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BIOLOGICAL REPORT 88(42)
SEPTEMBER 1988
REESTABLISHMENT OF
BOTTOMLAND HARDWOOD FORESTS
ON DISTURBED SITES:
AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Department of the Interior
National Wetlands Research Center
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
1010 Game Boulevard
Slide& LA 70458 j 5.i
Cover photographs (courtesy of R.J. Haynes):
Upper: Three-year-old direct seeded oaks on old agricultural field in Panther Swamp National Wildlife
Refuge, MS.
Lower: Ten-year-old mixed species plantation in Delta National Forest, MS.
Biological Report 88(42)
September 1988
REESTABLISHMENTOFBOTTOMLANDHARDWOODFORESTS
ON DISTURBED SITES: AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ronnie J. Haynes
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Fish and Wildlife Enhancement
Richard B. Russell Federal Building
75 Spring Street, S.W.
Atlanta, GA 30303
James A. Allen
and
Edward C. Pendleton
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Research and Development
National Wetlands Research Center
1010 Gause Boulevard
Slidell, LA 70458
Project Officer
Gerald A. Grau
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
National Wetlands Research Center
1010 Gause Boulevard
Slidell, LA 70458
U.S. Department of the Interior
Fish and Wildlife Service
Research and Development
Washington, DC
The mention of trade names in this report does not constitute endorsement
nor recommendation for use by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service or the Federal
Government.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Haynes, Ronnie J.
Reestablishment of bottomland hardwood forests on
disturbed sites.
(Biological report ; 88-42)
Supt. of Dots. no.: I 49.89/2:88(42)
1. Reforestation--Southern States--Bibliography.
2. Hardwoods--Southern States--Bibliography. 3. Flood-plain
ecology--Southern States--Bibliography.
4. Reclamation of land--Southern States--Bibliography.
5. Reforestation--Middle West--Bibliography. 6. Hard-woods--
Middle West--Bibliography. 7. Floodplain ecology--
Middle West--Bibliography. 8. Reclamation of land--
Middle West--Bibliography. I. Alten, James A.
II. Pendleton, Edward C. III. Title. IV. Series:
Biological report (Washington, D.C.) ; 88-42.
25991 .H4 1988 [SD4091 016.6349’56 88-600347
Suggested citation:
Haynes, R.J., J.A. Allen, and E.C. Pendleton. 1988. Reestablishment of
bottomland hardwood forests on disturbed sites: an annotated bibliography.
U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 88(42). 104 pp.
PREFACE
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service prepared this bibliography to assist
those interested in the reestablishment and restoration of bottomland hardwood
forests on previously disturbed sites such as abandoned farm land or surface-mined
areas. Emphasis of the bibliography is on the Southeastern United States,
although entries from other parts of the country are included whenever the
authors believed these entries provided useful information. Annotated entries
focus on applied restoration of bottomland hardwood ecosystems and "how to"
papers concerning silvicultural practices.
Recognition of and interest in the importance and potential opportunities
for the restoration of bottomland hardwood forest ecosystems have increased in
recent years. Evidence of this includes.specific language found in several
recently enacted laws (e.g., Food Security Act of 1985, Emergency Wetlands
Resources Act of 1986, Water Resource Development Act of 1986). With the
increased interest in restoring bottomland hardwood forests, this bibliography
should be both timely and useful to environmental planners, managers, and others
concerned about this valuable natural resource.
Comments about or requests for this publication should be directed to:
Information Transfer Specialist
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
National Wetlands Research Center
1010 Gause Boulevard
Slidell, LA 70458
iii
CONTENTS
PREFACE .................................................................
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .........................................................
INTRODUCTION ............................................................
Scope and Arrangement .................................................
References ............................................................
ANNOTATED ENTRIES .......................................................
NON-ANNOTATED ENTRIES ...................................................
Other Bibliographies ..................................................
Hydrology, Flooding Effects, Tolerance ................................
Plant Propagation .....................................................
Baldcypress ...........................................................
Cottonwood ............................................................
Oaks ..................................................................
Sweetgum ..............................................................
Sycamore ..............................................................
Tupelos ...............................................................
Willow ................................................................
Yellow-Poplar .........................................................
Miscellaneous Species .................................................
APPENDIXES
A: Common and scientific names for typical
bottomland forest species .........................................
B: Table of flooding and shade tolerance and reproductive
characteristics of some bottomland forest species .................
INDEXES
Species ...............................................................
Subject ...............................................................
. . .
111
V
:4
7
53
53
53
55
56
58
60
63
:"4
66
66
69
72
74
90
97
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Robert Johnson and
Roger Krinard of the U.S. Forest Service, and Russ Lea of the North Carolina
State Hardwood Cooperative, each of whom took the time to review drafts of this
publication. Also Larry Moore, forester at Tensas National Wildlife Refuge, and
Tim Wilkins, manager of the Yazoo National Wildlife Refuge Complex, provided the
authors with valuable insight into the information needs of practitioners and
would-be practitioners of bottomland hardwood restoration.
Although the three authors wrote this entire document, it would never have
reached this final stage without the help of several members of the National
Wetlands Research Center editorial staff. Daisy Singleton and Joyce Rodberg
performed the difficult task of interpreting three different authors' writing
and keyboarding the document. Rudy Krieger and Beth Vairin went through numerous
iterations of editing this bibliography, Donna Glass helped design the cover,
and Jan Landrum checked the accuracy of many of the citations.
V
/ INTRODUCTION
This bibliography was prepared to assist persons interested in the
reestablishment of bottomland hardwood forests on previously disturbed sites,
such as abandoned farm land or surface-mined areas. For the purpose of the
bibliography, bottomland hardwood forests correspond with the "Needle-leaved
Deciduous" and "Broad-leaved Deciduous" freshwater (Palustrine) forestedwetlands
described in the Wetlands Classification.System used by the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service (Cowardin et al. 1979). These forests occur primarily within
the riverine floodplains of the Midwest and Southeastern United States.
The plant-species composition of bottomland hardwood forests is complex and
varied, and is strongly dependent on the varying degrees of inundation
(hydroperiod) during the growing season. Over 100 species of woody plants occur
in these periodically flooded areas, and all exhibit some degree of adaptation
for survival in soils which are inadequately drained and aerated. Commonly
recognized species-zonation patterns range from the baldcypress (Taxodium disti-chum)
and water tupelo (Nvssa aauatica) communities associated with longer
periods of flooding, to the live oak (Quercus virqiniana) and loblolly pine
(Pinus taeda) communities on the highest floodplain areas. Depending upon the
interaction of numerous ecological factors, many other plant-species associations
may occur (see Eyre 1980; Clark and Benforado 1981).
From the mid-1950's through the mid-1970's, about 6 million acres of the
Nation's freshwater forested wetlands were lost, principally through agricultural
conversions. Although losses vary geographically, over 80% of the original
forested wetlands in the Southeastern United States have been lost and about 25%
of the remainder may be lost by 1995. In Illinois, about 98% of the bottomland
forests have been lost (Harris et al. 1984; Tiner 1984).
Public concern over additional losses of bottomland forests has increased
in recent years with better awareness of the many functions and values of these
ecosystems (e.g., flood control and water quality protection, fish and wildlife
habitat) and the realization of the magnitude of past and continuing losses
(Greeson et al. 1978; MacDonald et al. 1979; Brinson et al. 1981; Conner and Day
1982; Wharton et al. 1982; Sather and Smith 1984; Tiner 1984; U.S. Congress
1984). Such changes in attitude have prompted more stringent consideration for
the protection of these ecosystems through various regulatory and policy
mechanisms (Federal Reqister 1977; U.S. Congress 1984, 1986a; Barton 1985). For
example, Section 906 of the Water Resources Development Act of 1986 (Public Law
99-662) (U.S. Congress 1986b) states that future mitigation plans for Federal
water projects should include specific plans to ensure that impacts to bottomland
hardwood forests are mitigated in kind, to the extent possible. Also, the
Council on Environmental Quality (1985) has stated that "the bottomland hardwoods
in the Southeast are of such importance as wildlife habitats, and becoming so
scarce, that the principle of full, in-kind replacement should override other
considerations."
1
With increased regulatory emphasis on protection and conservation of
wetlands, the need for additional information about the technological ability
to reestablish forested wetlands on disturbed sites has also become more
apparent. For example, evidence indicates that courts are now willing, and may
prefer in some cases, to use information about the cost of carrying out specific
vegetation reestablishment efforts in determining a fair assessment of damages
in compensation issues (Anonymous 1983). In addition, the lack of a convincingly
demonstrated technology has been, and is expected to continue to be, an important
consideration in the approval/denial process for various surface-mining
activities in forested wetlands (U.S. Bureau of Land Management et al. 1983;
Haynes 1984; Haynes and Crabill 1984). The recent emphasis on wetland
conservation as presented in the Food Security Act of 1985 (U.S. Congress 1985)
may provide opportunities for reestablishment of bottomland hardwood forests on
previously farmed and flood-prone areas regulated by the Farmers Home
Administration (Office of Federal Register 1987).
Strategies for avoiding net losses of bottomland hardwood forests may
include a preservation approach (e.g., land-use restrictions, easements, or land
acquisition), or a compensation approach in which losses are replaced or an
acceptable substitute provided (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1981). This
bibliography focuses on the compensation approach as it relates to the
reestablishment of bottomland hardwood forest ecosystems on disturbed sites.
Opportunities for such reestablishment occur when the initial loss or
modification of the forest community is not permanent and reestablishment methods
are technologically feasible. These opportunites may include (1) reestablish-ment
on abandoned, "high-risk" farm lands in flood-prone areas, (2) re-establishment
in national forests, wildlife refuges and management areas, flood-control
projects, or public lands on which bottomland hardwood forest habitat
serves management goals that are determined to be in the best public interest,
and (3) reclamation of surface-mined lands.
SCOPE AND ARRANGEMENT
In the initial review of available published literature, over 400 scientific
papers, government reports, M.S. and Ph.D. theses, and popular-journal articles
were located dealing with one or more factors related to bottomland hardwood
restoration. Most of these papers did not discuss restoration specifically, but
covered related factors, such as hydrology and flooding effects, soils and
nutrients, plant succession and competition, and plant propogation methods.
Since time and available staff did not allow the annotation of all the papers
that were found, only those references that were thought to contain information
of direct value to persons involved in bottomland hardwood restoration were
selected for annotation. These annotations form the main section of this report,
and are arranged alphabetically by author.
In addition, the bibliography contains non-annotated entries grouped under
specific subjects. These entries may be of value to persons requiring more in-depth
treatments of specific species or silvicultural methods. Two appendixes
are also included. Appendix A lists common and scientific names for bottomland
hardwood species covered in this publication and Appendix B catalogues flooding,
shade tolerances, and reproductive characteristics of selected bottomland
\i
2
hardwood forest species. Subject and species indexes are provided for cross-referencing
of the annotated entries.
Although an attempt was made to include all appropriate citations through
May 1988, some papers may have been omitted. We believe, however, that enough
entries have been included to make this publication valuable to those involved
in the important work of bottomland hardwood restoration.
REFERENCES
Anonymous. 1983. Restoration key to assessing environmental damages liability:
interior seeks aid. Restoration Manage. Notes 1(4):14-15.
Barton, K. 1985. Wetlands preservation. Pages 212-264 in R.L. DiSilvestro,
ed. Audubon Wildlife Report 1985. New York.
Brinson, M.M., B.L. Swift, R.C. Plantico, and J.S. Barclay. 1981. Riparian
ecosytems: their ecology and status. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv.
Program FWS/OBS-81/17. 155 pp.
Clark, J.R., and J. Benforado, editors. 1981. Wetlands of bottomland hardwood
forests. Developments in agricultural and manage-forest ecology 11: proc.
of a workshop; June l-5, 1980; Lake Lanier, GA. Elsevier Scientific
Publishing Company, New York. 402 pp.
Conner, W.H., and J.W. Day, Jr. 1982. The ecology of forested wetlands in the
southeastern United States. Pages 69-89 in B. Gopal, R.E. Turner, R.G.
Wetzel, and D.F. Whigham, eds. Wetlands ecology and management. National
Institute of Ecology and International Scientific Publications, Lucknow
Publishing House, Lucknow-226001, India.
Council on Environmental Quality. 1985. Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway wildlife
mitigation plan, Alabama and Mississippi. Fed. Reg. 50(62) (April 1):12850.
Cowardin, L.M., V. Carter, F.C. Golet, and E.T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification
of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States. U.S. Fish Wildl.
Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-79/31. 103 pp.
Eyre, F.H., editor. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada.
Sot. of Am. For. Washington, DC. 148 pp.
Federal Register. 1977. Protection of wetlands: executive order 11990. Fed.
Reg. 42(May 24):26961.
Federal Register. 1987. Code of federal regulations: agriculture part 1940,
subpart G. environmental program. U.S. Department of Agriculture Farmers Home
Administration. Washington, DC. pp 307-371.
Fowells, H.A., editor. 1965. Silvics of forest trees of the United States.
U.S. For. Serv. Handbook No. 217. Washington, DC. 762 pp.
Greeson, P.E., J.R. Clark, and J.E. Clark. 1978. Wetland functions and values:
the state of our understanding. American Water Resources Association, Min-neapolis,
MN. 674 pp.
4
Harris, L.D., R. Sullivan, and R.L. Badger. 1984. Bottomland hardwoods:
valuable, vanishing, vulnerable. University of Florida, Cooperative Extension
Service, Gainesville. 17 pp.
Haynes, R.J. 1984. Summary of wetlands reestablishment on surface-mined lands
in Florida. Pages 357-362 in 1984 symposium on surface mining, hydrology,
sedimentology, and reclamation. University of Kentucky at Lexington.
Haynes, R.J., and F. Crabill. 1984. Reestablishment of a forested wetland on
phosphate-mined land in central Florida. Pages 51-63 in Better reclamation
with trees: proceedings of fourth annual conference. Madisonville Community
College, Madisonville, KY.
MacDonald, P.O., W.E. Frayer, and J.K. Cl auser. 1979. Documentation,
chronology, and future projections of bottomland hardwood habitat losses in
the lower Mississippi Alluvial Plain. Vols. 1 and 2. U.S. Fish Wildlife
Service, Washington, DC.
McKnight, J.S., D.D. Hook, O.G. Langdon, and R.S. Johnson. 1981. Occurrence,
shade and flood tolerance and reproductive characteristics of the principal
species of the southern bottomland forest. Pages 45-69 in J.R. Clark and J.
Benforado, eds. Wetlands of bottomland hardwood forests. Elsevier Publishing
Company, New York.
Sather, H.J., and R.D. Smith. 1984. An overview of major wetland functions and
values. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-84/18. 68 pp.
Tiner, R.W., Jr. 1984. Wetlands of the United States: current status and
recent trends. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Habitat Resources, Newton
Corner, MA. 59 pp.
U.S. Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Forest Service, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service. 1983. Environmental assessment on state of reclamation techniques
on phosphate mined lands in Florida and their application to phosphate mining
in the Osceola National Forest. U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Alexandria,
VA.
U.S. Congress. 1984. Wetlands: their use and regulation. U.S. Congress,
Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, DC. 208 pp.
U.S. Congress. 1985. The Food Security Act of 1985. Public Law 99-198,
December 23, 1985. U.S. Congress, Washington, DC.
U.S. Congress. 1986(a). Emergency wetlands resources act of 1986. Public Law
99-645, November 10, 1986. U.S. Congress, Washington, DC.
U.S. Congress. 1986(b). Water resources development act of 1986. Pages 4186-
4187 in Public Law 99-662, November 17, 1986. U.S. Congress, Washington, DC.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1981. U.S. FWS mitigation policy. Fed. Reg.
46(15) (January 23):7644-7663.
5
Wharton, C.H., W.M. Kitchens, E.C. Pendleton, and T.W. Sipe. 1982, Ecology of
bottomland hardwood swamps of the southeast: a community profile. U.S. Fish
and Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/37. 134 pp.
ANNOTATED ENTRIES
Allen, H.H., and C.V. Klimas. 1986. Reservoir shoreline revegetation guide-lines.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Environmental and Water Quality
Operational Studies, Technical Report E-86-13. 87 pp.
Planning, site preparation, planting, postplanting operations and maintenance,
and costs associated with revegetating reservoir shorelines with both herbaceous
and woody species are covered. The two main elements of planning are site
selection and the choice of plant species and materials. Important site factors
to consider include water level fluctuations, bank morphometry, wave climate,
animal depredation potential, and soil characteristics. In general, larger-than-
average tree seedlings and species that leaf out late should be used to
minimize damage from spring floods. Planting of four propagule types for wocdy
vegetation--bare-root, balled-and-burlapped, and containerized seedlings and
cuttings--is covered. There is a section on special establishment techniques
in erodible environments in the planting chapter; detailed diagrams of most of
the techniques are provided. Postplanting operations and maintenance are
discussed only briefly. Monitoring is recommended in order to identify needs
such as irrigation, fertilization, protection from animals, or cultivation.
Anderson, C.P., P.E. Pope, W.R. Byrnes, W.R. Chaney, and B.H. Bussler. 1983.
Hardwood tree establishment in low plant cover on reclaimed mineland. Pages
158-170 in Proceedings of the third annual conference on better reclamation
with trees. Purdue University, Terre Haute, IN.
The paper describes a comparison between a reclaimed surface-mined site in
Sullivan County, IN, and an unmined reference site which was made to evaluate
the effectiveness of hardwood seedling establishment, growth, and related
factors. Black walnut and northern red oak seedlings (bare-root and
containerized) were planted concurrently with a cover crop of fescue and red
clover. Sites were disked, limed, and fertilized. Test areas were treated with
herbicide to control ground cover and to assess the competitive effects of ground
cover on seedling establishment and growth. After two growing seasons, red oak
seedlings exhibited lower survival and less net height growth than black walnut
seedlings. Individual container-produced seedlings survived better than bare-root
seedlings. Herbicide use to reduce ground cover competition effectively
improved black walnut survival and growth, but had no significant effect on red
oak. Selected physical and chemical properties of the growth media are
discussed.
Anonymous. 1984. Turning farmland into forests. Pages lo-11 in Woodlands for
wildlife. Mississippi Department of Wildlife Conservation, Jackson, MS.
A large-scale, lo-year program to reforest nearly 1,000 acres of old farm fields
on the Malmaison Wildlife Management Area in Mississippi is covered. Since 1981,
7
about 100 acres/year have been direct seeded with oak acorns collected by
wildlife area managers around Mississippi and shipped to Malmaison. Species
planted include water, willow, and cherrybark oak. Sowing is done with a
modified two-row John Deere planter; 40 acres/day can be planted. Researchers
from the U.S. Forest Service Southern Forest Experiment Station in Stoneville,
MS, are monitoring the results of the plantings. They report that germination
and seedling survival appear to be adequate in most areas planted to date.
Anonymous. 1986. Results of oak direct seeding are promising. Tree Talk
7(2):9-11.
This article describes an oak direct-seeding project, which began in November
1981, on about 1,100 acres of old farmland in the Panther Swamp National Wildlife
Refuge, in Yazoo County, MS. Species planted include water, willow, and Nuttall
oak. Two planting machines were used: a modified antique "belly mount" cotton
planter was used on heavy high-shrink Sharkey clay areas; and a converted John
Deere Maxi-Merge 7,100 planter was used for planting unprepared ground that
contained agricultural debris. Germination of willow oak began during April 1982
and Nuttall oak germination occurred from mid-May throughout the summer.
Survival and germination were reported to be adequate. Although only oaks were
planted, invader species, such as pecan, water hickory, persimmon, sugarberry,
honeylocust, and green ash, are expected to be components of the mature stands
and should enhance the overall value of the forest for wildlife.
Ashby, W.C., C.A. Kolar, and N.F. Rogers. 1980. Results of 30-year-old
plantations on surface mines in the central states. Pages 99-107 in
Proceedings of trees for reclamation. U.S. Forest Service General Technical
Report NE-61, Broomall, PA.
This report indicates that after at least 30 years, 28 species of trees have been
grown successfully on surface-mined lands in the Central States. Many of the
previously planted stands were vigorously invaded by volunteer trees, as well
as other plants and animals. The success of a species was affected by geographic
location, type of rooting medium, and whether species were planted alone or
interplanted. Species reviewed included maples, green ash, black walnut,
sweetgum, tulip tree (yellow-poplar), pines, sycamore, cottonwood, oaks, and
black locust. Green ash exhibited the highest survival rate of any species.
Sweetgum showed both good growth and survival. Black walnut and tulip trees
(yellow-poplar) were very site sensitive; growth and survival varied
substantially due to variations in soil pH, drainage, and other factors.
Sycamore and cottonwood yielded some of the largest trees although tree form was
poor, and volunteer trees of these species often equaled or exceeded planted
trees in size. Plantings of various oak species were successful in some
locations; no planting failures are reported in the paper. Black locust showed
rapid early growth before succumbing to the locust borer (Mesacvllene robiniae).
Major invaders under established tree cover were elms, hackberry, and boxelder.
Other important local invaders were black cherry, ashes, pin oak, shingle oak,
and sassafras. Many areas exhibited a dense herbaceous layer. Common shrubs
were dogwoods, grape, and sumac.
8
Ashby, W.C., W.G. Vogel, and C.A. Kolar. 1983. Use of nitrogen-fixing trees
and shrubs in reclamation. Pages 110-118 in Proceedings of the third annual
conference on better reclamation with trees. Purdue University, Terre Haute,
IN.
The importance of nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs to the establishment of other
trees, and the advantages and disadvantages of using nitrogen-fixing species are
discussed. Black locust, European alder, and autumn olive have been the most
widely used species in mined-land reclamation. Nitrogen-fixing species can
contribute to greatly accelerated growth and invasion of other trees. Black
locust and European alder experience die-back and mortality after 5 or more
years. The locust is often attacked by the locust borer, though some stands
escape. Locust sprouts vigorously from roots and sprouts grow well if not
shaded. The reasons for alder mortality are not well understood. As a
disadvantage, locust and autumn olive often produce dense thickets that are
difficult to move through for interplanting or underplanting other trees. Alder
may exhibit excessive competitiveness on good sites; autumn olive may overtop
young trees if planting densities are not carefully controlled, and the seeds
can be widely distributed by birds to other areas where unwanted establishment
may occur. The author notes that an extensive literature documenting the values
of nitrogen-fixing species is available.
Baker, J.B. 1977. Tolerance of planted hardwoods to spring flooding. Southern
Journal of Applied Forestry 1(3):23-25.
Inundation of cottonwood cuttings and seedlings (1-O stock) of sweetgum, water
tupelo, American sycamore, and green ash were studied and detailed in this
article. Cuttings and seedlings were planted on a Sharkey clay site near
Stoneville, MS, in two consecutive years in 25-tree plots. After the trees had
leafed out in May, 3 ft of water was pumped onto the plots, all trees were
completely inundated for 4 weeks, and then the water was removed. Water tupelo,
green ash, and sycamore were consistently most tolerant of spring flooding;
survival was about 90%. Cottonwood was the least tolerant of flooding; an
average of only 24% of the cuttings survived. All species except green ash lost
their leaves each year during the flooding period. Average height growth for
surviving seedlings one season after flooding was highest for cottonwood (3.7
ft), followed by green ash (2.8 ft), sycamore (2.4 ft), water tupelo (1.8 ft),
and sweetgum (1.2 ft).
Baker, J.B., and W.M. Broadfoot. 1979. A practical field method of site
evaluation for commercially important southern hardwoods. U.S. Forest Service
General Technical Report SO-26, New Orleans, LA. 51 pp.
This report provides a method and guide for evaluating the suitability of sites
for 14 hardwood species: cottonwood, green ash, pecan, sycamore, sweetgum,
yellow-poplar, hackberry, sugarberry, cherrybark oak, Nuttall oak, Shumard oak,
water oak, willow oak, and swamp chestnut oak. The method is based on the four
most important determinants of hardwood growth: soil physical condition,
moisture availability during the growing season, nutrient availability, and soil
aeration. Based on the percentage of maximum tree growth attributable to each
9
of these factors, a site quality rating (SQR) is assigned for best, medium, and
poor conditions. The rating for each major factor is further divided according
to the relative influences of soil-site properties; for instance, overall
nutrient availability is assessed by rating geologic sources, past soil use,
percent organic matter, depth of topsoil, soil age, and pH. All soil factors
are tabulated and rated. Values from the table are summed to assess the site's
suitability for a particular species. Estimates of potential productivity for
cottonwood, sweetgum, and sycamore are also,given.
Bates, A.L., E. Pichard, and W.M. Dennis. 1978. Tree plantings--a diversified
management tool for reservoir shorelines. Pages 190-194 in Strategies for
protection and management of floodplain wetlands and other riparian ecosystems.
Proceedings of a symposium; U.S. Forest Service, Washington, DC.
This paper reports on studies that have been conducted since 1935 on shoreline
plantings of water-tolerant tree species along periodically flooded or dewatered
shoreline within the mainstream and tributary reservoirs of the Tennessee Valley
Authority system. Baldcypress was determined to be the most desirable species
for planting in the fluctuation zone of reservoirs because of its rapid growth
rate and ability to withstand prolonged flooding even in the seedling stage.
Recently, however, plantings of baldcypress have been detrimentally affected by
high populations of beaver. Beaver populations along with competition from
herbaceous species in the upper portion of the fluctuation zone seemed to be
major limiting factors to successful plantings. Shoreline plantings of water-tolerant
species provided the potential for shoreline stabilization, better
habitat for desirable wildlife, a biological mosquito control method, replacement
of wetlands lost in
shoreline landscape.
Bedinger, M.S. 1971.
White River Valley,
reservoir construction, and an aesthetically'pleasing
Forest species as indicators of flooding in the lower
Arkansas. Pages C248-C253 jr~ Geological survey research
1971. Chapter C. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 750-C, Washington,
DC.
This study indicates that flooding is the dominant environmental factor
determining tree species distribution within the lower valley of the White River,
AR. The relationship between flooding and tree species occurrence was
sufficiently distinct to permit determination of flood characteristics at a given
site by evaluation of forest-species composition. On sites flooded 29%-40% of
the time, the dominant species were water hickory and overcup oak. On sites
flooded lo%-21% of the time, species included Nuttall oak, willow oak, sweetgum,
sugarberry, and American elm. Sites subject to flooding at intervals of from
2 to 8 years included southern red oak, shagbark hickory, and blackgum. The
presence of blackjack oak marked areas not flooded in historic times.
Bonner, F.T. 1964. Seeding and planting southern hardwoods. Pages 28-40 in
Proceedings of the Auburn University hardwood short course; Auburn, AL.
This paper summarizes the state of knowledge about
planting as of 1964. A table is presented which
10
southern hardwood seeding and
includes planting information
on cottonwood, sweetgum, green ash, sycamore, yellow-poplar, oaks, black walnut,
water tupelo, and baldcypress. Information given includes recommended pruning
length for roots, recommended top length, best root-collar diameter, adaptability
to machine planting, response to fertilizer, usual first-year growth, suitability
for wet sites, and susceptibility to animal and insect damage. In addition to
the table, the paper includes sections on protection, cultivation and weed con-trol,
and direct seeding. Protection of sweetgum, oaks, green ash, and yellow-poplar
seedlings can be difficult in old-field plantings, where they are suscep-tible
to damage by rabbits and other rodents.
application to seedlings or cuttings.
No repellant is available yet for
Protection from livestock and fire is
essential for good results. Cultivation is very important in cottonwood plan-tations;
cross-disking is the best method. Black walnut and sycamore also have
been shown to benefit from weed control. Direct-seeding results to date have
been erratic. Rodents have been responsible for most direct-seeding failures
of oaks, and have also damaged black walnut seed. Some seeds, such as those of
the red oaks and white ash, may remain dormant for a year or more after sowing.
Bonner, F.T. 1966. Survival and first-year growth of hardwoods planted in
saturated soils. U.S. Forest Service Research Note SO-32, New Orleans, LA.
This study documents the growth of sycamore, sweetgum, and Nuttall oak in poorly-drained
saturated soils typical of Mississippi River batture and slackwater clay
areas (Commerce silt loam and Sharkey clay). One-year-old seedlings in pots of
these two soils were kept under saturated conditions and monitored from February
until August for various aspects of root and shoot growth. Timing of bud-break,
initiation of height growth, and seedling survival were not influenced by either
soil type or saturation. Saturation did decrease terminal, stem diameter, and
root growth. At least 10 weeks of continuous saturation were required to produce
large decreases in growth. Sycamore seedlings exhibited the best overall growth;
however, terminal growth of the seedlings was more greatly impacted by saturation
than in the other two species. Root growth was suppressed in Nuttall oak and
sweetgum; sycamore roots grew twice as much in clay soil as in silt loam. Stress
on the seedlings was also evident in measures of water balance, especially in
silt loam.
Bonner, F.T. 1977. Handling and storage of hardwood seeds. Pages 145-152 in
Proceedings of the second symposium on southeastern hardwoods; U.S. Forest
Service State and Private Forestry, Atlanta, GA.
Techniques for seed storage and handling for a number of bottomland hardwood
species are described. Sweetgum, sycamore, green ash, white ash, and yellow-poplar
seeds should be stored dry (moisture content 6%-8X), as well as seeds from
fruits or drupes (such as black cherry, dogwood, sugarberry, and water tupelo).
A table of oven temperatures and drying times is given. Red and white oak acorns
are stored moist; the seeds become non-viable when the moisture content drops
to 25%-30%. Treatment of acorns for removal of insect larvae is not recommended.
Dried seeds may be stored at temperatures of O-5 'C for long periods of time,
or at higher temperatures if they are to be sowed during the next spring.
Sweetgum, sycamore, yellow-poplar, green and white ash, and black cherry may be
stored in this manner for up to 5 years. Water tupelo, shagbark hickory and
11
cottonwood seeds can be stored for 2 to 3 years. Acorns should be maintained
at 35%-45% moisture at temperatures between freezing and 2 OC in 4-mil-thick
polyethylene bags to allow gas exchange. The more dormant the oak, the longer
the acorn can be stored. Red oak acorns store much better than those of the
white oak group. The control of moisture content in seeds is critical to avoid
damage from lipid autooxidation (below 5% moisture), fungal growth (lo%-18%),
or heat from respiration (above 18%). Relative humidity in the storage area can
be controlled, but is expensive; storing seeds in moisture-proof containers is
more economical.
Bonner, F.T. 1984. Testing for seed quality in southern oaks. U.S. Forest
Service Research Note SO-306. New Orleans, LA. 6 pp.
This paper describes various experiments on measurement of acorn vigor carried
out at the Forestry Sciences Laboratory in Starkville, MS. A variety of
techniques are discussed, including the standard laboratory germination test,
cutting tests, radiography, tetrazolium staining (TZ test), germination rate
tests (peak value (PV) and mean germination time (MGT)), and leached conductivity
tests. In 1978, five lots of water oak, collected from 1975 to 1978 were
randomly sampled for three types of tests: standard laboratory germination test,
TZ, and the PV. These tests results were compared with indicators of seed and
seedling performance in nursery beds. All tests clearly showed which lots were
the best and the poorest quality. Results of the standard laboratory germination
TZ tests appear to have been correlated with nursery germination and growth,
but the number of lots precluded a definitive test. In 1982, multiple lots of
white oak, water oak, and cherrybark oak were selected for the standard
laboratory germination, TZ, PV, and MGT tests. The test results were again
compared with several indicators of seedling performance in nursery beds and
showed that TZ testing gave the best results for cherrybark oak, followed by the
PV test; PV and MGT tests were best for water oak. No tests were significantly
correlated with nursery germination of white oak. Seed vigor tests could not
predict oak seedling performance after germination. Tetrazolium staining test
results were significantly correlated with results of the standard laboratory
germination test for white and cherrybark oaks, but not water oaks. In spite
of the mixed results, seed quality testing is definitely recommended.
Bonner, F.T. 1986. Good seed quality -- how to obtain and keep it. Pages 31-
36 &t Northeastern area nurserymen's conference; State College, PA.
This paper contains recommendations for the collection, processing, storage,
and planting of oak acorns and small "orthodox" seeds (such as sweetgum,
sycamore, and yellow-poplar). Oak acorns need to be stored at higher moisture
contents and thus are treated differently from the so-called orthodox species.
Whereas the orthodox seeds can be dried to moisture contents of below lo%, white
oak acorns will die at moisture contents below 35% and red oaks, below 25%. Both
types of seed should be collected only when mature; many orthodox seeds reach
maturity in the early fall, but, in general, collection should be delayed until
the seeds have dried somewhat. Cut-and-float tests are recommended for acorns
since weevil infestations may require additional collection efforts. Three key
points for acorn storage are: (1) keep acorns moist; (2) keep them cool (l-3 "C);
and (3) do not store them in airtight containers. Stratification periods are
recommended for nine oak species. If stored correctly, orthodox seed may remain
12
viab
over
Most
time
seed
le for at least 3 years. At best, white oak acorns should be stored only
one winter, and ideally should be planted the same fall they are collected.
red oaks can be stored up to 3 years, but viability may fall 50% in this
The paper concludes with nine general considerations for assuring good
'quality.
Bonner, F.T., and J.A. Vozzo. 1985. Seed biology and technology of Quercus.
U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report SO-66, New Orleans, LA. 21 pp.
This monograph is divided into two parts--current biological knowledge and
handling and management of acorns.
of the genus Quercus,
The first section briefly covers the taxonomy
and describes the anatomy, metabolism, dormancy, and
predators of oak seeds in detail.
cleaning and conditioning,
The second section covers seed collection,
treatment for insects, storage, stratification, and
testing. All oaks belong to one of two subgenera of Quercus, which are generally
referred to as red and white oaks. Both biological characteristics and some
aspects of handling and management of acorns differ substantially, making the
distinction between these groups important for planting operations. Acorns
should be collected as soon as they are mature, which in the Midsouth is usually
from late October to early November. Indicators of maturity are provided for
both subgenera, and collection methods are covered briefly. It is very important
to prevent excessive drying--loss of moisture should not exceed 5%. Treatment
for insects should be done with caution since common treatment methods such as
soaking in hot water and fumigating can also harm the acorns. Storage techniques
vary between the subgenera. In general, white oaks cannot be successfully stored
more than 4-6 months, and the best recommendation is to store them in the ground
by planting them in the fall. A good method of storing red oaks is to keep them
in polyethylene bags with a wall thickness of 4-10 mil at a temperature near,
but above, freezing (l-3 "C). Recommended stratification periods for selected
red oaks are provided, and some common test procedures are described.
Briscoe, C.B. 1957. Diameter growth and effects of flooding on certain
bottomland forest trees. Ph.D. Dissertation. Duke University, Durham, NC.
This study covers tree diameter growth and the effects of flooding on seedlings
of water tupelo, sweetgum, loblolly pine, laurel oak, baldcypress, water oak,
northern red oak, cherrybark oak, slash pine, and swamp tupelo on seven types
of physiographic sites in southeastern Georgia. Seedlings of water tupelo, swamp
tupelo, northern red oak, cherrybark oak, and slash pine were treated to
determine the effects of flooding on growth. All species tolerated up to 51 days
of flooding and submersion (the longest period allowable in the experiment).
Tolerance to flooding was related to the frequency of flooding at the different
sites where the species were naturally found in southeastern Georgia. Submersion
of the seedlings reduced growth more than just flooding the soil. Tolerance to
flooding increased with age of the seedlings and decreased with the duration of
the flooding event. Water temperature affected growth; seedling growth ceased
at water temperatures of 41 OF and seedlings suffered some (reversible) damage
13
at holding temperatures of 95 OF. Root growth was more reduced by flooding than
was shoot growth. Slash pines suffered mortality after flooding due to a seed-borne
fungus.
observed.‘
Some swamp and water tupelo mortality due to insect larvae was
Briscoe, C.B. 1961. Germination of cherrybark and Nuttall oak acorns following
flooding. Ecology 42(2):430-431.
The article details germination experiments on cherrybark and Nuttall oak acorns
previously kept in cold, moist stratification for 4 months. The acorns were
divided into loo-seed lots and four lots were randomly assigned to each of 10
treatments: no flooding; flooding in open-mesh bags in swamp water or tap water
for 8, 18, and 34 days; and flooding in sealed containers of tap water for the
three periods. Temperature of all the waters ranged from 37-40 OF. Following
these treatments, acorns were germinated in wooden flats filled with vermiculite.
The results indicated a significant interaction of species and flooding period,
but no significant differences based on type of water used. Cherrybark oak
germination was significantly lowered by the 34-day submersion period;
germination averaged 44% after 8 days, 41% after 18 days, and 26% after 34 days.
Nuttall oak was not affected by flooding period, and germination for all waters
combined varied from 41% to 44%. There was some indication that the germination
percentage for Nuttall oak was higher for large than for small acorns.
Briscoe, C.B. 1963. Rooting cuttings of cottonwood, willow, and sycamore.
Journal of Forestry 61(1):51-53.
The report covers a study which took place on first bottoms of the Atchafalaya
River in southern Louisiana. Cuttings of cottonwood, willow, and sycamore were
obtained from natural stands and were collected each month from October 1957
through September 1958 (except August). Trees were cut near the ground with a
machete; the basal 16-inch length was the butt-cut. The majority of the cuttings
had a diameter inside bark of 0.3-0.8 inches, with a total range of 0.2-1.9
inches. Cuttings were set in a nursery bed on the same day they were collected;
subsets of each species were removed each month to check for rooting. All
species rooted every month, but November was the best month for cottonwood (92%
of cuttings obtained and planted in November rooted) and March was best for
willow and sycamore (100% of cuttings of both species rooted). October to
December was the best period for rooting cottonwood, and January to March was
best for sycamore, while willow did just as well on average in both periods.
Butt-cuts rooted better (66% overall) than second-cuts (54%). Willow cuttings
grew the fastest; sycamore grew the slowest. Butt-cuts of willow averaged 3.0
ft in height by the end of the study (about 5-6 months of growth), compared to
2.1 ft for cottonwood, and 1.4 ft for sycamore.
Broadfoot, W.M. 1976. Hardwood suitability for and properties of important
Midsouth soils. U.S. Forest Service Research Paper SO-127, New Orleans, LA.
84 PP.
This document updates and expands previous information about important Midsouth
soils and their suitability for hardwoods. Forty tables describe the properties
of each soil, give management suggestions, and indicate occurrence, suitability,
14
and productivity of various species. Of the 40 soils described, 16 are found
primarily in the Southern Mississippi Valley Alluvium, 12 in the Silty Uplands,
9 in the Coastal Plains, and 3 in the Blackland Prairies.
Broadfoot, W.M., and R.M. Krinard. 1961.
bottoms in loess areas.
Growth of hardwood plantations on
U.S. Forest Service Tree Planters' Notes 48:3-8.
This article, with pictures and detailed captions, briefly describes 17- to 25-
year-old hardwood plantations within the loess soil belt of Mississippi and
Tennessee. A 17-year-old baldcypress plantation and a 6-year-old cottonwood
plantation are included for comparison. All plantations were on abandoned farm
land in stream bottoms or branch heads, and were established with 1-O nursery
seedlings on a 6 by 6 ft spacing, (the cottonwood plantation was established from
cuttings planted on a 9 by 9 ft spacing). In addition, two sweetgum plantations
and one each of southern red oak, white oak, water oak, swamp chestnut oak,
yellow-poplar, water tupelo, green ash, and river birch are depicted. At age
21, the three largest white oaks averaged 9.2 inches in dbh and 50 ft in height.
After 25 years the yellow-poplar plantation had 61% survival and an average
diameter of 5.3 inches. Data are also given for age, survival rate, dbh, and
height for sweetgum, water oak, willow oak, swamp chestnut oak, green ash,
cottonwood, and baldcypress. No data were collected for southern red oak or
river birch.
Clewell, A.F. 1981. Vegetational restoration techniques on reclaimed phosphate
strip mines in Florida. Wetlands 1:158-170.
A portion of this paper discusses preliminary results for forest reestablishment
on phosphate-mined lands in Florida. Four methods of swamp restoration were
evaluated: (1) planting of tree seedlings (primarily with bare roots rather than
potted); (2) transplanting of saplings from natural swamps with a tree spade;
(3) mulching, using topsoil from natural swamps; and (4) natural colonization.
The author noted that the planting of tree seedlings promises the partial success
of forest reestablishment; helps to overcome any inadequacy of natural seed
sources; and is considered inexpensive, as long as a mechanical tree planter is
used. It was pointed out that unavailability of preferred nursery stock could
be a serious problem, Tree spading of saplings up to about 8 cm in diameter from
natural swamps to adjacent reclaimed lands can be accomplished, though often with
limited success. An operator can transplant about 200 trees a week using tree-spading
equipment; however, the operation is limited to soils firm enough to
support the equipment. Swamp mulching holds promise in special limited
situations; mulching in strips or piles between planted trees is recommended.
For colonization by natural invasion, an inverse correlation between distance
from the nearest natural seed source (which in Florida is typically a riparian
forest) and the number of species present was noted. Limitations to planting
methodologies include cost, time requirements needed to satisfy regulatory
requirements, and the self-sustaining capability of the species used.
15
Clewell, A.F. 1983. Riverine forest restoration efforts on reclaimed mines at
Brewster Phosphates, central Florida. Pages 122-133 in D.J. Robertson, ed.
Reclamation and the phosphate industry. Proceedings of a symposium; Clearwater
Beach, FL; 26-28 January, 1983. Florida Institute of Phosphate Research,
Bartow.
This paper provides the following summary statements about major forest
reestablishment issues within the central Florida phosphate mining area: (1)
Prescribed vegetational restoration activities are essential to restoring plant
communities that closely resemble those of natural riverine forests; (2) Previous
studies strongly suggest that natural dissemination of seeds can be incorporated
into a restoration plan for a site bordering a natural seed source; (3) Bare-root
seedlings can be used in restoration, but may not always yield satisfactory
results; (4) Tree-spading may be advantageous in some situations. If tree-spading
is attempted, irrigation may accelerate the recovery of the root system.
Additional information regarding the value of tree-spading in forest restoration
is needed; (5) Preliminary results from studies have suggested that direct seed-ing
is possible for some species, but percentage of germination and survival may
be low; (6) Mulching seems to be helpful in restoring riverine forests as long
as high soil moisture is maintained; thus, irrigation may be required. Also,
mulching (in this case topsoil spread about a foot in depth and obtained from
a riverine forest) introduces many species of plants; (7) Weeds can result in
severe competition for tree seedlings and young sap1 ings, although weeds can
provide shade and protection from wind. The author recommends additional study
of several methods for partial weed control; (8) The author concludes that a
riverine forest could be restored, but that successful restoration is dependent
on using a combination of methods applicable to the specific situation.
Conner, W.H. 1988. Natural and artificial regeneration of baldcypress in the
Barataria and Lake Verret Basins of Louisiana. Ph.D. Dissertation. Department
of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries Science, Louisiana State University, Baton
Rouge.
This dissertation covers natural regeneration occurring from 1982-87 and the
results of four planting trials of baldcypress in southern Louisiana. Overall,
natural regeneration was poor in both basins studied, and artificial regeneration
was largely unsuccessful due to nutria depredation. In three of the trials, most
unprotected seedlings planted in both logged and unlogged stands were quickly
destroyed by nutria. Vexar plastic seedling protectors were tried, but at best
only slowed the rate of seedling destruction slightly. Chicken wire fences were
used to protect one planting, and survival ranged from 64% to 91%, compared to
about 15% for the other trials. In the fourth trial, baldcypress seedlings were
planted in a seasonally flooded crawfish pond in February and July for two
consecutive years. February-planted seedlings that experienced one growing
season before flooding had the best survival and growth. After 3 years, annual
growth rates of February- and July-planted seedlings were similar.
Conner, W.H., and J.R. Toliver. 1987. Vexar seedling protectors did not reduce
nutria damage to planted baldcypress seedlings. U.S. Forest Service Tree
Planters' Notes 38(3):26-29.
16
This article covers the results of a baldcypress planting trial in southern
Louisiana, which was designed to test the effectiveness of Vexar plastic seedling
protectors as a deterrent to nutria depredation. Five areas of typical
baldcypress-tupelo forest--four of which had been logged recently--were planted
with l-year-old seedlings, and half the seedlings in each area were protected
with Vexar seedling protectors. The seedling protectors slowed down the rate
of destruction somewhat, but after 3 months, 85% of the protected seedlings and
87% of the unprotected seedlings had been destroyed by nutria.
Dickson, R.E., and T.C. Broyer. 1972. Effects of aeration, water supply, and
nitrogen source on growth and development of tupelo gum and baldcypress.
Ecology 53(4):626-634.
Three separate experiments on water tupelo and baldcypress are summarized. The
experiments were designed to (1) compare the relative effects of saturated and
unsaturated soil, aeration within the saturated soil, and nitrogen fertilizer
source on growth; (2) determine the effects of aeration and water availability
on internal plant moisture stress and growth; and (3) compare the effects of
four soil-moisture regimes on internal moisture stress and growth. Seedlings
were grown in 7-inch clay pots, with four or five seedlings per pot. Five soil-water
regimes were more sensitive to anaerobic, saturated soil. Nitrogen
fertilization produced more growth compared to no-nitrogen fertilization in
saturated soil, but had no significant effect on seedlings in unsaturated soil.
Urea produced more growth than nitrate for baldcypress, while the opposite was
true for water tupelo. In general, baldcypress was more responsive to
fertilization than water tupelo.
DuBarry, A.P., Jr. 1963. Germination of bottomland tree seed while immersed
in water. Journal of Forestry 61(3):225-226.
The article details tests of seeds germinated in water. The seed of baldcypress,
Carolina ash, green ash, buttonbush, sycamore, swamp tupelo, water tupelo,
American elm, and sweetgum were subjected to 30 days of immersion in water to
test germination. Testing was done in open-top, aluminum-foil containers filled
with about 2 inches of tap water. Water temperature for the immersion treatments
ranged from 75 to 90 "F, and constant, artificial light was maintained throughout
the test period. Control groups consisted of seeds placed in sponge-type
germinators, which kept seeds moist but not completely immersed. In addition,
representative samples (whole seed) of each species were analyzed for nitrogen-free-
extract (NFE) to evaluate its role in the germination process. Immersion
in water was found to have a beneficial affect on soft-coated seeds with NFE con-tents
of 25% or more. Only baldcypress and water tupelo failed to germinate
after 30 days. Other species ranged from 21.5% germination (sweetgum) to 86.5%
(buttonbush).
Erwin, K.L., G.R. Best, W.J. Dunn, and P.M. Wallace. 1985. Marsh and forested
wetland reclamation of a central Florida phosphate mine. Wetlands 4:87-104.
17
This journal article discusses wetlands reestablishment on a 148-ha project site
of phosphate-mined land in central Florida, of which 61 ha of wetlands and 87
ha of uplands were reclaimed in 1981-82. The wetlands were designed to create
freshwater marsh, hardwood swamp, and open water. About 66,000 trees (12 wetland
species) were planted. Tree seedling survival and condition as a function of
type of seedling, season, and water depth were determined. Overall seedling mor-tality
in the reclamation area was small. Carolina ash had the highest net
survival (98%) and growth in height. Other species that exhibited high survival
included red bay (90%), black gum (90%), sycamore (90%), Florida maple (86X),
and sweet bay (83%). Following a very poor initial survival rate (58%)) cypress
seedlings gradually recovered through root stock sprouting to a 78% survival
rate. Species with relatively low initial survival included Dahoon holly (56%),
loblolly bay (44%), and laurel and live oaks (12%), although the data for the
oaks may not be valid because of the small number of individuals in the sampling
population. Growth rates of cypress seedlings were higher at low-water levels
(e.g., ~30 cm); it was recommended that water conditions during the first and
second growing seasons should be kept low to increase height growth and survival.
Competitive growth of some marsh plants (e.g., cattail, marsh willow) appeared
to retard seedling growth and/or survival ability. However, if seedlings were
successful in surviving the competition, their growth rate was high.
Ettinger, W., and C. Yuill. 1982. Sand and gravel pit reclamation in Louisiana:
creation of wetlands habitats and its integration into adjacent undisturbed
bayou. Pages 109-114 in Wildlife values of gravel pits. Agricultural Experiment
Station Miscellaneous Publication 17. University of Minnesota, St. Paul.
This paper describes a reclamation plan for an area surface mined for sand and
gravel in Webster Parish, LA. The goal of the reclamation plan was to convert
the barren unreclaimed site into a diverse assemblage of bottomland forest and
shallow and deeper water habitat integrated into the Bayou Dorcheat and Lake
Bistineau ecosystems. Important planning elements were water-level
considerations, regrading and reshaping spoil, and revegetation. A limited
program of tree planting was proposed. On areas above a typical yearly high-water
mark, species to be planted included hickory, pecan, Shumard oak, and
willow oak. Recommended species on seasonally flooded areas were green ash,
overcup oak, water hickory, and water oak. As islands and emerging areas
stabilize, baldcypress and other bottomland hardwoods were expected to colonize
the site from adjacent undisturbed areas. As of 1982, the plan was being
implemented but follow-up monitoring data were not available.
Finn, R.F. 1958. Ten years of strip-mined forestation research in Ohio. U.S.
Forest Service Central States Forest Experiment Station Technical Paper 153.
Columbus, OH. 38 pp.
This paper summarizes the results of 10 years of planting studies on coal strip-mined
land in Ohio, and clearly shows that a variety of trees (including
bottomland hardwood types) and forage plants can be successfully grown. Factors
18
studied included species adaptation, mixed plantings, direct seeding and other
planting methods, and the effect of grading on planted trees. Generally, poor
results were obtained from direct seeding; grading
most planted trees.
retarded height growth of
Fletcher, S.W. 1986. Planning and evaluation techniques for replacement of
complex stream and wetland drainage systems.
new horizons for mined land reclamation.
Pages 195200 in Proceedings:
and Reclamation, Princeton, WV.
American Society for Surface Mining
This paper describes a planning approach for replacing stream and wetland
ecosystems on phosphate-mined lands in central Florida where existing systems
are characterized, and hydrologic, soil, and vegetational profiles are developed
for each community type and stream reach. Postmining plans are developed with
consideration of premining conditions. The reclamation plan includes a series
of iterative steps to allow reestablishment of each profile toward optimum
configuration. Flow barriers, contouring, and other devices are designed to
create proper hydroperiod conditions for each community type.
Fowells, H.A., editor. 1965. Silvics of forest trees of the United States. U.S.
Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 271. Washington, DC. 762 pp.
This handbook is an edited compendium of silvical papers on tree species of
commercial importance. A total of 127 species are covered, including most of
the major bottomland hardwood species. The information provided for each species
includes habitat conditions (climate, soils and topography, and associated trees
and shrubs), life history (reproduction and early growth, and sapling stage to
maturity), and races and hybrids. (Authors' note: a new edition of this handbook
is due to be published in 1988).
Francis, J.K. 1985. Bottomland hardwood fertilization--The Stoneville
Experience. Pages 346-350 jr~ Proceedings of the third biennial southern
silvicultural research conference; Atlanta, GA.
Results of several fertilization studies with cottonwood and other bottomland
hardwood species and species mixes are discussed. In eight studies, cottonwood
plantations were fertilized with rates of nitrogen (NH NO ) ranging from 0 to
600 lb/acre. In some of the studies, P and K were adc!ed3to a treatment, and
lime was included in one study. The best rates of N fertilizer were 150 and 300
lb/acre. Most of the responses to fertilizer occurred in the first year of the
trials, and by the third year no further response was evident. Evidence
indicates that the best time to fertilize cottonwood may be March; also,
cottonwood may be more likely to respond to fertilizer at age 4 than at younger
ages. Benefit was not derived from the addition of P, K, or lime in any of the
trials. The most important cause of success or failure of a treatment was site
history. Old field sites were much more responsive to fertilization than
plantations established on sites recently cleared of forest. Plantations on
medium-textured soils, such as Commerce or Convent, responded more to
fertilization than plantations on Sharkey or Urbo soils. Results with other
19
bottomland hardwoods were similar in most cases. Generally, the best response
was obtained on old fields with N, or N and P. Responses in most cases were not
high enough to justify the costs of fertilization given current forest-product
prices. The author concluded that fertilization should be limited to special
cases, which are not yet well-defined.
Fung, M.Y.P. 1986. Ground cover control with herbicides to enhance tree
establishment on oil sands reclamation sites. Pages 179-182 in Proceedings
of the symposium on new horizons for mined land and reclamation. American
Society for Surface Mining and Reclamation, Princeton, WV.
The paper covers a common problem encountered during the initial phase of woody
plant seeding establishment--competition by aggressive herbaceous vegetation for
light, soil moisture, and nutrients. Ground vegetation must be properly managed
to promote erosion control and soil improvement while minimizing any adverse
impacts on tree seedlings. Two herbicides, amitrole and glyphosate, were
evaluated for their ability to control herbaceous cover. Glyphosate, applied
at 9.50 L/ha, was the more effective of the two in maintaining ground cover
density at or below 55%. At this level, seedling survival and growth were
significantly improved.
Gilbert, T., T. King, and B. Barnett. 1981. An assessment of wetland habitat
establishment at a central Florida phosphate mine site. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service Biological Services Program FWS/OBS-81/38. 96 pp.
This publication reports on a reclaimed mine restoration project initiated in
1978, and carried out by the Florida Game and Fish Commission in cooperation with
the International Minerals and Chemical Corporation and the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service. The 49-acre site, which was mined for phosphate in 1967-68,
included both wetland and upland reestablishment areas, and was located in Polk
County, FL, adjacent to the Peace River floodplain. In 1978, the area was
graded, two water basins were created, and a meandering channel was constructed
to connect the basins during periods of high water. Over 10,000 tree seedlings
(16t species, including from 9 to 13 bottomland forest species) were planted in
26 test plots. Native herbaceous marsh plants were transplanted to the wetland
portion of the site. Plantings, natural plant invasion, hydrology, water
quality, and wildlife utilization were evaluated for about 18 months after site
construction. The authors concluded that plantings can increase plant species
diversity on new sites. Bareroot seedlings, larger transplanted trees, and
freshwater marsh plants can be successfully introduced, but species se;;;::;!
and on-site planting location are primary factors to be considered.
invasion is also an important factor. The amount of plant subsidy that may be
needed is dependent on (1) the distance of individual sites from a natural seed
source, (2) the nearby natural plant community type, and (3) dispersal
mechanisms. Generally, as the distance from the potential seed source increases,
the amount of plant subsidy needed increases. Survival and growth data for each
species are presented and reclamation methods are discussed. The authors
concluded that although it was not yet possible to assess the long-term ecosystem
aspects of wetland reestablishment for the study site, the short-term outlook
was promising.
20
Gilmore, A.R., and W.R. Boggess. 1963. Effects of past agricultural practices
on the survival and growth of planted trees.
the Soil Sciences Society.
Pages 98-102 in Proceedings of
This paper describes the results of a planting of four pine species (loblolly,
shortleaf, red, and white) and three hardwood species (sycamore, green ash, and
yellow-poplar) on a recently abandoned farm field in southern Illinois. The
field had been used for 40 years to test crop rotations with various soil and
fertilizer practices; the soil in the field was Wartrace series, which developed
from loess. Treatments to portions of the field included the addition of manure,
crop residues, limestone, and/or rock phosphate and no treatment controls. Pine
seedlings (1-O for loblolly and shortleaf, and 2-O for white and red) were
machine planted, and hardwood seedlings (all 1-O stock) were hand-planted in the
spring. All pine species survived best on the untreated plots, or on those to
which only crop residues had been returned. Survival was significantly less on
plots that had been manured, and was drastically reduced on limed plots due to
weed competition.
that had both lime
Survival of sycamore and yellow-poplar was greatest on plots
and manure or crop residues. It was concluded that: (1)
extreme caution should be used in planting pines on land that has been recently
fertilized unless provision is made for weed control; (2) past fertility programs
should be investigated; and (3) hardwoods require more fertile sites than pines.
Hansen, N.J., and A.L. McComb. 1955. Growth, form and survival of plantation-grown
broadleaf and coniferous trees in southeast Iowa. Proceedings of the
Iowa Academy of Science 62:109-124.
This paper summarizes the results of a survey (conducted during 1952-53) of old
fields and degraded forest land in southern Iowa, planted with broadleaf and
coniferous species during the years 1937-41. Typical bottomland forest species
planted included green ash, American elm, cottonwood, and silver maple. Overall,
data were collected for 17 broadleaf species and 10 coniferous species. After
12 - 15 years following planting, growth of deciduous species in general was poor
on eroded, old-field sites and good on uncultivated and uneroded sites (primarily
around abandoned farmsteads). Conclusions were limited because of absence of
original planting records and data.
Harris, S.A., H. Bateman, and L. Savage. 1985. Sportsmen's paradise regained.
Louisiana Conservationist 37(5):24-25.
This article describes a project to plant Nuttall oak, willow oak, overcup oak,
baldcypress, and pecan on approximately 4,500 acres of recently purchased
agricultural land. The tract joins the Russell Sage and Ouachita Wildlife
Management Areas near Monroe, LA. A 5- to lo-year planting schedule has been
planned, with approximately 900 acres/yr to be planted. During the first season,
870 acres of disked fields were planted using 114,000 seedlings and 6,000 lb of
acorns. Some of the seedlings were hand-planted; a mechanical planter was used
for the acorns. Prior to sowing, acorns were kept in cold storage or
21
underground. As the first year's planting progressed, numerous study plots were
established to monitor survival and growth of planted seedlings and acorns. The
goal of the project is to reestablish a diverse bottomland hardwood forest on
the tract. It is hoped that species such as water hickory, persimmon, elms,
willow, sugarberry, and native understory plants will become established through
natural regeneration.
Haynes, R.J. 1983. Natural vegetation development on a 43-year-old surface-mined
site in Perry County, Illinois. Pages 457-466 in Symposium on surface
mining, hydrology, sedimentation and reclamation. University of Kentucky at
Lexington.
Natural revegetation was evaluated on a 43-year-old surface-mined site in
southern Illinois. For the overstory, 16 species of trees were recorded. When
compared with an adjacent oak-hickory climax forest on unmined land, the study
site exhibited little similarity, but more closely resembled a southern
floodplain or mesic forest type. American elm, cottonwood, sycamore, boxelder,
and black cherry accounted for 77% of the importance value. Other volunteer
species noted were shingle oak, red oak, pin oak, river birch, willow, hackberry,
silver maple, dogwood, sassafras, and persimmon. The rate of succession on the
site appeared to be suppressed. The primary factors thought to be limiting
succession were competition from dense shrub and herbaceous vegetation and the
lack of an available seed source for many heavy-seeded species (e.g., oaks and
hickories) at an appropriate time for establishment.
Haynes, R.J., and F. Crabill. 1984. Reestablishment of a forested wetland on
phosphate-mined land in central Florida. Pages 51-63 _i~ Proceedings of the
fourth annual conference on better reclamation with trees. Purdue University,
West Lafayette, IN.
This paper describes the design and implementation of a cooperative forested
wetland reestablishment effort involving the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, AMAX
Chemical Corporation, and various State agencies on a 16-acre (6.5-ha),
phosphate-mined site in central Florida (Hillsborough County). The revegeta-ation
type (dominant overstory species included red maple, laurel and water oak,
and loblolly bay), site preparation, mining activities, grading, topsoil storage,
soil amendments, revegetation methods, experimental design, and monitoring are
discussed. Study factors included topsoiling; mulching; use of potted plants,
bare-root seedlings, and wildlings; natural invasion; control of plant
competition; erosion control; establishment of vegetation islands; and evaluation
of reclamation success. Data for categorical project costs were also summarized.
About 90%-95% of the reclamation cost was estimated to be for earthmoving work
involving heavy equipment. Project site revegetation was estimated to account
for about 2%-3% of reclamation cost, whereas carrying out the short-term
monitoring plan would require from 1% to 2%. Implementation of the revegetation
and monitoring plan was scheduled to begin in 1985; thus, data were not available
to evaluate the success of the project.
Haynes, R.J., and L. Moore. 1987. Reestablishment of bottomland hardwoods
within national wildlife refuges in the southwest. Pages 95-103 in Increasing
22
our Wetland Resources. Proceedings of a conference; National Wildlife
Federation-Corporate Conservation Council; Washington, DC.
Increased interest in the protection, conservation, and restoration of bottomland
forests prompted the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Southeast Region) in 1987
to review existing examples of bottomland hardwood reestablishment on National
Wildlife Refuges in the Southeast. Efforts to reestablish bottomland hardwoods
were identified on 12 refuges. Plantings ranged in size from less than 1 ha to
about 405 ha and varied in age from about 1 to 19 years after planting. The
majority of the planting sites were on periodically flooded land that had been
previously farmed. Planting methods included direct seeding of acorns and
transplanting seedlings, both of which had distinct advantages and disadvantages.
Efforts to control competing vegetation and use of amendments, such as
fertilizer, were seldom used. The species most often planted were Nuttall oak,
cherrybark oak, willow oak, water oak, and pecan, although several other species
were planted. Natural regeneration relative to achieving a diversity of tree
species was an important consideration at all sites, and additional evaluation
of this issue is needed. Other limiting factors that may affect the success of
plantings include (1) drought during the growing season or a late freeze
following planting; (2) standing water and high temperature on sites with young
seedlings; (3) flooding on sites where the species planted are not adapted either
to the duration or the depth of flooding; (4) damage or destruction of seeds or
seedlings by rodents, rabbits, or deer; and (5) poor seed viability or poor
quality of nursery stock. The small data set evaluated indicated that with
attentive management and control of limiting factors, reestablishment of a
planned bottomland forest with desired tree species and high value for many
species of wildlife should be possible within 40 to 60 years. Additional
analysis of other demonstration sites and long-term data sets are needed.
Hosner, J.F. 1957. Effects of water upon the seed germination of bottomland
trees. Forest Science 3(1):67-70.
This study was set up to determine the effects of water upon the seed germina-tion
of red maple, silver maple, American elm, sycamore, and cottonwood. Samples
of 100 apparently sound seeds of each species were randomly selected and split
into two lots of 50 seeds each. Half the lots were subjected to soaking in
tapwater in a darkened root cellar at approximately 60 OF, for periods varying
from 4 to 32 days. The other half were kept dry, but were otherwise subjected
to the same treatments. Except for 16 red maple and 2 silver maple seeds, the
seeds of elm, sycamore, red, and silver maple did not germinate while soaking
in water, but germinated rapidly immediately after removal from water.
Germination was consistently high for all periods of soaking. Cottonwood and
willow seeds completed their germination in the water after 4 days of soaking
and many seedlings were healthy after 32 days of soaking. It was concluded that
flooding of bottomland hardwoods for up to 32 days does not seem to have an
appreciable effect upon the germination of the six species tested (except
possibly through indirect effects of siltation).
Hosner, J.F. 1958. The effects of complete inundation upon seedlings of six
bottomland tree species. Ecology 39(2):371-373.
23
This article discusses the effects of complete inundation of seedlings of six
bottomland hardwood tree species--cottonwood, willow, sweetgum, green ash,
boxelder, and silver maple--for periods of 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 days. Except
for silver maple, which was grown from seed in a greenhouse, current-year
seedlings were collected in the field, transplanted into two-and-a-half inch
pots, and allowed to grow for 3 weeks before inundation. The seedlings were
about 3 inches high when the test began, and all species except silver maple
appeared healthy at the start. Inundation was in tanks placed outdoors in an
area exposed to sunlight until 2:00 p.m.; water temperatures during the day
ranged from 88-93 OF. The seedlings were kept covered with about a foot of pond
water. All species, except silver maple, survived 8 days of complete inundation.
After 16 days all replications of willow and green ash survived; two of three
replications of sweetgum survived; one of three boxelder survived; no cottonwood
survived. After 32 days, only willow survived. Recovery after inundation also
varied. Willow and green ash recovered fastest, followed by cottonwood,
sweetgum, and boxelder. The species, ranked according to their relative
tolerances to complete inundation, were willow, green ash, sweetgum, boxelder,
cottonwood, and silver maple.
Hosner, J.F. 1959. Survival, root, and shoot growth of six bottomland tree
species following flooding. Journal of Forestry 59:927-928.
The article covers experiments in which green ash, cottonwood, hackberry,
sycamore, cherrybark oak, and pin oak seedlings were tested for survival, and
root and shoot growth following flooding. Seedlings were immersed for 38 days
in enough tapwater to cover the surface of the soil to a depth of about one
quarter of an inch, after which they were removed and measured. The four most
vigorous appearing seedlings of each species were then kept for another 60 days
in moist but well-drained soil, and remeasured. The results showed pronounced
differences among the six species in their ability to adjust to changing soil
moisture conditions. Cottonwood, sycamore, and ash seedlings rapidly developed
adventitious root systems after flooding, but the oaks and hackberry did not.
The hackberry seedlings all appeared dead within 3 weeks. The oaks survived,
but their roots only weakly recovered after flooding, and no new leaf or shoot
growth occurred in the 60-day post-flooding period. Shoot growth recovery was
rapid for cottonwood and green ash, but much delayed for sycamore.
Hosner, J.F., and S.G. Boyce. 1962. Tolerance to water saturated soil of
various bottomland hardwoods. Forest Science 8(2):180-186.
This study reports on current-year seedlings of 17 bottomland hardwood species
native to southern Illinois which were tested for tolerance to water saturated
soil. Potted seedlings were subjected to completely saturated soils for 15-,
30-, and 60-day periods by placing pots into tanks filled with tap water to a
level of about 1 inch above the soil line. Observations were made on mortality,
height growth, development of the established root system, and the formation of
adventitious roots. Mortality occurred among seedlings of five species--
cherrybark oak, Shumard oak, sugarberry, cottonwood, and American elm.
Cherrybark oak was the only species to experience mortality after 15 days, and
24
had the highest mortality after 60 days (86.7%). The tops of all seedlings of
the other 12 species were alive after 60 days of complete soil saturation. Nine
species actually had faster height growth in soil saturated for 60 days than in
unsaturated controls; in order of greatest to least difference, these species
were green ash, water tupelo, pumpkin ash, pin oak, willow, sugarberry,
cottonwood, silver maple, and boxelder. Species whose height growth was
adversely affected were Shumard oak, cherrybark oak, red maple, sycamore,
hackberry, sweetgum, willow oak, and elm. The roots of water tupelo, willow,
pumpkin ash, and green ash continued to grow under completely saturated soil
conditions; the remaining species did not have any actively growing root tips
after 30 days, but some (American elm, cottonwood, sycamore, silver maple, and
red maple) had many adventitious roots.
Howells, R.G. 1986. Guide to techniques for establishing woody and herbaceous
vegetation in the fluctuation zones of Texas reservoirs. Texas Parks and
Wildlife Department, Austin, TX.
This publication provides guidance on several aspects of woody and herbaceous
plant establishment, including propagule types, collection and storage of
propagules, site selection and preparation, planting techniques, protection of
plantings, post-planting maintenance, and monitoring. Emphasis is placed on the
establishment of selected species which were indentified as suitable for
establishment in the fluctuating zones. The woody species selected are willow,
cottonwood, buttonbush, swamp privet, sugarberry, baldcypress, and water tupelo.
Relevant characteristics of each of these species are described; species are
also frequently referred to throughout the chapters on the aspects of
establishment.
Hunt, R., J.L. Byford, and J.L. Buckner. 1976. Hardwood regeneration and white-tailed
deer compatibility on a large clearcut in an Alabama flood plain.
Southlands Experiment Forest Technical Note No. 37. Woodlands Department,
Southern Kraft Division, International Paper Company, Bainbridge, GA.
The primary objectives of this study were to determine if large clearcuts in
bottomland hardwoods would naturally regenerate with desirable species and if
detrimental deer browsing would occur. Two large clearcuts (435 and 490 acres),
in an area about 35 mi north of Mobile, AL, were chosen for study. Both
clearcuts are subject to annual inundation from overflow of the Mobile River for
a 2- to 5-month period during winter and spring. After five growing seasons,
both clearcut areas had adequate natural regeneration (1,769 and 1,822
stems/acre). Initial large numbers of deer (about l/20 acres) did not harm the
natural hardwood regeneration. At age 5, cottonwood, sycamore, and green ash
dominated the first area; although they composed only 13% of the total number
of trees, they ranged from 16-20 ft in average height. Red oaks and sugarberry
made up 76% of the trees in the second compartment, and averaged 2-5 ft in
height. The differences in regeneration of the two clearcuts were probably the
result of different stand histories: the second compartment had been high-graded
several years before installation of the study; the first compartment was
clearcut in 1968 and the second in 1969; and different amounts of seed were
transported to the sites by floodwaters.
25
Johnson, R.L. 1979. Adequate oak regeneration--a problem without a solution?
Pages 59-65 in Management and utilization of oak. Proceedings of the seventh
annual hardwood symposium of the Hardwood Research Council; Cashiers, NC.
Two possible solutions to the problem of inadequate oak regeneration in existing
southern hardwood stands are discussed: natural and artificial regeneration.
The best opportunity for increasing the natural oak component of existing stands
is through proper handling of natural oak reproduction. This may involve light
thinning or shelterwood cuts and/or removal of competing shade-tolerant mid-story
trees. In the section on artificial regeneration, both direct seeding and
planting seedlings are discussed. Direct seeding has often been unsuccessful
in the past, primarily due to rodent damage. Placing acorns in protective
hardware-cloth cylinders has proved to be somewhat effective, but is too
expensive to be used much in practice. Studies at Stoneville, MS, show that
direct sowing in cleared areas 3 acres or larger results in much less rodent
damage than smaller openings or underplanting acorns in forests. Planted
seedlings, with weed control by straddle-cultivation and disking, resulted in
several successful oak plots ranging from 20 to 200 acres. Best results were
obtained with seedlings greater than 24 inches tall and at least 0.3 inches at
the root collar. Planted oaks generally averaged a foot or two in annual height
growth for the first I or 2 years in the field, and increased to 3 or 4 ft/year
in the third and fourth years of growth. Care must be taken when planting old
fields or cleared sites where desired oak species are absent. Also, in some
cases soil pH can be a critical consideration. For example, an experimental
planting of Nuttall, cherrybark, and water oaks failed on a moist, fertile
bottomland soil with a relatively high pH (7.5), presumably because the seedlings
were unable to extract iron from the soil. Experience indicates that oaks
normally found in areas inundated for extended periods can be successfully
planted on higher, better-drained sites, but the opposite is not true.
Johnson, R.L. 1981a. Oak seeding - it can work. Southern Journal of Applied
Forestry 5(1):28-33.
The article describes a direct-seeding trial in which nearly 20,000 acorns of
Nuttall oak were sown in Sharkey clay soil in the Delta Experimental Forest near
Stoneville, MS, to compare field germinatisn of acorns at different presowing
treatments, different sowing times, and different sowing depths. Acorns were
collected in November 1968 from 14 parent trees and were placed in dry storage
at 35-40 OF. Float tests were used to eliminate unsound acorns, and sound acorns
were randomly assigned one of three stratification treatments: January sowing
in the field; 3 months additional storage at 35-40 OF in moist sand covered with
burlap; or 3 months additional storage at 35-40 OF in sealed polyethylene bags,
4-mils thick. Acorns stratified in these three treatments were then planted at
l-, 2-, and 4-inch sowing depths. Acorns in the second two stratification
methods were sown during the first 2 weeks of May 1969 at a spacing of 5 by 10
ft with 4 acorns planted in each spot. Rodents destroyed all acorns planted in
undisturbed forest sites within a week, and damaged nearly three-fourths of the
acorns sown in 40 by 90 ft cleared strips. Sowing in these two areas was
considered a failure and not monitored further. Less than 5% of the acorns sown
in 350 by 350 ft cleared plots were disturbed by rodents. Acorns sown 1 inch
26
deep in January germinated significantly better (55% of total sown) than any of
the other eight combinations of stratification treatments and sowing depths.
Johnson, R.L. 1981b. Wetland silvicultural systems. Pages 63-79 in Proceedings
of the thirtieth annual forestry symposium, Louisiana State University, Baton
Rouge.
Silvicultural systems are discussed that are applicable to one or more species
groups occurring on lowland sites in the Midsouth. The species groups are
cottonwood, elm, sycamore, pecan, sugarberry, sweetgum, water oaks, red oaks,
white oaks, mixed species; black willow; overcup oak, water hickory; elm-ash-sugarberry;
and cypress-water tupelo. Each of these species groups is related
to the type of physiographic site on which it is generally found. Cottonwood,
black willow, overcup oak-water hickory, and cypress-water tupelo are best
managed as even-aged species groups, while the other groups can be managed as
even-aged or uneven-aged stands. Five regeneration systems are recognized for
lowland hardwood forests and are briefly discussed, including single tree
selection, group selection, seed tree, shelterwood, and clearcuts. A table
summarizes the expected results of applying some of these generation systems to
the species groups.
Johnson, R.L. 1983. Nuttall oak direct seedings still successful after 11
years. U.S. Forest Service Research Note SO-301, New Orleans, LA. 3 pp.
This technical note reports on a successful Nuttall oak direct-seeding experiment
on a Sharkey clay site in the Delta Experimental Forest, near Stoneville, MS.
Forty-five hundred acorns were sown on an intensively-prepared site in April,
1971. Sowing treatments included hand-planting and machine planting at depths
of 2, 4, and 6 inches. The first seedlings appeared in early May from acorns
sown 2-inches deep; seedlings from 6-inch-deep acorns appeared about 2 weeks
later. Some earlier direct-seeding trials had failed due to rodent depredation
of acorns, but in this case, less than 10% of the acorns were believed to have
been destoyed by rodents. Field germination ranged from 27% to 41%; better
germination was obtained with hand sowing (versus machine) and 2-inch (versus
deeper) sowing depths. Overall, 96% of the seedlings alive after one growing
season were still alive after 11 years, and no significant difference in survival
existed among treatments. The largest Nuttall oaks were 3-4 inches dbh and 20-
25 ft tall. About one-third of the 11-year-old trees were overtopped partially
or completely. Naturally invading tree species were green ash, cottonwood,
sugarberry, sweetgum, American elm, persimmon, and water hickory. Except for
two 6-inch-dbh, 35-foot-tall cottonwoods, however, the largest non-oaks were
about the same.size as the largest Nuttalis.
Johnson, R.L., and R.C. Biesterfeldt. 1970. Forestation of hardwoods. Forest
Farmer November: 15, 36-38.
Forestation of hardwoods by both natural regeneration and planting is discussed.
In general, successful plantations of hardwoods depend on the forester's ability
to choose the proper sites, species, and tree spacings. Sites usually cannot
27
be easily modified to suit a particular species. Green ash, sweetgum, Nuttall
and willow oak, sycamore, and cottonwood are generally suitable for slackwater
sites. In areas where water stands for much of the growing season, green ash
or Nuttall oak should be planted; in slightly drier areas, cottonwood and
sycamore are recommended because of their rapid growth. Spacing is the least
important of the three initial choices, but becomes more important as the stand
develops. A key consideration when deciding on spacing is the amount of weed
control planned. If little or no weed control is planned, spacing should be as
close as practical (no more than 6 by 6 ft); spacing should be 12 by 12 ft or
wider if complete weed control is exercised. Weed control is especially critical
in cottonwood plantations, but produces better results in all species. Weed
control ideally should be carried out until the tree crowns close and shade-out
competition. Based on the limited data available, projections of tree size at
age 10 for suitable sites are cottonwood, 60-80 ft in height and 6-8 inches dbh;
sweetgum, 20-30 ft in height and 2-3 inches dbh; and yellow-poplar and sycamore,
50-60 ft tall and 5-6 inches dbh.
Johnson, R.L., and R.M. Krinard. 1985a. Oak seeding on an adverse site. U.S.
Forest Service Research Note SO-319, 4 pp.
The study reports on Nuttall and water oak acorns sown on an old-field site of
Sharkey clay soil near Greenville, MS. The field had been farmed for 15-20
years, and was typical of many marginal crop production sites in the region.
Acorns were collected from three Nuttall and three water oaks; the parent trees
were selected because they produced different-sized acorns. Acorns were float-tested,
and non-floaters were stored at 35 to 40 OF for about 3 months in
polyethylene bags. Treatments were combinations of parent trees (i.e. different
acorn sizes) and sowing depths (2, 4, and 6 inches). Acorns were hand-sown on
a 4 by 10 ft spacing, with three acorns planted per hole. Twice during the first
year, the strips between each row were mowed. Seedling survival after one
growing season was 55% for Nuttall oak and 35% for water oak. Large water oak
acorns did very poorly; if they are excluded, average seedling survival was 49%.
Over 90% of Nuttall oak acorns germinated by late July; most water oak acorns
germinated in August and September. Sowing depth of both species affected
germination, which declined with depth; the best germination depth was 2 inches.
By the end of the first growing season, the tallest seedling per spot averaged
0.56 ft for Nuttall oak and 0.26 ft for water oak.
Johnson, R.L., and R.M. Krinard. 1985b. Regeneration of oaks by direct
seeding. Pages 56-65 in Proceedings of the third symposium of southeastern
hardwoods, Dothan, AL. U.S. Forest Service Southern Forest Experiment Station,
New Orleans, LA.
Results of oak seeding research at Stoneville, MS, and a number of commercial
seedings are given. Research sites included eight in the Mississippi Delta, two
in minor stream bottoms, and'five in silty uplands. Commercial sites were in
the Mississippi Delta and silty uplands. Topics covered included animal damage,
species, site selection, seed collection and storage, time of seeding, depth of
seeding, method of sowing, spacing, weed control, survival and growth, and the
future of oak seeding. It was found that site-prepared clearings of two acres
28
or more and old agricultural fields have less rodent damage than smaller
clearings or plantings under a full forest canopy. Nuttall oak has consistently
yielded the best results of the species tried to date, and, in general, red oaks
germinated better in the field than white oaks. Timing and duration of flooding
and soil type are key considerations in site selection. Seed should be collected
soon after falling and placed in cold storage immediately. Acorns can be sown
at any time of year, but June or July is best in flood-prone areas after the
water has receded. Trials have been conducted with three planting depths: 2,
4, and 6 inches; all can be successful, but a P-inch depth generally yields the
best results. Spacing can vary, but should leave about 30 ft2/acorn. Intensive
weed control by disking has been shown to improve early height and diameter
growth.
Johnson, R.L., and R.M Krinard. 1987. Direct seeding of southern oaks--a
progress report. Pages lo-16 in Proceedings of the fifteenth annual hardwood
symposium. Hardwood Research Council, Memphis, TN.
This paper summarizes some of the experience gained since 1981 in the direct
seeding of over 4,000 acres of land in the South. Most of these plantings have
been on abandoned farm lands in floodplains. The report includes information
on associated costs, seed handling, planting methods, survival, growth, and
competition. Sowing in the winter generally produces the best results, although
satisfactory results have also been obtained from summer plantings, and, in the
case of Nuttall oak, from plantings done every month of the year. One possible
advantage of sowing in winter is that acorns sown soon after collection (which
is done in fall) seem to be damaged less by rodents. Although it is best to
plant acorns as soon after collection as possible, the irregular occurrence of
good seed crops may necessitate storing extra acorns in good years to offset
future bad years. The cost of collecting acorns was estimated at $20.00/acre,
and of storage, $0.50-$2.00/acre. Planting in large open fields has generally
been done using modified soybean planters. Planting is easier and produces
better results when the site has been well prepared. Burning, disking or cross-disking,
and soil pulverizing may be necessary, depending on the condition of
the field. Smaller fields or openings in forests have been successfully planted
by hand. Most land managers do not attempt to control weeds in old field
plantings, but in a few research trials, bushhogging between rows appears to have
improved seedling survival and growth. Total costs of establishment by direct
seeding, including acorns, labor, and site preparation, may range from $12.00-
50.00/acre. The paper concludes with a section on direct-seeding failure, which
has been attributed to flooding, droughts, residual herbicides, poor quality
acorns, and animal damage.
Johnson, R.L., and T.L. Price. 1959. Resume of 20 years of hardwood management
on the Delta Purchase Unit. Final Report. U.S. Forest Service Southern Forest
Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA.
Hardwood research on the Delta Purchase Unit, located near Rolling Fork, MS, is
summarized. The report begins with a detailed description of the Unit, including
physiographic features, occurrence of wildfires and floods, climatic conditions,
29
vegetative features, and natural areas. Discussion of the forest management
and research program is divided into four sections: (1) fire, (2) cutting
program, (3) cull-and-weed tree deadening, and (4) planting. In 1945-58, there
were 35 different attempts at planting, totaling approximately 700,000 trees.
Green ash, sweetgum, cottonwood, baldcypress, Nuttall oak, and sycamore were
planted. Most of the planting stock was 1-O seedlings grown from locally
collected seed, but cottonwood was the major exception; cuttings were used for
this species. In a few cases, transplanted wild seedlings (wildlings) were used.
Most planting was done during February and March, and planting was done by hand
under three conditions: (1) areas infested with heavy buckvine; (2) stand
openings created by logging; and (3) stand conversion areas. Overall, 80% of
the green ash, 73% of the baldcypress, 41% of the cottonwood, and 10% of the
sweetgum plantings were judged successful. All sycamore, Nuttall oak seedlings
and wildlings, and green ash plantings were failures. Based on average growth
of all plantations, cottonwood grew 3.0 ft/year, green ash 1.5 ft, and
baldcypress and sweetgum, 1.2 ft. The paper discusses in detail species results
by physiographic site and the three planting site conditions mentioned above.
Jones, L. 1962. Recommendations for successful storage of tree seed. U.S.
Forest Service Tree Planters' Notes 55:9-20.
This article provides recommendations on moisture content, temperature and other
seed storage considerations for a large number of species and species groups,
including most bottomland hardwoods. In storing tree seed the following must
be considered: type of container, seed moisture content, storage temperature
and facilities, and seed condition. Several studies have shown that seed
moisture content rises during closed storage, and it is suggested that seed
should be dried down to the lowest recommended level and moisture content checked
periodically, especially if the seed is to be stored longer than 1 year. Storage
temperature should be held constant. Some species, such as oaks, will benefit
from treatment for insects prior to storage, otherwise insects may become active
again immediately upon removal of the seeds from storage.
Kaszkurewicz, A., and P.Y. Burns. 1960. Growth of planted hardwoods on a
bottomland terrace site in south Louisiana. Louisiana State University Forestry
Note No. 37. Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. 2 pp.
Growth of a 30-year-old plantation of Nuttall oak, water oak, live oak, swamp
chestnut oak, and yellow-poplar is described. The plantation is located on the
Louisiana State University campus in Baton Rouge, and is described as follows:
a Mississippi River terrace (not subject to flooding); mean annual temperature,
68 OF; average annual rainfall, 59 inches; soil, Lintonia silt loam (well-drained,
l%-2% slope, pH 5.8). The site was a former agricultural field that
was covered with weeds and brush when the trees were planted. Planting was done
by hand with 1-O stock at about 10 by 10 ft spacing. About 5 years after
planting, the trees were released from weed and brush competition. After 30
years, except for Nuttall oak, the trees were generally healthy. Nuttall oak
is not native to the site, which may be too dry; most of the Nuttall oaks had
dying branches and tops, rough bark with insect holes, and a marked decrease in
diameter growth during the last 5 years. Ye1 low-poplar had the greatest average
diameter growth (14.7 inches) and height growth (82 ft). Nuttall oak dbh and
. . 30
height averaged 11.9 inches and 72 ft. Corresponding figures for the other
species were water oak, 11.7 inches and 75 ft; live oak, 10.2 inches and 66 ft;
and swamp chestnut oak, 8.5 inches and 72 ft. Sweetgum was a significant invader
species, averaging 9.6 inches in dbh and 75 ft in height.
Kellison, R.C., D.J. Frederick, and W.E. Gardner. 1981. A guide for regen-erating
and managing natural stands of southern hardwoods. North Carolina
Agricultural Research Service Bulletin 463. 23 pp.
This bulletin is primarily a guide for obtaining good natural regeneration from
existing stands of southern hardwoods, but it contains some information that may
aid in species selection for unforested sites and management of young stands.
The guide has four major sections: (1) planning for regeneration; (2)
regeneration systems; (3) species succession and stand development; and (4)
species composition and stocking control. Natural regeneration topics briefly
discussed are stand conditions, site types, when to regenerate, response of
species to release, and growth habits of seedling and coppice regeneration.
Regeneration systems covered are single-tree selection, group selection, shelter-wood,
tree, and clearcut. A description of naturally-occurring succession on
various site types and shade-tolerant undesired species is given. The last
section discusses management of l- to 25-year-old stands from an economically
oriented timber production perspective.
Kennedy, H.E., Jr. 1984. Hardwood growth and foliar nutrient concentrations
best in clean cultivation treatments. Forest Ecology and Management 8:117-
126.
This article presents data on nine hardwood species planted on a 4-ha commerce
silt loam site at Huntington Point, about 24 km north of Greenville, MS. The
site had been recently cleared of a natural mixed hardwood stand and prepared
for planting by shearing, root raking, and disking. Twenty-four l-year-old
seedlings or cottonwood cuttings were planted in February at 3 by 3 m spacing
in each plot. The species planted were cottonwood, sycamore, Nuttall oak,
cherrybark oak, water oak, pecan, green ash, sweetgum, and yellow-poplar. One
of three cultural treatments--no cultivation, mowing, or clean cultivation
(cross-disking plus hoeing)--was randomly assigned to a plot. Growth and
survival of yellow-poplar was excellent during the first growing season, but
all the seedlings were killed during the second season when the site was flooded
to a depth of 1.8 m from late March to late May. None of the other species was
harmed by the flood. Nuttall, cherrybark, and water oak had poor survival and
growth, which was probably due to the high soil pH (8.0). Survival and height
and diameter growth were significantly higher in the clean cultivated plots.
After 4 years, height and diameter growth were highest for cottonwood, followed
by sycamore, green ash, sweetgum, and pecan. Average survival was 8% (excluding
the oaks and yellow-poplar) for the clean cultivated plots, 65% for mowed plots,
and 61% for uncultivated plots.
Kennedy, H.E., Jr., and R.M. Krinard. 1974. 1973 Mississippi River flood's
impact on natural hardwood forests and plantations. U.S. Forest Service
Research Note SO-177. 6 pp.
31
The impacts of the 1973 Mississippi River spring flood (6-11 ft maximum depth)
on bottomland hardwood species are described. Most of the damage was to planted
and natural bottomland hardwood stands less than 1 year old. Species suffering
heavy mortality included cottonwood, sweetgum, yellow-poplar, and Shumard oak;
sycamore and green ash plantings showed good survival. All yellow-poplar of all
ages were killed. Trees of other species that were older than 1 year suffered
some damage but were generally able to survive the flood. There were some
indications that seedlings survived better than planted cuttings. The length
of time of inundation seemed to be a factor in overall tree survival. Nuttall
oak acorns that were direct-seeded the year before survived the flood. Siltation
of up to 5 ft occurred, but did not adversely affect well established trees.
Oxygen levels in the flood waters were generally adequate and did not appear to
be a prime cause of mortality.
Kennedy, H.E., Jr., and R.M. Krinard. 1985. Shumard oaks successfully planted
on high pH soils. U.S. Forest Service Research Note SO-321, New Orleans, LA.
3 PP.
This paper reveals that many Mississippi riverfront soils are devoid of oak
forests, and planting trials with Nuttall, cherrybark, and water oaks have not
been successful on such soils. One reason may be the high pH of many riverfront
sites, which may range from 7.5 to 8.0. Three trials with Shumard oak, however,
have proved successful. Shumard oak was planted in 1959 at Archer Island in
Washington County, MS, on Robinsonville sandy loam, and at Huntington Point in
Bolivar County, MS, in 1974 and 1975 on Commerce silt loams. Nursery-grown,
1-O bareroot seedlings were planted at 10 by 10 ft spacings on sites that were
cleared of a natural stand of mixed hardwoods and prepared by shearing, root
raking, and disking. Plantings were clean cultivated during the first growing
season, but no intensive weed control was applied afterwards. After both 12 and
25 growing seasons, survival averaged 86% at Archer Island. Survival at
Huntington Point was 73% after 10 growing seasons at one site and 80% after 11
growing seasons at the other site. Diameter growth averaged 0.5 inch/year for
all three plantings, while height growth averaged 3.0 to 4.0 ft/year. In another
study, Nuttall, water, and cherrybark oaks were planted within 200 ft of one of
the Shumard oak plantings at Huntington Point. The leaves of the former three
species turned vellow earl-v in each qrowing season, and the trees grew very
little. After four growing seasons, surviva-l was only lO%-40%. - -
Kennedy, H.E., Jr., B.E. Schlaegel, and R.M. Krinard. 1986. Nutrient distri-bution
and tree development through age 8 of four oa.ks planted at five spacings
in a minor stream bottom. Pages 65-70 jr~ Proceedings of the 1986 southern
forest biomass workshop, Knoxville, TN.
This paper reports on the results of experiments with eight hardwood species
planted at five spacings in a minor stream bottom in southeastern Arkansas, about
10 mi south of Monticello. The species planted were water, Nuttall, cherrybark,
and swamp chestnut oaks, sycamore, sweetgum, cottonwood, and green ash; however,
only data from the oaks were presented in the paper. The soil series was
Arkabutla, a somewhat poorly drained silty alluvium. Spacings used were 2 by
32
8, 3 by 8, 4 by 8, and 12 by 12 ft; the minimum of 8 ft between rows was chosen
to allow cultivation during the first growing season. Data are presented on
total dry weight of trees (without leaves) per acre, cubic feet of wood per acre,
leaf weights per acre, survival, dbh, and height after eight growing seasons.
Spacing significantly affected all variables, except survival and height, and
all variables except survival were different for the various species. Survival
for all oak species ranged from 75% for 8 by 8 ft spacing, to 83% for 4 by 8 and
12 by 12 ft spacing. Water oak had the largest average dbh (2.2 inches) and the
largest average height (20.1 ft), followed by Nuttall oak (2.1 inches and 16.7
ft), cherrybark oak (1.8 inches and 15.8 ft), and swamp chestnut oak (1.3 inches
and 11.0 ft). Yields (by weight and volume) were larger with small spacings,
though yields per tree were lower.
Klawitter, R.A. 1963. Sweetgum, swamp tupelo, and water tupelo sites in a South
Carolina bottomland forest. Ph.D. Dissertation. Duke University, Durham, NC.
Sweetgum, swamp tupelo, and water tupelo habitats were studied in a coastal plain
bottomland forest adjacent to the Santee River in South Carolina. Site variables
evaluated included elevation, hydrology, woody understory vegetation, and soil
characteristics. Results showed that sweetgum sites were better drained, with
a higher pH, than tupelo sites. Water tupelo soils exhibited greater clay
content and depth of flooding; swamp tupelo soils showed lowest pH. Abundant
soil moisture and long hydroperiods were positively related to growth of water
tupelo. Laurel oak in the understory was associated with well-drained sites at
the lower margins of first bottoms. Green ash preferred swampy sites that
remained wet for long periods without deep flooding. American elm occurred
mostly along the upper slopes of the swamp and lower edges of the first bottom.
Carolina ash, red maple, and green ash decreased in abundance with the increased
height of water tupelo.
Krinard, R.M., and R.L. Johnson. 1976. El-year growth and development of bald
cypress planted on a flood-prone site. U.S. Forest Service Research Note SO-
217, New Orleans, LA. 4 pp.
Results are given of a study in which a total of 896 one-year-old cypress
seedlings were planted on a Sharkey clay site in the Delta Experimental Forest
in Washington County, MS, in February 1955. The site was about 20% ridge, 20%
slough, and 60% flat-slough, with a 3-ft difference in elevation between the flat
and the slough. About l-2 ft of water covered the slough in winter. The site
flooded frequently, and three earlier attempts to plant cottonwoods in the area
failed due to excessive flooding and heavy competition from vines. Survival
after 21 years was 41%, but some of the cypress were suppressed and were not
expected to survive much longer. Invading species noted were green ash,
boxelder, sugarberry, persimmon, blackwillow, and cottonwood, which collectively
accounted for about 26% of the total density. Density of cypress was about 74%.
Krinard, R.M., and R.L. Johnson. 1981. Flooding, beavers and hardwood seedling
survival. U.S. Forest Service Research Note SO-270, New Orleans, LA. 6 pp.
33
Trial plantings made for three successive years on cleared, clay-capped batture
land at Ajax Bar in Issaquena County, MS, are discussed. Seven species were
planted, including cottonwood, sycamore, green ash, sugarberry, swamp chestnut
oak, Shumard oak, and pecan. In the first year there was no flooding, but during
the second year flooding occurred for varying periods from late winter through
early summer. No beaver damage was noted when there was no flooding, but during
the flooded periods, significant damage to all species (with the possible
exception of sycamore) was observed. The beavers apparently damaged the
seedlings while they were in shallow water, pulling the seedlings out of the
ground and eating the root system up to about the root collar. Consecutive long
rows of damaged trees were observed. Up to 43% of the seedlings of some species
were destroyed. Shumard oak was hurt most by the floods, and green ash and
sycamore fared best. Green ash and sycamore are recommended for planting if
substantial first-year flooding is likely.
Krinard, R.M., and H.E. Kennedy, Jr. 1981. Growth and yields of 5-year-old
planted hardwoods on Sharkey clay soil. U.S. Forest Service Research Note
SO-271, New Orleans, LA. 3 pp.
Cottonwood, sycamore, green ash, sweetgum, and Nuttall oak seedlings were planted
on a Sharkey clay site. The seedlings were planted on a 10 by 10 ft spacing,
and the plots were cross-disked or mowed three to five times a year for six
growing seasons. Before the sixth season, height and diameter of all trees were
measured, and a total of 12 trees of each species were felled and weighed. Mowed
plots of sweetgum and Nuttall oak were not considered because survival was less
than or equal to 50%. Survival on the other plots ranged from 81% for mowed
cottonwood to 99% for disked sycamore. Whether mowed or disked, sycamore and
green ash had 95% or better survival. Mean dbh and height ranged from 4.0 inches
and 25.8 ft for disked cottonwood to 1.0 inch and 8.6 ft for disked Nuttall oak.
Disked plots consistently had higher survival and better diameter and height
growth than mowed plots.
Krinard, R.M., and H.E. Kennedy, Jr. 1983. Ten-year growth of five planted
hardwood species with mechanical weed control on Sharkey clay soil. U.S.
Forest Service Research Note SO-303, New Orleans, LA. 4 pp.
Studies on mechanical weed control are reported for five species of southern
hardwoods (cottonwood, sycamore, green ash, sweetgum, and Nuttall oak) that were
planted on a Sharkey clay site on the Delta Experimental Forest, near Stoneville,
MS. Plots, consisting of 24 trees of one species planted on a 10 by 10 ft
spacing, were mowed or disked from three to five times annually for the first
5 years. After the fifth year, plots with 80% or more survival for trees more
than 4.5 ft tall were thinned to six trees each, or an equivalent of 20 by 20
ft spacing. Mowing or disking treatments, one to three times annually, for years
6-10 were randomly assigned. Some plots were mowed or disked each year for 10
years; some plots were mowed the first 5 years and disked years 6-10, and some
were disked the first 5 years and mowed years 6-10. Disking resulted in better
growth of all species over the first 5 years, but for years 6-10, there was only
a slight difference in height, dbh, or volume between treatments. Overall height
growth through 10 years was from 1.7 to 4.9 ft/year, depending on species-treatment
combination. Cottonwood was the tallest species overall after 10
34
years, followed by sycamore, green ash, sweetgum, and Nuttall oak. Soil moisture
was not significantly different between treatments, and after 10 years there was
no significant difference in soil properties (pH, organic matter, N, P, K, Ca,
and Mg) between treatments.
Krinard, R.M., and H.E. Kennedy, Jr. 1987. Fifteen-year growth of six planted
hardwood species on Sharkey clay soil. U.S. Forest Service Research Note SO-
336, New Orleans, LA. 4 pp.
This article discusses further results (see Krinard and Kennedy 1983) of mowing
and disking experiments on six hardwood species (cottonwood, sycamore, green ash,
sweetgum, Nuttall oak, and pecan) which were planted on a Sharkey clay site on
the Delta Experimental Forest, near Stoneville, MS. Mowing or disking treatments
for years 6 through 10 were found to have little effect on growth; therefore,
results are discussed relative to the first 5 years of weed control treatments.
At age 15, trees on plots disked the first 5 years were significantly taller and
larger in dbh than trees on mowed plots, but overall the differences were only
1.3 ft in height and 0.6 inches in dbh. The relatively small differences after
age 15 imply different growth patterns for trees in disked versus mowed plots.
One possible explanation is that mowing, which results in higher competition
initially, may cause tree roots to grow deeper where extra nutrients and water
may speed growth in later years. Average dbh and height after 15 years on the
disked plots were: cottonwood, 11.0 inches and 60.4 ft; sycamore, 6.5 inches
and 37.7 ft; green ash, 6.5 inches and 36.3 ft; sweetgum, 5.9 inches and 30.6
ft; Nuttall oak, 5.8 inches and 20.2 ft; and pecan, 3.4 inches and 21.7 ft.
Larsen, H.S. 1963. Effects of soaking in water on acorn germination of four
southern oaks. Forest Science 9(2):236-241.
Southern red oak, willow oak, laurel oak, and overcup oak were tested to
determine whether flooding is instrumental in controlling the distribution of
some southern oaks by differential effects on acorn germination. Two soaking
variables were tested: length of soaking and water temperature. Soaking periods
were 1, 2, 4, and 8 weeks. Two temperature levels were imposed--the first a
controlled range of 44.0-46.6 OF, and the second an unregulated diurnally
fluctuating range of 55-64 OF. Lots of 50 acorns each were subjected to each
time/temperature treatment, with unsoaked lots of each species serving as
controls. After soaking, all seed lots were sown simultaneously in moist sand
at a depth of l/2 to 3/4 inches, and kept at a soil temperature of 73-81 OF.
The results did not support the hypothesis that injury to acorns by flooding is
a primary reason for exclusion of dry-site species from bottomland sites.
Average germination for all soaking treatments for southern red oak (the driest-site
species tested) was 87%, compared to 92% for unsoaked acorns. The minimum
germination observed was 66% for laurel oak soaked for 2 weeks, compared to 77%
for the control. Overcup oak had the lowest overall germination (82%), but
showed improvement in a second test when the acorn shells were opened prior to
soaking.
35
Leitman, H.M., J.E. Sohm, and M.A. Franklin. 1983. Wetland hydrology and tree
distribution of the Apalachicola River flood plain, Florida. U.S. Geological
Survey Water Supply Paper 2196, Alexandria, VA. 52 pp.
This assessment focuses on hydrology and productivity of the floodplain forest
associated with the Apalachicola River in northwest Florida. Forest types were
found to be highly correlated with depth of water, duration of inundation and
saturation, and water-level fluctuation, but not water velocity. Most types
dominated by tupelo and baldcypress grew on permanently saturated soils inundated
50%-90% of the time (an average of 75-225 consecutive days during the growing
seasons from 1958-80). Most forest types dominated by other species grew in
areas saturated or flooded 5%-25% of the time (an average of 5-40 consecutive
days during the growing seasons from 1958-80). Average basal area and density
for all forest areas sampled were 46.2 m2/ha and 1,540 trees/ha, respectively.
The relative tolerance of bottomland tree species to inundation is discussed.
Limstrom, G.A. 1960. Forestation of strip-mined land in the central states.
U.S. Forest Service Central States Forest Experiment Station Agricultural
Handbook No. 166, Washington, DC. 74 pp.
The publication is an excellent technical guidebook based on research studies
beginning in 1937. The author notes that commonly accepted reforestation
practices are not always successful because strip-mine spoil banks are so
different from most natural planting sites physically, chemically, and
biologically. Emphasis is placed on the where, when, and how of tree planting
on mined lands as related to existing mining and reclamation methods. The report
includes recommendations and discussions of the effects of various site condi-tions
and planting methods. Several typical bottomland forest species are
included in the data and discussion, including green ash, eastern cottonwood,
silver maple, and sycamore. Also discussed are the detrimental effects of
grading on soil moisture and aeration, and the ecology of natural forestation.
Limstrom, G.A. 1963. Forest planting practice in the central States. U.S.
Forest Service Central States Forest Experiment Station Agricultural Handbook
247, Washington, DC. 69 pp.
This handbook provides useful guidance on a number of topics including species
selection for various sites, site preparation, where to obtain trees, quality
and care of planting stock, planting methods and patterns, care and management
of plantations, forest pests and diseases, how to make planting plans, and
treatment of seeds. The States included are Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky,
Missouri, and Ohio.
Lotti, T. 1959. Selecting sound acorns for planting bottomland hardwood sites.
Journal of Forestry 57:923.
The article discusses methods of determining the viablity of acorns to be used
for planting hardwoods. Nut or acorn weevils seriously limit the viability of
acorns. Flotation in water is a commonly accepted method of separating weeviled
36
from sound acorns before planting; sound acorns usually sink. The soundness of
Shumard oak and cherrybark oak acorns,
the color of the basal or cup scar.
however, can be judged with certainty by
If the circular scar is a light tan, the
acorn is sound; if a dull brown, the acorn is defective. These color rela-tionships
are easily established in actual practice. Since Shumard and
cherrybark are red oaks, this method may have a broader application to the red
oak group. The method does not work well, however, with swamp chestnut oak,
which belongs to the white oak group. The success of the visual selection, as
evidenced by high germination percentages, makes further weevil treatment
unnecessary.
Loucks, W.L., and R.A. Keen. 1973. Submersion tolerance of selected seedling
trees. Journal of Forestry 71:496-497.
This Kansas study helps to identify seedlings which have high submersion
tolerance. Seedlings of 10 species were covered with 2 ft of water for periods
of 1, 2, 3, and 4 weeks to test submersion tolerance. The seedlings were planted
in five flat-bottom ponds constructed near Manhattan, KS, in an area of Wymore
silty clay loam soil. Four of the ponds were filled with well water and one was
left unflooded as a control. Species planted were green ash, baldcypress, silver
maple, pecan, cottonwood, honeylocust, bur oak, boxelder, Siberian elm, and black
walnut. There was no significant mortality in any species in the l- and e-week
submersion treatments. In the 3-week treatment, survival was still 100% for
green ash, baldcypress, cottonwood, and silver maple, but dropped to between 44%
and 67% for the remaining species. Survival after 4 weeks ranged from zero for
black walnut to 100% for green ash and baldcypress. The remaining species in
order of survival from highest to lowest were silver maple, pecan, cottonwood,
honeylocust, bur oak, boxelder, and Siberian elm.
Maisenhelder, L.C., and C.A. Heavrin. 1957. Silvics and silviculture of
pioneer hardwoods--cottonwood and willow. Pages 73-75 in Proceedings of
1956 annual meeting of the Society of American Foresters.
the
the
The authors cover five topics related to the silvics and silviculture
cottonwood and willow in the lower Mississippi Valley: (1) site development,
seedling establishment, (3) establishment and growth, (4) natural enemies,
(5) artificial regeneration. The site development section describes
i$
the
formation of new land on "point bars" in the river, where cottonwood and willow
typically are found. The next two sections describe the natural establishment
and growth of cottonwood and willow on these new lands. Natural enemies
discussed in the fourth section include fire (both cottonwood and willow are very
susceptible); sustained submergence of young trees during the growing season;
cattle, hog, and deer browsing; and defoliating insects, especially on
cottonwood. The final section briefly describes propagation and plantation
establishment from cuttings, which is especially suitable for clearcut areas and
old agricultural fields. It is recommended that cuttings be taken from l- to
3-year-old seedlings or sprouts; individual cuttings should be about 20 inches
long and from 3/8 to 3/4 inches diameter at the small end. The cuttings should
be placed 15 inches into the ground; planting into a slit made by a sub-soil plow
is preferable to using a planting bar if tree roots are not a problem. Spacing
37
of about 10 by 10 ft is desirable to allow for weed control. Weeds should not
be allowed to exceed three-fourths of the height of the seedlings during the
first growing season. On good sites under favorable conditions, first year
survivals of 75%-90% may be expected, with an average height growth of about 5
ft. Growth of 10 ft in height and 1 inch in dbh have been attained.
Maki, T.E., A.J. Weber, D.W. Hazel, S.C. Hunter, B.T. Hyberg, D.M. Flinchum, J.P.
Lollis, J.B. Rognstad, and J.D. Gregory. 1980. Effects of stream channeliza-tion
on bottomland and swamp forest ecosystems. University of North Carolina,
Water Resources Research Institute, Raleigh.
This study evaluates the effects of stream channelization on the bottomland-swamp
forest ecosystems of eastern North Carolina. Groundwater regimes in the
floodplains were monitored to provide a basis to compare plant communities.
Aboveground biomass of shrub and herbaceous vegetation was found to be inversely
related to the number of inundation periods per year.
"lesser vegetation"
Competition from this
was deleterious to planted and naturally regenerated tree
seedlings along the channelized streams.
blackgum,
Regeneration of water tupelo, swamp
and baldcypress appeared to have been reduced in channelized areas;
these species were particularly sensitive to competition from overstory
vegetation and the profusion of vines, grasses, and briars associated with the
decrease of groundwater levels in channelized swamps. Survival and growth of
planted tupelo seedlings were greater along non-channelized streams than along
channelized streams; the latter seedlings were adversely affected by fierce
competition from honeysuckle and blackberry canes. Regeneration in cutover areas
was sometimes less than in non-cut areas because the cutover areas exhibited an
increase in vines, briars, and other woody reproduction which precluded the
reestablishment of trees. This situation could persist for an indefinite period
of time unless flooding or some other factors reduce competition. For com-parison,
the authors reported on a well-managed swamp forest stand along the
Roanoke River at Tillery, Halifax County, NC, that originated from a clearcut
of a tupelo tract about 70 years earlier. With little or no overstory
competition, water tupelo and some baldcypress became established and grew well.
After about 70 years, the Tillery stand contained a standing volume of about
1,000 m3/ha in non-cut areas and from 350 to 625 m3/ha in areas thinned in 1962.
Malac, B.F., and R.D. Heeren. 1979. Hardwood plantation management. Southern
Journal of Applied Forestry 3(1):3-6.
In this paper, some of the hardwood silvicultural practices of Union Camp
Corporation are detailed. These practices are based on 10 years of hardwood
plantation research carried out near Franklin, VA, and include seed collection,
site selection, planting stock, site clearing, site preparation, planting,
spacing, competition control, fertilization, harvesting, and coppicing. Species
planted include sycamore, green ash, sweetgum, and willow, water, and laurel
oaks. All seed is collected from the best available local trees, but the company
is in the process of developing clonal seed orchards. Sites chosen for planting
hardwoods have a sandy loam or loam surface fairly high in organic matter, are
moderately well-drained, and have a water table to within 4 inches of the surface
during portions of the year. Only large, healthy seedlings, with a minimum root
38
collar diameter of 3/8 inch and a top height of at least 2 ft are planted. All
sites are intensively cleared, except for recently abandoned agricultural land.
Some sites are disked prior to planting, abandoned fields with plow pans or
shallow topsoil are subsoiled, and wet sites are bedded. Seedlings are planted
with tractor-drawn machine planters modified to handle large seedlings. Sycamore
and the oaks are planted on a 10 by 10 ft spacing and green ash and sweetgum on
a 8 by 12 ft spacing. Depending on site and weed growth, plantations are disked
on the average of two to three times a year for at least the first 2 years. As
a rule, fertilizer is applied during the first cultivation; applications vary,
but often about 250 lb/acre of triple superphosphate or diammonium phosphate are
used. Harvesting is planned for between ages 12 and 15, with coppice
regeneration for at least two rotations.
McDermott, R.E. 1954. Effects of saturated soil on seedling growth of some
bottomland hardwood species. Ecology 35(1):36-41.
This study focuses on seedling survival in saturated soils. Young seedlings
(less than l-month-old) of American elm, winged elm, red maple, sycamore, hazel
alder, and river birch were subjected to saturated soil conditions for periods
of 0, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 days. Each treatment was applied to 20 seedlings
in four pots of five seedlings per pot. After flooding, the seedlings were kept
at or above field capacity under conditions of about 50% sunlight and at high
soil temperatures. Heights of the seedlings were measured at the end of 32, 42,
and 52 days. Compared to the no-flooding controls, all species showed patterns
of stunting in height growth. River birch showed evidence of stunting for all
saturation periods greater than 1 day, and red maple was stunted by all but the
4-day saturation period. Both species recovered rapidly in well-

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BIOLOGICAL REPORT 88(42)
SEPTEMBER 1988
REESTABLISHMENT OF
BOTTOMLAND HARDWOOD FORESTS
ON DISTURBED SITES:
AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Department of the Interior
National Wetlands Research Center
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
1010 Game Boulevard
Slide& LA 70458 j 5.i
Cover photographs (courtesy of R.J. Haynes):
Upper: Three-year-old direct seeded oaks on old agricultural field in Panther Swamp National Wildlife
Refuge, MS.
Lower: Ten-year-old mixed species plantation in Delta National Forest, MS.
Biological Report 88(42)
September 1988
REESTABLISHMENTOFBOTTOMLANDHARDWOODFORESTS
ON DISTURBED SITES: AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ronnie J. Haynes
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Fish and Wildlife Enhancement
Richard B. Russell Federal Building
75 Spring Street, S.W.
Atlanta, GA 30303
James A. Allen
and
Edward C. Pendleton
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Research and Development
National Wetlands Research Center
1010 Gause Boulevard
Slidell, LA 70458
Project Officer
Gerald A. Grau
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
National Wetlands Research Center
1010 Gause Boulevard
Slidell, LA 70458
U.S. Department of the Interior
Fish and Wildlife Service
Research and Development
Washington, DC
The mention of trade names in this report does not constitute endorsement
nor recommendation for use by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service or the Federal
Government.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Haynes, Ronnie J.
Reestablishment of bottomland hardwood forests on
disturbed sites.
(Biological report ; 88-42)
Supt. of Dots. no.: I 49.89/2:88(42)
1. Reforestation--Southern States--Bibliography.
2. Hardwoods--Southern States--Bibliography. 3. Flood-plain
ecology--Southern States--Bibliography.
4. Reclamation of land--Southern States--Bibliography.
5. Reforestation--Middle West--Bibliography. 6. Hard-woods--
Middle West--Bibliography. 7. Floodplain ecology--
Middle West--Bibliography. 8. Reclamation of land--
Middle West--Bibliography. I. Alten, James A.
II. Pendleton, Edward C. III. Title. IV. Series:
Biological report (Washington, D.C.) ; 88-42.
25991 .H4 1988 [SD4091 016.6349’56 88-600347
Suggested citation:
Haynes, R.J., J.A. Allen, and E.C. Pendleton. 1988. Reestablishment of
bottomland hardwood forests on disturbed sites: an annotated bibliography.
U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 88(42). 104 pp.
PREFACE
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service prepared this bibliography to assist
those interested in the reestablishment and restoration of bottomland hardwood
forests on previously disturbed sites such as abandoned farm land or surface-mined
areas. Emphasis of the bibliography is on the Southeastern United States,
although entries from other parts of the country are included whenever the
authors believed these entries provided useful information. Annotated entries
focus on applied restoration of bottomland hardwood ecosystems and "how to"
papers concerning silvicultural practices.
Recognition of and interest in the importance and potential opportunities
for the restoration of bottomland hardwood forest ecosystems have increased in
recent years. Evidence of this includes.specific language found in several
recently enacted laws (e.g., Food Security Act of 1985, Emergency Wetlands
Resources Act of 1986, Water Resource Development Act of 1986). With the
increased interest in restoring bottomland hardwood forests, this bibliography
should be both timely and useful to environmental planners, managers, and others
concerned about this valuable natural resource.
Comments about or requests for this publication should be directed to:
Information Transfer Specialist
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
National Wetlands Research Center
1010 Gause Boulevard
Slidell, LA 70458
iii
CONTENTS
PREFACE .................................................................
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .........................................................
INTRODUCTION ............................................................
Scope and Arrangement .................................................
References ............................................................
ANNOTATED ENTRIES .......................................................
NON-ANNOTATED ENTRIES ...................................................
Other Bibliographies ..................................................
Hydrology, Flooding Effects, Tolerance ................................
Plant Propagation .....................................................
Baldcypress ...........................................................
Cottonwood ............................................................
Oaks ..................................................................
Sweetgum ..............................................................
Sycamore ..............................................................
Tupelos ...............................................................
Willow ................................................................
Yellow-Poplar .........................................................
Miscellaneous Species .................................................
APPENDIXES
A: Common and scientific names for typical
bottomland forest species .........................................
B: Table of flooding and shade tolerance and reproductive
characteristics of some bottomland forest species .................
INDEXES
Species ...............................................................
Subject ...............................................................
. . .
111
V
:4
7
53
53
53
55
56
58
60
63
:"4
66
66
69
72
74
90
97
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Robert Johnson and
Roger Krinard of the U.S. Forest Service, and Russ Lea of the North Carolina
State Hardwood Cooperative, each of whom took the time to review drafts of this
publication. Also Larry Moore, forester at Tensas National Wildlife Refuge, and
Tim Wilkins, manager of the Yazoo National Wildlife Refuge Complex, provided the
authors with valuable insight into the information needs of practitioners and
would-be practitioners of bottomland hardwood restoration.
Although the three authors wrote this entire document, it would never have
reached this final stage without the help of several members of the National
Wetlands Research Center editorial staff. Daisy Singleton and Joyce Rodberg
performed the difficult task of interpreting three different authors' writing
and keyboarding the document. Rudy Krieger and Beth Vairin went through numerous
iterations of editing this bibliography, Donna Glass helped design the cover,
and Jan Landrum checked the accuracy of many of the citations.
V
/ INTRODUCTION
This bibliography was prepared to assist persons interested in the
reestablishment of bottomland hardwood forests on previously disturbed sites,
such as abandoned farm land or surface-mined areas. For the purpose of the
bibliography, bottomland hardwood forests correspond with the "Needle-leaved
Deciduous" and "Broad-leaved Deciduous" freshwater (Palustrine) forestedwetlands
described in the Wetlands Classification.System used by the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service (Cowardin et al. 1979). These forests occur primarily within
the riverine floodplains of the Midwest and Southeastern United States.
The plant-species composition of bottomland hardwood forests is complex and
varied, and is strongly dependent on the varying degrees of inundation
(hydroperiod) during the growing season. Over 100 species of woody plants occur
in these periodically flooded areas, and all exhibit some degree of adaptation
for survival in soils which are inadequately drained and aerated. Commonly
recognized species-zonation patterns range from the baldcypress (Taxodium disti-chum)
and water tupelo (Nvssa aauatica) communities associated with longer
periods of flooding, to the live oak (Quercus virqiniana) and loblolly pine
(Pinus taeda) communities on the highest floodplain areas. Depending upon the
interaction of numerous ecological factors, many other plant-species associations
may occur (see Eyre 1980; Clark and Benforado 1981).
From the mid-1950's through the mid-1970's, about 6 million acres of the
Nation's freshwater forested wetlands were lost, principally through agricultural
conversions. Although losses vary geographically, over 80% of the original
forested wetlands in the Southeastern United States have been lost and about 25%
of the remainder may be lost by 1995. In Illinois, about 98% of the bottomland
forests have been lost (Harris et al. 1984; Tiner 1984).
Public concern over additional losses of bottomland forests has increased
in recent years with better awareness of the many functions and values of these
ecosystems (e.g., flood control and water quality protection, fish and wildlife
habitat) and the realization of the magnitude of past and continuing losses
(Greeson et al. 1978; MacDonald et al. 1979; Brinson et al. 1981; Conner and Day
1982; Wharton et al. 1982; Sather and Smith 1984; Tiner 1984; U.S. Congress
1984). Such changes in attitude have prompted more stringent consideration for
the protection of these ecosystems through various regulatory and policy
mechanisms (Federal Reqister 1977; U.S. Congress 1984, 1986a; Barton 1985). For
example, Section 906 of the Water Resources Development Act of 1986 (Public Law
99-662) (U.S. Congress 1986b) states that future mitigation plans for Federal
water projects should include specific plans to ensure that impacts to bottomland
hardwood forests are mitigated in kind, to the extent possible. Also, the
Council on Environmental Quality (1985) has stated that "the bottomland hardwoods
in the Southeast are of such importance as wildlife habitats, and becoming so
scarce, that the principle of full, in-kind replacement should override other
considerations."
1
With increased regulatory emphasis on protection and conservation of
wetlands, the need for additional information about the technological ability
to reestablish forested wetlands on disturbed sites has also become more
apparent. For example, evidence indicates that courts are now willing, and may
prefer in some cases, to use information about the cost of carrying out specific
vegetation reestablishment efforts in determining a fair assessment of damages
in compensation issues (Anonymous 1983). In addition, the lack of a convincingly
demonstrated technology has been, and is expected to continue to be, an important
consideration in the approval/denial process for various surface-mining
activities in forested wetlands (U.S. Bureau of Land Management et al. 1983;
Haynes 1984; Haynes and Crabill 1984). The recent emphasis on wetland
conservation as presented in the Food Security Act of 1985 (U.S. Congress 1985)
may provide opportunities for reestablishment of bottomland hardwood forests on
previously farmed and flood-prone areas regulated by the Farmers Home
Administration (Office of Federal Register 1987).
Strategies for avoiding net losses of bottomland hardwood forests may
include a preservation approach (e.g., land-use restrictions, easements, or land
acquisition), or a compensation approach in which losses are replaced or an
acceptable substitute provided (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1981). This
bibliography focuses on the compensation approach as it relates to the
reestablishment of bottomland hardwood forest ecosystems on disturbed sites.
Opportunities for such reestablishment occur when the initial loss or
modification of the forest community is not permanent and reestablishment methods
are technologically feasible. These opportunites may include (1) reestablish-ment
on abandoned, "high-risk" farm lands in flood-prone areas, (2) re-establishment
in national forests, wildlife refuges and management areas, flood-control
projects, or public lands on which bottomland hardwood forest habitat
serves management goals that are determined to be in the best public interest,
and (3) reclamation of surface-mined lands.
SCOPE AND ARRANGEMENT
In the initial review of available published literature, over 400 scientific
papers, government reports, M.S. and Ph.D. theses, and popular-journal articles
were located dealing with one or more factors related to bottomland hardwood
restoration. Most of these papers did not discuss restoration specifically, but
covered related factors, such as hydrology and flooding effects, soils and
nutrients, plant succession and competition, and plant propogation methods.
Since time and available staff did not allow the annotation of all the papers
that were found, only those references that were thought to contain information
of direct value to persons involved in bottomland hardwood restoration were
selected for annotation. These annotations form the main section of this report,
and are arranged alphabetically by author.
In addition, the bibliography contains non-annotated entries grouped under
specific subjects. These entries may be of value to persons requiring more in-depth
treatments of specific species or silvicultural methods. Two appendixes
are also included. Appendix A lists common and scientific names for bottomland
hardwood species covered in this publication and Appendix B catalogues flooding,
shade tolerances, and reproductive characteristics of selected bottomland
\i
2
hardwood forest species. Subject and species indexes are provided for cross-referencing
of the annotated entries.
Although an attempt was made to include all appropriate citations through
May 1988, some papers may have been omitted. We believe, however, that enough
entries have been included to make this publication valuable to those involved
in the important work of bottomland hardwood restoration.
REFERENCES
Anonymous. 1983. Restoration key to assessing environmental damages liability:
interior seeks aid. Restoration Manage. Notes 1(4):14-15.
Barton, K. 1985. Wetlands preservation. Pages 212-264 in R.L. DiSilvestro,
ed. Audubon Wildlife Report 1985. New York.
Brinson, M.M., B.L. Swift, R.C. Plantico, and J.S. Barclay. 1981. Riparian
ecosytems: their ecology and status. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv.
Program FWS/OBS-81/17. 155 pp.
Clark, J.R., and J. Benforado, editors. 1981. Wetlands of bottomland hardwood
forests. Developments in agricultural and manage-forest ecology 11: proc.
of a workshop; June l-5, 1980; Lake Lanier, GA. Elsevier Scientific
Publishing Company, New York. 402 pp.
Conner, W.H., and J.W. Day, Jr. 1982. The ecology of forested wetlands in the
southeastern United States. Pages 69-89 in B. Gopal, R.E. Turner, R.G.
Wetzel, and D.F. Whigham, eds. Wetlands ecology and management. National
Institute of Ecology and International Scientific Publications, Lucknow
Publishing House, Lucknow-226001, India.
Council on Environmental Quality. 1985. Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway wildlife
mitigation plan, Alabama and Mississippi. Fed. Reg. 50(62) (April 1):12850.
Cowardin, L.M., V. Carter, F.C. Golet, and E.T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification
of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States. U.S. Fish Wildl.
Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-79/31. 103 pp.
Eyre, F.H., editor. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada.
Sot. of Am. For. Washington, DC. 148 pp.
Federal Register. 1977. Protection of wetlands: executive order 11990. Fed.
Reg. 42(May 24):26961.
Federal Register. 1987. Code of federal regulations: agriculture part 1940,
subpart G. environmental program. U.S. Department of Agriculture Farmers Home
Administration. Washington, DC. pp 307-371.
Fowells, H.A., editor. 1965. Silvics of forest trees of the United States.
U.S. For. Serv. Handbook No. 217. Washington, DC. 762 pp.
Greeson, P.E., J.R. Clark, and J.E. Clark. 1978. Wetland functions and values:
the state of our understanding. American Water Resources Association, Min-neapolis,
MN. 674 pp.
4
Harris, L.D., R. Sullivan, and R.L. Badger. 1984. Bottomland hardwoods:
valuable, vanishing, vulnerable. University of Florida, Cooperative Extension
Service, Gainesville. 17 pp.
Haynes, R.J. 1984. Summary of wetlands reestablishment on surface-mined lands
in Florida. Pages 357-362 in 1984 symposium on surface mining, hydrology,
sedimentology, and reclamation. University of Kentucky at Lexington.
Haynes, R.J., and F. Crabill. 1984. Reestablishment of a forested wetland on
phosphate-mined land in central Florida. Pages 51-63 in Better reclamation
with trees: proceedings of fourth annual conference. Madisonville Community
College, Madisonville, KY.
MacDonald, P.O., W.E. Frayer, and J.K. Cl auser. 1979. Documentation,
chronology, and future projections of bottomland hardwood habitat losses in
the lower Mississippi Alluvial Plain. Vols. 1 and 2. U.S. Fish Wildlife
Service, Washington, DC.
McKnight, J.S., D.D. Hook, O.G. Langdon, and R.S. Johnson. 1981. Occurrence,
shade and flood tolerance and reproductive characteristics of the principal
species of the southern bottomland forest. Pages 45-69 in J.R. Clark and J.
Benforado, eds. Wetlands of bottomland hardwood forests. Elsevier Publishing
Company, New York.
Sather, H.J., and R.D. Smith. 1984. An overview of major wetland functions and
values. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-84/18. 68 pp.
Tiner, R.W., Jr. 1984. Wetlands of the United States: current status and
recent trends. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Habitat Resources, Newton
Corner, MA. 59 pp.
U.S. Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Forest Service, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service. 1983. Environmental assessment on state of reclamation techniques
on phosphate mined lands in Florida and their application to phosphate mining
in the Osceola National Forest. U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Alexandria,
VA.
U.S. Congress. 1984. Wetlands: their use and regulation. U.S. Congress,
Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, DC. 208 pp.
U.S. Congress. 1985. The Food Security Act of 1985. Public Law 99-198,
December 23, 1985. U.S. Congress, Washington, DC.
U.S. Congress. 1986(a). Emergency wetlands resources act of 1986. Public Law
99-645, November 10, 1986. U.S. Congress, Washington, DC.
U.S. Congress. 1986(b). Water resources development act of 1986. Pages 4186-
4187 in Public Law 99-662, November 17, 1986. U.S. Congress, Washington, DC.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1981. U.S. FWS mitigation policy. Fed. Reg.
46(15) (January 23):7644-7663.
5
Wharton, C.H., W.M. Kitchens, E.C. Pendleton, and T.W. Sipe. 1982, Ecology of
bottomland hardwood swamps of the southeast: a community profile. U.S. Fish
and Wildl. Serv. Biol. Serv. Program FWS/OBS-81/37. 134 pp.
ANNOTATED ENTRIES
Allen, H.H., and C.V. Klimas. 1986. Reservoir shoreline revegetation guide-lines.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Environmental and Water Quality
Operational Studies, Technical Report E-86-13. 87 pp.
Planning, site preparation, planting, postplanting operations and maintenance,
and costs associated with revegetating reservoir shorelines with both herbaceous
and woody species are covered. The two main elements of planning are site
selection and the choice of plant species and materials. Important site factors
to consider include water level fluctuations, bank morphometry, wave climate,
animal depredation potential, and soil characteristics. In general, larger-than-
average tree seedlings and species that leaf out late should be used to
minimize damage from spring floods. Planting of four propagule types for wocdy
vegetation--bare-root, balled-and-burlapped, and containerized seedlings and
cuttings--is covered. There is a section on special establishment techniques
in erodible environments in the planting chapter; detailed diagrams of most of
the techniques are provided. Postplanting operations and maintenance are
discussed only briefly. Monitoring is recommended in order to identify needs
such as irrigation, fertilization, protection from animals, or cultivation.
Anderson, C.P., P.E. Pope, W.R. Byrnes, W.R. Chaney, and B.H. Bussler. 1983.
Hardwood tree establishment in low plant cover on reclaimed mineland. Pages
158-170 in Proceedings of the third annual conference on better reclamation
with trees. Purdue University, Terre Haute, IN.
The paper describes a comparison between a reclaimed surface-mined site in
Sullivan County, IN, and an unmined reference site which was made to evaluate
the effectiveness of hardwood seedling establishment, growth, and related
factors. Black walnut and northern red oak seedlings (bare-root and
containerized) were planted concurrently with a cover crop of fescue and red
clover. Sites were disked, limed, and fertilized. Test areas were treated with
herbicide to control ground cover and to assess the competitive effects of ground
cover on seedling establishment and growth. After two growing seasons, red oak
seedlings exhibited lower survival and less net height growth than black walnut
seedlings. Individual container-produced seedlings survived better than bare-root
seedlings. Herbicide use to reduce ground cover competition effectively
improved black walnut survival and growth, but had no significant effect on red
oak. Selected physical and chemical properties of the growth media are
discussed.
Anonymous. 1984. Turning farmland into forests. Pages lo-11 in Woodlands for
wildlife. Mississippi Department of Wildlife Conservation, Jackson, MS.
A large-scale, lo-year program to reforest nearly 1,000 acres of old farm fields
on the Malmaison Wildlife Management Area in Mississippi is covered. Since 1981,
7
about 100 acres/year have been direct seeded with oak acorns collected by
wildlife area managers around Mississippi and shipped to Malmaison. Species
planted include water, willow, and cherrybark oak. Sowing is done with a
modified two-row John Deere planter; 40 acres/day can be planted. Researchers
from the U.S. Forest Service Southern Forest Experiment Station in Stoneville,
MS, are monitoring the results of the plantings. They report that germination
and seedling survival appear to be adequate in most areas planted to date.
Anonymous. 1986. Results of oak direct seeding are promising. Tree Talk
7(2):9-11.
This article describes an oak direct-seeding project, which began in November
1981, on about 1,100 acres of old farmland in the Panther Swamp National Wildlife
Refuge, in Yazoo County, MS. Species planted include water, willow, and Nuttall
oak. Two planting machines were used: a modified antique "belly mount" cotton
planter was used on heavy high-shrink Sharkey clay areas; and a converted John
Deere Maxi-Merge 7,100 planter was used for planting unprepared ground that
contained agricultural debris. Germination of willow oak began during April 1982
and Nuttall oak germination occurred from mid-May throughout the summer.
Survival and germination were reported to be adequate. Although only oaks were
planted, invader species, such as pecan, water hickory, persimmon, sugarberry,
honeylocust, and green ash, are expected to be components of the mature stands
and should enhance the overall value of the forest for wildlife.
Ashby, W.C., C.A. Kolar, and N.F. Rogers. 1980. Results of 30-year-old
plantations on surface mines in the central states. Pages 99-107 in
Proceedings of trees for reclamation. U.S. Forest Service General Technical
Report NE-61, Broomall, PA.
This report indicates that after at least 30 years, 28 species of trees have been
grown successfully on surface-mined lands in the Central States. Many of the
previously planted stands were vigorously invaded by volunteer trees, as well
as other plants and animals. The success of a species was affected by geographic
location, type of rooting medium, and whether species were planted alone or
interplanted. Species reviewed included maples, green ash, black walnut,
sweetgum, tulip tree (yellow-poplar), pines, sycamore, cottonwood, oaks, and
black locust. Green ash exhibited the highest survival rate of any species.
Sweetgum showed both good growth and survival. Black walnut and tulip trees
(yellow-poplar) were very site sensitive; growth and survival varied
substantially due to variations in soil pH, drainage, and other factors.
Sycamore and cottonwood yielded some of the largest trees although tree form was
poor, and volunteer trees of these species often equaled or exceeded planted
trees in size. Plantings of various oak species were successful in some
locations; no planting failures are reported in the paper. Black locust showed
rapid early growth before succumbing to the locust borer (Mesacvllene robiniae).
Major invaders under established tree cover were elms, hackberry, and boxelder.
Other important local invaders were black cherry, ashes, pin oak, shingle oak,
and sassafras. Many areas exhibited a dense herbaceous layer. Common shrubs
were dogwoods, grape, and sumac.
8
Ashby, W.C., W.G. Vogel, and C.A. Kolar. 1983. Use of nitrogen-fixing trees
and shrubs in reclamation. Pages 110-118 in Proceedings of the third annual
conference on better reclamation with trees. Purdue University, Terre Haute,
IN.
The importance of nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs to the establishment of other
trees, and the advantages and disadvantages of using nitrogen-fixing species are
discussed. Black locust, European alder, and autumn olive have been the most
widely used species in mined-land reclamation. Nitrogen-fixing species can
contribute to greatly accelerated growth and invasion of other trees. Black
locust and European alder experience die-back and mortality after 5 or more
years. The locust is often attacked by the locust borer, though some stands
escape. Locust sprouts vigorously from roots and sprouts grow well if not
shaded. The reasons for alder mortality are not well understood. As a
disadvantage, locust and autumn olive often produce dense thickets that are
difficult to move through for interplanting or underplanting other trees. Alder
may exhibit excessive competitiveness on good sites; autumn olive may overtop
young trees if planting densities are not carefully controlled, and the seeds
can be widely distributed by birds to other areas where unwanted establishment
may occur. The author notes that an extensive literature documenting the values
of nitrogen-fixing species is available.
Baker, J.B. 1977. Tolerance of planted hardwoods to spring flooding. Southern
Journal of Applied Forestry 1(3):23-25.
Inundation of cottonwood cuttings and seedlings (1-O stock) of sweetgum, water
tupelo, American sycamore, and green ash were studied and detailed in this
article. Cuttings and seedlings were planted on a Sharkey clay site near
Stoneville, MS, in two consecutive years in 25-tree plots. After the trees had
leafed out in May, 3 ft of water was pumped onto the plots, all trees were
completely inundated for 4 weeks, and then the water was removed. Water tupelo,
green ash, and sycamore were consistently most tolerant of spring flooding;
survival was about 90%. Cottonwood was the least tolerant of flooding; an
average of only 24% of the cuttings survived. All species except green ash lost
their leaves each year during the flooding period. Average height growth for
surviving seedlings one season after flooding was highest for cottonwood (3.7
ft), followed by green ash (2.8 ft), sycamore (2.4 ft), water tupelo (1.8 ft),
and sweetgum (1.2 ft).
Baker, J.B., and W.M. Broadfoot. 1979. A practical field method of site
evaluation for commercially important southern hardwoods. U.S. Forest Service
General Technical Report SO-26, New Orleans, LA. 51 pp.
This report provides a method and guide for evaluating the suitability of sites
for 14 hardwood species: cottonwood, green ash, pecan, sycamore, sweetgum,
yellow-poplar, hackberry, sugarberry, cherrybark oak, Nuttall oak, Shumard oak,
water oak, willow oak, and swamp chestnut oak. The method is based on the four
most important determinants of hardwood growth: soil physical condition,
moisture availability during the growing season, nutrient availability, and soil
aeration. Based on the percentage of maximum tree growth attributable to each
9
of these factors, a site quality rating (SQR) is assigned for best, medium, and
poor conditions. The rating for each major factor is further divided according
to the relative influences of soil-site properties; for instance, overall
nutrient availability is assessed by rating geologic sources, past soil use,
percent organic matter, depth of topsoil, soil age, and pH. All soil factors
are tabulated and rated. Values from the table are summed to assess the site's
suitability for a particular species. Estimates of potential productivity for
cottonwood, sweetgum, and sycamore are also,given.
Bates, A.L., E. Pichard, and W.M. Dennis. 1978. Tree plantings--a diversified
management tool for reservoir shorelines. Pages 190-194 in Strategies for
protection and management of floodplain wetlands and other riparian ecosystems.
Proceedings of a symposium; U.S. Forest Service, Washington, DC.
This paper reports on studies that have been conducted since 1935 on shoreline
plantings of water-tolerant tree species along periodically flooded or dewatered
shoreline within the mainstream and tributary reservoirs of the Tennessee Valley
Authority system. Baldcypress was determined to be the most desirable species
for planting in the fluctuation zone of reservoirs because of its rapid growth
rate and ability to withstand prolonged flooding even in the seedling stage.
Recently, however, plantings of baldcypress have been detrimentally affected by
high populations of beaver. Beaver populations along with competition from
herbaceous species in the upper portion of the fluctuation zone seemed to be
major limiting factors to successful plantings. Shoreline plantings of water-tolerant
species provided the potential for shoreline stabilization, better
habitat for desirable wildlife, a biological mosquito control method, replacement
of wetlands lost in
shoreline landscape.
Bedinger, M.S. 1971.
White River Valley,
reservoir construction, and an aesthetically'pleasing
Forest species as indicators of flooding in the lower
Arkansas. Pages C248-C253 jr~ Geological survey research
1971. Chapter C. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 750-C, Washington,
DC.
This study indicates that flooding is the dominant environmental factor
determining tree species distribution within the lower valley of the White River,
AR. The relationship between flooding and tree species occurrence was
sufficiently distinct to permit determination of flood characteristics at a given
site by evaluation of forest-species composition. On sites flooded 29%-40% of
the time, the dominant species were water hickory and overcup oak. On sites
flooded lo%-21% of the time, species included Nuttall oak, willow oak, sweetgum,
sugarberry, and American elm. Sites subject to flooding at intervals of from
2 to 8 years included southern red oak, shagbark hickory, and blackgum. The
presence of blackjack oak marked areas not flooded in historic times.
Bonner, F.T. 1964. Seeding and planting southern hardwoods. Pages 28-40 in
Proceedings of the Auburn University hardwood short course; Auburn, AL.
This paper summarizes the state of knowledge about
planting as of 1964. A table is presented which
10
southern hardwood seeding and
includes planting information
on cottonwood, sweetgum, green ash, sycamore, yellow-poplar, oaks, black walnut,
water tupelo, and baldcypress. Information given includes recommended pruning
length for roots, recommended top length, best root-collar diameter, adaptability
to machine planting, response to fertilizer, usual first-year growth, suitability
for wet sites, and susceptibility to animal and insect damage. In addition to
the table, the paper includes sections on protection, cultivation and weed con-trol,
and direct seeding. Protection of sweetgum, oaks, green ash, and yellow-poplar
seedlings can be difficult in old-field plantings, where they are suscep-tible
to damage by rabbits and other rodents.
application to seedlings or cuttings.
No repellant is available yet for
Protection from livestock and fire is
essential for good results. Cultivation is very important in cottonwood plan-tations;
cross-disking is the best method. Black walnut and sycamore also have
been shown to benefit from weed control. Direct-seeding results to date have
been erratic. Rodents have been responsible for most direct-seeding failures
of oaks, and have also damaged black walnut seed. Some seeds, such as those of
the red oaks and white ash, may remain dormant for a year or more after sowing.
Bonner, F.T. 1966. Survival and first-year growth of hardwoods planted in
saturated soils. U.S. Forest Service Research Note SO-32, New Orleans, LA.
This study documents the growth of sycamore, sweetgum, and Nuttall oak in poorly-drained
saturated soils typical of Mississippi River batture and slackwater clay
areas (Commerce silt loam and Sharkey clay). One-year-old seedlings in pots of
these two soils were kept under saturated conditions and monitored from February
until August for various aspects of root and shoot growth. Timing of bud-break,
initiation of height growth, and seedling survival were not influenced by either
soil type or saturation. Saturation did decrease terminal, stem diameter, and
root growth. At least 10 weeks of continuous saturation were required to produce
large decreases in growth. Sycamore seedlings exhibited the best overall growth;
however, terminal growth of the seedlings was more greatly impacted by saturation
than in the other two species. Root growth was suppressed in Nuttall oak and
sweetgum; sycamore roots grew twice as much in clay soil as in silt loam. Stress
on the seedlings was also evident in measures of water balance, especially in
silt loam.
Bonner, F.T. 1977. Handling and storage of hardwood seeds. Pages 145-152 in
Proceedings of the second symposium on southeastern hardwoods; U.S. Forest
Service State and Private Forestry, Atlanta, GA.
Techniques for seed storage and handling for a number of bottomland hardwood
species are described. Sweetgum, sycamore, green ash, white ash, and yellow-poplar
seeds should be stored dry (moisture content 6%-8X), as well as seeds from
fruits or drupes (such as black cherry, dogwood, sugarberry, and water tupelo).
A table of oven temperatures and drying times is given. Red and white oak acorns
are stored moist; the seeds become non-viable when the moisture content drops
to 25%-30%. Treatment of acorns for removal of insect larvae is not recommended.
Dried seeds may be stored at temperatures of O-5 'C for long periods of time,
or at higher temperatures if they are to be sowed during the next spring.
Sweetgum, sycamore, yellow-poplar, green and white ash, and black cherry may be
stored in this manner for up to 5 years. Water tupelo, shagbark hickory and
11
cottonwood seeds can be stored for 2 to 3 years. Acorns should be maintained
at 35%-45% moisture at temperatures between freezing and 2 OC in 4-mil-thick
polyethylene bags to allow gas exchange. The more dormant the oak, the longer
the acorn can be stored. Red oak acorns store much better than those of the
white oak group. The control of moisture content in seeds is critical to avoid
damage from lipid autooxidation (below 5% moisture), fungal growth (lo%-18%),
or heat from respiration (above 18%). Relative humidity in the storage area can
be controlled, but is expensive; storing seeds in moisture-proof containers is
more economical.
Bonner, F.T. 1984. Testing for seed quality in southern oaks. U.S. Forest
Service Research Note SO-306. New Orleans, LA. 6 pp.
This paper describes various experiments on measurement of acorn vigor carried
out at the Forestry Sciences Laboratory in Starkville, MS. A variety of
techniques are discussed, including the standard laboratory germination test,
cutting tests, radiography, tetrazolium staining (TZ test), germination rate
tests (peak value (PV) and mean germination time (MGT)), and leached conductivity
tests. In 1978, five lots of water oak, collected from 1975 to 1978 were
randomly sampled for three types of tests: standard laboratory germination test,
TZ, and the PV. These tests results were compared with indicators of seed and
seedling performance in nursery beds. All tests clearly showed which lots were
the best and the poorest quality. Results of the standard laboratory germination
TZ tests appear to have been correlated with nursery germination and growth,
but the number of lots precluded a definitive test. In 1982, multiple lots of
white oak, water oak, and cherrybark oak were selected for the standard
laboratory germination, TZ, PV, and MGT tests. The test results were again
compared with several indicators of seedling performance in nursery beds and
showed that TZ testing gave the best results for cherrybark oak, followed by the
PV test; PV and MGT tests were best for water oak. No tests were significantly
correlated with nursery germination of white oak. Seed vigor tests could not
predict oak seedling performance after germination. Tetrazolium staining test
results were significantly correlated with results of the standard laboratory
germination test for white and cherrybark oaks, but not water oaks. In spite
of the mixed results, seed quality testing is definitely recommended.
Bonner, F.T. 1986. Good seed quality -- how to obtain and keep it. Pages 31-
36 &t Northeastern area nurserymen's conference; State College, PA.
This paper contains recommendations for the collection, processing, storage,
and planting of oak acorns and small "orthodox" seeds (such as sweetgum,
sycamore, and yellow-poplar). Oak acorns need to be stored at higher moisture
contents and thus are treated differently from the so-called orthodox species.
Whereas the orthodox seeds can be dried to moisture contents of below lo%, white
oak acorns will die at moisture contents below 35% and red oaks, below 25%. Both
types of seed should be collected only when mature; many orthodox seeds reach
maturity in the early fall, but, in general, collection should be delayed until
the seeds have dried somewhat. Cut-and-float tests are recommended for acorns
since weevil infestations may require additional collection efforts. Three key
points for acorn storage are: (1) keep acorns moist; (2) keep them cool (l-3 "C);
and (3) do not store them in airtight containers. Stratification periods are
recommended for nine oak species. If stored correctly, orthodox seed may remain
12
viab
over
Most
time
seed
le for at least 3 years. At best, white oak acorns should be stored only
one winter, and ideally should be planted the same fall they are collected.
red oaks can be stored up to 3 years, but viability may fall 50% in this
The paper concludes with nine general considerations for assuring good
'quality.
Bonner, F.T., and J.A. Vozzo. 1985. Seed biology and technology of Quercus.
U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report SO-66, New Orleans, LA. 21 pp.
This monograph is divided into two parts--current biological knowledge and
handling and management of acorns.
of the genus Quercus,
The first section briefly covers the taxonomy
and describes the anatomy, metabolism, dormancy, and
predators of oak seeds in detail.
cleaning and conditioning,
The second section covers seed collection,
treatment for insects, storage, stratification, and
testing. All oaks belong to one of two subgenera of Quercus, which are generally
referred to as red and white oaks. Both biological characteristics and some
aspects of handling and management of acorns differ substantially, making the
distinction between these groups important for planting operations. Acorns
should be collected as soon as they are mature, which in the Midsouth is usually
from late October to early November. Indicators of maturity are provided for
both subgenera, and collection methods are covered briefly. It is very important
to prevent excessive drying--loss of moisture should not exceed 5%. Treatment
for insects should be done with caution since common treatment methods such as
soaking in hot water and fumigating can also harm the acorns. Storage techniques
vary between the subgenera. In general, white oaks cannot be successfully stored
more than 4-6 months, and the best recommendation is to store them in the ground
by planting them in the fall. A good method of storing red oaks is to keep them
in polyethylene bags with a wall thickness of 4-10 mil at a temperature near,
but above, freezing (l-3 "C). Recommended stratification periods for selected
red oaks are provided, and some common test procedures are described.
Briscoe, C.B. 1957. Diameter growth and effects of flooding on certain
bottomland forest trees. Ph.D. Dissertation. Duke University, Durham, NC.
This study covers tree diameter growth and the effects of flooding on seedlings
of water tupelo, sweetgum, loblolly pine, laurel oak, baldcypress, water oak,
northern red oak, cherrybark oak, slash pine, and swamp tupelo on seven types
of physiographic sites in southeastern Georgia. Seedlings of water tupelo, swamp
tupelo, northern red oak, cherrybark oak, and slash pine were treated to
determine the effects of flooding on growth. All species tolerated up to 51 days
of flooding and submersion (the longest period allowable in the experiment).
Tolerance to flooding was related to the frequency of flooding at the different
sites where the species were naturally found in southeastern Georgia. Submersion
of the seedlings reduced growth more than just flooding the soil. Tolerance to
flooding increased with age of the seedlings and decreased with the duration of
the flooding event. Water temperature affected growth; seedling growth ceased
at water temperatures of 41 OF and seedlings suffered some (reversible) damage
13
at holding temperatures of 95 OF. Root growth was more reduced by flooding than
was shoot growth. Slash pines suffered mortality after flooding due to a seed-borne
fungus.
observed.‘
Some swamp and water tupelo mortality due to insect larvae was
Briscoe, C.B. 1961. Germination of cherrybark and Nuttall oak acorns following
flooding. Ecology 42(2):430-431.
The article details germination experiments on cherrybark and Nuttall oak acorns
previously kept in cold, moist stratification for 4 months. The acorns were
divided into loo-seed lots and four lots were randomly assigned to each of 10
treatments: no flooding; flooding in open-mesh bags in swamp water or tap water
for 8, 18, and 34 days; and flooding in sealed containers of tap water for the
three periods. Temperature of all the waters ranged from 37-40 OF. Following
these treatments, acorns were germinated in wooden flats filled with vermiculite.
The results indicated a significant interaction of species and flooding period,
but no significant differences based on type of water used. Cherrybark oak
germination was significantly lowered by the 34-day submersion period;
germination averaged 44% after 8 days, 41% after 18 days, and 26% after 34 days.
Nuttall oak was not affected by flooding period, and germination for all waters
combined varied from 41% to 44%. There was some indication that the germination
percentage for Nuttall oak was higher for large than for small acorns.
Briscoe, C.B. 1963. Rooting cuttings of cottonwood, willow, and sycamore.
Journal of Forestry 61(1):51-53.
The report covers a study which took place on first bottoms of the Atchafalaya
River in southern Louisiana. Cuttings of cottonwood, willow, and sycamore were
obtained from natural stands and were collected each month from October 1957
through September 1958 (except August). Trees were cut near the ground with a
machete; the basal 16-inch length was the butt-cut. The majority of the cuttings
had a diameter inside bark of 0.3-0.8 inches, with a total range of 0.2-1.9
inches. Cuttings were set in a nursery bed on the same day they were collected;
subsets of each species were removed each month to check for rooting. All
species rooted every month, but November was the best month for cottonwood (92%
of cuttings obtained and planted in November rooted) and March was best for
willow and sycamore (100% of cuttings of both species rooted). October to
December was the best period for rooting cottonwood, and January to March was
best for sycamore, while willow did just as well on average in both periods.
Butt-cuts rooted better (66% overall) than second-cuts (54%). Willow cuttings
grew the fastest; sycamore grew the slowest. Butt-cuts of willow averaged 3.0
ft in height by the end of the study (about 5-6 months of growth), compared to
2.1 ft for cottonwood, and 1.4 ft for sycamore.
Broadfoot, W.M. 1976. Hardwood suitability for and properties of important
Midsouth soils. U.S. Forest Service Research Paper SO-127, New Orleans, LA.
84 PP.
This document updates and expands previous information about important Midsouth
soils and their suitability for hardwoods. Forty tables describe the properties
of each soil, give management suggestions, and indicate occurrence, suitability,
14
and productivity of various species. Of the 40 soils described, 16 are found
primarily in the Southern Mississippi Valley Alluvium, 12 in the Silty Uplands,
9 in the Coastal Plains, and 3 in the Blackland Prairies.
Broadfoot, W.M., and R.M. Krinard. 1961.
bottoms in loess areas.
Growth of hardwood plantations on
U.S. Forest Service Tree Planters' Notes 48:3-8.
This article, with pictures and detailed captions, briefly describes 17- to 25-
year-old hardwood plantations within the loess soil belt of Mississippi and
Tennessee. A 17-year-old baldcypress plantation and a 6-year-old cottonwood
plantation are included for comparison. All plantations were on abandoned farm
land in stream bottoms or branch heads, and were established with 1-O nursery
seedlings on a 6 by 6 ft spacing, (the cottonwood plantation was established from
cuttings planted on a 9 by 9 ft spacing). In addition, two sweetgum plantations
and one each of southern red oak, white oak, water oak, swamp chestnut oak,
yellow-poplar, water tupelo, green ash, and river birch are depicted. At age
21, the three largest white oaks averaged 9.2 inches in dbh and 50 ft in height.
After 25 years the yellow-poplar plantation had 61% survival and an average
diameter of 5.3 inches. Data are also given for age, survival rate, dbh, and
height for sweetgum, water oak, willow oak, swamp chestnut oak, green ash,
cottonwood, and baldcypress. No data were collected for southern red oak or
river birch.
Clewell, A.F. 1981. Vegetational restoration techniques on reclaimed phosphate
strip mines in Florida. Wetlands 1:158-170.
A portion of this paper discusses preliminary results for forest reestablishment
on phosphate-mined lands in Florida. Four methods of swamp restoration were
evaluated: (1) planting of tree seedlings (primarily with bare roots rather than
potted); (2) transplanting of saplings from natural swamps with a tree spade;
(3) mulching, using topsoil from natural swamps; and (4) natural colonization.
The author noted that the planting of tree seedlings promises the partial success
of forest reestablishment; helps to overcome any inadequacy of natural seed
sources; and is considered inexpensive, as long as a mechanical tree planter is
used. It was pointed out that unavailability of preferred nursery stock could
be a serious problem, Tree spading of saplings up to about 8 cm in diameter from
natural swamps to adjacent reclaimed lands can be accomplished, though often with
limited success. An operator can transplant about 200 trees a week using tree-spading
equipment; however, the operation is limited to soils firm enough to
support the equipment. Swamp mulching holds promise in special limited
situations; mulching in strips or piles between planted trees is recommended.
For colonization by natural invasion, an inverse correlation between distance
from the nearest natural seed source (which in Florida is typically a riparian
forest) and the number of species present was noted. Limitations to planting
methodologies include cost, time requirements needed to satisfy regulatory
requirements, and the self-sustaining capability of the species used.
15
Clewell, A.F. 1983. Riverine forest restoration efforts on reclaimed mines at
Brewster Phosphates, central Florida. Pages 122-133 in D.J. Robertson, ed.
Reclamation and the phosphate industry. Proceedings of a symposium; Clearwater
Beach, FL; 26-28 January, 1983. Florida Institute of Phosphate Research,
Bartow.
This paper provides the following summary statements about major forest
reestablishment issues within the central Florida phosphate mining area: (1)
Prescribed vegetational restoration activities are essential to restoring plant
communities that closely resemble those of natural riverine forests; (2) Previous
studies strongly suggest that natural dissemination of seeds can be incorporated
into a restoration plan for a site bordering a natural seed source; (3) Bare-root
seedlings can be used in restoration, but may not always yield satisfactory
results; (4) Tree-spading may be advantageous in some situations. If tree-spading
is attempted, irrigation may accelerate the recovery of the root system.
Additional information regarding the value of tree-spading in forest restoration
is needed; (5) Preliminary results from studies have suggested that direct seed-ing
is possible for some species, but percentage of germination and survival may
be low; (6) Mulching seems to be helpful in restoring riverine forests as long
as high soil moisture is maintained; thus, irrigation may be required. Also,
mulching (in this case topsoil spread about a foot in depth and obtained from
a riverine forest) introduces many species of plants; (7) Weeds can result in
severe competition for tree seedlings and young sap1 ings, although weeds can
provide shade and protection from wind. The author recommends additional study
of several methods for partial weed control; (8) The author concludes that a
riverine forest could be restored, but that successful restoration is dependent
on using a combination of methods applicable to the specific situation.
Conner, W.H. 1988. Natural and artificial regeneration of baldcypress in the
Barataria and Lake Verret Basins of Louisiana. Ph.D. Dissertation. Department
of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries Science, Louisiana State University, Baton
Rouge.
This dissertation covers natural regeneration occurring from 1982-87 and the
results of four planting trials of baldcypress in southern Louisiana. Overall,
natural regeneration was poor in both basins studied, and artificial regeneration
was largely unsuccessful due to nutria depredation. In three of the trials, most
unprotected seedlings planted in both logged and unlogged stands were quickly
destroyed by nutria. Vexar plastic seedling protectors were tried, but at best
only slowed the rate of seedling destruction slightly. Chicken wire fences were
used to protect one planting, and survival ranged from 64% to 91%, compared to
about 15% for the other trials. In the fourth trial, baldcypress seedlings were
planted in a seasonally flooded crawfish pond in February and July for two
consecutive years. February-planted seedlings that experienced one growing
season before flooding had the best survival and growth. After 3 years, annual
growth rates of February- and July-planted seedlings were similar.
Conner, W.H., and J.R. Toliver. 1987. Vexar seedling protectors did not reduce
nutria damage to planted baldcypress seedlings. U.S. Forest Service Tree
Planters' Notes 38(3):26-29.
16
This article covers the results of a baldcypress planting trial in southern
Louisiana, which was designed to test the effectiveness of Vexar plastic seedling
protectors as a deterrent to nutria depredation. Five areas of typical
baldcypress-tupelo forest--four of which had been logged recently--were planted
with l-year-old seedlings, and half the seedlings in each area were protected
with Vexar seedling protectors. The seedling protectors slowed down the rate
of destruction somewhat, but after 3 months, 85% of the protected seedlings and
87% of the unprotected seedlings had been destroyed by nutria.
Dickson, R.E., and T.C. Broyer. 1972. Effects of aeration, water supply, and
nitrogen source on growth and development of tupelo gum and baldcypress.
Ecology 53(4):626-634.
Three separate experiments on water tupelo and baldcypress are summarized. The
experiments were designed to (1) compare the relative effects of saturated and
unsaturated soil, aeration within the saturated soil, and nitrogen fertilizer
source on growth; (2) determine the effects of aeration and water availability
on internal plant moisture stress and growth; and (3) compare the effects of
four soil-moisture regimes on internal moisture stress and growth. Seedlings
were grown in 7-inch clay pots, with four or five seedlings per pot. Five soil-water
regimes were more sensitive to anaerobic, saturated soil. Nitrogen
fertilization produced more growth compared to no-nitrogen fertilization in
saturated soil, but had no significant effect on seedlings in unsaturated soil.
Urea produced more growth than nitrate for baldcypress, while the opposite was
true for water tupelo. In general, baldcypress was more responsive to
fertilization than water tupelo.
DuBarry, A.P., Jr. 1963. Germination of bottomland tree seed while immersed
in water. Journal of Forestry 61(3):225-226.
The article details tests of seeds germinated in water. The seed of baldcypress,
Carolina ash, green ash, buttonbush, sycamore, swamp tupelo, water tupelo,
American elm, and sweetgum were subjected to 30 days of immersion in water to
test germination. Testing was done in open-top, aluminum-foil containers filled
with about 2 inches of tap water. Water temperature for the immersion treatments
ranged from 75 to 90 "F, and constant, artificial light was maintained throughout
the test period. Control groups consisted of seeds placed in sponge-type
germinators, which kept seeds moist but not completely immersed. In addition,
representative samples (whole seed) of each species were analyzed for nitrogen-free-
extract (NFE) to evaluate its role in the germination process. Immersion
in water was found to have a beneficial affect on soft-coated seeds with NFE con-tents
of 25% or more. Only baldcypress and water tupelo failed to germinate
after 30 days. Other species ranged from 21.5% germination (sweetgum) to 86.5%
(buttonbush).
Erwin, K.L., G.R. Best, W.J. Dunn, and P.M. Wallace. 1985. Marsh and forested
wetland reclamation of a central Florida phosphate mine. Wetlands 4:87-104.
17
This journal article discusses wetlands reestablishment on a 148-ha project site
of phosphate-mined land in central Florida, of which 61 ha of wetlands and 87
ha of uplands were reclaimed in 1981-82. The wetlands were designed to create
freshwater marsh, hardwood swamp, and open water. About 66,000 trees (12 wetland
species) were planted. Tree seedling survival and condition as a function of
type of seedling, season, and water depth were determined. Overall seedling mor-tality
in the reclamation area was small. Carolina ash had the highest net
survival (98%) and growth in height. Other species that exhibited high survival
included red bay (90%), black gum (90%), sycamore (90%), Florida maple (86X),
and sweet bay (83%). Following a very poor initial survival rate (58%)) cypress
seedlings gradually recovered through root stock sprouting to a 78% survival
rate. Species with relatively low initial survival included Dahoon holly (56%),
loblolly bay (44%), and laurel and live oaks (12%), although the data for the
oaks may not be valid because of the small number of individuals in the sampling
population. Growth rates of cypress seedlings were higher at low-water levels
(e.g., ~30 cm); it was recommended that water conditions during the first and
second growing seasons should be kept low to increase height growth and survival.
Competitive growth of some marsh plants (e.g., cattail, marsh willow) appeared
to retard seedling growth and/or survival ability. However, if seedlings were
successful in surviving the competition, their growth rate was high.
Ettinger, W., and C. Yuill. 1982. Sand and gravel pit reclamation in Louisiana:
creation of wetlands habitats and its integration into adjacent undisturbed
bayou. Pages 109-114 in Wildlife values of gravel pits. Agricultural Experiment
Station Miscellaneous Publication 17. University of Minnesota, St. Paul.
This paper describes a reclamation plan for an area surface mined for sand and
gravel in Webster Parish, LA. The goal of the reclamation plan was to convert
the barren unreclaimed site into a diverse assemblage of bottomland forest and
shallow and deeper water habitat integrated into the Bayou Dorcheat and Lake
Bistineau ecosystems. Important planning elements were water-level
considerations, regrading and reshaping spoil, and revegetation. A limited
program of tree planting was proposed. On areas above a typical yearly high-water
mark, species to be planted included hickory, pecan, Shumard oak, and
willow oak. Recommended species on seasonally flooded areas were green ash,
overcup oak, water hickory, and water oak. As islands and emerging areas
stabilize, baldcypress and other bottomland hardwoods were expected to colonize
the site from adjacent undisturbed areas. As of 1982, the plan was being
implemented but follow-up monitoring data were not available.
Finn, R.F. 1958. Ten years of strip-mined forestation research in Ohio. U.S.
Forest Service Central States Forest Experiment Station Technical Paper 153.
Columbus, OH. 38 pp.
This paper summarizes the results of 10 years of planting studies on coal strip-mined
land in Ohio, and clearly shows that a variety of trees (including
bottomland hardwood types) and forage plants can be successfully grown. Factors
18
studied included species adaptation, mixed plantings, direct seeding and other
planting methods, and the effect of grading on planted trees. Generally, poor
results were obtained from direct seeding; grading
most planted trees.
retarded height growth of
Fletcher, S.W. 1986. Planning and evaluation techniques for replacement of
complex stream and wetland drainage systems.
new horizons for mined land reclamation.
Pages 195200 in Proceedings:
and Reclamation, Princeton, WV.
American Society for Surface Mining
This paper describes a planning approach for replacing stream and wetland
ecosystems on phosphate-mined lands in central Florida where existing systems
are characterized, and hydrologic, soil, and vegetational profiles are developed
for each community type and stream reach. Postmining plans are developed with
consideration of premining conditions. The reclamation plan includes a series
of iterative steps to allow reestablishment of each profile toward optimum
configuration. Flow barriers, contouring, and other devices are designed to
create proper hydroperiod conditions for each community type.
Fowells, H.A., editor. 1965. Silvics of forest trees of the United States. U.S.
Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 271. Washington, DC. 762 pp.
This handbook is an edited compendium of silvical papers on tree species of
commercial importance. A total of 127 species are covered, including most of
the major bottomland hardwood species. The information provided for each species
includes habitat conditions (climate, soils and topography, and associated trees
and shrubs), life history (reproduction and early growth, and sapling stage to
maturity), and races and hybrids. (Authors' note: a new edition of this handbook
is due to be published in 1988).
Francis, J.K. 1985. Bottomland hardwood fertilization--The Stoneville
Experience. Pages 346-350 jr~ Proceedings of the third biennial southern
silvicultural research conference; Atlanta, GA.
Results of several fertilization studies with cottonwood and other bottomland
hardwood species and species mixes are discussed. In eight studies, cottonwood
plantations were fertilized with rates of nitrogen (NH NO ) ranging from 0 to
600 lb/acre. In some of the studies, P and K were adc!ed3to a treatment, and
lime was included in one study. The best rates of N fertilizer were 150 and 300
lb/acre. Most of the responses to fertilizer occurred in the first year of the
trials, and by the third year no further response was evident. Evidence
indicates that the best time to fertilize cottonwood may be March; also,
cottonwood may be more likely to respond to fertilizer at age 4 than at younger
ages. Benefit was not derived from the addition of P, K, or lime in any of the
trials. The most important cause of success or failure of a treatment was site
history. Old field sites were much more responsive to fertilization than
plantations established on sites recently cleared of forest. Plantations on
medium-textured soils, such as Commerce or Convent, responded more to
fertilization than plantations on Sharkey or Urbo soils. Results with other
19
bottomland hardwoods were similar in most cases. Generally, the best response
was obtained on old fields with N, or N and P. Responses in most cases were not
high enough to justify the costs of fertilization given current forest-product
prices. The author concluded that fertilization should be limited to special
cases, which are not yet well-defined.
Fung, M.Y.P. 1986. Ground cover control with herbicides to enhance tree
establishment on oil sands reclamation sites. Pages 179-182 in Proceedings
of the symposium on new horizons for mined land and reclamation. American
Society for Surface Mining and Reclamation, Princeton, WV.
The paper covers a common problem encountered during the initial phase of woody
plant seeding establishment--competition by aggressive herbaceous vegetation for
light, soil moisture, and nutrients. Ground vegetation must be properly managed
to promote erosion control and soil improvement while minimizing any adverse
impacts on tree seedlings. Two herbicides, amitrole and glyphosate, were
evaluated for their ability to control herbaceous cover. Glyphosate, applied
at 9.50 L/ha, was the more effective of the two in maintaining ground cover
density at or below 55%. At this level, seedling survival and growth were
significantly improved.
Gilbert, T., T. King, and B. Barnett. 1981. An assessment of wetland habitat
establishment at a central Florida phosphate mine site. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service Biological Services Program FWS/OBS-81/38. 96 pp.
This publication reports on a reclaimed mine restoration project initiated in
1978, and carried out by the Florida Game and Fish Commission in cooperation with
the International Minerals and Chemical Corporation and the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service. The 49-acre site, which was mined for phosphate in 1967-68,
included both wetland and upland reestablishment areas, and was located in Polk
County, FL, adjacent to the Peace River floodplain. In 1978, the area was
graded, two water basins were created, and a meandering channel was constructed
to connect the basins during periods of high water. Over 10,000 tree seedlings
(16t species, including from 9 to 13 bottomland forest species) were planted in
26 test plots. Native herbaceous marsh plants were transplanted to the wetland
portion of the site. Plantings, natural plant invasion, hydrology, water
quality, and wildlife utilization were evaluated for about 18 months after site
construction. The authors concluded that plantings can increase plant species
diversity on new sites. Bareroot seedlings, larger transplanted trees, and
freshwater marsh plants can be successfully introduced, but species se;;;::;!
and on-site planting location are primary factors to be considered.
invasion is also an important factor. The amount of plant subsidy that may be
needed is dependent on (1) the distance of individual sites from a natural seed
source, (2) the nearby natural plant community type, and (3) dispersal
mechanisms. Generally, as the distance from the potential seed source increases,
the amount of plant subsidy needed increases. Survival and growth data for each
species are presented and reclamation methods are discussed. The authors
concluded that although it was not yet possible to assess the long-term ecosystem
aspects of wetland reestablishment for the study site, the short-term outlook
was promising.
20
Gilmore, A.R., and W.R. Boggess. 1963. Effects of past agricultural practices
on the survival and growth of planted trees.
the Soil Sciences Society.
Pages 98-102 in Proceedings of
This paper describes the results of a planting of four pine species (loblolly,
shortleaf, red, and white) and three hardwood species (sycamore, green ash, and
yellow-poplar) on a recently abandoned farm field in southern Illinois. The
field had been used for 40 years to test crop rotations with various soil and
fertilizer practices; the soil in the field was Wartrace series, which developed
from loess. Treatments to portions of the field included the addition of manure,
crop residues, limestone, and/or rock phosphate and no treatment controls. Pine
seedlings (1-O for loblolly and shortleaf, and 2-O for white and red) were
machine planted, and hardwood seedlings (all 1-O stock) were hand-planted in the
spring. All pine species survived best on the untreated plots, or on those to
which only crop residues had been returned. Survival was significantly less on
plots that had been manured, and was drastically reduced on limed plots due to
weed competition.
that had both lime
Survival of sycamore and yellow-poplar was greatest on plots
and manure or crop residues. It was concluded that: (1)
extreme caution should be used in planting pines on land that has been recently
fertilized unless provision is made for weed control; (2) past fertility programs
should be investigated; and (3) hardwoods require more fertile sites than pines.
Hansen, N.J., and A.L. McComb. 1955. Growth, form and survival of plantation-grown
broadleaf and coniferous trees in southeast Iowa. Proceedings of the
Iowa Academy of Science 62:109-124.
This paper summarizes the results of a survey (conducted during 1952-53) of old
fields and degraded forest land in southern Iowa, planted with broadleaf and
coniferous species during the years 1937-41. Typical bottomland forest species
planted included green ash, American elm, cottonwood, and silver maple. Overall,
data were collected for 17 broadleaf species and 10 coniferous species. After
12 - 15 years following planting, growth of deciduous species in general was poor
on eroded, old-field sites and good on uncultivated and uneroded sites (primarily
around abandoned farmsteads). Conclusions were limited because of absence of
original planting records and data.
Harris, S.A., H. Bateman, and L. Savage. 1985. Sportsmen's paradise regained.
Louisiana Conservationist 37(5):24-25.
This article describes a project to plant Nuttall oak, willow oak, overcup oak,
baldcypress, and pecan on approximately 4,500 acres of recently purchased
agricultural land. The tract joins the Russell Sage and Ouachita Wildlife
Management Areas near Monroe, LA. A 5- to lo-year planting schedule has been
planned, with approximately 900 acres/yr to be planted. During the first season,
870 acres of disked fields were planted using 114,000 seedlings and 6,000 lb of
acorns. Some of the seedlings were hand-planted; a mechanical planter was used
for the acorns. Prior to sowing, acorns were kept in cold storage or
21
underground. As the first year's planting progressed, numerous study plots were
established to monitor survival and growth of planted seedlings and acorns. The
goal of the project is to reestablish a diverse bottomland hardwood forest on
the tract. It is hoped that species such as water hickory, persimmon, elms,
willow, sugarberry, and native understory plants will become established through
natural regeneration.
Haynes, R.J. 1983. Natural vegetation development on a 43-year-old surface-mined
site in Perry County, Illinois. Pages 457-466 in Symposium on surface
mining, hydrology, sedimentation and reclamation. University of Kentucky at
Lexington.
Natural revegetation was evaluated on a 43-year-old surface-mined site in
southern Illinois. For the overstory, 16 species of trees were recorded. When
compared with an adjacent oak-hickory climax forest on unmined land, the study
site exhibited little similarity, but more closely resembled a southern
floodplain or mesic forest type. American elm, cottonwood, sycamore, boxelder,
and black cherry accounted for 77% of the importance value. Other volunteer
species noted were shingle oak, red oak, pin oak, river birch, willow, hackberry,
silver maple, dogwood, sassafras, and persimmon. The rate of succession on the
site appeared to be suppressed. The primary factors thought to be limiting
succession were competition from dense shrub and herbaceous vegetation and the
lack of an available seed source for many heavy-seeded species (e.g., oaks and
hickories) at an appropriate time for establishment.
Haynes, R.J., and F. Crabill. 1984. Reestablishment of a forested wetland on
phosphate-mined land in central Florida. Pages 51-63 _i~ Proceedings of the
fourth annual conference on better reclamation with trees. Purdue University,
West Lafayette, IN.
This paper describes the design and implementation of a cooperative forested
wetland reestablishment effort involving the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, AMAX
Chemical Corporation, and various State agencies on a 16-acre (6.5-ha),
phosphate-mined site in central Florida (Hillsborough County). The revegeta-ation
type (dominant overstory species included red maple, laurel and water oak,
and loblolly bay), site preparation, mining activities, grading, topsoil storage,
soil amendments, revegetation methods, experimental design, and monitoring are
discussed. Study factors included topsoiling; mulching; use of potted plants,
bare-root seedlings, and wildlings; natural invasion; control of plant
competition; erosion control; establishment of vegetation islands; and evaluation
of reclamation success. Data for categorical project costs were also summarized.
About 90%-95% of the reclamation cost was estimated to be for earthmoving work
involving heavy equipment. Project site revegetation was estimated to account
for about 2%-3% of reclamation cost, whereas carrying out the short-term
monitoring plan would require from 1% to 2%. Implementation of the revegetation
and monitoring plan was scheduled to begin in 1985; thus, data were not available
to evaluate the success of the project.
Haynes, R.J., and L. Moore. 1987. Reestablishment of bottomland hardwoods
within national wildlife refuges in the southwest. Pages 95-103 in Increasing
22
our Wetland Resources. Proceedings of a conference; National Wildlife
Federation-Corporate Conservation Council; Washington, DC.
Increased interest in the protection, conservation, and restoration of bottomland
forests prompted the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Southeast Region) in 1987
to review existing examples of bottomland hardwood reestablishment on National
Wildlife Refuges in the Southeast. Efforts to reestablish bottomland hardwoods
were identified on 12 refuges. Plantings ranged in size from less than 1 ha to
about 405 ha and varied in age from about 1 to 19 years after planting. The
majority of the planting sites were on periodically flooded land that had been
previously farmed. Planting methods included direct seeding of acorns and
transplanting seedlings, both of which had distinct advantages and disadvantages.
Efforts to control competing vegetation and use of amendments, such as
fertilizer, were seldom used. The species most often planted were Nuttall oak,
cherrybark oak, willow oak, water oak, and pecan, although several other species
were planted. Natural regeneration relative to achieving a diversity of tree
species was an important consideration at all sites, and additional evaluation
of this issue is needed. Other limiting factors that may affect the success of
plantings include (1) drought during the growing season or a late freeze
following planting; (2) standing water and high temperature on sites with young
seedlings; (3) flooding on sites where the species planted are not adapted either
to the duration or the depth of flooding; (4) damage or destruction of seeds or
seedlings by rodents, rabbits, or deer; and (5) poor seed viability or poor
quality of nursery stock. The small data set evaluated indicated that with
attentive management and control of limiting factors, reestablishment of a
planned bottomland forest with desired tree species and high value for many
species of wildlife should be possible within 40 to 60 years. Additional
analysis of other demonstration sites and long-term data sets are needed.
Hosner, J.F. 1957. Effects of water upon the seed germination of bottomland
trees. Forest Science 3(1):67-70.
This study was set up to determine the effects of water upon the seed germina-tion
of red maple, silver maple, American elm, sycamore, and cottonwood. Samples
of 100 apparently sound seeds of each species were randomly selected and split
into two lots of 50 seeds each. Half the lots were subjected to soaking in
tapwater in a darkened root cellar at approximately 60 OF, for periods varying
from 4 to 32 days. The other half were kept dry, but were otherwise subjected
to the same treatments. Except for 16 red maple and 2 silver maple seeds, the
seeds of elm, sycamore, red, and silver maple did not germinate while soaking
in water, but germinated rapidly immediately after removal from water.
Germination was consistently high for all periods of soaking. Cottonwood and
willow seeds completed their germination in the water after 4 days of soaking
and many seedlings were healthy after 32 days of soaking. It was concluded that
flooding of bottomland hardwoods for up to 32 days does not seem to have an
appreciable effect upon the germination of the six species tested (except
possibly through indirect effects of siltation).
Hosner, J.F. 1958. The effects of complete inundation upon seedlings of six
bottomland tree species. Ecology 39(2):371-373.
23
This article discusses the effects of complete inundation of seedlings of six
bottomland hardwood tree species--cottonwood, willow, sweetgum, green ash,
boxelder, and silver maple--for periods of 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 days. Except
for silver maple, which was grown from seed in a greenhouse, current-year
seedlings were collected in the field, transplanted into two-and-a-half inch
pots, and allowed to grow for 3 weeks before inundation. The seedlings were
about 3 inches high when the test began, and all species except silver maple
appeared healthy at the start. Inundation was in tanks placed outdoors in an
area exposed to sunlight until 2:00 p.m.; water temperatures during the day
ranged from 88-93 OF. The seedlings were kept covered with about a foot of pond
water. All species, except silver maple, survived 8 days of complete inundation.
After 16 days all replications of willow and green ash survived; two of three
replications of sweetgum survived; one of three boxelder survived; no cottonwood
survived. After 32 days, only willow survived. Recovery after inundation also
varied. Willow and green ash recovered fastest, followed by cottonwood,
sweetgum, and boxelder. The species, ranked according to their relative
tolerances to complete inundation, were willow, green ash, sweetgum, boxelder,
cottonwood, and silver maple.
Hosner, J.F. 1959. Survival, root, and shoot growth of six bottomland tree
species following flooding. Journal of Forestry 59:927-928.
The article covers experiments in which green ash, cottonwood, hackberry,
sycamore, cherrybark oak, and pin oak seedlings were tested for survival, and
root and shoot growth following flooding. Seedlings were immersed for 38 days
in enough tapwater to cover the surface of the soil to a depth of about one
quarter of an inch, after which they were removed and measured. The four most
vigorous appearing seedlings of each species were then kept for another 60 days
in moist but well-drained soil, and remeasured. The results showed pronounced
differences among the six species in their ability to adjust to changing soil
moisture conditions. Cottonwood, sycamore, and ash seedlings rapidly developed
adventitious root systems after flooding, but the oaks and hackberry did not.
The hackberry seedlings all appeared dead within 3 weeks. The oaks survived,
but their roots only weakly recovered after flooding, and no new leaf or shoot
growth occurred in the 60-day post-flooding period. Shoot growth recovery was
rapid for cottonwood and green ash, but much delayed for sycamore.
Hosner, J.F., and S.G. Boyce. 1962. Tolerance to water saturated soil of
various bottomland hardwoods. Forest Science 8(2):180-186.
This study reports on current-year seedlings of 17 bottomland hardwood species
native to southern Illinois which were tested for tolerance to water saturated
soil. Potted seedlings were subjected to completely saturated soils for 15-,
30-, and 60-day periods by placing pots into tanks filled with tap water to a
level of about 1 inch above the soil line. Observations were made on mortality,
height growth, development of the established root system, and the formation of
adventitious roots. Mortality occurred among seedlings of five species--
cherrybark oak, Shumard oak, sugarberry, cottonwood, and American elm.
Cherrybark oak was the only species to experience mortality after 15 days, and
24
had the highest mortality after 60 days (86.7%). The tops of all seedlings of
the other 12 species were alive after 60 days of complete soil saturation. Nine
species actually had faster height growth in soil saturated for 60 days than in
unsaturated controls; in order of greatest to least difference, these species
were green ash, water tupelo, pumpkin ash, pin oak, willow, sugarberry,
cottonwood, silver maple, and boxelder. Species whose height growth was
adversely affected were Shumard oak, cherrybark oak, red maple, sycamore,
hackberry, sweetgum, willow oak, and elm. The roots of water tupelo, willow,
pumpkin ash, and green ash continued to grow under completely saturated soil
conditions; the remaining species did not have any actively growing root tips
after 30 days, but some (American elm, cottonwood, sycamore, silver maple, and
red maple) had many adventitious roots.
Howells, R.G. 1986. Guide to techniques for establishing woody and herbaceous
vegetation in the fluctuation zones of Texas reservoirs. Texas Parks and
Wildlife Department, Austin, TX.
This publication provides guidance on several aspects of woody and herbaceous
plant establishment, including propagule types, collection and storage of
propagules, site selection and preparation, planting techniques, protection of
plantings, post-planting maintenance, and monitoring. Emphasis is placed on the
establishment of selected species which were indentified as suitable for
establishment in the fluctuating zones. The woody species selected are willow,
cottonwood, buttonbush, swamp privet, sugarberry, baldcypress, and water tupelo.
Relevant characteristics of each of these species are described; species are
also frequently referred to throughout the chapters on the aspects of
establishment.
Hunt, R., J.L. Byford, and J.L. Buckner. 1976. Hardwood regeneration and white-tailed
deer compatibility on a large clearcut in an Alabama flood plain.
Southlands Experiment Forest Technical Note No. 37. Woodlands Department,
Southern Kraft Division, International Paper Company, Bainbridge, GA.
The primary objectives of this study were to determine if large clearcuts in
bottomland hardwoods would naturally regenerate with desirable species and if
detrimental deer browsing would occur. Two large clearcuts (435 and 490 acres),
in an area about 35 mi north of Mobile, AL, were chosen for study. Both
clearcuts are subject to annual inundation from overflow of the Mobile River for
a 2- to 5-month period during winter and spring. After five growing seasons,
both clearcut areas had adequate natural regeneration (1,769 and 1,822
stems/acre). Initial large numbers of deer (about l/20 acres) did not harm the
natural hardwood regeneration. At age 5, cottonwood, sycamore, and green ash
dominated the first area; although they composed only 13% of the total number
of trees, they ranged from 16-20 ft in average height. Red oaks and sugarberry
made up 76% of the trees in the second compartment, and averaged 2-5 ft in
height. The differences in regeneration of the two clearcuts were probably the
result of different stand histories: the second compartment had been high-graded
several years before installation of the study; the first compartment was
clearcut in 1968 and the second in 1969; and different amounts of seed were
transported to the sites by floodwaters.
25
Johnson, R.L. 1979. Adequate oak regeneration--a problem without a solution?
Pages 59-65 in Management and utilization of oak. Proceedings of the seventh
annual hardwood symposium of the Hardwood Research Council; Cashiers, NC.
Two possible solutions to the problem of inadequate oak regeneration in existing
southern hardwood stands are discussed: natural and artificial regeneration.
The best opportunity for increasing the natural oak component of existing stands
is through proper handling of natural oak reproduction. This may involve light
thinning or shelterwood cuts and/or removal of competing shade-tolerant mid-story
trees. In the section on artificial regeneration, both direct seeding and
planting seedlings are discussed. Direct seeding has often been unsuccessful
in the past, primarily due to rodent damage. Placing acorns in protective
hardware-cloth cylinders has proved to be somewhat effective, but is too
expensive to be used much in practice. Studies at Stoneville, MS, show that
direct sowing in cleared areas 3 acres or larger results in much less rodent
damage than smaller openings or underplanting acorns in forests. Planted
seedlings, with weed control by straddle-cultivation and disking, resulted in
several successful oak plots ranging from 20 to 200 acres. Best results were
obtained with seedlings greater than 24 inches tall and at least 0.3 inches at
the root collar. Planted oaks generally averaged a foot or two in annual height
growth for the first I or 2 years in the field, and increased to 3 or 4 ft/year
in the third and fourth years of growth. Care must be taken when planting old
fields or cleared sites where desired oak species are absent. Also, in some
cases soil pH can be a critical consideration. For example, an experimental
planting of Nuttall, cherrybark, and water oaks failed on a moist, fertile
bottomland soil with a relatively high pH (7.5), presumably because the seedlings
were unable to extract iron from the soil. Experience indicates that oaks
normally found in areas inundated for extended periods can be successfully
planted on higher, better-drained sites, but the opposite is not true.
Johnson, R.L. 1981a. Oak seeding - it can work. Southern Journal of Applied
Forestry 5(1):28-33.
The article describes a direct-seeding trial in which nearly 20,000 acorns of
Nuttall oak were sown in Sharkey clay soil in the Delta Experimental Forest near
Stoneville, MS, to compare field germinatisn of acorns at different presowing
treatments, different sowing times, and different sowing depths. Acorns were
collected in November 1968 from 14 parent trees and were placed in dry storage
at 35-40 OF. Float tests were used to eliminate unsound acorns, and sound acorns
were randomly assigned one of three stratification treatments: January sowing
in the field; 3 months additional storage at 35-40 OF in moist sand covered with
burlap; or 3 months additional storage at 35-40 OF in sealed polyethylene bags,
4-mils thick. Acorns stratified in these three treatments were then planted at
l-, 2-, and 4-inch sowing depths. Acorns in the second two stratification
methods were sown during the first 2 weeks of May 1969 at a spacing of 5 by 10
ft with 4 acorns planted in each spot. Rodents destroyed all acorns planted in
undisturbed forest sites within a week, and damaged nearly three-fourths of the
acorns sown in 40 by 90 ft cleared strips. Sowing in these two areas was
considered a failure and not monitored further. Less than 5% of the acorns sown
in 350 by 350 ft cleared plots were disturbed by rodents. Acorns sown 1 inch
26
deep in January germinated significantly better (55% of total sown) than any of
the other eight combinations of stratification treatments and sowing depths.
Johnson, R.L. 1981b. Wetland silvicultural systems. Pages 63-79 in Proceedings
of the thirtieth annual forestry symposium, Louisiana State University, Baton
Rouge.
Silvicultural systems are discussed that are applicable to one or more species
groups occurring on lowland sites in the Midsouth. The species groups are
cottonwood, elm, sycamore, pecan, sugarberry, sweetgum, water oaks, red oaks,
white oaks, mixed species; black willow; overcup oak, water hickory; elm-ash-sugarberry;
and cypress-water tupelo. Each of these species groups is related
to the type of physiographic site on which it is generally found. Cottonwood,
black willow, overcup oak-water hickory, and cypress-water tupelo are best
managed as even-aged species groups, while the other groups can be managed as
even-aged or uneven-aged stands. Five regeneration systems are recognized for
lowland hardwood forests and are briefly discussed, including single tree
selection, group selection, seed tree, shelterwood, and clearcuts. A table
summarizes the expected results of applying some of these generation systems to
the species groups.
Johnson, R.L. 1983. Nuttall oak direct seedings still successful after 11
years. U.S. Forest Service Research Note SO-301, New Orleans, LA. 3 pp.
This technical note reports on a successful Nuttall oak direct-seeding experiment
on a Sharkey clay site in the Delta Experimental Forest, near Stoneville, MS.
Forty-five hundred acorns were sown on an intensively-prepared site in April,
1971. Sowing treatments included hand-planting and machine planting at depths
of 2, 4, and 6 inches. The first seedlings appeared in early May from acorns
sown 2-inches deep; seedlings from 6-inch-deep acorns appeared about 2 weeks
later. Some earlier direct-seeding trials had failed due to rodent depredation
of acorns, but in this case, less than 10% of the acorns were believed to have
been destoyed by rodents. Field germination ranged from 27% to 41%; better
germination was obtained with hand sowing (versus machine) and 2-inch (versus
deeper) sowing depths. Overall, 96% of the seedlings alive after one growing
season were still alive after 11 years, and no significant difference in survival
existed among treatments. The largest Nuttall oaks were 3-4 inches dbh and 20-
25 ft tall. About one-third of the 11-year-old trees were overtopped partially
or completely. Naturally invading tree species were green ash, cottonwood,
sugarberry, sweetgum, American elm, persimmon, and water hickory. Except for
two 6-inch-dbh, 35-foot-tall cottonwoods, however, the largest non-oaks were
about the same.size as the largest Nuttalis.
Johnson, R.L., and R.C. Biesterfeldt. 1970. Forestation of hardwoods. Forest
Farmer November: 15, 36-38.
Forestation of hardwoods by both natural regeneration and planting is discussed.
In general, successful plantations of hardwoods depend on the forester's ability
to choose the proper sites, species, and tree spacings. Sites usually cannot
27
be easily modified to suit a particular species. Green ash, sweetgum, Nuttall
and willow oak, sycamore, and cottonwood are generally suitable for slackwater
sites. In areas where water stands for much of the growing season, green ash
or Nuttall oak should be planted; in slightly drier areas, cottonwood and
sycamore are recommended because of their rapid growth. Spacing is the least
important of the three initial choices, but becomes more important as the stand
develops. A key consideration when deciding on spacing is the amount of weed
control planned. If little or no weed control is planned, spacing should be as
close as practical (no more than 6 by 6 ft); spacing should be 12 by 12 ft or
wider if complete weed control is exercised. Weed control is especially critical
in cottonwood plantations, but produces better results in all species. Weed
control ideally should be carried out until the tree crowns close and shade-out
competition. Based on the limited data available, projections of tree size at
age 10 for suitable sites are cottonwood, 60-80 ft in height and 6-8 inches dbh;
sweetgum, 20-30 ft in height and 2-3 inches dbh; and yellow-poplar and sycamore,
50-60 ft tall and 5-6 inches dbh.
Johnson, R.L., and R.M. Krinard. 1985a. Oak seeding on an adverse site. U.S.
Forest Service Research Note SO-319, 4 pp.
The study reports on Nuttall and water oak acorns sown on an old-field site of
Sharkey clay soil near Greenville, MS. The field had been farmed for 15-20
years, and was typical of many marginal crop production sites in the region.
Acorns were collected from three Nuttall and three water oaks; the parent trees
were selected because they produced different-sized acorns. Acorns were float-tested,
and non-floaters were stored at 35 to 40 OF for about 3 months in
polyethylene bags. Treatments were combinations of parent trees (i.e. different
acorn sizes) and sowing depths (2, 4, and 6 inches). Acorns were hand-sown on
a 4 by 10 ft spacing, with three acorns planted per hole. Twice during the first
year, the strips between each row were mowed. Seedling survival after one
growing season was 55% for Nuttall oak and 35% for water oak. Large water oak
acorns did very poorly; if they are excluded, average seedling survival was 49%.
Over 90% of Nuttall oak acorns germinated by late July; most water oak acorns
germinated in August and September. Sowing depth of both species affected
germination, which declined with depth; the best germination depth was 2 inches.
By the end of the first growing season, the tallest seedling per spot averaged
0.56 ft for Nuttall oak and 0.26 ft for water oak.
Johnson, R.L., and R.M. Krinard. 1985b. Regeneration of oaks by direct
seeding. Pages 56-65 in Proceedings of the third symposium of southeastern
hardwoods, Dothan, AL. U.S. Forest Service Southern Forest Experiment Station,
New Orleans, LA.
Results of oak seeding research at Stoneville, MS, and a number of commercial
seedings are given. Research sites included eight in the Mississippi Delta, two
in minor stream bottoms, and'five in silty uplands. Commercial sites were in
the Mississippi Delta and silty uplands. Topics covered included animal damage,
species, site selection, seed collection and storage, time of seeding, depth of
seeding, method of sowing, spacing, weed control, survival and growth, and the
future of oak seeding. It was found that site-prepared clearings of two acres
28
or more and old agricultural fields have less rodent damage than smaller
clearings or plantings under a full forest canopy. Nuttall oak has consistently
yielded the best results of the species tried to date, and, in general, red oaks
germinated better in the field than white oaks. Timing and duration of flooding
and soil type are key considerations in site selection. Seed should be collected
soon after falling and placed in cold storage immediately. Acorns can be sown
at any time of year, but June or July is best in flood-prone areas after the
water has receded. Trials have been conducted with three planting depths: 2,
4, and 6 inches; all can be successful, but a P-inch depth generally yields the
best results. Spacing can vary, but should leave about 30 ft2/acorn. Intensive
weed control by disking has been shown to improve early height and diameter
growth.
Johnson, R.L., and R.M Krinard. 1987. Direct seeding of southern oaks--a
progress report. Pages lo-16 in Proceedings of the fifteenth annual hardwood
symposium. Hardwood Research Council, Memphis, TN.
This paper summarizes some of the experience gained since 1981 in the direct
seeding of over 4,000 acres of land in the South. Most of these plantings have
been on abandoned farm lands in floodplains. The report includes information
on associated costs, seed handling, planting methods, survival, growth, and
competition. Sowing in the winter generally produces the best results, although
satisfactory results have also been obtained from summer plantings, and, in the
case of Nuttall oak, from plantings done every month of the year. One possible
advantage of sowing in winter is that acorns sown soon after collection (which
is done in fall) seem to be damaged less by rodents. Although it is best to
plant acorns as soon after collection as possible, the irregular occurrence of
good seed crops may necessitate storing extra acorns in good years to offset
future bad years. The cost of collecting acorns was estimated at $20.00/acre,
and of storage, $0.50-$2.00/acre. Planting in large open fields has generally
been done using modified soybean planters. Planting is easier and produces
better results when the site has been well prepared. Burning, disking or cross-disking,
and soil pulverizing may be necessary, depending on the condition of
the field. Smaller fields or openings in forests have been successfully planted
by hand. Most land managers do not attempt to control weeds in old field
plantings, but in a few research trials, bushhogging between rows appears to have
improved seedling survival and growth. Total costs of establishment by direct
seeding, including acorns, labor, and site preparation, may range from $12.00-
50.00/acre. The paper concludes with a section on direct-seeding failure, which
has been attributed to flooding, droughts, residual herbicides, poor quality
acorns, and animal damage.
Johnson, R.L., and T.L. Price. 1959. Resume of 20 years of hardwood management
on the Delta Purchase Unit. Final Report. U.S. Forest Service Southern Forest
Experiment Station, New Orleans, LA.
Hardwood research on the Delta Purchase Unit, located near Rolling Fork, MS, is
summarized. The report begins with a detailed description of the Unit, including
physiographic features, occurrence of wildfires and floods, climatic conditions,
29
vegetative features, and natural areas. Discussion of the forest management
and research program is divided into four sections: (1) fire, (2) cutting
program, (3) cull-and-weed tree deadening, and (4) planting. In 1945-58, there
were 35 different attempts at planting, totaling approximately 700,000 trees.
Green ash, sweetgum, cottonwood, baldcypress, Nuttall oak, and sycamore were
planted. Most of the planting stock was 1-O seedlings grown from locally
collected seed, but cottonwood was the major exception; cuttings were used for
this species. In a few cases, transplanted wild seedlings (wildlings) were used.
Most planting was done during February and March, and planting was done by hand
under three conditions: (1) areas infested with heavy buckvine; (2) stand
openings created by logging; and (3) stand conversion areas. Overall, 80% of
the green ash, 73% of the baldcypress, 41% of the cottonwood, and 10% of the
sweetgum plantings were judged successful. All sycamore, Nuttall oak seedlings
and wildlings, and green ash plantings were failures. Based on average growth
of all plantations, cottonwood grew 3.0 ft/year, green ash 1.5 ft, and
baldcypress and sweetgum, 1.2 ft. The paper discusses in detail species results
by physiographic site and the three planting site conditions mentioned above.
Jones, L. 1962. Recommendations for successful storage of tree seed. U.S.
Forest Service Tree Planters' Notes 55:9-20.
This article provides recommendations on moisture content, temperature and other
seed storage considerations for a large number of species and species groups,
including most bottomland hardwoods. In storing tree seed the following must
be considered: type of container, seed moisture content, storage temperature
and facilities, and seed condition. Several studies have shown that seed
moisture content rises during closed storage, and it is suggested that seed
should be dried down to the lowest recommended level and moisture content checked
periodically, especially if the seed is to be stored longer than 1 year. Storage
temperature should be held constant. Some species, such as oaks, will benefit
from treatment for insects prior to storage, otherwise insects may become active
again immediately upon removal of the seeds from storage.
Kaszkurewicz, A., and P.Y. Burns. 1960. Growth of planted hardwoods on a
bottomland terrace site in south Louisiana. Louisiana State University Forestry
Note No. 37. Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. 2 pp.
Growth of a 30-year-old plantation of Nuttall oak, water oak, live oak, swamp
chestnut oak, and yellow-poplar is described. The plantation is located on the
Louisiana State University campus in Baton Rouge, and is described as follows:
a Mississippi River terrace (not subject to flooding); mean annual temperature,
68 OF; average annual rainfall, 59 inches; soil, Lintonia silt loam (well-drained,
l%-2% slope, pH 5.8). The site was a former agricultural field that
was covered with weeds and brush when the trees were planted. Planting was done
by hand with 1-O stock at about 10 by 10 ft spacing. About 5 years after
planting, the trees were released from weed and brush competition. After 30
years, except for Nuttall oak, the trees were generally healthy. Nuttall oak
is not native to the site, which may be too dry; most of the Nuttall oaks had
dying branches and tops, rough bark with insect holes, and a marked decrease in
diameter growth during the last 5 years. Ye1 low-poplar had the greatest average
diameter growth (14.7 inches) and height growth (82 ft). Nuttall oak dbh and
. . 30
height averaged 11.9 inches and 72 ft. Corresponding figures for the other
species were water oak, 11.7 inches and 75 ft; live oak, 10.2 inches and 66 ft;
and swamp chestnut oak, 8.5 inches and 72 ft. Sweetgum was a significant invader
species, averaging 9.6 inches in dbh and 75 ft in height.
Kellison, R.C., D.J. Frederick, and W.E. Gardner. 1981. A guide for regen-erating
and managing natural stands of southern hardwoods. North Carolina
Agricultural Research Service Bulletin 463. 23 pp.
This bulletin is primarily a guide for obtaining good natural regeneration from
existing stands of southern hardwoods, but it contains some information that may
aid in species selection for unforested sites and management of young stands.
The guide has four major sections: (1) planning for regeneration; (2)
regeneration systems; (3) species succession and stand development; and (4)
species composition and stocking control. Natural regeneration topics briefly
discussed are stand conditions, site types, when to regenerate, response of
species to release, and growth habits of seedling and coppice regeneration.
Regeneration systems covered are single-tree selection, group selection, shelter-wood,
tree, and clearcut. A description of naturally-occurring succession on
various site types and shade-tolerant undesired species is given. The last
section discusses management of l- to 25-year-old stands from an economically
oriented timber production perspective.
Kennedy, H.E., Jr. 1984. Hardwood growth and foliar nutrient concentrations
best in clean cultivation treatments. Forest Ecology and Management 8:117-
126.
This article presents data on nine hardwood species planted on a 4-ha commerce
silt loam site at Huntington Point, about 24 km north of Greenville, MS. The
site had been recently cleared of a natural mixed hardwood stand and prepared
for planting by shearing, root raking, and disking. Twenty-four l-year-old
seedlings or cottonwood cuttings were planted in February at 3 by 3 m spacing
in each plot. The species planted were cottonwood, sycamore, Nuttall oak,
cherrybark oak, water oak, pecan, green ash, sweetgum, and yellow-poplar. One
of three cultural treatments--no cultivation, mowing, or clean cultivation
(cross-disking plus hoeing)--was randomly assigned to a plot. Growth and
survival of yellow-poplar was excellent during the first growing season, but
all the seedlings were killed during the second season when the site was flooded
to a depth of 1.8 m from late March to late May. None of the other species was
harmed by the flood. Nuttall, cherrybark, and water oak had poor survival and
growth, which was probably due to the high soil pH (8.0). Survival and height
and diameter growth were significantly higher in the clean cultivated plots.
After 4 years, height and diameter growth were highest for cottonwood, followed
by sycamore, green ash, sweetgum, and pecan. Average survival was 8% (excluding
the oaks and yellow-poplar) for the clean cultivated plots, 65% for mowed plots,
and 61% for uncultivated plots.
Kennedy, H.E., Jr., and R.M. Krinard. 1974. 1973 Mississippi River flood's
impact on natural hardwood forests and plantations. U.S. Forest Service
Research Note SO-177. 6 pp.
31
The impacts of the 1973 Mississippi River spring flood (6-11 ft maximum depth)
on bottomland hardwood species are described. Most of the damage was to planted
and natural bottomland hardwood stands less than 1 year old. Species suffering
heavy mortality included cottonwood, sweetgum, yellow-poplar, and Shumard oak;
sycamore and green ash plantings showed good survival. All yellow-poplar of all
ages were killed. Trees of other species that were older than 1 year suffered
some damage but were generally able to survive the flood. There were some
indications that seedlings survived better than planted cuttings. The length
of time of inundation seemed to be a factor in overall tree survival. Nuttall
oak acorns that were direct-seeded the year before survived the flood. Siltation
of up to 5 ft occurred, but did not adversely affect well established trees.
Oxygen levels in the flood waters were generally adequate and did not appear to
be a prime cause of mortality.
Kennedy, H.E., Jr., and R.M. Krinard. 1985. Shumard oaks successfully planted
on high pH soils. U.S. Forest Service Research Note SO-321, New Orleans, LA.
3 PP.
This paper reveals that many Mississippi riverfront soils are devoid of oak
forests, and planting trials with Nuttall, cherrybark, and water oaks have not
been successful on such soils. One reason may be the high pH of many riverfront
sites, which may range from 7.5 to 8.0. Three trials with Shumard oak, however,
have proved successful. Shumard oak was planted in 1959 at Archer Island in
Washington County, MS, on Robinsonville sandy loam, and at Huntington Point in
Bolivar County, MS, in 1974 and 1975 on Commerce silt loams. Nursery-grown,
1-O bareroot seedlings were planted at 10 by 10 ft spacings on sites that were
cleared of a natural stand of mixed hardwoods and prepared by shearing, root
raking, and disking. Plantings were clean cultivated during the first growing
season, but no intensive weed control was applied afterwards. After both 12 and
25 growing seasons, survival averaged 86% at Archer Island. Survival at
Huntington Point was 73% after 10 growing seasons at one site and 80% after 11
growing seasons at the other site. Diameter growth averaged 0.5 inch/year for
all three plantings, while height growth averaged 3.0 to 4.0 ft/year. In another
study, Nuttall, water, and cherrybark oaks were planted within 200 ft of one of
the Shumard oak plantings at Huntington Point. The leaves of the former three
species turned vellow earl-v in each qrowing season, and the trees grew very
little. After four growing seasons, surviva-l was only lO%-40%. - -
Kennedy, H.E., Jr., B.E. Schlaegel, and R.M. Krinard. 1986. Nutrient distri-bution
and tree development through age 8 of four oa.ks planted at five spacings
in a minor stream bottom. Pages 65-70 jr~ Proceedings of the 1986 southern
forest biomass workshop, Knoxville, TN.
This paper reports on the results of experiments with eight hardwood species
planted at five spacings in a minor stream bottom in southeastern Arkansas, about
10 mi south of Monticello. The species planted were water, Nuttall, cherrybark,
and swamp chestnut oaks, sycamore, sweetgum, cottonwood, and green ash; however,
only data from the oaks were presented in the paper. The soil series was
Arkabutla, a somewhat poorly drained silty alluvium. Spacings used were 2 by
32
8, 3 by 8, 4 by 8, and 12 by 12 ft; the minimum of 8 ft between rows was chosen
to allow cultivation during the first growing season. Data are presented on
total dry weight of trees (without leaves) per acre, cubic feet of wood per acre,
leaf weights per acre, survival, dbh, and height after eight growing seasons.
Spacing significantly affected all variables, except survival and height, and
all variables except survival were different for the various species. Survival
for all oak species ranged from 75% for 8 by 8 ft spacing, to 83% for 4 by 8 and
12 by 12 ft spacing. Water oak had the largest average dbh (2.2 inches) and the
largest average height (20.1 ft), followed by Nuttall oak (2.1 inches and 16.7
ft), cherrybark oak (1.8 inches and 15.8 ft), and swamp chestnut oak (1.3 inches
and 11.0 ft). Yields (by weight and volume) were larger with small spacings,
though yields per tree were lower.
Klawitter, R.A. 1963. Sweetgum, swamp tupelo, and water tupelo sites in a South
Carolina bottomland forest. Ph.D. Dissertation. Duke University, Durham, NC.
Sweetgum, swamp tupelo, and water tupelo habitats were studied in a coastal plain
bottomland forest adjacent to the Santee River in South Carolina. Site variables
evaluated included elevation, hydrology, woody understory vegetation, and soil
characteristics. Results showed that sweetgum sites were better drained, with
a higher pH, than tupelo sites. Water tupelo soils exhibited greater clay
content and depth of flooding; swamp tupelo soils showed lowest pH. Abundant
soil moisture and long hydroperiods were positively related to growth of water
tupelo. Laurel oak in the understory was associated with well-drained sites at
the lower margins of first bottoms. Green ash preferred swampy sites that
remained wet for long periods without deep flooding. American elm occurred
mostly along the upper slopes of the swamp and lower edges of the first bottom.
Carolina ash, red maple, and green ash decreased in abundance with the increased
height of water tupelo.
Krinard, R.M., and R.L. Johnson. 1976. El-year growth and development of bald
cypress planted on a flood-prone site. U.S. Forest Service Research Note SO-
217, New Orleans, LA. 4 pp.
Results are given of a study in which a total of 896 one-year-old cypress
seedlings were planted on a Sharkey clay site in the Delta Experimental Forest
in Washington County, MS, in February 1955. The site was about 20% ridge, 20%
slough, and 60% flat-slough, with a 3-ft difference in elevation between the flat
and the slough. About l-2 ft of water covered the slough in winter. The site
flooded frequently, and three earlier attempts to plant cottonwoods in the area
failed due to excessive flooding and heavy competition from vines. Survival
after 21 years was 41%, but some of the cypress were suppressed and were not
expected to survive much longer. Invading species noted were green ash,
boxelder, sugarberry, persimmon, blackwillow, and cottonwood, which collectively
accounted for about 26% of the total density. Density of cypress was about 74%.
Krinard, R.M., and R.L. Johnson. 1981. Flooding, beavers and hardwood seedling
survival. U.S. Forest Service Research Note SO-270, New Orleans, LA. 6 pp.
33
Trial plantings made for three successive years on cleared, clay-capped batture
land at Ajax Bar in Issaquena County, MS, are discussed. Seven species were
planted, including cottonwood, sycamore, green ash, sugarberry, swamp chestnut
oak, Shumard oak, and pecan. In the first year there was no flooding, but during
the second year flooding occurred for varying periods from late winter through
early summer. No beaver damage was noted when there was no flooding, but during
the flooded periods, significant damage to all species (with the possible
exception of sycamore) was observed. The beavers apparently damaged the
seedlings while they were in shallow water, pulling the seedlings out of the
ground and eating the root system up to about the root collar. Consecutive long
rows of damaged trees were observed. Up to 43% of the seedlings of some species
were destroyed. Shumard oak was hurt most by the floods, and green ash and
sycamore fared best. Green ash and sycamore are recommended for planting if
substantial first-year flooding is likely.
Krinard, R.M., and H.E. Kennedy, Jr. 1981. Growth and yields of 5-year-old
planted hardwoods on Sharkey clay soil. U.S. Forest Service Research Note
SO-271, New Orleans, LA. 3 pp.
Cottonwood, sycamore, green ash, sweetgum, and Nuttall oak seedlings were planted
on a Sharkey clay site. The seedlings were planted on a 10 by 10 ft spacing,
and the plots were cross-disked or mowed three to five times a year for six
growing seasons. Before the sixth season, height and diameter of all trees were
measured, and a total of 12 trees of each species were felled and weighed. Mowed
plots of sweetgum and Nuttall oak were not considered because survival was less
than or equal to 50%. Survival on the other plots ranged from 81% for mowed
cottonwood to 99% for disked sycamore. Whether mowed or disked, sycamore and
green ash had 95% or better survival. Mean dbh and height ranged from 4.0 inches
and 25.8 ft for disked cottonwood to 1.0 inch and 8.6 ft for disked Nuttall oak.
Disked plots consistently had higher survival and better diameter and height
growth than mowed plots.
Krinard, R.M., and H.E. Kennedy, Jr. 1983. Ten-year growth of five planted
hardwood species with mechanical weed control on Sharkey clay soil. U.S.
Forest Service Research Note SO-303, New Orleans, LA. 4 pp.
Studies on mechanical weed control are reported for five species of southern
hardwoods (cottonwood, sycamore, green ash, sweetgum, and Nuttall oak) that were
planted on a Sharkey clay site on the Delta Experimental Forest, near Stoneville,
MS. Plots, consisting of 24 trees of one species planted on a 10 by 10 ft
spacing, were mowed or disked from three to five times annually for the first
5 years. After the fifth year, plots with 80% or more survival for trees more
than 4.5 ft tall were thinned to six trees each, or an equivalent of 20 by 20
ft spacing. Mowing or disking treatments, one to three times annually, for years
6-10 were randomly assigned. Some plots were mowed or disked each year for 10
years; some plots were mowed the first 5 years and disked years 6-10, and some
were disked the first 5 years and mowed years 6-10. Disking resulted in better
growth of all species over the first 5 years, but for years 6-10, there was only
a slight difference in height, dbh, or volume between treatments. Overall height
growth through 10 years was from 1.7 to 4.9 ft/year, depending on species-treatment
combination. Cottonwood was the tallest species overall after 10
34
years, followed by sycamore, green ash, sweetgum, and Nuttall oak. Soil moisture
was not significantly different between treatments, and after 10 years there was
no significant difference in soil properties (pH, organic matter, N, P, K, Ca,
and Mg) between treatments.
Krinard, R.M., and H.E. Kennedy, Jr. 1987. Fifteen-year growth of six planted
hardwood species on Sharkey clay soil. U.S. Forest Service Research Note SO-
336, New Orleans, LA. 4 pp.
This article discusses further results (see Krinard and Kennedy 1983) of mowing
and disking experiments on six hardwood species (cottonwood, sycamore, green ash,
sweetgum, Nuttall oak, and pecan) which were planted on a Sharkey clay site on
the Delta Experimental Forest, near Stoneville, MS. Mowing or disking treatments
for years 6 through 10 were found to have little effect on growth; therefore,
results are discussed relative to the first 5 years of weed control treatments.
At age 15, trees on plots disked the first 5 years were significantly taller and
larger in dbh than trees on mowed plots, but overall the differences were only
1.3 ft in height and 0.6 inches in dbh. The relatively small differences after
age 15 imply different growth patterns for trees in disked versus mowed plots.
One possible explanation is that mowing, which results in higher competition
initially, may cause tree roots to grow deeper where extra nutrients and water
may speed growth in later years. Average dbh and height after 15 years on the
disked plots were: cottonwood, 11.0 inches and 60.4 ft; sycamore, 6.5 inches
and 37.7 ft; green ash, 6.5 inches and 36.3 ft; sweetgum, 5.9 inches and 30.6
ft; Nuttall oak, 5.8 inches and 20.2 ft; and pecan, 3.4 inches and 21.7 ft.
Larsen, H.S. 1963. Effects of soaking in water on acorn germination of four
southern oaks. Forest Science 9(2):236-241.
Southern red oak, willow oak, laurel oak, and overcup oak were tested to
determine whether flooding is instrumental in controlling the distribution of
some southern oaks by differential effects on acorn germination. Two soaking
variables were tested: length of soaking and water temperature. Soaking periods
were 1, 2, 4, and 8 weeks. Two temperature levels were imposed--the first a
controlled range of 44.0-46.6 OF, and the second an unregulated diurnally
fluctuating range of 55-64 OF. Lots of 50 acorns each were subjected to each
time/temperature treatment, with unsoaked lots of each species serving as
controls. After soaking, all seed lots were sown simultaneously in moist sand
at a depth of l/2 to 3/4 inches, and kept at a soil temperature of 73-81 OF.
The results did not support the hypothesis that injury to acorns by flooding is
a primary reason for exclusion of dry-site species from bottomland sites.
Average germination for all soaking treatments for southern red oak (the driest-site
species tested) was 87%, compared to 92% for unsoaked acorns. The minimum
germination observed was 66% for laurel oak soaked for 2 weeks, compared to 77%
for the control. Overcup oak had the lowest overall germination (82%), but
showed improvement in a second test when the acorn shells were opened prior to
soaking.
35
Leitman, H.M., J.E. Sohm, and M.A. Franklin. 1983. Wetland hydrology and tree
distribution of the Apalachicola River flood plain, Florida. U.S. Geological
Survey Water Supply Paper 2196, Alexandria, VA. 52 pp.
This assessment focuses on hydrology and productivity of the floodplain forest
associated with the Apalachicola River in northwest Florida. Forest types were
found to be highly correlated with depth of water, duration of inundation and
saturation, and water-level fluctuation, but not water velocity. Most types
dominated by tupelo and baldcypress grew on permanently saturated soils inundated
50%-90% of the time (an average of 75-225 consecutive days during the growing
seasons from 1958-80). Most forest types dominated by other species grew in
areas saturated or flooded 5%-25% of the time (an average of 5-40 consecutive
days during the growing seasons from 1958-80). Average basal area and density
for all forest areas sampled were 46.2 m2/ha and 1,540 trees/ha, respectively.
The relative tolerance of bottomland tree species to inundation is discussed.
Limstrom, G.A. 1960. Forestation of strip-mined land in the central states.
U.S. Forest Service Central States Forest Experiment Station Agricultural
Handbook No. 166, Washington, DC. 74 pp.
The publication is an excellent technical guidebook based on research studies
beginning in 1937. The author notes that commonly accepted reforestation
practices are not always successful because strip-mine spoil banks are so
different from most natural planting sites physically, chemically, and
biologically. Emphasis is placed on the where, when, and how of tree planting
on mined lands as related to existing mining and reclamation methods. The report
includes recommendations and discussions of the effects of various site condi-tions
and planting methods. Several typical bottomland forest species are
included in the data and discussion, including green ash, eastern cottonwood,
silver maple, and sycamore. Also discussed are the detrimental effects of
grading on soil moisture and aeration, and the ecology of natural forestation.
Limstrom, G.A. 1963. Forest planting practice in the central States. U.S.
Forest Service Central States Forest Experiment Station Agricultural Handbook
247, Washington, DC. 69 pp.
This handbook provides useful guidance on a number of topics including species
selection for various sites, site preparation, where to obtain trees, quality
and care of planting stock, planting methods and patterns, care and management
of plantations, forest pests and diseases, how to make planting plans, and
treatment of seeds. The States included are Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky,
Missouri, and Ohio.
Lotti, T. 1959. Selecting sound acorns for planting bottomland hardwood sites.
Journal of Forestry 57:923.
The article discusses methods of determining the viablity of acorns to be used
for planting hardwoods. Nut or acorn weevils seriously limit the viability of
acorns. Flotation in water is a commonly accepted method of separating weeviled
36
from sound acorns before planting; sound acorns usually sink. The soundness of
Shumard oak and cherrybark oak acorns,
the color of the basal or cup scar.
however, can be judged with certainty by
If the circular scar is a light tan, the
acorn is sound; if a dull brown, the acorn is defective. These color rela-tionships
are easily established in actual practice. Since Shumard and
cherrybark are red oaks, this method may have a broader application to the red
oak group. The method does not work well, however, with swamp chestnut oak,
which belongs to the white oak group. The success of the visual selection, as
evidenced by high germination percentages, makes further weevil treatment
unnecessary.
Loucks, W.L., and R.A. Keen. 1973. Submersion tolerance of selected seedling
trees. Journal of Forestry 71:496-497.
This Kansas study helps to identify seedlings which have high submersion
tolerance. Seedlings of 10 species were covered with 2 ft of water for periods
of 1, 2, 3, and 4 weeks to test submersion tolerance. The seedlings were planted
in five flat-bottom ponds constructed near Manhattan, KS, in an area of Wymore
silty clay loam soil. Four of the ponds were filled with well water and one was
left unflooded as a control. Species planted were green ash, baldcypress, silver
maple, pecan, cottonwood, honeylocust, bur oak, boxelder, Siberian elm, and black
walnut. There was no significant mortality in any species in the l- and e-week
submersion treatments. In the 3-week treatment, survival was still 100% for
green ash, baldcypress, cottonwood, and silver maple, but dropped to between 44%
and 67% for the remaining species. Survival after 4 weeks ranged from zero for
black walnut to 100% for green ash and baldcypress. The remaining species in
order of survival from highest to lowest were silver maple, pecan, cottonwood,
honeylocust, bur oak, boxelder, and Siberian elm.
Maisenhelder, L.C., and C.A. Heavrin. 1957. Silvics and silviculture of
pioneer hardwoods--cottonwood and willow. Pages 73-75 in Proceedings of
1956 annual meeting of the Society of American Foresters.
the
the
The authors cover five topics related to the silvics and silviculture
cottonwood and willow in the lower Mississippi Valley: (1) site development,
seedling establishment, (3) establishment and growth, (4) natural enemies,
(5) artificial regeneration. The site development section describes
i$
the
formation of new land on "point bars" in the river, where cottonwood and willow
typically are found. The next two sections describe the natural establishment
and growth of cottonwood and willow on these new lands. Natural enemies
discussed in the fourth section include fire (both cottonwood and willow are very
susceptible); sustained submergence of young trees during the growing season;
cattle, hog, and deer browsing; and defoliating insects, especially on
cottonwood. The final section briefly describes propagation and plantation
establishment from cuttings, which is especially suitable for clearcut areas and
old agricultural fields. It is recommended that cuttings be taken from l- to
3-year-old seedlings or sprouts; individual cuttings should be about 20 inches
long and from 3/8 to 3/4 inches diameter at the small end. The cuttings should
be placed 15 inches into the ground; planting into a slit made by a sub-soil plow
is preferable to using a planting bar if tree roots are not a problem. Spacing
37
of about 10 by 10 ft is desirable to allow for weed control. Weeds should not
be allowed to exceed three-fourths of the height of the seedlings during the
first growing season. On good sites under favorable conditions, first year
survivals of 75%-90% may be expected, with an average height growth of about 5
ft. Growth of 10 ft in height and 1 inch in dbh have been attained.
Maki, T.E., A.J. Weber, D.W. Hazel, S.C. Hunter, B.T. Hyberg, D.M. Flinchum, J.P.
Lollis, J.B. Rognstad, and J.D. Gregory. 1980. Effects of stream channeliza-tion
on bottomland and swamp forest ecosystems. University of North Carolina,
Water Resources Research Institute, Raleigh.
This study evaluates the effects of stream channelization on the bottomland-swamp
forest ecosystems of eastern North Carolina. Groundwater regimes in the
floodplains were monitored to provide a basis to compare plant communities.
Aboveground biomass of shrub and herbaceous vegetation was found to be inversely
related to the number of inundation periods per year.
"lesser vegetation"
Competition from this
was deleterious to planted and naturally regenerated tree
seedlings along the channelized streams.
blackgum,
Regeneration of water tupelo, swamp
and baldcypress appeared to have been reduced in channelized areas;
these species were particularly sensitive to competition from overstory
vegetation and the profusion of vines, grasses, and briars associated with the
decrease of groundwater levels in channelized swamps. Survival and growth of
planted tupelo seedlings were greater along non-channelized streams than along
channelized streams; the latter seedlings were adversely affected by fierce
competition from honeysuckle and blackberry canes. Regeneration in cutover areas
was sometimes less than in non-cut areas because the cutover areas exhibited an
increase in vines, briars, and other woody reproduction which precluded the
reestablishment of trees. This situation could persist for an indefinite period
of time unless flooding or some other factors reduce competition. For com-parison,
the authors reported on a well-managed swamp forest stand along the
Roanoke River at Tillery, Halifax County, NC, that originated from a clearcut
of a tupelo tract about 70 years earlier. With little or no overstory
competition, water tupelo and some baldcypress became established and grew well.
After about 70 years, the Tillery stand contained a standing volume of about
1,000 m3/ha in non-cut areas and from 350 to 625 m3/ha in areas thinned in 1962.
Malac, B.F., and R.D. Heeren. 1979. Hardwood plantation management. Southern
Journal of Applied Forestry 3(1):3-6.
In this paper, some of the hardwood silvicultural practices of Union Camp
Corporation are detailed. These practices are based on 10 years of hardwood
plantation research carried out near Franklin, VA, and include seed collection,
site selection, planting stock, site clearing, site preparation, planting,
spacing, competition control, fertilization, harvesting, and coppicing. Species
planted include sycamore, green ash, sweetgum, and willow, water, and laurel
oaks. All seed is collected from the best available local trees, but the company
is in the process of developing clonal seed orchards. Sites chosen for planting
hardwoods have a sandy loam or loam surface fairly high in organic matter, are
moderately well-drained, and have a water table to within 4 inches of the surface
during portions of the year. Only large, healthy seedlings, with a minimum root
38
collar diameter of 3/8 inch and a top height of at least 2 ft are planted. All
sites are intensively cleared, except for recently abandoned agricultural land.
Some sites are disked prior to planting, abandoned fields with plow pans or
shallow topsoil are subsoiled, and wet sites are bedded. Seedlings are planted
with tractor-drawn machine planters modified to handle large seedlings. Sycamore
and the oaks are planted on a 10 by 10 ft spacing and green ash and sweetgum on
a 8 by 12 ft spacing. Depending on site and weed growth, plantations are disked
on the average of two to three times a year for at least the first 2 years. As
a rule, fertilizer is applied during the first cultivation; applications vary,
but often about 250 lb/acre of triple superphosphate or diammonium phosphate are
used. Harvesting is planned for between ages 12 and 15, with coppice
regeneration for at least two rotations.
McDermott, R.E. 1954. Effects of saturated soil on seedling growth of some
bottomland hardwood species. Ecology 35(1):36-41.
This study focuses on seedling survival in saturated soils. Young seedlings
(less than l-month-old) of American elm, winged elm, red maple, sycamore, hazel
alder, and river birch were subjected to saturated soil conditions for periods
of 0, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 days. Each treatment was applied to 20 seedlings
in four pots of five seedlings per pot. After flooding, the seedlings were kept
at or above field capacity under conditions of about 50% sunlight and at high
soil temperatures. Heights of the seedlings were measured at the end of 32, 42,
and 52 days. Compared to the no-flooding controls, all species showed patterns
of stunting in height growth. River birch showed evidence of stunting for all
saturation periods greater than 1 day, and red maple was stunted by all but the
4-day saturation period. Both species recovered rapidly in well-