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223 Cards in this Set

the study of the structure of an organism and the relationships of its parts.

Anatomy

the science that treats the functions of the living organism and its parts.

Physiology

the study of the body parts visible to the naked eye.

Gross Anatomy

the scientific study of life

Biology

looking at what is happening

Observations

an educated guess

Hypothesis

test used to prove your hypothesis

Experiment

enough confidence to prove the hypothesis

Theory

Unusually high level of confidence

Law

respond to irritability

responsivness

the capacity to transmit a signal

Conductivity

increase in size or number of cells

Growth

absorption, utilization of oxygen and carbon dioxide

Respiration

complex food are broken down into simpler substances used in cells

Digestion

movement of digested nutrients through the wall of the digestive tube and into the body fluids.

Absorption

production and delivery of specialized substances

Secretion

removal of waste products

Excretion

movement of body fluids and many substances, such as
nutrients.

Circulation

formation of new cells through cell division

Reproduction

there are more than 100 different chemical building
blocks of nature, called atoms

Chemical Level

chemical structures may be organized within larger units
called cells to form various structures called organelles. These
organelles are structure to perform a specific function. Example
(mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum)

Organelle Level

Cells are the basic building blocks and specialized
structure.

Cellular Level

A group of a great many similar cells that all developed
together from the same part of the embryo and are all specialized to
perform a certain function. Four major types (Epithelial, connective,
muscle, and nervous)

Tissue Level

A more complex unit. A structure made up of several
different kinds of tissues so arranged that, together, they can perform a
special function. Example ( Heart , muscle and specialized connective
tissues give it shape, specialized epithelial tissues line the cavities, or
chambers, and nervous tissues permit control of muscular contraction.

Organ Level

Most complex. Many organs arranged together so they
can perform complex function for the body. There are eleven major
systems for the human body

composed of electrons (-) in shells around
the nucleus; part of the atom involved in chemical
reactions.

Electron shells

#Protons + #Electrons = 0.

Neutral Atom

more or less electrons compared to protons.

Charged Atom

number of protons in an atom's nucleus.

Atomic Number

Oxygen (0), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N).

Major atoms found in the human body (4)

the combination of two or more atoms which are held together by chemical bond; atoms are happy when their outer shell is full with electrons.

Molecule

A chemical bond formed by the transfer of
electrons fiom one atom to another. Many have a single unpaired electron
in the outer shell, making it unstable and losing that electron results in a
more stable structure.

Ionic, or electrocovalent bonds

chemical bond in which atoms share electrons; may be a
single, double, or triple bond.

Covalent Bonds

unequal charge distribution of a molecule, (polar bond)
much weaker than covalent and ionic and are easily broken.
Example: H20

Hydrogen Bonds

the making and breaking of bonds between atoms that
results in the formation of a new molecules or atom.

a
reaction in which a large molecule is broken down into two or more
smaller molecules or atoms. These reactions release energy.
Ex: Food broken down in our digestive system; Glucose broken
down in cells to release energy.
AB + A + B + energy

Decomposition reactions ) Catabolic reactions (decomposition)

A break down or decompose two compounds
and in exchange synthesize two new compounds.

Exchange Reactions

Molecules that do not contain the carbon atoms.

Inorganic Molecules

the most abundant molecule in the body
(60-70% of body weight).

Water

3 Properties of Water

a) An excellent solvent. Allows substances to dissolve to
fonn a solution.
b) Involved in all chemical reactions in the body's cells.
c) Requires a lot of heat to change from a liquid to a gas, therefore, sweating is effective in ridding the body of excess heat.

Acids & Bases

Electrolytes

a substance that releases H+ ions when in a
solution; pH less than 7. Taste sour , dyes Litmus
will turn red

substances that minimize changes in the
concentrations of acid and bases.

Buffers

any compound that results from the chemical interaction
of an acid and a base.

Salts

another name for macromolecules

Organic Molecules

compounds that always contain carboncarbon
covalent bonds or carbon-hydrogen covalent bonds.
They are larger and more complex than inorganic compounds.

Organic Compound

compounds that contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen with the carbon atoms linked to one another to form chains of varying
lengths. Carbohydrates include the substances commonly called sugars and
starches, the primary source of chemical energy needed by every body cell.
They are also need in DNA and RNA which is involved in cell reproduction .

_____ are the most abundant lipids,
they function as the body's most concentrated source of
energy. made up of fatty acids.

Fats (triglycerides)

3 fatty acids bonded together.

triglycerides

used for the production of Steroid, Hormones & Vitamin D and the Cell Membrane.

cholesterol

Good kind of cholesterol, function to transport cholesterol fiom peripheral cells to the liver where they
are metabolized and excreted. The higher the HDL # the lower the
risk for Cardiovascular disease.

HDL: High Density Lipoproteins: Good for you

Bad kind of cholesterol contain the major
portion of cholesterol (60-70%) and high level suggest a greater
potential for developing atherosclerosis. Less than 130
Cholesterol is made in Liver; dietary cholesterol is NOT essential!

LDL: Low Density Lipoproteins: Bad for you

helps code hereditary information
(chromosomes)

DNA-neuclotides

helps decode hereditary info.

RNA-neuclotides (messenger RNA)

all of the chemical reactions that occur in
the body cells.

metabolism

the breaking down of larger food molecules into smaller
chemical units and in doing so, releases energy from them. This process is
a chemical reaction called hydroZyssis.

catabolism

A chemical reaction that join simple molecules together to
form more complex bio-molecules, (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
nucleic acids)

anabolism

Energy , the form of energy that cells generally use

ATP = Adenosine triphosphate

uses ATP, catabolism, & anabolism

Metabolism

5 cell types

nerve, muscle, red blood, gland, & immune

4 cell structures

plasma membrane, nucleus, organelles, & cytoplasm

The outer boundary of the cell.

plasma membrane

The gel-like internal substance of cells that
contains many tiny suspended structures.

cytoplasm

Hundreds or even thousands of little organs with in the cytoplasm.

organelles

Regulates the activities of the cell.

nucleus

The plasma or plasmic membrane encloses the cell, its nucleus, and a number of organelles. The membrane is composed primarily of phospholipids and protein molecules which perform numerous functions, including identifying the cell as belonging to a particular individual.

cell membrane (plasmic or cytoplasmic membrane)

made of a bilayer of phospholipid molecules arranged wit1
their nonpolar "tails" pointing toward each other. Cholesterol molecules help stabilize the flexible bilaye~
structure to prevent breakage. Protein molecules and protein-hybrid molecules may be found on the outel
or inner surface of the bilayer-or, more likely, extending all the way through the membrane.

plasma membrane

4 functions of a plasma membrane

1. encloses, 2. self defense, 3. flexible, 4. selectively permeable

structure of a cell membrane (3 parts)

lipids, Proteins, & cholesterol

In a cell membrane these are arranged in a double layer, or (bilayer)Very little can pass through

Lipids

(lipids); heads are water soluble

hydrophillic lipids

(lipids); double tails are lipid soluble. This allows a lipidsoluble,
not water-soluble molecule to pass through easily.

hydrophobic

2 kinds of membrane proteins

channel, & transport

proteins that Act like gates that allowing only
specific molecules through.

channel proteins

proteins that are embedded proteins that serve as
passages Na+ ions or glucose.

transport proteins

_____ in the cell membrane, is a steroid lipid, prevents breakage

cholesterol

The fluid surrounding the
nucleus with orangelles floating in it. Is has a gel-like consistency.

Cytoplasm and Organelles Cytoplasm:

1.The fluid portion of the cell that supports all those
Organelles.
2. Chemical reactions occur in the ____.
3.Most sub. are dissolved in the _____

Cytoplasm

"Little organs" floating in the cytoplasm,
each having a specific task.

Location of Protein Synthesis (Anabolic
Reaction) of the Cell and intracellular
transportation of molecules.
Contains Ribosomes where protein synthesis
occurs.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Location of fat Synthesis (Anabolic Reaction) of the
Cell.
Fat examples: most of the cell membrane is Fat; Sex
hormones such as Estrogen, Progesterone, &
Testosterone.
Also the site of Detoxification of alcohol 62 drugs in
Liver & Kidney cells.

Used to "clean-up'.' the cellular parts- that are dead I- . .
damaged.
b. A tiny membranous sac that contains enzymes that degrade
particles.
c. White blood cells use these to kill Bacteria and Virusinfected
Cells.

Spot welds, that hold adjacent cell together; fibers on the outer
surface of each desmosomes interlock with each other anchored internally by
intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton.

desosome cell connection

membrane channels of adjacent plasma membranes adhere to each
other.

gap junction

cells are joined by collars of tightly fused materials

tight junction

encircles entire cell like a collar

belt desosome

Does not require any energy expenditure or activity of
the cell membrane. The particles move by using energy that they already have.

passave transport

Movement of molecules from a high concentration to a low concentration, across the
cell membrane.

simple diffusion (no energy involved)

Gated channel proteins from tunnels through which specific
molecules may pass-as long as the "gates" are open. Notice that the transported molecules
move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

Membrane channels

a. Movement of particles when a channel (protein gate) is used.
b. Uses a carrier molecules
c. Example: glucose molecules into most cells

Same as Passive Diffusion, but it is .the movement of WATER.
Water moves from an area of high concentration (lots of water) to an area of low
concentration (less water).

osmosis

water pressure that develops in a solution as a result of osmosis in
solution.

osmotic pressure

the solution has low osmotic pressure

hypotonic solution

constant pressure in a solution

isotonic solution

the solution has a high osmotic pressure
Example: water molecules into and out of cells to correct
imbalances in H20 concentration.

hypertonic solution

Separate substances due to pre$sure.
Separate the small molecules fiom the large molecules.
Example: Small molecules & ions are pushed out of the
bloodstream due to high blood pressure

filtration (passive transport)

Requires the expenditure of metabolic energy
by the cell. In active processes the transported particles are actively pulled
across the membrane.

Active transport process
(requires energy)

movement of molecules from a low concentration to high concentration

active transport.
(opposite of diffusion)

Bunch of large particles are enmlfed into the cell.
Examples: bunch of cholesterol swallowed up; white blood
cells engulfing bacteria

endocytosis

Movement of cells or other large particles by trapping it in a section
of plasma membrane that pinches off to form an intracellular
vesicle,
A type of endocytosis
Example: Trapping of bacterial cells by phagocytic white blood cells.

phagocytosis

Movement of fluid and dissolved mo1ecule by trapping them in a
section of plasma membrane that pinches off to form an intracellular
vesicle.
A type of endocytosis.
Example: Trapping of large protein molecules by some body cells.

pinocytosis

Bunch of large particles are removed out of the cell.
Examples: T-cells spilling out enzymes on virus-infected cells;
breast cells secreting out milk; glands secreting a bunch of hormones.

exocytosis

Chemical reactions of the cell.

cell metabolism

kind of reaction that Stores energy; gain weight.

anabolism reaction

kind of reaction that Burns energy; lose weight.

catabolism reaction

____ are functional proteins

enzymes

3 roles of enzymes

1. Specific proteins that speed up the reaction!!!
2. Enzymes are used to make or break molecules.
3. Found in ALL CELLS and is REQUIRED for cell survival.
Many disorders & toxicities occur because of malfimctioned or inoperable enzyme! ! !

Three stages are glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and electron
transport system

catabolism

6 carbon atom per molecule
end results in pyruvic acid which contains 3 carbon atoms
anaerobic reaction in the cytoplasm
2 ATP's produced

glycolysis

Loss of one carbon atom
Pyruvic acid is converted to acetyl coenzyme A
C02 is a waste byproduct
Occurs in the mitochondrion
A release of H+ ions
High energy electrons are carried away for NADH
Aerobic respiration

citric acid cycle (Kreb's cycle)

Take place in the cristae of the inner mitochondria1 membrane
34 ATP's
Aerobic respiration
Byproduct is water

electron transport system

The energy carrier when a nutrient,
like glucose breaks apart it releases energy and ___ grabs this energy.

ATP

Large molecule that stores the energy for you
Acts as a bank; gives you energy when you need it.
ATP grabs the energy when food is broken down and energy is
released form the food.
Decomposition reaction, release of energy

ATP

Occurs in the organelles called Mitochondria,
Oxygen is used
Complete breakdown of food: Food + oxygen = energy.
36 ATP's are made fi-om one glucose
Running a marathon you can keep doing due to all those ATP's
being made, because jogging is Aerobic (allowing 0 2 to your cells)
C6H1206 (food) + H20 = C02 + H20 + energy (ATP).

Aerobic respiration

No oxygen available
Muscle cells can't get oxygen.
Glucose broken down into 2 Lactic Acids and stop there. (feel the burn)
Only 2 ATP's are made from one glucose molecule

anerobic respiration

This simplified summary of cellular respiration represents one of the most
important catabolic pathways in the cell. Note that one phase (glycolysis) occurs in the cytosol,
but that the two remaining phases (citric acid cycle and electron transport system) occur
within a mitochondrion. Note also the divergence of the anaerobic and aerobic pathways of
_________________.

cellular respiration

Building pathway that occur in human cells. Using Protein synthesis
in producing the genetic code.

anabolism

molecule is a polymer. This means that it is a large molecule
made up of many smaller molecules joined together in sequence. .
b. Its shape is a double spiral or double helix.
c. Millions of pairs of nucleotides.
d. Hydrogen bonds (polar bonds) very week and broken easily
e. Adenine goes with thymine, and cytosine with guanine
f. 1000 pair of nucleotides for 1 human gene

DNA

a. RNA fonn along a segment of DNA = Messenger RNA
b. Synthesis of a mRNA molecule is called transcription
c. Carried out of the nucleus to a ribosome

transcription

A cell ready to interpret or translate the genetic code, forming a specific
sequence of amino acids

translation

A DNA molecule "unzips" in the region of the
gene to be transcribed. RNA nucleotides already present in the nucleus temporarily attach
themselves to exposed DNA bases along one strand of the unzipped DNA molecule
according to the principle of complementary pairing. As the RNA nucleotides attach to the
exposed DNA, they bind to each other, forming a chainlike RNA strand called a messenger
RNA (mRNA) molecule. Notice that the new mRNA strand is an exact copy of the base
sequence on the opposite side of the DNA molecule. As in all metabolic processes, the
formation of mRNA is controlled by an enzyme- in this case, the enzyme is called RNA
polymerase.