Discussion: Since chemical reactions that occur within a cell occur at too slow of a rate to support life, there needs to be an enzyme present to help this reaction occur quicker. Any factors that affect the enzyme activity increase the reaction to its optimal level then begin to decrease due to denaturation. In this experiment, the factor that affected the enzyme activity was pH. Since the cause of denaturation is either the removal or addition of hydrogen ions, (Freeman, et al., 2011), extremely high and low pH figures would result in no activity for most enzymes. Changes in pH change the shape of the substrate so that it cannot bind with the active site or be catalyzed, thus a product is produced more quickly due to higher substrate concentration until the point of the enzyme saturation is reached (Freeman, et al., 2011). These concepts related to this experiment because as higher concentrations of pH were added to solution, the rate of hydrolysis of PNPP increased as well. The hypothesis stated that if the concentration of pH was increased, the rate of hydrolysis would increase as well, but if the concentration of pH was decreased, the rate of hydrolysis should decrease. When performing this lab, the concentration of Citrate buffer was increased from a pH of 4.8 M to 6.0 M. By doing this, the rate of hydrolysis increased, therefore the data did support the hypothesis. The hypothesis also stated that once the reaction has reached its optimum pH, the reaction rate should slowly start decreasing. This was proved by the data because in the first experiment, the pH of the Citrate buffer was 4.8 M and the rate of hydrolysis continuously increased, reaching 5.6x10ˉ7 M/minute. In experiment two, the pH of the buffer was increased to 6.0 M and the data fluctuated in rate. Thus, the hypothesis does not need to be revised because it was correct and it was supported by the data. Moreover, the experiment does not need to be revised either, because it was...

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...﻿Investigating the Enzymatic Activity of Catecholase through Temperature, pH, Enzyme Concentration, and Substrate Concentration
University of Alabama at Birmingham
Burgess, B.N.
Introduction:
Background
Enzymes are macromolecules that act as catalysts in living organisms by speeding up chemical reactions without being changed or destroyed by the reaction (Campbell and Reece, 2008). Enzymes are able to speed up the rate of a chemical reaction by decreasing the activation energy during the reaction (Garcia-Viloca et al., 2004). Activation energy is the lowest amount of energy needed to begin a chemical reaction (Campbell and Reece, 2008). Few biochemical reactions could take place quickly enough to satisfy the metabolic needs for living organisms without the aid of enzymes (Helms et al., 1998).
Biological enzymes used in cells are seen in the form of proteins. These catalysts have complex structures including one or more polypeptide chains which are folded in specific shapes to contain an active site, which is the area a substrate will bind to the enzyme. A substrate is a molecule which the enzyme will act upon and change (Helms et al., 1998).The substrate which is bonded to its specific enzyme is known as an enzyme-substrate complex, and the results of the catalytic action between the enzyme and substrate change the substrate to the product(s) of the reaction (Campbell and Reece, 2008). The active site of an enzyme is specific for the substrate....

...different temperatures and different levels of pH affect the reaction rate of the enzymes in chicken liver? Demonstrate the activity of an enzyme in living tissue, observe the effects of changes in temperature and pH on the activity of an enzyme, perform analyses for the presence of an enzyme in tissues, and analyzing relationships between environmental conditions and enzyme activity.
Background: Cells produce proteins which are called enzymes and their job is to help reduce the amount of energy needed to start a reaction. Enzymes are catalysts which are chemical substances that reduce the amount of activation energy needed for the reaction to begin. All enzymes are all proteins or RNA molecules that speed up metabolic reactions and help to break down poisonous chemicals in the organism’s body. An enzyme will only react if the enzyme fits well with the substrate, which is why they are similar to a lock and key. The substrate will bind to the enzyme at the active site and when this happens a slight change in the shape of the enzyme will occur. This change of shape binds the enzyme to shape of the substrate and then weakens the chemical bonds of the substrate. When this happens it produces the activation energy that is needed for a chemical reaction to take place. The enzyme will only bind correctly with the substrate if the environmental conditions are to their liking. They like to work at room temperature and at the neutral range of...

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Separation of Proteins and Mass Analysis Using SDS PAGE
Biology 00-01L
Abstract
This experiment consisted of separating proteins into polypeptides using a method called SDS PAGE which is a type of electrophoresis. The polypeptides had different masses, so each polypeptide traveled a different distance and this was an essential part of the lab which demonstrated that there exists a relationship between the distance traveled by the protein and the mass of the protein. This relationship was graphed and provided logarithmic function which could be used to find the size of an unknown protein just by measuring the distance that it traveled and plugging it to the equation. This is an important technique because the separation of proteins can reveal which polypeptides form the protein and identifying it can provide information on its purpose for its functionality and further scientific research in all types of fields such as the medical field.
Introduction
Proteins are a large biological molecules that are made up of polypeptide chains. These chains connect to one another, but they are composed of smaller subunits called up amino acids.
There exists 20 distinct amino acids which can be put together into sequences in the primary protein structure. In the secondary protein structure, the sequence of amino acids connect into a chain with the aid of hydrogen bonds and form repeating patterns of either beta...

...The purpose of this experiment is to follow the changes of pH during the titration of an acid and a base in order to determine the of the weak acid, . is a constant for a given acid at a given temperature. In this experiment we determined the Ka using two different methods: 1) the measurement of the pH of a solution containing a known concentration of a weak acid, and 2) measurement of the pH at the half-neutralization point in the titration of a weak acid and a strong base.
Theory and Concept:
When titrating a weak acid, HA, with a strong base the equilibrium between the weak acid and its ion is reestablished after every addition of base. The reaction in this titration is pushed towards the right after every addition of a base. At the beginning of a titration between a weak acid and a strong base, there is mostly HA in the solution with small amounts of H30+ and A- because only a small amount of base has been added therefore a small amount of ionization has occurred. As we added more base, more HA is ionized and more salt formation occurs meaning the concentration of HA will decrease while the concentration of A- will increase. The pH rises above the equivalence point because we are adding base to a solution with a relatively large volume. At the end of the titration the ratio of [A-]/[HA] goes from low to high. This means that all of the HA will be neutralized, causing the pH to change. Because of...

...used
to speed up the production of benzoquinone which is to help in infection
prevention.
In this study catechol oxidase was combined with potato juice extract and
water. To provide more results of the enzymes productivity patterns the
solutions; temperatures were changed, alterations were made in pH, and the
amount of concentration of catechol was altered. The solutions absorption
was measured by a spectrophotmeter, this determined what conditions the
enzyme produced benzoquinone the most. This is done to prove that the
more basic the pH is, at room temperature, and with higher concentration
of catechol oxidase it will produce more benzoquinone. This will happen
until the present amount of catechol oxidase becomes limited due to its
participation in the reaction.
Methods and Materials
There were six test tubes needed in the first procedure where the proper amount of mL was placed within; 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 24. One at a time 5mL of the neutral pH 7 was added to the tubes where the equal amounts of catechol (corresponding the number on the tube) were also dropped in respectfully. To make sure that every test tube was equal in there amount of volume, more of the pH 7 were then added drop by drop, starting at the beginning; 23, 22, 20, 16, and 8. All consisting of equal parts in volume the test tubes were combined with 30 drops of potato juice extract from an eyedropper and shaken so the entire...

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Intro to Biology
September 26, 2011
Lab Partners: Kristen, Tania and Betty
Introduction
When using different methods to measure pH levels there are some tools that can be useful. Some more than others but by putting into action the different methods it may determine which tools will work best and give the best results when testing the pH within a solution. The pH, which stands for the proportion of hydrogen ions in a solution, could be acidic (acidosis), neutral or basic (alkaline). The pH scale goes from numbers 1 through 14. A pH of 7 is neutral; meaning the amount of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions is equal, just like water.
An acid is an ionic compound that gives off hydrogen ions into a solution. An ionic compound is the result of an ionic bond, which are formed after atoms transfer electrons to achieve full outermost energy levels or orbits. Bases are ionic compounds that give off hydroxide into a solution or accept hydrogen. Buffers are what keep them at bay by using weak acids to maintain the pH levels. By using a pH paper, indicator dyes and a pH meter, several tests will be conducted to check which one will result in a precise pH level reading.
Materials and Methods...

...meaning of pH
2. Provide the student experience in measuring pH
a. pH testing paper
3. Test the student’s hypothesis as it related to the pH of common solutions
Hypothesis
The pH of the tested solutions will be in the order of the following according to a pH scale:
1. Lime juice
2. Orange juice
3. Soda
4. Iced Tea
5. Milk
6. Water
7. Soapy water
Material Required
To facilitate this laboratory exercise, the experimenter needs the following:
pH strips
Sample reservoirs of solutions with varying pH
Laboratory Notebook
pH paper
Background
pH stands for potential hydrogen. This is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. Acidic and basic are two extremes that describe a chemical property chemicals. Mixing acids and bases can cancel out or neutralize their extreme effects. The pH scale is a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement. A substance that is neither acidic nor basic is neutral. Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline. Pure water has a pH very close to 7. The pH scale is logarithmic and as a result, each whole pH value below 7 is ten times more acidic than the next higher value. For...

...
Question 1
Critique Dr. Honeydew’s report. Specifically, discuss what is missing and how the
missing information should have been presented.
First the PH measurements, Dr. honey dew does not explain how the PH device was calibrated or if the blood sample was added or mixed with anything prior to the measuring of the pH (like water, etc.). In regards to the absorption spectroscopy, the method by which the concentration was obtained is questionable. Was the concentration known before the experiment began, or was it found based on a similarly known variable so the epsilon value could be known for Beer’s law. Additionally, if the epsilon was found from a stock hemoglobin sample what was it’s concentration? Were the dilutions parallel or serial? What dilutions or epsilon value was found?. The experiment can still be conducted effectively without such information, but it would have made things easier.
Question 2
Outline the procedure you expect to use to determine the pH in your rat’s whole blood
sample. Make sure to include the amounts of materials and all items you expect to use.
To determine the pH of the rat’s whole blood sample, a pH determination will be performed.
First, the pH probe will be connected to logger pro and calibrated using a 4.00 acidic solution and a 7.00 neutral solution. The probe will be rinsed with distilled water and dried...