The .38 Smith & Wesson Special (commonly .38 Special, .38 Spl, or .38 Spc, pronounced "thirty-eight special") is a rimmed, centerfirecartridge designed by Smith & Wesson. It is most commonly used in revolvers, although some semi-automatic pistols and carbines also use this round. The .38 Special was the standard service cartridge of most police departments in the United States from the 1920s to the 1990s, and was also a common sidearm cartridge used by soldiers in World War I. In other parts of the world, it is known by its metric designation of 9×29.5mmR[6] or 9.1×29mmR.[7]

Known for its accuracy and manageable recoil, the .38 Special remains the most popular revolver cartridge in the world more than a century after its introduction. It is used for target shooting, formal target competition, personal defense, and for hunting small game.

Despite its name, the caliber of the .38 Special cartridge is actually .357 inches (36 caliber/9.07 mm), with the ".38" referring to the approximate diameter of the loaded brass case. This came about because the original .38-caliber cartridge, the .38 Short Colt, was designed for use in converted .36-caliber cap-and-ball Navy revolvers, which had cylindrical firing chambers of approximately 0.374-inch (9.5 mm) diameter, requiring heeled bullets, the exposed portion of which was the same diameter as the cartridge case.

Except for case length, the .38 Special is identical to the .38 Short Colt, .38 Long Colt, and .357 Magnum. This allows the .38 Special round to be safely fired in revolvers chambered for the .357 Magnum, and the .38 Long Colt in revolvers chambered for .38 Special, increasing the versatility of this cartridge. However, the longer and more powerful .357 Magnum cartridge will usually not chamber and fire in weapons rated specifically for .38 Special (e.g. all versions of the Smith & Wesson Model 10), which are not designed for the greatly increased pressure of the magnum rounds. Both .38 Special and .357 Magnum will chamber in Colt New Army revolvers in .38 Long Colt, due to the straight walled chambers, but this should not be done under any circumstances, due to dangerous pressure levels, up to three times what the New Army is designed to withstand.

The .38 Special was designed in 1898 to be a higher velocity round, with better penetration properties than the .38 Long Colt that was in Government Service in the Philippines during the Spanish–American War. The .38 Long Colt revolver round wouldn't penetrate the insurgent Philippine Morro warrior shields, and the Government contracted the new revolver round to Smith & Wesson. The .38 Special held a minimum of 21 grains of black powder, which was 3 grains more than the current .38 Long Colt, and it was 100 to 150 feet per second faster with a 158 grain bullet.

During the late 1920s, and in response to demands for a more effective law enforcement version of the cartridge, a new standard-velocity loading for the .38 Special was developed by Western Cartridge Company. This .38 Special variant incorporated a 200 grains (13 g) round-nosed lead 'Lubaloy' bullet, the .38 Super Police.[9]Remington-Peters also introduced a similar loading. Testing revealed that the longer, heavier 200 grains (13 g) .357-calibre bullet fired at low velocity tended to 'keyhole' or tumble upon impact, providing more shock effect against unprotected personnel.[10] At the same time, authorities in Great Britain, who had decided to adopt the .38 caliber revolver as a replacement for their existing .455 service cartridge, also tested the same 200 grains (13.0 g) bullet in the smaller .38 S&W cartridge. This cartridge was called the .38 S&W Super Police or the .38/200. Britain would later adopt the .38/200 as its standard military handgun cartridge.

In 1930, Smith & Wesson introduced a large frame .38 Special revolver with a 5-inch barrel and fixed sights intended for police use, the Smith & Wesson .38/44 Heavy Duty.[11][12] The following year, a new high-power loading called the .38 Special Hi-Speed with a 158 grains (10.2 g) metal-tip bullet was developed for these revolvers in response to requests from law enforcement agencies for a handgun bullet that could penetrate auto bodies and body armor.[13] That same year, Colt Firearms announced that their Colt Official Police would also handle 'high-speed' .38 Special loadings.[14] The .38/44 high-speed cartridge came in three bullet weights: 158 grains (10.2 g), 150 and 110 grains (9.7 and 7.1 g), with either coated lead or steel jacket, metal-piercing bullets.[15] The media attention gathered by the .38/44 and its ammunition eventually led Smith & Wesson to develop a completely new cartridge with a longer case length in 1934—this was the .357 Magnum.

During World War II, some U.S. aircrew (primarily Navy and Marine Corps) were issued .38 Special S&W Victory revolvers as sidearms in the event of a forced landing. In May 1943, a new .38 Special cartridge with a 158 grains (10.2 g), full-steel-jacketed, copper flash-coated bullet meeting the requirements of the rules of land warfare was developed at Springfield Armory and adopted for the Smith & Wesson revolvers.[16] The new military .38 Special loading propelled its 158 grains (10.2 g) bullet at a standard 850 ft/s (260 m/s) from a 4-inch (100 mm) revolver barrel.[16] During the war, many U.S. naval and marine aircrew were also issued red-tipped .38 Special tracer rounds using either a 120 or 158 gr (7.8 or 10.2 g) bullet for emergency signaling purposes.[16]

In 1956, the U.S. Air Force adopted the Cartridge, Caliber .38, Ball M41, a military variant of the .38 Special cartridge designed to conform to the rules of land warfare. The original .38 M41 ball cartridge used a 130-grain full-metal-jacketed bullet, and was loaded to an average pressure of only 13,000 pounds per square inch (90 MPa), giving a muzzle velocity of approximately 725 ft/s (221 m/s) from a 4-inch (100 mm) barrel.[17][18] This ammunition was intended to prolong the life of S&W M12 and Colt Aircrewman revolvers equipped with aluminum cylinders and frames, which were prone to stress fractures when fired with standard .38 ammunition. By 1961, a slightly revised M41 .38 cartridge specification known as the Cartridge, Caliber .38 Ball, Special, M41 had been adopted for U.S. armed forces using .38 Special caliber handguns.[18] The new M41 Special cartridge used a 130-grain FMJ bullet loaded to a maximum allowable pressure of 16,000 psi (110,000 kPa) for a velocity of approximately 950 ft/s (290 m/s) in a solid 6-inch (150 mm) test barrel, and about 750 ft/s (230 m/s) from a 4-inch (100 mm) revolver barrel.[19][20] The M41 ball cartridge was first used in .38 revolvers carried by USAF aircrew and Strategic Air Command security police, and by 1961 was in use by the U.S. Army for security police, dog handlers, and other personnel equipped with .38 Special caliber revolvers.[20] A variant of the standard M41 cartridge with a semi-pointed, unjacketed lead bullet was later adopted for CONUS (Continental United States) police and security personnel,[18] at the same time, .38 tracer cartridges were reintroduced by the US Navy, Marines, and Air Force to provide a means of emergency signaling by downed aircrew. Tracer cartridges in .38 Special caliber of different colors were issued, generally as part of a standard aircrew survival vest kit.

A request for more powerful .38 Special ammunition for use by Air Police and security personnel resulted in the Caliber .38 Special, Ball, PGU-12/B High Velocity cartridge.[19] Issued only by the U.S. Air Force, the PGU-12/B had a greatly increased maximum allowable pressure rating of 20,000 psi, sufficient to propel a 130-grain FMJ bullet at 1,125 ft/s (343 m/s) from a solid 6-inch (150 mm) test barrel, and about 950–980 ft/s from a 4-inch (100 mm) revolver barrel.[19] The PGU-12/B High Velocity cartridge differs from M41 Special ammunition in two important respects—the PGU-12/B is a much higher-pressure cartridge, with a bullet deeply set and crimped into the cartridge case.

In response to continued complaints over ineffectiveness of the standard .38 Special 158-grain cartridge in stopping assailants in numerous armed confrontations during the 1950s and 1960s, ammunition manufacturers began to experiment with higher-pressure (18,500 CUP) loadings of the .38 Special cartridge, known as .38 Special +P. In 1972, the Federal Bureau of Investigation introduced a new .38 +P loading that became known as the "FBI Load".[21] The FBI Load combined a more powerful powder charge with a 158-grain unjacketed soft lead[22] semi-wadcutter hollow-point bullet designed to readily expand at typical .38 Special velocities obtained in revolvers commonly used by law enforcement.[21] The FBI Load proved very satisfactory in effectively stopping adversaries in numerous documented shootings using 2- to 4-inch barreled revolvers,[21][23] the FBI Load was later adopted by the Chicago Police Department and numerous other law enforcement agencies.[21] Demand for a .38 cartridge with even greater performance for law enforcement led to the introduction of the +P+ .38 Special cartridge, first introduced by Federal and Winchester. Originally labeled "For Law Enforcement Only",[24][unreliable source?] +P+ ammunition is intended for heavier-duty .38 Special and .357 Magnum revolvers, as the increased pressure levels can result in accelerated wear and significant damage to firearms rated for lower-pressure .38 Special loadings (as with all .38 Special loadings, the .38 Special +P+ can also be fired safely in .357 Magnum revolvers).[25]

Due to its black powder heritage, the .38 Special is a low pressure cartridge, one of the lowest in common use today at 17,000 PSI. By modern standards, the .38 Special fires a medium-sized bullet at rather low speeds. In the case of target loads, a 148 gr (9.6 g) bullet is propelled to only 690 ft/s (210 m/s).[26] The closest comparisons are the .380 ACP, which fires much lighter bullets slightly faster than most .38 Special loads; the 9×19mm Parabellum, which fires a somewhat lighter bullet significantly faster; and the .38 Colt Super, which fires a comparable bullet significantly faster. All three of these are usually found in semi-automatic pistols.

The higher-pressure .38 +P loads at 20,000 PSI offer about 20% more muzzle energy than standard-pressure loads and places between the .380 ACP and the 9 mm Parabellum; similar to that of the 9×18mm Makarov. A few specialty manufacturers' +P loads for this cartridge can attain even higher energies that, especially when fired from longer barrels, produce energies in the range of the 9 mm Parabellum. These loads are generally not recommend for older revolvers or ones not specifically "+P" rated.

All of the above specifications for .38 loadings, and the .357 Magnum, are applicable when fired from a 6-inch (150 mm) barreled revolver. The velocity is reduced when using the more standard 4-inch (100 mm) barreled guns.[27] Power (muzzle energy) will, of course, decrease accordingly.

Although only a few US police departments now issue or authorize use of the .38 Special revolver as a standard duty weapon, the caliber remains popular with some police officers for use in short-barreled revolvers carried when off-duty or for undercover police investigations. It is also widely used in revolvers purchased for civilian home defense or for concealed carry by individuals with a CCW permit.

There are many companies that manufacture .38 Special ammunition. It can range from light target loads to more powerful defensive ammunition, because of the relatively low pressure that the .38 Special cartridge and even its more powerful +P version can be loaded to, most 38 Special bullets do not expand reliably, even when using hollow-point designs, especially if fired from a short-barreled or 'snub-nose' revolver. In 2004, Speer Bullets introduced the Gold Dot jacketed hollow-point .38 Special cartridge in an attempt to solve this very problem. Another solution is to use an unjacketed soft lead hollow-point bullet as found in the FBI Load,[21] the latter's 158-grain soft lead hollow point is loaded to +P pressures and velocity, which ensures more reliable expansion in unprotected flesh, even when fired in a 2-inch short-barreled revolver.[21] Various YouTube videos seem to indicate that hollow point 38 Special projectiles (and 380ACP) that have a plastic filler in the concavity achieve more consistent expansion, some brands call that a 'ballistic tip'.

The .38 Special is particularly popular among handloaders. The cartridge's straight walls, headspacing on the rim, ready availability of previously-fired cases, and ability to be fired in .357 Magnum firearms, all contribute to this popularity. Additionally, the .38 Special's heritage as a black powder cartridge gives it a case size capable of accommodating many types of powders, from slower-burning (e.g. Hodgdon H-110 or Hercules 2400) to fast-burning (e.g. Alliant Bullseye, the traditional smokeless powder for this cartridge), this flexibility in powders translates directly to versatility in muzzle energy that a handloader can achieve. Thus, with proper care, a suitably-strong revolver, and adherence to safe handloading practices, the .38 Special can accommodate ammunition ranging from light-recoiling target loads to +P+ self-defense rounds. The .38 Special, handloaded with premium to regular lead bullets can be loaded safely to equal the now popular 9x19mm Luger round, and equal the power of the .45 ACP round. The round is still as viable today as a self-defense round as it was back in 1898.

^Barnes, Frank C. Ken Warner, editor. Cartridges of the World, 6th Edition. Northbrook, Illinois: DBI Books, 1989. ISBN978-0-87349-033-7. The failure of the .38 Long Colt as a service cartridge caused the U.S. Army to insist on a .45 chambering for the its 1907 pistol trials.

^Sharpe, Phil, The New Smith & Wesson Heavy Duty .38, The American Rifleman, November 1931

^Sharpe, Phil, The New Smith & Wesson Heavy Duty .38, The American Rifleman, November 1931: "..the destruction of this load was terrific..Every shot showed evidence of key-holing after the first half of the penetration had been accomplished."

^Shideler, Dan, Is This the Greatest .38 Ever, Gun Digest, 4 August 2008

^Sharpe, Phil, The New Smith & Wesson Heavy Duty .38, The American Rifleman, November 1931: Chambered in .38 Special, the .38/44 was built on the old S&W .44-calibre Hand Ejector frame.

^Shideler, Dan, Is This the Greatest .38 Ever, Gun Digest, 4 August 2008: The new .38/44 load developed a maximum allowable pressure of 20,000 pounds per square inch (140 MPa), producing a velocity of about 1,100 ft/s (340 m/s) from a 5 in (130 mm) barrel with a 158 gr (10.2 g) metal-tipped bullet.

1.
38 Special (band)
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38 Special is an American rock band that was formed by neighborhood friends Don Barnes and Donnie Van Zant in 1974 in Jacksonville, Florida. The bands first two albums had a southern rock influence. By the early 1980s.38 Special shifted to a more accessible arena rock style without abandoning its southern rock roots and this shift helped to usher in a string of successful albums and singles. Survivor co-founder Jim Peterik has been a frequent songwriting collaborator of the band since 1980 and their breakthrough hit was Hold On Loosely. Caught Up in You and If Id Been the One both hit No.1 on Billboard magazines Album Rock Tracks chart, back Where You Belong continued the annual sequence of radio favorites. In 1985 they had hit with Teacher Teacher, written by Jim Vallance. The song climbed to #4 on the Billboard Top Tracks Chart, in 2009,38 Special opened for REO Speedwagon and Styx as part of the Cant Stop Rockin Tour. As of 2011, the lineup consists of Don Barnes, guitarist Danny Chauncey, keyboardist Bobby Capps, drummer Gary Moffatt, and bassist Barry Dunaway. In 2013, after nearly a year of missing performances, it was confirmed that Donnie Van Zant had officially left 38 Special after 39 years, in 2014, longtime bassist Larry Junstrom was replaced by Barry Dunaway. Dunaway has filled in for Junstrom for a handful of shows in 2011, Junstrom was forced to retire due to a hand injury, that required surgery. This leaves only Don Barnes as a member, although Barnes was absent from the band from 1987 until 1992. Official website 38 Special at Last. fm 38 Special live photo gallery

2.
Smith & Wesson
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Smith & Wesson is a manufacturer of firearms in the United States. The corporate headquarters are based in Springfield, Massachusetts, founded in 1852, Smith & Wessons pistols and revolvers have become standard issue to police and armed forces throughout the world, in addition to their popularity among sport shooters. Apart from firearms, Smith & Wesson has been known for the types of ammunition it has introduced over the years. Wesson founded the Smith & Wesson Company in Norwich, Connecticut in 1852 to develop the Volcanic rifle, Smith developed a new Volcanic Cartridge, which he patented in 1854. The Smith & Wesson Company was renamed Volcanic Repeating Arms in 1855, Smith left the company and returned to his native Springfield, Massachusetts, Wesson stayed on as plant manager with Volcanic Repeating Arms. As Samuel Colts patent on the revolver was set to expire in 1856 and his research pointed out that a former Colt employee named Rollin White held the patent for a Bored-through cylinder, a component he would need for his invention. Wesson reconnected with Smith and the two partners approached White to manufacture a newly designed revolver-and-cartridge combination, rather than make White a partner in their company, Smith and Wesson paid him a royalty of $0.25 on every revolver that they made. It would become Whites responsibility to defend his patent in any court cases which led to his financial ruin. The orders for the Smith & Wesson Model 1 revolver outpaced the production capabilities. In 1860 demand was so great that Smith & Wesson expanded into a new facility, at the same time, the companys design was being infringed upon by other manufacturers which led to numerous lawsuits filed by Rollin White. In many of these part of the restitution came in the form of the offender being forced to stamp Manufactured for Smith & Wesson on the revolvers in question. Whites vigorous defense of his patent caused a problem for armsmakers in the United States at the time as they could not manufacture cartridge revolvers, at the end of the war the US Government charged White with causing the retardation of arms development in America. Demand for revolvers declined at the close of the Civil War, in 1870 the company introduced a large frame revolver in heavier calibers than the pocket sized revolvers it had been making. The design was known as the Smith & Wesson Model 3, after an organized campaign by the NRA and NSSF, thousands of retailers and tens of thousands of firearms consumers boycotted Smith & Wesson. On 11 May 2001, Saf-T-Hammer Corporation acquired Smith & Wesson Corp. from Tomkins plc for US$15 million, Saf-T-Hammer assumed US$30 million in debt, bringing the total purchase price to US$45 million. The acquisition of Smith & Wesson was chiefly brokered by Saf-T-Hammer President Bob Scott, after the purchase, Scott became the president of Smith & Wesson to guide the 157-year-old company back to its former standing in the market. On 15 February 2002, the name of the newly formed entity was changed to Smith & Wesson Holding Corporation, about 2006 Smith & Wesson refocused its marketing on big box retailers, according to Smith & Wesson CEO Mike Golden in a 2008 conference call with investors. In December 2014, Smith & Wesson Holding announced it was paying $130.5 million for Battenfeld Technologies, the company made the acquisition with the eventual intent to merge all its existing Smith & Wesson, M&P and Thompson Center Arms accessories into a single division

3.
Cartridge (firearms)
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Military and commercial producers continue to pursue the goal of caseless ammunition. A cartridge without a bullet is called a blank, One that is completely inert is called a dummy. Some artillery ammunition uses the same concept as found in small arms. In other cases, the shell is separate from the propellant charge. In popular use, the bullet is often misused to refer to a complete cartridge. The cartridge case seals a firing chamber in all directions excepting the bore, a firing pin strikes the primer and ignites it. The primer compound deflagrates, it does not detonate, a jet of burning gas from the primer ignites the propellant. Gases from the burning powder pressurize and expand the case to seal it against the chamber wall and these propellant gases push on the bullet base. In response to pressure, the bullet will move in the path of least resistance which is down the bore of the barrel. After the bullet leaves the barrel, the pressure drops to atmospheric pressure. The case, which had been expanded by chamber pressure. This eases removal of the case from the chamber, brass is a commonly used case material because it is resistant to corrosion. A brass case head can be work-hardened to withstand the pressures of cartridges. The neck and body portion of a case is easily annealed to make the case ductile enough to allow reforming so that it can be reloaded many times. Steel is used in some plinking ammunition, as well as in military ammunition. Steel is less expensive than brass, but it is not feasible to reload, Military forces typically consider small arms cartridge cases to be disposable, one-time-use devices. However, case weight affects how much ammunition a soldier can carry, conversely, steel is more susceptible to contamination and damage so all such cases are varnished or otherwise sealed against the elements. One downside caused by the strength of steel in the neck of these cases is that propellant gas can blow back past the neck

4.
.38 Long Colt
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It is slightly more powerful than the.38 Short Colt, or.38 SC. The.38 SC and.38 LC differ in length, and in bullet diameter, weight. The.38 Long Colts predecessor, the.38 Short Colt, used a bullet of 130 grains at a nominal 770 ft/s. The cylindrical shank or bearing surface of the bullet, just in front of the case mouth, is.374 or.375 in in diameter. A smaller-diameter portion of the bullet, the heel, is crimped inside the mouth, and the lubricant is outside the case. In contrast, the.38 Long Colt uses a. 357–.358 in bullet and this keeps the waxy lubricant from collecting grit which can damage the revolvers barrel. Colt, however, retained the single-diameter charge hole, so the bullet was grossly undersize as it traveled through the chamber throat. It was supposed to expand in the throat and be swaged down, or reduced again in diameter, as it entered the barrel, velocity was the same 770 ft/s, but bullets weighed 150 grains, resulting in a muzzle energy of 198 ft·lbf. A typical instance occurred in 1905 and was recounted by Col. Louis A. LaGarde, Antonio Caspi. He was shot four times at close range in an encounter by a.38 Colts revolver loaded with U. S. Army regulation ammunition. He was finally stunned by a blow on the forehead from the end of a Springfield carbine. Col. LaGarde noted Caspis wounds were fairly well-placed, three entered the chest, perforating the lungs. One passed through the body, one lodged near the back, the fourth round went though the right hand and exited through the forearm. Army Ordnance also purchased a number of M1902 revolvers for issue to officers deploying overseas. The.38 Long Colt remained in service until 1909, when the.45 M1909 cartridge was issued along with the.45 Colt New Service revolver as the new military sidearm for the U. S. Army. In civilian use, the.38 LC was chambered in a number of Colt revolvers, various U. S. police forces also adopted the cartridge. However, the cartridge became nearly extinct after Smith & Wessons more powerful.38 Special cartridge became popular as a civilian. By 1908, even Colt was chambering their new Police Positive and New Army revolvers in.38 Colt Special,9 mm caliber Table of handgun and rifle cartridges Cartridge Dimensions at Steves Pages Ballistics By The Inch.38 Long Colt Results

5.
Bullet
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The word bullet is a firearm term. A bullet is a projectile expelled from the barrel of a firearm, the term is from Middle French and originated as the diminutive of the word boulle which means small ball. Bullets are made of a variety of materials and they are available singly as they would be used in muzzle loading and cap and ball firearms, as part of a paper cartridge, and much more commonly as a component of metallic cartridges. Bullets are made in a numbers of styles and constructions depending on how they will be used. Many bullets have specialized functions, such as hunting, target shooting, training, defense, a bullet is not a cartridge. In paper and metallic cartridges a bullet is one component of the cartridge, bullet sizes are expressed by their weight and diameter in both English and Metric measurement systems. For example.22 caliber 55 grain bullets or 5. 56mm 55 grain bullets are the same caliber, the word bullet is often used colloquially to refer to a cartridge, which is a combination of the bullet, paper or metallic case/shell, powder, and primer. This use of bullet, when cartridge is intended, leads to confusion when the components of a cartridge are discussed or intended, the bullets used in many cartridges are fired at a muzzle velocity faster than the speed of sound. Meaning they are supersonic and thus can travel a substantial distance, bullet speed through air depends on a number of factors such as barometric pressure, humidity, air temperature, and wind speed. Subsonic cartridges fire bullets slower than the speed of sound and so there is no sonic crack and this means that a subsonic cartridge such as.45 ACP can be effectively suppressed to be substantially quieter than a supersonic cartridge such as the.223 Remington. Bullets do not normally contain explosives, but damage the target by impact. The first use of gunpowder in Europe was recorded in 1247 and it had been used in China for hundreds of years. Later in 1364 hand cannon appeared, early projectiles were made of stone. Stone was used in cannon and hand cannon, in cannon it was eventually found that stone would not penetrate stone fortifications which gave rise to the use of heavier metals for the round projectiles. Hand cannon projectiles developed in a similar following the failure of stone from siege cannon. The first recorded instance of a ball from a hand cannon penetrating armor occurred in 1425. In this photograph of shot retrieved from the wreck of the Mary Rose which was sunk in 1545, the round shot are clearly of different sizes and some are stone while others are cast iron. The development of the hand culverin and matchlock arquebus brought about the use of cast lead balls as projectiles, bullet is derived from the French word boulette, which roughly means little ball

6.
Grain (unit)
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A grain is a unit of measurement of mass, and, for the troy grain, equal to exactly 7001647989100000000♠64.79891 milligrams. It is nominally based upon the mass of a seed of a cereal. From the Bronze Age into the Renaissance the average masses of wheat, rather, expressions such as thirty-two grains of wheat, taken from the middle of the ear appear to have been ritualistic formulas, essentially the premodern equivalent of legal boilerplate. Another book states that Captain Henry Kater, of the British Standards Commission, the grain was the legal foundation of traditional English weight systems, and is the only unit that is equal throughout the troy, avoirdupois, and apothecaries systems of mass. The unit was based on the weight of a grain of barley. The fundamental unit of the pre-1527 English weight system known as Tower weights, was a different sort of known as the wheat grain. The Tower wheat grain was defined as exactly 45⁄64 of a troy grain.79891 milligrams, 7000100000000000000♠1 gram is approximately 7001154323600000000♠15.43236 grains. The unit formerly used by jewellers to measure pearls, diamonds, or other stones, called the jewellers grain or pearl grain, is equal to 1⁄4 of a carat. The grain was also the name of a traditional French unit equal to 6995531150000000000♠53.115 mg. In both British Imperial and U. S. customary units, there are precisely 7,000 grains per avoirdupois pound, the grain is commonly used to measure the mass of bullets and propellants. The term also refers to a particle of gunpowder, the size of which varies according to requirements. In archery, the grain is the unit used to weigh arrows. In dentistry, gold foil, used as a material to restore teeth, is measured in grains, in North America, the hardness of water is often measured in grains per US gallon of calcium carbonate equivalents. Otherwise, water hardness is measured in the metric unit parts per million, one grain per US gallon is approximately 6995171000000000000♠17.1 ppm. Soft water contains 1–4 gpg of calcium carbonate equivalents, while hard water contains 11–20 gpg, though no longer recommended, grains are still used occasionally in medicine as part of the apothecaries system, especially in prescriptions for older medicines such as aspirin or phenobarbital. For example, the dosage of a standard 6996325000000000000♠325 mg tablet of aspirin is sometimes given as 7000500000000000000♠5 grains, in that example the grain is approximated to 6995650000000000000♠65 mg, though the grain can also be approximated to 6995600000000000000♠60 mg, depending on the medication and manufacturer. The apothecaries system has its own system of notation, in which the symbol or abbreviation is followed by the quantity in lower case Roman numerals. For amounts less than one, the quantity is written as a fraction, or for one half, therefore, a prescription for tablets containing 325 mg of aspirin and 30 mg of codeine can be written ASA gr

7.
Primer (firearms)
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In firearm ballistics, the primer is a component of pistol, rifle, and shotgun rounds. Early primers were simply the same black powder used to fire the weapon and this external powder was connected though a tube in the barrel that led to the main charge. As powder wont burn when wet, this led to difficulty, or even the inability, modern primers are shock sensitive chemicals. In smaller weapons the primer is usually integrated into the rear of a cartridge, in larger weapons like cannon the primer is a separate component placed inside the barrel to the rear of the main propellant charge. The first step to firing a firearm of any sort is igniting the propellant, the earliest firearms were cannons, which were simple closed tubes. There was an aperture, the touchhole, drilled in the closed end of the tube. This hole was filled with finely ground powder, which was ignited with a hot ember or torch. With the advent of firearms, this became an undesirable way of firing a gun. The first attempt to make the process of firing a small arm easier was the matchlock, the matchlock incorporated a lock that was actuated by a trigger, originally called a tricker. The lock was a lever which pivoted when pulled. The match was a burning fuse made of plant fibers that were soaked in a solution of nitrates, charcoal, and sulfur. This slow-match was ignited before the gun was needed, and it would slowly burn, after the gun was loaded and the touchhole primed with powder, the burning tip of the match was positioned so that the lock would bring it into contact with the touchhole. To fire the gun, it was aimed and the trigger pulled and this brought the match down to the touchhole, igniting the powder. With careful attention the slow-burning match could be burning for long periods of time. The next revolution in technology was the wheel-lock. It used a spring-loaded, serrated steel wheel which rubbed against a piece of iron pyrite, a key was used to wind the wheel and put the spring under tension. Once tensioned, the wheel was held in place by a trigger, when the trigger was pulled, the serrated edge of the steel rubbed against the pyrite, generating sparks. These sparks were directed into a pan, called the flash pan, the flashpan usually was protected by a spring-loaded cover that would slide out of the way when the trigger was pulled, exposing the powder to the sparks

8.
Rim (firearms)
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A rim is an external flange that is machined, cast, molded, stamped or pressed around the bottom of a firearms cartridge. Thus, rimmed cartridges are sometimes called flanged cartridges, almost all cartridges feature an extractor or headspacing rim, in spite of the fact that some cartridges are known as rimless cartridges. These types are rimmed, rimless, semi-rimmed, rebated rim and these categories describe the size of the rim in relation to the base of the case. The rimmed cartridge, sometimes called flanged cartridge, is the oldest of the types and has a rim that is larger in diameter than the base of the cartridge. Rimmed cartridges use the rim to hold the cartridge in the chamber of the firearm, because the rimmed cartridge headspaces on the rim, the case length is of less importance than rimless cartridges. This allows some firearms chambered for similar rimmed cartridges to safely chamber and fire shorter cartridges, rimmed cartridges are well suited to certain types of actions, such as revolvers, where the rim helps hold the cartridge in position, and break-action firearms. Semi-automatic handguns have been chambered in rimmed cartridges as well, for example a LAR Grizzly or Desert Eagle in.357 or.44 Magnum, under the metric cartridge designation system, a capitalized R added at the end of the designation denotes a rimmed cartridge. For example,7. 62×54mmR is a cartridge, while 7. 62×51mm is a rimless cartridge.45 Auto Rim. Examples of rimmed handgun cartridges include the.38 Special.357 Magnum, rimmed rifle cartridge examples include the.22 Hornet.303 British and 7. 62×54mmR. Rimless cases are not well suited to break-open and revolver actions, though they can be used with modifications, such as a spring-loaded extractor or, in a revolver. Crimping affects the length of the cartridge, and thus cannot be used on cartridges which headspace on the case mouth. Examples of rimless handgun cartridges include the 9mm Parabellum.40 S&W, rimless rifle examples include the.223 Remington.308 Winchester. 30-06 Springfield and 7. 92×57mm Mauser. On a semi-rimmed case the rim projects slightly beyond the base of the case, the tiny rim provides minimal interference feeding from a box magazine, while still providing enough surface to headspace on. Semi-rimmed cases are less common than the other types, if the chamber is cut shallow, so the case headspaces off the mouth, the rim is used for extraction only, a standard chamber will use the rim for both headspacing and extraction. Examples of more commonly encountered rimless handgun cartridges are.25 ACP.32 ACP and.38 ACP, while the.308 Marlin Express.338 Marlin Express and.444 Marlin are rifle cartridges that are semi-rimmed. Rebated rim cartridges have a rim that is smaller in diameter than the base of the case. Functionally the same as a case, the rebated rim provides some additional benefits when considered in conjunction with other cartridges. One example of a rebated rim cartridge is the.50 Action Express, by using the same rim dimensions as the.44 Magnum, a Desert Eagle could be converted from.44 Magnum to.50 AE by merely changing the barrel and magazine

9.
Centerfire ammunition
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A centerfire cartridge is a cartridge with a primer located in the center of the cartridge case head. Unlike rimfire cartridges, the primer is a separate and replaceable component, centerfire cartridges have supplanted the rimfire variety in all but the smallest cartridge sizes. The stronger base of a cartridge is able to withstand higher pressures which in turn give a bullet greater velocity. Larger caliber rimfire cartridges require greater volumes of priming explosive than centerfire cartridges, reducing the amount of priming explosive would reduce the reliability of rimfire cartridge ignition, and increase the probability of misfire or dud cartridges. Economies of scale are achieved through interchangeable primers for a variety of centerfire cartridge calibers. The expensive individual brass cases can be reused after replacing the primer, gunpowder, the forward portion of some empty cases can be reformed for use as obsolete or wildcat cartridges with similar base configuration. Modern cartridges larger than.22 caliber are mostly centerfire, actions suitable for larger caliber rimfire cartridges declined in popularity until the demand for them no longer exceeded manufacturing costs, and they became obsolete. An early form of ammunition, without a percussion cap, was invented between 1808 and 1812 by Jean Samuel Pauly. This was also the first fully integrated cartridge, true centerfire ammunition was invented by the Frenchman Clement Pottet in 1829. However, Pottet would not perfect his design until 1855, the centerfire cartridge was improved by Benjamin Houllier, Gastinne Renette, Charles Lancaster, George Morse, Francois Schneider, Hiram Berdan and Edward Mounier Boxer. The identifying feature of centerfire ammunition is the primer which is a cup containing a primary explosive inserted into a recess in the center of the base of the cartridge. The firearm firing pin crushes this explosive between the cup and an anvil to produce hot gas and a shower of incandescent particles to ignite the powder charge, Berdan priming is less expensive to manufacture and is much more common in military-surplus ammunition made outside the United States. Berdan primers are named after their American inventor, Hiram Berdan of New York who invented his first variation of the Berdan primer and patented it on March 20,1866, in U. S. A small copper cylinder formed the shell of the cartridge, and this system worked well, allowing the option of installing a cap just before use of the propellant-loaded cartridge as well as permitting reloading the cartridge for reuse. S. Berdan primers have remained essentially the same functionally to the present day, Berdan primers are similar to the caps used in the caplock system, being small metal cups with pressure-sensitive explosive in them. Modern Berdan primers are pressed into the pocket of a Berdan-type cartridge case. Inside the primer pocket is a bump, the anvil, that rests against the center of the cup. Berdan cases are reusable, although the process is rather involved, the used primer must be removed, usually by hydraulic pressure or a pincer or lever that pulls the primer out of the bottom

10.
Revolver
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A revolver is a repeating handgun that has a revolving cylinder containing multiple chambers and at least one barrel for firing. Revolvers might be regarded as a subset of pistols, or as a subset of handguns. Though the term revolver usually only refers to handguns, other firearms may also have a revolving chamber and these include some models of grenade launchers, shotguns, and rifles. Most revolvers contain five or six rounds in the cylinder, though the original name was revolving gun, the short-hand revolver is universally used. The revolver allows the user to fire multiple rounds without reloading, each time the user cocks the hammer, the cylinder revolves to align the next chamber and round with the hammer and barrel, which gives this type of firearm its name. In a single-action revolver, the user pulls the back with his free hand or thumb. In a double-action revolver, pulling the trigger moves the back, then releases it. Loading and unloading a double-action revolver requires the operator to swing out the cylinder and insert the proper ammunition, the first guns with multichambered cylinders that revolved to feed one barrel were made in the late 16th century in Europe. They were expensive and rare curiosities, not until the 19th century would revolvers become common weapons of industrial production. One of the first was a flintlock revolver patented by Elisha Collier in 1814, the first percussion revolver was made by Lenormand of Paris in 1820 and the first percussion cap revolver was invented by the Italian Francesco Antonio Broccu in 1833. He received a prize of 300 francs for his invention, although he did not patent it, however, in 1835 a similar handgun was patented by Samuel Colt, who would go on to make the first mass-produced revolver. The first cartridge revolvers were produced around 1854 by Eugene Lefaucheux, revolvers soon became standard for nearly all uses. In the early 20th century, semi-automatic pistols were developed, which can hold more rounds, Automatic pistols also have a flat profile, more suitable for concealed carry. Automatic pistols have almost completely replaced revolvers in military and law enforcement use, revolvers still remain popular as back-up and off-duty handguns among American law enforcement officers and security guards. Also, revolvers are still common in the American private sector as defensive, in the development of firearms, an important limiting factor was the time it took to reload the weapon after it was fired. While the user was reloading, the weapon was useless, several approaches to the problem of increasing the rate of fire were developed, the earliest being multi-barrelled weapons which allowed two or more shots without reloading. Later weapons featured multiple barrels revolving along a single axis, the earliest examples of what today is called a revolver were made in Germany in the late 16th century. These weapons featured a barrel with a revolving cylinder holding the powder

11.
Semi-automatic pistol
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One cartridge is fired each time the trigger of a semi-automatic pistol is pulled, the pistols disconnector ensures this behavior. Additional terms sometimes used as synonyms for a semi-automatic pistol are automatic pistol, self-loading pistol, autopistol, a semi-automatic pistol harnesses the energy of one shot to reload the chamber for the next. After a round is fired, the spent casing is ejected, most pistols use recoil operation to do this, but some pistols use blowback or gas operation. Most types of semi-automatic pistols rely on a magazine to store ammunition before it is fired. Typically, the first round is loaded into the chamber by pulling back. This is called racking the slide or racking the gun, after the trigger is pulled and the round is fired, the recoil operation of the handgun automatically extracts and ejects the shell casing and reloads the chamber. This mode of operation allows for faster reloading and storing a larger number of cartridges than a revolver. Each pull of the trigger on a DAO semi-automatic pistol requires the amount of pressure. The Kel-Tec P-32 is an example of a DAO action, DAO semi-automatic pistols are most generally recommended only in the smaller, self-defense, concealable pistols, rather than in target or hunting pistols. A notable exception is Glock-brand pistols which optimize preset triggers, and this allows for significantly shorter trigger pulls than DAO. The trigger spring can be replaced with a one and paired with a low-strength sear connector resulting in lightened trigger pulls to improve a shooters accuracy. Standard modern semi-automatic pistols are double action, also sometimes known as double-action/single-action. In this design, the hammer or striker may be either thumb-cocked or activated by pulling the trigger when firing the first shot, the hammer or striker is recocked automatically during each firing cycle. In double-action pistols, the first pull of the trigger requires roughly twice as much pressure as subsequent firings, the Beretta 92F/FS, a full-sized, service, semi-automatic pistol is an example of this style of action. A common mode of carry for DA semi-automatic pistols is with the full, a round chambered. In contrast, a single-action semi-automatic pistol must be cocked by first operating the slide or bolt, or, if a round is already chambered, the famed Colt M1911 is an example of this style of action. All SA semi-automatic pistols exhibit this feature, and automatically cock the hammer when the slide is first racked to chamber a round, a round can also be manually inserted in the chamber with the slide locked back. Then the safety can be applied, the normal mode of carrying an SA semi-automatic pistol is condition 1, popularly known as cocked and locked

12.
Carbine
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A carbine, from French carabine, is a long arm firearm but with a shorter barrel than a rifle or musket. Many carbines are shortened versions of full-length rifles, shooting the same ammunition, while others fire lower-powered ammunition, the smaller size and lighter weight of carbines make them easier to handle. An example of this is the US Armys M4 carbine, which is standard-issue, the carbine was originally a lighter, shortened weapon developed for the cavalry. After the Napoleonic Wars, cavalry began fighting dismounted, using the only for greater mobility. By the American Civil War, dismounted cavalry were mostly the rule, the principal advantage of the carbine was that its length made it very portable. A carbine was typically no longer than a sheathed sabre, and like a sabre was carried arranged to hang clear of the riders elbows. Carbines were usually less accurate and less powerful than the muskets of the infantry, due to a shorter sight plane. With the advent of fast-burning smokeless powder, the velocity disadvantages of a shorter barrel became less of an issue, eventually, the use of horse-mounted cavalry would decline. During the early 19th century, carbines were often developed separately from the rifles and, in many cases, did not even use the same ammunition. A notable weapon developed towards the end of the American Civil War by the Union was the Spencer carbine, one of the very first breechloading, repeating weapons. It had a spring-powered, removable tube magazine in the buttstock which held seven rounds and it was intended to give the cavalry a replacement weapon which could be fired from horseback without the need for awkward reloading after each shot. In the late 19th century, it common for a number of nations to make bolt-action rifles in both full-length and carbine versions. One of the most popular and recognizable carbines were the lever-action Winchester carbines and this made it an ideal choice for cowboys and explorers, as well as other inhabitants of the American West, who could carry a revolver and a carbine, both using the same ammunition. Other nations followed suit after World War I, when they learned that their traditional long-barreled rifles provided little benefit in the trenches, the US M1 carbine was more of a traditional carbine in that it was significantly shorter and lighter, with a 457. A shorter weapon was more convenient when riding in a truck, armored personnel carrier, helicopter, or aircraft, based on the combat experience of World War II, the criteria used for selecting infantry weapons began to change. In addition, improvements in artillery made moving infantry in areas even less practical than it had been. The majority of enemy contacts were at ranges of less than 300 metres, most rounds fired were not aimed at an enemy combatant, but instead fired in the enemys direction to keep them from moving and firing back. These situations did not require a heavy rifle, firing full-power rifle bullets with long-range accuracy, the lower-powered round would also weigh less, allowing a soldier to carry more ammunition

13.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany

14.
Metric system
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The metric system is an internationally agreed decimal system of measurement. Many sources also cite Liberia and Myanmar as the other countries not to have done so. Although the originators intended to devise a system that was accessible to all. Control of the units of measure was maintained by the French government until 1875, when it was passed to an intergovernmental organisation. From its beginning, the features of the metric system were the standard set of interrelated base units. These base units are used to larger and smaller units that could replace a huge number of other units of measure in existence. Although the system was first developed for use, the development of coherent units of measure made it particularly suitable for science. Although the metric system has changed and developed since its inception, designed for transnational use, it consisted of a basic set of units of measurement, now known as base units. At the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, most countries, the metric system was designed to be universal—in the words of the French philosopher Marquis de Condorcet it was to be for all people for all time. However, these overtures failed and the custody of the metric system remained in the hands of the French government until 1875. In languages where the distinction is made, unit names are common nouns, the concept of using consistent classical names for the prefixes was first proposed in a report by the Commission on Weights and Measures in May 1793. The prefix kilo, for example, is used to multiply the unit by 1000, thus the kilogram and kilometre are a thousand grams and metres respectively, and a milligram and millimetre are one thousandth of a gram and metre respectively. These relations can be written symbolically as,1 mg =0, however,1935 extensions to the prefix system did not follow this convention, the prefixes nano- and micro-, for example have Greek roots. During the 19th century the prefix myria-, derived from the Greek word μύριοι, was used as a multiplier for 10000, prefixes are not usually used to indicate multiples of a second greater than 1, the non-SI units of minute, hour and day are used instead. On the other hand, prefixes are used for multiples of the unit of volume. The base units used in the system must be realisable. Each of the units in SI is accompanied by a mise en pratique published by the BIPM that describes in detail at least one way in which the base unit can be measured. In practice, such realisation is done under the auspices of a mutual acceptance arrangement, in the original version of the metric system the base units could be derived from a specified length and the weight of a specified volume of pure water

15.
Stopping power
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Stopping power is the ability of a firearm or other weapon to cause enough ballistic trauma to a target to immediately incapacitate the target. This contrasts with lethality in that stopping power only to a weapons ability to incapacitate quickly. Stopping power is related to the properties of the bullet. Critics contend that the importance of one-shot stop statistics is overstated, pointing out that most gun encounters do not involve a shoot once and see how the target reacts situation. Stopping power is caused not by the force of the bullet but by the damaging effects of the bullet, which are typically a loss of blood. This is why in many instances a single wound, with slow blood loss. More immediate effects can result when a bullet damages parts of the nervous system, such as the spine or brain. The importance of hydrostatic shock and of transfer in determining stopping power has long been controversial among gun users. Some have ascribed great importance to hydrostatic shock, some have tried to entirely discount it, in response to addressing stopping power issues, the Mozambique Drill was developed to maximize the likelihood of a targets quick incapacitation. Manstopper is a term used to refer to any combination of firearm and ammunition that can reliably incapacitate, or stop. For example, the.45 ACP pistol round and the.357 Magnum revolver round both have firm reputations as manstoppers, historically, one type of ammunition has had the specific tradename Manstopper. Officially known as the Mk III cartridge, these were made to suit the British Webley.455 service revolver in the early 20th century, the ammunition used a 220-grain cylindrical bullet with hemispherical depressions at both ends. The front acted as a hollow point deforming on impact while the base opened to seal the round in the barrel, some sporting arms are also referred to as stoppers or stopping rifles. These powerful arms are used by game hunters for stopping a suddenly charging animal. The concept of stopping power appeared in the 19th Century when colonial troops at close quarters found that their pistols were not able to stop charging native tribesmen and this led to the introduction or reintroduction of larger caliber weapons capable of stopping opponents with a single round. During the Seymour Expedition in China, at one of the battles at Langfang, Chinese Boxers, armed with swords and spears, charged the British and Americans, who were armed with guns. At point-blank range, one British soldier had to fire four.303 Lee-Metford bullets into a Boxer before he ceased to be a threat, the American Captain Bowman McCalla reported that single rifle shots were not enough, multiple rifle shots were needed to halt a Boxer. Only machine guns were effective in stopping the Boxers

16.
Filipino Muslim
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Islam is the oldest recorded monotheistic religion in the Philippines. The Muslim population of the Philippines has been reported as about 5% of the population as of a census in 2000. According to a 2015 report of Philippine Statistics Authority,5. 6% of Filipinos are Muslims, while the majority of the population are Roman Catholic, some ethnic groups are Protestant, Hindu, Buddhist, Animist, Sikh, or non-religious. Islam was first brought over by Arab traders in the late 13th and early 14th centuries and these Muslim merchants originally came from present-day Malaysia and Indonesia to the southernmost points in the Philippines, namely the Sulu islands and Mindanao. At the time, the inhabitants there were Hindus and Buddhist, the Arab newcomers preached Islam to the indigenous population and build the first mosque in the Philippines at town of Simunul in the mid-14th century. The Muslim conquest reached as far as the Kingdom of Tondo which was supplanted by Bruneis vassal-state the Kingdom of Maynila, in 1380 Karim ul Makhdum the first Arabian trader reached the Sulu Archipelago and Jolo in the Philippines and through trade throughout the island established Islam in the country. In 1390 the Minangkabaus Prince Rajah Baguinda and his followers preached Islam on the islands, the Sheik Karimal Makdum Mosque was the first mosque established in the Philippines on Simunul in Mindanao in the 14th century. Subsequent settlements by Arab missionaries traveling to Malaysia and Indonesia helped strengthen Islam in the Philippines and each settlement was governed by a Datu, Rajah, Islam was introduced by Chinese Muslims, Indian Muslims, and Persians. Islamic provinces founded in the Philippines included the Sultanate of Maguindanao, Sultanate of Sulu, Sultanate of Lanao, when the Spanish fleet led by Miguel López de Legazpi arrived in the Philippines in 1565, they were met by local datus as they traveled in the islands. Arriving in the Kingdom of Maynila, a vassal-state of the Sultanate of Brunei, however, the Visayas was largely dominated by Hindu-Buddhist societies led by rajahs and datus who strongly resisted Islam. One reason could be due to the economic and political disasters prehispanic Muslim pirates from the Mindanao region bring during raids. These frequent attacks gave way to naming present-day Cebu as then-Sugbo or scorched earth which was a technique implemented by the Visayans so the pirates have nothing much to loot. The Muslim conquest reached as far as the Kingdom of Tondo which was supplanted by Bruneis vassal-state the Kingdom of Maynila, the Muslim Bruneian Empire under the rule of Sultan Bolkiah, who is an ancestor of the current Sultan of Brunei. He subjugated the Kingdom of Tondo which is ruled by Rajah Sukwu during 1500, a new dynasty under the a local Lumad leader who accepted Islam and became Rajah Salalila or Rajah Sulayman I. He also started to established a trading challenge the already rich House of Rajah Lakandula in Tondo, Islam was further strengthened by the arrival of Muslim traders and from Jolo, Mindanao, Malaysia and Indonesia. Note, Rajah is a Hindu title and Sultan is an Islamic title for that era, Chinese mariner Zheng He is credited to have settled Chinese Muslim communities in Palembang and along the shores of Java, the Malay Peninsula, and the Philippines during Chinas early Ming dynasty. These Muslims allegedly followed the Hanafi school in the Chinese language and this Chinese Muslim community was led by Hajji Yan Ying Yu, who urged his followers to assimilate and take local names. Rajah Sulayman was the Muslim Rajah of Maynila, a kingdom at the mouth of the Pasig River where it meets Manila Bay, Moro is the appellation inherited from the Spaniards, for Filipino Muslims of Mindanao

17.
Gunpowder
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Gunpowder, also known as black powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It is a mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate, the sulfur and charcoal act as fuels, and the saltpeter is an oxidizer. Black powder firearms are in limited use today in hunting, shooting, Black powder has been replaced for most industrial uses by high explosives such as dynamite. Black powder is assigned the UN number UN0027 and has a class of 1. 1D. It has a point of approximately 427–464 °C. The specific flash point may vary based on the composition of the gunpowder. Gunpowders specific gravity is 1. 70–1.82 or 1. 92–2.08, Gunpowder is classified as a low explosive because of its relatively slow decomposition rate and consequently low brisance. Low explosives deflagrate at subsonic speeds, whereas high explosives detonate, ignition of the powder packed behind a bullet must generate enough pressure to force it from the muzzle at high speed, but not enough to rupture the gun barrel. Gunpowder thus makes a good propellant, but is suitable for shattering rock or fortifications. Gunpowder was widely used to fill artillery shells and in mining and civil engineering to blast rock until the half of the 19th century. Black powder is used as a delay element in various munitions where its slow-burning properties are valuable. The spread of gunpowder across Asia from China is widely attributed to the Mongols, the earliest record of a written formula for gunpowder appears in the 11th century Song dynasty text, Wujing Zongyao. This discovery led to the invention of fireworks and the earliest gunpowder weapons in China, in the centuries following the Chinese discovery, gunpowder weapons began appearing in the Muslim world and Europe. The technology spread from China through the Middle East or Central Asia, the earliest Western accounts of gunpowder appear in texts written by English philosopher Roger Bacon in the 13th century. The most ardent protagonists were Nathaniel Halhad, Johann Backmann, Quintin Craufurd, however, due to lack of sufficient proof, these theories have not been widely accepted. A major problem confronting the study of the history of gunpowder is ready access to sources close to the events described. The translation difficulty has led to errors or loose interpretations bordering on artistic licence, early writings potentially mentioning gunpowder are sometimes marked by a linguistic process where old words acquired new meanings. For instance, the Arabic word naft transitioned from denoting naphtha to denoting gunpowder, saltpeter was known to the Chinese by the mid-1st century AD and there is strong evidence of the use of saltpeter and sulfur in various largely medicinal combinations

18.
Smokeless powder
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Smokeless powder is the name given to a number of propellants used in firearms and artillery that produce negligible smoke when fired, unlike the black powder they replaced. The basis of the term smokeless is that the products are mainly gaseous. Despite its name, smokeless powder is not completely free of smoke, while there may be little noticeable smoke from small-arms ammunition, since the 14th century gunpowder was not actually a physical powder, and smokeless powder can be produced only as a pelletized or extruded granular material. Smokeless powder allowed the development of modern semi- and fully automatic firearms and lighter breeches, burnt black powder leaves a thick, heavy fouling that is hygroscopic and causes rusting of the barrel. The fouling left by smokeless powder exhibits none of these properties and this makes an autoloading firearm with many moving parts feasible. However, they are used as propellants, in normal use. Before the widespread introduction of smokeless powder the use of black powder caused many problems on the battlefield, Military commanders since the Napoleonic Wars reported difficulty with giving orders on a battlefield obscured by the smoke of firing. Verbal commands could not be heard above the noise of the guns, unless there was a strong wind, after a few shots, soldiers using black powder ammunition would have their view obscured by a huge cloud of smoke. Snipers or other concealed shooters were given away by a cloud of smoke over the firing position, black powder is also corrosive, making cleaning mandatory after every use. Likewise, black powders tendency to produce severe fouling caused actions to jam, nitroglycerine was synthesized by the Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero in 1847. Nitroglycerine is also sensitive, making it unfit to be carried in battlefield conditions. A major step forward was the discovery of guncotton, a nitrocellulose-based material and he promoted its use as a blasting explosive and sold manufacturing rights to the Austrian Empire. Guncotton was more powerful than gunpowder, but at the time was once again somewhat more unstable. John Taylor obtained an English patent for guncotton, and John Hall & Sons began manufacture in Faversham, English interest languished after an explosion destroyed the Faversham factory in 1847. Small arms could not withstand the pressures generated by guncotton, Abel patented this process in 1865 when the second Austrian guncotton factory exploded. After the Stowmarket factory exploded in 1871, Waltham Abbey began production of guncotton for torpedo, in 1863, Prussian artillery captain Johann F. E. Schultze patented a small-arms propellent of nitrated hardwood impregnated with saltpeter or barium nitrate. Prentice received an 1866 patent for a powder of nitrated paper manufactured at Stowmarket. In 1871, Frederick Volkmann received an Austrian patent for a version of Schultze powder called Collodin

19.
Caliber
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In guns, particularly firearms, caliber or calibre is the approximate internal diameter of the barrel, or the diameter of the projectile it fires, in hundredths or sometimes thousandths of an inch. For example, a 45 caliber firearm has a diameter of.45 of an inch. Barrel diameters can also be expressed using metric dimensions, as in 9mm pistol, when the barrel diameter is given in inches, the abbreviation cal can be used. Good performance requires a bullet to closely match the diameter of a barrel to ensure a good seal. While modern cartridges and cartridge firearms are referred to by the cartridge name. Firearm calibers outside the range of 17 to 50 exist, but are rarely encountered. Larger calibers, such as.577.585.600.700, the.950 JDJ is the only known cartridge beyond 79 caliber used in a rifle. Referring to artillery, caliber is used to describe the length as multiples of the bore diameter. A 5-inch 50 calibre gun has a diameter of 5 in. The main guns of the USS Missouri are 1650 caliber, makers of early cartridge arms had to invent methods of naming the cartridges, since no established convention existed then. One of the early established cartridge arms was the Spencer repeating rifle, later various derivatives were created using the same basic cartridge, but with smaller-diameter bullets, these were named by the cartridge diameter at the base and mouth. The original No.56 became the. 56-56, and the smaller versions. 56-52. 56-50, the. 56-52, the most common of the new calibers, used a 50-cal bullet. Optionally, the weight in grains was designated, e. g. 45-70-405. Variations on these methods persist today, with new cartridges such as the.204 Ruger, metric diameters for small arms refer to cartridge dimensions and are expressed with an × between the bore diameter and the length of the cartridge case, for example,7. 62×51 NATO. This indicates that the diameter is 7. 62mm, loaded in a case 51mm long. Similarly, the 6. 5×55 Swedish cartridge has a diameter of 6.5 mm. An exception to rule is the proprietary cartridge used by U. S. maker Lazzeroni. The following table lists commonly used calibers where both metric and imperial are used as equivalents

20.
.38 Short Colt
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The.38 Short Colt /.38 Short Center Fire was a heeled bullet cartridge intended for metallic cartridge conversions of the.36 cal cap & ball Colt 1851 Navy Revolver from the American Civil War era. Later, this cartridge was fitted with a 0.359 diameter inside-lubricated bullet in the 125–135 grain range, visually, it resembles a.38 S&W but the case dimensions are slightly different. The.38 Short Colt case is the parent to.38 Long Colt, the round was produced in two lengths. The classic.38 Short Colt M1874 is. mm and it is the original and standard.38 Short Colt cartridge and was designed for use in the Colt New Line revolver. The shorter.38 Short Colt M1919 was. mm, the.38 Short Colt M1919 was designed for the.38 Colt Police revolver, but was discontinued in the 1920s due to its unpopularity. Remington is one of the few producers of this cartridge today with a 125grs LRN bullet, magtech produces this grain weight and Ten-x manufactures a 95gr load, as well as blanks. There is no problem firing this cartridge in.38 Special or.357 Magnum revolvers, the bullet jump has not, however, been proven to have any effect on accuracy

21.
Colt 1851 Navy Revolver
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The Colt Revolving Belt Pistol of Naval Caliber, later known as the Colt 1851 Navy or Navy Revolver, is a cap and ball revolver that was designed by Samuel Colt between 1847 and 1850. Colt first called this Revolver Ranger model, but the designation Navy quickly took over, after the Civil War revolvers using fixed metallic cartridges came into widespread use. The Colt Navy remained in production until 1873, being replaced in the Colt line with what would become the manufacturers most famous handgun, as the factory designation implied, the Navy revolver was suitably sized for carrying in a belt holster. It became very popular in North America at the time of Western expansion, Colts aggressive promotions distributed the Navy and his other revolvers across Europe, Asia, and Africa. The cylinder of this revolver is engraved with a scene of the victory of the Second Texas Navy at the Battle of Campeche on May 16,1843, the engraving was provided by Waterman Ormsby. Despite the Navy designation, the revolver was purchased by civilians. The.36 caliber round ball weighs 80 grains and. A very small number of Navy revolvers were produced in.34 caliber, another rarity in the 1851 Navy production is the.40 caliber model, probably 5 were made 1858 for testing by the U. S. Navy Bureau of Ordnance. Sighting consists of a brass cone front sight pressed into the muzzle end of the top barrel flat with a notch in the top of the hammer. In spite of the crudity of the sighting arrangement, these revolvers. A small number of Model 1851 Navy revolvers was converted, using front-loaded, famous Navy users included Wild Bill Hickok, John Henry Doc Holliday, Richard Francis Burton, Ned Kelly, Bully Hayes, Richard H. Barter, Robert E. Lee, Nathan B. Use continued long after more modern cartridge revolvers were introduced, canadian issue 1851 Colts are stamped in the wooden grip upside down with letters U_C or L_C, a letter code for the unit, and the number of the weapon in that unit. E. g. U_C D21 This decodes as Upper Canada, D = Toronto Cavalry Troop, percussion Pistols and Revolvers, History, Performance and Practical Use. Famous Firearms of the Old West, From Wild Bill Hickoks Colt Revolvers to Geronimos Winchester, hounshell, David A. Sixguns, The Standard Reference Work. Roberts, Gary L. Doc Holliday, The Life and Legend, wilson, R. L. Colt, An American Legend. New York, London, Atabras, A Division of Abbeville Publishing Group

22.
Heeled bullet
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The heeled bullet design has many advantages, mainly when coupled with the straight or slightly tapered walled cases it appeared in. For pistols, converting a cap and ball revolver to use cartridges was as simple as cutting off part of the rear of the cylinder, replacing it with a frame-mounted ring, one of the primary reasons for the change was the issue of lubrication. Lead bullets, especially soft, low lead used in low pressure cartridges. This lubricant can be applied either to the portion of the heeled bullet, called outside lubricated, or on the portion inside the case. Outside lubrication requires a hard, dry lubricant, as anything soft or sticky will rub off or pick up dirt that comes in contact. While there were some methods patented to allow inside lubrication of heeled bullets, they never became popular, due to the complexity, non-heeled bullets, however, can easily be lubricated on the portion inside the case using a grease groove packed with lubricant. This prevents the lubricant, usually a grease or wax, from picking up dirt, arguably, heeled bullets are still very common because, while very few calibers use them, the.22 Long Rifle does, and it is the most commonly used cartridge in the world. The other cartridges in the.22 Long Rifle family, the.22 Short.22 Long.22 CB and.22 BB, a few other heeled-bullet cartridges are available, but they all originated in the late 19th century. The recent gains in popularity of Cowboy Action Shooting has increased interest in these old cartridges, to convert a heeled-bullet cartridge to a non-heeled design, it was necessary to either enlarge the case diameter, or shrink the bullet and bore diameter. Examples of both choices can be found, but some of the evident and confusing examples are cases where the bullet diameter was reduced. Many shooters wonder why a.38 caliber firearm actually shoots bullets of diameter.357 inches, and a.44 caliber firearm shoots. 429-inch-diameter bullets. In both of these cases, the name of the caliber derives from older designs. The.38 S&W cartridge, for example, dates from 1877 and has a nominal outside case diameter of.380 inches, while the inside of the case is.357 inches. The later.38 Special continued the trend, and even automatic pistol cartridges like the.38 Super and.380 ACP retained the.38 caliber designation and this continued until 1935 and the introduction of the.38 Special-based.357 Magnum cartridge. The newer.44 Magnum, however, retained the designation of its parent.44 Special cartridge, the legacy of heeled bullets is the cause of confusion among many shooting enthusiasts over the actual physical diameters of the bullets they fire in their guns

23.
.357 Magnum
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The.357 S&W Magnum, or simply.357 Magnum, is a revolver cartridge with a. 357-inch bullet diameter. It was created by Elmer Keith, Phillip B, Wesson of firearms manufacturers Smith & Wesson and Winchester. It is based upon Smith & Wessons earlier.38 Special cartridge, the.357 Magnum cartridge was introduced in 1934, and its use has since become widespread. This cartridge started the Magnum era of handgun ammunition, the.357 Magnum cartridge is notable for its stopping power. The.357 Magnum was collaboratively developed over a period in the early to mid-1930s by a group of individuals in a response to Colts.38 Super Automatic. Tests at the revealed that those vests defeated any handgun cartridge traveling at less than about 1,000 feet per second. Colts.38 Super Automatic just edged over that velocity and was able to penetrate car doors and vests that bootleggers and gangsters were employing as cover. Though.38 and.357 would seem to be different diameter chamberings, they are in fact identical, the.38 Special nomenclature relates to the previous use of heeled bullets, which were the same diameter as the case. Thus, the only difference in the two cartridges is a slight difference in length, solely for safety purposes. Much credit for the. 357s early development is given to hunter and experimenter Elmer Keith, the. 38-44 HV load used the. 38-Special cartridge loaded to a much higher velocity than standard. 38-Special ammunition. The. 38-44 revolvers were made by using a.44 Special size gun with the barrel bored to accept. 357-caliber bullets, since the frame, cylinder, and barrel were much stronger than the standard.38 Special components, it was capable of withstanding much higher pressures. The. 38-44 HV round, while no longer available, was in most cases the equal of the later.357 Magnum, which works at more than double the pressure of standard.38 Special. Elmer Keith also contributed the Keith-style bullet, which increased the mass of bullet located outside the cartridge, the Keith bullet also employed a large, flat meplat, thus enabling rapid energy transfer for greater wounding properties. At the same time, this design does not deform like a hollow point. These characteristics of the Keith bullet make it suitable for hunting applications as well as for target shooting. In order to reassert itself as the leading law-enforcement armament provider, Smith & Wesson developed the.357 Magnum, Wesson leading the effort within Smith & Wesson, along with considerable technical assistance from Phillip B. Sharpe, a member of the Technical Division staff of the National Rifle Association, the new round was developed from Smith & Wessons existing.38 Special round. It used a different powder load, and ultimately the case was extended by 1⁄8 inch, the case extension was more a matter of safety than of necessity

24.
Smith & Wesson Model 10
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In production since 1899, it is a six-shot double-action revolver with fixed sights. Over its long run it has been available with barrel lengths of 2 in,3 in,4 in,5 in. Barrels of 2.5 inches are also known to have made for special contracts. Some 6,000,000 of the type have been produced over the years, making it the most popular centerfire revolver of the 20th century. In 1899, the United States Army and Navy placed orders with Smith & Wesson for two to three thousand Model 1899 Hand Ejector revolvers chambered for the M1892.38 Long Colt U. S, in 1902 the.38 Military & Police was introduced, featuring substantial changes. These included major modification and simplification of the internal lockwork and the addition of a locking underlug on the barrel to engage the previously free-standing ejector rod, barrel lengths were 4,5,6, and 6.5 inches with a rounded butt. Serial numbers for the Military & Police ranged from number 1 in the series to 20,975, most of the early M&P revolvers chambered in.38 Special appear to have been sold to the civilian market. By 1904, S&W was offering the.38 M&P with a rounded or square butt, and 4-, 5-, heat treating of cylinders began in 1919. The S&W Model 10 military revolvers produced from 1942 to 1944 had serial numbers with a V prefix and it is noteworthy that early Victory Models did not always have the V prefix. Most Victory Models sent to Britain were fitted with 4-inch or 5-inchbarrels, the Victory Model was used by United States forces during World War II, being chambered in the well-known and popular.38 Special cartridge. Some of these remained in service well into the 1990s with units of the United States Armed Forces. Until the introduction of the Beretta M9 9mm pistol in 1990, U. S. Army helicopter crew members, criminal Investigation Division agents were issued.38 caliber revolvers with two inch barrels. The Victory Model remained in use with Air National Guard tanker, rechambering of. 38-200 cylinders to.38 Special results in oversized chambers, which may cause problems. Lee Harvey Oswald was carrying a re-chambered Victory Model when he was apprehended on November 22,1963, other distinguishing features of the Victory Model revolver are the lanyard loop at the bottom of the grip frame, and the use of smooth walnut grip panels. However some early models did use a grip, most notably the pre-1942 manufacture. After World War II, Smith & Wesson returned to manufacturing the M&P series, in 1957, Smith & Wesson adopted the convention of using numeric designations to distinguish their various models of handguns, and the M&P was renamed the Model 10. The M&P/Model 10 has been available in blued steel finish and nickel finish for most of its production run. The model has also offered throughout the years with both the round butt and square butt, i. e. grip patterns

25.
Colt M1892
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The M1892 Colt Army & Navy was the first general issue double-action with a swing-out cylinder revolver used by the U. S. military. In 1892 the gun was adopted by the Army in.38 Long Colt caliber, initial experience with the gun caused officials to request some improvements. This would be a condition, resulting in Models 1892,1894,1895,1896,1901 and 1903. It was easily manipulated by the thumb of the right hand, empty cases were removed by simply pushing back on an ejector rod to activate a star extractor. The six-shooter could then be reloaded and the cylinder clicked back into place. Sights were the rounded front blade and topstrap notch. The finish on all military revolvers was blue, though civilian guns could be had nickeled or with special finishes. In 1908, Colt improved and strengthened the lockwork, and changed the cylinder rotation to a clockwise movement, a Model 1892 revolver was recovered from the USS Maine after it exploded in Havana Harbor in 1898. It was presented to then-Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt, Roosevelt brandished this pistol to rally his Rough Riders during the famed charge up San Juan Hill on July 1,1898. This revolver was on display at Sagamore Hill and was stolen there in 1963, recovered. It was recovered in 2006 and returned to Sagamore Hill on June 14,2006 and this revolver was thought of as a decent handgun for its time, but complaints arose from the military concerning the revolvers cartridge chambering. Beginning in 1899, combat reports arose from the Philippines campaign regarding the performance of the M1892s. 38-caliber ammunition. Specifically, users complained that the.38 bullet repeatedly failed to stop charging enemy tribesmen at close ranges, both.38 Special and.357 Magnum will chamber in Colt New Army revolvers, due to the straight walled chambers in later models, built primarily after 1903. Colt removed the shoulders that previously prevented.38 Special from being loaded into the cylinder, guns bearing serial numbers 225, xxx and higher were equipped with a smaller diameter bore and could chamber.38 Special and fire it safely. High pressure loads in.38 Special, such as +P or +P+ loads, caution must be exercised in the use of these older guns as higher operating pressures will cause damage to the gun and could injure the shooter. The only rounds that may be used in guns manufactured before 1903, are.38 Short. The Colt Revolver in the American West—Model 1903 New Army and Navy

26.
Western Cartridge Company
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The Western Cartridge Company manufactures small arms and ammunitions. Founded in 1898, it was the forerunner of the Olin Corporation, formed in 1944, of which Western is still a subsidiary, Western Cartridge Company acquired the Winchester Repeating Arms Company after Winchester went into receivership in 1931. Franklin W. Olin received a degree from Cornell University in 1886. After working at gunpowder mills in the eastern United States, he was one of several investors establishing the Equitable Powder Company in 1892 at East Alton, production of blasting powder for southern Illinois coal mining began in 1893. Olin formed Western Cartridge Company in 1898 to manufacture sporting rifle powder, the shotgun shells used primers manufactured by larger eastern ammunition firms. UCC manufactured primers, blasting caps, and.22 and.32 caliber rimfire cartridges at East Alton, similar manufacturing procedures for these products included fabrication of sheet metal cups and filling portions of those cups with primary explosive. Rimfire cartridges bore a UCC headstamp and product packaging included a Maltese cross trademark, purchase of Alliance Cartridge Company in 1907 allowed UCC merger into Western Cartridge Company. The company trademark morphed into Super-X as the Maltese cross became associated with World War I Germany, john Olin, the son of founder Franklin W. Olin, improved shotgun cartridge designs in the 1920s by using harder shot and progressive burning powder. Western produced 3 billion rounds of ammunition in World War II, and the Winchester subsidiary developed the U. S. M1 carbine and produced the carbine, Western ranked 35th among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. Cartridges made by Western are stamped WCC, Western Cartridge Company produced the now collectible Western Xpert brand of shotgun shells in both 12 and 16 gauge sizes. The company faced union activity and strikes in 1941 and 1942, civil rights activist Clarence M. Mitchell noted in 1944 that the company did not hire African-American workers. Franklin Roosevelts Committee on Fair Employment Practice had held hearings and tried to have the company hire black workers in 1943, Olin US Military Headstamp Codes Winchester Ammunition

27.
Peters Cartridge Company
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The Peters Cartridge Company was a company in Kings Mills, Ohio that specialized in gunpowder and ammunition production. Its historic buildings, built in 1916 at 1915 Grandin Road, were added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 10,1985. Joseph Warren King purchased the Austin & Carleton powder mill on the Little Miami River in 1855 and expanded it as the Miami Powder Company including the town of Goes Station. King sold the Miami Powder Company in 1877 to build the Great Western Powder Works with the town of Kings Mills at a more favorable hydropower location downstream of Goes Station. A wooden dam diverted water into a canal through the gorge in a narrow valley between steep adjacent hills. Manufacturing facilities were dispersed along the 2-mile power canal to minimize damage during infrequent explosions, Kings son-in-law Gershom Moore Peters began working at the powder mill in 1881 and became president of the powder company when King died in 1885. Peters formed the Peters Cartridge Company at Kings Mills in 1887, machinery was manufacturing four-thousand cartridges per hour by 1889. Wood-frame structures were rebuilt on the side of the river from the old powder works included a large shot tower completed in 1895. The last wood-frame structures were machine shop building R-3 and shotgun shell loading building R-21 built in 1907, with the approach of World War I the company received large ammunition orders from the Russian Empire and from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. A taller brick shot tower painted with a large P became a local landmark, Remington Arms purchased the Peters Cartridge Company in 1934. Facilities were expanded during World War II to include the federally owned Kings Mills Ordnance Plant manufacturing military ammunition on an adjacent hill south of the Peters factory complex, production of military ammunition ended in March 1944, and Remington sold the Kings Mills factory to Columbia Records. Columbia manufactured phonograph records at Kings Mills until 1949, the buildings were subsequently leased to Seagram distillers as warehouse space until 1968. Building R-1 and the shot tower survived into the 21st century. The site was listed as a Superfund National Priorities List site by the Environmental Protection Agency in April 2012 for copper, lead, National Register of Historic Places listings in Warren County, Ohio Thomas D. Schiffer. Peters & King, The Birth & Evolution of the Peters Cartridge Co. & the King Powder Co, ISBN 0-87349-363-X Peters Cartridge Company at AbandonedOnLine. com Peters Cartridge Company at Forgotten Ohio

28.
.38 S&W
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The.38 S&W is a revolver cartridge developed by Smith & Wesson in 1877 for use in the S&W.38 Single Action. Though similar in name, it is not interchangeable with the later.38 Smith & Wesson Special due to a different case shape, the British military adopted a loading of this cartridge as the Cartridge, S. A. Revolver Ball,380 in, MkI. 38-200, with the 200 referring to the weight of the bullet in grains, in 1937, this cartridge was replaced in British Service by the Cartridge, S. A. The main difference between it and the round was that it had a 178 gr FMJ bullet. The.38 Colt New Police was Colts Manufacturing Companys proprietary name for what was essentially the.38 S&W with a flat-nosed bullet, mKEs 9.65 mm Normal cartridge has an 177 gr lead-antimony alloy bullet with a gilding-metal full metal jacket and a Boxer-primed brass case. The Normal designation differentiates it from their 9. 65mm Special round and it has a muzzle velocity of 590 ft/s and a muzzle energy of 21,335 lbs/inch2. Currently only Ruger makes limited runs of revolvers in this caliber for overseas sales, the majority that do offer it in only a 145 gr lead round nose bullet, though Fiocchi still markets FMJ rounds. Some companies such as Buffalo Bore manufacture self-defense or hunting variants, Colt. 38/200 Revolver Colt Police Positive Revolver Enfield No.2 Mk I Revolver S&W Victory Revolver Table of handgun and rifle cartridges Webley Mk IV revolver

29.
Soft-point bullet
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A soft-point bullet, also known as a soft-nosed bullet, is a jacketed expanding bullet with a soft metal core enclosed by a stronger metal jacket left open at the forward tip. A soft-point bullet is intended to expand upon striking flesh to cause a wound diameter greater than the bullet diameter, jacketed soft point is usually abbreviated JSP in the ammunition and reloading industry. Lead-alloy bullets used with gunpowder firearms were unsatisfactory at the bullet velocities available from rifles loaded with nitrocellulose propellants like cordite. The lead-alloy core was swaged into a cup of the metal covering the front and sides of the core. The bullet jacket may be described as an envelope, steel envelope, or hard envelope. Reversing the direction of jacket placement leaves the exposed core on the forward tip of the bullet creating a soft-point bullet. Soft-point bullets expose the soft lead-alloy core on the part of the bullet most likely to be deformed when striking a target. The sides of the bullet remain covered by the jacket to reliably impart stabilizing rotation from rifling, a core of pure lead is softer than a core of lead alloyed with metals like antimony and tin. Some jacket alloys have greater strength than others, and, for any given alloy and annealing process. Energy available to expand the bullet is proportional to the square of the velocity at which the bullet strikes the target, if the bullet passes through the target, the energy represented by the square of the velocity of the departing bullet has no effect on the target. Soft point bullets may not expand if they strike a target at low velocity, varmint rifle bullets with thin jackets are intended to expand rapidly and disintegrate upon encountering minimum resistance. Bullets intended for hunting are designed to increase their forward diameter while remaining intact to penetrate deeply enough to damage internal organs likely to cause rapid death. Big-game bullets sometimes have a specialized jacket including a center baffle between a forward core intended to expand and another core intended to remain intact. Alternative designs include a jacket with a thicker belt around the central part of the bullet intended to resist expansion while the thinner forward part of the bullet jacket ruptures. Some bullets have a formed from a soft alloy in the forward part of the bullet bonded to a harder alloy core in the rear of the bullet. Others have a jacket which is thicker near the base of the bullet, soft-point bullets are similar to jacketed hollow-point bullets, because both have a jacket open on the forward tip. Bullets with an amount of core exposed forward of the jacket might have a hollow point within that core. Jacketed flat point may describe either soft-point or full metal jacket bullets with a flat, until recently, flat-point bullets were required in centerfire rifles with tubular magazines, such as the Winchester rifle, where the rounds are stored front-to-back

30.
Smith & Wesson .38/44
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High-pressure. 38/44 loadings represent a transition between conventional.38 Special ammunition and the.357 Magnum. Revolvers were manufactured from 1930 to 1941, and after World War II until lower-priced.357 Magnum revolvers became widely available. In 1930, Smith & Wesson chambered their large framed.44 Special revolver for.38 Special with a 5-inch barrel and fixed sights intended for police use, a 4-inch barrel was offered in 1935 for users willing to accept the reduced ballistic performance of a more compact firearm. The media attention gathered by the. 38/44 and its ammunition encouraged Smith & Wesson to develop the longer.357 Magnum cartridge in 1935, the. 38/44 was an option for purchasers unwilling to pay the premium pricing of.357 Magnum revolvers. Revolvers were available with blue or nickel finish. Production was interrupted by the world war. Postwar production serial numbers are prefixed with the letter S, the Outdoorsman with adjustable sights became the Smith & Wesson Model 23 after 1957 and the fixed sight Heavy Duty version was marketed as the Smith & Wesson Model 20

31.
Colt Official Police
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The Official Police was also used by various U. S. and allied military forces during World War II. As the 20th Century began, the older.32 caliber revolvers which had been standard-issue for the majority of American police departments began to be phased out in favor of the larger-bore.38 caliber. In 1908 Colt introduced a sleek and modernized revolver they dubbed the Army Special, during the same period, revolvers began to fall out of favor with the U. S. Military, especially after the adoption on the U. S. Model of 1911 semi-automatic pistol. By 1927 the overwhelming sales of two models, the Army Special and Colt Police Positive, had assured Colt’s dominance of the law enforcement firearms market. Colt’s marketing strategy was further fine-tuned by making a few alterations to the Army Special revolver. The changes included adding checkering to the trigger, matting the topstrap of the frame, Colt also upgraded the quality of the gun’s finish from a dull blued finish to a highly polished blued surface. By 1933 the Colt sales catalog listed many law enforcement agencies as having adopted the OP as a sidearm, including the New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, in addition many state police organizations and even the Federal Bureau of Investigation chose the OP as their issue revolver. Many Official Police revolvers were also bought by the forces and militaries of various South American countries. These revolvers bore British military acceptance markings and had a 5 barrel, most of these OP revolvers were assembled from commercial-grade parts made before 1942. Commencing in 1941, small quantities of the.38 Colt Official Police were procured directly from the Defense Supplies Corporation, when government purchasing officials objected to production delays of the OP, as well as the unit cost, Colt responded by simplifying the gun. Instead of the bluing, the revolver was given a dull parkerized finish. In mid-1942 the Springfield Ordnance District was given control over procurement and distribution of the Commando, a few Commandos were shipped to the U. S. Maritime Commission and used as small arms equipment on U. S. merchant ships and ships provided to the Allies under Lend-Lease. Most Commando wartime production went to the Defense Supplies Corporation, for use by security and police forces, while approximately 1,800 Commandos were used by the U. S. Navy, with another 12,800 revolvers distributed to various military intelligence agencies. During the postwar period, Colt fell on difficult financial times, at Smith & Wesson, both output and new model civilian and police sales improved, and the sales margin gap between the two corporations progressively tightened. Finally in the 1960s S&W took over the lead, Colt announced the discontinuation of the Official Police in 1969, stating that competitive production of the design was no longer economically feasible. With a total production of over 400,000 pistols, the Official Police ranks as one of the most successful ever made. The Official Police was machined of fine carbon steel, with bright royal Colt blued as well as nickel-plated finishes, and was offered in 4,5 and 6 inches barrels. Built on Colt’s.41 or “I” frame, it was manufactured in a variety of chamberings including.22 LR. 32-20.41 Long Colt, and the most common and popular, the.38 Special

32.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan

33.
Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907
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The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 are a series of international treaties and declarations negotiated at two international peace conferences at The Hague in the Netherlands. The First Hague Conference was held in 1899 and the Second Hague Conference in 1907, along with the Geneva Conventions, the Hague Conventions were among the first formal statements of the laws of war and war crimes in the body of secular international law. A third conference was planned for 1914 and later rescheduled for 1915, the 1874 Brussels Declaration listed 56 articles that drew inspiration from the Lieber Code. Much of the regulations in the Hague Conventions were borrowed heavily from the Lieber Code, both conferences included negotiations concerning disarmament, the laws of war and war crimes. This effort, however, failed at both conferences, instead a voluntary forum for arbitration, the Permanent Court of Arbitration, was established, the peace conference was proposed on 24 August 1898 by Russian Tsar Nicholas II. Nicholas and Count Mikhail Nikolayevich Muravyov, his minister, were instrumental in initiating the conference. The conference opened on 18 May 1899, the Tsars birthday, the treaties, declarations, and final act of the conference were signed on 29 July of that year, and they entered into force on 4 September 1900. Convention with respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land This voluminous convention contains the laws to be used in all wars on land between signatories, inhabitants of occupied territories may not be forced into military service against their own country and collective punishment is forbidden. The section was ratified by all major powers mentioned above and it too was ratified by all major powers. The declaration was ratified by all the powers mentioned above, except the United Kingdom. Ratified by all major powers, except the United States and this directly banned soft-point bullets and cross-tipped bullets. It was ratified by all major powers, except the United States, the second conference, in 1907, resulted in conventions containing only few major advancements from the 1899 Convention. However, the meeting of powers did prefigure later 20th-century attempts at international cooperation. The second conference was called at the suggestion of U. S. President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904, the Second Peace Conference was held from 15 June to 18 October 1907. The intent of the conference was to expand upon the 1899 Hague Convention by modifying some parts and adding new topics, in particular, the 1907 conference had an increased focus on naval warfare. The British attempted to secure limitation of armaments, but these efforts were defeated by the powers, led by Germany. Germany also rejected proposals for compulsory arbitration, however, the conference did enlarge the machinery for voluntary arbitration and established conventions regulating the collection of debts, rules of war, and the rights and obligations of neutrals. The treaties, declarations, and final act of the Second Conference were signed on 18 October 1907, Convention respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land This convention confirms, with minor modifications, the provisions of Convention of 1899

34.
Springfield Armory
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The Springfield Armory, located in the city of Springfield, Massachusetts, was the primary center for the manufacture of U. S. military firearms from 1777 until its closing in 1968. The site is preserved as the Springfield Armory National Historic Site and it features the worlds largest collection of historic American firearms. Numerous firearm models produced at the Springfield Armory from 1794 to 1968 were referred to as Springfield rifles. In 1777, during the American Revolutionary War, George Washington scouted and approved the site of the Springfield Armory, after it was referred to him by General Henry Knox, his artillery chief. Additionally, Springfield is located just north of the Connecticut Rivers first waterfall, thus, Springfield was the first town on the Connecticut River protected from attack by seafaring naval vessels. The Armory site itself sits atop a high bluff like a citadel, overlooking a stretch of the Connecticut River. General Knox concurred with Washington that the plain just above Springfield is perhaps one of the most proper spots on every account for the location of an arsenal, in 1777, patriot colonists established The Arsenal at Springfield to manufacture cartridges and gun carriages for the war effort. During the Revolution, the arsenal stored muskets, cannon, patriots built barracks, shops, storehouses, and a magazine. Some doubt exists that the colonists manufactured arms during the Revolutionary War, after the war, the Army kept the facility to store arms for future needs. By the 1780s, the Springfield Arsenal functioned as a major ammunition, some time later, when manufacturing became important, the arsenal expanded to a second area south and west in Springfield, where water power was available. Around that time, the Mill River was dammed to form a lake called Watershops Pond. The main shops were behind the dam and a foundry was built below it and this factory was modernized, and the greater part of machining for Springfield and Garand rifles was conducted in it. George Washington appointed David Ames as first superintendent of the armory, John Ames was a blacksmith who had provided guns to the Colonial army. In 1786 and 1787, American Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays led an armed, on January 25,1787, thousands of Shays Regulators marched on the Springfield Armory, hoping to seize its weaponry and force a change of government. That day the Springfield Armory was defended by militia, who fired grape shot at the rebels. This confrontation proved decisive, as Shays Rebellion was crushed soon thereafter, Shays Rebellion directly influenced the United States Constitutional Convention, with future U. S. President George Washington citing it as his reason for coming out of retirement. In 1795, the Springfield Armory produced the new nations first musket, fueled by the Springfield Armory, the City of Springfield quickly became a national center for invention and development. In 1819 Thomas Blanchard developed a special lathe for the consistent mass production of rifle stocks, Thomas Blanchard worked at Springfield Armory for 5 years

35.
Tracer ammunition
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Tracer ammunition are bullets or cannon caliber projectiles that are built with a small pyrotechnic charge in their base. Ignited by the powder, the pyrotechnic composition burns very brightly, making the projectile trajectory visible to the naked eye during daylight. This enables the shooter to make aiming corrections without observing the impact of the rounds fired, tracer fire can also be used to signal to other shooters where to concentrate their fire during battle. When used, tracers are usually loaded as every fifth round in machine gun belts, platoon and squad leaders will load some tracer rounds in their magazine or even use solely tracers to mark targets for their soldiers to fire on. Tracers are also placed two or three rounds from the bottom of magazines to alert the shooter that his weapon is almost empty. Unfortunately, this practice would similarly alert an astute enemy that his foe was nearly out of ammunition, more often, however, the entire magazine was loaded four-to-one, on both fixed offensive and flexible defensive guns, to help mitigate the difficulties of aerial gunnery. The United States relied heavily on tracer ammunition for the defensive Browning M2 and this proved true of fixed forward firing guns as well. Tracer rounds can also have an incendiary effect, and can ignite flammable substances on contact. Before the development of tracers, gunners relied on seeing their bullet impacts to adjust their aim, in the early 20th century, ammunition designers developed spotlight bullets, which would create a flash or smoke puff on impact to increase their visibility. However, these projectiles were deemed in violation of the Hague Conventions prohibition of exploding bullets and this strategy was also useless when firing at aircraft, as there was nothing for the projectiles to impact on if they missed the target. Designers also developed bullets that would trail white smoke, however, these designs required an excessive amount of mass loss to generate a satisfactory trail. The loss of mass en route to the severely affected the bullets ballistics. The United Kingdom was the first to develop and introduce a tracer round, the United States introduced a. 30-06 tracer in 1917. Prior to adopting red bullet tips for tracers, American tracers were identified by blackened cartridge cases, tracers proved useful as a countermeasure against Zeppelins used by Germany during World War I. The airships were used for reconnaissance, surveillance and bombing operations, normal bullets merely had the effect of causing a slow leak, but tracers could ignite the hydrogen gasbags, and bring down the airship quickly. In World War II US naval and marine aircrew were issued tracer rounds with their arms for emergency signaling use as well as defense. A tracer projectile is constructed with a base filled with a pyrotechnic flare material, made of a mixture of a very finely ground metallic fuel, oxidizer. Metallic fuels include magnesium, aluminum, and occasionally zirconium, the oxidizer is a salt molecule which contains oxygen combined with a specific atom responsible for the desired color output

36.
Smith & Wesson Model 12
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The Smith & Wesson Model 12 is.38 Special revolver on Smith & Wessons medium-sized K-frame. It is an aluminium alloy-frame version of the Model 10 and it was made from 1953 to 1986 in both two- and four-inch barrel configurations. Early models used a cylinder as well as frame.38 Special. Some 40,000 Smith & Wesson M13 revolvers were produced, a civilian model of the M13 was released in 1953, called the Military & Police Airweight. This designation was changed in 1957 to the Model 12 Airweight, the Military & Police Airweight initially used both an aluminum cylinder and frame, and weighed only 14.5 ounces. The Model 12 variants 12-1, 12-2, and 12-3 used a hammer and had an aluminum grip frame that was 0. 08-inch narrower than the standard steel K-frame. The final version, the Model 12-4, used the standard frame dimension of the other K-frames and it also featured a rounded butt. Pre-Model 12 - predates model number markings and it has an alloy cylinder and will be a 5 screw design with 4 sideplate screws and a screw in front of the trigger guard. This is apparent when the primers have elongated firing pin marks, very early versions have aluminum cylinders and should not be fired. The two-inch barrel Model 12 is also called a snub-nose and it is also a proven performer as a back-up pistol for some officers, who carry a larger caliber pistol at their waist. The Model 12 is most often found to have some wear on its due to age. An important earmark is the factory stamp Mod-12 on the frame inside the yoke, also on the inside of the yoke is the revolvers serial number, which is repeated verbatim on the base of the butt. The Model 12 holds its market value nicely and is highly collectible, as with most older revolvers, a reputable gunsmith should check its functioning prior to purchase

37.
Colt Cobra
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The Colt Cobra is a lightweight, aluminum-framed, double-action short-barrelled revolver, not to be confused with the Colt King Cobra. The Cobra was chambered in.38 Special.32 Colt New Police and it holds six shots of ammunition and was sold by Colt from 1950 until 1981. In December 2016, it was announced that Colt would be producing a new run of the Colt Cobra with a steel frame and this model was released in early 2017. In the mid-1960s, the Detective Specials and Cobras grip frame was shortened to the size as that of the Agent. The Cobra was produced in calibers.38 Special,32 Colt New Police.22 LR, and a few in.38 S&W. The.38 Special Cobra was available in 2,3,4. The.32 caliber version was available in 2- and 3-inch barrel lengths, the.22 LR Cobra was available only with the 3-inch barrel. Standard Cobras were blued with round-butt grip frames, the.38 Special Cobra with a 2-inch barrel was available with a nickel finish at additional cost. Early models also had a square-butt option and it was announced in 2016 that Colt would re-release the Colt Cobra in 2017. The Third Model is offered only as a 6 shot DA/SA revolver in.38 Special with a 2 barrel and this model will be offered with a Matte Stainless Steel finish and has an unloaded weight of 25 ounces. The Aircrewman was a version of the Detective Special constructed of aluminum alloy. They are distinguished by the gold-metal Air Force medallion in the place of the silver-metal Colt medallion on the wooden grips. However, the cylinder fractures continued, and the weapons were withdrawn from service. The Courier was produced in.22 Long Rifle,32 Colt NP,32 S&W long, frame and cylinder are constructed of lightweight aluminum alloy. Approximately 3000 were produced in the two years, the Colt Agent was a lower-price version of the Cobra, featuring a less highly polished blue finish and smaller, simplified grips. The bottom of the Agent gripstock was slightly shorter than that of the Cobra, the original Agent weighed 14 ounces and was available only in.38 Special caliber, with a 2-inch barrel and blued finish. A slightly revised version of the Agent was released in 1973 with a barrel with a weight of 16 ounces. In 1984, the Agent was briefly revived by Colt, this time with a parkerized finish, the Viper was essentially a 4 barrel version of the alloy-framed Colt Cobra in.38 Special. Introduced in 1977 and only produced that year, the Viper did not sell as well as Colt expected and was discontinued, in recent years, owing to its limited production run, the Viper has become quite collectable

38.
Strategic Air Command Elite Guard
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Established by order of General Curtis E. LeMay, the unit was initially known as Detachment “A” of the 3902nd Air Police Squadron at Offutt Air Force Base. The Elite Guard was formed under an order from General Curtis LeMay, who was instrumental in modernizing USAF security forces in general. At the creation of the USAF in 1947, aircraft were normally guarded by security detachments formed from airdrome or air base squadrons, in many cases guard duty was a detail or extra duty and not a full-time job, often given out as punishment to underperforming personnel. Security and weapons training was minimal or nonexistent, the exigencies of the Korean War imposed additional delays in retraining and reequipping SAC personnel. The Elite Guards mission was threefold, primarily, Detachment “A” would be responsible to provide stringent security for the SAC Headquarters and its resources. The second portion of their mission was to provide protection for the Commander and Vice Commander in chief of the Strategic Air Command. In 1957 General LeMay, General Horace M. Wade, the initial summer uniform was a tan herringbone twill trousers and shirts, which was changed in 1960 to a dark blue shirt and trousers. The winter uniform included a dark blue Eisenhower jacket, the new uniform included a blue serge wool beret with affixed SAC patch, making the Elite Guard the first Air Force unit authorized to wear the blue beret. The blue beret became the prototype for the later introduced for wear by all Air Force security forces. Through the years, changes in Air Force dress standards necessitated changing the colors, the Strategic Air Command stood down in 1992, with USSTRATCOM replacing the Command. SAC Elite Guard Air Police General Curtis LeMay SAC Elite Guard video http, //www. asterpix. com/console/. avi=11334351

39.
Overpressure ammunition
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This is done typically to produce rounds with a higher muzzle velocity and stopping power, such as ammunition used for defensive purposes. Because of this, +P ammunition is found in handgun calibers which might be used for defensive purposes. Magnum cartridges, such as.357 Magnum or, for example, the.357 Magnum is slightly longer than the.38 Special, the lower powered round from which it was derived. +P ammunition, however, is identical to standard ammunition of its caliber. This was done when the ammunition manufacturers lowered the pressure of their standard rounds, +P ammunition was designed to replicate the performance of what had been standard pressure cartridges. +P cartridges are not recommended to be used in firearms of questionable quality, the burning characteristics of black powder used in early cartridges meant that these cartridges operated at low pressures, generally under 25,000 psi. With the advent of smokeless powder, which has a far greater energy density than black powder, cartridges such as the. 32-20 Winchester and. 44-40 Winchester were chambered in both revolvers and lever action rifles, and the rifles actions could handle much higher pressures. This led to machine gun only loads in these calibers, which provided far more velocity and energy in the rifles, but were not safe in the revolvers due to the higher pressures they generated. These loads were dropped due to a combination of safety concerns. The first modern smokeless powder cartridge deliberately loaded by a manufacturer to higher than standard pressure was the.38 ACP. This cartridge provided performance similar to other.38 caliber cartridges of the time, like the rifle only loads, the.38 Super could still be chambered in the older.38 ACP guns, producing a dangerous combination. Capable of reaching a muzzle energy of 500 ft/lbs, the.38 Super remains a viable defensive cartridge, though it is most popular in shooting sports such as IPSC. A similar move to a high pressure loading was done on the.38 Special in 1930, producing the. 38-44 HV loadings, official +P pressures are established by the SAAMI for certain cartridges, in general the +P pressure is approximately 10% higher than the standard pressure. SAAMI does not have a +P+ pressure standard, but this indicates a higher than the +P loading. In both cases this is below the pressure of a proof test cartridge, proof pressures are established by the SAAMI, as a percentage of the working pressure, so this places an upper bound on the +P+ pressures of 30–40%. By way of comparison, magnum calibers may be loaded to nearly twice the pressure of the rounds from which they were derived, overpressure rounds are commonly defensive rounds and are loaded by police and others in need of maximum power in a compact firearm. Accordingly, most overpressure rounds are hollow points or other types of expanding ammunition, higher pressure is not the same as high pressure, +P cartridges are generally loaded to pressures far below those typically found in magnum cartridges. Cartridges that are commonly boosted with +P pressures are the 9 mm Luger.45 ACP, and.38 Special, which are all cartridges that date from the early 20th century

40.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
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The Federal Bureau of Investigation is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States, which simultaneously serves as the nations prime federal law enforcement agency. Operating under the jurisdiction of the U. S. Department of Justice, Intelligence Community and reports to both the Attorney General and the Director of National Intelligence. A leading U. S. counterterrorism, counterintelligence, and criminal investigative organization, although many of the FBIs functions are unique, its activities in support of national security are comparable to those of the British MI5 and the Russian FSB. At an FBI field office, a senior-level FBI officer concurrently serves as the representative of the Director of National Intelligence. Despite its domestic focus, the FBI also maintains a significant international footprint and these overseas offices exist primarily for the purpose of coordination with foreign security services and do not usually conduct unilateral operations in the host countries. The FBI can and does at times carry out secret activities overseas, just as the CIA has a domestic function. The FBI was established in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation and its name was changed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1935. The FBI headquarters is the J. Edgar Hoover Building, located in Washington, in the fiscal year 2012, the Bureaus total budget was approximately $8.12 billion. In 1896, the National Bureau of Criminal Identification was founded, the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley created an urgent perception that America was under threat from anarchists. The Departments of Justice and Labor had been keeping records on anarchists for years, the Justice Department had been tasked with the regulation of interstate commerce since 1887, though it lacked the staff to do so. It had made little effort to relieve its staff shortage until the breakage of the Oregon land fraud scandal at approximately the turn of the 20th Century, President Roosevelt instructed Attorney General Charles Bonaparte to organize an autonomous investigative service that would report only to the Attorney General. Bonaparte reached out to other agencies, including the Secret Service, for personnel, on May 27,1908, the Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by the Justice Department, citing fears that the new agency would serve as a secret police department. Again at Roosevelts urging, Bonaparte moved to organize a formal Bureau of Investigation, the Bureau of Investigation was created on July 26,1908, after the Congress had adjourned for the summer. Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds, hired thirty-four people, including veterans of the Secret Service. Its first Chief was Stanley Finch, Bonaparte notified the Congress of these actions in December 1908. The bureaus first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution in preparation for enforcing the White Slave Traffic Act, or Mann Act, in 1932, the bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation. The following year it was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition, in the same year, its name was officially changed from the Division of Investigation to the present-day Federal Bureau of Investigation, or FBI. J. Edgar Hoover served as Director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure

41.
Federal Premium Ammunition
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Federal Premium Ammunition, a wholly owned subsidiary of Vista Outdoor Inc. is located in Anoka, Minnesota. With a work force of nearly 1,500, Federal manufactures shotshell, centerfire, on April 27,1922, Charles L. Horn took control of a small plant in Anoka, Minnesota and refounded Federal Cartridge Corporation. Horn launched a plan that involved merchandising Federal products in grocery stores, barbers shops. In 1941, Federal earned a contract from the U. S. government to build. Federal ranked 59th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts, Horn introduced Federals Premium line of centerfire rifle and shotshell ammunition. Federal also owned Hoffman Engineering, a company that made electronic enclosures, in 1985, Federal was sold to a group of private investors including Kelso & Company, BancBoston Capital, and members of management. The two companies were united under the name Federal-Hoffman, Inc and taken private during the sale, Federal-Hoffman have since split, and Federal is currently owned by Vista Outdoor. Vista Outdoor group, formerly a group of outdoor and sporting companies owned by Alliant Techsystems, was spun off from Alliant Techsystems in February 2015, Federal Cartridge does business today as Federal Premium Ammunition. The HST380 Auto Micro was designed for self-defense and use in small pistols such as the Smith & Wesson Bodyguard and it has a nickel-plated casing and special primer that improve its reliability in semi-automatic handguns. It weighs 99 grains and has a deep, tapered hollow-point in order to provide consistent expansion and this ammunition does not meet the FBI Ammunition Testing Protocol. Using the same sized test barrel, it measures 235 foot-pounds of muzzle energy, hydra-Shok is a type of cartridge with expanding bullets made by. It was originally patented by Federal Premium bullet designer Tom Burczynski, hydra-Shok was introduced in 1988 after the FBI requested a bullet with better terminal ballistics than traditional cup and core projectiles. Hydra-Shok ammunition has a patented center-post design and notched jacket with a lead core. Together they are meant to more reliable expansion and deeper penetration than the other projectiles used at that time. Federal Premium claims that the jacket and center post design provide a programmed expansion. There has been debate regarding the bullets unreliable expansion when fired through clothing or media other than ballistic gelatin. Federal Premium announced a. 30-30 Winchester version of its Vital-Shok Trophy Copper ammunition for medium-sized game in August 2015 and these bullets are tipped with polymer inserts in order to effect rapid expansion and retain 99 percent of their mass after expanding. The one percent loss of mass is due mostly to shedding the polymer tip, the case of this cartridge is nickel-plated to make extraction easier and prevent corrosion

42.
Winchester Repeating Arms Company
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The Winchester Repeating Arms Company was a prominent American maker of repeating firearms, located in New Haven, Connecticut. The ancestor of the Winchester Repeating Arms Company was the Horace Smith and Daniel Wesson partnership of Norwich, Jennings rifle was a commercial failure, and Robbins & Lawrence ceased production in 1852. Smith designed a much-improved rifle based on Jennings, and the partners also hired away Robbins & Lawrence shop foreman Benjamin Tyler Henry. In 1855 the Smith & Wesson partnership, in order to manufacture what they called the Volcanic lever-action rifle and pistol, sought investors and its largest stockholder was clothing manufacturer Oliver Winchester. The Volcanic rifle had only limited success, the company moved to New Haven in 1856, but by the end of that year became insolvent. Oliver Winchester and his partner John M. Davies purchased the firms assets from the remaining stockholders. After Smiths departure Benjamin Henry continued to work with a Smith development project, the self-contained metallic rimfire cartridge, Henry also supervised a new rifle design based loosely on the Volcanic to use the new ammunition, retaining only the general form of the breech mechanism and the tubular magazine. This became the Henry rifle of 1860, which was manufactured by the New Haven Arms Company, the Henry rifle ensured New Haven Arms success, and together with the Spencer rifle established the lever-action repeater in the firearms market. In 1866 Benjamin Henry, angered over what he believed was inadequate compensation, Oliver Winchester, hastening back from Europe, forestalled the move and reorganized New Haven Arms yet again as the Winchester Repeating Arms Company. Another extremely popular model was rolled out in 1873, the Model 1873 introduced the first Winchester center fire cartridge, the. 44-40 WCF. These rifle families are known as the Gun That Won the West. The Model 1873 was followed by the Model 1876, a version of the 73. It was chambered for longer, more powerful cartridges such as. 45-60 WCF. 45-75 WCF, Oliver Winchester died in December 1880, his son and successor, William Wirt Winchester, died of tuberculosis four months later. William Wirt Winchesters widow, Sarah Winchester, used her inheritance, several of these are still in production today through companies such as Browning, Rossi, Navy Arms and others which have revived several of the discontinued models or produced reproductions. The early years of the century found the Winchester Repeating Arms Company competing with new John Browning designs. The race to produce the first commercial self-loading rifle brought forth the.22 rimfire Winchester Model 1903 and later centerfire Model 1905, Model 1907, and Model 1910 rifles. Winchester engineers, after ten years of work, designed the Model 1911 to circumvent Brownings self-loading shotgun patents, one of Winchesters premier engineers, T. C. Johnson, was instrumental in the development of these self-loading firearms and went on to superintend the designs of Winchesters classic Model 1912, Model 52 and Model 54

43.
Air-gap flash
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An air-gap flash is a photographic light source capable of producing sub-microsecond light flashes, allowing for high-speed photography. This is achieved by an electric discharge between two electrodes over the surface of a quartz tube. The distance between the electrodes is such that a discharge does not occur. To start the discharge a high-voltage pulse is applied on an electrode inside the quartz tube, the flash can be triggered electronically by being synchronised with an electronic detection device such as a microphone or an interrupted laser beam in order to illuminate a fast event. A sub-microsecond flash is fast enough to stop even a supersonic bullet in flight without noticeable motion blur. The person credited with popularising the flash is Harold Eugene Edgerton, william Henry Fox Talbot is said to have created the first spark-based flash photo, using a Leyden jar, the original form of the capacitor. Edgerton was one of the founders of EG&G company who sold an air-gap flash under the name Microflash 549, there are several commercial flashes available today. The aim of a flash is to be very fast. An air-gap flash system typically consists of a capacitor that is discharged through a gas, the speed of a flash is mainly determined by the time it takes to discharge the capacitor through the gas. This time is proportional to t d i s c h a r g e ∝ L C, in which L is the inductance, to be fast, both L and C must be kept small. The brightness of the flash is proportional to the energy stored in the capacitor, E = C V22 and this shows that high brightness calls for a large capacitance and a high voltage. Typical values are 0.05 µF capacitance,0.02 µH inductance,10 J energy,0.5 µs duration, air is preferred as a gas because it is fast. Xenon has a higher efficiency in turning energy into light. The spark is guided over a surface to improve the light output and benefit from the cooling capacity. This has an effect in the form of quartz erosion because of high energy discharge. Since the spark gap discharges in air generating a plasma, the spectrum shows both a continuum and spectral lines, mainly of nitrogen since air is 79% nitrogen, the spectrum is rich in UV but covers the entire visible range down to infra-red. When a quartz tube is used as ignition tube, it shows a clear phosphorescence in blue after the flash, amateur air-gap flash for ultra-high-speed photography by Niels Noordhoek MIT Edgerton center Scientific American article on air-gap flash

44.
Wadcutter
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A wadcutter is a special-purpose flat-fronted bullet specially designed for shooting paper targets, usually at close range and at subsonic velocities typically under approximately 900 ft/s. Wadcutters are often used in handgun and airgun competitions, a wadcutter has a flat or nearly flat front that is typically as wide as the caliber size or only slightly smaller in diameter than caliber size. For target shooting, a wadcutter cuts a clean hole through the paper target, making it easier to score. A variety of wadcutter types exist, HBWC, DEWC, BBWC, HBWC rounds are best used at only the lowest velocities, as by being hollow at the rear end, they can split under heavy loads. DEWC rounds are best suited for automatic press reloading uses, as they may be used when loaded with either end pointed forward, BBWC have been developed to permit easier bullet insertion into the case when reloading. Some SWC bullet designs have a smaller diameter rear end, making these bullets suitable for use with gas checks, properly lubricated SWC bullets with gas checks are suitable for use at velocities exceeding 1700 ft/s, the gas check reducing leading within the bore. The maximum accurate distance of wadcutters varies considerably with the shape of the front of the bullet, full caliber diameter wadcutters are suitable for use only at short ranges, typically not being used at ranges exceeding 25 yards where accuracy is especially desirable. At distances beyond 50 yards, full caliber diameter wadcutters become highly inaccurate, on the other hand, SWC bullets can maintain high accuracy at ranges exceeding 100 yards. In general, semi-wadcutters having a rounded nose are more accurate than wadcutters having a flat-front profile. In contrast, flat-front profile wadcutters tend to have improved lethality for hunting or self-defense purposes, all lead wadcutters require proper lubrication to prevent leading of rifling and forcing cones when used in firearms. With proper lubrication, no leading for solid lead wadcutters occurs until velocities exceed approximately 940 ft/s, without proper lubrication, however, severe leading can occur quickly, in as few as a couple of rounds. Most DEWC, BBWC, HBWC, and SWC bullets have 1,2, or 3 lubrication grooves, used in revolvers, wadcutters must be roll crimped. Used in semi-automatic pistols, wadcutters must be taper crimped, wadcutter bullets for center-fire firearms often have a modified profile with a reduced-diameter central point or rounded section. This was developed to allow the use of bullets without causing excessive damage to the rubber anti-splashback curtain on indoor ranges. Both varieties of wadcutters are commercially available, although primarily intended for target practice, wadcutters can be used for close-in self-defense and hunting because their sharp edges and close-range accuracy are claimed to increase lethality. Wadcutters are typically made from lead, deposition of lead into the rifling grooves of barrels and into the forcing cones of revolvers limits the maximum usable velocity of wadcutters to less than about 900 ft/s. Either a mechanical lead removing tool and/or chemical removal techniques may be used to remove the lead build-up caused from shooting wadcutters at too high a velocity. Target airguns used for 10 metre air rifle and 10 metre air pistol competitions generally shoot wadcutter pellets at muzzle velocities around 175 m/s

45.
Pounds per square inch
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The pound per square inch or, more accurately, pound-force per square inch is a unit of pressure or of stress based on avoirdupois units. Now converting the psi to standard atmospheres,1 atm =101325 Pa =101325 Pa 6894.757293168 Pa / psi ≈14.70 psi Therefore,1 atmosphere is approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch. Pounds per square inch absolute is used to make it clear that the pressure is relative to a rather than the ambient atmospheric pressure. Since atmospheric pressure at sea level is around 14.7 psi, the converse is pounds per square inch gauge or pounds per square inch gage, indicating that the pressure is relative to atmospheric pressure. For example, a bicycle tire pumped up to 65 psi above atmospheric pressure. When gauge pressure is referenced to something other than ambient atmospheric pressure, the kilopound per square inch is a scaled unit derived from psi, equivalent to a thousand psi. Ksi are not widely used for gas pressures and they are mostly used in materials science, where the tensile strength of a material is measured as a large number of psi. The conversion in SI Units is 1 ksi =6.895 MPa, the megapound per square inch is another multiple equal to a million psi. It is used in mechanics for the modulus of the materials. The conversion in SI Units is 1 Mpsi =6.895 GPa, inch of water,0.036 psid Blood pressure – clinically normal human blood pressure,2.32 psig/1.55 psig Natural gas residential piped in for consumer appliance, 4–6 psig. Boost pressure provided by a turbocharger, 6–15 psig NFL football,12. 5–13.5 psig Atmospheric pressure at sea level,14

46.
.380 ACP
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The.380 ACP is a rimless, straight-walled pistol cartridge developed by firearms designer John Moses Browning. The cartridge headspaces on the mouth of the case and it was introduced in 1908 by Colt, for use in its new Colt Model 1908 pocket hammerless semi-automatic, and has been a popular self-defense cartridge ever since, seeing wide use in numerous handguns. Other names for.380 ACP include.380 Auto, 9mm Browning, 9mm Corto, 9mm Kurz, 9mm Short and it is not to be confused with.38 ACP, 9mm Ultra, 9mm Makarov or 9mm Parabellum. The.380 ACP cartridge was derived from Brownings earlier 9×20mm semi-rimmed design, the.380 ACP was designed to be truly rimless, with headspace on the case mouth instead of the rim for better accuracy. These relatively low-powered designs were intended for blowback pistols which lacked a barrel locking mechanism, a drawback of the blowback system is that it requires a certain amount of slide mass to counter the recoil of the round used. Blowback weapons can be made in larger than.380 ACP. There have also some relatively diminutive submachine guns, such as the Ingram MAC-11. The.380 ACP has experienced widespread use in the years since its introduction. In 1914, it was used by Gavrilo Princip to assassinate Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia and it was also used extensively by Germany, who captured or purchased hundreds of thousands of pistols in this caliber during World War II. Popular German built commercial models, such as the Walther PPK were very popular with German officers, the Italian Army used the Beretta M1934, but the Italian Air Force and Navy stuck with the 7. 65mm/.32 ACP when they adopted the Beretta M1935. It was widely used by forces in Europe until at least the 1980s when more powerful 9×19mm handguns began to replace it in this market as well. It does find some use as a backup gun due to the small and easily concealable size of the weapons that chambered it. The.380 ACP round is suitable for situations as a choice for concealed carry pistols. It was the used in Defense Distributeds Wiki Weapon project to successfully 3D print a firearm. The.380 ACP is compact and light, but has a short range. According to gun author Massad Ayoob, Some experts will say its barely adequate, even so, it remains a popular self-defense cartridge for shooters who want a lightweight pistol with manageable recoil and/or smaller pistol. It is slightly less powerful than a standard-pressure.38 Special, the heaviest bullet that can be safely loaded into the.380 ACP is 115 grains, though the standard has long been 85,90 or 95 grains. The wounding potential of bullets is often characterized in terms of a bullets expanded diameter, penetration depth, bullet energy for.380 ACP loads varies from roughly 190 to 220 foot-pounds force

47.
.38 Super
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The.38 Super or.38 Super Automatic is a pistol cartridge that fires a 0. 356-inch-diameter bullet. The Super was introduced in the late 1920s as a higher pressure loading of the.38 ACP or.38 Auto, the old.38 ACP propelled a 130-grain bullet at 1,050 ft/s. The improved.38 Super Auto pushed the same 130-grain bullet at 1,280 ft/s, the.38 Super has gained distinction as the caliber of choice for many top pistol match competitors, it remains one of the dominant calibers in IPSC competition. The cartridge was designed for use in the M1911 pistol and was capable of penetrating the body armor, when the.357 Magnum was introduced in 1934, this advantage of the.38 Super was no longer enough to lure police departments and officers from the traditional revolver. The.38 Super retains the original dimensions of the.38 ACP case, the cartridge was originally designed to headspace on the semi-rim, which worked in the Colt M1900 due to the design of the feed ramp. When the.38 Auto became the.38 Super, in the 1911A1, as a result of this, observed accuracy of the.38 Super suffered until Irv Stone of Bar-Sto barrels re-designed the chamber to allow headspacing on the case mouth. Since then, all new production.38 Super pistols headspace on the case mouth, the semi-rimmed case is known to cause feeding problems in some magazines, especially double stack magazines, and led to the development of new variants with reduced rims. In 1974 the industry added the +P headstamp to the.38 Super to further distinguish it from the lower-pressure.38 ACP, most current ammunition manufacturers label ammunition for the Super as.38 Super +P. Since the.38 Super is dimensionally the same as the.38 ACP, the weakness, in the Colt M1900, M1902 and others derived from that design, comes from the assembly wedge at the front of the slide. If the wedge comes out, or the slide cracks at the wedge, the 1911 and 1911A1, having a slide that is solid on front, cannot come off the frame that way. The.38 Super has 1.14 ml cartridge case capacity.38 Super maximum C. I. P. The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 406 mm,6 grooves, ø lands =8.79 mm, ø grooves =9.02 mm, land width =3.07 mm, specify a bullet diameter of 0.356 inches. Guidelines the.38 Super case can handle up to 230 MPa piezo pressure, regulated countries every pistol cartridge combo has to be proofed at 130% of this maximum C. I. P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers. The SAAMI pressure limit for the.38 ACP or.38 Auto is set at 182.72 MPa, the SAAMI pressure limit for the.38 Super +P is set at 251.66 MPa, piezo pressure. The C. I. P. and SAAMI specified.38 Super has a cartridge case. In recent years, cases such as the.38 Supercomp.38 Super Lapua.38 Super RL and these rimless cases are somewhat of a misnomer, due to the case rim not retaining the same diameter as the case wall just forward of the extractor groove. A common example is the.38 Supercomp case, which has a semi-rim extending only. 003-.004 per side, the nearly rimless cases improve feeding reliability in these pistols but are intended to be used in firearms that headspace on the case mouth. Other improvements found in some of cases are modified extractor groves

Earliest known written formula for gunpowder, from the Wujing Zongyao of 1044 AD.

A 'magic fire meteor going against the wind' bomb as depicted in the Huolongjing ca. 1350.

Stoneware bombs, known in Japanese as Tetsuhau (iron bomb), or in Chinese as Zhentianlei (thunder crash bomb), excavated from the Takashima shipwreck, October 2011, dated to the Mongol invasions of Japan (1271–1284 AD).

The lockwork of the first model differed substantially from subsequent versions. The trigger return spring is a flat leaf rather than the coil spring-powered slide used in variations dating from 1905 onwards.

A cartridge is a type of firearm ammunition packaging a projectile (bullet, shots or slug), a propellant substance …

A modern cartridge consists of the following: 1. the bullet, as the projectile; 2. the case, which holds all parts together; 3. the propellant, for example gunpowder or cordite; 4. the rim, which provides the extractor on the firearm a place to grip the casing to remove it from the chamber once fired; 5. the primer, which ignites the propellant.

Spark between anode and cathode, triggered by the third electrode inside the inner quartz tube. The inner tube serves as a guide for the spark and to cool it even faster. The outer tube muffles the explosive sound that the spark produces.

.357 Magnum rounds. Left: Jacketed Flat/Soft Point (JFP/JSP). Right: Jacketed Hollow Point (JHP). JSP is a semi-jacketed round as the jacket does not extend to the tip. Note the notches on the tip of the JHP which assist in the expansion of the bullet on impact with soft tissue.

Four .30 caliber (7.62 mm) hollow point bullets. Each of the three round-nose bullets on the left have a small cavity at the jacket opening on the leading tip of the bullet. Such bullets are sometimes called open-point bullets in comparison to soft-point bullets where the lead core extends forward of the jacket. The jacket of the very-low-drag bullet on the right provides an aerodynamic windscreen enclosing a hollow void so the center of mass of the lead core remains within the full diameter portion of the bullet to minimize misalignment with the bore axis.