USGIF GotGeoint BlogUSGIF promotes geospatial intelligence tradecraft and a stronger community of interest between government, industry, academia, professional organizations and individuals focused on the development and application of geospatial intelligence to address national security objectives.

November 06, 2018

As a rule of thumb increasing electric power generation is closely coupled with economic expansion. Between 2005 and 2017 the U.S. economy as measured by real GDP expanded by about 20 % from $15 trillion to $18 trillion. New data from the U.S. Energy Information administration (EIA) reveals that over this same period, emissions from power generation dropped primarily because of flat demand which is evidence of a decoupling between economic growth and power generation.

Data from the EIA reveals that during this time US power generation remained flat, but the makeup of U.S. power generation changed significantly. Generation from natural gas now exceeds that from coal and generation from wind, solar and other renewable sources now exceeds hydroelectric generation.

With respect to emissions the change is even more impressive. In a business as usual scenario assuming that demand continued to increase as it had prior to 2005, energy intensity (the energy required to produce a dollar of GDP) had remained at its 2005 value, and the energy mix had remained at its 2005 value, the expected emissions from electric power generation would have been about 3,043 MMmt (million metric tonnes). In 2017 actual emissions were much less, about 1,744 MMmt. About half of the drop in emissions in 2017 compared to the projected business as usual emissions was due to less demand (654 MMmt). Since the economy expanded over this time this is attributable to a drop in energy intensity and is evidence of decoupling of economic growth from power generation. The other important factors were switching among fuels, primarily switching from coal to natural gas (329 MMmt) and replacing fossil fuels with non-hydro renewables (316 MMmt).

In 2017 actual emissions from power generation were 43% less than that projected in the business as usual scenario and 28% below 2005 emissions. This is important progress toward the Paris accord targets (which the U.S. has dropped out of) since emissions from electricity generation are about 28% of U.S. total emissions.

November 01, 2018

A spatial analysis of possible environmental factors contributing to the increase in the number of underweight babies born in Canada was presented by Charlene Nielsen at GeoAlberta 2018. Termed low birth weight at term (LBWT), this is the second most important cause of infant mortality in Canada and costs the medical systems hundreds of millions of dollars every year. It is also linked to childhood and adult diseases. Charlene's hypothesis was that environmental factors including chemical pollution, the man made environment, and socioeconomic level were contributing factors to low birth weight babies in Canada. She used spatial analytics to study the problem which she used as the basis for her PhD thesis at the University of Alberta.

One of the publicly available data sources for chemical emissions that she used is the National Pollutant Release Inventory which has been maintained by Environment and Climate Change Canada since 1993. It currently monitors the emissions of 324 chemical substances.

Her study found that air-released or land-based pollutants may be more important depending on geographical location. There was a greater correlation of low birth weight babies with the environmental factors she studied in Ontario, Quebec, Alberta and British Columbia. While this study found that environmental factors did contribute to low birth weight babies, these are not the only factors. This study was particularly interesting because it used the geographical distribution of low weight births and the spatial distribution of environmental factors to try to determine some of the factors contributing to low weight births. Secondly it used publicly available environmental data which demonstrates that this type of spatial analysis can be easily applied in other studies.

May 18, 2018

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that more than seven million deaths every year are linked to air pollution exposure from household and ambient (outdoor) air pollution. But in spite of these statistics the average city has only one or two air quality monitoring devices which are very expensive costing about $1.5 million each. At this year's FOSS4GNA (Free and Open Source Software for Geospatial North America) get together in St Louis Steve Liang, a professor at the University of Calagary and CEO of SensorUp, described a way that citizen scientists can contribute to measuring air pollution using a low cost board and CPU and share via open source geospatial web software to map the resulting measured air pollution in real time.

Based on the latest results from WHO air pollution is now the world’s largest single environmental health risk, linked to 12% of all global deaths. Around 4.3 million deaths every year are attributed to exposure to household (indoor) air pollution, from heating, cooking and lighting using solid fuels. Around 3.7 million deaths every year are linked to outdoor air pollution , including exposure to fine particulate matter from fuel combustion from vehicles and from power plants, industry and biomass burning.

Steve described the sensors, which are typically built by interested people in workshops led by staff from SensorUp, a startup that Steve leads. The devices consist of a sensor that measures PM2.5 (particles less than 2.5 microns in size), temperature and humidity, a CPU and Wifi. Each device costs less than $100. After building the device, each participant in the workshop brings it home and installs it outside within wifi range of their internet router. The sensor reports ambient PM2.5, temperature and humidity every 5 minutes to a central server maintained by SensorUp. It uses the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) standard SensorThings API which provides an open and unified way to interconnect Internet of Things (IoT) devices, data, and applications over the Web. SensorUp SensorThings platform is the most advanced OGC SensorThings API implementation.

A web application built on the open source geospatial software Leaflet allows users to view the data on a map in real time, investigate air pollution historically and compare different cities. The data is open and accessible to anyone. To date about 500 people across Canada have built their own devices and are sharing measured PM2.5. The real-time feed from these devices is mapped here.

December 08, 2016

At the GeoBIM Building and Infrastructure Conference in Amsterdam Rob van de Velde and Friso Penninga of Geonovum presented an overview of what has been achieved to date with respect to 3D data and technology at the national level in the Netherlands and what they see as the next major step, the development of a national 3D strategy.

BIM and geospatial (2D and 3D) are key underpinnings of 3D. The Netherlands has been at the forefront of implementing BIM in the construction industry. Just as importantly in the long term, the Netherlands has been leading the geospatial-BIM integration initiative. It has long been recognized that geospatial/BIM integration is essential for building and infrastructure operation and maintenance or what is referred to as full-lifecycle BIM.

Years ago private Dutch engineering and construction companies began adopting an integrated geospatial/BIM approach to construction. I blogged previously about a firm Royal BAM Group nv / BAM Infraconsult that adopted integrated BIM and GIS because many of its projects require full life-cycle BIM. At the first GeoBIM conference in Amsterdam, Jothijs van Gaalen gave some real world examples of Design, Build, Finance and Maintain (DBFM) highway construction that included GIS+BIM integration. BAM's motivation for investing in BIM+GIS are market developments especially more complex construction assignments and an increasing demand from customers for service provision throughout the entire life cycle of a project. As another example, ARCADIS Netherlands has delivered a number of projects that integrate geospatial into the design process.

The Netherlands has also been leading in the development and application of open BIM/geospatial standards‎ in the construction industry including NL/SfB, BS&I, ETIM, CB-NL, IMGeo, CityGML, NLCS, GB-CAS, COINS, IFC, VISI, SALES, National Model BIM Protocol, and National Model BIM Implementation Plan. The Netherlands has created a BIM Loket (BIM Gateway) that is intended to be a national portal for information about BIM and for management of open BIM standards in the Netherlands. It provides a central information centre for open BIM standards including related geospatial standards.

Geospatial

Within government the Environment Planning Act is responsible for a growing focus on the physical environment. There is also a greater desire for an integrated approach to modeling the physical environment. Citizens are asking questions that require accurate 3D modeling, for example, noise, air quality, light and shadow, and viewports.

There have been several initiatives at the national level in the Netherlands.

The last "Breakthrough 3D" initiative revealed that 3D technology had matured and that there were many initiatives asking for uniform 3D data.

BIM

The Dutch Building Information Council (BIR) has been encouraging BIM for a long time - I blogged about BIR and BIM in the Netherlands previously. One of my takeways from the recent RICS BIM conference in London was that there is a desperate need for standards, especially to classify the huge amount of date in addition to the 3D geometry that accumulates during a construction project. Much of this data would be useful to the FM folks who are responsible for operating and maintaining the building after construction if it were accessible.

From both the perspective of geospatial data for modeling the environment and BIM data for modeling the built environment, it's time for the next step: a government initiative for a national 3D strategy. The concept is to create a 3D production chain, capable of creating timely, accurate and reliable 3D geo-information.

Gap analysis - what's available vs what's needed

The Netherlands has a digital elevation model ( AHN or Actual Height Model) with nationwide coverage but the update cycle is on the order of eight years. What's needed is a nationwide point cloud that is updated at least once a year. There are a number of ways including new technologies this could help achieve this.

The Netherlands has national 2D core data, large scale topographic data that is open and universally accessible. It has no equivalent in 3D. One way to generate this rapidly are reliable techniques for automating the extraction of buildings, infrastructure and natural features from point clouds.

The Netherlands has a national portal for disseminating 2D data. The national geoportal PDOK has experienced 3-4 billion hits in 2016. For 3D data, PDOK needs to be upgraded to be able to serve 3D data.

For 3D data there are standards for exchanging 3D data about cities and BIM model such as CityGML and IFC. What's needed are standards for distributing and viewing 3D data. Another important outstanding challenge is developing an interface between CityGML and IFC.

Rob emphasized that developing a national 3D standard is about identifying and involving stakeholders, understanding user requirements, and realizing the individual components, but more importantly it is about aligning individual initiatives, thus optimizing 3D supply chain.

November 17, 2016

The International Energy Agency (IEA) has issued its annual World Energy Outlook 2016. The IEA has examined several scenarios. All the Paris COP21 climate pledges from 190 countries have been incorporated into its main scenario. (It does not include any assessment of what the Trump administration may do with respect to the COP21 committments made by the world's second largest emitter.) It has projected that this scenario will actually result in 2.7 °C of warming. A scenario, called the 450 Scenario, with a 50% probability of limiting global warming to 2 ° C was also examined.

In its main scenario which includes emission reductions from COP21 pledges, the IEA projects a 30% rise in global energy demand to 2040. In 2040 it is projected that 60% of all new power generation capacity will come from renewables. In 2040 renewables are projected to represent 37% of all power generation. By 2040 most renewables-based generation is projected to be competitive without subsidies. Solar PV is expected to see a further 40-70% reduction in cost by 2040 and onshore wind by an additional 10-25%. However, fossil fuel generation continues to be important. Natural gas consumption is projected to rise by 50%. Growth in coal use essentially stops while growth in nuclearpower is limited to China.

Energy-related CO2 emissions plateaued in 2015 mainly because of a 1.8% improvement in the energy intensity of the global economy. This is partly because a growing proportion of the $1.8 trillion currently invested in energy annually is directed to renewables. But the IEA projects that even with the COP21 commitments energy-related emissions will continue to grow by 0.5% per year.

It is projected that a cumulative $44 trillion in investment will be needed in the global energy supply over the next 15 years. 60% of this will go to oil, gas and coal extraction and supply, including power plants using these fuels, and nearly 20% to renewable energies. Another $23 trillion will be required for energy efficiency improvements. For comparison over the last 15 years, 70% of total energy supply investment went to fossil fuels. This scenario requires a significant reallocation of capital from fossil fuels to renewables. This is aided by dropping fossil fuel subsidies. In 2015 the value of fossil-fuel consumption subsidies dropped to $325 billion, down from $500 billion the previous year.

The IEA projects that the COP21 commitments will slow the projected rise in global energy-related CO2 emissions. However, it does not believe that this is enough to limit warming to less than 2 °C. The IEA's 450 Scenario, which is based on a 50 % probability of limiting warming to under 2 °C, requires a further major reallocation of investment capital going to the energy sector. A greater proportion of the $40 trillion in cumulative energy supply investment has to move from fossil fuels and towards renewables and other low carbon investments in nuclear and carbon capture and storage so that the share going to fossil fuels would drop to about a third. In addition, $35 trillion is needed for improvements in energy efficiency - that's $12 trillion more compared with the main scenario. The 450 Scenario implies that before the end of this century, the energy sector must become carbon-neutral. That means all residual emissions from fuel combustion are either captured and stored, or offset by technologies that remove carbon from the atmosphere.

October 14, 2016

Methane has the second-largest global radiative forcing impact of anthropogenic greenhouse gases after carbon dioxide. In addition to anthropogenic sources, mainly fossil fuels, livestock and waste, natural methane sources include the biosphere (wetlands, termites, oceans, wildfires, and wild animals), volcanoes and geothermal emissions, and geological seepage where large quantities of natural gas migrate from shallow or deep rocks and reservoirs to the surface along faults and fractured rocks.

Estimates of emissions have come under increasing scrutiny. A recent study assessed the spatial distribution of anthropogenic methane sources in the United States by combining comprehensive atmospheric methane observations, extensive spatial datasets, and a high-resolution atmospheric transport model. It was concluded that the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) underestimates methane emissions nationally by a factor of 1.5.

The concentration of methane in the atmosphere stabilized from about 1999 to 2007. But here is evidence that since 2007 it began rising again. A recent study suggests that the more than 30% increase in U.S. methane emissions over the 2002–2014 period could account for 30–60% of the global growth of atmospheric methane seen in the past decade.

In a study just published the global methane budget and the contribution of the fossil fuel industry to methane emissions has been reevaluated. The ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 provides a signature which helps identify the source of methane. Both global methane and methane carbon isotope (carbon-13) records were used to compile what is believed to be the largest isotopic methane source signature database, including fossil fuel, microbial and biomass-burning methane emission sources. Total fossil fuel methane emissions from the fossil fuel industry plus natural geological seepage are 60 to 110 % greater than current estimates. After accounting for natural geological seepage, it is found that methane emissions from natural gas, oil and coal production and their usage are 20 to 60 % greater than current estimates.

October 13, 2016

As the electric power industry generates increasing amounts of renewable energy from intermittent sources such as wind and solar PV, the ability to nowcast radiance and wind velocity with km resolution up to 25 minutes in advance has become essential to balancing electricity demand and supply. This is the newest area where geospatial technology (wind at different altitudes, radiance, and temperature mapping) November 4 of this year NOAA and NASA will launch the GOES-R geostationary weather satellite which will provide support for nowcasting across the continental U.S..

GOES-R's Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI) will collect three times more data and provide four times better resolution and more than five times faster coverage than current GOES. The GOES-R series satellites will also carry the first lightning mapper flown from geostationary orbit. The Geostationary Lightning Mapper, or GLM, will map total lightning (in-cloud and cloud-to-ground) continuously over the Americas and adjacent ocean regions. GOES-R will provide coverage over a 1000x1000km box with a temporal resolution of 30 seconds, and spatial resolution of 0.5 to 2 km. It will completely scan the continental U.S. every 5 minutes, providing coverage of the 5000km (E/W) and 3000km (N/S) rectangle over the United States.

GEOS-R enables “nowcasting” of severe storms across the continental United States. GOES-R will fly the first operational lightning mapper flown in geostationary orbit. It will cover land and oceans. Total lightning (in-cloud, cloud-to-cloud, and cloud-to-ground) information from GOES-R will increase lead time for severe storm warnings because it will make it possible to observe areas of severe weather every 30-60 seconds. This will enable more reliable warnings and evacuations.

October 07, 2015

The Delhi Metrorail Corporation (DMRC) has signed an agreement with the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) and Green Business Certification Inc. (GBCI) that will make it possible to incorporate the unique needs of metro installations and mass rapid transit systems for new metro stations and depots within the LEED (Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design) green building rating system. India is one of the USGBC's top five countries for LEED.

This summer two of Delhi Metro's new stations were awarded the platinum (highest) rating for adherence to green building norms of the Indian Green Building Council (IGBC). IGBC's Green Mass Rapid Transit System rating is the world's first exclusive rating system to address sustainability in new municipal rail systems. The IGBC rating system enables new rail based municipal rapid transit systems (MRTS) to apply green concepts during design and construction to reduce environmental impact. The rating system ranks stations and depots and on a scale of platinum, gold, and silver depending on their adherence to IGBC specifications. All 90 new metro stations which will be completed by 2016 as part of Delhi Metro's Phase 3 are green buildings. In addition five new solar power facilities have been installed by Delhi Metro at different stations, depots and residential enclaves.

The Delhi Metro is a remarkable achievement in other respects in addition to green. The Government of India and the Government of Delhi jointly set up the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) in 1995. The DMRC is a special purpose organization with great autonomy and powers. The DMRC has full powers to hire people, decide on tenders and control funds. The initial phase of the $2.3 billion project wrapped up in December, 2005, on budget and nearly three years ahead of schedule. According to Business Week "A well-run subway is a marvel even in a first-world city. In India, where public works are often models of dysfunction, it's nothing short of a miracle." One reason was that DMRC relied on private funding from the Japan Bank of International Cooperation and other international organizations.

September 17, 2015

According to the annual ranking by the Global Green Economy Index (GGEI) Vancouver is the world's fourth greenest city. The most recent GGEI analysis covers 60 countries and 70 cities. It tracks how investors rank the appeal of cities and countries as markets for green investment and it provides a global measure of performance in key efficiency sectors, including buildings, transport, tourism and energy. It also integrates environment & natural capital measuring perceptions and performance in environmental areas like air quality, water, forests and agriculture. According to the GGEI the top three greenest cities are Copenhagen, Amsterdam and Stockholm. The countries corresponding to these cities (Denmark, Netherlands, and Sweden) also rank high, in the top 5 country rankings. Canada is 12th. The Nordic cities have achieved their high standing with the help of their respective national governments, whereas Vancouver has achieved its high green ranking on its own with little help from the federal government.

How did Vancouver do this ?

I have blogged on several occasions about geospatial developments at the City of Vancouver. Vanmap, which is the City's geospatial portal, was an early development that has supported a number of the City's green initiatives. Vancouver was one of the first cities that made its geospatial and other data open and free.

Yesterday at Ottawa's City Hall, Andrea Reimer, Vancouver's Deputy Mayor, described in a fascinating presentation how Vancouver achieved its high GGEI ranking and its plans to rise even higher to become the world's greenest city by 2020. In addition the City has recently committed to running 100% on renewable energy by 2035. This means only green energy sources for electricity, heating and cooling and transportation.

This all started about a decade ago, when a public consultation about greening the city attracted an incredible 2300 people. The enthusiastic response was unexpected. It cost participants ten dollars and the organizers were expecting something on the order of a few hundred people. It turned out that they had to change the venue twice to accommodate everyone. The mega response clearly showed a tremendous interest in green by Vancouver's citizens. From this beginning Vancouver's greenest city initiative has continued to be a grass roots movement supported by the City government.

The City started off with some quick start projects which had high visibility and were inexpensive. These included separated bicycle lanes, provision for organic waste (food scraps), a deconstruction bylaw, drinking water stations, community gardens, urban commercial farms, green buildings, city power utility that generated electricity by burning sewage and waste, commercial car sharing, and an urban forest initiative.

The City developed the Greenest City Action Plan (GCAP) which focussed on 10 goal areas addressing three overarching areas of focus; zero carbon, zero waste and healthy ecosystems. The 10 goal areas were arrived at by a process of public consultation.

The Greenest City Action Plan includes commitments to sharply reduce greenhouse gas emissions, both from City operations and the community; generate 100 per cent of electricity from renewable resources; and implement the greenest building codes in North America. This commitment has helped stimulated the local green economy. 5% of all jobs in Vancouver are green and Vancouver is among the top 10 green technology clusters. World-leading companies such as Westport Inovations (advanced natural gas engine-maker), General Fusion (nuclear fusion), Ballard Power Systems (hydrogen fuel cells) and Saltworks Technologies (waste water remediation) are based in Vancouver. In Vancouver's case economic development and greening the city have gone hand in hand.

The results of the greenest city initiative to date are impressive; for example, 8% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, 18% reduction in waste going to landfills or incinerators, 18% reduction in water use per capita, 19% increase in jobs in the green sector, 30% increase in food assets, and 10% increase in trips by bicycle, on foot or using public transit.

Vancouver's greenest city initiative is an amazing story with concrete measurable achievements. As David Chernushenko, Ottawa City councilman, said in his comments after Andrea's presentation, there is no reason from a technology perspective that other cities such as Ottawa cannot follow in Vancouver's footsteps with their own solutions reflecting their unique environment. But the key ingredient that enabled Vancouver's green revolution is broad public participation, which Vancouver had right from the beginning.

January 31, 2015

Methane is one of the more potent greenhouse gases for global warming. In June, 2013, President Obama issued a Climate Action Plan to cut the pollution contributing to climate change. An important part of the strategy involves cutting domestic greenhouse gas emissions. In March, 2014 the Administration issued Strategy to Reduce Methane Emissions, which outlined steps to cut methane emissions. The administration estimates that implementing this strategy could reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 90 million tonnes in 2020. The administration expects that this initiative will make an important contribution to meeting the Administration goal of reducing U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020.

Methane warming power

There is disagreement as to just how much more potent methane is than CO2 in warming the atmosphere. The EPA has estimated a factor of 21 times compared to carbon dioxide. But Robert Howarth, an environmental biology professor at Cornell University, has argued that it is actually 72 times as powerful as carbon dioxide in terms of its warming potential.

Methane leaks from oil wells and natural gas wells and systems

In the United States the EPA estimates that emissions of methane directly from human sources were equivalent to approximately 560 million tonnes of carbon dioxide pollution (assuming that methane's warming potential is 21 times that of carbon dioxide) in 2012, representing 9 % of all the greenhouse gases emitted as a result of human activity. Methane emissions are projected to increase to a level equivalent to over 620 million tonnes of carbon dioxide pollution in 2030. The main sources of human-related methane emissions are agriculture (36 percent), natural gas systems (23 percent), landfills (18 percent), coal mining (10 percent), petroleum systems (6 percent), and wastewater treatment (2 percent).

An important area of uncertainty is how much methane is leaking from shale gas and shale oil wells. Howarth has argued that the type of shale gas drilling taking place in Texas, New York and Pennsylvania generates particularly high emissions of methane. A study has estimated that between 3.6% to 7.9% of the methane from shale-gas production escapes to the atmosphere in venting and leaks over the lifetime of a well.

A recent study has used spatial analysis to investigate the spatial distribution of anthropogenic methane sources in the United States by combining comprehensive atmospheric methane observations, extensive spatial datasets, and a high-resolution atmospheric transport model. Based on the results of this analysis the authors conclude that the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) underestimates methane emissions nationally by 50%. The study found that methane emissions due to the animal husbandry and fossil fuel industries have larger greenhouse gas impacts than indicated by existing inventories.

A source of methane in the atmosphere are leaks from natural gas distribution systems. A partnership between the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) and Google Earth has released the first interactive maps showing methane leaks from gas distribution systems under the streets of Boston, Indianapolis and part of New York City.

The Administration's strategy is to target reducing methane emissions from several sources;

Landfills: The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) will propose updated standards to reduce methane from new landfills and determine whether to update standards for existing landfills.

Coal Mines: The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) will release an Advanced Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (ANPRM) to gather public input on the development of a program for addressing waste mine methane on lands leased by the Federal government.

Agriculture: The US Department of Agriculture (USDA), EPA and the Department of Energy (DOE) will jointly release a “Biogas Roadmap” outlining voluntary strategies to accelerate adoption of methane digesters to reduce U.S. dairy sector greenhouse gas emissions by 25 percent by 2020.

Oil and Gas: The EPA will assess several potentially significant sources of methane and other emissions from the oil and gas sector. If EPA decides to develop additional regulations, it will complete those regulations by the end of 2016. In addition the BLM will propose updated standards to reduce venting and flaring from oil and gas production on public lands.

Improved data collection: The Administration intends to implement better data collection and measurement will to improve the understanding of methane sources and trends and enable more effective reduction of methane emissions.

As part of that strategy in April, 2014, EPA released five technical white papers that present information on potentially significant sources of emissions in the oil and gas sector and options for reducing emissions. According to the Energy Information Administration (EIA), in 2011 there were an estimated 504,000 producing gas wells and an estimated 536,000 producing oil wells in the U.S. Natural gas development is expected to increase by 44% from 2011 through 2040 and crude oil and natural gas liquids (NGL) are projected to increase by approximately 25% through 2019.

Two of the white papers prepared by the U.S. EPA Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (OAQPS) describe methane emissions due to (1) gas emissions when fracked and refracked oil wells are brought into production and (2) leaks in gas production (natural gas wells including shale gas) , processing and transmission.

Emissions from completions and ongoing production of hydraulically fractured oil wells

One of the activities identified as a potential source of emissions to the atmosphere during oil development is hydraulically fractured oil well completions which are operations conducted to bring a new fracked oil well into production or to maintain or increase the well’s production capability as a result of refracking. The EPA white paper estimates of nationally uncontrolled methane emissions from hydraulically fractured oil well completions range from 44,306 tons (40,194 tonnes) per year to 247,000 tons (224,000 tonnes) per year. There is no data on the proportion of this methane that is vented, flared or captured and sold.

Leaks

Leaks are defined as methane emissions that occur at onshore production, processing and transmission facilities. It does not include leaks in gas distribution systems (see EDF and Google Earth above). This includes leak emissions from natural gas well pads, oil wells that co-produce natural gas, gathering and boosting stations, gas processing plants, and transmission and storage infrastructure. The white paper cites estimates of approximately 332,662 tonnes of potential methane leak emissions from gas production, 33,681 tonnes from gas processing, and 114,348 tonnes from gas transmission.

The EPA has just (Jan 29, 2015) issued a call inviting small businesses, governments, and not-for-profit organizations to participate in a Small Business Advocacy Review (SBAR) Panel that will focus on the development of a rule to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases including methane and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) for the oil and natural gas industry. The agency intends to add equipment and processes, including hydraulically fractured oil wells and leaks from new and modified well sites, to those currently covered by existing standards.

EPA plans to propose a rule this summer (2015) and take final action in 2016.

Largest reservoirs of methane

An indirect effect of global warming is the destabilization of methane hydrates by warming ocean currents on the floor of the ocean. Methane hydrates are the largest reservoir of organic carbon on Earth and there is the potential that the total volume of methane hydrates being destabilized by warming ocean currents could be significant. Methane is also stored in shallow Arctic reservoirs of peat, such as submarine and terrestrial permafrost, which is also being affected by global warming.