In 1816, Robert Owen, a philosopher and pedagogue, opened the first British and probably globally the first infants school in New Lanark, Scotland.[5][6][7] In conjunction with his venture for cooperative mills Owen wanted the children to be given a good moral education so that they would be fit for work, his system was successful in producing obedient children with basic literacy and numeracy.[8]

Samuel Wilderspin opened his first infant school in London in 1819,[9] and went on to establish hundreds more. He published many works on the subject, and his work became the model for infant schools throughout England and further afield. Play was an important part of Wilderspin's system of education, he is credited with inventing the playground. In 1823, Wilderspin published On the Importance of Educating the Infant Poor, based on the school. He began working for the Infant School Society the next year, informing others about his views, he also wrote The Infant System, for developing the physical, intellectual, and moral powers of all children from 1 to seven years of age.

Friedrich Fröbel was one of the most influential founders of kindergartens, and he coined the name in 1840.

Countess Theresa Brunszvik (1775–1861), who had known and been influenced by Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, was influenced by this example to open an Angyalkert ("angel garden" in Hungarian) on May 27, 1828, in her residence in Buda, the first of eleven care centers that she founded for young children.[10][11] In 1836 she established an institute for the foundation of preschool centers, the idea became popular among the nobility and the middle class and was copied throughout the Kingdom of Hungary.

Friedrich Fröbel (1782–1852) opened a "play and activity" institute in 1837 in the village of Bad Blankenburg in the principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Thuringia, as an experimental social experience for children entering school. He renamed his institute Kindergarten on June 28, 1840, reflecting his belief that children should be nurtured and nourished "like plants in a garden".[12]

Women trained by Fröbel opened kindergartens throughout Europe and around the world, the first kindergarten in the US was founded in Watertown, Wisconsin in 1856 and was conducted in German by Margaretha Meyer-Schurz.[13]

In Afghanistan, children between the ages of 3 and 6 attend kindergartens (Dari: کودکستان‎; Pashto: وړکتون‎). Although kindergartens in Afghanistan are not part of the school system, they are often run by the government.

Early Childhood Development programs were first introduced during the Soviet occupation with the establishment in 1980 of 27 urban preschools, or kodakistan, the number of preschools grew steadily during the 1980s, peaking in 1990 with more than 270 in Afghanistan. At this peak, there were 2,300 teachers caring for more than 21,000 children in the country, these facilities were an urban phenomenon, mostly in Kabul, and were attached to schools, government offices, or factories. Based on the Soviet model, these Early Childhood Development programs provided nursery care, preschool, and kindergarten for children from 3 months to 6 years of age under the direction of the Department of Labor and Social Welfare.

The vast majority of Afghan families were never exposed to this system, and many of these families were in opposition to these programs due to the belief that it diminishes the central role of the family and inculcates children with Soviet values, with the onset of civil war after the Soviet withdrawal, the number of kindergartens dropped rapidly. By 1995, only 88 functioning facilities serving 2,110 children survived, and the Taliban restrictions on female employment eliminated all of the remaining centers in areas under their control; in 2007, there were about 260 kindergarten/pre-school centers serving over 25,000 children. Though every government center is required to have an early childhood center,[citation needed] at present, no governmental policies deal with early childhood and no institutions have either the responsibility or the capacity to provide such services.[citation needed]

In each state of Australia, kindergarten (frequently referred to as "kinder" or "kindy") means something slightly different; in Tasmania, New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory, it is the first year of primary school. In Victoria, kindergarten is a form of preschool and may be referred to interchangeably as preschool or kindergarten; in Victoria and Tasmania the phrase for the first year of primary school is called Prep (short for "preparatory"), which is followed by grade 1.

In Queensland, kindergarten is usually an institution for children around the age of 4 and thus it is the precursor to preschool and primary education; in recent years though, Kindergartens have been taking children as young as 6 months old.

The year preceding the first year of primary school education in Western Australia, South Australia or the Northern Territory is referred to respectively as pre-primary, reception or transition.[17]

In New Zealand, kindergarten can refer to education in the 2 years preceding primary school, from age 3 to 4. Primary Education starts at age 5.

In Bangladesh, the term "kindergarten", or "KG School" (Kindergarten School), is used to refer to the schooling children attend from 3 to 6 years of age, the names of the levels are nursery, shishu (children), etc. But the view of kindergarten education has changed much from previous years. Almost every rural area now has at least one Kindergarten School, with most being run in the Bengali language, they also follow the text books published by the National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB) with a light modification, adding some extra books in syllabus. The grades generally start from Nursery (sometimes "Play"), "KG" afterwards, and ends with the 5th grade. Separate from the National Education System, kindergarten is contributing greatly toward achieving the Millennium Development Goal of universal primary education in Bangladesh.

In Bulgaria, the term detska gradina (деτска градина) refers to the schooling children attend from 3 to 7 (in some cases 6) years of age, since 2012, two years of pre-school education are compulsory. These two years of mandatory pre-school education may be attended either at kindergarten or in preparatory groups at primary schools.[18]

Student teachers training in a kindergarten class in 1898 in Toronto, Canada

Schools outside of Ontario and the Northwest Territories generally provide one year of kindergarten, except some private schools offer junior kindergarten for 4-year-olds (school before kindergarten is most commonly referred to as pre-school), after kindergarten, the child begins grade one. The province of Nova Scotia refers to Kindergarten as Grade Primary.

The province of Ontario and the Northwest Territories provide two years of kindergarten. Within the province of Quebec, junior kindergarten is called prématernelle (which is not mandatory), is attended by 4-year-olds, and senior kindergarten is called maternelle, which is also not mandatory by the age of 5, this class is integrated into primary schools. Within the French school system in the province of Ontario, junior kindergarten is called maternelle and senior kindergarten is called jardin d'enfants, which is a calque of the German word Kindergarten.

In Chile, the term equivalent to Kindergarten is "Educación parvularia", sometimes also called "Educación Preescolar", it is the first level of the Chilean educational system. It meets the needs of boys and girls integrally from their birth until their entry to the Educación Básica (Primary education), without being considered as compulsory. Generally, schools imparting this level, the JUNJI (National Council of Kindergarten Schools) and other private institutions have the following organization of groups or sub categories of levels:

Low nursery: It addresses babies from 85 days to 1 year old.

High nursery: It addresses children from 1 to 2 years old.

Low Middle Level: It addresses children from 2 to 3 years old.

High Middle Level: It addresses children from 3 to 4 years old.

First level of transition: Often called "Pre-kinder", it addresses children from 4 to 5 years old.

Second level of transition: Usually called "Kinder", it addresses children from 5 to 6 years old. It is the last phase of this type of education, by finishing it, children go to "Primero Básico" (First grade of primary education).[19]

In China, pre-school education, before the child enters formal schooling at 6 years of age, is generally divided into a "nursery" or "preschool" stage and a "kindergarten" (幼儿园 (yòu'éryuán) stage, these can be two separate institutions, or a single combined one in different areas. Where there are two separate institutions, it is common for the kindergarten to consist of the two upper years, and the preschool to consist of one lower year. Common names for these three years are:

Kindergarten is a day-care service offered to children from age three until the child starts attending school. Kindergarten classes (grade 0) are voluntary and are offered by primary schools before a child enters 1st grade.

Two-thirds of established day-care institutions in Denmark are municipal day-care centres while the other third are privately owned and are run by associations of parents or businesses in agreement with local authorities; in terms of both finances and subject-matter, municipal and private institutions function according to the same principles.

Denmark is credited with pioneering (although not inventing) forest kindergartens, in which children spend most of every day outside in a natural environment.

In France, pre-school is known as école maternelle (French for "nursery school", literally "maternal school"). Free maternelle schools are available throughout the country, welcoming children aged from 3 to 6 (although in many places, children under three may not be granted a place), the ages are divided into grande section (GS: 5-year-olds), moyenne section (MS: 4-year-olds), petite section (PS: 3-year-olds) and toute petite section (TPS: 2-year-olds). It is not compulsory, yet almost all children aged 3 to 5 attend, it is regulated by the Ministry of National Education.

In Germany, a Kindergarten (masculine: der Kindergarten, plural Kindergärten) is a facility for the care of pre-school children who are typically at least three years old. By contrast, Kinderkrippe or Krippe refers to a crèche for the care of children before they enter Kindergarten (9 weeks to about three years), Kindertagesstätte—literally "children's day site", usually shortened to Kita—is an umbrella term for any day care facility for pre-schoolers.

Attendance is voluntary, and usually not free of charge. Pre-school children over the age of one are entitled to receive local and affordable day care.[20] Within the federal system, Kindergärten fall under the responsibility of the states,[21] which usually delegate a large share of the responsibility to the municipalities. Due to the subsidiarity principle stipulated by §4 SGB VIII, there are a multitude of operators, from municipalities, churches and welfare societies to parents' initiatives and profit-based corporations. Many Kindergärten follow a certain educational approach, such as Montessori, Reggio Emilia, "Berliner Bildungsprogramm" or Waldorf; forest kindergartens are well established. Most Kindergärten are subsidised by the community councils, with the fees depending on the income of the parents.

Even in smaller townships, there are often both Roman Catholic and Lutheran kindergartens available. Places in crèches and kindergarten are often difficult to secure, and must be 'reserved' in advance, although the situation has improved with a new law in effect August 2013, the availability of childcare, however, varies greatly by region. It is usually better in eastern regions, and in big cities in the north, such as Berlin[22] or Hamburg,[23] and poorest in parts of Southern Germany.[24]

All caretakers in Kita or Kindergarten must have a three-year qualified education, or are under special supervision during training.

Kindergärten can be open from 7am to 5pm or longer and may also house a crèche (Kinderkrippe) for children between the ages of eight weeks and three years, and possibly an afternoon Hort (often associated with a primary school) for school-age children aged 6 to 10 who spend the time after their lessons there. Alongside nurseries, there are day-care nurses (Tagesmütter or Tagespflegepersonen) working independently of any pre-school institution in individual homes and looking after only three to five children, typically up to the age of three, these nurses are supported and supervised by local authorities.

The term Vorschule ("pre-school") is used both for educational efforts in Kindergärten and for a mandatory class that is usually connected to a primary school. Both systems are handled differently in each German state, the Schulkindergarten is a type of Vorschule.

Pre-primary Services in Hong Kong refers to provision of education and care to young children by kindergartens and child care centres. Kindergartens, registered with the Education Bureau, provide services for children from three to six years old. Child care centres, on the other hand, are registered with the Social Welfare Department and include nurseries, catering for children aged two to three, and creches, looking after infants from birth to two.

The aim of pre-primary education in Hong Kong is to provide children with a relaxing and pleasurable learning environment to promote a balanced development of different aspects necessary to a child's development such as the physical, intellectual, language, social, emotional and aesthetic aspects.

To help establish the culture of self-evaluation in kindergartens and to provide reference for the public in assessing the quality and standard of pre-primary education, the Education Bureau has developed Performance Indicators for pre-primary institutions in Hong Kong. Commencing in the 2000/01 school year, Quality Assurance Inspection was launched to further promote the development of quality Early Childhood Education.

In Hungary a kindergarten is called an óvoda ("place for caring"). Children attend kindergarten between ages 3–6/7 (they go to school in the year in which they have their 7th birthday). Attendance in kindergarten is compulsory from the age of 3 years, though exceptions are made for developmental reasons.[25] Though kindergartens may include programs in subjects such as foreign languages and music, children spend most of their time playing; in their last year children begin to be prepared to attend elementary school.

Most kindergartens are state-funded. Kindergarten teachers are required to have a diploma.

In India, there are only informal directives pertaining to pre-primary education, for which pre-primary schools and sections need no affiliation. Directives state that children who are three years old on 30 May in the given academic year are eligible to attend Nursery and Kindergarten classes. Typically, children spend 3 to 4 years of their time in pre-primary school after which they are eligible to attend 1st Standard in Primary School which falls under HRD ministry norms. Primary education is now compulsory in India, and accompanied with mid-day meals, in most parts of the country run by the government. Pre-primary is not mandatory, however preferred. All government schools and affiliated private schools allow children who are 5 years of age as of 30 May to enroll to standard 1 of a primary school.

Nursery schools, called asili-nido for children between 3 and 36 months;

Maternal schools formerly scuola materna and now scuola dell'infanzia, for children 3 to 5 years old.

Italian asili-nido were officially instituted in a 1971 State Law (L. 1044/1971), and may be ruled by either private or public institutions. They were originally established to allow mothers a chance to work out of their homes, and were therefore seen as a social service. Today, they mostly serve the purpose of general education and social interaction; in Italy, much effort has been spent on developing a pedagogical approach to children's care: well known is the so-called Reggio Emilia approach, named after the city of Reggio Emilia, in Emilia-Romagna.

Asili-nido normally occupy small one-story buildings, surrounded by gardens; usually suitable for no more than 60 or 70 children. The heart of the asili-nido are the classrooms, split into playroom and restroom; the playroom always has windows and doors leading to the outside playground and garden.

Maternal schools (scuola materna) were established in 1968 after State Law n. 444 and are a full part of the official Italian education system, though attendance is not compulsory. Like asili-nido (nursery schools), maternal schools may be held either by public or private institutions.

Early childhood education begins at home, and there are numerous books and television shows aimed at helping mothers & fathers of preschool children to educate their children and to parent more effectively. Much of the home training is devoted to teaching manners, proper social behavior, and structured play, although verbal and number skills are also popular themes. Parents are strongly committed to early education and frequently enroll their children in preschools.

Kindergartens (幼稚園 yōchien), predominantly staffed by young female junior college graduates, are supervised by the Ministry of Education, but are not part of the official education system, the 58% of kindergartens that are private accounted for 77% of all children enrolled. In addition to kindergartens, there exists a well-developed system of government-supervised day-care centers (保育園 hoikuen), supervised by the Ministry of Labor. Whereas kindergartens follow educational aims, preschools are predominantly concerned with providing care for infants and toddlers. Just as there are public and private kindergartens, there are both public and privately run preschools. Together, these two kinds of institutions enroll well over 90 percent of all preschool-age children prior to their entrance into the formal system at first grade, the Ministry of Education's 1990 Course of Study for Preschools, which applies to both kinds of institutions, covers such areas as human relationships, health, environment, language, and expression. Starting from March 2008 the new revision of curriculum guidelines for kindergartens as well as for preschools came into effect.

In South Korea, children normally attend kindergarten (Korean: 유치원yuchi won) between the ages of three or four and six or seven in the Western age system. (Korean ages are calculated differently from Western ages: when they are born they are considered one-year-olds, rather than one day old. Additionally, every January 1, everyone's age increases by one year regardless of when their birthday is. Hence in Korea, kindergarten children are called five-, six- and seven-year-olds.) The school year begins in March. It is followed by primary school. Normally the kindergartens are graded on a three-tier basis.

Korean kindergartens are private schools, and monthly costs vary. Korean parents often send their children to English kindergartens to give them a head start in English, such specialized kindergartens can be mostly taught in Korean with some English lessons, mostly taught in English with some Korean lessons, or completely taught in English. Almost all middle-class parents send their children to kindergarten.

Kindergarten programs in South Korea attempt to incorporate much academic instruction alongside more playful activities. Korean kindergartners learn to read, write (often in English as well as Korean) and do simple arithmetic. Classes are conducted in a traditional classroom setting, with the children focused on the teacher and one lesson or activity at a time, the goal of the teacher is to overcome weak points in each child's knowledge or skills.

Because the education system in Korea is very competitive, kindergartens are becoming more intensely academic. Children are pushed to read and write at a very young age, they also become accustomed to regular and considerable amounts of homework. These very young children may also attend other specialized afternoon schools, taking lessons in art, piano or violin, taekwondo, ballet, soccer or mathematics.

In Kosovo, kindergarten is known as Çerdhe or Kopshti i fëmijëve, and they serve as Day Care Centers. There are public and private kindergartens, and they are for children under the age of 3. Children between 3–6 years old go to Institucione parashkollore, which are different from the Day Care Centers, because here children start the basic learning process, and they serve as preparatory institutions for the Primary School, after the age of 6, children continue in Primary School. However, neither the Day Care Centers nor the Preparatory Institutions are mandatory.

In Luxembourg, a Kindergarten is called Spillschoul (literally "Playschool", plural Spillschoulen), it is a public education facility which is attended by children between the age of 4 (or 5) and 6 when they advance to the Grondschoul (elementary school).

The Macedonian equivalent of kindergarten is detska gradinka (детска градинка), sometimes called zabavishte (забавиште) when the kids are younger than 4 years. Detska gradinka is not part of the state's mandatory education, because the educational process in the country begins at the age of 5 or 6, i.e. first grade.

In Malaysia, kindergarten is known as tadika. Most kindergartens are available to children of ages five and six (and some are available to children as young as four), for children up to the age of three (or four), there are pre-school playgroups. There are no fixed rules for when a child needs to go to a kindergarten, but the majority will when the child turns 5 years old, the child will usually attend kindergarten for two years, before proceeding to primary school at age 7.[26]

In Mexico, kindergarten is called kínder, with the last year sometimes referred to as preprimaria (primaria is the name given to grades 1 through 6, so the name literally means "prior to elementary school"). The kindergarten system in Mexico was developed by professor Rosaura Zapata, who received the country's highest honor for her contribution, it consists of three years of pre-school education, which are mandatory before elementary school. Previous nursery is optional, and may be offered in either private schools or public schools.

At private schools, kinders usually consist of three grades, and a fourth one may be added for nursery, the fourth one is called maternal. It goes before the other three years and is not obligatory. While the first grade is a playgroup, the other two are of classroom education.

In 2002, the Congress of the Union approved the Law of Obligatory Pre-schooling, which made pre-school education for three to six-year-olds obligatory, and placed it under the auspices of the federal and state ministries of education.[27][28]

In Mongolia, kindergarten is known as "цэцэрлэг" or tsetserleg, as of September 2013, there are approximately 152 kindergartens registered in the country. From those 152 kindergartens, 142 are state owned. Children begin kindergarten at the age of 2 and finish it by 5, the education system before kindergarten in Mongolia is called "ясль", which accepts children between 0 and 2 years of age.

In Morocco, pre-school is known as école maternelle, kuttab, or ar-rawd. State-run, free maternelle schools are available throughout the kingdom, welcoming children aged from 2 to 5 (although in many places, children under 3 may not be granted a place), it is not compulsory, yet almost 80% of children aged 3 to 5 attend. It is regulated by the Moroccan department of education.

In Nepal, kindergartens are run as private institutions, with their lessons conducted in English, the kindergarten education in Nepal is most similar to that of Hong Kong and India. Children start attending kindergarten from the age of 2 until they are at least 5 years old.

In the Netherlands, the equivalent term to kindergarten was kleuterschool, from the mid-19th century to the mid-20th century the term Fröbelschool was also common, after Friedrich Fröbel. However this term gradually faded in use as the verb Fröbelen gained a slightly derogatory meaning in everyday language, until 1985, it used to be a separate non-compulsory form of education (for children aged 4–6 years), after which children (aged 6–12 years) attended the primary school (lagere school). After 1985, both forms were integrated into one, called basisonderwijs (Dutch for primary education), for children under 4, the country offers private, subsidized daycares (kinderdagverblijf), which are non compulsory but nevertheless very popular.

In Norway, barnehage (children's garden) is the term equivalent to kindergarten, used for children in the ages between 10 months and 6 years, the first barnehager were founded in Norway in the late 19th century. Although they have existed for 120 years, they are not considered part of the education system, they are both publicly and privately owned and operated. The staff, at minimum the manager, should be educated as barnehagelærer (kindergarten teacher), previously known as førskolelærer (pre-school teachers), the children spend most of the time outdoors. There is also an institution called barnepark (children's park), which does not need to have certified staff.

In Peru, the term nido refers to the schooling children attend from 3 to 6 years of age, it is followed by primary school classes, which last for six years. Some families choose to send their children to primary school at the age of 6; in 1902 the teacher Elvira Garcia and Garcia co-founder of the Society cited above, organized the first kindergarten for children 2 to 8 years old, Fanning annex to the Lyceum for ladies. Her studies and concern for children led her to spread through conferences and numerous documents, the importance of protecting children early and to respond to the formation of a personality based on justice and understanding, as well as the use of methods Fröbel and from Montessori and participation of parents in this educational task.

In the Philippines, education officially starts at the Elementary level and placing children into early childhood education through kindergarten is optional to parents. Early childhood education in the Philippines is classified into:

Center-based programs, such as the Barangay day care service, public and private pre-schools, kindergarten or school-based programs, community or church-based early childhood education programs initiated by nongovernment organizations or people's organizations, workplace-related child care and education programs, child-minding centers, health centers and stations; and

Home-based programs, such as the neighborhood-based play groups, family day care programs, parent education and home visiting programs.

Early childhood education was strengthened through the creation of the Early Childhood Care and Development Act of 2000 (Republic Act No. 8980).[29] In 2011, the Department of Education disseminated copies of the Kindergarten Education Act through Republic Act No. 10157 making it compulsory and mandatory in the entire nation. As a provision in this law, children under five years old are required to enroll in a kindergarten in any public elementary school in the country, this goes with the implementation of the K-12 system in the Basic Education Curriculum.

In Romania, grădiniţă, which means "little garden", is the favored form of education for preschool children usually aged 3–6, the children are divided in three groups: "little group" (grupa mică, age 3–4), "medium group" (grupa mijlocie, age 4-5) and "big group" (grupa mare, age 5-6). In the last few years, private kindergartens have become popular, supplementing the state preschool education system. Kindergarten is optional, the "preparatory school year" (clasa pregătitoare) is for children aged 6–7, and since it became compulsory in 2012,[30] it usually takes place at school.

Kindergartens(commonly known as creche ) in South Africa provide from 0-6 years of age spent of preschool programs for children of all ages up to six, the one to three-year program, known as nursery, kindergarten 1 (K1), and kindergarten 2 (K2), prepares children for their first year in primary school education. Some kindergartens further divide nursery into N1 and N2.

Kindergarten in Sudan is divided into private and public kindergarten. Preschool is compulsory in Sudan, the proper kindergarten age spans from 3–6 years. The curriculum covers Arabic, English, religion, mathematics and more.

While many public kindergartens and preschools exist in Taiwan, private kindergartens and preschools are also quite popular. Many private preschools offer accelerated courses in various subjects to compete with public preschools and capitalize on public demand for academic achievement. Curriculum at such preschools often encompasses subject material such as science, art, physical education and even mathematics classes, the majority of these schools are part of large school chains, which operate under franchise arrangements. In return for annual fees, the chain enterprises may supply advertising, curriculum, books, materials, training, and even staff for each individual school.

There has been a huge growth in the number of privately owned and operated English immersion preschools in Taiwan since 1999, these English immersion preschools generally employ native English speaking teachers to teach the whole preschool curriculum in an "English only" environment. The legality of these types of schools has been called into question on many occasions, yet they continue to prosper, some members of Taiwanese society have raised concerns as to whether local children should be placed in English immersion environments at such a young age, and have raised fears that the students abilities in their mother language may suffer as a result. The debate continues, but at the present time, the market for English Immersion Preschools continues to grow.

In 2010, a total of 56% of children aged one to six years old had the opportunity to attend preschool education, the Education and Science Ministry of Ukraine reported in August 2010.[33] Many preschools and kindergartens were closed previously in light of economic and demographic considerations.[34]

The term kindergarten is never used in the UK to describe modern pre-school education or the first year(s) of compulsory primary school education. Pre-schools are usually known as creche, nursery schools or playgroups, while the first year of compulsory schooling is known as Reception in England, Dosbarth Derbyn in Welsh ("reception class") and Primary One in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Nursery forms part of the Foundation Stage of education; in the 1980s, England and Wales officially adopted the Northern Irish system whereby children start school either in the term or year in which they will become five depending on the policy of the local education authority. In Scotland, schooling becomes compulsory between the ages of 4½ and 5½ years, depending on their birthday (school starts in August for children who were 4 by the end of the preceding February).

However, the word "kindergarten" is used for more specialist organisations such as forest kindergartens, and is sometimes used in the naming of private nurseries that provide full-day child care for working parents. Historically the word was used during the nineteenth century when activists like Adelaide Manning were introducing educators to the work of Friedrich Fröbel.[35]

In the UK, parents have the option of nursery for their children at the ages of three or four years, before compulsory education begins, before that, less structured childcare is available privately. The details vary between England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales.

Some nurseries are attached to state infant or primary schools, but many are provided by the private sector, the Scottish government provides funding[36] so that all children from the age of three until they start compulsory school can attend five sessions per week of two and a half hours each, either in state-run or private nurseries. Working parents can also receive from their employers child care worth £55 per week free of income tax,[37] which is typically enough to pay for one or two days per week.

The Scottish Government defines its requirements for nursery schools in the Early Years Framework[38] and the Curriculum for Excellence,[39] each school interprets these with more or less independence (depending on their management structure) but must satisfy the Care Commission[40] in order to retain their licence to operate. The curriculum aims to develop:

In the US, kindergarten is usually part of the K-12 educational system; in most state and private schools, children begin kindergarten at age 5 and attend for one year. They do activities such as addition (+), subtraction (-), and playing outside on the playground. [41] Forty-three states require their school districts to offer a kindergarten year.[42]

In language arts (English), children learn sight words, (cat, fun), rhyming, blends, and silent e. They then learn how to write, form sentences, and are required to write three complete sentences by the end of the year.

After a few lessons, there is a break for lunch. Children either fetch their own lunchboxes brought from home or get a lunch from the cafeteria and eat it (or take) there or in the classroom. Sometimes after lunch the children have recess, some students' favorite part of the day, when they can go outside to play on swings, slides, play basketball, or socialize. After recess kindergartners go back inside to do more learning, some schools let children take a nap or do free choice (blocks, tic tac toe, play doh, etc.) When kindergarten is over for the day, parents come to pick up their child or the children ride a bus home.

^Achtes Buch Sozialgesetzbuch, §24; children under the age of one are entitled to day care if the caretaker is working, seeking work or attending school (section one); children from one to three years (section two) and from over three until they enter school (section three) are unconditionally entitled to receive day care.

The following reading list relates specifically to kindergarten in North America, where it is the first year of formal schooling and not part of the pre-school system as it is in the rest of the world:

1.
Preschool
–
They may be privately operated or government run, and one option is to subsidize the costs. In 1779, Johann Friedrich Oberlin and Louise Scheppler founded in Strassbourg an early establishment for caring for, at about the same time, in 1780, similar infant establishments were established in Bavaria In 1802, Pauline zur Lippe established a preschool center in Detmold. In 1816, Robert Owen, a philosopher and pedagogue, opened the first British and probably globally the first infant school in New Lanark, Scotland. In conjunction with his venture for cooperative mills Owen wanted the children to be given a moral education so that they would be fit for work. His system was successful in producing obedient children with basic literacy and numeracy, samuel Wilderspin opened his first infant school in London in 1819, and went on to establish hundreds more. He published many works on the subject, and his became the model for infant schools throughout England. Play was an important part of Wilderspins system of education and he is credited with inventing the playground. In 1823, Wilderspin published On the Importance of Educating the Infant Poor and he began working for the Infant School Society the next year, informing others about his views. He also wrote The Infant System, for developing the physical, intellectual, in 1836 she established an institute for the foundation of preschool centers. The idea became popular among the nobility and the class and was copied throughout the Hungarian kingdom. Women trained by Fröbel opened Kindergartens throughout Europe and around the World, the first kindergarten in the United States was founded in Watertown, Wisconsin in 1856 and was conducted in German. Louis in 1873 by Susan Blow, the countrys first public-school kindergartens were established in Berlin, Ontario in 1882 at Central School. In 1885, the Toronto Normal School opened a department for Kindergarten teaching, Head Start was the first publicly funded preschool program in the US, created in 1965 by President Johnson for low-income families—only 10% of children were then enrolled in preschool. Due to large demand, various states subsidized preschool for low-income families in the 1980s, the most important years of learning begin at birth. During these early years, humans are capable of absorbing more information than later on, the brain grows most rapidly in the early years. High quality teachers and preschools can have an effect on improving outcomes for disadvantaged students. The areas of development that preschool education covers varies, however, the following main themes are typically offered. Curriculum is designed for differing ages, for example, counting to 10 is generally after the age of four

2.
Max Liebermann
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Max Liebermann was a German-Jewish painter and printmaker, and one of the leading proponents of Impressionism in Germany. The son of a Jewish fabric manufacturer turned banker from Berlin and he first studied law and philosophy at the University of Berlin, but later studied painting and drawing in Weimar in 1869, in Paris in 1872, and in the Netherlands in 1876–77. During the Franco-Prussian War, Liebermann served as a medic with the Order of St. John near Metz, after living and working for some time in Munich, he finally returned to Berlin in 1884, where he remained for the rest of his life. He was married in 1884 to Martha Marckwald and he used his own inherited wealth to assemble an impressive collection of French Impressionist works. He later chose scenes of the bourgeoisie, as well as aspects of his garden near Lake Wannsee, in Berlin, he became a famous painter of portraits, his work is especially close in spirit to Édouard Manet. In his work he steered away from religious subject matter, with one exception being an early painting. His painting of a Semitic-looking boy Jesus conferring with Jewish scholars sparked debate, at the International Art Show in Munich it stirred up a storm for its supposed blasphemy, with one critic describing Jesus as the ugliest, most impertinent Jewish boy imaginable. Noted for his portraits, Liebermann also painted himself from time to time, on the occasion of his 50th birthday, Liebermann was given a solo exhibition at the Prussian Academy of Arts in Berlin, and the following year he was elected to the academy. From 1899 to 1911 he led the premier avant-garde formation in Germany, in his various capacities as a leader in the artistic community, Liebermann spoke out often for the separation of art and politics. In the formulation of arts reporter and critic Grace Glueck he pushed for the right of artists to do their own thing and his interest in French Realism was offputting to conservatives, for whom such openness suggested what they thought of as Jewish cosmopolitanism. He did contribute regularly to a put out by artists during World War I. Beginning in 1920 he was president of the Prussian Academy of Arts, in 1933 he resigned when the academy decided to no longer exhibit works by Jewish artists, before he would have been forced to do so under laws restricting the rights of Jews. While watching the Nazis celebrate their victory by marching through the Brandenburg Gate, Liebermann was reported to have commented, Ich kann gar nicht soviel fressen, wie ich kotzen möchte. In 1909 Liebermann bought property in Wannsee, a suburb of summer homes on the outskirts of Berlin. From the 1910s until his death, images of the gardens dominated his work, together with Lovis Corinth and Max Slevogt, Liebermann became an exponent of German Impressionism. On his 80th birthday, in 1927, Liebermann was celebrated with an exhibition, declared an honorary citizen of Berlin. Liebermann died on February 8,1935, at his home on Berlins Pariser Platz, according to Käthe Kollwitz, he fell asleep about 7 p. m. and was gone. However, despite official strictures by the Gestapo, more than 100 friends, among the mourners were Kollwitz, Hans Purrmann, Otto Nagel, Ferdinand Sauerbruch, Bruno Cassirer, Georg Kolbe, Max J. Friedländer and Adolph Goldschmidt

3.
Extended family
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An extended family is a family that extends beyond the nuclear family, consisting of parents, aunts, uncles, and cousins, all living nearby or in the same household. An example is a couple that lives with either the husband or the wifes parents. The family changes from immediate household to extended household, in some circumstances, the extended family comes to live either with or in place of a member of the immediate family. These families include, in one household, near relatives in addition to an immediate family, an example would be an elderly parent who moves in with his or her children due to old age. However, it may refer to a family unit in which several generations live together within a single household. In some cultures, the term is used synonymously with consanguineous family, in these cases, the child who cares for the parents usually receives the house in addition to his or her own share of land and moveable property. In an extended family, parents and their childrens families may often live under a single roof and this type of joint family often includes multiple generations in the family. From culture to culture, the variance of the term may have different meanings, for instance, in India, the family is a patriarchal society, with the sons families often staying in the same house. In the joint family set-up, the workload is shared among the members, the roles of women are often restricted to housewives and this usually involves cooking, cleaning, and organizing for the entire family. The patriarch of the family lays down the rules and arbitrates disputes, other senior members of the household babysit infants in case their mother is working. They are also responsible in teaching the children their mother tongue, manners. Grandparents often take the roles because they have the most experience with parenting and maintaining a household. The second most popular is a grandparent moving in with a childs family, usually for care-giving reasons. She noted that 2.5 million grandparents say they are responsible for the needs of the grandchild living with them. The house often has a reception area and a common kitchen. Each family has their own bedroom, the members of the household also look after each other when a member is ill. Particularly in working-class communities, grown children tend to establish their own households within the general area as their parents, aunts, uncles. These extended family members tend to gather often for events and to feel responsible for helping and supporting one another

4.
Babysitting
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Babysitting is temporarily caring for a child. Babysitting can be a job for all ages, however. It provides autonomy from parental control, and spending money, as well as an introduction to the techniques of child care. It emerged as a role for teenagers in the 1920s, and became especially important in suburban America in the 1950s and 1960s. It stimulated an outpouring of folk culture in the form of legends, pulp novels. The majority of the time, babysitting workers tend to be in middle school, there are some adults who have in-home childcare as well. These educational programs can equip the babysitter with information to both the children being cared for, and the sitter themselves, safe in various scenarios. Different activities will be needed for babies and toddlers and it will be beneficial for the babysitters to understand toddler developmental milestones in order to plan for the necessary activities. As paid employees, babysitters often require a disclosure or assessment of ones criminal record in order to ward off possible hebephiles, pedophiles, the term baby sitter first appeared in 1937, while the verb form baby-sit was first recorded in 1947. Thus the verb was derived from the agent noun rather than the way around. The use of the word sit to refer to a person tending to a child is recorded from 1800, the term may have originated from the action of the caretaker sitting on the baby in one room, while the parents were entertaining or busy in another. Its also theorized that the term may come from sitting on their eggs. In British English the term only to caring for a child for a few hours, on an informal basis. In American English the term can include caring for a child for the whole or most of the day, and on a regular or more formal basis, which would be described as childminding in British English. In India and Pakistan a babysitter or nanny is known as an ayah or aya, new York University Press, June,2009

5.
Governess
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A governess is a woman employed to teach and train children in a private household. In contrast to a nanny, she concentrates on teaching instead of meeting their physical needs. Her charges are of age rather than babies. The position of governess used to be common in well-off European families before World War I, parents preference to educate their children at home—rather than send them away to boarding school for months at a time—varied across time and countries. Governesses were usually in charge of girls and younger boys, when a boy was old enough, he left his governess for a tutor or a school. Governesses are rarer now, except within large and wealthy households or royal families such as the Saudi royal family, There has been a recent resurgence amongst families worldwide to employ governesses or full-time tutors. The reasons for this include personal security, the benefits of an education. Traditionally, governesses taught the three Rs to young children and it was also possible for other teachers with specialist knowledge and skills to be brought in, such as, a drawing master or dancing master. The governess occupied an awkward position in the Victorian household. She worked in the home of the landed gentry or aristocracy. She herself had a background and education, yet was paid for her services. As a sign of this social limbo she frequently ate on her own, away from the rest of the family, by definition, a governess was an unmarried woman who lived in someone elses home, which meant that she was subject to their rules. In any case, she had to maintain a reputation by avoiding anything which could embarrass or offend her employers. If a particular governess was young and attractive, the lady of the house might well perceive a threat to her marriage. As a result of various restrictions, the lifestyle of the typical Victorian governess was often one of social isolation and solitude. The fact that her presence in the household was underpinned by an employment contract emphasized that she could never truly be part of the host family. However, being a governess was one of the few legitimate ways by which a middle class woman could support herself in Victorian society. Not surprisingly, her position was often depicted as one to be pitied, once a governesss charges grew up, she had to seek a new position, or, exceptionally, might be retained by the grown-up daughter as a paid companion

6.
Nanny
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A nanny, childminder, child care provider, or mothers helper is an individual who provides care for one or more children in a family as a service. Traditionally, nannies were servants in large households and reported directly to the lady of the house, today, modern nannies, like other domestic workers, may live in or out of the house depending on their circumstances and those of their employers. Professional nannies are usually certified in cardiopulmonary resuscitation, qualified in First Aid, there are many employment agencies that specialize in childcare and online services that aid in finding available nannies. A childminder cares for the child in the childminders home, depending on the country they live in, government registration may or may not be required. A governess, in contrast to a nanny, concentrates on teaching and training children, a special type of modern nanny is known as a mothers helper. They are hired to assist mothers in the chores of the household as well as care for the children, a mothers helper may live in or out of the house. In the 19th and early 20th century, the position was known as a nurse. In a great house the nurse was a senior member of the household staff and ran her own domain. Because of their involvement in raising the children of the family, nannies were often remembered with great affection. Nannies may have remained in the employment of the aristocratic family for years. In the 21st century however the word is shortened to Nan. Nannies were present in the households of the administrators of European colonial empires throughout the world and it was a characteristic feature of colonial society that the children of European administrative officers were entrusted to the care of native women. Nannies in colonial times spent their lives in the homes of their masters, often from childhood till old age, taking care of more than one generation, depending on the duration of the post. It was not uncommon for these nannies to be brought along with the family away from their country when administrative officers were posted somewhere else. In the Indian subcontinent under the British Raj a nanny was known as ayah, after aia, nurse and this term is presently part of the vocabulary of various languages of the Subcontinent, meaning also female servant or maid. In the Dutch East Indies the household nanny was known as baboe, although many families use the modern version of a nanny, some of the features used in historical practices are now rare. Uniforms may still be worn in some cases, but a standard of dress is more common. Some nannies are highly trained, but there is no restriction on the use of the word, so education, training, a live in nanny is less common today than in the past

7.
Day care
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Child care or day care is the care of a child during the day by a person other than the childs legal guardians, typically performed by someone outside the childs immediate family. Day care is typically an ongoing service during specific periods, such as the time at work. The service is known as care in the United Kingdom, crèche in Ireland and New Zealand. The vast majority of childcare is still performed by the parents, in-house nannies or through informal arrangements with relatives, Child care in the childs own home is traditionally provided by a nanny or au pair, or by extended family members including grandparents, aunts and uncles. Child care is provided in nurseries or crèches or by a nanny or family child care provider caring for children in their own homes. It can also take on a formal structure, with education, child development, discipline. The day care industry is a continuum from personal care to large. Some childminders care for children from several families at the same time, some employers provide nursery provisions for their employees at or near the place of employment. For-profit day care corporations often exist where the market is large or there are government subsidies. Research shows that not-for-profits are much more likely to produce the high quality environments in which children thrive, local governments, often municipalities, may operate non-profit day care centers. For all providers, the largest expense is labor, local legislation may regulate the operation of daycare centers, affecting staffing requirements. In Canada, the workforce is female and low paid. Some jurisdictions require licensing or certification, legislation may specify details of the physical facilities. Independent studies suggest that good daycare is not harmful, in some cases, good daycare can provide different experiences than parental care does, especially when children reach two and are ready to interact with other children. Children in higher quality childcare had somewhat better language and cognitive development during the first 4½ years of life than those in lower quality care, Day care appeared in France about 1840, and the Société des Crèches was recognized by the French government in 1869. The Fitch Creche in Buffalo, New York was known as the first day center for working mothers in the United States, another at that time was the New York Day Nursery in 1854. The day care industry is a continuum from personal care to large. The vast majority of childcare is still performed by the parents, in-house nanny or through informal arrangements with relatives, however, for-profit day care corporations often exist where the market is sufficiently large or there are government subsidies

8.
Early childhood education
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Early childhood education is a branch of education theory which relates to the teaching of young children up until the age of about eight. Infant/toddler education, a subset of childhood education, denotes the education of children from birth to age two. It emerged as a field of study during the Enlightenment, particularly in European countries with high literacy rates and it continued to grow through the nineteenth century as universal primary education became a norm in the Western world. In recent years, early education has become a prevalent public policy issue, as municipal, state. It is described as an important period in childs development. It refers to the development of a childs personality. The history of childhood care and education refers to the development of care. ECCE has a scope, and caring for and educating young children has always been an integral part of human societies. Historically, such arrangements have largely been informal, involving family, household, while the first two years of a childs life are spent in the creation of a childs first sense of self, most children are able to differentiate between themselves and others by their second year. This differentiation is crucial to the ability to determine how they should function in relation to other people. Parents can be seen as a childs first teacher and therefore a part of the early learning process. Early childhood attachment processes that occurs during childhood years 0–2 years of age. With proper guidance and exploration children begin to more comfortable with their environment. Parents who are consistent with response times, and emotions will properly make this attachment early on, if this attachment is not made, there can be detrimental effects on the child in their future relationships and independence. There are proper techniques that parents and caregivers can use to establish these relationships, academic Journal Reference This provides experimental research on the emphasis on caregiving effecting attachment. Education for young students can help them excel academically and socially, with exposure and organized lesson plans children can learn anything they want to. The tools they learn to use during these beginning years will provide benefits to their success. Developmentally, having structure and freedom, children are able to reach their full potential, Childrens curiosity and imagination naturally evoke learning when unfettered. Learning through play will allow a child to develop cognitively, thus, children learn more efficiently and gain more knowledge through activities such as dramatic play, art, and social games

9.
Elementary school
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A primary school or elementary school is a school in which children receive primary or elementary education from the age of about five to twelve, coming after preschool and before secondary school. In most parts of the world, primary education is the first stage of education, and is normally available without charge. The term grade school is used in the US though this term may refer to both primary education and secondary education. The term primary school is derived from the French école primaire, primary school is the preferred term in the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth Nations, and in most publications of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Elementary school is preferred in some countries, especially in the United States, in the United States, primary school may refer to a school with grades Kindergarten through second grade or third grade. In these municipalities, the school includes grade three through five or grades four to six

10.
Primary school
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A primary school or elementary school is a school in which children receive primary or elementary education from the age of about five to twelve, coming after preschool and before secondary school. In most parts of the world, primary education is the first stage of education, and is normally available without charge. The term grade school is used in the US though this term may refer to both primary education and secondary education. The term primary school is derived from the French école primaire, primary school is the preferred term in the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth Nations, and in most publications of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Elementary school is preferred in some countries, especially in the United States, in the United States, primary school may refer to a school with grades Kindergarten through second grade or third grade. In these municipalities, the school includes grade three through five or grades four to six

11.
Child protection
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Child protection refers to the protection of children from violence, exploitation, abuse and neglect. Article 19 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child provides for the protection of children in, Child protection systems are a set of usually government-run services designed to protect children and young people who are underage and to encourage family stability. These systems are part of protection, and extend beyond it. At the level of prevention, their aim includes supporting and strengthening families to reduce social exclusion, due to economical reasons, especially in poor countries, children are forced to work in order to survive. Child labour often happens in difficult conditions, which are dangerous and impair the education of the future citizens and it is hard to know exactly the age and number of children who work. At least 150 million children under 5 years of age worked in 2004, in some countries, children can be imprisoned for common crimes. In some countries, like Iran or China, criminals can even be sentenced to punishment for crimes committed while they were children. In contexts where military use of children is made, they risk being prisoners of war. Other children are forced to prostitution, exploited by adults for illegal traffic in children or endangered by poverty, infanticide today continues at a much higher rate in areas of extremely high poverty and overpopulation, such as parts of China and India. Female infants, then and even now, are particularly vulnerable, most children who come to the attention of the child welfare system do so because of any of the following situations, which are often collectively termed child abuse. Abuse means abuse of power, exercising a power for a purpose not intended and this includes wilful neglect, knowingly not exercising a power for the purpose it was intended. This is why child abuse is defined as taking advantage of a position of trust having been invested with powers Physical abuse, is physical assault or battery on the child. Whilst an assault has some adverse consequence that the victim did not agree to the victim agrees to the consequences of battery, Physical abuse also harassment, a physical presence intended to provoke fear. Child sexual abuse, is sexual assault or battery on the child, the vast majority of physical assaults are a reaction to a situation involving a specific victim. Sexual assault is predominantly perpetrator gratification against any suitable target, Sexual abuse covers the range of direct and indirect assaults and the means of facilitation such as stalking and internet offences. Neglect, including failure to take measures to safeguard a child from harm. Needs are the actions to be taken to protect and provide for the child, safeguarding is the duty of a person given the powers of responsibility for the child to take the necessary measures to protect the child. If a child is physically or sexually abused then there is a responsible for the assault

12.
Minor (law)
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In law, a minor is a person under a certain age—usually the age of majority—which legally demarcates childhood from adulthood. The age of majority depends upon jurisdiction and application, but is generally 18, minor may also be used in contexts unconnected to the overall age of majority. For example, the age in the United States is usually 21. These age limits are different from the age of majority. The concept of minor is not sharply defined in most jurisdictions, in many countries, including Australia, India, Philippines, Brazil, Croatia, and Colombia, a minor is defined as a person under the age of 18. In Japan, Taiwan and Thailand, a minor is a person under 20 years of age, for all provincial laws, the provincial and territorial governments have the power to set the age of majority in their respective province or territory, and the age varies across Canada. In Saskatchewan, the legal gaming age and the drinking age are both 19. For Federal Law, the age of majority is 18, in Italy, law nr.39 of March 8,1975, states that a minor is a person under the age of 18. Citizens under the age of 18 may not vote, be elected, crimes committed in Italy by minors are tried in a juvenile court. In all 31 states, a minor is referred to as someone under the age of 18, minors aged 16 or 17 who are charged with crimes could sometimes be treated as an adult. A minor is restricted from doing juristic acts—for example, sign contracts, when a minor wishes to do a juristic act, he has to obtain the consent from his legal representative, usually the parents and otherwise the act is voidable. A minor can make a will at the age of fifteen, in England and Wales and in Northern Ireland a minor is a person under the age of 18, in Scotland, under the age of 16. The age of responsibility in England and Wales and in Northern Ireland is 10, and 12 in Scotland, formerly 8. In England and Wales, cases of breaking the law are often dealt with by the Youth Offending Team. If they are incarcerated, they are sent to a Young Offender Institution, driving certain large vehicles, acting as personal license holder for licensed premises, and adopting a child are only permitted after the age of 21. The minimum age to drive a HGV1 vehicle was reduced to 18, however, certain vehicles, e. g. steamrollers, require that someone be 21 years of age to obtain an operating license. In the United States as of 1995, minor is generally defined as a person under the age of 18. Although in the context of alcohol or gambling laws, people under the age of 21 may also sometimes be referred to as minors, however, not all minors are considered juveniles in terms of criminal responsibility

13.
Child abuse
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Child abuse or child maltreatment is physical, sexual, or psychological mistreatment or neglect of a child or children, especially by a parent or other caregiver. Different jurisdictions have developed their own definitions of what constitutes child abuse for the purposes of removing a child from his/her family and/or prosecuting a criminal charge, definitions of what constitutes child abuse vary among professionals, and between social and cultural groups, as well as across time. The terms abuse and maltreatment are often used interchangeably in the literature, Child maltreatment can also be an umbrella term covering all forms of child abuse and child neglect. Defining child maltreatment depends on prevailing cultural values as they relate to children, child development, in general, abuse refers to acts of commission while neglect refers to acts of omission. Child maltreatment includes both acts of commission and acts of omission on the part of parents or caregivers that cause actual or threatened harm to a child. Delayed effects of abuse and neglect, especially emotional neglect. The World Health Organization distinguishes four types of maltreatment, physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional and psychological abuse. Among professionals and the public, people often do not agree on what behaviors constitute physical abuse of a child. Physical abuse often does not occur in isolation, but as part of a constellation of behaviors including authoritarian control, anxiety-provoking behavior, and this includes hitting, beating, kicking, shaking, biting, strangling, scalding, burning, poisoning and suffocating. Much physical violence against children in the home is inflicted with the object of punishing, joan Durrant and Ron Ensom write that most physical abuse is physical punishment in intent, form, and effect. Overlapping definitions of abuse and physical punishment of children highlight a subtle or non-existent distinction between abuse and punishment. Multiple injuries or fractures at different stages of healing can raise suspicion of abuse, physical abuse in childhood has also been linked to homelessness in adulthood. Child sexual abuse is a form of abuse in which an adult or older adolescent abuses a child for sexual stimulation. Sexual abuse refers to the participation of a child in an act aimed toward the physical gratification or the financial profit of the person committing the act. Selling the sexual services of children may be viewed and treated as child abuse rather than simple incarceration, Children who are the victims are also at an increased risk of sexually transmitted infections due to their immature immune systems and a high potential for mucosal tears during forced sexual contact. In the United States, approximately 15% to 25% of women, in over one-third of cases, the perpetrator is also a minor. In 2014, the APA stated that, Childhood psychological abuse as harmful as sexual or physical abuse, nearly 3 million U. S. children experience some form of maltreatment annually. Psychological maltreatment is the most challenging and prevalent form of child abuse, victims of emotional abuse may react by distancing themselves from the abuser, internalizing the abusive words, or fighting back by insulting the abuser

14.
Child marriage
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Child marriage is defined by global organizations as a formal marriage or informal union entered into by an individual before reaching the age of 18. In certain countries, even when the marriage age is 18. Child marriage affects both boys and girls, though the majority of those affected are girls, most of whom are in poor socioeconomic situations. Child marriage is related to child betrothal, and it includes civil cohabitation, in many cases, only one marriage-partner is a child, usually the female. Child marriages were common throughout history for a variety of reasons, including poverty, insecurity, today, child marriage is still fairly widespread in developing countries, such as parts of Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia, West Asia, Latin America, and Oceania. The incidence of marriage has been falling in most parts of the world. The countries with the highest observed rates of child marriages below the age of 18 are Niger, Chad, Mali, Bangladesh, Guinea and the Central African Republic, with a rate above 60%. Niger, Chad, Bangladesh, Mali and Ethiopia were the countries with child marriage rates greater than 20% below the age of 15, historically, child marriage was common around the world. The practice began to be questioned in the 20th century, with the age of individuals first marriage increasing in many countries, in ancient and medieval societies, it was common for girls to be betrothed at or even before puberty. As Friedman claims, arranging and contracting the marriage of a girl were the undisputed prerogatives of her father in ancient Israel. Most girls were married before the age of 15, often at the start of their puberty, in the Middle Ages the age at marriage seems to have been around puberty throughout the Jewish world. Ruth Lamdan writes, “The numerous references to marriage in the 16th- century Responsa literature and other sources, shows that child marriage was so common. In this context, it is important to remember that in halakha, the term refers to a girl under twelve years. A girl aged twelve and a half was already considered an adult in all respects. ”In Ancient Greece, early marriage, even boys were expected to marry in their teens. Early marriages and teenage motherhood was typical, in Ancient Rome, girls married above the age of 12 and boys above 14. In the Middle Ages, under English civil laws that were derived from Roman laws, in Imperial China, child marriage was the norm. Most religions, over history, influenced the marriageable age, for example, Christian ecclesiastical law forbade marriage of a girl before the age of puberty. Hindu vedic scriptures mandated the age of a marriage to be adulthood which they defined as three years after the onset of puberty

15.
Orphanage
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An orphanage is a residential institution devoted to the care of orphans—children whose biological parents are deceased or otherwise unable or unwilling to care for them. It is frequently used to describe institutions abroad, where it is an accurate term. Most children who live in orphanages are not orphans, four out of five children in orphanages having at least one living parent, most orphanages have been closed in Europe and North America. Few large international charities continue to fund orphanages, however, they are still commonly founded by smaller charities, especially in developing countries, orphanages may prey on vulnerable families at risk of breakdown and actively recruit children to ensure continued funding. Orphanages in developing countries are run by the state. Other residential institutions for children can be called group homes, childrens homes, refuges, rehabilitation centers, night shelters, the Romans formed their first orphanages around 400 AD. Jewish law prescribed care for the widow and the orphan, plato says, Orphans should be placed under the care of public guardians. Men should have a fear of the loneliness of orphans and of the souls of their departed parents, a man should love the unfortunate orphan of whom he is guardian as if he were his own child. He should be as careful and as diligent in the management of the property as of his own or even more careful still. The care of orphans was referred to bishops and, during the Middle Ages, as soon as they were old enough, children were often given as apprentices to households to ensure their support and to learn an occupation. In medieval Europe, care for orphans tended to reside with the Church, the Elizabethan Poor Laws were enacted at the time of the Reformation, and placed public responsibility on individual parishes to care for the indigent poor. The growth of sentimental philanthropy in the 18th century, led to the establishment of the first charitable institutions catering for the orphan, the first children were admitted into a temporary house located in Hatton Garden. At first, no questions were asked about child or parent, on reception, children were sent to wet nurses in the countryside, where they stayed until they were about four or five years old. At sixteen, girls were apprenticed as servants for four years, at fourteen, boys were apprenticed into variety of occupations. There was a benevolent fund for adults. A basket was accordingly hung outside the hospital, the age for admission was raised from two months to twelve, and a flood of children poured in from country workhouses. Parliament soon came to the conclusion that the indiscriminate admission should be discontinued, the hospital adopted a system of receiving children only with considerable sums. This practice was stopped in 1801, and it henceforth became a fundamental rule that no money was to be received

16.
Parenting
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Parenting or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, financial, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the aspects of raising a child aside from the biological relationship, governments and society may have a role in child-rearing as well. In many cases, orphaned or abandoned children receive parental care from non-parent blood relations, others may be adopted, raised in foster care, or placed in an orphanage. Parenting skills vary, and a parent with good parenting skills may be referred to as a good parent, the English pediatrician and psychoanalyst Donald Winnicott described the concept of good-enough parenting in which a minimum of prerequisites for healthy child development are met. Views on the characteristics that one a good or good-enough parent vary from culture to culture. Social class, wealth, culture and income have a strong impact on what methods of child rearing are used by parents. Cultural values play a role in how a parent raises their child. A familys social class plays a role in the opportunities and resources that will be made available to a child. Working-class children often grow up at a disadvantage with the schooling, communities, a parenting style is the overall emotional climate in the home. Developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind identified three main parenting styles in early development, authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive. These parenting styles were later expanded to four, including an uninvolved style and these four styles of parenting involve combinations of acceptance and responsiveness on the one hand and demand and control on the other. Recent research has found that style is significantly related to childrens subsequent mental health. In particular, authoritative parenting is positively related to health and satisfaction with life. Authoritative parenting Described by Baumrind as the just right style, in combines a medium level demands on the child, authoritative parents rely on positive reinforcement and infrequent use of punishment. Parents are more aware of a childs feelings and capabilities and support the development of an autonomy within reasonable limits. There is a give-and-take atmosphere involved in communication and both control and support are balanced. Research shows that this style is more beneficial than the too-hard authoritarian style or the too-soft permissive style, an example of authoritative parenting would be the parents talking to their child about their emotions. Authoritarian parenting styles Authoritarian parents are very rigid and strict and they place high demands on the child, but are not responsive to the child

17.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form

18.
School
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A school is an institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of education, which is commonly compulsory. In these systems, students progress through a series of schools, the names for these schools vary by country but generally include primary school for young children and secondary school for teenagers who have completed primary education. An institution where higher education is taught, is called a university college or university. In addition to these schools, students in a given country may also attend schools before. Kindergarten or pre-school provide some schooling to young children. University, vocational school, college or seminary may be available after secondary school, a school may also be dedicated to one particular field, such as a school of economics or a school of dance. Alternative schools may provide nontraditional curriculum and methods, there are also non-government schools, called private schools. Private schools may be required when the government does not supply adequate, Schools for adults include institutions of corporate training, military education and training and business schools. In homeschooling and online schools, teaching and learning take place outside of a school building. Schools are commonly organized in several different organizational models, including departmental, small learning communities, academies, integrated, and schools-within-a-school. The word school derives from Greek σχολή, originally meaning leisure and also that in which leisure is employed, the concept of grouping students together in a centralized location for learning has existed since Classical antiquity. Formal schools have existed at least since ancient Greece, ancient Rome ancient India, the Byzantine Empire had an established schooling system beginning at the primary level. According to Traditions and Encounters, the founding of the education system began in 425 AD. The sometimes efficient and often large government of the Empire meant that citizens were a must. Although Byzantium lost much of the grandeur of Roman culture and extravagance in the process of surviving, the Byzantine education system continued until the empires collapse in 1453 AD. Beginning in the 5th century CE monastic schools were established throughout Western Europe. Islam was another culture developed a school system in the modern sense of the word

19.
Bavaria
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Bavaria is a free state and one of 16 federal states of Germany. Located in the German southeast with an area of 70,548 square kilometres and its territory comprises roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany, and, with 12.9 million inhabitants, it is Germanys second most populous state. Munich, Bavarias capital and largest city, is the third largest city in Germany, the Duchy of Bavaria dates back to the year 555. In the 17th century CE, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, when Bavaria became a republic. In 1946, the Free State of Bavaria re-organised itself on democratic lines after the Second World War, Bavaria has a unique culture, largely because of the states Catholic majority and conservative traditions. Bavarians have traditionally been proud of their culture, which includes such as Oktoberfest. The state also has the second largest economy among the German states by GDP figures, modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia, Upper Palatinate and Swabia. The Bavarians emerged in a north of the Alps, previously inhabited by Celts. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, the name Bavarian means Men of Baia which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BCE. From about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria and their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibalds successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the frontier against the expansion of Slavs. Tassilos son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616, after Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and his son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodos death the duchy was divided among his sons, at Hugberts death the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748, saint Boniface completed the peoples conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria was in ways affected by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century

20.
Strasbourg
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Strasbourg is the capital and largest city of the Grand Est region of France and is the official seat of the European Parliament. Located close to the border with Germany in the region of Alsace. In 2014, the city proper had 276,170 inhabitants, Strasbourgs metropolitan area had a population of 773,347 in 2013, making it the ninth largest metro area in France and home to 13% of the Grand Est regions inhabitants. The transnational Eurodistrict Strasbourg-Ortenau had a population of 915,000 inhabitants in 2014, Strasbourg is the seat of several European institutions, such as the Council of Europe and the Eurocorps, as well as the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman of the European Union. The city is also the seat of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, Strasbourgs historic city centre, the Grande Île, was classified a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1988, the first time such an honour was placed on an entire city centre. The largest Islamic place of worship in France, the Strasbourg Grand Mosque, was inaugurated by French Interior Minister Manuel Valls on 27 September 2012. Economically, Strasbourg is an important centre of manufacturing and engineering, as well as a hub of road, rail, the port of Strasbourg is the second largest on the Rhine after Duisburg, Germany. Before the 5th century, the city was known as Argantorati, a Celtic Gaulish name Latinized first as Argentorate, after the 5h century, the city became known by a completely different name Gallicized as Strasbourg. That name is of Germanic origin and means Town of roads, Strasbourg is situated on the eastern border of France with Germany. This border is formed by the River Rhine, which forms the eastern border of the modern city. The historic core of Strasbourg however lies on the Grande Île in the River Ill, which flows parallel to, and roughly 4 kilometres from. The natural courses of the two eventually join some distance downstream of Strasbourg, although several artificial waterways now connect them within the city. This section of the Rhine valley is an axis of north-south travel, with river traffic on the Rhine itself. The city is some 400 kilometres east of Paris, in spite of its position far inland, Strasbourgs climate is classified as Oceanic, with warm, relatively sunny summers and cold, overcast winters. Precipitation is elevated from mid-spring to the end of summer, but remains largely constant throughout the year, on average, snow falls 30 days per year. The highest temperature recorded was 38.5 °C in August 2003. The lowest temperature recorded was −23.4 °C in December 1938. Nonetheless, the disappearance of heavy industry on both banks of the Rhine, as well as effective measures of traffic regulation in and around the city have reduced air pollution

21.
J. F. Oberlin
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J. F. Oberlin was a Alsatian pastor and a philanthropist. He has been known as John Frederic Oberlin in English, Jean-Frédéric Oberlin in French, Oberlin, the son of a teacher, was born on the 31 August 1740 in Strasbourg, where he studied theology. In 1766 he became Protestant pastor of Waldbach, a remote and barren region in the Steinthal, Oberlin set himself to better the material equally with the spiritual condition of the inhabitants. He began by constructing roads through the valley and erecting bridges and he introduced an improved system of agriculture. Substantial cottages were erected, and various arts were introduced. He founded an itinerant library, originated infant schools, and established a school at each of the five villages in the parish. In the work of education he received assistance from his housekeeper. He practiced medicine among them, founded a loan and savings bank, in 1812 Daniel Legrand visited the Steinthal, where he met Oberlin who lived in Waldersbach. Legrand came under the spell of the pastor, and moved with his factory to the village of Urbach in the vicinity of Waldersbach. Oberlin died at Waldersbach on 1 June 1826 and was interred with great manifestations of honor, Oberlin has been called the true precursor of social Christianity in France. Daniel Legrands grandson was Tommy Fallot, founder of Christianisme social, Legrand and Robert Owen of Wales, another industrialist, advocated creation of an international organization dedicated to reform of labor laws. Oberlins orphan asylums were the beginning of the many “Oberlinvereine” for the protection of children, Oberlin College, an American liberal arts college in Ohio, was named for him upon its founding in 1833. Obirin University in Tokyo, Japan, which was named for Oberlin College and his brother Jérémie Jacques Oberlin was a noted archaeologist and philologist. Oberlin Museum at Waldersbach Oberlins Namesake, a presentation on J. F. Oberlin

22.
Princess Pauline of Anhalt-Bernburg
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Pauline Christine Wilhelmine of Anhalt-Bernburg was a princess consort of Lippe, married in 1796 to Leopold I, Prince of Lippe. She served as the regent of Lippe during the minority of her son from 1802 to 1820 and she is regarded as one of the most important rulers of Lippe. On 1 January 1809, she abolished serfdom by princely decree and she managed to keep the principality independent during the Napoleonic Wars. She wrote a constitution, in which the power of the estates was reduced, in the collective historical consciousness of the Lippe population, however, she is best remembered for her social goals. Pauline was the daughter of Prince Frederick Albert, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg of Anhalt-Bernburg, a few days after her birth, her mother died of the measles. She had a brother, Alexius Frederick Christian, who was Duke of Anhalt-Bernburg from 1807. It was noticed at an age that Pauline had an alert mind. Her father, Prince Frederick Albert personally took over the upbringing of his daughter Pauline and his son and she was a good student and learned French in addition to Latin, history and political sciences. Already at 13 years of age, she assisted her father in the business of government, First she took over the French correspondence, and later the entire correspondence between the residence in Ballenstedt Castle and the government offices in Bernburg. Her education was influenced by Christian ethics and the ideas of the Enlightenment. Later Pauline continued to practice what she had learned in her youth, such as the teachings of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, on 2 January 1796 Princess Pauline of Anhalt-Bernburg married Prince Leopold I of Lippe. The wedding was celebrated in Ballenstedt, and on 21 January 1796 the couple returned to Detmold, Leopold of Lippe had been asking for her hand for years, but Pauline had repeatedly rejected his suits. The marriage took place only after Leopolds health improved, previously, he had been put under guardianship for a short time because of mental confusion. In the following years, Pauline spoke positively about their marriage, the Prince is good, noble, and righteous, he loves me and appreciates me and has far more internal values than appearances. Pauline gave birth to two sons, Leopold and Frederick, a third child, a girl named Louise, died shortly after birth on 17 July 1800. Leopold I died on 4 April 1802 and on 18 May Pauline took up the regency for her minor son, the later prince Leopold. In the marriage contract between Leopold and Pauline from 1795, it had agreed that Pauline, as the future mother. The Estates of Lippe fiercely opposed this rule, however, no appropriate male guardian was available and Pauline had also already demonstrated that she would be a suitable regent

23.
Detmold
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Detmold is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, with a population of about 73,400. It was the capital of the small Principality of Lippe from 1468 until 1918, today it is the administrative center of the district of Lippe and of the Regierungsbezirk Detmold. The Church of Lippe has its administration located in Detmold. The Reformed Redeemer Church is the venue of the state superintendent of the Lippe church. About 5 kilometres to the southwest of Detmold is the Grotenburg hill with a circular rampart. The monument commemorates the so-called Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, a battle in 9 AD which may or may not have been close to the present location of Detmold. In this encounter, Germanic tribes led by Hermann defeated Roman legions under the command of Publius Quinctilius Varus, Detmold was first mentioned as Theotmalli in 783, the year of a battle between the Saxons and Charlemagnes forces nearby. This was an event in the Saxon Wars, in 1005 a Tietmelli or Theotmalli region is referred to in documents. In 1263, Bernard III of Lippe fortified the settlement at the crossing of the route from Paderborn to Lemgo over the Werre River with stone walls. Its population was reported in 1305 as 305, market rights granted in 1265 led to rapid economic development. Its defenses were strengthened after severe damage had been inflicted on the town during the conflict with Soest in 1447. A major fire in 1547 destroyed more than 70 houses, in 1550, Detmold became the permanent residence of Count Simon III of Lippe. Today, Armin, Prince of Lippe is the owner of Detmold Castle, street lighting was introduced in 1809, with oil-fired lanterns. By 1835, the town had become the most populous in Lippe and it grew to 12,000 in 1900 and over 30,000 in 1950. From 1919 to 1947, Detmold was the capital of the Free State of Lippe, with the administrative reform of 1970,25 nearby villages were incorporated into the city. Donoper Teich Hasselbachteich Vogelpark Heiligenkirchen The town supports the Nordwestdeutsche Philharmonie for regular symphony concerts, amongst the honorary citizens of Detmold, besides politicians are scientists and artists who have served in Detmold. The best-known are the builder of the Hermannsdenkmal, Ernst von Bandel, Reich Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, and Reich President, Paul von Hindenburg

24.
North Rhine-Westphalia
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North Rhine-Westphalia is the most populous state of Germany, with a population of approximately 18 million, and the fourth largest by area. Its capital is Düsseldorf, the most populous city is Cologne, four of Germanys ten largest cities—Cologne, Düsseldorf, Dortmund, and Essen—are located within the state, as well as the largest metropolitan area on the European continent, Rhine-Ruhr. North Rhine-Westphalia was formed in 1946 as a merger of the provinces of North Rhine and Westphalia, the state has been run by a coalition of the Social Democrats and Greens since 2010. The Ubii and some other Germanic tribes such as the Cugerni were later settled on the west side of the Rhine in the Roman province of Germania Inferior, North of the Sigambri and the Rhine region were the Bructeri. By the 8th century the Frankish dominion was established in western Germany. But at the time, to the north, Westphalia was being taken over by Saxons pushing south. The Merovingian and Carolingian Franks eventually built an empire which controlled first their Ripuarian kin, the Ottonian dynasty had both Saxon and Frankish ancestry. As the central power of the Holy Roman Emperor weakened, the Rhineland split into small independent principalities, each with its separate vicissitudes. Such struggles as the War of the Limburg Succession therefore continued to create military, Aachen was the place of coronation of the German emperors, and the ecclesiastical principalities of the Rhine bulked largely in German history. Prussia first set foot on the Rhine in 1609 by the occupation of the Duchy of Cleves and about a century later Upper Guelders and Moers also became Prussian. At the peace of Basel in 1795 the whole of the bank of the Rhine was resigned to France. In 1920, the districts of Eupen and Malmedy were transferred to Belgium, around 1 AD there were numerous incursions through Westphalia and perhaps even some permanent Roman or Romanized settlements. The Battle of Teutoburg Forest took place near Osnabrück and some of the Germanic tribes who fought at this came from the area of Westphalia. Charlemagne is thought to have spent considerable time in Paderborn and nearby parts and his Saxon Wars also partly took place in what is thought of as Westphalia today. Popular legends link his adversary Widukind to places near Detmold, Bielefeld, Lemgo, Osnabrück, Widukind was buried in Enger, which is also a subject of a legend. Along with Eastphalia and Engern, Westphalia was originally a district of the Duchy of Saxony, in 1180 Westphalia was elevated to the rank of a duchy by Emperor Barbarossa. The Duchy of Westphalia comprised only an area south of the Lippe River. Parts of Westphalia came under Brandenburg-Prussian control during the 17th and 18th centuries, the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, signed in Münster and Osnabrück, ended the Thirty Years War

25.
Robert Owen
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Robert Owen was a Welsh social reformer and one of the founders of utopian socialism and the cooperative movement. He worked in the industry in Manchester before setting up a large mill at New Lanark in Scotland. In 1824, Owen travelled to America to invest the bulk of his fortune in an experimental 1, 000-member colony on the banks of Indianas Wabash River, New Harmony was intended to be a Utopian society. Robert Owen was born in Newtown a small town in Montgomeryshire, Mid Wales. He was the sixth of seven children and his father, also named Robert Owen, had a small business as a saddler and ironmonger. Owens mother came from a farming family called Williams. There Owen received almost all his education, which ended at the age of ten. In 1787, after serving in a shop for some years. He moved to Manchester, and was employed at Satterfields Drapery in St Anns Square, with money borrowed from his brother he set up a workshop making spinning mules but exchanged the business for 6 spinning mules, which he operated in a rented space. His entrepreneurial spirit, management skill and progressive moral views were emerging by the early 1790s, in 1793, he was elected as a member of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, where the ideas of reformers and philosophers of the Enlightenment were discussed. During a visit to Scotland, Owen fell in love with Caroline Dale, Owen convinced his partners to buy New Lanark, and after his marriage to Caroline in September 1799, he made his home there. He was a manager and part-owner of the mills, encouraged by his success in the management of cotton mills in Manchester, he hoped to conduct New Lanark on higher principles than purely commercial ones. The mill of New Lanark had been started in 1785 by David Dale, the water power provided by the falls of the River Clyde made it a great attraction. About 2,000 people had associations with the mills,500 of whom were brought at the age of five or six from the poorhouses and charities of Edinburgh. The children were treated by Dale, but the general condition of the people was unsatisfactory. Many of the workers were in the lowest levels of the population, theft, drunkenness, and other vices were common, education and sanitation were neglected, the respectable country people refused to submit to the long hours and demoralising drudgery of the mills. Many employers operated the system, and paid workers in part or totally by tokens. These tokens had no value outside the mill owners truck shop, the owners could supply shoddy goods to the truck shop and charge top prices

26.
Pedagogy
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Pedagogy is the discipline that deals with the theory and practice of education, it thus concerns the study of how best to teach. Spanning a broad range of practice, its aims range from furthering liberal education to the specifics of vocational education. Instructive strategies are governed by the background knowledge and experience, situation. One example would be the Socratic schools of thought, the teaching of adults, as a specific group, is referred to as andragogy. Johann Friedrich Herbart is the father of the conceptualization of pedagogy, or. Herbarts educational philosophy and pedagogy highlighted the correlation between personal development and the benefits to society. In other words, Herbart proposed that humans become fulfilled once they establish themselves as productive citizens, herbartianism refers to the movement underpinned by Herbarts theoretical perspectives. Referring to the process, Herbart suggested 5 steps as crucial components. Specifically, these 5 steps include, preparation, presentation, association, generalization, Herbart suggests that pedagogy relates to having assumptions as an educator and a specific set of abilities with a deliberate end goal in mind. The word is a derivative of the Greek παιδαγωγία, from παιδαγωγός, itself a synthesis of ἄγω, I lead and it is pronounced variously, as /ˈpɛdəɡɒdʒi/, /ˈpɛdəɡoʊdʒi/, or /ˈpɛdəɡɒɡi/. Negative connotations of pedantry have sometimes been intended, or taken, doctor of Pedagogy, is awarded honorarily by some US universities to distinguished teachers. The term is used to denote an emphasis in education as a specialty in a field. The word pedagogue means leading children some say to the teacher and other leading them, in Denmark, a pedagogue is a practitioner of pedagogy. The term is used for individuals who occupy jobs in pre-school education in Scandinavia. But a pedagogue can occupy various kinds of jobs, e. g. in retirement homes, prisons, orphanages and these are often recognized as social pedagogues as they perform on behalf of society. The pedagogues job is usually distinguished from a teachers by primarily focusing on teaching children life-preparing knowledge such as social skills, there is also a very big focus on care and well-being of the child. Many pedagogical institutions also practice social inclusion, the pedagogues work also consists of supporting the child in their mental and social development. In Denmark all pedagogues are educated at a series of institutes for social educators located in all major cities

27.
New Lanark
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New Lanark is a village on the River Clyde, approximately 1.4 miles from Lanark, in Lanarkshire, and some 40 km southeast of Glasgow, Scotland. It was founded in 1786 by David Dale, who built cotton mills, Dale built the mills there in a brief partnership with the English inventor and entrepreneur Richard Arkwright to take advantage of the water power provided by the only waterfalls on the River Clyde. The New Lanark mills operated until 1968, after a period of decline, the New Lanark Conservation Trust was founded in 1974 to prevent demolition of the village. By 2006 most of the buildings have restored and the village has become a major tourist attraction. It is one of six UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Scotland, the New Lanark cotton mills were founded in 1786 by David Dale in a brief partnership with Richard Arkwright. M. W. Turner and many other artists, the mills used the recently developed water-powered cotton spinning machinery invented by Richard Arkwright. Dale sold the mills, lands and village in the early 19th century for £60,000, payable over 20 years, to a partnership that included his son-in-law Robert Owen. Owen, who became manager in 1800, was an industrialist who carried on his father-in-laws philanthropic approach to industrial working. New Lanark, with its social and welfare programmes, epitomised his Utopian socialism, the New Lanark mills depended upon water power. A dam was constructed on the Clyde above New Lanark and water was drawn off the river to power the mill machinery, the water first travelled through a tunnel, then through an open channel called the lade. It then went to a number of wheels in each mill building. It was not until 1929 that the last waterwheel was replaced by a water turbine, Water power is still used in New Lanark. A new water turbine has been installed in Mill Number Three to provide electricity for the tourist areas of the village, in Owens time some 2,500 people lived at New Lanark, many from the poorhouses of Glasgow and Edinburgh. Although not the grimmest of mills by far, Owen found the conditions unsatisfactory, the mills thrived commercially, but Owens partners were unhappy at the extra expense incurred by his welfare programmes. Unwilling to allow the mills to revert to the old ways of operating, in 1813 the Board forced an auction, hoping to obtain the town and mills at a low price but Owen and a new board that was sympathetic to his reforming ideas won out. New Lanark became celebrated throughout Europe, with many statesmen, reformers and they were astonished to find a clean, healthy industrial environment with a content, vibrant workforce and a prosperous, viable business venture all rolled into one. Owen’s philosophy was contrary to contemporary thinking, but he was able to demonstrate that it was not necessary for an enterprise to treat its workers badly to be profitable. Owen was able to show visitors the village’s excellent housing and amenities, the planning of employment in the mills alongside housing for the workers and services such as a school also makes the settlement iconic in the development of urban planning in the UK

28.
Cooperative
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Cooperatives frequently have social goals which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6. 9% of their profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2. 4% for other rival supermarkets. The International Co-operative Alliance was the first international association formed by the cooperative movement and it includes the World Council of Credit Unions. A second organization was formed later in Germany, the International Raiffeisen Union, in the United States, the National Cooperative Business Association serves as the sectors oldest national membership association. It is dedicated to ensuring that cooperative businesses have the same opportunities as other businesses operating in the country, a U. S. National Cooperative Bank was formed in the 1970s. By 2004, a new association focused on worker co-ops was founded, since 2002 cooperatives and credit unions could be distinguished on the Internet by use of a. coop domain. Since 2014, following International Cooperative Alliances introduction of the Cooperative Marque, ICA cooperatives, cooperation dates back as far as human beings have been organizing for mutual benefit. Tribes were organized as cooperative structures, allocating jobs and resources among each other, in alpine environments, trade could only be maintained in organized cooperatives to achieve a useful condition of artificial roads such as Viamala in 1472. Pre-industrial Europe is home to the first cooperatives from an industrial context, in 1761, the Fenwick Weavers Society was formed in Fenwick, East Ayrshire, Scotland to sell discounted oatmeal to local workers. Its services expanded to include assistance with savings and loans, emigration and education, owen left New Lanark to pursue other forms of cooperative organization and develop coop ideas through writing and lecture. Cooperative communities were set up in Glasgow, Indiana and Hampshire, in 1828, William King set up a newspaper, The Cooperator, to promote Owens thinking, having already set up a cooperative store in Brighton. The Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers, founded in 1844, is considered the first successful cooperative enterprise, used as a model for modern coops. A group of 28 weavers and other artisans in Rochdale, England set up the society to open their own store selling food items they could not otherwise afford, within ten years there were over a thousand cooperative societies in the United Kingdom. Other events such as the founding of a society by the Tolpuddle Martyrs in 1832 were key occasions in the creation of organized labor. Cooperatives traditionally combine social benefit interests with capitalistic property-right interests, Cooperatives achieve a mix of social and capital purposes by democratically governing distribution questions by and between equal by not controlling members. Democratic oversight of decisions to equitably distribute assets and other benefits means capital ownership is arranged in a way for social benefit inside the organization, external societal benefit is also encouraged by incorporating the operating-principle of cooperation between co-operatives. In the final year of the 20th century, cooperatives banded together to establish a number of social enterprise agencies which have moved to adopt the cooperative model. In the years 1994–2009 the EU and its member nations gradually revised national accounting systems to make visible the increasing contribution of social economy organizations, the roots of the cooperative movement can be traced to multiple influences and extend worldwide

29.
Samuel Wilderspin
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Samuel Wilderspin was an English educator known for his pioneering work on infant schools. His belief was that a child should be encouraged to learn through experience and his work provided the model for infant schools in Europe and North America. Wilderspin was apprenticed as a clerk in the City of London, through a New Jerusalem Church in south London, he met James Buchanan, an Owenite who had recently set up an infant school at Brewers Green in Westminster. With his wife Sarah Anne, Wilderspin ran an infant school in Spitalfields, London and this school particularly impressed David Stow, who invited Wilderspin to Glasgow to lecture on it. Wilderspin published On the Importance of Educating the Infant Poor in 1823 and he began working for the Infant School Society the next year, informing others about his views on education. It folded in 1828, but Wilderspin continued to propagate his views nationally, the ideas current at this time on infant education went back to J. F. Oberlin and Robert Owen. Wilderspins approach to schooling as necessary for a socially and morally prepared child was informed by his Swedenborgianism, play was an important part of Wilderspins system of education, and he is credited with the invention of the playground. He also ran a company supplying apparatus for playground activities, Wilderspin wrote, On the Importance of educating the Infant Poor, 2nd ed. London,1824, a third edition appeared in 1825 as Infant Education. Early Discipline illustrated, London,1832, 3rd ed.1840, a System of Education for the Young, London,1840. A Manual for the Instruction of Young Children, London and Hull,1845, the Infant System for Developing, &c. 8th ed. London,1852. Samuel Wilderspin wrote The Infant System, for developing the physical, intellectual, several hundred schools were founded by Wilderspin throughout the United Kingdom. However, Queen Street School in Barton-upon-Humber is the known surviving school built to his designs. It was completed in 1845, and Wilderspin himself taught at the school for years before retiring in 1848. His papers are in Senate House Library, University of London, Queen Street School Heritage Project at the Wayback Machine - restoration project for one of Wilderspins schools. AIM25 Archives - Short biographical sketch of Samuel Wilderspin, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Lee, Sidney, ed. Wilderspin, Samuel

30.
Playground
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A playground, playpark, or play area is a place specifically designed to enable children to play there. While a playground is designed for children, some target other age groups. Berlins Preußenpark for example is designed for people aged 70 or higher, a playground might exclude children below a certain age. Common in modern playgrounds are play structures that many different pieces of equipment. Playgrounds often also have facilities for playing games of adult sports, such as a baseball diamond, a skating arena. In some parts of the United States, the term tot lot may be used, a type of playground called a playscape is designed to provide a safe environment for play in a natural setting. Through history, children played in their villages and neighbourhoods, especially in the streets, in the 19th century, developmental psychologists such as Friedrich Fröbel proposed playgrounds as a developmental aid, or to imbue children with a sense of fair play and good manners. In Germany, a few playgrounds were erected in connection to schools, the Outdoor Recreation League provided funds to erect playgrounds on parkland, especially following the 1901 publication of a report on numbers of children being run down by cars in New York City. Interventionist programs such as by the child savers sought to move children into controlled areas to limit delinquency, one of the first playgrounds in the United States was built in San Franciscos Golden Gate Park in 1887. In 1906 the Playground Association of America was founded and a year later Luther Gulick became president and it later became the National Recreation Association and then the National Recreation and Park Association. Neither do small back yards nor ornamental grass plots meet the needs of any, older children who would play vigorous games must have places especially set aside for them, and, since play is a fundamental need, playgrounds should be provided for every child as much as schools. This means that they must be distributed over the cities in such a way as to be walking distance of every boy and girl. Playgrounds were a part of urban culture in the USSR. In the 1970s and 1980s, there were playgrounds in almost every park in many Soviet cities, Playground apparatus was reasonably standard all over the country, most of them consisted of metallic bars with relatively few wooden parts, and were manufactured in state-owned factories. Some of the most common constructions were the carousel, sphere, seesaw, rocket, bridge, Playground design is influenced by the intended purpose and audience. Separate play areas might be offered to accommodate very young children, single, large, open parks tend to not to be used by older schoolgirls or less aggressive children, because there is little opportunity for them to escape more aggressive children. By contrast, a park that offers multiple play areas is used equally by boys, professionals recognize that the social skills that children develop on the playground often become lifelong skill sets that are carried forward into their adulthood. Independent research concludes that playgrounds are among the most important environments for children outside the home, most forms of play are essential for healthy development, but free, spontaneous play—the kind that occurs on playgrounds—is the most beneficial type of play

31.
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi
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Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi was a Swiss pedagogue and educational reformer who exemplified Romanticism in his approach. He founded several educational institutions both in German- and French-speaking regions of Switzerland and wrote many works explaining his revolutionary principles of education. His motto was Learning by head, hand and heart, thanks to Pestalozzi, illiteracy in 18th-century Switzerland was overcome almost completely by 1830. Pestalozzi was born on January 12,1746, in Zürich and his mother, whose maiden name was Hotze, was a native of Wädenswil on the lake of Zürich. The family also had a maid, Barbara Schmid, nicknamed Babeli, after the death of Pestalozzis father it was only through the help of Babeli that Pestalozzis mother could financially support the family. In 1761, Pestalozzi attended the Gymnasium and received instruction from educators Johann Jakob Bodmer, who taught history and politics, and Johann Jakob Breitinger, on holidays Pestalozzi would visit his maternal grandfather, a clergyman in Höngg. Together they would travel to schools and the houses of parishioners and it was through these visits that Pestalozzi learned the poverty of country peasants. He saw the consequences of putting children to work in the factory at an early age and their ignorance, suffering and inability to help themselves left an impression on Pestalozzi, an impression that would guide his future educational ideas. Pestalozzi was educated to become a clergyman, during the mid-18th century the government in Switzerland condemned Rousseaus Emile and Social Contract, saying they were dangerous to the State and the Christian religion. A prison sentence was issued upon Rousseau, Bodmer, Pestalozzis former professor, embraced the teachings of Rousseau and founded the Helvetic Society with about 20 other philosophers in 1765. Their goal was the advancement of freedom, the 19-year-old Pestalozzi was an active member, contributing many articles to the Societys newspaper, Der Erinnerer. Pestalozzi brought to several cases of official corruption and was believed to be an accessory to the escape of a fellow newspaper contributor. Although he was proven innocent, he was under arrest for three days. These events caused Pestalozzi to have many enemies and destroyed any hope of a legal career. After the failure of his aspirations and at the suggestion of several friends. During this time, Johann Rudolf Tschiffeli, who was also a member of the Helvetic Society and he had converted a large plot of worthless land into several valuable farms. In 1767 Pestalozzi visited Tschiffeli to learn about his method, after a year with Tschiffeli, Pestalozzi purchased 15 acres of waste land in the neighborhood of Zürich. He obtained financial support from a Zürich banker, bought more land, Pestalozzi began to build a house on the heavily mortgaged property, calling it Neuhof

32.
Budapest
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Budapest is the capital and most populous city of Hungary, one of the largest cities in the European Union and sometimes described as the primate city of Hungary. It has an area of 525 square kilometres and a population of about 1.8 million within the limits in 2016. Budapest became a single city occupying both banks of the Danube river with the unification of Buda and Óbuda on the west bank, the history of Budapest began with Aquincum, originally a Celtic settlement that became the Roman capital of Lower Pannonia. Hungarians arrived in the territory in the 9th century and their first settlement was pillaged by the Mongols in 1241–1242. The re-established town became one of the centres of Renaissance humanist culture by the 15th century, following the Battle of Mohács and nearly 150 years of Ottoman rule, the region entered a new age of prosperity, and Budapest became a global city after its unification in 1873. It also became the co-capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a power that dissolved in 1918. Budapest was the point of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the Hungarian Republic of Councils in 1919, the Battle of Budapest in 1945. Budapest is an Alpha- global city, with strengths in arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts the Budapest Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks and it is the highest ranked Central and Eastern European city on Innovation Cities Top 100 index. Budapest attracts 4.4 million international tourists per year, making it the 25th most popular city in the world, further famous landmarks include Andrássy Avenue, St. It has around 80 geothermal springs, the worlds largest thermal water system, second largest synagogue. Budapest is home to the headquarters of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology, the European Police College, over 40 colleges and universities are located in Budapest, including the Eötvös Loránd University, Central European University and Budapest University of Technology and Economics. Budapest is the combination of the city names Buda and Pest, One of the first documented occurrences of the combined name Buda-Pest was in 1831 in the book Világ, written by Count István Széchenyi. The origins of the names Buda and Pest are obscure, according to chronicles from the Middle Ages, the name Buda comes from the name of its founder, Bleda, brother of the Hunnic ruler Attila. The theory that Buda was named after a person is also supported by modern scholars, an alternative explanation suggests that Buda derives from the Slavic word вода, voda, a translation of the Latin name Aquincum, which was the main Roman settlement in the region. There are also theories about the origin of the name Pest. One of the states that the word Pest comes from the Roman times. According to another theory, Pest originates from the Slavic word for cave, or oven, the first settlement on the territory of Budapest was built by Celts before 1 AD

33.
Kingdom of Hungary
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The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed from the Middle Ages into the twentieth century. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the coronation of the first king Stephen I at Esztergom in about the year 1000, by the 12th century, the kingdom became a European middle power within the Western world. The House of Habsburg held the Hungarian throne after the Battle of Mohács until 1918, from 1867 territories connected to the Hungarian crown were incorporated into Austria-Hungary under the name of Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen. The monarchy ended with the deposition of the last king Charles IV in 1918, the kingdom was nominally restored during the Regency of 1920–46, ending with the Soviet occupation in 1946. From 1102 it also included Croatia, being in union with it. Today, the feast day of the first king Stephen I is a holiday in Hungary. The Latin forms Regnum Hungariae or Ungarie, Regnum Marianum, or simply Hungaria, were the used in official documents in Latin from the beginning of the kingdom to the 1840s. The German name Königreich Ungarn was used officially from 1784 to 1790, the Hungarian name was used in the 1840s, and then again from the 1860s to 1946. The non-official Hungarian name of the kingdom was Magyarország, which is still the colloquial, in Austria-Hungary, the unofficial name Transleithania was sometimes used to denote the regions of the Kingdom of Hungary. Officially, the term Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen was included for the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary, the Hungarians led by Árpád settled the Carpathian Basin in 895, established Principality of Hungary. The Hungarians led several successful incursions to Western Europe, until they were stopped by Otto I, the principality was succeeded by the Christian Kingdom of Hungary with the coronation of St Stephen I at Esztergom on Christmas Day 1000. The first kings of the kingdom were from the Árpád dynasty and he fought against Koppány and in 998, with Bavarian help, defeated him near Veszprém. The Catholic Church received powerful support from Stephen I, who with Christian Hungarians, Stephen I of Hungary was canonized as a Catholic saint in 1083 and an Orthodox saint in 2000. After his death, a period of revolts and conflict for supremacy ensued between the royalty and the nobles, in 1051 armies of the Holy Roman Empire tried to conquer Hungary, but they were defeated at Vértes Mountain. The armies of the Holy Roman Empire continued to suffer defeats, before 1052 Peter Orseolo, a supporter of the Holy Roman Empire, was overthrown by king Samuel Aba of Hungary. This period of revolts ended during the reign of Béla I, Hungarian chroniclers praised Béla I for introducing new currency, such as the silver denarius, and for his benevolence to the former followers of his nephew, Solomon. The second greatest Hungarian king, also from the dynasty, was Ladislaus I of Hungary. He was also canonized as a saint, however, kingship over all of Croatia would not be achieved until the reign of his successor Coloman

34.
Bad Blankenburg
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Bad Blankenburg is a spa town in the district of Saalfeld-Rudolstadt, in Thuringia, Germany. It is situated 6 km southwest of Rudolstadt, and 37 km southeast of Erfurt and it is most famous for being the location of the first kindergarten of Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel, in 1837. To the north of it, on an eminence, rise the ruins of the castle of Greifenstein, built by the German king Henry I. In the nineteenth century, Bad Blankenburg was part of the principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. Bad Blankenburg is the headquarters of Deutsche Evangelische Allianz, a network of most Protestant churches in Germany. Historical Population, Data source from 1994, Thuringian Office for Statistics Friedrich Fröbel Museum at Bad Blankenburg Bad Blankenburg

35.
Principality
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Most of these states have historically been a polity, but in some occasions were rather territories in respect of which a princely title is held. The princes estate and wealth may be located mainly or wholly outside the confines of the principality. Generally recognised surviving sovereign principalities are Liechtenstein, Monaco, and the co-principality of Andorra, extant royal primogenitures styled as principalities include Asturias, and Wales. The term principality is often used informally to describe Wales as it currently exists, since that time, the title Prince of Wales has traditionally been granted to the heir to the reigning monarch of the United Kingdom, but it confers no responsibilities for government in Wales. It has country status and is one of four countries in the United Kingdom, principality of Asturias is the official name of autonomous community of Asturias. No sovereign duchy currently exists, but Luxembourg is an example of a sovereign grand duchy. Historically there have been sovereign principalities with many styles of ruler, such as Countships, Margraviates and even Lordships, feudalism increased the power of local princes within a kings lands. As princes continued to more power over time, the authority of the king was diminished in many places. This led to political fragmentation as the lands were broken into mini-states ruled by princes and dukes who wielded absolute power over their small territories. This was especially prevalent in Europe, and particularly with the Princes of the Holy Roman Empire, during the Late Middle Ages from 1200 to 1500, principalities were often at war with each other as royal houses asserted sovereignty over smaller principalities. These wars caused a deal of instability and economies were destroyed. Episodes of bubonic plague reduced the power of principalities to survive independently. Eventually, agricultural progress and development of new goods and services boosted commerce between principalities. Many of these states became wealthy, expanded their territories and improved the services provided to their citizens, Princes and dukes developed their lands, established new ports and chartered large thriving cities. Some used their wealth to build palaces and other institutions now associated with sovereign states. While some principalities prospered in their independence, less successful states were swallowed by stronger royal houses, Europe saw consolidation of small principalities into larger kingdoms and empires. This had already happened in England in the first millennium, and this subsequently led to the creation of such states as France, Portugal. Another form of consolidation was orchestrated in Italy during the Renaissance by the Medici family, a banking family from Florence, the Medici took control of governments in various Italian regions and even assumed the papacy

A governess is a woman employed to teach and train children in a private household. In contrast to a nanny (formerly …

In Rebecca Solomon's 1851 painting The Governess, the title figure (seated right, with her charge) exhibits the modest dress and deportment appropriate to her quasi-invisible role in the Victorian household.