The Forms of Shiva in Visual Arts

Shiva's
visual forms, along with perhaps some kind of worship
cult, had begun appearing some 5000 years ago. This
denotes not only his priority over other gods of
India's religious hierarchy but also reveals the
fact that his is the imagery and iconography that
evolved over a period of five millennia - perhaps
the longest period for an image, or worship tradition,
to have evolved and sustained through. And, despite
such long period, as often breeds complexities and
uncompromising contradictions, Shiva's imagery reveals
wondrous unity and unique growth perspective.

Shiva in Rock Shelter Drawings

Line Drawing of Dancer
with Bow and Arrow from Bhimbetka

The rock-shelter settler seems
to have been the first to have visually realized
Shiva. Living on animals - by hunting or by taming
them, the cave dweller saw in Shiva the archer as
well as the keeper of herds. The known anthropologist
and archaeologist Dr. V. S. Wakankar has reported
from Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh (cave
II E-19 and III E-15) two figures - one, that of
a bow and arrow bearing dancer, and the other, that of an awe-striking
god who could be no other than the subsequent awful
Rudra. The dancing figure has in its crown the motif
of a deer, much the same as carries Shiva in one
of his hands in his Nataraja manifestation. The
earliest of the Bhimbetka murals date back to around
10,000 B. C., but Dr. Wakankar considers the drawings
portraying the aforementioned two figures as subsequently
added, sometime in between 3000 to 1900 B. C. Nonetheless
these figures of Shiva - as the archer and the great
dancer, are his so far reported earliest manifestations.

Lord of Animals in the Indus Valley

The horned 'yogi' figure on the
famous Indus terracotta seal recovered in excavation
at Mohenjo-daro, was a development over Bhimbetka
figures. Besides presenting a more evolved iconographic
form, the Indus figure also revealed subtler meaning
and wider dimensions. The figure has on its head
buffalo/humped bull horns and around it an animal-governed
ambience. On its left, there is a lion and tiger,
on its right, a wild buffalo and rhinoceros, and
under its seat, deer. It indicates that the figure
represented someone who is not only the patron of
animals - Pashupati, but also a composite being
with man and animal within him. In ancient Sanskrit,
the term 'pashu' meant 'jeeva' - one that has life.
Even the modern science defines 'man' as 'social
animal'. Thus, 'Pashupati' stood for him who created
and sustained all life. Obviously, the concept of
someone who sustained and represented in his own
being all life, emerged as early as Indus days,
if not before. This 'someone' was subsequently identified
as Rudra Shiva.

This horned-headed Pashupati/yogi
is ithyphallic, that is, has a 'urdhvalinga' - upward
erect phallus, which is one of his two more prominent
aspects, the other one being the horned head. Significantly,
excavations at Mohenjo-daro and various Harappan
sites have revealed a number of phallus-like looking
baked clay objects and some seals portraying humped
bull.

In all probabilities, these 'linga'
icons - easier to cast than an anthropomorphic image,
were conceived to represent the 'urdhvalinga' of
the ithyphallic deity independently and thereby
the ithyphallic deity himself, and not one of his
aspects. There revealed in excavations of these
sites also a number of ring-stones suggestive of
'yoni' - perhaps, a Mother-goddess-related cult.
The 'linga' icons and ring-stones defined, in all
probabilities, Indus man's vision of the male and
female principles of fertility. In subsequent Shaivite
tradition, 'linga' emerged not only as an aniconic
symbol, which by its shape and meaning revealed
Shiva's transcendental reality, but also had always
associated with it 'yoni' as its base or 'pitha'.
This 'urdhvalinga' aspect of the Indus figure, thus,
connects it also to the Shaivite icons of the post-common
era and ever after.

Harappan Seals

Similarly, the humped bull, whose
icons were in great prevalence and perhaps in popular
worship, might have represented the ithyphallic
deity's animal aspect which defined his composite
form. This humped bull, subsequently reduced to
a subordinate position of Shiva's 'vahana' - vehicle
and named Nandi, was always a sacred Shaivite icon
and had many shrines devoted to it. Thus, besides
his anthropomorphic representations, the Indus god
- Shiva, also revealed in the aniconic symbol of
'linga' and the theriomorphic form of the humped
bull.

Shiva in Other Pre-Historic Finds

Figures From Nabada
Todi

These features corroborate with
other pre-historic and anthropological finds. Nabada
Todi excavations have revealed a ritual copper pot
with two figures engraved on it. Both are 'urdhvakesin'
- with prominently raised hair.

Line Drawing Images
from Chanhudaro & Nipur

One of the figures has in its
right hand a tall spear with a triangular blade
surmounting it. Thus, the bow and arrow bearing
deity is conceived also as carrying a trident-type
weapon. Drawings portraying 'linga', humped bull,
and anthropomorphic figures with 'urdhvalinga' are
reported also from Nippur and Chanhudaro (Uttar
Pradesh).

Thus, much before Rig-Vedic era,
Shiva manifested formally by way of anthropomorphic
representations, as aniconic 'linga' symbol, and
as theriomorphic figure of bull.

Opinions differ as to whether
Shiva had an Aryan or non-Aryan origin, or whether
he was a Vedic god or otherwise, but there is absolute
unanimity in regard to the fact that he had iconic
presence much before the Vedas came into being.
Even V. S. Wakankar, the great champion of Vedic
supremacy always defying the Western angle in regard
to Aryan influx over Indian subcontinent, does not
deny it. He admits that many Vedic beliefs, that
is, beliefs which had a Vedic character, had come
to prevail amongst masses much before actual Vedas
were composed. And, Shaivite cult was one such stream.

Shiva's Pre-Vedic Forms and The Vedic Vision
of Shiva

As becomes obvious from above,
some of Shiva's forms that yet prevail - Shiva,
the dancer; Shiva, the archer; awe-striking Shiva;
Shiva with deer; Shiva with trident-headed spear;
'urdhvakesin' Shiva; 'urdhvalinga' Shiva; Shiva,
the Mahayogi; Shiva, the Pashupati; Shiva, the composite
being; Shiva as 'linga'; Shiva and bull; and, 'linga'
and 'yoni', are by and large pre-Vedic. The Rig-Veda,
with its emphasis on the awe-striking aspect of
the deity, identifies Shiva as Rudra and sometimes
as Ishan, the archer. Though variously interpreted,
and whether approved it or disapproved, the Rig-Veda
twice alludes to 'Shishna-deva', phallic deity or
phallus-worshipping people. In its 'Shatarudriya-strota',
the Yajurveda assigns him various names. One such
name is Shiva, and Rudra is referred to as one of
its epithets. The Atharva-Veda perceives him as
black-complexioned, riding a red horse and shooting
poison-tempered arrows.

Shiva the Archer on
Nandi

The Shvetashvara Upanishada is,
however, the first to allude to 'linga' as Shiva's
aniconic symbol, and the Grahasutras to installing
and worshipping his idols. They are the first to
refer to him as Shiva and Shankara. As becomes obvious
from numerous allusions in the Mahabharata, in epic
days Shiva was a powerful deity and his idols and
'lingas' were in popular worship. In his Arthashashtra,
Kautilya talks of Shiva-temples. The Arthashashtra
is estimated to date sometime in between fourth
to third century B. C., that is, by then Shiva had
regular shrines, and various anthropomorphic idols
representing his different aspects and various 'linga'
icons for such shrines. The humped bull Nandi was
yet one of the most sacred Shaivite symbols but
was now no more his theriomorphic representation.
It was now his vehicle.

Ancient coins, particularly those
from Taxila and Ujjaini, and a Mathura relief, now
in Government Museum, Lucknow, added further dimensions
to his iconic visualization. It is in these artefacts
that tree emerged in the Shaivite tradition and
installing 'linga' under a tree came to be considered
as more sacred.

Linga

Shiva's Thousand Eyed
Anthropomorphic Form
Talagaon (Bilaspur)

Shiva as 'linga' - his aniconic
unmanifest form, has thus a wider presence in Shaivite
tradition than have his anthropomorphic forms. Besides
'shishna-deva', the Rig-veda talks of 'hiranya-vetasa'
- the golden pillar. The 'hiranya-vetasa' pre-conceives
the subsequent 'Jyotirlinga' - the pillar of light,
and also the pillar conceived by Linga Purana as
consisting of thousands of clusters of flames. This
pillar with thousands of clusters of flames manifests
in subsequent 'Shahastralinga'- the 'linga' composed
of a thousand 'lingas', as also in Shiva's thousand-eyed
anthropomorphic form. The Atharva Veda speaks of
the Lord as 'maha-skambha'- the great pillar. There
also occurs in Vedic literature the term 'sthanu'-
post, the seed, the fire-seed - root of all created
things.

The Curse of Shiva

Thus, by Vedic era itself, the
tradition had begun perceiving the Lord as 'linga',
the 'linga' as pillar, the pillar as the column
of light, that is, as 'Jyotirlinga', and 'jyotirlinga'
as the seed, the root of all things. The 'linga',
much before the Common Era began, has been established
as omnipotent, the basis of the entire universe
and everything included in it. 'Lingodabhava' -
'linga' is the universe or it is in the 'linga'
that the universe exists, perceives 'linga' with
trans-cosmic dimensions - the column of light penetrating
the netherworld, shooting across the empyrean, and
pervading the entire earth.

Siva Linga, Gudimallam

The aniconic 'linga' symbol preceded
Shiva's regular anthropomorphic forms. In regular
Shaivite tradition, it is actually in 'linga'-forms
that the transition from the unmanifest to the manifest
began, as the earliest reported anthropomorphic
forms of Shiva appear as an aspect of 'linga' and
not independently. The third century B. C. 'linga'
icon from Gudimallam (Andhra Pradesh) is its earliest
reported example. It has carved on its middle part
the anthropomorphic form of Shiva. Many of the other
early images are cast with 'linga' and not independently.

Forms of Linga

Technically 'linga' is an aniconic
symbol but it not only has a number of Puranas -
Linga Purana, Shiva Purana, and others, devoted
to it, but also the Rupamandana and Uttarakamikamagama
type canonical treatises prescribing its various
formations and, thus, giving it more or less an
iconic status. 'Linga' icons are either the columnar
formations representing unmanifest 'jyotirlinga',
or are Manushalingas, that is, a 'linga', which
looked like a human organ. Being unmanifest, the
'jyotirlinga' is often beyond prescriptions, though
conceived as combining in it Shiva's human as also
columnar forms - blazing column of fire, a 'Jyotirlinga'
is often represented in visual arts as the column
of light containing within it Shiva's anthropomorphic
form. Sukshma-linga and Akasha-linga are two other
unmanifest 'linga' forms. Sukshma-linga pervades
various 'chakras' inside the human body. Akasha-linga
represents elements of Ether. The Chidambaram temple
in South India has Akasha-linga as its enshrining
deity.

It is different with Manushalinga.
Various Puranas, the Shiva Purana in particular,
have prescribed norms and standards for casting
a Manushalinga. A Manushalinga has been conceived
as having three parts. The lower one that is fitted
into the female stone and is invariably square is
known as the Brahmabhaga. Having become a part of
the female stone, it is also known as 'pindika',
'Gauripatta', or 'pitha'. The middle part is known
as the Vishnubhaga, and the upper-most as the Rudrabhaga.

Vigraha Linga from
Mahakaleshwara Temple, Ujjain

Offerings to the Shiva-linga
are made only over the Rudrabhaga. The Rudrabhaga
is hence also known as Pujabhaga. A Manushalinga
could be either a Vigraha Linga - a plain phallus
symbol, or a Mukhalinga, that is, cast with the
face of Shiva himself. The Vigraha Linga does not
have Shiva's face but may be adorned with strings,
wreaths or flower motifs or by other elements around
it. Some subsidiary figures - yakshas, ganas etc.,
may also be carved around a Vigraha Linga.

Mukha-Linga Icons

Sacred Pancha-Mukha
Linga

Mukha-linga icons have very early
beginning. In visual representations 'mukhalingas'
are carved with faces numbering one to five and
are accordingly named as Ekamukhalinga, Dvi-mukhalinga,
Tri-mukhalinga, Chaturmukhalinga and Panchamukhalinga.
It is often contended that Trimukhalinga is actually
only the Chaturmukhalinga. Being on backside its
fourth face remains invisible. The Sarvato Bhadra
mukhalinga is a more evolved 'linga' icon. Like
other 'linga' icons, Sarvato Bhadra also has the
same vertical three sections but the figures carved
on it are widely different. On its eastern side,
it has the image of Surya, the Sun god; on it north,
that of Ganesh; on its west, that of Shiva and Parvati
in Kalyana Sundara manifestation; and, on its south,
that of Shiva and Nandi. The five faces on a Panchamukhalinga
stand for Sadyojata, Vamadeva, Aghora, Tatpurusha
and Ishana, which are the five aspects of Shiva
himself. The Rupamandana prescribes body colors
for various faces of Chaturmukhalinga - white for
the western; red for the northern; black in terrific
mood for the southern; and, well-kindled fire-like
bright for the eastern. In sculptures, such colors,
however, do not sustain. Though cast invariably
in relief - bold or shallow, the faces on 'mukhalingas'
are carved following broad iconographic standards
of Shiva's anthropomorphic images.

Anthropomorphic Forms of Shiva

Shiva's regular iconography seems
to have begun evolving from around fourth-third
century B. C., though some of its features, as discussed
before, are very early. As one beyond birth and
death, Shiva has been conceived in visual arts as
timeless youth, though sometimes with moustaches
defining an advanced age and sometimes without them
close to juvenescence. His 'jatamukuta' - matted
and spirally coiffured hair must have emerged by
Vedic era itself, replacing perhaps the bull-horn-crown
of Indus figure and in pursuance to the model of
Aryan sages.

Ravana's well known 'Shivatandava
Stotra' - a work of Epic days alludes to Shiva's
'jatamukuta'. His age-worn early sculptures are
of little aid to determine when evolved his third
eye, but sculptures and terracotta figurines from
fourth-fifth century onwards are found having a
third eye on his forehead. It is both vertical and
horizontal. His multi-headed and multi-armed icons
could also be from around the same period. His images
were conceived with normal one head but also with
three, four and five. The number of arms also varied
from normal two to ten. Influenced by various myths
that Puranas wove around Shiva, there emerged the
crescent and river Ganga in his 'jatamukuta', poison
in neck, elephant hide around shoulders, tiger skin
around loins, and snakes over his entire figure.

Rescue of Saint Markandeya
by Lord Shiva

Shiva's three heads stand for
'sat', 'raja', and 'tama' - that is, virtue, vice
and darkness, as also for 'ichchha', 'jnana' and
'kriya' - that is, desire, knowledge and act; four,
for 'Tatapurusha', 'Vamadeva', 'Sadyojata', and
'Aghora'; and, fifth, for 'Ishan'. These are aspects
of Shiva. His five heads are considered as representing
also the earth, water, space or sky, wind, and fire
or energy - elements of cosmos. Shiva as both, Sadashiva
and Ishan, has five heads and ten arms, and as Bhairava,
one or three heads, and two, four or eight hands.
Bhairava represents Shiva's form of dread and terror.
Being Kalantaka or Kalarimurti - Vanquisher of death,
Bhairava is also Mahakala, a form highly revered
in Buddhism as well. As the legend has it, Death
threw its noose on sage Markandeya when he was worshipping
Shivalinga. Shiva emerged from the 'linga' and chastised
Death.

Mrityunjaya

Closely resembling to his Kalantaka
manifestation is his Mratyunjaya form identified
by the pot of nectar that Mratyunjaya carries in
his hands.

In his four forms - Aghora, Pashupati,
Kshetrapala and Bhairava, and sometimes in Gajasura
Sanharak - elephant demon slayer, Shiva has two
large teeth bursting out of his mouth. This form
is known as 'Upadanshtra' or 'Bhimadanshtra'.

Sadashiva

Shiva's five-headed Sadashiva
and Ishan forms are distinguishable by the attributes
that such images carry in their hands. Sadashiva
images carry trident, axe, sword, disc, fire, serpent,
bell, noose, goad, and hold one hand in 'abhaya'.

Many thanks fot the educational articles that clear up all elucidation about India and the legends of it, Keep up the good work!!!

Cino Shearer

by Cino on 19th Oct 2006

I want to express my appreciation for the insightful, scholarly articles you periodically send out. I get so much enjoyment from reading them and studying the accompanying illustrations. This is an invaluable service you provide!

Thank you most sincerely

by Carolyn Radlo on 19th Jan 2006

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"Whenever he gets the time, he should go and live amongst people who have given up worldly life…. A wise person should serve his body and family only to the extent that is functionally necessary…. The person who lays claim on the surplus wealth is nothing but a thief…. He should share all objects of enjoyment with everyone, right down to dogs, sinners…. Such is the attachment to one’s wife….How despicable is this body, which if buried is going to become the food of worms, or excreta if eaten by animals….Since a son is to thus revere his elders even after their death, what to say that he is expected to serve them when they are alive…. The person wishing to follow the path of dharma should steer clear of the five forms of Adharma."

"There is Rama, the son of Ayodhya's king Dasharatha in his human birth, and there is Rama's divinity, his divine aura that overwhelms the Tulasi's entire Ramacharit-manas, one manifest - with attributes, and the other, unmanifest - without attributes. With main emphasis on his majesty in South Indian tradition this crown is taller than usual. His 'khadgasana' images are usually in three modes; one with his right foot moved forward represents him in a commander's disposition ready to rush for protecting a devotee in crisis or redeem him from some calamity. Harihara, a form in which he shares with Shiva half of the body. Basically a bird Garuda is seen for ages as Vishnu's ardent devotee, a learned human being and an auspicious presence, and in iconographic tradition often conceived with a man's face, anatomy, ornaments and ensemble. The Puranas are replete with tales of Garuda's divine exploits."

"Both the Mahabharata and Shrimad Bhagavatam give a vivid description of how things are like in Kaliyuga…. The following is a list of features typical to Kaliyuga…. A man will consider only those people to be his relatives who are related to him through….The ashrams will be full of show-offs who are experts in the art of living off the food of others….. We can save ourselves from Kaliyuga."

"This middle path lies in between extreme asceticism on one side, and extreme indulgence on the other…. When standing under a Ashok tree, tired and exhausted, she raised her right hand for seeking support of a branch of the tree…. The unique balance that defined his entire life was pre-determined in this duality….One day, in the palace garden he frightened his attendants…. He ate less and less till his diet reduced to a sesame seed, and himself, to a mere skeleton…. Seven days after the attainment of enlightenment gods sent food for breaking his fast…. However, he postponed his ‘nirvana’ for three months till he visited the places he had reminiscences of."

"Her epithet in the Devi-Mahatmya is Mahalakshmi. She is the wrathful four-armed goddess of battlefield represented holding in them various weapons…. A form of Lakshmi seated over a lotus laid over a golden seat and a pair of white elephants…. Except in some classical forms in Lakshmi-Narayana imagery Lakshmi is ordinarily two-armed…. Incarnation theory is the crux of Vaishnavism. Vishnu incarnates alone but Lakshmi also incarnates in simultaneity…. Though very rare some enthused artists have conceived on Ardhanarishvara line also Vishnu’s Ardhanarishvara images."

"Contrarily metaphysicians and theologians perceived his form as it manifested in the Upanishads and Puranas….The ‘Advaita’ philosophy also contends that the entire Creation is just the extension of One…. Dance illustrates one of the ever-first cosmic acts with which Shiva seems to have tamed violent motion and separated from it rhythm, moves that communicated emotions and states of mind – human mind and the cosmic, and disciplined and defined pace…. Unlike Vishnu who resorted to dance for accomplishing a contemplated objective, Shiva has been conceived more or less as a regular dancer performing for accomplishing an objective as also for pure aesthetic delight…. Unfurling locks of hair and his snakes floating into space portray the dynamics of the act."

"She has always believed that this would redeem her of her distress….A coconut, otherwise an ordinary dried fruit or the source of edible, or at the most, beauty oil, has always been revered as an auspicious object effecting good and well-being and the food that gods most loved….The tree in the Buddhist tradition was later identified as Bodhi-tree, seated under which Buddha had attained Enlightenment….Body gestures and symptoms, signs, indications among others must have been the early man’s tools of communicating oneself and knowing and understanding the world around….Kirttimukha was initially conceived as a mystical mask….Lion does not figure in the wide range of animal toys or figurines excavated from Indus sites."

"Actually, the one who worships Bhagwan Vishnu should get rich and the one who worships Shiva should become an avadhuta like Him…. Then he works hard again to acquire wealth. I render all his efforts futile…. However, Bhagawan Vishnu is not like that, it takes longer to please Him…. As a consequence, they later harassed the great God Himself…. On the seventh day, he bathed in the holy waters of Kedarnath and began to cut his head with an axe to offer into the fire…. The boy bowed respectfully before the demon and asked…. No one who commits sin against a great person can be safe and happy in this world."

"One uniqueness of our Vedic religion is that it allows for salvation not only through renunciation (nivritti) but also through the path of material happiness (pravritti).... If dharma makes it mandatory that conjugal pleasure be restricted to the life partner, how is it that Krishna indulged in the amorous sport of Rasa with others' wives?.... Some stopped cooking, some stopped feeding, some stopped eating, some stopped washing clothes etc. and ran away.... Upanishads call the jiva in waking state as Vishwa and the dreaming jiva as Taijasa (Mandukya Upanishad Mantras 3-4)."

"We assume that our happiness is the result of an interaction with external objects…. Suppose that an individual is deprived of sleep and food and pleasurable objects for a long time and then all of them are simultaneously offered to him…. Actually, seeking the answer to this question is the most significant pursuit in life…. The veil comes up again and the duality returns…. In this background, we can now analyse the nature of dukha (grief)."

"Bhishma undoubtedly is one of the central figures of the Mahabharata.…. One should not venture out too early in the morning…. But one should not go to sleep with wet feet….A person who desires to live long should never irritate the following three…. One must shun company of people who criticize the Vedas…. If we are traveling, one must find shelter inside a house…."

"The Bhagavad Gita, while describing the qualities of a wise person says…. This verse is vividly illustrated in the story of king Rantideva occurring in the Srimad Bhagavatam…. He did not believe in hoarding, was above all attachments and was highly patient…. They were all trembling due to starvation and thirst….bowed to the dogs and their owner…. What I want is only this: That I be able to go and live in the hearts of all beings and undergo sufferings on their behalf, so that they may become free from all miseries."

"A man receives a wife given by the gods... Where women are revered, there the gods rejoice; but where they are not, all efforts are unfruitful…. The husband, tradition says, is the wife, They can never be cut loose from one another. This is the dharma made by Brahma himself….he king who bears patiently when those in anguish insult him will be exalted in heaven…. If the driver of a vehicle injures a man, animal or property, he needs to be punished along with the owner of the vehicle…. This in a nutshell, is the definition of suffering and happiness."

"But to pull this statement out of context and give it as an advice for anyone is far from correct…. But how is one to recognise the guru? Obviously, he will be able to understand the difficulties of the disciples and clarify to them the meaning of the scriptures on the basis of logic and experience….
They will have to search in their own neighbourhood only….The guru chosen by him should be at least better than himself!…. Of course, if the ideal guru whose features have been enumerated in the beginning is available, then the sadhaka should immediately go and surrender to him…. It is just like going to another teacher for higher education, after completing the education in a school."

"Here is a fragment from one of the most poignant episodes of Indian history…. This piece of history is from the Mahabharata…. She was dying with shame but inside, like a true kshatrani (woman of the warrior race), she was burning with anger…. I have heard that women who follow dharma were never brought before a public court….Greed is the destroyer of dharma. I do not desire a third boon…. Draupadi was as forgiving as mother earth herself…. Just then Arjuna saw his dear friend Bhagawan Krishna approaching him…. “Leave him, leave him. He is a brahmin and worthy of our worship. Their mother should not cry, like I have at the death of my children."