SUMMARY

Vocabulary skills are among the most important comprehension strategies you can learn.By increasing your vocabulary, you increase your understanding of textbook information. A rich vocabulary:

·allows you access to many types of reading material.

·enhances your academic abilities.

·increases your chances of getting the job of your choice.

Although no one knows the meaning of every word, or interrupts his or her reading to look up every unfamiliar word in a dictionary, using the simple strategies presented in this chapter will help you figure out and remember the meaning of new words. These strategies include:

Accommodation is achieved when we can do the thinking needed to create a new schema or modify an old schema in order to explain a new experience.

Assimilation

Assimilation is achieved when we can integrate new experiences into existing schemas.

Assumption

Assumption is an idea whose truth can be taken for granted.

Assumption Layers

Assumption layers can appear beneath simple assertions. Such layers consist of multiple hidden and unexamined assumptions influenced in turn by one or more value assumptions beneath the whole.

Counter claim

Counter claim is a response to a claim with a defense or with another claim.

Disequilibrium

The confusion and discomfort felt when a new experience cannot be integrated into existing schemas.

Equilibrium

A stable inner feeling of well being that we feel when our thinking enables us to modify or create a new schema that better explains our world.

Hidden Assumption

A hidden assumption is an unclear and unstated idea assumed to be true that is integral to a line of reasoning. In an argument, it is a hidden premise that cannot be examined for truth and validity. Blind acceptance of a hidden premise can lead to the acceptance of a false or invalid conclusion.

Infer

To use imagination and reasoning to fill in missing facts. To connect the dots.

Analogical reasoning draws conclusions on the basis of observed correspondences.

Cause

A perceived source or consequence of an event.

Conclusion of an inductive study

To make a generalization about empirical findings that may or may not confirm the hypothesis tested. It also may not be totally certain.

Either-or Fallacy

This fallacy is an argument that oversimplifies a situation, asserting that there are only two choices when actually there are many.

Extrapolation

This is an inference based on an estimated projection of known information.

False Analogy

This fallacy compares two things that may have some similarities but also significant differences that are ignored for the sake of the argument.

Hasty Generalization

This fallacy is a conclusion based on insufficient evidence.

Hypothesis

Hypothesis is a trial idea, tentative explanation, or theory that can be tested and used to further an investigation.

Inconsistencies and Contradictions

This fallacy makes claims that are contradictory or offers evidence that contradicts the conclusion.

Induction

To reason about all members of a class on the basis of an examination of some members of a class.

Infer

To use imagination and reasoning to fill in missing facts. To connect the dots.

Loaded Question

This fallacy uses a biased question that seeks to obtain a predetermined answer.

Opinion

Opinion is a word used to include an unsupported belief, a supported argument, an expert’s judgment, prevailing public sentiment, and a formal statement by a court.

Pattern

A perceived design or form.

Principal claim and reasons

These are the two parts of an argument. The principal claim is the thesis or conclusion. The reasons support this claim through evidence or other claims. A claim is an assertion about something.

Questionable Statistic

This fallacy backs up an argument with statistics that are either unknowable or unsound.

Reasoning through enumeration

This is reasoning through counting. Reasoning draws conclusions or inferences from facts or premises.

Reasoning through Statistics and Probability

This occurs in inductive reasoning. Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, and interpreting numerical data. Probability in statistics estimates the ratio of the number of actual occurrences of a specific event to the total number of possible occurrences.

Reasoning with hypotheses

To conceive a trial idea and use it to implement an investigation.

Slippery Slope

This fallacy is an unwarranted claim that permitting one event to occur will lead to an inevitable and uncontrollable chain reaction.

The empirical or scientific method

The empirical or scientific method is based on observation and experiment.

A valid deductive argument is one in which the conclusion is correctly inferred from the premises. An argument is sound when the conclusion cannot be false because the premises are true and the reasoning is valid.

Creative thinking

Creative thinking leads to the invention of something new. It makes use of imagination, challenges assumptions, and engages in problem solving.

Observation -- Five Senses

Five Senses. What do you see? What objects, plants, or animals are in the place? What colors do you see? What do you hear? What would a hidden microphone record in the place you're describing? What does the air smell like? Is it annoying? pleasant? What does it remind you of? Where does the smell come from -- are there blooming flowers? cooking food? cans of oil? What do you taste? Are you touching anything? (Skip any questions that don't make sense for the place you're describing.)

Different Angles. Consider the object you're describing from different angles. What does the object look like from the top? What if you were underneath the object? What would you see or notice if you were looking at the object from the right side? What does it look like from the left side? Make the object the Earth. You become the moon, and orbit the object. What do you notice as you travel around it?

Focus on the Iceberg. Only one-eighth of an iceberg is above the surface of the water. The majority of the iceberg is underwater, yet most people think only about the part that appears above the surface. There are two options for you to consider: choose the one that fits your object best. (1) Look only at the top eighth or so of the object. If you saw only the upper eighth, if the rest were submerged, what would you think about the object? What would you see? What would you make of the part that you couldn't see? (2) Think about your object creatively. What you see, there on the surface, is the proverbial tip of the iceberg. What is hidden below the surface? What might you think of the object based only on the surface appearance, and what is the significance of the parts of the object that cannot be seen?

Tiny Ants. When you're in a tall building looking down at the ground, the people and objects moving around can look like tiny ants. Take a bird's-eye view of your object. Put it in the world of tiny ants. From far above, what would you see? What would seem important? What features would be noticeable?

Technicalities. Write an technical description of your object. Look at the object as you might to describe it for a legal document or in a scientific report. Focus on the known facts, rather than opinions or impressions that you have of the object. Focus on an objective view.

Create a cartoon version. The cartoon world is a bit different from the real world. If your object were in a cartoon world, what parts would be exaggerated for comic effect? What parts would probably be omitted from the cartoon drawing? What cartoon would the object probably appear in? How does thinking of your object as a cartoon influence what you see?

Different days. How does the object or place change from one day to the next? Is it different on weekends? Take me through a week in the life of the object. If you were to peek in on it every day, what would change? What would stay the same?

Longshot. Pretend it's twenty years in the future. Take a look at your object or place. What do you notice? How would you describe it twenty years from now? What characteristics would remain the same? What would change? What would you see? hear? smell? How could you tell that time had passed by just by looking at the object or place?

15 Minutes of Fame. According to Andy Warhol, everyone has 15 minutes of fame. What would your object's or place's 15 minutes be? Describe your object in a way that highlights the features that place it in the limelight. Add details that help me understand how your object or place gained its 15 minutes.

Opposites. You can learn a great deal about an object or place by defining the things that it is not. Describe the things that your object or place is not. What features and characteristics would never apply to it? How are these characteristics and features important? Why is their absence important?

7.1.10

·Knowledge Level – factual data, main ideas, sequence of events, directions (Although it’s the most basic level, it’s just as important as all the other levels. It provides the who, what, where, and when information.)

TFY Chapter Twelve Deductive Reasoning
This chapter explains the fundamental standards that govern deductive reasoning. It offers a basic vocabulary of logic and explains how deduction and induction interplay in our thinking. Discussion with multiple exercises will show you the meaning and significance of such terms as syllogism, premises and conclusion, validity and soundness. A writing application asks you to write a deductive argument based on a wise saying. Final reading selections by Thomas Jefferson and Martin Luther King demonstrate skilled deductive reasoning of enduring persuasiveness. LinksStudent Map

TFY - Chapter 12 Deductive Reasoning Student Summary

“TFY” Chapter 12 – Deductive Reasoning Summary

This chapter was all about deductive reasoning and the logic behind it. The chapter also compared deductive reasoning with inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning usually starts with a general principle and then applies it to a specific instance. While inductive reasoning usually starts with a more specific instance and then pulls it into a more general principle.

The logic behind the deduction is a science of good reasoning, both inductive and deductive. I learned in this chapter there are some key terms I must understand in order to understand the basics of logic. The terms I need to understand are: argument, reasoning, syllogism, premise (major and minor), conclusion, validity, and soundness.

From previous chapters, and this one, I learned that an argument can be both inductive and deductive and can be valid even if the premises are not true. I previously also learned that reasoning is drawn from facts, which will lead you to conclusions, judgments, or inferences about whatever topic you are discussing or reading about.

Conclusion, validity and soundness are also some terms that I have already known the meaning behind. Your conclusion is a way to summarize your main point or what you are trying to get across or get action on. Validity and soundness both have to do with the truth behind your argument, reasoning, and premise. Premise was also a word that was previously discussed in another chapter, but in this chapter we learned that a major premise is more of a generalization, while a minor premise is more specific. The new key term to me in this chapter is syllogism. I have learned that this term clarifies the claims or premises, helps you to discover and expose hidden premises, and helps to find out if one thought follows another thought logically.

“TFY” Chapter 12 – Deductive Reasoning Exercise

Discovery Exercise – Page 348 – What is Deductive Reasoning?
Using at least two dictionaries, look up the terms deduction, deductive logic, and reasoning. Then write out in your own words a definition of deductive reasoning.

Deduction:
1. Noun – the act or process of deducting; subtraction (dictionary.com)
2. Noun – that which is deducted; that which is subtracted or removed (wiktionary.com)

Deductive logic:
1. Noun – a process of reasoning in which a conclusion follows necessary from the premises presented, so that the conclusion cannot be false if the premises are true. (dictionary.com)
2. Noun – a process of reasoning that moves from the general to the specific, in which a conclusion follows necessarily from the premises presented, so that the conclusion cannot be false if the premises are true. (wiktionary.com)

Deductive reasoning:
1. Noun – reasoning from the general to the particular (or from cause to effect) (dictionary.com)
2. Noun – inference in which the conclusion is just as certain as the premises (wiktionary.com)

My definition of deductive reasoning: reasoning that goes from a more general topic into the details of that topic.

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CRCB - Chapter 12 - Identifying and Evaluating Arguments Exercise

“CRCB” Chapter 12 - Identifying and Evaluating Arguments Exercise

Exercise 12a - Engaging in Argument - Page 395-397:Read the following version of the fairy tale Cinderella and decide whether the statements that follow it are true, false, or questionable. Provide a reason for each of your answers. For the purpose of this exercise, accept each sentence of the fairy tale as fact and forget about the common version of it. Think about what information each sentence conveys before making judgments about the statements that follow. Afterward you will share your responses with other members of your class. Some will agree with you and some will disagree, and you will see how a harmless fairy tale can turn into an argument.

Cinderella of the 21st Century
Cinderella’s stepmother and stepsisters disliked her. They bought themselves beautiful clothes and gifts and went to all of the important social events, but Cinderella wore rags and had to stay home. On the night of the Prince’s Ball, the stepmother and stepsisters wore beautiful gowns and jewels, and they left Cinderella at home to clean the fireplace. But Cinderella’s fairy godmother appeared and turned Cinderella’s rags into a beautiful gown. Then the fairy godmother, whose powers were granted to her for all eternity, found a pumpkin and turned it into a gold-plated automobile; she turned a mouse into a chauffer; and Cinderella rode to the Prince’s Ball in grand style.

CRCB - Chapter 12 - Identifying and Evaluating Arguments Summary

“CRCB” Chapter 12 - Identifying and Evaluating Arguments Summary

In this chapter I learned that you need to analyze and evaluate an argument. You need to look at the argument in more detail. You need to pin point the reasons and the conclusion. I also learned there are two main types of arguments. There are deductive and inductive arguments. Deductive arguments begin with a general statement and then show the supporting details. An inductive argument begins with a series of observations and then concludes with a generalization that was logically pulled from the observations. Inductive arguments are mostly what type of arguments occur in our every day lives.You need to determine dependability by asking questions like, who wrote what you are reading, is the source reliable, when was the article published, and what is the author’s credentials? You also need to distinguish fact from opinion and detect fallacies. I learned there are several types of fallacies to look out for. These types of fallacies are: either/ or thinking, hasty generalization or overgeneralization, red herring, false cause, slippery slope, ad hominem, and circular reasoning. All of these fallacies can lead to error in the reasoning of an argument. They can cause you to limit your answers to a problem, have too weak of supporting reason to too broad of a conclusion. They can cause or consist of author assumption, reader distraction or exclude the proper reasoning. Reading this chapter was interesting to me. I feel that I learned some helpful tips on how to evaluate arguments. Especially some ways that an author of an article would try to “trick” me into believing what they want without properly making up my own mind.