Inequities in Early Childhood Development

Transcription

1 Inequities in Early Childhood Development What the data say Evidence from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys

2 Inequities in Early Childhood Development: What the data say Evidence from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys United Nations Children s Fund (UNICEF) February 2012 Permission is required to reproduce any part of this publication. Permission will be freely granted to educational or non-profit organizations. Others will be requested to pay a small fee. Please contact: Permissions Division of Communication United Nations Children s Fund 3 United Nations Plaza New York, NY 10017, USA Tel: (+1 212) For further information, please contact: Early Childhood Development Unit United Nations Children s Fund 3 United Nations Plaza New York, NY 10017, USA Tel: (+1 212) Cover photograph: UNICEF/NYHQ /Pudlowski Back cover: The quote is from Lake, Anthony, Early Childhood Development Global action is overdue, Lancet, vol. 378, no. 9799, 8 October 2011, pp

3 Contents Early childhood: Years of wonder 2 Measuring early childhood development 3 What the data say 4 From evidence to action 12 Notes 13 Table 1. Statistical table of early childhood development indicators 14 Notes on Table 1 16 Inequities in Early Childhood Development: What the data say 1

4 Early childhood: Years of wonder Early childhood, which spans the period to 8 years of age, 1, 2 is critical to a child s cognitive, social, emotional and physical development. Events in the first few years of life and even before birth play a vital role in shaping health and social outcomes. 3 They also establish a foundation for building human capital, since healthy and socially adjusted children are more likely to grow into economically productive adults. 4 During early childhood, billions of highly integrated neural circuits in the brain are established through the interaction of genetics, environment and experience. Contrary to popular belief, genes do not set a child s development in stone. They dictate when circuits are formed, but how those circuits unfold depends to a large extent on a child s experiences. Thus, while genetic factors exert a potent influence, environmental factors have the ability to alter inherited traits. 5 The early years are formative because the newly developing brain is highly plastic: Its responsiveness to change is greatest in early childhood and decreases with age. Although windows of opportunity for skill development and behavioural adaptation remain open for many years, trying to change behaviour or build new skills later on requires added work. Because of the exceptionally strong influence of early experiences on brain architecture, the first years of life are a time of tremendous opportunity and equally great vulnerability. Optimal brain development requires a stimulating environment, adequate nutrients and social interaction with attentive caregivers. 6 2 Inequities in Early Childhood Development: What the data say

5 Measuring early childhood development Early childhood development has many dimensions, encompassing myriad aspects of a child s well-being. Measuring it, therefore, is an imprecise science. In 2007, estimates published in the Lancet showed that more than 200 million children under the age of 5 in developing countries fail to reach their full potential. 7 The estimate was based on proxy indicators, namely stunting and poverty, simply because no other indicators for child development in developing countries existed at the time. UNICEF is working with countries to close this knowledge gap and to develop a composite picture of the status of child development in the early years through the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS). With UNICEF support, more than 100 countries have participated in this household survey programme since 1995, producing statistically sound and internationally comparable estimates in the areas of health, nutrition, education, child protection and HIV/ AIDS. Early childhood development indicators were introduced into MICS in the third round (known as MICS3, conducted mainly in 2005 and 2006) and were specifically designed to assess the quality of care in a child s home environment as well as access to early childhood care and education outside the home. In total, 60 countries implemented MICS3, the majority of which included most of the questions on early learning and child development. It was the first time that data on this specific topic were collected from such a large cross-section of low- and middleincome countries. This publication, which presents some of the data gathered through MICS3, provides an overview of factors that either support early childhood development or place it at risk. It also reveals inequities in parental care and in access to early learning opportunities for children that are associated with household income. 8 The new data, combined with scientific evidence about the developing brain, provide a compelling case for more effective, better resourced and more precisely targeted action on early childhood development. Such action must be spearheaded by national governments and authorities and supported by development partners. Inequities in Early Childhood Development: What the data say 3

6 What the data say Parents and other caregivers play a critical role in determining children s chances for survival and development, 9 and they can empower children to become architects of their own lives. Childcare at home encompasses basic practices such as feeding, cleaning and clothing a child, while also maintaining vigilance for signs of illness and developmental delays. Caregivers are tasked with providing direction and guidance in daily life as well as establishing a safe, stimulating and nurturing home environment, which is central to a child s social, emotional and cognitive development. 10 Data collected through MICS3 provide valuable information on selected childcare practices and aspects of the home environment that either contribute to the healthy development of children under age 5 or place them at risk. This publication looks at multiple variables at play in these areas, based on the following selected indicators: Availability of children s books in the home Support for learning (that is, caregiver engagement in activities that promote early learning and school readiness) Use of disciplinary practices, both positive and violent Absence of one or both biological parents Being left at home alone or with inadequate care Access to early childhood care and education services. 4 Inequities in Early Childhood Development: What the data say

7 Availability of books in the home Numerous research studies indicate that children who grow up in households where books are available are likely to receive, on average, three more years of schooling than children from homes with no books. This finding holds regardless of a caregiver s level of education, occupation or class, and it applies to rich and poor countries alike. 11 In the countries surveyed, the percentage of households with three or more children s books varies widely from almost all (97 per cent) in Ukraine to almost none (3 per cent) in the Lao People s Democratic Republic (see Table 1 on pages for data on prevalence across all indicators by country). Household wealth (Figure 1) is strongly associated with the availability of children s books at home in all of the countries surveyed. Poorer households tend to have fewer children s books. Support for learning Children s development is facilitated by the active involvement of parents and other caregivers in learning activities. Two major aspects of positive caregiving are cognitive and socio-emotional support. 12 By reading, Figure 1. Children in the richest households are more likely than children in the poorest households to have books in the home Percentage of children under 5 living in households with three or more children s books, by household wealth quintile Lao People s Democratic Republic Côte d Ivoire Togo Central African Republic Cameroon Sierra Leone Yemen Tajikistan Nigeria Ghana Mongolia Albania Syrian Arab Republic Viet Nam Uzbekistan Thailand Suriname Kyrgyzstan Belize Guyana Bosnia and Herzegovina Kazakhstan The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Georgia Montenegro Trinidad and Tobago Serbia Ukraine Richest 20% Poorest 20% Note: This analysis included 28 countries, all of which showed a statistically significant difference at the 1 per cent level (p.01) between the richest and poorest households. Source: MICS3. Inequities in Early Childhood Development: What the data say 5

8 telling stories, naming, counting and drawing with their children, parents stimulate children s curiosity and understanding of their environment, thereby fostering cognitive development. Socio-emotional caregiving like playing with children, singing them songs or taking them out of the home can help children feel valued and accepted, thereby supporting the development of their emotions, promoting healthy reactions and providing a model for acceptable social relationships. Figure 2. Children from the poorest households are less likely than children from the richest households to be engaged in early learning Percentage of children under 5 engaged by an adult household member in four or more activities to promote learning and school readiness in the past three days, by household wealth quintile Burundi Burkina Faso Togo Yemen Lao People s Democratic Republic Mauritania Cameroon Central African Republic Mongolia Ghana Richest 20% Poorest 20% As a proxy indicator for these two domains of positive caregiving, MICS3 measured adult engagement with young children in the following activities: reading or looking at picture books; telling stories; singing songs; taking children outside the home; playing; and naming, counting and/or drawing. Support from a mother, father or other adult household member in these early learning activities according to household wealth is shown in Figure 2. In all the countries surveyed, with the exception of Côte d Ivoire and the Gambia, a statistically significant difference was found between wealth quintiles: Children in the richest 20 per cent of households received more support for learning than children in the poorest 20 per cent of households. Bangladesh Syrian Arab Republic Somalia Viet Nam Sierra Leone Tajikistan Nigeria Uzbekistan Albania Kyrgyzstan Bosnia and Herzegovina Thailand Belarus Kazakhstan Georgia Suriname Serbia Belize Guyana The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Montenegro Trinidad and Tobago Further analysis shows that, in the majority of countries surveyed, mothers are the household members Note: This analysis included 34 countries, two of which (Côte d Ivoire and the Gambia) did not show a statistically significant difference between the richest and poorest households and were therefore excluded from the graph. Burundi and the Central African Republic showed a statistically significant difference at the 5 per cent level (p.05); all other countries showed a statistically significant difference at the 1 per cent level (p.01). Source: MICS3. 6 Inequities in Early Childhood Development: What the data say

9 most likely to engage young children in early learning activities (Figure 3). While emerging evidence points to the importance of a father s engagement in the socio-emotional Figure 3. Mothers are the adult household members most likely to engage in early learning activities for children Percentage of children under 5 whose mother, father or other adult household member engaged them in four or more activities to promote learning and school readiness in the past three days development of his children, 13 fathers are, on average, two to three times less likely than mothers to be involved in early learning activities. In four African countries (Burundi, the Central African Republic, the Gambia and Guinea-Bissau), other adult household members, such as siblings or grandparents, tend to be more engaged than a child s parents in developmental activities for children. Disciplining the child According to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, children should be protected from all forms of violence while in the care of parents or other caregivers. But caregivers themselves are often the perpetrators of such violence in their attempts to discipline young children. Studies have shown that exposing children to violent forms of discipline has harmful consequences that children may carry into adulthood; these consequences vary according to the nature, extent and severity of exposure. 14 Lao People s Democratic Republic Burkina Faso Djibouti Yemen Tajikistan Togo Mauritania Iraq Ghana Côte d Ivoire Mongolia Cameroon Nigeria Kyrgyzstan Viet Nam Uzbekistan Syrian Arab Republic Bangladesh Albania The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Somalia Sierra Leone Kazakhstan Suriname Georgia Bosnia and Herzegovina Thailand Belize Guyana Serbia Jamaica Belarus Montenegro Trinidad and Tobago Burundi Mother Father Other adult household member Positive parenting, which sets limits for a young child and corrects misbehaviour while simultaneously promoting desired behaviours, is an acquired skill. It is also the best Guinea-Bissau Central African Republic Gambia Note: This analysis included 38 countries. When the direction of the association was not consistent with the expected pattern, the chart groups the countries accordingly. Source: MICS3. Inequities in Early Childhood Development: What the data say 7

10 response to behavioural challenges. In MICS3, questions concerning various forms of discipline and punishment were divided into three broad, though not mutually exclusive, categories: Non-violent disciplinary practices, which include explaining to a child why her or his behaviour is wrong and redirecting that behaviour. Psychological aggression, such as shouting at the child or calling the child dumb, lazy or other offensive names. Physical or corporal punishment, such as shaking, slapping or hitting the child. According to MICS3 evidence, violent forms of discipline, including physical punishment and psychological aggression, are extremely common. The percentage of children 2 4 years old who experience such forms of violence ranges from 41 per cent in Bosnia and Herzegovina to 94 per cent in Viet Nam (Figure 4). Figure 4. Violent forms of discipline are widespread in most of the countries surveyed Percentage of children 2 4 years old who experienced any violent discipline (physical punishment and/or psychological aggression) and percentage of children 2 4 years old who experienced only non-violent discipline in the past month Viet Nam Yemen Cameroon Jamaica Côte d Ivoire Ghana Suriname Sierra Leone Togo Iraq Central African Republic Syrian Arab Republic Belarus Burkina Faso Gambia Trinidad and Tobago Guyana Serbia Guinea-Bissau Lao People s Democratic Republic The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Tajikistan Georgia Djibouti Children living without biological parents Child development is largely influenced by the family structure in which a child is raised. Children living without their mothers or fathers, or without both biological parents, are at special risk of being denied the care they need for their physical and psychosocial well-being. Montenegro Belize Ukraine Kyrgyzstan Kazakhstan Albania Violent discipline Bosnia and Herzegovina Only non-violent discipline Note: This analysis included 31 countries. Data for Kazakhstan refer to children 3 4 years old. When the direction of the association was not consistent with the expected pattern, the chart groups the countries accordingly. Source: MICS3. 8 Inequities in Early Childhood Development: What the data say

11 Data gathered in 40 countries indicate that children are at high risk of growing up without a biological parent (Figure 5). Such children are most likely to live with their biological mothers but without their biological fathers. This is the situation for half of children under age 5 in Jamaica, and about 1 in 3 children in Côte d Ivoire, Mauritania, Suriname and Thailand. Figure 5. Children are at high risk of growing up without a biological parent, usually their father Percentage of children under 5 living with their biological mother but without their biological father, living with their biological father but without their biological mother, and living without both biological parents Syrian Arab Republic The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Bosnia and Herzegovina Montenegro Iraq Albania Uzbekistan Living with biological mother but without biological father Living with biological father but without biological mother Living without both biological parents Serbia The percentage of young children living without their biological mothers but with their biological fathers is lower, but it is still significant in some of the countries surveyed. Such is the case for 1 in 5 children in Thailand and about 1 in 10 children in Côte d Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone. The data also indicate that 1 in 5 children in Thailand live without both biological parents, as do 1 in 10 children in Côte d Ivoire and Guinea- Bissau. At the opposite extreme, at least 95 per cent of children in countries such as Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iraq, Montenegro, Sierra Leone, Syrian Arab Republic and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia live with both biological parents. Tajikistan Lao People s Democratic Republic Georgia Yemen Viet Nam Bangladesh Nigeria Burkina Faso Djibouti Burundi Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Somalia Belarus Ukraine Mongolia Togo Sierra Leone Malawi Gambia Belize Cameroon Central African Republic Guyana Guinea-Bissau Ghana Trinidad and Tobago Children left at home alone or with inadequate care Proper parental care and support help protect children from physical danger and emotional abuse. Leaving a young child alone or in the care of another Thailand Mauritania Suriname Côte d Ivoire Jamaica Note: This analysis included 40 countries. Source: MICS3. Inequities in Early Childhood Development: What the data say 9

12 child is a dereliction of caregiving responsibilities and can have harmful consequences. It exposes the child to increased risk of not only injury, but also abuse and neglect. Responses from MICS3 show that many young children are left alone or with inadequate care. In most countries, children from the poorest households are most vulnerable (Figure 6). They are less likely to have access to early childhood care and education programmes, to have children s books at home or to have household support for early learning. Figure 6. The poorest children are at greatest risk of being left alone or with inadequate care Percentage of children under 5 left alone or in the care of another child under 10 years old in the past week, by household wealth quintile Belize Kyrgyzstan Montenegro Suriname Serbia Tajikistan Ukraine Mongolia Thailand Sierra Leone Guyana Richest 20% Poorest 20% Syrian Arab Republic Accessing early childhood care and education While the home environment is critical to children s survival and development, care and education programmes are also important if children are to flourish. Quality care both at home and outside the home can provide children with the basic cognitive and language skills they need for school, while also fostering social competency and emotional development. In fact, early childhood care and education make up the foundation of a quality basic education. 15 Gambia Viet Nam Lao People s Democratic Republic Ghana Togo Nigeria Cameroon Yemen Côte d Ivoire Bosnia and Herzegovina The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Georgia Kazakhstan Albania Central African Republic A variety of early learning programmes are found worldwide, including those offered through community-based centres, day care facilities, kindergartens and Note: This analysis included 28 countries, one of which (Uzbekistan) did not show a statistically significant difference between the richest and poorest households and was therefore excluded from the graph. Albania, Belize, and Bosnia and Herzegovina showed a statistically significant difference at the 5 per cent level (p.05); all other countries showed a statistically significant difference at the 1 per cent level (p.01). When the direction of the association was not consistent with the expected pattern, the chart groups the countries accordingly. Source: MICS3. 10 Inequities in Early Childhood Development: What the data say

13 preschools. These programmes may be organized by the state, private institutions or a variety of community-based organizations, including religious groups. Early childhood care and education of good quality can benefit not only young children, but also mothers and other caregivers, whose time is freed up for educational or vocational activities, and society at large. Yet despite the proven benefits of early childhood care and education, the attendance of children 3 4 years old in any form of organized early learning is low. Evidence from MICS3 shows that attendance in such programmes is 10 per cent or less in a third of countries with available data (Table 1). Figure 7. Children in the poorest households are less likely than children in the richest households to attend early childhood education programmes Percentage of children 3 4 years old who attend some form of early childhood education programme, by household wealth quintile Somalia Yemen Burkina Faso Burundi Mauritania Bosnia and Herzegovina Bangladesh Central African Republic Syrian Arab Republic Côte d Ivoire The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Guinea-Bissau Tajikistan Sierra Leone Gambia Togo Lao People s Democratic Republic Kazakhstan Richest 20% Poorest 20% Uzbekistan It is well known that investing in early childhood care and education can be a powerful way to reduce gaps in cognitive and socio-emotional skills that often put children with low social and economic status at a disadvantage. Moreover, recent studies show that the returns on such investments are highest among poorer children, for whom early childhood programmes may serve as a stepping stone out of poverty and exclusion. 16 But as with other indicators of early childhood development, data from MICS3 show that here, again, access to such programmes is often denied to the poorest children (Figure 7). Kyrgyzstan Cameroon Albania Belize Montenegro Suriname Serbia Nigeria Georgia Mongolia Ukraine Thailand Guyana Viet Nam Ghana Trinidad and Tobago Belarus Note: This analysis included 36 countries, all of which showed a statistically significant difference at the 1 per cent level (p.01 ) between the richest and poorest households. Source: MICS3. Inequities in Early Childhood Development: What the data say 11

14 From evidence to action Evidence gathered through MICS3 suggests that, overall, young children in the countries surveyed live in households that are not conducive to optimal early childhood development. Many of these children have: Few or no children s books in the home. More than half of children lack the stimulation provided by books in the home in about two thirds of countries. Moderate support for early learning by caregivers. More than half of children are denied adequate support for early learning in about a third of countries. Limited access to early childhood care and education programmes. Attendance in such programmes is 10 per cent or less in a third of countries. The risks to early development are high: Violent discipline is widespread. More than half of children 2 4 years old are subjected to violent forms of discipline in nearly all of the countries surveyed. Young children are too often left alone or in the care of another child. At least one in six young children receive inadequate care in more than a third of countries. Many children grow up without at least one biological parent. At least one in four children live without their biological fathers in about a third of countries surveyed. Evidence from MICS3 also shows that the threats to early development are greatest among children living in the poorest households. Such children are less likely to receive support for early learning at home and up to 10 times less likely to attend early childhood education programmes. All of these factors can have a detrimental effect on child development. 17 Moreover, risk factors related to poverty tend to occur together and in general, the more risk factors present, the greater the development deficit. 18 These risk factors lead to inequities in early child development that undermine educational attainment and adult productivity, thereby perpetuating the cycle of poverty. But there are ways to break that cycle: Effective, well-implemented interventions in early childhood development increase the likelihood that a child will be successful academically, well-adjusted both socially and emotionally, and productive economically and the greatest benefits of such interventions accrue to the most disadvantaged children. Giving children the best start in life, furthermore, boosts the odds that they will become responsible, contributing members of society. 19 In the words of UNICEF Executive Director Anthony Lake, While the challenges ahead are steep, the imperative for universal early childhood development is clear: Every child has the right to develop to her or his fullest potential and to contribute fully to society. Our responsibility to pursue this goal is just as clear Inequities in Early Childhood Development: What the data say

15 Notes 1 United Nations General Assembly, Status of the Convention on the Rights of the Child: Report of the Secretary-General, United Nations, New York, A/65/206, 2 August Although the United Nations definition of early childhood refers to the period up to 8 years of age, most official statistics, including those derived from household surveys such as the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, collect data for children under the age of 5. 3 Shonkoff, Jack P., et al., From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., Heckman, James J., Skill Formation and the Economics of Investing in Disadvantaged Children, Science, vol. 312, no. 5782, 30 June 2006, pp Meaney, Michael J., Epigenetics and Biological Definition of Gene x Environment Interactions, Child Development, vol. 81, no. 1, January February 2010, pp Tang, Akaysha C., et al., Programming Social, Cognitive and Neuroendocrine Development by Early Exposure to Novelty, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 103, no. 42, 9 October 2006, pp Grantham-McGregor, Sally, et al., Developmental Potential in the First 5 Years for Children in Developing Countries, Lancet, vol. 369, no. 9555, 6 January 2007, pp Each household surveyed was assigned a wealth score based on assets owned by that household. The households were then ranked according to these wealth scores and divided into five parts (quintiles), from poorest to richest. The resulting wealth index is assumed to capture underlying longterm wealth. 9 Belsky, Jay, et al., Socioeconomic Risk, Parenting During the Preschool Years and Child Health Age 6 Years, European Journal of Public Health, vol. 17, no. 5, 14 December 2006, pp Maggi, Stefania, et al., Knowledge Network for Early Childhood Development: Analytic and strategic review paper. International perspectives on early childhood development, Human Early Learning Partnership, University of British Columbia, for the World Health Organization s Commission on the Social Determinants of Health, December 2005, pp. 7 8, Evans, Mariah D. R., et al., Family Scholarly Culture and Educational Success: Books and schooling in 27 nations, Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, vol. 28, no. 2, June 2010, pp Maggi, Stefania, et al., Knowledge Network for Early Childhood Development ; Walker, Susan P., et al., Inequality in Early Childhood: Risk and protective factors for early child development, Lancet, vol. 378, no. 9799, 23 September 2011, pp Cabrera, Natasha J., Jacqueline D. Shannon and Catherine Tamis-LeMonda, Fathers Influence on Their Children s Cognitive and Emotional Development: From toddlers to pre-k, Applied Development Science, vol. 11, no. 4, 2007, pp Straus, Murray A., and Mallie J. Paschall, Corporal Punishment by Mothers and Development of Children s Cognitive Ability: A longitudinal study of two nationally representative age cohorts, Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, vol. 18, no. 5, July August 2009, pp Irwin, Lori G., Arjumand Siddiqi and Clyde Hertzman, Early Childhood Development: A powerful equalizer Final report for the World Health Organization s Commission on the Social Determinants of Health, Human Early Learning Partnership, Vancouver, June Heckman, James J., Skill Formation and the Economics of Investing in Disadvantaged Children, Science, pp Bradley, Robert H., and Robert F. Corwyn, Socioeconomic Status and Child Development, Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 53, February 2002, pp Grantham-McGregor, Sally, et al., Developmental Potential in the First 5 Years for Children in Developing Countries Lancet, p Woodhead, Martin, et al., Equity and Quality?: Challenges for early childhood and primary education in Ethiopia, India and Peru, Working Papers in Early Childhood Development 55, Bernard van Leer Foundation, The Hague, November Lake, Anthony, Early Childhood Development Global action is overdue, Lancet, vol. 378, no. 9799, 8 October 2011, pp Inequities in Early Childhood Development: What the data say 13

16 Table 1. Statistical table of early childhood development indicators Availability of children s books Adult engagement Paternal engagement Children s living arrangements Percentage of children under 5 living in households with at least three children s books Percentage of children under 5 engaged by an adult household member in four or more early learning activities in the past three days Percentage of children under 5 engaged by their father in one or more early learning activities in the past three days Percentage of children under 5 living without both biological parents Albania Bangladesh Belarus Belize Bosnia and Herzegovina Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Central African Republic Côte d Ivoire Djibouti Gambia Georgia Ghana Guinea-Bissau 10 Guyana Iraq Jamaica Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Lao People s Democratic Republic Malawi 5 Mauritania Mongolia Montenegro Nigeria Serbia Sierra Leone Somalia Suriname Syrian Arab Republic Tajikistan Thailand The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Togo Trinidad and Tobago Ukraine 97 1 Uzbekistan Viet Nam Yemen Inequities in Early Childhood Development: What the data say

18 Notes on Table 1 Definitions of the indicators Availability of children s books: Percentage of children under 5 living in households with three or more children s books. Adult engagement: Percentage of children under 5 living in households in which an adult has engaged in four or more of the following activities to promote learning and school readiness in the past three days: a) reading books to the child; b) telling stories to the child; c) singing songs to the child; d) taking the child outside the home; e) playing with the child; and f) spending time with the child naming, counting or drawing things. Paternal engagement: Percentage of children under 5 whose father has engaged in one or more of the following activities to promote learning and school readiness in the past three days: a) reading books to the child; b) telling stories to the child; c) singing songs to the child; d) taking the child outside the home; e) playing with the child; and f) spending time with the child naming, counting or drawing things. Children s living arrangements: Percentage of children under 5 living without both biological parents. Child discipline: a) Non-violent: Percentage of children 2 4 years old who experienced the following methods of non-violent discipline in the past month: Parents explained why something was wrong, took away privileges or gave the child something else to do. b) Violent: Percentage of children 2 4 years old who experienced any violent discipline (psychological aggression or physical punishment) in the past month. Inadequate care: Percentage of children under 5 left alone or in the care of another child under 10 years old in the past week. Early childhood care and education: Percentage of children 3 4 years old who attend some form of early childhood care and education programme. Data source Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) carried out from 2005 through Inequities in Early Childhood Development: What the data say

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20 United Nations Children s Fund 3 United Nations Plaza New York, NY 10017, USA Website: While the challenges ahead are steep, the imperative for universal early childhood development is clear: Every child has the right to develop to her or his fullest potential and to contribute fully to society. Our responsibility to pursue this goal is just as clear. Anthony Lake, UNICEF Executive Director United Nations Children s Fund (UNICEF) February 2012 Scan this QR code or go to the UNICEF publications website

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