The author considers the types of settlements used by the Thracians.
A chronological survey is made of the settlements which existed from the
end of the 2nd millennium BC to the end of the pre-Roman period. The brief
historical-geographic characterization allows to consider the different
types of settlements also in connection with the respective geographic
environment, with the economic characteristics and in accordance with the
stages of the ethnic and social development of the Thracians. The evidence
from the excavations of different archaeological sites - settlements -
reveals the principal features of the different types of settlements in
various parts of ancient Thrace.

Balkan peninsula:

Neolithic villages

Eneolithic villages

Bronze age villages

Thracian and Roman epochs' villages in the eastern Balkan peninsula

DWELLINGSTosho Spiridonov

The dwelling is one of the main elements of the ethnographic characteristics
of the Thracian ethnic community. Due to the almost complete lack of detailed
evidence about the dwellings of the Thracians, their principal characteristic
features have been derived on the basis of archaeological materials and
the scanty data in the works of the ancient authors. The dwelling is studied
in evolution, starting from the Neolithic Age, in order to trace the principal
typological features. The dependence of the main features - agricultural,
stockbreeding, ore-mining, military, etc. - of the economic character of
the settlements is demonstrated along general lines. The changes in the
construction, plan and purpose of its different part, both in functional
terms and with respect to theorganization of the social space in the settlement,
are demonstrated.

ROADSTosho Spiridonov

The text considers the main traces of the routes crossing ancient Thrace
during the different historical periods. Above all, the answer is sought
to the question whether the Thracians had permanent routes, or whether
they used only the principal directions, tracing their roads depending
on the season and on the character of the respective geographic region.
The principal roads, which were later covered with stone pavement during
the Roman period, were formed during the early period in the existence
and development of the Thracians. These are: the main route along the Danube
and Hebros rivers, along the Black Sea coast, along the Aegean coast and
the principal meridional road that started from the Baltic Sea, crossed
the Carpathian Mountains and then the Danube river at Oescus, the Balkan
Range at Sostra and the Rhodope Mountains along the Chernatitsa ridge,
descending via Tsigansko Gradishte to the Aegean coast. At the same time,
there existed numerous secondary local roads. The principal roads were
paved with stones during the Roman period, thus becoming actually the skeleton
of the constant communication network through which the integration of
ancient Thrace in the Roman Empire was assisted.

During the period under consideration, vegetarian food predominated
in Thracian cuisine. Leavened and unleavened bread was used, as well as
porridge made of barley and wheat groats.Other foods were: milk, cheese,
broad beans - mashed and in the form of soup, fresh and dried peas, and
lentil. During the warmer months the food was diversified with fresh vegetables
(dock, sorrel, cabbage, etc.), mushrooms and fruits (apples, peaches, grapes,
etc.). Fresh fish, game and domestic animals were the source of animal
proteins. Meat food was consumed rarely, moreover predominantly in the
cold months, when it was possible to conserve it. The Thracians usually
had two meals per day. There were foods that attributed a special image
to Thracian cuisine: dairy products (yoghurt, butter, cheese, curd), the
drinks and dishes made of millet, consumptions of onion and garlic, use
of wine undiluted with water.

Fabrics and clothing were made at home during the period under consideration.
Outer garments were sewn, using fabrics made of hemp, flax and wool, naturally
or artificially dyed, with woven or embroidered decoration. The way in
which the clothes were worn depended on the season and on the type of work
practiced, with certain regional differences. Women most often wore long
shirts gathered around the necks, or a long-sleeved garment sewn on both
sides and with a slit for the head, both garments being tied at the waist.
The men's costume had at least two varieties: narrow trousers resembling
the modern pantyhose and a short shirt tucked into it, combined with an
outer shirt-like garment, tied at the waist. Over this clothing, cloaks,
fur coats and the characteristic Thracian zeira were used. The costumes
were completed with fibulae, leather or textile bells, various articles
of adornment, etc.

Spread of felts, Kazanluk tomb

Depiction of a female clothing from jug No 155, Rogozen treasure

Male clothing from jug No 159, Rogozen treasure

Male and female clothing from phaleras, Letnica treasure

Male and female clothing from the monument at Adamklisi

Male pants from a German grave (a, after E. Thiel), and from the frescoes
on the late antiquity tomb near Silistra (b)

THE THRACIANS AND THEIR CLOTHING ON ATTIC PAINTED POTTERYMaria Rejo

The Thracians depicted on painted Attic vases are recognized both by
the signs of the mythological tradition, and by their appearance. For instance,
Thracian female slaves often had long loose hair or their hair was cut
very short. The exposed parts of their bodies are tattooed. They are usually
dressed according to Hellenic fashion, but some attributes (short chiton,
leather hat and boots, multicoloured cloak) suggest their ethnic belonging
Thracian men were most often depicted wearing a short tunic, a multicoloured
cloak (zeira), hat and boots. This type of clothing should be considered
only in connection with definite Thracian tribes (i.e., those inhabiting
the lands between the Strymon river and the Black Sea coast), and not for
entire Thrace.

A menad, depicted as a Thracian. Attic crater, V c. BC, Muenchen

A Thracian warrior. Attic jug, V c. BC, Sozopol

Orpheus and the Thracians. Attic crater, V c. BC, Berlin

The decorative elements of the Thracian clothing from the images on
the Attic ceramic, VI-V cc. BC

RITUAL PITS (LATE 2nd- 1st MILLENNIUM BC)Roumyana Georgieva

Ritual pits are discovered in the embankments of the tumuli, below them
and outside the necropolises. The making of the pits belonging to the first
group coincides with the commemoration of the anniversary after the death
of the person buried; these pits were a place from which and through which
the living communicated with the world of the dead. The two other groups
of pits have the significance of altars in sanctuaries, connected with
the fertility cult. Pit sanctuaries and the pits in the tumular embankments
can be associated with the rock niches hewn near to or outside the rock
tombs - both chronologically and in terms of their purpose.

Animal sacrifice was an important element in Thracian burial rites.
The significance of tliese sacrifices should be sought along two lines:
the animals were either intended for food, or they had to accompany the
deceased in his journey to the world beyond. An earlier and relatively
more stable idea was connected with sacrifices in connection with funerary
feasts and the supply of food from the funerary feast to the deceased.
It suggests the existence of beliefs which focused around the notion about
the deceased as a table-companion and host of the funerary feast. Horse
and dog sacrifices point to ideas about their mediating role between the
worlds of the living and of the dead, and their perception as symbols of
power and immortality.

THE FUNERAL (LATE 2nd- 1st MILLENNIUM BC)Roumyana Georgieva

Burial rites occupy an extremely important if not foremost position
in the Thracian system of customs, due to the fact that the dead ranked
higher than the living in ancient Thrace. All rituals performed between
the occurrence of death and the closing of the grave (the closing of the
eyes and jaws of the deceased, bathing, preparation of the body which was
left for three days to lie at stake, mourning, animal sacrifices and burial
feast) were aimed mainly at facilitating the deceased individual to make
his transition to the world beyond. The faith in his supernatural power,
together, with the apprehension or hope that he is capable of influencing
the fate of the living, were among the reasons for the exceptional care
devoted to the dead in Thrace.

COMMEMORATION RITES (LATE 2nd-1st MILLENNIUM BC)Roumyana Georgieva

Different contest, games, horse races and combats were organized immediately
after burials took place in Thrace. This form of worshipping the dead was
practiced by many peoples in the antiquity, and everywhere it was a means
of satisfying the needs of the living to worship the deceased or to bring
him peace. The link with the deceased was not broken with the burial, which
is proved by the numerous visits to the grave, evidenced by the traces
of libations, food sacrifices, fireplaces and pits in the tumular embankments.
In all probability, the Thracians noted the anniversary of the death of
the buried individual and worshipped all dead once a year or at longer
intervals of time.