Being Black in the EU

Almost twenty years after adoption of EU laws forbidding discrimination, people of African descent in the EU face widespread
and entrenched prejudice and exclusion. This report outlines selected results from FRA's second large-scale
EU-wide survey on migrants and minorities (EU-MIDIS II). It examines the experiences of almost 6,000 people of African
descent in 12 EU Member States.

Being Black in the EU - Summary
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Overview

Racial discrimination and harassment are commonplace. Experiences with racist violence vary greatly across countries, but reach as high as 14 %. Discriminatory profiling by the police, too, is a common reality. Hurdles to inclusion are multi-faceted, with many respondents facing discrimination during their job search and when looking for housing.

While the survey results paint a dire picture of reality on the ground, they can serve as an important resource for policymakers committed to promoting the full inclusion of people of African descent in the EU.

FRA opinions

The opinions are based on evidence generated by the survey and the current EU legal framework, including:

the Racial Equality Directive (2000/43/EC),

the Framework Decision on racism and xenophobia (2008/913/JHA), and

the Victims’ Rights Directive (2012/29/EU).

Racist harassment and violence are common occurrences

Significant proportions of people of African descent experience racist harassment and racist violence in the 12 countries surveyed, including at the hands of the police. Very few report such incidents to any authority or body.

One third of respondents (30 %) say they experienced racist harassment in the five years before the survey; one fifth (21 %) say they did so during the 12 months preceding the survey. Yet only 14 % of victims of racist harassment reported the most recent such incident to any authority. Experiences of racist harassment most commonly involve offensive non-verbal cues (22 %) or offensive or threatening comments (21 %), followed by threats of violence (8 %).

Concerning racist violence, 5 % of respondents say they experienced a racist attack in the five years before the survey; 3 % say they did so during the 12 months before the survey. However, two thirds (64 %) of victims of racist violence, as well as a majority (63 %) of victims of racist physical attacks by police officers, did not report the most recent incident to any organisation – either because they felt reporting it would not change anything (34 %) or because victims do not trust or are afraid of the police (28 %).

Whereas most victims (61 %) do not know the perpetrators, they generally identify them as not having a minority background (65 %). Some 38 % of victims identified perpetrators as having a minority ethnic background other than their own. One in 10 (11 %) of those who experienced racist violence say that a law enforcement officer was the perpetrator.

The Framework Decision on racism and xenophobia requires bias motivation to be considered an aggravating circumstance or taken into consideration by the courts in the determination of the penalties imposed on offenders (Article 4). The Victims’ Rights Directive requires that victims of hate crime receive an individual assessment to identify their specific protection needs (Article 22). The full implementation of EU law entails encouraging victims to report racist offences to the police, as well as ensuring that the police properly record the racist motivation at the time of reporting. Doing so will not only support the investigation and prosecution of racist crime, but will also provide the basis for more effective victim support.

In this respect, it is encouraging that Member States agreed on three sets of key guiding principles that relate to hate crime and victim support in 2017, in the framework of the EU High Level Group on combating racism, xenophobia and other forms of intolerance. These sets of principles relate to hate crime training for law enforcement and criminal justice authorities; to improving the recording of hate crime by law enforcement authorities; and to ensuring justice, protection and support for victims of hate crime and hate speech. In 2018, FRA and the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) began working with EU Member States to put into practice the guiding principles on improving recording of hate crime.

EU Member States should ensure that victims of racist crime can seek redress and are offered adequate support. They could achieve this by applying the guiding principles relating to hate crime and victim support agreed by the EU High Level Group on combating racism, xenophobia and other forms of intolerance. When doing so, Member States should take into account the reluctance of victims to report racist crime to any authority or body, particularly where police officers are the alleged perpetrators. Member States should take necessary measures to ensure that investigations into or prosecution of racist offences are not dependent on a report or an accusation made by a victim, in line with Article 8 of the Framework Decision on racism and xenophobia. EU Member States could consider asking FRA and ODIHR for assistance in applying the guiding principles agreed by the EU High Level Group on combating racism, xenophobia and other forms of intolerance. Moreover, Member States should ensure that individual assessments of the specific protection needs of victims of racist crime are conducted, in line with Article 22 of the Victims’ Rights Directive.

EU Member States should ensure that victims of racist crime can seek redress and are offered adequate support. They could achieve this by applying the guiding principles relating to hate crime and victim support agreed by the EU High Level Group on combating racism, xenophobia and other forms of intolerance. When doing so, Member States should take into account the reluctance of victims to report racist crime to any authority or body, particularly where police officers are the alleged perpetrators. Member States should take necessary measures to ensure that investigations into or prosecution of racist offences are not dependent on a report or an accusation made by a victim, in line with Article 8 of the Framework Decision on racism and xenophobia. EU Member States could consider asking FRA and ODIHR for assistance in applying the guiding principles agreed by the EU High Level Group on combating racism, xenophobia and other forms of intolerance. Moreover, Member States should ensure that individual assessments of the specific protection needs of victims of racist crime are conducted, in line with Article 22 of the Victims’ Rights Directive.

Police stops are often experienced as racial profiling

Large numbers of people of African descent who are stopped by the police say they experience racial profiling, an unlawful practice that undermines their trust in law enforcement authorities.

One quarter (24 %) of all persons of African descent surveyed were stopped by the police in the five years before the survey. Among these, four in 10 characterised the most recent stop as racial profiling (41 %). Another one in 10 respondents (11 %) were stopped by the police in the 12 months before the survey, with four in 10 among them characterising the last stop as racial profiling (44 %). Men are three times more likely to be stopped (22 %) than women (7 %), and they are more likely to consider the most recent stop as racial profiling (44 %) compared to women (34 %).

Overall, respondents rate their trust in the police at 6.3 on a scale from 0 to 10, where 0 means ‘no trust at all’ and 10 indicates ‘complete trust’. The lowest average level of trust in the police is found among respondents who consider the most recent police stop they experienced as racial profiling (4.8).

Profiling involves categorising individuals according to personal characteristics, which can include racial or ethnic origin, skin colour, religion or nationality. For more on profiling, see FRA’s guide on Preventing unlawful profiling today and in the future (to be published in December 2018). The practice is commonly and legitimately used by the police to prevent, investigate and prosecute criminal offences. However, racial profiling is discriminatory and unlawful. Such profiling is defined as the “use by police, with no objective and reasonable justification, of grounds such as race, colour, language, religion, nationality or national or ethnic origin in control, surveillance or investigation activities”, as outlined in General Policy Recommendation N°11 of the Council of Europe Commission against Racism and Intolerance.

EU Member States should develop specific, practical and ready-to-use guidance to ensure that police officers do not conduct racial profiling in the exercise of their duties. As noted in FRA’s upcoming guide on preventing unlawful profiling (December 2018), such guidance can be attached to relevant legislation, issued by law enforcement authorities, or included in standard operating procedures of the police, or in codes of conduct for police officers, as a means to increase its effectiveness and reach. Guidance should be systematically communicated to front line law enforcement officers by their leadership.
In addition, Member States should assist relevant authorities in developing guidance for community policing, as a means to offset the existing negative impact of racial profiling on trust in the police among members of ethnic minority groups. Community policing entails the police working with local residents, businesses and other groups in the community to reduce crime and the fear of crime, to address anti-social behaviour, and to boost community cohesion. Member States could consider asking the EU Agency for Law Enforcement Training (CEPOL) and FRA to assist them in developing guidance in these areas.

EU Member States should develop specific, practical and ready-to-use guidance to ensure that police officers do not conduct racial profiling in the exercise of their duties. As noted in FRA’s upcoming guide on preventing unlawful profiling (December 2018), such guidance can be attached to relevant legislation, issued by law enforcement authorities, or included in standard operating procedures of the police, or in codes of conduct for police officers, as a means to increase its effectiveness and reach. Guidance should be systematically communicated to front line law enforcement officers by their leadership.
In addition, Member States should assist relevant authorities in developing guidance for community policing, as a means to offset the existing negative impact of racial profiling on trust in the police among members of ethnic minority groups. Community policing entails the police working with local residents, businesses and other groups in the community to reduce crime and the fear of crime, to address anti-social behaviour, and to boost community cohesion. Member States could consider asking the EU Agency for Law Enforcement Training (CEPOL) and FRA to assist them in developing guidance in these areas.

Racial discrimination is a reality in all areas of life

People of African descent regularly feel discriminated against in many areas of life, whether on the basis of skin colour, ethnic origin or religion. Very few report discrimination they experience to any organisation, despite knowing of equality bodies and antidiscrimination law.

Overall, four in 10 respondents (39 %) felt racially discriminated against in the five years before the survey; one in four (24 %) did so in the 12 months preceding the survey. One quarter of respondents (27 %) identify their skin colour as the main reason for experiencing discrimination when looking for work, at work, in education or in housing in the five years preceding the survey. One fifth (19 %) identify their ethnic origin as the main ground of discrimination in these areas of life, and another 5 % their religion or beliefs. Those who wear traditional religious clothing in public experience higher levels of discrimination on the ground of religion compared to respondents who do not wear such clothing in public (12 % vs. 3 %). Men are particularly affected (men: 17 %; women: 9 %).

One in six respondents (16 %) who felt racially discriminated against reported or made a complaint about the most recent incident to any organisation or body. The most common reasons for not reporting are the belief that nothing would change as a result (ranging from 45 % when trying to use public transport to 16 % when in contact with school authorities as a parent); because the incident is not worth reporting (ranging from 40 % in education and in a restaurant or bar to 24 % when looking for work and in access to housing); or because they had no proof of having been discriminated against (ranging from 28 % in access to housing to 6 % when in contact with school authorities as a parent). Still, half of all respondents know of at least one equality body in the country where they live (46 %), and three-quarters are aware of national antidiscrimination legislation (79 %).

In light of this evidence, it can be noted that the Racial Equality Directive stipulates that “the principle of equal treatment shall not prevent any Member State from maintaining or adopting specific measures to prevent or compensate for disadvantages linked to racial or ethnic origin” (Article 5). The directive also establishes bodies for the promotion of equal treatment tasked with providing assistance to victims of discrimination, conducting research on discrimination, and making recommendations on how to address discrimination.

In this regard, it is encouraging that the European Commission issued a recommendation on standards for equality bodies in June 2018. These standards relate to the mandates of equality bodies, their independence and effectiveness, as well as to their coordination and cooperation with other bodies and authorities. It is also encouraging that the EU High Level Group on Non-Discrimination, Equality and Diversity has, in October 2018, endorsed Guidelines on improving the collection and use of equality data, through a process facilitated by FRA.

EU Member States should ensure that equality bodies can fulfil their tasks, as assigned by the Racial Equality Directive. This entails ensuring that equality bodies are allocated sufficient human, financial and technical resources. When doing so, Member States should give due consideration to the European Commission’s recommendation of June 2018 on standards for equality bodies, particularly as regards their independence and effectiveness.

EU Member States should ensure that equality bodies can fulfil their tasks, as assigned by the Racial Equality Directive. This entails ensuring that equality bodies are allocated sufficient human, financial and technical resources. When doing so, Member States should give due consideration to the European Commission’s recommendation of June 2018 on standards for equality bodies, particularly as regards their independence and effectiveness.

In line with the principle of equal treatment, EU Member States should consider introducing measures to prevent or compensate for disadvantages linked to racial or ethnic origin, as enabled by Article 5 of the Racial Equality Directive. Such disadvantages could be identified through the systematic analysis of experiences of racial and ethnic discrimination in the areas of life covered by Article 3 of the directive. The analyses should draw on the full range of available data sources, including: population censuses; administrative registers; household and individual surveys; victimisation surveys; attitudinal surveys; complaints data from equality bodies; situation testing; diversity monitoring by employers and service providers; as well as qualitative research strategies, such as case studies, in-depth interviews and expert interviews.

In line with the principle of equal treatment, EU Member States should consider introducing measures to prevent or compensate for disadvantages linked to racial or ethnic origin, as enabled by Article 5 of the Racial Equality Directive. Such disadvantages could be identified through the systematic analysis of experiences of racial and ethnic discrimination in the areas of life covered by Article 3 of the directive. The analyses should draw on the full range of available data sources, including: population censuses; administrative registers; household and individual surveys; victimisation surveys; attitudinal surveys; complaints data from equality bodies; situation testing; diversity monitoring by employers and service providers; as well as qualitative research strategies, such as case studies, in-depth interviews and expert interviews.

EU Member States should ensure systematic data collection of reliable, valid and comparable equality data, disaggregated by racial and ethnic origin among other protected characteristics, based on self-identification, and in compliance with the principles and safeguards set out under the General Data Protection Regulation. In doing so, Member States should consult with representatives of population groups at risk of racial discrimination.

EU Member States should ensure systematic data collection of reliable, valid and comparable equality data, disaggregated by racial and ethnic origin among other protected characteristics, based on self-identification, and in compliance with the principles and safeguards set out under the General Data Protection Regulation. In doing so, Member States should consult with representatives of population groups at risk of racial discrimination.

Labour market participation – not a level playing field

The survey findings on labour market participation are particularly striking, showing that people of African descent are often engaged in low quality employment that does not correspond to their level of education. The paid work rate among those with a tertiary degree is generally lower than that of the general population.

One quarter of respondents of African descent work in elementary occupations (26 %), which usually consist of manual work involving physical effort. Twice as many respondents with tertiary education (9 %) are employed in elementary occupations than members of the general population with that educational level (5 %).

These findings suggest unequal opportunities in labour market participation among persons of African descent, which could point to discrimination. Against this backdrop, it can be noted that the European Pillar of Social Rights is founded on the principles of equal opportunities and access to the labour market, regardless of racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief. The third principle under the pillar relates to fostering equal opportunities for under-represented groups.

EU Member States should consider developing specific measures to counter discrimination in access to employment and at work, particularly as regards lower quality of employment among people of African descent. In line with the principles of the European Pillar of Social Rights, such measures could include actions to promote diversity audits in public and private enterprises and the collection of data disaggregated by racial and ethnic origin; actions to strengthen the facilitation of the recognition of educational and training qualifications from non-EU countries; or actions encouraging the recruitment of under-represented groups in the public sector. Social partners should be actively involved in the design and implementation of any such measures.

EU Member States should consider developing specific measures to counter discrimination in access to employment and at work, particularly as regards lower quality of employment among people of African descent. In line with the principles of the European Pillar of Social Rights, such measures could include actions to promote diversity audits in public and private enterprises and the collection of data disaggregated by racial and ethnic origin; actions to strengthen the facilitation of the recognition of educational and training qualifications from non-EU countries; or actions encouraging the recruitment of under-represented groups in the public sector. Social partners should be actively involved in the design and implementation of any such measures.

Skin colour affects access to adequate housing

The survey findings on housing are also particularly remarkable, showing that persons of African descent experience racial discrimination in access to private and public housing to a great extent. Many also face precarious living conditions, which can exacerbate social exclusion.

Many respondents say they were prevented from renting accommodation by a private landlord because of their racial or ethnic origin (14 %). Some experienced this in municipal or social housing (6 %). Respondents face a particular risk of housing exclusion: only 15 % own their dwelling, compared to 70 % of the general population.

Nearly half of the respondents live in overcrowded housing (45 %), compared to 17 % of the general population in the EU. Moreover, one tenth of respondents (12 %) live in conditions of severe housing deprivation. This entails living in overcrowded dwellings with at least one of the following characteristics: a leaking roof; rot in the walls or windows; no bath/shower and no indoor toilet; or the dwelling being too dark.

The majority of respondents (55 %) have a household income below the at-risk-of-poverty threshold after social transfers in the country where they live. One in 10 (13 %) have great difficulties in making ends meet.

These findings need to be read against the commitment of the EU and its Member States to combat exclusion, including in housing. It can be noted that the European Pillar of Social Rights foresees access to social housing or housing assistance of good quality for those in need. The pillar’s implementation and Member States’ progress in this regard will be monitored through the Open Method of Coordination in the Social Protection Committee and supported by Union Funds, including the European Fund for Strategic Investments for social housing investments, the European Regional Development Fund for housing infrastructure, and the European Social Fund for social services.

The EU and its Member States should work closely to develop measures to eradicate housing exclusion, in particular where it correlates with experiences of racial discrimination. Drawing upon the full range of applicable Union funds, Member States should develop measures to improve the quality of municipal or social housing, including as regards overcrowding. Developing such measures should be done in close cooperation with local housing authorities.

The EU and its Member States should work closely to develop measures to eradicate housing exclusion, in particular where it correlates with experiences of racial discrimination. Drawing upon the full range of applicable Union funds, Member States should develop measures to improve the quality of municipal or social housing, including as regards overcrowding. Developing such measures should be done in close cooperation with local housing authorities.

Key findings

Nearly one in three respondents of African descent (30 %) experienced what they perceived as racist harassment in the five years before the survey; one in five (21 %) experienced such harassment in the 12 months before the survey (20 % of women and 23 % of men).

The rates of racist harassment in the five years before the survey vary considerably between EU Member States, ranging from 20 % of respondents in Malta and 21 % in the United Kingdom, up to 63 % of respondents in Finland.

Young respondents are more likely to experience racist harassment. The risk of making such experiences decreases with age.

Merely 14 % of the most recent incidents of racist harassment were reported to police or other services (16 % of incidents against women, 12 % of incidents against men), meaning that the overwhelming majority of incidents were never reported.

Nearly one in three respondents of African descent (30 %) experienced what they perceived as racist harassment in the five years before the survey; one in five (21 %) experienced such harassment in the 12 months before the survey (20 % of women and 23 % of men).

The rates of racist harassment in the five years before the survey vary considerably between EU Member States, ranging from 20 % of respondents in Malta and 21 % in the United Kingdom, up to 63 % of respondents in Finland.

Young respondents are more likely to experience racist harassment. The risk of making such experiences decreases with age.

Merely 14 % of the most recent incidents of racist harassment were reported to police or other services (16 % of incidents against women, 12 % of incidents against men), meaning that the overwhelming majority of incidents were never reported.

In the five years before the survey, some 5 % of respondents experienced what they perceived as racist violence (including assault by a police officer). The highest rates were recorded in Finland (14 %) and in Ireland and Austria (both 13 %), followed by Luxembourg (11 %). The lowest rates were observed in Portugal (2 %) and the United Kingdom (3 %).12 In the same period, 127 respondents (2 %) – mainly young men – experienced a racist assault by a police officer; the highest rate was recorded in Austria (5 %).

In the year before the survey, 3 % experienced a racist physical attack (including assault by a police officer). The highest rate was recorded for respondents in Austria (11 %).

There are no notable differences in the rates of racist violence towards men and women (7 % vs. 5 %). Men who wear traditional or religious clothing in public are, however, twice as likely to experience racist violence compared to men who do not (12 % vs. 5 %). Such differences are not observed among women.

Most victims (61 %) do not know the perpetrators, but generally identify them as not having a minority background (65 %). Some 38 % of the victims identified the perpetrators as having a minority ethnic background other than their own. One in 10 of those who experience racist violence say that a law enforcement officer was the perpetrator (11 %).

A majority (64 %) of victims of racist violence did not report the most recent incident to the police or any organisation or service. There are substantial differences between men and women: half of women victims of racist violence (50 %) reported the most recent incident to the police or another organisation, but only one in four men (23 %) did so.

A majority (63 %) of victims of racist physical attack by a police officer did not report the incident to anybody, either because they felt reporting would not change anything (34 %) or because they do not trust or are afraid of the police (28 %).

In the five years before the survey, some 5 % of respondents experienced what they perceived as racist violence (including assault by a police officer). The highest rates were recorded in Finland (14 %) and in Ireland and Austria (both 13 %), followed by Luxembourg (11 %). The lowest rates were observed in Portugal (2 %) and the United Kingdom (3 %).12 In the same period, 127 respondents (2 %) – mainly young men – experienced a racist assault by a police officer; the highest rate was recorded in Austria (5 %).

In the year before the survey, 3 % experienced a racist physical attack (including assault by a police officer). The highest rate was recorded for respondents in Austria (11 %).

There are no notable differences in the rates of racist violence towards men and women (7 % vs. 5 %). Men who wear traditional or religious clothing in public are, however, twice as likely to experience racist violence compared to men who do not (12 % vs. 5 %). Such differences are not observed among women.

Most victims (61 %) do not know the perpetrators, but generally identify them as not having a minority background (65 %). Some 38 % of the victims identified the perpetrators as having a minority ethnic background other than their own. One in 10 of those who experience racist violence say that a law enforcement officer was the perpetrator (11 %).

A majority (64 %) of victims of racist violence did not report the most recent incident to the police or any organisation or service. There are substantial differences between men and women: half of women victims of racist violence (50 %) reported the most recent incident to the police or another organisation, but only one in four men (23 %) did so.

A majority (63 %) of victims of racist physical attack by a police officer did not report the incident to anybody, either because they felt reporting would not change anything (34 %) or because they do not trust or are afraid of the police (28 %).

One in four (24 %) respondents of African descent were stopped by the police in the five years before the survey; 11 % were stopped in the 12 months before the survey.

Among those stopped in the 12 months before the survey, 44 % believe the last stop they experienced was racially motivated. This view was shared at the highest rates by respondents in Italy (70 %) and Austria (63 %), and at the lowest rates by respondents in Finland (18 %).

The rates of police stops and of perceived racial profiling vary substantially among countries. In both periods – five years and 12 months before the survey – respondents were stopped at the highest rates in Austria (5 years: 66 %, 12 months: 49 %) and Finland (5 years: 38 %, 12 months: 22 %). However, in Austria, the rate at which the latest police stop was perceived as ethnic profiling is almost eight times higher than that in Finland (31 % vs. 4 %), when looking at the 12-month period before the survey.

Men are three times more likely to be stopped than women (22 % vs. 7 %) and four times more likely to perceive the most recent stop as racial profiling (men: 17 %, women: 4 %).

With respect to age, results show a linear trend, with younger respondents more likely to perceive the most recent stop as racially motivated. Specifically, every second respondent aged 16 to 24 (50 %) stopped in the five years before the survey perceives the most recent stop as having been racially motivated. By contrast, every third respondent (35 %) aged 45 to 59 holds this view.

One in four (24 %) respondents of African descent were stopped by the police in the five years before the survey; 11 % were stopped in the 12 months before the survey.

Among those stopped in the 12 months before the survey, 44 % believe the last stop they experienced was racially motivated. This view was shared at the highest rates by respondents in Italy (70 %) and Austria (63 %), and at the lowest rates by respondents in Finland (18 %).

The rates of police stops and of perceived racial profiling vary substantially among countries. In both periods – five years and 12 months before the survey – respondents were stopped at the highest rates in Austria (5 years: 66 %, 12 months: 49 %) and Finland (5 years: 38 %, 12 months: 22 %). However, in Austria, the rate at which the latest police stop was perceived as ethnic profiling is almost eight times higher than that in Finland (31 % vs. 4 %), when looking at the 12-month period before the survey.

Men are three times more likely to be stopped than women (22 % vs. 7 %) and four times more likely to perceive the most recent stop as racial profiling (men: 17 %, women: 4 %).

With respect to age, results show a linear trend, with younger respondents more likely to perceive the most recent stop as racially motivated. Specifically, every second respondent aged 16 to 24 (50 %) stopped in the five years before the survey perceives the most recent stop as having been racially motivated. By contrast, every third respondent (35 %) aged 45 to 59 holds this view.

A majority (60 %) of respondents who were stopped by the police in the five years before the survey say that they were treated respectfully during the most recent stop. Meanwhile, 16 % say the police treated them disrespectfully. Larger proportions of respondents believe they were treated disrespectfully in Denmark (30 %) and Austria (29 %).

Only 9 % of respondents who said they were treated disrespectfully reported or made a complaint about this.

Overall, respondents’ level of trust in the police is 6.3 on a scale from 0 to 10, where 0 means ‘no trust at all’ and 10 indicates ‘complete trust’. Respondents in Finland trust the police the most (8.2). By contrast, respondents in Austria have the lowest level of trust in the police (3.6).

The results show that levels of trust in the police are not affected by a police stop itself, but by whether the stop is perceived as racial profiling. The lowest average level of trust in the police is found among respondents who view the most recent police stop they experienced as racial profiling (4.8)

A majority (60 %) of respondents who were stopped by the police in the five years before the survey say that they were treated respectfully during the most recent stop. Meanwhile, 16 % say the police treated them disrespectfully. Larger proportions of respondents believe they were treated disrespectfully in Denmark (30 %) and Austria (29 %).

Only 9 % of respondents who said they were treated disrespectfully reported or made a complaint about this.

Overall, respondents’ level of trust in the police is 6.3 on a scale from 0 to 10, where 0 means ‘no trust at all’ and 10 indicates ‘complete trust’. Respondents in Finland trust the police the most (8.2). By contrast, respondents in Austria have the lowest level of trust in the police (3.6).

The results show that levels of trust in the police are not affected by a police stop itself, but by whether the stop is perceived as racial profiling. The lowest average level of trust in the police is found among respondents who view the most recent police stop they experienced as racial profiling (4.8)

Overall, 39 % of respondents of African descent felt racially discriminated against in the five years before the survey. One in four (24 %) felt discriminated against in the 12 months before the survey. The highest perceived rates of discrimination in the 12-month period are found in Luxembourg (50 %), Finland (45 %), Austria (42 %) and Denmark (41 %). The lowest are found in the United Kingdom (15 %) and Portugal (17 %).

Skin colour is the most commonly identified ground of discrimination, mentioned by over one fourth (27 %) of respondents, with higher rates for men (30 %) than for women (24 %). The second most commonly identified ground of discrimination is ethnic origin (19 %). Some 5% of respondents felt discriminated against because of their religion or religious beliefs.

One in 10 (12 %) respondents who wear traditional or religious clothing in public say they experienced religious discrimination, with men (17 %) doing so more often than women (9 %).

Few respondents (16 %) who felt racially discriminated against reported or made a complaint about the most recent incident. The highest reporting rates are observed in Finland (30 %), Ireland (27 %) and Sweden (25 %), and the lowest in Austria (8 %), Portugal and Italy (9 % each).

Overall, 46 % of respondents know of at least one equality body in the country they live in. The highest awareness levels are observed in Ireland (67 %), the United Kingdom (65 %), and Denmark (62 %), and the lowest in Malta (9 %), Luxembourg (12 %), Italy (19 %) and Austria (20 %).

Most respondents (79 %) are aware of anti-discrimination legislation in their countries of residence. The highest awareness levels are found in the United Kingdom (87 %) and France (81 %), and the lowest in Malta (18 %) and Italy (27 %).

Overall, 39 % of respondents of African descent felt racially discriminated against in the five years before the survey. One in four (24 %) felt discriminated against in the 12 months before the survey. The highest perceived rates of discrimination in the 12-month period are found in Luxembourg (50 %), Finland (45 %), Austria (42 %) and Denmark (41 %). The lowest are found in the United Kingdom (15 %) and Portugal (17 %).

Skin colour is the most commonly identified ground of discrimination, mentioned by over one fourth (27 %) of respondents, with higher rates for men (30 %) than for women (24 %). The second most commonly identified ground of discrimination is ethnic origin (19 %). Some 5% of respondents felt discriminated against because of their religion or religious beliefs.

One in 10 (12 %) respondents who wear traditional or religious clothing in public say they experienced religious discrimination, with men (17 %) doing so more often than women (9 %).

Few respondents (16 %) who felt racially discriminated against reported or made a complaint about the most recent incident. The highest reporting rates are observed in Finland (30 %), Ireland (27 %) and Sweden (25 %), and the lowest in Austria (8 %), Portugal and Italy (9 % each).

Overall, 46 % of respondents know of at least one equality body in the country they live in. The highest awareness levels are observed in Ireland (67 %), the United Kingdom (65 %), and Denmark (62 %), and the lowest in Malta (9 %), Luxembourg (12 %), Italy (19 %) and Austria (20 %).

Most respondents (79 %) are aware of anti-discrimination legislation in their countries of residence. The highest awareness levels are found in the United Kingdom (87 %) and France (81 %), and the lowest in Malta (18 %) and Italy (27 %).

One in 10 respondents of African descent (9 %) felt racially discriminated against in an educational setting, with 6 % of parents/guardians saying they experienced discrimination when in contact with school authorities in the five years before the survey.

Eight in 10 (78 %) respondents who felt discriminated against when in contact with school authorities say that the main reason for such discrimination was their skin colour or physical appearance.

One in five (18 %) respondents who are parents or guardians say that their children experienced racist bullying at school. Some 4 % of parents say that their children experienced racist violence at school.

Overall, fewer respondents have completed tertiary education than the general population. However, in France (36 %), Finland (39 %) and Ireland (46 %), the proportion of men who completed tertiary education is higher than that of the general population (29 %, 30 % and 34 %, respectively).

About one in five respondents (18 %) currently attend school or vocational training. Among young respondents between 16 and 24 years of age, more than half (57 %) are currently in education.

One in 10 respondents of African descent (9 %) felt racially discriminated against in an educational setting, with 6 % of parents/guardians saying they experienced discrimination when in contact with school authorities in the five years before the survey.

Eight in 10 (78 %) respondents who felt discriminated against when in contact with school authorities say that the main reason for such discrimination was their skin colour or physical appearance.

One in five (18 %) respondents who are parents or guardians say that their children experienced racist bullying at school. Some 4 % of parents say that their children experienced racist violence at school.

Overall, fewer respondents have completed tertiary education than the general population. However, in France (36 %), Finland (39 %) and Ireland (46 %), the proportion of men who completed tertiary education is higher than that of the general population (29 %, 30 % and 34 %, respectively).

About one in five respondents (18 %) currently attend school or vocational training. Among young respondents between 16 and 24 years of age, more than half (57 %) are currently in education.

One in four (25 %) respondents felt racially discriminated against when looking for work in the five years before the survey. The highest levels were observed in Austria (46 %), Luxembourg (47 %) and Italy (46 %). Eight in 10 respondents (82 %) believe skin colour or physical appearance is the main reason for experiencing discrimination when looking for work.

One in four (24 %) respondents felt racially discriminated against at work in the five years before the survey, with slightly higher rates observed for men than for women (26 % vs. 22 %). Respondents identify skin colour or physical appearance as the main ground for discrimination at work (81 %).

Seven in 10 (69 %) respondents of working-age (aged 20 to 64) are in paid work, with the rate higher among men (76 %) than among women (63 %). The highest paid work rates are observed in Portugal (76 %) and the United Kingdom (75 %), and the lowest in Denmark (41 %), Austria (45 %), Ireland and Malta (48 % each).

The paid work rate among respondents with tertiary education is lower than that of the general population.

One in five (18 %) respondents aged 16 to 24 years are neither in paid work nor in education or training, with substantial differences between countries. The share of young respondents who are neither in paid work nor in education or training is highest in Austria (76%), Malta (70 %), and Italy (42 %), with significant differences when compared to the rate for the general population (Austria: 8 %, Malta: 8 %, Italy: 20 %).

Almost twice as many respondents with tertiary education (9 %) are employed in elementary occupations – usually manual work involving physical effort – than the general population (5 %).

One in four (25 %) respondents felt racially discriminated against when looking for work in the five years before the survey. The highest levels were observed in Austria (46 %), Luxembourg (47 %) and Italy (46 %). Eight in 10 respondents (82 %) believe skin colour or physical appearance is the main reason for experiencing discrimination when looking for work.

One in four (24 %) respondents felt racially discriminated against at work in the five years before the survey, with slightly higher rates observed for men than for women (26 % vs. 22 %). Respondents identify skin colour or physical appearance as the main ground for discrimination at work (81 %).

Seven in 10 (69 %) respondents of working-age (aged 20 to 64) are in paid work, with the rate higher among men (76 %) than among women (63 %). The highest paid work rates are observed in Portugal (76 %) and the United Kingdom (75 %), and the lowest in Denmark (41 %), Austria (45 %), Ireland and Malta (48 % each).

The paid work rate among respondents with tertiary education is lower than that of the general population.

One in five (18 %) respondents aged 16 to 24 years are neither in paid work nor in education or training, with substantial differences between countries. The share of young respondents who are neither in paid work nor in education or training is highest in Austria (76%), Malta (70 %), and Italy (42 %), with significant differences when compared to the rate for the general population (Austria: 8 %, Malta: 8 %, Italy: 20 %).

Almost twice as many respondents with tertiary education (9 %) are employed in elementary occupations – usually manual work involving physical effort – than the general population (5 %).

One in five respondents of African descent (21 %) felt racially discriminated against in access to housing in the five years before the survey. The highest rates were observed in Italy and Austria (39 % each), Luxembourg (36 %) and Germany (33 %). The lowest were observed in Denmark and the United Kingdom, where less than 10 % of respondents mentioned such experiences.

Eight in 10 respondents (84 %) identify their skin colour or physical appearance as the main reason behind the most recent incident of discrimination they experienced when looking for housing. Other reasons include respondents’ first or last names (16 %) and their citizenship (15 %).  More than one in 10 respondents (14 %) of African descent say they were prevented from renting accommodation by a private landlord because of their racial or ethnic origin. The highest rates are observed in in Austria (37 %), Italy (31 %), Luxembourg (28 %) and Germany (25 %). The lowest rate is observed in the United Kingdom (3 %).

Some 6 % of respondents say that they were prevented from renting municipal/social housing because of their racial or ethnic origin. Meanwhile, 5 % were asked to pay a higher rental rate because of their racial or ethnic origin, with respondents in Italy (20 %) and Austria (18 %) particularly affected.

Among the general population in the EU, 7 out of 10 persons own the accommodation in which they live, making ownership the most prevalent tenancy status. By contrast, 15 % of respondents of African descent own their dwelling.

One in two respondents live in overcrowded housing (45 %), compared to 17 % of the general population in the EU-28. One in 10 (12 %) respondents experience housing deprivation, which includes living in a dwelling without a bath and toilet or in a dwelling that is too dark, has rot in the walls or windows, or has a leaking roof.

More than one in two respondents (55 %) have a household income below the at-risk-of-poverty threshold after social transfers in the country where they live. The highest rates are observed in Austria (88 %), Malta (82 %) and Luxembourg (71 %). By contrast, this is the case for 14 % of the general population in Austria, and 17 % of the general population in both Malta and Luxembourg.

More than one in 10 (13 %) respondents of African descent say that they have great difficulties in making ends meet – more so than the general population in the countries surveyed, except for Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom. This rate is highest in Austria, where one in two respondents (50 %) say they have great difficulties in making ends meet. By contrast, 4 % of the general population indicates having such difficulties in Austria.

One in five respondents of African descent (21 %) felt racially discriminated against in access to housing in the five years before the survey. The highest rates were observed in Italy and Austria (39 % each), Luxembourg (36 %) and Germany (33 %). The lowest were observed in Denmark and the United Kingdom, where less than 10 % of respondents mentioned such experiences.

Eight in 10 respondents (84 %) identify their skin colour or physical appearance as the main reason behind the most recent incident of discrimination they experienced when looking for housing. Other reasons include respondents’ first or last names (16 %) and their citizenship (15 %).  More than one in 10 respondents (14 %) of African descent say they were prevented from renting accommodation by a private landlord because of their racial or ethnic origin. The highest rates are observed in in Austria (37 %), Italy (31 %), Luxembourg (28 %) and Germany (25 %). The lowest rate is observed in the United Kingdom (3 %).

Some 6 % of respondents say that they were prevented from renting municipal/social housing because of their racial or ethnic origin. Meanwhile, 5 % were asked to pay a higher rental rate because of their racial or ethnic origin, with respondents in Italy (20 %) and Austria (18 %) particularly affected.

Among the general population in the EU, 7 out of 10 persons own the accommodation in which they live, making ownership the most prevalent tenancy status. By contrast, 15 % of respondents of African descent own their dwelling.

One in two respondents live in overcrowded housing (45 %), compared to 17 % of the general population in the EU-28. One in 10 (12 %) respondents experience housing deprivation, which includes living in a dwelling without a bath and toilet or in a dwelling that is too dark, has rot in the walls or windows, or has a leaking roof.

More than one in two respondents (55 %) have a household income below the at-risk-of-poverty threshold after social transfers in the country where they live. The highest rates are observed in Austria (88 %), Malta (82 %) and Luxembourg (71 %). By contrast, this is the case for 14 % of the general population in Austria, and 17 % of the general population in both Malta and Luxembourg.

More than one in 10 (13 %) respondents of African descent say that they have great difficulties in making ends meet – more so than the general population in the countries surveyed, except for Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom. This rate is highest in Austria, where one in two respondents (50 %) say they have great difficulties in making ends meet. By contrast, 4 % of the general population indicates having such difficulties in Austria.

Related

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ethnic groups continue to face widespread discrimination across the EU and in all areas of life – most often when seeking
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collected information from over 25,500 respondents with different ethnic minority and immigrant backgrounds across all
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Across the European Union, people face hatred because of their skin colour, ethnicity, religion, gender or sexuality.
In response, the EU and its Member States have introduced laws against hate crime and support services
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European non-discrimination law, as constituted in particular by the EU non-discrimination
directives, and Article 14 of and Protocol 12 to the European Convention on Human Rights, prohibits
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them interchangeably to the extent that they overlap, while highlighting differences where
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