THEORY OF PRODUCTION

Production theory deals with physical relationship i.e. technical & Technological relations between input & between Output & inputs. PRODUCTION  Means a process by which a commodity or commodities are transformed into a different usable commodity. INPUT OUTPUT (Called manufacturing) Services like transport, legal, medical consultancy, storage for future use, wholesaling, retailing are also productive activities. INPUT & OUTPUT INPUT Inputs are of two types 1. Fixed 2. Variable 1. Fixed whose supply is inelastic in short run. All its users can’t employ more of it in short run. E.g. plant, machinery, building. 2. Variable factors Whose supply in short run is elastic e.g. labour & raw material OUTPUT Goods & services that comes out of production process. SHORT RUN & LONG RUN SHORT RUN Supply of certain inputs is fixed production can be increased by increase in use of variable inputs. LONG RUN Supply of all inputs is elastic but not enough to permit a change in technology. PRODUCTION FUNCTION Production function is a tool of analysis used to explain the relationship between input & output. It describes the technological relationship between input & output. It tells that production depends on certain ships. It can be in the form of specific inputs.  Schedule  Table  Graphed line  Curve  An algebra aqua  Mathematical model Classification of input by economist  Land  Labor  Capital  Raw material  Time  Space E.g. a = f (K, L) K = Capital L = Labor

Assumptions
(i) (ii) Perfect divisibility of both inputs & outputs. Limited substitution of one factor for the other.

(iii) (iv)

Constrict technology Inelastic supply of fixed factors in the short-term. Laws of Production

Laws of variable proportions

laws of returns to scale (long-run)

Law of Returns to variable proportions of fixed factors Law of Diminishing Returns (or variable proportion) Relationship between varying factor proportions & output when more & more units of a variable input are applied to a given quantity of fixed inputs the total output may initially increase at an increasing rate & then at a constant rate but it will eventually increase at diminishing rates. I.e. the marginal increase in the total output eventually decreases when additional units of variable factors are applied to a given quantity. Here we take K (capital) as constant & Labor (L) as variable Q = f (L) MPL= TPN – TPN-1(first derivative of the Production Function)

Total Output TP(Total Production)

Labour

Marginal & Average Prod. APL

Labour MPL In stage I The first increases MPL also increase TPL continues to increase but at diminishing rate.

In stage II I.e. after 5th worker. TPL is max at the employment of 10th worker beyond this level of output TPL decreases in stage III. Factors Behind the Laws of Returns Stage I – Law of increasing returns is an operation. Stage II – Law of diminishing returns is in application. Factors Indivisibility of fixed factor (capital) - (Results in under utilization of capital of labor are less than its optimum number). If less than 6 workers is underutilizing of K. - (Increase in labor productivity is that employment of additional workers leads to advantages of division of labor until optimum capital labor combination is reached because of specialization of labor) Once optimum capital labor rate is reached employment of additional workers will amount to substitution of capital with labor. But there is a limit to which one input can be substituted for another i.e. elasticity of substitution between input is not in fete. Also difficult to assign specialized task & return of firm must operate Assumptions excessive - Technology remains unchanged - Input prices. - Variable factors are homogenous Application of the Law of Diminishing Returns.  Empirical Law is not applied universally  Technology remains fixed effect of an additional input when technology changes can’t be explained.  Is all input are increase in all input  How much to produce  What no. Of workers to apply to a given fixed input. Marginal Revenue Productivity & Labor Employment Equip-marginal Principal – Marginal revenue productivity of labor equals the marginal wags rate. The marginal revenue productivity is the value of product resulting from the marginal unit of variable input (labor). MRP = MPP x P (Marginal revenue Product) (Marginal Physical Productivity) x (Price) When MRP = wage rate tells the no. of labor to be employed. Profit is max when MR = MC

P1 W MRP & MW

P

AW=MW

N At point P, the no. of worker = ON should be employed. Total output = ON x APC (Average Labor Productivity)

MRP

Long Term Laws of Production In the long-run supply of both. The input is supposed to be elastic & firms can hire. Larger quantities of both labor & capital. Laws of returns to scale are explained through production function & curves. Iso-quant curve (Greek word) Equal quantity also known as “Equal product curve” or “Production indifference curve”. An asquint curve is focus of points representing various combinations of two inputs – capital & labor yielding the same output. Indifference curve 2 consumer good Measures utility Iso-quant 2 reducer goods measures output.

K4 K3 K2 K1

A B C D

Ok4 + OL1 = 100 Ok3 + OL2 = 100

IQ2 E IQ1=100 L1 L2 L3 L4

Substitution of one factor for other leaves the unaffected. I.e. substitution of labor for capital such that all quantity of commodity i.e. IQ = 100 Properties of Iso-quant - Negative slope in the economic region (region in which substitution between inputs is technology possible). It indicates substitution is possible i.e. if one is ↓ the other has to be ↑ to keep output. - Convex to origin – implies not only the substitution between the inputs but also that marginal rate of technical substitution (MRTS) is the economic region. MRTS = ΔK = Slope of iso-quant. ΔL

Can’t intersect or be tangent to each other – intersection means that a given quantity of a commodity can be produced with a smaller as well as a larger inputcombination, which is not possible until Marginal productive greater than Zero. Upper iso-quant Represent higher level of output

Cost function & cost output Relations Let the cost Function TC = a + bQ – CQ2 + dQ3 A = fixed cost B, c, d, = variable cost parameters. TFC remain fined for the whole range of output & hence takes the form of horizontal line TFC. The TVC curve shows that the total variable cost first increases at decreasing rate & then at an increasing rate. The slope of curve gives the rate of increase. The pattern of TVC is because law of increasing & dominating returns to the variable inputs. TC TVC

AFC Output Short Run Cost Curves Marginal cost (MC) MC = δTC δQ δTC = 6 – 1.8Q + 0.15Q2 δQ MC = TCM – TCn-1 Critical value of Q in respect of MC is 6 or 7. Curve & the laws of diminishing returns, If more & more units of a variable input are applied to the given amount of a fined input the marginal cost initially decrease but eventually increases. Both AFC & AVC are declining because of internal economies. AC = AFC = AVC AC is also declining If operation of output AFC continues to fell AVC starts increasing because of fast increase in the TVC. Rate of fall in AC decreases. The AC reaches its min. when output increases to 10 units. Beyond this level AC Starts increasing which show that the law of diminishing returns comes in operation. Downward trued in the MC shows increasing marginal productivity of the variable input due mainly to internal economy resulting form increase in productive. Upward trend in MC shows increase in TVC & decreasing marginal productive of the variable inputs. Important Cost Relationships - As long as AFC & AVC fall, AC also falls

When AFC falls but AVC increases change in AC depends on the rate of change in AFC. If decrees in AFC > increase in AVC, AC↓ If decrees in AFC = ↑ in AVC AC = If decrees in AFC < ↑ in AVC AC↑ - When MC is ↓ rate of fall in MC is > then that AC. MC is attributed to a single marginal unite while in case of AC. The decreasing MC is distributed over all the enter output. - MC ↑ AC at a lower rate when MC ↑ it increase at a relatively lower rate which is sufficient only for reduce the rate of decrease to of AC & not sufficient to push the AC ↑. AC continues to ↓ even if MC ↑. - MC intersects AC at its min point at this point AC is const AC = MC Break-even Analysis TR-TC PV Ratio = S-V x 100 S BEP (SALE VALUE) = Fixed expenses Contribution per unit Margin of Safety = Profit x Sales PV Ratio Margin of safety = Profit PV Ratio Margin of safety Sa-Sb x 100 Sa (Represents the diff between the sales at break-even point & the total actual sales) Sa = Actual Sales Sb = Sales of BEP =

-

Optimum output in short-run Optimum level of output is one, which can be produced at a minimum average cost, given the technology. The minimum level of AC is determined by the point of inter section between AC & MC curves. At this level output AC = MC. Production below or beyond this level will be in optional. It production is less than 10 it will leave some scope for reducing AC by producing more, because MC < AC. If production is > then AC can be reduces by reducing output. Optimum level of output is not occasional the max-profit output. Long Run Cost – Output Relations In long run supply of all the inputs become elastic. Long run cost output relations therefore implies the relationship between the changing scale of the firm & the total output. Long run curves are composed of a service of short run cost curves. Long Run Total Cost Curve (LTC) LTC can be draw through min points of STG, STG2 & STG3.

STC2 STC3 LTC STC1 Total Cost

O1

O2

O3

Long-Run Average Cost Curve (LAC) There is one AC associated with each “STC”. Firm has a service of SAC curves, each having a bottom point showing the min. SAC. For instance C, Q is the min AC when the firm has only one plant. AC ↓ to C2 Q2 when second point is added & then ↑ to C3Q3 after inclusion of third plant. LAC curve is also known as “Envelope curve” or “Planning Curve”. It serves as a guide to plan the expansion of production.

SAC1 Total Cost SAC2

SAC3 LAC

O1 O2 O3 With subsequent increase in the output LTC first↑ at a decreasing rate. Then at increasing rate. As a result LAC initially decreases until optimum ultimately of second plant & then it begins to ↑. When the scale of firm expands unit cost of production initially ↓. But ultimately ↑ The decrease in unit cost is attributers so the internal & external economies & ↑ to internal & external diseconomies. Long-run marginal Cost Curve. If we draw from point A, B & C to the x-axis, the corresponding output levels will be QQ, QQ2, & QQ3. The AQ1 intersect the SMC BQ2, LMC is MQ. If output ↑ to OQ2, LMC ↑ BQ2. Similarly CQ3 measures the LMC at output OQ3. LMC must be equal to SMC for the output at which the corresponding SAC is tangent to the LAC. At the point of tangent LAC = SAC. For all other levels of output SAC>LAC. For all level of output corresponding to LAC = SAC LMC = SMC.

For all other level of output LMC is either > or < then SMC. LMC intersects LAC. When LAC is at its minimum i.e. point B. There is one & only one short run plant sign whose min SAC coincides with the min LAC. SAC2 = SMC2 = LAC = LMC at point B. Optimum plant size & long-run cost corves. Long-run cost curves helps in deciding the optimum size of the firm. Optimum size is on which ensure the most efficient utilization of resources. For a state of technology there is a using size of the firm & of output associated with the least lost concept. Optimum size consists of 2 plants, which produce OQ2 units of a product at min LAC of BQ2. The downtrend in LAC indicates that until output reaches the level of OQ, the firm is of nonoptimal site. Technology should be such which gives min. LAC where SMC = LAC = LMC

SMC1 SAC1 Cost A B

SMC2 LAC SAC2 C

Q1

Q2 Output Break Even Analysis

Q3

Break-even analysis or (profit contribution analysis) is an important analytical technique used to study the relationship between the total cost, total revenue, & total profits & losses over the whole range of stipulated output. It is the point where cost & revenue break even i.e. the profitable & non-profitable range of production or TR = TC. BEP as linear cost & revenue functions Let TFC = 100 & TVC = Rs.10/unit Than short run cost function. TC = 100 + 10Q & Let price of firm’s product = Rs.15 TR = 15Q.

TR PROFIT TR>TC BEP TR=TC

TC

TVC Cost / Revenue LOSS TC>TR TFC B

Quantity ΔQ = 1 ΔVC 10 TC is vertical summation of TFC & TVC. TR intersects the TC at point B where Q = 20 at this point TC breaks even with TR. Breakeven output TR = TC 15Q = 100 + 10Q Q = 20 Limitations – In real life cost & revenue fune are not linear; there can’t be single point as BEP. In reality functions may be non-linear. So that (To May increase at an increasing rate while the (TR) increases at decreasing rate. There can be 2 BEPS, which determine the upper & lower limits of profitable output. Non-liner Cost & Revenue functions

Q OUTPUT Contribution analysis is the analysis of incremental revenue & incremental cost of a business decisions or business activity. Contribution is the difference between total revenue & variable cost TR – TVC = Contribution Below the output OQ, the total contribute is less than finale cost which amounts to loss. Beyond OQ contribution exceeds fixed cost difference is a contribution towards project. Contribution over the time personal indicates the commandment that the mgt. Has made for fixed expenditure & do show when it will be recovered & profit will begin to emerge. Contribution Line

Profit Line Profit BEP Sales Fixed Cost Profit Volume Analysis Use of BEP Limitations Sales volume to earn a given amount of return on capital. Profit can be forecasted Effect of change in vol. of sale, sales price, cost of product can be appraised. Choice of products or process can be made. Impact of increase or decreases in fixed & variable cost. Effect of high FC & LVC on the total cost Inter-firm comparisons of profitability. Cash BEP helps in planning of cash requirements. Emphasis for achieving economy. Angle of incident & margin safety also helps. Can be applied to only single product system. It can’t usefully apply if cost & price data can’t be ascertains before hand & where historical data are not relevant for estimate future cost & price.

MARKET STRUCTORE AND PRICING THEORY Market – system in which buyers & seller bargain for price. The number of seller of product in a market determines the nature & degree of competition in the market. The nature degree of competition makes the structure of the market. Different types of market structures - Perfect or pure competition – large number of sellers selling a homogenous product. - Monopoly – A single seller of product without a close substitute. - Monopoly Competition – A fairly large number of sellers selling different products.

-

Oligopoly - A small number of big seller selling the same product (e.g. petroleum) or differentiated products. Bilateral Monopoly – A small number of buyers competing against a small number of sellers.

Pricing under perfect competitor  Large number of seller & buyers – No single seller cannot affect the market prices by changing his supply nor can a single buyer by changing his demand.  Monogenetic of Products – Buyers do not distinguish between then nor do they prefer the product of one firm to that of another, no firm gains competitive advantage.  Perfect mobility of factors of production – in or out an industry & from one firm to another.  Frie entry & free exit of forms – no restriction legal.  Perfect knowledge – perfect buyers & sellers are fully aware of nature of produce its availability sale ability & price.  Absence of collusion or artificial restraint – collusion like sellers car lets or guilds buyers. E.g. of perfect competition share market, security bound & agriculture market. Price Determination – Price is determined by the market forces – market demand & market supply. Market Demand – Sum of the quantity demanded by each individual from at different prices. Market Supply – It is the sum of quantity supplied by the individual firms in the industry. Seller in a perfectly competitive market is “price taker” not a ‘Price Maker”. For a Profit maximizing the main problems is to adjust its output to the market price. So that profit is maximum. Mode of price determination (Price & its variation) depends on the time taken by supply position to adjust itself to the changing demand condition. Pricing in Market Period (very short run) In a market period the total output of a product is fixed. Stock is fixed; the supply curve is perfectly in elastic. Price is determined solely by the demand conditions supply is an inactive agent. S

P M D2 D1 Q Equilibrium point is the point of intersection between demand & supply curves. If demand increases than rent rises from; this place is paring miters for all the buyers. E.g. daily fish markets stock markets daily mill market, coffin market etc. during natural calamity essential mediums during epidemics. Pricing in the short run Short run in which firms can neither do not change their size, nor quit, now can new firms enter the industry. Supply can be increased cord creased by increasing cor-decreasing the variable inputs. Supply curve is elastic

D D’

S MC

P P1 D P2 P’ P2 D’ Q’ Q Output MC M P1

AC AR=MR AVC AR’=MR’

AC E P1 T E’ P2 N AVC AR’=MR’ AR=MR

M1 M Given the price PQ [=OP1] an individual form can produce & sell any quantity at this price. The firms must adjust their output to the price PQ as per their cost curves in order to maximize their profit. Profit is max when MR = MC as price is fixed AR = PQ At point E MR = MC. Total Max. Profit is shown by area P1 TNE. Profit = (AR –AC) Q AR = EM, AC = NM & Q = OM Profit = (EM – NM) OM = P1TNE EM – NM = EN Profit = EN EN is the max. Super normal profit at given & cost curves. Firms may make losses in the short run. It market price decreases to P1Q1 due to downward shift in the demand curve to D’D’ then equilibrium point will be E’ where AR’ – MR’ – MC but AR’ < AC. - Firm increase loss But since in short run it may not be desirable to close down the production. - The firm minimizes its losses by adjusting its output where it covers its MC. The firm service in the short run so long it covers it MC.

No firm is large enough to influence the price friend fixes lower prices it incur loss & if higher prices than sale is less. - Firm must-adjust their output to new market price. Pricing in the long run. In the long him the firm can adjust their size or quite the market & new firms care enter. If AR > AC firm make economic or super normal profit; supply curve shifts rich toward because new firms get attracted toward the industry causing decrease in price. AR < AL than marginal firms quit the industry causing a leftward shift in supply curve causing an increase in price. This process continues until price is so determined that AR = AC & firms earn only normal profit. D S1 S SMC LMC S2 SAC LMC

D’ LMC SMC P1 P0 P2 SAC LAC AR’=MR’ AR=MR AR’’=MR’’

Q2QQ1 Pricing under pure Monopoly Pure monopoly – signifies an absolute power to produce & sell a product, which has no close substitute. I.e. cross elasticity is either zero or negative. Monopoly industry is a single firm industry. Firm &industry are identical in a monopoly market. Equilibrium of the firm is the monopoly of the industry. The monopoly product has district physical properties recognized by its buyers & distinctness lasts over many years. Causes & kinds of Monopoly (i) Legal restriction & barriers to entry of new firms (ii) Sole control over the supply of scare & key raw material. (iii) Efficiency & economics of scale. (Natural monopoly emerge out of technological conditions of efficiency) Public utility sector (Postal, telephone service) franchise monopoly. Pricing & output secession

Q1 Q2 MR Output The total monopoly profit has been LP2SC. The monopolist produces a larger output & changes a lower price & makes a larger monopoly profit in the long run. Short run equilibrium price P1Q1 equilibrium price P2Q2. If there are barriers to entry the monopoly firm may not reach the optimal scale of production (OQ2) in the run, nor it may make full utilization of its easting capacity. Price discrimination under Monopoly. When consumers are discriminated on the basis of these factors in regard to price charged from them it is called price discrimination” e.g. doctors, lawyers, movie, cinema show, railways, & airways, electricity rates for commercial & lower. Necessary conditions for price discrimination - Different markets must be separable. - Elasticity of demand must be different in different market. - There must be imperfect competition in the market. Degree of price discrimination First degree – When a seller is in a position to know the price each customer is willing to pay, he sets the price accordingly & tries to extract the whole consumer surplus. He sets the price at its highest level – level at which all those who are willing to by the commodity buy at least one unit each. After extruding the surplus of this section of conducer he gradually lowers down the price. So that surplus of the second unit is extracted & the procedure continues until a surplus available at a price where MC = MR. Second degree In large sized market second degree price discrimination or block pricing method is used. D A P3 Price P2 B P1 D1 Q1 Q2 Q3 Output The marketer siphon off only the major part of the consumer’s surplus. He divided his potential buyers in blocks rich middle & poor. Highest to rich & SOON (a) No. of consumer is large (b) Price rationing can be done. (c) Single rate is applicable for a large no. of buyers. (d) Demand curve for the entire consumer is identical. Third degree – Different prices in different markets having different elastic ties. In each market. MC & MR in each market is equaled & price in each market is fixed accordingly. Price-quantity combination that can maximize his profit in each market is chosen. B

Market A

Market B

Total Market

B A S D MRa Q It is profitable in two or more markets separated from each other by geographical distance, transport barriers or cost of transportation, legal restriction on the inter – regional or inter state transportation of commodities. Measure of Monopoly Power. - No. of firms criterion - Concentration Ratio Pricing Under Monopolistic competition Monopolistic competition is defined as market setting in which a large no. of sellers sell differentiated product. - Large number of sellers. - Free entry & free exit. - Perfect factors mobility. - Complete dissemination of market information. - Differentiated products. In monopolist products are differentiated by brand name, trademark, design, color & shape, packaging credit terms. Despite products differentiation each product is a perfect substitute for the revel products. Decisions are not absolutely independent of each other in perfect competition. Short run price & output determination R

SMC P1 P2 N MR Q output The economic profit PM (per unit) exists in the short run because of no possibility of new firms extiring the industry. Rate of profit would not be same for all the firms under monopoly competition because of different in the elasticity of demand. It price is ↑ than more than normal profit. Some firms will have lower profit because of higher long run price & output. AR P SAC

The existence of economic profit attracts new firms, which intensifies the competition on one hand but reduces individual firms share in the total supply. LMC LAC Revenue/Cost

AR MR Output At the stage where AR = /AC. At equilibrium point the existing firms step their expansion & new firms ease to enter the industry. At OQ Quantity & PQ Price all firms earn normal profit as PQ = /AC When all the firms reach their equilibrium point there will be no tendency of new firms entering or old firms of new firms entering or old firms quality the industry. Price Determination under oligopoly Oligopoly is a reduced form of monopolist competition. It is competition a man few big seller, each selling either differentiate or homogenous products. Few – the number is so small that market share of each firm is so large that it can influence the market price. Automobile industry is an outstanding e.g. differentiated oligopolies. Oligopoly Homogenous (Homogenous Product) e.g. cooking gas, cement, baby food, vegetable oils, cable wire, dry batteries etc. Heterogeneous (or pure) (Differentiated Products e.g. automobile, Cigarettes, Refrigerators & TV etc.

Interdependence & inter determinateness of price Due to fewness of their number oligopolies are in keen competition with each other. The competition between them takes the form of action reaction & counteraction in the absence of collusion between competing firms. In this kind of a market firm’s business decision become independent. The competition between oligopolies generally takes 3 forms. - Free competition in which oligopolies wage price war against each other fight tooth & mail which ultimately takes the form of non-price competition. (Kind demand curve analysis) When competition is among unequal the larger firms plays the row of pricemaker & smaller ones become the price-taker. - Collusion between firms under cartel system of price agreement. (Collusion models) (Different models form book)

Price leadership Price leadership is an informal position of a firm in roast oligopolsta industries, Economics of scale or form’s ability so forecast market conditions accurately or a combination of these factors. Typical case played by the dominant form the largest form in the industry the dominant from the largest form in the industry, the dominant form takes lead in making price changes $ the smaller ones follow. In the barometric price leadership one of the firms not necessarily the dominant one takes lead in announcing change in price, particularly when such a change is due fat is not effected due to uncertainty in the market. Such price leadership exist only → number of forms is small → entry to the industry is restudies → Products are, by large homogenous. → demand for industry is inelastic $ has very low elasticity → forms have almost someday cost curves. Collusion model: the cartel A cartel is an association of business forms formed by an explicit agreement between then. Under cartel agreements “the forms jointly establish a cartel organizations to make price $ output decisions to establish production quotas for each form, $ to supervise the market act vices of the form in the industry. Cartel are formed with a view to (1) Eliminating uncertainly sorrow riding the Market . (2) Restraining competition $ thirdly ensuring monopoly gains to the cartel group. Pricing salaries Cost- pals pricing or Mark –up pricing p=AVC+AVC (m) AVC (m) =gross profit margin (GPM) Mark-Up pricing P=AVC+ AVC (m) = AVC (1+m) MC =MR (profit max) MR = P (1 -1/e) Pricing new product Skimming Penetration

d1 MR To begin with, let us suppose that market demand curve for a product is given by dd, curve & that the initial price is fired at PQ. Now let one firm change its price if rival firms react in manner (i) I.e. they react with ↑ for ↑ & ↓ for ↓ the price changing firm will move along the demand curve dd. & it rival firms do not follow the price changes, then the price changing firm will move along the demand curve DD’. Dd’ based on (i) is lost elastic than DD’ based on reaction (ii) Now let us suppose the firms behave like (iii) which is more realistic; now let firm ↑ its price rival firms will not follow; demand for its product decreases considerably indicating a greater elasticity. The firm is therefore forced down form Demand curve dp to DP. Thus the relevant segment of demand curve for it is DP. Now suppose alternatively the firm’s ↓ its price. The rival firms ↓ their price otherwise they would lose their customers. This prevents the firm to gain felt advantage of price cut along the demand curve below paint P rotates down. Thus the relevant segment of demand curve for the oligopolies is Pd’. The two relevant segment of the demand curve relevant demand curve DPd’ which has “kind at point Po’. Now let us draw MR curves. MR curve drawn on the basic take the shake a discontinuous curves DJKh. Dj Correspond DP.

Kl Correspond Pd’. Now let draw MC curves original is MC’ intersecting MR at K since at output OQ MR = MC, the firm makes max. Profit now even if MC shift to MC2 or any level between J & K, the firms profit is not affected. Output & price both are stable. PRICE LEADER SHIP MC2

Production involves the greatest bulk of the companies employees bulk of the companies employees & is responsible for a large portion of firm’s assets  It has a major impact on the quality of the goods & cost of production.  It is the central fun of an org. or we can safe production as the heart of any org.

Objectives of production mgt. Main objectives of any firm is to Increase profitability by  Higher efficiency  Higher Productivity  Improving quality  Give customers more confidence Achieved by  Optimal use of resources  Use of manpower, machines or machining wastage of materials.  Ensuring quality of goods at manual cost through use of SQC.

 Constituting toward all round productivity through decision-making QT/OQ techniques. Scope of Production Mgt. (1) Activities relating to designing or formulation of the production system. (2) Activities relating to analyzing & controlling of production operate after the prod. System has been activates. Activities To Produce System Designing Location Plans Plant layout Design of Tool & Drawing Designing Development Selection of the Overall plan Selection & Operation of Size of firm

Materials Handling Handling System

Activities relating to analysis & control of production

Production Planning Production Control Control on inventory Such as raw materials Purchased parts Finished goods etc. Control of quality through process control

Control on work in process

Decision Making in Prod. Mgt. Determines how firm’s resources can most effectively be utilized. POM Strategic (decision have tactical (can be implemented in one Implication of long duration year or less) Over one year Major decisions Human resource Mgt. Location & facility engineering Layout Materials Mgt. Process designing & equipment selection Maintenance Inventory control Product control Quality assurance control Product design Productivity & wastivity

The efficiency with which the inputs are converted into output i.e. effectiveness of outputs & inputs is called productivity of the system. Conceptually productivity is defined as an attitude of mind & prevention of all kinds of waste. Mathematically Productivity = Output Input = Goods or services produce Σ all factors of production Productivity Indices When both input & output are in the same unit productivity reduces to moor number. It can be expressed as % of output to input or OMS – output per man stable or production/month GNP (Gross national product) as per capital income or output per hectare. For incentive schemes Productivity = SMH AMH = Standard Man has earned Actual Man has worked Wastivity – Inverse of Productivity Productivity The measurement of wastage or tool for measuring the efficiency of inputs is called wastivity. Wastes Are

Idling of resources Production of defective goods & Services Excessive Maintenance delays Goods Produced not As per specifications

Higher conversion

Factors for improving productivity Productivity = Output Input Can be increased by ↑ output keeping input const. Or reducing for same output. Or increasing output proportionately higher than increases affected in inputs. Factors contributing to increase of productivity can be summarized as:  Better utilization of resources like men, machines & materials.  Listing efficient & effective methods of working.  Good & systematic plan laid outs.  Proper maintenance policy.  Appropriate technology  Better HRM methods.  Modern HRM methods mgt. By MBO rather than by crises etc. In a manufacturing unite the etc. time allowed for the production of a unit as 5 hrs. If in a particular month 126 units are produced by employing a persons & an allowable delays are found to be 44 members.

ESH = Earned standard hrs. STD Time/unit = 5 hrs. Production = 126 units ESH = 5 x 126 = 630 hrs. AMH = available man hrs. Manpower employed = 4P Monthly working hrs. = 4 x 25 x 8 = 800 hrs. Allowed delays = 44 hrs. AMH = (88-44) = 756 hrs. Productivity = ESH x 100 AMH = 630 x 100 756 = 83.33% Wastivity = 100 – 83.33% = 16.67% Product selection & product development New Techniques Autonomous work teams in which Lean Production systems; workers are Research marketing etc. are given more organized in work teams & parts & tools Freedom & responsibility for the enter are positioned to where they are needed. & development effort; Save huge amount assembly line use more co-ordination of time & money. With customers. Product design directly affects product quality production costs & customer satisfaction; product design is crucial to success. During the designing of products following pts. Are taken into consideration. 1. The detailed ch. Of each product are established. 2. The ch. Of a product directly affect how a product can be produced. 3. How the product is produced determines the design of production system. Ch. Of product How product can be produced Design of prod. System. Product designing Product innovation sources Developing new products Getting new products to market Improving the designed crusting products Designing product for case of prod. Designing products for quality Sources of product innovation

About 5% of all new-product ideas survive to production & only about one in ten of these are successful. It is best to cancel unpromising new-products services development projects early so that human effort development money can be directed toward more promising projects but it is not possible. Getting new products to market aster To succeed in global competition companies must design, develop & introduce products faster. Companies can do it by use of autonomous design & development teams. MNCs like IBM etc. are given decision-making responsibility & more freedom to design & introduce new products. Time ↓ & cost ↓; times do not deal with red tape or bureaucrat or another method is with the use of CAD/CAM. Engineers can store design in database & change as per the requirements. The concepts of simultaneous engineering have significantly compressed the design production & introduction cycle of new products is called concurrent engineering.

Products /service ideas Economic & technical festivity studies.

Product/service Design

Continuous Inebriation

Prod. Process Design

Product & Market New Products / service

Improving the design of crusting products The focus of this effort is to improve performance quality & cost with the objective of maintaining or market share of mattering products e.g. refining of products in order to sure money. Designing for case of production

Design products for case of production is a key way for man factures to be competitive with foreign manufacturers. It includes Specification detailed Description of a material Part of product including Measures such as viscosity Surface finish PH Value etc. Standardization design activity Simplifications that reduces variety among an elimination of group of products or parts. Complex features so standardization leads to reductions that the intended in no of models results in higher funct. Is performed Quality or more customers with reduction cost. Satisfaction. Designing for quality: - quality into the product designer is the first step in producing products of superior quality. Quality is determined by the customer’s perception of the excellence of the ch. Of produce & services. Designing Developing New Services Degree of standardization Of a service degree of customers contact in delivering the service mix of physical & intangible service.

Major factors affecting process design decisions (1) Nature of Product/service demand Productions process must have adequate capacity to produce the volume product services customer wants. (2) Degree of vertical integration Integration with supplier customers less in new org. Now a days outsourcing is the strategy. Production flexibility

Product Flexibility Change from one product to other in custom-design products

Volume flexibility Increase or decrease in production volume flexibility is needed whom demand is subject to ↑ or ↓ & it is a capital-intensive process.

Degree of automation Can reduce cost & time of labor increases product quality & flexibility. Product/service quality Traditionally it was only way to produce products of high quality was to produce products in small quantities by expert craftsmen but mass production is also mass production is quality. Types of process designs Product- focused – describe a form of production processing orgn. in which prod. Departments are organized according to the type of product/service being produced. Also known as production line or continuous production. It tend to follow direct linear trashing precuts / services lend proceed through production without stopping. Continuous path of raw materials components sub assembles follow in the product focused production. Applied to two general form

Describe unit manufacturing District or separate products such as automobiles produced in batches.

Process manufacturing Materials are moved between production operations such as screening grinding etc. common in food, brewing, and chemical industry.

Product focused require Higher initial investment levels because of (1) Use of more expensive, fixed position materials handling equipment such as overhead conveyors. (2) The use of equipment that is specialized lot a particular product such a automatic welding machines product flexibility is now. Advantages lower labor skill require Reduced worker training Reduced supervision Case of planning & controlling prod. Process-focused describe a form of prod. In which prod. Operations are grouped according to type of process also referred as intermittent production on a start & stop basic or also known as job shops; products move form dept. to dept. in batches that are usually determined by customer’s orders. Zig-hag type routes with Job X 1 2 3 6 6

Job Y

1 2

4

5 3

5 7

8

4

Job spend the large majority of line in waiting used to hospitals, automobile repair etc. Adv. Less initial investment Less expensive Mobile material handling equipment Disadv. More supervision More skilled & trained employee Complex prod. Planning &control Group technology / cellular manufacturing GT code to each product (1) It is easier to determine how to route parts through production (2) Number of part designs can be reduced. (3) Parts with

Production planning & control Production planning – It is concerned with the planning of various input (Men, Machines, Materials etc.) for a given period of time so that the customers could get right quality of products at right place, period & in time. Planning

Long strategic

Medium Aggregate

Short routines

Production control – measures the actual performance of the production units & taking remedies action called for to see that the production is actually in not less than the target or standard set in advance. Main functions of p roduction planning & control. (1) Order preparation (2) Materials planning (3) Routing (4) Scheduling (5) Dispatching (6) Progressing (Control) i.e. collection of data from various manufacturing shops recoding the progress of work & comparing against the plan. (7) Expediting – Chasing intensively the bottle need areas causing delays interruptions in carrying out smooth prod. & taking appropriate action from time to time. Production planning problems in job shop production & continuous (mass products) systems. Problems depend upon the following factors: (a) Product variety & production quantity. For job shop prod – Low quantity product complex consisting of many components each of which must be processed through multiple operation requires detailed scheduling & co-order ting of large member of different components. Mass prod – More or single product in large quantity production impel for large components facility is organized as a product size. For job shop – planning is emphasized For mass prod – controlling is emphasized. Aggregate planning Planning is done at the broadest level. The details of the individual product requirement the detailed scheduling of various resources & other faculties is normally left to the individual at lower level to carry. Various steps involved. (1) Forecasting of resources (normally up to a years time) (2) State of system at the end of last period. (3) For the upcoming period the size of workforce & prod rate. (4) The above decision could leads to herring are firing of personnel thereby expanding or combating the effective capacity of the productive system. (5) Technique of aggregate planning are  Graphical method  Linear decision rule (LDR) OBJECTIVE

(1) Make use of the available facilities & resources to ensure their optimum use. (2) Increases the range of attritions for capacity by fixing the size of work force & production rate. (3) Inventories for work – in progress & finished goods are made during ban demand so as to use the same to melt the peak demand. (4) More time is devoted to produce more from the same machinery capacity though properly employing the sequencing & scheduling technique. Variables studied under the aggregate planning are:  Prod rate  Labor employment  Investment Sub-controlling (if permissible) Strategies involved in aggregate planning (1) Without changing Prod level – during loan demand sale can be ↑ by special discount schemes cutting prices etc. (2) During periods of ↑ method of back logging of orders can be of adopted like it demand on the willingness of the customers. (3) Change in prod level – when demand ↑ the output can be changed by herring workers temper airily production can be increased by keeping workers on overtimes or through special incentive sachems or through special incentive schemes by altering capacity by increase of few equipments machinery by changing the planned plan shut downs. - Demand ↓ changing output by logging of demotating employees or reducing capacity by switching of part machinery. By appropriate inventory level Inventory of furnished good ↑ during period of low demand & it can be used to meet high demand seasonal demand. Sub-contracting Through acquiring part of goods from other manufactured producers rather than making in house. Capacity utilization Common to service industries orgn. Companies, which can’t short products, are services. E.g. April 200 20 Oct 200 20 May 81 27 Nov 176 22 June 210 27 Dec 84 28 July 560 28 Jan 108 27 Aug 805 23 Feb 190 19 Sept. 100 25 March 450 25

MRP Material planning is a technique of determining the requirements of raw materials components, spares etc. required for the manufactured of the product. If the delivery data of the finished products is known in advance the ordering time & quantity of other work in progress can be planned accurately with the help mathematical calculate while doing MRP keep in consideration

 Components sub in assemblies & assemblies are know so that they all can participate for the planning of required materials.  Inventory in hand. MRP Process Customer’s orders for finished goods Master Production schedule Inv. On Hand Product Design & structure Forecast for the finished goods

D racket indicate no. of units required LT = Lead-time. If 100 units of ‘A’ are required to be slipped in 8 weeks. (1) Purpose the bill of materials (2) Find the required of various item at different level. (3) Draw the planned under release Bill of material Item: A Part code

Number Required

Level

B E F C D G H

2 3 3 4 3 5 6

1 2 2 1 1 2 2

A, LT =2

B(2) LT = 1

C(3) LP = 2

D(L)LT=2

E(3) LT=3

F(2) LT=1

G(2) LT=2

H(3) LT=3

K(1) LT=1

I(2) M(3) LT=2 LT=3

N(2) LT=1

O(1) LT=2

P(2) LT=1 100 Units on 12th day.

O(3) LT=2

CPM & PERT 1 a b b & c can occur concur entry. But after a is finished. 1 A must be completed before b.

a a b a

b c d & b must be finished before c & d 1 c d b 2 Dash shows dummy a before either b or c & both must be completed before d. 3 d

1

a

1

c b

a

2

b

a & b must be completed before activity c & b must be completed before d.