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1 Cinema, Fascism and Propaganda. A historical approximation to the Portuguese Estado Novo Alberto Pena-Rodríguez, Ph.D. - Professor at the University of Vigo (UV) - Pontevedra Campus, Spain - Abstract: The Portuguese dictatorship of António de Oliveira Salazar used the cinema as an efficient propaganda instrument to consolidate the Estado Novo regime in the 1930s. Portugal s National Propaganda Secretariat and other structures controlling public communication played an important role in persuading the Portuguese society and promoting a positive image of the Salazarist abroad. During the Spanish Civil War, the Portuguese cinematic propaganda intensified its campaign against communism and in favour of the Iberian fascism. Keywords: Cinema; fascism; propaganda; dictatorship; Salazarism; Portugal Summary: 1. Introduction. 2. The cinema and the Estado Novo during the Spanish War Censorship and propaganda. 3. Cinema s arrival to the village: the People's Mobile Cinema. 4. The film production of the SPN. 5. The greatest production of the Salazarist cinema The dissemination of A Revolução de Maio in Spain. 6. Conclusions. 7. Bibliography. 8. Notes. Translation by Cruz-Alberto Martínez-Arcos, M.A. - University of London. 1. Introduction This article addresses some interesting aspects of one of the least studied European film industries existing during the establishment of the fascist dictatorships in various European countries after the 1930s. Italy and Germany have always been referenced as paradigms of fascist cinema during the regimes of Hitler and Mussolini due to the strategic importance and prestige reached by the film productions of these states in the 1930s and 1940s (cf. Pizarroso-Quintero, 1990). However, there have been very few research works focused on other more peripheral authoritarian regimes, in which cinema also played a key role in persuading the local public opinion and promoting a positive image of their respective governments abroad. The case of the dictatorship of António de Oliveira Salazar, whose institutionalisation was forged in 1933 with the adoption of the Constitution of the Estado Novo and lasted until 1974, offers singular features that deserve special attention (cf. Ribeiro, 2010; Torgal, 2009; Pinto, 2003). Página 207

2 Revista Latina de Comunicación Social # 067 pages 207 to 228 Financed research DOI: /RLCS ISSN Year 2012 Within this context, this brief investigation aims to reveal some of the key features of the cinematic discourse of the Portuguese regime and its propagandistic dimension immediately after the creation of the Estado Novo as an authoritarian political project, organised according to a corporate model inspired by the structures of the Italian fascism of Benito Mussolini (Torgal, 2009). Thus, the main hypothesis of the analysis responds to the need to shed light on the cinematic propaganda model designed by the Salazarist dictatorship to disseminate its ideological proposals and make the Portuguese society accept its political project which, according to the regime itself, was based on the política do espírito ( politics of the spirit ). This term was coined by writer António Ferro, the first director of the National Propaganda Secretariat (SPN, according to its initials in Portuguese), which was founded in 1933 (cf. Matos, 2010a and 2010b; Pena, 2009). The first objective of the article is to examine several important elements in the relationship of the Portuguese cinema and the Estado Novo. The objective is to answer three key questions: What structures of film production and distribution were used? What mottos and propaganda instruments were used by this type of cinema? What propaganda films were produced in the 1930s, when the instruments of propaganda of the Estado Novo were created and consolidated? This analysis takes into account the context of the Spanish Civil War fought between 1936 and 1939, which involved the participation of several thousand Portuguese men enlisted in the troops of General Franco (cf. Antunes, 2003; Pena, 1998; Oliveira, 1988). The methodology used in this research is the discourse analysis of Portuguese films, focused on the study of the propagandistic construction of the audiovisual narrative and its public reception in the Portuguese media, which were controlled by the censorship apparatus of the Salazarist regime. The object of study is addressed mainly through qualitative techniques and by making use of original hemerographic, documentary and audiovisual sources. The development and structure of the research have taken into account a list of themes of extraordinary importance in order to undertake a historical examination of the cinematic phenomenon with enough critical amplitude. The themes addressed in the study include: the role of censorship; the influence of the Spanish Civil War on the formation of the Portuguese cinema; the creation and operation of the so-called People's Mobile Cinema; and the film that symbolises the cinematic discourse of the Estado Novo: A Revolução de Maio. 2. The Cinema and the Estado Novo during the Spanish war The Portuguese films about the Spanish Civil War have been scarcely analysed. It is true that these films have been less important in comparison to the many internationally-distributed films and documentaries that were produced by other countries that were involved in the conflict, such as Italy and Germany (cf. Pizarroso- Quintero, 1990; Mazzacoli, 1976). The German, Italian, French, American, British, Página 208

3 and Russian film industries were much more developed, technically and professionally, than the Portuguese industry, and therefore were able to create cinematic propaganda of greater quality. Although the Portuguese cinema did not have any less propagandistic importance than the aforementioned national industries and its documentaries did not lack artistic value, we must be aware of its limitations with respect to those countries that had more production companies in Spain and created many more films than the Portuguese industry, which only took off with the advent of the Estado Novo in the 1930s (Pina, 1977). From the SPN, António Ferro became the main promoter of cinema with propagandistic purposes. Along this interest of the Portuguese government, which launched, among other initiatives, the People s Mobile Cinema (to disseminate its discourses in all the corners of Portugal where there were no movie theatres), some directors like António Lopes Ribeiro and Leitão de Barros appeared in the film scene of the neighbouring country to implement personally-financed and state-financed projects with ever-increasing success. The production of feature films in Portugal between 1933 and 1940 reached an annual average of 15 films (Pina, 1977: 37-47; cf. Piçarra, 2006). According to statistical data disseminated in Portugal by the Catholic Church (which was interested in the evolution and public influence of this new medium), less than 5% of the films screened in Portugal during 1935 were of national production. That year, on the eve of the fratricidal war in Spain, the American, French and German companies were the ones selling the largest number of films to the Portuguese distributors. Nevertheless, in and outside Portugal, the national film industry had some peculiar features, which may be unique in some cases and, undoubtedly, allow us to talking about a cinematic propaganda that characterised the Portuguese dictatorship (cf. Torgal, 2011; Piçarra, 2006). This propaganda had a great intentionality and public impact. During the first half of 1936, Lisbon had more than twenty movie theatres and thirty-two by April In Oporto, there were around a dozen of movie theatres between 1935 and In the rest of the country there were some cinemas in the main towns, but the best movie theatre (which also worked as distributor) in the rural area was probably the SPN s People s Mobile Cinema, which showed documentaries about the patriotic work of the Portuguese government in all corners of the country. The interest of the Portuguese public on the cinema was extraordinary. This is evidenced by the existence of two film magazines, Cinéfilo and Cine-Jornal, which by 1936 were already consolidated in the Portuguese publishing scene, and by the broadcast, in the national radio station, of a movie section that was called Meia hora de cinema ( Half an hour of cinema ) and was produced in collaboration with Cine- Jornal. [1] Página 209

4 Revista Latina de Comunicación Social # 067 pages 207 to 228 Financed research DOI: /RLCS ISSN Year Censorship and propaganda When the first American-produced documentaries about the war events in Spain began to be marketed internationally, the Portuguese government prohibited their showing in the country as it feared they were not suitable for the Portuguese public. In addition, aware of cinema s persuasion power and social influence, Salazar feared riots would arise as a result of the effervescence caused by the war. The distribution of newsreels about the war was not authorised until the middle of October, 1936, after many considerations. The lifting of the ban, however, did not cause riots but produced excellent propaganda results on the Portuguese population, which applauded the on-screen triumphs of the Francoist troops. Cinéfilo wrote an article about that time when movie theatres in Lisbon showed the first images of the troops and applauded the initiative of the Portuguese Government in favour of the public: Vão os nossos melhores comprimentos, aos quais a gratidão não é estranha, para a Inspecção dos Espectáculos que, com louvável critério, autorizou a estreia no nosso País dos documentários da guerra civil de Espanha. Bem hajam pela iniciativa, que na própria noite de apresentação do primeiro jornal ouviu aplausos, significativos sob mais de um aspecto. Primeiro, porque tranquilizaram aquêles que temiam que a passagem de tais peliculas dividissem as opiniões provocando incidentes mais ou menos lamentáveis. Depois, porque deu ensejo a verificar-se que a maioria da população está de alma e coração com os defensores da causa nacionalista. Provou-se isso na espontaneidade das ovações ouvidas nas nossas salas de cinema e tributadas ás forças anti-marxistas e verificando-se que nenhuma discordância importante contrariou as palmas da maioria. [...] Sob êsse aspecto, os documentários que Portugal está agora vendo só podem ter resultados salutares. [...] (Cinéfilo, year 8, nº 427: 2). From then on, the censorship exercised by the Serviço da Inspecção Geral dos Espectáculos (General Inspection of the Performances) allowed the showing of films that were related to the conflict but always employed arguments and images that presented a partial view of the facts, which was favourable for the National Francoist movement. For this reason, the distributors had many problems and some of them directly confronted the Portuguese government about the initial Solomonic suspension of the dissemination of documentaries about the Spanish War and, later, about the extreme measures taken to filter the cinematic projections (cf. Lauro, 1978). The newsreel distributor Jornal Fox, subsidiary of the American company in Portugal, published in the Diário de Lisboa (Lisbon s Daily) a notice about the reason why Fox s internationally successful documentaries were not shown in the country: Jornal Fox. Explicação: A Companhia Cinematografica de Portugal previne (sic) ao publico de que Jornal Fox não apresentou ainda em Lisboa as suas sensacionais reportagens dos acontecimentos em Espanha que ha mais de dois Página 210

5 meses correm o mundo) pela simples razão de que as respectivas entidades oficiais, assim o determinaram. O Jornal Fox, o mais categorizado em todo o mundo, demostrará, logo que lhe seja permitido (cursiva en el original), o valor excepcional das suas reportagens da guerra civil em Espanha, algumas das quais já podiam ter sido estreadas em Portugal ha dois meses. (Diário de Lisboa, nº 5000, 18/10/1936: 4). The day before Fox s notice was published, on 17 October 1936, Lisbon s São Luiz theatre officially premiered the first war documentary ever screened in Portugal. This documentary was centred on the liberation of the Alcázar of Toledo and depicted the attack of the militant men loyal to the government of the second Spanish Republic to the fortress, which was under the artillery fire and whose towers were shown collapsing amid clouds of dust and smoke. The documentary also showed the entry of the legionaries to the Alcázar and the meeting between general Franco and Colonel Moscardó, at the front of the resistance. According to the Diário de Lisboa newspaper, which published a review of the documentary, the photography was excellent despite the difficulties faced by the cameramen during the shooting. However, before the presentation of the war feat of General Franco s soldiers in Toledo, the virtues of his army were already known by the Portuguese public, which watched, in September, the film documentary La Bandera (The Flag), which revolved around the life of El Tercio (a military unit of the Spanish army) in Morocco. This documentary was shown thanks to the initiative of the Sindicato Nacional dos Profisionais do Cinema (National Union of Cinema Professionals) in collaboration with the Mocidade Portuguesa (Portuguese Youth), which was an organisation of young militant defenders of the Estado Novo. According to the Diário de Notícias, the documentary showed the [ ] disciplina, a valentia, o espirito de abnegação dos heroicos legionarios ao serviço de Espanha. La Bandera was shown at Lisbon s Condes Cinema and served as a pretext for an anti-communist propaganda session involving the Portuguese journalist Armando Boaventura, the leader of the Renovación Española party, Antonio Goicoechea, and the Marquis of Quintanar. In the second half of 1936, thanks to the initiative of the directives of the Mocidade Portuguesa and the Legião Portuguesa (the regime s militia), the Portuguese cinemas also showed German films about Hitler and his social and military successes. These films were provided by the Deutsches Nachrichtenbüro (DNB) Nazi agency On 15 November, the São Luiz cinema organised a cinematic Nazi propaganda meeting with the screening of the documentaries Juventude Hitleriana (Hitlerian Youth) and Olimpiada branca (White olympiad), which were described as [ ] admiráveis documentários cheios de beleza artística e educativa [...] by the Estado Novo s official newspaper, Diário da Manhã (Morning Newspaper). The meeting was attended by the director of the German DNB Agency, diplomats from the Italian and Página 211

6 Revista Latina de Comunicación Social # 067 pages 207 to 228 Financed research DOI: /RLCS ISSN Year 2012 German embassies, the Commander of the Mocidade Portuguesa, Nobre Guedes, the head of the Fascio in Lisbon, Count di Carrobio, as well as the followers of the Nazi movement and many young Portuguese people. The cinematic propaganda showed the Portuguese people the progress achieved by the Fascist German and Italian states, while the war conflicts unfolded in Spain. But the documentaries about Hitler and Mussolini were not always well received by the Portuguese people, especially after the Spanish War, in April 1939, when both dictators had already shown their imperialist cards on the European board. Sometimes the images of both leaders were booed by the Portuguese public when they appeared on screen [2]. In response to the spectators attitude, the members of the Legião Portuguesa in Viana do Castelo decided to strongly protest against the leader of the French Popular Front, León Blum, and other like-minded politicians whenever they appeared, circumstantially, in any documentary. However, the general interest shown by the Portuguese audience towards the documentaries related to the war events in Spain forced the film entrepreneurs and the SPN, which had the power to decide which films could be publicly shown, to introduce war films during the screenings of feature film to attract audiences with propagandistic intentionality. In the daily newspapers, mainly during the last year of war, it was common to find various advertisements of cinemas promoting newsreels about the events occurring in Spain. No advertisements about these documentaries were found in the Portuguese newspapers in late 1936 or in the first half of 1937 despite these documentaries had high social expectations (cf. Rodríguez-Mateos, 2009; Pérez- Cuadrado, 2008). This fact makes us believe that Salazar, aware of the importance of the propagandistic use of cinema, viewed with mistrust the films that were not produced by the SPN nor controlled directly by any other state agency, and so he restricted their dissemination through private distributors. Anyways, censorship became more tolerant as the Francoist side was winning the battle. Some of the documentaries most promoted by the Portuguese press were: the short film Visões da guerra de Espanha (Visions of war in Spain), which centred on the Battle of the Ebro and the bombings to Madrid s University City; Imagens da guerra de Espanha (Images of war in Spain), which showed scenes of the Francoist conquest of Barcelona; and A tomada de Madrid (The occupation of Madrid), which was created only with images of the Spanish capital after the end of the war. This last short film and O Desfile da Vitória (The Victory Parade) were the cinematic climax on the Spanish Civil war for the Portuguese public after the victory of the so-called Nacional Francoist Movement. Both films premiered in Portugal in June 1939, during the triumphal day of homage to the viriatos (the Portuguese fighters enlisted in the Spanish rebel army) at Lisbon s São Luiz cinema. In the event, the Spanish leader was cheered as usual every time he appeared on screen, but this Página 212

7 time his figure had a special recognition for viewers because it was, according to the press, the first world winner over communism and because his troops [ ] restituiram á Espanha o direito de dizer: - Elevámos a Patria á categoria de hostia do sacrificio [ ]. 3. Cinema s arrival to the village: the People's Mobile Cinema The SPN created a cinema section to disseminate the Estado Novo s política do espírito. This organism soon mange to sell some of its documentaries to Fox Movietone News, Éclair-Journal, Ufa Wchenschan, France-Actualités, and Paramount News. Two years after the creation of the cinema section, in September 1935, the film archive of the SPN already contained 50 films, many of them with sound, and produced exclusively by its staff or the Portuguese production companies that were hired to do specific works. The documentaries were shown for free in the headquarters of the trade unions, public squares, and the atriums of the villages, etc. [3] The SPN developed various actions to shape the thoughts and behaviour of the Portuguese society. One of the first initiatives that employed the film discourse was put into action on 14 December, 1936, as part of an anti-communist campaign directed mainly to the Portuguese proletariat. To this end, the Salazarist organism equipped a special lorry with all the equipment necessary to screen patriotic documentaries at the Casas do Povo (People s Houses) of some towns, which were the primary unit of corporate rural organisation during this time. The success of António Ferro s initiative forced the government to reconsider very soon this idea of bringing the cinema of the SPN to the rural areas. Immediately, the government decided to create a more complex and effective traveling organism that could take its propaganda to the Portuguese provinces more quickly and often, without having to build cinemas around the country. In this way, the People s Mobile Cinema, inaugurated on 20 February, 1935, in Lisbon s Sindicato dos Caixeiros, became a powerful weapon of mind control (cf. Paulo, 1994). The screenings were held in different parts of Portugal according to the plans created by the theatre section, called Teatro do Povo (Poeple s Theater). The sessions were staged just like political meetings. The members of the regime s corporate bodies, and even priests, gave heated discourses to the public at the end of the screenings. These discourses always highlighted the representative value of documentaries and warned people about the destructive hazards of the Communist ideology, with which the Spanish government of Azaña was identified. The People s Cinema managed to congregate, outdoors, entire villages and towns in front of the screen for the first time. Several meetings were held per day in various places and there were special screenings for children accompanied by their teachers. In his tour by the north of Portugal, the President of Vidago s Casa do Povo, Página 213

8 Revista Latina de Comunicación Social # 067 pages 207 to 228 Financed research DOI: /RLCS ISSN Year 2012 fascinated by the magic of this event, by the living representation of a distant reality and its convening power, described the People s Cinema as the embaixada de paz, de cultura e de elevado patriotismo. The first tour of the People s Mobile Cinema was held between January and May of 1937 in the north and centre of Portugal. There were in total 127 sessions, 11 of which were diurnal and aimed for children. During the first trip, the trucks of the SPN visited 74 towns, mostly small villages, whose inhabitants were unaware of the existence of cinema. Of the screenings, 61 were held in the Casas do Povo, 8 in unions buildings and other corporate bodies, and 4 in schools. More than one hundred thousand people went to see the documentaries and to listen to the 96 propaganda discourses given during the film sessions by the local authorities and popular characters supporting the Estado Novo. In the second half of 1937, the SPN took its mobile cinema section to the south of the country, and crossed several dozens of villages, which due to their isolation were surprised by the propaganda that reminded them, through devastating images, that the war in Spain was not fiction and that Salazar would ensure the peace in Portugal with their help. The People s Mobile Cinema continued its work in the following years. In 1938, it incorporated another team to its activities, which allowed it to extend its propaganda to more places. As it happened with radio, some populations were especially problematic and showed their rejection towards the regime s nationalist ideology and their preference for the Spanish vermelhos (the red Spaniards) during the war. The favourable attitude towards the Spanish Republic forced the authorities to take the People's Mobile Cinema to these black spots to mitigate the effects of the illegal propaganda (developed mainly through leaflets and fliers) with the strong persuasive power of the cinema. In May 1937, a film session with these motives was held in Salgueiros, a district of Viseu, in the fair field of Lima Loureiro. The event was attended by 2,500 people. The meeting was opened by the local delegates of the Legião and the Mocidade Portuguesa, who were followed by the interventions of professor António Pais-da- Cruz, who justified the presence of the People s Cinema to publicise the social progress of the dictatorship. However, there were other professors, like António da- Silva-Leitão, who rejected the invitation of the corporate organisations to indoctrinate the people about the benefits of the Estado Novo. In addition, the spies of the Legião found out, prior to the session, that the communists had terrorised the population by threatening it to provoke a shootout during the screening in order to discourage attendance to the screening. Página 214

9 4. The film production of the SPN The fight against communism was the motto of the cinema section of the SPN during the Spanish Civil War. It was common that the monthly budget of the Secretariat contained a chapter dedicated to the anti-communist propaganda through cinema", which described the amounts paid to some private film production companies, like Lisboa Film, and individual producers for these services (Pina, 1987). In the first half of 1937, the budget allocated to film production reached the high figure of half a million escudos, which included the maintenance cost of the People s Mobile Cinema; the funding of newsreels and the feature film A Revolução de Maio (The May Revolution); the payment to the French company Éclair-Journal; the purchase of equipment and material for the photographic archive; and the acquisition of foreign films. During 1937, the SPN concentrated its cinematic propaganda in Portugal, by using most of the film copies available in the mobile cinema. This prevented the organism from properly meeting the orders made by nationalist organisations like the Falange, which requested Portuguese films. Adaptations of foreign documentaries for the Portuguese public were commonplace in the film activities of the SPN, which added comments or signs to advance their manipulative agenda. In addition to the already mentioned films (Visões da guerra de Espanha, Imagens da Guerra de Espanha and A Tomada de Madrid, among others), it is important to highlight the Italian-Spanish 1939 original production Nada de Novo no Alcázar (Nothing New in the Alcázar), whose Portuguese audio adaptation mentioned the aid provided by the presenters from Radio Club Português to the people under fire in Toledo s Fortress (Matos-Cruz, 1989: 91). The short film A Guerra Civil de Espanha (The Spanish Civil War) is the only adaptation produced by the SPN of which a copy is preserved in the Arquivo Nacional das Imagens em Movimento (National Archive of Moving Images), aka ANIM. However, the production date is unknown. However, it is probable that it was distributed in Portugal between 1936 and 1938, since the film is presented as a sensational reportage containing the first images filmed in the loyal Barcelona during the war. Its images were probably bought from some foreign production company that had camera operators on the loyal side. The editors from the SPN transformed the shots of the documentary into a cinematic libel against the government of Madrid. The silent documentary only showed images of buildings, churches and monuments that were supposedly destroyed by the marxists (sic) in Barcelona Thus, the subtitles at the beginning of the story made clear that: O público vai ver as primeiras imagens colhidas em Barcelona, entre os marxistas, os quais dão uma idéia clara da desordem e indisciplina que ali reinam, numa fúria de terror e destruição, pois nada escapa à onda de vandalismo. The documentary showed different shots of the port of Barcelona and of several streets with debris from burnt-down houses. Other message indicated: A desorganização nas Página 215

10 Revista Latina de Comunicación Social # 067 pages 207 to 228 Financed research DOI: /RLCS ISSN Year 2012 ruas é evidente. Todos mandam mas ninguém obedece, pelo que são constantes as discussões entre os elementos marxistas. As ruas oferecem um conjunto desolador. Por tôda a parte se vêem destroços provocados pelas hordas marxistas que nada respeitam. The documentary s on-screen description demanded some imagination, since the documentary s images did not show damages in the docks of the Catalan port, nor fights started by the cited Marxists, nor any suggestion of unrest in the streets of Barcelona. There were, however, images of semi-destroyed buildings, children playing amid the ruins, and many images of two burnt-down churches. The documentary even showed the famous images of the mummified nuns displayed at the entrance of the temple. One of the most emblematic productions of the SPN related to the events in Spain is perhaps the silent documentary Comicios Anti-Comunistas (Anti-Communist Rallies), which had legends that lasted almost fifteen minutes. This documentary was produced in 1936 and fortunately for the film history of Portugal the ANIM still retains a copy of it. Its title summarises the content of the film, which is images of the patriotic acts against the communist invasion in the main Portuguese cities during the first months of the war. The documentary tried to show, in view of the tragic events caused in Spain by the international communism that threatened Portugal (sic), the consciência do dever (sense of duty) of all the Portuguese people, united with Salazar against marxism. This point of view was perfectly illustrated in the introductory part of the documentary, whose subtitles warned the viewer about the nature of the images: Enquanto em Espanha a onda de selvajaria e de destruição servida por autênticos bandidos e assassinos vai arruinando tôdas as actividades e riquezas da nação, em Portugal realizam-se comicios anti-comunistas em todo o Paiz, na melhor ordem e com uma vibração popular enorme. Nestes comicios, realizados com numerosísima concorrência, em Lisboa, Porto e Coimbra, bem como nas restantes capitais do distrito e grandes centros industriais, milhares de nacionalistas afirmam a vitalidade e a sua devoção patriótica unindo-se á volta do Govêrno do Estado Novo na defeza do prestígio e da integridade da Pátria Portugueza. Although the documentary mentions the massive rally at Lisbon s Campo Pequeno Bullring (held on September 28, 1936), it does not shows any image of it. However, it does show an abundance of scenes of the acts in Oporto and Coimbra, which confirms the real manipulative purpose of the SPN s film propaganda. The documentary shows the military parades and the rivers of frenzied men, women and children dressed and groomed for the occasion, applauding and waving in the fascist style, attending rallies with banners showing support to the government that was facing the red danger that was destroying Spain. Página 216

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