Postmedia columnist Daphne Bramham crosses the notoriously rough Drake Passage from the Falkland Islands to South Georgia — known as the Serengeti of the Southern Ocean — to Antarctica. Her daily reports from the 18-day expedition cover issues from climate change and micro plastics in the ocean to Japan’s continuing whale hunt, the antics of penguins and the world’s wild race to tour, and exploit, this last frontier.

In the ocean’s rich subsurface layer where many marine creatures feed, invisible plastic fibres spin and churn along with the currents.

Neutrally buoyant, these microfibres neither rise nor fall. Even if they do drop to the bottom — perhaps because they get coated with bacteria or have things growing on them — once freed of those living attachments, they return to their point of neutral buoyancy to resume what scientists believe could be a perpetual journey.

“Microfibres are the most biologically troubling of the plastics in the ocean because they’re available to the food chain,” says Peter Ross, a marine pollution scientist doing groundbreaking work on microplastics at a lab in West Vancouver.

Lots of attention has been paid and is still being paid to microbeads from cosmetic products, nurdles (plastic pellets that are the raw material used in manufacturing), discarded bags and bottles, huge chunks of Styrofoam and kilometres of abandoned fishing net.

But when it comes to the invisible particles, scientists are still trying to answer some very basic questions. What are they? Where do they come from? How do they get into the oceans? Can they be kept out of the oceans? And, once microfibres are in the ocean, how can they be removed?

Microplastics and microfibres in Peter Ross’s lab that came from subsurface water samples taken in the Arctic Ocean.Arlen Redekop /
PNG

“This is a voyage of discovery to a remote part of the world where nobody is doing what we’re doing,” Ross says of our 18-day trip to Antarctica that goes from the southern Atlantic to the Southern Ocean and back.

On this trip, the first extensive, subsurface seawater sampling for microplastics is being done under a strict protocol that will allow the results from subsequent high-end lab analysis to be compared with samples from both the Arctic and Pacific oceans.

“We have every expectation of finding microplastics in every sample we look at from anywhere in the world right now,” he said even before a single sample was collected. “Ten years ago, I wouldn’t have said that with such confidence. Over the last 10 years, we’ve discovered so much about the distribution of microplastics around the world, I can almost say the scientific community is a little bit numb … because we didn’t see this coming. We were looking at macro debris until the early 2000s and then we started looking under microscopes.”

The scarcity of data from the Southern Ocean was highlighted in a study of microplastics in the Antarctic marine system published in November in the peer-reviewed Science of the Total Environment.

It noted the urgent need for standardized monitoring for microplastics in Antarctic waters, adding that “major questions concerning plastic in the Southern Ocean remain unanswered … Our understanding of the sources and fate of plastics in these waters is limited at best.”

“We are beyond simple discovery at this point,” he said. “We really have to sharpen our skills in terms of sampling and in terms of the analytical phase in the lab because we want to compare data across studies.”

Among the earliest peer-reviewed studies of microplastics is a study done by Australian Mark Browne. In 2011, he concluded that they made up more than 85 per cent of the plastic pollution on the world’s shores and are twice as prevalent as macroplastics — those visible bits that include fishing gear, shopping bags, straws and brightly coloured pieces from who knows where.

Ross, who is now vice-president of research for the Ocean Wise Conservation Association, shifted his focus from chemical pollutants in the marine environment to microplastics and microfibres.

In 2015, Ross and two of his researchers published the first indisputable evidence that zooplankton at the bottom of the food chain in the northeast Pacific Ocean were mistaking these plastic fibres for food.

The study estimated that juvenile salmon along the B.C. coast are ingesting between two and seven microplastic particles each day, while returning adult salmon are taking in as many as 90 per day.

In 2016, with the help of Squamish-based One Ocean Expeditions, Ross’s team expanded its sampling to the Arctic. Although the full analysis won’t be ready for another couple of months, Ross did say that microfibres comprised virtually all of the microplastic found in the samples.

The end game is to not only identify the fibres themselves in terms of their chemical makeup, but also to eventually track them back to their source.

There are no simple answers.

Only a decade into the research with little more than a dozen studies, among the culprits identified so far are synthetic materials used in clothing. Bits of these synthetic fabrics break or slough off in both washers and dryers.

The fleece jackets made from shredded plastic that are staples in most Canadians’ wardrobes shed a lot. Research done in Ross’s lab found that as many as a million microfibres come off every time one is washed.

But it’s not just fleece. Fibres from all synthetic fabrics break and shred — and not only in the wash. Even walking down the street in polyester pants and a jacket with your arms swinging creates a dust that gets into the air and may find its way to the ocean, either borne on wind currents or by dropping down into storm sewers and drains.

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The Last Continent: Daphne Bramham travels to Antarctica

A black-browed albatross was one of several hundred that soared and swooped around the ship, Akademik Ioffe, as it headed north from Antarctica to Ushuaia, Argentina. Albatrosses and other seabirds feed in the rich waters where three oceans meet – Atlantic, Pacific and the Southern Ocean. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A giant petrel dances on the wind currents near the tip of South America in the Drake Passage. Daphne Bramham/PNG

The notorious Cape Horn is usually shrouded in fog, mist and clouds and beaten with winds and waves. It's at the tip of South America, separated from Antarctica by the notoriously rough Drake Passage.Daphne Bramham/PNG

PARADISE BAY, Antarctica – A leopard seal yawns and bares its teeth in a ghoulish grin while taking a rest from preying on penguins at Paradise Bay, Antarctica. Daphne Bramham/PNG

PARADISE BAY, Antarctica – Water cascades down from an iceberg in the waters off the Antarctic Peninsula of Paradise Bay where minke and humpback whales, penguins and seals are all feeding on krill in advance of the coming winter.Daphne Bramham/PNG

In 1921, British whalers established a at Port Lockroy – nearly 280 kilometres north of the Antarctic Circle. The station was taken over by the British government in 1944 as part of its secret plan to assert sovereignty over Antarctica. After the end of the Second World War, the British Antarctic Service operated it as a scientific research station until 1962. More recently, Britain had to make a choice about what to do with the base because under the Antarctic Treaty's environmental protocol, it either had to be buildings or rebuilt, restored and maintained. Since 1996, it has been operated by the non-profit, United Kingdom Antarctic Trust as a museum and post office during the four-and-a-half months of Antarctic summer. Every year, an estimated 16,000 people visit here.Daphne Bramham/PNG

In 1921, British whalers established a base at Port Lockroy – nearly 280 kilometres north of the Antarctic Circle. The station was taken over by the British government in 1944 as part of its secret plan to assert sovereignty over Antarctica. After the end of the Second World War, the British Antarctic Service operated it as a scientific research station until 1962. More recently, Britain had to make a choice about what to do with the base because under the Antarctic Treaty's environmental protocol, it either had to be buildings or rebuilt, restored and maintained. Since 1996, it has been operated by the non-profit, United Kingdom Antarctic Trust as a museum and post office during the four-and-a-half months of Antarctic summer. Every year, an estimated 16,000 people visit here. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A humpback whale dives, while feeding on krill in the rich Antarctic waters off Fournier Bay.The fluke is as distinctive as a human fingerprint. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A humpback whale surfaces, while feeding on krill in the rich Antarctic waters off Fournier Bay, Antarctica. Humpbacks were hunted nearly to extinction in the 20th century but are making a strong comeback since commercial whaling was banned in 1982. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Slumping glaciers and sea ice appear to engulf the Akademik Ioffe on a sunny summer day in February, Fournier Bay, Antarctica. It's an illusion. But, this part of Antarctica that is most affected by climate change with lower annual sea ice and a faster retreat of glaciers than other parts of the continent. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Water sampling being done on board Akademik Ioffe for Ocean Wise Conservation Association (aka Vancouver Aquarium). The photo of the vial shows a rather large fibre. The greenish tinge to it is from the algae and other phytoplanktons. Daphne Bramham/PNG

HOPE BAY, Antarctica – A leopard seal comes back to eat the Adelie penguin that it just killed at Hope Bay in Antarctica. The seals grab them by the necks in the water and then slam them against the surface to flay the skin off them before eating them. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A leopard seal grabs an Adelie penguin in the water at Hope Bay in Antarctica. The seals aren't fast enough to catch them onshore or on ice flows where it's not uncommon to see the penguins and the leopard seals sharing space.Daphne Bramham/PNG

HOPE BAY, Antarctica – A leopard seal comes up for air after having killed an Adelie penguin chick at Hope Bay, Antarctica. The chicks have only recently fledged and are easy prey for these seals. Daphne Bramham/PNG

HOPE BAY, Antarctica – A clutch of Adelie penguin chicks have grown up enough that they now have to fend for themselves and can no longer rely on their parents to feed them. Their "Mohawk" haircuts are the remnants of the down that they must shed before they get their waterproofed feathers. The tufts on their head are usually the last thing to go because they can't reach it to slough it off. Daphne is at Hope Bay in Antarctica. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Chinstrap penguins jump in the air as they swim through the Scotia Sea near to Elephant Island, where 22 of Ernest Shackleton's crew spent four months waiting to be rescued. Daphne Bramham/PNG

The peaks of Elephant Island pokes through the fog. Daphne Bramham/PNG

On the now eroded isthmus that joined Point Wild to Elephant Island, Ernest Shackleton's 22 crew spent a winter waiting for rescue.Daphne Bramham/PNG

Iceberg B15Z, which measures 24 kilometres long and 11 kilometres wide and 78 metres high, has been floating around Antarctica for more than 17 years since a huge chunk broke off the Ross Ice Sheet. Dapne Bramham/PNG

A group of curious fur seals stop playing in the surf just long enough to take a good look at Cooper Harbour, South Georgia. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A moulting, female elephant seal rouses herself enough to take a look at what's happening on the beach at Cooper Harbour, South Georgia. After giving birth, the females start to moult. Until their new skin and fur grows in, they can't go in the water because they're no longer waterproof. So, they fast even though they are feeding pups that must grow quickly if they are to survive when winter comes. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Unlike other penguins, the elegant kings live in large, permanent rookeries or colonies throughout the year. Some can be as large as half a million birds. So, they're easy enough to find because you can hear their calls from many kilometres away and, depending on the direction of the wind, you can often smell them a great distance as well. Daphne is at Cooper Harbour, South Georgia. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A whale's skull, a remnant of the 20th century whale hunt lies in the grass at Grytzviken, South Georgia. This plant and its settlement where the heart of the whaling industry and the largest of six processing plants on the island. The plant closed in 1962.Daphne Bramham/PNG

STROMNESS, South Georgia (Feb. 8, 2018) – This abandoned whaling station in Stromness, South Georgia is where Ernest Shackleton, Thomas Crean and Frank Worsley arrived after 18 months of attempting to find help for the crew of the Endurance. Their tenacious search for help took them across a dangerous passage in an open sailboat and over one of South Georgia's highest mountains. But before they saw the whaling station, they heard its whistle blowing. Daphne Bramham/PNG

GRYTZVIKEN, South Georgia (Feb. 8, 2018) – The Petrel is one of the abandoned whaling ships that line the shore of Grytzviken, South Georgia. This was once the largest and busiest processing plant on the island. The harpoon gun is still on the bow of the ship. Daphne Bramham/PNG

The rusted beams of a former whale processing plant are silhouetted against a glacier at Grytzviken, South Georgia. Daphne Bramham/PNG

SALISBURY PLAIN, South Georgia – A mating pair of king penguins do their ritual dance. Unlike most other species, kings aren't monogamous. Because of the short breeding season, they don't always wait for their mates to return before breeding. Daphne is visiting Salisbury Plain,
South Georgia. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Tens of thousands of king penguins occupy the rockery at Salisbury Plain, South Georgia throughout the year. So, there are nesting pairs, fledglings and mating penguins all along the shore and up into the plain itself. An estimated half a million penguins are on this island including kings, macaronis, gentoos and chinstraps. Kings are 60 to 94 centimetres tall. Only emperor penguins, which nest further inland, are bigger. Daphne Bramham/PNG

This is what tens of thousands of king penguins look like from above on a ridge over the rookery at Salisbury Plain, South Georgia. Daphne Bramham/PNG

King penguin chicks have shaggy brown coats that they shed in clumps before they get into the water for the first time. If they happen to fall into the water before that, they'll likely drown because their fluffy feathers aren't waterproofed. So, they hang around the rookery, waiting for the parents to come back and feed them. Daphne is visiting Salisbury Plain, South Georgia. (Daphne Bramham/PNG

ELSEHUL BAY, South Georgia – These moulting sea lions will stay here on this island in the Antarctic region for several weeks as they get a whole new outer skin. They seem unperturbed by the storm of life around them from a southern fur seal pup to king penguins that walk around them to the large seabirds that swoop in to take unsuspecting and vulnerable penguin chicks. Daphne Bramham is visiting Elsehul Bay,
South Georgia. Daphne Bramham/PNG

There are close to a million macaroni penguins in Elsehul Bay on South Georgia, but their numbers have fallen by about a half in the last 30 years. They lay their eggs on steep slopes and are easily recognizable with their lush yellow hair tufts. They were named macaroni in the 18th century after the dandies i n London who wore extreme fashions. The song, Yankee Doodle, makes reference to them – "he stuck a feather in his hat and called it macaroni."Daphne Bramham/PNG

ELSEHUL BAY, South Georgia – King penguins are second only to emperors when it comes to their height and weight. It takes 14 months for a pair to raise a chick. The chicks at Elsehul Bay, South Georgia have already fledged and are no longer dependent on their parents for food. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A blizzard of birds – mostly cape petrels -- swoops and swirls just off the island in the Antarctic region where they come along with elephant seals, fur seals, king penguins and macaroni penguins to feed on plankton and krill. Elsehul Bay, South Georgia is such a rich feeding ground that it was the base for whaling in the last century. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Getting ready to disembark on South Georgia Island, requires following strict protocols for ensuring that no seeds, pathogens or penguin guano from another island are left on clothing, bags or shoes. The reason for the care that's being taken is so that elephant seals like this one won't be infected or affected by anything from somewhere else. South Georgia [PNG Merlin Archive]Daphne Bramham/PNG

Getting ready to disembark on South Georgia Island, requires following strict protocols for ensuring that no seeds, pathogens or penguin guano from another island are left on clothing, bags or shoes. A particular culprit for carrying tiny bits is Velcro. So, it needs to be gone over with a wire brush or vacuumed.
Daphne is visiting Scotia Sea, the Southern Sea. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Getting ready to disembark on South Georgia Island, requires following strict protocols for ensuring that no seeds, pathogens or penguin guano from another island are left on clothing, bags or shoes. Any shoes or boots that are going ashore must be scrubbed and dipped in biocide and left to dry. Anyone going ashore must also sign a document saying that they are not bringing anything with them. Daphne is visiting Scotia Sea, South Atlantic Ocean. (Daphne Bramham) [PNG Merlin Archive]/PNG

Three Magellenic penguins look out to the Scotia Sea. These penguins live only in temperate climates and not in Antarctica. But sometimes penguins range rather far afield. In one of half a dozen or more colonies on this privately owned island (which has been farmed by the same two families for years), there was a lone King penguin. Daphne is visiting Sea Lion Island, Falkland Islands. /PNG

In late afternoon when the parents return with food from the sea, it's a squawking, raucous place to be as the starving chicks try to get food from any returning adult. The adults, on the other hand, only feed their own chicks. While penguins may all look and sound alike to us, each has a unique voice. Daphne is on Bleaker Island, Falkland Islands. /PNG

The rock-hopping penguin with its disco look does just that. It hops up the rocks from the sea using its clawed feet to feed the chicks that are now almost fully fledged. Daphne is visiting Sea Lion Island, Falkland Islands. /PNG

This island in the Magellan Strait is the breeding ground for an estimated 69,000 pairs of Magellan penguins. This year's brood has already hatched, although not all the juveniles have lost their baby fuzz. These are one of several species of penguins that live in temperate regions and never venture into the ice and snow of Antarctica. A close cousin to Magellan penguins are the South African or black-footed penguins that are at the Vancouver Aquarium. The major difference is that the Magellans have mottled pink and black feet.Daphne Bramham/PNG

This island in the Magellan Strait is the breeding ground for an estimated 69,000 pairs of Magellan penguins. This year's brood has already hatched, although not all the juveniles have lost their baby fuzz. These are one of several species of penguins that live in temperate regions and never venture into the ice and snow of Antarctica. A close cousin to Magellan penguins are the South African or black-footed penguins that are at the Vancouver Aquarium. The major difference is that the Magellans have mottled pink and black feet.Daphne Bramham/PNG

This island in the Magellan Strait is the breeding ground for an estimated 69,000 pairs of Magellan penguins. This year’s brood has already hatched, although not all the juveniles have lost their baby fuzz. These are one of several species of penguins that live in temperate regions and never venture into the ice and snow of Antarctica. A close cousin to Magellan penguins are the South African or black-footed penguins that are at the Vancouver Aquarium. The major difference is that the Magellans have mottled pink and black feet. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Marta Island, Chile – This island in the Magellan Strait is where South American sea lions as well as some fur seals come to breed in the summer. The beach masters – alpha males – guard their stretch of the shoreline and protect their harems from other male intruders. The females, meantime, are forced to protect their pups from errant males that kill any young that they haven't sired. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Marta Island, Chile – This island in the Magellan Strait is where South American sea lions as well as some fur seals come to breed in the summer. The beach masters – alpha males – guard their stretch of the shoreline and protect their harems from other male intruders. The females, meantime, are forced to protect their pups from errant males that kill any young that they haven't sired. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Marta Island, Chile – This island in the Magellan Strait is where South American sea lions as well as some fur seals come to breed in the summer. The beach masters – alpha males – guard their stretch of the shoreline and protect their harems from other male intruders. The females, meantime, are forced to protect their pups from errant males that kill any young that they haven't sired. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Some of those fibres then slip through wastewater treatment plants and find their way to the oceans and are dispersed on the well-documented routes of wind and ocean currents. At least that’s what the researchers think from the data that they’ve managed to collect so far.

But before you rush out and buy new eco-friendly clothes, the scientists are also warning that not all research deserves equal weight.

Last year, Browne told the Australian Broadcasting Corp. that he’s concerned about companies that make claims that their clothing is eco-friendly with no research to back their claims.

But there are retailers working with researchers. Vancouver-based Mountain Equipment Co-op, North Vancouver-based Arc’teryx and the American companies Patagonia and REI are all supporting Ross’s research.

Patagonia also helps fund Patricia Holden’s research at the University of California, Santa Barbara. Among her published findings are that seven times more fibres are released when a fleece jacket is washed in a top-load versus a front-loading machine.

From the laundry and storm sewers, the fibres slip through wastewater treatment plants, which is why Metro Vancouver is supporting Ross’s research to determine what measures might be necessary to stop the flow into the ocean.

Of course, clothing isn’t the only source of microplastics. Larger products — from microbeads in cosmetics, bottles, shopping bags and straws to plastic-coated coffee cups and commercial fishing nets — break down into their various chemical components or break up into smaller and smaller pieces.

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The Last Continent: Daphne Bramham travels to Antarctica

A black-browed albatross was one of several hundred that soared and swooped around the ship, Akademik Ioffe, as it headed north from Antarctica to Ushuaia, Argentina. Albatrosses and other seabirds feed in the rich waters where three oceans meet – Atlantic, Pacific and the Southern Ocean. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A giant petrel dances on the wind currents near the tip of South America in the Drake Passage. Daphne Bramham/PNG

The notorious Cape Horn is usually shrouded in fog, mist and clouds and beaten with winds and waves. It's at the tip of South America, separated from Antarctica by the notoriously rough Drake Passage.Daphne Bramham/PNG

PARADISE BAY, Antarctica – A leopard seal yawns and bares its teeth in a ghoulish grin while taking a rest from preying on penguins at Paradise Bay, Antarctica. Daphne Bramham/PNG

PARADISE BAY, Antarctica – Water cascades down from an iceberg in the waters off the Antarctic Peninsula of Paradise Bay where minke and humpback whales, penguins and seals are all feeding on krill in advance of the coming winter.Daphne Bramham/PNG

In 1921, British whalers established a at Port Lockroy – nearly 280 kilometres north of the Antarctic Circle. The station was taken over by the British government in 1944 as part of its secret plan to assert sovereignty over Antarctica. After the end of the Second World War, the British Antarctic Service operated it as a scientific research station until 1962. More recently, Britain had to make a choice about what to do with the base because under the Antarctic Treaty's environmental protocol, it either had to be buildings or rebuilt, restored and maintained. Since 1996, it has been operated by the non-profit, United Kingdom Antarctic Trust as a museum and post office during the four-and-a-half months of Antarctic summer. Every year, an estimated 16,000 people visit here.Daphne Bramham/PNG

In 1921, British whalers established a base at Port Lockroy – nearly 280 kilometres north of the Antarctic Circle. The station was taken over by the British government in 1944 as part of its secret plan to assert sovereignty over Antarctica. After the end of the Second World War, the British Antarctic Service operated it as a scientific research station until 1962. More recently, Britain had to make a choice about what to do with the base because under the Antarctic Treaty's environmental protocol, it either had to be buildings or rebuilt, restored and maintained. Since 1996, it has been operated by the non-profit, United Kingdom Antarctic Trust as a museum and post office during the four-and-a-half months of Antarctic summer. Every year, an estimated 16,000 people visit here. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A humpback whale dives, while feeding on krill in the rich Antarctic waters off Fournier Bay.The fluke is as distinctive as a human fingerprint. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A humpback whale surfaces, while feeding on krill in the rich Antarctic waters off Fournier Bay, Antarctica. Humpbacks were hunted nearly to extinction in the 20th century but are making a strong comeback since commercial whaling was banned in 1982. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Slumping glaciers and sea ice appear to engulf the Akademik Ioffe on a sunny summer day in February, Fournier Bay, Antarctica. It's an illusion. But, this part of Antarctica that is most affected by climate change with lower annual sea ice and a faster retreat of glaciers than other parts of the continent. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Water sampling being done on board Akademik Ioffe for Ocean Wise Conservation Association (aka Vancouver Aquarium). The photo of the vial shows a rather large fibre. The greenish tinge to it is from the algae and other phytoplanktons. Daphne Bramham/PNG

HOPE BAY, Antarctica – A leopard seal comes back to eat the Adelie penguin that it just killed at Hope Bay in Antarctica. The seals grab them by the necks in the water and then slam them against the surface to flay the skin off them before eating them. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A leopard seal grabs an Adelie penguin in the water at Hope Bay in Antarctica. The seals aren't fast enough to catch them onshore or on ice flows where it's not uncommon to see the penguins and the leopard seals sharing space.Daphne Bramham/PNG

HOPE BAY, Antarctica – A leopard seal comes up for air after having killed an Adelie penguin chick at Hope Bay, Antarctica. The chicks have only recently fledged and are easy prey for these seals. Daphne Bramham/PNG

HOPE BAY, Antarctica – A clutch of Adelie penguin chicks have grown up enough that they now have to fend for themselves and can no longer rely on their parents to feed them. Their "Mohawk" haircuts are the remnants of the down that they must shed before they get their waterproofed feathers. The tufts on their head are usually the last thing to go because they can't reach it to slough it off. Daphne is at Hope Bay in Antarctica. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Chinstrap penguins jump in the air as they swim through the Scotia Sea near to Elephant Island, where 22 of Ernest Shackleton's crew spent four months waiting to be rescued. Daphne Bramham/PNG

The peaks of Elephant Island pokes through the fog. Daphne Bramham/PNG

On the now eroded isthmus that joined Point Wild to Elephant Island, Ernest Shackleton's 22 crew spent a winter waiting for rescue.Daphne Bramham/PNG

Iceberg B15Z, which measures 24 kilometres long and 11 kilometres wide and 78 metres high, has been floating around Antarctica for more than 17 years since a huge chunk broke off the Ross Ice Sheet. Dapne Bramham/PNG

A group of curious fur seals stop playing in the surf just long enough to take a good look at Cooper Harbour, South Georgia. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A moulting, female elephant seal rouses herself enough to take a look at what's happening on the beach at Cooper Harbour, South Georgia. After giving birth, the females start to moult. Until their new skin and fur grows in, they can't go in the water because they're no longer waterproof. So, they fast even though they are feeding pups that must grow quickly if they are to survive when winter comes. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Unlike other penguins, the elegant kings live in large, permanent rookeries or colonies throughout the year. Some can be as large as half a million birds. So, they're easy enough to find because you can hear their calls from many kilometres away and, depending on the direction of the wind, you can often smell them a great distance as well. Daphne is at Cooper Harbour, South Georgia. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A whale's skull, a remnant of the 20th century whale hunt lies in the grass at Grytzviken, South Georgia. This plant and its settlement where the heart of the whaling industry and the largest of six processing plants on the island. The plant closed in 1962.Daphne Bramham/PNG

STROMNESS, South Georgia (Feb. 8, 2018) – This abandoned whaling station in Stromness, South Georgia is where Ernest Shackleton, Thomas Crean and Frank Worsley arrived after 18 months of attempting to find help for the crew of the Endurance. Their tenacious search for help took them across a dangerous passage in an open sailboat and over one of South Georgia's highest mountains. But before they saw the whaling station, they heard its whistle blowing. Daphne Bramham/PNG

GRYTZVIKEN, South Georgia (Feb. 8, 2018) – The Petrel is one of the abandoned whaling ships that line the shore of Grytzviken, South Georgia. This was once the largest and busiest processing plant on the island. The harpoon gun is still on the bow of the ship. Daphne Bramham/PNG

The rusted beams of a former whale processing plant are silhouetted against a glacier at Grytzviken, South Georgia. Daphne Bramham/PNG

SALISBURY PLAIN, South Georgia – A mating pair of king penguins do their ritual dance. Unlike most other species, kings aren't monogamous. Because of the short breeding season, they don't always wait for their mates to return before breeding. Daphne is visiting Salisbury Plain,
South Georgia. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Tens of thousands of king penguins occupy the rockery at Salisbury Plain, South Georgia throughout the year. So, there are nesting pairs, fledglings and mating penguins all along the shore and up into the plain itself. An estimated half a million penguins are on this island including kings, macaronis, gentoos and chinstraps. Kings are 60 to 94 centimetres tall. Only emperor penguins, which nest further inland, are bigger. Daphne Bramham/PNG

This is what tens of thousands of king penguins look like from above on a ridge over the rookery at Salisbury Plain, South Georgia. Daphne Bramham/PNG

King penguin chicks have shaggy brown coats that they shed in clumps before they get into the water for the first time. If they happen to fall into the water before that, they'll likely drown because their fluffy feathers aren't waterproofed. So, they hang around the rookery, waiting for the parents to come back and feed them. Daphne is visiting Salisbury Plain, South Georgia. (Daphne Bramham/PNG

ELSEHUL BAY, South Georgia – These moulting sea lions will stay here on this island in the Antarctic region for several weeks as they get a whole new outer skin. They seem unperturbed by the storm of life around them from a southern fur seal pup to king penguins that walk around them to the large seabirds that swoop in to take unsuspecting and vulnerable penguin chicks. Daphne Bramham is visiting Elsehul Bay,
South Georgia. Daphne Bramham/PNG

There are close to a million macaroni penguins in Elsehul Bay on South Georgia, but their numbers have fallen by about a half in the last 30 years. They lay their eggs on steep slopes and are easily recognizable with their lush yellow hair tufts. They were named macaroni in the 18th century after the dandies i n London who wore extreme fashions. The song, Yankee Doodle, makes reference to them – "he stuck a feather in his hat and called it macaroni."Daphne Bramham/PNG

ELSEHUL BAY, South Georgia – King penguins are second only to emperors when it comes to their height and weight. It takes 14 months for a pair to raise a chick. The chicks at Elsehul Bay, South Georgia have already fledged and are no longer dependent on their parents for food. Daphne Bramham/PNG

A blizzard of birds – mostly cape petrels -- swoops and swirls just off the island in the Antarctic region where they come along with elephant seals, fur seals, king penguins and macaroni penguins to feed on plankton and krill. Elsehul Bay, South Georgia is such a rich feeding ground that it was the base for whaling in the last century. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Getting ready to disembark on South Georgia Island, requires following strict protocols for ensuring that no seeds, pathogens or penguin guano from another island are left on clothing, bags or shoes. The reason for the care that's being taken is so that elephant seals like this one won't be infected or affected by anything from somewhere else. South Georgia [PNG Merlin Archive]Daphne Bramham/PNG

Getting ready to disembark on South Georgia Island, requires following strict protocols for ensuring that no seeds, pathogens or penguin guano from another island are left on clothing, bags or shoes. A particular culprit for carrying tiny bits is Velcro. So, it needs to be gone over with a wire brush or vacuumed.
Daphne is visiting Scotia Sea, the Southern Sea. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Getting ready to disembark on South Georgia Island, requires following strict protocols for ensuring that no seeds, pathogens or penguin guano from another island are left on clothing, bags or shoes. Any shoes or boots that are going ashore must be scrubbed and dipped in biocide and left to dry. Anyone going ashore must also sign a document saying that they are not bringing anything with them. Daphne is visiting Scotia Sea, South Atlantic Ocean. (Daphne Bramham) [PNG Merlin Archive]/PNG

Three Magellenic penguins look out to the Scotia Sea. These penguins live only in temperate climates and not in Antarctica. But sometimes penguins range rather far afield. In one of half a dozen or more colonies on this privately owned island (which has been farmed by the same two families for years), there was a lone King penguin. Daphne is visiting Sea Lion Island, Falkland Islands. /PNG

In late afternoon when the parents return with food from the sea, it's a squawking, raucous place to be as the starving chicks try to get food from any returning adult. The adults, on the other hand, only feed their own chicks. While penguins may all look and sound alike to us, each has a unique voice. Daphne is on Bleaker Island, Falkland Islands. /PNG

The rock-hopping penguin with its disco look does just that. It hops up the rocks from the sea using its clawed feet to feed the chicks that are now almost fully fledged. Daphne is visiting Sea Lion Island, Falkland Islands. /PNG

This island in the Magellan Strait is the breeding ground for an estimated 69,000 pairs of Magellan penguins. This year's brood has already hatched, although not all the juveniles have lost their baby fuzz. These are one of several species of penguins that live in temperate regions and never venture into the ice and snow of Antarctica. A close cousin to Magellan penguins are the South African or black-footed penguins that are at the Vancouver Aquarium. The major difference is that the Magellans have mottled pink and black feet.Daphne Bramham/PNG

This island in the Magellan Strait is the breeding ground for an estimated 69,000 pairs of Magellan penguins. This year's brood has already hatched, although not all the juveniles have lost their baby fuzz. These are one of several species of penguins that live in temperate regions and never venture into the ice and snow of Antarctica. A close cousin to Magellan penguins are the South African or black-footed penguins that are at the Vancouver Aquarium. The major difference is that the Magellans have mottled pink and black feet.Daphne Bramham/PNG

This island in the Magellan Strait is the breeding ground for an estimated 69,000 pairs of Magellan penguins. This year’s brood has already hatched, although not all the juveniles have lost their baby fuzz. These are one of several species of penguins that live in temperate regions and never venture into the ice and snow of Antarctica. A close cousin to Magellan penguins are the South African or black-footed penguins that are at the Vancouver Aquarium. The major difference is that the Magellans have mottled pink and black feet. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Marta Island, Chile – This island in the Magellan Strait is where South American sea lions as well as some fur seals come to breed in the summer. The beach masters – alpha males – guard their stretch of the shoreline and protect their harems from other male intruders. The females, meantime, are forced to protect their pups from errant males that kill any young that they haven't sired. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Marta Island, Chile – This island in the Magellan Strait is where South American sea lions as well as some fur seals come to breed in the summer. The beach masters – alpha males – guard their stretch of the shoreline and protect their harems from other male intruders. The females, meantime, are forced to protect their pups from errant males that kill any young that they haven't sired. Daphne Bramham/PNG

Marta Island, Chile – This island in the Magellan Strait is where South American sea lions as well as some fur seals come to breed in the summer. The beach masters – alpha males – guard their stretch of the shoreline and protect their harems from other male intruders. The females, meantime, are forced to protect their pups from errant males that kill any young that they haven't sired. Daphne Bramham/PNG

But figuring out what and how requires tedious, painstaking and expensive work.

Ross’s research begins with collecting subsurface seawater that is unaffected by tides and wind. Pails and pails full of the stuff is collected several times a day and sieved to filter out anything larger than 63 microns. (A micron is one, one-thousandth of a millimetre.)

Later in the lab, the individual particles are first counted, then separated and mounted on slides that are put into a spectrometer. Pieces as small as five microns — about half the size of a red-blood cell and about a 20th of the width of a human hair — are scanned and compared with a database of 250,000 materials.

For the Arctic and Antarctic sampling, One Ocean Expeditions has agreed to outfit all three of its ships with a plastic lab and have its staff trained to do the sampling on all of its polar trips.

As John Nightingale, CEO of Ocean Wise, points out, this saves an enormous amount of scarce research money because it would cost tens of thousands of dollars a day to use a pure research ship that isn’t subsidized by tourists’ fares.

But how do these microfibres spread to remote locations and the seemingly pristine Arctic Ocean and the Southern Ocean that surrounds Antarctica?

A mesmerizing real-time wind map helps explain how airborne fibres and other pollutants from the middle of a continent might make it to the sea. Studies done on airborne chemical pollutants emitted in southern Europe and North America have found that they can get anywhere on the planet in eight to 10 days.

Similarly, ocean currents dodge continents and act as conveyer belts for everything from icebergs to microfibres.

Some of the ocean currents mapped by NASA’s Scientific Visualization Center bear an uncanny resemblance to the swirling sky in Van Gogh’s Starry Night. Others wrap the equator like a belt around Tweedledum’s girth.

A tangible example is the route taken by icebergs calved off the east coast of Greenland. They first go south before making a sharp right turn to head north up Baffin Bay to Lancaster Sound, where they make a sharp left turn to begin their stately procession south past Newfoundland.

Like wind currents, ocean currents are extremely effective, although slower, in moving pollutants. Within one to two years they can carry pollutants to the most remote parts of the world.

There is one caveat, says Ross.

“What we would find in Antarctica would typically reflect what’s going on in the Southern Hemisphere. The equatorial boundary is almost like a big curtain or barrier for ocean and atmospheric currents.”

Among the questions Ross hopes to answer with the sampling being done on this trip is whether microfibres are carried across the convergence — the line where Atlantic currents meet with the current that circles Antarctica.

Daphne Bramham is travelling as a guest of One Ocean Expeditions, which has neither approved nor reviewed her stories.

So, what can you do to help reduce microplastics and microfibres?

Don’t get hysterical. Until more data is in, leading researcher Peter Ross says some of these suggestions are just precautionary measures.

Fleece, however, has been fingered as a culprit. Every time a fleece jacket is washed, it potentially sends a million fibres into the wastewater system. But are nubbly fleece jackets worse than other synthetics? Nobody knows.

Don’t just dump your fleece jacket and other synthetic clothes in the garbage. In landfills, they’re also likely to shred, splinter and end up in oceans and air.

For now, recycling fleece isn’t really an option. So, consider the way you handle the stuff you’ve got. If you decide to keep wearing it, wash it less often. There are lint filters available for washing machines, but the jury is out on how effective they are.

Make better choices when you shop because all synthetics and all fleece aren’t created equal, nor are all washing machines. One study from the University of California, Santa Barbara, found that top-ending loading washers result in seven times more microfibres sluffing off a fleece jacket than front-loading washers.

Some fleece fabrics are woven flat with long threads and are less likely to shred than loosely woven acrylic sweaters. And remember, even polyester pants and rayon blouses give off a dust of microfibres when rubbed together.

There are eco-friendly options. But be careful. Marke Browne, a leading microplastics researcher, warns that many of the claims made aren’t supported by science.

It’s probably best to choose natural fabrics over synthetics, when you can. But be aware that even natural fabrics have their problems. Cotton is the most pesticide-ridden crop in the world and that’s not good for the environment either.

Wool? Well, Google ‘wool-industry pollution’ and millions of articles come up about everything ranging from air and water pollution caused by sheep’s fecal material to water pollution from the dying process to the hazards of mothproofing wool. Same for leather.

Avoid single-use plastics, such as shopping bags, bottles, straws, plastic cutlery and plastic-coated paper coffee cups. Almost everybody agrees on this. Even if all of them don’t break up into microfibres, some will. But even if they don’t, fewer single-use plastics mean cleaner beaches and it reduces the amount of garbage whirling in the gyres where the ocean currents meet.

Choose glass and metal drink containers over plastic or plastic-coated. Some places, including Vancouver airport, now have bottle-filling stations.

Still, don’t be dogmatic about it. There are places in the world where you’re better off drinking water from factory-sealed plastic bottles than risking getting potentially life-threatening waterborne diseases using a refilled metal bottle.

Finally, clean up beaches and waterways. But don’t forget to pick up the glass shards and metal bits along with the plastic.

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