3 Introduction INTRODUCTION A ir pollution in and from ports is a serious problem not only in the European Union. It seems as if the impact of ports on air quality in Europe is currently underestimated and little investigated. This is more of a problem where ports are located either close to or even in city centres such as in Antwerp, Amsterdam and Hamburg. Annually, air pollution causes over 420,000 premature deaths throughout the European Union (2010, EU-27). 1 Of these, 50,000 premature deaths are attributed to shipping in European waters. 2 Moreover, air pollution diminishes biodiversity, contributes to climate change, harms nature and damages buildings and monuments. Ports are hubs of air pollution because many emitters operate there: numerous kinds of transport and port machinery with diesel engines without exhaust treatment systems or even running on a comparatively dirty fuel. Some of these forms of transports and machinery, such as ocean-going vessels, do not fall under the strict(er) land-based regulations, but enjoy pollution privileges as allowed by international maritime laws. But even where - European or national - legal limits for air emissions exist, the limits are not strict enough and, moreover, some are breached without consequences for the emitters. And for some pollutants, such as black carbon (BC), there are no limits at all. But the picture is not as bleak as this first impression suggests there is light on the horizon. There are already many examples of ports where stakeholders voluntarily implement measures to clean up the air. Unfortunately, these examples and what it takes to implement them are not very well known. That is one of the reasons why the German Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union (NABU) started the project Clean Air in Ports. It was part of the umbrella project Clean Air funded by EU LIFE+ funds ( ). Eight environmental organisations from six European countries campaigned for better air quality throughout Europe. Over the three-year period, the project Clean Air in Ports held six workshops in European port cities (Hamburg, Antwerp, London, Copenhagen, Barcelona and Gdansk). The workshops not only aimed to bring experts, relevant stakeholders and policymakers together that either have an interest in or the possibility to contribute to better air quality in and from ports, but also to inform people about the problem of air pollution and to present, collect and discuss best practices and examples for clean air in ports. This manual collects what we learned during the run-time of the project. It gives an introduction into the topic of air pollution and the legal framework, and presents an array of measures, broken down into different groups of emitters. Since there are no one size fits all solutions, stakeholders can choose which measures fit and work best in their specific situation to reduce air pollution to a level where human health, nature and the climate are harmed as little as possible. Annex B lists stakeholders and measures they could implement. The manual also shows political decision makers why legal frameworks and stricter regulation in ports and for port operation are urgently needed to help clean up the air. We hope that this manual raises the awareness of all the relevant stakeholders and policymakers who are directly or indirectly responsible for air quality in cities and ports, and that, as a consequence, they initiate or implement measures to reduce air pollution in ports. This paper focuses on the primary air pollution topics, even though there are many other environmental aspects that ports should deal with, such as the use of land and how to deal with waste. Many of these issues are closely linked to air pollution. These other topics are important too, and need to be addressed by other projects. We also hope that the manual helps stakeholders to get in touch with companies and institutions in order to get more information and realise air quality improvement measures. To support this, Annex B lists institutions, experts and companies that were part of the project in one way or another. Please do contact us if you need help getting in touch with someone or need more information on a specific topic. The NABU project team wishes to point out that we are not scientific experts on the measures and topics discussed and that, while we tried our best to validate all the information, we therefore do not accept liability for the content. Please do not hesitate to report errors if you find them, so that we can take them into consideration for a second version of this paper. We wish to thank everyone stakeholders from ports, authorities, other NGOs and politicians who supported our work during the last three years. Many thanks especially to the experts who contributed to making this manual as good as possible the speakers at our workshops, the conference organisers and port authorities who successfully supported the organisation of our workshops and contributed to the content. 1

5 1. Air Pollution in Ports 1. Air Pollution in Ports What Are the Harmful Pollutants? I n the EU, about 420,000 people die prematurely because of poor air quality. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 95% of Europeans living in urban environments are exposed to levels of air pollution considered dangerous to human health. In port cities, the ports contribute massively to air pollution. But it is not only ships that pollute the air with emissions from fuels that are up to a hundred times dirtier than road fuels. In ports, shunting locomotives, straddle carriers, reach stackers, inland ships and heavy truck traffic are additional significant emitters. Air pollution comes from many different pollutants. The Clean Air in Ports project focused on three of them that are dangerous for human health, the environment and the climate, and that are emitted mostly by diesel engines in ports: sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ), nitrogen oxides (NO x ) and particulate matter (PM), with the subgroups PM10, PM2.5 and UFPs (ultrafine particles, <0.1 µm) with its component black carbon (BC). Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is not a traditional air pollutant, but is nevertheless harmful, especially for the climate as a so-called greenhouse gas. The NABU project Clean Air in Ports did not take CO 2 into account, instead focusing on traditional air pollutants only. Nevertheless, CO 2 emissions from ports and ships are enormous and must be reduced. Fortunately, there is a big overlap: many measures aiming to reduce air-polluting emissions in ports also reduce CO 2 emissions and vice versa. Actually, most measures aiming to improve energy efficiency, thus reducing energy consumption, will have benefits in terms of CO 2 and air pollution. Although emission factors may depend on combustion conditions etc., air pollution is often related in one way or another to the use of energy or fuel. Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) emissions arise from the combustion of sulphur-containing fuels; the pollutant can be transported over very long distances by the wind. That is how remote coastal and even hinterland regions get polluted by emissions from shipping and port activities. When SO 2 is oxidised into SO 4, it forms sulphate aerosols that are classed as secondary particulate matter (PM). SO 2 molecules in the atmosphere function as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) that promote the formation of clouds. 3

6 Nitrogen oxides (NO x ) arise during combustion, e.g. in the engines of ships, construction machinery, locomotives and trucks. If the combustion time and temperature increase, NO x emissions also rise. When a certain temperature threshold is passed, the increase grows rapidly. NO x emissions may react in the atmosphere and form nitrate (NO 3 ), which contributes to increased levels of PM2.5. In the atmosphere, these aerosols usually occur in the form of ammonium sulphate and ammonium nitrate. Particulate matter (PM) is small particles that are classified as PM10, PM2.5 or PM0.1 depending on their size. These particles have a diameter of less than 10 µm, 2.5 µm and 0.1 µm respectively; particles smaller than 0.1 µm are also called ultra fine particles (UFPs). There is a natural concentration of PM in the atmosphere that consists of marine salt or pollen, but it is enhanced by various human activities such as the burning of fuels or the handling of goods. The combustion of diesel and heavy fuel oil leads to a high amount of PM emissions. PM also develops when certain pollutants meet other substances. The smaller the particles, the worse the effect on human health. In Hamburg, for example, ships account for around 17% of PM10 emissions, including secondary PM (Air Quality Plan 2012). Ultrafine particles (UFPs) are especially harmful to human health. They are not measured by mass as is the case with PM, but by particulate number (PN). The most common measuring method for ultrafine particles is PN/cm³ (particles per cubic centimetre). Black carbon (BC) results from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels and biomass. It is the major component of both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot. Black carbon has harmful health effects and is a so-called short-lived climate pollutant (SLCPs, see 2.3.). It drives global warming and also influences cloud formation and thus impacts regional circulation and rainfall patterns. 4

7 2. Effects of Air Pollution 2. Effects of Air Pollution 2.1. Health Effects of Air Pollution Emissions from diesel engines contribute greatly to the large number of people who fall ill or even die prematurely because of air pollution: in June 2012, the World Health Organization (WHO) published a report that classified diesel exhausts as being as carcinogenic as asbestos. 3 The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has likewise classified diesel exhaust particles as a human carcinogen. 4 Emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) are respiratory irritants and are thought to be partly responsible for increased mortality rates in, for example, the coastal areas of North America and Europe (Corbett et al. 2007). 5 The main reason why both SO 2 and NO x contribute to morbidity and premature mortality is because of the impacts of (secondary) PM, at least according to the studies and modelling carried out so far. Particulate matter PM % EU limit values 96 % NO x emissions diminish the function of the lungs and increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. NO x is also a precursor of ground-level ozone (O 3, also known as tropospheric ozone), a powerful greenhouse gas which is likewise detrimental to human health. O 3 can cause irritation and inflammation of the respiratory system, headaches, an impairment of physical ability and an increase in the frequency of asthma attacks. High concentrations of ground-level ozone in cities known as summer smog are responsible for the death of elderly people and people with poor health conditions. PM emissions are correlated with more frequent asthma attacks, cardiac arrests, chronic bronchitis and lung cancer. It is assumed that children get more infections of the middle ear with increased PM exposure. In general, morbidity and mortality increase with higher ambient PM. The smaller the particles, the deeper they get into the lungs, where they cause more serious consequences. According to the European Environment Agency (EEA), almost five million lost life years could be attributed to exposure to PM2.5 in 32 European countries in Respiratory problems, heart attacks, lung cancer and low birth weights are health effects associated with an increased exposure to black carbon (a constituent of diesel exhaust particles). 7 Up to 98% of Europe s urban population is exposed to dangerous air pollution levels exceeding the air quality guidelines of the World Health Organization (WHO), which are stricter than the EU regulations. The latest scientific work of the Helmholtz Institute* was presented at the Clean Air in Ports workshops in Hamburg, Amsterdam, Copenhagen and Gdansk. In order to analyse the effects of high emission concentrations in ambient air, the scientists applied a new method for exposing human lung cells directly to emissions for the first time. The initial results show not only that the health effects of gaseous shipping emissions and BC emissions are way higher than previously estimated, but also that it is not sufficient to protect human health by switching to low-sulphur fuel a diesel particulate filter must be installed too. WHO guidelines Up to 98% of Europe s urban population is exposed to dangerous air pollution levels exceeding the air quality guidelines of the World Health Organization (WHO). Particulate matter PM10 33 % 88 % Ground-level ozone O 3 14 % 98 % Nitrogen dioxide NO 2 5 % 5 % Sulphur dioxide SO 2 < 1 % 46 % Changed from European Environmental Agency,

8 High concentrations of nitrogen oxides (NO X ) cause acid rain and lead to the eutrophication of lakes, soils and coastal areas, and to the acidification of soils Environmental Damage Caused by Air Pollution Emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) are harmful to plant vegetation and cause acid rain. SO 2 molecules in the atmosphere function as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) that promote the formation of clouds. High concentrations of nitrogen oxides (NO x ) cause acid rain too and lead to the eutrophication of lakes, soils and coastal areas, and to the acidification of soils. Air pollutant emissions are responsible for a significant loss of productivity in agriculture and forestry, and have a negative impact on biodiversity. In Europe, nearly 200,000 km 2 (10%) of sensitive ecosystems are exposed to excess deposition of acidifying pollutants and some 1.1 million km 2 (68%) of sensitive terrestrial ecosystems are exposed to excess deposition of eutrophying nitrogen pollutants. 8 PM emissions contribute to forest decline. 9 Ground-level ozone (O 3 ), which develops from NO x, is dangerous for plant vegetation and health Climate Change and Air Pollution Black carbon belongs to the group of short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs) and has been recognised as being the second strongest climate-forcing agent after CO 2. As the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) says, reducing SLCPs could cut global warming by up to 0.5 o C by BC particles that settle on white snow and ice surfaces lower their reflection capacity (the albedo). In addition, the particles themselves warm up and thus contribute to a faster melting of ice and snow. This is especially bad for glaciers and for the arctic regions, where black carbon is responsible for more than 40% of warming. Studies estimate that diesel from shipping currently accounts for between 8% and 13% of the global emissions of diesel black carbon (2010). 11 It is predicted that in the Arctic, diesel black carbon emissions will rise by between 70% and 120% by NO x emissions also contribute to climate warming, since NO x is a precursor of ground-level ozone O 3 (tropospheric ozone), a powerful greenhouse gas. However, the good news is that there are already measures available to reduce BC and NO x emissions from shipping drastically (see 4.1.) Buildings and Air Pollution Acid rain damages buildings, historic monuments and statues especially those made of limestone and marble, which contain large amounts of calcium carbonate. Acids in the rain react with the calcium compounds in the stones to create gypsum, which then flakes off. The effects of this can be seen on gravestones and churches, where acid rain causes noticeable damage to inscriptions and filigree structures. Acid rain also increases the corrosion rate of metals, in particular iron, steel, copper and bronze. 6

9 3. Emissions in Ports 3. Emissions in Ports 3.1. Who Are the Emitters in Ports? There are several sources of air pollution in ports and in every port the various emitters contribute to the pollution to a different extent. The Clean Air in Ports project focuses on the emitters of PM, SO 2 and NO x that belong to immediate port business: ships (seagoing and inland vessels), non-road mobile machinery (NRMM) such as straddle carriers, reach stackers, automated guided vehicles (AGVs), rubber-tyred gantry cranes (RTGs) and construction machinery, trucks, trains, conveyor vehicles and cars. Most of these engines are diesel-powered and the burning of diesel causes a lot of PM, SO 2 and NO x emissions, especially if the exhaust is not treated. The Clean Air in Ports project does not deal with other emission sources such as from dry bulk handling or industrial sites. Depending on the port in question, these sources could be industrial sites such as power plants, refineries and metal production plants that have a significant impact on air emissions in the vicinity. These emissions are not addressed within this paper. The following passages present regulations for the air pollutants and possible measures for cleaning up the emissions from the different sources, followed by overall port strategies and policy instruments How Much Do Ports Emit? As mentioned above, the amount of air pollution from a port depends on its size, the number of diesel engines running and the actual regulations in place. No two ports are alike. Some ports try to estimate how much air pollution they cause and in which proportions in order to set up a plan to reduce air pollution. With an emission inventory as a first step, specifically determined emissions of a port such as NO x, SO 2, VOC, PM10 and PM2.5 are calculated and attributed to different sources such as ocean-going vessels, harbour vessels, cargo handling equipment, locomotives and vehicles. An inventory provides a baseline from which mitigation strategies can be created, developed and implemented, and on the basis of which the performance and success of the port in reducing its emissions can be tracked over time. Emission inventories have been issued for several American ports such as Corpus Christi, Beaumont/ Port Arthur, Houston/Galveston, Los Angeles*, Long Beach, Oakland*, New York/New Jersey and Portland by consulting companies such as Starcrest*, Environ, ACES and Bridgewater that also consult other major ports worldwide. At the workshop in Gdansk, two projects presented how they conduct air emission measurements and inventories: the Polish ARMAAG Foundation* runs air pollution measurement stations in the area of the tricity Gdansk, Sopot and Gdynia. They found out that the ports in Gdynia and Gdansk contribute 9.7% and 7.3% respectively to the air pollution in the region of the three cities. The Antwerp Port Authority (APA)* has conducted an emission modelling project for ocean-going vessels as part of the INTERREG-subsidised project Clean North Sea Shipping (CNSS) (see 5.2.) in order to get a more accurate view of ship emissions. 7

10 3.3. Air Quality Regulations Many air-polluting emissions are regulated at the EU level and the directives in question are transposed into national law. Ships are the only sector in ports that are regulated by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), but these regulations also have to be transposed into European and national law (see 3.4.). In December 2013, the European Commission published its long awaited Clean Air Policy Package including, among other things, the Clean Air Programme for Europe and a revision of the National Emission Ceilings (NEC) Directive. The overall aim of the European policy is to achieve levels of air quality that do not result in unacceptable impacts on, and risks to, human health and the environment. Despite the objectives of the NEC Directive currently being discussed, this goal will certainly not be reached by The goal is part of the legal framework which is supposed to gradually improve air quality in Europe over the next decades. However, the National Emission Ceilings (NEC) Directive (2001/81/ EC) defines the maximum permissible total national emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides (in addition to other emissions) for each member state. In the current legislative framework air pollution from ports is not completely covered. Inland and domestic shipping, like road and non-road mobile machinery, is taken into account in a country s emission inventory. Therefore, it is included in national actions to reduce their exhaust gases. However, international ships heading towards nondomestic ports are not included in the national inventories and are consequently not covered. In addition to the NEC Directive which sets caps for a country s emissions, there is the Air Quality Directive (AQD) (2008/50/EC), which regulates ambient concentrations of air pollution (immission). This directive defines limit values for several major air pollutants: SO 2, NO x, PM10 and PM2.5. The limit values have been binding at the latest since 2010 (apart from the limit for PM2.5, which has been binding since 2015) and stipulate daily and yearly limits for the pollutants. The current limit values lack ambition some are less strict compared to the WHO guidelines and are still breached by many member states. A revision of the AQD is urgently needed, but this is not on the horizon at the moment. As ports are often located in or around urban areas or, even worse, directly in city centres, they contribute significantly to local air pollution, which may result in breaches of the limit values. Member states of the European Union have to adopt programmes to comply with these ceilings. European limit values are legally binding, and exceedances can result in the European Commission taking infringement action against the country at fault. So far, the emission reductions that could be achieved if all the member states complied are still too low. And looking ahead, the 2020 targets proposed for the revised NEC Directive actually allow 10% to 25% higher emissions of SO 2 and NO x than would result if just the existing legislation were enforced. Pollutant Concentration Legal nature Period Permitted exceedances/year Particulate matter PM μg/m³ target value (from 2015) 1 year Particulate matter PM10 50 μg/m³ limit value 24 hours 35 Particulate matter PM10 40 μg/m³ limit value 1 year Sulphur dioxide SO μg/m³ limit value 1 hour 24 Sulphur dioxide SO μg/m³ limit value 24 hours 3 Nitrogen dioxide NO 2 Nitrogen dioxide NO μg/m³ 40 μg/m³ limit value limit value 1 hour 1 year 18 Air pollutant restrictions in the EU. EUR-Lex 8

11 3. Emissions in Ports Emission Control Areas (ECAs) BC is not currently included in the NEC Directive, but might be after the current NEC revision. This process is an opportunity to achieve significant air pollution reductions and, as such, to contribute to health, environment and climate protection, but so far the proposals lack ambition. The revision of the NEC Directive has to include black carbon and methane and also ambitious emission reduction goals for 2020, 2025 and New and strengthened sector legislation is needed which covers all kinds of sources, including shipping, to support the NEC Directive as are measures to ensure compliance and enforcement. EU air quality standards need to be in line with the WHO s recommendations (they are currently below them). The benefits of taking action far outweigh the costs in every policy scenario put forward by the Commission, yet the Commission s proposal is far from ambitious. Air pollution has high health, economic and environmental costs. To reduce these to a minimum within what is technically feasible would cost 51 bn a year but the health benefits would range between bn per year 13. As the EU is, like the US, a strong market, it could introduce limits earlier or make them stricter than the IMO without having to fear market distortions Specific Regulations for Air Quality in Ports In addition to the NEC Directive and the AQD, there are a number of other EU directives that set specific emission limit values for the various emitters: The sulphur emissions of ships are regulated by the so-called Sulphur Directive (2012/33/EU) that transposes international law from the International Maritime Organization (IMO) into EU law. This also has to be transposed into national law. According to this directive, since 2010, ships must use fuel with a maximum of 0.1% sulphur when at berth at a European port for two hours or more. The directive also allows ships to use other technical abatement technologies that achieve the same levels of emission reductions, provided it can be demonstrated that these technologies do not adversely affect the marine environment. The abatement technology most often mentioned is the desulphurisation of exhaust gases by means of scrubbing (see ). The EU Sulphur Directive also specifies a maximum sulphur limit of 0.5% as from 2020 in all EU sea areas (except SECAs [see table]). Contrary to the impression perhaps given, ships sail close to the shore most of the time. Their emissions get carried hundreds of kilometres inland. The transport of the pollutants is done by the wind and may vary according to weather conditions. The limit values for ships outside the ports are therefore important too. There are general limit values and special limit values for so-called Emission Control Areas (ECAs). These are set by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) of the United Nations. In Sulphur Emission Control Areas (SECAs), ships must use fuel with a maximum sulphur content of 0.1% or have to install emission abatement technology. In Europe, only the Baltic Sea, the North Sea and the English Channel are SECAs. In all other European waters, a maximum sulphur content of 3.5% is allowed (heavy fuel oil, HFO), which is 3,500 times more sulphur than in road fuel. In the US, there are combined SECAs and Nitrogen Emission Control Areas (NECAs), with the latter being in place from 2016 on (see page 10). Overview of the maximum permissible sulphur content in fuel. IMO: Non-SECAs SECAs At berth 3.5% 1.0% * Date of introduction depends on IMO review in 2018, introduction might be postponed to ** When at berth 2 hours or more. IMO / European Comission 3.5% 0.1% 0,5%* 0.1% Same limit as in the respective area EU: Non-SECAs SECAs At berth 3.5% 1.0% 3.5% 0.1% 0.1%** 0.5% 0.1% 9

12 ppm sulphur Maximum permissible sulphur content of fuels for different areas and at different times. Heating oil Global marine fuel limit until 2012 limit and roads transport/inland shipping for comparison Global marine fuel limit from ,000 ppm = 1% Global marine fuel average before US SECA fuel limit Heavy fuel oil limit for land based sources IMO globel marine fuel limit from 2020 (2025) Heating oil limit SECA limit from Limit for road transport and inland shipping Changed from AirClim, There is currently no international or EU legislation limiting BC emissions from ships at sea or in ports. The IMO has set limits for NO x emissions from ships, called Tier I/II/III. Globally, Tier II limits are in place for new ships since The stricter Tier III limits apply in NECAs, which will be in place in North American and US Caribbean waters as of 1 January In order to limit air pollution from international shipping effectively, SECAs and NECAs are needed in all European waters. TIER III limits apply to new built ships after a fixed date only, so NO x limits for the existing fleet are needed. Legally, port equipment, construction machinery, inland ships and trains are grouped as so-called non-road mobile machinery (NRMM). Directive 2012/46/EU deals with PM, SO 2 and NO x (and other) emissions of different NRMM and is under review (as at 2015). A problematic issue is that very different limit values apply for the various engine types and that these limits are often too weak. A possible approach would be to align all NRMM values with the EURO norms for cars and trucks. The NRMM Directive also needs to include PN limit values as UFPs are extremely harmful to human health. However, whereas different polluters from inland waterway vessels and other NRMM are regulated by this directive, the only pollutant from ocean-going vessels regulated by specific legislation is the sulphur (European Sulphur Directive). Cars and trucks cause emissions in ports too. Their PM, VOC, SO 2 and NO x (as well as CO 2 ) emissions are regulated by Directive 715/2007/EC and Directive 2005/55/EC. At the moment, many diesel cars do not meet NO x limits in real-world driving. The highest standard for diesel cars and trucks that even include PN, the so-called EURO 6/EURO VI standard, is quite ambitious and has the potential to significantly reduce air pollution levels but only if the required EURO standards are not only met during the official testing procedure, but also on the road. In addition, the limits are not yet in place for gasoline cars and they will apply only to new vehicles entering the market (in 2017 and 2019). So considering a turnover period of about ten years, many vehicles with high emissions will still be on the (port) roads years after stricter standards have been set. 10

13 4. Emission Reduction Measures for Single Emitters 4. Emission Reduction Measures for Single Emitters 4.1. Water Transport: Inland and Ocean-Going Vessels Organisational measures Eco Sailing Like car drivers, ship sailors can be trained to sail energy efficiently. The training can range from machinery treatment to the inclusion of weather conditions in route or driving decisions. Fuel-efficient driving has to be a crucial factor for the crew. Example: Scandlines* has achieved substantial fuel savings thanks to crew training and the implementation of a fuel efficiency strategy Slow Steaming Sailing more slowly can save a significant amount of fuel and thus avoid costs and emissions. A study conducted by CE Delft, the The International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT)* and Mikis Tsimplis 14 shows that an average speed reduction of 10% results in a 19% reduction in CO 2 emissions and assumes that SO 2, NO x and probably BC emissions are reduced considerably with the lower consumption of fuel too. It also shows that slow steaming is at least cost-neutral when done correctly. Taking direct and indirect costs into account, the benefits of slow steaming even outweigh the costs. A port can require ships to slow down when entering the port waters. Outside ports, reduced ship speed contributes to marine safety and is likely to reduce whale strikes and other harmful wildlife interactions. Examples: The tugboats in the Port of Antwerp* sail more slowly and consequently save 5% to 15% fuel. The Port of Long Beach and the Port of Los Angeles* respectively have the Green Flag Program and the Vessel Speed Reduction Incentive Program in place. These reward participating ships with a reduced dockage fee of 25% (or 15%) for slowing down to 12 knots or less during 90% of their annual calls when they get as close as 40 NM (or 20 NM) to the port. In 2009, 70% (or 90%) of all ships calling at the Port of Long Beach qualified for the reduction. 11

14 Technical Measures The California Air Resources Board (ARB) estimated in a study that if all ships were to reduce their speed to 12 knots starting 40 NM outside the port, air pollution would be decreased: PM by 31%, NO x by 36%, SO 2 by 29%. It has to be taken into consideration that most shipowners stated in a survey that they would speed up once they left the 40 NM zone, which would diminish or even undo the effects on air quality. This leads to considerations of having a general speed reduction and/or combining speed reduction in ports with virtual arrival (see below) Virtual Arrival (Ocean-Going Vessels) At present, some ships still head for a port and when they reach it have to wait until there is a berthing slot available. The concept of virtual arrival is an option for ships to agree on a defined arrival time. Weather conditions and algorithms are used to calculate a notional just in time arrival. By introducing this slot system, ships can optimise their operations: they plan their journey and adapt their individual speed to the expected arrival time. Firstly, virtual arrival contributes to significantly reduced (bunker) fuel consumption on a voyage and also a radical reduction in emissions. And secondly, this management can lead to less congestion and more safety in a port Use of Low-Sulphur Fuel while at Berth (Ocean-Going Vessels) Most ocean-going vessels use heavy fuel oil (HFO) or highdensity fuel oil. This is a mixture of residual fuel and blending products. There is evidence that chemical waste is used for this blending. Also, tankers often have to vent their cargo tanks when the temperature in the tanks rises. The volatile organic compounds (VOCs) which are released during this process usually contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are carcinogenic compounds. But even though ocean-going vessels in Europe have to use fuel with a maximum sulphur content of only 0.1% at berth, this fuel is still a hundred times dirtier compared to road diesel (0.001% sulphur), and BC and NO x emissions are still very high. Although cleaner fuels lead to reductions in harmful emissions, this is not sufficient as most ships are not equipped with effective exhaust gas cleaning technology (while cars are, for example). Moreover, ships can switch to HFO as soon as they leave a port unless they are in a SECA where the limit is 0.1%. Similar legislation is about to come into effect in Hong Kong. In Australia, ships in ports can use fuel with a maximum sulphur content of 3.5%, but the regulation is under political discussion. See also the table under

15 4. Emission Reduction Measures for Single Emitters Diesel Particulate Filters (DPF) Diesel particulate filters (DPFs) are exhaust gas treatment systems that significantly reduce PM and BC emissions from diesel-fuelled vehicles and equipment by up to 99.9%. DPFs typically use a porous ceramic or cordierite substrate or metallic filter to physically trap particulate matter (PM) and remove it from the exhaust stream. DPFs can be coupled with closed crankcase ventilation, selective catalytic reduction (SCR, see ) or lean NO x catalyst technologies for additional emission reductions. The installation of a DPF can reduce soot emissions from a ship almost completely, especially the UFPs that are not reduced by switching to low-sulphur fuel (LSF). A prerequisite for the installation of such a filter is the use of fuel with a maximum sulphur content of 0.5%. Passive filters require operating temperatures high enough to initiate combustion of the collected soot. In addition, filters require periodic maintenance to clean out non-combustible materials such as ash. For ocean-going vessels, DPFs are ready to use. Some smaller ships in ports (for example tugboats) and inland ships already utilise DPFs. Examples: In 2011, Mitsui O.S.K. Lines (MOL) started a demonstration test of a diesel particulate filter (DPF) system installed on the diesel engine used for power generation on its ocean-going vessel. According to MOL, the self-cleaning DPF jointly developed by the company and Akasaka Diesels was the world s first application of such a system on an ocean-going vessel. The DPF filters use silicon carbide ceramic fibres and can collect more than 80% of PM produced by the engine. As the first ocean-going vessel, the German science ship Heincke was equipped with a DPF and an SCR system in In cooperation with the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research gave the order to retrofit its 25-yearold ship Heincke with three new engines with a DPF and an SCR catalyst. The technology reduces black carbon emissions by 99.9%, sulphur emissions by about 90% and nitrogen oxides by 70% to 80%. In 2013, AIDA Cruises announced it would install diesel particulate filters in combination with SCR systems and scrubbers on its entire fleet, but would continue to burn heavy fuel oil Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems convert NO x emissions into N 2 (nitrogen gas) and water. SCR systems eliminate most of the NO x emissions from a ship s exhaust fumes (70% to 80%). The fumes need to have a certain temperature for SCR to function. Data logging must be performed to determine whether the exhaust gas temperatures meet the specific SCR system s requirements. A reductant such as ammonia or urea has to be added to the exhaust gas and is absorbed into the catalyst. Particulate filters (see ) and SCR systems can be combined. Today, more than 500 ocean-going vessels are equipped with an SCR catalyst. Examples: As the first ocean-going vessel, the German science ship Heincke was equipped with a DPF and an SCR system in 2015 (see examples). The Antwerp Port Authority (APA)* has conducted a pilot project with an SCRT (SCR with integrated soot filter) exhaust gas treatment on the auxiliary engines of a tugboat. As soon as the results of emission measurements prove that the system complies with the EURO V standard (for trucks), the system will be rolled out over the whole of the APA s tug fleet. The cruise ship MS Europa 2 (Hapag-Lloyd Cruises), which was launched in 2013, is equipped with an SCR system designed to eliminate 95% of NO x emissions. MDO 0,1% sulphur (left) and HFO 2,8% sulphur (right) 13

16 Fuel Cells Fuel cells generate energy by means of an electrochemical reaction, commonly between hydrogen and oxygen. They also cause very little noise and zero emissions of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, particulates and CO 2. The only emissions are water vapour and heat. The propulsion power is provided by an electric drive. Fuel cells have high efficiency levels, but the production of hydrogen as a fuel is not yet very energyefficient. If the electricity for the hydrogen production comes from renewable sources, fuel cells are a zero-emission technology. Fuel cells can easily be combined with all kinds of electric propulsion. They can produce electricity to serve an electric engine or to charge a battery. Fuel cells are used in everything from small forklifts to seagoing ships. Examples: The 100-passenger ship Alsterwasser in Hamburg uses a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell. Launched in 2008, it was the world s first regular-service passenger ship with a fuel cell. The ocean-going vessel Viking Lady uses a 330 kw molten-carbonate fuel cell that complements the LNG electric propulsion. FutureShip*, a company of the former Germanischer Lloyd, has developed a concept for Scandlines* that uses fuel cells as the primary source of propulsion in its 150-metre ferries. The zero-emission propulsion system will use excess electricity from wind turbines in northern Germany and Denmark to produce the hydrogen for use in the on-board fuel cells to power the electric drives. Excess electricity on board is stored in batteries for peak demand Hybrid Ships Hybrid means that ships equipped with a diesel- or gas-electric drive have an additional battery. This battery is charged whenever there is excess power generated by the combustion engine or using shoreside electricity. The energy from the batteries can be used when the ship is at berth in the harbour, for sailing at low speed or to boost the main engine when there is a high power demand (such as in tugboats). Consequently, the main engine can be smaller and can run on more constant revolutions. This saves fuel and emissions. Examples: Scandlines* has equipped four ferries with 2.7 MWh batteries. The batteries are charged by the main engine when there is excess energy and provide the electric drive with extra electricity for acceleration. Thereby the main engine can run on constant revolutions per minute (rpm) and can be smaller. This saves fuel and maintenance costs, and also increases the lifetime of the engine. The hybrid ferries save 24% fuel and thus reduce CO 2 emissions by around 24%. Additionally, these ferries are equipped with scrubbers. The Antwerp Port Authority (APA)* is running a feasibility study on the hybrid propulsion of tugboats. The first results are expected in the summer of The towing company KOTUG operates three hybrid tugboats that are equipped with batteries. When not towing, the tugs use the electric drive for transit. When more power is needed, diesel generators are started. The batteries are charged by the diesel engine Ships Running on Batteries Financing Cleaner Ships The Norwegian NO x Fund is a programme that came about when Norway introduced a tax on NO x emissions in Instead of a company paying the tax, an environmental agreement can be signed. In so doing, companies commit to the obligations of the NO x Fund. On the other hand, companies can apply for financial support for their NO x reducing measures. Ships equipped with batteries can sail without causing any emissions (if the electricity is generated using renewable sources). Currently, due to the capacity of the batteries, these ships can sail only short distances and need charging capacity in the ports they serve. Batteries with a bigger capacity therefore need to be developed. Example: The MS Fjordlys has been in operation on Norway s Sognefjord since the end of The 80-metre aluminium catamaran runs 100% electric on two electric motors of 450 kw. In the ports, the lithium-ion battery recharges in just ten minutes. The electricity comes from hydropower. The ferry an- 14

17 4. Emission Reduction Measures for Single Emitters nually saves one million litres of diesel fuel and avoids the emission of approximately 2,700 tonnes of CO 2 and 37 tonnes of NO x per year Liquefied Natural Gas Liquefied natural gas (LNG) can be used as a fuel for ships. It reduces the emissions of the three air pollutants focused on in this project: SO 2 and PM emissions can be reduced by up to 99%, NO x by up to 80% for some ships. Also, the CO 2 emissions are about 20% lower than with fuel. But the positive effect of LNG on the climate is controversial because of two factors. Firstly, the energy demand for storage and transport: LNG has to be kept cool ( 162 C) along the supply chain within storage tanks, so a certain amount of energy has to be added to the calculation. Secondly, the methane slip: methane is a greenhouse gas that gets emitted to some extent when LNG is explored, when handled and when combusted in the engine (in a four-stroke engine, the slip is a lot smaller compared to a twostroke engine). Methane is about 25 times more harmful for the climate than CO 2 (time frame: 100 years). If a lot of methane gets emitted, LNG is more destructive for the climate than conventional fuel. If the energy consumption in the supply chain is high and/or the methane slip is big, the use of LNG might be even worse compared to HFO and MDO. A study conducted by the ICCT* 15 analysed various LNG pathways and concluded that the benefit or disadvantage of LNG depends on how it is produced, bunkered and handled. An average over the various pathways shows an advantage of 10% lower climate emissions with LNG. Even if not all pathways are applicable in all ports, the study shows which ones are the best for avoiding methane leakages. The best practices offer a reduction of greenhouse gases of up to 18%. The areas in which the most greenhouse gas emissions can be avoided are improved engine efficiency, direct methane slip from the engine and upstream methane leaks during exploration. Examples: Since January 2013, the Swedish ferry Viking Grace has been running on LNG and carries up to 2,800 passengers between the Finnish city of Åbo and the Swedish city of Stockholm. It is bunkered with LNG by barge in Stockholm. The world s first LNG-powered 3,100 TEU container carrier started US-Caribbean service in early The ferry Helgoland from Cuxhaven /Hamburg to the island of Helgoland, Germany, is currently being refitted so it can run on LNG starting in summer It carries 1,200 passengers and cargo, and is expected to save 1.2 million litres of MDO. The Port of Bremen is building an LNG fuelled dredger that is scheduled to be ready by the end of It will be the first of its kind in Germany and the first hopper barge with that technology worldwide. 15

18 Methanol Methanol is a liquid fuel with a comparatively low heating value compared to conventional fuels. It is mostly produced from natural gas, which is a fossil fuel. But it can also be produced from biomass, waste or even carbon dioxide and can therefore be provided as a biofuel. Electric energy input is needed for the production of methanol and this has to be generated using renewable energies to guarantee a positive ecological impact of methanol. According to StenaLine, using methanol as a marine fuel will reduce SO 2 emissions by 99%, NO x by 60%, PM by 95%, and CO 2 by 25%, compared to their previous emissions from bunker and marine fuels. Methanol as a fuel meets the SECA and NECA emission requirements without any exhaust treatment. Example: Since 2015, StenaLine s 250-metre vessel Stena Germanica, one of the world s largest ferries, has been running on methanol. It has dual-fuel engines, which means that methanol is the primary fuel, but it can also run on MGO. The project was financially supported by the EU s Motorways of the Sea initiative Ships with a Plug for an Onshore Power Supply If ships have a plug for an onshore power supply (OPS) (see ), they can use electricity from the shore while at berth and can shut down their engines. After many years of negotiations, an international standard for cold ironing was adopted in 2012, making it more attractive for ports and shipowners to invest in this. Many American ports such as the Port of Los Angeles*, the Port of Long Beach and the Port of Oakland* already offer or even demand OPS connectivity for container vessels. OPS options are also offered in some European ports. The challenge for shipowners is the different voltages on the various continents (see ). Due to high energy consumption, e.g. of cruise ships, onshore power supplies might be a challenge for the local grid. Examples: The Color Line ferry service between the cities of Kiel, Germany, and Oslo, Norway, has ferries with a plug. The OPS in Oslo was created in 2012, while Kiel will follow in The ferry operator claims that in Oslo this measure cuts emissions by 50 tonnes of NO x, 2.5 tonnes of SO 2 and 3,000 tonnes of CO 2 each year. 16

19 4. Emission Reduction Measures for Single Emitters AIDA Cruises announced it would equip its entire fleet with plugs for OPS that can utilise electricity from the onshore grid as well as from power barges (see ) Ships with Wind Propulsion (Ocean-Going Vessels) There are some projects under way to propel ships, even big cargo ships, by wind. In combination with an engine, this can be quite successful, especially on longer distances. Wind can provide additional or even the main power. There are various ideas and mechanisms being discussed and tested. Several new technologies have already been implemented or are the planning stages, ranging from traditional to revolutionary sailing ships with various kinds of wind propulsion. There are single kites that can be installed for auxiliary propulsion on existing ships. But there are also concepts where wind will be the main propulsion power. A fundamentally new ship design is needed if the vessel s hull itself is used as a sail to systematically utilise wind propulsion. Examples: diesel-electric motor. Under sail, the propeller produces electricity. The project platform has been realising sailing transports using a traditional schooner with 35 tonnes capacity from Central America to Europe since Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) reduces NO x emissions by recirculating exhaust gas into the combustion system. The exhaust gas from the stack of a diesel engine goes into an EGR valve which is timed with the intake valves to allow some exhaust to recirculate in the cylinder for compression. However, with this system, more particulate matter gets emitted, so a DPF should be used. SkySails technology sets up kites on conventional ships to use wind energy for supplementary propulsion. According to SkySails, one kite equals up to 2,000 kw of propulsion power and saves about 15% of fuel. The kites are already available and have been installed on a handful of vessels. Flettner rotors aid a ship s propulsion by means of the magnus effect the perpendicular force that is exerted on a spinning body moving through a fluid stream. A 7,000 kw system is already working on the E-Ship 1 owned by Enercon and launched in The Vindskip belonging to the Norwegian company Lade AS is a large car carrier. The entire hull functions as a sail. Software calculates the best route on the basis of the current and expected wind and weather conditions. If need be, it can also be driven by LNG. The system is estimated to save 60% fuel, 90% NO x, 100% SO 2 and PM emissions and 80% CO2. The Ecoliner project by Dykstra Naval Architects involves several institutions, firms and researchers in the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, the UK and France. The concept foresees a ship with a loading capacity of over 8,000 tonnes, propelled by a 4,000 m 2 sail (Dynarig, four square-rigged masts). For auxiliary propulsion, it is equipped with a 3,000 kw 17

20 Scrubbers (Ocean-Going Vessels) So-called scrubbers wash a ship s exhaust gases in a subsequent treatment process to remove harmful particles and residues. Scrubbers reduce SO 2 emissions by between 70% and 95%, and also lower PM and NO x emissions to some extent. Since they lower the temperature of the exhaust fumes, they cannot be combined with an SCR system (see ) without further energy expenditure. There are different types: open scrubbers, closed-loop scrubbers and hybrid scrubbers that are able to work in both modes. An open-loop scrubber uses seawater which is discharged back into the sea after treatment. A closed-loop scrubber uses fresh water added with caustic soda that is reprocessed on board. In both cases, so-called sludge which is classified as hazardous waste is produced, which has to be carried on board and further processed on land. Sludge contains toxic substances such as heavy metals, metalloids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated diphenyls (PCBs) and oil hydrocarbonates. Currently, there is uncertainty about the handling of the waste on land as well as about the assessment of scrubber water discharge. There is no legal standard, but in several ports and coastal areas the operation of open-loop system is already forbidden in order to protect the marine environment (as at 2015). Moreover, there is no sufficient surveillance system that guarantees the proper disposal of scrubber waste. In addition, there is a risk that scrubbers may be turned off intentionally since they cause additional energy consumption costs and produce waste that has to be disposed on land. However, about 80 ships worldwide, most of them ferries or cruise ships, operate with open-loop or hybrid scrubbers in order to comply with the sulphur regulations in SECAs. A study by the renowned Dutch research institute CE Delft (2015) 16 showed with case studies that there are only a few business cases in which a scrubber is cheaper than a switch to low-sulphur fuel. The study takes into account the costs of retrofitting old ships or equipping new ones with scrubbers as well as ongoing maintenance costs and waste disposal fees. Instead of scrubbing, the more environmentally friendly approach for a ship is to install DPFs and SCR systems (see and ) combined with a switch to MDO or to other types of less polluting fuels (e.g. LNG), also for the benefit of health and the climate. The combination of environmental concerns and the doubtful business case make scrubber a highly questionable technology. One main problem is that the IMO did not assess the environmental impact of scrubbers on the marine environment before declaring them a proper solution in order to comply with the existing sulphur limits: the CE delft study on the environmental and economic impact of scrubbers indicates that harmful substances stemming from scrubber discharge water are very likely to cause problems in the sensitive ecosystems of the oceans, especially along highly frequented shipping routes and in estuaries. In fact, from an environmental point of view, scrubbers are not a solution for the shipping industry s massive air pollution problem at all, as they only shift the issue from the air into the water. 17 Moreover, the utilisation of scrubbers prolongs the usage of heavy fuel with all its environmental dangers including the enormous ecological impacts in case of accidents and spills. 18

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