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Se of matched controls. However, as with

Se of matched controls. However, as with 1516647 other such studies [4], this seems unlikely from the consistency of the data across types of infection and the fact that those for which hospitalization is less discretionary such as septicaemia or bacteremia also had an increased diabetes-associated risk. Second, we did not have access to data other than age, gender andSerious Bacterial Infections in Type 2 Diabetespostcode for the matched controls and so could not adjust IRRs for between-group differences in other variables (such as obesity and ethnicity) that might have impacted on the risk of infection. Third, we did not have Itacitinib complete data on prior vaccination for either the FDS whole cohort or patients in the statin case-control pneumonia study. However, in a separate FDS sub-study [7], type 2 diabetic participants were at least as likely as their non-diabetic spouses to have received influenza vaccine within the past year and pneumococcal vaccine within the previous 5 years. Fourth, it is likely that variables such as statin use and glycemic control changed during the course of the study with consequences for infection risk, hospitalization and mortality. However, in the subset of patients in whom statin use was confirmed at the time of hospitalization by review of the medical record, this also did not identify a significant difference in statin use amongst patients admitted with pneumonia compared to those admitted for noninfectious indications. The strengths of the present study include the prospective design, large patient numbers, detailed baseline assessment and capture of endpoints through a validated data linkage system. In summary, the finding that patients with diabetes in our FDS1 cohort had double the incidence of hospitalization for infectious diseases vs that of matched non-diabetic controls is consistent with data from other sources including a large administrative databasestudy [4]. Older age, male gender, Aboriginal racial background, BMI and chronic vascular complications were independent associates of the serious bacterial infections requiring hospitalization in our diabetic patients. All these are easily accessible variables that could be used to target patients at increased risk of serious infections with education and counselling regarding preventative measures such as vaccination and foot care, as well as prompting early intensive management of infections with the potential to become severe. Statins are a group of drugs with clear evidence for cardiovascular benefit in type 2 diabetes but we found no evidence that they altered the risk of serious infections.AcknowledgmentsWe are grateful to FDS staff for help with collecting and recording clinical information. We thank the Biochemistry Department at Fremantle Hospital and Health Service for performing laboratory tests, and the Diabetic Education, Podiatry and Dietetic Departments for assistance with recruitment of patients.Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: TMED EM WAD. Performed the experiments: EH NM AM BAS. Analyzed the data: WAD. Wrote the paper: EM NM TMED.Bonobos (Pan paniscus) live on the left bank of the Congo Basin and are separated from other Pan populations by the Congo River. The monophyletic origin of bonobos in great apes is supported by recent molecular phylogenetic studies [1,2]. The buy 1418741-86-2 divergence time of the bonobo from the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) has been estimated to be about 1 million years ago (Ma) [3?]. Concerns have bee.Se of matched controls. However, as with 1516647 other such studies [4], this seems unlikely from the consistency of the data across types of infection and the fact that those for which hospitalization is less discretionary such as septicaemia or bacteremia also had an increased diabetes-associated risk. Second, we did not have access to data other than age, gender andSerious Bacterial Infections in Type 2 Diabetespostcode for the matched controls and so could not adjust IRRs for between-group differences in other variables (such as obesity and ethnicity) that might have impacted on the risk of infection. Third, we did not have complete data on prior vaccination for either the FDS whole cohort or patients in the statin case-control pneumonia study. However, in a separate FDS sub-study [7], type 2 diabetic participants were at least as likely as their non-diabetic spouses to have received influenza vaccine within the past year and pneumococcal vaccine within the previous 5 years. Fourth, it is likely that variables such as statin use and glycemic control changed during the course of the study with consequences for infection risk, hospitalization and mortality. However, in the subset of patients in whom statin use was confirmed at the time of hospitalization by review of the medical record, this also did not identify a significant difference in statin use amongst patients admitted with pneumonia compared to those admitted for noninfectious indications. The strengths of the present study include the prospective design, large patient numbers, detailed baseline assessment and capture of endpoints through a validated data linkage system. In summary, the finding that patients with diabetes in our FDS1 cohort had double the incidence of hospitalization for infectious diseases vs that of matched non-diabetic controls is consistent with data from other sources including a large administrative databasestudy [4]. Older age, male gender, Aboriginal racial background, BMI and chronic vascular complications were independent associates of the serious bacterial infections requiring hospitalization in our diabetic patients. All these are easily accessible variables that could be used to target patients at increased risk of serious infections with education and counselling regarding preventative measures such as vaccination and foot care, as well as prompting early intensive management of infections with the potential to become severe. Statins are a group of drugs with clear evidence for cardiovascular benefit in type 2 diabetes but we found no evidence that they altered the risk of serious infections.AcknowledgmentsWe are grateful to FDS staff for help with collecting and recording clinical information. We thank the Biochemistry Department at Fremantle Hospital and Health Service for performing laboratory tests, and the Diabetic Education, Podiatry and Dietetic Departments for assistance with recruitment of patients.Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: TMED EM WAD. Performed the experiments: EH NM AM BAS. Analyzed the data: WAD. Wrote the paper: EM NM TMED.Bonobos (Pan paniscus) live on the left bank of the Congo Basin and are separated from other Pan populations by the Congo River. The monophyletic origin of bonobos in great apes is supported by recent molecular phylogenetic studies [1,2]. The divergence time of the bonobo from the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) has been estimated to be about 1 million years ago (Ma) [3?]. Concerns have bee.