1.
1580s in architecture
–
1580 - Old City of Zamość, designed by Bernardo Morando, is established in Poland. 1580-8 - Wollaton Hall near Nottingham in England, probably designed by Robert Smythson, is built,1581 - Uffizi in Florence, designed by Giorgio Vasari and continued by Alfonso Parigi the Elder and Bernardo Buontalenti, is completed. C.1582 - Dome and lantern of the church of Santa Maria di Loreto, Rome,1583 Allahabad Fort, built by Emperor Akbar, is completed. Quirinal Palace in Rome, designed by Carlo Maderno and Domenico Fontana, is begun, new Basilica of Our Lady of Humility, Pistoia, Tuscany, is consecrated. 1584 El Escorial palace at San Lorenzo de El Escorial, Spain, church of the Gesù in Rome, designed by Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola in 1568 and completed by Giacomo della Porta with the first truly baroque façade, is consecrated. 1585 - Teatro Olimpico, Vicenza, designed by Palladio,1585 – Neubau in Strasbourg, begun in 1582, is inaugurated 1587-8 - Fort Al Jalali at Muscat, Oman, is built by Portuguese naval captain Belchior Calaça. 1588 Court theatre at Sabbioneta, designed by Vincenzo Scamozzi, is begun Roselius-Haus in Bremen is completed,1584 - Gian Paolo Lomazzo produces his treatise Trattato dellarte della pittura, scoltura et architettura

2.
1590s in architecture
–
1590 Sinan Pasha Mosque in Damascus, Syria, is completed. Court theatre at Sabbioneta, designed by Vincenzo Scamozzi, is completed, Church of Tolentini, Venice, Italy, is designed by Vincenzo Scamozzi, it will not be completed until 1714. 1590–1595 - Belvedere in Florence, Italy, designed by Bernardo Buontalenti, is constructed, 1590–1597 - Hardwick Hall in Derbyshire, England, designed by Robert Smythson, is constructed. 1591 Rialto Bridge in Venice, designed by Antonio da Ponte, is completed, Church of San Salvatore in Lauro in Rome is designed by Ottaviano Nonni. 1592 - Church of Il Redentore on Giudecca in Venice, designed by Andrea Palladio, is consecrated, - Kasthamandap temple in Kathmandu, Nepal. 1593–1597 - Rushton Triangular Lodge in Northamptonshire, England, is designed and constructed by Sir Thomas Tresham,1599 - In Padua, renovation begins on the Palazzo del Capitaniato arch and clock tower. Giovanni Antonio Rusconis Della architettura is published posthumously in Venice

3.
Sinan Pasha Mosque (Damascus)
–
The Sinan Pasha Mosque is an early Ottoman-era mosque in Damascus, Syria, located along Suq Sinaniyya Street. The mosque was built in 1590 by Sinan Pasha, the Ottoman-appointed governor of Damascus from 1589 to 1593 and it stands on the site of an older mosque called the Mosque of Basal to the southwest of the walled city. The donor, Sinan Pasha, also served as the governor of Cairo and as the vizier to the sultan. The Sinan Pasha Mosque is built with a course of black. In addition to the mosque itself is a madrasa an ablution fountain, the circular, green-enameled brick minaret rises above the southern pier of the portal, carried on a circular stone base of black and white stone. Its single balcony is supported by three rows of muqarnas and is protected by a stone balustrade below wooden eaves. The minaret ends at a conical crown. The columns of the bay have a spiral molding. The arched entryway is flanked by marble panels and the two windows of the portico façade, as well as the two side entrances are topped by arches whose tympana display Damascene tiles. The mihrab niche to the right of the entrance is covered with a semi-dome that is supported on marble colonettes, the entire portico façade is built with alternating strips of yellow, white and gray stones. The mihrab is situated on the wall facing the entrance. Its niche is covered with mosaics and its semi-dome displays an intricate zigzag layering of black. Above its frame of tile and stone bands is a Quranic inscription, the ensemble is topped by two arched windows and a rosette made of stained glass. The minbar, to the left of the mihrab, is made of marble carved with motifs and inscriptions. The prayer hall is preceded by a courtyard, accessed through a tall portal on the western wall, once flanked by a bathhouse. The courtyard is entered from Suq al-Sakkaniyya Street to the north. The courtyard is rectangular and has an octagonal ablution basin at its center. Its floor is paved with colored stones arranged in a geometric layout, a two-bay iwan occupies the northwest corner of the courtyard that has two arched windows facing the street

4.
Damascus
–
Damascus is the capital and likely the largest city of Syria, following the decline in population of Aleppo due to the ongoing battle for the city. It is commonly known in Syria as ash-Sham and nicknamed as the City of Jasmine, in addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major cultural and religious centre of the Levant. The city has an population of 1,711,000 as of 2009. Located in south-western Syria, Damascus is the centre of a metropolitan area of 2.6 million people. The Barada River flows through Damascus, first settled in the second millennium BC, it was chosen as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate from 661 to 750. After the victory of the Abbasid dynasty, the seat of Islamic power was moved to Baghdad, Damascus saw a political decline throughout the Abbasid era, only to regain significant importance in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods. Today, it is the seat of the government and all of the government ministries. The name of Damascus first appeared in the geographical list of Thutmose III as T-m-ś-q in the 15th century BC, the etymology of the ancient name T-m-ś-q is uncertain, but it is suspected to be pre-Semitic. It is attested as Dimašqa in Akkadian, T-ms-ḳw in Egyptian, Dammaśq in Old Aramaic, the Akkadian spelling is found in the Amarna letters, from the 14th century BC. Later Aramaic spellings of the name include a intrusive resh, perhaps influenced by the root dr. Thus, the English and Latin name of the city is Damascus which was imported from originated from the Qumranic Darmeśeq, and Darmsûq in Syriac, meaning a well-watered land. In Arabic, the city is called Dimašqu š-Šāmi, although this is shortened to either Dimašq or aš-Šām by the citizens of Damascus, of Syria and other Arab neighbours. Aš-Šām is an Arabic term for Levant and for Syria, the latter, the Anti-Lebanon mountains mark the border between Syria and Lebanon. The range has peaks of over 10,000 ft. and blocks precipitation from the Mediterranean sea, however, in ancient times this was mitigated by the Barada River, which originates from mountain streams fed by melting snow. Damascus is surrounded by the Ghouta, irrigated farmland where many vegetables, cereals, maps of Roman Syria indicate that the Barada river emptied into a lake of some size east of Damascus. Today it is called Bahira Atayba, the hesitant lake, because in years of severe drought it does not even exist, the modern city has an area of 105 km2, out of which 77 km2 is urban, while Jabal Qasioun occupies the rest. The old city of Damascus, enclosed by the city walls, to the south-east, north and north-east it is surrounded by suburban areas whose history stretches back to the Middle Ages, Midan in the south-west, Sarouja and Imara in the north and north-west. These neighbourhoods originally arose on roads leading out of the city and these new neighbourhoods were initially settled by Kurdish soldiery and Muslim refugees from the European regions of the Ottoman Empire which had fallen under Christian rule

5.
Syria
–
Syrias capital and largest city is Damascus. Religious groups include Sunnis, Christians, Alawites, Druze, Mandeans, Shiites, Salafis, Sunni Arabs make up the largest religious group in Syria. Its capital Damascus and largest city Aleppo are among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, in the Islamic era, Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt. The post-independence period was tumultuous, and a number of military coups. In 1958, Syria entered a union with Egypt called the United Arab Republic. Syria was under Emergency Law from 1963 to 2011, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens, Bashar al-Assad has been president since 2000 and was preceded by his father Hafez al-Assad, who was in office from 1970 to 2000. Mainstream modern academic opinion strongly favours the argument that the Greek word is related to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, Assyria, in the past, others believed that it was derived from Siryon, the name that the Sidonians gave to Mount Hermon. However, the discovery of the inscription in 2000 seems to support the theory that the term Syria derives from Assyria. The area designated by the word has changed over time, since approximately 10,000 BC, Syria was one of centers of Neolithic culture where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the first time in the world. The following Neolithic period is represented by houses of Mureybet culture. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gyps, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations. Cities of Hamoukar and Emar played an important role during the late Neolithic, archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth, perhaps preceded by only those of Mesopotamia. The earliest recorded indigenous civilisation in the region was the Kingdom of Ebla near present-day Idlib, gifts from Pharaohs, found during excavations, confirm Eblas contact with Egypt. One of the earliest written texts from Syria is an agreement between Vizier Ibrium of Ebla and an ambiguous kingdom called Abarsal c.2300 BC. The Northwest Semitic language of the Amorites is the earliest attested of the Canaanite languages, Mari reemerged during this period, and saw renewed prosperity until conquered by Hammurabi of Babylon. Ugarit also arose during this time, circa 1800 BC, close to modern Latakia, Ugaritic was a Semitic language loosely related to the Canaanite languages, and developed the Ugaritic alphabet. The Ugarites kingdom survived until its destruction at the hands of the marauding Indo-European Sea Peoples in the 12th century BC, Yamhad was described in the tablets of Mari as the mightiest state in the near east and as having more vassals than Hammurabi of Babylon. Yamhad imposed its authority over Alalakh, Qatna, the Hurrians states, the army of Yamhad campaigned as far away as Dēr on the border of Elam

6.
Sabbioneta
–
Sabbioneta is a town and comune in the province of Mantua, Lombardy region, Northern Italy. It is situated about 30 kilometres north of Parma, not far from the bank of the Po River. It was inscribed in the World Heritage List in 2008, in 2008, Sabbioneta was inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List as a recognition of its perfect example of practical application of Renaissance urban planning theories. Sabbioneta is also known for its historic Jewish Ghetto and Synagogue, in 1551 Tobias Foa set up the press, he had, however, published certain anti-Christian books and his career was forcibly ended. His work and possibly his type were taken up by a Christian printer, Vicenzo Conte. )Churches of the Assunta and Carmine Chiesa della Beata Vergine Incoronata The church, Vespasiano Gonzaga Colonna duca di Sabbioneta e cavaliere del Toson doro. Luca Sarzi Amadè, Il duca di Sabbioneta, Guerre e amori di un europeo del XVI secolo, paperback,332 pages, Publisher, SugarCo, ISBN 88-7198-040-9 Vespasiano Gonzaga e il ducato di Sabbioneta, a cura de U. L. Ventura, Il collezionismo di un principe, la raccolta di marmi di Vespasiano Gonzaga Colonna, Vespasiano Gonzaga Colonna 1531-1591, luomo e le opere, actes del congrés destudis, Teatro olimpico di Sabbioneta,5 de juny,1999, a cura de E. Asinari

7.
Vincenzo Scamozzi
–
Vincenzo Scamozzi was an Italian architect and a writer on architecture, active mainly in Vicenza and Republic of Venice area in the second half of the 16th century. He was perhaps the most important figure there between Andrea Palladio, whose unfinished projects he inherited at Palladios death in 1580, and Baldassarre Longhena, Scamozzis only pupil. The great public project of Palladios that Scamozzi inherited early in the process of construction was the Teatro Olimpico at Vicenza, which Palladio had designed in the last months of his life. His father was the surveyor and building contractor Gian Domenico Scamozzi, he was Scamozzis first teacher, imbuing him with the principles of Sebastiano Serlio, vincenzo visited Rome in 1579–1580, and then moved to Venice in 1581. In 1600, he visited France and left a record of his impressions of French architecture. Scamozzi is famous for having inherited several unfinished projects from Andrea Palladio at the time of Palladios death in 1580 and it was originally published with woodcut illustrations at Venice in 1615. Scamozzi depended for sections of his treatment of Vitruvius on Daniele Barbaros commentary, published in 1556 with illustrations by Palladio, at that time, such treatises were becoming a vehicle for self-promotion. His first book entitled Discorsi sopra Lantichita di Roma had been cobbled together with some illustrated commentary on the ruins of Rome. According to his preface to the volumes, the images were stock productions that already existed, over half were copied from a volume published by Hieronymus Cock in Antwerp in 1551. His major book came out one year before his death and was too late to influence his own success, Scamozzis practice is sometimes spoken of as being a source of the neo-Palladian architecture as it was introduced by Inigo Jones, another follower of Andrea Palladios own example. Rudolf Wittkower referred to him as among the father of neo-classicism. Scamozzi moved to Venice in 1581, where he had invited to design the Procuratie Nuove on the Piazza San Marco itself. Eleven bays of this project were completed, and later were extended by Baldassare Longhena to fill the south flank of the piazza. The A. Everett Austin House in Hartford, Connecticut, U. S. A. is an homage to the Villa Ferreti. cesr. univ-tours. fr/Traite/Auteur/Scamozzi. asp

8.
Tolentini, Venice
–
The Chiesa di San Nicolò da Tolentino, commonly known as the Tolentini, is a church in the sestiere of Santa Croce in Venice, northern Italy. It lies in a Campo of the name and along the Rio dei Tolentini. Venice had been the home of the Theatines order in the city, the Theatines arrived in Venice in 1527 after the Sack of Rome. The church dedicated to Saint Nicholas of Tolentino was begun in 1590 by Vincenzo Scamozzi, the relationship between Scamozzi and his patrons was stormy, and the church was finally completed only in 1714. It is a church with a huge freestanding Corinthian portico. The Tolentini is a church of the Vicariate of San Polo-Santa Croce-Dorsoduro. The church contains the tomb of Doge Giovanni I Corner, Francesco Corner, Giovanni II Corner, the funereal monument of the Patriarch of Venice, Francesco Morosini in the chancel, was completed by the Genovese sculptor Filippo Parodi. The baroque organ was constructed by Pietro Nacchini in 1754, johann Liss (Inspiration of St Jerome to the left of chancel. Bernardo Strozzi High altar by Baldassare Longhena

9.
1714 in architecture
–
The year 1714 in architecture involved some significant events. St Alfege Church, Greenwich, London, designed by Nicholas Hawksmoor, is completed, Church of St Marys, Twickenham, London, designed by John James, is consecrated. Church of Santissime Stimmate di San Francesco in Rome, designed by Giovanni Battista Contini, is completed, Church of Tolentini, Venice, is completed to designs of 1590 by Vincenzo Scamozzi with a portico by Andrea Tirali. Altar of the 22-domed wooden summer Church of the Transfiguration at Kizhi Pogost in Karelia is laid, summer Palace of Peter the Great in Saint Petersburg, designed by Domenico Trezzini, is completed. Bellevue Palace, Kassel, built as an observatory, sint-Lodewijkscollege in Belgium built as a private house. Wotton House in Buckinghamshire, England, is completed, llanelly House in south Wales is built

10.
Belvedere (fort)
–
The Forte di Belvedere or Fortezza di Santa Maria in San Giorgio del Belvedere is a fortification in Florence, Italy. Forte Belvedere is the second and largest fortress to be built in Florence and it was designed and built by Bernardo Buontalenti over a five-year period, between 1590 and 1595, by order of Grand Duke Ferdinando I de Medici. Fortifications were significant in the 16th century and a demonstration of a city’s wealth, the fortress is located in the southern hills of the Arno River and on the highest hill of the Boboli Gardens. It had long considered one of the weakest spots in the city’s defenses. From a military point of view, the fortress is located at the most strategic point, overlooking almost the entire city, due to the nature of Renaissance warfare, forts were paramount in a city’s defensive strategy. Most importantly it was designed to protect the centre of government in Florence and it was also constructed to protect the Pitti Palace, Oltrarno district and south end of the city. In addition to this, the served as a garrison for troops for over 100 years after its completion. Galileo Galilei used Forte Belvedere for his observations and after he was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1633. The design of the fort reflects both Italian Renaissance and military architecture, buontalenti’s application of contemporary fortification principles is evident throughout the design. The walls are built at angles that allow for all the walls to be seen by another wall, the fort was connected to the Palazzo Vecchio via the Vasari Corridor. There were also passages connecting it to the Pitti Palace and paths leading through the Boboli Gardens, frescos seen in the Palazzo Vecchio show an earlier version of the fort, built of earth and stone gab ions. The design of the fort demonstrated the power and prestige of the Medici Family, the opulent villa at the centre of the fortress, Palazzina di Belvedere, predates the fort and was designed by Bartolomeo Ammannati around 1570. As the fort’s secondary purpose was to house the Grand Duke in times of unrest or epidemic, it was built as a comfortable and it did not adhere to military purposes, housing the Medici family’s treasures in the bottom of a well inside the building. After five years of renovation to improve its safety features, the fort reopened to visitors in July 2013 and it serves primarily as a tourist attraction and exhibition centre, hosting elite events and artistic exhibitions year round. On May 24,2014, celebrity couple Kim Kardashian and Kanye West paid €300,000 to hire the fort as the venue for their lavish wedding, in Silence of the Lambs, Dr. It is interesting to note that the man Clarice is seeking, Buffalo Bill, happens to be in Belvedere, Ohio, and one wonders whether or not he is trying to give her a clue as to his whereabouts

11.
Florence
–
Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the Metropolitan City of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants, Florence was a centre of medieval European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of the time. It is considered the birthplace of the Renaissance, and has called the Athens of the Middle Ages. A turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family, from 1865 to 1871 the city was the capital of the recently established Kingdom of Italy. The Historic Centre of Florence attracts 13 million tourists each year and it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1982. The city is noted for its culture, Renaissance art and architecture, the city also contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti, and still exerts an influence in the fields of art, culture and politics. Due to Florences artistic and architectural heritage, it has been ranked by Forbes as one of the most beautiful cities in the world, in 2008, the city had the 17th highest average income in Italy. Florence originated as a Roman city, and later, after a period as a flourishing trading and banking medieval commune. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, it was politically, economically, and culturally one of the most important cities in Europe, the language spoken in the city during the 14th century was, and still is, accepted as the Italian language. Starting from the late Middle Ages, Florentine money—in the form of the gold florin—financed the development of all over Europe, from Britain to Bruges, to Lyon. Florentine bankers financed the English kings during the Hundred Years War and they similarly financed the papacy, including the construction of their provisional capital of Avignon and, after their return to Rome, the reconstruction and Renaissance embellishment of Rome. Florence was home to the Medici, one of European historys most important noble families, Lorenzo de Medici was considered a political and cultural mastermind of Italy in the late 15th century. Two members of the family were popes in the early 16th century, Leo X, catherine de Medici married king Henry II of France and, after his death in 1559, reigned as regent in France. Marie de Medici married Henry IV of France and gave birth to the future king Louis XIII, the Medici reigned as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, starting with Cosimo I de Medici in 1569 and ending with the death of Gian Gastone de Medici in 1737. The Etruscans initially formed in 200 BC the small settlement of Fiesole and it was built in the style of an army camp with the main streets, the cardo and the decumanus, intersecting at the present Piazza della Repubblica. Situated along the Via Cassia, the route between Rome and the north, and within the fertile valley of the Arno, the settlement quickly became an important commercial centre. Peace returned under Lombard rule in the 6th century, Florence was conquered by Charlemagne in 774 and became part of the Duchy of Tuscany, with Lucca as capital. The population began to again and commerce prospered

12.
Bernardo Buontalenti
–
Bernardo Buontalenti, byname of Bernardo Delle Girandole, was an Italian stage designer, architect, theatrical designer, military engineer and artist. He entered the service of the Medici as a youth and remained with them the rest of his life and he executed a number of miniatures for Francesco, the son of Cosimo I. He was also a mechanic, and an excellent mathematician. In 1562 he travelled to Spain and his first known work is from 1568, the Palazzo di Bianca Cappello in Florence. In the Uffizi Palace of Florence, he built a great court stage and he designed costumes for the Medici extravaganzas. Despite his successes, his prodigality led Buontalenti to financial ruin, dictionary of Painters and Engravers, Biographical and Critical. York St. #4, Covent Garden, London, Original from Fogg Library, Digitized May 18,2007, George Bell, Bernardo Buontalenti and the Grotta Grande of Boboli, Florence, Maschietto Editore,2012

13.
Hardwick Hall
–
Hardwick Hall, in Derbyshire, is an architecturally significant Elizabethan country house in England, a leading example of the Elizabethan prodigy house. Built between 1590 and 1597 for the formidable Bess of Hardwick, it was designed by the architect Robert Smythson, Hardwick Hall is one of the earliest examples of the English interpretation of this style, which came into fashion having slowly spread from Florence. Its arrival in Britain fortuitously coincided with the period when it was no longer necessary or legal to fortify a domestic dwelling, ownership of the house was transferred to the National Trust in 1959. Today, it is open to the public. Sited on a hilltop between Chesterfield and Mansfield, overlooking the Derbyshire countryside, Hardwick Hall was designed by Robert Smythson in the late 16th century. Ordered by Bess of Hardwick, Countess of Shrewsbury and ancestress of the Dukes of Devonshire, Bess of Hardwick was the richest woman in England after Queen Elizabeth I, and her house was conceived to be a conspicuous statement of her wealth and power. The windows are large and numerous at a time when glass was a luxury, leading to the saying, Hardwick Hall. The Halls chimneys are built into the walls of the structure. The houses design also demonstrated new concepts not only in domestic architecture, Hardwick was one of the first English houses where the great hall was built on an axis through the centre of the house rather than at right angles to the entrance. Hardwick was but one of Besss many houses, each of her four marriages had brought her greater wealth, she had been born in the now old Hall at Hardwick, which today is a ruin beside the new hall. After Besss death in 1608, the passed to her son William Cavendish. His great-grandson, William, was created 1st Duke of Devonshire in 1694, the Devonshires made another of Besss great houses, Chatsworth, their principal seat. Hardwick thus became relegated to the role of a retreat for hunting. As a secondary home, it escaped the attention of modernisers, from the early 19th century, the antique atmosphere of Hardwick Hall was consciously preserved. A low, 19th-century service wing is fairly inconspicuous at the rear, in 1950, the unexpected death of the 10th Duke of Devonshire and the subsequent death duties caused the sale of many of the Devonshire assets and estates. At this time, Hardwick was occupied by Evelyn, Duchess of Devonshire, the decision was taken to hand the house over to HM Treasury in lieu of Estate Duty in 1956. The Treasury transferred the house to the National Trust in 1959, the Duchess remained in occupation of the house until her death in 1960. However, hostile to the Trust, the now elderly lady seldom visited the house in her final years, having done much to conserve the textiles in the house, she was to be its last occupant

14.
Derbyshire
–
Derbyshire is a county in the East Midlands of England. A substantial portion of the Peak District National Park lies within Derbyshire, in 2003 the Ordnance Survey placed Church Flatts Farm at Coton in the Elms as the furthest point from the sea in Great Britain. The city of Derby is a unitary authority area, but remains part of the county of Derbyshire. The non-metropolitan county contains 30 towns with between 10,000 and 100,000 inhabitants, there is a large amount of sparsely populated agricultural upland, 75% of the population live in 25% of the area. Further occupation came with the Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age when Mesolithic hunter gatherers roamed the hilly tundra, evidence of these nomadic tribes has been found in limestone caves located on the Nottinghamshire border. Deposits left in the date the occupancy at around 12,000 to 7,000 BCE. Burial mounds of Neolithic settlers are also situated throughout the county and these chambered tombs were designed for collective burial and are mostly located in the central Derbyshire region. There are tombs at Minninglow and Five Wells that date back to between 2000 and 2500 BCE, three miles west of Youlgreave lies the Neolithic henge monument of Arbor Low, which has been dated to 2500 BCE. It is not until the Bronze Age that real signs of agriculture, in the moors of the Peak District signs of clearance, arable fields and hut circles were discovered after archaeological investigation. However this area and another settlement at Swarkestone are all that have been found, during the Roman invasion the invaders were attracted to Derbyshire because of the lead ore in the limestone hills of the area. They settled throughout the county with forts built near Brough in the Hope Valley, later they settled around Buxton, famed for its warm springs, and set up a fort near modern-day Derby in an area now known as Little Chester. Several kings of Mercia are buried in the Repton area, following the Norman Conquest, much of the county was subject to the forest laws. To the northwest was the Forest of High Peak under the custodianship of William Peverel, the rest of the county was bestowed upon Henry de Ferrers, a part of it becoming Duffield Frith. In time the area was given to the Duchy of Lancaster. Meanwhile, the Forest of East Derbyshire covered the county to the east of the River Derwent from the reign of Henry II to that of Edward I. The main rivers in the county are the River Derwent and the River Dove which both join the River Trent in the south. The varied landscapes within Derbyshires have been formed mainly as a consequence of the underlying geology, the oldest rocks occur in the northern, more upland half of the county, and are mostly of Carboniferous age, comprising limestones, gritstones, sandstones and shales. In its north-east corner to the east of Bolsover there are also Magnesian Limestone rocks of Permian age, across both regions can be found drift deposits of Quaternary age – mainly terrace and river gravel deposits and boulder clays

15.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years

16.
Robert Smythson
–
Robert Smythson was an English architect. Smythson designed a number of houses during the Elizabethan era. Little is known about his birth and upbringing—his first mention in historical records comes in 1556 and he later designed Hardwick Hall, Wollaton Hall, Burton Agnes Hall, and other significant projects. Historically, a number of other Elizabethan houses, such as Gawthorpe Hall have been attributed to him on stylistic grounds, in Britain at this time, the profession of architect was in its most embryonic stage of development. Smythson was trained as a stonemason, and by the 1560s was travelling England as a master mason leading his own team of masons, in 1580 he moved to his next project—Wollaton Hall. At Wollaton he was more a surveyor than a stonemason. Hardwick in particular is noted for its use of glass and his son John Smythson and grandson Huntingdon Smithson were also architects

17.
Rialto Bridge
–
The Rialto Bridge is one of the four bridges spanning the Grand Canal in Venice, Italy. It is the oldest bridge across the canal, and was the line for the districts of San Marco. The first dry crossing of the Grand Canal was a bridge built in 1181 by Nicolò Barattieri. It was called the Ponte della Moneta, presumably because of the mint that stood near its eastern entrance, the development and importance of the Rialto market on the eastern bank increased traffic on the floating bridge, so it was replaced in 1255 by a wooden bridge. This structure had two inclined ramps meeting at a central section, that could be raised to allow the passage of tall ships. The connection with the market led to a change of name for the bridge. During the first half of the 15th century, two rows of shops were built along the sides of the bridge, the rents brought an income to the State Treasury, which helped maintain the bridge. Maintenance was vital for the timber bridge and it was partly burnt in the revolt led by Bajamonte Tiepolo in 1310. In 1444, it collapsed under the weight of a crowd watching a boat parade, the idea of rebuilding the bridge in stone was first proposed in 1503. Several projects were considered over the following decades, in 1551, the authorities requested proposals for the renewal of the Rialto Bridge, among other things. Plans were offered by famous architects, such as Jacopo Sansovino, Palladio and Vignola, but all involved a Classical approach with several arches, michelangelo also was considered as designer of the bridge. The present stone bridge, a single designed by Antonio da Ponte, was finally completed in 1591. It is similar to the bridge it succeeded. Two inclined ramps lead up to a central portico, on either side of the portico, the covered ramps carry rows of shops. The engineering of the bridge was considered so audacious that architect Vincenzo Scamozzi predicted future ruin, the bridge has defied its critics to become one of the architectural icons of Venice. Today, the Bridge is one of the top attractions in Vence. In 2017 police arrested Fisnik Bekaj, Dake Haziraj, and Arian Babaj and it was called Shylocks bridge in Robert Brownings poem A Toccata of Galuppis. Miracle of the Relic of the Cross at the Ponte di Rialto Rialto Bridge at Structurae Satellite image from Google Maps

18.
Antonio da Ponte
–
Antonio da Ponte was a Venetian architect and engineer, most famous for his rebuilding of the Rialto Bridge in Venice. Da Ponte was head architect of the rebuilding of the Ducal Palace that was damaged by fire in 1574. After the original structure of the Rialto Bridge had collapsed repeatedly. Between 1588 and 1591 da Ponte rebuilt the Rialto Bridge to a design to which he had contributed, the design was selected in a contest held by the local authorities under Doge of Venice Pasquale Cicogna. Though Da Ponte is relatively unknown otherwise, the design for the Venice landmark defeated submissions by noted architects of the time, the engineering of the bridge throws considerable weight on its foundations. It was considered so audacious that architect Vincenzo Scamozzi predicted future ruin, however the bridge has defied its critics to become one of the architectural icons of Venice. In the construction of this work Antonio was helped by his nephew Antonio Contino, in 1841, the Parisian architect Antoine Rondelet wrote about the suspicious similarities between Antonio da Pontes project and the one by Vincenzo Scamozzi

19.
San Salvatore in Lauro
–
San Salvatore in Lauro is a Catholic church in central Rome, Italy. It is located on a piazza of the name in the rione Ponte, it stands on Via Vecchiarelli, just south of the Lungotevere Tor di Nona. Within Rome, the church is known as St. Jesus. It is the church of the marchigiani, the inhabitants of the Marche region of Italy. The current protector of this titulus is Cardinal-Deacon Angelo Comastri, the first church at the site dates to the 11th century, while the present building was constructed in the 16th century on designs of the Bolognese Ottaviano Mascherino. The main altarpiece and cupola are painted by Ludovico Rusconi Sassi, in the chapels are works of art by Antoniazzo Romano, Camillo Rusconi, François Duquesnoy, Alessandro Turchi and a Nativity by Pietro da Cortona. The refectory has a series of Mannerist frescoes by Francesco Salviati, parmigianinos Vision of Saint Jerome was commissioned for a chapel in the church, but was later brought away by the donors and is now in the National Gallery, London. The titular church was first established in 1587 as a Cardinal-Priest title but was suppressed in 1670, in the consistory of 24 November 2007 Pope Benedict XVI restored the church as a Cardinal-Deaconry. Scipione Lancellotti Luca Antonio Virili Ciriaco Rocci Pietro Vito Ottoboni Angelo Comastri

20.
Il Redentore
–
The Non Basilica del Santissimo Redentore, commonly known as Il Redentore, is a 16th-century Roman Catholic church located on Giudecca in the sestiere of Dorsoduro, in the city of Venice, Italy. It was designed by the architect Andrea Palladio and built as a church to thank God for the deliverance of the city from a major outbreak of the plague. Located on the waterfront of the Canale della Giudecca, it dominates the skyline of the island of Giudecca and it is a member of the Chorus Association of Venetian churches and contains a number of paintings by artists including Tintoretto, Paolo Veronese and Francesco Bassano. Il Redentore was built as a church in thanksgiving for deliverance from a major outbreak of the plague that decimated Venice between 1575 and 1576, in which some 46,000 people died. The Senate of the Republic of Venice commissioned the architect Andrea Palladio to design the votive church, though the Senate wished the Church to be square plan, Palladio designed a single nave church with three chapels on either side. Its prominent position on the Canale della Giudecca gave Palladio the opportunity to design a facade inspired by the Pantheon of Rome, the cornerstone was laid by the Patriarch of Venice Giovanni Trevisano on May 3,1577 and the building was consecrated in 1592. At the urgent solicitations of Pope Gregory XIII, after consecration the church was placed in charge of the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin, a small number of Friars reside in the monastery attached to the church. Every year the doge and senators walked across a specially constructed pontoon bridge from the Zattere to Giudecca to attend Mass in the church, the Festa del Redentore remains a major festival in the Venetian calendar, celebrated on the third Sunday in July. A huge firework display on the evening is followed by a mass procession across the pontoon bridge. Il Redentore has one of the most prominent sites of any of Palladios structures and it is a large, white building with a dome crowned by a statue of the Redeemer. On the façade a central triangular pediment overlies a larger, lower one and this classical feature recalls Palladios façade for San Francesco della Vigna, where he used an adaptation of a triumphal arch. Palladio is known for applying rigorous geometric proportions to his façades, the overall height is four-fifths that of its overall width whilst the width of the central portion is five-sixths of its height. It has been suggested there are some Turkish influences in the exterior. As a pilgrimage church, the building was expected to have a long nave, the result is a somewhat eclectic building, the white stucco and gray stone interior combines the nave with a domed crossing in spaces that are clearly articulated yet unified. An uninterrupted Corinthian order makes its way around the entire interior, the sacristy also contains a series of wax heads of Franciscans made in 1710. The church was painted by Canaletto a number of times, including one held at Woburn Abbey, England

21.
Giudecca
–
Giudecca is an island in the Venetian Lagoon, in northern Italy. It is part of the sestiere of Dorsoduro and is a locality of the comune of Venice, Giudecca lies immediately south of the central islands of Venice, from which it is separated by the Giudecca Canal. San Giorgio Maggiore lies off its eastern tip, Giudecca was known in ancient times as the Spinalunga. The name Giudecca may represent a corruption of the Latin Judaica and so may be translated as the Jewry, a number of towns in Southern Italy and Sicily have Jewish quarters named Giudecca or Judeca. However, the original Venetian Ghetto was in Cannaregio, in the north of the city, and there is no evidence, furthermore, the term Giudecca was not used to denote the Jewish quarters of towns in northern Italy. Giudecca was historically an area of large palaces with gardens, the became an industrial area in the early 20th century with shipyards and factories. It is known for its dock and its churches, including the Palladio-designed Il Redentore. The island was the home of a flour mill, the Molino Stucky. At the other end of Giudecca is the famous five-star Cipriani hotel with private gardens. Modern renovations of some antique architecture in Giudecca have bolstered the reputation as a vacation locale. In 2011, Venetian developers reopened the lodgings of a prominent 16th-century mansion as long-term rentals under the name Villa F, satellite image from Google Maps Guide, news, events in Giudecca Mini Guide to Giudecca

22.
Andrea Palladio
–
Andrea Palladio was an Italian architect active in the Republic of Venice. Palladio, influenced by Roman and Greek architecture, primarily by Vitruvius, is considered to be the most influential individual in the history of architecture. All of his buildings are located in what was the Venetian Republic, the city of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Palladio was born on 30 November 1508 in Padua and was given the name and his father, Pietro, called Della Gondola, was a miller. From early on, Andrea Palladio was introduced into the work of building, in Padua he gained his first experiences as a stonecutter in the sculpture workshop of Bartolomeo Cavazza da Sossano, who is said to have imposed particularly hard working conditions. At the age of sixteen he moved to Vicenza where he would reside for most of his life, here he became an assistant in the Pedemuro studio, a leading workshop of stonecutters and masons. He joined a guild of stonemasons and bricklayers and he was employed as a stonemason to make monuments and decorative sculptures. These sculptures reflected the Mannerist style of the architect Michele Sanmicheli, perhaps the key moment that sparked Palladios career was being employed by the Humanist poet and scholar, Gian Giorgio Trissino, from 1538 to 1539. While Trissino was reconstructing the Villa Cricoli, he took interest in Palladios work, Trissino was heavily influenced by the studies of Vitruvius, who later influenced Palladios own ideals and attitudes toward classical architecture. It was also Trissino who gave him the name by which he became known, Palladio, indeed, the word Palladio means Wise one. The powerful Barbaros introduced Palladio to Venice, where he finally became Proto della Serenissima after Jacopo Sansovino, in addition to the Barbaros, the Corner, Foscari, and Pisani families supported Palladios career. Andrea Palladio began to develop his own architectural style around 1541, the Palladian style, named after him, adhered to classical Roman principles he rediscovered, applied, and explained in his works. Andrea Palladio is known to be one of the most influential architects in Western architecture and his architectural works have been valued for centuries as the quintessence of High Renaissance calm and harmony. He designed many palaces, villas, and churches, but Palladios reputation, initially, the palladian villas are located mainly in the province of Vicenza, while the palazzi are concentrated in the city of Vicenza and the churches in Venice. A number of his works are now protected as part of the World Heritage Site City of Vicenza, other buildings by Palladio are to be found within the Venice and its Lagoon World Heritage Site. Palladios first major public project began when his designs for building the loggias for the town hall and he proposed an addition of two-storey stone buttresses reflecting the Gothic style of the existing hall while using classical proportions. The construction was completed in 1617 after Palladios death, aside from Palladios designs, his publications contributed to Palladianism. During the second half of his life, Palladio published many books, above all, Palladio is most known for his designs of villas and palaces as well as his books

23.
Kasthamandap
–
Kasthamandap was a three-storied public shelter that included a shrine consecrated to Gorakshanath situated at Maru, Kathmandu. Several myths and stories about the date of the construction of the Kasthamandap Temple have been resolved with the recent archeological findings. The newly discovered objects during the excavation here in the aftermath of the earthquake have suggested that the Kasthamandap may have built in the 7th century during the Lichhavi era. Before this, it was assumed that the Kasthamandap was built in around the 12th century, a team of international and national experts from the Department of Archaeology, Government of Nepal and Durham University had dug beneath the Kasthamandap some seven months back. During the excavation, coal and sand were found at the foundation of the Kasthamandap, the foundation soil, coal and sand were taken to the University of Stirling, Scotland for carbon and Optically Stimulated Luminescence tests. Following a nearly 7-month-long lab test, the result proved that the Kasthamandap Temple was built in the 7th century, said Ram Kunwar, spokesperson at the Department of Archeology. The team is now carrying out works of the Kasthamandap with financial and technological support of the National Geographic Society and Art. It is said that the Kasthamandap was built from the timber of a single tree, scientific tests of the sample wood are also being conducted to see if this is the case. It was revealed there was no fault with the construction of the Kasthamandap’s foundation. Among the four pillars, one pillar was not erected due to negligence, so the Kasthamandap was destroyed by last years earthquake, the foundation of the heritage was found strongly built using the traditional method. During the cleaning of the debris, more damage was done by the use of dozers, they said. On 25 April 2015, Kasthamandap temple along with others on the Kathmandu Durbar Square, was damaged and collapsed by the April 2015 Nepal earthquake. During the excavations, copperplate inscriptions mentioning of Jayasthithi Malla, Jyotir Malla and Yogmati Bhattarika have been recovered from a pillar of the Kasthamandap Temple

24.
Kathmandu
–
Kathmandu is the capital city of the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, the largest Himalayan state in Asia. Kathmandu is also the largest metropolis in the Himalayan hill region, the city stands at an elevation of approximately 1,400 metres above sea level in the bowl-shaped Kathmandu Valley of central Nepal. The valley is termed as Nepal Proper and has been the home of Newar culture. The city was the capital of the Kingdom of Nepal and hosts palaces. It has been home to the headquarters of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation since 1985, today, it is the seat of government of the Nepalese republic established in 2008, and is part of the Bagmati Zone in Nepalese administrative geography. Kathmandu has been the center of Nepals history, art, culture and it has a multiethnic population within a Hindu and Buddhist majority. Religious and cultural festivities form a part of the lives of people residing in Kathmandu. Tourism is an important part of the economy as the city is the gateway to the Nepalese Himalayas, there are also seven casinos in the city. In 2013, Kathmandu was ranked third among the top ten upcoming travel destinations in the world by TripAdvisor, historic areas of Kathmandu were devastated by a 7.8 magnitude earthquake on 25 April 2015. Nepali is the most spoken language in the city, while English is understood by the citys educated residents, the city of Kathmandu is named after Kasthamandap temple, that stood in Durbar Square. In Sanskrit, Kāṣṭha means wood and Maṇḍap means covered shelter and this temple, also known as Maru Satal in the Newar language, was built in 1596 by Biseth in the period of King Laxmi Narsingh Malla. The two-story structure was entirely of wood, and used no iron nails nor supports. According to legend, all the used to build the pagoda was obtained from a single tree. The structure collapsed during the earthquake on 25 April 2015. The colophons of ancient manuscripts, dated as late as the 20th century, the city is called Kāṣṭhamaṇḍap in a vow that Buddhist priests still recite to this day. Thus, Kathmandu is also known as Kāṣṭhamaṇḍap, during medieval times, the city was sometimes called Kāntipur. This name is derived from two Sanskrit words – Kānti and pur, Kānti is a word that stands for beauty and is mostly associated with light and pur means place. Thus, giving it a meaning as City of light, among the indigenous Newar people, Kathmandu is known as Yeṃ Deśa, and Patan and Bhaktapur are known as Yala Deśa and Khwopa Deśa

25.
Rushton Triangular Lodge
–
The Triangular Lodge is a folly, designed and constructed between 1593 and 1597 by Sir Thomas Tresham near Rushton, Northamptonshire, England. It is now in the care of English Heritage, the stone used for the construction was alternating bands of dark and light limestone. The lodge is Grade I listed on the National Heritage List for England, Tresham was a Roman Catholic and was imprisoned for a total of fifteen years in the late 16th century for refusing to become a Protestant. On his release in 1593, he designed the Lodge as a protestation of his faith. His belief in the Holy Trinity is represented everywhere in the Lodge by the three, it has three walls 33 feet long, each with three triangular windows and surmounted by three gargoyles. One wall is inscribed 15, another 93, and the last TT, the building has three floors, upon a basement, and a triangular chimney. Three Latin texts, each 33 letters long, run around the building on each facade, the quotations are, Aperiatur terra & germinet Salvatorem, Let the earth open and … bring forth salvation Quis separabit nos a charitate Christi. Who shall separate us from the love of Christ, consideravi opera tua, Domine, et expavi, I have contemplated thy works, O Lord, and was afraid The windows on each floor are of different designs, all equally ornate. The largest, those on the first floor, are in the form of a trefoil, the basement windows are small trefoils with a triangular pane at their centre. The windows on the floor are of a lozenge design. Heraldic shields of various families surround these windows, the slightly raised ground floor has an entrance in the south-east facade. Over the door, beneath Treshams coat of arms, is the Latin inscription, Tres testimonium dant, also above the door are the numbers 5555. The figures are shaped, and architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner speculated that this may once have read 3333. It has, however, been pointed out that if 1593 is subtracted from 5555, the principal room on each floor is hexagonal, thus leaving the three corner spaces triangular, one of these spaces contains a spiral staircase, the remaining two are small rooms. The building is crowned, above the quotations on each facade, among the emblems carved on the gables are, on the southeast side, the highly symbolic seven-branched candelabrum within an octagonal plaque, and a heptagonal plaque depicting the seven eyes of God. On the north side are a Pelican in her piety, a symbol of Christ and the Eucharist, and a Hen and Chickens, on the southwest gable are a Dove and Serpent, and the Hand of God touching a globe. The triangular chimney is adorned with the holy monogram IHS, a lamb and cross, while the lodge is indisputably a testament to Treshams faith, it is also an example of the Elizabethan love of allegory. Carved in the gables are the numbers 3509 and 3898, these are said to be the dates of the Creation and the Calling of Abraham

26.
Northamptonshire
–
Northamptonshire, archaically known as the County of Northampton, is a county in the East Midlands of England. In 2011, it had a population of 629,000, the county is administered by Northamptonshire County Council and seven non-metropolitan district councils. Northamptonshire is the southernmost county in the East Midlands region, apart from the county town of Northampton, other large population centres include Kettering, Corby, Wellingborough, Rushden and Daventry. Northamptonshires county flower is the cowslip, there are two more possible hill-forts at Arbury Hill and Thenford. In the 1st century BC, most of what later became Northamptonshire became part of the territory of the Catuvellauni, a Belgic tribe, the Catuvellauni were in turn conquered by the Romans in 43 AD. The Roman road of Watling Street passed through the county, there were other Roman settlements at Northampton, Kettering and along the Nene Valley near Raunds. A large fort was built at Longthorpe, after the Romans left, the area eventually became part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia, and Northampton functioned as an administrative centre. The Mercians converted to Christianity in 654 AD with the death of the pagan king Penda, Northamptonshire was conquered again in 940, this time by the Vikings of York, who devastated the area, only for the county to be retaken by the English in 942. Consequently, it is one of the few counties in England to have both Saxon and Danish town-names and settlements, the county was first recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, as Hamtunscire, the scire of Hamtun. The North was added to distinguish Northampton from the other important Hamtun further south, Rockingham Castle was built for William the Conqueror and was used as a Royal fortress until Elizabethan times. In 1460, during the Wars of the Roses, the Battle of Northampton took place, the now-ruined Fotheringhay Castle was used to imprison Mary, Queen of Scots, before her execution. George Washington, the first President of the United States of America, was born into the Washington family who had migrated to America from Northamptonshire in 1656. George Washingtons ancestor, Lawrence Washington, was Mayor of Northampton on several occasions and it was George Washingtons great-grandfather, John Washington, who emigrated in 1656 from Northants to Virginia. Before Washingtons ancestors moved to Sulgrave, they lived in Warton, King Charles I was imprisoned at Holdenby House in 1647. In 1823 Northamptonshire was said to a pure and wholesome air because of its dryness. Its livestock were celebrated, Horned cattle, and other animals, are fed to extraordinary sizes, in summer, the county hosted a great number of wealthy families. Country seats and villas are to be seen at every step, Northamptonshire is still referred to as the county of spires and squires because of the numbers of stately homes and ancient churches. In the 18th and 19th centuries, parts of Northamptonshire and the area became industrialised

27.
Thomas Tresham (died 1605)
–
Sir Thomas Tresham was a prominent recusant Catholic landowner in Elizabethan Northamptonshire. He died two years after the accession of James VI and I, Tresham was brought up in the Throckmorton household. He inherited large estates at the age of 15, from his grandfather and namesake Thomas Tresham I and he was widely regarded as clever and well-educated, a correspondent of William Cecil, the Secretary of State to Queen Elizabeth, and Sir Christopher Hatton, the Lord Chancellor. Well-read, Tresham dedicated much of his life to collecting books, Tresham was pricked as sheriff for Northamptonshire in 1573 and was knighted at the Queens Royal Progress at Kenilworth in 1575. He frequently entertained large numbers of friends and acquaintances but also pursued an aggressively conservative estate policy, between 1581 and 1605, Tresham paid penalties totalling just under £8,000. His credit was thus impaired, and the involvement of his son, Francis, in the Earl of Essexs rebellion. As a Catholic who had Jesuit links, and who argued for a right to act according to his conscience unmolested, he was tarred with the brush of disloyalty. Ultimately, his son Lewis successfully ate through what little money was left. He left three notable buildings in Northamptonshire, the extraordinary Rushton Triangular Lodge and the unfinished Lyveden New Bield, the Triangular Lodge bears witness to Treshams fidelity to the doctrine of the Trinity. There was also a personal connection, above the door we find the inscription Tres testimonium dant. Tres may be a moment of self-reference, it was his wifes pet name for him, Tresham himself was the architect of these designs, and the extant family papers in the British Library reveal some of his plans. Sir Thomas was a landowner at his death in 1605. In 1566, he married Muriel, a daughter of Sir Robert Throckmorton, the Throckmorton family was a wealthy Catholic family from Coughton Court in Warwickshire and Tresham had been Sir Roberts ward. Imprisoned for his actions, Francis met an early death in December 1605, nevertheless, he was decapitated after his death and his head displayed as that of a notorious traitor. His role in the Plot has been the subject of debate by historians, however widely agreed his authorship of the letter to his relative, it remains conjectural

28.
Recusancy
–
Recusancy was the state of those who refused to attend Anglican services during the history of England and Wales, these individuals were known as recusants. The Recusancy Acts began during the reign of Elizabeth I and were repealed in 1650 and they imposed various types of punishment on those who did not participate in Anglican religious activity, such as fines, property confiscation, and imprisonment. As far as the term is used in the present day, recusant applies to the descendants of Roman Catholic British gentry and peerage families. Catholicism was the majority religion in various pockets, notably in parts of Lancashire, Yorkshire and Cumbria, and in Scotland, in parts of the Highlands and the Southern Hebrides. The term recusant is also used generally to refer to non-compliance with a perceived innovation of questionable orthodoxy. Some traditional Catholics have used the term following Vatican II, particularly in defence of the Latin mass, Catholics formed a large proportion, if not a plurality, of recusants, and it was to Catholics that the term initially was applied. Non-Catholic groups composed of Reformed Christians or Protestant dissenters from the Church of England were later labelled recusants as well, the recusancy laws were in force from the reign of Elizabeth I to that of George III, but not always enforced with equal intensity. Other Acts targeted Catholic recusants, including statutes passed under James I and Charles I, recusants were subject to various civil disabilities and penalties under English penal laws, most of which were repealed during the Regency and the reign of George IV. The Nuttall Encyclopædia notes that Dissenters were largely forgiven by the Act of Toleration under William III, early recusants included Protestant dissenters, whose confessions derived from the Calvinistic Reformers or Radical Reformers. With the growth of these groups after the Restoration of Charles II. The recusant period reaped an extensive harvest of saints and martyrs, among the recusants were some high-profile Catholic aristocrats such as the Howards and, for a time, the Plantagenet-descended Beauforts. In the English-speaking world, the Douay-Rheims Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgate by expatriate recusants in Rheims, France, in 1582 and in Douai and it was revised by Bishop Richard Challoner in the years 1749–52. The 1750 revision is still printed today, the Douay-Rheims Challoner Bible is still often preferred by more conservative or Traditionalist Catholics. Other members of the Howard family, the Earls of Carlisle, Effingham, Recusancy was historically focused in Northern England, particularly Cumbria, Lancashire and Yorkshire. The Acton family is another well-known recusant family, the will of a William Latewise who died in 1603 in Goosnargh – part of the parish of Kirkham – states he was of Culcheth in the parish of Winwick. One of those preparing his inventory in 1608 was John Sterrope, around this time the area around Goosnargh was home to several Catholic families – Beesley, Hesketh, Keighley, Marsden, and Threlfall. Records show that members of the Latewysse family were fined for recusancy. In Wales, the few recusant families include Mostyn, Herbert, Morgan and, most notably and they helped to provide a resurgent Catholic Church in England with financial support

29.
Newark Castle, Port Glasgow
–
For centuries this location was used to offload seagoing ships, and led to the growth of Port Glasgow close to the castle on either side and to the south. When dredging techniques made the Clyde navigable as far as Glasgow the port became a centre. The castle was built in 1478 by George Maxwell when he inherited the Barony of Finlanstone in the parish of Kilmacolm, the original castle had a tower house within a walled enclosure or barmkin entered through a large gatehouse. All that remains of the defensive wall is from one of the original corner towers. It is thought there would have been a hall and ancillary buildings such as a bakehouse. In 1597 Sir Patrick expanded the building, constructing a new north range replacing the earlier hall in the form of a three storey Renaissance mansion, at this time the barmkin wall was demolished except for the north east tower, which was converted into a doocot. The central part of the mansion has cellars with tiny windows under a main hall with large windows, and other accommodation above that. An east wing with the entrance door close to the main block links it to the original tower house which was suitably modified. The mansion has features of the Scottish baronial style including crow-stepped gables, at the centre of its north wall a stairwell supported out on corbelling gives access to the upper floor. In 1668 the Glasgow authorities purchased 18 acres of land around Newark Castle from Sir George Maxwell who was then the laird, the last Maxwell died in 1694 and the castle had a series of non-resident owners. An early tenant was a ropemaker called John Orr who also dealt in wild animals such as big cats and bears which he obtained from ships visiting the Clyde and often housed in the castle cellars. The cellars and gardens were later rented by Charles Williamson who blocked access from the hall to stop the joiner John Gardner who rented the hall from stealing fruit stored in the cellars. John Smith in 1895 records that the stump of the tree were carefully preserved in the castle grounds. Newark Castle came into state care in 1909 and is now a property of Historic Scotland with excellent visitor facilities

Japanese arquebuses of the Edo period were used by Japanese soldiers during Hideyoshi's invasions.

An illustration of an ampulliform Chinese fire-lance with a gunpowder charge shooting a blast of flame with lead pellets as coviative projectiles. The weapon was called the 'phalanx-charging fire-gourd'.