Genetics has shown that mutation is the ultimate source of all hereditary variation. At the level of a single gene whose normal functional allele is A, it is known that mutation can change it to a nonfunctional recessive form, a. Such “forward mutation” is more frequent than “back mutation” (reversion), which converts a into A. Molecular analysis of specific examples of mutant recessive alleles has shown that they are generally a heterogeneous set of small structural changes in the DNA, located throughout the segment of DNA that constitutes that gene. Hence, in an example from medical genetics, the disease phenylketonuria is inherited as a recessive phenotype and is ascribed to a causative allele that generally can be called k. However, sequencing alleles of many independent cases of phenylketonuria has shown that this k allele is in fact a set of many different kinds of mutational changes, which can be in any of the protein-coding regions of that gene.

Recessive deleterious mutations are relatively rare, generally in the order of 1 per 105 or 106 mutant gametes per generation. Their constant occurrence over the generations, combined with the even greater rarity of back mutations, leads to a gradual accumulation in the population. This accumulation process is called mutational pressure.

Since mutational pressure to a deleterious recessive allele and selection pressure against the homozygous recessives are forces that act in opposite directions, another type of equilibrium is attained that effectively sets the value of q. Mathematically, q is determined by the following expression in which u is the net mutation rate of A to a, and s is the selection coefficient presented above:q2 = (u/s), or q = √(u/s)

Nonrandom mating

Many species engage in alternatives to random mating as normal parts of their cycle of sexual reproduction. An important exception is sexual selection, in which an individual chooses a mate on the basis of some aspect of the mate’s phenotype. The selection can be based on some display feature such as bright feathers, or it may be a simple preference for a phenotype identical to the individual’s own (positive assortative mating).

Two other important exceptions are inbreeding (mating with relatives) and enforced outbreeding. Both can shift the equilibrium proportions expected under Hardy-Weinberg calculations. For example, inbreeding increases the proportions of homozygotes, and the most extreme form of inbreeding, self-fertilization, eventually eliminates all heterozygotes.

Inbreeding and outbreeding are evolutionary strategies adopted by plants and animals living under certain conditions. Outbreeding brings gametes of different genotypes together, and the resulting individual differs from the parents. Increased levels of variation provide more evolutionary flexibility. All the showy colors and shapes of flowers are to promote this kind of exchange. In contrast, inbreeding maintains uniform genotypes, a strategy successful in stable ecological habitats.

In humans, various degrees of inbreeding have been practiced in different cultures. In most cultures today, matings of first cousins are the maximal form of inbreeding condoned by society. Apart from ethical considerations, a negative outcome of inbreeding is that it increases the likelihood of homozygosity of deleterious recessive alleles originating from common ancestors, called homozygosity by descent. The inbreeding coefficient F is a measure of the likelihood of homozygosity by descent; for example, in first-cousin marriages, F = 1/16. A large proportion of recessive hereditary diseases can be traced to first-cousin marriages and other types of inbreeding.

In populations of finite size, the genetic structure of a new generation is not necessarily that of the previous one. The explanation lies in a sampling effect, based on the fact that a subsample from any large set is not always representative of the larger set. The gametes that form any generation can be thought of as a sample of the alleles from the parental one. By chance the sample might not be random; it could be skewed in either direction. For example, if p = 0.600 and q = 0.400, sampling “error” might result in the gametes having a p value of 0.601 and a q of 0.399. If by chance this skewed sampling occurs in the same direction from generation to generation, the allele frequency can change radically. This process is known as random genetic drift. As might be expected, the smaller the population, the greater chance of sampling error and hence significant levels of drift in any one generation. In extreme cases, drift over the generations can result in the complete loss of one allele; in these occurrences the other is said to be fixed.

Other cases of sampling error occur when new colonies of plants or animals are founded by small numbers of migrants (founder effect) and when there is radical reduction in population size because of a natural catastrophe (population bottleneck). One inevitable effect of these processes is a reduction in the amount of variation in the population after the size reduction. Two species that have gone through drastic bottlenecks with the associated reduction of genetic variation are cheetahs (Africa) and northern elephant seals (North America).

Click anywhere inside the article to add text or insert superscripts, subscripts, and special characters.
You can also highlight a section and use the tools in this bar to modify existing content:

Add links to related Britannica articles!
You can double-click any word or highlight a word or phrase in the text below and then select an article from the search box.
Or, simply highlight a word or phrase in the article, then enter the article name or term you'd like to link to in the search box below, and select from the list of results.

Note: we do not allow links to external resources in editor.
Please click the Web sites link for this article to add citations for
external Web sites.