil and second highest HDI in the entire North and Northeast Brazil. The Metropolitan Region of Recife is the industrial zone of the State of Pernambuco, major products are those derived from cane, ships, oil platforms, electronics, software. With fiscal incentives by the government, many companies were started in the 1970s and 1980s. Recife stands out as a major tourist attraction of the Northeast, the beach of Porto de Galinhas,60 kilometers south of the city, has been repeatedly awarded the title of best beach in Brazil and has drawn many tourists. The Historic Centre of Olinda,7 kilometers north of the city, was declared a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1982, the city is an education hub, and home to the Federal University of Pernambuco, the largest university in Pernambuco. Several Brazilian historical figures, such as the poet and abolitionist Castro Alves, Recife and Natal are the only Brazilian cities with direct flights to the islands of Fernando de Noronha, a World Heritage Site. The city was one of the host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup, additionally, Recife hosted the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup and the 1950 FIFA World Cup. It was a settlement of fishermen and way station for Portuguese sailors. Olinda had been settled in 1536 by captain General Duarte Coelho, the city is named for the long reef recife running parallel to the shoreline which encloses its harbour. The reef is not as sometimes stated, a coral reef, at that time the banks of the Capibaribe River were covered by sugarcane. Recife was capital of the 17th century Dutch Brazil and was called Mauritsstad, the Mascate War of 1710-1711 pitted merchants of Recife against those of nearby Olinda. Due to the proximity to the equator, Recife weather is generally warm. Recife has a number of islands, rivers, waterways and bridges that crisscross the city, Recife is located amidst tropical forests which are distinguished by high rainfall levels resulting in poor soil quality as the rainfall washes away the nutrients. There is an absence of extreme temperatures and a cool breeze due to the winds from the Atlantic Ocean. Recife has a climate, with warm to hot temperatures

14.
Dutch West India Company
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Dutch West India Company was a chartered company of Dutch merchants. Among its founding fathers was Willem Usselincx, the area where the company could operate consisted of West Africa and the Americas, which included the Pacific Ocean and the eastern part of New Guinea. The intended purpose of the charter was to eliminate competition, particularly Spanish or Portuguese, the company became instrumental in the Dutch colonization of the Americas. When the Dutch East India Company was founded in 1602, some traders in Amsterdam did not agree with its monopolistic politics, however, he failed to find a passage. One of the first sailors who focused on trade with Africa was Balthazar de Moucheron, the trade with Africa offered several possibilities to set up trading posts or factories, an important starting point for negotiations. It was Blommaert, however, who stated that in 1600 eight companies sailed on the coast of Africa, competing with each other for the supply of copper, pieter van den Broecke was employed by one of these companies. In 1612, a Dutch fortress was built in Mouree, along the Dutch Gold Coast, Trade with the Caribbean, for salt, sugar and tobacco, was hampered by Spain and delayed because of peace negotiations. Spain offered peace on condition that the Dutch Republic would withdraw from trading with Asia, Spain refused to sign the peace treaty if a West Indian Company would be established. At this time the Dutch War of Independence between Spain and the Dutch Republic was occurring, grand Pensionary Johan van Oldenbarnevelt offered to only suspend trade with the West in exchange for the Twelve Years Truce. The result was that during a few years the company sailed under a flag in South America. However, ten years later, Stadtholder Maurice of Orange, proposed to continue the war with Spain, in 1619, his opponent Johan van Oldenbarnevelt was beheaded, and when two years later the truce expired, the West Indian Company was established. Some historians date the origins of the firm to the 1500s with arrivals of settlers in what is now called New York long before the English at Jamestown. The WIC was organized similarly to the Dutch East India Company, the board consisted of 19 members, known as the Heeren XIX. The validity of the charter was set at 24 years, only in 1623 was funding arranged, after several bidders were put under pressure. The States General of the Netherlands and the VOC pledged one million guilders in the form of capital, unlike the VOC, the WIC had no right to deploy military troops. When the Twelve Years Truce in 1621 was over, the Republic had a hand to re-wage war with Spain. A Groot Desseyn was devised to seize the Portuguese colonies in Africa, when this plan failed, privateering became one of the major goals within the WIC. The arming of merchant ships with guns and soldiers to defend themselves against Spanish ships was of great importance, on almost all ships in 1623,40 to 50 soldiers were stationed, possibly to assist in the hijacking of enemy ships

15.
Maurice, Prince of Orange
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Maurice of Orange was stadtholder of all the provinces of the Dutch Republic except for Friesland from 1585 at earliest until his death in 1625. Before he became Prince of Orange upon the death of his eldest half-brother Philip William in 1618, Maurice spent his youth in Dillenburg in Nassau, and studied in Heidelberg and Leiden. He succeeded his father William the Silent as stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland in 1585, and became stadtholder of Utrecht, Guelders and Overijssel in 1590, and of Groningen in 1620. As Captain-General and Admiral of the Union, Maurice organised the Dutch rebellion against Spain into a coherent, successful revolt, Maurice set out to revive and revise the classical doctrines of Vegetius and pioneered the new European forms of armament and drill. During the Twelve Years Truce, a dispute broke out in the Republic. After the Truce, Maurice failed to achieve more military victories and he died without legitimate children in The Hague in 1625, and was succeeded by his younger half-brother Frederick Henry. Maurice was a son of William the Silent and Princess Anna of Saxony and was born at the castle of Dillenburg and he was named after his maternal grandfather, the Elector Maurice of Saxony, who was also a noted general. Maurice never married but was the father of children by Margaretha van Mechelen. He was raised in Dillenburg by his uncle Johan of Nassau, together with his cousin Willem Lodewijk he studied in Heidelberg and later in Leiden where he met Simon Stevin. The States of Holland and Zeeland paid for his studies, as their father had run into problems after spending his entire fortune in the early stages of the Dutch revolt. Only 16 when his father was murdered in Delft in 1584, he took over as stadtholder. The monarchs of England and France had been requested to accept sovereignty and this had left Maurice as the only acceptable candidate for the position of Stadtholder. He became stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland in 1585, of Guelders, Overijssel and Utrecht in 1590 and of Groningen, protestant Maurice was preceded as Prince of Orange by his Roman Catholic eldest half-brother Philip William, Prince of Orange, deceased 1618. However, Philip William was in the custody of Spain, remaining so until 1596 and he was appointed captain-general of the army in 1587, bypassing the Earl of Leicester, who returned to England on hearing this news. Maurice organised the rebellion against Spain into a coherent, successful revolt, the Eighty Years War was a challenge to his style, so he could prove himself a good leader by taking several Spanish Outposts. In 1597 he went on an offensive and took Rheinberg, Meurs, Groenlo, Bredevoort, Enschede, Ootmarsum, Oldenzaal. These victories rounded out the borders to the Dutch Republic, solidifying the revolt and they also established Maurice as the foremost general of his time. Many of the generals of the succeeding generation, including his brother Frederick Henry

16.
Lisbon
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Lisbon is the capital and the largest city of Portugal, with a population of 552,700 within its administrative limits in an area of 100.05 km². Its urban area extends beyond the administrative limits with a population of around 2.7 million people. About 2.8 million people live in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area and it is continental Europes westernmost capital city and the only one along the Atlantic coast. Lisbon lies in the western Iberian Peninsula on the Atlantic Ocean, the westernmost areas of its metro area is the westernmost point of Continental Europe. Lisbon is recognised as a city because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, education. It is one of the economic centres on the continent, with a growing financial sector. Humberto Delgado Airport serves over 20 million passengers annually, as of 2015, and the motorway network, the city is the 7th-most-visited city in Southern Europe, after Istanbul, Rome, Barcelona, Madrid, Athens and Milan, with 1,740,000 tourists in 2009. The Lisbon region contributes with a higher GDP PPP per capita than any region in Portugal. Its GDP amounts to 96.3 billion USD and thus $32,434 per capita, the city occupies 32nd place of highest gross earnings in the world. Most of the headquarters of multinationals in the country are located in the Lisbon area and it is also the political centre of the country, as its seat of Government and residence of the Head of State. Lisbon is one of the oldest cities in the world, julius Caesar made it a municipium called Felicitas Julia, adding to the name Olissipo. Ruled by a series of Germanic tribes from the 5th century, in 1147, the Crusaders under Afonso Henriques reconquered the city and since then it has been a major political, economic and cultural centre of Portugal. Unlike most capital cities, Lisbons status as the capital of Portugal has never been granted or confirmed officially – by statute or in written form. Its position as the capital has formed through constitutional convention, making its position as de facto capital a part of the Constitution of Portugal. It has one of the warmest winters of any metropolis in Europe, the typical summer season lasts about four months, from June to September, although also in April temperatures sometimes reach around 25 °C. Although modern archaeological excavations show a Phoenician presence at this location since 1200 BC, another conjecture based on ancient hydronymy suggests that the name of the settlement derived from the pre-Roman appellation for the Tagus, Lisso or Lucio. Lisbons name was written Ulyssippo in Latin by the geographer Pomponius Mela and it was later referred to as Olisippo by Pliny the Elder and by the Greeks as Olissipo or Olissipona. The Indo-European Celts invaded in the 1st millennium BC, mixing with the Pre-Indo-European population and this indigenous settlement maintained commercial relations with the Phoenicians, which would account for the recent findings of Phoenician pottery and other material objects

17.
Inquisition
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The Inquisition was a group of institutions within the government system of the Catholic Church whose aim was to combat heresy. It started in 12th-century France to combat religious sectarianism, in particular the Cathars, other groups investigated later included the Spiritual Franciscans, the Hussites and Beguines. Beginning in the 1250s, inquisitors were generally chosen from members of the Dominican Order, the term Medieval Inquisition covers these courts up to mid-15th century. During the Late Middle Ages and early Renaissance, the concept and scope of the Inquisition significantly expanded in response to the Protestant Reformation and it expanded to other European countries, resulting in the Spanish Inquisition and Portuguese Inquisition. The Spanish and Portuguese operated inquisitorial courts throughout their empires in Africa, Asia, the institution survived as part of the Roman Curia, but in 1908 was given the new name of Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office. In 1965 it became the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, the term Inquisition comes from Medieval Latin inquisitio, which referred to any court process that was based on Roman law, which had gradually come back into usage in the late medieval period. Today, the English term Inquisition can apply to any one of several institutions that worked against heretics within the system of the Roman Catholic Church. He Inquisition, as a church-court, had no jurisdiction over Moors, generally, the Inquisition was concerned only with the heretical behaviour of Catholic adherents or converts. The overwhelming majority of sentences seem to have consisted of penances like wearing a cross sewn on ones clothes, going on pilgrimage, etc. The laws were inclusive of proscriptions against certain religious crimes, thus the inquisitors generally knew what would be the fate of anyone so remanded, and cannot be considered to have divorced the means of determining guilt from its effects. The 1578 edition of the Directorium Inquisitorum spelled out the purpose of inquisitorial penalties, quoniam punitio non refertur primo & per se in correctionem & bonum eius qui punitur, sed in bonum publicum ut alij terreantur, & a malis committendis avocentur. Such punishments had a number of opponents, although some countries punished heresy with the death penalty. In the 12th century, to counter the spread of Catharism, the Church charged councils composed of bishops and archbishops with establishing inquisitions. The first Inquisition was temporarily established in Languedoc in 1184, the murder of Pope Innocents papal legate Pierre de Castelnau in 1208 sparked the Albigensian Crusade. The Inquisition was permanently established in 1229, run largely by the Dominicans in Rome, historians use the term Medieval Inquisition to describe the various inquisitions that started around 1184, including the Episcopal Inquisition and later the Papal Inquisition. Other Inquisitions followed after these first inquisition movements, by 1256 inquisitors were given absolution if they used instruments of torture. In the 13th century, Pope Gregory IX assigned the duty of carrying out inquisitions to the Dominican Order, Most inquisitors were friars who taught theology and/or law in the universities. They used inquisitorial procedures, a legal practice adapted from the earlier Ancient Roman court procedures

18.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי‎ ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו‎, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס‎, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד‎ Yid, ייִדן‎, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group

19.
Gomes Freire de Andrade
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Gomes Freire de Andrade, ComC was a field marshal and distinguished officer of the Portuguese army who served France at the end of his military career. Freire spent his youth in Vienna, where he received the classical education customarily given to the children of the nobility, excelling in science and mathematics. Whether through his lessons or life experience, Freire became fluent in Portuguese, German and French, and remained devoted to the arts, literature and philosophy throughout his life. His father was an ally of the Marquis of Pombal in his campaign against the Society of Jesus in Portugal, but died in 1770, when Freire was 13 years old, leaving the family in dire straits. He went there in February 1781 at the age of 24, after completing his training, he was promoted to lieutenant and assigned to the 5th Company of the infantry regiment stationed at Peniche. Freire then went into the Portuguese Royal Navy, embarking in 1784 with a squadron sent to assist the Spanish naval forces of Charles III of Spain in the shelling of Algiers. He returned to Lisbon in September, where he was promoted to lieutenant, and in April 1788 volunteered to rejoin the army, Freire was overlooked when decorations were awarded for service in battle, denying him the Order of St. George. Later, fighting with the Prince of Nassaus squadron in the battle of Svensksund. There was gossip at court that Andrade had amorous feelings for the empress, having arrived in Lisbon on the eve of the departure of the fleet, Freire did not accompany the expedition by sea, but hurried overland across Spain to take command of the regiment. The Portuguese army arrived in Catalonia with a force of five men under the command of General John Forbes. Shortly after arriving at Roses, the Portuguese division left for Céret, while the regiments of Freire de Andrade, freires regiment made a brilliant debut in battle, and the French were defeated on 26 November 1793. Freire subsequently pitched camp in Arles, where he set up quarters for the Second Brigade. On 29 April 1794, General Dugommier attacked the flank of the Spanish army. The Portuguese sustained fire from daybreak till two in the afternoon, yet, remarkably, were able to save the day for the Spanish army, Freire also belonged to the Portuguese Military Lodge, Chevaliers de la Croix in Grenoble, between 1808 and 1813. Portugal was freed in 1811 of its occupation by French troops with Marshal Massénas retreat, the bodies of Gomes Freire and some of the others were decapitated, burnt, and their ashes thrown into the sea. After the trial and execution of Gomes Freire and other accused conspirators, Beresford sailed to Brazil to request expanded powers over the Portuguese military

20.
Tours
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Tours is a city located in the centre-west of France. It is the centre of the Indre-et-Loire department and the largest city in the Centre-Val de Loire region of France. In 2012, the city of Tours had 134,978 inhabitants, Tours stands on the lower reaches of the River Loire, between Orléans and the Atlantic coast. The surrounding district, the province of Touraine, is known for its wines, for the alleged perfection of its local spoken French. The city is also the end-point of the annual Paris–Tours cycle race, in Gallic times the city was important as a crossing point of the Loire. Becoming part of the Roman Empire during the 1st century AD, the name evolved in the 4th century when the original Gallic name, Turones, became first Civitas Turonum then Tours. It was at time that the amphitheatre of Tours, one of the five largest amphitheatres of the Empire, was built. Tours became the metropolis of the Roman province of Lugdunum towards 380–388, dominating the Loire Valley, Maine, one of the outstanding figures of the history of the city was Saint Martin, second bishop who shared his coat with a naked beggar in Amiens. This incident and the importance of Martin in the medieval Christian West made Tours, and its position on the route of pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela, a major centre during the Middle Ages. In the 6th century Gregory of Tours, author of the Ten Books of History, in the 9th century, Tours was at the heart of the Carolingian Rebirth, in particular because of Alcuin abbot of Marmoutier. The outcome was defeat for the Muslims, preventing France from Islamic conquest, in 845, Tours repulsed the first attack of the Viking chief Hasting. In 850, the Vikings settled at the mouths of the Seine, still led by Hasting, they went up the Loire again in 852 and sacked Angers, Tours and the abbey of Marmoutier. During the Middle Ages, Tours consisted of two juxtaposed and competing centres, in the west, the new city structured around the Abbey of Saint Martin was freed from the control of the City during the 10th century and became Châteauneuf. This space, organized between Saint Martin and the Loire, became the centre of Tours. Between these two centres remained Varennes, vineyards and fields, little occupied except for the Abbaye Saint-Julien established on the banks of the Loire, the two centres were linked during the 14th century. Tours became the capital of the county of Tours or Touraine and it was the capital of France at the time of Louis XI, who had settled in the castle of Montils, Tours and Touraine remained until the 16th century a permanent residence of the kings and court. The rebirth gave Tours and Touraine many private mansions and castles and it is also at the time of Louis XI that the silk industry was introduced – despite difficulties, the industry still survives to this day. At this time, the Catholics returned to power in Angers, the Massacre of Saint-Barthelemy was not repeated at Tours

21.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks

22.
John VI of Portugal
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John VI, nicknamed the Clement, was King of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves from 1816 to 1822. Although the United Kingdom over which he ruled ceased to exist de facto beginning in 1822, after the recognition of Brazilian independence under the Treaty of Rio de Janeiro of 1825, he continued as King of Portugal and the Algarves until his death in 1826. Under the same treaty, he became titular Emperor of Brazil for life, while his son. Born in Lisbon in 1767, the son of Maria I and Peter III of Portugal and he only became heir to the throne when his older brother José, Prince of Brazil, died of smallpox in 1788 at the age of 27. Before his accession to the Portuguese throne, John VI bore the titles Duke of Braganza and Duke of Beja, from 1799, he served as prince regent of Portugal, due to the mental illness of his mother, Queen Maria I. In 1816, he succeeded his mother as monarch of the Portuguese Empire, with no change in his authority. One of the last representatives of absolute monarchy in Europe, he lived during a turbulent period, throughout his period of rule, major powers, such as Spain, France and Great Britain, continually intervened in Portuguese affairs. His marriage was no less conflictual, as his wife, Carlota Joaquina of Spain and he lost Brazil when his son Pedro declared independence, and his other son Miguel led a rebellion that sought to depose him. According to recent scholarly research, his death may well have been caused by arsenic poisoning, João Maria José Francisco Xavier de Paula Luís António Domingos Rafael was born 13 May 1767, during the reign of his grandfather, Joseph I of Portugal. He was the son of the future Queen Maria I, Josephs daughter, and her husband. At the time of Johns birth they were, respectively, Princess of Brazil and he was ten years old when his grandfather died and his mother ascended to the throne. His childhood and youth were lived quietly, as he was a mere infante in the shadow of his elder brother José, Prince of Brazil and 14th Duke of Braganza, the heir-apparent to the throne. Folklore has John as a rather uncultured youth, but according to Jorge Pedreira e Costa, still, a French ambassador of the time painted him in unfavorable colors, seeing him as hesitant and dim. The record of this period of his life is too vague for historians to form any definitive picture, little is known of the substance of his education. He surely received instruction in religion, law, French, and etiquette, and would presumably have learned history through reading the works of Duarte Nunes de Leão and João de Barros. In 1785, Henrique de Meneses, 3rd Marquis of Louriçal, arranged a marriage between John and the Infanta Carlota Joaquina of Spain, daughter of King Charles IV of Spain, like her betrothed, Carlota was a junior member of a royal family. Fearing a new Iberian Union, some in the Portuguese court viewed the marriage to a Spanish infanta unfavorably and she endured four days of testing by the Portuguese ambassadors before the marriage pact was confirmed. Because John and Carlota were related, and because of the brides youth, after being confirmed, the marriage capitulation was signed in the throne room of the Spanish court with great pomp and with the participation of both kingdoms

23.
Royal charter
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A royal charter is a formal document issued by a monarch as letters patent, granting a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as cities or universities, Charters should be distinguished from warrants and letters of appointment, as they have perpetual effect. Typically, a Royal Charter is produced as a high-quality work of calligraphy on vellum, the British monarchy has issued over 980 royal charters. Of these about 750 remain in existence, the earliest was to the town of Tain in 1066, making it the oldest Royal Burgh in Scotland, followed by the University of Cambridge in 1231. Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown, a recent example being that awarded to the Chartered Institute for the Management of Sport and Physical Activity, Charters have been used in Europe since medieval times to create cities. The date that such a charter is granted is considered to be when a city is founded, at one time, a royal charter was the sole means by which an incorporated body could be formed, but other means are generally used nowadays instead. In the period before 1958,32 higher education institutes had been created by royal charter and these were typically engineering or technical institutions rather than universities. Royal decrees can therefore no longer grant higher education status or university status. A Royal Charter is granted by Order in Council, either creating an incorporated body and this is an exercise of the Royal Prerogative, and, in Canada, there are hundreds of organisations under Royal Charters. Such organisations include charities, businesses, colleges, universities, today, it is mostly charities and professional institutions who receive Royal Charters. Application for a charter is a petition to the Queen-in-Council, however, meeting these benchmarks does not guarantee the issuance of a Royal Charter. Companies, corporations, and societies in Canada founded under or augmented by a Royal Charter include, Royal Charter was issued in August 1826 to purchase and develop lands. Purchased the Crown Reserve of 1,384,413 acres, cities under Royal Charter are not subject to municipal Acts of Parliament applied generally to other municipalities, and instead are governed by legislation applicable to each city individually. The Royal Charter codifies the laws applied to the particular city, the Universitys Pontifical Charter was granted by Pope Leo XIII in 1889. Several Canadian private schools were founded or reconstituted under Royal Charter, the Royal Gibraltar Post Office was granted Royal Charter in 2005. The Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club obtained Royal Charter in 1959 and it is one of the three banknote-issuing banks in Hong Kong. The Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch Chartered originally in 1847, disbanded 1859, the Institution of Engineers was incorporated by royal charter in 1935. A number of Irish institutions retain the Royal prefix, even though Republic of Ireland severed all remaining connections between the state and the British monarch in 1949, the University of South Africa received a Royal Charter in 1877

24.
Ouro Preto
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Ouro Preto is located in one of the main areas of the Brazilian Gold Rush. Officially,800 tons of gold were sent to Portugal in the XVIII century, other gold circulated illegally, and still other gold remained in the colony to adorn churches and for other uses. In the 18th century, Ouro Preto became for a time the most populous city in the New World, at that time, the population of New York was half that number, and the population of São Paulo did not reach 8,000. Population, Data from the 2010 Census Resident population,70,227 Urban area,56,293 Rural area,9,985 Area of the municipality,1,245 km² Temperature, in June and July the temperature can reach -2 degrees Celsius. The highest point is Pico de Itacolomi with 1,722 meters, rivers, sources for the Velhas, Piracicaba, Gualaxo do Norte, Gualaxo do Sul, Mainart e Ribeirão Funil. Per Capita Income, R$23,622 HDI,0, founded at the end of the 17th century, Ouro Preto was originally called Vila Rica, or rich village, the focal point of the gold rush and Brazils golden age in the 18th century under Portuguese rule. The city centre contains well-preserved Portuguese colonial architecture, with few signs of urban development. New construction must keep with the citys historical aesthetic, 18th- and 19th-century churches decorated with gold and the sculptured works of Aleijadinho make Ouro Preto a tourist destination. The tremendous wealth from mining in the 18th century created a city which attracted the intelligentsia of Europe. At that time, Vila Rica was the largest city in Brazil, in 1789, Ouro Preto became the birthplace of the Inconfidência Mineira, a failed attempt to gain independence from Portugal. The leading figure, Tiradentes, was hanged as a threat to any future revolutionaries, in 1876, the Escola de Minas was created. This school established the foundation for several of the mineral discoveries in Brazil. Ouro Preto was capital of Minas Gerais from 1720 until 1897, the state government was moved to the new, planned city of Belo Horizonte. Main economic activities are tourism, transformation industries, and mineral riches such as deposits of iron, bauxite, manganese, talc, minerals of note are, gold, hematite, dolomite, tourmaline, pyrite, muscovite, topaz and imperial topaz. The imperial topaz is a stone found in Ouro Preto. Soapstone handicraft items are a popular souvenir among tourists, and can be found in shops in the town centre. Jewelry made of precious and semi-precious gemstones can also be found in abundance for sale. Ouro Preto is also a university town with a student life

25.
Minas Gerais
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Minas Gerais is a state in the north of Southeastern Brazil. It ranks as the second most populous, the third by gross domestic product, Minas Gerais is the state with the largest number of Brazilian presidents. With an area of 586,528 square kilometres —larger than Metropolitan France—it is the fourth most extensive state in Brazil. In the south, the tourist points are the mineral spas, such as Caxambu, Lambari, São Lourenço, Poços de Caldas, São Thomé das Letras, Monte Verde. The landscape of the State is marked by mountains, valleys, in the Serra do Cipó, Sete Lagoas, Cordisburgo and Lagoa Santa, the caves and waterfalls are the attractions. Some of Brazils most famous caverns are located there, in recent years, the state has emerged as one of the largest economic forces of Brazil, exploring its great economic potential. Two interpretations are given for the origin of the name Minas Gerais and it comes from Minas dos Matos Gerais, the former name of the colonial province. Another explanation is that this ignores the two large geographical spaces which conformed the state in its history, the region of the mines, and these corresponded to the areas of Sertão which were farther and hard to access from the mining spots. The confusion comes from the fact that the term Gerais is taken as an adjective to Minas in the first version, Minas Gerais is in the north of the southeastern subdivision of Brasil, which also contains the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo. It borders on Bahia, Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, the states of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro and it also shares a short boundary with the Distrito Federal. Minas Gerais is situated between 14°1358 and 22°5400 S latitude and between 39°5132 and 51°0235 W longitude and it is larger in area than Metropolitan France or Spain. Minas Gerais features some of the longest rivers in Brazil, most notably the São Francisco, the Paraná and to a lesser extent, the state also holds many hydroelectric power plants, including Furnas. The most notable one is the Pico da Bandeira, the third highest mountain in Brazil at 2890 m, the state also has huge reserves of iron and sizeable reserves of gold and gemstones, including emerald, topaz and aquamarine mines. Emeralds found in location are comparable to the best Colombia-origin emeralds. Each region of the state has a character, geographically. The central and eastern area of the state is hilly and rocky, around Lagoa Santa and Sete Lagoas a typical Karst topography with caves and lakes is found. Some of the mountains are almost entirely iron ore, which led to extensive mining, recent advances in environmental policy helped to put limits to mining. Vale do Aços largest cities are Ipatinga, Coronel Fabriciano and Timóteo, now that mining is restricted large areas of forest are being removed for timber, charcoal and to clear land for cattle ranching

26.
Alberto Henschel
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Alberto Henschel was a German-Brazilian photographer born in Berlin. Henschel became known for making representations of Rio de Janeiro as a landscaper photographer. This title would give his photographs increased recognition and raise their price, as soon as the first world maps showing Brazil were printed in the Renaissance era of Albrecht Dürer, the recently discovered country aroused the interest of the German public. I cannot, here, repress this observation, willingly hovers the fantasy on the future of such charming country, that is at present little developed and, so to speak, does not have a past. Alberto Henschel was born 13 June 1827 in Berlin to Moritz, Moritz and his brothers August, Friedrich, and Wilhelm, of Jewish origin, had arrived in Berlin around 1806. They were recognized as engravers and signed their works as the Henschel Brothers, There are no records of Alberto Henschels person or professional life in Germany or his reasons for emigrating to Brazil. It has been assumed that Alberto Henschel also met the photographer Francisco Benque while still in Germany, with whom he had a successful, Henschel and his associate Karl Heinrich Gutzlaff disembarked in Recife in May 1866, intending to create a photographic studio on Imperador street, number 38. Initially named Alberto Henschel & Cia, the studio became Photographia Allemã, next changing to a new address on the Matriz de Santo Antônio square, number 2. In 1867, Henschel separated from Gutzlaff and returned to Germany where he updated his technique and he returned to Brazil in the same year, opening another establishment with the same company name in the city of Salvador, on Piedade street, number 16. By opening three establishments in only two years, Henschel was thought of as the most audacious and sagacious photographic businessman in 19th century Brazil, in 1870, Henschel opened another subsidiary of his atelier, this time in Rio de Janeiro, on Ourives street. It was in Rio, capital of the Empire, where he started his prosperous partnership with Francisco Benque, There are no records dating when the relationship with Benque crumbled, it is probable that their association remained until 1880. The historian photographer Gilberto Ferrez describes the quality and importance of Henschel as follows, Henschel photographed Rio and he made landscapes, but above all he was a distinguished portraitist. There is almost no family album where no portraits of grandparents were done by Alberto Henschel and he also participated in the IV National Exposition and the Universal Exposition of Vienna, in Austria, where he received the Merit Medal. On 1 February 1882, Henschel inaugurated another establishment, this time in the capital of the province of São Paulo and he gave it the name Photographia Imperial because the name Photographia Allemã had already been used since 1875 by the atelier of the photographer Carlos Hoenen. His arrival in São Paulo was considered important because, besides being holder of the title of Photographo da Casa Imperial. Henschel died in Rio de Janeiro that same year, only months after establishing himself in São Paulo. However, his companies, under the command of other businessmen, continued to use his name for many years. Henschel was considered the hardest-working photographer and businessman in 19th-century Brazil and he always remained up-to-date with the latest techniques on the photography market

27.
Salvador, Bahia
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Salvador, also known as São Salvador, Salvador de Bahia, and Salvador da Bahia, is the capital of the Brazilian state of Bahia. With 2.9 million people, it is the largest city proper in the Northeast Region, founded by the Portuguese in 1549 as the first capital of Brazil, Salvador is one of the oldest colonial cities in the Americas. A sharp escarpment divides its Lower Town from its Upper Town by some 85 meters, the Elevador Lacerda, Brazils first elevator, has connected the two since 1873. The Pelourinho district of the town, still home to many examples of Portuguese colonial architecture. The citys cathedral is the see of the primate of Brazil, Salvador was the first slave port in the Americas and the African influence of the slaves descendants makes it a center of Afro-Brazilian culture. The city is noted for its cuisine, music, and architecture, Porto da Barra Beach in Barra has been named one of the best beaches in the world. Itaipava Arena Fonte Nova was the site of the games during the 2014 Brazilian World Cup. Salvador forms the heart of the Recôncavo, Bahias rich agricultural and industrial maritime district and its metropolitan area, housing 3,953,290 people forms the wealthiest one in Brazils Northeast Region. Salvador lies on a small, roughly triangular peninsula that separates the Bay of All Saints from the Atlantic Ocean, the bay is the largest in Brazil and the 2nd-largest in the world. It was first reached by Gaspar de Lemos in 1501, just one year after Cabrals purported discovery of Brazil, the first European to settle nearby was Diogo Álvares Correia, who was shipwrecked off the end of the peninsula in 1509. He lived among the Tupinambá, marrying Guaibimpara and others, mistreatment of the Tupinambá by the settlers caused them to turn hostile and the Portuguese were forced to flee to Porto Seguro c. 1546. An attempted restoration of the colony the next year ended in shipwreck, the present city was established as the fortress of São Salvador da Bahia de Todos os Santos in 1549 by Portuguese settlers under Tomé de Sousa, Brazils first governor-general. It is one of the oldest cities founded by Europeans in the Americas, from a cliff overlooking the Bay of All Saints, it served as Brazils first capital and quickly became a major port for its slave trade and sugarcane industry. Salvador was long divided into an upper and a lower city, the upper city formed the administrative, religious, and primary residential districts while the lower city was the commercial center, with a port and market. In 1572, the Governorate of Brazil was divided into the governorates of Bahia in the north. These were reunited as Brazil six years later, then redivided from 1607 to 1613, by that time, Portugal had become united with Spain and was ruled from Madrid by its kings. As Spain was then prosecuting a war against the independence of the Dutch, Salvador played a strategically vital role against Dutch Brazil, but was captured and sacked by a West India Company fleet under Jacob Willekens and Piet Hein on 10 May 1624. Johan van Dorth administered the colony before his assassination, freeing its slaves, the city was recaptured by a Luso-Spanish fleet under Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo y Mendoza on 1 May 1625

28.
Cachoeira
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Cachoeira, is an inland municipality of Bahia, Brazil, on the Paraguaçu River. The town exports sugar, cotton and tobacco and is a commercial and industrial centre. The municipality contains 56% of the 10,074 hectares Baía do Iguape Marine Extractive Reserve, first settled by the Indians, it was later settled by the Portuguese families of Dias Adorno and Rodrigues Martins. It became known as Nossa Senhora do Rosário in 1674 and it was a strategic area and was linked with the mining city of Salvador, the former colonial capital. It became a parish on December 27,1693 and it also became Vila de Nossa Senhora do Rosário do Porto da Cachoeira do Paraguaçu in 1698. Sugar cane farming, gold mining on rio das Contas, increased traffic on royal streets, in early 1800, the Cachoeirense society became very important politically. It actively participated in the war of the Independence of Bahia, the town became a city under the imperial decree of March 13,1873. Cachoeira is considered a monument of the Instituto do Patrimônio Histórico Artístico e Nacional It is currently undergoing a bit of a tourist revival

29.
Castro Alves
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Antônio Frederico de Castro Alves was a Brazilian poet and playwright, famous for his abolitionist and republican poems. One of the most famous poets of the Condorism, he won the epithet of O Poeta dos Escravos and he is the patron of the 7th chair of the Brazilian Academy of Letters. In 1853, he was sent to study in the Colégio Sebrão, run by Abílio César Borges, there, he would meet and befriend Ruy Barbosa. In 1862, he moved to Recife in order to study at the Faculdade de Direito do Recife and he only was able to join the college in 1864, there meeting Tobias Barreto and José Bonifácio the Younger. They would heavily influence Alves writing style, and in turn and his father would die in 1866, and short after, he met Portuguese actress Eugênia Câmara, and would start dating her afterwards. In the following year, he and Câmara would go to São Paulo, in there, he also befriended Pedro Luís Pereira de Sousa, and wrote a poem named Deusa incruenta, based on Sousas work Terribilis Dea. His play Gonzaga would be performed on the end of 1868, being received by critics and public alike. During a hunting trip in the year, Alves received an accidental shotgun shot in his left foot. However, a prosthesis was made for him, and thus he was able to walk again and he would spend the year of 1870 in his home-state of Bahia, trying to recover from the tuberculosis he got while in São Paulo. Also in 1870, Alves published the poetry book Espumas Flutuantes – the only work he would publish during his lifetime, all his other works would receive a posthumous publication. Alves attempts to mitigate the tuberculosis were in vain, he would die on 6 July 1871, in the city of Salvador and they can be found on Espumas Flutuantes. Castro Alves biography at the site of the Brazilian Academy of Letters Works by or about Castro Alves at Internet Archive Works by Castro Alves at LibriVox

30.
Coelho Neto
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Henrique Maximiano Coelho Neto was a Brazilian writer and politician. He founded and occupied the chair of the Brazilian Academy of Letters. He was also the president of the aforementioned Academy in 1926, Coelho Neto was born in the city of Caxias, Maranhão, on February 21,1864. His father was Portuguese, but his mother was an indigenous woman, at six years of age, his parents moved to Rio de Janeiro. He began his education at the Externato of the Colegio Pedro II and he attempted medical school but soon gave up. In 1883 he enrolled at the University of São Paulo School of Law, living in the house where also lived Raul Pompeia. He soon found himself involved in a student movement against a professor, in anticipation of reprisals, he moved to the Law Faculty of Recife, where he completed the first year of law, having been a student of the jurist and poet Tobias Barreto. Returning to São Paulo, he devoted himself passionately to the abolitionist and Republican campaign, in 1885 he finally abandoned his legal studies and moved to Rio de Janeiro. He became part of a group of bohemians that included such as Olavo Bilac, Luís Murat, Guimarães Passos. He joined the newspaper Gazeta da Tarde, later moving to the sheet Cidade do Rio, from this period date his first published volumes. In 1890, he married Maria Gabriela Brandão, daughter of educator Alberto Olympio Brandão, one of those was the famous football player João Coelho Neto. He was appointed to the post of secretary of the government of the state of Rio de Janeiro, in 1892 he was appointed professor of art history at the Escola Nacional de Belas Artes and, later, professor of literature at the Colégio Pedro II. He was elected congressman for Maranhão in 1909 and was reelected in 1917 and he was also secretary-general of the League of National Defense and a member of the Advisory Board of the Municipal Theater of Rio de Janeiro. In addition to holding office, Coelho Neto maintained and intensified his activities in magazines and newspapers of all sizes, in Rio. In 1923, he converted to Spiritualism, delivering a speech about his adoption of the doctrine in the Salão da Velha Guarda in Rio de Janeiro. He was active in all literary genres and was for many years the most widely read writer in Brazil. He wrote what could have been the first Brazilian serial movie, however, only the first episode was ever completed. He was probably the most widely read Brazilian writer in the first decades of the twentieth century, however, he and his work were attacked by the Modernists during the Modern Art Week in 1922 and this probably contributed to his later neglect by publishers and the Brazilian public

31.
Rui Barbosa
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Ruy Barbosa de Oliveira was a Brazilian polymath, diplomat, writer, jurist, and politician. Born in Salvador, Bahia, he was a representative, senator, Minister of Finance. For his distinguished participation in the 2nd Hague Conference, defending the principle of equality among nations and he ran unsuccessfully for the Presidency of Brazil in 1910,1914 and in 1919. Ruy Barbosa gave his first public speech for the abolition of slavery when he was 19, for the rest of his life he remained an uncompromising defender of civil liberties. Slavery in Brazil was finally abolished by the Lei Áurea in 1888, part of Barbosas legacy to history is that he authorised, as minister of finance on 14 December 1890, the destruction of most government records relating to slavery. The avowed reason for destruction, which took several years to be enacted and was followed by his successors, was to erase the stain of slavery on Brazilian history. However, historians agree that Barbosa aimed to prevent any possible indemnization of the former slave-owners for this liberation. Indeed, eleven days after the abolition of slavery, a law project was deposed at the Chamber, Barbosas liberal ideas were influential in drafting of the first republican constitution. He was a supporter of fiat money, as opposed to a gold standard, during his term as finance secretary, he implemented far-reaching reforms of Brazils financial regime, instituting a vigorously expansionist monetary policy. The result was chaos and instability, the so-called fiat experiment resulted in the bubble of encilhamento, due to his controversial role during it, in the following administration of Floriano Peixoto, he was forced into exile until Florianos term ended. Years later, after his return he was elected as a Senator and he headed the Brazilian delegation to the 2nd Hague Conference and was brilliant in its deliberations. As candidate of the Civilian Party in the election of 1910. He was not successful and lost to Marshal Hermes da Fonseca and he ran again in the elections of 1914 and 1919, both times losing to the government candidate. During World War I, he played a key role among those who advocated the Allied cause, Barbosa died in Petrópolis, near Rio de Janeiro, in 1923. Turner, CW, Ruy Barbosa, Brazilian crusader for the freedoms, New York, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 1-419-10424-1. Mendes Silva, Professor Raul, Haia, Ruy Barbosa e a delegação brasileira à segunda conferência de paz, Missões de Paz, Brazil, fundação Casa de Ruy Barbosa, BR, Brazilian government. Works by or about Rui Barbosa at Internet Archive

32.
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
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In it, Wollstonecraft responds to those educational and political theorists of the 18th century who did not believe women should have an education. Instead of viewing women as ornaments to society or property to be traded in marriage, Wollstonecraft wrote the Rights of Woman hurriedly to respond directly to ongoing events, she intended to write a more thoughtful second volume but died before completing it. While Wollstonecraft does call for equality between the sexes in particular areas of life, such as morality, she does not explicitly state that men and women are equal, the Rights of Woman was actually well received when it was first published in 1792. One biographer has called it perhaps the most original book of century, a Vindication of the Rights of Woman was written against the tumultuous background of the French Revolution and the debates that it spawned in Britain. Wollstonecraft first entered this fray in 1790 with A Vindication of the Rights of Men, in his Reflections, Burke criticised the view of many British thinkers and writers who had welcomed the early stages of the French revolution. He viewed the French revolution as the violent overthrow of a legitimate government, when Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord presented his Rapport sur linstruction publique to the National Assembly in France, Wollstonecraft was galvanised to respond. Men are destined to live on the stage of the world, a public education suits them, it early places before their eyes all the scenes of life, only the proportions are different. The paternal home is better for the education of women, they have less need to learn to deal with the interests of others, than to accustom themselves to a calm, the Rights of Woman is an extension of Wollstonecrafts arguments in the Rights of Men. In the Rights of Men, as the title suggests, she is concerned with the rights of men while in the Rights of Woman, she is concerned with the rights afforded to woman. She does not isolate her argument to 18th-century women or British women, the first chapter of the Rights of Woman addresses the issue of natural rights and asks who has those inalienable rights and on what grounds. She answers that since natural rights are given by God, for one segment of society to deny them to another segment is a sin. The Rights of Woman thus engages not only specific events in France and in Britain but also larger questions being raised by political philosophers such as John Locke, Wollstonecraft did not employ the formal argumentation or logical prose style common to 18th-century philosophical writing when composing her own works. The Rights of Woman is an essay that introduces all of its major topics in the opening chapters and then repeatedly returns to them. It also adopts a tone that combines rational argument with the fervent rhetoric of sensibility. In the 18th century, sensibility was a phenomenon that came to be attached to a specific set of moral beliefs. Physicians and anatomists believed that the more sensitive peoples nerves, the more emotionally affected they would be by their surroundings, since women were thought to have keener nerves than men, it was also believed that women were more emotional than men. The emotional excess associated with sensibility also theoretically produced an ethic of compassion, thus historians have credited the discourse of sensibility and those who promoted it with the increased humanitarian efforts, such as the movement to abolish the slave trade. By the time Wollstonecraft was writing the Rights of Woman, sensibility had already been under sustained attack for a number of years

Maurice of Orange (Dutch: Maurits van Oranje) (14 November 1567 – 23 April 1625) was stadtholder of all the provinces …

Image: School of Michiel Jansz. van Mierevelt 001

Maurice as a child

The Cavalcade of princes of the House of Orange and Nassau, 1. Front Row: Maurice (1567–1625), Philip William (1558–1618), Frederick Henry (1584–1647), 2. Second Row: William Louis (1560–1632), Ernst Casimir (1573–1632) und Johann Ernst. after a print by W. J. Delff (1621) after a painting from A. P. van de Venne

Maurice and his followers on the Vijverberg, The Hague. Adam van Breen, 1618.

From the top: Farol da Barra Lighthouse, Ponta de Santo Antonio, southern end of town. Featured, the Barra Lighthouse, Buildings Facades in the Harbor at Salvador, Lacerda Elevator, The monument to the heroes of the battles of Independence of Bahia, panoramic view of the city.