4 Preface In the publication Naturally Occurring Radiation in the Nordic Countries Recommendations published in 1986 the radiation protection authorities in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden gave radiation protection recommendations for natural radiation in the Nordic countries. The exposure of the populations in the Nordic countries to natural radiation sources is among the highest in the world and much effort has been devoted during the last 10 to 20 years to characterising, assessing and, where feasible, to reducing these exposures. The exposure of workers to natural radiation sources has also been an important area of work in the same period. During this period the international recommendations on radiation protection policy have been further developed with ICRP Publication 60: 1990 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection, and ICRP Publication 65: Protection Against Radon-222 at Home and at Work. The European Basic Safety Standards Directive from 1996 (96/29/EURATOM), which is based on the ICRP recommendations, differs from the earlier versions in that special provisions have been laid down concerning exposure to natural radiation sources. As Denmark, Finland and Sweden are members of European Union and the EFTA-countries (Iceland and Norway) have close co-operation with the EU, the practical implementation of the EU-BSS will play an important role in all the Nordic countries. 3

5 In November 1998, a new Drinking Water Directive, 98/83/ EC, was adopted. The directive also includes radioactivity in drinking water, excluding potassium-40, radon and radon decay products. Altogether this means that the Nordic recommendations from 1986 for natural radiation needed to be updated. The Nordic Radiation Protection Authorities therefore decided to set up a working group with the aim of revising the recommendations from The new revised recommendations will, as before, only deal with the components of the exposure to natural radiation that are amenable to control and which can cause doses that are not trivial. Control of exposure of aircrew to cosmic radiation is, however, dealt with in a separate recommendation prepared together with the Nordic civil aviation authorities. The Nordic Radiation Protection Authorities approved the revised recommendations at a meeting in Copenhagen, March 2000, and adopted them for publication in the Flag-book series. The recommendations are written primarily for other authorities and policy-makers in the Nordic countries but they may also be of interest to radiation protection professionals and authorities outside the Nordic countries and to individuals with some basic knowledge of natural radioactivity. The new recommendations may serve as a basis for more formal rules, regulations and recommendations within each country if this is deemed necessary. However, no attempt has been made to formulate identical regulations for all the five Nordic countries since the exposure levels from natural sources, methods of application and the legal frameworks differ between the countries. 4

9 5. Radon in indoor air recommendations Introduction Radon in existing dwellings Investigation and action levels Measurements Strategies to identify radon-prone areas Radon in workplaces Radon in new buildings Natural radioactivity in drinking water recommendations Introduction Radon in drinking water Long-lived radionuclides in drinking water Recommendations for measurements Exposure from gamma radiation recommendations Exposure to gamma radiation in buildings and often used places outdoors Existing buildings New buildings Often used places outdoors Building materials Building materials as a source of indoor radon Building materials as a source of gamma radiation in new constructions References Appendix 75 8

10 Summary of recommendations 1. Radon in indoor air recommendations Radon in existing dwellings The recommended investigation level for radon in existing dwellings is 200 Bq/m 3. The recommended action level for radon in existing dwellings is 400 Bq/m 3. Remedial measures in dwellings should be considered when the annual mean radon concentration in the living area exceeds 200 Bq/m 3. In the range between 200 and 400 Bq/m 3 simple, low cost measures are recommended. At levels exceeding 400 Bq/m 3, remedial measures should be undertaken with the aim of bringing the radon level below 200 Bq/m 3. Remedial measures should be cost-effective and based on well-proven techniques. It is recommended that the classification of radon-prone areas is based on measurements in a representative sample of the building stock combined with measurements, geological data and information on building construction. Radon in workplaces The recommended action level for radon in aboveground workplaces is 400 Bq/m 3. An action level for radon in underground workplaces within the interval 400 1,500 Bq/m 3, expressed as average activity concentration during the working hours, is recommended. 9

11 If it is not possible to reduce the radon level below the action level, the workplace should be treated in the same way as a practice. This would imply the application of dose limits. Remedial measures in aboveground workplaces should be considered when the annual mean radon concentration exceeds 400 Bq/m 3. Authorities may take into consideration the annual occupancy. Radon in new buildings The recommended upper level for radon in new buildings is 200 Bq/m 3. New buildings include dwellings and aboveground workplaces and other buildings utilised more than temporarily. New buildings should be planned and constructed in such a way that the annual average radon concentration will be as low as reasonably achievable. 2. Natural radioactivity in drinking water recommendations Radon in drinking water The recommended exemption level for radon in drinking water is 100 Bq/l. The recommended upper level for radon in drinking water is 1,000 Bq/l. 10

12 Long-lived radionuclides in drinking water The recommended upper level, expressed as annual effective dose, for exposure to long-lived radionuclides in drinking water is 1 msv. National authorities may also select an upper level below 1 msv per year if they judge that it is desirable and will not lead to an unmanageable number of wells to be mitigated. It is recommended that the water from a drilled well should be analysed for radon when a new well is taken into use in case the bedrock consists of igneous rocks. 3. Exposure from gamma radiation recommendations Exposure to gamma radiation in buildings and at often used places outdoors The recommended upper level for exposure to external gamma radiation in existing buildings, expressed as ambient dose equivalent rate, is 1 µsv per hour. The recommended upper level for exposure to external gamma radiation in new buildings, expressed as ambient dose equivalent rate, is 0.5 µsv per hour. The recommended investigation level for exposure to gamma radiation at often used places outdoors, e.g. playgrounds, expressed as ambient dose equivalent rate, is 1 µsv per hour. 11

13 Building materials for new constructions The recommended exemption level for the activity concentration of radium-226 in building materials for new constructions as a source of indoor radon is 100 Bq per kg. The recommended upper level for the activity concentration of radium-226 in building materials for new constructions as a source of indoor radon is 200 Bq per kg. 12 If the upper level is exceeded for a particular material, an assessment of the contribution of the material to the indoor radon concentration should be made. The assessment should be based on a realistic use of the material and take into consideration the amount of the material which is used and in what parts of the building it is used. The recommended exemption level for the activity concentrations in building materials as a source for gamma radiation in new constructions should be determined by the inequality m γ < 1 The recommended upper level for the activity concentration in building materials as a source for gamma radiation in new constructions should be determined by the inequality m γ < 2 where m γ = C K / C Ra /300 + C Th /200 and C K is the concentration of potassium-40, C Ra the concentration of radium-226 and C Th the concentration of thorium-232, all in Bq/kg.

14 If the recommended levels are exceeded for a particular material, an assessment of the contribution of the material to the indoor gamma radiation level should be made. The assessment should be based on a realistic use of the material and take into consideration the amount in which the material is used and in what parts of the building it is used. 13

17 Intervention-like situations. Situations where the sources of exposure and the exposure pathways are already present and the only type of possible action is intervention to reduce the exposure. Examples are radon in existing dwellings, existing water wells with enhanced levels of natural radionuclides, building materials in an existing house. Action level. The level of activity concentration or dose rate above which remedial action or protective actions should be carried out to reduce exposure to individuals. Action levels are used in an intervention-like situation. If remedial or protective action is not successful or they are not feasible the future exposure conditions should be defined, e.g. that the exposure at a workplace to the specified source of natural radiation is treated as a practice. Exemption level. The level of activity concentration or dose rate below which no specific exposure assessment or exposure control needs to be undertaken for a specified natural radiation source. Investigation level. The level of activity concentration or dose rate above which assessment of the exposure conditions of a specified type of natural radiation source should be undertaken. The investigation level can be used both in a practicelike situation (e.g. a new building material) and in an intervention-like situation (e.g. ground water). The purpose of the assessment should be to determine or advise whether any form of exposure control (recommendation, establishment of a specific exemption level, restriction in use etc.) should be introduced for that source. In these recommendations, investigation levels are given only as source-related levels. In this way an investigation level can also be regarded as a level under which unrestricted use of a source is acceptable under all normal circumstances. 16

18 Upper level (dose constraint). A prospective and source-related restriction on the individual dose delivered by a specified natural radiation source which serves as a bound in the optimisation of protection of that source. The upper level should be established or recommended by the national radiation protection authority, if deemed necessary, on the basis of the highest risk that is considered acceptable to individuals under the exposure conditions considered. It is believed that the future average exposure from the specified natural radiation source will be well below the recommended upper level and that the actual exposures will be kept as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA). The upper level should be an aid for relevant authorities in establishing regulations, standards, codes of practices etc. for the circumstances under which exposure may occur. The dose constraint should not necessarily be a legal limit in itself. 17

19 18

20 2. Dosimetric quantities, exposure models and dose calculations Unless otherwise stated, the following dosimetric quantities and exposure models are used in the overview of natural activity in the Nordic countries (Chapter 4) and in the recommendations (Chapters 5 7) Gamma radiation Gamma levels indoors and outdoors are given in the quantity ambient dose equivalent rate [dh*(10)/dt]. The unit for ambient dose equivalent rate is usually nsv/h or µsv/h. Observe that for photons, the operational (measurable) quantity ambient dose equivalent always overestimates the protection quantity effective dose, E. The relationship between the effective dose, E, and the ambient dose equivalent, H*(10), for natural radiation is approximately: E = H*(10) 0.6 (1 MeV, ISO geometry) as can be found in ICRU Report 57 (ICRU 1998). If measurement data are presented which were originally given in other quantities, the following conversion coefficients to ambient dose equivalent rate have been used (it has been assumed that the absorbed dose in air is equivalent to air kerma free in air, K a ) (ICRU 1998): From exposure rate µsv/h per µr/h From absorbed dose rate in air 1.17 µsv/h per µgy/h (1 MeV) 19

21 The conversion factor used by the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR 1993) from absorbed dose in air to effective dose, E, is 0.7 Sv/Gy. For calculations of the gamma radiation level at 1 m above the ground from the decay series 238 U, 232 Th and for 40 K, in equilibrium and distributed homogeneously in the ground, the relationships in Table have been used (IAEA 1990). Nuclides Ambient dose equivalent rate, nsv/h per Bq/kg Uranium-238 series Thorium-232 series Potassium Table Ambient dose equivalent rate at 1 m above the ground from the decay series 238 U, 232 Th and for 40 K (IAEA 1990) Radon in indoor air When exposure to radon (and radon progeny) is to be compared to the exposure from other radiation sources it is necessary to estimate the effective dose per unit radon gas exposure. In the past this has predominantly been done by using the dosimetric evaluation of the absorbed dose to basal cells of the bronchial epithelium and applying the ICRP convention for calculating effective dose (effective dose equivalent). For exposure in dwellings the range of such evaluations has been msv per year per Bq/m 3 as average exposure during the year (equilibrium factor 0.4) with a central estimate of 0.05 msv per year per Bq/m 3. In the Nordic recommendations from 1986 (Nordic 1986), a value 20

22 of msv per year per Bq/m 3 based on the UNSCEAR 1982 Report was used for exposure of the public in dwellings (UNSCEAR 1982). As an alternative to the dosimetric approach the ICRP has, in Publication 65 from 1993, derived a conversion convention for radon exposure based on equality of detriment from epidemiological determinations (miners) (ICRP 65, 1993). This gives a dose coefficient of msv per year per Bq/m 3 as the average exposure during the year (equilibrium factor 0.4) for public exposure. The difference between the dosimetric approach and the epidemiological approach is a factor of about 2.5. Since the whole issue is very complex this is not a very large difference. In the following recommendations the ICRP conversion convention has been used for both dwellings and workplaces: Dwellings: msv per year per Bq/m 3 (average over 8,760 hours, equilibrium factor 0.4) Workplaces: msv per year per Bq/m 3 (average over 2,000 hours, equilibrium factor 0.4) Natural radioactivity in drinking water Studies of radon and other inert gases have shown that they are absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and readily eliminated through the lungs. For ingested radon from drinking water the stomach is the organ of primary concern. It should be kept in mind that the dose estimations for radon in drinking water are afflicted with considerable uncertainties. Estimates of the annual committed effective dose to an adult 21

23 from ingestion of water containing 1,000 Bq/l vary from 0.2 to 1.8 msv, depending on the annual water consumption and the range of conversion factors used. It is important to stress that the greatest risk associated with radon in drinking water is normally the inhalation of the radon that is released from the water into the indoor air. In 1993, it was estimated that the total (inhalation and ingestion) life-time risk posed by exposure to radon in drinking water at 1 Bq/m 3 was Of that risk, was associated with ingestion and with inhalation (SSI i 94 06). The transfer coefficient from radon in water to indoor air, i.e. the average fraction of the radon in the water that is transferred into the indoor air, has been estimated to be (NRC 1999). This means that if the average radon concentration in the drinking water is 1,000 Bq/l, the average contribution to the indoor air would be 100 Bq/m 3. In its report of 1993, the UNSCEAR estimated that the committed effective dose from ingestion of radon in water is 10 nsv per Bq. The doses to infants and children were estimated to be several times higher, for infants more than ten times higher, than for adults. The annual intake of tap water was estimated to be about 100, 75 and 50 litres per year for infants, children and adults. If the proportions of these groups in the population are assumed to be 5 percent, 30 percent and 65 percent, the weighted annual consumption would be 60 litres. The annual population-weighted effective dose from ingestion of drinking water with 1,000 Bq/l radon would then be 1 msv (UNSCEAR 1993). In 1998, a National Research Council, NRC, committee in the United States presented their risk estimation for radon in drinking water (NRC 1999). The committee estimated the committed effective dose to the stomach wall from radon in 22

24 drinking water to be 3.5 nsv per Bq. The NRC committee was of the opinion that there is not sufficient scientific information to allow separate dose estimations for different populations such as infants, children and adults (NRC 1999). Using the NRC committee dose conversion factor, the population-weighted average annual effective dose from ingestion of drinking water with 1,000 Bq/l radon would be 0.2 msv. When radon is removed from drinking water using aeration, the short-lived decay products of radon will remain in the cleaned water for a short time after the aeration. A Swedish pilot study indicates that the short-lived radon progeny in some cases follow the water to the tap for consumption to such an extent that the problem should be considered. However, this study also shows that the effective dose from the short-lived radon progeny is always lower than the dose from the radon would have been if no aeration had taken place (Swedjemark and Lindén 1998). The NRC committee, however, concluded in their report that radon progeny cannot diffuse into the stomach wall and that the alpha particles emitted cannot reach the sensitive stem cells. When calculating the dose due to radioactivity in drinking water, it is normally assumed that the daily water consumption is 2.2 litres (ICRP ) but there are great individual variations. In Sweden, the daily consumption of water is considerably lower than that assumed by the ICRP and this has a significant effect on the dose calculations (Swedjemark and Lindén 1998). The derived activity concentrations for long-lived radionuclides in drinking water corresponding to an annual effective dose of 1 msv are presented in Table

25 Nuclide Activity Activity Activity concentration, concentration, concentration, Bq/l Bq/l Bq/l (Child 1 y) (Child 10 y) (Adult) U U Ra Ra Pb Po Table Derived activity concentrations for long-lived radionuclides in drinking water corresponding to an annual effective dose of 1 msv. The activity concentrations of nuclides presented in the table cause an effective dose of 1 msv when 2.2 litres of water is used daily throughout one year. The conversion factors are adopted from EU Basic Safety Standards Directive from 1996 (EC 1996). If the conversion factors from UNSCEAR 1993 are used, the activity concentration for radon in water that would give an annual populationweighted effective dose of 1 msv would be about 1,000 Bq/l. Using the NRC committee conversion factor about 5,000 Bq/l would be needed for a dose of 1 msv Building materials For the calculation of gamma radiation levels indoors for building materials containing naturally occurring radionuclides, the factors in Table have been used (Markkanen 1995). Nuclides Ambient dose equivalent rate, nsv/h per Bq/kg Uranium-238 series 1.06 Thorium-232 series 1.24 Potassium Table Ambient dose equivalent rate for the decay series 238 U, 232 Th and for 40 K for a room with the dimensions 5 m x 4 m x 2.8 m. Walls, floor and ceiling are assumed to be 20 cm thick concrete with a density of 2,320 kg per m 3 (Markkanen 1995). 24

26 3. International recommendations and regulations The great variability of exposures to workers and members of the public from natural radiation sources and the very high exposures to some minor or major groups hereof were identified during the last 2 3 decades. In the same period, international recommendations and regulations have been further developed to take account of this new situation. Since the evolution and the acceptability of the international recommendations has been progressing rather rapidly, it is important to note the differences in the principles, terminology and conversion factors etc. between the different recommendations and regulations. An example of this has been the changing conversion factor from the annual average radon concentration in a dwelling and the corresponding effective dose (or effective dose equivalent). A short overview is given in this chapter of the most important recommendations regarding exposure to natural radiation sources from the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) and of the requirements in the European Basic Safety Standards Directive (EU BSS) (EC 1996) and the Drinking Water Directive (EC 1998). The EU BSS is based on the recommendations of the ICRP. Besides these recommendations and regulations one must also take note of other international recommendations and regulations such as The World Health Organisation (WHO) and the International Basic Safety Standards prepared jointly by FAO, IAEA, ILO, OECD/ NEA, PAHO and WHO. 25

27 3.1. The ICRP recommendations The latest basic recommendations on radiological protection from ICRP are given in Publication 60: 1990 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP, 1991) The ICRP distinguishes between practices, where human activities increase the overall exposure to radiation, and intervention, where human activities decrease the overall exposure. The system of radiological protection recommended by the ICRP for practices is based on the following general principles (ICRP 60, paragraph 112): 26 (a) No practice involving exposures to radiation should be adopted unless it produces sufficient benefit to the exposed individuals or to society to offset the radiation detriment it causes. (The justification of a practice). (b) In relation to any particular source within a practice, the magnitude of individual doses, the number of people exposed, and the likelihood of incurring exposures where these are not certain to be received should all be kept as low as reasonable achievable, economic and social factors being taken into account. This procedure should be constrained by restrictions on the doses to individuals (dose constraints), or the risks to individuals in the case of potential exposures (risk constraints), so as to limit the inequity likely to result from the inherent economic and social judgements. (The optimisation of protection). (c) The exposures of individuals resulting from the combination of all the relevant practices should be subject to dose limits, or to some control of risk in the case of potential exposures. These are aimed at ensuring that no individual is exposed to radiation risks that are judged to be unacceptable from these practices in any normal circumstances. Not all sources are susceptible of control by action at the source and it is necessary to specify the sources to be included as relevant before selecting a dose limit. (Individual dose and risk limits). The system of radiological protection recommended by the ICRP for intervention is based on the following general principles (ICRP 60, paragraph 113):

28 (a) The proposed intervention should do more good than harm, i.e. the reduction in detriment resulting from the reduction in dose should be sufficient to justify the harm and the costs, including social costs, of the intervention. (b) The form, scale, and duration of the intervention should be optimised so that the net benefit of the reduction of dose, i.e. the benefit of the reduction in radiation detriment, less the detriment associated with the intervention, should be maximised. The ICRP gives the following specific recommendations on the exclusion of occupational exposure to natural radiation sources (ICRP 60, paragraph 135): Of the components of exposure to natural sources, those due to potassium-40 in the body, cosmic radiation at ground level, and radionuclides in the earth s crust are all outside any reasonable scope of control (of the operating management). Only radon in workplaces and work with materials containing natural radionuclides can reasonably be regarded as the responsibility of the operating management. Furthermore, there is some exposure to radon in all workplaces, and it is important not to require the use of a formal system of separate decisions to exempt each individual workplace where controls are not needed. They should be excluded from the control of occupational exposure by some general system. Considerable knowledge and judgement is needed to define such a system. The Commission recommends that exposure to radon and the handling of materials containing traces of natural radionuclides should be regarded as excluded from occupational exposure and treated separately, unless the relevant regulatory agency has ruled otherwise, either in a defined geographical area or for defined practices. To provide some practical guidance, the Commission recommends that there should be a requirement to include exposures to natural sources as part of occupational exposure only in the following cases (ICRP 60, paragraph 136): (a) Operations in workplaces where the regulatory agency has declared that radon needs attention and has identified the relevant workplaces. (b) Operations with and storage of materials not usually regarded as radioactive, but which contain significant traces of natural radionuclides and which have been identified by the regulatory agency. 27

29 (c) Operation of jet aircraft. (d) Space flight. Radon in dwellings is dealt with by the ICRP in the context of intervention. The ICRP recommends the use of action levels for the initiation of intervention (ICRP 60, paragraph S 48):... to help in deciding when to require or advise remedial action in existing dwellings. The choice of action level is complex, depending not only on the level of exposure, but also on the likely scale of action, which has economic implications for the community and for individuals.... the best choice of an action level may well be that level which defines a significant, but not unmanageable, number of houses in need of remedial work. It is then not to be expected that the same action level will be appropriate in all countries. More specific recommendations regarding radon in workplaces and in dwellings are given by the ICRP in Publication 65 (1993): Protection Against Radon-222 at Home and at Work. For radon in dwellings, the ICRP gives the following specific recommendation regarding deciding on the value of an action level and the implementations of this in practice (ICRP 65, paragraphs 70 73): 28 It is clear that elevated levels of radon do occur in some dwellings, that it is possible to identify the conditions under which they arise, that remedial and preventive measures are usually simple and of moderate cost, and that there are appreciable risks attendant on elevated exposures. Intervention is therefore feasible. The main matter is the determination of the action level at which intervention should be taken.... action level relates to the annual mean concentration of radon in a building. It is important that the action taken should be intended to produce substantial reduction in radon exposures. It is not sufficient to adopt marginal improvements aimed only at reducing the radon concentrations to a value just below the action level. Once interventions are decided, the degree of

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