@article {pmid30564390, year = {2018}, author = {Lind, J}, title = {What can associative learning do for planning?.}, journal = {Royal Society open science}, volume = {5}, number = {11}, pages = {180778}, doi = {10.1098/rsos.180778}, pmid = {30564390}, issn = {2054-5703}, abstract = {There is a new associative learning paradox. The power of associative learning for producing flexible behaviour in non-human animals is downplayed or ignored by researchers in animal cognition, whereas artificial intelligence research shows that associative learning models can beat humans in chess. One phenomenon in which associative learning often is ruled out as an explanation for animal behaviour is flexible planning. However, planning studies have been criticized and questions have been raised regarding both methodological validity and interpretations of results. Due to the power of associative learning and the uncertainty of what causes planning behaviour in non-human animals, I explored what associative learning can do for planning. A previously published sequence learning model which combines Pavlovian and instrumental conditioning was used to simulate two planning studies, namely Mulcahy & Call 2006 'Apes save tools for future use.' Science312, 1038-1040 and Kabadayi & Osvath 2017 'Ravens parallel great apes in flexible planning for tool-use and bartering.' Science357, 202-204. Simulations show that behaviour matching current definitions of flexible planning can emerge through associative learning. Through conditioned reinforcement, the learning model gives rise to planning behaviour by learning that a behaviour towards a current stimulus will produce high value food at a later stage; it can make decisions about future states not within current sensory scope. The simulations tracked key patterns both between and within studies. It is concluded that one cannot rule out that these studies of flexible planning in apes and corvids can be completely accounted for by associative learning. Future empirical studies of flexible planning in non-human animals can benefit from theoretical developments within artificial intelligence and animal learning.}, }
@article {pmid30534343, year = {2018}, author = {Klump, BC and Masuda, BM and St Clair, JJH and Rutz, C}, title = {Preliminary observations of tool-processing behaviour in Hawaiian crows Corvus hawaiiensis.}, journal = {Communicative & integrative biology}, volume = {11}, number = {4}, pages = {e1509637}, doi = {10.1080/19420889.2018.1509637}, pmid = {30534343}, issn = {1942-0889}, abstract = {Very few animal species habitually make and use foraging tools. We recently discovered that the Hawaiian crow is a highly skilled, natural tool user. Most captive adults in our experiment spontaneously used sticks to access out-of-reach food from a range of extraction tasks, exhibiting a surprising degree of dexterity. Moreover, many birds modified tools before or during deployment, and some even manufactured tools from raw materials. In this invited addendum article, we describe and discuss these observations in more detail. Our preliminary data, and comparisons with the better-studied New Caledonian crow, suggest that the Hawaiian crow has extensive tool-modification and manufacture abilities. To chart the full extent of the species' natural tool-making repertoire, we have started conducting dedicated experiments where subjects are given access to suitable raw materials for tool manufacture, but not ready-to-use tools.}, }
@article {pmid30410111, year = {2018}, author = {Laumer, IB and Call, J and Bugnyar, T and Auersperg, AMI}, title = {Spontaneous innovation of hook-bending and unbending in orangutans (Pongo abelii).}, journal = {Scientific reports}, volume = {8}, number = {1}, pages = {16518}, doi = {10.1038/s41598-018-34607-0}, pmid = {30410111}, issn = {2045-2322}, support = {Y366-B17//Austrian Science Fund (FWF Der Wissenschaftsfonds)/ ; P-29084//Austrian Science Fund (FWF Der Wissenschaftsfonds)/ ; P-29075//Austrian Science Fund (FWF Der Wissenschaftsfonds)/ ; }, abstract = {Betty the crow astonished the scientific world as she spontaneously crafted hook-tools from straight wire in order to lift a basket out of vertical tubes. Recently it was suggested that this species' solution was strongly influenced by predispositions from behavioural routines from habitual hook-tool manufacture. Nevertheless, the task became a paradigm to investigate tool innovation. Considering that young humans had surprising difficulties with the task, it was yet unclear whether the innovation of a hooked tool would be feasible to primates that lacked habitual hook making. We thus tested five captive orangutans in a hook bending and unbending task. Orangutans are habitually tool-using primates that have been reported to use but not craft hooked tools for locomotion in the wild. Two orangutans spontaneously innovated hook tools and four unbent the wire from their first trial on. Pre-experience with ready-made hooks had some effect but did not lead to continuous success. Further subjects improved the hook-design feature when the task required the subjects to bent the hook at a steeper angle. Our results indicate that the ability to represent and manufacture tools according to a current need does not require stereotyped behavioural routines, but can indeed arise innovatively. Furthermore, the present study shows that the capacity for hook tool innovation is not limited to large brained birds within non-human animals.}, }
@article {pmid30132156, year = {2018}, author = {Hennefield, L and Hwang, HG and Weston, SJ and Povinelli, DJ}, title = {Meta-analytic techniques reveal that corvid causal reasoning in the Aesop's Fable paradigm is driven by trial-and-error learning.}, journal = {Animal cognition}, volume = {21}, number = {6}, pages = {735-748}, doi = {10.1007/s10071-018-1206-y}, pmid = {30132156}, issn = {1435-9456}, support = {F32 HD093273/HD/NICHD NIH HHS/United States ; }, mesh = {Animals ; Cognition ; Crows/*physiology ; *Learning ; *Problem Solving ; Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {The classic Aesop's fable, Crow and the Pitcher, has inspired a major line of research in comparative cognition. Over the past several years, five articles (over 32 experiments) have examined the ability of corvids (e.g., rooks, crows, and jays) to complete lab-based analogs of this fable, by requiring them to drop stones and other objects into tubes of water to retrieve a floating worm (Bird and Emery in Curr Biol 19:1-5, 2009b; Cheke et al. in Anim Cogn 14:441-455, 2011; Jelbert et al. in PLoS One 3:e92895, 2014; Logan et al. in PLoS One 7:e103049, 2014; Taylor et al. in Gray R D 12:e26887, 2011). These researchers have stressed the unique potential of this paradigm for understanding causal reasoning in corvids. Ghirlanda and Lind (Anim Behav 123:239-247, 2017) re-evaluated trial-level data from these studies and concluded that initial preferences for functional objects, combined with trial-and-error learning, may account for subjects' performance on key variants of the paradigm. In the present paper, we use meta-analytic techniques to provide more precise information about the rate and mode of learning that occurs within and across tasks. Within tasks, subjects learned from successful (but not unsuccessful) actions, indicating that higher-order reasoning about phenomena such as mass, volume, and displacement is unlikely to be involved. Furthermore, subjects did not transfer information learned in one task to subsequent tasks, suggesting that corvids do not engage with these tasks as variants of the same problem (i.e., how to generate water displacement to retrieve a floating worm). Our methodological analysis and empirical findings raise the question: Can Aesop's fable studies distinguish between trial-and-error learning and/or higher-order causal reasoning? We conclude they cannot.}, }
@article {pmid30356096, year = {2018}, author = {Bayern, AMPV and Danel, S and Auersperg, AMI and Mioduszewska, B and Kacelnik, A}, title = {Compound tool construction by New Caledonian crows.}, journal = {Scientific reports}, volume = {8}, number = {1}, pages = {15676}, doi = {10.1038/s41598-018-33458-z}, pmid = {30356096}, issn = {2045-2322}, support = {P 29084//Austrian Science Fund (FWF Der Wissenschaftsfonds)/ ; P 29075//Austrian Science Fund (FWF Der Wissenschaftsfonds)/ ; }, abstract = {The construction of novel compound tools through assemblage of otherwise non-functional elements involves anticipation of the affordances of the tools to be built. Except for few observations in captive great apes, compound tool construction is unknown outside humans, and tool innovation appears late in human ontogeny. We report that habitually tool-using New Caledonian crows (Corvus moneduloides) can combine objects to construct novel compound tools. We presented 8 naïve crows with combinable elements too short to retrieve food targets. Four crows spontaneously combined elements to make functional tools, and did so conditionally on the position of food. One of them made 3- and 4-piece tools when required. In humans, individual innovation in compound tool construction is often claimed to be evolutionarily and mechanistically related to planning, complex task coordination, executive control, and even language. Our results are not accountable by direct reinforcement learning but corroborate that these crows possess highly flexible abilities that allow them to solve novel problems rapidly. The underlying cognitive processes however remain opaque for now. They probably include the species' typical propensity to use tools, their ability to judge affordances that make some objects usable as tools, and an ability to innovate perhaps through virtual, cognitive simulations.}, }
@article {pmid30141148, year = {2018}, author = {Aharoni, T and Goldbourt, A}, title = {Rapid automated determination of chemical shift anisotropy values in the carbonyl and carboxyl groups of fd-y21m bacteriophage using solid state NMR.}, journal = {Journal of biomolecular NMR}, volume = {}, number = {}, pages = {}, doi = {10.1007/s10858-018-0206-1}, pmid = {30141148}, issn = {1573-5001}, support = {847/17//Israel Science Foundation/ ; }, abstract = {Determination of chemical shift anisotropy (CSA) in immobilized proteins and protein assemblies is one of several tools to determine protein dynamics on the timescales of microseconds and faster. The large CSA values of C=O groups in the rigid limit makes them in particular attractive for measurements of large amplitude motions, or their absence. In this study, we implement a 3D R-symmetry-based sequence that recouples the second spatial component of the 13C CSA with the corresponding isotropic 13C'-13C cross-peaks in order to probe backbone and sidechain dynamics in an intact fd-y21m filamentous phage viral capsid. The assignment of the isotropic cross-peaks and the analysis were conducted automatically using a new software named 'Raven'. The software can be utilized to auto-assign any 2D 13C-13C or 15N-13C spectrum given a previously-determined assignment table and generates simultaneously all intensity curves acquired in the third dimension. Here, all CSA spectra were automatically generated, and subsequently matched against a simulated set of CSA curves to yield their values. For the multi-copy, 50-residue-long protein capsid of fd-y21m, the backbone of the helical region is rigid, with reduced CSA values of ~ 12.5 kHz (~ 83 ppm). The N-terminus shows motionally-averaged CSA lineshapes and the carboxylic sidechain groups of four residues indicate large amplitude motions for D4, D5, D12 and E20. The current results further strengthen our previous studies of 15N CSA values and are in agreement with qualitative analysis of 13C-13C dipolar build-up curves, which were automatically obtained using our software. Our automated analysis technique is general and can be applied to study protein structure and dynamics, with data resulting from experiments that probe different variables such as relaxation rates and scaled anisotropic interactions.}, }
@article {pmid30105075, year = {2018}, author = {Morales, D and Ramirez, G and Herrera-Arellano, A and Tortoriello, J and Zavala, M and Zamilpa, A}, title = {Identification of Digestive Enzyme Inhibitors from Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) P.H.Raven.}, journal = {Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM}, volume = {2018}, number = {}, pages = {8781352}, doi = {10.1155/2018/8781352}, pmid = {30105075}, issn = {1741-427X}, abstract = {Current antiobesity and antidiabetic tools have been insufficient to curb these diseases and frequently cause side effects; therefore, new pancreatic lipase and α-glucosidase inhibitors could be excellent aids for the prevention and treatment of these diseases. The aim of this study was to identify, quantify, and characterize the chemical compounds with the highest degree of inhibitory activity of these enzymes, contained in a Ludwigia octovalvis hydroalcoholic extract. Chemical purification was performed by liquid-liquid separation and column chromatography. Inhibitory activities were measured in vitro, employing acarbose, orlistat, and a Camellia sinensis hydroalcoholic extract as references. For structural elucidation, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance was carried out, and High Performance Liquid Chromatography was used to quantify the compounds. For α-glucosidases, L. octovalvis hydroalcoholic extract and its ethyl acetate fraction showed half-maximal Inhibitory Concentration (IC50) values of 700 and 250 μg/mL, for lipase, 480 and 718 μg/mL, while C. sinensis showed 260 and 587 μg/mL. The most active compounds were identified as ethyl gallate (1, IC50 832 μM) and gallic acid (2, IC50 969 μM); both displayed competitive inhibition of α-glucosidases and isoorientin (3, IC50 201 μM), which displayed uncompetitive inhibition of lipase. These data could be useful in the development of a novel phytopharmaceutical drug.}, }
@article {pmid30071683, year = {2018}, author = {Sutton, JT and Helmkampf, M and Steiner, CC and Bellinger, MR and Korlach, J and Hall, R and Baybayan, P and Muehling, J and Gu, J and Kingan, S and Masuda, BM and Ryder, OA}, title = {A High-Quality, Long-Read De Novo Genome Assembly to Aid Conservation of Hawaii's Last Remaining Crow Species.}, journal = {Genes}, volume = {9}, number = {8}, pages = {}, doi = {10.3390/genes9080393}, pmid = {30071683}, issn = {2073-4425}, abstract = {Abstract: Genome-level data can provide researchers with unprecedented precision to examine the causes and genetic consequences of population declines, which can inform conservation management. Here, we present a high-quality, long-read, de novo genome assembly for one of the world's most endangered bird species, the 'Alalā (Corvus hawaiiensis; Hawaiian crow). As the only remaining native crow species in Hawai'i, the 'Alalā survived solely in a captive-breeding program from 2002 until 2016, at which point a long-term reintroduction program was initiated. The high-quality genome assembly was generated to lay the foundation for both comparative genomics studies and the development of population-level genomic tools that will aid conservation and recovery efforts. We illustrate how the quality of this assembly places it amongst the very best avian genomes assembled to date, comparable to intensively studied model systems. We describe the genome architecture in terms of repetitive elements and runs of homozygosity, and we show that compared with more outbred species, the 'Alalā genome is substantially more homozygous. We also provide annotations for a subset of immunity genes that are likely to be important in conservation management, and we discuss how this genome is currently being used as a roadmap for downstream conservation applications.}, }
@article {pmid30065105, year = {2018}, author = {Faria, JP and Rocha, M and Rocha, I and Henry, CS}, title = {Methods for automated genome-scale metabolic model reconstruction.}, journal = {Biochemical Society transactions}, volume = {}, number = {}, pages = {}, doi = {10.1042/BST20170246}, pmid = {30065105}, issn = {1470-8752}, abstract = {In the era of next-generation sequencing and ubiquitous assembly and binning of metagenomes, new putative genome sequences are being produced from isolate and microbiome samples at ever-increasing rates. Genome-scale metabolic models have enormous utility for supporting the analysis and predictive characterization of these genomes based on sequence data. As a result, tools for rapid automated reconstruction of metabolic models are becoming critically important for supporting the analysis of new genome sequences. Many tools and algorithms have now emerged to support rapid model reconstruction and analysis. Here, we are comparing and contrasting the capabilities and output of a variety of these tools, including ModelSEED, Raven Toolbox, PathwayTools, SuBliMinal Toolbox and merlin.}, }
@article {pmid29975360, year = {2018}, author = {Wójciak, P and Rybakowski, J}, title = {Clinical picture, pathogenesis and psychometric assessment of negative symptoms of schizophrenia.}, journal = {Psychiatria polska}, volume = {52}, number = {2}, pages = {185-197}, doi = {10.12740/PP/70610}, pmid = {29975360}, issn = {2391-5854}, abstract = {Negative symptoms of schizophrenia constitute a serious diagnostic and therapeutic problem. They substantially account for the impairment of health, social functioning and quality of life whereas treatment is difficult. In this paper the development of the concept of schizophrenia and negative symptoms is presented. The models of positive and negative symptoms, introduced in the 1980's by Timothy Crow and Nancy Andreasen, and William Carpenter's concept of so-called deficit syndrome with the criteria of the division of negative symptoms into the primary and secondary, are discussed. Current views on the pathogenesis of negative symptoms are shown with reference to neuroimaging studies, neurotransmitter alterations, neuropsychological deficits, genetic, immunological and epidemiological studies. A subsection is devoted to the diagnostics tools for negative symptoms. Chronologically, they are divided into scales of the 1st and 2nd generation. The first generation includes: the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS), the Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS), the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), the Schedule for the Deficit Syndrome (SDS), and the Proxy for Deficit Syndrome. The second generation scales, developed as a result of the recommendation by American experts in 2006, include: the Brief Negative Syndrome Scale (BNSS) and the Clinical Assessment Interview for Negative Symptoms (CAINS), also the self-assessment scales: the Motivation and Pleasure Scale - Self Report (MAP-SR) and the Self-assessment of Negative Symptoms (SNS). The BNSS and the SNS scales, whose Polish versions were elaborated in the Department of Adult Psychiatry of Poznan University of Medical Sciences, are discussed in-depth.}, }
@article {pmid29955154, year = {2018}, author = {Jelbert, SA and Hosking, RJ and Taylor, AH and Gray, RD}, title = {Mental template matching is a potential cultural transmission mechanism for New Caledonian crow tool manufacturing traditions.}, journal = {Scientific reports}, volume = {8}, number = {1}, pages = {8956}, doi = {10.1038/s41598-018-27405-1}, pmid = {29955154}, issn = {2045-2322}, abstract = {Cumulative cultural evolution occurs when social traditions accumulate improvements over time. In humans cumulative cultural evolution is thought to depend on a unique suite of cognitive abilities, including teaching, language and imitation. Tool-making New Caledonian crows show some hallmarks of cumulative culture; but this claim is contentious, in part because these birds do not appear to imitate. One alternative hypothesis is that crows' tool designs could be culturally transmitted through a process of mental template matching. That is, individuals could use or observe conspecifics' tools, form a mental template of a particular tool design, and then reproduce this in their own manufacture - a process analogous to birdsong learning. Here, we provide the first evidence supporting this hypothesis, by demonstrating that New Caledonian crows have the cognitive capacity for mental template matching. Using a novel manufacture paradigm, crows were first trained to drop paper into a vending machine to retrieve rewards. They later learnt that only items of a particular size (large or small templates) were rewarded. At test, despite being rewarded at random, and with no physical templates present, crows manufactured items that were more similar in size to previously rewarded, than unrewarded, templates. Our results provide the first evidence that this cognitive ability may underpin the transmission of New Caledonian crows' natural tool designs.}, }
@article {pmid29358606, year = {2018}, author = {St Clair, JJH and Klump, BC and Sugasawa, S and Higgott, CG and Colegrave, N and Rutz, C}, title = {Hook innovation boosts foraging efficiency in tool-using crows.}, journal = {Nature ecology & evolution}, volume = {2}, number = {3}, pages = {441-444}, doi = {10.1038/s41559-017-0429-7}, pmid = {29358606}, issn = {2397-334X}, abstract = {The New Caledonian crow is the only non-human animal known to craft hooked tools in the wild, but the ecological benefit of these relatively complex tools remains unknown. Here, we show that crows acquire food several times faster when using hooked rather than non-hooked tools, regardless of tool material, prey type and extraction context. This implies that small changes to tool shape can strongly affect energy-intake rates, highlighting a powerful driver for technological advancement.}, }
@article {pmid29257965, year = {2017}, author = {van Casteren, A}, title = {Tool Use: Crows Craft the Right Tool for the Job.}, journal = {Current biology : CB}, volume = {27}, number = {24}, pages = {R1314-R1316}, doi = {10.1016/j.cub.2017.10.022}, pmid = {29257965}, issn = {1879-0445}, abstract = {New research into tool crafting in New Caledonian crows has uncovered factors that influence tool shape and the foraging advantages that these characteristics confer.}, }
@article {pmid29225028, year = {2017}, author = {Sugasawa, S and Klump, BC and St Clair, JJH and Rutz, C}, title = {Causes and Consequences of Tool Shape Variation in New Caledonian Crows.}, journal = {Current biology : CB}, volume = {27}, number = {24}, pages = {3885-3890.e4}, doi = {10.1016/j.cub.2017.11.028}, pmid = {29225028}, issn = {1879-0445}, abstract = {Hominins have been making tools for over three million years [1], yet the earliest known hooked tools appeared as recently as 90,000 years ago [2]. Hook innovation is likely to have boosted our ancestors' hunting and fishing efficiency [3], marking a major transition in human technological evolution. The New Caledonian crow is the only non-human animal known to craft hooks in the wild [4, 5]. Crows manufacture hooked stick tools in a multi-stage process, involving the detachment of a branch from suitable vegetation; "sculpting" of a terminal hook from the nodal joint; and often additional adjustments, such as length trimming, shaft bending, and bark stripping [4, 6, 7]. Although tools made by a given population share key design features [4, 6, 8], they vary appreciably in overall shape and hook dimensions. Using wild-caught, temporarily captive crows, we experimentally investigated causes and consequences of variation in hook-tool morphology. We found that bird age, manufacture method, and raw-material properties influenced tool morphology, and that hook geometry in turn affected crows' foraging efficiency. Specifically, hook depth varied with both detachment technique and plant rigidity, and deeper hooks enabled faster prey extraction in the provided tasks. Older crows manufactured tools of distinctive shape, with pronounced shaft curvature and hooks of intermediate depth. Future work should explore the interactive effects of extrinsic and intrinsic factors on tool production and deployment. Our study provides a quantitative assessment of the drivers and functional significance of tool shape variation in a non-human animal, affording valuable comparative insights into early hominin tool crafting [9].}, }
@article {pmid29213080, year = {2017}, author = {Danel, S and Osiurak, F and von Bayern, AMP}, title = {From the Age of 5 Humans Decide Economically, Whereas Crows Exhibit Individual Preferences.}, journal = {Scientific reports}, volume = {7}, number = {1}, pages = {17043}, doi = {10.1038/s41598-017-16984-0}, pmid = {29213080}, issn = {2045-2322}, abstract = {Human societies greatly depend on tools, which spare us considerable time and effort. Humans might have evolved a bias to employ tools, using them even when they are unnecessary. This study aimed to investigate whether adult humans and a distantly related habitually tool-using vertebrate species, the New Caledonian crow (Corvus moneduloides), use tools depending on their necessity. In addition, children aged 3 to 5 years were examined to investigate the developmental pattern. The task involved choosing between using a body part (i.e. crows: beak; humans: hand) or a tool for retrieving a reward from a box. All subjects were tested in two conditions. In the Body+/Tool- condition, using the body was more efficient than using the tool, and conversely in the Body-/Tool+ condition. Our results suggest that the capacity to employ tools economically develops late in humans. Crows, however, failed to choose economically. At the individual level, some subjects exhibited striking individual preferences for either using a tool or their beak throughout the task. Whether such biases depend on individual experience or whether they are genetically determined remains to be investigated. Our findings provide new insights about tool use and its cognitive implementation in two outstanding tool-using taxa.}, }
@article {pmid28989768, year = {2017}, author = {Lambert, ML and Schiestl, M and Schwing, R and Taylor, AH and Gajdon, GK and Slocombe, KE and Seed, AM}, title = {Function and flexibility of object exploration in kea and New Caledonian crows.}, journal = {Royal Society open science}, volume = {4}, number = {9}, pages = {170652}, doi = {10.1098/rsos.170652}, pmid = {28989768}, issn = {2054-5703}, abstract = {A range of non-human animals frequently manipulate and explore objects in their environment, which may enable them to learn about physical properties and potentially form more abstract concepts of properties such as weight and rigidity. Whether animals can apply the information learned during their exploration to solve novel problems, however, and whether they actually change their exploratory behaviour to seek functional information about objects have not been fully explored. We allowed kea (Nestor notabilis) and New Caledonian crows (Corvus moneduloides) to explore sets of novel objects both before and after encountering a task in which some of the objects could function as tools. Following this, subjects were given test trials in which they could choose among the objects they had explored to solve a tool-use task. Several individuals from both species performed above chance on these test trials, and only did so after exploring the objects, compared with a control experiment with no prior exploration phase. These results suggest that selection of functional tools may be guided by information acquired during exploration. Neither kea nor crows changed the duration or quality of their exploration after learning that the objects had a functional relevance, suggesting that birds do not adjust their behaviour to explicitly seek this information.}, }
@article {pmid28963599, year = {2017}, author = {Stanton, L and Davis, E and Johnson, S and Gilbert, A and Benson-Amram, S}, title = {Adaptation of the Aesop's Fable paradigm for use with raccoons (Procyon lotor): considerations for future application in non-avian and non-primate species.}, journal = {Animal cognition}, volume = {20}, number = {6}, pages = {1147-1152}, doi = {10.1007/s10071-017-1129-z}, pmid = {28963599}, issn = {1435-9456}, abstract = {To gain a better understanding of the evolution of animal cognition, it is necessary to test and compare the cognitive abilities of a broad array of taxa. Meaningful inter-species comparisons are best achieved by employing universal paradigms that standardize testing among species. Many cognitive paradigms, however, have been tested in only a few taxa, mostly birds and primates. One such example, known as the Aesop's Fable paradigm, is designed to assess causal understanding in animals using water displacement. To evaluate the universal effectiveness of the Aesop's Fable paradigm, we applied this paradigm to a previously untested taxon, the raccoon (Procyon lotor). We first trained captive raccoons to drop stones into a tube of water to retrieve a floating food reward. Next, we presented successful raccoons with objects that differed in the amount of water they displaced to determine whether raccoons could select the most functional option. Raccoons performed differently than corvids and human children did in previous studies of Aesop's Fable, and we found raccoons to be innovative in many aspects of this task. We suggest that raccoon performance in this paradigm reflected differences in tangential factors, such as behavior, morphology, and testing procedures, rather than cognitive deficiencies. We also present insight into previously undocumented challenges that should better inform future Aesop's Fable studies incorporating more diverse taxa.}, }
@article {pmid28878059, year = {2017}, author = {Laumer, IB and Bugnyar, T and Reber, SA and Auersperg, AMI}, title = {Can hook-bending be let off the hook? Bending/unbending of pliant tools by cockatoos.}, journal = {Proceedings. Biological sciences}, volume = {284}, number = {1862}, pages = {}, doi = {10.1098/rspb.2017.1026}, pmid = {28878059}, issn = {1471-2954}, mesh = {Animals ; *Cockatoos ; *Learning ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {The spontaneous crafting of hook-tools from bendable material to lift a basket out of a vertical tube in corvids has widely been used as one of the prime examples of animal tool innovation. However, it was recently suggested that the animals' solution was hardly innovative but strongly influenced by predispositions from habitual tool use and nest building. We tested Goffin's cockatoo, which is neither a specialized tool user nor a nest builder, on a similar task set-up. Three birds individually learned to bend hook tools from straight wire to retrieve food from vertical tubes and four subjects unbent wire to retrieve food from horizontal tubes. Pre-experience with ready-made hooks had some effect but was not necessary for success. Our results indicate that the ability to represent and manufacture tools according to a current need does not require genetically hardwired behavioural routines, but can indeed arise innovatively from domain general cognitive processing.}, }
@article {pmid28706072, year = {2017}, author = {Kabadayi, C and Osvath, M}, title = {Ravens parallel great apes in flexible planning for tool-use and bartering.}, journal = {Science (New York, N.Y.)}, volume = {357}, number = {6347}, pages = {202-204}, doi = {10.1126/science.aam8138}, pmid = {28706072}, issn = {1095-9203}, mesh = {Animals ; Biological Evolution ; *Crows ; Female ; Hominidae/*psychology ; Male ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {The ability to flexibly plan for events outside of the current sensory scope is at the core of being human and is crucial to our everyday lives and society. Studies on apes have shaped a belief that this ability evolved within the hominid lineage. Corvids, however, have shown evidence of planning their food hoarding, although this has been suggested to reflect a specific caching adaptation rather than domain-general planning. Here, we show that ravens plan for events unrelated to caching-tool-use and bartering-with delays of up to 17 hours, exert self-control, and consider temporal distance to future events. Their performance parallels that seen in apes and suggests that planning evolved independently in corvids, which opens new avenues for the study of cognitive evolution.}, }
@article {pmid28499128, year = {2017}, author = {Zarrintab, M and Mirzaei, R}, title = {Stress induced by heavy metals on breeding of magpie (Pica pica) from central Iran.}, journal = {Ecotoxicology and environmental safety}, volume = {143}, number = {}, pages = {28-37}, doi = {10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.04.047}, pmid = {28499128}, issn = {1090-2414}, mesh = {Animals ; Clutch Size/drug effects ; Ecosystem ; Egg Shell/chemistry ; Environmental Monitoring/*methods ; Environmental Pollutants/analysis/*toxicity ; Feathers/chemistry ; Iran ; Metals, Heavy/analysis/*toxicity ; Ovum/chemistry ; Passeriformes/*metabolism/physiology ; Pica ; Random Allocation ; Reproduction/*drug effects ; Stress, Physiological/*drug effects ; }, abstract = {The aim of this study was to address the impacts of some heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Zn, Ni and Cu) contamination on laying behavior, egg quality and breeding performance of Pica pica in north of Isfahan Province, Iran. During the breeding season of 2013, magpie's egg content and eggshell as well as nestling excrements and feathers were collected and total concentrations of heavy metals were measured by ICP-OES. Except for Zn in nestling feathers, the significantly higher concentrations of heavy metals were observed in nestling excrements than other samples. Also, comparison of heavy metals concentrations in egg content and eggshell showed that egg content had significantly higher concentrations of Zn and Pb, instead eggshell had significantly higher amount of Cu and Cd. Except for Cu, all heavy metals concentrations in eggshell had a negative relationship with morphological characters; and also concentration of Cu in egg content showed a significantly negative correlation with egg weight and volume. The most of heavy metals in nestling feathers and excrements had strongly positive correlations with each other. Also all heavy metals levels in eggshell and egg content had significantly positive correlations (except for Cu). Unhatched eggs had significantly lower weight but also greater levels of Zn, Cd, and Pb, than randomly collected eggs. No significant differences were observed for morphometric measurements of eggs between different sites, however, a decreased gradient was observed in egg volume toward the brick kiln site. Samples collected in brick kiln site accumulated higher concentrations of heavy metals than other sites. Although numbers of clutch size in brick kiln site were significantly higher than other sites, however, other breeding variable were lower than other sites. It can be suggested that ecosystem contamination may be caused to decrease the reproduction rate of Pica pica in brick kiln, probably by laying more poor quality eggs per clutch and nestling mortality.}, }
@article {pmid28494226, year = {2017}, author = {Whalley, CL and Cutting, N and Beck, SR}, title = {The effect of prior experience on children's tool innovation.}, journal = {Journal of experimental child psychology}, volume = {161}, number = {}, pages = {81-94}, doi = {10.1016/j.jecp.2017.03.009}, pmid = {28494226}, issn = {1096-0457}, mesh = {Child ; Child Development ; Child, Preschool ; *Cognition ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; *Problem Solving ; }, abstract = {Spontaneous tool innovation to solve physical problems is difficult for young children. In three studies, we explored the effect of prior experience with tools on tool innovation in children aged 4-7years (N=299). We also gave children an experience more consistent with that experienced by corvids in similar studies to enable fairer cross-species comparisons. Children who had the opportunity to use a premade target tool in the task context during a warm-up phase were significantly more likely to innovate a tool to solve the problem on the test trial compared with children who had no such warm-up experience. Older children benefited from either using or merely seeing a premade target tool prior to a test trial requiring innovation. Younger children were helped by using a premade target tool. Seeing the tool helped younger children in some conditions. We conclude that spontaneous innovation of tools to solve physical problems is difficult for children. However, children from 4years of age can innovate the means to solve the problem when they have had experience with the solution (visual or haptic exploration). Directions for future research are discussed.}, }
@article {pmid28386435, year = {2017}, author = {Matsui, H and Izawa, EI}, title = {Flexible motor adjustment of pecking with an artificially extended bill in crows but not in pigeons.}, journal = {Royal Society open science}, volume = {4}, number = {2}, pages = {160796}, doi = {10.1098/rsos.160796}, pmid = {28386435}, issn = {2054-5703}, abstract = {The dextrous foraging skills of primates, including humans, are underpinned by flexible vision-guided control of the arms/hands and even tools as body-part extensions. This capacity involves a visuomotor conversion process that transfers the locations of the hands/arms and a target in retinal coordinates into body coordinates to generate a reaching/grasping movement and to correct online. Similar capacities have evolved in birds, such as tool use in corvids and finches, which represents the flexible motor control of extended body parts. However, the flexibility of avian head-reaching and bill-grasping with body-part extensions remains poorly understood. This study comparatively investigated the flexibility of pecking with an artificially extended bill in crows and pigeons. Pecking performance and kinematics were examined when the bill extension was attached, and after its removal. The bill extension deteriorated pecking in pigeons in both performance and kinematics over 10 days. After the bill removal, pigeons started bill-grasping earlier, indicating motor adaptation to the bill extension. Contrastingly, pecking in crows was deteriorated transiently with the bill extension, but was recovered by adjusting pecking at closer distances, suggesting a quick adjustment to the bill extension. These results indicate flexible visuomotor control to extended body parts in crows but not in pigeons.}, }
@article {pmid28364366, year = {2017}, author = {Uomini, N and Hunt, G}, title = {A new tool-using bird to crow about.}, journal = {Learning & behavior}, volume = {45}, number = {3}, pages = {205-206}, doi = {10.3758/s13420-017-0262-5}, pmid = {28364366}, issn = {1543-4508}, abstract = {The Hawaiian crow has been revealed as a skilled tool user, confirmed by testing the last members of this endangered species that survive in captivity. The finding suggests its behavior is tantalizingly similar to that of the famous tool-using New Caledonian crow and has implications for the evolution of tool use and intelligence in birds.}, }
@article {pmid27973610, year = {2016}, author = {Neilands, PD and Jelbert, SA and Breen, AJ and Schiestl, M and Taylor, AH}, title = {How Insightful Is 'Insight'? New Caledonian Crows Do Not Attend to Object Weight during Spontaneous Stone Dropping.}, journal = {PloS one}, volume = {11}, number = {12}, pages = {e0167419}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0167419}, pmid = {27973610}, issn = {1932-6203}, mesh = {Animals ; Crows/*physiology ; Tool Use Behavior/physiology ; }, abstract = {It is highly difficult to pinpoint what is going through an animal's mind when it appears to solve a problem by 'insight'. Here, we searched for an information processing error during the emergence of seemingly insightful stone dropping in New Caledonian crows. We presented these birds with the platform apparatus, where a heavy object needs to be dropped down a tube and onto a platform in order to trigger the release of food. Our results show New Caledonian crows exhibit a weight inattention error: they do not attend to the weight of an object when innovating stone dropping. This suggests that these crows do not use an understanding of force when solving the platform task in a seemingly insightful manner. Our findings showcase the power of the signature-testing approach, where experiments search for information processing biases, errors and limits, in order to make strong inferences about the functioning of animal minds.}, }
@article {pmid27867222, year = {2016}, author = {St Clair, JJ and Klump, BC and van der Wal, JE and Sugasawa, S and Rutz, C}, title = {Strong between-site variation in New Caledonian crows' use of hook-tool-making materials.}, journal = {Biological journal of the Linnean Society. Linnean Society of London}, volume = {118}, number = {2}, pages = {226-232}, doi = {10.1111/bij.12757}, pmid = {27867222}, issn = {0024-4066}, abstract = {Functional tool use requires the selection of appropriate raw materials. New Caledonian crows Corvus moneduloides are known for their extraordinary tool-making behaviour, including the crafting of hooked stick tools from branched vegetation. We describe a surprisingly strong between-site difference in the plant materials used by wild crows to manufacture these tools: crows at one study site use branches of the non-native shrub Desmanthus virgatus, whereas only approximately 7 km away, birds apparently ignore this material in favour of the terminal twigs of an as-yet-unidentified tree species. Although it is likely that differences in local plant communities drive this striking pattern, it remains to be determined how and why crows develop such strong site-specific preferences for certain raw materials.}, }
@article {pmid27853622, year = {2016}, author = {Rutz, C and Sugasawa, S and van der Wal, JE and Klump, BC and St Clair, JJ}, title = {Tool bending in New Caledonian crows.}, journal = {Royal Society open science}, volume = {3}, number = {8}, pages = {160439}, doi = {10.1098/rsos.160439}, pmid = {27853622}, issn = {2054-5703}, support = {BB/G023913/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, abstract = {'Betty' the New Caledonian crow astonished the world when she 'spontaneously' bent straight pieces of garden wire into hooked foraging tools. Recent field experiments have revealed that tool bending is part of the species' natural behavioural repertoire, providing important context for interpreting Betty's iconic wire-bending feat. More generally, this discovery provides a compelling illustration of how natural history observations can inform laboratory-based research into the cognitive capacities of non-human animals.}, }
@article {pmid27639565, year = {2016}, author = {van Horik, JO and Emery, NJ}, title = {Transfer of physical understanding in a non-tool-using parrot.}, journal = {Animal cognition}, volume = {19}, number = {6}, pages = {1195-1203}, doi = {10.1007/s10071-016-1031-0}, pmid = {27639565}, issn = {1435-9456}, mesh = {Animals ; Cognition ; *Comprehension ; Cues ; *Parrots ; Passeriformes ; }, abstract = {Physical cognition has generally been assessed in tool-using species that possess a relatively large brain size, such as corvids and apes. Parrots, like corvids and apes, also have large relative brain sizes, yet although parrots rarely use tools in the wild, growing evidence suggests comparable performances on physical cognition tasks. It is, however, unclear whether success on such tasks is facilitated by previous experience and training procedures. We therefore investigated physical comprehension of object relationships in two non-tool-using species of captive neotropical parrots on a new means-end paradigm, the Trap-Gaps task, using unfamiliar materials and modified training procedures that precluded procedural cues. Red-shouldered macaws (Diopsittaca nobilis) and black-headed caiques (Pionites melanocephala) were presented with an initial task that required them to discriminate between pulling food trays through gaps while attending to the respective width of the gaps and size of the trays. Subjects were then presented with a novel, but functionally equivalent, transfer task. Six of eight birds solved the initial task through trial-and-error learning. Four of these six birds solved the transfer task, with one caique demonstrating spontaneous comprehension. These findings suggest that non-tool-using parrots may possess capacities for sophisticated physical cognition by generalising previously learned rules across novel problems.}, }
@article {pmid27629645, year = {2016}, author = {Rutz, C and Klump, BC and Komarczyk, L and Leighton, R and Kramer, J and Wischnewski, S and Sugasawa, S and Morrissey, MB and James, R and St Clair, JJ and Switzer, RA and Masuda, BM}, title = {Discovery of species-wide tool use in the Hawaiian crow.}, journal = {Nature}, volume = {537}, number = {7620}, pages = {403-407}, doi = {10.1038/nature19103}, pmid = {27629645}, issn = {1476-4687}, mesh = {Aging ; Animals ; Animals, Zoo/physiology ; Biological Evolution ; Cognition ; Crows/classification/*physiology ; Female ; Hawaii ; Male ; Phylogeny ; Species Specificity ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {Only a handful of bird species are known to use foraging tools in the wild. Amongst them, the New Caledonian crow (Corvus moneduloides) stands out with its sophisticated tool-making skills. Despite considerable speculation, the evolutionary origins of this species' remarkable tool behaviour remain largely unknown, not least because no naturally tool-using congeners have yet been identified that would enable informative comparisons. Here we show that another tropical corvid, the 'Alalā (C. hawaiiensis; Hawaiian crow), is a highly dexterous tool user. Although the 'Alalā became extinct in the wild in the early 2000s, and currently survives only in captivity, at least two lines of evidence suggest that tool use is part of the species' natural behavioural repertoire: juveniles develop functional tool use without training, or social input from adults; and proficient tool use is a species-wide capacity. 'Alalā and New Caledonian crows evolved in similar environments on remote tropical islands, yet are only distantly related, suggesting that their technical abilities arose convergently. This supports the idea that avian foraging tool use is facilitated by ecological conditions typical of islands, such as reduced competition for embedded prey and low predation risk. Our discovery creates exciting opportunities for comparative research on multiple tool-using and non-tool-using corvid species. Such work will in turn pave the way for replicated cross-taxonomic comparisons with the primate lineage, enabling valuable insights into the evolutionary origins of tool-using behaviour.}, }
@article {pmid27437926, year = {2016}, author = {Jacobs, IF and von Bayern, A and Osvath, M}, title = {A novel tool-use mode in animals: New Caledonian crows insert tools to transport objects.}, journal = {Animal cognition}, volume = {19}, number = {6}, pages = {1249-1252}, doi = {10.1007/s10071-016-1016-z}, pmid = {27437926}, issn = {1435-9456}, mesh = {Animals ; *Crows ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {New Caledonian crows (Corvus moneduloides) rely heavily on a range of tools to extract prey. They manufacture novel tools, save tools for later use, and have morphological features that facilitate tool use. We report six observations, in two individuals, of a novel tool-use mode not previously reported in non-human animals. Insert-and-transport tool use involves inserting a stick into an object and then moving away, thereby transporting both object and tool. All transported objects were non-food objects. One subject used a stick to transport an object that was too large to be handled by beak, which suggests the tool facilitated object control. The function in the other cases is unclear but seems to be an expression of play or exploration. Further studies should investigate whether it is adaptive in the wild and to what extent crows can flexibly apply the behaviour in experimental settings when purposive transportation of objects is advantageous.}, }
@article {pmid26955788, year = {2016}, author = {Matsui, H and Hunt, GR and Oberhofer, K and Ogihara, N and McGowan, KJ and Mithraratne, K and Yamasaki, T and Gray, RD and Izawa, E}, title = {Adaptive bill morphology for enhanced tool manipulation in New Caledonian crows.}, journal = {Scientific reports}, volume = {6}, number = {}, pages = {22776}, doi = {10.1038/srep22776}, pmid = {26955788}, issn = {2045-2322}, mesh = {Animals ; Beak/*anatomy & histology ; *Behavior, Animal ; Biological Evolution ; Crows/*anatomy & histology/*physiology ; Principal Component Analysis ; Tomography, X-Ray Computed ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {Early increased sophistication of human tools is thought to be underpinned by adaptive morphology for efficient tool manipulation. Such adaptive specialisation is unknown in nonhuman primates but may have evolved in the New Caledonian crow, which has sophisticated tool manufacture. The straightness of its bill, for example, may be adaptive for enhanced visually-directed use of tools. Here, we examine in detail the shape and internal structure of the New Caledonian crow's bill using Principal Components Analysis and Computed Tomography within a comparative framework. We found that the bill has a combination of interrelated shape and structural features unique within Corvus, and possibly birds generally. The upper mandible is relatively deep and short with a straight cutting edge, and the lower mandible is strengthened and upturned. These novel combined attributes would be functional for (i) counteracting the unique loading patterns acting on the bill when manipulating tools, (ii) a strong precision grip to hold tools securely, and (iii) enhanced visually-guided tool use. Our findings indicate that the New Caledonian crow's innovative bill has been adapted for tool manipulation to at least some degree. Early increased sophistication of tools may require the co-evolution of morphology that provides improved manipulatory skills.}, }
@article {pmid26793670, year = {2015}, author = {Habibzadeh, A and Pourabdol, S and Saravani, S}, title = {The effect of emotion regulation training in decreasing emotion failures and self-injurious behaviors among students suffering from specific learning disorder (SLD).}, journal = {Medical journal of the Islamic Republic of Iran}, volume = {29}, number = {}, pages = {279}, pmid = {26793670}, issn = {1016-1430}, abstract = {BACKGROUND: A great deal of attention has been given to the study of learning disorders. Hence, the aim of this research was to study the effect of emotion regulation training in decreasing emotion failures and self-injurious behaviors among students suffering from specific learning disorder.

METHODS: This was an experimental study with the pre-test, post-test and a control group. Research population included all 5th grade male students suffering from specific learning disorder (case study: 5th grade students in Ardabil in 2015). Research sample included 40 male students suffering from specific learning disorder (SLD) who were selected through multi-step cluster sampling and classified into two groups: Experimental group (n= 20) and control group (n= 20). The following tools were used for data collection: Kay Math mathematic Test, Raven Intelligence Test, Reading Test of Shafiei et al, Falahchay Writing Expression, Emotion Failures Scale, Self-Injurious Behavior Questionnaire and Diagnostic Interview based on DSM-5. Data were analyzed by multivariate of variance analysis (MANOVA) model in the SPSS software version 22.

RESULTS: The results of MANOVA revealed that emotion regulation training was effective in decreasing emotion failures in all parameters (difficulty in describing feelings, difficulty in identifying feelings, and externally oriented thinking style) and self-injurious behaviors in students suffering from specific learning disorder (p< 0.001).

CONCLUSION: In this study, it was found that since emotion regulation training can have a remarkable effect on reducing negative emotions and increasing the positive ones; this treatment can play an eminent role in decreasing emotion failures and self-injurious behaviors in such students.}, }
@article {pmid26701755, year = {2015}, author = {Troscianko, J and Rutz, C}, title = {Activity profiles and hook-tool use of New Caledonian crows recorded by bird-borne video cameras.}, journal = {Biology letters}, volume = {11}, number = {12}, pages = {20150777}, doi = {10.1098/rsbl.2015.0777}, pmid = {26701755}, issn = {1744-957X}, support = {BB/G023913/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; BB/G023913/2//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Acacia ; Animals ; *Appetitive Behavior ; Crows/*physiology ; Feeding Behavior ; Melaleuca ; New Caledonia ; *Tool Use Behavior ; Video Recording ; }, abstract = {New Caledonian crows are renowned for their unusually sophisticated tool behaviour. Despite decades of fieldwork, however, very little is known about how they make and use their foraging tools in the wild, which is largely owing to the difficulties in observing these shy forest birds. To obtain first estimates of activity budgets, as well as close-up observations of tool-assisted foraging, we equipped 19 wild crows with self-developed miniature video cameras, yielding more than 10 h of analysable video footage for 10 subjects. While only four crows used tools during recording sessions, they did so extensively: across all 10 birds, we conservatively estimate that tool-related behaviour occurred in 3% of total observation time, and accounted for 19% of all foraging behaviour. Our video-loggers provided first footage of crows manufacturing, and using, one of their most complex tool types--hooked stick tools--under completely natural foraging conditions. We recorded manufacture from live branches of paperbark (Melaleuca sp.) and another tree species (thought to be Acacia spirorbis), and deployment of tools in a range of contexts, including on the forest floor. Taken together, our video recordings reveal an 'expanded' foraging niche for hooked stick tools, and highlight more generally how crows routinely switch between tool- and bill-assisted foraging.}, }
@article {pmid26683184, year = {2015}, author = {Malik, A and Mallajosyula, VV and Mishra, NN and Varadarajan, R and Gupta, SK}, title = {Generation and Characterization of Monoclonal Antibodies Specific to Avian Influenza H5N1 Hemagglutinin Protein.}, journal = {Monoclonal antibodies in immunodiagnosis and immunotherapy}, volume = {34}, number = {6}, pages = {436-441}, doi = {10.1089/mab.2015.0047}, pmid = {26683184}, issn = {2167-9436}, mesh = {Animals ; Antibodies, Monoclonal/*biosynthesis ; Antibodies, Viral/*biosynthesis ; Antibody Specificity ; Ascites/immunology ; Cross Reactions ; Female ; Hemagglutination Inhibition Tests ; Hemagglutinin Glycoproteins, Influenza Virus/administration & dosage/*analysis/genetics/immunology ; Humans ; Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype/chemistry/immunology ; Influenza A Virus, H3N2 Subtype/chemistry/immunology ; Influenza A Virus, H5N1 Subtype/chemistry/*immunology ; Influenza A Virus, H7N9 Subtype/chemistry/immunology ; Kinetics ; Mice ; Mice, Inbred BALB C ; Protein Binding ; Recombinant Proteins/administration & dosage/analysis/genetics/immunology ; }, abstract = {Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus has in the past breached the species barrier from infected domestic poultry to humans in close contact. Although human-to-human transmission has previously not been reported, HPAI H5N1 virus has pandemic potential owing to gain of function mutation(s) and/or genetic reassortment with human influenza A viruses. Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) have been used for diagnosis as well as specific therapeutic candidates in several disease conditions including viral infections in humans. In this study, we describe the preliminary characterization of four murine MAbs developed against recombinant hemagglutinin (rHA) protein of avian H5N1 A/turkey/Turkey/1/2005 virus that are either highly specific or broadly reactive against HA from other H5N1 subtype viruses, such as A/Hong Kong/213/03, A/Common magpie/Hong Kong/2256/2006, and A/Barheaded goose/Quinghai/14/2008. The antibody binding is specific to H5N1 HAs, as none of the antibodies bound H1N1, H2N2, H3N2, or B/Brisbane/60/2008 HAs. Out of the four MAbs, one of them (MA-7) also reacted weakly with the rHA protein of H7N9 A/Anhui/1/2013. All four MAbs bound H5 HA (A/turkey/Turkey/1/2005) with high affinity with an equilibrium dissociation constant (KD) ranging between 0.05 and 10.30 nM. One of the MAbs (MA-1) also showed hemagglutination inhibition activity (HI titer; 31.25 μg/mL) against the homologous A/turkey/Turkey/1/2005 H5N1 virus. These antibodies may be useful in developing diagnostic tools for detection of influenza H5N1 virus infection.}, }
@article {pmid26582537, year = {2015}, author = {Klump, BC and Sugasawa, S and St Clair, JJ and Rutz, C}, title = {Hook tool manufacture in New Caledonian crows: behavioural variation and the influence of raw materials.}, journal = {BMC biology}, volume = {13}, number = {}, pages = {97}, doi = {10.1186/s12915-015-0204-7}, pmid = {26582537}, issn = {1741-7007}, support = {BB/G023913/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; Biological Evolution ; Crows/*physiology ; New Caledonia ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {BACKGROUND: New Caledonian crows use a range of foraging tools, and are the only non-human species known to craft hooks. Based on a small number of observations, their manufacture of hooked stick tools has previously been described as a complex, multi-stage process. Tool behaviour is shaped by genetic predispositions, individual and social learning, and/or ecological influences, but disentangling the relative contributions of these factors remains a major research challenge. The properties of raw materials are an obvious, but largely overlooked, source of variation in tool-manufacture behaviour. We conducted experiments with wild-caught New Caledonian crows, to assess variation in their hooked stick tool making, and to investigate how raw-material properties affect the manufacture process.

RESULTS: In Experiment 1, we showed that New Caledonian crows' manufacture of hooked stick tools can be much more variable than previously thought (85 tools by 18 subjects), and can involve two newly-discovered behaviours: 'pulling' for detaching stems and bending of the tool shaft. Crows' tool manufactures varied significantly: in the number of different action types employed; in the time spent processing the hook and bending the tool shaft; and in the structure of processing sequences. In Experiment 2, we examined the interaction of crows with raw materials of different properties, using a novel paradigm that enabled us to determine subjects' rank-ordered preferences (42 tools by 7 subjects). Plant properties influenced: the order in which crows selected stems; whether a hooked tool was manufactured; the time required to release a basic tool; and, possibly, the release technique, the number of behavioural actions, and aspects of processing behaviour. Results from Experiment 2 suggested that at least part of the natural behavioural variation observed in Experiment 1 is due to the effect of raw-material properties.

CONCLUSIONS: Our discovery of novel manufacture behaviours indicates a plausible scenario for the evolutionary origins, and gradual refinement, of New Caledonian crows' hooked stick tool making. Furthermore, our experimental demonstration of a link between raw-material properties and aspects of tool manufacture provides an alternative hypothesis for explaining regional differences in tool behaviours observed in New Caledonian crows, and some primate species.}, }
@article {pmid26529116, year = {2015}, author = {St Clair, JJ and Burns, ZT and Bettaney, EM and Morrissey, MB and Otis, B and Ryder, TB and Fleischer, RC and James, R and Rutz, C}, title = {Experimental resource pulses influence social-network dynamics and the potential for information flow in tool-using crows.}, journal = {Nature communications}, volume = {6}, number = {}, pages = {7197}, doi = {10.1038/ncomms8197}, pmid = {26529116}, issn = {2041-1723}, support = {BB/G023913/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; BB/G023913/2//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; Computer Simulation ; *Crows ; Environment ; *Information Dissemination ; *Social Behavior ; *Social Learning ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {Social-network dynamics have profound consequences for biological processes such as information flow, but are notoriously difficult to measure in the wild. We used novel transceiver technology to chart association patterns across 19 days in a wild population of the New Caledonian crow--a tool-using species that may socially learn, and culturally accumulate, tool-related information. To examine the causes and consequences of changing network topology, we manipulated the environmental availability of the crows' preferred tool-extracted prey, and simulated, in silico, the diffusion of information across field-recorded time-ordered networks. Here we show that network structure responds quickly to environmental change and that novel information can potentially spread rapidly within multi-family communities, especially when tool-use opportunities are plentiful. At the same time, we report surprisingly limited social contact between neighbouring crow communities. Such scale dependence in information-flow dynamics is likely to influence the evolution and maintenance of material cultures.}, }
@article {pmid26342705, year = {2016}, author = {Saakian, DB and Hu, CK}, title = {Mathematical Models of Quasi-Species Theory and Exact Results for the Dynamics.}, journal = {Current topics in microbiology and immunology}, volume = {392}, number = {}, pages = {121-139}, doi = {10.1007/82_2015_471}, pmid = {26342705}, issn = {0070-217X}, mesh = {*Evolution, Molecular ; Models, Genetic ; *Models, Theoretical ; Mutation ; }, abstract = {We formulate the Crow-Kimura, discrete-time Eigen model, and continuous-time Eigen model. These models are interrelated and we established an exact mapping between them. We consider the evolutionary dynamics for the single-peak fitness and symmetric smooth fitness. We applied the quantum mechanical methods to find the exact dynamics of the evolution model with a single-peak fitness. For the smooth symmetric fitness landscape, we map exactly the evolution equations into Hamilton-Jacobi equation (HJE). We apply the method to the Crow-Kimura (parallel) and Eigen models. We get simple formulas to calculate the dynamics of the maximum of distribution and the variance. We review the existing mathematical tools of quasi-species theory.}, }
@article {pmid26308874, year = {2014}, author = {Taylor, AH and Gray, RD}, title = {Is there a link between the crafting of tools and the evolution of cognition?.}, journal = {Wiley interdisciplinary reviews. Cognitive science}, volume = {5}, number = {6}, pages = {693-703}, doi = {10.1002/wcs.1322}, pmid = {26308874}, issn = {1939-5086}, abstract = {UNLABELLED: The ability to craft tools is one of the defining features of our species. The technical intelligence hypothesis predicts that tool-making species should have enhanced physical cognition. Here we review how the physical problem-solving performance of tool-making apes and corvids compares to closely related species. We conclude that, while some performance differences have been found, overall the evidence is at best equivocal. We argue that increased sample sizes, novel experimental designs, and a signature-testing approach are required to determine the effect tool crafting has on the evolution of intelligence. WIREs Cogn Sci 2014, 5:693-703. doi: 10.1002/wcs.1322 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST: The authors have declared no conflicts of interest for this article.}, }
@article {pmid26301340, year = {2015}, author = {Schmelz, M and Krüger, O and Call, J and Krause, ET}, title = {A comparison of spontaneous problem-solving abilities in three estrildid finch (Taeniopygia guttata, Lonchura striata var. domestica, Stagonopleura guttata) species.}, journal = {Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)}, volume = {129}, number = {4}, pages = {356-365}, doi = {10.1037/a0039646}, pmid = {26301340}, issn = {1939-2087}, mesh = {Animals ; Behavior, Animal/*physiology ; Female ; Finches/*physiology ; Male ; Problem Solving/*physiology ; }, abstract = {Cognition has been extensively studied in primates while other, more distantly related taxa have been neglected for a long time. More recently, there has been an increased interest in avian cognition, with the focus mostly on big-brained species like parrots and corvids. However, the majority of bird species has never systematically been studied in diverse cognitive tasks other than memory and learning tasks, so not much can yet be concluded about the relevant factors for the evolution of cognition. Here we examined 3 species of the estrildid finch family in problem-solving tasks. These granivorous, non-tool-using birds are distributed across 3 continents and are not known for high levels of innovation or spontaneous problem solving in the wild. In this study, our aim was to find such abilities in these species, assess what role domestication might play with a comparison of 4 genetically separated zebra finch strains, and to look for between-species differences between zebra finches, Bengalese finches, and diamond firetails. Furthermore, we established a 3-step spontaneous problem-solving procedure with increasing levels of complexity. Results showed that some estrildid finches were generally capable of spontaneously solving problems of variable complexity to obtain food. We found striking differences in these abilities between species, but not between strains within species, and offer a discussion of potential reasons. Our established methodology can now be applied to a larger number of bird species for phylogenetic comparisons on the behavioral level to get a deeper understanding of the evolution of cognitive abilities.}, }
@article {pmid26276368, year = {2016}, author = {Logan, CJ and Breen, AJ and Taylor, AH and Gray, RD and Hoppitt, WJ}, title = {How New Caledonian crows solve novel foraging problems and what it means for cumulative culture.}, journal = {Learning & behavior}, volume = {44}, number = {1}, pages = {18-28}, doi = {10.3758/s13420-015-0194-x}, pmid = {26276368}, issn = {1543-4508}, support = {BB/I007997/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; *Communication ; *Crows ; *Learning ; *Social Behavior ; Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {New Caledonian crows make and use tools, and tool types vary over geographic landscapes. Social learning may explain the variation in tool design, but it is unknown to what degree social learning accounts for the maintenance of these designs. Indeed, little is known about the mechanisms these crows use to obtain information from others, despite the question's importance in understanding whether tool behavior is transmitted via social, genetic, or environmental means. For social transmission to account for tool-type variation, copying must utilize a mechanism that is action specific (e.g., pushing left vs. right) as well as context specific (e.g., pushing a particular object vs. any object). To determine whether crows can copy a demonstrator's actions as well as the contexts in which they occur, we conducted a diffusion experiment using a novel foraging task. We used a nontool task to eliminate any confounds introduced by individual differences in their prior tool experience. Two groups had demonstrators (trained in isolation on different options of a four-option task, including a two-action option) and one group did not. We found that crows socially learn about context: After observers see a demonstrator interact with the task, they are more likely to interact with the same parts of the task. In contrast, observers did not copy the demonstrator's specific actions. Our results suggest it is unlikely that observing tool-making behavior transmits tool types. We suggest it is possible that tool types are transmitted when crows copy the physical form of the tools they encounter.}, }
@article {pmid26266937, year = {2015}, author = {Jelbert, SA and Singh, PJ and Gray, RD and Taylor, AH}, title = {New Caledonian crows rapidly solve a collaborative problem without cooperative cognition.}, journal = {PloS one}, volume = {10}, number = {8}, pages = {e0133253}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0133253}, pmid = {26266937}, issn = {1932-6203}, mesh = {Animals ; Biological Evolution ; Cognition/physiology ; *Cooperative Behavior ; Crows/*physiology ; Problem Solving/*physiology ; Tool Use Behavior/*physiology ; }, abstract = {There is growing comparative evidence that the cognitive bases of cooperation are not unique to humans. However, the selective pressures that lead to the evolution of these mechanisms remain unclear. Here we show that while tool-making New Caledonian crows can produce collaborative behavior, they do not understand the causality of cooperation nor show sensitivity to inequity. Instead, the collaborative behavior produced appears to have been underpinned by the transfer of prior experience. These results suggest that a number of possible selective pressures, including tool manufacture and mobbing behaviours, have not led to the evolution of cooperative cognition in this species. They show that causal cognition can evolve in a domain specific manner-understanding the properties and flexible uses of physical tools does not necessarily enable animals to grasp that a conspecific can be used as a social tool.}, }
@article {pmid26246543, year = {2015}, author = {Taylor, AH and Cheke, LG and Waismeyer, A and Meltzoff, A and Miller, R and Gopnik, A and Clayton, NS and Gray, RD}, title = {No conclusive evidence that corvids can create novel causal interventions.}, journal = {Proceedings. Biological sciences}, volume = {282}, number = {1813}, pages = {20150796}, doi = {10.1098/rspb.2015.0796}, pmid = {26246543}, issn = {1471-2954}, mesh = {Animals ; *Biological Evolution ; *Cognition ; Crows/*physiology ; Female ; Humans ; *Learning ; Male ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, }
@article {pmid25994674, year = {2015}, author = {Klump, BC and van der Wal, JE and St Clair, JJ and Rutz, C}, title = {Context-dependent 'safekeeping' of foraging tools in New Caledonian crows.}, journal = {Proceedings. Biological sciences}, volume = {282}, number = {1808}, pages = {20150278}, doi = {10.1098/rspb.2015.0278}, pmid = {25994674}, issn = {1471-2954}, support = {BB/G023913/2//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; Biological Evolution ; Crows/*physiology ; *Feeding Behavior ; Female ; Male ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {Several animal species use tools for foraging, such as sticks to extract embedded arthropods and honey, or stones to crack open nuts and eggs. While providing access to nutritious foods, these behaviours may incur significant costs, such as the time and energy spent searching for, manufacturing and transporting tools. These costs can be reduced by re-using tools, keeping them safe when not needed. We experimentally investigated what New Caledonian crows do with their tools between successive prey extractions, and whether they express tool 'safekeeping' behaviours more often when the costs (foraging at height), or likelihood (handling of demanding prey), of tool loss are high. Birds generally took care of their tools (84% of 176 prey extractions, nine subjects), either trapping them underfoot (74%) or storing them in holes (26%)--behaviours we also observed in the wild (19 cases, four subjects). Moreover, tool-handling behaviour was context-dependent, with subjects: keeping their tools safe significantly more often when foraging at height; and storing tools significantly more often in holes when extracting more demanding prey (under these conditions, foot-trapping proved challenging). In arboreal environments, safekeeping can prevent costly tool losses, removing a potentially important constraint on the evolution of habitual and complex tool behaviour.}, }
@article {pmid25984564, year = {2014}, author = {Auersperg, AM and Oswald, N and Domanegg, M and Gajdon, GK and Bugnyar, T}, title = {Unrewarded Object Combinations in Captive Parrots.}, journal = {Animal behavior and cognition}, volume = {1}, number = {4}, pages = {470-488}, doi = {10.12966/abc.11.05.2014}, pmid = {25984564}, issn = {2372-5052}, support = {Y 366//Austrian Science Fund FWF/Austria ; }, abstract = {In primates, complex object combinations during play are often regarded as precursors of functional behavior. Here we investigate combinatory behaviors during unrewarded object manipulation in seven parrot species, including kea, African grey parrots and Goffin cockatoos, three species previously used as model species for technical problem solving. We further examine a habitually tool using species, the black palm cockatoo. Moreover, we incorporate three neotropical species, the yellow- and the black-billed Amazon and the burrowing parakeet. Paralleling previous studies on primates and corvids, free object-object combinations and complex object-substrate combinations such as inserting objects into tubes/holes or stacking rings onto poles prevailed in the species previously linked to advanced physical cognition and tool use. In addition, free object-object combinations were intrinsically structured in Goffin cockatoos and in kea.}, }
@article {pmid25982732, year = {2015}, author = {Zhu, Y and Sun, L and Garbarino, A and Schmidt, C and Fang, J and Chen, J}, title = {PathRings: a web-based tool for exploration of ortholog and expression data in biological pathways.}, journal = {BMC bioinformatics}, volume = {16}, number = {}, pages = {165}, doi = {10.1186/s12859-015-0585-1}, pmid = {25982732}, issn = {1471-2105}, mesh = {Computer Graphics ; Computer Simulation ; *Gene Expression ; Genomics/*methods ; Humans ; *Internet ; *Metabolic Networks and Pathways ; Proteins/metabolism ; Proteomics/*methods ; Signal Transduction ; *Software ; Species Specificity ; }, abstract = {BACKGROUND: High-throughput methods are generating biological data on a vast scale. In many instances, genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic data must be interpreted in the context of signaling and metabolic pathways to yield testable hypotheses. Since humans can interpret visual information rapidly, a means for interactive visual exploration that lets biologists interpret such data in a comprehensive and exploratory manner would be invaluable. However, humans have limited memory capacity. Current visualization tools have limited viewing and manipulation capabilities to address complex data analysis problems, and visual exploratory tools are needed to reduce the high mental workload imposed on biologists.

RESULTS: We present PathRings, a new interactive web-based, scalable biological pathway visualization tool for biologists to explore and interpret biological pathways. PathRings integrates metabolic and signaling pathways from Reactome in a single compound graph visualization, and uses color to highlight genes and pathways affected by input data. Pathways are available for multiple species and analysis of user-defined species or input is also possible. PathRings permits an overview of the impact of gene expression data on all pathways to facilitate visual pattern finding. Detailed pathways information can be opened in new visualizations while maintaining the overview, that form a visual exploration provenance. A dynamic multi-view bubbles interface is designed to support biologists' analytical tasks by letting users construct incremental views that further reflect biologists' analytical process. This approach decomposes complex tasks into simpler ones and automates multi-view management.

CONCLUSIONS: PathRings has been designed to accommodate interactive visual analysis of experimental data in the context of pathways defined by Reactome. Our new approach to interface design can effectively support comparative tasks over substantially larger collection than existing tools. The dynamic interaction among multi-view dataset visualization improves the data exploration. PathRings is available free at http://raven.anr.udel.edu/~sunliang/PathRings and the source code is hosted on Github: https://github.com/ivcl/PathRings .}, }
@article {pmid25876841, year = {2015}, author = {Jacobs, IF and von Bayern, A and Martin-Ordas, G and Rat-Fischer, L and Osvath, M}, title = {Corvids create novel causal interventions after all.}, journal = {Proceedings. Biological sciences}, volume = {282}, number = {1806}, pages = {20142504}, doi = {10.1098/rspb.2014.2504}, pmid = {25876841}, issn = {1471-2954}, mesh = {Animals ; *Biological Evolution ; *Cognition ; Crows/*physiology ; Female ; Humans ; *Learning ; Male ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, }
@article {pmid25488022, year = {2015}, author = {Silva, KM and Gross, TJ and Silva, FJ}, title = {Task-specific modulation of adult humans' tool preferences: number of choices and size of the problem.}, journal = {Learning & behavior}, volume = {43}, number = {1}, pages = {44-53}, doi = {10.3758/s13420-014-0160-z}, pmid = {25488022}, issn = {1543-4508}, mesh = {Adult ; Choice Behavior ; *Cognition ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; *Problem Solving ; }, abstract = {In two experiments, we examined the effect of modifications to the features of a stick-and-tube problem on the stick lengths that adult humans used to solve the problem. In Experiment 1, we examined whether people's tool preferences for retrieving an out-of-reach object in a tube might more closely resemble those reported with laboratory crows if people could modify a single stick to an ideal length to solve the problem. Contrary to when adult humans have selected a tool from a set of ten sticks, asking people to modify a single stick to retrieve an object did not generally result in a stick whose length was related to the object's distance. Consistent with the prior research, though, the working length of the stick was related to the object's distance. In Experiment 2, we examined the effect of increasing the scale of the stick-and-tube problem on people's tool preferences. Increasing the scale of the task influenced people to select relatively shorter tools than had selected in previous studies. Although the causal structures of the tasks used in the two experiments were identical, their results were not. This underscores the necessity of studying physical cognition in relation to a particular causal structure by using a variety of tasks and methods.}, }
@article {pmid25484292, year = {2014}, author = {Martinho, A and Burns, ZT and von Bayern, AM and Kacelnik, A}, title = {Monocular tool control, eye dominance, and laterality in New Caledonian crows.}, journal = {Current biology : CB}, volume = {24}, number = {24}, pages = {2930-2934}, doi = {10.1016/j.cub.2014.10.035}, pmid = {25484292}, issn = {1879-0445}, mesh = {Animals ; Crows/*physiology ; *Dominance, Ocular ; Female ; *Functional Laterality ; Male ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {Tool use, though rare, is taxonomically widespread, but morphological adaptations for tool use are virtually unknown. We focus on the New Caledonian crow (NCC, Corvus moneduloides), which displays some of the most innovative tool-related behavior among nonhumans. One of their major food sources is larvae extracted from burrows with sticks held diagonally in the bill, oriented with individual, but not species-wide, laterality. Among possible behavioral and anatomical adaptations for tool use, NCCs possess unusually wide binocular visual fields (up to 60°), suggesting that extreme binocular vision may facilitate tool use. Here, we establish that during natural extractions, tool tips can only be viewed by the contralateral eye. Thus, maintaining binocular view of tool tips is unlikely to have selected for wide binocular fields; the selective factor is more likely to have been to allow each eye to see far enough across the midsagittal line to view the tool's tip monocularly. Consequently, we tested the hypothesis that tool side preference follows eye preference and found that eye dominance does predict tool laterality across individuals. This contrasts with humans' species-wide motor laterality and uncorrelated motor-visual laterality, possibly because bill-held tools are viewed monocularly and move in concert with eyes, whereas hand-held tools are visible to both eyes and allow independent combinations of eye preference and handedness. This difference may affect other models of coordination between vision and mechanical control, not necessarily involving tools.}, }
@article {pmid25437492, year = {2015}, author = {Auersperg, AM and van Horik, JO and Bugnyar, T and Kacelnik, A and Emery, NJ and von Bayern, AM}, title = {Combinatory actions during object play in psittaciformes (Diopsittaca nobilis, Pionites melanocephala, Cacatua goffini) and corvids (Corvus corax, C. monedula, C. moneduloides).}, journal = {Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)}, volume = {129}, number = {1}, pages = {62-71}, doi = {10.1037/a0038314}, pmid = {25437492}, issn = {1939-2087}, mesh = {Animals ; Behavior, Animal/*physiology ; Cockatoos ; Crows ; Parrots ; Passeriformes/*physiology ; Problem Solving/*physiology ; Psittaciformes/*physiology ; Species Specificity ; }, abstract = {The playful (i.e., not overtly functional) combination of objects is considered a potential ontogenetic and phylogenetic precursor of technical problem solving abilities, as it may lead to affordance learning and honing of mechanical skills. We compared such activities in 6 avian species: 3 psittaciforms (black-headed caiques, red-shouldered macaws, and Goffin cockatoos) and 3 corvids (New Caledonian crows, ravens, and jackdaws). Differences in the type and frequency of object combinations were consistent with species' ecology. Object caching was found predominately in common ravens, which frequently cache food. The most intrinsically structured object combinations were found in New Caledonian crows and Goffin cockatoos, which both stand out for their problem solving abilities in physical tasks. Object insertions prevailed in New Caledonian crows that naturally extract food using tools. Our results support the idea that playful manipulations of inedible objects are linked to physical cognition and problem-solving abilities.}, }
@article {pmid25207993, year = {2015}, author = {Clayton, NS}, title = {Ways of thinking: from crows to children and back again.}, journal = {Quarterly journal of experimental psychology (2006)}, volume = {68}, number = {2}, pages = {209-241}, doi = {10.1080/17470218.2014.943673}, pmid = {25207993}, issn = {1747-0226}, support = {//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; Child ; *Child Development ; *Cognition ; Crows ; Humans ; Problem Solving ; Psychomotor Performance/*physiology ; Social Behavior ; Theory of Mind/*physiology ; *Thinking ; }, abstract = {This article reviews some of the recent work on the remarkable cognitive capacities of food-caching corvids. The focus will be on their ability to think about other minds and other times, and tool-using tests of physical problem solving. Research on developmental cognition suggests that young children do not pass similar tests until they are at least four years of age in the case of the social cognition experiments, and eight years of age in the case of the tasks that tap into physical cognition. This developmental trajectory seems surprising. Intuitively, one might have thought that the social and planning tasks required more complex forms of cognitive process, namely Mental Time Travel and Theory of Mind. Perhaps the fact that children pass these tasks earlier than the physical problem-solving tasks is a reflection of cultural influences. Future research will hope to identify these cognitive milestones by starting to develop tasks that might go some way towards understanding the mechanisms underlying these abilities in both children and corvids, to explore similarities and differences in their ways of thinking.}, }
@article {pmid25055009, year = {2014}, author = {Logan, CJ and Jelbert, SA and Breen, AJ and Gray, RD and Taylor, AH}, title = {Modifications to the Aesop's Fable paradigm change New Caledonian crow performances.}, journal = {PloS one}, volume = {9}, number = {7}, pages = {e103049}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0103049}, pmid = {25055009}, issn = {1932-6203}, mesh = {Animals ; Child, Preschool ; *Cognition ; Crows/*physiology ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Problem Solving ; Reward ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {While humans are able to understand much about causality, it is unclear to what extent non-human animals can do the same. The Aesop's Fable paradigm requires an animal to drop stones into a water-filled tube to bring a floating food reward within reach. Rook, Eurasian jay, and New Caledonian crow performances are similar to those of children under seven years of age when solving this task. However, we know very little about the cognition underpinning these birds' performances. Here, we address several limitations of previous Aesop's Fable studies to gain insight into the causal cognition of New Caledonian crows. Our results provide the first evidence that any non-human animal can solve the U-tube task and can discriminate between water-filled tubes of different volumes. However, our results do not provide support for the hypothesis that these crows can infer the presence of a hidden causal mechanism. They also call into question previous object-discrimination performances. The methodologies outlined here should allow for more powerful comparisons between humans and other animal species and thus help us to determine which aspects of causal cognition are distinct to humans.}, }
@article {pmid25004080, year = {2014}, author = {Kanai, M and Matsui, H and Watanabe, S and Izawa, E}, title = {Involvement of vision in tool use in crow.}, journal = {Neuroreport}, volume = {25}, number = {13}, pages = {1064-1068}, doi = {10.1097/WNR.0000000000000229}, pmid = {25004080}, issn = {1473-558X}, mesh = {Animals ; *Crows ; Male ; Psychomotor Performance ; *Tool Use Behavior ; *Vision, Ocular ; }, abstract = {Birds are capable of dexterous sensory-motor activities such as tool use. Reaching is a crucial component of tool use and is a vision-guided behavior in primates, in which arm movement is monitored online in a stable visual frame. However, vision-guided reaching in primates is enabled by anatomical separation of the head and arm; neck reaching in birds accompanies head movement, which produces unstable vision because the eye necessarily moves with the bill. This anatomical difference raises the question whether tool use in birds involves visuomotor mechanisms that are distinct from those in primates. As the role of vision in avian tool use has been poorly understood, we investigated the role of vision in tool use in the large-billed crow (Corvus macrorhynchos), a nontool user in the wild. Crows were trained to manipulate an L-shaped hook to retrieve food that was otherwise out of reach. After training, an opaque panel was placed on the front window of the platform to block their vision, and the effects on tool use were tested with respect to performance and movement trajectory. Vision blocking caused similar deviation of tool movement trajectories for both near and far targets, as well as far target-specific deviation. This suggests the involvement of vision in tool use by crows, specifically in the premanipulation process for conversion of vision-body coordinates for motor planning and in the process of tool manipulation. This is the first behavioral evidence for the involvement of vision in avian tool use.}, }
@article {pmid24920476, year = {2014}, author = {Taylor, AH and Cheke, LG and Waismeyer, A and Meltzoff, AN and Miller, R and Gopnik, A and Clayton, NS and Gray, RD}, title = {Of babies and birds: complex tool behaviours are not sufficient for the evolution of the ability to create a novel causal intervention.}, journal = {Proceedings. Biological sciences}, volume = {281}, number = {1787}, pages = {}, doi = {10.1098/rspb.2014.0837}, pmid = {24920476}, issn = {1471-2954}, mesh = {Animals ; *Biological Evolution ; Child, Preschool ; *Cognition ; Conditioning, Operant ; Crows/*physiology ; Female ; Humans ; Infant ; *Learning ; Male ; New Caledonia ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {Humans are capable of simply observing a correlation between cause and effect, and then producing a novel behavioural pattern in order to recreate the same outcome. However, it is unclear how the ability to create such causal interventions evolved. Here, we show that while 24-month-old children can produce an effective, novel action after observing a correlation, tool-making New Caledonian crows cannot. These results suggest that complex tool behaviours are not sufficient for the evolution of this ability, and that causal interventions can be cognitively and evolutionarily disassociated from other types of causal understanding.}, }
@article {pmid24333834, year = {2014}, author = {Jacobs, IF and Osvath, M and Osvath, H and Mioduszewska, B and von Bayern, AM and Kacelnik, A}, title = {Object caching in corvids: incidence and significance.}, journal = {Behavioural processes}, volume = {102}, number = {}, pages = {25-32}, doi = {10.1016/j.beproc.2013.12.003}, pmid = {24333834}, issn = {1872-8308}, mesh = {Animals ; Behavior, Animal/*physiology ; Crows/*physiology ; Exploratory Behavior/*physiology ; Feeding Behavior/*physiology ; Female ; Food ; Male ; }, abstract = {Food caching is a paramount model for studying relations between cognition, brain organisation and ecology in corvids. In contrast, behaviour towards inedible objects is poorly examined and understood. We review the literature on object caching in corvids and other birds, and describe an exploratory study on object caching in ravens, New Caledonian crows and jackdaws. The captive adult birds were presented with an identical set of novel objects adjacent to food. All three species cached objects, which shows the behaviour not to be restricted to juveniles, food cachers, tool-users or individuals deprived of cacheable food. The pattern of object interaction and caching did not mirror the incidence of food caching: the intensely food caching ravens indeed showed highest object caching incidence, but the rarely food caching jackdaws cached objects to similar extent as the moderate food caching New Caledonian crows. Ravens and jackdaws preferred objects with greater sphericity, but New Caledonian crows preferred stick-like objects (similar to tools). We suggest that the observed object caching might have been expressions of exploration or play, and deserves being studied in its own right because of its potential significance for tool-related behaviour and learning, rather than as an over-spill from food-caching research. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: CO3 2013.}, }
@article {pmid24154747, year = {2013}, author = {Bly, RA and Su, D and Lendvay, TS and Friedman, D and Hannaford, B and Ferreira, M and Moe, KS}, title = {Multiportal robotic access to the anterior cranial fossa: a surgical and engineering feasibility study.}, journal = {Otolaryngology--head and neck surgery : official journal of American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery}, volume = {149}, number = {6}, pages = {940-946}, doi = {10.1177/0194599813509587}, pmid = {24154747}, issn = {1097-6817}, support = {R21 EB016122/EB/NIBIB NIH HHS/United States ; T32 DC000018/DC/NIDCD NIH HHS/United States ; T32 DC00018/DC/NIDCD NIH HHS/United States ; }, mesh = {Cadaver ; Cranial Fossa, Anterior/*surgery ; Craniotomy/*methods ; Dissection/methods ; Feasibility Studies ; Humans ; *Robotics/instrumentation/methods ; Skull Base/surgery ; Surgery, Computer-Assisted/*methods ; Tomography, X-Ray Computed ; }, abstract = {OBJECTIVE: Integration of robotic surgical technology into skull base surgery is limited due to minimum angle requirements between robotic tools (narrow funnel effect), steep angle of approach, and instrumentation size. The objectives of this study were to systematically analyze surgical approach portals using a computer model, determine optimal approaches, and assess feasibility of the derived approaches on robotic surgical systems.

CONCLUSION: Technical feasibility of robotic transorbital and transnasal approaches to access sella and parasellar target locations was demonstrated. This technique addresses the 2 major drawbacks of (1) the narrow funnel effect generated from portals in close proximity and (2) the steep angle of approach to the skull base, as observed in previous studies analyzing transoral, transcervical, transmaxillary, and transhyoid portals.}, }
@article {pmid24101633, year = {2013}, author = {Gowlett, JA}, title = {Elongation as a factor in artefacts of humans and other animals: an Acheulean example in comparative context.}, journal = {Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences}, volume = {368}, number = {1630}, pages = {20130114}, doi = {10.1098/rstb.2013.0114}, pmid = {24101633}, issn = {1471-2970}, mesh = {Animals ; *Hominidae ; Humans ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {Elongation is a commonly found feature in artefacts made and used by humans and other animals and can be analysed in comparative study. Whether made for use in hand or beak, the artefacts have some common properties of length, breadth, thickness and balance point, and elongation can be studied as a factor relating to construction or use of a long axis. In human artefacts, elongation can be traced through the archaeological record, for example in stone blades of the Upper Palaeolithic (traditionally regarded as more sophisticated than earlier artefacts), and in earlier blades of the Middle Palaeolithic. It is now recognized that elongation extends to earlier Palaeolithic artefacts, being found in the repertoire of both Neanderthals and more archaic humans. Artefacts used by non-human animals, including chimpanzees, capuchin monkeys and New Caledonian crows show selection for diameter and length, and consistent interventions of modification. Both chimpanzees and capuchins trim side branches from stems, and appropriate lengths of stave are selected or cut. In human artefacts, occasional organic finds show elongation back to about 0.5 million years. A record of elongation achieved in stone tools survives to at least 1.75 Ma (million years ago) in the Acheulean tradition. Throughout this tradition, some Acheulean handaxes are highly elongated, usually found with others that are less elongated. Finds from the million-year-old site of Kilombe and Kenya are given as an example. These findings argue that the elongation need not be integral to a design, but that artefacts may be the outcome of adjustments to individual variables. Such individual adjustments are seen in animal artefacts. In the case of a handaxe, the maker must balance the adjustments to achieve a satisfactory outcome in the artefact as a whole. It is argued that the need to make decisions about individual variables within multivariate objects provides an essential continuity across artefacts made by different species.}, }
@article {pmid24101630, year = {2013}, author = {McGrew, WC}, title = {Is primate tool use special? Chimpanzee and New Caledonian crow compared.}, journal = {Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences}, volume = {368}, number = {1630}, pages = {20120422}, doi = {10.1098/rstb.2012.0422}, pmid = {24101630}, issn = {1471-2970}, mesh = {Animals ; Crows/*physiology ; Pan troglodytes/*physiology/*psychology ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {The chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) is well-known in both nature and captivity as an impressive maker and user of tools, but recently the New Caledonian crow (Corvus moneduloides) has been championed as being equivalent or superior to the ape in elementary technology. I systematically compare the two taxa, going beyond simple presence/absence scoring of tool-using and -making types, on four more precise aspects of material culture: (i) types of associative technology (tools used in combination); (ii) modes of tool making; (iii) modes of tool use; and (iv) functions of tool use. I emphasize tool use in nature, when performance is habitual or customary, rather than in anecdotal or idiosyncratic. On all four measures, the ape shows more variety than does the corvid, especially in modes and functions that go beyond extractive foraging. However, more sustained field research is required on the crows before this contrast is conclusive.}, }
@article {pmid24101628, year = {2013}, author = {Teschke, I and Wascher, CA and Scriba, MF and von Bayern, AM and Huml, V and Siemers, B and Tebbich, S}, title = {Did tool-use evolve with enhanced physical cognitive abilities?.}, journal = {Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences}, volume = {368}, number = {1630}, pages = {20120418}, doi = {10.1098/rstb.2012.0418}, pmid = {24101628}, issn = {1471-2970}, mesh = {Animals ; Choice Behavior ; *Cognition ; Crows/*physiology ; Ecuador ; Finches/*physiology ; Logistic Models ; New Caledonia ; Random Allocation ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {The use and manufacture of tools have been considered to be cognitively demanding and thus a possible driving factor in the evolution of intelligence. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that enhanced physical cognitive abilities evolved in conjunction with the use of tools, by comparing the performance of naturally tool-using and non-tool-using species in a suite of physical and general learning tasks. We predicted that the habitually tool-using species, New Caledonian crows and Galápagos woodpecker finches, should outperform their non-tool-using relatives, the small tree finches and the carrion crows in a physical problem but not in general learning tasks. We only found a divergence in the predicted direction for corvids. That only one of our comparisons supports the predictions under this hypothesis might be attributable to different complexities of tool-use in the two tool-using species. A critical evaluation is offered of the conceptual and methodological problems inherent in comparative studies on tool-related cognitive abilities.}, }
@article {pmid24101625, year = {2013}, author = {St Clair, JJ and Rutz, C}, title = {New Caledonian crows attend to multiple functional properties of complex tools.}, journal = {Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences}, volume = {368}, number = {1630}, pages = {20120415}, doi = {10.1098/rstb.2012.0415}, pmid = {24101625}, issn = {1471-2970}, support = {BB/C517392/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; BB/G023913/2//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; Binomial Distribution ; *Crows ; *Feeding Behavior ; Female ; Male ; New Caledonia ; *Tool Use Behavior ; Video Recording ; }, abstract = {The ability to attend to the functional properties of foraging tools should affect energy-intake rates, fitness components and ultimately the evolutionary dynamics of tool-related behaviour. New Caledonian crows Corvus moneduloides use three distinct tool types for extractive foraging: non-hooked stick tools, hooked stick tools and tools cut from the barbed edges of Pandanus spp. leaves. The latter two types exhibit clear functional polarity, because of (respectively) a single terminal, crow-manufactured hook and natural barbs running along one edge of the leaf strip; in each case, the 'hooks' can only aid prey capture if the tool is oriented correctly by the crow during deployment. A previous experimental study of New Caledonian crows found that subjects paid little attention to the barbs of supplied (wide) pandanus tools, resulting in non-functional tool orientation during foraging. This result is puzzling, given the presumed fitness benefits of consistently orienting tools functionally in the wild. We investigated whether the lack of discrimination with respect to (wide) pandanus tool orientation also applies to hooked stick tools. We experimentally provided subjects with naturalistic replica tools in a range of orientations and found that all subjects used these tools correctly, regardless of how they had been presented. In a companion experiment, we explored the extent to which normally co-occurring tool features (terminal hook, curvature of the tool shaft and stripped bark at the hooked end) inform tool-orientation decisions, by forcing birds to deploy 'unnatural' tools, which exhibited these traits at opposite ends. Our subjects attended to at least two of the three tool features, although, as expected, the location of the hook was of paramount importance. We discuss these results in the context of earlier research and propose avenues for future work.}, }
@article {pmid23979456, year = {2013}, author = {Striedter, GF}, title = {Bird brains and tool use: beyond instrumental conditioning.}, journal = {Brain, behavior and evolution}, volume = {82}, number = {1}, pages = {55-67}, doi = {10.1159/000352003}, pmid = {23979456}, issn = {1421-9743}, mesh = {Animals ; Birds/*anatomy & histology ; Brain/*anatomy & histology ; *Conditioning, Operant ; Mind-Body Relations, Metaphysical ; *Nerve Net ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {Few displays of complex cognition are as intriguing as nonhuman tool use. Long thought to be unique to humans, evidence for tool use and manufacture has now been gathered in chimpanzees, dolphins, and elephants. Outside of mammals, tool use is most common in birds, especially in corvids and parrots. The present paper reviews the evidence for avian tool use, both in the wild and in laboratory settings. It also places this behavioral evidence in the context of longstanding debates about the kinds of mental processes nonhumans can perform. Descartes argued that animals are unable to think because they are soulless machines, incapable of flexible behavior. Later, as human machines became more sophisticated and psychologists discovered classical and instrumental conditioning, skepticism about animal thinking decreased. However, behaviors that involve more than simple conditioning continued to elicit skepticism, especially among behaviorists. Nonetheless, as reviewed here, strong behavioral data now indicate that tool use in some birds cannot be explained as resulting entirely from instrumental conditioning. The neural substrates of tool use in birds remain unclear, but the available data point mainly to the caudolateral nidopallium, which shares both functional and structural features with the mammalian prefrontal cortex. As more data on the neural mechanisms of complex cognition in birds accrue, skepticism about those mental capacities should continue to wane.}, }
@article {pmid23899660, year = {2013}, author = {Koura, KG and Boivin, MJ and Davidson, LL and Ouédraogo, S and Zoumenou, R and Alao, MJ and Garcia, A and Massougbodji, A and Cot, M and Bodeau-Livinec, F}, title = {Usefulness of child development assessments for low-resource settings in francophone Africa.}, journal = {Journal of developmental and behavioral pediatrics : JDBP}, volume = {34}, number = {7}, pages = {486-493}, doi = {10.1097/DBP.0b013e31829d211c}, pmid = {23899660}, issn = {1536-7312}, support = {R21 HD060524/HD/NICHD NIH HHS/United States ; R21-HD060524/HD/NICHD NIH HHS/United States ; }, mesh = {Benin/epidemiology ; Child ; Child Development ; Child, Preschool ; Cross-Sectional Studies ; Depression, Postpartum/diagnosis/epidemiology ; Developing Countries ; Developmental Disabilities/*diagnosis/epidemiology ; Educational Status ; Female ; Humans ; Infant ; Infant, Newborn ; Male ; Maternal Welfare ; Mother-Child Relations ; Neuropsychological Tests ; Socioeconomic Factors ; Surveys and Questionnaires ; }, abstract = {OBJECTIVE: Few tools are available to screen or assess infant's cognitive development, especially in French-speaking Africa. This study evaluated the use of the French translation of the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL), and the "Ten Questions" questionnaire (TQ) in 1-year-old children in Benin, a francophone country.

METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted in 3 health centers serving a semirural area in Benin. Three hundred fifty-seven children aged 12 months and their mothers were enrolled in 2011. Infant development was assessed at local health centers followed by a home visit to collect information on socioeconomic status, maternal Raven score, maternal depressive symptoms, and mother-child interactions (Home Observation for the Measurement of the Environment [HOME] Inventory), and to administer the TQ.

RESULTS: The infant's gender (female), the HOME, and maternal education were associated with a higher Early Learning Composite score in multivariate analyses (p = .02, p = .004, p = .007, respectively). The HOME and family wealth were also associated with the Gross Motor Scale (p = .03 and p = .03, respectively). Mothers were more likely to report difficulties on the TQ when the child presented lower score on the MSEL. When considering the Gross Motor Scale as the gold standard to define moderate delays, the 2 combined motor-related questions on the TQ showed good sensitivity and specificity (76.5 and 75.7).

CONCLUSION: In a low-resource rural setting in Africa, the TQ effectively identified 3 quarters of 1-year-old infants with delayed development. After this screening, the MSEL may be useful for further assessment as it showed good feasibility and sensitivity to known risk factors for poor child development.}, }
@article {pmid23840515, year = {2013}, author = {Díaz-Fernández, S and Arroyo, B and Casas, F and Martinez-Haro, M and Viñuela, J}, title = {Effect of Game Management on Wild Red-Legged Partridge Abundance.}, journal = {PloS one}, volume = {8}, number = {6}, pages = {e66671}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0066671}, pmid = {23840515}, issn = {1932-6203}, mesh = {Animals ; Conservation of Natural Resources/*methods ; Ecosystem ; *Galliformes ; Population Density ; Spain ; }, abstract = {The reduction of game and fish populations has increased investment in management practices. Hunting and fishing managers use several tools to maximize harvest. Managers need to know the impact their management has on wild populations. This issue is especially important to improve management efficacy and biodiversity conservation. We used questionnaires and field bird surveys in 48 hunting estates to assess whether red-legged partridge Alectoris rufa young/adult ratio and summer abundance were related to the intensity of management (provision of supplementary food and water, predator control and releases of farm-bred partridges), harvest intensity or habitat in Central Spain. We hypothesized that partridge abundance would be higher where management practices were applied more intensively. Variation in young/adult ratio among estates was best explained by habitat, year and some management practices. Density of feeders and water points had a positive relationship with this ratio, while the density of partridges released and magpies controlled were negatively related to it. The variables with greatest relative importance were feeders, releases and year. Variations in post-breeding red-legged partridge abundance among estates were best explained by habitat, year, the same management variables that influenced young/adult ratio, and harvest intensity. Harvest intensity was negatively related to partridge abundance. The other management variables had the same type of relationship with abundance as with young/adult ratio, except magpie control. Variables with greatest relative importance were habitat, feeders, water points, releases and harvest intensity. Our study suggests that management had an overall important effect on post-breeding partridge abundance. However, this effect varied among tools, as some had the desired effect (increase in partridge abundance), whereas others did not or even had a negative relationship (such as release of farm-reared birds) and can be thus considered inefficient or even detrimental. We advise reconsidering their use from both ecological and economical points of view.}, }
@article {pmid23825633, year = {2013}, author = {Young, JA and Jefferies, W}, title = {Towards the conservation of endangered avian species: a recombinant West Nile Virus vaccine results in increased humoral and cellular immune responses in Japanese Quail (Coturnix japonica).}, journal = {PloS one}, volume = {8}, number = {6}, pages = {e67137}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0067137}, pmid = {23825633}, issn = {1932-6203}, mesh = {Animals ; Antibodies, Viral/blood/immunology ; Conservation of Natural Resources/*methods ; Coturnix/blood/*immunology/metabolism ; *Endangered Species ; *Immunity, Cellular ; *Immunity, Humoral ; Interferon-gamma/metabolism ; T-Lymphocytes/cytology/immunology ; Vaccines, Synthetic/immunology ; Viral Proteins/immunology ; West Nile Virus Vaccines/*immunology ; }, abstract = {West Nile Virus (WNV) arrived in North America in 1999 and is now endemic. Many families of birds, especially corvids, are highly susceptible to WNV and infection often results in fatality. Avian species susceptible to WNV infection also include endangered species, such as the Greater Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus uropbasianuts) and the Eastern Loggerhead Shrike (Lanius ludovicianus migrans). The virus has been shown to contribute towards the likelihood of their extinction. Although a clear and present threat, there exists no avian WNV vaccine available to combat this lethal menace. As a first step in establishing an avian model for testing candidate WNV vaccines, avian antibody based reagents were assessed for cross-reactivity with Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) T cell markers CD4 and CD8; the most reactive were found to be the anti-duck CD8 antibody, clone Du-CD8-1, and the anti-chicken/turkey CD4 antibody, clone CT4. These reagents were then used to assess vaccine performance as well as to establish T cell populations in quail, with a novel population of CD4/CD8 double positive T cells being identified in Japanese quail. Concurrently, non-replicating recombinant adenoviruses, expressing either the WNV envelope or NS3 'genes' were constructed and assessed for effectiveness as avian vaccines. Japanese Quail were selected for testing the vaccines, as they provide an avian model that parallels the population diversity of bird species in the wild. Both the level of WNV specific antibodies and the number of T cells in vaccinated birds were increased compared to unvaccinated controls. The results indicate the vaccines to be effective in increasing both humoral and cellular immune responses. These recombinant vaccines therefore may find utility as tools to protect and maintain domestic and wild avian populations. Their implementation may also arrest the progression towards extinction of endangered avian species and reduce the viral reservoir that potentiates infection in humans.}, }
@article {pmid23345454, year = {2013}, author = {Dymond, S and Haselgrove, M and McGregor, A}, title = {Clever crows or unbalanced birds?.}, journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America}, volume = {110}, number = {5}, pages = {E336}, doi = {10.1073/pnas.1218931110}, pmid = {23345454}, issn = {1091-6490}, mesh = {Animals ; Cognition/*physiology ; Crows/*physiology ; Problem Solving/*physiology ; Tool Use Behavior/*physiology ; }, }
@article {pmid23315084, year = {2013}, author = {Boogert, NJ and Arbilly, M and Muth, F and Seed, AM}, title = {Do crows reason about causes or agents? The devil is in the controls.}, journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America}, volume = {110}, number = {4}, pages = {E273}, doi = {10.1073/pnas.1219664110}, pmid = {23315084}, issn = {1091-6490}, mesh = {Animals ; Cognition/*physiology ; Crows/*physiology ; Problem Solving/*physiology ; Tool Use Behavior/*physiology ; }, }
@article {pmid23300592, year = {2012}, author = {Martin-Ordas, G and Schumacher, L and Call, J}, title = {Sequential tool use in great apes.}, journal = {PloS one}, volume = {7}, number = {12}, pages = {e52074}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0052074}, pmid = {23300592}, issn = {1932-6203}, mesh = {Animals ; *Choice Behavior ; *Decision Making ; Female ; Food ; Hominidae ; Male ; *Problem Solving ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {Sequential tool use is defined as using a tool to obtain another non-food object which subsequently itself will serve as a tool to act upon a further (sub)goal. Previous studies have shown that birds and great apes succeed in such tasks. However, the inclusion of a training phase for each of the sequential steps and the low cost associated with retrieving the longest tools limits the scope of the conclusions. The goal of the experiments presented here was, first to replicate a previous study on sequential tool use conducted on New Caledonian crows and, second, extend this work by increasing the cost of retrieving a tool in order to test tool selectivity of apes. In Experiment 1, we presented chimpanzees, orangutans and bonobos with an out-of-reach reward, two tools that were available but too short to reach the food and four out-of-reach tools differing in functionality. Similar to crows, apes spontaneously used up to 3 tools in sequence to get the reward and also showed a strong preference for the longest out-of reach tool independently of the distance of the food. In Experiment 2, we increased the cost of reaching for the longest out-of reach tool. Now apes used up to 5 tools in sequence to get the reward and became more selective in their choice of the longest tool as the costs of its retrieval increased. The findings of the studies presented here contribute to the growing body of comparative research on tool use.}, }
@article {pmid23097511, year = {2012}, author = {Taylor, AH and Knaebe, B and Gray, RD}, title = {An end to insight? New Caledonian crows can spontaneously solve problems without planning their actions.}, journal = {Proceedings. Biological sciences}, volume = {279}, number = {1749}, pages = {4977-4981}, doi = {10.1098/rspb.2012.1998}, pmid = {23097511}, issn = {1471-2954}, mesh = {Animals ; *Cognition ; Conditioning, Operant ; Crows/*physiology ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; New Caledonia ; New Zealand ; *Problem Solving ; Psychomotor Performance ; *Tool Use Behavior ; Young Adult ; }, abstract = {Animals rarely solve problems spontaneously. Some bird species, however, can immediately find a solution to the string-pulling problem. They are able to rapidly gain access to food hung on the end of a long string by repeatedly pulling and then stepping on the string. It is currently unclear whether these spontaneous solutions are produced by insight or by a perceptual-motor feedback loop. Here, we presented New Caledonian crows and humans with a novel horizontal string-pulling task. While the humans succeeded, no individual crow showed a significant preference for the connected string, and all but one failed to gain the food even once. These results clearly show that string pulling in New Caledonian crows is generated not by insight, but by perceptual feedback. Animals can spontaneously solve problems without planning their actions.}, }
@article {pmid23047668, year = {2012}, author = {Troscianko, J and von Bayern, AM and Chappell, J and Rutz, C and Martin, GR}, title = {Extreme binocular vision and a straight bill facilitate tool use in New Caledonian crows.}, journal = {Nature communications}, volume = {3}, number = {}, pages = {1110}, doi = {10.1038/ncomms2111}, pmid = {23047668}, issn = {2041-1723}, support = {BB/G023913/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; Behavior, Animal/physiology ; Crows/*physiology ; Tool Use Behavior/*physiology ; }, abstract = {Humans are expert tool users, who manipulate objects with dextrous hands and precise visual control. Surprisingly, morphological predispositions, or adaptations, for tool use have rarely been examined in non-human animals. New Caledonian crows Corvus moneduloides use their bills to craft complex tools from sticks, leaves and other materials, before inserting them into deadwood or vegetation to extract prey. Here we show that tool use in these birds is facilitated by an unusual visual-field topography and bill shape. Their visual field has substantially greater binocular overlap than that of any other bird species investigated to date, including six non-tool-using corvids. Furthermore, their unusually straight bill enables a stable grip on tools, and raises the tool tip into their visual field's binocular sector. These features enable a degree of tool control that would be impossible in other corvids, despite their comparable cognitive abilities. To our knowledge, this is the first evidence for tool-use-related morphological features outside the hominin lineage.}, }
@article {pmid22988112, year = {2012}, author = {Taylor, AH and Miller, R and Gray, RD}, title = {New Caledonian crows reason about hidden causal agents.}, journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America}, volume = {109}, number = {40}, pages = {16389-16391}, doi = {10.1073/pnas.1208724109}, pmid = {22988112}, issn = {1091-6490}, mesh = {Animals ; Cognition/*physiology ; Crows/*physiology ; New Caledonia ; Problem Solving/*physiology ; Tool Use Behavior/*physiology ; }, abstract = {The ability to make inferences about hidden causal mechanisms underpins scientific and religious thought. It also facilitates the understanding of social interactions and the production of sophisticated tool-using behaviors. However, although animals can reason about the outcomes of accidental interventions, only humans have been shown to make inferences about hidden causal mechanisms. Here, we show that tool-making New Caledonian crows react differently to an observable event when it is caused by a hidden causal agent. Eight crows watched two series of events in which a stick moved. In the first set of events, the crows observed a human enter a hide, a stick move, and the human then leave the hide. In the second, the stick moved without a human entering or exiting the hide. The crows inspected the hide and abandoned probing with a tool for food more often after the second, unexplained series of events. This difference shows that the crows can reason about a hidden causal agent. Comparative studies with the methodology outlined here could aid in elucidating the selective pressures that led to the evolution of this cognitive ability.}, }
@article {pmid22642364, year = {2012}, author = {Jønsson, KA and Fabre, PH and Irestedt, M}, title = {Brains, tools, innovation and biogeography in crows and ravens.}, journal = {BMC evolutionary biology}, volume = {12}, number = {}, pages = {72}, doi = {10.1186/1471-2148-12-72}, pmid = {22642364}, issn = {1471-2148}, mesh = {Animal Distribution ; Animals ; Bayes Theorem ; Brain/*physiology ; Crows/*genetics/physiology ; Feeding Behavior ; Islands ; Likelihood Functions ; Organ Size ; *Phylogeny ; Phylogeography ; Sequence Analysis, DNA ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {BACKGROUND: Crows and ravens (Passeriformes: Corvus) are large-brained birds with enhanced cognitive abilities relative to other birds. They are among the few non-hominid organisms on Earth to be considered intelligent and well-known examples exist of several crow species having evolved innovative strategies and even use of tools in their search for food. The 40 Corvus species have also been successful dispersers and are distributed on most continents and in remote archipelagos.

RESULTS: This study presents the first molecular phylogeny including all species and a number of subspecies within the genus Corvus. We date the phylogeny and determine ancestral areas to investigate historical biogeographical patterns of the crows. Additionally, we use data on brain size and a large database on innovative behaviour and tool use to test whether brain size (i) explains innovative behaviour and success in applying tools when foraging and (ii) has some correlative role in the success of colonization of islands. Our results demonstrate that crows originated in the Palaearctic in the Miocene from where they dispersed to North America and the Caribbean, Africa and Australasia. We find that relative brain size alone does not explain tool use, innovative feeding strategies and dispersal success within crows.

CONCLUSIONS: Our study supports monophyly of the genus Corvus and further demonstrates the direction and timing of colonization from the area of origin in the Palaearctic to other continents and archipelagos. The Caribbean was probably colonized from North America, although some North American ancestor may have gone extinct, and the Pacific was colonized multiple times from Asia and Australia. We did not find a correlation between relative brain size, tool use, innovative feeding strategies and dispersal success. Hence, we propose that all crows and ravens have relatively large brains compared to other birds and thus the potential to be innovative if conditions and circumstances are right.}, }
@article {pmid22590576, year = {2012}, author = {Abdelkrim, J and Hunt, GR and Gray, RD and Gemmell, NJ}, title = {Population genetic structure and colonisation history of the tool-using New Caledonian crow.}, journal = {PloS one}, volume = {7}, number = {5}, pages = {e36608}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0036608}, pmid = {22590576}, issn = {1932-6203}, mesh = {Animals ; Crows/*genetics ; *Genetic Variation ; Genetics, Population/methods ; *Introduced Species ; Microsatellite Repeats/*genetics ; New Caledonia ; }, abstract = {New Caledonian crows exhibit considerable variation in tool making between populations. Here, we present the first study of the species' genetic structure over its geographical distribution. We collected feathers from crows on mainland Grande Terre, the inshore island of Toupéti, and the nearby island of Maré where it is believed birds were introduced after European colonisation. We used nine microsatellite markers to establish the genotypes of 136 crows from these islands and classical population genetic tools as well as Approximate Bayesian Computations to explore the distribution of genetic diversity. We found that New Caledonian crows most likely separate into three main distinct clusters: Grande Terre, Toupéti and Maré. Furthermore, Toupéti and Maré crows represent a subset of the genetic diversity observed on Grande Terre, confirming their mainland origin. The genetic data are compatible with a colonisation of Maré taking place after European colonisation around 1900. Importantly, we observed (1) moderate, but significant, genetic differentiation across Grande Terre, and (2) that the degree of differentiation between populations on the mainland increases with geographic distance. These data indicate that despite individual crows' potential ability to disperse over large distances, most gene flow occurs over short distances. The temporal and spatial patterns described provide a basis for further hypothesis testing and investigation of the geographical variation observed in the tool skills of these crows.}, }
@article {pmid22545765, year = {2012}, author = {Albiach-Serrano, A and Bugnyar, T and Call, J}, title = {Apes (Gorilla gorilla, Pan paniscus, P. troglodytes, Pongo abelii) versus corvids (Corvus corax, C. corone) in a support task: the effect of pattern and functionality.}, journal = {Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)}, volume = {126}, number = {4}, pages = {355-367}, doi = {10.1037/a0028050}, pmid = {22545765}, issn = {1939-2087}, mesh = {Animals ; Conditioning, Classical ; *Crows ; Cues ; Female ; Gorilla gorilla/*psychology ; Male ; Pan paniscus/*psychology ; Pan troglodytes/*psychology ; Pattern Recognition, Visual ; Pongo abelii/*psychology ; Problem Solving ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {Apes (Gorilla gorilla, Pan paniscus, P. troglodytes, Pong abelii) and corvids (Corvus corax, C. corone) are among the most proficient and flexible tool users in the animal kingdom. Although it has been proposed that this is the result of convergent evolution, little is known about whether this is limited to behavior or also includes the underlying cognitive mechanisms. We compared several species of apes (bonobos, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans) and corvids (carrion crows and common ravens) using exactly the same paradigm: a support task with elements from the classical patterned-string tasks. Corvids proved able to solve at least an easy pattern, whereas apes outperformed corvids with respect to the complexity of the patterns solved, the relative number of subjects solving each problem, and the speed to reach criterion. We addressed the question of whether subjects based their choices purely on perceptual cues or on a more abstract understanding of the problem. This was done by using a perceptually very similar but causally different condition where instead of paper strips there were strip shapes painted on a platform. Corvids' performance did not differ between conditions, whereas apes were able to solve the real but not the painted task. This shows that apes were not basing their choices just on spatial or arbitrary perceptual cues. Instead, and unlike corvids, they must have had some causal knowledge of the task.}, }
@article {pmid22418860, year = {2012}, author = {Rutz, C and Ryder, TB and Fleischer, RC}, title = {Restricted gene flow and fine-scale population structuring in tool using New Caledonian crows.}, journal = {Die Naturwissenschaften}, volume = {99}, number = {4}, pages = {313-320}, doi = {10.1007/s00114-012-0904-6}, pmid = {22418860}, issn = {1432-1904}, support = {BB/G023913/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; Cluster Analysis ; Crows/classification/*genetics/*physiology ; Ecosystem ; *Gene Flow ; Genetic Variation ; Haplotypes ; Microsatellite Repeats/genetics ; New Caledonia ; Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {New Caledonian crows Corvus moneduloides are the most prolific avian tool users. It has been suggested that some aspects of their complex tool use behaviour are under the influence of cultural processes, involving the social transmission-and perhaps even progressive refinement-of tool designs. Using microsatellite and mt-haplotype profiling of crows from three distinct habitats (dry forest, farmland and beachside habitat), we show that New Caledonian crow populations can exhibit significant fine-scale genetic structuring. Our finding that some sites of <10 km apart were highly differentiated demonstrates considerable potential for genetic and/or cultural isolation of crow groups. Restricted movement of birds between local populations at such small spatial scales, especially across habitat boundaries, illustrates how specific tool designs could be preserved over time, and how tool technologies of different crow groups could diverge due to drift and local selection pressures. Young New Caledonian crows have an unusually long juvenile dependency period, during which they acquire complex tool-related foraging skills. We suggest that the resulting delayed natal dispersal drives population-divergence patterns in this species. Our work provides essential context for future studies that examine the genetic makeup of crow populations across larger geographic areas, including localities with suspected cultural differences in crow tool technologies.}, }
@article {pmid22373303, year = {2012}, author = {Holford, ME and McCusker, JP and Cheung, KH and Krauthammer, M}, title = {A semantic web framework to integrate cancer omics data with biological knowledge.}, journal = {BMC bioinformatics}, volume = {13 Suppl 1}, number = {}, pages = {S10}, doi = {10.1186/1471-2105-13-S1-S10}, pmid = {22373303}, issn = {1471-2105}, support = {5P50CA121974/CA/NCI NIH HHS/United States ; 5T15LM007056/LM/NLM NIH HHS/United States ; }, mesh = {Azacitidine/analogs & derivatives/pharmacology ; Database Management Systems ; Drug Resistance, Neoplasm/genetics ; *Epigenomics ; *Gene Expression Profiling ; Gene Ontology ; Gene Regulatory Networks ; Humans ; *Internet ; Melanoma/drug therapy/*genetics/pathology ; *Semantics ; Transcription Factors/metabolism ; Translational Medical Research ; }, abstract = {BACKGROUND: The RDF triple provides a simple linguistic means of describing limitless types of information. Triples can be flexibly combined into a unified data source we call a semantic model. Semantic models open new possibilities for the integration of variegated biological data. We use Semantic Web technology to explicate high throughput clinical data in the context of fundamental biological knowledge. We have extended Corvus, a data warehouse which provides a uniform interface to various forms of Omics data, by providing a SPARQL endpoint. With the querying and reasoning tools made possible by the Semantic Web, we were able to explore quantitative semantic models retrieved from Corvus in the light of systematic biological knowledge.

RESULTS: For this paper, we merged semantic models containing genomic, transcriptomic and epigenomic data from melanoma samples with two semantic models of functional data - one containing Gene Ontology (GO) data, the other, regulatory networks constructed from transcription factor binding information. These two semantic models were created in an ad hoc manner but support a common interface for integration with the quantitative semantic models. Such combined semantic models allow us to pose significant translational medicine questions. Here, we study the interplay between a cell's molecular state and its response to anti-cancer therapy by exploring the resistance of cancer cells to Decitabine, a demethylating agent.

CONCLUSIONS: We were able to generate a testable hypothesis to explain how Decitabine fights cancer - namely, that it targets apoptosis-related gene promoters predominantly in Decitabine-sensitive cell lines, thus conveying its cytotoxic effect by activating the apoptosis pathway. Our research provides a framework whereby similar hypotheses can be developed easily.}, }
@article {pmid22371120, year = {2012}, author = {Silva, FJ and Silva, KM}, title = {More but not less uncertainty makes adult humans' tool selections more similar to those reported with crows.}, journal = {Learning & behavior}, volume = {40}, number = {4}, pages = {494-506}, doi = {10.3758/s13420-012-0069-3}, pmid = {22371120}, issn = {1543-4508}, mesh = {Animals ; Behavior, Animal/*physiology ; Choice Behavior/*physiology ; Crows ; Humans ; Problem Solving/*physiology ; Tool Use Behavior/*physiology ; Uncertainty ; Young Adult ; }, abstract = {In this study, we examined whether adult humans' tool selections in a stick-and-tube problem might resemble previously published results of crows' selections if people had more experience solving the problem or were presented with a more ambiguous problem. In Experiments 1a and 1b, when given multiple opportunities to select a stick from a set of 10 to retrieve a candy located either 8 or 16 cm from the opening of a tube, the participants always selected a stick that was long enough to retrieve the candy; however, they did not generally select either the stick whose length matched the object's distance or the longest stick in the set-two outcomes reported in studies with crows. In Experiment 2, participants who were allowed only a brief period of time to study the problem selected a longer stick than did participants allowed unlimited time to do the same. However, only when the candy's distance was 16 cm did these people reliably select the longest stick in the set. It seems that increasing, but not decreasing, people's uncertainty about a problem can make humans' tool selections more similar to those reported with crows.}, }
@article {pmid22209954, year = {2012}, author = {Rutz, C and St Clair, JJ}, title = {The evolutionary origins and ecological context of tool use in New Caledonian crows.}, journal = {Behavioural processes}, volume = {89}, number = {2}, pages = {153-165}, doi = {10.1016/j.beproc.2011.11.005}, pmid = {22209954}, issn = {1872-8308}, support = {BB/G023913/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; Appetitive Behavior ; *Biological Evolution ; *Crows ; *Environment ; New Caledonia ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {New Caledonian (NC) crows Corvus moneduloides are the most prolific avian tool users. In the wild, they use at least three distinct tool types to extract invertebrate prey from deadwood and vegetation, with some of their tools requiring complex manufacture, modification and/or deployment. Experiments with captive-bred, hand-raised NC crows have demonstrated that the species has a strong genetic predisposition for basic tool use and manufacture, suggesting that this behaviour is an evolved adaptation. This view is supported by recent stable-isotope analyses of the diets of wild crows, which revealed that tool use provides access to highly profitable hidden prey, with preliminary data indicating that parents preferentially feed their offspring with tool-derived food. Building on this work, our review examines the possible evolutionary origins of these birds' remarkable tool-use behaviour. Whilst robust comparative analyses are impossible, given the phylogenetic rarity of animal tool use, our examination of a wide range of circumstantial evidence enables a first attempt at reconstructing a plausible evolutionary scenario. We suggest that a common ancestor of NC crows, originating from a (probably) non-tool-using South-East Asian or Australasian crow population, colonised New Caledonia after its last emersion several million years ago. The presence of profitable but out-of-reach food, in combination with a lack of direct competition for these resources, resulted in a vacant woodpecker-like niche. Crows may have possessed certain behavioural and/or morphological features upon their arrival that predisposed them to express tool-use rather than specialised prey-excavation behaviour, although it is possible that woodpecker-like foraging preceded tool use. Low levels of predation risk may have further facilitated tool-use behaviour, by allowing greater expenditure of time and energy on object interaction and exploration, as well as the evolution of a 'slow' life-history, in which prolonged juvenile development enables acquisition of complex behaviours. Intriguingly, humans may well have influenced the evolution of at least some of the species' tool-oriented behaviours, via their possible introduction of candlenut trees together with the beetle larvae that infest them. Research on NC crows' tool-use behaviour in its full ecological context is still in its infancy, and we expect that, as more evidence accumulates, some of our assumptions and predictions will be proved wrong. However, it is clear from our analysis of existing work, and the development of some original ideas, that the unusual evolutionary trajectory of NC crows is probably the consequence of an intricate constellation of interplaying factors.}, }
@article {pmid22194779, year = {2011}, author = {Taylor, AH and Elliffe, DM and Hunt, GR and Emery, NJ and Clayton, NS and Gray, RD}, title = {New Caledonian crows learn the functional properties of novel tool types.}, journal = {PloS one}, volume = {6}, number = {12}, pages = {e26887}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0026887}, pmid = {22194779}, issn = {1932-6203}, mesh = {Air ; Animals ; Appetitive Behavior ; Crows/*physiology ; Discrimination Learning ; Female ; Learning/*physiology ; Learning Curve ; Male ; New Caledonia ; Silicon Dioxide ; Tool Use Behavior/*physiology ; Water ; }, abstract = {New Caledonian crows were presented with Bird and Emery's (2009a) Aesop's fable paradigm, which requires stones to be dropped into a water-filled tube to bring floating food within reach. The crows did not spontaneously use stones as tools, but quickly learned to do so, and to choose objects and materials with functional properties. Some crows discarded both inefficient and non-functional objects before observing their effects on the water level. Interestingly, the crows did not learn to discriminate between functional and non-functional objects and materials when there was an arbitrary, rather than causal, link between object and reward. This finding suggests that the crows' performances were not based on associative learning alone. That is, learning was not guided solely by the covariation rate between stimuli and outcomes or the conditioned reinforcement properties acquired by functional objects. Our results, therefore, show that New Caledonian crows can process causal information not only when it is linked to sticks and stick-like tools but also when it concerns the functional properties of novel types of tool.}, }
@article {pmid21972336, year = {2011}, author = {Francis, GS}, title = {Neurohormonal control of heart failure.}, journal = {Cleveland Clinic journal of medicine}, volume = {78 Suppl 1}, number = {}, pages = {S75-9}, doi = {10.3949/ccjm.78.s1.13}, pmid = {21972336}, issn = {1939-2869}, mesh = {Adrenergic beta-Antagonists/therapeutic use ; Angiotensin II Type 1 Receptor Blockers/therapeutic use ; Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors/therapeutic use ; Antihypertensive Agents/therapeutic use ; Heart Failure/*pathology ; Humans ; *Neurotransmitter Agents ; *Psychophysiology ; }, abstract = {For nearly three decades, starting in the early 1970s, the cardiology research laboratories at the University of Minnesota served as the focal point for the discovery and implementation of much of the information we now apply to the management of heart failure. Director Jay Cohn, building on his expertise in hypertension and hemodynamics, led many creative and committed investigators in the exploration of the mechanisms responsible for increased sensitivity to afterload in heart failure. The neurohormonal hypothesis of heart failure led to the development of several pharmacologic tools, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, β-adrenergic blockers, and, later, angiotensin-receptor blockers. By the late 1990s, it was understood that neurohormonal antagonists could prevent the progression of left ventricular remodeling and favorably influence the natural history of heart failure. Neurohormonal blockers are now considered standard therapy. Issues remain to be addressed, including early identification and treatment of patients at risk.}, }
@article {pmid21900316, year = {2012}, author = {Taylor, AH and Hunt, GR and Gray, RD}, title = {Context-dependent tool use in New Caledonian crows.}, journal = {Biology letters}, volume = {8}, number = {2}, pages = {205-207}, doi = {10.1098/rsbl.2011.0782}, pmid = {21900316}, issn = {1744-957X}, mesh = {Animals ; Crows/*physiology ; Fear ; Feeding Behavior ; Female ; Male ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {Humans and chimpanzees both exhibit context-dependent tool use. That is, both species choose to use tools when food is within reach, but the context is potentially hazardous. Here, we show that New Caledonian crows used tools more frequently when food was positioned next to a novel model snake than when food was positioned next to a novel teddy bear or a familiar food bowl. However, the crows showed no significant difference in their neophobic reactions towards the teddy bear and the model snake. Therefore, the crows used tools more in response to a risky object resembling a natural predator than to a less-threatening object that provoked a comparable level of neophobia. These results show that New Caledonian crows, like humans and chimpanzees, are capable of context-dependent tool use.}, }
@article {pmid21687666, year = {2011}, author = {Auersperg, AM and von Bayern, AM and Gajdon, GK and Huber, L and Kacelnik, A}, title = {Flexibility in problem solving and tool use of kea and New Caledonian crows in a multi access box paradigm.}, journal = {PloS one}, volume = {6}, number = {6}, pages = {e20231}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0020231}, pmid = {21687666}, issn = {1932-6203}, mesh = {Animals ; Crows/*physiology ; Food ; Male ; Problem Solving/*physiology ; Psittaciformes/*physiology ; Reward ; Time Factors ; Tool Use Behavior/*physiology ; }, abstract = {Parrots and corvids show outstanding innovative and flexible behaviour. In particular, kea and New Caledonian crows are often singled out as being exceptionally sophisticated in physical cognition, so that comparing them in this respect is particularly interesting. However, comparing cognitive mechanisms among species requires consideration of non-cognitive behavioural propensities and morphological characteristics evolved from different ancestry and adapted to fit different ecological niches. We used a novel experimental approach based on a Multi-Access-Box (MAB). Food could be extracted by four different techniques, two of them involving tools. Initially all four options were available to the subjects. Once they reached criterion for mastering one option, this task was blocked, until the subjects became proficient in another solution. The exploratory behaviour differed considerably. Only one (of six) kea and one (of five) NCC mastered all four options, including a first report of innovative stick tool use in kea. The crows were more efficient in using the stick tool, the kea the ball tool. The kea were haptically more explorative than the NCC, discovered two or three solutions within the first ten trials (against a mean of 0.75 discoveries by the crows) and switched more quickly to new solutions when the previous one was blocked. Differences in exploration technique, neophobia and object manipulation are likely to explain differential performance across the set of tasks. Our study further underlines the need to use a diversity of tasks when comparing cognitive traits between members of different species. Extension of a similar method to other taxa could help developing a comparative cognition research program.}, }
@article {pmid25892825, year = {2011}, author = {Kenward, B and Schloegl, C and Rutz, C and Weir, AA and Bugnyar, T and Kacelnik, A}, title = {On the evolutionary and ontogenetic origins of tool-oriented behaviour in New Caledonian crows (Corvus moneduloides).}, journal = {Biological journal of the Linnean Society. Linnean Society of London}, volume = {102}, number = {4}, pages = {870-877}, doi = {10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01613.x}, pmid = {25892825}, issn = {0024-4066}, support = {BB/C517392/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; BB/G023913/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; Y 366//Austrian Science Fund FWF/Austria ; }, abstract = {New Caledonian crows (Corvus moneduloides) are prolific tool users in captivity and in the wild, and have an inherited predisposition to express tool-oriented behaviours. To further understand the evolution and development of tool use, we compared the development of object manipulation in New Caledonian crows and common ravens (Corvus corax), which do not routinely use tools. We found striking qualitative similarities in the ontogeny of tool-oriented behaviour in New Caledonian crows and food-caching behaviour in ravens. Given that the common ancestor of New Caledonian crows and ravens was almost certainly a caching species, we therefore propose that the basic action patterns for tool use in New Caledonian crows may have their evolutionary origins in caching behaviour. Noncombinatorial object manipulations had similar frequencies in the two species. However, frequencies of object combinations that are precursors to functional behaviour increased in New Caledonian crows and decreased in ravens throughout the study period, ending 6 weeks post-fledging. These quantitative observations are consistent with the hypothesis that New Caledonian crows develop tool-oriented behaviour because of an increased motivation to perform object combinations that facilitate the necessary learning.}, }
@article {pmid21409436, year = {2011}, author = {Yosef, R and Kabesa, S and Yosef, N}, title = {Set a thief to catch a thief: brown-necked raven (Corvus ruficollis) cooperatively kleptoparasitize Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus).}, journal = {Die Naturwissenschaften}, volume = {98}, number = {5}, pages = {443-446}, doi = {10.1007/s00114-011-0777-0}, pmid = {21409436}, issn = {1432-1904}, mesh = {Animals ; Behavior, Animal/*physiology ; Crows/*physiology ; Egypt ; Falconiformes/*parasitology/*physiology ; Female ; Nesting Behavior/physiology ; }, abstract = {Our study describes how brown-necked ravens (Corvus ruficollis) are able to take advantage of an ordinarily inaccessible, high-quality food source by relying upon their innovative and manipulative thinking capabilities to exploit methods used by Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus) to overcome the problem. In five observed interactions, the ravens were first seen in the vicinity of an abandoned clutch of ostrich eggs (Struthio camelus). The area was frequented by a pair of Egyptian vultures that bred on the cliffs across the road from the nature reserve. The Egyptian vulture exhibits tool use in birds, and is able to crack the hard shells of ostrich eggs by lifting a rock in the beak and pounding at the egg till it breaks open or cracks. If the egg is only cracked, the vulture inserts its narrow bill into the fissure and widens it by opening the mandibles. Pieces of eggshell are removed from around the crack in order to further open the egg. This is the point at which the pair of ravens attacked the vulture and harassed it till it abandoned the egg and left the area. The ravens then jointly enjoyed the contents of the egg which was otherwise inaccessible to them because of the strong egg shell.}, }
@article {pmid21260978, year = {2010}, author = {Bagotskaia, MS and Smirnova, AA and Zorina, ZA}, title = {[Corvidae are able to understand the logical structure in string-pulling tasks].}, journal = {Zhurnal vysshei nervnoi deiatelnosti imeni I P Pavlova}, volume = {60}, number = {5}, pages = {543-551}, pmid = {21260978}, issn = {0044-4677}, mesh = {Animals ; Crows/*physiology ; *Problem Solving ; Psychomotor Performance ; Species Specificity ; Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {The ability of the Corvidae to understand the logical structure in string-pulling tasks was studied in a set of experiments with varied position of strings. It was demonstrated that some hooded crows (Corvus cornix L.) and common ravens (Corvus corax L.) successfully completed the tasks where the strings were not intersected but placed so that the bait was positioned opposite the forepart of the empty string. Hooded crows also solved the task where the baits were attached to both strings, but one of the strings was disrupted. The task with two intersected strings where the bait was positioned opposite the forepart of the empty string was not solved by the crows. The results suggest the ability of both examined species to grasp the logical structure of such kind of tasks.}, }
@article {pmid21249510, year = {2011}, author = {Cheke, LG and Bird, CD and Clayton, NS}, title = {Tool-use and instrumental learning in the Eurasian jay (Garrulus glandarius).}, journal = {Animal cognition}, volume = {14}, number = {3}, pages = {441-455}, doi = {10.1007/s10071-011-0379-4}, pmid = {21249510}, issn = {1435-9456}, support = {//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; //Medical Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; *Conditioning, Operant ; Cues ; Reward ; *Songbirds/physiology ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {Recent research with Rooks has demonstrated impressive tool-using abilities in captivity despite this species' classification as a non-tool-user in the wild. Here, we explored whether another non-tool-using corvid, the Eurasian Jay, would be capable of similar feats and investigated the relative contributions of causal knowledge and instrumental conditioning to the birds' performance on the tasks. Five jays were tested on a variety of tasks involving water displacement. Two birds reliably interacted with the apparatuses. In these tasks, both birds showed a preference for inserting stones into a tube containing liquid over a tube containing a solid or a baited 'empty' tube and also for inserting sinkable items over non-sinkable items into a tube of water. To investigate the contribution of instrumental conditioning, subjects were then tested on a series of tasks in which different cues were made available. It was found that, in the absence of any apparent causal cues, these birds showed a clear preference for the rewarded tube when the food incrementally approached with every stone insertion, but not when it simply "appeared" after the correct number of stone insertions. However, it was found that subjects did not prefer to insert stones into a tube rewarded by the incremental approach of food if the available causal cues violated the expectations created by existing causal knowledge (i.e. were counter-intuitive). An analysis of the proportion of correct and incorrect stone insertions made in each trial across tasks offering different types of information revealed that subjects were substantially more successful in experiments in which causal cues were available, but that rate of learning was comparable in all experiments. We suggest that these results indicate that Eurasian jays use the incremental approach of the food reward as a conditioned reinforcer allowing them to solve tasks involving raising the water level and that this learning is facilitated by the presence of causal cues.}, }
@article {pmid21184124, year = {2011}, author = {Wimpenny, JH and Weir, AA and Kacelnik, A}, title = {New Caledonian crows use tools for non-foraging activities.}, journal = {Animal cognition}, volume = {14}, number = {3}, pages = {459-464}, doi = {10.1007/s10071-010-0366-1}, pmid = {21184124}, issn = {1435-9456}, support = {BB/C517392/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; *Crows/physiology ; Exploratory Behavior ; Female ; Male ; *Tool Use Behavior/physiology ; }, abstract = {Tool use is of great interest for cognitive research, largely because it can be particularly revealing about the underlying information processing mechanisms. Tool use that is inflexible or requires extensive experience to change, and that is only addressed towards specific targets such as food, is not likely to reflect unusual or particularly complex cognition. On the contrary, if tools are employed flexibly and for a variety of innovative purposes, then conventional combinations of inherited predispositions and associative learning are challenged and interesting questions emerge. Since New Caledonian crows (Corvus moneduloides) are especially adept at using and making tools for food extraction, we decided to examine their ability to generalise this to other contexts. We recorded how five pairs of New Caledonian crows interacted with novel objects that were not associated with food. We observed eight occasions in which the first contact with the novel object was mediated by a tool, suggesting that the function of the tool was for exploration. This is the first report of non-foraging tool use in New Caledonian crows, and it implies that the cognitive operations controlling tool-oriented behaviour in this species are more general than previously thought.}, }
@article {pmid20847272, year = {2010}, author = {Rutz, C and Bluff, LA and Reed, N and Troscianko, J and Newton, J and Inger, R and Kacelnik, A and Bearhop, S}, title = {The ecological significance of tool use in New Caledonian crows.}, journal = {Science (New York, N.Y.)}, volume = {329}, number = {5998}, pages = {1523-1526}, doi = {10.1126/science.1192053}, pmid = {20847272}, issn = {1095-9203}, support = {BB/C517392/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; BB/G023913/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Aleurites ; Animals ; Bayes Theorem ; Carbon Isotopes/analysis/blood ; Coleoptera ; Crows/*physiology ; Diet ; Feathers/chemistry ; *Feeding Behavior ; Female ; Larva ; Male ; New Caledonia ; Nitrogen Isotopes/analysis/blood ; Nuts ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {Tool use is so rare in the animal kingdom that its evolutionary origins cannot be traced with comparative analyses. Valuable insights can be gained from investigating the ecological context and adaptive significance of tool use under contemporary conditions, but obtaining robust observational data is challenging. We assayed individual-level tool-use dependence in wild New Caledonian crows by analyzing stable isotope profiles of the birds' feathers, blood, and putative food sources. Bayesian diet-mixing models revealed that a substantial amount of the crows' protein and lipid intake comes from prey obtained with stick tools--wood-boring beetle larvae. Our calculations provide estimates of larva-intake rates and show that just a few larvae can satisfy a crow's daily energy requirements, highlighting the substantial rewards available to competent tool users.}, }
@article {pmid20832314, year = {2010}, author = {Endler, JA and Endler, LC and Doerr, NR}, title = {Great bowerbirds create theaters with forced perspective when seen by their audience.}, journal = {Current biology : CB}, volume = {20}, number = {18}, pages = {1679-1684}, doi = {10.1016/j.cub.2010.08.033}, pmid = {20832314}, issn = {1879-0445}, mesh = {Animals ; Female ; Male ; *Passeriformes ; *Sexual Behavior, Animal ; *Vision, Ocular ; *Visual Perception ; }, abstract = {Birds in the infraorder Corvida [1] (ravens, jays, bowerbirds) are renowned for their cognitive abilities [2-4], which include advanced problem solving with spatial inference [4-8], tool use and complex constructions [7-10], and bowerbird cognitive ability is associated with mating success [11]. Great bowerbird males construct bowers with a long avenue from within which females view the male displaying over his bower court [10]. This predictable audience viewpoint is a prerequisite for forced (altered) visual perspective [12-14]. Males make courts with gray and white objects that increase in size with distance from the avenue entrance. This gradient creates forced visual perspective for the audience; court object visual angles subtended on the female viewer's eye are more uniform than if the objects were placed at random. Forced perspective can yield false perception of size and distance [12, 15]. After experimental reversal of their size-distance gradient, males recovered their gradients within 3 days, and there was little difference from the original after 2 wks. Variation among males in their forced-perspective quality as seen by their female audience indicates that visual perspective is available for use in mate choice, perhaps as an indicator of cognitive ability. Regardless of function, the creation and maintenance of forced visual perspective is clearly important to great bowerbirds and suggests the possibility of a previously unknown dimension of bird cognition.}, }
@article {pmid20814805, year = {2011}, author = {Liedtke, J and Werdenich, D and Gajdon, GK and Huber, L and Wanker, R}, title = {Big brains are not enough: performance of three parrot species in the trap-tube paradigm.}, journal = {Animal cognition}, volume = {14}, number = {1}, pages = {143-149}, doi = {10.1007/s10071-010-0347-4}, pmid = {20814805}, issn = {1435-9456}, mesh = {Animals ; Brain/*anatomy & histology ; *Cognition ; Inhibition (Psychology) ; Intelligence ; *Parrots ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {The trap-tube task has become a benchmark test for investigating physical causality in vertebrates. In this task, subjects have to retrieve food out of a horizontal tube using a tool and avoiding a trap hole in the tube. Great apes and corvids succeeded in this task. Parrots with relative brain volumes comparable to those of corvids and primates also demonstrate high cognitive abilities. We therefore tested macaws, a cockatoo, and keas on the trap-tube paradigm. All nine parrots failed to solve the task. In a simplified task, trap tubes with a slot inserted along the top were offered. The slot allowed the birds to move the reward directly with their bills. All but one individual solved this task by lifting the food over the trap. However, the parrots failed again when they were prevented from lifting the reward, although they anticipated that food will be lost when moved into the trap. We do not think that the demanding use of an external object is the main reason for the parrots' failure. Moreover, we suppose these parrots fail to consider the trap's position in the beginning of a trial and were not able to stop their behaviour and move the reward in the trap's opposite direction.}, }
@article {pmid20803204, year = {2010}, author = {Fernández-Juricic, E and O'Rourke, C and Pitlik, T}, title = {Visual coverage and scanning behavior in two corvid species: American crow and Western scrub jay.}, journal = {Journal of comparative physiology. A, Neuroethology, sensory, neural, and behavioral physiology}, volume = {196}, number = {12}, pages = {879-888}, doi = {10.1007/s00359-010-0570-0}, pmid = {20803204}, issn = {1432-1351}, mesh = {Animals ; Behavior, Animal/*physiology ; Birds/*physiology ; Crows/physiology ; Eye Movements/*physiology ; Head Movements/*physiology ; Space Perception/physiology ; Species Specificity ; Visual Fields/*physiology ; Visual Perception/*physiology ; }, abstract = {Inter-specific differences in the configuration of avian visual fields and degree of eye/head movements have been associated with foraging and anti-predator behaviors. Our goal was to study visual fields, eye movements, and head movements in two species of corvids: American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) and Western scrub jay (Aphelocoma californica). American crows had wider binocular overlap, longer vertical binocular fields, narrower blind areas, and higher amplitude of eye movement than Western scrub jays. American crows can converge their eyes and see their own bill tip, which may facilitate using different foraging techniques (e.g., pecking, probing) and manufacturing and handing rudimentary tools. Western scrub jays had a higher head movement rate than American crows while on the ground, and the opposite between-species difference was found when individuals were perching. Faster head movements may enhance the ability to scan the environment, which may be related to a higher perceived risk of predation of Western scrub jays when on the ground, and American crows when perching. The visual field configuration of these species appears influenced mostly by foraging techniques while their scaning behavior, by predation risk.}, }
@article {pmid20737894, year = {2010}, author = {Bagotskaia, MS and Smirnova, AA and Zorina, ZA}, title = {[Comparative study of the ability to solve a string-pulling task in Corvidae].}, journal = {Zhurnal vysshei nervnoi deiatelnosti imeni I P Pavlova}, volume = {60}, number = {3}, pages = {321-329}, pmid = {20737894}, issn = {0044-4677}, mesh = {Animals ; Crows/*physiology ; *Problem Solving ; Psychomotor Performance ; Species Specificity ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {The ability of hooded crows (Corvus cornix L.) and common ravens (Corvus corax L.) to pull up a bait suspended from a horizontal perch by a string was tested. It was shown that some birds of both species successfully solved the string-pulling task. Considerable inter-individual and inter-species differences in task performance are discussed.}, }
@article {pmid20628160, year = {2010}, author = {Holzhaider, JC and Hunt, GR and Gray, RD}, title = {Social learning in New Caledonian crows.}, journal = {Learning & behavior}, volume = {38}, number = {3}, pages = {206-219}, doi = {10.3758/LB.38.3.206}, pmid = {20628160}, issn = {1543-4494}, mesh = {Age Factors ; Animals ; *Animals, Wild ; *Behavior, Animal ; *Crows/growth & development ; Female ; Hierarchy, Social ; Imitative Behavior ; *Learning ; Male ; Pandanaceae ; Seasons ; *Social Environment ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {New Caledonian (NC) crows are the most sophisticated tool manufacturers other than humans. The diversification and geographical distribution of their three Pandanus tool designs that differ in complexity, as well as the lack of ecological correlates, suggest that cumulative technological change has taken place. To investigate the possibility that high-fidelity social transmission mediated this putative ratchet-like process, we studied the ontogeny of Pandanus tool manufacture and social organization in free-living NC crows. We found that juvenile crows took more than 1 year to reach adult proficiency in their Pandanus tool skills. Although trial-and-error learning is clearly important, juveniles have ample opportunity to learn about Pandanus tool manufacture by both observing their parents and interacting with artifactual material. The crows' social system seems likely to promote the faithful social transmission of local tool designs by both favoring the vertical transmission of tool information and minimizing horizontal transmission. We suggest that NC crows develop their Pandanus tool skills in a highly scaffolded learning environment that facilitates the cumulative technological evolution of tool designs.}, }
@article {pmid20410040, year = {2010}, author = {Taylor, AH and Elliffe, D and Hunt, GR and Gray, RD}, title = {Complex cognition and behavioural innovation in New Caledonian crows.}, journal = {Proceedings. Biological sciences}, volume = {277}, number = {1694}, pages = {2637-2643}, doi = {10.1098/rspb.2010.0285}, pmid = {20410040}, issn = {1471-2954}, mesh = {Animals ; *Behavior, Animal ; *Cognition ; Crows/*physiology ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {Apes, corvids and parrots all show high rates of behavioural innovation in the wild. However, it is unclear whether this innovative behaviour is underpinned by cognition more complex than simple learning mechanisms. To investigate this question we presented New Caledonian crows with a novel three-stage metatool problem. The task involved three distinct stages: (i) obtaining a short stick by pulling up a string, (ii) using the short stick as a metatool to extract a long stick from a toolbox, and finally (iii) using the long stick to extract food from a hole. Crows with previous experience of the behaviours in stages 1-3 linked them into a novel sequence to solve the problem on the first trial. Crows with experience of only using string and tools to access food also successfully solved the problem. This innovative use of established behaviours in novel contexts was not based on resurgence, chaining and conditional reinforcement. Instead, the performance was consistent with the transfer of an abstract, causal rule: 'out-of-reach objects can be accessed using a tool'. This suggests that high innovation rates in the wild may reflect complex cognitive abilities that supplement basic learning mechanisms.}, }
@article {pmid20362990, year = {2010}, author = {Danso, KA and Opare-Addo, HS}, title = {Challenges associated with hypertensive disease during pregnancy in low-income countries.}, journal = {International journal of gynaecology and obstetrics: the official organ of the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics}, volume = {110}, number = {1}, pages = {78-81}, doi = {10.1016/j.ijgo.2010.01.026}, pmid = {20362990}, issn = {1879-3479}, mesh = {Anticonvulsants/adverse effects/therapeutic use ; Antihypertensive Agents/adverse effects/*therapeutic use ; Developing Countries ; Eclampsia/drug therapy/prevention & control ; Female ; Humans ; Hypertension, Pregnancy-Induced/diagnosis/*drug therapy/prevention & control ; Magnesium Sulfate/adverse effects/*therapeutic use ; Pregnancy ; }, abstract = {OBJECTIVE: To assess the challenges associated with the diagnosis, management, and prevention of hypertensive disease during pregnancy in low-income countries, following the success of the Magpie Trial.

METHODS: Descriptive review of the literature from 1990 to 2009 on the diagnosis, management, and prevention of hypertensive disease in pregnancy.

RESULTS: In the absence of credible measures to predict and prevent hypertension in pregnancy, diagnosis and treatment remain the only viable options, although they are still associated with important challenges in low-income countries. Despite the presence of high-quality evidence that magnesium sulfate is safe and effective at preventing and treating eclampsia, its use is extremely limited in many low-income countries.

CONCLUSION: There is a need for cheap and reliable tools with which to address the diagnostic, preventive, and management challenges associated with hypertensive disease during pregnancy in low-income countries. It is recommended that such countries incorporate magnesium sulfate protocols into their national health and/or practice policies.}, }
@article {pmid20215728, year = {2010}, author = {Mehlhorn, J and Hunt, GR and Gray, RD and Rehkämper, G and Güntürkün, O}, title = {Tool-making New Caledonian crows have large associative brain areas.}, journal = {Brain, behavior and evolution}, volume = {75}, number = {1}, pages = {63-70}, doi = {10.1159/000295151}, pmid = {20215728}, issn = {1421-9743}, mesh = {Adaptation, Physiological/*physiology ; Animals ; Association Learning/physiology ; Biological Evolution ; Crows/*anatomy & histology/*physiology ; Exploratory Behavior/physiology ; Intelligence/physiology ; Neural Pathways/anatomy & histology/physiology ; Phylogeny ; Species Specificity ; Telencephalon/*anatomy & histology/*physiology ; Tool Use Behavior/*physiology ; }, abstract = {Animals with a high rate of innovative and associative-based behavior usually have large brains. New Caledonian (NC) crows stand out due to their tool manufacture, their generalized problem-solving abilities and an extremely high degree of encephalization. It is generally assumed that this increased brain size is due to the ability to process, associate and memorize diverse stimuli, thereby enhancing the propensity to invent new and complex behaviors in adaptive ways. However, this premise lacks firm empirical support since encephalization could also result from an increase of only perceptual and/or motor areas. Here, we compared the brain structures of NC crows with those of carrion crows, jays and sparrows. The brains of NC crows were characterized by a relatively large mesopallium, striatopallidal complex, septum and tegmentum. These structures mostly deal with association and motor-learning. This supports the hypothesis that the evolution of innovative or complex behavior requires a brain composition that increases the ability to associate and memorize diverse stimuli in order to execute complex motor output. Since apes show a similar correlation of cerebral growth and cognitive abilities, the evolution of advanced cognitive skills appears to have evolved independently in birds and mammals but with a similar neural orchestration.}, }
@article {pmid20187351, year = {2009}, author = {Halayem, S and Bouden, A and Amado, I and Krebs, MO and Tabbane, K and Halayem, M}, title = {[Adaptation of a soft-signs scale to children with autism spectrum disorders].}, journal = {La Tunisie medicale}, volume = {87}, number = {10}, pages = {651-655}, pmid = {20187351}, issn = {0041-4131}, mesh = {Case-Control Studies ; Child ; Child Development Disorders, Pervasive/*physiopathology ; Developmental Disabilities/*physiopathology ; Humans ; *Neuropsychological Tests ; }, abstract = {BACKGROUND: Neurological soft signs (NSS) are endophenotypic markers of schizophrenia, and their high prevalence in pervasive developmental disorders (PDD) support the existence of the spectrum of psychoses. These NSS were evaluated by standardized scales which were not adapted to children with PDD.

AIMS: This study aimed to propose an adaptation for children of a scale of NSS already used in adults.

METHODS: 21 children with PDD (11 with autistic disorder, 10 with PDD not otherwise specified) aged 6-12 years and 21 controls matched on age, sex, and cognitive level were included. Evaluating tools were NSS scale of Krebs et al. adapted after a pilot-study with the accordance of its author; the Progressive Matrices of Raven for intellectual level, and ADI-R to confirm diagnosis.

RESULTS: Patients were significantly more impaired on total score (p=0,001), motor coordination (p=0,008), motor integration (p=0,000), and sensory integration (p=0,001). There were no difference between patients and controls on abnormal movements and quality of lateralization.

CONCLUSION: This adaptation of Krebs et al. scale seems to be a good tool for evaluating NSS in children, especially in those with PDD. A further validation study, including a larger sample is necessary.}, }
@article {pmid20179759, year = {2010}, author = {Taylor, AH and Medina, FS and Holzhaider, JC and Hearne, LJ and Hunt, GR and Gray, RD}, title = {An investigation into the cognition behind spontaneous string pulling in New Caledonian crows.}, journal = {PloS one}, volume = {5}, number = {2}, pages = {e9345}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0009345}, pmid = {20179759}, issn = {1932-6203}, mesh = {Animals ; Choice Behavior/physiology ; Cognition/*physiology ; Conditioning, Operant/physiology ; Crows/*physiology ; New Caledonia ; Problem Solving/*physiology ; Psychomotor Performance/physiology ; Tool Use Behavior/*physiology ; }, abstract = {The ability of some bird species to pull up meat hung on a string is a famous example of spontaneous animal problem solving. The "insight" hypothesis claims that this complex behaviour is based on cognitive abilities such as mental scenario building and imagination. An operant conditioning account, in contrast, would claim that this spontaneity is due to each action in string pulling being reinforced by the meat moving closer and remaining closer to the bird on the perch. We presented experienced and naïve New Caledonian crows with a novel, visually restricted string-pulling problem that reduced the quality of visual feedback during string pulling. Experienced crows solved this problem with reduced efficiency and increased errors compared to their performance in standard string pulling. Naïve crows either failed or solved the problem by trial and error learning. However, when visual feedback was available via a mirror mounted next to the apparatus, two naïve crows were able to perform at the same level as the experienced group. Our results raise the possibility that spontaneous string pulling in New Caledonian crows may not be based on insight but on operant conditioning mediated by a perceptual-motor feedback cycle.}, }
@article {pmid20156820, year = {2010}, author = {Grodzinski, U and Clayton, NS}, title = {Problems faced by food-caching corvids and the evolution of cognitive solutions.}, journal = {Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences}, volume = {365}, number = {1542}, pages = {977-987}, doi = {10.1098/rstb.2009.0210}, pmid = {20156820}, issn = {1471-2970}, mesh = {Animals ; Behavior, Animal/physiology ; Biological Evolution ; Cognition/physiology ; Feeding Behavior/*physiology/*psychology ; Food ; Memory/physiology ; Songbirds/*physiology ; }, abstract = {The scatter hoarding of food, or caching, is a widespread and well-studied behaviour. Recent experiments with caching corvids have provided evidence for episodic-like memory, future planning and possibly mental attribution, all cognitive abilities that were thought to be unique to humans. In addition to the complexity of making flexible, informed decisions about caching and recovering, this behaviour is underpinned by a motivationally controlled compulsion to cache. In this review, we shall first discuss the compulsive side of caching both during ontogeny and in the caching behaviour of adult corvids. We then consider some of the problems that these birds face and review the evidence for the cognitive abilities they use to solve them. Thus, the emergence of episodic-like memory is viewed as a solution for coping with food perishability, while the various cache-protection and pilfering strategies may be sophisticated tools to deprive competitors of information, either by reducing the quality of information they can gather, or invalidating the information they already have. Finally, we shall examine whether such future-oriented behaviour involves future planning and ask why this and other cognitive abilities might have evolved in corvids.}, }
@article {pmid20065352, year = {2010}, author = {Silva, FJ and Silva, KM}, title = {How do adult humans compare with New Caledonian crows in tool selectivity?.}, journal = {Learning & behavior}, volume = {38}, number = {1}, pages = {87-95}, doi = {10.3758/LB.38.1.87}, pmid = {20065352}, issn = {1543-4494}, mesh = {Adult ; Animals ; Choice Behavior/*physiology ; Cognition/physiology ; Crows/*physiology ; Humans ; Motor Skills/physiology ; New Caledonia ; Problem Solving/*physiology ; Species Specificity ; Tool Use Behavior/*physiology ; }, abstract = {We examined humans' tool selections on stick-and-tube tasks similar to those used to study crows' and other avian species' physical cognition. In Experiment 1, the participants selected a stick from a set of 10 to retrieve a candy placed in a horizontal tube. Although the stick that was selected depended on the distance to the candy, the participants generally did not select a stick whose length was the same as the candy's distance from the open end of the tube nor did they select the longest stick in the set-two strategies that have been reported in crows. In Experiments 2 and 3, we used variations of the stick-and-tube task to determine what factors in addition to the candy's distance influenced the participants' selections. The results showed that tool selection depended on the stimulus context (i.e., the number and lengths of the alternative tools).}, }
@article {pmid20053646, year = {2010}, author = {Bluff, LA and Troscianko, J and Weir, AA and Kacelnik, A and Rutz, C}, title = {Tool use by wild New Caledonian crows Corvus moneduloides at natural foraging sites.}, journal = {Proceedings. Biological sciences}, volume = {277}, number = {1686}, pages = {1377-1385}, doi = {10.1098/rspb.2009.1953}, pmid = {20053646}, issn = {1471-2954}, support = {BB/C517392/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; BB/G023913/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {*Aleurites/parasitology ; Animals ; Animals, Wild/physiology ; Behavior, Animal ; Coleoptera/growth & development ; Crows/*physiology ; Feeding Behavior/*physiology ; Larva ; New Caledonia ; Plant Leaves ; Plant Stems ; Tool Use Behavior/*physiology ; Videotape Recording ; }, abstract = {New Caledonian crows Corvus moneduloides use tools made from sticks or leaf stems to 'fish' woodboring beetle larvae from their burrows in decaying wood. Previous research on this behaviour has been confined to baited sites, leaving its ecological context and significance virtually unexplored. To obtain detailed observations of natural, undisturbed tool use, we deployed motion-triggered video cameras at seven larva-fishing sites. From 1797 camera hours of surveillance over 111 days, we recorded 317 site visits by at least 14 individual crows. Tool use was observed during 150 site visits. Our video footage revealed notable variation in foraging success among identifiable crows. Two nutritionally independent, immature crows spent considerable time using tools, but were much less successful than local adults, highlighting the potential role of individual and social learning in the acquisition of tool-use proficiency. During systematic surveys of larva-fishing sites, we collected 193 tools that crows had left inserted in larva burrows. Comparing these tools with the holes in which they were found, and with raw materials available around logs, provides evidence for tool selectivity by New Caledonian crows under natural conditions. Taken together, these two complementary lines of investigation provide, to our knowledge, the first quantitative description of larva fishing by wild crows in its full ecological context.}, }
@article {pmid19964184, year = {2009}, author = {Lum, MJ and Rosen, J and King, H and Friedman, DC and Lendvay, TS and Wright, AS and Sinanan, MN and Hannaford, B}, title = {Teleoperation in surgical robotics--network latency effects on surgical performance.}, journal = {Conference proceedings : ... Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Annual Conference}, volume = {2009}, number = {}, pages = {6860-6863}, doi = {10.1109/IEMBS.2009.5333120}, pmid = {19964184}, issn = {1557-170X}, mesh = {Adolescent ; Adult ; Florida ; Humans ; Laparoscopy/*methods ; Robotics/*methods ; Telemedicine/*methods ; Time Factors ; Washington ; Young Adult ; }, abstract = {A teleoperated surgical robotic system allows surgical procedures to be conducted across long distances while utilizing wired and wireless communication with a wide spectrum of performance that may affect the outcome. An open architecture portable surgical robotic system (Raven) was developed for both open and minimally invasive surgery. The system has been the subject of an intensive telesurgical experimental protocol aimed at exploring the boundaries of the system and surgeon performance during a series of field experiments in extreme environments (desert and underwater) teleportation between US, Europe, and Japan as well as lab experiments under synthetic fixed time delay. One standard task (block transfer emulating tissue manipulation) of the Fundamentals of Laparoscopic Surgery (FLS) training kit was used for the experimental protocol. Network characterization indicated a typical time delay in the range of 16-172 ms in field experiments. The results of the lab experiments showed that the completion time of the task as well as the length of the tool tip trajectory significantly increased (alpha< 0.02) as time delay increased in the range of 0-0.5 sec increased. For teleoperation with a time delay of 0.25s and 0.5s the task completion time was lengthened by a factor of 1.45 and 2.04 with respect to no time delay, whereas the length of the tools' trajectory was increased by a factor of 1.28 and 1.53 with respect to no time delay. There were no statistical differences between experienced surgeons and non-surgeons in the number of errors (block drooping) as well as the completion time and the tool tip path length at different time delays.}, }
@article {pmid19948142, year = {2009}, author = {Shettleworth, SJ}, title = {Animal cognition: Deconstructing avian insight.}, journal = {Current biology : CB}, volume = {19}, number = {22}, pages = {R1039-40}, doi = {10.1016/j.cub.2009.10.022}, pmid = {19948142}, issn = {1879-0445}, mesh = {Animals ; Birds/*physiology ; *Cognition ; }, abstract = {A new study of how experience contributes to apparently insightful problem-solving by tool-using crows has shown that operating an apparatus with the beak or a stick promotes novel use of stones on the same apparatus.}, }
@article {pmid19913421, year = {2009}, author = {von Bayern, AM and Heathcote, RJ and Rutz, C and Kacelnik, A}, title = {The role of experience in problem solving and innovative tool use in crows.}, journal = {Current biology : CB}, volume = {19}, number = {22}, pages = {1965-1968}, doi = {10.1016/j.cub.2009.10.037}, pmid = {19913421}, issn = {1879-0445}, support = {BB/C517392/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; BB/G023913/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; *Behavior, Animal ; Crows/*physiology ; *Problem Solving ; Task Performance and Analysis ; }, abstract = {Creative problem solving and innovative tool use in animals are often seen as indicators of advanced intelligence because they seem to imply causal reasoning abilities [1]. However, complex behavior can also arise from relatively simple mechanisms [2, 3], and the cognitive operations underlying seemingly "insightful" behavior are rarely examined [4]. By controlling and varying prior experience, it is possible to determine the minimum information animals require to solve a given problem [5]. We investigated how pretesting experience affects the performance of New Caledonian crows (Corvus moneduloides) when facing a novel problem. The task (developed by Bird and Emery [6]) required dropping stones into a vertical tube to collapse an out-of-reach platform in a transparent box and release a food reward. After establishing that the birds had no preexisting tendency to drop stones into holes, subjects were assigned to two experimental groups that were given different kinds of experience with the affordances of the apparatus. Crows that had learned about the mechanism (collapsibility) of the platform without the use of stones passed the task, just like the subjects that had previously been trained to drop stones. This demonstrates that successful innovation was also possible after acquaintance with just the functional properties of the task.}, }
@article {pmid19812083, year = {2010}, author = {Bird, CD and Emery, NJ}, title = {Rooks perceive support relations similar to six-month-old babies.}, journal = {Proceedings. Biological sciences}, volume = {277}, number = {1678}, pages = {147-151}, doi = {10.1098/rspb.2009.1456}, pmid = {19812083}, issn = {1471-2954}, support = {//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; Cognition/*physiology ; Crows/*physiology ; Female ; Male ; *Photic Stimulation ; Random Allocation ; Videotape Recording ; }, abstract = {Some corvids have demonstrated cognitive abilities that rival or exceed those of the great apes; for example, tool use in New Caledonian crows, and social cognition, episodic-like memory and future planning in Western scrub-jays. Rooks appear to be able to solve novel tasks through causal reasoning rather than simple trial-and-error learning. Animals with certain expectations about how objects interact would be able to narrow the field of candidate causes substantially, because some causes are simply 'impossible'. Here we present evidence that rooks hold such expectations and appear to possess perceptual understanding of support relations similar to that demonstrated by human babies, which is more comprehensive than that of chimpanzees.}, }
@article {pmid19805160, year = {2009}, author = {Agrawal, AA and Fishbein, M and Halitschke, R and Hastings, AP and Rabosky, DL and Rasmann, S}, title = {Evidence for adaptive radiation from a phylogenetic study of plant defenses.}, journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America}, volume = {106}, number = {43}, pages = {18067-18072}, doi = {10.1073/pnas.0904862106}, pmid = {19805160}, issn = {1091-6490}, mesh = {Asclepias/*genetics ; Genetic Speciation ; Multifactorial Inheritance ; *Phylogeny ; Selection, Genetic ; }, abstract = {One signature of adaptive radiation is a high level of trait change early during the diversification process and a plateau toward the end of the radiation. Although the study of the tempo of evolution has historically been the domain of paleontologists, recently developed phylogenetic tools allow for the rigorous examination of trait evolution in a tremendous diversity of organisms. Enemy-driven adaptive radiation was a key prediction of Ehrlich and Raven's coevolutionary hypothesis [Ehrlich PR, Raven PH (1964) Evolution 18:586-608], yet has remained largely untested. Here we examine patterns of trait evolution in 51 North American milkweed species (Asclepias), using maximum likelihood methods. We study 7 traits of the milkweeds, ranging from seed size and foliar physiological traits to defense traits (cardenolides, latex, and trichomes) previously shown to impact herbivores, including the monarch butterfly. We compare the fit of simple random-walk models of trait evolution to models that incorporate stabilizing selection (Ornstein-Ulenbeck process), as well as time-varying rates of trait evolution. Early bursts of trait evolution were implicated for 2 traits, while stabilizing selection was implicated for several others. We further modeled the relationship between trait change and species diversification while allowing rates of trait evolution to vary during the radiation. Species-rich lineages underwent a proportionately greater decline in latex and cardenolides relative to species-poor lineages, and the rate of trait change was most rapid early in the radiation. An interpretation of this result is that reduced investment in defensive traits accelerated diversification, and disproportionately so, early in the adaptive radiation of milkweeds.}, }
@article {pmid19664926, year = {2009}, author = {Bird, CD and Emery, NJ}, title = {Rooks use stones to raise the water level to reach a floating worm.}, journal = {Current biology : CB}, volume = {19}, number = {16}, pages = {1410-1414}, doi = {10.1016/j.cub.2009.07.033}, pmid = {19664926}, issn = {1879-0445}, support = {//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; Choice Behavior ; Crows/*physiology ; Feeding Behavior ; *Problem Solving ; Research Design ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {In Aesop's fable "The Crow and the Pitcher," a thirsty crow uses stones to raise the level of water in a pitcher and quench its thirst. A number of corvids have been found to use tools in the wild, and New Caledonian crows appear to understand the functional properties of tools and solve complex physical problems via causal and analogical reasoning. The rook, another member of the corvid family that does not appear to use tools in the wild, also appears able to solve non-tool-related problems via similar reasoning. Here, we present evidence that captive rooks are also able to solve a complex problem by using tools. We presented four captive rooks with a problem analogous to Aesop's fable: raising the level of water so that a floating worm moved into reach. All four subjects solved the problem with an appreciation of precisely how many stones were needed. Three subjects also rapidly learned to use large stones over small ones, and that sawdust cannot be manipulated in the same manner as water. This behavior demonstrates a flexible ability to use tools, a finding with implications for the evolution of tool use and cognition in animals.}, }
@article {pmid19654861, year = {2009}, author = {Wimpenny, JH and Weir, AA and Clayton, L and Rutz, C and Kacelnik, A}, title = {Cognitive processes associated with sequential tool use in New Caledonian crows.}, journal = {PloS one}, volume = {4}, number = {8}, pages = {e6471}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0006471}, pmid = {19654861}, issn = {1932-6203}, support = {BB/C517392/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; Behavior, Animal ; *Cognition ; Crows/*physiology ; Task Performance and Analysis ; }, abstract = {BACKGROUND: Using tools to act on non-food objects--for example, to make other tools--is considered to be a hallmark of human intelligence, and may have been a crucial step in our evolution. One form of this behaviour, 'sequential tool use', has been observed in a number of non-human primates and even in one bird, the New Caledonian crow (Corvus moneduloides). While sequential tool use has often been interpreted as evidence for advanced cognitive abilities, such as planning and analogical reasoning, the behaviour itself can be underpinned by a range of different cognitive mechanisms, which have never been explicitly examined. Here, we present experiments that not only demonstrate new tool-using capabilities in New Caledonian crows, but allow examination of the extent to which crows understand the physical interactions involved.

In two experiments, we tested seven captive New Caledonian crows in six tasks requiring the use of up to three different tools in a sequence to retrieve food. Our study incorporated several novel features: (i) we tested crows on a three-tool problem (subjects were required to use a tool to retrieve a second tool, then use the second tool to retrieve a third one, and finally use the third one to reach for food); (ii) we presented tasks of different complexity in random rather than progressive order; (iii) we included a number of control conditions to test whether tool retrieval was goal-directed; and (iv) we manipulated the subjects' pre-testing experience. Five subjects successfully used tools in a sequence (four from their first trial), and four subjects repeatedly solved the three-tool condition. Sequential tool use did not require, but was enhanced by, pre-training on each element in the sequence ('chaining'), an explanation that could not be ruled out in earlier studies. By analyzing tool choice, tool swapping and improvement over time, we show that successful subjects did not use a random probing strategy. However, we find no firm evidence to support previous claims that sequential tool use demonstrates analogical reasoning or human-like planning.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: While the ability of subjects to use three tools in sequence reveals a competence beyond that observed in any other species, our study also emphasises the importance of parsimony in comparative cognitive science: seemingly intelligent behaviour can be achieved without the involvement of high-level mental faculties, and detailed analyses are necessary before accepting claims for complex cognitive abilities.}, }
@article {pmid19478068, year = {2009}, author = {Bird, CD and Emery, NJ}, title = {Insightful problem solving and creative tool modification by captive nontool-using rooks.}, journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America}, volume = {106}, number = {25}, pages = {10370-10375}, doi = {10.1073/pnas.0901008106}, pmid = {19478068}, issn = {1091-6490}, support = {//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; *Cognition ; *Creativity ; Crows/*physiology ; Female ; Male ; *Problem Solving ; Reward ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {The ability to use tools has been suggested to indicate advanced physical cognition in animals. Here we show that rooks, a member of the corvid family that do not appear to use tools in the wild are capable of insightful problem solving related to sophisticated tool use, including spontaneously modifying and using a variety of tools, shaping hooks out of wire, and using a series of tools in a sequence to gain a reward. It is remarkable that a species that does not use tools in the wild appears to possess an understanding of tools rivaling habitual tool users such as New Caledonian crows and chimpanzees. Our findings suggest that the ability to represent tools may be a domain-general cognitive capacity rather than an adaptive specialization and questions the relationship between physical intelligence and wild tool use.}, }
@article {pmid19324641, year = {2009}, author = {Sanz, C and Call, J and Morgan, D}, title = {Design complexity in termite-fishing tools of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes).}, journal = {Biology letters}, volume = {5}, number = {3}, pages = {293-296}, doi = {10.1098/rsbl.2008.0786}, pmid = {19324641}, issn = {1744-9561}, mesh = {Animals ; *Feeding Behavior ; Female ; *Isoptera ; Male ; *Pan troglodytes ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {Adopting the approach taken with New Caledonian crows (Corvus moneduloides), we present evidence of design complexity in one of the termite-fishing tools of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in the Goualougo Triangle, Republic of Congo. Prior to termite fishing, chimpanzees applied a set of deliberate, distinguishable actions to modify herb stems to fashion a brush-tipped probe, which is different from the form of fishing tools used by chimpanzees in East and West Africa. This means that 'brush-tipped fishing probes', unlike 'brush sticks', are not a by-product of use but a deliberate design feature absent in other chimpanzee populations. The specialized modifications to prepare the tool for termite fishing, measures taken to repair non-functional brushes and appropriate orientation of the modified end suggest that these wild chimpanzees are attentive to tool modifications. We also conducted experimental trials that showed that a brush-tipped probe is more effective in gathering insects than an unmodified fishing probe. Based on these findings, we suggest that chimpanzees in the Congo Basin have developed an improved fishing probe design.}, }
@article {pmid19036412, year = {2009}, author = {Jaspers, VL and Covaci, A and Deleu, P and Eens, M}, title = {Concentrations in bird feathers reflect regional contamination with organic pollutants.}, journal = {The Science of the total environment}, volume = {407}, number = {4}, pages = {1447-1451}, doi = {10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.10.030}, pmid = {19036412}, issn = {0048-9697}, mesh = {Animals ; Dichlorodiphenyl Dichloroethylene/*analysis/pharmacokinetics ; Environmental Monitoring/methods ; Feathers/*chemistry/metabolism ; Halogenated Diphenyl Ethers/*analysis/pharmacokinetics ; Polychlorinated Biphenyls/*analysis/pharmacokinetics ; Songbirds/*metabolism ; }, abstract = {Feathers have recently been shown to be potentially useful non-destructive biomonitoring tools for organic pollutants. However, the suitability of feathers to monitor regional variations in contamination has not been investigated until now. Here concentrations of organic pollutants were compared in feathers of common magpies (Pica pica) between urban and rural areas in Flanders, Belgium. The results showed that concentrations of p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) were significantly higher in the rural areas (rural: 12-140 ng/g feather, urban: 1.1-7.2 ng/g feather), while polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were significantly more available in an urban environment (sum PCBs--rural: 2.9-22 ng/g feather, urban: 41-240 ng/g feather). This pattern agrees with previous studies using other tissues than feathers as a biomonitoring tool. In addition, differences in PCBs and PBDEs profiles were found with lower halogenated congeners being more prominent in the urban areas in comparison to the rural areas. In summary, feathers seem to reflect regional variations in contamination, which strengthens their usefulness as a non-destructive biomonitor for organic pollutants.}, }
@article {pmid18796393, year = {2009}, author = {Taylor, AH and Hunt, GR and Medina, FS and Gray, RD}, title = {Do new caledonian crows solve physical problems through causal reasoning?.}, journal = {Proceedings. Biological sciences}, volume = {276}, number = {1655}, pages = {247-254}, doi = {10.1098/rspb.2008.1107}, pmid = {18796393}, issn = {0962-8452}, mesh = {Animals ; *Cognition ; Crows/*physiology ; Female ; Male ; Problem Solving/*physiology ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {The extent to which animals other than humans can reason about physical problems is contentious. The benchmark test for this ability has been the trap-tube task. We presented New Caledonian crows with a series of two-trap versions of this problem. Three out of six crows solved the initial trap-tube. These crows continued to avoid the trap when the arbitrary features that had previously been associated with successful performances were removed. However, they did not avoid the trap when a hole and a functional trap were in the tube. In contrast to a recent primate study, the three crows then solved a causally equivalent but visually distinct problem--the trap-table task. The performance of the three crows across the four transfers made explanations based on chance, associative learning, visual and tactile generalization, and previous dispositions unlikely. Our findings suggest that New Caledonian crows can solve complex physical problems by reasoning both causally and analogically about causal relations. Causal and analogical reasoning may form the basis of the New Caledonian crow's exceptional tool skills.}, }
@article {pmid18766389, year = {2009}, author = {Schuck-Paim, C and Borsari, A and Ottoni, EB}, title = {Means to an end: neotropical parrots manage to pull strings to meet their goals.}, journal = {Animal cognition}, volume = {12}, number = {2}, pages = {287-301}, doi = {10.1007/s10071-008-0190-z}, pmid = {18766389}, issn = {1435-9456}, mesh = {Animals ; *Cognition ; *Concept Formation ; Female ; Male ; *Parrots ; *Problem Solving ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {Although parrots share with corvids and primates many of the traits believed to be associated with advanced cognitive processing, knowledge of parrot cognition is still limited to a few species, none of which are Neotropical. Here we examine the ability of three Neotropical parrot species (Blue-Fronted Amazons, Hyacinth and Lear's macaws) to spontaneously solve a novel physical problem: the string-pulling test. The ability to pull up a string to obtain out-of-reach food has been often considered a cognitively complex task, as it requires the use of a sequence of actions never previously assembled, along with the ability to continuously monitor string, food and certain body movements. We presented subjects with pulling tasks where we varied the spatial relationship between the strings, the presence of a reward and the physical contact between the string and reward to determine whether (1) string-pulling is goal-oriented in these parrots, (2) whether the string is recognized as a means to obtain the reward and (3) whether subjects can visually determine the continuity between the string and the reward, selecting only those strings for which no physical gaps between string and reward were present. Our results show that some individuals of all species were able to use the string as a means to reach a specific goal, in this case, the retrieval of the food treat. Also, subjects from both macaw species were able to visually determine the presence of physical continuity between the string and reward, making their choices consistently with the recognition that no gaps should be present between the string and the reward. Our findings highlight the potential of this taxonomic group for the understanding of the underpinnings of cognition in evolutionarily distant groups such as birds and primates.}, }
@article {pmid18715117, year = {2008}, author = {Prior, H and Schwarz, A and Güntürkün, O}, title = {Mirror-induced behavior in the magpie (Pica pica): evidence of self-recognition.}, journal = {PLoS biology}, volume = {6}, number = {8}, pages = {e202}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pbio.0060202}, pmid = {18715117}, issn = {1545-7885}, mesh = {Animals ; *Behavior, Animal ; Crows/*physiology ; Pattern Recognition, Visual ; *Visual Perception ; }, abstract = {Comparative studies suggest that at least some bird species have evolved mental skills similar to those found in humans and apes. This is indicated by feats such as tool use, episodic-like memory, and the ability to use one's own experience in predicting the behavior of conspecifics. It is, however, not yet clear whether these skills are accompanied by an understanding of the self. In apes, self-directed behavior in response to a mirror has been taken as evidence of self-recognition. We investigated mirror-induced behavior in the magpie, a songbird species from the crow family. As in apes, some individuals behaved in front of the mirror as if they were testing behavioral contingencies. When provided with a mark, magpies showed spontaneous mark-directed behavior. Our findings provide the first evidence of mirror self-recognition in a non-mammalian species. They suggest that essential components of human self-recognition have evolved independently in different vertebrate classes with a separate evolutionary history.}, }
@article {pmid18553113, year = {2008}, author = {Osvath, M and Osvath, H}, title = {Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and orangutan (Pongo abelii) forethought: self-control and pre-experience in the face of future tool use.}, journal = {Animal cognition}, volume = {11}, number = {4}, pages = {661-674}, doi = {10.1007/s10071-008-0157-0}, pmid = {18553113}, issn = {1435-9456}, mesh = {Animals ; *Choice Behavior ; *Concept Formation ; *Discrimination Learning ; Female ; Forecasting ; Goals ; *Intention ; Male ; Pan troglodytes/psychology ; Pongo pygmaeus/psychology ; Probability Learning ; Problem Solving ; Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {Planning for future needs has traditionally been considered to be restricted to human cognition. Although recent studies on great ape and corvid cognition challenge this belief, the phylogenesis of human planning remains largely unknown. The complex skill for future planning has not yet been satisfactorily established in any other extant primate species than our own. In humans, planning for future needs rely heavily on two overarching capacities, both of which lie at the heart of our cognition: self-control, often defined as the suppression of immediate drives in favor of delayed rewards, and mental time travel, which could be described as a detached mental experience of a past or future event. Future planning is linked to additional high complexity cognition such as metacognition and a consciousness usually not attributed to animals. In a series of four experiments based on tool use, we demonstrate that chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and orangutans (Pongo abelii) override immediate drives in favor of future needs, and they do not merely rely on associative learning or semantic prospection when confronted with a planning task. These results suggest that great apes engage in planning for the future by out competing current drives and mentally pre-experiencing an upcoming event. This suggests that the advanced mental capacities utilized in human future planning are shared by phylogenetically more ancient species than previously believed.}, }
@article {pmid18502593, year = {2008}, author = {Dufour, V and Sterck, EH}, title = {Chimpanzees fail to plan in an exchange task but succeed in a tool-using procedure.}, journal = {Behavioural processes}, volume = {79}, number = {1}, pages = {19-27}, doi = {10.1016/j.beproc.2008.04.003}, pmid = {18502593}, issn = {0376-6357}, mesh = {Animals ; Choice Behavior/physiology ; Female ; Imitative Behavior/physiology ; Learning/physiology ; Male ; Pan troglodytes/*physiology/psychology ; Problem Solving ; Reward ; *Social Behavior ; Tool Use Behavior/*physiology ; }, abstract = {Planning has long been considered a uniquely human capacity. Lately, however, it has been shown that apes and a corvid species act now to derive a material future benefit. Since primates are highly social animals and their sociality is considered a strong selective force that resulted in complex cognitive capacities, planning is also expected in social situations. Unfortunately, prompting from social partners cannot be excluded in a social setting. Therefore, we controlled for this factor by testing the capacity to plan in chimpanzees using an exchange paradigm, that involves both a material and a social component, and a tool-use paradigm, similar to the one used on two other ape species. All chimpanzees failed to plan in the exchange task, but three individuals showed planning behavior in the tool-use task. Our methods controlled for the fact that chimpanzees were not prompted by the visibility of the reward at the moment of planning and also could not repeat a previously acquired routine. The best interpretation for our results is that chimpanzees can plan. However, planning was limited to the situation where the action to attain the future benefit only depended on a chimpanzee's own behavior.}, }
@article {pmid18440242, year = {2008}, author = {Kirsch, JA and Güntürkün, O and Rose, J}, title = {Insight without cortex: lessons from the avian brain.}, journal = {Consciousness and cognition}, volume = {17}, number = {2}, pages = {475-483}, doi = {10.1016/j.concog.2008.03.018}, pmid = {18440242}, issn = {1090-2376}, mesh = {Animals ; Biological Evolution ; *Cognition ; *Crows ; Mammals ; Memory ; Prosencephalon/*physiology ; }, abstract = {Insight is a cognitive feature that is usually regarded as being generated by the neocortex and being present only in humans and possibly some closely related primates. In this essay we show that especially corvids display behavioral skills within the domains of object permanence, episodic memory, theory of mind, and tool use/causal reasoning that are insightful. These similarities between humans and corvids at the behavioral level are probably the result of a convergent evolution. Similarly, the telencephalic structures involved in higher cognitive functions in both species show a high degree of similarity, although the forebrain of birds has no cortex-like lamination. The neural substrate for insight-related cognitive functions in mammals and birds is thus not necessarily based on a laminated cortical structure but can be generated by differently organized forebrains. Hence, neither is insight restricted to mammals, as predicted from a "scala naturae", nor is the laminated cortex a prerequisite for the highest cognitive functions.}, }
@article {pmid18262356, year = {2008}, author = {Cnotka, J and Güntürkün, O and Rehkämper, G and Gray, RD and Hunt, GR}, title = {Extraordinary large brains in tool-using New Caledonian crows (Corvus moneduloides).}, journal = {Neuroscience letters}, volume = {433}, number = {3}, pages = {241-245}, doi = {10.1016/j.neulet.2008.01.026}, pmid = {18262356}, issn = {0304-3940}, mesh = {Adaptation, Physiological/physiology ; Animals ; Biological Evolution ; Body Weight/physiology ; Brain/*anatomy & histology/physiology ; Crows/*anatomy & histology/physiology ; Intelligence/*physiology ; New Caledonia ; Organ Size/physiology ; Passeriformes/anatomy & histology/physiology ; Phylogeny ; Problem Solving/*physiology ; Sparrows/anatomy & histology/physiology ; Species Specificity ; Tool Use Behavior/*physiology ; }, abstract = {A general correlation exists between brain weight and higher cognitive ability in birds and mammals. In birds this relationship is especially evident in corvids. These animals are well-known for their flexible behavior and problem-solving abilities, and have relatively large brains associated with a pallial enlargement. At the behavioral level, New Caledonian crows stand out amongst corvids because of their impressive object manipulation skills both in the wild and in the laboratory. However, nothing is known about the relative size of their brains. Here we show that NC crows have highly encephalised brains relative to most other birds that have been studied. We compared the relative brain size of five NC crows with combined data for four passerine species (7 European carrion crows, 2 European magpies, 3 European jays and 4 domestic sparrows) and found that NC crows had significantly larger brains. A comparison only with the seven carrion crows also revealed significantly larger brains for NC crows. When compared with brain data for 140 avian species from the literature, the NC crow had one of the highest degrees of encephalisation, exceeding that of the 7 other Corvidae in the data set.}, }
@article {pmid18166662, year = {2008}, author = {Hayden, J and Cottrell, R and Bernhardt, J}, title = {Ascending the career ladder, with Dr. Jay Bernhardt.}, journal = {Health promotion practice}, volume = {9}, number = {1}, pages = {12-15}, doi = {10.1177/1524839907310526}, pmid = {18166662}, issn = {1524-8399}, mesh = {*Career Mobility ; Health Education ; Health Promotion ; Humans ; United States ; }, abstract = {There are many options available for enhancing one's career, including acquiring further education, obtaining certifications, learning new tools of the trade, and writing for publication, to name just a few. Over the years, many of these have been addressed in this journal. One that has not is career development through studying successful careers of others. For the first career case study, the authors are delighted to present Dr. Jay Bernhardt, director of the National Center for Health Marketing at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta.}, }
@article {pmid19579708, year = {2008}, author = {Cachón, V and Barahona, A and Ayala, FJ}, title = {The rhetorical construction of Eldredge and Gould's article on the theory of punctuated equilibria in 1972.}, journal = {History and philosophy of the life sciences}, volume = {30}, number = {3-4}, pages = {317-337}, pmid = {19579708}, issn = {0391-9714}, mesh = {*Biological Evolution ; Biology/*history ; History, 20th Century ; Humans ; Models, Genetic ; Paleontology/*history ; *Persuasive Communication ; }, abstract = {This article seeks to show how several rhetorical tools were used and, in fact, played a central role in the argumentation advanced by Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould in their 1972 seminal article on the theory of Punctuated Equilibria. It is analyzed how Eldredge and Gould proceeded through three steps that, sequentially integrated, made their argument compelling. It is shown how they made use of analogies, metaphors and other rhetorical tools. It is sustained that they began by priming the reader to distrust the current interpretation of the fossil record offered by most paleontologists and then, in a second step, they used specific visual representations in order to suggest that the competitor theory was committed to the idea of an even and slow evolution at a constant rate, an image utilized by them as straw man. Finally, it is analyzed how, in their third step, Eldredge and Gould made use of several rhetorical arguments to present their theory as new for paleontology while, at the same time, placing it well inside the frame of the modern synthesis, and how they also managed to present their theory as more promising and capable of making predictions for future researches than the competitor theory.}, }
@article {pmid18077380, year = {2007}, author = {Wheat, CW and Vogel, H and Wittstock, U and Braby, MF and Underwood, D and Mitchell-Olds, T}, title = {The genetic basis of a plant-insect coevolutionary key innovation.}, journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America}, volume = {104}, number = {51}, pages = {20427-20431}, doi = {10.1073/pnas.0706229104}, pmid = {18077380}, issn = {1091-6490}, mesh = {Animals ; Butterflies/classification/*genetics ; *Evolution, Molecular ; Glucosinolates/metabolism ; Insect Proteins/*genetics/metabolism ; Magnoliopsida/classification/*genetics ; Nitriles/*metabolism ; Phylogeny ; }, abstract = {Ehrlich and Raven formally introduced the concept of stepwise coevolution using butterfly and angiosperm interactions in an attempt to account for the impressive biological diversity of these groups. However, many biologists currently envision butterflies evolving 50 to 30 million years (Myr) after the major angiosperm radiation and thus reject coevolutionary origins of butterfly biodiversity. The unresolved central tenet of Ehrlich and Raven's theory is that evolution of plant chemical defenses is followed closely by biochemical adaptation in insect herbivores, and that newly evolved detoxification mechanisms result in adaptive radiation of herbivore lineages. Using one of their original butterfly-host plant systems, the Pieridae, we identify a pierid glucosinolate detoxification mechanism, nitrile-specifier protein (NSP), as a key innovation. Larval NSP activity matches the distribution of glucosinolate in their host plants. Moreover, by using five different temporal estimates, NSP seems to have evolved shortly after the evolution of the host plant group (Brassicales) (approximately 10 Myr). An adaptive radiation of these glucosinolate-feeding Pierinae followed, resulting in significantly elevated species numbers compared with related clades. Mechanistic understanding in its proper historical context documents more ancient and dynamic plant-insect interactions than previously envisioned. Moreover, these mechanistic insights provide the tools for detailed molecular studies of coevolution from both the plant and insect perspectives.}, }
@article {pmid17956752, year = {2007}, author = {Clayton, N}, title = {Animal cognition: crows spontaneously solve a metatool task.}, journal = {Current biology : CB}, volume = {17}, number = {20}, pages = {R894-5}, doi = {10.1016/j.cub.2007.08.028}, pmid = {17956752}, issn = {0960-9822}, mesh = {Animals ; Cognition/*physiology ; Crows/*physiology ; Models, Psychological ; Problem Solving/physiology ; Tool Use Behavior/physiology ; }, abstract = {A recent study found that tool-manufacturing New Caledonian crows spontaneously solved a metatool task in which the birds used a tool to obtain a second, longer tool that could then be used to obtain food that was otherwise out of reach.}, }
@article {pmid17940816, year = {2008}, author = {Holzhaider, JC and Hunt, GR and Campbell, VM and Gray, RD}, title = {Do wild New Caledonian crows (Corvus moneduloides) attend to the functional properties of their tools?.}, journal = {Animal cognition}, volume = {11}, number = {2}, pages = {243-254}, doi = {10.1007/s10071-007-0108-1}, pmid = {17940816}, issn = {1435-9448}, mesh = {Animals ; Association Learning/*physiology ; *Concept Formation ; Crows/*physiology ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {New Caledonian crows are the most proficient non-hominin tool manufacturers but the cognition behind their remarkable skills remains largely unknown. Here we investigate if they attend to the functional properties of the tools that they routinely use in the wild. Pandanus tools have natural barbs along one edge that enable them to function as hooking implements when the barbs face backwards from the working tip. In experiment 1 we presented eight crows with either a non-functional ('upside-down') or a functional pandanus tool in a baited hole. Four of the crows never flipped the tools. The behaviour of the four flipping birds suggested that they had a strategy of flipping a tool when it was not working. Observations of two of the eight crows picking up pandanus tools at feeding tables in the wild supported the lack of attention to barb direction. In experiment 2 we gave six of the eight crows a choice of either a barbed or a barbless pandanus tool. Five of the crows chose tools at random, which further supported the findings in experiment 1 that the crows paid little or no attention to the barbs. In contrast, a third experiment found that seven out of eight crows flipped non-functional stick tools significantly more than functional ones. Our findings indicate that the crows do not consistently attend to the presence or orientation of barbs on pandanus tools. Successful pandanus tool use in the wild seems to rely on behavioural strategies formed through associative learning, including procedural knowledge about the sequence of operations required to make a successful pandanus tool.}, }
@article {pmid17916693, year = {2007}, author = {Rutz, C and Bluff, LA and Weir, AA and Kacelnik, A}, title = {Video cameras on wild birds.}, journal = {Science (New York, N.Y.)}, volume = {318}, number = {5851}, pages = {765}, doi = {10.1126/science.1146788}, pmid = {17916693}, issn = {1095-9203}, support = {BB/C517392/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; Animals, Wild ; *Behavior, Animal ; Crows/*physiology ; Ecology ; Feeding Behavior ; Male ; Miniaturization ; Tool Use Behavior ; *Videotape Recording ; }, abstract = {New Caledonian crows (Corvus moneduloides) are renowned for using tools for extractive foraging, but the ecological context of this unusual behavior is largely unknown. We developed miniaturized, animal-borne video cameras to record the undisturbed behavior and foraging ecology of wild, free-ranging crows. Our video recordings enabled an estimate of the species' natural foraging efficiency and revealed that tool use, and choice of tool materials, are more diverse than previously thought. Video tracking has potential for studying the behavior and ecology of many other bird species that are shy or live in inaccessible habitats.}, }
@article {pmid17702575, year = {2007}, author = {Taylor, AH and Hunt, GR and Holzhaider, JC and Gray, RD}, title = {Spontaneous metatool use by New Caledonian crows.}, journal = {Current biology : CB}, volume = {17}, number = {17}, pages = {1504-1507}, doi = {10.1016/j.cub.2007.07.057}, pmid = {17702575}, issn = {0960-9822}, mesh = {Animals ; *Cognition ; *Crows ; Meat ; *Problem Solving ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {A crucial stage in hominin evolution was the development of metatool use -- the ability to use one tool on another [1, 2]. Although the great apes can solve metatool tasks [3, 4], monkeys have been less successful [5-7]. Here we provide experimental evidence that New Caledonian crows can spontaneously solve a demanding metatool task in which a short tool is used to extract a longer tool that can then be used to obtain meat. Six out of the seven crows initially attempted to extract the long tool with the short tool. Four successfully obtained meat on the first trial. The experiments revealed that the crows did not solve the metatool task by trial-and-error learning during the task or through a previously learned rule. The sophisticated physical cognition shown appears to have been based on analogical reasoning. The ability to reason analogically may explain the exceptional tool-manufacturing skills of New Caledonian crows.}, }
@article {pmid17284404, year = {2007}, author = {Hunt, GR and Gray, RD}, title = {Parallel tool industries in New Caledonian crows.}, journal = {Biology letters}, volume = {3}, number = {2}, pages = {173-175}, doi = {10.1098/rsbl.2006.0603}, pmid = {17284404}, issn = {1744-9561}, mesh = {Animals ; Chi-Square Distribution ; Crows/*physiology ; Feeding Behavior/*physiology ; Female ; Male ; New Caledonia ; Plant Leaves ; Plant Stems ; Sex Factors ; Tool Use Behavior/*physiology ; }, abstract = {Individual specialization in the use of foraging tools occurs in hunter-gatherer societies but is absent in non-human primate tool use. 'Parallel tool industries' in hunter-gatherers are mainly based on strict sexual division of labour that is highly reliant on social conformity. Here, we show that 12 individuals in a population of New Caledonian crows on Maré Island had strong preferences for either stick tools or pandanus tools. Eight of the 12 crows had exclusive preferences. The individual specialization that we found is probably associated with different foraging niches. However, in spite of sexual size dimorphism there was no significant association between the sex of crows and their tool preferences. Our findings demonstrate that highly organized, strict sexual division of labour is not a necessary prerequisite for the evolution of parallel tool industries.}, }
@article {pmid17171360, year = {2007}, author = {Tebbich, S and Seed, AM and Emery, NJ and Clayton, NS}, title = {Non-tool-using rooks, Corvus frugilegus, solve the trap-tube problem.}, journal = {Animal cognition}, volume = {10}, number = {2}, pages = {225-231}, doi = {10.1007/s10071-006-0061-4}, pmid = {17171360}, issn = {1435-9448}, mesh = {Animals ; Behavior, Animal/*physiology ; Cognition/*physiology ; Crows/*physiology ; Female ; Male ; Problem Solving/*physiology ; }, abstract = {The trap-tube problem is used to assess whether an individual is able to foresee the outcome of its actions. To solve the task, an animal must use a tool to push a piece of food out of a tube, which has a trap along its length. An animal may learn to avoid the trap through a rule based on associative processes, e.g. using the distance of trap or food as a cue, or by understanding relations between cause and effect. This task has been used to test physical cognition in a number of tool-using species, but never a non-tool-user. We developed an experimental design that enabled us to test non-tool-using rooks, Corvus frugilegus. Our modification of the task removed the cognitive requirements of active tool use but still allowed us to test whether rooks can solve the trap-tube problem, and if so how. Additionally, we developed two new control tasks to determine whether rooks were able to transfer knowledge to similar, but novel problems, thus revealing more about the mechanisms involved in solving the task. We found that three out of seven rooks solved the modified trap-tube problem task, showing that the ability to solve the trap-tube problem is not restricted to tool-using animals. We found no evidence that the birds solved the task using an understanding of its causal properties, given that none of the birds passed the novel transfer tasks.}, }
@article {pmid17024509, year = {2006}, author = {Weir, AA and Kacelnik, A}, title = {A New Caledonian crow (Corvus moneduloides) creatively re-designs tools by bending or unbending aluminium strips.}, journal = {Animal cognition}, volume = {9}, number = {4}, pages = {317-334}, doi = {10.1007/s10071-006-0052-5}, pmid = {17024509}, issn = {1435-9448}, support = {BB/C517392/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; BB/C517392/1//Wellcome Trust/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; *Comprehension ; *Crows ; Female ; Learning ; *Motor Skills ; *Problem Solving ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {Previous observations of a New Caledonian crow (Corvus moneduloides) spontaneously bending wire and using it as a hook [Weir et al. (2002) Science 297:981] have prompted questions about the extent to which these animals 'understand' the physical causality involved in how hooks work and how to make them. To approach this issue we examine how the same subject ("Betty") performed in three experiments with novel material, which needed to be either bent or unbent in order to function to retrieve food. These tasks exclude the possibility of success by repetition of patterns of movement similar to those employed before. Betty quickly developed novel techniques to bend the material, and appropriately modified it on four of five trials when unbending was required. She did not mechanically apply a previously learned set of movements to the new situations, and instead sought new solutions to each problem. However, the details of her behaviour preclude concluding definitely that she understood and planned her actions: in some cases she probed with the unmodified tools before modifying them, or attempted to use the unmodified (unsuitable) end of the tool after modification. Gauging New Caledonian crows' level of understanding is not yet possible, but the observed behaviour is consistent with a partial understanding of physical tasks at a level that exceeds that previously attained by any other non-human subject, including apes.}, }
@article {pmid16941156, year = {2006}, author = {Hunt, GR and Rutledge, RB and Gray, RD}, title = {The right tool for the job: what strategies do wild New Caledonian crows use?.}, journal = {Animal cognition}, volume = {9}, number = {4}, pages = {307-316}, doi = {10.1007/s10071-006-0047-2}, pmid = {16941156}, issn = {1435-9448}, mesh = {Analysis of Variance ; Animals ; Comprehension ; *Crows ; Female ; *Intelligence ; Male ; *Problem Solving ; *Tool Use Behavior ; }, abstract = {New Caledonian crows Corvus moneduloides (NC crows) display sophisticated tool manufacture in the wild, but the cognitive strategy underlying these skills is poorly understood. Here, we investigate what strategy two free-living NC crows used in response to a tool-length task. The crows manufactured tools to extract food from vertical holes of different depths. The first tools they made in visits were of a similar length regardless of the hole depth. The typical length was usually too short to extract food from the deep holes, which ruled out a strategy of immediate causal inference on the first attempt in a trial. When the first tool failed, the crows made second tools significantly longer than the unsuccessful first tools. There was no evidence that the crows made the lengths of first tools to directly match hole depth. We argue that NC crows may generally use a two-stage heuristic strategy to solve tool problems and that performance on the first attempt in a trial is not necessarily the 'gold standard' for assessing folk physics.}, }
@article {pmid16893266, year = {2006}, author = {Helme, AE and Clayton, NS and Emery, NJ}, title = {What do rooks (Corvus frugilegus) understand about physical contact?.}, journal = {Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)}, volume = {120}, number = {3}, pages = {288-293}, doi = {10.1037/0735-7036.120.3.288}, pmid = {16893266}, issn = {0735-7036}, mesh = {Animals ; *Appetitive Behavior ; Awareness ; *Birds ; Comprehension ; *Concept Formation ; Cues ; Female ; Kinesthesis ; Male ; *Orientation ; Physical Phenomena ; *Physics ; *Problem Solving ; Proprioception ; *Psychomotor Performance ; Transfer (Psychology) ; }, abstract = {Rooks (Corvus frugilegus) do not use tools, but rapidly solve tests of physical cognition. The authors tested whether rooks understand the concept of physical contact using a task comprising a clear horizontal tube containing a stick with a disk attached to it and a piece of food. The rooks chose which side to pull the stick from to make the food accessible. Two configurations were used, with either the food or disk central along the tube. All 8 rooks solved the food-central configuration, but failed the disk-central configuration. Although they did not demonstrate an understanding of contact, further tests established that they could learn to solve these tasks provided there were salient stick cues. This result may arise because sticks are ecologically important for rooks.}, }
@article {pmid16796516, year = {2006}, author = {Padgett, KA and Cahoon-Young, B and Carney, R and Woods, L and Read, D and Husted, S and Kramer, V}, title = {Field and laboratory evaluation of diagnostic assays for detecting West Nile virus in oropharyngeal swabs from California wild birds.}, journal = {Vector borne and zoonotic diseases (Larchmont, N.Y.)}, volume = {6}, number = {2}, pages = {183-191}, doi = {10.1089/vbz.2006.6.183}, pmid = {16796516}, issn = {1530-3667}, support = {U50/CCU923677-02//PHS HHS/United States ; }, mesh = {Animals ; Antigens, Viral/immunology ; Bird Diseases/*diagnosis/virology ; Birds ; False Negative Reactions ; False Positive Reactions ; Oropharynx/*virology ; Reproducibility of Results ; Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction/methods ; Sensitivity and Specificity ; Species Specificity ; West Nile Fever/diagnosis/*veterinary ; West Nile virus/immunology/*isolation & purification ; }, abstract = {Three diagnostic assays for detecting West Nile virus (WNV) in avian oral swabs were evaluated in California in 2004 and 2005: two commercial antigen-capture assays, VecTest and Rapid Analyte Measurement Platform (RAMP), and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) of oral swabs in a specialized viral transport medium (VTM). Results from this study demonstrated that VTM was excellent for transportation and maintenance of WNV in avian oral swab samples and allowed for detection by RT-PCR and subsequent confirmation by virus isolation. Oral swabs and kidney tissue in VTM tested by RT-PCR were found to have similar accuracy in detecting WNV in corvids. The two antigen-capture assays, VecTest and RAMP, provided few false positives for corvids, with over 95% specificity. When performed by multiple local agencies throughout the state, VecTest and RAMP were similarly sensitive for oral swabs of American Crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) (70% and 64%, respectively). Data from known WNV positive corvid oral swabs in VTM tested by antigen-capture assays at a diagnostic laboratory suggested that RAMP was more sensitive than VecTest. Due to high probability of false negatives, neither test is recommended for use on non-corvids. While WNV antigen-capture assays were effective screening tools for corvids, they were markedly less sensitive for Western Scrub Jays (Aphelocoma californica).}, }
@article {pmid16581516, year = {2006}, author = {Seed, AM and Tebbich, S and Emery, NJ and Clayton, NS}, title = {Investigating physical cognition in rooks, Corvus frugilegus.}, journal = {Current biology : CB}, volume = {16}, number = {7}, pages = {697-701}, doi = {10.1016/j.cub.2006.02.066}, pmid = {16581516}, issn = {0960-9822}, mesh = {Animals ; Behavior, Animal/*physiology ; Cognition/*physiology ; Crows/*physiology ; Female ; Intelligence Tests ; Male ; Problem Solving ; }, abstract = {Although animals (particularly tool-users) are capable of solving physical tasks in the laboratory , the degree to which they understand them in terms of their underlying physical forces is a matter of contention. Here, using a new paradigm, the two-trap tube task, we report the performance of non-tool-using rooks. In contrast to the low success rates of previous studies using trap-tube problems , seven out of eight rooks solved the initial task, and did so rapidly. Instead of the usual, conceptually flawed control, we used a series of novel transfer tasks to test for understanding. All seven transferred their solution across a change in stimuli. However, six out of seven were unable to transfer to two further tasks, which did not share any one visual constant. One female was able to solve these further transfer tasks. Her result is suggestive evidence that rooks are capable of sophisticated physical cognition, if not through an understanding of unobservable forces , perhaps through rule abstraction. Our results highlight the need to investigate cognitive mechanisms other than causal understanding in studying animal physical cognition.}, }
@article {pmid16539720, year = {2006}, author = {Quintero-Gallego, EA and Gómez, CM and Vaquero Casares, E and Márquez, J and Pérez-Santamaría, FJ}, title = {Declarative and procedural learning in children and adolescents with posterior fossa tumours.}, journal = {Behavioral and brain functions : BBF}, volume = {2}, number = {}, pages = {9}, doi = {10.1186/1744-9081-2-9}, pmid = {16539720}, issn = {1744-9081}, abstract = {BACKGROUND: This quasi-experimental study was designed to assess two important learning types - procedural and declarative--in children and adolescents affected by posterior fossa tumours (astrocytoma vs. medulloblastoma), given that memory has an important impact on the child's academic achievement and personal development.

METHODS: We had three groups: two clinical (eighteen subjects) and one control (twelve subjects). The learning types in these groups were assessed by two experimental tasks evaluating procedural-implicit and declarative memory. A Serial Reaction-Time Task was used to measure procedural sequence learning, and the Spanish version 1 of the California Verbal Learning Test-Children's Version- CVLT- 2 to measure declarative-explicit learning. The learning capacity was assessed considering only the blocks that represent learning, and were compared with MANOVA in clinical and normal subjects. The Raven, simple reaction-time, finger-tapping test, and grooved pegboard tests were used to assess the overall functioning of subjects. The results were compared with those from a control group of the same age, and with Spanish norm-referenced tools where available.

RESULTS: The results indicate the absence of procedural-implicit learning in both clinical groups, whereas declarative-explicit learning is maintained in both groups.

CONCLUSION: The clinical groups showed a conservation of declarative learning and a clear impairment of procedural learning. The results support the role of the cerebellum in the early phase of procedural learning.}, }
@article {pmid16521567, year = {2006}, author = {Reznikova, ZhI}, title = {[The study of tool use as the way for general estimation of cognitive abilities in animals].}, journal = {Zhurnal obshchei biologii}, volume = {67}, number = {1}, pages = {3-22}, pmid = {16521567}, issn = {0044-4596}, mesh = {Adaptation, Psychological ; Animals ; *Cognition ; Learning ; Pattern Recognition, Physiological ; Species Specificity ; }, abstract = {Investigation of tool use is an effective way to determine cognitive abilities of animals. This approach raises hypotheses, which delineate limits of animal's competence in understanding of objects properties and interrelations and the influence of individual and social experience on their behaviour. On the basis of brief review of different models of manipulation with objects and tools manufacturing (detaching, subtracting and reshaping) by various animals (from elephants to ants) in natural conditions the experimental data concerning tool usage was considered. Tool behaviour of anumals could be observed rarely and its distribution among different taxons is rather odd. Recent studies have revealed that some species (for instance, bonobos and tamarins) which didn't manipulate tools in wild life appears to be an advanced tool users and even manufacturers in laboratory. Experimental studies of animals tool use include investigation of their ability to use objects physical properties, to categorize objects involved in tool activity by its functional properties, to take forces affecting objects into account, as well as their capacity of planning their actions. The crucial question is whether animals can abstract general principles of relations between objects regardless of the exact circumstances, or they develop specific associations between concerete things and situations. Effectiveness of laboratory methods is estimated in the review basing on comparative studies of tool behaviour, such as "support problem", "stick problem", "tube- and tube-trap problem", and "reserve tube problem". Levels of social learning, the role of imprinting, and species-specific predisposition to formation of specific domains are discussed. Experimental investigation of tool use allows estimation of the individuals' intelligence in populations. A hypothesis suggesting that strong predisposition to formation of specific associations can serve as a driving force and at the same time as obstacle to animals' activity is discussed. In several "technically gifted" species (such as woodpecker finches, New Caledonian crows, and chimpanzees) tool use seems to be guided by a rapid process of trial and error learning. Individuals that are predisposed to learn specific connections do this too quickly and thus become enslaved by stereotypic solutions of raising problems.}, }
@article {pmid16496117, year = {2006}, author = {Ocasio-Tascón, ME and Alicea-Colón, E and Torres-Palacios, A and Rodríguez-Cintrón, W}, title = {The veteran population: one at high risk for sleep-disordered breathing.}, journal = {Sleep & breathing = Schlaf & Atmung}, volume = {10}, number = {2}, pages = {70-75}, doi = {10.1007/s11325-005-0043-9}, pmid = {16496117}, issn = {1520-9512}, mesh = {Depression/epidemiology ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Middle Aged ; Narcolepsy/epidemiology ; Polysomnography ; Risk Factors ; Sensitivity and Specificity ; Severity of Illness Index ; Sleep Apnea Syndromes/*diagnosis/*epidemiology ; Sleep Initiation and Maintenance Disorders/epidemiology ; Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic/epidemiology ; Surveys and Questionnaires ; Veterans/*statistics & numerical data ; }, abstract = {Sleep complaints are very common among the general population and are usually accompanied by significant medical, psychological and social disturbances (Redline S, Strohl K, Otolaryngol Clin North Am, 132:303, 1999). A higher prevalence of sleep complaints has been described in the elderly (Vgontzas AN, Kales A, Annu Rev Med, 50:387-400, 1999). It is manifested by breathing disturbances during sleep, loud snoring, difficulties maintaining sleep, fatigue, daytime sleepiness, mood effects and impairment of daily activities (Lugaresi E, Cirignotta F, Zucconi M et al., Good and poor sleepers: an epidemiological survey of the San Marino population, Raven, New York, pp 1-12, 1983; Kales A, Soldatos CR, Kales JD, Am Fam Physician, 22:101-108, 1980). It has been associated with cardiovascular, endocrine and neurocognitive manifestations. Growing interest in early diagnosis and treatment has been noted in recent years based on emerging knowledge about the potential health consequences when the disease goes untreated (Nanen AM, Dunagan DP, Fleisher A et al., Chest, 121:1741, 2002). The veteran population in the mainland has a higher tendency for obesity, high blood pressure (HBP), sleep disorders and chronic alcohol consumption (Mustafa M, Erokwu N, Ebose I, Strohl K, Sleep Breath, 9:57-63, 2005). The Hispanic veteran population has never been studied in detail for sleep disorders and related conditions. We used previously validated screening tools for sleep disturbance breathing. Two hundred and forty-five questionnaires were administered. We found a higher prevalence of Obstructive Sleep Apnea Hypopnea Syndrome (OSAHS) in our population compared with data from the mainland (USA). The mean age was 64 years (+/-11). Ninety seven per cent were males. The mean body mass index was 25 kg/cm(2); mean Epworth Sleepiness Scale score was 8. Thirty-four per cent met high-risk criteria for sleep apnea, 53% for insomnia, 13% for symptoms suggestive of narcolepsy and 13% for those suggestive of restless leg syndrome. There were high incidences of alcohol consumption (37.6%), diabetes (32.7%), hypercholesterolemia (31.8%), depression (31.8%), hypertension (39.6%) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (9.8%).}, }
@article {pmid16338748, year = {2005}, author = {Ramanathan, MP and Chambers, JA and Taylor, J and Korber, BT and Lee, MD and Nalca, A and Dang, K and Pankhong, P and Attatippaholkun, W and Weiner, DB}, title = {Expression and evolutionary analysis of West Nile virus (Merion strain).}, journal = {Journal of neurovirology}, volume = {11}, number = {6}, pages = {544-556}, doi = {10.1080/13550280500385229}, pmid = {16338748}, issn = {1355-0284}, mesh = {Amino Acid Sequence ; Animals ; Bird Diseases/virology ; Birds ; Cell Line ; Evolution, Molecular ; *Gene Expression Regulation, Viral ; Humans ; Molecular Sequence Data ; Open Reading Frames ; Phylogeny ; Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction ; West Nile Fever/epidemiology/veterinary/*virology ; West Nile virus/*classification/genetics/metabolism ; }, abstract = {The authors report a new strain of West Nile virus (WNV) with the expression analysis of its individual open reading frames. Since its sudden appearance in the summer of 1999 in New York City, the virus has spread rapidly across the continental United States into Canada and Mexico. Besides, its rapid transmission by various vectors, the spread of this virus through organ transplantation, blood transfusion, and mother-child transmission through breast milk is of concern. In order to understand molecular variations of WNV in North America and to generate new tools for understanding WNV biology, a complete clone of WNV has been constructed. Investigations so far have focused only on half of its genes products and a detailed molecular and cell biological aspects on all of WNV gene have yet to be clearly established. The open reading frames of WNV were recovered through an reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)-PCR using brain tissue from a dead crow collected in Merion, PA, and cloned into a mammalian expression vector. The deduced amino acid sequences of individual open reading frames were analyzed to determine various structural motifs and functional domains. Expression analysis shows that in neuronal cells, C, NS1, and NS5 proteins are nuclear localized whereas the rest of the antigens are confined to the cytoplasm when they are expressed in the absence of other viral antigens. This is the first report that provides an expression analysis as well as intracellular distribution pattern for all of WNV gene products, cloned from an infected bird. Evolutionary analysis of Merion strain sequences indicates that this strain is distinct phylogenetically from the previously reported WNV strains.}, }
@article {pmid16079032, year = {2005}, author = {McGregor, J and Hanlon, N and Emmons, S and Voaklander, D and Kelly, K}, title = {If all ambulances could fly: putting provincial standards of emergency care access to the test in Northern British Columbia.}, journal = {Canadian journal of rural medicine : the official journal of the Society of Rural Physicians of Canada = Journal canadien de la medecine rurale : le journal officiel de la Societe de medecine rurale du Canada}, volume = {10}, number = {3}, pages = {163-168}, pmid = {16079032}, issn = {1203-7796}, mesh = {Air Ambulances/statistics & numerical data/*supply & distribution ; British Columbia ; Catchment Area (Health) ; Community Health Planning/standards ; Databases, Factual ; Emergency Medical Services/statistics & numerical data/*supply & distribution ; Geographic Information Systems ; Health Services Accessibility/*statistics & numerical data ; Humans ; Research Design ; Rural Health Services/statistics & numerical data/*supply & distribution ; }, abstract = {INTRODUCTION: Geographic access to emergency treatment remains an important public policy concern as rural emergency medical systems respond to various pressures to centralize services. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are effective tools to determine what proportion of a given population is adequately served by existing or proposed service distributions.

METHODS: This study compares 2 GIS approaches to determining whether recent standards of emergency care access established by the British Columbia Ministry of Health Services are being met in Northern British Columbia. In particular, we compare results obtained using the more commonly used straight-line, or "as the crow flies," method with those obtained using a more sophisticated method that estimates travel time using digitally referenced road network data.

RESULTS: Both methods reveal that provincial standards of emergency access are not being met in Northern British Columbia.

CONCLUSION: In terms of comparing the 2 approaches, the network technique indicated a lower level of access and was more accurate in identifying populations residing inside and outside the "golden hour" of emergency care.}, }
@article {pmid15972014, year = {2005}, author = {Turinsky, AL and Ah-Seng, AC and Gordon, PM and Stromer, JN and Taschuk, ML and Xu, EW and Sensen, CW}, title = {Bioinformatics visualization and integration with open standards: the Bluejay genomic browser.}, journal = {In silico biology}, volume = {5}, number = {2}, pages = {187-198}, pmid = {15972014}, issn = {1386-6338}, mesh = {*Computational Biology ; Computer Graphics ; *Database Management Systems ; *Databases, Genetic ; Internet ; Models, Theoretical ; Programming Languages ; *Software Design ; User-Computer Interface ; }, abstract = {We have created a new Java-based integrated computational environment for the exploration of genomic data, called Bluejay. The system is capable of using almost any XML file related to genomic data. Non-XML data sources can be accessed via a proxy server. Bluejay has several features, which are new to Bioinformatics, including an unlimited semantic zoom capability, coupled with Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) outputs; an implementation of the XLink standard, which features access to MAGPIE Genecards as well as any BioMOBY service accessible over the Internet; and the integration of gene chip analysis tools with the functional assignments. The system can be used as a signed web applet, Web Start, and a local stand-alone application, with or without connection to the Internet. It is available free of charge and as open source via http://bluejay.ucalgary.ca.}, }
@article {pmid15650729, year = {2005}, author = {Kenward, B and Weir, AA and Rutz, C and Kacelnik, A}, title = {Behavioural ecology: tool manufacture by naive juvenile crows.}, journal = {Nature}, volume = {433}, number = {7022}, pages = {121}, doi = {10.1038/433121a}, pmid = {15650729}, issn = {1476-4687}, support = {BB/C517392/1//Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council/United Kingdom ; }, mesh = {Animals ; Behavior, Animal/physiology ; Crows/*physiology ; Feeding Behavior/physiology ; Female ; Learning/physiology ; Male ; *Manufactured Materials ; }, abstract = {New Caledonian crows (Corvus moneduloides) are the most prolific avian tool-users. Regional variation in the shape of their tools may be the result of cumulative cultural evolution--a phenomenon considered to be a hallmark of human culture. Here we show that hand-raised juvenile New Caledonian crows spontaneously manufacture and use tools, without any contact with adults of their species or any prior demonstration by humans. Our finding is a crucial step towards producing informed models of cultural transmission in this species, and in animals in general.}, }
@article {pmid15591194, year = {2004}, author = {Emery, NJ and Clayton, NS}, title = {The mentality of crows: convergent evolution of intelligence in corvids and apes.}, journal = {Science (New York, N.Y.)}, volume = {306}, number = {5703}, pages = {1903-1907}, doi = {10.1126/science.1098410}, pmid = {15591194}, issn = {1095-9203}, mesh = {Animals ; *Behavior, Animal ; *Biological Evolution ; Brain/anatomy & histology/physiology ; *Cognition ; *Crows/anatomy & histology/physiology ; Hominidae/physiology ; Imagination ; *Intelligence ; Memory ; Social Behavior ; }, abstract = {Discussions of the evolution of intelligence have focused on monkeys and apes because of their close evolutionary relationship to humans. Other large-brained social animals, such as corvids, also understand their physical and social worlds. Here we review recent studies of tool manufacture, mental time travel, and social cognition in corvids, and suggest that complex cognition depends on a "tool kit" consisting of causal reasoning, flexibility, imagination, and prospection. Because corvids and apes share these cognitive tools, we argue that complex cognitive abilities evolved multiple times in distantly related species with vastly different brain structures in order to solve similar socioecological problems.}, }
@article {pmid15504013, year = {2004}, author = {Weir, AA and Kenward, B and Chappell, J and Kacelnik, A}, title = {Lateralization of tool use in New Caledonian crows (Corvus moneduloides).}, journal = {Proceedings. Biological sciences}, volume = {271 Suppl 5}, number = {}, pages = {S344-6}, doi = {10.1098/rsbl.2004.0183}, pmid = {15504013}, issn = {0962-8452}, mesh = {Animals ; Crows/*physiology ; Feeding Behavior ; *Functional Laterality ; Motor Skills/*physiology ; New Caledonia ; Plant Stems ; Video Recording ; }, abstract = {We studied laterality of tool use in 10 captive New Caledonian (NC) crows (Corvus moneduloides). All subjects showed near-exclusive individual laterality, but there was no overall bias in either direction (five were left-lateralized and five were right-lateralized). This is consistent with results in non-human primates, which show strong individual lateralization for tool use (but not for other activities), and also with observations of four wild NC crows by Rutledge & Hunt. Jointly, these results contrast with observations that the crows have a population-level bias for manufacturing tools from the left edges of Pandanus sp. leaves, and suggest that the manufacture and use of tools in this species may have different neural underpinnings.}, }
@article {pmid15101428, year = {2004}, author = {Hunt, GR and Gray, RD}, title = {The crafting of hook tools by wild New Caledonian crows.}, journal = {Proceedings. Biological sciences}, volume = {271 Suppl 3}, number = {}, pages = {S88-90}, doi = {10.1098/rsbl.2003.0085}, pmid = {15101428}, issn = {0962-8452}, mesh = {Animals ; *Biological Evolution ; Feeding Behavior/*physiology ; Learning/*physiology ; Motor Skills/*physiology ; New Caledonia ; Plant Stems ; Songbirds/*physiology ; }, abstract = {The 'crafting' of tools involves (i) selection of appropriate raw material, (ii) preparatory trimming and (iii) fine, three-dimensional sculpting. Its evolution is technologically important because it allows the open-ended development of tools. New Caledonian crows manufacture an impressive range of stick and leaf tools. We previously reported that their toolkit included hooked implements made from leafy twigs, although their manufacture had never been closely observed. We describe the manufacture of 10 hooked-twig tools by an adult crow and its dependent juvenile. To make all 10 tools, the crows carried out a relatively invariant three-step sequence of complex manipulations that involved (i) the selection of raw material, (ii) trimming and (iii) a lengthy sculpting of the hook. Hooked-twig manufacture contrasts with the lack of sculpting in the making of wooden tools by other non-humans such as chimpanzees and woodpecker finches. This fine, three-stage crafting process removes another alleged difference between humans and other animals.}, }
@article {pmid15069612, year = {2004}, author = {Chappell, J and Kacelnik, A}, title = {Selection of tool diameter by New Caledonian crows Corvus moneduloides.}, journal = {Animal cognition}, volume = {7}, number = {2}, pages = {121-127}, doi = {10.1007/s10071-003-0202-y}, pmid = {15069612}, issn = {1435-9448}, mesh = {Animals ; Behavior, Animal ; *Choice Behavior ; Discrimination Learning ; *Feeding Behavior ; Female ; Functional Laterality ; *Manufactured Materials ; *Plant Leaves ; *Problem Solving ; *Songbirds ; Technology ; }, abstract = {One important element of complex and flexible tool use, particularly where tool manufacture is involved, is the ability to select or manufacture appropriate tools anticipating the needs of any given task-an ability that has been rarely tested in non-primates. We examine aspects of this ability in New Caledonian crows-a species known to be extraordinary tool users and manufacturers. In a 2002 study, Chappell and Kacelnik showed that these crows were able to select a tool of the appropriate length for a task among a set of different lengths, and in 2002, Weir, Chappell and Kacelnik showed that New Caledonian crows were able to shape unfamiliar materials to create a usable tool for a specific task. Here we examine their handling of tool diameter. In experiment 1, we show that when facing three loose sticks that were usable as tools, they preferred the thinnest one. When the three sticks were presented so that one was loose and the other two in a bundle, they only disassembled the bundle when their preferred tool was tied. In experiment 2, we show that they manufacture, and modify during use, a tool of a suitable diameter from a tree branch, according to the diameter of the hole through which the tool will have to be inserted. These results add to the developing picture of New Caledonian crows as sophisticated tool users and manufacturers, having an advanced level of folk physics.}, }
@article {pmid15069611, year = {2004}, author = {Hunt, GR and Gray, RD}, title = {Direct observations of pandanus-tool manufacture and use by a New Caledonian crow (Corvus moneduloides).}, journal = {Animal cognition}, volume = {7}, number = {2}, pages = {114-120}, doi = {10.1007/s10071-003-0200-0}, pmid = {15069611}, issn = {1435-9448}, mesh = {Animals ; *Behavior, Animal ; *Discrimination Learning ; *Feeding Behavior ; *Functional Laterality ; Manufactured Materials ; *Plant Leaves ; *Songbirds ; }, abstract = {New Caledonian crows are reported to have impressive pandanus-tool manufacture abilities. These claims are based on an extensive artefact record. However, inferring behavioural and cognitive abilities without direct observation of tool manufacture is problematic. Here we report (and document on video) direct observations of a crow making and using stepped pandanus tools at Pic Ningua. We observed (1) a bias for making tools on left edges consistent with that previously found at the site, (2) faithful manufacture of a stepped design with high overall congruence in the shapes of tools, (3) the use of convergent rips to first form the tapered end working away from the trunk then the wide end working towards the trunk, (4) appropriate functional use of stepped tools by use of the leaf-edge barbs to hook food from holes, and (5) consistent holding of tools on the left side of its head when using them. Our observations verify most of the claims based on the artefact record, but the crow's exact manufacture technique was slightly different to that inferred previously.}, }
@article {pmid14658059, year = {2004}, author = {Griffin, DR and Speck, GB}, title = {New evidence of animal consciousness.}, journal = {Animal cognition}, volume = {7}, number = {1}, pages = {5-18}, doi = {10.1007/s10071-003-0203-x}, pmid = {14658059}, issn = {1435-9448}, mesh = {Animal Communication ; Animals ; Awareness ; *Behavior, Animal ; *Consciousness ; }, abstract = {This paper reviews evidence that increases the probability that many animals experience at least simple levels of consciousness. First, the search for neural correlates of consciousness has not found any consciousness-producing structure or process that is limited to human brains. Second, appropriate responses to novel challenges for which the animal has not been prepared by genetic programming or previous experience provide suggestive evidence of animal consciousness because such versatility is most effectively organized by conscious thinking. For example, certain types of classical conditioning require awareness of the learned contingency in human subjects, suggesting comparable awareness in similarly conditioned animals. Other significant examples of versatile behavior suggestive of conscious thinking are scrub jays that exhibit all the objective attributes of episodic memory, evidence that monkeys sometimes know what they know, creative tool-making by crows, and recent interpretation of goal-directed behavior of rats as requiring simple nonreflexive consciousness. Third, animal communication often reports subjective experiences. Apes have demonstrated increased ability to use gestures or keyboard symbols to make requests and answer questions; and parrots have refined their ability to use the imitation of human words to ask for things they want and answer moderately complex questions. New data have demonstrated increased flexibility in the gestural communication of swarming honey bees that leads to vitally important group decisions as to which cavity a swarm should select as its new home. Although no single piece of evidence provides absolute proof of consciousness, this accumulation of strongly suggestive evidence increases significantly the likelihood that some animals experience at least simple conscious thoughts and feelings. The next challenge for cognitive ethologists is to investigate for particular animals the content of their awareness and what life is actually like, for them.}, }
@article {pmid12737666, year = {2003}, author = {Hunt, GR and Gray, RD}, title = {Diversification and cumulative evolution in New Caledonian crow tool manufacture.}, journal = {Proceedings. Biological sciences}, volume = {270}, number = {1517}, pages = {867-874}, doi = {10.1098/rspb.2002.2302}, pmid = {12737666}, issn = {0962-8452}, mesh = {Animal Communication ; Animals ; *Behavior, Animal ; *Biological Evolution ; Birds/*physiology ; Environment ; Manufactured Materials ; Mental Processes ; New Caledonia ; *Technology ; }, abstract = {Many animals use tools but only humans are generally considered to have the cognitive sophistication required for cumulative technological evolution. Three important characteristics of cumulative technological evolution are: (i) the diversification of tool design; (ii) cumulative change; and (iii) high-fidelity social transmission. We present evidence that crows have diversified and cumulatively changed the design of their pandanus tools. In 2000 we carried out an intensive survey in New Caledonia to establish the geographical variation in the manufacture of these tools. We documented the shapes of 5550 tools from 21 sites throughout the range of pandanus tool manufacture. We found three distinct pandanus tool designs: wide tools, narrow tools and stepped tools. The lack of ecological correlates of the three tool designs and their different, continuous and overlapping geographical distributions make it unlikely that they evolved independently. The similarities in the manufacture method of each design further suggest that pandanus tools have gone through a process of cumulative change from a common historical origin. We propose a plausible scenario for this rudimentary cumulative evolution.}, }
@article {pmid12150038, year = {2002}, author = {Chappell, J and Kacelnik, A}, title = {Tool selectivity in a non-primate, the New Caledonian crow (Corvus moneduloides).}, journal = {Animal cognition}, volume = {5}, number = {2}, pages = {71-78}, pmid = {12150038}, issn = {1435-9448}, mesh = {Adaptation, Psychological ; Animals ; *Cognition ; Female ; *Learning ; Male ; Perception ; *Songbirds ; }, abstract = {We present an experiment showing that New Caledonian crows are able to choose tools of the appropriate size for a novel task, without trial-and-error learning. This species is almost unique amongst all animal species (together with a few primates) in the degree of use and manufacture of polymorphic tools in the wild. However, until now, the flexibility of their tool use has not been tested. Flexibility, including the ability to select an appropriate tool for a task, is considered to be a hallmark of complex cognitive adaptations for tool use. In experiment 1, we tested the ability of two captive birds (one male, one female), to select a stick (from a range of lengths provided) matching the distance to food placed in a horizontal transparent pipe. Both birds chose tools matching the distance to their target significantly more often than would be expected by chance. In experiment 2, we used a similar task, but with the tools placed out of sight of the food pipe, such that the birds had to remember the distance of the food before selecting a tool. The task was completed only by the male, who chose a tool of sufficient length significantly more often than chance but did not show a preference for a matching length.}, }
@article {pmid11742382, year = {2001}, author = {Hunt, GR and Corballis, MC and Gray, RD}, title = {Animal behaviour: Laterality in tool manufacture by crows.}, journal = {Nature}, volume = {414}, number = {6865}, pages = {707}, doi = {10.1038/414707a}, pmid = {11742382}, issn = {0028-0836}, mesh = {Animals ; Feeding Behavior ; Functional Laterality/*physiology ; Humans ; Songbirds/*physiology ; }, abstract = {New Caledonian crows (Fig. 1) fashion tapered tools from either the left or the right edge of the long narrow leaves of pandanus trees or screw pines, which they use to extract invertebrates in rainforest vegetation. Although right-handedness is thought to be uniquely human, we show here that crows from different localities display a widespread laterality in making their tools, indicating that this behaviour is unlikely to be attributable to local social traditions or ecological factors. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of species-level laterality in manipulatory skills outside humans.}, }
@article {pmid11417508, year = {2001}, author = {Saw, CB and Ayyangar, KM and Thompson, RB and Zhen, W and Enke, CA}, title = {Commissioning of Peacock System for intensity-modulated radiation therapy.}, journal = {Medical dosimetry : official journal of the American Association of Medical Dosimetrists}, volume = {26}, number = {1}, pages = {55-64}, pmid = {11417508}, issn = {0958-3947}, mesh = {Humans ; Particle Accelerators ; Radiometry/instrumentation ; Radiotherapy/*instrumentation/*methods ; Radiotherapy Dosage ; }, abstract = {The Peacock System was introduced to perform tomographic intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT). Commissioning of the Peacock System included the alignment of the multileaf intensity-modulating collimator (MIMiC) to the beam axis, the alignment of the RTA device for immobilization, and checking the integrity of the CRANE for indexing the treatment couch. In addition, the secondary jaw settings, couch step size, and transmission through the leaves were determined. The dosimetric data required for the CORVUS planning system were divided into linear accelerator-specific and MIMiC-specific. The linear accelerator-specific dosimetric data were relative output in air, relative output in phantom, percent depth dose for a range of field sizes, and diagonal dose profiles for a large field size. The MIMiC-specific dosimetric data were the in-plane and cross-plane dose profiles of a small and a large field size to derive the penumbra fit. For each treatment unit, the Beam Utility software requires the data be entered into the CORVUS planning system in modular forms. These modules were treatment unit information, angle definition, configuration, gantry and couch angles range, dosimetry, results, and verification plans. After the appropriate machine data were entered, CORVUS created a dose model. The dose model was used to create known simple dose distribution for evaluation using the verification tools of the CORVUS. The planned doses for phantoms were confirmed using an ion chamber for point dose measurement and film for relative dose measurement. The planning system calibration factor was initially set at 1.0 and will be changed after data on clinical cases are acquired. The treatment unit was released for clinical use after the approval icon was checked in the verification plans module.}, }
@article {pmid10779489, year = {2000}, author = {Gaasterland, T and Sczyrba, A and Thomas, E and Aytekin-Kurban, G and Gordon, P and Sensen, CW}, title = {MAGPIE/EGRET annotation of the 2.9-Mb Drosophila melanogaster Adh region.}, journal = {Genome research}, volume = {10}, number = {4}, pages = {502-510}, pmid = {10779489}, issn = {1088-9051}, mesh = {Alcohol Dehydrogenase/*genetics ; Animals ; Calcium Channels/genetics ; Computational Biology/*methods ; *Databases, Factual ; Drosophila melanogaster/*enzymology/*genetics ; Eukaryotic Cells/chemistry/physiology ; Genes, Insect/genetics ; *Software ; }, abstract = {Our challenge in annotating the 2.91-Mb Adh region of the Drosophila melanogaster genome was to identify genetic and genomic features automatically, completely, and precisely within a 6-week period. To do so, we augmented the MAGPIE microbial genome annotation system to handle eukaryotic genomic sequence data. The new configuration required the integration of eukaryotic gene-finding tools and DNA repeat tools into the automatic data collection module. It also required us to define in MAGPIE new strategies to combine data about eukaryotic exon predictions with functional data to refine the exon predictions. At the heart of the resulting new eukaryotic genome annotation system is a reverse comparison of public protein and complementary DNA sequences against the input genome to identify missing exons and to refine exon boundaries. The software modules that add eukaryotic genome annotation capability to MAGPIE are available as EGRET (Eukaryotic Genome Rapid Evaluation Tool).}, }
@article {pmid10722223, year = {2000}, author = {Hunt, GR}, title = {Human-like, population-level specialization in the manufacture of pandanus tools by New Caledonian crows Corvus moneduloides.}, journal = {Proceedings. Biological sciences}, volume = {267}, number = {1441}, pages = {403-413}, doi = {10.1098/rspb.2000.1015}, pmid = {10722223}, issn = {0962-8452}, mesh = {Animals ; Behavior, Animal ; Biological Evolution ; Humans ; Models, Biological ; Plant Leaves ; Population ; Songbirds/*physiology ; }, abstract = {The main way of gaining insight into the behaviour and neurological faculties of our early ancestors is to study artefactual evidence for the making and use of tools, but this places severe constraints on what knowledge can be obtained. New Caledonian crows, however, offer a potential analogous model system for learning about these difficult-to-establish aspects of prehistoric humans. I found new evidence of human-like specialization in crows' manufacture of hook tools from pandanus leaves: functional lateralization or 'handedness' and the shaping of these tools to a rule system. These population-level features are unprecedented in the tool behaviour of free-living non-humans and provide the first demonstration that a population bias for handedness in tool-making and the shaping of tools to rule systems are not concomitant with symbolic thought and language. It is unknown how crows obtain their tool behaviour. Nevertheless, at the least they can be studied in order to learn about the neuropsychology associated with early specialized and/or advanced population features in tool-making such as hook use, handedness and the shaping of tools to rule systems.}, }
@article {pmid9256491, year = {1997}, author = {Vlcek, C and Paces, V and Maltsev, N and Paces, J and Haselkorn, R and Fonstein, M}, title = {Sequence of a 189-kb segment of the chromosome of Rhodobacter capsulatus SB1003.}, journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America}, volume = {94}, number = {17}, pages = {9384-9388}, pmid = {9256491}, issn = {0027-8424}, mesh = {*Chromosomes, Bacterial ; Rhodobacter capsulatus/*genetics ; Sequence Analysis ; }, abstract = {Cosmids from the 1A3-1A10 region of the complete miniset were individually subcloned by using the vector M13 mp18. Sequences of each cosmid were assembled from about 400 DNA fragments generated from the ends of these phage subclones and merged into one 189-kb contig. About 160 ORFs identified by the CodonUse program were subjected to similarity searches. The biological functions of 80 ORFs could be assigned reliably by using the WIT and Magpie genome investigation tools. Eighty percent of these recognizable ORFs were organized in functional clusters, which simplified assignment decisions and increased the strength of the predictions. A set of 26 genes for cobalamin biosynthesis, genes for polyhydroxyalkanoic acid metabolism, DNA replication and recombination, and DNA gyrase were among those identified. Most of the ORFs lacking significant similarity with reference databases also were grouped. There are two large clusters of these ORFs, one located between 45 and 67 kb of the map, and the other between 150 and 183 kb. Nine of the loosely identified ORFs (of 15) of the first of these clusters match ORFs from phages or transposons. The other cluster also has four ORFs of possible phage origin.}, }
@article {pmid8682213, year = {1996}, author = {Charlebois, RL and Gaasterland, T and Ragan, MA and Doolittle, WF and Sensen, CW}, title = {The Sulfolobus solfataricus P2 genome project.}, journal = {FEBS letters}, volume = {389}, number = {1}, pages = {88-91}, pmid = {8682213}, issn = {0014-5793}, mesh = {Databases, Factual ; *Genome, Bacterial ; Multigene Family ; Sulfolobus/*genetics ; }, abstract = {Over 800 kbp of the 3-Mbp genome of Sulfolobus solfataricus have been sequenced to date. Our approach is to sequence subclones of mapped cosmids, followed by sequencing directly on cosmid templates with custom primers. Using a prototype automated system for genome-scale analysis, known as MAGPIE, along with other tools, we have discovered one open reading frame of at least 100 amino acids per kbp of sequence, and have been able to associate 50% of these with known genes through database searches. An examination of completely sequenced cosmids suggests a clustering of genes by function in the S. solfataricus genome.}, }
@article {pmid2404141, year = {1990}, author = {Baird, RJ}, title = {"Give us the tools...". The story of heparin--as told by sketches from the lives of William Howell, Jay McLean, Charles Best, and Gordon Murray.}, journal = {Journal of vascular surgery}, volume = {11}, number = {1}, pages = {4-18}, pmid = {2404141}, issn = {0741-5214}, mesh = {Canada ; *Heparin/history/isolation & purification/therapeutic use ; History, 20th Century ; United States ; Vascular Surgical Procedures/*history ; }, }
@article {pmid16811876, year = {1975}, author = {Powell, RW and Kelly, W}, title = {A method for the objective study of tool-using behavior.}, journal = {Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior}, volume = {24}, number = {2}, pages = {249-253}, pmid = {16811876}, issn = {0022-5002}, abstract = {Key pecking for food was shaped in four crows within a conventional operant-conditioning test chamber. When pecking stabilized, a metal screen with openings 2.5 cm high by 1.0 cm wide, was placed over the response key, so that the crow could still see but could no longer peck the key. At the same time, several dozen wooden matchsticks, which could be used to operate the key, were placed in the test chamber. The crows made no use of these during 50 to 75 hr of exposure to this condition. Subsequently, the behavior of two crows was shaped so that they approached the matchsticks, picked one up in their beaks, approached the response key with the matchstick in their beak, and finally operated the response key by poking the matchstick through the screen. This shaping procedure was ineffective with the two other crows. However, these birds were successfully trained through positional fading of the tool. This involved suspending a metal rod from the ceiling so that it hung directly in front of the response key, and the crow had only to peck it to operate the key. Then, the rod was gradually lowered by lengthening its tether until it eventually rested on the floor of the test chamber. The principal advantage of this methodology is the automatic recording of the terminal (tool-using) behavior under study.}, }
@article {pmid17806587, year = {1973}, author = {Jones, TB and Kamil, AC}, title = {Tool-making and tool-using in the northern blue jay.}, journal = {Science (New York, N.Y.)}, volume = {180}, number = {4090}, pages = {1076-1078}, doi = {10.1126/science.180.4090.1076}, pmid = {17806587}, issn = {0036-8075}, abstract = {Laboratory-raised Northeirn blue jays (Cyanocitta cristata) have been observed tearing pieces from pages of newspaper and utilizing them as tools to rake in food pellets which were otherwise out of reach. The frequency of this behavior was dependenit upon the motivational state of the jay and the presence of food pellets.}, }