Reading comprehension instruction in many classrooms focuses on
teacher-generated questions which actually measure comprehension of
specific text rather than developing metacognitive strategies for
comprehending all text. Explicit instruction in the metacognitive
strategies of making text connections, predicting, and sequencing, was
evaluated for its usefulness in improving reading comprehension in a
first-grade classroom. Results showed a significant difference in
students' awareness of comprehension strategies and comprehension
of text as measured by the Index of Reading Awareness and the Beaver Developmental Reading Assessment before and after the intervention.
These findings suggest that students in primary grades may benefit from
explicit instruction in reading comprehension strategies at the same
time they are learning to decode words.

**********

"What's this word?" the student asked?

"Tomb robber," the teacher replied.

"That's someone who would break into the pyramid to steal
what had been left with the mummy."

"Oh! Those bad guys on the news kicked in the ... the
thingies," she shared.

"Do you mean gravestones?"

"Yes! They kicked over the gravestones on the news," she
agreed.

This is an example of the metacognitive thinking a first-grade
student is capable of following the explicit instruction of
comprehension strategies. Despite research suggesting that explicit
instruction of reading comprehension strategies improves students'
ability to comprehend text, much classroom instruction focuses on
measuring comprehension of individual stories or text that has been read
(Cross and Paris, 1988; Paris and Oka, 1986; Yuill and Joscelyne, 1988).
Reading instruction in many classrooms uses a basal text and relies on
teacher-generated questions believed to teach students to comprehend.
But, more precisely, this measures comprehension rather than teaching
students strategies for comprehension (Durkin, 1979). This article
shares the results of an action research project designed to determine
the effects of explicit instruction of reading comprehension strategies
on the reading comprehension of a group of first graders.

In the classrooms referred to above, the instruction focuses on
recalling details of the story being read rather than on a strategy that
could be used for comprehending this and all text. In order for students
to become effective readers they need explicit instruction in specific
reading comprehension strategies that may be applied to everything they
read. Research indicates that instruction in metacognitive strategies
improves students' reading comprehension (Cross and Paris, 1988;
Paris and Oka, 1986). Studies have shown that students who use
metacognitive strategies while they read become better readers and more
clearly comprehend what they read (Cross and Paris; Dewitz and Dewitz,
2003; Paris and Oka). Furthermore, the Committee on the Prevention of
Reading Difficulties in Young Children (Snow, Burns, and Griffin, 1998)
found the acquisition of reading comprehension skills and strategies
important enough to cite the lack of these metacognitive strategies as
one of the major reasons children do not become good readers.

Durkin's (1979) landmark study described classrooms in which
teacher-generated questions about specific text were the norm for
reading comprehension instruction. She reported that reading
comprehension instruction focused on the literal recall of the current
text being read rather than on strategies for understanding all text.
Nearly thirty years later, reading instruction in many classrooms
involves a scenario where each week students read a story as a whole
group from a basal text, then read the selection as homework. Those
students are tested over the story for which they receive a grade in
reading. Although students read the story as a whole group, are assigned the story to be read as homework, and occasionally re-read the story in
a small group setting, students are frequently unable to answer the
multiple choice questions required to pass the comprehension tests.

The Role of Metacognition in Comprehension

Cross and Paris (1988) and Yuill and Joscelyne (1988) identified
comprehension strategies which they suggest good readers have in place
and contribute to their success as readers. Cross and Paris studied the
relationship between metacognition and reading ability using Informed
Strategies for Learning (ISL). They found that these strategies provided
help for poor readers and concluded that good readers were already using
these metacognitive comprehension strategies. This suggests that
successful readers may intuitively and independently integrate these
reading comprehension strategies into their reading abilities.

Yuill and Joscelyne (1988) focused their research on less skilled
students' and found that those who were less-skilled in reading
comprehension benefited from instruction, while those who were
more-skilled in reading comprehension did not benefit significantly.
They concluded that training less-skilled readers to use comprehension
strategies brought them closer in ability to those students who were
more skilled in reading comprehension.

Paris and Oka (1986) conducted another study to investigate
students' use of reading comprehension strategies by teaching them
to be metacognitive about their reading process. The results revealed
that the students' who used ISL improved their reading
comprehension and that readers of all skill levels benefited from ISL.

In a similar study Cross and Paris (1988) used ISL to study the
relationship between metacognition and reading ability. However, unlike
Paris and Oka (1986) they did not find ISL to have a significant effect
on all readers. They found that the reading comprehension strategy
instruction had the greatest impact on less-skilled readers. This led
them to ponder the idea of whether this was because good readers were
already doing the things ISL taught them, or if good readers were
already integrating what they knew about reading comprehension
strategies into their meaning-making processes at an earlier stage in
their reading development.

It appears that when reading comprehension is taught within a
curriculum that focuses on the comprehension of a particular text, the
explicit instruction of the strategies necessary for meaningful
comprehension is missing. Research suggests that when metacognitive
strategies for comprehending all text are explicitly taught,
comprehension improves. The purpose of this project was to investigate
the effects of explicit instruction of metacognitive comprehension
strategies on students' reading comprehension abilities.

Subjects and Design

This project was designed to assess the effectiveness of explicit
instruction of the specific metacognitive strategies of using prior
knowledge, predicting, and sequencing on the comprehension development
of readers in a first-grade classroom. Prior knowledge required students
to make text-to-self, text-to-text, and text-to-world connections while
reading, and predicting involved using context clues, to make
predictions about what was being read.

Sequencing involved the readers distinguishing between important
and not-so-important details as well as putting important events in the
correct order in which they occurred in text. The project was conducted
in a first grade classroom of twenty-four students. Five were Hispanic,
one was Asian/Pacific Island, and 18 were White. Six of these students
received English Language Learner (ELL) services in a pull-out program.

Data Collection Instruments

In order to establish baseline scores for these first graders'
comprehension, archival data and specific comprehension assessment tools
were used. Archival data included comprehension scores derived from the
Beaver Developmental Reading Assessment, (DRA) (Beaver, 1999) taken two
weeks prior to the beginning of metacognitive instruction. The DRA is a
field-tested, research-based tool designed to provide an accurate
assessment of individual students' reading comprehension (Pearson Learning Group, 2005). The assessment was administered to individual
students in an isolated setting away from the classroom. These
assessments were administered before and after the intervention of
explicit instruction of comprehension strategies.

Additionally, each student completed the Index of Reading Awareness
(IRA) by Jacobs & Paris (1987) to determine his or her level of
cognitive thinking about reading prior to the intervention. The IRA is a
test designed to measure students' cognitive awareness during
reading. Each student completed the IRA to determine his or her level of
awareness about the cognitive processes they used while reading.
Students were given the multiple-choice test in small groups of four or
five students at the beginning and again at the conclusion of the
project. There were 20 questions on this test which had three possible
answers. The answers were rated 0 - 2; 2 being the answer that showed
the greatest level of reading awareness. Forty was the maximum score
that could be earned.

To measure reading comprehension during the project a Comprehension
Strategy Checklist was developed. Figure 1 illustrates the tool was used
to record students' use of comprehension strategies. The checklist
was completed while listening to and observing each student during small
group reading instruction. A check mark was recorded when a strategy was
observed and a minus was recorded when it was taught and modeled, but
not observed being used by the student. A mark of N/A meant that the
strategy was neither taught nor observed. Anecdotal notes were also
recorded during small group and whole group instruction.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

Students used graphic organizers to record their personal
applications of the comprehension strategies taught during the project.
Students used a researcher-developed format for recording their use of
prior knowledge to make text-to-connections while reading. They
responded to "When I read these words ..." and "It
reminded me of.... "by recording their personal connections of the
current text to previous experiences. Figure 2 illustrates text-to-self
connections made while reading Nate the Great and the Crunchy Christmas by Marjorie and Craig Sharmat.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

A similar format required students to offer insight into their
predictions by responding to "This is what just happened ..."
and "My prediction ..." Figure 3 shows predictions made about
the story Mummies in the Morning by Mary Pope Osborne.

[FIGURE 3 OMITTED]

Two different formats were used for sequencing. The first was a
"Story Graph" where students sequenced the events of the story
and used a scale from Important to Not Important to indicate their
perception of the significance of the event to the story (Barton &
Sawyer, 2004). Figure 4 is a story graph completed after reading Owl
Moon by Jane Yolen.

[FIGURE 4 OMITTED]

The other format required students to identify the beginning,
middle, and end of a story by asking the question "What is the
story mostly about?" (McLaughlin, 2003). Figure 5 was completed
after reading David Goes to School by David Shannon.

[FIGURE 5 OMITTED]

Intervention Strategies

Explicit instruction of reading comprehension strategies took place
in both whole and small group settings. Whole group instruction was
designed to introduce each comprehension strategy to the first graders.
The whole group setting was also the forum for addressing issues related
to the use of the strategies that arose during small group time. Small
group instruction was structured to support students' use of the
comprehension strategies while reading independently. The Comprehension
Strategy Checklist previously mentioned was used to record observed
strategies and pertinent anecdotes in both settings.

Whole group instruction. Strategy instruction for the entire group
occurred daily for nine weeks during story time. The students received
teacher-modeled instruction on how to use prior knowledge to make text
connections, how to use context clues to make meaningful predictions,
and how to sequence the events of a story, as metacognitive strategies
for comprehending the text. During this same time the students were also
taught to use various types of graphic organizers to facilitate their
application of the comprehension strategies. The graphic organizers the
students constructed were collected and carefully analyzed to determine
the students' understanding and application of comprehension
strategies.

Small group instruction. To account for the varied levels of
reading development among the students, groups were formed based on the
archival records which included DRA scores, SAT-9 scores, and knowledge
of sight words. The DRA and Sight Word Recognition scores were taken at
the eighteen-week grading period just prior to the start of this
project. Students' scores on the reading component of the Stanford
9 tests (SAT-9), administered during the fall of the school year, were
the third piece of archival data used to establish reading levels.
Students who scored above grade level on two or more of these
assessments were placed in small reading groups together. Students who
scored below grade level on two or more of these assessments were also
grouped together for small group instruction. The remaining students
were put into a group. Fifty-four percent of the students were at grade
level, 21% were below grade level, and 25% were above grade level in
their reading readiness (see Figure 6). Initially there were a total of
five groups; however, after the first meeting it was necessary to split
the group of above grade level readers into two groups. Two students in
this group were able to read considerably faster than the others, and
were causing a disruption to the group. The resulting set of small
groups included two above grade level groups, three at grade level
groups, and one below grade level group. Small groups consisted of two
to five students. Trade books were chosen for each small group based on
their reading readiness levels.

[FIGURE 6 OMITTED]

Within the three levels of readiness students were assigned trade
books from a series appropriate for their level. The small group of
below grade level readers read No, David! and David Goes to School by
David Shannon. There was one group of students reading these trade
books. Students who were reading at grade level were reading books from
the Henry and Mudge series written by Cynthia Rylant. There were three
small groups reading at grade level. The two remaining small groups read
Mummies in the Morning by Mary Pope Osborne from the Magic Tree House
series. Figure 7 contains a list of books used for the project. These
trade books were chosen for the small groups based on recommendations by
Fountas' and Pinnell's Guided Reading (1996). These authors
offer specific recommendations on how to match books to students'
reading abilities, interest, and needs. The researcher met with each
small group once a week for thirty minutes. The groups met outside the
classroom in a quiet area. During this time the students read their
assigned books with the researcher stopping and engaging the students in
a directed discussion of the text. The discussion focused around the
reading comprehension strategies being taught; using prior knowledge,
making predictions, and sequencing events.

[FIGURE 7 OMITTED]

Instruction of strategies. This project took place over a nine-week
period. The strategies were introduced and taught in progression in
order to give students the opportunity to become familiar with the use
of one strategy before being introduced to a new one. The students were
first introduced to the use of prior knowledge to make text-to-self,
text-to-text, and text-to-world connections. The next strategy
introduced was predicting using prior knowledge. Finally, students were
taught to use sequencing important details as a reading comprehension
strategy. Explicit instruction of the strategies followed a pattern:
introduction of strategy, modeling of the strategy by the researcher in
whole group settings, small group guided practice, researcher-modeled
use of graphic organizer in whole group setting; small group guided
practice, and whole group independent use of graphic organizer. A
detailed description of the progression of lessons and lesson plans may
be obtained by contacting the authors.

Results and Discussion

Each student completed the IRA (Jacobs & Paris, 1987) to
measure his or her level of cognitive thinking about reading prior to
the project and during the last week of the project. The results of the
IRA pretest and posttest were analyzed and compared using a t-test with
an alpha level set at .01. This analysis revealed a significant
difference between the pretest and posttest scores, t (24) = 2.807; t
Stat 2.972; p < .007. Reading Awareness scores were higher after the
implementation of reading comprehension instruction (M=22.17) than
before explicit instruction (M = 19.42). The results are presented in
Table 1.

In order to assess the effects of explicit instruction on
students' levels of reading comprehension, the results of the DRA
(Beaver, 1999) that was administered prior to the start of the project
then after the intervention of small and whole group instruction, were
analyzed.

Each student completed the DRA during the last week of the project
and those results were compared to the archival DRA scores recorded
prior to the intervention. The results were analyzed using a
paired-samples t-test with an alpha level set at .01. This analysis
revealed a significant difference between the pretest and posttest
scores, t(24)= 2.807; t Stat 5.463; p < 1.489. DRA scores were
significantly higher after the implementation of explicit instruction
using whole and small group settings (M = 17.917) than before the
implementation (M = 14.833). The results are presented in Table 2.

Measures of strategy use during intervention. Reading comprehension
was assessed during the intervention using a researcher developed
Comprehension Strategy Checklist (see Figure 1.) and graphic organizers
(see Figures 2-5). The checklist form was used during small group
instruction to record all observations related to metacognitive strategy
use. Anecdotes were recorded on this same form during both small and
whole group instructional settings. The Comprehension Strategy Checklist
sheets for each student were carefully analyzed looking for patterns of
behavior or outcomes. Also, graphic organizers were collected and
analyzed for students' application of the reading comprehension
strategies being taught. Two patterns of use emerged during the project.
Anecdotes first revealed a genuine use of prior knowledge in making
text-to-self, text, and world connections that enhanced student
understanding of what was being read. Also, the independent use of all
strategies began to emerge as students used these strategies outside
direct instruction during reading class. Students made connections and
predictions during independent reading and while reading
content-specific text not related to explicit instruction of these
strategies. The intervention of explicit instruction included three
reading comprehension strategies, prior knowledge, predicting, and
sequencing. The analysis of anecdotal records revealing these patterns
is presented in Table 3. Observations were recorded when students
authentically used these strategies outside of explicit reading
instruction time. Figure 8 reports examples of independent use of all
three strategies.

The reading comprehension of the first-grade students in this
project was measured using two quantitative instruments, the IRA, and
the DRA. Both of these measures showed a significant increase in
students' reading comprehension levels when baseline and posttest
scores were compared using a t-test. Qualitative data which were
collected through analysis of graphic organizers and anecdotal records
on a checklist showed two patterns of behavior. Genuine connections to
aid in understanding the text being read and independent use of the
strategies taught were noted.

The results of this project seem to suggest that explicit
instruction of metacognitive strategies is an effective instructional
method. The explicit instruction of metacognitive reading comprehension
strategies significantly improved these first-grade students'
reading comprehension. Careful analysis of the anecdotal records and
students' work samples as well as the results of the comprehension
tests seem to suggest that the independent use of the reading
comprehension strategies was effective across all groups for students of
all reading abilities. These findings do not completely support those of
Cross and Paris (1988) or Yuill and Joscelyne (1988) who concluded that
reading comprehension instruction was not as beneficial for the more
skilled readers they studied. However, the discrepancy in these findings
may be due to the difference in age groups at which the explicit
instruction was introduced. Cross and Paris used third and fifth grade
students in their study. Yuill and Joscelyne conducted their project
with eight-year-old students. The findings of this project, conducted
with first graders, seem to suggest that the explicit instruction of
reading comprehension strategies should begin at an earlier stage in
students' reading development. This supports the findings of
Smolkin and Donovan (2001) who found that reading comprehension
instruction should begin much earlier than it traditionally does. The
findings of the present project also seem to suggest that students in
primary grades may benefit from explicit instruction in reading
comprehension at the same time they are learning to decode words for
reading. Overall, it appears that the explicit instruction of reading
comprehension strategies for first grade students is a valuable teaching
tool.

Implications for the Classroom

The results of this project seem to imply that the explicit
instruction of reading comprehension strategies should begin early in
reading development. It appears that the reading comprehension of
students may be positively affected by explicit instruction in strategy
use, and that reading comprehension instruction should not be based
solely on the comprehension of a particular text, as is common practice
in many classrooms.

The results of this project further suggest that whole group
instruction, which includes teacher modeling, paired with the
opportunity for students to use the strategies independently, is
appropriate to develop reading comprehension in young children. It
appears that small group interaction to support whole group instruction
may benefit students' use of reading comprehension strategies.
These interactions provide a forum for discussion, provide an
opportunity for scaffolding, and reveal understandings and difficulties
students may be experiencing. During this project the use of small
groups was most productive when the conversation was natural, rather
than somewhat contrived from heavy reliance on written scripts. Students
were more comfortable talking because they were making the decisions
about where it was appropriate to stop for a discussion within the text.
Because of this it is crucial that the teacher read the selected text
prior to meeting with the small group to keep the conversation focused
on what is happening in the story.

When teaching students to make connections it is important that
they write and refer to the words they read in the books in an effort to
keep their connections grounded in the text. Connections should be
brief. Frequently students wanted to tell protracted stories connected
to their personal experiences. If allowed to do so the comprehension may
be of the student's experiential story rather than the text being
read.

Reading comprehension instruction in the primary grade classroom is
often specific to a text rather than global and applicable to all text.
The purpose of this project was to determine the effects of explicit
instruction of metacognitive strategies on the reading comprehension of
one group of first graders. Whole and small group strategy instruction
resulted in significant increases in students' use of reading
comprehension strategies as well as their levels of reading
comprehension. This approach appears to be an effective means of
comprehension instruction for primary level students.

National reading panel. (2000) Teaching children to read: An
evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on
reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the
subgroups. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development.

Smolkin, L., Donovan, C. (2001). The contexts of comprehension: The
information book read aloud, comprehension, and comprehension
instruction in a first grade classroom. The Elementary School Journal,
102(2), 97-124.

Table 1.
Results obtained from t-test for Reading Awareness Index
scores using an alpha of .01.
Pretest Posttest
N Mean N Mean t t Stat p
24 19.42 24 22.17 2.807 2.972 .007
Note. Maximum score on pretest and posttest = 40.
Table 2.
Results obtained from t-test for Beaver Developmental Reading
Assessment using. 01 alpha.
Pretest Posttest
N Mean N Mean t t Stat p
24 14.833 24 17.917 2.807 5.463 1.49
Note. Maximum score on DRA = 44.
Table 3.
Results obtained from analysis of anecdotal records collected
during stralegy instruction
Comprehension Strategy Independent Use Enhanced Comprehension
N N
Connections 6 6
Prediction 4 4
Sequencing 3 3
Figure 7. Books used during the comprehension strategies project.
Comprehensive List of Trade Books Used During Whole and Small Group
Instruction
Allard, Henry G. Miss Nelson Is Missing
Brett, Jan. The Hat
Osborne, Mary Pope. Mummies in the Morning
Prelutsky, Jack. Awful Ogre Rises
Rylant, Cynthia. Henry and Mudge and the Starry Night
Rylant, Cynthia. Henry and Mudge Take the Big Test
San Souci, Daniel. North Country Night
Shannon, David. No, David!
Shannon, David. David Goes to School
Sharmat, Marjorie & Craig. Nate the Great and the Crunchy Christmas
Sharmat, Marjorie. Nate the Great and the Snowy Trail
Wood, Audrey. King Bidgood's in the Bathtub
Wood, Audrey. The Napping House
Yolen, Jane. Owl Moon
Figure 8. Independent use of metacognitive comprehension strategies.
Comprehension Observation of Independent Graphic Organizer
Strategy Use of Strategy Used
Prior Knowledge:
Text-to-self During week four of the Words from the
project a student was observed text were recorded
sharing an unsolicited on sticky notes
connection. Jumping out of during reading and
his seat the student stated, later recorded by
"I have a text-to-self the students' onto
connection! When I read 'he graphic organizers
opened his wide mouth' it (See Figure 2).
reminded me I went on a walk
and saw a snake."
Text-to-text Students were observed using
the correct terminology. The
researcher observed a student
holding two books and stating
"I made a test-to-text. These
two books are both about frogs
and polliwogs."
Text-to-world Independent use of genuine
connections were recorded in
small group and whole group
instruction. During small
group a student asked "What's
this word?"
"Tomb robber," the researcher
replied. "That's someone who
would break into the pyramid
to steal what had been left
with the mummy."
"Oh, those bad guys on the
news kicked in the ... the
thingees;'she shared.
"Do you mean gravestones'?"
"Yes, they kicked over the
gravestones on the news,"
she agreed.
Prediction The student makes the Students recorded
prediction "I'm thinking that what was happened
the mummy is going to come in the text they
in." The student checked her had just read and
prediction and circled the followed with a
plus sign to indicate that her prediction about
prediction was correct. what would occur
next (See Figure
3).
Sequencing The student indicates "they Students used a
went owling", "Pa called hoo, story graph to
hoo, hooooooo", and "they saw sequence the
a owl" as being the most events of a story
important events in the story. they had read. The
student then
indicated which
events were
perceived as being
most important
(See Figure 4).
The student writes and Students used a
illustrates the beginning of graphic organizer
the story as David is late. to sequence the
The middle of the story is beginning, middle,
David has gum and the student and end of a book
writes David cleans desks as they had read (See
the end of the story. Figure 5).

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