Antibiotic, chemical substance produced by a living organism, generally a microorganism, that is detrimental to other microorganisms. Antibiotics commonly are produced by soil microorganisms and probably represent a means by which organisms in a complex environment, such as soil, control the growth of competing microorganisms. Microorganisms that produce antibiotics useful in preventing or treating disease include the bacteria and the fungi.

Antibiotics came into worldwide prominence with the introduction of penicillin in 1941. Since then they have revolutionized the treatment of bacterial infections in humans and other animals. They are, however, ineffective against viruses.

The first antibiotics

In 1928 Scottish bacteriologist Alexander Fleming noticed that colonies of bacteria growing on a culture plate had been unfavourably affected by a mold, Penicillium notatum, which had contaminated the culture. A decade later British biochemist Ernst Chain, Australian pathologist Howard Florey, and others isolated the ingredient responsible, penicillin, and showed that it was highly effective against many serious bacterial infections. Toward the end of the 1950s scientists experimented with the addition of various chemical groups to the core of the penicillin molecule to generate semisynthetic versions. A range of penicillins thus became available to treat diseases caused by different types of bacteria, including staphylococci, streptococci, pneumococci, gonococci, and the spirochaetes of syphilis.

Conspicuously unaffected by penicillin was the tubercle bacillus (Mycobacterium tuberculosis). This organism, however, turned out to be highly sensitive to streptomycin, an antibiotic that was isolated from Streptomyces griseus in 1943. As well as being dramatically effective against tuberculosis, streptomycin demonstrated activity against many other kinds of bacteria, including the typhoid fever bacillus. Two other early discoveries were gramicidin and tyrocidin, which are produced by bacteria of the genus Bacillus. Discovered in 1939 by French-born American microbiologist René Dubos, they were valuable in treating superficial infections but were too toxic for internal use.

In the 1950s researchers discovered the cephalosporins, which are related to penicillins but are produced by the mold Cephalosporium acremonium. The following decade scientists discovered a class of antibiotics known as quinolones. Quinolones interrupt the replication of DNA—a crucial step in bacterial reproduction—and have proven useful in treating urinary tract infections, infectious diarrhea, and various other infections involving elements such as bones and white blood cells.

Use and administration of antibiotics

The principle governing the use of antibiotics is to ensure that the patient receives one to which the target bacterium is sensitive, at a high enough concentration to be effective but not cause side effects, and for a sufficient length of time to ensure that the infection is totally eradicated. Antibiotics vary in their range of action. Some are highly specific. Others, such as the tetracyclines, act against a broad spectrum of different bacteria. These are particularly useful in combating mixed infections and in treating infections when there is no time to conduct sensitivity tests. While some antibiotics, such as the semisynthetic penicillins and the quinolones, can be taken orally, others must be given by intramuscular or intravenous injection.

Categories of antibiotics

Antibiotics can be categorized by their spectrum of activity—namely, whether they are narrow-, broad-, or extended-spectrum agents. Narrow-spectrum agents (e.g., penicillin G) affect primarily gram-positive bacteria. Broad-spectrum antibiotics, such as tetracyclines and chloramphenicol, affect both gram-positive and some gram-negative bacteria. An extended-spectrum antibiotic is one that, as a result of chemical modification, affects additional types of bacteria, usually those that are gram-negative. (The terms gram-positive and gram-negative are used to distinguish between bacteria that have cell walls consisting of a thick meshwork of peptidoglycan [a peptide-sugar polymer] and bacteria that have cell walls with only a thin peptidoglycan layer, respectively.)

Mechanisms of action

Antibiotics produce their effects through a variety of mechanisms of action. A large number work by inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis; these agents are referred to generally as β-lactam antibiotics. Production of the bacterial cell wall involves the partial assembly of wall components inside the cell, transport of these structures through the cell membrane to the growing wall, assembly into the wall, and finally cross-linking of the strands of wall material. Antibiotics that inhibit the synthesis of the cell wall have a specific effect on one or another phase. The result is an alteration in the cell wall and shape of the organism and eventually the death of the bacterium.

Other antibiotics, such as the aminoglycosides, chloramphenicol, erythromycin, and clindamycin, inhibit protein synthesis in bacteria. The basic process by which bacteria and animal cells synthesize proteins is similar, but the proteins involved are different. Those antibiotics that are selectively toxic utilize these differences to bind to or inhibit the function of the proteins of the bacterium, thereby preventing the synthesis of new proteins and new bacterial cells.

Antibiotics such as polymyxin B and polymyxin E (colistin) bind to phospholipids in the cell membrane of the bacterium and interfere with its function as a selective barrier; this allows essential macromolecules in the cell to leak out, resulting in the death of the cell. Because other cells, including human cells, have similar or identical phospholipids, these antibiotics are somewhat toxic.

Some antibiotics, such as the sulfonamides, are competitive inhibitors of the synthesis of folic acid (folate), which is an essential preliminary step in the synthesis of nucleic acids. Sulfonamides are able to inhibit folic acid synthesis because they are similar to an intermediate compound (para-aminobenzoic acid) that is converted by an enzyme to folic acid. The similarity in structure between these compounds results in competition between para-aminobenzoic acid and the sulfonamide for the enzyme responsible for converting the intermediate to folic acid. This reaction is reversible by removing the chemical, which results in the inhibition but not the death of the microorganisms. One antibiotic, rifampin, interferes with ribonucleic acid (RNA) synthesis in bacteria by binding to a subunit on the bacterial enzyme responsible for duplication of RNA. Since the affinity of rifampin is much stronger for the bacterial enzyme than for the human enzyme, the human cells are unaffected at therapeutic doses.

Antibiotic resistance

A problem that has plagued antibiotic therapy from the earliest days is the resistance that bacteria can develop to the drugs. An antibiotic may kill virtually all the bacteria causing a disease in a patient, but a few bacteria that are genetically less vulnerable to the effects of the drug may survive. These go on to reproduce or to transfer their resistance to others of their species through processes of gene exchange. With their more vulnerable competitors wiped out or reduced in numbers by antibiotics, these resistant strains proliferate. The end result is bacterial infections in humans that are untreatable by one or even several of the antibiotics customarily effective in such cases. The indiscriminate and inexact use of antibiotics encourages the spread of such bacterial resistance. (Seeantibiotic resistance.)

Major antibiotics

Each type of antibiotic has a specific application in medicine and can serve as a useful model for exploring the various mechanisms by which antibiotics exert their effects. The following sections focus on the penicillins and cephalosporins, imipenem, the antituberculosis antibiotics, and the agents aztreonam, bacitracin, and vancomycin. These agents and groups of agents further illustrate the chemical and functional diversity found among the antibiotics.

Penicillins

The penicillins have a unique structure, a β-lactam ring, that is responsible for their antibacterial activity. The β-lactam ring interacts with proteins in the bacterial cell responsible for the final step in the assembly of the cell wall.

The penicillins can be divided into two groups: the naturally occurring penicillins (penicillin G, penicillin V, and benzathine penicillin) and the semisynthetic penicillins. The semisynthetic penicillins are produced by growing the mold Penicillium under conditions whereby only the basic molecule (6-aminopenicillanic acid) is produced. By adding certain chemical groups to this molecule, several different semisynthetic penicillins are produced that vary in resistance to degradation by β-lactamase (penicillinase), an enzyme that specifically breaks the β-lactam ring, thereby inactivating the antibiotic. In addition, the antibacterial spectrum of activity and pharmacological properties of the natural penicillins can be changed and improved by these chemical modifications. The addition of a β-lactamase inhibitor, such as clavulanic acid, to a penicillin dramatically improves the effectiveness of the antibiotic. Several naturally occurring inhibitors have been isolated, and others have been chemically synthesized.

The naturally occurring penicillins remain the drugs of choice for treating streptococcalsore throat, tonsillitis, endocarditis caused by some streptococci, syphilis, and meningococcal infections. Several bacteria, most notably Staphylococcus, developed resistance to the naturally occurring penicillins, which led to the production of the penicillinase-resistant penicillins (methicillin, oxacillin, nafcillin, cloxacillin, and dicloxacillin). The use of several of these agents, however, has been severely limited by resistance; methicillin is no longer used, because of the emergence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).

To extend the usefulness of the penicillins to the treatment of infections caused by gram-negative rods, the broad-spectrum penicillins (ampicillin, amoxicillin, carbenicillin, and ticarcillin) were developed. These penicillins are sensitive to penicillinase, but they are useful in treating urinary tract infections caused by gram-negative rods as well as in treating typhoid and enteric fevers.

The extended-spectrum agents (mezlocillin and piperacillin) are unique in that they have greater activity against gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a bacterium that often causes serious infection in people whose immune systems have been weakened. They have decreased activity, however, against penicillinase-producing Staphylococcus aureus, a common bacterial agent in food poisoning.

The penicillins are the safest of all antibiotics. The major adverse reaction associated with their use is hypersensitivity, with reactions ranging from a rash to bronchospasm and anaphylaxis. The more serious reactions are uncommon.

Cephalosporins

The cephalosporins have a mechanism of action identical to that of the penicillins. However, the basic chemical structure of the penicillins and cephalosporins differs in other respects, resulting in some difference in the spectrum of antibacterial activity. Modification of the basic molecule (7-aminocephalosporanic acid) produced by Cephalosporium acremonium resulted in four generations of cephalosporins.

The first-generation cephalosporins (cefazolin, cephalothin, and cephalexin) have a range of antibacterial activity similar to the broad-spectrum penicillins described above. For instance, they are effective against most staphylococci and streptococci as well as penicillin-resistant pneumococci.

The second-generation cephalosporins (cefamandole, cefaclor, cefotetan, cefoxitin, and cefuroxime) have an extended antibacterial spectrum that includes greater activity against additional species of gram-negative rods. Thus, these drugs are active against Escherichia coli and Klebsiella and Proteus species (though several strains of these organisms have developed resistance). Cefamandole is active against many strains of Haemophilus influenzae and Enterobacter, while cefoxitin is particularly active against most strains of Bacteroides fragilis. Second-generation cephalosporins have decreased activity, however, against gram-positive bacteria.

The third-generation cephalosporins (ceftriaxone, cefixime, and ceftazidime) have increased activity against the gram-negative organisms compared with the second-generation agents. Most Enterobacter species are susceptible to these drugs, as are H. influenzae and various species of Neisseria. The antibacterial spectrum of the fourth-generation compounds (cefepime) is similar to that of the third-generation drugs, but the fourth-generation drugs have more resistance to β-lactamases.

Like the penicillins, the cephalosporins are relatively nontoxic. Because the structure of the cephalosporins is similar to that of penicillin, hypersensitivity reactions can occur in penicillin-hypersensitive patients.

Imipenem

Imipenem is a β-lactam antibiotic that works by interfering with cell wall synthesis. It is highly resistant to hydrolysis by most β-lactamases. This drug must be given by intramuscular injection or intravenous infusion because it is not absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. Imipenem is hydrolyzed by an enzyme present in the renal tubule; therefore, it is always administered with cilastatin, an inhibitor of this enzyme. Neurotoxicity and seizures have limited the use of imipenem.

Antituberculosis antibiotics

Isoniazid, ethambutol, pyrazinamide, and ethionamide are synthetic chemicals used in treating tuberculosis. Isoniazid, ethionamide, and pyrazinamide are similar in structure to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), a coenzyme essential for several physiological processes. Ethambutol prevents the synthesis of mycolic acid, a lipid found in the tubercule bacillus. All these drugs are absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and penetrate tissues and cells. An isoniazid-induced hepatitis can occur, particularly in patients 35 years of age or older. Cycloserine, an antibiotic produced by Streptomyces orchidaceus, is also used in the treatment of tuberculosis. A structural analog of the amino acidd-alanine, it interferes with enzymes necessary for incorporation of d-alanine into the bacterial cell wall. It is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and penetrates most tissues quite well; high levels are found in urine. Rifampin, a semisynthetic agent, is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, penetrates tissue well (including the lung), and is used in the treatment of tuberculosis. Rifampin administration is associated with several side effects, mostly gastrointestinal in nature. The drug can turn urine, feces, saliva, sweat, and tears red-orange in colour.

Aztreonam, bacitracin, and vancomycin

Aztreonam is a synthetic antibiotic that works by inhibiting cell wall synthesis, and it is naturally resistant to some β-lactamases. Aztreonam has a low incidence of toxicity, but it must be administered parenterally.

Bacitracin is produced by a special strain of Bacillus subtilis. Because of its severe toxicity to kidney cells, its use is limited to the topical treatment of skin infections caused by Streptococcus and Staphylococcus and for eye and ear infections.

Vancomycin, an antibiotic produced by Streptomyces orientalis, is poorly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and is usually given by intravenous injection. It is used for the treatment of serious staphylococcal infections caused by strains resistant to the various penicillins. Its use against MRSA led to the emergence of vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA).

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Doctors sometimes treat patients with a type of medicine called an antibiotic. Antibiotics treat illnesses and infections caused by bacteria, or tiny organisms. The first widely used antibiotic was penicillin. It was discovered in 1928.

Certain medicinal substances have the power to destroy or check the growth of infectious organisms in the body. The organisms can be bacteria, viruses, fungi, or the minuscule animals called protozoa. A particular group of these agents is made up of drugs called antibiotics, from the Greek anti ("against") and bios ("life"). Some antibiotics are produced from living organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and molds. Others are wholly or in part synthetic-that is, produced artificially. Penicillin is perhaps the best known antibiotic. Its discovery and later development has enabled the medical profession to treat effectively many infectious diseases, including some that were once life-threatening. Antibiotics have revolutionized the treatment of bacterial infections in humans and other animals. They are, however, ineffective against viruses.

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