Abstract

This article provides a review of past research on K-12 interactive
television (ITV) programs in the United States. While the number of web-based
distance learning courses is increasing, ITV is still widely used for K-12
learners. ITV allows students to communicate with remote teachers and classmates
in real time and to create a learning environment that is similar to face-to-face
instruction. The purpose of the article is to examine critical factors for
successful interactive television programs and provide suggestions for how
educators can best facilitate student learning in ITV environments.

Keywords

Interactive Television, Interaction, Social presence, Sense
of Community

Listoftopics

Interactive television (ITV) is one of the oldest delivery
methods in K-12 distance learning and teaching (Thomas,
2001). Many researchers have studied ITV classrooms since it was born.
ITV provides synchronous instruction that allows students to interact with
the remote teacher in real time. As technology advanced, a variety of delivery
formats in distance education have become available. Today, the number of web-based
distance learning courses for K-12 learners is increasing (Cavanaugh,
2004). While researchers' interests seem to have shifted from ITV to virtual
schools (Podoll & Randle,
2005),ITV is still widely used in K-12 schools across the nation (Ely,
2002). U.S. Department of Education has reported that 41 percent of K-12
distance education courses are delivered using ITV (Zandberg,
Lewis, & Greene, 2008). As with other form of distance education, sharing
qualified teachers in multiple locations is one major advantage of ITV. Because
of the lack of qualified teachers, over thirty thousand non-certified teachers
in California are teaching in high schools (Follo,
Hoerr, & Vorheis-Sargent, 2002). Teacher's professional qualification
significantly impacts on student learning (Heck,
2007). ITV can provide quality instruction for such disadvantaged
schools in a cost effective way.

Musial and Kampmueller (1996)
state that "ITV instructions are not dramatically different from traditional
teaching" (p.30).
Compared to face to face instruction, no significant disadvantages have been
found in learning outcomes (Jucks,
Paechter, & Tatar, 2003).Factors that affect student learning in a
traditional classroom also affect student learning in an ITV classroom (Kirby,
1998;Martin, 2005). The purpose of this
article is to discuss critical factors that affect students' success in ITV
classrooms.

According to Moore (1989),
there are three types of interaction: learner-content interaction, learner-instructor
interaction, and learner-learner interaction. He states that the use of a single
medium in instruction results in relying on one type of interaction, which
in turn, decreases the overall amount of interaction. Additionally, Hillman,
Willis, and Gunawardena (1994)
have proposed learner-interface interaction, which is a new aspect of interaction
that occurs in distance learning delivered using high technology, such as ITV
and Internet. According to Hillman et al., successful interaction in distance
learning is "highly dependent upon how comfortable the learner feels in
working with the delivery medium" (p.32).
For example, in the context of ITV, students who do not feel comfortable with
using microphones to interact with the instructor and other students may not
be involved in the class discussion during live broadcast as much as those
who feel comfortable with the system. Larson and Bruning (1996)
found that even though microphones are available for live interaction, ITV
students feel that they cannot ask questions during broadcast as freely as
they do in the regular classroom. Furthermore, Kelsey (2000)
identified camera shyness as a factor that interferes with classroom interaction.
In her study on two-way compressed video, more than a half of students reported
that they feel uncomfortable with asking questions when they are seeing themselves
on the TV monitor.

On the other hand, Kruh and Murphy (1990)
also proposed four different types of interaction that address unique characteristics
of the ITV environment. They are learner-instructor interaction, learner-learner
interaction within a local site, learner-learner interaction across sites,
and vicarious interaction (learner intraaction). Vicarious interaction can
occur both in distance learning or regular classroom environments. In ITV classrooms,
this type of interaction may take place when students see or hear other remote
students asking questions that they might have asked, or when students participate
in the discussion between remote sites silently. Fulford and Zhang (1993)
found that students' vicarious interaction within the class as a group is a
critical factor that affects students' satisfaction with ITV courses. Their
study showed that perceived overall interaction as a group impacts on student
satisfaction more strongly than perceived individual interaction with others.
Furthermore, they observed that both perceived level of interaction and students'
satisfaction decreased as learners were more exposed to ITV environments. The
students' expectation that interaction would increase as they become more familiar
with the system and a diminishing novelty effect are mentioned as the main
reasons for this. Thus, their study suggests that ITV instructors may need
to focus more on overall group dynamics and provide a variety of activities
to keep students motivated.

In addition to the perceived level of interaction, MacGregor
and Atkinson (2002-2003)
stress that the quality of interaction is equally important to enhance student
learning. They examined interaction in two-way video ITV classrooms at the
college level. The results showed that the highest level of interaction occurs
when discussion has a clear focus and the topic is given to students in advance.
Also, when teachers help students relate their own experiences to the topic,
participation of students is increased. Oliver and McLoughlin (1997)
also analyzed different forms of interaction that occur in ITV courses. They
divided interaction types into five groups: social, procedural, expository,
explanatory, and cognitive interaction. The results showed that the interaction
most frequently occurred in ITV is expository, which "involves answers
to direct questions, either teacher or student initiated"(p.21).
The level of cognitive interaction, such as teacher's feedback, to promote
students' reflection was the lowest. They observed that many ITV instructors
who participated in the study failed to further the communication to increase
understanding and deepen the knowledge after the initial conversation with
students. As a result, the duration of each exchange was short and this led
to low levels of cognitive interaction. They suggest that while ITV is capable
of facilitating cognitive interaction, creating exchanges that are in longer
duration with students requires instructors to have skills and experience.

Finally, research shows that remote students tend to have
less interaction with instructors than host site students (Sorensen & Baylen,
1999), and they are less involved in class activities (Gillies,
2008;Ritchie & Newby,
1989). Furthermore, students in remote sites perceive that the quality
of interaction in remote sites is significantly lower than that of the host
site (Lester, 2000). To sum up, all the
studies described above suggest that in order to enhance interaction in ITV
classrooms, instructors should design lessons carefully considering various
aspects that are unique to ITV environments.

Short et al. (1976)
state that although social presence can affect the way people perceive their
communication, it is "a quality of the medium, itself" (p.65).
Thus, the level of social presence varies depending on the media. They compared
the social presence of different media including face-to face, television,
multi-speaker audio system, telephone, and business letters. The results showed
that the levels of social presence in visual media are much higher than those
in non-visual media. The social presence of face-to face communication was
the highest, whereas business letters were the lowest. Television was ranked
second, but the difference between face-to-face and television was significant.
Multi-speaker audio systems were significantly higher on social presence than
telephones. Short et al. (1976)
also found that the size of the picture on the screen contributed to social
presence of the visual media. The media with higher social presence were viewed
as being more active rather than passive.

Based on their study, the social presence of ITV is assumed
to be higher than those of text-based online courses. Among the ITV delivery
formats, the level of social presence also can vary. One-way video systems
are lower on social presence than two-way video format because two-way video
provides visual communication channels for both the instructor and students,
which is closer to face-to-face communication. Similarly, the use of compressed
video and desktop videoconferencing systems is more likely to be lower on social
presence than instruction using a full motion video. In addition, since students
who view the class on tape due to schedule conflicts are unable to interact
with the instructor and other remote students during live class broadcasts,
they receive instruction more passively. Therefore, the social presence perceived
by tape-delayed students is expected to be lower than the social presence perceived
by students who participate in live classes.

It is important to note that the level of social presence
with two-way video is not the same as the social presence of face-to face.
Even with a two-way video system, depersonalized instruction occurs because
of a lack of physical contact with remote site students. In such environments,
students tend to see other students as objects on the screen and enter a "passive
'television watching' mode" (Hakes,
Cochenour, Rezabek, & Sachs, 1995, p.134). MacGregor and Atkinson (2002-2003)
further emphasize that although a two-way video format provides a visual connection
between the instructor and students, the face-to-face contact is still mediated.
As a result the number of communication channels such as eye contact and facial
expressions is reduced, which creates a lower level of social presence.

According to Short et al. (1976),
immediacy is related to social presence. Wiener and Mehrabian (1968)
originally defined immediacy as "the degree of directness and intensity
of interaction," which people perceive through verbal communication (p.
4). Later, the definition was expanded and researchers used the term "teacher
immediacy" to describe teachers' verbal and non-verbal behaviours that
minimize psychological distance between the instructor and the students (Gorham,
1988). The verbal immediacy behaviours include "actions such as using
personal examples, using humour, addressing students by name, praising students,
and initiating discussion" etc. (Hackman & Walker,
1990, p.200). The non-verbal immediacy behaviours include "gesturing,
smiling, maintaining a relaxed body position, using vocal variety, and touching" etc.
(p.200). By using
immediacy behaviours, an instructor can create a warm and risk taking learning
environment, and reduce student anxiety in remote sites (Hakes
et al., 1995). MacGregor and Atkinson (2002-2003)
stress that teacher immediacy increases interaction in ITV classrooms.

Richmond, Gorham, and McCroskey (1987)
studied the effects of teachers' non-verbal behaviours in a regular college
classroom. Vocal expressiveness, smiling, and relaxed body position significantly
influenced students' cognitive learning. Furthermore, verbal immediacy behaviour
also affected both students' affective and cognitive learning (Gorham,
1988). His study showed that as class size increases, a teacher's self-disclosure,
encouraging students' participation or asking questions, referring to class
as "our" class, instead of "this" class, all become important
factors for student learning. This suggests that in ITV with a large class
size, such as satellite-based programs, instructors may need to use teacher
immediacy more consciously in their lessons.

Hackman and Walker (1990)
examined teacher immediacy in an ITV classroom. Their study results were consistent
with the above research conducted in a more traditional face to face classroom
setting. Among teacher immediacy behaviours, individual attention, encouragement
to remote site students, and use of vocal variety were highlighted as the most
critical factors in promoting student satisfaction and learning. In addition,
their study revealed that teacher immediacy behaviours impact on student perceived
system effectiveness such as "the clarity of audio/visual transmission,
the technical ease of remote participation, and information transfer" (p.200).
For example, students found it easier to hear when instructors maintained a
relaxed posture and used a variety of vocal expressions. Instructors' humour
and smile also enhanced perceived information exchange. Their study clearly
suggests that teacher immediacy influences a student's perceived quality of
media, that is, social presence.

In addition to immediacy, intimacy is also related to social
presence (Short
et al., 1976). According to Argyle and Dean (1965),
the level of intimacy between two people is determined by equilibrium of various
components, including eye contact, physical distance, intimacy of topic, amount
of smiling, etc. Short et al. (1976)
state that social presence also affects intimacy. In ITV classrooms, the lack
of eye contact is often described as one of the major disadvantages (MacGregor & Atkinson,
2002-2003). Physical distance between the instructor and remote students
is inevitable. Tape delayed students may perceive a lower level of social presence.
Thus, the theory of intimacy suggests that to maintain the optimum equilibrium
other components must compensate for the deficiency of those elements.

Saenz and Lockee (2004)
state that interaction affects social presence. As mentioned earlier, student
attitudes towards a medium can influence the level of social presence (Short
et al., 1976). Since students' positive attitude towards courses is associated
with the amount of interaction (Morehouse,
Hoaglund, & Schmidt, 1987), the more interaction takes place using
a medium, the more positive attitude students may have toward the medium. As
a result, the level of social presence increases.

In summary, social presence impacts on student learning in
ITV classrooms. To enhance social presence, instructors should increase the
use of teacher immediacy and interaction. Social presence, teacher immediacy,
and interaction can also develop intimacy between the instructor and students,
which in turn minimizes negative effects of physical and psychological distance.

Cyrs and Conway (1997)
stipulate that ITV instructors should have effective verbal and nonverbal communication
skills. Not only communication during the session on TV, but also communication
outside the classroom is important. A variety of media such as email, fax,
telephone, and printed materials should be used on a regular basis as a communication
tool (Anderson & Kent,
2002;Clifford, 1990).

Generally, distance learning requires advance preparation
and more time for designing and developing courses (Cyrs & Conway,
1997). Thus, strong organization skills are required. Moreover, creativity
is critical for successful ITV programs (Gerstein,
2000). Providing a variety of activities is important (Sorensen & Baylen,
1999). For example, occasional group activities within a site (Tykwinski & Poulin,
1991) and opportunities to work together across sites allow students to
learn multiple perspectives and obtain feedback from others (Squire & Johnson,
2000).

Pacing has also been mentioned is as an important factor for
sustained interest and attention of remote site students (Tykwinski & Poulin,
1991). While students have said that ITV instruction moves faster than
regular classroom instruction and does at times make it difficult to catch
up (Harris, 1997), slow paced instruction
has had a negative impact on student attention and interest.The lengthy lecture
type presentation, the slow pace of instruction, and the lack of entertaining
elements lead to students being less attentive to the class presentation (Kubota,
1999; Martin 2005). Thus, ITV instructors
should "make broadcast instruction as entertaining and attractive as possible
for the young TV generation," as well as pay attention to the pace of
instruction (Kubota, 1999, p.339). It has
also been suggested that instructors should make efforts to provide relevant
and useful activities that can help students achieve their personal learning
goals in order to increase student motivation (Oxford,
Park-Oh, Ito, & Sumrall, 1993).

Moore and Thompson (1990)
emphasize the importance of the use of printed materials in distance learning
environments. Printed materials can enhance student learning as much as graphics
or audio materials created using computer software. According to Cyrs and Conway
(1997), many students
have poor note-taking skills. Especially in an ITV environment, students have
experienced more difficulties in note-taking during the televised presentation
and seemed "less interest in topics presented" on TV (Denton,
Clark, Rossing, & O'Connor, 1984-85, p.297).Moreover, Offir, Bezarel,
and Barth (2007)
report that introvert students tend to feel a high level of tension during
broadcasts because they feel that they must write down every single word spoken
by the instructor. The provision of class handouts can help direct students'
attention to key concepts of the lesson (Cyrs, & Conway,
1997) and reduce their anxiety for missing important materials (Offir
et al., 2007).

It has also been stressed that ITV instructors "should
be familiar with television technology" (Cyrs, & Conway,
1997, p.211). Instructor's knowledge of the system greatly enhances the
presentation and can minimize any problems that arise (Lester,
2000; Anderson & Kent,
2002). For example, if a problem with audio, computer display or overhead
cameras occurs during live broadcast, instructors may not be able to use some
materials prepared for the lesson. Thus, ITV instructors need to be more flexible
and should always have a backup plan in case the technology fails them (Levitch & Milheim,
2003).

Finally, Barker (1991)
maintains that distance education teachers should understand and model principles
of effective teaching, and know how to best use the telecommunication medium
to deliver their instruction. A recent study has revealed that while most ITV
instructors receive technical training on how to use the equipment, few are
provided with pedagogical training on creating effective ITV classrooms (Anderson,
2008). Especially in ITV environments, instructors' ability "to articulate,
pace, image, and personalize" has been underlined (Cyrs, & Conway,
1997, p.211). Instructors' behaviours seem to have comparatively higher
impact in ITV classroom more than in regular classrooms (Optiz,
1996). Thus, ITV instructors should use corresponding strategies carefully,
and always be well prepared for a lesson.

In order to increase student participation, an instructor
should "create an atmosphere that encourages questions and promote a sense
of community" among learners (Levitch & Milheim,
2003, p.45). A sense of community contributes to the quality of interactions,
which in turn, facilitates student learning. Rovai and Lucking (2003)
have found that a sense of community among ITV students is significantly lower
than that of regular classroom students. Other studies also show that many
of the high school students in ITV classrooms do not feel they are part of
a larger group (Learmont, 1990). Especially,
remote students often express a feeling of exclusion (Lester,
2000;MacGregor & Atkinson,
2002-2003).

Sarason (1974) first
introduced the theory of sense of community. Based on the theory, MacMillan
and Chavis (1986)
described elements involved in a sense of community: membership, influence,
integration, fulfilment of needs, and shared emotional connection. Later, those
elements were rearranged and renamed as spirit, trust, trade, and art (MacMillan,
1996). Spirit consists of three categories: emotional safety, boundaries,
and sense of belonging. To create a community, people must feel safe to tell "the
truth" to other members. Boundaries develop such emotional safety and
provide "the logistical time/place settings for a group or to be a group" (MacMillan,
1996, p.317). Boundaries define who belongs to a community and who does
not. Acceptance, caring, and recognition by a community promote emotional safety
and sense of belonging. Trust involves shared responsibility and shared authority.
To develop trust, each member of a community must know what they are expected
to do in the community, and share authority among members. Once trust has been
established, a community begins to trade. Self-disclosures are the media of
trade. When people trust each other and find a social setting where they feel
safe from shame, they begin to share their feelings with each other. Finally,
art refers to shared experiences and it is essential for developing a community.
To share experiences among members, contact and high quality of interaction
are required (MacMillan, 1996).

The communities that influence people most are not necessarily
connected within the same geographical location (Hill,
1996). This suggests that it is possible to develop a higher level of sense
of community in an ITV environment where remote sites are spread in different
geographical areas, even across the nation. Furthermore, Hill states that psychological
sense of community is setting-specific. What aspect of communities can facilitate
a sense of community varies depending on the context. Factors promoting a sense
of community in ITV classrooms are assumed to be different from those in regular
classrooms. Even within ITV, characteristics of individual programs including
students' age, content areas, the number of sites involved, and one-way or
two-way video are different. Consequently, educators may need to consider the
uniqueness of an individual ITV program in order to facilitate a sense of community.

Several techniques to increase a sense of community in ITV
classroom have been recommended among which the use of teacher immediacy (MacGregor & Atkinson,
2002-2003;Rifkind, 1993). Since
teacher immediacy enhances personalized instruction, it is certainly effective
to increase the level of "emotional safety" and "sense of belonging" described
by MacMillan (1996). As suggested earlier,
instructors who use immediacy techniques can promote relationships with remote
students and decrease psychological distance between instructors and students
(Hackman & Walker,
1990).

Collaborative learning is another effective way to develop
a sense of community. Many researchers emphasize the importance of collaborative
learning to increase student interaction (Cavanaugh,
1999,Levitch & Milheim,
2003). Oliver and McLoughlin's 1997 study shows that the interactions that
take place "in a supportive and collaborative context" promote students'
thinking and reflection in the learning process (p.11).
Collaborative learning provides an environment where students receive social
support from each other. In such an environment, using the terms defined by
MacMillan (1996), learners become able
to build "trust", and facilitate "trade" and "art" among
themselves. In addition, when distance students learn collaboratively with
peers, dropout rates tend to decrease (Levitch & Milheim,
2003).

Similarly, a learner-cantered classroom facilitates rapport
among students (Smyth, 2005;Walcott,
1996) and produces the high quality of student outcomes (Miller,
2007). In a learner-centred classroom, students become less dependent on
the instructor. As a result, interaction among students increases (Levitch & Milheim,
2003) and they become more involved in class activities (Squire & Johnson,
2000). In a learner-centred classroom, instructors are facilitators for
student learning (Purcell & Purcell,
2000). As a member of the classroom community, instructors provide demonstration,
feedback, and guidance (Squire & Johnson,
2000).

Finally, Pretty, Conroy, Dugay, and Fowler (1996)
mention that social support can facilitate a sense of community, but it is
not necessarily dependent upon actual experience. If people feel that social
support is available to them when they are needed, such perceptions can promote
a sense of community. Individuals' perception of a sense of community also
affects acceptance of social support. If adolescents feel that they are not
accepted as members of a community, "they may choose not to access the
resources and opportunities afforded by the community" (p.368).
Research on ITV classrooms shows that while a toll-free number is provided
to interact with the instructor for asking questions or receiving learning
guidance, many ITV students do not use this system because they are not comfortable
with calling (Kirby, 1998). This may
indicate that those ITV students did not use such support systems because they
felt that they were not accepted as members of the group. In other words,
they did not perceive "a sense of community."

One of the most important roles of the facilitator is to mediate
between the instructor and students to reduce psychological distance between
them (Willis, 1992;Yi & Majima,
1993). Researchers suggest that facilitators and instructors should establish "a
close working relationship" (Yi & Majima,
1993, p.28) and work as a team (Boverie
et al., 1997). Facilitators should be a mentor, or the role model that
shows students how to participate in the class (MacGregor & Atkinson,
2002-2003). They must know how to bring enthusiasm to students (Hakes
et al., 1995). Reminders and encouragements by facilitators are important
for remote site students. Especially, when a large number of sites are involved,
interaction decreases, and the facilitators' role becomes more important (MacGregor & Atkinson,
2002-2003). Yi and Majima (1993)
also found that facilitators' active involvement and commitment affects their
relationship with the learners. "The uneasy relationship between facilitator
and students" cause students' negative attitudes towards the course, which
in turn affect their learning (p.26).

As the finding presented above indicate, for students to be
successful in ITV classrooms, a facilitator's role should not be limited to
routine responsibilities such as turning on and off the TV, taking attendance,
taping classes, distributing materials, posting test or quiz schedules, etc.
However, many school administrators often perceive facilitators' roles as technical
assistants who carry out routine clerical work (Yi & Majima,
1993). Because of such misconceptions, school administrators tend to select
whoever is available. As a result the quality of facilitators and their level
of involvement vary considerably across sites. Some schools select teachers
of the content areas of the ITV courses as facilitators, whereas other schools
select teachers outside the content areas, librarians, and school secretaries
(Anderson, 2008;Moore
et al. 1990). Having facilitators who are knowledgeable in the content
areas as has been perceived as a great advantage by learners because they feel
that they can understand the class content better with their facilitator's
help (Larson & Bruning,
1996). On the other hand, even if facilitators are not able to answer students'
questions about the content area, students feel that facilitators help them
keep on track with their class work (Yi & Majima,
1993).

One reason for the disparity in facilitator quality is that
selecting teachers in the content areas of the ITV courses is not always possible
(Yi & Majima, 1993). Many
remote sites may not be able to find teachers in the content areas that are
less commonly taught at schools. Even selecting teachers outside the content
areas for facilitators may be difficult for some schools. Because of teacher
shortage in public schools (Follo
et al., 2002) all full-time teachers may already be assigned for other
school related responsibilities in addition to teaching their own classes.
Thus, schools may have to recur to other available school personnel who can
at least take care of routine work. Kirby (1998)
observed that even school administrators such as assistant principals act as
facilitators. In such cases, due to other responsibilities as administrators,
they are often unable to be present in the classroom during broadcasts. Since
they are administrators, no substitute fills in the position when they miss
the class. Absence of facilitators in the classroom significantly affects student
learning. High school students taking a satellite program have experienced
more difficulties in concentrating in the ITV classroom than in a regular classroom
(Levine, 1989). Yet, when facilitators
are not present in the classroom, students find it even more difficult to pay
attention to the presentation (Kirby, 1998)
and tend to talk with classmates during broadcasts (Robinson & West,
1986). A facilitator's function becomes even more important when students
view the class on tape-delay (Moore
et al., 1990). This indicates that the absence of facilitators' physical
presence in the ITV classroom may impact more on tape-delayed students than
on students who view the live class.

In summary, both instructors and facilitators need to be aware
of the importance of facilitators in the ITV classroom and work cooperatively
to enhance student learning. Remote schools should ensure a facilitator's quality
to increase student success in ITV courses. Especially, students who are less
motivated and lack self-discipline skills need more support from facilitators.
If those students are forced to view the class on tape due to scheduling conflicts,
a facilitator's physical presence is highly recommended.

Technical difficulties can lead to student frustration and
dissatisfaction with the course (Anderson & Kent,
2002;Learmont, 1990;Lester,
2000). In ITV environments, poor audio quality is one of the major
technical problems that hinder interaction, which in turn affects student learning
(Azin-Manley & Olson,
1997). An audio echo is often inevitable when remote students talk back
using telephones to interact with the instructor during live broadcasts (Barker,
1991). This makes it difficult for remote students to hear conversation
through the TV. In order to minimize such problems, each local site should
have a separate technical support person other than facilitators (Azin-Manley & Olson,
1997). This seems particularly important if the program is delivered using
a two-way video system such as compressed video as more technical knowledge
may be required to fix problems.

Kubota (1999) reported that
the school participated in her study often had a problem with taping the broadcast.
Sometimes, the beginning part of the program was cut off and the audio quality
was poor. Azin-Manley and Olson (1997)
have observed an interrelationship between student drop out numbers and frequent
technical problems. Their study illustrates that learners who were in the course
with the highest drop out rate tended to have more technical problems. When
schools had problems with receiving transmission, it often took 20 to 25 minutes
for the system to be repaired. Consequently, students wasted class time. Thus,
in ITV classrooms, technical difficulties can cause a long duration of "down
time" in remote sites (Robinson & West,
1986). Without any doubt, such down time period can affect student attitude
and motivation, especially low achieving students who tend to be less motivated
from the outset of a course. Research confirms that as a result of technical
hitches, "even the best of students tended to become discouraged and had
trouble refocusing on the course once the technical problems were overcome" (Roblyner & Marshall,
2002-2003, p.252). Thus, having trained technical staffs available for
remote schools is critical in ITV classrooms. It is equally important that
each local school has reliable equipment and should not neglect the regular
maintenance.

In addition, inconsistency of the audio signals ranging from
weak to loud has caused learners anxiety and distracts them from the presentation
(MacGregor & Atkinson,
2002-2003). As described earlier, students' perceptions of visual and audio
quality can affect a level of social presence (Short
et al., 1976). Thus, technical staffs at the host site should be well trained
and knowledgeable of the effects of the audio and visuals on reception sites.

The factors discussed in this article are interrelated. Instructors'
effectiveness and quality of facilitators affect interaction, social presence,
and sense of community. Technical problems impact on a student's motivation
to keep up with the class work. Moreover, administrative support has been shown
to be indispensable for making the entire ITV system work effectively. Selecting
quality facilitators, providing technical workshop opportunities, and arranging
technical support are administrators' roles (Cambre & Hawkes,
2001). Willis (1992) observed that "effective
distance education requires the integrated efforts of several participant groups,
including students, faculty, facilitators, support staff, and administrators" (p.35).
The research on ITV classrooms presented and summarized in this article confirms
the validity of his statement. In order to increase student success in ITV
classrooms all parties involved need to cooperate and make a conscious effort
to create an effective learning environment.

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