Labour's 1916 policy objectives called for "the socialisation of the means of production, distribution and exchange", including state ownership of major parts of the economy.[3] Up to the 1980s Labour remained a party that believed in a strong role for governments in economic and social matters. However, it had been transformed from a union-dominated, socialist-oriented movement into a moderate social-democratic party,[2][13] the Labour Government of the 1980s deviated sharply from a social-democratic path; in a series of economic reforms dubbed "Rogernomics" (after Finance Minister Roger Douglas), the government removed a swathe of regulations and subsidies, privatised state assets and introduced corporate practices to state services.[14]

From the 1990s Labour has again aimed to use the power of the state to try to achieve a fairer and more equal society, based on a mixed economy in which both the state and private enterprise play a part. According to its constitution (amended most recently in 2014), the party accepts "democratic socialist" principles, including:[15]

The management of New Zealand's natural resources for the benefit of all, including future generations.

Equal access to all social, economic, cultural, political and legal spheres, regardless of wealth or social position.

The New Zealand Labour Party was established on 7 July 1916 in Wellington,[10] bringing together socialist groups advocating proportional representation, the abolition of the country quota, the "recall" of Members of Parliament, as well as the nationalisation of production and of exchange.[16] Despite its Wellington origins, the West Coast town of Blackball is often regarded as the birthplace of the party,[17] as it was the location of the founding of one of the main political organisations which became part of the nascent Labour Party. The party was created by, and has always been influenced by, the trade unions, and in practice Labour Party politicians regard themselves as part of a broader labour movement and tradition.[18]

The New Zealand Labour Party was an amalgamation of a number of early groups, the oldest of which was founded in 1901, the process of unifying these diverse groups into a single party was difficult, with tensions between different factions running strong.[19]

At the turn of the century, the radical side of New Zealand working class politics was represented by the Socialist Party, founded in 1901, the more moderate leftists were generally supporters of the Liberal Party.[20] In 1905, a group of working class politicians who were dissatisfied with the Liberal approach established the Independent Political Labour League,[21] which managed to win a seat in Parliament in the 1908 election.[22][23] This established the basic dividing line in New Zealand's left-wing politics – the Socialists tended to be revolutionary and militant, while the moderates focused instead on progressive reform.[24]

In 1910, the Independent Political Labour League was relaunched as an organisation called the Labour Party, distinct from the modern party. Soon, however, the leaders of the new organisation decided additional effort was needed to promote left-wing cooperation, and organised a "Unity Conference", the Socialists refused to attend, but several independent labour activists agreed. The United Labour Party was born.[24]

Soon afterwards, the labour movement was hit by the Waihi miners' strike, a major industrial disturbance prompted by radicals in the union movement,[25] the movement was split between supporting and opposing the radicals, and in the end, the conservative government of William Massey suppressed the strike by force. In the strike's aftermath, there was a major drive to end the divisions in the movement and establish a united front – another Unity Conference was called, and this time the Socialists attended,[25] the resulting group was named the Social Democratic Party.

Not all members of the United Labour Party accepted the new organisation, however, and some continued on under their own banner. Gradually, however, the differences between the Social Democrats and the ULP Remnant broke down, and in 1915 they formed a unified caucus both to better oppose Reform and to differentiate themselves from the Liberals.[26] A year later yet another gathering was held, this time, all major factions of the labour movement agreed to unite, establishing the modern Labour Party.[27]

Almost immediately, the new Labour Party became involved in the acrimonious debate about conscription, which arose during World War I – the Labour Party strongly opposed conscription,[28] several leaders were jailed and expelled from Parliament for their stand against the war: Peter Fraser, Harry Holland, Bob Semple and Paddy Webb.[29] The loss of leadership threatened to seriously destabilise the party, but the party survived. Fraser, Semple and Webb later supported conscription in World War II.[29]

In its first real electoral test as a united party, the 1919 election, Labour won eight seats – the party's quick success shocked many conservatives,[30] this compared with 47 for the governing Reform Party and 21 for the Liberal Party.[31]

Although Labour had split with its more militant faction, (who went on to form various socialist parties) it maintained what were at the time radical socialist policies. Labour's 'Usehold' policy on land was in essence the replacement of freehold tenure by a system of perpetual lease from the state, with all land transfer conducted through the state (the full nationalisation of farmland), this policy was unpopular with voters and was dropped by Labour, along with other more radical policies, throughout the 1920s.[24]

In the 1922 election, Labour more than doubled its number of seats, winning seventeen; in the 1925 election, it declined somewhat, but had the consolation of soon overtaking the Liberals as the second largest party. Harry Holland became the official Leader of the Opposition on 16 June 1926, after the Eden by-election on 15 April elected Rex Mason (Labour) to replace James Parr (Reform) who had resigned. After the 1928 election, however, the party was left in an advantageous position – the Reform Party and the new United Party (a revival of the Liberals) were tied on 27 seats each, and neither could govern without Labour support. Labour chose to back United, the party closest to its own views – this put an end to five terms of Reform Party government.[32]

The rigours of the Great Depression brought Labour considerable popularity, but also caused tension between Labour and the United Party; in 1931, United passed a number of economic measures which Labour deemed hostile to workers, and the agreement between the two parties collapsed. United then formed a coalition government with Reform, making Labour the Opposition, the coalition retained power in the 1931 election, but gradually, the public became highly dissatisfied with its failure to resolve the country's economic problems. In the 1935 election, the Labour Party won a massive victory, gaining 53 seats to the coalition's 19.

Michael Joseph Savage, leader of the party, became Prime Minister on 6 December 1935, marking the beginning of Labour's first term in office. The new government quickly set about implementing a number of significant reforms, including a reorganisation of the social welfare system and the creation of the state housing scheme.[33] Workers also benefited from the introduction of the forty hour week, and legislation making it easier for unions to negotiate on their behalf.[34] Savage himself was highly popular with the working classes, and his portrait could be found on the walls of many houses around the country,[35] at this time the Labour Party pursued an alliance with the MāoriRātana movement.[36]

The opposition, meanwhile, attacked the Labour Party's more left-wing policies, and accused it of undermining free enterprise and hard work, the year after Labour's first win, the Reform Party and the United Party took their coalition to the next step, agreeing to merge with each other. The combined organisation was named the National Party, and would be Labour's main rival in future years.[37]

Labour also faced opposition from within its ranks. While the Labour Party had been explicitly socialist at its inception, it had been gradually drifting away from its earlier radicalism, the death of the party's former leader, the "doctrinaire" Harry Holland, had marked a significant turning point in the party's history. Some within the party, however, were displeased about the changing focus of the party, most notably John A. Lee. Lee, whose views were a mixture of socialism and social credit theory, emerged as a vocal critic of the party's leadership, accusing it of behaving autocratically and of betraying the party's rank and file, after a long and bitter dispute, Lee was expelled from the party, establishing his own breakaway Democratic Labour Party.[38]

Savage died in 1940, and was replaced by Peter Fraser, who became Labour's longest-serving Prime Minister. Fraser is best known as New Zealand's leader for most of World War II; in the post-war period, however, ongoing shortages and industrial problems cost Labour considerable popularity, and the National Party, under Sidney Holland, gained ground although Labour was able to win the 1943 and 1946 elections. Finally, in the 1949 elections, Labour was defeated.[39]

Fraser died shortly afterwards, and was replaced by Walter Nash, the long-serving Minister of Finance,[40] it was to be some time before Labour would return to power, however – Nash lacked the charisma of his predecessors, and National won considerable support for opposing the "industrial anarchy" of the 1951 waterfront dispute. In the 1957 election, however, Labour won the narrowest of victories, and returned to office.

Nash, Labour's third prime minister, took office in late 1957. Upon coming to power, Labour decided that drastic measures were needed to address balance of payments concerns,[41] this resulted in the highly unpopular "Black Budget" of Arnold Nordmeyer, the new Minister of Finance, which raised taxes on alcohol, cigarettes, cars, and petrol.[42] It is widely thought to have doomed the party to defeat despite the economy having rejuvenated less than a year after the Black Budget was adopted;[42] in the 1960 election, the National Party was indeed victorious.

The elderly Nash retired in 1963, suffering from ill health,[43] he was replaced by Nordmeyer, but the taint of the Black Budget ensured that Nordmeyer did not have any appreciable success in reversing the party's fortunes. In 1965, the leadership was assumed by the younger Norman Kirk, who many believed would revitalise the party. Labour was defeated again in the next two elections, but in the 1972 election, the party gained a significant victory.

Kirk proved to be an energetic Prime Minister, and introduced a number of new policies, his foreign policy stances included strong criticism of nuclear weapons testing and of South Africa's apartheid system. Kirk's health was poor, however, and was worsened by his refusal to slow the pace of his work; in 1974, Kirk was taken ill and died. He was replaced by Bill Rowling, who did not have the same appeal – in the 1975 election, Labour was defeated by National, which was led by Robert Muldoon.[44]

Rowling remained leader of the Labour Party for some time after his defeat; in the 1978 election and the 1981 election, Labour won a larger share of the vote than National, but failed to win an equivalent number of seats. Rowling himself was compared unfavourably to Muldoon, and did not cope well with Muldoon's aggressive style. Rowling was eventually replaced by David Lange, who the caucus perceived as more charismatic;[45] in the 1984 election, Labour was victorious.

When the fourth Labour government came into power it uncovered a fiscal crisis that had been largely hidden by the outgoing Third National Government.[46] Government debt was skyrocketing, due largely to the costs of borrowing to maintain a fixed exchange rate. When the result of the election became clear Lange asked Muldoon to devalue the dollar, which he refused to do, resulting in a constitutional crisis and precipitating some of the changes in the Constitution Act 1986.[47]

Throughout the first term of the fourth Labour government, the Cabinet remained largely unified behind the radical financial, economic and policy reforms that were enacted;[48] in 1987 Labour won a first-past-the-post election for the last time (the Mixed Member Proportional system was introduced in 1996). It was not until this second term, which increased Labour's majority and was won mostly on the back of its anti-nuclear stance, that considerable divisions over economic policy began to arise within the Cabinet,[49] the Minister of Finance, Roger Douglas, was a supporter of free market theories, and sought to implement sweeping reforms ("Rogernomics") to the economy and tax system. Others within the party, however, saw this as a betrayal of the party's left-wing roots.[citation needed] The party was also criticised by the Council of Trade Unions.

Opposition to Douglas's reforms remained strong – eventually, a Labour MP, Jim Anderton, left to establish the NewLabour Party,[49] eventually forming the basis of the left-wing Alliance. At the same time, Douglas was pressing onwards, proposing a flat tax rate. Finally, David Lange forced Douglas to resign, and shortly afterwards resigned himself.[50]

Lange was replaced by Geoffrey Palmer.[50] Palmer, however, was unable to counter widespread discontent among Labour's traditional supporters, and a few months before the 1990 election, Palmer was replaced by Mike Moore, the Labour Party suffered its worst defeat since it first took office in 1935.

Moore was eventually replaced by Helen Clark, who led the party in opposition to the National Party government of Jim Bolger, during the period in opposition, the party made a measured repudiation of Rogernomics, although it has never returned to its original strong left-wing stance (its contemporary position is left-of-centre).[4] When the 1996 election, the first conducted under the MMP electoral system, gave the balance of power to the centrist New Zealand First party, many believed that Labour would return to power, but in the end New Zealand First allied itself with the National Party. This coalition was unstable, however, and eventually collapsed, leaving the National Party to govern as a minority government.

After the 1999 election, a coalition government of Labour and the Alliance took power, with Helen Clark becoming New Zealand's second female Prime Minister,[52] this government, while undertaking a number of reforms, was not particularly radical when compared to previous Labour governments, and maintained a high level of popularity. The Alliance, however, fell in popularity and split internally, the latter factor being one of the reasons cited by Clark for her calling the 2002 election several months early, which Labour comfortably won.

Following the loss to the National Party in the November 2008 election, Helen Clark stood down as leader of the party,[58] she was succeeded by Phil Goff (2008–2011).[59] Labour had a relatively high turnover of four leaders during its most recent term in opposition; this has been attributed in part to changes within public media and the political environment.[60] Goff led Labour into a second electoral defeat in 2011 and was succeeded by David Shearer (2011–2013).[61] Shearer resigned after losing the confidence of caucus. David Cunliffe (2013–2014) was elected in the 2013 leadership election.[62] Cunliffe was disliked by some factions within the Labour caucus but had strong support from the party membership; in the leadership contest he won first-preference votes from only one-third of Labour MPs.[63] Cunliffe resigned following a further election loss in 2014, he was replaced by Andrew Little (2014–2017). Little resigned in 2017 following new polling showing the party sinking to a record low result.[64]Jacinda Ardern (2017–present) was confirmed as the new Labour leader.[64][65]

After Ardern's ascension to the leadership Labour rose dramatically in opinion polls. By late August they had risen to 43% in one poll (having been 24% under Little's leadership), as well as managing to overtake National in opinion polls for the first time in over a decade.[66]

During the 2017 general election, the Labour Party gained 36.6% of the party vote and increased its presence in the House of Representatives to 46 seats, making it the second largest party in Parliament.[12]

On 19 October 2017, New Zealand First Leader Winston Peters announced that his party would form a coalition government with Labour,[67] citing changing international and internal economic circumstances as the reasoning behind his decision,[68] coupled with a belief that a Labour government was best-placed to handle the social and economic welfare of New Zealanders in a global environment that was undergoing rapid and seismic change.[69] This coalition, combined with confidence and supply from the Green Party,[70] saw Labour return to government for the first time since 2008.

The Labour government has pledged to eliminate child poverty, make tertiary education free, reduce immigration by 20,000–30,000, decriminalise abortion, introduce a water royalty and make all rivers swimmable within 10 years.[71]

Party membership is tied into geographically-based branches in each parliamentary electorate. General branches must consist of at least 10 members aged 15 or over.[72] Members may also form special branches where they have a special community of interest (such as university students and academics, young people, women, Māori people, Pacific Islanders and industrial workers).[72] Influential branches include Princes Street Labour (this university branch is described as the "ideological powerhouse of the party",[73] and has contributed many prominent Labour politicians) and Vic Labour (the Victoria University of Wellington branch).[74]

Full (non-affiliate) membership peaked at 55,000 in 1976. During the 1980s and 1990s party membership plummeted to levels not seen since before the First Labour Government, this decline might be attributed to disillusionment on the part of some members with the economics policies of the Fourth Labour Government ("Rogernomics"). Membership figures began to recover under Helen Clark's leadership, with 14,000 members recorded in 2002.[76]

Conference, councils and committees

Delegates from all branches in the electorate, together with delegates from affiliated unions, make up the Labour Electorate Committee (LEC), the LEC is responsible for party organisation in the electorate.[72] The party is divided into six regional areas, which each year convene a Regional Conference.[77] Policy and other matters are debated and passed onto the Annual Conference.[72]

The Annual Conference is the supreme governing body of the party when it is in session. All constituent bodies of the Party are entitled to send delegates to Annual Conference.[72]

The New Zealand Council is the Labour Party's governing executive,[77] it ensures that the party is governed effectively according to its constitution. The NZ Council consists of the President, two Senior Vice Presidents (one of which must be a Māori), three Vice Presidents (representing Women, Affiliates and Pacific Islands), seven Regional Reps, one Policy Council Rep, three Caucus Reps and the General Secretary.[72]

The elected members representing the Labour Party in the House of Representatives meet as the Parliamentary Labour Party, generally known as the Caucus, the current parliamentary leader is Jacinda Ardern. A leadership election is triggered upon the vacancy of the position of leader or a motion of no confidence. Candidates are nominated from within the Caucus. Under Labour Party rules, party members have 40% of the votes, MPs have another 40% of the votes, and affiliated unions have 20% of the votes,[72] some observers have criticised the influence of the unions in leadership elections.[78]

In the first decades of the 20th century, industries grew strongly in New Zealand's main cities and union membership also increased, the Labour Party was formed in this period as the political wing of the labour movement, and was financed by trade unions. Since then, the unions have retained close institutional links with the party. There are currently six unions that are directly affiliated to the party and pay affiliation fees as well as receiving a percentage of the vote in party leadership elections,[78] these unions are:

Young Labour is the party's youth wing, it exists to organise young members (under 26[81]) and encourage wider involvement of young New Zealanders in centre-left politics. Young Labour is the most active sector in the Labour Party and plays a significant role in policy development and campaign efforts, it is endearingly called the "conscience of the party".[82]

In Christchurch Labour maintains an umbrella including community independents called The People's Choice (formerly Christchurch 2021). Labour candidates stand as 'The People's Choice (Labour)' and currently[when?] hold a number of community board seats, seven council seats, and several community board chairmanships.

Wellington has three Labour Party councillors: Brian Dawson – Lambton Ward councillor, Fleur Fitzsimons – Southern Ward councillor and Peter Gilberd – Northern Ward Councillor. Justin Lester is the current Mayor of Wellington who ran on a Labour Party ticket. There are many more local and regional councillors who are Labour Party members, but do not run as endorsed candidates of the party.

While the Labour Party has not recently contested the local body elections in Dunedin, the city councillor and former Labour MP David Benson-Pope announced on 26 February 2016 that he would be contesting the Dunedin local elections in October under the "Local Labour" ticket. While still a Labour Party member, Benson Pope had stood in the 2013 local elections as an independent candidate, this report coincided with the dissolution of the city's main local body ticket, the Greater Dunedin group.[84] On 20 April, it was reported that the Labour Party had dropped its plan to field a bloc of candidates in the 2016 Dunedin elections. However, the Party has not ruled out endorsing other candidates.[85]

There are many others councillors in almost all areas of New Zealand that are members or have previously had connections with the Labour Party, but have instead contested local elections as independents.

Labour did not stand candidates in every electorate until 1946, when it stood candidates in all 80 electorates. According to the National Executive reports,[92] the number of official candidates in 1919 is uncertain (53 or possibly 46), the number of candidates was 41, 1922; 56, 1925; 55, 1928; 53, 1931; 70, 1935; 78, 1938 and 77, 1943. Labour did not run against independent candidates who voted with Labour; Harry Atmore in Nelson and David McDougall in Mataura, Southland. Labour did not run candidates against the two Country Party candidates in 1935; but did in 1938, when both candidates were defeated.

The Labour Party has had seventeen leaders – ten of whom have served as Prime Minister. Helen Clark is the longest serving leader of the Labour Party. While some dispute exists as to when Harry Holland officially became leader, by 26 October 2008 Clark had passed his longest possible leadership term.[93]

^"Labour: Constitution and Rules"(PDF). NZ Labour Party. 2014. p. 4. Retrieved 11 June 2014. The Party accepts the following democratic socialist principles –
g. All political authority comes from the people by democratic means, including universal suffrage, regular and free elections with a secret ballot.
h. The natural resources of New Zealand belong to all the people and these resources, and in particular non-renewable resources, should be managed for the benefit of all, including future generations.
i. All people should have equal access to all social, economic, cultural, political and legal spheres, regardless of wealth or social position, and continuing participation in the democratic process.
j. Co-operation, rather than competition, should be the main governing factor in economic relations, in order that a greater amount and a just distribution of wealth can be ensured.
k. All people are entitled to dignity, self-respect and the opportunity to work.
l. All people, either individually or in groups, may own wealth or property for their own use, but in any conflict of interest people are always more important than property, and the state must ensure a just distribution of wealth.
m. Te Tiriti o Waitangi/The Treaty of Waitangi is the founding document of New Zealand, and that the Treaty should be honoured in the Party, government, society and the whanau.
n. Peace and social justice should be promoted throughout the world by international co-operation and mutual respect.
o. The same basic human rights, protected by the State, apply to all people, regardless of race, sex, marital status, sexual orientation, gender identity, age, religious faith, political belief or disability.

1.
Nigel Haworth
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Nigel Anthony Fell Haworth is a New Zealand economics academic and politician. He was elected president of the New Zealand Labour Party in February 2015, born in Wales in 1951, Haworth studied economics at the University of Liverpool, and completed a PhD there in 1982. He specialises in Latin American studies and the labour market. From 1978 to 1988, Haworth was a lecturer in industrial relations at the University of Strathclyde and he then emigrated to New Zealand to take up a post at the University of Auckland, becoming a professor in 1993. He was appointed head of the Department of Management and International Business in 2012 for a three-year term, Haworth served as president of the Association of University Staff of New Zealand from 2005 to 2008. In 2012 he was elected as a member of the New Zealand Labour Partys policy council, and he was elected to succeed Moira Coatworth as party president in 2015

2.
Jacinda Ardern
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Jacinda Kate Laurell Ardern is a New Zealand politician and a member of the Labour Partys shadow cabinet. She was first elected to parliament as a list MP at the 2008 general election and she is currently the MP for Mt Albert, and the Deputy Leader of the Labour Party. Born in Hamilton, Ardern grew up in Morrinsville and Murupara and she attended the University of Waikato, where she earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in Communications. She joined the Labour Party at an age, and became a senior figure in the Young Labour Party. After graduating from Waikato University, she spent time working in the offices of Phil Goff and she later spent time in London, working as a senior policy advisor. In early 2008 she won election as the President of the International Union of Socialist Youth, Ardern was raised a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints but left the church in 2005 because it conflicted with her political views. After a high placement on Labours party list for the 2008 election Ardern returned from London to campaign full-time and she also became the Partys candidate for the Waikato electorate. Ardern was unsuccessful in the vote, but was elected as a List MP. Upon election, she became the youngest sitting MP in Parliament, succeeding fellow Labour MP Darren Hughes, Labour Parliamentary leader Phil Goff appointed Ardern as Labours spokesperson for Youth Affairs and as associate spokesperson for Justice. Jacinda Ardern has featured as a panel guest on the TVNZ show Back Benches, the episodes panel comprised young members of various political parties. On 19 November 2008, shortly after the 2008 general election and she featured again on Wednesday 23 June 2010, shortly after the shadow cabinet reshuffle, in which Ardern had no portfolio change. She has also made appearances on TVNZs Breakfast programme as part of the Young Guns feature. Ardern contested the high-profile Auckland Central seat for Labour in the 2011 general election, standing against incumbent National MP Nikki Kaye for National, despite targeting Green voters to vote strategically for her, she did not succeed in her bid to unseat Kaye, losing by 717 votes. However, she returned to Parliament via the party list and she maintained an office within the electorate while a listed MP based in Auckland Central. After Goff resigned from the Party leadership following his defeat at the 2011 election and she was elevated to the fourth-ranking position in the Shadow Cabinet on 19 December 2011, becoming Spokesperson for Social Development under new leader David Shearer. Ardern announced that she intended to put forward her name for the Labour nomination for the Mount Albert by-election, when nominations for the Labour Party closed on 12 January 2017, Ardern was the only nominee and selected unopposed. She was confirmed as Labours candidate at a meeting on 22 January, Ardern won a landslide victory, gaining 77 percent of votes cast in the preliminary results. On 7 March 2017 she was elected as deputy leader of the Labour Party

3.
Kelvin Davis (politician)
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Kelvin Glen Davis is a New Zealand politician and a member of the House of Representatives. He is a member of the Labour Party, Davis was born in and grew up in the Bay of Islands. He received his education at the Bay of Islands College from 1980 to 1984. He obtained a Diploma of Teaching from Auckland College of Education and taught at Koru School in Mangere, Bay of Islands Intermediate School in Kawakawa and he then held employment with the Education Advisory Service and the education improvement and development project Te Putahitanga Matauranga. He was then principal of Kaitaia Intermediate School from 2001 to 2007, in the 2008 general election Davis stood for Labour in the Te Tai Tokerau seat. He was defeated by the incumbent Hone Harawira of the Mana Party and he was Labours candidate in the 2011 Te Tai Tokerau by-election and was again defeated by Harawira. He unsuccessfully contested the seat at the election later in the year. After placing second to Harawira three times and losing his seat at the 2011 election, Davis announced his retirement from politics, Davis was selected as Labours candidate for Te Tai Tokerau in the 2014 election. Due to Shane Jones resignation from Parliament at the end of May 2014 and he was declared elected to parliament on 23 May 2014. The Mana Party formed a coalition with the Internet Party just prior to the 2014 general election, the coalition was registered with the Electoral Commission as the Internet Party and Mana Movement in July 2014, allowing it to contest the party vote. Even the electorates candidate for the Māori Party, Te Hira Paenga, in his fourth challenge in the Te Tai Tokerau electorate, Davis ousted the incumbent Harawira, which ended the representation of the Mana Party in Parliament. Kelvin Davis on Twitter Profile on the Labour Party website

4.
United Labour Party (New Zealand)
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The United Labour Party of New Zealand was an early left-wing political party. Founded in 1912, it represented the moderate wing of the labour movement. In 1916 it joined other political groups to establish the modern Labour Party. The United Labour Party has its origins in the first Labour Party, the first Labour Party had been established in 1910 after the perceived failure of its predecessor, the Independent Political Labour League. The Labour Party represented the wing of the labour movement. By 1912 there was growing recognition that the division of the movement was costing votes. The Socialists and the associated Federation of Labour refused to attend, however, as such, the Unity Conference consisted only of the Labour Party, various moderate trade unions, and independent labour candidates. At the conclusion of the conference, it was agreed that the Labour Party, the unions. The new group was called the United Labour Party, the outcome of the conference was slightly disappointing for its organisers, as it had been hoped that the Socialists would join, but hopes for the new party were nevertheless high. Later the same year, the Waihi miners strike occurred, the labour movement was split, with hard-liners praising the strikers and moderates condemning the action as dangerous and misguided. The United Labour Party took the path, believing that cautious negotiation was more effective than militant action. The strike was suppressed by the government of William Massey. The strike created much disunity in the movement, and many believed that active measures were necessary to bring the movement closer together. As such, another Unity Conference was called in 1913 and this time, the Socialist Party was willing to attend. After extensive negotiations, it was decided that the movement should speak with a single voice, and that the United Labour Party. The new party would be called the Social Democratic Party, the union elements of the United Labour Party would be merged with the Socialist-affiliated Federation of Labour to produce the new United Federation of Labour. Some members of the United Labour Party did not accept the decision to merge, of particular concern to them was a clause in the Social Democratic Partys charter that obliged it to support strikes in certain circumstances. These members decided to remain outside the Social Democrats, and continued to use the United Labour label and they became unofficially known as the United Labour Party Remnant

5.
Social Democratic Party (New Zealand)
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The Social Democratic Party of New Zealand was an early left-wing political party. It existed only a time before being amalgamated into the new Labour Party. During its period of existence, the party two seats in Parliament. The Social Democratic Party was founded in January 1913 at a so-called Basis of Unity Conference and this meeting drew together the most prominent left-wing groups in New Zealand, including both political parties and trade unions. The aim was to unite the fractious labour movement into a cohesive force, not all members of the United Labour Party accepted the plan, however, and some continued on under the same banner. The Social Democrats were founded with the purpose of becoming. the political embodiment of working-class ideals aspirations in parliament, John Alexander McCullough was the organiser for the Lower Riccarton branch and also organised campaigns for Christchurch City Council elections. The Social Democrats gained a rapid boost when, shortly after their formation, Paddy Webb and James McCombs won by-elections and they joined with John Robertson, who won a seat in the 1911 election as a Labour candidate bringing the Social Democrat caucus to three. Later the same year, however, a strike broke out among groups of dockworkers and miners. Moderates in the movement considered the strike ill-advised and dangerous. The strike was suppressed by the government of William Massey. As a result of the chaos, the Social Democrats went into the 1914 elections with little in the way of planning, co-operation with local labour organisations was sporadic, as was co-operation with the remnants of the United Labour Party. However, union anger at the government for its response to the 1913 strikes was still strong. By 1915, the Social Democrats had in its ranks 2 MPs,2 Mayors,17 city and borough councilors,6 members of hospital and charitable aid boards and 2 members of harbour boards. The six labour-aligned MPs worked together in Parliament despite being from different parties, in August 1915, when Massey formed his Liberal-Reform coalition government, he extended an invitation to Hindmarshs caucus. The Labour members declined the offer and, as a result, edward Tregear Hiram Hunter Frederick Cooke Peter Fraser Brown, Bruce. Ministry for Culture and Heritage / Te Manatū Taonga, ministry for Culture and Heritage / Te Manatū Taonga. Wellington, NZ Working Printing & Publishing, formation of the New Zealand Labour Party. Historical Studies Australia and New Zealand

6.
Wellington
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Wellington is the capital and second most populous urban area of New Zealand, with 405,000 residents. It is at the tip of the North Island, between Cook Strait and the Rimutaka Range. Wellington is the population centre of the southern North Island and is the administrative centre of the Wellington Region. It is the worlds windiest city, with a wind speed of over 26 km/h. Situated near the centre of the country, Wellington was well placed for trade. In 1839 it was chosen as the first major planned settlement for British immigrants coming to New Zealand, the settlement was named in honour of the Arthur Wellesley, the first Duke of Wellington and victor of the Battle of Waterloo. As the nations capital since 1865, the New Zealand Government and Parliament, Supreme Court, despite being much smaller than Auckland, Wellington is also referred to as New Zealands cultural capital. The city is home to the National Archives, the National Library, architectural sights include the Government Building—one of the largest wooden buildings in the world—as well as the iconic Beehive. Wellington plays host to artistic and cultural organisations, including the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra. It has an urban culture, with many cafés, restaurants. One of the worlds most liveable cities, the 2014 Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranked Wellington 12th in the world, Wellingtons economy is primarily service-based, with an emphasis on finance, business services, and government. It is the centre of New Zealands film and special effects industries, Wellington ranks as one of New Zealands chief seaports and serves both domestic and international shipping. The city is served by Wellington International Airport, the third busiest airport in the country, Wellingtons transport network includes train and bus lines which reach as far as the Kapiti Coast and Wairarapa, and ferries connect the city to the South Island. Wellington takes its name from Arthur Wellesley, the first Duke of Wellington and victor of the Battle of Waterloo, his title comes from the town of Wellington in the English county of Somerset. One of the founders of the settlement, Edward Jerningham Wakefield, reported that the settlers took up the views of the directors with great cordiality, in Māori, Wellington has three names. In New Zealand Sign Language, the name is signed by raising the index, middle and ring fingers of one hand, palm forward, to form a W, and shaking it slightly from side to side twice. The citys location close to the mouth of the narrow Cook Strait leads to its vulnerability to strong gales, legends recount that Kupe discovered and explored the district in about the 10th century. The earliest date with hard evidence for Maori living in New Zealand is about 1280, European settlement began with the arrival of an advance party of the New Zealand Company on the ship Tory on 20 September 1839, followed by 150 settlers on the Aurora on 22 January 1840

7.
Young Labour (New Zealand)
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Young Labour is an official sector of the New Zealand Labour Party. It hosts a conference and holds a range of additional national events. All Labour Party members aged 15 to 26 are members of Young Labour, Young Labour is the most active sector in the Labour Party and plays a significant role in policy development and campaign efforts. It is often called the conscience of the party, Young Labour has worked on issues ranging from climate change and improved rental housing standards to liquor law reform and to opposing Voluntary Student Membership. The Young Labour Conference, held annually, typically in April and it elects the Executive, alters the Constitution and decides the sectors policy priorities for the current year. Each year Young Labour selects a number of policy priorities at its conference and these become the target for Young Labour members to ensure their passage at the Annual Conference of the Labour Party. These are advanced by Young Labour members playing a role in debates at the Regional and Annual Conferences of the Party. In addition, Young Labour elects a representative to the Partys Policy Council who plays a role in ensuring Young Labour members policy ideas are heard in the party, Young Labour is an important part of the Labour Partys volunteer base at national and local elections. Young Labour members are involved in canvassing, election-day volunteering, Young Labour also runs public campaigns on certain political or policy issues that the sector deems important to young people. In the week preceding Summer School, a group of Young Labour members travel to cities around New Zealand on a community service tour. Members play a role in assisting and highlighting the work that volunteer community groups play in New Zealand society by providing a day or half-days labour at each organisation, the Young Labour executive is elected annually at the Young Labour Conference and includes representatives from every region. The current executive members and their details are displayed on the Young Labour website. In line with the organisation of the wider Labour Party, Young Labour is organised into six regions for the purposes of campaigns. Within these regions, the unit of organisation are a number of Special Branches or University Branches of the Labour Party. Some, like Princes Street Labour and Vic Labour are based around universities, there are also branches catering for Maori, Pacific Islander or teenage members of the sector. Vic Labour Princes Street Labour New Zealand Labour Party

8.
Social democracy
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In this period, social democrats embraced a mixed economy based on the predominance of private property, with only a minority of essential utilities and public services under public ownership. By 1868–1869, Marxism had become the official theoretical basis of the first social democratic party established in Europe, in this period, social democracy became associated with reformist socialism. The origins of social democracy have been traced to the 1860s, with the rise of the first major party in Europe. 1864 saw the founding of the International Workingmens Association, also known as the First International, another issue in the First International was the role of reformism. Although Lassalle was not a Marxist, he was influenced by the theories of Marx and Engels, however unlike Marxs and Engelss The Communist Manifesto, Lassalle promoted class struggle in a more moderate form. While Marx viewed the state negatively as an instrument of class rule that should only exist temporarily upon the rise to power of the proletariat and then dismantled, Lassalle accepted the state. Lassalle viewed the state as a means through which workers could enhance their interests, Lassalles strategy was primarily electoral and reformist, with Lassalleans contending that the working class needed a political party that fought above all for universal adult male suffrage. The ADAVs party newspaper was called Der Sozialdemokrat, Marx and Engels responded to the title Sozialdemocrat with distaste, Engels once writing, But what a title, Sozialdemokrat. Why dont they simply call it The Proletarian. Marx agreed with Engels that Sozialdemokrat was a bad title, there was a Marxist faction within the ADAV represented by Wilhelm Liebknecht who became one of the editors of the Die Sozialdemokrat. Friction in the ADAV arose over Lassalles policy of an approach to Bismarck that had assumed incorrectly that Bismarck in turn would be friendly towards them. This approach was opposed by the partys Marxists, including Liebknecht, opposition in the ADAV to Lassalles friendly approach to Bismarcks government resulted in Liebknecht resigning from his position as editor of Die Sozialdemokrat and leaving the ADAV in 1865. Though the SDAP was not officially Marxist, it was the first major organization to be led by Marxists and Marx. The party adopted stances similar to those adopted by Marx at the First International, there was intense rivalry and antagonism between the SDAP and the ADAV, with the SDAP being highly hostile to the Prussian government while the ADAV pursued a reformist and more cooperative approach. In spite of such militant rhetoric to appeal to the working class, in 1875 Marx attacked the Gotha Program that became the program of Social Democratic Party of Germany in the same year in his Critique of the Gotha Program. Marx was not optimistic that Germany at the time was not open to a means to achieve socialism. In addition he noticed a change over the relations between the two classes. The Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884 make an approach to universal suffrage. The Fabian Society was founded as a group from the Fellowship of the New Life due to opposition within that group to socialism

9.
Political spectrum
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A political spectrum is a system of classifying different political positions upon one or more geometric axes that symbolize independent political dimensions. Most long-standing spectra include a wing and left wing, which originally referred to seating arrangements in the French parliament after the Revolution. According to the simplest left–right axis, communism and socialism are usually regarded internationally as being on the left, liberalism can mean different things in different contexts, sometimes on the left, sometimes on the right. Those with an intermediate outlook are classified as centrists or moderates, politics that rejects the conventional left–right spectrum is known as syncretic politics. Political scientists have noted that a single left–right axis is insufficient for describing the existing variation in political beliefs. As seen from the Speakers seat at the front of the Assembly, the aristocracy sat on the right, originally, the defining point on the ideological spectrum was the Ancien Régime. The Right thus implied support for aristocratic or royal interests, and the church, while The Left implied support for republicanism, secularism, and civil liberties. Because the political franchise at the start of the revolution was relatively narrow, the original Left represented mainly the interests of the bourgeoisie and their political interests in the French Revolution lay with opposition to the aristocracy, and so they found themselves allied with the early capitalists. However, this did not mean that their interests lay with the laissez-faire policies of those representing them politically. As capitalist economies developed, the aristocracy became less relevant and were replaced by capitalist representatives. This evolution has often pulled parliamentary politicians away from laissez-faire economic policies, for almost a century, social scientists have considered the problem of how best to describe political variation. In 1950, Leonard W. Submitting the results to factor analysis and this system was derived empirically, rather than devising a political model on purely theoretical grounds and testing it, Fergusons research was exploratory. As a result of method, care must be taken in the interpretation of Fergusons three factors, as factor analysis will output an abstract factor whether an objectively real factor exists or not. Although replication of the Nationalism factor was inconsistent, the finding of Religionism and Humanitarianism had a number of replications by Ferguson, shortly afterward, Hans Eysenck began researching political attitudes in Great Britain. He believed that there was something similar about the National Socialists on the one hand. Submitting this value questionnaire to the process of factor analysis used by Ferguson. Such analysis produces a factor whether or not it corresponds to a real-world phenomenon, Eysencks dimensions of R and T were found by factor analyses of values in Germany and Sweden, France, and Japan. According to Eysenck, members of both ideologies were tough-minded, in this context, Eysenck carried out studies on nazism and communist groups, claiming to find members of both groups to be more dominant and more aggressive than control groups

10.
Progressive Alliance
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The Progressive Alliance is an international alliance of social-democratic and progressive political parties and organisations founded on 22 May 2013 in Leipzig, Germany. Progressive Alliance comprises 140 members from around the world, gabriel had been critical of the Socialist Internationals admittance and continuing inclusion of undemocratic political movements into the organization. An initial Conference of the Progressive Alliance was held in Rome, Italy on 14–15 December 2012, also present were representatives of the Indian National Congress, the Workers Party of Brazil, and PASOK of Greece. The Dutch Labour Party also supported the formation of the organization, as did the Swiss Socialist Party, the organization stated the aim of becoming the global network of the progressive, democratic, social-democratic, socialist and labour movement. It was reported that representatives of approximately 70 social-democratic political parties from across the world attended the event, the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats group in the European Parliament joined the organization upon its official foundation. Many member parties are affiliated to the Socialist International. On 4–5 December 2014, a Progressive Alliance conference was held in Lisbon for member parties of the S&D group, on 25 April 2016 the organisation held a seminar in São Paulo hosted by the Workers Party of Brazil. The Progressive Alliance lists the parties and organisations which participate in the network, rather than claiming members

11.
New Zealand House of Representatives
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The New Zealand House of Representatives is the sole chamber of the legislature of New Zealand. The House and the Queen of New Zealand together constitute the New Zealand Parliament, the House of Representatives passes all laws, provides ministers to form a cabinet, and supervises the work of the Government. It is also responsible for adopting the states budgets and approving the states accounts, the House of Representatives is a wholly democratically elected body, usually consisting of 120 members known as Members of Parliament. Members are elected for limited terms, holding office until Parliament is dissolved, a government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of MPs. If no majority is then a minority government can be formed with a confidence. The chamber was created by the British New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, which established a legislature, however the upper chamber. Parliament received full control over all New Zealand affairs in 1947 with the passage of the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act, the seat of the House of Representatives is Parliament House in Wellington, the capital city. The House of Representatives takes the House of Commons of the United Kingdom as its model, the New Zealand Parliament is based on the Westminster system. As a democratic institution, the role of the House of Representatives is to provide representation for the people. The executive branch of the New Zealand government draws its membership exclusively from the House of Representatives, although it does not elect the Prime Minister, the position of the parties in the House of Representatives is of overriding importance. By convention, a minister is answerable to, and must maintain the support of. Thus, whenever the office of prime minister falls vacant, the governor-general appoints the person most likely to command the support of the House—normally the leader of the largest party and this support is immediately tested through a motion of confidence. The House of Representatives normally consists of 120 members, known as Members of Parliament, the Speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives has overall charge of the administration of the House, and presides over sittings. Seating in the chamber is arranged in a horseshoe pattern. The Speaker of the House sits in a chair at the open end of the horseshoe. Following the example of the British House of Commons, members of Government are seated on the hand of the Speaker. MPs are assigned seating on the basis of the seniority in a party caucus, for example, the prime minister sits on the front row, in the fourth seat along from the Speaker. The 51st New Zealand Parliament is the current sitting of the House and its membership was elected at the 2014 general election and, so far, one subsequent by-election

12.
Politics of New Zealand
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The politics of New Zealand function within a framework of a unitary parliamentary representative democracy. New Zealand is a monarchy in which a hereditary monarch—since 6 February 1952, Queen Elizabeth II—is the sovereign. Executive power in New Zealand is based on the principle that The Queen reigns, the Prime Minister is the highest government minister, chair of the cabinet and head of government, holding office on commission from the Governor-General of New Zealand. The office of minister is, in practice, the most powerful political office in New Zealand. Government ministers are selected from the members of the New Zealand Parliament. The country has a multi-party system in many of its legislative practices derive from the unwritten conventions of. However, New Zealand has evolved variations, minority governments are common and typically dependent on confidence, the two dominant political parties in New Zealand have historically been the New Zealand Labour Party and the New Zealand National Party. New Zealand has no formal codified constitution, the constitutional framework consists of a mixture of various documents, the Constitution Act in 1852 established the system of government and these were later consolidated in 1986. The Constitution Act describes the three branches of Government in New Zealand, The Executive, the legislature and the judiciary, Elizabeth II is the current Queen of New Zealand and the Realm of New Zealands head of state. While Royal assent and the royal sign-manual are required to enact laws, letters patent, and Orders in Council, the authority for these acts stems from the New Zealand populace. Since the Queen is not usually resident in New Zealand, the functions of the monarchy are conducted by the Governor-General, as of September 2016, the Governor-General is Dame Patsy Reddy. The Governor-Generals powers are primarily symbolic and formal in nature, the Governor-General formally has the power to appoint and dismiss Prime Ministers and to dissolve Parliament, and also formally signs legislation into law after passage by Parliament. The Governor-General chairs the Executive Council, which is a committee consisting of all ministers of the Crown. Members of the Executive Council are required to be members of parliament, the prime minister, being the de facto leader of New Zealand, exercises executive functions that are nominally vested in the sovereign. Cabinet is directly responsible to the New Zealand Parliament, from which its members are derived, general elections are held every three years, with the last one in September 2014. National won the 2008 election ending nine years of Labour-led government, former National leader John Key formed a minority government, negotiating agreements with the ACT party, the United Future party and the Māori Party. The leaders of each of these parties hold ministerial posts but remain outside of cabinet, there are currently three parties in opposition, the Labour Party, the Green Party, and New Zealand First. The leader of the opposition is Andrew Little, who is Leader of the Labour Party, New Zealands main legislative body is a unicameral parliament known as the House of Representatives

13.
Elections in New Zealand
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New Zealand is a representative democracy. Members of the House of Representatives, commonly called Parliament, normally gain their parliamentary seats through nationwide general elections, general elections are usually held every three years, they may be held at an earlier date in the event of a vote of no confidence or other exceptional circumstances. A by-election is held to fill a vacancy arising during a parliamentary term, the next general election will take place on 23 September 2017. New Zealand has a multi-party system due to proportional representation, the most significant constitutional change in 20th century New Zealand was the introduction of the mixed-member proportional voting system in 1993. The Chief Electoral Office and the Electoral Commission co-ordinate the electoral system, Local government politicians, including mayors, councillors and District Health Boards are voted in during the local elections, held every three years. These elections used single transferable vote and first past the post systems in 2007. The first national elections in New Zealand took place in 1853, womens suffrage was introduced in 1893, with New Zealand being the first modern country to do so. New Zealand general elections occur when the Prime Minister requests a dissolution of Parliament, theoretically, this can happen at any time, although a convention exists whereby Prime Ministers do not call early elections unless they have no reasonable alternative. Elections always take place on a Saturday, so as to minimise the effect of work or religious commitments that could inhibit people from voting, Voting happens at various polling stations, generally established in schools, church halls, sports clubs, or other such public places. Polling booths are set up in hospitals and rest homes for use by patients. The 2005 election made use of 6,094 such polling stations, voters may vote at any voting station in the country. Advance voting is available in the two weeks before election day, if voters cannot physically get to a polling place, they may authorise another person to collect their ballot for them. Overseas voters may vote by mail, fax, internet or in person at NZ embassies, disabled voters can choose to vote via a telephone dictation service. Voters are encouraged to bring them the EasyVote card sent to them before each election, which specifies the voters name, address. However, this is not required, voters may simply state their name, the voting process uses printed voting ballots. After the voting paper is issued, the voter goes behind a cardboard screen, the voter then folds their paper and places in their electorates sealed ballot box. Voters who enrol after the rolls have been printed, voting outside their electorate, according to a survey commissioned by the Electoral Commission, 71% of voters voted in less than 5 minutes and 92% in less than 10 minutes. 98% of voters are satisfied with the waiting time, New Zealand has a strictly enforced election silence, campaigning is prohibited on election day

14.
Democratic socialism
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Some tendencies of democratic socialism advocate for revolution in order to transition to socialism, distinguishing it from some forms of social democracy. For Hain, this divide is more important than the revolutionary/reformist divide. A similar, but more complex, argument is made by Nicos Poulantzas, Draper himself uses the term revolutionary-democratic socialism as a type of socialism from below in his The Two Souls of Socialism. Similarly, about Eugene Debs, he writes, Debsian socialism evoked a response from the heart of the people. In contrast, other tendencies of democratic socialism advocate for eventual socialism that follow a gradual, reformist or evolutionary path to socialism, rather than a revolutionary one. We are socialists because we are developing a strategy for achieving that vision. The term is used to refer to policies that are compatible with and exist within capitalism. Though this is not always the case, for example, Robert M. contended that a more benevolent form of capitalism had emerged since the. According to Crosland, it was now possible to achieve equality in society without the need for fundamental economic transformation. Some proponents of market socialism see it as a system compatible with the political ideology of democratic socialism. The term democratic socialism can be used even another way, to refer to a version of the Soviet model that was reformed in a democratic way, for example, Mikhail Gorbachev described perestroika as building a new, humane and democratic socialism. Consequently, some former Communist parties have rebranded themselves as democratic socialist, justification of democratic socialism can be found in the works of social philosophers like Charles Taylor and Axel Honneth, among others. Honneth has put forward the view that political and economic ideologies have a social basis, contra liberal individualism, Honneth has emphasised the inter-subjective dependence between humans, that is, our well-being depends on recognising others and being recognised by them. Democratic socialism, with its emphasis on social collectivism, could be seen as a way of safeguarding this dependency and their concern for both democracy and social justice marks them out as key precursors of democratic socialism. Owens followers again stressed both participatory democracy and economic socialisation, in the form of consumer co-operatives, credit unions, the Chartists similarly combined a working class politics with a call for greater democracy. The British moral philosopher John Stuart Mill also came to advocate a form of socialism within a liberal context. Democratic socialism became a prominent movement at the end of the 19th century, in Germany, the Eisenacher socialist group merged with the Lassallean socialist group, in 1875, to form the German Social Democratic Party. In Australia, the Labour and Socialist movements were gaining traction, the ALP has been the main driving force for workers rights in Australia, backed by Australian Trade Unions, in particular the Australian Workers Union

15.
Socialism in New Zealand
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New Zealand has a complicated assortment of socialist causes and organizations. Other groups are committed to radical socialist revolution. The term social democrat is more common, but the more general left-wing or centre-left are used far more frequently, nevertheless, socialists of various types are still to be found in modern New Zealand politics. The Labour Party and the former Progressive Party all have links to socialism in their history. Milburn argues that socialist theories were introduced by immigrant workers with experience in the British labour movement and their ideas were not widely accepted, however. She argues that governmental activism cannot be attributed to the influence of the small socialist movement, the growth of socialism as an ideology in New Zealand only began to occur around the beginning of the 20th century. Some historians, however, claim that a sort of socialism was born shortly after the establishment of self-government. This, they say, was mostly in the form of a government which believed in the need to speed the countrys economic growth. Premier Julius Vogel was an advocate of government projects of this nature. Later, the Liberal Party was accused by its opponents of being socialist, one commentator has claimed that until the Russian Revolution of 1917, New Zealand was the most socialist country in the world, although many believe that this is overstating the case.

16.
Trade union
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The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment and this may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Unions may organize a section of skilled workers, a cross-section of workers from various trades. The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank and file members, originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of workers, professionals, past workers, students. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a union, is highest in the Nordic countries. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value, yet historian R. A. the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all labouring men and women for a different order of things. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners. In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote, We rarely hear, it has said, of the combination of masters. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate When workers combine, masters. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, there were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions, although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, by the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, the latter name was to hide the organizations real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others

17.
New Zealand National Party
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The New Zealand National Party is a centre-right political party in New Zealand. It is one of two parties in contemporary New Zealand politics, alongside its historic rival, the New Zealand Labour Party. The party originated in 1936 with the merger of the United and Reform parties, National is the nations second-oldest extant political party. National governed for four periods in the course of the 20th century and it has favoured economic liberal policies since the 1990s. Since November 2008, National has been the largest party in minority governments with support from the centrist United Future, the liberal ACT Party, Bill English has been the party leader and Prime Minister of New Zealand since 12 December 2016. The New Zealand National Party has been characterised as conservative and liberal, with outlying populist, the partys principles, last revised in 2003, seek a safe, prosperous and successful New Zealand that creates opportunities for all New Zealanders to reach their personal goals and dreams. It supports a limited welfare state but says that work, merit, innovation and personal initiative must be encouraged to reduce unemployment, historically, the party has supported a higher degree of protectionism and interventionism than it has in recent decades. The last major interventionist policy was Prime Minister Robert Muldoons massive infrastructure projects designed to ensure New Zealands energy independence after the 1973 oil shock, Think Big. The Fourth National Government mostly carried on the sweeping reforms of the Fourth Labour Government known as Rogernomics. Following a moderate Fifth Labour Government, the Fifth National Government of New Zealand took power in 2008 under John Key. For instance they extended free general practitioner visits to children under 13 as part of their 2014 election package, in the most recent general election, in 2014, the National Party ran a campaign focusing on stability. They promised to limit new spending every year, to not introduce any new taxes and they also campaigned on the possibility of moderate tax cuts within the next few years and are generally in favour of free-trade agreements such as the Trans-Pacific Partnership. The National Party was formed in May 1936, but its roots go further back. The party came about as the result of a merger between the United Party and the Reform Party, historically, the Liberal and Reform parties had competed against each other, but from 1931 until 1935 a United-Reform Coalition held power in New Zealand. The coalition went into the 1935 election under the title of the National Political Federation, the two parties were cut down to 19 seats between them. Another factor was a party, the Democrat Party formed by Albert Davy. The new party split the vote and aided Labours victory. In hopes of countering Labours rise, United and Reform decided to turn their alliance into a single party and this party, the New Zealand National Party, was formed at a meeting held in Wellington on 13 and 14 May 1936

18.
First Labour Government of New Zealand
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The First Labour Government of New Zealand was the government of New Zealand from 1935 to 1949. The government came to power towards the end of, and as a result of, the Great Depression of the 1930s, significant improvements in working conditions took place, partly through greater competition for labour and partly through legislative provisions. Legislation in 1945 and 1946 made the new 40-hour workweek almost universal, in industry as well as in shops and offices. Relief jobs were abolished and in 1936 and 1937, sustenance payment took the place of relief work, and during those years an average of 20,000 received it. Sustenance rates of pay were increased by amounts of up to 100% “to provide the transition to full employment on public works. ”Provision was also made for the registration of trade unions. This new, more progressive system led to improvements in the pay, the Agricultural Workers Act improved conditions for rural labourers by setting a minimum rate of pay and required a decent level of living conditions. The Shops and Officers Amendment Act specified a maximum workweek of forty-four hours for working in banks. The Industrial Efficiency Bill gave the government wide powers to regulate industries, a large public works programme was initiated to provide employment on full wages instead of relief. This expanded the range of standards of pay and working conditions, benefiting the semi-skilled, those without craft training. Between 1935 and 1938, trade union membership rose to a figure “nearly two and half times that of the year of 1929, ” encouraged by the Labour governments industrial policies. In 1936, the government graduated the wages of young people so that year by year their rate of pay automatically increased until it reached a standard wage when they reached the age of 21. Relief workers were granted award wages, the Court of Arbitration was required in 1936 to lay down in its awards and agreements a basic wage sufficient to keep a man, his wife and three children in a fair and reasonable standard of comfort. A Profiteering Prevention Act was passed, the Minister of Mines was empowered to establish central rescue stations in mines. Improved rates of compensation were introduced for injured workers, penal rates of pay were introduced for weekend work and overtime. The Minimum Wage Act established a minimum wage for all workers aged twenty-one, Legislative provision was made in 1944 for an annual two weeks holiday for all workers. Underground mine workers were granted a seven-hour workday in 1948 and 1949, compensation was increased for the dependents of deceased workers. The government experimented with cooperative shops in the rapidly expanding post-war suburbs, a National Employment Service was established with the principal function of promoting and maintaining full employment. A Home Aid Service was established, a new Factories Act took measures against sweating and contained detailed provisions regarding workplace safety, dangerous liquids, protection from machinery, means of access, and fire-escapes

19.
Welfare state
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The welfare state is a concept of government in which the state plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the social and economic well-being of its citizens. It is based on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, the general term may cover a variety of forms of economic and social organization. Marshall described the modern state as a distinctive combination of democracy, welfare. Esping-Andersen classified the most developed welfare state systems into three categories, Social Democratic, Conservative, and Liberal, the welfare state involves a transfer of funds from the state, to the services provided, as well as directly to individuals. It is funded through redistributionist taxation and is referred to as a type of mixed economy. Such taxation usually includes an income tax for people with higher incomes. Proponents argue that this helps reduce the gap between the rich and poor. The German term Sozialstaat has been used since 1870 to describe state support programs devised by German Sozialpolitiker, the literal English equivalent social state didnt catch on in Anglophone countries. However, during the Second World War, Anglican Archbishop William Temple, author of the book Christianity and the Social Order, popularized the concept using the phrase welfare state. Bishop Temples use of state has been connected to Benjamin Disraelis 1845 novel Sybil, or the Two Nations, which speaks of the only duty of power. In Germany, the term Wohlfahrtsstaat, a translation of the English welfare state, is used to describe Swedens social insurance arrangements. The Italian term stato sociale reproduces the original German term, spanish and many other languages employ an analogous term, estado del bienestar – literally, state of well-being. In Brazil, the concept is referred to as previdência social, in French, welfare state is translated into LÉtat-providence. Modern welfare programs are distinguished from earlier forms of poverty relief by their universal. The institution of social insurance in Germany under Bismarck was an influential template, some schemes were based largely in the development of autonomous, mutualist provision of benefits. Others were founded on state provision, in an influential essay, Citizenship and Social Class, British sociologist T. H. Examples of such states are Germany, all of the Nordic countries, the Netherlands, France, Uruguay and New Zealand, since that time, the term welfare state applies only to states where social rights are accompanied by civil and political rights. Changed attitudes in reaction to the worldwide Great Depression, which brought unemployment, during the Great Depression, the welfare state was seen as a middle way between the extremes of communism on the left and unregulated laissez-faire capitalism on the right

20.
Second Labour Government of New Zealand
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The Second Labour Government of New Zealand was the government of New Zealand from 1957 to 1960. It was most notable for raising taxes on alcohol, cigarettes and petrol, the Black Budget was passed which, while countering an already existing balance-of payments problem, raised taxes on alcohol, cigarettes, automobiles, and petrol. Industrialisation was pursued both as a means of import substitution and to develop a mature economy. Signed a formal agreement for Consolidated Zinc to build both an aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point and a station in Manapouri. All tax-payers were given a rebate of £100 at the commencement of the PAYE income tax system. The Companies Special Investigations Act allowed for the supervision of certain company receiverships, a Technicians’ Certification Authority and a Council for Technical Education were established, the latter of which was meant to advise on the kind of education required for commerce and industry. By 1960, the first technical institutes began operation as full-time bodies, in the 1959 budget, income tax was reduced, by two stages, to about the 1957 level. In the 1960 budget, pensions and benefits were raised, together with state employees’ salaries, the sales tax on motor vehicles, along with duties on cigarettes and petrol, were somewhat reduced. Taxes on cigarettes, petrol, beer were reduced again at the end of the year, by early 1960, retail turnover was at a record level, and there was an easing up on import controls. The Reserve Act of New Zealand Amendment Bill affirmed the right of the Crown to control credit. By 1960, taxes had been reduced to a pre-1958 level, an Industrial Development Fund was established with £11 million in foreign exchange held at the Reserve Bank for allocation to promising projects. Declared Waitangi Day to be a day of thanksgiving through the Waitangi Day Act 1960. Universal superannuation was sharply increased in 1959-60 in order to equate it with the age benefit. As a result of the Second Labour Government’s welfare initiatives, pensions, the value of family allowances was raised from 4. 1% to 6. 2% of nominal male wages. From 1959 to 1960, the percentage of income spent on family benefits rose from 2. 7% to 3. 1%. The Social Security Amendment Act removed the means test for blind beneficiaries of disability benefits and this change led to an increase in the number of blind workers in industry and in the public service. ”The capital test on orphans’, age, invalidity, and unemployment benefits was repealed. The age benefit for a person was raised to 36. 9% of the nominal adult male wage index. The Government Service Equal Pay Act was passed in 1960 to put an end to male and female pay scales in the public service

21.
Fifth Labour Government of New Zealand
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The Fifth Labour Government of New Zealand was the government of New Zealand between 10 December 1999 and 19 November 2008. In the general election of that year, the Labour Party led by Helen Clark defeated National easily, Labour formed a minority coalition government with the left-leaning Alliance, supported by the Green Party. During this first term, the government pursued a number of reforms, with the disintegration of the Alliance in 2002, Helen Clark called a snap election, even though she still had the confidence of the House. The Alliance failed to return to parliament, although a rump returned as Jim Andertons Progressives, Labour formed a coalition with the Progressives, and turned to the centrist party United Future for confidence and supply. The Government was also faced in this term with the foreshore, Helen Clark was obliged to move even more to the centre, enlisting support for her Government from both New Zealand First and United Future. Almost immediately, the Government parties became involved in a funding scandal. In the 2008 election, the Labour Party lost convincingly to National, created Kiwibank as part of coalition agreement with the Alliance. KiwiRail and ONTRACK were then merged into one organisation, Buy Kiwi Made campaign, Telecommunications industry reform, company and personal income tax cuts under the 2008 New Zealand budget. Began the Crown Retail Deposit Guarantee Scheme, deposit insurance for New Zealand financial institutions during the Great Recession, established the Supreme Court of New Zealand, replacing appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Constitutional Inquiry into the Constitution of New Zealand, passed the Electoral Finance Act to reform electoral spending and regulate electoral advertising. New Zealand foreshore and seabed controversy, passed the Foreshore and Seabed Act, Made further Treaty of Waitangi settlements. Within 3 weeks of taking office, the govt, the wage-related floor of the state pension was restored. Equity Funding was introduced, which provided funding to community-based ECE services most in need. The New Zealand Transport Strategy provided increased funding for initiatives to promote the use of buses, trains, the minimum wage was increased by more than 5% each year during the labour-led government’s second term. The Health and Safety in Employment Amendment Act served to make the principal Act more comprehensive by covering more industries, ICT was expanded to students in remote areas so they could receive specialist teaching. The Holidays Act entitled employees to receive time and a half for working on any statutory holiday from 2004 onwards, National Statement on Religious Diversity National Superannuation payments for married couples were increased. A Parental Tax Credit was introduced, a Child Tax Credit was introduced. A Family Tax Credit was introduced, a Modern Apprentices initiative was introduced to develop technological skills

22.
Centrism
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Centre-left and centre-right politics both involve a general association with centrism combined with leaning somewhat to their respective sides of the spectrum. It has been suggested that individuals vote for centrist parties for purely statistical reasons, Centrists usually support a degree of equal opportunity and economic freedom. They can generally lean conservative on issues and lean liberal on social issues. However, centrism itself is location-dependent and exact policies can vary depending on geographical, Indian National Congress was centrist in its ideology. It is one of the oldest parties in the world, under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru the party sought to build a modern secular democratic republic in India. Its support is has different ups and downs from the late 1990s, people change their support base to other political parties but choose it again after period of 5 years. It acts as a party, presently, in Indian Parliament. There have been centrists in both sides of politics, who alongside the various factions within the Liberal and Labor parties. In addition, there are a number of groups that have formed in response to the bipartisan system who uphold centrist ideals. South Australian Senator Nick Xenophon had launched his own centrist political party called the Nick Xenophon Team in 2014, the Palmer United Party has been suggested as being a centrist party as well, however, the party itself does not make such formal claims of being politically centrist. The Australian Sex Party is also a centrist political party and they have just one seat and control the balance of power, with a huge political responsibility within the Victorian Legislative Council since 2014. The New Flemish Alliance is the largest, and since 2009, among French speaking Belgians the Humanist Democratic Centre is a centre-right or centre party as it is considerably less conservative than its Flemish counterpart, Christian Democratic & Flemish. Another party in the centre of the spectrum is the liberal Reformist Movement. The Liberals are currently the largest party in Canadas House of Commons, although, some may argue that the Liberal Party is more of a Centre-Left then a Centrist party. Czech Republic has two main centrist political parties which are currently in the government, liberal ANO and Christian democratic Christian, france has a tradition of parties that call themselves centriste. The most notable centrist party, often also called liberal, was the Union for French Democracy, among its successors belongs the small Centrist Alliance, the most successful of them is the Democratic Movement of François Bayrou, founded in 2007. However, the centrist parties often oppose to the parties such as Socialists. It often support the centre-right Gaullist parties and join several coalitions governed by Jacques Chirac, zentrismus is a term only known to experts, as it is easily confused with Zentralismus, so the usual term in German for the political centre/centrism is politische Mitte

23.
New Zealand general election, 2008
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The 2008 New Zealand general election was held on 8 November 2008 to determine the composition of the 49th New Zealand parliament. Key announced a week later that he would lead a National minority government with support from the ACT, United Future. The Governor-General swore Key in as New Zealands 38th Prime Minister on 19 November 2008, the Green Party became the third-largest party in Parliament, with nine seats. The ACT Party came joint-fourth, increasing their number of seats from two to five, and reversing some of their losses from the 2005 election, the Māori Party also won five seats – out of the seven Māori seats – creating an overhang of two seats. The New Zealand First party, which had seven MPs in the parliament, failed to win any electorates or pass the 5 per cent MMP threshold. In her concession speech, Helen Clark announced her resignation as the leader of the Labour Party. She had led the party since 1993, and had served as prime minister since the 1999 election and this was one more overhang seat than in 2005. cParty Votes and Turnout by Electorate. Chief Electoral Office, New Zealand Ministry of Justice, dThe turnout is given as a percentage of those enrolled to vote. In New Zealand, enrolment is compulsory, though voting is not, New Zealand General Election 2008 - Official Results. While the National Party has dominated rural seats since 1938, it achieved a clean sweep this year, Palmerston North remains the only provincial city with a Labour MP. The two seats of Hamilton both went to National, ^† These people entered Parliament at the election as list MPs Notes Party list members resigned during the parliamentary term. Originally unsuccessful party list members declared elected to parliament when elected list MPs resigned, convention in New Zealand expects Parliaments to run for a full three years unless the government loses the confidence of the House, although this has not happened since 1911. On Friday 12 September 2008, Prime Minister Helen Clark announced that the election would take place on 8 November 2008. This set the election timetable as, Dissolution of parliament – Friday,3 October 2008. Writ day – Wednesday,8 October, nominations day – Tuesday,14 October. Election day – Saturday,8 November, Official results declared and writs returned by Saturday,22 November. The 49th Parliament must convene no later than Saturday 3 January 2009, nineteen registered political parties contested the party vote, The following parties either disappeared during the previous parliaments term, or did not contest the 2008 elections for other reasons. New Zealand First received 4. 07% of the party vote – below the threshold of 5% –, in contrast, voter turnout of 79. 5% of enrolled voters came in lower than in most previous elections, the second-lowest since 1978 and third-lowest since 1902

24.
Caucus
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A caucus is a meeting of supporters or members of a specific political party or movement. The term originated in the United States, but has spread to Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, as the use of the term has been expanded, the exact definition has come to vary among political cultures. The origin of the caucus is debated, but it is generally agreed that it first came into use in the British colonies of North America. He has a large House, and he has a moveable Partition in his Garrett, which he takes down, there they smoke tobacco till you cannot see from one End of the Garrett to the other. In the early days of the Republic a very different method was pursued in order to place the candidates for the highest office in the land before the people, in the first place, as to the origin of the caucus. In the early part of the century a number of caulkers connected with the shipping business in the North End of Boston held a meeting for consultation. That meeting was the germ of the caucuses which have formed so prominent a feature of our government ever since its organization. No wholly satisfactory etymology has been documented, james Hammond Trumbull suggested to the American Philological Association that it comes from an Algonquian word for counsel, cau´-cau-as´u. The word might derive from the Algonquian cawaassough, meaning an advisor, talker. This explanation was favoured by Charles Dudley Warner, an analogical Latin-type plural cauci is occasionally used. The degree to which caucuses are used can be a key defining element, in United States politics and government, caucus has several distinct but related meanings. Members of a party or subgroup may meet to coordinate members actions, choose group policy. There is no provision for the role of parties in the United States Constitution. In the first two elections, the Electoral College handled nominations and elections in 1789 and 1792 which selected George Washington. After that, Congressional party or a state legislature party caucus selected the partys presidential candidates, nationally, these caucuses were replaced by the party convention starting in 1832 following the lead of the Anti-Masonic Party 1831 convention. Since 1980 such caucuses have become, in the aggregate, an important component of the nomination process. Another meaning is a sub grouping of officials with shared affinities or ethnicities who convene, often but not always to advocate, agitate, lobby or to vote collectively, on policy. At the highest level, in Congress and many state legislatures, Democratic, there can be smaller caucuses in a legislative body, including those that are multi-partisan or even bicameral

25.
New Zealand Parliament
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The New Zealand Parliament is the legislative branch of New Zealand, consisting of the Queen of New Zealand and the New Zealand House of Representatives. Before 1951, there was a chamber, the New Zealand Legislative Council. The Parliament was established in 1854 and is one of the oldest continuously functioning parliaments in the world, the House of Representatives is a democratically elected body whose members are known as Members of Parliament. It usually consists of 120 MPs, though sometimes due to overhang seats. 70 MPs are elected directly in electorate seats and the remainder are filled by list MPs based on each partys share of the party vote, Māori were represented in Parliament from 1867, and in 1893 women gained the vote. New Zealand does not allow sentenced prisoners to vote, the Parliament is closely linked to the executive branch. The House of Representatives has met in the Parliament Buildings located in Wellington, Parliament funds the broadcast of its proceedings through Parliament TV, AM Network and Parliament Today. It was based on the Westminster model and had a house, called the House of Representatives. The members of the House of Representatives were elected under the first-past-the-post voting system, originally Councillors were appointed for life, but later their terms were fixed at seven years. In 1951, the Council was abolished altogether, making the New Zealand legislature unicameral, under the Constitution Act, legislative power was also conferred on New Zealands provinces, each of which had its own elected Legislative Council. These provincial legislatures were able to legislate for their provinces on most subjects, over a twenty-year period, political power was progressively centralised, and the provinces were abolished altogether in 1876. Four Māori electorates were created in 1867 during the term of the 4th Parliament, originally the New Zealand Parliament remained subordinate to the British Parliament, the supreme legislative authority for the entire British Empire. One historical speciality of the New Zealand Parliament was the country quota, from 1889 on, districts were weighted according to their urban/rural split. The country quota was in effect until it was abolished in 1945 by a mostly urban-elected Labour government, the New Zealand Parliament is sovereign with no institution able to over-ride its decisions. The ability of Parliament to act is, legally, unimpeded, for example, the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 is a normal piece of legislation, it is not superior law as codified constitutions are in some other countries. The only thing Parliament is limited in its power are on some entrenched issues relating to elections and these issues require either 75% of all MPs to support the bill or a referendum on the issue. The Queen of New Zealand is one of the components of Parliament—formally called the Queen-in-Parliament and this results from the role of the monarch to sign into law the bills that have been passed by the House of Representatives. The House of Representatives was established as a house and has been the Parliaments sole chamber since 1951

26.
New Zealand general election, 2017
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The 2017 New Zealand general election is scheduled to be held on Saturday 23 September 2017 to determine the membership of the 52nd New Zealand Parliament. The current Parliament was elected on Saturday,20 September 2014, unless an early election is called or the election date is set to circumvent holding a by-election, a general election is held every three years. The last election was held on Saturday,20 September 2014, the Governor-General must issue writs for an election within seven days of the expiration or dissolution of the current Parliament. The writs for the 2014 election were returned on 10 October 2014, as a result, the 51st Parliament will expire, if not dissolved earlier, on Tuesday,10 October 2017. Consequently, the last day for issuance of writs of election is 17 October 2017, the writs must be returned within 50 days of their issuance, which will be Wednesday,6 December 2017. Because polling day must be a Saturday and two weeks is generally required for the counting of votes, the last possible date for the next general election is Saturday,18 November 2017. On 1 February 2017, Prime Minister Bill English announced that the election would be held on Saturday 23 September 2017 and this will be the first election that both major parties, Labour and National are contesting under new leadership since 1975. Key dates relating to the election will typically be as follows. New boundaries are not due until early 2019, after the 2018 census, polling booths may now use electronic electoral rolls to mark off voters. Counting of advance votes may now start earlier at 9, 00am, contact information of sitting MPs, such as business cards and signage on out-of-Parliament offices, has been clarified as not constituting election advertising. Election advertising is now prohibited in or near advance polling booths. Election hoardings may now be erected nine weeks before the election, parties are no longer allocated free airtime on Radio New Zealand and Television New Zealand to broadcast opening and closing addresses. At the 2014 general election, the seats were won with a plurality of less than 1000 votes. Seventeen existing Members of Parliament have announced that they will not stand for re-election, trevor Mallard announced in July 2016 that he will not contest Hutt South, but will run as a list-only candidate, with the intention of becoming Speaker of the House. Political parties registered with the Electoral Commission on Writ Day can contest the election as a party. Each such party can submit a party list to contest the party vote, as of 6 March 2017, fourteen political parties are registered and can contend the general election. During the three month regulated period prior to election day, parties and candidates have limits on how much they may spend on election campaigning and it is illegal in New Zealand to campaign on election day itself. A party contesting all 71 electorates is therefore permitted to spend $2,975,200 on election campaigning, all electorate candidates are permitted to spend $26,200 each on campaigning over and above their partys allocation

27.
New Zealand general election, 2005
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The 2005 New Zealand general election on Saturday 17 September 2005 determined the membership of the 48th New Zealand Parliament. One hundred and twenty-one MPs were elected to the New Zealand House of Representatives,69 from single-member electorates, including one overhang seat, and 52 from party lists. No party won a majority, but the Labour Party of Prime Minister Helen Clark secured two more seats than nearest rival, the National Party of Dr Don Brash. With the exception of the newly formed Māori Party, which took four Māori seats from Labour, most of the other parties polled lower than in the election, losing votes. Brash deferred conceding defeat until 1 October, when Nationals election-night 49 seats fell to 48 after special votes were counted, the official count increased the Māori Party share of the party vote above 2%, entitling them to three rather than two list seats from the party vote. Despite its resurgence, National failed to displace Labour as the largest party in Parliament, Nationals gains apparently came mainly at the expense of smaller parties, while Labour won only two seats less than in 2002. The total votes cast in 2005 was 2,304,005, turnout was 80. 92% of those on the rolls, or 77. 05% of voting age population. Turnout was higher than in the previous 2002 election, and the Māori roll turnout at 67. 07% was significantly higher than 2002, in the election 739 candidates stood, and there were 19 registered parties with party lists. Of the candidates,525 were electorate and list,72 were electorate only and 142 were list only, all but 37 represented registered parties. Only 35 candidates from registered parties chose to stand as a candidate only. 71% of candidates were male and 29% female, the percentages as in 2002. The election saw an 81% voter turnout, the results of the election give a Gallagher index of disproportionality of 1.11. MPs returned via party lists, and unsuccessful candidates, were as follows and these party list members later resigned during the parliamentary term. New Zealand general election,2005 - changes during the parliamentary term Going into the election, Labour had assurances of support from the Greens. This three-party bloc won 57 seats, leaving Clark four seats short of the 61 seats needed for a majority in the 121-seat Parliament, on 5 October the Māori Party began a series of hui to decide whom to support. That same day reports emerged that a meeting between Helen Clark and Māori co-leader Tariana Turia on 3 October had already ruled out a coalition between Labour and the Māori Party. Had Turia and her co-leader Pita Sharples opted to join a Labour-Progressive-Green coalition, without the Māori Party, Labour needed the support of New Zealand First and United Future to form a government. New Zealand First said it would support the party with the most seats, Clark sought from New Zealand First a positive commitment rather than abstention

28.
New Zealand First
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New Zealand First is a conservative and populist political party in New Zealand. It was founded in July 1993, following the 19 March 1993 resignation of its leader and founder, Winston Peters, from the then-governing National Party. It has formed governments with both parties in New Zealand, first with the National Party from 1996 to 1998. The party held seats in the House of Representatives of New Zealand from its formation in 1993 until 2008, however, in the 2011 election, New Zealand First gained 6. 59% of the total party vote, entitling it to eight Members of Parliament. The party sits on the cross-benches and during the 50th New Zealand Parliament tended to vote with the Opposition against Government policies, at the core of New Zealand Firsts policies are its Fifteen Fundamental Principles, the first being To put New Zealand and New Zealanders First. They largely echo the policies that Peters has advocated throughout his career, the party generally focuses on the rule of law for all and does not prescribe to a departure from this principle. It therefore does not focus on minority issues to large extent as it values improving the lot of all New Zealanders regardless of background, New Zealand First is best known for its policies regarding the welfare of the elderly and its strongly restrictive immigration policies. The party also espouses a mixture of economic policies and it opposes the privatisation of state assets, which aligned it with views generally found on the left of New Zealand politics. On the other hand, it favours reducing taxation and reducing the size of government, rather than defining the partys precise position on the left-right spectrum, some commentators labelled NZ First as populist—in line with its emphasis on direct democracy and on popular referendums. In 2012, New Zealand First announced that if state assets were to be privatised, at the next general election. The New Zealand First Partys leader is part-Māori, it held all the then available Māori electorates. However, New Zealand First no longer supports the retention of the Māori electorates and has declared that it will not stand candidates in the Māori electorates in the future and it did not stand candidates in the Māori electorates in the 2002,2005, or 2008 general elections. On 19 March 1993, shortly before the writs were issued for the general election, about four months later on 18 July 1993 and shortly before the that years general election, Peters announced the formation of New Zealand First as a political grouping. In the April 1993 special by-election, Tauranga voters re-elected Peters as an independent. At the general election a few later, Peters easily retained Tauranga. This did much to counter the perception of New Zealand First as merely a vehicle for Peters. With the switch to the Mixed Member Proportional electoral system for the 1996 election and this enabled New Zealand First to win 13% of the vote and 17 seats, including all five Māori seats. New Zealand Firsts five Māori MPs—Henare, Tuku Morgan, Rana Waitai, Tu Wyllie, the election result put New Zealand First in a powerful position just three years after its formation

29.
Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand
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The Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand is a left-wing political party in New Zealand. Like many Green parties around the world it has four pillars, ecology, social responsibility, grassroots democracy and it is a member of the Global Greens. The party has both a male and female co-leader, currently Metiria Turei and James Shaw, the male co-leader position was vacant following the November 2005 death of Rod Donald until the 2006 annual general meeting when Russel Norman was elected using the alternative vote system. Following former female co-leader Jeanette Fitzsimonss decision to step down in February 2009, Shaw was elected at the Partys 2015 AGM over fellow MPs Gareth Hughes and Kevin Hague, and Party member Vernon Tava. In the 2014 general election, the Green Partys share of the party vote fell slightly to 10. 70% from 11. 06% in 2011 and it is the third largest political party in the House of Representatives with 14 seats. In addition, the Green Party contests Auckland Council elections under the City Vision banner, in concert with the Labour Party, the Greens place particular emphasis on environmental issues. In recent times, they have expressed concerns about mining of national parks, fresh water, climate change, peak oil and they have also spoken out in support of human rights, and against the military operations conducted by the United States and other countries in Afghanistan and Iraq. In its economic policies, the Green Party stresses factors such as sustainability, taxing the indirect costs of pollution and it also states that measuring economic success should concentrate on measuring well-being rather than analysing economic indicators. The party has said if it forms a government in the 2017 election it will legalise cannabis. Under its proposal, people would be able to legally grow, the party would also urgently amend the law so sick people using medicinal marijuana were not penalised. This world is finite, therefore unlimited material growth is impossible, social responsibility, Unlimited material growth is impossible. Therefore the key to social responsibility is the just distribution of social and natural resources, appropriate decision-making, For the implementation of ecological wisdom and social responsibility, decisions will be made directly at the appropriate level by those affected. Non-violence, Non-violent conflict resolution is the process by which ecological wisdom, social responsibility and this principle applies at all levels. The Executive is the administrative body, responsible for the day to day overall administration of the party, instructed by and answerable to the membership, provinces. A province is a collection of branches which has sufficient sense of common identity defined by geographical boundaries. Branches are a collection of members with a geographical area of responsibility. There are a number of identity or interest-based networks across the party, the Values Party originated in 1972 at Victoria University of Wellington. While it gained a measure of support in several elections

30.
Prime Minister of New Zealand
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The Prime Minister of New Zealand is the head of government of New Zealand. The current prime minister is Bill English of the National Party, the prime minister is the most senior government minister, and chairs cabinet meetings. The office exists by a convention, which originated in New Zealands former colonial power. The convention stipulates that the Governor-General of New Zealand must select as prime minister the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Representatives and this individual is typically the leader of the political party that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber. The title prime minister had made its first formal appearance in the 1873 Schedule of the Civil List Act and this was changed in 1869 to premier. That title remained in use for more than 30 years, being changed by Richard Seddon to prime minister in 1901 during his tenure in office. Following the declaration of New Zealand as a dominion in 1907, the office of prime minister is not defined by codified laws, but by unwritten customs known as constitutional conventions which developed in Britain and were replicated in New Zealand. The Prime Minister is leader of the cabinet, and takes a coordinating role, the Cabinet Manual 2008 provides an outline of the prime ministers powers and responsibilities. The post of minister is, like other ministerial positions. However, the convention has long since established that the prime minister must have. Historically, this has meant that the prime minister is the parliamentary leader of the largest political party in the House of Representatives. By constitutional convention, the minister holds formal power to advise the sovereign. As head of government, the prime minister alone has the right to advise the governor-general to, Appoint, dismiss, call elections by advising the governor-general to dissolve parliament. The governor-general may reject the advice to dissolve parliament if the minister has recently lost a vote of confidence. The prime minister is regarded by convention as first among equals and they do hold the most senior post in government, but are also required to adhere to any decisions taken by cabinet, as per the convention of cabinet collective responsibility. The ability to appoint and dismiss ministers, furthermore, the MMP electoral system has complicated this, as the prime minister may have to consult with another party leader. The influence a prime minister is likely to have as leader of the dominant party and these powers may give more direct control over subordinates than is attached to the prime ministers role. The power gained simply from being central to most significant decision-making, in addition, like all other ministers and members of parliament, the prime minister receives annual allowances for travel and lodging, as do the prime ministers spouse and children

31.
Timeline of labor issues and events
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Timeline of organized labor history 16191619 Jamestown Polish craftsmen strike 1636 Maine Indentured Servants and Fishermans Mutiny. 1648 Boston Coopers and Shoemakers form guilds,1677 New York City Carters Strike. 1684 New York City Carters Strike,1741 New York City Bakers Strike. 1774 Hibernia, New Jersey, Ironworks Strike,1778 Journeymen printers in New York combine to increase their wages. 1791 Philadelphia carpenters conduct first strike in the trades in the United States. 1792 Philadelphia has first local union in the United States organized to conduct collective bargaining,1794 Federal Society of Journeymen Cordwainers formed in Philadelphia. 1797 Profit sharing originated at Albert Gallatins glassworks in New Geneva,1799 Combination Act outlawed trade unionism and collective bargaining by workers. 1805 Journeymen Cordwainers union includes a clause in its constitution in New York City. 1806 Commonwealth v. Pullis was the first known court case arising from a strike in the United States. After a three-day trial, the found the defendants guilty of a combination to raise their wages. 1816 Food riots broke out in East Anglia, Workers demanded a double wage and for the setting of triple prices for food. 1824 The Combination Act of 1799 was repealed,1824 Pawtucket, Rhode Island, Textile Strike. 1825 United Tailoresses of New York organized in New York City,1825 Boston House Carpenters Strike 1827 Mechanics Union of Trades Associations formed in Philadelphia. 1828 Workingmens Party was organized in Philadelphia by the Mechanics Union of Trades Associations and their efforts lead directly to the forming of the Workingmens Party of New York. 1829 Workingmens Party of New York formed,1831 New England Association of Farmers, Mechanics, and other Workingmen formed. Fifty-five workers in Norwich were convicted of breaking and rioting by one of the Special Commissions sent by the Whig Ministry to suppress insurgent workers. Three workers in Ipswich were convicted of extorting money by one of the Special Commissions sent by the Whig Ministry to suppress insurgent workers, twenty-six workers in Petworth were convicted of machine breaking and rioting by one of the Special Commissions sent by the Whig Ministry to suppress insurgent workers. Upwards of thirty workers in Gloucester were convicted of breaking and rioting by one of the Special Commissions sent by the Whig Ministry to suppress insurgent workers

32.
Proletariat
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The proletariat is a term for the class of wage-earners, in a capitalist society, whose only possession of significant material value is their labor-power, a member of such a class is a proletarian. The proletarii constituted a class of Roman citizens owning little or no property. This assembly, which met on the Campus Martius to discuss public policy issues, was also used as a means of designating military duties demanded of Roman citizens. The top infantry class assembled with full arms and armor, the two classes brought arms and armor, but less and lesser, the fourth class only spears. In voting, the cavalry and top class were enough to decide an issue, as voting started at the top. As a result of the Marian reforms initiated in 107 B. C. by the Roman general Gaius Marius, proletarians are wage-workers, while some refer to those who receive salaries as the salariat. For Marx, however, wage labor may involve getting a salary rather than a wage per se, intermediate positions are possible, where some wage-labor for an employer combines with self-employment. Socialist parties have often struggled over the question of whether they should seek to organize and represent all the lower classes, according to Marxism, capitalism is a system based on the exploitation of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie. Instead of hiring those means of production, they themselves get hired by capitalists and work for them and these goods or services become the property of the capitalist, who sells them at the market. Surplus value is the difference between the wealth that the proletariat produces through its work, and the wealth it consumes to survive and to provide labor to the capitalist companies. A part of the value is used to renew or increase the means of production, either in quantity or quality. What remains is consumed by the capitalist class, the commodities that proletarians produce and capitalists sell are valued for the amount of labor embodied in them. The same goes for the labor power itself, it is valued, not for the amount of wealth it produces. Marxists argue that new wealth is created through labor applied to natural resources, prole drift, short for proletarian drift, is a term that suggests the tendency in advanced industrialized societies for everything inexorably to become proletarianized, or to become commonplace. This trend is attributed to mass production, mass selling, mass communication, examples include best-seller lists, films and music that must appeal to the masses and shopping malls. Why workers can change the world, hal Draper, Karl Marxs Theory of Revolution, Vol.2, The Politics of Social Classes

33.
Socialism
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Social ownership may refer to forms of public, collective, or cooperative ownership, to citizen ownership of equity, or to any combination of these. Although there are varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them. Socialist economic systems can be divided into both non-market and market forms, non-market socialism aims to circumvent the inefficiencies and crises traditionally associated with capital accumulation and the profit system. Profits generated by these firms would be controlled directly by the workforce of each firm or accrue to society at large in the form of a social dividend, the feasibility and exact methods of resource allocation and calculation for a socialist system are the subjects of the socialist calculation debate. Core dichotomies associated with these concerns include reformism versus revolutionary socialism, the term is frequently used to draw contrast to the political system of the Soviet Union, which critics argue operated in an authoritarian fashion. By the 1920s, social democracy and communism became the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement, by this time, Socialism emerged as the most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide. Socialist parties and ideas remain a force with varying degrees of power and influence in all continents. Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of social movements. The origin of the term socialism may be traced back and attributed to a number of originators, in addition to significant historical shifts in the usage, for Andrew Vincent, The word ‘socialism’ finds its root in the Latin sociare, which means to combine or to share. The related, more technical term in Roman and then medieval law was societas and this latter word could mean companionship and fellowship as well as the more legalistic idea of a consensual contract between freemen. The term socialism was created by Henri de Saint-Simon, one of the founders of what would later be labelled utopian socialism. Simon coined socialism as a contrast to the doctrine of individualism. They presented socialism as an alternative to liberal individualism based on the ownership of resources. The term socialism is attributed to Pierre Leroux, and to Marie Roch Louis Reybaud in France, the term communism also fell out of use during this period, despite earlier distinctions between socialism and communism from the 1840s. An early distinction between socialism and communism was that the former aimed to only socialise production while the latter aimed to socialise both production and consumption. However, by 1888 Marxists employed the term socialism in place of communism, linguistically, the contemporary connotation of the words socialism and communism accorded with the adherents and opponents cultural attitude towards religion. In Christian Europe, of the two, communism was believed to be the atheist way of life, in Protestant England, the word communism was too culturally and aurally close to the Roman Catholic communion rite, hence English atheists denoted themselves socialists. Friedrich Engels argued that in 1848, at the time when the Communist Manifesto was published, socialism was respectable on the continent and this latter branch of socialism produced the communist work of Étienne Cabet in France and Wilhelm Weitling in Germany

34.
Anarcho-syndicalism
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The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are solidarity, direct action and direct democracy, or workers self-management. The end goal of anarcho-syndicalism is to abolish the wage system, Anarcho-syndicalist theory therefore generally focuses on the labour movement. Reflecting the anarchist philosophy from which it draws its primary inspiration, hubert Lagardelle wrote that Pierre-Joseph Proudhon laid out fundamental ideas of anarcho-syndicalism, and repudiated both capitalism and the state in the process. He viewed free economic groups and struggle, not pacifism as dominant in humans, the CNT started small, counting 26,571 members represented through several trade unions and other confederations. In 1911, coinciding with its first congress, the CNT initiated a strike that provoked a Barcelona judge to declare the union illegal until 1914. That same year of 1911, the union officially received its name. From 1918 on the CNT grew stronger, the CNT had an outstanding role in the events of the La Canadiense general strike, which paralyzed 70% of industry in Catalonia in 1919, the year the CNT reached a membership of 700,000. Around that time, panic spread among employers, giving rise to the practice of pistolerismo and these pistoleros are credited with killing 21 union leaders in 48 hours. In 1922 the International Workers Association was founded in Berlin, the CNT joined immediately, however, the following year, with the rise of Miguel Primo de Riveras dictatorship, the labor union was outlawed, once again. The first secretaries of the International included the writer and activist Rudolph Rocker, along with Augustin Souchy. Following the first congress, other groups affiliated from France, Austria, Denmark, Belgium, Switzerland, Bulgaria, Poland and Romania. Later, a bloc of unions in the USA, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Guatemala, Cuba, Costa Rica and El Salvador also shared the IWAs statutes. The biggest syndicalist union in the USA, the IWW, considered joining but eventually ruled out affiliation in 1936, citing the IWAs policies on religious and political affiliation. The Industrial Workers of the World, although not anarcho-syndicalist, were informed by developments in the revolutionary syndicalist milieu at the turn of the 20th century. Although the terms anarcho-syndicalism and revolutionary syndicalism are often used interchangeably, the Biennio Rosso was a two-year period, between 1919 and 1920, of intense social conflict in Italy, following the first world war. The Biennio Rosso took place in a context of crisis at the end of the war, with high unemployment. It was characterized by strikes, worker manifestations as well as self-management experiments through land. In Turin and Milan, workers councils were formed and many factory occupations took place under the leadership of anarcho-syndicalists, the agitations also extended to the agricultural areas of the Padan plain and were accompanied by peasant strikes, rural unrests and guerilla conflicts between left-wing and right-wing militias

35.
Child labour
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This practice is considered exploitative by many international organisations. Legislation across the world prohibit child labour, Child labour has existed to varying extents, through most of history. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, many children aged 5–14 from poorer families still worked in Europe and these children mainly worked in agriculture, home-based assembly operations, factories, mining and in services such as news boys. Some worked night shifts lasting 12 hours, with the rise of household income, availability of schools and passage of child labour laws, the incidence rates of child labour fell. In developing countries, with poverty and poor schooling opportunities. In 2010, sub-saharan Africa had the highest incidence rates of child labour, worldwide agriculture is the largest employer of child labour. Vast majority of labour is found in rural settings and informal urban economy, children are predominantly employed by their parents. Poverty and lack of schools are considered as the cause of child labour. Globally the incidence of child labour decreased from 25% to 10% between 1960 and 2003, according to the World Bank. Nevertheless, the number of child labourers remains high, with UNICEF. Child labour forms a part of pre-industrial economies. In pre-industrial societies, there is rarely a concept of childhood in the modern sense, Children often begin to actively participate in activities such as child rearing, hunting and farming as soon as they are competent. In many societies, children as young as 13 are seen as adults, the work of children was important in pre-industrial societies, as children needed to provide their labour for their survival and that of their group. In pre-industrial societies, there was little need for children to attend school and this is especially the case in non literate societies. Most pre-industrial skill and knowledge were amenable to being passed down through direct mentoring or apprenticing by competent adults, with the onset of the Industrial Revolution in Britain in the late 18th century, there was a rapid increase in the industrial exploitation of labour, including child labour. Industrial cities such as Birmingham, Manchester and Liverpool rapidly grew from small villages into large cities and these cities drew in the population that was rapidly growing due to increased agricultural output. This process was replicated in other industrialising counties, the Victorian era in particular became notorious for the conditions under which children were employed. Children as young as four were employed in factories and mines working long hours in dangerous, often fatal

This painting depicts a woman examining her work on a lathe at a factory in Britain during World War II. Her eyes are not protected. Today, such practice would not be permitted in most industrialized countries that adhere to occupational health and safety standards for workers. In many countries, however, such standards are still either weak or nonexistent.

Workers cutting marble without any protective gear, Indore, India

Harry McShane, age 16, 1908. Pulled into machinery in a factory in Cincinnati and had his arm ripped off at the shoulder and his leg broken without any compensation.

Workplace safety notices at the entrance of a Chinese construction site.

In politics, centrism, the centre (British English)/(Canadian English) or the center (American English) is a political …

In 1990, Joachim Gauck (who is former German president, centrist politician and activist without party affiliation) took part in the Alliance 90, having become an independent after its merger with The Greens

Campaign for the Norwegian Centre Party at Nærbø: like its Finnish and Swedish counterparts, the party has a strong focus on decentralisation, rural and agrarian issues

Ross Perot, former United States presidential candidate in the 1992 and 1996 elections

The eight-hour day movement or 40-hour week movement, also known as the short-time movement, was a social movement to …

The Modern Bed of Procrustes Procrustes. "Now then, you fellows; I mean to fit you all to my little bed!" Chorus. "Oh lor-r!!" "It is impossible to establish universal uniformity of hours without inflicting very serious injury to workers." – Motion at the recent Trades' Congress. Cartoon from Punch, Vol 101, 19 September 1891

A caucus is a meeting of supporters or members of a specific political party or movement. The term originated in the …

Lewis Carroll mocked the futility of caucuses in "A Caucus-Race and a Long Tale", Chapter 3 of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865): when the "Caucus-race" of running in a circle stops, everyone is declared a winner by the Dodo and Alice is told to hand out prizes to all others, receiving her own thimble as her prize.

Precincts from Washington State's 46th Legislative District caucus in a school lunchroom (2008).