1.
Art
–
In their most general form these activities include the production of works of art, the criticism of art, the study of the history of art, and the aesthetic dissemination of art. The oldest documented forms of art are visual arts, which include creation of images or objects in fields including painting, sculpture, printmaking, photography, and other visual media. Music, theatre, film, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature, until the 17th century, art referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. Art may be characterized in terms of mimesis, expression, communication of emotion, during the Romantic period, art came to be seen as a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science. Though the definition of what art is disputed and has changed over time, general descriptions mention an idea of imaginative or technical skill stemming from human agency. The nature of art, and related such as creativity. One early sense of the definition of art is related to the older Latin meaning. English words derived from this meaning include artifact, artificial, artifice, medical arts, however, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology. Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions about art, Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness in the Phaedrus, and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homers great poetic art, in Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, the forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is an imitation of men worse than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation—through narrative or character, through change or no change, Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankinds advantages over animals. The second, and more recent, sense of the art as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art emerged in the early 17th century. The creative arts are a collection of disciplines which produce artworks that are compelled by a drive and convey a message, mood. Art is something that stimulates an individuals thoughts, emotions, beliefs, works of art can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are considered applied art

2.
Beauty
–
Beauty is a characteristic of an animal, idea, object, person or place that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure or satisfaction. Beauty is studied as part of aesthetics, culture, social psychology and sociology, an ideal beauty is an entity which is admired, or possesses features widely attributed to beauty in a particular culture, for perfection. The experience of beauty often involves an interpretation of some entity as being in balance and harmony with nature, because this can be a subjective experience, it is often said that beauty is in the eye of the beholder. The classical Greek noun that best translates to the English beauty or beautiful was κάλλος, kallos, however, kalos may and is also translated as ″good″ or ″of fine quality″ and thus has a broader meaning than only beautiful. Similarly, kallos was used differently from the English word beauty in that it first and foremost applied to humans, the Koine Greek word for beautiful was ὡραῖος, hōraios, an adjective etymologically coming from the word ὥρα, hōra, meaning hour. In Koine Greek, beauty was associated with being of ones hour. Thus, a ripe fruit was considered beautiful, whereas a woman trying to appear older or an older woman trying to appear younger would not be considered beautiful. In Attic Greek, hōraios had many meanings, including youthful, the earliest Western theory of beauty can be found in the works of early Greek philosophers from the pre-Socratic period, such as Pythagoras. The Pythagorean school saw a connection between mathematics and beauty. In particular, they noted that objects proportioned according to the golden ratio seemed more attractive, ancient Greek architecture is based on this view of symmetry and proportion. Plato considered beauty to be the Idea above all other Ideas, aristotle saw a relationship between the beautiful and virtue, arguing that Virtue aims at the beautiful. During the Gothic era, the classical canon of beauty was rejected as sinful. Later, Renaissance and Humanist thinkers rejected this view, and considered beauty to be the product of rational order, Renaissance artists and architects criticised the Gothic period as irrational and barbarian. This point of view of Gothic art lasted until Romanticism, in the 19th century, the Age of Reason saw a rise in an interest in beauty as a philosophical subject. For example, Scottish philosopher Francis Hutcheson argued that beauty is unity in variety and variety in unity. The Romantic poets, too, became concerned with the nature of beauty, with John Keats arguing in Ode on a Grecian Urn that Beauty is truth, truth beauty. Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know, in the Romantic period, Edmund Burke postulated a difference between beauty in its classical meaning and the sublime. The concept of the sublime, as explicated by Burke and Kant, suggested viewing Gothic art and architecture, though not in accordance with the standard of beauty

3.
Sri Aurobindo
–
Sri Aurobindo was an Indian nationalist, philosopher, yogi, guru and poet. Aurobindo studied for the Indian Civil Service at Kings College, Cambridge and he was arrested in the aftermath of a number of bomb outrages linked to his organisation, but was only convicted and imprisoned for writing articles against British rule in India. He was released when no evidence could be provided, following the murder of prosecution-witness during the trial, during his stay in the jail he had mystical and spiritual experiences, after which he moved to Pondicherry, leaving politics for spiritual work. During his stay in Pondicherry, Aurobindo developed a method of practice he called Integral Yoga. The central theme of his vision was the evolution of life into a life divine. He believed in a spiritual realisation that not only liberated man but transformed his nature, in 1926, with the help of his spiritual collaborator, Mirra Alfassa, he founded the Sri Aurobindo Ashram. He died on 5 December 1950 in Pondicherry and his works also include philosophy, poetry, translations and commentaries on the Vedas, Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1943, Aurobindo Ghose was born into a Kayastha family in Calcutta, Bengal Presidency, India on 15 August 1872. His mother was Swarnalata Devi, whose father was Shri Rajnarayan Bose and she had been sent to the more salubrious surroundings of Calcutta for Aurobindos birth. Aurobindo had two siblings, Benoybhusan and Manmohan, a younger sister, Sarojini, and a younger brother. Young Aurobindo was brought up speaking English but used Hindustani to communicate with servants, although his family were Bengali, his father believed British culture to be superior. Darjeeling was a centre of British life in India and the school was run by Irish nuns, through which the boys would have exposed to Christian religious teachings. Krishna Dhun Ghose wanted his sons to enter the Indian Civil Service, to achieve this it was necessary that they study in England and so it was there that the entire family moved in 1879. The three brothers were placed in the care of the Reverend W. H. Drewett in Manchester, Drewett was a minister of the Congregational Church whom Krishna Dhun Ghose knew through his British friends at Rangapur. The boys were taught Latin by Drewett and his wife and this was a prerequisite for admission to good English schools and, after two years, in 1881, the elder two siblings were enrolled at Manchester Grammar School. Aurobindo was considered too young for enrolment and he continued his studies with the Drewetts, learning history, Latin, French, geography and arithmetic. Although the Drewetts were told not to teach religion, the boys inevitably were exposed to Christian teachings and events, Drewett emigrated to Australia in 1884, causing the boys to be uprooted as they went to live with Drewetts mother in London. In September of that year, Aurobindo and Manmohan joined St Pauls School there and he learned Greek and spent the last three years reading literature and English poetry

4.
John Anderson (philosopher)
–
John Anderson was a Scottish-Australian philosopher who occupied the post of Challis Professor of Philosophy at Sydney University from 1927 to 1958. He founded the brand of philosophy known as Australian realism. Andersons promotion of free thought in all subjects, including politics and morality, was controversial, to Anderson, an acceptable philosophy must have significant sweep and be capable of challenging and moulding ideas in every aspect of intellect and society. Anderson was listed among former pupils of Hamilton Academy in a 1950 magazine article on the school. His elder brother was William Anderson, Professor of Philosophy at Auckland University College,1921 to his death in 1955, Anderson graduated MA from Glasgow University in 1917, with first-class honours in Philosophy, and first-class honours in Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. He then became aligned with the Trotskyist movement for a period of time, but e could not put up any longer with dialectical materialism or with the servile state which he saw was being imposed by the doctrine of the dictatorship of the proletariat. Anderson later abandoned authoritarian forms of socialism and became what would today be called a libertarian and pluralist—an opponent of all forms of authoritarianism, sometimes he described himself as an anarchist but, after the 1930s, he gave up his earlier political utopianism. As Sydney Universitys Challis Professor of Philosophy, Anderson was a champion of the principle of academic freedom from authoritarian intervention. For example, he fought a battle to end the role of the British Medical Association in setting course standards. He also railed against the presence on campus of a military unit—the Sydney University Regiment—and lived to see the day in 1960 when the regiments campus HQ was destroyed by fire. Anderson was censured by the Sydney University Senate in 1931 after criticising the role of war memorials in sanctifying war, in 1943 he was censured by the Parliament of New South Wales after arguing that religion has no place in schools. He founded the Sydney University Free Thought Society which ran from 1931 to 1951 and he was president of the society throughout that period. This purpose was not achieved, as Anderson continued to lecture on ethics and politics, Stout was a steady admirer and supporter of the Challis Professor and declined to undercut his prestige in any way. On Andersons retirement, the two departments were merged under Stout as the Professor of Philosophy, as a committed empiricist, Anderson argued that there is only one realm of being and it can be best understood through science and naturalistic philosophy. He asserted that there is no supernatural god and that there are no non-natural realms along the lines of Platonic ideals and he rejected all notions that knowledge could be obtained by means other than descriptions of facts and any belief that revelation or mysticism could be sources for obtaining truth. He was arguing that traditional Christian concepts of good and evil were meant for slaves and that, in actuality. Not surprisingly, Andersons influence was extensive and controversial as he constantly examined and fearlessly criticised hallowed beliefs and institutions. He is, arguably, the most important philosopher who has worked in Australia, certainly he was the most important in both the breadth and depth of influence

5.
Thomas Aquinas
–
Saint Thomas Aquinas O. P. was an Italian Dominican friar, Catholic priest, and Doctor of the Church. He was an influential philosopher, theologian, and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also known as the Doctor Angelicus. The name Aquinas identifies his ancestral origins in the county of Aquino in present-day Lazio and he was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology and the father of Thomism, of which he argued that reason is found in God. His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy developed or opposed his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law, metaphysics, the works for which he is best known are the Summa Theologiae and the Summa contra Gentiles. His commentaries on Scripture and on Aristotle form an important part of his body of work, furthermore, Thomas is distinguished for his eucharistic hymns, which form a part of the Churchs liturgy. Thomas Aquinas is considered one of the Catholic Churchs greatest theologians, Pope Benedict XV declared, This Order. Acquired new luster when the Church declared the teaching of Thomas to be her own and that Doctor, honored with the praises of the Pontiffs. The English philosopher Anthony Kenny considers Aquinas to be one of the dozen greatest philosophers of the western world, Thomas was most probably born in the castle of Roccasecca, located in Aquino, old county of the Kingdom of Sicily, c.1225. According to some authors, he was born in the castle of his father, though he did not belong to the most powerful branch of the family, Landulf of Aquino was a man of means. As a knight in the service of King Roger II, he held the title miles, Thomass mother, Theodora, belonged to the Rossi branch of the Neapolitan Caracciolo family. Landulfs brother Sinibald was abbot of the first Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino and it was here that Thomas was probably introduced to Aristotle, Averroes and Maimonides, all of whom would influence his theological philosophy. There his teacher in arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music was Petrus de Ibernia, at the age of nineteen Thomas resolved to join the recently founded Dominican Order. Thomass change of heart did not please his family, in an attempt to prevent Theodoras interference in Thomass choice, the Dominicans arranged to move Thomas to Rome, and from Rome, to Paris. Political concerns prevented the Pope from ordering Thomass release, which had the effect of extending Thomass detention, Thomas passed this time of trial tutoring his sisters and communicating with members of the Dominican Order. Family members became desperate to dissuade Thomas, who remained determined to join the Dominicans, at one point, two of his brothers resorted to the measure of hiring a prostitute to seduce him. According to legend Thomas drove her away wielding a fire iron and that night two angels appeared to him as he slept and strengthened his determination to remain celibate. By 1244, seeing all of her attempts to dissuade Thomas had failed, Theodora sought to save the familys dignity. In her mind, an escape from detention was less damaging than an open surrender to the Dominicans

6.
Aristotle
–
Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidice, on the northern periphery of Classical Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, at seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined Platos Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established a library in the Lyceum which aided in the production of many of his hundreds of books and he believed all peoples concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on perception. Aristotles views on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying many of his works, Aristotles views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, some of Aristotles zoological observations, such as on the hectocotyl arm of the octopus, were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as The First Teacher and his ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotles philosophy continue to be the object of academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues – Cicero described his style as a river of gold – it is thought that only around a third of his original output has survived. Aristotle, whose means the best purpose, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice. His father Nicomachus was the physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Aristotle was orphaned at a young age, although there is little information on Aristotles childhood, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy. At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Platos Academy and he remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47 BC. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor, there, he traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermiass adoptive daughter or niece and she bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. Soon after Hermias death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BC, Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time he gave not only to Alexander

7.
Poetics (Aristotle)
–
Aristotles Poetics is the earliest surviving work of dramatic theory and first extant philosophical treatise to focus on literary theory in the West. This has been the view for centuries. However, recent work is now challenging whether Aristotle focuses on literary theory per se or whether he focuses instead on dramatic musical theory that only has language as one of the elements, in it, Aristotle offers an account of what he calls poetry. They are similar in the fact that they are all imitations, difference of goodness in the characters. Difference in how the narrative is presented, telling a story or acting it out, in examining its first principles, Aristotle finds two, 1) imitation and 2) genres and other concepts by which that of truth is applied/revealed in the poesis. His analysis of tragedy constitutes the core of the discussion, although Aristotles Poetics is universally acknowledged in the Western critical tradition, almost every detail about his seminal work has aroused divergent opinions. The work was lost to the Western world for a long time and it was available in the Middle Ages and early Renaissance only through a Latin translation of an Arabic version written by Averroes. Aristotles work on aesthetics consists of the Poetics, Politics and Rhetoric, the Poetics is specifically concerned with drama. At some point, Aristotles original work was divided in two, each written on a separate roll of papyrus. Only the first part – that which focuses on tragedy and epic – survive, the lost second part addressed comedy. Some scholars speculate that the Tractatus coislinianus summarises the contents of the lost second book, the table of contents page of the Poetics found in Modern Librarys Basic Works of Aristotle identifies five basic parts within it. Preliminary discourse on tragedy, epic poetry, and comedy, as the forms of imitative poetry. Definition of a tragedy, and the rules for its construction, definition and analysis into qualitative parts. Rules for the construction of a tragedy, Tragic pleasure, or catharsis experienced by fear, the characters must be four things, good, appropriate, realistic, and consistent. Discovery must occur within the plot and it is important for the poet to visualize all of the scenes when creating the plot. The poet should incorporate complication and dénouement within the story, as well as all of the elements of tragedy. The poet must express thought through the words and actions, while paying close attention to diction. Aristotle believed that all of different elements had to be present in order for the poetry to be well-done

8.
Rhetoric (Aristotle)
–
Aristotles Rhetoric is an ancient Greek treatise on the art of persuasion, dating from the 4th century BC. The English title varies, typically it is titled Rhetoric, the Art of Rhetoric, the Rhetoric is regarded by most rhetoricians as the most important single work on persuasion ever written. This is largely a reflection of disciplinary divisions, dating back to Peter Ramus attacks on Aristotlean rhetoric in the late 16th century and continuing to the present. Platos final dialogue on rhetoric, the Phaedrus, offered a moderate view of rhetoric. This dialogue offered Aristotle, first a student and then a teacher at Platos Academy, the trio saw rhetoric and poetry as tools that were too often used to manipulate others by manipulating emotion and omitting facts. They particularly accused the sophists, including Gorgias and Isocrates, of this manipulation, plato, particularly, laid the blame for the arrest and the death of Socrates at the feet of sophistical rhetoric. In stark contrast to the rhetoric and poetry of the sophists was a rhetoric grounded in philosophy. One of the most important contributions of Aristotles approach was that he identified rhetoric as one of the three key elements—along with logic and dialectic—of philosophy, indeed, the first line of the Rhetoric is Rhetoric is a counterpart of dialectic. Dialectic is a tool for philosophical debate, it is a means for skilled audiences to test probable knowledge in order to learn, conversely, rhetoric is a tool for practical debate, it is a means for persuading a general audience using probable knowledge to resolve practical issues. Dialectic and rhetoric create a partnership for a system of persuasion based on knowledge instead of upon manipulation and omission, most English readers in the 20th century relied on four translations of the Rhetoric. The next two translations were published in 1924, john H. Freeses translation was published as a part of the Loeb Classical Library while W. Rhys Roberts was published as a part of the Oxford University series of works in the Classics. Roberts translation was edited and republished in 1954, the 1954 edition is widely considered the most readable of these translations and is widely available online. The fourth standard translation, by Lane Cooper, came out in 1932, not until the 1990s did another major translation of the Rhetoric appear. Published in 1991 and translated by George A and it is generally regarded today as the standard scholarly resource on the Rhetoric. Hill argues that while Wichelns traditionally gets the credit for summing up Neo-Aristotelian theory, the Rhetoric consists of three books. Book I offers an overview, presenting the purposes of rhetoric. Book II discusses in detail the three means of persuasion that an orator must rely on, those grounded in credibility, in the emotions and psychology of the audience, Book III introduces the elements of style and arrangement. Some attention is paid to delivery, but generally the reader is referred to the Poetics for more information in that area, many chapters in Book I of Aristotles Rhetoric cover the various typical deliberative arguments in Athenian culture

9.
Rudolf Arnheim
–
Rudolf Arnheim was a German-born author, art and film theorist, and perceptual psychologist. He learned Gestalt psychology from studying under Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Köhler at the University of Berlin and his magnum opus was his book Art and Visual Perception, A Psychology of the Creative Eye. Other major books by Arnheim have included Visual Thinking, and The Power of the Center, Art and Visual Perception was revised, enlarged and published as a new version in 1974, and it has been translated into fourteen languages. He lived in Germany, Italy, England, and America where he taught at Sarah Lawrence College, Harvard University, and he has greatly influenced art history and psychology in America. Although Art and Visual Perception, A Psychology of the Creative Eye took fifteen months to complete, in Art and Visual Perception, Arnheim tries to use science to better understand art, still keeping in mind the important aspects of personal bias, intuition, and expression. In his later book Visual Thinking, Arnheim challenges the differences between thinking versus perceiving and intellect versus intuition, in it Arnheim critiques the assumption that language goes before perception and that words are the stepping stones of thinking. Sensory knowledge, for Arnheim, allows for the possibility of language, Visual perception is what allows us to have a true understanding of experience. Arnheim also argues that perception is strongly identified with thinking, in his book titled The Power of the Center, A Study of Composition in the Visual Arts, Arnheim addresses the interaction of art and architecture on concentric and grid spatial patterns. Arnheim argues that form and content are indivisible, and that the created by artists reveal the nature of human experience. Rudolf Arnheim was born into a Jewish family in 1904 on Alexanderplatz, not long after he was born, his family moved to Kaiserdamm in Charlottenburg, where they stayed until the early 1930s. He was interested in art from an age, as he began drawing as a child. His father, Georg Arnheim, owned a piano factory. However, Rudolf wanted to continue his education, so his father agreed that he could spend half his week at the university and the other half at the factory. Rudolf was interested in psychology as long as he could remember and these fueled his interest in psychoanalysis. Arnheim attended the University of Berlin, where he wished to focus his studies on psychology, at that time, psychology was a branch of philosophy, so Arnheim ended up majoring in experimental psychology and philosophy, and minoring in art history and music. There were many prominent faculty members at the university at this time, the most notable being Albert Einstein, Max Planck, Max Wertheimer, because Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Köhler were in the psychology department, most of the psychology concerned Gestalt Psychology. The Psychological Institute of Berlin University was located on two floors of the Imperial Palace, so Arnheim worked in makeshift laboratories decorated with paintings of angels and this institute was more of a workshop because everyone was doing experiments and using each other rather than sitting in lectures. For Arnheim’s dissertation, Max Wertheimer asked him to human facial expressions and handwriting

10.
Georg Anton Friedrich Ast
–
Georg Anton Friedrich Ast was a German philosopher and philologist. Educated there and at the University of Jena, he became a privatdozent at Jena in 1802, in 1805 he became professor of classical literature in the University of Landshut, where he remained until 1826, when it was transferred to Munich. He lived there until his death in 1841, in recognition of his work, the Bavarian Academy of Sciences made him a member and aulic councillor. He is known principally for his work during the last twenty-five years of his life on the dialogues of Plato, the work was followed by a complete edition of Platos works with a Latin translation and commentary. His last work was the Lexicon Platonicum, which is valuable and comprehensive. In his works on aesthetics he combined the views of Schelling with those of Winckelmann, Lessing, Kant, Herder, Schiller and others. Hermeneutics Hermeneutic circle Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Ast. Asts Lexicon Platonicum from Google Books, vol

11.
Augustine of Hippo
–
Augustine of Hippo was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. He was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia, Augustine is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are The City of God and Confessions, according to his contemporary, Jerome, Augustine established anew the ancient Faith. In his early years, he was influenced by Manichaeism. After his baptism and conversion to Christianity in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives. Believing that the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin, when the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept of the Church as a spiritual City of God, distinct from the material Earthly City. His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview, the segment of the Church that adhered to the concept of the Trinity as defined by the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople closely identified with Augustines On the Trinity. Augustine is recognized as a saint in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Christian Church, and he is also the patron of the Augustinians. His memorial is celebrated on 28 August, the day of his death, Augustine is the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, the alleviation of sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses. Many Protestants, especially Calvinists and Lutherans, consider him to be one of the fathers of the Protestant Reformation due to his teachings on salvation. Lutherans, and Martin Luther in particular, have held Augustine in preeminence, Luther himself was a member of the Order of the Augustinian Eremites. In the East, some of his teachings are disputed and have in the 20th century in particular come under attack by such theologians as John Romanides, but other theologians and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown significant appropriation of his writings, chiefly Georges Florovsky. The most controversial doctrine surrounding his name is the filioque, which has been rejected by the Orthodox Church, other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and predestination. Nevertheless, though considered to be mistaken on some points, he is considered a saint. In the Orthodox Church his feast day is celebrated on 28 August and he was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. Augustine was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia and he is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are The City of God and Confessions, Augustine was born in the year 354 AD in the municipium of Thagaste in Roman Africa. His mother, Monica or Monnica, was a devout Christian, in his writings, Augustine leaves some information as to the consciousness of his African heritage

12.
Abhinavagupta
–
Abhinavagupta was a philosopher, mystic and aesthetician from Kashmir. He was also considered an influential musician, poet, dramatist, exegete, theologian and he was born in Kashmir in a family of scholars and mystics and studied all the schools of philosophy and art of his time under the guidance of as many as fifteen teachers and gurus. In his long life he completed over 35 works, the largest and most famous of which is Tantrāloka, Another one of his very important contributions was in the field of philosophy of aesthetics with his famous Abhinavabhāratī commentary of Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata Muni. Abhinavaguptas thought was influenced by Buddhist logic. Abhinavagupta was not his name, rather a title he earned from his master, carrying a meaning of competence. In his analysis, Jayaratha – who was Abhinavaguptas most important commentator – also reveals three more meanings, being vigilant, being present everywhere and protected by praises. As an author he is considered a systematiser of the philosophical thought, various contemporary scholars have characterised Abhinavagupta as a brilliant scholar and saint, the pinnacle of the development of Kasmir Śaivism and in possession of yogic realization. The term by which Abhinavagupta himself defines his origin is yoginībhū, in Kashmir Shaivism and especially in Kaula it is considered that a progeny of parents established in the divine essence of Bhairava, is endowed with exceptional spiritual and intellectual prowess. Such a child is supposed to be the depository of knowledge, the father, Narasiṃha Gupta, after his wifes death favoured an ascetic lifestyle, while raising his three children. He had a mind and a heart outstandingly adorned with devotion to Mahesvara. He was Abhinavaguptas first teacher, instructing him in grammar, logic, Abhinavagupta had a brother and a sister. The brother, Manoratha, was a well versed devotee of Shiva and his sister, Ambā, devoted herself to worship after the death of her husband in late life. His cousin Karṇa demonstrated even from his youth that he grasped the essence of Śaivism and was detached of the world and his wife was presumably Abhinavaguptas older sister Ambā, who looked with reverence upon her illustrious brother. Ambā and Karṇa had a son, Yogeśvaridatta, who was talented in yoga. Abhinavagupta also mentions his disciple Rāmadeva as faithfully devoted to scriptural study, Another cousin was Kṣema, possibly the same as Abhinavaguptas illustrious disciple Kṣemarāja. Mandra, a friend of Karṇa, was their host in a suburban residence, he was not only rich and in possession of a pleasing personality. The emerging picture here is that Abhinavagupta lived in a nurturing and protected environment, everyone around him was filled with spiritual fervor and had taken Abhinavagupta as their spiritual master. Such a supporting group of family and friends was equally necessary as his qualities of genius

13.
Victor Basch
–
Basch Viktor Vilém, or Victor-Guillaume Basch was a French politician and professor of germanistics and philosophy at the Sorbonne descending from Hungary. He was engaged in the Zionist Movement, in the Ligue des droits de lhomme and his father was the journalist and political activist, Raphael Basch. Born in Budapest in 1863, Victor Basch emigrated with his family to France as a child, in 1885 he was appointed professor at the University of Nancy, and in 1887 at the University of Rennes, where he became friend with Jean Jaurès. During the Dreyfus affair Basch was the leader of the Dreyfusards at Rennes, both as a Jew and a Dreyfusard, Basch was subjected to persecution at the hands of the fanatical anti-Semitic populace. In a 1916 interview cited by his biographer and granddaughter, the French historian Françoise Basch, Victor Basch declared, I struggle and suffered for my Jewishness. However, biographer Françoise Basch underscores that her grandfather identified with his history and the suffering of persecuted Jews. He fought and suffered for the principles of legal and social justice as well as human rights and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Isidore Singer. New York, Funk & Wagnalls Company, Victor Basch, de laffaire Dreyfus au crime de la milice. George R. Whyte, The Dreyfus affair, a chronological history, Basingstoke 2008

14.
Yusuf Balasagun
–
Yusuf Khass Hajib was an 11th-century Uyghur poet, statesman, vizier, and philosopher from the city of Balasaghun, the capital of the Karakhanid Empire in modern-day Kyrgyzstan. He wrote the Kutadgu Bilig and most of what is known about him comes from his own writings in this work, balasagun was located at the Burana archaeological site near the present-day city of Tokmok in Northern Kyrgyzstan. Yusuf Khas Hajib was about 50 years old when he completed the Kutadgu Bilig, after presenting the completed work to the prince of Kashgar he was awarded the title Khāṣṣ Ḥājib, an honorific similar to Privy Chamberlain or Chancellor. He is also referred to as Yūsuf Balasaguni, some authors believed that Yusuf Khas Hajib died in 1085 at the age of 66 in the city of Kashgar, and was buried there

15.
Roland Barthes
–
Roland Gérard Barthes was a French literary theorist, philosopher, linguist, critic, and semiotician. Roland Barthes was born on 12 November 1915 in the town of Cherbourg in Normandy and his father, naval officer Louis Barthes, was killed in a battle during World War I in the North Sea before Barthes first birthday. His mother, Henriette Barthes, and his aunt and grandmother raised him in the village of Urt, when Barthes was eleven, his family moved to Paris, though his attachment to his provincial roots would remain strong throughout his life. Barthes showed great promise as a student and spent the period from 1935 to 1939 at the Sorbonne and he was plagued by ill health throughout this period, suffering from tuberculosis, which often had to be treated in the isolation of sanatoria. His repeated physical breakdowns disrupted his career, affecting his studies. They also exempted him from service during World War II. His life from 1939 to 1948 was largely spent obtaining a license in grammar and philology, publishing his first papers, taking part in a medical study and he received a diplôme détudes supérieures from the University of Paris in 1941 for his work in Greek tragedy. In 1948, he returned to academic work, gaining numerous short-term positions at institutes in France, Romania. During this time, he contributed to the leftist Parisian paper Combat, out of which grew his first full-length work, in 1952, Barthes settled at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, where he studied lexicology and sociology. During his seven-year period there, he began to write a series of bi-monthly essays for the magazine Les Lettres Nouvelles. Knowing little English, Barthes taught at Middlebury College in 1957 and befriended the future English translator of much of his work, Richard Howard, that summer in New York City. Barthes spent the early 1960s exploring the fields of semiology and structuralism, chairing various faculty positions around France, many of his works challenged traditional academic views of literary criticism and of renowned figures of literature. By the late 1960s, Barthes had established a reputation for himself and he traveled to the US and Japan, delivering a presentation at Johns Hopkins University. Barthes continued to contribute with Philippe Sollers to the literary magazine Tel Quel. In 1970, Barthes produced what many consider to be his most prodigious work, throughout the 1970s, Barthes continued to develop his literary criticism, he developed new ideals of textuality and novelistic neutrality. In 1971, he served as visiting professor at the University of Geneva, in 1975 he wrote an autobiography titled Roland Barthes and in 1977 he was elected to the chair of Sémiologie Littéraire at the Collège de France. In the same year, his mother, Henriette Barthes, to whom he had been devoted, died, aged 85 and they had lived together for 60 years. The loss of the woman who had raised and cared for him was a blow to Barthes

16.
Georges Bataille
–
Georges Albert Maurice Victor Bataille was a French intellectual and literary figure working in literature, philosophy, anthropology, economics, sociology and history of art. His writing, which included essays, novels, and poetry, explored such subjects as eroticism, mysticism, surrealism and his work would prove influential on subsequent schools of philosophy and social theory, including poststructuralism. Georges Bataille was the son of Joseph-Aristide Bataille, a tax collector, born in Billom in the region of Auvergne, his family moved to Reims in 1898, where he was baptized. He went to school in Reims and then Épernay, although brought up without religious observance, he converted to Catholicism in 1914, and became a devout Catholic for about nine years. He considered entering the priesthood and attended a Catholic seminary briefly, however, he quit, apparently in part in order to pursue an occupation where he could eventually support his mother. He eventually renounced Christianity in the early 1920s, Bataille attended the École Nationale des Chartes in Paris, graduating in February 1922. Though he is referred to as an archivist and a librarian because of his employment at the Bibliothèque Nationale. After graduating he moved to the School of Advanced Spanish Studies in Madrid, as a young man, he befriended, and was much influenced by, the Russian existentialist, Lev Shestov. Founder of several journals and literary groups, Bataille is the author of a large and diverse body of work, readings, poems and he sometimes published under pseudonyms, and some of his publications were banned. Initially attracted to Surrealism, Bataille quickly fell out with its founder André Breton, although Bataille, Bataille was a member of the extremely influential College of Sociology which included several other renegade surrealists. Fascinated by human sacrifice, he founded a society, Acéphale. According to legend, Bataille and the members of Acéphale each agreed to be the sacrificial victim as an inauguration. An indemnity was offered for an executioner, but none was found before the dissolution of Acéphale shortly before the war, the group also published an eponymous review of Nietzsches philosophy which attempted to postulate what Derrida has called an anti-sovereignty. Collaborators in these projects included André Masson, Pierre Klossowski, Roger Caillois, Jules Monnerot, Jean Rollin, Bataille drew from diverse influences and used various modes of discourse to create his work. The imagery of the novel is built upon a series of metaphors which in turn refer to philosophical constructs developed in his work, the eye, the egg, the sun, the earth, the testicle. During World War II Bataille produced Summa Atheologica which comprises his works Inner Experience, Guilty, after the war he composed The Accursed Share, which he said represented thirty years work. The singular conception of sovereignty expounded there would become an important topic of discussion for Derrida, Giorgio Agamben, Jean-Luc Nancy, Bataille also founded the influential journal Critique. Batailles first marriage was to actress Silvia Maklès, in 1928, they divorced in 1934, Bataille also had an affair with Colette Peignot, who died in 1938

17.
Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten
–
Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten was a German philosopher. He was a brother to theologian Siegmund Jakob Baumgarten, Baumgarten was born in Berlin as the fifth of seven sons of the pietist pastor of the garrison, Jacob Baumgarten, and of his wife Rosina Elisabeth. Both his parents died early, and he was taught by Martin Georg Christgau where he learned Hebrew, while the meanings of words often change as a result of cultural developments, Baumgartens reappraisal of aesthetics is often seen as a key moment in the development of aesthetic philosophy. Previously the word aesthetics had merely meant sensibility or responsiveness to stimulation of the senses in its use by ancient writers. With the development of art as a commercial enterprise linked to the rise of a nouveau riche class across Europe, Baumgarten developed aesthetics to mean the study of good and bad taste, thus good and bad art, linking good taste with beauty. By trying to develop an idea of good and bad taste, without it, there would be no basis for aesthetic debate as there would be no objective criterion, basis for comparison, or reason from which one could develop an objective argument. Baumgarten appropriated the word aesthetics, which had always meant sensation, in so doing, he gave the word a different significance, thereby inventing its modern usage. The word had been used differently since the time of the ancient Greeks to mean the ability to receive stimulation from one or more of the five bodily senses. In his Metaphysic, §451, Baumgarten defined taste, in its meaning, as the ability to judge according to the senses. Such a judgment of taste he saw as based on feelings of pleasure or displeasure, a science of aesthetics would be, for Baumgarten, a deduction of the rules or principles of artistic or natural beauty from individual taste. Baumgarten may have been motivated to respond to Pierre Bonhours opinion, published in a pamphlet in the late 17th century, in 1781, Kant declared that Baumgartens aesthetics could never contain objective rules, laws, or principles of natural or artistic beauty. The Germans are the people who presently have come to use the word aesthetic to designate what others call the critique of taste. They are doing so on the basis of a false hope conceived by that superb analyst Baumgarten and he hoped to bring our critical judging of the beautiful under rational principles, and to raise the rules for such judging to the level of a lawful science. For, as far as their sources are concerned, those supposed rules or criteria are merely empirical. Hence they can never serve as determinate a priori laws to which our judgment of taste must conform and it is, rather, our judgment of taste which constitutes the proper test for the correctness of those rules or criteria. Because of this it is advisable to follow either of two alternatives, one of these is to stop using this new name aesthetic in this sense of critique of taste, and to reserve the name aesthetic for the doctrine of sensibility that is true science. The other alternative would be for the new aesthetic to share the name with speculative philosophy and we would then take the name partly in its transcendental meaning, and partly in the psychological meaning. Nine years later, in his Critique of Judgment, Kant conformed to Baumgartens new usage, for Kant, an aesthetic judgment is subjective in that it relates to the internal feeling of pleasure or displeasure and not to any qualities in an external object

18.
Vissarion Belinsky
–
Vissarion Grigoryevich Belinsky was a Russian literary critic of Westernizing tendency. He was an associate of Alexander Herzen, Mikhail Bakunin, Belinsky played one of the key roles in the career of poet and publisher Nikolay Nekrasov and his popular magazine Sovremennik. Born in Sveaborg, Vissarion Belinsky lived in the town of Chembar and in Penza, in 1829—1832 he was a student of Moscow University. In Moscow he published his first famous articles, in 1839 Belinsky went to St. Petersburg, Russia, where he became a respected critic and editor of two major literary magazines, Otechestvennye Zapiski, and Sovremennik. In both magazines Belinsky worked with younger Nikolay Nekrasov and he was unlike most of the other Russian intellectuals of the 1830s and 1840s. The son of a medical doctor, he was not a wealthy aristocrat. But it was less for his skill that Belinsky was admired and more for emotional commitment. “For me, to think, to feel, to understand and to suffer are one and this was, of course, true to the Romantic ideal, to the beliefs that real understanding comes not only from mere thinking, but also from intuitive insight. This combination of thinking and feeling pervaded Belinsky’s life, with this idea in hand faced the world around him armed to do battle. He took on much conventional philosophical thinking among educated Russians, including the dry and abstract philosophizing of the German idealists and their Russian followers. In his words, “What is it to me that the Universal exists when the individual personality is suffering. ”Or, “The fate of the individual, of the person, is more important than the fate of the whole world. ”Also upon this principle, Belinsky constructed an extensive critique of the world around him. He bitterly criticized autocracy and serfdom but also poverty, prostitution, drunkenness, bureaucratic coldness, Belinsky worked most of his short life as a literary critic. His writings on literature were inseparable from these moral judgments, Belinsky believed that the only realm of freedom in the repressive reign of Nicholas I was through the written word. What Belinsky required most of a work of literature was “truth. ”Dostoevsky read aloud at several public events Belinskys letter, a secret press was assembled to print and distribute Belinskys letter. For these offenses Dostoevsky was arrested, convicted and condemned to death in 1849, in his role as perhaps the most influential liberal critic and ideologist of his day, Belinsky advocated literature that was socially conscious. He hailed Fyodor Dostoyevskys first novel, Poor Folk, however, inspired by these ideas, which led to thinking about radical changes in society’s organization, Belinsky began to call himself a socialist starting in 1841. Among his last great efforts were his move to join Nikolay Nekrasov in the popular magazine The Contemporary, at that time Belinsky published his Literary Review for the Year 1847. Belinsky died of consumption on the eve of his arrest by the Tsars police on account of his political views, in 1910, Russia celebrated the centenary of his birth with enthusiasm and appreciation

19.
Clive Bell
–
Arthur Clive Heward Bell was an English art critic, associated with formalism and the Bloomsbury Group. Bell died, aged 83, in London, Bell was born in East Shefford, Berkshire, in 1881, the third of four children of William Heward Bell and Hannah Taylor Cory. He had a brother, an elder sister, and a younger sister. They lived at Cleeve House in Seend, near Devizes, Wiltshire and he was educated at Marlborough and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied history. In 1902 he received an Earl of Derby scholarship to study in Paris, upon his return to England, he moved to London, where he met and married artist Vanessa Stephen, sister of Virginia Woolf, early in 1907. By World War I their marriage was over, Vanessa had begun a lifelong relationship with Duncan Grant and Clive had a number of liaisons with other women such as Mary Hutchinson. However, Clive and Vanessa never officially separated or divorced, not only did they keep visiting each other regularly, they also sometimes spent holidays together and paid family visits to Clives parents. Clive lived in London but often spent long stretches of time at the farmhouse of Charleston and he fully supported her wish to have a child by Duncan and allowed this daughter, Angelica, to bear his surname. Clive and Vanessa had two sons, who became writers. Julian joined the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War as an ambulance driver and he was killed in 1937 by an enemy shell, aged 29. Vanessas daughter by Duncan, Angelica Garnett, was raised as Clives daughter until she married and she was informed, by her mother Vanessa, just prior to her marriage and shortly after her brother Julians death, that in fact Duncan Grant was her biological father. According to historian Stanley Rosenbaum, Bell may, indeed, be the least liked member of Bloomsbury, Bell has been found wanting by biographers and critics of the Group – as a husband, a father, and especially a brother-in-law. It is undeniable that he was a snob, hedonist, and womaniser, a racist and an anti-Semite. Bells reputation has led to his being underestimated in the history of Bloomsbury, soon after Bell met Roger Fry, he developed his art theory called significant form. Bell and Fry shared a passion for contemporary French art, Bells book Art was where his theory was first published. Bell describes this theory as lines and colours combined in a way, certain forms, and relations of forms. This form can be seen in art created by members of the Bloomsbury Group. In his 1938 pamphlet War Mongers, he opposed any attempt by Britain to use military force, however, by 1940 Bell was a supporter of the British war effort, calling for a ceaseless war against Hitler

20.
Walter Benjamin
–
Walter Bendix Schönflies Benjamin was a German Jewish philosopher, cultural critic and essayist. He was associated with the Frankfurt School, and also maintained formative friendships with such as playwright Bertolt Brecht. He was also related by law to German political theorist Hannah Arendt through her first marriage to his cousin, Günther Anders. Among Benjamins best known works are the essays The Task of the Translator, The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, and Theses on the Philosophy of History. His major work as a literary critic included essays on Baudelaire, Goethe, Kafka, Kraus, Leskov, Proust, Walser, and translation theory. He also made translations into German of the Tableaux Parisiens section of Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal. In 1940, at the age of 48, Benjamin committed suicide in Portbou at the French–Spanish border while attempting to escape from invading Nazi forces, though popular acclaim eluded him during his life, the decades following his death won his work posthumous renown. Benjamin and his siblings, Georg and Dora, were born to a wealthy business family of assimilated Ashkenazi Jews in the Berlin of the German Empire. He owned a number of investments in Berlin, including ice skating rinks, in 1902, ten-year-old Walter was enrolled to the Kaiser Friedrich School in Charlottenburg, he completed his secondary school studies ten years later. Here Benjamin had his first exposure to the ideas of Zionism and this exposure gave him occasion to formulate his own ideas about the meaning of Judaism. In Benjamins formulation his Jewishness meant a commitment to the furtherance of European culture, Benjamin expressed My life experience led me to this insight, the Jews represent an elite in the ranks of the spiritually active. For Judaism is to me in no sense an end in itself and this was a position that Benjamin largely held lifelong. Elected president of the Freie Studentenschaft, Benjamin wrote essays arguing for educational and general cultural change, in 1914, at the outbreak of the First World War, Benjamin began faithfully translating the works of the 19th-century French poet Charles Baudelaire. The next year,1915, he moved to Munich, and continued his schooling at the University of Munich, where he met Rainer Maria Rilke and Gershom Scholem, in that year, Benjamin wrote about the 18th-century Romantic German poet Friedrich Hölderlin. In 1917 he transferred to the University of Bern, there, he met Ernst Bloch and they had a son, Stefan Rafael. In 1919 Benjamin earned his Ph. D. cum laude with the dissertation Begriff der Kunstkritik in der Deutschen Romantik, later, unable to support himself and family, he returned to Berlin and resided with his parents. In 1921 he published the essay Kritik der Gewalt, at this time Benjamin first became socially acquainted with Leo Strauss, and Benjamin would remain an admirer of Strauss and of his work throughout his life. In 1923, when the Institut für Sozialforschung was founded, later to become home to the Frankfurt School, Benjamin published Charles Baudelaire, at that time he became acquainted with Theodor Adorno and befriended Georg Lukács, whose The Theory of the Novel much influenced him

21.
Arnold Berleant
–
Arnold Berleant is an American scholar and author who is active both in philosophy and music. Arnold Berleant was born in Buffalo, New York and he received his advanced musical education at the Eastman School of Music and his doctorate in philosophy at the State University of New York at Buffalo. His books and articles in philosophy focus on aesthetics, environmental aesthetics, Arnold Berleant is the founding editor of Contemporary Aesthetics, an international on-line journal of contemporary aesthetic theory, research, and application. As a philosopher Berleant has written on important aspects of aesthetic theory and the arts. These include ontological and metaphysical issues, basic theoretical questions such as appreciation and aesthetic experience, much of his subsequent work has focused on environmental aesthetics, attending both to general issues and to specific kinds of environment. The aesthetics of environment is a theme that he has elaborated and extended in much of his writing, emerging from these original studies was the recognition that the different arts evoke experiences with their own claims to reality. Moreover, these experiences exhibit an intense, active perceptual involvement that he calls “aesthetic engagement, the body of Berleant’s work challenges the traditional view of philosophical aesthetics, which posits “disinterestedness” as foundational in aesthetic experience. Berleant draws upon both phenomenology and pragmatism for a theory of aesthetic perception based on the notion of engagement. State University of New York College, Fredonia, N. Y, major, music education, major instrument, piano B. M. with distinction, Eastman School of Music of the University of Rochester,1953. Major, music theory, major instrument, piano M. A, major, music theory, major instrument, piano. Thesis, The Fugue in the Orchestral Works of Bartók Ph. D, State University of New York at Buffalo,1962. Dissertation, Logic and Social Doctrine, Deweys Methodological Approach to Social Philosophy, doctor of Fine Arts, The Rhode Island School of Design,2011. Honorary Guest Professor, Wuhan University, P. R. Aesthetics beyond the Arts, New, sensibility and Sense, The Aesthetic Transformation of the Human World. Re-thinking Aesthetics, Rogue Essays on Aesthetics and the Arts, Aesthetics and Environment, Theme and Variations on Art and Culture. Living in the Landscape, Toward an Aesthetics of Environment, the Aesthetic Field, A Phenomenology of Aesthetic Experience. ISBN 978-1-877275-25-8 The Fugue in the Orchestral Works of Bartók, “Ideas for an Ecological Aesthetics, ” in Xiangzhan Cheng, Arnold Berleant, Paul Gobster, Xinhao Wang, eds. Ecological Aesthetics and Ecological Planning, forthcoming, “The Cultural Aesthetics of Environment, ” forthcoming in Annals for Aesthetics, Fiftieth Anniversary Issue. Sensibility, The Growth of an Aesthetic, What Titles Dont Tell, special issue devoted to the work of Arnold Berleant, with contributions by Polish, Chinese, and American scholars

22.
George Birkhoff
–
George David Birkhoff was an American mathematician, best known for what is now called the ergodic theorem. Birkhoff was one of the most important leaders in American mathematics in his generation and his house in Cambridge, Massachusetts, has been designated a National Historic Landmark. He was born in Overisel Township, Michigan, the son of David Birkhoff, the mathematician Garrett Birkhoff was his son. Birkhoff obtained his A. B. and A. M. from Harvard and he completed his Ph. D. in 1907, on differential equations, at the University of Chicago. While E. H. Moore was his supervisor, he was most influenced by the writings of Henri Poincaré, after teaching at the University of Wisconsin and Princeton University, he taught at Harvard University from 1912 until his death. There is a prize named after him. Vice-president of the American Mathematical Society,1919, president of the American Mathematical Society, 1925–1926. Editor of Transactions of the American Mathematical Society, 1920–1924, in 1912, attempting to solve the four color problem, Birkhoff introduced the chromatic polynomial. Even though this line of attack did not prove fruitful, the polynomial itself became an important object of study in graph theory. In 1913, he proved Poincarés Last Geometric Theorem, a case of the three-body problem. In 1927, he published his Dynamical Systems and he wrote on the foundations of relativity and quantum mechanics, publishing the monograph Relativity and Modern Physics in 1923. In 1923, Birkhoff also proved that the Schwarzschild geometry is the spherically symmetric solution of the Einstein field equations. A consequence is that holes are not merely a mathematical curiosity. Birkhoffs most durable result has been his 1931 discovery of what is now called the ergodic theorem, combining insights from physics on the ergodic hypothesis with measure theory, this theorem solved, at least in principle, a fundamental problem of statistical mechanics. The ergodic theorem has also had repercussions for dynamics, probability theory, group theory and he also worked on number theory, the Riemann–Hilbert problem, and the four colour problem. He proposed an axiomatization of Euclidean geometry different from Hilberts, this culminated in his text Basic Geometry. In his later years, Birkhoff published two curious works and his 1933 Aesthetic Measure proposed a mathematical theory of aesthetics. While writing this book, he spent a year studying the art, music and his 1938 Electricity as a Fluid combined his ideas on philosophy and science

23.
Max Black
–
Max Black was a British-American philosopher, who was a figure in analytic philosophy in the first half of the twentieth century. He made contributions to the philosophy of language, the philosophy of mathematics and science, and his translation of Freges published philosophical writing is a classic text. Born in Baku, Russian Empire of Jewish descent, Black grew up in London and he studied mathematics at Queens College, Cambridge where he developed an interest in the philosophy of mathematics. Russell, Wittgenstein, G. E. Moore, and Ramsey were all at Cambridge at that time and he graduated in 1930 and was awarded a fellowship to study at Göttingen for a year. From 1931–36, he was master at the Royal Grammar School. His first book was The Nature of Mathematics, an exposition of Principia Mathematica, Black had made notable contributions to the metaphysics of identity. By virtue of there being two objects, albeit with properties, the existence of two objects, even in a void, denies their identicality. He lectured in mathematics at the Institute of Education in London from 1936 to 1940, in 1940 he moved to the United States and joined the Philosophy Department at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. In 1946 he accepted a professorship in philosophy at Cornell University, in 1948, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. Black advised the philosophy dissertation of American novelist William H. Gass and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1963. Black died in Ithaca, New York age 79 and his younger brother was the architect Sir Misha Black. Vagueness, An exercise in logical analysis, reprinted in R. Keefe, P. Smith, Vagueness, A Reader, MIT Press 1997, ISBN 978-0-262-61145-9 Black, Max. Language and philosophy, Studies in method, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, “Metaphor, ” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society,55, pp. 273–294. Models and metaphors, Studies in language and philosophy, Ithaca, “More about Metaphor, ” in A. Ortony, Metaphor & Thought. OConnor, J. J. and Robertson, E. F. Max Black, Biography, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland

24.
Maurice Blanchot
–
Maurice Blanchot was a French writer, philosopher, and literary theorist. His work had a influence on post-structuralist philosophers such as Jacques Derrida. Little was known until recently much of Blanchots life. Blanchot was born in the village of Quain on 22 September 1907, Blanchot studied philosophy at the University of Strasbourg, where he became a close friend of the Lithuanian-born French Jewish phenomenologist, Emmanuel Levinas. He then embarked on a career as a political journalist in Paris, from 1932 to 1940 he was editor of the mainstream, conservative daily the Journal des débats. In December 1940, he met Georges Bataille, who had written strong anti-fascist articles in the thirties, Blanchot worked in Paris during the Nazi occupation. He refused the editorship of the collaborationist Nouvelle Revue Française, for which, as part of an elaborate ploy, in June 1944, Blanchot was almost executed by a Nazi firing squad. After the war Blanchot began working only as a novelist and literary critic, in 1947, Blanchot left Paris for the secluded village of Èze in the south of France, where he spent the next decade of his life. Like Sartre and other French intellectuals of the era, Blanchot avoided the academy as a means of livelihood, importantly, from 1953 to 1968, he published regularly in Nouvelle Revue Française. At the same time, he began a lifestyle of relative isolation, often not seeing close friends for years, part of the reason for his self-imposed isolation was the fact that, for most of his life, Blanchot suffered from poor health. Blanchots political activities after the war shifted to the left, the manifesto was crucial to the intellectual response to the war. In May 1968, Blanchot once again emerged from personal obscurity and it was his sole public appearance after the war. Yet for fifty years he remained a consistent champion of modern literature, during the later years of his life, he repeatedly wrote against the intellectual attraction to fascism, and notably against Heideggers post-war silence over the Holocaust. Blanchot wrote more than thirty works of fiction, literary criticism, in 1983, Blanchot published La Communauté inavouable. This work inspired The Inoperative Community, Jean-Luc Nancys attempt to approach community in a non-religious, non-utilitarian and he died on 20 February 2003 in Le Mesnil-Saint-Denis, Yvelines, France. Blanchots work is not a coherent, all-encompassing theory, since it is a founded on paradox. The thread running through all his writing is the constant engagement with the question of literature, for Blanchot, literature begins at the moment when literature becomes a question. In the everyday use of language, words are the vehicles of ideas, the word flower means flower that refers to flowers in the world

25.
Georg Brandes
–
Georg Brandes, born Morris Cohen, was a Danish critic and scholar who greatly influenced Scandinavian and European literature from the 1870s through the turn of the 20th century. He is seen as the theorist behind the Modern Breakthrough of Scandinavian culture, at the age of 30, Brandes formulated the principles of a new realism and naturalism, condemning hyper-aesthetic writing and also fantasy in literature. His literary goals were shared by other authors, among them the Norwegian realist playwright Henrik Ibsen. In 1884 Viggo Hørup, Georg Brandes, and his brother Edvard Brandes started the daily newspaper Politiken with the motto, the paper and their political debates led to a split of the liberal party Venstre in 1905 and created the new party Det Radikale Venstre. Georg Brandes was born as Morris Cohen in Copenhagen into a non-observant Jewish middle-class family and he became a student at the University of Copenhagen in 1859 where he first studied jurisprudence. From this, however, his interests turned to philosophy. In 1862 he won the medal of the university for an essay on The Idea of Nemesis among the Ancients. Before this, indeed since 1858, he had shown a gift for verse-writing. Brandes did not collect his poems until as late as 1898, at the university, which he left in 1864, Brandes was influenced by the writings of Heiberg in criticism and Søren Kierkegaard in philosophy, influences which continued to leave traces on his work. In 1866, he contributed to the discussion of the works of Rasmus Nielsen in Dualism in our Recent Philosophy, from 1865 to 1871 he traveled much in Europe, acquainting himself with the condition of literature in the principal centers of learning. His first important contribution to letters was his Aesthetic Studies, where his maturer method is already foreshadowed in several monographs on Danish poets. Brandes now took his place as the leading northern European critic, applying to local conditions and he became Docent or reader in Aesthetics at the University of Copenhagen, where his lectures were a great success and gathered huge audiences. His famous opening lecture on 3 November 1871, Hovedstrømninger i det 19de Aarhundredes Litteratur, after the professorship of aesthetics became vacant in 1872, it was taken as a matter of course that Brandes would fill it. But the young critic had offended many sensibilities by his ardent advocacy of ideas, he was seen as a Jew, his convictions were Radical. The tumult which gathered round the person of the critic increased the success of the work, in 1877 Brandes left Copenhagen and settled in Berlin, taking a considerable part in the aesthetic life of that city. He headed the group Det moderne Gjennembruds Mænd, composed of J. P, among his later writings must be mentioned the monographs on Søren Kierkegaard, on Esaias Tegnér, on Benjamin Disraeli, Ferdinand Lassalle, Ludvig Holberg, on Henrik Ibsen and on Anatole France. Brandes wrote with great depth on the contemporary poets and novelists of Denmark and Norway. He wrote an excellent book on Poland, and was one of the editors of the German version of Ibsen, the most important of his later works was his study of William Shakespeare, which was translated into English by William Archer and was highly acclaimed

26.
Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin
–
Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin was a French lawyer and politician, and gained fame as an epicure and gastronome, Grimod and Brillat-Savarin. Between them, two writers effectively founded the genre of the gastronomic essay. Brillat-Savarin was born in the town of Belley, Ain, where the Rhône River then separated France from Savoy and he studied law, chemistry and medicine in Dijon in his early years and later practiced law in his hometown. His father Marc Anthelme adopted his surname in 1733 upon the death of an aunt named Savarin who left him her entire fortune on the condition that he adopt her name. He returned to Belley and was for a year the elected mayor, at a later stage of the Revolution there was a bounty on his head, and he sought shelter in Switzerland at some relatives place in Moudon and then in the hôtel du Lion dArgent in Lausanne. For a time he was first violin in the Park Theater in New York and he returned to France under the Directory in 1797 and acquired the magistrate post he would hold for the remainder of his life, as a judge of the Court of Cassation. He published several works on law and political economy and he also wrote an erotic short story, Voyage à Arras. It is a tribute of a friendship which dates from your childhood, and, perhaps, at my age a man no longer dares interrogate his heart. His famous work, Physiologie du goût, was published in December 1825, the book has not been out of print since it first appeared, shortly before Brillat-Savarins death. Its most notable English translation was done by writer and critic M. F. K. Fisher. Her translation was first published in 1949 and his French models were the stylists of the Ancien Régime, Voltaire, Rousseau, Fénelon, Buffon, Cochin and dAguesseau. Brillat-Savarin cheese, the Savarin mould, a mold with a rounded contour. Brillat-Savarin is often considered as the father of low-carbohydrate diet and he considered sugar and white flour to be the cause of obesity and he suggested instead protein-rich ingredients. Sure enough, carnivorous animals never grow fat, the second of the chief causes of obesity is the floury and starchy substances which man makes the prime ingredients of his daily nourishment. As we have already, all animals that live on farinaceous food grow fat willy-nilly. Eneas Sweetland Dallas wrote Kettners Book of the Table, a Manual of Cookery,1877, Dallas published his book under the pseudonym of A. Kettner. Whoever receives friends and does not participate in the preparation of their meal does not deserve to have friends. He compared after-taste, the perfume or fragrance of food, to musical harmonics, but for the odour which is felt in the back of the mouth, an avid cheese lover, Brillat-Savarin remarked, A dessert without cheese is like a beautiful woman with only one eye

27.
Ferruccio Busoni
–
Ferruccio Busoni was an Italian composer, pianist, conductor, editor, writer, and teacher. Busoni was born in Empoli, just south of Florence, he was the son of professional musicians, initially trained by his father, he later studied at the Vienna Conservatory and then with Wilhelm Mayer and Carl Reinecke. In the ensuing years, after brief periods teaching in Helsinki and Moscow, he devoted himself to composing, teaching, and touring as a virtuoso pianist in Europe and his writings on music were influential, they covered not only aesthetics but considerations of microtones and other innovative topics. He was based in Berlin from 1894 but spent much of World War I in Switzerland, Busoni was an outstanding pianist from an early age. His visits to America led to interest in North American indigenous tribal melodies which were reflected in some of his works. His compositions include works for piano, including a monumental Piano Concerto and his other compositions include chamber music, vocal and orchestral works, and also operas, one of which, Doktor Faust, was left unfinished at the time of his death. Busoni died in Berlin at the age of 58, Busoni was born in the Tuscan town of Empoli, the only child of two professional musicians, Ferdinando, a clarinettist, and Anna, a pianist. The family shortly moved to Trieste. A child prodigy, largely taught by his father, he began performing and composing at the age of seven, commercially promoted by his parents in a series of further concerts, he was later to say I never had a childhood. In 1875 he made his concerto début playing Mozarts Piano Concerto No.24, from the ages of nine to eleven, with the help of a patron, Busoni studied at the Vienna Conservatory. His first performances in Vienna were glowingly received by the critic Eduard Hanslick, in 1877 he heard the playing of Franz Liszt, and was introduced to the composer who admired his performance. In the following year he composed a four-movement concerto for piano, leaving Vienna he had a brief period of study in Graz with Wilhelm Mayer, and conducted a performance of his own composition Stabat Mater, Op.55 in the composers initial numbering sequence, in 1879. Other early pieces were published at time, including settings of Ave Maria. Busoni was elected in 1881 to the Accademia Filharmonica of Bologna, in the mid 1880s he was based in Vienna where he met with Karl Goldmark and helped to prepare the vocal score for the latters 1886 opera, Merlin. He also met Johannes Brahms, to whom he dedicated two sets of piano Etudes, and who recommended him to study in Leipzig with Carl Reinecke. During this period he supported himself by giving recitals, and also by the support of a patron. He also continued to compose, and made his first attempt at an opera, Sigune, in a letter he describes how, finding himself penniless in Leipzig, he appealed to the publisher Schwalm to take his compositions. Schwalm demurred but said he would commission a fantasy on Peter Corneliuss opera The Barber of Baghdad for fifty marks down, and a hundred on completion

28.
John Cage
–
John Milton Cage Jr. was an American composer, music theorist, writer, philosopher, and artist. A pioneer of indeterminacy in music, electroacoustic music, and non-standard use of musical instruments, critics have lauded him as one of the most influential American composers of the 20th century. He was also instrumental in the development of dance, mostly through his association with choreographer Merce Cunningham. The content of the composition is not four minutes and 33 seconds of silence, as is often assumed, the works challenge to assumed definitions about musicianship and musical experience made it a popular and controversial topic both in musicology and the broader aesthetics of art and performance. Cage was also a pioneer of the piano, for which he wrote numerous dance-related works. The best known of these is Sonatas and Interludes and his teachers included Henry Cowell and Arnold Schoenberg, both known for their radical innovations in music, but Cages major influences lay in various East and South Asian cultures. Through his studies of Indian philosophy and Zen Buddhism in the late 1940s, Cage came to the idea of aleatoric or chance-controlled music, the I Ching, an ancient Chinese classic text on changing events, became Cages standard composition tool for the rest of his life. Cage was born September 5,1912, at Good Samaritan Hospital in downtown Los Angeles and his father, John Milton Cage, Sr. was an inventor, and his mother, Lucretia Harvey, worked intermittently as a journalist for the Los Angeles Times. The familys roots were deeply American, in a 1976 interview, John Milton Sr. taught his son that if someone says cant that shows you what to do. In 1944–45 Cage wrote two small character pieces dedicated to his parents, Crete and Dad, the latter is a short lively piece that ends abruptly, while Crete is a slightly longer, mostly melodic contrapuntal work. During high school, one of his teachers was Fannie Charles Dillon. By 1928, though, Cage was convinced that he wanted to be a writer and he graduated that year from Los Angeles High School as a valedictorian, having also in the spring given a prize-winning speech at the Hollywood Bowl proposing a day of quiet for all Americans. By being hushed and silent, he said, we should have the opportunity to hear other people think. Cage enrolled at Pomona College in Claremont as a major in 1928. Instead of doing as they did, I went into the stacks, I received the highest grade in the class. That convinced me that the institution was not being run correctly, Cage persuaded his parents that a trip to Europe would be more beneficial to a future writer than college studies. He subsequently hitchhiked to Galveston and sailed to Le Havre, where he took a train to Paris, Cage stayed in Europe for some 18 months, trying his hand at various forms of art. First he studied Gothic and Greek architecture, but decided he was not interested enough in architecture to dedicate his life to it and he then took up painting, poetry and music

29.
R. G. Collingwood
–
Robin George Collingwood was an English philosopher, historian, and archaeologist. He is best known for his works including The Principles of Art. Collingwoods mother was also an artist and a talented pianist and he was educated at Rugby School, and at University College, Oxford, where he gained a First in Classical Moderations in 1910 and a congratulatory First in Greats in 1912. Prior to graduation he was elected a fellow of Pembroke College, Collingwood was a fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford, for some 15 years until becoming the Waynflete Professor of Metaphysical Philosophy at Magdalen College, Oxford. He was the pupil of F. J. Haverfield to survive World War I. Important influences on Collingwood were the Italian Idealists Benedetto Croce, Giovanni Gentile and Guido de Ruggiero, other important influences were Hegel, Kant, Giambattista Vico, F. H. Bradley and J. A. Smith. After several years of debilitating strokes Collingwood died at Coniston, Lancashire. He was a practising Anglican throughout his life, Collingwood is widely noted for The Idea of History, a work collated from various sources soon after his death by his pupil T. M. Knox. Collingwood pointed out a difference between knowing things in the present and knowing history. To come to know things in the present or about things in the sciences, “real” things can be observed. The problem with coming to know things about history is that while past human actions actually or really happened, the actions, then, have no real existence or substance at the point in time that the historian is studying them. Based on the understanding that the events and actions that historians study have already happened, they are finished, Collingwood maintained that historians must use their imaginations to reconstruct and understand the past. Because human events that have taken place cannot be observed. The Principles of Art comprises Collingwoods most developed treatment of aesthetic questions, Collingwood held that works of art are essentially expressions of emotion. For Collingwood, an important social role of the artist is to clarify, in politics Collingwood defended the ideals of what he called liberalism in its Continental sense, The essence of this conception is. Collingwood was not just a philosopher of history but also a practising historian and he was, during his time, a leading authority on Roman Britain, he spent his term time at Oxford teaching philosophy but devoted his long vacations to archaeology. He began work along Hadrians Wall, the family home was at Coniston in the Lake District and his father was a leading figure in the Cumberland and Westmorland Archaeological Society. Collingwood was drawn in on a number of excavations and put forward the theory that Hadrian’s Wall was not so much a fighting platform and he also put forward the suggestion that Hadrians defensive system also included a number of forts along the Cumberland coast

30.
Victor Cousin
–
Victor Cousin was a French philosopher. He was the founder of eclecticism, an influential school of French philosophy that combined elements of German idealism. As the administrator of public instruction for over a decade, Cousin also had an important influence on French educational policy, the son of a watchmaker, he was born in Paris, in the Quartier Saint-Antoine. At the age of ten he was sent to the grammar school, the Lycée Charlemagne. The classical training of the lycée strongly disposed him to literature and he was already known among his fellow students for his knowledge of Greek. From the lycée he graduated to the most prestigious of higher schools, École Normale Supérieure. That day decided my whole life and that school has remained ever since the living heart of French philosophy — Henri Bergson, Jean-Paul Sartre and Jacques Derrida are among its past students. Cousin wanted to lecture on philosophy and quickly obtained the position of master of conferences in the school, the second great philosophical impulse of his life was the teaching of Pierre Paul Royer-Collard. The Scottish Philosophy being the Common Sense Philosophy of Thomas Reid, in 1815–1816 Cousin attained the position of suppliant to Royer-Collard in the history of modern philosophy chair of the faculty of letters. Another thinker who influenced him at this period was Maine de Biran. These men strongly influenced Cousins philosophical thought, to Laromiguière he attributes the lesson of decomposing thought, even though the reduction of it to sensation was inadequate. Royer-Collard taught him that even sensation is subject to certain laws and principles which it does not itself explain, which are superior to analysis. De Biran made a study of the phenomena of the will. He taught him to distinguish in all cognitions, and especially in the simplest facts of consciousness, the influence of Schelling may be observed very markedly in the earlier form of his philosophy. He sympathized with the principle of faith of Jacobi, but regarded it as arbitrary so long as it was not recognized as grounded in reason, in 1817 he went to Germany, and met Hegel at Heidelberg. Hegels Encyclopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften appeared the year, and Cousin had one of the earliest copies. He thought Hegel not particularly amiable, but the two became friends, the following year Cousin went to Munich, where he met Schelling for the first time, and spent a month with him and Jacobi, obtaining a deeper insight into the Philosophy of Nature. Frances political troubles interfered for a time with his career, in the events of 1814–1815 he took the royalist side

31.
Benedetto Croce
–
Benedetto Croce was an Italian idealist philosopher, historian and politician. He wrote on topics, including philosophy, history, historiography. He was a liberal, although he opposed laissez-faire free trade and had influence on other Italian intellectuals. He was President of PEN International, the writers association. He was nominated for the Nobel prize for literature sixteen times, Croce was born in Pescasseroli in the Abruzzo region of Italy. His family was influential and wealthy, and he was raised in a very strict Catholic environment and he kept this philosophy for the rest of his life. In 1883, an earthquake occurred in the village of Casamicciola on the island of Ischia near Naples and his mother, father, and only sister were all killed, while he was buried for a long time and barely survived. He studied law, but never graduated, at the University of Naples and his ideas were publicized at the University of Rome towards the ends of the 1890s by Professor Antonio Labriola. Influenced by Neapolitan-born Gianbattista Vicos thoughts about art and history, he began studying philosophy in 1893, Croce also purchased the house in which Vico had lived. His friend, the philosopher Giovanni Gentile, encouraged him to read Hegel, Croces famous commentary on Hegel, What is Living and What is Dead in the Philosophy of Hegel, was published in 1907. As his fame increased, Croce was persuaded, against his initial wishes and he was appointed to the Italian Senate, a lifelong position, in 1910. He was a critic of Italys participation in World War I. Though this made him unpopular, his reputation was restored after the war. He was Minister of Public Education between 1920 and 1921 for the 5th and last government headed by Giovanni Giolitti, Gentile remained minister for only a year, but managed to begin a comprehensive reform of Italian education that was based partly on Croces earlier suggestions. Gentiles reform remained in force well beyond the Fascist regime, and was partly abolished in 1962. Croce was instrumental in the relocation of the Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele III to Naples Palazzo Reale in 1923, Croce initially supported Mussolinis Fascist government that took power in 1922. However, the assassination by Fascists of the socialist politician, Giacomo Matteotti and he later explained that he had hoped that the support for Mussolini in parliament would weaken the more extreme Fascists who, he believed, were responsible for Matteottis murder. Croce later coined the term onagrocrazia to emphasize the anti-intellectual and boorish tendencies of parts of the Fascist regime, Croce also described Fascism as malattia morale

32.
Gregory Currie
–
Gregory Greg Currie is Professor of Philosophy in the Department of Philosophy at the University of York. Currie was educated at the London School of Economics and the University of California and his first posts were in Australia, at the University of Sydney, and in New Zealand, at the University of Otago. Until September 2013 he was Professor of Philosophy and Director of Research in Humanities at the University of Nottingham, before joining the Nottingham department he was Professor of Philosophy and Head of the School of Arts at Flinders University, Adelaide. He is a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Humanities and a Past President of the Australasian Association of Philosophy and his research currently focuses on the arts, imagination, the nature of delusions, and the role of narrative in our thinking. He is working on a book focusing on the value of literature, recreative Minds, Imagination in Philosophy and Psychology The irony in pictures. British Journal of Aesthetics,512011, 148-167, aesthetic Science, Oxford University Press,2011. The Master of the Masek Beds, Aesthetics and the evolution of mind, in, GOLDIE, P. AND SCHELLEKENS, E. ed. Aesthetics and Psychology Oxford University Press. The representation of experience in cinema, midwest Studies in Philosophy,34,2010, 323-339. Actual art, possible art, and art’s definition, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism,68, narrative and the psychology of character, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism,67. In, HAGBERG, G. JOST, W. eds, a Companion to the Philosophy of Literature. Agency and repentance in The Winters Tale, narrative, Imitation, and Point of View, in G. L. Hagberg and W. Jost, A Companion to the Philosophy of Literature, Chichester, Wiley-Blackwell

33.
William C. Dowling
–
He received his Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy from Harvard University, where he administered the Dudley House fellowship program during the Mastership of Jean Mayer. Dowling came to attention in the 1990s through his work with the Rutgers 1000 campaign which fought for the removal of Division I sports from Rutgers. But they give it to an illiterate who cant read a cereal box. If you want to give help to minorities, go find the ones who are at the library after school. The Wall Street Journal labeled Mulcahys attack a campaign of assassination against a professor who had spoken out against athletics corruption at his university. An interview with Ralph Naders anti-sports-corruption group appeared on League of Fans in 2012, according to his Rutgers University web page, Dowling is presently at work on Professors Song, A Life in Teaching, a memoir of his career in literary studies. Ricoeur on Time and Narrative, an Introduction to Temps et recit

34.
John Dewey
–
John Dewey was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. Dewey is one of the figures associated with the philosophy of pragmatism and is considered one of the fathers of functional psychology. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Dewey as the 93rd most cited psychologist of the 20th century, a well-known public intellectual, he was also a major voice of progressive education and liberalism. Although Dewey is known best for his publications about education, he wrote about many other topics, including epistemology, metaphysics, aesthetics, art, logic, social theory. He was an educational reformer for the 20th century. The overriding theme of Deweys works was his belief in democracy, be it in politics, education or communication. As Dewey himself stated in 1888, while still at the University of Michigan, Democracy, John Dewey was born in Burlington, Vermont, to a family of modest means. Dewey was one of four born to Archibald Sprague Dewey. The second born son and first John born to Archibald and Lucina died in an accident on January 17,1859. On October 20,1859 John Dewey was born, forty weeks after the death of his older brother. Like his older, surviving brother, Davis Rich Dewey, he attended the University of Vermont, where he was initiated into Delta Psi, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1879. A significant professor of Deweys at the University of Vermont was Henry A. P. Torrey, Dewey studied privately with Torrey between his graduation from Vermont and his enrollment at Johns Hopkins University. After studying with George Sylvester Morris, Charles Sanders Peirce, Herbert Baxter Adams, in 1884, he accepted a faculty position at the University of Michigan with the help of George Sylvester Morris. His unpublished and now lost dissertation was titled The Psychology of Kant, in 1894 Dewey joined the newly founded University of Chicago where he developed his belief in Rational Empiricism, becoming associated with the newly emerging Pragmatic philosophy. Disagreements with the administration ultimately caused his resignation from the University, in 1899, Dewey was elected president of the American Psychological Association. From 1904 until his retirement in 1930 he was professor of philosophy at both Columbia University and Columbia Universitys Teachers College, in 1905 he became president of the American Philosophical Association. He was a member of the American Federation of Teachers. Along with the historians Charles A, beard and James Harvey Robinson, and the economist Thorstein Veblen, Dewey is one of the founders of The New School

35.
Jacques Derrida
–
Jacques Derrida was a French philosopher, born in Algeria. Derrida is best known for developing a form of semiotic analysis known as deconstruction, which he discussed in numerous texts and he is one of the major figures associated with post-structuralism and postmodern philosophy. During his career Derrida published more than 40 books, together with hundreds of essays and he also influenced architecture, music, art, and art criticism. Particularly in his writings, Derrida addressed ethical and political themes in his work. Some critics consider Speech and Phenomena to be his most important work, others cite Of Grammatology, Writing and Difference, and Margins of Philosophy. These writings influenced various activists and political movements and he became a well-known and influential public figure, while his approach to philosophy and the notorious difficulty of his work made him controversial. Derrida was the third of five children and his elder brother Paul Moïse died at less than three months old, the year before Derrida was born, leading him to suspect throughout his life his role as a replacement for his deceased brother. Derrida spent his youth in Algiers and in El-Biar, on the first day of the school year in 1942, French administrators in Algeria — implementing anti-Semitic quotas set by the Vichy government — expelled Derrida from his lycée. He secretly skipped school for a rather than attend the Jewish lycée formed by displaced teachers and students. In this adolescent period, Derrida found in the works of philosophers and writers an instrument of revolt against family and his reading also included Camus and Sartre. In the late 1940s, he attended the Lycée Bugeaud and the Lycée Louis-le-Grand, on his first day at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris in 1952, Derrida met Louis Althusser, with whom he became friends. After visiting the Husserl Archive in Leuven, Belgium, he completed his masters degree in philosophy on Edmund Husserl and he then passed the highly competitive agrégation exam in 1956. Derrida received a grant for studies at Harvard University, and he spent the 1956–57 academic year reading Joyces Ulysses at the Widener Library, in June 1957, he married the psychoanalyst Marguerite Aucouturier in Boston. During the Algerian War of Independence of 1954–1962, Derrida asked to teach children in lieu of military service, teaching French. Following the war, from 1960 to 1964, Derrida taught philosophy at the Sorbonne and his wife, Marguerite, gave birth to their first child, Pierre, in 1963. In 1964, on the recommendation of Louis Althusser and Jean Hyppolite, Derrida got a permanent teaching position at the ENS, in 1965 Derrida began an association with the Tel Quel group of literary and philosophical theorists, which lasted for seven years. Derridas subsequent distance from the Tel Quel group, after 1971, has attributed to his reservations about their embrace of Maoism. At the same colloquium Derrida would meet Jacques Lacan and Paul de Man, a second son, Jean, was born in 1967

36.
Umberto Eco
–
Umberto Eco OMRI was an Italian novelist, literary critic, philosopher, semiotician, and university professor. He is best known internationally for his 1980 novel Il nome della rosa, a historical mystery combining semiotics in fiction with biblical analysis, medieval studies and he later wrote other novels, including Il pendolo di Foucault and Lisola del giorno prima. His novel Il cimitero di Praga, released in 2010, topped the charts in Italy. Eco also wrote texts, childrens books, and essays. Eco was born in the city of Alessandria, in Piedmont in northern Italy and his father, Giulio, one of thirteen children, was an accountant before the government called him to serve in three wars. During World War II, Umberto and his mother, Giovanna, Eco received a Salesian education and made references to the order and its founder in his works and interviews. His family name is supposedly an acronym of ex caelis oblatus, during his university studies, Eco stopped believing in God and left the Catholic Church. After that, Eco worked as an editor for the state broadcasting station Radiotelevisione Italiana. A group of artists, painters, musicians and writers. This was especially true after the publication of his first book in 1956, Il problema estetico in San Tommaso and this also marked the beginning of his lecturing career at his alma mater. In September 1962 he married Renate Ramge, a German art teacher with whom he had a son and he divided his time between an apartment in Milan and a vacation house near Urbino. He had a 30,000 volume library in the former and he was a visiting professor at Columbia University several times in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1992–1993 Eco was the Norton professor at Harvard University, six books that were authored, co-authored, or co-edited by Eco were published by the Indiana University Press. He frequently collaborated with his friend Thomas Sebeok, semiotician and Distinguished Professor of Linguistics at Indiana University and he became Satrap of the Collège de ‘Pataphysique in 2001. On 23 May 2002, Eco received an honorary Doctor of Letters from Rutgers University in New Brunswick, in 2009, the University of Belgrade in Serbia awarded him an honorary doctorate. Eco was a member of the Italian skeptic organization Comitato Italiano per il Controllo delle Affermazioni sulle Pseudoscienze CICAP, Eco died at his Milanese home of pancreatic cancer, from which he had been suffering for two years, on the night of 19 February 2016. At the time of his death at the age of 84, he was a professor emeritus at the University of Bologna, in 1959 Eco published his second book, Sviluppo dellestetica medievale, on medieval philosophy. After 18 months military service in the Italian Army, he left RAI in 1959 to become the senior editor of the Bompiani publishing house in Milan

37.
Jonathan Edwards (theologian)
–
Jonathan Edwards was a revivalist preacher, philosopher, and Congregationalist Protestant theologian. Like most of the Puritans, he held to the Reformed theology and his colonial followers later distinguished themselves from other Congregationalists as New Lights, as opposed to Old Lights. Edwards is widely regarded as one of Americas most important and original philosophical theologians, Edwards theological work is broad in scope, but he was rooted in Reformed theology, the metaphysics of theological determinism, and the Puritan heritage. Recent studies have emphasized how thoroughly Edwards grounded his lifes work on conceptions of beauty, harmony, and ethical fittingness, Edwards played a critical role in shaping the First Great Awakening, and oversaw some of the first revivals in 1733–35 at his church in Northampton, Massachusetts. Edwards delivered the sermon Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, Edwards died from a smallpox inoculation shortly after beginning the presidency at the College of New Jersey. He was the grandfather of Aaron Burr, third Vice President of the United States, Jonathan Edwards was born on October 5,1703 and was the son of Timothy Edwards, a minister at East Windsor, Connecticut, who eked out his salary by tutoring boys for college. His mother, Esther Stoddard, daughter of the Rev. Solomon Stoddard, of Northampton, Massachusetts, seems to have been a woman of unusual mental gifts, Jonathan, their only son, was the fifth of 11 children. He entered Yale College in 1716, at just under the age of 13, in the following year, he became acquainted with John Lockes Essay Concerning Human Understanding, which influenced him profoundly. He was interested in history, and as a precocious 11-year-old, observed. Edwards would edit this text to match the genre of scientific literature. Even though he would go on to study theology for two years after his graduation, Edwards continued to be interested in science, Edwards was fascinated by the discoveries of Isaac Newton and other scientists of his age. Before he undertook full-time ministry work in Northampton, he wrote on topics in natural philosophy, including flying spiders, light. While he was worried about the materialism and faith in reason alone of some of his contemporaries, he saw the laws of nature as derived from God and demonstrating his wisdom and care. In 1722 to 1723, he was for eight months stated supply of a small Presbyterian Church in New York City, the church invited him to remain, but he declined the call. The years 1720 to 1726 are partially recorded in his diary and he now took a great and new joy in taking in the beauties of nature, and delighted in the allegorical interpretation of the Song of Solomon. On February 15,1727, Edwards was ordained minister at Northampton and he was a scholar-pastor, not a visiting pastor, his rule being 13 hours of study a day. In the same year, he married Sarah Pierpont, then 17, Sarah was from a storied New England clerical family, her father was James Pierpont, the head founder of Yale College, and her mother was the great-granddaughter of Thomas Hooker. Sarahs spiritual devotion was without peer, and her relationship with God had long proved an inspiration to Edwards and he first remarked on her great piety when she was 13 years old

38.
Ralph Waldo Emerson
–
Ralph Waldo Emerson was an American essayist, lecturer, and poet who led the transcendentalist movement of the mid-19th century. Emerson gradually moved away from the religious and social beliefs of his contemporaries, following this work, he gave a speech entitled The American Scholar in 1837, which Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. considered to be Americas intellectual Declaration of Independence. Emerson wrote most of his important essays as lectures first and then revised them for print and his first two collections of essays, Essays, First Series and Essays, Second Series, represent the core of his thinking. They include the well-known essays Self-Reliance, The Over-Soul, Circles, The Poet, together with Nature, these essays made the decade from the mid-1830s to the mid-1840s Emersons most fertile period. Emersons nature was more philosophical than naturalistic, Philosophically considered, the universe is composed of Nature, Emerson is one of several figures who took a more pantheist or pandeist approach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world. He remains among the linchpins of the American romantic movement, and his work has influenced the thinkers, writers. When asked to sum up his work, he said his doctrine was the infinitude of the private man. Emerson is also known as a mentor and friend of Henry David Thoreau. Emerson was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on May 25,1803, a son of Ruth Haskins and the Rev. William Emerson and he was named after his mothers brother Ralph and his fathers great-grandmother Rebecca Waldo. Ralph Waldo was the second of five sons who survived adulthood, the others were William, Edward, Robert Bulkeley. Three other children—Phebe, John Clarke, and Mary Caroline—died in childhood, Emerson was entirely of English ancestry, and his family had been in New England since the early colonial period. Emersons father died from cancer on May 12,1811. Emerson was raised by his mother, with the help of the women in the family. She lived with the family off and on and maintained a constant correspondence with Emerson until her death in 1863, Emersons formal schooling began at the Boston Latin School in 1812, when he was nine. In October 1817, at 14, Emerson went to Harvard College and was appointed freshman messenger for the president, requiring Emerson to fetch delinquent students and send messages to faculty. Midway through his year, Emerson began keeping a list of books he had read. He took outside jobs to cover his expenses, including as a waiter for the Junior Commons and as an occasional teacher working with his uncle Samuel in Waltham. By his senior year, Emerson decided to go by his middle name, Emerson served as Class Poet, as was custom, he presented an original poem on Harvards Class Day, a month before his official graduation on August 29,1821, when he was 18

Art
–
In their most general form these activities include the production of works of art, the criticism of art, the study of the history of art, and the aesthetic dissemination of art. The oldest documented forms of art are visual arts, which include creation of images or objects in fields including painting, sculpture, printmaking, photography, and othe

1.
Clockwise from upper left: a self-portrait by Vincent van Gogh; a female ancestor figure by a Chokwe artist; detail from the Birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli; and an Okinawan Shisa lion.

2.
Works of art can tell stories or simply express an aesthetic truth or feeling. Panorama of a section of A Thousand Li of Mountains and Rivers, a 12th-century painting by Song dynasty artist Wang Ximeng.

3.
20th-century Rwandan bottle. Artistic works may serve practical functions, in addition to their decorative value.

4.
Venus of Willendorf, circa 24,000–22,000 BP

Beauty
–
Beauty is a characteristic of an animal, idea, object, person or place that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure or satisfaction. Beauty is studied as part of aesthetics, culture, social psychology and sociology, an ideal beauty is an entity which is admired, or possesses features widely attributed to beauty in a particular culture, for per

1.
Rayonnant rose window in Notre Dame de Paris. In Gothic architecture, light was considered the most beautiful revelation of God.

2.
For beauty as a characteristic of a person's appearance, see Physical attractiveness. For other uses, see Beauty (disambiguation).

3.
The Birth of Venus, by Sandro Botticelli. The goddess Venus is the classical personification of beauty.

4.
Fresco of a Roman woman from Pompeii, c. 50 AD

Sri Aurobindo
–
Sri Aurobindo was an Indian nationalist, philosopher, yogi, guru and poet. Aurobindo studied for the Indian Civil Service at Kings College, Cambridge and he was arrested in the aftermath of a number of bomb outrages linked to his organisation, but was only convicted and imprisoned for writing articles against British rule in India. He was released

1.
Sri Aurobindo

2.
Aurobindo (seated center next to his mother) and his family. In England, ca. 1879.

John Anderson (philosopher)
–
John Anderson was a Scottish-Australian philosopher who occupied the post of Challis Professor of Philosophy at Sydney University from 1927 to 1958. He founded the brand of philosophy known as Australian realism. Andersons promotion of free thought in all subjects, including politics and morality, was controversial, to Anderson, an acceptable philo

1.
John Anderson, University of Sydney, 1926

Thomas Aquinas
–
Saint Thomas Aquinas O. P. was an Italian Dominican friar, Catholic priest, and Doctor of the Church. He was an influential philosopher, theologian, and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also known as the Doctor Angelicus. The name Aquinas identifies his ancestral origins in the county of Aquino in present-day Lazio and h

4.
Diego Velázquez, Aquinas is girded by angels with a mystical belt of purity after his proof of chastity

Aristotle
–
Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidice, on the northern periphery of Classical Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, at seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined Platos Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven. Shortly after Plato died

1.
Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze bust of Aristotle by Lysippus, c. 330 BC. The alabaster mantle is modern.

2.
Aristotelianism

3.
School of Aristotle in Mieza, Macedonia, Greece

4.
"Aristotle" by Francesco Hayez (1791–1882)

Poetics (Aristotle)
–
Aristotles Poetics is the earliest surviving work of dramatic theory and first extant philosophical treatise to focus on literary theory in the West. This has been the view for centuries. However, recent work is now challenging whether Aristotle focuses on literary theory per se or whether he focuses instead on dramatic musical theory that only has

1.
Aristotelianism

2.
Arabic translation of the Poetics by Abū Bishr Mattā.

Rhetoric (Aristotle)
–
Aristotles Rhetoric is an ancient Greek treatise on the art of persuasion, dating from the 4th century BC. The English title varies, typically it is titled Rhetoric, the Art of Rhetoric, the Rhetoric is regarded by most rhetoricians as the most important single work on persuasion ever written. This is largely a reflection of disciplinary divisions,

1.
Aristotelianism

Rudolf Arnheim
–
Rudolf Arnheim was a German-born author, art and film theorist, and perceptual psychologist. He learned Gestalt psychology from studying under Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Köhler at the University of Berlin and his magnum opus was his book Art and Visual Perception, A Psychology of the Creative Eye. Other major books by Arnheim have included Visual

2.
An abstract description of the Image and its functions as a Picture, Signs and Symbols from the book "Visual Thinking" by Rudolf Arnheim. This visualization represents the affordance in abstractness related to images.

Augustine of Hippo
–
Augustine of Hippo was an early Christian theologian and philosopher whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. He was the bishop of Hippo Regius, located in Numidia, Augustine is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his

1.
Saint Augustine from a 19th-century engraving

2.
The Saint Augustine Taken to School by Saint Monica. by Niccolò di Pietro 1413-15

3.
The earliest known portrait of Saint Augustine in a 6th-century fresco, Lateran, Rome.

4.
Angelico, Fra. "The Conversion of St. Augustine" (painting).

Abhinavagupta
–
Abhinavagupta was a philosopher, mystic and aesthetician from Kashmir. He was also considered an influential musician, poet, dramatist, exegete, theologian and he was born in Kashmir in a family of scholars and mystics and studied all the schools of philosophy and art of his time under the guidance of as many as fifteen teachers and gurus. In his l

Victor Basch
–
Basch Viktor Vilém, or Victor-Guillaume Basch was a French politician and professor of germanistics and philosophy at the Sorbonne descending from Hungary. He was engaged in the Zionist Movement, in the Ligue des droits de lhomme and his father was the journalist and political activist, Raphael Basch. Born in Budapest in 1863, Victor Basch emigrate

1.
Victor Basch (1926).

Yusuf Balasagun
–
Yusuf Khass Hajib was an 11th-century Uyghur poet, statesman, vizier, and philosopher from the city of Balasaghun, the capital of the Karakhanid Empire in modern-day Kyrgyzstan. He wrote the Kutadgu Bilig and most of what is known about him comes from his own writings in this work, balasagun was located at the Burana archaeological site near the pr

1.
Yusuf Has Hajib, as shown on the Kyrgyz 1000 som note.

Roland Barthes
–
Roland Gérard Barthes was a French literary theorist, philosopher, linguist, critic, and semiotician. Roland Barthes was born on 12 November 1915 in the town of Cherbourg in Normandy and his father, naval officer Louis Barthes, was killed in a battle during World War I in the North Sea before Barthes first birthday. His mother, Henriette Barthes, a

1.
Roland Gérard Barthes

Georges Bataille
–
Georges Albert Maurice Victor Bataille was a French intellectual and literary figure working in literature, philosophy, anthropology, economics, sociology and history of art. His writing, which included essays, novels, and poetry, explored such subjects as eroticism, mysticism, surrealism and his work would prove influential on subsequent schools o

1.
Georges Bataille in the 1950s

Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten
–
Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten was a German philosopher. He was a brother to theologian Siegmund Jakob Baumgarten, Baumgarten was born in Berlin as the fifth of seven sons of the pietist pastor of the garrison, Jacob Baumgarten, and of his wife Rosina Elisabeth. Both his parents died early, and he was taught by Martin Georg Christgau where he learne

1.
Aesthetica (1750) by Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten

Vissarion Belinsky
–
Vissarion Grigoryevich Belinsky was a Russian literary critic of Westernizing tendency. He was an associate of Alexander Herzen, Mikhail Bakunin, Belinsky played one of the key roles in the career of poet and publisher Nikolay Nekrasov and his popular magazine Sovremennik. Born in Sveaborg, Vissarion Belinsky lived in the town of Chembar and in Pen

1.
V. Belinsky, lithograph by Kirill Gorbunov

2.
A bust of Belinsky

3.
A 1957 Vissarion Belinsky Soviet postage stamp

Clive Bell
–
Arthur Clive Heward Bell was an English art critic, associated with formalism and the Bloomsbury Group. Bell died, aged 83, in London, Bell was born in East Shefford, Berkshire, in 1881, the third of four children of William Heward Bell and Hannah Taylor Cory. He had a brother, an elder sister, and a younger sister. They lived at Cleeve House in Se

1.
Portrait of Clive Bell by Roger Fry

Walter Benjamin
–
Walter Bendix Schönflies Benjamin was a German Jewish philosopher, cultural critic and essayist. He was associated with the Frankfurt School, and also maintained formative friendships with such as playwright Bertolt Brecht. He was also related by law to German political theorist Hannah Arendt through her first marriage to his cousin, Günther Anders

1.
Benjamin in Paris, 1939.

2.
Walter Benjamin's Paris apartment at 10 rue Dombasle (1938–1940).

3.
Walter Benjamin's grave in Portbou. The epitaph in German, repeated in Catalan, quotes from Section 7 of Theses on the Philosophy of History: "There is no document of civilization which is not at the same time a document of barbarism."

4.
Commemorative plaque for Walter Benjamin, Berlin-Wilmersdorf

Arnold Berleant
–
Arnold Berleant is an American scholar and author who is active both in philosophy and music. Arnold Berleant was born in Buffalo, New York and he received his advanced musical education at the Eastman School of Music and his doctorate in philosophy at the State University of New York at Buffalo. His books and articles in philosophy focus on aesthe

1.
Arnold Berleant

George Birkhoff
–
George David Birkhoff was an American mathematician, best known for what is now called the ergodic theorem. Birkhoff was one of the most important leaders in American mathematics in his generation and his house in Cambridge, Massachusetts, has been designated a National Historic Landmark. He was born in Overisel Township, Michigan, the son of David

1.
George David Birkhoff

Max Black
–
Max Black was a British-American philosopher, who was a figure in analytic philosophy in the first half of the twentieth century. He made contributions to the philosophy of language, the philosophy of mathematics and science, and his translation of Freges published philosophical writing is a classic text. Born in Baku, Russian Empire of Jewish desc

1.
Max Black

Maurice Blanchot
–
Maurice Blanchot was a French writer, philosopher, and literary theorist. His work had a influence on post-structuralist philosophers such as Jacques Derrida. Little was known until recently much of Blanchots life. Blanchot was born in the village of Quain on 22 September 1907, Blanchot studied philosophy at the University of Strasbourg, where he b

1.
Maurice Blanchot

Georg Brandes
–
Georg Brandes, born Morris Cohen, was a Danish critic and scholar who greatly influenced Scandinavian and European literature from the 1870s through the turn of the 20th century. He is seen as the theorist behind the Modern Breakthrough of Scandinavian culture, at the age of 30, Brandes formulated the principles of a new realism and naturalism, con

Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin
–
Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin was a French lawyer and politician, and gained fame as an epicure and gastronome, Grimod and Brillat-Savarin. Between them, two writers effectively founded the genre of the gastronomic essay. Brillat-Savarin was born in the town of Belley, Ain, where the Rhône River then separated France from Savoy and he studied law,

1.
Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin

2.
Title page of "La Physiologie du Goût" ("The Physiology of Taste") with a portrait of the author. 1848 edition

Ferruccio Busoni
–
Ferruccio Busoni was an Italian composer, pianist, conductor, editor, writer, and teacher. Busoni was born in Empoli, just south of Florence, he was the son of professional musicians, initially trained by his father, he later studied at the Vienna Conservatory and then with Wilhelm Mayer and Carl Reinecke. In the ensuing years, after brief periods

John Cage
–
John Milton Cage Jr. was an American composer, music theorist, writer, philosopher, and artist. A pioneer of indeterminacy in music, electroacoustic music, and non-standard use of musical instruments, critics have lauded him as one of the most influential American composers of the 20th century. He was also instrumental in the development of dance,

1.
John Cage (1988)

2.
John Cage (left) and Michael Bach in Assisi, Italy, 1992

3.
Variations III, No. 14, a 1992 print by Cage from a series of 57.

R. G. Collingwood
–
Robin George Collingwood was an English philosopher, historian, and archaeologist. He is best known for his works including The Principles of Art. Collingwoods mother was also an artist and a talented pianist and he was educated at Rugby School, and at University College, Oxford, where he gained a First in Classical Moderations in 1910 and a congra

1.
Robin George Collingwood

Victor Cousin
–
Victor Cousin was a French philosopher. He was the founder of eclecticism, an influential school of French philosophy that combined elements of German idealism. As the administrator of public instruction for over a decade, Cousin also had an important influence on French educational policy, the son of a watchmaker, he was born in Paris, in the Quar

1.
Le Gray's 1850s Albumen print of Victor Cousin

Benedetto Croce
–
Benedetto Croce was an Italian idealist philosopher, historian and politician. He wrote on topics, including philosophy, history, historiography. He was a liberal, although he opposed laissez-faire free trade and had influence on other Italian intellectuals. He was President of PEN International, the writers association. He was nominated for the No

1.
Benedetto Croce

Gregory Currie
–
Gregory Greg Currie is Professor of Philosophy in the Department of Philosophy at the University of York. Currie was educated at the London School of Economics and the University of California and his first posts were in Australia, at the University of Sydney, and in New Zealand, at the University of Otago. Until September 2013 he was Professor of

1.
Gregory Currie in Tartu (2010)

William C. Dowling
–
He received his Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy from Harvard University, where he administered the Dudley House fellowship program during the Mastership of Jean Mayer. Dowling came to attention in the 1990s through his work with the Rutgers 1000 campaign which fought for the removal of Division I sports from Rutgers. But they give it to an

1.
Dowling in July 2009

John Dewey
–
John Dewey was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. Dewey is one of the figures associated with the philosophy of pragmatism and is considered one of the fathers of functional psychology. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Dewe

1.
John Dewey

2.
Photograph of John Dewey and Hu Shih, from 1938-1942.

3.
John Dewey's USA Stamp

4.
Grave of Dewey and his wife in an alcove on the north side of the Ira Allen Chapel in Burlington, Vermont. The only grave on the University of Vermont campus

Jacques Derrida
–
Jacques Derrida was a French philosopher, born in Algeria. Derrida is best known for developing a form of semiotic analysis known as deconstruction, which he discussed in numerous texts and he is one of the major figures associated with post-structuralism and postmodern philosophy. During his career Derrida published more than 40 books, together wi

1.
Jacques Derrida

Umberto Eco
–
Umberto Eco OMRI was an Italian novelist, literary critic, philosopher, semiotician, and university professor. He is best known internationally for his 1980 novel Il nome della rosa, a historical mystery combining semiotics in fiction with biblical analysis, medieval studies and he later wrote other novels, including Il pendolo di Foucault and Liso

1.
Umberto Eco in 2007

Jonathan Edwards (theologian)
–
Jonathan Edwards was a revivalist preacher, philosopher, and Congregationalist Protestant theologian. Like most of the Puritans, he held to the Reformed theology and his colonial followers later distinguished themselves from other Congregationalists as New Lights, as opposed to Old Lights. Edwards is widely regarded as one of Americas most importan

1.
Jonathan Edwards

2.
Edwards, Jonathan (1737), A Faithful Narrative of the Surprizing Work of God in the Conversion of Many Hundred Souls in Northampton, London

3.
Monument in Enfield, Connecticut commemorating the location where Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God was preached

4.
Edwards, Rev. Jonathan (July 8, 1741), Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, A Sermon Preached at Enfield

Ralph Waldo Emerson
–
Ralph Waldo Emerson was an American essayist, lecturer, and poet who led the transcendentalist movement of the mid-19th century. Emerson gradually moved away from the religious and social beliefs of his contemporaries, following this work, he gave a speech entitled The American Scholar in 1837, which Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. considered to be Ameri

4.
Three Stages of Life. Either/Or discusses the aesthetic and ethical stages or spheres. An ethical person is still capable of aesthetic enjoyment. The size of the spheres are for illustrative purposes only.

4.
Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand. Plato holds his Timaeus and gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms