Interactions between the brain and distinct adipose depots have a key role in maintaining energy balance, thereby promoting survival in response to metabolic challenges such as cold exposure and star...

Interactions between the brain and distinct adipose depots have a key role in maintaining energy balance, thereby promoting survival in response to metabolic challenges such as cold exposure and starvation. Recently, there has been renewed interest in the specific central neuronal circuits that regulate adipose depots. Here, we review anatomical, genetic and pharmacological studies on the neural regulation of adipose function, including lipolysis, non-shivering thermogenesis, browning and leptin secretion. In particular, we emphasize the role of leptin-sensitive neurons and the sympathetic nervous system in modulating the activity of brown, white and beige adipose tissues. We provide an overview of advances in the understanding of the heterogeneity of the brain regulation of adipose tissues and offer a perspective on the challenges and paradoxes that the community is facing regarding the actions of leptin on this system.

Humans and many other animals have an enormous capacity to learn about sensory stimuli and to master new skills. However, many of the mechanisms that enable us to learn remain to be understood. One o...

Humans and many other animals have an enormous capacity to learn about sensory stimuli and to master new skills. However, many of the mechanisms that enable us to learn remain to be understood. One of the greatest challenges of systems neuroscience is to explain how synaptic connections change to support maximally adaptive behaviour. Here, we provide an overview of factors that determine the change in the strength of synapses, with a focus on synaptic plasticity in sensory cortices. We review the influence of neuromodulators and feedback connections in synaptic plasticity and suggest a specific framework in which these factors can interact to improve the functioning of the entire network.

In humans, the period from term birth to ∼2 years of age is characterized by rapid and dynamic brain development and plays an important role in cognitive development and risk of disorders such as aut...

In humans, the period from term birth to ∼2 years of age is characterized by rapid and dynamic brain development and plays an important role in cognitive development and risk of disorders such as autism and schizophrenia. Recent imaging studies have begun to delineate the growth trajectories of brain structure and function in the first years after birth and their relationship to cognition and risk of neuropsychiatric disorders. This Review discusses the development of grey and white matter and structural and functional networks, as well as genetic and environmental influences on early-childhood brain development. We also discuss initial evidence regarding the usefulness of early imaging biomarkers for predicting cognitive outcomes and risk of neuropsychiatric disorders.

Acute nociceptive pain is a key defence system that enables the detection of danger signals that threaten homeostasis and survival. However, chronic pain (such as the neuropathic pain that occurs aft...

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Acute nociceptive pain is a key defence system that enables the detection of danger signals that threaten homeostasis and survival. However, chronic pain (such as the neuropathic pain that occurs after peripheral nerve injury) is not simply a consequence of the continuity of acute nociceptive signals but rather of maladaptive nervous system function. Over recent decades, studies have provided evidence for the necessity and sufficiency of microglia for the alterations in synaptic remodelling, connectivity and network function that underlie chronic pain and have shed light on the underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms. It is also becoming clear that microglia have active roles in brain regions important for the emotional and memory-related aspects of chronic pain. Recent advances in the development of new drugs targeting microglia and the establishment of new sources of human microglia-like cells may facilitate translation of these findings from bench to bedside.