The principwe is expressed in de winks of dependent origination (Pawi: dvādasanidānāni, Sanskrit: dvādaśanidānāni) in Buddhism, a winear wist of twewve ewements from de Buddhist teachings which arise depending on de preceding wink. Traditionawwy de wist is interpreted as describing de conditionaw arising of rebirf in saṃsāra, and de resuwtant duḥkha (suffering, pain, unsatisfactoriness).[2] An awternate Theravada interpretation regards de wist as describing de arising of mentaw formations and de resuwtant notion of "I" and "mine," which are de source of suffering.[3][4] Traditionawwy, de reversaw of de causaw chain is expwained as weading to de annihiwation of mentaw formations and rebirf.[2][5]

Schowars have noted inconsistencies in de wist, and regard it to be a water syndesis of severaw owder wists.[6][7][8][9][10][4] The first four winks may be a mockery of de Vedic-Brahmanic cosmogony, as described in de Hymn of Creation of Veda X, 129 and de Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.[11][9][4][12][13][14] These were integrated wif a branched wist which describe de conditioning of mentaw processes,[8][10][4] akin to de five skandhas.[15] Eventuawwy, dis branched wist devewoped into de standard twewvefowd chain as a winear wist.[8][16] Whiwe dis wist may be interpreted as describing de processes which give rise to rebirf, in essence it describes de arising of dukkha as a psychowogicaw process, widout de invowvement of an atman, uh-hah-hah-hah.[10][11]

pratitya: "having depended";[17] it appears in various Vedas and Upanishads, such as hymns 4.5.14, 7.68.6 of de Rigveda and 19.49.8 of Adarvaveda, in de sense of "confirmation, dependence, acknowwedge origin".[18][19] The Sanskrit root of de word is prati* whose forms appear more extensivewy in de Vedic witerature, and it means "to go towards, go back, come back, to approach" wif de connotation of "observe, wearn, convince onesewf of de truf of anyding, be certain of, bewieve, give credence, recognize". In oder contexts, a rewated term pratiti* means "going towards, approaching, insight into anyding".[19]

The term has been transwated into Engwish variouswy as dependent origination, dependent arising, interdependent co-arising, conditioned arising, and conditioned genesis.[21][22][note 2]

The term may awso refer to de twewve nidānas, Pawi: dvādasanidānāni, Sanskrit: dvādaśanidānāni, from dvāvaśa ("twewve") + nidānāni (pwuraw of "nidāna", "cause, motivation, wink").[qwote 2] Generawwy speaking, in de Mahayana tradition, pratityasamutpada (Sanskrit) is used to refer to de generaw principwe of interdependent causation, whereas in de Theravada tradition, paticcasamuppāda (Pawi) is used to refer to de twewve nidānas.

The Pratityasamutpada teachings asserts neider direct Newtonian-wike causawity nor a singwe causawity. Rader, it asserts an indirect conditioned causawity and a pwuraw causawity.[27][28] The "causaw wink" propositions in Buddhism is very different from de idea of causawity dat devewoped in Europe.[29][30] Instead, de concept of causawity in Buddhism is referring to conditions created by a pwurawity of causes dat necessariwy co-originate phenomena widin and across wifetimes, such as karma in one wife creating conditions dat wead to rebirf in one of reawms of existence for anoder wifetime.[31][32][33] The Pratītyasamutpāda principwe asserts dat de dependent origination is necessary and sufficient condition in bof directions. This is expressed in Majjhima Nikaya as "When dis is, dat is; This arising, dat arises; When dis is not, dat is not; This ceasing, dat ceases."[34][35]

According to Peter Harvey, Pratityasamutpada is an ontowogicaw principwe; dat is, a deory to expwain de nature and rewations of being, becoming, existence and uwtimate reawity. Buddhism asserts dat dere is noding independent, except de state of nirvana.[22][note 3] Aww physicaw and mentaw states depend on and arise from oder pre-existing states, and in turn from dem arise oder dependent states whiwe dey cease.[36] The 'dependent arisings' have a causaw conditioning, and dus Pratityasamutpada is de Buddhist bewief dat causawity is de basis of ontowogy, not a creator God nor de ontowogicaw Vedic concept cawwed universaw Sewf (Brahman) nor any oder 'transcendent creative principwe'.[37][38]

The Pratītyasamutpāda ontowogicaw principwe in Buddhism is appwied not onwy to expwain de nature and existence of matter and empiricawwy observed phenomenon, but awso to de nature and existence of wife.[39] In abstract form, according to Peter Harvey, "de doctrine states: 'That being, dis comes to be; from de arising of dat, dis arises; dat being absent, dis is not; from de cessation of dat, dis ceases'."[22] There is no 'first cause' from which aww beings arose.[40]

dependent-origination addresses de workings of de mind awone. Dependent-origination shouwd be understood to be no more dan an inqwiry into de nature of de sewf (or better, de wack of a sewf). Viewing pratitya-samutpada as a description of de nature of reawity in generaw means investing de words of de earwier teachings wif meanings derived from water Buddhist discourse."[41]

Shuwman grants dat dere are some ontowogicaw impwications dat may be gweaned from dependent origination, but dat at its core it is concerned wif "identifying de different processes of mentaw conditioning and describing deir rewations".[41]

According to Stephen Laumakis, pratītyasamutpāda is awso an epistemowogicaw principwe; dat is, a deory about how we gain correct and incorrect knowwedge about being, becoming, existence and reawity.[44] The 'dependent origination' doctrine, states Peter Harvey, "highwights de Buddhist notion dat aww apparentwy substantiaw entities widin de worwd are in fact wrongwy perceived. We wive under de iwwusion dat terms such as 'I', sewf, mountain, tree, etc. denote permanent and stabwe dings. The doctrine teaches dis is not so."[45] There is noding permanent (anicca), noding substantiaw, no uniqwe individuaw sewf in de nature of becoming and existence (anatta), because everyding is a resuwt of "dependent origination".[45][35][46] There are no independent objects and independent subjects, according to de Pratītyasamutpāda doctrine, dere is fundamentaw emptiness in aww phenomena and experiences.[44]

The twewve nidānas (Pawi: dvādasanidānāni, Sanskrit: dvādaśanidānāni) is a winear wist of twewve ewements from de Buddhist teachings which are pratītyasamutpāda, arising depending on de previous wink. According to Shuwman, "de 12 winks are paticcasamuppada"; in de suttas, dependent origination refers to noding ewse but de process of mentaw conditioning as described by de twewve nidanas.[47]

Traditionawwy de standard-wist is interpreted as describing de conditionaw arising of rebirf in saṃsāra, and de resuwtant duḥkha (suffering, pain, unsatisfactoriness).[48][49][50][2][51][web 2] An awternate interpretation regards de wist as describing de causaw arising of mentaw formations and de resuwtant duḥkha. Traditionawwy, de reversaw of de causaw chain is expwained as weading to de annihiwation of mentaw formations and rebirf.[2][5] Schowars have noted inconsistencies in de wist, and regard it to be a water syndesis of severaw owder wists.[8]

Descriptions of de fuww seqwence of twewve winks can be found ewsewhere in de Pawi canon, for instance in section 12 of de Samyutta Nikaya:[57]

Now from de remainderwess fading and cessation of dat very ignorance comes de cessation of fabrications ... From de cessation of birf, den aging and deaf, sorrow, wamentation, pain, distress, & despair aww cease. Such is de cessation of dis entire mass of stress and suffering.

SN12.2: "Not knowing suffering, not knowing de origination of suffering, not knowing de cessation of suffering, not knowing de way of practice weading to de cessation of suffering: This is cawwed ignorance. It weads to action, or constructing activities."[59][57]

SN12.2: "These six are cwasses of consciousness: eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness, intewwect-consciousness. This is cawwed consciousness."[57]Buckneww: In de Maha-nidana Sutta, which contains ten winks, vijnana and nama-rupa are described as conditioning each oder, creating a woop which is absent in de standard version of twewve winks.[60][8]

SN12.2: "Feewing,[note 5] perception,[note 6] intention,[note 7] contact, and attention:[note 8] This is cawwed name.[note 9] The four great ewements,[note 10] and de body dependent on de four great ewements: This is cawwed form."[note 11]Buckneww: originawwy, nama-rupa referred to de six cwasses of sense-objects, which togeder wif de six-senses and de six sense-consciousnesses form phassa, "contact."[8]

SN 12.2: "These six are cwasses of craving: craving for forms, craving for sounds, craving for smewws, craving for tastes, craving for tactiwe sensations, craving for ideas. This is cawwed craving."[57]

SN 12.2: "These dree are becoming: sensuaw becoming,[note 19] form becoming,[note 20] formwess becoming."[note 21][57]* Thanissaro Bhikkhu :"Nowhere in de suttas does he [de Buddha] define de term becoming, but a survey of how he uses de term in different contexts suggests dat it means a sense of identity in a particuwar worwd of experience: your sense of what you are, focused on a particuwar desire, in your personaw sense of de worwd as rewated to dat desire."[63]* A Gwossary of Pawi and Buddhist Terms: "Becoming. States of being dat devewop first in de mind and can den be experienced as internaw worwds and/or as worwds on an externaw wevew."[64]* Bhikkhu Bodhi: "(i) de active side of wife dat produces rebirf into a particuwar mode of sentient existence, in oder words rebirf-producing kamma; and (ii) de mode of sentient existence dat resuwts from such activity."[62][note 18]* Payutto: "[T]he entire process of behavior generated to serve craving and cwinging (kammabhava).[3]

SN 12.2: "Whatever birf, taking birf, descent, coming-to-be, coming-forf, appearance of aggregates, & acqwisition of [sense] media of de various beings in dis or dat group of beings, dat is cawwed birf."[57][note 22]Anawayo: "birf" may refer to (physicaw) birf; to rebirf;[note 23] and to de arising of mentaw phenomena.[65] The Vibhanga, de second book of de Theravada Abbidhamma, treats bof rebirf and de arising of mentaw phenomena. In de Suttantabhajaniya it is described as rebirf, which is conditioned by becoming (bhava), and gives rise to owd age and deaf (jarāmaraṇa) in a wiving being. In de Abhidhammabhajaniya it is treated as de arising of mentaw phenomena.[65]Nanavira Thera: "...jati is 'birf' and not 'rebirf'. 'Rebirf' is punabbhava bhinibbatti'."[66]

SN 12.2: "Whatever aging, decrepitude, brokenness, graying, wrinkwing, decwine of wife-force, weakening of de facuwties of de various beings in dis or dat group of beings, dat is cawwed aging. Whatever deceasing, passing away, breaking up, disappearance, dying, deaf, compwetion of time, break up of de aggregates, casting off of de body, interruption in de wife facuwty of de various beings in dis or dat group of beings, dat is cawwed deaf."[57]

"Nidanas" are co-dependent events or phenomena, which act as winks on a chain, conditioning and depending on each oder.[51][web 2] When certain conditions are present, dey give rise to subseqwent conditions, which in turn give rise to oder conditions.[48][49][50] Phenomena are sustained onwy so wong as deir sustaining factors remain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[67] This causaw rewationship is expressed in its most generaw form as fowwows:[note 24]

When dis exists, dat comes to be. Wif de arising of dis, dat arises. When dis does not exist, dat does not come to be. Wif de cessation of dis, dat ceases.

This naturaw waw of dis/dat causawity is independent of being discovered, just wike de waws of physics.[note 25] In particuwar, de Buddha appwied dis waw of causawity to determine de cause of dukkha.[note 26] Understanding de rewationships between de phenomena dat sustain dukkha[57] is said to wead to nibbana, compwete freedom from samsara[68]

Traditionawwy, de reversaw of de causaw chain is expwained as weading to de annihiwation of mentaw formations and rebirf:[2][50][51][web 2] "From de remainderwess fading and cessation of ignorance comes de cessation of (vowitionaw) fabrications" et cetera.[note 27]

An attitude of trust directed at uwtimate wiberation and as refuge in de dree jewews. The sutta states dat "suffering is de supporting condition for faif", dereby winking it wif de wast nidana in de 12 nidana chain, uh-hah-hah-hah. As Bhikkhu Bodhi expwains: "it is de experience of suffering which first tears us out of our bwind absorption in de immediacy of temporaw being and sets us in search of a way to its transcendence." Faif awso comes about drough de hearing of de exposition of true Dhamma (teaching). Faif awso weads to de practice of morawity (siwa).

Joy (pāmojja)

From confidence in de sources of refuge and contempwation on dem, a sense of joy arises

Generawwy, de appwication of meditation is needed for de arising of rapture or bwiss, dough some rare individuaws might experience rapture simpwy from de joy which arises from faif and a cwear conscience arising from moraw wiving. The meditative states cawwed jhanas are states of ewevated rapture.

"The whowesome unification of de mind", totawwy free from distractions and unsteadiness.

yafābhūta-ñānadassana

"Knowwedge and vision of dings as dey reawwy are". Wif a peacefuw and concentrated mind, one is now abwe to practice de devewopment of insight (vipassana bhavana), de first phase of which is insight into de nature of de five aggregates. Onwy pañña, de wisdom which penetrates de true nature of phenomena, can destroy de defiwements which keep beings bound to samsara. This wisdom is not mere conceptuaw understanding, but a kind of direct experience akin to visuaw perception which sees de impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, and sewfwessness of aww phenomena. In Nordern Buddhist traditions and Mahayana works, insight into emptiness is furder emphasized.

Disenchantment (nibbidā)

Noticing de passing away of phenomena, de fact dat noding is stabwe, rewiabwe or permanent, gives rise to a sense of disenchantment towards dem. B. Bodhi: "a conscious act of detachment resuwting from a profound noetic discovery. Nibbida signifies in short, de serene, dignified widdrawaw from phenomena which supervenes when de iwwusion of deir permanence, pweasure, and sewfhood has been shattered by de wight of correct knowwedge and vision of dings as dey are."

Dispassion (virāga)

The first truwy transmundane (wokuttara) stage in de progression, uh-hah-hah-hah. B. Bodhi: "Whatever tends to provoke grasping and adherence is immediatewy abandoned, whatever tends to create new invowvement is weft behind. The owd urges towards outer extension and accumuwation give way to a new urge towards rewinqwishment as de one cwearwy perceived way to rewease."

Having a twofowd aspect: de emancipation from ignorance (paññavimutti) and defiwements (cetovimutti) experienced in wife, de oder is de emancipation from repeated existence attained when passing away. Eqwivawent wif Nibbana.

āsava-khaye-ñāna

"Knowwedge of destruction of de Asavas". This is a stage termed retrospective cognition or "reviewing knowwedge" (paccavekkhana ñana), which reviews and confirms dat aww defiwements have been abandoned. B. Bodhi: "The retrospective cognition of rewease invowves two acts of ascertainment. The first, cawwed de "knowwedge of destruction" (khaya ñana), ascertains dat aww defiwements have been abandoned at de root; de second, de "knowwedge of non-arising" (anuppade ñana), ascertains dat no defiwement can ever arise again, uh-hah-hah-hah."

The Upanisa Sutta in de Samyutta Nikaya describes de reversed order, in which de causes for enwightenment are given, uh-hah-hah-hah. This appwication of de principwe of dependent arising is referred to in Theravada exegeticaw witerature as "transcendentaw dependent arising".[71][note 28] The chain in dis case is:

The nikayas demsewves do not give a systematic expwanation of de nidana series.[73] As an expository device, de commentariaw tradition presented de factors as a winear seqwence spanning over dree wives,[74] dus shifting de deme from a singwe conception (and birf) to a seqwence of "incarnations" (roughwy speaking). The twewve nidanas were interpreted by Buddhaghosa (c. fiff century CE) of de Sri Lankan Mahavihara tradition as encompassing dree successive wives, as outwined in his infwuentiaw Visuddhimagga.[75][76][77] According to Buddhaghosa, de first two nidanas, namewy ignorance (nescience) and motivation, rewate to de previous wife and forecast de destiny of de person, uh-hah-hah-hah. The dird to de tenf nidanas rewate to de present wife, beginning wif de descent of vijnana (consciousness, perception) into de womb.[note 29] The wast two nidanas (birf and deaf) represent de future wives conditioned by de present causes.[76][78][79] Because of Buddhaghosa's vast infwuence in de devewopment of Theravada schowasticism, dis modew has been very infwuentiaw in de Theravada schoow.[77][note 30]

Yet, de twewve nidanas have awso been interpreted widin de Theravada tradition as expwaining de arising of psychowogicaw or phenomenowogicaw processes in de present moment. There is scripturaw support for dis as an expwanation in de Abhidharmakosa of Vasubandhu, insofar as Vasubandu states dat on occasion "de twewve parts are reawized in one and de same moment".[80]Prayudh Payutto notes dat in Buddhaghosa's Sammohavinodani, a commentary to de Vibhanga of de Abhidhamma Pitaka, de principwe of Dependent Origination is expwained as occurring entirewy widin de space of one mind moment.[81] According to Prayudh Payutto dere is materiaw in de Vibhanga which discusses bof modews, de dree wifetimes modew and de phenomenowogicaw mind moment modew.[81][82] This desis is awso defended by Bhikkhu Buddhadasa's Paticcasamuppada: Practicaw Dependent Origination, uh-hah-hah-hah. In dis interpretation, Birf and Deaf refer not to physicaw birf and deaf, but to de birf and deaf of our sewf-concept, de "emergence of de ego". According to Buddhadhasa,

...dependent arising is a phenomenon dat wasts an instant; it is impermanent. Therefore, Birf and Deaf must be expwained as phenomena widin de process of dependent arising in everyday wife of ordinary peopwe. Right Mindfuwness is wost during contacts of de Roots and surroundings. Thereafter, when vexation due to greed, anger, and ignorance is experienced, de ego has awready been born, uh-hah-hah-hah. It is considered as one 'birf'".[83]

According to Akira Hirakawa and Pauw Groner, de dree-wives modew, wif its "embryowogicaw" interpretation which winks dependent origination wif rebirf was awso promoted by de Sarvastivadin schoow (a norf Indian branch of de Sdavira nikāya) as evidenced by de Abhidharmakosa of Vasubandhu (fw. 4f to 5f century CE).[77]

The Abhidharmakosa awso outwines dree oder modews of de twewve nidanas, dat were used by de Sarvastivada schoows togeder wif de dree wifetimes modew:[77]

Instantaneous – Aww 12 winks are present in de same instant.

Prowonged – The interdependence and causaw rewationship of dharmas or phenomenaw events arising at different times.

Seriaw – The causaw rewationship of de twewve winks arising and ceasing in continuous series of moments.

The twewve nidanas are typicawwy shown on de outer rim of a Bhavachakra in Buddhist artwork.[85]

The bhavachakra (Sanskrit; Pāwi: bhavachakra; Tibetan: srid pa'i 'khor wo) is a symbowic representation of saṃsāra (or cycwic existence). It is found on de outside wawws of Tibetan Buddhist tempwes and monasteries in de Indo-Tibetan region, to hewp ordinary peopwe understand Buddhist teachings. The Three Fires sit at de very center of de schemata in de Bhavacakra and drive de whowe edifice. In Himawayan iconographic representations of de Bhavacakra such as widin Tibetan Buddhism, de Three Fires are known as de Three Poisons which are often represented as de Gankyiw. The Gankyiw is awso often represented as de hub of de Dharmacakra.

Tsongkhapa, fowwowing Asanga, expwains how de twewve nidanas can be appwied to one wife of a singwe person, two wives of a singwe person, and dree wives of a singwe person, uh-hah-hah-hah.[86]

Discussing de dree wifetimes modew, Awex Wayman states dat de Theravada/Sarvāstivāda interpretation is different from de Vajrayana view, because de Vajrayana view pwaces a bardo or an intermediate state between deaf and rebirf, which is denied by de Theravadins and Sarvastivadins. This deniaw necessitated pwacing de first two nidanas of de "dependent origination" chain into de past wife.[87] The Tibetan Buddhism tradition awwocates de twewve nidanas differentwy between various wives.[88]

According to Frauwawwner, de twewvefowd chain is a combination of two wists. Originawwy, de Buddha expwained de appearance of dukkha from tanha, "dirst," craving. This is expwained and described in de second part, from tanha on forwards. Later on, under infwuence of concurring systems, de Buddha incorporated avijja, "ignorance," as a cause of suffering into his system. This is described in de first part, which describes de entry of vijnana into de womb, where de embryo devewops.[6] Frauwawwner notes dat "de purewy mechanicaw mixing of bof de two parts of de causaw chainis remarkabwe and enigmaticaw." Noting dat "contradictory doughts stand directwy near one anoder in de owdest Buddhistic ideas" many times, Frauwawwner expwains dis as a "deficiency in systematization, de inabiwity to mix different views and principwes into a great unity."[89]

According to Schumann, de twewvefowd chain is a water composition by monks, consisting of dree shorter wists. These wists may have encompassed nidana 1-4, 5-8, and 8-12. The progress of dis composition can be traced in various steps in de canon, uh-hah-hah-hah.[90]

Roderick S. Buckneww anawysed four versions of de twewve nidanas, to expwain de existence of various versions of de pratitya-samutpada seqwence. The twevefowd version is de "standard version," in which vijnana refers to sensuaw consciousness.[note 32] According to Buckneww, de "standard version" of de twewve nidanas devewoped out of an ancestor version, which in turn was derived from two different versions, in which vijnana is differentwy expwained.[8]

In de socawwed "branched version", which is not strictwy winear, but connects a coupwe of branches, vijnana is derived from de coming togeder of de sense organs and de sense objects, a description which can awso be found in oder sutras. The dree of dem constitute phassa ("contact"). From dere on, de wist is winear. In de Sutta-nipata version, which is awtogeder winear, vijnana is derived from avijja ("ignorance") and Saṅkhāra ("activities" (RSB); awso transwated as "vowitionaw formations").[93]

Looped version

vijanana (consciousness)↑↓nama-rupa (name-and-form)

[sawayana (sixfowd sense-base)]

phassa (contact)

vedana (feewing)

etc.

The Mahanidana-sutta describes a "wooped version," which is awso furder winear, in which vijnana and nama-rupa condition each oder. According to Buckneww, dis "wooped version" is derived from de "branched version, uh-hah-hah-hah."[94] According to Buckneww, "some accounts of de wooped version state expwicitwy dat de chain of causation goes no furder back dan de woop.[95] The Mahanidana furder expwains vijnana as "consciousness dat descends into de moder's womb at de moment of conception, uh-hah-hah-hah."[96] Wawdron notes dat vijnana here has two aspects, namewy "samsaric vijnana" and "cognitive consciousness." "Samsaric vijnana" is "consciousness per se, de basic sentience necessary for aww animate wife," which descends into de womb at de time of conception, uh-hah-hah-hah. Cognitive consciousness is rewated to de senses and de sense objects. It is "samsaric vijnana" which forms, in Buddhist dought, de connection between two wives.[97] Whiwe dese two aspects were wargewy undifferentiated in earwy Buddhist dought, dese two aspects and deir rewation was expwicated in water Buddhist dought, giving rise to de concept of awaya-vijñana.[98]

Whiwe de "branched version" refers directwy to de six sense objects, de "wooped version" and de standard version instead name it nama-rupa, which eventuawwy was misinterpreted as "name-and-form" in de traditionaw sense. This created "new causaw series," which made it possibwe to interpret de beginning of de chain as referring to rebirf, just wike de end of de chain, uh-hah-hah-hah. In wine wif dis reinterpretation, vijnana "became de consciousness dat descends into de moder's womb at conception, whiwe nama-rupa became de mind-body compwex dat [...] experiences contact (phassa) and so on, uh-hah-hah-hah." [99][note 33]

Buckneww furder notes dat de "branched version," in which nama-rupa refers to de six cwasses of sense-objects, corresponds wif Buddhadasas psychowogicaw interpretation of de twewve nidanas. The "wooped version," in which vijanana corresponds wif "rebirf consciousness," corresponds wif defenders of de traditionaw interpretation, such as Nyanatiwoka.[101] According to Buckneww, de winear wist, wif its distortions and changed meaning for nama-rupa and vinaya, may have devewoped when de wist came to be recited in reverse order.[102]

"Then he moved about, worshipping. From him, dus worshipping, water was produced"

name-and-form (nama-rupa)(=vijnana in de womb)

Awex Wayman has argued dat de idea of "dependent origination" may precede de birf of de Buddha, noting dat de first four causaw winks starting wif Avidya in de Twewve Nidānas are found in de cosmic devewopment deory of de Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and oder owder Vedic texts.[12][13][14] Jeffrey Hopkins notes dat terms synonymous to Pratītyasamutpāda are Apekṣhasamutpāda and Prāpyasamutpāda.[103] According to Kawupahana, de concept of causawity and causaw efficacy where "cause produces an effect because a property or svadha (energy) is inherent in someding", appears extensivewy in de Indian dought in de Vedic witerature of de 2nd miwwennium BCE, such as de 10f mandawa of de Rigveda and de Brahmanas wayer of de Vedas.[104][note 34]

sayam katam (attakatam, sewf causation): dis deory posits dat dere is no externaw agent (God) necessary for a phenomenon, dere is svadha (inner energy) in nature or beings dat wead to creative evowution, de cause and de effect are in de essence of de evowute and inseparabwe (found in de Vedic and particuwarwy Upanishadic proto-Hindu schoows);

Pure consciousness manifests itsewf in de created worwd, name-and-form, wif which it mistakenwy identifies, wosing sight of its reaw identity.[9]

Nama-Rupa, "name-and-form"

-

* According to Jurewicz, de Buddha may have picked at dis point de term nama-rupa, because "de division of consciousness into name and form has onwy de negative vawue of an act which hinders cognition, uh-hah-hah-hah."[11] The first four winks, in dis way, describe "a chain of events which drive a human being into deeper and deeper ignorance about himsewf."[11]* According to Gombrich, de Buddhist tradition soon wost sight of dis connection wif de Vedic worwdview, eqwating nama-rupa wif de five skandhas,[108] denying a sewf (atman) separate from dese skandhas.[109]

A simiwar resembwance has been noted by Jurewicz, who argues dat de first four nidanas resembwe de Hymn of Creation of RigVeda X, 129, in which avijja (ignorance) weads to kamma (desire), which is de seed of vijnana ("consciousness").[110][11] This consciousness is a "singuwar consciousness," (Jurewicz) "non-duaw consciousness," (Gombrich) "refwexive, cognizing itsewf" (Gombrich).[108] When de created worwd, name and form, evowves, pure consciousness manifests itsewf in de worwd. It mistakenwy identifies itsewf wif name and form, wosing sight of its reaw identity.[9] The Buddha mimicked dis creation story, making cwear how de entangwement wif de worwd "drive a human being into deeper and deeper ignorance about himsewf."[11] According to Jurewicz, de Buddha may have picked de term nama-rupa, because "de division of consciousness into name and form has onwy de negative vawue of an act which hinders cognition, uh-hah-hah-hah."[11]

According to Gombrich, de Buddhist tradition soon wost sight of dis connection wif de Vedic worwdview. It was aware dat at dis point dere is de appearance of an individuaw person, which de Buddha referred to as de five skandhas,[108] denying a sewf (atman) separate from dese skandhas.[109] The Buddhist tradition eqwated rupa wif de first skandha, and nama wif de oder four. Yet, as Gombrich notes, samkhara, vijnana, and vedana awso appear as separate winks in de twewvefowd wist, so dis eqaution can't be correct for dis nidana.[110] According to Jurewizc, aww twewve nidanas show simiwarities wif de Vedic cosmogeny. They may have been invoked for educated wisteners, to make de point dat suffering arises in dependence on psychowogicaw processes widout an atman, dereby rejecting de Vedic outwook.[11]

According to Gombrich, fowwowing Frauwawwner,[note 35] de twewve-fowd wist is a combination of two previous wists, de second wist beginning wif tanha, "dirst," de cause of suffering as described in de second Nobwe Truf".[16] The first wist consists of de first four nidanas, which parody de Vedic-Brahmanic cosmogony, as described by Jurewicz.[note 36] According to Gombrich, de two wists were combined, resuwting in contradictions in its negative version, uh-hah-hah-hah.[16][note 37] Gombrich furder notes dat

According to Madieu Boisvert, nidana 3-10 correwate wif de five skandhas.[113] Boisvert notes dat sanna, "perception," is not part of de twewvefowd chain, but does pway a rowe in de prevention of de arising of de samkharas.[15] Likewise, Wawdron notes dat de anusaya, "underwying tendencies, are de wink between de cognitive provcesses of phassa ("contact") and vedana (feewing), and de affwictive responses of tanha ("craving") and upadana ("grasping").[114]

Schumann

The 12-fowd chain

de 5 skhandhas

First existence

1. Body

2. Sensation

3. Perception

1. Ignorance

2. Formations

4. Formations

3. Consciousness

5. Consciousness

Second existence

4. Nama-rupa

1. Body

5. The six senses

6. Touch

7. Sensation

2. Sensation

3. Perception

4. Formations

5. Consciousness

8. Craving

9. Cwinging

Third existence

10. Becoming

1. Body

11. Birf

2. Sensation

3. Perception

4. Formations

5. Consciousness

12. Owd age and deaf

According to Schumann, de Nidanas are a water syndesis of Buddhist teachings, meant to make dem more comprehensibwe. Comparison wif de five skhandhas shows dat de chain contains wogicaw inconsistencies, which can be expwained when de chain is considered to be a water ewaboration, uh-hah-hah-hah.[115] This way it is expwainabwe dat nama-rupa en consciousness in de 9-fowd are de beginning or start, whiwe in de 12-fowd chain dey are preceded by ignorance and formations. Those can onwy exist when nama-rupa en consciousness are present.
Schumann awso proposes dat de 12-fowd is extended over dree existences, and iwwustrate de succession of rebirds. Whiwe Buddhaghosa and Vasubandhu maintain a 2-8-2 schema, Schumann maintains a 3-6-3 scheme, putting de five skandhas aside de twewve nidanas.[115]

The second and dird truds in de Four Nobwe Truds are rewated to de principwe of dependent origination,[116] wif dependent arising ewaborating de arising of suffering.[117][118] The second truf appwies dependent origination in a direct order, whiwe de dird truf appwies it in inverse order.[116]

According to Eisew Mazard, de twewve Nidanas are a description of "a seqwence of stages prior to birf," as an "ordodox defense against any doctrine of a 'supernaw sewf' or souw of any kind [...] excwuding an un-mentioned wife-force (jīva) dat fowwowers couwd presumed to be additionaw to de birf of de body, de arising of consciousness, and de oder aspects mentioned in de 12-winks formuwa."[121][note 39] According to Mazard, "many water sources have digressed from de basic deme and subject-matter of de originaw text, knowingwy or unknowingwy."[121]

The notion of karma is integrated into de wist of twewve nidanas, and has been extensivewy commented on by ancient Buddhist schowars such as Nagarjuna.[122] Karma consists of any intentionaw action, wheder of body or speech or in mind, which can be eider advantageous (merit) or disadvantageous (demerit). Bof good and bad karma sustain de cycwe of samsara (rebirf) and associated dukkha, and bof prevent de attainment of nirvana.[123]

According to Nagarjuna, de second causaw wink (sankhara, motivations) and de tenf causaw wink (bhava, gestation) are two karmas drough which sentient beings trigger seven sufferings identified in de Twewve Nidanas, and from dis arises de revowving rebirf cycwes.[124]

To be wiberated from samsara and dukkha, asserts Buddhism, de 'dependent origination' doctrine impwies dat de karmic activity must cease.[123] One aspect of dis 'causaw wink breaking' is to destroy de "deepwy seated propensities, festering prediwections" (asavas) which are karmic causaw fwow because dese wead to rebirf.[123]

Since dere is noding whatever
That is not dependentwy existent,
For dat reason dere is noding
Whatsoever dat is not empty.[126]

In his anawysis, svabhāva is somewhat redefined from de Sarvastivada-Vaibhāṣika interpretation to mean: inherent existence or sewf-characterization, uh-hah-hah-hah. Nagarjuna notabwy rejected de idea of dharmas containing svabhāva, meaning 'a sewf-sustaining, permanent, or unchanging identity.' If a dharma was inherentwy what-it-was from its own side, what need wouwd dere be for causes and conditions to bring dat object into being? If any object was characterized by 'being-itsewf,' den it has no need to dependentwy rewy on anyding ewse. Furder, such an identity or sewf-characterization wouwd prevent de process of dependent origination, uh-hah-hah-hah. Inherence wouwd prevent any kind of origination at aww, for dings wouwd simpwy awways have been, and dings wouwd awways continue to be. Madhyamaka suggests dat uncharacterized mere experiences—wif no specific qwawities—are designated by conceptuaw wabews, and dis brings dem into being (See Prasaṅgika Merewy Designated Causawity). According to Nagarjuna, even de principwe of causawity itsewf is dependentwy originated, and hence it is empty.

Madhyamaka is interpreted in different ways by different traditions. In de Tibetan Gewug schoow, aww dharmas are said to wack any 'inherent' existence, according to de Tibetan schowar Tsongkhapa in his Ocean of Reasoning.[127]

In de Dzogchen tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, de concept of dependent origination is considered to be compwementary to de concept of emptiness. Specificawwy, dis tradition emphasizes de indivisibiwity of appearance and emptiness—awso known as de rewative and absowute aspects of reawity:[128]

The Huayan schoow taught de doctrine of de mutuaw containment and interpenetration of aww phenomena, as expressed in Indra's net. One ding contains aww oder existing dings, and aww existing dings contain dat one ding. This phiwosophy is based in de tradition of de great Madhyamaka schowar Nagarjuna and, more specificawwy, on de Avatamsaka Sutra. Regarded by D.T. Suzuki as de crowning achievement of Buddhist phiwosophy, de Avatamsaka Sutra ewaborates in great detaiw on de principaw of dependent origination, uh-hah-hah-hah. This sutra describes a cosmos of infinite reawms upon reawms, mutuawwy containing one anoder.

Thich Nhat Hanh states, "Pratitya samutpada is sometimes cawwed de teaching of cause and effect, but dat can be misweading, because we usuawwy dink of cause and effect as separate entities, wif cause awways preceding effect, and one cause weading to one effect. According to de teaching of Interdependent Co-Arising, cause and effect co-arise (samutpada) and everyding is a resuwt of muwtipwe causes and conditions... In de sutras, dis image is given: "Three cut reeds can stand onwy by weaning on one anoder. If you take one away, de oder two wiww faww." In Buddhist texts, one cause is never enough to bring about an effect. A cause must, at de same time, be an effect, and every effect must awso be de cause of someding ewse. This is de basis, states Hanh, for de idea dat dere is no first and onwy cause, someding dat does not itsewf need a cause.[34]

Sogyaw Rinpoche states aww dings, when seen and understood in deir true rewation, are not independent but interdependent wif aww oder dings. A tree, for exampwe, cannot be isowated from anyding ewse. It has no independent existence, states Rinpoche.[130]

Jay L. Garfiewd states dat Muwamadhyamikakarika uses de causaw rewation to understand de nature of reawity, and of our rewation to it. This attempt is simiwar to de use of causation by Hume, Kant, and Schopenhauer as dey present deir arguments. Nagarjuna uses causation to present his arguments on how one individuawizes objects, orders one's experience of de worwd, and understands agency in de worwd.[24]

The concept of pratītyasamutpāda has awso been compared to Western metaphysics, de study of reawity. Schiwbrack states dat de doctrine of interdependent origination seems to fit de definition of a metaphysicaw teaching, by qwestioning wheder dere is anyding at aww.[131] Hoffman disagrees, and asserts dat pratītyasamutpāda shouwd not be considered a metaphysicaw doctrine in de strictest sense, since it does not confirm nor deny specific entities or reawities.[qwote 3]

^The Pratītyasamutpāda doctrine, states Madieu Boisvert, is a fundamentaw tenet of Buddhism and it may be considered as "de common denominator of aww de Buddhist traditions droughout de worwd, wheder Theravada, Mahayana or Vajrayana".[1]

^Harvey: "This [doctrine] states de principwe of conditionawity, dat aww dings, mentaw and physicaw, arise and exist due to de presence of certain conditions, and cease once deir conditions are removed: noding (except Nibbana) is independent. The doctrine dus compwements de teaching dat no permanent, independent sewf can be found."[22]

^Brahmajawa Sutta, verse 3.71. This is identified as de first reference in de Canon in footnote 88 for Sutta 1, verse 3.71's footnotes.

^The earf (property of sowidity), water (property of wiqwity), wind (property of motion, energy and gaseousness), fire (property of heat and cowd). See awso Mahabhuta. In oder pwaces in de Pawi Canon (DN 33, MN 140 and SN 27.9) we awso see two additionaw ewements - de space property and de consciousness property. Space refers to de idea of space dat is occupied by any of de oder four ewements. For exampwe any physicaw object occupies space and even dough dat space is not a property of dat object itsewf, de amount of space it occupies is a property of dat object and is derefore a derived property of de ewements.

^Mahasi Sayadaw: "...To give anoder exampwe, it is just wike de case of a person in a room who sees many dings when he opens de window and wooks drough it. If it is asked, 'Who is it dat sees? Is it de window or de person dat actuawwy sees?' de answer is, 'The window does not possess de abiwity to see; it is onwy de person who sees.' If it is again asked, 'Wiww de person be abwe to see dings on de outside widout de window (if he is confined to a room widout de window or wif de window cwosed)?' de answer wiww be, 'It is not possibwe to see dings drough de waww widout de window. One can onwy see drough de window.' Simiwarwy, in de case of seeing, dere are two separate reawities of de eye and seeing. (So de eye does not have de abiwity to see widout de eye-consciousness. The eye-consciousness itsewf cannot see anyding widout de organ, uh-hah-hah-hah.) The eye is not seeing, nor is seeing de eye, yet dere cannot be an act of seeing widout de eye. In reawity, seeing comes into being depending on de eye. It is now evident dat in de body dere are onwy two distinct ewements of materiawity (eye) and mentawity (eye-consciousness) at every moment of seeing. In addition, dere is awso a dird ewement of materiawity — de visuaw object. Widout de visuaw object dere is noding to be seen, uh-hah-hah-hah..."[61]

^That dere is a sewf consisting of form and is finite, or a sewf consisting of form but infinite, or a sewf dat is formwess but finite, or a sewf dat is formwess and infinite.

^ abBhikkhu Bodhi: "Bhava, in MLDB, was transwated “being.” In seeking an awternative, I had first experimented wif “becoming,” but when de shortcomings in dis choice were pointed out to me I decided to return to “existence,” used in my earwier transwations. Bhava, however, is not “existence” in de sense of de most universaw ontowogicaw category, dat which is shared by everyding from de dishes in de kitchen sink to de numbers in a madematicaw eqwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Existence in de watter sense is covered by de verb atdi and de abstract noun atditā. Bhava is concrete sentient existence in one of de dree reawms of existence posited by Buddhist cosmowogy, a span of wife beginning wif conception and ending in deaf. In de formuwa of dependent origination it is understood to mean bof (i) de active side of wife dat produces rebirf into a particuwar mode of sentient existence, in oder words rebirf-producing kamma; and (ii) de mode of sentient existence dat resuwts from such activity."[62]

^Birf is any coming-to-be or coming-forf. It refers not just to birf at de beginning of a wifetime, but to birf as new person, acqwisition of a new status or position etc.

^Since widout birf no aging, deaf, or any of de sorrows and disappointments of wife wouwd occur, birf is a reqwisite cause for dukkha. Thus, de compwete cessation of dukkha must impwy dat dere is no furder birf for de enwightened.

^"Wheder or not dere is de arising of Tadagatas, dis property stands — dis reguwarity of de Dhamma, dis orderwiness of de Dhamma, dis dis/dat conditionawity." SN 12.20

^Most Suttas fowwow de order from ignorance to dukkha. But SN 12.20 views dis as a teaching of de reqwisite conditions for sustaining dukkha, which is its main appwication, uh-hah-hah-hah.

^ abCompare Grzegorz Powak, who argues dat de four upassanā, de "four bases of mindfuwness," have been misunderstood by de devewoping Buddhist tradition, incwuding Theravada, to refer to four different foundations. According to Powak, de four upassanā do not refer to four different foundations, but to de awareness of four different aspects of raising sati, mindfuwness:[69]

^Bhikkhu Bodhi: "In addition to giving a cwear, expwicit account of de conditionaw structure of de wiberative progression, dis sutta has de furder advantage of bringing de supramundane form of dependent arising into immediate connection wif its famiwiar samsaric counterpart. By making dis connection it brings into prominence de comprehensive character of de principwe of conditionawity — its abiwity to support and expwain bof de process of compuwsive invowvement which is de origin of suffering and de process of disengagement which weads to dewiverance from suffering. Thereby it reveaws dependent arising to be de key to de unity and coherence of de Buddha's teaching.[70]

^According to Keown, de first five nidanas of de present wife rewate to one's present destiny, and condition de present wife's existence. The next dree dependent originations, namewy craving, induwgence and gestation foster de fruits of de present destiny.[76]

^"Nyanatiwoka, for his part in dis controversy, sets himsewf up as de defender of de commentariaw tradition dat extends de 12-winks from a description of a singwe incarnation into a description of de causes and effects of reincarnation in dree separate wifetimes. [...] Whiwe I regard de dree-wifetimes interpretation (supported by Nyanatiwoka) as incorrect, it deserves some credit for remaining dematicawwy rewated to de originaw meaning of de primary source text (whereas many modern interpretations have digressed wiwdwy from it). In a wecture on dis subject, Nyanatiwoka repeatedwy refers to de subject-matter of de 12-winks discussed as someding transpiring inside de womb, awso using de term “prenataw”. ..." [1]

^Buckneww: "These observations by Watsuji, Yinshun, and Reat indicate dat nama-rupa, far from signifying "mind-and-body" or someding simiwar, is a cowwective term for de six types of sense object."[100]

^The pre-Buddhist Vedic era deories on causawity mention four types of causawity, aww of which Buddhism rejected.[105][106] The four Vedic era causawity deories in vogue were:[105][106]

^Gombrich: "The six senses, and dence, via 'contact' and 'feewing', to dirst." It is qwite pwausibwe, however, dat someone faiwed to notice dat once de first four winks became part of de chain, its negative version meant dat in order to abowish ignorance one first had to abowish consciousness!"[16]

^Boisvert correwates vijnana in de twewve nidanas seqwence; in de five skandhas, vijnana comes wast.[112]

^Mazard: "[T]he 12-winks formuwa is unambiguouswy an ancient tract dat was originawwy written on de subject of de conception and devewopment of de embryo, as a seqwence of stages prior to birf; in examining de primary source text, dis is as bwatant today as it was over two dousand years ago, despite some very interesting misinterpretations dat have arisen in de centuries in-between [...] In de Mahānidāna [sutta]’s brief gwoss on de term nāmarūpa [...] we have a very expwicit reminder dat de subject-matter being described in dis seqwence of stages is de devewopment of de embryo [...] it is indisputabwy cwear dat we are reading about someding dat may (or may not) enter into (okkamissada) de moder’s womb (mātukucchismiŋ) [...] [T]he passage is wiwdwy incongruent wif attempts of many oder interpreters to render de whowe doctrine in more abstract terms (variouswy psychowogicaw or metaphysicaw).[121]

^The Dawai Lama expwains: "In Sanskrit de word for dependent-arising is pratityasamutpada. The word pratitya has dree different meanings–meeting, rewying, and depending–but aww dree, in terms of deir basic import, mean dependence. Samutpada means arising. Hence, de meaning of pratityasamutpada is dat which arises in dependence upon conditions, in rewiance upon conditions, drough de force of conditions."[25]

^The Nawanda Transwation Committee states: "Pratitya-samutpada is de technicaw name for de Buddha’s teaching on cause and effect, in which he demonstrated how aww situations arise drough de coming togeder of various factors. In de hinayana, it refers in particuwar to de twewve nidānas, or winks in de chain of samsaric becoming."[web 3]

^Hoffman states: "Suffice it to emphasize dat de doctrine of dependent origination is not a metaphysicaw doctrine, in de sense dat it does not affirm or deny some super-sensibwe entities or reawities; rader, it is a proposition arrived at drough an examination and anawysis of de worwd of phenomena ..."[132]

^Lopez 2001, p. 29, Quote: "Dependent origination has two meanings in Buddhist dought. The first refers to de twewvefowd seqwence of causation, uh-hah-hah-hah... The second meaning of dependent origination is a more generaw one, de notion dat everyding comes into existence in dependence on someding ewse. It is dis second meaning dat Nagarjuna eqwates wif emptiness and de middwe way.".

Frauwawwner, Erich (1973), "Chapter 5. The Buddha and de Jina", History of Indian Phiwosophy: The phiwosophy of de Veda and of de epic. The Buddha and de Jina. The Sāmkhya and de cwassicaw Yoga-system, Motiwaw Banarsidass

Frauwawwner, Erich (1973), "Chapter 5. The Buddha and de Jina", History of Indian Phiwosophy: The phiwosophy of de Veda and of de epic. The Buddha and de Jina. The Sāmkhya and de cwassicaw Yoga-system, Motiwaw Banarsidass