Jersey is not part of the United Kingdom,[14] and has an international identity separate from that of the UK,[15] but the UK is constitutionally responsible for the defence of Jersey,[16] the definition of United Kingdom in the British Nationality Act 1981 is interpreted as including the UK and the Islands together.[17] The European Commission have confirmed in a written reply to the European Parliament in 2003[18] that Jersey is within the Union as a European Territory for whose external relationships the UK is responsible. Jersey is not fully part of the European Union but has a special relationship with it, notably being treated as within the European Community for the purposes of free trade in goods.[19]

British cultural influence on the island is evident in its use of English as the main language and the British pound as its primary currency. Additional cultural commonalities include driving on the left, access to the BBC and ITV regions, a school curriculum following that of England, and the popularity of British sports, including football, cricket and rugby.[20][21]

The Channel Islands are mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary as the following: Sarnia, Caesarea, Barsa, Silia and Andium, but Jersey cannot be identified specifically because none corresponds directly to the present names.[22] The name Caesarea has been used as the Latin name for Jersey (also in its French version Césarée) since William Camden's Britannia,[23] and is used in titles of associations and institutions today. The Latin name Caesarea was also applied to the colony of New Jersey as Nova Caesarea.[24][25]

Andium, Agna and Augia were used in antiquity.

Scholars variously surmise that Jersey and Jèrri derive from jarð (Old Norse for "earth") or jarl (earl), or perhaps a personal name, Geirr ("Geirr's Island").[26] The ending -ey denotes an island[27][28] (as in Guernsey or Surtsey).

Jersey history is influenced by its strategic location between the northern coast of France and the southern coast of England; the island's recorded history extends over a thousand years.

La Cotte de St Brelade is a Palaeolithic site inhabited before rising sea levels transformed Jersey into an island. Jersey was a centre of Neolithic activity, as demonstrated by the concentration of dolmens. Evidence of Bronze Age and early Iron Age settlements can be found in many locations around the island; in June 2012 it was announced what could be Europe's largest hoard of Iron Age coins had been found in Grouville by two persons using metal detectors. The hoard may be worth up to £10 M. People had been searching for this treasure for 30 years, it was reported that the hoard weighed about three quarters of a tonne and could contain up to 50,000 Roman and Celtic coins.[29] In 2012 the same two men had found 60 Iron Age coins in the same area.[30]

Jersey was part of Neustria with the same Gallo-Frankish population as the continental mainland. Jersey, the whole Channel Islands and the Cotentin peninsula (probably with the Avranchin) came formerly under the control of the duke of Brittany during the Viking invasions, because the king of the Franks was unable to defend them, however they remained in the archbishopric of Rouen. Jersey was invaded by Vikings in the 9th century; in 933 it was annexed to the future Duchy of Normandy, together with the other Channel Islands, Cotentin and Avranchin, by William Longsword, count of Rouen and it became one of the Norman Islands. When William's descendant, William the Conqueror, conquered England in 1066, the Duchy of Normandy and the kingdom of England were governed under one monarch,[32] the Dukes of Normandy owned considerable estates in the island, and Norman families living on their estates established many of the historical Norman-French Jersey family names. King John lost all his territories in mainland Normandy in 1204 to King Philip II Augustus, but retained possession of Jersey and the other Channel Islands.[33]

In the Treaty of Paris (1259), the English king formally surrendered his claim to the duchy and ducal title, and since then the islands have been internally self-governing territories of the English crown and latterly the British crown.[34]

On 7 October 1406, 1,000 French men at arms led by Pero Niño invaded Jersey, landing at St Aubin’s Bay and defeated the 3,000 defenders but failed to capture the island.[35]:50–1

Aware of the military importance of Jersey, the British government had ordered that the island be heavily fortified, on 6 January 1781, a French invasion force of 2,000 men set out to take over the island, but only half of the force arrived and landed. The Battle of Jersey lasted about half an hour, with Britain successfully defending the island. There were about thirty casualties on each side, and the British took 600 French prisoners whom were subsequently sent to England. Both British and French commanders were slain.[39]

Trade laid the foundations of prosperity, aided by neutrality between England and France,[40] the Jersey way of life involved agriculture, milling, fishing, shipbuilding and production of woollen goods. 19th century improvements in transport links brought tourism to the island.

During the Second World War, some citizens were evacuated to the UK but most remained. Jersey was occupied by Germany from 1 July 1940 until 9 May 1945, when Germany surrendered,[41] during this time the Germans constructed many fortifications using Soviet slave labour. After 1944, supplies from mainland France were interrupted by the D-Day landings, and food on the island became scarce, the SS Vega was sent to the island carrying Red Cross supplies and news of the success of the Allied advance in Europe. The Channel Islands were one of the last places in Europe to be liberated.

Jersey's unicameral legislature is the Assembly of the States of Jersey, it includes 51 elected members: 10 senators (elected on an island-wide basis), 12 Connétables (often called 'constables', heads of parishes) and 29 deputies (representing constituencies), all elected for four-year terms as from the October 2011 elections.[42] There are also five non-voting members appointed by the Crown: the Bailiff, the Lieutenant Governor of Jersey, the Dean of Jersey, the Attorney General and Solicitor General.[43] Jersey has one of the lowest voter turnouts internationally, with just 33% of the electorate voting in 2005, putting it well below the 77% European average for that year.[44]

The government is a Council of Ministers, consisting of a Chief Minister and nine ministers,[45] each minister may appoint up to two assistant ministers.[46] A Chief Executive is head of the civil service,[47] some government functions are carried out in the island's 12 parishes.

The Bailiff is President (presiding officer) of the States Assembly,[48] head of the judiciary and as civic head of the island carries out various ceremonial roles.

As one of the Crown dependencies, Jersey is autonomous and self-governing, with its own independent legal, administrative and fiscal systems;[49] in 1973, the Royal Commission on the Constitution set out the duties of the Crown as including: ultimate responsibility for the 'good government' of the Crown dependencies; ratification of island legislation by Order in Council (Royal Assent); international representation, subject to consultation with the island authorities before concluding any agreement which would apply to them; ensuring the islands meet their international obligations; and defence.[50]

Queen Elizabeth II reigns in Jersey as Queen of the United Kingdom and her other Realms and Territories; the dukedom of Normandy was surrendered to France by the Treaty of Paris in 1259.[51]

"The Crown" is defined by the Law Officers of the Crown as the "Crown in right of Jersey".[52] The Queen's representative and adviser in the island is the Lieutenant Governor of Jersey, he is a point of contact between Jersey ministers and the United Kingdom government and carries out executive functions in relation to immigration control, deportation, naturalisation and the issue of passports.[53] Since September 2011, the incumbent Lieutenant Governor has been General Sir John McColl.

The parishes of Jersey are further divided into vingtaines (or, in St. Ouen, cueillettes), divisions that are historic. Today they are used chiefly for purposes of local administration and electoral constituency.

The Connétable is the head of each parish, elected at a public election for a four-year term to run the parish and to represent the municipality in the Assembly of the States of Jersey, the Procureur du Bien Public (two in each parish) is the legal and financial representative of the parish (elected at a public election since 2003 in accordance with the Public Elections (Amendment) (Jersey) Law 2003; formerly an Assembly of Electors of each parish elected the Procureurs in accordance with the Loi (1804) au sujet des assemblées paroissiales). A Procureur du Bien Public is elected for three years as a public trustee for the funds and property of the parish and may contract when authorised by a Parish Assembly, the Parish Assembly is the decision-making body of local government in each parish; it consists of all entitled voters of the parish.

Each parish elects its own force of Honorary Police consisting of Centeniers, Vingteniers and Constable's Officers. Centeniers are elected at a public election within each parish for a term of three years to undertake policing within the parish, the Centenier is the only officer authorised to charge and bail offenders. Formerly, the senior Centenier of each parish (entitled the Chef de Police) deputised for the Connétable in the States of Jersey when the Connétable was unable to attend a sitting of the States, this function has now been abolished.

Although diplomatic representation is reserved to the Crown, Jersey has been developing its own international identity over recent years, it negotiates directly with foreign governments on matters within the competence of the States of Jersey. Jersey maintains the Bureau des Iles Anglo-Normandes in Caen, France, a permanent non-diplomatic representation. A similar office, the Maison de Normandie in St. Helier, represents the Conseil général of Manche and the Regional Council of Normandy. It also houses the Consulate of France; in July 2009, a Channel Islands Tunnel was proposed to connect Jersey with Lower Normandy.[56]

Jersey is neither a Member State nor an Associate Member of the European Union, it does, however, have a relationship with the EU governed by article 335(5)(c) TFEU giving effect to Protocol 3 to the UK’s Treaty of Accession in 1972.[61] However, Jersey does not appear on the list of European States and Territories outside the Union and the Communities prepared by the European Council and the Commission, this is a result of the manner of implementation of the Treaty arrangements under the Act of Accession in 1972. Jersey would have been fully within the European Communities like Gibraltar, being a European territory for whose external relations the United Kingdom was responsible, but that that is limited to the Protocol 3 arrangements under article 355 TFEU to reflect the then existing relationship with the United Kingdom.

Under Protocol 3, Jersey is part of the European Union Customs Union of the European Community, the common customs tariff, levies and other agricultural import measures apply to trade between the island and non-Member States. There is free movement of goods and trade between the island and Member States. EU rules on freedom of movement for workers do not apply in Jersey.[62] However, Article 4 of the Protocol requires the island's authorities to give the same treatment to all natural and legal persons of the Communities; in Pereira, the ECJ held that the scope of this article included any matter governed by the Treaties in a territory where the Treaties are fully applicable. The island is therefore within the scope of the Treaties to a limited extent, as a European Territory. To infer, as the French Ambassador and finance minister have attempted to argue, namely that the island is outside the European Union and Communities without qualification is therefore simplistic, in law false, the French blacklisting of the island had to be hastily revoked when this was pointed out. As a result, Jersey is not part of the single market in financial services, it is not required to implement EU Directives on such matters as movement of capital, company law or money laundering. However, the island's close proximity (135 km south) and its close association with the financial sector of the U.K. has come under increasing scrutiny in recent years, with several mainline publications (e.g., The Wall Street Journal) labelling the island a tax haven.[63]

British citizens who have only a connection to Jersey, and not with the United Kingdom or another member state of the European Union, are not considered by the Jersey States to be European Union citizens,[64] they have 'Islander status' and their Jersey-issued British passports are endorsed with the words the holder is not entitled to benefit from EU provisions relating to employment or establishment.[65]

However, it is not yet clear whether the citizenship rights in articles 18 and 21 TFEU are partly available to them as British Citizens, given the limited restriction of their rights under article 2 of the Protocol, that restriction on the exercise of certain freedoms does not apply to all Community or Union rights. The freedom of movement under the prior EC régime was and remains a separate set of rights from the Citizen rights under article 20 and 21 TFEU which include the right to move and reside, those rights are primary citizenship rights, not a mere freedom. It might not need a Treaty change to perfect this, merely a preliminary ruling from the CJEU, and supplementary implementation measures from the Council, given the effective right of entrance and residence granted to EU nationals via Article 4 of the Protocol. Jersey residents presently do not have a right to vote in elections for the European Parliament. Jersey and Guernsey jointly opened an office in Brussels in 2010 to promote their common interests with European Union institutions.[66]

The effect of the UK leaving the European Union is uncertain, the UK have confirmed that the Crown dependencies position will be argued in the Brexit negotiations.

The question of an independent Jersey has been discussed from time to time in the Assembly of the States of Jersey. In 2005–08, a working group of the States of Jersey examined the options for independence, concluding that Jersey 'is equipped to face the challenges of independence' but making no recommendations.[67] Proposals for Jersey independence continue to be discussed outside the States.[68][69]

In October 2012, the Council of Ministers issued a "Common policy for external relations"[13] which noted "that it is not Government policy to seek independence from the United Kingdom, but rather to ensure that Jersey is prepared if it were in the best interests of islanders to do so", on the basis of the established principles the Council of Ministers decided to "ensure that Jersey is prepared for external change that may affect the island’s formal relationship with the United Kingdom and/or European Union".

The climate is temperate with mild winters and mild to warm summers.[71]

The Atlantic Ocean has a moderating effect on temperature in Jersey, as water has a much greater specific heat capacity than air and tends to heat and cool slowly throughout the year, this has a warming influence on coastal areas in winter and a cooling influence in summer. The highest temperature recorded was 36.0 °C (96.8 °F) on 9 August 2003, and the lowest temperature recorded was −10.3 °C (13.5 °F) on 5 January 1894. By comparison, higher temperatures are found in mainland United Kingdom, which achieved 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) in Faversham, Kent on 10 August 2003. The impact of the Atlantic Ocean and coastal winds ensure that Jersey is slightly cooler than the southern and central parts of England during the summer months. Snow falls rarely in Jersey; some years will pass with no snow fall at all.

The terrain consists of a plateau sloping from long sandy bays in the south to rugged cliffs in the north, the plateau is cut by valleys running generally north-south.

The following table contains the official Met Office station averages for 1981-2010 for Jersey, being located 7.2 kilometres (4.5 mi) from St. Helier.

Jersey's economy is based on financial services (40% of GVA in 2012), tourism & hospitality (hotels, restaurants, bars, transport & communications totalling 8.4% of GVA in 2012), retail and wholesale (7% of GVA in 2012), construction (6.2% of GVA in 2012) and agriculture (1.3% of GVA in 2012).[4]

Thanks to specialisation in a few high-return sectors, at purchasing power parity Jersey has high economic output per capita, substantially ahead of all of the world's large developed economies. Gross national income in 2009 was £3.7 billion (approximately £40,000 per head of population).[4] However, this is not indicative of each individual resident's purchasing power, and the actual standard of living in Jersey is comparable to that in the United Kingdom outside central London, the island is recognised as one of the leading offshore financial centres. The growth of this sector however has not been without its controversies as Jersey has been characterised by critics and detractors as a place in which the "leadership has essentially been captured by global finance, and whose members will threaten and intimidate anyone who dissents."[44] In June 2005 the States introduced the Competition (Jersey) Law 2005[74] to regulate competition and stimulate economic growth, this competition law was based on that of other jurisdictions.

Tourism supports not only hotels, but also retail and services: in 2009 there were 685,200 visitors spending £230 million.[4]Duty-free goods are available for purchase on travel to and from the island.

In 2009 57% of the Island's area was agricultural land (an increase on 2008). Major agricultural products are potatoes and dairy produce; agriculture's share of GVA increased 5% in 2009, a fifth successive year of growth.[4]Jersey cattle are a small breed of cow widely known for its rich milk and cream; although the quality of its meat is also appreciated on a small scale.[75][76] The herd total in 2009 was 5,090 animals.[4] Fisheries and aquaculture make use of Jersey's marine resources to a total value of over £6 million in 2009.[4]

Farmers and growers often sell surplus food and flowers in boxes on the roadside, relying on the honesty of customers to drop the correct change into the money box and take what they want; in the 21st century, diversification of agriculture and amendments in planning strategy have led to farm shops replacing many of the roadside stalls.

53,460 people were employed in Jersey as of December 2010: 24% in financial and legal services; 16% in wholesale and retail trades; 16% in the public sector; 10% in education, health and other private sector services; 10% in construction and quarrying; 9% in hotels, restaurants and bars.[4]

Until the 20th century, the States relied on indirect taxation to finance the administration of Jersey, the levying of impôts (duties) different from those of the United Kingdom was granted by Charles II and remained in the hands of the Assembly of Governor, Bailiff and Jurats until 1921 when that body's tax raising powers were transferred to the Assembly of the States, leaving the Assembly of Governor, Bailiff and Jurats to serve simply as licensing bench for the sale of alcohol (this fiscal reform also stripped the Lieutenant-Governor of most of his effective remaining administrative functions). The Income Tax Law of 1928 introducing income tax was the first law drafted entirely in English. Income tax has been levied at a flat rate of 20% set by the occupying Germans during the Second World War.

Because value added tax (VAT) has not been levied in the island, luxury goods have often been cheaper than in the UK or in France, providing an incentive for tourism from neighbouring countries, the absence of VAT has also led to the growth of the fulfilment industry, whereby low-value luxury items, such as videos, lingerie and contact lenses are exported, avoiding VAT on arrival and thus undercutting local prices on the same products. In 2005, the States of Jersey announced limits on licences granted to non-resident companies trading in this way. Low-value consignment relief provided the mechanism for VAT-free imports from the Channel Islands to the UK until 1 April 2012, at which time this policy of the UK government was binned.

Although Jersey does not have VAT, the States of Jersey introduced a goods and services tax (GST) on 6 May 2008, at a standard rate of 3%, the rate was amended to 5% on 1 June 2011. Although GST is at 5%, shopping in Jersey is still far more expensive than in the UK. Food is not exempt, unlike with VAT.

Jersey is not subject to European Union fiscal legislation and its Zero-Ten legislation will be compliant with the Code of Conduct in business taxation as from the removal of the deemed distribution and attribution anti-avoidance legislation as of 31 December 2011, which was apparently criticised by certain unnamed members of the Code of Conduct Group, a subsidiary body of ECOFIN. The Code of Conduct Group,[78] at least in theory, keeps most of its documentation and discussion confidential, the European Commission has confirmed that the Code is not a legal instrument, and therefore is not legally binding, only becoming of limited "political" authority once a unanimous report has been adopted by the Group at the end of the Presidency concerned.

Twin cash machines at a bank that dispensed a choice of Bank of England or Jersey banknotes. Since the intervention of the Treasurer of the States in 2005, cash machines generally (with the exception of those at the airport and Elizabeth Harbour) no longer dispense British notes.

The main currency of Jersey is the pound, although in many places the euro is accepted because of the location of the island. Pound coins are issued, but are much less widely used than pound notes. Designs on the reverse of Jersey pound coins include historic ships built in Jersey and a series of the twelve parishes' crests, the motto around the milled edge of Jersey pound coins is Insula Caesarea (Island of Jersey). Two pound coins are also issued, but in very small quantities.

In July 2014, the Jersey Financial Services Commission approved the establishment of the world's first regulated Bitcoin fund, at a time when the digital currency was being accepted by some local businesses.[80]

Censuses have been undertaken in Jersey since 1821; in the 2011 census, the total resident population was estimated to be 97,857, of whom 34% live in Saint Helier, the island's only town.[81] Only half the island's population was born in Jersey; 31% of the population were born elsewhere in the British Isles, 7% in continental Portugal or Madeira, 8% in other European countries and 4% elsewhere.[82]

The people of Jersey are often called Islanders or, in individual terms, Jerseyman or Jerseywoman, some Jersey-born people identify as British.

For immigration and nationality purposes, the United Kingdom generally treats Jersey as though it were part of the UK. Jersey is constitutionally entitled to restrict immigration[84] by non-Jersey residents, but control of immigration at the point of entry cannot be introduced for British, certain Commonwealth and EEA nationals without change to existing international law.[85] Immigration is therefore controlled by a mixture of restrictions on those without residential status purchasing or renting property in the island and restrictions on employment. Migration policy is to move to a registration system to integrate residential and employment status.[85] Jersey maintains its own immigration[86] and border controls. United Kingdom immigration legislation may be extended to Jersey by order in council (subject to exceptions and adaptations) following consultation with Jersey and with Jersey's consent,[87] although Jersey citizens are full British citizens, an endorsement restricting the right of establishment in European Union states other than the UK is placed in the passports of British citizens connected solely with the Channel Islands and Isle of Man.[88] Those who have a parent or grandparent born in the United Kingdom, or who have lived in the United Kingdom for five years, are not subject to this restriction.

Historical large-scale immigration was facilitated by the introduction of steamships (from 1823). By 1840, up to 5,000 English people, mostly half-pay officers and their families, had settled in Jersey;[23] in the aftermath of 1848, Polish, Russian, Hungarian, Italian and French political refugees came to Jersey. Following Louis Napoléon's coup of 1851, more French proscrits arrived. By the end of the 19th century, well-to-do British families, attracted by the lack of income tax, were settling in Jersey in increasing numbers, establishing St Helier as a predominantly English-speaking town.

Seasonal work in agriculture had depended mostly on Bretons and mainland Normans from the 19th century, the growth of tourism attracted staff from the United Kingdom. Following liberation in 1945, agricultural workers were mostly recruited from the United Kingdom – the demands of reconstruction in mainland Normandy and Brittany employed domestic labour.

Until the 1960s, the population had been relatively stable for decades at around 60,000 (excluding the Occupation years). Economic growth spurred immigration and a rise in population, which is now (2013) about 100,000, from the 1960s Portuguese workers arrived, mostly working initially in seasonal industries in agriculture and tourism.

Immigration has helped give aspects of Jersey a distinct urban character, particularly in and around the parish of St Helier, which contributes much to ongoing debates between development and sustainability throughout the island.[89]

Religion in Jersey has a complex history and much diversity, the established church is the Church of England, from 2015 under the See of Canterbury (previously under the Winchester diocese). In the countryside, Methodism found its traditional stronghold. A substantial minority of Roman Catholics can also be found in Jersey. There are two Catholic private combined primary and secondary schools: De La Salle College in Saint Saviour is an all-boys school, and Beaulieu Convent School in Saint Saviour is an all-girls school; and FCJ primary school in St. Saviour. A Catholic order of Sisters has a presence in school life.

Until the 19th century, indigenous Jèrriais – a variety of Norman – was the language of the island, though French was used for official business. During the 20th century, British cultural influence saw an intense language shift take place and Jersey today is predominantly English-speaking.[20] Jèrriais nonetheless survives; around 2,600 islanders (three percent) are reckoned to be habitual speakers, and some 10,000 (12 percent) in all claim some knowledge of the language, particularly amongst the elderly in rural parishes. There have been efforts to revive Jèrriais in schools, and the highest number of declared Jèrriais speakers is in the capital.

The dialects of Jèrriais differ in phonology and, to a lesser extent, lexis between parishes, with the most marked differences to be heard between those of the west and east. Many place names are in Jèrriais, and French and English place names are also to be found. Anglicisation of the place names increased apace with the migration of English people to the island.

Some Neolithic carvings are the earliest works of artistic character to be found in Jersey. Only fragmentary wall-paintings remain from the rich mediaeval artistic heritage, after the wholesale iconoclasm of the Calvinist Reformation of the 16th century.

The island is particularly famous for the Battle of Flowers, a carnival held annually since 1902.[90] Other festivals include La Fête dé Noué[91] (Christmas festival), La Faîs'sie d'Cidre (cidermaking festival),[92] the Battle of Britain air display, Jersey Live Music Festival, Branchage Film Festival, food festivals, and parish events.

The traditional folk music of Jersey was common in country areas until the mid-20th century, it cannot be separated from the musical traditions of continental Europe, and the majority of songs and tunes that have been documented have close parallels or variants, particularly in France. Most of the surviving traditional songs are in French, with a minority in Jèrriais.

In contemporary music, Nerina Pallot has enjoyed international success. Music festivals include Jersey Live, Jersey Dead, Rock in the Park, Avanchi presents Jazz in July, the music section of the Jersey Eisteddfod and the Liberation Jersey Music Festival.[95]

In 1909, T. J. West established the first cinema in the Royal Hall in St. Helier, which became known as West's Cinema in 1923 (demolished 1977), the first talking picture, The Perfect Alibi, was shown on 30 December 1929 at the Picture House in St. Helier, the Jersey Film Society was founded on 11 December 1947 at the Café Bleu, West's Cinema. The large Art Deco Forum Cinema was opened in 1935 – during the German occupation this was used for German propaganda films.

The Odeon Cinema was opened 2 June 1952 and, was later rebranded in the early 21st century as the Forum cinema, its owners, however, struggled to meet tough competition from the Cineworld Cinemas group, which opened a 10 screen multiplex on the waterfront centre in St. Helier on reclaimed land in December 2002 and the Odeon closed its doors in late 2008, the Odeon is now a listed building.[96][97]

Since 1997, Kevin Lewis (formerly of the Cine Centre and the New Forum) has arranged the Jersey Film Festival, a charity event showing the latest and also classic films outdoors in 35 mm on a big screen. The 2011 festival was held in Howard Davis Park, St Saviour, on the 13–19 August 2011.[98]

Jersey milk being very rich, cream and butter have played a large part in insular cooking. (See Channel Island milk) However, there is no indigenous tradition of cheese making, contrary to the custom of mainland Normandy, but some cheese is produced commercially. Jersey fudge, mostly imported and made with milk from overseas Jersey cattle herds, is a popular food product with tourists.

Jersey Royal potatoes are the local variety of new potato, and the island is famous for its early crop of Chats (small potatoes) from the south-facing côtils (steeply sloping fields). Originally grown using vraic as a natural fertiliser giving them their own individual taste, only a small portion of those grown in the island still use this method, they are eaten in a variety of ways, often simply boiled and served with butter or when not as fresh fried in butter.

Apples historically were an important crop. Bourdélots are apple dumplings, but the most typical speciality is black butter (lé nièr beurre), a dark spicy spread prepared from apples, cider and spices. Cider used to be an important export. After decline and near-disappearance in the late 20th century, apple production is being increased and promoted. Besides cider, apple brandy is produced. Other production of alcohol drinks includes wine,[100] and in 2013 the first commercial vodkas made from Jersey Royal potatoes were marketed.[101]

In sporting events in which Jersey does not have international representation, when the British Home Nations are competing separately, islanders that do have high athletic skill may choose to compete for any of the Home Nations – there are, however, restrictions on subsequent transfers to represent another Home Nation.

Jersey is an associate member of the International Cricket Council (ICC), the Jersey cricket team plays in the Inter-insular match among others. The Jersey cricket team competed in the World Division 4, held in Tanzania in October 2008, after recently finishing as runners-up and therefore being promoted from the World Division 5 held in Jersey, they also competed in the European Division 2, held in Guernsey during August 2008. The youth cricket teams have been promoted to play in the European Division 1 alongside Ireland, Scotland, Denmark, the Netherlands and Guernsey; in two tournaments at this level Jersey have finished 6th.

Jersey has two public indoor swimming pools. Swimming in the sea, windsurfing and other marine sports are practised. Jersey Swimming Club have organised an annual swim from Elizabeth Castle to Saint Helier Harbour for over 50 years. A round-island swim is a major challenge that a select number of swimmers have achieved, the Royal Channel Island Yacht Club is based in Jersey.

There is one facility for extreme sports and some facilities for youth sports. Jersey has one un-roofed skateboarding park. Coastal cliffs provide opportunities for rock climbing.

The States of Jersey provides education through state schools (including a fee-paying option at secondary level) and also supports private schools, the Jersey curriculum follows that of England.[21] It follows the National Curriculum although there are a few differences to adapt for the island,[105] for example all Year 4 students study a 6-week Jersey Studies course.[106]

The Institute of Law is Jersey's law school, providing a course for students seeking to qualify as Jersey advocates and solicitors, it also provides teaching for students enrolled on the University of London LLB degree programme, via the International Programmes. The Institute of Law also runs a 'double degree' whereby students can obtain the LLB from the University of London and a "Licence en droit M1" from Toulouse 1 Capitol University; the 2 combine 4 years of studies both in English and French. The Open University supports students in Jersey, but they pay higher fees than UK students. Private sector higher education providers include the Jersey International Business School.

Three areas of land are protected for their ecological or geological interest as Sites of Special Interest (SSI). Jersey has four designated Ramsar sites: Les Pierres de Lecq, Les Minquiers, Les Écréhous & Les Dirouilles and the south east coast of Jersey (a large area of intertidal zone).[107]

The red-billed choughPyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax became extinct in Jersey around 1900, when changes in farming and grazing practices led to a decline in the coastal slope habitat required by this species. Birds on the Edge, a project between States of Jersey, Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and Jersey National Trust, is working to restore Jersey's coastal habitats and reinstate the red-billed chough (and other bird species) to the island[110]

Jersey is the only place in the British Isles where the agile frog Rana dalmatina is found,[111] the remaining population of agile frogs on Jersey is very small and is restricted to the south west of the island. The species is the subject of an ongoing programme to save it from extinction in Jersey via a collaboration between States of Jersey, Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and Jersey Amphibian and Reptile Group (JARG), with support and sponsorship from several other organisations. The programme includes captive breeding and release, public awareness and habitat restoration activities.[112]

Historically the island has given its name to a variety of overly-large cabbage, the Jersey cabbage, also known as Jersey kale or cow cabbage.[117]

Japanese Knotweed Fallopia japonica is an invasive species that threatens Jersey's biodiversity,[118] it is easily recognisable and has hollow stems with small white flowers that are produced in late summer.[119] Other non-native species on the island include the Colorado beetle, burnet rose and oak processionary moth.[118]

^Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, Article 355(5)(c) TFEU states "the Treaties shall apply to the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man only to the extent necessary to ensure the implementation of the arrangements for those islands set out in the Treaty concerning the accession of new Member States to the European Economic Community and to the European Atomic Energy Community signed on 22 January 1972".

^Geographically it is not part of the British Isles. As of 15 October 2006, the States of Jersey indicates that the island is situated "only 22 km off the northwest coast of France and 140 km south of England".

^"Visas / entry clearances / work permit issue". Home Affairs, Customs & Immigration, Immigration. States of Jersey. Archived from the original on 10 October 2007. Retrieved 14 September 2009. Passengers arriving from outside of the Common Travel Area (United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Channel Islands and the Isle of Man) will pass through an Immigration control.

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Crown dependency
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The Crown dependencies are the Isle of Man in the Irish Sea and the Bailiwicks of Jersey and Guernsey in the English Channel. Being independently administered jurisdictions, they do not form part of either the United Kingdom or the British Overseas Territories and they are self-governing possessions of the Crown. Internationally, the dependencies are considered territories for which the United Kingdom is responsible rather than as sovereign states, as a result, they are not member states of the Commonwealth of Nations. However, they do have a relationship with the Commonwealth, the European Union and they are not part of the European Union, although they are within the EUs customs area. In each case, the head of government is referred to as a Chief Minister, the Crown is defined differently in each crown dependency. Legislation of the Isle of Man defines the Crown in right of the Isle of Man as being separate from the Crown in right of the United Kingdom and this constitutional concept is also worded as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Guernsey. Each Bailiwick is a Crown dependency and each is headed by a Bailiff, each Bailiwick has its own legal and healthcare systems, and their own separate immigration policies, with local status in one Bailiwick having no jurisdiction in the other. The two Bailiwicks exercise bilateral double taxation treaties, since 1961, the Bailiwicks have had separate courts of appeal, but generally the Bailiff of each Bailiwick has been appointed to serve on the panel of appellate judges for the other Bailiwick. The Bailiwick of Guernsey comprises three separate jurisdictions, Guernsey, which also the nearby islands of Herm and Jethou. Sark, which includes the nearby island of Brecqhou. Alderney, including smaller surrounding uninhabited islands, the parliament of Guernsey is the States of Deliberation, the parliament of Sark is called the Chief Pleas, and the parliament of Alderney is called the States of Alderney. The three parliaments together can also approve joint Bailiwick-wide legislation that applies in those parts of the Bailiwick whose parliaments approve it. Guernsey issues its own coins and banknotes, Guernsey banknotes Coins of the Guernsey pound These circulate freely in both Bailiwicks alongside UK coinage and English and Scottish banknotes and they are not legal tender within the UK. There are no parties in any of the parliaments, candidates stand for election as independents. e. 5432 on 2 wheels and on 4 wheels, the Bailiwick of Jersey consists of the island of Jersey and a number of surrounding uninhabited islands. The parliament is the States of Jersey, the first known mention of which is in a document of 1497, Jersey issues its own coins and banknotes, Jersey banknotes Coins of the Jersey pound These circulate freely in both Bailiwicks alongside UK coinage and English and Scottish banknotes. They are not legal tender within the UK but are legal currency backed by deposits at the Bank of England, there are few political parties, as candidates generally stand for election as independents. The Isle of Mans Tynwald claims to be the worlds oldest parliament in continuous existence, candidates often stand for election as independents, rather than being selected by political parties

2.
Ethnic groups
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An ethnic group or ethnicity is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities, such as common ancestral, language, social, cultural or national experiences. Unlike other social groups, ethnicity is often an inherited status based on the society in which one lives, in some cases, it can be adopted if a person moves into another society. Ethnic groups, derived from the historical founder population, often continue to speak related languages. By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, it is possible for individuals or groups to leave one ethnic group. Ethnicity is often used synonymously with terms such as nation or people. In English, it can also have the connotation of something exotic, generally related to cultures of more recent immigrants, the largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hundreds of millions of individuals, while the smallest are limited to a few dozen individuals. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a pan-ethnicity, whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis. The term ethnic is derived from the Greek word ἔθνος ethnos, the inherited English language term for this concept is folk, used alongside the latinate people since the late Middle English period. In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan, as the Septuagint used ta ethne to translate the Hebrew goyim the nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews. The Greek term in antiquity could refer to any large group, a host of men. In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of peculiar to a race, people or nation, the abstract ethnicity had been used for paganism in the 18th century, but now came to express the meaning of an ethnic character. The term ethnic group was first recorded in 1935 and entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 1972, depending on the context that is used, the term nationality may either be used synonymously with ethnicity, or synonymously with citizenship. The process that results in the emergence of an ethnicity is called ethnogenesis, the Greeks at this time did not describe foreign nations but had also developed a concept of their own ethnicity, which they grouped under the name of Hellenes. Herodotus gave an account of what defined Greek ethnic identity in his day, enumerating shared descent. Whether ethnicity qualifies as a universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used. Many social scientists, such as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf and they regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups. According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently, one is between primordialism and instrumentalism. In the primordialist view, the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, as a given, even coercive

3.
Irish people
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The Irish people are a nation and ethnic group native to the island of Ireland, who share a common Irish ancestry, identity and culture. Ireland has been inhabited for about 9,000 years according to archaeological studies, for most of Irelands recorded history, the Irish have been primarily a Gaelic people. Today, Ireland is made up of the Republic of Ireland, the people of Northern Ireland hold various national identities, including Irish, Northern Irish, British, or some combination thereof. The Irish have their own customs, language, music, dance, sports, cuisine, although Irish was their main language in the past, today the huge majority of Irish people speak English as their first language. Historically, the Irish nation was made up of kin groups or clans, there have been many notable Irish people throughout history. After Irelands conversion to Christianity, Irish missionaries and scholars exerted great influence on Western Europe, the 6th-century Irish monk and missionary Columbanus is regarded as one of the fathers of Europe, followed by saints Cillian and Fergal. The scientist Robert Boyle is considered the father of chemistry, famous Irish writers include Oscar Wilde, W. B. Yeats, George Bernard Shaw, Bram Stoker and James Joyce, notable Irish explorers include Brendan the Navigator, Robert McClure, Ernest Shackleton and Tom Crean. By some accounts, the first European child born in North America had Irish descent on both sides, many presidents of the United States have had some Irish ancestry. The population of Ireland is about 6.3 million, but it is estimated that 50 to 80 million people around the world have Irish forebears, historically, emigration from Ireland has been the result of conflict, famine and economic issues. People of Irish descent are mainly in English-speaking countries, especially the United Kingdom. There are also significant numbers in Argentina, Mexico and New Zealand, the United States has the most people of Irish descent, while in Australia those of Irish descent are a higher percentage of the population than in any other country. Many Icelanders have Irish and Scottish Gaelic forebears, in its summary of their article Who were the Celts. The National Museum Wales notes It is possible that genetic studies of ancient. However, early studies have, so far, tended to produce implausible conclusions from very small numbers of people and using outdated assumptions about linguistics, nineteenth century anthropology studied the physical characteristics of Irish people in minute detail. During the past 10,000 years of inhabitation, Ireland has witnessed some different peoples arrive on its shores, the ancient peoples of Ireland—such as the creators of the Céide Fields and Newgrange—are almost unknown. Neither their languages nor terms they used to describe themselves have survived, as late as the middle centuries of the 1st millennium the inhabitants of Ireland did not appear to have a collective name for themselves. Ireland itself was known by a number of different names, including Banba, Fódla, Ériu by the islanders, Iouerne and Hiverne to the Greeks, other Latin names for people from Ireland in Classic and Mediaeval sources include Attacotti and Gael

4.
Asian people
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Asian people or Asiatic people are people who descend from a portion of Asias population. There are varieties of definition and geographical data presented by organizations, the Australian Census includes Central Asia. The Australian Census includes four regions of Asia in its official definition, defined by the 2006–2011 Australian Census, three broad groups have the word Asian included in their name, Central and Southern Asian, South-East Asian and North-East Asian. Russians are classified as Southern and Eastern Europeans while Middle Easterners are classified as North African, the Canadian Census uses the term Asian pan-continentally and the list of visible minorities includes West Asian, South Asian, Central Asian and Southeast Asian. The Canadian government uses West Asian in its statistics, however people from the Arab countries of Western Asia are counted in a separate Arab category. New Zealands census undertaken by Statistics New Zealand defines the Asian to include people of Chinese, Indian, Korean, Filipino, Japanese, Vietnamese, Sri Lankan, Cambodian, in less formal contexts, the term Asian often does not include South Asian people. Statistics Norway uses the term Asian pan-continentally and considers people of Asian background to be people from all Asian countries, Statistics Sweden uses the term Asian to refer to immigrants of Asian background from all Asian countries, including the Middle East. In the United Kingdom, the term Asian is more associated with people of South Asian origin, particularly Indians, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis. The UK usage of the term Asian is reflected in the group section of UK census forms. Peter J. Aspinall of the Centre for Health Services Studies, University of Kent, recommends privileging the term South Asian over the term Asian, earlier Census forms from 1980 and prior listed particular Asian ancestries as separate groups along with White and Black or Negro. Previously, Asian Americans were classified as other, but the 1980 Census marked the first general analyses of Asians as a group, combining several individual ancestry groups into Asian or Pacific Islander. By the 1990 Census, Asian or Pacific Islander was included as an explicit category, the 2000 and 2010 U. S. Census Bureau definition of the Asian race includes those who originate from the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent. In 1930 and 1940, Indian Americans were identified as a race, Hindu, and in 1950 and 1960 they were racially classified as Other Race. Since 1980, Indians and all other South Asians have been classified as part of the Asian ethnic group, sociologist Madhulika Khandelwal described how. as a result of activism, South Asians came to be included as Asians in the census only in the 80s. Prior to that many South Asians had been checking Caucasian or Other, respondents can also report their specific ancestry, e. g. Okinawan, etc. Someone reporting these ancestries but no race would be classified as Asian, unlike South Asians, Jewish Americans, Israeli Americans, Arab Americans, Iranian Americans and Central Asian Americans have not lobbied to be included as Asians by the U. S. Census Board. In normal American usage Asian does not refer to the people from the Pacific Islands who are usually called Pacific Islanders, the term Asians and Pacific Islanders or Asia/Pacific was used on the 1990 US Census. However, in the 2000 US Census, the Asian or Pacific Islander category was separated into two categories, Asian and Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, however, there are instances where the term is used solely to refer to those of South Asian descent

5.
Politics of Jersey
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Politics of the Bailiwick of Jersey takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic constitution. As one of the Crown Dependencies, Jersey is autonomous and self-governing, with its own independent legal, administrative, the legislature is the Assembly of the States of Jersey. Executive powers are exercised by a Chief Minister and nine ministers. Other executive powers are exercised by the Connétable and Parish Assembly in each of the twelve parishes, elizabeth IIs traditional title as Head of State is Duke of Normandy. The Crown is defined by the Law Officers of the Crown as the Crown in right of Jersey, the Queens representative and adviser in the island is the Lieutenant Governor of Jersey. Since 2011, the incumbent Lieutenant Governor has been Sir John McColl, the Crown appoints the Lieutenant Governor, the Bailiff, Deputy Bailiff, Attorney General and Solicitor General. Jersey has an unwritten constitution arising from the Treaty of Paris, when Henry III and the King of France came to terms over the Duchy of Normandy, all lands except the Channel Islands recognised the suzerainty of the King of France. The Channel Islands however were never absorbed into the Kingdom of England by any Act of Union, two significant constitutional reforms took place during the 20th century. In 1946, the States of Jersey drew up plans for following the German Occupation. No change was made to the functions of the Bailiff, the twelve Jurats were removed from the assembly of the States of Jersey and replaced by twelve senators elected on an island-wide basis who would have no judicial functions. The twelve Rectors also lost their place in the States assembly, no reforms were made to the role of the Deputies in the assembly. The second major reforms took place in December 2005, when the States of Jersey Law 2005 came into force and this created a system of ministerial government to replace the previous committee-based administration. In 2010, the States assembly agreed to holding elections for all seats on a single date, in December 2010, a committee chaired by Lord Carswell recommended changes to the role of the Bailiff—in particular that the Bailiff should cease to the presiding officer over the States assembly. In April 2011, Deputy Le Claire lodged au Greffe a request for the Chief Minister to produce, for debate, a draft written Constitution for Jersey, tensions have, however, arisen from time to time. In the 1980s, there were discussions about a contribution from Jersey towards the United Kingdoms costs in relation to defence. Has not been informed by any real appreciation of the status of the Crown dependencies or the rights of free movement of Islanders. In 2009, the UK cancelled the reciprocal health agreement with Jersey, from 2005 to 2011, there were protracted dealings between Jersey and the United Kingdom over Jerseys zero-ten tax regime and whether it would be acceptable to the European Union. Although Jersey is for most day-to-day purposes entirely self-governing in relation to its internal affairs, the 1973 Kilbrandon Report stated that In international law the United Kingdom Government is responsible for the Islands international relations and also responsible for the defence of the Islands

Politics of Jersey
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The Lieutenant Governor is the representative of head of state and the Bailiff is the civic head. Both are appointed by the Crown. Here the holders of the offices in 2011 are seen processing alongside on Liberation Day
Politics of Jersey
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Jersey
Politics of Jersey
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The States building in St. Helier
Politics of Jersey
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Cyril Le Marquand House, St Helier, accommodating several States' departments

6.
Parliamentary democracy
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Representative democracy is a type of democracy founded on the principle of elected officials representing a group of people, as opposed to direct democracy. Representative democracy is often presented as the most efficient form of democracy possible in mass societies and it arguably allows for efficient ruling by a sufficiently small number of people on behalf of the larger number. Government efficiency can be judged based on metric of cost effectiveness, representatives voting on behalf of the people allows for a monetary benefit as there is lessened use of polling stations, vote counters, etc. The government is responsible for paying for the wages of the representatives. This system of governance is also time efficient as decisions can be made by a select few and it is a system in which people elect their lawmakers, who are then held accountable to them for their activity within government. It has been described by political theorists including Robert A Dahl, Gregory Houston. In it the power is in the hands of the representatives who are elected by the people in elections. Representatives are elected by the public, as in elections for the national legislature. Elected representatives may hold the power to other representatives, presidents, or other officers of the government or of the legislature. The constitution may also provide for some deliberative democracy or direct popular measures, however, these are not always binding and usually require some legislative action—legal power usually remains firmly with representatives. Their wishes ought to have great weight with him, their opinion, high respect, their business, unremitted attention. It is his duty to sacrifice his repose, his pleasures, his satisfactions, to theirs, and above all, ever, and in all cases, to prefer their interest to his own. But his unbiassed opinion, his judgment, his enlightened conscience, he ought not to sacrifice to you, to any man. These he does not derive from your pleasure, no, nor from the law and they are a trust from Providence, for the abuse of which he is deeply answerable. Your representative owes you, not his only, but his judgment. The Roman Republic was the first government in the world to have a representative government. In Britain, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments, the first, in 1258, stripped the King of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns. Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution, the American Revolution led to the creation of a new Constitution of the United States in 1787

7.
Duke of Normandy
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In the Middle Ages, the Duke of Normandy was the ruler of the Duchy of Normandy in northwestern France. The duchy arose out of a grant of land to the Viking leader Rollo by the French king Charles III in 911, in 924 and again in 933, Normandy was expanded by royal grant. Rollos male-line descendants continued to rule it down to 1135, in 1202 the French king Philip II declared Normandy forfeit and by 1204 his army had conquered it. It remained a French royal province thereafter, still called the Duchy of Normandy, there is no record of Rollo holding or using any title. His son and grandson, William I and Richard I, used the titles count, prior to 1066, the most common title of the ruler of Normandy was Count of Normandy or Count of the Normans. The title Count of Rouen was never used in any official document, defying Norman pretensions to the ducal title, Adhemar of Chabannes was still referring to the Norman ruler as Count of Rouen as late as the 1020s. The late 11th-century Norman historian William of Poitiers used the title Count of Rouen for the Norman rulers down to Richard II, the first recorded use of the title duke is in a act in favour of the Abbey of Fécamp in 1006 by Richard II. Earlier, the writer Richer of Reims had called Richard I a dux pyratorum, during the reign of Richard II, the French kings chancery began also called the Norman ruler Duke of the Normans for the first time. As late as the reign of William II, the ruler of Normandy could style himself prince and duke, count of Normandy as if unsure what his title should be. The literal Latin equivalent of Duke of Normandy, dux Normanniae, was in use by 1066, Richard I experimented with the title marquis as early as 966, when it was also used in a diploma of King Lothair. Richard II occasionally used it, but he seems to have preferred the title duke and it is his preference for the ducal title in his own charters that has led historians to believe that it was the chosen title of the Norman rulers. Certainly it was not granted to them by the French king, in the twelfth century, the Abbey of Fécamp spread the legend that it had been granted to Richard II by Pope Benedict VIII. The French chancery did not regularly employ it until after 1204, the actual reason for the adoption of a higher title than that of count was that the rulers of Normandy began to grant the comital title to members of their own family. The creation of Norman counts subject to the ruler of Normandy necessitated the taking a higher title. The same process was at work in other principalities of France in the century, as the comital title came into wider use. The Normans nevertheless kept the title of count for the ducal family, from 1066, when William II conquered England, becoming King William I, the title Duke of Normandy was often held by the King of England. In 1087, William died and the passed to his eldest son, Robert Curthose, while his second surviving son, William Rufus. In 1096, Robert mortgaged Normandy to William, who was succeeded by brother, Henry I

Duke of Normandy
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Statue of Rollo in Falaise, Calvados
Duke of Normandy
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William I (William the Conqueror)
Duke of Normandy
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"La Reine, Notre Duc": title of a Diamond Jubilee exhibition at the Jersey Arts Centre

8.
Lieutenant Governor of Jersey
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The Lieutenant Governor of Jersey is the representative of the British monarch in the Bailiwick of Jersey, a Crown dependency of the British Crown. The Lieutenant Governor has his own flag in Jersey, the Union Flag defaced with the Bailiwicks coat of arms, the Lieutenant Governors official residence in St. Saviour was depicted on the Jersey £50 note 1989–2010. The duties are primarily diplomatic and ceremonial, the role of the Lieutenant Governor is to act as the de facto head of state in Jersey. The Lieutenant Governor also liaises between the Governments of Jersey and the United Kingdom. The holder of office is also ex officio a member of the States of Jersey but may not vote and, by convention, speaks in the Chamber only on appointment. The Lieutenant Governor exercises certain executive functions relating broadly to citizenship, deportation from Jersey is ordered by the Lieutenant Governor. Certificates of naturalisation as a British citizen are issued by the Lieutenant Governor, the office of Lieutenant Governor has its origins in the Norman administration of the Channel Islands. The functions of the bailiff and the official who was later to become known as Lieutenant Governor became separate in the aftermath of the division of Normandy in 1204. However the respective responsibilities of the two officials were only defined in the 17th century as a result of a power struggle between bailiff and governor. The post of Governor of Jersey became a sinecure. The States of Jersey Law 2005 abolished any power of the Lieutenant Governor to veto a resolution of the States, Governors have been, Lieutenant Governors of Jersey have been, Official website

Lieutenant Governor of Jersey
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Incumbent Gen. Sir John McCollKCB, CBE, DSO
Lieutenant Governor of Jersey
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The Flag of the Lieutenant Governor of Jersey
Lieutenant Governor of Jersey
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Liberation Day 2010: The Lieutenant Governor, having arrived in the Royal Square in his official car, greets the Bailiff of Jersey.
Lieutenant Governor of Jersey
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In this caricature of 1873, Bailiff of Jersey Jean Hammond greets newly arrived Lieutenant Governor Norcott

9.
Stephen Dalton
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Air Chief Marshal Sir Stephen Gary George Dalton, GCB, ADC is a retired Royal Air Force commander and current Lieutenant Governor of Jersey. As commanding officer of XIII Squadron, he deployed on Operation Jural and he then moved on to high command, serving as Head of Air Operations at the Ministry of Defence during the preparations for and conduct of Operation Telic in Iraq. In that capacity he implemented 2,700 redundancies, as determined by the Strategic Defence, Dalton was educated at Clarendon Park Junior School and Lancaster School in Leicester, and then the University of Bath, where he studied Aeronautical Engineering. Dalton was commissioned as a University Cadet on 16 September 1973, Dalton was promoted to flying officer on 15 January 1977, and then flight lieutenant on 15 October 1977. He flew the SEPECAT Jaguar on three tours, operating from the UK and Germany in both attack and tactical reconnaissance roles. Dalton was promoted to squadron leader on 1 July 1984, following the Advanced Staff Course, training to fly the Panavia Tornado, and promotion to wing commander on 1 July 1990, Dalton commanded XIII Squadron. He deployed on Operation Jural, the United Kingdoms contribution to Operation Southern Watch enforcing the No-Fly Zone over Southern Iraq, Dalton was promoted to group captain on 1 July 1994, and in 1997 took command of RAF Coltishall and the RAFs Jaguar force. On promotion to air commodore on 1 January 2000, he was appointed Head of the Eurofighter Typhoon Programme Assurance Group at the Ministry of Defence, following the Higher Command and Staff Course in 2002, Dalton was appointed Head of Air Operations, also at the Ministry of Defence. His tenure in this role was dominated by the preparations for, on promotion to air vice marshal on 14 May 2003, Dalton was appointed Director Information Superiority. He was also appointed Controller Aircraft in 2004, retaining this post upon his appointment as Director Typhoon on 2 May 2006 and he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 2006 New Year Honours. On 1 May 2007, Dalton was promoted to air marshal, in the 2009 Birthday Honours he was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath. He was promoted to air marshal and appointed Chief of the Air Staff. Dalton was appointed Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in the 2012 Birthday Honours, in light of the Libyan conflict, Dalton warned that there was a heck of a lot to be doing and that the military was nearing the point of exhaustion. Dalton was appointed as Honorary Air Commodore to the RAF Regiment on 21 September 2013 and he became Vice President of the Yorkshire Air Museum in 2009 before taking up the post of President in 2015. It was announced on 20 December 2016 that Dalton would be appointed Lieutenant Governor of Jersey and he was sworn in to office on 13 March 2017. Dalton is married with two grown-up children and his interests include sports, theatre and history. He was awarded a degree by the University of Leicester in 2011. BBC News – Profile, Air Marshal Stephen Dalton

Stephen Dalton
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Air Chief Marshal Sir Stephen Dalton in Afghanistan, January 2010
Stephen Dalton
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Jaguars of RAF Germany in the late 70s, a type flown by Dalton on three tours in the UK and Germany

10.
Chief Minister of Jersey
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The Chief Minister of Jersey is the head of government of Jersey, leading the Council of Ministers. The head of government is not directly elected by the people, the first Chief Minister of Jersey was elected on 5 December 2005 following the Jersey elections,2005. Senator Terry Le Sueur was elected Chief Minister on 8 December 2008 following the Jersey general election,2008, in a secret ballot, the States of Jersey voted for Senator Le Sueur with 36 votes. The only other challenger, Senator Alan Breckon, received 17 votes, Senator Ian Gorst was elected Chief Minister in an open ballot on 14 November 2011, beating Senator Sir Philip Bailhache 27 votes to 24. He nominated his preferred candidates for office on 16 November 2011

11.
Duchy of Normandy
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The Duchy of Normandy grew out of the 911 Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte between King Charles III of West Francia and Rollo, leader of the Vikings. From 1066 until 1204 it was held by the kings of England, except for the rule of Robert Curthose. Normandy was declared forfeit by Philip II of France in 1202 and it remained disputed territory until the Treaty of Paris of 1259, when the English sovereigns ceded their claim, except for the Channel Islands. The duchy was named for its inhabitants, the Normans, the title of Duke of Normandy was then sporadically conferred in the kingdom of France as an honorific but non-feudal title, the last one having been Louis XVII of France from 1785 to 1789. The first Viking attack on the river Seine took place in 820, by 911, the area had been raided many times and there were even small Viking settlements on the lower Seine. The text of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte has not survived and it is only known through the historian Dudo of Saint-Quentin, who was writing a century after the event. The exact date of the treaty is unknown, but it was likely in the autumn of 911, by the agreement, Charles III, king of the West Franks, granted to the Viking leader Rollo some lands along the lower Seine that were apparently already under Danish control. Whether Rollo himself was a Dane or a Norwegian is not known, for his part, Rollo agreed to defend the territory from other Vikings and that he and his men would convert to Christianity. The territory ceded to Rollo comprised the pagi of the Caux, Évrecin, Roumois and this was territory formerly known as the county of Rouen, and which would become Upper Normandy. A royal diploma of 918 confirms the donation of 911, using the verb adnuo. There is no evidence that Rollo owed any service or oath to the king for his lands, nor there were any legal means for the king to take them back. Likewise, Rollo does not seem to have created a count or given comital authority. In 924, King Radulf extended Rollos county westward up to the river Vire, including the Bessin, in 933, King Radulf granted the Avranchin and Cotentin to Rollos son and successor, William Longsword. These areas had been previously under Breton rule, the northern Cotentin had been settled by Norwegians coming from the region of the Irish Sea. There was initially much hostility between these Norwegian settlers and their new Danish overlords and these expansions brought the boundaries of Normandy roughly in line with those of the ecclesiastical province of Rouen. There were two distinct patterns of Norse settlement in the duchy, in the Danish area in the Roumois and the Caux, settlers intermingled with the indigenous Gallo-Romance-speaking population. Rollo shared out the estates with his companions and gave agricultural land to his other followers. Danish settlers cleared their own land to farm it, and there was no segregation of populations, in the northern Cotentin on the other hand, the population was purely Norwegian

12.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943

13.
List of countries and dependencies by population
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This is a list of countries and dependent territories by population. For instance, the United Kingdom is considered as a single entity while the constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands are considered separately, in addition, this list includes certain states with limited recognition not found in ISO 3166-1. The population figures do not reflect the practice of countries that report significantly different populations of citizens domestically, some countries, notably Thailand, do not report total population, exclusively counting citizens, for total populations an international agency must issue an estimate. Also given in percent is each countrys population compared to the population of the world, figures used in this chart are based on the most up to date estimate or projections by the national census authority where available, and are usually rounded off. Where updated national data are not available, figures are based on the projections for 2016 by the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Because the compiled figures are not collected at the time in every country, or at the same level of accuracy. Furthermore, the addition of figures from all countries may not equal the world total, a handful of nations have not conducted a census in over 30 years, providing high error margin estimates only. Areas that form parts of sovereign states, such as the countries of the United Kingdom, are counted as part of the sovereign states concerned. Note, All dependent territories or constituent countries that are parts of states are shown in italics

List of countries and dependencies by population
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A map of world population in 2014

14.
Pound sterling
–
It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system

15.
ISO 4217
–
The ISO4217 code list is used in banking and business globally. ISO4217 codes are used on tickets and international train tickets to remove any ambiguity about the price. The first two letters of the code are the two letters of the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes and the third is usually the initial of the currency itself, so Japans currency code is JPY—JP for Japan and Y for yen. This eliminates the problem caused by the dollar, franc, peso and pound being used in dozens of different countries. Also, if a currency is revalued, the currency codes last letter is changed to distinguish it from the old currency. Other changes can be seen, however, the Russian ruble, for example, changed from RUR to RUB and these currency units are denominated as one troy ounce of the specified metal as opposed to USD1 or EUR1. The code XTS is reserved for use in testing, the code XXX is used to denote a transaction involving no currency. There are also codes specifying certain monetary instruments used in international finance, the codes for most supranational currencies, such as the East Caribbean dollar, the CFP franc, the CFA franc BEAC and the CFA franc BCEAO. The predecessor to the euro, the European Currency Unit, had the code XEU, the use of an initial letter X for these purposes is facilitated by the ISO3166 rule that no official country code beginning with X will ever be assigned. Because of this rule ISO4217 can use X codes without risk of clashing with a country code. ISO3166 country codes beginning with X are used for private custom use, consequently, ISO4217 can use X codes for non-country-specific currencies without risk of clashing with future country codes. The inclusion of EU in the ISO 3166-1 reserved codes list, the ISO4217 standard includes a crude mechanism for expressing the relationship between a major currency unit and its corresponding minor currency unit. This mechanism is called the exponent and assumes a base of 10. For example, USD is equal to 100 of its currency unit the cent. So the USD has exponent 2, the code JPY is given the exponent 0, because its minor unit, the sen, although nominally valued at 1/100 of a yen, is of such negligible value that it is no longer used. Usually, as with the USD, the currency unit has a value that is 1/100 of the major unit, but in some cases 1/1000 is used. Mauritania does not use a decimal division of units, setting 1 ouguiya equal to 5 khoums, some currencies do not have any minor currency unit at all and these are given an exponent of 0, as with currencies whose minor units are unused due to negligible value. There is also a code number assigned to each currency

ISO 4217
–
An airline ticket showing the price in the ISO 4217 code " EUR " (bottom left) and not the currency sign€
ISO 4217
–
A list of exchange rates for various base currencies given by a money changer in Thailand, with the Thailand Baht as the counter (or quote) currency.

16.
Daylight saving time
–
Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year

17.
Right- and left-hand traffic
–
This is so fundamental to traffic flow that it is sometimes referred to as the rule of the road. About two-thirds of the population use RHT, with the remaining 76 countries and territories using LHT. Countries that use LHT account for about a sixth of the worlds area, in the early 1900s some countries including Canada, Spain, and Brazil had different rules in different parts of the country. During the 1900s many countries standardised within their jurisdictions, and changed from LHT to RHT, in 1919,104 of the worlds territories were LHT and an equal number were RHT. From 1919 to 1986,34 of the LHT territories switched to RHT, many of the countries with LHT are former British colonies in the Caribbean, Southern Africa, Southeast Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. Japan, Thailand, Nepal, Bhutan, Mozambique, Suriname, East Timor, in Europe, only four countries still drive on the left, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Malta, and Cyprus, all of which are islands. Nearly all countries use one side or the other throughout their entire territory, most exceptions are due to historical considerations and involve islands with no road connection to the main part of a country. China is RHT except the Special Administrative Regions of China of Hong Kong, the United States is RHT except the United States Virgin Islands. The United Kingdom is LHT, but its overseas territories of Gibraltar, according to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, water traffic is RHT. For aircraft the US Federal Aviation Regulations provide for passing on the right, light rail vehicles generally operate on the same side as other road traffic in the country. Many countries use RHT for automobiles but LHT for trains, often because of the influence of the British on early railway systems, in some countries rail traffic remained LHT after automobile traffic switched to RHT, for example in China, Brazil, and Argentina. However, France, Belgium, and Switzerland have used RHT for automobiles since their introduction, there is no technical reason to prefer one side over the other. Ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Roman troops kept to the left when marching, in 1998, archaeologists found a well-preserved double track leading to a Roman quarry near Swindon. The first reference in English law to an order for LHT was in 1756, northcote Parkinson, believed that ancient travellers on horseback or on foot generally kept to the left, since most people were right handed. If two men riding on horseback were to start a fight, each would edge toward the left, in the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII directed pilgrims to keep left. In the late 1700s, traffic in the United States was RHT based on use of large freight wagons pulled by several pairs of horses. The wagons had no seat, so a postilion sat on the left rear horse. Seated on the left, the driver preferred that other wagons pass him on the left so that he could be sure to keep clear of the wheels of oncoming wagons, in France, traditionally foot traffic had kept right, while carriage traffic kept left

Right- and left-hand traffic
–
A sign on Australia 's Great Ocean Road reminding foreign motorists to keep left. Such signs are placed at the exit of parking areas associated with scenic views, where other road traffic may at times be sparse.
Right- and left-hand traffic
–
Right-hand traffic
Right- and left-hand traffic
–
One of many road signs in the British county of Kent placed on the right-hand side of the road.
Right- and left-hand traffic
–
The change of traffic directions at the Laos–Thai border takes place on Lao territory just off the Thai–Lao Friendship Bridge.

18.
Telephone numbers in Jersey
–
Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom are administered by the UK governments Office of Communications. For this purpose Ofcom established a telephone numbering plan, known as the National Telephone Numbering Plan, since 28 April 2001, almost all geographic numbers and most non-geographic numbers have 9 or 10 national numbers after the 0 trunk code. All mobile telephone numbers have 10 national numbers after the 0 trunk code, regions with shorter area codes, typically large cities, permit the allocation of more telephone numbers as the local number portion has more digits. Local customer numbers are four to eight figures long, the total number of digits is ten, but in a very few areas the total may be nine digits. The area code is referred to as an STD or a dialling code in the UK. The code allocated to the largest population is for London, the code allocated to the largest area is for all of Northern Ireland. The UK Numbering Plan also applies to three British Crown dependencies—Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man—even though they are not part of the UK itself. Possible number formats for UK telephone numbers are as follows, Number ranges starting 01 can have NSN length as 10 or 9 digits, the 0800 range can have NSN length as 10,9 or 7 digits. The 0845 range can have NSN length as 10 or 7 digits, the 0500 range has NSN length as 9 digits only. There are no numbers in the UK with an NSN length of 8 digits. Geographic telephone numbers in the UK always have nine or ten digits, four-digit area codes have either six-digit subscriber numbers or a mix of five- and six-digit subscriber numbers. Xxxxxx This is the used by most areas. It has an area code and a six digit subscriber number. These area codes were changed by adding a 1 directly after the zero as a part of PhONEday in 1995. Just short of 581 areas use this format, and the area range from 01200 to 01998. A small number of areas also have a few subscriber numbers that have only five digits. That is, almost all area codes now have only six digit local numbers, six of the four-digit area codes are known as mixed areas as they share those four digits with the twelve five-digit area codes. The numbers therefore have only nine digits after the initial zero trunk code and these area codes were changed by adding a 1 directly after the initial zero as a part of PhONEday in 1995

Telephone numbers in Jersey
–
Location of the United Kingdom (dark green)

19.
Patron saint
–
Catholics believe that patron saints, having already transcended to the metaphysical, are able to intercede effectively for the needs of their special charges. Historically, a practice has also occurred in many Islamic lands. With regard to the omnipresence of this belief, the late Martin Lings wrote. Traditionally, it has been understood that the saint of a particular place prays for that places wellbeing and for the health. Saints often become the patrons of places where they were born or had been active, professions sometimes have a patron saint owing to that individual being involved somewhat with it, although some of the connections were tenuous. Lacking such a saint, an occupation would have a patron whose acts or miracles in some way recall the profession and it is, however, generally discouraged in some Protestant branches such as Calvinism, where the practice is considered a form of idolatry. In Islam, the veneration or commemoration and recognition of saints is found in many branches of traditional Sunnism

20.
.je
–
. je is the country code top-level domain for the crown dependency of Jersey. The domain is administered by Island Networks, who administer the. gg domain for neighbouring territory Guernsey. In 2003, a Google Search website was available for Jersey. Alderney hosts the name registry for both bailiwicks of the Channel Islands. The country-code top-level domains of. je and. gg first appeared on the Internet in August 1996 after Jon Postel agreed with Nigel Roberts to add four codes to the IANA list of TLDs. The codes for the Channel Islands and for the Isle of Man were entered on to the official United Nations ISO-3166 list in 2006, since 2000, names have been registered principally directly under the country code

.je
–
.je

21.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state‍—‌the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government

22.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks

23.
Minquiers
–
The Minquiers are a group of islands and rocks, about 15 km south of Jersey. The Minquiers forms part of the Bailiwick of Jersey and they are administratively part of the Parish of Grouville. At low tide, the shelf around the Minquiers has a larger surface area than Jersey itself. The largest of these is Maîtresse, which is about 50 m long and 20 m wide and has ten stone cottages in various states of repair. However, they have no permanent inhabitants, though fishermen, vraic collectors, yachtsmen, kayakers, the etymology of the name is disputed, and could either come from the Breton language minihi meaning a sanctuary, or from minkier meaning a seller of fish. The most significant islands in the group are, Maîtresse Île / Maîtr Île Les Maisons, Others include, Le Niêsant Les Faucheurs La Haute Grune. Thousands of years ago, around the time of the last glacial period, when sea level was lower, in 933 CE, the Duchy of Normandy annexed the islets, along with the other Channel Islands and the Cotentin Peninsula. After William, Duke of Normandy conquered England in 1066, the islands remained united to the Duchy until Philip Augustus conquered mainland Normandy in 1204, in 1259 Henry III did homage to the French king for the Channel Islands. Edward III, in the 1360 Treaty of Brétigny, waived his claims to the crown of France and to Normandy, the 1911 Britannica says that Maîtresse Île affords a landing and shelter for fishermen. A small company of Wehrmacht soldiers on the Minquiers were among the last to surrender in World War II, a French fishing boat, skippered by Lucian Marie, approached the island of Minquiers and anchored nearby. This was on 23 May 1945, three weeks after the war in Europe ended, in 1950 Britain and France went to the International Court of Justice for friendly discussions to decide to which country the Minquiers and Écréhous belonged. The French fished in the waters, but Jersey exercised various administrative rights, the ICJ considered the historical evidence, and in its Judgment of 17 November 1953 awarded the islands to Jersey. In 1998 some French invaded the Minquiers on behalf of the King of Patagonia in retaliation for the British occupation of the Falkland Islands, the Union Jack was restored the next day. Notably, Les Minquiers are mentioned at length by Victor Hugo in his novel Ninety-Three and he mentions how treacherous they are, and says that their combined area is bigger than mainland Jersey itself. Hugo lived in both Guernsey and Jersey at various points in his life, and so was familiar with local lore. The British/French dispute over Les Minquiers is an element in Nancy Mitfords novel Dont Tell Alfred. Les Minquiers feature in the adventure novel The Wreck of the Mary Deare, by Hammond Innes. The Minquiers are designated protected under the Ramsar convention, files on the ICJ case can be found in the National Archives, mostly in the FO371 sequence

24.
Pierres de Lecq
–
Only three of the rocks remain visible at high tide, LÊtaîthe, La Grôsse and La Vouêtaîthe. The area has one of the greatest tidal ranges in the world, the name Paternosters is connected with a legend relating to the colonisation of Sark in the 16th century. According to this legend a boatload of women and children was wrecked on the reef, superstitious sailors would say the Lords Prayer when passing the rocks, hence the name Paternosters. The rocks are a Ramsar site, and support a variety of cetaceans including dolphins. It is considered to form a biogeographical boundary

Pierres de Lecq
–
The Pierres de Lecq (or Paternosters) at high tide seen from Jersey looking towards Sark. The three rocks visible are La Vouêtaîthe, La Grôsse, et L'Êtaîthe

25.
Isle of Man
–
The Isle of Man, also known simply as Mann, is a self-governing crown dependency in the Irish Sea between England and Northern Ireland. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who holds the title of Lord of Mann, the Lord of Mann is represented by a Lieutenant Governor. Foreign relations and defence are the responsibility of the British Government, the island has been inhabited since before 6500 BC. Gaelic cultural influence began in the 5th century and the Manx language, in 627, Edwin of Northumbria conquered the Isle of Man along with most of Mercia. In the 9th century, Norsemen established the Kingdom of the Isles, magnus III, King of Norway, was also known as King of Mann and the Isles between 1099 and 1103. In 1266, the became part of Scotland under the Treaty of Perth. After a period of alternating rule by the kings of Scotland and England, the short form often used in English, Mann, is derived from the Manx Mannin, though sometimes the name is written as Man. The earliest recorded Manx form of the name is Manu or Mana, the Old Irish form of the name is Manau or Mano. Old Welsh records named it as Manaw, also reflected in Manaw Gododdin, the name for an ancient district in north Britain along the lower Firth of Forth. The oldest known reference to the calls it Mona, in Latin, in the 1st century CE, Pliny the Elder records it as Monapia or Monabia. Later Latin references have Mevania or Mænavia, and Eubonia or Eumonia by Irish writers and it is found in the Sagas of Icelanders as Mön. The name is cognate with the Welsh name of the island of Anglesey, Ynys Môn, usually derived from a Celtic word for mountain. The name was at least secondarily associated with that of Manannán mac Lir in Irish mythology, later, a Manannán is recorded as the first king of Mann in a Manx poem. The island was cut off from the islands around 8000 BC. The first residents were hunter gatherers and fishermen, examples of their tools are kept at the Manx Museum. There were also the local Ronaldsway and Bann cultures, during the Bronze Age, burial mounds became smaller. Bodies were put in stone-lined graves with ornamental containers, the Bronze Age burial mounds created long-lasting markers around the countryside. The ancient Romans knew of the island and called it Insula Manavia although it is whether they conquered the island

26.
Economy of Jersey
–
The economy of Jersey is largely driven by international financial services and legal services, which accounted for 40. 5% of total GVA in 2010. Other sectors include construction, retail, agriculture, tourism and telecommunications, in 2008 Jersey’s gross national income per capita was among the highest in the world. In 2011 the islands economy, as measured by GVA, declined by 1% to £3.6 billion, Jersey based financial organisations provide services to customers worldwide. In June 2008 it was reported that 12,070 people were employed full-time, the Royal Bank of Canada is a major employer with some 900 staff employed in Jersey, as of March 2009. The finance sector profits rose to about £1.5 billion in 2007, Jersey is one of the top worldwide Offshore financial centers It is described by some as a tax haven. It attracts deposits from customers outside of the island, seeking the advantages such places offer, Jerseys finance industry featured in a BBC Panorama documentary, titled Tax me if you can, first broadcast on 2 February 2009. On 4 February 2009 Jersey Finance officially announced its intention to open a new office in London. At the end of 2008 deposits in Jersey banks totalled £206 billion, at the time of the establishment of the fund by a Jersey-based hedge fund company, Bitcoin was already being accepted by some local businesses. Construction represented 5. 2% of GVA during 2007, in June 2008 it was reported that 4,980 people were employed full-time in the construction and quarrying sector. St. Helier, and the Waterfront area in particular, has seen much redevelopment during the early 21st century, developments include a leisure complex, the Radisson hotel, and a new central bus station - Liberation Station. As of 2009 there are plans to sink the A1 road, to building sites above it for offices. Construction grew by 8% over the period 2006 to 2007, as of June 2008 there were 6,610 persons in full-time employment within Jerseys wholesale & retail trades. Retail and wholesale grew by around 5% during 2007, limited operate a chain of stores in Jersey, their franchises include well-known names, such as Marks & Spencer, Iceland, and Costa Coffee. A number of retailers, and fulfillment houses operate from the Channel Islands, including Jersey, supplying a variety of low-value goods such as CDs, DVDs, video games. Residents of the EU were choosing to order goods from Jersey, UK residents, in particular, were taking advantage of this situation. A local company, play. com grew substantially during the time that LVCR applied to Jersey, notably, Amazon UK also took advantage of this by dispatching some low-value items from Jersey. Some goods are sold and distributed from Jersey, despite these changes. Potatoes, cauliflower, tomatoes, and flowers are important export crops, the Jersey breed of dairy cattle is known worldwide and represents an important export income earner

27.
Law of Jersey
–
The Law of Jersey has been influenced by several different legal traditions, in particular Norman customary law, English common law and modern French civil law. Jerseys legal system is mixed or pluralistic, and sources of law are in French and English languages, jerseys legislature, the States Assembly makes legislation affecting most areas of activity. The highest form of legislation made by the States is Laws, if a proposed Law is likely to be controversial, the general desirability of having new legislation on the topic may be debated before the Law drafted. The procedure for making Laws is set out in the Standing Orders of the States of Jersey. At the stage known as first reading, the title of the projet is read out, at the next second reading stage, there is a formal debate in the States chamber during which members consider the principle of the projet and then scrutinise the draft in detail. At third reading there is an opportunity for minor drafting errors to be corrected. Finally, members vote to adopt the law, the Law is then submitted via the Lieutenant Governors office for transmission to London, where officials in the Ministry of Justice examine the Law. It seems a strange use of Ministry of Justice resources, to engage in a kind of legislative oversight which does not restrict itself to the constitutional grounds for scrutiny. This process may take several months, in an unusual move in 2011, campaigners against a Law that sought to reduce the number of Senators in the States petitioned the Privy Council to advise the Queen to refuse Royal Assent. Once official scrutiny is complete in London, the Law is formally presented to Her Majesty for Royal Assent at a meeting of the Privy Council, after a Law receives Royal Assent, the final step is for it be registered with the Royal Court of Jersey. At this point it is passed, the Law is then brought into force at a date decided by the relevant Jersey minister. Laws adopted and passed are published in print as Recueil de Lois de Jersey, in Jersey, there are other types of legislation in addition to Laws. Regulations, these are used where a Law delegates to the States Assembly power to make legally binding rules to implement a named Law, triennial Regulations, since the 18th century, the States of Jersey has had power to make provisional regulations of up to three years duration. Orders and Rules, these are made by a Minister. Custom is a source of law in the Jersey legal system and it has been described as the product of generally accepted usage and practice. It has no formal sanction or authority behind it other than the consensus of opinion within the community. It differs from English common law where rules stated by a judge of a court are binding law because they are stated by a judge. In customary law, the role of the judiciary is to look for evidence of what is generally accepted usage, many rules of customary law have crystallised to such an extent that everyone accepts them as binding without discussion

Law of Jersey
–
Recueil de Lois de Jersey from 1771
Law of Jersey
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Le Rouillée's 1535 commentary on the customs of Maine
Law of Jersey
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Berault's 1620 commentary
Law of Jersey
–
Tables de Décisions de la Cour Royal de Jersey 1885-1978

28.
Self-determination
–
The right of peoples to self-determination is a cardinal principle in modern international law, binding, as such, on the United Nations as authoritative interpretation of the Charter’s norms. The principle does not state how the decision is to be made, nor what the outcome should be, whether it be independence, federation, protection, neither does it state what the delimitation between peoples should be—nor what constitutes a people. There are conflicting definitions and legal criteria for determining which groups may legitimately claim the right to self-determination, National aspirations must be respected, people may now be dominated and governed only by their own consent. Self determination is not a phrase, it is an imperative principle of action. By extension the term self-determination has come to mean the free choice of ones own acts without external compulsion, during, and after, the Industrial Revolution many groups of people recognized their shared history, geography, language, and customs. Such groups often pursued independence and sovereignty over territory, but sometimes a different sense of autonomy has been pursued or achieved, the world possessed several traditional, continental empires such as the Ottoman, Russian, Austrian/Habsburg, and the Qing Empire. During the early 19th century, competition in Europe produced multiple wars, after this conflict, the British Empire became dominant and entered its imperial century, while nationalism became a powerful political ideology in Europe. Later, after the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, New Imperialism was unleashed with France and later Germany establishing colonies in Asia, the Pacific, Japan also emerged as a new power. The Ottoman Empire, Austrian Empire, Russian Empire, Qing Empire, all ignored notions of self-determination for those governed. The French Revolution was motivated similarly and legitimatized the ideas of self-determination on that Old World continent, within the New World during the early 19th century, most of the nations of Spanish America achieved independence from Spain. The United States supported that status, as policy in the relative to European colonialism. Such support, however, never became official government policy, due to balancing of other national interests, meanwhile, in Europe itself there was a rise of nationalism, with nations such as Greece, Hungary, Poland and Bulgaria seeking or winning their independence. Karl Marx supported such nationalism, believing it might be a condition to social reform. In 1914 Vladimir Lenin wrote, would be wrong to interpret the right to self-determination as meaning anything, woodrow Wilson revived Americas commitment to self-determination, at least for European states, during World War I. When the Bolsheviks came to power in Russia in November 1917 and they also supported the right of all nations, including colonies, to self-determination. The 1918 Constitution of the Soviet Union acknowledged the right of secession for its constituent republics and this presented a challenge to Wilsons more limited demands. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918 led to Russias exit from the war, however, this imposition of states where some nationalities were given power over nationalities who disliked and distrusted them eventually helped lead to World War II. Also Germany lost land after WWI, Northern Slesvig voted to return to Denmark after a referendum, the League of Nations was proposed as much as a means of consolidating these new states, as a path to peace

29.
British Nationality Act 1981
–
The British Nationality Act 1981, Chapter 61, is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom concerning British nationality since 1 January 1983. In the mid-1970s the British Government decided to update the nationality code, in 1977, a Green Paper was produced by the Labour government outlining options for reform of the nationality code. This was followed in 1980 by a White Paper by the Conservative government that followed the Labour proposals. William Whitelaw, the Home Secretary under Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, was the chief author, the British Nationality Act 1981 received Royal Assent on 30 October 1981 and came into force on 1 January 1983. Both major parties were in agreement on the new law, the Act reclassified Citizenship of the United Kingdom and Colonies into three categories, British citizenship British Dependent Territories citizenship, and British Overseas citizenship. Since 1962, with the passage of the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962, the other categories of British nationality would not hold such status based on nationality, although in some cases would do so under the immigration laws. Whilst in opposition in 1977, the Conservative Party asked Edward Gardner to chair a group to provide advice on changes to the nationality laws. The resultant Green paper, Who Do We Think We Are. was published in 1980, originally the paper proposed just two categories of British nationality, British citizenship and British Overseas citizenship. The Act also modified the application of jus soli in British nationality, prior to the Act coming into force, any person born in the United Kingdom was entitled to British citizenship. After the Act came into force, it was necessary for at least one parent of a United Kingdom-born child to be a British citizen or settled in the United Kingdom. Even following the coming into force of the Act, the vast majority of children born in the United Kingdom still acquire British citizenship at birth, special provisions are made for non-British UK born children to acquire British citizenship in certain circumstances. The Act made a variety of changes to the law. The term Commonwealth citizen was used to replace British subject, under the Act, the term British subject was restricted to certain persons holding British nationality through connections with British India or the Republic of Ireland before 1949. Right of Abode could no longer be acquired by non-British citizens, a limited number of Commonwealth citizens holding Right of Abode were allowed to retain it. Irish citizens, however, who were, or claim British subject nationality retain their right to acquire British citizenship nationality through registration, special provision was made for persons from Gibraltar to acquire British citizenship. Women married to British men could no longer acquire British citizenship purely by marriage, in some cases, transitional arrangements were made that preserved certain aspects of the old legislation. Most of these expired on 31 December 1987, five years after the Act came into force, however, persons from Hong Kong had lost the automatic right to live in the United Kingdom in 1962, and the Act did not change the substance of that fact. See British nationality law and Hong Kong, after the Falklands war, full British citizenship was granted to the Falkland Islanders by the British Nationality Act 1983

British Nationality Act 1981
–
British citizenship and British nationality law

30.
Antonine Itinerary
–
The Antonine Itinerary is a famous itinerarium, a register of the stations and distances along various roads. Seemingly based on documents, possibly from a survey carried out under Augustus. Owing to the scarcity of other extant records of this type, almost nothing is known of its date or author. The British section is known as the Iter Britanniarum, and can be described as the map of Roman Britain. There are 15 such itineraries in the document applying to different geographic areas, the itinerary measures distances in Roman miles, where 1,000 Roman paces equals one Roman mile. A Roman pace was two steps, left plus right, Roman paces were not everywhere the same, and conversion to modern units is imprecise, but 1 Roman mile approximately equals 4,690 feet, or 1430 m. Below is the original Latin ablative forms for sites along route 13, a transcriber omitted an entry, so that the total number of paces does not equal the sum of paces between locations. Below is the original Latin for route 14 followed by a translation with a name for the modern site. Its authenticity was not seriously challenged until 1845, and it was cited as an authoritative source until the late nineteenth century. While the document is no longer cited, since its authenticity became indefensible, its data has not been removed from past. Some authors, such as Thomas Reynolds, without challenging the authenticity of the forgery, took care to note its discrepancies and this was not always so, even after the forgery was debunked. The Antonine Itinerary, Iter Britanniarum - The British Section Analysis of the Itinerary Itinerarium Antonini Augusti at SOLTDM. COM Roman Roads in Britain

31.
New Jersey
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New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania, New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state but the 11th-most populous and the most densely populated of the 50 United States. New Jersey lies entirely within the statistical areas of New York City. New Jersey was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years, in the early 17th century, the Dutch and the Swedes made the first European settlements. New Jersey was the site of decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War in the 18th century. In the 19th century, factories in cities such as Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains, around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as rivers, swamps. New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact, scheyichbi is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape society was divided into clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign, Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf and they first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade. The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey, the Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of ownership was not recognized by the Lenape. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen, peter Minuits purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and it was from the Royal Square in St. Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York, the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony. James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton, the area was named the Province of New Jersey. Since the states inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic, New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants

32.
Surtsey
–
Surtsey is a volcanic island located in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago off the southern coast of Iceland. At 63. 303°N20. 605°W﻿ /63.303, -20.605 and it was formed in a volcanic eruption which began 130 metres below sea level, and reached the surface on 14 November 1963. The eruption lasted until 5 June 1967, when the island reached its size of 2.7 km2. Since then, wave erosion has caused the island to diminish in size, as of 2012. The most recent survey shows the maximum elevation at 155 m above sea level. The new island was named after Surtr, a fire jötunn or giant from Norse mythology and it was intensively studied by volcanologists during its eruption, and afterwards by botanists and other biologists as life forms gradually colonised the originally barren island. The undersea vents that produced Surtsey are part of the Vestmannaeyjar submarine volcanic system, Vestmannaeyjar also produced the famous eruption of Eldfell on the island of Heimaey in 1973. The eruption that created Surtsey also created a few small islands along this volcanic chain, such as Jólnir. Most of these eroded away fairly quickly, the eruption was unexpected, and almost certainly began some days before it became apparent at the surface. The sea floor at the site is 130 metres below sea level. Gradually, as repeated flows built up a mound of material that approached sea level, the explosions could no longer be contained, another station in Reykjavík recorded even weaker tremors for ten hours on 12 November at an undetermined location, when seismic activity ceased until 21 November. That same day, people in the town of Vík 80 km away noticed a smell of hydrogen sulphide. On 13 November, a vessel in search of herring, equipped with sensitive thermometers. At 07,15 UTC on 14 November 1963, the cook of Ísleifur II, the captain thought it might have been a boat on fire, and ordered the vessel to investigate. Instead, they encountered explosive eruptions giving off black columns of ash, by 11,00 the same day, the eruption column had reached several kilometres in height. Over the next week, explosions were continuous, and after just a few days the new island, formed mainly of scoria, as the eruptions continued, they became concentrated at one vent along the fissure and began to build the island into a more circular shape. By 24 November, the island measured about 900 metres by 650 metres, however, eruptions more than kept pace with wave erosion, and by February 1964, the island had a maximum diameter of over 1300 metres. The new island was named after the fire jötunn Surtur from Norse mythology, three French journalists representing the magazine Paris Match notably landed there on 6 December 1963, staying for about 15 minutes before violent explosions encouraged them to leave

Surtsey
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Surtsey, sixteen days after the onset of the eruption
Surtsey
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Surtsey
Surtsey
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The eruption vents in 1999
Surtsey
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The island of Surtsey in 1999

33.
History of Jersey
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The island of Jersey and the other Channel Islands represent the last remnants of the medieval Duchy of Normandy that held sway in both France and England. Jersey lies in the Bay of Mont Saint-Michel and is the largest of the Channel Islands and it has enjoyed self-government since the division of the Duchy of Normandy in 1204. Rising sea levels resulted in it has been an island for approximately 6,000 years and at its current extremes it measures 10 miles east to west and six miles north to south. Evidence dating from the Ice Age period of dating from at least 12,000 BC have been found. Evidence also exists of settled communities in the Neolithic period, which is marked by the building of the burial sites known as dolmens. The number, size, and visible locations of these monuments have suggested that social organisation over a wide area. Archaeological evidence also shows that trading links with Brittany and the south coast of England existed during this time, evidence of occupation and wealth has been discovered in the form of hoards. In 1889, during construction of a house in Saint Helier, a Bronze Age hoard consisting of 110 implements, mostly spears and swords, was discovered in Saint Lawrence in 1976 - probably a smiths stock. Hoards of coins were discovered at La Marquanderie, in Saint Brelade, Le Câtel, in Trinity, in June 2012, two metal detectorists announced that they had uncovered what could be Europes largest hoard of Iron Age Celtic coins. 70,000 late Iron Age and Roman coins, the hoard is thought to have belonged to a Curiosolitae tribe fleeing Julius Caesars armies around 50 to 60 BC. In October 2012, another metal detectorist reported an earlier Bronze Age find, although Jersey was part of the Roman world, there is a lack of evidence to give a better understanding of the island during the Gallo-Roman and early Middle Ages. The tradition that the island was called Caesarea by the Romans appears to have no basis in fact, the Roman name for the Channel Islands was I. Lenuri and were occupied by the Britons during their migration to Brittany, various saints such as the Celts Samson of Dol and Branwalator were active in the region. A chapel built around 911, now part of the nave of the Parish Church of St Clement. The island took the name Jersey as a result of Viking activity in the area between the 9th and 10th centuries. According to the Rolls of the Norman Exchequer, in 1180 Jersey was divided for administrative purposes into three ministeria, de Gorroic, de Groceio and de Crapau Doit. This was a time of building or extending churches with most parish churches in the island being built/rebuilt in a Norman style chosen by the abbey or priory to which each church had been granted, St Mary and St Martin being given to Cerisy Abbey. The so-called Constitutions of King John are the foundation of modern self-government, from 1204 onwards, the Channel Islands ceased to be a peaceful backwater and became a potential flashpoint on the international stage between England and France

History of Jersey
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La Pouquelaye de Faldouet was constructed on a site on the east coast looking across to the Cotentin Peninsula.
History of Jersey
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The Bailiwick of Jersey
History of Jersey
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Mont Orgueil dominates the small harbour of Gorey and guards Jersey from attack from the French coast opposite
History of Jersey
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This map of Jersey, published in 1639, shows interior details such as Le Mont ès Pendus (the gallows hill, now called Westmount). At first sight, the coastline appears wildly inaccurate, but if the image is rotated a little clockwise, the shape becomes much closer to what is known today.

34.
John St Helier Lander
–
John St Helier Lander was a noted portrait painter. Born John Helier Lander, he added the St. to acknowledge his birthplace of Saint Helier in the Channel Islands and he was given his first paint box by Lillie Langtry, the famous beauty, actress and mistress of the Prince of Wales, later to become Edward VII. On leaving school, he was sent to become a watchmaker at the age of fifteen, on reaching the age of seventeen and having sold some of his pictures, he went to London to study in an art school. Although he remained there a year, he hated the school and he was invited to breakfast with Sir John Everett Millais, a fellow Jerseyman, who advised him to continue his artistic career and to go to Paris. In Paris he studied at the Académie Julian under William-Adolphe Bouguereau and he taught privately at the Jersey Ladies College and the Guernsey Ladies College. He undertook a group portrait of the Assize dHéritage which took him four years to complete. In 1897, it was purchased for £400 by Julia Westaway, of the Westaway Trust and he was greatly encouraged by the Lieutenant-Governor of Jersey at the time, Major General Henry Richard Abadie. When the General left Jersey, Lander followed him to London, Abadie was a regular visitor to Landers studio. Between Abadie and Colonel Sir Malcolm Fox, Lander made the acquaintance of all the leading British generals before the First World War, the wartime demand for portraits provided Lander with steady work and brought his name before a wider public. In 1923 he received a medal at the Paris Salon. He had been commissioned to symbolize the Youth of England through the Prince of Wales, Lander chose to portray the Prince dressed in polo kit, and the resulting picture was acclaimed, being awarded a medal at the Paris Salon. The King and Queen commanded that it be sent to Buckingham Palace for private viewing, the Queen then commissioned a portrait of the Duke of Kent in tennis kit. T. B. Davis commissioned a portrait of King George V of the United Kingdom for Victoria College, Jersey with a copy for the Engineers College, further copies were endowed for Canada House, Australia House and New Zealand House. Lander took pride in the fact that five of these portraits of the King had been unveiled by Royal Princes, an honour no portrait painter has ever had before

John St Helier Lander
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The 1893 painting of the Assize d'Heritage, a biannual convening of the Royal Court of Jersey, where the major Seigneurs answer for their fiefs, which they hold directly from the Crown. The painting was purchased by Julia Westaway and donated to the Royal Court, where it still hangs today.
John St Helier Lander
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A self-portrait by Lander
John St Helier Lander
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Plaque in Belmont Road, Saint Helier, Jersey

35.
Jersey Dolmens
–
The dolmens of Jersey are neolithic sites, including dolmens, in Jersey. They range over a period, from around 4800 BC to 2250 BC. Before that, La Cotte de St Brelade has evidence of both by our near cousins, the Neanderthals, and early man. By the time the dolmens came to be built, people were settled in Jersey, although it was still at that time connected by a land bridge to the continent of Europe. The new stone age differs from the old in that stone tools were still used – axes, daggers etc. – but the community was now settled and farmed the land, they did not hunt and follow prey. Of their habitations, no remains, it is likely from the evidence found elsewhere that they had fairly basic wooden huts, sealed with mud and clay. Only the dolmens and menhirs remain, the Neolithic sites such as dolmens, passage graves and the like used to be considered to be primarily tombs of chieftains. Possibly drawing from the Egyptian model, a tribe was imagined as labouring away to build a site of stone for a mighty chieftain. A new pharaoh would mean a new tomb, a new pyramid, but the Neolithic sites do not seem to function like that. There is no way of seeing that someone was special. Bodies were often defleshed or burnt before interment, Ancient Jewish burials – where a tomb was used – then the bones gathered up and placed in a burial casket – show a similarity of practice. This is also completely unlike Celtic burials, where tribal chieftains were buried with their chariots. It is immediately clear with these burials that they were for a man of stature, the one site – unfortunately inaccessible – in Jersey where this is seen is Hougue Boete. But with the dolmens, as Mark Patton has pointed out, the remains found are few in number. On the most prominent Jersey site, he comments, “the bones are scattered in the passage and chamber with no apparent organisation, as at La Hougue Bie, Jersey”. In fact, on sites in Britain and Europe, over the Neolithic period. One site had five different methods of burial for only twice that number of people, so if these sites were not tombs, what were they for. Mark Patton suggest that an analogy is that of churches

Jersey Dolmens
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In 1785 part of Le Mont de la Ville was levelled as a parade ground, which led to the discovery of a dolmen which the Vingtaine de la Ville presented to the Lieutenant Governor of Jersey, Marshal Conway, who subsequently transported it to his estate at Henley-on-Thames where it was re-erected. As it is now a listed monument in the United Kingdom, attempts to have it returned to Jersey have been to no avail.
Jersey Dolmens
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La Hougue des Géonnais
Jersey Dolmens
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La Pouquelaye de Faldouet
Jersey Dolmens
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Les Monts Grantez

36.
Grouville
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Grouville is one of the twelve parishes of Jersey in the Channel Islands. The parish is in the south east of the island and is dominated by the sweep of the Royal Bay of Grouville. The parish covers a area of 4,354 vergées. It borders Saint Clement, Saint Saviour and Saint Martin, the parish of Grouville shares, with the neighbouring parish of Saint Martin, a dedication to Saint Martin of Tours. The ecclesiastical parish and parish church are dedicated to Saint Martin de Grouville to distinguish them from the parish of Saint Martin, the Church of St Peter la Rocque was built in the 19th century. The Royal Bay of Grouville gained its royal epithet when it impressed Queen Victoria during her visit in 1846, the bay is popular with tourists for its broad sandy beach and shallow, warm water. It is also the main producing area of Jersey, and was also formerly noted for the production of vraic. The cottage industry formerly practised by Grouvillais of burning vraic gave rise to the nickname of les Enfuntchis shared by the Grouvillais. Inland, the parish is home to Jerseys most noted archaeological site at La Hougue Bie. A prehistoric artificial mound covers a passage grave aligned for the equinox, a mediaeval chapel, Notre Dame de la Clarté, built on the Neolithic mound was converted in the 18th century to a folly-like Gothic Revival residence, the Princes Tower. During the Second World War, the occupying German forces constructed bunkers in and alongside the ancient mound, La Rocque was the site of the landing of the French forces on 6 January 1781. The skirmish at La Platte Rocque was ancillary to the Battle of Jersey, the Royal Jersey Golf Club, Gorey Village, and Queens Valley are situated in the parish. In modern times, Grouville has been a holiday destination. These include the Beausite Hotel, which is a later 20th century structure, Grouville forms one electoral district and elects one Deputy. Grouville is twinned with, Port-Bail in France John George Bourinot Harry Vardon Grouville Official Parish website Grouville Church website Grouville at Les Pages Jèrriaises

Grouville
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View south across the Royal Bay of Grouville
Grouville
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Restoration work has reconstructed the entrance to the passage tomb of La Hougue Bie. The chapel sits on top of the mound

37.
Metal detectors
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A metal detector is an electronic instrument which detects the presence of metal nearby. Metal detectors are useful for finding metal inclusions hidden within objects and they often consist of a handheld unit with a sensor probe which can be swept over the ground or other objects. If the sensor comes near a piece of metal this is indicated by a tone in earphones. Usually the device gives some indication of distance, the closer the metal is, another common type are stationary walk through metal detectors used for security screening at access points in prisons, courthouses, and airports to detect concealed metal weapons on a persons body. The simplest form of a metal detector consists of a producing a alternating current that passes through a coil producing an alternating magnetic field. If a piece of electrically conductive metal is close to the coil, eddy currents will be induced in the metal, if another coil is used to measure the magnetic field, the change in the magnetic field due to the metallic object can be detected. The first industrial metal detectors were developed in the 1960s and were used extensively for mineral prospecting, uses include detecting land mines, the detection of weapons such as knives and guns, geophysical prospecting, archaeology and treasure hunting. Metal detectors are used to detect foreign bodies in food. Towards the end of the 19th century, many scientists and engineers used their knowledge of electrical theory in an attempt to devise a machine which would pinpoint metal. The use of such a device to find ore-bearing rocks would give an advantage to any miner who employed it. Early machines were crude, used a lot of battery power, in 1874, Parisian inventor Gustave Trouvé developed a hand-held device for locating and extracting metal objects such as bullets from human patients. The modern development of the detector began in the 1920s. Gerhard Fischer had developed a system of radio direction-finding, which was to be used for accurate navigation, the system worked extremely well, but Fischer noticed there were anomalies in areas where the terrain contained ore-bearing rocks. He reasoned that if a radio beam could be distorted by metal, in 1925 he applied for, and was granted, the first patent for a metal detector. Although Gerhard Fischer was the first person granted a patent for a detector, the first to apply was Shirl Herr. His application for a hand-held Hidden-Metal Detector was filed in February 1924, Herr assisted Italian leader Benito Mussolini in recovering items remaining from the Emperor Caligulas galleys at the bottom of Lake Nemi, Italy in August 1929. Herrs invention was used by Admiral Richard Byrds Second Antarctic Expedition in 1933 and it was effective up to a depth of eight feet. These units were still heavy, as they ran on vacuum tubes

Metal detectors
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A U.S. Army soldier uses a metal detector to search for weapons and ammunition in March 2004.
Metal detectors
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Early metal detector, 1919, used to find unexploded bombs in France after World War 1.
Metal detectors
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A pulse induction metal detector with an array of coils
Metal detectors
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This 156-troy-ounce (4.9 kg) gold nugget, known as the Mojave Nugget, was found by an individual prospector in the Southern California Desert using a metal detector

38.
Roman currency
–
Roman currency for most of Roman history consisted of gold, silver, bronze, orichalcum and copper coinage. From its introduction to the Republic, during the third century BC, well into Imperial times, Roman currency saw many changes in form, denomination, a persistent feature was the inflationary debasement and replacement of coins over the centuries. Notable examples of this followed the reforms of Diocletian and this trend continued into Byzantine times. The manufacture of coins in the Roman culture, dating from about the 4th century BC, the origin of the word mint is ascribed to the manufacture of silver coin at Rome in 269 BC at the temple of Juno Moneta. This goddess became the personification of money, and her name was applied both to money and to its place of manufacture, Roman mints were spread widely across the Empire, and were sometimes used for propaganda purposes. The populace often learned of a new Roman Emperor when coins appeared with the new Emperors portrait. The Romans cast their larger copper coins in clay moulds carrying distinctive markings, not because they knew nothing of striking, Roman adoption of metallic commodity money was a late development in monetary history. Bullion bars and ingots were used as money in Mesopotamia since the 7th millennium BC, coinage proper was only introduced by the Roman Republican government c.300 BC. For these reasons, the Romans would have known about coinage systems long before their government actually introduced them. The reason behind Romes adoption of coinage was likely cultural, the Romans had no pressing economic need, but they wanted to emulate Greek culture, and they considered the institution of minted money a significant feature of that culture. However, Roman coinage initially saw limited use. The type of money introduced by Rome was unlike that found elsewhere in the ancient Mediterranean and it combined a number of uncommon elements. One example is the large bronze bullion, the aes signatum and it measured about 160 by 90 millimetres and weighed around 1,500 to 1,600 grams, being made out of a highly leaded tin bronze. Although similar metal bars had been produced in Italy and northern Etruscan areas, these had been made of Aes grave. Along with the aes signatum, the Roman state also issued a series of bronze, produced using the manner of manufacture then utilised in Greek Naples, the designs of these early coins were also heavily influenced by Hellenic designs. The designs on the coinage of the Republican period displayed a solid conservatism, usually illustrating mythical scenes or personifications of various gods, in 27 BC, the Roman Republic came to an end as Augustus ascended to the throne as the first emperor. Taking autocratic power, it became recognized that there was a link between the emperors sovereignty and the production of coinage. The imagery on coins took an important step when Julius Caesar issued coins bearing his own portrait, while moneyers had earlier issued coins with portraits of ancestors, Caesars was the first Roman coinage to feature the portrait of a living individual

Roman currency
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Denarius of Marcus Aurelius.
Roman currency
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Bronze aes signatum produced by the Roman Republic after 450 BC.
Roman currency
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The most commonly used coin denominations and their relative sizes during Roman times.
Roman currency
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Coins of the Roman Republic and Empire - from Cassell's History of England, Vol. I - anonymous author and artists

39.
Celtic coinage
–
Celtic coinage was minted by the Celts from the late 4th century BC to the late 1st century BC. Thus Greek motifs and even letters can be found on various Celtic coins, Greek coinage occurred in three Greek cities of Massalia, Emporiae and Rhoda, and was copied throughout southern Gaul. Northern Gaulish coins were especially influenced by the coinage of Philip II of Macedon, the Armorican Celtic style in northwestern Gaul also developed from Celtic designs from the Rhine valley, themselves derived from earlier Greek prototypes such as the wine scroll and split palmette. The Boii gave their name to Bohemia and Bologna, a Celtic coin from Bratislavas mint is displayed on Slovak 5 koruna coin and they are miniature masterpieces of surreal art. A tribe of Celts called Eburones minted gold coins with triple spirals on the front, the coins were either struck or cast. Both methods required a degree of knowledge. Striking a blank coin formed in a clay was one way, after forming the blank, it would have been flattened out before striking with a die made from iron or bronze. The tiny details engraved on dies were just a few millimeters in diameter, casting a coin required a different technique. They were produced by pouring molten alloy into a set of molds which were broken apart when the metal had cooled, with the Roman invasion of Gaul, Greek-inspired Celtic coinage started to incorporate Roman influence instead, until it disappeared to be completely replaced by Roman coinage. Traditional historians have tended to overlook the role played by Celtic coinage in the history of British money. Over 45,000 of the ancient British and Gaulish coins discovered in Britain have been recorded at the Oxford Celtic Coin Index, the Trinovantian tribal oppidum of Camulodunon was minting large numbers of coins in the first centuries BC and AD, which have been found across Southern Britain. Common motifs on the Camulodunon coins included horses and wheat/barley sheafs, with the names of the rulers written mostly in Latin script, boardman, John The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity, Princeton 1993 ISBN 0-691-03680-2 The Oxford Celtic Coin Index

Celtic coinage
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Gold coins of the SequaniGauls, 5-1st century BCE. Early Gaul coins were often inspired by Greek coinage.
Celtic coinage
Celtic coinage
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Celtic coin designs progressively became more abstract as exemplified by the coins of the Parisii.
Celtic coinage
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Coins of the Veneti, 5th-1st century BCE.

40.
Archaeological
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Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites

41.
Le Pinacle
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There is also evidence of a rectangular Gallo-Roman temple. The dolerite stratum has been mined, and used to make axe heads during the Neolithic period, the megalithic rock is a natural formation, and a prominent landmark which can be seen from St Ouens bay

Le Pinacle
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Le Pinacle
Le Pinacle
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Le Pinacle is visible in the distance (far left)
Le Pinacle
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The remains of the Roman temple can be seen in this photo

42.
Neustria
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Neustria or Neustrasia was the western part of the Kingdom of the Franks that was created in 511 upon the division of the Merovingian kingdom of Clovis I to his four sons following his death. Neustria was made up of the regions between Aquitaine and the English Channel, approximately the north of present-day France, with Paris and Soissons as its main cities. It later referred to the region between the Seine and the Loire rivers known as the regnum Neustriae, a constituent subkingdom of the Carolingian Empire, Neustria was also employed as a term for northwestern Italy during the period of Lombard domination. It was contrasted with the northeast, which was called Austrasia, for this meaning of the term, see Neustria. Despite the wars, Neustria and Austrasia re-united briefly on several occasions, the struggle for power continued with Queen Fredegund of Neustria unleashing a bitter war. Clotaire had Brunhilda put to the rack and stretched for three days, then chained between four horses and eventually ripped limb from limb, Clotaire now ruled a united realm, but only for a short time as he made his son Dagobert I king of Austrasia. Dagoberts accession in Neustria resulted in another temporary unification, when in Austrasia, the Arnulfing mayor Grimoald the Elder attempted a coup against his liege, Clovis II had him removed and again reunited the kingdom from Neustria, but again temporarily. During or soon after the reign of Cloviss son Chlothar III, in 678, Neustria, under Mayor Ebroin, subdued the Austrasians for the last time. In 687, Pippin of Herstal, mayor of the palace of the King of Austrasia, defeated the Neustrians at Tertry, the writers who lived in Austrasia proved more loyal to their mayor. Pippins descendants, the Carolingians, continued to rule the two realms as mayors, with Pope Stephen IIs blessing, after 751 the Carolingian Pippin the Short, formally deposed the Merovingians and took control of the empire, he and his descendants ruling as kings. Neustria, Austrasia, and Burgundy then became united under one authority, in 748, the brothers Pepin the Short and Carloman gave their younger brother Grifo twelve counties in Neustria centred on that of Le Mans. This polity was termed the ducatus Cenomannicus, or Duchy of Maine, the term Neustria took on the meaning of land between the Seine and Loire when it was given as a regnum by Charlemagne to his second son, Charles the Younger, in 790. At this time, the city of the kingdom appears to be Le Mans. Under the Carolingian dynasty, the duty of the Neustrian king was to defend the sovereignty of the Franks over the Bretons. Neustria, along with Aquitaine, formed the part of Charles West Frankish kingdom carved out of the Empire by the Treaty of Verdun. Charles continued the tradition of appointing an elder son to reign in Neustria with his own court at Le Mans when he made Louis the Stammerer king in 856. Louis married the daughter of the King of Brittany, Erispoe, Louis was the last Frankish monarch to be appointed to Neustria by his father and the practice of creating subkingdoms for sons waned among the later Carolings. In 861, the Carolingian king Charles the Bald created the Marches of Neustria that were ruled by officials appointed by the crown, known as wardens, prefects or margraves

Neustria
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Neustria (within the Kingdom of Siagrius, outlined in orange), in the context of the Franks

43.
Cotentin peninsula
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The Cotentin Peninsula, also known as the Cherbourg Peninsula, is a peninsula in Normandy that forms part of the northwest coast of France. It extends north-westward into the English Channel, towards Great Britain, to its west lie the Channel Islands and to the southwest lies the Brittany Peninsula. The peninsula lies wholly within the department of Manche, in the region of Normandy, the Cotentin peninsula is part of the Armorican Massif and lies between the estuary of the Vire river and Mont Saint-Michel Bay. It is divided into three areas, the headland of Cap de la Hague, the Cotentin Pass, and the valley of the Saire River and it forms the bulk of the department of Manche. Its southern part, known as le Marais, crosses from east to west from just north west of Saint Lo and east of Lessay, the largest town in the peninsula is Cherbourg on the north coast, a major cross-channel port. The western coast of the peninsula, known as the Côte des Îles faces the Channel Islands, ferry links serve Carteret and the islands of Jersey, Guernsey and Alderney from Dielette. Off the east coast of the lies the island of Tatihou. The oldest stone in France is found in outcroppings on the coast of Cap de la Hague, Cotentin was almost an island at one time. Only a small strip of land in the heath of Lessay connected the peninsula with the mainland. Thanks to the so-called portes à flot, which close at flood and open at ebb and which were built in the west coast and in the Baie des Veys, on the east coast, the Côte des Havres lies between the Cape of Carteret and the Cape of Granville. To the northwest, there are two sand dune systems, one stretching between Siouville-Hague and Vauville, the other one stretching between Cap of Carteret and Baubigny, the peninsula formed part of the Roman geographical area of Armorica. The town known today as Coutances, capital of the Unelli, the base of the peninsula, called in Latin the pagus Constantinus, joined together with the pagus Coriovallensis centred upon Cherbourg to the north, subsequently became known as the Cotentin. Under the Carolingians it was administered by viscounts drawn successively from members of the Saint-Sauveur family, King Alan the Great of Brittany waged war successfully on the Norsemen. As the result of his conquests, the Cotentin Peninsula was included theoretically in the territory of the Duchy of Brittany, the Dukes of Brittany suffered continuing Norse invasions and Norman raids. Eventually the Cotentin Peninsula was lost to Brittany after only 70 years of political domination, meanwhile, Vikings settled on the Cotentin in the ninth and tenth centuries. There are indications of an industry there dating to the ninth century. They were followed by Anglo-Norse and Anglo-Danish people, who established as farmers and it became part of Normandy in the early tenth century. Many placenames there are derived from the Norse language, examples include La Hague from hagi meadow or enclosure and La Hougue from haugr meaning a hill or mound

44.
Viking
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The term is also commonly extended in modern English and other vernaculars to the inhabitants of Viking home communities during what has become known as the Viking Age. Facilitated by advanced seafaring skills, and characterised by the longship, Viking activities at times also extended into the Mediterranean littoral, North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia. A romanticized picture of Vikings as noble savages began to emerge in the 18th century, current popular representations of the Vikings are typically based on cultural clichés and stereotypes, complicating modern appreciation of the Viking legacy. One etymology derives víking from the feminine vík, meaning creek, inlet, various theories have been offered that the word viking may be derived from the name of the historical Norwegian district of Viken, meaning a person from Viken. According to this theory, the word simply described persons from this area, however, there are a few major problems with this theory. People from the Viken area were not called Viking in Old Norse manuscripts, in addition, that explanation could only explain the masculine and ignore the feminine, which is a serious problem because the masculine is easily derived from the feminine but hardly vice versa. The form also occurs as a name on some Swedish rune stones. There is little indication of any negative connotation in the term before the end of the Viking Age and this is found in the Proto-Nordic verb *wikan, ‘to turn’, similar to Old Icelandic víkja ‘to move, to turn’, with well-attested nautical usages. In that case, the idea behind it seems to be that the rower moves aside for the rested rower on the thwart when he relieves him. A víkingr would then originally have been a participant on a sea journey characterized by the shifting of rowers, in that case, the word Viking was not originally connected to Scandinavian seafarers but assumed this meaning when the Scandinavians begun to dominate the seas. In Old English, the word wicing appears first in the Anglo-Saxon poem, Widsith, in Old English, and in the history of the archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen written by Adam of Bremen in about 1070, the term generally referred to Scandinavian pirates or raiders. As in the Old Norse usages, the term is not employed as a name for any people or culture in general, the word does not occur in any preserved Middle English texts. The Vikings were known as Ascomanni ashmen by the Germans for the ash wood of their boats, Lochlannach by the Gaels, the modern day name for Sweden in several neighbouring countries is possibly derived from rōþs-, Ruotsi in Finnish and Rootsi in Estonian. The Slavs and the Byzantines also called them Varangians, Scandinavian bodyguards of the Byzantine emperors were known as the Varangian Guard. The Franks normally called them Northmen or Danes, while for the English they were known as Danes or heathen. It is used in distinction from Anglo-Saxon, similar terms exist for other areas, such as Hiberno-Norse for Ireland and Scotland. The period from the earliest recorded raids in the 790s until the Norman conquest of England in 1066 is commonly known as the Viking Age of Scandinavian history, Vikings used the Norwegian Sea and Baltic Sea for sea routes to the south. The Normans were descended from Vikings who were given feudal overlordship of areas in northern France—the Duchy of Normandy—in the 10th century, in that respect, descendants of the Vikings continued to have an influence in northern Europe

Viking
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Sea-faring Danes depicted invading England. Illuminated illustration from the 12th century Miscellany on the Life of St. Edmund. Pierpont Morgan Library.
Viking
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Travels of the Vikings
Viking
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Blar a' Bhuailte, site of the Vikings' last stand in Skye

45.
Archbishopric of Rouen
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The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Rouen is an Archdiocese of the Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic Church in France. As one of the fifteen Archbishops of France, the Archbishop of Rouens ecclesiastical province comprises the majority of Normandy, the Archbishop of Rouen is Dominique Lebrun. Most of the lists of the Diocese of Rouen, however. Rouen became an archdiocese probably around 744 with the accession of Grimo, Archbishop Franco baptized Rollo of Normandy in 911, and the archbishops were involved in the Norman conquest of England in 1066. Normandy was annexed to France in 1204, and Rouen was later occupied by England from 1419 to 1449 during the Hundred Years War, in 1562 the city was briefly captured by Huguenots during the French Wars of Religion. The suffragan dioceses of Rouen in the Middle Ages were Évreux, Avranches, Seès, Bayeux, Lisieux, and Coutances. Today its suffragans are the Diocese of Évreux, the Diocese of Bayeux and Lisieux, the Diocese of Coutances, the Diocese of Le Havre, the seat of the archbishop is the 13th century Gothic Rouen Cathedral. The Cathedral Chapter is composed of ten dignities, in there were forty-seven Canons. In addition to the right to nominate the Archbishop of Rouen and these included, twenty-four abbeys, fourteen priories, the Dean and Canons of the Church of Notre-Dame-de-la-Ronde in Rouen, and the Dean and nine prebends of the Church of Saint-Mellon-de-Pontoise. The Cathedral was heavily damaged, along other buildings in Rouen, during World War II. The archdiocese was the site of the terrorist attack at the church of Saint-Étienne-du-Rouvray, Roman Catholicism in France Saint-Louis Church, Rouen Gams, Pius Bonifatius. Series episcoporum Ecclesiae catholicae, quotquot innotuerunt a beato Petro apostolo, ratisbon, Typis et Sumptibus Georgii Josephi Manz. Hierarchia catholica medii et recentis aevi V. Patavii, Messagero di S. Antonio, hierarchia catholica medii et recentis aevi VI. Fastes épiscopaux de lancienne Gaule, II, Le clergé de France, ou tableau historique et chronologique des archevêques, évêques, abbés, abbesses et chefs des chapitres principaux du royaume, depuis la fondation des églises jusquà nos jours. Les évêques et les archevêques de France depuis 1682 jusquà1801, congregation of Saint-Maur, ed. Gallia Christiana, In Provincias Ecclesiasticas Distributa. De provincia Rotomagensi, ejusque metropoli ac suffraganeis, La France pontificale, histoire chronologique et biographique. Metropole de Rouen, Rouen. Longnon, Auguste, ed. Recueil des historiens de la France, tome II, La province de Rouen. Actes des saints du diocèse de Rouen, répertoire prosopographique des évêques, dignitaires et chanoines des diocèses de France de 1200 à1500

46.
Norman conquest of England
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Williams claim to the English throne derived from his familial relationship with the childless Anglo-Saxon King Edward the Confessor, who may have encouraged Williams hopes for the throne. Edward died in January 1066 and was succeeded by his brother-in-law Harold Godwinson, within days, William landed in southern England. Harold marched south to confront him, leaving a significant portion of his army in the north, Harolds army confronted Williams invaders on 14 October at the Battle of Hastings, Williams force defeated Harold, who was killed in the engagement. Although Williams main rivals were gone, he faced rebellions over the following years and was not secure on his throne until after 1072. The lands of the resisting English elite were confiscated, some of the elite fled into exile, to control his new kingdom, William granted lands to his followers and built castles commanding military strongpoints throughout the land. More gradual changes affected the classes and village life, the main change appears to have been the formal elimination of slavery. There was little alteration in the structure of government, as the new Norman administrators took over many of the forms of Anglo-Saxon government. In 911 the Carolingian French ruler Charles the Simple allowed a group of Vikings under their leader Rollo to settle in Normandy as part of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. In exchange for the land, the Norsemen under Rollo were expected to provide protection along the coast against further Viking invaders and their settlement proved successful, and the Vikings in the region became known as the Northmen from which Normandy and Normans are derived. The Normans quickly adopted the culture, renouncing paganism and converting to Christianity. They adopted the langue doïl of their new home and added features from their own Norse language, in 1002 King Æthelred the Unready married Emma of Normandy, the sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy. Their son Edward the Confessor, who spent many years in exile in Normandy, childless and embroiled in conflict with the formidable Godwin, Earl of Wessex and his sons, Edward may also have encouraged Duke William of Normandys ambitions for the English throne. When King Edward died at the beginning of 1066, the lack of a clear heir led to a succession in which several contenders laid claim to the throne of England. Edwards immediate successor was the Earl of Wessex, Harold Godwinson, Harold was immediately challenged by two powerful neighbouring rulers. William and Harald at once set about assembling troops and ships to invade England, in early 1066, Harolds exiled brother, Tostig Godwinson, raided southeastern England with a fleet he had recruited in Flanders, later joined by other ships from Orkney. Threatened by Harolds fleet, Tostig moved north and raided in East Anglia and Lincolnshire, but he was back to his ships by the brothers Edwin, Earl of Mercia. Deserted by most of his followers, he withdrew to Scotland, King Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in early September, leading a fleet of more than 300 ships carrying perhaps 15,000 men. Haralds army was augmented by the forces of Tostig, who threw his support behind the Norwegian kings bid for the throne

Norman conquest of England
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13th-century depiction of Rollo and his descendants William I of Normandy and Richard I of Normandy
Norman conquest of England
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Location of major events during the Norman conquest of England in 1066
Norman conquest of England
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Landing in England scene from the Bayeux Tapestry, depicting ships coming in and horses landing
Norman conquest of England
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Depiction of Harold's death from the Bayeux Tapestry

47.
Charles II of England
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Charles II was king of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was king of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, Charles IIs father, Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim, after 1660, all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649. Charless English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code, designed to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England, Charles acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the treaty of Dover. Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oatess revelations of a supposed Popish Plot sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charless brother, the crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-exclusion Tory parties. Charles sided with the Tories, and, following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683, Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed, Charless wife, Catherine of Braganza, bore no live children, but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James, Charles II was born in St Jamess Palace on 29 May 1630. His parents were Charles I and Henrietta Maria, Charles was their second son and child. Their first son was born about a year before Charles but died within a day, England, Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. At birth, Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay, at or around his eighth birthday, he was designated Prince of Wales, though he was never formally invested. During the 1640s, when Charles was still young, his father fought Parliamentary, by spring 1646, his father was losing the war, and Charles left England due to fears for his safety. Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646, at The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with Lucy Walter, who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married

Charles II of England
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Charles II in the robes of the Order of the Garter, by John Michael Wright or studio, c. 1660–1665
Charles II of England
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Charles II as an infant in 1630, painting attributed to Justus van Egmont
Charles II of England
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Portrait by William Dobson, c. 1642 or 1643
Charles II of England
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"The Scots Holding Their Young King's Nose To the Grindstone", from a satirical English pamphlet

48.
Delaware River
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The Delaware River is a major river on the Atlantic coast of the United States. Its watershed drains an area of 14,119 square miles in five U. S. states—New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, not including Delaware Bay, the rivers length including its two branches is 388 miles. The Delaware River is one of nineteen Great Waters recognized by the Americas Great Waters Coalition, the Delaware River rises in two main branches that descend from the western flank of the Catskill Mountains in New York. The West Branch begins near Mount Jefferson in the Town of Jefferson in Schoharie County, the rivers East Branch begins at Grand Gorge near Roxbury Delaware County. These two branches flow west and merge near Hancock in Delaware County and the waters flow as the Delaware River south. The river meets tide-water at the junction of Morrisville, Pennsylvania and Trenton, the rivers navigable, tidal section served as a conduit for shipping and transportation that aided the development of the industrial cities of Trenton, Camden, and Philadelphia. The mean freshwater discharge of the Delaware River into the estuary of Delaware Bay is 11,550 cubic feet per second, in 1609, the river was first visited by a Dutch East India Company expedition led by Henry Hudson. Hudson, an English navigator, was hired to find a route to Cathay. Early Dutch and Swedish settlements were established along the section of river. Both colonial powers called the river the South River, compared to the Hudson River, lord de la Warr waged a punitive campaign to subdue the Powhatan after they had killed the colonys council president, John Ratcliffe, and attacked the colonys fledgling settlements. Lord de la Warr arrived with 150 soldiers in time to prevent colonys original settlers at Jamestown from giving up, the name of barony is pronounced as in the current spelling form Delaware and is thought to derive from French de la Guerre. It has often reported that the river and bay received the name Delaware after English forces under Richard Nicolls expelled the Dutch. However, the river and bay were known by the name Delaware as early as 1641, the state of Delaware was originally part of the William Penns Pennsylvania colony. In 1682, the Duke of York granted Penns request for access to the sea and leased him the territory along the western shore of Delaware Bay which became known as the Lower Counties on the Delaware. The Delaware Rivers watershed drains an area of 14,119 square miles and encompasses 42 counties and 838 municipalities in five U. S. states—New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware. This total area constitutes approximately 0. 4% of the mass in the United States. In 2001, the watershed was 18% agricultural land, 14% developed land, there are 216 tributary streams and creeks—an estimated 14,057 miles of streams and creeks—in the watershed. The waters of the Delaware Rivers basin are used to fishing, transportation, power, cooling, recreation

Delaware River
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The river looking north above Walpack Bend, where it leaves the historic Minisink region, a buried valley eroded from Marcellus Shale bedrock.
Delaware River
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Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr
Delaware River
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The East Branch of the Delaware River near Margaretville, New York
Delaware River
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Canoeing on the river at Hawk's Nest, New York

49.
Battle of Jersey
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The Battle of Jersey was an attempt by French forces to invade Jersey and remove the threat the island posed to French and American shipping in the Anglo-French War. Jersey provided a base for British privateers, and France, engaged in the war as an ally of the United States and its commander, Baron Philippe de Rullecourt, died of wounds sustained in the fighting. The battle is remembered for the death of the British officer Major Peirson. Large numbers of privateers operated out of the island, causing chaos amongst French merchant shipping, Jersey privateers even operated off the coast of America. The French government decided to neutralize this threat, aware of the military importance of Jersey, the British government had ordered that the island be heavily fortified. King George III granted approval and funding on 5 July 1778, perhaps four towers had been completed by the time of the Battle of Jersey, none where the French would land. Gun batteries, forts and redoubts already existed around the coast, all adult males had for centuries been required by law to serve in the Jersey Militia which in 1780 comprised some 3,000 men in five regiments, including artillery and dragoons. Regular army units—the entire 95th Regiment of Foot, five each of the 83rd Regiment of Foot and 78th Seaforth Highlanders. A total force amounted to about 6,250 troops of all types were available on the island, a naval force, the Jersey Squadron, was also based in the island, but was on a cruise against the Dutch at the time of the invasion. On 1 May 1779, during the Anglo-French War a French force under the command of the French born Prince of Nassau-Siegen attempted a landing at St Ouens Bay. Early that morning lookouts sighted five large vessels and a number of boats some three leagues off the coast, proceeding towards the coast to effect a landing. Guns on the cutters and small craft supporting the landing fired grapeshot at the defenders on the coast, the defenders were able to prevent the landing, suffering only a few men wounded when a cannon burst. The French vessels withdrew, first holding off a league from the coast before leaving the area entirely, De Rullecourt was an adventurer and a colonel in the French Army. King Louis XVI had promised de Rullecourt the rank of General and the Cordon rouge as soon as he had control of the town of Saint Helier, officially the expedition was a private affair. However, funding, equipment, transport and troops were provided by the French government, in order to conceal their involvement, the government went so far as to order the desertion of several hundred regular troops to De Rullecourts forces. On 5 January 1781 the expedition set out from Granville, consisting of some 2,000 soldiers in four divisions, there was a storm which scattered some ships and only 1,200 initially made it to Jersey. Jersey still celebrated 6 January as Old Christmas Night, and the French landed undetected, the 800 men of the first division landed at La Rocque, Grouville, on the south east coast and passed close by the guards without being noticed. A French officer even said that he had slept beneath the guards, the guards were subsequently put on trial, where it was found they had abandoned their post to go drinking

Battle of Jersey
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The Death of Major Peirson by John Singleton Copley
Battle of Jersey
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A plaque in Saint Helier marks the house of Edward Combs who raised the alarm
Battle of Jersey
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Major Peirson
Battle of Jersey
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The Royal Square, as seen here today, was the scene of the Battle of Jersey.

50.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states

51.
Normandy landings
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The Normandy landings were the landing operations on Tuesday,6 June 1944 of the Allied invasion of Normandy in Operation Overlord during World War II. The largest seaborne invasion in history, the operation began the liberation of German-occupied northwestern Europe from Nazi control, planning for the operation began in 1943. Adolf Hitler placed German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in command of German forces, the amphibious landings were preceded by extensive aerial and naval bombardment and an airborne assault—the landing of 24,000 American, British, and Canadian airborne troops shortly after midnight. Allied infantry and armoured divisions began landing on the coast of France at 06,30, the target 50-mile stretch of the Normandy coast was divided into five sectors, Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno, and Sword. Strong winds blew the landing craft east of their positions, particularly at Utah. Casualties were heaviest at Omaha, with its high cliffs, at Gold, Juno, and Sword, several fortified towns were cleared in house-to-house fighting, and two major gun emplacements at Gold were disabled, using specialised tanks. The Allies failed to any of their goals on the first day. Carentan, St. Lô, and Bayeux remained in German hands, and Caen, German casualties on D-Day have been estimated at 4,000 to 9,000 men. Allied casualties were at least 10,000, with 4,414 confirmed dead, museums, memorials, and war cemeteries in the area now host many visitors each year. Between 27 May and 4 June 1940, over 338,000 troops of the British Expeditionary Force, after the German Army invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin began pressing his allies for the creation of a second front in western Europe. In late May 1942 the Soviet Union and the United States made a joint announcement that a. full understanding was reached with regard to the urgent tasks of creating a front in Europe in 1942. Instead of a return to France, the Western Allies staged offensives in the Mediterranean Theatre of Operations. By mid-1943 the campaign in North Africa had been won, the Allies then launched the invasion of Sicily in July 1943, and subsequently invaded Italy in September the same year. By then, Soviet forces were on the offensive and had won a victory at the Battle of Stalingrad. The decision to undertake a cross-channel invasion within the year was taken at the Trident Conference in Washington in May 1943. Initial planning was constrained by the number of landing craft, most of which were already committed in the Mediterranean. At the Tehran Conference in November 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill promised Stalin that they would open the second front in May 1944. Four sites were considered for the landings, Brittany, the Cotentin Peninsula, Normandy, as Brittany and Cotentin are peninsulas, it would have been possible for the Germans to cut off the Allied advance at a relatively narrow isthmus, so these sites were rejected

52.
Parishes of Jersey
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The Channel Island of Jersey is divided into twelve administrative districts or parishes. All have access to the sea and are named after the saints to whom their ancient parish churches are dedicated and this is a list of parishes of Jersey. The population figures are as reported in the 2011 census, each parish is headed by a Constable who is elected for a four-year period by the residents of the Parish. The Constable also represents the municipality in the States, the Procureur du Bien Public is the legal and financial representative of the parish. Centeniers are elected at an election within each parish for a term of three years to undertake policing within the parish. The centenier is the only authorised to charge and bail offenders. Formerly, the senior centenier of each parish was the Constables deputy in the States of Jersey when the Constable was unable to attend a sitting of the States — this function has been abolished. A Roads Committee of five elected principals is also available to offer advice on a range of issues, Centeniers are the highest ranking police officers in Jersey and are elected. In Jersey, the Roads Committee is the authority for parish roads in each parish. The Connétable presides over the Roads Committee which also includes the Rector, instructions are passed to Roads Inspectors whose duty it is to ensure that the repairs are carried out. By convention, the two Procureur du Bien Public of St. Helier attend meetings of the Roads Committee, the Parish is further divided into Vingtaines. Each vingtaine is represented by two Vingteniers, two Roads Inspectors and three Constables Officers, all are elected and sworn officers of the Royal Court. There is an Honorary Police force in each parish in Jersey, Honorary Police officers have, for centuries, been elected by parishioners to assist the Connétable of the Parish to maintain law and order. Officers are elected as Centeniers, Vingteniers or Constables Officers each with various duties and responsibilities, the Honorary Police provided the only law enforcement prior to the appointment of paid police officers for the Parish of Saint Helier in 1853 and later to serve the whole Island. The Honorary Police still provide an essential and very valuable service to the parish and these officers are elected for a period of three years and take an oath in the Royal Court. All Honorary Police officers must live in the Parish at the time of their first election or, in the case of St Helier, be a ratepayer or mandataire of that Parish. A person may be nominated for election as a member of the Honorary Police if, on the day of nomination, s/he is at least 20 years of age and less than 70 years of age. Honorary Police officers are on duty for one week at a time, usually every 3 or 4 weeks depending upon the roster within the Parish, Honorary Police officers are elected to serve the Parish but in certain circumstances may assist or operate outside the Parish

53.
Jersey general election, 2011
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General elections for the States of Jersey were held in Jersey on 19 October 2011, and for the first time Senators, Deputies and Constables were elected on a single day in Jersey. The number of members of the States of Jersey was reduced from 53 to 51, six Senators who had been elected in 2008 for a period of six years did not face election in 2011. Senator Ben Shenton did not seek re-election Senator Francis Le Gresley Senator Terry Le Main, did not seek re-election as senator, three candidates were elected in this district. Deputy Rob Duhamel 773 Deputy Jeremy Maçon 621 Hedi Green 462 Isabella Lewis 400 Two candidates were elected in this district, the Constable is often referred to as the Father of the Parish. For the first time since 1903 the position of Constable in the Parish of St Ouen will be contested following the decision of incumbent Ken Vibert to stand down

54.
Dean of Jersey
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The Dean of Jersey is the leader of the Church of England in Jersey. He is ex officio a member of the States of Jersey, the Dean acts as the chaplain of the States Assembly and may speak in debates on any matter. The Dean is appointed by the Crown by means of letters patent, the Dean also serves as rector of one of the Parishes of Jersey and is instituted and inducted in that office by the Bishop of Winchester. Since 1784 it has been customary for the Dean to also be the rector of the Parish Church of St Helier, but this has not always been the case. For example, William Corbet Le Breton, father of Lillie Langtry, was rector of Saint Saviour at the time he became Dean, since 1661, the Dean of Jersey has a seal of pointed ellipse type. The arms of the deanery impale those of each individual, the Dean of Jersey presides over the ecclesiastical court. Customs, Ceremonies & Traditions of the Channel Islands, Lemprière,1976, ISBN 0-7091-5842-4 The Channel Islands on Diocese of Winchester

Dean of Jersey
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The Dean of Jersey, Bob Key, leading the service at Elizabeth Castle during the annual Saint Helier Day pilgrimage, 2007

55.
Cabinet of Jersey
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The Council of Ministers is the collective institution of executive government in Jersey. The council does not represent a majority as ministers may be elected on a variety of manifestos. The first Council of Ministers was established in December 2005, the election for Chief Minister takes place as a majority vote in the States Assembly. The chief minister-elect then nominates nine people for the position of minister, other candidates may be nominated from among the states members and a vote is taken for each ministerial post on a majority basis by the full membership of the States of Jersey. The Chief Minister acts as president of the council and matters may be brought for discussion by any minister. Legally ultimate responsibility for the decisions of a department rest solely with the minister, however in practice matters are decided by a unanimous or majority vote of the ten ministers. Elections for ministerial posts were held on 17 and 18 November 2011, the chief ministers nominations were all contested, two of his nominations were defeated, and five ministerial posts were decided by margins of between 1 and 3 votes. The nominees of the Chief Minister were successful with the exception of Senator Routier, proposed successively for Health and Social Services and Education, Sport and Culture. Three ministers subsequently resigned as ministers in the face of criticisms of their conduct, Senator Jim Perchard, Deputy Terry Le Main and Deputy Sean Power. One minister, Senator Freddie Cohen, exchanged the role of Planning and her predecessor, Senator Jim Perchard resigned in April 2009 after controversy surrounding remarks he made in the chamber urging Senator Stuart Syvret to commit suicide. Education, Sport and Culture Minister, Deputy James Reed, Deputy Reed was the Chief Ministers initial candidate for the post. However, when his nomination of Senator Routier for Health and Social Services was defeated, he withdrew Deputy Reeds name, deputies Reed, Judy Martin and Roy Le Hérissier were also nominated. In the first round of voting Senator Routier received 16 votes, Deputy Reed 13 votes, Deputy Le Hérissier 12 votes, with Deputy Martin eliminated, in the second round Deputy Le Hérissier received 20 votes while Senator Routier and Deputy Reed both received 16 votes. In the tie-breaking third round Deputy Reed received 29 votes and Senator Routier was eliminated with 23 votes, in the final round Deputy Reed was elected with 31 votes and Deputy Le Hérissier received 22 votes. Planning and Environment Minister, Deputy Rob Duhamel, Senator Freddie Cohen, who was elected to the ministerial post unopposed in 2008, resigned in order to focus on his role as foreign minister

56.
John McColl
–
General Sir John Chalmers McColl, KCB, CBE, DSO is a retired senior British Army officer and a past Lieutenant Governor of Jersey. McColl previously served as Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe from 2007 to 2011, educated at Culford School in Suffolk, England, McColl was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Royal Anglian Regiment in 1973 and promoted to lieutenant on 8 September 1974. He was promoted to captain on 8 March 1979 and to major on 30 September 1984, in 1989 he became a squadron commander in the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment, was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 30 June 1990 and to acting colonel shortly after. He was promoted to colonel on 30 June 1995 and to brigadier on 31 December 1996 and he held a variety of commands and military posts before commanding 1st Mechanised Brigade in 1997. In 1999 he became Assistant Chief of Staff at Land Command, in 2001 he was appointed the first leader of the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan. In 2003 he became Commandant of the Joint Services Command and Staff College, in October 2007 he became Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe in the rank of general. He was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in the 2008 New Year Honours and he was the preferred choice of Afghanistan for the role of U. N. super envoy after they rejected Paddy Ashdown. However, on 7 March 2008 Norwegian diplomat Kai Eide was appointed as the UN representative for Afghanistan and he retired as DSACEUR in March 2011. On 26 October 2010 it was announced that he would be appointed to the role of Lieutenant Governor of Jersey and he took office on 26 September 2011. On 5 June 2012, Sir John, and his wife Lady McColl, after his fixed term of office, his tenure ended on 30 November 2016 and he was succeeded by Air Chief Marshal Sir Stephen Dalton

John McColl
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McColl at the opening of the Millennium Town Park in Saint Helier, 2011
John McColl
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John McColl as DSACEUR
John McColl
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Sir John as Lieutenant Governor of Jersey in 2012 with HRH the Duchess of Cornwall.

57.
The Crown
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The Crown is the state in all its aspects within the jurisprudence of the Commonwealth realms and their sub-divisions, although the term is not only a metonym for the State. The Crown is a sole that represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative. These monarchies are united by the union of their monarch. The concept of the Crown developed first in the Kingdom of England as a separation of the crown and property of the nation state from the person. The concept spread through English and later British colonisation and is now rooted in the lexicon of the other 15 independent realms. In this context it should not be confused with any physical crown, the concept of the Crown took form under the feudal system. Though not used this way in all countries that had this system, in England, all rights, land, for instance, was granted by the Crown to lords in exchange for feudal services and they, in turn, granted the land to lesser lords. One exception to this was common socage—owners of land held as socage held it only to the Crown. The Crown as ultimate owner of all property also owns any property which has become bona vacantia, the monarch is the living embodiment of the Crown and, as such, is regarded as the personification of the state. He office cannot exist without the office-holder, the Crown also represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative, and judicial governance. While the Crowns legal personality is usually regarded as a sole, it can, at least for some purposes. Historically, the Crown was considered to be indivisible, two judgments—Ex parte Indian Association of Alberta and Ex parte Quark —challenged that view. The Crown in each of the Commonwealth realms is a similar, because both Canada and Australia are federations, there are also crowns in right of each Canadian province and each Australian state. The Succession to the Crown Law 2013 defined the Crown, for the purposes of implementing the Perth Agreement in Jersey law, as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Jersey. Legislation in the Isle of Man also defines the Crown in right of the Isle of Man as being separate from the Crown in right of the United Kingdom and this constitutional concept is also worded as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Guernsey. The reserve powers of the Crown for each territory are no longer considered to be exercisable on the advice of the UK government, often cases are brought by the Crown according to the complaint of a claimant. The title of the case follows the pattern of R v Y. Thus R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union is R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, where Miller is Gina Miller, in Scotland, criminal prosecutions are undertaken by the Lord Advocate in the name of the Crown

58.
French civil law
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In academic terms, French law can be divided into two main categories, private law and public law. This differs from the common law conception in which the main distinction is between Criminal law and Civil Law. Private law governs relationships between individuals and it includes, in particular, Civil law. This branch refers to the field of law in common law systems. This branch encompasses the fields of law, civil law, family law, property law. Commercial law Employment law Public law defines the structure and the workings of the government as well as relationships between the state and individuals, also, during the colonial era some Muslim-dominated societies began to blend the sharia legal system with the French legal system as represented in local law. As mentioned, the civil law in France refers to private law. The main body of statutes and laws governing civil law and procedure are set out in the Civil Code of France, other private law statutes are also located in other codes such as commercial code in the Code of Commerce, or copyright law in the Intellectual Property Code. However, a number of offenses, e. g. slander. Relationship between citizens and public authorities, in particular the participation of French citizens to the exercise of public powers and it fixes the hierarchy of laws and rules within the French legal system and the relationship between these different norms. In France, most claims against local or national governments are handled by the administrative courts, the main administrative courts are the tribunaux administratifs and cours administratives dappel for appeals. The French body of law is called droit administratif. The commission intended to create a dozen or so EU criminal offences, indeed, led by its then-Commissioner for Justice and Home Affairs Franco Frattini - it insisted that the principle created in this decision applied to all policies, not just pollution policy. In May 2006, the Commission formally submitted to the EU Parliament, the Parliament began its consideration of the draft directive in March 2007. Introduction au droit ISBN 2-13-053181-4,127 pages One of the Que sais-je. series of pocketbook volumes, introduction to French law ISBN 1-85941-112-6. Principles of French law ISBN 0-19-876394-8, ISBN 0-19-876395-6, the French legal system 2nd ed. ISBN 0-421-53970-4. The French legal system 2nd ed. ISBN 0-406-90323-9, foreign law, current sources of codes and basic legislation in jurisdictions of the world v.24 cm. Series, AALL publications series 33, Contents v.1, ISBN 0-8377-0134-1, http, //www. foreignlawguide. com/ For both an overview and pointers toward further study, see the excellent introduction to the France section David, René

French civil law
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French system of Jurisdiction

59.
Parish church
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A parish church in Christianity is the church which acts as the religious centre of a parish. The church building reflects this status, and there is variety in the size. Many villages in Europe have churches that date back to the Middle Ages, in England, it is the basic administrative unit of episcopal churches. Nearly every part of England is in a parish, and most parishes have an Anglican parish church, in cities without a cathedral of a certain Christian denomination, the parish church may have administrative functions similar to that of a cathedral. However, the diocese will still have a cathedral, while smaller villages may only have a parish church, larger towns may have a parish church and then also smaller churches in various districts which do not have the status of parish church. Often the parish church will be the one to have a full-time minister. One sign of this is that the church is the only one to have a baptismal font. The Church of Scotland, the established Presbyterian church, also uses a system of parish churches, in Massachusetts, towns elected publicly funded parish churches from 1780 until 1834. Toward the end of the 20th century, a new resurgence in interest in parish churches emerged across the United States and this has given rise to efforts like the Slow Church Movement and The Parish Collective which focus heavily on localized involvement across work, home, and church life. Theologically, many Protestants have embraced the model as having roots in a Reformed view of eschatology. It’s a way of saying ‘I believe in the Incarnation, ’” says pastor Raymond F. Cannata, “Having an earthy eschatology is part of it. ”Roman Catholic parish church Church of England parish church Smith, C. Slow Church, Cultivating Community in the Patient Way of Jesus

Parish church
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A parish church in Gloucestershire, England
Parish church
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The Parish Church of Combe Martin in North Devon, England
Parish church
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Inside the Parish Church of Saint Lawrence in Bourton-on-the-Water, England

60.
Saint Clement, Jersey
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Saint Clement is one of the twelve parishes of Jersey in the Channel Islands. It is in the south east of the Island, and contains some of the suburbs of Saint Helier and it is the smallest parish by surface area, but the second most densely populated. St. Clement stretches west to east from Le Dicq to within a mile of La Rocque harbour. Its surface area is around 1,044 acres, the parish is subdivided into three vingtaines, and is administered at local level by the Connétable. Much of the parish lies below equinoctial high-tide level and was flooded before Le Dicq was built to try to hold back the sea somewhat. There are remains of a submerged forest underneath the sand at Grève dAzette that show how the parish has reduced in size as the sea has advanced. Large floods in 1688,1796 and 1812 led to the coast road at Le Hocq being swept away by the sea, in pre-Norman times, the area now known as St. Clement was known as Petravilla or Pierreville. In 1172 it was recorded that a chapel existed in the parish, in the 16th and 17th centuries the parish was believed to be the centre of a witch movement. According to beliefs, the rock at Rocque Berg was the focus for witchcraft in Jersey, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, many French Protestants settled in the parish – as recorded on the church register. In the mid 19th century, the town began to spread east from St. Helier into the west of the parish, today there is relatively little open green space west of Samarès Lane into St. Helier. The famous French writer Victor Hugo lived in Marina Terrace, St. Clement for some time and it was the Connétable of St. Clement at the time who escorted Hugo onto a steamer bound for Guernsey when he had insulted the British Royal Family in some of his letters. The population of St. Clement, according to the 2011 census is 9,221, aside from the two deputies who sit in the States of Jersey and represent the parish, St. Clement also has its own local administration. The current Connétable of St. Clement is Mr. Len Norman, the seat of the parish administration is the Salle Paroissiale, or Parish Hall, which is pictured above and located at Le Hocq. This is the newest parish hall in the island, the parish hall in St. Clement was located at Caldwell Hall. St. Clement has two schools and one secondary school within its borders. Le Rocquier School is a school, on La Grande Route de St Clement. The original school buildings were replaced with a new building in 2006, the parish school of St. Clement is located on Rue de la Chapelle, a short distance from Le Rocquier School. The original buildings dates back to 1901, and was replaced in 2006 with a new building on the opposite side of the road

Saint Clement, Jersey
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The Parish Hall of St. Clement at Le Hocq is the most modern of the island's parish halls
Saint Clement, Jersey
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The round tower at Le Hocq is a prominent coastal landmark
Saint Clement, Jersey
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View of housing in the parish in 2012
Saint Clement, Jersey
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Le Rocquier School in 2013.

61.
Saint Lawrence, Jersey
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Saint Lawrence is one of the twelve parishes of Jersey in the Channel Islands. The parish covers 5,258 vergées and occupies the centre of the Island, much of the parish is inland, though it has a short stretch of coastline in St. Aubins Bay. It borders St Peter and St Mary to the west, St John to the north and east, hamptonne, the Country Life Museum, occupies restored farm buildings in the parish. An apple orchard preserves native Jersey cider apple varieties and the preinseu is the focus of the annual Faîssie dcidre cidermaking festival using traditional equipment, the ITV drama Under the Greenwood Tree was mostly filmed here. The Jersey War Tunnels are a relic of the engineering works undertaken by the occupying German forces 1940–1945. They also serve as a memorial to the many slave-workers pressed into labouring on such projects during the Second World War, Lawrence is one electoral district and elects two Deputies. All parishes of Jersey, including St Lawrence, have an Honorary Police force, including the Connétable, the parish has three elected representatives in the States of Jersey. As of 2011 the parish Deputies are Deputy John Le Fondré, the parish has 5,418 residents according to the 2011 census. St Lawrence is twinned with, Barneville-Carteret in France Saint Lawrence at Les Pages Jèrriaises

Saint Lawrence, Jersey
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The Parish Church in St. Lawrence
Saint Lawrence, Jersey
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The arched entrance to Morel Farm, a National Trust for Jersey property in St. Lawrence, bears the date inscription 1666. Along with Hamptonne and Le Rât cottage, it is one of the notable examples of rural architecture in the parish
Saint Lawrence, Jersey
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Cidermaking traditions are preserved at Hamptonne using a horse-drawn granite apple crusher and wooden two-screw press

62.
Vingtaine
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A vingtaine is a political subdivision of Jersey. They are subdivisions of the parishes of Jersey, and one, La Vingtaine de la Ville. St. Ouen has cueillettes instead of vingtaines, in each vingtaine, vingteniers and Constables officers are elected as part of Jerseys Honorary Police system. They do not have to live within the vingtaine or cueillette they represent, vingteniers are elected by a Parish Assembly of electors and ratepayers for a term of three years but are elected to a particular vingtaine in that Parish. Vingteniers carry out community policing in the parish, and fulfill administrative roles within their vingtaine in respect of tasks such as the Visite du Branchage. Constables Officers are elected to serve a vingtaine or cueillette at an Assembly of the electors of that Parish and they assist the Centeniers and vingteniers of the parish with community policing. Roads Inspectors are elected to serve a vingtaine or cueillette at an Assembly of the electors of the Parish and they are responsible to for maintaining the highways and byways of the Vingtaine. Along with Honorary Police they are sworn in as officers by the Royal Court, Roads Inspectors report to and must enforce the decisions of the Roads Committee of the Parish. La Vingtaine du Sud La Vingtaine du Nord Unusually, the subdivisions of this parish are not named vingtaines, La Petite Cueillette La Grande Cueillette La Cueillette de Grantez La Cueillette de Millais La Cueillette de Vinchelez La Cueillette de Léoville La Vingtaine du Douet La Vingtaine de St

Vingtaine
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This map, published 1891, shows the location of vingtaines and cueillettes in Jersey

63.
Honorary Police
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There is an Honorary Police force in each of the 12 parishes of Jersey. Members of the Honorary Police are elected by the voters of the parish in which they serve, Honorary Police officers have, for centuries, been elected by parishioners to assist the Connétable of the Parish to maintain law and order. Officers are elected as Centeniers, Vingteniers or Constables Officers, each with various duties and responsibilities, until the 19th century the Honorary Police provided the only civilian law enforcement in Jersey. Each Parish elects a number of Centeniers, Vingteniers and Constables Officers who act in the name of the Connétable of the Parish in maintaining law and these officers are elected for a period of three years and take an oath in the Royal Court. All Honorary Police officers must live in the Parish at the time of their first election or, in the case of St Helier, be a ratepayer or mandataire of that Parish. A person may be nominated for election as a member of the Honorary Police if, on the day of nomination, s/he is at least 20 years of age and less than 70 years of age. Honorary Police officers are on duty for one week at a time, usually every 3 or 4 weeks depending upon the roster within the Parish, Honorary Police officers are elected to serve the Parish but in certain circumstances may assist or operate outside the Parish. Anyone standing for election as a member of the Honorary Police will have to undergo a criminal record check, a Centenier is a senior member of the Honorary Police of Jersey. Centeniers are elected for a mandate of 3 years at an election within the Parish. In addition to general policing matters, the Centenier remains the only officer entitled to charge, the Centenier presides at Parish Hall Enquiries and acts as Prosecuting Officer before the Magistrates Court. The Constable of the Parish appoints one of the Centeniers as Chef de Police of the Parish, a Vingtenier is a member of the Honorary Police elected by a Parish Assembly of electors and ratepayers for a term of three years for a particular vingtaine in that Parish. The office of Vingtenier may date back to 1331, although the first recorded reference to the title of vingtenier dates to 1462, the political system of Sark, which was modelled after Jerseys in 1579, also includes a Vingtenier. In Sark the sole Vingtenier is elected by Chief Pleas as junior to the Constable, Constables Officers are the lowest rank of the elected police officers, collectively known as the Honorary Police who represent a Vingtaine in a Parish of Jersey. Constables Officers do not have to live within that Vingtaine but must live within the parish at the time of their election, if they move in the interim they are allowed to complete their term of office. They assist both the Centeniers and Vingteniers of the Parish with general policing matters, Centeniers and Vingteniers also assist their Parishes with the Visite du Branchage twice yearly and the Visite Royale which happens once every six years. Duty is usually performed for a week on a rota basis, the different Parishes differ slightly in their specific arrangements, however, all parishes hold a monthly meeting that their Connétable must attend. Centeniers, Vingteniers and Constables Officers are members of the Honorary Police Association, a Chef de Police is appointed in each Parish from the Centeniers of that Parish and is responsible to the Connétable for the operational policing of the Parish. States of Jersey Police is the police service of Jersey

64.
Centenier
–
There is an Honorary Police force in each of the 12 parishes of Jersey. Members of the Honorary Police are elected by the voters of the parish in which they serve, Honorary Police officers have, for centuries, been elected by parishioners to assist the Connétable of the Parish to maintain law and order. Officers are elected as Centeniers, Vingteniers or Constables Officers, each with various duties and responsibilities, until the 19th century the Honorary Police provided the only civilian law enforcement in Jersey. Each Parish elects a number of Centeniers, Vingteniers and Constables Officers who act in the name of the Connétable of the Parish in maintaining law and these officers are elected for a period of three years and take an oath in the Royal Court. All Honorary Police officers must live in the Parish at the time of their first election or, in the case of St Helier, be a ratepayer or mandataire of that Parish. A person may be nominated for election as a member of the Honorary Police if, on the day of nomination, s/he is at least 20 years of age and less than 70 years of age. Honorary Police officers are on duty for one week at a time, usually every 3 or 4 weeks depending upon the roster within the Parish, Honorary Police officers are elected to serve the Parish but in certain circumstances may assist or operate outside the Parish. Anyone standing for election as a member of the Honorary Police will have to undergo a criminal record check, a Centenier is a senior member of the Honorary Police of Jersey. Centeniers are elected for a mandate of 3 years at an election within the Parish. In addition to general policing matters, the Centenier remains the only officer entitled to charge, the Centenier presides at Parish Hall Enquiries and acts as Prosecuting Officer before the Magistrates Court. The Constable of the Parish appoints one of the Centeniers as Chef de Police of the Parish, a Vingtenier is a member of the Honorary Police elected by a Parish Assembly of electors and ratepayers for a term of three years for a particular vingtaine in that Parish. The office of Vingtenier may date back to 1331, although the first recorded reference to the title of vingtenier dates to 1462, the political system of Sark, which was modelled after Jerseys in 1579, also includes a Vingtenier. In Sark the sole Vingtenier is elected by Chief Pleas as junior to the Constable, Constables Officers are the lowest rank of the elected police officers, collectively known as the Honorary Police who represent a Vingtaine in a Parish of Jersey. Constables Officers do not have to live within that Vingtaine but must live within the parish at the time of their election, if they move in the interim they are allowed to complete their term of office. They assist both the Centeniers and Vingteniers of the Parish with general policing matters, Centeniers and Vingteniers also assist their Parishes with the Visite du Branchage twice yearly and the Visite Royale which happens once every six years. Duty is usually performed for a week on a rota basis, the different Parishes differ slightly in their specific arrangements, however, all parishes hold a monthly meeting that their Connétable must attend. Centeniers, Vingteniers and Constables Officers are members of the Honorary Police Association, a Chef de Police is appointed in each Parish from the Centeniers of that Parish and is responsible to the Connétable for the operational policing of the Parish. States of Jersey Police is the police service of Jersey

65.
External relations of Jersey
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Although diplomatic representation is reserved to the Crown, Jersey has been developing its own international identity over recent years. It negotiates directly with governments on matters within the competence of the States of Jersey. Jersey maintains the Bureau de Jersey in Caen, France, a permanent non-diplomatic representation, a similar office, the Maison de Normandie in St. Helier, represents the Conseil général of Manche and the Regional Council of Lower Normandy. It also houses the Consulate of France, in July 2009, a Channel Islands Tunnel was proposed to connect Jersey with Lower Normandy. Jersey is a member of the British-Irish Council, the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association, Jersey wants to become a full member of the Commonwealth in its own right. In 2007, the Chief Minister and the UK Lord Chancellor signed an agreement that established a framework for the development of the identity of Jersey. In January 2011, the Chief Minister designated one of his assistant ministers as having responsibility for external relations, in 2013 the Chief Minister proposed converting the post of assistant minister with responsibility for external relations to a full ministerial post. On 24 January 2013 Jersey signed double taxation agreements with Guernsey and this was the first time all three Crown dependencies had established such mutual agrrements which also included provision for exchange of tax information equivalent to TIEAs. The relationship between the Crown dependencies and the UK is one of respect and support, ie. Guernseys Deputy Chief Minister and Jerseys Assistant Chief Minister travelled to Dublin in September 2012 as a first step in a coordinated approach to international relations. The purpose of the visit was to meet Irelands Minister for European Affairs for mutual discussions ahead of Irelands assumption of the European Union presidency in 2013, the question of an independent Jersey has been discussed from time to time in the Assembly of the States of Jersey. In 2005–2008, a group of the States of Jersey examined the options for independence, concluding that Jersey is equipped to face the challenges of independence. Proposals for Jersey independence continue to be discussed outside the States, the Groups Second Interim Report was presented to the States by the Council of Ministers in June 2008. Jersey is not a member of the Commonwealth of Nations in its own right and it participates in various Commonwealth institutions in its own right, for example, the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association and the Commonwealth Games. Jersey regards the existing situation as unsatisfactory and has lobbied for change, Jersey is neither a Member State nor an Associate Member of the European Union. However, that is not to say that it is outside the European Communities or the European Union in the sense that it is excluded. The relationship between Jersey and the European Communities was negotiated as a extension of the existing relationship with the United Kingdom by Sir Geoffrey Rippon. The only European Territories under United Kingdom responsibility which were excluded were the Sovereign Base Territories in Cyprus, had the Special relationship not been negotiated, then Jersey would have been included within the Communities in the same way as Gibraltar

66.
Jersey Airport
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Jersey Airport is located in the parish of Saint Peter,4 NM west northwest of Saint Helier in Jersey, in the Channel Islands. Air service to Jersey before 1937 consisted of biplane airliners and some seaplanes landing on the beach at Saint Aubin bay, Jersey Airways and Imperial Airways were among those who operated to the island before the Second World War, but conditions were difficult as timetables were governed by tides. It was also difficult to prevent members of the public from walking across the landing area, the States of Jersey decided to build an airport which opened on 10 March 1937 with four grass runways, the longest being 2,940 ft with a concrete centreline. Concrete taxiways were added during the World War II occupation by the Luftwaffe – they also built hangars, one of which, a 4,200 ft tarmac runway was opened in 1952 and the grass strips were closed. E. A. The runway was lengthened several times over the years, reaching its current length of 5,560 ft in 1976, the runway is 150 ft wide. Additional taxiways were added years later to improve access to the one end of the runway. However, due to its length, in October 2007 Thomsonfly announced the removal of some services as it introduced the larger Boeing 737-800 to its fleet. Designated 09/27 in 1952, the runway was redesignated 08/26 in October 2014 due to a shift in the magnetic poles. There were approximately 47,000 aircraft movements and 1.6 million passengers at the airport during 2016, the 1937 terminal was designed with a control tower between the arrivals and departures areas. The terminal was extended in 1976, a new departures terminal adjoining the existing terminal was opened in 1997. A new air traffic tower was completed and opened in late 2010. Eventually, on 17 March 2014 it was determined on grounds of aviation safety, Jersey is part of the Common Travel Area, which means that there are limited identity card checks before boarding a flight to the UK or Ireland. There would be full passport check when travelling to or from other countries, as well as direct services, Flybe operates flights from Jersey to Birmingham and Exeter with an immediate stop in Guernsey. There are also charter flights to European holiday destinations. Cargo flights, including mail and paper services, which are handled by OceanAir Express Logistics, are operated by Atlantic Airlines. Apart from scheduled services, Jersey Airport accommodates a thriving general aviation population. It is also home to the Jersey International Air Display in September each year, Aviation Beauport Ltd is based at Jersey Airport and offers worldwide private charter flights. There are long and short-stay car parks located at the airport, there is a public taxi rank, and bus stop directly outside the arrivals hall

67.
Caen
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Caen is a commune in northwestern France. It is the prefecture of the Calvados department, the city proper has 108,365 inhabitants, while its urban area has 420,000, making Caen the largest city in former Lower Normandy. It is also the second largest municipality in all of Normandy after Le Havre, the metropolitan area of Caen, in turn, is the second largest in Normandy after that of Rouen, the 21st largest in France. It is located 15 kilometres inland from the English Channel, two hours north-west of Paris, and connected to the south of England by the Caen--Portsmouth ferry route. Caen is located in the centre of its region, and it is a centre of political, economic. Located a few miles from the coast, the landing beaches, the city has now preserved the memory by erecting a memorial and a museum dedicated to peace, the Memorial de Caen. Current arms, Gules, an open castle Or, windowed and masoned sable. Under the Ancien Régime, Per fess, gules and azure,3 fleurs de lys Or, during the First French Empire, Gules, a single-towered castle Or, a chief of Good Imperial Cities. Today, Caen has no motto, but it used to have one, as a result, its spelling is archaic and has not been updated, Un Dieu, un Roy, une Foy, une Loy. This motto is reflected in a notable old Chant royal, Caens home port code is CN In 1346, King Edward III of England led his army against the city, hoping to loot it. During the attack, English officials searched its archives and found a copy of the 1339 Franco-Norman plot to invade England, devised by Philip VI of France and this was subsequently used as propaganda to justify the supplying and financing of the conflict and its continuation. Only the castle of Caen held out, despite attempts to besiege it, a few days later, the English left, marching to the east and on to their victory at the Battle of Crécy. It was later captured by Henry V in 1417 and treated harshly for being the first town to put up any resistance to his invasion. During the Battle of Normandy in the Second World War, Caen was liberated from the Nazis in early July, British and Canadian troops had intended to capture the town on D-Day. However they were held up north of the city until 9 July, the Allies seized the western quarters, a month later than Field Marshal Montgomerys original plan. During the battle, many of the inhabitants sought refuge in the Abbaye aux Hommes. Both the cathedral and the university were destroyed by the British. Post-Second World War work included the reconstruction of complete districts of the city and it took 14 years and led to the current urbanization of Caen

68.
Manche
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Manche is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on March 4,1790. It was created from part of the province of Normandie, the first capital was Coutances until 1796, and it resumed that role after World War II because of the almost complete destruction of Saint-Lô during the battle of Normandy following D-Day. When Saint-Lô was rebuilt, it became the capital. The Department includes the Cotentin Peninsula down to the famous Mont St Michel, Manche borders the Normandy departments of Calvados to the east and Orne to the southeast. Mayenne, a department of the Pays de la Loire, is to the south-east, the region is lush and green with sandy beaches, remaining very rural and farming oriented. Flat marsh areas in the department are known for their bird watching, the region and around St Lo is also the horse capital of France, where the cooler climate compared to the south is ideal for breeding and training. Frances first EPR reactor is near completion at Cherbourg and the TGV fast trains are planned for Paris to Caen, the climate is oceanic, with relatively mild winters temperatures can go below zero for a few days occasionally. Temperate summers, around 20 °C, can occasionally reach 35 °C in direct sun light, precipitation is substantial, and varies greatly by region, between 700mm on the coast and 1300mm in the southern central area. Highly localised, not life-threatening flash flooding has been experienced over the last few years in the spring period, the west coast benefits from the Gulf streams influence, allowing the naturalization of many Mediterranean and exotic plants. There is often a sea breeze on the coast, which combined with tides contributes to quick temperature changes over a single day, sea temperatures can be very pleasant for swimming between July and October. Inhabitants of the department are called Manchots or Manchois, football, main clubs, AS Cherbourg, US Avranches, Saint-Lô, Granville, Villedieu, UST Équeurdreville-Hainneville. Cycling, the Tour de France has visited the department 21 times with stages ending at Cherbourg, Avranches, Granville, Saint-Hilaire-du-Harcouët, sailing, the Solitaire du Figaro has come to Cherbourg several times. Tennis, hosts the Challenger La Manche tournament, thai boxing, Villedieu-les-Poêles Badminton, Two local clubs compete in the national championship, St Hilaire du Harcouet and Hainneville. Prefecture website General Council website Manche at DMOZ A whole wiki about the Manche, comité départemental du tourisme de la Manche

69.
British-Irish Council
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The British–Irish Council is an intergovernmental organisation which aims to improve collaboration between its members in a number of areas including transport, the environment, and energy. England does not have an administration, and as a result is not individually representated on the Council. The British and Irish governments, and political parties in Northern Ireland, agreed to form a Council under the British–Irish Agreement, the Council was formally established on 2 December 1999, when the Agreement came into effect. The Councils stated aim is to promote the harmonious and mutually beneficial development of the totality of relationships among the peoples of these islands, the BIC has a standing secretariat, located in Edinburgh, Scotland, and meets in semi-annual summit session and more frequent ministerial meetings. Membership of the Council consists of the administrations, The nine heads of government meet at summits twice per year. Additionally, there are meetings that deal with specific sectors and are attended by the corresponding ministers. Representatives of members operate in accordance with procedures for democratic authority and accountability are in force in their respective elected legislatures. The work of the Council is financed by members through mutual agreement as required and this decision included the potential for a permanent standing secretariat, which was established in Edinburgh, Scotland, on 4 January 2012. At its June 2010 summit, the Council decided to forward on recommendations to enhance the relationship between it and the British-Irish Parliamentary Assembly. The British-Irish Parliamentary Assembly is made up of members from the parliaments and assemblies of the same states, the Council tasked its secretariat with moving this work forward in conjunction with the BIPAs secretariat. In addition to the above members Cornwall has been an observer member since 2010 due to the Cornish language falling under the Councils areas of work. The Council agrees to work areas for which individual members take responsibility. The Belfast Agreement suggested transport links, agriculture, environmental issues, culture, health, education, however, these work areas can be expanded or reduced as the Council decides. It is also open to the Council to make agreement on common policies and these agreements are made through consensus, although individual members may opt not to participate in implementing any of these. The current list of areas and the member responsible are. It was proposed by the Scottish Executive, who took responsibility for it. During the 2007 meeting of the Council the Scottish Government further proposed that energy become an area of the Council. Past work sector areas included knowledge economy, e-health / telemedicine, initial suggestions for the council included the names Council of the British Isles or Council of the Isles, and the council has sometimes been known by the latter name

British-Irish Council
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British-Irish Council

70.
Commonwealth of Nations
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The Commonwealth of Nations, also known as simply the Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of 52 member states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire. The Commonwealth dates back to the century with the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories. It was formally constituted by the London Declaration in 1949, which established the states as free. The symbol of free association is Queen Elizabeth II who is the Head of the Commonwealth. The Queen is also the monarch of 16 members of the Commonwealth, the other Commonwealth members have different heads of state,31 members are republics and five are monarchies with a different monarch. Member states have no obligation to one another. Instead, they are united by language, history, culture and their values of democracy, free speech, human rights. These values are enshrined in the Commonwealth Charter and promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games, the Commonwealth covers more than 29,958,050 km2, 20% of the worlds land area, and spans all six inhabited continents. She declared, So, it marks the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations. As long ago as 1884, however, Lord Rosebery, while visiting Australia, had described the changing British Empire—as some of its colonies became more independent—as a Commonwealth of Nations. Conferences of British and colonial prime ministers occurred periodically from the first one in 1887, the Commonwealth developed from the imperial conferences. Newfoundland never did, as on 16 February 1934, with the consent of its parliament, Newfoundland later joined Canada as its 10th province in 1949. Australia and New Zealand ratified the Statute in 1942 and 1947 respectively, after World War II ended, the British Empire was gradually dismantled. Most of its components have become independent countries, whether Commonwealth realms or republics, there remain the 14 British overseas territories still held by the United Kingdom. In April 1949, following the London Declaration, the word British was dropped from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature, burma and Aden are the only states that were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Hoped for success was reinforced by such achievements as climbing Mount Everest in 1953, breaking the four minute mile in 1954, however, the humiliation of the Suez Crisis of 1956 badly hurt morale of Britain and the Commonwealth as a whole. More broadly, there was the loss of a role of the British Empire. That role was no longer militarily or financially feasible, as Britains withdrawal from Greece in 1947 painfully demonstrated, Britain itself was now just one part of the NATO military alliance in which the Commonwealth had no role apart from Canada

71.
European Union Association Agreement
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A European Union Association Agreement is a treaty between the European Union, its Member States and a non-EU country that creates a framework for co-operation between them. Areas frequently covered by such agreements include the development of political, trade, social, cultural, the legal base for the conclusion of the association agreements is provided by art. Association Agreements are broad framework agreements between the EU and its states, and an external state which governs their bilateral relations. In exchange, the country may be offered tariff-free access to some or all EU markets, most recently signed AAs also include a Free Trade Agreement between the EU and the third country. Association Agreements have to be accepted by the European Union and need to be ratified by all the EU member states, AAs go by a variety of names and need not necessarily even have the word Association in the title. Some AAs contain a promise of future EU membership for the contracting state, the first states to sign such an agreements were Greece and Turkey in. In recent history, such agreements have been signed as part of two EU policies, Stabilisation and Association Process and European Neighbourhood Policy, the countries of the western Balkans are covered by SAp and the EU signs Stabilisation and Association Agreements with them. The countries of the Mediterranean and Eastern Europe neighbours are covered by ENP, seven of the Mediterranean states have a Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an Association in force, while another has an interim EMAA in force. Several of the Eastern Partnership states are ratifying or negotiating AAs, both the SAA and ENP AP are based mostly on the EUs acquis communautaire and its promulgation in the co-operating states legislation. Of course the depth of the harmonisation is less than for full EU members, in addition to these two policies, AAs with free-trade agreement provisions have been signed with other states and trade blocs including Chile, and South Africa

European Union Association Agreement
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EU member states

72.
Gibraltar
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Gibraltar is a British Overseas Territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula. It has an area of 6.7 km2 and shares its border with Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the landmark of the region. At its foot is a populated city area, home to over 30,000 Gibraltarians. An Anglo-Dutch force captured Gibraltar from Spain in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession on behalf of the Habsburg claim to the Spanish throne, the territory was subsequently ceded to Great Britain in perpetuity under the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Today Gibraltars economy is based largely on tourism, online gambling, financial services, the sovereignty of Gibraltar is a major point of contention in Anglo-Spanish relations as Spain asserts a claim to the territory. Gibraltarians overwhelmingly rejected proposals for Spanish sovereignty in a 1967 referendum, under the Gibraltar constitution of 2006, Gibraltar governs its own affairs, though some powers, such as defence and foreign relations, remain the responsibility of the British government. The name Gibraltar is the Spanish derivation of the Arabic name Jabal Ṭāriq, earlier, it was known as Mons Calpe, a name of Phoenician origin and one of the Pillars of Hercules. The pronunciation of the name in modern Spanish is, evidence of Neanderthal habitation in Gibraltar between 28,000 and 24,000 BP has been discovered at Gorhams Cave, making Gibraltar possibly the last known holdout of the Neanderthals. Within recorded history, the first inhabitants were the Phoenicians, around 950 BC, subsequently, Gibraltar became known as one of the Pillars of Hercules, after the Greek legend of the creation of the Strait of Gibraltar by Heracles. The Carthaginians and Romans also established semi-permanent settlements, after the collapse of the Roman Empire, Gibraltar came briefly under the control of the Vandals. The area later formed part of the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania from 414 AD until the Islamic conquest of Iberia in 711 AD, in 1160, the Almohad Sultan Abd al-Mumin ordered that a permanent settlement, including a castle, be built. It received the name of Medinat al-Fath, on completion of the works in the town, the Sultan crossed the Strait to look at the works and stayed in Gibraltar for two months. The Tower of Homage of the Moorish Castle remains standing today, from 1274 onwards, the town was fought over and captured by the Nasrids of Granada, the Marinids of Morocco and the kings of Castile. In 1462, Gibraltar was finally captured by Juan Alonso de Guzmán, after the conquest, King Henry IV of Castile assumed the additional title of King of Gibraltar, establishing it as part of the comarca of the Campo Llano de Gibraltar. In 1501, Gibraltar passed back to the Spanish Crown, the occupation of the town by Alliance forces caused the exodus of the population to the surrounding area of the Campo de Gibraltar. As the Alliances campaign faltered, the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht was negotiated and ceded control of Gibraltar to Britain to secure Britains withdrawal from the war. Unsuccessful attempts by Spanish monarchs to regain Gibraltar were made with the siege of 1727 and again with the Great Siege of Gibraltar, during the American War of Independence

73.
European Union Customs Union
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The European Union Customs Union is a customs union which consists of all the member states of the European Union, Monaco, and some territories of the United Kingdom which are not part of the EU. Some territories within the EU do not participate in the customs union, besides the EUCU, the EU, through separate agreements, is in customs unions with Andorra, San Marino, and Turkey, with the exceptions of certain goods. The customs union is a condition of the European Economic Community, established in 1958. No customs duties are levied on goods travelling within the customs union and—unlike a free trade area—members of the customs union impose a common external tariff on all goods entering the union. Monaco and the British territories of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, Guernsey, Isle of Man, Andorra, San Marino and Turkey, a candidate for EU membership, are each in a customs union with the EU. While all EU member states are part of the customs union, territories of member states which have remained outside of the EU generally do not participate in the customs union. Implementation will take place over a period of time and full implementation is anticipated by 31 December 2020 at the latest, the European Commission has stated that the aims of the UCC are simplicity, service and speed

74.
Member state of the European Union
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The European Union comprises 28 member states. Each member state is party to the treaties of the union and thereby subject to the privileges. Unlike members of most international organisations, the states of the EU are subjected to binding laws in exchange for representation within the common legislative. Member states must agree unanimously for the EU to adopt policies concerning defence, subsidiarity is a founding principle of the EU. In 1957, six core states founded the EUs predecessor, the European Economic Community, the remaining states have acceded in subsequent enlargements. On 1 July 2013, Croatia became the newest member state of the EU, Enlargement of the Union is also contingent upon the consent of all existing members and the candidates adoption of the existing body of EU law, known as the acquis communautaire. There is disparity in the size, wealth and political system of member states, while in some areas majority voting takes place where larger states have more votes than smaller ones, smaller states have disproportional representation compared to their population. No member state has withdrawn or been suspended from the EU, in June 2016, the UK held a referendum on membership of the EU, resulting in 51. 89% of votes cast in favour to leaving. Prime Minister Theresa May invoked Article 50 on 29 March 2017 to formally initiate the withdrawal process, notes Enlargement is, and has been, a principal feature of the Unions political landscape. The EUs predecessors were founded by the Inner Six, those willing to forge ahead with the Community while others remained skeptical. It was only a decade before the first countries changed their policy and attempted to join the Union, French President Charles de Gaulle feared British membership would be an American Trojan horse and vetoed its application. Applying in 1969 were the United Kingdom, Ireland, Denmark, Norway, however, declined to accept the invitation to become a member when the electorate voted against it, leaving just the UK, Ireland and Denmark to join. But despite the setbacks, and the withdrawal of Greenland from Denmarks membership in 1985, in 1987, the geographical extent of the project was tested when Morocco applied, and was rejected as it was not considered a European country. The year 1990 saw the Cold War drawing to a close, meanwhile, the members of the former Eastern Bloc and Yugoslavia were all starting to move towards EU membership. Ten of these joined in an enlargement on 1 May 2004 symbolising the unification of East. Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007, the year 2013 saw the latest member, Croatia, accede to the Union, and the EU has prioritised membership for the rest of the Balkans – namely Western Balkans. Albania, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Turkey are all formal, turkish membership, pending since the 1980s, is a more contentious issue but it entered negotiations in 2005. According to the Copenhagen criteria, membership of the European Union is open to any European country that is a stable, free market liberal democracy that respects the rule of law and human rights

Member state of the European Union
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The flags of the EU and the then-25 member states seen outside the European Parliament in 2004
Member state of the European Union

75.
Tax haven
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A tax haven is a jurisdiction that offers favorable tax or other conditions to its taxpayers as relative to other jurisdictions. There is no accepted definition of what renders a country or jurisdiction a tax haven. The term most commonly refers to countries or jurisdictions that have a low-tax or no-tax regime or which offer generous tax incentives. Some refer to secrecy jurisdictions as an alternative to tax havens to emphasise the element. Earnings from income generated from real estate can also be eliminated in this way, if taxes are paid in the tax haven jurisdiction, companies can avoid taxes in their home jurisdiction because the tax had already been paid in the lower tax rate jurisdiction. The only thing that can be done is picking a country that has the smallest rates on these taxes before buying any real estate, individuals or corporate entities may establish shell subsidiaries or move themselves to areas with reduced or no taxation levels relative to typical international taxation. This creates a situation of tax competition among jurisdictions, different jurisdictions may be havens for different types of taxes, and for different categories of people or companies. Sovereign jurisdictions or self-governing territories under international law have the power to tax laws affecting their territories. A2012 report by the British Tax Justice Network estimated that between US$21 trillion and $32 trillion is sheltered from taxes in unreported tax havens worldwide. If such wealth earns 3% annually and such capital gains were taxed at 30%, if such hidden offshore assets are considered, many countries with governments nominally in debt are shown to be net creditor nations. Another recent study estimated the amount of global offshore wealth at the smaller—but still sizable—figure of US$7.6 trillion and this estimate included financial assets only, My method probably delivers a lower bound, in part because it only captures financial wealth and disregards real assets. After all, high-net-worth individuals can stash works of art, jewelry, and gold in freeports, warehouses that serve as repositories for valuables—Geneva, Luxembourg, high-net-worth individuals also own real estate in foreign countries. A study of 60 large US companies found that they deposited $166 billion in offshore accounts during 2012, there are several definitions of tax havens. In 2002 The Economist adopted the description by Geoffrey Colin Powell, the Economist points out that this definition would still exclude a number of jurisdictions traditionally thought of as tax havens. Similarly, an Australian journalist suggested that any country which modifies its tax laws to attract foreign capital could be considered a tax haven. According to other definitions, the feature of a haven is that its laws. This prevents the transmittance of information about taxpayers who are benefiting from the low tax jurisdiction, lack of transparency – A lack of transparency in the operation of the legislative, legal or administrative provisions is another factor used to identify tax havens. The OECD is concerned that laws should be applied openly and consistently, lack of transparency in one country can make it difficult, if not impossible, for other tax authorities to apply their laws effectively

76.
Citizenship of the European Union
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Citizenship of the European Union was introduced by the Maastricht Treaty, which was signed in 1992, and has been in force since 1993. European Union citizenship is additional to national citizenship, the EU citizenship affords rights, freedoms and legal protections to its citizens. EU citizens also have the right to address the European Parliament, European Ombudsman, and EU agencies directly, EU citizens freedoms include the right to free movement, settlement and employment across the EU. EU citizens are free to trade and transport goods, services and capital through EU borders, as in national market. EU citizens also enjoy legal protections of the EU law, specifically the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union and acts, the EU also has an office of European Ombudsman whom EU citizens can approach directly. EU citizenship was first introduced by the Maastricht Treaty, and was extended by the Treaty of Amsterdam, prior to the 1992 Maastricht Treaty, the European Communities treaties provided guarantees for the free movement of economically active persons, but not, generally, for others. However, the treaty provisions were interpreted by the European Court of Justice not as having an economic purpose. In the case of Martinez Sala, the European Court of Justice held that the provisions provided substantive free movement rights in addition to those already granted by union law. Historically, the benefit of being a citizen of an EU country has been that of free movement. The free movement also applies to the citizens of European Economic Area countries, however, with the creation of EU citizenship, certain political rights came into being. The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union provides for citizens to be represented at Union level in the European Parliament. Member States can distinguish between nationals and Union citizens but only if the provisions satisfy the test of proportionality, migrant EU citizens have a legitimate expectation of a limited degree of financial solidarity. Having regard to their degree of integration into the host society Length of time is an important factor when considering the degree of integration. The ECJs case law on citizenship has been criticised for subjecting an increasing number of rules to the proportionality assessment. Article 45 Freedom of movement to work Article 45 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union states that 1, Freedom of movement for workers shall be secured within the Union. State employment reserved exclusively for nationals varies between member states, however, it is broadly limited to those roles that exercise a significant degree of public authority, such as judges, police, the military, diplomats, senior civil servants or politicians. Note that not all Member States choose to all of these posts to nationals. Much of the existing legislation and case law was consolidated in the Citizens Rights Directive 2004/38/EC on the right to move

77.
European Parliament
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The European Parliament is the directly elected parliamentary institution of the European Union. Together with the Council of the European Union and the European Commission, the Parliament is composed of 751 members, who represent the second-largest democratic electorate in the world and the largest trans-national democratic electorate in the world. It has been elected every five years by universal suffrage since 1979. However, voter turnout at European Parliament elections has fallen consecutively at each election since that date, voter turnout in 2014 stood at 42. 54% of all European voters. The Parliament is the first institution of the EU, and shares equal legislative and it likewise has equal control over the EU budget. Finally, the European Commission, the body of the EU, is accountable to Parliament. In particular, Parliament elects the President of the Commission, and it can subsequently force the Commission as a body to resign by adopting a motion of censure. The President of the European Parliament is Antonio Tajani, elected in January 2017 and he presides over a multi-party chamber, the two largest groups being the Group of the European Peoples Party and the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats. The last union-wide elections were the 2014 elections, the European Parliament has three places of work – Brussels, the city of Luxembourg and Strasbourg. Luxembourg is home to the administrative offices, meetings of the whole Parliament take place in Strasbourg and in Brussels. Committee meetings are held in Brussels, the Parliament, like the other institutions, was not designed in its current form when it first met on 10 September 1952. One of the oldest common institutions, it began as the Common Assembly of the European Coal and it was a consultative assembly of 78 appointed parliamentarians drawn from the national parliaments of member states, having no legislative powers. Its development since its foundation shows how the European Unions structures have evolved without a master plan. Some, such as Tom Reid of the Washington Post, said of the union, nobody would have designed a government as complex. Even the Parliaments two seats, which have switched several times, are a result of various agreements or lack of agreements, the body was not mentioned in the original Schuman Declaration. It was assumed or hoped that difficulties with the British would be resolved to allow the Council of Europes Assembly to perform the task, a separate Assembly was introduced during negotiations on the Treaty as an institution which would counterbalance and monitor the executive while providing democratic legitimacy. The wording of the ECSC Treaty demonstrated the desire for more than a normal consultative assembly by using the term representatives of the people. Its early importance was highlighted when the Assembly was given the task of drawing up the treaty to establish a European Political Community

European Parliament
European Parliament
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European Parliament
European Parliament
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Session of the Council of Europe's Assembly in the former House of Europe in Strasbourg in January 1967
European Parliament
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Palace of Europe, Parliament's Strasbourg hemicycle until 1999

78.
Devolution in the United Kingdom
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Devolution differs from federalism in that the devolved powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government, thus the state remains, de jure, a unitary state. Legislation creating devolved parliaments or assemblies can be repealed or amended by central government in the way as any statute. The issue of Irish home rule was the dominant political question of British politics at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century. In contrast to this, demands for home rule called for autonomy for Ireland within the United Kingdom and this issue was first introduced by the Irish Parliamentary Party led by Isaac Butt, William Shaw and Charles Stewart Parnell. Over the course of four decades, four Irish Home Rule Bills were introduced into the British Parliament, following intense opposition in Ulster and the departure of Unionists from Gladstones Liberal Party, the bill was defeated in the House of Commons. The Second Home Rule Bill was introduced in 1893 by Prime Minister Gladstone, the Third Home Rule Bill was introduced in 1912 by Prime Minister H. H. Asquith based on an agreement with the Irish Parliamentary Party. After a prolonged parliamentary struggle was passed under the provisions of the Parliament Act of 1911, again, this bill was fiercely opposed by Ulster Unionists who raised the Ulster Volunteers and signed the Ulster Covenant to oppose the bill, thereby raising the spectre of civil war. The act received royal assent shortly after the outbreak of World War I, attempts at implementation failed in 1916 and 1917 and the subsequent Irish War of Independence resulted in it never coming into force. The Fourth Home Rule Bill was introduced in 1920 by Prime Minister David Lloyd George and it divided Ireland into Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland, which each had their own parliament and judiciary but which also shared some common institutions. The Act was implemented in Northern Ireland, where it served as the basis of government until its suspension in 1972 following the outbreak of the Troubles, Home Rule came into effect for Northern Ireland in 1921 under the Fourth Home Rule Act. The Parliament of Northern Ireland established under that act was prorogued on 30 March 1972 owing to the destabilisation of Northern Ireland upon the onset of the Troubles in late 1960s. This followed escalating violence by state and paramilitary organisations following the suppression of civil rights demands by Northern Ireland Catholics, the Northern Ireland Parliament was abolished by the Northern Ireland Constitution Act 1973, which received royal assent on 19 July 1973. A Northern Ireland Assembly was elected on 28 June 1973 and following the Sunningdale Agreement and this collapsed on 28 May 1974, due to the Ulster Workers Council strike. The Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention and second Northern Ireland Assembly were unsuccessful at restoring devolution, more progress was made after the ceasefires by the Provisional IRA in 1994 and 1997. The 1998 Belfast Agreement, resulted in the creation of a new Northern Ireland Assembly, a British-Irish Council covering the whole British Isles and a British-Irish Intergovernmental Conference were also established. The Executive was restored on 8 May 2007, several policing and justice powers were transferred to the Assembly on 12 April 2010. The fifth Assembly convened in May 2016. That assembly dissolved on 26 January 2017, ever since the Parliament of Scotland adjourned in 1707 as a result of the Acts of Union, individuals and organisations had advocated the return of a Scottish Parliament. The drive for home rule first took shape in the 19th century

79.
European microstates
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The European ministates are a set of very small sovereign states in Europe. Andorra, Liechtenstein, Malta, Monaco, San Marino, and the Vatican City are usually included, and are the six smallest states in Europe by area. Four of these states are monarchies, with all these states tracing their status back to the first millennium or the second millennium, except for Liechtenstein. Microstates are small independent states recognized by states, unlike micronations. The European microstates are all of limited size and population, and have limited natural resources, as a result, they have adopted special economic policies, typically involving low levels of taxation and few restrictions on external financial investment. Malta is a member of the European Union, while the other five European microstates have obtained special relations with the European Union. Many of the microstates have also entered into a union with their larger neighbours to improve their economic situation. Most of them lack clearly marked borders, for example, Monaco forms a metropolitan area with its neighboring French communes and has many streets running across or even along the border. Unlike the Holy See, which is sovereign over the Vatican City, the Order is the direct successor to the medieval Knights Hospitaller, also known as the Knights of Malta, and today operates as a largely charitable and ceremonial organization. It has permanent observer status at the United Nations and has diplomatic relations, including embassies, with 100 states. It issues its own stamps, coins, passports, and license plates, the wars of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars caused the European map to be redrawn several times. A number of short-lived client republics were created, and the fall of the Holy Roman Empire gave sovereignty to each of its many surviving component states, the situation was not stabilized until after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Following World War I and World War II a number of territories gained temporary status as international zones, protectorates or occupied territories. A few of them are mentioned here, A1955 novel called The Mouse That Roared by Irish-American writer Leonard Wibberley features an imaginary European microstate called the Duchy of Grand Fenwick, the novel was later adapted to a play and film. Enclave and exclave Games of the Small States of Europe Microstates Article from The Economist,24 December 2005, Castles in the Air GlobaLex, The Micro-States and Small Jurisdictions of Europe

European microstates
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The European microstates

80.
Bonne Nuit (Jersey)
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Bonne Nuit is a small natural harbour in the Vingtaine du Nord, Saint John, Jersey, Channel Islands. Both Bonne Nuit in French and Bouonne Niet in Jèrriais mean good night, the bay nestles between the headlands of Frémont in the West and La Crête in the East. In 1150 Saint Marys chapel in St John was given to the Abbey of Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte and was described as being the chapel de Bona Nocte and this is the first documentary reference to the name. In 1413 all alien priories were suppressed, the site of the priory, the bay was used for smuggling in the 17th and 18th centuries. The first fortification was a battery of two constructed in 1736. The threat of French invasion led to the building of a fort at La Crête. La Crête Fort, the summer residence of the Lieutenant-Governor of Jersey, is currently used by Jersey Heritage Trust as a holiday-let property. The pier was constructed in 1872 by the States of Jersey for fishing boats, Le Cheval Guillaume, a rock formation in the bay, was the focus of St Johns Day celebrations, as people would row round the rock for luck. According to legend, the rock is the remains of a water sprite who took the form of a horse to abduct. Several references and film scenes from the harbour were featured on Bergerac, there is a small beach with pebbles. La Vallette leads down La Falaise de la Vallette to the shore, Le Don Best, another National Trust for Jersey property also looks down into the bay. The cliffs around the harbour are the highest paragliding launch site in the island, favourable winds owing to the bowl-shaped harbour create exceptional lift. The bay is linked to Saint Helier by bus route 4

81.
English Channel
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The English Channel, also called simply the Channel, is the body of water that separates southern England from northern France, and links the southern part of the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. It is about 560 km long and varies in width from 240 km at its widest to 33.3 km in the Strait of Dover and it is the smallest of the shallow seas around the continental shelf of Europe, covering an area of some 75,000 km2. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the English Channel as follows, a line joining Isle Vierge to Lands End. The southwestern limit of the North Sea, the IHO defines the southwestern limit of the North Sea as a line joining the Walde Lighthouse and Leathercoat Point. The Walde Lighthouse is 6 km east of Calais, and Leathercoat Point is at the end of St Margarets Bay. The Strait of Dover, at the Channels eastern end, is its narrowest point and it is relatively shallow, with an average depth of about 120 m at its widest part, reducing to a depth of about 45 m between Dover and Calais. Eastwards from there the adjoining North Sea reduces to about 26 m in the Broad Fourteens where it lies over the watershed of the land bridge between East Anglia and the Low Countries. It reaches a depth of 180 m in the submerged valley of Hurds Deep,48 km west-northwest of Guernsey. The eastern region along the French coast between Cherbourg and the mouth of the Seine river at Le Havre is frequently referred to as the Bay of the Seine. There are several islands in the Channel, the most notable being the Isle of Wight off the English coast. The coastline, particularly on the French shore, is indented, several small islands close to the coastline, including Chausey. The Cotentin Peninsula in France juts out into the Channel, whilst on the English side there is a parallel channel known as the Solent between the Isle of Wight and the mainland. The Celtic Sea is to the west of the Channel, the Channel is of geologically recent origins, having been dry land for most of the Pleistocene period. The first flood would have lasted for months, releasing as much as one million cubic metres of water per second. The flood started with large but localized waterfalls over the ridge, the flow eroded the retaining ridge, causing the rock dam to fail and releasing lake water into the English Channel. The erosion of the Lobourg Channel was probably the final opening of the Strait, the time difference of about six hours between high water at the eastern and western limits of the Channel is indicative of the tidal range being amplified further by resonance. It was never defined as a border and the names were more or less descriptive. It was not considered as the property of a nation, strangely, before the development of the modern nations, British scholars very often referred to it as Gaulish and the French one as British or English

English Channel
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English Channel
English Channel
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Three French river mouths. Top to bottom: the Somme, the Authie and the Canche
English Channel
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The Hermitage of St Helier lies in the bay off Saint Helier and is accessible on foot at low tide.
English Channel
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British radar facilities during the Battle of Britain 1940

82.
Kilometre
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The kilometre or kilometer is a unit of length in the metric system, equal to one thousand metres. K is occasionally used in some English-speaking countries as an alternative for the kilometre in colloquial writing. A slang term for the kilometre in the US military is klick, there are two common pronunciations for the word. It is generally preferred by the British Broadcasting Corporation and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, many scientists and other users, particularly in countries where the metric system is not widely used, use the pronunciation with stress on the second syllable. The latter pronunciation follows the pattern used for the names of measuring instruments. The problem with this reasoning, however, is that the meter in those usages refers to a measuring device. The contrast is more obvious in countries using the British rather than American spelling of the word metre. When Australia introduced the system in 1975, the first pronunciation was declared official by the governments Metric Conversion Board. However, the Australian prime minister at the time, Gough Whitlam, by the 8 May 1790 decree, the Constituent assembly ordered the French Academy of Sciences to develop a new measurement system. In August 1793, the French National Convention decreed the metre as the length measurement system in the French Republic. The first name of the kilometre was Millaire, although the metre was formally defined in 1799, the myriametre was preferred to the kilometre for everyday use. The term myriamètre appeared a number of times in the text of Develeys book Physique dEmile, ou, Principes de la de la nature. French maps published in 1835 had scales showing myriametres and lieues de Poste, the Dutch, on the other hand, adopted the kilometre in 1817 but gave it the local name of the mijl. It was only in 1867 that the term became the only official unit of measure in the Netherlands to represent 1000 metres. In the US, the National Highway System Designation Act of 1995 prohibits the use of highway funds to convert existing signs or purchase new signs with metric units. Although the State DOTs had the option of using metric measurements or dual units, all of them abandoned metric measurements, the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices since 2000 is published in both metric and American Customary Units. Some sporting disciplines feature 1000 m races in major events, but in other disciplines, even though records are catalogued

83.
Cotentin Peninsula
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The Cotentin Peninsula, also known as the Cherbourg Peninsula, is a peninsula in Normandy that forms part of the northwest coast of France. It extends north-westward into the English Channel, towards Great Britain, to its west lie the Channel Islands and to the southwest lies the Brittany Peninsula. The peninsula lies wholly within the department of Manche, in the region of Normandy, the Cotentin peninsula is part of the Armorican Massif and lies between the estuary of the Vire river and Mont Saint-Michel Bay. It is divided into three areas, the headland of Cap de la Hague, the Cotentin Pass, and the valley of the Saire River and it forms the bulk of the department of Manche. Its southern part, known as le Marais, crosses from east to west from just north west of Saint Lo and east of Lessay, the largest town in the peninsula is Cherbourg on the north coast, a major cross-channel port. The western coast of the peninsula, known as the Côte des Îles faces the Channel Islands, ferry links serve Carteret and the islands of Jersey, Guernsey and Alderney from Dielette. Off the east coast of the lies the island of Tatihou. The oldest stone in France is found in outcroppings on the coast of Cap de la Hague, Cotentin was almost an island at one time. Only a small strip of land in the heath of Lessay connected the peninsula with the mainland. Thanks to the so-called portes à flot, which close at flood and open at ebb and which were built in the west coast and in the Baie des Veys, on the east coast, the Côte des Havres lies between the Cape of Carteret and the Cape of Granville. To the northwest, there are two sand dune systems, one stretching between Siouville-Hague and Vauville, the other one stretching between Cap of Carteret and Baubigny, the peninsula formed part of the Roman geographical area of Armorica. The town known today as Coutances, capital of the Unelli, the base of the peninsula, called in Latin the pagus Constantinus, joined together with the pagus Coriovallensis centred upon Cherbourg to the north, subsequently became known as the Cotentin. Under the Carolingians it was administered by viscounts drawn successively from members of the Saint-Sauveur family, King Alan the Great of Brittany waged war successfully on the Norsemen. As the result of his conquests, the Cotentin Peninsula was included theoretically in the territory of the Duchy of Brittany, the Dukes of Brittany suffered continuing Norse invasions and Norman raids. Eventually the Cotentin Peninsula was lost to Brittany after only 70 years of political domination, meanwhile, Vikings settled on the Cotentin in the ninth and tenth centuries. There are indications of an industry there dating to the ninth century. They were followed by Anglo-Norse and Anglo-Danish people, who established as farmers and it became part of Normandy in the early tenth century. Many placenames there are derived from the Norse language, examples include La Hague from hagi meadow or enclosure and La Hougue from haugr meaning a hill or mound

84.
Great Britain
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Great Britain, also known as Britain, is a large island in the north Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of 209,331 km2, Great Britain is the largest European island, in 2011 the island had a population of about 61 million people, making it the worlds third-most populous island after Java in Indonesia and Honshu in Japan. The island of Ireland is situated to the west of it, the island is dominated by a maritime climate with quite narrow temperature differences between seasons. Politically, the island is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island. The term Great Britain often extends to surrounding islands that form part of England, Scotland, and Wales. A single Kingdom of Great Britain resulted from the union of the Kingdom of England, the archipelago has been referred to by a single name for over 2000 years, the term British Isles derives from terms used by classical geographers to describe this island group. By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a name for the British Isles. However, with the Roman conquest of Britain the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain, the oldest mention of terms related to Great Britain was by Aristotle, or possibly by Pseudo-Aristotle, in his text On the Universe, Vol. III. To quote his works, There are two large islands in it, called the British Isles, Albion and Ierne. The name Britain descends from the Latin name for Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The French form replaced the Old English Breoton, Breoten, Bryten, Breten, Britannia was used by the Romans from the 1st century BC for the British Isles taken together. It is derived from the writings of the Pytheas around 320 BC. Marcian of Heraclea, in his Periplus maris exteri, described the group as αἱ Πρεττανικαὶ νῆσοι. The peoples of these islands of Prettanike were called the Πρεττανοί, Priteni is the source of the Welsh language term Prydain, Britain, which has the same source as the Goidelic term Cruithne used to refer to the early Brythonic-speaking inhabitants of Ireland. The latter were later called Picts or Caledonians by the Romans, the Greco-Egyptian scientist Ptolemy referred to the larger island as great Britain and to Ireland as little Britain in his work Almagest. The name Albion appears to have out of use sometime after the Roman conquest of Britain. After the Anglo-Saxon period, Britain was used as a term only. It was used again in 1604, when King James VI and I styled himself King of Great Brittaine, France, Great Britain refers geographically to the island of Great Britain, politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination

Great Britain
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Satellite image of Great Britain in April 2002
Great Britain
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Prima Europe tabula. A copy of Ptolemy 's 2nd century map of Roman Britain
Great Britain
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The robin is popularly known as "Britain's favourite bird".
Great Britain
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Heather growing wild in the Highlands at Dornoch.

85.
Temperate
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In geography, temperate or tepid latitudes of Earth lie between the tropics and the polar regions. The temperatures in these regions are relatively moderate, rather than extremely hot or cold. The north temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the Arctic Circle, the south temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Antarctic Circle. In some climate classifications, the zone is often divided into several smaller climate zones. These include Humid subtropical climate, Mediterranean climate, oceanic, subtropical climates are located between 23. 5° and 35. 0° north or south latitude on the eastern or leeward sides of landmasses. This climate has long, generally hot, summers and short, mild winters and these climates may occur in southern Asia, the southeastern United States, parts of eastern Australia, and in eastern coastal South America. Mediterranean climates, occur between 30° and 42° north and south latitude, on the sides of landmasses. This climate has hot summers and short mild winters, however, seasonal rainfall is the opposite of that of the subtropical humid type. These climates occur near the rimlands of the Mediterranean Sea, in western Australia, in California, the oceanic climates occur in the higher middle latitudes, between 45° and 60° north and south latitude. They are created by the flow from the cool high latitude oceans to their west. This causes the climate to have cool summers and cool winters, annual rainfall is spread throughout the entire year. Regions with this climate include Western Europe, northwestern North America, the Continental climates occur in middle latitudes, between 35° or 40° to 55°. These climates are normally inland or on sides of landmasses. They feature warm to hot summers and cold winters, with a large temperature variation. Regions with this climate include northern temperate Asia, the northern United States, southern Canada, the vast majority of the worlds human population resides in temperate zones, especially in the northern hemisphere, due to its greater mass of land. The richest temperate flora in the world is found in southern Africa, geographical zone Habitat Köppen climate classification Middle latitudes Polar circle Subtropics

Temperate
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The different geographical zones

86.
Atlantic Ocean
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The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other

87.
Kent
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Kent /ˈkɛnt/ is a county in South East England and one of the home counties. It borders Greater London to the north west, Surrey to the west and East Sussex to the south west, the county also shares borders with Essex via the Dartford Crossing and the French department of Pas-de-Calais through the Channel Tunnel. France can be clearly in fine weather from Folkestone and the White Cliffs of Dover. Hills in the form of the North Downs and the Greensand Ridge span the length of the county, because of its relative abundance of fruit-growing and hop gardens, Kent is known as The Garden of England. The title was defended in 2006 when a survey of counties by the UKTV Style Gardens channel put Kent in fifth place, behind North Yorkshire, Devon. Haulage, logistics, and tourism are industries, major industries in north-west Kent include aggregate building materials, printing. Coal mining has played its part in Kents industrial heritage. Large parts of Kent are within the London commuter belt and its transport connections to the capital. Twenty-eight per cent of the county forms part of two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, the North Downs and The High Weald, the area has been occupied since the Palaeolithic era, as attested by finds from the quarries at Swanscombe. The Medway megaliths were built during the Neolithic era, There is a rich sequence of Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Roman era occupation, as indicated by finds and features such as the Ringlemere gold cup and the Roman villas of the Darent valley. The modern name of Kent is derived from the Brythonic word Cantus meaning rim or border and this describes the eastern part of the current county area as a border land or coastal district. Julius Caesar had described the area as Cantium, or home of the Cantiaci in 51 BC, the extreme west of the modern county was by the time of Roman Britain occupied by Iron Age tribes, known as the Regnenses. East Kent became a kingdom of the Jutes during the 5th century and was known as Cantia from about 730, the early medieval inhabitants of the county were known as the Cantwara, or Kent people. These people regarded the city of Canterbury as their capital, in 597, Pope Gregory I appointed the religious missionary as the first Archbishop of Canterbury. In the previous year, Augustine successfully converted the pagan King Æthelberht of Kent to Christianity, the Diocese of Canterbury became Britains first Episcopal See with first cathedral and has since remained Englands centre of Christianity. The second designated English cathedral was in Kent at Rochester Cathedral, in the 11th century, the people of Kent adopted the motto Invicta, meaning undefeated. This naming followed the invasion of Britain by William of Normandy, the Kent peoples continued resistance against the Normans led to Kents designation as a semi-autonomous county palatine in 1067. Under the nominal rule of Williams half-brother Odo of Bayeux, the county was granted powers to those granted in the areas bordering Wales

88.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years

89.
Precipitation
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In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice

90.
Jersey cattle
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Jersey cattle are a small breed of dairy cattle. The Jersey cow is quite small ranging from only 400–500 kilograms, calving ease and a relatively lower rate of dystocia, leading to their popularity in crossbreeding with other dairy and even beef breeds to reduce calving related injuries. High fertility High butterfat conditions,4. 84% butterfat and 3. 95% protein, bulls are also small, ranging from 540 to 820 kg, and are notoriously aggressive. Castrated males can be trained into fine oxen which, due to their size and gentle nature. Jersey oxen are not as strong as larger breeds however and are out of favour among competitive teamsters. Jerseys come in all shades of brown, from light tan to almost black and they are frequently fawn in colour. All purebred Jerseys have a band around their muzzle, a dark switch. The cows are calm and docile animals, but tend to be a more nervous than other dairy cow breeds. While all dairy bulls are considered dangerous animals, Jersey bulls are considered by many to be the least docile of the dairy breeds, the cows are also highly recommended cows for first time owners and marginal pasture. As its name implies, the Jersey was bred on the British Channel Island of Jersey and it apparently descended from cattle stock brought over from the nearby Norman mainland, and was first recorded as a separate breed around 1700. The breed was isolated from outside influence for over two hundred years, from 1789 to 2008, before 1789 cows would be given as dowry for inter-island marriages between Jersey and Guernsey. In 1789, imports of cattle into Jersey were forbidden by law to maintain the purity of the breed, although exports of cattle. The restriction on the import of cattle was initially introduced in 1789 to prevent a collapse in the export price, the United Kingdom levied no import duty on cattle imported from Jersey. Cattle were being shipped from France to Jersey and then being shipped onward to England to circumvent the tariff on French cattle, the increase in the supply of cattle, sometimes of inferior quality, was bringing the price down and damaging the reputation of Jersey cattle. The import ban stabilised the price and enabled a more scientifically controlled programme of breeding to be undertaken, sir John Le Couteur studied selective breeding and became a Fellow of the Royal Society - his work led to the establishment of the Royal Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural Society in 1833. At that time, the breed displayed greater variation than it does today with white, dark brown, however, since the honey-brown cows sold best the breed was developed accordingly. In 18601,138 cows were exported via England, the price being £16 per head. By 1910 over a thousand head were exported annually to the United States alone and it is now the fastest growing dairy breed in the world

Jersey cattle
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A Jersey cow in England.
Jersey cattle
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Jersey cattle being judged at a show in Jersey, home of the breed
Jersey cattle
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Jerseys are well known as curious and gentle cattle
Jersey cattle
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Sculpture by John McKenna, unveiled in 2001 and on display at West's Center, St Helier

91.
Channel Islands Lottery
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The Channel Island Lottery is the State lottery in the Channel Islands run jointly by the States of Jersey and States of Guernsey. The first draw was held in 1975, the Channel Islands Lottery was founded in 1975 with the merger of the Jersey Lottery and the Guernsey Lottery. The Jersey Lottery was established in 1966 and the Guernsey Lottery in 1971, the game is the oldest lottery in the British Isles, beating Ireland and the United Kingdom. Jerseys share of the profits from the lottery were initially used to finance the transformation of Fort Regent into a sports, a scratchcard instant game was introduced to revitalise the traditional draw in 1997. On 29 June 2012, a new draw was launched with a million £2 lottery tickets going on sale. The main prize, had all tickets being sold, would have been £1 million, however ticket sales were much lower than anticipated, and the main prize was only £150,000, with £300,000 in smaller prizes. The summer lottery was cancelled in 2013, the Government of Jersey favours this as this would triple the amount given to good causes. However some residents feel this would lose them their independence, foreign tickets are not currently sold in the Islands. The Islands are not eligible for Good Causes Funding, although the UK National Lottery Act 2006 provides for the eventuality that the Channel Islands may participate, the other one of the Crown Dependencies, the Isle of Man participates in the UK National Lottery. The main game is a game where the maximum prize is £20,000 which replaced draw based games in 2004. There is also the Christmas Super Draw which is part scratchcard, the 2010 jackpot for the Christmas Draw was £750,000

92.
Income tax
–
An income tax is a tax imposed on individuals or entities that varies with the income or profits of the taxpayer. Many jurisdictions refer to income tax on business entities as companies tax or corporate tax, partnerships generally are not taxed, rather, the partners are taxed on their share of partnership items. Tax may be imposed by both a country and subdivisions, most jurisdictions exempt locally organized charitable organizations from tax. Income tax generally is computed as the product of a tax rate times taxable income, the tax rate may increase as taxable income increases. Taxation rates may vary by type or characteristics of the taxpayer, capital gains may be taxed at different rates than other income. Credits of various sorts may be allowed that reduce tax, some jurisdictions impose the higher of an income tax or a tax on an alternative base or measure of income. Taxable income of resident in the jurisdiction is generally total income less income producing expenses. Generally, only net gain from sale of property, including goods held for sale, is included in income, Income of a corporations shareholders usually includes distributions of profits from the corporation. Deductions typically include all income producing or business expenses including an allowance for recovery of costs of business assets, many jurisdictions allow notional deductions for individuals, and may allow deduction of some personal expenses. Most jurisdictions either do not tax income earned outside the jurisdiction or allow a credit for taxes paid to other jurisdictions on such income, nonresidents are taxed only on certain types of income from sources within the jurisdictions, with few exceptions. Most jurisdictions require self-assessment of the tax and require payers of some types of income to withhold tax from those payments, advance payments of tax by taxpayers may be required. Taxpayers not timely paying tax owed are generally subject to significant penalties, for most of the history of civilization, these preconditions did not exist, and taxes were based on other factors. Taxes on wealth, social position, and ownership of the means of production were all common, the first income tax is generally attributed to Egypt. In the early days of the Roman Republic, public taxes consisted of modest assessments on owned wealth, the tax rate under normal circumstances was 1% and sometimes would climb as high as 3% in situations such as war. These modest taxes were levied against land, homes and other estate, slaves, animals, personal items. The more a person had in property, the tax they paid. In the year 10 AD, Emperor Wang Mang of the Xin Dynasty instituted an unprecedented income tax, at the rate of 10 percent of profits, for professionals and skilled labor. He was overthrown 13 years later in 23 AD and earlier policies were restored during the reestablished Han Dynasty which followed, one of the first recorded taxes on income was the Saladin tithe introduced by Henry II in 1188 to raise money for the Third Crusade

Income tax
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William Pitt the Younger introduced a progressive income tax in 1798.
Income tax
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Punch cartoon (1907); illustrates the unpopularity amongst Punch readers of a proposed 1907 income tax by the Labour Party in the United Kingdom.

93.
European Commission
–
Commissioners swear an oath at the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg, pledging to respect the treaties and to be completely independent in carrying out their duties during their mandate. The Commission operates as a government, with 28 members of the Commission. There is one member per state, but members are bound by their oath of office to represent the general interest of the EU as a whole rather than their home state. One of the 28 is the Commission President proposed by the European Council, the current Commission is the Juncker Commission, which took office in late 2014. The procedural languages of the Commission are English, French and German, the Members of the Commission and their cabinets are based in the Berlaymont building in Brussels. The first Commission originated in 1951 as the nine-member High Authority under President Jean Monnet, the High Authority was the supranational administrative executive of the new European Coal and Steel Community. It took office first on 10 August 1952 in Luxembourg, in 1958 the Treaties of Rome had established two new communities alongside the ECSC, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community. However their executives were called Commissions rather than High Authorities, the reason for the change in name was the new relationship between the executives and the Council. Some states such as France expressed reservations over the power of the High Authority, louis Armand led the first Commission of Euratom. Walter Hallstein led the first Commission of the EEC, holding the first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Château of Val-Duchesse, Hallstein notably began the consolidation of European law and started to have a notable impact on national legislation. The three bodies, collectively named the European Executives, co-existed until 1 July 1967 when, under the Merger Treaty, the Rey Commission completed the Communitys customs union in 1968 and campaigned for a more powerful, elected, European Parliament. Despite Rey being the first President of the communities, Hallstein is seen as the first President of the modern Commission. The Malfatti and Mansholt Commissions followed with work on monetary co-operation, with that enlargement the Commissions membership increased to thirteen under the Ortoli Commission, which dealt with the enlarged community during economic and international instability at that time. Following the Jenkins Commission, Gaston Thorns Commission oversaw the Communitys enlargement to the south, the Commission headed by Jacques Delors was seen as giving the Community a sense of direction and dynamism. Delors and his team are considered as the founding fathers of the euro. The International Herald Tribune noted the work of Delors at the end of his term in 1992. He arrived when Europessimism was at its worst, although he was a little-known former French finance minister, he breathed life and hope into the EC and into the dispirited Brussels Commission. The successor to Delors was Jacques Santer, the entire Santer Commission was forced to resign in 1999 by the Parliament as result of a fraud and corruption scandal, with a central role played by Édith Cresson

European Commission
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President Delors, one of the most notable presidents in the Commission's history
European Commission
–
European Commission
European Commission
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Incumbent President Juncker
European Commission
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Floor 13 of the Berlaymont, Commission's meeting room

94.
Automatic teller machine
–
According to the ATM Industry Association, there are now close to 3 million ATMs installed worldwide. Authentication is provided by the customer entering a personal identification number which must match the PIN stored in the chip on the card or in the financial institutions database. Using an ATM, customers can access their deposit or credit accounts in order to make a variety of transactions such as cash withdrawals, check balances. If the currency being withdrawn from the ATM is different from that in which the account is denominated the money will be converted at an official exchange rate. Thus, ATMs often provide the best possible exchange rates for foreign travellers, the idea of out-of-hours cash distribution developed from bankers needs in Asia, Europe and North America. Little is known of the Japanese device other than it was called Computer Loan Machine, the device was operational in 1966. In the US patent record, Luther George Simjian has been credited with developing a prior art device, specifically his 132nd patent, which was first filed on 30 June 1960. The roll-out of this machine, called Bankograph, was delayed by a couple of years, an experimental Bankograph was installed in New York City in 1961 by the City Bank of New York, but removed after six months due to the lack of customer acceptance. The Bankograph was an automated envelope deposit machine and did not have cash dispensing features and it is widely accepted that the first ATM was put into use by Barclays Bank in its Enfield Town branch in north London, United Kingdom, on 27 June 1967. This machine was inaugurated by English comedy actor Reg Varney and this instance of the invention is credited to the engineering team led by John Shepherd-Barron of printing firm De La Rue, who was awarded an OBE in the 2005 New Year Honours. Shepherd-Barron stated, It struck me there must be a way I could get my own money, I hit upon the idea of a chocolate bar dispenser, but replacing chocolate with cash. The Barclays-De La Rue machine beat the Swedish saving banks and a company called Metiors machine by a nine days. The online version of the Swedish machine is listed to have been operational on 6 May 1968, the collaboration of a small start-up called Speytec and Midland Bank developed a fourth machine which was marketed after 1969 in Europe and the US by the Burroughs Corporation. The patent for this device was filed on September 1969 by John David Edwards, Leonard Perkins, John Henry Donald, Peter Lee Chappell, Sean Benjamin Newcombe & Malcom David Roe. Both the DACS and MD2 accepted only a token or voucher which was retained by the machine while the Speytec worked with a card with a magnetic stripe at the back. They used principles including Carbon-14 and low-coercivity magnetism in order to make more difficult. The idea of a PIN stored on the card was developed by a British engineer working on the MD2 named James Goodfellow in 1965, the essence of this system was that it enabled the verification of the customer with the debited account without human intervention. This patent is also the earliest instance of a complete currency dispenser system in the patent record and this patent was filed on 5 March 1968 in the US and granted on 1 December 1970

95.
Postage stamps
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Postage stamp may also refer to a formatting artifact in the display of film or video, Windowbox. A postage stamp is a piece of paper that is purchased and displayed on an item of mail as evidence of payment of postage. Typically, stamps are printed on special paper, show a national designation and a denomination on the front. They are sometimes a source of net profit to the issuing agency, stamps are usually rectangular, but triangles or other shapes are occasionally used. The stamp is affixed to an envelope or other postal cover the customer wishes to send, the item is then processed by the postal system, where a postmark, sometimes known as a cancellation mark, is usually applied in overlapping manner to stamp and cover. This procedure marks the stamp as used to prevent its reuse, in modern usage, postmarks generally indicate the date and point of origin of the mailing. The mailed item is delivered to the address the customer has applied to the envelope or parcel. Postage stamps have facilitated the delivery of mail since the 1840s, before then, ink and hand-stamps, usually made from wood or cork, were often used to frank the mail and confirm the payment of postage. The first adhesive postage stamp, commonly referred to as the Penny Black, was issued in the United Kingdom in 1840, there are varying accounts of the inventor or inventors of the stamp. The postage stamp resolved this issue in a simple and elegant manner, concurrently with the first stamps, the UK offered wrappers for mail. S. Postal service for priority or express mailing, the postage stamp afforded convenience for both the mailer and postal officials, more effectively recovered costs for the postal service, and ultimately resulted in a better, faster postal system. With the conveniences stamps offered, their use resulted in greatly increased mailings during the 19th and 20th centuries, as postage stamps with their engraved imagery began to appear on a widespread basis, historians and collectors began to take notice. The study of stamps and their use is referred to as philately. Stamp collecting can be both a hobby and a form of study and reference, as government-issued postage stamps. The postage for the item was prepaid by the use of a hand-stamp to frank the mailed item. Though this stamp was applied to a letter instead of a piece of paper it is considered by many historians as the worlds first postage stamp. Rowland Hill The Englishman Sir Rowland Hill began interest in postal reform in 1835, in 1836, a Member of Parliament, Robert Wallace, provided Hill with numerous books and documents, which Hill described as a half hundred weight of material. Hill commenced a study of these documents, leading him to the 1837 publication of a pamphlet entitled Post Office Reform its Importance

96.
Guernsey pound
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The pound is the currency of Guernsey. It can be exchanged at par with sterling coinage and notes. For this reason, ISO4217 does not include a separate code for the Guernsey pound. Until the early 19th century, Guernsey used predominantly French currency, coins of the French livre were legal tender until 1834, with French francs used until 1921. In 1830, Guernsey began production of coins denominated in doubles. The double was worth 1/80 of a French franc, the name double derived from the French double deniers, although the value of the coin was equal to the liard still circulating. Coins were issued in denominations of 1,2,4 and 8 doubles, the 8 double coin was a Guernsey penny, with twelve to the Guernsey shilling. However, this shilling was not equal to the British shilling, banknotes were also produced by the States of Guernsey from 1827, denominated in pounds. In 1848, an ordinance was passed that the pound sterling should be legal tender at a value of £1 1s 3d and this was rescinded two years later and French currency, supplemented by local issues, continued to circulate. In 1870, British coins were legal tender, with the British shilling circulating at 12½ Guernsey pence. Bank of England notes became legal tender in 1873, in 1914, new banknotes appeared, some of which carried denominations in Guernsey shillings and francs. After the First World War, the value of the franc began to fall relative to sterling and this caused Guernsey to adopt a pound equal to the pound sterling in 1921. For amounts below 1 shilling, the rate of 1 Guernsey penny =1 British penny applied. This conversion increased the value of the double from 1⁄2016 to 1⁄1920 of a pound, the World War I issues of banknotes were overstamped with the word British to indicate this change. New banknotes and British silver coinage circulated alongside the double coins, in 1971, along with the rest of the British Isles, Guernsey decimalized, with the pound subdivided into 100 pence, and began issuing a full range of coin denominations from ½p to 50p. The Guernsey pound, and other notes denominated in pound sterling may be used in Guernsey, the Guernsey pound is legal tender only in the Bailiwick of Guernsey although it also circulates freely in Jersey but cannot be used in the UK. It can also be exchanged in other places at banks and bureaux de change, in addition, the 8 double coins featured a wreath on both sides. In 1956, new designs were introduced for the 4 and 8 doubles and these featured the Islands seal and name on the obverse with the English name, the date and the Guernsey lily on the reverse

Guernsey pound
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1864 Guernesey 8 Doubles

97.
Coins of the Jersey pound
–
The pound is the currency of Jersey. It can be exchanged at par with sterling coinage and notes. For this reason, ISO4217 does not include a separate code for the Jersey pound. Both Jersey and Bank of England notes are legal tender in Jersey and circulate together, alongside the Guernsey pound, the Jersey notes are not legal tender in the United Kingdom but are legal currency, so creditors and traders may accept them if they so choose. The livre was the currency of Jersey until 1834 and it consisted of French coins which, in the early 19th century, were exchangeable for sterling at a rate of 26 livres =1 pound. After the livre was replaced by the franc in France in 1795, because the sous remained the chief small-change coins, when a new copper coinage was issued for Jersey in 1841, it was based on a penny worth 1⁄13 of a shilling, the equivalent of 2 sous. This system continued until 1877, when a penny of 1⁄12 of a shilling was introduced, along with the rest of the British Isles, Jersey decimalized in 1971 and began issuing a full series of circulating coins from ½p to 50p. £1 and £2 denominations followed later, as of December 2005, there was £64. 7m of Jersey currency in circulation. A profit of £2. 8m earned on the issue of Jersey currency was received by the Treasurer of the States in 2005, £1 coins have a different design each year. Initially, each new coin featured one of the coats of arms of the 12 parishes of Jersey and these were followed by a series of coins featuring sailing ships built in the island. The motto round the edge of Jersey pound coins is. Jersey £1 coins will cease to be legal tender in Jersey on 15 October 2017 to coincide with the withdrawal of the circular £1 coin in the UK, the UKs new 12-sided £1 coin will be the only £1 coin that is legal tender in the Island. Because the sous remained the chief small-change coins, when a new coinage was issued for Jersey in 1841, it was based on a penny worth 1⁄13 of a shilling. In 1841, copper 1⁄52, 1⁄26 and 1⁄13 shilling coins were introduced, followed by bronze 1⁄26, in 1877 a penny of 1⁄12 of a shilling was introduced, and the system changed to 12 pence to the shilling. Bronze 1⁄48, 1⁄24 and 1⁄12 shilling were introduced and this was the only issue of the 1⁄48 shilling denomination. Between 1949 and 1952 the end of the German occupation of the Channel Islands was marked by one million commemorative Liberation pennies that were struck for Jersey, in 1957, a nickel-brass 3 pence coin was introduced carrying the denomination one fourth of a shilling. The 1957 and 1960 issues were round, with a version introduced in 1964. In 1968,5 and 10 pence coins were introduced, followed by 50 pence in 1969 and ½p, all had the same composition and size as the corresponding British coins

Coins of the Jersey pound
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Obverse of a £5 banknote
Coins of the Jersey pound
Coins of the Jersey pound
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A page from a ready reckoner published in 1854 allowing at-a-glance conversion between Jersey currency and three other currencies in use at the time
Coins of the Jersey pound
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1858 States of Jersey 1/13 Shilling. (KM#3, 34.10mm, Copper)

98.
Le Hocq
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Le Hocq is an area in the parish of St. Clement, in the south-east of Jersey, Channel Islands. Le Hocq is a Jèrriais name, and means the headland or the cape in English, the fortified Jersey Round Tower at Le Hocq, was built in the 1780s. Alongside the tower is the Millennium Cross of St. Clement, the headland juts out onto the rocky Le Hocq Beach. Kings Rock, Queens Rock and Princes Rock are sizeable rocky outcrops which form a rough number 7 shape, all of these rocks are scalable, though with some difficulty, and should not be attempted unless you know what you are doing. Kings Rock, the tallest, would not measure more than fifteen or twenty metres high. The rest of the beach, stretching east, is sandy, but with many rockpools, with opportunities for winkle picking and shrimp catching close to the shore, closer to land there are stony patches. Behind the beach there is the common, broken in two by the slip which runs from la Grande Route de la Côte to the beach, on the slip are small boats, and a little refreshment kiosk. Further inland is the hall of St. Just across the road from the beach is Le Hocq Pub - open for drinks and meals all year round, Le Hocq tower is depicted on the 2010 issue Jersey 1 pound note

Le Hocq
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The Jersey Round Tower at Le Hocq is painted in a distinctive pattern to serve as a daymark for navigation
Le Hocq
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The parish hall of Saint Clement is the seat of municipal administration

99.
Bitcoin
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Bitcoin is both a cryptocurrency and an electronic payment system,3 invented by an unidentified programmer, or group of programmers, under the name of Satoshi Nakamoto. Bitcoin was introduced on 31 October 2008 to a mailing list. The identity of Nakamoto remains unknown, though many have claimed to know it, the system is peer-to-peer, and transactions take place between users directly, without an intermediary. These transactions are verified by network nodes and recorded in a public distributed ledger called the blockchain, since the system works without a central repository or single administrator, the U. S. Treasury categorizes bitcoin as a decentralized virtual currency. Bitcoin is often called the first cryptocurrency, although prior systems existed, Bitcoin is the largest of its kind in terms of total market value. Bitcoins are created as a reward in a competition in which users offer their computing power to verify and this activity is referred to as mining and successful miners are rewarded with transaction fees and newly created bitcoins. Besides being obtained by mining, bitcoins can be exchanged for other currencies, products, when sending bitcoins, users can pay an optional transaction fee to the miners. This may expedite the transaction being confirmed, as of February 2015, over 100,000 merchants and vendors accept bitcoin as payment. Instead of a 2–3% fee typically imposed by credit card processors, despite the fourfold increase in the number of merchants accepting bitcoin in 2014, the cryptocurrency did not have much momentum in retail transactions. The European Banking Authority and other sources have warned that bitcoin users are not protected by refund rights or chargebacks, the use of bitcoin by criminals has attracted the attention of financial regulators, legislative bodies, law enforcement, and media. Criminal activities are focused on darknet markets and theft, though officials in countries such as the United States also recognize that bitcoin can provide legitimate financial services. The word bitcoin occurred in the paper that defined bitcoin published in 2008. It is a compound of the bit and coin. The white paper uses the shorter coin. There is no convention for bitcoin capitalization. Some sources use Bitcoin, capitalized, to refer to the technology and network and bitcoin, lowercase, the Wall Street Journal, The Chronicle of Higher Education, and the Oxford English Dictionary advocate use of lowercase bitcoin in all cases, which this article follows. The blockchain is a ledger that records bitcoin transactions. A novel solution accomplishes this without any trusted central authority, maintenance of the blockchain is performed by a network of communicating nodes running bitcoin software, transactions of the form payer X sends Y bitcoins to payee Z are broadcast to this network using readily available software applications

Bitcoin
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A mining farm in Iceland
Bitcoin
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Simplified chain of ownership. In reality, a transaction can have more than one input and more than one output.
Bitcoin
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Bitcoin paper wallet generated at bitaddress.org
Bitcoin
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Trezor hardware wallet

100.
Mont Orgueil
–
Mont Orgueil is a castle in Jersey that overlooks the harbour of Gorey. It is also called Gorey Castle by English-speakers, and lé Vièr Châté by Jèrriais-speakers, the site had been fortified in the prehistoric period, but the construction of the castle was undertaken following the division of the Duchy of Normandy in 1204. The castle was first mentioned in 1212, Mont Orgueil was updated with platforms for artillery constructed in 1548 and 1549 under the direction of Henry Cornish, Lieutenant of the Earl of Hertford in Jersey. Cornish complained that earlier repairs to the donjon by Robert Raymont had left it so weak it was vulnerable to musket shot, in 1543 he had asked for a saker cannon that would cover the sands between Grovyll and the castle, where the French had landed in the past. Mont Orgueil was to be superseded by Elizabeth Castle off Saint Helier, walter Raleigh, Governor of Jersey in 1600, rejected a plan to demolish the old castle to recycle the stone for the new fortifications with the words, twere pity to cast it down. The old castle continued to be used as the only prison until the construction of a prison in St. Helier at the end of the 17th century. The English Government found it expedient to send troublesome agitators such as William Prynne, the regicides Thomas Waite, Henry Smith, James Temple, Hardress Waller, and Gilbert Millington were transferred to Mont Orgueil in 1661. During the English Civil War, from March 1643 the then Lieutenant Governor and Bailiif of the island, leaving his wife Anne de Carteret, and their son Philippe de Carteret to occupy Mont Orgueil. It was from Mont Orgueil that the Royalists under Sir George Carteret retook the island from Parliament in November 1643, a report for the States of Jersey in 1691 declared that the barracks accommodation was so dilapidated that it was impossible to quarter troops there. Repairs were carried out 1730–1734 and for the rest of the century, in 1800, the Corbelled Tower was fitted out for use by dAuvergne as his headquarters. In 1846, the castle was visited by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, the castle has also hosted subsequent royal ceremonies to welcome George V in 1921 and Elizabeth II, inscriptions mark the occasions. Until the second half of the 19th century, the castle was open to the public on one day a year, Easter Monday and this is believed to be a survival of the pre-Reformation custom of visiting St. Georges Chapel inside the castle on St. Georges Day. The heritage site has been managed by the Jersey Heritage Trust since 1994, in the early 21st century, the Trust planned to build a Tudor hall within the castles keep. Around the same time, a £3 million grant was given to restoration work. In 2004, a commemorative Jersey pound note was put into circulation depicting Mont Orgueil, the castle is depicted on the 2010 issue Jersey 50-pound note. On 2 April 2006, after a building programme, the castle was reopened to the public by the Lieutenant-Governor of Jersey. Restoration work has opened up previously inaccessible areas of the castle to the public, fort Regent Elizabeth Castle Cathcart King, David James, Castellarium Anglicanum, An Index and Bibliography of the Castles in England, Wales and the Islands. V. J. Gorey Castle Mont Orgueil Castle Homepage Bibliography of sources related to Mont Orgueil Castle Time Teams Mont Orguiel Dig Report

Mont Orgueil
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Mount Orgueil from the south
Mont Orgueil
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Second World War German look-out posts were designed to fit in with the existing structure of the castle.
Mont Orgueil
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Mont Orgueil (French: Mount Pride) has guarded Jersey's east coast since the 13th century.

101.
Common Travel Area
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The Common Travel Area is an open borders area comprising Ireland, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the Channel Islands. The maintenance of the CTA involves considerable co-operation on immigration matters between the British and Irish authorities, in 2014, the British and Irish governments began a trial system of mutual recognition of each others visas for onward travel within the Common Travel area. As of June 2016 it applies to Chinese and Indian nationals and is limited to certain visa types, the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom in 1922 at a time when systematic passport and immigration controls were becoming standard at international frontiers. Before the creation of the Irish Free State, British immigration law applied in Ireland as part of the United Kingdom, if, however, the pre-1922 situation were to be continued, the Irish immigration authorities would have to continue to enforce British immigration policy after independence. The agreement was provided for in UK law by deeming the Irish Free State to be part of the United Kingdom for the purposes of immigration law and it was fully implemented in 1925 when legislation passed in both countries provided for the recognition of the others landing conditions for foreigners. This may be considered to have been the point of the CTA – although it was not called that at the time – as it almost amounted to a common immigration area. The CTA was suspended on the outbreak of war in 1939 and this meant that travel restrictions even applied to people travelling within the UK if they were travelling from Northern Ireland to elsewhere in the UK. After the war, the Irish re-instated their previous provisions allowing free movement, consequently, the British maintained immigration controls between the islands of Ireland and Great Britain until 1952, to the consternation of Northern Irelands Unionist population. The content of the agreement appears to be that a foreigner would be refused entry to the United Kingdom if they wished to travel onward to Ireland and is provided for in relevant immigration law. The CTA has meant that Ireland has been required to follow changes in British immigration policy, the latter group would have included individuals who were British citizens by descent or by birth in a British colony. This discrepancy between Britains and Irelands definition of a British citizen was not resolved until 1999 and this led to controversy because Northern Ireland is part of the United Kingdom, with a prominent Unionist describing the proposed arrangements as intolerable and preposterous. It is expected that this power will only apply to air. On 1 April 2009, an amendment moved by Lord Glentoran in the House of Lords defeated the British Governments proposal, the relevant clause was re-introduced by Home Office minister Phil Woolas in the Public Bill Committee in June, but again removed in July after opposition pressure. 2011 marked the first public agreement between the British and Irish governments concerning the maintenance of the CTA, the two ministers also signed an unpublished memorandum of understanding at the same time. Immigration checks are carried out by the Guernsey Border Agency and the Jersey Customs, while British citizens are not required to be in possession of a valid travel document as a condition of entry, they may be required to satisfy immigration officials as to their nationality. Whatever about anyone else, Joseph Heller certainly would have approved, INIS staff will be responsible for performing all in-booth duties, but will not take part in any matters related to restraint, detention or arrest. Travellers wishing to transit though the UK to Ireland must have a valid UK visa, there are no routine immigration checks on travellers arriving in the Isle of Man from another part of the CTA. As there are no scheduled air or ferry services between the Isle of Man and outside the CTA, there are, in effect, no immigration checks in place

Common Travel Area
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The border at Killeen marked only by a speed sign marked in km/h
Common Travel Area
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Common Travel Area

102.
Hungarian people
–
Hungarians, also known as Magyars, are a nation and ethnic group who speak Hungarian and are primarily associated with Hungary. There are around 13. 1–14.7 million Hungarians, of whom 8. 5–9.8 million live in todays Hungary, the Hungarians own ethnonym to denote themselves in the Early Middle Ages is uncertain. The Magyars/Hungarians probably belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance, and it is possible that they became its ethnic majority, in the Early Middle Ages the Hungarians had many names, including Ungherese, Ungar, and Hungarus. The H- prefix is an addition of Medieval Latin, another possible explanation comes from the Old Russian Yugra. It may refer to the Hungarians during a time when they dwelt east of the Ural Mountains along the borders of Europe. The Hungarian people refer to themselves by the demonym Magyar rather than Hungarian, Magyar is Finno-Ugric from the Old Hungarian mogyër. Magyar possibly derived from the name of the most prominent Hungarian tribe, the tribal name Megyer became Magyar in reference to the Hungarian people as a whole. Magyar may also derive from the Hunnic Muageris or Mugel, the Greek cognate of Tourkia was used by the scholar and Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his De Administrando Imperio of c. AD950, though in his use, Turks always referred to Magyars, the historical Latin phrase Natio Hungarica had a wider meaning because it once referred to all nobles of the Kingdom of Hungary, regardless of their ethnicity. During the 4th millennium BC, the Uralic-speaking peoples who were living in the central, some dispersed towards the west and northwest and came into contact with Iranian speakers who were spreading northwards. From at least 2000 BC onwards, the Ugrian speakers became distinguished from the rest of the Uralic community, judging by evidence from burial mounds and settlement sites, they interacted with the Indo-Iranian Andronovo culture. In the 4th and 5th centuries AD, the Hungarians moved from the west of the Ural Mountains to the area between the southern Ural Mountains and the Volga River known as Bashkiria and Perm Krai. In the early 8th century, some of the Hungarians moved to the Don River to an area between the Volga, Don and the Seversky Donets rivers, meanwhile, the descendants of those Hungarians who stayed in Bashkiria remained there as late as 1241. The Hungarians around the Don River were subordinates of the Khazar khaganate and their neighbours were the archaeological Saltov Culture, i. e. Bulgars and the Alans, from whom they learned gardening, elements of cattle breeding and of agriculture. Tradition holds that the Hungarians were organized in a confederacy of seven tribes, the names of the seven tribes were, Jenő, Kér, Keszi, Kürt-Gyarmat, Megyer, Nyék, and Tarján. Around 830, a rebellion broke out in the Khazar khaganate, as a result, three Kabar tribes of the Khazars joined the Hungarians and moved to what the Hungarians call the Etelköz, the territory between the Carpathians and the Dnieper River. The Hungarians faced their first attack by the Pechenegs around 854, the new neighbours of the Hungarians were the Varangians and the eastern Slavs. In 895/896, under the leadership of Árpád, some Hungarians crossed the Carpathians, the tribe called Magyar was the leading tribe of the Hungarian alliance that conquered the centre of the basin

103.
Established church
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A state religion is a religious body or creed officially endorsed by the state. A state with a religion, while not secular, is not necessarily a theocracy – a country whose rulers have in their hands both secular and spiritual authority. Official religions have been known throughout history in almost all types of cultures. They were adopted by most ancient states, both monoethnic and polyethnic, and observing them was a requirement made to all citizens, official religions justified and reinforced the type of government existing in a society. Sanctifying it as the most, or the only, correct one, they put forward and/or supported ideas of its expansion to other lands. Closely related to churches are what sociologists call ecclesiae, though the two are slightly different. The institution of state-sponsored religious cults is ancient, reaching into the Ancient Near East, the relation of religious cult and the state was discussed by Varro, under the term of theologia civilis. The first state-sponsored Christian church was the Armenian Apostolic Church, established in 301 AD, rulers of Saudi Arabia use both secular and religious power, while Irans secular presidents are supposed to follow the decisions of religious authorities since the revolution of 1979. The degree and nature of state backing for denomination or creed designated as a religion can vary. It can range from mere endorsement with freedom for other faiths to practice, to prohibiting any competing religious body from operating, in these cases, state religions are widely seen as efforts by the state to prevent alternate sources of authority. There is also a difference between a church and the broader term of state religion. A state church is a state created by a state for use exclusively by that state. In either case, the state religion has some influence over the ruling of the state. As of 2012, there are five state churches left. Disestablishment is the process of repealing a churchs status as an organ of the state, opponents of disestablishment of the Church of England were known as antidisestablishmentarians. Currently, the following religions have established as state religions in some countries. All are versions of Christianity, Islam or Buddhism, Liechtenstein, the constitution of Liechtenstein describes the Catholic Church as the state religion and enjoying the full protection of the State. The constitution does however ensure that people of other faiths shall be entitled to practise their creeds and to religious services to the extent consistent with morality

104.
Church of England
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The Church of England is the state church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor, the Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It dates its establishment as a church to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury. The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII sought to secure an annulment from Catherine of Aragon in the 1530s, the English Reformation accelerated under Edward VIs regents before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, as formalised in the Apostles, Nicene, in the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants, in the 17th century, political and religious disputes raised the Puritan and Presbyterian faction to control of the church, but this ended with the Restoration. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to religious tolerance. Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English, the church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo-Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality, the church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members. The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop, within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament, according to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian, three Romano-British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippos doctrine of original sin. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrews from Rome to evangelise the Angles and this event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England, the Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, while some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian Church in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in Britain and this meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hildas double monastery of Streonshalh, later called Whitby Abbey

Church of England
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Hereford is one of the church's 43 cathedrals; many have histories stretching back centuries
Church of England
Church of England
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Stained glass window in Rochester Cathedral, Kent
Church of England
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Richard Hooker (1554–1600), one of the most influential figures in shaping Anglican theology and self-identity

105.
Methodism
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Methodism, or the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity which derive their inspiration from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and Johns brother Charles Wesley were also significant leaders in the movement and it originated as a revival within the 18th century Church of England and became a separate Church after Wesleys death. Because of vigorous missionary work, the movement spread throughout the British Empire, Wesleys theology focused on sanctification and the effect of faith on the character of a Christian. Distinguishing Methodist doctrines include an assurance of salvation, imparted righteousness, the possibility of perfection in love, the works of piety and the primacy of Scripture. Most Methodists teach that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, died for all of humanity and that salvation is available for all, in theology and this teaching rejects the Calvinist position that God has pre-ordained the salvation of a select group of people. However, Whitefield and several others were considered Calvinistic Methodists and held to the latter position, Methodism emphasises charity and support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the works of mercy. These ideals are put into practice by the establishment of hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens and schools to follow Christs command to spread the gospel, the movement has a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage. Denominations that descend from the British Methodist tradition are generally less ritualistic, Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition and Charles Wesley was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church. In Britain, the Methodist Church had an effect in the early decades of the making of the working class. In the United States, it became the religion of many slaves who later formed black churches in the Methodist tradition. The Methodist revival began with a group of men, including John Wesley and his younger brother Charles, the Wesley brothers founded the Holy Club at the University of Oxford, where John was a fellow and later a lecturer at Lincoln College. The club met weekly and they set about living a holy life. They were accustomed to receiving Communion every week, fasting regularly, abstaining from most forms of amusement and luxury and frequently visited the sick, the fellowship were branded as Methodist by their fellow students because of the way they used rule and method to go about their religious affairs. John, who was leader of the club, took the attempted mockery, unsuccessful in their work, the brothers returned to England conscious of their lack of genuine Christian faith. They looked for help to Peter Boehler and other members of the Moravian Church, at a Moravian service in Aldersgate on 24 May 1738, John experienced what has come to be called his evangelical conversion, when he felt his heart strangely warmed. Charles had reported an experience an few days previously. Considered a pivotal moment, Daniel L. John Wesley came under the influence of the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius, Arminius had rejected the Calvinist teaching that God had pre-ordained an elect number of people to eternal bliss while others perished eternally. Conversely, George Whitefield, Howell Harris, and Selina Hastings, George Whitefield, returning from his own mission in Georgia, joined the Wesley brothers in what was rapidly to become a national crusade

Methodism
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Wesley's Chapel in London, with a statue of John Wesley in the foreground.
Methodism
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John Wesley
Methodism
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Charles Wesley
Methodism
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George Whitefield

106.
Neolithic
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It ended when metal tools became widespread. The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops, the beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant about 10, 200–8800 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period was between 12,000 and 10,200 BC, and the so-called proto-Neolithic is now included in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic between 10,200 and 8800 BC. By 10, 200–8800 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep. By about 6900–6400 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order, the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. Early Japanese societies and other East Asian cultures used pottery before developing agriculture, unlike the Paleolithic, when more than one human species existed, only one human species reached the Neolithic. The term Neolithic derives from the Greek νέος néos, new and λίθος líthos, stone, the term was invented by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system. In the Middle East, cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BC, early development occurred in the Levant and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by around 8000 BC. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square yards, the Neolithic 1 period began roughly 10,000 years ago in the Levant. A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated around 9500 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the period. This site was developed by nomadic tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres, contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects, Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which might have supported roofs. Other early PPNA sites dating to around 9500–9000 BC have been found in Jericho, Israel, Gilgal in the Jordan Valley, the start of Neolithic 1 overlaps the Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic periods to some degree. The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming, in the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour, emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated

107.
Iconoclasm
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Iconoclasm is the destruction of religious icons and other images or monuments for religious or political motives. Over time, the word, usually in the form, has also come to refer to aggressive statements or actions against any well-established status quo. It is a frequent component of political or religious changes. The term does not generally encompass the destruction of images of a ruler after his death or overthrow. Conversely, one who reveres or venerates religious images is called an iconolater, in a Byzantine context, Iconoclasm may be carried out by people of a different religion, but is often the result of sectarian disputes between factions of the same religion. The Church Fathers identified Jews and Judaism with heresy and they saw deviations from orthodox Christianity and opposition to the veneration of images as heresies that were essentially Jewish in spirit. The degree of iconoclasm among Christian branches greatly varies, Islam, in general, tends to be more iconoclastic than Christianity, with Sunni Islam being more iconoclastic than Shia Islam. Akhenatens actions are described thusly, In rebellion against the old religion, public references to Akhenaten were destroyed soon after his death. Comparing the ancient Egyptians with the Israelites, Jan Assmann writes, For Egypt, in the eyes of the Israelites, the erection of images meant the destruction of divine presence, in the eyes of the Egyptians, this same effect was attained by the destruction of images. In Egypt, iconoclasm was the most terrible crime, in Israel. It is more probable that these traditions evolved under mutual influence. In this respect, Moses and Akhenaten became, after all, the period after the reign of Byzantine Emperor Justinian evidently saw a huge increase in the use of images, both in volume and quality, and a gathering aniconic reaction. In the Eastern Roman Empire, government-led iconoclasm began with Byzantine Emperor Leo III, the religious conflict created political and economic divisions in Byzantine society. It was generally supported by the Eastern, poorer, non-Greek peoples of the Empire who had to frequently with raids from the new Muslim Empire. On the other hand, the wealthier Greeks of Constantinople, and also the peoples of the Balkan and Italian provinces, within the Byzantine Empire the government had probably been adopting Christian images more frequently. One notable change came in 695, when Justinian IIs government added an image of Christ on the obverse of imperial gold coins. The change caused the Caliph Abd al-Malik to stop his earlier adoption of Byzantine coin types and he started a purely Islamic coinage with lettering only. As a result, individuals attacked statues and images, however, in most cases, civil authorities removed images in an orderly manner in the newly reformed Protestant cities and territories of Europe

108.
Jersey Battle of Flowers
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The Jersey Battle of Flowers is an annual carnival held in the Channel Island of Jersey in the second Thursday of August. The festival consists of music, funfairs, dancers, majorettes and it was inaugurated in 1902 to celebrate the coronation of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra. The largest attendance to date is thought to be that of 1969, while current spectator numbers are around 20,000. The major floats are usually produced by the parishes of Jersey, since 1989, a nighttime Moonlight Parade with the floats festooned in lights has been introduced. The Moonlight Parade ends with a fireworks display. Recent years have seen higher turnout to the parade, which is particularly enjoyed by locals as well as tourists. The first Battle of Flowers was held on 9 August 1902 on Victoria Avenue, the event was inspired by the flower carnival of Nice, and was such a success that it became a regular event. The First World War interrupted the tradition and it was not until 1928 that the Battle was revived at Springfield where it was held until 1938. The threat of war meant the 1939 event was abandoned and it was not until 1951 that the event was revived back on Victoria Avenue, in 1964 the event was attended by around 50,000 people. Prizes are awarded in categories, with their names in French. Listed here are the main prizes, the competition involves a set of contests held in each of the parishes. A winner is selected in each parish, and these ladies are entered into the competition to select the years Miss Battle of Flowers. Miss Battle of Flowers, the winner of the Miss Parish contests. There was also formerly a Maid of Honour who rode with the Miss Battle but this has now been dropped. The tradition of having a Mr Battle to escort Miss Battle was in abeyance for a number of years, but Kyran Bracken revived the rôle in 2007, in 2009 Marco Pierre White took the role, in 2010 it was Danny Young, and in 2011 Gareth Gates. The table below lists some years, but is not a complete list

Jersey Battle of Flowers
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'Beyond the Barricade' by The Optimists Club, winners in 2013 of the Prix d'Honneur, The Spectators' Award, Best Illuminated float over 25ft, Clubs & Associations and winner of Class 11
Jersey Battle of Flowers
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An advertisement for the 1913 Battle of Flowers details the various festivities
Jersey Battle of Flowers
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Battle of Flowers parade, December 13, 2009, Saint Helier, Jersey
Jersey Battle of Flowers
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Teddy's Toytime by St Martin, 2007

109.
Battle of Britain
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The Battle of Britain was a military campaign of the Second World War, when the Royal Air Force defended the United Kingdom against the German Air Force attacks from the end of June 1940. It is described as the first major campaign fought entirely by air forces, the primary objective of the Nazi German forces was to compel Britain to agree to a negotiated peace settlement. In July 1940, the air and sea blockade began with the Luftwaffe mainly targeting coastal shipping convoys, ports and shipping centres, such as Portsmouth. On 16 July Hitler ordered the preparation of Operation Sea Lion as an amphibious and airborne assault on Britain. Nazi Germany was unable to sustain daylight raids, but their continued night bombing operations on Britain became known as the Blitz. Its first Chief of the Air Staff Hugh Trenchard was among the military strategists in the 1920s like Giulio Douhet who saw air warfare as a new way to overcome the stalemate of trench warfare, interception was near impossible with fighter planes no faster than bombers. Their view was that the bomber will always get through, Germany was forbidden military air forces by the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, but developed aircrew training in civilian and sport flying. In 1926 the secret Lipetsk fighter-pilot school began operating, a winter 1933–34 war game indicated a need for fighters and anti-aircraft protection as well as bombers. On 1 March 1935 the Luftwaffe was formally announced, with Walther Wever as Chief of Staff, the list excluded bombing civilians to destroy homes or undermine morale, as that was considered a waste of strategic effort, but the doctrine allowed revenge attacks if German civilians were bombed. A revised edition was issued in 1940, and the central principle of Luftwaffe doctrine was that destruction of enemy armed forces was of primary importance. In the Spanish Civil War, the Luftwaffe in the Condor Legion tried out air fighting tactics, wolfram von Richthofen become an exponent of air power providing ground support to other services. The difficulty of hitting targets prompted Ernst Udet to require that all new bombers had to be dive bombers. Priority was given to producing large numbers of aeroplanes. The speed with which German forces defeated most of the armies in Norway in early 1940 created a significant political crisis in Britain. In early May 1940, the Norway Debate questioned the fitness for office of the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, on 10 May, the same day Winston Churchill became British Prime Minister, the Germans initiated the Battle of France with an aggressive invasion of French territory. The Germans were so convinced of an imminent armistice that they began constructing street decorations for the parades of victorious troops. Instead, Churchill used his skilful rhetoric to harden public opinion against capitulation, the Battle of Britain has the unusual distinction that it gained its name before being fought. In secret conference on 23 May 1939 Hitler set out his rather contradictory strategy that an attack on Poland was essential, if this is impossible, then it will be better to attack in the West and to settle Poland at the same time with a surprise attack

110.
Spotlight (BBC News)
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Spotlight is the BBCs regional TV news programme for the South West of England, covering Cornwall, Devon, Isles of Scilly, southern and western Somerset, western Dorset and the Channel Islands. There is also a version of the programme for viewers in the Channel Islands. The main version of the programme broadcasts between 18,30 and 19,00 on weekdays, with bulletins at other times. The programme can be viewed anywhere in the UK on Sky channel 967/968 on the BBC UK regional TV on satellite service, Spotlight is broadcast from BBC Broadcasting House in Seymour Road, Plymouth, the headquarters of BBC South West. There are smaller studios in Barnstaple, Exeter, Paignton, Taunton and Truro. At first a ten-minute bulletin called News from the South West was read by Tom Salmon, the name Spotlight was adopted on 30 September 1963. Those early radio broadcasts had been made from the Athenaeum Chambers in Athenaeum Lane in Plymouth, a Victorian villa named Ingledene in Seymour Road was bought from the Douglass family and this building has, as of 2012, remained the BBCs headquarters in the South West. It has been extended over the years, including the addition of a new. In late 2012, the owner of the harbour expressed fears the move may never happen, in 2013, the BBC confirmed it would not be moving to Sutton Harbour, but would instead be refurbishing its existing Plymouth headquarters. A lighthouse motif has been in use within the title sequences for many years until May 2000. The motif returned in May 2006, and the use of a lighthouse in the titles continued until the latest relaunch in June 2015, BBC Channel Islands is the dedicated opt-out service for the Channel Islands. Local news for the Islands had existed since the 1990s when a short bulletin aired following the BBC Nine OClock News. Since 16 October 2000, two evening bulletins have been broadcast at 6, 30pm and following the BBC News at Ten – until April 2008, these bulletin had been known as Spotlight Channel Islands. Originally broadcast from a studio at the Fremont Point transmitter, the service is now entirely based at the studios of BBC Radio Jersey in St Helier. The main opt takes up the first 12 minutes of the nightly 6. 30pm programme with a full opt at 10. 25pm and a short 30-second update at 8pm. No opt-outs are broadcast during the day and at weekends, except for occasions such as local elections or major sporting events such as the Island Games. Like other BBC enterprises in the Channel Islands, funding comes primarily from television licence fees collected within the Channel Islands themselves

Spotlight (BBC News)
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Spotlight

111.
ITV (TV network)
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ITV is a commercial TV network in the United Kingdom. Since the passing of the Broadcasting Act 1990 its legal name has been Channel 3, to distinguish it from the analogue channels at the time, namely BBC1, BBC2. ITV is a network of channels that operate regional television services as well as sharing programmes between each other to be displayed on the entire network. In recent years, several of companies have merged so currently the fifteen franchises are in the hands of two companies. With the exception of Northern Ireland, the ITV brand is the used by ITV plc for the Channel 3 service in these areas. In Northern Ireland, ITV plc uses the brand name UTV, STV Group plc, uses the STV brand for its two franchises of central and northern Scotland. The origins of ITV lie in the passing of the Television Act 1954, the act created the Independent Television Authority to heavily regulate the industry and to award franchises. The first six franchises were awarded in 1954 for London, the Midlands, the first ITV network to launch was Londons Associated-Rediffusion on 22 September 1955, with the Midlands and North services launching in February 1956 and May 1956 respectively. Following these launches, the ITA awarded more franchises until the country was covered by fourteen regional stations. Following the 1993 changes, ITV as a network began to consolidate with several companies doing so to save money by ceasing the duplication of services present when they were all separate companies. The ITV Network is not owned or operated by one company, since 2016 the fifteen licences are held by two companies, with the majority held by ITV Broadcasting Limited, part of ITV plc. The network is regulated by the media regulator Ofcom who is responsible for awarding the broadcast licences, the last major review of the Channel 3 franchises was in 1991, with all operators licences having been renewed between 1999 and 2002 and again from 2014 without a further contest. However, due to amalgamation of several of companies since the creation of ITV Network Limited. Approved by Ofcom, this results in ITV plc commissioning and funding the network schedule, all licensees have the right to opt out of network programming, however many do not due to pressures from the parent company or because of limited resources. The network also needs to produce accessible output containing subtitles, signing, in exchange for this programming, the ITV network is available on all platforms free to air and can be found at the top of the EPG of all providers. Since the launch of the platform in 1998, all of the ITV licensees have received gifted capacity on the terrestrial television platform. At present, the companies are able to broadcast additional channels and all choose to broadcast the ITV plc owned ITV2, ITV3, ITV4 and CITV in their region. UTV and STV previously broadcast their own services – UTV2 in Northern Ireland and S2 in central and northern Scotland – until 2002, the broadcasters all make use of the Digital 3&4 multiplex, shared with Channel 4

ITV (TV network)
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The London Studios near Waterloo was originally the base for the ITV London weekend contractor LWT but is now ITV's main London headquarters.
ITV (TV network)
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ITV
ITV (TV network)
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Granada Studios was the oldest TV studios in the UK, having been built in 1954 to house the broadcaster of the same name. The studios were closed in June 2013. Granada is the only franchise to remain an ITV contractor since creation in 1954.
ITV (TV network)
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The Leeds Studios, used by ITV Yorkshire. Each ITV region originally had its own studios, however the rise of publisher-broadcasters like Carlton Television and the takeover of regions caused several studios to be closed.

112.
Channel 103
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Channel 103 is an Independent Local Radio station broadcasting to the island of Jersey on 103.7 FM. The station launched on October 25,1992, channel 103 is the only commercial radio station on the island and is currently the market leader with a listenership of 63%. The station is owned by the Tindle Radio Group, which also includes Island FM in Guernsey, channel 103s core audience is the 25-44 age group. The music content is adult contemporary with a wide mix ranging from the late 60s to today, news bulletins are presented locally from 6. 30am until 9pm, Monday to Friday. Weekend bulletins are presented locally from 7am until 12pm, sky news provides the service outside these times. Official site BBC Radio Jersey Contact 94

Channel 103
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Channel 103.7FM

113.
Jersey Evening Post
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The Jersey Evening Post is a local newspaper published six days a week in the Bailiwick of Jersey. It was printed in broadsheet format for 87 years, though it is now of compact size and its strapline is, At the heart of island life. The Evening Post was founded in 1890 by H. P, butterworth, although it was acquired only a few weeks after its launch by Walter Guiton, whose business printed it. The Post was produced sheet by sheet on a press until 1926. Guiton remained the proprietor and editor until the following year. The latter stayed in both positions until he was succeeded in 1944 by his son, Arthur G. Harrison, under the Harrisons, the newspaper, while undergoing little technical change, saw testing times as the island came under German military occupation from 1940 to 1945. Although it was published during these years, the Post was strictly supervised and censored by the occupying forces. After the islands liberation in 1945, the newspaper grew and in 1957 became the main asset of a newly formed business entity called W E Guiton, in 1967, the newspapers name was changed from Evening Post to Jersey Evening Post. Control of the passed in 1973 to Frank Walker, who would later become Jerseys first Chief Minister. The Guiton Group expanded outwards from newspaper production in the late 1970s into IT, in 1998 it purchased the Guernsey Evening Press and Star. Subsequently, the Guiton Group was purchased in 2004 by the Claverley Group, publishers of the Express, on Christmas Eve 2008, the paper published a satirical cartoon which led to accusations of defamation by two local politicians, Trevor Pitman and Shona Pitman. The resulting libel case was dismissed in court, in April 2012. On June 30th 2015 the Jersey Evening Post celebrated its 125th birthday, in January the JEP donated its priceless photographic archive of 1.5 million images to the Island. In March 2015 the JEP launched their 125th anniversary exhibition at the Jersey Museum entitled Your Story and it included more than 1,500,000 images and tells the Island’s story through both world wars and beyond. In August 2015, JEP staff teamed up with the parish of St Saviour to work on their Battle of Flowers float. Celebrating the newspaper’s special anniversary, Hot Off The Press, featured a printing press complete with moving cogs and rolls of paper, as well as a birthday cake and it also launched the inaugural Pride of Jersey awards. The awards are split into 12 categories, each one of them celebrating the very essence of Jersey life, the winners were announced at a glittering ceremony on 23 September 2015 at Aviation Beauport. The Jèrriais - Jerseys native language column hosts articles written in Jerseys dialect of Norman, Jèrriais, accompanied by a précis and this series of stories moved to the Evening Post between 1915 and 1916

Jersey Evening Post
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The current front page layout of the Jersey Evening Post
Jersey Evening Post
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Until the newspaper moved to Saint Saviour in 1977, it was based in Saint Helier. The distinctive façade of the former offices at the corner of Charles Street and Bath Street pictured here is still recalled in the Under the Clock column of miscellany.
Jersey Evening Post
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From 14 March 1982 until 2007 the Jèrriais articles were accompanied by a parallel translation in English.

114.
Nerina Pallot
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Nerina Natasha Georgina Pallot is a British singer, songwriter and producer, who has released five albums and over a dozen EPs. She was nominated for British Female Solo Artist at the 2007 BRIT Awards, besides her own material, Pallot has written songs for Kylie Minogue and Diana Vickers. She mostly tours around the UK and is married to record producer Andy Chatterley, Pallot was born in London, and was brought up in Jersey by a half-French father and a mother from Allahabad, India together with her sister. Pallot played piano as a child and wrote her first song aged 13 and she has identified seeing singer and pianist Kate Bush perform her hit song This Womans Work on television series Wogan as a catalyst for her to pursue a music career. She attended Jersey College for Girls and received a scholarship for Wellington College. Pallot released her album, Dear Frustrated Superstar, on Polydor records in August 2001. This spawned two singles, Patience and Alien and she was subsequently dropped from the label mainly due to failing sales. The album was eventually re-issued several years later after her second album and her then-manager Richard Ogden noted that his company spent three years managing her while she had a huge record deal and was a massive priority for Polydor. We did the best job we possibly could, but it just didn’t happen, in 2003 she sang lead vocals on the track Truly on Deleriums album Chimera, which was also released as a single in the UK. Her second album, Fires, was released in April 2005 on her own independent label and it was published by Chrysalis Music Publishing, to whom she remained signed and provided her with a development deal. They initially provided her with £50,000 to make the album, when that proved insufficient for Pallots needs, she remortgaged her house to complete the rest of the album. The album was produced and mixed by Howard Willing together with producers Eric Rosse who produced Learning to Breathe and Heart Attack, after the initial tracks were finished the rest of the record was apparently completed by Willing and Pallot flying files back and forth from London to Los Angeles. The album was preceded by a single, Everybodys Gone to War. A second single from the record, Damascus was released in June 2005, and she performed at the 2005 Guildfest music festival and headlined her own show at Bush Hall in Shepherds Bush, London later that year. At the end of 2005, Pallot signed with 14th Floor Records, with over 100,000 sales it was certified gold in the UK. The first single from the album was Everybodys Gone to War. The single became the third most played song on British radio the week before its release and she undertook her first full headlining tour in support of the Fires album in May 2006. During the year she also played shows in London at ICA

Nerina Pallot
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Nerina Pallot at Cornbury Music Festival, 2006

115.
Propaganda
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Propaganda is information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view. Propaganda is often associated with material prepared by governments, but activist groups, in the 2010s, the term propaganda is associated with a manipulative approach, but propaganda historically was a neutral descriptive term. Propaganda is a modern Latin word, the form of propagare, meaning to spread or to propagate. Originally this word derived from a new body of the Catholic church created in 1622, called the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide. Its activity was aimed at propagating the Catholic faith in non-Catholic countries, from the 1790s, the term began being used also to refer to propaganda in secular activities. The term began taking a pejorative or negative connotation in the mid-19th century, primitive forms of propaganda have been a human activity as far back as reliable recorded evidence exists. The Behistun Inscription detailing the rise of Darius I to the Persian throne is viewed by most historians as an example of propaganda. During the era of the American Revolution, the American colonies had a network of newspapers and printers who specialized in the topic on behalf of the Patriots. During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic era, propaganda was widely used, abolitionists in Britain and the United States in the 19th century developed large, complex propaganda campaigns against slavery. The first large-scale and organised propagation of government propaganda was occasioned by the outbreak of war in 1914, after the defeat of Germany in the First World War, military officials such as Erich Ludendorff suggested that British propaganda had been instrumental in their defeat. Adolf Hitler came to echo this view, believing that it had been a cause of the collapse of morale. Later, the Nazis adapted many British propaganda techniques during their time in power, most propaganda in Germany was produced by the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. Joseph Goebbels was placed in charge of this ministry, the 1930s and 1940s, which saw the rise of totalitarian states and the Second World War, are arguably the Golden Age of Propaganda. Leni Riefenstahl, a filmmaker working in Nazi Germany, created one of the propaganda movies. US war films in the early 1940s in the United States were designed to create a patriotic mindset, the West and the Soviet Union both used propaganda extensively during the Cold War. Both sides used film, television, and radio programming to influence their own citizens, each other, george Orwells novels Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four are virtual textbooks on the use of propaganda. During the Cuban Revolution, Fidel Castro stressed the importance of propaganda, Propaganda was used extensively by Communist forces in the Vietnam War as means of controlling peoples opinions. During the Yugoslav wars, propaganda was used as a strategy by governments of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Croatia

116.
35 mm film
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35 mm film is the film gauge most commonly used for motion pictures and chemical still photography. The name of the gauge refers to the width of the photographic film, the standard negative pulldown for movies is four perforations per frame along both edges, which results in 16 frames per foot of film. For still photography, the frame has eight perforations on each side. This resulted in cameras, projectors, and other equipment having to be calibrated to each gauge, the 35 mm width, originally specified as 1.375 inches, was introduced in 1892 by William Dickson and Thomas Edison, using film stock supplied by George Eastman. The gauge has been versatile in application, Eastman Kodak, Fujifilm and Agfa-Gevaert are some companies which offered 35 mm films. Today Kodak is the last remaining manufacturer of motion picture film and it is difficult to compare the quality of film to digital media but a good estimate would be about 20.8 million total pixels would equal one 35 millimeter high quality color frame of film. In 1880, George Eastman began to manufacture gelatin dry plates in Rochester. Along with W. H. Walker, Eastman invented a holder for a roll of picture-carrying gelatin layer coated paper, hannibal Goodwins invention of nitrocellulose film base in 1887 was the first transparent, flexible film. With the advent of film, Thomas Alva Edison quickly set out on his invention, the Kinetoscope. The Kinetoscope was a loop system intended for one-person viewing. Edison, along with assistant W. K. L. Dickson, followed that up with the Kinetophone, beginning in March 1892, Eastman and then, from April 1893 into 1896, New Yorks Blair Camera Co. supplied Edison with film stock. Edisons aperture defined a single frame of film at 4 perforations high, a court judgment in March 1902 invalidated Edisons claim, allowing any producer or distributor to use the Edison 35 mm film design without license. Filmmakers were already doing so in Britain and Europe, where Edison had failed to file patents, at the time, film stock was usually supplied unperforated and punched by the filmmaker to their standards with perforation equipment. A variation developed by the Lumière Brothers used a circular perforation on each side of the frame towards the middle of the horizontal axis.33 aspect ratio. Spehr describes the importance of these developments, The early acceptance of 35 mm as a standard had momentous impact on the development and spread of cinema. The film format was introduced into still photography as early as 1913 but first became popular with the launch of the Leica camera, created by Oskar Barnack in 1925. The costly image-forming silver compounds in a film stocks emulsion meant from the start that 35 mm filmmaking was to be a hobby with a high barrier to entry for the public at large. Furthermore, the film base of all early film stock was highly flammable

35 mm film
35 mm film
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35 mm film sticking out of a canister (or cassette) for 135 format film for still photography. Kodachrome II film for color slides—marked with a capacity of 36 exposures (on the film strip)—pictured
35 mm film
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A short strip of undeveloped 35 mm color negative film with BH-size perforations.
35 mm film
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A photo of a 35 mm film print featuring all four audio formats (or "quad track") — from left to right: SDDS (blue area to the left of the sprocket holes), Dolby Digital (grey area between the sprocket holes labelled with the Dolby "Double-D" logo in the middle), analog optical sound (the two white lines to the right of the sprocket holes), and the DTStime code (the dashed line to the far right).

117.
Maja squinado
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Maja squinado is a species of migratory crab found in the north-east Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. M. squinado feeds on a variety of organisms, with seaweeds and molluscs dominating in winter. Migrations generally take place in autumn, with some crabs covering over 100 miles in eight months, all crabs are vulnerable to predation when moulting, and M. squinado becomes gregarious around that time, presumably for defense against predators. Females can produce up to four broods per year, a review of the species complex around M. The specific epithet derives from the Provençal name for the species – squinado, esquinade

118.
Abalone
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Abalone is a common name for any of a group of small to very large sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the family Haliotidae. Other common names are ear shells, sea ears, and muttonfish or muttonshells in Australia, ormer in Great Britain, perlemoen in South Africa and their taxonomy puts them in the family Haliotidae which contains only one genus, Haliotis, which once contained six subgenera. These subgenera have become alternate representations of Haliotis, the number of species recognized worldwide ranges between 30 and 130 with over 230 species-level taxa described. The most comprehensive treatment of the family considers 56 species valid, the shells of abalones have a low, open spiral structure, and are characterized by several open respiratory pores in a row near the shells outer edge. The flesh of abalones is widely considered to be a desirable food, Abalone vary in size from 20 millimetres to 200 millimetres while Haliotis rufescens is the largest of the genus at 12 inches. The shell of abalones is convex, rounded to oval in shape, the shell of the majority of species has a small, flat spire and two to three whorls. The last whorl, known as the whorl, is auriform, meaning that the shell resembles an ear. Haliotis asinina has a different shape, as it is more elongated and distended. The shell of Haliotis cracherodii cracherodii is also unusual as it has a form, is imperforate, shows an exserted spire. A mantle cleft in the shell impresses a groove in the shell and these holes are respiratory apertures for venting water from the gills and for releasing sperm and eggs into the water column. They make up what is known as the selenizone which forms as the shell grows and this series of 8 to 38 holes is near the anterior margin. Only a small number are generally open, the older holes are gradually sealed up as the shell grows and new holes form. Each species has a number of open holes, between four and ten, in the selenizone. The aperture of the shell is wide and nacreous. The exterior of the shell is striated and dull, the color of the shell is very variable from species to species which may reflect the animals diet. The iridescent nacre that lines the inside of the shell varies in color from white, to pink, red and green-red to deep blue. The animal has fimbriated head-lobes and side-lobes which are fimbriated and cirrated, the radula has small median teeth, and the lateral teeth are single and beam-like. There are about 70 uncini, with denticulated hooks, the first four very large, the rounded foot is very large in comparison to most molluscs

119.
Conger
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Conger is a genus of marine congrid eels. It includes some of the largest types of eels, ranging up to 3 m in length, the life histories of most conger eels are poorly known. Conger or conger eel is sometimes included in the names of species of the family Congridae. Conger cinereus Rüppell,1830 Conger conger Conger erebennus Conger esculentus Poey,1861 Conger macrocephalus Robert H, one species of the conger eel, Conger myriaster, is an important food fish in East Asia. It is often served as sushi, congers are predators and can attack humans. In July,2013, a diver was attacked by an eel in Killary Harbour, Ireland. The eel bit a large chunk from his face, the diver reported the creature was more than 6 feet in length and about the width of a human thigh

Conger

120.
Cream
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Cream is a dairy product composed of the higher-butterfat layer skimmed from the top of milk before homogenization. In un-homogenized milk, the fat, which is less dense, in the industrial production of cream, this process is accelerated by using centrifuges called separators. In many countries, cream is sold in several grades depending on the total butterfat content, Cream can be dried to a powder for shipment to distant markets. Cream has high levels of saturated fat, Cream skimmed from milk may be called sweet cream to distinguish it from whey cream skimmed from whey, a by-product of cheese-making. Whey cream has a fat content and tastes more salty, tangy. In many countries, cream is usually sold partially fermented, sour cream, crème fraîche, Cream has many culinary uses in sweet, bitter, salty and tangy dishes. This is also the origin of butters yellow color, Cream from goats milk, or from cows fed indoors on grain or grain-based pellets, is white. Cream is used as an ingredient in foods, including ice cream, many sauces, soups, stews, puddings, and some custard bases. Whipped cream is served as a topping on ice cream sundaes, milkshakes, egg nog, irish cream is an alcoholic liqueur which blends cream with whiskey, and often honey, wine, or coffee. Cream is also used in Indian curries such as masala dishes, Cream is often added to coffee in the US and Canada. Both single and double cream can be used in cooking, double cream or full-fat crème fraîche are often used when cream is added to a hot sauce, to prevent any problem with it separating or splitting. Double cream can be thinned with milk to make an approximation of single cream, the French word crème denotes not only dairy cream, but also other thick liquids such as sweet and savory custards, which are normally made with milk, not cream. Different grades of cream are distinguished by their fat content, whether they have been heat-treated, whipped, in many jurisdictions, there are regulations for each type. In the United States, cream is sold as, Most cream products sold in the United States at retail contain the minimum permissible fat content for their product type. Half and half almost always contains only 10. 5% butterfat, not all grades are defined by all jurisdictions, and the exact fat content ranges vary. Cream must contain no less than 350 g/kg of milk fat, in Canada, light cream is very low-fat cream, usually with 5% or 6% butterfat. Specific product characteristics are generally uniform throughout Canada, but names vary by geographic and linguistic area and by manufacturer. It can be confusing, coffee cream may be 10% or 18% and half-and-half may be 3%, 5%, 6% or 10%, all depending on location

121.
Seaweed fertiliser
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Seaweed fertiliser, also spelled seaweed fertilizer, is seaweed that is collected and used as an organic fertilizer. In Scotland, it is used as fertiliser in lazybeds or feannagan, falkland Islanders have also been nicknamed Kelpers from time to time, from collecting seaweed partly for this purpose. Several of the 12, 000+ varieties of seaweed in the ocean have been shown to be valuable additions to the organic garden and can be abundantly available free for those living near the coast. For those who cannot gather fresh seaweed, it is commercially in a dried meal form or as a concentrated liquid extract which is active in significantly smaller rates. While meal products are limited to soil applications due to their insolubility, seaweed, particularly bladderwrack, kelp or laminaria, can be either applied to the soil as a mulch or can be added to the compost heap, where it is an excellent activator. A perhaps less serious potential problem with seaweed is its salt content, while it is unlikely to add sufficient seaweed to seriously upset the balances of salt in the soil, it is not liked by worms, who will not live in it. It can be hosed down before adding to the soil to reduce the salt content, rinsing seaweed is risky as valuable alginates are potentially lost to runoff. Organic fertilizer Organic gardening Organic farming Organic hydroponic solutions Uses of compost Rockdust

Seaweed fertiliser
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Vraicking in Jersey
Seaweed fertiliser
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Former feannagan on Great Bernera, Outer Hebrides, which would have been improved with seaweed fertiliser

122.
Apple brandy
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Fruit brandy is a distilled beverage produced from mash, juice, wine or residues of culinary fruits. The term covers a class of spirits produced across the world, and typically excludes beverages made from grapes. Apples, pears, apricots, plums and cherrys are the most commonly used fruits, in British usage, fruit brandy may also refer to liqueurs obtained by maceration of whole fruits, juice or flavoring in a distilled beverage, for example cherry brandy. Such beverages are used similar to cordials, and as an ingredient in cocktails, fruit brandies obtained by distillation are referred by the French term eau de vie. Fruit brandy usually contains 40% to 45% ABV, fruit brandy is customarily drunk chilled or over ice, but is occasionally mixed. Applejack is an American apple brandy made from the distillation of hard cider and it was once made by fractional freezing which would disqualify it as a proper brandy. Brinjevec is a Slovenian brandy distilled from ground and fermented juniper berries, buchu is a South African brandy flavoured with extracts from Agathosma species. Calvados is an apple brandy from the French region of Lower Normandy, coconut brandy is actually made from the sap of borassus flowers. Damassine brandy is made with the fruit of the Damassinier tree in the Jura Mountains of Switzerland Eau de vie is a French term for colorless fruit brandy. This term is applied to grape-based brandy other than Armagnac and Cognac. Kirschwasser is a brandy made from cherries. Kukumakranka brandy is South African and flavoured with the fruit of the Kukumakranka. Obstler is a German word for brandy and often referred to as Schnapps in English. Pálenka or Pálené is a common description for Slovak brandy. It must be distilled from Slovakian wild or domestic fruits, pálinka is a traditional Hungarian fruit brandy. It can only be made with fruits from Hungary, such as plums, apricots, peaches, elderberries, pears, poire Williams is made from the Williams pear, also known as the Bartlett pear. Slivovitz is a straw to yellow-colored plum brandy produced in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Macedonia, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, Țuică, also known as horincă or turţ, is a clear Romanian plum brandy. Other Romanian fruit brandies, often distilled from apples, pears, apricots, mulberries, peaches, quinces, somerset cider brandy which dates back to 1678 obtained European protected status in 2011

Apple brandy
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A bottle of Calvados, a French fruit brandy made from apples.

123.
Urtica dioica
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Urtica dioica, often called common nettle, stinging nettle or nettle leaf, is a herbaceous perennial flowering plant in the family Urticaceae. It is native to Europe, Asia, northern Africa, and western North America, the plant has a long history of use as a source of medicine, food, and fibre. Urtica dioica is a dioecious, herbaceous, perennial plant,1 to 2 m tall in the summer and it has widely spreading rhizomes and stolons, which are bright yellow, as are the roots. The soft, green leaves are 3 to 15 cm long and are borne oppositely on an erect, wiry, the leaves have a strongly serrated margin, a cordate base, and an acuminate tip with a terminal leaf tooth longer than adjacent laterals. It bears small, greenish or brownish, numerous flowers in axillary inflorescences. The taxonomy of Urtica species has been confused, and older sources are likely to use a variety of names for these plants. Formerly, more species were recognised than are now accepted, however, at least six clear subspecies of U. dioica are described, some formerly classified as separate species, U. dioica subsp. Dioica, from Europe, Asia, and northern Africa, has stinging hairs, galeopsifolia, from Europe, does not have stinging hairs. Afghanica, from southwestern and central Asia, sometimes has stinging hairs or is sometimes hairless, gansuensis, from eastern Asia, has stinging hairs. Gracilis Selander, from North America, has stinging hairs, holosericea Thorne, from North America, has stinging hairs. U. dioica is abundant in northern Europe and much of Asia and it is less widespread in southern Europe and north Africa, where it is restricted by its need for moist soil, but is still common. In North America, it is distributed in Canada and the United States, where it is found in every province and state except for Hawaii. It grows in abundance in the Pacific Northwest, especially in places where rainfall is high. The European subspecies has been introduced into North America and South America, in Europe, nettles have a strong association with human habitation and buildings. The presence of nettles may indicate the site of a long-abandoned building, human and animal waste may be responsible for elevated levels of phosphate and nitrogen in the soil, providing an ideal environment for nettles. The roots are eaten by the larva of the ghost moth Hepialus humuli. Stinging nettle is particularly found as a plant in wetter environments. Although nutritious, it is not widely eaten by wildlife or livestock

124.
Harry Vardon
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Henry William Harry Vardon was a professional golfer from the Bailiwick of Jersey. He was a member of the fabled Great Triumvirate of the sport in his day, along with John Henry Taylor, Vardon won The Open Championship a record six times and also won the 1900 U. S. Open. Harry and his brother Tom Vardon, younger by two years and also interested in golf, were very close and their golf development was held back by poor family circumstances, and their father was not supportive of his sons golf interest. Tom actually made the move from Jersey to England first, to pursue a golf career, Harry followed Tom to England in the spring of 1890, taking a job as greenkeeper at age 20, at Studley Royal Golf Club, Ripon, Yorks. A year later he became professional at Bury Golf Club and in 1896 the club professional at Ganton Golf Club. Harry was the player of the two brothers. By his early 20s, Harry developed a demanding practice program and he was the first professional golfer to play in knickerbockers – discarding the proper dress of an Englishman in an uncomfortable shirt and tie with a buttoned jacket. Within a few years he became golfs first superstar since the days of Young Tom Morris, in 1896, Vardon won the first of his record six Open Championships. These rivalries enormously increased the publics interest in golf, in 1898 Harry Vardon won his second Open Championship at Prestwick, beating Willie Park, Jnr by a single stroke. Park missed a putt on the 18th green to take the match to a play off. Willie Park, Jnr was not adverse to offering such challenges, some years earlier he had met and defeated Ben Sayers at Musselburgh and North Berwick, and in 1897 Park defeated J. H. Taylor over two venues, also for £100 per side. Eventually Willie Park, Jnr conceded to play his home leg at North Berwick instead of Musselburgh, Golf Week magazine acted as both promoter and stakeholder, and the match took place in July 1899, by which time Vardon had won his third Open Championship. The British press billed the encounter as the greatest golf competition of all time, such was the interest, that 10,000 Scottish fans attended the match at North Berwick, and that on a day when the Prince of Wales was making a State visit to nearby Edinburgh. Special trains were laid on to ferry fans from Edinburgh and other nearby towns, the first 36 holes at North Berwick ended with Vardon holding a two-hole lead, the format being match play. The second leg took place two weeks later at Ganton, and Vardon completed the rout, winning 11 up with ten holes to play, collecting the £200 prize, during his career, Harry Vardon made three visits to North America,1900,1913 and 1920. During all three trips he competed in the U. S. Open finishing 1st, 2nd and tie 2nd and he became golfs first international celebrity in 1900 when he toured the United States and Canada. John Henry Taylor, the 1900 Open Champion and member of the Great Triumvirate, Vardon played in more than 90 matches and capped it off with a victory in the U. S. Open, where Taylor was second. Vardon was the runner-up at his next U. S. Open in 1913 and he toured North America with Ted Ray that year, as he did once more in 1920

Harry Vardon
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Vardon, circa 1908–1914
Harry Vardon
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Fred McLeod and Vardon at the 1913 U.S. Open
Harry Vardon
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Statue of Vardon at the Royal Jersey Golf Club on the Island of Jersey

125.
Island Games
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The Island Games are an international multi-sports event organised by the International Island Games Association. The most recent games were held in Jersey from 27 June to 3 July 2015, the Island Games began in 1985 as the Inter-Island Games, as part of the Isle of Man International Year of Sport, and were intended to be a one-off sporting celebration only. Initially, fifteen islands with 600 competitors and officials took part in seven sports, the track and field events were held on an eight-lane grass track, a far cry from the current games, which now use synthetic tracks in stadiums capable of holding thousands of spectators. The Games of 1985 were so successful that organisers decided to hold an event two years later. The games have grown from strength to strength with limits now in place over the number of teams, currently 24, sark could be considered the most successful island, their population of 600 having acquired 20 medals by 2015, one for every 30 people. Guernsey put in a bid for the 2021 games following the Faroe Islands withdrawal from hosting, the bid was approved in July 2016. Orkney have indicated that they are willing to play host for the 2023 games, Ynys Môn are contemplating a bid for the 2025 games, the bid being mentioned by the MP for Ynys Môn in the House of Commons. A total of twenty-seven islands have participated in the Island Games, Islands marked in grey are no longer members of the Island Games. The host country chooses between 12 and 14 different sports for their games from this list, International Island Games Association Previous Results in Island Games

Island Games
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Faroese stamp to the 1989 Island Games: Rowing
Island Games
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Football

126.
2015 Island Games
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The XVI Island Games was held in Jersey, Channel Islands, from 27 June to 3 July 2015. This was the time that the island has hosted the games. The week long event saw around 3,000 competitors from 24 islands take part in 14 sports, the official mascot of the games was a real life infant silverback gorilla named Indigo who lives at Durrell Wildlife Park in Trinity, Jersey. 24 island entities of the IIGA, from Europe, South Atlantic, numbers in parentheses indicate the number of medal events contested in each sport. Note, Archery and table tennis make their return to the Island Games, however, gymnastics and squash were dropped from these Games

2015 Island Games
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110m hurdles men finals at FB Fields on 30 June 2015.

127.
Home Nations
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The Home Nations, or Home Countries, refers collectively to England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, and in certain sports contexts, to England, Scotland, Wales and the whole island of Ireland. The term Home Countries is also used, and is synonymous. The Crown Dependencies are not part of the United Kingdom, but are associated with it. In association football, the Home Nations originally referred to the four national teams of the United Kingdom, England, Ireland, Scotland. The English Football Association, and the media used the term Home Nations to describe the parties to the debate. In the event, a team consisting only of English and Welsh players took part, in 1883, the first Home Nations Championship was played between England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales. At this point in its history, the competition contained only teams from the UK, in 1910, France officially joined the competition and it was renamed the Five Nations Championship. Since the admission of Italy in 2000, the tournament has been known by its current name, victory by any Home Nation over the other three Home Nations is a Triple Crown. The Home Nations also contribute players to a team known as the British and Irish Lions. Southern Hemisphere teams who beat all four nations in one tour are said to have a Grand Slam Tour. The Amateur Four Nations competition in rugby league, run annually from 2002 to 2007 for the A sides of Wales, terminology of the British Isles Countries of the United Kingdom

128.
Jersey cricket team
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The Jersey cricket team is the team that represents the Crown dependency of Jersey in international cricket matches. They became a member of the International Cricket Council in 2005. They are currently ranked at 29th in the world by the ICC and they are in Division Five of the World Cricket League and Division One of the European Championship. Jersey first played cricket against neighbouring Channel Island of Guernsey in the inaugural Inter-insular match in 1957. The match was drawn, Jersey eventually picking up their first win in 1960 and they won ten of the matches in a row between 1992 and 2001, before a run of five consecutive victories for Guernsey until 2006. Jersey became a member of the ICC in 2005, and took part in Division Two of the European Championship in Scotland in 2006. The following March, they beat Italy in a three series that they had to win to be promoted to associate membership of the ICC. They were granted associate status at an ICC meeting at Lords in June, in August, Jersey won the inter-insular by 4 runs to end Guernseys run of wins, but lost the first inter-insular Twenty20 match in September by five wickets. 2008, Jersey hosted Division Five of the World Cricket League in May, Jersey performed well and topped Group B after the group qualifying matches. Jersey then beat the United States in their semi-final before losing the final to Afghanistan, as Division Five runners-up, Jersey were promoted to Division Four of the World Cricket League. 2008, Jersey travelled to neighbours Guernsey in August to take part in Division Two of the European Championship against, Croatia, France, Germany, Gibraltar and Guernsey. Jersey improved on their 2006 performance, edging out Guernsey by one run in the group match to win the tournament undefeated. 2008, Jersey travelled to Tanzania in October to participate in Division Four of the World Cricket League. Division Four proved to be a step too far for Jersey, as with a series of poor batting displays Jersey won only one match, before losing to Fiji in a positional playoff. On the basis of their finish in this tournament, Jersey were relegated back to Division Five. 2010 ICC World Cricket League Division Five in Nepal, they finished 5th to be relegated to 2011 ICC World Cricket League Division Six in Malaysia,2011 ICC European T20 Championship Division One, hosted by Jersey, losing to Italy in semi-final. 2013 ICC European T20 Championship Division One, Jersey losing to Italy in semi-final, Jersey were again unbeaten and gained promotion to WCL4. 2014 ICC World Cricket League Division Four matches, saw Jersey win only one of their 5 matches in the round robin,2015 ICC Europe Division One competition saw Jersey come out on top and win entry into the ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier

Jersey cricket team
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Jersey

129.
English rugby union system
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Rugby union in England consists of 101 leagues, which includes professional leagues at the highest level, down to amateur regional leagues. Promotion and relegation is in throughout the system. Historically, there were no leagues allowed as these were seen as a sign of professionalism, in the 1970s the RFU allowed the creation of regional merit leagues with the most significant ones being the North, Midlands, South West and London merit leagues. In 1984 the RFU approved the creation of two national merit tables where clubs had to play a minimum of eight games against the clubs in their division,1985 saw the creation of a third national merit league. In 1987 this was formed into a national league system. Under this new structure, the top league remains the 12-team Aviva Premiership, the second tier league has been rebranded and restructured, as the RFU Championship which has replaced the old National Division One. This league also has 12 teams, and like the Premiership, is professional, beneath the two professional leagues, the National Leagues have been restructured to include a new 16 team National League 1,16 team National League 2 South and 16 team National League 2 North. The four top regional leagues are now part of National League 3 at level five, the top two tiers of English rugby are professional with 24 teams, The Aviva Premiership is the top level league in England, containing the best 12 professional clubs. The premiership still includes strict ground criteria and a cap that must be met by all participants. Promotion and relegation remains between the top two divisions with the side being relegated at the end of the season, providing the promoted club meets the ground criteria. Debate still continues over the question of promotion and relegation, but with the strict criteria, the new RFU Championship was formed in 2009–10 to provide a second tier of professional competition. The former National Division One was decreased from 16 clubs to 12 to accommodate the new fixture structure, the last team at the end of the first phase is relegated to, and replaced by, the champions of the third tier National Division One. The new National League structure includes, The former National Division Two was renamed and increased from 14 to 16 teams and this resulted in a 30-game season on a home and away basis. The previous National Division Three leagues became National League 2, keeping the structure as previous except for being increased to 16 teams each. The two league champions are promoted, with the two meeting in a promotion play-off to decide the third promoted team. The bottom three in league are relegated to their respective regional division. A new element is that the champions will meet in a National Final, the former top regional leagues became the lowest level of the national league structure, increasing in size from 12 to 14 teams. The four champions clubs also meet in a national finals competition

130.
Extreme sports
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Extreme sports is a popular term for certain activities perceived as involving a high degree of risk. These activities often involve speed, height, a level of physical exertion. While use of the extreme sport has spread far and wide to describe a multitude of different activities. There are, however, several characteristics common to most extreme sports, while not the exclusive domain of youth, extreme sports tend to have a younger-than-average target demographic. Extreme sports are sanctioned by schools. Extreme sports tend to be more solitary than traditional sports, in addition, beginning extreme athletes tend to work on their craft without the guidance of a coach. Activities categorized by media as extreme sports differ from traditional sports due to the number of inherently uncontrollable variables. These environmental variables are frequently weather and terrain related, including wind, snow, water, because these natural phenomena cannot be controlled, they inevitably affect the outcome of the given activity or event. In a traditional sporting event, athletes compete against each other under controlled circumstances, while it is possible to create a controlled sporting event such as X Games, there are environmental variables that cannot be held constant for all athletes. Examples include changing snow conditions for snowboarders, rock and ice quality for climbers, whilst traditional sporting judgment criteria may be adopted when assessing performance, extreme sports performers are often evaluated on more subjective and aesthetic criteria. While the exact definition and what is included as extreme sport is debatable, a passenger in a canyon jet boat ride will not fulfill the requirements, as the skill required pertains to the pilot, not the passengers. Thrill seeking might in these cases be a suitable qualification than extreme sport. Extreme sports may be subdivided into, These sports require the use of snow, ice or water) sports, the phrase is, There are only three sports, bullfighting, motor racing, and mountaineering, all the rest are merely games. The implication of the phrase was that the word sport defined an activity in one might be killed. The other activities being termed games, the phrase may have been invented by either writer Barnaby Conrad or automotive author Ken Purdy. The Dangerous Sports Club of Oxford University, England was founded by David Kirke, Chris Baker, Ed Hulton and Alan Weston. They first came to public attention by inventing modern day bungee jumping, by making the first modern jumps on 1 April 1979, from the Clifton Suspension Bridge, Bristol. Bungee jumping was treated as a novelty for a few years, then became a craze for young people, and is now an established industry for thrill seekers

131.
Rock climbing
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Rock climbing is an activity in which participants climb up, down or across natural rock formations or artificial rock walls. The goal is to reach the summit of a formation or the endpoint of a usually pre-defined route without falling. Due to the length and extended endurance required and because accidents are likely to happen on descent than ascent. It is very rare for a climber to downclimb, especially on the larger multiple pitches, professional Rock climbing competitions have the objectives of either completing the route in the quickest possible time or attaining the farthest point on an increasingly difficult route. Scrambling, another activity involving the scaling of hills and similar formations, is similar to rock climbing, however, rock climbing is generally differentiated by its sustained use of hands to support the climbers weight as well as to provide balance. Rock climbing is a physically and mentally demanding sport, one that often tests a climbers strength, endurance, agility and it can be a dangerous activity and knowledge of proper climbing techniques and usage of specialized climbing equipment is crucial for the safe completion of routes. Because of the range and variety of rock formations around the world. Paintings dating from 200 BC show Chinese men rock climbing China woop woop, in early America, the cliff-dwelling Anasazi in the 12th century were thought to be excellent climbers. Early European climbers used rock climbing techniques as a required to reach the summit in their mountaineering exploits. In the 1880s, European rock climbing become an independent pursuit outside of mountain climbing, Rock climbing evolved gradually from an alpine necessity to a distinct athletic activity. However, climbing techniques, equipment and ethical considerations have evolved steadily, today, free climbing, climbing using holds made entirely of natural rock while using gear solely for protection and not for upward movement, is the most popular form of the sport. Free climbing has since divided into several sub-styles of climbing dependent on belay configuration. Over time, grading systems have also created in order to compare more accurately the relative difficulties of the rock climbs. In How to Rock Climb, John Long notes that for moderately skilled climbers simply getting to the top of a route is not enough, in rock climbing, style refers to the method of ascending the cliff. There are three styles of climbing, on-sight, flash, and redpoint. To on-sight a route is to ascend the wall without aid or any foreknowledge and it is considered the way to climb with the most style. Flashing is similar to on-sighting, except that the climber has previous information about the route including talking about the beta with other climbers, redpointing means to make a free ascent of the route after having first tried it. Free climbing is typically divided into styles that differ from one another depending on the choice of equipment used

132.
The Open Championship
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The Open Championship, often referred to as The Open or the British Open, is the oldest of the four major championships in professional golf. Held in the United Kingdom, it is administered by The R&A and is the only major outside the United States, the Open is currently the third major of the year, between the U. S. Open and the PGA Championship, and is played in mid-July. The current champion is Henrik Stenson, who won the 145th Open at Royal Troon in 2016 with a score of −20. The Open was first played on 17 October 1860 at Prestwick Golf Club in Scotland, the inaugural tournament was restricted to professionals and attracted a field of eight golfers who played three rounds of Prestwicks twelve-hole course in a single day. Willie Park Sr. won with a score of 174, beating Old Tom Morris, the following year the tournament was opened to amateurs, eight of them joined ten professionals in the field. James Ogilvie Fairlie was the organiser of the first Open Championship held at Prestwick in 1860. With the untimely death of Allan Robertson, aged 43 in 1859, originally, the trophy presented to the events winner was the Challenge Belt, a red leather belt with a silver buckle. The Challenge Belt was retired in 1870, when Young Tom Morris was allowed to keep it for winning the tournament three consecutive times, because no trophy was available, the tournament was cancelled in 1871. In 1872, after Young Tom Morris won again for a time in a row. The present trophy, The Golf Champion Trophy, better known by its name of the Claret Jug, was then created. Prestwick administered The Open from 1860 to 1870, in 1871, it agreed to organise it jointly with The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews and The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers. In 1892 the event was doubled in length from 36 to 72 holes, the 1894 Open was the first held outside Scotland, at the Royal St Georges Golf Club in England. Because of a number of entrants, a cut was introduced after two rounds in 1898. In 1920 full responsibility for The Open Championship was handed over to The Royal & Ancient Golf Club, the early winners were all Scottish professionals, who in those days worked as greenkeepers, clubmakers, and caddies to supplement their modest winnings from championships and challenge matches. The Open has always dominated by professionals, with only six victories by amateurs. The last of these was Bobby Jones third Open and part of his celebrated Grand Slam, Jones was one of six Americans who won The Open between the First and Second World Wars, the first of whom had been Walter Hagen in 1922. These Americans and the French winner of the 1907 Open, Arnaud Massy, were the winners from outside Scotland and England up to 1939. The first post-World War II winner was the American Sam Snead, in 1947, Northern Irelands Fred Daly was victorious

The Open Championship
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The Open Championship
The Open Championship
The Open Championship
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Prestwick Golf Club, site of the first Open Championship in 1860.
The Open Championship
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Willie Park, Sr. wearing the Challenge Belt, the winner's prize at The Open from 1860 to 1870.

133.
U.S. Open (golf)
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The United States Open Championship, commonly known as the U. S. Open, is the annual open national championship of golf in the United States. It is the second of the four championships in golf. It is staged by the United States Golf Association in mid-June, scheduled so that, if there are no delays, the final round is played on the third Sunday. The U. S. Open is staged at a variety of courses, U. S. Open play is characterized by tight scoring at or around par by the leaders, with the winner usually emerging at around even par. A U. S. Open course is seldom beaten severely, some courses that are attempting to get into the rotation for the U. S. Open will undergo renovations to develop these features. Rees Jones is the most notable of the Open Doctors who take on these projects, as with any professional golf tournament, the available space surrounding the course and local infrastructure also factor into deciding which courses will host the event. The first U. S. Open was played on October 4,1895, on a course at the Newport Country Club in Newport. It was a 36-hole competition and was played in a single day, ten professionals and one amateur entered. The winner was a 21-year-old Englishman named Horace Rawlins, who had arrived in the U. S. in January that year to take up a position at the host club. He received $150 cash out of a fund of $335, plus a $50 gold medal, his club received the Open Championship Cup trophy. In the beginning, the tournament was dominated by experienced British players until 1911, American golfers soon began to win regularly and the tournament evolved to become one of the four majors. Since 1911, the title has been won mostly by players from the United States, since 1950, players from only six countries other than the United States have won the championship, most notably South Africa, which has won five times since 1965. A streak of four consecutive non-American winners occurred from 2004 to 2007 for the first time since 1910 and these four players, South African Retief Goosen, New Zealander Michael Campbell, Australian Geoff Ogilvy and Argentine Ángel Cabrera, are all from countries in the Southern Hemisphere. The U. S. Open is open to any professional, Players may obtain a place by being fully exempt or by competing successfully in qualifying. About half of the field is made up of players who are exempt from qualifying. Senior Open Top 10 finishers and ties from the previous years U. S, the exemptions for amateurs apply only if the players remain amateurs as of the tournament date. Before 2011, the sole OWGR cutoff for entry was the top 50 as of two weeks before the tournament. Through 2011, exemptions existed for leading money winners on the PGA, European, Japanese and these categories were eliminated in favor of inviting the top 60 on the OWGR at both relevant dates

U.S. Open (golf)
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U.S. Open Trophy at the 2008 PGA Golf Show.
U.S. Open (golf)
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2015 logo

134.
Victor Hugo
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Victor Marie Hugo was a French poet, novelist, and dramatist of the Romantic movement. He is considered one of the greatest and best-known French writers, outside France, his best-known works are the novels Les Misérables,1862, and The Hunchback of Notre-Dame,1831. In France, Hugo is known primarily for his collections, such as Les Contemplations. He produced more than 4,000 drawings and also campaigned for causes such as the abolition of capital punishment. He is buried in the Panthéon in Paris and his legacy has been honoured in many ways, including his portrait being placed on French currency. Victor Hugo was the son of Joseph Léopold Sigisbert Hugo and Sophie Trébuchet, his brothers were Abel Joseph Hugo. He was born in 1802 in Besançon in the region of Franche-Comté. On 19 November 1821, Léopold Hugo wrote to his son that he had conceived on one of the highest peaks in the Vosges Mountains. This elevated origin, he went on, seems to have had effects on you so that your muse is now continually sublime, Hugos childhood was a period of national political turmoil. Napoleon was proclaimed Emperor of the French two years after Hugos birth, and the Bourbon Monarchy was restored before his 13th birthday, since Hugos father was an officer, the family moved frequently and Hugo learned much from these travels. On a childhood trip to Naples, Hugo saw the vast Alpine passes and the snowy peaks, the magnificently blue Mediterranean. Though he was five years old at the time, he remembered the six-month-long trip vividly. They stayed in Naples for a few months and then headed back to Paris, at the beginning of her marriage, Hugos mother Sophie followed her husband to posts in Italy and Spain. Thereafter she dominated Hugos education and upbringing, as a result, Hugos early work in poetry and fiction reflect her passionate devotion to both King and Faith. It was only later, during the leading up to Frances 1848 Revolution. Young Victor fell in love and, against his mothers wishes, because of his close relationship with his mother, Hugo waited until after her death to marry Adèle in 1822. Adèle and Victor Hugo had their first child, Léopold, in 1823, on 28 August 1824, the couples second child, Léopoldine was born, followed by Charles on 4 November 1826, François-Victor on 28 October 1828, and Adèle on 24 August 1830. Hugos eldest and favourite daughter, Léopoldine, died aged 19 in 1843, on 4 September, she drowned in the Seine at Villequier, pulled down by her heavy skirts when a boat overturned

135.
Wace
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Wace, sometimes referred to as Robert Wace, was a Norman poet, who was born in Jersey and brought up in mainland Normandy, ending his career as Canon of Bayeux. All that is known of Waces life comes from references in his poems. He neglected to mention his birthdate, sometime between 1099 and 1111 is the most commonly accepted year of his birth, the name Wace, used in Jersey until the 16th century, appears to have been his only name, surnames were not universally used at that time. It was quite a common first name in the Duchy of Normandy, the spelling and the pronunciation of this name were rendered different ways in the texts, according to the place where the copyists were from. In the various versions of the Roman de Rou, his name five times as Wace. Until the 11th century, the w spelling corresponded to the pronunciation in Northern Normandy, south to an isogloss corresponding more or less to the Ligne Joret, had been turned to and later. Today the name survives as the patronymic surname Vasse in Normandy and in the North of France and it is speculated that he may have been of aristocratic origin, as he was sent to Caen to be educated, which would have been virtually impossible for most. His detailed writing on maritime matters may have stemmed from his island upbringing, around 1130 Wace returned to Caen and took ecclesiastical work, possibly as a teacher. The date of Waces death is uncertain, the most recent event described in the Roman de Rou may be dated to 1174. In the Rou, Wace also mentions Henry the Young King as living, the latter lived until 1183, which means that Wace probably did not revise the Rou after that date. His extant works include the Roman de Brut, a history of Britain, the Roman de Rou. Roman de Brut was based on the Historia Regum Britanniae of Geoffrey of Monmouth and it cannot be regarded as a history in any modern sense, although Wace often distinguishes between what he knows and what he does not know, or has been unable to find out. Wace narrates the founding of Britain by Brutus of Troy to the end of the legendary British history created by Geoffrey of Monmouth, the popularity of this work is explained by the new accessibility to a wider public of the Arthur legend in a vernacular language. The Roman de Brut became the basis, in turn, for Layamons Brut, an alliterative Middle English poem and his later work, the Roman de Rou, was, according to Wace, commissioned by King Henry II of England. A large part of the Roman de Rou is devoted to William the Conqueror, the Roman de Rou also includes a mention of the appearance of Halleys Comet. The Romance language Wace wrote in is variously regarded as an Old Norman dialect of the Norman language, Wace is the earliest known Jersey writer. Although the name Robert has been ascribed to Wace, this is a tradition resting on little evidence and it is generally believed nowadays that Wace only had one name. As a clerc lisant, he was proud of his title of Maistre and is sometimes referred to as Maistre Wace

Wace
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A memorial to Wace was set up in his native island of Jersey
Wace
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Wace presents his Roman de Rou to Henry II in this illustration from 1824

136.
Printing
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Printing is a process for reproducing text and images using a master form or template. The earliest examples include Cylinder seals and other such as the Cyrus Cylinder. The earliest known form of printing came from China dating to before 220 A. D. Later developments in printing include the type, first developed by Bi Sheng in China around 1040 AD. Johannes Gutenberg introduced mechanical movable type printing to Europe in the 15th century, modern large-scale printing is typically done using a printing press, while small-scale printing is done free-form with a digital printer. Though paper is the most common material, it is frequently done on metals, plastics, cloth. On paper it is carried out as a large-scale industrial process and is an essential part of publishing. Woodblock printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns that was used widely throughout East Asia and it originated in China in antiquity as a method of printing on textiles and later on paper. As a method of printing on cloth, the earliest surviving examples from China date to before 220 A. D, the earliest surviving woodblock printed fragments are from China. They are of silk printed with flowers in three colours from the Han Dynasty and they are the earliest example of woodblock printing on paper appeared in the mid-seventh century in China. By the ninth century, printing on paper had taken off, by the tenth century,400,000 copies of some sutras and pictures were printed, and the Confucian classics were in print. A skilled printer could print up to 2,000 double-page sheets per day, Printing spread early to Korea and Japan, which also used Chinese logograms, but the technique was also used in Turpan and Vietnam using a number of other scripts. This technique then spread to Persia and Russia and this technique was transmitted to Europe via the Islamic world, and by around 1400 was being used on paper for old master prints and playing cards. However, Arabs never used this to print the Quran because of the limits imposed by Islamic doctrine, block printing, called tarsh in Arabic developed in Arabic Egypt during the ninth-tenth centuries, mostly for prayers and amulets. There is some evidence to suggest that these print blocks made from non-wood materials, possibly tin, lead, the techniques employed are uncertain, however, and they appear to have had very little influence outside of the Muslim world. Though Europe adopted woodblock printing from the Muslim world, initially for fabric, block printing later went out of use in Islamic Central Asia after movable type printing was introduced from China. Block printing first came to Europe as a method for printing on cloth, images printed on cloth for religious purposes could be quite large and elaborate. When paper became relatively easily available, around 1400, the medium transferred very quickly to small religious images

137.
Robert Pipon Marett
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Sir Robert Pipon Marett was a lawyer, journalist, poet, politician, and Bailiff of Jersey from 1880 until his death. He was born in St. Peter on 20 November 1820 and studied at the University of Caen and he was admitted to the Bar of Jersey as advocate in 1845, but in 1846 the family moved to Blois in France as a result of his mothers ill health. Returning to Jersey, he entered the scene and was elected Constable of St. Helier in 1856. During his short term in office, he laid out the Parade as an urban promenade. The death of the Bailiff, Sir Thomas Le Breton, created a vacancy among the Crown Officers and he rose through the legal hierarchy, becoming Attorney-General in 1866, and Bailiff in 1880. He was one of the founders of the Société Jersiaise and a patron of education for girls and he was the father of Robert Ranulph Marett. He died on the 10 November 1884 at his home, La Haule Manor in St. Brelade, on his return from Blois, Robert Pipon Marett was one of the founders of the newspaper La Patrie in which his poetry in Jèrriais appeared from 1849 under the pseudonym Laelius. His La Fille Malade was widely admired and François-Victor Hugo reproduced it in his La Normandie inconnue and it has been suggested that his Lé Rtou du Terre-Neuvi oprès san prumi viage influenced Victor Hugos Les Pauvres gens written in Jersey in 1854. He corresponded publicly in verse form with George Métivier, the Guernsey poet and his comparatively small poetic output belies its continuing influence. His poetry is generally rather than political, but La Bouonne Femme et ses Cotillons satirises conservative resistance to constitutional reform. He took a philological interest in Jèrriais and through his prestige did much to standardise Jèrriais orthography on the pattern of French orthography. On being appointed to office he stopped publishing poetry. ^ Des Filles, une sorcière, Dame Toumasse et quelques autres R. -J

Robert Pipon Marett
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Sir Robert Pipon Marett

138.
Gerald Durrell
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Gerald Gerry Malcolm Durrell, OBE was a British naturalist, zookeeper, conservationist, author and television presenter. He founded what are now called the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and he wrote a number of books based on his life as an animal collector and enthusiast. He was the youngest brother of novelist Lawrence Durrell, Durrell was born in Jamshedpur, India on 7 January 1925. He was the fourth and final child of Louisa Florence Dixie and Lawrence Samuel Durrell, Durrells father was a British engineer and, as was commonplace and befitting the family status, the infant Durrell spent most of his time in the company of an ayah. Durrell reportedly recalled his first visit to a zoo in India, the family moved to Britain shortly before the death of his father in 1928 and settled in the Upper Norwood, Crystal Palace area of South London. Durrell was enrolled in Wickwood School, but frequently stayed at home feigning illness, mrs. Durrell moved with her three younger children to the Greek island of Corfu in 1935, joining her eldest son, Lawrence, who was living there with his wife. It was on Corfu that Durrell began to collect and keep the local fauna as pets, the family lived on Corfu until 1939. Durrell was home-schooled during this time by various friends and private tutors. Together, they examined Corfus fauna, which Durrell housed in a variety of items including test tubes, another major influence during these formative years, according to Durrell, was the writing of French naturalist Jean Henri Fabre. Gerald, his mother, his brother Leslie and their Greek maid Maria Kondos moved back to Britain in 1939 at the outbreak of the Second World War. It was difficult to find a job in the war and post-war years, especially for a home-schooled youth, some of the difficulties that he faced in this period can be found in Fillets of Plaice. His call-up for the war came in 1943, but he was exempted from duty on medical grounds. After the war, Durrell joined Whipsnade Zoo as a junior or student keeper and this move fulfilled a lifelong dream, Durrell claims in The Stationary Ark that the first word that he could enunciate with any clarity was zoo. Beasts in My Belfry recalls events of this period, Durrell left Whipsnade Zoo in May 1946 in order to join wildlife collecting expeditions of the time, but was denied a place in the voyages due to his lack of experience. Durrells wildlife expeditions began with a 1947 trip to the British Cameroons with ornithologist John Yealland, the animals he brought back were sold to London Zoo, Chester Zoo, Paignton Zoo, Bristol Zoo and Belle Vue Zoo. He continued such excursions for many decades, during which time he became famous for his work for wildlife conservation. On the first of these trips, he met and befriended the shrewd and colourful Fon of Bafut Achirimbi II, an autocratic West African chieftain, who would help him organise future missions. These practices differed from those of other animal-collecting expeditions of the time and, as a result, on 26 February 1951, after an extended courtship, Durrell married Manchester resident Jacqueline Sonia Wolfenden — they eloped, because of opposition from her father