New cultural forms emerged, including the music of the UK band The Beatles, films by directors who were far less restricted by censorship, and the rise of hippie and other alternative lifestyles. As the era unfolded, a dynamic subculture celebrating creativity, experimentation and modern incarnations of bohemian lifestyles emerged. In addition to the trendsetting Beatles, many other creative artists, authors, and thinkers, within and across many disciplines, contributed to the counterculture movement.

Several factors distinguished the counterculture of the 1960s from the anti-authoritarian movements of previous eras. The post-World War II "baby boom"[6][7] generated an unprecedented number of potentially disaffected young people as prospective participants in a rethinking of the direction of American and other democratic societies.[8] Post-war affluence allowed many of the counterculture generation to move beyond a focus on the provision of the material necessities of life that had preoccupied their Depression-era parents.[9] The era was also notable in that a significant portion of the array of behaviors and "causes" within the larger movement were quickly assimilated within mainstream society, particularly in the US.[10][11]

In the broadest sense, 1960s counterculture grew from a confluence of people, events, issues, circumstances, and technological developments which served as intellectual and social catalysts for exceptionally rapid change during the era.

Contents

Background1

Post-war geopolitics1.1

Sociological issues and calls to action1.2

Emergent media1.3

Television1.3.1

New cinema1.3.2

New radio1.3.3

Changing lifestyles1.4

Emergent middle-class drug culture1.4.1

Law enforcement1.5

The Vietnam War1.6

In Western Europe1.7

In Australia1.8

In Latin America1.9

Movements2

Civil Rights2.1

Free Speech2.2

The New Left2.3

Anti-war2.4

Anti-nuclear2.5

Feminism2.6

Environmentalism2.7

Gay liberation2.8

Culture and lifestyles3

Hippies3.1

Marijuana, LSD, and other recreational drugs3.2

Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters3.2.1

Other psychedelics3.2.2

Sexual revolution3.3

Alternative media3.4

Alternative disc sports (Frisbee)3.5

Avant-garde art and anti-art3.6

Music3.7

Film3.8

Technology3.9

Religion, spirituality and the occult3.10

Criticism and legacy4

Key figures5

Timeline: chronology of events and milestones6

Pre-19506.1

19096.1.1

19196.1.2

19206.1.3

19386.1.4

19426.1.5

19446.1.6

19456.1.7

19466.1.8

19476.1.9

19486.1.10

19496.1.11

1950s6.2

19506.2.1

19516.2.2

19526.2.3

19536.2.4

19546.2.5

19556.2.6

19566.2.7

19576.2.8

19586.2.9

19596.2.10

1960s6.3

19606.3.1

19616.3.2

19626.3.3

19636.3.4

19646.3.5

19656.3.6

19666.3.7

19676.3.8

19686.3.9

19696.3.10

1970s6.4

19706.4.1

19716.4.2

19726.4.3

19736.4.4

19746.4.5

19756.4.6

19776.4.7

19786.4.8

19806.4.9

References7

Sources8

External links9

Background

Post-war geopolitics

The [20][21] Internal political disagreements concerning treaty obligations in Southeast Asia (SEATO), especially in Vietnam, and debate as to how other communist insurgencies should be challenged, also created a rift of dissent within the establishment.[22][23][24] In the UK, the Profumo Affair also involved establishment leaders being caught in deception, leading to disillusionment and serving as a catalyst for liberal activism.[25] The Cuban Missile Crisis, which brought the world to the brink of nuclear war in October 1962, was largely fomented by duplicitous speech and actions on the part of the Soviet Union.[26][27] The assassination of US President John F. Kennedy in November 1963, and the attendant theories concerning the event, led to further diminished trust in government, including among younger people.[28][29][30]

Sociological issues and calls to action

Many sociological issues fueled the growth of the larger counterculture movement. One was a nonviolent movement in the United States seeking to resolve constitutional civil rights illegalities, especially regarding general racial segregation, longstanding disfranchisement of blacks in the South by white-dominated state government, and ongoing racial discrimination in jobs, housing, and access to public places in both the North and the South.

The need to address minority rights of women, gays, the handicapped, and many other neglected constituencies within the larger population came to the forefront as an increasing number of primarily younger people broke free from the constraints of 1950s orthodoxy and struggled to create a more inclusive and tolerant social landscape.[36][37]

The availability of new and more effective forms of birth control was a key underpinning of the sexual revolution. The notion of "recreational sex" without the threat of unwanted pregnancy radically changed the social dynamic and permitted both women and men much greater freedom in the selection of sexual lifestyles outside the confines of traditional marriage.[38] With this change in attitude, by the 1990s the ratio of children born out of wedlock rose from 5% to 25% for Whites and from 25% to 66% for African-Americans.[39]

Emergent media

Television

For those born after World War II, the emergence of television as a source of entertainment and information - as well as the associated massive expansion of consumerism afforded by post-war affluence and encouraged by TV advertising - were key components in youthful disillusionment and the formulation of new social behaviours, even as ad agencies heavily courted the "hip" youth market.[40][41] In the US, nearly real-time TV news coverage of the civil rights era's Birmingham Campaign, the "Bloody Sunday" event of the Selma to Montgomery marches, and graphic news footage from Vietnam brought horrifying, moving images of the bloody reality of armed conflict into living rooms for the first time.

New cinema

The breakdown of enforcement of the US Hays Code[42] concerning censorship in motion picture production, the use of new forms of artistic expression in European and Asian cinema, and the advent of modern production values heralded a new era of art-house, pornographic, and mainstream film production, distribution, and exhibition. The end of censorship resulted in a complete reformation of the western film industry. With new-found artistic freedom, a generation of exceptionally talented New Wave film makers working across all genres brought realistic depictions of previously prohibited subject matter to neighborhood theater screens for the first time, even as Hollywood film studios were still considered a part of the establishment by some elements of the counterculture.

New radio

By the later 1960s, previously under-regarded FM radio replaced AM radio as the focal point for the ongoing explosion of rock and roll music, and became the nexus of youth-oriented news and advertising for the counterculture generation.[43][44]

A family watches television, c. 1958

Changing lifestyles

Communes, collectives, and intentional communities regained popularity during this era.[45] Early communities, such as the Hog Farm, Quarry Hill, and Drop City[46] in the US were established as straightforward agrarian attempts to return to the land and live free of interference from outside influences. As the era progressed, many people established and populated new communities in response to not only disillusionment with standard community forms, but also dissatisfaction with certain elements of the counterculture itself. Some of these self-sustaining communities have been credited with the birth and propagation of the international Green Movement.

The emergence of an interest in expanded spiritual consciousness, Gallup said religion was increasing in influence. By the late 1960s, polls indicated less than 20% still held that belief.[47]

The "Generation Gap", or the inevitable perceived divide in worldview between the old and young, was perhaps never greater than during the counterculture era.[48] A large measure of the generational chasm of the 1960s and early 1970s was born of rapidly evolving fashion and hairstyle trends that were readily adopted by the young, but often misunderstood and ridiculed by the old. These included the wearing of very long hair by men,[49] the wearing of natural or "Afro" hairstyles by Blacks, the donning of revealing clothing by women in public, and the mainstreaming of the psychedelic clothing and regalia of the short-lived hippie culture. Ultimately, practical and comfortable casual apparel, namely updated forms of T-shirts (often tie-dyed, or emblazoned with political or advertising statements), and Levi Strauss-branded blue denim jeans[50] became the enduring uniform of the generation. The fashion dominance of the counterculture effectively ended with the rise of the Disco and Punk Rock eras in the later 1970s, even as the global popularity of T-shirts, denim jean pants, and casual clothing in general have continued to grow.

Emergent middle-class drug culture

In the western world, the ongoing criminal legal status of the recreational drug industry was instrumental in the formation of an anti-establishment social dynamic by some of those coming of age during the counterculture era. The explosion of marijuana use during the era, in large part by students on fast-expanding college campuses,[51] created an attendant need for increasing numbers of people to conduct their personal affairs in secret in the procurement and use of banned substances. The classification of marijuana as a narcotic, and the attachment of severe criminal penalties for its use, drove the act of smoking marijuana, and experimentation with substances in general, deep underground. Many began to live largely clandestine lives because of their choice to use such drugs and substances, fearing retribution from their governments.[52][53]

Anti-war protesters

Law enforcement

The often violent confrontations between college students (and other activists) and law enforcement officials became one of the hallmarks of the era. Many younger people began to show deep distrust of police, and terms such as "fuzz" and "pig" as derogatory epithets for police reappeared, and became key words within the counterculture lexicon. The distrust of police was based not only on fear of police brutality during political protests, but also on generalized police corruption - especially police manufacture of false evidence, and outright entrapment, in drug cases. In the US, the social tension between elements of the counterculture and law enforcement reached the breaking point in many notable cases, including: the Columbia University protests of 1968 in New York City,[54][55][56] the 1968 Democratic National Convention protests in Chicago,[57][58][59] the arrest and imprisonment of John Sinclair in Ann Arbor, Michigan,[60] and the Kent State shootings at Kent State University in Kent, Ohio.[61] Police malfeasance was also an ongoing issue in the UK during the era.[62]

The Vietnam War

The Vietnam War, and the protracted national divide between supporters and opponents of the war, were arguably the most important factors contributing to the rise of the larger counterculture movement.

Jerry Rubin, University at Buffalo, March 10, 1970.

The widely accepted assertion that anti-war opinion was held only among the young is a myth,[63][64] but enormous war protests consisting of thousands of mostly younger people in every major US city effectively united millions against the war, and against the war policy that prevailed under five congresses and during two presidential administrations.

The counterculture era essentially commenced in earnest with the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy. It ended with the termination of US combat military involvement in the communist insurgencies of Southeast Asia and the end of the draft in 1973, and ultimately with the resignation of disgraced President Richard M. Nixon in August 1974.

Many key movements were born of, or were advanced within, the counterculture of the 1960s. Each movement is relevant to the larger era. The most important stand alone, irrespective of the larger counterculture.[65]

In Western Europe

The counterculture movement took hold in Western Europe, with London, Amsterdam, Paris, Rome and West Berlin rivaling San Francisco and New York as counterculture centers.

Carnaby Street, London, 1969.

The UK Underground was a movement linked to the growing subculture in the US and associated with the hippie phenomenon, generating its own magazines and newspapers, fashion, music groups, and clubs. Underground figure Barry Miles said, "The underground was a catch-all sobriquet for a community of like-minded anti-establishment, anti-war, pro-rock'n'roll individuals, most of whom had a common interest in recreational drugs. They saw peace, exploring a widened area of consciousness, love and sexual experimentation as more worthy of their attention than entering the rat race. The straight, consumerist lifestyle was not to their liking, but they did not object to others living it. But at that time the middle classes still felt they had the right to impose their values on everyone else, which resulted in conflict."[66]

In the Netherlands, Provo was a counterculture movement that focused on "provoking violent responses from authorities using non-violent bait."[67]

In France, the General Strike centered in Paris in May 1968 united French students, and nearly toppled the government.[68]

Kommune 1 or K1 was a commune in West Germany, and was known for its bizarre staged events that fluctuated between satire and provocation. These events served as inspiration for the "Sponti" movement and other leftist groups. In the late summer of 1968, the commune moved into a deserted factory on Stephanstraße in order to reorient. This second phase of Kommune 1 was characterized by sex, music and drugs. Soon, the commune was receiving visitors from all over the world, including Jimi Hendrix.[69][70]

In Australia

Oz Magazine was first published as a satirical humour magazine between 1963 and 1969 in Sydney, Australia, and, in its second and better known incarnation, became a "psychedelic hippy" magazine from 1967 to 1973 in London. Strongly identified as part of the underground press, it was the subject of two celebrated obscenity trials, one in Australia in 1964 and the other in the United Kingdom in 1971.[71][72]

In Latin America

In Mexico, rock music was tied into the youth revolt of the 1960s. Mexico City, as well as northern cities such as Toluca, a town neighboring Mexico City, and became known as "The Mexican Woodstock". Nudity, drug use, and the presence of the US flag scandalized conservative Mexican society to such an extent that the government clamped down on rock and roll performances for the rest of the decade. The festival, marketed as proof of Mexico's modernization, was never expected to attract the masses it did, and the government had to evacuate stranded attendees en masse at the end. This occurred during the era of PresidentLuis Echeverría, an extremely repressive era in Mexican history. Anything that could be connected to the counterculture or student protests was prohibited from being broadcast on public airwaves, with the government fearing a repeat of the student protests of 1968. Few bands survived the prohibition; though the ones that did, like Three Souls in My Mind (now El Tri), remained popular due in part to their adoption of Spanish for their lyrics, but mostly as a result of a dedicated underground following. While Mexican rock groups were eventually able to perform publicly by the mid-1980s, the ban prohibiting tours of Mexico by foreign acts lasted until 1989.[73]

The Cordobazo was a civil uprising in the city of Córdoba, Argentina, in the end of May 1969, during the military dictatorship of General Juan Carlos Onganía, which occurred a few days after the Rosariazo, and a year after the French May '68. Contrary to previous protests, the Cordobazo did not correspond to previous struggles, headed by Marxist workers' leaders, but associated students and workers in the same struggle against the military government.[74]

Movements

US Senator Eugene McCarthy (D-MN), anti-war candidate for President in 1968.

Civil Rights

The US Civil Rights Movement, a key element of the larger counterculture movement, involved the use of applied nonviolence to assure that equal rights guaranteed under the US Constitution would apply to all citizens. Many states illegally denied many of these rights to African-Americans, and this was successfully addressed in the early and mid-1960s in several major nonviolent movements.[75][76]

Free Speech

Much of the 1960s counterculture originated on college campuses. The 1964 Free Speech Movement at the University of California, Berkeley, which had its roots in the Civil Rights Movement of the US South, was one early example. At Berkeley a group of students began to identify themselves as having interests as a class that were at odds with the interests and practices of the University and its corporate sponsors. Other rebellious young people, who were not students, also contributed to the Free Speech Movement.[77]

The New Left

The New Left is a term used in different countries to describe identity politics or alternative lifestyles, or became politically inactive.[78][79][80]

A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred in western nations during the 1960s and 1970s.[85] Anarchism was influential in the counterculture of the 1960s[86][87][88] and anarchists actively participated in the Émile Armand.

Sources

^Hirsch, E.D. (1993). The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-65597-9. p 419. "Members of a cultural protest that began in the U.S. in the 1960s and affected Europe before fading in the 1970s ... fundamentally a cultural rather than a political protest."

^Anderson, Terry H. (1995). The Movement and the Sixties. Oxford University Press.

^Roger Kimball (10 October 2013). The Long March: How the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s Changed America. Encounter Books. pp. 82–.

^Corera, Gordon (2009-08-05). "How vital were Cold War spies?". BBC (UK: BBC). The world of espionage lies at the heart of the mythology of the Cold War.

^"Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials That Shaped American Politics". 2007-06-08. Archived from the original on 2007-06-08. This is a review of the book of same name by John Ehrman, a winner of Studies in Intelligence Annual awards. At pub date, Ehrman was an officer in the CIA’s Directorate of Intelligence

^"Port Huron Statement of the Students for a Democratic Society, 1962". Coursesa.matrix.msu.edu. Retrieved 2009-07-11.

^CTBTO. "1955–62: From peace movement to missile crisis". Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization. Retrieved 2014-04-18. The international Peace Movement played an essential role throughout the Cold War in keeping the public informed on issues of disarmament and pressuring governments to negotiate arms control treaties

^Dobbs, Michael. "Cuban Missile Crisis (Times Topics)". The New York Times (New York, NY, US). Retrieved 2014-04-18. (JFK's) first reaction on hearing the news from National Security Adviser McGeorge Bundy was to accuse the Soviet leader Nikita S. Khrushchev of a double-cross

^"October 18, 2013 Public Trust in Government: 1958–2013" (Press release). Pew Charitable Trusts. www.people-press.org. 2013-10-18. Sources: Pew Research Center, National Election Studies, Gallup, ABC/Washington Post, CBS/New York Times, and CNN Polls. From 1976 to 2010 the trend line represents a three-survey moving average. For party analysis, selected datasets obtained from searches of the iPOLL Databank provided by the Roper Center for Public Opinion Research, University of Connecticut

^"International Data Base World Population Growth Rates: 1950–2050". US Department of Commerce. Retrieved 2014-04-18. The world population growth rate rose from about 1.5 percent per year from 1950 to 1951, to a peak of over 2 percent in the early 1960s due to reductions in mortality. Growth rates thereafter started to decline due to rising age at marriage as well as increasing availability and use of effective contraceptive methods. Note that changes in population growth have not always been steady. A dip in the growth rate from 1959 to 1960, for instance, was due to the Great Leap Forward in China. During that time, both natural disasters and decreased agricultural output in the wake of massive social reorganization caused China's death rate to rise sharply and its fertility rate to fall by almost half

^Muir, Patricia. "History of Pesticide Use". oregonstate.edu. Oregon State College. Retrieved 2014-07-07. Then, things began to temper the enthusiasm for pesticides. Notable among these was the publication of Rachel Carson's best selling book "Silent Spring," which was published in 1962. She (a scientist) issued grave warnings about pesticides, and predicted massive destruction of the planet's fragile ecosystems unless more was done to halt what she called the "rain of chemicals." In retrospect, this book really launched the environmental movement.

^Editors of the New York Times (1994-12-11). "In Praise of the Counterculture". nytimes.com (The New York Times Company). Retrieved 2014-05-01.

^"American Experience | The Pill". Pbs.org. Retrieved 2009-06-09.

^Musick, Kelly (1999-04). "Determinants of Planned and Unplanned Childbearing among Unmarried Women in the United States". wisconsin.edu. Center for Demography and Ecology University of Wisconsin-Madison. Retrieved 2014-05-23.

^Thomas Frank (1 December 1998). The Conquest of Cool: Business Culture, Counterculture, and the Rise of Hip Consumerism. University of Chicago Press. pp. 132–.

^Mondello, Bob (2008-08-08). "Remembering Hollywood's Hays Code, 40 Years On". npr.org. Retrieved 2014-04-18. ... It took just two years...for Midnight Cowboy to be re-rated from X to R, without a single frame being altered. Community standards had changed — as they invariably do

^"The Quality that Made Radio Popular". US FCC. Retrieved 2014-04-18. It was not until the 1960's...that the quality advantage of FM combined with stereo was enjoyed by most Americans

^"Flower Power". ushistory.org. ushistory.org/Independence Hall Association. 2014. Retrieved 2014-07-28. Like the utopian societies of the 1840s, over 2000 rural communes formed during these turbulent times. Completely rejecting the capitalist system, many communes rotated duties, made their own laws, and elected their own leaders. Some were philosophically based, but others were influenced by new religions. Earth-centered religions, astrological beliefs, and Eastern faiths proliferated across American campuses. Some scholars labeled this trend as the Third Great Awakening.

^"Ask Steve: Generation Gap (Video)". history.com. History Channel/A&E. Retrieved 2014-05-01. Explore the existence of the generation gap that took place in the 1960's through this Ask Steve video. Steve Gillon explains there was even a larger gap between the Baby Boomers themselves than the Baby Boomers and the Greatest Generation. The massive Baby Boomers Generation was born between 1946 and 1964, consisting of nearly 78 million people. The Baby Boomers were coming of age in the 1960's, and held different cultural values than the Greatest Generation. The Greatest Generation lived in a time of self-denial, while the Baby Boomers were always seeking immediate gratification. However, the Baby Boomers were more divided amongst themselves. Not all of them were considered hippies and protesters. In fact, people under the age of 28 supported the Vietnam War in greater numbers than their parents. These divisions continue to play out today.

^Edward Macan (11 November 1996). Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture. Oxford University Press. pp. 127–.

^Freedman, Mervin B.; Powelson, Harvey (1966-01-31). "Drugs on Campus: Turned On & Tuned Out". The Nation (New York: Nation Co. LP). pp. 125–127. Within the last five years the ingestion of various drugs has become widespread on the American campus.

^"A Social History of America's Most Popular Drugs". PBS.org [Frontline]. Retrieved 2014-04-23. from 1951 to 1956 stricter sentencing laws set mandatory minimum sentences for drug-related offenses. In the 1950s the beatniks appropriated the use of marijuana from the black hepsters and the drug moved into middle-class white America in the 1960s.

^"Decades of Drug Use: Data From the '60s and '70s". Gallup.com. Retrieved 2013-08-31.

^Steinfels, Peter (2008-05-11). "Paris, May 1968: The revolution that never was (Analysis)". nytimes.com. The New York Times Co. Retrieved 2014-07-01. Regrettably or not, the fire of 1968 has died down. The memory has not.

^Keith Richards: The Biography, by Victor Bockris

^Joseph H. Berke (1969). Counter culture. Owen.

^Brennan, AnnMarie (2013-07). Brown, Alexandra; Leach, Andrew, eds. "Strategies of a Counter-Culture Oz Magazine and the Techniques of the Joke". Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand held on the Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia (Gold Coast) 2: 595-.

^"During the 1960s, Marcuse achieved world renown as "the guru of the New Left," publishing many articles and giving lectures and advice to student radicals all over the world. He travelled widely and his work was often discussed in the mass media, becoming one of the few American intellectuals to gain such attention. Never surrendering his revolutionary vision and commitments, Marcuse continued to his death to defend the Marxian theory and libertarian socialism." Douglas Kellner "Marcuse, Herbert"

^The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy. Inclusivedemocracy.org. Retrieved on 2011-12-28.

^Thomas 1985, p. 4

^John Patten (1968-10-28). These groups had their roots in the anarchist resurgence of the nineteen sixties. Young militants finding their way to anarchism, often from the anti-bomb and anti-Vietnam war movements, linked up with an earlier generation of activists, largely outside the ossified structures of 'official' anarchism. Anarchist tactics embraced demonstrations, direct action such as industrial militancy and squatting, protest bombings like those of the First of May Group and Angry Brigade – and a spree of publishing activity.""Islands of Anarchy: Simian, Cienfuegos, Refract and their support network" by John Patten""". Katesharpleylibrary.net. Retrieved 2013-10-11.

^"Farrell provides a detailed history of the Catholic Workers and their founders Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin. He explains that their pacifism, anarchism, and commitment to the downtrodden were one of the important models and inspirations for the 60s. As Farrell puts it, "Catholic Workers identified the issues of the sixties before the Sixties began, and they offered models of protest long before the protest decade.""The Spirit of the Sixties: The Making of Postwar Radicalism" by James J. Farrell

^"While not always formally recognized, much of the protest of the sixties was anarchist. Within the nascent women's movement, anarchist principles became so widespread that a political science profes- sor denounced what she saw as "Murray Bookchin's anarchist writings." Encyclopedia of Homosexuality"Anarchism" by Charley Shively in . pg. 52

^"Within the movements of the sixties there was much more receptivity to anarchism-in-fact than had existed in the movements of the thirties ... But the movements of the sixties were driven by concerns that were more compatible with an expressive style of politics, with hostility to authority in general and state power in particular ... By the late sixties, political protest was intertwined with cultural radicalism based on a critique of all authority and all hierarchies of power. Anarchism circulated within the movement along with other radical ideologies. The influence of anarchism was strongest among radical feminists, in the commune movement, and probably in the Weather Underground and elsewhere in the violent fringe of the anti-war movement." "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein

^"World Flying Disc Federation". History of the Flying Disc. Retrieved October 20, 2014.

^Hinderer, Eve. Ben Morea: art and anarchism

^Stewart Home. "The Assault on Culture: Utopian currents from Lettrisme to Class War". Introduction to the Lithuanian edition. (Ist edition Aporia Press and Unpopular Books, London 1988.) ISBN 978-0-948518-88-1. "In the sixties Black Mask disrupted reified cultural events in New York by making up flyers giving the dates, times and location of art events and giving these out to the homeless with the lure of the free drink that was on offer to the bourgeoisie rather than the lumpen proletariat; I reused the ruse just as effectively in London in the 1990s to disrupt literary events."

^"NAACP: 100 Years of History". naacp.org. NAACP. Retrieved 2014-09-21. Founded Feb. 12. 1909, the NAACP is the nation's oldest, largest and most widely recognized grassroots-based civil rights organization. Its more than half-million members and supporters throughout the United States and the world are the premier advocates for civil rights in their communities, campaigning for equal opportunity and conducting voter mobilization.

^"A Brief History of Methamphetamine - Methamphetamine Prevention in Vermont". healthvermont.gov. Vermont Department of Health. Retrieved 2014-09-21. 1960s: Doctors in San Francisco drug clinics prescribe injections of methamphetamine to treat heroin addiction. Illegal abuse occurs in subcultures such as outlaw biker gangs and students, which cook and use the drug.

^"The History of CORE". core-online.org. Congress of Racial Equality. Retrieved 2014-09-21. The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) was founded in 1942 as the Committee of Racial Equality by an interracial group of students in Chicago-Bernice Fisher, James R. Robinson, James L. Farmer, Jr., Joe Guinn, George Houser, and Homer Jack.. Many of these students were members of the Chicago branch of the Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR), a pacifist organization seeking to change racist attitudes. The founders of CORE were deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi's teachings of nonviolent resistance.

^Ceplair, Larry; Englund, Steven (1979). The Inquisiton in Hollywood: Politics in the Film Community 1930-1960. Berkeley, CA, etal: University of California Press.

^"The Kinsey Institute: Chronology of Events and Landmark Publications". kinseyinstitute.org. The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction, Inc. Retrieved 2014-06-10.

^Committee on Armed Services, U.S. House of Representatives (1947-07-26). National Security Act of 1947 (1973-10 ed.). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Public lAw 253, 80th Congress, July 26, 1947 (61 Stat. 495)

^Hirsch, Jerry (2014-01-31). "First Volkswagen Beetle arrived in a U.S. showroom 65 years ago". latimes.com. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2014-07-31. They were so adaptable, you could turn them into a dune buggy, you could hop it up, you could paint it wildly," he said. "It was the car of the hippie movement and of the counterculture - Leslie Kendall, curator of the Petersen Automotive Museum

^"Brief history of the Korean War". bbc.com. The BBC. 2010-05-26. Retrieved 2014-09-21. When a ceasefire was eventually signed, on 27 July 1953, no-one could have guessed that 50 years later, the two Koreas would remain technically at war. A peace treaty has never been signed, and the border continues to bristle with mines, artillery and hundreds of troops.

^"U.S. Military Casualties - Korean War Casualty Summary". www.dmdc.osd.mil. US Department of Defense. Retrieved 2014-09-21. TOTAL IN-THEATER DEATHS: 36,574 (updated as of 2014-09-19).

^Rothstein, Edward (2009-04-13). "MAD Magazine". topics.nytimes.com. The New York Times. Retrieved 2014-07-07. Adapted from Is It Still a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World?" by Edward Rothstein, The Times, Sept. 18, 1999, and other Times articles

^Larry E. Sullivan (31 August 2009). The SAGE Glossary of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. SAGE Publications. pp. 156–.

^Burns, Thomas. "The Origins of the National Security Agency -1940-1952 (U)". nsa.gov. US National Security Agency. Retrieved 2014-06-23.

^"Venona". nsa.gov. US National Security Agemcy. Retrieved 2014-06-23. The VENONA files are most famous for exposing Julius (code named LIBERAL) and Ethel Rosenberg and help give indisputable evidence of their involvement with the Soviet spy ring.

^Risen, James (2000-04-16). "Secrets of History: The CIA in Iran". nytimes.com. The New York Times. Retrieved 2014-09-21. NYT Editorial Note on PDF attached to web article: The C.I.A.'s history of the 1953 coup in Iran is made up of the following documents: a historian's note, a summary introduction, a lengthy narrative account written by Dr. Donald N. Wilber, and, as appendices, five planning documents he attached. On April 16, 2000, The New York Times on the Web published the introduction and several of the appendices. (from: http://www.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/iran-cia-intro.pdf)

^Douglas Brode (27 January 2009). Multiculturalism and the Mouse: Race and Sex in Disney Entertainment. University of Texas Press. pp. 132–.

^"Truth About Indochina". PBS.org.

^Moise, Edwin E. (1998). "The Vietnam Wars, Section 4: The Geneva Accords". clemson.edu. Retrieved 2014-07-07. The Geneva Accords stated that Vietnam was to become an independent nation. Elections were to be held in July 1956, under international supervision, to choose a government for Vietnam. During the two-year interval until the elections, the country would be split into two parts; the North and the South. The dividing line chosen, at the seventeenth parallel a little north of the city of Hue, was quite close to the line that had separated the two halves of Vietnam in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, but this was purely a coincidence. This line no longer corresponded to any natural division in Vietnamese society, in economy, political structure, religion, or dialect. It was an arbitrary compromise between French proposals for a line further north and Viet Minh proposals for a line further south.

^"Brown v. Board of Education". civilrights.org. The Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights/The Leadership Conference Education Fund. 2014. Retrieved 2014-10-18. On May 17, 1954, the Court unanimously ruled that "separate but equal" public schools for blacks and whites were unconstitutional. The Brown case served as a catalyst for the modern civil rights movement, inspiring education reform everywhere and forming the legal means of challenging segregation in all areas of society. After Brown, the nation made great strides toward opening the doors of education to all students. With court orders and active enforcement of federal civil rights laws, progress toward integrated schools continued through the late 1980s. Since then, many states have been resegregating and educational achievement and opportunity have been falling for minorities.

^Callard, Abby (2009-11-01). "Emmett Till's Casket Goes to the Smithsonian: Simeon Wright recalls the events surrounding his cousin's murder and the importance of having the casket on public display". http://www.smithsonianmag.com. Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2014-11-21. In 1955, Emmett Till—a 14-year-old African-American visiting Mississippi from Chicago—was murdered after whistling at a white woman. His mother insisted that her son be displayed in a glass-topped casket, so the world could see his beaten body. Till's murder became a rallying point for the civil rights movement, and his family recently donated the casket in which he was buried to the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture.

^John Hostettler (2012). Dissenters, Radicals, Heretics and Blasphemers: The Flame of Revolt that Shines Through English History. Waterside Press. pp. 239–.

^"Early defections in march to Aldermaston". theguardian.com. 1958-04-05. Retrieved 2014-07-31. The march bore the signs of careful planning. The column with its banners - "Which is to be banned, the H-bomb or the human race?" - got off on time, and the long snake that slid down Piccadilly, Kensington High Street, and Chiswick High Road, managed with only discreet help from the police, not to obstruct what little traffic there was.

^"Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle: National Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy (SANE)". stanford.edu. The Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute. Retrieved 2014-08-16. On 15 November 1957, SANE ran a full-page advertisement in the New York Times warning Americans: ‘‘We are facing a danger unlike any danger that has ever existed.’’ Inspired by the enthusiastic response to its Times advertisement, SANE redefined itself as a mass membership organization, gaining 130 chapters and 25,000 members by the following summer.

^"Fidel Castro- Fulgencio Batista (1901-1973)". pbs.org. PBS Online/WGBH/The American Experience. 2004-12-21. Retrieved 2014-07-09. He was called El Hombre, "the Man," and for three decades he was one of Cuba's most controversial leaders. It would take Fidel Castro and the Cuban revolution to unseat him.

^Kemp, Susan. "Human Rights in Cuba". http://www.du.edu/korbel/hrhw/researchdigest/latinamerica/cuba.pdf. Human Rights & Human Welfare (University of Denver). This section provides General Background inform ation on the recent human rights situation in Cuba. The subcategory of Spanish Resources includes eight books on human rights in Cuba. The Socialism subcategory includes sources discussing th e changing political environment in Cuba since the Cold War and the impact of the instability of Cuba's socialist system.

^Suddath, Claire (2009-02-03). "The Day the Music Died (A Brief History)". content.time.com. Time, Inc. Retrieved 2014-05-28.

^Kim Howard Johnson (1 April 2008). The Funniest One in the Room: The Lives and Legends of Del Close. Chicago Review Press. pp. 262–.

^Drury, Jeffrey P. (2006). "Paul Potter, "The Incredible War" (17 April 1965)". http://archive.vod.umd.edu. JP Drury via Central Michigan University. Retrieved 2014-09-22. Although the beginnings of the 1965 March on Washington can be located in a number of places, it is perhaps best to begin with the origins of the chief organization behind the march: the Students for a Democratic Society. As a social movement organization, the SDS grew out of a parent group founded in 1905 called the League for Industrial Democracy (LID). The LID embraced a largely socialist orientation toward democratic governance; the organization was initially called the Intercollegiate Socialist Society before changing its name in 1921. Many prominent political thinkers were members of the LID, including Upton Sinclair, Walter Lippmann, Michael Harrington, and John Dewey (who was president for a short time). Growing out of the larger organization, the student section of the LID--aptly titled the Student League for Industrial Democracy, or SLID--existed in early 1960 on only three campuses: Yale, Columbia, and the University of Michigan. As SDS historian Kirkpatrick Sale notes, the chapters at Columbia and Yale called themselves the "John Dewey Discussion Club," and all three existed with minimal recognition.

^Walker, Jack (1983-06). "The Origins and Maintenance of Interest Groups in America" (pdf). unc.edu. American Political Science Association. Archived from the original on 2008-07-20. Retrieved 2014-09-22. From: The American Political Science Review, Vol. 77, No. 2, (Jun., 1983), pp. 390-406

^Whicker, Alan; Jones, Wizz, et al (1960). "(Nominal) BBC Interview". youtube.com. BBC. Retrieved 2014-09-22. The original broacast air date of the report has not been verified.

^"Freedom Struggle - Sitting for Justice: Woolworth’s Lunch Counter". http://americanhistory.si.edu. A collective effort of the staff of the National Museum of American History, Behring Center via Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2014-09-22. On February 1, 1960, four African American college students sat down at a lunch counter at Woolworth’s in Greensboro, North Carolina, and politely asked for service. Their request was refused. When asked to leave, they remained in their seats. Their passive resistance and peaceful sit-down demand helped ignite a youth-led movement to challenge racial inequality throughout the South. (text and photos)

^"Investigation is Ordered in Sit-In Demonstration". http://www.greensboro-nc.gov. via wire service. 1960-03-26. Retrieved 2014-09-22. Governor Buford Ellington ordered today a full investigation into the activities of a television network camera crew...

^"SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee)". northcarolinahistory.org. North Carolina History Project via John Locke Foundation. Retrieved 2014-09-22. SNCC evolved out of that Easter weekend at Shaw University. Students in the SCLC had wished, for some time, for a student-led organization. (There were student chapters within the SCLC, but Martin Luther King, Jr. had not been pushing for an official student organization). Students wanted leadership opportunities and had different strategies than the SCLC leadership, which they believed moved toward progress at a glacial speed. At the 1960 Shaw meeting, students also expressed a fear that a strong centralized organization (even if student-led) would be a foe of democracy. Therefore, Baker and others established SNCC as a decentralized organization, with the national headquarters providing support and literature, including a newspaper, but not the strategy and leadership.

^Wise, David; Ross, Thomas (1962). The U-2 Affair (Bantam, 1962-11 ed.). New York: Random House / Bantam. Here, told for the first time, is the remarkable story behind the most explosive espionage case of the 20th century...

^Fink, Brenda (2011-09-29). "The pill and the marriage revolution". http://gender.stanford.edu. Clayman Institute / Stanford University. Retrieved 2014-11-26. The birth control pill arrived on the market in 1960. Within two years, 1.2 million American women were “on the pill.” By 1964, it was the most popular contraceptive in the country. Looking back, Americans credit—or blame—the pill with unleashing the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s. The pill is widely believed to have loosened sexual mores, including the double standard that sanctioned premarital sex for men but not for women. But, according to historian Elaine Tyler May, this idea is largely a myth. As May explained to a Stanford audience, the pill’s impact on the sexual revolution is unclear. What is clear is that the drug had a far greater impact within marriage itself. - See more at: http://gender.stanford.edu/news/2011/pill-and-marriage-revolution#sthash.irTtLo8A.dpuf

^Glines, Jr., Carroll V (1963). The Compact History of the United States Air Force (New & Revised, May, 1973 ed.). New York: Hawthorn Books. pp. 319–320.

^"The Bay of Pigs". jfklibrary.org. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. Retrieved 2014-09-22. Before his inauguration, John F. Kennedy was briefed on a plan by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) developed during the Eisenhower administration to train Cuban exiles for an invasion of their homeland. The plan anticipated that the Cuban people and elements of the Cuban military would support the invasion. The ultimate goal was the overthrow of Castro and the establishment of a non-communist government friendly to the United States.

^Cia History Office Staff; Jack B. Pfeiffer (September 2011). CIA Official History of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, Volume IV: The Taylor Committee Investigation of the Bay of Pigs. Military Bookshop.

^"The Freedom Rides: CORE Volunteers Put Their Lives on the Road". core-online.org. Congress of Racial Equality. Retrieved 2014-09-22. In 1961 CORE undertook a new tactic aimed at desegregating public transportation throughout the south. These tactics became know as the "Freedom Rides". The first Freedom Ride took place on May 4, 1961 when seven blacks and six whites left Washington, D.C., on two public buses bound for the Deep South. They intended to test the Supreme Court's ruling in Boynton v. Virginia (1960), which declared segregation in interstate bus and rail stations unconstitutional. In the first few days, the riders encountered only minor hostility, but in the second week the riders were severely beaten. Outside Anniston, Alabama, one of their buses was burned, and in Birmingham several dozen whites attacked the riders only two blocks from the sheriff's office. With the intervention of the U.S. Justice Department, most of CORE's Freedom Riders were evacuated from Birmingham, Alabama to New Orleans. John Lewis, a former seminary student who would later lead SNCC and become a US congressman, stayed in Birmingham. CORE Leaders decided that letting violence end the trip would send the wrong signal to the country. They reinforced the pair of remaining riders with volunteers, and the trip continued. The group traveled from Birmingham to Montgomery without incident, but on their arrival in Montgomery they were savagely attacked by a mob of more than 1000 whites. The extreme violence and the indifference of local police prompted a national outcry of support for the riders, putting pressure on President Kennedy to end the violence. The riders continued to Mississippi, where they endured further brutality and jail terms but generated more publicity and inspired dozens more Freedom Rides. By the end of the summer, the protests had spread to train stations and airports across the South, and in November, the Interstate Commerce Commission issued rules prohibiting segregated transportation facilities.

^"Berlin Crises". http://future.state.gov. US Department of State. Retrieved 2014-09-22. At the Vienna Summit in June 1961, Khrushchev reiterated his threat to sign a separate peace treaty with East Germany if the West did not come to terms over Berlin by the end of the year. Rather than submit to such pressure, President John F. Kennedy replied that it would be a "cold winter." When he returned to the United States, Kennedy faced instead a summer of decision. On July 25 he announced plans to meet the Soviet challenge in Berlin, including a dramatic buildup of American conventional forces and drawing the line on interference with Allied access to West Berlin. This warning, in fact, contained the basis for resolving the crisis. On August 13 the East German Government, supported by Khrushchev, finally closed the border between East and West Berlin by erecting what eventually became the most concrete symbol of the Cold War: the Berlin Wall. Although the citizens of Berlin reacted to the wall with outrage, many in the West--certainly within the Kennedy administration--reacted with relief. The wall interfered with the personal lives of the people but not with the political position of the Allies in Berlin. The result was a "satisfactory" stalemate--the Soviets did not challenge the legality of Allied rights, and the Allies did not challenge the reality of Soviet power.

^Kennedy, John F. "Report on the Berlin Crisis (July 25, 1961) by John F. Kennedy". millercenter.org. Miller Center / University of Virginia. Retrieved 2014-09-22. So long as the Communists insist that they are preparing to end by themselves unilaterally our rights in West Berlin and our commitments to its people, we must be prepared to defend those rights and those commitments. We will at all times be ready to talk, if talk will help. But we must also be ready to resist with force, if force is used upon us. Either alone would fail. Together, they can serve the cause of freedom and peace.

^"Women Strike foir Peace". jwa.org. Jewish Women's Archive. Retrieved 2014-09-22. On November 1, 1961, Women Strike For Peace (WSP) was inaugurated with a day-long strike by an estimated 50,000 women in 60 cities, all pressing for nuclear disarmament. The organization was composed primarily of mothers who feared the effects of nuclear proliferation on the short- and long-term health of their children. They were particularly concerned with levels of irradiation in milk and the increase in nuclear testing. WSP had the slogan “End the Arms Race – Not the Human Race,” as well as “Pure Milk, Not Poison.” Bella Abzug joined the group in its early organizational stages as an active participant in the New York contingent and as creator and chairperson of WSP’s legislative committee. By pushing the organization to incorporate legislative lobbying into its efforts, she helped it to become an effective political force. By 1964, the emphasis of Women Strike for Peace had shifted to focus as much on the Vietnam War as on disarmament, protesting against the draft and the war’s effects on Vietnamese children. Abzug remained active in WSP until she was elected to Congress in 1970.

^Marder, Dorothy. "Photographs of Dorothy Marder - Women Strike for Peace, 1961-1975". swarthmore.edu. Elizabeth Matlock and Wendy Chmielewski via Swarthmore College (Swarthmore College Peace Collection). Retrieved 2014-09-22. Women Strike for Peace (WSP) was formed in 1961 after over 50,000 women across the country marched for peace and against above ground testing of nuclear weapons. By the mid 1960s the focus of the organization shifted to working against the Vietnam war. Dorothy Marder took photographs at many WSP demonstrations on the East Coast and her images appeared in WSP publications. Her photographs show the women behind WSP who wanted to protect their families from nuclear testing and a male-dominated militarism. Leaders of the organization include Dagmar Wilson, Bella Abzug, Amy Swerdlow, Cora Weiss, and many more are featured in Dorothy Marder's photography.

^"Inspector General's Survey of the Cuban Operation and Associated Documents". http://www2.gwu.edu. US Government via George Washington University. 1962-02-16. Retrieved 2014-11-26.

^"American Women: Report of The President's Commission on the Status of Women. 1963" (PDF). US Government via University of Michigan via Hathitrust.org. 1963. Retrieved 2014-11-26. Google digitized pdf from U-M library

^"The Official Web Page of the United Farm Workers of America". UFW. Retrieved 2013-08-31.

^"The Statement". http://www.lsa.umich.edu. University of Michigan Department of History. 2012. Retrieved 2014-11-21. The Port Huron Statement was the declaration of principles issued June 15, 1962, by Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), a major radical student organization in the United States during the 1960s. Having only a few hundred members across the country at the time the Statement was drafted, SDS drew tens of thousands of students into its ranks as the movement against the Vietnam War grew—before a deep factional split destroyed the organization in 1969. During SDS’s history of activism, 60,000 copies of the Statement were distributed. It has become a historical landmark of American leftwing radicalism and a widely influential discourse on the meaning of democracy in modern society.

^Lopez-Munoz, Francisco; Ucha-Udabe, Ronaldo; Alamo, Cecilio (2005-12). "The History of Barbiturates a Century after their Clinical Introduction". Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment (Dove Press via US National Institutes of Health) 1 (4): 329–343. Retrieved 2014-09-25. In relation to the frequent cases of death by overdose, given the small therapeutic margin of these substances, it should be pointed out that this was a common method in suicide attempts. It suffices to recall, in this regard, the famous case of Marilyn Monroe, on whose death certificate it clearly states “acute poisoning by overdose of barbiturates” (Figure 7). The lethal effect of these compounds was such that a mixture of barbiturates with other substances was even employed in some USA states for the execution of prisoners sentenced to death. Furthermore, there are classic reports of fatal overdose due to the “automatism phenomenon”, whereby the patient would take his or her dose, only to forget that he or she had already taken it, given the amnesic effect of the drug, and take it again, this process being repeated several times (Richards 1934). Figure 8 shows the evolution of number of deaths (accidental or suicide) by barbiturate overdose in England and Wales for the period 1905–1960. In this regard, and in the city of New York alone, in the period 1957–1963, there were 8469 cases of barbiturate overdose, with 1165 deaths (Sharpless 1970), whilst in the United Kingdom, between 1965 and 1970, there were 12 354 deaths attributed directly to barbiturates (Barraclough 1974). These data should not surprise us, since in a period of just one year (1968), 24.7 million prescriptions for barbiturates were issued in the United Kingdom (Plant 1981). In view of these data, the Advisory Council Campaign in Britain took measures restricting the prescription of these drugs. Meanwhile, the prescription of prolonged-acting sedative barbiturates was strongly opposed through citizens’ action campaigns such as CURB (Campaign on the Use and Restrictions of Barbiturates), especially active during the 1970s.

^"Top 10 Mistresses: #4, Marilyn Monroe". content.time.com. Time, Inc. Retrieved 2014-09-25. Monroe died later in 1962 of a drug overdose, but tales about her alleged fling with the President grew increasingly tall. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover tried to prove that the man on a secret FBI sex tape of Monroe was Kennedy, but he lacked definitive proof. Others claim Kennedy was involved in her death. Needless to say, the rumors are even less substantiated than the affair itself.

^"Aerial Photograph of Missiles in Cuba (1962): Instrumental in the early stages of the Cuban missile crisis, these photographs showed that the Soviet Union was amassing offensive ballistic missiles in Cuba. President John F. Kennedy warned that any attempt by the Soviet Union to place nuclear weapons in Cuba would be seen as a threat to the United States.". ourdocuments.gov. The National Archives and Records Administration, et al (US). Retrieved 2014-06-04.

^Isserman, Maurice (2009-06-19). "Essay Michael Harrington: Warrior on Poverty". nytimes.com. The New York Times. Retrieved 2014-07-13. Among the book’s readers, reputedly, was John F. Kennedy, who in the fall of 1963 began thinking about proposing anti­poverty legislation. After Kennedy’s assassination, Lyndon Johnson took up the issue, calling in his 1964 State of the Union address for an “unconditional war on poverty.” Sargent Shriver headed the task force charged with drawing up the legislation, and invited Harrington to Washington as a consultant.

^Lehmann-Haupt, Christopher (2001-11-11). "Ken Kesey, Author of 'Cuckoo's Nest,' Who Defined the Psychedelic Era, Dies at 66". nytimes.com. The New York Times. Retrieved 2014-07-07. Ken Kesey, the Pied Piper of the psychedelic era, who was best known as the author of the novel One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, died yesterday in a hospital in Eugene, Ore., said his wife, Faye. He was 66 and lived in Pleasant Hill, Ore.

^ abCochrane, Kira (2013-05-06). "1963: the beginning of the feminist movement - Fifty years on, we look back at the year that signalled the beginning of the modern era". theguardian.com. Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 2014-06-03.

^Jesse Walker (1 June 2004). Rebels on the Air: An Alternative History of Radio in America. NYU Press. pp. 91–.

^Hinckley, David (2012-09-20). "Documentary 'Radio Unnameable' captures the wee-hour WBAI broadcasts of Bob Fass". nydailynews.com. The New York Daily News. Retrieved 2014-07-24. Legendary jock entertained and informed New Yorkers in the '60s and '70s by bringing on guests like Bob Dylan and Abbie Hoffman.

^Cosgrove, Ben; Loengard, John. "Behind the Picture: Medgar Evers’ Funeral, June 1963 (Story and Photos)". life.time.com. Time, Inc. Retrieved 2014-06-25. In its June 28, 1963, issue, LIFE confronted the assassination with a combination of scorn (for the Klan and for white supremacists in general), anger (at the waste of such a life as Evers’) and an occasionally sardonic venom.

^"Test Ban Treaty (1963):On August 5, 1963, the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union. After Senate approval, the treaty that went into effect on October 10, 1963, banned nuclear weapons testing in the atmosphere, in outer space, and under water.". ourdocuments.gov. The National Archives and Records Administration, et al (US). Retrieved 2014-06-04.

^"The Who and the New Generation". historyengine.richmond.edu. University of Richmond (Digital Scholarship Lab). Retrieved 2014-07-26. “Things they do look awful c-cold,” Daltry continued stuttering, “Hope I die before I get old.” Daltry then screamed, drilling the purpose of the song into everyone’s heads, “This is my generation!” And this truly was the youths’ generation. All the years of old men from bygone eras had to pave way to Roger Daltry’s generation, for the young men and women of the Western world were finally speaking up and letting their voices be heard. “It’s my generation, baby,” Daltry repeated his mantra.

^""The Mamas and the Papas, 'California Dreamin. rollingstone.com. Rolling Stone Magazine. Retrieved 2014-07-11. #89 of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time

^Gray, Madison (2011-08-11). "The Autobiography of Malcolm X"All-TIME 100 Nonfiction Books: #13, . entertainment.time.com. Time, Inc. Retrieved 2014-09-21. Malcolm X predicted that he would not live to see its publication, a prophecy fulfilled as friction between himself and the Nation of Islam, and a subsequent falling-out culminated in his 1965 assassination. But the pages chronicling the years leading up to it reveal the world of a man who had gone from being a hustler to being one of history’s most controversial civil rights icons.

^Manning, Marable; Goodman, Amy (2007-05-21). "Manning Marable on "Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention" (transcribed from radio program)". democracynow.org. Retrieved 2014-09-21. But what we do know that is true is that when Malcolm is assassinated on February 21, 1965, within two-and-a-half weeks the original publisher, Doubleday, exes the deal on the book. And in early March '65, they cancel the contract. That's why the book is published at the end of the year by Grove, not Doubleday. It was the most disastrous decision in corporate publishing history. They lost millions of dollars on this.

^Caswell, Tasha (2014-09-14). Free Bobby, Free Ericka": The New Haven Black Panther Trials""". wnpr.org. WNPR / Connecticut Public Broacasting. Retrieved 2014-10-06. The Black Panther Party, formed in 1966 in Oakland, California by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale, was a revolutionary socialist organization that strove to end the oppression of black people in the United States. It adopted a ten-point plan that called for autonomy, employment, free healthcare, decent housing, financial reparations for slavery, the end of police brutality against black people, the release of black prisoners from jails, fair trials, and black nationalism. In practice, the Panthers focused much of their attention on policing the police, often resorting to violence. The FBI had taken notice. J. Edgar Hoover said in 1968 that the Black Panther Party was “the greatest threat to the internal security of the country." By 1969, the Black Panther Party was well known nationally and had spread across the country.

^United States. Congress. House. Committee on Internal Security (1970). The Black Panther Party, its origin and development as reflected in its official weekly newspaper, the Black panther: black community news service; staff study, Ninety-first Congress, second session. U.S. Govt. Print. Off.

^Rasmussen, Cecilia (2007-08-05). "'"Closing of club ignited the `Sunset Strip riots. latimes.com. The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2014-10-06. Young rock fans take to the streets after the shuttering of Pandora's Box in 1966. The unrest inspired Stephen Stills' landmark anthem.

^John Einarson (1 January 2004). For What It's Worth: The Story of Buffalo Springfield. Cooper Square Press. pp. 125–.

^"Film Censorship: Noteworthy Moments in History". aclu.org. American Civil Liberties Union. Retrieved 2014-08-11. Rather than cut nude scenes from Blow-Up, Michelangelo Antonioni chooses to release it without an MPAA seal.

^"The Year of the Hippie/Summer of Love". pbs.org. American Experience/PBS. Retrieved 2014-06-11.

^Scott, A.O. (2012-09-18). "Rekindling the Spirit of the ’60s, Even for Those Who Can’t Remember". nytimes.com. The New York Times. Retrieved 2014-07-26. On the night of Feb. 11, 1967, hundreds — maybe thousands — of people congregated in the international terminal of Kennedy Airport, not to embark on flights to far-flung places but rather, well, it isn’t entirely clear or relevant. The gathering was an impromptu party, a nonpolitical demonstration, a happening named, in the spirit of the times, a fly-in. Now we might be inclined to see it as a prehistoric flash mob, an example of the power of communication technology to create instantaneous, ephemeral but nonetheless meaningful communities.

^"""The MOBE: "What are we waiting for?. pbs.org. PBS / Independent Television Service (ITVS). Retrieved 2014-08-11. After the elections, the committee became the Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam, which organized major anti-war demonstrations that took place in April 1967. In New York City, 400,000 protesters marched from Central Park to the United Nations, with speakers including Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Stokely Carmichael. 75,000 gathered for a similar rally in San Francisco.

^Hlavaty, Craig (2014-04-28). "47 years ago today, Muhammad Ali refused the draft in Houston". chron.com. Houston Chronicle. Retrieved 2014-10-05. (Report with photos) Forty-seven years ago today, Muhammad Ali made headlines for refusing to be drafted into the U.S. Army on the grounds of being a conscientious objector, and it all happened here in Houston. It would set off a chain of events that wouldn't cease until a 1971 Supreme Court decision reversed his conviction.

^Barry Miles (1 March 2010). London Calling: A Countercultural History of London since 1945. Atlantic Books, Limited. pp. 142–.

^Winkler, Adam (2011-07-24). "The Secret History of Guns". theatlantic.com. The Atlantic Monthly Group. Retrieved 2014-10-10. It was May 2, 1967, and the Black Panthers’ invasion of the California statehouse launched the modern gun-rights movement.

^"Yarrowstalks Archives". library.temple.edu. Temple University. 1977. Retrieved 2014-10-14. Twelve issues of Yarrowstalks were published in Philadelphia from 1967 until 1975. Most of the activity was concentrated at the beginning of the period, in the heyday of underground press activity. The “summer of love” in 1967 saw the birth of about 100 underground publications nationwide, and Yarrowstalks was one of the first. It was the most physically appealing of the first wave in its creative use of color and artwork. In contrast to the other Philadelphia papers, Yarrowstalks leaned away from the politics. Like New York’s East Village Other and the San Francisco Oracle, Yarrowstalks was among the first underground paper to explore the graphic possibilities of cold-type offset printing. Color was splashed over pages with sketches and text. The Oracle, particularly, was responsible for making newspaper graphics an art form, and it published some of the most beautiful and trend-setting psychedelic art of the 1960s.Yarrowstalks was Philadelphia’s Oracle. It was the first of the undergrounds to publish the cartoons of Robert Crumb, an ex-Hallmark illustrator who has become the leading artist of underground “commix.” In his character, Mr. Natural, he captured the feeling of the movement. Mr. Natural graced Yarrowstalks that summer and subsequently appeared in most of the alternative publications in the country.

^Peter Hitchens (3 January 2013). The War We Never Fought: The British Establishment's Surrender to Drugs. A&C Black. pp. 107–.

^Reeves, Jay (2014-09-21). "Civil rights death investigations seem stalled". clarionledger.com. Clarion Ledger / Gannett. Retrieved 2014-10-14. An unknown number of slayings haven't gotten a look because the law doesn't cover any killings after 1969. That saddens people like Gloria Green-McCray, whose brother James Earl Green was shot to death on May 14, 1970, by police during a student demonstration at Jackson State University. The family never learned the name of the shooter, and no one was ever prosecuted. "We've never really got any closure because of the investigation not being thorough and everything just being kicked out," said Green-McCray. "It was like, 'Just another black person dead. I mean, so what?' "

^Tim Spofford (January 1988). Lynch Street: The May 1970 Slayings at Jackson State College. Kent State University Press. pp. 214–.

^Bryson, William (1967-05-22). "Texas Southern University: Born in Sin, A College Finally Makes Houston Listen". thecrimson.com. The Harvard Crimson, Inc. Retrieved 2014-10-15. Since this article was written, the situation at Texas Southern has become even worse. A policeman was killed in rioting last week, and 488 people were arrested.

^Zoch, Louis (2010-05). "Fallen Officers Remembered: Louis Kuba". hpou.org. Houston Police Officers' Union. Retrieved 2014-10-15. At 2:20 a.m., a group of officers were near the northwest corner of the University Center, lined up along a wall awaiting directions from supervisors at the scene. Chief Short, like all of the other officers, took cover wherever possible. The chief directed officers to fire only when fired upon and only above the building or directly at a known source of the gunfire. Reporters Charley Schneider of The Houston Post and Nick Gearhardt of KHOU-TV (Channel 11), were with this group of officers. Schneider said that there were two officers and a TV newsman in front of him. He said that Officer Louis Kuba was directly behind him with his hand on Schneider's shoulder. Heavy fire continued from the dorm and Schneider suddenly felt Kuba's hand become limp. Turning, he saw the officer slumping backward into Gearhardt's outstretched arms, an expressionless look on his face and blood pouring from his forehead. Schneider reported in a Post article the following day, "There was no riot at TSU. It was war." An ambulance rushed the wounded officer to Ben Taub General Hospital. He died at 8:38 a.m. from a bullet wound above his right eye. Quiet, easy-going, even-tempered, Officer Louis Raymond Kuba, only thirty-four days out of Class No. 34, was only twenty-five.

^Andrew E. Hunt (1 May 2001). The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War. NYU Press. pp. 11–12.

^"VVAW / FAQ / Who founded Vietnam Veterans Against the War?". vvaw.org. Vietnam Veterans Against the War. Retrieved 2014-10-15. On June 1, 1967, six Vietnam veterans gathered in Barry's apartment to form VVAW. Another vet associated with the early days of VVAW is Carl Rogers. Rogers held a press conference upon his return from his Vietnam service as a chaplain's assistant announcing his opposition to the war. Barry recruited him and at some point he became "vice president" of VVAW. Other early influential members who are mentioned are David Braum, John Talbot, and Art Blank. Jan Barry also lists Steve Greene and Frank (Rocky) Rocks

^Weller, Sheila (2012-07). "Suddenly That Summer". Vanity Fair / Conde Nast. Vanity Fair. Retrieved 2014-06-23. It was billed as “the Summer of Love,” a blast of glamour, ecstasy, and Utopianism that drew some 75,000 young people to the San Francisco streets in 1967. Who were the true movers behind the Haight-Ashbury happening that turned America on to a whole new age?

^"'"500 Greatest Albums of All Time: #1- The Beatles, 'Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. rollingstone.com. Rolling Stone. Retrieved 2014-10-18. At the same time, Sgt. Pepper formally ushered in an unforgettable season of hope, upheaval and achievement: the late 1960s and, in particular, 1967's Summer of Love. In its iridescent instrumentation, lyric fantasias and eye-popping packaging, Sgt. Pepper defined the opulent revolutionary optimism of psychedelia and instantly spread the gospel of love, acid, Eastern spirituality and electric guitars around the globe. No other pop record of that era, or since, has had such an immediate, titanic impact. This music documents the world's biggest rock band at the very height of its influence and ambition.

^"Photos: Pot Rally at Hyde Park, London (July 16th, 1967)". herbmuseum.ca. The Herb Museum. Retrieved 2014-10-18. "July 1967: A 'Legalise Pot' rally is held in London's Hyde Park; an advertisement in The Times, sponsored by SOMA, a drug research organisation, states: 'The law against marijuana is immoral in principle and unworkable in practice.' Signatories include the Beatles, RD Laing and Graham Greene." - from 100 Years of Altered States, The Guardian Newspaper (July 21, 2002)

^Daniels, Maria, et al (1997). "OCTOBER 6, 1967 Death of the Hippie". pbs.org. PBS / American Experience (US). Retrieved 2014-10-24. Hippies stage a mock funeral to signal the end of San Francisco's overhyped, overattended hippie scene. As Mary Ellen Kasper will later recall, the message was, "Stay where you are! Bring the revolution to where you live."

^Bourne, Richard (1967-10-10). "Che Guevara, Marxist architect of revolution". guardian.com. Guardian News and Media. Retrieved 2014-10-18. Rumours of disagreements with Castro grew. After months of mystery Castro announced that Guevara, who was known to have a garibaldian yearning to liberate the entire Latin American land mass, had resigned Cuban citizenship and left for "a new field of battle in the struggle against imperialism". [web story is reprint of original article]

^Richards, Harvey; Richards, Paul. "Stop the Draft, December, 1967 - Draft Cards Burning, Sit ins, Stop the Draft Week". http://hrmediaarchive.estuarypress.com. Harvey Richards Media Archive / Paul Richards. Retrieved 2014-10-18. Photos & Text: top the Draft Week in December, 1967 at the Oakland Army Induction Center on Clay Street in downtown Oakland, California had many of the same actions that happened in October, 1967, just two months earlier. There was civil disobedience. Protesters blocked the doorway of the Center and were arrested. This time, protesters also sat down in front of the buses full of draftees. Draft eligible protesters publicly burned their draft cards in an open show of defiance against the draft and the laws that made it illegal to burn your draft card. Noticeably different in these photos is moderation of the police response. The streets were not cleared of protesters. Police did not stand with billy clubs at the ready. In the end, the draftees went into the center and the war machine continued.

^"1967: Joan Baez arrested in Vietnam protest". http://news.bbc.co.uk. BBC. Retrieved 2014-1018. Rallies across America have taken place in 30 US cities, from Boston to Atlanta, to protest against the continuing war in Vietnam. In Oakland, California, at least 40 anti-war protesters, including the folk singer Joan Baez, were arrested for taking part in a sit-in at a military induction centre. As many as 250 demonstrators had gathered to try and prevent conscripts from entering the building when the arrests were made. The 'Stop the Draft Week' protests are forming part of a nationwide initiative organised by a group calling itself 'the Resistance'. Accompanied by singing from Ms Baez and others, the sitting protesters forced draftees to climb over them in order to get inside the building. As they entered they were handed leaflets asking them to change their minds, refuse induction and join the protests. Human barricade Police formed a human barricade to enable inductees to pass and then made their arrests. In New York, around 500 demonstrators marched to protest against the draft. Young men placed draft cards into boxes marked 'Resisters'. 181 draft cards and several hundred protest cards were presented to a US Marshal but he refused to accept them. The group then marched to a post office and posted them directly to the Attorney General in Washington. The anti-war movement took on an added gravity yesterday when Florence Beaumont, mother of two, burned herself to death. After soaking herself in petrol she set herself alight in front of the Federal Building, Los Angeles. Counter-demonstrations have been planned by the National Committee for Responsible Patriotism, based in New York. Parades have been scheduled for the weekend in support of "our boys in Vietnam".

^Sharin N. Elkholy (22 March 2012). The Philosophy of the Beats. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 239–.

^Leen, Jeff (1999-09-27). "The Vietnam Protests: When Worlds Collided". washingtonpost.com. The Washington Post. Retrieved 2014-08-11. The Pentagon march was the culmination of five days of nationwide anti-draft protests organized by the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam -- "the Mobe." But a singular spark was provided by the Youth International Party (Yippies), a fringe group whose leaders, Abbie Hoffman and Jerry Rubin, had announced that they planned an "exorcism" of the Pentagon. They would encircle the building, chant incantations, "levitate" the structure and drive out the evil war spirits.

^Ron Chepesiuk (1 January 1995). Sixties Radicals, Then and Now: Candid Conversations with Those Who Shaped the Era. McFarland. pp. 303–.

^"Huey P. Newton Biography: Civil Rights Activist (1942–1989)". biography.com. A&E Television Networks, LLC. Retrieved 2014-08-11. Newton himself was arrested in 1967 for allegedly killing an Oakland police officer during a traffic stop. He was later convicted of voluntary manslaughter and sentenced to two to 15 years in prison. But public pressure—"Free Huey" became a popular slogan of the day—helped Newton's cause. The case was eventually dismissed after two retrials ended with hung juries.

^Wetzteon, Ross; Ortega, Tony (1967-11-16). "Not Everyone Loves You For Giving Things Away". villagevoice.com. The Village Voice. Retrieved 2014-08-15. Hippies' Free Store Not So Popular With Thugs (headline from Ortega's excerpt of original article, published by Village Voice 2010-03-24)

^"Blue Cheer Biography". rollingstone.com. Rolling Stone Magazine. 2001. Retrieved 2014-07-09. Blue Cheer appeared in spring 1968 with a thunderously loud remake of Eddie Cochran's "Summertime Blues" that many regard as the first true heavy-metal record. One of the first hard-rock power trios, the group was named for an especially high-quality strain of LSD. Its manager, Gut, was an ex-Hell's Angel. (This biography originally appeared in The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll (Simon & Schuster, 2001))

^Bass, Jack (2003). "Documenting the Orangeburg Massacre". http://www.nieman.harvard.edu. Nieman Foundation for Journalism at Harvard / Harvard University. Retrieved 2014-07-09. Campus killings of black students received little news coverage in 1968, but a book about them keeps their memory alive.

^Moyers, Bill (2008-03-28). "The Kerner Commission — 40 Years Later". pbs.org. Bill Moyers Journal / Public Affairs Television. Retrieved 2014-07-10. ...the Kerner Report, with its stark conclusion that "Our nation is moving towards two societies — one white, one black — separate and unequal" — was a best-seller. It was also the source of great controversy and remains so today.

^Thernstrom, Stephan; Siegel, Fred; Woodson, Robert (1998-06-24). "The Kerner Commission Report". heritage.org. Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 2014-07-10. This lecture was held at The Heritage Foundation on March 13, 1998.

^"3 Honored for Saving Lives at My Lai". nytimes.com. The New York Times. 1998-03-07. Retrieved 2014-07-10. Thirty years after one of the darkest moments in United States military history, three soldiers who happened upon the My Lai massacre and risked their lives to save Vietnamese civilians by aiming their weapons at fellow Americans were proclaimed heroes today by the Army.

^"Report of the Department of the Army Review of the Preliminary Investigations into the My Lai Incident: Vol. 1, the Report of the Investigation". loc.gov. United States Army. 1970-03-14. Retrieved 2014-07-10.

^"1968: Anti-Vietnam demo turns violent". bbc.co.uk. BBC (UK). 2008. Retrieved 2014-07-10. The trouble followed a big rally in Trafalgar square, when an estimated 10,000 demonstrated against American action in Vietnam and British support for the United States.

^Kennedy, Robert Francis (1968-03-18). "Robert F. Kennedy Speeches: Remarks at the University of Kansas, March 18, 1968". jfklibrary.org. John F. Kennedy Library & Museum. Retrieved 2014-07-10. I don't want to be part of a government, I don't want to be part of the United States, I don't want to be part of the American people, and have them write of us as they wrote of Rome: "They made a desert and they called it peace."

^Johnson, Lyndon Baines (1968-03-31). "Presidential Johnson's Address to the Nation, 3/31/68". lbjlibrary.net. The Lyndon Baines Johnson Presidential Library (video via Youtube). Retrieved 2014-07-10. I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your president.

^Campbell, Howard (2012-09-12). "Larry Marshall makes sweet Nanny Goat". Jamaica Observer. Retrieved 2014-07-11. The song he recorded at Dodd's Studio One was Nanny Goat which some musicologists and reggae historians say is the first reggae song. Others argue that Toots and the Maytals' Do The Reggay, also done in 1968, and Games People Play by Bob Andy the following year, marked the transition from rocksteady to reggae. But for most, Nanny Goat was the game-changer.

^Pear, Robert (1981-07-12). "Plan to Merge FBI and Drug Agency Pressed (Special to the NY Times)". nytimes.com. The New York Times. Retrieved 2014-07-11. The Bureau of Narcotics, a Treasury Department agency established in 1930, was combined in 1968 with the Bureau of Drug Abuse Control, a unit of the Food and Drug Administration, to form the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs, within the Justice Department. Then, with the transfer of more than 500 narcotics investigators from the Treasury's old Bureau of Customs, the Drug Enforcement Administration was created in 1973.

^Flock, Elizabeth (2012-04-12). "Martin Luther King assassination in 1968 a ‘cruel and wanton act’". washingtonpost.com. The Washington Post. Retrieved 2014-07-09. After King’s death, riots spread through Memphis. Some 4,000 National Guard troops were ordered into the city, and a curfew was imposed on the city...The riots soon spread across the nation— to Chicago, Baltimore, Kansas City and Washington, D.C.

^"Interview: Eldridge Cleaver". PBS / Frontline (US). Retrieved 2014-07-10. Bobby Hutton didn't get wounded during the shootout, but they murdered him after we were in custody.

^"Rioting in Louisville, KY (1968)". http://nkaa.uky.edu. University of Kentucky. 2003–2014. Retrieved 2014-07-11. The skirmish escalated, growing into a full-fledged riot in the West End, lasting for almost a week. Six units of the national guard, over 2,000 guardsmen, were ordered to Louisville. Looting and shooting occurred, buildings were burned, two teens were killed, and 472 people were arrested

^ abRobert Niemi (1 January 2006). History in the Media: Film and Television. ABC-CLIO. pp. 305–.

^Burley, Leo (2008-03-09). "Jagger vs Lennon: London's riots of 1968 provided the backdrop to a rock'n'roll battle royale". independent.co.uk. The Independent (UK). Retrieved 2014-07-11. Forty years ago, the world was on the brink of revolution. But while Mick was urging insurrection on the streets of London, John was preaching peace and love. In a series of incendiary, rediscovered interviews, Jagger and Lennon reveal themselves as never before or since: battling one another for the soul of rock'n'roll

^"Cold War Chronicles: The Films of Emile de Antonio". harvard.edu. Harvard Film Archive. Retrieved 2014-05-05.

^Springer, Denize (2008-09-22). "Campus commemorates 1968 student-led strike". sfsu.edu. SF State News (University Communications). Retrieved 2014-07-11. The five-month event defined the University's core values of equity and social justice, laid the groundwork for establishment of the College of Ethnic Studies...

^Schevitz, Tanya (2008-10-26). "S.F. State to mark 40th anniversary of strike". sfgate.com. San Francisco Chronicle/Hearst. Retrieved 2014-07-11. Pioneer in ethnic studies: Early in 1969, the university agreed to many of the student demands, including the establishment of the nation's first and only college of ethnic studies. The strike ended March 20.

^Fawcett, Anthony (1976). "THE PEACE POLITICIAN – THE BED-INS-AMSTERDAM AND MONTREAL". imaginepeace.com. Grove Press via Imagine Peace. Retrieved 2014-07-16. From the (Anthony Fawcett) book One Day at a Time

^"This Day in History. Vietnam War:Westmoreland requests more troops". history.com. A&E Television Networks. Retrieved 2014-08-13. Gen. William Westmoreland, senior U.S. military commander in Vietnam, sends a new troop request to the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Westmoreland stated that he needed 542,588 troops for the war in Vietnam in 1967--an increase of 111,588 men to the number already serving there. In the end, President Johnson acceded to Westmoreland's wishes and dispatched the additional troops to South Vietnam, but the increases were done in an incremental fashion. The highest number of U.S. troops in South Vietnam was 543,500, which was reached in 1969.

^Lennon, John; Lennon, Yoko Ono (1969-05). "Bed Peace". imaginepeace.com. Bag Productions / Yoko Ono Lennon. Retrieved 2014-07-16. In 1969, John and I were so naïve to think that doing the Bed-In would help change the world. Well, it might have. But at the time, we didn’t know. It was good that we filmed it, though. The film is powerful now. What we said then could have been said now...-Yoko Ono Lennon, 2014.(Film hosted on Youtube.)

^Elizabeth L. Wollman (6 November 2006). The Theater Will Rock: A History of the Rock Musical, from Hair to Hedwig. University of Michigan Press. pp. 77–.

^"Rolling Stones to return to Hyde Park". bbc.com. BBC. 2003-04-03. Retrieved 2014-10-22. The Rolling Stones are to perform in London's Hyde Park for the first time since a legendary free concert for an estimated 250,000 people in 1969. The outdoor gig will take place on 6 July, a week after the group's first appearance at the Glastonbury festival. The rock legends famously played in the park just two days after death of guitarist Brian Jones in July 1969.

^Wilford, John Noble (1969). We Reach the Moon. New York: New York Times / Bantam. p. XV.

^"Charles Manson Biography: Charles Manson is an American cult leader whose followers carried out several notorious murders in the late 1960s and inspired the book Helter Skelter.". biography.com. A&E Television Networks, LLC. 2014. Retrieved 2014-06-05.

^Woods, William Crawford (2013-08-08). """From the Stacks (January 4, 1975): "Demon in the Counterculture. newrepublic.com. The New Republic. Retrieved 2014-06-05.

^DeCurtis, Anthony (2009-08-01). "Peace, Love and Charlie Manson: The Anti-Woodstock?". nytimes.com. The New York Times Co. Retrieved 2014-06-05.

^Savio, Jessica (2011-04-01). "Browsing history: A heritage site is being set up in Boelter Hall 3420, the room the first Internet message originated in". dailybruin.com. The Daily Bruin. Retrieved 2014-05-01.

^Skarda, Erin (2011-06-28). "Moratorium Against the Vietnam War, Nov. 15, 1969". http://content.time.com. Time, Inc. Retrieved 2014-07-16. In the frigid fall of 1969, more than 500,000 people marched on Washington to protest U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. It remains the largest political rally in the nation's history.

^"Midnight Cowboy". tcm.com. Turner Classic Movies. Retrieved 2014-07-27. 1969 was an interesting turning point in American cinema and no film better reflects that than Midnight Cowboy. Not only was it the first X-rated film to win the Best Picture Oscar but it presented a view of New York City that was the most bleak and depressing portrait since Ray Milland hit every seedy Manhattan bar in The Lost Weekend (1945).

^Getlen, Larry (2014-08-31). "How Dock Ellis Dropped Acid and Threw a Ho-Hitter". nypost.com. The New York Post. Retrieved 2014-09-04. Later in life, Ellis, who ultimately got straight and became a drug counselor, expressed shame about what he had done. While the LSD no-hitter kept him in the public eye, he came to see it not as a point of pride, but as a sign that his drug use might have robbed him of his greatest professional memory.

^Witz, Billy (2010-09-04). "For Ellis, a Long, Strange Trip to a No-Hitter". nytimes.com. The New York Times. Retrieved 2014-09-21. But it was Ellis’s claim, after he retired, that he threw his no-hitter while under the influence of LSD that cemented his standing as an icon of the sport’s counterculture era, making him an intriguing figure to artists, musicians, filmmakers and journalists — even after his death.

^Michael Howard Holzman (2008). James Jesus Angleton, the CIA, and the Craft of Counterintelligence. Univ of Massachusetts Press. pp. 273–.

^Ray Broadus Browne; Pat Browne (2001). The Guide to United States Popular Culture. Popular Press. pp. 744–.

^Silver, Michael (2003-11-19). "Where Were You on March 8, 1971?". espn.go.com. ESPN Classic. Retrieved 2014-06-27. The country was split between those supporting our efforts in Vietnam and those opposed to the war. Hawks, doves, hard hats, flower children, black power, Woodstock, Kent State and the silent majority were bywords for the most divisive American decade since the American Civil War some 100 years earlier.

^Fitzpatrick, Frank (2014-04-14). "When politics enter the playing field". philly.com. The Philadelphia Inquirer. Retrieved 2014-06-27. People forget the intensity of opposing passions in 1971. No one was neutral. Friends and families were bitterly divided. If you supported the Vietnam War, you supported Frazier. And if you opposed it, you were in the corner of Ali, who had forfeited his title for refusing military induction in 1967.

^Cosgrove, Ben; Shearer, John. "Ali, Frazier and the ‘Fight of the Century’: A Photographer Remembers Read more: Ali-Frazier: Rare and Classic Photos From the ‘Fight of the Century’ (w/Text)". life.time.com. Time, Inc. Retrieved 2014-06-27. Long before the first bell of their March 1971 fight sounded, the contest was billed as “The Fight of the Century” and, amazingly, it lived up to the hype. That night, a star-studded crowd watched two of the greatest fighters who ever lived battle for supremacy in the world’s premier sports arena. Read more: Ali-Frazier: Rare and Classic Photos From the ‘Fight of the Century’

^Sheehan, Neil; Smith, Hedrick; Kenworthy, E.W.; Butterfield, Fox (1971). The Pentagon Papers. New York: New York Times/Bantam. The Secret History of the Vietnam War. The Complete and Unabridged Series as Published in the New York Times. With key documents and 64 page of photographs

^Krogh, Egil (2007-06-30). "The Break-In That History Forgot". nytimes.com. The New York Times. Retrieved 2014-07-28. The premise of our action was the strongly held view within certain precincts of the White House that the president and those functioning on his behalf could carry out illegal acts with impunity if they were convinced that the nation’s security demanded it. As President Nixon himself said to David Frost during an interview six years later, “When the president does it, that means it is not illegal.” To this day the implications of this statement are staggering.

^"Est History Is Short but Successful". latimes.com (Los Angeles Times). 1986-04-27. Retrieved 2014-05-23.

^"Greece Marks '73 Student Uprising". Athens News (Athens, Greece). 1999-11-17. Archived from the original on 2007-03-13. Retrieved 2014-04-23. The Polytechnic Uprising, as it has come to be known, dealt a blow to the self-confidence of the junta leaders and led directly to the toppling of the dictator and chief putschist of the April 21, 1967, coup d'etat that brought the junta to power, Colonel George Papadopoulos.

^Wattenberg, Ben; Wattenberg, Daniel (1997-08-19). "The Social Revolutionary who Rejected his Progeny". baltimoresun.com. The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved 2014-09-04. More than any other man, Elvis Presley has been assigned ultimate paternity for the children of the '60s. He introduced the beat to everything and changed everything -- music, language, clothes; it's a whole new social revolution -- the '60s come from it, said composer Leonard Bernstein. Before Elvis, there was nothing, the decade's most representative child, John Lennon, once said. But Elvis repudiated his progeny. Religious, anti-communist, unconflicted capitalist to the end, he neither aligned himself with the Woodstock generation's politics nor joined their countercultural party.

^"John Lennon Biography". rollingstone.com. Rolling Stone. Retrieved 2014-08-11. But on December 8, 1980, Lennon, returning with Ono to their Dakota apartment on New York City's Upper West Side, was shot seven times by a 25-year-old drifter and Beatles fan to whom Lennon had given an autograph a few hours earlier. Lennon was pronounced dead on arrival at Roosevelt Hospital. On December 14, at Ono's request, a 10-minute silent vigil was held at 2 p.m. EST in which millions around the world participated.

References

1980

November 27: Gay rights acitvist and member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors from District 5 Dan White.

1978

January 21: Newly inaugurated US President Jimmy Carter unconditionally pardons thousands of Vietnam draft evaders, allowing them to re-enter the US, mostly from Canada.[600]

August 16: Elvis Presley, the most significant progenitor of the rock era and an early critic of the counterculture, dies at age 42 from complications of prescription drug abuse in Memphis, TN.[601][602]

1977

January 1: John Mitchell and three other Watergate conspirators are found guilty and sentenced to prison Feb. 21.

January 27: Church Committee: The US Senate votes to begin unprecedented investigation into US intelligence activities, including illegal spying on domestic radicals.[596]

March–April: Short-lived fad of "streaking" is at its height in the US.

April 20: Disco music, following the success of "Love Train" a year earlier, again hits number one on the Billboard charts with "TSOP", a clear sign that the post-"sixties counterculture" era is now at hand. The punk rock subculture also traces its genesis to around this time, with groups like Ramones and Television playing the CBGB club in NYC.

August 8: Facing imminent impeachment, Richard Nixon announces he will resign as President of the United States. Vice President Gerald Ford is sworn in as president on August 9 and declares "our long national nightmare is over."

March 1: The US Capitol building is bombed by war protesters; no injuries, but extensive damage results.

March 5: The FCC says that it can penalize radio stations for playing music that seems to glorify or promote illegal drug usage.

March 8: The Fight of the Century: Conscientious Objector and counterculture hero Muhammad Ali loses to default symbol of the pro-war right Joe Frazier at Madison Square Garden, NYC, in what is widely considered to be the greatest heavyweight fight in boxing history.[575][576][577]

April 23: Vietnam veterans protest against the war at the US Capitol in Washington, DC, throw their medals on the steps, and testify to US war crimes.

April 24: 500,000 protesters rally at US Capitol to petition for an end to the war; 200,000 rally against the war in San Francisco.

May 3: Over 12,000 anti-war protesters are arrested on the third day of the 1971 May Day Protests in Washington, DC.

May 10: Attorney General John N. Mitchell compares the anti-war protesters to Nazis, and on May 13, calls them Communists.

May 17: The play Godspell opens in New York, depicting Jesus and his disciples in a contemporary, countercultural milieu.

May 31: US military personnel in London petition at US Embassy against the Vietnam War.

June 13: Pentagon Papers: The New York Times publishes the first excerpt of illegally leaked secret US military documents detailing US intervention in Indochina since 1945. A Federal Court injunction on June 15 temporarily stops the releases.[578]

June 18: The Washington Post publishes excerpts from the Pentagon Papers, halted by court order the following day.

September 3: Burglars operating under the direction of White House officials break in to the office of Daniel Ellsburg's psychiatrist in a botched attempt to find files to discredit the Pentagon Papers leaker.[580]

September 9: Attica: Prisoners take control, hold hostages, and riot at Attica State Prison, NY. 39 die before prisoner demands are met and order is restored.

May 2: Students at Kent State University protesting the spread of the war into Cambodia burn the ROTC building to the ground. Ohio Governor Jim Rhodes calls in the National Guard at the request of Kent's Mayor.[556]

May 4: In what is perhaps the greatest tragedy of the stateside anti-war protest movement, poorly-trained soldiers of the Ohio National Guard are set loose into confrontation with - and open fire on - unarmed students at Kent State University leaving 4 dead and nine wounded, including Dean Kahler, who was paralyzed.[557]

May 6: Student Strike of 1970: Many colleges across the US shut down in protest of the war and Kent State events.

May 8: Hard Hat Riot: Construction workers confront anti-war demonstrators, Wall St., New York City. They march again May 11. On May 20, 100,000 construction workers and longshoremen demonstrate in favor of administration war policy at New York City Hall.

May 9: 100,000 rally against war in Washington, DC. At 4:15am, President Nixon defies Secret Service security, and leaves the White House to meet and chat with astonished protesters camping out at the Lincoln Memorial.[558][559][560]

June 11: Daniel Berrigan is arrested by the FBI for kidnapping/bombing conspiracy.

June 12: Major League Baseball pitching star Dock Ellis takes LSD and throws a no-hitter. Ellis later quits drugs, becomes a recovery counselor, and expresses deep regret over drug abuse during his entire playing career.[561][562]

June 13: President Nixon appoints the President's Commission on Campus Unrest. The report issued in September finds a direct correlation between the unrest and the level of US military involvement in Indochina.

June 15: The US Supreme Court confirms conscientious objector protection on moral grounds.

June 22: The US voting age is lowered to 18. This is soon challenged and overturned in the Supreme Court, leading to the swift adoption of the 26th Amendment on June 1, 1971 guaranteeing suffrage at 18.

July: Huston Plan: A broad, cross-agency scheme for illegal domestic surveillance of anti-war figures is concocted by a White House staffer, and accepted but then quickly quashed by President Nixon. Elements of the plan were, however, allegedly implemented in any event.[563][564][565]

August 6: Riot police evacuate Disneyland in Anaheim, CA after a few hundred Yippies stage a protest.

August 17: Communist activist Angela Davis appears on the FBI's Ten Most Wanted list after a firearm purchased in her name is linked to a murder plot involving a judge.

April 9: 300 students "sit-in" at offices of Harvard protesting the ROTC. 400 police restore order April 10. The college makes ROTC extracurricular April 19.

April 19: Armed black students take over Willard Straight Hall at Cornell. The University accedes to their demands the following day, promising an Afro-American studies program.

April 25–28: Activist students takeover Merrill House at Colgate University demanding Afro-American studies programs.

May 7: Students at Howard University occupy 8 buildings. They are cleared by US Marshals May 9.

May 8: City College of New York closes following a 14-day-long student takeover demanding minority studies; riots among students break out when CCNY tries to reopen.

May 9–11: 3000 college students flock to the "Zip to Zap" event in rural North Dakota, degenerating into a riot dispersed by the National Guard.

May 15: Bloody Thursday: Alameda County Sheriffs sent in by governor Ronald Reagan to eject flower children from People's Park in Berkeley, CA open fire with buckshot-loaded shotguns, mortally wounding student James Rector, permanently blinding carpenter Alan Blanchard, and inflicting lesser wounds on hundreds of other Berkeley residents.

June 18: SDS convenes in Chicago; they oust the Progressive Labour faction June 28, which sets up its own rival convention.

June 28: The Stonewall Riots in New York City are the first major gay-rights uprisings in the US.

July 3: Brian Jones, founder of the Rolling Stones, dies "by misadventure" in his swimming pool in East Sussex, UK, under mysterious circumstances at age 27.[539]

July 5: The Stones in the Park: Shocked by the overdose death of former bandmate Brian Jones, the grieving Rolling Stones continue with their much-anticipated free concert before a massive crowd at Hyde Park, London.[540][541]

July 14: The low-budget film Easy Rider is released and becomes a de facto cultural landmark. The film's success helps open doors for independent film makers of the 1970s.

July 15: Cover story on LOOK: "How Hippies Raise their Children."

July 18: The cover of LIFE Magazine features "hippie communes."

July 20: Apollo 11 lands. Humans walk on the moon. A tablet with the inscription "We Came in Peace for All Mankind" is left on the lunar surface.[542]

August 9–10: Helter Skelter: Actress Sharon Tate, Tate's unborn baby, and five others are viciously murdered at knifepoint by cult members acting under the direction of psychopath Charles Manson during a 2-day killing spree in California. The events shock the nation. For many, the crimes and Manson's "family" are seen as products of the counterculture.[543][544][545]

August 15–17: 3 Days of Peace & Music: An estimated total of 300,000-500,000 people gather for the watershed musical event in counterculture history.[546]

September 24: The Chicago Eight trial commences. Tom Hayden, Abbie Hoffman, Jerry Rubin, et al., face charges including conspiracy to incite riots at the 1968 DNC Convention. They become the Chicago Seven November 5 after defendant Bobby Seale is bound, gagged, and severed from the proceedings.

October 4: TV star Art Linkletter's daughter Diane, 20, jumps to her death from her 6th story apartment. Linkletter claims Timothy Leary and LSD are responsible.[548]

October 8–11: Days of Rage: Elements of the SDS and the Weather Underground faction continue radical efforts to "bring the war home" in Chicago, and exchange brutalities with Chicago Police.[549]

1969

January 22: Laugh-In: The sketch comedy "phenomenon that both reflected and mocked the era’s counterculture," and brought it into "mainstream living rooms" debuts on US TV.[471][472]

January 31: The Tet Offensive is launched by the NVA and Vietcong. Western forces are victorious on the battlefield, but not in the press.[473][474]

February 1: Following the free-form programming experimentations at KFRC-FM in San Francisco, WABX-FM in Detroit and other stations nationwide begin officially changing format. FM playlists and other content are now chosen by local DJs, not corporate executives or record companies. The Progressive Rock format takes hold.[475]

February 8: Police fire on and kill 3 protesting segregation at a South Carolina bowling alley, in what is known as the Orangeburg Massacre.[476]

March 16: My Lai Massacre in Vietnam. Apparent wanton rape and murder of innocents by US GIs creates enormous new anti-war outcry when news leaks in 1969.[483][484][485]

March 17: London police stop 10,000 anti-war marchers from storming the US Embassy. 200 are arrested.[486]

March 18: Senator Robert F. Kennedy, a long-time supporter of US policy in Vietnam, speaks out against the war for the first time, and announces his candidacy for President.[487]

March 22: 3,000 Yippies take over Grand Central Station in New York City, staging a "Yip-In" that ultimately results in an "extraordinary display of unprovoked police brutality" and 61 arrests.[488][489][490]

March 31: President Johnson addresses the US public about Vietnam on TV, and shocks the nation with his closing remark that he will not seek a second term as President.[491]

April 4: The Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. is assassinated in Memphis, TN. Drifter James Earl Ray is soon arrested for the murder. The King family later expresses complete doubt as to Ray's guilt.[498] Violence erupts in cities across the US, with thousands of Federal guardsman dispatched. Memphis, TN, Chicago, IL, Baltimore, MD, Kansas City, MO, and Washington, DC are hotspots.[499]

April 6: Oakland Shootout: Black Panther Bobby Hutton is killed and Eldridge Cleaver is wounded in a gun battle with police. Cleaver later claims that Hutton was murdered while in police custody.[500]

April 5: A Yippie plot to disrupt the upcoming August Democratic Convention in Chicago is published in Time.[501]

April 14: The Easter Sunday "Love-In" is held in Malibu Canyon, CA.[502]

April 27: Anti-war protesters march in several US cities, including 87,000 in Central Park, NYC.

June 24: Remnants of "Resurrection City", with only about 300 protesters still remaining, razed by riot police.

July 17: The Beatles' post-psychedelic, pop-art animated film Yellow Submarine is released in the UK (November 13 in the US).[514][515]

July 28–30: University of California, Berkeley campus shut down by protests.

August 21: Communist tanks roll in Czechoslovakia and crush the popular "Prague Spring" uprising.[516]

August 25–29: Democratic National Convention in Chicago. The proceedings are overshadowed by massive protests staged by thousands of demonstrators of every stripe.[58]Mayor Daley's desire to enforce order in the city results in egregious police brutality, televised on national airwaves. On the third night, police indiscriminately attack protesters and bystanders, including journalists such as Mike Wallace, Dan Rather and Hugh Hefner. The spectacle is a turning point for both supporters and critics of the larger movement.

August 26: Revolution?: Lennon's B-side to McCartney's smash Hey Jude is released. Its eschewing of violent protest is seen as a betrayal by some on the left. A version recorded earlier was released in November and suggests indecision as to Lennon's stance on violence.[517]

October 18: John Lennon and Yoko Ono are arrested for drug possession in London. Lennon is only fined for his first offence, and more serious obstruction charges against the pair are dropped, but the arrest will later serve as the pretext for the politically-motivated attempted deportation of Lennon from the US in the 1970s.[519][520]

October 31: President Johnson orders a halt to the aerial bombing of North Vietnam.[522][523]

November 5: Former Vice President Richard M. Nixon defeats sitting VP Wallace/Lemay ticket in a close race. Nixon in January becomes the 37th President of the US, ending 8 years of democrat control of the White House.[524][525]

November 6: Students demanding minority studies courses begin a strike at San Francisco State College, where demonstrations and clashes occur into March, 1969, making it the longest student strike in US history.[526][527]

November 11: Two Virgins: John Lennon & Yoko Ono's experimental album is released. Beatles' labels EMI and Capitol (US) refuse distribution, as the cover features the couple in shocking full frontal nudity. Lennon later describes the cover as a depiction of two slightly overweight ex-junkies.[528][529][530]

November 22: The Beatles' White Album is released. The band's hair is very long, and the musical content is not psychedelic.[531]

December 24: Earthrise, a photograph of the Earth, is taken from Moon orbit. "The most influential environmental photograph ever taken."[532]

1968

January: The "Human Be-In," "the joyful, face-to-face beginning of the new epoch" is held in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco. 20,000 attend.[405][406][407]

February 17: The cover of Life Magazine features Ed Sanders of The Fugs below "HAPPENINGS - The worldwide underground of the arts creates - THE OTHER CULTURE."[420][421]

February 22: MacBird! opens at the Village Gate in New York City and runs for 386 performances. The controversial play compares Lyndon Johnson to Shakespeare's Macbeth, who caused the death of his predecessor.[422]

March 26: 10,000 attend the New York City "Be-In" in Central Park.[423]

March 31: In an early and detailed report on the Haight in Life Magazine, Loudon Wainwright predicts that "the hour of the hippie...is coming."[424]

June–September: The "Summer of Love" in the Haight Ashbury district of San Francisco and recognition of the Hippie movement. Runaways inundate, TV crews visit, Gray Line sells bus tours.[442]

June 1: The Beatles' Sgt Pepper is released and widely recognised as the high-water mark of the brief psychedelic music era. It is also later rated as the greatest rock album of all time.[443][444]

June 10–11: Fantasy Fair and Magic Mountain Music Festival: The Summer of Love kicks off at Mount Tamalpais, Marin County, California. Over 30,000 see the Doors, Jefferson Airplane, Country Joe & the Fish, and many other acts perform in the first rock festival gathering of its kind.[445][446]

June 16–18: The Monterey Pop Festival in California draws 200,000 and is the first large extended festival of the rock era. Jimi Hendrix returns from the UK and makes his US "debut." David Crosby uses microphone time to brashly condemn the Warren Report.[447][448]

June 20: Muhammad Ali is found guilty of draft evasion. The US Supreme Court eventually hears Ali's legal appeal.[449]

June 25: All You Need Is Love: The BBC's live satellite broadcast of the Beatles' summer UK hit breaks records, reaching an estimated 200-400 million worldwide.[450][451]

August 27: Beatles manager Brian Epstein dies of a prescription drug overdose in London at age 32.[456]

September 30: Pirates No More: Hip Radio 1 commences broadcast over the legitimate airwaves of the BBC following the UK ban on offshore "pirate" radio transmissions.

October 6: "Guerrilla theater" group The Diggers stage a mock funeral for the "Death of Hippie" in San Francisco. The demonstration is intended to discourage more youngsters from descending upon the overcrowded, under-equipped Haight.[457]

October 8: Groovy Murders: James "Groovy" Hutchinson and Linda Fitzpatrick are murdered in New York City in a drug deal gone bad. Two drifters plead guilty.[458]

October 9: Death of Che Guevara: The Cuban ex-patriot, international revolutionary, and icon of revolt, is executed in Bolivia.[459]

October 17: Stop the Draft Week: Demonstrators mob the US Army Induction Center in Oakland, CA. Joan Baez is among those arrested. Some are charged with sedition.[460][277][461]

October 17: The rock musical Hair, featuring controversial full frontal nudity, premieres off-Broadway in New York City. The play becomes a Broadway smash in 1968.

October 19: Thousands of students clash with police at Brooklyn College in New York after two military recruiters appear on campus. Students strike the following day.

October 20–21: The "Mobe" Redux: 100,000 protest the war in Washington, DC. Jerry Rubin, Abbie Hoffman and others lead attempts at "exorcism" and levitation of the Pentagon.[462][463]

October 27: "Baltimore Four": Catholic priest Philip Berrigan and three others are jailed after pouring blood on draft files in the SSS office, protesting bloodshed in Vietnam. Berrigan is later convicted.[464]

October 28: Black Panther leader Huey Newton is stopped by Oakland police. A shootout resulting in the death of an officer leads to Newton's conviction, which is later overturned.[465][466]

November: The activity at the Diggers' Free Store is the impetus for an anti-hippie turf war with local thugs in New York City.[467]

December: US troops in Vietnam total 486,000. US war dead total 15,000.

Chemist Alexander Shulgin first ingests the MDMA (Ecstasy) he's been synthesizing in his Dow Chemical lab, and discovers mind-altering properties unknown since patent of the compound by Merck in 1912.[468]

June 4: The New York Times publishes a petition to end the Vietnam War, with 6,400 signatures including many prominent scholars and clergy.

June 13: Miranda v. Arizona: The US Supreme Court rules that the Fifth Amendment to the US Constitution provides protection against self-incrimination, requiring law enforcement officials to advise a suspect interrogated in custody of their right to remain silent and their right to obtain an attorney.[393]

June 25: Lenny Bruce performs for the last time. The show at the Fillmore in San Francisco also showcases Frank Zappa.

December 8: MGM releases the British film Blow-Up without approval of the movie ratings group MPAA, signalling the beginning of the end of enforcement of the Hays Code. In late 1968, the MPAA institutes the first voluntary system of movie ratings, intended as a guide for viewers as to a film's content and age-appropriateness.[404]

1966

February 8: Aerial bombing of North Vietnam by the US commences.

February 9–15: Thousands demonstrate against the US attacks on North Vietnam at the US Embassies in Moscow, Budapest, Jakarta, and Sofia.

June 7: Griswold v. Connecticut: The US Supreme Court rules that Constitutional privacy guarantees trump a Connecticut statute banning use of contraceptives by married couples. "Comstock-era" laws are likewise now moot in other states. In 1972, the court rules that protections apply to unmarried couples as well.[367][368][369]

September 5: The word hippie is used in print by San Francisco writer Michael Fallon, helping popularise use of the term in the media, although the tag was seen earlier in a passing remark about pot cookies in journalist Dorothy Kilgallen's June 11, 1963 column.[371][372]

September 15: I-Spy: Comedian Bill Cosby becomes the first African-American to star in a dramatic American television series. (Amanda Randolph had starred in the comedy The Laytons on the short-lived DuMont Network in the late 1940s.)[373]

December 3: The Beatles' Rubber Soul is released in the UK with a visually distorted image of the group on the cover. The single "Day Tripper" is also released. Paul McCartney later states that the song was about drugs, but the lyrics are about a female Sunday tourist.[377]

December 25: Timothy Leary is arrested for drug possession at the Mexican border.

The Autobiography of Malcolm X is published posthumously. Derived from interviews of the slain civil rights activist by writer Alex Haley, it is considered to be one of the most influential works of non-fiction of the 20th century. Doubleday's cancellation of their original contract for the bestseller is later called the biggest mistake in publishing history.[379][380]

June 14: Ken Kesey and the drug-drenched Merry Pranksters depart California in the repurposed school bus "Further" en route to the 1964 World's Fair in Queens, NY.

June 22: "I Know it When I See it": The US Supreme Court overturns the obscenity conviction of an Ohio theater operator. Although local obscenity battles continue to the present, the decision clears the way for the commercial exhibition of sexually-explicit film material in the US.[358][359][360]

August 2: War Dance: the spurious Gulf of Tonkin Incidents off the coast of Vietnam lead to the nearly unanimous passage of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution by the US Congress on August 7, giving the president unprecedented broad authority to engage in full "conventional" military escalation in Southeast Asia without a formal declaration of war.[361]

1964

Bob Fass begins the long-running, late night Radio Unnameable program on WBAI-FM in New York City, a listener-supported station that is later remembered as "the pulse of the movement" by Wavy Gravy.[345][346][347]

April: Chandler Laughlin organizes a Native American Church peyote ceremony, a precursor to The Red Dog Experience.

April–May: Birmingham Campaign: Civil Rights activists trained by James Bevel are attacked by police in Birmingham, Alabama. Similar events occur at various locations across the deep south throughout the spring and summer.

May: The first organized Vietnam War protests occur in England and Australia.

May 1: Undercover Bunny: Gloria Steinem's Playboy Club exposé appears in Show Magazine.[344]

1963

February 4: US helicopters assist the South Vietnamese army in the capture of Hung My.

February 26: Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister Valerian Zorin warns the UN that the Americans “are getting bogged down in a very disadvantageous and politically unjustified war (in Vietnam) which will entail very unpleasant consequences for them.”[329]

March 16: US Defense Secretary Robert McNamara reveals that US troops in Vietnam have engaged in ground combat.

March 19: Bob Dylan's first album Bob Dylan is released. It reaches #13 in the UK, but does not chart on the Billboard 200 in the US.

August 5: Film star Marilyn Monroe dies of a barbiturate overdose under suspicious circumstances in Los Angeles. Monroe's death is a precursor to an explosion of recreational use of highly addictive prescription drugs (and thousands of accidental pill overdose deaths) during the counterculture era, even as legitimate use of these drugs is already in decline.[332][333]

September 12: JFK speaks at Rice: "... we choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard ..."[334]

September 27: Rachel Carson's Silent Spring is published. The modern environmental movement begins.[335]

April 17: A CIA-led invasion force intent on the overthrow of Fidel Castro lands at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba. Anti-Castro Cuban expatriates and CIA mercenaries are overtaken and captured by Cuban forces. JFK, who inherited the operation planned under the previous administration, attempts to cut losses and denies US air support.[314][315]

May 4: Freedom Riders: Civil Rights activists travel on public buses and trains across the American South to personally confront and challenge segregation.[316]

June 4: JFK meets with Soviet Premier Khrushchev in Vienna, and reports no progress on issues concerning partitioned Germany. Another Berlin Crisis ensues.[317][318]

August 13: Berlin Wall: To stem the massive tide of emigration from the communist east into the free west, the construction of a wall dividing the city of Berlin begins under Soviet direction.[319]

May 1: U-2 Incident: a US spy plane searching for Soviet nuclear installations is shot down deep within the USSR. The CIA pilot is captured alive and paraded in the Russian press after the White House enlists NASA in a botched cover story claiming the plane went missing during a weather flight.[18][296]

May 9: The Pill: The US Food & Drug Administration approves the use of the first reliable form of birth control: a 99%-effective pill. The Sexual Revolution commences, first in the bedrooms of married couples.[235][297]

May 13: Black Friday: 400 police using firehoses force a student "mob" out of a HUAC meeting at City Hall in San Francisco. The counterculture era of student protest begins.[298][299][300]

November 8: John F. Kennedy is elected 35th President of the US, defeating sitting Vice President Richard M. Nixon in what is considered to be the closest and most intellectually-charged US presidential election since 1916.[301][302][303] Nearly 70 million ballots are cast, but the margin of victory is just slightly more than 100,000 votes.[304]

1960

1960s

January 1: Revolutionary forces under the leadership of Fidel Castro overthrow the corrupt Batista government in Cuba. 50 years of repressive one-man rule by the future Soviet ally ensue before Castro relinquishes control to his brother.[280][281][282]

1957

April 21: "Heartbreak Hotel", Elvis Presley's first #1 hit, tops the charts for 8 weeks as Elvis creates teenage pandemonium in households across the western world.[259]

August: The FBI's COINTELPRO domestic counterintelligence program commences. The surveillance effort is initially directed against stateside communist activities, but grows to include illegal invasions of privacy targeting civil rights and anti-war activists.[260][261]

1956

February: The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) is formally activated, nominally obligating the US to intervene as part of collective action in case of military conflagration in the region. The non-binding SEATO commitment, however, is only invoked as justification for involvement in Vietnam by President Johnson after later escalation of hostilities there prove unpopular.[254]

August 28: Emmett Till Murder: A black teen is brutally slain in Mississippi after allegedly flirting with a white woman. The incident becomes a pivotal event in the growing Civil Rights movement after Till's mother allows the boy's mutilated body to be viewed, and after two white men (who later confess to the murder) are acquitted by an all-white, all-male jury.[256]

December 1: Activist Rosa Parks refuses to cede her seat on a public bus in Montgomery, AL, and is arrested. The ACLU takes on and wins her case.[258]

1955

April 6: On the floor of the US Senate, Senator John F. Kennedy proclaims that to "pour money, material, and men into the jungles of Indochina without at least a remote prospect of victory would be dangerously futile and self-destructive."[250]

April 27: The Geneva Accords grant independence to French Indochina, establishing Vietnam as a unified, independent nation in name only. The US is not a signatory to the treaty. The French are officially out of Southeast Asia, leaving a people, and a raging civil war, behind.[251]

May 17: Brown vs. Board of Ed: The US Supreme Court rules unanimously that racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional. The doctrine of "Separate but equal" as a legal and moral pretext for segregation is no longer enforceable by governments, and true racial integration begins in the US.[252][253]

1954

April 13: Project MKULTRA, the CIA's mind control research program which grew to include testing LSD on both volunteer and unsuspecting subjects into the 1960s, commences.[243]

June 19: Julius & Ethel Rosenberg are executed at Sing Sing Prison, NY, after conviction on espionage charges for their role in the communist spy ring which gave the USSR the atomic bomb and thereby initiated the nuclear arms race.[244][245][246]

August 15–19: The democratically elected Prime Minister of Iran is overthrown by intelligence operatives of the UK and US. The Shah of Iran is reinstalled as absolute monarch. The success of the operation begins a pattern of CIA-fomented coups and assassinations in the global fight against expansion of the political, economic, and military interests of the USSR, utlimately culminating in the fiasco of US combat involvement in Vietnam.[247]

1953

August: Mad Magazine debuts as a comic book before switching to standard magazine format in 1955.[238][239]

The National Security Agency is established, bringing most civilian US communications and technical intelligence collection under one roof. Intended as a tool against foreign enemies, the later use of the agency's extensive resources by bureaucrats and politicians against domestic, anti-war counterculture radicals is revealed and debated in congress in the 1970s.[240][241]

1952

1951

June 25: Prelude to Vietnam: Communist forces of North Korea invade democratic South Korea with support from Red China and the USSR. The US, UK, and a host of free UN states respond and hold back the incursion. In 1953 the conflict ends where it began with each side faced-off at the 48th parallel, and where the US remains on armed alert to the present. The UK counts over 1,100 war dead, the US over 36,000.[233][234]

1950

1950s

January: Cheap transportation for a new generation, the first Volkswagen Beetle arrives in the US. By 1970, over 4 million are on American roads, when annual US sales top out at 570,000. The "Bug" and VW "Bus", introduced in 1950, become closely associated with the hippie and counterculture eras.[227][228][229]

August 29: The USSR detonates its first atomic bomb with essential aid of atomic spies from the US, Great Britain, and Canada. The Cold War has commenced in earnest.[230]

October 1: Communist China: After a long and bloody civil war, Party Chairman Mao Zedong proclaims the establishment of the People's Republic of China. Mao rules China until his death in 1976.[231][232]

1949

Shelley v. Kraemer: The enforcement by states of deed restrictions prohibiting the transfer of real estate to non-Caucasians is deemed unconstitutional by the US Supreme Court, clearing the way for home ownership by Blacks and Jews in previously segregated communities.[225][226]

Jack Kerouac first uses the term Beat Generation in reference to the nascent intellectual culture that would ultimately give way to the so-called counterculture.[223][224]

1947

Levittown: A model of post-war desire for quieter suburban life, and a signpost of the breakdown of the close-knit, urban family (where many generations all lived in cities under one roof), the first mass-produced housing subdvision breaks ground on a former potato farm in New York. Thousands of new homes are first rented (then later sold) virtually overnight, and the trend soon spreads nationwide. In the US, both the massive move from cities to the suburbs and the baby boom are underway.[213][214][215]

1946

July 16: The first atomic bomb is successfully detonated by civilian scientists and engineers under the direction of the United States Army near Alamagordo, New Mexico.[206][207][208]

The following people are well known for their involvement in 1960s era counterculture. Some are key incidental or contextual figures, such as Beat Generation figures who also participated directly in the later counterculture era. The primary area(s) of each figure's notability are indicated, per these figures' WorldHeritage pages. Although many of the people listed are known for civil rights activism, some figures whose primary notability was within the realm of the civil rights movement are listed elsewhere. (see also: List of civil rights leaders; Key figures of the New Left).

Key figures

In 2007, Merry Prankster Carolyn "Mountain Girl" Garcia commented, "I see remnants of that movement everywhere. It's sort of like the nuts in Ben and Jerry's ice cream -- it's so thoroughly mixed in, we sort of expect it. The nice thing is that eccentricity is no longer so foreign. We've embraced diversity in a lot of ways in this country. I do think it's done us a tremendous service."[198]

External video

2009: Peter Coyote on the legacy of the counterculture (excerpt) on YouTube

Free Speech advocate and social anthropologist Jentri Anders observed that a number of freedoms were endorsed within a countercultural community in which she lived and studied: "freedom to explore one’s potential, freedom to create one’s Self, freedom of personal expression, freedom from scheduling, freedom from rigidly defined roles and hierarchical statuses..." Additionally, Anders believed some in the counterculture wished to modify children's education so that it didn't discourage, but rather encouraged, "aesthetic sense, love of nature, passion for music, desire for reflection, or strongly marked independence."[196][197]

When asked about the prospects of the counterculture movement moving forward in the digital age, former Grateful Dead lyricist and self-styled "cyberlibertarian" John Perry Barlow said, "I started out as a teenage beatnik and then became a hippie and then became a cyberpunk. And now I'm still a member of the counterculture, but I don't know what to call that. And I'd been inclined to think that that was a good thing, because once the counterculture in America gets a name then the media can coopt it, and the advertising industry can turn it into a marketing foil. But you know, right now I'm not sure that it is a good thing, because we don't have any flag to rally around. Without a name there may be no coherent movement." [195]

In the UK, commentator Peter Hitchens identifies the counterculture as one of the contributing factors to what he sees as the current malaise in British politics.[194]

Even before the counterculture movement reached its peak of influence, the concept of the adoption of socially-responsible policies by establishment corporations was discussed by economist and Nobel laureateMilton Friedman (1962), "Few trends could so thoroughly undermine the very foundation of our free society as the acceptance by corporate officials of a social responsibility other than to make as much money for their stockholders as possible. This is a fundamentally subversive doctrine. If businessmen do have a social responsibility other than making maximum profits for stockholders, how are they to know what it is? Can self-selected private individuals decide what the social interest is?"[193]

In economic terms, it has been contended that the counterculture really only amounted to creating new marketing segments for the "hip" crowd.[192]

The "generation gap" between the affluent young and their often poverty-scarred parents was a critical component of 1960s culture. In an interview with journalist Gloria Steinem during the 1968 US presidential campaign, soon-to-be First Lady Pat Nixon exposed the generational chasm in worldview between Steinem, 20 years her junior, and herself after Steinen probed Mrs. Nixon as to her youth, role models, and lifestyle. A hardscrabble child of the Great Depression, Pat Nixon told Steinem, "I never had time to think about things like that, who I wanted to be, or who I admired, or to have ideas. I never had time to dream about being anyone else. I had to work. I haven't just sat back and thought of myself or my ideas or what I wanted to do...I've kept working. I don't have time to worry about who I admire or who I identify with. I never had it easy. I'm not at all like you...all those people who had it easy."[191]

Former liberal democrat Ronald Reagan, who later became a conservative Governor of California and 40th President of the US, remarked about one group of protesters carrying signs, "The last bunch of pickets were carrying signs that said 'Make love, not war.' The only trouble was they didn't look capable of doing either."[189][190]

Screen legend John Wayne equated aspects of 1960s social programs with the rise of the welfare state, "…I know all about that. In the late Twenties, when I was a sophomore at USC, I was a socialist myself—but not when I left. The average college kid idealistically wishes everybody could have ice cream and cake for every meal. But as he gets older and gives more thought to his and his fellow man's responsibilities, he finds that it can't work out that way—that some people just won't carry their load ... I believe in welfare—a welfare work program. I don't think a fella should be able to sit on his backside and receive welfare. I'd like to know why well-educated idiots keep apologizing for lazy and complaining people who think the world owes them a living. I'd like to know why they make excuses for cowards who spit in the faces of the police and then run behind the judicial sob sisters. I can't understand these people who carry placards to save the life of some criminal, yet have no thought for the innocent victim."[188]

The plaque honoring the victims of the August, 1970 Sterling Hall bombing, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

In 2003, author and former Free Speech activist Greil Marcus was quoted, "What happened four decades ago is history. It's not just a blip in the history of trends. Whoever shows up at a march against war in Iraq, it always takes place with a memory of the efficacy and joy and gratification of similar protests that took place in years before…It doesn't matter that there is no counterculture, because counterculture of the past gives people a sense that their own difference matters." [187]

A Columbia University teaching unit on the counterculture era notes: "Although historians disagree over the influence of the counterculture on American politics and society, most describe the counterculture in similar terms. Virtually all authors—for example, on the right, Robert Bork in Slouching Toward Gomorrah: Modern Liberalism and American Decline (New York: Regan Books,1996) and, on the left, Todd Gitlin in The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York: Bantam Books, 1987)—characterize the counterculture as self-indulgent, childish, irrational, narcissistic, and even dangerous. Even so, many liberal and leftist historians find constructive elements in it, while those on the right tend not to."[186]

External video

Firing Line1968: "Beat" author Jack Kerouac, an early critic of the hippies and the larger counterculture, debates with sociologist Dr. Lewis Yablonksy, musician Ed Sanders, and conservative commentator William F. Buckley, Jr. on US TV's on YouTube

Even the notions of "when" the counterculture subsumed the Beat Generation, when it gave way to the successor generation, and what happened in between are open for debate. According to notable UK Underground and counterculture author Barry Miles, "It seemed to me that the Seventies was when most of the things that people attribute to the sixties really happened: this was the age of extremes, people took more drugs, had longer hair, weirder clothes, had more sex, protested more violently and encountered more opposition from the establishment. It was the era of sex and drugs and rock’n’roll as Ian Drury said. The countercultural explosion of the 1960s really only involved a few thousand people in the UK and perhaps ten times that in the USA – largely because of opposition to the Vietnam war, whereas in the Seventies the ideas had spread out scross (sic) the world.[185]

The lasting impact, including unintended consequences, creative output and general legacy of the counterculture era continue to be actively discussed, debated, despised and celebrated.

Criticism and legacy

The English magician Aleister Crowley became an influential icon to the new alternative spiritual movements of the decade as well as for rock musicians. The Beatles included him as one of the many figures on the cover sleeve of their 1967 album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band while Jimmy Page, the guitarist and co-founder of 1970s rock band Led Zeppelin was fascinated by Crowley, and owned some of his clothing, manuscripts and ritual objects, and during the 1970s bought Boleskine House, which also appears in the band's movie The Song Remains the Same. On the back cover of the Doors' album 13, Jim Morrison and the other members of the Doors are shown posing with a bust of Aleister Crowley. Timothy Leary openly acknowledged the inspiration of Crowley.[184]

The Principia Discordia is the founding text of Discordianism written by Greg Hill (Malaclypse the Younger) and Kerry Wendell Thornley (Lord Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst). It was originally published under the title "Principia Discordia or How The West Was Lost" in a limited edition of five copies in 1965. The title, literally meaning "Discordant Principles", is in keeping with the tendency of Latin to prefer hypotactic grammatical arrangements. In English, one would expect the title to be "Principles of Discord."[183]

Timothy Leary was an American psychologist and writer, known for his advocacy of psychedelic drugs. On September 19, 1966, Leary founded the League for Spiritual Discovery, a religion declaring LSD as its holy sacrament, in part as an unsuccessful attempt to maintain legal status for the use of LSD and other psychedelics for the religion's adherents based on a "freedom of religion" argument. The Psychedelic Experience was the inspiration for John Lennon's song "Tomorrow Never Knows" in The Beatles' album Revolver.[181] He published a pamphlet in 1967 called Start Your Own Religion to encourage just that (see below under "writings") and was invited to attend the January 14, 1967 Human Be-In a gathering of 30,000 hippies in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park In speaking to the group, he coined the famous phrase "Turn on, tune in, drop out".[182]

One such hippie "high priest" was San Francisco State University Professor Stephen Gaskin. Beginning in 1966, Gaskin's "Monday Night Class" eventually outgrew the lecture hall, and attracted 1,500 hippie followers in an open discussion of spiritual values, drawing from Christian, Buddhist, and Hindu teachings. In 1970 Gaskin founded a Tennessee community called The Farm, and he still lists his religion as "Hippie."[178][179][180]

In his 1991 book, Hippies and American Values, Timothy Miller described the hippie ethos as essentially a "religious movement" whose goal was to transcend the limitations of mainstream religious institutions. "Like many dissenting religions, the hippies were enormously hostile to the religious institutions of the dominant culture, and they tried to find new and adequate ways to do the tasks the dominant religions failed to perform."[176] In his seminal, contemporaneous work, The Hippie Trip, author Lewis Yablonsky notes that those who were most respected in hippie settings were the spiritual leaders, the so-called "high priests" who emerged during that era.[177]

Religion, spirituality and the occult

In his 1986 essay "From Satori to Silicon Valley",[175] cultural historian Theodore Roszak pointed out that Apple Computer emerged from within the West Coast counterculture. Roszak outlines the Apple computer's development, and the evolution of 'the two Steves' (Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs, the Apple's developers) into businessmen. Like them, many early computing and networking pioneers - after discovering LSD and roaming the campuses of UC Berkeley, Stanford, and MIT in the late 1960s and early 1970s - would emerge from this caste of social "misfits" to shape the modern world.

(See also: List of films related to the hippie subculture)[173], a documentary of the music festival.Woodstock The music of the era was represented by films such as 1970s [172] which some say portrayed the generation as "doomed".Alice's Restaurant, which is in contrast to the film version of Arlo Guthrie's [171],Psych-Out One film-studio attempt to cash in on the hippie trend was 1968's [170] portrayed the 1968 Democratic Convention alongside the 1968 Chicago police riots which has led to it being labeled as "a fusion of cinema-vérité and political radicalism".Medium Cool[169][168] (1969) became accepted as one of the landmark films of the era.Easy Rider's "Road Trip" adventure Dennis Hopper shocked stage audiences with full-frontal nudity. Hair. The musical play Wild in the Streets, and The Trip, Psych-Out, The Love-ins use, sex and wild psychedelic parties. Examples include LSD and marijuana with stereotypical situations associated with the movement such as [167] about the hippie countercultureexploitation films are 1960s Hippie exploitation films Films of this time also focused on the changes happening in the world. A sign of this was the visibility that the hippie subculture gained in various mainstream and underground media. [166] struck a chord with the youth as "the alienation of the young in the 1960s was comparable to the director's image of the 1930s."Bonnie and ClydeThe counterculture was not only affected by cinema, but was also instrumental in the provision of era-relevant content and talent for the film industry.

Film

Allmusic Guide states that "until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and rock were nearly completely separate".[160] The term, "jazz-rock" (or "jazz/rock") is often used as a synonym for the term "jazz fusion". However, some make a distinction between the two terms. The Free Spirits have sometimes been cited as the earliest jazz-rock band.[161] During the late 1960s, at the same time that jazz musicians were experimenting with rock rhythms and electric instruments, rock groups such as Cream and the Grateful Dead were "beginning to incorporate elements of jazz into their music" by "experimenting with extended free-form improvisation". Other "groups such as Blood, Sweat & Tears directly borrowed harmonic, melodic, rhythmic and instrumentational elements from the jazz tradition".[162] The rock groups that drew on jazz ideas (like Soft Machine, Colosseum, Caravan, Nucleus, Chicago, Spirit and Frank Zappa) turned the blend of the two styles with electric instruments.[163] Since rock often emphasized directness and simplicity over virtuosity, jazz-rock generally grew out of the most artistically ambitious rock subgenres of the late '60s and early '70s: psychedelia, progressive rock, and the singer/songwriter movement."[164]Miles Davis' Bitches Brew sessions, recorded in August 1969 and released the following year, mostly abandoned jazz's usual swing beat in favor of a rock-style backbeat anchored by electric bass grooves. The recording "...mixed free jazz blowing by a large ensemble with electronic keyboards and guitar, plus a dense mix of percussion."[165] Davis also drew on the rock influence by playing his trumpet through electronic effects and pedals. While the album gave Davis a gold record, the use of electric instruments and rock beats created a great deal of consternation amongst some more conservative jazz critics

While the hippie scene was born in California,[145] an edgier scene emerged in New York City[146] that put more emphasis on avant-garde and art music. Bands such as The Velvet Underground came out of this underground music scene, which was predominantly centered at Andy Warhol's legendary Factory. The Velvet Underground supplied the music for the Exploding Plastic Inevitable, a series of multimedia events staged by Warhol and his collaborators in 1966 and 1967. The Velvet Underground's lyrics were considered risqué for the era, since they discussed sexual fetishism, transgender identities, and the use of drugs associated with Warhol's Factory and its superstars.[147]

The music of the 1960s moved towards an electric, psychedelic version of rock, thanks largely to Bob Dylan's decision to play an electric guitar at the 1965 Newport Folk Festival.[139] The newly popularized electric sound of rock was then built upon and molded into psychedelic rock by artists like The 13th Floor Elevators[140] and British bands Pink Floyd and the Beatles.[141]The Beach Boys' 1966 album Pet Sounds also paved the way for later hippie acts, with Brian Wilson's writing interpreted as a "plea for love and understanding."[142]Pet Sounds served as a major source of inspiration for other contemporary acts, most notably directly inspiring the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. The single "Good Vibrations" soared to number one globally, completely changing the perception of what a record could be. It was during this period that the highly anticipated album Smile was to be released. However, the project collapsed and The Beach Boys released a downgraded version called Smiley Smile, which failed to make a big commercial impact but was also highly influential, most notably on The Who's Pete Townshend.

A small part of the crowd of 400,000, after the rain, Woodstock, United States, August 1969

Music

In the 1960s, the Dada-influenced art groupBlack Mask declared that revolutionary art should be "an integral part of life, as in primitive society, and not an appendage to wealth."[131]Black Mask disrupted cultural events in New York by giving made up flyers of art events to the homeless with the lure of free drinks.[132] After, the Motherfuckers grew out of a combination of Black Mask and another group called Angry Arts. Up Against the Wall Motherfuckers (often referred to as simply "the Motherfuckers", or UAW/MF) was an anarchistaffinity group based in New York City.

Fluxus - a name taken from a Latin word meaning "to flow" - is an international network of artists, composers and designers noted for blending different artistic media and disciplines in the 1960s. They have been active in Neo-Dadanoise music, visual art, literature, urban planning, architecture, and design. Fluxus is often described as intermedia, a term coined by Fluxus artist Dick Higgins in a famous 1966 essay. Fluxus encouraged a "do-it-yourself" aesthetic, and valued simplicity over complexity. Like Dada before it, Fluxus included a strong current of anti-commercialism and an anti-art sensibility, disparaging the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artist-centered creative practice. As Fluxus artist Robert Filliou wrote, however, Fluxus differed from Dada in its richer set of aspirations, and the positive social and communitarian aspirations of Fluxus far outweighed the anti-art tendency that also marked the group.

The Situationist International was a restricted group of international revolutionaries founded in 1957, and which had its peak in its influence on the unprecedented generalwildcat strikes of May 1968 in France. With their ideas rooted in Marxism and the 20th-century European artistic avant-gardes, they advocated experiences of life being alternative to those admitted by the capitalist order, for the fulfillment of human primitive desires and the pursuing of a superior passional quality. For this purpose they suggested and experimented with the construction of situations, namely the setting up of environments favorable for the fulfillment of such desires. Using methods drawn from the arts, they developed a series of experimental fields of study for the construction of such situations, like unitary urbanism and psychogeography. They fought against the main obstacle on the fulfillment of such superior passional living, identified by them in advanced capitalism. Their theoretical work peaked on the highly influential book The Society of the Spectacle by Guy Debord. Debord argued in 1967 that spectacular features like mass media and advertising have a central role in an advanced capitalist society, which is to show a fake reality in order to mask the real capitalist degradation of human life. Raoul Vaneigem wrote The Revolution of Everyday Life which takes the field of "everyday life" as the ground upon which communication and participation can occur, or, as is more commonly the case, be perverted