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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009Acknowledgements The Cabell Brand Center thanks the many individuals and organizations who made theSecond Edition of the Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual possible. These organizations andindividuals provided expertise and funding to create a well-rounded manual to educate andpromote rainwater harvesting in Virginia and throughout the US. This manual would not be possible without the financial assistance of the VirginiaEnvironmental Endowment and Gerald McCarthy. Rainwater Management Solutions in Salem,Virginia and the German-based WISY AG Company served as technical consultants on thisproject. Their help was pivotal in supplying this manual with modern rainwater harvestingtechnologies.The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page iiwww.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009Letter from the President of The Cabell Brand Center The second edition of the Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual comes at an excitingtime for supporters of rainwater harvesting. Across the country, people are becomingincreasingly aware of the need to conserve water and increasingly enthusiastic about green,sustainable living. We are also encouraged by a greater awareness that stormwater runoff fromhomes and businesses is threatening the health of our rivers, streams, lakes and estuaries.Rainwater harvesting can make a positive impact in all of these areas. When the Cabell Brand Center was founded in 1987, it began by granting stipends tocollege students for academic research on poverty and the environment. Instead of fundingoutreach and restoration programs, research was encouraged because research leads toknowledge, and knowledge leads to solutions. After twenty years, the Center decided to focus itsattention on water conservation, particularly rainwater harvesting. In September 2007, theCabell Brand Center released the first edition of the Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual inthe midst of a drought. By the end of October of that year, ninety-three (out of 95) counties inVirginia were federally designated as disaster areas due to drought. Delaware, Maryland andTennessee all received federal disaster designation during this time and the Governor of Georgiadeclared a state of emergency because of drought conditions. The need to re-examine water useand consider alternative water supplies like rainwater harvesting was apparent. While the water shortage in Virginia is less drastic today, the need for guidance onrainwater harvesting is no less apparent. Spurred by drought, concerns about stormwater runoff,and a growth in green building practices, rainwater harvesting has seen a dramatic increase inpopularity. Unfortunately, this increase in popularity has on occasion led to poorly designedsystems and products. While rainwater is a naturally clean water source, improper filtration andstorage can lead to human health risks and building design problems. These problematic systemsalso damage the overall reputation of rainwater harvesting and discourage people from pursuingthis important environmental solution. The Manual was created as an introduction to the scienceof rainwater harvesting and guidance for system design of high quality, safe, and sustainablesystems. The Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual is a continuation of the Center’s belief thatknowledge and science lead to sound decision-making and progress. We hope that it will bothencourage readers’ interest in rainwater harvesting and guide those who are interested indesigning rainwater harvesting systems. David Crawford, President The Cabell Brand CenterThe Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page iiiwww.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009 Introduction As the nation is becoming increasingly aware, rainwater harvesting is a building systemthat collects and conveys rainwater from roofs, filters debris from the water and stores therainwater for use. Systems can be non-potable or potable, the latter requiring additional filteringafter the water is pumped from the tank. Across the United States, people realize the need toconserve water. Rainwater harvesting enjoys widespread use in areas around the world such asEurope and the Caribbean islands, and these systems are a logical solution for our country’swater resource challenges. There is growing enthusiasm about green, sustainable living systems and practices thatsave water, energy and money, while preserving and improving our natural environment.Rainwater harvesting supplies alternative water for such non-potable uses as irrigation, toiletflushing, laundry, vehicle and facility cleaning, fire suppression systems, HVAC cooling towersand agriculture. Potable rainwater harvesting systems can be used for drinking water, as well asshowers/baths, dishwashing, swimming pools and food processing. Rainwater harvesting is apowerful solution to a range of water problems.The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 1www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009“We never know the worth of water, tillthe well is dry.” Thomas Fuller, GnomologiaFreshwater problems Though the well is not dry, freshwater supply problems in Virginia, the United States andthe world are increasing our awareness of the value of water. With a growing population,declining quality of surface water and groundwater and an aging water infrastructure, the need toexplore alternatives to our current water supply system is clear. By collecting rainfall that wouldnormally become runoff and instead using it to meet water needs, rainwater harvesting providesan alternative that both lessens thestrain on our current water supplysystem and helps protect the 5 Measurement datequality of surface waters. Change in water level since January 1, 1979 (ft) 1/1/79 1/1/87 1/1/95 1/1/03Water quantity -15 The amount of water availabletoday is the same amount of waterthat was available 100 years ago. -35Only 2.5% of the world’s water isfreshwater. The strain on ourwater supply is evident: -55 Norfolk City  In less than 20 years, 1.8 Louisa County billion people will be Chesapeake City living in areas with water -75 Suffolk City (data starts 1980) scarcity (1).  Worldwide, water Figure 1. Changes in groundwater levels at monitoring wells at four sites in Virginia. These well all show declining water levels. Data consumption is rising at are courtesy of the USGS and available through double the rate of (http://www.epa.gov/WaterSense/pubs/supply.htm). population growth (2).  Even without drought, areas in at least 36 states in the U.S. are expected to have water shortages by 2013 (3).  Groundwater levels in many areas of Virginia, particularly the coastal areas, have shown steady decline (Fig. 1).The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 2www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009Water quality An adequate water supply does not just depend on the total quantity of water available, butalso depends on the quality of this available water. In Virginia, water is supplied from surfacewater and groundwater, both of which are susceptible to contamination from pollution.  Eighty-six percent of the water used in Virginia comes from surface sources (4). Almost eighty percent of lakes and reservoirs in Virginia are identified by the Department of Environmental Quality as impaired or threatened, though none are currently designated as unable to support public water supply (5).  Groundwater from the deep aquifer below Virginia Beach and Norfolk is too salty for use without further treatment (5).  Leaking fuel storage tanks, one of the biggest threats to groundwater quality, have been identified at over 24,000 sites in Virginia (5).Decreasing the load placed upon public and private sources of potable water by utilizingrainwater harvesting can lessen the chance of water quality deterioration due to over-pumping ofgroundwater resources and reduce the need to explore water sources of questionable quality.Water infrastructure Not only is the water supply stressed, but the infrastructure to deliver the water supply isstressed also.  The EPA estimates that $334 billion will be needed to from 2007 to 2027 for repairs and maintenance on public water systems (6).  In general, up to 20 percent of the water in a municipal water supply system can be declared ―unaccounted for,‖ typically because of leaking conveyance equipment, before corrective action will be taken (7).  Losses from leaks in municipal water supplies cost an estimated $2.6 billion per year because of an estimated loss of 1.7 trillion gallons of water (8).  Seventy-five billion kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity are used for water and wastewater industries in the U.S. each year and water and wastewater services can account for up to 1/3 of a municipality’s energy bill (9).As a decentralized water supply, rainwater harvesting does not depend on this aginginfrastructure and is therefore more energy-efficient (10). By reducing the overall demand onthe system, an increase in rainwater harvesting could help areas delay development of new watertreatment plants and distribution systems.The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 3www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009Stormwater Virginia is considered a ―wet‖ state, receiving on average 42.8 inches of rainfall a year (4).This rainfall coupled with expanding impervious surface areas, the result of development, createsthe potential for increased overland flow of stormwater. Increased impervious areas allow forless infiltration of water during rain events, leading to higher velocity and volume of runoff.This increased runoff carries pollutants and can lead to increased erosion.  According to the Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, ―If Virginia continues to grow with the same development patterns as it has in the past, more land will be developed in the next forty years than has been since the Jamestown settlement in 1607‖ (11).  The amount of impervious area in the Chesapeake Bay watershed increased by 41% in the 1990s (12).  According to the Chesapeake Bay Foundation, runoff from these impervious areas, carrying nitrogen, phosphorus, sediment and other contaminants, is considered one of the greatest threats to the health of the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries (13).Impact of rainwater harvesting Rainwater harvesting could have a dramatic, positive impact on all of these problems.According to the US Census, Virginia had an estimated 358,000 more housing units in July 2007than in July 2000. Assuming that each housing unit has a footprint of 1,500 ft2, these additionalunits represent 537 million ft2 of additional impervious roof area. If each house had a rainwaterharvesting system that collected all of the water that fell on the roof, these systems could supply14.3 billion gallons of water per year. For comparison, the City of Virginia Beach public watersupply used 13.5 billion gallons of water in 2007 (4). If these rainwater harvesting systems wereput in place, not only would they reduce the demand on surface and groundwater sources, theywould also reduce strain on the water supply and delivery infrastructure. One kWh of energy isneeded to treat and transport 667 gallons of municipal drinking water (9). Based on a case studyin southwest Virginia, a rainwater harvesting system can produce 1,650 gallons of non-potablewater per kWh (10). Using rainwater harvesting systems instead of municipal systems to supply14.3 billion gallons of water could save 12.7 million kWh of energy. Based on the EPA’sgreenhouse gas equivalencies calculator, this energy savings could mean a reduction in carbondioxide emissions of 20 million pounds, the equivalent of 1,675 passenger cars. The addition ofthese rainwater harvesting systems would also reduce stormwater runoff. Using averageconcentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus in residential runoff (14), these rainwater harvestingsystems could reduce nutrient loading to surface waters by over 30,000 pounds of totalphosphorus and over 230,000 pounds of total nitrogen per year. While these nutrients arenecessary for plant growth, an over-abundance of nutrients can lead to algae blooms and evenfish kills, greatly impairing the water quality.The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 4www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009Uses of Harvested Rainwater Rainwater harvesting is suitable for all building types ranging from residential tocommercial and industrial and can be retro-fitted to existing buildings or integrated into newbuilding designs. Collected rooftop water is typically used for non-potable (non-drinking water)demands, but can be treated to drinking water standards and used for potable (drinking water)demands. While many common water uses are non-potable (see list below), water supplied from themunicipal system and wells is generally potable water. Utilizing potable water for non-potableneeds wastes resources and can place unneeded strain on local water treatment plants.Non-potable demands include:  Building washing/power washing  Cooling towers  Fire suppression  Household cleaning  Industrial processing  Landscape irrigation  Laundry washing  Pool/pond filling *  Toilet flushing  Vehicle washing *According to Virginia code (12-VAC 5-460-40), the water supply for a public swimming pool must be approved by the State Health Commissioner.Potable demands include:  Drinking water  Cooking  Bathing  Dish washingTypes of systems Rainwater harvesting is an appropriate water supply and stormwater solution forresidential, commercial, industrial, and agricultural applications. All systems consist of the samebasic components: a collection surface (only roof surfaces are addressed in this document), aconveyance system, pre-tank treatment, water storage and distribution. Harvested rainwater usedfor indoor use will also often include additional treatment.The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 5www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009Residential Residentialsystems can bedesigned for non-potable and potableneeds. If a potablewater source isavailable, it isrecommended that therainwater harvestingsystem be used only fornon-potable needs liketoilet flushing, laundrywashing, and landscapeirrigation. These non- Figure 2. Residential non-potable rainwater harvesting systempotable uses account Graphic courtesy of Rainwater Management Solutionsfor 78% of totalhousehold water use, with outdoor use alone accounting for 59% of household use (15). Becauseoutdoor use is such a dominant residential water use, bringing harvested rainwater indoors fornon-potable use is often not cost-effective, particularly in retro-fit situations. The cost of arainwater harvesting system is increased when the water is used indoors because plumbing forpotable and non-potable rainwater sources must be separate systems. Municipal or well watercan serve as a backup source of water if the rainwater runs dry. An air gap or backflowpreventer is necessary between rainwater and municipal water supplies leading to the storagetank to prevent cross contamination (see Backup Water Supply and Plumbing). Figure 2shows a small residential non-potable system, suitable for irrigation purposes. Rainwater harvesting can serve as an alternative water source for rural homes wheremunicipal water is not available and well drilling has not been successful. Rainwater can alsosupplement well or municipal water supplies to reduce demand on these supplies to serve non-potable demands in and around the home.Commercial Commercial rainwater harvesting systems can supply non-potable water needs. As inresidential settings, the majority of commercial use is for non-potable needs. For example,eighty-seven percent of water use in an office building is for restrooms, cooling and landscapeuse (16). In hotels, fifty-one percent of water use is for restrooms alone (16). Because manycommercial facilities want a year-round use for stormwater management needs, rainwater use fortoilet flushing is common, especially in buildings with high occupancy loads. The soft rainwateris also beneficial for cleaning purposes as less detergent is needed. Water demand, roof size, andThe Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 6www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009 Figure 3: Commercial or large residential above ground non-potable rainwater harvesting system Graphic courtesy of Rainwater Management Solutionsavailable onsite storage should be considered when sizing a collection tank. Figure 3 shows acommercial or large residential above ground rainwater harvesting system and Fig. 4 shows acommercial or large residential below ground system. A larger filter is needed to filter waterfrom a larger roof area. In nearly all cases, a submersible or jet pump is necessary to pump waterfor indoor use. The addition of a calming inlet allows water to enter the tank without disturbingthe important sediment layer on the bottom of the tank (See Rainwater Inlet to the Tank). Afloating filter serves as the elevated uptake point for the pump system. If rainwater is used forpotable needs in a commercial setting, the system will typically qualify as a public water system.Any system that supplies drinking water to 15 or more service connections or 25 or more peopleon 60 or more days per year is subject to the requirements of the federal Safe Drinking WaterAct.Industrial Industrial buildings with flat roofs can frequently benefit from incorporating a siphonicroof drainage system with a rainwater harvesting system. A siphonic roof drainage system doesnot require pitched pipes which can reduce or eliminate underground piping. Siphonic roofThe Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 7www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009 Figure 4. Large residential/commercial rainwater harvesting system with belowground tank for indoor use Graphic courtesy of Rainwater Management Solutionsdrainage systems also use smaller diameter pipes. The pipes have to be full to create a siphonwhile pipes in conventional roof drainage systems are often only half full. This difference allowssiphonic roof drainage systems to carry the same volume of water in smaller pipes which reducesthe cost of materials. Installation costs can be reduced by 30 to 40% due to the lower excavation,backfill and trenching costs. Harvested rooftop rainwater can be used indoors to flush toilets, clean floors, and washlinens or as irrigation. As in the commercial setting, the soft rainwater is beneficial for cleaningpurposes as less detergent is needed, which not only saves money but also reduces the amount ofdetergent released into the environment. Inaddition, cooling and process water oftenaccount for 80-90% of industrial water use(16). Harvested rainwater can be used forcooling in all industries and for processwater in many industries. Some companies opt to store water ina pond due to cost, location and aesthetics.If rainwater is diverted to a pond, it shouldbe equipped with an aerator in the form of a Figure 5. Collection pond with aeration fountainfountain to continually add oxygen (Fig. 5). Photo courtesy of Rainwater Management SolutionsWater that is not used could also be directedfor groundwater recharge.The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 8www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009 Rainwater harvesting not only allows a company the potential to reduce water costs, butit also reduces stormwater runoff on the site. The stormwater reduction aspect of rainwaterharvesting holds this alternative water source above others because rather than contributing tostormwater runoff or energy consumption, it is reducing pollution and protecting localwaterways. The ability of this system to reduce stormwater runoff can also be leverage forobtaining building permits.Agricultural Rainwater harvesting is ideal for farm animal drinking water and agricultural andlandscape irrigation, as it is salt free, easily attained, and reduces groundwater depletion andpumping from local streams. Rainwater can be collected from rooftop surfaces like barns,clubhouses, greenhouses and equipment storage buildings. During summer months, Virginia often experiences quick, hard rainfalls. Such rainevents produce too much water in too short a time period for the ground to absorb, which resultsin most of the rainwater being lost to runoff. Rainwater harvesting systems are capable ofcollecting rainwater from nearby roof surfaces during such rainfalls. Therefore, the heavystorm’s rainwater can be reapplied to the field at a suitable rate to promote water infiltration. Frequently, livestock buildings allow rainwater from the roofs to flow into areas occupiedby animals. This situation allows rainwater from these facilities to become contaminated byfecal matter resulting in a greater volume of manure slurry that must be managed. If rainwaterfrom these facilities is harvested, it can be used for watering livestock and washing downfacilities and animals. Harvesting rainwater from these facilities can reduce the amount of wastewater created as well as decreasing the demand on wells and other water supplies. Automatic watering troughs are an efficient way to provide clean drinking water tolivestock. Most of these units operate using pressure valves and can be fed by an above ground,gravity fed rainwater harvesting system. The roofs of loafing sheds or other agriculturalstructures can be the source of this water. By decreasing pipe diameter of the pipe feeding thetrough, water pressure is increased to a level which can successfully operate the trough’s valves.This type of rainwater harvesting system allows for a quality water supply at remote locations.Fire Suppression Rainwater harvesting offers alternatives to municipally supplied water for firesuppression. Harvested rainwater can be directed to interior sprinkler systems and used in theadvent of a building fire. Fire suppression can go beyond indoor sprinkler systems and protect buildings fromforest fires. Stored water flows backwards into the gutter system and overflows the gutters toform a shield of water. While forest fires are not as common in Virginia as they are in the aridThe Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 9www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009west, rainwater could serve as protection for some homes located in heavily forested areas in theadvent of a forest fire. Another alternative is to collect rainwater for fire hydrants. Rooftop and street runoff canbe directed to an underground tank connected to a fire hydrant. This prevents the reliance onpotable water to fight fires and can reduce connection costs, especially in areas outside the mainwater distribution grid. Rainwater harvesting systems can also be used to meet fire suppressionwater supply requirements in remote areas.Irrigation Because irrigation is such a large water use across all building types, reducing thequantity of water needed for irrigation is an important step. Approximately 34% of all water usein the United States is for irrigation (16). Fifty percent of that water can be lost to evaporationand runoff (17). Therefore, when coupling rainwater harvesting systems with irrigation, home/businessowners should take extra steps to ensure the harvested rainwater is applied as efficiently aspossible across the landscape. Applying more water than needed can cause runoff and nonpointsource pollution, thus canceling out the conservation and reduction in nonpoint source pollutionbenefits of rainwater harvesting.Scheduling Table 1. Landscape plant crop coefficients (17) High Normal Low Trees 0.9 0.5 0.2 Shrubs 0.7 0.5 0.2 Ground cover 0.9 0.5 0.2 Mix: trees, shrubs, 0.9 0.5 0.2 Groundcover Cool season turf 0.8 Warm season turf 0.6 Ideally, irrigation should be scheduled based on evapotranspiration (soil evaporation andplant transpiration) data, which is based on recent climatic conditions. Virginia Tech recentlydeveloped a website that calculates evapotranspiration based on real-time climate data and canThe Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 10www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009be accessed at http://www.turf.cses.vt.edu/Ervin/et_display.html. The website adjustsevapotranspiration based on turfgrass species, but it can be utilized for all landscape plants.Table 1 from the Irrigation Association Best Management Practice publication details the cropcoefficients suitable for all landscape plants. This number adjusts the evapotranspiration basedon the water requirements for the type of landscape plant being irrigated. Historical evapotranspiration data for select Virginia cities is available at the website:http://climate.virginia.edu/va_pet_prec_diff.htm. This website details potentialevapotranspiration, which is calculated through historical climate data. This website can be usedwhen determining how much water is needed for irrigation purposes.Equation to determine water needed for irrigation in inches: ((Monthly ET x Crop Coefficient ) – Avg. monthly rainfall) x acres x 27,154 gallons/acreExample: Charlottesville, Virginia. 5.55 inches/month average summer ET 4.31 inches/month average summer rainfall 2,000 ft2turfgrass area (5.55– 4.31 inches/acre) x 0.05 acres x 27,154 gallons/acre = 1,684 gallons/month This equation is only an estimation of plant water needs. A rainwater harvesting orirrigation consultant company can determine more accurately the irrigation needs, based on planttype and water needs.Water Conservation Tips All landscape irrigators should follow irrigation best management practices, whether forresidential application or large-scale park application. The Virginia Rainwater HarvestingManual stresses the importance of following these best management practices to ensure that therainwater harvested is utilized efficiently and effectively when irrigating. The Irrigation Association has a detailed Best Management Practice publication availableonline at www.irrigation.org/gov/pdf/IA_BMP_APRIL_2005.pdf (17). The following willsummarize these findings in coordination with utilizing harvesting rainwater for irrigationpurposes.The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 11www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009Native Plants Including native plants in landscape design reduces irrigation demands, compared to non-native plantings. Native plants are adapted to the local climate and rainfall events. Therefore,supplemental irrigation is minimal. Non-native and invasive plantings may not be adapted to thelocal climate and often require extra water, fertilizer and pesticides to maintain health. Manycommonly known horticultural plants are also Virginia native plants. Table 2 lists commonlyknown Virginia native plants. For complete listings, visit DCR’s website atwww.dcr.virginia.gov/natural_hertiage/nativeplants.shtml. To find local nurseries that sellVirginia native plants, visit the Virginia Native Plant society website at www.vnps.org.The Benefits of Rainwater HarvestingEnvironmental When rain falls, it lands on a rooftop, drains to the gutters and drainpipes, and then isdiverted either across land or to storm drain pipes. This rooftop runoff ultimately reaches localwaterways. When the rainwater is carried across landscapes, it picks up detrimental pollutantslike bacteria from animal excrements or decaying animals, chemicals, metals, nitrogen andphosphorus from fertilizers, oil, pesticides, sediment and trash (18). All of these collectedground surface pollutants contaminate waterways and affect native aquatic plants and animals. The Virginia StormwaterManagement Act states that all localitiescovered under the Chesapeake BayPreservation Act or designated as aMunicipal Separate Storm Sewer System(MS4) (Fig. 6) are required to adopt a localstormwater management program, while anylocalities located outside this area may Figure 6. Virginia localities required to establish a local stormwater management program.voluntarily adopt a local stormwater Figure created by Virginia Department of Conservationmanagement program (Code of Virginia § and Recreation.10.1-603.3). The Chesapeake Bay and its connecting rivers are plagued by nutrient and sedimentpollution, which is a result of stormwater runoff. Effort is placed on protecting the ChesapeakeBay due to the diverse habitats and organisms that live in and around the watershed, whichstretches through New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, the District ofColumbia, and West Virginia. Since Half of Virginia drains into the Chesapeake Bay watershedand two-thirds of Virginia’s population lives within the Chesapeake Bay watershed, the health ofthis area impacts many.The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 13www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009 The Virginia Water Resources and Research Center recently developed a tool to assist indetermining stormwater Best Management Practices (BMP). Rainwater harvesting wasidentified as one BMP that would have a ―positive impact on the volume, peak rate, and qualityof stormwater runoff from a site‖ (19). Rainwater harvesting was further ranked as the beststormwater BMP for impervious areas greater than 66% and building roofs at a Blacksburg, VAcase study site. Rainwater harvesting was ranked higher than other common stormwater BMP’ssuch as vegetated roofs, porous pavement, and bioretention areas for the case study scenarios.(19) Installing rainwater harvesting systems in areas where nonpoint source pollution fromstormwater runoff is a severe threat to stream integrity can significantly reduce pollution loads.Since stormwater runoff can also lead to flooding in areas, harvesting rainwater combatsflooding by reducing peak flow from high rain events. Local cities may wish to investigate the economic and environmental impact of utilizingrainwater when investigating alternative water sources. For example, a student at Portland StateUniversity researched the feasibility of installing rainwater harvesting systems in an urbanPortland neighborhood. He determined that upon the installation of 4,500 gallon tanks, runoffcould be reduced by 68%, while reducing demands on municipal water supplies for non-potablewater demands (20). Also, an economic study in Sydney, Melbourne and southeast Queenslandinvestigated the feasibility of utilizing rainwater harvesting over desalination to supplyincreasing water demands. The report stated that if five percent of households utilized rainwaterharvesting, they would collect and supply as much additional water as planned by thedesalination plant (21). Desalination is a very expensive process, especially to provide potablewater for non-potable needs, and results in toxic concentrated salt by-products. Rainwaterharvesting may prove profitable for localities wishing to conserve dollars, water and theenvironment. The economic benefits of rainwater extend beyond water supply costs, asdiscussed in the next section.Economic The economic feasibility of harvesting rainwater differs based on many factors, i.e.precipitation frequency, water consumption needs, prices of local water and wastewatertreatment, cost of installation and maintenance. More importantly is the long-term economicfeasibility, which is based on the building’s operation lifespan and system design. Thecombination of a high building lifespan at least 40 years, high-quality and sustainableprefabricated components, and minimum system servicing needs equates to rainwater harvestingbeing economically feasible and ecologically sensitive. Utilizing inferior quality, less expensive, prefabricated components translates to higherservice costs as these components must be replaced during the life of the building. InstallingThe Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 14www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009high-quality prefabricated components that last the life of the building is a sustainable buildingpractice that is both economic and environmentally responsible. While the most obvious economic benefit of rainwater harvesting is a savings on waterbills, rainwater harvesting can also provide significant savings as a stormwater management tool.Integrating rainwater harvesting into the initial stormwater management plan can decrease thesize of other stormwater facilities which helps offset the initial cost of a rainwater harvestingsystem. The costs of stormwater management practices are hard to compare on a ―dollars persquare feet of impervious area treated‖ basis, so the economic benefit of rainwater harvestingshould be assessed on a case-by-case basis. The use of rainwater harvesting can also decrease any assessed stormwater fees which arebecoming increasingly common in Virginia (Table 3). Some municipalities, such as the city ofChesapeake, which allows for up to a 40% reduction in the stormwater utility fee, have Table 3. Virginia stormwater utility feesCity Fe e Unit (sq. ft.) SourcePortsmouth $6/month 1,877 http://portsmouthva.gov/publicworks/stormwater/utilityfee.htmNorfolk http://www.norfolk.gov/publicworks/stormwater.asp $8.08/month ---(residential)Norfolk $0.182/month 2,000(non-residential) http://cityofchesapeake.net/services/depart/pub-Chesapeake $6.85/month 2,112 wrks/stormwater-faq.shtml#how_calculateNewport News $5.1/month 1,777 http://www.nngov.com/engineering/resources/swmchargePrince WilliamCounty $26.36/year ---(single family) http://www.pwcgov.org/default.aspx?topic=0400760031700008 28Prince WilliamCounty $19.78/year ---(townhome/condo)Prince WilliamCounty $12.80/year 1,000(non-residential)The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 15www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009guidelines for how stormwater BMP’s, like rainwater harvesting, affect the stormwater utility fee(22). Guidelines from the Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation on usingrainwater harvesting for stormwater management are currently in development.Taxes Some states like Texas offer tax incentives for individuals and businesses interested ininstalling rainwater harvesting systems. In 2001, Virginia passed Senate Bill 1416, which gaveincome tax credit to individuals and corporations that installed rainwater harvesting systems.Unfortunately, this bill was never funded so it fell to the wayside. However, work is underwayto lobby for future tax incentives as rainwater harvesting is an environmentally responsible andeconomically feasible approach to conserving water and reducing nonpoint source pollution.Cost of water From 2003 to 2008, the average cost of water in the United States increased 29.8% (23).Prices will continue to rise due to increasing costs to treat water to adapt to EPA’s Safe DrinkingWater Act guidelines, upgrade declining infrastructures, and install conservation programs. MostUS infrastructure was first installed after World War II and many are at or past the 50 yearexpected lifespan. Therefore, water costs are sure to rise to help offset thereplacement/rehabilitation cost. Reducing potable water demand through rainwater harvestingcould eliminate the need for infrastructure expansion. Installing a rainwater harvesting system can help residents reduce their water supplycosts. With rainwater harvesting systems, most of the cost is upfront cost, but systems ultimatelypay for themselves within a few years, depending on the system and local water prices. Thistime could be reduced, depending on how quickly municipal water costs increase. Appropriatelydesigned rainwater harvesting systems will have minimal maintenance costs associated with itsupkeep and therefore will show the best long-term relationship between cost and financialbenefit. In some urban areas, rooftop runoff is directed to storm drains and then to watertreatment facilities. These large pipes are expensive to install and travel many miles throughurban areas. When a heavy rainfall occurs, the water treatment facilities are overwhelmed withstormwater, which causes systems to overflow and even contaminate local waterways withuntreated sewage. Classifying rainwater as sewage is unnecessary, wastes resources, and causesunnecessary pollution. Through a downspout disconnect program, many cities have reduced the number ofdownspouts connected to sewer systems. In doing so, rooftop runoff is instead land applied.While the disconnect program addresses wastewater treatment overloading, it does notnecessarily address nonpoint source pollution from stormwater runoff. In fact, inappropriatelydirected downspouts (i.e. to impervious surfaces) can increase nonpoint source pollution.The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 16www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009 Municipally supplied water is treated to drinking water standards. Potable water is notneeded to flush toilets, wash clothes, wash vehicles, fill pools, fight fires, or irrigate lawns.Therefore, additional money and resources are being wasted when potable water is consumed fornon-potable demands. Rainwater harvesting’s economic feasibility can also be calculated by its synergisticvalues. Rainwater is soft, which means less detergent is used and released into the environment.Also, rainwater harvesting systems with a connected vaporization system can raise site humidityand create a healthier microclimate. This is ideal for city areas dealing with air pollution.Likewise, utilizing rainwater as opposed to municipal and well water benefits local streams,lakes, ponds and groundwater sources since less water will be pulled from these sources. Suchbenefits may not have a direct price tag, but their value is long lasting and considerable. Installing and utilizing rainwater harvesting systems can have a trickle-down effect andcause other companies/individuals/organizations to be more environmentally conscious forenvironmental, economic and political reasons. Rainwater harvesting systems typically increaseresidential property value and offer current and future residents the opportunity to live anenvironmentally responsible lifestyle.LEED Certification With continuing population increases, demand for housing and retail shops will alsocontinue. Thus, development is not likely to stop anytime soon. However, green building designreduces the environmental impact of development. By following green building practices, LEED(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) certification can be attained. In the late 1990’s the United States Green Building Council (USGBC) developed aLEED certification process, which certifies buildings based on environmentally consciousdesign. Rainwater harvesting is one component that can lead to certification, as it is identified asa sustainable water source and reduces environmental impact through reduced stormwater runoffand reliance on municipally supplied water. To attain basic LEED certification, 26 to 32 points are needed. Rainwater harvesting hasreceived increasing attention in the LEED certification process. Water efficiency, reducingindoor water use by 20% below a baseline case, is now a prerequisite for LEED certification. Inaddition, with the newly revised guidelines, a rainwater system can be used to gain up to 12points as follows:  SS Credit 6.1: Stormwater design: Quantity control Reduce the total volume of runoff from the site by capturing and re-using the rainwater from the roof o 1 pointThe Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 17www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009  SS Credit 6.2: Stormwater design: Quality control Capture and re-use or infiltrate rainfall from the 1‖ storm (storm size will be different in different climate areas) o 1 point  WE Credit 1: Water Efficient Landscaping Use rainwater for 50% or 100% of site irrigation o 2-4 points  WE Credit 2: Innovative Water Technology Reduce by 50% potable water demand for sewage conveyance by using harvested rainwater o 2 points  WE Credit 3: Maximize Water Efficiency Reduce potable water use in the building by 30 -40% by using harvested rainwater o 2-4 points According the USGBC website, 77 buildings in Virginia have some level of LEEDrating, which is up from 20 buildings in 2007, when the first edition of the Virginia RainwaterHarvesting Manual was written (24).Low Impact Development Low impact development (LID) aims to mimic a site’s pre-development hydrologythrough the use of innovative techniques and design. Typical development designs include avariety of impervious surfaces like roofing and paving. Through LID, designs aim to curtail thestormwater runoff from these impervious surfaces or utilize alternative products that infiltrate,filter, store, or detain runoff water Residents and business owners that wish to retrofit current buildings or build LIDdwellings can look to rainwater harvesting as an approach to combating the serious issue ofstormwater runoff. Blacksburg, Virginia included rainwater harvesting in their Design Manualfor Low Impact Development. They identified rainwater harvesting systems promote waterconservation, reduce peak flow levels, reduce reliance on ground and surface water, allow forgroundwater recharge, and reduce stormwater runoff and nonpoint source pollution (25).Rainwater harvesting guidelines During the developmental phase of the modern rainwater harvesting system, somecountries investigated water quality and technology improvements. Germany was the leader inthese studies between 1987 and 1997. These studies and practical experiences assisted indrafting rainwater harvesting technical standards, which focused on improved prefabricatedcomponents. The studies also gathered data referring to potable and non-potable rainwaterquality, economic efficiency, and system design.The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 18www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009 Creating national and international rainwater harvesting standards can assist indeveloping low maintenance, safe, and sustainable systems with minimum ecologicaldisturbance. International businesses have made strides in recent years to produce high quality,sustainable rainwater harvesting components, which has influenced the market’s expansion.However, the promise for economic gains fueled inferior companies to produce non-sustainable,mediocre products Today’s rainwater harvesting system designs should follow DIN 1989 Part 1: Planning,Installation, Operation and Maintenance (26), to ensure designs are high-quality and safe.German water providers, water quality specialists, local authority districts, professionalorganizations, and ministries of environment and health all follow these standards. Adopting DIN 1989 would be another step to establishing international rainwaterharvesting standards. All practical experiences confirm that the German standards are sufficientto reach a technically sustainable and safe rainwater harvesting design. Therefore, in countrieswhere such standards and regulations do not exist, i.e. the US, the German standards can beadopted. Rainwater harvesting design and installation requires a network of professionals.Component prefabrication companies, architects, engineers, craftsmen, water providers and localauthority districts all are involved in designing, installing and regulating rainwater harvestingsystems. Like every new technology, involving only the most qualified personnel ensures asuccessful and sustainable product. Rainwater harvesting systems should be designed to ensure water maintains high-qualitywhile in storage. This is accomplished through the implementation of high-quality products thatdivert, collect, and store water.Systems should fulfill the following DIN 1989 guidelines:  Fortify rooftop runoff with oxygen  Eliminate fine and coarse particles prior to storage  Ensure stored water is high in oxygen  Protect stored water from contamination  Provide high-quality, sustainable components  Require minimum maintenance. In the U.S., rainwater harvesting guidelines and regulations can be divided into two majorcategories: ones that address the treatment and use of rainwater and ones that address usingrainwater harvesting for stormwater management. Unfortunately, the regulations for Virginia arestill largely in development, but examples from other states can provide guidance for designing arainwater harvesting system.The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 19www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009Rainwater harvesting for stormwater management Interest in using rainwater harvesting for stormwater management has also spurred thegrowth of regulations. In North Carolina, a properly-sized rainwater harvesting system can beused to downsize other stormwater management BMP’s. The water harvested from the roofmust be ―(1) used on site, or (2) treated and released, or (3) infiltrated‖ (Division of WaterQuality 2008). A computer model from North Carolina State University is used to determinethe stormwater benefits of a cistern. A similar model is under development for Virginia whichwill incorporate recent/pending changes to stormwater regulations and provide an accessible wayto design rainwater harvesting systems for stormwater management.Rainwater as a water supply As rainwater harvesting has increased in popularity, so have the number of regulationsabout rainwater harvesting. At this time, the Commonwealth of Virginia does not haveregulations specifically addressing the use of harvested rainwater. In the Department of Healthregulations in the Virginia Administrative Code (12VAC5-610-1170), guidelines are providedfor the use of cisterns but the guidelines are included in the ―Sewage handling and disposalregulations‖ and appear to only apply in situations where harvested rainwater will enter an on-site sewage disposal system. Other states, as well as the federal government, have providedmore specific guidelines on the use of harvested rainwater. Faced with a significant drought, theGeorgia Department of Community Affairs developed an appendix to the state plumbing codethat authorizes the use of harvested rainwater for cooling towers and toilets and urinals (27).This regulation requires filtration of rainwater before distribution for all uses and requiresdisinfection (UV, ozonation, chlorination, etc) if the harvested rainwater is used for toilets andurinals. Rainwater inside the building must be in purple pipes labeled as non-potable (27).Appendix M of the Oregon plumbing code, adopted in 2008, and the Alternate Method RulingNumber OPSC 08-03 similarly requires that piping for the rainwater system be labeled as non-potable. The Oregon code also mandates gutter screens and first flush diverters and includesguidelines for use as a potable and non-potable water source (28). The Texas WaterDevelopment Board has developed extensive guidelines for the use of harvested rainwater inTexas, including use as a public water system (29). Until Virginia has established guidelines, recommendations from the Low ImpactDevelopment Center of the EPA in their publication ―Managing Wet Weather through GreenInfrastructure: Municipal Handbook: Rainwater Harvesting Policies‖ may be the best guidancefor rainwater harvesting systems in Virginia. This document was designed to help municipalitiesdevelop regulations for rainwater harvesting and divides rainwater use into three categories:outdoor use, indoor non-potable use and indoor potable use and gives guidance for water qualityand treatment (30).The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 20www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009 Design guide This manual was created primarily to guide readers in designing rainwater harvestingsystems. Because statewide standards are not available, guidelines are given based on the bestscientific evidence as well as guidelines from the EPA (30), state codes in Oregon (28) andGeorgia (27) and the Texas Manual on Rainwater Harvesting (29). The design section worksthrough a rainwater harvesting system from the roof collection surface to the end use. The keyconsiderations for each section are highlighted in blue at the start of the section. For readers whowant more information, these considerations are explained further below. Relevantlegislation/guidelines specific to that section are highlighted in yellow. All rainwater harvestingsystems must be constructed in accordance with the state building code as well as Department ofHealth regulations. This manual deals only with rainwater harvesting systems collecting fromroof surfaces. In rare cases, rainwater can be harvested from parking lots, lawns, etc. However,these surfaces present higher risks of contamination of the stored water and, therefore, generallyrequire more treatment before use. Rainwater collection systems using catchment surfaces otherthan roofs should only be designed by engineers/designers with experience with rainwaterharvesting.The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 21www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009Roof Key considerations  Roof materials should be non-porous and smooth.  For retro-fit installations, the quality of water harvested from the roof (ideally through the gutter and downspout system) should be analyzed to determine appropriate end-uses.  Copper roofs and roofs with lead components (for example, flashing or solder) should not be used in any application with a potential for human ingestion (for example, drinking water, pool filling, vegetable gardens).  Aluminum and rubber membrane are recommended roof materials for rainwater harvesting.  Green roofs should be used with caution in rainwater harvesting and rainwater harvested from green roofs with soil bases should only be used for irrigation. Relevant legislation/guidance:  National Standards Foundation, Protocol P151: Health Effects from Rainwater Catchment System Components  Virginia Administrative Code: Title 12, Agency 5, Chapter 610, Section 1170.CisternsRoof materials When rain falls on a roof, it can pick up contaminants both from the roofing material andmaterial deposited on the roof surface. Material on the roof surface can be controlled some bycleaning the roof and trimming trees back near the roof, but many of the sources of materialdeposited on the roof, such as nearby industrial facilities, are outside of the rainwater harvestingsystem designer’s hands. Roofing material is, however, a design choice and can have asignificant effect on the quality of harvested rainwater. Chemical reactions on the roof are oftenrapid because of the acidity of rainfall and the high temperatures on many rooftops (31). Thesereactions make the choice of roofing material an important consideration in designing arainwater harvesting system, particularly for potable uses. The choice of roofing material willalso affect the quantity of rainwater available as some materials absorb water.Metal roofs Metal roofs, with the exception of copper and roofs with lead components arerecommended for rainwater harvesting. Metal roofs have many advantages for rainwaterharvesting, including a smooth surface and a high runoff coefficient. Unfortunately, metals arealso leached from many of these roofs (32) (33) (34). Aluminum and zinc are often found inThe Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 22www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009runoff from roofs containing these metals (32). While presence of these metals in a water supplymay have aesthetic effects (effects on color from aluminum and effects on odor and taste fromzinc), they have not been identified as health risks (35). Ingestion of copper, however, can causegastrointestinal symptoms and possibly kidney and liver damage with long-term exposure (36).The EPA has identified copper as a primary drinking water contaminant with a MaximumContaminant Level Goal of 1.3 ppm (36). Copper concentration in runoff from copper roofs canbe as high as 12 ppm, even when background rainwater concentrations are low (33). Leadflashing, sometimes used on metal roofs, also presents a significant health risk. Even thoughlead flashing generally represents only a small percentage of the surface area of a roof, it can stillcontribute a significant quantity of lead to the run-off causing lead concentrations of up to 0.42mg/l (37) The EPA identifies a public health goal of zero and an action level of 0.015 mg/l forlead (38). Because of the potential for contamination, copper roofs and roofs with leadcomponents should not be used for potable uses, fruit/vegetable gardening, or pool filling. Othermetal roofs, however, are excellent choices for rainwater harvesting systems.Asphalt shingle According to the Virginia Administrative Code, asphaltic roofing material cannot be usedas a catchment surface for cisterns if the water will eventually be sent to an on-site septic field(12VAC5-610-1170). This section of the code is located in the ―Sewage Handling and Disposal‖regulations and seems largely to address potable water. Asphalt shingle roofing has beenidentified as a source of both lead and mercury (39). However, the specific composition ofasphalt shingles varies widely. For retro-fit situations with an asphalt roof, preliminary waterquality sampling of runoff from the roof is likely the best way to determine appropriate end usesof the water. For new construction, roofing materials other than asphalt shingle are generallypreferable.Wood shingle Because of a low runoff coefficient and many of the products used to treat wood, woodshingle roofs are not recommended for rainwater harvesting. Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)treated wood and untreated wood have both been shown to contribute arsenic and copper inmeasurable quantities to runoff (32). Wood shingles can also reduce the pH of runoff, making itmore acidic (31).Cement tile/terra cotta tile Tile roofs should be used with caution in rainwater harvesting systems. Semi-porous roofsurfaces like terra cotta tiles absorb some of the water, thus reducing the system’s watercollection efficiency. In addition, tiles have been shown to contribute significant quantities oflead, copper and cadmium to runoff (40). Finally, the uneven surfaces and absorbed water in thetiles may create an ideal growing environment for bacteria and algae.The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 23www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009Asbestos Asbestos/cement shingles and tiles were common roofing materials prior to widespreadconcern and regulation because of the health effects of asbestos. While the primary health riskof asbestos is inhalation of fibers which can lead to respiratory problems and cancer, somestudies have found statistically significant increases in cancer rates, particularly gastrointestinalcancers, in areas with asbestos in the drinking water supply (41). Little research has been doneon the asbestos concentration in runoff from roofing material made with asbestos, but theavailable research does indicate that concentrations may exceed EPA drinking water standards(42). Out of precaution, rainwater harvested from roofs made of asbestos materials is notrecommended for any use with significant human contact.Green roof Vegetated roof surfaces with a soil base absorb most of the water that falls on the roofand only 10% to 20% of the runoff is collected. The collected runoff is typically a brown color,thus only suitable for landscape irrigation. However, up to 30% of rainfall runoff from vegetatedroofs with a gravel base is collected. This water is also a clear color so it is suitable for bothindoor and outdoor use.Membrane roof Membrane roofs create an ideal surface for rainwater harvesting. These roofs have a highrunoff coefficient and have not been shown to add harmful contaminants to the harvestedrainwater.Roofing materials designed for rainwater harvesting Some international companies have designed roofing material specifically designed forpotable rainwater harvesting. The roofing material is typically pre-painted zinc and aluminumcoasted steel. Some common brand roofs are Colorbond® and Zincalume®. Although theseroofing materials are more common in Australia, the global market allows for availability evenin the US. The National Standards Foundation has also established Protocol P151: Health effectsfrom rainwater catchment system components which identifies roof materials and coatings thathave been certified to not leach any contaminants at levels identified as harmful to human healthin EPA Drinking Water guidelines. A list of certified products is available athttp://www.nsf.org/Certified/Protocols/Listings.asp?TradeName=&Standard=P151.Roof slope Roofs with a pitch work best for rainwater harvesting, as water is easily moved throughgravitational force. Since organic matter can build up between rain events, a steeper roof alsoThe Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 24www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009Gutters and downspouts or roof drains Key considerations  Gutters and roof drains should be designed in accordance to local code.  Half-round or trapezoidal gutters with 0.5% slope for 2/3 and 1% slope for 1/3 of the length are preferred for rainwater harvesting because of more efficient drainage.  For large, flat roofs, siphonic roof drainage systems can reduce installation costs and decrease the required burial depth of belowground tanks. Relevant legislation/guidance  International Plumbing Code, 2006 Edition, Section 11.4  American Society of Mechanical Engineers, A112.9.9 ―Siphonic Roof Drains‖ Gutters and downspouts A rainwater harvesting system is compatible with any gutter and downspout system, but research has shown that some design choices can improve the functioning of the system. Gutters have two main functions: capturing water from the roof (interception) and conveying this water to the downspouts (conveyance). Both of these functions are affected by gutter shape and gutter slope. Research shows Figure 7. Common gutter shapes that guttering systems should be pitched 0.5% for 2/3 of the length and 1% for the remaining 1/3 of the length and ideallya semi-circular or trapezoidal shape (Fig. 7) for optimal interception and conveyance (44). Thechange in slope is required because gutters continue to collect rainwater along their entire length(i.e. the part of a gutter near the downspout is carrying water from a bigger roof area andtherefore more water than farther from the downspout). Increasing the slope lets the same sizegutter carry a greater volume of water. Half-round and trapezoidal gutters are suggested becausethey are able to drain a greater roof area (i.e. carry more water) with the same amount of materialused to make the gutter (the same gutter perimeter). Assuming that the price of gutters isdependent on the amount of material used to make them, the half-round and trapezoidal guttersshould be more cost-effective and water velocity should be higher leading to more efficientdraining and removal of debris. (44)The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 26www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009 Gutter systems should remain free from debris at all times. This ensures water movesfreely from roof surfaces to the storage tank. Installing covered gutters or adding guards toexisting gutters is ideal to prevent debris buildup and clogging.Roof drains While rainwater harvesting systems can be integratedwith any roof drain system, siphonic roof drains (Fig. 8) presenta number of advantages. Siphonic roof drain systems generallyrequire fewer, and smaller, downpipes and less undergroundpiping. The system designer can frequently locate all downpipes Figure 8. Siphonic roof drain.on one side of the building. When siphonic roof drains are used Photo courtesy of Jay R Smithin conjunction with rainwater harvesting, this means that the Manufacturing Co.downpipes can be located near the cistern. When conventionalroof drains are used instead of siphonic, pipes often have to bebrought longer distances (often either around or under the building). This not only requiresadditional pipe and site work, but because of the required slope on the pipe, can result in deeper,and therefore more expensive, burial of the cistern (Fig. 9). Figure 9. Schematic representations of a conventional roof drain system and a siphonic roof drain system.The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 27www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009First flush diversion and pre-tank filtration Key considerations  The first 0.04‖ of a rain event (25 gallons per 1000 ft2) should be diverted to a pervious area (preferably a stormwater BMP) and not stored in the tank.  The first flush diverter or filter should not require maintenance between each rainfall event.  If necessary, this ―first flush‖ can be stored in a tank used for irrigation only. This tank may require periodic cleaning due to sediment build-up.  Particles larger than 0.4 mm (1/64‖) should be filtered out before entering the tank. If this filtration is not possible, the tank system should include a settling area which will require yearly cleaning. Relevant legislation/guidance  Virginia Administrative Code: Title 12, Agency 5, Chapter 610, Section 1170.CisternsFirst flush diversion The initial runoff from a roof surface, called the ―first flush‖ generally rinses the roof,leading to cleaner water as the rainfall continues. For example, both iron and zinc concentrationsin runoff from a polyester roof were four times higher during the first 0.08‖ of rainfall than thesteady state concentration later during the same rain event (45). This trend of cleaner water laterin a rain event is true for sediment (39), metals (45), bacteria (46), and even pesticides (47).Because most of the possible contaminants are rinsed from the roof during the start of a rainevent, diverting the first flush from the tank should greatly improve the stored water quality. While estimates of the depth of rain required to rinse the roof varies, diverting the first 1mm (25 gallons per 1,000 ft2) of rainfall should protect water quality. The depth of rainfallneeded to rinse the roof and bring contaminant levels down to steady state depends on theintensity of the rainfall and the type and condition of the roof (48). First flush diversion can beaccomplished by fixed volume diverters or first flush filters (Fig. 10). Fixed volume typicallyfilled a holding chamber with rainwater at the start of an event and once the chamber is full,rainwater is then diverted into the tank. The chamber periodically must be cleaned to rid the unitof clogging debris, which decreases the unit’s efficiency and impedes the collected rainwaterquality. First flush filters, however, divert rainwater until the stainless steel mesh is wet. In thisway, the quantity of water diverted is proportional to the intensity of rainfall and may moreaccurately match the true first flush volume.The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 28www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009Pre-tank filters Pre-tank filters protect the quality of rainwater stored in the tank by preventing theintroduction of debris. A study of rainwater harvesting tanks in Ontario showed generallyimproved cistern water quality in a system with a vortex pre-tank filter compared to systems withonly first flush diverters or no pre-tank treatment (49). The logic behind pre-tank filtration issimple. A build-up of organic debris in the tank would lead to greater decomposition resulting inlow oxygen levels and a build up nutrients in the tank. Low oxygen conditions can lead to thedevelopment of odors as well as favor the growth of harmful bacteria in the tank. Filters collect rainwater through a straining action, which occurs through some form ofscreen or mesh between the rainwater from the roof and the clean rainwater outlet to the tank.Depending on the design of the filter, rainwater quality can be impeded if leaves are allowedcollect on the screen or mesh. Not only is the filter’s efficiency is reduced, decaying leavesleach contaminants into the stored rainwater. Filters equipped with made screens or mesh that isself-drying and prevent microbial growth are the best at protecting rainwater quality and filterefficiency. Filter fabric should dry between rainfall events toprevent algae and biofilm growth, which could block the fabricpores. Also, fabrics should be made of stable materials that do notchange shape and can withstand temperature changes, iceformation, and frost. Stainless steel is considered the best filterfabric because it can withstand all weather conditions, even iceformation and frost, is self cleaning and self drying, maintainsshape, and does not rust, thus reducing contamination likelihood. There are few filters on the market that utilize both the firstflush and straining mechanisms to harvest rainwater. Figure 13shows a cross section of a filter with a stainless steel bottomlessstrainer that prevents debris from entering the tank, but also works Figure 10. Filter with first flushwith a first flush action through the capillary action of the strainer. and straining capabilitiesThe stainless steel strainer is allowed to dry in between rain Image courtesy Wisy AGevents, thus preventing microbial growth. The goal of a high-quality filter is to not only eliminate contaminants but also supplyoxygen to water during the filtration process. An advanced filter does not restrict the diameterof the gutter and is positioned either vertically connected to the gutter system or horizontallyconnected to the downspouts. Modern filters require low maintenance and cleaning and can efficiently collect morethan 90% of filtrated rainwater. To ensure the effectiveness of the filter, the appropriate filterThe Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 29www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009should be paired with the appropriate roof area. Also, utilizing high quality filters ensures wateris sufficiently filtered, oxygenated and directed to storage tanks. High quality filters need inspection only a few times a year and should last the lifespan ofthe building. Purchasing sustainable products for rainwater harvesting further emphasizes theenvironmental impact by conserving water, energy, and production resources. Research shouldbe conducted to ensure high quality products are integrated into a building’s rainwater harvestingdesign.The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 30www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009Storage tanks Key considerations  Aboveground tanks should be opaque to prevent algae growth, UV resistant to prevent tank failure, and piping should be protected against freezing or drained in the winter.  Belowground tanks must be appropriately load-rated for the site (i.e. under a pedestrian area or a parking lot).  Tanks should be installed according to manufacturers’ instructions.  Only watertight tanks designed for storage, not stormwater tanks designed for infiltration, should be used in rainwater harvesting systems for indoor use.  Tanks should be sized according to the roof area and the anticipated demand. For stormwater use, the tank should be sized according to guidelines from the Department of Conservation and Recreation.  All tanks must include an adequate, screened vent pipe.  All tanks must have at least a 22‖ manway for access. For belowground tanks, this manway must be designed to prevent overland flow into the tank. Relevant legislation/guidance  NSF Standard 61 Tank selection is based on three main criteria: size, location and material. Tank size isalways dependent on the roof area and the anticipated use of the water. However, size decisionsmay also be based on availability of space on the site, stormwater or LEED® requirements, andthe availability of a back-up water supply. Tank size selection will affect possible tank locationsand location and size will then help in the selection of tank materials.Tank sizing While rainwater harvesting has a number of environmental benefits, it must also beeconomically viable to enter the mainstream of building practices. Because the tank is often themost expensive component of a rainwater harvesting system (29), decision-making on tank sizecan have a strong impact on the payback period and economic feasibility of rainwater harvesting(50). The first step in selecting a tank size is choosing a tank selection criterion:  If the back-up water supply is of poor quality or low quantity, does the rainwater harvesting system need to meet the demand as close to 100% of the time as possible?The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 31www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009  Does the tank need to be the most cost-effective size possible?  Does the tank need to meet stormwater demands?In all cases, the tank should overflow occasionally so that floating debris can be skimmed fromthe water surface. Once the tank sizing criterion has been selected, the most accurate way toselect the appropriate tank size is to model the system. The volume of rainwater collected from asurface can be calculated asVolume of rainwater(gal)=Area of roof(ft2) x Collection efficiency x Depth of rainfall(in) x 0.62The collection efficiency isbased on both the roof type and 100the efficiency of the filters and0.62 is a conversion factor from 90ft2-in to gallons. With this Percent of demand met by rainwaterequation and estimates of how 80much water will be used, the 70system can be modeled todetermine the best tank size. 60Larger tanks are able to supply 50a greater percentage of demandbecause they can capture more 40rain from large events.However, there is often a point 30of diminishing returns beyond 20which increasing the tank sizeprovides only a marginal 10benefit (Fig. 11). 0 Using monthly averages 0 5 10 15 20of rainfall can lead to Tank size ( thousands of gallons)significant errors in tank sizing. Figure 11. Sample graph showing how storage tank size affects theImagine two cities; each amount of water supplied by a rainwater harvesting system. As tank size increases, so does the percent of demand met, though thereceives 4 inches of rain per increase is very small at large tank sizes. This hypothetical case of anmonth. If City A has only one office building with a 20,000 ft2 roof collection area and a 600 gallon per day use in Charlottesville, VA is provided courtesy of Rainwaterstorm a month and all 4 inches Management Solutions.of rain fall in one day, a largestorage tank will be needed. If City B receives a little rain each day, only a small storage tankwill be needed. For example, for a 10,000 ft2 footprint office building, in City A, the rainwaterharvesting storage tank would need to hold over 20,000 gallons, while in City B it could be lessthan 900 gallons to capture all of the rainfall if water was used every day. Researchers haveThe Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 32www.cabellbrandcenter.org

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Virginia Rainwater Harvesting Manual 2009modeled rainwater systems with time intervals as small as 15 minutes but have found that dailymodeling is generally sufficient (51). For many locations in the US, daily rainfall data can beobtained from the National Climatic Data Center or a professional rainwater harvesting companycan be consulted for tank sizing assistance. For stormwater management, tank sizing supportwill soon be available from the Department of Conservation and Recreation.Tank location Tanks can be placed either above or below ground. For both options, water should beable to gravity-feed to the tank except in rare circumstances. Locating the tank near the buildingand the water use reduces the amount of pipe and site work necessary as well as pump demands.Though no hard and fast rules govern the decision of aboveground or belowground tanks, ingeneral, once the storage volume exceeds 10,000 gallons or multiple roof drains or downspoutsare being used, belowground storage is often the most viable option. Beyond this, tank locationis dependent on aesthetics, climate and soil conditions. Some prefer not to see the storage tankand opt to bury it. However, placing tanks underground adds to the installation costs and may belimited in areas where soil is especially rocky or areas with a high water table. When tanks areinstalled below ground, water is maintained at a cool temperature and light is blocked, whichreduces the chances of bacterial growth.Tank materials In general, any water storage tank can be used in a rainwater harvesting system, though afew features of common tank materials must be taken into account. Similar to metal roofs,unlined metal tanks may leach some metals into the stored water which may make waterunsuitable for drinking. Concrete tanks provide an advantage over other tanks systems becausethey neutralize the acidity of harvested rainwater. Some tanks are not suitable for certainclimatic areas; wooden tanks are not recommended for hot, dry locations. Since Virginia is afairly humid state, wood tanks can be used throughout. The tables below reference pictures anddescriptions of available tank materials and their corresponding advantages and disadvantages.Storage tanks used in systems that will supply potable water should meet ANSI/NSF Standard 61and FDA standards.The Cabell Brand CenterSalem, VA Page 33www.cabellbrandcenter.org