CiteScore: 3.51ℹ
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Source Normalized Impact per Paper (SNIP): 1.956ℹSource Normalized Impact per Paper (SNIP):2017: 1.956SNIP measures contextual citation impact by weighting citations based on the total number of citations in a subject field.

SCImago Journal Rank (SJR): 3.048ℹSCImago Journal Rank (SJR):2017: 3.048SJR is a prestige metric based on the idea that not all citations are the same. SJR uses a similar algorithm as the Google page rank; it provides a quantitative and a qualitative measure of the journal’s impact.

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Although previous research has identified red as the color of compliance, the current work proposes that this effect of red may not hold under high sensation-seeking propensity conditions. It is argued that the color red has the capability to induce arousal, which in turn has been shown to enhance a person's default tendencies. Further, because high sensation-seekers have a higher tendency to react, the exposure to the color red for these individuals will increase reactance and thereby non-compliant behavior. One field study and two lab experiments provide support for this theorizing. The first experiment, a field study, examines prank-chatting incidences at a child helpline and shows a positive effect of red on such non-compliant behavior. Experiment 2 confirms this finding in a controlled lab setting and shows that when one has a high sensation-seeking propensity, the color red positively affects one's attitude towards non-compliance. The final study illuminates the underlying process and explicates the role of arousal and reactance in the color - non-compliance relationship. Both theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Layperson Abstract

Previous research has shown that the color red, as compared to other colors, leads to the highest level of compliance and induces conformity not only with instructions and warnings but also with social norms. The current work proposes that this widely accepted link between the color red and compliance might not be as universally applicable as suggested by previous research. Specifically, it is argued and demonstrated that exposure to the color red may in fact lead to higher non-compliant behavior under high sensation-seeking propensity conditions. The color red has the capability to induce arousal, which in turn has been shown to enhance a person’s default tendencies. Further, because high sensation-seekers have a higher tendency to react, the arousal induced on exposure to the color red for these individuals increases reactance and thereby non-compliant behavior.

The results from one field study and two lab experiments provided support for this thesis. The first experiment, a field study, examined real prank-chatting incidences at a child helpline and showed a positive effect of the color red on prank-chatting (i.e., non-compliance) behavior. That is, the children who were exposed to the red colored background screen before chatting with a counselor demonstrated higher prank-chatting propensity as compared to the children who were exposed to either white or a blue colored background screen. Experiment 2 confirmed this finding in a controlled lab setting and showed that when one has a high sensation-seeking propensity, the color red positively affects one’s attitude towards non-compliance. The final study examined the role of arousal and reactance in the color – non-compliance relationship. The participants were presented with a public service announcement (PSA) recommending regular use of sunscreen, either on a red or a white background screen and were asked to indicate their inclination and motivation to use sunscreen. It was found that indeed, the color red induced higher arousal that in turn activated reactance for high sensation-seekers. Such reactance then led to higher non-compliance behavior, that is, these participants demonstrated higher negative willingness and motivation to use sunscreen as recommended by the PSA.

This work presents several important and interesting contributions. It demonstrates that the well-accepted effect of the color red on compliant behavior may not always be true and identifies conditions in which red may in fact lead to non-compliant behavior. It also adds to the scant understanding about counterproductive effects of the color red. Finally, the notion that red may induce non-compliance under high sensation-seeking circumstances has potentially important real life implications. Red is often used to signal danger, warn people, and prevent or stop people from engaging in unwanted behavior. Low sensation-seekers, who are less inclined to engage in risky behavior, will typically respond to these signals in the intended direction, that is, avoid the dangerous situation, obey instructions, and refrain from engaging in the unwanted behavior. High sensation-seekers on exposure to red, however, are likely to react and demonstrate higher non-compliance. Hence, the widespread use of the color red to signal danger, warn people, or stop unwanted behavior may actually be counter-effective for high sensation-seekers. Our field study, where those exposed to a red background color (as compared to white or blue) had higher rather than lower levels of prank chatting at a child helpline, exemplifies the counter-effective use of the color red due to limited understanding of its effects on behavior.