The Malabar Coast is sometimes used as an all-encompassing term for the entire Indian coast from the western coast of Konkan to the tip of the subcontinent at Cape Comorin, it is over 525 miles or 845 km long. It spans from the south-western coast of Maharashtra and goes along the coastal region of Goa, through the entire western coast of Karnataka and Kerala and reaches till Kanyakumari. It is flanked by the Arabian Sea on the west and the Western Ghats on the east, the Southern part of this narrow coast is the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests. Climate-wise, the Malabar Coast, especially on its westward-facing mountain slopes, comprises the wettest region of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden Southwest monsoon rains.

Malabar Coast
–
The Malabar Coast is a long and narrow coastline on the south-western shore line of the mainland Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, the term Malabar Coast is also sometimes used to refer to the entire Indian coast from the western

Kadalur Point Lighthouse
–
The Kadalur Point Lighthouse is situated in Kadalur, near Koyilandy in Kozhikode district on the coast of Arabian sea in India. The circular stone tower has a height of 34 meters. The tower is painted black and white bands. The lighthouse started its operation in 1907, the light source is a metal halide lamp

1.
View from the entrance

Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a

1.
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.

Malayalam
–
Malayalam /mʌləˈjɑːləm/ is a language spoken in India, predominantly in the state of Kerala. It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and was designated as a Classical Language in India in 2013 and it was developed to the current form mainly by the influence of the poet Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan in the 16th century. Malayalam has official st

English language
–
English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language i

1.
The opening to the Old English epic poem Beowulf, handwritten in half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."

Indian Standard Time
–
Indian Standard Time is the time observed throughout India and Sri Lanka, with a time offset of UTC+05,30. India does not observe daylight saving time or other seasonal adjustments, in military and aviation time IST is designated E*. Indian Standard Time is calculated on the basis of 82.30 E longitude, in Shankargarh Fort, in the tz database, it is

1.
IST in relation with the bordering nations

Vehicle registration plate
–
A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the s

Kasaragod District
–
Kasaragod District is one of the 14 districts in the state of Kerala, India. Kasaragod became part of Kannur district following the reorganisation of states, Kasaragod was declared as a district on 24 May 1984. To its south lies Kannur District, to the South east is Kodagu district, all along its east it is walled by the Western Ghats while along t

1.
Chandragiri bridge which connects Kasargod town to Chemnad Panchayath.

Kannur District
–
Kannur District is one of the 14 districts along the west coast in the state of Kerala, India. The town of Kannur is the headquarters and gives the district its name. The old name, Cannanore is the form of the Malayalam name Kannur. Kannur district is bounded by Kasaragod District to the north, Kozhikode district to the south, to the east the distr

Kozhikode District
–
Kozhikode District is a district of Kerala state, on the southwest coast of India. The city of Kozhikode, formerly known as Calicut, is the district headquarters, Kozhikode district is bordered by the districts of Kannur and Mahe in Pondichery state to the north, Wayanad to the east, and Malappuram to the south. The Arabian Sea lies to the west and

1.
Admiral Zheng He's navigation chart from Hormuz to Calicut, 1430

2.
Mananchira, Kozhikode

3.
View of Kappad beach

Malappuram District
–
Malappuram district, First e-literate district in India, with its headquarters at Malappuram, is a district in the state of Kerala, India. The district was formed on 16 June 1969, the ancient Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics though mainly centred in Thrissur also had namboodiri and nair scholars coming from malappuram. Today the district

Palakkad District
–
Palakkad District is one of the 14 districts of the Indian state of Kerala. The city of Palakkad is the district headquarters, the district is 24. 4% urbanised according to the census of 2011. The district is nicknamed the granary of Kerala and Rice bowl of Kerala, in earlier times, Palakkad was also known as Palakkattussery. Palakkad is the gatewa

Wayanad District
–
Wayanad District is a district in the north-east of Kerala state, India with headquarters at the town of Kalpetta. The district was formed on 1 November 1980 as the 12th district in Kerala by carving out areas from Kozhikode, the district is 3. 79% urbanised, with three municipal towns Kalpetta, Mananthavady and Sulthan Bathery. Wayanad has seen a

Kozhikode
–
Kozhikode, also known as Calicut, is a city in the state of Kerala in southern India on the Malabar Coast. Kozhikode is the largest urban area in the state and 195th largest urban area in the world, the city lies about 275 km west of Bangalore. On 7 June 2012, Kozhikode was given the tag of City of Sculptures because of the architectural sculptures

Climate of India
–
The climate of India comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a vast geographic scale and varied topography, making generalisations difficult. Many regions have different microclimates. The nation has four seasons, winter, summer, a rainy season. As Earths highest and most massive mountain range, the Himalayas bar the influx of frigid ka

Climatic regions of India
–
India has a large variation in climate from region to region, due to its vast size. India experiences climate from four major climate groups and these can be further subdivided into seven climatic types. For ecological regions, see Ecoregions of India, for Regions see List of regions of India, the regions belonging to this group experience persiste

Blathur
–
Blathur is a village in Kannur, Kerala, India, located approximately 38 kilometres north-east of the district headquarters, Kannur. The nearest town, Irikkur, is estimated to be 7 kilometres from the village itself, Blathur is situated in the Padiyoor Grama Panchayat in Iritty Taluk, on the edge of an estimated 90 acre paddy field, and is 169 meter

1.
Vettakkorumakan temple

3.
Blathur temple

Southern India
–
The region occupies 19. 31% of Indias land area. Covering the southern part of the peninsular Deccan Plateau, South India is bounded by the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Arabian Sea in the west, and the Indian Ocean in the south. The geography of the region is diverse, with two ranges, the Western and Eastern Ghats, bordering the plateau heartland

Western Ghats
–
Western Ghats மேற்கு தொடர்ச்சி மலை is a mountain range that runs parallel to the western coast of the Indian peninsula, located entirely in India. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the eight hottest hot-spots of biological diversity in the world and it is sometimes called the Great Escarpment of India. The range runs north to south a

Arabian Sea
–
The Arabian Sea is a region of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north by Pakistan and Iran, on the west by northeastern Somalia and the Arabian Peninsula, and on the east by India. Historically the sea has been known by names including the Erythraean Sea. Its total area is 3,862,000 km2 and its depth is 4,652 metres. The Gulf of Aden is in

1.
Arabian Sea from space

2.
Arabian Sea

3.
17th century map depicting the locations of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea

4.
The Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai, India is the largest port of India and one of the busiest in the Arabian Sea

Karnataka
–
Karnataka is a state in south western region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, originally known as the State of Mysore, it was renamed Karnataka in 1973. The capital and largest city is Bangalore, the state covers an area of 191,976 square kilometres, or 5.83 percent of the total geograph

Kerala
–
Kerala historically known as Keralam, is an Indian state in South India on the Malabar Coast. It was formed on 1 November 1956 following the States Reorganisation Act by combining Malayalam-speaking regions, spread over 38,863 km2, it is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to t

4.
Silk Road map. The spice trade was mainly along the water routes (blue).

Goa

Cape Comorin
–
Kanyakumari pronunciation, also known as Kanniyakumari, formerly known as Cape Comorin, is a town in Kanyakumari District in the state of Tamil Nadu in India. The name comes from the Devi Kanya Kumari Temple in the region and it is the southernmost tip of peninsular India. Kanyakumari town is the tip of the Cardamom Hills, an extension of the Weste

Chera dynasty
–
The Cheras were the principal ruling dynasty of the present-day state of Kerala and to a lesser extent, parts of Tamil Nadu in South India. Along with the Ay kingdom and the Ezhimala kingdom, they formed the kingdoms of Kerala in the early years of the Common Era. The origins of the dynasty are unclear and it is understood that they were speakers o

1.
Extent of Chera kingdom

2.
Family tree of the kings of the Chera dynasty based on Sangam literature. The monarchs ruled in the first two centuries of the Common Era.

Kolathiris
–
Kolattunādu was one of the three most powerful feudal kingdoms on the Malabar Coast during the arrival Portuguese Armadas to India, the others being Zamorins Calicut and Quilon. Kolattunādu had its capital at Ezhimala and was ruled by Kolattiri Royal Family and roughly comprised the northern districts of Kerala state. Traditionally, Kolattunādu is

Travancore
–
The Kingdom of Travancore (/ˈtrævəŋkɔər/, Malayalam, തിരുവിതാംകൂർ Thiruvithamkoor, was an Indian kingdom from 1729 until 1949. It was ruled by the Travancore Royal Family from Padmanabhapuram, the official flag of the state was red with a dextrally-coiled silver conch shell at its center. In the early 19th century, the became a princely state of th

2.
Flag

3.
Map of Travancore in 1871

4.
Canal scene, Travancore

Zamorins
–
Samoothiri of Kozhikode is the hereditary royal title used by the Hindu Eradi Nair rulers of the medieval Kingdom of Kozhikode on the Malabar Coast. The Samoodiris ruled for almost six centuries, between c. 12th and 18th century AD based at the city of Kozhikode, one of the important trading centres in southern India. The Portuguese trader and navi

History of Kozhikode
–
Kozhikode, also known as Calicut, is a city in the southern Indian state of Kerala. It is the third largest city in Kerala and the headquarters of Kozhikode district, Kozhikode has a long and illustrious history—one of resplendent trade, poignant invasions and liberation struggles. It was dubbed the City of Spices for its role as the major trading

Vannimai
–
The Vannimai, or Vanni chieftaincies, were feudal land divisions ruled by chiefs south of the Jaffna peninsula in northern Sri Lanka. These chieftaincies arose in the 12th century, with the rise of the medieval Tamil kingdoms golden age, the chieftaincies developed in sparsely settled areas, and were ruled by Vanniars. An extension of the Jaffna ki

Tamil Eelam
–
Tamil Eelam is a proposed independent state that Tamils in Sri Lanka and the Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora aspire to create in the north and east of Sri Lanka. Tamil Eelam has no status or recognition by world states though sections of the Eelam were under de facto control of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam for most of the 2000s. The name is deriv

Valluvokonathiris
–
On the west, it was bounded by the Arabian Sea at the port Ponnani and on the east by Attappadi Hills. According to local legends, the last Later Chera ruler gave a vast extension of land in South Malabar to one of their governors, Valluvakkonithiri, the Valluvakkonithiri was also given last Later Chera rulers shield. Not surprisingly, the Vellatir

1.
Geography of Malabar 1909

Valluvanad (southern Malabar)
–
On the west, it was bounded by the Arabian Sea at the port Ponnani and on the east by Attappadi Hills. According to local legends, the last Later Chera ruler gave a vast extension of land in South Malabar to one of their governors, Valluvakkonithiri, the Valluvakkonithiri was also given last Later Chera rulers shield. Not surprisingly, the Vellatir

1.
Geography of Malabar 1909

Konkan
–
Konkan, also known as the Konkan Coast or Kokan, is a rugged section of the western coastline of India. It is a 720 km long coastline and it consists of the coastal districts of western Indian states of Karnataka, Goa, and Maharashtra. The ancient Saptakonkana is a larger region. The word Konkan derived from two marathi words koṇa and kaṇa, the Kon

1.
Traditional houses in Konkan region

Maharashtra
–
Maharashtra is a state in the western region of India and is Indias second-most populous state and third-largest state by area. It is the wealthiest Indian state and it is also the worlds second-most populous sub-national entity. It has over 112 million inhabitants and its capital, Mumbai, has a population of approximately 18 million, Nagpur is Mah

4.
Bronze statue of Shivaji Maharaj in the collection of the Shri Bhavani Museum of Aundh, Maharashtra.

Kanyakumari district
–
Kanyakumari district is the southernmost district in Tamil Nadu state and mainland India. It is the second largest district in the state in terms of population density, the district stands first in terms of literacy rate in the state. Kanyakumari district has a topography with sea on three sides and the mountains of the Western Ghats bordering the

Monsoon
–
Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase. The term is sometimes used for locally heavy but short-term rains. The major monsoon systems of the world consist of the West African and Asia-Australian monsoons, the inclusion of the North and South Ameri

Kannur
–
Kannur, also known by its English name Cannanore, is a city and a Municipal Corporation in Kannur district, state of Kerala, India. It is the headquarters of the Kannur District and situated 518 km north of the state capital Thiruvananthapuram. During British rule in India, Kannur was known as Cannanore, Kannur is the largest city of North Malabar

1.
Kannur കണ്ണൂർ Cannanore

2.
Town and bay of Kannur by Thomas Cussans

3.
Veera Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, painting by Raja Ravi Varma

4.
Payyambalam Beach

Vizhinjam
–
Vizhinjam is a natural port located close to international shipping routes in Thiruvananthapuram city in the Indian state of Kerala. Kovalam beach lies 3 kilometres from Vizhinjam while the area is known for its Ayurvedic treatment centers, as of 2001, the population was 18,566. Vizhinjam International Seaport is an international deepwater multi-pu

1.
Vizhinjam Port

2.
Fishermen about to set sail for the day from Vizhinjam Harbour. The wave energy demonstration plant can be seen in the background.

3.
An aerial view of Vizhinjam Harbour

4.
Our Lady of Good Voyage Church

Muziris
–
Muziris was an ancient seaport and urban center on the Malabar Coast that dates from at least the 1st century BC, if not before it. Muziris has found mention in the bardic Tamil Sangam literature and a number of classical European historical sources, the port was a key to the trade between southern India and the Phoenicians, the Persians, the Egypt

1.
Silk Road, ancient trade route that, linking China with the West, carried goods and ideas between the two great civilizations of Rome and China. The land routes are red, and the water routes are blue.

Beypore
–
Beypore or Beypur is an ancient port town and a Municipality town in Kozhikode district in the state of Kerala, India. The place was known as Vaypura / Vadaparappanad. Tipu Sultan, ruler of Mysore, named the town Sultan Pattanam, there is a marina and a beach while Beypore port is one of the oldest ports in Kerala, which historically traded with th

1.
StonePier Beypore

2.
Beypore Fishing in Morning

Thundi
–
Kadalundi is a village in Kozhikode district, Kerala, India. It is a village close to the Arabian Sea. Kadalundi is famous for its sanctuary, which is home to various migratory birds during certain seasons and has been recently declared as a bio-reserve. It is the first community reserve in Kerala, according to the Sangam literature, Thondi, the ca

1.
Scenic view from Kadalundi bridge

Kadalundi
–
Kadalundi is a village in Kozhikode district, Kerala, India. It is a village close to the Arabian Sea. Kadalundi is famous for its sanctuary, which is home to various migratory birds during certain seasons and has been recently declared as a bio-reserve. It is the first community reserve in Kerala, according to the Sangam literature, Thondi, the ca

1.
Scenic view from Kadalundi bridge

Kochi, India
–
Kochi, also known as Cochin, is a major port city on the south-west coast of India by the Arabian Sea and the Laccadive Sea and is part of the district of Ernakulam in the state of Kerala. It is often called Ernakulam, which refers to the specific district, occupied by the Portuguese in 1503, Kochi was the first of the European colonies in colonial

Indian Ocean
–
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the worlds oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2. It is bounded by Asia on the north, on the west by Africa, on the east by Australia, the Indian Ocean is known as Ratnākara, the mine of gems in ancient Sanskrit literature, and as Hind Mahāsāgar, in Hindi. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is

Christians
–
A Christian is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christian derives from the Koine Greek word Christós, a translation of the Biblical Hebrew term mashiach, while there are diverse interpretations of Christianity which sometimes conflict, they are unit

1.
Set of pictures for a number of famous Christians from various fields.

Saint Thomas Christians
–
Historically, the Saint Thomas Christian community was part of the Church of the East, centered in Persia. They were organised as the Province of India in the 8th century, served by Nestorian bishops, Saint Thomas Christians represent a multi ethnic group. Their language is Malayalam, the language of Kerala, and Syriac is used for liturgical purpos

4.
Tharisapalli Copper plate grant (9th century) - One of the reliable documentary evidences of the privileges and influence that Saint Thomas Christians enjoyed in early Malabar. The document contains signatures of the witnesses in Pahlavi, Kufic and Hebrew scripts. It is the oldest documentary evidence available to attest the presence of a Persian Christian community in South India.

Jews
–
The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, s

Cochin Jews
–
Cochin Jews, also called Malabar Jews, are the oldest group of Jews in India, with possible roots claimed to date to the time of King Solomon. The Cochin Jews settled in the Kingdom of Cochin in South India, as early as the 12th century, mention is made of the Black Jews in southern India. The Jewish traveler, Benjamin of Tudela, speaking of Kollam

Muslim
–
A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims

4.
Tharisapalli Copper plate grant (9th century) - One of the reliable documentary evidences of the privileges and influence that Saint Thomas Christians enjoyed in early Malabar. The document contains signatures of the witnesses in Pahlavi, Kufic and Hebrew scripts. It is the oldest documentary evidence available to attest the presence of a Persian Christian community in South India.

4.
A Madappura (stand alone Kovil) where Theyyam rituals are performed seasonally. All the Muthappan Madappura's are built in similar style. These structures are found mainly in the North Malabar region of Kerala

Kasaragod district
–
Kasaragod District is one of the 14 districts in the state of Kerala, India. Kasaragod became part of Kannur district following the reorganisation of states, Kasaragod was declared as a district on 24 May 1984. To its south lies Kannur District, to the South east is Kodagu district, all along its east it is walled by the Western Ghats while along t

1.
Chandragiri bridge which connects Kasargod town to Chemnad Panchayath.

4.
Saraswati goddess is found in temples of Southeast Asia, islands of Indonesia and Japan. In Japan, she is known as Benzaiten (shown). She is depicted with a musical instrument in Japan, and is a deity of knowledge, music, and everything that flows.

2.
A depiction of the snake guarding a frog on the banks of the river at Sringeri.

3.
Temple view over Tunga River

4.
Bridge over the river

LIST OF IMAGES

1.
Malabar Coast
–
The Malabar Coast is a long and narrow coastline on the south-western shore line of the mainland Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, the term Malabar Coast is also sometimes used to refer to the entire Indian coast from the western coast of Konkan to the tip of the subcontinent at Kanyakumari. The coast runs south of Goa to Kanyakumari on Indias southern tip. Indias southeastern coast is called the Coromandel Coast, the Malabar Coast is also sometimes used as an all-encompassing term for the entire Indian coast from Konkan to the tip of the subcontinent at Kanyakumari. It is flanked by the Arabian Sea on the west and the Western Ghats on the east, the southern part of this narrow coast is referred to as the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests. The Malabar Coast, throughout recorded history from about 3000 BC, had been a trading center in commerce with Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Jerusalem. Its most famous ports were Naura, Balita, Kochi, Calicut, and Mangalore, the Oddeway Torre settlement, which have served as centers of the Indian Ocean trade, for centuries. During Ming Chinas treasure voyages in the early 15th century, Admiral Zheng Hes fleet often landed at the Malabar Coast, Malabar Portuguese Empire Portuguese India Dutch Malabar Coromandel Coast

2.
Kadalur Point Lighthouse
–
The Kadalur Point Lighthouse is situated in Kadalur, near Koyilandy in Kozhikode district on the coast of Arabian sea in India. The circular stone tower has a height of 34 meters. The tower is painted black and white bands. The lighthouse started its operation in 1907, the light source is a metal halide lamp

Kadalur Point Lighthouse
–
View from the entrance

3.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.

4.
Malayalam
–
Malayalam /mʌləˈjɑːləm/ is a language spoken in India, predominantly in the state of Kerala. It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and was designated as a Classical Language in India in 2013 and it was developed to the current form mainly by the influence of the poet Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan in the 16th century. Malayalam has official status in the state of Kerala and in the union territories of Lakshadweep. It belongs to the Dravidian family of languages and is spoken by some 38 million people, according to one theory, Malayalam originated from Middle Tamil in the 7th century. However, the current understanding proposes the separation of Malayalam from Proto-Dravidian in the pre-historic era, Malayalam incorporated many elements from Sanskrit through the ages. Before Malayalam came into being, Old Tamil was used in literature and courts of a region called Tamilakam, including present day Kerala state, silappatikaramit was written by Chera prince Ilango Adigal from Chunkaparra, and is considered a classic in Sangam literature. Modern Malayalam still preserves many words from the ancient Tamil vocabulary of Sangam literature, the earliest script used to write Malayalam was the Vatteluttu alphabet, and later the Kolezhuttu, which derived from it. As Malayalam began to borrow words as well as the rules of grammar from Sanskrit. This developed into the modern Malayalam script, many medieval liturgical texts were written in an admixture of Sanskrit and early Malayalam, called Manipravalam. The oldest literary work in Malayalam, distinct from the Tamil tradition, is dated from between the 9th and 11th centuries, the first travelogue in any Indian language is the Malayalam Varthamanappusthakam, written by Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar in 1785. Due to its lineage deriving from both Tamil and Sanskrit, the Malayalam script has the largest number of letters among the Indian language orthographies, the Malayalam script includes letters capable of representing almost all the sounds of all Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages. Malayalam serves as a language on the islands including the Mahl-dominated Minicoy Island. The word Malayalam originated from the Sanskrit resp, Malayalam words malai or mala, meaning hill, and elam, meaning region. Malayalam thus translates as hill region and used to refer to the land of the Chera dynasty, the language Malayalam is alternatively called Alealum, Malayalani, Malayali, Malean, Maliyad, and Mallealle. The word Malayalam originally meant only for the name of the region, Malayanma or Malayayma represented the language. With the emergence of modern Malayalam language, the name of the language started to be known by the name of the region, hence now, the word Malayanma is considered by some to represent the olden Malayalam language. The language got the name Malayalam during the mid 19th century, the origin of Malayalam, an independent offshoot of the proto-Dravidian language, has been and continues to be an engaging pursuit among comparative historical linguists. Together with Tamil, Toda, Kannada and Tulu, Malayalam belongs to the group of Dravidian languages

Malayalam
–
Cover page of Nasranikal okkekkum ariyendunna samkshepavedartham which is the first book to be printed in Malayalam in 1772.
Malayalam
–
Malayalam-speaking area
Malayalam
–
Thunchathu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan
Malayalam
–
Shakuntala writes to Dushyanta. Painting by Raja Ravi Varma. The poetry was translated by Kerala Varma as Abhijnanasakuntalam

5.
English language
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English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩

English language
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The opening to the Old English epic poem Beowulf, handwritten in half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language
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Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language
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Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales c.1400

6.
Indian Standard Time
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Indian Standard Time is the time observed throughout India and Sri Lanka, with a time offset of UTC+05,30. India does not observe daylight saving time or other seasonal adjustments, in military and aviation time IST is designated E*. Indian Standard Time is calculated on the basis of 82.30 E longitude, in Shankargarh Fort, in the tz database, it is represented by Asia/Kolkata. The Central observatory was moved from Chennai to a location at Shankargarh Fort Allahabad district, daylight Saving Time was used briefly during the China–Indian War of 1962 and the Indo–Pakistani Wars of 1965 and 1971. Inhabitants of the states have to advance their clocks with the early sunrise. In the late 1980s, a team of researchers proposed separating the country two or three time zones to conserve energy. The binary system that they suggested involved a return to British–era time zones, in 2001, the government established a four–member committee under the Ministry of Science and Technology to examine the need for multiple time zones and daylight saving. In Assam, tea gardens follow a separate time zone, known as the Chaibagaan or Bagan time, still Indian Standard Time remains the only officially used time. The filmmaker Jahnu Barua has been campaigning for a time zone for the past 25 years. In 2010, he suggested creating a time zone for the Development of Northeastern Region. In 2014, Chief Minister of Assam Tarun Gogoi started campaigning for another time zone for Assam, however, the proposal would need to be cleared by the Central Government of India. Official time signals are generated by the Time and Frequency Standards Laboratory at the National Physical Laboratory in New Delhi, the signals are based on atomic clocks and are synchronised with the worldwide system of clocks that support the Coordinated Universal Time. IST is taken as the time as it passes through almost the centre of India. To communicate the exact time to the people, the time is broadcast over the state-owned All India Radio. Telephone companies have dedicated phone numbers connected to mirror time servers that also relay the precise time, another increasingly popular means of obtaining the time is through Global Positioning System receivers

Indian Standard Time
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IST in relation with the bordering nations

7.
Vehicle registration plate
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A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal

8.
Kasaragod District
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Kasaragod District is one of the 14 districts in the state of Kerala, India. Kasaragod became part of Kannur district following the reorganisation of states, Kasaragod was declared as a district on 24 May 1984. To its south lies Kannur District, to the South east is Kodagu district, all along its east it is walled by the Western Ghats while along the west the Laccadive Sea borders it. The district, covering an area of around 1992 km2, has a population of 1,307,375 and has four taluks, namely, Kasaragod and Hosdurg, Vellarikundu and Manjeshwaram Taluk. Major towns in Kasaragod district are Nileshwar, Kanhangad, Kasaragod, Uppala, Kumbla and it has three municipalities (Nileshwar Kasaragod, and Kanhangad and thirty-eight grama panchayats. Kasaragod was known to the Arabs by the name Harkwillia, many Arab travelers who visited Kerala between the 9th and the 14th centuries visited Kasaragod, which was an important trade centre then. Duarte Borbosa, the Portuguese traveler who visited Kumbla, near Kasaragod in 1514, Kasaragod was part of the kumbala Kingdom in which there were 64 Tulu and Malayalam villages. When the Vijayanagara empire attacked Kasaragod, it was still under the Kolathiri Raja who had Nileshwaram as one of his capitals, during the decline of the Vijayanagara empire, the administration of this area was vested with Ikkeri Nayakas. At the onset of collapse of the Vijayanagara empire, Venkappa Nayaka declared independence to Ikkery, Kumbla, Chandragiri and Bekal are considered to be the chain of forts constructed or renovated by Shivappa Nayaka. Francis Buccanan, the doctor of Arthur Wellesley, visited Kasargod in 1800. In his travelogue, he recorded information on places like Athiraparambu, Kavvai, Nileshwaram, Bekal, Chandragiri, in 1763, Hyder Ali conquered Bedanoor, the capital of the Ikkery Naiks. His son Tippu Sultan conquered much of Malabar, as per the Sreerangapattanam Treaty of 1792, Tippu surrendered Malabar, except Kanara to the British. The British got Kanara only after the death of Tippu Sultan and it is said that Kinavoor Molom is belonging to Karinthalam. Before the formation of Kerala, Kasaragod was a part of erstwhile South Canara district of Madras Presidency, Kasaragod became part of Kannur district following the reorganisation of states and formation of Kerala in November 1,1956. Kasaragod was declared as a district on 24 May 1984, the district is the northernmost district of the State of Kerala. Kasaragod is located at 12. 5°N75. 0°E﻿ /12.5,75.0 and it has an average elevation of 19 metres. According to the 2011 census Kasaragod district has a population of 1,307,375 and this gives it a ranking of 375th in India. The district has a density of 654 inhabitants per square kilometre

9.
Kannur District
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Kannur District is one of the 14 districts along the west coast in the state of Kerala, India. The town of Kannur is the headquarters and gives the district its name. The old name, Cannanore is the form of the Malayalam name Kannur. Kannur district is bounded by Kasaragod District to the north, Kozhikode district to the south, to the east the district is bounded by the Western Ghats, which forms the border with the state of Karnataka. The Arabian Sea lies to the west, the district was established in 1957. Kannur is the sixth-most urbanized district in Kerala, with more than 50% of its residents living in urban areas, Kannur has an urban population of 1,212,898, which is the second largest in Kerala after Ernakulam district. Kannur District is known as the land of looms and lores, because of the loom industries, the district is a major centre of Theyyam, a ritual dance of northern Kerala. Small shrines known as kavus, associated with the Theyyam, dot the district, the proposed Kannur International Airport will be the fourth international airport in Kerala and is situated in Mattannur, 26-km away from Kannur. There are many myths and legends associated with the name Kannur and it is said to be a portmanteau derived from two Malayalam words, ‘Kannan’, and ‘Ur’, making it the place of Lord Krishna. One theory supporting this theory is that the deity of the Kadalayi Srikrishna Temple was originally installed in a shrine at Kadalayi Kotta in the part of the present Kannur town. During the British Raj, the city was known as Cannanore, Kannur was an important trading center in the 12th century with active business connections with Persia and Arabia. It served as the British military headquarters on Indias west coast until 1887, in conjunction with her sister city, Tellicherry, it was the third largest city on the western coast of British India in the 18th century after Bombay and Karachi. St. Angelo Fort was built in 1505 by Dom Francisco de Almeida and they modernised the fort and built the bastions Hollandia, Zeelandia and Frieslandia that are the major features of the present structure. The original Portuguese fort was pulled down later, a painting of this fort and the fishing ferry behind it can be seen in the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. The Dutch sold the fort to king Ali Raja of Arakkal in 1772, the British conquered it in 1790 and used it as one of their major military stations on the Malabar Coast. During the 17th century, Kannur was the city of the only Muslim Sultanate in the malabar region. During the British Raj, Kannur was part of the Madras province in the North Malabar District, the guerrilla war by Pazhassi Raja, the ruler of Kottayam province, against the British had a huge impact in the history of Kannur. Changes in the socio-economic and political sectors in Kerala during the decades of 20th century created conditions congenial for the growth of the Communist Party

10.
Kozhikode District
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Kozhikode District is a district of Kerala state, on the southwest coast of India. The city of Kozhikode, formerly known as Calicut, is the district headquarters, Kozhikode district is bordered by the districts of Kannur and Mahe in Pondichery state to the north, Wayanad to the east, and Malappuram to the south. The Arabian Sea lies to the west and it is between latitudes 11° 08N and 11° 50N and longitudes 75° 30E and 76° 8E. In 2001 the district was divided into four talukas, Kozhikode, Vatakara, Koyilandy, by the 2011 census there are 12 block panchayats, Balusseri, Chelannur, Koduvally, Kozhikode, Kunnamangalam, Kunnummal, Melady, Panthalayani, Perambraa, Thodannur, Thuneri, and Vatakara. Present-day Kozhikode District was among the territories ceded to the British East India Company by Tipu Sultan of Mysore in 1792, at the conclusion of the Third Anglo-Mysore War. The newly acquired British possessions on the Malabar Coast were organized into Malabar District, which included the districts of Kannur, Kozhikode, Malappuram, Palakkad. Kozhikode served as the headquarters of the district. Malabar District was part of the Madras Presidency, a province of British India, after Indias Independence in 1947, Madras Presidency was renamed Madras State. Malabar District was considered too large for effective administration and it was divided into the districts of Kozhikode, Kannur, and Palakkad on 1 January 1957. The district had five taluks, Vatakara, Koyilandy, Kozhikode, Ernad, on 16 June 1969, Ernad and Tirur Taluks became part of the newly created Malappuram District. South Wayanad, which forms the southern portion of present-day Wayanad District, was added to Kozhikode for a time, the history of the district is inevitably intertwined with the history of the city of Kozhikode. Calicut is the form of Kalikat, the name used by Mappilas to refer to Kozhikode. It was also called the Cock Fort, a usage that may have come from kozhi kodu, krishnan Iyer, the word Kozhikode is derived from koyil kotai, meaning Fortified Palace. Koyilkotai further evolved into Koliykode, which evolved into its present form Kozhikode, the ports of the Malabar Coast have participated in the Indian Ocean trade of spices, silk, and other goods for over two millennia. Kozhikode emerged as the centre of an independent kingdom in the 14th century, during the Yong Le era of the Ming Dynasty of China, Admiral Zheng He and his treasure fleet visited Kozhikode. Their visits were documented by on-board Arab language translators Ma Huan, Fei Xin, each one of them published a book documented their visits to countries, including Calicut. The king of Calicut was a Brahmin and a Buddhist, the throne passes to the kings sisters son. Admiral Zheng He erected a pavilion with stone tablet in Calicut to celebrate this event

11.
Malappuram District
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Malappuram district, First e-literate district in India, with its headquarters at Malappuram, is a district in the state of Kerala, India. The district was formed on 16 June 1969, the ancient Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics though mainly centred in Thrissur also had namboodiri and nair scholars coming from malappuram. Today the district includes Thirunavaya, the medieval centre of Vedic learning, Kottakkal. Islam came to Malappuram early in prophet Mohammeds era itself, as a religion Islam spread in Malappuram district and slowly it became the major religion in the region. The caste system present on those days was the factor which made people to think about Islam. Ponnani, one of the oldest centres of Islamic education in the region is located here, in 1921 the present-day Malappuram district was part of the Moplah rebellions, followed by decades of stagnant economic, social and political development. In the early years of Communist rule in Kerala, Malappuram experienced land reform under the Land Reform Ordinance, during the 1970s Persian Gulf oil reserves were opened to commercial extraction, and thousands of unskilled workers migrated to the Gulf. They sent money home, supporting the economy, and by the late 20th century the region had First World health standards. Malappuram is one of two Muslim-majority districts in south India, the Hindu temples and Moplah mosques of the region are known for their colorful festivals, and it is the most populous district in Kerala. Religions practised in the district include Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Sikhism, Jainism, Malappuram, meaning terraced place atop the hills, derives from the geography of the district headquarters. Before the districts formation, the region was known as Eranad, Valluvanad, Vettathunad etc, the district has a rich cultural and political heritage. The port of Ponnani was a centre of trade with Ancient Rome, after the Chera Dynasty a number of dynasties controlled the area, and by the ninth century the region was ruled by the Kulasekharas of Mahodayapuram. After the disintegration of the Kulasekhara kingdom a number of Nair city-states emerged, including Valluvanad, Vettattunadu, Parappanad, during the 13th century, the Samoothiri of Calicut expanded their territories to Malabar. Thirunavaya, the seat of Mamankam, was in Malappuram district, european colonial powers first landed in Malabar during the 15th century, and the Samoothiris often allied with foreign powers. During the 18th century, the de facto Mysore kingdom rulers Hyder Ali, Malappuram has been part of movements such as Khilafat Movement and Moplah Rebellion in the early 20th century. Before Indian independence in 1947, Malappuram was part of Malabar District in the Madras Presidency of British India, the present district was administered as parts of Kozhikode, Eranad taluk, Valluvanad Taluk and Ponnani taluk. Malabar District remained part of Madras state for some time after independence, large-scale changes in the territorial jurisdiction of the region took place in 1957 and 1969. On 1 January 1957, Tirur taluk was formed from portions of Eranad taluk, another portion of Ponnani taluk was transferred to the new Chavakkad taluk, and the remainder is present-day Ponnani taluk

Malappuram District
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Thunjan Parambu in Tirur
Malappuram District
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Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary
Malappuram District
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Ali Musliyar, one of the chief Moplah rebels
Malappuram District
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Kadalundi River

12.
Palakkad District
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Palakkad District is one of the 14 districts of the Indian state of Kerala. The city of Palakkad is the district headquarters, the district is 24. 4% urbanised according to the census of 2011. The district is nicknamed the granary of Kerala and Rice bowl of Kerala, in earlier times, Palakkad was also known as Palakkattussery. Palakkad is the gateway to Kerala due to the presence of the Palakkad Gap, the total area of the district is 4,480 km2 which is 11. 5% of the states area which makes it the largest district of Kerala. Out of the area of 4,480 km2, about 1,360 km2 of land is covered by forests. The climate is pleasant for most part of the year, exception is on the summer months, there is sufficient rainfall and it receives more rainfall than the extreme southern districts of kerala. The district is blessed with many small and medium rivers, which are tributaries of the Bharathapuzha River, a number of dams have been built across these rivers, the largest being Malampuzha dam. The largest in capacity is the Parambikulam Dam Taluks, Alathur, Chittur, Mannarkkad, Ottappalam, Palakkad. Members of Parliament, Palakkad - MB Rajesh Alathur – PK Biju Under the amended Indian Constitution, the headquarters of the District Panchayat is at Palakkad Municipal town. The District Panchayat office building is near the Civil Station, IIT Palakkad for Kerala started operations in its temporary campus at Kanjikode, Palakkad from 3 August 2015. There are various industries in the district, the Public Sector companies and Instrumentation Limited have plants in Kanjikode,12 kilometres from Palakkad town. Other large companies are the BPL group, Coca-Cola and Pepsi, there is an Industrial Area in Kanjikode with a number of medium industries. Palakkad is the one of the most agrarian districts in Kerala, Palakkad is particularly known for paddy cultivation. Paddy is cultivated in around 83,998 Hectares in the district, Palakkad also occupies the first position in the state for the production of groundnut, tamarind, turmeric, tuber, vegetables, pulses, mango, banana, plantain and cotton. Rubber, coconut, areca nut, black pepper, etc. are also cultivated extensively like other parts of Kerala. According to the 2011 census Palakkad district has a population of 2,810,892 and this gives it a ranking of 138th in India. The district has a density of 627 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001–2011 was 7. 39%, Palakkad has a sex ratio of 1067 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 89. 32%

Palakkad District
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Palakkad district
Palakkad District
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Sri Killikkurussi Mahadeva Kshetram (Shiva temple of Killikkurussimangalam).
Palakkad District
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A small waterfall in the Nelliyampathi mountains.

13.
Wayanad District
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Wayanad District is a district in the north-east of Kerala state, India with headquarters at the town of Kalpetta. The district was formed on 1 November 1980 as the 12th district in Kerala by carving out areas from Kozhikode, the district is 3. 79% urbanised, with three municipal towns Kalpetta, Mananthavady and Sulthan Bathery. Wayanad has seen a recent tourism boom and is now one of the most popular tourist destinations of Kerala and it is the only district in Kerala that shares its borders with both Karnataka and Tamil Nadu states. For this reason, it is visited by tourists from these states. The only Earth Dam in India is Banasura Sagar Dam and the pine forest of Kerala is Chandanathode. Pulpally in Wayanad boasts of the only Luv Kush Temple in Kerala, the edicts and caves of Ambukuthimala and other evidences state that the place is as old as the beginning of the New Age Civilisation. The district also houses the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary with four ranges namely Sulthan Bathery, Muthanga, Kurichiat, Wayanad is also surrounded by the legendary wildlife sanctuaries of Bandipur, Muthanga and Nagarhole. Wayanad also has the largest population of Asian elephants in the world, Wayanad district is in the southern tip of the Deccan Plateau. Part of the Western Ghats is in the district, in the centre of the district hills are lower in height while the northern area has high hills. The eastern area is flat and open, the region was known as Mayakshetra in the earliest records. Mayakshetra evolved into Mayanad and finally to Wayanad, the Folk etymology of the word says it is a combination of Vayal and Naad, making it The Land of Paddy Fields. There are many indigenous tribals in this area and it is set high on the Western Ghats with altitudes ranging from 700 to 2100 m. According to archaeological evidence, the Wayanad forests have been inhabited for more than 3,000 years, historians are of the view that human settlement existed in these parts for at least ten centuries before Christ. Much evidence of New Stone Age civilisation can be seen in the hills throughout the present day Wayanad district, the Edakkal Caves have 6000 year old rock engravings from the Neolithic age. Recorded history of this district is available from the 18th century, in ancient times, this land was ruled by the Rajas of the Veda tribe. The Kutumbiyas, The two caves of Ampukuthimala in Sulthan Bathery, with pictures on their walls and pictorial writings, speak volumes of a bygone civilisation. As per Hultzch, an epigraphist from the department of epigraphy, Madras, it speaks of the descendant of Kutumbiya clan, Kannada chieftain, Vishnu Varma. The Gangas, The recorded history of this exists only from the 10th century onward

14.
Kozhikode
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Kozhikode, also known as Calicut, is a city in the state of Kerala in southern India on the Malabar Coast. Kozhikode is the largest urban area in the state and 195th largest urban area in the world, the city lies about 275 km west of Bangalore. On 7 June 2012, Kozhikode was given the tag of City of Sculptures because of the architectural sculptures located in parts of the city. According to data compiled by research firm Indicus Analytics on residences, earnings and investments. It was ranked eleventh among Tier-II Indian cities in job creation by a study conducted by ASSOCHAM in 2007, Kozhikode city continues to be a centre of flourishing domestic and international trade. Its contribution to all development of the district in trade, commerce. While the city has known in history under different names. Kozhikode is thought to be derived from Koyilkota, which meant fortified palace, Koyilkota evolved into Koliykode and Kalikat, the latter which was anglicised into Calicut. Koyilkode evolved into present day Kozhikode, Arab merchants called it قَالِقُوط Qāliqūṭ. Tamils called it Kallikkottai while for the Chinese it was Kalifo, in Kannada it was known as Kallikote. Although the citys name is Kozhikode, in English it is sometimes known by its anglicised version. The word calico, a variety of hand-woven cotton cloth that was exported from the port of Kozhikode, is thought to have been derived from Calicut. It is the capital of Kerala as the history dates back to 1498 AD when Vasco da Gama landed in Kappad. Kozhikode is a town with a recorded history. From time immemorial, the city has attracted travellers with its prosperity and it has traded in spices like black pepper and cardamom with Jews, Arabs, Phoenicians, and Chinese for more than 500 years. During classical antiquity and the Middle Ages, Kozhikode was dubbed the City of Spices for its role as the major trading point of eastern spices. It was the capital of an independent kingdom ruled by the Samoothiris in the Middle Ages and later of the erstwhile Malabar District under British rule. Arab merchants traded with the region as early as 7th century, a Portuguese factory and fort was intact in Kozhikode for short period, the English landed in 1615, followed by the French and the Dutch

15.
Climate of India
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The climate of India comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a vast geographic scale and varied topography, making generalisations difficult. Many regions have different microclimates. The nation has four seasons, winter, summer, a rainy season. As Earths highest and most massive mountain range, the Himalayas bar the influx of frigid katabatic winds from the icy Tibetan Plateau and northerly Central Asia. Most of North India is thus kept warm or is only mildly chilly or cold during winter, though the Tropic of Cancer—the boundary between the tropics and subtropics—passes through the middle of India, the bulk of the country can be regarded as climatically tropical. There is one scientific opinion which states that in South Asia such climatic events are likely to change in unpredictability, frequency, during the Triassic period of some 251–199.6 Ma, the Indian subcontinent was part of a vast supercontinent known as Pangaea. India later merged into the southern supercontinent Gondwana, a process beginning some 550–500 Ma and this is underscored by Indias vast coal reserves—much of it from the late Paleozoic sedimentary sequence—the fourth-largest reserves in the world. During the Mesozoic, the world, including India, was warmer than today. With the coming of the Carboniferous, global cooling stoked extensive glaciation, which spread northwards from South Africa towards India, tectonic movement by the Indian Plate caused it to pass over a geologic hotspot—the Réunion hotspot—now occupied by the volcanic island of Réunion. This resulted in a flood basalt event that laid down the Deccan Traps some 60–68 Ma. This may have contributed to the global Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which caused India to experience significantly reduced insolation, elevated atmospheric levels of sulphur gases formed aerosols such as sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid, similar to those found in the atmosphere of Venus, these precipitated as acid rain. Elevated carbon dioxide emissions also contributed to the effect, causing warmer weather that lasted long after the atmospheric shroud of dust. Further climatic changes 20 million years ago, long after India had crashed into the Laurasian landmass, were enough to cause the extinction of many endemic Indian forms. The nations climate is influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert. Simultaneously, the Thar Desert plays a role in attracting moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, four major climatic groupings predominate, into which fall seven climatic zones that, as designated by experts, are defined on the basis of such traits as temperature and precipitation. Groupings are assigned according to the Köppen climate classification system. A tropical rainy climate governs regions persistent to warm or high temperatures, India hosts two climatic subtypes- tropical monsoon climate, tropical wet and dry climate that fall under this group. 1) The most humid is the tropical wet climate—also known as a tropical monsoon climate—that covers a strip of southwestern lowlands abutting the Malabar Coast, the Western Ghats, Indias two island territories, Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, are also subject to this climate

16.
Climatic regions of India
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India has a large variation in climate from region to region, due to its vast size. India experiences climate from four major climate groups and these can be further subdivided into seven climatic types. For ecological regions, see Ecoregions of India, for Regions see List of regions of India, the regions belonging to this group experience persistent high temperatures which normally do not go below 18 °C even in the coolest month. Tropical wet The west coastal lowlands, the Western Ghats, and it is characterised by high temperatures throughout the year, even in the hills. The rainfall here is seasonal, but heavy and is above 78 cm in a year, Most of the rain is received in the period from May to November, and is adequate for the growth of vegetation during the entire year. December to March are the dry months with little rainfall. The heavy rain is responsible for the wet forests in these regions. Tropical wet and dry or savannah climate Most of the plateau of peninsula India enjoys this climate, winter and early summer are long dry periods with temperature above 18 °C. Summer is very hot and the temperatures in the low level areas can go above 45 °C during May. The rainy season is from June to September and the rainfall is between 75 and 150 cm. Only central eastern Tamil Nadu falls under this tract and receives rainfall during the months of late November to January. This group consists of regions where the rate of evaporation of water is higher than the rate of moisture received through precipitation. Tropical semi-arid climate A long stretch of land situated to the south of Tropic of Cancer and east of the western ghats and the Cardamom Hills experiences this climate. It includes Karnataka, interior and western Tamil Nadu, western Andhra Pradesh and this region is a famine prone zone with very unreliable rainfall which varies between 40 and 75 cm annually. Towards the north of Krishna River the summer monsoon is responsible for most of the rainfall, the coldest month is December but even in this month the temperature remains between 20 °C and 24 °C. The months of March to May are hot and dry with mean temperatures of around 32 °C. The vegetation mostly comprises grasses with a few scattered trees due to the rainfall, hence this area is not very well suited for permanent agriculture. Sub-tropical arid climate Most of western Rajasthan falls under this climate type characterised by scanty rainfall, cloud bursts are largely responsible for the all the rainfall seen in this region which is less than 30 cm

17.
Blathur
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Blathur is a village in Kannur, Kerala, India, located approximately 38 kilometres north-east of the district headquarters, Kannur. The nearest town, Irikkur, is estimated to be 7 kilometres from the village itself, Blathur is situated in the Padiyoor Grama Panchayat in Iritty Taluk, on the edge of an estimated 90 acre paddy field, and is 169 meters above sea level. The area is rich in laterite rocks, and the industry is based on laterite stone mining. The protest against the Madras Special Police took place in the village on December 30,1946, joseph Mundassery Award for his novel Perum Aal. Noufal Blathur is a writer for cinema. He is a student of Pune Film Institute. His debut Malayalam film Red Wine made a controversy even before its release, the national highway passes through Taliparamba town. Mangalore and Mumbai can be accessed on the side and Cochin. The road to the east connects to Mysore and Bangalore, the nearest railway station is Kannur on Mangalore-Palakkad line. There are airports at Mangalore and Calicut

Blathur
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Vettakkorumakan temple
Blathur
Blathur
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Blathur temple

18.
Southern India
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The region occupies 19. 31% of Indias land area. Covering the southern part of the peninsular Deccan Plateau, South India is bounded by the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Arabian Sea in the west, and the Indian Ocean in the south. The geography of the region is diverse, with two ranges, the Western and Eastern Ghats, bordering the plateau heartland. The Godavari River, Krishna River, Kaveri, Tungabhadra and Vaigai rivers are important non-perennial sources of water, Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Coimbatore and Kochi are the largest urban areas. Majority of the people in South India speak one of the four major Dravidian languages, Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam. During its history, a number of kingdoms ruled over parts of South India whose invasions across southern and southeastern Asia impacted the history. Major dynasties that were established in South India include the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas, Pallavas, Satavahanas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, european countries entered India through Kerala and the region was colonised by Britain and other nations. HDI in the states is high and the economy has undergone growth at a faster rate than most northern states. Literacy rates in the states are higher than the national average with approximately 80% of the population capable of reading and writing. The fertility rate in South India is 1.9, the lowest of all regions in India, South India also known as Peninsular India has been known by several other names. Carnatic derived from Karnād or Karunād meaning high country has also associated with South India. Carbon dating on ash mounds associated with Neolithic cultures in South India date back to 8000 BCE, artefacts such as ground stone axes, and minor copper objects have been found in the region. Towards the beginning of 1000 BCE, iron technology spread through the region, however, the region was in the middle of a trade route that extended from Muziris to Arikamedu linking the Mediterranean and East Asia. Trade with Phoenicians, Romans, Greeks, Arabs, Syrians, Jews, the region was part of the ancient Silk Road connecting the Asian continent in the East and the West. C. to 14th century A. D. The Vijayanagara Empire, founded in 14th century A. D. was the last Indian dynasty that ruled over the region. The Europeans arrived in the 15th century and by the middle of the 18th century, the French, the British Empire took control of the region from the British East India Company in 1857. During the British colonial rule, the region was divided into the Madras Presidency, Hyderabad state, Mysore, Travancore, Kochi, Vizianagaram and a number of other minor princely states. After the independence of India in 1947, the region was organised into four states, Madras State, Mysore State, Hyderabad State and Travancore-Cochin

19.
Western Ghats
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Western Ghats மேற்கு தொடர்ச்சி மலை is a mountain range that runs parallel to the western coast of the Indian peninsula, located entirely in India. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the eight hottest hot-spots of biological diversity in the world and it is sometimes called the Great Escarpment of India. The range runs north to south along the edge of the Deccan Plateau. These hills cover 160,000 km2 and form the catchment area for complex riverine drainage systems that drain almost 40% of India, the Western Ghats block southwest monsoon winds from reaching the Deccan Plateau. The average elevation is around 1,200 m, at least 325 globally threatened species occur in the Western Ghats. The Western Ghats are the mountainous faulted and eroded edge of the Deccan Plateau, geologic evidence indicates that they were formed during the break-up of the supercontinent of Gondwana some 150 million years ago. Geophysical evidence indicates that the west coast of India came into being somewhere around 100 to 80 mya after it broke away from Madagascar, after the break-up, the western coast of India would have appeared as an abrupt cliff some 1,000 m in elevation. Basalt is the predominant rock found in the reaching a thickness of 3 km. Other rock types found are charnockites, granite gneiss, khondalites, leptynites, metamorphic gneisses with detached occurrences of limestone, iron ore. Residual laterite and bauxite ores are found in the southern hills. The Western Ghats extend from the Satpura Range in the north and it traverses south past the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. Major gaps in the range are the Goa Gap, between the Maharashtra and Karnataka sections, and the Palghat Gap on the Tamil Nadu and Kerala border between the Nilgiri Hills and the Anaimalai Hills. The mountains intercept the rain-bearing westerly monsoon winds, and are consequently an area of high rainfall, particularly on their western side. The northern portion of the coastal plain between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is known as the Konkan, the central portion is called Kanara. The foothill region east of the Ghats in Maharashtra is known as Desh, the range is known as Sahyadri in Maharashtra and Karnataka. The Western Ghats meets the Eastern Ghats at Nilgiris in northwestern Tamil Nadu, Nilgiris connects Biligiriranga Hills in southeastern Karnataka with the Shevaroys and Tirumala hills. In the southern part of the range is Anamudi, the highest peak in Western Ghats, following is a list of some of the highest peaks of the Western Ghats, The Western Ghats form one of the four watersheds of India, feeding the perennial rivers of India. The major river systems originating in the Western Ghats include Godavari, Kaveri, Krishna, Thamiraparani, majority of streams draining the Western Ghats join these rivers and carry large volume of water during the monsoon months

Western Ghats
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A view of Anamudi, the highest peak of the Western Ghats 2,695 metres (8,842 ft) from Eravikulam National Park, Kerala.
Western Ghats
Western Ghats
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The Dense Vegetation in the Watchumaram Region towards valparai
Western Ghats
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Shola Grasslands and forests in the Kudremukh National Park, Western Ghats, Karnataka.

20.
Arabian Sea
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The Arabian Sea is a region of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north by Pakistan and Iran, on the west by northeastern Somalia and the Arabian Peninsula, and on the east by India. Historically the sea has been known by names including the Erythraean Sea. Its total area is 3,862,000 km2 and its depth is 4,652 metres. The Gulf of Aden is in the southwest, connecting the Arabian Sea to the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the Arabian Sea has been crossed by important marine trade routes since the third or second millennium BCE. Major seaports include Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai, the Port of Karachi and the Gwadar Port in Pakistan, other important ports include in India, Kandla Port, and Mormugao in Goa. The largest islands in the Arabian Sea include Socotra, Masirah Island, Astola Island, the Arabian Seas surface area is about 3,862,000 km2. The maximum width of the Sea is approximately 2,400 km, the biggest river flowing into the Sea is the Indus River. There are also the gulfs of Khambhat and Kutch on the Indian coast, the countries with coastlines on the Arabian Sea are Somalia, Djibouti, Yemen, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Iran, Pakistan, India and the Maldives. There are several cities on the seas coast including Mumbai, Surat, Karachi, Gwadar, Pasni, Ormara, Aden, Muscat, Keti Bandar, Salalah, Duqm. International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Arabian Sea as follows, the Eastern limit of the Gulf of Aden. A line joining Ràs al Hadd, East point of Arabia, a line running from the South extremity of Addu Atoll, to the Eastern extreme of Ràs Hafun. The Western limit of the Laccadive Sea, by the time of Julius Caesar, several well-established combined land-sea trade routes depended upon water transport through the Sea around the rough inland terrain features to its north. Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravan, travel through country and risk of bandits. Later the kingdom of Axum arose in Ethiopia to rule a mercantile empire rooted in the trade with Europe via Alexandria, Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai is the largest port in the Arabian Sea, and the largest container port in India. The Port of Karachi is Pakistans largest and busiest seaport, handling about 60% of the nations cargo and it is located between the Karachi towns of Kiamari and Saddar, close to the main business district and several industrial areas. The geographic position of the places it in close proximity to major shipping routes such as the Strait of Hormuz. The history of the port is intertwined with that of the city of Karachi, several ancient ports have been attributed in the area including Krokola, Morontobara, Barbarikon (the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, and Debal. It warns sailors about whirlpools and advises them to safety in Kaurashi harbour if they found themselves drifting dangerously

Arabian Sea
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Arabian Sea from space
Arabian Sea
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Arabian Sea
Arabian Sea
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17th century map depicting the locations of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
Arabian Sea
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The Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai, India is the largest port of India and one of the busiest in the Arabian Sea

21.
Karnataka
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Karnataka is a state in south western region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, originally known as the State of Mysore, it was renamed Karnataka in 1973. The capital and largest city is Bangalore, the state covers an area of 191,976 square kilometres, or 5.83 percent of the total geographical area of India. It is the seventh largest Indian state by area, with 61,130,704 inhabitants at the 2011 census, Karnataka is the eighth largest state by population, comprising 30 districts. Kannada, one of the languages of India, is the most widely spoken. Most of these rivers flow out of Karnataka eastward into the Bay of Bengal, though several etymologies have been suggested for the name Karnataka, the generally accepted one is that Karnataka is derived from the Kannada words karu and nādu, meaning elevated land. Karu nadu may also be read as karu, meaning black, the British used the word Carnatic, sometimes Karnatak, to describe both sides of peninsular India, south of the Krishna. With an antiquity that dates to the paleolithic, Karnataka has been home to some of the most powerful empires of ancient, the philosophers and musical bards patronised by these empires launched socio-religious and literary movements which have endured to the present day. Karnataka has contributed significantly to both forms of Indian classical music, the Carnatic and Hindustani traditions, Karnatakas pre-history goes back to a paleolithic hand-axe culture evidenced by discoveries of, among other things, hand axes and cleavers in the region. Evidence of neolithic and megalithic cultures have also found in the state. Gold discovered in Harappa was found to be imported from mines in Karnataka, prior to the third century BCE, most of Karnataka formed part of the Nanda Empire before coming under the Mauryan empire of Emperor Ashoka. Four centuries of Satavahana rule followed, allowing them to large areas of Karnataka. The decline of Satavahana power led to the rise of the earliest native kingdoms, the Kadambas, the Kadamba Dynasty, founded by Mayurasharma, had its capital at Banavasi, the Western Ganga Dynasty was formed with Talakad as its capital. These were also the first kingdoms to use Kannada in administration, as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription, the Western Chalukyas patronised a unique style of architecture and Kannada literature which became a precursor to the Hoysala art of 12th century. Parts of modern-day Southern Karnataka were occupied by the Chola Empire at the turn of 11th century, the Cholas and the Hoysalas fought over the region in the early 12th century before it eventually came under Hoysala rule. At the turn of the first millennium, the Hoysalas gained power in the region, literature flourished during this time, which led to the emergence of distinctive Kannada literary metres, and the construction of temples and sculptures adhering to the Vesara style of architecture. The expansion of the Hoysala Empire brought minor parts of modern Andhra Pradesh, in the early 14th century, Harihara and Bukka Raya established the Vijayanagara empire with its capital, Hosapattana, on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in the modern Bellary district. The empire rose as a bulwark against Muslim advances into South India, in 1565, Karnataka and the rest of South India experienced a major geopolitical shift when the Vijayanagara empire fell to a confederation of Islamic sultanates in the Battle of Talikota

22.
Kerala
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Kerala historically known as Keralam, is an Indian state in South India on the Malabar Coast. It was formed on 1 November 1956 following the States Reorganisation Act by combining Malayalam-speaking regions, spread over 38,863 km2, it is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33,387,677 inhabitants as per the 2011 Census, Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state. The region has been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE, the Chera Dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala, though it frequently struggled against attacks by the neighbouring Cholas and Pandyas. In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, after independence, Travancore and Cochin joined the Republic of India and Travancore-Cochin was given the status of a state in 1949. In 1956, Kerala state was formed by merging Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin, Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity. The culture is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian cultures, developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India, the production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, the states coastline extends for 595 kilometres, and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry which contributes 3% to the states income. The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly English, Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with backwaters, beaches, Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions. The name Kerala has an uncertain etymology, One popular theory derives Kerala from Kera and alam is land, thus land of coconuts, this also happens to be a nickname for the state due to abundance of coconut trees and its use by the locals. The word Kerala is first recorded in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka, the inscription refers to the local ruler as Keralaputra, or son of Chera. This contradicts the theory that Kera is from coconut tree, at that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil, Chera and Kera are variants of the same word. The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Proto-Tamil-Malayalam word for lake, the earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala is the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Rigveda. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two Hindu epics, the Skanda Purana mentions the ecclesiastical office of the Thachudaya Kaimal who is referred to as Manikkam Keralar, synonymous with the deity of the Koodalmanikyam temple. Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam or chera alam, the Greco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Keralaputra as Celobotra. According to Hindu mythology, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the warrior sage Parasurama. Parasurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached, according to legend, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari. The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation, so Parasurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki, out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land

Kerala
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A houseboat near Alappuzha, Kerala
Kerala
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Parasurama, surrounded by settlers, commanding Varuna (the Hindu God of water) to part the seas and reveal Kerala.
Kerala
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A dolmen erected by Neolithic people in Marayur
Kerala
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Silk Road map. The spice trade was mainly along the water routes (blue).

23.
Cape Comorin
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Kanyakumari pronunciation, also known as Kanniyakumari, formerly known as Cape Comorin, is a town in Kanyakumari District in the state of Tamil Nadu in India. The name comes from the Devi Kanya Kumari Temple in the region and it is the southernmost tip of peninsular India. Kanyakumari town is the tip of the Cardamom Hills, an extension of the Western Ghats range. The nearest town is Nagercoil, the headquarters of Kanyakumari District,22 km away. Kanyakumari has been a town since Sangam period and is a popular tourist destination, ptolemys geography describes commercial relations between western India and Alexandria, the chief eastern emporium of the Roman Empire. He identified Kanyakumari along with the Gulf of Mannar as a center for pearl fishery and he also identifies Korkai, a place to the east of Kanyakumari, as an emporium of pearl trade. Kanyakumari District consists of those known locally as Nanjil Nadu. The names of the villages of the such as Azhagiapaandipuram, Bhoothapandy. Nanjilnadu was under the rule of Pandiyas till the early 10th century, the Kalkulam and Vilavancode taluks were under the rule of the Chera Dynasty. Veera Kerala Varma, one such chieftain, styled himself as Nanjil Kuravan, the annexation commenced by Veera Kerala Varma was to a large extent continued by his successors and completed by AD1115. For about four centuries, the Venad was ruled by powerful kings who were making incursions into the Pandian territories. As a result, Vijayanagar kings proceeded against Venad, in 1609 Kanyakumari fell into the hands of Viswanatha Nayak of Madurai. Consequent on this, there was no threat to Nanjilnadu until 1634. During the regime of Ravi Varma and Marthanda Varma, Venad was disturbed by the internal strife, sanda Sahib of Arcot took advantage of this situation and attacked Nanjilnadu. After Marthanda Varma, Venad had weak rulers and as a result there was frequent interference by the British whose control was established over Venad. From 1947 to 1956, it was under the rule of Maharaja of Travancore. During the period between 1956–1961, the system has fallen in line with that of other districts in Tamil Nadu. Kanyakumari has been a centre for art and religion for centuries

24.
Chera dynasty
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The Cheras were the principal ruling dynasty of the present-day state of Kerala and to a lesser extent, parts of Tamil Nadu in South India. Along with the Ay kingdom and the Ezhimala kingdom, they formed the kingdoms of Kerala in the early years of the Common Era. The origins of the dynasty are unclear and it is understood that they were speakers of Proto-Tamil-Malayalam while some being practitioners of literary writing in Old Tamil. In fact, most of their history is reconstructed from the body of known as the Sangam literature written in Old Tamil around the 3rd century CE. While Pliny and Ptolemy refer to the Cheras as Calobotras, the Periplus refers to them as the Keprobotras, the earliest Sanskrit works which refer to the Cheras and Kerala is probably the Aitreya Aranyaka. It refers to the land as Chera-pada - and as one of the three peoples who did not follow some ancient injunctions, there are also brief references by Katyanana, Edicts of Ashoka, Patanjali and Kautilya though Panini does not mention of the land. However, it is the Tamil works collectively known as the Sangam literature that form the most important sources for a detailed history of the Cheras. These works roughly span the period 100 CE to 300 CE, among them, the most important sources for the Cheras are the Pattittupattu, the Agananuru, the Purananuru and the Silappatikaram. The exact antiquity of the Chera dynasty is difficult to establish, however, based on the travellers accounts and the Sangam literature, it can be confirmed that they were already existing around the 4th century BCE. The Sangam literature describes a line of Chera rulers. It records the names of the kings, the princes, the internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled and a connected account of the history of the period is an area of research. Uthiyan Cheralathan, Nedum Cheralathan and Senguttuvan Chera are some of the referred to in the Sangam poems. Senguttuvan Chera, the most celebrated Chera king, is famous for the legends surrounding Kannagi, the exact location of the Chera capital has been subject to some speculation. The Chera capital has been called, Vanchi and Karur in several works and this has led to several theories identifying the Chera capital in places called Karur in both Kerala and Tamil Nadu. However, it is clear that the capital was near the famous port known as Muziris. Pliny refers to Muziris as the Chera capital, while the author of the Periplus identifies the capital to be a couple of away from the mouth of the river at Muziris. Ptolemy who identifies the capital as Karoura gives a location that is very close to Muziris as well. The Cheras also seem to have battles with other neighbouring dynasties such as the Pallavas, the Rashtrakutas

Chera dynasty
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Extent of Chera kingdom
Chera dynasty
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Family tree of the kings of the Chera dynasty based on Sangam literature. The monarchs ruled in the first two centuries of the Common Era.

25.
Kolathiris
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Kolattunādu was one of the three most powerful feudal kingdoms on the Malabar Coast during the arrival Portuguese Armadas to India, the others being Zamorins Calicut and Quilon. Kolattunādu had its capital at Ezhimala and was ruled by Kolattiri Royal Family and roughly comprised the northern districts of Kerala state. Traditionally, Kolattunādu is described as the land lying between Perumba river in the north and Putupattanam river in the south, the Kolathiris trace their ancestry back to the ancient Mushika kingdom of the Tamil Sangam Age. The Kolathiri would have started out as a branch of the Cheras, after King Nannan of Mushika dynasty was killed in a battle against the Cheras, the chronicled history of the dynasty is obscure, except for a few indirect references here and there. Kolathunad was the northernmost province of the Later Chera kingdom and had autonomy during the 12th century. The more famous Travancore Royal Family a close cousin dynasty of the Kolathiri Family, in the course of time, their territories were divided into a number of petty vassal principalities, chief among them Cannanore and Laccadives, Cotiote and Wynad, Cartinad, Irvenaad, and Randaterra. The so-called Five Friendly Northern Rulers were contiguous to Kolattnad, north of the Kavvayi river and they engaged in frequent rivalry with their powerful neighbors in the south, the Zamorins of Calicut—a permanent feature of Kerala history. Cherusseri Namboothiri, the author Krshna Gatha, a landmark in the development of Malayalam literature, lived in the court of Udayavarman Kolattiri, the origin of the Ezhi mala rulers, the Mushaka Kingdom, and Kolathunad are a bit obscure in terms of conventional history. In the Tamil Sangam Age, northern Malabar like the rest of present-day Kerala, Tulu Nadu, Coorg, a branch of the Cheras with its capital at Ezhil mala, known as the Mushika Dynasty ruled the area on behalf of the Cheras. Ezhil mala and its regions became dynamic centers of sociopolitical activities in the early centuries of the Christian era. The Ezhil mala kingdom comprised practically the whole of the present Kannur, Kasaragode and Wynad districts and this was the north-western most Tamil speaking area of the ancient Tamil country. Nannan of Ezhil mala was the most celebrated ruler of this dynasty, surviving Tamil anthologies draw a brilliant picture of Nannan and describe his engagements with ruling elites such as the Cheras. He was more of a chieftain who engaged primarily in plundering raids in the neighboring territories. However, in the beginning of the 1st century AD, the kingdom of Ezhil mala rose to prominence under Nannan with his capital at Pazhi. Nannan was a king who conducted expeditions deep into the interior regions and brought the Wynad-Gudalur region. According to Tamil poets he made several victories over the Cheras, King Narmudi Cheral, the successor of Sel Kelu Kuttuvan, sent Chera forces under General Migili against Nannan. But, he was defeated in the Battle of Pazhi against the Ezhil mala forces, but later, Nannan was defeated in a series of subsequent engagements. He was forcesd to flee his capital Pazhi and seek asylum in Wynad hills, the battles ended when Narmudi Cheral crushed Nannans forces in the Battle of Vagai Perum Turai

Kolathiris

26.
Travancore
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The Kingdom of Travancore (/ˈtrævəŋkɔər/, Malayalam, തിരുവിതാംകൂർ Thiruvithamkoor, was an Indian kingdom from 1729 until 1949. It was ruled by the Travancore Royal Family from Padmanabhapuram, the official flag of the state was red with a dextrally-coiled silver conch shell at its center. In the early 19th century, the became a princely state of the British Empire. When the region was part of the Chera empire, it was known as Thiruvazhumkode. It was contracted to Thiruvankode, and anglicised by the English to Travancore. In course of time, the Ay kingdom, part of the Chera empire, which ruled the Thiruvazhumkode area, became independent, the Aayis controlled the land from present day Kollam district in the north, through Thiruvananthapuram district, all in Kerala, to the Kanyakumari district. There were two capitals, the one at Kollam and a subsidiary one at Thrippapur. The kingdom was also called Venad. Kings of Venad had, at times, travelled from Kollam and built residential palaces in Thiruvithamcode. By the time of King Marthanda Varma, the half of the kingdom had become dominant. During his reign, it absorbed the north and Thiruvithamcode or Travancore became the official name, Travancore was located at the extreme southern tip of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, Travancore was divided into three distinct regions, the eastern highlands, the central midlands, and the western lowlands. Venad was a state at the tip of the Indian Subcontinent. Till the end of the 11th century AD, it was a principality in the Ay Kingdom. The Ays were the earliest ruling dynasty in southern Kerala, who, at their zenith and their capital during the first Sangam age was in Aykudi and later, towards the end of the 8th century AD, was at Quilon. Though a series of attacks by the resurgent Pandyas between the 7th and 8th centuries caused the decline of the Ays, the dynasty was powerful till the beginning of the 10th century, when the Ay power diminished, Venad became the southernmost principality of the Second Chera Kingdom. An invasion of the Cholas into Venad caused the destruction of Kollam in 1096, however, the Chera capital, Mahodayapuram, also fell in the subsequent Chola attack, which compelled the Chera king, Rama varma Kulasekara, to shift his capital to Kollam. Thus the end of the Second Chera dynasty in the 12th century marks the independence of Venad, the history of Travancore began with Marthanda Varma, who inherited the kingdom of Venad, and expanded it into Travancore during his reign

27.
Zamorins
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Samoothiri of Kozhikode is the hereditary royal title used by the Hindu Eradi Nair rulers of the medieval Kingdom of Kozhikode on the Malabar Coast. The Samoodiris ruled for almost six centuries, between c. 12th and 18th century AD based at the city of Kozhikode, one of the important trading centres in southern India. The Portuguese trader and navigator Vasco da Gama visited Kozhikode in 1498, the Eradis with their original base at Nediyiruppu and were land-locked and sought an outlet to the Arabian Sea. The Eradis subsequently moved their capital to the port of Kozhikode, according to K. V. Krishna Ayyar, a historian, the city of Kozhikode was founded on a marshy tract along the Malabar coast in the 11th century AD. During Classical antiquity and the Middle Ages, Kozhikode was dubbed the City of Spices for its role as the major trading point of eastern spices, the name Kozhikode is thought to be derived from Koyil and Kota meaning Fortified Palace. Others have called the city by different names, the Arabs called it Kalikooth, Tamils called the city Kallikkottai, for the Chinese it was Kalifo. The name of the famous fine variety of cotton cloth called Calico that was exported from the port is also thought to have derived from Kozhikode. Other seats of the Samoothiri were Ponnani, Trichur and Cranganore, five Places of Dignity existed in Kozhikode, each with its own separate property enjoyed in succession by the senior members of the three Royal Branches of the family. The Samoothiris family, being Eradis are connected to several other Eradi clans who are resident in Nilambur, Ponnani, the first Place of Dignity was the Samoothiri himself The second in line successor to the throne is known as the Eralppad and his official seat was in Karimpuzha. This area was annexed from Valluvanad in the leadership of the then Eralppad in the first half of the 14th century, the Samoothiri claimed to be the paramount sovereign over Payyormala, Pulavayi, Beypore, Parappanad, Tanore, Talapalli, Chavakkad and Kavalappara. Calicut had also taken possession of sovereignty over Kollangodu, Kotuvayur, the chief ports under direct control were Putuppattanam, Pantalayani Kollam, Calicut, Tanur, Ponnani, Chetwai and Cranganore. According to tradition Kozhikode State was founded around 826 AD as Nediyirippu Swarūpam, the city of Kozhikode was founded in 1026. Between 27 April 1766 and 1792 the state was annexed by the Mysore Kingdom, on 18 Aug 1792 it became a princely state under British protectorate. The territory was annexed by the British Raj on 15 November 1806, famous legends such as The Origin of Kerala tell the establishment of a local ruling family at Nediyiruppu, near present-day Kondotty by two young brothers belonging to the Nair Eradi clan. The brothers, Manikkan and Vikraman were the most trusted generals in the army of the Cheras, however, during the legendary partition of Chera Kingdom, the king didnt give any land to these two brothers. Due to his feeling of guilt, the later gave his personal sword and his favorite prayer conch to his general. So the general conquered neighboring states and created a kingdom for himself. As a token of his respect to the Chera king, he adopted the logo of two crossed swords, with a conch in the middle and a lighted lamp above it

28.
History of Kozhikode
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Kozhikode, also known as Calicut, is a city in the southern Indian state of Kerala. It is the third largest city in Kerala and the headquarters of Kozhikode district, Kozhikode has a long and illustrious history—one of resplendent trade, poignant invasions and liberation struggles. It was dubbed the City of Spices for its role as the major trading point of eastern spices during the Middle ages, Kozhikode was once the capital of an independent kingdom by the same name and later of the erstwhile Malabar District. During the Sangam period, the land where Kozhikode now stands was a region of the Chera Empire. This land, part of the larger Tamilakam partly fell within the Kudanad to the south, the dominion of the Cheras extended as far as present day Vatakara, beyond which lay the kingdom of Eli. The ports of the Chera empire played an important role in fostering relations between Kerala and the outside world. According to scholars, Tyndis or Tondi to the south of Kozhikode was a flourishing seaport, during the 9th century, this region became a part of the Second Chera Empire. The Cheras ruled the territory until 1102 CE, the rise of Calicut as a major trading centre and a port city does not seem to have happened before the 13th century. He does however mention the kingdom of Eli and this provides a clue to a plausible date for the rise of Calicut as a major kingdom on the Kerala coast. Nevertheless, Prof. Krishna Ayyar has assigned 1034 CE as the year of foundation of the city, the date of this partition is a significant turning point in the history of Kerala. It is now clear that the Cheraman Perumals ruled in the 8th, 9th and 10th centuries, there is some ambiguity regarding the exact course of events that led to the establishment of the zamorins rule over Calicut. According to Prof. A. Sreedhara Menon, immediately following the fall of the Rama Kulasekhara, Calicut, the Eradis of Nediyirippu in Ernad where land-locked and sought an outlet to the sea to initiate trade and commerce with the distant lands. To accomplish this, the Eradis marched with their nairs towards Panniyankara and besieged the Porlatiri in his headquarters, the Eradis emerged victorious in their conquest of Polanad. After this, Menokkis were made as the ruler of Polanad and came to terms with the troops, after this, the town of Calicut was founded close to the palace at Tali. Then, the Eradis shifted their headquarters from Nediyirippu to Calicut, the Governor of Ernad built a fort at a place called Velapuram to safeguard his new interests. The fort most likely lent its name to Koyil Kotta the precursor to Calicut, the King therefore granted him, as a mark of favour, a small tract of land on the sea-coast in addition to his hereditary possessions. This patch of wasteland is called Cullikkad in the Keralolpathi, to corroborate his assertion that Mana Vikrama was in fact a favourite of the last Perumal, Narayanan cites a stone inscription of the last ruler discovered at Kollam in South Kerala. However, the Eradis being land-locked lacked direct access to the coast line as the territory of Polanad lay between Eranad and Calicut

History of Kozhikode
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Image of Calicut, India from Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlas Civitates orbis terrarum, 1572
History of Kozhikode
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Zheng He 's navigation chart from Hormuz to Calicut, 1430
History of Kozhikode
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The Zamorin of Calicut as portrayed by the Dutch
History of Kozhikode
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Engraving of the coast of Calicut (James Forbes, 1813)

29.
Vannimai
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The Vannimai, or Vanni chieftaincies, were feudal land divisions ruled by chiefs south of the Jaffna peninsula in northern Sri Lanka. These chieftaincies arose in the 12th century, with the rise of the medieval Tamil kingdoms golden age, the chieftaincies developed in sparsely settled areas, and were ruled by Vanniars. An extension of the Jaffna kingdoms territory, the chiefs of the Vannimais were, for most of their existence, at 1621, the Jaffna Kingdom was conquered by the Portuguese and the Vanni chiefs became tributaries of the Portuguese Ceylon. The Portuguese colony in Sri Lanka was later taken over by the Dutch, during the Dutch rule it came to Vannian resistances against the colonial rule, one of these was the rebellion of Pandara Vanniyan. Allied with the Kingdom of Kandy, Pandara Vanniyan fought with guerrilla tactics against the Dutch, at 1803, he was defeated by Lt. von Driberg and Vanni fell into hands of the British. Vanni had been reincorporated with Jaffna Peninsula to form the Malabar Coylot Vanni country which became the Northern Province of Sri Lanka. Vanniar or Vannia was a used by tribute-paying feudal chiefs in medieval Sri Lanka. It was also recorded as the name of a caste amongst Sri Lankan Tamils in the Vanni District of northern Sri Lanka during the early 1900s, the Vannimai ruling class arose from a multi-ethnic and multi-caste background. According to primary sources such as the Yalpana Vaipava Malai, some were descended from Vanniar caste immigrants from modern Tamil Nadu, there were also number of Vannia chiefs of Sinhalese ancestry. Kankan visited the Munneswaram temple on the west coast of Sri Lanka, according to the chronicles, he extensively renovated and expanded the shrine, he was crowned with the ephitet Kulakottan, meaning Builder of Tank and Temple. As a result of his policies, the Vanni region flourished, the Vanniar claim descent from this chief. Others cite poetic and inscriptional evidence to date his renovations to as early as 1589 BC and these petty chefs paid tribute to the Jaffna Kingdom. Sometimes they were independent of any control, or were subdued by the southern kingdoms for strategic advantages. Many kings and chiefs with titles such as Vannian or Vannia ruled in areas of modern Sri Lanka during the Jaffna era. Some of the Vanni chieftains were immigrants from southern India, the Vanni chieftains ruled following local custom, supported by a coterie of local officials. Their rule had a influence on the language of the local populace. Hence Vannimais just south of the Jaffna peninsula and in the eastern Trincomalee district usually paid a tribute to the northern kingdom instead of taxes. The tribute was in cash, grains, honey, elephants, the annual tribute system was enforced due to the greater distance from Jaffna

30.
Tamil Eelam
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Tamil Eelam is a proposed independent state that Tamils in Sri Lanka and the Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora aspire to create in the north and east of Sri Lanka. Tamil Eelam has no status or recognition by world states though sections of the Eelam were under de facto control of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam for most of the 2000s. The name is derived from the ancient Tamil name for Sri Lanka and these are dated between 2nd century BC and 2nd century AD. Although it is not known when ethnic Tamils first settled in Sri Lanka, the Jaffna Peninsula was referred to in the Manimekalai as Naga Nadu, inhabitated by the Naga people. They were early descendant of the Sri Lankan Tamils who adapted Tamil culture, the Pallava dynasty trace their origin back to a fusion between the Chola king Killivalavan and the daughter of the Naga king Pilli Valai. The 12th century saw the rise of a significant Tamil Hindu social formation in the Jaffna Peninsula, by the 11th and 12th centuries AD the upper half of the eastern province had a large Tamil community. Eastern Tamils had feudal organizations that centered around Ur Podiyar at a village level and they also were organized politically as Vannimai chiefs who came nominally under the Kingdom of Kandy. One of the traditions that records the landing and settling of eastern Sri Lanka is called Mattakallappu Manmiyam. The chieftaincy in Trincomalee was at times incorporated into the northern Kingdom, hence Vannimais just south of the Jaffna peninsula and in the eastern Trincomalee district usually paid an annual tribute to the Jaffna Kingdom instead of taxes. The tribute was in cash, grains, honey, elephants, the annual tribute system was enforced due to the greater distance from Jaffna. It was against this backdrop that the Federal party decided to sign the Bandaranaike-Chelvanayakam Pact in July 1957, as the name goes, it was merely an agreement between the two individuals and lacked any legality. It was never approved by the parliament or the party or the Cabinet. However, soon afterwards the agreement was abandoned by the Sinhala party, in 1965, another pact, the Senanayake-Chelvanayakam Pact was signed but also not implemented. In the 1970 election the United Front led by Sirimavo Bandaranaike came into power, the new government adopted two new policies that were considered discriminatory by the Tamil people. The scheme allotted up to 40% of the university placement to rural youth, the government claimed that this was an affirmative action scheme to assist geographically disadvantaged students to gain tertiary education. According to K. M. de Silva, a historian, a similar policy was adapted for employment in the public sector, leaving less than 10 percent of civil service jobs available to Tamil speakers. The Federal Party opposed these policies and Chelvanayakam resigned his seat on October 1972. The new constitution in 1972 further exacerbated long standing grievances and sense of discrimination for the Sri Lankan Tamil people and this had emboldened younger Tamils to seek ways to form a Tamil homeland where the rights and freedoms of the Tamil people could be protected and nurtured

31.
Valluvokonathiris
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On the west, it was bounded by the Arabian Sea at the port Ponnani and on the east by Attappadi Hills. According to local legends, the last Later Chera ruler gave a vast extension of land in South Malabar to one of their governors, Valluvakkonithiri, the Valluvakkonithiri was also given last Later Chera rulers shield. Not surprisingly, the Vellatiri rajas were hereditary enemies of the Samoothiri, Valluvanad is famous for the Mamankam festivals, held once in 12 years and the endless wars against the Samoothiri of Kozhikode. By the late 18th century, Vellatiri or Walluwanad proper was the remaining territory of the Walluvanad raja. Celebrated poets, Kunchan Nambiar and Poonthanam were born in Valluvanad, Valluvanad comprises Perinthalmanna taluk of Malappuram District, Ottapalam and Mannarkkad taluks of Palakkad District. The family deity of the Valluvanad Royal family was Thirumandhamkunnu Bhagavati at Thirumandhamkunnu Temple, the ruler of the kingdom was called Valluvakkonathiri. Valluvakkonathiri was also known by the names like Vellaattiri, Vallabhan, Rayiran Chathan, Chathan Kotha, Valluvanad Dynasty is considered to be of very ancient lineage. Its believed that Valluvanad were the land of the Valluvar people, but, Unnu Neeli Sandesam and Unni Yadi Charithram contain a mention of Vallabha Kshiti or Vallabhakshoni, the land of Prince Vallabha, which, by all indications, is likely to be Valluvanad. So, some say that Valluvanad Kings are descendants of a Pallava prince Sreevallabha and its said that he moved the entire family from Srivilliputhur in north Tamil Nadu to the area around the Nila River about 4th century CE. The eldest person in the family is called Valluvakonathiri, in most records, the hierarchy was called Arangot Swamplanad. Titles according to seniority were - Valluvakkonathiri, Vellalpad, Thacharalpad, Edathralpad, Kolathur, the four branches of this family, namely Aripra, Ayiranazhi, Kadannamanna and Mankada are now in Mankada panchayath, Perinthalmanna taluk, Malappuram district. Among the male members the eldest sthani is titled as Valluvakonathiri, another sthani is nominated by Vellattiri and is called Patinharakkara Thampuran. He has rights over some landed property and privileges, the eldest Thampuratti of the family is called Kulathur Thampuratty and the next eldest is called Kadannamootha Thampuratty. These eldest five male members and eldest two female members are eligible for malikhan- a monthly remuneration to compensate for properties or rights taken over by the British, apart from this, the eldest female members of each Kovilakom have their own rights and privileges. Karuvayoor Moosad, was the Brahmin chief minister of Vellattiri, kunnathattil Madambil Nair was the chieftain who looked after the affairs of the eastern boundary and hilly areas of Vellattiri. Chondathil Mannadiar and Nair of Kavada were other chiefs under him, Valluvanad has a recorded history going back to the days of the Second Chera kingdom or Kulashekhara kingdom. At one point of time the Valluvokonathiri exercised sovereign powers over a portion of South Malabar under the Chera rulers. Valluvanad comprised the whole of the Perinthalmanna taluk, Mannarkkad and Ottapalam taluk and also parts of Ponnani taluk, Tirur taluk, Rajasekharan is the first Valluwanad Raja about whom there are inscriptions

Valluvokonathiris
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Geography of Malabar 1909

32.
Valluvanad (southern Malabar)
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On the west, it was bounded by the Arabian Sea at the port Ponnani and on the east by Attappadi Hills. According to local legends, the last Later Chera ruler gave a vast extension of land in South Malabar to one of their governors, Valluvakkonithiri, the Valluvakkonithiri was also given last Later Chera rulers shield. Not surprisingly, the Vellatiri rajas were hereditary enemies of the Samoothiri, Valluvanad is famous for the Mamankam festivals, held once in 12 years and the endless wars against the Samoothiri of Kozhikode. By the late 18th century, Vellatiri or Walluwanad proper was the remaining territory of the Walluvanad raja. Celebrated poets, Kunchan Nambiar and Poonthanam were born in Valluvanad, Valluvanad comprises Perinthalmanna taluk of Malappuram District, Ottapalam and Mannarkkad taluks of Palakkad District. The family deity of the Valluvanad Royal family was Thirumandhamkunnu Bhagavati at Thirumandhamkunnu Temple, the ruler of the kingdom was called Valluvakkonathiri. Valluvakkonathiri was also known by the names like Vellaattiri, Vallabhan, Rayiran Chathan, Chathan Kotha, Valluvanad Dynasty is considered to be of very ancient lineage. Its believed that Valluvanad were the land of the Valluvar people, but, Unnu Neeli Sandesam and Unni Yadi Charithram contain a mention of Vallabha Kshiti or Vallabhakshoni, the land of Prince Vallabha, which, by all indications, is likely to be Valluvanad. So, some say that Valluvanad Kings are descendants of a Pallava prince Sreevallabha and its said that he moved the entire family from Srivilliputhur in north Tamil Nadu to the area around the Nila River about 4th century CE. The eldest person in the family is called Valluvakonathiri, in most records, the hierarchy was called Arangot Swamplanad. Titles according to seniority were - Valluvakkonathiri, Vellalpad, Thacharalpad, Edathralpad, Kolathur, the four branches of this family, namely Aripra, Ayiranazhi, Kadannamanna and Mankada are now in Mankada panchayath, Perinthalmanna taluk, Malappuram district. Among the male members the eldest sthani is titled as Valluvakonathiri, another sthani is nominated by Vellattiri and is called Patinharakkara Thampuran. He has rights over some landed property and privileges, the eldest Thampuratti of the family is called Kulathur Thampuratty and the next eldest is called Kadannamootha Thampuratty. These eldest five male members and eldest two female members are eligible for malikhan- a monthly remuneration to compensate for properties or rights taken over by the British, apart from this, the eldest female members of each Kovilakom have their own rights and privileges. Karuvayoor Moosad, was the Brahmin chief minister of Vellattiri, kunnathattil Madambil Nair was the chieftain who looked after the affairs of the eastern boundary and hilly areas of Vellattiri. Chondathil Mannadiar and Nair of Kavada were other chiefs under him, Valluvanad has a recorded history going back to the days of the Second Chera kingdom or Kulashekhara kingdom. At one point of time the Valluvokonathiri exercised sovereign powers over a portion of South Malabar under the Chera rulers. Valluvanad comprised the whole of the Perinthalmanna taluk, Mannarkkad and Ottapalam taluk and also parts of Ponnani taluk, Tirur taluk, Rajasekharan is the first Valluwanad Raja about whom there are inscriptions

Valluvanad (southern Malabar)
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Geography of Malabar 1909

33.
Konkan
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Konkan, also known as the Konkan Coast or Kokan, is a rugged section of the western coastline of India. It is a 720 km long coastline and it consists of the coastal districts of western Indian states of Karnataka, Goa, and Maharashtra. The ancient Saptakonkana is a larger region. The word Konkan derived from two marathi words koṇa and kaṇa, the Konkan region is a relatively small strip of flat land at the western foothills of the Western Ghats. The Konkan division is an administrative sub-division of Maharashtra which comprises all the districts of the state. The Sahyadri Mountain range forms the boundary of the Konkan. The southern boundary is the Gangavali River, the Mayura River forms the northern boundary. The Gangavali flows in the district of in present-day Karnataka State, the towns of Karwar, Ankola, Kumta, Honavar and Bhatkal fall within the Konkan. The exact identity of the Mayura River, the limits of the historic Konkan, is indeterminate. The two districts in the state capital Mumbai are also part of Konkan division, maharashtras konkan area consists of,1. Palghar 2. Thane 3. Mumbai city 4. Mumbai suburb 5. Raigarh 6. Ratnagiri 7. Tribal communities in Konkan include Konkana, Warli and Kolcha in Southern Gujarat, Dadra and Nagarhaveli, katkaris are found more in Raigad and also some in Ratnagiri district

Konkan
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Traditional houses in Konkan region

34.
Maharashtra
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Maharashtra is a state in the western region of India and is Indias second-most populous state and third-largest state by area. It is the wealthiest Indian state and it is also the worlds second-most populous sub-national entity. It has over 112 million inhabitants and its capital, Mumbai, has a population of approximately 18 million, Nagpur is Maharashtras second capital as well as its winter capital. Maharashtras business opportunities along with its potential to offer a standard of living attract migrants from all over India. Ancient and medieval Maharashtra included the empires of the Satavahana dynasty, Rashtrakuta dynasty, Western Chalukyas, Mughals, the major rivers of the state are Godavari, and Krishna. The Narmada and Tapti Rivers flow near the border between Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat, Maharashtra is the second most urbanised state in India. The state has several popular Hindu places of pilgrimage including Pandharpur, Dehu and Alandi, other places that attract pilgrims from other parts of India and beyond include Hazur Sahib Gurudwara at Nanded, Sai Baba shrine at Shirdi and Dikshabhumi at Nagpur. Maharashtra is the wealthiest and one of the most developed states in India, as of 2011, the state had a per capita income of ₹1.0035 lakh, more than the national average of ₹0.73 lakh. Its GDP per capita crossed the ₹1.20 lakh threshold for the first time in 2013, however, as of 2014, the GDP per capita reduced to ₹1.03 lakh Agriculture and industries are the largest parts of the states economy. Major industries include chemical products, electrical and non-electrical machinery, textiles, petroleum, Jai Maharashtra The modern Marathi language developed from the Maharashtri Prakrit, and the word Mahratta is found in the Jain Maharashtri literature. The terms Maharashtra, Maharashtri, Marathi and Maratha may have derived from the same root, however, their exact etymology is uncertain. But the Marathas as a people do not seem to be mentioned before the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the most widely accepted theory among the linguistic scholars is that the words Maratha and Maharashtra ultimately derived from a combination of Maha and rashtrika. The word rashtrika is a Sanskritized form of Ratta, the name of a tribe or dynasty of petty chiefs ruling in the Deccan region. Another theory is that the term is derived from Maha and ratha / rathi, an alternative theory states that the term derives from the word Maha and Rashtra. However, this theory has not found acceptance among scholars who believe it to be the Sanskritised interpretation of later writers. Maharashtra was ruled by the Maurya Empire in the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, around 230 BCE Maharashtra came under the rule of the Satavahana dynasty for 400 years. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni, in 90 CE Vedishri, son of the Satavahana king Satakarni, the Lord of Dakshinapatha, wielder of the unchecked wheel of Sovereignty, made Junnar, thirty miles north of Pune, the capital of his kingdom. The state was ruled by Western Satraps, Gupta Empire, Gurjara-Pratihara, Vakataka, Kadambas, Chalukya Empire, Rashtrakuta Dynasty, and Western Chalukya before finally

35.
Kanyakumari district
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Kanyakumari district is the southernmost district in Tamil Nadu state and mainland India. It is the second largest district in the state in terms of population density, the district stands first in terms of literacy rate in the state. Kanyakumari district has a topography with sea on three sides and the mountains of the Western Ghats bordering the northern side. A few artifacts unearthed by excavations in there. The Presidency was later renamed Tamil Nadu and Kanyakumari, today, is one of the 32 districts of Tamil Nadu state, many historical assumptions persist in the district and state, which associate sages such as Vyasa, Agastya, Tolkappiyar, Avvaiyar and Thiruvalluvar to the district. The district is also the birthplace of Ayyavazhi, the area that comprises the current Kanyakumari district was a part of the old Ay kingdom of the first and second Sangham ages. Following the decline of the Ay kingdoms, the area became Venad, the wealth of the Nanjalnadu beckoned many invaded including the Nayaks and later an Islamist army during the reign of Umayamma Rani. The Venad region was in anarchy before Marthanda Varma ascended the throne in 1729 AD, before his reign the Samanthan Nairs ruled the province. Under their rule anarchy was dominant in Kanyakumari region, however, Marthanda Varma brought a sense of disorder under control by annexing the nearby territories, putting down the feudal lords and establishing the strong state of Travancore. He had also bought some portions of Kanyakumari from the then viceroy making it the southern boundary, under his rule the district improved in a social context as well as economically. The famous battle of Colachel took place in the district, later, the maharajahs of Travancore built the forts at Aramboly to prevent any invasion from the Carnatic. Key elements of Velu Thampi Dalawas revolt occurred in the area, in the year 1949, the area became a part of the reestablished Travancore Cochin state. The people of Agasteeswarem, Thovalai, Kalkulam and Vilavancode taluks, an extreme agitation by Tamil speaking residents under the leadership of Marshal Nesamony took place for including Kanyakumari within Tamil Nadu. Eventually the merger happened in 1956 based on language reorganization of states, the district of Kanyakumari is the southern most districts in the state of Tamil Nadu. It is situated between 77°15 and 77°36 east latitude and 8°03 and 8°35 north longitude, the district has borders with Tirunelveli district, the Gulf of Mannar, the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the state of Kerala. Kanyakumari includes the special grade village of Chinnamuttom, located at the southernmost point of the Indian Subcontinent, for administrative purposes, the district comprises four taluks, Thovalai, Agastheeswaram, Kalkulam, and Vilavancode. At the lower levels of administration, there are 99 village panchayats, the major towns of the district include, Agastheeswaram taluk, Nagercoil, Kanyakumari, Agastheeswaram, Suchindram and Rajakkamangalam. Kalkulam taluk, Padmanabhapuram-Thuckalay, Colachel, Kalkulam, Thiruvithamcode, Kurunthancode, Thiruvattar and Kulasekaram, Vilavancode Taluk, Karungal, Kuzhithurai-Marthandam, Vilavancode, Killiyur, Munchirai, Manjalumoodu Arumanai and Melpuram

36.
Monsoon
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Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase. The term is sometimes used for locally heavy but short-term rains. The major monsoon systems of the world consist of the West African and Asia-Australian monsoons, the inclusion of the North and South American monsoons with incomplete wind reversal has been debated. The south-west monsoon winds are called Nairutya Maarut in India, the English monsoon came from Portuguese monção, ultimately from Arabic mawsim and/or Hindi mausam, perhaps partly via early modern Dutch monsun. Strengthening of the Asian monsoon has been linked to the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau after the collision of the Indian sub-continent and Asia around 50 million years ago. Because of studies of records from the Arabian Sea and that of the wind-blown dust in the Loess Plateau of China, testing of this hypothesis awaits deep ocean sampling by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program. The monsoon has varied significantly in strength since this time, largely linked to climate change. A study of marine plankton suggested that the Indian Monsoon strengthened around 5 million years ago, then, during ice periods, the sea level fell and the Indonesian Seaway closed. When this happened, cold waters in the Pacific were impeded from flowing into the Indian Ocean and it is believed that the resulting increase in sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean increased the intensity of monsoons. Five episodes during the Quaternary at 2.22 Ma,1.83 Ma,0.68 Ma,0.45 Ma and 0.04 Ma were identified which showed a weakening of Leeuwin Current. The weakening of the LC would have an effect on the sea surface temperature field in the Indian Ocean, thus these five intervals could probably be those of considerable lowering of SST in the Indian Ocean and would have influenced Indian monsoon intensity. The impact of monsoon on the weather is different from place to place. In some places there is just a likelihood of having a more or less rain. In other places, quasi semi-deserts are turned into green grasslands where all sorts of plants. The Indian Monsoon turns large parts of India from a kind of semi-desert into green lands, see photos only taken 3 months apart in the Western Ghats. In places like this it is crucial for farmers to have the right timing for putting the seeds on the fields, Monsoons are large-scale sea breezes which occur when the temperature on land is significantly warmer or cooler than the temperature of the ocean. These temperature imbalances happen because oceans and land absorb heat in different ways, in contrast, dirt, sand, and rocks have lower heat capacities, and they can only transmit heat into the earth by conduction and not by convection. Therefore, bodies of water stay at an even temperature

37.
Kannur
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Kannur, also known by its English name Cannanore, is a city and a Municipal Corporation in Kannur district, state of Kerala, India. It is the headquarters of the Kannur District and situated 518 km north of the state capital Thiruvananthapuram. During British rule in India, Kannur was known as Cannanore, Kannur is the largest city of North Malabar region. Kannur district is known as the land of Looms and Lores, because of the weaving industry functioning in the district, Kannur is famous for its pristine beaches, Theyyam, and its handloom industry. Kannur is of strategic military importance in India. Kannur Cantonment is one of the 62 military cantonments in the country and is the headquarters of the Defence Security Corps, the Indian Naval Academy is 35 km north of Kannur City. It is Asias largest and the third largest naval academy. An Indian Coast Guard Academy has received approval to be built at Kannur and this academy will be built on the banks of Valapattanam River at Irinave, east of Azhikkal. The name Kannur may have derived from Kanathur, an ancient village. During the British Raj, the city was known as Cannanore, Kannur was an important trading center in the 12th century, with active business connections with Persia and Arabia. It served as the British military headquarters on Indias west coast until 1887, in conjunction with its sister city, Tellicherry, it was the third largest city on the western coast of British India in the 18th century after Bombay and Karachi. Kannur is an ancient city which used to be one of the three important cities of the whole western Indian sub continent 200 years ago, competing with Bombay. It is said to be that the Loud Sage – the ship of King Solomon had anchored off the coast of Kannur to gather wood for the construction of the Temple of the Lord. Kannurs name has mentions in the Periplus of the Eritrean Naura and sea, the original city of Kannur was under Keralas only Muslim Royal dynasty called the Arakkal Sultanate and it was their capital. This area is known as Kannur City. The modern town is referred as Kannur Town, Kannur, as a district and surrounding areas were mostly ruled by the famous Kolathiri rajas. When the state of Kerala was formed the district took the name Kannur, before that, Kannur was under the Chirakkal Taluk of Madras state under British rule. When the British dominated this part of the world, they preferred Madras and Cochin as their major stations and Kannur started to lose its old glory

38.
Vizhinjam
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Vizhinjam is a natural port located close to international shipping routes in Thiruvananthapuram city in the Indian state of Kerala. Kovalam beach lies 3 kilometres from Vizhinjam while the area is known for its Ayurvedic treatment centers, as of 2001, the population was 18,566. Vizhinjam International Seaport is an international deepwater multi-purpose shipping hub in its stages of development. The Kerala cabinet has decided to award the multi-thousand crore Vizhinjam international port and deep-water container transshipment terminal to Adani Ports, Vizhinjam harbour is the site of a unique demonstration plant that converts energy from waves to electricity using Oscillating Water Columns. The electricity generated is fed into the local grid. A caisson was constructed on the site in December 1990 and two generations of power modules have so far been tested, the plant was first commissioned in October 1991. The physical processes involved in the conversion are now much better understood. At present, more than 80% of the cost of the energy plant has been in the construction of concrete caissons. Considerable cost savings can be obtained using the concept of multi-functional breakwaters wherein a power module forms an incremental addition to a caisson breakwater and it is proposed to demonstrate the utility of this concept with the design and construction of a breakwater with a number of power modules. Vizhinjam dates back to the rule of the Ay dynasty, circa 850 AD –1400 AD, the region was the scene of many battles between the Kulasekhara dynasty and the Later Cholas, and Vizhinjam, the then capital, was sacked by the Cholas. When the kings of the Ay dynasty shifted their capital to Vizhinjam, a preliminary investigation by a team of archaeologist under Dr. Ajit Kumar, University of Kerala, has revealed the fort might have originally been 800 m² in area. The forts wall can be found on the northern and western parts and has been constructed using large boulders set in mud mortar, the wall, with a wide base, tapers on its way up. Even now this part of Vizhinjam is known as Kottapuram, (Kotta in Malayalam means Fort, according to Dr. Ajit, one important clue in dating the fort is that the walls have no battlements or loop holes. This is typical of early forts, he says, another complex of walls, near the present Our Lady of Good Voyage Church, probably relates to the Portuguese period. The team was able to trace literary and epigraphical references - of 9 AD to 12 AD vintage - to a fort and port at Vizhinjam. Moreover, the Srivaramangalam copper plates of Pandyan King Nedum Chadayan have clear reference to Vizhinjam, here, the fort is described as surrounded by waters of three seas, protected by a wide moat, high walls which the suns rays do not touch and so on. Leaving aside the hyperbole typical of such inscriptions, the evidence at Vizhinjam that fits this description of the old fort. In fact the port at Vizhinjam has been mentioned in the work The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, here Vizhinjam has been called as Balita, said Dr. Ajit

Vizhinjam
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Vizhinjam Port
Vizhinjam
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Fishermen about to set sail for the day from Vizhinjam Harbour. The wave energy demonstration plant can be seen in the background.
Vizhinjam
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An aerial view of Vizhinjam Harbour
Vizhinjam
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Our Lady of Good Voyage Church

39.
Muziris
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Muziris was an ancient seaport and urban center on the Malabar Coast that dates from at least the 1st century BC, if not before it. Muziris has found mention in the bardic Tamil Sangam literature and a number of classical European historical sources, the port was a key to the trade between southern India and the Phoenicians, the Persians, the Egyptians, the Greeks and the Roman Empire. The important known commodities exported from Muziris were spices, semi-precious stones, pearls, diamonds, sapphires, ivory, Chinese silk, Gangetic spikenard and tortoise shells. The locations of unearthed coin-hoards suggest a trade link from Muziris via the Palghat Gap. The exact location of Muziris is still not known to historians, in fact historians have criticised the attempts by groups to rush into conclusions. It is generally speculated to be situated around present day Kodungallur, Kodungallur in central Kerala figures prominently in the ancient history of southern India as a vibrant urban hub of the Chera rulers. A series of excavations were conducted at the village of Pattanam in North Paravur by Kerala Council for Historical Research in 2006-07, the rapid conclusion invited criticism from historians and archaeologists and started a healthy debate among historians of south India. The derivation of the name Muziris is said to be from the native Tamil name to the port, in the region, Periyar river perhaps branched into two like a cleft palate and thus gave it the name Musiri. It is frequently referred to as Musiri in Sangam poems, Muracippattanam in the Sanskrit epic Ramayana, the Purananuru described Muziris as a bustling port city where interior goods were exchanged for imported gold. It seems the Chera chiefs regarded their contacts with the Roman traders as a form of exchange rather than straightforward commercial dealings. Akananuru describes Pandya attacks on the Chera port of Muciri and this episode is impossible to date, but the attack seems to have succeeded in diverting Roman trade from Muziris. It is suffering like that experienced by the warriors who were mortally wounded, suffering that was seen when the Pandya prince came to besiege the port of Muciri on his flag-bearing chariot with decorated horses. Riding on his great and superior war elephant the Pandya prince has conquered in battle and he has seized the sacred images after winning the battle for rich Muciri. Tyndis is of the Kingdom of Cerobothra, it is a village in plain sight by the sea, there is exported pepper, which is produced in only one region near these markets, a district called Cottonara. The Periplus reveals how Muziris became the trade port for the Chera chiefdom. The author explains that this large settlement owed its prosperity to foreign commerce, including shipping arriving from northern India, Black pepper from the hills was brought to the port by the local producers and stacked high in warehouses to await the arrival of Roman merchants. Pliny the Elder gives a description of voyages to India in the 1st century AD and he refers to many Indian ports in his The Natural History. However, by the time of Pliny, Muziris was no longer a favoured location in Roman trade dealing with Southern India, to those who are bound for India, Ocelis is the best place for embarkation

Muziris
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Silk Road, ancient trade route that, linking China with the West, carried goods and ideas between the two great civilizations of Rome and China. The land routes are red, and the water routes are blue.
Muziris
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Muziris, as shown in the 4th century Tabula Peutingeriana.

40.
Beypore
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Beypore or Beypur is an ancient port town and a Municipality town in Kozhikode district in the state of Kerala, India. The place was known as Vaypura / Vadaparappanad. Tipu Sultan, ruler of Mysore, named the town Sultan Pattanam, there is a marina and a beach while Beypore port is one of the oldest ports in Kerala, which historically traded with the Middle East. Beypore is noted for building ships, known as dhows or urus in the Malayalam language. These ships were bought by Arab merchants for trading and fishing but are now used as tourist ships. According to Captain Iwata, founder member of the Association of Sumerian ships in Japan, Sumerian ships might have built in Beypore. There is evidence to prove that Beypore had direct links with Mesopotamia and was a prominent link on the maritime silk route. Beypore was ruled by four Kovilakams - Karippa Puthiyakovilakam, Manayat Kovilakam, Nediyaal Kovilakam, so we have North and South Parappanad factions to start with, branching off the Parappur lordship. It is believed that the Beypore Siva Temple protects the whole kingdom. Beypore was thronged first by Romans and afterwards by Chinese, Syrians, Arabs and in recent centuries by Europeans for trade. Beypore has long history of being a centre for shipbuilding since the first century AD, the Indian Ocean trade started from ancient times and strengthened during the medieval times. While in the old days Malabar directly traded with the Greeks and Romans and this exchange of goods resulted also in transfer of people from their abodes. Beypore was virtually free port with only an export import duty imposed by the ruling Zamorins, the intermediaries between the Arabs and the Nairs were the Moplah’s. Also the south east Malay ports sent ships to Malabar for the cloth from Kerala and it was also a stop over for Hajj pilgrims from south east Asia. Beypore is 180 km North of Cochin and 391 km away from Trivandrum, Beypore port is the second biggest port in Kerala after Cochin and currently handles about 100,000 tones of cargo and 7500 passengers per annum. The nearest ports are Kochi and Mangalore, now the port has a depth of about 5 meters alongside wharf and approach channel and it is proposed to be developed in stages and utilities like storage shed, cranes and tugs are already installed. Beypore port is one of the oldest ports in Kerala from where trading was done to the Middle East, the Uru_, or Fat Boat, is a generic name for large Dhow-type wooden ships made by vishwabrahmins in Beypore. This type of boat has been used by the Arabs since ancient times as trading vessels and these boats used to be built of several types of wood, the main one being teak. The teak was taken from Nilambur forests in earlier times, Beypore is located at 11. 18°N75. 82°E﻿ /11.18,75.82

Beypore
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StonePier Beypore
Beypore
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Beypore Fishing in Morning

41.
Thundi
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Kadalundi is a village in Kozhikode district, Kerala, India. It is a village close to the Arabian Sea. Kadalundi is famous for its sanctuary, which is home to various migratory birds during certain seasons and has been recently declared as a bio-reserve. It is the first community reserve in Kerala, according to the Sangam literature, Thondi, the capital of Chera Kingdom, is now known as Kadalundi. Kadalundi had trade relations with countries like Rome and Arabia. After the breakdown of the Chera Kingdom dynasty rooted in Kadalundi and they gave permission for the Dutch to build a fort in Kadalundi. Even though the fort collapsed after a war with Zamorians, we can see the remnants in Mulla in Kadalundi, later the British became the rulers of Kadalundi and they built railway lines up to Chaliyam for the purpose of business. Later when Calicut became the center of trades the railway lines were removed but there are such as railway well, lighthouse. Thundi is an ancient seaport and harbor-town north of Muziris in the Chera Kingdom, the exact location of the port is still unknown, modern day Kadalundi, Ponnani and Pantalayani Kollam are often identified as Tyndis located in the Sangam age Tamil kingdom of the Cheras. Tyndis was a center of trade, next only to Muziris. A branch of the Chera royal family is said to have established itself at Tyndis. It is also speculated that Tyndis operated as a satellite feeding port to Muziris

Thundi
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Scenic view from Kadalundi bridge
Thundi

42.
Kadalundi
–
Kadalundi is a village in Kozhikode district, Kerala, India. It is a village close to the Arabian Sea. Kadalundi is famous for its sanctuary, which is home to various migratory birds during certain seasons and has been recently declared as a bio-reserve. It is the first community reserve in Kerala, according to the Sangam literature, Thondi, the capital of Chera Kingdom, is now known as Kadalundi. Kadalundi had trade relations with countries like Rome and Arabia. After the breakdown of the Chera Kingdom dynasty rooted in Kadalundi and they gave permission for the Dutch to build a fort in Kadalundi. Even though the fort collapsed after a war with Zamorians, we can see the remnants in Mulla in Kadalundi, later the British became the rulers of Kadalundi and they built railway lines up to Chaliyam for the purpose of business. Later when Calicut became the center of trades the railway lines were removed but there are such as railway well, lighthouse. Thundi is an ancient seaport and harbor-town north of Muziris in the Chera Kingdom, the exact location of the port is still unknown, modern day Kadalundi, Ponnani and Pantalayani Kollam are often identified as Tyndis located in the Sangam age Tamil kingdom of the Cheras. Tyndis was a center of trade, next only to Muziris. A branch of the Chera royal family is said to have established itself at Tyndis. It is also speculated that Tyndis operated as a satellite feeding port to Muziris

Kadalundi
–
Scenic view from Kadalundi bridge
Kadalundi

43.
Kochi, India
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Kochi, also known as Cochin, is a major port city on the south-west coast of India by the Arabian Sea and the Laccadive Sea and is part of the district of Ernakulam in the state of Kerala. It is often called Ernakulam, which refers to the specific district, occupied by the Portuguese in 1503, Kochi was the first of the European colonies in colonial India. It remained the seat of Portuguese India until 1530, when Goa was chosen instead. The city was occupied by the Dutch and the British. Kochi ranks first in the number of international and domestic tourist arrivals in Kerala. Kochi has been ranked the sixth best tourist destination in India according to a survey conducted by the Nielsen Company on behalf of the Outlook Traveller magazine. Kochi is the home to Southern Naval Command of the Indian Navy, Kochi is also home for Keralas National Law School, The National University of Advanced Legal Studies. An international art exhibition called Kochi-Muziris Biennale is conducted every two years across Kochi where artists from different parts of the world engage, ancient travellers and tradesmen referred to Kochi in their writings, variously alluding to it as Cocym, Cochym, Cochin, and Kochi. The Cochin Jewish community called Cochin as Kogin, which is seen in the seal of the synagogue which is owned by the community. The origin of the name Kochi is thought to be from the Malayalam word kochu azhi, yet another theory is that Kochi is derived from the word Kaci, meaning harbour. The name Cochin implies co-chin, meaning like-China and it looked like China when the Chinese came to the region during the 14th century and installed Chinese nets. Accounts by Italian explorers Nicolo Conti, and Fra Paoline in the 17th century say that it was called Kochchi, after the arrival of the Portuguese, and later the British, the name Cochin stuck as the official appellation. The city reverted to a closer Anglicization of its original Malayalam name, Kochi and this change in name was challenged by the city municipal corporation but court has later dismissed the plea. Kochi was the centre of Indian spice trade for centuries, and was known to the Yavanas as well as Jews, Syrians, Arabs. Kochi rose to significance as a trading centre after the port Muziris around Kodungallur was destroyed by flooding of Periyar in 1341. The earliest documented references to Kochi occur in books written by Chinese voyager Ma Huan during his visit to Kochi in the 15th century as part of Admiral Zheng Hes treasure fleet. There are also references to Kochi in accounts written by Italian traveller Niccolò Da Conti, according to many historians, the precursor state to Kingdom of Kochi came into existence in early 12th century, after the fall of the Chera Kingdom. The reign of the Kingdom was hereditary, and the family ruled over the region was known as the Perumpadappu Swaroopam in the local vernacular

44.
Indian Ocean
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The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the worlds oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2. It is bounded by Asia on the north, on the west by Africa, on the east by Australia, the Indian Ocean is known as Ratnākara, the mine of gems in ancient Sanskrit literature, and as Hind Mahāsāgar, in Hindi. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf, the oceans continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 kilometres in width. An exception is found off Australias western coast, where the width exceeds 1,000 kilometres. The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m and its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m deep, Sunda Trench has a depth of 7, 258–7,725 m. North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the basin is covered by pelagic sediments. The remaining 14% is layered with terrigenous sediments, glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes. The major choke points include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Lombok Strait, the Strait of Malacca, the Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Red Sea. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere is in this ocean, marginal seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include, The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April, from May until October south, in the Arabian Sea the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are milder. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, Indian Ocean warming is the largest among the tropical oceans, and about 3 times faster than the warming observed in the Pacific. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming, and changes in the frequency, among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the Zambezi, Shatt al-Arab, Indus, Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Jubba and Irrawaddy River. The oceans currents are controlled by the monsoon. Two large gyres, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise, during the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed. Deep water circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, north of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C, exceeding 28 °C to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly, surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and south-western Australia

45.
Christians
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A Christian is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christian derives from the Koine Greek word Christós, a translation of the Biblical Hebrew term mashiach, while there are diverse interpretations of Christianity which sometimes conflict, they are united in believing that Jesus has a unique significance. The term Christian is also used as an adjective to describe anything associated with Christianity, or in a sense all that is noble, and good. According to a 2011 Pew Research Center survey, there were 2.2 billion Christians around the world in 2010, by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey Christianity will remain the worlds largest religion in 2050, about half of all Christians worldwide are Catholic, while more than a third are Protestant. Orthodox communions comprise 12% of the worlds Christians, other Christian groups make up the remainder. Christians make up the majority of the population in 158 countries and territories,280 million Christian live as a minority. In the Greek Septuagint, christos was used to translate the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ, in other European languages, equivalent words to Christian are likewise derived from the Greek, such as Chrétien in French and Cristiano in Spanish. The second mention of the term follows in Acts 26,28, where Herod Agrippa II replied to Paul the Apostle, Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian. The third and final New Testament reference to the term is in 1 Peter 4,16, which believers, Yet if as a Christian, let him not be ashamed. The city of Antioch, where someone gave them the name Christians, had a reputation for coming up with such nicknames, in the Annals he relates that by vulgar appellation commonly called Christians and identifies Christians as Neros scapegoats for the Great Fire of Rome. Another term for Christians which appears in the New Testament is Nazarenes which is used by the Jewish lawyer Tertullus in Acts 24, the Hebrew equivalent of Nazarenes, Notzrim, occurs in the Babylonian Talmud, and is still the modern Israeli Hebrew term for Christian. A wide range of beliefs and practices is found across the world among those who call themselves Christian, denominations and sects disagree on a common definition of Christianity. Most Baptists and fundamentalists, for example, would not acknowledge Mormonism or Christian Science as Christian, in fact, the nearly 77 percent of Americans who self-identify as Christian are a diverse pluribus of Christianities that are far from any collective unity. The identification of Jesus as the Messiah is not accepted by Judaism, the term for a Christian in Hebrew is נוּצְרי, a Talmudic term originally derived from the fact that Jesus came from the Galilean village of Nazareth, today in northern Israel. Adherents of Messianic Judaism are referred to in modern Hebrew as יְהוּדִים מָשִׁיחַיים, the term Nasara rose to prominence in July 2014, after the Fall of Mosul to the terrorist organization Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. The nun or ن— the first letter of Nasara—was spray-painted on the property of Christians ejected from the city, where there is a distinction, Nasrani refers to people from a Christian culture and Masihi is used by Christians themselves for those with a religious faith in Jesus. In some countries Nasrani tends to be used generically for non-Muslim Western foreigners, another Arabic word sometimes used for Christians, particularly in a political context, is Ṣalībī from ṣalīb which refers to Crusaders and has negative connotations

Christians
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Set of pictures for a number of famous Christians from various fields.
Christians
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The Church of St Peter near Antakya, Turkey, in Antioch the disciples were called Christians.
Christians
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Nazareth the city is described as the childhood home of Jesus, in many languages employ the word Nazarene as a general designation for those of the Christian faith.
Christians
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Japanese Christians ("Kurisuchan") in Portuguese costume, 16–17th century.

46.
Saint Thomas Christians
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Historically, the Saint Thomas Christian community was part of the Church of the East, centered in Persia. They were organised as the Province of India in the 8th century, served by Nestorian bishops, Saint Thomas Christians represent a multi ethnic group. Their language is Malayalam, the language of Kerala, and Syriac is used for liturgical purposes, the Saint Thomas Christians are so called due to their reverence for Saint Thomas the Apostle, who is said to have brought Christianity to India. The name dates to the period of Portuguese colonization and they are also known, especially locally, as the Nasrani or Nasrani Mappila. Nasrani is a term meaning Christian, it appears to be derived from Nazareth, Mappila is an honorific applied to members of non-Indian faiths, including Muslims and Jews. Some Syrian Christians of Travancore continue to attach this honorific title to their names, the term Syrian relates not to their ethnicity but to their historical, religious and liturgical connection to the Church of the East, or East Syrian Church. According to tradition, St. Thomas, one of the 12 apostles, came to Muziris on the Kerala coast in AD52 which is in the present day Pattanam, Kerala. The Cochin Jews are known to have existed in Kerala in the 1st century AD, the earliest known source connecting the apostle to India is the Acts of Thomas, likely written in the early 3rd century, perhaps in Edessa. The tradition of origin of the Christians in Kerala is found in a version of the Songs of Thomas or Thomma Parvam, written in 1601 believed to be a summary of a larger and older work. As per legend, the community began with Thomass conversion of Brahmin Gramams or families, the four clans Pakalomattam, Sankarapuri, Pattamukkil at Niranam Church, Kalli, and Kaliyankal were considered the most preeminent. Claims of descent from the various legendary gramams were used as a basis of a system within the community in the Middle Ages. After the 9th century A. D. such as the wearing of the sacred thread, the medieval historian Pius Malekandathil believes these were customs adopted and privileges won during the beginning of the Brahmin dominance of medieval Kerala. An organised Christian presence in India dates to the arrival of East Syrian settlers and missionaries from Persia, members of what would become the Church of the East, in around the 3rd century. As the community grew and immigration by East Syrians increased, the connection with the Church of the East, centred in the Persian capital of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, strengthened. In the 8th century Patriarch Timothy I organised the community as the Ecclesiastical Province of India, after this point the Province of India was headed by a metropolitan bishop, dispatched from Persia, the Metropolitan-Bishop of the Seat of Saint Thomas and the Whole Christian Church of India. His metropolitan see was probably in Cranganore, or in Mylapore, under him were a varying number of bishops, as well as a native Archdeacon, who had authority over the clergy and who wielded a great amount of secular power. Some contact and transmission of knowledge of the Saint Thomas Christians managed to reach the Christian West, byzantine traveller Cosmas Indicopleustes wrote of East Syrian Christians he met in India and Sri Lanka in the 6th century. In 883 the English king Alfred the Great reportedly sent a mission, during the Crusades, distorted accounts of the Saint Thomas Christians and the Nestorian Church gave rise to the European legend of Prester John

47.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי‎ ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו‎, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס‎, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד‎ Yid, ייִדן‎, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group

48.
Cochin Jews
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Cochin Jews, also called Malabar Jews, are the oldest group of Jews in India, with possible roots claimed to date to the time of King Solomon. The Cochin Jews settled in the Kingdom of Cochin in South India, as early as the 12th century, mention is made of the Black Jews in southern India. The Jewish traveler, Benjamin of Tudela, speaking of Kollam on the Malabar Coast, writes in his Itinerary. throughout the island, including all the towns thereof, the inhabitants are all black, and the Jews also. The latter are good and benevolent and they know the law of Moses and the prophets, and to a small extent the Talmud and Halacha. These people later known as the Malabari Jews. They built synagogues in Kerala beginning in the 12th and 13th centuries and they are known to have developed Judeo-Malayalam, a dialect of Malayalam language. Following expulsion from Iberia in 1492 by the Alhambra Decree, a few families of Sephardic Jews eventually made their way to Cochin in the 16th century and they became known as Paradesi Jews. The European Jews maintained some connections to Europe, and their language skills were useful. Although the Sephardim spoke Ladino, in India they learned Judeo-Malayalam from the Malabar Jews, the two communities retained their ethnic and cultural distinctions. In the late 19th century, a few Arabic-speaking Jews, who known as Baghdadi, also immigrated to southern India. After India gained its independence in 1947 and Israel was established as a nation, most White Jews though preferred to migrate to Australia and other Commonwealth countries, as Anglo-Indians did. Most of their synagogues have been sold and adapted for other uses, the Paradesi synagogue still has a congregation and also attracts tourists as a historic site. The synagogue at Chennamangalam was reconstructed in 2006, the one at Parur is currently being reconstructed. P. M. Jussay wrote that it was believed that the earliest Jews in India were sailors from King Solomons time and it has been claimed that following the destruction of the First Temple in the Siege of Jerusalem of 587 BC, some Jewish exiles came to India. Only after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE are records found that attest to numerous Jewish settlers arriving at Cranganore, Cranganore, now transliterated as Kodungallur, but also known under other names, is a city of legendary importance to this community. Fernandes writes, it is a substitute Jerusalem in India, Katz and Goldberg note the symbolic intertwining of the two cities. In 1768, a certain Tobias Boas of Amsterdam had posed eleven questions to Rabbi Yehezkel Rachbi of Cochin, the first of these questions addressed to the said Rabbi concerned the origins of the Jews of Cochin and the duration of their settlement in India. Most were in Cranganore, which is also called Mago dera Patinas, St. Thomas, one of the disciples of Jesus, is believed to have visited India while proselytising

49.
Muslim
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A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco

50.
Kasaragod district
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Kasaragod District is one of the 14 districts in the state of Kerala, India. Kasaragod became part of Kannur district following the reorganisation of states, Kasaragod was declared as a district on 24 May 1984. To its south lies Kannur District, to the South east is Kodagu district, all along its east it is walled by the Western Ghats while along the west the Laccadive Sea borders it. The district, covering an area of around 1992 km2, has a population of 1,307,375 and has four taluks, namely, Kasaragod and Hosdurg, Vellarikundu and Manjeshwaram Taluk. Major towns in Kasaragod district are Nileshwar, Kanhangad, Kasaragod, Uppala, Kumbla and it has three municipalities (Nileshwar Kasaragod, and Kanhangad and thirty-eight grama panchayats. Kasaragod was known to the Arabs by the name Harkwillia, many Arab travelers who visited Kerala between the 9th and the 14th centuries visited Kasaragod, which was an important trade centre then. Duarte Borbosa, the Portuguese traveler who visited Kumbla, near Kasaragod in 1514, Kasaragod was part of the kumbala Kingdom in which there were 64 Tulu and Malayalam villages. When the Vijayanagara empire attacked Kasaragod, it was still under the Kolathiri Raja who had Nileshwaram as one of his capitals, during the decline of the Vijayanagara empire, the administration of this area was vested with Ikkeri Nayakas. At the onset of collapse of the Vijayanagara empire, Venkappa Nayaka declared independence to Ikkery, Kumbla, Chandragiri and Bekal are considered to be the chain of forts constructed or renovated by Shivappa Nayaka. Francis Buccanan, the doctor of Arthur Wellesley, visited Kasargod in 1800. In his travelogue, he recorded information on places like Athiraparambu, Kavvai, Nileshwaram, Bekal, Chandragiri, in 1763, Hyder Ali conquered Bedanoor, the capital of the Ikkery Naiks. His son Tippu Sultan conquered much of Malabar, as per the Sreerangapattanam Treaty of 1792, Tippu surrendered Malabar, except Kanara to the British. The British got Kanara only after the death of Tippu Sultan and it is said that Kinavoor Molom is belonging to Karinthalam. Before the formation of Kerala, Kasaragod was a part of erstwhile South Canara district of Madras Presidency, Kasaragod became part of Kannur district following the reorganisation of states and formation of Kerala in November 1,1956. Kasaragod was declared as a district on 24 May 1984, the district is the northernmost district of the State of Kerala. Kasaragod is located at 12. 5°N75. 0°E﻿ /12.5,75.0 and it has an average elevation of 19 metres. According to the 2011 census Kasaragod district has a population of 1,307,375 and this gives it a ranking of 375th in India. The district has a density of 654 inhabitants per square kilometre