Milestones: 1989–1992

The Collapse of the Soviet Union

After his inauguration in January 1989, George H.W. Bush did
not automatically follow the policy of his predecessor, Ronald
Reagan, in dealing with Mikhail Gorbachev
and the Soviet Union. Instead, he ordered a strategic policy re-evaluation in
order to establish his own plan and methods for dealing with the Soviet Union
and arms control.

Boris Yeltsin makes a speech from atop a tank in front of the Russian
parliament building in Moscow, U.S.S.R., Monday, Aug. 19, 1991. (AP Photo)

Conditions in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, however, changed rapidly.
Gorbachev’s decision to loosen the Soviet yoke on the countries of Eastern
Europe created an independent, democratic momentum that led to the collapse of
the Berlin Wall in November 1989, and then the overthrow of Communist rule
throughout Eastern Europe. While Bush supported these independence movements,
U.S. policy was reactive. Bush chose to let events unfold organically, careful
not to do anything to worsen Gorbachev’s position.

With the policy review complete, and taking into account unfolding events in
Europe, Bush met with Gorbachev at Malta in early December 1989. They laid the
groundwork for finalizing START negotiations, completing the Conventional Forces
in Europe treaty, and they discussed the rapid changes in Eastern Europe. Bush
encouraged Gorbachev’s reform efforts, hoping that the Soviet leader would
succeed in shifting the USSR toward a democratic system and a market oriented
economy.

Gorbachev’s decision to allow elections with a multi-party system and create a
presidency for the Soviet Union began a slow process of democratization that
eventually destabilized Communist control and contributed to the collapse of the
Soviet Union. Following the May 1990 elections, Gorbachev faced conflicting
internal political pressures: Boris Yeltsin and the pluralist movement advocated
democratization and rapid economic reforms while the hard-line Communist elite
wanted to thwart Gorbachev’s reform agenda.

Facing a growing schism between Yeltsin and Gorbachev, the Bush administration
opted to work primarily with Gorbachev because they viewed him as the more
reliable partner and because he made numerous concessions that promoted U.S.
interests. Plans proceeded to sign the START agreement. With the withdrawal of
Red Army troops from East Germany, Gorbachev agreed to German reunification and
acquiesced when a newly reunited Germany joined NATO. When Saddam Hussein
invaded Kuwait, the United States and the Soviet leadership worked together
diplomatically to repel this attack.

Yet for all of those positive steps on the international stage, Gorbachev’s
domestic problems continued to mount. Additional challenges to Moscow’s control
placed pressure on Gorbachev and the Communist party to retain power in order to
keep the Soviet Union intact. After the demise of Communist regimes in Eastern
Europe, the Baltic States and the Caucasus demanded independence from Moscow. In
January 1991, violence erupted in Lithuania and Latvia. Soviet tanks intervened
to halt the democratic uprisings, a move that Bush resolutely condemned.

By 1991, the Bush administration reconsidered policy options in light of the
growing level of turmoil within the Soviet Union. Three basic options presented
themselves. The administration could continue to support Gorbachev in hopes of
preventing Soviet disintegration. Alternately, the United States could shift
support to Yeltsin and the leaders of the Republics and provide support for a
controlled restructuring or possible breakup of the Soviet Union. The final
option consisted of lending conditional support to Gorbachev, leveraging aid and
assistance in return for more rapid and radical political and economic reforms.

Unsure about how much political capital Gorbachev retained, Bush combined
elements of the second and third options. The Soviet nuclear arsenal was vast,
as were Soviet conventional forces, and further weakening of Gorbachev could
derail further arms control negotiations. To balance U.S. interests in relation
to events in the Soviet Union, and in order to demonstrate support for
Gorbachev, Bush signed the START treaty at the Moscow Summit in July 1991. Bush
administration officials also, however, increased contact with Yeltsin.

The unsuccessful August 1991 coup against Gorbachev sealed the fate of the Soviet
Union. Planned by hard-line Communists, the coup diminished Gorbachev’s power
and propelled Yeltsin and the democratic forces to the forefront of Soviet and
Russian politics. Bush publicly condemned the coup as “extra-constitutional,”
but Gorbachev’s weakened position became obvious to all. He resigned his
leadership as head of the Communist party shortly thereafter—separating the
power of the party from that of the presidency of the Soviet Union. The Central
Committee was dissolved and Yeltsin banned party activities. A few days after
the coup, Ukraine and Belarus declared their independence from the Soviet Union.
The Baltic States, which had earlier declared their independence, sought
international recognition.

Amidst quick, dramatic changes across the landscape of the Soviet Union, Bush
administration officials prioritized the prevention of nuclear catastrophe, the
curbing of ethnic violence, and the stable transition to new political orders.
On September 4, 1991, Secretary of State James Baker articulated five basic
principles that would guide U.S. policy toward the emerging republics:
self-determination consistent with democratic principles, recognition of
existing borders, support for democracy and rule of law, preservation of human
rights and rights of national minorities, and respect for international law and
obligations. The basic message was clear—if the new republics could follow these
principles, they could expect cooperation and assistance from the United States.
Baker met with Gorbachev and Yeltsin in an attempt to shore up the economic
situation and develop some formula for economic cooperation between the
republics and Russia, as well as to determine ways to allow political reforms to
occur in a regulated and peaceful manner. In early December, Yeltsin and the
leaders of Ukraine and Belarus met in Brest to form the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS), effectively declaring the demise of the Soviet
Union.

On December 25, 1991, the Soviet hammer and sickle flag lowered for the last time
over the Kremlin, thereafter replaced by the Russian tricolor. Earlier in the
day, Mikhail Gorbachev resigned his post as president of the Soviet Union,
leaving Boris Yeltsin as president of the newly independent Russian state.
People all over the world watched in amazement at this relatively peaceful
transition from former Communist monolith into multiple separate nations.

With the dissolution of Soviet Union, the main goal of the Bush administration
was economic and political stability and security for Russia, the Baltics, and
the states of the former Soviet Union. Bush recognized all 12 independent
republics and established diplomatic relations with Russia, Ukraine, Belarus,
Kazakhstan, Armenia and Kyrgyzstan. In February 1992, Baker visited the
remaining republics and diplomatic relations were established with Uzbekistan,
Moldova, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan. Civil war in Georgia
prevented its recognition and the establishment of diplomatic relations with the
United States until May 1992. Yeltsin met with Bush at Camp David in February
1992, followed by a formal state visit to Washington in June. Leaders from
Kazakhstan and Ukraine visited Washington in May 1992.

During his visits to Washington, politics, economic reforms, and security issues
dominated the conversations between Yeltsin and Bush. Of paramount concern was
securing the nuclear arsenal of the former Soviet Union and making certain
nuclear weapons did not fall into the wrong hands. Baker made it clear that
funding was available from the United States to secure nuclear, chemical and
biological weapons in the former Soviet Union. The Nunn-Lugar Act established
the Cooperative Threat Reduction Program in November 1991 to fund the
dismantling of weapons in the former Soviet Union, in accordance with the START
and INF Treaties and other agreements. Bush and Baker also worked with Yeltsin
and international organizations like the World Bank and IMF to provide financial
assistance and hopefully prevent a humanitarian crisis in Russia.