By David Crystal

New from Cambridge University Press!

By Peter Mark Roget

This book "supplies a vocabulary of English words and idiomatic phrases 'arranged … according to the ideas which they express'. The thesaurus, continually expanded and updated, has always remained in print, but this reissued first edition shows the impressive breadth of Roget's own knowledge and interests."

PURPOSE OF THE BOOKIn this book, David Lee defines the very basic conceptsof Cognitive Linguistics and shows their possibleapplication to a range of topics, setting out tomake the theory accessible to a wide audience, with noprior knowledge of the discipline. In particular, Leehighlights the vital role of meaning in the cognitive modeland the centrality of the notion of 'construal'. This makesthe theory greatly differ from earlier treatments ofsemantics, in that it assumes linguistic expression as codinga particular way of perceiving the relevant scene. Moreover,in seeing language and cognition inextricably interwoven,David Lee consistently illustrates throughout his work thepotential interaction between Cognitive Linguistics andcurrent trends in neighbouring disciplines (Literary Theory,Cultural Study Theory, etc.).

CONTENTSThe book consists of 13 chapters, an appendix (transcript offamily argument, from the television series 'SylvaniaWaters'), references and an index.

Chapters 1-4 deal with basic concepts in CognitiveLinguistics, coding of spatial relationships, metaphoricaluses of spatial expressions and categorisation.Chapters 5-10 shed light on how the cognitive model may applyto some central topics in linguistics (the nature ofconstructions explained through mental spaces, languagechange, aspects of nominal and verbal structure, agentivityand causation).

Chapters 11-12 focus on the theory of discourse analysis.Finally, the concluding chapter discusses some general issuesarising out of the cognitive approach (creativity inlanguage, the nature of meaning).

A set of exercises and suggested further reading follow theend of every chapter.

CHAPTER 1 - BASIC CONCEPTS (pp. 1-17): Cognitive Linguisticsis concisely defined in opposition to Generative Grammar, as itassigns a central role to meaning. Cognitivists argue thatlinguistic structure reflects mechanisms of cognition ratherthan being determined by a formal rule system, largelyindependent of meaning. According to this view, there is nodirect mapping between the elements of a situation andlinguistic structure, but a particular situation can be'construed' differently according to differentconceptualisations, according to different modes ofCONSTRUAL. Factors involved in alternative construals arePERSPECTIVE, that is the viewpoint the speaker assumes byreferring to a 'landmark' and a 'trajector', FOREGROUNDING,the relative salience of the various components of thesituation, and FRAMING, the background knowledge of thesituation. Finally, METAPHOR, far from being an unusual formof discourse, peculiar to literature, is a medium throughwhich different construals can emerge. In interaction witheach other, these notions suggest that meaning is not aproperty of utterances, but the result of connections betweenan utterance and a human being's 'knowledge base'.

CHAPTER 2 - SPACE (pp. 18-29): The range of uses of threebasic locative prepositions of English (IN, ON, and AT) areanalysed. This examination demonstrates that the choice of apreposition over another is not determined by the objectiveproperties of the situation observed, but, rather, it mostlyrests on the way the situation is construed in its variouselements. These findings in spatial relationships are alsorelevant to other areas of language, since basic spatial notionsare so fundamental that we use space as a domain for organisingother aspects of our experience.

CHAPTER 3 - EXTENSION FROM SPATIAL MEANINGS (pp. 30-52): The ways in whichwe use spatial terms and spatial concepts to structure non-spatial domainsis here further analysed. The prepositions OUT and UP are examined asexamples and the author points out that the range of meanings expressed bythem are organised in a network structured around a core meaning. On thispurpose, RADIAL CATEGORIES are first and briefly introduced. A whole casestudy is then dedicated to the preposition THROUGH. Not only can the basiclocative schema of this preposition be subject to processes of abstractionand idealisation, but its various uses also demonstrate that there is noclear-cut boundary between semantics and pragmatics. Our real-wordknowledge of the traverse of a trajector through a landmark can activatedifferent meanings, so that, for example, trajector can be seen asimpacting or changing landmark, which, in turn, can constitute an obstacleor an instrument. In dealing with causative, resultative and temporal usesof 'through', the concept of SUBJECTIFICATION is explained.

CHAPTER 4 - RADIAL CATEGORIES (pp. 53-69): This chaptercomplements the previous one, by introducing the PROTOTYPE-BASED MODEL and profusely exploring the importance ofRADIALITY in language. First, it is shown that the range ofmeanings of the suffix '-ABLE' emerge from the interactionbetween its frame and the frame associated with the verb withwhich the suffix combines. Then COUNTERFACTUAL uses of theEnglish past tense are explained as the result of a processof foregrounding. Finally, the author provides evidence ofradiality in adjectives (STRONG and GOOD are analysed), inthe area of processes (as examples, CLIMB and TURN) and innouns (with some interesting notes on OVEREXTENSION inchildren).

CHAPTER 5 - CONSTRUCTIONS (pp. 70-96): This chapter suggestsan alternative approach to syntax. The process of combiningwords into sentences is seen as the result of the speakerability to construct generalisations about form-meaningrelationships, rather than as a grammatical process involvingword-class concepts and rules of combination. In thisapproach, the role of grammar is to map linguistic units thatrefer to relevant semantic entities onto a particularposition, so that the meaning of a construction is theproduct of a complex interaction between the framesassociated with the relevant words. The notion ofconstructional meaning is plainly illustrated through theexample of ''DATIVE ALTERNATION'' (Langacker 1990), whichraises related issues, such as constraints on generalisationin child language, the question of acceptability of asentence and the high degree of ICONICITY in language assumedby cognitive linguists. This latter claim about iconicity isfurther developed in the foregrounding approach to the so-called 'OBJECT/SUBJECT-RAISING' constructions. Eventually,distributional patterns of the CAUSED-MOTION CONSTRUCTION areexamined to show that the range of meanings expressed by thisconstruction organise themselves in a radial network(Goldberg 1995). Finally, the involvement of experientalknowledge in syntactic phenomena is demonstrated through theexample of the constructions that different verbs of removal canundergo (Levin and Rappaport Hovav 1991). Generative Grammarcomes in for harsh criticism throughout the whole chapter.

CHAPTER 6 - MENTAL SPACES (pp. 97-115): The THEORY OF MENTALSPACES (Fauconnier 1994) is introduced, either as it meshesclosely with many of the concepts previously treated, orsince it paves the way for the following topics. The chapter,therefore, is presented as the hub of the essay. Thepervasive nature of metonymy as a general process ofexploiting the relationship between a trigger and a targetthrough the means of pragmatic functions leads the author toemphasise the power of the mental spaces model. Mental Spacesprovide a unitary explanation for a varied range of phenomenasuch as APPARENT SEMANTIC ANOMALIES and REFERENTIALAMBIGUITIES. This latter topic is given wider attentionthrough sections dedicated to CHANGE PREDICATES (Sweetser1996) and to REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

CHAPTER 7 - LANGUAGE CHANGE (pp. 116-136): This chapterexplores the ways in which concepts from CognitiveLinguistics can shed light on semantic change. The notion of'FORCE DYNAMICS' (Talmy 1988), for example, accounts for thenon-temporal meaning of SOON, together with subjectification(see Ch. 3). This, in turn, plays a major role also in theshift from the root meaning of the modal verbs CAN and MAY totheir epistemic and deontic meanings. Foregrounding ofintentionality at the expense of movement is shown to be themain feature of the development of 'GO-FUTURES'. Besides, thegrowth of the radial range of meanings expressed by STILL isanalysed in its main stages, in order to demonstrate the moregeneral connection between radial network and linguistic change.

CHAPTER 8 - COUNT AND MASS NOUNS (pp. 137-146): The questionof ARBITRARINESS in language is here more openly faced,although this problem have been alluded to in thediscussion so far (see, in particular, Ch. 5). Much asit is vital not to argue that grammar is wholly determined bycognitive or pragmatic factors, count/mass distinction ishere demonstrated to be more strongly motivated than hastraditionally been thought the case. Such a demonstration isallowed by the crucial concept of construal. Nouns LACKING ASINGULAR FORM and nouns WITH IDENTICAL SINGULAR AND PLURALFORMS are analysed along with count and mass phenomena.

CHAPTER 9 - PERFECTIVE AND IMPERFECTIVE USES OF VERBS (pp.147-156): A parallel is drawn, on the one hand, between countphenomena and perfective situations and, on the other, betweenmass phenomena and imperfective situations. The formerentities are bounded and internally heterogeneous, whereasthe latter are unbounded and internally homogeneous.In general, this supports the idea that such a pervasivepattern of semantic features reflects overarching phenomenadeeply rooted in human cognition. More specifically, thisconceptualisation can account either for the fact thatPROGRESSIVE ASPECT normally does not co-occur withimperfective verbs, or for the fact that in English the SIMPLEPRESENT TENSE form of perfective verbs cannot generally beused to refer to an ongoing action in present time. Theprogressive requires that the event be conceptualised notonly as a moment in time, but also as an individuated,bounded situation. Therefore, it is incompatible withimperfective situations, inherently unbounded. Conversely,the simple present tense imposes that there must becongruence between temporal duration of the relevantsituation and that of the utterance. Therefore, this tensenaturally occurs with situations that have any internalsegments equivalent to any other segment. This implies that itis incompatible with an imperfective situation, inherentlyheterogeneous. Interestingly, this latter argument is derivedfrom the analysis of a number of exceptions, such as theNARRATIVE PRESENT USE, PERFORMATIVE UTTERANCES and the use ofsimple tense-present form of an action verb in DEMONSTRATIONSand SPORT COMMENTARIES.

CHAPTER 10 - CAUSATION AND AGENCY (pp. 157-169): Through anoverview of the difficulties faced by the theory of CaseGrammar (Fillmore), Cognitive Linguistics is illustrated tohave played a crucial part in explaining agency byintroducing the idea that causation and agency are subject toPROTOTYPICALITY effects. The discussion is based on Nishimura(1993), in whose work a number of useful examples are highlightedwhereby Japanese and English differ in dealing with non-prototypical cases of agency. Constant attention is also paidto the consequences that assigning responsibility leads to ineveryday social talk.

CHAPTER 11 - COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS(pp. 170-182): In this chapter, Cognitive Linguistics provesto be a potentially effective and coherent theory also in thediscursive dimension of language. The examination of some excerptsof FAMILY ARGUMENT, from a real television series, as well as astudy of a scene from E.M.Forster's novel 'A PASSAGE TO INDIA'lead the reader through some possible applications of thecognitive model to discourse analysis. Words invoke framesfor one person that are quite different from those evoked foranother (the word PARTY is taken as example), and radialnetworks of meaning are sometimes exploited by language usersto achieve, consciously or unconsciously, particularrhetorical ends (examples are the range of meanings of LEAVE,YOU, WARN and LIVE).

CHAPTER 12 - CONSTRUCTIVIST PROCESSES IN DISCOURSE (pp. 183-197): In this chapter, the relationship between concepts inCognitive Linguistics and Discourse Analysis is furtherpursued. First, it is suggested that prototypicality providesCONSTRUCTIVISM with an elegant theoretical structure, byallowing categories to include peripheral members and to beopen-ended. A useful example of this point involves differentways of referring to the European colonisation of Australia(SETTLEMENT/INVASION). Moreover, by using fragments ofdiscourse (an INFORMAL INTERVIEW on the social disadvantageof Maori people- Wetherell & Potter 1992), the author showsthe relevance of radiality, selectivity, foregrounding,framing and perspectivisation in constructivist processessuch as ASSIGMENT OF CAUSATION and COUNTERDISCOURSES.

CHAPTER 13 - CREATIVITY AND THE NATURE OF MEANING (pp. 198-210): This conclusive chapter focuses on the general questionof CREATIVITY in language use. As a logical conclusion of theconcepts previously treated (mental spaces, radiality andframes), creativity in language is said to result from endlessplasticity of cognitive processes rather than being aconsequence of infinite combination of syntactic means. Thisimplies a change in our understanding of the nature ofmeaning. In the cognitive model, texts are the product ofcomplex interaction between linguistic and contextual factorsimpinging on the producer of a text at a particular time in aparticular situation, so that meanings cannot be seen asobject-like entities in the minds of individuals.

CRITICAL EVALUATIONDavid Lee's Cognitive Linguistics is a pleasant reading and acarefully constructed textbook. Thanks to his consistentavoidance of jargon, not only are basic concepts crystal-clear, but also more advanced notions appear easy to grasp.The discussion flows smoothly and a balanced structure isapparent in the sequence of topics. In particular, the authortends to refer to an inductive method, by first presentinglinguistic problems and eventually offering a theoreticsolution (see the case of radial categories - Chs. 3-4; thatof mental spaces - Chs. 5-6; and, finally, Chs. 11-12 aboutdiscourse analysis). A wide set of appropriate examples isgiven and the choice of the excerpts analysed may beappealing to students. Moreover, theories and concepts areelucidated in their development, so that the student canappreciate the historical dimension of the discipline evenbefore browsing the references. As specific examples, one cansee the comparison between Generative and Cognitiveassumptions drawn throughout the whole book, the passageabout Sapir and Whorf in the first chapter (p. 12), thecareful discussion about Fillmore in chapter 10, and,finally, the amount of references quoted in chapters 11 and12 about analysis of spoken and written texts, whichconstitutes an enduring area of interest on behalf of the author.

Probably, the part dedicated to Language Change (Ch. 7) couldhave been slightly wider, including, together with semanticchange, some cases of phonological or morphological change,on which the cognitive model shed a great deal of light (see,for example, Bybee and Moder 1983 on the STRING/STRUNG verbclass in English or Lazzeroni 1997 about the Sanskrit perfectSASA:DA/SEDUR). The author's constant focus on meaning,however, well motivates his choice.

Finally, David's Lee meticulous attention to the potentialapplications of cognitive linguistics to cross-culturalissues makes his book close to everyday life and suitable fora wide audience.

ABOUT THE REVIEWER:
ABOUT THE REVIEWERRosa Mammoli, after having graduated in HistoricalLinguistics from the University of Pisa, attended a PhDprogramme on Linguistics and Pedagogy of Italian as L2 at theUniversita' per Stranieri di Siena (University for Foreignersof Siena). During this course, she carried out some researchabout the acquisition of verb morphology in Italian as L2,from a cognitive perspective, which resulted in theDissertation "Paradigmi e morfologia verbale in italiano L2:strategie di acquisizione in un approccio linguistico basatosull'uso" ("Paradigms and verb morphology in Italian as L2:strategies of acquisition in a usage-based approach"). Herresearch interests, focused on L1/L2 Acquisition/Learning,also cover Psycholinguistics Corpus Linguistics andHistorical Linguistics.