Contents

Long before the invention of the bee smoker, humans had discovered that smoke calmed bees. It is not clear when this practice started but it has been used in various parts of the world where honey is collected in the wild. A camp fire can be started in near proximity to the nest, a smouldering stick or torch can be brought to the nest. It is still used today in Nepal to collect wild psychotropic honey from cliff colonies.[1]

Moses Quinby invented the modern bee smoker with a bellow attached to a tin burner in 1873 in the Mohawk Valley, New York. As part of his Quaker upbringing and belief, he did not patent any of his inventions (including the smoker) and therefore gave it to the beekeeping community.[2][3] Tracy F. Bingham of Farwell, Michigan improved and patented on January 20, 1903 (US Patent # US718689A) an improved smoker based on the design of Quinby.[4]

There are many modifications to the basic original design. Since the burner can get very hot, a safety guard against burns is often placed into the second, outer can (making the smoker double wall). Alternatively, the burner can be surrounded with a protective wire cage.

The fact that smoke calms bees has been known since ancient times; however, the scientific explanation was unknown until the 20th century and is still not fully understood. Smoke masks alarm pheromones[5] which include various chemicals, e.g., isopentyl acetate[6] that are released by guard bees or bees that are injured during a beekeeper's inspection. The smoke creates an opportunity for the beekeeper to open the beehive and work while the colony's defensive response is interrupted. In addition, smoke initiates a feeding response in anticipation of possible hive abandonment due to fire.[7][8][9]

Smoke is of limited use with a swarm, partly because swarms have no honey stores to feed on. It is usually not needed, either, since swarms tend to be less defensive as they have no home to defend, and a fresh swarm will have fed well at the hive it left behind.

Many types of fuel can be used in a smoker.[10] These fuels include hessian, burlap, pine needles, corrugated cardboard, paper egg cartons, rotten wood or herbs.[11] Some beekeeping supply sources also sell commercial fuels like pulped paper and compressed cotton.

The fuel in the smoker's burner smoulders slowly because there is only a small amount of oxygen inside, until a squeeze of the bellows provides a blast of fresh air. In this way the fuel is used more sparingly than in an open pan, and one load of fuel may last for several hours, or even days (if it is extinguished and rekindled again later). To calm the bees, the smoke must not be hot.

1.
Beekeeping
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Beekeeping is the maintenance of honey bee colonies, commonly in man-made hives, by humans. A beekeeper keeps bees in order to collect their honey and other products that the hive produces, to pollinate crops, a location where bees are kept is called an apiary or bee yard. Depictions of humans collecting honey from wild bees date to 15,000 years ago, beekeeping in pottery vessels began about 9,000 years ago in North Africa. Domestication is shown in Egyptian art from around 4,500 years ago, simple hives and smoke were used and honey was stored in jars, some of which were found in the tombs of pharaohs such as Tutankhamun. At some point humans began to attempt to domesticate wild bees in artificial hives made from logs, wooden boxes, pottery vessels. Traces of beeswax are found in pot sherds throughout the Middle East beginning about 7000 BCE, honeybees were kept in Egypt from antiquity. On the walls of the sun temple of Nyuserre Ini from the Fifth Dynasty, before 2422 BCE, inscriptions detailing the production of honey are found on the tomb of Pabasa from the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, depicting pouring honey in jars and cylindrical hives. Sealed pots of honey were found in the goods of pharaohs such as Tutankhamun. I am Shamash-resh-ușur, the governor of Suhu and the land of Mari and they collect honey and wax, and I know how to melt the honey and wax – and the gardeners know too. Whoever comes in the future, may he ask the old men of the town, thus, They are the buildings of Shamash-resh-ușur, the governor of Suhu, who introduced honey bees into the land of Suhu. In prehistoric Greece, there existed a system of high-status apiculture, as can be concluded from the finds of hives, smoking pots, honey extractors and other beekeeping paraphernalia in Knossos. Archaeological finds relating to beekeeping have been discovered at Rehov, a Bronze and Iron Age archaeological site in the Jordan Valley, Israel. Thirty intact hives, made of straw and unbaked clay, were discovered by archaeologist Amihai Mazar in the ruins of the city, in ancient Greece, aspects of the lives of bees and beekeeping are discussed at length by Aristotle. Beekeeping was also documented by the Roman writers Virgil, Gaius Julius Hyginus, Varro, beekeeping has also been practiced in ancient China since antiquity. The ancient Maya domesticated a separate species of stingless bee, the use of stingless bees is referred to as meliponiculture, named after bees of the tribe Meliponini—such as Melipona quadrifasciata in Brazil. This variation of bee keeping still occurs around the world today, for instance, in Australia, the stingless bee Tetragonula carbonaria is kept for production of their honey. There are more than 20,000 species of wild bees, many others rear their young in burrows and small colonies. Some honey bees are wild e. g. the little honeybee, giant honeybee, beekeeping, or apiculture, is concerned with the practical management of the social species of honey bees, which live in large colonies of up to 100,000 individuals

2.
Smoke
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It is commonly an unwanted by-product of fires, but may also be used for pest control, communication, defensive and offensive capabilities in the military, cooking, or smoking. Smoke is used in rituals where incense, sage, or resin is burned to produce a smell for spiritual purposes, smoke is sometimes used as a flavoring agent, and preservative for various foodstuffs. Smoke is also a component of internal combustion engine exhaust gas, smoke inhalation is the primary cause of death in victims of indoor fires. The smoke kills by a combination of damage, poisoning and pulmonary irritation caused by carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide. Smoke is an aerosol of solid particles and liquid droplets that are close to the range of sizes for Mie scattering of visible light. This effect has been likened to three-dimensional textured privacy glass — a smoke cloud does not obstruct an image, the composition of smoke depends on the nature of the burning fuel and the conditions of combustion. High temperature also leads to production of nitrogen oxides, sulfur content yields sulfur dioxide, or in case of incomplete combustion, hydrogen sulfide. Carbon and hydrogen are almost completely oxidized to carbon dioxide and water, fires burning with lack of oxygen produce a significantly wider palette of compounds, many of them toxic. Partial oxidation of carbon produces carbon monoxide, nitrogen-containing materials can yield hydrogen cyanide, ammonia, hydrogen gas can be produced instead of water. Content of halogens such as chlorine may lead to production of e. g. hydrogen chloride, phosgene, dioxin, hydrogen fluoride can be formed from fluorocarbons, whether fluoropolymers subjected to fire or halocarbon fire suppression agents. Phosphorus and antimony oxides and their products can be formed from some fire retardant additives. Heterocyclic compounds may be also present, heavier hydrocarbons may condense as tar, smoke with significant tar content is yellow to brown. Partial oxidation of the released hydrocarbons yields in a palette of other compounds, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols. The visible particulate matter in such smokes is most commonly composed of carbon, other particulates may be composed of drops of condensed tar, or solid particles of ash. The presence of metals in the fuel yields particles of metal oxides, particles of inorganic salts may also be formed, e. g. ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, or sodium chloride. Inorganic salts present on the surface of the particles may make them hydrophilic. Many organic compounds, typically the aromatic hydrocarbons, may be adsorbed on the surface of the solid particles. Metal oxides can be present when metal-containing fuels are burned, e. g. solid rocket fuels containing aluminium, depleted uranium projectiles after impacting the target ignite, producing particles of uranium oxides

3.
Smouldering
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Smouldering is the slow, low-temperature, flameless form of combustion, sustained by the heat evolved when oxygen directly attacks the surface of a condensed-phase fuel. The fundamental difference between smouldering and flaming combustion is that smouldering occurs on the surface of the rather than in the gas phase. Smouldering is a phenomenon but can propagate to the interior of a porous fuel if it is permeable to flow. The characteristic temperature and heat released during smouldering are low compared to those in the flaming combustion, Smouldering propagates in a creeping fashion, around 0.1 mm/s, which is about ten times slower than flames spread over a solid. In spite of its weak combustion characteristics, smouldering is a significant fire hazard, Smouldering emits toxic gases at a higher yield than flaming fires and leaves behind a significant amount of solid residue. The emitted gases are flammable and could later be ignited in the gas phase, Smouldering fuels are generally porous, permeable to flow and formed by aggregates. These aggregates facilitate the reaction with oxygen by allowing gas flow through the fuel. They also act as insulation, reducing heat losses. The most studied materials to date are cellulose and polyurethane foams, the characteristics of smouldering fires make them a threat of new dimensions, taking the form of colossal underground fires or silent fire safety risks, as summarized below. Fire safety, The main hazards posed by smouldering arise from the fact that it can be initiated and is difficult to detect. Fire statistics draw attention to the magnitude of smouldering combustion as the cause of fire deaths in residential areas. A particularly common fire scenario is a cigarette igniting a piece of upholstered furniture, Smouldering combustion is also a fire-safety concern aboard space facilities, because the absence of gravity is thought to promote smouldering ignition and propagation. Wildfires, Smouldering combustion of the forest ground does not have the impact of flaming combustion, however. Smouldering of biomass can linger for days or weeks after flaming has ceased, resulting in large quantities of fuels consumed, the slow propagation leads to prolonged heating and might cause sterilizations of the soil or the killing of roots, seeds, and plant stems at the ground level. Subsurface fires, Fires occurring many meters below the surface are a type of smouldering event of colossal magnitude, the oldest and largest fires in the world, burning for centuries, are smouldering fires. The reduced heat losses and high thermal inertia of the underground together with high fuel availability promote long-term smouldering combustion and allow for creeping and these fires prove difficult to detect, and frustrate most efforts to extinguish them. The dramatic 1997 peatland fires in Borneo caused the recognition of subsurface smouldering fires as a threat with significant economic. The summer of 2006 saw the resurgence of the Borneo peat fires, world Trade Center debris, After the attack, fire and subsequent collapse of the Twin Towers on September 11,2001, the colossal pile of debris left on the site smouldered for more than five months

4.
Psychoactive drug
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A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical, or psychotropic is a chemical substance that changes brain function and results in alterations in perception, mood, or consciousness. These substances may be used recreationally, to alter ones consciousness, or, as entheogens, for ritual, spiritual, or shamanic purposes. Some categories of drugs, which have medical therapeutic value, are prescribed by medical doctors. There are also some psychoactive substances used in the detoxification and rehabilitation programs for drug users. Psychoactive substances often bring about changes in consciousness and mood that the user may find rewarding. In addition, sustained use of some substances may produce a physical dependence or psychological dependence syndrome associated with somatic or psychological-emotional withdrawal states respectively, Drug rehabilitation aims to break this cycle of dependency, through a combination of psychotherapy, support groups, maintenance and even other psychoactive substances. However, the reverse is true in some cases, that certain experiences on drugs may be so unfriendly. This is especially true of certain deliriants, powerful dissociatives, and classic psychedelics, in part because of this potential for substance misuse, addiction, or dependence, the ethics of drug use is debated. Restrictions on drug production and sales in an attempt to drug abuse are very common among national and sub-national governments worldwide. Ethical concerns have also raised about over-use of these drugs clinically. Psychoactive drug use can be traced to prehistory, there is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances dating back at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of cultural use over the past 5,000 years. The chewing of coca leaves, for example, dates back over 8,000 years ago in Peruvian society, medicinal use is one important facet of psychoactive drug usage. However, some have postulated that the urge to alter ones consciousness is as primary as the drive to satiate thirst, hunger or sexual desire. Supporters of this belief contend that the history of use and even childrens desire for spinning, swinging. It is, however, necessary to precisely what is meant by the use of drugs. We do not mean the purely physical craving, but there are not many drugs which have the power of stilling such craving. This relationship is not limited to humans, a number of animals consume different psychoactive plants, animals, berries and even fermented fruit, becoming intoxicated, such as cats after consuming catnip. Traditional legends of sacred plants often contain references to animals that introduced humankind to their use, animals and psychoactive plants appear to have co-evolved, possibly explaining why these chemicals and their receptors exist within the nervous system

5.
Mohawk Valley
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The Mohawk Valley region of the U. S. state of New York is the area surrounding the Mohawk River, sandwiched between the Adirondack Mountains and Catskill Mountains. As of the 2010 United States Census, the counties have a combined population of 622,133 people. The region is a suburban and rural area surrounding the cities of Schenectady, Utica and Rome. The 5,882 square miles area is an important agricultural center, the Mohawk Valley is a natural passageway connecting the Atlantic Ocean, by way of the Hudson Valley with the interior of North America. During the 18th Century, the Mohawk Valley was a frontier of great political, military, almost 100 battles of the American Revolution were fought in New York State, including the Battle of Oriskany and defense of Fort Stanwix. A series of raids against valley residents took place during the war, the Erie Canal was completed in 1825 as the first commercial connection between the American East and West. In addition, many settlements of the Mohawk, Britains crucial Indian ally at the time of the war, were located in or near the valley, at the beginning of the war, the major British stronghold in the Mohawk corridor was Fort Oswego, located on Lake Ontario. The French captured and destroyed the fort after a siege in 1756. Although the French did not directly exploit this avenue of attack, the Mohawks of Mohawk Valley call themselves Kanienkehaka, and People of the Flint in part due to their creation story of a powerful flinted arrow. Among other things, the use of Mohawk Valley flint as Toolmaking Flint is only one attribution to the Mohawk Valley People of the Flint name. Furthermore, the border of Schoharie County with Montgomery County is very close to the Mohawk River. Montgomery County Amsterdam Canajoharie Fonda Fort Plain Fultonville Nelliston Palatine Bridge St, New York City, NY, Tom Doherty. Mohawk Valley is an important site in the video game Assassins Creed III published by Ubisoft, the game takes place during the Revolutionary War era and features an assassin tasked with playing a role in the history of early America. The Mohawk Valley has a preliminary to Miss New York and Miss America

6.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year

7.
Quakers
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Quakers are members of a historically Christian group of religious movements generally known as the Religious Society of Friends. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional Quaker understandings of Christianity, to differing extents, the different movements that make up the Religious Society of Friends/Friends Church avoid creeds and hierarchical structures. In 2007, there were about 359,000 adult Quakers, in 2012, there were 377,055 adult Quakers. Some meetings of both types have Recorded Ministers in their meetings—Friends recognised for their gift of vocal ministry, the first Quakers lived in mid-17th century England. The movement arose from the Legatine-Arians and other dissenting Protestant groups, some of these early Quaker ministers were women. They emphasized a personal and direct experience of Christ, acquired through both direct religious experience and the reading and studying of the Bible. Quakers focused their private life on developing behaviour and speech reflecting emotional purity, in the past, Quakers were known for their use of thee as an ordinary pronoun, refusal to participate in war, plain dress, refusal to swear oaths, opposition to slavery, and teetotalism. & J. Clark and the big three British confectionery makers Cadbury, Rowntree and Frys, and philanthropic efforts, including abolition of slavery, prison reform, during and after the English Civil War many dissenting Christian groups emerged, including the Seekers and others. A young man named George Fox was dissatisfied with the teachings of the Church of England and he had a vision on Pendle Hill in Lancashire, England, in which he believed that the Lord let me see in what places he had a great people to be gathered. Following this he travelled around England, the Netherlands, and Barbados preaching and teaching with the aim of converting new adherents to his faith, the central theme of his Gospel message was that Christ has come to teach his people himself. His followers considered themselves to be the restoration of the true Christian church, in 1650, Fox was brought before the magistrates Gervase Bennet and Nathaniel Barton, on a charge of religious blasphemy. According to George Foxs autobiography, Bennet was the first that called us Quakers and it is thought that George Fox was referring to Isaiah 66,2 or Ezra 9,4. Thus, the name Quaker began as a way of ridiculing George Foxs admonition, Quakerism gained a considerable following in England and Wales, and the numbers increased to a peak of 60,000 in England and Wales by 1680. This was relaxed after the Declaration of Indulgence and stopped under the Act of Toleration 1689, with the restructuring of the family and household came new roles for women, Fox and Fell viewed the Quaker mother as essential to developing holy conversation in her children and husband. Quaker women were responsible for the spirituality of the larger community, coming together in meetings that regulated marriage. The persecution of Quakers in North America began in 1656 when English Quaker missionaries Mary Fisher and they were considered heretics because of their insistence on individual obedience to the Inner Light. They were imprisoned and banished by the Massachusetts Bay Colony and their books were burned, and most of their property was confiscated. They were imprisoned in terrible conditions, then deported, in 1660, English Quaker Mary Dyer was hanged on Boston Common for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony

8.
Beehive
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A beehive is an enclosed structure in which some honey bee species of the subgenus Apis live and raise their young. Though the word beehive is commonly used to describe the nest of any bee colony, scientific, nest is used to discuss colonies which house themselves in natural or artificial cavities or are hanging and exposed. Hive is used to structures used by humans to house a honey bee nest. Several species of Apis live in colonies, but only the honey bee. A bees nest is comparable to a birds nest built with a purpose to protect the dweller, the beehives internal structure is a densely packed group of hexagonal prismatic cells made of beeswax, called a honeycomb. The bees use the cells to store food and to house the brood, Beehives serve several purposes, production of honey, pollination of nearby crops, housing supply bees for apitherapy treatment, and to try to mitigate the effects of colony collapse disorder. In America, hives are commonly transported so that bees can pollinate crops in other areas, a number of patents have been issued for beehive designs. Honey bees use caves, rock cavities and hollow trees as nesting sites. In warmer climates they may occasionally build exposed hanging nests as pictured, members of other subgenera have exposed aerial combs. The nest is composed of multiple honeycombs, parallel to each other and it usually has a single entrance. Western honey bees prefer nest cavities approximately 45 litres in volume, bees usually occupy nests for several years. The bees often smooth the bark surrounding the nest entrance, honeycombs are attached to the walls along the cavity tops and sides, but small passageways are left along the comb edges. The peanut-shaped queen cells are built at the lower edge of the comb. Bees were kept in hives in Egypt in antiquity. The walls of the Egyptian sun temple of Nyuserre Ini from the 5th Dynasty, dated earlier than 2422 BC, inscriptions detailing the production of honey are found on the tomb of Pabasa from the 26th Dynasty, and describe honey stored in jars, and cylindrical hives. The archaeologist Amihai Mazar cites 30 intact hives that were discovered in the ruins of the city of Rehov and this is evidence that an advanced honey industry existed in Israel, approximately 4,000 years ago. The beehives, made of straw and unbaked clay, were found in rows, with a total of 150 hives. Ezra Marcus from the University of Haifa said the discovery provided a glimpse of ancient beekeeping seen in texts, an altar decorated with fertility figurines was found alongside the hives and may indicate religious practices associated with beekeeping

9.
Swarming (honey bee)
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Swarming is the process by which a new honey bee colony is formed when the queen bee leaves the colony with a large group of worker bees. In the prime swarm, about 60% of the bees leave the original hive location with the old queen. This swarm can contain thousands to tens of thousands of bees, swarming is mainly a spring phenomenon, usually within a two- or three-week period depending on the locale, but occasional swarms can happen throughout the producing season. Secondary afterswarms may happen but are rare, afterswarms are usually smaller and are accompanied by one or more virgin queens. Sometimes a beehive will swarm in succession until it is almost totally depleted of workers, swarming is the natural means of reproduction of honey bee colonies. In the process of swarming the original single colony reproduces to two and sometimes more colonies, for instance, one species of honey bee that participates in such swarming behavior is Apis cerana. The reproduction swarms of this species settle 20–30 m away from the natal nest for a few days, scout bees search for suitable cavities in which to construct the swarm’s home. Successful scouts will then come back and report the location of suitable nesting sites to the other bees, worker bees create queen cups throughout the year. When the hive gets ready to swarm the queen lays eggs into the queen cups, new queens are raised and the hive may swarm as soon as the queen cells are capped and before the new virgin queens emerge from their queen cells. A laying queen is too heavy to fly long distances, therefore, the workers will stop feeding her before the anticipated swarm date and the queen will stop laying eggs. Swarming creates an interruption in the cycle of the original colony. During the swarm preparation, scout bees will simply find a location for the swarm to cluster. When a honey bee swarm emerges from a hive they do not fly far at first and they may gather in a tree or on a branch only a few metres from the hive. There, they cluster about the queen and send 20 -50 scout bees out to find suitable new nest locations and this intermediate stop is not for permanent habitation and they will normally leave within a few hours to a suitable location. It is from this location that the cluster will determine the final nest site based on the level of excitement of the dances of the scout bees. It is unusual if a swarm clusters for more than three days at an intermediate stop, swarming creates a vulnerable time in the life of honey bees. Cast swarms are provisioned only with the nectar or honey they carry in their stomachs, a swarm will starve if it does not quickly find a home and more nectar stores. This happens most often with early swarms that are cast on a day that is followed by cold or rainy weather in spring

10.
Pheromone
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A pheromone is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting outside the body of the individual to impact the behavior of the receiving individuals. There are alarm pheromones, food trail pheromones, sex pheromones, Pheromones are used from basic unicellular prokaryotes to complex multicellular eukaryotes. Their use among insects has been well documented. In addition, some vertebrates, plants and ciliates communicate by using pheromones, the portmanteau word pheromone was coined by Peter Karlson and Martin Lüscher in 1959, based on the Greek φερω pheroo and ὁρμων hormon. Pheromones are also classified as ecto-hormones. For this reason, bacteria are too small to use pheromones as sex attractants on an individual basis, however, they do use them to determine the local population density of similar organisms and control behaviors that take more time to execute. Aggregation pheromones function in mate selection, overcoming host resistance by mass attack, a group of individuals at one location is referred to as an aggregation, whether consisting of one sex or both sexes. Most sex pheromones are produced by the females, only a percentage of sex attractants are produced by males. Aggregation pheromones have been found in members of the Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Dictyoptera, aggregation pheromones are among the most ecologically selective pest suppression methods. They are nontoxic and effective at low concentrations. Some species release a volatile substance when attacked by a predator that can trigger flight or aggression in members of the same species, for example, Vespula squamosa use alarm pheromones to alert others to a threat. In Polistes exclamans, alarm pheromones are used as an alert to incoming predators. Pheromones also exist in plants, Certain plants emit alarm pheromones when grazed upon and these tannins make the plants less appetizing for the herbivore. Epideictic pheromones are different from territory pheromones, when it comes to insects, releaser pheromones are pheromones that cause an alteration in the behavior of the recipient. For example, some organisms use powerful attractant molecules to attract mates from a distance of two miles or more, in general, this type of pheromone elicits a rapid response, but is quickly degraded. In contrast, a primer pheromone has an onset and a longer duration. For example, rabbit release mammary pheromones that trigger immediate nursing behavior by their babies, signal pheromones cause short-term changes, such as the neurotransmitter release that activates a response

11.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

12.
Farwell, Michigan
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Farwell is a village in Clare County in the U. S. state of Michigan. The population was 871 at the 2010 census, according to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 1.40 square miles, of which 1.35 square miles is land and 0.05 square miles is water. Farwell was founded in 1870 and platted in 1871 and it was the county seat from 1871 until 1879. It was incorporated as a village in 1879, important Persons, Dana Gepford As of 2000 the median income for a household in the village was $24,583, and the median income for a family was $32,917. Males had an income of $29,063 versus $20,329 for females. The per capita income for the village was $19,870, about 7. 2% of families and 13. 3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13. 5% of those under age 18 and 9. 9% of those age 65 or over. As of the census of 2010, there were 871 people,373 households, the population density was 645.2 inhabitants per square mile. There were 411 housing units at a density of 304.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 97. 8% White,0. 6% African American,0. 7% Native American,0. 1% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,0. 1% from other races, and 0. 6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 8% of the population,33. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 16. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the family size was 2.85. The median age in the village was 40.4 years. 22% of residents were under the age of 18,8. 8% were between the ages of 18 and 24,23. 6% were from 25 to 44,27. 2% were from 45 to 64, and 18. 4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48. 2% male and 51. 8% female, Michigan Place Names, The History of the Founding and the Naming of More Than Five Thousand Past and Present Michigan Communities. Detroit, Michigan, Wayne State University Press, (http, //clarecountychamber. com Clare County Chamber of Commerce (http, //clarecounty. com Clare County Visitors Bureau Joel Johnson is the current State Representative