Liberalism A political or social philosophy advocating the freedom of the individual, parliamentary systems of government, nonviolent modification of political, social, or economic institutions to assure unrestricted development in all spheres of human endeavor, and governmental guarantees of individual rights and civil liberties. Social Darwinism a 19th-century theory, inspired by Darwinism, by which the social order is accounted as the product of natural selection of those persons best suited to existing living conditions and in accord with which a position of laissez-faire is advocated. 1885–90 Realpolitik realpolitik, politics based on practical objectives rather than on ideals. The word does not mean “real” in the English sense but rather connotes “things”—hence a politics of adaptation to things as they are. Realpolitik thus suggests a pragmatic, no-nonsense view and a disregard for ethical considerations. In diplomacy it is often associated with relentless, though realistic, pursuit of the national interest. Maximilien Robespierre Maximilian Robespierre was leader of the Jacobin Club. Reign of Maximilian Robespierre, from 1793-94 is referred to as the 'Reign of Terror.' Robespierre enacted laws placing a maximum ceiling on wages, and prices and rationing of meat and bread. Robespierre enacted laws placing a maximum ceiling on wages, and prices and rationing of meat and bread. Otto von Bismarck Otto Eduard Leopold, Prince of Bismarck, Duke of Lauenburg, Pour le Mérite, known as Otto von Bismarck, was a conservative Prussian statesman who dominated German and European affairs from the 1860s until 1890. In the 1860s he engineered a series of wars that unified the German states into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. With that accomplished by 1871 he skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to preserve German hegemony in a Europe which, despite many disputes and war scares, remained at peace. For historian Eric Hobsbawm, Bismarck, who "remained undisputed world champion at the game of multilateral diplomatic chess for almost twenty years after 1871, devoted himself exclusively, and successfully, to maintaining peace between the powers." Nationalism The doctrine that nations should act independently (rather than collectively) to attain their goals; pride and love for one's nation. Positivism positivism, in philosophy, generally, any system that confines itself to the data of experience and excludes a priori or metaphysical speculations. More narrowly, the term designates the thought of the French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857). As a philosophical ideology and movement, positivism first assumed its distinctive features in the work of Comte, who also named and systematized the science of sociology. It then developed through several stages known by various names, such as empiriocriticism, logical positivism, and logical empiricism, and finally, in the mid-20th century, flowed into the already existing tradition known as analytic philosophy (also called linguistic philosophy). 1848 Revolutions of 1848 The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations, Springtime of the Peoples or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history, but within a year, reactionary forces had regained control, and the revolutions collapsed. Count Camillo Cavour Camillo Paolo Filippo Giulio Benso, Count of Cavour, of Isolabella and of Leri, generally known as Cavour was an Italian statesman and a leading figure in the movement toward Italian unification. He was the founder of the original Liberal Party and Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, a position he maintained throughout the Second Italian War of Independence and Garibaldi's campaigns to unite Italy. After the declaration of a united Kingdom of Italy, Cavour took office as Italy's first Prime Minister; he died after only three months in office, and thus did not live to see Venetia or Rome as part of the new Italian nation. The Frankfurt assembly Frankfurt Parliament, 1848–49, national assembly convened at Frankfurt on May 18, 1848, as a result of the liberal revolution that swept the German states early in 1848. The parliament was called by a preliminary assembly of German liberals in Mar., 1848, and its members were elected by direct manhood suffrage. They represented the entire political spectrum and included the foremost German figures of the time. The president of the parliament was Heinrich von Gagern. Its purpose was to plan the unification of Germany. Having suspended (June, 1848) the diet of the German Confederation, the assembly appointed Archduke John of Austria regent of Germany and head of the provisional (and virtually nonexistent) executive power. While the parliament was lengthily debating various schemes of union, it was diverted from its purpose by the war with Denmark over the Schleswig-Holstein question; the parliament commissioned Prussia to send troops to aid the duchies, but finally accepted (Sept., 1848) an armistice. It resumed deliberations on unification, but conflict among the traditionally separate German states, notably Austria and Prussia, made progress difficult. In the meantime the revolutionary movement was suppressed, and the very basis of the Frankfurt assembly destroyed. At last, in Mar., 1849, the parliament adopted a federal constitution of the German states, excluding Austria, with a parliamentary government and a hereditary emperor. Frederick William IV of Prussia was chosen emperor but refused to accept the crown from a popularly elected assembly and the entire scheme foundered. Most of the representatives withdrew and the remainder were dispersed. Frederick William attempted to substitute a union scheme of his own, but his efforts were smothered by Austria through the Treaty of Olmütz (1850), which restored the German Confederation. The constitution drafted by the Frankfurt Parliament influenced that of the North German Confederation in 1866, particularly in providing direct suffrage. The congress of Vienna Nullified the Congress of Vienna and allowed the european powers to be guided by their own interests Urbanization With the onset of the agricultural and industrial revolution in the late 18th century this relationship was finally broken and an unprecedented growth in urban population took place over the course of the 19th century, both through continued migration from the countryside and due to the tremendous demographic expansion that occurred at that time. In England, the urban population jumped from 17% in 1801 to 72% in 1891 (for other countries the figure was: 37% in France, 41% in Prussia and 28% in the United States). As labourers were freed up from working the land due to higher agricultural productivity they converged on the new industrial cities like Manchester and Birmingham which were experiencing a boom in commerce, trade and industry. Growing trade around the world also allowed cereals to be imported from North America and refrigerated meat from Australasia and South America. Spatially, cities also expanded due to the development of public transport systems, which facilitated commutes of longer distances to the city centre for the working class. Constitutional monarchy The powers of the monarch was curtailed, instead of being concentrated in the hands of one person, were now separated and assigned to different institutions like The legislature, executive and judiciary. This made France a constitutional monarchy. Realism Realism in the arts is the attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding artistic conventions, implausible, exotic and supernatural elements. Realism has been prevalent in the arts at many periods, and is in large part a matter of technique and training, and the avoidance of stylization. In the visual arts, illusionistic realism is the accurate depiction of lifeforms, perspective, and the details of light and colour. Realist works of art may emphasize the ugly or sordid, such as works of social realism, regionalism, or Kitchen sink realism. Realism in the arts is the attempt to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality and avoiding artistic conventions, implausible, exotic and supernatural elements. Realism has been prevalent in the arts at many periods, and is in large part a matter of technique and training, and the avoidance of stylization. In the visual arts, illusionistic realism is the accurate depiction of lifeforms, perspective, and the details of light and colour. Realist works of art may emphasize the ugly or sordid, such as works of social realism, regionalism, or Kitchen sink realism. literary realism is the trend, beginning with mid nineteenth-century French literature and extending to late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century authors, toward depictions of contemporary life and society as it was, or is. In the spirit of general "realism," realist authors opted for depictions of everyday and banal activities and experiences, instead of a romanticized or similarly stylized presentation. Junkers was a major German aircraft manufacturer. It produced some of the world's most innovative and best-known airplanes over the course of its fifty-plus year history in Dessau, Germany. It was founded there in 1895 by Hugo Junkers, initially manufacturing boilers and radiators. During World War I, and following the war, the company became famous for its pioneering all-metal aircraft. During World War II the company produced some of the most successful Luftwaffe planes, as well as piston and jet aircraft engines, albeit in the absence of its founder, who had been removed by the Nazis already in 1934. Romanticism Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850. Partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, it was also a revolt against the aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature. It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education and the natural sciences. Its effect on politics was considerable and complex; while for much of the peak Romantic period it was associated with liberalism and radicalism, its long-term effect on the growth of nationalism was probably more significant. Eastate general In France under the Old Regime, the States-General or Estates-General (French: états généraux, IPA: [eta ʒeneʁo]), was a legislative assembly (see The Estates) of the different classes (or estates) of French subjects. It had a separate assembly for each of the three estates, which were called and dismissed by the king. It had no true power in its own right—unlike the English parliament it was not required to approve royal taxation or legislation—instead it functioned as an advisory body to the king, primarily by presenting petitions from the various estates and consulting on fiscal policy.[2] The Estates-General met intermittently until 1614 and only once afterwards, but was not definitively dissolved until after the French Revolution. Napoleon III Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte was the first President of the French Second Republic and, as Napoleon III, the Emperor of the Second French Empire. He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I. He was the first President of France to be elected by a direct popular vote. However, when he was blocked by the Constitution and Parliament from running for a second term, he organized a coup d'état in 1851, and then took the throne as Napoleon III on 2 December 1852, the forty-eighth anniversary of Napoleon I's coronation. Giuseppe Mazzini Giuseppe Mazzini, nicknamed The Beating Heart of Italy, was an Italian politician, journalist and activist for the unification of Italy. His efforts helped bring about the independent and unified Italy in place of the several separate states, many dominated by foreign powers that existed until the 19th century. He also helped define the modern European movement for popular democracy in a republican state. Reichstag Reichstag is a German word which in political terms means Parliament but directly translated is Diet of the Realm or National Diet or Imperial Diet. Prince Klemens von Metternich Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich was a politician and statesman of Rhenish extraction and one of the most important diplomats of his era, serving as the Foreign Minister of the Austrian Empire from 1809 until the liberal revolutions of 1848 forced his resignation. One of his first tasks was to engineer a détente with France that included the marriage of Napoleon to the Austrian Arch-Duchess Marie Louise. Soon after, however, he engineered Austria's entry into the War of the Sixth Coalition on the Allied side, signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau that sent Napoleon into exile and led the Austrian delegation at the Congress of Vienna which divided post-Napoleonic Europe between the major powers. In recognition of his service to the Austrian Empire he was raised to the title of Prince in October 1813. Under his guidance, the "Metternich system" of international congresses continued for another decade as Austria aligned herself with Russia and, to a lesser extent, Prussia. This marked the high point of Austria's diplomatic importance, and thereafter Metternich slowly slipped back into the periphery of international diplomacy. At home, Metternich also held the post of Chancellor of State from 1821 until 1848, under both Francis I and his son Ferdinand I. After a brief period of exile in London, Brighton and Brussels that lasted until 1851, he returned once more to the Viennese court, this time to offer only advice to Ferdinand's successor, Franz Josef. Having outlived his generation of politicians, Metternich died at the age of 86 in 1859. Schleswig a historic region in S Jutland: a former duchy of Denmark; annexed by Prussia 1864; the N part was returned to Denmark as the result of a plebiscite 1920. Sans-culottes Sans-Culottes literally mean: Those without knee breeches i.e., the common people of Paris. Essay: 1who were the principal personalities at the congress of vinna and why did they have to meet? What were the most significant problems they confront and how did they attempt to resolve them? The Congress of Vienna was an international conference that was called in order to remake Europe after the downfall of Napoleon I. Many territorial decisions had to be made in the conference that was held in Vienna, Austria, from September 1814 to June 1815. The main goal of the conference was to create a balance of power that would preserve the peace.0 Mainly, the four major powers of Europe (Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain) were left to make most of the big decisions. Austria was represented by Prince Klemens von Metternich, the Austrian minister of state who was also acting president of the Congress. The Russians sent Alexander I, the emperor of Russia. The main delegate from Prussia was Prince Karl August von Hardenberg, and Great Britain was represented by Lord Castlereagh, and later Arthur Wellesley, the first duke of Wellingtom. This group of major powers decided that France, Spain, and the smaller powers would have no say in important decisions. However, the French diplomat, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, was successful in allowing France to have an equal voice in the negotiations. Talleyrand became the deciding vote in many of the decisions. Important Decisions: * France was deprived of all territory conquered by Napoleon * The Dutch Republic was united with the Austrian Netherlands to form a single kingdom of the Netherlands under the House of Orange. * Norway and Sweden were joined under a single ruler * Switzerland was declared neutral * Russia got Finland and effective control over the new kingdom of Poland * Prussia was given much of Saxony and important parts of Westphalia and the Rhine Province. * Austria was given back most of the territory it had lost and was also given land in Germany and Italy (Lombardia and Venice) * Britain got several strategic colonial territories, and they also gained control of the seas. * France was restored under the rule of Louis XVIII. * Spain was restored under Ferdinand VII Outcomes of the meeting: The goal of the congress was to reestablish a balance of power amongst the countries of Europe and have peace between the nations. The Congress was highly successful in achieving its goal, for the peace in Europe was left undisturbed for almost 40 years. Trace the main event of unification of Italy and Germany. How did each architect of unification accomplish their goal? The Hapsburgs More than that they had to fight the French led by Napoleon 3, Austrians, Spanish and the Neapolitans. There were a number of insurrections, namely: The Carbonari, the "Two Sicilies", and Piedmont. In 1848-9 there was a quelled revolution that began. In 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi wnet on his 'Mille' expedition. He landed in Marsala in Sicily with 1000 Italian volunteers and marched his way to mainland Italy. Within 3 days of landing, they had increased their number to 4000. On May 14, Garibaldi proclaimed himself Dictator of Sicily. Naples now deemed Palermo (capital of Sicily) to be insurgent and promptly sent General Lanza, along with 25000 men to bombard Palermo practically to ruins. A British intervention led to an armistice and allowed Palermo to be left in the hands of Garibaldi and his much smaller army. This success demostrated the weakness of the Neapolitan government. GAribaldi's fame spread like wildfire throughout Italy. Six weeks after taking Palermo, Garibaldi and his men attacked Messina. The siege lasted one week and now had control of all of Sicily. Garibaldi now set his sights on teh mainland. By September, the Neapolitan King fleed Naples with 4000 men still faithful to him. Garibaldi walked into Naples, where the people welcomed him openly. By 1861, their rallying cry was "Rome or Death!!" Between 1820 and 1849, thousands of Italians had died trying to liberate their country from foreign control or to unite the separate states. All these attempts had failed. Heroism was not enough. During the decade of the 1850's other, and much more a effective methods were tried by Count Cavour a chief minister of Piedmont-Sardinia. This was the only Italian kingdom with a native Italian ruler. Cavour cleverly managed to persuade Emperor Napoleon III of France to intervene. With French aid, the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia expanded to include most of northern Italy. Giuseppe Garibaldi Cavour had paved the way for the creation of a united Italy. However, in the decade of the 1860's, his place was taken by one of the truly heroic figures of history, Giuseppe Garibaldi. Garibaldi, was born in Nice, which only became French in 1859. In 1848 he had organised groups of Italian partisans to fight the Austrians and, in 1859, he did so again. In May 1859, he landed in Sicily with 1000 red-shined volunteers. The exploits of Garibaldi and his "Thousand" were reported in newspapers and spread throughout Europe. Against incredible odds he defeated every army sent against him. In every region of southern Italy that he occupied he declared himself to represent the authority of King Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont-Sardinia. The battles Magenta and Solferino in 1859 were French victories over the Austrians. These battles were won at such a cost that not only did Napoleon III make peace with Austria, but also the first battle gave its name to a shade of red. The second battle led to the foundation of the Red Cross by a Swiss, Henri Dunant. In honour of Dunant, the Swiss Confederation adopted the flag of the Red Cross as its national flag (with the colours reversed). The Geneva Convention of 1863, concerning the ways to conduct "civilised warfare" was another consequence. By March 1861 so much of the Italian peninsula had declared its loyalty to Victor Emmanuel, that the " Kingdom of Italy " was proclaimed, even though Rome, the natural and obvious capital for all Italian patriots, was still under the control of the Pope. Finally, in 1870, an Italian army entered Rome and the Pope relinquished his authority over the city in exchange for the Vatican, which became an independent state. Italy was a united country at last. 1848 uprising - not successful for Italy. Still not a “nation” Austria controlled large part of the northern territory Rest of the penninsula was small kingdoms - it was here conservatives met their match One of the kingdoms, Piedmont, ruled by King Victor Emmanuel II. In 1852 he chose Camillo di Cavour as his prime minister Cavour set our to free Italian territory from Austrian control and uniting the penninsula Cavour joined European Emperor of France - Napoleon III - in a military alliance 1859 Armies of France and Piedmont went to war against Austria They won! See the blue territories? In exchange for France’s help Italy let France take the regions of Nice and Savoy Meanwhile Austria supported the gov’ts of several northern states Here the people were inspired by Piedmont’s success so they deposed- overthrew- their Austrian backed rulers and joined their states with Piedmont Cavour’s careful planning had worked - Italy was now a nation under King Victor Emmanuel II A Moment - Emperor Louis-Napoleon twice tried to rule France. - In 1836 he attempted it but was exiled to England - his second attempt, 1840, led to a sentence of life in prison - he escaped 6 years later - went back to England A Moment - Returned to France, again, during 1848 revolt and was elected President. - 1851, knowing he could not be elected President again according to Fr. constitution, he instituted a military coup d e’tat and declared new constitution - - he ruled as Emperor 1851-1870 when he was taken prisoner in Franco-Prussian war - he escaped to England, again, where he died 1873 -Franco-Prussian war explains France’s desire for revenge against Germany “ I’m so proud” Unification of Italy Victor Emmanuel and Cavour had united most of northern Italy. In the south, Giuseppe Garibaldi was building support for a single Italy Unification of Italy He is a strong nationalist. But unlike Cavour, he didn’t want a monarchy. He wanted a republic. Unification of Italy 1860, Garibaldi pulled together a volunteer army of 1,000 patriots They wore red shirts as a uniform Know as the red shirts Unification of Italy They helped a revolt on Sicily Quickly controlled the two kingdoms Giribaldi turned it over to Victor Emmanuel. In exchange Emmanuel agreed to a constitutional monarchy Unification of Italy Regions of Venetia and Papal States still not part of Italy Austria gave up Venetia in 1866 after they lost the Austro-Prussia war (Italy was an ally of Prussia during that war) Unification of Italy Italian forces invaded Papal States in 1870 French Emperor Napoleon III defended the states! But he had to remove his troops to fight Prussia in the Franco-Prussian war citizens of Papal States voted to join Italy Unification of Italy Create a concept map of how Italy became a nation Label the large center circle “Unifying Italy” Then, with a partner, draw smaller circles for different steps in the process Be sure to include details! Unification of Italy Create a concept map of how Italy became a nation Label the large center circle “Unifying Italy” Cavour joined Nap III against Austria Northern Italian nationalist joined with Piedmont Garibaldi and Red Shirts liberated Sicily Italy formed a constitutional monarchy Venice and Papal States joined the rest of Italy Germany Unification of Germany Nationalism is sweeping Europe but Germany is still 39 separate states ruled by princes, dukes, and petty kings Unification of Germany After the Congress of Vienna, unification of Germany began with economic reform Tariffs on goods moving from state to state Junkers - aristocratic land owners complained about the tariffs. Unification of Germany Junkers + tadespeople, financiers, etc. call for Zollverein (pre European union) this is a customs union Unification of Germany Otto von Bismark was an aristocratic Prussian with no romantic views for a German national state or any wish for a democratic gov’t Reapoltik - poltics based on practical or material matters rather than theory or ethics I agree! Unification of Germany Prince Otto Edward Leopold von Bismarck was the mastermind of German Unification and was the first chancellor of the united nation. Unification of Germany 1862 As minister president of Prussia Prince Bismarck immediately worked to create a German empire (reich) dominated by Prussia. While other Germans dreamed of a national state, Bismarck quickly modernized the Prussian army with a well-trained high command, the latest weapons, and the best railways in Europe. Unification of Germany 1862 Using the weakest of excuses he took over several German states and through inimidation forced rest of Germany to accept Prussian rule. 1871 Bismark declared German empire under his leadership Unification of Germany 1871 The new unified German nation, instead of being a democratic state, was ruled by a Prussian emperor, a Prussian military, and above all, a Prussian named Bismark. Unification of Germany Quickly became a national state whose military power could quickly crush any rebellion and force its will on any weaker neighboring states Which it did Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871 1870-1871 The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War was a conflict between France and Prussia, while Prussia was backed by the North German Confederation, of which it was a member, and the South German states of Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria. N German Confederation The cause of the Franco-Prussian War? The conflict was a culmination of years of tension between the two powers, which finally came to a head over the issue of a Hohenzollern candidate for the vacant Spanish throne. The public release of the Ems Dispatch, which played up alleged insults between the Prussian king and the French ambassador, inflamed public opinion on both sides. France mobilized, and on 19 July declared war on Prussia only, but the other German states quickly joined on Prussia's side I set Napoleon III up! The events of the Franco-Prussian War The superiority of the Prussian and German forces was soon evident, due in part to efficient use of railways and impressively superior Krupp steel artillery. The events of the Franco-Prussian War Over a five-month campaign, the German armies defeated the newly recruited French armies in a series of battles fought across northern France. Following a prolonged siege, Paris fell in 1871. The siege is also notable due to the fact that it saw the first use of anti-aircraft artillery, a Krupp piece built specifically to shoot down the hot air balloons being used by the French as couriers. The events of the Franco-Prussian War Ten days earlier, the German states had proclaimed their union under the Prussian King, uniting Germany as a nation-state, the German Empire. The final peace Treaty of Frankfurt was signed 10 May 1871 Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871 1870-1871 Results of the Prussian/German victory: 1. the final unification of the German Empire under King William I of Prussia. Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871 1870-1871 Results of the Prussian/German victory: 2. It marked the downfall of Napoleon III and the end of the Second French Empire, which was replaced by the Third Republic. Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871 1870-1871 Results of the Prussian/German victory: 3. As part of the settlement, almost all of the territory of Alsace-Lorraine was taken by Prussia to become a part of Germany, which it would retain until the end of W W I. Under the readings of German Unification Under the subheading “Building German Power at Home” each paragraph has a different topic Draw four columns on paper. Neatly label each column with topic of the paragraphs. List additional information about each topic in the correct column. Then switch with a partner and gather additional infomation you might have missed. 83 Short Answer Type Questions on the French Revolution 1. What do you understand by the word 'Revolution'? The term 'Revolution' means a recognisable momentous change in any situation. 2. Describe the incident which sparked the Revolution. The attack by the Third Estate on the Bastille State Prison (14th July 1789) and setting free the prisoners sparked the 'Revolution'. 3. What activity of the French monarchy hastened the Revolution? Extravagant lifestyle of the monarchy brought France to the verge of bankruptcy and hastened the Revolution. 4. Who were the Sans-Culottes? Sans-Culottes literally mean: Those without knee breeches i.e., the common people of Paris. 5. When did the French Revolution take place? The French Revolution took place on July 14, 1789. 6. What did the French Revolution of 1789 stand for? The French Revolution of 1789 stood for the ideas of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. 7. Explain the terms Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. The term Liberty means freedom, equality stands for being equal and fraternity stands for brotherhood. 8. Why was the Bastille hated by all? Bastille was hated because it was a symbol of the despotic power of the King. 9. What did the fall of Bastille signify? The fall of Bastille signified the end of the autocratic rule of the monarch. 10. What was the immediate cause of rioting in Paris? The high price of bread was the immediate cause for rioting in Paris. 11. What was the main idea of Rousseau's famous work 'Social Contracts? Rousseau's famous, work the 'Social Contract' believed that governments should be based on the consent of the governed. 12. Give any one significant role of the French philosophers in the outbreak of the Revolution. The most significant role of the philosophers was that they exposed the inefficiency of the monarch, provided revolutionary ideas and inspired the people to fight for their rights. 13. What debt did France incur due to her involvement in the American War of Independence? The war added more than a billion livres to the French debt. 14. List the three Estates into which French society was divided. Or Name the three main social classes of 18th century France. The Clergy, Nobility and the Third Estate or commoners, were the three Estates into which French society was divided. 15. Which classes formed the privileged Estates? The clergy and nobility constituted the privileged estates. 16. What were the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and nobility? The clergy and nobility enjoyed exemption from paying redemption taxes to the state. They had political rights and social status. 17. What special feudal privilege did the nobles enjoy? The authority to extract feudal dues from the peasants was the special privilege that the nobles enjoyed. 18. Name the special tax levied by the church on peasants. Tithes was the special tax levied by the church on peasants. 19. What was the tax levied by the State called? The tax levied by the state was called Taille. 20. List any three taxes levied on the Third Estate. (i) Taille, (ii) Tithe, (iii) Indirect taxes like salt tax and road tax were some of the taxes levied on the Third Estate. 21. What work did women of the Third Estate do? Women worked as seamstresses or laundresses, sold fruits, vegetables and flowers at the market or served as domestics. 22. Why the Third Estate was considered the unprivileged class? The Third Estate was considered the unprivileged class because they had no political rights and social status. They bore the burden of the state taxes. 23. List the names of at least three philosophers who inspired the Revolution. John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau and Montesquieu, were philosophers who inspired the Revolution. 24. Give the titles of books written by John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau and Montesquieu. John Locke wrote the book 'Two Treatises of Government', Jean Jacques Rousseau, 'The Social Contract and Montesquieu', 'The Spirit of Laws'. 25. What type of a society did the philosophers envisage? The philosophers envisaged a society based on freedom, equal laws and opportunities for all. . 26. What ideas did john Locke propound? John Locke propounded the ideas refuting the doctrine of divine and absolute rights of the monarch. 27. What was the philosophy of Montesquieu? Montesquieu philosophy was based on the division of powers between the legislature, executive and the judiciary. 28. What inspired the philosophers? The American constitution and its guarantee of individual rights inspired the philosophers. 29. Which assembly in France alone had the authority to vote on new taxes? The General Assembly alone had the authority to vote on new taxes in France. 30. Who constituted the Estates General? The representatives of the 3 Estates 'constituted the Estates General. It was a political body. 31. When were the Estates General last convened? The Estates General was last convened in 1614; prior to the reign of Louis XVI. 32. When and where did Louis XVI convene the assembly of the Estates General? In Versailles, on May 5, 1789, Louis XVI convened the assembly of the Estates General. 33. The assembly of the Estates General denied entry to which sections of French Society? Peasants, artisans and women were denied entry to the assembly of the Estates General. 34. On what principle was voting conducted in the Estates General? Each Estate having one vote, was the principle on which voting was conducted in the Estates General. 35. What was the main aim of the National Assembly? The main aim of the National Assembly was to limit the powers of the monarch and assign separate institutions authority-legislature, executive and judicial. 36. What is a guillotine? Who invented it? (i) A guillotine is a device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is beheaded. (ii) Dr. Guillotin invented it. 37. List the name of the body formed by the representatives of the Third Estate. National Assembly was the body formed by the representatives of the Third Estate. 38. When and where was the formation for the National Assembly announced? The National Assembly was announced on June 20, 1789, in the hall of an indoor tennis court, in Versailles. 39. Name two important leaders of the National Assembly. Mirabeau and Abbe Sieyes were two important leaders of the National Assembly. 40. Who was the author of the pamphlet 'What is the Third Estate?^ Abbe Sieyes authored the pamphlet What is the Third Estate?'. 41. What forced Louis XVI to accord recognition to the National Assembly? Power of the revolting subjects forced Louis XVI to accord recognition to the National Assembly. 42. What was the important decree the Assembly legislated? The Assembly passed a decree abolishing feudal system of obligations and taxes. 43. What was the main objective of the draft constitution of 1791? The main objective of the draft constitution of 1791 was to limit the powers of the monarch. 44. What provision was made by the Constitution of 1791 for the election of the National Assembly? The Constitution of 1791 provided for indirect elections of the National Assembly. 45. Explain the term 'active citizens'. Citizens who had the right to vote were called active citizens. 46. What were the pre-requisites for the status of an active citizen? The pre-requisites were, only men above 25 years of age, who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer's wage were given the status of active citizens. 47. What is meant by the term 'natural and unalienable rights'? The term natural and inalienable rights means, rights that belong to each human being by birth which could not be taken away. 48. List four rights mentioned in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights mentioned in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen: Right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion and equality before law. 49. Name the song sung by the French revolutionaries. Who composed it? The song sung by the French revolutionaries was 'Marseillaise'. It was composed by the poet Roget de L 'Isle. 50. What is the national anthem of France? The 'Marseillaise' song sung by the revolutionaries is the national anthem of France. 51. Name the popular political club of France. The Jacobin Club was one of the most popular political clubs in France. 52. Name the leader of the Jacobin Club. Maximilian Robespierre was leader of the Jacobin Club. 53. Who were the members of the Jacobin Club? The less prosperous sections of the society were members of the Jacobin Club. 54. How did the Jacobins try to set themselves apart in their attire from the more fashionable sections of French society? To set themselves apian; from the fashionable sections of French society the Jacobins started wearing long striped trousers similar to those worn by dock workers, and a red cap. 55. Explain the term republic. Republic is a form of government where people elect the government including the head of the government. 56. When was monarchy abolished and France declared a republic? One Sept. 21, 1792 monarchy was abolished, and France declared a republic. 57. On what a charge was Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette beheaded? Both Louis XVI and later Marie Antoinette were beheaded on charges of treason. 58. The 'Reign of Terror is referred to which period in French revolutionary history? Reign of Maximilian Robespierre, from 1793-94 is referred to as the 'Reign of Terror.' 59. How were the guilty punished during the Reign of Terror? The guilty were guillotined during the Reign of Terror. 60. List two significant laws enacted by Robespierre. Robespierre enacted laws placing a maximum ceiling on wages, and prices and rationing of meat and bread. 61. What was the most revolutionary social reform of the Jacobin regime? Abolition of slavery in 1794 was the most revolutionary social reform of the Jacobin regime. 62. What is meant by the term 'Directory'? The term 'Directory' refers to the executive board made up of five members. 63. What was the significance of the Rule of the Directory? The Rule of the Directory was significant because its political instability paved the way for the rise of the military dictator Napoleon Bonaparte. 64. What does a broken chain signify? A broken chain signifies act of becoming free, as chains were used to fretter slaves. 65. What means did women use to voice their interests? To voice their interests women started their own political clubs and newspapers. 66. Give the name of any one women's club. The 'Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women' was the most famous women's club. 67. What was the primary demand of the Women's clubs? The main demand of the women's clubs was that women enjoy the same political rights as men. 68. How could women's interests be represented? Women felt their interests could be represented only if they had the right to vote and hold political offices. 69. When did French women get voting rights? After a long struggle in 1946. 70. List four commodities supplied by the French Colonies in the Caribbean. The French colonies in the Caribbean were important suppliers of tobacco, indigo, sugar and coffee. 71. Define the term triangular trade. The term triangular trade refers to the slave trade between Europe, Africa and the Americas. 72. Name two French ports which owed their prosperity to the slave trade. The two ports which prospered on account of the slave trade were Bordeaux and Nantes. 73. What led to the triangular slave trade? The shortage of labour in the French Caribbean colonies led to the triangular slave trade. 74. When was slavery finally abolished in the French Colonies? Slavery was finally abolished in the French Colonies in 1848. 75. What was the most important legacy of the French Revolution? The idea of liberty and democratic rights was the most important legacy of the French Revolution. 76. List the names of two Indians who responded to the ideas of Revolutionary France. Tipu Sultan and Raja Rammohan Roy responded to the ideas of Revolutionary France. 77. Which factor contributed to the rise of Napoleon? The political instability of the Directory contributed to the rise of Napoleon. 78. Give any two laws enforced by Napoleon to modernise France. Laws enforced by Napoleon to modernise France were. (i) He codified French Law which is known as the Napoleonic Code. (ii) Established uniform system of weights and measures. (iii) Passed laws for protection of private property. 79. What decisive factor led to the fall of Napoleon? The ill-fated Russian campaign led to the fall of Napoleon. During this war his army was decimated due to excessive cold, by disease, lack of food and scarcity of clothes. 80. Napoleon was finally defeated in which famous battle? Napoleon was finally defeated in the Battle of Waterloo. 81. Where was Napoleon imprisoned? Napoleon was imprisoned in the Island of St. Helena. 82. Give the factors that made possible the 'Reign of Terror'. The 'Reign of Terror' (1793-1794) became possible because of the overthrow of all familiar established forms of government in France. Moreover, France at this time was faced with the double menace of counter revolution at home and invasion from abroad. 83. Revolutions occur when the existing system becomes unbearable to vast majority of people. Justify with the example of the French Revolution. Yes, the French Revolution was the direct outcome of the oppressive despotic and autocratic attitude of Louis XVI, the corrupt and inhuman behaviour of privileged Estates- the clergy and nobility. 1.Although many accounts of the French Revolution focus on the actions of the Girondins and Jacobins, nearly every major step of the Revolution was incited by the sans-culottes. Support or refute this statement. A recurring theme throughout the French Revolution was the idea that there is power in numbers, and the sans-culottes represented without doubt the best example of the power of the masses. Although the National Assembly was the governing body during the early stages of the Revolution, it had little control over the symbolic events that incited revolutionary fervor, such as the storming of the Bastille, the Great Fear, and the women’s march on Versailles. In fact, it was only in response to these spontaneous, unplanned events that concrete policy changes such as the August Decrees were passed. Later in the Revolution, the sans-culottes continued to prove influential, as they were involved in the storming of Tuileries, which led to King Louis XVI’s deposition, and stormed the National Convention, which gave Robespierre and the Jacobins the opportunity to take control. Although the Reign of Terror and subsequent Thermidorian Reaction suppressed sansculotte activity later in the Revolution, the decline was also due in part to diminished revolutionary spirit and apathy on the part of the government of the Directory. Nevertheless, in the crucial early and middle stages of the Revolution, the sans-culottes proved to be remarkably effective at forcing change—change that otherwise might not have occurred. 2.Although the financial crisis of the ancien régime was the immediate spark that set off the French Revolution, which broader factors within France contributed to the Revolution? In adhering to an outdated and essentially baseless feudal system, the aristocracy and monarchy of France provided the true impetus for the French Revolution. In the years leading up to the Revolution, France was riddled with unsustainable economic and cultural disparities: it showed a decadent facade to the world while actually facing catastrophic debt, and boasted some of the greatest minds of the Enlightenment, though its populace was overwhelmingly illiterate and poor. Perhaps most destabilizing factor was the growing class disparity between the emerging wealthy bourgeoisie and the old nobility. Despite the fact that the nobility were titled and the bourgeoisie were not, many of the bourgeoisie were far wealthier than the “blue-blooded”but financially strapped aristocrats. As the nobility continued to try to claim special privileges over their hardworking bourgeoisie counterparts, it was inevitable that the bourgeoisie would grow angry and resentful. At the same time, discontent grew among the lower classes as landlords in the countryside continued to bind peasants to outdated, oppressive feudal contracts that were often difficult to fulfill. Simply put, with Enlightenment ideas spreading through France in the late 1700s, it became increasingly obvious that the French nobility wielded a disproportionate amount of power and privilege for no apparent reason. The revolutionaries, with their cries of “Liberty!” and“Equality!”, sought to change that. 3.Assess the validity of this statement: by attempting to escape from France in June 1791, Louis XVI effectively destroyed the prospect of a moderate Revolution resulting in the installation of a limited or constitutional monarchy. By definition, a constitutional monarchy needs two things: a constitution and a monarch. By late 1791, France had a constitution, as the National Assembly had presented the new Constitution of 1791 in September. The credibility of the monarch, however, was suspect. Up until his attempted escape from France with his family in June 1791, King Louis XVI had enjoyed vehement backing from moderates within the National Assembly. Jacques-Pierre Brissot and his followers, the Girondins, had sought a constitutional monarchy since the very beginning of the Revolution—much to the chagrin of the radical democratic Jacobins—and had constructed the 1791 constitution around the principle of limited monarchy. However, the fact that the king tried to run away from the very constitutional monarchy to which he had agreed made it clear that he had given up on the new government. This development made it difficult, if not impossible, for Brissot and the Girondins to defend their pro–constitutional monarchy stance. The Jacobins, who had detested the idea of a king from the beginning, were able to take advantage of the Girondins’ weakened position and take control of the government. With Louis XVI having destroyed the credibility of the proposed constitutional monarchy, there was little to prevent the radicals from declaring France a republic, as the Girondins could no longer justify any other feasible form of government. The French Revolution (1789–1799) History SparkNotes 1. Which factor did not contribute to France’s pre-revolution debt? D (A) The Seven Years’ War (B) The cost of maintaining the army and navy (C) Upkeep at Versailles (D) High tariffs on imported goods 2. Which was not a part of the government at any point during the French Revolution? C (A) The National Convention (B) The Council of Ancients (C) The Council of Three Hundred (D) The Directory 3. What was the name of the French currency that was backed by the value of land acquired from the church? B (A) The argent (B) The assignat (C) The franc (D) The real 4. What type of government did the Constitution of 1791 create? A (A) Limited monarchy (B) Absolute monarchy (C) Republic (D) Communist 5. Who issued the Declaration of Pillnitz? C (A) Baron Manfred von Pillnitz (B) Great Britain and Norway (C) Austria and Prussia: war to France only if all Europe war to France (D) Russia and Spain 6. Who created the Committee of Public Safety? D (A) Louis XVI (B) Maximilien Robespierre (C) The Directory (D) The National Convention 7. Which of the following men sat on the original Directory? C (A) Louis XVI (B) Napoleon (C) Lazare Carnot (D) Georges Danton 8. Which of the following men sat on the final Directory? B (A) Napoleon (B) Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès (C) Honoré de Balzac (D) Jacques-Pierre Brissot 9. Who shot down Charles de Calonne’s debt-relief-by-taxation proposal? A (A) The Assembly of Notables (B) Louis XVI (C) The National Assembly (D) The Estates-General 10. Before 1789, when was the Estates-General last assembled?B (A) 1492 (B) 1614 (C) 1756 (D) 1066 11. According to Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès’s pamphlet, what is the Third Estate? B (A) Versailles (B) The Nation (C) The royalty (D) A rip-off 12. What did the Tennis Court Oath establish? C (A) That no one would be Louis XVI’s doubles partner (B) That the Third Estate would accept the tax burden in return for freedom from feudal contracts (C) That the National Assembly wouldn’t dissolve until they had created a constitution (D) That France would no longer support the Catholic Church 13. Who helped form the French National Guard? D (A) Maximilien Robespierre (B) Lazare Carnot (C) Napoleon (D) Marquis de Lafayette 14. Which Parisian landmark was raided by revolutionaries in pursuit of arms? A (A) The Bastille (B) The Louvre (C) The Musée d’Orsay (D) Versailles 15. Which period was known as the Great Fear? B (A) 1786–1789, when it was clear that France’s economic situation was dire (B) The summer of 1789, when peasants around the French countryside revolted against their feudal landlords (C) 1793–1794, when Robespierre systematically killed more than 15,000 alleged counter revolutionary activists (D) 1797–1799, when the corrupt Directory ruled dictatorially 16. What problem did the August Decrees eliminate? B (A) The bread shortage (B) The oppressive feudal contracts to which peasants were bound (C) Uncontrolled inflation (D) Syphilis 17. What happened on August 26, 1789? (A) Marie-Antoinette was executed (B) The Estates-General convened (C) The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was issued (D) Georges Danton and Maximilien Robespierre played tennis 18. Which event did not take place during the summer of 1789? C (A) The Tennis Court Oath (B) The Great Fear (C) The Reign of Terror (D) The August Decrees 19. Which of the following was not an element of monarchial rule in France? D (A) Divine right (B) Absolute rule (C) Birthright (D) Electoral accountability 20. What did the Second Estate comprise? D (A) The clergy (B) The bourgeoisie (C) The peasantry (D) The nobility 21. When was the Tennis Court Oath taken? A (A) June 20, 1789 (B) July 20, 1789 (C) August 20, 1789 (D) July 20, 1791 22. What was the main reason that several thousand women marched on Versailles in October 1789? A (A) Bread shortages in Paris (B) Universal suffrage for men and women (C) An influenza outbreak (D) An exhibition of Marie-Antoinette’s fashions 23. France celebrates July 14 as a holiday because it is the anniversary of A (A) The storming of the Bastille (B) The Tennis Court Oath (C) The beginning of the First French Republic (D) The death of Robespierre 24. Marie-Antoinette was the wife of which French monarch? D (A) Napoleon (B) Louis XIV (C) Louis XV (D) Louis XVI 25. Which of the following rallying cries best describes the second stage of the French Revolution? B (A) “God and the king!” (B) “Equality!” (C) “Liberty!” (D) “Bread and peace!” 26. Which of the following lists of events is in correct chronological order (from earliest to latest)? C (A) Estates-General convenes; Civil Constitution of the Clergy is issued; Louis XVI is executed; storming of the Bastille (B)1 National Assembly is established; 4Reign of Terror; 2Declaration of Pillnitz; 3Louis XVI attempts to flee France night of 20/21 June 1791 (C) Tennis Court Oath; storming of the Bastille; First Republic is declared; Reign of Terror (D) The Directory takes dictatorial powers; Napoleon overthrows the Directory; Robespierre is executed, Declaration of Pillnitz 27. Which of the following did not occur? A (A) Robespierre eliminated all economic controls and allowed prices to rise sharply (B) Louis XVI attempted to flee France (C) The Jacobins took control of the National Convention away from the Girondins (D) For a time, the French government was a limited monarchy 28. Which party wanted a limited monarchy in France? A (A) Moderates (B) Monarchists (C) Jacobins (D) None of the above 29. Who issued the Civil Constitution of the Clergy? D (A) The National Convention (B) Louis XVI (C) The Committee of Public Safety (D) The National Assembly 30. Which of the following would not have been grouped under the Third Estate? A (A) Priests (B) Merchants (C) The bourgeoisie (D) Peasants 31. Which of the following is probably not a reason why the French Revolution turned violent? B (A) Severe food shortages (B) The fact that the peasantry was in control (C) The heavy tax burden on the poor (D) The threat of foreign attack 32. When did the people of Paris storm the Tuileries Palace? C (A) October 5, 1790 (B) June 17, 1789 (C) August 10, 1792 (D) September 22, 1792 33. Which document effectively nationalized the French church? C (A) The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (B) The Constitution of 1791 (C) The Civil Constitution of the Clergy (D) The Concordat of Worms 34. Which document created a limited monarchy? B (A) The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (B) The Constitution of 1791 (C) The Civil Constitution of the Clergy (D) The Concordat of Worms 35. Which document declared that all men are free and equal? A (A) The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (B) The Constitution of 1791 (C) The Civil Constitution of the Clergy (D) The Concordat of Worms 36. Why do some historians consider the passage of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy to be a mistake? D (A) It increased the size of the clergy and reduced the number of available soldiers (B) It empowered the conservative institution of the church against the Revolution (C) It turned France into a Protestant state (D) It created a dilemma for the devout masses of France, forcing them to choose between the Revolution and God 37. Which group was most likely in favor of a limited monarchy? C (A) The Jacobins (B) The monarchists (C) The Girondins (D) The aristocracy 38. Which group was most likely in favor of the principle of privilege and feudal obligations? D (A) The Jacobins (B) The monarchists (C) The Girondins (D) The aristocracy 39. Which group was most likely in favor of absolute rule by dynasty? B (A) The Jacobins (B) The monarchists (C) The Girondins (D) The aristocracy 40. Which group was most likely in favor of the system of one vote per estate in the Estates-General? D (A) The Jacobins (B) The monarchists (C) The Girondins (D) The aristocracy 41. Which of the following lists of events is in correct chronological order (from earliest to latest)? D (A) Parisian women march on Versailles; storming of the Tuileries; Reign of Terror; First Republic (B) Storming of the Tuileries; Reign of Terror, Parisian Women march on Versailles; First Republic (C) Storming of the Tuileries; Parisian women march on Versailles; First Republic; Reign of Terror (D) Parisian women march on Versailles; storming of the Tuileries; First Republic; Reign of Terror 42. In which position did Napoleon begin his career? B (A) Government bureaucrat (B) Army officer (C) Doctor (D) Landlord 43. How were the French aristocracy taxed during the time of Louis XVI? A (A) They were not taxed (B) They were taxed in proportion to landholdings (C) They were taxed in proportion to total net worth (D) They paid primarily sales taxes 44. To which country were Louis XVI and his family trying to escape when they were captured? A (A) Austria (B) Spain (C) Britain (D) Germany 45. Why did the radical group of commoners call themselves sans-culottes? B (A) They refused to wear pants (B) They were distinguishing themselves from the upper class, with its high fashion (C) The army had commandeered their culottes (D) None of the above 46. When did the National Assembly confiscate church property? C (A) June 1790 (B) May 1789 (C) February 1790 (D) April 1792 47. Which of the following was not a revolutionary figure? B (A) Maximilien Robespierre (B) Francis II Habsburg (C) Marquis de Lafayette (D) Jacques Pierre Brissot 48. For how many years did Napoleon Bonaparte rule France after overthrowing the Directory? A (A) Fifteen (B) Twenty (C) Twenty-five (D) Thirty 49. What took place following the 1797 election? D (A) The royal family regained control of France (B) Napoleon was elected first consul (C) Pregnant chads stirred up controversy (D) The government was unhappy with the results and annulled a majority of them 50. Which early Girondin leader pushed for war following the Declaration of Pillnitz and was later executed when the Jacobins took control? D (A) Marquis de Lafayette (B) Maximilien Robespierre (C) Charles de Calonne (D) Jacques-Pierre Brissot It started when the general public felt they were not being taken seriously by those in charge - clergy - upper classes and monarchy. The economy was in a deep recession. Crop failures had ensued. People were starving. A bread riot got out of hand and the people stormed a public building called the Bastille. Chaos ensued with various radical groups taking 'charge' in different places at different times - there were communes set up in Paris (even before Marx published his Manifesto). The pendulum of Revolution swung well out of hand. A group of people with leadership skills still intact sought a leader who could unite France and in the nick of time Napoleon Bonaparte arrived on the scene. In the name of France he attacked other nations, set friends and family members on the thrones of these countries, taxed and pillaged them and used the citizenry of these places as pawns to pay down France's national debt. After the downfall of Napoleon and his Empire, he had set the stage for new alliances to form which evolved into a spaghetti like network which, when a Crown Prince was assassinated in Sarajevo, some years later caused a Great War which led to a peace solution which was impractical which led to another major war which led to an imaginary wall being built between East and West Europe - with an actual wall built in the middle of a European city, which has since been torn down. French Revolution Q.1. Discuss the fall of Bastille. Ans: On the morning of 14 July 1789, the city of Paris was in a state of alarm. The king had commanded troops to move into the city. Rumours spread that he would soon order the army to open fire upon the citizens. Some 7,000 men and women gathered in front of the town hall and decided to form a people’s militia. They broke into a number of government buildings in search of arms. Finally, a group of several hundred people marched towards the eastern part of the city and stormed the fortress-prison, the Bastille, where they hoped to find hoarded ammunition. In the armed fight that followed, the commander of the Bastille was killed and the prisoners were released. Q.2. Why was the prison of Bastille hated by all? Ans: The Bastille was hated by all because it stood for the despotic power of the king. Q.3. Why were the people protesting in Paris? Ans: Most people were protesting against the high price of bread. Q.4. When did Louis XVI ascend the throne of France? Ans: In 1774, Louis XVI of the Bourbon family of kings ascended the throne of France. He was 20 years old. Q.5. Whom did Louis XVI marry? Ans: Louis XVI married to the Austrian princess Marie Antoinette. Q.6. What did the new king find upon his ascension? Ans: Upon his accession the new king found an empty treasury. Long years of war had drained the financial resources of France. Added to this was the cost of maintaining an extravagant court at the immense palace of Versailles. Q.7. Who was common enemy of France and America? Ans: Britain was common enemy of France and America. Q.8. Why was France forced to increase the taxes? Ans: Under Louis XVI, France helped the thirteen American colonies to gain their independence from the common enemy, Britain. The war added more than a billion livres to a debt that had already risen to more than 2 billion livres. Lenders, who gave the state credit, now began to charge 10 per cent interest on loans. So the French government was obliged to spend an increasing percentage of its budget on interest payments alone. To meet its regular expenses, such as the cost of maintaining an army, the court, running government offices or universities, the state was forced to increase taxes. Q.9. During the eighteenth century, France was divided into how many classes? Ans: French society in the eighteenth century was divided into three estates, and only members of the third estate paid taxes. Q.10. What did the first estate comprise of? Ans: The first estate comprised of clergy. Q.11. What did the second estate consist of? Ans: The second estate consisted of nobility. Q.12. Who was included in the third estate? Ans: Big businessmen, merchants, court officials, lawyers, peasants and artisans etc. were included in the third estate. Q.13. Which term is usually used to describe the society and institutions of France before 1789? Ans: The society of estates was part of the feudal system that dated back to the middle ages. The term Old Regime is usually used to describe the society and institutions of France before 1789. Q.14. Who owned the lands in French society? Ans: Peasants made up about 90 per cent of the population. However, only a small number of them owned the land they cultivated. About 60 per cent of the land was owned by nobles, the Church and other richer members of the third estate. Q.15. Which privileges was enjoyed by the first two estates? Ans: The members of the first two estates, that is, the clergy and the nobility, enjoyed certain privileges by birth. The most important of these was exemption from paying taxes to the state. The nobles further enjoyed feudal privileges. These included feudal dues, which they extracted from the peasants. Peasants were obliged to render services to the lord, to work in his house and fields to serve in the army or to participate in building roads. Q.16. What was the tax collected by Church known as? Ans: The Church too extracted its share of taxes called tithes from the peasants. Q.17. The burden of financing the state’s activities fell on the third estate. Explain. Ans: All members of the third estate had to pay taxes to the state as well as the Church. These included a direct tax, called taille, and a number of indirect taxes which were levied on articles of everyday consumption like salt or tobacco. The burden of financing activities of the state through taxes was borne by the third estate alone. Q.18. What is Livre? Ans: Livre was unit of currency in France, it was discontinued in 1794. Q.19. What is meant by Subsistence crisis? Ans: Subsistence crisis is an extreme situation where the basic means of livelihood are endangered. Q.20. Discuss the situation that led to subsistence crisis. Ans: The population of France rose from about 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789. This led to a rapid increase in the demand for food grains. Production of grains could not keep pace with the demand. So the price of bread which was the staple diet of the majority rose rapidly. Most workers were employed as labourers in workshops whose owner fixed their wages. But wages did not keep pace with the rise in prices. So the gap between the poor and the rich widened. Things became worse whenever drought or hail reduced the harvest. This led to a subsistence crisis Q.21. Discuss the rise of middle class in France. Ans: The eighteenth century witnessed the emergence of social groups, termed the middle class, who earned their wealth through an expanding overseas trade and from the manufacture of goods such as woollen and silk textiles that were either exported or bought by the richer members of society. In addition to merchants and manufacturers, the third estate included professions such as lawyers or administrative officials. Q.22. What was the belief of the educated middle class? Ans: The newly formed middle class were educated and believed that no group in society should be privileged by birth. Rather, a person.s social position must depend on his merit. These ideas envisaging a society based on freedom and equal laws and opportunities for all, were put forward by philosophers such as John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau. Q.23. Which thought was put forward by John Locke in his book Two Treatises of Government? Ans: In his Two Treatises of Government Locke sought to refute the doctrine of the divine and absolute right of the monarch. Rousseau carried the idea forward, proposing a form of government based on a social contract between people and their representatives. The power of govermant should get consent from the goverted. Consent of the governed is a phrase from the United States Declaration of Independence. It is synonymous with a political theory wherein a government's legitimacy and moral right to use state power is only justified and legal when derived from the people or society over which that political power is exercised. This theory of consent is historically contrasted to the divine right of kings and has often been invoked against the legitimacy of colonialism. Article 21 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that "The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government". Q.24. Which thought was put forward by Montesquieu? Ans: In The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu proposed a division of power within the government between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary. Q.25. How did political thinkers in France influence USA? Ans: Montesquieu proposed a division of power within the government between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary. This model of government was put into force in the USA, after the thirteen colonies declared their independence from Britain. The American constitution and its guarantee of individual rights was an important example for political thinkers in France. Q.26. How was ideas of the philosophers spread among people? Ans: The ideas of these philosophers were discussed intensively in salons and coffee-houses and spread among people through books and newspapers. These were frequently read aloud in groups for the benefit of those who could not read and write. Q.27. What was the cause of anger and protest against the system of privileges? Ans: The news that Louis XVI planned to impose further taxes to be able to meet the expenses of the state generated anger and protest against the system of privileges. Q.28. Why French monarch had to call the meeting of the Estates General? Ans: In France of the Old Regime the monarch did not have the power to impose taxes according to his will alone. Rather he had to call a meeting of the Estates General which would then pass his proposals for new taxes. The Estates General was a political body to which the three estates sent their representatives. However, the monarch alone could decide when to call a meeting of this body. Q.29. Why did Louis XVI call of an assembly of the Estates General on May 05, 1789? Ans: On 5 May 1789, Louis XVI called together an assembly of the Estates General to pass proposals for new taxes. Q.30. How many delegates were present in an assembly called by Louis XVI to increase taxes? Ans: The first and second estates sent 300 representatives each, who were seated in rows facing each other on two sides, while the 600 members of the third estate had to stand at the back. The third estate was represented by its more prosperous and educated members. Peasants, artisans and women were denied entry to the assembly. However, their grievances and demands were listed in some 40,000 letters which the representatives had brought with them. Q.31. Why did members of the third estate walked out of the assembly in protest? Ans: Voting in the Estates General in the past had been conducted according to the principle that each estate had one vote. This time too Louis XVI was determined to continue the same practice, but members of the third estate demanded that voting now be conducted by the assembly as a whole, where each member would have one vote. This was one of the democratic principles put forward by philosophers like Rousseau in his book The Social Contract. When the king rejected this proposal, members of the third estate walked out of the assembly in protest. Q.32. Why did representatives of the third estate declare themselves as National Assembly? Ans: The representatives of the third estate viewed themselves as spokesmen for the whole French nation. On 20 June they assembled in the hall of an indoor tennis court in the grounds of Versailles. They declared themselves a National Assembly and swore not to disperse till they had drafted a constitution for France that would limit the powers of the monarch. Q.33. Who led third estate as National Assembly? Ans: The representatives of the third estate were led by Mirabeau and Abbé Sieyès. Q.34. Who was Mirabeau? Ans: Mirabeau was born in a noble family but was convinced of the need to do away with a society of feudal privilege. He brought out a journal and delivered powerful speeches to the crowds assembled at Versailles. Q.35. Who wrote an influential pamphlet called “What is the Third Estate”? Ans: Abbé Sieyès, originally a priest, wrote an influential pamphlet called .What is the Third Estate. The pamphlet was the response of Sieyès to finance minister Jacques Necker's invitation for writers to state how they thought the Estates-General should be organized. In the pamphlet, Sieyès argues that the Third Estate – the common people of France – constituted a complete nation in itself and had no need of the "dead weight" of the two other orders, the First and Second Estates of the clergy and aristocracy. Sieyès stated that the people wanted genuine representatives in the Estates-General, equal representation to the other two orders taken together, and votes taken by heads and not by orders. These ideas came to have an immense influence on the course of the French Revolution. Q.36. What led to uprising in Paris? Ans: While the National Assembly was busy at Versailles drafting a constitution, the rest of France seethed with turmoil. A severe winter had meant a bad harvest; the price of bread rose, often bakers exploited the situation and hoarded supplies. After spending hours in long queues at the bakery, crowds of angry women stormed into the shops. At the same time, the king ordered troops to move into Paris. On 14 July, the agitated crowd stormed and destroyed the Bastille. Q.37. Why did peasants in several districts seized hoes and attacked chateaux? Ans: In the countryside rumours spread from village to village that the lords of the manor had hired bands of brigands, who were on their way to destroy the ripe crops. Caught in a frenzy of fear, peasants in several districts seized hoes and pitchforks and attacked chateaux. They looted hoarded grain and burnt down documents containing records of manorial dues. A large number of nobles fled from their homes, many of them migrating to neighbouring countries. Q.38. Define Chateau. Ans: Chateau means castle or stately residence belonging to a king or a nobleman. Q.39. Why did Louis XVI finally accorded recognition to the National Assembly? Ans: Faced with the power of his revolting subjects, Louis XVI finally accorded recognition to the National Assembly and accepted the principle that his powers would from now on be checked by a constitution. Q.40. When was feudal system abolished in France? Ans: On the night of 4 August 1789, the Assembly passed a decree abolishing the feudal system of obligations and taxes. Members of the clergy too were forced to give up their privileges. Tithes were abolished and lands owned by the Church were confiscated. Q.41. When was the draft of constitution completed by National Assembly? Ans: The National Assembly completed the draft of the constitution in 1791. Its main object was to limit the powers of the monarch. Q.42. How did France become a constitutional monarchy? Ans: The powers of the monarch was curtailed, instead of being concentrated in the hands of one person, were now separated and assigned to different institutions like The legislature, executive and judiciary. This made France a constitutional monarchy. Q.43. Who was given the power to make laws in the National Assembly? Ans: The Constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the National Assembly, which was indirectly elected. That is, citizens voted for a group of electors, who in turn chose the Assembly. Q.44. What qualifications were needed to become a voter in France? Ans: Not all citizens, however, had the right to vote. Only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer’s wage were given the status of active citizens, that is, they were entitled to vote. The remaining men and all women were classed as passive citizens. To qualify as an elector and then as a member of the Assembly, a man had to belong to the highest bracket of taxpayers. Q.45. Which rights were established as .natural and inalienable rights? Ans: The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law, were established as .natural and inalienable rights, that is, they belonged to each human being by birth and could not be taken away. It was the duty of the state to protect each citizen’s natural rights. Q.46. How were important ideas communicated to the people? Ans: The majority of men and women in the eighteenth century could not read or write. So images and symbols were frequently used instead of printed words to communicate important ideas. Q.47. Why did the National Assembly declare war against Prussia and Austria? Ans: The situation in France continued to be tense during the following years. Although Louis XVI had signed the Constitution, he entered into secret negotiations with the King of Prussia. Rulers of other neighbouring countries too were worried by the developments in France and made plans to send troops to put down the events that had been taking place there since the summer of 1789. Before this could happen, the National Assembly voted in April 1792 to declare war against Prussia and Austria. Q.48. Which is the national anthem of France? Ans: The Marseillaise is now the national anthem of France. Q.49. How did revolutionary wars brought losses and economic difficulties to the people? Ans: The revolutionary wars brought losses and economic difficulties to the people. While the men were away fighting at the front, women were left to cope with the tasks of earning a living and looking after their families. Large sections of the population were convinced that the revolution had to be carried further, as the Constitution of 1791 gave political rights only to the richer sections of society. Political clubs became an important rallying point for people who wished to discuss government policies and plan their own forms of action. Q.50. Which was the most successful political club? Ans: The most successful of these clubs was that of the Jacobins, which got its name from the former convent of St Jacob in Paris. Q.51. Who were members of the Jacobin club? Ans: The members of the Jacobin club belonged mainly to the less prosperous sections of society. They included small shopkeepers, artisans such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch-makers, printers, as well as servants and daily-wage workers. Their leader was Maximilian Robespierre. Q.52. Why Jacobins came to be known as the sans-culottes? Ans: A large group among the Jacobins decided to start wearing long striped trousers similar to those worn by dock workers. This was to set themselves apart from the fashionable sections of society, especially nobles, who wore knee breeches. It was a way of proclaiming the end of the power wielded by the wearers of knee breeches. These Jacobins came to be known as the sans-culottes, literally meaning .those without knee breeches. Sansculottes men wore in addition the red cap that symbolised liberty. Q.53. When did men of 21 years and above, regardless of wealth, got the right to vote in France? Ans: In the summer of 1792 the Jacobins planned an insurrection of a large number of Parisians who were angered by the short supplies and high prices of food. On the morning of August 10 they stormed the Palace of the Tuileries, massacred the king.s guards and held the king himself as hostage for several hours. Later the Assembly voted to imprison the royal family. Elections were held. From now on all men of 21 years and above, regardless of wealth, got the right to vote. Q.54. What was newly elected assembly called? Ans: The newly elected assembly was called the Convention. Q.55. When was France declared as republic? Ans: On 21 September 1792 the newly elected assembly abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. Q.56. Why was Louis XVI executed? Ans: Louis XVI was sentenced to death by a court on the charge of treason. On 21 January 1793 he was executed publicly at the Place de la Concorde. The queen Marie Antoinette met with the same fate shortly after. Q.57. Why is the period from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the Reign of Terror? Ans: The period from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the Reign of Terror. Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and punishment. All those whom he saw as being enemies of the Republic i.e. ex-nobles and clergy, members of other political parties, even members of his own party who did not agree with his methods were arrested, imprisoned and then tried by a revolutionary tribunal. If the court found them guilty they were guillotined. Q.58. What is the guillotine? Ans: The guillotine is a device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is beheaded. It was named after Dr Guillotin who invented it. Q.59. Discuss in detail Robespierre’s policy. Ans: Robespierre’s government issued laws placing a maximum ceiling on wages and prices. Meat and bread were rationed. Peasants were forced to transport their grain to the cities and sell it at prices fixed by the government. The use of more expensive white flour was forbidden; all citizens were required to eat the pain d.égalité (equality bread), a loaf made of wholewheat. Equality was also sought to be practised through forms of speech and address. Instead of the traditional Monsieur and Madame all French men and women were addressed as Citoyen and Citoyenne meaning Citizen. Churches were shut down and their buildings converted into barracks or offices. Q.60. Why was Robespierre executed? Ans: Robespierre pursued his policies so relentlessly that even his supporters began to demand moderation. Finally, he was convicted by a court in July 1794, arrested and on the next day sent to the guillotine. Q.61. Why was new constitution introduced in France? Ans: The fall of the Jacobin government allowed the wealthier middle classes to seize power. A new constitution was introduced which denied the vote to non-propertied sections of society. It provided for two elected legislative councils. Q.62. What was a Directory? Ans: A Directory was an executive made up of five members. This was meant as a safeguard against the concentration of power in a one-man executive as under the Jacobins. Q.63. What paved the way for the rise of a military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte? Ans: The Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, who then sought to dismiss them. The political instability of the Directory paved the way for the rise of a military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte. Q.64. Which was the most famous women’s club? Ans: The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was the most famous women’s club. Q.65. Why did women start their own political clubs and newspapers? Ans: In order to discuss and voice their interests women started their own political clubs and newspapers. About sixty women’s clubs came up in different French cities. One of their main demands was that women enjoy the same political rights as men. Women were disappointed that the Constitution of 1791 reduced them to passive citizens. They demanded the right to vote, to be elected to the Assembly and to hold political office. Only then, they felt, would their interests be represented in the new government. Q.66. Which laws were introduced by the revolutionary government to improve the condition of women in France? Ans: In the early years, the revolutionary government did introduce laws that helped improve the lives of women. Together with the creation of state schools, schooling was made compulsory for all girls. Their fathers could no longer force them into marriage against their will. Marriage was made into a contract entered into freely and registered under civil law. Divorce was made legal, and could be applied for by both women and men. Women could now train for jobs, could become artists or run small businesses. Q.67. When did women in France won the right to vote? Ans: It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote. Q.68. Which was the most revolutionary social reforms of the Jacobin regime? Ans: One of the most revolutionary social reforms of the Jacobin regime was the abolition of slavery in the French colonies. Q.69. Write a note on a triangular slave trade. Ans: The colonies in the Caribbean, Martinique, Guadeloupe and San Domingo were important suppliers of commodities such as tobacco, indigo, sugar and coffee. But the reluctance of Europeans to go and work in distant and unfamiliar lands meant a shortage of labour on the plantations. So this was met by a triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa and the Americas. Q.70. When did Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of France? Ans: Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of France in 1804. French Revolution (1-21), Napoleon (22-60), Industrial Revolution (61-87), Romanticism (88-100), Reactionary Conservativism(101-119)), Liberalism, Reform, and Revolution (120-153) Louis XVI King of France (1774-1792). In 1789 he summoned the Estates-General, but he did not grant the reforms that were demanded and revolution followed. Louis and his queen, Marie Antoinette, were executed in 1793.  Marie Antoinette queen of France (as wife of Louis XVI) who was unpopular her extravagance and opposition to reform contributed to the overthrow of the monarchy; she was guillotined along with her husband (1755-1793)  Jacques Necker financial expert of Louis XVI, he advised Louis to reduce court spending, reform his government, abolish tarriffs on internal trade, but the First and Second Estates got him fired  Tom Paine American Revolutionary leader and pamphleteer (born in England) who supported the American colonist's fight for independence and supported the French Revolution (1737-1809)  Olympye de Gouges "The Rights of Women" (1791)  Mary Wollstonecraft English writer and early feminist who denied male supremacy and advocated equal education for women  Edmund Burke A conservative leader who was deeply troubled by the aroused spirit of reform. In 1790, he published Reforms on The Revolution in France, one of the greatest intellectual defenses of European conservatism. He defended inherited priveledges in general and those of the English monarchy and aristocracy. Glorified unrepresentitive Parliament and predicted reform would lead to much chaos/tyranny.  Marat French revolutionary leader (born in Switzerland) who was a leader in overthrowing the Girondists and was stabbed to death in his bath by Charlotte Corday (1743-1793)  Danton French revolutionary leader who stormed the Paris bastille and who supported the execution of Louis XVI but was guillotined by Robespierre for his opposition to the Reign of Terror (1759-1794)  Robespierre A French political leader of the eighteenth century. A Jacobin, he was one of the most radical leaders of the French Revolution. He was in charge of the government during the Reign of Terror, when thousands of persons were executed without trial. After a public reaction against his extreme policies, he was executed without trial.  Star this term You can study starred terms together  Play audio for this term  Levee en masse Law that obligated all French men between certain ages to enlist in the army.  Flight to Varenees Louis XV and his family were fleeing for Marie Antoinette's country of Austria, but are caught in Varennes  Declaration of Pilnitz the statment made by Austria and Prussia that they would attack France if anything happened to the King or Queen  National Convention A national meeting of delegates elected in primaries, caucuses, or state conventions who assemble once every four years to nominate candidates for president and vice president, ratify the party platform, elect officers, and adopt rules.  Brunswick Manifesto 1792, during the radical stage. Austria and Prussia made this saying that they would destroy Paris if any harm came to the French king(Louis XVI)  September Massacre When the Paris Commune killed about 1200 people from the city jails because they were assumed to be counterrevolutionaries  The Vendee Western France; place of counterrevolutionary rebellion that started when peasants revolted against new military draft (supportive of monarchy)  The Terror This marks a one year period in which Robespierre was the head of the Revolution. During this period, approx. 40,000 were killed and 300,000 jailed for different crimes against the Revolution. Robespierre's men were known as the Committee of Public Safety. Comprised of the political alliance between the Mountain and the sans-culottes. This meant that his committee typically appealed to the urban poor. During this period, France employed a draft system to gain an army and to finish off the battles of the first coalition. If men were resistant, they were killed and anyone agreeing or helping them was jailed. The period ended when Robespierre and his men were executed by other men in the government that feared Robespierre becoming more powerful and more of a tyrant.  The Committee of Public Safety The National Convention formed the Committee of Public Safety and gave it dictatorial power to deal with the crisis affecting France, primarily the economic struggles for the sans-culottes. Robespierre and other Mountain representatives were members.  Star this term You can study starred terms together  The Thermidorian Reaction Enacted by Robespierre who's extreme efforts to establish a France with neither rich nor poor led to lowly means with "unrestrained despotism" and the guillotine. Robespierre wiped out many of rebels in rural France, yet this Reign of Terror was eventually stopped by what is known as the Thermidorian Reaction. This revolt against the Reign of Terror's excesses was triggered by the CPS and eventually led to the execution of Robespierre.  Star this term You can study starred terms together  Play audio for this term  The Directory 1785-1799. Five man group. Passed a new constitution in 1795 that was much more conservative. Corrupt and did not help the poor, but remained in power because of military strength. By 1797 it was a dictatorship.  Invasion of Egypt battle of aboukir england and france fighting over control of egypt british navy under lord nelson reached aboukir where the french navy was attacked by surprise  Coup d'Etat 1799 napoleon comes through and threatens the directory with their lives --> makes a "swift change in government" meaning he overthrew the government.  Consulate Period ended the revolution in France; most classes had achieved their goals and needed a ruling body to protect their new rights; Napoleon came and established a code of law that worked to maintain those rights and privileges to best benefit the country of France  First Consul the position that Napoleon declared himself to seize power of France.  Napoleonic Code This was the civil code put out by Napoleon that granted equality of all male citizens before the law and granted absolute security of wealth and private property. Napoleon also secured this by creating the Bank of France which loyally served the interests of both the state and the financial oligarchy  Play audio for this term  Careers Open to Talent Policy under Napoleon. Was what the bourgeoisie had wanted before the revolution. In effect he sought to establish a meritocracy. However, this did not prevent him from appointing members of his family to very important posts. Except for this though, the new doctrine did give a boost to education and there was a total reorganization of secondary and tertiary education during these years and French schools now supported by taxes.  Concordat of 1801 This is the agreement between Pope Pius VII and Napoleon that healed the religious division in France by giving the French Catholics free practice of their religion and Napoleon political power  Bank of France National Bank created by Napoleon that required every citizen pay taxes, Money used to make loans to businesses, controls money supply (inflation, recession)  Jaques-Louis David A leading artist of the age, he captured events such as the Tennis Court Oath and Napoleon's Coronation all in the grandeur of Rome  Josephine The first love and wife of Napoleon, she exerted great influence and style in France. Napoleon divorced her when she could not produce his children.  Austerlitz victory against Austria and Russia that allowed Napoleon to be recognized as King of Italy  Continental System Napoleon's policy of preventing trade between Great Britain and continental Europe, intended to destroy Great Britain's economy.  Play audio for this term  Bonaparte Family Carlo and Letizia were parents of Napoleon and of 4 males and 3 females. Napoleon was the oldest and he looked out for his siblings giving his brothers positions after their father's death. The Bonapartes was a middle class/working family.  Jena the battle in 1806 in which Napoleon decisively defeated the Prussians  Star this term You can study starred terms together  Play audio for this term  Pitt the Younger (d. 1806) British organizer of alliances against the forces of revolution and Napoleon  Admiral Nelson English admiral who defeated the French fleets of Napoleon but was mortally wounded at Trafalgar (1758-1805)  Play audio for this term  Pitt the Younger (William Pitt) The Prime Minister of England during the French and Indian War. He increased the British troops and military supplies in the colonies, and this is why England won the war.  Star this term You can study starred terms together  Napoleon Bonaparte general; Emperor of France; he seized power in a coup d'état in 1799; he led French armies in conquering much of Europe, placing his relatives in positions of power. Defeated at the Battle of Waterloo, he was exiled on the island of Elba  Estates General France's traditional national assembly with representatives of the three estates, or classes, in French society: the clergy, nobility, and commoners. The calling of the Estates General in 1789 led to the French Revolution. (p. 585)  Tennis Court Oath a pledge made by the members of France's National Assembly in 1789, in which they vowed to continue meeting until they had drawn up a new constitution  Bastille The political prison and armory stormed on July 14, 1789, by Partisian city workers alarmed by the king's concentration of troops at Versailles  The Great Fear When the peasants were afraid that the nobles would send robbers to kill them. It was a result of the storming of Bastille  Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen This was the new constitution that the National Assembly wrote that gave all citizens free expression of thoughts and opinions and guaranteed equality before the law  Emigres French nobles who fled from France during the peasant uprisings. They were very conservative and hoped to restore the king to power.  Trafalgar (October 1805) Britain's Admiral Nelson destroyed the combined French and Spanish navies. Nelson was killed but invasion of Britain now became impossible.  Alexander I of Russia Wanted to restore and claim the ancient kingdom of Poland. -The Prussians agreed to Alexander's plan, on the condition that they could take the large and wealthy kingdom of Saxony for their own. -Such greed on the parts of both countries worried the allies at the Congress of Vienna, who worried that such territorial expansion would upset the balance of power. -Castlereagh and Metternich signed a secret treaty with Charles Talleyrand of France, directed against Russia and Prussia.  Talleyrand French representative at the Congress of Vienna and limited the demands of other countries upon the French.  Burning of Moscow Sep. 14, 1812- Russian troops and residents abandoned the city and Napoleons troops entered following the Battle of Borodino. The fire did not stop until Sep. 18 after it destroyed about three-quarters of Moscow.  Battle of Nations German name of the decisive defeat of Napoleon at Leipzig  Confederation of the Rhine A federation of German states organized under Napoleon I in July 1806. Formerly under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire, which was dissolved the same year, the new federation placed itself under the "protection" of Napoleon and was governed by one of his close allies. It quickly fell apart after Napoleon's defeat outside Leipzig in 1813 as member states abandonded the French and joined the German natinalist "war of liberation."  Berlin Decree 1806- issued by Napoleon, instituted the Continental System, in the response to British blockade of commercial ports under French control.  Congress of Vienna Meeting of representatives of European monarchs called to reestablish the old order after the defeat of Napoleon  100 Days Napoleon comes to power and then exiled to isle of Elba, escapes form Elba and raises army, then arrested again and exiled (period of 100 days).  Waterloo the battle on 18 June 1815 in which Napoleon met his final defeat, Located in Belgium, the place where the british army and the prussian army forces attacked the french. Napoleon's final defeat against the British and Prussians  Wellington the capital of New Zealand  Louis XVIII (1814-1824) Restored Bourbon throne after the Revoltion. He accepted Napoleon's Civil Code (principle of equality before the law), honored the property rights of those who had purchased confiscated land and establish a bicameral (two-house) legislature consisting of the Chamber of Peers (chosen by king) and the Chamber of Deputies (chosen by an electorate).  Metternich Austrian foreign minister who basically controlled the Congress of Vienna. Wanted to promote peace, conservatism, and the repression of libaral nationalism throughout Europe.  Play audio for this term  Castlereagh British foreign secretary who provided for the restoration of the French monarchy and the contraction of France to its 1792 borders during the Congress of Vienna  Star this term You can study starred terms together  Play audio for this term  Holy Alliance This was the alliance between Austria Prussia and Russia on the crusade against the ideas and politics of the dual revolution.  Star this term You can study starred terms together  Proto-industrialization Preliminary shift away from agricultural economy in Europe; workers become full- or part-time producers of textile and metal products, working at home but in a capitalist system in which materials, work orders, and ultimate sales depended on urban merchants; prelude to Industrial Revolution.  Cottage industry/putting out system system of production in which work was controlled by a central agent but conducted by various people in their own homes, less efficient and unreliable  Flying Shuttle was developed by John Kay, its invention was one of the key developments in weaving that helped fuel the Industrial Revolution, enabled the weaver of a loom to throw the shuttle back and forth between the threads with one hand  Spinning Jenny This machine played an important role in the mechanization of textile production. Like the spinning wheel, it may be operated by a treadle or by hand. But, unlike the spinning wheel, it can spin more than one yarn at a time. The idea for multiple-yarn spinning was conceived about 1764 by James Hargreaves, an English weaver. In 1770, he patented a machine that could spin 16 yarns at a time. (643, 727)  Hargreaves English inventor of the spinning jenny (1720-1778)  Cartwright English clergyman who invented the power loom (1743-1823)  Arkwright invented the water frame  Watt Scottish engineer and inventor whose improvements in the steam engine led to its wide use in industry (1736-1819)  Stephenson he invented the locomotive in 1814  Robert Fulton American inventor who designed the first commercially successful steamboat and the first steam warship (1765-1815)  Poorhouses emerged to provide work to those who were unemployed, conditions were often oppressive  Petite Bourgeoisie the lower middle class, or "white-collared workers," that often had working class orgins and might even belong to unions, but they had middle-class aspirations and consciously sought to distance themselves from a lower class lifestyle, constantly looking for education opportunities and career advancement for them and of course their children.  Play audio for this term  Sans-culottes in the French Revolution, a radical group made up of Parisian wage-earners, and small shopkeepers who wanted a greater voice in government, lower prices, and an end of food shortages  Constituent Assembly a freely elected assembly promised by the Bolsheviks, but permanently disbanded after one day(January 18,1918) under Lenins orders after the Bolsheviks won less than one fourth of the elected delegates.  Civil Constitution of the Clergy A body of legislation passed in July 1790 that redefined the relationship between the clergy and the state in France. It allowed for the confiscation of church property formerly used to support the clergy, replacing it with a guarantee of state salaries for clergymen instead. It also stipulated that parish priests and bishops be elected just like public officials. The National Assembly attempted to enforce it by requiring the clergy to take an oath, divided public opinion of the French Revolution (1789-99) and galvanized religious opposition.  Le Chapelier Law -june 14, 1791 -prohibited workmen from joining together to refuse to work for a master  Assignats In December of 1789 this was a paper currency issued by the Constituent Assembly which had confiscated church property and issued this paper money based on this land. Initially could just by land with it though later it was used as a general currency. Supposed to help ease the difficulties of peasants but all sorts of problems with it - overissued plus easily forged.  Jacobins Radical republicans during the French Revolution. They were led by Maximilien Robespierre from 1793 to 1794.  Star this term You can study starred terms together  Girondinst A political faction in France within the Legislative Assembly and the National Convention during the French Revolution.  Enrages These were even more extreme than the sans-culottes . They were leftist, extremists in Paris and the provinces who declared that parliamentary methods were useless. Included women. Worked thro-out the whole country. Formed revolutionary armies scouring countryside for food, denouncing suspects and preaching revolution.  Star this term You can study starred terms together  Play audio for this term  Luddites Any of a group of British workers who between 1811 and 1816 rioted and destroyed laborsaving textile machinery in the belief that such machinery would diminish employment.  Waterframe made by richard arkwright in 1769 used water power to a loom and helped create cotton faster  Textile Industry Industries primarily concerned with the design or manufacture of clothing as well as the distribution and use of textiles.  Steam Engine A machine that turns the energy released by burning fuel into motion. Thomas Newcomen built the first crude but workable steam engine in 1712. James Watt vastly improved his device in the 1760s and 1770s. Steam power was then applied to machinery. (607)  Liverpool- Manchester Railway Manchester the first important railroad, linking the factory city of Manchester to the port city of Liverpool  Factory Act of 1833 limited the factory workday for children between 9 and 13 to 8 hours and that of adolescents between 14 and 18 to 12 hours-made no effort to regulate hours of work for children at home or in small businesses-children under 9 were to be enrolled by schools to be established by factory owners-broke pattern of whole families working together in the factory because efficiency required standardized shifts for all workers  Star this term You can study starred terms together  Play audio for this term  Saddler Commission investigated working conditions helped initiate legislation to improve conditions in factories.  Play audio for this term  Rousseau French philosopher from 1712-1778 who believed that people are naturally good, but are corrupted by society  Play audio for this term  Kant German philosopher whose synthesis of rationalism and empiricism, in which he argued that reason is the means by which the phenomena of experience are translated into understanding, marks the beginning of idealism. His classic works include Critique of Pure Reason (1781) and Critique of Practical Reason (1788), in which he put forward a system of ethics based on the categorical imperative.  Star this term You can study starred terms together  Play audio for this term  Goethe German poet and novelist and dramatist who lived in Weimar (1749-1832)  Caspar David Friedrich 19th century German Romantic painter, considered by many critics to be one of the finest representatives of the movement- especially Romantic painting Wanderer above the Sea of Fog  J.M.W. Turner An English romantic painter of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, known especially for his dramatic, lavishly colored landscapes and seascapes.  Star this term You can study starred terms together  Beethoven German composer whose music expressed a love of nature, called for liberty, and aroused powerful emotion  Star this term You can study starred terms together  William Blake visionary British poet and painter (1757-1827)  Star this term You can study starred terms together  Wordsworth a romantic English poet whose work was inspired by the Lake District where he spent most of his life (1770-1850)  Star this term You can study starred terms together  Play audio for this term  Lord Byron Was an important British Romantic poet. His works include "She walks in Beauty" and the unfinished "Don Juan." Many consider him to embody the spirit of Romanticism. He died from an illness contracted while in Greece, where he was supporting their independence movement.  Mary Shelley English writer who created Frankenstein's monster and married Percy Bysshe Shelley (1797-1851)  Fichte Claimed that German culture was distinctly different from French culture, and that German culture was superior. Superiority. Said Germans should assume their rightful place as the leaders of Europe.  Star this term You can study starred terms together  Play audio for this term  Herder German philosopher who advocated intuition over reason (1744-1803)  Play audio for this term  Hegel German philosopher whose three stage process of dialectical reasoning was adopted by Karl Marx (1770-1831)  Play audio for this term  Conservatism This was the political idea in which the people regarded tradition as the basic source of human institutions and the proper state and society remained those before the French Revolution which rested on a judicious blend on monarchy, bureaucracy, aristocracy, and respectful commoners  Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle 1818 A congress held by the Quintuple Alliance. This congress is important because it was when the Quintuple Alliance decided to withdraw forces from France.  Congress of Troppau 1820 A congress held by the Quintuple Alliance. This congress is important because it was when Metternich proposed intervention into revolutions that threatened dynasties that they viewed as righteous.  Congress of Verona 1822 nullified the Congress of Vienna and allowed the european powers to be guided by their own interests  Nicholas I of Russia sent 130,000 Russian troops into Hungary to subdue Hungarian revolt against Austrian Empire  Decembrist revolt place in Russia on December 14 1825, Russian army officers led about 3,000 soldiers in a protest against Nicholas I's assumption of the throne after his elder brother Constantine removed himself from the line of succession.  Leopold II of Austria brother of Marie Antoinette and William II of prussia, issued Declaration of Pillnitz  Francis II of Austria after Leopold, was the last holy roman empire  Carlsbad Decrees Issued by Metternich, required 39 independent German states, including Prussia and Austria, to root out subversive ideas. (censorship) Also established permanent comittee with spies to punish any liberal or radical organization.  Peterloo Event where protesters were killed by the government army while protesting the corn laws and the combination acts  Six Acts December, 1819. Parliament adopted these repressive acts: 1. Restricted Freedom of Speech and Assembly and other civil liberties 2. Increased taxes on newspapers 3. Established fines for seditious libel 4. Expanded right of search by police 5. Promoted speedy trial 6. Allowed for harsh punishment.  Charles X of France The king that succeeded Louis XVIII, and ruled from 1824 to 1830. He is not a conservative, but a reactionary. He considered himself a monarch by divine right and moved to restore lands that the Aristocrats had lost during the revolution. The French liberals wanted a legitimately constitutional regime, and when matters came to a head in 1829 Charles abandoned efforts to accommodate liberals and appointed an ultraroyalist ministry.  Louis Philippe King of France following Charles X. Abdicated the throne against threat of republican revolution (smelled his popularity was diminishing)  Ferdinand VII of Spain Placed on the Spanish throne after Napoleons downfall, he broke his promises of being a constitutional monarchy and the people revolted against him  The Cortes it was a legend that Quetzalcuatl would return. When Cortes arrived, Montezuma already knew the betrayal of the Spanish so he had sent spies on the shore and was ready for them in 1519. Then smallpox took over.  Scharnhorst and Gneisenau German capital ships that were described as battleships. Scharnhorst was the lead ship and Gneisenau followed.  Stein and Hardenberg the Prussian administrative and social reforms were the work of these people,neither intended to reduce the autocratic power of the Prussian monarch or to put an end to the dominance of Junkers, they aimed at fighting French power.  Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878) War that resulted from Russian expansion into the Ottoman Empire, it was ended by the Treaty of Sans Stefano  Battle of Navarino a battle fought in 1827 to allow Greece to become an independent kingdom; a combined fleet of British, French, and Russian fleet destroyed the Ottoman fleet  Liberalism a political or social philosophy advocating the freedom of the individual, parliamentary systems of government, nonviolent modification of political, social, or economic institutions to assure unrestricted development in all spheres of human endeavor, and governmental guarantees of individual rights and civil liberties.  Feminism the movement aimed at equal rights for women  Bentham British writer, reformer, and philosopher whose systematic analysis of law and legislation laid the foundations of utilitarianism.  John Stuart Mill English philosopher and economist remembered for his interpretations of empiricism and utilitarianism (1806-1873).  Nationalism the doctrine that nations should act independently (rather than collectively) to attain their goals; pride and love for one's nation.  Reform Act of 1832 gave explicit recognition to the changes wrought in British life by the Industrial Revolution; disenfranchised 56 rotten boroughs and enfranchised 42 new towns and reapportioned others; gave the new industrial urban communities some voice in government; property qualification for voting was retained; primarily benefited the upper middle class  Classical Economics the idea that free markets can regulate themselves  T.R. Malthus Malthus was a scientist who believed that as a population outgrows its resources, its members must compete for what is available; some will not make it. He disagreed with "social engineering" to help those who were worse off.  David Richardo "iron law of wages", thought that when people had more children that the labor went up and wages went down.  Iron Law of Wages proposed principle of economics that asserts that real wages always tend, in the long run, toward the minimum wage necessary to sustain the life of the worker. By David Richardo.  New Poor Law This law was created in 1832 to help the poor of Britain. It was in place all the way until the institution of the Welfare State in 1948. The original law's aim was to reduce costs to ratepayers. It created Poor Law Unions and the building of workhouses in each union for the giving of poor relief. It tried to ban outdoor relief parishes but still offered it as a more cost effective method of dealing with the poor who need governmental help. It created a segregation of the poor from the rest of society. The updated Welfare State reforms were better able to handle the problems of the poor.  Corn Laws 1815 tariff on imported grain to protect domestic producers. Never worked well.  Socialism a theory or system of social organization that advocates the vesting of the ownership and control of the means of production and distribution, of capital, land, etc., in the community as a whole.  Saint Simon early socialist pioneer who believed society required rational management, that wealth should be managed by experts, not owners of property of enterprise  Fourier French sociologist and reformer who hoped to achieve universal harmony by reorganizing society (1772-1837)  Robert Owen Welsh industrialist and social reformer who founded cooperative communities (1771-1858)  Play audio for this term  Louis Blanc This man urged people to agitate for universal voting rights and to take control of the state peacefully  Star this term You can study starred terms together  Anarchism a political theory favoring the abolition of governments  Marxism the economic and political theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that hold that human actions and institutions are economically determined and that class struggle is needed to create historical change and that capitalism will untimately be superseded.  Karl Marx German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary. With the help and support of Friedrich Engels he wrote The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (1867-1894). These works explain historical development in terms of the interaction of contradictory economic forces, form the basis of all communist theory, and have had a profound influence on the social sciences.  Star this term You can study starred terms together  Frederick Engels was a German social scientist, author, political theorist, philosopher, and father of communist theory, alongside Karl Marx. Together they produced The Communist Manifesto in 1848.  Star this term You can study starred terms together  Dialectical materialism The idea, according to Karl Marx, that change and development in history results from the conflict between social classes. Economic forces impel human beings to behave in socially determined ways.  Inevitably certainly, unavoidably, predictably  Proletariat the industrial working class  Star this term You can study starred terms together  Play audio for this term  Lenin founded the Communist Party in Russia and set up the world's first Communist Party dictatorship. He led the October Revolution of 1917, in which the Communists seized power in Russia. He then ruled the country until his death in 1924.  Bloody June Days After conservatives won majority in French National Assembly, violent riots. 1500 to 10000 killed  Louis Napoleon nephew of napoleon bonaparte, won the french presidential election in 1848, and named himself emperor Napoleon II in 1852  Play audio for this term  Franz Joseph The ruler of Austria-Hungary when WWI started. He was planning to attack Serbia for their ports. When Serbia murdered Franz Ferdinand, he attacked Serbia, which effectively started WWI.  Chartist a 19th century English reformer who advocated better social and economic conditions for working people  Frederick William IV king of Prussia who violently suppressed democratic movements (1795-1865)

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