CHAPTER 9
THE OFFENSIVE

SECTION I
GENERAL

THE OBJECTIVE

An objective sometimes may be attained by maneuver
alone; ordinarily it must be gained by battle. A sound tactical
maneuver has a great influence on the successful outcome
of battle.

The purpose of offensive action is the destruction of
the hostile armed forces. To facilitate the accomplishment of
this purpose the commander selects a physical objective such
as a body of troops, dominating terrain, a center of lines of
communication, or other vital area in the hostile rear for
his attack. The attainment of this objective is the basis of
his own and all subordinate plans. This objective should
have the following characteristics:

Its capture must be possible within the time and space
limits imposed by the assigned mission.

Its capture should assure the destruction of the enemy
in his position, or the threat of its capture should compel the
enemy to evacuate his position.

It should produce a convergence of effort.

It must be easily identified.

Its capture should facilitate contemplated future operations.

The objective having been selected, all components are
directed in coordinated effort towards its attainment. Actions
which do not contribute to this purpose are avoided.

Sound tactical maneuver in the offensive is characterized
by a concentration of effort in a direction where success
will insure the attainment of the objective. On the remainder
of the front are used only the minimum means necessary to
deceive the enemy and to hinder his maneuver to oppose
the main attack.

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DISTRIBUTION OF FORCES

In the offensive, troops are distributed into two or
more principal tactical groupings: one or more main or decisive
attacks in which the greatest possible offensive power is
concentrated to bring about a decision, and one or more
secondary or holding attacks whose mission is to render
maximum assistance to the main attack.

Main attack groupings are designed to secure the objective
and to destroy the hostile force. Secondary attack groupings
are designed to hold the enemy in position, to force him to
commit his reserves prematurely and to an indecisive location,
and to prevent him from reinforcing the front of the
main attack.

In each tactical grouping, the mass of the available
means of combat is concentrated in a main effort and is applied
in a decisive direction.

Main attacks are characterized by narrow zones of
action, by strong support of artillery, tanks, and other supporting
weapons, by effective support of combat aviation, and
by deep echelonment of reserves.

Secondary attacks are characterized by lack of depth,
reduction of reserves to the minimum, maximum fire power in
the attacking echelon, and by wide zones of action for the
attack units. They will therefore usually be assigned limited
objectives initially.

When it is impracticable to determine initially when
or where the main attack is to be made, the commander retains
his freedom to act by disposing his forces in great
depth, by holding out strong reserves, and by maintaining
close control of his supporting weapons.

Attacking echelons once committed to action lose their
immediate availability for employment in the execution of
other missions. Deployed and under fire, they can change
front only at the risk of incurring heavy losses. The commander
can materially influence the course of an action once
begun through the employment of reserves, fire support, and
combat aviation.

In selecting the direction for the main attack, the
terrain must be carefully studied. The choice of the front

--98--

on which the main attack and the main efforts of subordinate
units are made often is determined by the possibilities which
the terrain offers for effective employment of artillery and
mechanized units.

Selection of the direction of the main attack also is influenced
by the time available for movement before the attack
must be launched. In many situations the most rapid and
decisive results are to be expected when the main attack is
composed principally of large armored units or when such
units lead the main attack. Air superiority and effective support
of the armored units by combat aviation are essential
to the sustained drive of the armored units.

FORMS OF OFFENSIVE ACTION

Attack maneuvers are classified as envelopments and
penetrations.

In an envelopment, the main attack is directed against
the flank or rear of the initial disposition of the enemy's
main forces and toward an objective in rear of his front
lines. It seeks to surround that portion of the enemy's forces
in front of the objective. It is assisted usually by a secondary
attack directed against the enemy's front.

A successful envelopment depends largely on the degree
of surprise attained and on the ability of the secondary attack
to contain the bulk of the enemy's forces. Surprise is secured
by maneuvering to avoid observation by the enemy and by
deceiving him. Superior mobility increases the prospect of
success.

An envelopment avoids attacking on ground chosen by the
enemy, and forces him to fight in two or more directions to
meet the converging efforts of the attack. An envelopment
which strikes the defender's flank or rear so as to avoid any
part of his organized front and small-arms fire from that
front is preferable. It minimizes losses, handicaps the defender's
ability to meet it promptly, compels the defender to
meet an attack on ground chosen by the attacker and when
successful is more decisive.

A turning movement is an enveloping maneuver which
passes around the enemy's main forces, striking at some vital
point deep in the hostile rear. The force making the maneuver
usually operates so far from the secondary attack that the

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principal tactical groupings are beyond mutual supporting
distance (the distance by which forces may be separated and
yet permit one to move to the aid of another before it can be
defeated by an enemy force); hence, each grouping must be
strong enough or mobile enough to avoid defeat in detail.
When conditions favor such action, all combat elements of
the command may be employed in the turning force, leaving
only reconnaissance elements confronting the hostile dispositions.
The turning movement is adapted particularly to
highly mobile commands, such as cavalry, armored and motorized
forces, and forces transported by aircraft. It is invariably
employed by highly mobile forces in situations in
which the vital objective in the hostile rear can be seized by
such a maneuver before it is necessary to involve the enveloping
force in a major engagement with the enemy. Deception,
secrecy, and mobility are vital to successful execution of a
turning movement.

When the enemy takes up a defensive position, the
commander of the attacking forces should consider the possibility
of turning the enemy out of his position and forcing
him to withdraw and fight on ground more favorable to the
attacker.

Situations may occur, especially in the pursuit of a defeated
force, in which the enemy can be forced by direct
attack to take up a defensive position while a portion of the
more mobile attacking forces executes a turning movement
against his lines of communication.

A double envelopment is executed by three principal
tactical groups, two enveloping attack forces and a secondary
attack force. A simultaneous envelopment of both flanks
generally requires considerable superiority.

The command seeking to attack by double development
must be deployed or capable of deploying on a broad front
against an enemy on a much narrower front or with little
capability or room for maneuver. The maneuver is executed
by fighting a holding battle with the center while enveloping
forces strike on both hostile flanks. When mobile forces are
available in reserve, they may complete the envelopment by
an attack from the rear. When conditions favor it, this
form of maneuver should be used because of the decisive
results it promises.

--100--

An envelopment of one flank is executed by two principal
tactical groups, the main or enveloping attack force
and the secondary attack force. After an initial envelopment
of one flank, favorable conditions for passing to a
double envelopment through the use of reserves may be created
when the success of our troops has placed the enemy in
a disadvantageous situation.

The enemy's preparations to meet an envelopment of
his flank ordinarily cannot be organized as completely as
the defense of his front, especially if the envelopment is
launched from a locality deep on the hostile flank or rear.

The defender strengthens an unsupported flank by reserves
echeloned in depth and in width. When threatened
with envelopment he moves them to meet the maneuver. He
may attempt to envelop the attacking forces, or to extend
his flank beyond that of the attack up to the limit of his
strength. An attempt on the part of the attacker to meet
such hostile extension may lead to overextension or to a dangerous
separation of the enveloping forces from those making
the secondary attack. It usually is better to take advantage
of the enemy's extension and consequent weakness
by retaining a deep formation and to penetrate his thinly
held front than to overextend in an effort further to outflank
the position. When the enemy extends his position
beyond the enveloping forces, particular attention must be
paid to protecting the exterior flank by the use of the general
reserves of the higher commander.

In a penetration the main attack passes through some
portion of the area occupied by the enemy's main forces and
is directed on an objective in his rear. It is characterized
by the complete rupture of the enemy's dispositions; the
seizure of the objective by operations through the gap; and
the envelopment of one or both flanks created by the breakthrough.

The essential conditions for success are surprise, sufficient
fire power, especially combat aviation and artillery, to neutralize
the front of penetration, favorable terrain within the
hostile position for the advance of the attacking troops, and
strength to carry the attack through to its objective.

When the situation does not favor an envelopment,
the main attack is directed to penetrate the hostile front.

--101--

Conditions which demand a penetration are enemy's flanks
unassailable; lack of time to make an enveloping maneuver.
Conditions which favor a penetration are overextension of
the enemy; terrain and observation favorable for more effective
cooperation of the combined arms. Such an attack often
can be organized more quickly than can an envelopment.

In the penetration of a defensive position, the main
attack is launched on a front wider than that of the contemplated
break-through in order to hold the enemy in place
on the flanks of the penetration. The attack on the remainder
of the hostile front is designed to contain the enemy
and prevent him from moving his reserves.

The amount of artillery, mechanized units, and supporting
combat aviation available largely determines the width of
the front of penetration. The wider the front of penetration,
the deeper can it be driven and the more difficult will it be
for the enemy to close the gap. The deeper the penetration,
the more effective will be the action of mobile reserves in
seizing the objective and rolling up the hostile flanks.

The greatest distribution in depth is placed opposite the
prospective front of penetration. The distribution of troops
provides for three separate impulses; a break through the
hostile position, a widening of the gap thus created by enveloping
one or both interior hostile flanks, and the seizure of the
objective and exploitation of the success.

The sequence of these impulses depends on the situation.
In some situations it is practicable through the existence of
weaknesses or gaps in the enemy's front for mobile troops
(armored, motorized, or cavalry divisions) to break through
and to proceed straight to the objective, while operations of
local envelopment and exploitation are performed by less
mobile troops. In other situations foot troops must break
through, the more mobile troops being held initially in reserve
and used later to operate through the gap created by
the foot troops.

The mission of the attacking echelon of troops is to
break through the enemy's dispositions so that he will be
unable to reconstitute his front on a rearward line. Until
this mission has been accomplished, the attacking troops do
not divert their strength to the attack of the flanks of the
gap. Hostile counterattacks against the flanks of the

--102--

penetration are met by reserves, by the fire of the artillery, and
by combat aviation.

The missions of rolling up the flanks of a gap created by
penetration and of exploiting the break-through are assigned
to reserves. Cavalry, armored and motorized units are especially
suitable for seizing the objective and for exploitation.
These units are supported by combat aviation operating
against hostile reserves and artillery and other important
objectives. Troops transported by air may be used to support
these operations.

In large commands, a penetration often is initiated by
launching simultaneously two or more powerful attacks (a
multiple penetration) against weak localities on the hostile
front. Strong localities are contained initially by secondary
attacks. When the penetrating attacks have advanced far
enough to permit, the interior strong localities are reduced
by maneuver, and the penetrating attacks are united into a
single main attack. The pinching out of strong hostile localities
often is facilitated by launching multiple penetrations in
converging directions. The doctrines applicable to a single
penetration govern the organization and conduct of a multiple
penetration.

Whether the maneuver adopted is an envelopment or
a penetration, success will depend primarily on intelligent,
energetic, and coordinated execution. This execution must
be based on a sound plan which is influenced largely by the
objective and direction of the main attack.

The doctrines which underlie the employment of the combined
arms in the offensive are conservation of the combat
power of troops in the attack echelon, provision of assistance
for them to close with the enemy, and thereafter support of
their attack until the enemy's power of resistance is broken.

FRONTAGES AND DEPTHS

The frontage assigned to any unit in an attack varies
with the mobility, type of armament, mission and combat
power of the unit, the terrain, the amount of fire support
available, and the probable hostile resistance. As a general
guide, an infantry battalion at full strength in a main attack
seldom is assigned a frontage less than 500 yards or more
than 1,000 yards measured on the front of the hostile position.

--103--

Units are distributed in depth to provide flexibility of
maneuver, continuity in the attack, and security. For infantry
units, depth of formation for combat rather than a wide
extension of front is necessary in the initial deployment.
The progress of battle will call for maneuvers that cannot be
clearly foreseen. This condition can be met only by initial
distribution in depth.

Laterally the distribution of troops in attack is governed
principally by the doctrine of the main attack and main effort.
It is influenced also by the relative advantages offered by
different sections of the terrain. When the situation requires
an unusually wide extension of the command, the increase
is effected by widening the gaps between units.

RESERVES

The initial strength and location of the reserve will
vary with its contemplated missions, the type of maneuver,
possible hostile reaction, and clarity of the situation. After
the attack is launched the reserve and the fires of supporting
arms are the principal means available to the commander for
shaping the course of action and for enforcing favorable
decision.

The primary mission of the reserve is to enter the action
offensively at the proper place and moment to clinch the
victory. Hence its initial strength and location are controlled
largely by the maneuver to be executed.

In a penetration the reserve must be large enough to
exploit the break-through by enveloping one or both of the
flanks created and by operating deep in the hostile rear.
To facilitate its rapid movement through the gap the reserve
is located generally in rear of the main attack.

In an envelopment the reserve must be large enough
to extend the envelopment or to exploit a successful enveloping
action by operating against the hostile rear. To favor
the envelopment the reserve is disposed toward the flank
enveloped.

When open flanks exist or when there is danger of a
hostile threat some reserves are disposed to meet dangerous
contingencies.

When the situation is relatively clear and enemy capabilities
are limited the reserve may consist of a small fraction

--104--

of the command disposed to favor the maneuver. When the
situation is obscure the reserve may consist initially of the
bulk of the command, centrally located and prepared to
move to any point on the front or flanks.

The location of the reserve should combine a maximum
of protection for itself against hostile observation and air
and mechanized attack with a road net which facilitates rapid
movement to any point of possible employment. Motor vehicles
should be held available for the movement of reserves
lacking organic means of rapid movement.

Choosing the proper time at which the reserve should
be used is often the commander's most difficult and most
important decision.

Nevertheless, at the decisive moment of action every man
that can be used to advantage must participate in the battle
and the reserve must be launched without hesitation. As far
as practicable the reserve is sent in by complete units. Reinforcement
by driblets is avoided. Commanders endeavor
to reconstitute reserves from troops which the course of the
action has made available.

COORDINATION

The commander is responsible for coordination of the
action of all elements of his command.

In all cases the highest degree of coordination permitted
by the situation and time element is sought. The
considerations discussed below are applicable in general to
situations in which thorough coordination can be prescribed.
In other situations they are applied to the degree practicable.

Against a strong enemy a decision to develop and deploy
for attack directly from march columns risks loss of
control and sacrifices some of the capabilities of artillery,
tanks, and other supporting weapons. Ordinarily an attack
in a moving situation may be organized and coordinated in
assembly positions.

From a march formation the commander develops
the main body for a coordinated attack by assigning march
objectives to the larger units, usually the assembly positions
they are to occupy, and routes or zones of advance thereto.
The development order announces the missions of units

--105--

already engaged, the missions of the artillery, the dispositions
of the main body, the security measures to be taken, and instructions
for further reconnaissance. It provides for essential
administrative details so that the necessary preparations
can be made. Instructions given in the development order are
as complete as possible so that the attack order may be brief.
For movement to assembly positions and security during
development, see paragraphs 364-369, and 436-438.

The location of assembly positions is dependent on
several factors. Darkness, cover from observed hostile artillery
fire, a thorough knowledge of the situation, and a plan
of attack already decided, favor advanced positions located
in conformity with the plan of maneuver. Conditions the
reverse of these indicate the selection of assembly positions
well back.

Units of high mobility such as tanks, cavalry, and armored
forces may complete their development and preparations
for battle at greater distances from the hostile front.

If the plan of attack involves an enveloping maneuver, the
assembly position of the enveloping force is set off at a sufficient interval from the troops in the secondary attack to
preclude interference between units when deployed for attack.

Subordinate commanders assigned assembly positions
may in turn assign more advanced assembly positions to the
component units of their commands as knowledge of the
situation and of plans becomes available. The final assembly
position of an infantry battalion in the attack echelon usually
is in the most forward concealed position available in rear
of the line of departure. It should afford cover from hostile
small-arms fire.

While units are moving into and during the occupation
of their assembly positions the commander prepares his
orders and completes arrangements for the execution of his
plan of maneuver.

Commanders of troops in the attack echelon and the
commanders of units designated to support them coordinate
the action of their units. Reconnaissance is initiated by all
commanders prior to arrival in their final assembly positions.

As each unit arrives in its assembly position, measures
are taken immediately for security and for clearing the roads.

--106--

Signal communication is established without delay between
the superior command post and the major subordinate units.
Equipment not essential to combat is disposed of, extra ammunition
is issued to troops, reconnaissances are completed,
coordination of the plans of maneuver and plans of fire of
subordinate units is completed, and attack orders are issued
promptly.

Development of the command terminates with the
troops distributed in accordance with the plan for their
employment, and in an approach march formation favoring
rapid deployment.

Should the commander decide that rapidity of action
is essential to retain a tactical advantage, he may dispense
with assembly positions, decentralize operations to combat
teams or task forces, and issue orders to those units to develop
and attack.

Subordinate units to be deployed for attack ordinarily
are assigned a zone of action and a direction of attack or an
objective. Zones of action regulate the limits for battle
reconnaissance and combat of the unit. It is not necessary
that troop formations extend across the entire zone of action
of a unit as part of the zone of action can often be covered by
fire, by small patrols, or by both. A preponderance of force
on any particular part of the front is obtained by varying
the zones of action of subordinate units.

Zones of action are defined by designating their lateral
boundaries or by the assignment of a front of deployment and
the designation of the lateral limits of the objective. An
open flank ordinarily is not bounded. In some situations, the
designation of the objective is sufficient to indicate the zone
of action. In large units the designation of objectives and
boundaries may be made from the map; in small units these
designations are made on the ground. Points designated
should be identified easily on the ground.

Zones of action should extend through the depth of the
hostile position at least as far as the location of the hostile
artillery. Important localities and terrain corridors commensurate
with the size of a tactical unit should lie wholly
within the zone of action of that unit. If it is desired that an
adjacent unit render special assistance to another in the

--107--

attack, this assistance should be clearly stated. During the
progress of combat and especially when reserves are committed
to action appropriate changes in zones of action are
made.

To take advantage of favorable routes of approach units
may move temporarily into adjacent zones. Such movement
must not interfere with the action of adjacent units or result
in a dangerous massing of troops. The emplacement and
movement of artillery and other supporting weapons in zones
of action adjacent to the zone of the units they support are
permissible, but must be carefully coordinated. (See par. 538.)

The battalion is ordinarily the smallest unit which is
assigned a zone of action. Smaller units are usually assigned
directions and objectives.

When lateral boundaries are not clearly defined they are
supplemented by assigning compass directions of attack.
This is particularly important in small units.

When tactical groupings are separated initially by wide
intervals and the direction of their subsequent maneuvers
cannot be foreseen, designation of a boundary between them
may be withheld until a later phase of the action. In such
situations it frequently will be necessary to establish a limiting
line between them for coordination and control of their
supporting fires.

A line of departure usually is designated from which
the attacking troops are launched at the prescribed hour or
separate lines of departure and hours are assigned to the
several attacking units. The purpose of the line of departure
is to coordinate the advance of the attack echelon so that its
elements will strike the enemy in the order and at the time
desired. This line should be recognized easily on the ground
and should be approximately perpendicular to the direction
of attack.

The time of attack is the hour at which the attack is
to be launched. If a line of departure is prescribed, it is the
hour at which the line is to be crossed by the leading elements
of the attack. It is determined by the time required for
commanders to make the necessary reconnaissance, prepare
plans, and issue orders; for the cooperating arms to coordinate
their plans; and for the attack echelon to organize its
attack and move to position.

--108--

The secondary attack may precede the main attack to force
the enemy to commit the greatest possible portion of his forces
against that attack, or the main and secondary attacks may
be launched simultaneously.

Unity of effort is promoted by assigning subordinate units
objectives which insure mutual support and by prescribing
where and in what direction subordinate units are to make
their main effort. The combat action and direction of attack
taken by subordinate commanders must be such as to build
up the main effort of the tactical grouping in accordance with
the intentions of the superior commander.

The commander must endeavor constantly to prevent the
attack from breaking up into a series of uncoordinated
combats.

The degree of surprise attained is dependent in a large
measure on the coordination and timing of the measures
taken to deceive the enemy. Ruses, demonstrations, feints,
and other measures for deception executed at the wrong time
and place will be obvious to an alert enemy and will warn
him of the impending attack. Superior mobility and speed
of execution may be determining factors in achieving
surprise.

The best guarantee for success in the attack is effective
cooperation between the troops in the attack echelon,
the supporting artillery, and any supporting combat aviation.
The superior commander coordinates the fire support of his
artillery with the plan of maneuver of the attacking troops.
Acting through the commander of supporting combat aviation
he coordinates the fire support of the combat aviation
with the fire of his artillery, his plan of maneuver, and his
plan of employment of mechanized units.

To assure close cooperation with the attacking troops,
artillery units assigned to direct support of designated units
maintain constant connection with supported units through
common command posts or by liaison agents. Ordinarily an
artillery battalion is placed in direct support of an infantry
regiment or a cavalry brigade. Cooperation is facilitated by
habitually associating the same units on the march and in
combat.

The command post of the division artillery is at the
division command post. The same rule applies in the case

--109--

of the senior artillery commander of a smaller force of
combined arms.

Subordinate artillery commanders establish their command
posts where they can exercise tactical command and
fire direction most effectively. If an artillery commander
locates his command post at a place other than the command
post of the supported unit, he establishes liaison and
maintains signal communication with the commander of the
supported unit.

The commander of the supported unit informs the
supporting artillery commander of the situation, his plan of
attack, and the artillery support desired. The supporting
artillery commander informs the commander of the unit of
the number and general location of his batteries, the present
location of the artillery observation posts and those that must
be seized during the advance, the terrain which the artillery
commands with observation and fire, and the means by which
the artillery can most effectively support the attack. (See
par. 528.)

Based on this exchange of information, the associated commanders
arrange the plan of fire support to be given by the
artillery during the attack.

The artillery commander must comply with the requests of
the supported unit commander to the limit of his capabilities,
subject only to orders received from higher authority. If he
receives a fire mission which conflicts with the needs of the
supported troops, he reports the situation to the commander
ordering the mission and then complies with the resulting
decision. If the urgency of the situation precludes this report,
the artillery commander acts on his own initiative in accordance
with his knowledge of the situation, reporting his action
to his superior at the first opportunity.

As a rule a liaison section is assigned to each infantry battalion
or cavalry regiment. A mutual obligation rests upon
the commanders of supported and supporting units that
liaison once established is maintained. It is essential that the
supporting artillery know at all times the location of the leading
elements of the attack echelon and be kept informed of
the plans of the supported unit.

The fire of other supporting weapons is coordinated
with that of the artillery. The fire of these weapons supple-

--110--

ments the artillery fire of direct support chiefly by engaging
targets in the immediate foreground whose neutralization by
artillery might endanger the attack echelon, and targets
within range on which artillery fire cannot be placed.

The action of combat aviation in support of ground
troops is closely coordinated with the plan of attack. Its
first objectives are those hostile elements, the destruction or
neutralization of which will contribute most toward a successful
attack. During battle, combat aviation is especially
useful as a means, immediately available to a commander,
to exploit a success, to correct an adverse situation, to attack
reserves or reinforcements or to support ground troops in
overcoming unexpected resistance. Its employment to complement
the fire of artillery in a crisis or in fast moving situations
is habitual, especially in attacks by tanks and armored
forces.

To assure effective cooperation, supporting combat
aviation should operate from landing fields within short
flying time of the zone of action and must be included in the
air-ground radio net and wire net of supported units. To
facilitate coordination of its effort with that of the ground
troops, a liaison officer from supporting combat aviation
should be with the supported unit. Supported ground troops
must keep supporting combat aviation informed of the location
of leading elements and of plans of maneuver and fire.
It is especially important that adequate means of identification
of friendly ground troops be carefully arranged and
coordinated.

An integration of the attack into a unified whole requires
complete coordination and cooperation, prior to and
during the operation, between supporting tanks, artillery,
and combat aviation. (See chs. 2 and 16.)

Because of the difficulty of establishing and maintaining
effective chemical concentrations in mobile operations,
use by the attacker of chemical agents other than smoke is
limited. Smoke must be carefully employed in respect to
both time and space and must be closely coordinated with
other supporting fires and with the action of tanks and supporting
aviation. Under favorable conditions of wind and
weather, smoke is used to blind hostile observation posts, anti-tank
guns and infantry supporting weapons, to conceal the

--111--

approach of the attack echelon, and to protect the flanks of
the attack. It is especially useful during short periods when
troops must cross exposed ground.

As soon as the commander has made his decision, he
completes his plan of attack and issues his attack order,
wherein he prescribes the necessary coordination for the
action. (see FM 101-5.)

When conditions limit the ability of the commander to
exercise a timely and direct influence on the action, the initiative
of subordinates must be relied upon to a great extent.
The commander issues less detailed orders to those tactical
groupings over whose action he can not exercise a direct influence
and attaches to them the means necessary to accomplish
their tasks. He remains with and personally directs
the action of the troops whose mission is of decisive importance
to the action. This method of conducting an operation
is most prevalent in pursuits, in opening phases of a meeting
engagement, during crises of battle, and in envelopments in
which the main and secondary attacks are separated by wide
intervals. The greatest degree of coordination possible is
prescribed initially; complete coordination is accomplished
as soon as the course of action permits. (See par. 125.)

Coordination is assured by command and staff visits
to subordinates to see that orders are understood and are being
carried out.

SECTION II
ATTACK IN WAR OF MOVEMENT

A meeting engagement is a collision between two opposing
forces more or less unprepared for battle. Ordinarily,
the collision is caused by uncertainty or obscurity in the situation.
This aspect is often present in the operations of
small units and in situations where the means of reconnaissance
have failed or are unable to operate.

A meeting engagement may ensue when each opponent is
cognizant of the other, yet both decide to attack without
delay to retain some tactical advantage, to gain a decisive
terrain feature, or from a feeling of superiority. It may
occur when one opponent decides to deploy hastily for defense
while the other attacks before this defense can be
organized.

--112--

In open warfare, immediate orders and rapid action
are essential. By the prompt exercise of initiative, endeavor
must be made to deprive the enemy of his freedom of action
and prevent the coordinated employment of his forces. A
great advantage accrues to the force which first succeeds in
making effective preparations. Action cannot be delayed
awaiting the results of detailed reconnaissances. Prompt estimate
of the situation, quick decision, and prompt attack are
essential to success.

The tactical situation which develops on first contact has a
strong influence on the subsequent course of action. Commanders
must be well forward when the enemy is engaged;
otherwise, units may be employed improperly.

Opportunities for decisive action must be exploited immediately.
The rapidity of modern combat frequently makes
the time element decisive.

Open warfare requires the widest possible exercise of
initiative by commanders of all echelons in the execution of
the general mission assigned to the command.

Information gained by reconnaissance agencies during the
advance affords a basis for the commander's preliminary disposition,
and may enable him to determine the general line
of engagement with the enemy and the plan of attack. As
a rule, however, the enemy's intentions will remain obscure
and will seldom be clarified until after the initial engagement.

As soon as the prospect of an engagement becomes
apparent, the superior commander initiates plans for the
operation and disposes his command to facilitate its rapid
entry into action. One or more advance message centers are
established ta facilitate prompt signal communication.

Early and rapid transmission of orders to elements of the
main body is essential to an orderly and timely employment
of the command, and may be vital, particularly in columns of
high mobility.

Initial orders are ordinarily issued in fragmentary
form to the various elements of the command. The sequence
in which orders are issued is based upon the priority of, and
the time required for, execution.

When timely information of the enemy is lacking,
subordinate commanders are relied upon to exercise their
initiative and make important decisions in consonance with

--113--

the general mission and the intentions of the superior commander.
Without delay, the superior commander coordinates
the action which his subordinates have initiated. (See
par. 507.)

Employment of the advance guurd is the commander's
first problem and is the basis for the employment of the
remainder of the main body. When contact is imminent or
when entering the zone of effective hostile artillery fire the
advance guard moves forward on a broad front. When hostile
resistance is encountered, the advance guard must secure
possession of terrain that will afford good observation for
the artillery and other supporting weapons, and gain the
time and space required for the development and deployment
of the main body. These missions require aggressive action
against the enemy's leading troops. Unfavorable terrain or
an encounter with superior hostile forces may make a temporary
defense or a limited retirement advisable to preserve
the commander's freedom of action. However, all advance-guard
actions are characterized by speed and aggressiveness,
by broad fronts, and by small or no reserves.

The advance guard performs its mission most effectively
when, after securing possession of the essential terrain features,
it is disposed to protect the deployment of the main body. Its
artillery deploys on a broad front, opens long-range fire on
enemy columns forcing them to an early deployment, and
interdicts the principal routes of approach.

The advance guard is strongly reinforced by artillery from
the main body and by supporting combat aviation. It is
reinforced with other elements of the main body only when
the situation clearly demands it.

Cavalry, after withdrawal from the front of advance-guard
infantry, may be employed on the flanks to screen our
own dispositions, to execute reconnaissance or harassing
action against the hostile flanks and rear, or may be held
in reserve.

The speed of modern offensive operations demands
that supporting artillery be prepared to react immediately
with fire when opportune targets are presented. To do this
artillery observation and positions must be as far forward
as possible.

Early entry into action of the bulk of the artillery with the

--114--

main body is essential to protect the development, to give
support and cohesion to the advance-guard action, and to
gain an early superiority over the hostile artillery.

It may be necessary for a portion of the artillery to occupy
temporary firing positions to insure that troops do not come
under hostile fire without artillery protection.

The artillery preferably is deployed initially so that
it can protect the development and support the attack from
the same position areas. When initial positions are too distant,
the artillery in direct support must so displace forward
as to assure close support of the attack echelon.

While other troops are organizing their attack, the artillery
completes preparation of firing data and arrangements
for supporting the attack. Observation aviation is placed
at the disposal of the artillery commander in order that
the hostile artillery and large troop assemblies may be located
and fire conducted on important targets at long range.

In accordance with his estimate of the situation, the
commander develops the main body and organizes a coordinated
attack, or attacks directly from march columns
with a part of his command and organizes a more coordinated
attack with the remainder, or attacks with his whole force
from march columns as units become available. (See pars.
485-487, 492, and 507.)

Regardless of whether the attack is launched from
assembly positions or directly from march columns, the
method of approach to the hostile position is the same.
Each battalion of the attack echelon moves to the most advanced
position in which it can make its final preparations
under cover from hostile small-arms fire.

The commander of each attack unit directs its advance
in the assigned zone of action so as to be able to cross the
line of departure at the prescribed hour. Each attack unit
reconnoiters its zone of action and supports the reconnaissance
elements with its supporting weapons. To keep troops
in hand prior to contact with the hostile forces, a base unit
is usually designated on which the other units regulate their
advance from one terrain line to the next. Terrain features
which afford extended observation, or which are otherwise
of tactical importance, are the objectives of each bound.

--115--

Whether an offensive battle is the result of a meeting
engagement or is based on the attack of an organized position,
the conduct of the attack from the time the enemy is
engaged until he is defeated is essentially the same. What
difference there is exists in the coordination, power, and
speed developed in the opening phases. (See pars. 535-572.)

SECTION III
ATTACK OF AN ORGANIZED POSITION

PRELIMINARY OPERATIONS

Ordinarily the defender will attempt to screen his
main position and deceive the attacker regarding his dispositions
by the employment of covering forces. A thorough
reconnaissance of the hostile position and its foreground is of
primary importance. This reconnaissance seeks to determine
the location, depth, and extension of the hostile position,
the hostile occupation of the position, contaminated areas, the
location of the hostile artillery, and natural and artificial tank
obstacles. It involves a thorough study of the map and air
photographs of the enemy's combat zone, and the use of
available air and ground reconnaissance agencies.

If air reconnaissance and advance detachments fail to
establish definitely the main hostile position, the leading
troops are reinforced strongly by artillery, combat aviation,
other supporting weapons, and, if necessary, by tanks. Rifle
reinforcements are held to a minimum. The reinforced leading
troops execute a reconnaissance in force against critical
points in the enemy's outpost zone to drive in the enemy's
covering forces and determine the hostile main position.
Their mission is to seize the terrain which will permit the
proper deployment of the command and permit observation
of the hostile battle position.

When the leading troops finally encounter a well-organized
system of defensive fires of hostile artillery and other supporting
weapons, it maybe taken as a reliable indication that
the hostile battle position has been reached. The leading
troops establish themselves on the critical points and cover
the deployment of the mass of the artillery.

During these preliminary operations, cavalry and other
troops seek to locate the flanks of the hostile position. The

--116--

leading elements are protected from hostile counterattack by
strong supporting fires and by the presence of other units
moved to concealed positions within supporting distance. The
remainder of the command is held in readiness beyond the
range of effective hostile artillery fire. Necessary measures
are taken to protect it against air attack and attack by
mechanized units.

Reconnaissance is continued to obtain information as
a basis for the conduct of the attack. This reconnaissance
provides more detailed information for the assignment of
objectives and as a basis for the plan of fire of the artillery
and the other supporting weapons.

Reconnaissance of the terrain must determine the most
favorable routes of approach to the hostile position, the
nature and strength of obstacles, and the possibilities for
employment of mechanized units.

Air photographs of the hostile main position are distributed
to subordinate commanders.

The terrain over which the attack must pass is studied on
the ground and from air photographs to determine the terrain
compartments which the defender has organized for
defense and can cover with defensive fires, and the areas in
which the attacker can advance best by flanking fire and
maneuver.

Artillery conducts reconnaissance to determine the possibilities
of artillery observation and fire, and the location of
its firing positions and the routes of approach thereto.

Determination of the weak points in the enemy dispositions
is of vital importance. By fire of artillery and other
supporting weapons delivered from different directions, and
by feints and raids, effort is made to ascertain the enemy's
dispositions and his plan of defensive fires.

PREPARATIONS FOR ATTACK

Based on the estimate of the situation, the main attack
is made either as an envelopment or a penetration. A carefully
coordinated attack is required. Orders are issued for
the preparations for the attack and for the measures for
secrecy and deception to be adopted.

Preparations for the attack include the completion of the
signal communication system, organization of the command

--117--

for combat, provision for ammunition supply, and the regulation
and coordination of supporting fires of all arms.

Special consideration is given during the preparation to
measures designed to insure the continuity of the attack.
Adequate provision is made for placing in readiness the necessary
material and engineer units to destroy obstacles, assist
the advance of tanks and heavy weapons, and for the construction
of roads connecting our own system with that of
the enemy.

All preparations for the attack are completed as far as
practicable before the occupation of final assembly positions.
Preparatory measures likely to betray the imminence of the
attack are carried out secretly or are deferred as long as
possible.

Restrictions are imposed on those activities within our front
lines and in rear areas, which may disclose, to hostile reconnaissance,
operations for the attack. Strict surveillance is
imposed on the use of radio communication.

The plan of attack consists of the plan of maneuver
and plan of fire. The attack unit, artillery, and supporting
combat aviation commanders make detailed arrangements
for coordinating the action of their units to carry out the
common mission. (See pars. 498-500.)

In coordinating their plans, it is essential that the supported
and supporting commanders carefully study the successive
compartments of terrain in which hostile resistance
may be encountered and identify the successive intermediate
objectives of the attack.

An agreement is reached relative to the known targets to
be taken under fire respectively by the artillery, by combat
aviation, and by the other supporting weapons. Areas to be
kept under surveillance for targets appearing after the attack
is launched, especially those targets in adjacent zones which
are dangerous to the advance, are agreed upon. Associated
commanders must arrange for mutual reinforcement of fire.

Attack unit commanders must receive early information
of their assembly positions and zones of action in order
that they may make their own reconnaissances and formulate
plans.

Attack units usually move at night into final assembly
positions, preparatory to an attack the next morning. Move-

--118--

ment of units into their assembly positions by day generally
is practicable only when visibility is poor or when overwhelming
artillery and combat aviation support is available.

When tanks are employed, their assembly positions and
routes of approach are reconnoitered, marked, and prepared.

The first mission of the artillery is to protect the
movement into and the assembly positions of attack units.
During this phase, hostile artillery and observation posts constitute
its principal targets. Registration fires should be
conducted so as not to disclose the impending attack. The
artillery gives special consideration to those measures which
will attain surprise in the opening of effective fire, gain fire
superiority over the hostile artillery, and concentrate the
mass of its fire on the decisive objectives.

Artillery positions are selected so that fire can be concentrated
on the objectives of the attack. Defilade, concealment
from air reconnaissance, and proximity to observation
are sought. Sufficient time is allowed for the preparation of
firing data, establishment of signal communication, and organization
of the artillery ammunition supply.

Artillery usually moves into position by echelon. The
movement is frequently wholly or partly executed at night.
Units assigned to positions screened from hostile air reconnaissance
are moved first. The movement of artillery is
regulated to avoid interfering with the attack echelon in its
occupation of final assembly positions. Long-range artillery
is placed well forward to be able to take under fire the most
distant echelons of the defender's light and medium artillery.

During the advance of the attack echelon from assembly
positions, the hostile artillery constitutes the principal
target of our artillery fire. Superiority over the hostile artillery
is indispensable for the success of the attack. It
rarely can be attained after the attack is launched.

Looated hostile batteries are silenced early in the artillery
action. Their neutralization then is maintained by a portion
of the artillery in order that the mass may be employed on
other missions until again required for counterbattery fire as
new hostile batteries are located. If counterbattery fire is
unable to gain superiority over the hostile artillery, neutralization of the hostile observation just prior to the attack
is of great importance.

--119--

Artillery fires prior to the hour of attack may be limited
to normal fires already in progress, or the attack may
be preceded by an artillery preparation.

The duration of the preparation varies with the situation.
A prolonged preparation is destructive of surprise and gives
the enemy time to take countermeasures. The length of the
preparation is influenced also by the extent to which tanks
are to participate in the attack and the role assigned to
them. The duration of the artillery preparation may vary
from 15 minutes to several hours.

The nature of the artillery preparation depends upon its
mission. Concentration of effect is greatly favored by dividing
the preparation into phases.

The object of the first phase of the preparation is to neutralize
the defender's artillery, destroy the most important
hostile agencies of command and fire control, isolate the
defender's forces from the rear, disrupt assembled hostile
mechanized forces and protect our troops from the enemy's
counterpreparation fires. Artillery fire of the first phase
comprises counterbattery fire; destruction fire on command
posts, observation posts, and signal communication installations;
interdiction and destruction fire on enemy routes of
communication; destruction fire on mine fields and hostile
obstacles; and concentrations on the hostile defense areas
and assembled mechanized units.

In the subsequent phase of the preparation, sufficient artillery
continues counterbattery fire to maintain neutralization
of the hostile artillery. The fire of the mass of the remaining
artillery is concentrated on the hostile defense areas.

During the preparation, other supporting weapons
fire on sensitive points in the advanced zone of resistance.
Supporting bombardment aviation is concentrated against
hostile artillery, signal communication centers, and reserves,
with particular attention to mechanized units which cannot
be covered effectively by artillery. During the last few minutes
of the preparation bombardment aviation is concentrated
upon the hostile defense areas.

CONDUCT OF THE ATTACK

The attack is characterized by the positive action of
fire and movement, combined and controlled to create a preponderance
of force in the decisive direction.

--120--

The attacking echelon advances from its final assembly
positions so as to cross the line of departure at the
prescribed time. Any mass formation of units runs grave
risks of incurring heavy losses from hostile counterpreparation
fires and air attack. The leading echelon is therefore
thin initially; its fire power is gradually built up as the
enemy discloses his plan of defense.

When fire superiority has been gained, the leading echelon
closes to assaulting distance.

Superiority of fire rests chiefly upon the mutual support
of units in the attacking echelon, and the coordination
of their action with the fire support of artillery, bombardment
aviation and supporting tanks. It depends not only on volume
of fire but also on its direction and accuracy.

Fire effect is increased by enfilade action. Flanking or
oblique fire is especially effective when frontal fire is delivered
simultaneously against the same objective. A convergent fire
forces the enemy to defend himself against attack from several
directions and creates a powerful moral as well as material
effect.

Units seek to gain flanking fire by enveloping action.
Flanking fire is also secured through the lateral echelonment
of supporting weapons with respect to the units they support.
Heavy machine guns, from positions in adjacent zones of
action, deliver oblique fire over the troops in their front and
protect the flanks of troops in the attack echelon. Light
machine guns of rifle units follow the leading elements
closely in order to take advantage of and deliver flanking fire
through the gaps along the front. Units which have succeeded
in gaining advanced positions deliver flanking fire
across the front of adjacent rearward units.

Lateral echelonment of artillery for purposes of flanking
fire increases the difficulties of fire control and of liaison between
the artillery and supported units. The fire of supporting
artillery is more reliable and effective when its positions
and observation posts are in the zone of action of the supported
unit.

The attacking echelon advances to assaulting distance
of the hostile position under its own and supporting
fires. Until the main hostile resistance is broken, attack
units advance by bounds to successive terrain lines on each

--121--

of which the fire support for the next bound is organized.
Fire and movement are alternated in such manner that an
attack unit, whose advance is made possible by the combined
fire of adjacent and supporting units, moves forward to an
advanced position and by its fire from that position assists the
advance of the adjacent units.

Troops transported by air may be employed to seize,
hold, or destroy objectives which contribute directly to the
success of the main attack.

Artillery and other supporting weapons insure continuity
of support by displacing forward in groups (by
echelon), while the bulk remains in position and maintains
fire. Fire is lifted successively to more distant targets as the
attacking echelon becomes endangered by it. When supporting
artillery, heavy machine-gun, and mortar fires are lifted
from the hostile position to permit the attacking echelon to
close with the enemy, the loss of this support must be compensated
for by the increased fire of the lighter weapons and
by the cooperative action of tanks. (See ch. 16.)

Artillery supports the attack through the depth of the
hostile position by successive concentrations in accordance
with the requests of the supported commanders. Concentrations
of artillery fire are regulated to bring the greatest possible
volume of fire on objectives of decisive importance at the
critical moments of the attack. Attack units take immediate
advantage of artillery fire effect to gain ground to the front.
The artillery is prepared for early movement forward to maintain
close support as the attack progresses. Essential fire
missions of units being displaced are distributed to units in
position.

Artillery must employ all means at its disposal (observers,
liaison sections, airplanes, wire and radio communication
to attack units) to obtain exact information of the location of the front line. The attacking units must cooperate
by employing all means of transmitting information to the
artillery (display of panels, pyrotechnics, and various other
means of signal communication). When uncertain as to the
location of the attack echelon, direct support artillery takes
immediate steps to establish close contacts with those
elements.

--122--

During the attack, the supporting fires are concentrated
against the fronts where the attacking echelon is
making the greatest progress. Artillery fires are supplemented
by fires of other supporting weapons. The fire of these
weapons is used to increase the density of the artillery fire
or is placed on those areas and targets which can not be
effectively engaged by the artillery. When the attack echelon
arrives close to the hostile position, the fire of all artillery,
including that in general support, is concentrated on rearward
hostile defense areas.

The primary purpose of close supporting fire is to
prevent the enemy from manning his defensive works in time
to meet the assault. Its progression to successive objectives is
arranged between supporting and supported commanders.
It may be regulated by a time schedule based upon the probable
rate of advance of the attacking troops, by signal given by
asaulting troops, or by a time schedule based upon a desirable
duration of the fire.

Other fire is placed on critical points in the hostile position
to protect the attack echelon from hostile long-range and
flanking fires and from counterattack. It is lifted to correspond
with the advance of the attacking echelon.

Each attack unit uses the close supporting fires of its
artillery and other supporting weapons to close with the
enemy and to push on to its successive objectives without
deviating from the prescribed general direction of attack.

Combat aviation supports the attack through the depth
of the hostile position. Commanders of the supporting aviation
thoroughly familiarize themselves with the terrain in the
zone of the attack. Supporting combat aviation is concentrated
over that part of the hostile front where the attack
seeks decisive results. Its operations are coordinated to provide
the maximum support at the time the ground forces
launch the attack.

The attack must not permit its advance to be long arrested
by hostile chemical concentrations. Contaminated
terrain which cannot be avoided is posted and passed with
the protection of gas masks.

Whether the main attack is based upon an envelopment
or a penetration, the battle generally develops into local

--123--

conflicts along two opposing fronts. During the course of
battle the combat action of units may undergo a change as
between envelopment and penetration. A force that has successfully
enveloped the enemy's flank may have to make a
frontal attack to defeat a hostile reserve or may find a favorable
opportunity to attack the hostile resistance in flank.
In a penetration, once minor resistances have been overrun,
the outflanking action of small units is the most effective
means of reducing the stronger hostile defense areas.

An attack seldom is executed exactly as planned. As
long as the enemy has any freedom of action, unexpected difficulties
are encountered which culminate in a crisis. The
approach of this critical phase of the attack must be recognized
by the commander so that timely measures can be
taken to shape the course of action to secure a favorable
outcome or to prevent a reverse. (See pars. 476-482.)

When the attacking echelon approaches assaulting distance,
observation aviation is employed to observe especially
the situation of our own and the hostile advanced elements.
Observers on this mission report to the division commander
and the commanders of infantry units the points where the
attack is stopped and those where penetrations have been
effected, hostile counterattacks, and other features of the
situation of our own and the hostile advanced elements.
Other observers continue to inform higher commanders concerning
development farther in rear of the battle front such
as shifting of hostile reserves, arrival of reinforcements, train
movements, and the like. From these reports and other
information, commanders direct the movements of reserves
toward those portions of the hostile front that offer the greatest
prospects for decisive success and to support the attacking
troops in repulse of counterattacks. Combat aviation is effectively
employed to attack enemy reserves and counterattacking
forces.

In an attack of a stabilized front, the approach has
already been effected and the attack opens with a coordinated
assault. The hour of the assault is fixed by the commander
of the whole front from which the assault is to be launched.
The exact day and hour is kept secret until the latest practicable
moment.

--124--

On a stabilized front, the period during which the opposing
forces have been in contact makes available more detailed
information of the enemy's defensive dispositions. The
completeness of information will depend upon the length of
time the front has been stabilized and the efficiency of intelligence
measures. Available information is augmented by
continuous reconnaissance. Reconnaissance throughout preparation
for the attack is conducted in such manner that the
appearance of normal activity is maintained. Information
is disseminated in the form of intelligence summaries, maps,
and air photographs.

THE ASSAULT

Against a strong resistance and well-organized defense,
the superior commander will prepare the assault of the
first hostile organized line of resistance by concentrating the
firepower of all supporting weapons, including combat aviation,
to neutralize the enemy and wear down his power of
resistance before launching the assault. After the first onrush,
a series of local assaults delivered by units of varying
strength on their own initiative continues the action. Each
unit delivers its assault at the earliest moment that promises
success.

The commander of the unit will have arranged to deliver
the assault on a time schedule, or will notify the supporting
weapons, by a prearranged signal, that he is about to assault.
The intensity of supporting fires is increased. Under cover
of the supporting fire, the assault unit advances close to its
objective. When the supporting fires are lifted from the
objective the assault unit overruns the hostile resistance in a
single rush. Any delay in launching the assault after the
fires lift allows the enemy to man his defenses.

CONTINUATION OF THE ATTACK

After the assault of an organized position the attack
often breaks up into a series of separate combats which are
continued throughout the depth of the hostile position. These
combats are directed by subordinate commanders within their
zones of action and are supported by all the means at their
disposal. The first task is to capture assigned objectives.
Resistances are reduced by fire or are outflanked.

The utmost importance attaches to maintaining the continuity
and direction of the attack by the timely movement

--125--

and employment of reserves and by the timely displacement
of the artillery and other supporting weapons. Reserves are
disposed behind points where the greatest progress is being
made, to protect the flanks of the leading units and support
them in the repulse of counterattacks. Artillery and air observers
search for probable assembly areas of hostile reserves
so that enemy preparation for counterattack may be broken
up by artillery fire and air attack. If the attack is unable
to make further progress, the captured terrain is organized
for defense and held until the attack can be continued.

The enemy's reaction following the successful assault
of his main line of resistance, road conditions, and the possibility
of maintaining ammunition supply determine when
and in what strength the artillery will be moved into advanced
positions.

Artillery executes its missions with the fewest possible
changes of position. Frequent changes of position reduce
the volume of fire support. The occupation of new positions
and renewal of fire require considerable time. Nevertheless,
change of position should unhesitatingly be made when fire
effect or deficiency in liaison with the attacking echelon requires
it. Changes of position generally are effected by echelon
after timely reconnaissance of advanced position.

Artillery promptly fires upon enemy troop assemblies, troops
forming for counterattack, and on any rearward position on
which the enemy attempts to reconstitute his defense.

If the tide of battle turns against the enemy, he may
endeavor to disengage his forces and renew the defense on
a rearward position or he may fight a delaying action until
battle can be renewed under conditions more favorable to
him. Ordinarily, the enemy will strive to hold out until nightfall
and effect his withdrawal under cover of darkness.

Frequently the enemy will disclose his intentions to withdraw.
Attacking troops must exercise great vigilance in observing
the conduct of the enemy in their front, press their
attack with energy and maintain close contact with him.
Observation aviation searches the rear areas for indications
of retrograde movements of artillery and trains.

If the enemy succeeds in withdrawing his major forces
from action, the commander intensifies reconnaissance to
obtain the necessary information on which to decide what

--126--

line of action to follow. Aggressive action may prevent the
enemy from reconstituting his defense on a rearward position.
If the enemy succeeds in occupying a new position during
darkness, a renewal of the attack in force must be delayed
until daylight.

It may be of great advantage to regroup the attack forces
during the advance to the new position and launch the main
attack on another part of the front. Effort is made to exploit
the moral ascendancy by a quick and powerful blow before
the enemy can reconstitute his defense. The action of tanks
or armored forces and combat aviation at this time may be
decisive.

If the enemy is fighting a delaying action on an extended
front, the objective ordinarily will be attained more
quickly by concentrating on a decisive part of the front and
attacking with energy and dispatch. An attack pushed deeply
and energetically through the hostile front will force the
enemy to an early evacuation of the whole front.

In case of a break-through, armored units penetrate
deeply into the hostile position and attack the enemy's reserves,
artillery, and command and signal communication
centers. The gap is widened by attacking its flanks. Other
mobile forces are sent through the gap to exploit the advantage
gained and to attack the enemy in rear and prevent his
escape. The maximum efforts of combat aviation are concentrated
on supporting and cooperating with the forces
exploiting the break-through.

When the attack does not reach its objective or does
not break through the hostile position during the day, foot
troops intrench themselves at the points reached. The night
is utilized to extend the advance. Strong patrols with machine
guns are sent forward to occupy advanced positions.
The foot troops advance and intrench in a new position under
the protection of these patrols. Several advances of this character
may bring the troops within assaulting distance of the
hostile position. These night advances must be coordinated
with the artillery and supporting combat aviation.

RELIEFS TO CONTINUE THE ATTACK

In offensive combat, a relief may be necessary to
continue the momentum of the attack with fresh or more ex-

--127--

perienced troops; to change the direction of the attack, or
to extend an envelopment; or to initiate a strong offensive
on a front where stabilization has existed.

When a relief is necessary, warning orders are issued
by each commander (higher commander, relieving unit, and
unit to be relieved) to each of his subordinate units. Warning
orders include: approximate hour the movement for the
relief is to begin; zones in which relieving units are to operate;
and the restrictions imposed upon reconnaissance parties
as to size, routes, and hours of operation.

Personal reconnaissance by the commander and staff
of the relieving unit and prior conference with the commander
and staff of the relieved unit are highly desirable.
When neither is possible, relieving units move forward to
attack without delay, reconnoitering as they go. As they
move forward, commanders make every effort to locate commanders
of units to be relieved.

A plan is formulated and orders are issued covering the
movement of relieving units. Fundamentally the operation is
the same as the development of a command for combat. In
the preparation of the plan, restrictions imposed by higher
authority because of other traffic in the zone of advance to
relief, the greater road spaces that may be required because
of increased distances between units, the road net, and practicability
of cross-country movement, must be considered.
The plan must be flexible as to times and routes of movement.
The size of the unit involved and the speed with which
the relief must be conducted will govern the thoroughness
with which the details of the plan are prepared.

In accordance with the plan of the higher commander,
commanders and staffs of both the relieving and relieved
units arrange and agree upon such details as guides, use of
roads, fire support to be furnished by the relieved unit, security
measures which will be provided for the incoming
troops by the unit to be relieved, transfer of the existing signal
communication system, administrative matters, and the
time command passes to the relieving unit.

Units to be relieved furnish guides. Guides meet the
relieving unit before it enters the area and conduct it to
assembly positions. Whenever possible, guides are furnished
for units down to and including the platoon.

--128--

The plans for executing the relief must be in harmony
with the plans for continuing the attack.

When the relief is executed in darkness, troops relieved
are withdrawn promptly from the zone of action before the
attack is continued. Artillery of the relieved unit (and frequently
other supporting weapons) may be held in position
to support the attack.

When the relief is executed in daylight, troops relieved
or passed through remain in position and continue the fire
support of the new unit until their fires are masked and
until the attack has progressed far enough for the relieved
troops to be assembled and reorganized without undue
casualties.

If the exact location of forward elements to be relieved
is known, and if relief is effected at night, the line
of departure for the attack is the line held by the forward
elements. When the exact location of the most advanced
elements of unit to be relieved is unknown, the line of departure
must not be forward of the line held by most advanced
elements whose location is known. In daylight and
terrain permitting, a line of departure between the forward
elements to be relieved and a covered position close in their
rear may be better than a line coinciding with the front-line
elements.

To disclose the fact that a relief is in progress invites
disaster--a heavy bombardment by air and artillery, a counterattack,
or both, at a time when congestion and traflic
circulation are doubled.

In reliefs on a scale large enough to require more than
a single night, troops, animals, and vehicles of the relieving
unit are concealed during periods of visibility. The
relief is carried out by echelon. To prevent the discovery of
the relief through the capture of prisoners by the enemy
during an intervening day or night, front-line elements are
relieved during the last night preceding the resumption of
the attack.

When the relief is made in daylight, woods, fog, and defilade
are utilized in the approach. Smoke is placed on hostile
observation posts and hostile forward elements. Mobility,
ruses, feints, and demonstrations are exploited.

--129--

During the course of the relief, artillery maintains
its normal fires, but is prepared to execute counterbattery
and protective fires along the front of the relief in the event
of a counterpreparation or of attack by the enemy.

The principal task involved in a passage of lines is
the preparation for continuing the attack. Therefore, the
incoming commander must assume command of the zone of
action before his troops reach their attack positions.

SECTION IV
ATTACK FROM THE DEFENSIVE

PLANNED DEFENSIVE-OFFENSIVE

A commander with an offensive mission may decide
to assume the defensive initially because of temporary combat
inferiority in numbers or dispositions, or to create a
situation which will place the enemy at a tactical disadvantage
and offer opportunity for a decisive counteroffensive.
In either case, an early adoption of the offensive to attain
the objective is contemplated. By inducing the enemy to
attack first, the commander hopes to fix and exhaust him
and then, when he is disorganized, to launch the counteroffensive.

This type of action demands the highest type of leadership
and tactical skill and troops with a high order of training.
The major problem for the commander lies in timing the
attack.

The selection, occupation, and organization of the
defensive position conform to the general doctrines discussed
in sections I and II, chapter 10, except that organization of
the ground is not as complete as is required for a protracted
defense and a larger proportion of the close-combat elements
of the command are assembled concealed in a position favoring
the execution of the contemplated counteroffensive.

Conduct of the defense conforms to the doctrine discussed
in section II, chapter 10.

As soon as the purpose of the initial defense has been accomplished,
the counteroffensive is launched. Thereafter,
the conduct of the action is that of the attack.

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THE COUNTEROFFENSIVE

A defending force frequently has an opportunity to
adopt the offensive. When a general counterattack launched
by the defender throws the attacker back following an apparently
successful advance, or when a hostile attack breaks
down in front of the main line of resistance, the enemy seldom
will be able to withstand a determined counteroffensive.
The enemy artillery fire still may be superior but his attacking
echelon will be disorganized and signal communication
in his forward area will be disrupted. If the defender seizes
the initiative and passes to an offensive before the attacker
can recover from his disorganization and can properly dispose
his reserves, results often are decisive. The defense must be
prepared to pass to the offensive and exploit the results of
successful defensive action.

The general doctrines governing the preparation for
and conduct of an attack are applicable to the counteroffensive.

SECTION V
PURSUIT

The pursuit is launched when the enemy is no longer
able to maintain his position and endeavors to escape by
retreat. A commander recognizes success by the continued
advance of his troops in a decisive direction and the capture
of critical objectives; by the number and morale of captured
prisoners; by the number of abandoned weapons; by the
numbers of hostile dead; by the diminution of hostile artillery
fire; by the relaxation or cessation of hostile countermeasures;
and from reports that the enemy is withdrawing.

When a commander recognizes that the enemy is
having difficulty in maintaining his position, he utilizes all
means to maintain the continuity of the attack and exert a
relentless pressure on the defeated enemy.

Effective pursuit requires leadership and exercise of initiative
to the highest degree in all echelons of command. All
commanders in the attack echelon spur on their troops and
clinch the advantage with their reserves. Pursuit of a defeated
enemy is pushed to the utmost limit of endurance of
troops, animals, and vehicles. No opportunity is given him
to reorganize his forces and reconstitute his defense.

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The object of the pursuit is the annihilation of the
hostile forces. This can seldom be accomplished by a straight
pushing back of the hostile forces on their lines of communication.
Direct pressure against the retreating forces must be
combined with an enveloping or encircling maneuver to place
troops across the enemy's lines of retreat. Encirclement of
both flanks of the retreating forces or of their separate elements
is attempted wherever conditions permit.

By the coordinated employment of every available agency
of destruction and terrorization, the shaken morale of the
defeated enemy is converted into panic. The incipient dissolution
of his organization is transformed into rout.

In anticipation of the time for launching the pursuit
the commander causes preparatory measures to be taken.
These measures include necessary plans and orders in all
echelons. Reserves are regrouped. Artillery and other necessary
units are attached to the direct pressure forces for
the pursuit. Distant objectives are assigned to the principal
tactical groupings. Missions are assigned to combat aviation
and to the artillery in general support to obstruct movement
on hostile avenues of withdrawal. Preparations are made
for launching one or more forces of great mobility in encircling
maneuvers to strike the enemy in flank and rear and
cut off his retreat. General reserves are especially appropriate
for this mission. (See par. 507.)

The pursuit is conducted on a broad front. Motor
transportation is employed to expedite the movement of foot
troops.

Troops before whom the enemy is giving way send in their
reserves to gain his flank and rear or break through his covering
troops.

The forces engaged in the direct pressure and in the
encircling maneuvers are assigned directions, zones of action,
and objectives designed to bring the pursuit to a decisive conclusion.
Such directions and zones of action may be around
the flanks or through the wider gaps which defeat has opened
in the hostile dispositions, or may be a continuation of the
existing zones of action.

Supporting combat aviation concentrates on lines of
communication centers in the enemy's rear area, on hostile
columns in retreat and on hostile reserves endeavoring to

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reconstitute the defense. It blocks defiles on the enemy's
line of retreat and disrupts traffic on the main roads and
railroads in the enemy's rear area.

Observation aviation reconnoiters the roads in the enemy's
zone of retreat to keep contact with retreating columns
and to locate any movement of hostile reinforcements, and
keeps ground commanders informed of the hostile activities
and movement within their zones of action.

The employment of artillery is based upon the maximum
exploitation of the mobility of lighter pieces and the long
range of the heavier types. So long as the withdrawing enemy
can be engaged with observed and planned fire, a portion of
the artillery remains in position to fire on the more distant
targets. Long-range artillery working with observation aviation
and balloons continues its fire on the enemy lines of
communication up to the limit of its range.

The artillery attached to the pursuing forces, in addition
to its supporting action, fires on hostile elements attempting
to form columns in rear of the enemy's covering troops, and
gradually takes over the missions of the artillery remaining
in position.

The purpose of the encircling maneuver is to get in
rear of the defeated enemy and halt his retreat so that he
may be destroyed between the direct pressure and encircling
forces.

When practicable, mobile forces in the encircling maneuvers
advance along roads paralleling the enemy's line of retreat
to cut him off at defiles, bridges, and other critical points.
When the encircling forces cannot outdistance the enemy
they push through to a critical locality and engage the enemy's
main forces in flank.

Combat aviation; armored, mechanized, and motorized
units; and cavalry are employed in the encircling maneuvers.

Troops transported by air for employment at critical defiles
deep in the hostile rear pending the arrival of more powerful,
mobile encircling forces may contribute decisively to a successful
pursuit.

The advance in the decisive direction must be maintained.
Hostile rear guards or forces on flank positions must
not turn pursuing forces from the decisive direction. Every
effort must be made to block the main hostile force. When

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necessary, a new encircling force to continue the pursuit is
constituted.

When the enemy succeeds in establishing himself in a position
from which he cannot be dislodged quickly, the superior
commander takes prompt measures to coordinate the attack
again, supporting it with all available means. (See pars.
557 and 558.)

The enemy's attempts to organize his retreat under
the cover of darkness must be frustrated. Under no circumstances
must he be allowed to break contact. Units which
have advanced without serious opposition continue their
march during the night. Other units organize successive
limited attacks against the enemy in their front.

During a night pursuit, the leading detachments push their
advance along all available roads, followed by the main pursuing
forces. The attached artillery advances by echelon,
going into successive positions from which it can interdict
the enemy's routes of retreat by map firing or by fire directed
by observers which accompany the leading detachments.
Prompt report is made when objectives are reached so that
artillery fires may be coordinated.

The effect of artillery fire is complemented by combat aviation
which searches enemy routes of retreat with flares, and
bombs enemy columns and critical points in the enemy's rear
area.

Pursuit requires extensive reliance upon radio for
communication with the leading troops. The importance
attached to hostile interception of radio communication in
other situations does not obtain in equal degree in pursuit.
Effort is made to intercept the enemy's radio messages. The
construction of wire lines is concentrated along the more important
axes. Command posts or advance message centers
are established close behind the leading troops.

Adequate provision for the supply of ammunition and
motor fuel to the pursuing troops is essential to the success
of the pursuit. The commander must relieve the pursuing
columns of all worries concerning supply and evacuation.

--134--

SECTION VI
SECURITY IN THE OFFENSIVE

Success or failure of an offensive is dependent in a
large measure upon the action taken to protect the command
from hostile reaction. Open flanks are highly vulnerable.
The best security is to keep the enemy so heavily
involved that he has no time or means available to endanger
the success of the attack. Security of attack forces is assured
by a timely search for information in all directions from
which a hostile threat may come, by the proper disposition
of security forces of ample mobility and combat power, and
by prompt dispatch of accurate information and orders to
security forces. This is particularly true in security against
hostile forces of great mobility such as air, tank, motorized,
and cavalry units. In offensive operations, the service of
security is performed in accordance with the general doctrines
discussed in chapter 6.

In offensive operations, the mass of available means
for defense against air and mechanized attack is disposed
to favor the main attack. The combat means for defense
against air attack are supplemented by utilization of cover,
defilade, dispersion, and night movements to the maximum.
The combat means for defense against attack by tanks or
other mechanized forces are supplemented by utilization of
natural and artificial obstacles to protect the flanks and rear
of the command, by dispersion, and by night movements.
(See chs, 6 and 10.)

Antitank guns in each echelon of troops are disposed
to cover the most likely avenues of approach of hostile
mechanized units; the bulk of the antitank guns are held
mobile, prepared to meet a hostile mechanized attack at any
point. Protection against mechanized attack is best assured
by meeting the attack with the combined action of tanks
and mobile antitank guns supported by every available and
effective means of fire support, to isolate and destroy the
hostile mechanized forces.

In offensive operations, the greatest need for security
exists during critical phases of the battle. Security is enhanced
by meeting possible threats with heavy fire before
they can develop. The action of combat aviation against

--135--

highly mobile threats and against close, less mobile threats
is particularly effective, especially if hostile troops or vehicles
are in close formation.

SECTION VII
TERMINATION OF OFFENSIVE ACTION

An offensive action once begun is halted only by hostile
reaction or by other elements in the situation which
demand it.

If, during the course of an attack, it becomes necessary
to pass to the defensive, the leading foot elements intrench
themselves on the ground then held. The leading echelon
then is thinned out and forces are redistributed to organize
the defense in depth. It may be necessary to move some elements
to the front or rear for short distances to establish
the defense on favorable terrain and secure flanking fire.
Any major adjustments attempted in daylight will probably
result in heavy casualties. The general position of attacking
units is maintained until darkness, when the selected
defensive position is occupied and organized as described in
chapter 10.

If the situation demands major adjustments in daylight,
they are accomplished under protection of fog or smoke, and
of a maximum of fire support by artillery, combat aviation,
and other supporting weapons.

If, during the course of an attack, it becomes necessary
to break off the action and withdraw, the command
initially passes to the defensive. The completeness of the
defense is dependent upon the situation and whether the
initial defensive and the withdrawal must be executed in
daylight or darkness. Thereafter, the withdrawal is executed
according to the doctrines discussed in chapter 11.