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MCWP 3-23.

1

CLOSE AIR SUPPORT

U.S. Marine Corps

PCN 143 000055 00

DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY Headquarters United States Marine Corps Washington, DC 20380-1775 30 July 1998
FOREWORD

Close air support (CAS) is a Marine Corps innovation. Since the first dive bombing attempts in World War I and subsequent operations in Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua in the 1920s, Marines have realized the value of closely integrating aviation with ground combat efforts. World War II and the Korean war galvanized the importance of CAS. During those conflicts, the fundamental tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTP) for conducting CAS today were forged in places such as Guadalcanal and the Pusan Perimeter. Today, CAS continues to be Marine aviation’s unique contribution to the combat power available to a Marine air-ground task force (MAGTF) commander. Marine Corps Warfighting Publication (MCWP) 3-23.1, Close Air Support, addresses basic CAS doctrine and TTP. MCWP 3-23.1 complements and expands on the information in MCWP 3-23, Offensive Air Support, by focusing on the details of CAS employment and the role CAS plays in integrated MAGTF, joint, and multinational operations. Designated for MAGTF commanders, naval expeditionary force commanders, joint force commanders, and their staffs, MCWP 3-23.1 highlights CAS: Fundamentals Command, control, and communications Planning considerations Execution using fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft.

MCWP 3-23.1 provides the requisite information needed by commanders and staffs to understand and evaluate the capabilities of various CAS employment options. Additionally, MCWP 3-23.1 offers standard procedures and terminology by which ground force personnel and pilots of fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft can deliver aircraft ordnance in close proximity to friendly forces. This publication supersedes Fleet Marine Force Manual (FMFM) 5-41, Close Air Support and Close-in Fire Support. Recommendations for improving this publication are invited from commands as well as directly from individuals. Reviewed and approved this date.
BY DIRECTION OF THE COMMANDANT OF THE MARINE CORPS

or delay enemy forces in offensive and defensive operations. CAS provides firepower to neutralize. CAS provides the commander with the means to strike the enemy swiftly and unexpectedly. CAS is a mission conducted at the tactical level that may affect operational-level objectives. destroy. it is situational. fires.” (Joint Publication (Joint Pub) 1-02. By using the speed and mobility of aircraft. or save
. DOD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms) CAS is an offensive air support (OAS) mission that is planned and executed to deliver firepower against selected enemy capabilities at a designated place and time. or movement is the determining factor. The word “close” does not imply a specific distance. the commander takes advantage of fleeting battlefield opportunities and achieves combat objectives. rather. Applying the fundamentals of combined arms. exploit tactical opportunities. CAS is conducted when and where friendly combat forces are in close proximity to enemy forces. At times.Chapter 1
Fundamentals
INTRODUCTION
CAS is an “air action by fixed. CAS is the best firepower delivery means available to rapidly mass a lethal capability. In so doing. The requirement for detailed integration based on proximity.and rotary-wing aircraft against hostile targets which are in close proximity to friendly forces and which require detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of those forces. the commander integrates CAS with other forms of fire support and the fire and movement of ground forces.

The supported unit commander influences the use of CAS by requesting and approving all CAS missions within his area of operations. thereby giving the commander flexibility in force employment. Available aircraft that are capable of performing CAS are fully integrated into ground operations.1
friendly lives. other supporting arms. To deliver effective CAS. an aircrew must: Be responsive Remain flexible Be familiar with the supported unit’s scheme of maneuver and understand the MAGTF commander’s intent Acquire the correct target Place the appropriate type of ordnance accurately on the target.
. The MAGTF commander uses the following criteria to determine CAS employment: The MAGTF’s mission and concept of operations The MAGTF’s ability to counter enemy air defenses The availability of. The MAGTF commander uses CAS to concentrate firepower on the enemy.1-2
MCWP 3-23. Proper and timely communication and control are necessary if CAS is to be successful. and compatibility with. The effectiveness of CAS is proportional to the degree to which it is integrated into the planning and conduct of MAGTF operations. CAS provides fire support with the speed and violence that is essential in maneuver warfare.

Although it is occasionally the result of a malfunctioning weapon. targeters. All participants in the CAS employment process—maneuver commanders. the terminal
. coordination. Commanders. fire support coordinators. terminal controllers. commanders providing fire support. Causes. Responsibility. Causes include misidentification of targets. All participants in the CAS process must realize that they could possibly contribute to unintentional or inadvertent friendly fire incidents and therefore must make every effort to prevent such occurrences. target location errors. fratricide is often the result of uncertainty on the battlefield.
FRATRICIDE
Fratricide. and mission executors must be conversant in standing operating procedures (SOPs) regarding CID. CAS aircrews. and loss of situational awareness by either terminal controllers. target locations incorrectly transmitted or received. or casualties to friendly forces caused by friendly fire. CAS requires detailed planning. Combat identification (CID) is critical to ensure that effective CAS is delivered while minimizing the potential for fratricide.Close Air Support
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Although the concept is simple. Each participant must make every effort to ensure that friendly units and enemy forces are correctly identified before the release of ordnance. and training for effective and safe execution. is an undesirable and avoidable circumstance in warfare. planners. All of the TTP outlined throughout this publication are designed to avoid fratricide while maximizing the effectiveness of CAS. and aircrews—are responsible for the effective and safe execution of CAS. Ultimately. or fire support coordinators.

The three-dimensional mobility of aircraft provides commanders with the means to strike the enemy swiftly and unexpectedly. the terrain. such as type of target. or the friendly ground scheme of maneuver. CAS is used to attack the enemy in a majority of weather conditions. By using CAS. Training. day or night. range. Continuous. When CAS is properly employed.
BATTLEFIELD UTILITY
Ground force commanders request CAS to augment organic supporting fires. Advances in TTP and equipment have improved the ability of aircraft to provide close support.1
controller issuing the “cleared hot” clearance has the responsibility of ensuring that fratricide will not occur when employing CAS. The speed. Commanders and units must constantly emphasize training that routinely exercises CAS TTP. commanders can take full advantage of battlefield opportunities.
Planning Criteria
. range.1-4
MCWP 3-23. Successful CAS training will result in safe and effective CAS employment and provide for synergistic fire support during all MAGTF operations. and maneuverability of aircraft allow the attack of targets that other supporting arms may not be able to effectively engage because of limiting factors. commanders can focus its firepower at the decisive time and place to achieve tactical objectives. realistic training creates a better understanding of battlefield conditions and the situations in which CAS may be employed.

commanders plan for CAS at key points throughout the depth of the battlefield. Whether conducting offensive or defensive operations. The integration of CAS-capable aircraft allows ground force commanders to take advantage of the distinctly different. missions.
.
CLOSE AIR SUPPORT INTEGRATION
CAS is integrated with other available supporting fires to support maneuver forces. and characteristics of CAScapable aircraft determine how CAS is employed. Commensurate with other mission requirements. but complementary. the aviation combat element (ACE) commander postures aviation assets to optimize support to requesting units. The priority for the assignment of CAS is established by the MAGTF commander and supports his intent and concept of operation.
CLOSE AIR SUPPORT EMPLOYMENT
The organizational structure.Close Air Support
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The commanders consider the following criteria in planning for CAS: Mission and concept of operations Enemy air defenses and the force’s ability to counter them Integration with other supporting arms Types of CAS assets available Availability of the correct ordnance for the target.

. CAS aircraft can be provided from main airbases. or over the horizon from.and rotary-wing aircraft can both provide CAS. amphibious ships. forward operating bases (FOBs). Rotary-wing aircraft providing CAS are typically tasked and employed in sections. The ability to operate from areas close to.1
capabilities of each platform to support the fire and maneuver of their units. aircraft are normally based as close as possible to supported units. Although fixed. or aircraft carriers. friendly forces offers ground forces greater CAS responsiveness.and rotary-wing aircraft are normally assigned as part of the ACE of a MAGTF. Both fixed. employment considerations differ.1-6
MCWP 3-23. Some planning and employment methods for CAS with fixed-wing aircraft are not the same as for rotary-wing aircraft. and ordnance load of fixedwing aircraft and the helicopter’s excellent responsiveness and ability to operate in diverse conditions represent distinct advantages that are peculiar to each. or flights (two or more divisions).” (Joint Pub 1-02) Fixed-wing CAS sorties are normally flown in sections (two aircraft) or divisions (four aircraft). The range. Although attack helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft capabilities are complementary. while providing aviation forces the flexibility to choose the best means to employ CAS assets. To facilitate the integration necessary for effective CAS. This versatility in employment locations is vital when conducting ship-to-objective maneuver (STOM) during operational maneuver from the sea (OMFTS). divisions. speed. neither capability can fully replace the air support provided by the other. A sortie is defined as “an operational flight by one aircraft. Fixed-wing aircraft are typically tasked and employed to conduct CAS in terms of aircraft sorties.

Current intelligence is used to determine the threat level.Close Air Support
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THREAT LEVELS
Threat levels (low. See MCWP 3-23 for more information. but friendly capabilities are also weighed in meeting the threat and environmental conditions. and high) determine CAS feasibility. and quality of enemy individual weapons and weapons systems Enemy command. A medium threat level during daylight hours may be a low threat level at night.
Threat-level identification should be considered when determining air support mission feasibility. Determination of the threat level is based on: The type. and intelligence (C4I) systems used to integrate weapons Enemy training status. and at times no clear dividing line may exist between them. communications. computers. These are general levels. medium.
. Air defense systems that present a low or medium threat level for one type of aircraft may present a high threat level for another type of aircraft. Threat levels exist between no air threat capability on the low end to a highly developed and integrated air defense system on the high end. Threat-level determination aids aircrews when preparing tactics for a particular situation and environment. Threat-level determination is based heavily on enemy capabilities. control. quantity.

See MCWP 3-22.1
CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE CLOSE AIR SUPPORT
For CAS to be delivered effectively. surface-to-air. and electronic warfare (EW) systems to a level at which they are incapable of having an adverse effect on friendly force operations. Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses. Air superiority is “that degree of dominance in the air battle of one force over another that permits the conduct of operations by the former and its related land.
. and Procedures (JTTP) for Joint Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (J-SEAD). Available methods to suppress enemy air defense threats include destructive and disruptive means. and air forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force. Techniques. including air-to-air. for more information.
Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses
Suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD) may be required for CAS aircraft to operate within areas defended by enemy air defense systems.1-8
MCWP 3-23. Joint Tactics. Air superiority may range from local or temporary control of the air to control over the entire theater.2.4. sea.” (Joint Pub 1-02) This will involve negating enemy airborne and ground systems. and Joint Pub 3-01. air-to-surface. some basic conditions that optimize CAS employment must be considered. These conditions include those discussed in the following paragraphs.
Air Superiority
Air superiority permits CAS operations to function more freely and denies the same advantage to the enemy.

Prompt Response
To be effective. minimum weather conditions are considered. aircraft and equipment limitations. Streamlined request and control procedures improve responsiveness. Techniques for improving response time include: Using FOBs to decrease the distance to the area of operations Placing aircraft on ground or airborne alert status
. Weather conditions worse than those considered to be the minimum will significantly degrade the ability to perform CAS because the majority of CAS aircraft do not have a true all-weather capability. Prompt response allows a commander to exploit planned objectives and to take advantage of unanticipated battlefield opportunities. See Chapter 4 for further details.
Favorable Weather
Unrestricted horizontal visibility improves CAS aircrew effectiveness regardless of aircraft type. The ACE commander determines the worst weather conditions in which CAS missions can be conducted based on regulations. CAS must be responsive. Target marking aids CAS aircrews in building situational awareness and in locating and attacking the proper target. Before CAS missions are executed.Close Air Support Target Marking
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The requesting commander can improve CAS effectiveness by providing timely and accurate target marks. and aircrew experience.

The requesting commander should solicit the type and quantity of ordnance that is appropriate to his needs and be informed of the ordnance load that each supporting CAS aircraft is carrying.10
MCWP 3-23. Maintaining a high degree of skill requires that aircrews and terminal controllers practice frequently. and fire support agencies greatly increase the ease by which CAS is requested and controlled. arming settings. or infrared (IR) munitions.
Weaponeering
To achieve the desired level of destruction. such as laser-guided. or pinpoint targets may require specialized weapons. Additionally. air control agencies. or aircraft with special equipment or capabilities. or suppression of enemy CAS targets. information flow will come from the battlespace in the form of in-flight reports and mission
. However. Cluster and general-purpose munitions are very effective against troops and stationary vehicles.
Aircrew and Terminal Controller Skill
CAS execution is complex. Unhindered voice or data communications between aircrews. hardened.
Communications and Information Systems
CAS execution requires dependable and interoperable communications. electrooptical. supported commanders. mobile.1 . neutralization. Aircrew and terminal controller skills have a direct influence on mission success. terminal controllers.1
Delegating launch and divert authority to subordinate units. Realistic training that includes all maneuver elements is essential. and fusing settings must be tailored for the desired results. the weapons load.

such as target activity after attack and additional targets. establish airspace control measures.11
reports (MISREPs).
. Information systems that can relay timely and perishable information. and update or warn CAS aircraft of enemy threats. will facilitate real-time CAS decisionmaking as well as future CAS planning.
Command and Control
CAS requires integrated. assign assets. Basic requirements for CAS C2 are the ability to process CAS requests.Close Air Support
1 . flexible command and control (C2). coordinate support. deconflict fires and routing. communicate taskings. C2 that facilitates an understanding of the mission and the initiative to adapt to changing battlefield situations is the foundation for creating conditions favorable for CAS employment.

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MCWP 3-23.1
(reverse blank)
.

Joint Doctrine for Amphibious Operations. direct. The amphibious tactical air control system (ATACS) is organized and equipped to plan. 3-02. See Joint Pubs 3-02.1. and air C2 agencies of the ATACS. for a detailed discussion of the MACCS.1. Fire Support in Amphibious Operations. and Communications
CAS requires a C2 structure that can coordinate requirements. and control all air operations within an assigned area. See Navy warfare publication (NWP) 3-09. process requests.3.Chapter 2
Command. for a detailed discussion of the NTACS. commanders exercise the necessary C2 of available aviation assets. fire support centers.
AMPHIBIOUS TACTICAL AIR CONTROL SYSTEM
The subordinate systems of the ATACS are the Navy tactical air control system (NTACS) and the Marine air command and control system (MACCS). and control execution. for further information concerning air C2 in amphibious operations. and 3-52.
. Marine Air Command and Control System Handbook. Doctrine for Joint Airspace Control in the Combat Zone. Joint Doctrine for Landing Force Operations.11. Figure 2-1 illustrates the necessary connectivity between the key elements. Through the control agencies and facilities of the NTACS and MACCS. See MCWP 3-25. Control. The ATACS can also coordinate air operations with the other components of a joint force. and MCWP 3-31. Supporting Arms in Amphibious Operations.

the Navy TACC is onboard the amphibious task force (ATF) flagship. The Navy TACC controls all air operations within the amphibious objective area (AOA). If the joint force commander (JFC) designates a seabased joint force air component commander (JFACC). When required. If two or more ATACS command-level agencies are operating within an AOA. a subordinate air control agency. When the Marine TACC is established. the TADC exercises only those functions delegated by the TACC. may be established. The Navy TADC functions in a standby status. The senior Navy air control agency is the Navy tactical air control center (TACC). prepared to reassume its role as the TACC should the situation dictate. The Navy TACC has two sections that control and integrate CAS: the air traffic control section (ATCS) and the air support control section (ASCS). and other centers become subordinate. Navy TACC/TADC. one agency functions as the TACC and the other(s) functions as the TADC(s). When established. The TACC/TADC is responsible for planning and conducting CAS. the Navy TACC is redesignated a TADC. the Navy TACC may host the joint air operations center (JAOC).
. the tactical air direction center (TADC). Typically.Close Air Support
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NAVY TACTICAL AIR CONTROL SYSTEM
The NTACS is the principal air control system afloat. the TADCs are under operational control (OPCON) of the TACC.

provides aircrews with current and complete friendly intelligence. and warning of enemy aircraft. The principal agencies of the MACCS concerned with CAS are the Marine TACC/TADC. coordinate. The ASCS is the section of the TACC designed to coordinate and control overall CAS employment. and surveillance for CAS aircraft in the AOA. The ATCS provides initial safe passage. the
. passes CAS control to the terminal controller. Although the SACC is not part of the ATACS. enemy intelligence.1
ATCS. ASCS. and acts as the action agency for immediate CAS requests. The SACC maintains radio contact on tactical air request (TAR) nets with tactical air control parties (TACPs) to coordinate CAS requests. radar control. The ASCS coordinates with the supporting arms coordination center (SACC) to integrate CAS and other supporting arms.
MARINE AIR COMMAND AND CONTROL SYSTEM
The MACCS provides the MAGTF with the means to integrate. it is integral to amphibious assault supporting arms C2. provides tactical air direction of assigned aircraft. identification. The ATCS can also provide early detection.2-4
MCWP 3-23. and target briefings.
SACC. The SACC processes joint tactical airstrike requests (JTARs) and determines which supporting arm is best suited to engage targets. The primary task of the ASCS is to provide fast reaction to CAS requests from the landing force. executes the CAS portion of the air tasking order (ATO). and control all air operations within its area of operations and with joint/combined forces.

It is the operational command post for the ACE commander. The DASC coordinates CAS and is normally collocated with the ground combat element’s (GCE’s) senior fire support coordination center (FSCC). The DASC can serve as the alternate TACC for a limited period when the TACC echelons forward or becomes a casualty. and surveillance for CAS aircraft en route to and from target areas. The Marine TADC is the senior MACCS agency until the MAGTF assumes control of all air operations.Close Air Support
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tactical air operations center (TAOC). the TADC is designated the Marine TACC. Tactical Air Operations Center Handbook. (See figure 2-1.)
Marine Tactical Air Command Center/ Tactical Air Direction Center
The Marine TACC is the senior MACCS agency and is the focal point for aviation C2.
Direct Air Support Center
Typically.
Tactical Air Operations Center
The TAOC is subordinate to the Marine TACC. and the direct air support center (DASC). See MCWP 3-25. radar control. Once the MAGTF assumes control. When there are multiple GCEs. The TAOC provides safe passage. for a detailed discussion of the TAOC. this center is the first principal MACCS agency established ashore in an area of operations and is subordinate to the Marine TACC. The Marine TACC can host the JAOC when the Marine component provides the JFACC. the DASC
.7.

Terminal control agencies require continuous communications and the ability to track CAS aircraft by visual or electronic means.5. Direct Air Support Center Handbook.
MACCS Terminal Control Agencies
CAS terminal control agencies control the final delivery of ordnance. See MCWP 3-25. for a detailed discussion of the DASC.1
may be collocated with the MAGTF’s force fires coordination center (FFCC). The DASC also coordinates with the senior GCE FSCC to integrate CAS with supporting arms. The DASC receives current ground and air intelligence information primarily from aircrews operating within the battlespace. The MACCS integrates terminal controllers into the C2 system through communications and standard procedures. which then passes this information to the Marine TACC/TADC and the senior FSCC. An airborne DASC can be operated from the KC-130 aircraft. Supporting Arms Integration.2-6
MCWP 3-23. The link between the DASC and the senior FSCC is critical for the coordination and integration of CAS missions with other supporting arms. are not organic to the ACE. Tasks. Some terminal control agencies.
. but can be employed as an independent control agency. The DASC processes immediate direct air support requests and coordinates the execution of preplanned and immediate direct air support missions. such as TACPs. including CAS. The DASC (airborne) (DASC(A)) normally serves as an airborne extension of the DASC. The FSCC uses these visual reconnaissance reports in the assessment phase of the targeting process. Aircrews can pass visual reconnaissance reports that are essential to timely battlefield targeting directly to the DASC.

Organization. The battalion TACP consists of 3 aviators and 12 radio operators. TACPs exist at the MAGTF level through the battalion level and are primarily used to integrate and coordinate air support in the fire support process. the TACP is also used to provide terminal control for CAS aircraft. The forward air control parties prepare the majority of the preplanned and immediate requests for CAS and provide the battalion with its CAS terminal control capability. TACP provides a means for the ground commander to access the MACCS to fulfill his direct air support requirements. The senior officer is the air officer (AO). Each of the other two aviation officers is a forward air controller (FAC) and the leader of a forward air control party. is responsible for reporting employment and coordination of CAS to the supported ground commander. At the battalion level. The AO advises the ground unit commander on CAS employment and works in the FSCC as the battalion’s air representative. Each forward air control party has four communicators. division. and MAGTF TACPs do not have FACs. FAC. FAC terminal control aids in target identification and greatly reduces the potential for fratricide. The TACP. The duties of the FAC include: Knowing the enemy situation. who acts in a dual capacity as special staff officer to the battalion commander for all aviation matters and as the officer in charge of the TACP. The FAC provides terminal control for CAS aircraft and maintains radio communications with assigned CAS aircrews from a forward ground position. which plays an important role in the air C2 system.Close Air Support
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TACP. and location of friendly units
. selected targets. Regimental. Tasks The TACP participates in fire support coordination.

and performing BDA. providing terminal control of CAS missions. conducting air reconnaissance. providing radio relay for the TACP and FAC.
Airborne Controllers and Coordinators. The FAC(A) can serve as another FAC for the TACP or augment and extend the acquisition range of a forward air control party. The FAC(A) provides terminal control of CAS aircraft. and needs Locating targets of opportunity Advising the supported company commander on proper air employment Requesting CAS Controlling CAS Performing battle damage assessment (BDA). The FAC(A)’s mission is different from the TAC(A)’s mission. position.2-8
MCWP 3-23.
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Knowing the supported unit’s plans. The tactical air coordinator (airborne) (TAC(A)) provides coordination for OAS missions. The assault support coordinator (airborne) (ASC(A)) provides coordination of CAS for assault support missions. while a TAC(A) aids in the coordination of available supporting arms. FAC(A). coordinating or conducting target marking. FAC(A) duties include detecting and destroying enemy targets. providing artillery and naval gunfire air spotting. The airborne MACCS agency that provides airborne terminal control of CAS aircraft is the FAC (airborne) (FAC(A)). FAC(A) and TAC(A) missions should not be conducted simultaneously by the same aircrew. The FAC(A) is an airborne extension of the TACP.

. providing CAS aircraft hand-off to terminal controllers. The TAC(A) is an officer operating from an aircraft who coordinates CAS and other supporting arms with ground combat operations while providing airspace coordination. relaying threat updates and BDAs. ASC(A) duties include aiding in airspace coordination and integration of assault support operations when DASC/HDC operations are degraded or require augmentation. The ASC(A) is a component of the NTACS/MACCS and is an airborne extension of the DASC or helicopter direction center (HDC). coordinating and deconflicting CAS with other supporting arms. The ASC(A) is assigned by the ACE commander and plays a critical role during multiple. The TAC(A) is an airborne extension of the DASC or Marine TACC/TADC. artillery units. and coordinating with the TAC(A) or FAC(A) to provide CAS to the AMC during combat assault transport and other assault support operations. or other assault operations. supporting initial assaults. independent assault support operations or large. The TAC(A) coordinates with TACPs. FSCCs. TAC(A) duties include coordinating CAS attack briefs and timing. ASC(A). and coordinating fixedand rotary-wing operations. The ASC(A) operates from an aircraft to provide coordination and procedural control during assault support operations.Close Air Support
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TAC(A). complex operations. and naval surface fire support (NSFS) ships. follow-on assaults. The DASC or Marine TACC/TADC identifies specific TAC(A) authority. supporting the air mission commander (AMC) by coordinating movement of aircraft through the C2 system and assigned airspace. subordinate FAC(A)s.

brevity. authentication.g. Communications must be mission-tailored and robust to ensure that links between aircraft and ground units are maintained and to minimize the chance of fratricide and enhance mission effectiveness. secure communications. frequency agile (e. the absence of these capabilities should not be allowed to hinder the application of CAS. However.
Countermeasures
Enemy communications jamming. frequency-agile equipment. No single technique is completely effective by itself. The
. and imitative deception interfere with the air C2 system and jeopardize the use of CAS. frequencyagile radios. and visual signals. and/or data link whenever available.
Secure Voice/Frequency-Agile Communications
The standard mode for all CAS communications should be secure voice. including secure. and standard communications nets. appropriate countermeasures. Proper radio procedures are critical.1
Information exchange by tactical communication means is necessary to facilitate CAS and allow the proper control of CAS events. HAVE QUICK or single-channel ground and airborne radio system (SINCGARS)). disciplined emission control (EMCON). These include natural terrain masking. chattermark procedures.2 .10 COMMUNICATIONS
MCWP 3-23. burn through. especially in emergency situations or in the case of a time-sensitive target. monitoring. A number of techniques exist to counter jamming and deception. Flexibility and responsiveness of CAS communications is made possible by using a variety of techniques.

request. As the enemy increases the use of electronic attack (EA). both the controller and the aircrew have the minimum coordinating information required to accomplish the preplanned attack. artillery—must use the same timing method. traditional air support communications may become difficult. Once this is accomplished. the use of GPS time has become more prevalent and is the preferred timing synchronization method. and receive the time on target (TOT) or time to target (TTT). If a synchronized clock is not available. This may reduce an aircrew’s ability to conduct immediate missions. and the mission determine the proper techniques to be used. With the proliferation of ground and air global positioning systems (GPSs). a preplanned mission can be accomplished with minimum communication between the terminal controller and the aircrew. The aircrew uses previously coordinated information. available communications equipment.Close Air Support
2 . On a preplanned CAS mission with high enemy EA activity. and control CAS. All participants—aircrew. FSCC. the terminal controller can pass a TTT to the aircrew once they are airborne. terminal controller. The best timing method is the synchronized clock.
Emission Control
EMCON should be emphasized throughout the planning and training cycles. CAS planning should include the identification of alternate communication methods to coordinate. However. scheduled mission with no direct contact anticipated between the terminal controller and the aircrew. normally from the supported unit’s tactical airstrike request. DASC. The aircrew would contact the terminal controller.
. the DASC or TAC(A) can transmit the CAS brief to the aircrew before initial contact with the terminal controller.11
tactical environment. with a TOT to conduct the attack. transmit the abort code. Another example is a preplanned.

2 .
. Direct Air Support Net. See figure 2-2 on page 2-14 for a listing of the standard communications nets associated with CAS.1
MAGTF Close Air Support Communications Nets
Standard communications nets are used by air control agencies and tactical aircraft in the conduct of CAS.12
MCWP 3-23. It is a backup net that is available to coordinate rotary-wing CAS. Helicopter Direction Net. Information pertaining to aircraft status and progress of direct air support missions may also be passed over this net. All aircraft continuously monitor the guard net. Guard Net. and these alternative nets could be used in extreme situations. This net provides positive control of inbound and outbound helicopters in the AOA. In addition to these standard nets. Alternative nets are designed to provide communications redundancy. Each aircraft group has its own common net. This net provides a means of communication between in-flight group aircraft and/or with the aircraft group headquarters. This net is the emergency distress net for aircraft. This net provides a means for the DASC to request direct air support aircraft from the TACC/TADC. Group Common Net. numerous alternative nets also exist within the C2 systems. The guard net further serves as a means for air control agencies to advise aircraft of emergency conditions or serious hazards to flight safety.

and DASC to exercise control of all tactical and itinerant aircraft in the area of
. This net provides a means for ground maneuver units to request immediate air support from the DASC or TACC/SACC. with a secondary very high frequency (VHF) capability available in some cases. Tactical Air Traffic Control (TATC) Net. This net provides a means for the control of aircraft conducting CAS and for the TACC/TADC/DASC to brief CAS aircraft on target information and assignment to the FAC or FAC(A). The SACC/FSCCs monitor this net and may approve. Multiple TAR nets may be required depending on the extent of CAS operations. This net is primarily ultrahigh frequency (UHF). TAR Net.Close Air Support
2 . Multiple TAD nets are required and used by various air control agencies. disapprove. Each aircraft squadron has its own common net. or modify specific direct air support requests. TACP Local Net. This net provides a means for coordination between the AO and his FACs. This net provides a means of communication between squadron aircraft and/or with the squadron headquarters. A secondary VHF capability may be available. TAOC. Additionally. This net provides the primary means by which the TACC/TADC can task aviation groups and squadrons to conduct direct air support. including CAS.13
Squadron Common Net. Tactical Air Command Net. This net provides a means for the TACC/TADC. BDAs may be passed over the TAR net. The DASC uses the net to brief the requesting unit on the details of the mission. Coordination with TAC(A)s and FAC(A)s may also be conducted over this net. Tactical Air Direction (TAD) Net. The TAD net should be reserved for time-critical terminal control information only.

14
MCWP 3-23.2 . diverting aircraft as necessary.
Figure 2-2. Multiple TATC nets are often required.
. clearance of aircraft to their assigned control agencies.1
operations. MAGTF Close Air Support Communications Nets. and relay of in-flight reports and BDA. Types of information passed over the TATC net include aircraft reports of launches by mission number.

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CLOSE AIR SUPPORT COMMAND AND CONTROL FOR JOINT FORCE OPERATIONS
The JFC normally exercises OPCON through Service component commanders, functional component commanders, or some combination of the two. In joint operations, components should provide and operate C2 systems that have similar functions at each level of command. Joint CAS is controlled by the JAOC and uses the host component’s organic C2 architecture. If designated, the JFC, through the JFACC, tasks air assets made available for joint tasking through Service component C2 systems. Figure 2-3 illustrates basic joint force CAS connectivity between service components, the JFC, and the JFACC. In the case of MAGTF aviation in joint operations, the MAGTF commander will retain OPCON of organic air assets. MAGTF air assets will normally be in support of the MAGTF mission. To support the CAS needs of the joint force, sorties in excess of the MAGTF’s direct air support requirements will be provided to the JFC for tasking. For further information, see the “Policy for Command and Control of United States Marine Corps (USMC) TACAIR in Sustained Operations Ashore,” page IV-4, Joint Pub 0-2, Unified Action Armed Forces (UNAAF). Figure 2-4 (page 2-17) depicts functional equivalents among the U.S. Air Force theater air control system (TACS), U.S. Army airground system (AAGS), NTCAS, MACCS, and special operations C2. See Joint Pub 3-56.1, Command and Control for Joint Air Operations, for further information.

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MCWP 3-23.1

Figure 2-3. Joint Force Close Air Support Connectivity.
During joint force operations, a command relationship between land components (e.g. tactical control (TACON), OPCON, attachment, supporting/supported) may or may not exist.

Close Air Support

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If a command relationship is established between components, the supporting component uses the CAS process of the supported component. For example, if an Army brigade is under the OPCON of a MAGTF commander, the Army brigade directs CAS requests through the brigade fire support element (FSE) to the Marine FSCC and through the MACCS. The Army request is handled the same as any other CAS request in the MACCS. If a command relationship is not established between components, each component forwards CAS requests using its respective CAS

request process. Joint CAS requests are forwarded to the JAOC for consideration and assignment. For example, if a MAGTF and an Army division are operating as adjacent units under a JFC, each

2 - 18

MCWP 3-23.1

component would direct requests for joint CAS through its respective request process to the JAOC.

Figure 2-4. Component Air Command and Control Agency Functional Equivalents.

Joint Communications Requirements
Aircrews performing joint CAS will use the communications nets and architecture of the supported component. To ensure that joint CAS is executed properly, all components involved must have the appropriate signal operating instruction (SOI)/communicationselectronics operating instruction (CEOI) data to communicate effectively and successfully support requesting units. The joint force communications manager (J-6) must determine the standard SOI/CEOI information needed and ensure that it is provided to all components. It is the responsibility of the JFACC/JFC staff to ensure that required communications data for CAS is published in the joint ATO. It is the responsibility of component commanders to have and maintain the designated keymat for secure communications. CAS-capable units, aircrews, terminal controllers, and air control agencies will need radio frequencies and call signs that are specific to joint CAS C2. CID means, such as identification, friend or foe (IFF) codes and authentication materials, will also be required. The MAGTF communications manager (S-6) should establish direct liaison with the joint force J-6 to coordinate the necessary CAS communications data needed to support the joint CAS process. See Joint Pub 3-09.3, JTTP for Close Air Support (JCAS), for further information.

Commanders consider the requirement for CAS throughout their areas of operations based on their scheme of maneuver and concept of operations. and rear operations. and CAS may play an important role in the combined-arms approach to accomplishing the task. CAS planning should be considered a continuous learning activity that facilitates the exercise of judgment and not a fixed mechanical procedure. close. CAS plans must be continually adapted as time allows. Because battlefield situations and the information available about them are constantly changing.Chapter 3
Planning
The CAS planning process involves a number of interdependent activities. Any element of the MAGTF may be designated the main effort to accomplish a critical task. parallel. Once the time and place for decisive maneuver by the GCE is determined. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
CLOSE AIR SUPPORT EMPLOYMENT PLANNING
CAS is a cyclic process marked by concurrent. The decision to use CAS is based on subordinate unit missions and their need for support.
SECTION I.
. the CAS planning process can build on itself with each step to create a new understanding of the situation. The MAGTF commander plans for the employment of CAS throughout the battlespace in deep. and detailed planning. In this way.

CAS is also a valuable asset for exploiting tactical success and pursuing a retreating enemy.
Rear Operations
.3-2
MCWP 3-23.
Deep Operations
CAS employment planning for deep operations may include supporting reconnaissance forces or conventional forces with a deep operation mission. Used too early. CAS in support of forces conducting deep operations is normally planned to be limited in scope and duration and to support attacking maneuver forces or special operations activities. such as air interdiction or armed reconnaissance.
Close Operations
The commander generally assigns most of his available CAS to the unit designated as the main effort. the preponderance of CAS and the priority of fire support will normally be allotted to the main effort. CAS aircraft and other fire support assets are postured to concentrate fires in support of the main effort. CAS aircraft may be forced to disengage before mission completion because of low fuel or ammunition. Therefore. Timing should also be considered when planning CAS employment. employed too late. CAS planning must also account for the requirement to have qualified and proficient terminal controllers to ensure effective target attacks and to minimize fratricide. CAS aircraft may miss part or all of the intended target and fail to have the desired effect. Deep operations involving CAS may require additional coordination to deconflict with deep air support missions.1
CAS will require full integration into the plan.

Close Air Support
3-3
Rear operations CAS is planned to counter deep enemy attacks against support forces operating in the friendly rear area. CAS aircrews and terminal controllers must take special care to identify friendly forces and ensure that they are not harmed by CAS ordnance delivered against enemy forces. CAS may also be employed in the conduct of reaction force missions that support movement-to-contact operations. CAS missions can be planned to support maneuver forces providing forward and flank security. using CAS aircraft at the initial point of contact can overwhelm the enemy and force a premature deployment of his forces. CAS aircraft performing reaction force support missions also
. Once contact is made. This gives the MAGTF commander freedom of movement by delivering a wide range of ordnance and by destroying or neutralizing enemy forces. Movement to Contact. engaging as necessary to ensure adequate time and space for friendly forces to gain positional advantage and seize the initiative. Execution orients on rapid location of enemy forces and rapid development of the situation.
Offensive Employment
CAS assists offensive operations with preplanned or immediate missions. The potential for fratricide is high in the rear area because of the larger number of support personnel and activities located in this area. CAS aircraft performing security missions maneuver according to the location or movement of the main body and known or suspected enemy units. CAS planning for offensive operations depends on the type of offensive operation being conducted. The responsiveness and firepower provided by CAS can greatly augment the combat power of rear area forces.

CAS can help to isolate enemy forces on the battlefield and force the enemy to defend in a direction from which he is unprepared to fight. In the pursuit. and strike unprotected enemy targets that present themselves as enemy cohesion deteriorates. CAS is planned to sever escape routes. destroy fleeing forces. CAS is incorporated into the detailed planning and coordination involved in a deliberate attack. Attack. Commanders plan for and use CAS to support attacks against enemy forces.3-4
MCWP 3-23.1
maneuver according to the location of the main body. the commander attempts to annihilate the fleeing enemy force as the enemy becomes demoralized and his control disintegrates. CAS adds to the concentration of firepower. and the violence against the enemy. In exploitation. Exploitation. the shock effect. Pursuit. CAS can also fix the enemy in space or time to support the movement and assault of ground forces.
Defensive Employment
. Because the objective of the pursuit is destruction of the enemy. CAS can destroy critical enemy units or capabilities before the enemy can concentrate or establish a defense. Exploitation is an offensive operation that usually follows a successful attack and is designed to disorganize the enemy and erode his cohesion. but they maintain positions displaced from the planned or suspected engagement area until contact is made. CAS can keep direct pressure on the enemy to prevent him from reorganizing or reconstituting.

CAS can be assigned to support both the mobile and the positional elements of the defense. but it can also be effectively employed to support the defense. CAS engages enemy units that have bypassed main battle area forces or penetrated friendly positions. Support Movement. CAS can provide a supported commander with highly mobile firepower to counterattack or support counterattack forces.Close Air Support
3-5
CAS is inherently offensive in nature. CAS can be planned and used to cause the enemy to deploy prematurely.arms attack. CAS supports the movement of friendly forces between positions. CAS complements maneuver forces and integrates with surface-delivered fires as part of a combined. In defensive operations.
Alert Status
Aircraft may be placed on ground alert or launched into an airborne alert orbit near the battle area.
Reserve
In offensive operations. CAS can provide the ground commander with additional firepower to reinforce or exploit success. to deny the enemy access to critical terrain for a specified time period. Attack Penetrations. Commanders may plan the use of CAS in the defense to: Support Maneuver. or to slow or stop the enemy’s attack. Alert aircraft must be configured
. In defensive operations.

and unpredictable.1
with weapons and ordnance appropriate for anticipated targets. the aircraft and its weapons may be less effective. Airborne alert aircraft consume fuel as they orbit. Regularly scheduled aerial refueling can increase both the combat radius and time on station for fixed-wing aircraft if tankers can be suitably positioned. which allows planners to adapt to changing situations and to exercise initiative throughout the process. The commander’s intent is relayed as the purpose of the mission. EW support. and time available (METT-T).
. troops and support available.3-6
MCWP 3-23. Basic CAS planning begins with an analysis of mission. Aircrews select tactics and techniques that offer the best chance of mission success and accomplishment of the assigned task. Additional factors will determine the tactics and techniques required to conduct a particular CAS mission. aircrews begin detailed mission planning. Aircrews conduct detailed mission planning to: Determine the required tactics Identify support requirements Coordinate the use of fire support. and C2. if different kinds of targets are encountered. innovative. Appendices A and B outline additional CAS planning considerations.
CLOSE AIR SUPPORT MISSION PLANNING
Upon receipt of the mission. terrain and weather. enemy. Mission tactics and techniques must be flexible. and these aircraft eventually will have to be used or must depart to be refueled.

This understanding increases overall situational awareness by all participants and facilitates the initiative required to maximize CAS effectiveness. order of battle. for it allows supported and supporting units the latitude to exercise initiative and exploit opportunities. By determining key enemy characteristics. C2 requirements. From this information. Enemy. prebriefing of aircrews and detailed mission planning become critical. or AO and aircrew. Other considerations are the enemy’s capability to conduct command and control warfare (C2W) and the potential or confirmed presence of chemical or biological contamination. As the threat level increases. such as composition. capabilities. In-flight updates on enemy activity and disposition along the flight route and in the target area may require the aircrews to alter their original plan and tactics. disposition. Secure-voice equipment and frequency-agile radios can overcome some effects of enemy interference.Close Air Support
3-7
Mission. CAS planners anticipate the enemy’s ability to affect the mission and the potential influence enemy actions may have on flight tactics and techniques. In planning CAS missions. scheme of maneuver. and the supported commander’s intent or purpose for conducting the mission.
. and criteria for specific rules of engagement (ROE). planners begin to formulate how CAS can best be used. the specified and implied tasks to be performed in accomplishing the objective. If the enemy is successful at disrupting communications. and likely courses of action (COAs). alternatives are planned to ensure mission accomplishment. and the supported ground force crucial. Planners study the mission to understand their objective. the FAC. Understanding the mission’s purpose is key. The potential for the threat situation to change during the course of the mission makes communications and close coordination between the aircrews. should understand the ground commander’s objective. control agencies.

and battle positions (BPs) should use terrain features that are easily recognizable. and weapons systems.1
Terrain and Weather.3-8
MCWP 3-23. Time is the critical element in coordinating events and massing fires to achieve the combined-arms effect of ground and aviation forces. holding areas. It influences both enemy and friendly capabilities to locate. night vision devices (NVDs). and C2 systems. initial points (IPs). precision-guided munitions (PGM). EW. tankers. Planners at every level require an understanding of the effects that weather can have on CAS aircraft navigation. Support for the CAS mission can then be requested with sufficient time to coordinate its use. and accurately attack CAS targets. release points. A terrain survey is used to determine the best routes to and from the target area. Ideally. identify. flight routes. Troops and Support Available. sensors. CAS operations must be fully integrated into the supported commander’s scheme of maneuver and the fire support plan. CAS mission support requirements that must be determined include escort. Adequate time must be available to ensure mission success. Time Available. reconnaissance. Broad area satellite imagery and air mission planning and rehearsal systems can assist in selecting optimum flight parameters. Where the terrain permits and when the threat dictates. the support required to conduct a CAS mission is identified early in the planning process. day or night. Weather can also influence the effectiveness of laser designators. effect the necessary
. SEAD. Weather plays a significant role in CAS operations. When practical. CAS planners must estimate the amount of time necessary to plan the mission. Knowledge of friendly force troop location and movement is paramount. and thermal imaging systems. flight routes should maximize the use of terrain masking to increase survivability against air defense systems.

.g. Recent operating conditions. Thermal Significance. A target screened by valleys or other natural cover may be difficult to see on low-level attacks. dust trails. Poor visibility can restrict laser and electro-optically guided ordnance. Many variables can affect a target’s vulnerability to detection and attack by thermal systems. The following target considerations are used when selecting attack tactics and ordnance: Visibility. A major factor in target detection is the contrast of the target against its background. time of day (thermal crossover). and movement can indicate their location.Close Air Support
3-9
coordination. Target acquisition is usually easier when the sun is behind the aircraft.
Target Considerations
The battlespace can contain a large variety of targets. Contrast and Brightness. exhaust smoke.. Camouflaged targets against a background of similar color may be impossible
. and target composition and background should all be considered. Thick haze or smoke has a greater effect on low-level attacks than on steep-dive attacks because horizontal visibility is usually lower than oblique visibility. Target Masking. The type and characteristics of these targets may differ greatly. free-fall bombs/rockets) than it is for short-range deliveries (e. and execute the mission. If enemy vehicles are moving. retarded bombs and guns). Visibility is more critical for long-range deliveries (e.g. An increase in altitude may be necessary to find the target. Inadequate time management may result in reduced effectiveness and increased risk to aircrews and ground troops.

affects contrast and can prevent target acquisition by aircrews or the use of electro-optically guided ordnance. the lower an aircraft is and the closer it is to a target. Weather. Additionally.
CLOSE AIR SUPPORT NAVIGATION PLANNING Coordinate Systems
Several different coordinate systems and datums are used around the world. are more difficult to locate under poor light conditions. The use
. forces. The use of multiple datums has led to inaccuracy and confusion during combat operations. Losses from enemy air defenses incurred while attacking high-value enemy targets are minimized by reducing exposure times. the greater its potential vulnerability to other types of surface-to-air weapons (SAWs). or automatic weapons. indirect fire weapons. Rain and snow reduce visibility and can prevent an attack. and small arms fire. Accuracy Versus Survivability. Weather conditions are one of the most critical factors in visual attacks. jinking. Weather. regardless of contrast differences. However. Valuable enemy targets are usually defended by surface-to-air missiles (SAMs). as well as the position of the sun or moon.10
MCWP 3-23. greater firing accuracy is achieved by reducing the distance between the aircraft and the target. and employing EW.S. even within U. These same considerations also affect enemy air defense weapons that use optical sights. Target Defenses. All targets. antiaircraft artillery (AAA).3 . using “stand-off” capable weapons. Low-level tactics attempt to increase mission success by decreasing exposure to enemy air defenses. Incorrectly assessed wind velocity can result in delivery errors.1
to detect.

. If the MAGTF commander does not designate a standardized datum or if there is any doubt about which datum is being used.11
of a common datum reference in the CAS process is essential and should be prescribed by the JFC or MAGTF commander. or a compatible ellipsoid.S. there are still 11 different ellipsoids used on U. Currently there are 32 separate datums used in map production around the world. Although the long-term U.-produced maps: Australian National or South American 1969 Bessel 1841 Clarke 1866 Clarke 1880 Everest Geodetic Reference System 1980 International Modified Airy Modified Everest World Geodetic System 1972 World Geodetic System 1984. goal is to eventually refer to all geographic positions on the World Geodetic System. Many of these datums have several different ellipsoids.Close Air Support
3 .S. units requesting CAS should specify the datum in the JTAR.

12 Aircraft Systems
MCWP 3-23. latitude/longitude. Naval Air Station Oceana. or number and letter combination) to indicate distance from the equator.
. The standard for target location is MGRS/UTM (6 digit) grid coordinates. the last five digits of MGRS and UTM coordinates (nearest 1 meter) of easting and northing are identical. For example. however. Variations exist in the ways different aircraft types use the military grid reference system (MGRS). However. the higher the probability the allocated aircraft will be appropriately armed for the mission. accurate coordinate conversions. Many GPS receivers can compute quick. Logistic efforts must ensure CAS is timely and responsive to adequately support the ground commander’s scheme of maneuver.” and in UTM is “18 407791 4075465.1
Not all aircraft involved in the CAS process use the same coordinate reference system in their navigation systems. configuring aircraft. and scheduling tankers for aerial refueling requires time and coordination. Virginia. Both are based on meters. if users are properly trained. in MGRS is “18S VR 07791 75465. the universal transverse mercator (UTM). latitude/longitude may be requested if required by a particular aircraft’s system.” See Appendix C for specific aircraft navigation capabilities and coordinate reference system requirements.3 . but each will give a different prefix (number.
CLOSE AIR SUPPORT LOGISTIC PLANNING
Preparing weapons. It is important to note that the MGRS is not identical to the UTM. and radar offset data. The more specific and timely a CAS request.

. and so on. logistic support. Supporting units are responsible for keeping FOBs operational by planning for and carrying out logistical support. and system-specific support requirements. fuel. Operating from locations close to the battle area can increase loiter time in the objective area. perhaps most importantly. operations tempo. but these locations are often well removed from the battle area. mission equipment.13
CAS aircraft may be operationally based in a number of ways. and. make the CAS firepower more responsive to ground commanders by shortening the response time. The more traditional basing modes include main operating bases on land and seabasing aboard naval ships afloat. Responsibilities of Supported Units. In addition to using main operating bases and ships. Responsibilities of Supporting Units. aircraft may have farther to fly to reach CAS target areas and have a longer turnaround time between missions. extend effective combat radius. so that appropriate munitions can be transported to FOBs and prepared for use. Fixed-base and shipboard deployment generally offer the widest range of available ordnance.Close Air Support Basing Modes
3 .
Forward Operating Bases
Forward deployment of CAS aircraft offers several advantages. Preplanned logistic support is vital to ensure that sufficient ammunition. quantity and type of munitions employed. As a result. Supported units should provide a forecast of anticipated CAS targets. and servicing equipment are in position and ready for use when needed. aircraft can be deployed to FOBs. FOB logistical support is a function of the number and type of aircraft that use the location.

and lubricant support. including specific needs Sequencing (timing) of aircraft through the FARP FARP security Marine air traffic control mobile team (MMT) support. oil. the tempo of operations.14
MCWP 3-23. as well as the proper servicing equipment.3 . facilitates their responsiveness. Support to FARPs.) The FARP extends the effective combat radius of CAS aircraft. (See figure 3-1.. munitions handling equipment) that must be addressed. logistical support to FARPs is a function of the number of aircraft planning to use the FARP. are available when needed. and increases their time in the objective area. CAS aircraft operations require the following coordination: Number and type of aircraft staging through the FARP Munitions. and other system-specific support requirements.1
Forward Arming and Refueling Points
CAS aircraft can be supported through forward arming and refueling points (FARPs) located in the forward area. Rapid ground refueling (RGR) by appropriately equipped aircraft can also provide these same advantages. There are aircraft-unique equipment requirements (e. including weapon.or aircraft-specific munitions handling and support requirements Petroleum. Preplanned logistic support is vital to ensure that sufficient ammunition and fuel. the types of munitions to be employed.
. As a minimum.g. Like FOBs.

In joint operations.
AIRSPACE CONTROL MEASURES
Airspace control measures increase operational effectiveness.
. The air and ground commanders coordinate the use of control procedures to strike a balance between the ground force use of airspace and protection of aircraft using that airspace. Airspace control measures speed the handling of air traffic within the objective area. efficient.16
MCWP 3-23. Control and coordination procedures include airspace control measures and fire support coordination measures (FSCMs).3 . Airspace control measures are not mandatory or necessary for all missions. They also increase CAS effectiveness by ensuring the safe. Air C2 systems use airspace control measures to help control the movement of CAS aircraft over the battlefield. and flexible use of airspace.
Control Points
Control points route aircrews to their targets and provide a ready means of conducting fire support coordination. the airspace control authority deconflicts the airspace by publishing the airspace control plan and the subsequent airspace control orders.1
SECTION II. CONTROL AND COORDINATION MEASURES
Commanders can employ a variety of measures to control and coordinate airspace and airspace users. The senior air control agency is responsible for deconflicting air operations by establishing control procedures to ensure the efficient and safe use of airspace. Control points should be easily identified from the air and should support the MAGTF’s scheme of maneuver.

Once the control points are approved. The ATO states the control points’ daily intended use. The selected control points are then sent to the MAGTF commander for approval. During amphibious operations. Appropriate MACCS agencies ensure that command and control issues are addressed during control point selection. Additions or changes to control points listed in the air annex are approved in the same manner as the original control points. the list is published in the air annex to the operation order (OPORD).
Multiuse Control Points
If possible. control points should be usable by a variety of aircraft. The Marine TACC identifies the specific use for each control point as the tactical situation dictates. The following paragraphs identify multiuse control points. the MAGTF AO sends the MAGTF’s list of control points to the ATF commander. The Navy TACC also reviews the selected control points.17
The senior FSCC and the ACE select control points based on MAGTF requirements. The SACC analyzes the control points to determine their effect on other fire support means. Figure 3-2 provides an example of multiuse control points used for a CAS mission.
.Close Air Support
3 .

ERPs allow specific routing of aircraft for C2. airspace limitation. or ROE requirements.1
Figure 3-2. Example of Multiuse Control Points for a Close Air Support Mission. For the ingress routes.3 . the aircrew must contact the TACC (Navy or Marine) for further clearance.18
MCWP 3-23. the ERPs are placed between the egress control point (ECP) and the penetration point (PP). EPs are used to enter/exit the AOA.
. ERPs are placed between the rendezvous point (RP) and the contact point (CP). ERPs are used to define routes of flight to and from the target area.
Entry Point/Exit Point (EP). En Route Point (ERP). For the egress routes. At EPs.

The DASC is the overall coordinator for the ECP. IP. During ingress. The initial point is “used as the starting point for the bomb run to the target. An RP is a prearranged geographic location where aircraft meet after takeoff or after exiting the target area. Orbit points and holding points either represent geographic positions or are defined and fixed by electronic means.
. The ECP identifies a CAS aircrew’s egress from the target. An aircrew can use an ECP as a secondary CP to start a second attack. A CP is “the position at which a mission leader makes radio contact with an air control agency.Close Air Support
3 . a CP is outside the range of enemy SAWS and is 15-30 nautical miles (NM) from the IP. These points are used to station aircraft inside the AOA. or TAC(A) can control the ECP. FAC(A). A CP allows coordination of final plans before entering heavily defended airspace. An ECP is a well-defined geographical control point outside the enemy air defense area. An orbit point is used during tactical operations when a predetermined pattern would be predictable and therefore is not set.19
Orbit Point/Holding Point. ECP.” (Joint Pub 1-02) IPs are well defined and easily identified (visually or electronically) and are located 5-15 NM from the target area. A holding point prescribes a predetermined pattern and is normally used while awaiting air traffic control clearances. A control point can be dual-designated as both an orbit point and a holding point. Terminal controllers and aircrews use IPs to help position aircraft delivering ordnance. CP. the aircrew contacts the terminal controller at the CP.” (Joint Pub 1-02) Normally. Contact with terminal controllers normally ends at the ECP. although orbit points and holding points are usually separate and distinct locations. keeping them in a specific area of airspace while they await further routing instructions. A FAC. RP.

Rotary-Wing Control Points
In addition to multiuse control points. Figure 3-3 provides an example of control points that are unique to rotary-wing CAS planning and employment.20
MCWP 3-23. Aircraft without IFF equipment or communications execute prebriefed identification procedures at or before the PP or wait at the PP for rendezvous with friendly escort aircraft. Holding Area (HA). Rotary-Wing Control Points. PPs are located beyond the intercept zone of the friendly SAM network.3 . The HA is occupied while awaiting targets or missions. there are rotary-wing-specific control points. Aircraft with operating identification. Aircrews can receive updated target or mission information in a face-to-face brief or over the radio. A PP is used for reentry into the friendly air defense network. HAs can be located near regimental or battalion headquarters to take advantage of their communications connectivity. friend or foe (IFF) equipment or communications with the TAOC continue with their recoveries from the PP. aircrews receive the CAS briefing and perform final coordination. While in the HA. A penetration control point is used to cross a hostile coastline during amphibious helicopterborne operations. Terminal controllers can also locate HAs at their position.1
PP. aircrews move along attack routes (ARs) to BPs or individual firing points (FPs). After receiving the brief. Note: The PP is different from a penetration control point.
.
Figure 3-3.

The HA should be large enough for adequate dispersion and meet all landing zone selection criteria. It must also be supplied with the necessary
. it may be necessary to supplement its security by providing it with a small security force.Close Air Support
3 .21
The HA should be well forward yet provide cover and con-
cealment from enemy observation and fires. Because the HA is well forward.

It must also
. BP-to-target distances in these instances will vary depending on the threat. The BP is an airspace coordination area that contains firing points for attack helicopters (Marine Corps Reference Publication (MCRP) 5-2C draft. BP selection is based on the following: METT-T/Supporting Arms Deconfliction. terrain. BPs should allow good cover and concealment. The availability or use of messengers should also be considered and planned for. allow for appropriate weapons engagement zones (WEZs). the CAS aircraft may need to displace and resume the attack from a different BP. Maneuvering time spent in the BP should be minimal to prevent detection and engagement by the enemy. It must provide deconfliction with guntarget lines and fixed-wing attack profiles. provide necessary maneuvering space. FPs are normally positioned laterally and in-depth. Uncoordinated egress from the BP may interrupt other supporting fires and endanger CAS aircrews. The BP must support the mission requirements and be integrated into the scheme of maneuver. Marine Corps Supplement to the DOD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms).3 . Therefore.22
MCWP 3-23. BP selection begins during premission planning.1
communications for coordinating a launch. To avoid enemy counterfire. A coordinated effort between air and ground units in the selection of BPs is optimal. and weapons systems available. BP. Often rotarywing aircraft use BPs in the same manner that IP fixed-wing CAS runs use IPs. alternate BPs should be established. and be reasonably easy to identify. Once the terminal controller clears aircraft into a BP. Aircraft have freedom of movement within the BP unless restricted by the CAS aircraft flight leader. flight outside of the BP to attack or to egress is not authorized unless cleared by the terminal controller.

Prevailing Wind. and its associated effect on sensor performance. the radar’s capabilities should be examined to determine if acquisition is possible at the CAS aircraft’s operating altitude. and haze can degrade laser/IR sensors and weapons systems such that BP-to-target ranges may have to be significantly decreased for effective employment. aircraft remaining downwind after the initial target engagement could experience target obscuration from blowing dust and debris resulting from ordnance detonation and secondary explosions. Wind will affect target marks and artificial illumination and may obscure follow-on targets if the first target engaged is upwind from the remaining targets. the BP can be located downwind from the target. Adequate Maneuver Area. If a radar threat is expected in the objective area. low-lying clouds. Fog. Target Altitude. Target area visibility. smog. smoke. The BP should be at an elevation equal to or higher than the target area to allow for unobstructed weapon-to-target lines.
.Close Air Support
3 . will influence the BP range to target.23
ensure that potential BPs are examined for communications limitations. However. Visibility and Sensor Performance. The BP must be large enough to contain the CAS aircraft and provide safe and flexible maneuver between various FPs. It must provide flexible delivery profiles to ensure accurate weaponeering by the CAS flight. Terrain Relief. To maintain the element of surprise and to minimize acoustic signature detection. Hilly and mountainous terrain enables the CAS aircrew to mask/unmask easily and aids in navigation.

and dirt). The BP location should reduce the effects of rotorwash on surrounding terrain (debris. terrain or vegetation should cover the BP with shadows to provide additional masking. The BP location should reduce the effects of weapon’s backblast on surrounding terrain. sand. The BP should be positioned on axis with the long axis of the target area. snow. This allows the CAS aircrew to view the kill zone and prevents the enemy from seeing and targeting the aircraft. If area munitions deliveries (rockets/guns) should be required. If possible. The BP should be outside the threat’s WEZ. Backblast. Beaten Zone Optimization. BPs should permit unobstructed sighting of targets throughout the target area. Field of Fire.1
Range. Shadow. If possible. the maximum amount of the target area should be covered by the beaten zone of the weapons. Sun/Moon.3 . Terrain features behind the BP prevent the attacking aircraft from being silhouetted against the horizon. When laser weapons are to be employed. leaves. unless terrain masking and/or SEAD is available. Rotorwash.24
MCWP 3-23. the sun or moon should be behind or to the side (night time) of the attacking aircraft. BPs should be located so that the target area is within the effective WEZ of the aircraft’s weapons systems. the BP’s location must allow for appropriate laser employment geometry and account for safety restrictions. Background.
.

FP. by a known point or prominent terrain feature. ARs that run parallel to preplanned targets should be avoided as this may compromise more than one FP. Terrain and vegetation are used to conceal aircraft movement on the AR. If an approved BP does not exist. lay outside this axis. CAS aircraft use an AR to move from the HA to the BP. If the CAS aircraft exit the BP to attack the target. The flight leader determines movement of aircraft within the BP. supporting arms. An FP is a specific point within the BP that a single aircraft occupies while engaging targets. AR. the terminal controller or aircrew coordinates with the appropriate FSCC. If an airspace coordination area is required. the jammer axis may require realignment to provide optimal protection to the attacking CAS aircraft. and the threat. The new BP is identified by grid.25
Jamming Axis. aircrews can plan a hasty BP in coordination with the terminal controller.Close Air Support
3 . The ideal AR is a corridor that allows aircraft to move into the BP undetected. removes the advantage of surprise. and EW measures can also conceal aircraft movement and prevent detection. The appropriate jammer-to-BP-to-threat alignment must be maintained.
. or the protection offered will be minimal. If there is not a properly placed or existing BP. Detection. and many times will. even if beyond the range of enemy air defense weapons. Smoke. The FSCC passes the airspace coordination area to all appropriate agencies. Jamming axis alignment considers the positions of the jammer. The terminal controller passes the new BP location to the FSCC for coordination. the terminal controller may create a new one. The intended target may. the BP. Aircrews select primary and alternate ARs for ingress to and egress from the BP. or by shifting an existing BP. Alternate FPs should be identified so CAS aircraft can displace after the initial engagement.

FIRE SUPPORT COORDINATION MEASURES
Fire support coordination measures (FSCMs) facilitate the rapid engagement of targets and simultaneously provide safeguards for friendly forces. Regardless. CAS planners should still select control points at or near significant terrain features. Techniques. friction.3 .1
Aircrews choose their own FPs even though the supported commander coordinates and controls the location of the BP. and other factors common in war may complicate the tactical situation for CAS aircrews and terminal controllers. precise navigation and adherence to control points may be necessary to deconflict with other fires. such as the GPS and the inertial navigation system (INS). Advanced navigational equipment available on many CAS-capable aircraft. Basic pilotage and navigation skills remain critical when conducting CAS. Furthermore.
Control Point Selection
Use of Terrain Features. fatigue.26
MCWP 3-23. In the case of system failures. Aircrews do not need to fly directly over a particular control point. stress. However. crews will have to use alternative methods of navigation. This may require reverting to simpler means of communication and navigation. can make the navigation process less difficult. uncertainty. The supported commander establishes FSCMs based on the recommendations of the force fires coordinator (FFC)/fire support coordinator (FSC). The FFC/FSC coordinates all fire support impacting in the area of operations of the supported
.

The CFL is a line beyond which conventional surface fire support means (mortars.1
Permissive measures allow the rapid engagement of targets beyond a line or into the area indicated without any further coordination. Permissive FSCMs include: Coordinated Fire Line (CFL). ground.
. or to the rear of. The FSCL should follow well-defined terrain features. or sea weapons systems using any type of ammunition against surface targets. The FSCL is used to coordinate fires of air. Supporting elements may attack targets forward of the FSCL without prior coordination with the land or amphibious force commander. The FSCL is a line established by the appropriate land or amphibious force commander to ensure coordination of fire that is not under the commander’s control but that may effect current tactical operations. field artillery. Attacks against surface targets behind this line must be coordinated with the appropriate land or amphibious force commander.28 Permissive Measures
MCWP 3-23. provided the attack will not produce adverse effects on. The establishment of the FSCL must be coordinated with the appropriate tactical air commander and other supporting elements. The FFA is a specifically designated area into which any weapon system may fire without additional coordination with the establishing headquarters. Free-Fire Area (FFA).3 . the line. Fire Support Coordination Line (FSCL). and naval gunfire ships) may fire at any time within the zone of the establishing headquarters without additional coordination.

Restrictive Fire Area (RFA). No-Fire Area (NFA). An NFA is an area into which neither fires nor the effects of fires are allowed. Airspace Coordination Area (ACA). The RFL is a line established between converging friendly forces (one or both may be moving) that prohibits fires or the effects from fires across the line without coordination with the affected force. or the effects of fires.Close Air Support Restrictive Measures
3 .29
Restrictive measures refer to fires. An RFA is an area in which specific restrictions are imposed and in which fires that exceed those restrictions will not be delivered without coordination with the establishing headquarters. An ACA can be formal or informal and is an effective means of coordinating air support and surface fire support on the battlefield. thereby allowing commanders to deliver supporting fires over and around this area. into an area or across a line that must be coordinated with the establishing headquarters or the affected force on a mission-by-mission basis. the commander may engage the enemy to defend his force. There are two exceptions: When the establishing headquarters approves fires (temporarily) within the NFA on a mission-by-mission basis When an enemy force within the NFA engages a friendly force. Restrictive FSCMs include: Restrictive Fire Line (RFL).
. An ACA is a threedimensional block of airspace that protects friendly aircraft from friendly surface fires.

TTT is expressed as the number of minutes and seconds required to elapse before ordnance impact. When CAS is requested. 1200-1230Z). or division) informs other concerned FSCCs and all supporting arms units of details of the mission as quickly as possible. normally with reference to the current hour omitted (e. Inform Supporting Arms Units.” which indicates two minutes before H-hour). the FSCC of the requesting unit (battalion. TOT is expressed in terms of a synchronized clock at full minute increments. TOT can also be provided in reference to a previously scheduled event.30
MCWP 3-23.”
..g. “TOT is H-02.” which indicates five minutes past the closest hour). Aircraft may also be given a time block in which to conduct CAS attacks (e. The aircraft’s time of arrival on station and TOT or TTT is passed on.. The desire is to accomplish this without suspending the use of any of the supporting arms or unnecessarily affecting the scheme of maneuver. such as an H-hour (e. “TOT is 05. An additional goal is to offer a reasonable measure of protection to aircraft from the unintended effects of friendly surface fires.g. regiment. TOT/TTT is the desired CAS ordnance impact time. The clock start time is provided by the terminal controller and referred to as a time “hack.1
INTEGRATING CLOSE AIR SUPPORT WITH OTHER FIRES Surface Fire Support
One of the most difficult functions performed by an FSCC is integrating CAS with surface fires.3 . The goal is to integrate air support with all other supporting arms and with ground force maneuver to achieve a combined-arms effect.. CAS aircraft conduct attacks within this time block to meet the TOT/TTT.g.

artillery. The target mark can be provided by: Indirect fire weapons (mortars. the CAS target may be identified by a “talk-on” description provided by the terminal controller.
. A target mark should be planned to include sufficient time before weapons employment to ensure target acquisition by the CAS aircrew. mirrors. laser devices. The talk-on may be enhanced by the terminal controller marking his position with devices such as strobe lights. infrared (IR) devices. or air panels. When one of the following marking methods is not possible. They are often used in combination. There are two primary forms of surface fires that support the conduct of CAS missions: target marking and SEAD.Close Air Support
3 . rockets..g.31
Surface Fires Supporting Close Air Support Missions.
Target Marking
A target mark should be provided for CAS aircraft whenever possible. GPS) IR pointers Combined GPS-derived grid and laser spot Visual talk-on. or naval gunfire) Direct fire weapons (tank main gun or machine guns) Laser designators FAC(A) aircraft (e.

The simultaneous use of airspace by aircraft and surface fire weapons increases the chance for interference and possibly fratricide. Surface-delivered SEAD involves planning and coordination by the FSCC along with maneuver units down to the company level. ACAs are designed to allow the
. Surface-Delivered SEAD. This involves the suppression of air defense weapons that can threaten friendly aircraft in the immediate vicinity of the target and on ingress and egress routes. Like other suppression missions.3 . Effective SEAD depends on accurate intelligence concerning the location and types of enemy weapons. An ACA helps in fire support coordination by deconflicting airspace use. Air-Delivered SEAD. See MCWP 3-22.1
The objective of SEAD is to allow friendly aircraft to operate in airspace defended by an enemy air defense system. Air-delivered SEAD and EA must be coordinated and deconflicted to provide necessary support during the time CAS is being conducted.32 Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses
MCWP 3-23.2 and Joint Pub 3-01. What must be avoided is both using the same airspace at the same time. surface-delivered SEAD normally requires only a few rounds per target for a short period. The FSC working with the terminal controller and forward observer (FO) coordinate surface-delivered SEAD with target marking.4 for more information.
Airspace Coordination Area
Aircraft and surface fire weapons both use airspace in the performance of their missions.

development of formal ACAs is not always used when time is limited. The airspace control authority or component commanders establish formal ACAs. Methods of separation or deconfliction include lateral separation. An informal ACA is an expedient measure designed to provide immediate control and deconfliction. Although not always necessary. range. Informal ACAs are temporary control measures. An ACA’s size and shape depend on: Aircraft type. ACAs are referred to as formal or informal. BP). or any combination of these. See MCWP 3-16. timed separation. Informal ACAs are also known as separation plans.2. for more information on ACAs. informal ACAs are normally short-lived and not as widely disseminated as formal ACAs. formal ACAs should be considered. The method selected depends on the time available. IP. Physically defined areas can include routes (CP to IP. Because formal ACAs require detailed planning.33
greatest freedom of action for air support and surface fire support. As such. ordnance type. Formal ACAs require detailed planning. HA to BP) or areas (over the target. altitude separation. and trajectory of surface indirect fire support systems. Techniques and Procedures for Fire Support Coordination. and the state of training. unit SOP. horizontal. The vertical and lateral limits established
. and aircraft delivery profile Enemy air defense threat Location. and time separation or deconfliction.Close Air Support
3 . An ACA can vary from a physically defined area or location to various methods of vertical. the tactical situation. ordnance type. Formal ACA.

)
Figure 3-5. (See figure 3-5. The FSC should consult the FDC when deciding the altitude of an ACA. Formal Airspace Coordination Area.34
MCWP 3-23. This coordination will determine if the altitude chosen would allow the majority of targets to be attacked without interference with supporting aircraft operations. each target must be evaluated to ensure the trajectories of the artillery rounds do not penetrate the ACA.1
in an ACA are designed to allow freedom of action for air and surface fire support and consider the greatest number of foreseeable targets. Because only the fire direction center (FDC) can determine the trajectory for a particular battery firing at a specific target.3 .
.

(For example. Lateral Separation. (See figure 3-7 on page 3-37. Distance separation requires less detailed coordination between aircraft and firing units.”) Altitude Separation. 750 meters for naval gunfire less than or equal to 6 inch. Altitude separation is effective for coordinating fires when aircraft will remain above indirect fire trajectories and their effects.”)
.) This technique is effective when aircraft and firing units engage the same or nearby targets. or a combination of lateral and altitude) or by time. Terminal controllers must know the gun-target line so they can restrict aircraft from crossing trajectories. Fire support personnel should select the separation technique that requires the least coordination without adversely affecting the aircrew’s ability to safely complete the mission. Lateral distances are based on the probable errors associated with the particular delivery system. Informal ACAs can be designed by using separation plans and are established by the maneuver commander. but can be the most restrictive for aircraft routing. Aircraft and surface fires may be separated by distance (lateral.Close Air Support
3 . (See figure 3-6. “Remain above 3000 feet mean sea level (MSL) in the quadrant northwest of grid 7325” or “Orbit above 5000 feet mean sea level at Possum Kingdom Lake. altitude. This is an appropriate technique when CAS aircraft and ground firing units engage separate targets. page 3-36.) Lateral separation is effective for coordinating fires against targets that are adequately separated from flight routes and ensures that aircraft are protected from the effects of friendly fires. the CAS aircraft will not cross gun-target lines. Generally. and 1000 meters for naval gunfire greater than 6 inch are used for lateral separation. the distances of 600 meters for artillery.35
Informal ACA. “Stay west of grid line 62” or “Remain west of the river. the terminal controller description of the ACA could be. (For example.

“Stay between north-south grid lines 58 and 62 and below 3000 feet MSL. Artillery-Close Air Support Aircraft Lateral Separation. (See figure 3-8 on page 3-38.) This is an appropriate technique when aircraft and firing units engage separate targets and the CAS target is along the gun-target line. This requires CAS aircraft to remain below indirect fire trajectories. Altitude and lateral separation is the most restrictive technique for aircrews and may be required when aircraft must cross the firing unit’s guntarget line.1
Figure 3-6.3 .
Altitude and Lateral Separation. For example.”
. Aircraft maneuvering requirements may also dictate that firing units deliver fires by high angle or reduced charge.36
MCWP 3-23.

All timing for surface fires will be based on the specific aircraft event time (TOT/TTT). The timing of surface fires must be coordinated with aircraft routing.
Time Separation. This technique
. Artillery-Close Air Support Aircraft Altitude Separation. Time separation requires the most detailed coordination. they do not do so at the same time. This ensures that even though aircraft and surface fires may occupy the same space.Close Air Support
3 . and it may be required when aircraft must fly near indirect fire trajectories or ordnance effects.37
Figure 3-7.

As part of the air apportionment decision.43
SECTION III. The translation of the apportionment decision into total numbers of sorties by aircraft type is the allocation process and is the responsibility of the ACE commander. The requesting commander submits either preplanned or immediate CAS requests. it will be coordinated and integrated into the scheme of maneuver and fire support plan of the requesting unit. situations are identified where CAS can be employed to enhance mission accomplishment. the MAGTF commander may identify CAS priorities by geographic area or by percentage. The ACE commander considers the JTARs submitted. REQUESTING AND TASKING MAGTF COMMANDER’S GUIDANCE
The MAGTF commander provides guidance on the use of aviation to accomplish the mission.
. then estimates the number of sorties required to attack each CAS target.Close Air Support
3 .
CLOSE AIR SUPPORT REQUESTS
As the requesting commander plans and conducts operations. The MAGTF commander’s guidance relating to aviation tasks will focus the efforts of subordinate commanders and staffs. priorities of fire. The MAGTF commander’s air apportionment decision is normally based on the recommendation of the ACE commander. The ACE allots sorties for CAS based on the support required by the main effort. The amount of air support that will be dedicated to CAS is decided by the MAGTF commander in the air apportionment decision. and requests submitted by other units. Once CAS is approved.

Procedures. If a request is disapproved at some level. and priority are submitted to prepare the ATO. FSCCs. AOs. desired effects. The senior fire support coordination agency in the force approves and prioritizes requests. The Marine TACC
.3 . Some preplanned requests may not include detailed target information or timing information because of the longer lead time involved. these consolidated requests become the commander’s request for CAS. Commanders normally request CAS to augment organic supporting fires. The important consideration in preplanning CAS is for requesting forces to forward their requests early as soon as they anticipate the need for CAS and then regularly update and refine their requests as the support time approaches. the request is returned to the originator with an explanation or a substituted fire support asset. and coordinate requirements (such as airspace. Commanders. The prioritized requests are then sent to the MAGTF commander for approval. and FSCs at each echelon evaluate and consolidate requests. If the request is approved. and intelligence).1
Process. CAS requirements identified early enough to be included in the ATO or mission order are forwarded as preplanned requests. The senior fire support coordination agency sends the requests to the Marine TACC for planning and execution. Air officers and operations officers at all echelons must ensure that necessary information is forwarded through the FSCC as soon as it is made available by their respective echelon’s planners and commanders. fires. After approval. a priority and precedence is assigned.44 Preplanned Requests
MCWP 3-23. or rear area operation centers (RAOCs)). information such as potential targets. Units requesting preplanned CAS submit JTARs through their fire support coordination agencies (FFCCs. timing. The FSC then forwards approved requests to the next higher echelon. Once determined by the requesting unit.

45
publishes the daily ATO. (See figure 3-11. Once the supported unit contacts the DASC.
. which includes approved CAS missions. The use of predetermined numbers allows requesting units to follow their request from initiation to execution. The Marine TACC distributes the ATO to other MACCS agencies and the MAGTF. The published ATO includes the request number. the JFACC publishes and distributes the ATO.
Command I
FAC
II
AO/FSC
III
AO/FSC
XX
AO/FSC
XXX
AO/FFC
Ashore Marines
Afloat Navy
TACC
ATO
DASC
ATO
SACC
Legends
request channels feedback channels approved request for planning and inclusion in ATO
Figure 3-11. the DASC will contact the aircraft and provide routing and other required information.
Note: Before commencing operations. The request number stays with the request as it is processed through the FSCCs to the TACC.Close Air Support
3 . The TACC prepares the Marine forces’ portion and forwards it to the JFACC to be merged with the ATO. MAGTFs should develop numbers are assigned to subordinate units. Preplanned Close Air Support Request Channels.) In joint operations.

Scheduled Requests. On-call requests can indicate the responsiveness necessary by specifying either ground or airborne alert. this specification is often difficult on a fluid battlefield. and normally maintain an alert status. so that after launch only minimum communications will be necessary for final coordination. On-call requests identify an anticipated requirement for CAS to be available during a period of time. However. If aircraft are to operate from a forward location. consideration should be given to providing security for the aircraft and allowing for communications with the DASC. On-call aircraft are configured with the proper ordnance for anticipated targets. and place where the need for CAS is most likely. The TACC assigns aircraft to meet the scheduled TOT. Scheduled air support requires the requesting commander to identify a specific target and time for the attack beforehand. Preplanned requests are categorized as either scheduled or on call. Scheduled requests require the requesting unit to identify the target and the desired TOT well in advance. probable target type. On-Call Requests. The TACC then places aircraft on alert in the requested manner for the period specified on the JTAR.3 . but the exact time and place is coordinated as the battle develops.46
MCWP 3-23.1
Categories. Requesting units must be specific as to the location and the duration of the on-call mission.
Immediate Requests
. Scheduled requests offer greater opportunity for effective coordination and provide a higher likelihood that the aircraft will have the proper weapons load for the assigned targets. On-call CAS allows the requesting commander to indicate a time frame.

For ground alert aircraft. the TACC may retain launch authority or delegate it to the DASC. appropriate.47
Process. Immediate requests arise from situations that develop once the battle is joined with the enemy. Because immediate requests respond to developments on a dynamic battlefield. The DASC processes requests for immediate missions and coordinates with the senior FSCC. the DASC may request the TACC to divert lower priority missions to fill CAS requirements. they cannot be identified early enough to allow detailed coordination and planning. The DASC assigns aircraft according to the type of mission and the terminal control agency’s capabilities. if the immediate request is approved. or sufficient to fulfill the request. If CAS aircraft are unavailable. When diverting aircraft from preplanned CAS missions. Two options are available for subordinate FSCCs to signify approval of requests. Each FSCC will either approve or deny the request based on the commander’s intent and after considering whether organic assets are available. This may preclude the optimum ordnance load for the particular targets to be attacked. the FSCCs will coordinate at the lowest possible level. The mission and commander’s intent may necessitate the requirement to divert CAS sorties and forgo preplanned missions to meet certain immediate requests.Close Air Support
3 . If the DASC
. Procedures. the request is returned to the originator with an explanation or a substituted fire support asset. If coordination is required for approval. Requesting commanders use immediate CAS to exploit opportunities or protect the force. If a request is disapproved at some level. The AOs in each FSCC monitor the TAR net. Requests are broadcast directly from the TACP to the DASC using the TAR net. it should be realized that those units that have requested preplanned CAS lose the same amount of firepower gained by the immediate requester. Subordinate FSCCs may provide positive verbal approval of each request or may use silence as the consent procedure.

unit AOs combine and integrate requests with those for NSFS and artillery to reduce duplication and coordinate the fire support effort. it contacts the TACC to launch the aircraft. If the DASC does not have launch authority. The landing force operations officer
. Preplanned Requests.)
TACC
Navy Marines
I
FAC
II
AO/FSC
III
AO/FSC
XX
AO/FSC
XXX
AO/FFC
SACC DASC
Legend
request channels feedback channels
Figure 3-12. (See figure 3-12.3 . At lower echelons.
CLOSE AIR SUPPORT REQUESTS AFLOAT
The following paragraphs address requesting CAS while the Navy TACC controls air support and the SACC has responsibility for coordination. it launches the aircraft and directs aircrews until they contact the terminal control agency. Units requesting preplanned CAS proceed through the chain of command to the landing force AO. Immediate Close Air Support Request Channels.1
has launch authority.48
MCWP 3-23.

the requests are evaluated. In the Marine Corps component. the landing force AO submits these documents to the Navy TACC for approval and coordination with other projected air operations within the AOA. Immediate Requests. and forwarded through component communications nets.
. consolidated. recommends priorities for the requests. After approval by the landing force operations officer. landing force (CLF). If approved. The air support controller informs the requesting unit of request approval and approximate time of execution. the request is returned to the originator with an explanation or a substituted fire support asset. for example.49
examines the combined and coordinated fire plan to confirm that it supports projected operations. with an assigned priority and precedence. If the total of all CAS requests exceeds the MAGTF’s organic capability. Units requesting immediate CAS send requests to the ASCS on the TAR net.Close Air Support
3 . and records these requests. the FSCC/FFCC of the highest maneuver echelon in the force prioritizes the requests and submits them to the MAGTF commander for approval.
JOINT CLOSE AIR SUPPORT REQUEST PROCEDURES
Units requesting preplanned CAS submit JTARs to their normal fire support coordination agencies. coordinated. the commander. these consolidated requests become the MAGTF commander’s requirement for CAS. The air support controller coordinates these requests with other members of the SACC. If a request is disapproved at some level. If CAS requirements exceed available assets. those requests that cannot be met are forwarded to the JAOC via the air support request (AIRSUPREQ) message. The air support controller receives. processes. After approval.

The AO at each intermediate headquarters monitors the request and informs the operations officer and FSC. Requests are broadcast directly from the TACP to the air support operations center by using the applicable component communications nets. or sufficient to fulfill the request.3.1 and Joint Pub 3-09. Immediate requests are forwarded to the appropriate command post by the most rapid means available. for an expanded discussion. will indicate approval. whichever is in effect. or deny the requests exceeding the joint air apportionment for CAS. If requests exceed the joint air apportionment for CAS. and fills those requests with the sorties available according to the air apportionment guidance.
REQUEST FORMAT
.3 . During the execution phase of the joint ATO. See Joint Pub 3-56. Based on the commander’s intent and after considering whether organic assets are available. the JFACC/JFC staff may need to redirect joint air missions to meet immediate requests for high priority CAS. The JFACC/JFC staff may also seek additional support from other components to meet the immediate request. The MAGTF is then notified of approval/disapproval via the sortie allotment (SORTIEALOT) message. Either positive approval or silence by intermediate headquarters. the JFACC/JFC staff must ask the JFC to modify the CAS air apportionment.50
MCWP 3-23. request components to produce more joint CAS sorties. they approve or deny the request.1
At the JAOC. appropriate. matches them in priority order against the JFC’s air apportionment decision. the JFACC/JFC staff reviews the requests.

call sign. See Appendix D.
. ordnance. initial contact (whom the aircrew contacts first). and call sign and frequency of final control agency.Close Air Support
3 . mission order. scheme of maneuver. normally over the TAR net. mission data will include mission number.51
Units will use the JTAR voice format when requesting CAS. for an illustration and the complete instructions. Mission data is passed using the JTAR section 3 format to the requesting unit. CP.
MISSION DATA
For preplanned requests. estimated TOT/time on station (TOS). number and type of aircraft. Joint Tactical Airstrike Request Form. control measures. or fire support plan. For approved immediate requests. as much information as possible concerning the supported unit commander’s intent. mission information is relayed through GCE communications channels. Data may be included in the joint ATO. and fire support plan should be included. mission data is relayed through the same air request net as that used by the unit requesting the immediate mission. At a minimum. As preplanned requests are submitted and refined.

This advantage is greatest if the enemy air defense operators do not possess NVDs. As an example. conduct operations around the clock.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS Advantages
The most important advantage of night and adverse weather CAS is the limitation it imposes on enemy optically-directed antiaircraft artillery and optical-/IR-guided SAMs.52
MCWP 3-23.1
SECTION IV.3 . and standard procedures. and to counter enemy IR-guided SAMs. as well as solid communications and procedural discipline. battlefield illumination. Successful night and adverse weather CAS demands rigorous training and detailed mission planning. Aircraft and aircrews conducting night CAS employ modern NVDs. or under adverse weather conditions. selectively placed at a distance well behind and above friendly positions (so as not to silhouette friendly positions). Radar-directed threat systems may remain as lethal at night as in daylight. but gun muzzle
. Ground forces. could be employed to “degain” enemy NVDs. NIGHT/ADVERSE WEATHER CLOSE AIR SUPPORT PLANNING
The execution of night CAS is one of the most difficult missions on the battlefield. Therefore. laser systems. during periods of limited visibility. Selectively placed airborne and ground illumination may further degrade enemy night vision capabilities while preserving or enhancing those of friendly forces. IR pointers. overt airborne illumination flares. the requirement exists to provide CAS at night. to improve insufficient light conditions. both friendly and enemy.

fuel capacity and combat radius may be important considerations when tasking aircraft for night CAS. planning. Twilight and overcast conditions may also highlight aircraft to enemy ground forces.
Friendly Force Location and Identification
Perhaps the single most important task in conducting CAS is correctly locating and identifying friendly ground forces in close proximity to the intended target. The training.53
flashes. dawn and dusk missions should be avoided in favor of missions flown in total darkness. The challenges of identifying friendly and enemy locations. and flexibility. If planners have the option. and maintaining situational awareness become acute at night or in an adverse weather environment. tracers. firepower. During periods of low illumination and reduced visibility.
Disadvantages
Darkness and weather can impose several limitations on CAS employment. both CAS aircrews and ground forces may have difficulty pinpointing targets and accurately locating enemy or friendly forces. and missile/rocket motors are generally easier to see and react to at night. acquiring targets. Thus.
.Close Air Support
3 . equipping. tasking.
AIRCRAFT MUNITIONS AND EQUIPMENT SELECTION
CAS planners should select those combinations of munitions and aircraft that offer the greatest accuracy. Night and adverse weather CAS missions may also require greater TOS. and execution processes must recognize these challenges and establish proper CID procedures.

Systems to identify and mark friendly positions or mark/designate targets are important (e. such as the laser Maverick. Equipment Selection. IR pointers cannot designate for LSTs. and radar-homing weapons. All coded LTDs can work with all coded laser acquisition/spot trackers and coded laser-guided weapons (LGWs). and laser target designators (LTDs)). Likewise. Overall.) Precision-Guided Munitions (PGMs). which accounts for the large surface danger zone for this type of ordnance.3 . As illustrated. IR tape.. NVD-equipped aircraft that are compatible with laser or IR marking/designation systems and munitions should be used. PGMs include laser-guided. IR-guided. GPS. PGMs span the entire spectrum of delivery means. Equipment Compatibility. Figure 3-13 compares laser equipment compatibility to other systems relative to the operating areas of the electromagnetic spectrum.1
When possible. and NVGs cannot see targets designated by LTDs. When possible. have a safing feature in case the missile’s guiding laser energy is lost.54
MCWP 3-23. Forward-looking infrared (FLIR) systems are not compatible with either laser or IR equipment. FAC(A)s. Some PGMs.and rotary-wing aircraft. (See Appendix C. IR pointers.g. artillery. IR pointers and night vision goggles (NVGs) are compatible only with each other. and the ground force systems should be compatible with those on the CAS aircraft. and CAS aircraft should be equipped with such systems. including fixed.
. compatibility exists only between LTDs and laser spot trackers (LSTs). terminal controllers. the circular error probable (CEP) for PGMs is much smaller than for general-purpose or cluster bomb munitions. PGMs are the most accurate munitions for day or night CAS. and naval guns. Hazards associated with PGMs relate to the unlikely probability of missile malfunction.

artillery/mortars.
SYSTEM-AIDED EMPLOYMENT
. and attacking these targets. mortar-.06 1.Close Air Support
3 . and airborne-delivered flares that burn on the ground are available as target spotting rounds. Artificial illumination may be used to enhance target acquisition. Coordination and approval for illumination will be made before entering the target area. small arms. Artillery-. Airborne delivered marks/illumination may be provided by forward firing rockets or by using parachute flares. identifying.55
FLIR Systems
Coded LTDs LSTs/Laser Acquisition Devices
NVGs
IR Pointers 0. or artillery to aid the aircrew in acquiring.99 1.75 0. specific targets may be marked by white/red phosphorous rockets.
VISUAL EMPLOYMENT
Visual deliveries during night or adverse weather are difficult. After the target area is illuminated. Laser Equipment Compatibility. or by a dedicated flare ship. The target may be illuminated or marked by the FAC(A). mortars.54 IR Electromagnetic Spectrum (Wavelength in Micrometers) 8 12
Figure 3-13. but are still a viable option.

dust.
. The capabilities of low-light-level television (LLLTV) and FLIR systems are the same for day as they are for night. These include laser.1
System-aided target acquisition and weapons delivery methods are relied on more heavily during the night and adverse weather. During severe weather or when the target cannot be marked. humidity. and other obscurants) may degrade the effectiveness of FLIR and LLLTV. radar.56
MCWP 3-23. haze. Joint Laser Designation Procedures.1. See Joint Pub 3-09. radar deliveries are an option in certain instances. Weapons can be delivered at night or through bad weather at specific coordinates by GPS-equipped aircraft. but combining the systems increases the probability of mission success. GPS. Night procedures for target identification and designation by laser are the same as those used during daytime operations. electro-optical (EO)/IR systems. adverse weather may limit the use of lasers. dust.3 . as well as battlefield conditions (smoke. can seriously degrade laser effectiveness. Cloud cover and precipitation. Using the EO tactical decision aid (EOTDA) will help planners to determine the effects of weather on sensors and weapons. haze. precipitation. computed deliveries can be extremely accurate. To perform a radar delivery. When supplied with GPS coordinates by terminal controllers. Radar. the target or offset aim point(s) must be radar significant. or a combination of systems. However. Laser. and battlefield conditions (smoke. for further information. GPS. specular reflectors. this type of weapons delivery may be the only option available. EO/IR Systems. Cloud cover. System-aided employment options can be used independently. and other obscurants). thermal crossover. Although not preferred. Appendix C lists the aircraft that are capable of radar-directed bombing.

Close Air Support

3 - 57

Combined System Employment. The use of a combination of complementary systems can greatly aid and refine target acquisition. A GPS-derived target grid and laser spot, combined with an aircraft equipped with an LST and the ability to input the target grid into its fire control system, can provide very accurate target location information.

NIGHT VISION DEVICE EMPLOYMENT
NVDs include NVGs and IR systems. NVGs and IR systems (e.g., FLIR systems) and low-altitude navigation and targeting IR for night (LANTIRN) may provide the primary navigation, targeting, and terrain avoidance reference for the night CAS mission. NVGs and IR systems operate on the same basic principle by using the red and near-IR regions of the light spectrum to produce a visible image. NVGs feature image intensifier tubes that produce a bright monochromatic (green) image in light conditions that are too low for normal unassisted vision. This image is based on the relationship between the amount of light present, referred to as illuminance, and the amount of light that is reflected from objects in the scene, referred to as luminance or brightness. IR systems use the far-IR wavelengths to create an image that is based on object temperature and emissivity relative to the surroundings.

Advantages
NVDs are used as an additional sensor with existing systems; this allows all NVD-equipped ground and air units to maintain enhanced situational awareness and crew confidence levels. NVDs, used

3 - 58

MCWP 3-23.1

under the proper weather and illumination conditions, provide the ability to “see in the dark” and to allow target detection, recognition, and attack at night. This enhances the elements of surprise and survivability in all threat environments. Ground forces (especially special operations forces (SOF)) benefit from the smaller, lightweight NVD equipment by providing pre-H-hour and H-hour methods of attacking targets, along with CAS target marking. NVDs and associated IR devices can play a key role in minimizing the risk of fratricide when employed to enhance situational awareness of friendly and enemy positions.

Disadvantages
Reduced illumination levels caused by the moon phase, weather, or battlefield obscurants may degrade the ability to effectively employ NVDs without artificial illumination. Under certain conditions, reduced illumination levels may be mitigated by properly placed artificial illumination sources. Used improperly, the limited field of view of NVGs can lead to loss of situational awareness, given the increased task workload demanded for CAS missions. Extensive training for all units is required to ensure mission success. Additional disadvantages may exist if the enemy possesses NVDs, thus limiting or even negating friendly use. Decoy and deceptive lighting can easily be employed, but this can cause confusion for the aircrews if the terminal controller cannot communicate the correct lighting marks to CAS aircraft.

the target visually. NVDs are particularly useful for increasing situational awareness and in some instances can be used for target acquisition. Moon Phase, Elevation, and Azimuth. The moon phase, or percent of moon disk as a fraction of the full moon, is the most significant night illumination factor. A full moon provides considerable lighting for NVDs. The elevation of the moon and its relative azimuth in the night sky also play a significant role. Low moon angles can create significant shadowing, and moon positions that lay behind a target and are reciprocal to final attack headings may degrade NVD operations. Moon elevations of 20 degrees or more and moon offsets of 30 degrees or more may be required to prevent NVD degradation. Mean Starlight. Light from nonmoon celestial sources provides limited illumination and on relatively clear nights will suffice for general situational awareness. Depending on the target size and orientation, there may not be enough light under mean starlight conditions for target acquisition. Weather Conditions. Cloud cover, cloud base height, and reduced atmospheric visibility significantly degrade any benefits provided by moon and mean starlight illumination. The same conditions may also degrade IR target sources. Cultural Lighting. Light sources (e.g., city lights, highway lighting, and other sources, such as fires) provide lighting that can help with general illumination. Extremely bright light sources will wash out the NVD field of view when viewed directly.

3 - 60 TARGET IDENTIFIERS

MCWP 3-23.1

IR devices and illumination can be used to aid in specific target location and acquisition at night. Both can significantly increase the effectiveness of CAS accuracy in the night environment. Additionally, IR devices can provide a covert means to mark night CAS targets. IR devices can also be used by FAC(A)s to guide NVD-equipped CAS aircraft to targets. IR pointers. IR pointers are low-power, uncoded designators used for target cueing and identification in conjunction with NVDs. They do not provide terminal weapons guidance and they are not compatible with LSTs. These systems operate in the lower portion of the IR spectrum and are compatible only with NVDs. Aircraft and ground personnel operating with NVDs use IR pointers to visually acquire targets. IR pointers or IR illuminators can aid in target acquisition by highlighting the target with IR light. The IR pointer should be offset from the aircraft run-in heading to facilitate aircrew acquisition. Moving the pointer beam will also help in acquisition of the beam, and once acquired, the FAC can guide the pilot’s eyes and sensors onto the intended target. Two-way communication between the FAC and aircrew during this process is essential. IR Strobe Lights. IR strobe lights can be used by FACs and by properly equipped aircraft to provide covert position identification to NVD-equipped personnel. This provides positive location of the FAC and/or friendly forces to CAS aircrews. IR Flares. IR flares can provide general target area illumination that is visible only to NVD-equipped personnel and can be useful from several miles away.

tracer rounds. The radar beacon. Appendix C lists radar beacon-compatible aircraft. Tracers that impact on or near the target are excellent marks. is a portable manpack transponder that emits an electronic pulse on compatible radar-equipped aircraft. Many aircraft that are capable of providing CAS can deploy illumination flares. Codes are assigned to LGWs and directly relate to the PRF that harmonizes the designator and seeker interface. AAA. or to identify friendly positions. mortars. Surface-Delivered Illumination.61
Airborne Illumination. Radar. and SAM firings can disclose targets. Friendly Small Arms. The aircraft capabilities tables in Appendix C list flare-capable aircraft and the types of flares/illuminating devices each can carry. However. and they require input of a particular laser code for operation. to mark the target.Close Air Support
3 . and naval gunfire to illuminate the target area. Enemy ground fire. The aircraft capabilities tables in Appendix C list aircraft equipped with LTDs. Enemy Ground Fire. Coded LTDs are ground and airborne systems that are well suited for night target marking. Laser Designators (Ground/Airborne). and they designate targets for coded LSTs. Aircraft can use radar-significant terrain points or radar reflectors to enhance bombing. Illumination can be delivered by ground units. Coded LTDs emit laser energy at a distinct pulse repetition frequency (PRF). employed by terminal controllers. LTDs provide terminal weapons guidance for LGWs. tracers may also help confirm friendly positions. artillery.
.

The synchronized clock also solves the problem of coordinating a TOT “Hack” over several different radio nets. CAS can protect flanks. blunt enemy offensives. CAS can surprise the enemy and create opportunities for the maneuver or advancement of ground forces. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS SYNCHRONIZED TIMING
A common reference time is essential for accomplishing the high degree of coordination necessary for effective CAS. The following should be considered during CAS execution. terminal controllers. and the FSCC—use the same timing method. All participants—aircrews.
SECTION I. the DASC. the SACC. the TACC. Naval Observatory time. CAS may at times be the only supporting arm available to the commander. A synchronized clock using TOT is the standard method of timing aircraft attacks. responsive fire support and is able to accurately employ a wide range of weapons. There are two methods of timing: TOT and TTT. The synchronized clock is normally based on GPS or U. More importantly. and protect forces during a retrograde. Aircrews can update the clock on check-in with
.S. The ATO and OPORD should specify the clock time (local or Zulu) and should also identify the unit or agency responsible for coordinating the synchronized time.Chapter 4
Execution
CAS provides the MAGTF with flexible.

CLOSE AIR SUPPORT BRIEFING FORM
The CAS brief (Figure 4-2.000 MHz. or if they are unable to use a TOT.4-2
MCWP 3-23. also known as the “nine-line brief. Aircrews may request a TTT if preferred.S. Naval Observatory master clock as an automated. continuous broadcast on the following high frequency wavelengths: 5. page 4-4). The brief is used for all threat conditions and does not dictate the
. and in fragmentary orders (FRAGOs) to the MAGTF OPORD. Control agencies should update all en route CAS aircrews on the current intelligence situation in the target area and on any changes to preplanned missions. The CAS check-in briefing format found in figure 4-1 is used on check-in with terminal controllers. 15. It is also available by telephone on DSN 762-1401 or (202) 762-1401. 20. 10. in special instructions.
CHECK-IN
Check-in procedures are essential for establishing the required flow of information between CAS aircrews and control agencies.” is the standard brief used for all aircraft conducting CAS. Alternatively.000. GPS satellites provide a standard time reference for using GPS equipment.000. Note: Zulu time is available from the U.
SECURITY
MAGTF commanders prescribe standardized cryptologic and authentication procedures in the OPORD and distribute updated instructions in the ATO. and 25.000.1
air control and fire support coordination agencies.000.

and any restrictions. 8. Use of a standardized briefing sequence improves mission direction and control by allowing terminal controllers to pass information rapidly and succinctly.
This mission information and sequence may be modified to fit the tactical situation. North Atlantic Treaty
.
Figure 4-1. When the terminal controller needs a confirmation that the aircrew has correctly received critical items of the brief. the aircrew will repeat back items 1. The CAS briefing helps aircrews to determine the information required to perform the mission.Close Air Support
4-3
CAS aircrew’s tactics.” When a “read back” is requested. Close Air Support Check-In Brief. 6. The mission brief follows the numbered sequence (1-9) of the CAS briefing form. the terminal controller will request a “read back.

.1
Figure 4-2.4-4
MCWP 3-23. Close Air Support Briefing Form (9-Line).

The target elevation is given in feet above MSL. If using grid coordinates. The target description should be specific enough for the aircrew to recognize the target. The heading is given in degrees magnetic from the IP to the target or from the center of the BP to the target.Close Air Support
4-5
Organization (NATO) check-in and CAS briefing formats differ slightly from the U. The following paragraphs detail the line-byline elements of the CAS brief: IP/BP. Target Elevation. Target Location. Heading. For attack helicopters. The distance is given from the IP/BP to the target. For fixed-wing aircraft. the distance is given in NM and should be accurate to a tenth of an NM. joint format. or visual description from a conspicuous reference point). See Appendix G for NATO CAS briefing formats. the BP is where attacks on the target are commenced.g. The offset is the side of the IP-to-target line on which aircrews can maneuver for the attack. Distance. Target Description. The target should be described accurately and concisely. Terminal controllers give an offset (offset left/right) if a restriction exists.000-m grid identification. latitude and longitude. grid coordinates. the distance is given in meters from the center of the BP and is accurate to the nearest 5 m.
.. The terminal controller can give the target location in several ways (e. the datum that will be used must always be specified in the JTAR. Because of the multiple coordinate systems available for use. navigational aid fix.S. For rotary-wing aircraft. terminal controllers must include the 100. The IP is the starting point for the run-in to the target.

south. The following information should be included if applicable: Laser-to-target line (in degrees magnetic) Ordnance delivery Threat and location Final attack heading (final attack cone headings) Hazards to aviation ACAs Weather Restrictions
. The word “egress” is used before delivering the egress instructions. Mark Type. give the location of the target’s center or location of the greatest concentration. If the friendly position is marked. give the location of the ends of the target. identify the type of mark. Egress. For a linear target.4-6
MCWP 3-23. The distance of friendlies from the target is given in meters and is a cardinal heading from the target (north.1
For an area target. Mark type is the type of mark the terminal controller will use (smoke or laser) and the laser code (code) the terminal controller will use. or west). Remarks. Friendlies. Egress instructions can be given as a cardinal direction or by using control points. These are the instructions the aircrews use to exit the target area. east.

There is no time “Hack” statement when using TOT. TOT is the synchronized clock time when ordnance is expected to hit the target. TTT. The terminal controller should regard friendlies within 1 km as a “troops in contact” situation and so advise the supported commander. TTT is the time in minutes and seconds. TOT is the timing standard for CAS missions. The terminal controller gives aircrew a TOT or TTT. The time “Hack” statement indicates the moment when all participants start the timing countdown. illumination. after the time “Hack” statement is delivered.
RISK-ESTIMATE DISTANCE Troops in Contact
Terminal controllers and aircrews must be careful when conducting CAS when friendly troops are in direct contact with enemy forces. TOT.
.Close Air Support
Additional target information SEAD and location Laser. However. Terminal controllers and aircrews must carefully weigh the choice of munitions and delivery profile against the risk of fratricide. when ordnance is expected to hit the target. and night vision capability Danger close. friendlies outside 1 km may still be subject to weapons effects.
4-7
TOT/TTT.

Maverick missiles. suppression rounds.1
Ordnance delivery inside the 0. Mark Timing.1% PI distance. detonations. enhances situational awareness. or rockets should be expended with the ricochet fan oriented away from friendly locations.” The supported commander must accept responsibility for the risk to friendly forces when targets are inside the 0. IR pointers and indirect fire munitions marks (except illumination) should
. 25-mm. it assists in CAS accuracy. or 30-mm cannon fire. Target marks may be confused with other fires on the battlefield. Risk-estimate distances are listed in Appendix F. Terminal controllers should provide a target mark whenever possible.1% probability of incapacitation (PI) distance will be considered “danger close.4-8 Danger Close
MCWP 3-23. To be effective. the aircraft’s axis of attack should be parallel to the friendly force’s axis or orientation. and reduces the possibility of fratricide.1% PI distance. signifying that he accepts the risk inherent in ordnance delivery inside the 0. and marks on other targets. Forward-firing ordnance such as 20-mm.
TARGET MARKING
Target marking aids aircrews in locating the target that the supported unit desires to be attacked. Risk-estimate distances allow the supported commander to estimate the danger to friendly troops from the CAS attack. When ordnance is a factor in the safety of friendly troops. This will preclude long and/or short deliveries from being a factor to friendlies. the mark must be timely and accurate. Although a mark is not mandatory. Laser marks are initiated by a 10-second warning and “Laser On” command from the CAS aircrew. Risk acceptance is confirmed when the supported commander passes his initials to the attacking CAS aircraft.

Visual marks that land beyond 300 m from the target may not provide the CAS aircrew with a visual cue that allows attack of the correct target. the preferred method of marking a target is by laser. The most accurate mark is a laser when the FAC or laser designator operator can maintain line of sight with the target. In high winds. Delaying the request for a change to the standard mark timing will prevent proper coordination and can cause an aborted mission due to an inaccurate or missing mark. For immediate missions. The visual mark should impact within 300 m of the target to ensure a successful attack.Close Air Support
4-9
appear/impact 30 to 45 seconds before the scheduled CAS aircraft ordnance impact. The laser ensures the accurate engagement of the target by LGWs and assists the CAS aircrew in more accurately delivering unguided ordnance. laser designation must be selective and timely because laser devices can overheat and lengthy laser
. Illumination rounds should impact in sufficient time before target engagement to allow the illumination flare to become fully visible. ordnance. and attack parameters. For preplanned missions. Missions involving LGWs require coordination of laser-compatible designators. IR and munitions marks should be placed as near the target as possible to help ensure target identification. When the time of fall or time of flight of the weapon is greater than 15 seconds. the target mark should arrive closer to ordnance impact time (and upwind if possible) as the effects of the mark (smoke/dust) tend to dissipate rapidly. If using lasers (ground or airborne) to mark the target. Mark Accuracy. which may require the mark up to 60 seconds before air-delivered ordnance impact. the CAS aircrew should request an earlier mark. If the aircraft has an LST. Laser Marking. the requesting unit includes the availability of a laser designator/code. An exception is timing for standoff or precision guided weapons. include the designation code in line 7 of the CAS briefing form.

If the indirect fire marking round is not timely or accurate.1
emissions may compromise friendly positions. See section II of this chapter for more information. and continue until the aircrew transmits “Terminate” or the weapon hits the target. See section III of this chapter for more information.10
MCWP 3-23. Munitions marking rounds should be delivered as close to CAS targets as possible. Unlike laser designators. naval gunfire. Caution should be used when using IR pointers as they may expose the terminal controller to an enemy with night vision capability. observers should consider the danger of exposing these supporting arms to the enemy’s indirect fire acquisition systems and the additional coordination between supporting arms required for this mission. IR marks should be initiated 20 to 30 seconds before the CAS TOT/TTT. IR pointers and other IR devices can be used by terminal controllers to mark targets at night for aircrews who are using NVDs. with white/red phosphorous marks timed to impact 30 to 45 seconds before the CAS TOT/TTT. but those within 300 m of the CAS target are generally considered effective enough to direct CAS aircraft. or mortar fires are an effective means of assisting aircrews in visually acquiring the target. or when requested by the aircrew. IR Marking. these IR devices cannot be used to guide or improve the accuracy of aircraft ordnance. This lead time ensures that the marking round is in position early enough and remains visible long enough for the terminal controller to provide final control instructions and for the aircrew of the lead aircraft to acquire the target. For laser marks. terminal controllers
. Illumination marks should be timed to impact 45 seconds before the CAS TOT/TTT. Artillery.4 . Before choosing to mark by artillery. Marking by Indirect Fire. Indirect fire marking rounds are most effective when delivered within 100 m of the CAS target. the aircrew will normally provide a 10-second warning to activate the mark. or mortars. naval gunfire.

while a mortar or aircraft may be assigned responsibility for the backup mark. illumination. For example. however. This may.Close Air Support
4 .
. Whenever a mark is provided. Backup Marks.or low-threat environment. See Appendix C for a complete listing of aircraft target marking capabilities. the terminal controller may “talk the aircrew onto the target” by verbally describing the target to be attacked. observers or spotters can adjust marking rounds early to ensure that an accurate mark is delivered to meet the CAS schedule. The standard brevity terms listed in figure 4-3 are used in these circumstances. If the situation requires a precise mark. Although this method may be more accurate and timely than an indirect fire mark.11
should be prepared to use a backup marking technique or to rely completely on verbal instructions to identify the target to the CAS aircrews. Marking by Aircraft. Aircraft may be used to deliver a mark. In a medium. Marking by Direct Fire. its use may be limited by range and the visibility of the weapon’s burst effect on the battlefield. alert the enemy to an imminent attack. Direct-fire weapons can be used to deliver a mark. high explosive rockets. The preferred method is for FAC(A) aircraft to mark with white or red phosphorous. a plan for a backup mark should be considered. Additional Marking Techniques Voice-Only. artillery may be tasked to deliver the primary mark. and/or lasers.

Marking Friendly Positions. the terminal controller provides target and threat updates to the aircrews. Standard Close Air Support Brevity Terms. This technique should be used only when no other method is available. smoke. When necessary.
Combination. This achieves the same results as target marking as long as the mark is understood by the CAS aircrews. Marking friendly positions is the least desirable method of providing a target mark and should be used with caution because marking friendly positions can be confusing. IR strobes. or a mirror.12
MCWP 3-23.4 .1
Figure 4-3. and when conditions permit. The terminal controller may direct the aircrews to report departing the IP or arrival in the BP. signal panels. Friendly forces can mark their own position with NVDs. terminal controllers can use a combination of verbal and visual marking to aid in orienting CAS aircrews on the target.
FINAL ATTACK CONTROL
After the aircraft depart the CP or HA. This information may be used to coordinate the CAS
.

From a Reference Point. marking. or the maneuver of the supported unit. Correction From Ordnance Impact. From Ordnance Impact. (See figure 4-5. from the mark. From the road intersection east to the bridge is one unit. this is Tango Four Whiskey.”
Figure 4-5. Corrections are given in two parts—direction and distance. The terminal controller attempts to acquire the CAS aircraft visually and give final corrections to assist in target acquisition by the aircrew. From the bridge. Corrections can be made from the last ordnance to impact the target. the target is northeast three units. Corrections can be made from a recognizable reference point. Correction From a Reference Point.13
attack with SEAD.”
Figure 4-4. Corrections from a visual mark will be passed by using the eight points of the compass and a common distance reference. (See figure 4-4.Close Air Support
4 . Clearance to Drop/Fire
.)
“Blade 11. The terminal controller also selects a ground feature to establish a common distance reference. The tree line runs east to west. this is Tango Four Whiskey.)
“T-bolt 22. northeast—two hundred meters.

aircrew training. ordnance capabilities. The two levels of weapons release authority are positive control and reasonable assurance. The terminal controller or an observer in contact with the terminal controller must be in a position to see the attacking aircraft and target and must receive verbal confirmation that the objective/mark is in sight from the attacking aircrew before issuing the clearance to drop/fire. Positive Control. further reducing the possibility of fratricide.4 . The terminal controller has the authority to clear aircraft to release weapons after specific or general release approval from the ground commander. This allows the aircrew to concentrate on the weapons solution and improves delivery accuracy. Battlefield conditions.” This will facilitate positive
. A “Cleared Hot” clearance should be given as soon as possible in the delivery sequence after the terminal controller is convinced the attacking aircraft sees the target and will not release on friendly positions. A positive clearance by the terminal controller (“Cleared Hot”) is mandatory before any release of ordnance by the aircrew. The terminal controller should request the following calls from the aircrew in the remarks portion of the CAS brief: “IP Inbound.14
MCWP 3-23.” “Popping” or “In. The “Cleared Hot” call can be made only after the terminal controller confirms the aircraft is: On the proper attack heading Wings level Pointing at the correct target.1
Responsibility for expenditure of ordnance rests with the ground commander. and terminal controller experience are factors in the decision to authorize weapons release. Positive control will be used to the maximum extent possible.” and “Wings Level.

The terminal controller transmits “Cleared Hot” when he sees the aircraft is attacking the correct target. personnel involved in CAS missions follow training range regulations for the release of ordnance. clearance to drop will be given only if the terminal controller can use other means to confirm that the aircraft is attacking the correct target and has friendly positions in sight. and the target in sight. The two methods of exercising positive control are direct and indirect control. night.
Figure 4-6. Direct control will be used whenever possible. confirming with a verbal description that the aircraft has friendly positions in sight. It occurs when the terminal controller is able to observe and control the attack. in from _______ (cardinal heading). Following the “Wings Level” call.15
control and aid the terminal controller in successfully conducting the CAS mission. Mark in sight/not in sight (if appropriate).
.
______ (call sign).Close Air Support
4 . These means include. Aircrew call “In” (commencing an attack run) using the format in figure 4-6. all other CAS aircrews should maintain radio silence.
Direct Control. or poor visibility). except to make threat calls. In these cases. There may be times when the terminal controller may not be able to see the attacking aircraft (because of high altitude. and allow the terminal controller to transmit the appropriate control and clearance communications listed in figure 4-7. the mark in sight. standoff weapons. but are not limited to. During peacetime training/exercises. as appropriate. Attack Aircrew “In” Call Format.

Commanders can establish guidelines that allow CAS aircrews to continue attacks on targets under such unusual circumstances. This form of control must be authorized by the ground commander.4 . Terminal Controller’s Calls. During combat operations. but is in contact with someone who can.
Reasonable Assurance
Reasonable assurance is a circumstance under which the supported ground commander assumes an acceptable level of risk in allowing
.1
Figure 4-7. battlefield conditions such as communications jamming or low-altitude flight can prevent receipt of positive clearance to complete the attack.16
MCWP 3-23. Indirect control is not the preferred method of positive control. The terminal controller can issue clearance or abort the attack based on information from the observer.
Indirect Control. It is used when the terminal controller cannot observe the attack.

The MAGTF commander establishes the procedures for situations where reasonable assurance may be used. Clearance for reattack is not an indefinite clearance to
. and positive clearance is required each time. the aircrew reports “Wings Level. Clearance for immediate reattack is issued by the terminal controller. at the aircrew’s discretion while in compliance with any restrictions in force. to a wings-level attack position subsequent to a CAS attack. Precise guidelines for the use of reasonable assurance are established and distributed throughout the MAGTF and supporting forces. Once positioned for the reattack.” As was required in the initial CAS attack. and the aircrew are reasonably assured. Specific employment criteria ensure that the supported ground commander. Careful consideration must be given to using reasonable assurance in combat operations. Each reattack is a separate evolution from any previous attack. clearance to drop/fire on a reattack must be issued by the terminal controller before ordnance release.
Reattacks
Reattacks allow CAS aircraft to expeditiously maneuver. Clearance for a reattack does not obviate the need for another sequence of “Wings Level” and “Cleared Hot” calls by the aircrew and terminal controller.17
aircrews to attack targets by releasing ordnance without positive control.Close Air Support
4 . Reasonable assurance allows the delivery of ordnance without positive verbal clearance if the aircrew is reasonably assured that the proper target will be attacked. and aircrews are confident the attack will not harm friendly forces. supported commander. that ordnance will not adversely affect friendly forces. Reasonable assurance is considered when the terminal controller. during each CAS mission. Reasonable assurance is not a routine procedure. the terminal controller.

or for the safety of the CAS aircrew. Information regarding targeting (corrections.” (See figure 4-8. Abort.1
drop/fire. Abort. shift to new target.4 . the flight lead gives the terminal controller a two-letter challenge code for use with his flight only. If no abort code was briefed. The reply “letter” becomes that flight’s abort code. then the CAS attack is aborted by simply transmitting. and notes but does not transmit it.
Abort Code
The CAS abort procedure uses the “challenge-reply” method to authenticate the abort command. finds the reply.
ABORT PROCEDURES
The terminal controller must direct CAS aircrews to abort if they are not aligned with the correct target.)
. “Abort. The terminal controller refers to his authentication document. if it appears that friendly troops may be endangered. new restrictions) can be given to the aircrew during maneuvering. Positive confirmation of a subsequent target must be asked of and received from the aircrew if the target has changed. During the CAS check-in briefing.18
MCWP 3-23.

Accurate BDA is critical for determining if a target should be reattacked. target coordinates. or target description) Time of attack
.g. target number..19
Figure 4-8. munitions expended. mission number. The BDA should include: Information relating the BDA being given to a specific target (e. Abort Call Example.Close Air Support
4 .
BATTLE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
BDA is used to update the enemy order of battle.

secondary explosions or fires.20
MCWP 3-23.) Joint CAS missions use the abbreviated United States message text format (USMTF) in-flight report (INFLTREP). For more information on in-flight reporting.4 . it may not be possible to pass all BDA information. I. AH-1 Tactical Manual. Vol. At times.3. Note: See NWP 3-22. The MISREP should be sent directly to the supported unit or the DASC.1
Damage actually seen (e. Additionally. (Were the desired effects achieved?)
Terminal Controller Responsibilities
Whenever possible. At a minimum.
Aircrew Responsibilities
CAS aircrews use the MISREP to provide information on mission results (See figure 4-9. not for individual aircraft in the flight. the terminal controller provides attack flights with the BDA of their attack as they egress.5-AH1. or number and type of vehicles/structures damaged or destroyed) Mission accomplishment. Message recipients may provide additional information and forward it via another MISREP.. see Joint Pub 3-09.
.g. the terminal controller should pass an assessment of mission accomplishment. the terminal controller should provide all available BDA information to the DASC or appropriate C2 agency. for target area weather information (TARWI) code explanation and use. enemy casualties. The terminal controller gives BDA for the flight.

.21
Figure 4-9.Close Air Support
4 . Mission Report Briefing.

battlefield fires.. However. Threat permitting.
SYSTEM-AIDED EMPLOYMENT
Aircraft systems (radar. Aircrews and terminal controllers should incorporate redundant methods (e.4 . FLIR. Terminal controllers and aircrews must routinely train and exercise CAS procedures and equipment at night and in adverse weather conditions. radar beacon. system-aided.g. and NVG. radar. laser. terminal controllers and aircrews must rely on lower ambient light conditions.22
MCWP 3-23. realistic CAS training. and FLIR) in system-aided attacks while including a
. or artificial illumination to successfully attack targets. Specific attack and delivery techniques for night/limited-visibility CAS vary depending on the aircraft.1
SECTION II. Night and limited-visibility CAS relies heavily on systems and sensors and makes terminal controller and aircrew proficiency critically important. There are three general categories of night/limited-visibility employment: visual. the use of aircraft lights or flares may be required to see the CAS aircraft.
VISUAL EMPLOYMENT
During night visual employment. laser. and TV) are relied on more at night and in adverse weather because of decreased visual target acquisition ranges and recognition cues. NIGHT/LIMITED-VISIBILITY CLOSE AIR SUPPORT
The fundamentals of CAS during the day apply equally to CAS at night and during times of limited visibility. night and adverse-weather CAS demand a higher level of proficiency that can be realized only through dedicated.

To fully exploit the potential of NVGs to enhance survivability and mission success. NVGs are used together with other systems to allow the detection and attack of targets at night. The temptation to rely on a single system as an information source should be avoided.23
target mark when possible.Close Air Support
4 . Night IR Close Air Support Brevity Terms. terminal controllers should be equipped with IR marking devices.
.
Figure 4-10.
NIGHT VISION GOGGLE EMPLOYMENT
NVGs are an additional sensor for aircrews. Terminal controllers and aircrews must ensure that there is no confusion between conventional and NVG terms. Figure 4-10 lists night CAS brevity terms.

4 .” Include the pointer-to-target line in the remarks section of the CAS briefing form.1
Friendly Marking.visibility CAS must be in positive communication with ground forces. CAS Briefing Form. Planning an attack axis (preplanned or as directed by the terminal controller) with only a small offset from the controller’s pointer-to-target line can also help the aircrews confirm the controller’s position. indicate the target mark type in line 7 of the CAS briefing form as “IR” or “IR pointer. Ground forces can illuminate their position with IR devices.” meaning the aircrew has acquired laser energy. These IR lights should be placed where aircrews overhead can visually acquire and maintain sight of friendly positions. the entire IR beam will be seen with NVDs. During low illuminance levels. ground forces must hear “Spot. Clearance Parameters. The shape of the IR beam can be used to identify the terminal controller and target positions. The IR beam will appear narrower or pencil-like at the terminal controller’s position and will appear wider near the target. ground forces must hear “Visual” (meaning the terminal controller’s position is positively identified) and “Tally” (meaning the enemy position/target is positively identified). When LTDs are employed.
. When using an IR pointer to mark a CAS target. When IR pointers are employed. Aircrews conducting night/limited.24
MCWP 3-23. IR pointers can also be used to direct NVG-equipped aircrews to the terminal controller’s position by oscillating the IR pointer to designate to the aircrews the terminal controller’s position (the nonmoving end of the pointer).

while the spot remains on the target through weapon impact. The accuracy inherent in laser-guided systems requires fewer weapons to neutralize or destroy a target. CLOSE AIR SUPPORT EXECUTION WITH LASER-GUIDED SYSTEMS
Laser-guided systems provide the MAGTF with the ability to locate and engage high-priority targets with an increased first-round hit probability.1 for further information on lasers and laser employment. including moving targets.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS
There are five basic requirements for using LSTs or LGWs: Line of sight must exist between the designator and the target and between the target and the LST/LGW. The laser designator must designate the target at the correct time. Laser-guided systems provide additional capabilities. yet have distinct limitations. See Joint Pub 3-09. The PRF codes of the laser designator and the LST/LGW must be compatible. The direction of attack must allow the LST/LGW to sense enough reflected laser energy from the target for seeker lock-on.Close Air Support
4 .
.25
SECTION III. This section provides CAS-specific TTP and background information on laser-guided system employment. Laser-guided systems can effectively engage a wider range of targets. The delivery system must release the weapon within the specific weapon’s delivery envelope.

For more information on AC-130 employment see Appendix H. Coded LTDs used for terminal weapons guidance must be set to the same code as the LGW. the designator. Codes that are assigned to LGWs correspond to the PRF that harmonizes the designator and seeker interface. general purpose. However. A designator may serve the dual purpose of designating for an LST and terminal weapons guidance for LGWs. The AC-130U has a codable LTD that allows code changes in flight). all coded LTDs. and the weapon must all have the same code. they designate targets for coded LSTs. Coded LTDs emit laser energy with a particular PRF and require input of specific laser codes for operation. are coded before takeoff and cannot be changed once the aircraft is airborne. Most aircraft capable of delivering LGBs can provide on-board autonomous self-designation. Terminal weapons guidance of LGBs by an AC-130H is possible provided this code is set. Laser code coordination is normally conducted through the joint ATD or CAS briefing form. Certain LGWs. The employment of LGBs in conjunction with coded LTDs is either autonomous or assisted. Second. (Note: The AC-130H’s LTD is permanently preset with only one code (1688) and cannot be changed. Assisted LGB employment uses an off-board
. First. In these cases.Close Air Support
Semi-active laser. with the exception of the AC-130H. they provide terminal weapons guidance for LGWs. the spot tracker. Autonomous LGB employment uses the CAS aircraft’s on-board LTD for terminal weapons guidance.27
LASER TARGET DESIGNATORS
Coded LTDs are ground and airborne systems that have two specific purposes. such as LGBs. can change codes while in the tactical environment.
4 .

the aircrew acquires the laser “spot” (target) and either delivers LGBs by using an LTD or executes visual deliveries with nonlaser ordnance. Aircraft may engage targets from above the cone.
.
LASER SPOT TRACKERS
LSTs are systems that allow visual acquisition of coded laserdesignated targets.1
LTD for terminal weapons guidance.28
MCWP 3-23.
LASER PROCEDURES Attack Headings
Terminal controllers provide aircrews with an attack heading. These aircraft can carry and deliver LGBs but have no on-board terminal weapons guidance capability. This is typically accomplished by a ground team operating a designator (such as a MULE) or by another aircraft (known as “buddy lasing”). This cone has a vertical limit of 20 degrees. Assisted LGB employment is required by aircraft without on-board LTDs. In the case of airborne LSTs.4 . LSTs must be set to the same code as the laser target designator for the aircrew to see the target being lased. The aircrew can select PRF codes for the LST while in flight. See Appendix C for a listing of aircraft with LSTs. The safety zone is defined as a cone (generally 20 degrees wide) whose apex is at the target and extends equidistant on either side of the target-tolaser designator line. as long as they remain above the 20-degree limit. The minimum safe altitude for aircraft will vary with the aircraft’s distance from the target. The attack heading must allow acquisition of the reflected laser energy and should be outside the laser designator safety zone.

The optimal acquisition/attack zone is inside a 120-degree cone whose apex is at the target and extends to 60 degrees on either side of the target-to-laser designator line. LSTs have acquired the laser energy caused by atmospheric scatter in front of the laser designator even though the LSTs were outside the safety zone.) Generally. This leaves an ideal attack zone of 50 degrees on either side of the safety zone. the tactical situation may dictate the use of the 20-degree safety zone. In some situations. Risk to the laser designator operator may be reduced by increasing the delivery aircraft’s altitude/offset angle or the designator-to-target distance. (See figure 4-12 on page 4-31. (See figure 4-11.Close Air Support
4 . aircraft should therefore remain well above these altitudes or maintain the proper lateral separation from the safety zone. excluding the 20-degree safety zone.29
Aircrew may have difficulty determining the altitude required to remain above the 20-degree vertical limit. LST-equipped aircraft can operate throughout the optimal acquisition/attack zone without hazard to ground personnel operating LTDs. At times.
.) Warning: The safety zone is not an absolute safety measure. This will require extra caution as LGWs launched within the 20-degree safety zone could receive false target indications.

Attack Angles
Aircrews release or launch LGWs so the target-reflected laser energy will be within the LGW seeker/LST field of view at the appropriate time. it may degrade the LST’s ability to acquire the laser spot. Safety Zone and Optimal Attack Zones. The allowable acquisition or attack angle
.31
Figure 4-12. The best acquisition/attack area is therefore from 10 to 45 degrees on either side of the target-to-laser designator line.Close Air Support
4 .
Although increasing the delivery offset angle improves safety.

then designate the target and deliver the weapon by using their own spot.1
(designator-to-target-to-seeker/LST) depends on the characteristics of the weapon system employed. Once the target is located. the LGW seeker or LST will not receive enough reflected energy to sense the laser spot. An aircrew can use the LST to visually locate the target. etc. The standard laser brevity terms listed in figure 4-13 should be used.4 . aircrews should not use LSTs as the sole source for target verification. the aircrew can conduct an accurate attack by using unguided ordnance. The CAS aircrew should verify that they are attacking the correct target through additional means (such as visual description. If the angle is too large.
Coordination With Terminal Controller
Laser-guided systems improve the delivery accuracy of unguided ordnance.32
MCWP 3-23. nonlaser target marks. In instances where the attack angle positions the weapon seeker or LST field of view to include the laser designator. atmospheric attenuation of laser energy near the designator aperture could cause LGW seeker or LST lock-on. If communications are unreliable.) to preclude inadvertent weapon seeker or LST lock-on at or near the designator. For this reason. Aircraft equipped with LTDs can also be “talked onto” the target by the terminal controller. terrain features. the terminal controller can designate the target for aircrew identification. the terminal
. Whenever possible. If the attack aircraft has an LST. Final clearance to release still comes from the terminal controller.
Laser Designation Time
The aircrew may request a longer “laser-on” time based on munitions characteristics. planned attacks should avoid placing the designator in the field of view of the LST or LGW.

Figure 4-13.
. Standard Laser Brevity Terms. designation time must be long enough to guarantee mission success. Nevertheless. Reducing laser operating time is important in a laser countermeasure environment or when using battery-operated designators.Close Air Support
4 .33
controller should begin designating 20 seconds before TOT or with 20 seconds remaining on TTT (unless the aircrew is using a loft delivery). Offset lasing should also be considered where a target laser warning receiver capability exists.

experience. and the information from aircraft tactical manuals to improve CAS. en route tactics allow CAS aircrews to avoid concentrated enemy air defenses and prevent early enemy acquisition of the attack force. terminal controllers. the MAGTF commander sets required response times for on-call aircraft. Standardized procedures and tactics provide a baseline for further refinement and improvement. Aircrews.34
MCWP 3-23.
Techniques
Aircrews and mission planners use support aircraft and other countermeasures to degrade the threat.
EN ROUTE TACTICS (BEFORE THE CONTACT POINT)
Ideally. Aircrews can build on these basic TTP by using innovative thinking.1 SECTION IV.
LAUNCH AND DEPARTURE PROCEDURES
Based on the recommendations by the GCE and ACE commanders. they can delay or hamper enemy air defense coordination and increase aircrew survival and mission success. The appropriate air C2 agency issues launch orders to the ground alert aircrew. and air controllers select routes that avoid known threat weapon
.4 . This may require land-line or courier communications. FIXED-WING EXECUTION
This section identifies the TTP used by fixed-wing aircrews to conduct CAS. If en route tactics are successful. Commanders should adjust these TTP as the combat situation develops.

Navigation
En route navigation tactics depend on the threat. weather. Aircrews use formations that complicate enemy radar resolution and improve lookout capability against enemy fighters. Advantages of high-altitude tactics include: Reduced fuel consumption rate Reduced navigation difficulties Improved formation control Increased maneuver airspace. friendly air defense requirements. the need for and availability of support aircraft. which allows aircrews to concentrate on mission tasks instead of terrain avoidance tasks
. medium altitude.35
envelopes. Aircrews use electronic protection and radar warning receiver/radar homing and warning equipment to detect and defeat enemy air defense systems. Aircrews use highaltitude tactics to remain above short-range air defenses. or a combination of the above. Routes should include course changes to confuse and deceive the enemy concerning the intended target area. low/very low altitude.Close Air Support
4 . Aircrews constantly watch for air defense weapons. High-altitude en route tactics are flown higher than 15. Aircrews should delay entry into a heavily defended target area until they have a clear understanding of the mission.000 feet above ground level (AGL). High Altitude. En route navigation tactics include the use of high altitude. and fuel.

Medium-altitude en route tactics are flown between 8.4 . Adverse weather can cause aircrews to use low-/very-low. Advantages of low-/very-low-altitude tactics include: Reduced enemy radar detection by using the earth’s curvature for masking
. Aircrews use low-/very-low-altitude tactics to keep the attack force below enemy early warning/ground-control intercept (GCI) radar coverage for as long as possible. (This allows the enemy to prepare its air defenses. Low-altitude en route tactics are flown below 8.threat environment. Weather may prevent visual navigation and obscure the target area.) The attack force may be vulnerable to some enemy SAM systems and enemy fighter interceptors before entering the target area if local air superiority has not been achieved. unaffected by terrain.36
MCWP 3-23. Medium Altitude.1
Improved communications.altitude navigation.000 feet AGL and 15.000 feet AGL. Medium-altitude tactics have many of the same advantages and disadvantages as high. Low/Very Low Altitude.000 feet AGL.or high. between aircrew and control agencies Reduced exposure to certain AAA and man-portable IR SAMs. Disadvantages of high-altitude tactics include: Enemy acquisition radar can detect the attack force at long range.and low-altitude tactics. Very low altitude is flight below 500 feet AGL. Medium-altitude tactics may not be advisable in a medium.

and High Altitude.Close Air Support
4 . AAA systems.) Reduced enemy weapons envelope lethal zones during highspeed. Combination of Low/Very Low. Disadvantages of low-/very-low-altitude tactics include: High fuel consumption rates Extremely demanding navigation that requires a high level of aircrew skill (Navigation is easier for aircraft equipped with INS or GPS.
.37
Reduced chance of attack from enemy SAW systems by using terrain for masking Degraded enemy GCI radar coverage (This denies intercept information to enemy fighters and forces enemy aircraft to rely on visual or onboard acquisition systems. Medium.) Increased exposure to small arms.and medium-altitude tactics to gain the advantages of both while reducing the disadvantages of each. The en route portion of the flight is normally beyond the range of enemy air defense weapons and flown at a medium or high altitude. Aircrews combine low-/very-low. low-altitude ingress Improved friendly aircraft maneuvering performance. and IRguided weapons Difficulty in communication and control Reduced target acquisition. The attack force descends to low/very low altitude to avoid detection by certain enemy SAM threats and/or gain surprise.

These tactics may
. and fuel. Medium Altitude. In an intense jamming environment. or onboard electronic protection equipment can suppress the enemy air defense threat or if they can remain above the enemy SAW threat. Terminal controllers and aircrews tailor communications and control requirements to counter the threat. Ingress navigation tactics include high altitude.38
MCWP 3-23. Proper planning provides for mission success even if there is little or no chance of radio communications after the flight becomes airborne. low/very low altitude. Aircrews can use medium-altitude ingress tactics if support aircraft. Normally. medium altitude.
Navigation
Ingress tactics depend on the threat. the need for and availability of support aircraft. weather. preplanned scheduled missions may be the primary CAS method. artillery strikes.1
INGRESS TACTICS (CONTACT POINT TO INITIAL POINT)
Ingress tactics apply from arrival at the CP until the target attack phase begins at the IP. Aircrews use high-altitude ingress tactics to remain above the enemy AAA and short-range SAM threat. Medium-altitude ingress tactics are a continuation of medium-altitude en route tactics. High Altitude. The expected threat intensity and sophistication influence the selection of ingress tactics. Medium-altitude ingress reduces fuel consumption rates and eases navigation. and a combination of low/very low and medium altitude. air strikes. control of CAS flights is handed over to the terminal controller at the CP. Highaltitude ingress reduces fuel consumption rates and eases navigation.4 .

Low/Very Low Altitude. Fixed-wing aircrews must maintain adequate clearance from helicopter flights. At a predetermined point. This tactic does increase the attacking force’s vulnerability to SAW systems in the target area but is designed to beat SAW system reaction times. the attacking force climbs to medium altitude for the attack.
.Close Air Support
4 . Extreme terrain can dictate that the size of each attack element be small if flying low/very low altitudes. Combination Low/Very Low and Medium Altitude. Helicopter aircrews using terrain flight (TERF) techniques must remain close to the terrain. The attack force enters the target area at low/very low altitude to avoid early enemy radar detection.39
provide better CAS for the requesting commander than low/very-low-altitude methods. This tactic protects the attack force from early engagement by enemy long-range SAW systems and fighter aircraft. The climb to medium altitude removes the attack force from the lowaltitude AAA and short-range IR missile envelopes and aids target acquisition. and study the ingress routes to gain the maximum advantage from terrain masking. Extensive training is required to develop accurate navigation techniques and the ability to perform effective evasive maneuvers. aircrews use low-/very-low-altitude ingress tactics to degrade enemy detection capabilities. This becomes critical when fixed-wing aircrews traverse verticallydeveloped terrain.and medium-threat environments. The terrain dictates the type of formation flown by the attack element. Aircrews plot. In high. Detailed planning is critical. brief. These tactics can increase aircrew survivability but also increase fuel consumption rates.

scheduled missions leave the CP to meet a TOT/TTT with minimal communications. Flexible Communications. Preplanned. If communications at the CP permit.4 . as effective communications may be considerably more difficult to conduct. communications discipline becomes more important. the threat. In the presence of an EW threat. The aircrew must receive mission-essential information before arriving at the target area. the support package. Minimum Communications. Mission-Essential Information.40
MCWP 3-23. the appropriate air control agency must pass mission-essential information. coded
. If the terminal controller cannot talk to the aircrew. A preplanned. The climb should be delayed as long as possible to reduce vulnerability to long-range air defense systems. Communications and Control. However. This tactic includes climbing to a medium altitude before entering the lethal zone of LAAD weapons. an immediate mission will probably be very communications-intensive.1
Aircrews should consider this tactic when AAA is the major threat in the target area. The aircrew receives the rest of the target brief at the CP. Communications between the aircrew and the terminal controller may be difficult or nonexistent. Communications and control procedures at the CP vary by the type of CAS. Aircrews may have to divert or abort if they are unable to receive mission-essential briefing items. Such flights receive only a CP and a terminal controller call sign/frequency either before launch or from an air control agency once airborne. communication capabilities. The terminal controller makes brief. missions may be launched without specific targets or IP assignments. scheduled mission may require little or no communications. and planned ingress tactics.

is the most crucial phase of the CAS mission. Specific techniques used to attack a target are the choice of the pilot in command or the mission commander. Aircrews given immediate CAS missions plan fuel or time cutoff points. The CP location may not allow communication between aircrews and terminal controllers because of radio range or line-of-sight considerations. Airborne alert aircraft remain at a CP for immediate mission assignment. the FAC should avoid loft attacks with weapons release behind friendly positions.
.
ATTACK PHASE (INITIAL POINT TO TARGET)
The attack phase.Close Air Support
4 . Aircrew tasks increase because the aircrew must follow a precise timing and attack profile to produce the necessary effect on the target in a timely manner.41
transmissions or assignment changes.
Attack Tactics
Attack tactics permit integration of CAS attacks into fire support plans. or the final run-in from the IP to the target. Aircrews should expect communication problems and plan to use other air control agencies to provide radio relay. Figure 4-14 illustrates the attack phase of a typical fixed-wing CAS mission. Because of the risk to friendly ground forces.

1
Figure 4-14. Key Actions in a Fixed-Wing Close Air Support Attack.
.4 .42
MCWP 3-23.

Multiple axes of attack depend on the threat. aircrews can perform a high-/medium-altitude attack after any type of ingress. Low/Very Low Altitude. Multiple Axes of Attack. When planning ordnance and attack profiles.43
High/Medium Altitude.Close Air Support
4 . Tactical formations using multiple axes of attack provide effective mutual support throughout the attack. but bombing accuracy may be degraded. Multiple axes of attack increase the concentration of ordnance on target and force the enemy to split air defense assets. However. and time available in the target area. the briefing format remains the same. Regardless of the attack profile.altitude attacks. High-/medium-altitude attacks are normally executed in a low-/medium-threat environment. the aircrew must immediately notify the other
. During low-/very-low. The following procedural guidelines are considered standard: Aircraft in the route of egress from the target must have the right-of-way. reattacks must be approved by the terminal controller after coordination with the ground force commander. if an aircraft enters another flight’s sector. More time may be available for target acquisition. Aircrews may have less time to acquire the target and position their aircraft for a successful attack. time of exposure to enemy defenses. High-/medium-altitude tactics may prevent the terminal controller from visually acquiring the aircraft. Terminal controllers can issue to aircrews minimum altitude restrictions that reduce aircraft vulnerability to indirect fires. The size of the attack force depends on control requirements. the same considerations apply as in high-/medium-altitude attacks. Deconfliction Procedures. consider the requirement for fragmentation pattern avoidance in the low-altitude environment. High-/medium-altitude attack advantages and disadvantages are similar to those listed in the discussion on en route tactics.

and attack heading. the terminal controller.
Procedural Control Measures
Terminal controllers use procedural control measures to provide target orientation for the aircrew. offset direction. Attacks should have as few restrictions as possible. or keep aircrews away from known threats. The offset direction tells the aircrews on which side of the IP-to-target line they can maneuver for the attack. IPs should be radarand visually-significant and normally located from 5 to 15 NM or 1 to 2 minutes from the target. weather. and fire support coordination requirements. Offset Direction. An offset direction aids fire support coordination by restricting aircrews from using airspace on the other side of the IP-to-target
. If aircrews are not restricted. Terminal controllers use an offset direction to ease fire support coordination. aid target acquisition. IP Selection. they are free to ingress and attack the target from any direction after they leave the IP. See figure 4-15 to understand the relationship between offset direction and IP-to-target heading.4 . align the aircraft for the attack or egress. to provide separation from enemy air defense weapons. target orientation.44
MCWP 3-23. munitions that may enter the other flight’s sector must be coordinated before the attack. to provide separation from other supporting fires. and deconflict or exit that sector. to align aircraft for the attack or egress. friendly location. and to provide procedural control measures that include IP selection. The terminal controller selects the IP based on enemy capabilities.1
flight.

Types of Delivery
. The offset direction regulates the attack quadrant without assigning a specific attack heading.
Figure 4-15. Offset Direction. An offset direction keeps aircraft clear of enemy air defenses and reduces interference with gun target lines.45
line. It also reduces an aircrew’s chance of being hit by direct/indirect fires.Close Air Support
4 .

At a calculated point. Once released. Terminal controllers assign final attack headings for several reasons: to increase ground troop safety. the aircrew starts a loft maneuver pull up. to aid in laser spot or target acquisition. “restriction— final attack heading between 090 degrees and 135 degrees”). ground commander approval is required.
Final Attack Heading
A final attack heading is the assigned magnetic compass heading that an aircrew flies during the ordnance delivery phase of the attack. Ordnance is delivered with a wings-level pass over the target. the weapon continues an upward trajectory while the aircrew egresses the target area. A final attack cone is an assigned range of magnetic compass headings that an aircrew may fly during the ordnance delivery phase of the CAS attack. This limits
.g. Loft Delivery. To execute a pop-up delivery. As the aircrew nears the target. The terminal controller assigns the magnetic headings for the left and right boundaries of the cone (e.. Final attack cones may be used to satisfy the same requirements of the final attack heading while offering increased flexibility.4 .) Pop-up Delivery. the aircrew proceeds inbound to the target from the IP.1
Level Delivery. they pop up to the desired altitude and execute a dive delivery. To execute a loft delivery. the aircrew proceeds to the target from the IP at low/very low altitude. Ordnance is delivered by using a dive delivery.46
MCWP 3-23. After the weapon reaches the apex of its trajectory. Dive Delivery. it follows a ballistic path to impact. (Note: If the delivery is conducted over friendlies. and to help fire support coordination.

The reattack may engage other targets within a specific target area. This may be a high loiter. or a lower loiter if there is no effective AAA threat. and increase responsiveness to the supported commander. Often threat conditions allow aircrews to loiter safely in the target area. immediate reattacks may be a practical option. In this case. the terminal controller may give the aircrew a pull-off direction and may assign different attack headings. a “wheel” may be flown around the target.Close Air Support
4 . last hit. In low. and inclusive of. aid visual orientation for the aircrew. Advantages are: Continued observation of the target area. A reattack can help assure the desired effect on the target. Once acquired by the enemy in the target area.
Immediate Reattacks
The aircrew’s goal is to complete a successful attack on the first pass. or friendly positions.and mediumthreat environments. an aircraft that remains for reattacks may be more vulnerable. Reduced Threat Considerations. If a reattack is necessary and possible. Terminal controllers authorize reattacks. The terminal controller may provide additional target marks for the reattack. This technique may aid the terminal controller in visually acquiring the aircraft while increasing CAS aircrew flexibility and survivability. the boundary headings.47
the CAS aircraft to the range of final attack headings falling within. although single-pass attacks require less time in enemy air defense envelopes. The terminal controller can describe reattack target locations by using the last mark. Terminal Controller Responsibilities. and hits from other aircraft by all flight members
. to stay above effective AAA fire. terrain features. the marks.

FIXED-WING LASER-GUIDED SYSTEM EMPLOYMENT
Laser systems offer improved CAS weapons delivery capability and accuracy. See Joint Pub 3-09. Laser designation must allow the aircraft’s LST adequate time to find the target. The aircrew
.4 . Laser designation may begin 20 seconds before planned TOT/TTT. Laser designation can begin before or shortly after the aircraft crosses the IP. Laser Acquisition and Unguided Weapons.” and “Laser. Typically. If communications permit. However.Off” calls. they require detailed coordination and additional procedures. This combination produces excellent results if the delivery aircraft has some type of computer-aided release system.1
Increased ability to roll-in from any axis requested by the terminal controller Lower fuel consumption and increased TOS Easier timing of TOT Better ability to conduct reattacks.” “Laser On.” “Spot.
Types of Employment
Laser Acquisition and LGWs.48
Improved mutual support
MCWP 3-23.1 for more information. the aircrew may give “10 Seconds. this combination requires the longest period of laser designation and can provide the best results. Designation continues until ordnance impact.

Aircraft carrying both guided and unguided ordnance release LGBs first. A supplemental mark (e.
Employment Considerations
LGBs. This combines “dumb” aircraft (no LST or LST failure) and “smart” (laser-guided) weapons. terminal controllers and designator operators must consider the following: Older LGBs have preset codes that cannot be changed. Some newer LGBs have codes that are manually set before the aircraft launches. smoke) must be visible to the aircrew for them to be able to locate the target.and debris-free environment and helps reduce interference.g.49
may give a “Laser On” call if communications permit. If designating for LGBs.
. Designation continues until all ordnance has impacted the target or the aircrew calls “Terminate. Unless coordinated otherwise. aircrews pass the designator code to the terminal controller. designation should begin with ordnance release and continue until impact. On check-in.Close Air Support
4 . The terminal controller selects the IP/offset to ensure that the attack heading allows LST lock-on and ordnance delivery on the first pass..” LGWs Only. Certain aircraft/LGW combinations allow in-flight cockpit selection of codes. Aircrews cannot change these codes while airborne. Unguided bombs are dropped during later passes. This allows the LGB a relatively dust.

4 - 50
LGBs provide greater accuracy.

MCWP 3-23.1

Because there is an increased hazard to friendly forces when aircrews release weapons behind friendly lines, the approval of the ground commander is required. Designators should coordinate “Laser On” times with the aircrew. The aircrew provides “Laser On” and “Laser Off” radio calls to the designator. LGMs. LGMs for fixed-wing aircraft include the AGM-65E Maverick. LGMs generally provide greater standoff launch ranges than LGBs. Greater range provides increased survivability for aircrews operating in a high-threat environment. Aircrews and terminal controllers must exercise caution when launching LGMs from behind friendly troops. Without a TOT or TTT, the aircrew gives a “10 Seconds” warning call to the terminal controller. This alerts the terminal controller to begin laser designation in 10 seconds. The aircrew gives a “Laser On” call to begin target designation. The aircrew may call “Laser Off” to end designation. Laser Maverick Employment. The Maverick system allows aircrews to engage targets designated by either air or ground sources with in-flight selectable PRF codes. In the event that the laser signal is lost, the weapon will safe itself and overfly the target. The missile and the laser designator must be set to the same PRF code before launch, and the missile must be locked-on to a laser source before launch. For other than self-designation, the attack heading must be adjusted to optimize the reflected laser energy. Attacks by Multiple Aircraft. Use of laser designators and LST-equipped aircraft simplifies rapid attacks by multiple aircraft. If numerous aircraft operate under the control of a single

Close Air Support

4 - 51

terminal controller and use the same heading (threat permitting), it simplifies control of the attack. Attacks on a Single Target. Multiple aircraft attacking a single target increase the chance of target destruction at the earliest possible time. The attack requires a single designator with one (or all) aircraft achieving lock-on and ordnance release. The terminal controller may clear the second aircrew to perform a follow-up attack on the target using guided or unguided ordnance. Attacks on Multiple Targets. Multiple aircraft attacking multiple targets require increased coordination and planning. Attacks on multiple targets can be performed by using a single designator or multiple designators. Separate designators on different codes for each target are preferred. Using multiple designators reduces the time any single designator is on and exposed to enemy countermeasures.

EGRESS
In a high-threat environment the need for a rapid egress may delay the ability to rendezvous and regain mutual support. Egress instructions and RPs should avoid conflict with ingress routes and IPs. Egress instructions may be as detailed as ingress instructions. Egress fire support coordination and deconfliction requirements are the same as those used during ingress. On completion of the mission, aircrews follow the egress instructions and either execute a reattack, return to a CP for future employment, or return to base.

4 - 52

MCWP 3-23.1 SECTION V. ROTARY-WING EXECUTION

Rotary-wing CAS execution differs in some aspects from fixedwing CAS execution primarily because of the difference in aircraft performance and flight regimes. This section identifies some of the TTP that attack helicopter aircrews can use to perform the CAS mission. These TTP should not be interpreted rigidly. Rigid standardization reduces flexibility and results in predictability. However, CAS TTP involve close coordination between ground units, aircrews, and control agencies, and therefore some standardization is necessary. Standard tactics provide aircrews with a baseline for further refinement and change. Operation plans and orders reflect initial standardization criteria. Commanders should adjust these procedures as the tactical situation dictates. Aircrews take advantage of initiative, imaginative thinking, experience, and basic aviation tactics found in aircraft tactical manuals to refine and improve mission tactics.

LAUNCH AND DEPARTURE PROCEDURES (TAKEOFF TO RENDEZVOUS POINT)
Rotary-wing aircraft should be positioned near the supported commander to reduce response time or increase TOS. The appropriate controlling agency issues launch orders through the proper C2 or fire support agency.

enemy air defenses and prevent early enemy acquisition of the attack force. If en route tactics are successful, they can delay or hamper enemy air defense coordination and increase aircrew survival and mission success.

Navigation
En route navigation tactics depend on the threat, the need for and availability of support aircraft, friendly air defense requirements, weather, and fuel. In some circumstances, missions may be conducted above TERF altitudes (1,500 feet and above). Examples are missions during which the enemy threat consists of small arms only and during which early detection of CAS aircraft would not adversely affect mission accomplishment. Otherwise, as rotary-wing CAS aircraft approach the target area or probable point of enemy contact, they fly lower and with increased caution to arrive undetected in the HA. Aircrews use TERF to deny/degrade the enemy’s ability to detect or locate the flight visually, optically, or electronically. En route TERF profiles fall into three categories: low level, contour, and nap of the earth (NOE). Low Level. Low-level flight is conducted at a constant airspeed and altitude above MSL. Low-level flight reduces or avoids enemy detection or observation. Aircrews use low-level flight to reach a control point in a low-threat environment. Contour. Contour flight conforms to the contour of the earth or vegetation to conceal the aircraft from enemy observation or detection. Contour flight uses varied airspeeds and altitudes above MSL as vegetation and obstacles dictate. Aircrews vary MSL altitude to produce constant altitude AGL. Aircrews use contour flight until reaching a higher threat area.

1
NOE. NOE flight is as close to the earth’s surface as vegetation and obstacles permit while following the earth’s contours.
. aircrews use a weaving. HAs may be established throughout the battlefield to be used for rotary-wing aircraft awaiting targets or missions. These HAs serve as informal ACAs while they are in use. HAs may be established during planning. Terrain and vegetation provide the aircraft with cover and concealment from enemy observation and detection. HAs. aircrews may maneuver laterally within a corridor that is compatible with the ground scheme of maneuver and assigned route structures. that support the scheme of maneuver. When flying NOE. Within the corridor. and activated/established during operations. Rotary-wing CAS can be performed with or without HAs or BPs.
INGRESS TACTICS (HOLDING AREA TO BATTLE POSITION)
Ingress tactics apply from arrival at the HA until the target attack phase begins at the BP. referred to by name or number. and that are coordinated with other supporting arms. weather. ambient light.54
MCWP 3-23. NOE flight uses varied airspeeds and altitudes AGL based on the terrain.4 . NOE flight should be used in high-threat environments.
Control Points
Terminal controllers and aircrews select HAs and BPs that are tactically sound. and the enemy situation. HAs provide the rotary-wing CAS aircrew with an area in which to loiter. unpredictable path to avoid detection by the enemy.

Movement Techniques. Aircrews use three techniques of movement in TERF: traveling. rotary-wing aircraft movement must be coordinated with the applicable FSCC/SACC. BPs serve as informal ACAs while in use. (See figure 4-16.
Techniques of Movement
Due to proximity to the threat. traveling overwatch.
. they use TERF in conjunction with airspace control measures to deconflict with artillery and mortar trajectories. aircrews use TERF to move from the HA to the BP. BPs are maneuvering areas that contain firing points for attack helicopters. Rotary-wing aircraft proceed from an HA/BP to the IP to commence a running fire attack. IPs.55
BPs. When flying TERF. Like HAs.)
Figure 4-16.Close Air Support
4 . IPs may be used by rotary-wing aircraft in the same manner as they are used by fixed-wing CAS aircraft. Planning considerations and methods of establishment for BPs are the same as those used for HAs. If aircrews are close to friendly artillery and mortars. and bounding overwatch.

Traveling allows rapid movement in relatively secure areas. The flight moves by using contour or NOE TERF. Bounding Overwatch. Traveling overwatch is a technique that aircrews use when enemy contact is possible.56
MCWP 3-23. Typically. The overwatch element may contain multiple subelements. The overwatch elements provide weapons coverage of terrain from which the enemy might fire on the main element. The flight moves using NOE TERF. and speed is not essential. concealed positions that offer observation and fields of fire.1
Traveling. The flight consists of two elements. Bounding overwatch is a technique that aircrews use when enemy contact is imminent. The flight moves at a constant speed using low-level or contour TERF. The flight consists of two major elements: the main element and the overwatch element. TERF techniques of movement restrict the terminal controller’s ability to exercise control through radio communications.” while the other element takes up an overwatch position. or “bounds.
. To preserve operational security. One element moves. The overwatch elements move to provide visual and weapons coverage of the main element. Traveling Overwatch. The overwatch element covers the bounding elements from covered. Although caution is justified. speed is desirable. communications may not be desirable during the ingress phase.4 . Traveling is a technique that aircrews use when the possibility of enemy contact is remote.
Communications and Control
A rotary-wing aircraft’s inherent flexibility allows a variety of communication and control procedures. Movement is deliberate. Movement should be as constant as the terrain allows. The main element maintains continuous forward movement.

57
aircrews can land to receive face-to-face mission briefs and mission-essential information from the supported commander or terminal controller before leaving the HA. the terminal controller or mission commander issues final instructions to the flight.
ATTACK PHASE (WITHIN THE BATTLE POINT)
The attack phase is the most important phase of the rotary-wing CAS mission. An airborne relay may be used to maintain communications.Close Air Support
4 . The attack must produce the necessary effect on the target in a timely manner.
.
Control
Once the aircrews reach the BP. Figure 4-17 illustrates an example of a rotary-wing CAS attack. Aircrews select individual FPs and remain masked while awaiting the TOT/TTT.

58
MCWP 3-23. Attack Tactics
The specific techniques used to attack a target are the choice of the AMC. and fragmentation patterns. Rotary-Wing Close Air Support Attack Phase Example.1
Figure 4-17. Hovering fire is performed when the aircraft is stationary or has little forward motion. Aircrews perform hovering fire after unmasking from a defilade position. the terrain. aircrews remask behind terrain. Hovering Fire. If the terrain permits. accuracy requirements.4 . target size and vulnerability. the weather. To prevent being targeted by enemy weapons. Attack tactics are determined by considering the threat. or 20-/25-/30-mm gunfire) is normally less accurate because the aircraft is less
. cannons. weapons effectiveness. aircrews maintain the hovering fire position for only short periods. Unguided ordnance (rockets. Indirect hovering fire should be delivered from FPs hidden from the enemy by terrain features. aircrews should move to an alternate FP. After delivering hovering fire.

Running Fire. Precision-guided weapons are the most effective ordnance fired from a hover. powerful.
Scout/Attack Team Tactics
Scout/attack teams provide a highly mobile. Diving fire is delivered while the aircraft is at altitude and in descending forward flight. Diving fire is particularly useful in a small-arms or limited-air-defense threat environment. Aircrews climb slightly and then perform a shallowangle dive. Aircrews must be constantly aware of the direction and trajectory of all ordnance to be released. Running fire used at TERF altitudes reduces an aircrew’s vulnerability to enemy air defenses. forward flight. Running fire is performed when the aircraft is in level.Close Air Support
4 . This will necessitate clearance from the terminal controller after coordination and deconfliction with other supporting arms. Diving fire should be used if the aircrew can remain above or outside the threat envelope. Running fire offers a moving target and produces a smaller dust or debris signature than is produced in hovering fire. diving fire may produce the most accurate results. If delivering unguided ordnance. Forward flight adds stability to the aircraft and improves the accuracy of weapon delivery. Unmasked fire provides aircrews with the protection from enemy air defenses of running fire and the increase in accuracy of diving fire. While performing running fire.59
stable in a hover. Unmasked fire is a combination of running and diving fire. Running fire attacks may require the aircraft to fly outside the BP to effectively engage targets. Diving Fire. They consist of two or more
. aircrews can use direct or indirect fire techniques. combinedarms capability while executing CAS. Unmasked Fire.

as a reinforcing asset. Attack Element. The AMC’s duties include providing liaison and coordination between the scout/attack team and the supported unit to receive the current situation and mission brief. Team elements consist of: Scout Element. This capability allows the scout/attack team to quickly and effectively react to a rapidly changing battlefield. The attack element contains a minimum of two rotary-wing aircraft. The attack element leader’s duties include assuming all the duties of the mission commander if required and attacking specified CAS targets with the proper ordnance. On mission completion. Multiple aircraft are preferred to provide mutual support within the scout element. He is responsible for CAS mission planning and execution. The attack element is subordinate to the mission commander. providing reconnaissance of the HA and BP if time and threat permit. providing security for the attack element from ground and air threats.1
rotary-wing aircraft acting in the scout and attack roles.
DISENGAGEMENT AND EGRESS
Following the attack. Commanders can use the scout/attack team separately. the CAS flight disengages and egresses from the BP.60
MCWP 3-23. Egress fire support coordination and deconfliction requirements are the same as those used during ingress. the flight can:
. planning and coordinating target marking/designation. briefing the attack element.4 . or reinforced with other assets. and controlling the mission’s supporting arms. The AMC is normally a member of the scout element. The scout element contains one or more rotarywing aircraft. Egress instructions may be as detailed as ingress instructions.

HELLFIRE employment considerations include designator/launcher separation angle.61
Proceed to an alternate BP Return to the HA for further operations Return to the FARP for refueling/rearming Return to the FOB/ship. weather effects and obscurations.Close Air Support
4 . HELLFIRE Designator Exclusion Zone. aircrew/designator coordination.
.
ROTARY-WING LASER-GUIDED SYSTEMS EMPLOYMENT
The AGM-114 HELLFIRE missile allows attack helicopters to engage targets with precision LGWs.
Figure 4-18. The HELLFIRE system provides the ability to engage multiple targets simultaneously. allows aircrews to select or change missile-seeker PRF codes from the cockpit. and reduces the risk to aircrews by reducing or eliminating exposure time. Figure 4-18 illustrates an example of a HELLFIRE designator exclusion zone. increases standoff and lethality. and enemy countermeasures. Aircrews use the HELLFIRE system to engage critical hardpoint targets at extended ranges.

Proper geometry between the laser. The aircrew can set or change the PRF code from the cockpit. the aircrew delays launching subsequent missiles (all set on the same PRF code) until the terminal controller shifts the laser designator to the next target. The PRF code settings must be coordinated before the attack. and aircrews must be adequate.
Characteristics
The HELLFIRE LGM homes on targets designated by U.4 . and NATO laser designators. the target. The use and coordination
. rapid launches by using one or two designation codes simultaneously. The HELLFIRE system allows the aircrew to conduct multiple. terminal controllers and aircrews consider the following factors: Communications between the terminal controller. The terminal controller must provide accurate target location information and laser-to-target line to the aircrew.1
When coordinating engagement procedures for HELLFIREequipped aircraft. the missile launch interval can be less than 2 seconds. The number of missiles and the interval between missiles for rapid or ripple fire must be decided.S. and the attack aircraft must exist to maximize the probability of kill. If using two designators (each set to a different PRF code).62 Coordination
MCWP 3-23. If using a single designator. The HELLFIRE system should use PRF codes in the range of 1111 to 1688 to achieve the desired probability of a hit. laser designator.

LOBL should be used when the
.63
of multiple designators presents a complex problem for the aircrew and the terminal controllers. Terminal controllers and aircrews use LOBL when they want to confirm that the aircraft is within launch parameters before launch. The LOBL method requires direct line of sight from the missile to the target.
HELLFIRE Missile Lock-On Options
Lock-On Before Launch (LOBL). Aircrews use the LOBL mode of fire to launch missiles after they have locked onto and tracked the properly coded reflected laser energy. LOBL allows a higher probability of kill against obscured or close-range targets.Close Air Support
4 .

Three trajectories are available for LOAL launch: low (LOAL LO). Aircrews use the LOAL mode of fire to launch missiles without acquiring or locking onto any laser energy. the aircrew can fly behind terrain after missile launch. direct (LOAL DIR).1
threat does not require delayed designation (laser countermeasures) or launch from a defilade position. Aircrews can also use indirect fire when the missile cannot receive the laser energy reflecting off the target because of distance. Indirect Fire. Lock-On After Launch (LOAL). The aircrew launches the missile while the aircraft is masked.64
MCWP 3-23. The LOAL LO mode allows the missile to clear a low terrain obstacle.
Types of HELLFIRE Delivery
Direct Fire. high (LOAL HI). The trajectory selected depends on terrain obstacles and the distance to the target. LOAL allows the aircrew to launch missiles without exposing themselves to the threat. The aircrew launches the missile in a preprogrammed sequence that causes it to fly an elevated trajectory. Lock-on occurs after the aircrew launches the missile.
. The missile then locates and locks onto the laser-reflected energy of the designated target. Aircrews use indirect fire to fire the missile before achieving lock-on (LOAL). The LOAL HI mode allows the missile to climb to a higher altitude to clear a high terrain obstacle. Direct fire can be used for either the LOBL or LOAL options. If the target is not designated by the delivery aircraft. The LOBL option requires direct line of sight to the target and seeker lock-on before launch.4 . Aircrews use the LOAL DIR mode when the target is within line of sight but enemy countermeasures prevent designation before launch or when the cloud ceiling is low.

terrain. During multiple launches. the aircrew normally fires the missiles at an 8-second (minimum) interval. Multiple missile launches require close coordination and timing. and battlefield obscuration. During target attacks.Close Air Support
4 . the terminal controller must be sure that subsequent missiles can receive reflected laser energy without interruption. The terminal controller should consider wind speed and direction when selecting multiple targets. target array.
. Longer intervals can be used based on experience.65
HELLFIRE Attacks on Multiple Targets
Multiple missiles attacking multiple high-threat targets reduce aircrew exposure and laser operating time. Dust and smoke from initial detonations can block or interrupt the reception of laser energy by follow-on missiles.

to-force (RTF) procedures are based on the threat.1 SECTION VI. out. Control procedures must be thoroughly examined.66
MCWP 3-23. Planning for friendly air operations to support the MAGTF while concurrently protecting it from enemy air attack is a difficult task.4 . The use of these control procedures should maximize the safety of the defended area while minimizing the possibility of fratricide. RTF control procedures include the use of: Ingress/egress corridors and routes for both helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft (examples of these corridors and routes include low-level transit routes (LLTRs) and minimum risk routes (MRRs)) Control points Visual identification (VID) Electronic identification via noncooperative target recognition (NCTR) The tactical air navigation (TACAN) system IFF equipment Altitude and air speed restrictions
. RETURN-TO-FORCE PROCEDURES
Procedures must be established to allow friendly aircraft to safely move in. and weather. friendly posture. and through airspace within the area of operations. friendly aircraft capabilities. especially for safe passage of friendly aircraft through restricted areas and back through the friendly integrated air defense system. Return.

The information obtained can aid in planning and executing future MAGTF operations. no IFF. The debriefing can provide valuable information by evaluating the mission and its effect on the enemy.) ACAs.Close Air Support
4 . aircrews should debrief the salient aspects of the flight. Successes should be highlighted and expanded on to aid in future CAS missions. Antiair Warfare. Key points and items of importance should be passed on during the intelligence and operations section debriefs of the aircrew. enemy resistance. Difficulties and failures should be identified and the appropriate corrections made to prevent further occurrences. battle damage. for more information on RTF procedures.67
Lame-duck procedures (when aircraft have no communications.
DEBRIEFING
On completing the mission. etc.
. and enemy tactics and techniques. See MCWP 3-22.

and equipment.Appendix A
Close Air Support Aircrew Mission Planning Guide
Note: This is a notional mission planning guide. Units should always prepare their own checklists and guidelines. It provides a generalized list of planning considerations and information found to be useful by various combat units. situation. and these should be tailored to their mission.
CLOSE AIR SUPPORT OVERVIEW Friendly Situation
Forward line of own troops (FLOT) CPs/IPs Scheme of maneuver Target area Key terrain Terminal controller position and call sign Supporting arms: (1) Artillery positions
.

and thermal crossover.Appendix B
Planning Considerations for Close Air Support Using Night Vision Goggles and Infrared Pointers
Can an NVD acquire the target well enough to mark it with an IR marker? What will the light conditions be at TOT? Moon phase/rise/set/angle/azimuth/elevation Overall lux level Ambient light sources that will interfere with both the aircrew’s and the terminal controller’s ability to acquire the target Environmental conditions. humidity. smoke. Are any actions planned on the terminal controller’s part that will change the light conditions before TOT? Are there any actions anticipated by the enemy that will change the light conditions before TOT? Will anticipated periods of low visibility negate the use of IR pointers?
. including fog. haze.

can IR pointers still be used as a primary mark or should an alternate marking means be used?
. the beam.B-2
MCWP 3-23.1
Are the aircrews NVG qualified and have they worked with IR pointers? Do they require a face-to-face permission brief? What profile must the aircraft fly to acquire the IR beam? Is the background sufficient for the aircrews to acquire the beam? Is there a run-in heading or final attack heading that optimizes the ability of the aircrews to acquire the pointer’s location. and the target? Does the FAC mark his location with an IR source and/or acquire the aircraft with NVGs? (Does the aircraft have IR lights?) Will other activities (attack helicopters) using IR pointers confuse the CAS aircrew? Can the strike be conducted under EMCON? After this TOT.

A sample JTAR request form is shown in figure D-1. The following paraphrased instructions are included for reference only.
.Appendix D
Joint Tactical Airstrike Request
All U. Armed Forces use the JTAR Request Form (DD Form 1972) to request CAS. The use of this form is mandatory unless otherwise authorized by a higher authority.S.

indicates the originator’s request number in series. Priority
For immediate requests. Precedence B. this number is assigned by the ASCS/DASC. Priority is expressed as shown below. enter priority (block C).
Immediate: C. Indicates the time and the individual who transmitted the request. Priority
For preplanned requests. all
. A precedence entry is not required for immediate requests because. For preplanned missions.MISSION REQUEST
Line Title and Elements
Explanation Identifies the unit designation/call sign/preassigned number. enter precedence (block A) or priority (block B). For immediate missions. by definition.D-4
MCWP 3-23.1 SECTION I . as determined by the requester.
1
Unit Called
This is
Request Number
Sent
2
(Mission categories) Preplanned: A. Precedence is stated numerically in descending order of importance. Identifies the request originator by unit designation/call sign/preassigned number.

Otherwise planners cannot accurately determine what force is required—aircraft numbers/ type and ordnance amount/type.e.g. Locates the target by using the MGRS prescribed for the area concerned. approximate size. and mobility of the target to be attacked. personnel on a 500-meter front). the number of targets (i.. 3.e... Emergency: Targets that require immediate action and supersede all other categories of mission priority. 2.
Line Title and Elements
3
Target is/ Number of
Describes the type. It is necessary to specify. Explanation Use the numerical designation below to determine priority (e. 10 tanks) or the size of the target area (i. even if a rough estimate. Priority: Targets that require immediate action and supersede routine targets. Targets that do not demand urgency in execution.
4
Target Location is
. Routine: Targets of opportunity.Close Air Support
D-5
immediate requests have a precedence of 1. define the tactical situation) for preplanned (block B) or immediate (block C): 1.

Self-explanatory. provides a route or describes a target area. When used together with A and B. Coordinates
C. Coordinates
D. When used together with A. Self-explanatory.D-6
MCWP 3-23. Self-explanatory. The target is to be attacked before. Indicates the time/date when the airstrike is requested. Series H. provides from ____ to ____ coordinates. but not later than (NLT) the time indicated. provides a route. When used together with A through C.
B. Coordinates
E. Target Elevation
F. ASAP B. Coordinates
Explanation Locates a point target or starting point. Indicates with whom target information has been cross-checked.1
Line Title and Elements A. Target elevation in feet above sea level. As soon as possible. Sheet Number G. NLT
. Chart Number Checked
5
Target Time/ Date A.

Self-explanatory. Desired ordnance. Frequency
. To
6
Desired Ordnance/ Results
A. FAC B. FAC(A). Call Sign C. At
Explanation Indicates time at which target is to be attacked. Denotes the end of the period of time in which support such as airborne alert or column cover is required. Destroy C. This is essential information for the planner and must be carefully considered by the requester. Recommended TAD frequency that is
A.
D. etc. When D is used with C. B is unnecessary. Neutralize D.) who will conduct the briefing and control the release of the ordnance.Close Air Support
D-7
Line Title and Elements C. Transmits the type of terminal control. Indicates the requester’s desired results. Ordnance B. Self-explanatory. Self-explanatory. Call sign of terminal controller. Harass/ Interdict
7
Final Control
Identifies the final controller (FAC.

Fix/Control Point
Explanation Military grid coordinates and/or navigation aid (NAVAID) fix of a control point that is the furthest limit of the attack aircraft’s route of flight before control by the final controller. Enter data for the standard CAS brief. or other Service equivalent coordination.D-8
MCWP 3-23. 9. G-2. 6. G-3. 8.1
usable on the FEBA. 2. Artillery coordination. 4.
Line Title and Elements D.
8
Remarks
1.COORDINATION
Line Title and Elements 9 10 11 NGF Artillery AIO/G-2/G-3 Explanation Now known as NSFS.
IP/BP Heading Distance Target Elevation Target Description Target Location Mark Type Friendlies Egress
MAG: Offset Left/Right Feet MSL
Code ___________
SECTION II .
. 7. Air Intelligence Officer. 5. Allows incorporation of briefing information not included elsewhere in the request. 3.

To Time __ Location A. Indicates the individual who approved or disapproved the request. nonnuclear fires.Close Air Support
D-9
Line Title and Elements 12 Request A. surface-delivery. Approved B. The ACA establishes airspace that is reasonably safe from friendly. as appropriate.
15
16
Is in Effect A.
18
Defines the ACA from either side of the centerline. Number
Self-explanatory. Is Not B. A plan number or code name is issued. From Coordinates B. Establishes the time period that the applicable ACA plan will be in effect. From Time __ B.
.
13
14
Reason for Disapproval Airspace Coordination Plan A. Disapproved By
Explanation
Indicates the approval or disapproval of the request. The ACA provides a warning to aircraft of the parameters of surfacedelivered fire in a specific area. To Coordinates Width (Meters)
17
Grid coordinates of the start/end points of the ACA’s centerline.

Call sign of mission aircraft.
Line Title and Elements 20 21 22 Mission Number Call Sign Number and Type Aircraft Ordnance Explanation Indicates mission number.
SECTION III .D . Estimated or actual time the mission aircraft will take off. Same
. Minimum
Explanation ACA altitude given in feet above MSL.
23
Type of ordnance either by code number or actual nomenclature.1
Line Title and Elements 19 Altitude/ Vertex A. Maximum/ Vertex B.
24
EST/ACT Takeoff
25 26
EST TOT
Control Point/Rendezvous The furthest limit of the attack (Coordinates/ aircraft’s route of flight before NAVAID Fix) control by the final controller.10
MCWP 3-23. Self-explanatory. (Use A for Vertex only entry). Estimated TOT.MISSION DATA
Note: Mission data information transmitted to the requesting agency may be limited to those items not included in the request.

Self-explanatory. when designated in the request. Refer to lines 15 through 19 for this data. Explanation Indicates the initial control agency the flight is to contact.Close Air Support
D . item D. The time the aircraft began attack on the target/the time the aircraft completed the mission and departed the target.11
as Line 7.
The location of the target when it was attacked.
Line 1/ Call Sign Line 2/ Mission Number Line 3/ Request Number LINE 4/ Location Line 5/TOT
Mission number of the CAS mission for which results are being reported. Call sign of the reporting aircraft.
Line Title and Elements 27 Initial Contact
28
FAC/TAC(A) Call Sign Frequency ACA
29
30 31
Target Description Target Coordinates/ Elevation BDA Report
32
This optional space is used to record BDA for each mission.
. Self-explanatory. Requesting unit’s request number. Call sign and frequency of final control agency.

Remarks
. (e. Other information appropriate to the tactical situation or as requested.. “10 tanks destroyed.1
Line Title and Elements Line 6/Results
Explanation The specific results of the mission.12
MCWP 3-23.D .g. mission successful”). 150 killed in action ( enemy unit neutralized.

For all sticks of weapons. for the
. the position of a prone man was assumed to be on a line perpendicular to the line of flight (or line of weapon impacts) at the midpoint of the line (stick) of weapons. Risk-estimate distances are based on fragmentation patterns. The deflection distance equals the distance from the aircraft centerline to the farthest outboard station plus the lateral distance that a weapon travels because of rack-ejection velocity.Appendix F
Risk-Estimate Distances
Risk-estimate distances allow commanders to estimate the risk in terms of percent of friendly casualties that may result from an air attack against the enemy. a weapon was assumed to impact at the point of intersection of these two lines. Distances are computed from the intended impact point of the center of a stick of bombs or a pod of rockets. See the FMFM 5-2 series of Joint Munitions Effectiveness Manuals (JMEMs) and appropriate Service or command guidance for peacetime restrictions.
Relationships Between Weapon Impact and Point of Intersection
For all determinations in table F-1 (p. Risk-estimate distances are for combat use and are not minimum safe distances for peacetime training. Thus.
Computations
All attacks are parallel to the FLOT. Deflection distance (from the aiming point toward friendly troops) is built into the risk-estimate distance. F-4).

the following relationships between weapon impact and the point of intersection were assumed: GP bombs.. The center rocket impacts at the point of intersection for an odd number of rockets (e.F-2
MCWP 3-23. Rockets. rockets two and three of four) is at the point of intersection.7.g. Maverick. Delivery parameters and considerations for specific weapons are in MCRP 5-6.0 was used for all weapons evaluated and shown in table F-1. Single-weapon delivery impacting at point of intersection. Risk Estimates for Friendly Troops (C). The center of the pattern created by the middle CBU is located at the point of intersection. four of seven).
Casualty Criterion
The casualty criterion is the 5-minute assault criterion for a prone soldier in winter clothing and helmet. Physical incapacitation means
.The Gunsmiddle round of a single strafe impacts at the point of intersection. The midpoint between the impacts of the center two rockets for an even number of rockets (e.3.1
weapons evaluated. Cluster weapons.. The center bomb of the stick impacts at the point of the intersection.g.
Weapon Reliability and Delivery Parameters
A weapon reliability of 1. .

However.
Troops in Contact
Unless the ground commander determines otherwise. When ground commanders pass their initials to terminal controllers. the terminal controller should regard friendlies within 1 kilometer of targets as a “troops in contact” situation and should advise the ground commander accordingly. friendlies outside of 1 kilometer may still be subject to weapon effects. Terminal controllers and aircrews must carefully weigh the choice of ordnance and delivery profile in relation to the risk of fratricide.Close Air Support
F-3
that a soldier is physically unable to function in an assault within a 5-minute period after an attack. Ordnance delivery inside 0.1% PI distances will be considered as “danger close.1% PI distance. Warning: Risk-estimate distances do not represent the maximum fragmentation envelopes of the weapons listed. A probability of incapacitation (PI) value of less than 0. See JMEMS and appropriate Service
.”
Warning: Risk-estimate distances are for combat use and are not minimum safe distances for peacetime training.1% can be interpreted as being less than or equal to one chance in one thousand. they accept the risk inherent in ordnance delivery inside the 0.1% PI distance. The ground commander must accept responsibility for the risk to friendly forces when targets are inside the 0.

Item M-4. laser.400-lb TVguided bomb) 105-mm cannon 40-/25-/20-mm gun
Mk-1/Mk-21 Mk-5/Mk-23 AC-130
1
Risk-estimate distances are to be determined. GAU-8 30-mm Gatling gun Maverick (TV-.guided) Walleye II (1. B. and risk-estimate distances are not currently available.
3
CBU-71/CBU-84 bombs contain time-delay fuzes that detonate at random times after impact. M-61 AGM-65
5
F-5
Description 20-mm Gatling gun
Risk-Estimate Distance (meters) 10% PI 100 100 25 275 ___1 804 35 0. The 105-mm round described is the M-1 high-explosive (HE) round with the M-732 proximity fuze. CBU-89 bombs are antitank and antipersonnel mines and are not recommended for use near troops in contact. AGM-65 E and G models contain a larger warhead.
4
AC-130 estimates are based on worst-case scenarios. the values shown are for weapons that do not guide and that follow a ballistic trajectory similar to general-purpose bombs. because GBU-24s do not follow a ballistic trajectory. Other fuzing would result in smaller distances.
.000-lb TVguided bomb) Walleye II (2. and D models.1% PI 150 150 100 500 ___1 2004 125
GPU-5A. M-12.
2
Not recommended for use near troops in contact. These figures are accurate throughout the firing orbit. For LGBs.Close Air Support
or command guidance for peacetime restrictions.
Figure F-1. The use of no-fire headings has no benefits for reducing risk-estimate distances and should not be used in contingency situations.
5
The data listed applies only to AGM-65 A. C. This does not apply to GBU-24 bombs. SUU-23. IIR-. Risk-Estimate Distance (continued).

Commanders should adjust these procedures as the combat situation develops. identifiable ground features.
. marking of friendly locations. experience. Standardized tactics provide a baseline for further refinement and improvement.Appendix H
AC-130 Close Air Support Employment
EXECUTION
This section identifies the basic TTP used by AC-130 aircrews to conduct CAS. Aircrews can build on these basic tactics and procedures by using innovative thinking. The AC-130 must complete airborne sensor alignment and wet boresight (test fire) procedures before any CAS mission. Planners should normally allot 30 minutes for sensor alignment/wet boresight. Only under extreme circumstances will a CAS mission be attempted without performing a sensor alignment/wet boresight.
En Route Tactics
For AC-130 missions the following are mandatory briefing items: in-depth threat brief. and ground commander’s willingness to accept “danger close.” Sensor Alignment/Wet Boresight. and information from aircraft tactical manuals to improve CAS for ground combat forces.

CAS Briefing Form. The main consideration in selecting en route tactics is the avoidance of enemy detection and fires. marking of friendly locations.”
Attack Phase
Capabilities. and altitudes. refueling tracks. The AC-130 can provide accurate CAS to ground units for extended periods of time during the day or at night. Upon arrival at the orbit point. Orbiting. In addition to the normal briefing items.H-2
MCWP 3-23. Coordination. the AC-130’s low-level capability allows ingress/egress through medium-threat hostile territory to arrive in a low-threat objective area. the following items are mandatory for AC-130s: a detailed threat description. and the ground commander’s willingness to accept “danger close. Aircrews use the AC-130 call-for-fire briefing form (figure H-1) or the standard CAS briefing form (9 line) shown in figure 4-2. loiter areas. the sensor target acquisition capabilities coupled with
. Additionally. the aircraft will normally proceed to a designated orbit area and await target assignment. If no preplanned targets exist. the terminal controller is contacted for ingress instructions.1
Ingress Tactics. AC-130 crews conduct a threat assessment by using all available intelligence data and combine the threat assessment with terrain study to establish the ingress/egress routes. Medium-altitude ingress reduces fuel consumption and simplifies navigation. The AC-130 aircrew will establish radio contact while en route to speed acquisition of friendly position(s) and authenticate the terminal controller. When necessary. identifiable ground features.

In addition. strobe lights. However. When employing the AC-130 with radar beacons.
. Procedures. and the damage already inflicted will determine the gun selection. Because the gunship fire control system is very accurate.g. The shorter the offset distance. and the number of firing orbits required to successfully attack the target. Locating Friendly Positions. the type of ammunition. The beacon should be located as close as practical to the perimeter of the friendly forces. the terminal controller gives all target ranges and bearings from the location of the beacon. For longer offset distances. One of the first considerations in the attack phase is to identify friendly positions. The AC-130U is not radarbeacon capable. first round accuracy may be reduced.Close Air Support
H-3
ground beacon position marking give the AC-130 a limited allweather capability. the proximity of friendly forces. Considerations for Close-In Fires. the more accurate the weapons delivery. The type of target. factors such as ricocheting rounds. or IR tape). ordnance can be delivered very close to friendly positions. The AC-130 crew will maintain radio contact with the ground forces at all times during firing. Parameters for Attacking the Target. The AC-130 has the ability to deliver firepower under conditions of low ceilings and/or poor visibility by using the APQ-150 radar and Black Crow sensors. The greatest hazard to friendly forces is the possibility of ricocheting rounds. which gives it a true adverse-weather capability. flares. the effects of terrain features. and burst pattern should be considered.. there are several electronic beacons that may be used to assist in locating friendly forces. but it is equipped with a strike radar. Various aids may be used to expedite acquisition (e. and firing down inclined terrain can cause considerable miss distances.

Electronic beacons can be used in conjunction with the radar to identify and track friendly locations.500 m for the C-130H model) can be used to help identify targets or to engage targets in poor weather conditions. These are used as an alternate source of IR illumination and have the capability to illuminate and identify IR tape worn by friendly ground forces. When using the AC-130 in a troops-incontact situation. There are a number of methods for marking ground positions. One or more of these methods should be employed to help identify friendly positions.
. Listed below are considerations for night employment. The AC-130H has a gated laser illuminator for narrow television (GLINT) that is associated with the LLLTV sensor system. the friendly position should be located by using one of the following methods: Marking. Offsets from the beacons (these should not exceed 1. The drawback of the GLINT/LIA is that it highlights the aircraft to NVDequipped enemy forces.
NIGHT CLOSE AIR SUPPORT CONSIDERATIONS
The AC-130 gunship can provide accurate fire support for extended periods of time in a night environment. Sensors.Close Air Support
H-5
Egress fire support coordination and deconfliction requirements are the same as those for ingress. Beacons. aircrews follow the egress instructions and either await further mission tasking or return to base. On mission completion. The AC-130U has a laser illuminator assembly (LIA) that is associated with the advanced low-light television (ALLTV) sensor system.

no weapons are capable of providing fire support.000 ft AGL. This system can be useful in situations such as combat recovery. fires. where the ground party is unsure of its exact location. Any extra tends to produce a “halo” effect on the screen. No more than a 1” x 1” piece of tape on top of the headgear is needed. Below 3. The AC-130 is capable of both VHF/FM and UHF homing. can be used in conjunction with the FLIR device. but they are an active source and therefore not optimum in some situations. then only the forward weapons (20-/25-mm) are available. Radar Reflectors. but it requires the use of the GLINT/LIA and can be washed out by surrounding lights. IR/GLINT tape is a very common marker that is used on both troops and vehicles. Weather is a critical factor when planning for all AC-130 operations. Thermal markers should be carefully coordinated to eliminate the possibility of ambiguous references. Weather. Ground parties can use omnidirectional radar reflectors to aid in covert identification of their position. Sometimes it is effective to “snake” the IR spot from the observation point to the target. If multiple reflectors are used in a predetermined pattern. Strobes are also good marking devices.1
Visual Markers. Also.H-6
MCWP 3-23. the AC-130H is equipped with the personnel locator system (PLS). IR pointers are excellent devices for marking both the target and friendly positions.
. Direction Finding (DF) Homing. they must be placed at least 10 feet apart.500 ft AGL and the aircraft is operating below the ceiling. thermal markers. In addition. and so on. The tape is usually a good aid in identification. If the ceiling is below 4. such as thermal panels. fuel tabs. Virtually any distinctive light source can also aid in the identification of ground references.

Close Air Support Section II. See also tactical air control center.An agency of a tactical air control system collocated with a corps headquarters or an appropriate land force headquarters. (Joint Pub 1-02) airspace coordination area .The principal air operations installation from which aircraft and air warning functions of combat air operaof the Air Force Component Commander from which command and Services. (Joint Pub 1-02) air support operations center . airspace control authority . in which friendly aircraft are reasonably safe from friendly surface fires. which coordinates and directs close air support and other tactical air support. sea and air forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force. Terms and Definitions A
I-9
air operations center .That degree of dominance in the air battle of one force over another which permits the conduct of operations by the former and its related land. (Joint Pub 1-02)
. established by the appropriate ground commander. (Joint Pub 1-02) air superiority . Also called AOC.A three-dimensional block of airspace in a target area. The airspace coordination area may be formal or informal.The commander designated to assume overall responsibility for the operation of the airspace control system in the airspace control area.

The Army system which provides for interface between Army and tactical air support agencies of other Services in the planning.I . processing.A defensive location oriented on the most likely enemy avenue of approach from which a unit may defend or attack. ground. functional damage assessment. and target system assessment. but other forces may operate outside the battle position to provide early detection of enemy forces and all-round security. evaluating.10
MCWP 3-23. Battle damage assessment can be applied to the employment of all types of weapon systems (air. and necessary communication equipment. Battle damage assessment is primarily an intelligence responsibility with required inputs and coordination from the operators.1
Army air-ground system . (Joint Pub 1-02)
B
battle damage assessment . and special forces weapon systems) throughout the range of military operations. Also called BDA. including G-2 air and G-3 air personnel. (Joint Pub 1-02) battle position . either lethal or non-lethal. and coordinating of air support requirements and operations.The timely and accurate estimate of damage resulting from the application of military force. (FMFRP 0-14)
C
. The unit assigned to the battle position is located within the general outline of the battle position. It is composed of appropriate staff members. Battle damage assessment is composed of physical damage assessment. naval. against a predetermined objective. Such units can be as large as reinforced battalions and as small as platoons.

and rotary-wing aircraft against hostile targets which are in close proximity to friendly forces and which require detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of those forces.11
close air support . easily identifiable. (Joint Pub 1-02)
D
direct air support center . Also called CAS. (Joint Pub 1-02) contact point . directing. and procedures employed by a commander in planning. Command and control functions are performed through an arrangement of personnel. Marine air command and control system responsible for the direction and control of air operations directly supporting the ground combat element. Also called C2.1. coordinating. a point on the terrain.The principal air control agency of the U. a location where an evader can establish contact with friendly forces. and controlling forces and operations in the accomplishment of the mission. It normally
. (DOD. (DOD) In evasion and recovery operations. It processes and coordinates requests for immediate air support and coordinates air missions requiring integration with ground forces and other supporting arms. NATO) In land warfare. 3. NATO) In air operations. communications. 2. preplanned mission request. facilities. equipment. (DOD.The exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated commander over assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of the mission. the position at which a mission leader makes radio contact with an air control agency.S.Close Air Support
I .Air action by fixed. See also immediate mission request. where two or more units are required to make contact. (Joint Pub 1-02) command and control .

The three major subdivisions within electronic warfare are electronic attack. electronic protection. That division of electronic warfare involving actions tasked
.I . (Joint Pub 1-02) direct support . or equipment with the intent of degrading.1
collocates with the senior fire support coordination center within the ground combat element and is subordinate to the tactical air command center. That division of electronic warfare involving actions taken to protect personnel. a. electronic protection. tactical air operations center. Also called DASC. tactical air command center. electronic attack. neutralize. See also general support. EA includes: (1) actions taken to prevent or reduce an enemy’s effective use of the electromagnetic spectrum. such as jamming and electromagnetic deception.12
MCWP 3-23. or destroy friendly combat capability. and (2) employment of weapons that use either electromagnetic or directed energy as their primary destructive mechanism (lasers. c. Also called EW. and electronic warfare support.Any military action involving the use of electromagnetic and directed energy to control the electromagnetic spectrum or to attack the enemy. (Joint Pub 1-02)
E
electronic warfare . or antiradiation weapons to attack personnel. facilities. directed energy. See also Marine air command and control system.A mission requiring a force to support another specific force and authorizing it to answer directly the supported force’s request for assistance. particle beams. or destroying enemy combat capability. radio frequency weapons. That division of electronic warfare involving the use of electromagnetic. neutralizing. and equipment from any effects of friendly or enemy employment of electronic warfare that degrade. antiradiation weapons). Also called EP. Also called EA. b. facilities. electronic warfare support.

Thus. or sea weapons systems using any type of ammunition against surface targets. targeting. an operational commander to search for. The fire support coordination line should follow well-defined terrain features. ground. See also suppression of enemy air defenses. both communications intelligence.13
by. See also supporting arms coordination center.A line established by the appropriate land or amphibious force commander to ensure coordination of fire not under the commander’s control but which may affect current tactical operations. and homing. intercept.A single location in which are centralized communications facilities and personnel incident to the coordination of all forms of fire support. (Joint Pub 1-02) fire support coordination line . See also supporting arms coordination center. (Joint Pub 1-02.A measure employed by land or amphibious commanders to facilitate the rapid engagement of targets and simultaneously provide safeguards for friendly forces. Electronic warfare support data can be used to produce signals intelligence. and electronics intelligence. or under direct control of. The fire support coordination line is used to coordinate fires of air. Also called ES. electronic warfare support provides information required for immediate decisions involving electronic warfare operations and other tactical actions such as threat avoidance. and locate sources of intentional and unintentional radiated electromagnetic energy for the purpose of immediate threat recognition. The establishment of the fire support coordination line must be coordinated with the appropriate tactical air commander and other supporting elements. Supporting elements may attack targets forward
.) fire support coordination center . (Joint Pub 1-02)
F
fire support coordination measure . identify.Close Air Support
I .

and deployed by an aviation commander. from a forward ground or airborne position. (Joint Pub 1-02) See night vision device. Also called FLIR.A specifically trained and qualified aviation officer who exercises control from the air of aircraft engaged in close air support of ground troops. to provide fuel and ammunition necessary for the employment of aviation maneuver units in combat.14
MCWP 3-23. and provides a visible image for day or night viewing. converts the energy into an electronic signal. equipped. organized.An airborne.I . Also called FARP. (Joint Pub 1-02) forward air controller .A temporary facility. (Joint Pub 1-02) forward arming and refueling point . (Joint Pub 1-02) forward looking infrared .1
of the fire support coordination line without prior coordination with the land or amphibious force commander provided the attack will not produce adverse surface effects on or to the rear of the line. Also called FAC(A). Also called FSCL.
. Attacks against surface targets behind this line must be coordinated with the appropriate land or amphibious force commander. and normally located in the main battle area closer to the area of operation than the aviation unit’s combat service area. The forward air controller (airborne) is normally an airborne extension of the tactical air control party. The forward arming and refueling point permits combat aircraft to rapidly refuel and rearm simultaneously. electro-optical thermal imaging device that detects far-infrared energy. (Joint Pub 1-02) forward air controller (airborne) . controls aircraft in close air support of ground troops.An officer (aviator/pilot) member of the tactical air control party who.

NATO) That support which is given to the supported force as a whole and not to any particular subdivision thereof.An airfield used to support tactical operations without establishing full support facilities. (Joint Pub 1-02) See also direct support.(DOD. (Joint Pub 1-02) immediate mission request . Also called FOB.15
forward operating base . by its nature. (Joint Pub 1-02)
. See also orbit point.Close Air Support
I .A request for an airstrike on a target which. See also preplanned mission request. (Joint Pub 1-02)
I
immediate air support .
H
holding point .Air support to meet specific requests which arise during the course of a battle and which by their nature cannot be planned in advance. Support by a main operating base will be required to provide backup support for a forward operating base.A geographically or electronically defined location used in stationing aircraft in flight in a predetermined pattern in accordance with air traffic control clearance. could not be identified sufficiently in advance to permit detailed mission coordination and planning. (Joint Pub 1-02)
G
general support . The base may be used for an extended time period.

16
MCWP 3-23. airborne—A point close to the landing area where serials (troop carrier air formations) make final alterations in course to pass over individual drop or landing zones. 4.1
infrared pointer . subunified commander. (Joint Pub 1-02) initial point . and comes under the control of the commander ordering the move. 2. The first point at which a moving target is located on a plotting board. coordinate. It is composed of command and control agencies with
. helicopter—An air control point in the vicinity of the landing zone from which individual flights of helicopters are directed to their prescribed landing sites. Also called JFC. 3. easily distinguishable visually and/or electronically. Also called IR pointer. or joint task force commander authorized to exercise combatant command (command authority) or operational control over a joint force. (Joint Pub 1-02)
J
joint force commander .A system which provides the aviation combat element commander with the means to command.1.A low power laser device operating in the near infrared light spectrum that is visible with light amplifying night vision devices. and control all air operations within an assigned sector and to coordinate air operations with other Services. A well-defined point. used as a starting point for the bomb run to the target.I . 5. Any designated place at which a column or element thereof is formed by the successive arrival of its various subdivisions. (Joint Pub 1-02)
M
Marine air command and control system .A general term applied to a combatant commander.

forward-looking infrared.Any electro-optical device that is used to detect visible and infrared energy and provide a visible image. and electronic warfare systems in support of a unit or units tasked with achieving the commander’s objectives. Night vision goggles can be either hand-held or helmet-mounted. Also called NVG. thermal sights. forward-looking infrared.Those air operations conducted against enemy installations. facilities. and provides a visible image for night viewing. See also night vision goggle(s). (FMFRP 0-14)
. Night vision goggles. See also direct air support center. missile.17
communications-electronics equipment that incorporates a capability from manual through semiautomatic control. (Joint Pub 1-02) night vision device . and personnel to directly assist the attainment of MAGTF objectives by the destruction of enemy resources or the isolation of his military force. (Joint Pub 1-02)
O
offensive air support . See also night vision device. intensifies the energy.An electro-optical image intensifying device that detects visible and near-infrared energy.Fire provided by Navy surface gun.Close Air Support
I . Also called NVD. (Joint Pub 1-02)
N
naval surface fire support . (Joint Pub 1-02) night vision goggle(s) . Also called MACCS. and lowlight-level television are night vision devices. Also called NSFS. tactical air operations center. tactical air command center.

and naval gunfire are centralized.A request for an airstrike on a target which can be anticipated sufficiently in advance to permit detailed mission coordination and planning.
.1
orbit point . (Joint Pub 1-02) See close air support. an acceptable level of risk under which the supported ground commander allows aircrew to attack targets and release ordnance without positive control.18
MCWP 3-23. See close air support. See also holding point. See fire support coordination center. This is the naval counterpart to the fire support coordination center utilized by the landing force.Air support in accordance with a program.I .
R
reasonable assurance . air.A geographically or electronically defined location used in stationing aircraft in flight during tactical operations when a predetermined pattern is not established. (Joint Pub 1-02)
P
preplanned air support . (Joint Pub 1-02) preplanned mission request .During each close air support mission.A single location on board an amphibious command ship in which all communication facilities incident to the coordination of fire support of the artillery. planned in advance of operations. (MCRP 5-2C draft)
S
supporting arms coordination center .

Marine air command and control system. and direction of joint and combined air operations.
. The tactical air command center can provide integration. and execute all current and future air operations in support of the Marine air-ground task force.S. destroys. Also called Marine TACC. tactical air operations center. It is the senior agency of the U. Also called Navy TACC. Local time is established using the local time zone. or temporarily degrades surface-based enemy air defenses by destructive and/or disruptive means.The principal air operations installation (ship-based) from which all aircraft and air warning functions of tactical air operations are controlled. (Joint Pub 1-02) See air support operations center. coordination. It provides the facility from which the aviation combat element commander and his battlestaff plan. supervise. See also electronic warfare.A technique of timing the delivery of fires by placing all units on a common time. Marine air command and control system which serves as the operational command post of the aviation combat element commander. (Joint Pub 1-02)
T
tactical air command center .The principal U. fire support coordination measure. (Joint Pub 1-02) tactical air control center .Close Air Support
I . See also direct air support center. The synchronized clock uses a specific hour/minute based on either local or universal time. (Joint Pub 1-02) suppression of enemy air defenses . Also called SEAD.S.19
See fire support coordination center.That activity which neutralizes. coordinate. (Joint Pub 1-02) synchronized clock . Marine Corps air command and control agency from which air operations and air defense warning functions are directed.

(Joint Pub 1-02) See Marine air command and control system.An air operations installation under the overall control of the tactical air control center (afloat)/tactical air command center. Any electronic. from an aircraft.The principal air control agency of the U. 2.S. direction. the action of combat aircraft engaged in close support of ground or sea forces. and navigational assistance for friendly aircraft. passengers.I . It is subordinate to the tactical air command center. The authority to direct the maneuver of aircraft which are delivering ordnance. Also called TAOC. (Joint Pub 1-02) thermal crossover . Marine air command and control system responsible for airspace control and management.A subordinate operational component of a tactical air control system designed to provide air liaison to land forces and for the control of aircraft. It provides real time surveillance. (Joint Pub 1-02) tactical air operations center . terminal control .The natural phenomenon which normally occurs twice daily when temperature conditions are such that there
. Terminal control is a type of air control. (Joint Pub 1-02) tactical air coordinator (airborne) . or cargo to a specific location or target.1
tactical air control party . to include manned interceptors and surface-to-air weapons. It performs real time direction and control of all antiair warfare operations. (Joint Pub 1-02) tactical air direction center .1. positive control.20
MCWP 3-23.An officer who coordinates. from which aircraft and air warning service functions of tactical air operations in an area of responsibility are directed. mechanical or visual control given to aircraft to facilitate target acquisition and resolution.

The actual time at which aircraft attack/photograph the target. Time at which aircraft are scheduled to attack/photograph the target.21
is a loss of contrast between two adjacent objects on infrared imagery. 3. (Joint Pub 1-02)
. The time at which a nuclear detonation is planned at a specified desired ground zero. (Joint Pub 1-02) time to target .The number of minutes and seconds to elapse before aircraft ordnance impacts on target. (Joint Pub 1-02) time on target .1. 2.Close Air Support
I .