Judith Ortiz Cofer (February 24, 1952 – December 30, 2016[2]) was a Puerto Rican American author. Her critically acclaimed and award-winning work spans a range of literary genres including poetry, short stories, autobiography, essays, and young-adult fiction. Ortiz Cofer was the Emeritus Regents' and Franklin Professor of English and Creative Writing at the University of Georgia, where she taught undergraduate and graduate creative writing workshops for 26 years. In 2010, Ortiz Cofer was inducted into the Georgia Writers Hall of Fame, and in 2013, she won the University's 2014 Southeastern Conference Faculty Achievement Award.[3]

Ortiz Cofer hailed from a family of story tellers and drew heavily from her personal experiences as a Puerto Rican American woman.[4] In her work, Ortiz Cofer brings a poetic perspective to the intersection of memory and imagination. Writing in diverse genres, she investigated women issues, Latino culture, and the American South. Ortiz Cofer's work weaves together private life and public space through intimate portrayals of family relationships and rich descriptions of place. Her manuscripts and papers are currently housed at the University of Georgia's Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library.[3]

Judith Ortiz Cofer was born in Hormigueros, Puerto Rico, on February 24, 1952.[5] She moved to Paterson, New Jersey with her family in 1956. They often made back-and-forth trips between Paterson and Hormigueros. In 1967, her family moved to Augusta, Georgia, where she attended Butler High School. Judith and her brother initially resisted the family's move South. Upon arriving in Georgia, however, Ortiz Cofer was struck by Augusta's vibrant colors and vegetation compared with the gray concrete and skies of city-life in Paterson.[6]

Ortiz Cofer received a B.A. in English from Augusta College, and later an M.A. in English literature from Florida Atlantic University.[5] Early in her writing career, Ortiz Cofer won fellowships from Oxford University and the Bread Loaf Writers' Conference, which enabled her to begin developing her multi-genre body of work.[5] In 1984, Ortiz Cofer joined the faculty of the University of Georgia as the Franklin Professor of English and Creative Writing. After 26 years of teaching undergraduate and graduate students, Ortiz Cofer retired from the University of Georgia in December 2013.[7]

Ortiz Cofer's work can largely be classified as creative nonfiction. Her narrative self is strongly influenced by oral storytelling, which was inspired by her grandmother, an able storyteller in the tradition of teaching through storytelling among Puerto Rican women. Ortiz Cofer's autobiographical work often focuses on her attempts at negotiating her life between two cultures, American and Puerto Rican, and how this process informs her sensibilities as a writer. Her work also explores such subjects as racism and sexism in American culture, machismo and female empowerment in Puerto Rican culture, and the challenges diasporic immigrants face in a new culture. Among Ortiz Cofer's more well known essays are "The Story of My Body" and "The Myth of the Latin Woman," both reprinted in The Latin Deli.

A central theme Ortiz Cofer returns to again and again in her writing is language and the power of words to create and shape identities and worlds. Growing up, Ortiz Cofer's home language was Spanish. In school, she encountered English, which became her functional language and the language she wrote in. Early in her life, Ortiz Cofer realized her "main weapon in life was communication," and to survive, she would have to become fluent in the language spoken where she lived.[10]

1.
University of Georgia
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Its primary location is a 762-acre campus adjacent to the college town of Athens, Georgia, approximately an hours drive from the global city of Atlanta. The university has been labeled one of the Public Ivies, a publicly funded university considered to provide a quality of education comparable to those of the Ivy League. The university was founded in 1785 as the United States first state-chartered university and its historic North Campus is on the U. S. National Register of Historic Places as a designated historic district. The contiguous campus areas include rolling hills, gardens, and extensive green space including nature walks, fields, shrubbery, and large and varied arboreta. Close to the campus is the universitys 58-acre Health Sciences Campus that also has an extensive landscaped green space, more than 400 trees. The university offers over 140 degree programs in an array of disciplines. Consisting of thirteen separate libraries, the UGA Libraries rank among the nation’s largest and best research libraries containing 5.7 million volumes, the University of Georgia is one of 126 member institutions that comprise the Association of Research Libraries. The university is organized into seventeen schools and colleges, the university has three primary campuses. The largest one is the campus in Athens that has 460 buildings. The university has two campuses located in Atlanta and Lawrenceville, Georgia. The university operates several service and outreach stations spread across the state, the total acreage of the university in 30 Georgia counties is 41,539 acres. Varsity and intramural student athletics are a part of student life. UGA served as a member of the SEC in 1932. In their 121-year history, the varsity sports teams have won 39 national championships and 130 conference championships. The Georgia Redcoat Marching Band, the marching band of the university, plays at sports. The Senatus Academicus was composed of the Board of Visitors and the Board of Trustees with the Georgia Senate presiding over those two boards, the first meeting of the universitys board of trustees was held in Augusta, Georgia on February 13,1786. The meeting installed its first president, Abraham Baldwin, a native of Connecticut, Baldwin was a delegate to the 1787 Constitutional Convention, and one of two Georgia delegates to sign the final document. Many features on the University of Georgia campus resemble the campus of Yale, on July 2,1799, the Senatus Academicus met again in Louisville, Georgia and decided that the time was right to open the university

2.
Paterson, New Jersey
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Paterson is the largest city in and the county seat of Passaic County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, its population was 146,199, Paterson has the second-highest density of any U. S. city with over 100,000 people, behind only New York City. For 2015, the Census Bureaus Population Estimates Program calculated a population of 147,754, Paterson is known as the Silk City for its dominant role in silk production during the latter half of the 19th century. The city has evolved into a major destination for Hispanic emigrants as well as for immigrants from the Arab. It has the second-largest Muslim population in the United States by percentage, the area of Paterson was inhabited by the Algonquian-speaking Native American Acquackanonk tribe of the Lenape, referred to as the Delaware Indians. The land was known as the Lenapehoking, the Dutch claimed the land as New Netherlands, then the British as the Province of New Jersey. Paterson, which was founded by the society, became the cradle of the revolution in America. Paterson was named for William Paterson, statesman, signer of the Constitution, architect, engineer and city planner Pierre Charles LEnfant, who had earlier developed the initial plans for Washington, D. C. was the first planner for the S. U. M. His plan proposed to harness the power of the Great Falls through a channel in the rock, eventually Colts system developed some problems and a scheme resembling LEnfants original plan was used after 1846. Paterson was originally formed as a township from portions of Acquackanonk Township on April 11,1831, Paterson became part of newly created Passaic County on February 7,1837. It was incorporated as a city on April 14,1851, the city was reincorporated on March 14,1861. In the latter half of the 19th century silk production became the dominant industry and formed the basis of Patersons most prosperous period, in 1835 Samuel Colt began producing firearms in Paterson, although within a few years he moved his business to Hartford, Connecticut. Later in the 19th century Paterson was the site of experiments with submarines by Irish-American inventor John Philip Holland. Two of Hollands early models — one found at the bottom of the Passaic River — are on display in the Paterson Museum, housed in the former Rogers Locomotive and Machine Works near the Passaic Falls. The city was a mecca for immigrant laborers who worked in its factories and it was defeated by the employers, with workers forced to return under pre-strike conditions. Factory workers labored long hours for low wages under dangerous conditions, the factories then moved to the South, where there were no labor unions, and still later moved overseas. In 1919 Paterson was one of eight locations bombed by self-identified anarchists, in 1932 Paterson opened Hinchliffe Stadium, a 10, 000-seat stadium named in honor of John V. Hinchliffe, the citys mayor at the time. Hinchliffe Stadium originally served as the site for school and professional athletic events

3.
Augusta, Georgia
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It is in the piedmont section of the state. The city was named after Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, according to 2012 US Census estimates, the Augusta–Richmond County population was 197,872, not counting the unconsolidated cities of Hephzibah and Blythe. It is the 116th-largest city in the United States, internationally, Augusta is best known for hosting The Masters golf tournament each spring. The area along the river was inhabited by varying cultures of indigenous peoples. The site of Augusta was used by Native Americans as a place to cross the Savannah River, in 1735, two years after James Oglethorpe founded Savannah, he sent a detachment of troops to explore the upper Savannah River. He gave them an order to build at the head of the part of the river. The expedition was led by Noble Jones, who created the settlement to provide a first line of defense for coastal areas against potential Spanish or French invasion from the interior, Oglethorpe named the town Augusta, in honor of Princess Augusta, wife of Frederick, Prince of Wales. Oglethorpe visited Augusta once, in September 1739, Augusta was the second state capital of Georgia from 1785 until 1795. Augusta developed rapidly as a town as the Black Belt in the Piedmont was developed for cotton cultivation. Invention of the cotton gin made processing of cotton profitable. Cotton plantations were worked by labor, with hundreds of thousands of slaves shipped from the Upper South to the Deep South in the domestic slave trade. In the mid-20th century, it was a site of civil rights demonstrations, in 1970 Charles Oatman, a mentally disabled teenager, was killed by his cellmates in an Augusta jail. A protest against his death broke out in a riot involving 500 people, after six black men were killed by police, the noted singer and entertainer James Brown was called in to help quell lingering tensions, which he succeeded in doing. Augusta is located on the Georgia/South Carolina border, about 150 miles east of Atlanta and 70 miles west of Columbia, the city is located at 33°28′12″N 81°58′30″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the Augusta–Richmond County balance has an area of 306.5 square miles. Augusta is located halfway up the Savannah River on the fall line. The city marks the end of a waterway for the river. The Clarks Hill Dam is built on the line near Augusta

4.
Augusta State University
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Augusta State University was a public university located in Augusta, Georgia, United States. On August 10,2012, Augusta State merged with Georgia Health Sciences University to form Georgia Regents University, Augusta State University was founded as the Academy of Richmond County in 1783 as a high school. It opened in 1785 and offered classes from its earliest days. Graduates were accepted into colleges as sophomores or juniors, operation of the academy was overseen by a board of trustees until 1909, when control was passed to the Augusta Board of Education. The college-level classes continued to be overseen by a committee of the state legislature, as enrollment increased, land for a new building was purchased. In 1925, prior to completion of the new building, the Junior College of Augusta was established, in 1957, the junior college separated from the academy and moved to its present location on Walton Way. In 1958, the became a part of the University System of Georgia. It remained a college until 1963, when it attained four-year status. A second campus was added on Wrightsboro Road, which now houses athletics, kinesiology & health science, a golf house, in 1996, Augusta College was renamed Augusta State University, along with name changes mandated for most of the rest of the university system. On August 10,2012, the Board of Regents of the University System of Georgia approved the merger of the school by fall 2013 with nearby Georgia Health Sciences University, ricardo Azziz took the helm of ASU in summer of 2012 in preparation for the oncoming consolidation. The board named the new university Georgia Regents University, which caused local controversy. It also triggered a lawsuit for alleged infringement by Regent University in Virginia. On September 15,2015 Georgia Regents University voted and changed the name to Augusta University and this change came from years of frustration from alumni and decreased fundraising brought in following the name change to GRU. Augusta University was one of the top choices during the name change from Augusta State to GRU. Students could earn associate, bachelor, master, and specialist degrees in over 100 programs of study as well as a paralegal certificate and a cooperative doctorate. There was an Honors Program as well as a Cooperative Education program in which students alternated between classroom enrollment and real-life work experience in their field of study, Students also had opportunities for internships and study abroad programs. The James M. Hull College of Business was featured by The Princeton Review in the 2008 edition of, in May 2009 the university hosted the 25th annual National Science Olympiad tournament. Augusta States athletic programs competed at the Division II level in the Peach Belt Conference of the NCAA, except for the mens and womens golf programs, both of which were Division I Independents

5.
Florida Atlantic University
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FAU belongs to the 12-campus State University System of Florida and serves South Florida, which has a population of more than five million people and spans more than 100 miles of coastline. Florida Atlantic University is classified by the Carnegie Foundation as a university with high research activity. The university offers more than 180 undergraduate and graduate programs within its 10 colleges in addition to a professional degree from the College of Medicine. Programs of study cover arts and humanities, the sciences, medicine, nursing, accounting, business, education, public administration, social work, architecture, engineering, and computer science. Florida Atlantic opened in 1964 as the first public university in southeast Florida, offering only upper-division, initial enrollment was only 867 students, increasing in 1984 when the university admitted its first lower-division undergraduate students. As of 2012, enrollment has grown to over 30,000 students representing 140 countries,50 states, since its inception, Florida Atlantic has awarded more than 110,000 degrees to nearly 153,160 alumni. In recent years, FAU has undertaken an effort to increase its academic, the university has raised admissions standards, increased research funding, built new facilities, and established notable partnerships with major research institutions. Changes include a stadium, additional on-campus housing, and the establishment of a College of Medicine in 2010. On July 15,1961, to meet the educational demands of South Florida. Florida Atlantic University was built on Boca Raton Army Airfield, a 1940s-era army airbase, during World War II, the airfield served as the Army Air Corps sole radar training facility. The base was built on the existing Boca Raton Airport and on 5,860 acres of adjacent land, a majority of the land was acquired from Japanese-American farmers from the failing Yamato Colony. The land was seized through eminent domain, leaving many Japanese-Americans little recourse in the days of World War II. The airbase was used for training, anti-submarine patrols along the coast. The airfield was composed of four runways, still visible on the Boca Campus today, by early 1947, the military decided to transfer future radar training operations to Keesler Air Force Base in Mississippi. The departure of the air force in 1947 would leave Boca Raton Army Airfield essentially abandoned, Florida Atlantic University opened on September 14,1964, with an initial student body of 867 students in five colleges. The first degree awarded was an honorary doctorate given to President Lyndon B. Johnson on October 25,1964, at the dedication, at the time of its opening, there were 120 faculty out of a total of 350 employees. On-campus housing for students was first added in September 1965, when Algonquin Hall opened, Florida Atlantics history is one of continuing expansion as the universitys service population has grown. Florida Atlantic began its expansion beyond a one-campus university in 1971, due to a rapidly expanding population in South Florida, in 1984 Florida Atlantic opened its doors to lower-division undergraduate students

6.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected

7.
Puerto Rican literature
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Puerto Rican literature evolved from the art of oral story telling to its present-day status. Written works by the islanders of Puerto Rico were prohibited and repressed by the Spanish colonial government. Only those who were commissioned by the Spanish Crown to document the history of the island were allowed to write. It wasnt until the late 19th century with the arrival of the first printing press, the first writers to express their political views in regard to Spanish colonial rule of the island were journalists. With the Puerto Rican diaspora of the 1940s, Puerto Rican literature was influenced by a phenomenon known as the Nuyorican Movement. Puerto Rican literature continued to flourish and many Puerto Ricans have distinguished themselves as authors, poets, novelists, playwrights, essayists, the influence of Puerto Rican literature has transcended the boundaries of the island to the United States and the rest of the world. Puerto Rican literature got off to a late start, therefore, written works by the native islanders were prohibited and were punishable by prison terms or banishment. The island, which depended on an economy, had an illiteracy rate of over 80% in the beginning of the 19th century. Even though the first library in Puerto Rico was established in 1642, in the Convent of San Francisco, the only people who had access to the libraries and who could afford books were either appointed Spanish government officials or wealthy land owners. The poor had to resort to oral story-telling in what are known in Puerto Rico as Coplas and Decimas. The islands first writers were commissioned by the Spanish Crown to document the history of the island. The first native-born Puerto Rican governor, Ponce de León II, included information on Taíno culture, particularly their religious ceremonies and he also covered the early exploits of the conquistadors. These documents were sent to the National Archives in Sevilla, Spain, Puerto Rican history, however, was to change forever with the arrival of the first printing press from Mexico in 1806. That same year Juan Rodríguez Calderón wrote and published the first book in the island, in 1851, the Spanish appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Juan de la Pezuela Cevallo, founded the Royal Academy of Belles Letters. This institution contributed greatly to the intellectual and literary progress of the island, the school licensed primary school teachers, formulated school methods, and held literary contests. However, only those with government positions and the wealthy benefited from the formation of the institution, the first Puerto Rican writers came from some of the islands wealthiest families, and they were critical of the injustices of the Spanish Crown. In 1806, the Spanish Colonial Government established La Gaceta de Puerto Rico, the newspaper was biased as to the ideals of the government. The first written works in Puerto Rico were influenced by the Romanticism of the time, Journalists were the first writers to express their political views in the newspapers of the day and later in the books which they authored

8.
Puerto Ricans
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Puerto Ricans are the inhabitants or citizens of Puerto Rico. It is home to people of different national origins and equate their nationality with citizenship, allegiance. Over 90% of Puerto Ricans descend from migrants from these two regions of Spain. Puerto Rico has also influenced by African culture, Afro-Puerto Ricans being a significant minority. Puerto Rico has also received immigration from other parts of Spain such as Catalonia as well as from other European countries such as France, Ireland, Italy and Germany. The population of Puerto Ricans and descendants is estimated to be between 8 and 10 million worldwide, with most living within the islands of Puerto Rico and in the United States mainland. For 2009, the American Community Survey estimates give a total of 3,859,026 Puerto Ricans classified as Native Puerto Ricans. It also gives a total of 3,644,515 of the population being born in Puerto Rico and 201,310 born in the United States, the total population born outside Puerto Rico is 322,773. Of the 108,262 who were born outside the United States,92. 9% were born in Latin America,3. 8% in Europe,2. 7% in Asia,0. 2% in Northern America. Both run-away and freed African slaves were in Puerto Rico and this interbreeding was far more common in Latin America because of those Spanish and Portuguese mercantile colonial policies exemplified by the oft-romanticized male conquistadors. All of these factors would indeed prove detrimental for the Taínos in Puerto Rico, in 1791, the slaves in Saint-Domingue, revolted against their French masters. Many of the French escaped to Puerto Rico via what is now the Dominican Republic and settled in the west coast of the island, Some Puerto Ricans are of British heritage, most notably Scottish people and English people who came to reside there in the 17th and 18th centuries. They were followed by waves from other European countries and China. During the early 20th century Jews began to settle in Puerto Rico, the first large group of Jews to settle in Puerto Rico were European refugees fleeing German–occupied Europe in the 1930s and 1940s. The second influx of Jews to the island came in the 1950s, the native Taino population began to dwindle, with the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, through disease and miscegenation. Many Spaniard men took Taino and West African wives and in the first centuries of the Spanish colonial period the island was overwhelmingly racially mixed. However, under Spanish rule, mass immigration shifted the ethnic make-up of the island, Puerto Rico went from being two-thirds black and mulatto in the beginning of the 19th century, to being nearly 80% white by the middle of the 20th century. This was compounded by more flexible attitudes to race under Spanish rule, amerindian ancestry showed less fluctuation, generally hovering between 5% and 20% irrespective of self-identified race

9.
Louisville, Georgia
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Louisville is a city in Jefferson County, Georgia, United States. It was a capital of Georgia and is the county seat of Jefferson County. It is located southwest of Augusta on the Ogeechee River, though the name is of French origin, it is pronounced Lewis-ville. Louisville was laid out in 1786 as the state capital. Georgia ratified the United States Constitution in 1788, savannah had served as the colonial capital, but it was considered too far from the center of the growing state. Louisville was named for Louis XVI, who was still the King of France and had aided the Continentals during the successful American Revolutionary War, development of the city began later, and its state government buildings were completed in 1795. The city of Louisville served as the capital of Georgia from 1796 to 1806. The Jefferson County courthouse, built in 1904, stands on the site of Georgias first permanent capitol building, louisvilles historic market house still stands in the center of downtown. The original market had sections for everything from farm produce and household goods to slaves, the Old Market is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The market square became the hub of the routes which centered on Louisville while the town was the states capital. As a small city and county seat, the city now has few businesses and industries. Queensborough National Bank and Trust Company was founded in 1902 and is headquartered in Louisville. A marker dedicated to the Yazoo land scandal is located in front of the county courthouse, Louisville is located at 33°0′15″N 82°24′18″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of about 3.7 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 2,712 people,994 households, the population density was 755.5 people per square mile. There were 1,123 housing units at a density of 312.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 65. 93% African American,33. 63% White,0. 04% Native American,0. 22% Asian,0. 07% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 37% of the population. 31. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 16. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 3.22

10.
Culture of Puerto Rico
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The culture of Puerto Rico is the result of a number of international and indigenous influences, both past and present. A subgroup of the Arawakan aboriginals, inhabited the Greater Antilles (comprising Cuba, Jamaica, the Taíno culture impressed both the Spanish Europeans and modern sociologists. There was a hierarchy of deities who inhabited the sky, Yocahu was the supreme Creator, another god, Jurakán, was perpetually angry and ruled the power of the hurricane. Other mythological figures were the gods Zemi and Maboya, the zemis, a god of both sexes, were represented by icons in the form of human and animal figures, and collars made of wood, stone, bones, and human remains. Taíno Indians believed that being in the graces of their zemis protected them from disease, hurricanes. They therefore served cassava bread as well as beverages and tobacco to their zemis as propitiatory offerings. Maboyas, on the hand, was a nocturnal deity who destroyed the crops and was feared by all the natives. The Taíno aboriginals lived in kingdoms and had a hierarchically arranged chiefs or caciques. At the time Juan Ponce de León took possession of the Island, there were about twenty villages or yucayeques and he lived at Guánica, the largest Indian village in the island, on the Guayanilla River. The rank of each cacique apparently was established along democratic lines, his importance in the tribe being determined by the size of his clan, there was no aristocracy of lineage, nor were their titles other than those given to individuals to distinguish their services to the clan. Their complexion were bronze-colored, average stature, dark, flowing, coarse hair, both sexes painted themselves on special occasions, they wore earrings, nose rings, and necklaces, which were sometimes made of gold. Taíno crafts were few, some pottery and baskets were made, skilled at agriculture and hunting, then Taínos were also good sailors, fishermen, canoe makers, and navigators. Their main crops were cassava, garlic, potatoes, yautías, mamey, guava and they had no calendar or writing system. Caciques lived in huts, called caneyes, located in the center of the village facing the batey. The naborias lived in huts, called bohios. The construction of types of building was the same, wooden frames, topped by straw, with earthen floor. But the buildings were strong enough to resist hurricanes and it is believed that Taíno settlements ranged from single families to groups of 3,000 people. About 100 years before the Spanish invasion, the Taínos were challenged by an invading South American tribe - the Caribs, fierce, warlike, sadistic, and adept at using poison-tipped arrows, they raided Taíno settlements for slaves and bodies for the completion of their rites of cannibalism

11.
Hormigueros, Puerto Rico
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Hormigueros is a municipality of Puerto Rico located in the western region of the island, northeast of Cabo Rojo, northwest of San Germán, and south of Mayagüez. Hormigueros is spread over 5 wards and Hormigueros Pueblo and it is part of the Mayagüez Metropolitan Statistical Area. The region of what is now Hormigueros belonged to the Guaynia region, archaeological findings have established that there were tribes already settled in the region around 820 BC. During the Spanish colonization at the beginning of the 16th century, a coffin found underground a basilica was tested in laboratories and was dated prior to 1600. Some historians also mentioned the Horomico river as one of the sources of gold during the rush of the era. In 1692, the town of Hormigueros was first established, first as a village of Mayagüez, from 1863 to 1873, residents of the area started petitioning for the area to be declared an independent town. In 1874, it was granted independence from San Germán. The towns flag is based on the towns shield and it consists of a blue cloth with a horizontal white rhombus. Superposed on the white rhombus is another blue rhombus with a white outlined in blue with a cross. The globe with the cross symbolises royalty and represents Christs domain over the world and this symbol is a traditional attribute to the Virgin of Montserrat. The towns shield is formed by a blue rhombus, with silver-plated edge, on the blue bottom theres a green hill which is a representation of Our Lady of Monserrate de Hormigueros Sanctuary, with its silver stairway. The border has symmetrical black dots, on guard, on the top of the shield resides a crown formed by a wall, with three towers that have blue doors and windows. The joints of the stones are filled with blue lines, the shield is surrounded by two chains that begin at the crown and finish under the bottom part of the shield with the last links broken. The name of Hormigueros means anthill in English, the town possibly derives its name from three concepts. The first one refers to the crowds gathered at the Basilica Menor on September 8 to honor the Virgin of Montserrat. The second refers to the formation of the town which consists of countless hills resembling anthills. It is the second-smallest Puerto Rican municipality in area, larger than only Cataño. The climate conditions of Hormigueros are hot and humid, the average temperature is of 72°F to 79°F. org/censo2000/barrios. php

12.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker