(vigilance) is the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time

levels of processing

refers to a continuum of memory processing from shallow to intermediate to deep, deeper processing produces better memory

elaboration

the formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding

dual-code hypothesis

claims memory for pics is better than memory for words

storage

encompasses how info is retained over time and how it is represented in memory

Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory

states that memory storage involves 3 separate systems

1)sensory memory

2) short term memory

3) long-term memory

sensory memory

hold info from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other senses

-very rich/detailed, but we lose the info in it quickly unless we use strategies to transfer it to short or long-term memory

"fast decay"

echoic memory

auditory sensory memory (up to 7 seconds)

iconic memory

visual sensory memory (1/4 second)

short-term memory

limited-capacity memory system in which info is usually retained for only as long as 30 seconds unless we use strategies to retain it longer

memory span

the number of digits an individual can repeat back in order after a single presentation of them

chunking

grouping or packing of info that exceeds 7 plus or minus 2 memory span into higher-order units that can be remembered as single units

rehearsal

conscious repetition of info

working memory

proposed by Alan Baddely, a 3 part system that allows us to hold info temporarily as we perform cognitive tasks, a kind of mental workbench on which the brain manipulates and assembles info to help us understand, make decisions, and solve problems

1) phonological loop

2) visuspatial working memory

2) central executive

phonological loop

is specialized to briefly store speech-based info about the sounds of language, has acoustic code (sounds we heard), and rehearsal

visuospatial working memory

store visual and spatial info (visual imagery)

central executive

integrates info from phonological loop and visuospatial and long-term memory important roles in attention, planning, and organizing

long-term memory

relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of info for a long time

explicit memory ltm

aka declarative memory

-conscious recollection of info, facts/events

1)episodic

2) semantic

episodic ltm

retention of info about where, when, what

(how an individual remembers life's episodes)

semantic ltm

a person's knowledge of the world, including areas of expertise, general knowledge, like things learned in school and everyday knowledge

implicit memory ltm

aka non-declarative memory, memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience

1) procedural memory

2) classical conditioning

3) priming

procedural memory, implicit memory, ltm

memory for skills

classical conditioning, implicit ltm

automatic learning of associations between stimuli

priming

activation of info that people already have in storage to help them remember new info better and faster

schemas

pre-existing mental concept/framework that helps people to organize/interpret info

ltm is not very exact, have to reconstruct the rest

script

a schema for an event, often containing info about physical features, people, and typical occurrences

connectionism

aka parallel distributed processing (PDP)

-theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons, several of which may work together to process a single memory

-ex: remembering your dog's name is spread across the areas of the cerebral cortex, location of neural activity = nodes, are interconnected

-changes in he strength of synaptic connections are fundamental bases of memory

long-term potentiation

concept that states that if 2 neurons are activated at the same time, the connection between them/memory will be increased

explicit memory locations

hippocampus, temperal lobes in cerebral cortex, and limbic system

amygdala, involved in emotional memories

implicit memory locations

cerebellum, required to perform skills

memory retrieval

memory process that takes place when info that was retained in memory comes out of storage

serial position effect

tendency to recall the items at the beginning and the end of a list more readily than those in the middle

encoding specificity principle

info present at the time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as retrieval cue

context-dependent memory

people remember better when they attempt to recall info in the same context in which they learned it

reminiscence bump

effect that adults remember more events from the second and 3rd decades of life than from others

1)life time periods

2) general events

3) event=specific knowledge

repression

defense mechanism by which a person is so traumatized by an event that they forget it and forget the act of forgetting

motivated forgetting

forgetting that occurs when something is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering it is intolerable

encoding failure

occurs when info was never entered into LTM

interference theory

theory that people forget because info gets in way of what they want to remember

1) proactive interference

2) retroactive interference

proactive interference

situation in which material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material that was learned later

-new memories are knocked out by old memories -- MORE PREVALANT

retroactive interference

situation in which material learned later disrupts retrieval of info that was learned earlier

-old stuff knocked out by new memories

decay theory

when we learn something new, neurochemical memory trace forms, but over tie this trace disintegrates, suggests that the passage of time always increases forgetting

prospective memory

includes timing and content

time-based

event-based

anterograde amnesia

memory disorder that affects the retention of new info and events

retrograde amnesia

memory loss for a segment of the past, but not new events

redemptive stories

individuals who describe important life experiences that go from bad to better

generative

they are the kind of people who make a contribution to future generations, people who leave a legacy that will outlive them

contamination stories

go from good to bad

anatomy of memory

hippocampus, amygdala, and thalamus, formation of new memories

-cerebral cortex, storage of memories

-hippocampus is most critical or important

mood-dependent memory

memory is best when people are int he same mood during encoding and retrieval

state-dependent memory

memory is best when people are in the same physical state at encoding and retrieval

context-dependent memory

memory is best when people are int he same environment during encoding and retrieval

2 step theory of retrieval

1) recall

2) recognition

recall

generate info and recognize info as correct or incorrect, harder of the two retrievals

-essay test

recognition

recognize correct info, supposedly easier because you don't have to provide info on your own

-multiple choice test

primacy effect

recall is good for items which appear at the beginning of a list, gets attention right away, stored in LTM

recall effect (recency?)

recall is good for items which appear at the last of a list, STM

Von Restofff Effect

unusual info is recalled better than info for mundane events

Zeigarnik Effect

incompleted tasks tend to be recalled better than completed tasks, because completed tasks have closure

flashbulb memory

seemingly frozen memory of an important event (you remember everything about an event)

1) emotions

2) rehearsal (telling it again and again)

3) knowledge that event is historically significant

eidetic memory

capacity to store mental images for longer than average period of time

1) vivid recall of eidetic image

2) most eidetikers are children

Hermann Ebbinghaus

first scientific study on memory and forgetting

-studied "nonsense syllables"

created "forgetting curve": demonstrated rapid forgetting after first hours of learning, but forgetting eventually slows and levels out

Loftus and Palmer

study that showed dynamics and importance of reconstructive theory, use of air force pilots, they could estimate speed