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The nature of international human rights law has been seemingly altered by Americans since the attacks on New York City and Washington, D.C. on September 11, 2001. The Guantanamo Bay detention camp is one example of recent developments that seem to disregard long standing human rights.[1] The United States of America (USA) has pursued a ‘seemingly deliberate strategy’ to put suspected terrorists outside the reach of habeas corpus protections.[2] Naval Station Guantanamo Bay serves as the location for a United States military prison in Cuba designed for the detention of non-citizens suspected of terrorist activity. At the time of its creation President Bush stated that its purpose was to respond to serious war crimes, primarily ‘a new way to deal with terrorists'.[1] The first camp was set up 3 months after the attacks on the twin towers and since then a human rights debate has begun over the legality of denying detainees the right to petition habeas corpus.

Habeas corpus is sometimes called "The Great Writ". It is a legal instrument first guaranteed following the signing of the Magna Carta. Its literal meaning is "show the body". Its purpose is to prevent the state from holding prisoners in extrajudicial detention. A writ of habeas corpus essentially challenges the legality of the detention. When a writ of habeas corpus is filed with a court in countries which inherit elements of their judicial system from the English system of Justice the state has to show that there is a legal basis for the captive's detention—usually that they are suspected of having broken a law. The principle of habeas corpus is codified in many humanitarian law treaties and national legislation – the right of fair trial and detainment is considered a basic human right. The principle of habeas corpus is codified in the US Constitution in article I(9)(2), commonly known as the ‘Suspension Clause’. This provides that ‘the privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it’.[3]

Are Guantanamo detainees eligible for the protections of habeas corpus?[edit]

Reports from Guantanamo Bay claim the detainees suffer from ‘extraordinary psychological and physical abuses’.[4] Psychological abuses include solitary confinement for long periods, sleep deprivation and religious abuse. Physical abuse is also used regularly as punishment, reportedly disproportionate for the apparent misconduct. Sami Al-Laithi, a professor at Kabul University who was taken into US custody in Guantanamo has been found to never have been hostile towards US. He was a healthy man when he was first captured by US forces but is now confined to a wheelchair after two vertebrae were broken in vicious beatings in the camp.[4] Many of these detainees claim that they have been wrongfully detained and deny any involvement in hostile activity towards the USA, or any involvement with the Taliban or Al Qaeda at all. Taking into account the inhumane conditions of the camp it is not surprising that Guantanamo detainees have sought protection from the principles of habeas corpus.

The issue is concerned with the jurisdiction of the US Courts to issue the writ of habeas corpus in respect to the detention of aliens which are held outside of the US. Six weeks after the events of September 11 Bush granted the USA Patriot Act which restricted the right of habeas corpus to resident aliens, this was done to allow suspected terrorists to be held without legal counsel or trial and avoid the protection of habeas corpus.[5] The third Geneva Convention considers a fair trial so essential to prisoner rights that ‘willfully depriving a prisoner of war of the rights of a fair and regular trial is deemed a grave brave of the convention and, consequentially, a war crime’.[4]

In early 2002 the first major petition for a writ of habeas corpus regarding Guantanamo detainees was filed. This was denied on the foundation that U.S courts lacked jurisdiction over the camp and its prisoners; Guantanamo Bay is located in Cuba, outside of the territory of the USA, and the writ of habeas corpus is ‘not available to aliens outside the sovereign territory of the USA’.[1] The lease of Guantanamo Bay to the US on the part of Cuba reads ‘while on one hand the US recognises the continuance of the ultimate sovereignty of the Republic of Cuba….on the other hand the Republic of Cuba consents that…the USA shall exercise complete jurisdiction and control over and within said area’.[1] Early courts claimed that Guantanamo does not technically belong to USA so habeas corpus could not apply. The Combatant Status Review Tribunals (CSRT) was created as an outcome from early petitions for habeas corpus. Its role was to establish whether or not detainees are actually enemy combatants.

However, the most recent case law development has been in the US Supreme Court case Boumediene v. Bush where it was established Guantanamo detainees have a right to habeas corpus and are able to bring their petitions to U.S courts. It also held that the Guantanamo detainees were entitled to the legal protections of the US Constitution and from then on, the Combatant Status Review Tribunal would be inadequate. The result of this case has seen many habeas corpus cases refiled.

The Geneva Conventions, of which there are four, are considered universal treaties in international law. They created the idea of International humanitarian law and codify customary international law regarding laws in wartime. By signing parties agreed to criminalise any breaches in their own domestic courts, U.S recognised this when they enacted their own War Crimes Act. However the declaration made by Bush in 2002 had the effect of ‘exempting all alleged members of Al Qaeda from the protections of the Geneva conventions’.[4]

The abuse of international human rights law lies in the treatment of detainees, the absence of public scrutiny, judicial review and government accountability.[4] The U.S government deliberately chose Guantanamo Bay as the site for detaining foreign citizens as they believed it would be exempt from any obligations they held under the Geneva Convention. Considering detainees as detainees outside the traditional definition of prisoners also denies the protections of the Geneva Convention. Proof of these deliberate decisions is found in the legal memoranda where President Bush actively enquired about how far they could legally go.[4]

The scope of international human rights has been discussed in the habeas corpus cases from Guantanamo Bay. Firstly, it should be noted that habeas corpus is a human right of utmost importance, recognised through humanitarian law, for ‘protecting one’s right to physical liberty’.[6] It has been suggested that there may almost be universal acceptance that the protections of habeas corpus are ‘non-derogable’.[6]

Submitting writs of habeas corpus was made more difficult at first, because part of the Bush detainee policy was to keep the identity of the Guantanamo captives a secret. A writ has to be submitted by a "next friend". Some of the detainees had family who would have authorized American lawyers to submit writs on their behalf, but they had no way of contacting them. Some of the detainees and their relatives are totally illiterate. Other detainees' families had no idea where they were, had no idea that they were in Guantanamo. Some of the detainees reported that they were punished for asking for legal assistance.

In the summer of 2004 the United States Supreme Court ruled on the habeas corpus submission Rasul v. Bush, determining that the court had jurisdiction over Guantanamo, and that detainees had a right to an impartial tribunal to challenge their detention under habeas corpus. It was a landmark decision in detainee rights. Rasul v Bush challenged an earlier precedent set in Johnson v. Eisentrager. Rasul concluded that the U.S, as a lessee, has ‘extensive proprietary rights over Guantanamo Bay’ that were exclusively granted in the 1903 lease.[8] This lease gave U.S operational sovereignty over the base and brought it within the Supreme Court’s jurisdiction. A related decision was Hamdi v. Rumsfeld (2004), which ruled that United States citizens detained as suspected enemy combatants had the right to habeas corpus challenge of their detention.

In response to Rasul v Bush, the U.S Government passed the Detainee Treatment Act 2005 in an attempt to prevent aliens for petitioning for habeas corpus in American courts.[9] Section 1005(e) states that “[N]o court, justice, or Judge shall have jurisdiction to hear or consider an application for a writ of habeas corpus filed by or on behalf of an alien detained at the Department of Defense at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba’.[10]

The Detainee Treatment Act of 2005 prohibited US military and intelligence personnel from treating detainees in ways inconsistent with Armed Forces regulations. Additionally, the act did not close off the habeas corpus submission that were already in the works.

In Hamdan v. Rumsfeld (2006), the Supreme Court ruled that the Bush Presidency lacked the Constitutional authority to create the Guantanamo military commissions as a system separate from the existing federal and military justice systems, and ruled that the CSRTs and military commissions were unconstitutional. It said that only Congress could authorize such a system. They confirmed in their judgement the unlawfulness of the US Government in the use of torture, cruel and humiliating treatment, and international law should limit the power of the President.[4]

Hamdam v Rumsfeld has been acknowledged as a milestone case for Guantanamo detainees; Walter Dellinger even claimed that ‘Hamdam is simply the most important decision on Presidential power and the rule of law. Ever’.[11] It followed the passing of the Detainee Treatment Act and gave the Supreme Court an ‘early opportunity to assess the nature and extent of the jurisdiction-stripping measure’.[12] The Supreme Court held that the amendment by the new legislation would not apply to detainees who had cases already waiting to be reviewed.

Once more in response to a judicial decision, Congress passed the Military Commission Act of 2006 swiftly after Hamdan v Rumsfeld. The new section, under section 7, attempted to apply the Detainee Treatment Act to detainees with cases pending.[13] This was an attempt by political branch of government to reinforce their opinion that the ‘federal courts should have as little to do with Guantanamo Bay detainees as possible’.[14]

The decision in Boumediene v. Bush in 2008 has had huge implications on America’s war on terror.[21] It was acknowledged that the Military Commissions Act was retaliation to the decision in Hamdan. Boumediene ruled that Guantanamo detainees were able to bring about a petition for a writ of habeas corpus in U.S courts and established that the judicial branch of government has the final say on unlawful detentions, rather than the Executive branch as the Bush regime had been implementing.[9]

Justice Kennedy, in delivering the majority opinion, held that it was within the U.S court’s jurisdiction to apply a writ of habeas corpus to aliens in Guantanamo bay as the fundamental rights of the U.S Constitution should be extended to Guantanamo detainees.[3] Since Boumediene, Bush confirmed that his administration would look into the decision to see if any additional legislation would be ‘appropriate’ in terms of the protection of American people.[13]

1.
September 11 attacks
–
The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11,2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia and it was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively. Suspicion for the attack fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaedas leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U. S. support of Israel, the presence of U. S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U. S. Navy in May 2011. S. many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, on November 18,2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building was opened on November 3,2014. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets. Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical, in 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia. Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed, Muslim legal scholars have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries, according to bin Laden. Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement, in November 2001, U. S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi, on December 27,2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, It has become clear that the West in general and it is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, the transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims. He said that the attacks were carried out because, we are free, and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours, Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon

2.
Guantanamo Bay detention camp
–
The Guantanamo Bay detention camp is a United States military prison located within Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, also referred to as Guantánamo or GTMO, which fronts on Guantánamo Bay in Cuba. Since the inmates have been detained indefinitely without trial and several inmates were severely tortured, the camp was established by the President George W. Bushs administration in 2002 during the War on Terror. During his term, his administration succeeded in reducing the number of inmates from about 245 to 41, in practice, the site has long been used for indefinite detention without trial. The facility is operated by the Joint Task Force Guantanamo of the United States government in Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, Detention areas consisted of Camp Delta including Camp Echo, Camp Iguana, and Camp X-Ray, which is now closed. The Bush administration asserted that detainees were not entitled to any of the protections of the Geneva Conventions. Following this, on 7 July 2006, the Department of Defense issued a memo stating that detainees would, in the future. Current and former detainees have reported abuse and torture, which the Bush administration denied, in a 2005 Amnesty International report, the facility was called the Gulag of our times. In 2006, the United Nations called unsuccessfully for the Guantanamo Bay detention camp to be closed, on 22 January 2009, President Obama issued a request to suspend proceedings at Guantanamo military commission for 120 days and to shut down the detention facility that year. President Obama issued a Presidential memorandum dated 15 December 2009, ordering Thomson Correctional Center, Thomson, in February 2011, U. S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates said that Guantanamo Bay was unlikely to be closed, due to opposition in the Congress. Congress particularly opposed moving prisoners to facilities in the United States for detention or trial, in April 2011, Wikileaks began publishing 779 secret files relating to prisoners in the Guantanamo Bay detention camp. On 4 November 2015, President Barack Obama stated that he was preparing to unveil a plan to close the facility, the plan would propose one or more prisons from a working list that includes facilities in Kansas, Colorado and South Carolina. Two others that were on the list, in California and Washington state, do not appear to have made the preliminary cut, by January 19,2017, however, the detention center remained open, with 41 detainees remaining. Camp Delta is a 612-unit detention center finished in April 2002 and it includes detention camps 1 through to 6, as well as Camp Echo, where pre-commissions are held. Camp X-Ray was a detention facility, which was closed in April 2002. Its prisoners were transferred to Camp Delta, in 2008, the Associated Press reported Camp 7, a separate facility on the naval base that is considered the highest security jail on the base, and its location is classified. It is used to house high-security detainees formerly held by the CIA, in January 2010, Scott Horton published an article in Harpers Magazine describing Camp No, a black site about a mile outside the main camp perimeter, which included an interrogation center. His description was based on accounts by four guards who had served at Guantanamo and they said prisoners were taken one at a time to the camp, where they were believed to be interrogated. He believes that the three detainees that DoD announced as having committed suicide were questioned under torture the night of their deaths

3.
United States of America
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci

4.
Cuba
–
Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is a country comprising the island of Cuba as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located in the northern Caribbean where the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and it is south of both the U. S. state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Haiti, and north of Jamaica. Havana is the largest city and capital, other cities include Santiago de Cuba. Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean, with an area of 109,884 square kilometres, prior to Spanish colonization in the late 15th century, Cuba was inhabited by Amerindian tribes. It remained a colony of Spain until the Spanish–American War of 1898, as a fragile republic, Cuba attempted to strengthen its democratic system, but mounting political radicalization and social strife culminated in the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1952. Further unrest and instability led to Batistas ousting in January 1959 by the July 26 Movement, since 1965, the state has been governed by the Communist Party of Cuba. A point of contention during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, a nuclear war broke out during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Culturally, Cuba is considered part of Latin America, Cuba is a Marxist–Leninist one-party republic, where the role of the vanguard Communist Party is enshrined in the Constitution. Independent observers have accused the Cuban government of human rights abuses. It is one of the worlds last planned economies and its economy is dominated by the exports of sugar, tobacco, coffee, according to the Human Development Index, Cuba is described as a country with high human development and is ranked the eighth highest in North America. It also ranks highly in some metrics of national performance, including health care, the name Cuba comes from the Taíno language. The exact meaning of the name is unclear but it may be translated either as where fertile land is abundant, authors who believe that Christopher Columbus was Portuguese state that Cuba was named by Columbus for the town of Cuba in the district of Beja in Portugal. Before the arrival of the Spanish, Cuba was inhabited by three distinct tribes of indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Taíno, the Guanajatabey, and the Ciboney people. The ancestors of the Ciboney migrated from the mainland of South America, the Taíno arrived from Hispanola sometime in the 3rd century A. D. When Columbus arrived they were the dominant culture in Cuba, having a population of 150,000. The name Cuba comes from the native Taíno language and it is derived from either coabana meaning great place, or from cubao meaning where fertile land is abundant. The Taíno were farmers, while the Ciboney were farmers as well as fishers and hunter-gatherers, Columbus claimed the island for the new Kingdom of Spain and named it Isla Juana after Juan, Prince of Asturias. In 1511, the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa, other towns soon followed, including San Cristobal de la Habana, founded in 1515, which later became the capital

5.
Habeas corpus
–
Habeas corpus is a recourse in law whereby a person can report an unlawful detention or imprisonment before a court, usually through a prison official. The writ of habeas corpus is known as the great and efficacious writ in all manner of illegal confinement, if the custodian is acting beyond his or her authority, then the prisoner must be released. Any prisoner, or another person acting on his or her behalf, may petition the court, or a judge, One reason for the writ to be sought by a person other than the prisoner is that the detainee might be held incommunicado. Most civil law jurisdictions provide a remedy for those unlawfully detained. For example, in some Spanish-speaking nations, the equivalent remedy for unlawful imprisonment is the amparo de libertad, though a writ of right, it is not a writ of course. So if an imposition such as internment without trial is permitted by the law, in some countries, the writ has been temporarily or permanently suspended under the pretext of war or state of emergency. The right to petition for a writ of habeas corpus has nonetheless long been celebrated as the most efficient safeguard of the liberty of the subject, the most common of the other such prerogative writs are quo warranto, prohibito, mandamus, procedendo, and certiorari. The due process for such petitions is not simply civil or criminal, the official who is the respondent must prove his authority to do or not do something. Failing this, the court must decide for the petitioner, who may be any person and this differs from a motion in a civil process in which the movant must have standing, and bears the burden of proof. From Latin habeas, 2nd person singular present subjunctive active of habere, to have, to hold, in reference to more than one person, habeas corpora. Literally, the means you may have the body. The complete phrase habeas corpus ad subjiciendum means you may have the person for the purpose of subjecting him/her to. These are the words of writs in 14th century Anglo-French documents requiring a person to be brought before a court or judge. The full name of the writ is often used to distinguish it from similar ancient writs, Habeas corpus ad prosequendum, a writ ordering return with a prisoner for the purpose of prosecuting him before the court. Habeas corpus ad respondendum, a writ ordering return to allow the prisoner to answer to new proceedings before the court, Habeas corpus ad testificandum, a writ ordering return with the body of a prisoner for the purposes of testifying. Habeas Corpus originally stems from the Assize of Clarendon, a re-issuance of rights during the reign of Henry II of England, in the 17th century the foundations for habeas corpus were wrongly thought to have originated in Magna Carta. William Blackstone cites the first recorded usage of habeas corpus ad subjiciendum in 1305, however, other writs were issued with the same effect as early as the reign of Henry II in the 12th century. The procedure for issuing a writ of habeas corpus was first codified by the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, a previous law had been passed forty years earlier to overturn a ruling that the command of the King was a sufficient answer to a petition of habeas corpus

6.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci

7.
Magna Carta
–
Magna Carta Libertatum, commonly called Magna Carta, is a charter agreed to by King John of England at Runnymede, near Windsor, on 15 June 1215. Neither side stood behind their commitments, and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III, at the end of the 16th century there was an upsurge in interest in Magna Carta. Lawyers and historians at the believed that there was an ancient English constitution, going back to the days of the Anglo-Saxons. Both James I and his son Charles I attempted to suppress the discussion of Magna Carta, until the issue was curtailed by the English Civil War of the 1640s and the execution of Charles. The political myth of Magna Carta and its protection of ancient personal liberties persisted after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 until well into the 19th century. In the 21st century, four exemplifications of the original 1215 charter remain in existence, held by the British Library, there are also a handful of the subsequent charters in public and private ownership, including copies of the 1297 charter in both the United States and Australia. The original charters were written on parchment sheets using quill pens, in heavily abbreviated medieval Latin, each was sealed with the royal great seal, very few of the seals have survived. The four original 1215 charters were displayed together at the British Library for one day,3 February 2015, to mark the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta. Magna Carta originated as an attempt to achieve peace between royalist and rebel factions in 1215, as part of the events leading to the outbreak of the First Barons War. England was ruled by King John, the third of the Angevin kings, although the kingdom had a robust administrative system, the nature of government under the Angevin monarchs was ill-defined and uncertain. Following the defeat of his allies at the Battle of Bouvines, John had to sue for peace, John was already personally unpopular with many of the barons, many of whom owed money to the Crown, and little trust existed between the two sides. John held a council in London in January 1215 to discuss potential reforms, both sides appealed to Pope Innocent III for assistance in the dispute. John also began recruiting mercenary forces from France, although some were sent back to avoid giving the impression that the King was escalating the conflict. Letters backing John arrived from the Pope in April, but by then the rebel barons had organised into a military faction and they congregated at Northampton in May and renounced their feudal ties to John, marching on London, Lincoln, and Exeter. Johns efforts to moderate and conciliatory had been largely successful. The King offered to submit the problem to a committee of arbitration with the Pope as the supreme arbiter, John met the rebel leaders at Runnymede, a water-meadow on the south bank of the River Thames, on 10 June 1215. Here the rebels presented John with their demands for reform. By 15 June, general agreement had been made on a text, and on 19 June and it focused on the rights of free men—in particular the barons

8.
Extrajudicial detention
–
Administrative detention is arrest and detention of individuals by the state without trial, usually for security reasons. A large number of countries, both democratic and undemocratic, resort to administrative detention as a means to combat terrorism, to illegal immigration. Unlike criminal incarceration imposed upon conviction following a trial, administrative detention is a forward-looking mechanism and it is meant to be preventive in nature rather than punitive. The practice has been criticized by human rights organizations as a breach of civil, Administrative detentions are defined in the law of many of the worlds states. Proponents of administrative detention maintain that criminal laws reliance on defendant rights and it is also claimed that the conditions under which some suspected terrorists are captured, especially in combat zones, make it impossible to prove criminal cases using normal evidentiary rules. The Laws of War are also seen by the proponents as inadequate and these laws allow the capture of enemy fighters, and also allow holding them for the duration of hostilities without trial. However, these laws grew out of the need to regulate combat between professional armies accountable to a state, who were engaged in combat of possibly lengthy. Opponents of administrative detention challenge the above assumptions and they point to the historical record of prosecutors who were able to obtain convictions against terrorists on the basis of existing laws. Opponents maintain that in essence, administrative detention is a form of collective punishment, since it does not require proof of individual guilt, it attributes to all members of a group the actions of a few. Immigration detention is controversial because it presents a clash between traditional notions of liberty and the territorial sovereignty of states. In many non-democratic countries, administrative detention is used by the regime to suppress dissent. In Asia in particular, administrative detention was first introduced by the British and French colonial authorities prior to, in many cases, they were and codified as emergency measures or internal security acts. Vietnam is an example where administrative detention was used by the French colonial authorities in the 1930s. Post-independence, the now-ruling Communist authorities have employed very similar means to detain those suspected of counter-revolutionary offenses. Some of these prisoners, such as Aung San Suu Kyi in Myanmar, have become known worldwide due to the detention. The legal basis for this system is found in Australias Migration Act 1958, any member of the Brazilian Armed Forces may be imprisoned if found to be repeatedly in violation of the Military Disciplinary Regulations by his or her superiors. Each military branch has issued a list of transgressions in their Disciplinary Regulations, the harshest punishment of this kind, in the Brazilian Army, is a 30-day imprisonment penalty. Notwithstanding, members of the Brazilian Armed Forces under administrative detention may be granted a habeas corpus by the system to deliver them from imprisonment

9.
US Constitution
–
The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. The Constitution, originally comprising seven articles, delineates the national frame of government, Articles Four, Five and Six entrench concepts of federalism, describing the rights and responsibilities of state governments and of the states in relationship to the federal government. Article Seven establishes the procedure used by the thirteen States to ratify it. In general, the first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, offer specific protections of individual liberty, the majority of the seventeen later amendments expand individual civil rights protections. Others address issues related to federal authority or modify government processes and procedures, Amendments to the United States Constitution, unlike ones made to many constitutions worldwide, are appended to the document. All four pages of the original U. S, according to the United States Senate, The Constitutions first three words—We the People—affirm that the government of the United States exists to serve its citizens. From September 5,1774 to March 1,1781, the Continental Congress functioned as the government of the United States. The process of selecting the delegates for the First and Second Continental Congresses underscores the revolutionary role of the people of the colonies in establishing a governing body. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was the first constitution of the United States and it was drafted by the Second Continental Congress from mid-1776 through late-1777, and ratification by all 13 states was completed by early 1781. Under the Articles of Confederation, the governments power was quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers, implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures. The Continental Congress could print money but the currency was worthless, Congress could borrow money, but couldnt pay it back. No state paid all their U. S. taxes, some paid nothing, some few paid an amount equal to interest on the national debt owed to their citizens, but no more. No interest was paid on debt owed foreign governments, by 1786, the United States would default on outstanding debts as their dates came due. Internationally, the Articles of Confederation did little to enhance the United States ability to defend its sovereignty, most of the troops in the 625-man United States Army were deployed facing – but not threatening – British forts on American soil. They had not been paid, some were deserting and others threatening mutiny, spain closed New Orleans to American commerce, U. S. officials protested, but to no effect. Barbary pirates began seizing American ships of commerce, the Treasury had no funds to pay their ransom, if any military crisis required action, the Congress had no credit or taxing power to finance a response. Domestically, the Articles of Confederation was failing to bring unity to the sentiments and interests of the various states

10.
Taliban
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Until his death in 2013, Mullah Mohammed Omar was the supreme commander and spiritual leader of the Taliban. Mullah Akhtar Mansour was elected as his replacement in 2015, and following Mansours killing in a May 2016 U. S. drone strike, Mawlawi Hibatullah Akhundzada became the groups leader. The Taliban emerged in 1994 as one of the prominent factions in the Afghan Civil War, under the leadership of Mohammed Omar, the movement spread throughout most of Afghanistan, sequestering power from the Mujahideen warlords, whose corruption and despotism Afghans had tired of. The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan was established in 1996 and the Afghan capital transferred to Kandahar and it held control of most of the country until being overthrown by the American-led invasion of Afghanistan in December 2001 following the September 11 attacks. At its peak, formal recognition of the Talibans government was acknowledged by only three nations, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. The group later regrouped as a movement to fight the American-backed Karzai administration. The Taliban have been condemned internationally for the enforcement of their interpretation of Islamic Sharia law. In its post-9/11 insurgency, the group has accused of using terrorism as a specific tactic to further their ideological and political goals. According to the United Nations, the Taliban and their allies were responsible for 76% of Afghan civilian casualties in 2010, 80% in 2011, Pakistan states that it dropped all support for the group after the September 11 attacks. Al-Qaeda also supported the Taliban with fighters from Arab countries and Central Asia, hundreds of thousands of people were forced to flee to United Front-controlled territory, Pakistan, and Iran. The word Taliban is Pashto, طالبان ṭālibān, meaning students and this is a loanword from Arabic طالب ṭālib, using the Persian plural ending -ān ان. In Arabic طالبان ṭālibān means not students but two students, as it is a form, the Arabic plural being طلاب ṭullāb—occasionally causing some confusion to Arabic speakers. Since becoming a loanword in English, Taliban, besides a plural noun referring to the group, has also used as a singular noun referring to an individual. For example, John Walker Lindh has been referred to as an American Taliban, in the English language newspapers of Pakistan, the word Talibans is often used when referring to more than one Taliban. The spelling Taliban has come to be predominant over Taleban in English, in the meantime, the United States and Saudi Arabia joined the struggle against the Soviet Union by providing all the funds. Zia-ul-Haq aligned himself with Pakistans Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam and later picked General Akhtar Abdur Rahman to lead the insurgency against the Soviet Union inside Afghanistan, about 90,000 Afghans, including Mohammed Omar, were trained by Pakistans ISI during the 1980s. After the fall of the Soviet-backed regime of Mohammad Najibullah in 1992, several Afghan political parties agreed on a peace and power-sharing agreement, the accord created the Islamic State of Afghanistan and appointed an interim government for a transitional period. With the exception of Gulbuddin Hekmatyars Hezb-e Islami, all of the parties, were ostensibly unified under this government in April 1992

11.
Al Qaeda
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It operates as a network made up of Islamic extremist, Salafist jihadists. Al-Qaeda has mounted attacks on civilian and military targets in various countries, including the 1998 U. S. embassy bombings, the September 11 attacks, the U. S. government responded to the September 11 attacks by launching the War on Terror. Characteristic techniques employed by al-Qaeda include suicide attacks and the bombing of different targets. Al-Qaeda ideologues envision a complete break from all foreign influences in Muslim countries, among the beliefs ascribed to al-Qaeda members is the conviction that a Christian–Jewish alliance is conspiring to destroy Islam. Al-Qaeda also opposes what it regards as man-made laws, and wants to replace them with a form of sharia law. Al-Qaeda has carried out attacks on targets it considers kafir. Al-Qaeda is also responsible for instigating violence among Muslims. Al-Qaeda leaders regard liberal Muslims, Shias, Sufis and other sects as heretics and have attacked their mosques, examples of sectarian attacks include the Yazidi community bombings, the Sadr City bombings, the Ashoura massacre and the April 2007 Baghdad bombings. Since the death of bin Laden in 2011, the group has been led by the Egyptian Ayman al-Zawahiri, al-Qaedas management philosophy has been described as centralization of decision and decentralization of execution. Many terrorism experts do not believe that the global jihadist movement is driven at every level by al-Qaedas leadership, marc Sageman, a psychiatrist and former Central Intelligence Agency officer, said that al-Qaeda is now just a loose label for a movement that seems to target the west. We like to create an entity called in our minds. This view mirrors the account given by Osama bin Laden in his October 2001 interview with Tayseer Allouni and this matter isnt about any specific person and. is not about the al-Qaidah Organization. We are the children of an Islamic Nation, with Prophet Muhammad as its leader, and all the true believers are brothers. So the situation isnt like the West portrays it, that there is an organization with a specific name and that particular name is very old. It was born without any intention from us, created a military base to train the young men to fight against the vicious, arrogant, brutal, terrorizing Soviet empire. So this place was called The Base, as in a base, so this name grew. We arent separated from this nation, and so we discuss the conscience of this nation. Bruce Hoffman, however, sees al-Qaeda as a network that is strongly led from the Pakistani tribal areas

12.
Patriot Act
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The USA PATRIOT Act is an Act of Congress that was signed into law by President George W. Bush on October 26,2001. With its ten-letter abbreviation expanded, the title is Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept. Following a lack of Congressional approval, parts of the Patriot Act expired on June 1,2015, with the passage of the USA Freedom Act on June 2,2015, the expired parts were restored and renewed through 2019. However, Section 215 of the law was amended to stop the National Security Agency from continuing its mass phone data collection program, instead, phone companies will retain the data and the NSA can obtain information about targeted individuals with permission from a federal court. From broad concern felt among Americans from both the September 11 attacks and the 2001 anthrax attacks, Congress rushed to pass legislation to strengthen security controls. On October 23,2001, Republican Rep. Jim Sensenbrenner introduced H. R.3162 incorporating provisions from a previously sponsored House bill, the next day, the Act passed the House 357 to 66, with Democrats comprising the overwhelming portion of dissent. The three Republicans voting no were Robert Ney of Ohio, Butch Otter of Idaho and Ron Paul of Texas, on October 25, the Act passed the Senate by 98 to 1. Since its passage, several legal challenges have been brought against the act, many provisions of the act were to sunset beginning December 31,2005, approximately four years after its passage. In July 2005, the U. S. Senate passed a bill with substantial changes to several sections of the act. The two bills were reconciled in a conference committee that was criticized by Senators from both the Republican and Democratic parties for ignoring civil liberty concerns. The bill, which removed most of the changes from the Senate version, passed Congress on March 2,2006, Title I authorizes measures to enhance the ability of domestic security services to prevent terrorism. The title established a fund for counter-terrorist activities and increased funding for the Terrorist Screening Center which is administered by the FBI, the military was authorized to provide assistance in some situations that involve weapons of mass destruction when so requested by the Attorney General. The National Electronic Crime Task Force was expanded, along with the Presidents authority and it primarily made amendments to FISA, and the ECPA, and many of the most controversial aspects of the USA PATRIOT Act reside in this title. In particular, the title allows government agencies to gather foreign intelligence information from both U. S. and non-U. S, Citizens, and changed FISA to make gaining foreign intelligence information the significant purpose of FISA-based surveillance, where previously it had been the primary purpose. However, that this wall even existed was found by the Federal Surveillance Court of Review to have actually been a long-held misinterpretation by government agencies, also removed was the statutory requirement that the government prove a surveillance target under FISA is a non-U. S. Citizen and agent of a power, though it did require that any investigations must not be undertaken on citizens who are carrying out activities protected by the First Amendment. The title also expanded the duration of FISA physical search and surveillance orders, the scope and availability of wiretapping and surveillance orders were expanded under Title II. The Act allowed any district judge in the United States to issue such surveillance orders

13.
Combatant Status Review Tribunal
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These non-public hearings were conducted as a formal review of all the information related to a detainee to determine whether each person meets the criteria to be designated as an enemy combatant. The first CSRT hearings began in July 2004, redacted transcripts of hearings for high value detainees were posted to the Department of Defense website. As of October 30,2007, fourteen CSRT transcripts were available on the DoD website, the Supreme Court of the United States found these tribunals to be unconstitutional in Boumediene v. Bush. The CSRTs are not bound by the rules of evidence that would apply in court, the government is required to present all of its relevant evidence, including evidence that tends to negate the detainees designation, to the tribunal. Unclassified summaries of relevant evidence may be provided to the detainee, the detainees personal representative may view classified information and comment on it to the tribunal to aid in its determination but does not act as an advocate for the detainee. The rules do not give a timetable for informing detainees in the event that the tribunal has decided to retain their enemy combatant designations, Article 5 creates a particularized limited process, intended to sort individuals when any doubt exists as to their status. The sole question for determination is whether the captive meets the definition of POW in Article 4 of the Prisoner of War Convention. Secretary of the Navy Gordon R. Rumsfeld, a plurality of the Supreme Court suggested the Department of Defense empanel tribunals similar to the AR190 to make factual status determinations. The exact location of the current CSRT hearings is unknown, but prior CSRT hearings were held in trailers in Guantanamo Bay, a dramatization of the conduct of CSRTs, based on CSRT transcripts, is presented in the film The Response. The identity of the officers at CSRTs hearings is classified. In the CSRT transcripts released on the DoD website, that information has been removed from the transcripts, the ranks of those present, however, and their service branch remain in the documents. For example, at Guleed Hassan Ahmeds CSRT in April 2007, other services present include the U. S. Marine Corps and the U. S. Army, the only other rank mentioned in the transcript was Gunnery Sergeant. In other CSRTs, the ranks, services, and persons present varied, at certain CSRTs, a non-military language analyst was present. The CSRT Recorder had several tasks, first, he or she was charged with keeping a record of the CSRT process by recording the CSRT process. Second, the Recorder swore in all the CSRT participants by administering an oath, third, the Recorder was also charged with presenting classified and unclassified material during the CSRTs. Fourth, the Recorder was often asked to explain or clarrify facts or information during the CSRT, in Guleed Hassan Ahmeds CSRT transcript one finds the following exchange, PRESIDENT, Tribunal has completed its review of the unclassified evidence provided. We do have one question for the Recorder, is Somalia, Ethiopia, and/or Kenya a coalition partner. RECORDER, Somalia is not, Ethiopia is, and Kenya is, Detainees had the option of attending their CSRTs, but attendance was not mandated

14.
Boumediene v. Bush
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The case was consolidated with habeas petition Al Odah v. United States. It challenged the legality of Boumedienes detention at the United States Naval Station military base in Guantanamo Bay, oral arguments on the combined cases were heard by the Supreme Court on December 5,2007. S. Invoking Marbury v. Madison, the Court concluded, The Nation’s basic charter cannot be contracted away like this, the Constitution grants Congress and the President the power to acquire, dispose of, and govern territory, not the power to decide when and where its terms apply. To hold that the branches may switch the Constitution on or off at will would lead to a regime in which they, not this Court. Along with Rasul v. Bush, Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, and Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, following the September 11 attacks in 2001, the United States launched a Global War on Terror. In November 2001, President Bush asserted authority to try captives from the War before military commissions instead of through the court system. Many captives from the war were held at Camp X-Ray, which was opened at the United States Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba in January 2002, while the United States has an indefinite lease on Guantanamo Bay, Cuba still maintained de jure sovereignty over the area. Beginning in 2002, family and friends of approximately 200 captives initiated habeas corpus submissions to challenge the detentions and these submissions eventually worked their way through the courts, and on June 28,2004, the United States Supreme Court issued its decision in Rasul v. Bush. As a result, the Department of Defense created the Combatant Status Review Tribunals, at the end of 2005, the United States Congress passed the Detainee Treatment Act, which explicitly states that all captives held by the United States are protected against torture. The Act restricted the submission of additional habeas corpus submissions to the courts, the Act attempted to mandate that all outstanding habeas corpus submissions on behalf of the captives should be quashed. In April 2007, the Court declined to review the Circuit Courts decision, within a few months, it reversed this decision, on June 29,2007, it granted a writ of certiorari to Boumediene and his co-defendants. Twenty-two amicus briefs were filed in support of the petitioners, Boumediene and Al Odah, and four were filed in support of the respondents, oral arguments were held on December 5,2007, and the Supreme Court announced its decision on June 12,2008. The court found that the petitioners had met their burden of establishing that Detainee Treatment Act of 2005 failed to provide a substitute for habeas corpus. Kennedys majority opinion begins with an over-twenty page review of the history of habeas corpus in England from its roots in the due process clause of Magna Carta of 1215 to the 19th century. The Court also concluded that the detainees are not required to exhaust review procedures in the court of appeals before pursuing habeas corpus actions in the district court. The majority distinguished between de jure and de facto sovereignty, finding that the United States had in effect de facto sovereignty over Guantanamo, in the majority ruling, Justice Kennedy called section 7 not adequate. He explained, to hold that the branches may switch the constitution on or off at will would lead to a regime in which they, not this court. The decision struck down section 7 of the MCA, but left intact the remainder of the MCA, Justice Souters concurrence was joined by Justices Ginsburg and Breyer

15.
Geneva Conventions
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The Geneva Conventions comprise four treaties, and three additional protocols, that establish the standards of international law for the humanitarian treatment in war. The treaties of 1949 were ratified, in whole or with reservations, the Swiss businessman Henry Dunant went to visit wounded soldiers after the Battle of Solferino in 1859. He was shocked by the lack of facilities, personnel, as a result, he published his book, A Memory of Solferino, in 1862, on the horrors of war. The latter led to the 1864 Geneva Convention, the first codified international treaty that covered the sick, for both of these accomplishments, Henry Dunant became corecipient of the first Nobel Peace Prize in 1901. The ten articles of this first treaty were initially adopted on 22 August 1864 by twelve nations, on 20 October 1868 the first, unsuccessful, attempt to expand the 1864 treaty was undertaken. With the Additional Articles relating to the Condition of the Wounded in War an attempt was undertaken to clarify some rules of the 1864 convention, the Articles were signed but never ratified by all parties. Only the Netherlands and the United States ratified the Articles, the Netherlands later withdrew their ratification. The protection of the victims of warfare would later be realized by the third Hague Convention of 1899. In 1906 thirty-five states attended a conference convened by the Swiss government and it remained into force until 1970 when Costa Rica acceded to the 1949 Geneva Conventions. The 1929 conference yielded two conventions that were signed on July 27th 1929, one, the Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field, was the third version to replace the original convention of 1864. The other was adopted after experiences in World War I had shown the deficiencies in the protection of prisoners of war under the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. The Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War was not to replace these earlier conventions signed at The Hague, the Second Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea replaced the Hague Convention of 1907. It was the first Geneva Convention on the protection of the victims of warfare and mimicked the structure. The Third Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War replaced the 1929 Geneva Convention that dealt with prisoners of war. In addition to these three conventions, the conference added a new elaborate Fourth Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. It was the first Geneva Convention not to deal with combatants, the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions had already contained some provisions on the protection of civilians and occupied territory. Article 154 specifically provides that the Fourth Geneva Convention is supplementary to these provisions in the Hague Conventions, despite the length of these documents, they were found over time to be incomplete. In light of developments, two Protocols were adopted in 1977 that extended the terms of the 1949 Conventions with additional protections

16.
International humanitarian law
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International humanitarian law is the law that regulates the conduct of war. IHL is inspired by considerations of humanity and the mitigation of human suffering and it includes the Geneva Conventions and the Hague Conventions, as well as subsequent treaties, case law, and customary international law. It is designed to balance humanitarian concerns and military necessity, and subjects warfare to the rule of law by limiting its destructive effect, serious violations of international humanitarian law are called war crimes. International humanitarian law, jus in bello, regulates the conduct of forces engaged in war or armed conflict. It is distinct from jus ad bellum which regulates the conduct of engaging in war or armed conflict and includes crimes against peace, together the jus in bello and jus ad bellum comprise the two strands of the laws of war governing all aspects of international armed conflicts. The law is mandatory for nations bound by the appropriate treaties, there are also other customary unwritten rules of war, many of which were explored at the Nuremberg War Trials. By extension, they also both the permissive rights of these powers as well as prohibitions on their conduct when dealing with irregular forces and non-signatories. International humanitarian law operates on a division between rules applicable in international armed conflict and internal armed conflict. The relationship between human rights law and international humanitarian law is disputed among international law scholars. This discussion forms part of a discussion on fragmentation of international law. In a nutshell, those who favor separate, self-contained regimes emphasize the differences in applicability, international humanitarian law applies only during armed conflict. Modern international humanitarian law is made up of two streams, The law of The Hague, referred to in the past as the law of war proper. Both are branches of jus in bello, international law regarding acceptable practices while engaged in war and armed conflict. The Law of The Hague, or the laws of war proper, determines the rights and duties of belligerents in the conduct of operations and limits the choice of means in doing harm. In particular, it concerns itself with the definition of combatants, establishes rules relating to the means and methods of warfare, systematic attempts to limit the savagery of warfare only began to develop in the 19th century. Such concerns were able to build on the view of warfare by states influenced by the Age of Enlightenment. The purpose of warfare was to overcome the enemy state, which could be done by disabling the enemy combatants, the massacre of civilians in the midst of armed conflict has a long and dark history. These date back to ancient times, in the Old Testament, the King of Israel prevents the slaying of the captured, following the prophet Elishas admonition to spare enemy prisoners

17.
War Crimes Act of 1996
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The definition of grave breach in some of the Geneva Conventions have text that extend additional protections, but all the Conventions share the following text in common. The law applies if either the victim or the perpetrator is a national of the United States or a member of the U. S, the penalty may be life imprisonment or death. The death penalty is only invoked if the conduct resulted in the death of one or more victims, the act was passed with overwhelming majorities by the United States Congress and signed into law by President Bill Clinton. The Department of Defense fully support the purposes of the bill, the bill passed by unanimous consent in the Senate and by a voice vote in the House, showing that it was entirely uncontroversial at the time. The memo made several arguments both for and against providing Common Article 3s protections to Al Qaeda and Taliban combatants and he concluded that Common Article 3 was outdated and ill-suited for dealing with captured Al Qaeda and Taliban combatants. He described as quaint the provisions that require providing captured Al Qaeda and Taliban combatants commissary privileges, scrip, athletic uniforms and he also argued that existing military regulations and instructions from the President were more than adequate to ensure that the principles of the Geneva Conventions would be applied

18.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
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The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 December 1948 at the Palais de Chaillot, Paris. The full text is available on the United Nations website, in 1966, the General Assembly adopted the two detailed Covenants, which complete the International Bill of Human Rights. In 1976, after the Covenants had been ratified by a sufficient number of individual nations, during World War II, the Allies adopted the Four Freedoms—freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from fear, and freedom from want—as their basic war aims. A universal declaration that specified the rights of individuals was necessary to effect to the Charters provisions on human rights. In June 1946, the UN Economic and Social Council established the Commission on Human Rights, the Commission on Human Rights, a standing body of the United Nations, was constituted to undertake the work of preparing what was initially conceived as an International Bill of Rights. The commission established a special Universal Declaration of Human Rights Drafting Committee, chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt, the committee met in two sessions over the course of two years. At the time, Humphrey was newly appointed as Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat, other well-known members of the drafting committee included René Cassin of France, Charles Malik of Lebanon, P. C. Chang of the Republic of China, Humphrey provided the initial draft which became the working text of the Commission. According to Allan Carlson in Globalizing Family Values, the Declarations pro-family phrases were the result of the Christian Democratic movements influence on Cassin, during these discussions many amendments and propositions were made by UN Member States. British representatives were extremely frustrated that the proposal had moral but no legal obligation, a On 10 December 1948, the Universal Declaration was adopted by the General Assembly by a vote of 48 in favor, none against, and eight abstentions. Honduras and Yemen—both members of UN at the time—failed to vote or abstain, south Africas position can be seen as an attempt to protect its system of apartheid, which clearly violated any number of articles in the Declaration. The six communist nations abstentions centred around the view that the Declaration did not go far enough in condemning fascism and Nazism, Eleanor Roosevelt attributed the abstention of the Soviet bloc nations to Article 13, which provided the right of citizens to leave their countries. 48 countries voted in favour of the Declaration, a.8 countries abstained, Later on, the underlying structure of the Universal Declaration was introduced in its second draft, which was prepared by René Cassin. Cassin worked from a first draft, which was prepared by John Peters Humphrey, the structure was influenced by the Code Napoléon, including a preamble and introductory general principles. Cassin compared the Declaration to the portico of a Greek temple, with a foundation, steps, four columns, articles 1 and 2 are the foundation blocks, with their principles of dignity, liberty, equality, and brotherhood. The seven paragraphs of the out the reasons for the Declaration—represent the steps. The main body of the Declaration forms the four columns, the first column constitutes rights of the individual such as the right to life and the prohibition of slavery. Articles 6 through 11 refer to the legality of human rights with specific remedies cited for their defense when violated

19.
European Convention of Human Rights
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The European Convention on Human Rights is an international treaty to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms in Europe. Drafted in 1950 by the newly formed Council of Europe. All Council of Europe member states are party to the Convention, the Convention established the European Court of Human Rights. Any person who feels his or her rights have been violated under the Convention by a party can take a case to the Court. Judgments finding violations are binding on the States concerned and they are obliged to execute them, the compensations imposed under ECHR can be rather large, in 2014 Russia agreed to pay in excess of $2 billion in damages to former shareholders of Yukos. The Convention has several protocols, which amend the convention framework, the European Convention on Human Rights has played an important role in the development and awareness of Human Rights in Europe. The development of a system of human rights protection operating across Europe can be seen as a direct response to twin concerns. Second, the Convention was a response to the growth of Communism in Central and Eastern Europe and designed to protect the member states of the Council of Europe from communist subversion. The Convention was drafted by the Council of Europe after the Second World War in response to an issued by Europeans from all walks of life who had gathered at the Hague Congress. British MP and lawyer Sir David Maxwell-Fyfe, the Chair of the Assemblys Committee on Legal and Administrative Questions, was one of its leading members, as a prosecutor at the Nuremberg Trials, he had seen first-hand how international justice could be effectively applied. After extensive debates, the Assembly sent its proposal to the Councils Committee of Ministers. So a non-democratic State could not participate in the ECHR system, the Convention was opened for signature on 4 November 1950 in Rome. It was ratified and entered force on 3 September 1953. It is overseen and enforced by the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, until procedural reforms in the late 1990s, the Convention was also overseen by a European Commission on Human Rights. Statements of principle are, from a point of view, not determinative. As amended by Protocol 11, the Convention consists of three parts, the main rights and freedoms are contained in Section I, which consists of Articles 2 to 18. Section II sets up the Court and its rules of operation, Section III contains various concluding provisions. Article 1 simply binds the parties to secure the rights under the other Articles of the Convention within their jurisdiction

20.
American Convention on Human Rights
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The American Convention on Human Rights, also known as the Pact of San José, is an international human rights instrument. It was adopted by countries in the Western Hemisphere in San José, Costa Rica. It came into force after the instrument of ratification was deposited on 18 July 1978. This provision is established under influence of the Article 20 of the International Covenant of Civil, the single article in Chapter III deals with economic, social, and cultural rights. The somewhat cursory treatment given to this issue here was expanded ten years later with the Protocol of San Salvador. Chapter IV describes those circumstances in certain rights can be temporarily suspended, such as during states of emergency. However, it does not authorize any suspension of Article 3, Article 4, Article 5, Article 6, Article 9, Article 12, Article 17, Article 18, Article 19, Article 20, or Article 23. C. United States, and the Inter-American Court, headquartered in San José, Chapter X deals with mechanisms for ratifying the Convention, amending it or placing reservations in it, or denouncing it. Various transitory provisions are set forth in Chapter XI, in the ensuing years, the states parties to the American Convention have supplemented its provisions with two additional protocols. The protocols provisions cover such areas as the right to work, the right to health, the right to food, and it came into effect on 16 November 1999 and has been ratified by 16 nations. The second, the Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights to Abolish the Death Penalty, was adopted at Asunción, Paraguay, to date it has been ratified by 13 nations. Venezuela denounced the Convention on 10 September 2012 accusing the Inter-American Court, necessary reforms of the institution were blocked. Therefore, it would increase its cooperation with the United Nations Human Rights Council. Denunciations, according to Article 78 of the ACHR, become one year after having been declared. They do not release the party from its obligations resulting from acts that have occurred before the effective date of denunciation. Canada did at one point seriously consider ratification, but has decided against it, although Canada could ratify the convention with a reservation with respect to abortion, that would contradict Canadas stated opposition to the making of reservations to human rights treaties. Another solution would be for the states to remove the anti-abortion provisions

21.
Center for Constitutional Rights
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The Center for Constitutional Rights is a progressive non-profit legal advocacy organization based in New York City, New York, in the United States. It was founded in 1966 by Arthur Kinoy, William Kunstler and others particularly to activists in implementation of civil rights legislation. CCR has focused on civil liberties and human rights litigation, since winning the landmark case in the United States Supreme Court of Rasul v. Its founders were Morton Stavis, Arthur Kinoy, Ben Smith and William Kunstler. The Center identified as a movement support organization, that is, cases were chosen to raise public awareness of an issue, generate media attention, and/or energize activists being harassed by local law enforcement in the South. The current organization was formed from the merger of the original Center for Constitutional Rights and it was the first time in history that the Court had ruled against the president on behalf of alleged enemy fighters in wartime. And it was the first of four Supreme Court decisions between 2004 and 2008 that rejected President Bush’s assertion of unchecked power in the “war on terror. S. In 2005 the organization was recognized with the Domestic Human Rights Award by Global Exchange, Rasul v. Bush,215 F. Supp. 2d 55, CCR represented Guantanamo detainees seeking fair trials and an end to their indefinite imprisonment without charge, the Supreme Court case established precedent for U. S. courts’ jurisdiction over the Guantanamo Bay prison camp, affirming detainees’ right to habeas corpus review, including legal representation. This right was later putatively revoked when President Bush signed the Military Commissions Act into law, Al Odah v. United States,127 S. Ct.3067, the latest in a series of habeas corpus petitions on behalf of people imprisoned at the Guantanamo Bay detention center. The case challenges the Military Commissions system’s suitability as a habeas corpus substitute and he has never been charged, and has been found by the Canadian government not to be involved with terrorism. He and CCR seek an acknowledgment of the U. S. s alleged involvement, CCR v. Bush, This lawsuit challenges the constitutionality of the NSA’s surveillance of people within the United States without warrant or prior court approval. Daniels v. City of New York,291 AD 2d 260 / Floyd v. City of New York,739 F. Supp. 2d 376, This case forced the New York City Police Department to end their practice of stopping and frisking people solely on the basis of their race or national origin, the case also highlighted the practices of the NYPD Street Crimes Unit, leading to its disbandment. The case’s settlement created an internal system of officers engaged in stop and frisks. In addition, the settlement required the NYPD to begin “know your rights” public education programs, CCR is working to compel the NYPD to comply with the terms of the settlement. Estate of Ali Hussamalde Albazzaz v. Blackwater Worldwide, This is a suit filed on behalf of the family of an Iraqi man killed by Blackwater personnel. CCR is charging Blackwater Worldwide with war crimes, CCR has filed a habeas corpus submission on his behalf. Mamani v. Sanchez de Lozada / Mamani v. Sanchez Berzain,636 F. Supp, matar v. Dichter,500 F. Supp

22.
United States Supreme Court
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote

23.
Rasul v. Bush
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The lead petitioner, British citizen Shafiq Rasul, was one of the Tipton Three. The U. S. transported the three men to the United Kingdom in March 2004 before the decision was handed down, Secretary of State Colin Powell and State Department Legal Advisor William Howard Taft IV advised that the President must observe the Geneva Conventions. Colonel Lawrence Morris proposed holding public hearings modeled on the Nuremberg trials, major General Thomas Romig, the Judge Advocate General of the United States Army, recommended any new military tribunals be modeled on on existing courts-martial. On November 13,2001, President George W, the various plaintiffs were taken to Guantanamo Bay for different reasons, but were generally captured or arrested during the United States invasion of Afghanistan. The US Military transferred Rasul and Asif Iqbal, both British citizens, and David Hicks, an Australian citizen, to Guantanamo Bay in December 2001, each denied voluntarily joining any terrorist forces. As noted by the District Court, they did not deny having fought for the Taliban, Rasul and Iqbal say they were with the Taliban because they were taken captive. Hicks is silent on the matter in court filings, but his father, in filing the brief, the twelve Kuwaitis, combined in Al Odah v. United States, claimed that they were in Pakistan and Afghanistan giving humanitarian aid. They were seized by villagers seeking bounties and sold to the United States forces, the US transferred them to Guantanamo Bay starting in January 2002. Mamdouh Habib, the plaintiff in Habib v. Bush, was arrested by Pakistani authorities on October 5,2001, two days before the fighting began. The government had designated the detainees as enemy combatants and did not allow access to counsel. On February 19,2002, Guantanamo detainee Shafiq Rasul, a British citizen, Guantanamo detainee Mamdouh Habib, an Australian citizen, also filed a petition. These cases were filed in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia. U. S. District Judge Colleen Kollar-Kotelly denied the petitions on July 30,2002. The plaintiffs pointed out that the U. S. has all effective powers in the area. On March 9,2004, two years after they were first detained, the U. S. released Rasul and Iqbal to the United Kingdom with no charges filed, the British government had been pressing the United States for the return of its citizens and legal residents. The next day, the UK government released all five men without charge, Justice Stevens noted that the Ahrens v. Clark decision, the basis of the Eisentrager decision, had since been largely reversed in Braden, and thus relevant parts of Eisentrager may no longer apply. Since the government had said it would not challenge habeas corpus by a U. S. citizen in Guantanamo Bay, in Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, this could establish jurisdiction at the base. The court had concern that there is an area where certain types of cases would fall through the cracks

24.
Johnson v. Eisentrager
–
The prisoners had at no time been on American sovereign territory. Braden was relied on by the Court in Rasul v and they were transported to the American-occupied part of Germany and imprisoned there in the custody of the Army. Claiming that their trial, conviction, and imprisonment violated Articles I and Article III, the Fifth Amendment, the U. S. government argued, A non-resident enemy alien has no access to U. S. courts in wartime. These non-resident enemy aliens, captured and imprisoned abroad, have no right to a writ of habeas corpus in a court of the United States. … If this Amendment invests enemy aliens in unlawful hostile action against us with immunity from military trial, the petition shows that these prisoners were formally accused of violating the laws of war and fully informed of particulars of these charges

25.
Hamdi v. Rumsfeld
–
Yaser Esam Hamdi was born in Louisiana as a citizen of the United States. In 1980, while still a child, he moved with his family to Saudi Arabia, according to his father, Hamdi went to Afghanistan in the late summer of 2001 as a relief worker. He was then captured less than two months after his arrival by the Afghan Northern Alliance and they turned him over to U. S. military authorities during the U. S. invasion. He was classified as an enemy combatant by the U. S. armed forces, after his capture in 2001, Hamdi was detained and interrogated in Afghanistan. In January 2002, the Americans transferred Hamdi to Guantanamo Bay, in June 2002, Hamdis father, Esam Fouad Hamdi, filed a habeas corpus petition in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia to challenge his detention. The government used its authority to ensure that terrorists were no longer a threat while active combat operations continued. Judge Robert G. Doumar ruled that Hamdis father was a next friend having standing to sue on behalf of his son. The case was sent back to the District Court, which denied the motion to dismiss Hamdis petition. Judge Doumar found the evidence supporting Hamdis detention woefully inadequate. The government appealed Judge Doumars order to produce the evidence, after the Fourth Circuit denied a petition for rehearing en banc, Hamdis father appealed to the U. S. Supreme Court. It granted certiorari review and reversed the Fourth Circuits ruling, Hamdi was represented before the Court by the late Federal Public Defender Frank W. Dunham, Jr. and the Governments side was argued by the Principal Deputy Solicitor General, Paul Clement. Justice OConnor wrote a plurality opinion representing the Courts judgment, which was joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist and Justices Breyer, Justice OConnor used the three-part test of Mathews v. Eldridge to limit the due process to be received. OConnor suggested the Department of Defense create fact-finding tribunals similar to the AR 190-8 to determine whether a detainee merited continued detention as an enemy combatant, in response, the United States Department of Defense created Combatant Status Review Tribunals, modeling them after the AR 190-8. OConnor did not write at length on Hamdis right to an attorney, because by the time the Court rendered its decision, but, OConnor wrote that Hamdi unquestionably has the right to access to counsel in connection with the proceedings on remand. The plurality held that judges need not be involved in reviewing these cases, instead the constitution empowers the Judiciary to act as a check on Executive power in this realm. However, they dissented from the ruling that AUMF established Congressional authorization for the detention of enemy combatants. Justice Antonin Scalias dissent, joined by Justice John Paul Stevens, thomas also wrote that Congress intended that the AUMF authorized such detentions. Thomas would later use of this dissent in Turner v. Rogers in 2011

26.
Hamdan v. Rumsfeld
–
Hamdan v. Rumsfeld,548 U. S. Specifically, the ruling says that Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions was violated. Because these statements were not included in the December 21 debate at the time, the plaintiff was Salim Ahmed Hamdan, a citizen of Yemen who worked as a bodyguard and chauffeur for Osama bin Laden. Hamdan had formerly worked in Afghanistan on a project that Bin Laden had developed. Hamdan was captured by militia forces during the invasion of Afghanistan in the fall of 2001, in 2002, he was sent by the US to its new Guantanamo Bay detention camp at its naval base in Cuba. He was assigned a defense counsel, LCDR Charles D and it determined that he was eligible for detention by the United States as an enemy combatant or person of interest. After reviewing Hamdans habeas petition, Judge James Robertson of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia ruled in the detainees favor. He found that the United States could not hold a military commission unless it was first shown that the detainee was not a prisoner of war, the Geneva Convention is a treaty between nations and as such it does not confer individual rights and remedies. Even if the Geneva Convention could be enforced in U. S, under the terms of the Geneva Convention, al Qaeda and its members are not covered. Congress authorized such activity by statute, the judicial branch of the United States government cannot enforce the Convention, thus invalidating Hamdans argument that he cannot be tried until after his prisoner-of-war status is determined. On November 7,2005, the Supreme Court issued a writ of certiorari to hear the case. The petition was filed on behalf of Hamdan by Neal Katyal of Georgetown University Law Center and Lt. Commander Charles Swift of the U. S. Navy, the Seattle law firm Perkins Coie provided the additional legal counsel for Hamdan. The case was argued before the court on March 28,2006, Katyal argued on behalf of Hamdan, and Paul Clement, the Solicitor General of the United States, argued on behalf of the government. Chief Justice Roberts recused himself because he had ruled on this case as part of the three judge panel on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. Critics called for Justice Antonin Scalia to recuse himself, since he had made allegedly improper comments about the decision of the prior to hearing oral arguments. The Supreme Court announced its decision on June 29,2006, associate Justice John Paul Stevens wrote the opinion for the Court, which commanded a majority only in part. Congress did not include language in the DTA that might have precluded Supreme Court jurisdiction, the governments argument that Schlesinger v. Councilman 420 U. S.738 precludes Supreme Court review was similarly rejected. Councilman applied to a member of the U. S. military who was being tried before a military court-martial, in contrast, Hamdan is not a member of the U. S. military, and would be tried before a military commission, not a court-martial. The opinion then addressed the issues of the case

27.
United States Constitution
–
The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. The Constitution, originally comprising seven articles, delineates the national frame of government, Articles Four, Five and Six entrench concepts of federalism, describing the rights and responsibilities of state governments and of the states in relationship to the federal government. Article Seven establishes the procedure used by the thirteen States to ratify it. In general, the first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, offer specific protections of individual liberty, the majority of the seventeen later amendments expand individual civil rights protections. Others address issues related to federal authority or modify government processes and procedures, Amendments to the United States Constitution, unlike ones made to many constitutions worldwide, are appended to the document. All four pages of the original U. S, according to the United States Senate, The Constitutions first three words—We the People—affirm that the government of the United States exists to serve its citizens. From September 5,1774 to March 1,1781, the Continental Congress functioned as the government of the United States. The process of selecting the delegates for the First and Second Continental Congresses underscores the revolutionary role of the people of the colonies in establishing a governing body. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was the first constitution of the United States and it was drafted by the Second Continental Congress from mid-1776 through late-1777, and ratification by all 13 states was completed by early 1781. Under the Articles of Confederation, the governments power was quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers, implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures. The Continental Congress could print money but the currency was worthless, Congress could borrow money, but couldnt pay it back. No state paid all their U. S. taxes, some paid nothing, some few paid an amount equal to interest on the national debt owed to their citizens, but no more. No interest was paid on debt owed foreign governments, by 1786, the United States would default on outstanding debts as their dates came due. Internationally, the Articles of Confederation did little to enhance the United States ability to defend its sovereignty, most of the troops in the 625-man United States Army were deployed facing – but not threatening – British forts on American soil. They had not been paid, some were deserting and others threatening mutiny, spain closed New Orleans to American commerce, U. S. officials protested, but to no effect. Barbary pirates began seizing American ships of commerce, the Treasury had no funds to pay their ransom, if any military crisis required action, the Congress had no credit or taxing power to finance a response. Domestically, the Articles of Confederation was failing to bring unity to the sentiments and interests of the various states

28.
Guantanamo military commission
–
The United States Department of Defense organized military tribunals to judge charges against enemy combatant detainees being held at Guantanamo Bay detention camp. On June 29,2006, the Supreme Court had ruled in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld Docket 05-194 and it effectively declared that trying Guantanamo Bay detainees under the existing Guantanamo military commission was illegal under US law, including the Geneva Conventions. With the War Crimes Act in mind, this presented the Bush administration with the risk of criminal liability for war crimes. To address these problems, the president requested and Congress passed the Military Commissions Act. On September 28 and September 29,2006, the US Senate and US House of Representatives, respectively, passed the Military Commissions Act of 2006 and it held that the 2006 Military Commissions Act was an unconstitutional suspension of that right. The United States has two parallel systems, with laws, statutes, precedents, rules of evidence. Under these justice systems, prisoners have certain rights, people undergoing a military court martial are entitled to the same basic rights as those in the civilian justice system. The Guantanamo military trials under the 2006 MCA do not operate according to system of justice. The differences include, Unlike civilian courts, only two-thirds of the needs to agree in order to convict someone under the military commission rules. This includes charges such as supporting terrorism, attempted murder, the accused are not allowed access to all the evidence against them. The Presiding Officers are authorized to consider secret evidence which the accused have no opportunity to see or refute and it may be possible for the commission to consider evidence that was extracted through coercive interrogation techniques before passage of the Detainee Treatment Act. But, legally, the commission is restricted from considering any evidence extracted by torture, the proceedings may be closed at the discretion of the Presiding Officer, so that secret information may be discussed by the commission. The accused are not permitted a free choice of attorneys, as they can use only military lawyers or those civilian attorneys eligible for the Secret security clearance. Because the accused are charged as unlawful combatants, then Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld said in March 2002 that an acquittal on all charges by the commission is no guarantee of a release, note that international human rights law prohibits trying civilians in military tribunals. Military Commission, those are judges and not mere military officers, Trials are supposed to be public, but proceedings are often closed, and such exceptions to a public trial have not been enumerated in detail. Nonetheless, the ICC statute explicitly states that the principle is a public trial, in camera proceedings are allowed for protection of witnesses or defendants as well as for confidential or sensitive evidence. Hearsay and other evidence is not explicitly prohibited in the statute. But it has argued the court is guided by hearsay exceptions which are prominent in common law systems

29.
Walter E. Dellinger III
–
Walter Estes Dellinger III is the Douglas B. Maggs Professor of Law at Duke University and head of the practice at O’Melveny & Myers in Washington. He also currently leads Harvard Law Schools Supreme Court and Appellate Litigation Clinic and he served as the acting United States Solicitor General for the 1996-1997 Term of the Supreme Court. Prior to his appointment as acting Solicitor General, Dellinger was an Assistant Attorney General and he has also appeared as a commentator on This Week, the ABC News Sunday morning program hosted by George Stephanopoulos. Dellinger is a graduate of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Dellinger was born in Charlotte, North Carolina. He is the father of lawyer and political candidate Hampton Dellinger, walter Dellinger received a B. A. degree from the University of North Carolina. In 1966, he graduated from Yale Law School, and then clerked for Justice Hugo Black of the U. S. Supreme Court during the 1968 Term. On March 18,2008, he represented the District of Columbia before the United States Supreme Court in District of Columbia v. Heller. The District argued that its Firearms Control Regulations Act of 1975 should not be restricted by the Second Amendment, the ban was overturned by the Supreme Court. This case relates to the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill of 1989, on March 5,2010, the Washington Post published an op-ed by Dellinger defending Karl Thompson, a former subordinate of his. Nine lawyers who had appointed to positions within the Presidency, including Thompson, became the focus of criticism. In the op-ed Delligner said that Thompson had added assisting Lieutenant Commander William Keubler in his defense of Omar Khadr at his request and he said Thompson had helped assist Keubler for several months, in addition to his previous duties. In 2010, North Carolina Gov. Bev Perdue inducted Dellinger into the Order of the Long Leaf Pine, calling him North Carolina’s best friend, legally, that we’ve ever had. In early 2012, with Dellinger representing the defendant in United States v. Antoine Jones, Dellinger said the decision in the drug case was a signal event in Fourth Amendment history. Duke Law School biography Office of the Solicitor General Harvard Law School Supreme Court and Appellate Litigation Clinic

30.
Military Commission Act of 2006
–
The United States Military Commissions Act of 2006, also known as HR-6166, was an Act of Congress signed by President George W. Bush on October 17,2006. The Acts stated purpose was to trial by military commission for violations of the law of war. It was drafted following the Supreme Courts decision on Hamdan v and it prohibited detainees who had been classified as enemy combatants or were awaiting hearings on their status from using habeas corpus to petition federal courts in challenges to their detention. All pending habeas corpus cases at the district court were stayed. In Boumediene v. Bush, the US Supreme Court held that section 7 of the MCA was unconstitutional because of its restrictions of detainee rights and it determined that detainees had the right to petition federal courts for habeas corpus challenges. Construction of Provisions— The procedures for military commissions set forth in this chapter are based upon the procedures for trial by general court-martial under chapter 47 of this title. Chapter 47 of this title does not, by its terms, the judicial construction and application of that chapter are not binding on military commissions established under this chapter. Sections 831, and, relating to compulsory self-incrimination, Section 832, relating to pretrial investigation. Other provisions of chapter 47 of this title shall apply to trial by military commission under this chapter only to the extent provided by this chapter, persons subject to military commissions Any alien unlawful enemy combatant is subject to trial by military commission under this chapter. Lawful Enemy Combatants— Military commissions under this chapter shall not have jurisdiction over lawful enemy combatants, lawful enemy combatants who violate the law of war are subject to chapter 47 of this title. Courts-martial established under that chapter shall have jurisdiction to try a lawful enemy combatant for any offense made punishable under this chapter, the term competent tribunal is not defined in the Act itself. It is also a used in Article five of the third Geneva Convention. However, the rights guaranteed by the third Geneva Convention to lawful combatants are expressly denied to unlawful military combatants for the purposes of this Act by Section 948b, Any alien unlawful enemy combatant is subject to trial by military commission under chapter 47A — Military Commissions. The definition of unlawful and lawful enemy combatant is given in Chapter 47A—Military commission, Subchapter I--General provisions, the Act changes pre-existing law to forbid explicitly the invocation of the Geneva Conventions when executing the writ of habeas corpus or in other civil actions. This provision applies to all cases pending at the time the Act is enacted, if the government chooses to bring a prosecution against the detainee, a military commission is convened for this purpose. The following rules are some of those established for trying alien unlawful enemy combatants, ‘‘ NOTICE TO ACCUSED—Upon the swearing of the charges and specifications in accordance with subsection, the accused shall be informed of the charges against him as soon as practicable. A civilian defense attorney may not be used unless the attorney has been determined to be eligible for access to classified information that is classified at the level Secret or higher. No person may, without his consent, be tried by a commission under this chapter a second time for the same offense

31.
Anthony Kennedy
–
Kennedy became the most senior Associate Justice on the court following the death of Antonin Scalia in February 2016. Since the retirement of Sandra Day OConnor in 2006, he has been the swing vote on many of the Courts 5–4 decisions. He has authored the majority ruling in many of these cases, including Lawrence v. Texas, Boumediene v. Bush, Citizens United v. FEC, Kennedy was born and raised in an Irish Catholic family in Sacramento, California. He was the son of Anthony J. Kennedy, an attorney with a reputation for influence in the California legislature, and Gladys, as a boy, Kennedy came into contact with prominent politicians of the day, such as California Governor and later U. S. He served as a page in the California State Senate as a young man, Kennedy attended Stanford University, graduating with a B. A. after spending his senior year at the London School of Economics. He earned an LL. B cum laude from Harvard Law School in 1961, Kennedy has been married to Mary Davis since 1963, and they have three children. Kennedy was in practice in San Francisco from 1961 to 1963. In 1963, following his fathers death, he took over his fathers Sacramento practice, from 1965 to 1988, he was a Professor of Constitutional Law at McGeorge School of Law, at the University of the Pacific. He continues to teach law students at seminars during McGeorges European summer sessions in Salzburg and he remains Pacific McGeorges longest-serving active faculty member. During Kennedys time as a California law professor and attorney, he helped California Governor Ronald Reagan draft a state tax proposal. Kennedy has served in numerous positions during his career, including the California Army National Guard in 1961, Kennedy was unanimously confirmed by the U. S. Senate on March 20 and received his commission on March 24,1975. On November 11,1987, Kennedy was nominated to the Supreme Court seat vacated by Lewis F. Powell, Kennedy was then subjected to an unprecedentedly thorough investigation of his background, which he easily passed. In a lower court dissent that Kennedy had written before joining the Supreme Court, considering such conduct offensive and destructive of the family, Kennedy had written, indifference to personal liberty is but the precursor of the states hostility to it. It does not follow that each of those rights is one that we as judges can enforce under the written Constitution. The Due Process Clause is not a guarantee of every right that should inhere in an ideal system, many argue that a just society grants a right to engage in homosexual conduct. We can extend that slightly to say that Georgias right to be wrong in matters not specifically controlled by the Constitution is a component of its own political processes. Its citizens have the liberty to direct the governmental process to make decisions that might be wrong in the ideal sense. Kennedy said about Griswold v. Connecticut, I really think I would like to draw the line and he also discussed a zone of liberty, a zone of protection, a line thats drawn where the individual can tell the Government, Beyond this line you may not go

32.
United States Senate
–
The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures

33.
Patrick Leahy
–
Patrick Joseph Pat Leahy /ˈleɪˌhiː/ is an American politician and the senior United States Senator from Vermont. He has been in office since 1975, a member of the Democratic Party, Leahy served as the President pro tempore of the United States Senate from December 17,2012, to January 6,2015. As President pro tempore, he was third in the line of succession. He is the most senior senator and took office at a younger age than any other current senator, Leahy received the title of President pro tempore emeritus upon the commencement of the 114th Congress. He is the last remaining member of the Senate to have served during the presidency of Gerald Ford, Leahy is currently the longest-serving Democratic Senator as well as the longest-serving U. S. Senator in the history of Vermont, and the current dean of his states congressional delegation, having been there since 1975, he is also the longest serving incumbent Senator following the death of Hawaiis Daniel Inouye, who had served from 1962 until his death in 2012. He is the chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee. The Senate Judiciary Committee worked extensively on prison reform with the introduction on a number of bills aimed at reforming the overcrowded prisons, the bills include, the Justice Safety Valve Act of 2013, The Smarter Sentencing Act of 2013, and the Public Safety Enhancement Act. Leahy was born in Montpelier, Vermont, the son of Alba and Howard Francis Leahy and his maternal grandparents were Italian, and his father was of Irish ancestry, some of his ancestors came to Vermont during the 19th century to work at quarries. He graduated from Saint Michaels College in 1961 with a bachelor of degree in political science. He was an associate at the firm headed by Philip H. Hoff, in May 1966 Hoff appointed him to fill a vacancy as States Attorney of Chittenden County. Leahy was elected to a term in 1966 and re-elected in 1970. Leahy married Marcelle Pomerleau in 1962, she is bilingual with French Canadian heritage from Quebec immigrants to Vermont and they reside in a farmhouse in Middlesex, Vermont, that they moved to from Burlington, and have three children. In 2012 the Leahys celebrated their anniversary, with Leahy saying ‘‘We hate it when we’re apart from one another. ’’ Leahy is legally blind in his left eye. He won a race against Vermonts lone congressman, Richard Mallary. At 34 years old, he was the youngest Senator in Vermont history, as of 2015, Leahy and Minnesota Congressman Rick Nolan are the only two remaining Watergate Babies in Congress, though Nolans service ended in 1981 and started again in 2013. Leahy was nearly defeated in 1980 by Republican Stewart Ledbetter, winning by only 2,700 votes amid Ronald Reagans landslide victory. In 1986, he faced what was on paper an even stronger challenger in former governor Richard Snelling, in 1992, Vermont Secretary of State Jim Douglas held him to 54 percent of the vote

34.
Arlen Specter
–
Arlen Specter was an American lawyer and politician who served as United States Senator from Pennsylvania. Specter was a Democrat from 1951 to 1965, then a Republican from 1965 until 2009, first elected in 1980, he represented his state in the Senate for 30 years. Specter was born in Wichita, Kansas, to emigrant Russian Jewish parents and he graduated from the University of Pennsylvania and served with the United States Air Force during the Korean War. Specter later graduated from Yale Law School and opened a law firm with Marvin Katz, Specter served as assistant counsel for the Warren Commission investigating the assassination of John F. Kennedy and helped devise the single-bullet theory. In 1965, Specter was elected District Attorney of Philadelphia, a position that he would hold until 1973, during his 30-year senate career, Specter staked out a spot in the political center. In 2006, he was selected by Time as one of Americas Ten Best Senators, Specter lost his reelection bid in 2010 to Joe Sestak in the primary election, who then lost to Pat Toomey in the general election. Toomey succeeded Specter on January 3,2011, diagnosed with Hodgkins lymphoma in early 2005, he continued his work in the Senate while undergoing chemotherapy. He later died of complications of lymphoma on October 14,2012. Specter was born in Wichita, Kansas, the youngest child of Lillie and Harry Specter, Specter was Jewish, and wrote in his memoir, Passion for Truth, that his fathers family was the only Jewish family in the village. The family lived at 940 South Emporia Street in Wichita before moving to Russell, Kansas, Russell is also the hometown of fellow politician Bob Dole. Specter said that his father weighed items from his junkyard on a scale owned by Doles father Doran Dole and he said his brother Morton and Doles brother Kenny were contemporaries and friends. Specters father served in the U. S. infantry during World War I, during the Great Depression, Specters father was a fruit peddler, a tailor, and a junkyard owner. After graduating from Russell High School, Arlen Specter studied first at the University of Oklahoma and he transferred to the University of Pennsylvania, majored in international relations, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1951. While at Penn, Specter was a member of the Pi Lambda Phi fraternity, Specter said the family moved to Philadelphia when his sister Shirley was of a marriageable age because there were no other Jews in Russell. In 1953, he married Joan Levy, in 1979, she was elected to one of the two allotted minority party at-large seats on the Philadelphia City Council. She held the seat for four terms, until she was defeated for re-election in 1995 by Frank Rizzo, Specter graduated from Yale Law School in 1956, while serving as editor of the Yale Law Journal. Afterward, Specter opened a law practice, Specter & Katz, with Marvin Katz, Specter became an assistant district attorney under District Attorney James C. Crumlish, Jr. and was a member of the Democratic Party, in 1965, Specter ran for Philadelphia district attorney against his former boss, incumbent James C

35.
The Jurist
–
It features continuously updated US and international legal news and expert commentary. JURIST seeks to encourage teaching, learning, and scholarship within the legal community, in April 2009 JURIST was nominated for a Webby Award as best Law website, its third such nomination in four years. The site won the Webby Peoples Voice Award in 2006, other website awards include the 2008 W3 Silver Award and the 2006 W3 Gold Award in the Law and Legal Services category. JURISTs flagship Paper Chase legal news section was recognized by the ABA Journal in its 2008 and 2007 lists of the best Web sites by lawyers, JURIST is owned and operated by JURIST Legal News and Research Services, Inc. a 501 non-profit educational organization. Professor Bernard Hibbitts created the website that would become JURIST in 1996 as Law Professors on the Web, although law students have been involved with JURIST from its beginnings, the current model of training students to work as reporters and editors began in 2003. JURIST has since grown to a staff of sixty students. The first section to fully utilize students was the Paper Chase legal news service, subsequently, students have led efforts to more fully develop JURISTs commentary sections, features and archives, as well as develop vibrant social media presences on Facebook, Twitter, and Google+. In 2008, JURIST incorporated as a Pennsylvania non-profit and subsequently obtained an IRS determination to be an organization as defined in Section 501 of the IRS Code. This change in status allowed JURIST to make other changes. In 2010, JURIST began the process of transitioning its operations to the new jurist. org domain, JURIST also began its first online fundraising drive in March 2012, coinciding with the unveiling of a new logo and banner design on its website. Paper Chase is JURISTs flagship news service, providing readers with a constant stream of real-time legal news supported by primary sources. Paper Chase covers a range of national and international legal topics and reaches thousands of lawyers, policymakers, academics. The service is written by law student anchors working in continuous shifts 365 days a year under the direction of JURIST Research Director Jaclyn Belczyk, JURISTs commentary services provide readers with content produced by newsmakers, legal professionals and the academic community on topics covered by Paper Chase. JURISTs Forum publishes op-ed pieces on current legal developments written by law professors, Forum contributors come from law schools across the United States and from countries around the world, including the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, and Hungary. Recent Forum pieces have addressed topics ranging from Same-sex marriage in New Zealand to hunger strikes at Guantanamo Bay, in contrast to traditional legal scholarship, Forum contributors use a wider array of scholarly and non-scholarly sources to write for both a legal and non-legal audience. Forum is frequently cited in such as the Harvard Law Review, the Yale Law Journal. JURISTs Hotline solicits commentary on news from lawyers, advocacy groups, legislators. This commentary ties directly into JURISTs Paper Chase stories and offers readers pointed opinion on Paper Chase material from legal experts, Hotline also serves to broaden JURIST readership by building relationships with individuals and organizations that share an interest in some aspect of the law

36.
Associated Press
–
The Associated Press is an American multinational nonprofit news agency headquartered in New York City that operates as a cooperative, unincorporated association. The AP is owned by its contributing newspapers and radio and television stations in the United States, all of which stories to the AP. Most of the AP staff are members and are represented by the Newspaper Guild, which operates under the Communications Workers of America. As of 2007, news collected by the AP was published and republished by more than 1,700 newspapers, in addition to more than 5,000 television, the photograph library of the AP consists of over 10 million images. The AP operates 243 news bureaus in 120 countries and it also operates the AP Radio Network, which provides newscasts twice hourly for broadcast and satellite radio and television stations. Many newspapers and broadcasters outside the United States are AP subscribers, as part of their cooperative agreement with the AP, most member news organizations grant automatic permission for the AP to distribute their local news reports. The AP employs the inverted pyramid formula for writing that enables the news outlets to edit a story to fit its available publication area without losing the storys essentials. Cutbacks at rival United Press International in 1993 left the AP as the United States primary news service, although UPI still produces and distributes stories and photos daily. Other English-language news services, such as the BBC, Reuters, some historians believe that the Tribune joined at this time, documents show it was a member in 1849. The New York Times became a member shortly after its founding in September 1851, initially known as the New York Associated Press, the organization faced competition from the Western Associated Press, which criticized its monopolistic news gathering and price setting practices. The revelations led to the demise of the NYAP and in December 1892, when the AP was founded, news became a salable commodity. The invention of the press allowed the New York Tribune in the 1870s to print 18,000 papers per hour. During the Civil War and Spanish–American War, there was a new incentive to print vivid, Melville Stone, who had founded the Chicago Daily News in 1875, served as AP General Manager from 1893 to 1921. He embraced the standards of accuracy, impartiality, and integrity, the cooperative grew rapidly under the leadership of Kent Cooper, who built up bureau staff in South America, Europe and, the Middle East. He introduced the telegraph typewriter or teletypewriter into newsrooms in 1914, in 1935, AP launched the Wirephoto network, which allowed transmission of news photographs over leased private telephone lines on the day they were taken. This gave AP a major advantage over other media outlets. While the first network was only between New York, Chicago, and San Francisco, eventually AP had its network across the whole United States, in 1945, the Supreme Court of the United States held in Associated Press v. The decision facilitated the growth of its main rival United Press International, AP entered the broadcast field in 1941 when it began distributing news to radio stations, it created its own radio network in 1974

37.
Globe and Mail
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The Globe and Mail is a nationally distributed Canadian newspaper owned by The Woodbridge Company, based in Toronto and printed in six cities across the country. The Globe and Mail is regarded by some as Canadas newspaper of record, the predecessor to The Globe and Mail was The Globe, founded in 1844 by Scottish immigrant George Brown, who became a Father of Confederation. Browns liberal politics led him to court the support of the Clear Grits and he selected as the motto for the editorial page a quotation from Junius, The subject who is truly loyal to the Chief Magistrate will neither advise nor submit to arbitrary measures. The quotation is carried on the page to this day. By the 1850s, The Globe had become an independent and well-regarded daily newspaper and it began distribution by railway to other cities in Ontario shortly after Canadian Confederation. At the dawn of the century, The Globe added photography, a womens section, and the slogan Canadas National Newspaper. It began opening bureaus and offering subscriptions across Canada, on 23 November 1936, The Globe merged with The Mail and Empire, itself formed through the 1895 merger of two conservative newspapers, The Toronto Mail and Toronto Empire. Press reports at the stated, the minnow swallowed the whale because The Globes circulation was smaller than The Mail. The merger was arranged by George McCullagh, who fronted for mining magnate William Henry Wright and became the first publisher of The Globe, McCullagh committed suicide in 1952, and the newspaper was sold to the Webster family of Montreal. As the paper lost ground to The Toronto Star in the local Toronto market, the newspaper was unionised in 1955, under the banner of the American Newspaper Guild. From 1937 until 1974, the newspaper was produced at the William H, in 1965, the paper was bought by Winnipeg-based FP Publications, controlled by Bryan Maheswary, which owned a chain of local Canadian newspapers. FP put an emphasis on the Report on Business section that was launched in 1962. FP Publications and The Globe and Mail were sold in 1980 to The Thomson Corporation, after the acquisition there were few changes made in editorial or news policy. However, there was more attention paid to national and international news on the editorial, op-ed, the Globe and Mail has always been a morning newspaper. Since the 1980s, it has been printed in editions in six Canadian cities, Halifax, Montreal, Toronto, Winnipeg, Calgary. Southern Ontario Newspaper Guild employees took their first ever strike vote at The Globe in 1982 and those negotiations ended without a strike, and the Globe unit of SONG still has a strike-free record. SONG members voted in 1994 to sever ties with the American-focused Newspaper Guild, shortly afterwards, SONG affiliated with the Communications, Energy and Paperworkers Union of Canada. Under the editorship of William Thorsell in the 1980s and 1990s, during this period, the paper continued to favour such socially liberal policies as decriminalizing drugs and expanding gay rights

38.
Monterey Herald
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The Monterey County Herald, sometimes referred to as the Monterey Herald, is a daily newspaper published in Monterey, California that serves Monterey County. In December,2013, the Heralds parent company Media News Group merged to become Digital First Media, the Monterey County Herald, with offices in downtown Monterey, California, was produced at Ryan Ranch on the Monterey Peninsula from 1990–2014. It previously appeared as The Monterey Peninsula Herald, with offices on Pacific Street in Monterey. The newspaper was founded and long published by Colonel Allen Griffin, a small monument in Monterey memorializes him for having given the world an extra day of peace. In 1967, the newspaper was bought by Block Communications, in 1992 the paper was acquired by the E. W. Scripps Company in exchange for the Pittsburgh Press, which Block merged into its own Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Scripps traded the paper, along with The Tribune, to Knight Ridder in 1997, Knight Ridder was later purchased by the Sacramento-based McClatchy Company in June 2006 in a deal valued at $4.5 billion. The deal was contingent on McClatchy selling off 12 of the 32 newspapers it had just purchased, in December 2013, MediaNews Group and 21st Century Media merged to create a new company operating under the name of its parent company, Digital First Media. In 2013, the Santa Cruz Sentinel joined the community newspaper division for Digital First Media as the Monterey Herald. The two newspapers now share a common publisher, editor, advertising director and circulation director, in August 2014, The Monterey Herald moved from its 24-year location in Ryan Ranch to a renovated headquarters on Garden Road in Monterey. Ed Ricketts The Monterey County Heraldmonterey

39.
James Oliphant
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Lt. Colonel James Oliphant was Director and Chairman of the Honourable East India Company, and Equerry to the Maharajah Duleep Singh of the Punjab. James was the son of Ebenezer Oliphant, 7th of Condie and Mary. One of his brothers was Sir Anthony Oliphant, Chief Justice of Ceylon, Sir Anthonys son was Laurence Oliphant the famous author, diplomat, politician, lawyer, traveller and mystic. Jamess eldest brother was Laurence Oliphant, 8th of Condie and 30th Chief of Clan Oliphant who was the Member of Parliament for Perth between 1832 and 1837, a third brother was Thomas Oliphant, artist and musician. In the nineteenth century, the names of four Oliphants featured repeatedly in the records of the Houses of Parliament and they were the three brothers, Laurence Oliphant, James Oliphant, Sir Anthony Oliphant and also the latterss son, Laurence Oliphant. Lt. Col. James Oliphant married firstly, at Pudupattinam,23 July 1822, to Lucy, James had seven children with Lucy. James married secondly at Secunderabad, on 29 March 1832, to Sophia Ann, daughter of General Thomas Truman, Sophia and James had thirteen children together. One of the children was General William Stirling Oliphant of the Bengal Army and another was Arthur Craigie Oliphant, one of Arthur Craigies children was Sir Lancelot Oliphant, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to Belgium and Director General of the Foreign Office. Lancelot was married to Christine McRae Sinclair, Viscountess Churchill, James was a cadet at Addiscombe Military Seminary between 1812 and 5 July 1814 before entering the Madras Engineers. James Oliphant served at the sieges of Nowah and Copal Droog, in 1825 James was appointed Superintendent Engineer at Hyderabad He retired 17 December 1838. He was a director of the East India Company from 1844-1856, Deputy Chairman 1853, chaderghat is a suburb of Hyderabad. Chaderghat Bridge or Oliphant Bridge was built by Lt. Col, Oliphant during the reign of Nizam Nasir-ud-dawlah. The bridge spans the Musi River and was constructed between 1829 and 1831, for which James received the thanks of the Governor-General. Oliphant had very independent views of the rights and justices of the Indians under the East India Companys rule and was not scared to stand up for them. In the case of the Raja Pratap Singh, Raja of Satara, as Sir James Hogg, 1st Baronet commented in the House of Commons in July,1848, Major Oliphant had given an opinion in favour of the Rajas innocence. As John Elliot said in the debate in the House of Commons. That the Raja of Satara was badly treated is not a matter of dispute today, in September,1839 the Raja of Satara was dethroned, banished and stripped of his private property by the H. E. I. C. s government in Bombay. Since the charges were concocted by his enemies the Raja rightly felt wronged, the Rajas one main ally was the Governor, Sir Robert Grant until the latters death in July,1838 - the same year that Oliphant, a fellow Scot retired from active service in India

40.
Baltimore Sun
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The Baltimore Sun is the largest general-circulation daily newspaper based in the American state of Maryland and provides coverage of local and regional news, events, issues, people, and industries. Founded in 1837, it is owned by tronc, abell was born in Rhode Island, where he began journalism with the Providence Patriot. He later worked with newspapers in New York City and Boston, from 1947 to 1986, The Sun was the owner of Marylands first television station, WMAR-TV. In the postwar years, The Sun significantly expanded its overseas presence, the newspaper opened its first foreign bureau in London in 1924. Between 1955 and 1961, it added four new foreign offices, as Cold War tensions grew, it set up shop in Bonn, West Germany, in February 1955. Eleven months later, The Sun opened a Moscow bureau, becoming one of the first U. S. newspapers to do so, a Rome office followed in July 1957, and in 1961, The Sun expanded to New Dehli. At its height, The Sun ran eight foreign bureaus, giving rise to its boast in a 1983 ad that The Sun never sets on the world, the paper was sold in 1986 to the Times-Mirror Company of the Los Angeles Times. The same week, the rival News American, with publishing antecedents since 1773, the oldest paper in the city, it had been owned by the Hearst Corporation since the 1920s. In 1997, The Sun acquired the Patuxent Publishing Company, a suburban newspaper publisher that had a stable of weekly papers. In the 1990s and 2000s, The Sun began cutting back its foreign coverage, in 1995 and 1996, closed its Tokyo, Mexico City and Berlin bureaus. Two more — Beijing and London — fell victim to cost-cutting in 2005, the final three bureaus — Moscow, Jerusalem, and Johannesburg, South Africa — fell a couple years later. All were closed by 2008, as the Tribune Co. streamlined and downsized the newspaper chains foreign reporting, some material from The Suns foreign correspondents is archived at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. In 2000, the Times-Mirror company was purchased by the Tribune Company of Chicago, I,2014 it transferred its newspapers, including The Sun, to Tribune Publishing. On September 19,2005, and again on August 24,2008 and its circulation as of 2010 was 195,561 for the daily edition and 343,552 on Sundays. On April 29,2009, the Tribune Company announced that it would lay off 61 of the 205 staff members in the Sun newsroom. On September 23,2011, it was reported that the Baltimore Sun would be moving its web edition behind a paywall starting October 10,2011, BSMG content reaches more than one million Baltimore-area readers each week and is the regions most widely read source of news. On February 20,2014, The Baltimore Sun Media Group announced they are going to buy the alternative weekly City Paper, in April, the Sun acquired the Maryland publications of Landmark Media Enterprises. The Evening Sun was first published in 1910 under the leadership of Charles H. Grasty, former owner of the Evening News, for most of its existence, The Evening Sun led its morning sibling in circulation

41.
Washington Post
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The Washington Post is an American daily newspaper. It is the most widely circulated newspaper published in Washington, D. C. and was founded on December 6,1877 and its current slogan is Democracy Dies in Darkness. Located in the city of the United States, the newspaper has a particular emphasis on national politics. Daily editions are printed for the District of Columbia, Maryland, the newspaper is published as a broadsheet, with photographs printed both in color and in black and white. The newspaper has won 47 Pulitzer Prizes and this includes six separate Pulitzers awarded in 2008, the second-highest number ever awarded to a single newspaper in one year, second only to The New York Times seven awards in 2002. Post journalists have also received 18 Nieman Fellowships and 368 White House News Photographers Association awards, in years since, its investigations have led to increased review of the Walter Reed Army Medical Center. In 2013, its owners, the Graham family, sold the newspaper to billionaire entrepreneur. The newspaper is owned by Nash Holdings LLC, a holding company Bezos created for the acquisition, the Washington Post is generally regarded as one of the leading daily American newspapers, along with The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal. The Post has distinguished itself through its reporting on the workings of the White House, Congress. It is one of the two daily broadsheets published in Washington D. C. the other being its smaller rival The Washington Times, unlike The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post does not print an edition for distribution away from the East Coast. In 2009, the newspaper ceased publication of its National Weekly Edition, the majority of its newsprint readership is in District of Columbia and its suburbs in Maryland and Northern Virginia. The Sunday Style section differs slightly from the weekday Style section, it is in a tabloid format, and it houses the reader-written humor contest The Style Invitational. Additional weekly sections appear on weekdays, Health & Science on Tuesday, Food on Wednesday, Local Living on Thursday, the latter two are in a tabloid format. In November 2009, it announced the closure of its U. S. regional bureaus—Chicago, Los Angeles and New York—as part of a focus on. political stories. The newspaper has bureaus in Maryland and Virginia. While its circulation has been slipping, it has one of the highest market-penetration rates of any metropolitan news daily, for many decades, the Post had its main office at 1150 15th Street NW. This real estate remained with Graham Holdings when the newspaper was sold to Jeff Bezos Nash Holdings in 2013, Graham Holdings sold 1150 15th Street for US$159 million in November 2013. The Washington Post continued to lease space at 1150 L Street NW, in May 2014, The Washington Post leased the west tower of One Franklin Square, a high-rise building at 1301 K Street NW in Washington, D. C

42.
Linda Greenhouse
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Linda Joyce Greenhouse is the Knight Distinguished Journalist in Residence and Joseph M. Goldstein Senior Fellow at Yale Law School. She is a Pulitzer Prize winning reporter who covered the United States Supreme Court for nearly three decades for The New York Times, Greenhouse was born in New York City to H. Robert Greenhouse and Dorothy. She received her BA degree in government from Radcliffe College in 1968 and she received her Master of Studies in Law from Yale Law School in 1978. Greenhouse began her 40-year career at The New York Times covering state government in the bureau in Albany. Since 1981, she has authored over 2,800 articles for The New York Times and she has been a regular guest on the PBS program Washington Week. In 2008, Greenhouse accepted an offer from The Times for a retirement at the end of the Supreme Court session in the summer of 2008. Seven of the nine sitting Justices attended a party for Greenhouse on June 12,2008. She continues to blog for The Times in the Opinionator section, in 2010, Greenhouse and co-author Reva Siegel put out a book on the development of the abortion debate prior to the 1973 Supreme Court ruling on the subject, Before Roe v. Wade. This was largely a selection of documents, though with some commentary. Greenhouse criticized US policies and actions at Guantanamo Bay, Abu Ghraib, in it, Greenhouse said she started crying a few years back at a Simon & Garfunkel concert because her generation hadnt done a better job of running the country than previous generations. Greenhouse was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in Journalism in 1998 for her consistently illuminating coverage of the United States Supreme Court, in 2004, she received the Goldsmith Career Award for Excellence in Journalism and the John Chancellor Award for Excellence in Journalism. She was a Radcliffe Institute Medal winner in 2006, some critics, notably retired conservative Appeals Court Judge Laurence H. Silberman, have complained of what they call the Greenhouse Effect. This criticism seems directed less at Greenhouse personally than at a general assumption of a media bias. She has also criticized for her failure to maintain the appearance of objectivity. In 1989, she was rebuked by Times editors for participating in a rally in Washington. On August 9,2007, a crew from C-SPAN was forbidden to film a panel discussion at a meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism. Greenhouse had told organizers that she would not be able answer questions as fully and frankly as she would be if the session were filmed. Fidell also submitted a brief in the Boumediene case when it was at the D. C. Circuit level before it went to the Supreme Court

September 11 attacks
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The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11,2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North

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Top row: The Twin Towers of the World Trade Center burning

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1997 picture of Osama bin Laden

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Khalid Sheikh Mohammed after his capture in 2003

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Flight paths of the four planes used on September 11

Guantanamo Bay detention camp
–
The Guantanamo Bay detention camp is a United States military prison located within Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, also referred to as Guantánamo or GTMO, which fronts on Guantánamo Bay in Cuba. Since the inmates have been detained indefinitely without trial and several inmates were severely tortured, the camp was established by the President George W.

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Detainees upon arrival at Camp X-Ray, January 2002

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Camp X-Ray, 2002

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Camp Delta

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A Camp Delta recreation and exercise area in Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. The detention block is shown with sunshades drawn on 3 December 2002

United States of America
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean,

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Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764

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Flag

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The signing of the Mayflower Compact, 1620.

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The Declaration of Independence: the Committee of Five presenting their draft to the Second Continental Congress in 1776

Cuba
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Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is a country comprising the island of Cuba as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located in the northern Caribbean where the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and it is south of both the U. S. state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Haiti, and north of Jamaica. Havana is the

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Hatuey, an early Taíno chief of Cuba.

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Flag

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Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, conquistador of Cuba.

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Slaves in Cuba unloading ice from Maine, c. 1832.

United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean,

1.
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764

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Flag

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The signing of the Mayflower Compact, 1620.

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The Declaration of Independence: the Committee of Five presenting their draft to the Second Continental Congress in 1776

Magna Carta
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Magna Carta Libertatum, commonly called Magna Carta, is a charter agreed to by King John of England at Runnymede, near Windsor, on 15 June 1215. Neither side stood behind their commitments, and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III, at the end of the 16th century there was an upsurge in interest in Magna Carta. Lawyers and historians at the

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Cotton MS. Augustus II. 106, one of only four surviving exemplifications of the 1215 text.

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King John on a stag hunt

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A contemporaneous mural of Pope Innocent III

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The Articles of the Barons, 1215, held by the British Library

Extrajudicial detention
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Administrative detention is arrest and detention of individuals by the state without trial, usually for security reasons. A large number of countries, both democratic and undemocratic, resort to administrative detention as a means to combat terrorism, to illegal immigration. Unlike criminal incarceration imposed upon conviction following a trial, a

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Legal status of persons

US Constitution
–
The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. The Constitution, originally comprising seven articles, delineates the national frame of government, Articles Four, Five and Six entrench concepts of federalism, describing the rights and responsibilities of state governments and of the states in relationship to the

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Page one of the original copy of the Constitution

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Signing the Constitution, September 17, 1787

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Territorial extent of the United States, 1790.

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"We the People" in an original edition

Taliban
–
Until his death in 2013, Mullah Mohammed Omar was the supreme commander and spiritual leader of the Taliban. Mullah Akhtar Mansour was elected as his replacement in 2015, and following Mansours killing in a May 2016 U. S. drone strike, Mawlawi Hibatullah Akhundzada became the groups leader. The Taliban emerged in 1994 as one of the prominent factio

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Darul Uloom Deoband, India

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Flag of the Taliban.

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The Taliban emerged in the southern Afghan city of Kandahar around September 1994.

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Taliban border guard in 2001

Al Qaeda
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It operates as a network made up of Islamic extremist, Salafist jihadists. Al-Qaeda has mounted attacks on civilian and military targets in various countries, including the 1998 U. S. embassy bombings, the September 11 attacks, the U. S. government responded to the September 11 attacks by launching the War on Terror. Characteristic techniques emplo

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Al-Qaeda militant in Sahel, 2012

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Shahada flag

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Al-Zawahiri and Bin Laden in 2001 interview with Hamid Mir in Kabul

Patriot Act
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The USA PATRIOT Act is an Act of Congress that was signed into law by President George W. Bush on October 26,2001. With its ten-letter abbreviation expanded, the title is Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept. Following a lack of Congressional approval, parts of the Patriot Act expired on June 1,2015

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USA PATRIOT Act

Combatant Status Review Tribunal
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These non-public hearings were conducted as a formal review of all the information related to a detainee to determine whether each person meets the criteria to be designated as an enemy combatant. The first CSRT hearings began in July 2004, redacted transcripts of hearings for high value detainees were posted to the Department of Defense website. A

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Trailer where the Combatant Status Review Tribunals were held. The detainee's hands and feet are shackled to a bolt in the floor in front of the white plastic chair. Three chairs were reserved for members of the press, but only 37 of the 574 Tribunals were observed.

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CSRT notice being read to a Guantanamo captive

Boumediene v. Bush
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The case was consolidated with habeas petition Al Odah v. United States. It challenged the legality of Boumedienes detention at the United States Naval Station military base in Guantanamo Bay, oral arguments on the combined cases were heard by the Supreme Court on December 5,2007. S. Invoking Marbury v. Madison, the Court concluded, The Nation’s ba

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Supreme Court of the United States

Geneva Conventions
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The Geneva Conventions comprise four treaties, and three additional protocols, that establish the standards of international law for the humanitarian treatment in war. The treaties of 1949 were ratified, in whole or with reservations, the Swiss businessman Henry Dunant went to visit wounded soldiers after the Battle of Solferino in 1859. He was sho

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The Geneva Convention: the signature-and-seals page of the 1864 Geneva Convention, that established humane rules of war.

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Red Cross poster from the First World War.

International humanitarian law
–
International humanitarian law is the law that regulates the conduct of war. IHL is inspired by considerations of humanity and the mitigation of human suffering and it includes the Geneva Conventions and the Hague Conventions, as well as subsequent treaties, case law, and customary international law. It is designed to balance humanitarian concerns

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The First Geneva Convention of 1864.

War Crimes Act of 1996
–
The definition of grave breach in some of the Geneva Conventions have text that extend additional protections, but all the Conventions share the following text in common. The law applies if either the victim or the perpetrator is a national of the United States or a member of the U. S, the penalty may be life imprisonment or death. The death penalt

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War Crimes Act of 1996

Universal Declaration of Human Rights
–
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 December 1948 at the Palais de Chaillot, Paris. The full text is available on the United Nations website, in 1966, the General Assembly adopted the two detailed Covenants, which complete the International Bill of Human Rights. In 1976, af

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State of the Union (Four Freedoms) (6 January 1941)

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Eleanor Roosevelt with the Spanish version of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

European Convention of Human Rights
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The European Convention on Human Rights is an international treaty to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms in Europe. Drafted in 1950 by the newly formed Council of Europe. All Council of Europe member states are party to the Convention, the Convention established the European Court of Human Rights. Any person who feels his or her rights h

American Convention on Human Rights
–
The American Convention on Human Rights, also known as the Pact of San José, is an international human rights instrument. It was adopted by countries in the Western Hemisphere in San José, Costa Rica. It came into force after the instrument of ratification was deposited on 18 July 1978. This provision is established under influence of the Article 2

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Pact of San José

Center for Constitutional Rights
–
The Center for Constitutional Rights is a progressive non-profit legal advocacy organization based in New York City, New York, in the United States. It was founded in 1966 by Arthur Kinoy, William Kunstler and others particularly to activists in implementation of civil rights legislation. CCR has focused on civil liberties and human rights litigati

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Jules Lobel, current President of the Center for Constitutional Rights, testifying before Congressional subcommittee about the War Powers Act.

United States Supreme Court
–
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices

Rasul v. Bush
–
The lead petitioner, British citizen Shafiq Rasul, was one of the Tipton Three. The U. S. transported the three men to the United Kingdom in March 2004 before the decision was handed down, Secretary of State Colin Powell and State Department Legal Advisor William Howard Taft IV advised that the President must observe the Geneva Conventions. Colonel

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Supreme Court of the United States

Johnson v. Eisentrager
–
The prisoners had at no time been on American sovereign territory. Braden was relied on by the Court in Rasul v and they were transported to the American-occupied part of Germany and imprisoned there in the custody of the Army. Claiming that their trial, conviction, and imprisonment violated Articles I and Article III, the Fifth Amendment, the U. S

1.
Supreme Court of the United States

Hamdi v. Rumsfeld
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Yaser Esam Hamdi was born in Louisiana as a citizen of the United States. In 1980, while still a child, he moved with his family to Saudi Arabia, according to his father, Hamdi went to Afghanistan in the late summer of 2001 as a relief worker. He was then captured less than two months after his arrival by the Afghan Northern Alliance and they turne

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Hamdi during his detention at Guantanamo Bay.

Hamdan v. Rumsfeld
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Hamdan v. Rumsfeld,548 U. S. Specifically, the ruling says that Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions was violated. Because these statements were not included in the December 21 debate at the time, the plaintiff was Salim Ahmed Hamdan, a citizen of Yemen who worked as a bodyguard and chauffeur for Osama bin Laden. Hamdan had formerly worked in

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Justice Stevens, the author of the Court's opinion.

2.
Justice Kennedy

United States Constitution
–
The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. The Constitution, originally comprising seven articles, delineates the national frame of government, Articles Four, Five and Six entrench concepts of federalism, describing the rights and responsibilities of state governments and of the states in relationship to the

1.
Page one of the original copy of the Constitution

2.
Signing the Constitution, September 17, 1787

3.
Territorial extent of the United States, 1790.

4.
"We the People" in an original edition

Guantanamo military commission
–
The United States Department of Defense organized military tribunals to judge charges against enemy combatant detainees being held at Guantanamo Bay detention camp. On June 29,2006, the Supreme Court had ruled in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld Docket 05-194 and it effectively declared that trying Guantanamo Bay detainees under the existing Guantanamo military

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Court room where initial Guantanamo military commissions convened.

2.
Major Elizabeth Kubala, Spokesperson for the Office of Military Commissions, gives a press briefing.

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The sign waved by Ali al-Bahlul declaring a boycott at his 2006 hearing.

Walter E. Dellinger III
–
Walter Estes Dellinger III is the Douglas B. Maggs Professor of Law at Duke University and head of the practice at O’Melveny & Myers in Washington. He also currently leads Harvard Law Schools Supreme Court and Appellate Litigation Clinic and he served as the acting United States Solicitor General for the 1996-1997 Term of the Supreme Court. Prior t

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Walter E. Dellinger III

Military Commission Act of 2006
–
The United States Military Commissions Act of 2006, also known as HR-6166, was an Act of Congress signed by President George W. Bush on October 17,2006. The Acts stated purpose was to trial by military commission for violations of the law of war. It was drafted following the Supreme Courts decision on Hamdan v and it prohibited detainees who had be

1.
President George W. Bush signs into law S. 3930, the Military Commissions Act of 2006, during a ceremony on October 17, 2006 in the East Room of the White House.

2.
Military Commissions Act of 2006

Anthony Kennedy
–
Kennedy became the most senior Associate Justice on the court following the death of Antonin Scalia in February 2016. Since the retirement of Sandra Day OConnor in 2006, he has been the swing vote on many of the Courts 5–4 decisions. He has authored the majority ruling in many of these cases, including Lawrence v. Texas, Boumediene v. Bush, Citizen

1.
The Honorable Anthony Kennedy

2.
Kennedy meets with President Reagan in the Oval Office, November 11, 1987

United States Senate
–
The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by t

1.
United States Senate

2.
Seal of the U.S. Senate

3.
The Senate side of the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.

4.
A typical Senate desk

Patrick Leahy
–
Patrick Joseph Pat Leahy /ˈleɪˌhiː/ is an American politician and the senior United States Senator from Vermont. He has been in office since 1975, a member of the Democratic Party, Leahy served as the President pro tempore of the United States Senate from December 17,2012, to January 6,2015. As President pro tempore, he was third in the line of suc

1.
Patrick Leahy

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An early Senate photo of Leahy

3.
Former Committee Chairman Robert Byrd (D-WV, far right) shakes hands with Secretary of Defense Robert Gates while Sen. Patrick Leahy (D-VT, center right) and Sen. Tom Harkin (D-IA) look on. The hearing was held to discuss further funding for the War in Iraq.

4.
Patrick Leahy speaking at a press conference in Washington, D.C.

Arlen Specter
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Arlen Specter was an American lawyer and politician who served as United States Senator from Pennsylvania. Specter was a Democrat from 1951 to 1965, then a Republican from 1965 until 2009, first elected in 1980, he represented his state in the Senate for 30 years. Specter was born in Wichita, Kansas, to emigrant Russian Jewish parents and he gradua

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Arlen Specter

2.
Specter reproducing the assumed alignment of the single bullet theory

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Specter while he was being interviewed by Margot Adler for an episode of Justice Talking on "Presidential signing statements."

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Specter campaigning for re-election

The Jurist
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It features continuously updated US and international legal news and expert commentary. JURIST seeks to encourage teaching, learning, and scholarship within the legal community, in April 2009 JURIST was nominated for a Webby Award as best Law website, its third such nomination in four years. The site won the Webby Peoples Voice Award in 2006, other

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JURIST

Associated Press
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The Associated Press is an American multinational nonprofit news agency headquartered in New York City that operates as a cooperative, unincorporated association. The AP is owned by its contributing newspapers and radio and television stations in the United States, all of which stories to the AP. Most of the AP staff are members and are represented

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The AP headquarters in October 2008, located at 450 West 33rd Street, in New York City.

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Associated Press

3.
Logo on the former AP Building in New York City

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The APTN Building in London

Globe and Mail
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The Globe and Mail is a nationally distributed Canadian newspaper owned by The Woodbridge Company, based in Toronto and printed in six cities across the country. The Globe and Mail is regarded by some as Canadas newspaper of record, the predecessor to The Globe and Mail was The Globe, founded in 1844 by Scottish immigrant George Brown, who became a

Monterey Herald
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The Monterey County Herald, sometimes referred to as the Monterey Herald, is a daily newspaper published in Monterey, California that serves Monterey County. In December,2013, the Heralds parent company Media News Group merged to become Digital First Media, the Monterey County Herald, with offices in downtown Monterey, California, was produced at R

1.
The July 27, 2009 front page of The Monterey County Herald

James Oliphant
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Lt. Colonel James Oliphant was Director and Chairman of the Honourable East India Company, and Equerry to the Maharajah Duleep Singh of the Punjab. James was the son of Ebenezer Oliphant, 7th of Condie and Mary. One of his brothers was Sir Anthony Oliphant, Chief Justice of Ceylon, Sir Anthonys son was Laurence Oliphant the famous author, diplomat,

Baltimore Sun
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The Baltimore Sun is the largest general-circulation daily newspaper based in the American state of Maryland and provides coverage of local and regional news, events, issues, people, and industries. Founded in 1837, it is owned by tronc, abell was born in Rhode Island, where he began journalism with the Providence Patriot. He later worked with news

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The Baltimore Sun, North Calvert Street

2.
Front page of The Baltimore Sun, June 16, 2009

3.
Sun Park in Port Covington

Washington Post
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The Washington Post is an American daily newspaper. It is the most widely circulated newspaper published in Washington, D. C. and was founded on December 6,1877 and its current slogan is Democracy Dies in Darkness. Located in the city of the United States, the newspaper has a particular emphasis on national politics. Daily editions are printed for

1.
Front page for May 21, 2015

2.
The Washington Post

3.
The headquarters of The Washington Post in Washington, DC.

4.
Washington Post building in 1948

Linda Greenhouse
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Linda Joyce Greenhouse is the Knight Distinguished Journalist in Residence and Joseph M. Goldstein Senior Fellow at Yale Law School. She is a Pulitzer Prize winning reporter who covered the United States Supreme Court for nearly three decades for The New York Times, Greenhouse was born in New York City to H. Robert Greenhouse and Dorothy. She recei