Overview

Brief Summary

Description

Long-tailed Voles need cool, moist habitats, so they are found mostly near the peaks of mountain ranges. Fruits and seeds make up the bulk of their diet, but they also eat fungi, bark, and leaves if necessary. Long-tailed Voles live less than one year on average, and females produce only two litters during that time, with an average of five pups per litter. Owls and hawks prey on them, as do some mammals, including martens, long-tailed weasels, and ermine.

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Range Description

This species occurs in western North America; from east-central Alaska (United States), south through western Canada and the western United States to southern California, Arizona, and New Mexico, and east to Colorado. Populations at the eastern and southern edges of its range are generally restricted to high elevations in isolated mountains. The elevational range is from sea level up to at least 3,650 m asl.

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Global Range: Western North America; from east-central Alaska south through western Canada and the western U.S. to southern California, Arizona, and New Mexico, east to Colorado. Populations at eastern and southern edges of range generally restricted to high elevations in isolated mountains. Elevational range: sea level to at least 3650 m.

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Physical Description

Morphology

Long-tailed voles are small bodied with long, bicolored tails. Body mass ranges from 20 to 85 g and total length from 150 to 250 mm. The tail is about 30% of their total length. The fur color of these animals varies with its location on the body. The dorsal fur is usually grayish brown with black tips, while the ventral fur is usually light gray color. The skull has a wide braincase, large bullae, a long rostrum, and long incisive foramina. The cheektooth pattern of this type of vole looks prismatic.

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Ecology

Habitat

Long-tailed voles occupy a variety of habitats. Some examples of theses habitats include dry grassy areas, mountain slopes, forests, stream banks, sagebrush grasslands, mountain meadows, and riparian zones. Within all of these different types of landscape, long-tailed voles burrow and sometimes create runways underground. In Wyoming, the elevation at which this species can be found is 900 to 3300 meters.

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Habitat and Ecology

It is found in various habitats ranging from dense coniferous forests to rocky alpine tundra, sagebrush semidesert, moist meadows, marshes, along rivers and streams and forest-edge habitat. It frequently occurs in disturbed areas, such as clear-cuts, surface mines, and those that have been fire-impacted. It usually does not make well-defined runways.

Breeds mid-May to mid-September in Alaska and Idaho, May-October in Nevada (mostly June-July). In Alberta females will have one to four litters per year (average two). In Alaska, females will have a maximum of two litters during a lifetime. Litter size is an average of four in Alberta, and five in Alaska (Smolen and Keller 1987). Young of year breed in Alberta, not in Alaska.

These voles seldom live more than one year. They may be displaced by the more aggressive M. montanus (Smolen and Keller 1987). Diet includes green vegetation, seeds, berries, and fungi. In winter they may feed on inner bark of shrubs and trees. They are active throughout the year. Most observed activity in Alaska was nocturnal (Smolen and Keller 1987).

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Migration

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

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Trophic Strategy

Like many rodents, long-tailed voles are herbivores. They feast on green plants, tree roots and bark, flowers, underground fungi, fruits, and seeds. Sometimes they will eat insects. Foraging for these food items occurs on the ground and underneath shrubs.

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Associations

Long-tailed voles play an important role in local ecosystems. As short-lived, rapidly reproducing herbivores, they provide an important prey base for many carnivores. They are undoubtedly vital to local fod webs.

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That long-tailed voles are frequent victims of predation is not doubted. However, the quantity of long-tailed voles consumed by such predators is unknown-- paartly because of similarities between the skull morphology of this species and that of Microtus montanus, another popular prey item. When such remains are found, it is difficult to distinguish which species is present.

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General Ecology

Populations fluctuate dramatically. Population densities are usually relatively low but may build up to 40 or more/ha (Jones et al. 1983). Seldom lives more than 1 year. May be displaced by more aggressive M. MONTANUS (Smolen and Keller 1987).

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Life History and Behavior

Behavior

Information about communication in this species is scant. However, most microtines are known to use some vocalizationsm and it is likely that M. longicaudud is similar in that repsect. The neonates of this species are known to make an ultrasonic cry when disturbed, alerting the mother to their distress.

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Reproduction

Like many rodents, long-tailed voles have a breeding season that stretches from May to October. Individuals located farther north have a shorter breeding season. For example, those populations in Alaska have a season extending from mid-May to mid-September. After reaching sexual maturity, females have a maximum of two litters in their lifetime. Female voles may reach sexual maturity by 3 weeks of age.

Pregnant voles construct nests made of plant material and fibers in their burrows. This is where the females give birth to their young. Litters typically contain from 3 to 6 young. The average gestation period is 20 to 23 days.

Breeding interval: These voles may breed twice during a breeding season.

Although details on the development and parental care of this species are lacking, voles are known to give birth to altricial young. These young typically reside in the mother's nest and are nursed there until they are able to forage on their own. Male parental care has not been reported in these animals.

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Breeds mid-May to mid-September in Alaska and Idaho, May-October in Nevada (mostly June-July). Litters/year: 1-4 in Alberta (average 2); maximum of 2 litters during lifetime for Alaska females. Litter size is 2-8; average 4 in Alberta, 5 in Alaska (Smolen and Keller 1987). Young of year breed in Alberta, not in Alaska.

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Trends

Population

This species is considered secure within its range (NatureServe). Populations fluctuate dramatically. Population densities are usually relatively low (typically 5-16 per hectare) but may build up to 40 or more per hectare (Jones et al. 1983).

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Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems

Benefits

Long-tailed voles are a nuisance for many people. They burrow, which causes destruction to the orchards and forests above. Also, they eat many crops (such as grains, potatoes, alfalfa, etc.) and other plant material resulting in more damage. Similar to other wild rodents and larger wild mammals, these voles can carry disease organisms, which can be transmitted to humans through contact. It is advised to be cautious when handling these animals.

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It is unlikely that these animals provide any direct economic benefit to humans. However, because they are important prey animals, they do affect other species that humans find interesting an important. Many avian predators that people like to watch, such as falcons, hawks, and owls seem to rely on these animals for food.

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Wikipedia

Long-tailed vole

The long-tailed vole (Microtus longicaudus), in some areas known as the San Bernardino long-tailed vole, is a small vole found in western North America. They have short ears and a long tail. Their fur is gray brown with light gray underparts. They are around 18 cm (7.1 in) long with an 8 cm (3.1 in) tail and weigh about 50 g (1.8 oz).

The long-tailed vole is a small terrestrial mammal.[3] They are around 18 cm (7.1 in) long with an 8 cm (3.1 in) tail. They weigh on average 50 g (1.8 oz).[7] They have a thick body and a relatively long tail.[3] The tail is bicolored and extends greater than one-third the animal's total length.[3] The type specimen measured 185 mm (7.3 in), with a 65 millimetres (2.6 in) tail and a 21 millimetres (0.83 in) hind foot.[5] The ear measured 14 millimetres (0.55 in) x 8 millimetres (0.31 in) x 13 millimetres (0.51 in).[5]

The long-tailed vole is similar in size to the meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus).[6] However, it has a longer tail, bigger ears, and grayer coat. In addition, the skull is flatter, and the cranium is wider.[6]

Left upper and lower molar teeth

The middle upper molar lacks a posterior-internal loop or spur.[5] Merriam also noted some "peculiarities", not otherwise specified, in the original description, which distinguish the long-tailed vole from other species known in the late 1800s.[8] This first specimen Merriam described had large ears, with folds capable of closing the ear canal opening.[5] Relative to the overall length of the animal, the tail was longer than any other vole described at that time.[5] The fur is a sooty yellow-brown with some grizzled aspects.[5] There are hints of rust coloring on the mid back.[5] The whitish underside fur is a leaden gray towards the base.[5] The underside fur blends seamlessly with the fur on the sides of the vole.[5] The undersides of the tail are darker.[5] The feet are plumbeous, a leaden gray.[6]

The genitalia of the long-tailed vole have been described. The baculum has broad and straight proximal bone. It is similar in structure to that of the meadow vole, but with different proportions. The basal shaft is dumb-bell shaped in cross section and tapers to a blunt point at the end. The shaft is broad in dimension and connects via cartilagnous linkages to three lateral segments. The glans penis has a dorsal lobe elevated above a ventral rim. The rim has spiny fingerlike proceses, but not the dorsal lobe.[9] An rod shaped os clitoridis may be present, in front of the urethra.

Long-tailed voles can be found with unusual dentition. A female with grooved incisors was found in the Yukon. Several other voles from Oregon were found with flattened incisors and malocclusion of their incisors and molars. A specimen in New Mexico was reported with an extra tooth in the right lower jaw.[9] An albino vole was also found in New Mexico.[4]

Long-tailed voles do not usually have the hip glands, which are found in other members of the genus Microtus. These can develop if the animal is injected with testosterone.[9] Each eyelid of the long-tailed vole has around 3-4 meibomian glands.[9]

Fossil remains date towards the end of the Wisconsinian glaciation.[9] Fossils have been collected from: Moonshiner Cave in Idaho; Agate Basin and Little Box Elder Cave in Wyoming; Chimney Rock Animal Trap in Colorado; and Burnet Cave and Dry Cave in New Mexico.[9] The fossil remains of long-tailed voles may be difficult to distinguish from those of similar small voles, such as the meadow vole and the montane vole.[9] As such, collected fossils are identified based on probabilities of occurrence within the geographic range or with other associated species.[9]

These animals are found in a wide variety of habitats, including alpine meadows and shrubby areas, often near streams.[1] They may live in dense forests of conifers or in more arid, sagebrush type of habitats. They are common in areas of disturbed habitat, including areas of recent fire, deforestation, or mining.[1] In Alaska, they do well in areas where clear-cuts have been taken.[10] In the Yukon, they are found among spruce forests and where buffaloberry grow.[10]

They are found at elevations from sea level up to 3,650 m (11,980 ft) above sea level.[1] Near the southern and eastern limits of the geographic range, they tend to reside at higher elevations.[1] Their range extends throughout western North American. The northern limits are in east-central Alaska.[1] The range extends south through the western Canadian provinces of Alberta, British Columbia, Northwest Territories, and Yukon.[1] It extends south and east to include the states of: Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, Wyoming.[1]

Long-tailed voles are active year-round, usually during the day.[1] However, in Alaska, they have been observed nocturnally.[1] The usually are free ranging and do not make well defined runways.[1] The breeding season begins in May and extends through September or October, depending on location.[1] The female vole has on average two litters per year, but may have as few as 1 or as many as 4.[1] In northern areas, they may have only two litters over the course of their lifetime.[1] The size of the litter is typically four or five.[1] They may have as many as eight.[9] Long-tailed vole parents will respond to ultrasonic cries made by the newborns in distress.[4] It is unusual for long-tailed voles to live more than one year.[10] Females live longer than males.[10]

The long-tailed vole are apprehensive of other voles.[10] They are found in areas inhabited by other microtines, but generally avoid contact.[11] The montane vole is a more aggressive animal and is known to displace them from their habitat.[4] The more long-tailed voles in a given area, the more aggressive the montane voles become.[4]

They feed on green plants, assorted berries, seeds, and fungi. During the winter, diet may consist of the inner bark of shrubs and trees.[1] During winters in Nevada, they have been observed eating bark and leaves of sagebrush.[10]

Long-tailed vole populations can fluctuate widely over a period of time within a given locale. Populations densities are generally sparse, with around 5-16 voles per hectare, but this can increase to more than 40.[1]

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Names and Taxonomy

Taxonomy

Comments: Subspecies coronarius formerly was (and by some recent authros still is) regarded as a distinct species; it was recognized as a subspecies or synonym of M. longicaudus by Jones et al. (1992), Baker et al. (2003), and Musser and Carleton (in Wilson and Reeder 1993, 2005). Extensive karyotypic and molecular variation suggests the need for further taxonomic investigation (Musser and Carleton).