Drug Design

IntroductionA drug is a substance that we used mostly in our daily lives. It is a chemical substance with physiological effects when ingested or introduced into our bodies. The response produce can either be beneficial or harmful. Toxins and poisons can be classified as drugs. This report the term ‘drug’ is for medicinal or pharmaceutical purposes. Drugs used to prevent or treat diseases. Drug design also known as rational drug design is the creative process of discovering or finding a new drug based on the knowledge of a biological target. Modern drug discovery involves the identification of screening hits, medicinal chemistry and optimization of those hits to increase the affinity, selectivity (to reduce the potential of side effects), efficacy/potency, metabolic stability (to increase the half-life), and oral bioavailability. Once a compound that fulfils all of these requirements has been identified, it will begin the process of drug development prior to clinical trials. One or more of these steps may, but not necessarily, involve computer-aided drug design.

Humanity has been has been consuming and experimenting with drug substance for centuries. This dates back in the early days of human civilization when drugs were not only used for their therapeutic properties but they were also used in association with religion and spiritual healing. This all changed when chemistry reached a high level of maturity principles and methods started to be applied and drug researches were performed this then gave rise to drug discovery and design. In the 1800s drug design and discovery started following scientific techniques and around the 1810 essential foundations of chemical theory had been laid. Drugs are mostly discovered by accident or by “luck”. Drug discovery deals with the synthesis and design of the drug. It is not the drug itself that that gets discovered but the active ingredient of the lead component. Lead compound discovery is the starting point of drug discovery and design. It can be discovered from various sources either natural for example venom from animals or plant flora. The lead compound can consist of desirable characteristics and of undesirable characteristics such as decrease in metabolism, toxicity, heart problems etc. The lead compound can be modified to enhance their desired effects and to eliminate or reduce the undesirable effects.

In this report will be discussing the drug design and discovery process in details and the analytical techniques used in small molecule drugs. Small molecule drugs refer to drugs with small molecular weight of less than 1000 daltons, between 300 to 7000 daltons to be exact.

6. ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES USED IN DDD
6.1 X-ray crystallographyX-ray crystallography uses x-ray on crystals. X-rays are electromagnetic waves with a short wavelength of 0.01-100 nm. This helps because the atomic structures have bond lengths of 0.1-0.2 nm, thus able to resolve atomic details. This method determines atomic and molecular structure of crystals. It is used in drug design and discovery as a standard technique for three dimensional structures. It is the only method that determines the absolute configuration of a molecule. The drug compound of protein molecules to be studied using an x-ray, must be in crystalline form. This allows the compound or the molecules are orderly arranged in building blocks containing a molecule protein. This then form imaginary cubes termed unit cell. (Figure 6.1.1)

Figure 6.1.1: Crystalline molecules in 3D (Unit cells)

X-ray beams are the focused on different of these unit cells, a 3D diffraction pattern is created consisting of many diffraction spots. Each diffraction spot has an intensity which is the summation of constructive interference by the atoms in the molecule at a certain orientation, and the dimensions and pattern are due to the geometric...

...Pharmacognosy is the study of drugs of natural origin.
The term comes from two Greek words: "pharmakon" meaning drug or medicine, and "gnosis" meaning knowledge. The American Society of Pharmacognosy defines pharmacognosy as "the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs, drug substances or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources".
Plant preparations are said to be medicinal or herbal when they are used to promote health beyond basic nutrition.
The study of drugs from plants includes the subjects of botany, chemistry and pharmacology.
Botany includes the identification (taxonomy), genetics, and cultivation of plants.
Chemical characterization includes the isolation, identification and quantification of constituents in plant materials.
Pharmacology is the study of the biological effects that the chemicals in medicinal plants have on cell cultures, animals and humans.
The renaissance of herbal medicine creates a demand for studies in the field of pharmacognosy. From a practical perspective this includes:
* quality control (identity, purity, consistency)
* efficacy (therapeutic indications, clinical studies, pharmacological investigations)
* safety (adverse reactions, drug interactions, contraindications,...

...THE SIX RIGHTS OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION
Right Drug
Many drugs have similar spellings and variable concentrations. Before the administration of the medication, it is imperative to compare the exact spelling and concentration of the prescribed drug with the medication card or drug profile and the medication container. Regardless of the drug distribution system used, the drug label should be read at least three times:
1. Before removing the drug from the shelf or unit dose cart.
2. Before preparing or measuring the actual prescribed dose
3. Before replacing the drug on the shelf or before opening a unit dose container (just prior to administering the drug to the patient)
Right Time
When scheduling the administration time of a medication, factors such as timing abbreviations, standardized times, consistency of blood levels, absorption, diagnostic testing, and the use of p.r.n. medications must be considered.
1. Standard Abbreviations—The drug order specifies the frequency of drug administration. Standard abbreviations used as part of the drug order specify the times of administrati0n. The nurse should also check institutional policy concerning administration of medications. Hospitals often have standardized interpretations for abbreviations. The nurse must...

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Cannabis verses pharmaceutical drugs to treat seizure disorders
Melissa M. Phillips
COM/172
April 21, 2014
Scott Tobias
Cannabis verses pharmaceutical drugs to treat seizure disorders.
Chronic illnesses are prevalent this day and age due to various environmental factors, lifestyle choices, and the use of pharmaceutical drugs. There are various pharmaceutical drugs to treat patients who have chronic pain, depression, anxiety, Alzheimer's, cancer, and various seizure disorders. However, the effects of pharmaceutical drugs on people’s major organs are devastating. Cannabis is a much safer, 100% natural approach to treating chronic illnesses and it is not damaging to peoples organs. In fact, the human body has built in cannabinoid receptors in the brain and the spleen, and our bodies actually create our own cannabinoid proteins, which contains no psychoactive component. Therefore, the human body creates its own cannabis.
Personally, being through what I have been through with my chronic illness; Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension (IIH), and the numerous amounts of pharmaceutical drugs I have been prescribed. I have had severe allergic reactions to various pharmaceutical drugs, a medication induced seizure, and could have possibly overdosed due to the wrong amount of medication being prescribed. Given my current situation and my new perspective on consuming...

...services they offer.
Discuss how design and innovation is used to gain a competitive advantage. Show examples where design has been applied and what effect this has had on the competitiveness of a market sector of your choice.
In order for companies to create a COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE, they must INNOVATE in the products and services they offer.
Discuss how DESIGN and INNOVATION is used to gain a competitive advantage.
Show examples where design has been applied and what effect this has on the competitiveness of a market sector of your choice.
GOING SMOKE FREE.
INTRO.
Define
Innovation is central
Design is everywhere
Market size,
Harm created
Competition is high but held by a few big companies British American Tobacco, Phillip Morris etc
Identifying problem
Problem cause… killing millions a year, unethical, moral implication
Solution Cutting out the harm…
History
Invention of idea was Chinese man.. in 2004 after identifying death hazard
Created prototype, development and implementation, foundations
Types of suppressing smoking habit.. Patches, direct to blood stream, Nicorette inhalour
High demand for product
NHS costs exaggerate demand for smoking aids
Market
Split into three, Disposables, Rechargable similar to cigarette, Refillable smoking device
Innovation
Initially cig-alikes as replicating smoking was concept N-joy
Additional adaptaitons Blu (Bought...

...views of William Morris who was inspired by John Ruskin. William Morris was a dynamic and multi-talented man. His name is “indissolubly linked to wallpaper design” (William Morris & Wallpaper Design, [sa]). All his designs were made by hand and not machines because Morris believed that “the tastelessness of mass-produced goods and the lack of honest craftsmanship might be addressed by a reunion of art with craft” (Meggs and Purvis 1998:179).
2 FORMAL ANALYSIS OF THE “PIMPERNEL” WALLPAPER DESIGN BY WILLIAM MORRIS
Figure 1 William Morris (designer), “Pimpernel” Floral Design Acrylic Cut Out, 1876.
The “Pimpernel” wallpaper was designed by William Morris in 1876. It is assumed to be one of Morris’ personal favourite designs as it hung in the dining room at the Kelmscott House (William Morris Pimpernel (1876) wallpaper [sa]). This classic design of Morris is of a “floral trellis with circular shapes and a strong symmetrical pattern with the leaves” (Morris Archive Wallpapers [sa]). The following analysis of the “Pimpernel” wallpaper design deal with the elements of design in order to highlight the principles of design used and how this relates to the aims of the Arts and Crafts Movement.
2.1 Line
Figure 2 William Morris (designer), “Pimpernel” wallpaper design, Art History 113 [sa].
In this wallpaper...

...Elements of Desig
ENG 225 Introduction to Film
Andrea Pfaff
February 25, 2013
Elements of Design
There are many elements involved in creating and envisioning a film’s production. The first time a director reads a script he is beginning to prepare for the film’s overall look. However, designing the film is not only the director’s job, there are many others involved in this process. In this paper, I will identify each of the artists involved in the design process and how they contribute to the film, explain how lighting is used to create a mood, and finally discuss how the mise en scene is created and why it is important.
Joe Wright is the director of the film Pride &amp; Prejudice (2005). From the first time he read the script Joe Wright knew that he needed to recreate this love story to express the understanding of love and the defeat of prejudice. After reading the script, he was not convinced this was a film he wanted to produce until he read the original novel by Jane Austen published in 1813.Our text describes the director’s role and responsibilities as “the person with the ultimate responsibility for the overall film. The director interprets script into personal vision and decides overall “look” with the production designer and cinematographer; directs actors and the action while shooting” (Goodykoontz &amp; Jacobs, 2011). During an interview with Joe Wright he describes casting the correct actors for the correct roles is the most...

...INTRODUCTION
‘Design is directed towards human beings. To design is to solve human problems by identifying them and executing the best solution’. (Ivan 2009)
Creation of design involves the selection of individual design elements and the arrangement of them within a spatial enclosure to satisfy certain functional and aesthetic needs and wishes. This arrangement of elements in space includes the act of making patterns. No one single element in space stands alone. Ina design pattern all the elements of design depends on one another for their visual impact, function and meaning.
Designing is a systematic arrangement on different materials to convey a central idea or thought. It has been subject to various modes of expressions like building, canvas, walls, floors etc. One of such field is fabric surface enrichment refers to the structural or applied designing for textiles material, may be achieved by dyeing, printing, painting, embroidery, weaving etc.
Designing textile has been an ancient art in India. It is perhaps the most ancient craft of India. Textile designing includes many methods used from the earliest time in applying color and design to the surface of fabric. The design of fabric is achieved by a great variety of techniques. It may be created while the fabric is being woven and these are called structural designs while the...