Mesoamerica is one of onwy dree regions of de worwd where writing is known to have independentwy devewoped (de oders being ancient Sumer and China).[4] In Centraw Mexico, de height of de Cwassic period saw de ascendancy of de city of Teotihuacan, which formed a miwitary and commerciaw empire whose powiticaw infwuence stretched souf into de Maya area and nordward. Upon de cowwapse of Teotihuacán around 600 AD, competition between severaw important powiticaw centers in centraw Mexico, such as Xochicawco and Chowuwa, ensued. At dis time during de Epi-Cwassic period, de Nahua peopwes began moving souf into Mesoamerica from de Norf, and became powiticawwy and cuwturawwy dominant in centraw Mexico, as dey dispwaced speakers of Oto-Manguean wanguages. During de earwy post-Cwassic period, Centraw Mexico was dominated by de Towtec cuwture, Oaxaca by de Mixtec, and de wowwand Maya area had important centers at Chichén Itzá and Mayapán. Towards de end of de post-Cwassic period, de Aztecs of Centraw Mexico buiwt a tributary empire covering most of centraw Mesoamerica.[5]

The distinct Mesoamerican cuwturaw tradition ended wif de Spanish conqwest in de 16f century. Over de next centuries, Mesoamerican indigenous cuwtures were graduawwy subjected to Spanish cowoniaw ruwe. Aspects of de Mesoamerican cuwturaw heritage stiww survive among de indigenous peopwes who inhabit Mesoamerica, many of whom continue to speak deir ancestraw wanguages, and maintain many practices harking back to deir Mesoamerican roots.[6]

The term Mesoamerica witerawwy means "middwe America" in Greek. Middwe America often refers to a warger area in de Americas, but it has awso previouswy been used more narrowwy to refer to Mesoamerica. An exampwe is de titwe of de 16 vowumes of The Handbook of Middwe American Indians. "Mesoamerica" is broadwy defined as de area dat is home to de Mesoamerican civiwization, which comprises a group of peopwes wif cwose cuwturaw and historicaw ties. The exact geographic extent of Mesoamerica has varied drough time, as de civiwization extended Norf and Souf from its heartwand in soudern Mexico. The term was first used by de GermanednowogistPauw Kirchhoff, who noted dat simiwarities existed among de various pre-Cowumbian cuwtures widin de region dat incwuded soudern Mexico, Guatemawa, Bewize, Ew Sawvador, western Honduras, and de Pacific wowwands of Nicaragua and nordwestern Costa Rica. In de tradition of cuwturaw history, de prevawent archaeowogicaw deory of de earwy to middwe 20f century, Kirchhoff defined dis zone as a cuwturaw area based on a suite of interrewated cuwturaw simiwarities brought about by miwwennia of inter- and intra-regionaw interaction (i.e., diffusion).[7][8] Mesoamerica is recognized as a near-prototypicaw cuwturaw area, and de term is now fuwwy integrated in de standard terminowogy of pre-Cowumbian andropowogicaw studies. Conversewy, de sister terms Aridoamerica and Oasisamerica, which refer to nordern Mexico and de western United States, respectivewy, have not entered into widespread usage.

Some of de significant cuwturaw traits defining de Mesoamerican cuwturaw tradition are:

Ew Mirador fwourished from 600 BCE to 100 CE, and may have had a popuwation of over 100,000.

Landscape of de Mesoamerican highwands

Located on de Middwe Americanisdmus joining Norf and Souf America between ca. 10° and 22° nordern watitude, Mesoamerica possesses a compwex combination of ecowogicaw systems, topographic zones, and environmentaw contexts. A main distinction groups dese different niches into two broad categories: de wowwands (dose areas between sea wevew and 1000 meters) and de awtipwanos, or highwands (situated between 1,000 and 2,000 meters above sea wevew).[10][11] In de wow-wying regions, sub-tropicaw and tropicaw cwimates are most common, as is true for most of de coastwine awong de Pacific and Guwf of Mexico and de Caribbean Sea. The highwands show much more cwimatic diversity, ranging from dry tropicaw to cowd mountainous cwimates; de dominant cwimate is temperate wif warm temperatures and moderate rainfaww. The rainfaww varies from de dry Oaxaca and norf Yucatán to de humid soudern Pacific and Caribbean wowwands.

Severaw distinct sub-regions widin Mesoamerica are defined by a convergence of geographic and cuwturaw attributes. These sub-regions are more conceptuaw dan cuwturawwy meaningfuw, and de demarcation of deir wimits is not rigid. The Maya area, for exampwe, can be divided into two generaw groups: de wowwands and highwands. The wowwands are furder divided into de soudern and nordern Maya wowwands. The soudern Maya wowwands are generawwy regarded as encompassing nordern Guatemawa, soudern Campeche and Quintana Roo in Mexico, and Bewize. The nordern wowwands cover de remainder of de nordern portion of de Yucatán Peninsuwa. Oder areas incwude Centraw Mexico, West Mexico, de Guwf Coast Lowwands, Oaxaca, de Soudern Pacific Lowwands, and Soudeast Mesoamerica (incwuding nordern Honduras).

There is extensive topographic variation in Mesoamerica, ranging from de high peaks circumscribing de Vawwey of Mexico and widin de centraw Sierra Madre mountains to de wow fwatwands of de nordern Yucatán Peninsuwa. The tawwest mountain in Mesoamerica is Pico de Orizaba, a dormant vowcano wocated on de border of Puebwa and Veracruz. Its peak ewevation is 5,636 m (18,490 ft).

The Sierra Madre mountains, which consist of severaw smawwer ranges, run from nordern Mesoamerica souf drough Costa Rica. The chain is historicawwy vowcanic. In centraw and soudern Mexico, a portion of de Sierra Madre chain is known as de Eje Vowcánico Transversaw, or de Trans-Mexican vowcanic bewt. There are 83 inactive and active vowcanoes widin de Sierra Madre range, incwuding 11 in Mexico, 37 in Guatemawa, 23 in Ew Sawvador, 25 in Nicaragua, and 3 in nordwestern Costa Rica. According to de Michigan Technowogicaw University,[12] 16 of dese are stiww active. The tawwest active vowcano is Popocatépetw at 5,452 m (17,887 ft). This vowcano, which retains its Nahuatw name, is wocated 70 km (43 mi) soudeast of Mexico City. Oder vowcanoes of note incwude Tacana on de Mexico–Guatemawa border, Tajumuwco and Santamaría in Guatemawa, Izawco in Ew Sawvador, Momotombo in Nicaragua, and Arenaw in Costa Rica.

One important topographic feature is de Isdmus of Tehuantepec, a wow pwateau dat breaks up de Sierra Madre chain between de Sierra Madre dew Sur to de norf and de Sierra Madre de Chiapas to de souf. At its highest point, de Isdmus is 224 m (735 ft) above mean sea wevew. This area awso represents de shortest distance between de Guwf of Mexico and de Pacific Ocean in Mexico. The distance between de two coasts is roughwy 200 km (120 mi). The nordern side of de Isdmus is swampy and covered in dense jungwe—but de Isdmus of Tehuantepec, as de wowest and most wevew point widin de Sierra Madre mountain chain, was nonedewess a main transportation, communication, and economic route widin Mesoamerica.

Outside of de nordern Maya wowwands, rivers are common droughout Mesoamerica. Some of de more important ones served as woci of human occupation in de area. The wongest river in Mesoamerica is de Usumacinta, which forms in Guatemawa at de convergence of de Sawinas or Chixoy and La Pasion River and runs norf for 970 km (600 mi)—480 km (300 mi) of which are navigabwe—eventuawwy draining into de Guwf of Mexico. Oder rivers of note incwude de Rio Grande de Santiago, de Grijawva River, de Motagua River, de Uwúa River, and de Hondo River. The nordern Maya wowwands, especiawwy de nordern portion of de Yucatán peninsuwa, are notabwe for deir nearwy compwete wack of rivers (wargewy due to de absowute wack of topographic variation). Additionawwy, no wakes exist in de nordern peninsuwa. The main source of water in dis area is aqwifers dat are accessed drough naturaw surface openings cawwed cenotes.

The history of human occupation in Mesoamerica is divided into stages or periods. These are known, wif swight variation depending on region, as de Paweo-Indian, de Archaic, de Precwassic (or Formative), de Cwassic, and de Postcwassic. The wast dree periods, representing de core of Mesoamerican cuwturaw fwuorescence, are furder divided into two or dree sub-phases. Most of de time fowwowing de arrivaw of de Spanish in de 16f century is cwassified as de Cowoniaw period.

The Mesoamerican Paweo-Indian period precedes de advent of agricuwture and is characterized by a nomadic hunting and gadering subsistence strategy. Big-game hunting, simiwar to dat seen in contemporaneous Norf America, was a warge component of de subsistence strategy of de Mesoamerican Paweo-Indian, uh-hah-hah-hah. These sites had obsidian bwades and Cwovis-stywe fwuted projectiwe points.

The Archaic period (8000–2000 BCE) is characterized by de rise of incipient agricuwture in Mesoamerica. The initiaw phases of de Archaic invowved de cuwtivation of wiwd pwants, transitioning into informaw domestication and cuwminating wif sedentism and agricuwturaw production by de cwose of de period. Transformations of naturaw environments have been a common feature at weast since de mid Howocene [14]. Archaic sites incwude Sipacate in Escuintwa, Guatemawa, where maize powwen sampwes date to c. 3500 BCE.[15]

The Precwassic in de centraw Mexican highwands is represented by such sites as Twapacoya, Twatiwco, and Cuicuiwco. These sites were eventuawwy superseded by Teotihuacán, an important Cwassic-era site dat eventuawwy dominated economic and interaction spheres droughout Mesoamerica. The settwement of Teotihuacan is dated to de water portion of de Late Precwassic, or roughwy 50 CE.

In de Vawwey of Oaxaca, San José Mogote represents one of de owdest permanent agricuwturaw viwwages in de area, and one of de first to use pottery. During de Earwy and Middwe Precwassic, de site devewoped some of de earwiest exampwes of defensive pawisades, ceremoniaw structures, de use of adobe, and hierogwyphic writing. Awso of importance, de site was one of de first to demonstrate inherited status, signifying a radicaw shift in socio-cuwturaw and powiticaw structure. San José Mogote was eventuaw overtaken by Monte Awbán, de subseqwent capitaw of de Zapotec empire, during de Late Precwassic.

The Precwassic in western Mexico, in de states of Nayarit, Jawisco, Cowima, and Michoacán awso known as de Occidente, is poorwy understood. This period is best represented by de dousands of figurines recovered by wooters and ascribed to de "shaft tomb tradition".

The Cwassic period is marked by de rise and dominance of severaw powities. The traditionaw distinction between de Earwy and Late Cwassic are marked by deir changing fortune and deir abiwity to maintain regionaw primacy. Of paramount importance are Teotihuacán in centraw Mexico and Tikaw in Guatemawa; de Earwy Cwassic’s temporaw wimits generawwy correwate to de main periods of dese sites. Monte Awban in Oaxaca is anoder Cwassic-period powity dat expanded and fwourished during dis period, but de Zapotec capitaw exerted wess interregionaw infwuence dan de oder two sites.

During de Earwy Cwassic, Teotihuacan participated in and perhaps dominated a far-reaching macro-regionaw interaction network. Architecturaw and artifact stywes (tawud-tabwero, tripod swab-footed ceramic vessews) epitomized at Teotihuacan were mimicked and adopted at many distant settwements. Pachuca obsidian, whose trade and distribution is argued to have been economicawwy controwwed by Teotihuacan, is found droughout Mesoamerica.

Tikaw came to dominate much of de soudern Maya wowwands powiticawwy, economicawwy, and miwitariwy during de Earwy Cwassic. An exchange network centered at Tikaw distributed a variety of goods and commodities droughout soudeast Mesoamerica, such as obsidian imported from centraw Mexico (e.g., Pachuca) and highwand Guatemawa (e.g., Ew Chayaw, which was predominantwy used by de Maya during de Earwy Cwassic), and jade from de Motagua vawwey in Guatemawa. Tikaw was often in confwict wif oder powities in de Petén Basin, as weww as wif oders outside of it, incwuding Uaxactun, Caracow, Dos Piwas, Naranjo, and Cawakmuw. Towards de end of de Earwy Cwassic, dis confwict wead to Tikaw’s miwitary defeat at de hands of Caracow in 562, and a period commonwy known as de Tikaw Hiatus.

The Late Cwassic period (beginning c. 600 CE untiw 909 CE) is characterized as a period of interregionaw competition and factionawization among de numerous regionaw powities in de Maya area. This wargewy resuwted from de decrease in Tikaw’s socio-powiticaw and economic power at de beginning of de period. It was derefore during dis time dat oder sites rose to regionaw prominence and were abwe to exert greater interregionaw infwuence, incwuding Caracow, Copán, Pawenqwe, and Cawakmuw (which was awwied wif Caracow and may have assisted in de defeat of Tikaw), and Dos PiwasAguateca and Cancuén in de Petexbatún region of Guatemawa. Around 710, Tikaw arose again and started to buiwd strong awwiances and defeat its worst enemies. In de Maya area, de Late Cwassic ended wif de so-cawwed "Maya cowwapse", a transitionaw period coupwing de generaw depopuwation of de soudern wowwands and devewopment and fworescence of centers in de nordern wowwands.

Generawwy appwied to de Maya area, de Terminaw Cwassic roughwy spans de time between C. 800/850 and c. 1000 CE. Overaww, it generawwy correwates wif de rise to prominence of Puuc settwements in de nordern Maya wowwands, so named after de hiwws where dey are mainwy found. Puuc settwements are specificawwy associated wif a uniqwe architecturaw stywe (de "Puuc architecturaw stywe") dat represents a technowogicaw departure from previous construction techniqwes. Major Puuc sites incwude Uxmaw, Sayiw, Labna, Kabah, and Oxkintok. Whiwe generawwy concentrated widin de area in and around de Puuc hiwws, de stywe has been documented as far away as at Chichen Itza to de east and Edzna to de souf.

Chichén Itzá was originawwy dought to have been a Postcwassic site in de nordern Maya wowwands. Research over de past few decades has estabwished dat it was first settwed during de Earwy/Late Cwassic transition but rose to prominence during de Terminaw Cwassic and Earwy Postcwassic. During its apogee, dis widewy known site economicawwy and powiticawwy dominated de nordern wowwands. Its participation in de circum-peninsuwar exchange route, possibwe drough its port site of Iswa Cerritos, awwowed Chichén Itzá to remain highwy connected to areas such as centraw Mexico and Centraw America. The apparent "Mexicanization" of architecture at Chichén Itzá wed past researchers to bewieve dat Chichén Itzá existed under de controw of a Towtec empire. Chronowogicaw data refutes dis earwy interpretation, and it is now known dat Chichén Itzá predated de Towtec; Mexican architecturaw stywes are now used as an indicator of strong economic and ideowogicaw ties between de two regions.

The Postcwassic (beginning 900–1000 CE, depending on area) is, wike de Late Cwassic, characterized by de cycwicaw crystawwization and fragmentation of various powities. The main Maya centers were wocated in de nordern wowwands. Fowwowing Chichén Itzá, whose powiticaw structure cowwapsed during de Earwy Postcwassic, Mayapán rose to prominence during de Middwe Postcwassic and dominated de norf for c. 200 years. After Mayapán’s fragmentation, powiticaw structure in de nordern wowwands revowved around warge towns or city-states, such as Oxkutzcab and Ti’ho (Mérida, Yucatán), dat competed wif one anoder.

Mesoamerica and Centraw America in de 16f century before Spanish arrivaw

Toniná, in de Chiapas highwands, and Kaminawjuyú in de centraw Guatemawa highwands, were important soudern highwand Maya centers. The watter site, Kaminawjuyú, is one of de wongest occupied sites in Mesoamerica and was continuouswy inhabited from c. 800 BCE to around 1200 CE. Oder important highwand Maya groups incwude de K'iche' of Utatwán, de Mam in Zacuweu, de Poqomam in Mixco Viejo, and de Kaqchikew at Iximche in de Guatemawan highwands. The Pipiw resided in Ew Sawvador, whiwe de Ch'orti' were in eastern Guatemawa and nordwestern Honduras.

In centraw Mexico, de earwy portion of de Postcwassic correwates wif de rise of de Towtec and an empire based at deir capitaw, Tuwa (awso known as Towwan). Chowuwa, initiawwy an important Earwy Cwassic center contemporaneous wif Teotihuacan, maintained its powiticaw structure (it did not cowwapse) and continued to function as a regionawwy important center during de Postcwassic. The watter portion of de Postcwassic is generawwy associated wif de rise of de Mexica and de Aztec Empire. One of de more commonwy known cuwturaw groups in Mesoamerica, de Aztec powiticawwy dominated nearwy aww of centraw Mexico, de Guwf Coast, Mexico’s soudern Pacific Coast (Chiapas and into Guatemawa), Oaxaca, and Guerrero.

The Tarascans (awso known as de P'urhépecha) were wocated in Michoacán and Guerrero. Wif deir capitaw at Tzintzuntzan, de Tarascan state was one of de few to activewy and continuouswy resist Aztec domination during de Late Postcwassic. Oder important Postcwassic cuwtures in Mesoamerica incwude de Totonac awong de eastern coast (in de modern-day states of Veracruz, Puebwa, and Hidawgo). The Huastec resided norf of de Totonac, mainwy in de modern-day states of Tamauwipas and nordern Veracruz. The Mixtec and Zapotec cuwtures, centered at Mitwa and Zaachiwa respectivewy, inhabited Oaxaca.

The Postcwassic ends wif de arrivaw of de Spanish and deir subseqwent conqwest of de Aztec between 1519 and 1521. Many oder cuwturaw groups did not acqwiesce untiw water. For exampwe, Maya groups in de Petén area, incwuding de Itza at Tayasaw and de Kowoj at Zacpeten, remained independent untiw 1697.

Some Mesoamerican cuwtures never achieved dominant status or weft impressive archaeowogicaw remains but are neverdewess notewordy. These incwude de Otomi, Mixe–Zoqwe groups (which may or may not have been rewated to de Owmecs), de nordern Uto-Aztecan groups, often referred to as de Chichimeca, dat incwude de Cora and Huichow, de Chontawes, de Huaves, and de Pipiw, Xincan and Lencan peopwes of Centraw America.

By roughwy 6000 BCE, hunter-gaderers wiving in de highwands and wowwands of Mesoamerica began to devewop agricuwturaw practices wif earwy cuwtivation of sqwash and chiwwi. The earwiest exampwe of maize dates to c. 4000 BCE and comes from Guiwá Naqwitz, a cave in Oaxaca. Earwier maize sampwes have been documented at de Los Ladrones cave site in Panama, c. 5500 BCE.[19] Swightwy dereafter, semi-agrarian communities began to cuwtivate oder crops droughout Mesoamerica.[20] Maize was de most common domesticate, but de common bean, tepary bean, scarwet runner bean, jicama, tomato and sqwash aww became common cuwtivates by 3500 BCE. At de same time, dese communities expwoited cotton, yucca, and agave for fibers and textiwe materiaws.[21] By 2000 BCE, corn was de stapwe crop in de region, and remained so drough modern times. The Ramón or Breadnut tree (Brosimum awicastrum) was an occasionaw substitute for maize in producing fwour. Fruit was awso important in de daiwy diet of Mesoamerican cuwtures. Some of de main ones consumed incwude avocado, papaya, guava, mamey, zapote, and annona.

Mesoamerica wacked animaws suitabwe for domestication, most notabwy domesticated warge unguwates. The wack of draft animaws for transportation is one notabwe difference between Mesoamerica and de cuwtures of de Souf American Andes. Oder animaws, incwuding de duck, dogs, and turkey, were domesticated. Turkey was de first, occurring around 3500 BCE.[22]Dogs were de primary source of animaw protein in ancient Mesoamerica,[23] and dog bones are common in midden deposits droughout de region, uh-hah-hah-hah.

Societies of dis region did hunt certain wiwd species for food. These animaws incwuded deer, rabbit, birds, and various types of insects. They awso hunted for wuxury items, such as fewine fur and bird pwumage.[24]

Mesoamerican cuwtures dat wived in de wowwands and coastaw pwains settwed down in agrarian communities somewhat water dan did highwand cuwtures due to de fact dat dere was a greater abundance of fruits and animaws in dese areas, which made a hunter-gaderer wifestywe more attractive.[25] Fishing awso was a major provider of food to wowwand and coastaw Mesoamericans creating a furder disincentive to settwe down in permanent communities.

Ceremoniaw centers were de nucwei of Mesoamerican settwements. The tempwes provided spatiaw orientation, which was imparted to de surrounding town, uh-hah-hah-hah. The cities wif deir commerciaw and rewigious centers were awways powiticaw entities, somewhat simiwar to de European city-state, and each person couwd identify wif de city where dey wived.[citation needed]

Ceremoniaw centers were awways buiwt to be visibwe. Pyramids were meant to stand out from de rest of de city, to represent de gods and deir powers. Anoder characteristic feature of de ceremoniaw centers is historic wayers. Aww de ceremoniaw edifices were buiwt in various phases, one on top of de oder, to de point dat what we now see is usuawwy de wast stage of construction, uh-hah-hah-hah. Uwtimatewy, de ceremoniaw centers were de architecturaw transwation of de identity of each city, as represented by de veneration of deir gods and masters.[citation needed]Stewae were common pubwic monuments droughout Mesoamerica, and served to commemorate notabwe successes, events and dates associated wif de ruwers and nobiwity of de various sites.

Given dat Mesoamerica was broken into numerous and diverse ecowogicaw niches, none of de societies dat inhabited de area were sewf-sufficient.[citation needed] For dis reason, from de wast centuries of de Archaic period onward, regions compensated for de environmentaw inadeqwacies by speciawizing in de extraction of certain abundant naturaw resources and den trading dem for necessary unavaiwabwe resources drough estabwished commerciaw trade networks.

The fowwowing is a wist of some of de speciawized resources traded from de various Mesoamerican sub-regions and environmentaw contexts:

Agricuwturawwy based peopwe historicawwy divide de year into four seasons. These incwuded de two sowstices and de two eqwinoxes, which couwd be dought of as de four "directionaw piwwars" dat support de year. These four times of de year were, and stiww are, important as dey indicate seasonaw changes dat directwy impact de wives of Mesoamerican agricuwturawists.

The Maya cwosewy observed and duwy recorded de seasonaw markers. They prepared awmanacs recording past and recent sowar and wunar ecwipses, de phases of de moon, de periods of Venus and Mars, de movements of various oder pwanets, and conjunctions of cewestiaw bodies. These awmanacs awso made future predictions concerning cewestiaw events. These tabwes are remarkabwy accurate, given de technowogy avaiwabwe, and indicate a significant wevew of knowwedge among Maya astronomers.[26]

Among de many types of cawendars de Maya maintained, de most important incwude a 260-day cycwe, a 360-day cycwe or 'year', a 365-day cycwe or year, a wunar cycwe, and a Venus cycwe, which tracked de synodic period of Venus. Maya of de European contact period said dat knowing de past aided in bof understanding de present and predicting de future (Diego de Landa). The 260-day cycwe was a cawendar to govern agricuwture, observe rewigious howidays, mark de movements of cewestiaw bodies and memoriawize pubwic officiaws. The 260-day cycwe was awso used for divination, and (wike de Cadowic cawendar of saints) to name newborns.[27]

The names given to de days, monds, and years in de Mesoamerican cawendar came, for de most part, from animaws, fwowers, heavenwy bodies, and cuwturaw concepts dat hewd symbowic significance in Mesoamerican cuwture. This cawendar was used droughout de history of Mesoamerican by nearwy every cuwture. Even today, severaw Maya groups in Guatemawa, incwuding de K'iche', Q'eqchi', Kaqchikew, and de Mixe peopwe of Oaxaca continue using modernized forms of de Mesoamerican cawendar.

The Mesoamerican scripts deciphered to date are wogosywwabic combining de use of wogograms wif a sywwabary, and dey are often cawwed hierogwyphic scripts. Five or six different scripts have been documented in Mesoamerica, but archaeowogicaw dating medods, and a certain degree of sewf-interest, create difficuwties in estabwishing priority and dus de forebear from which de oders devewoped. The best documented and deciphered Mesoamerican writing system, and derefore de most widewy known, is de cwassic Maya script. Oders incwude de Owmec, Zapotec, and Epi-Owmec/Isdmian writing systems. An extensive Mesoamerican witerature has been conserved partwy in indigenous scripts and partwy in de postinvasion transcriptions into Latin script.

The oder gwyphic writing systems of Mesoamerica, and deir interpretation, have been subject to much debate. One important ongoing discussion regards wheder non-Maya Mesoamerican texts can be considered exampwes of true writing or wheder non-Maya Mesoamerican texts are best understood as pictographic conventions dat express ideas, specificawwy rewigious ones, but don't represent de phonetics of spoken wanguage.

Mesoamerican writing is found in severaw mediums, incwuding warge stone monuments such as stewae, carved directwy onto architecture, carved or painted over stucco (e.g., muraws), and on pottery. No Precowumbian Mesoamerican society is known to have had widespread witeracy, and witeracy was probabwy restricted to particuwar sociaw cwasses, incwuding scribes, painters, merchants, and de nobiwity.

The Mesoamerican book was typicawwy written wif brush and cowored inks on a paper prepared from de inner bark of de ficus amacus. The book consisted of a wong strip of de prepared bark, which was fowded wike a screenfowd to define individuaw pages. The pages were often covered and protected by ewaboratewy carved book boards. Some books were composed of sqware pages whiwe oders were composed of rectanguwar pages.

Fowwowing de Spanish conqwests in de sixteenf century, Spanish friars taught indigenous scribes to write deir wanguages in awphabetic texts. Many oraw histories of de prehispanic period were subseqwentwy recorded in awphabetic texts. The indigenous in centraw and soudern Mexico continued to produce written texts in de cowoniaw period, many wif pictoriaw ewements. An important schowarwy reference work is de Handbook of Middwe American Indians, Guide to Ednohistoricaw Sources. Mesoamerican codices survive from de Aztec, Maya, Mixtec, and Zapotec regions.

Mesoamerican aridmetic treated numbers as having bof witeraw and symbowic vawue, de resuwt of de duawistic nature dat characterized Mesoamerican ideowogy.[citation needed] As mentioned, de Mesoamerican numbering system was vigesimaw (i.e., based on de number 20).

In representing numbers, a series of bars and dots were empwoyed. Dots had a vawue of one, and bars had a vawue of five. This type of aridmetic was combined wif a symbowic numerowogy: '2' was rewated to origins, as aww origins can be dought of as doubwing; '3' was rewated to househowd fire; '4' was winked to de four corners of de universe; '5' expressed instabiwity; '9' pertained to de underworwd and de night; '13' was de number for wight, '20' for abundance, and '400' for infinity. The concept of zero was awso used, and its representation at de Late Precwassic occupation of Tres Zapotes is one of de earwiest uses of zero in human history.

Mesoamerica wouwd deserve its pwace in de human pandeon if its inhabitants had onwy created maize, in terms of harvest weight de worwd's most important crop. But de inhabitants of Mexico and nordern Centraw America awso devewoped tomatoes, now basic to Itawian cuisine; peppers, essentiaw to Thai and Indian food; aww de worwd's sqwashes (except for a few domesticated in de United States); and many of de beans on dinner pwates around de worwd. One writer estimated dat Indians devewoped dree-fifds of de crops now grown in cuwtivation, most of dem in Mesoamerica. Having secured deir food suppwy, de Mesoamerican societies turned to intewwectuaw pursuits. In a miwwennium or wess, a comparativewy short time, dey invented deir own writing, astronomy and madematics, incwuding de zero.[28]

”

Maize pwayed an important rowe in Mesoamerican feasts due to its symbowic meaning and abundance.[29]. Gods were praised and named after.

Fray Bernardino de Sahagún cowwected extensive information on pwants, animaws, soiw types, among oder matters from native informants in Book 11, The Eardwy Things, of de twewve-vowume Generaw History of de Things of New Spain, known as de Fworentine Codex, compiwed in de dird qwarter of de sixteenf century. An earwier work, de Badianus Manuscript or Libewwus de Medicinawibus Indorum Herbis is anoder Aztec codex wif written text and iwwustrations cowwected from de indigenous viewpoint.

Shared traits in Mesoamerican mydowogy are characterized by deir common basis as a rewigion dat—dough in many Mesoamerican groups devewoped into compwex powydeistic rewigious systems—retained some shamanistic ewements.[31]

Zapotec mask of de Bat God.

The great breadf of de Mesoamerican pandeon of deities is due to de incorporation of ideowogicaw and rewigious ewements from de first primitive rewigion of Fire, Earf, Water and Nature. Astraw divinities (de sun, stars, constewwations, and Venus) were adopted and represented in andropomorphic, zoomorphic, and andropozoomorphic scuwptures, and in day-to-day objects.[citation needed] The qwawities of dese gods and deir attributes changed wif de passage of time and wif cuwturaw infwuences from oder Mesoamerican groups. The gods are at once dree: creator, preserver, and destroyer, and at de same time just one. An important characteristic of Mesoamerican rewigion was de duawism among de divine entities. The gods represented de confrontation between opposite powes: de positive, exempwified by wight, de mascuwine, force, war, de sun, etc.; and de negative, exempwified by darkness, de feminine, repose, peace, de moon, etc.

The typicaw Mesoamerican cosmowogy sees de worwd as separated into a day worwd watched by de sun and a night worwd watched by de moon, uh-hah-hah-hah. More importantwy, de dree superposed wevews of de worwd are united by a Ceiba tree (Yaxche' in Mayan). The geographic vision is awso tied to de cardinaw points. Certain geographicaw features are winked to different parts of dis cosmovision, uh-hah-hah-hah. Thus mountains and taww trees connect de middwe and upper worwds; caves connect de middwe and neder worwds.

Generawwy, sacrifice can be divided into two types: autosacrifice and human sacrifice. The different forms of sacrifice are refwected in de imagery used to evoke ideowogicaw structure and sociocuwturaw organization in Mesoamerica. In de Maya area, for exampwe, stewe depict bwoodwetting rituaws performed by ruwing ewites, eagwes and jaguars devouring human hearts, jade circwes or neckwaces dat represented hearts, and pwants and fwowers dat symbowized bof nature and de bwood dat provided wife.[citation needed] Imagery awso showed pweas for rain or pweas for bwood, wif de same intention to repwenish de divine energy. Rituaw sacrfice was done in efforts to appease de gods, and was done wif de purpose of protection of de popuwation, uh-hah-hah-hah.

Autosacrifice, awso cawwed bwoodwetting, is de rituawized practice of drawing bwood from onesewf. It is commonwy seen or represented drough iconography as performed by ruwing ewites in highwy rituawized ceremonies, but it was easiwy practiced in mundane sociocuwturaw contexts (i.e., non-ewites couwd perform autosacrifice). The act was typicawwy performed wif obsidianprismatic bwades or stingray spines, and bwood was drawn from piercing or cutting de tongue, earwobes, and/or genitaws (among oder wocations). Anoder form of autosacrifice was conducted by puwwing a rope wif attached dorns drough de tongue or earwobes. The bwood produced was den cowwected on paper hewd in a boww.

Autosacrifice was not wimited to mawe ruwers, as deir femawe counterparts often performed dese rituawized activities. They are typicawwy shown performing de rope and dorns techniqwe. A recentwy discovered qween's tomb in de Cwassic Maya site of Waka (awso known as Ew Perú) had a ceremoniaw stingray spine pwaced in her genitaw area, suggesting dat women awso performed bwoodwetting in deir genitawia.[32]

Sacrifice had great importance in de sociaw and rewigious aspects of Mesoamerican cuwture. First, it showed deaf transformed into de divine.[citation needed] Deaf is de conseqwence of a human sacrifice, but it is not de end; it is but de continuation of de cosmic cycwe. Deaf creates wife—divine energy is wiberated drough deaf and returns to de gods, who are den abwe to create more wife. Secondwy, it justifies war, since de most vawuabwe sacrifices are obtained drough confwict. The deaf of de warrior is de greatest sacrifice and gives de gods de energy to go about deir daiwy activities, such as de bringing of rain, uh-hah-hah-hah. Warfare and capturing prisoners became a medod of sociaw advancement and a rewigious cause. Finawwy, it justifies de controw of power by de two ruwing cwasses, de priests and de warriors. The priests controwwed de rewigious ideowogy, and de warriors suppwied de sacrifices. Historicawwy it was awso in discussion dat dose sacrificed were chosen by de gods, dis idea of being "chosen" was decided by de gods. This was den dispwayed by acts, such as being struck by wightning. If someone was struck by wightning and a sacrifice was needed dey wouwd often be chosen by deir popuwation, as dey bewieved dey were chosen by de gods.

The Mesoamerican bawwgame was a sport wif rituaw associations pwayed for over 3000 years by nearwy aww pre-Cowumbian peopwes of Mesoamerica. The sport had different versions in different pwaces during de miwwennia, and a modern version of de game, uwama, is stiww pwayed in a few pwaces.

Over 1300 bawwcourts have been found droughout Mesoamerica.[33] They vary considerabwy in size, but dey aww feature wong narrow awweys wif side-wawws to bounce de bawws against.

The ruwes of de bawwgame are not known, but it was probabwy simiwar to vowweybaww, where de object is to keep de baww in pway. In de most weww-known version of de game, de pwayers struck de baww wif deir hips, dough some versions used forearms or empwoyed rackets, bats, or handstones. The baww was made of sowid rubber, and weighed up to 4 kg or more, wif sizes dat differed greatwy over time or according to de version pwayed.[34][35]

Whiwe de game was pwayed casuawwy for simpwe recreation, incwuding by chiwdren and perhaps even women, de game awso had important rituaw aspects, and major formaw bawwgames were hewd as rituaw events, often featuring human sacrifice.

Mesoamerican astronomy incwuded a broad understanding of de cycwes of pwanets and oder cewestiaw bodies. Speciaw importance was given to de sun, moon, and Venus as de morning and evening star.

Observatories were buiwt at some sites, incwuding de round observatory at Ceibaw and de “Observatorio” at Xochicawco. Often, de architecturaw organization of Mesoamerican sites was based on precise cawcuwations derived from astronomicaw observations. Weww-known exampwes of dese incwude de Ew Castiwwo pyramid at Chichen Itza and de Observatorio at Xochicawco. A uniqwe and common architecturaw compwex found among many Mesoamerican sites are E-Groups, which are awigned so as to serve as astronomicaw observatories. The name of dis compwex is based on Uaxactun’s “Group E,” de first known observatory in de Maya area. Perhaps de earwiest observatory documented in Mesoamerica is dat of de Monte Awto cuwture. This compwex consisted of dree pwain stewae and a tempwe oriented wif respect to de Pweiades.

It has been argued dat among Mesoamerican societies de concepts of space and time are associated wif de four cardinaw compass points and winked togeder by de cawendar.[36] Dates or events were awways tied to a compass direction, and de cawendar specified de symbowic geographicaw characteristic pecuwiar to dat period. Resuwting from de significance hewd by de cardinaw directions, many Mesoamerican architecturaw features, if not entire settwements, were pwanned and oriented wif respect to directionawity.

In Maya cosmowogy, each cardinaw point was assigned a specific cowor and a specific jaguar deity (Bacab). They are as fowwows:

Hobniw, Bacab of de East, associated wif de cowor red and de Kan years

'Zac Cimi, Bacab of de West, associated wif de cowor bwack and de Ix years

Hozanek, Bacab of de Souf, associated wif de cowor yewwow and de Cauac years.

Later cuwtures such as de Kaqchikew and K'iche' maintain de association of cardinaw directions wif each cowor, but utiwized different names.

Among de Aztec, de name of each day was associated wif a cardinaw point (dus conferring symbowic significance), and each cardinaw direction was associated wif a group of symbows. Bewow are de symbows and concepts associated wif each direction:

East: crocodiwe, de serpent, water, cane, and movement. The East was winked to de worwd priests and associated wif vegetative fertiwity, or, in oder words, tropicaw exuberance.

Norf: wind, deaf, de dog, de jaguar, and fwint (or chert). The norf contrasts wif de east in dat it is conceptuawized as dry, cowd, and oppressive. It is considered de nocturnaw part of de universe and incwudes de dwewwings of de dead. The dog (xowoitzcuintwe) has a very specific meaning, as it accompanies de deceased during de trip to de wands of de dead and hewps dem cross de river of deaf dat weads into nodingness. (See awsoDogs in Mesoamerican fowkwore and myf).

West: de house, de deer, de monkey, de eagwe, and rain, uh-hah-hah-hah. The west was associated wif de cycwes of vegetation, specificawwy de temperate high pwains dat experience wight rains and de change of seasons.

Souf: rabbit, de wizard, dried herbs, de buzzard, and fwowers. It is rewated on de one hand to de wuminous Sun and de noon heat, and on de oder wif rain fiwwed wif awcohowic drink. The rabbit, de principaw symbow of de west, was associated wif farmers and wif puwqwe.

Mesoamerican artistic expression was conditioned by ideowogy and generawwy focused on demes of rewigion and/or sociopowiticaw power. This is wargewy based on de fact dat most works dat survived de Spanish conqwest were pubwic monuments. These monuments were typicawwy erected by ruwers who sought to visuawwy wegitimize deir sociocuwturaw and powiticaw position; by doing so, dey intertwined deir wineage, personaw attributes and achievements, and wegacy wif rewigious concepts. As such, dese monuments were specificawwy designed for pubwic dispway and took many forms, incwuding stewe, scuwpture, architecturaw rewiefs, and oder types of architecturaw ewements (e.g., roofcombs). Oder demes expressed incwude tracking time, gworifying de city, and veneration of de gods—aww of which were tied to expwicitwy aggrandizing de abiwities and de reign of de ruwer who commissioned de artwork.

The majority are artwork created during dis historicaw time was in rewation to dese topics, rewigion and powitics. Ruwers were drawn and scuwpted. Historicaw tawes and events were den transwated into pieces of art, and art was used to reway rewigious and powiticaw messages.

^Tawadoire (2001:98) Note dat swightwy over 200 bawwcourts have awso been identified in de American Soudwest. This totaw does not incwude dose, since dey are outside Mesoamerica, and dere is discussion wheder dese areas were actuawwy used for bawwpwaying.