Notes

Abstract:

The Expressionist and Primitivist movements are a contentious center point in the argument between those who favor "realist", "useful" art and those who value modernist art. Some berate Expressionists for their inability to take a political stand while others argue that their art finds a deeper truth than "realist" works ever could. While the two camps are thoroughly entrenched, a recent work allows for a new approach. Deleuze and Guattari, in their work on Kafka, have illuminated a rhetorical escape from the enclosed system and have, in doing so, given us a new way to perceive Expressionism and primitivism in art movements. Rather than viewing the movements from a position on the axis between realism and modernism, Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature, shows us how we can view them as attempts to escape the machinations of society.

Thesis:

Thesis (M.A.)--University of Florida, 2001.

Bibliography:

Includes bibliographical references (leaves 25-26).

General Note:

Printout.

General Note:

Vita.

Statement of Responsibility:

by Brendan Patrick Riley.

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problem as follows, "... when it becomes imperative to specify whom we are to regard

as the exemplary Expressionist writer, or even to include in the category of

Expressionism, we find that opinions diverge so sharply that no single name can count on

general agreement" (Reason 28). For purposes of coherency, this paper will construct a

definition of the movement, starting from Ulrich Weisstein's description. He writes, ". ..

most of the ... Expressionists would have agreed that they were primarily concerned with

4

capturing the essence of things rather than their external appearance"(33). With that first

idea in mind, let us divide the rest of the traits of Expressionism into two categories; we

will use the terms mechanic and thematic as names for the categories. The former will

deal with stylistic elements, things that would be visibly (or audibly?) identifiable as parts

of the system of Expressionist art creation the nuts-and-bolts of Expressionism. The

latter, the thematic, will deal with the ideological underpinnings and goals of those works

generally identified as fitting with the movement. Between these two categories, we will

get a strong idea of what Expressionism is and how it functions.

There are five traits that fit into the mechanic category. These traits are most

easily adopted, as they do not make meaning themselves. The first of these is discussed

by Lotte H. Eisner. She writes,

The Expressionists, for whom all things and objects were brought to life
anthropomorphically, turned light into a frenzied cry of anguish devoured by the
greedy maws of the shadows. The key principle of Expressionist lighting
techniques is, in fact, this clash and this pitiless struggle between light and
darkness. (162)

The Expressionists used light and shadow as one of their main signifiers of conflict, to

volatile and exhilarating ends. Eisner also describes the second trait, that Expressionists

required the use of "abrupt, incoherent gestures and bizarre poses"(165) by their

actors. As with lighting, this method allows for a stronger sense of the magical, the

uncanny. The third mechanic trait of Expressionist films, the setting, is discussed by

Mike Budd as he writes, "the expressionist settings ... seem insistently to force their

attention on us, to refuse the subordination of 'background' ... demanded by classical

cinema"(12). The memorable settings are the most distinctive and the least timeless

feature of Expressionist film.

These first three traits can be seen in several Expressionist films. The two most

prominent examples are The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari and Nosferatu. The lighting in the

latter is particularly memorable, as with the scene when Count Orloff emerges from the

hold of the ship, his ghastly white face surrounded by shadow. The setting is what makes

Caligari stand out it is composed mostly of paper-and-paint sets that give a theatrical,

bizarre look to the scenes. Both films also have actors who exemplify the Expressionist

acting style that Eisner writes about; Caligari's Cesare and Nosferatu's Knock both use

overdone motions and bizarre poses to make themselves stand out. These films serve as

prototypical examples for the following traits as well.

The fourth and fifth mechanic traits might be classified as belonging to both the

thematic and mechanic categories. The fourth trait, identified by Paul Coates, is the

uncanny. Coates writes in his introduction that the uncanny is the identification of more,

of a world beyond the simple reality that we can see (1-3). While this is an extreme

simplification of Coates' argument, it does bring to light a key to the Expressionist film:

that which is otherworldly. Finally, the last mechanic trait of the Expressionist films -

the opposition of interior and exterior is described succinctly by Weisstein, who writes,

"With the Expressionists ... the function of art is not to reproduce the visible but... to

make visible that which is not ordinarily revealed to the senses"(36). The opposition

results in both interior emotions finding physical representation outside, and in an

opposition being built between inside spaces and outside spaces.

That second category of Expressionist traits, the thematic, has its own

interior/exterior conflict to deal with. This is because the style's most obvious traits, the

mechanic ones, are not the substance but the tools; Expressionism's "soul" lies in its

thematic traits. The thematic traits, of which we will identify three more, are the topics

addressed by many of the films in question. The first is, as Mike Budd would argue,

perhaps a defining trait around which Expressionism formed, rather than a trait it is

attempting to portray. He writes,

Expressionism was strongly influenced by the subjectivist traditions of
nineteenth-century German romanticism, which glorified the unified vision of an
isolated and rebellious artist. On the other hand, it developed the radical
disjunction and abstraction of emergent modernist forms. Expressionism carried
these contradictions within itself. It combined an intense avant-garde desire to
overthrow authority and change the world with a modernist rejection and retreat
from the world into a grotesque realm of subjective expression. (15)

In other words, Budd identifies a deep-seeded ambivalence toward its own views deep

within the Expressionist platform. It wants be both politically active helpful to the

masses and 'art,' which necessitates an aloofness from the common people. Thomas

from both the Right and the Left. The attack from the Right came in two forms:

censorship and co-option; the Left presented a third front: intellectual dismemberment.

What was particularly brutal about the attack from the Left was that it blamed

Expressionism for its own co-option by the Right.

The response of the conservatives in Germany to the Expressionist movement

was, to begin with, mostly about censorship. In the 1920s, the tightly controlled German

film industry had all the necessary machinery in place to stifle revolutionary films or

ideas. The most famous example is Caligari, which went from being a revolutionary

piece about the political situation in Germany to a conformist piece that celebrates the

status quo. Siegfried Kracauer describes the change in the film as follows,

... the framing story ... perverted, if not reversed, their intrinsic intentions.
While the original story exposed the madness inherent in authority, Wiene's
Caligari glorified authority and convicted its antagonist of madness. A
revolutionary film was thus turned into a conformist one following the much-
used pattern of declaring some normal but troublesome individual insane and
sending him to a lunatic asylum. (66-7)

Kracauer's passage gives us an example of both parts of the conservative regime's

reaction to Expressionist film in general it censored and co-opted the film's technique

in one blow. In the original screenplay, the doctor, a symbolic representative of the

establishment, was depicted as mad with power; in the revised version, Francis is

revealed to be insane. The method of the Expressionist is turned back on itself by the

conservative regime.

Other techniques of Expressionism were also used by the conservatives in

Germany during the 20s and early 30s. To begin with, the functions of the tropes of

Expressionism were re-worked to make the empathetic subjects of Expressionism seem

horrific. How did the use of the tropes of Expressionism and Primitivism make the

madman into a psychopath? S.S. Prawer writes that the horror genre started in the first

decade of 1900, growing as "a wave whose crest is reached in the silent German cinema,

from The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari and Richard Oswald's terror compendium Uncanny

Tales ..."' into a full genre that comes and goes through the decades. He frames the rise

of the horror genre in "the First World War, its anticipatory rumbles, and the social and

political upheavals that followed in its wake"(9). Prawer's classification of these films as

horror films is significant, as it illustrates the way these films are received today. Prawer

goes on, a bit later, to discuss Expressionism's role in the depiction of the horrific in film.

He writes, 'Expressionism' had furnished a style of acting and scene-design that proved

admirably suited to the translation of these Romantic themes into terms of the silent

film"(32). In other words, he characterizes Expressionism as a set of tools that was

utilized to meet a current demand-the demand for horror.

Prawer's impression of Expressionism is a bit shallow here. He makes no

mention of Expressionism as a movement outside of film and does not address the fact

Uncanny Tales is referred to here as Weird Tales, the title under which the video was released.

that many Expressionist films are only "horrific" in part. For example, in Weird Tales,

two of the tales are not horrific, but merely fantastic-otherworldly. Prawer does not draw

a distinction between the two. Similarly, The Golem is classified as a horror film within

his book, when it seems to fit much more appropriately into fantasy or even

science-fiction. Even Caligari, which has been called "the grand daddy of all horror

films," is not nearly so much horrific as supernatural. It is a fine distinction, but one that

is worthwhile to draw considering the much more "horrifying" nature of films like

Nosferatu and The Testament of Dr. Mabuse.

Paul Coates is much more willing to consider the idea that Expressionism's role in

the production of horror film was more ambivalent. He writes,

The valorization of the ugly and monstrous in ... expressionism embodies a split
consciousness that partially identifies with the instrumental reason against which
it is in revolt: These movements may bring into the light the repressed and
oppressed of society, their features twisted by furious knowledge of their own
marginalization, but inasmuch as the ... expressionists depict such figures as
deformed, they identify with the power they oppose, which also apprehends them
thus. (74)

In other words, the Expressionists were split, ideologically, between their goals (the

freedom from certain current ideologies (totalitarianism, nationalism) ) and their role as

artists in German society. This split seems evident in the early Expressionist films, such

as Caligari, where the victims of passion receive empathy and are, simultaneously,

objects of revulsion from the viewer. By the time we reach the 30's, that split has been

subsumed by the goals of the horror genre itself, and we're left with entirely evil villains,

no longer subjects of a split, as is the case in Mabuse.

Whether you believe Coates or Prawer, it is clear that Expressionism was co-

opted by its own enemies for nefarious purposes. This co-option occurred in several

places. One example is above: the tropes of Expressionism were adopted by German

cinema to depict the outsider as horrific rather than empathetic. Another example is the

use of "folk" movement in Primitivism. While the Primitivist use of local folk art was an

attempt to get in touch with a "simpler" lifestyle, it also had dangerous side effects. Colin

Rhodes writes,

For many progressive artists folk arts and crafts assumed importance both as art
and, perhaps more disturbingly in the light of events in Europe with the rise of
Fascism in the 1930s, as a symbol of the distinct racial character of a region's
past. Thus,... artists... emphasized the physical, moral, and religious
superiority of the indigenous peasant populations of their respective home-
lands. ... It must... be seen in terms of a deep-seated reactionary distaste for
cosmopolitanism ... fueled by Social-Darwinian beliefs in the catastrophic results
of miscegenation on the 'national stock.' (24)

In other words, Primitivism's conception of rural folk as "pure" was one that Fascists

were able to use as a rallying cry for National Socialism. The "essence" that the rural

folk had access to shouldn't, in the fascists' minds, be diluted by outsiders-hence the

Aryan philosophy.

Another aspect of the Primitivist movement that the dominant regime in Germany

co-opted for its own use was the love of Nature. The reader will remember that the

Primitivist movement idealized nature as another way to connect with a truth otherwise

unattainable. Again, the Fascists capitalized on this idea in film, creating what Kracauer

calls "the mountain film." The mountain films were a group of films that revolved

13

around mountain climbing and idealized mountains as natural peaks over which one must

seek mastery.

With the Primitivist and Expressionist movements gutted by the reactionary

Right, the Left stepped in to determine how (and why) the movements had failed so

badly. The criticisms revolved around two main points: the art of the modernist

movement was too subjective and the stance the artists took was not critical enough -

they were mired in their bourgeois upbringing. These views are most easily illustrated in

Georg Lukacs' stinging criticism of Expressionism, "Realism in the Balance." He

criticizes the subjectivity in Expressionist art, writing that "[t]he symbolist movement is

clearly and consciously one-dimensional from the outset, for the gulf between the

sensuous incarnation of a symbol and its symbolic meaning arises from the narrow,

single-tracked process of subjective association which yokes them together" (43). In

other words, the art uses its energy to be subjective, sacrificing its bid for the universal in

the process.

Lukacs also raises the second objection to the Expressionist movement, namely

that the political/critical stance of the artists does not make the sort of revolutionary

progress that they hoped it would. He points out that their stance served as a way to ease

the transition from one ideological center to another. He further argues that the artists

unintentionally prevented the transition by giving the status quo too much help. If the

ruling authority hadn't had the help, the revolution may have happened. However, he

writes, ". .. to the extent that Expressionism really had any ideological influence, its

effect was to discourage rather than promote the process of revolutionary clarification

14

among its followers" (51-2). Lukacs saw little value in modernist art, placing his faith in

realism instead. The debate that ensued over the validity of modern art plays directly on

the way Expressionism is perceived today.

THE DEBATE AND KAFKA

The debate over modernism among German Marxists has many ramifications for

this discussion. While the discussion of Expressionism does not solve the problems at

hand, it does lead us to another way to approach the movement, a method discussed and

exemplified in Deleuze and Guattari's reading of Kafka in their book, Kafka: Toward a

Minor Literature. They do not argue for the "aesthetic" "value" of Kafka's work, but

rather that his work represents a different kind of move within literature, an attempt to

escape the machines of history. By placing their argument next to the conventional

arguments of the German Marxist school, it will become evident how Kafka can help us

see Expressionism and Primitivism in a new light.

The opinions about Kafka's work are varied. Adorno and Benjamin read his lack

of resolution as an effective technique in battling the status quo. Lukacs and Brecht both

denounced him, saying that his work was not praxis-based, and could not be made

effective. Lukacs favored realism as the ideal way for art to speak to the masses. He

despised modernist art as pretentious and bourgeois; he included Kafka in the modernist

school. Brecht, on the other hand, took a different approach to Kafka's work, though he

still disliked it.

Being a modernist himself, Brecht's criticisms stem more from the abstract nature

of Kafka's work, the lack of efficacy, of applicability. Benjamin summarizes Brecht's

position as follows,

Kafka had one problem and one only, ... and that was the problem of
organization. He was terrified by the thought of the empire of ants: the thought of
men being alienated from themselves by the forms of their life in society.... But
he never found a solution and never awoke from his nightmare. Brecht says of
Kafka's precision that it is the precision of an imprecise man, a dreamer. (88)

In other words, Brecht saw that Kafka's concerns were much like those of other

modernist, activist artists, but that Kafka's work held to an unresolved fear, rather than

working toward giving praxis to the working class.

On the other side of the fence sit Adorno and Benjamin, who see value in Kafka's

work. Adorno's evaluation of Kafka revolves around disputing Lukacs' claims about the

writer. Adorno praises Kafka as a writer whose work is a "commodity that has served no

purpose" (114). Some argue that Adoro likes Kafka's work because of its "refusal of

any form of reconciliation" (Livingstone, et al. 146). Or, to put it another way, Kafka's

work avoids being used, a tactic that seems particularly sensible given the spurious use of

Expressionist art by National Socialism. At the same time, Jameson argues, Kafka's

work accomplishes something. He writes,

Kafka and Beckett arouse the fear which existentialism merely talks about. By
dismantling appearance, they explode from within the art which committed
subjugates from without, and hence only in appearance. The inescapability of
their work compels the change of attitude which committed works merely demand
(191).

Jameson is arguing that Kafka's work, despite often being associated with modernist (as

opposed to realist) works, compels readers to change. But how? He doesn't explain.

Deleuze and Guattari offer an answer in their book Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature.

Their conception of the "becoming-animal" explains the efficacy of Kafka's work, and

might lead us to a new understanding of Expressionism as well.

In Kafka, Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari argue that Kafka's work was an

attempt to establish a "minor literature" that worked toward an escape from the very

confines of the machinery of society. The "assemblages" and methods Deleuze and

when put next to the work of the Expressionists, and may serve as the beginnings of

another kind of examination of the modernist movement.

The authors begin by discussing Kafka's writings in terms of content and

expression. They write that Kafka, in centering his writing around expression instead of

content, uses language to deterritorialize, a way of cutting a path of escape from the

triangles of society (the family, the bureaucracy, and so on). They write that "expression

gives us a method.. ."(16) for creating a "minor literature" and that everything in such a

literature is political (17). At this point, they have noticed the same trait in Kafka that

Adorno noticed, its use outside the normal use of commodity. The method Kafka's work

uses for escape is the "becoming-animal."

The concept of the becoming-animal, the escape from the sign and the system that

is central the authors' reading of Kafka, is explained by Deleuze and Guattari as follows:

To the inhumaness of the "diabolical powers," there is the answer of a becoming-
animal: to become a beetle, to become a dog, to become an ape, "head over heels
and away," rather than lowering one's head and remaining a bureaucrat, inspector,
judge or judged. All children build or feel these sorts of escapes, these acts of
becoming-animal .... The acts of becoming-animal are the exact opposite of
[reterritorialization]; these are absolute deterritorializations, at least in
principle .... To become animal is to participate in a movement, to stake out the
path of escape in all its positivity, to cross a threshold, to reach a continuum of
intensities that are valuable only in themselves ... .(12-3)

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The act of becoming-animal, then, is the refusal to interact with the powers that rule in a

human fashion-it is the rejection of the sign-system. It is a way of removing one's self

from the system of domination, but is more than a "reterritorialization," which would

constantly require more reterritorialization and more after that. Instead, it is a disconnect,

an almost-revolution. Deleuze and Guattari stress the revolutionary effect of the action as

well-it is not a retreat, but an escape; the becoming-animal is a rebel.

The connections between Deleuze and Guattari's becoming-animal and the

Expressionist and Primitivist movements seem almost self evident. First and foremost,

Kafka is a modernist writer, one over whom (as we have seen) a great debate has raged.

Expressionism shares this position. Second, the becoming-animal seems to be a primal

maneuver. It is hardly accidental that Deleuze and Guattari described the becoming-

animal as something children feel and play at. It seems that the "inner truth" that

Primitivism and Expressionism looked for in children (as well as women and the insane)

is something that might be obtained by (or inspired by, or seen by) the becoming-animal

just as effectively. Finally, the connection to the motives of Modernist art in general are

highlighted by the final sentence in the passage above: "To become animal is to

participate in a movement... to reach a continuum of intensities that are valuable only in

themselves .. ." (13). In other words, the becoming-animal is the ultimate Expressionist

move it connects with truth outside of language in a way that sign-based art can never

do.

Despite the becoming-animal paths of escape that Deleuze and Guattari see in

Kafka's stories, they still spend a good bit of their time discussing the failure of the

becoming-animal, ultimately, to escape the system. Because of the always-underneath

triangles of power, the becoming-animal method of escape is not enough. They write,

There is always the danger of the return of Oedipal force. The amplifying
perverse usage of Oedipus is not sufficient to guard against every new
closure, every new reconstitution of the familial triangle that takes over
other triangles such as the animal lines .... [But] [w]e would say that the
process of Gregor's deterritorialization through his becoming-animal finds
itself blocked for a moment. Is it the fault of Gregor who doesn't dare go
all the way? (14)

In other words, they construct the failure of Gregor's becoming-animal (from "The

Metamorphosis") to his unwillingness to become completely animal. His lack of

gumption, if you will, gives the familial triangle a way to reterritorialize him, a way to

pull him back. The becoming-animal, then, becomes an all-or-nothing trap. Once again,

Kafka's unwillingness to take Gregor far enough to escape the system draws direct lines

to the Expressionist movement, which was ambivalent about its revolutionary purpose

too.

So how does the becoming-animal help us understand the Expressionist /

Primitivist movements better? By looking at the movements through the becoming-

animal, we can see new approach to a seemingly two-sided argument.

BECOMING-EXPRESSIONIST-ANIMAL

It is, as we have discussed, one of the Expressionist movement's goals was to find

a new way to show, and deal with, extreme emotions. They eschew direct representation

for an eradication of direct meaning in their representation of emotion. This seems to be

directly in concert with the becoming-animal method for eluding the structures of

organized society that Deleuze and Guattari find in Kafka's writing, especially when one

considers the prevalence of the becoming-animal in Expressionist film.

The becoming-animal is particularly evident in the early films, where horror has

not yet subsumed the movement. In Caligari, for instance, the ever-more-frantic Francis

and the unconnected Caligari seem to be the embodiment of the becoming-animal. They

have moved outside of the normal sphere, their actions deterritorialized and distant.

Indeed, it is this very move that Expressionism tries to show. Another, more literal

becoming-animal can be found in the character of Knock, in Nosferatu. Where Count

Orloff fits in with Deleuze's discussion of the Vampire, it is Knock who eats animals in

an attempt to gain their power. In essence, he is cutting his own path of escape away

from the asylum and from encapsulated society.

Coates notices the becoming-animal move in the Expressionist films, writing that

"it is the confrontation with the acknowledged double that can foster a self-transcendence

that goes beyond self-repression; the repressed real returns without the mask of

repression" (105). In other words, as the films construct the animal-other/self that the

21

characters and the audiences confront, they acknowledge that it is real and returning. In

doing so, the possibility for transcendence is reached, just as the line for escape in Kafka

is drawn by the presence of the becoming-animal in his short stories. Unfortunately, the

possibility of escape, of expression instead of content, of the avoidance of the triangles

and machines of society, was a limited one; the arrival of horror eclipsed it and

reterritorialized it from the beginning, slowly usurping its power to transgress until the

tools of Expressionism became another part of the machinery of desire that encapsulated

existence to begin with.

The reterritorialization that is almost inevitable in the becoming-animal arises for

the Expressionists as well. In their films, they are trying to find the becoming-animal

escape that the insane man takes when he disconnects from society, but they are unwilling

to abandon form in favor of expression, the very method that Deleuze and Guattari see in

Kafka's attempts. Like Gregor (and Kafka?), and unlike the Surrealists, the

Expressionists are not willing to completely abandon the signifier. Passion does reign

king, but it is accountable to its queen, its content. It is that split, that unwillingness to

completely deterritorialize that gives horror film, the representative of the triangles of the

status quo-normalcy, psychiatry, and all the other structures-its chance to appropriate the

tools and subvert the attempt at escape.

One such reterritorialization comes in the pinnacle of the films discussed here,

The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari. This film, both the quintessential Expressionist film and

"the grand daddy of all horror films" has, in its inception, an example of the very inability

to escape that Deleuze and Guattari saw within Kafka's stories. While Francis and

Caligari both disconnect themselves from the societies they live in, they both fail to

escape as well. Both are locked in the asylum, either in the framing device itself or in the

story told by Francis. Either way, the becoming-animal man has failed to escape; instead

he was physically recaptured and, in Dr. Caligari's case, reformed into a territorialized

character by the very real outside forces that regulate both the digetic world of the film

and the world of the film makers. After all, though the film may have been conceived as

a successful escape story, it could not be. For not only does the original becoming-man,

Dr. Caligari, get caught in the original inception of the story-leaving just a social

commentary about the dangers of nationalism and conformity-but the original storyteller

is also caught by the director and forced back into the triangle, thus subverting the

"message" of the film while, at the same time, stopping any chance of the becoming-

animal's escape.

As the Expressionist film vanished in the early 1920's, we see the becoming-

animal changed from a man trying to escape into a man reviled. The formerly empathetic

and even sought-after character becomes the villain. For example, just two years after

Caligari is Nosferatu, in which we have two uncanny characters, the becoming-animal,

Knock, and the becoming-man, Count Orloff. Neither are given much sympathy, though

Knock is generally seen as harmless until he attacks a guard. Nonetheless, they are both

seen as horrible Others, only vaguely related to their human audience.

By the early 1930's, when The Testament of Dr. Mabuse is released, the tools of

Expressionism no longer create a path of escape for the becoming-animal. Instead, it is

demonized from the beginning, a dark side of mankind that should be locked away, lest it

23

infect others, as Dr. Mabuse does in the film. It is the most horrifying of the three faces

of the Other. Coates identifies those faces as "visibly nonhuman ... semihuman ... and

visually identical with a human being .... The third category-that in which the monster

resembles ourselves-is the most uncanny and genuinely terrifying of the three"(85-6).

While Coates does not mention the madman in his discussion of that third face, it seems

to be the most aptly part of the category. The insane man is the horror film becoming-

animal that is not easily identified. Nevertheless, it is, in Deleuzian terms, trying to

escape and subvert the triangles and machinery of power; those very triangles will

constantly try to reterritorialize themselves to include and cut short any escape attempted

by those becoming-animals.

The insane man in the horror film and, in fact, the horror film itself are both

products of that reterritorialization, of that attempt by the triangles of power to preclude

any escape from the system by way of Expressionist films. That reterritorialization is the

reason that Expressionism, the method by which those artists tried to deal with the

systems of power in post-war Germany, was adopted by horror. By adopting the

emotionally evocative methods of Expressionist art, the horror genre could better tap into

a burgeoning market for "terror-films" in 1920's German cinema. At the same time, the

horror genre acted as a way to subvert the revolutionary and, as Deleuze and Guattari

have pointed out, necessarily political "minor literature" that Expressionism embodied in

its attempt to negotiate another path for escape from the threatening national currents of

nationalism and fascism.

In the end, it becomes possible to see Expressionism, Primitivism, and

Modernism as a method that failed to elude the reterritorializing structures of the status

quo. No longer do we need to see the Modernist movement's slide away from

signification as an abandonment of praxis, but can see it as pioneering another path for

escape (even if that path was ultimately cut off). The becoming-animal can serve as a

bridge between the competing sides of the realist /modernist debate and can provide us

with historical view of the Expressionist and Primitivist movements that does not stress

the aesthetic character of their debate, but rather stresses the revolutionary escape and the

Eisner, Lotte H. "A Contribution to the Definition of the Expressionist Film."
Expressionism as an International Literary Phenomenon: 21 Essays and a
Bibliography. Ed. Ulrich Weisstein. Co-Coordinating Committee of A Comparative
History of Literatures in European Languages. Paris: Librairie Marcel Didier, 1973.

Weisstein, Ulrich. "Preface," "Expressionism as an International Literary Phenomenon,"
and "Expressionism: Style or Weltanschauung?" Expressionism as an International
Literary Phenomenon: 21 Essays and a Bibliography. Ed. Ulrich Weisstein. Co-
Ordinating Committee of A Comparative History of Literatures in European
Languages. Paris: Librairie Marcel Didier, 1973.

Brendan Patrick Riley grew up in the suburbs of Minneapolis. He studied English

at St. John's University in Collegeville, Minnesota, before coming to the University of

Florida to get his PhD in English. His two main foci are film studies and computers and

writing. Brendan's studies in film focus on horror and science-fiction and his research in

computers and writing focuses on the use of synchronous, multi-user environments. He

also likes wiener dogs.

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to
acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality,
as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts.

Gregory Ulmer, Chair
Professor of English

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to
acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality,
as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts.

Scott Nygren
Associate Professor of English

This thesis was submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Department of English in
the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences and to the Graduate School and was accepted as
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts.

May, 2001

Dean, Graduate School

Full Text

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BECOMING-EXPRESSIONIST-ANIMAL: DELEUZE AND GUATTARI'S KAFKA AND THE DEBATE OVER EXPRESSIONISM By BRENDAN PATRICK RILEY A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2001

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There are too many people to thank and too little space. My mother and father, Mary and Pat, have both been very supportive and have helped me immensely, as have my aunt Jeanne, my uncle Doug, and my cousins Kristina and Petra. I would like to thank the wonderful grads on the fifth floor of Rolfs Hall for making school worth coming to every day. Special thanks go to Wendy Sterba, who made me watch Caligari for the first time and showed me how much fun this stuff could be, and to Scott Nygren, who helped me craft the paper that was the genesis of this project and stayed on board to find out where it would go. Of course, this project could not have evolved so splendidly without the insights of my chair, Greg Ulmer, whose comments were always helpful and encouraging-even when they consisted of "here are a couple more books you should read." And finally, my thanks go out to Jenny Gardner, my fiance, who cheerfully put up with my griping and sniping and always had something nice to say. I love you all. ii

Abstract of Thesis Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Master of Arts BECOMING-EXPRESSIONIST-ANIMAL: DELEUZE AND GUA TT ARI'S KAFKA AND THE DEBATE OVER EXPRESSIONISM Chair: Gregory L. Ulmer Major Department: English By Brendan Patrick Riley May,2001 The Expressionist and Primitivist movements are a contentious center point in the argument between those who favor "realist," "useful" art and those who value modernist art. Some berate Expressionists for their inability to take a political stand while others argue that their art finds a deeper truth than "realist" works ever could. While the two camps are thoroughly entrenched, a recent work allows for a new approach. Deleuze and Guattari, in their work on Kafka, have illuminated a rhetorical escape from the enclosed system and have, in doing so, given us a new way to perceive Expressionism and Primitivism as art movements. Rather than viewing the movements from a position on the axis between realism and modernism, Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature shows us how we can view them as attempts to escape the machinations of society. iv

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This paper is divided into four sections. The first sets the ground for the artistic movements themselves. It situates them historically and gives the reader a sense of their motives. The second section, focuses on the way Expressionist and Primitivist art was received in German society-co-opted by the Right and argued about by the Left. The third section introduces the debate about the art in more detail, discussing crucial essays by the German Marxist school and introducing Deleuze and Guattari 's reading of Kafka. The final section brings these trains of thought together, illustrating how we can read Expressionism itself as an attempt to "become-animal," to escape the enclosed system by eschewing normal representative structures. It is by reading Expressionism as an attempt at becoming-animal that a new entry to the Expressionist debate can be found. Now, the movement is not seen as without praxis, it is intentionally obtuse. And its co-option by the fascist Right is evidence of the re-encapsulating effect that Deleuze and Guattari predict. Expressionism becomes an example of Deleuze and Guattari's system-in that light, must be reconsidered. V

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INTRODUCTION The Expressionist and Primitivist movements stand at the center of a maelstrom. The argument between those who favor "realist," "useful" art and those who value modernist art swirls around the movements. Some would dub the Expressionists fools, berating them for their inability (or unwillingness) to take a political stand when one was necessary. Others argue that their art, along with the Primitivist art, finds a deeper truth than "realist" works ever could. In the midst of this thunderstorm, it would seem that there are no new arguments to be made. A more recent addition to the debate, however, does allow for a new way to approach the realist/modernist argument. Deleuze and Guattari, in their work on Kafka, have created a rhetorical escape from the enclosed system and have, in doing so, given us a new way to perceive Expressionism and Primitivism as art movements. Rather than viewing the movements from a position on the axis between realism and modernism, Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature shows us how we can view them as attempts to escape the machinations of society. In this new light, Deleuze and Guattari show us how Expressionism and Primitivism were attempts at "becoming-animal," attempts whose failure further illustrates the machinations of society and the re-territorializing engine that the artists were working to elude. 1

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PRIMITMSM, EXPRESSIONISM, AND NATIONAL-SOCIALISM Primitivism first surfaced as an artistic movement during the Romantic period, in response to the realism that dominated the art of the late 1800's. The artists who pioneered the movement were disillusioned with the Industrial world that the "modem age" had created. They saw the primitive as something Utopic, something that had been lost and should, if possible, be recovered. Colin Rhodes writes of their beginning, in his book Primitivism and Modern Art, "[M]odem artists often looked first to Europe for 'primitive' sources to provide lessons that promised the possibility of revitalizing Western art and culture" (22). Primitive art and craft work served as a model for the artists, a way for them to connect with something more "authentic." With the coming of the World War, the artists became even more disillusioned about the viability of the Western mind set, often turning or moving to primitive cultures outside Europe, saying that the loss of "myth" in the West was a major factor in the downfall of the West (185). Primitivists considered several groups in their search for "primitive" truth. Two of the groups they were most interested in were children and the insane. Children were believed to have an unspoiled vision of the world, and the insane were seen as being disconnected from the world thus able to tap into their unconscious, something "normal" adults cannot do. Less "civilized" societies, too, were viewed as Primitive, so many of the artists spent time with the "tribal" people in Tahiti. They also spent time trying to get at the "authentic, primitive" traits of the less advanced people of Europe, 2

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3 who were seen as a more noble, authentic "race" of Europeans a distinction that would haunt the German populace into the Hitler regime, when it was more fully exploited. Another goal of the Primitivist movement is the drive to re-connect with "nature," a goal whose simplicity we would now problematize. Again, savage peoples, children, and the insane were seen to be the closest to nature, so their art serves as a model for Primitivists. The techniques used by Primitivist artists serve to further 'overturn the applecart' by "questioning the received wisdom of Western culture" and "making the familiar strange" (Coates 75). In contrast to other artists, the Primitivists try to make use of the style of the art used by primitive peoples rather than bringing their own style in to paint exotic scenes. This process results in an undermining of the usual representative codes and new, effective art. The artists succeed in undermining standard codes by walking the line between what was then considered a division of content and style. One offshoot of Primitivism that stresses style more heavily than content is Expressionism, a movement that concentrates most heavily on emotion as the key to the soul. Expressionism is a highly contested style. Some would have us believe that it is a well-defined, easily recognized one. Others disagree. Georg Lukacs described the problem as follows, ... when it becomes imperative to specify whom we are to regard as the exemplary Expressionist writer, or even to include in the category of Expressionism, we find that opinions diverge so sharply that no single name can count on general agreement" (Reason 28). For purposes of coherency, this paper will construct a definition of the movement, starting from Ulrich Weisstein's description. He writes," ... most of the ... Expressionists would have agreed that they were primarily concerned with

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4 capturing the essence of things rather than their external appearance"(33). With that first idea in mind, let us divide the rest of the traits of Expressionism into two categories; we will use the terms mechanic and thematic as names for the categories. The former will deal with stylistic elements, things that would be visibly (or audibly?) identifiable as parts of the system of Expressionist art creation the nuts-and-bolts of Expressionism. The latter, the thematic, will deal with the ideological underpinnings and goals of those works generally identified as fitting with the movement. Between these two categories, we will get a strong idea of what Expressionism is and how it functions. There are five traits that fit into the mechanic category. These traits are most easily adopted, as they do not make meaning themselves. The first of these is discussed by Lotte H. Eisner. She writes, The Expressionists, for whom all things and objects were brought to life anthropomorphically, turned light into a frenzied cry of anguish devoured by the greedy maws of the shadows. The key principle of Expressionist lighting techniques is, in fact, this clash and this pitiless struggle between light and darkness. (162) The Expressionists used light and shadow as one of their main signifiers of conflict, to volatile and exhilarating ends. Eisner also describes the second trait, that Expressionists required the use of "abrupt, incoherent gestures and ... bizarre poses"(165) by their actors. As with lighting, this method allows for a stronger sense of the magical, the uncanny. The third mechanic trait of Expressionist films, the setting, is discussed by Mike Budd as he writes, "the expressionist settings ... seem insistently to force their attention on us, to refuse the subordination of 'background' ... demanded by classical

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cinema"(12). The memorable settings are the most distinctive and the least timeless feature of Expressionist film. 5 These first three traits can be seen in several Expressionist films. The two most prominent examples are The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari and Nosferatu. The lighting in the latter is particularly memorable, as with the scene when Count Orloff emerges from the hold of the ship, his ghastly white face surrounded by shadow. The setting is what makes Caligari stand out it is composed mostly of paper-and-paint sets that give a theatrical, bizarre look to the scenes. Both films also have actors who exemplify the Expressionist acting style that Eisner writes about; Caligari's Cesare and Nosferatu's Knock both use overdone motions and bizarre poses to make themselves stand out. These films serve as prototypical examples for the following traits as well. The fourth and fifth mechanic traits might be classified as belonging to both the thematic and mechanic categories. The fourth trait, identified by Paul Coates, is the uncanny. Coates writes in his introduction that the uncanny is the identification of more, of a world beyond the simple reality that we can see (1-3). While this is an extreme simplification of Coates' argument, it does bring to light a key to the Expressionist film: that which is otherworldly. Finally, the last mechanic trait of the Expressionist films the opposition of interior and exterior is described succinctly by Weisstein, who writes, "With the Expressionists ... the function of art is not to reproduce the visible but ... to make visible that which is not ordinarily revealed to the senses"(36). The opposition results in both interior emotions finding physical representation outside, and in an opposition being built between inside spaces and outside spaces.

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That second category of Expressionist traits, the thematic, has its own interior/exterior conflict to deal with. This is because the style's most obvious traits, the mechanic ones, are not the substance but the tools; Expressionism's "soul" lies in its thematic traits. The thematic traits, of which we will identify three more, are the topics addressed by many of the films in question. The first is, as Mike Budd would argue, perhaps a defining trait around which Expressionism formed, rather than a trait it is attempting to portray. He writes, Expressionism was strongly influenced by the subjectivist traditions of nineteenth-century German romanticism, which glorified the unified vision of an isolated and rebellious artist. On the other hand, it developed the radical disjunction and abstraction of emergent modernist forms. Expressionism carried these contradictions within itself. It combined an intense avant-garde desire to overthrow authority and change the world with a modernist rejection and retreat from the world into a grotesque realm of subjective expression. (15) In other words, Budd identifies a deep-seeded ambivalence toward its own views deep within the Expressionist platform. It wants be both politically active helpful to the masses and 'art,' which necessitates an aloofness from the common people. Thomas Elsaesser identifies this trait also, asserting that Expressionism's ambivalence is, instead, a reaction to the impotence of its artists (172). In other words, the artists' work reflects their own frustration over being unable to affect change in society. Either way, the dualistic nature of wanting-to-act and failing-to-act (either by choice or inability) is a theme throughout the movement. The second thematic trait of Expressionist film is also discussed in Elsaesser's piece. One of the themes that occurs again and again in Expressionist film is what Elsaesser calls "The sorcerer's apprentice" theme. He writes, "One of the most typical 6

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figures ... is that of the sorcerer's apprentice, i.e., the creation and use of magic forces that outstrip their creator and over whom he loses control"(l 78). In other words, the Frankenstein story. By invoking the magical, the Expressionists are creating characters who have access to a more ancient knowledge, a more natural "truth." Of course, since control of the German film system was in place pretty quickly, the films were rarely as revolutionary as they pretended to be. The third thematic trait is closely related to the aesthetic traits identified above; it is what Weisstein calls "soul-states." Weisstein says that the Expressionist must try to "undermine" realist art forms and at the same time "render visible ... soul states and 7 violent emotions welling up from the innermost reaches of the subconscious"(23). In other words, the thematic element of the film must be 'violent emotions' that the aesthetic tools can portray. We can see these strong, violent emotions in all of the films: Golem features danger and jealousy, Nosferatu features a vicious bloodlust, Caligari features more revenge, Weird Tales features fear, revenge and hatred, and finally, The Testament of Dr. Mabuse features a murderous criminal impulse. This connects back to one of the primitivist strains of thought, the savage impulse. The savage impulse is one of the ways we connect with the "natural," the primitive. This third thematic trait seems to be the most pervasive of the three thematic traits. The violent emotion, the passion that Weisstein writes of, seems to be the core of the Expressionist movement (and a key to the Primitivist one). It may be that passion's centrality to the movement explains why the common denominator for most of the Expressionist films being discussed is insanity. Indeed, each of the films discussed here

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deals with insanity in one way or another-in fact, most of the films deal with it directly. Remember that the Primitivists saw insanity as one of the ways to reach true speech. 8

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RESPONSES As one might expect of an art movement founded on the idea of eschewing "normal" viewpoints, Expressionism (and Primitivism) provoked reactionary responses from both the Right and the Left. The attack from the Right came in two forms: censorship and co-option; the Left presented a third front: intellectual dismemberment. What was particularly brutal about the attack from the Left was that it blamed Expressionism for its own co-option by the Right. The response of the conservatives in Germany to the Expressionist movement was, to begin with, mostly about censorship. In the 1920s, the tightly controlled German film industryhad all the necessary machinery in place to stifle revolutionary films or ideas. The most famous example is Caligari, which went from being a revolutionary piece about the political situation in Germany to a conformist piece that celebrates the status quo. Siegfried Kracauer describes the change in the film as follows, ... the framing story ... perverted, if not reversed, their intrinsic intentions. While the original story exposed the madness inherent in authority, Wiene's Caligari glorified authority and convicted its antagonist of madness. A revolutionary film was thus turned into a conformist one following the much used pattern of declaring some normal but troublesome individual insane and sending him to a lunatic asylum. (667) Kracauer' s passage gives us an example of both parts of the conservative regime's reaction to Expressionist film in general it censored and co-opted the film's technique in one blow. In the original screenplay, the doctor, a symbolic representative of the 9

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establishment, was depicted as mad with power; in the revised version, Francis is revealed to be insane. The method of the Expressionist is turned back on itself by the conservative regime. 10 Other techniques of Expressionism were also used by the conservatives in Germany during the 20s and early 30s. To begin with, the functions of the tropes of Expressionism were re-worked to make the empathetic subjects of Expressionism seem horrific. How did the use of the tropes of Expressionism and Primitivism make the madman into a psychopath? S.S. Prawer writes that the horror genre started in the first decade of 1900, growing as "a wave whose crest is reached in the silent German cinema, from The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari and Richard Oswald's terror compendium Uncanny Tales .. 1 into a full genre that comes and goes through the decades. He frames the rise of the horror genre in "the First World War, its anticipatory rumbles, and the social and political upheavals that followed in its wake"(9). Prawer's classification of these films as horror films is significant, as it illustrates the way these films are received today. Prawer goes on, a bit later, to discuss Expressionism's role in the depiction of the horrific in film. He writes," 'Expressionism' had furnished a style of acting and scene-design that proved admirably suited to the translation of these Romantic themes into terms of the silent film"(32). In other words, he characterizes Expressionism as a set of tools that was utilized to meet a current demand-the demand for horror. Prawer' s impression of Expressionism is a bit shallow here. He makes no mention of Expressionism as a movement outside of film and does not address the fact 1 Uncanny Tales is referred to here as Weird Tales, the title under which the video was released.

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11 that many Expressionist films are only "horrific" in part. For example, in Weird Tales, two of the tales are not horrific, but merely fantastic-otherworldly. Prawer does not draw a distinction between the two. Similarly, The Golem is classified as a horror film within his book, when it seems to fit much more appropriately into fantasy or even science-fiction. Even Caligari, which has been called "the grand daddy of all horror films," is not nearly so much horrific as supernatural. It is a fine distinction, but one that is worthwhile to draw considering the much more "horrifying" nature of films like Nosferatu and The Testament of Dr. Mabuse. Paul Coates is much more willing to consider the idea that Expressionism's role in the production of horror film was more ambivalent. He writes, The valorization of the ugly and monstrous in ... expressionism embodies a split consciousness that partially identifies with the instrumental reason against which it is in revolt: These movements may bring into the light the repressed and oppressed of society, their features twisted by furious knowledge of their own marginalization, but inasmuch as the ... expressionists depict such figures as deformed, they identify with the power they oppose, which also apprehends them thus. (74) In other words, the Expressionists were split, ideologically, between their goals (the freedom from certain current ideologies (totalitarianism, nationalism) ) and their role as artists in German society. This split seems evident in the early Expressionist films, such as Caligari, where the victims of passion receive empathy and are, simultaneously, objects of revulsion from the viewer. By the time we reach the 30's, that split has been subsumed by the goals of the horror genre itself, and we're left with entirely evil villains, no longer subjects of a split, as is the case in Mabuse.

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12 Whether you believe Coates or Prawer, it is clear that Expressionism was co opted by its own enemies for nefarious purposes. This co-option occurred in several places. One example is above: the tropes of Expressionism were adopted by German cinema to depict the outsider as horrific rather than empathetic. Another example is the use of "folk" movement in Primitivism. While the Primitivist use of local folk art was an attempt to get in touch with a "simpler" lifestyle, it also had dangerous side effects. Colin Rhodes writes, For many progressive artists folk arts and crafts assumed importance both as art and, perhaps more disturbingly in the light of events in Europe with the rise of Fascism in the 1930s, as a symbol of the distinct racial character of a region's past. Thus, ... artists ... emphasized the physical, moral, and religious superiority of the indigenous peasant populations of their respective homelands. It must ... be seen in terms of a deep-seated reactionary distaste for cosmopolitanism ... fueled by Social-Darwinian beliefs in the catastrophic results of miscegenation on the 'national stock.' (24) In other words, Primitivism's conception of rural folk as "pure" was one that Fascists were able to use as a rallying cry for National Socialism. The "essence" that the rural folk had access to shouldn't, in the fascists' minds, be diluted by outsiders-hence the Aryan philosophy. Another aspect of the Primitivist movement that the dominant regime in Germany co-opted for its own use was the love of Nature. The reader will remember that the Primitivist movement idealized nature as another way to connect with a truth otherwise unattainable. Again, the Fascists capitalized on this idea in film, creating what Kracauer calls "the mountain film." The mountain films were a group of films that revolved

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13 around mountain climbing and idealized mountains as natural peaks over which one must seek mastery. With the Primitivist and Expressionist movements gutted by the reactionary Right, the Left stepped in to determine how (and why) the movements had failed so badly. The criticisms revolved around two main points: the art of the modernist movement was too subjective and the stance the artists took was not critical enough they were mired in their bourgeois upbringing. These views are most easily illustrated in Georg Lukacs' stinging criticism of Expressionism, "Realism in the Balance." He criticizes the subjectivity in Expressionist art, writing that "[t]he symbolist movement is clearly and consciously one-dimensional from the outset, for the gulf between the sensuous incarnation of a symbol and its symbolic meaning arises from the narrow, single-tracked process of subjective association which yokes them together" (43). In other words, the art uses its energy to be subjective, sacrificing its bid for the universal in the process. Lukacs also raises the second objection to the Expressionist movement, namely that the political/critical stance of the artists does not make the sort of revolutionary progress that they hoped it would. He points out that their stance served as a way to ease the transition from one ideological center to another. He further argues that the artists unintentionally prevented the transition by giving the status quo too much help. If the ruling authority hadn't had the help, the revolution may have happened. However, he writes," ... to the extent that Expressionism really had any ideological influence, its effect was to discourage rather than promote the process of revolutionary clarification

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14 among its followers" (51-2). Lukacs saw little value in modernist art, placing his faith in realism instead. The debate that ensued over the validity of modern art plays directly on the way Expressionism is perceived today.

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THE DEBATE AND KAFKA The debate over modernism .among German Marxists has many ramifications for this discussion. While the discussion of Expressionism does not solve the problems at hand, it does lead us to another way to approach the movement, a method discussed and exemplified in Deleuze and Guattari' s reading of Kafka in their book, Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature. They do not argue for the "aesthetic" "value" of Kafka's work, but rather that his work represents a different kind of move within literature, an attempt to escape the machines of history. By placing their argument next to the conventional arguments of the German Marxist school, it will become evident how Kafka can help us see Expressionism and Primitivism in a new light. The opinions about Kafka's work are varied. Adorno and Benjamin read his lack of resolution as an effective technique in battling the status quo. Lukacs and Brecht both denounced him, saying that his work was not praxis-based, and could not be made effective. Lukacs favored realism as the ideal way for art to speak to the masses. He despised modernist art as pretentious and bourgeois; he included Kafka in the modernist school. Brecht, on the other hand, took a different approach to Kafka's work, though he still disliked it. Being a modernist himself, Brecht's criticisms stem more from the abstract nature of Kafka's work, the lack of efficacy, of applicability. Benjamin summarizes Brecht's position as follows, 15

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16 Kafka had one problem and one only, ... and that was the problem of organization. He was terrified by the thought of the empire of ants: the thought of men being alienated from themselves by the forms of their life in society .... But he never found a solution and never awoke from his nightmare. Brecht says of Kafka's precision that it is the precision of an imprecise man, a dreamer. (88) In other words, Brecht saw that Kafka's concerns were much like those of other modernist, activist artists, but that Kafka's work held to an unresolved fear, rather than working toward giving praxis to the working class. On the other side of the fence sit Adorno and Benjamin, who see value in Kafka's work. Adorno's evaluation of Kafka revolves around disputing Lukacs' claims about the writer. Adorno praises Kafka as a writer whose work is a "commodity that has served no purpose" (114). Some argue that Adorno likes Kafka's work because of its "refusal of any form of reconciliation" (Livingstone, et al. 146). Or, to put it another way, Kafka's work avoids being used, a tactic that seems particularly sensible given the spurious use of Expressionist art by National Socialism. At the same time, Jameson argues, Kafka's work accomplishes something. He writes, Kafka and Beckett arouse the fear which existentialism merely talks about. By dismantling appearance, they explode from within the art which committed subjugates from without, and hence only in appearance. The inescapability of their work compels the change of attitude which committed works merely demand (191). Jameson is arguing that Kafka's work, despite often being associated with modernist (as opposed to realist) works, compels readers to change. But how? He doesn't explain. Deleuze and Guattari offer an answer in their book Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature. Their conception of the "becoming-animal" explains the efficacy of Kafka's work, and might lead us to a new understanding of Expressionism as well.

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17 In Kafka, Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari argue that Kafka's work was an attempt to establish a "minor literature" that worked toward an escape from the very confines of the machinery of society. The "assemblages" and methods Deleuze and Guattari illuminate in Kafka's work, particularly the "becoming-animal" are quite useful when put next to the work of the Expressionists, and may serve as the beginnings of another kind of examination of the modernist movement. The authors begin by discussing Kafka's writings in terms of content and expression. They write that Kafka, in centering his writing around expression instead of content, uses language to deterritorialize, a way of cutting a path of escape from the triangles of society (the family, the bureaucracy, and so on). They write that "expression gives us a method .. "(16) for creating a "minor literature" and that everything in such a literature is political (17). At this point, they have noticed the same trait in Kafka that Adorno noticed, its use outside the normal use of commodity. The method Kafka's work uses for escape is the "becoming-animal." The concept of the becoming-animal, the escape from the sign and the system that is central the authors' reading of Kafka, is explained by Deleuze and Guattari as follows: To the inhumaness of the "diabolical powers," there is the answer of a becoming animal: to become a beetle, to become a dog, to become an ape, "head over heels and away," rather than lowering one's head and remaining a bureaucrat, inspector, judge or judged. All children build or feel these sorts of escapes, these acts of becoming-animal .... The acts of becoming-animal are the exact opposite of [reterritorialization]; these are absolute deterritorializations, at least in principle .... To become animal is to participate in a movement, to stake out the path of escape in all its positivity, to cross a threshold, to reach a continuum of intensities that are valuable only in themselves .... (12-3)

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18 The act of becoming-animal, then, is the refusal to interact with the powers that rule in a human fashion-it is the rejection of the sign-system. It is a way of removing one's self from the system of domination, but is more than a "reterritorialization," which would constantly require more reterritorialization and more after that. Instead, it is a disconnect, an almost-revolution. Deleuze and Guattari stress the revolutionary effect of the action as well-it is not a retreat, but an escape; the becoming-animal is a rebel. The connections between Deleuze and Guattari's becoming-animal and the Expressionist and Primitivist movements seem almost self evident. First and foremost, Kafka is a modernist writer, one over whom (as we have seen) a great debate has raged. Expressionism shares this position. Second, the becoming-animal seems to be a primal maneuver. It is hardly accidental that Deleuze and Guattari described the becoming animal as something children feel and play at. It seems that the "inner truth" that Primitivism and Expressionism looked for in children (as well as women and the insane) is something that might be obtained by (or inspired by, or seen by) the becoming-animal just as effectively. Finally, the connection to the motives of Modernist art in general are highlighted by the final sentence in the passage above: "To become animal is to participate in a movement ... to reach a continuum of intensities that are valuable only in themselves ... (13). In other words, the becoming-animal is the ultimate Expressionist move it connects with truth outside of language in a way that sign-based art can never do. Despite the becoming-animal paths of escape that Deleuze and Guattari see in Kafka's stories, they still spend a good bit of their time discussing the failure of the

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becoming-animal, ultimately, to escape the system. Because of the always-underneath triangles of power, the becoming-animal method of escape is not enough. They write, There is always the danger of the return of Oedipal force. The amplifying perverse usage of Oedipus is not sufficient to guard against every new closure, every new reconstitution of the familial triangle that takes over other triangles such as the animal lines .... [But] [w]e would say that the process of Gregor's deterritorialization through his becoming-animal finds itself blocked for a moment. Is it the fault of Gregor who doesn't dare go all the way? (14) 19 In other words, they construct the failure of Gregor's becoming-animal (from "The Metamorphosis") to his unwillingness to become completely animal. His lack of gumption, if you will, gives the familial triangle a way to reterritorialize him, a way to pull him back. The becoming-animal, then, becomes an all-or-nothing trap. Once again, Kafka's unwillingness to take Gregor far enough to escape the system draws direct lines to the Expressionist movement, which was ambivalent about its revolutionary purpose too. So how does the becoming-animal help us understand the Expressionist / Primitivist movements better? By looking at the movements through the becoming animal, we can see new approach to a seemingly two-sided argument.

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BECOMING-EXPRESSIONIST-ANIMAL It is, as we have discussed, one of the Expressionist movement's goals was to find a new way to show, and deal with, extreme emotions. They eschew direct representation for an eradication of direct meaning in their representation of emotion. This seems to be directly in concert with the becoming-animal method for eluding the structures of organized society that Deleuze and Guattari find in Kafka's writing, especially when one considers the prevalence of the becoming-animal in Expressionist film. The becoming-animal is particularly evident in the early films, where horror has not yet subsumed the movement. In Caligari, for instance, the ever-more-frantic Francis and the unconnected Caligari seem to be the embodiment of the becoming-animal. They have moved outside of the normal sphere, their actions deterritorialized and distant. Indeed, it is this very move that Expressionism tries to show. Another, more literal becoming-animal can be found in the character of Knock, in Nosferatu. Where Count Orloff fits in with Deleuze's discussion of the Vampire, it is Knock who eats animals in an attempt to gain their power. In essence, he is cutting his own path of escape away from the asylum and from encapsulated society. Coates notices the becoming-animal move in the Expressionist films, writing that "it is the confrontation with the acknowledged double that can foster a self-transcendence that goes beyond self-repression; the repressed real returns without the mask of repression" (105). In other words, as the films construct the animal-other/self that the 20

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21 characters and the audiences confront, they acknowledge that it is real and returning. In doing so, the possibility for transcendence is reached, just as the line for escape in Kafka is drawn by the presence of the becoming-animal in his short stories. Unfortunately, the possibility of escape, of expression instead of content, of the avoidance of the triangles and machines of society, was a limited one; the arrival of horror eclipsed it and reterritorialized it from the beginning, slowly usurping its power to transgress until the tools of Expressionism became another part of the machinery of desire that encapsulated existence to begin with. The reterritorialization that is almost inevitable in the becoming-animal arises for the Expressionists as well. In their films, they are trying to find the becoming-animal escape that the insane man takes when he disconnects from society, but they are unwilling to abandon form in favor of expression, the very method that Deleuze and Guattari see in Kafka's attempts. Like Gregor (and Kafka?), and unlike the Surrealists, the Expressionists are not willing to completely abandon the signifier. Passion does reign king, but it is accountable to its queen, its content. It is that split, that unwillingness to completely deterritorialize that gives horror film, the representative of the triangles of the status quo-normalcy, psychiatry, and all the other structures-its chance to appropriate the tools and subvert the attempt at escape. One such reterritorialization comes in the pinnacle of the films discussed here, The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari. This film, both the quintessential Expressionist film and "the grand daddy of all horror films" has, in its inception, an example of the very inability to escape that Deleuze and Guattari saw within Kafka's stories. While Francis and

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22 Caligari both disconnect themselves from the societies they live in, they both fail to escape as well. Both are locked in the asylum, either in the framing device itself or in the story told by Francis. Either way, the becoming-animal man has failed to escape; instead he was physically recaptured and, in Dr. Caligari's case, reformed into a territorialized character by the very real outside forces that regulate both the digetic world of the film and the world of the film makers. After all, though the film may have been conceived as a successful escape story, it could not be. For not only does the original becoming-man, Dr. Caligari, get caught in the original inception of the story-leaving just a social commentary about the dangers of nationalism and conformity-but the original storyteller is also caught by the director and forced back into the triangle, thus subverting the "message" of the film while, at the same time, stopping any chance of the becoming animal's escape. As the Expressionist film vanished in the early 1920's, we see the becoming animal changed from a man trying to escape into a man reviled. The formerly empathetic and even sought-after character becomes the villain. For example, just two years after Caligari is Nosferatu, in which we have two uncanny characters, the becoming-animal, Knock, and the becoming-man, Count Orloff. Neither are given much sympathy, though Knock is generally seen as harmless until he attacks a guard. Nonetheless, they are both seen as horrible Others, only vaguely related to their human audience. By the early 1930's, when The Testament of Dr. Mabuse is released, the tools of Expressionism no longer create a path of escape for the becoming-animal. Instead, it is demonized from the beginning, a dark side of mankind that should be locked away, lest it

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23 infect others, as Dr. Mabuse does in the film. It is the most horrifying of the three faces of the Other. Coates identifies those faces as "visibly nonhuman ... semihuman ... and visually identical with a human being .... The third category-that in which the monster resembles ourselves-is the most uncanny and genuinely terrifying of the three"(85-6). While Coates does not mention the madman in his discussion of that third face, it seems to be the most aptly part of the category. The insane man is the horror film becoming animal that is not easily identified. Nevertheless, it is, in Deleuzian terms, trying to escape and subvert the triangles and machinery of power; those very triangles will constantly try to reterritorialize themselves to include and cut short any escape attempted by those becoming-animals. The insane man in the horror film and, in fact, the horror film itself are both products of that reterritorialization, of that attempt by the triangles of power to preclude any escape from the system by way of Expressionist films. That reterritorialization is the reason that Expressionism, the method by which those artists tried to deal with the systems of power in post-war Germany, was adopted by horror. By adopting the emotionally evocative methods of Expressionist art, the horror genre could better tap into a burgeoning market for "terror-films" in 1920's German cinema. At the same time, the horror genre acted as a way to subvert the revolutionary and, as Deleuze and Guattari have pointed out, necessarily political "minor literature" that Expressionism embodied in its attempt to negotiate another path for escape from the threatening national currents of nationalism and fascism.

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24 In the end, it becomes possible to see Expressionism, Primitivism, and Modernism as a method that failed to elude the reterritorializing structures of the status quo. No longer do we need to see the Modernist movement's slide away from signification as an abandonment of praxis, but can see it as pioneering another path for escape (even if that path was ultimately cut off). The becoming-animal can serve as a bridge between the competing sides of the realist /modernist debate and can provide us with historical view of the Expressionist and Primitivist movements that does not stress the aesthetic character of their debate, but rather stresses the revolutionary escape and the reterritorializing machinery that came into play in the 20s and 30s.

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WORKS CITED Adorno, Thedor. "Letters to Walter Benjamin." Aesthetics and Politics. New York: Verso, 1977. Benjamin, Walter. "Conversations with Brecht." Aesthetics and Politics. New York: Verso, 1977. Budd, Mike. "Introduction" and "The Moments of Caligari." The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari: Texts, Contexts, Histories. Ed. Mike Budd. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1990. Coates, Paul. The Gorgon's Gaze: German Cinema, Expressionism, and the Image of Horror. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Deleuze, Gilles, and Guattari, Felix. Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986. Eisner, Lotte H. "A Contribution to the Definition of the Expressionist Film." Expressionism as an International Literary Phenomenon: 21 Essays and a Bibliography. Ed. Ulrich Weisstein. Co-Coordinating Committee of A Comparative History of Literatures in European Languages. Paris: Librairie Marcel Didier, 1973. Elsaesser, Thomas. "Social Mobility and the Fantastic: German Silent Cinema." The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari: Texts, Contexts, Histories. Ed. Mike Budd. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1990. Jameson, Fredric. "Reflections in Conclusion." Aesthetics and Politics. New York: Verso, 1977. Kracauer, Siegfried. From Caligari to Hitler: A Psychological History of the German Film. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974. Livingstone, Anderson, Mulhern. "Presentation IV." Aesthetics and Politics. New York: Verso, 1977. Lukacs, Georg. "Realism in the Balance." Aesthetics and Politics. New York: Verso, 1977. 25

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Petro, Patrice. "The Woman, The Monster, and Caligari." The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari: Texts, Contexts, Histories. Ed. Mike Budd. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1990. Prawer, S.S. Caligari's Children: The Film as Tale of Terror. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980. Rhodes, Colin. Primitivism and Modem Art. Thames and Hudson. New York: 1994. 26 Weisstein, Ulrich. "Preface," "Expressionism as an International Literary Phenomenon," and "Expressionism: Style or Weltanschauung ?" Expressionism as an International Literary Phenomenon: 21 Essays and a Bibliography. Ed. Ulrich Weisstein. Co Ordinating Committee of A Comparative History of Literatures in European Languages. Paris: Librairie Marcel Didier, 1973.

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Brendan Patrick Riley grew up in the suburbs of Minneapolis. He studied English at St. John's University in Collegeville, Minnesota, before coming to the University of Florida to get his PhD in English. His two main foci are film studies and computers and writing. Brendan's studies in film focus on horror and science-fiction and his research in computers and writing focuses on the use of synchronous, multi-user environments. He also likes wiener dogs. 28

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I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts. Gregory Ulmer, Chair Professor of English I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts. Scott N~\..._____.. Associate Professor of English This thesis was submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Department of English in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences and to the Graduate School and was accepted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. May, 2001 Dean, Graduate School