the theory and practice of describing, naming, and classifying organisms

Taxonomy

practice of naming and classifying organisms

Phylogenetics

The description of the relationships among and between taxa

Phylum

Large groups that most species fall into because of similarities in structural organization.

Stephen Jay Gould

Biologist who estimated that 99% of all plant and animal species that have existed have already become extinct with most leaving no fossils.

Carolus Linnaeus

Real name: Carl Von Linne. 18th century Swedish botanist and medical doctor who wrote books mainly describing plant species in great details. He published the Systema Naturae. Developed the bionomial nomenclature and teh Linnea's system.

ICZN

It contains the rules of zoological nomenclature are contained in a document. All names must be unique, universal, and show stability.

Binomial nomenclature

It's a Linnaean system that uses 2 categories, genus and species, to designate each type of organism. IE: Homo-genus, sapiens-species

Binomial nomenclature

Using genus and species to name certain species

Character

Any feature that the taxonomist uses to study variation within and among species.

Homologies/homologous

Similar functions; similar ancestries

Analogies/analogous

Similar structures; no direct ancestries

Convergent evolution

The development of a similar anatomical feature in distinct species lines after divergence from a common ancestor that did not have the initial trait that led to it. Long story short, unrelated species becoming more and more similar as they adapt to the same environment.

Divergent evolution

2 or more related species becoming more and more dissimilar.

ITIS

Integrated Taxonomic Information System. The goal is to create an easily accessible database with reliable information on species name and their classfication.

Comparative anatomy

examines the various hspaes and sizes of organismal structures, organ systems, and their development

Comparative embryology

describes similarities and differences in animal development patterns, structures and timing of development events

Comparative cytology

Looks at variations in cell structures and the number, size and shape of chromosomes

Comparative biochemistry

Compares the amino acid sequences of proteins and nucleotide sequences of DNA

DNA Barcoding

Taxonomic method that uses a short genetic marker in a an organism's DNA to identify it as belonging to a particular species. Its goal is not to determine patterns of relationshp but to identify an unknown sample in terms of a preexisting classification.

It allows you to assess the subject of interest and see what's going on in certain situations

What's a hypothesis and how's it different from a theory?

Hypothesis is an educated guess that can be tested through experimentation. Theory is an established set of ideas..

How does a control group differ from an experimental group?

The difference is that one group (experimental) is exposed to the condition while the other (control) is not. The control group is separated from the rest of the experiment so that the experiment cannot influence the result.

Why should scientist replicate their experiments?

To ensure that the result is satisfying and that the evidence is sufficient.

What's one molecule that's an absolute requirement for life?

Carbon based molecules

Four most important atoms that form biological important molecules?

CHON

Why is carbon important in life? What does it form?

Carbon compounds are the most abundant in many living organisms.

Basic characteristics of Whittaker's 5 Kingdoms of Life:

Kingdoms:

Monera-contained prokaryotes

Protista-unicellular eukaryotic organisms (protozoa and algae)

Plantae-photosynthesizing organisms

Fungi-molds, yeasts that obtain food by absorption

Animalia-internal digestion

Basic characters of Woese's 3 domains of life:

Eukarya, Bacteria, and archae

Theory of natural selection

animals/species evolve as a mean to adapt to the environment so that their offsprings have a better chance of surviving.

Who was Alfred Wallace and his contribution to evolution?

A biologist that independently came up with the theory of evolution through natural selection.

Evolution

The change in allele frequencies over time

Mass extinction

the extinction of a large number of species within a short amount of time.

Macroevolution

Evolution on a grand scale (more than 1 species)

Microevolution

Evolution within a single population

Difference between Lamarck's and Darwin's theory?

Lamark proposed that individuals lose characteristics they don't use and develop ones that are useful to them. Darwin believed that genetic traits improve an organism's chance of surviving and producing more offsprings.

Cambrian explosion

"Rapid" appearance of animals 542 million years ago.

How many Eons are there? Give their names and the time that they each start.

Proterozoi (2.6 billion years ago). Phanerozoic (542 million years ago to present day).

Who was Carolus Linnaeus's contribution to science?

Linnaeus system of using genus and species.

What taxa's name are always italicized in an organism's scientific name?

Genus and species

Is genus or species capitalized?

Genus capitalized first leter

How does radial symmetry differ from bilateral symmetry?

Radial-separate each portion like a pie.

Bilateral-divide in half will mirror each other

How does vertebrate differ from invertebrate? What animal phylum do vertebrates belong?

Backbone or lack thereof. Vertebrates belong to the Phylum Chordata.

Difference between deuterosome and protosome?

Protosome-mouth first, anus second

Deuterosome-anus first, mouth second

Phylogeny

The evolutionary history of an organism. Description of relationships among and between taxa.

4 different scientific techniques to determine evolutionary relationship between different species?

Comparatives:

Anatomy

Embryology

Cytology

Biochemistry

Parallelism

Related species evove similarly as they adapt to similar environments

Convergence

Unrelated species evolve similarly as they adapt to similar environments

ICZN meaning and its importance in zoology

All names must be unique, universal, and show stability.

ITIS and its role in biology

Easily accessible database with reliable info about the names and taxonomies of various species.

Four basic tissue types in animals:

Epithelial-forms coverings and linings of an animal's body (reduce friction and assists in movements across body to increase absorption)

Connective-provide stiffness to the animal body and help it withstanding tension (

Nervous-conduct electrochemical signals.

Muscle-contract in response to the exciatory stimulus. (voluntary/involuntary movements)

Metamerism

Division of the body of many bilaterally symmetrical animals into equal parts.

Metamerism

What's cephalization and why is it important to the evolution of bilaterlaly symmetrical animals?

Cephalization is the evolutionary process by which sensory organs and specialized appendages became localized in the head of animals. It's important because it allowed faster reflexes and gave them the ability to turn their sensory organs toward stimuli.

What are the advantages of multicellular animals?

They can complete complex tasks and are more sufficient at simpler tasks. Multiple organized compartments of organelles allow specific tasks to be brought out faster/efficiently.

What are the disadvantages of multicellular compared to unicellular?

Multicellular can't reproduce as quickly as unicellular ones. More energy to function.

How many eras are the phanerozoic eon divided into and when did it begin?

Phanerozoic eon is devided into 3 eras and it began 542 ~ million years ago.

What other Eons are recognized other than Phanerozoic Eon?

When did Cambrian Period begin and end?

What period did first bony ray-finned fishes and lobe-finned fishes appear and dominate the aquatic habitats of the Earth?

When was the Great Permian Extinction? Percentage of animals going extinct?

When was the Great Cretaceous Extinction and what percentage/kind of species survive this?

What periods encompass the Age of the Dinosaurs? List 2 different theories that cause the Cretaecous Extinction.

Estimated age of evolution of the oldest cell on Earth:

Around 3.5 billion years

How many years have humans been a component of the Biosphere?

Around 200,00 years ago

What is the Red Shift and its relation to the Big Bang?

Big bang theory relies on the expansion of the universe in which the universe was once a small point and it expanded outward with a bang! Red Shift is the increase in frequency.

Edwin Hubble

American astronomer who implied that the galaxy increased with distance from the earth, which means the universe is expanding.

Georges Lemaitre

1st person to propose the theory of the universe. Derived the Hubble's law which would eventually lead to the Big Bang's Theory

Thomas Cech

Chemist who discovered ribozyme.

Sidney Altman

Known for researching about ribozymes/RNA with Thomas Cech.

First biomolecule to evolve on Earth:

Simple proteins like RNA

How old is the universe based on the Big Bang theory?

It's about 15 billion years old.

When did Earth first begin to form?

Earth formed over 4.6 billion years ago.

Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis

Both proposed that there were prebiotic conditions on Earth to allow organic compounds to evolve.

What experiment did Stanley Miller and Harold Urey do that helped provide evidence for the Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis?

They created laboratory conditions like the ones that have existed earlier on Earth. Warm flask of water to produce water vapor and stimulate lightning. Then the atm was coooled and it rained into the sea. Their exp found a strongly reducing atmosphere produce organic molecules as a first stpe in the origin of life.

Ribozyme

An RNA molecule that can splice, replicate-similar to those of protein enzymes.

Which evolve first: RNA or DNA?

RNA

How was the atmosphere of early earth different from that of today?

Molten ball of rock (hot!)->Earth cooled to be covered with volcanos-->extremely toxic.

What does LUCA stand for? What are its characteristics?

The last universal common ancestor. It's the most recent organism that all living organisms on Earth descend from.

Organic compound

Any chemical compound that has 1 or more carbon.

Macromolecule

Large molecule

Monomer

Simple structure that links with others to form polymers.

Polymer

Chemical compound that's composed of monomers

Monosaccharide vs. disaccharide vs. polysaccharide

Monosaccharide-simple sugar that cannot be decomposed further (pentose & glucose)

What are some important techniques to effectively utilize the microscope?

What's refraction and how is it different from reflection?

Refelction-light returns to same medium

Refraction-light travels from one medium to another

Transmittance vs absorption:

Absorption is light that neither transmit or absorbs. Transmittance is ratio of intensit of light that passed through the sample to entered the sample.

Relationship between focal length and optical power and angle of view?

Focal length have an inverse relationship to both optical power and angle of view.

What's the function of the condenser in a microscope?

Illuminate the speciment by collecting light.

How can you increase the depth of view in a microscope?

By increasing the distance between the specimen and the lens.

What's the resolving power of a microscope?

the smallest distance in which 2 separate objects can be distinguished.

What are some of the typical magnification for an electron microscope?

up to 2 million

Why can an electron microscope create focused images at much higher magnification than a light microscope?

First of all, electron microscopes have a much greater resolving power than typical light microscope. Secondly, when compared to visible light, electrons have a smaller wavelength due to the lower energy of electrons.

How does an electron microscope focus the particle beam of electrons to focus an image?

The electron microscope uses electrostatic and electromagnetic to focus the particle beam of electrons to focus an image.

the relationship between 2 different kinds of organisms that live and depend on each other.

Parasitisim

relationship between 2 organisms where one benefit and the other one is affected negatively

Mutualism

Relationship of mutual benefit

Commensalism

Relationship where one benefits and the other is unaffected.

Relationship between Hypermastid and its insect host:

In return for a warm place to stay, the hypermastid would allow its insect host to have the ability to digest cellulose.

Describe life cycle of Plasmodium. Which species is responsible for most cases of malaria? What is this illness' symptoms?

Female mosquito would inject saliva with sporozoites into the human host. They are then carried by the circulatory system via the liver and invade hepatocytes. The parasite then undergoes asexual replication which would produce merozoites and release then into the bloodstream. A proportion of them would go dormant instead of replicating right away. These hypnozoites will reactivate several weeks to months later and are responsible for relapses.

What other animal is a host for Plasmodium?

Monkey

What are the 3 classes of sponges?

asconoid, synconoid, and leunconoid

Body plans and surface area of asconoid vs synconoid vs leuconoid:

Asconoid-simplest form - radial symmetry - tube shaped

Synconoid-medium complex form-walls are invaginated-rectify water movement to increase surface area

Leuconoid-most complex-irregular shape-multiple choanocytes that allow it go grow larger.-most efficient at water movement and spongocoel is gone to increase surface area.

Choanocytes

similar to choanoflagellates; collared cells with flagella that collect food and create water current

Choanocytes

-central flagellum

-surrounded by a collar of microvilli

-collar is major site for absportion of nutrients

-phafocytosis and pinocytosis deliver nutrients to the mesophyl and other cell

Choanocytes

Cells with flagella for cycling water

Choanocyte

Cavity is lined by these flagellated collar cells. Causes movement.

Archaeocytes/amoebocytes

archaeocytes-undifferentiated cells that give rise to other -cytes

amoebocytes-amoeba like cells found throughout the sponge that can digest/excrete food

Pinacocytes

outer cell covering sponge; similar to epiderm

Pinacocyte

Cover exterior surface of sponge

Pinacocytes

Cover the exterior and some interior surfaces of the sponge.

(Porifera)

What type of sponge spicules dissolve in the presence of HCl?

Calcium carbonate

Monoecious vs dioecious animal:

Monoecoious have both female and male reproductive organs. Dioecious animals have separate sexes.

Binary fission, budding, gemmulation, and fragmentation in protists and animals:

Binary fission-most common type of reproduction. The body of the unicellular parent is divided by mitosis.

Budding-unequal division of an animal. New individual arise as a bud from its parent. Asexual.

Gemmulation-Formation of new individual from aggregation of cells surrounded by a resistance capsule.

Fragmentation-Asexual reproduction where organism is split into fragments.to reproduce other individuals.

How do cnidarian nerve nets differ from nervous system seen in bilaterally symmetrical animals?

Radial cnidarians dont have the necessary sensory organs nor cephalization that would make it as complex as that of bilaterally symmetrical animals.

Which phylum shows the first example of an integrated neuromuscular system?

Phylum Cnidaria

Body plans of acoelomates vs pseudocoelomates vs eucolomates:

What are humans?

Acoelomates have no coelom (only an ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm); pseudocoelomates have a coelom, but only on the side of the ectoderm; eucoelomates have a true coelom, meaning the mesoderm surrounds all sides of the coelom.

Humans are eucoelomates

What's a coelem?

A fluid filled body cavity

Describe lifecycles of Obelia, Aurelia.

Obelia: The ovary and testis of two medusa come together to form a zygote, which develops into a blastula. Then, a free-swimming planula larva forms and settles down to start a new colony

Aurelia: Two medusa produce either an egg or sperm, and internal fertilization takes place. This forms a zygote, which develops into a ciliated planula larva. It settles onto a surface and becomes a schyphistoma, which has a hydra like form. It then becomes a strobila, which is made of stacked ephyrae (saucer like buds). These break off and grow into mature jellyfish

How do cnidarians differ from ctenophores? (classes/similarities/differences)

When there's an endothermic reaction that does work, then heat (q) is going to be positive and work is going to be negative. If heat is less than work, then the equation, which is E=q+w, will result in E in the negative range.

Work that is done on a gas and the process is exothermic:

a) work > heat

b) work < heat

a) Delta E is positive.

b) Delta E is negative.

In a, heat is negative and work is positive because the equation is exothermic instead of endothermic. In this case, there's a heat loss (exo) which results in the value of q to be negative. Since work is greater than heat, the value of delta E is going to be positive instead of negative.

At constant pressure, change in ethalpy is equaled to:

heat

1 Calorie=

4.184 J

Enthalpy has a unit of?

J/Co

Specific heat capacity vs Molar heat capacity.

the energy required to raise the temp of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree Co-molar is similar except it's to raise the temp of 1 mole

Energy released=

specific heat * mass of solution * change in temp

Specific heat unit?

J/(Co * g)

100 grams of water at 90 C is added to a sample of water at 10 C. Which one gained heat or lost heat? Find the final temp of water.

What happens if the same situation applies but the added water has 500 g and 10 C?

a) Water at 90 lost heat so that it can give the energy to the water at 10 degrees. The heat that is lost will have a negative sign. Therefore, -change in T=positive change in T.

b) The same thing would apply and the 100 grams of water at 90 would lose energy to give the energy to the 500 grams. The final temp, though, would be lesser than that of the final temp in part a.

Alternative forms of genes coding for the same trait; situated at the same locus in homologous chromosomes

Genotype

The genetic constitution (total set of genes) present in an organism

Phenotype

The visible expressed characteristics of an organism

An allele whose trait always shows up in an organism when the allele is present

-Capital letters

- Always first

Recessive allele

an allele that is masked in the phenotype by the presence of a dominant allele. Recessive alleles are expressed in the phenotype when the genotype is homozygous recessive

How is sex determined in mammals? Sex chromosomes present in each sex.

Sperm cells determine the sex of the mammal. If it contains the X chromosome, then it will be a female. If the sperm cell contains the chromosome, then the zygote is male.

Males: XY

Females: XX

How is sex determined in birds? What are the sex chromosomes involved and which are present in each sex?

The female gamete determines the sex of the individual.

Female: ZW

Male: ZZ

How is sex determined in some insects and some reptiles such as turtles or some lizards? Are sex chromosomes always involved?

Sperm cells can have X or O. It determines the sex of the insects.

Female: XX

Male: XO

How does a cartiliaginous skeleton differ from a bony skeleton with regard to its molecular/cellular structure?

Cartilage is composed of chondrocytes that produce large amounts of extracellular matrix. Bony skeleton is made up of osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts.

Cranium

The skull which encloses the brain

Cranium

skull

How are testosterone, estradiol (estrogen) and ecdysone structurally related?

Testosterone: male sex hormone

Estradiol: female sex hormones

Ecdysone: molting hormone

How are testosterone, estradiol (estrogen) and ecdysone structurally related?

Testosterone and estrogen are extremely similar to each other; differing in only the methyl and carbonyl group

4 Class of hormones based on structures

protein and peptide hormones: hormones made from amino acids to regulate metabolism

Steroid hormones: derived from cholesterol

Amino acids-derived from amino acids which proteins are made

Lipid-based hormones: derived from lipids

What is a hormone? How does a hormone differ from a pheromone?

-Pheromone is a type of hormone used to attract others and play a big part in how they act around you.

-Hormone is a substance transported to certain tissue fluids to stimulate specific cells into action.

What is the function of a swim bladder in a fish? What is the rete mirabile? How does air enter and leave the swim bladder?

Swim bladder expand and compress to keep the "bony" fish afloat (natural buoyancy) due to its higher body density than the water. Filling in an will lower the body density of the fish

The rete miraabile creates possible efficient exchange between 2 different bloodstreams and maintains high concentration of gases in the fish swim bladder.

Which groups of fish possess a swim/air bladder?

The bony fish

What is the function of the spiracles in a shark?

Paired openings on dorsal surface of the head that functions as gill slits so that water can be drawn into the pharynx even when its mouth is open

Why do most sharks constantly need to swim at least slowly? Why can some sharks stop swimming?

Sharks don't have the swim bladder to help keep they stay afloat. They need to constantly swim to pump water across their gills in order to breathe. Some sharks can gulp air into their stomach which can provide some buoyancy.

How do sharks maintain neutral buoyancy?

Sharks maintain neutral buoyancy by swimming constantly so that water can pump across their gills. Lighter cartilaginous skeleton, along with possession of large livers allow them to have neutral buoyancy.

What is a teleost fish? Give one characteristic of this fish that is different from other fish.

Teleost fish=modern bony fish with ctenoid/cycloid scales.

Which part of a sharks skeleton can be ossified/bony?

The jaws.

Regarding fishes, what is an operculum and what is its function? Which fish groups have one?

A movable flap covering fish gills. Jawed lobe-finned fish (class sarcopterygii) and ray-finned fish (class actinopterygii) has this. It provides protection for the delicate gills as well as making it possible for the pumping system to move water through the mouth, across the gills, and out of the operculum.

To what class does the California Torpedo Ray belong? What is one way this animal can defend itself?

How does a harvestman or “daddy longlegs” differ from members of the order Aranae?

Daddy Longlegs’ abdomen and cephalothorax are rounded and broadly joined, without the constriction of a pedicel; their abdomen shows external segmentation; and they have only 2 eyes. The have 4 pairs of long legs with pincer-like claws. They are carnivorous and scavengers as well.

What causes Lyme disease? What animal carries Lyme disease? What is the condition named after (why is it called Lyme disease)?

Lyme disease, which is caused by a bacterium and carried by ticks from white-tailed deers. It is transmitted to humans from rodents by ticks that feed on both sets of hosts. It is named after the towns Lyme and Old Lyme where the disease was first identified.

First & second antennae

What is the function of the green gland in crustaceans?

Green glands, or atennal glands, are the excretory organs of decapods. This is because crustaceans don’t have Malpighian tubules, the excretory organs of spiders and insects.

List the function of each of the following appendages in a crustacean (see text): first & second antennae, mandible, first maxilla, second maxilla, first, second and third maxillipeds, cheliped, walking legs, first swimmeret, second through fifth swimmerets, uropod.

What are the parts of a crustacean stomach? Which chamber has “teeth”?

There are 2 parts to the stomach. The first part contains a gastric mill in which food, already shred by their mandibles, can be further ground by 3 calcareous teeth into particles fine enough

In crustacean, what is a gastrolith and what is its function?

Gastroliths are calcium that are stored as mineral accretions in the stomach. Its function is to absorb the calcium in the outer shell, allowing the shell to soften and break when it sheds. The crayfish can reabsorb the calcium from the gastrolith and the shell becomes hard again.

How does an isopod differ in its basic body plan from a copepod?

Isopod-same legs throughout. Copepods has long antennae and legs/tail.

How does a member of the class Chilopoda differ from a member of the class Diplopoda?

Chilopoda has 1-2 legs on each segment. Their body is flattened and they have an antennae on their head. Diplopoda (millipedes) have 4 legs on most segments. Their body is round and legs are short.

How many pairs of antennae are found in members of each of the five subphyla of the Phylum Arthropoda?

Arthropods have 2 pairs of antennaes.

Why are members of the order Hemiptera called “true bugs”?

Hempitera means half wings and it refers to the fact that the 1st pair of wings is toughened and hard, while the rest are membranous.

Describe the caste system and basic social organization in a honeybee hive. What are the specific castes?

1) Drones-males of the colonies. Their responsibility is to fertilize the queens of other colonies

2) Workers-non-reproductive females that are responsible for maintenance, food gathering, care and re­aring of the youngs.

3) Queen-only female that can produce fertile eggs.

What type of symmetry is found in most larval echinoderms? What type of symmetry is found in

most adult echinoderms? What is meant by pentaradial symmetry?

Most larval echinoderms have bilateral symmetry. Most adult echinoderms have pentaradial symmetry.

What is the function of the pedicellariae in echinoderms? In what portion of the marine

Function of the pedicellarie: pincer-like parts that snap at creatures that settle on them. Echinoderms usually live on the sea floors. Being bottom dwellers, petaradial symmetry allows echinoderms to react equally in all directions of the sea floor so that it can sense prey or predators

Where is and what is the function of Aristotle’s Lantern in a sea urchin?

Aristotle’s lantern surrounds the mouth cavity and the pharynx of the sea urchin. It functions as a device that scrapes off the algae/food on rock and other objects.

Briefly describe the structure and function of the water vascular system in an echinoderm.

The water vascular system powers a multitude of tiny tube feet used for locomotion, food gathering, and respiration.

Briefly describe what happens when a sea star eats a bivalve.

Sea stars wrap their arms around the animal’s shell and pull it open just enough. Then it pushes its stomach through its mouth and into the bivalve’s shell. It then digests the animal and slides its stomach back into its own body.

Can the spines on a sea urchin move? How?

-The spines on a sea urchin are attached to the body with ball-and-socket joints that work like your arm. It can rotate in all directions allowing the sea urchin to move.

Are most echinoderms diecious or monoecious? Is their fertilization external or internal?

Most echinoderms are dioecious. Their fertilization is typically external.

Do sea stars have eyes or other photorepectors? Do they possess statocysts? Do they have

tactile/mechanoreceptors?

Sea stars have eyespots at each of their arms. They possess statocysts.

How do sea stars get oxygen into their cells from the surrounding seawater?

Sea stars use the spines and bumps on its surface as well as its gills to take in oxygen.

What are the main anatomical differences between brittle stars in the Class Ophiuroidea from

Do echinoderms have a circulatory system? Do echinoderms have an excretory system?

Echinoderms have a circulatory and excretory system

What is a notochord?

It’s a connective tissue that extends most of the length of the chordates. It acts as an early endoskeleton.

What is a cephalochordate? Provide a description of the characteristics of this taxa. To what

subphylum do these organisms belong?

Cephalochordates (lancelets) have a notochord, a nerve chord, and very simple circulatory system. They have fish-like forms that include the famous amphioxus.

What is a urochordate? Provide a description of the characteristics of this taxa. To basically duplicate this table.

Urochordate, or sea squirts, are chordates that have a tough, cellulose tunic surrounding its form. They have a siphon so that water can enter and exit. Its larva exhibits all the chordate characteristics.

Are all vertebrates chordates? Are all chordates vertebrates?

All vertebrates are chordates but not all chordates are vertebrates.

Are all vertebrates chordates? Are all chordates vertebrates?

All chordates are all not vertebrates (include tunicates and cephalochordates)

2 electron groups

linear

3 electron groups

-trigonal planar geometry (120 degrees)

-one lone pair=bent <120 degrees

4 electron groups

-tetrahedral (109.5 degrees)

-one lone pair= trigonal pyramidal <109.5 degrees

-two lone pairs=bent <109.5 degrees

5 electron groups on the central atom

NOTE: expanded octet on central atom (5 e- groups = 10 valence e-)

arrangement is trigonal bypyramidal

geometry: trigonal bypyramid, seesaw, T shaped, or liner

90°, 120° an 180° ideal bond angles.

6 electron groups on central atom

NOTE: expanded octet (6 e- groups = 12 valence e-)

arrangement is octahedral

geometry: octahedral, square planar, square pyramidal

90° and 180° ideal bond angles.

What are the 2 subclasses in class Reptilia?

Anapsida (no temporal openings) and Diapsida (2 temporal openings).

Orders in subclass anapsida?

Order testudines-turtles

Superorders/Orders/suborders in subclass diapsida?

Superoprder Lepidosauraia

Order squamata: snakes, lizards, amphisbaenians

Suborder lacertilia: lizards

Suborder amphisbaenia: worm lizards

Suborder serptentes: snakes

Order Spehnodonta: tuatara

Bird characters:

Feathers+wings

scales + hollow bones

oviparous+dioecious

posterior+anterior air sacs

Subclasses within class aves

Subclass Archaeonithes

Subclass Neornithes

Orders within class aves

Pelecaniformes

Ciconiiformes

Anseriformes

Falconiformes

Galliformes

Charadriiformes

Columbiformes

Strigiformes

Apodiformes

Piciformes

PAsseriformes

Subphylum vertebrata is in which phylum?

phylum Chordata

what class is under subphylum verebrata?

class mammalia

What are the 2 classes under class mammalia?

subclass prototheria - oviparous

subclass theria - wild beast

What are the orders and infraclasses under class mammalia?

Subclass prototheria has order monotremata, which have a cloaca (platypus, spiny echidna)

Subclass theria has infraclasses:

metatheria-kangaroo, koala, opposusum

Eutheria-true placentials

Masseter

chewing

Superficial pectoral

adducts humerus

Deep pectorals

retracts and adducts limbs/forelimbs

Trapezius

Elevates shoulders

Latissimus dorsi

draws humerus upward and backward as well as flexing shoulders

Deltoid

Flexes shoulder and abducts arms

Rhomboideus

draws scapula mediodorsally or rotates it

Biceps anterior

Flexes Elbow

Triceps posterior

Extends forearm

External and internal obliques

compresses abdomen, arch back; flexes trunk

rectus abdominus

constricts abdomen

biceps femoris

abducts and extends limbs; flex knee joint

gluteus medius

abducts thighs

quadriceps group

extends shank

sartorius

adducts hindlimb & flexes hip joint

semimembranosus (hamstring)

extends hip joint and adducts hindlimbs

semitendinosus (hamstrings)

extends hip and torsal joint and flexes knee joint

What was Pangaea? How long ago did Pangaea start to break apart?

The supercontinent consisting of all the major landmasses of Earth fused together.

Continental drift formed Pangaea near the end of the Paleozoic Era about 250 million years

ago. Since then continental drift has separated Pangaea into the seven separate continents

we have today

Continental drift

Change in the position of continents resulting from the incessant slowmovement (floating) of the plates. Th emantle constantly undergoes convection as cooler molten rock near the surface loses heat

to space and falls to the center of the Earth, while warmer molten rock near the Earth’s

center rises. Causes continent to fuse and break apart

Plate tectonics

Forces within planet Earth that cause movements of the crust, resulting in continental drift, volcanoes and earthquakes.

Mimicry

The resemblance of an animal species to another species or to natural objects; provides concealment and protection from predators

What is a top or apex predator in an ecosystem? Give an example of a top predator.

A top predator is an animal at the top of the food chain. An animal in a biological community which is not usually caught and eaten by

other animals in that community. Ie: shark

What types of organisms perform most decomposition?

Fungi and bacteria

Why is decomposition soimportant to the survival of animals?

Creates space for new organisms by reducing the physical space occupied by dead organisms. Decomposition of plants and animals also produces nutrients. In the decomposition of organic materials, products like carbon dioxide, energy, water and organic carbon compounds are released.

How does a population differ from a community?

Population: describing a single species of plant or animal.

Community: includes ALL species coexisting in an ecosystem.

Founder Effect (Define and relate how they could change the genetics of a population and lead to the evolution of new species from a common ancestor)

the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population.

Bottleneck effect (Define and relate how they could change the genetics of a population and lead to the evolution of new species from a common ancestor)

the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population. This will cause the gene pool to decrease. The ones that survive will pass on those genes to their future offsprings and these traits will become permenant overtime.

Genetic drift (Define and relate how they could change the genetics of a population and lead to the evolution of new species from a common ancestor)

Change in frequency of allele in a population due to random sampling. It may cause certain gene variants to dissappear completely if the population is small.

Mutation (Define and relate how they could change the genetics of a population and lead to the evolution of new species from a common ancestor)

Change in nucletodie sequence of the genome.

Do larger or smaller populations tend to evolve faster? Why?

Evolution takes time and smaller organisms tend to have a faster offspring turnover rate.

What does the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium mean?

No evolution is taking place because the allelic and genotypic frequencies remain the same across generations.

List 5 observations that Darwin made that helped him generate his ideas about evolution.

More offspring are born than ever survive to become adults.Female fish can lay thousands of eggs, but usually only one or two survive to become adults.

Among these offspring, there is a range of values for any trait; in other words there is variation. Each goldfish has different colored scales.

This variation extends to all traits, even those vital for the survival of the individual. All variations are, therefore, random.

All offspring compete within their natural environments for food, resources, mates, and safety from harm. Those with the weakest combinations of traits die, whereas those with the best combinations of traits survive to reproductive maturity more often. There is a natural selection for those individuals that are the fittest.

The survivors pass on their traits to the next generation and the process is repeated. Over millions of years, such gradual changes lead to changes in the whole population and hence to the origin of an entirely new species.

Fossil record

Millions of fossils that scientists have collected

Carolus Linnaeus: List one contribution to evolution

Binomial nonmenclature

James hutton: List one contribution to evolution

Actualism

Charles Lyell: List one contribution to evolution

Uniformitarianism

Cryptorchidism: brief description of reproductive

Failure of the testes to descend into the scrotum before birth. It's caused by an anatomical blockage that prevent the migration of the testes. Reduction in fertility.

Benign prostatic hyperplasia: brief description of reproductive

Refers to the non-cancerous overgrowth of the prostate that can lead to many side effects including urinating and incontinence problems.

Endometriosis: brief description of reproductive

It's when the cells from the lining of the uterus start building around the outside of the uterine cavity. It's a common finding in women wtih infertility.

Ectopic pregnancy: brief description of reproductive

Complication of pregnancy in which the embryo is implanted outside of the uterine cavity. They're dangerous for the mother and can cause death.

Function of testis

the male gonad=responsible for:

1. spermatogenesis-maturation and production of sperm

2. Endocrine function-creation of male sex steroids that are called androgens

Function of epididymis

Receives the sperm from the vasa efferentia

Function of vas deferens

a tube surrounds by smooth muscle that pumps sperm from the tail of the epididymis to the urethra. One carries to the right and the other to the left testes. It's cut and tied off during a vasectomy.

2 glands that supply fructose and other substances that make up about half of the volume of the semen

Function of bulbourethral gland

A gland beneath the prostate that lubricates and washes the urethra previous to ejaculation

Function of urethra

A tube that carries both urine from the urinary bladder and semen from the reproductive ducts

Function of penis

an organ that contains spongy erectile tissue that can fill with blood. Arterioles in the penis

vasodilate while the veins become compressed to cause an erection. The penis delives the semen into the vagina of the female during intercourse.

Function of scrotum

An active thermoregulatory organ that stores the testes.

Function of seminiferous tubules

the hollow, fluid filled, small tubes within the testes which produce sperm. There are several meters of seminiferous tubules packed into each testis. There are no blood vessels or nerves in the seminiferous tubules. The sperm mature in their own special environment protected from harmful substances in the blood by the blood-testis barrier.

Function of interstitial tissue of testes

It contains the blood vessels and lymphatics that supply the testes to help protect testes from foreign invaders. It also has a special cell typed called a Leydig cell that is responsible for producing testosterone.

Function of ovary

It performs gametogenesis (the formation of gametes). Responsible for oogenesis (maturation and production of ova) and makes female sex hormones progesterone and estrogen.

Function of fimbriae

A funnel that receives the ovulated egg from the ovary and carries it to the Fallopian tubes.

Function of fallopian tube

It transport eggs from the ovary to the uterus and sperm from the uterus toward the ovary. Fertilization will then occur in the fallopian tubes, right in the ampulla region near the ovary.

Function of uterine myometrium

It induces uterine contractions.

Function of uterine endometrium

During the secretory phase, the endometrium becomes richly vascularized adn stores glycogen to help nourish the embryo and fetus.

Function of cervix

A muscular structure that projects from the uterus into the vagina and guards the entrance to the uterus.

Function of vagina

A tube that connects from the uterus to the external environment. Sperm are deposited into the vagina and must be transported through the certix and uterus to the Fallopian tubes where fertilization ocurs.

Function of clitoris

Plays an important role in sexual arousal.

Relative to the endocrine system and hormonal control, what is negative feedback?

How does the internal anal sphincter differ from the external anal sphincter?

The internal anal sphincter is smooth muscle innervated by enteric neurons. The external anal sphincter is a skeletal muscle that can be consciously controlled.

What organ produces most of the digestive enzymes that are released into the small intestines?

Pancreas

What are the 3 segments of the small intestine? What are villi and microvilli? Why are these important to the function of the small intestine?

3 segments: Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Villi allows solids and liquids to pass from one structure to another. Microvilli is a structure (resembles brush) that are on the surface of eggs. They both increase the SA in order to maximize absorption.

List 5 functions of the liver.

produces bile

metabolism

lymph formation

phagocytosis

detoxification

What is the function of the gallbladder?

Stores and concentrates bile from the liver.

Location in digestive system: gastroesophageal sphincter

Base of esophagus prior to entering the stomach

Location in digestive system: pyloric sphincter

betwen stomach and duodenum of the small intestine

Location in digestive system: ileocecal valve

Valve between small and large intestine

Location in digestive system: external anal sphincter

Muscle that surround the anus

Location in digestive system: internal anal sphincter

It guards the anus and is located inside/around the anus canal

3 functions of saliva

Cleans the mouth

Lubricates food

Aids in food digestion

Describe the movements of structures in the oral cavity when you swallow (uvula, epiglottis, and the tongue).

The uvula move to close off the nasopharynx and the epiglottis inverts to cover the layrnx to prevent liquids and food to enter the airway and lungs. The tongue creates rippling motions and propels the food toward the throat.

What are the major functions of the kidneys? What is the name of the tubule system that is the basic functional unit of the kidney?

As the speed of a moving fluid increases, the pressure within the fluid decreases.

List 6 different evolutionary adaptations of birds that help them to fly

hollow bones

wings/feathers

large pectoral bones

air sacs

fused back bone

reduction of organs

What are antagonistic muscle groups? What are the two specific antagonistic muscles are involved in flight in most birds?

Muscle groups that oppose each other.

2 specific: pectoralis and supracoracoideus

Where are the primary, secondary and down feathers found on a typical bird?

Primary: fingertip feathers

Secondary: forearm area

Down: under the tougher feathers

Describe the basic structure of a feather

Outer and inner vane, shaft, leading ledge of wing

Major characteristics of Amphibia

4 limbs

smooth skin w/ glands

lung, skin, gills respiration

3 chambered heart

separate sexez

ectothermic

Major characteristics of Reptilia

-amniotic eggs/leathery or calcareous shell

-scaly epidermis

-negative pressure ventiliation

-3 chambered heart

Major characteristics of Aves

-hollow bones

-wings/feathers

-4 chambered heart

Major characteristics of Mammalia

-Mammary gland

-Hair

-

How does a saurischian dinosaur differ from an ornithisician dinosaur (think bones)? Which of

these groups include the theropod dinosaurs?

lizard vs bird hipped dinosaurs

How do anapsid, diapsid and synapsid reptiles differ?

anapsid-no temporal openings

diapsid-2 temporal openings

synapsid-1 temporal opening

What is an aminote animal? What are some major biological contributions of amniotes?

Amniote animal-tetrapod that close the embryos of their offspring in membranes .

List two characteristics that differentiate these orders: Urodela (Caudata) from Anura (Salienta).

-Tail

-Anura-head and trunk fused

-Urodela has eual length limbs

What are some adaptations of icthyostega that are more “fish-like”?

head and fin on end of tail

Are frogs positive or negative pressure breathers? How does frog inspiration differ from that of a mammal?

Positive. Frogs fill lungs by forcing air into them. Force air into lungs by elevating the floor of the mouth and use the mouth cavity to gulp air. Lungs emptied by contraction of body wall. .Mammals breathe by moving the diaphragm downards an the ribs upwards and out.

Briefly describe how the digestive system of an herbivorous mammal differs from that of a carnivorous mammal.

Herbivores have long digestive tracts because it takes a long time for them to break down and absorb the cellulose in plants.

Which portion of the respiratory system of a mammal is surrounded by a capillary bed and why?

the lung

Which portion of the respiratory ducts of a mammal is surrounded by smooth muscles?

branchial duct

Indicate which vessels in the double circuit are arteries and which are veins.

Look at the double circuit heart in master review sheet.

What are the four valves and where are they found in the mammalian heart?

the tricuspid, pulmonary, mitral, and aortic valves.

How does the structure of a bird heart and circulatory system differ from the structure of a mammal heart and circulatory system?

Bird's heart has 4 pulmonary veins and it is generally larger than a mammal's heart. The left ventricle is also bigger.

List three different accessory digestive organs and their functions.

Liver: secretes bile

Pancreas: secrete pancreatic juices that contain digestive enzymes to the small intestine

Gall bladder: stores bile

How does the respiratory system help birds migrate long distances?

Delivers oxygen from air to tissues and remove CO2

Important in thermoregulation

Resp system + 9 air sacs, which allow fresh air that has high content of O2 to flow straight to the lungs

From what fish structure did the terrestrial tetrapod lung most likely evolve?

Gill pouches of fish.

List 3 different glands that are epidermal derivatives of the integument in mammals.

Describe how the bones that make up each of the following fit together (what features meet what

other bone features): pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle

Pectoral girdle: connects the upper limb to the axial skeleton. Consists of scapula and clavicle

Pelvic girdle: 2 hip bones connect to the spine and lower limbs

In junior high school, why are the girls often taller than the boys?

puberty, growth spurt

How does the epiphyseal plate differ from the epiphyseal line?

The epiphyseal line is a remnant of the EPIPHYSEAL PLATE, which is a cartilage plate that serves as a growth area for long bone lengthening. The epiphyseal plate allows the diaphysis of the bone to increase in length until early adulthood. When growth stops, the epiphyseal plate cartilage is replaced with bone, then becoming the epiphyseal line.

From what is the matrix of bone formed

Calcium, bone marrow, and other minute bone.

How does yellow bone marrow differ from red bone marrow?

Red bone marrow: in children; produces red and white blood cells as well as platelets

At the molecular level, list four different classes of hormones based on their structure

proteins/peptides

amino acid

fatty acids derivatives

steroids

What is the function of juvenile hormone in insects (and some other arthorpods)? Chemically what is JH typically and from what organ(s) is it released?

JH controls metamorphosis in juveniles and regulate reproduction in adults. It is released by corpora allata.

Describe the basic process of ecdysis as it occurs in crustaceans and insects. What happens when a crustacean or insect molts. Describe changes in the various layers of the exoskeleton.

Crustaceans become inactive. Animal pushed forward from the old shell until it splits from the back so that the new animal can emerge. After moulting, the cuticle starts to hardens and darkens.

Describe how the direct and indirect flight muscles in an insect operate to allow insects to fly.

Direct flight insects can move each wing independently allowing them enhanced mobility with the ability to control the direction of flight as well as the speed.

Indirect flight muscles attach to the thorax and deform it for flight. This is possible because the wings are a part of the thoracic exoskeleton, therefore when the flight muscles deform the thorax, the wings move.'

What is diapause in insects? Why does this happen and what causes it?

Diapause is usually done by insects. It is a ‘sleep time’ that is different from hibernation because the animals do not grow during this time.

It happens a lot in places where food or water are only there for a little while or the amount of food or water changes.It is a way for animals to live through droughts or lack of food.

What is gradual metamorphosis in insects?

simple metamorphosis

What organ do worker bees use to make wax?

By underside of stomach

What organ do worker bees use to make honey?

In the honey stomach

How do honeybees and other insects find their food/flower nectar?

They waggle to communicate with each other

What is the evolutionary benefit of the caste system in social insects?