Genealogy is like a jigsaw puzzle, but you don't have the box top, so you don't know what the picture is supposed to look like. As you start putting the puzzle together, you realize some pieces are missing, and eventually you figure out that some of the pieces you started with don't actually belong to this puzzle. I'll help you discover the right pieces for your puzzle and assemble them into a picture of your family.

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Tuesday, October 2, 2012

"Right of Return": Citizenship by Descent

Was your grandmother or great-grandfather born in Italy? Was your grandfather born in Ireland? Or maybe your mother or grandfather (even up to a great-great-grandfather) was born in India. These are some of the countries that allow descendants of their diasporas (citizens and/or residents who left the country to live somewhere else, voluntarily or sometimes otherwise) to apply for citizenship under less stringent requirements than the average person.

Each country sets its own requirements and restrictions for citizenship through right of return, as they do with normal citizenship requirements. For Italy, for example, you can apply if your great-grandparent, grandparent, or parent was born in Italy and did not renounce citizenship before a more recent ancestor was born in another country. I recently helped someone with his application for Italian citizenship using this method. His great-grandfather was born in Italy and did not give up Italian citizenship before his grandfather was born in the U.S. I researched and confirmed the family connections, ordered copies of the relevant required documents, arranged for a translation of my client's birth certificate into Italian, and acquired an apostille (international certification similar in function to a notarization) for his birth certificate. He submitted his application to the local Italian consulate, which approved it with no problems. It will take about five months for the application to be processed, and he will then have dual citizenship, U.S. and Italy.

What's the point of doing this? Some people do it because they want to be more closely connected to their ancestral homelands. On a more practical level, some (such as my client) do it because Italian citizenship not only will allow him to travel freely to Italy, it also permits free travel throughout the European Union.

Most of the time citizenship acquired through right of return is equivalent to full citizenship of the country. One country that does it differently is India. Instead of granting citizenship, that country gives descendants of the Indian diaspora status as "Persons of Indian Origin." This status allows someone to go to India without a visa, exempts him from restrictions on work for foreign nationals, and makes it easier to become a full citizen if desired. (Maybe one day my stepsons will be interested; their grandfather was born in Punjab.)

Sometimes a person looking for citizenship through right of return is disappointed. Someone else I did research for was not eligible for Italian citizenship because his great-grandfather became a naturalized U.S. citizen before his grandfather was born. In an interesting twist, descendants of the grandfather's older brother are eligible, because the older brother was born before the great-grandfather renounced Italian citizenship.

General information about right of return can be found here, with examples from several countries. One I found especially interesting was Spain, which has a specific provision for descandants of Sephardic Jews who were expelled from the country in 1492 (which will require a lot of research to document!). If the country you are looking for doesn't appear in this list, try searching for "right of return" and the name of the country.

Do you know anything about an exception for Italian citizenship for Jews who were forced to leave by decree in Nov. 1939? My father was born in Italy but had to leave, and in 1945 he became a naturalized U.S. citizen. My eldest sibling was born in 1952, so according to the basic citizenship requirements, we wouldn't be eligible. I thought I read there was an exception for those forced to leave the country but now can't find where I read that.

None of the information I have seen refers to people who were forced to leave, so I can't point you to anything. You can send a message to the San Francisco consulate, which is the one I was working with, at cittadinanza.sanfrancisco@esteri.it. The person there was very helpful and informative.

My mother was born at Libya at 1963 and was banished to Italy at 1967.She know jews back than had some sort of colonial citizenship by Italian authorities in Libya, but she does not remember if her parents had to.Anyway let's say they did, do you know if that gives her the rights for an Italian citizenship nowadays?

Hello, Jon,If your grandparents were Italian citizens when your mother was born, then that should give her the right to apply for citizenship. There's a good write-up on Italian citizenship through descent athttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_nationality_law#Attribution_of_citizenship_through_jus_sanguinisbut it doesn't cover every detail. Libya is not mentioned at all. The best thing to do is speak to someone at the nearest consulate, because that's where the application would be submitted.Best of luck with your search,Janice

Can i do it for" Deutschland"?i speak very well deutsch i also still have my teutonic deutsch last name "SCHNEIDER" my great grand father fled to the U.S. V.I which belong to denmark at one point.. he was a schutzstaffel an fled nürnberg trials.. My family fought for both ww1 and 2 for deutschland.. everything i read basically already makes me qualified its just idk the next step to take. i called a deutsch embassy in miami by doesnt talk about Jus sanguinis or right of return. i also had a deutsch foreign exchange student and also said im deutsch. he said my last name helps alot. but please i just need to know whats my next step to do? call deutschland itself? and will they look up documents aswell or i must bring?P.S. im the 1st generation born in the 50 states and my dad and his dad born in the U.S.V.I which belong to denmark at one time. the rest of my family great great great great are deutsch..

Based on the research I did last year for someone, I don't think so. You can find an overview of German citizenship law at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_citizenship. In particular, Article 116 of German Basic Law (http://www.iuscomp.org/gla/statutes/GG.htm#116) defines who is a German. Someone who fought for Germany in World War II and fled the trials does not appear to qualify.

The Danish Virgin Islands were purchased by the United States during World War I, so that means you had three generations living under U.S. law, and two born under it, even before you were born in the United States proper.

Hi Janice, I really want to go traveling through europe and maybe spend a year or two studying there, so I've been looking into my ancestry to see if i'm eligible for any dual citizenship but its really really confusing! My Great Grandfather had Lithuanian citizenship before June 1940 and fled to scotland around 1930 because of the impending war, apparently this means I could be one of the few eligible for dual Lithuanian citizenship which it normally does not grant. However, the laws have changed a lot recently and I'm unsure whether he had to leave after 1940.Also both my grandparents were born in Britain one in Scotland the other in Northern Ireland they then neutralised in Australia, do I have any citizenship eligibility or is it just my mother that can apply?

Hi, everyone's situation is different, and you'll need to prove every fact with documentation. For the past few months I've been helping someone track down documentation for his application for Lithuanian dual citizenship. These are links to the regulations he has been working from:

The "Law on Citizenship" in English from what I believe is a Lithuanian Parliament Web site:http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.showdoc_l?p_id=395555

The "Dual Citizenship" write-up from the Lithuanian Consulate in New York site:http://ny.mfa.lt/index.php?2683697254

It would appear that you could be eligible. You might want to contact a consulate near you and ask for advice.

I have a very similar situation as the Italian descent person that you helped. My great grandfather on my mother's father's side was born in Italy. However, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States before my grandfather was born. Do you believe I am eligible to become an Italian citizen?

If your Italian great-grandfather became a U.S. citizen before your grandfather was born, sorry, but you are not eligible for Italian citizenship through him. You would only be eligible if your grandfather were born before your great-grandfather renounced his Italian citizenship.

Hi Janice-I'm living in Germany now under the SOFA agreement but my ancestors (at least one uncle on my mothers side) lived in Germany before and during WW2. Would this help qualify me for right of return in Germany?Thanks!

Based on my understanding of eligibility, I don't think so. It appeared to me that you need to be a direct descendant. You can find an overview of German citizenship law at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_citizenship. In particular, Article 116 of German Basic Law (http://www.iuscomp.org/gla/statutes/GG.htm#116) defines who is a German. But you should definitely check with a consulate near you to make sureJanice

Hi Janice, I am currently looking into getting Italian dual citizenship. I am not certain but I am pretty sure my grandparents were naturalized before my mother was born but a friend said there might be a glimmer of hope because my grandfather served in the Italian armed forces. Is that true?Thanks for all that you do!Sincerely, Betty

They all seem pretty clear that if your grandparent naturalized before your parent was born, you are not eligible. But you can always ask at the Italian consulate nearest to where you live to find out if exceptions can be made for men who served in Italy's armed forces.

Thank you! Generally speaking Austria seems to allow children of citizens to become citizens fairly easily. If it's through your grandfather you might need to go through additional steps, particularly depending on what his citizenship status was at the time. There's a quick breakdown of information here:

Well, you can't apply for citizenship to England, because the United Kingdom is the name of the governing country. But how many generations back was your most recent ancestor who was a citizen of England and/or the UK?

Greetings from the USA! Is there such a thing as "right of return" for people of Dutch heritage for the Netherlands or Swiss heritage for Switzerland? I checked your link so my guess is no but you may know something more?

The Netherlands page does not mention anything about right of return. The Switzerland page notes that second- and third-generation descendants of citizens of the Canton of Vaud can obtain citizenship more easily, but one of the requirements is that the person be between the ages of 18 and 24.

Keep in mind these Wikipedia pages are overviews. For more details and to find out if there is some form of right of return that isn't listed, it's always best to contact a consulate or embassy.

unless you officially renounced your British citizenship through the UK Border Agency, you are still a British citizen. I recommend you check with your nearest consulate about what your status currently is and resumption of your citizenship if necessary.

Hi Janicewonder if you could advise me on some thing,i just learned that my great great grandfather was born in italy would i be able to apply for a italian passport?i do qualify for an uk ancestral visa as my grandfather was from the uk,i am south african,any information would be greatly appreciated.thank youregardslindaxoxo

Hi, Linda,You might be eligible, depending on when your great-great-grandfather was born, and if and when he or another one of your ancestors renounced Italian citizenship. I know what the process is in the United States, but have no experience with it in South Africa. It is probably similar, but every consulate has its own version of the process. You should consult with the nearest Italian consulate to find out.Regards, Janice

Hello Janice!Ii is very nice to read You. So, If I may ask: my great grandfather and great grandmother were born in Boemia, and came to Brasil in 1880.My grandfather was born in Brasil, as my father and Me. Do you think that would be possible for my father and I obtain Austrian citizenship?Thank You, so much.

Thank you for finding my blog. I'm not sure if you would be eligible for Austrian citizenship, because Bohemia is currently in the Czech Republic. While Bohemia was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, that was not exactly the same thing as Austria. Some basic information about Austrian citizenship is here:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_citizenship

but this brief overview does not mention anything about the Empire or whether citizenship in the Empire is considered the same for jus sanguinis as citizenship in Austria proper. Also, if your great-grandfather renounced Austrian citizenship to become a Brasilian citizen, that would make you ineligible for citizenship via jus sanguinis.

I'm sorry I can't give you a more direct answer, but European border changes mean it can become complicated. I suggest you contact an Austrian consulate to find out what they can tell you regarding your eligibility for citizenship.

My great grandfather was born in Italy. My grandfather was born in the US but while my great grandfather was still an Italian citizen in 1912.

However, my grandfather was drafted into the military in WW2. He later had my father. Does being drafted into a war count as renouncing citizenship? Am I eligible assuming no other actions that count as renouncing citizenship occurred?

If rour grandfather was born in the U.S. while your great-grandfather was still an Italizn citizen, you are eligible. Your grandfather was born a U.S. citizen. He didn't renounce anything by serving in the military.

Hi Janice,I am an Australian currently living in the UK on a work visa and am looking to get Italian/Australian duel citizenship. My paternal grandmother was born in Italy and was still an Italian citizen when my father was born in Australia in 1955. Am I eligible? Also I am not sure how to go about starting the process in London if I am! Any help would be greatly appreciated! Thanks!

Hi! As I understand the process, you should be eligible. Your grandmother was an Italian citizen, and your father was born after 1 January 1948. You will need to document your lineage through your grandmother, including birth, marriages, and possibly deaths, and her naturalization. To find out how to about the process, you should check with the nearest consulate, which probably is this one: http://www.conslondra.esteri.it/Consolato_Londra. Good luck with your quest!

Hi Janice, my name is Stephanie Agustin and I have a few questions for you. My first question is how do I find out if my great grandma was really from Spain? Second, how do I apply for citizenship for Spain? Supposedly, some of our family is from Italy, but how can I verify that its true if they have passed away? Lastly, what are the benefits of becoming a citizen? Thank you for reading this!

The way you find out if your great-grandmother was really from Spain is by doing research. When you look for documents about your great-grandmother, you'll want to make sure they're about the right person. Second-hand information, such as a census that says she was born in Spain, is not considered reliable but only a clue. You'll need to find Spanish records for her to know for sure if she was born there.

There is a summary of information about Spanish citizenship law here:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_citizenship

If you were interested in applying, you should visit the nearest Spanish consulate and learn what the specific requirements are, though it appears a residency period is required for almost everyone.

You would verify that your family members were from Italy the same as verifying that your great-grandmother was from Spain: through research. You would need to document their births in Italy and prove their relationship to you.

The primary tangible benefit of becoming an Italian or Spanish citizen for most people is that it also conveys citizenship in the European Union, which means you can travel throughout the EU and work in any member country. On an intangible level, it also generally makes people feel closer to their ancestor's country of origin.

Italy permits dual citizenship. According to the information on the Wikipedia page, Spain does not permit dual citizenship for most naturalized citizens. That is something you would want to verify and consider before going through the process.

Hi Janice, First of all, thanks for this blog, it's incredibly informative!Secondly, I was wondering if you could help me and maybe advise the best course of action for my future plans.I am American by birth who is married to a British citizen. We are planning to move to London, and I would like to get an EU passport so it will be easier to live there.A little background:Both my paternal and maternal grandparents were from Romania. My maternal grandparents were from a city called Satu Mare and were deported to Auschwitz in 1944. When they went back after the war, their house and all documents inside had been burnt down. They moved to America where my mother was born.My paternal grandparents were much further north in Romania and the war did not reach them. After the war, they traveled down to find any surviving family members, and my father was born in 1950 in the DP camp of Bergen Belsen in Germany. They then moved to America, and on my father's passport it says born in Germany. They don't either have any paperwork.Is there anything you can recommend I do to try and reclaim either German or Romanian citizenship, knowing about the lack of paperwork and documentation?Thanks so much!

Thank you! I'm glad you have found the information on my blog helpful.

Regarding your question, your easiest path is probably to acquire British citizenship via being married to a British citizen. A short synopsis is available here:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_citizenship#British_citizenship_by_naturalisation

Note that it says one requirement is three years' residence.

The most likely possibility for all four of your grandparents' citizenship would be Romanian. It is possible to acquire dual Romanian citizenship by being a descendant of a citizen, but first you need to prove your ancestor was a Romanian citizen. This requires extensive research in Romanian archives, not an easy thing to accomplish, and that's assuming the documents are there to begin with.

The fact that your father was born in a German DP camp did not confer German citizenship on him. He would have been considered the same nationality as his parents, i.e., probably Romanian.

I'm sorry I couldn't give you better news, but I wish you well in your move.

Thank you for your wonderful article! I hope you could give me a bit of guidance. My paternal grandparents were born in England, they came to the US in 1930, my father was born in the 30s and my grandparents became US citizens in the early 50s. My maternal grandmother was born in Ireland, she came to the US in the mid 20s, met and married my grandfather (born in US but raised in Ireland). My mother was born in the early 30s, my grandmother became a US citizen in the mid 40s. Would I be eligible for a right of return to either the UK or Ireland? Thanks so much! Patty.

Good afternoon, Patty! Thank you for the kind words and for reading my blog.

Based on what you have said, I believe you are eligible for Irish citizenship, because your mother was born before your grandmother became a U.S. citizen. So your mother would automatically have been an Irish citizen, and she could pass that on to you. All of that needs to be verified with research, of course.

As for British citizenship, your grandparents would have transmitted it directly to your father on his birth. Based on when your father was born, I'm guessing you were born before 1983. It does not appear he passed on his British citizenship to you because he didn't register you for citizenship when you were an infant, but there are a lot of "if this, then that" provisions.

Keep in mind that the Wikipedia pages are overviews and that anyone's specific situation may be treated differently. I recommend carefully reading the footnotes and external links for both pages, and speaking with someone from a consulate for each country.

Best of luck with your question for citizenship! Let me know how it turns out.

My maternal grandfather, has served british army for 4 years in india- 1942-1946 . his dob was 31st August 1924 ,he expired on 18th may 2010.I m 38 and married and would like to know if I would be eligible to get UK citizenship

I believe you would be eligible. According to this synopsis on Wikipedia:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_of_return#United_Kingdom

your grandfather gained full citizenship in 1948 under the British Nationality Act, and the Immigration Act 1971 gave rights to the grandchildren of citizens. To be certain, however, you should consult with the nearest British consulate for the specifics of your situation.

Thanks for the informative blog! I too have a quick question about citizenship. My mother was born in the UK in the 60s, but was naturalised as an Australian before my birth and has lived in Australia ever since. She's wondering if, because she never renounced British citizenship, she'd still be considered a British citizen. She's also wondering if I, as her daughter born in Australia in the 90s, would qualify as a citizen by descent. We're just interested in your opinion, as we're aware that we'll probably have to contact the consulate on this matter.

Thank you, and I'm glad you have found my blog informative! You are absolutely correct in that you will want to contact the consulate for specific information. I also believe you are probably correct that if your mother did not renounce British citizenship, she probably is still considered a British citizen. She threfore should be able to pass that to you. There is a brief overview of British citizenshpi by descent here:

Of particular interest is the statement, "A child born outside the UK on or after 1 January 1983 automatically acquires British citizenship by descent if either parent is a British citizen other than by descent at the time of the birth." So the key element will be whether your mother actually was still considered a British citizen after her Australian naturalization.

it appears you would probably fall into the category "person, who has entered into a marriage with a citizen of the Republic of Lithuania who is a deportee, political prisoner or his child, born in exile", and the stated requirements are five years of residence.

That said, you should definitly consult with a Lithuanian consulate to make sure this is correct. In addition, you will want to keep in mind that Lithuania now is generally not in favor of dual citizenship, and obtaining Lithuanian citizenship may mean you have to renounce your current citizenship.

I am currently looking into the possibility for myself and my mother to get a British/Netherland passport. My great grandfather was born in Netherlands im not entirely sure if he gave up citizenship. My great grandmother was born in UK and I read they had to be born before 1922 witch she was. Any info would be a great help.Thank you in advance!!Chenae

You didn't say where you are now or which citizenship you hold, which might affect things. For British citizenship, a quick overview is here:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_nationality_law#British_citizenship_by_descent

On that page is the following:"Before 1983, as a general rule "Citizenship of the UK and Colonies" (CUKC) was transmitted automatically only for one generation, with registration in infancy possible for subsequent generations."

You said that your great-grandmother was born in the UK. It would appear that her British citizenship would have been transmitted to your grandparent, but no further unless that person officially registered your mother.

An overview of Dutch citizenship by descent is here:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_nationality_law

Dutch citizenship is more complicated. It says there that prior to 1985, Dutch descent had to be through a male line. So your great-grandfather would have passed on his Dutch nationality to your grandparent. If that person was your grandfather, he could have passed it on to your mother. But your mother could not pass it on to you if you were born before 1985. If the relevant grandparent was your grandmother, she could not pass it on to her children. I recommend reading the synopsis available on the page for more details.

As always, the information on Wikipedia is the "quickie" version. For complete details, you should look on the relevant consulate sites and/or speak to a consulate in your area to determine your eligibility.

Hi, it appears you might be eligible to apply for Italian citizenship. Part of it will depend on whether your great-grandparents naturalized as Australian citizens and when they did so. There is good information available at

Hmm I've found the family tree of Italian side... it goes like this Grandma born in aussie, Great Grand Father born in Aussie, Great Great Grand Father born in Milan Italy. Sounds like unlikely to be able to apply Italian Citizenship as its go further back than I thought... :(

I wasn't able to add my comment right under yours for some reason, but no, you are not automatically excluded. If your great-great-grandfather lived in Italy after it became a unified country, which was March 17, 1861, you're ok on that point. If he died before Italy was unified, yes, you have a problem. Italy doesn't limit it by the number of generations but by whether the Italian-born ancestor lived in "Italy." So when was your great-great-grandfather born, and when did he leave Italy?

Previously you said that your great-great-grandfather was born in 1838 in Milan and left in 1854. If that's the case, then it doesn't matter whether he naturalizedi n Australia or not (and even though Australian citizenship began in 1949, he might have naturalized as a British citizen). If he left Milan in 1854, he wasn't living there in 1861, when Italy became a unified country. That makes you ineligible.

Thanks, I only put in the dates from each generations. Haven't read the family tree book... but just read it briefly this morning... just discovered GGGF married to "Australia born" GGGM, her parents is from Ireland.

So there's no record of my GGGF his time until he got married in 1866. Gonna be hard to find out if he went back Italy or not during the gap of between the years of 1854 and 1866.

If there's no record of your GGGF until 1866, you still have a small chance. I know there are some records for ships coming into Australia, but I don't know if any exist from that early. I guess you have an incentive to do some research! Good luck!

Hi, Janice. I have enjoyed reading all these intricate questions posed you. Might I ask one?

My mom was born in the UK in 1938,and grew up there. She met my father, a US serviceman stationed in England in 1959 and became pregnant (with me) in 1960. My parents decided that my mom should relocate to the US to settle into an apartment and wait for my dad to finish his UK tour of duty. So my mom flew to the US and I was born in 1961. My dad returned to the States and our family continued to live here.

Fast forward 30+ years, I marry and have a child in 1993. My mom is still a green-card holder. We are all living in the US.

Two decades later, it's December 2014 and I learn--quite by accident--I can become a UK citizen by descent. I'm pretty certain my child cannot have UK citizenship through me. However, this article http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_nationality_law#British_citizenship_by_descent and others I have read seem to say my child may have UK citizenship through her grandmother (my mom). Am I interpreting this correctly?

Not only that, I've discovered my paternal grandmother (my daughter's great-grandmother) was a Lithuanian refugee who lived in the US but never naturalized, and my daughter's great grandparents (paternal side) were German Jews who changed their names on arrival into Ellis Island.

Thanks for writing. It's nice to hear that you have enjoyed the earlier posts.

I agree with you that you are eligible to become a UK citizen by descent. I don't see information in the Wikipedia article that says anything about how someone can become a citizen through a grandparent, however. Can you point me to the specific section you are interpreting this way?

As far as I know, due to recent changes in Lithuanian citizenship law, you and your daughter would be eligible for citizenship there only if your grandmother left the country after 1940 due to Soviet repression. German citizenship through Jewish ancestors I don't know much about.

Hi,My sister and I are US citizens who would like to obtain dual citizenship in any EU country. Our great-grandparents were all immigrants: 2 from Ireland, 4 from Germany, 1 from Romania, and 1 from Austria-Hungary. I don't know if or when any of them naturalized in the US, but my mom might have that information on file somewhere. Also, if it's relevant, I was born in 1994 and my sister was born in 1997. Would we be eligible for EU citizenship through any of our great-grandparents?

Unless your great-grandparents registered their children as citnzens, you are unlikely to be eligible for Ireland or Germany. Romania might be possible, but it is a difficult country to do research for. Austria-Hungary would appear to be your best chance, but it depends on where exactly that great-grandparent was from and what country it is today.

I just recently came across this and have become very interested. I know that my great great grandparents were born and Italy. Im not sure about when their citizenship changed or if the requirements were meet. If they were though, is there anyway that I could gain citizenship? Could my mother gain it, then possibly make me eligible? Or possibly my grandmother gain citizenship and make me eligible? I really love the country and its culture and would love it if one day I could be apart of it.

Yes, you might be eligible for dual citizenship. Whether you actually are depends on when your Italian emigrant ancestor became a citizen of another country and the line of descent from that ancestor. An overview of eligibility requirements is available at

Janice this is a very informative article. I was wondering if you could help with my case. Where my grandmother was born to a dutch father but was raised in Uganda. Would her grandchild be able to apply for citizenship in this case?

An overview of Dutch citizenship by descent is here:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_nationality_law

It say there that someone born before 1985 to an unmarried Dutch father and non-Dutch mother must have been acknowledged by the father to be automatically a Dutch citizen at birth. It also discusses some ways in which citizenship could be acquired later, including proof of paternity through a court. It's possible you might be eligible through one of the latter ways.

As always, the information on Wikipedia is the "quickie" version. For complete details, you should look on the relevant consulate sites and/or speak to a consulate in your area to determine your eligibility.

I have not done much Dutch research and am not familiar with what records are available online or offline. A recommended Dutch researcher is Yvette Hoitink, Dutch Genealogy Services, http://www.dutchgenealogy.nl. I am sure she can give you good advice.

All comments on this blog will be previewed by the author to prevent spammers and unkind visitors to the site. The blog is open to everyone, particularly those interested in family history and genealogy.

About Me

I am passionate about genealogy. I love researching my own family and everyone else's, and I will talk your ear off about the cool things I have found. I like fitting all the pieces together and figuring out which people belong to which families. I also love to find the stories behind the people and learn as much as I can about why they did what they did. I look at the historical context around the people I research.

I am lucky enough to do what I love for a living. I am a professional genealogist who specializes in
Jewish, forensic, and newspaper research. I am also active as a volunteer in the genealogy community. I edit three genealogy journals: The Galitzianer, focused
on Jewish research in the former Austrian province of Galicia; ZichronNote, journal of the San Francisco Bay Area Jewish
Genealogical Society (SFBAJGS); and The Baobab Tree, journal of the African American Genealogical Society of Northern California (AAGSNC). I am the vice president and publicity director for SFBAJGS, and a board member of AAGSNC and California State
Genealogical Alliance. I have been on the staff of
the Oakland FamilySearch Library since 2000.

I am a member of the Association of Professional Genealogists, Council for the Advancement of Forensic Genealogy, Genealogical
Speakers Guild, California Genealogical Society, and Gesher Galicia. Before
becoming a professional genealogist, I worked in publishing for
many years as an editor, indexer, translator, and compositor.

When not involved in genealogy or publishing, I love singing, cooking, needlework, gardening, and painting small miniatures. Way back when, I was in the USC Marching Band for five years (see the bragging rights about the Super Bowl, the World Series, and "The Naked Gun"), one of the best experiences of my life.