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The rates of aqueous reactions

1The rate of reaction can be increased by increasing the concentration of the solution. This will mean there are more molecules in the same amount of space, so there will be more collisions.

2The rate of reaction can be increased by increasing the temperature of the solution. This will give the molecules more energy, making them move faster and collide more. It will also mean they stand a better chance of having the activation energy.

3The rate of reaction can be increased by increasing the pressure of the solution. This will mean there are more molecules in the same amount of space, so there will be more collisions.

4Adding a catalyst to the solution will increase the rate of reaction. This is because the catalyst lowers the activation energy needed for the solution to react.

5The definition for rate of reaction is “change in concentration of product or reactant over time”.

It has the units mol dm-3 s-1

How to calculate the number of moles in a solution

1The two most important equations to learn are:

moles = mass / Mr and moles = volume x concentration

2If you know the moles of one chemical in your balanced equation, you can find out the moles of anything else by looking at the “big number” ratios. For example:

2NaOH + H2SO4 = Na2SO4 + 2H2O

If you had 10 moles of H2SO4, because there is a 2:1 ratio, you would have 20 moles of NaOH.

3Your volume MUST be converted into dm3 before you use it in your equation. To convert cm3 into dm3 divide your number by 1000.

4Do not forget to round your answer to a sensible number of significant figures (usually the least amount of significant figures that the question itself goes to).

5Your Mr can be found by looking at the mass number on the periodic table (this is the bigger of the two numbers- the smaller one is called the proton number

Top tips for aqueous reactions

1Anything that is dissolved in an aqueous solution will have the state symbols (aq). For Na+(aq)

2If your reaction is dissolved in water, then water will have the state symbol (l), for “liquid”.

3If the question says that your reaction is done under standard conditions, then it means at 1 atmosphere of pressure, at 25'C.

The third bond is the hydrogen bond, which occurs between hydrogen and oxygen atoms within the polypeptide chain. Hydrogen bonds are not strong on their own, although a large number of them together makes them very strong. The primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids stablised by peptide bonds. There are an endless number of different possible primary structure The secondary structure is the sequence of amino acids arranged as either an alpha helix of a beta pleated sheet stabilised by peptide s.

You can now read off the volume of base you've added. From this you can workout the concentration of the acid. As I know all the concentrations of the acids and alkalis given I can do another experiment, which is to measure the heat of neutralisation otherwise known as the enthalpy of neutralisation. Enthalpy is the measure of energy usually heat energy that a substance has. You can't measure enthalpy directly, but you can measure the change in enthalpy when a reaction happens.

When the acid and alkali of the same volume are mixed, this will cause the process of neutralisation to occur. Neutralisation is the reaction between an acid and a base. It is the formation of a bond between H+(aq) from the acid and OH-(aq) from the base. These are known as the reacting ions. This is because in the solution the ions are dissociated and thus independent. H+(aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l) As this is a bond forming process it is known that it will liberate energy, thus all reactions between acids and bases are exothermic.

Also, ionic compounds dissociate while most molecular compounds don't 3. What does it mean when something "dissolves" in water? Is this the same as "dissociate"? When something dissolves in water, the substance bonds with the liquid. It is not the same as dissociation because dissociation is when the ionic bonds separate from each other. 4. Complete the table below based on the definitions given above and your understanding of ionic and molecular compounds. Material to be tested Prediction: will it conduct electricity? Why? Tap water Yes It is a common saying . Distilled water Yes It is probably has the same properties as tap water.

Methods and Materials This experiment called for numerous testing, using a variety of different laboratory tools in addition to a few different substances and materials to perform reactions with. The first experiment (Reaction A), which was performed to become familiar with a synthesis reaction, involved the use of magnesium ribbon and heat provided by a laboratory burner. The magnesium ribbon was placed a crucible while the laboratory burner was in use. Forceps were used to hold the magnesium ribbon while the reaction was occurring.

In any state, the particles present will have a very wide range of energies. For gases, this can be shown on a graph called the Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution which is a plot of the number of particles having a particular energy. This graph below only applies to gases, but the conclusions that we can draw from it can also be applied to reactions involving the liquids. The area under the curve is a measure of the total number of particles present.

Pour 5cm cm³ of special indicator containing starch into the 10 cm³ measuring cylinder. 7. Pour all the liquids into the 100 cm³ beaker and start the stop clock. 8. Stir the solution until it turns a blue/black colour and the cross below is not visible. 9. Record the time it took for the solution to change colour. 10. Wash your apparatus. 11. Pour 30 cm³ of potassium iodide and 40 cm³ of sulphuric acid into the 100 cm³ measuring cylinder and also 5 cm³ special of indicator.

INTRODUCTION Aspirin is an acid and can be determined analytically by the method of back titration. However aspirin is not soluble in water so cannot be titrated directly with an alkali. So the aspirin is reacted with an excess of sodium hydroxide, which produces a water soluble salt of aspirin. (The ester group also reacts, so two moles of sodium hydroxide are required to react with one mole of aspirin.) The excess alkali (which was left over from the above reaction) may then be determined by titration HCl + NaOH NaCl H2O The amount of alkali which is used up in the initial reaction with aspirin may be calculated, and this can be related to the quantity of aspirin.

If there were more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions then once every hydrogen ion joined with 1 hydroxide ion there would be hydroxide ions left meaning the solution would become alkaline. When an acid contains more hydrogen then there are a greater number of hydrogen ions per ml than in an acid containing less hydrogen so it will be stronger. For example in sulphuric acid (H2SO4) there would be more hydrogen ions than in the same amount of hydrochloric acid (HCl), twice as many because there are twice as many in the formula.

Finding the exact heat capacity of Steel (Calorimeter): * Using a thermometer, measure the temperature of water at room temperature and record your readings. * Measure the mass of the Steel Calorimeter * Heat a certain amount of water for a while, using the water kettle. * When the water is heated, measure out a certain mass. Make sure the mass of the water is known. * Then, measure the temperature of the heated water and record the value. * Immediately, pour the measured water into the steel calorimeter and shake well.

Those with a pH of 8-14 are alkaline. PH 7 represents a neutral solution. Indicators are dyes which change colour to indicate weather a substance is acidic, alkaline or neutral. Some indicators such as the universal indicator are made of mixtures of dyes. Acidic substances turn the indicator red and those that are alkaline change the indicators colour to blue. Substances that are neutral change the indicator to green. In this experiment the most suitable indicator that should be used would be the universal indicator. This is because at the point of neutralization the indicator will give a specific colour change to show that the mixture has been neutralized.

The concentration of either Sodium Thiosulphate or Hydrochloric acid can be changed, I have chosen to change the concentration of the Hydrochloric Acid, I will change the concentration by adding the correct amount of water. I have decided to use a range of 5 different concentrations of Hydrochloric Acid 50-0cm3 going down in steps of 10. To change the concentration I am going to add water 0-50cm3 going up in steps of 10. The amount of Sodium Thiosulphate will be fixed at 10cm3.

Within each hair strand the keratin chains are also linked with ionic, salt and hydrogen bonding. Hydrogen bonding occurs from the attraction between the electronegative oxygen atoms on the CO groups and the electropositive H atoms on either the OH or NH groups. Although they are individually weaker than disulphide bonds, hydrogen bonds are in much higher proportions to the disulphide bonds making them important in maintaining the tertiary structure of the protein. Hair is very resilient and has elastic properties.

The longer you leave the heater on the hotter the water will get. I don't want to do number 2 because variable power supplies are not precise enough for the level I want to investigate this to and so therefore the test could be unfair. So I have chosen number 1 because I can use scales with the degree of accuracy of 1/100th cm3. Varying the mass of the water will give me and array of varied results and I can be accurate in my method.

I intend to use five different concentrations of hydrochloric acid and they will be: > 1 m > 0.8 m > 0.6 m > 0.4 m > 0.2 m DEPENDANT VARIABLE: The factor I will measure during the experiment, will the temperature change in the solution of the alkali and acid? I will do this by: Measuring the initial temperature of the solution Adding the alkali - sodium hydroxide Measure the temperature after 1 minute preferably after the reaction has taken place.

Scientific Knowledge Salts contain positive and negative ions, which are held together by the strong force of attraction between particles with opposite charges. When one of these solids dissolves in water, the ions that form the solid are released into solution, where they become associated with the polar solvent molecules. H2O NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) We can generally assume that salts dissociate into their ions when they dissolve in water. Ionic compounds dissolve in water if the energy given off when the ions interact with water molecules compensates for the energy needed to break the ionic bonds in the solid and the energy required to separate the water molecules so that the ions can be inserted into solution.

Also to increase accuracy we used two molar instead of one molar reactants. This is because otherwise the differences in temperature would be hard to read to an accurate scale by eye off a mercury thermometer. It may of course be feasible with electronic digital thermometer which measures to several decimal places, which of course, with smaller changes from the room temperature, less inaccuracy would come from heat being lost. Energy Change = Temp Rise X mass of liquid X 4.2 (Joules)

This is because as the reaction starts it is very quick and as the chemicals continue to react the reaction produces less CO2 per 10 seconds so it slows down gradually resulting in a curve, This is because after some time there are fewer acid and potassium carbonate particles so the reaction slows down. I predict that the reaction will go slower when the concentration of the acid decreases. This is because the rate of reaction increases with the concentration.

be neutral; the baking soda solutions will be acidic; the "green" cleaner will be basic; the household cleaner will be acidic; the Lemon Juice will be acidic. Materials: For this lab we need pH paper, a spot plate, water (distilled, if available), and substances with varying pH. Safety: In this lab we must were goggles and aprons to avoid skin contact with all chemicals that are going to be used in this experiment.

A catalyst could also not be used as these were forbidden in school. Strategy Deciding which reactants to use Experiment One For the first experiment I chose to use calcium carbonate chips and hydrochloric acid. I used 50 ml of hydrochloric acid and 3 calcium carbonate chips and recorded how long it took for the reaction to take place. This took 23 minutes and 43 seconds. Experiment Two For the second experiment I made a sodium thiosulphate solution, by placing sodium thiosulphate crystals into a beaker with a measured amount of water in it.

However, if the conditions of the reactions such as temperature, pressure and concentration are modified, then the position of equilibrium may be changed. Using the graph, I am going to calculate the mass of Ammonia produced at various temperatures. This is the balanced equation used for the Haber Process: N2 + 3H2 2NH3 Using this balanced equation, I will calculate the 100% mass of Ammonia. I will begin by working out the Atomic Mass of the reactants within the balanced equation.