Mission: To advance space exploration and the establishment of human
communities beyond Earth.

(c) 2000, The Apollo Society. All rights reserved.
The Apollo Society is a non-profit educational and scientific research
organization Federally recognized under US IRS Code 501(c)(3).

To the Moon!

The Space Age Begins: A Race to the Moon

The Space Age was born of a combination of very different human activities
and motivations: imagination and exploration, military weapons development,
national prestige, and international scientific cooperation.

It is human nature to be curious, to reach out in exploration to try to
understand the world around us. The wonders of the night sky are also part
of our world, though seemingly just out of reach. Early astronomers watched
movements of the Moon, planets and stars in efforts to understand them and
their relation to us. Galileo turned one of the first telescopes toward the
Moon and discovered that it was another world with mountains and what he
thought were seas. When Galileo and the astronomers that followed him in
the 18th and 19th centuries also discovered the (literally) astronomical
distances between celestial objects, the age-old desire to reach the Moon
became a symbol of the impossible.

But some people like to dream "impossible" dreams. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in
Russia and Herman Oberth in Germany described how rockets could propel an
object through space. An American dreamer, Robert Goddard, began building
and flying small rockets in the 1920s. However, rockets remained little
more than curiosities until they were developed into weapons of war.
Germany developed V-2 rockets and used them to attack Britain during the
Second World War. After the war, some of the remaining V-2 rockets and
many of the German rocket scientists, including their leader, Wernher Von
Braun, were brought to America to build rockets for the United States. Other
German rocket scientists were taken to the U.S.S.R.

While the militaries of the U.S. and the Soviet Union were building on the
V-2 technology to develop long-range missiles, scientists around the globe
were planning an unprecedented experiment in peaceful scientific cooperation,
the International Geophysical Year (IGY, July 1, 1957 - December 31, 1958).
The IGY was organized to coordinate activities by scientists and governments
around the world to study Earth as a planet. As part of the IGY, the United
States announced that it would attempt to orbit an artificial Earth satellite.
The Soviet Union later announced that it would do the same, but the
declaration was not taken seriously or even noticed by most Americans.
Behind the scenes, however, the Soviets had started an undeclared contest
with the United States for superiority in space technology. On October 4,
1957, the Soviet Union succeeded in launching a satellite called "Sputnik"
(traveling companion). The world was stunned by the accomplishment.

While the American civilian space program was openly publicized, and launch
attempts were often televised live, the Soviet Union was secretive, only
announcing successes after the fact and never admitting failures. Many
Americans worried that if the U.S.S.R. could surprise the world by secretly
developing the capability to launch the world's first artificial satellite,
it could also launch nuclear weapons into orbit where they could be dropped
on the United States with little or no warning. The U.S. had to catch up!
Fast!! What had started out in a spirit of peaceful scientific cooperation
had suddenly become a life-or-death contest. The Space Age - and an
undeclared space race - had begun.

The United States successfully launched its first satellite, Explorer 1,
which discovered Earth's Van Allen radiation belts, on January 31, 1958.
The U.S. government established the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) and, in 1959, NASA announced the selection of the
first seven astronauts. But on April 12, 1961, the Soviet Union scored
another first when Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin was launched into orbit
and became the first human in space. Alan Shepard, the first American in
space, followed with a brief suborbital flight on May 5, 1961. Less than
three weeks later, on May 25, President John F. Kennedy called on Congress
and the nation to attempt to land a man on the Moon and return him safely
to the Earth before the end of the decade. The United States now knew it
was in a race, and it had declared a finish line. The space race had
become a race to the Moon.

The Mercury Program

On May 5, 1961, Alan B. Shepard, Jr., became
America's first man in space with his suborbital flight of
the Mercury spacecraft "Freedom 7."

Within 3 weeks of Shepard's flight, President John F.
Kennedy, told Congress; "I believe this nation should
commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is
out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely
to the earth."

The Mercury 7

Alan B. Shepard, Jr.

The Mercury Project was the United States' first human-in-space program
with six crewed flights from 1961 to 1963. Astronauts Gus Grissom,
John Glenn, Scott Carpenter, Wally Schirra and Gordon Cooper each followed
Alan Shepard with their own Mercury missions. "Deke" Slayton, selected to
fly MA-7 (Mercury-Atlas-7), was grounded by NASA flight surgeons for an
irregularity in his heartbeat. Deke became NASA's "Chief Astronaut," and
finally got into space "thirteen years overdue," with the flight of the
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in July, 1975.

The Mercury program proved that we could reach, work in, and
return from space.

The Gemini Program

Ed White - Space Walking

In 1965 and 1966 the Gemini Program flew 10 crewed flights; Gemini 3
through Gemini 12. These were the first space missions to rendezvous
and dock with other spacecraft in orbit and to test astronauts and hardware
for up to 2 weeks in Earth orbit. Gemini astronauts also conducted extensive
EVAs (Extra Vehicular Activities - space walks). Ed White became the first
American to walk in space from his Gemini 4 spacecraft launched June 3, 1965.

Only Gemini 3, the first crewed Gemini spacecraft, had a call sign;
"Molly Brown." Command pilot Gus Grissom, whose Mercury spacecraft sank
and was lost after splashdown in the Atlantic, jokingly named his Gemini
spacecraft in reference to the heroine of the musical comedy "The Unsinkable
Molly Brown."

The Gemini Program taught us 1) how to "fly" a spacecraft by maneuvering in
orbit and 2) how to rendezvous and dock with another spacecraft. These were
the skills that would be required for the upcoming Apollo missions.

The Apollo Program

APOLLO 1

January 27, 1967

Virgil I. Grissom * Edward H. White II * Roger Chaffee

"If we die, we want people to accept it. We're in a risky business, and we
hope that if anything happens to us it will not delay the program.
The conquest of space is worth the risk of life."
-
Gus Grissom

* * * * * * *

Apollo astronauts Virgil I. "Gus" Grissom, Edward H. White II, and
Roger B. Chaffee sacrificed their lives for the space program when a
fire swept tough their Apollo Command Module during a pre-flight test at
Pad 34, Kennedy Space Center, Cape Kennedy, Florida on January 27, 1967.
The mission was scheduled for launch on February 21, 1967 and was to be
the first crewed Apollo mission. The investigation of the fire led to
major design, engineering and testing modifications that substantially
improved the overall safety of the entire Apollo program.

The success of the Apollo space program is founded on the
lessons learned in the tragedy of Apollo 1.

The Apollo program arose from the ashes of Apollo 1 with the
successful launch of Apollo 7 on October 11, 1968. Commander
Walter "Wally" M. Schirra, Jr., Command Module Pilot Donn F.
Eisele and Lunar Module Pilot Walter Cunningham checked out
the re-engineered Apollo Command and Service Module for the
maiden crewed voyage of the Apollo space program.

* * * * * * *

APOLLO 8

Apollo 8 Patch

On December 21, 1968, Apollo 8 Commander Frank Borman,
Command Module Pilot James A. Lovell, Jr., and
Lunar Module Pilot William A. Anders became the first human
interplanetary space explorers when they left the bounds of
Earth's gravity and flew 10 orbits around the Moon. The crew of
Apollo 8 brought back the first photograph of the Earth as a globe in
space: a Christmas gift for humanity.

From the crew of Apollo 8
The crew of Apollo 8 brought back the first photograph of
the Earth as a globe in space; a Christmas gift to humanity.

* * * * * * *

APOLLO 9

Apollo 9, launched March 3, 1969, was the first flight test Saturn V/Apollo
Spacecraft in full lunar mission configuration. Apollo 9 conducted tests of
the Command Module and the Lunar Module in Earth orbit.

Command Module Pilot David R. Scott, was left alone to
fly the Command Module named "Gumdrop," while Mission Commander
James A. McDivitt, and Lunar Module Pilot
Russell L. Schweickart tested the spindly legged lunar
lander they called "Spider."

Spider

* * * * * * *

APOLLO 10

Earthrise from Apollo 10

Apollo 10, launched on May 18, 1969, was a full dress
rehearsal of the landing mission and also a reconnaisance
mission in which potential landing sites were reconnoitered.
After separating from the Command Module named "Charlie Brown"
and dropping from lunar orbit at 60 miles down to 50,000 feet,
Mission Commander Thomas P. Stafford and Lunar Module Pilot
Eugene A. Cernan barnstormed the mountains of the
moon at 3,700 mph in their Lunar Module called "Snoopy."
As they skimmed over the mountains of the Moon, Gene Cernan
called out; "Houston, this is Snoopy! We is Go and we is
down among' em, Charlie!"

At the low point in their trajectory, the crew attempted to
release their
decent stage. Immediately the spacecraft began pitching up and
down and violently yawing
left and right. "We've got some wild gyrations." Cernan
announced as he wrestled with the controls. For 8 tense seconds
the crew fought to regain control of their ship. "Hit the AGS!"
Cernan yelled to Stafford to deactivate the Abort Guidance System.
Somehow an abort system switch had been left in an incorrect
position. This caused the spacecraft to begin radar searching and
firing rockets in an attempt to find its mother ship, "Charley
Brown." The quick thinking of the skilled crew brought their ship
back under control and headed back up to a rendevous with the
Command ship and Command Module Pilot John W. Young
for a flight home to Earth. If the crew of Snoopy had not
reacted as swiftly as they had, after another 2 seconds, their
spacecraft would have locked into a dive that would have crashed
Apollo 10 on the Moon.

"...as we leave the Moon at Taurus-Littrow, we leave as we came and,
God willing, as we shall return, with peace and hope for all mankind."

On to the Moon
- The rationale for building a community on Earth's Moon -

Why begin on the Moon? Why not Mars or an asteroid first? While other
locations may offer certain attractions for settlers, Earth's Moon possesses
practical advantages unmatched by any other body.

Proximity to Earth

The Apollo astronauts reached the Moon in only about three days. Travelers
to Mars or an asteroid would need to spend several months in space just to
reach their destination. The trip back would be just as long at best, and
only at infrequent intervals when Mars or the asteroid are favorably
positioned with respect to Earth.

Previous Experience

Humans have been to Earth's Moon, and we know that humans can work for
extended periods there and can survive a round trip to the Moon without
suffering any serious ill effects. The Apollo astronauts brought back
382 kg of rocks and soil from known locations on the Moon, and three Soviet
robot landers returned 250 gm. These samples have been studied intensively.

Known Resources

The Moon possesses many of the resources, such as oxygen,
hydrogen, iron, titanium and shielding material, that are needed in order to
build a settlement and enable our further exploration of - and expansion
into - the solar system. Recent discoveries even suggest that there may be
H2O ice at the lunar poles. These resources could also greatly benefit
Earth orbiting operations. It is even possible that the Moon may become a
valuable source of Helium-3 in future fusion power generators on Earth.

Affordability

For all the above reasons and more, a human settlement beyond
Earth can be developed for less money and can become self-sustaining more
quickly on Earth's Moon than anywhere else.

Benefits to Earth

The Moon has much to offer humanity on Earth. The Moon is an easily
visible symbol of humanity's reach for the stars, uplifting the spirit
and offering hope for the future. The combination of geologic stability,
low gravity, lack of atmosphere and (on the farside) shielding from Earth's
radio interference, makes Earth's Moon an excellent platform for astronomical
observatories. It may also prove useful to monitor Earth's environment
from the Moon. Of course, further exploration of the lunar surface will
teach us more about the history and possible future of the Earth and our
solar system. For example, through further geologic studies of the Moon we
can expect to learn more about the variability of the Sun and the frequency
of impacts by meteoroids in our neighborhood.

Soon new pioneers will move beyond Earth. Doing so will be difficult, but
the struggle will make us stronger, as it always has. We have extended our
reach and our abilities by moving into new environments. Living in space
will require us to develop new and efficient methods of food and energy
production, materials processing and waste recycling techniques that can
also benefit those on Earth. Most of the benefits are ones we cannot yet
foresee. That is the nature of exploration -- we discover what we did not
know or even imagine. Perhaps the greatest benefit of space exploration and
settlement will be a lifting of the human spirit as we see that we have
risen beyond the boundaries of Earth and will find endless opportunities
among the stars.

Membership Program
The Apollo Society is a non-profit educational and scientific
research organization dedicated to the advancement of space
exploration and the establishment of human communities beyond Earth.