3. Case study: Senegal

3.1 The country and the population

Senegal has a total surface area of ca. 197,000 km and thus is
somewhat smaller than the Federal Republic of Germany (250,000 km). In 1988
there was a population of approximately 7.1 mil inhabitants with a growth rate
of 2.9 %. On the average the population density is about 35 inhabitants per km this varies considerably from 6 per kmast Senegal to 2500 per kmhe Cap Vert region. 70 % of the Senegalese people live in rural areas. The
rapid rural exodus is creating a population explosion in Dakar, the capital, as
well as the Cap Vert region. (Statistisches Bundesamt, 1987; Nohlen, 1989)

The country has relatively few natural resources, phosphate
being the most important. The main share of the gross national product is
covered by agricultural products, representing 20 - 30 % of the total, whereby
great fluctuations occur depending on the climate. Since Senegal is the world's
largest exporter of groundnuts, the record harvest in 1987/88 of 950,000 tons
severely depressed the world market price. Approximately 1/4 of the turnover of
the industry in Senegal is generated by oil mills. About half of the industrial
products are exported, mainly groundnut products, tinned fish, phosphate, shoes
and textiles. Transportation routes have been built up relatively well for
African conditions. (Statistisches Bundesamt, 1987; Nohlen, 1989)

Senegal along with six other West African countries belongs to
the Communaut FinanciŠre Africaine, which issues the franc CFA
currency unit. It has a fixed exchange rate of 50 CFA to the French franc.
Therefore, currency exchange problems do not exist to the extent known in other
countries of the Third World. The importation of goods is thus easier within
certain limits. In 1987 the expenditures for imports were covered by exports to
58 % (Nohlen, 1989).

3.2 Natural endowment

Climate

The south of Senegal has a wet and try tropical climate with a
rainy season from June to October. In the north there is a semiarid climate with
only a 3-month rainy season and an uncertain amount of rainfall. The
precipitation ranges from 1200 mm per annum in the southwest to 300 mm in the
north of the country. (Statistisches Bundesamt, 1987) It is being observed that
from the northeast to the southwest aridity is on the increase, thus changing
the overall agricultural production systems.

Soils and topography

Senegal is predominantly flat; the existing slight rolling hills
are seldom higher than 200 m. The soils are mostly sandy (Sols Ferrugineux
Tropicaux -FS; Alfisol -USST) to clayey (Sols Ferralitiques -FS; Ultisol -
USST). In some regions as in the Casamance rough relief is encountered, in which
soil types change drastically within short distances between plateaus, slopes
and valleys. On the slopes the soil is often clayey, in part with iron
concretions which are difficult to till. In the valleys heavy alluvial soils
(Sols Hydromorphes - FS) are found. The soils on plateaus and slopes are
characterized by very rapid compaction during the dry season and render soil
preparation most difficult (Fall and Ndiame, 1988a). Sandy soils are less
fertile and have a weak structure. Surface crusting and compaction become a
problem. Macropores can only be created on the basis of biological activity.

The coastal zone is flat, with the exception of the steep coast
of Cap Vert, which is of volcanic origin (Statistisches Bundesamt, 1987).

3.3 Agriculture

3.3.1 Background information

In 1984, 5.22 mil ha of arable land and permanent crops were
registered. Approximately 2/3 of the gainfully employed inhabitants work in
agriculture. They produce about 1/3 of the net export profits, especially from
groundnuts and groundnut products and to a lesser extent from cotton. Staple
foods are millet, rice, maize, beans, cassava and groundnuts. In the densely
populated coastal regions vegetables are also grown. Tree crops are oranges,
mangoes, bananas, coconuts and oilpalm. (Statistisches Bundesamt, 1987)

The two crops, groundnuts and millet, alone cover 88 % of the
cultivated land; they are produced across the whole of the country except for
the Senegal river valley. Cotton production takes up only about 1/20. It is
found primarily in Senegal Oriental and Casamance. 67 % of the groundnut
production originates from Sine-Saloum. Sorghum is grown especially south of
Kaolack and rice in Casamance; dry rice is found in Senegal Oriental and paddy
rice along the Senegal river. Maize cropping occurs only on a few areas in the
south of Sine-Saloum, but mainly in Casamance and Senegal Oriental.
Nib cropping occurs throughout the whole country, however is more
prevalent near Louga. (Havard, 1988a)

Depending upon the weather conditions the yields of the
individual crops fluctuate significantly in different years. On the whole, food
production per inhabitant has declined approximately 1/3 in the past 10 years.
Under a "new agricultural policy" an increase and diversification of own
production of staple foods (millet, maize, rice) is to be achieved with a
corresponding reduction of food imports, especially rice. (Statistisches
Bundesamt, 1987 and 1985)

Animal husbandry only plays a small role in agricultural
production. Cattle are reared predominantly in the north of the country and
represent the most important activity with 2.2 mil animals (1985).
(Statistisches Bundesamt, 1987)

3.3.2 Status of animal traction

Animal traction is considerably widespread in Senegal. More than
30 % of all the farms use draft animals (Starkey, 1988b). In contrast, in 1984
only 460 tractors and 145 combine harvesters were registered in the country
(Statistisches Bundesamt, 1987).

In no other country of francophone Africa in the past has so
much effort gone into the promotion of animal traction as in Senegal. For this
reason there is hardly an animal-drawn implement in Africa that has not been
tested in this country, either in this or a similar version. (Bordet et al.,
1988) The dissemination of animal traction here was particularly associated with
the expansion of groundnut cropping.

Today, the number of draft animals is given as ca. 520,000, of
which 200,000 are horses, 180,000 donkeys and 130,000 cattle (Starkey, 1988b).
Since there is a good market for meat of young draft oxen they are considered to
be a very economic investment (compare section D 5). In 1981 about 26 % of the
draft cattle were cows (Lhoste, 1986). The utilization of cows offers the
possibility of having trained animals over a long time span and to assure
reproduction (compare section D 1.3.1).

In the This, Diourbel and Louga regions horses represent the
greatest share of work animals, while in the south of the country oxen
predominate in the Casamance region. Donkeys are used in the north and the east.
Correspondingly, one can observe a transition from the donkey to the horse and
then oxen with increasing humidity. The suppression of the tsetse fly due to
aridity is an advantage for the penetration of the donkey in the south.

After initially being used for groundnuts and later also for
other crops (cotton and grain) the Super Eco was overtaken by light cultivators
for weed control and for surface soil preparation in terms of sales figures.
(Bordet et al., 1988)

The increase of sales of animal-drawn implements during the
years 1960 - 1979 (figure F 12) must be viewed in connection with the "Programme
Agricole" operational in this period in Senegal. Credits for procurement of
inputs was made available to the farmers within the framework of this scheme,
which was discontinued in 1980 because of open debts accrued by some
cooperatives (Havard, 1988a). This directly affected a reduction of sales of
implements. The decline is less attributed to the lower real demand of the
farmers for implements than to the poor capability of building up capital. The
farmers reacted by continuing to utilize their old implements in their poor
condition, thus negatively affecting the work operations. (Havard, 1985)

The development of animal traction occurred primarily in the
"Bassin Arachidier". 82 % of the implements sold since 1950 went to the area,
comprising the Thi Diourbel, Louga and Sine-Saloum regions. Sgal
Occidental received only 9 % of the total, including however 30 % of the ridgers
and plows. Casamance region absorbed 9 % of the sold implements, which consisted
of 50 % of the plows and 65 % of the ridgers. Animal traction has not been
disseminated in the remaining regions. (Havard, 1988b)

In subsequent sections of this text the plow, ridger, Super Eco
seeder, groundnut lifter and multipurpose Houe occidentale, Houe sine, Arara,
Ariana and the polyculteur are introduced for each individual work operation.
The implements available in Senegal are almost exclusively manufactured by
SISMAR in Dakar. This company also offers other implements, which have however
hardly found acceptance in agricultural practice. This also applies for
prototypes.

3.4.2 Soil Preparation

Soil preparation with a animal-drawn plow was for a long time
the object of the extension service programme in Senegal. However, the plow is
not accepted by the farmers in the north of the country and in the Sine-Saloum
region. The main reason is that the vegetation period is very brief in these
drier regions. Sowing must take place as early as possible. A prior intensive
soil preparation during the dry season is not possible in the dry and hard soil.
Soil preparation after the first rain would delay the sowing date considerably
and thus increase the risk for the yield and harvesting.

For this reason direct sowing with the seeder without previous
soil preparation is prevalent in the northern drier part of Sine-Saloum, while
in the south only a surface soil preparation occasionally takes place with the
cultivator.

In contrast, the longer vegetation period in the more humid
areas of Casamance allows a more intensive soil preparation. In this region
crops are traditionally grown on ridges. Here, the plow has been used for
seedbed preparation and to some extent for building up of ridges. A more
intensive soil preparation is necessary, among other things, because of the high
weed growth in wetter regions. Estimates assume that a large proportion of the
plows in Senegal are to be found in this region The practice of superficial soil
preparation, as is conducted in Sine-Saloum, has moved in recent years to
approximately 200 km to the south.Harrows have not been seen in agricultural
practice.

Plow

Two plows from SISMAR are being offered: the CFOOOP conventional
plow with the Huard body (8" or 10") weighing 38 kg (figure F 14) and a 10"
reversible (two-way turnover) plow with 2 bodies weighing 50 kg, which however
is not widespread. According to company brochures both plows function at a
working depth of 18 -20 cm and an average draft power of 70 -80 kp.

In Senegal the Huard plow body, especially with the CROOOP
conventional plow and as a tool for the Arara cultivator, appears to have become
widespread. This plow requires a team of animals (as a rule oxen).

Ridger

SISMAR offers a ridging body, which can be mounted on
multipurpose implements. In eastern Senegal and Casamance it is often found in
combination with the Arara multicultivator, which is most widespread there.
Another ridging body has been introduced from the Gambia to Casamance and is
occasionally employed with the frame of the CFOOOP plow, after the "Programme
Agricole" was discontinued in 1980 and no further credits were offered. It
appears to achieve a better result in some situations. (Fall, 1985 in Bordet et
al., 1988)

3.4.3 Sowing

The Super Eco seeder was already introduced in 1930 for planting
groundnuts and had substantial distribution. The implement is equipped with a
furrow opener, two seed covering scrapers (adjustable in height) and a press
roller. The exchangeable slanting spacing wheel assures a careful handling of
the seed, which is particularly important for groundnuts (figure F 15). The
deeper point of gravity of the implement and its low weight facilitates
handling. For transport the tools can be set to a higher position. The Super Eco
is adapted to the draft power of the donkey (25 -30 kp) or horses (35 - 40 kp):
with coulter, furrow opener and duckfoot shares it requires 20 kp on sandy soil
and 30 kp on soils with a higher clay content (Havard, 1988a).

The implement received a good assessment from all the
respondents and contacts. Its success is especially attributed to its
appropriateness for direct seeding, which corresponds to the traditional method
of sowing in some regions. In addition, the seed covering scrapers mounted on
the implement simultaneously take care of weed control during sowing, an
operation that is traditionally done by the farmers after the emergence. Seeding
can be also done on low ridges because of the two side wheels (Metzger, 1988).

In practice the accessories, such as the knife coulter or the
marking stick are not used by the farmers (Bordet et al., 1988). The furrow
opener is often welded tight, in order not to become lost, even if it is no
longer possible to adjust the working depth (Havard, 1988a).

The pre-condition for the utilization of the Super Eco is a
field free of roots and harvest residues. Its use has displaced the work peak
from sowing to weed control as a result of the now possible expansion of cropped
area. The farmers often sow the greatest possible area and during weed control
they can first assess how much they really will manage to tend depending on the
climatic conditions (Metzger, 1988).

The Tamba seeder is used for sowing cotton; it deposits the 5 -
6 seeds in pockets at a spacing of 15 -25 cm. The implement is considered
inefficient due to the uneven distribution of the seed (Havard, 1988a).

Because of its rapid pace the horse is usually used for sowing.
Frequently, children are given the task of seeding and weed control with
animal-drawn implements.

The Super Eco has a varying distribution corresponding to the
types of crops and cropping methods:

3.4.4 Weed control

This work operation is carried out almost exclusively with
multipurpose toolbars having 3 or 5 cultivating tools, which are suited for both
weed control and surface soil preparation. In addition, they can be equipped
with a ridger, plow body or groundnut lifter.

For the following two implements a width adjustment of maximum
45 cm is possible (the spacing of the groundnut rows is between 50 and 60 cm).
As a rule only one draft animal is used for this work operation, normally the
horse or donkey. (Bordet et al., 1988)

Houe Occidentale

The Houe Occidentale is a light cultivator. It can be used with
3 or 5 cultivating tools or 3 chisel-plow tines and can easily be adjusted for
width without the aid of a spanner. Moreover, a ridger or a plow body (6 or 8")
can be obtained for this implement and groundnut lifters manufactured by
artisans are often utilized. It weighs 18 - 25 kg. (figure F 16)

The Houe Occidentale has achieved similar success to the Super
Eco in Senegal. In contrast to our experience that weed control as a rule is
mechanized before seeding with draft animals (compare section E 1.4), the
cultivator (here the Houe Occidentale) required a longer introduction period
than the seeder. Its wide distribution is however attributed to the fact that
the draft power of the donkey is sufficient for the task of weed control, as is
the case with the Super Eco.

Houe Sine

The Houe Sine is a medium-weight cultivator. The tools can be
adjusted in width simply without a spanner (figure F 17). It can be equipped
with 3 cultivating tools, 3 chisel-plow tines, a ridger, a plow body (8 - 10")
or a groundnut lifter. It is used primarily with cultivating tools. It is also
used in combination with the Firdou groundnut lifter, and to some extent with
the ridger or plow body (both for draft oxen).

It weighs 30 - 45 kg. Since it was subsidized after 1966 it
costed about the same price as the lighter Houe Occidentale, which boosted the
sales of the Houe Sine

The only implement used for harvesting is the groundnut lifter;
the sales have increased appreciably in recent years There were an estimated
67,000 groundnut lifters in 1983. The low number of lifters in Casamance is
attributed to the widespread cropping on ridges; the implement is less suited
for this method. The figures in table F 7 reflect merely the industrially
manufactured implements. Havard (in Bordet et al., 1988) estimates that 60 % of
all groundnut lifters (frame and tools) in Senegal originated from local
workshops and the tools (shares) for the majority of the remaining implements
from industrial manufacturing are made by artisans. For the past 15 years the
same tool model (Arara Firdou) has been sold; it can be mounted on all
multipurpose toolbars offered by SISMAR. This a type of sweep share manufactured
in 200, 350 and 500 mm widths. The 350 mm share has found the widest
distribution. Hand-manufactured shares are often used, which are poorer in
quality but 6 - 7 times cheaper than the Firdou. These are the only animal-drawn
implements that the farmers can purchase without taking advantage of credit
facilities. (Bordet et al., 1988) Arara The Arara multipurpose toolbar was
developed initially for groundnut harvesting. The same mounting tools can be
used for the heavy frame as for the Houe Sine, aside from the fact that 5
chisel-plow tines can be attached (figure F 18). (Bordet et al., 1988) Also
called the Araire the implement weighs 31 - 46 kg, depending upon the mounted
equipment. A team of two animals is required for draft power.

The Arara has been distributed as a toolbar for the groundnut
lifter in the groundnut region, and for the plow and ridger body in
cotton-growing areas. 18,000 were sold by SODEFITEX from 1976 to 1979. Aside
from Senegal it has become widespread in Benin, Niger and the Ivory Coast. Since
its development was primarily directed to utilization for digging groundnuts it
is quite cumbersome to handle for plowing. Further disadvantages are the high
draft power required, rapid rusting of the bolts and the necessity of a spanner
for mounting the tool to the frame. (Bordet et al., 1988)

3.4.6 Transport

The distribution of carts take third place (figure F 12),
following seeders and light cultivators. Air-filled tires are used on the carts
(figure F 19) offered by SISMAR having various sizes and weights, depending upon
the type of animals used. The carts have hardly changed appearance since the
independence of Senegal in 1960. Some have been in use for a long time. Often
they have been distributed under the auspices of development programmes.

As table F 8 shows, the largest proportion of donkey and horse
carts are located in areas where the tsetse fly is less prevalent. The figures
do not include the carts manufactured by local artisans, which have been usually
built from scrap metal for a number of years.

3.4.7 Multifunctional implements

Most of the above mentioned implements are multipurpose toolbars
that have achieved special importance for certain work operations. The Houe
Occidentale and the Houe Sine are used primarily for weed control and surface
soil preparation; the Arara has mainly become significant in the harvesting of
groundnuts. Further multipurpose implements of relevance are: Ariana The
implement is heavier and more stable than the Houe Sine and is equipped with
wheels on both sides, thus facilitating transport. (figure F 20) It can be used
with 6 to 8 hoeing implements, one ridger, 1 - 2 plow body (10"), one reversible
plow having two bodies (1/4 turn) or a groundnut lifter. It weights 58 - 92 kg,
depending upon the equipment. It corresponds to the Brazilian Policultor 600,
which was developed in cooperation with CEEMAT.

The Ariana offers the possibility of working two rows
simultaneously when sowing or carrying out weed control. Multi-row implements
however have generally not been accepted in practice. At the end of the 1970s
the Ariana was sold at a subsidized price which included the plow, ridger,
cultivator and groundnut lifter. This entire implement array was cheaper than
the package without the plow. At the same time, the Houe Sine with a chisel plow
and groundnut lifter was also offered at a subsidized price, equal to 1/4 the
price of the Ariana. The tools delivered with the Houe Sine were actually those
needed by the farmers. For this reason only a limited number of the Ariana could
be sold. (Bordet et al., 1988) All implements are pulled by oxen. Polyculteur
(Wheeled toolcarrier) The Polyculteur has hardly been used in agricultural
practice. The heavy model, "rand rendement" costs 22 times as much as the
Houe Sine and therefore only a few are found. It has been purchased by
experimental stations and wealthy farmers. Ariana and Polyculteur are often
considered to be status symbols (Pocthier, 1988). If one considers the
difficulties occurring with the maintenance and servicing of simple implements
and that the supply of spare parts is not attractive to the artisan due to the
low distribution rate, then it is understandable why this implement will be
found in a defective condition (figure F 21) (for further reasons why the
implement has been a failure see Starkey, 1988a). (Photo: Schmitz)

3.5. Regional cropping practices and implement use

Two regions, Bassin Arachidier and Basse Casamance, are now
described in more detail.

A middle zone covers a width of 60 km from Fatik via Kaolack to
Koungheul between the Isohyeten which have 500 to 600 mm rainfall. Here there is
a transition from the Houe Occidentale to the Houe Sine and a higher incidence
of the industrially manufactured Firdou groundnut lifter. 80 % of the farms have
available the seeder and cultivator implement package for harnessing horses, in
part with the groundnut lifter (65 %). (Havard, 1988b)

In the southern zone between the Isohyeten of 600 to 800 mm the
donkey is replaced gradually with oxen and the proportion of horses remains the
same. Non tillage or some superficial working of the soil is practised. Thereby
an area performance of 5 h/ha is achieved. Plowing, which would require 25 h/ha,
is not done (Metzger, 1988). In addition, the chisel plow can be used as a
cultivator for weed control. The Houe Sine replaces the Houe Occidentale. In the
Nioro region, located in this zone, the following array of implements is found:
cultivator (1.5 per farm <carrt; especially the Houe Sine), seeder (1.45),
groundnut lifter (1.1) and cart (0.58). The plow and the ridger are seldom found
here. (Havard, 1988b)

Also, in traditional cropping on the level of manual labour,
only a superficial loosening and weed control is done with the "iler" (figure F
24).

Basse Casamance

In the Basse Casamance region there is a wet and dry climate
with an annual precipitation of 1000 mm. Plateaus and valleys alternate; in
addition a large flood plains exists.

Animal traction (including for transportation) is utilized on 36
% of the farms in the lower Casamance. Two prevalent cropping systems exist with
a varying labour distribution between the sexes: the Mandingue system, named
after the Mandingue minority and the Diola system, which represents 83 % of the
population (Fall and Ndiame, 1988a):

- the Mandingue system (zone A, figure F 23): In this zone the
men cultivate the plateau and the women are responsible for the rice crop. The
"donkotong" (similar to the daba for ridged crops, section F 2.5.1) is the hand
tool used mainly by the men for soil preparation; the women use the "fanting"
(figure F 24). Both tools are hoes. Animal traction is used to a considerable
extent, but only by the men for work on the plateau. The plow is the most
prevalent animal-drawn field implement, and the ridger is also common. The
following array of implements reflects an average distribution rate: 1 plow per
2 farms, 1 Arara with a plow or ridger per 3 farms, 1 Super Eco per 3 farms, 1
Houe Sine per 8 farms and 1 cart per 2 farms (table F 9). (Fall and Ndiame,
1988a)

- the Diola system (zone B, figure F 23): The men are
responsible for soil preparation on the entire relief, while the women do the
easier tasks of seeding and weeding. The most important handtool is the
"kayendo". It is used for building up the ridges on the plateau as well as for
rice cropping on the slopes and in the valleys and for harvesting groundnuts. It
functions somewhat like a shovel (handplow) and is particularly suited for
cropping rice in the flood plain. (Marzouk-Schmitz, 1984)

Animal traction is less prevalent. It first serves the purpose
of soil preparation on the plateau, which is done by the men, and secondly the
soil preparation in the rice fields tended by the women. With the increasing
aridity the Mandingue system moves southwards, so that the women have to work
their fields in the valley with the "fanting" when the rainy season does not
occur early enough (Lo, 1988). The ridger is the most popular animal- drawn
implement. Neither seeders nor cultivators are used because of the ridge
cropping. The following array of implements is found: 1 plow per 10 farms, 1
ridger per 3 farms, 1 cart per 5 farms (table F 9). (Fall and Ndiame, 1988a) In
the remaining zones (C and D) animal traction is scarcely used and only there
where Mandingue or immigrants from northern or central Senegal live (Fall and
Ndiame, 1988a).

3.6 Manufacturers and artisans

The implements are almost exclusively manufactured by SISMAR,
one of the largest West African metal-working factories. Until 1980 a large
percentage of the implements were purchased on credit under the "Programme
Agricole". Since 1980 (until 1986), for example, seeders were exclusively and
cultivators were predominantly bought in a used condition in the Fatick
Department. Only carts were purchased new in significant numbers without loans.
Also, groundnut lifters, mainly built by artisans, have been bought new.
(Havard, 1987a) According to an analysis of animal-drawn implements, it would
have been necessary to replace abrasive parts on 30 to 40 % of the implements,
15 to 20 % of the axles of plow wheels or press rollers and 10 % of the gears
and further parts of the dispensor mechanisms on seeders.

The distribution of original spare parts functions very poorly
according to Havard (1988a), so that the place of the artisans is of utmost
importance. All spares (duckfoot shares, furrow opener, spacing wheels, gears)
are available in the towns. These are all manufactured by artisans and cost 1/3
the price of original parts. Only bearings, tires and tubes for the carts must
be supplied by the industry. (Havard, 1987a)

Most of the blacksmiths have a very meager supply of equipment.
They are able to assemble parts and manufacture simple abrasive parts such as
shares. Generally, they have templates for fabricating the most important parts
such as duckfoot shares for cultivators and furrow openers for the Super Eco
seeder. Only 10 % can do welding (figure F 25) (Havard, 1987a). Smiths having
arc welders use various types of welding rods. They can, for example, cut
threads, weld breaks in the frame or produce seed hoppers.

The supply of materials is the most serious constraint for the
artisans. 60 % have no supply in store, the remaining 40 % can only manufacture
spare parts from their material supplies for the stocks. The following list of
the commonly used material exemplifies the problem of material supplies: leaf
springs from trucks, building steel, sheet metal from old cars and sporadically
collected parts. (Havard, 1987a)

Frequently, smiths also work in agriculture. Most of the smiths
in Basses Casamance mention this as their most important activity (Fall and
Ndiame, 1988b).

3.7 Summary

Animal traction is widely distributed in Senegal. Due to the
rapid succession of climatic conditions the cropping patterns and the sequence
of implements used change considerably within relatively short distances. In
semihumid/semiarid areas direct seeding is common due to the short vegetation
period and favoured by the light soils. Efforts to introduce a more intensive
soil preparation have failed here. The draft animals used are donkeys and
horses.

Due to the wetter climate very intensive weed control prior to
sowing is necessary in Casamance and Sngal Occidentale. Longer vegetation
periods allow the use of the plow or ridger prior to seeding. Ridged cropping,
which hinders the use of seeders, is widespread. Oxen are used as draft animals.
In transitional zones superficial scratching and sowing is practised.

Animal traction is primarily introduced in connection with the
Super Eco seeder. In numerous development projects many implements have been
tested in Senegal. SISMAR represents the existence of a viable farm machinery
manufacturer in the country. Nevertheless, the supply of spare parts functions
poorly. However the artisanal system is well developed. The ability of the
artisan to repair as well as to manufacture spare parts with the aid of
templates has contributed significantly to the wide distribution of implements.
A severe constraint is the extremely poor supply of
materials.