Finnish composer who was the country’s most important since Jean Sibelius; his some 50 works include four symphonies and other orchestral pieces, several choral works, a number of chamber pieces, and only one opera, Viimeiset kiusaukset (The Last Temptations), which nevertheless was his best-known creation (b. Nov. 13, 1921--d. Oct. 2, 1996)....

town and port, Delta state, southern Nigeria. It lies along the Benin River, in the western Niger River delta. A collecting point for palm oil and kernels as well as timber, it can be reached by vessels of 14-foot (4-metre) draft that navigate the 50-mile (80-kilometre) distance upstream to the port via the Escravos River entrance (opened 1940, on the Bight of Benin) and the You...

...earth”) is pocked by numerous tuff craters, relics of the island’s last volcanic activity. These include Koko Head Crater, at an elevation of 642 feet (196 metres) near Kawaihoa Point, and Koko Crater (Hawaii’s tallest tuff ring), which rises to 1,207 feet (368 metres). According to legend, Koko Crater was formed when Pele, the goddess of fires and volcanoes, was chased by Kamapuaa,......

cape and landmark, Honolulu county, on the southeastern coast of Oahu island, Hawaii, U.S. It lies across from Diamond Head 9 miles (14 km) east on Maunalua Bay. Formed by secondary volcanic eruptions of the Koolau Range more than 10,000 years ago, the cape (whose name means “blood” or “red earth”) is pocked by numerous tu...

...than 10,000 years ago, the cape (whose name means “blood” or “red earth”) is pocked by numerous tuff craters, relics of the island’s last volcanic activity. These include Koko Head Crater, at an elevation of 642 feet (196 metres) near Kawaihoa Point, and Koko Crater (Hawaii’s tallest tuff ring), which rises to 1,207 feet (368 metres). According to legend, Koko Crater......

lake, Qinghai province, west-central China. The largest mountain lake without a river outlet in Central Asia, it is located in a depression of the Qilian Mountains, its surface at an elevation of about 10,500 feet (3,200 metres) above sea level....

...the restoration of the Meiji led to the publication of more than a dozen newspapers concerned with domestic issues. Mainly issued by shogunate sympathizers, they included the Kōko shimbun, whose publisher, the dramatist and educator Fukuchi Gen’ichirō, had studied Western newspapers on his official travels abroad for the Japanese government (and who was......

city, seat (1844) of Howard county, north-central Indiana, U.S., on Wildcat Creek, 52 miles (84 km) north of Indianapolis. In 1844 David Foster, a trader, laid out the village of Kokomo (named for a Miami chieftain) on part of the reservation once held by Chief La Fontaine. The settlement’s early growth was hampered by malarial swamps in the area, which were soon drained. The Peru and Indianapolis...

Various Japanese authors disseminated traditional Chinese methods for the solution of problems. Sawaguchi Kazuyuki’s Kokon sanpoki (1671; “Ancient and Modern Mathematics”) pointed out that “erroneous” problems could have more than one solution (in other words, equations could have more than one root), but he left unanswered difficult problems involving......

...of the mental suffering he described. Sōseki wrote mainly about intellectuals living in a Japan that had been brutally thrust into the 20th century. His best-known novel, Kokoro (1914; “The Heart”; Eng. trans. Kokoro), revolves around another familiar situation in his novels, two men in love with the same woman. His last......

A constant motif in Buka-Bougainville two-dimensional art is the kokorra, a silhouette of a squatting or standing human figure with upraised hands and the male mitrelike coiffure. This figure—or the head alone—was painted and carved in bas-relief upon a great variety of objects, including canoes, paddles, slit gongs, dance clubs, and architectural elements....

Austrian painter and writer who was one of the leading exponents of Expressionism. In his early portraits, gesture intensifies the psychological penetration of character; especially powerful among his later works are allegories of the artist’s emphatic humanism. His dramas, poems, and prose are significant for their psychological insight and stylistic daring....

...Italian decorative motifs. A third church, the modest Annunciation Cathedral (1484–89), with its warm beauty, was the work of Pskov architects. There the kokoshniki were introduced in the treatment of the roof. This element, similar in outline to the popular Russian bochka roof (pointed on top, with......

...Italian decorative motifs. A third church, the modest Annunciation Cathedral (1484–89), with its warm beauty, was the work of Pskov architects. There the kokoshniki were introduced in the treatment of the roof. This element, similar in outline to the popular Russian bochka roof (pointed on top, with......

...the city before ending near its beginning at the Brandenburg Gate. Ethiopia’s Haile Gebrselassie has won the most Berlin Marathons, four, and the women’s record for victories is three, shared by Renata Kokowska of Poland and Uta Pippig of Germany....

...4,600 metres), while the elevations of the depressions that separate them vary from 6,000 to 10,500 feet (1,800 to 3,200 metres). The most important ranges are Borkoldoy, Dzhetym, At-Bashy, and the Kakshaal (Kokshaal-Tau) Range, in which Dankova Peak reaches a height of 19,626 feet (5,982 metres)....

...of the daimyo for distribution among their retainers. In place of previous land taxes (nengu) assessed in money as so many hundred or ten thousand kan of silver, an assessment of kokudaka was made as so many hundred or ten thousand koku of rice. A koku represented the amount of rice consumed by one person in one year (about five bushels); the amount also was.....

...Shōmu (724–749) to press determinedly for strengthening the spiritual corrective that he perceived to be offered by Buddhism. In 741 he established the kokubunji system, building a monastery and a nunnery in each province, all under a central authority at Nara. In 743 he initiated the planning for construction of that central......

city, Tokyo to (metropolis), Honshu, Japan. It lies along the Chūō Main Line, west of Tokyo city. The city first developed around the Kokubun Temple, built in the 8th century for a group of Buddhist nuns, and was an early cultural centre. During the Meiji era (186...

...Shōmu (724–749) to press determinedly for strengthening the spiritual corrective that he perceived to be offered by Buddhism. In 741 he established the kokubunji system, building a monastery and a nunnery in each province, all under a central authority at Nara. In 743 he initiated the planning for construction of that central......

...had developed since the Kamakura period were now clarified. The former shōen system of complex landholding had been obliterated by Sengoku daimyo. Landowning relations were now based on kokudaka—i.e., on the actual product of the land. Moreover, this kokudaka now came within the landlord’s grasp in every village, and land taxes were levied on the village......

(Japanese: “National Learning”), movement in late 17th- and 18th-century Japan that emphasized Japanese classical studies. The movement received impetus from the Neo-Confucianists, who stressed the importance of Chinese Classical literature. The Mito school of scholars, for example, initiated a monumental work, the Dai-nihon-shi (“History of Great Japan”), based on the C...

...lived in farming villages and supervised peasant labour or themselves carried on agriculture, while the central civil aristocracy and the temples and shrines held huge public lands (kokugaryō) and private estates in various provinces and wielded power comparable to that of the bakufu. These shōen were managed by influential resident landlords who......

...of foreign influence and that they were therefore representative of the pure Japanese spirit, he helped foster a revival of the early poetic style. His chief original work, the Kokuikō, contains a biting rejection of Chinese thought and literature and a hymnal glorification of Japanese antiquity. His writings, collected in 12 volumes, are made up primarily of......

...journalistic and literary career. In 1887 he founded a publishing house, Min’yūsha (“Society of the People’s Friends”). In 1887 this firm began a highly influential periodical, Kokumin no tomo (“Nation’s Friend”), that was Japan’s first general magazine. Min’yūsha in 1890 began printing Kokumn shimbun (“The Nation Newspaper”), which......

...and is a major coal port for northern Kyushu. Tobata is one of the main deep-sea-fishing bases of western Japan, has a large output of cotton textiles, and contains numerous metal industries. Kokura, a former arsenal town, specializes in iron and steel and machinery. Moji contains the city’s major port facilities; it is a coal-shipping and fishing port and has oil-storage facilities....

museum in Tokyo, founded in 1872, concerned with the history of the physical sciences, natural history, and technology. The collections include models of Japanese flora in wax and other materials, engineering and scientific apparatus, and machines of historical interest....

museum in Tokyo devoted to important Japanese works of art of the 20th century. The collection covers works of past artists outstanding in the history of Japanese art; outstanding works of contemporary artists; and works selected for their historical importance....

the national library of Japan, formed at Tokyo in 1948 and combining the libraries of the upper and lower houses of the Diet (national legislature) with the collections of the former Imperial Library (established 1872). The library’s building opened in 1961, adjacent to the National Diet Building. It is organized on the system of the U.S. Library of Congress, serving legislators and the nation at ...

...excessive Western influence. Some originated in the Meiji period, when nationalists had felt obliged to work for a “fundamental settlement” of differences with Russia. Most, like the Black Dragon Society (Kokuryūkai), combined continental adventurism and a strong nationalist stance with opposition to party government, big business, acculturation, and Westernization. By......

Chikamatsu’s most popular work was Kokusenya kassen (1715; The Battles of Coxinga), a historical melodrama based loosely on events in the life of the Chinese-Japanese adventurer who attempted to restore the Ming dynasty in China. Another celebrated work is Shinjū ten no Amijima (1720; ......

...division: the kuni, or koku (province), the kōri, or gun (county), and the sato, or ri (village), to be administered by officials known as kokushi, gunji, and richō, respectively. The posts of kokushi were filled by members of the central bureaucracy in turn, but the posts of gunji and richō......

the first important national labour organization in the United States, founded in 1869. Named the Noble Order of the Knights of Labor by its first leader, Uriah Smith Stephens, it originated as a secret organization meant to protect its members from employer retaliations. Secrecy also gave the organization an emotional appeal....

city, western Uttar Pradesh state, northern India. It lies at the southern edge of the Upper Ganges-Yamuna Doab, about 65 miles (100 km) southeast of Delhi and some 25 miles (40 km) southwest of the Ganges (Ganga) River....

(Aramaic: “All Vows”), a prayer sung in Jewish synagogues at the beginning of the service on the eve of Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement). The name, derived from the opening words, also designates the melody to which the prayer is traditionally chanted. Though equally ancient versions exist in Hebrew and Aramaic, the Aramaic is generally used in the predominant Ashkenazic and Sephardic rites. The pra...

...the Piano Concerto, Op. 42 (1942); and the Fantasia for violin with piano accompaniment, Op. 47 (1949). He also wrote a number of works of particular Jewish interest, including Kol Nidre for mixed chorus, speaker, and orchestra, Op. 39 (1938)—the Kol Nidre is a prayer sung in synagogues at the beginning of the service on the eve of Yom Kippur (Day of......

...revisions, as is shown by the many manuscripts in existence and by the variety of the printed texts. Already there are two widely different versions of his collected works, one in 11 volumes (Kol sipurav shel Shmuel Yosef Agnon, vol. 1–6, Berlin, 1931–35; 7–11, Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, 1939–52) and one in 8 volumes (Tel Aviv, 1953–62). The archaic......

Among the more prominent middot are the kol wa-ḥomer (“how much more”), in which the interpreter proceeds from a minor to a major premise, and the gezera shawa (comparison of similar expressions, or laws), in which an inference is made by analogy. The kol wa-ḥomer rule is limited by the principle of dayyo (“it is......

caffeine-containing nut of Cola acuminata and Cola nitida, trees of the cocoa family (Sterculiaceae) native to tropical Africa and cultivated extensively in the American tropics. The evergreen tree grows to 18.3 metres (60 feet) and resembles the chestnut. The 5-centimetre- (2-inch-) long brown nut is hand-collected and dried in the sun for comme...

large promontory in Murmansk oblast (province), far northern Russia. The Kola Peninsula covers some 40,000 square miles (100,000 square km) and extends across the Arctic Circle for about 190 miles (305 km) north-south and 250 miles (400 km) east-west, separating the White and Barents seas. The peninsula, which is geologically an extension of the Baltic Shield, consists of...

Athenian financial administrators of the 6th and 5th centuries bce. Their title (“collectors of legs”) indicates their original function as collectors of animal sacrifices. In the 6th century bce they managed the Athenian treasury and after the reforms of Cleisthenes (c. 508) were assisted by the apodektai (receivers). The office of k...

Out of the four folk-drama forms—kolam, sokari, nadagam, and pasu—the most highly developed and significant is the kolam, in which actors wear brightly painted and intricately carved wooden masks. The word kolam is of Tamil origin and means “costume,” “impersonation,” or “guise.” The performance consists of the masked......

city, executive and judicial capital of Sri Lanka. (Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, a Colombo suburb, is the legislative capital.) Situated on the west coast of the island, just south of the Kelani River, Colombo is a principal port of the Indian Ocean. It has one of the largest artificial harbours in the world and handles the majority of Sri Lanka’s foreign trade....

...(province), Indonesia. Part of the Lesser Sunda Islands, they lie between the Flores and Savu seas. The largest island is Alor (900 square miles [2,330 square km]), the two major mountains of which, Kolana (5,791 feet [1,765 metres]) and Muna (4,724 feet [1,440 metres]), are both old volcanoes. Alor is broken up by steep ravines, with only one plateau and some small coastal plains. Pantar Islan...

Sept. 24, 1914Protivin, Bohemia, Austria-HungaryAug. 11, 2002Prague, Czech Rep.Czech artist and writer who , excelled in both poetry and collage, but his works embodied independence and originality at a time when communist cultural repression made such qualities liabilities, and he suffered...

...Priče iz davnine (1916; Croatian Tales of Long Ago); the prolific Marija Jurić Zagorka, who wrote gripping historical novels; and Slavko Kolar, who depicted the life of the peasant in a changing world. The dominant writers of the interwar period were August Cesarec (Zlatni mladić [1928; “The Golden......

town, northeastern Bulgaria. It lies in a valley in the eastern foothills of the Shumen limestone plateau. The town is a road and rail centre with such industries as tobacco processing, canning and brewing, furniture making, and the manufacture of enamelware. Shumen also has a factory that makes farm-machinery components; founded in 1958, it was the first such factory in Bulgari...

Aristide Maillol continued refining his relaxed and uncomplicated female forms with their untroubled, stolid surfaces. In Germany, Georg Kolbe’s “Standing Man and Woman” of 1931 seems a prelude to the Nazi health cult, and the serene but vacuous figures of Arno Breker, Karl Albiker, and Ernesto de Fiori were simply variations on a studio theme in praise of youth and body culture. In......

Finnish sculler who won gold medals in three consecutive Olympic single sculls events (1976, 1980, 1984). His Olympic success, coupled with world championships in 1979 and 1985, tied him with Peter-Michael Kolbe of Germany as the only five-time single sculls champions....

city, Zachodniopomorskie województwo (province), northwestern Poland. It lies at the mouth of the Parsęta River on the Baltic Sea. It is a port and health spa, with its economy relying on fishing and tourism....

city, in Kemerovo oblast (region), central Russia. It lies along the Inya River, a tributary of the Ob. In 1912 a French company started coal-mining operations there; from the 1930s the city developed rapidly to become a major coal-mining centre, with many pits located in the city itself. Other industries produce chemicals, mining machinery, electric la...

In the hills to the south of the Ganges (Ganga) valley, a group of sites has been assigned to the “Vindhya Neolithic”; for at least one of these, Koldihwa, dates as early as the 7th millennium have been reported. The sites contain circular huts made of timber posts and thatch; associated implements and vessels include stone blades, ground stone axes, bone tools, and crude handmade......

city, eastern Jutland, Denmark. It lies at the head of Kolding Fjord, north of Haderslev. The name occurs in the 10th century, but the earliest-known town rights date from 1321. The settlement grew up around Koldinghus, a royal castle built in 1248 to defend the frontier. Kolding was the scene of a Danish victory over the Swedes in 1644 and of a Danish defeat by Schleswig-Holste...

...Jutland, Denmark. It lies at the head of Kolding Fjord, north of Haderslev. The name occurs in the 10th century, but the earliest-known town rights date from 1321. The settlement grew up around Koldinghus, a royal castle built in 1248 to defend the frontier. Kolding was the scene of a Danish victory over the Swedes in 1644 and of a Danish defeat by Schleswig-Holsteiners in 1849. The castle......

town, northern Algeria. It is located about 17 miles (27 km) southwest of Algiers, on the southern, inland slopes of the coastal hills overlooking the valley of Wadi Mazafran and the Mitidja plain. It was founded in 1550 by Khayr al-Dīn (Barbarossa), the Barbary pirate, and was originally populated by Andalusian Moors. Kol...

...swamp-filled semicircular plateau 1 mile (1.6 km) in diameter. Several peaks in the range exceed 3,000 feet (900 metres). The area along the coast west of the range is the driest segment of Oahu. Kolekole Pass (constructed 1937), 3 miles (5 km) south, is an important link between the west coast and the fertile central plateau....

...Tamil also evolved. The earliest record of the language is an inscription dated to approximately 830 ce. An early and extensive influx of Sanskrit words influenced the Malayalam script. Known as Koleluttu (“Rod Script”), it is derived from the Grantha script, which in turn is derived from Brahmi. Koleluttu has letters to represent the entire corpus of sounds from both Dravidian......

Lapland is a region of great topographical variety. To the west it embraces the northern part of the Kolen Mountains, which reach elevations of more than 6,500 feet (2,000 m). On its Norwegian (western) side this range slopes abruptly and is deeply eroded into fjords and headlands and fractured into archipelagoes. The eastern flank of the range, which is situated in Swedish Lapland (see......

river in western Africa, rising 25 miles (40 km) north of Kindia in the Fouta Djallon highlands of western Guinea. It marks 63 miles (101 km) of the Guinea–Sierra Leone border before entering Sierra Leone to complete its 160-mile (257-kilometre) course to the Atlantic Ocean. Its lower reach (in Sierra Leone) flows through a densely populated mangrove swamp area that has been extensively cleared fo...

...the standards of the day, providing for virtually universal manhood suffrage (although women were barred from voting until as late as 1952). However, Otto, together with his crafty prime minister, Ioánnis Koléttis, was able to overturn the new constitution by establishing a kind of parliamentary dictatorship. The attempt to implant a liberal constitutional democracy onto an......

...than other early sources. In the Tyrocinium the club is indeed called a kolve, and the game as such is referred to as kolven (the infinitive of a verb used as a noun). This confirms that the Scots word golf is indeed based on kolve or ......

Feb. 14, 1911Leiden, Neth.Feb. 11, 2009Newtown Square, Pa.Dutch-born American physician who was a pioneering biomedical engineer who invented the kidney dialysis machine and led the medical team that on Dec. 2, 1982, implanted the first artificial human heart in Barney Clark. After earning ...

island, Arkhangelsk oblast (region), northwestern Russia. Kolguyev lies in the Barents Sea and is 45 miles (72 km) off the mainland. About 3,220 square miles (5,200 square km) in area, it is an island of bogs and morainic hills, covered by vegetation characteristic of the tundra; the vegetation is sufficient to provide pasture for a few herds of reindee...

...over to subordinate chiefs. Of these chiefs, the most important were the Gaekwads (Gaikwars), the Sindhias, and the Holkars. Also, there were branches of the Bhonsle family itself that relocated to Kolhapur and Nagpur, while the main line remained in the Deccan heartland, at Satara. The Kolhapur line derived from Rajaram and his wife, Tara Bai, who had refused in 1708 to accept Shahu’s rule and...

With the astronomer Werner Kolhörster, Bothe again applied this coincidence-counting method in 1929 and found that cosmic rays are not composed exclusively of gamma rays, as was previously believed. In 1930 Bothe discovered an unusual radiation emitted by beryllium when it is bombarded with alpha particles. This radiation was later identified by Sir James Chadwick as the neutron....

...islands and is drained southward into the large Saimaa lake system by the Pielis River. It is surrounded by dense forests, particularly on its scenic and rugged western shore, which is capped by Koli hill; the latter rises to a height of 1,138 ft (347 m) and is the centre of an important winter-sports area. There is a ferry service on the lake during summer and an ice-road during winter....

caste with many subgroups who inhabit the central and western mountain area of India. The largest groups of Koli live in the state of Maharashtra, especially in Mumbai, and in Gujarat state. The traditional occupation of the coastal Koli is fishing, although many are now employed in schools and governmen...

...struggle. In 1757 France, Sweden, Russia, and many of the smaller German states joined the ranks of his opponents, while the Prussian invasion of Bohemia collapsed after a serious defeat at Kolín in June. Brilliant victories over the French and Austrian armies, respectively, at Rossbach and Leuthen in November and December partially reestablished Frederick’s position, but it......

Aug. 12, 1936Bangui, Ubangi-Shari, French Equatorial Africa [now Bangui, C.A.R.]Feb. 7, 2010Paris, FranceCentral African Republic army commander and politician who held dictatorial rule over his country for 12 years, from Sept. 1, 1981, when he overthrew Pres. David Dacko, until he reluctan...

...Edgar Allan Poe, and others. Among the lesser figures in this period are Asdren (acronym of Aleks Stavre Drenova), a poet; Çajupi (in full Andon Zako Çajupi), a poet and playwright; Ernest Koliqi, a short-story writer, poet, and novelist; Ndre Mjeda, a poet and linguist; and Migjeni (acronym of Milosh Gjergj Nikolla), a poet and novelist....

...Edgar Allan Poe, and others. Among the lesser figures in this period are Asdren (acronym of Aleks Stavre Drenova), a poet; Çajupi (in full Andon Zako Çajupi), a poet and playwright; Ernest Koliqi, a short-story writer, poet, and novelist; Ndre Mjeda, a poet and linguist; and Migjeni (acronym of Milosh Gjergj Nikolla), a poet and novelist.......

...all of their religious views. The seasonal festivals of the Slavs turn out to be almost entirely dedicated to the dead, very often without the participants realizing it, as in the case of the Koljada (Latin Kalendae)—the annual visit made by the spirits of the dead, under the disguise of beggars, to all the houses in the village. It is possible that the bones of the disinterred were......

...of considerable depth. Slightly different is vortex motion in streams; at certain stages of turbulent flow, rotating currents with central updrafts are formed. These are called kolks, or boils, and are readily visible on the surface....

city, capital of West Bengal state, and former capital (1772–1911) of British India. It is one of India’s largest cities and one of its major ports. The city is centred on the east bank of the Hugli (Hooghly) River, once the main channel of the Ganges (Ganga) River, about 96 miles (154 km) upstream from the head of the Bay of Bengal...

...historic Raj Bhavan. The state Legislative Assembly is located in the city, as is the Secretariat, housed in the Writers’ Building, with the state ministries in charge of various departments. The Kolkata High Court, exercising original jurisdiction over the city and appellate jurisdiction over West Bengal, is also located there. A number of national government institutions—including the......

...had the league’s biggest payroll, more than $100 million. It cost the Chennai Super Kings $1.5 million to secure the services of Mahendra Dhoni in the initial auction for the 2008 season and the Kolkata Knight Riders $2.4 million to sign Gautam Gambhir, the opening batsman for the Indian national team, in the bidding for the 2011 season....

...a number of committees to conduct the activities of the corporation. A commissioner, the executive head of the corporation, is responsible to its elected membership. The city is also a part of the Kolkata Metropolitan District, an entity created to oversee planning and development on a regional basis. This district includes a large rural hinterland around the urban centres....

Government in the city proper is the responsibility of the Kolkata Municipal Corporation; the corporation’s council is composed of one elected representative from each of the city’s wards. The council members annually elect a mayor, a deputy mayor, and a number of committees to conduct the activities of the corporation. A commissioner, the executive head of the corporation, is responsible to......

coastal lowland plain of the eastern Black Sea, in Georgia. Named for the ancient kingdom of Colchis, it comprises the combined alluvial plains of the Rioni, Inguri, and other rivers rising in the Greater Caucasus range, which encloses the plain on the north, and the Lesser Caucasus, to the south....

coastal lowland plain of the eastern Black Sea, in Georgia. Named for the ancient kingdom of Colchis, it comprises the combined alluvial plains of the Rioni, Inguri, and other rivers rising in the Greater Caucasus range, which encloses the plain on the north, and the Lesser Caucasus, to the south....

in the former Soviet Union, a cooperative agricultural enterprise operated on state-owned land by peasants from a number of households who belonged to the collective and who were paid as salaried employees on the basis of quality and quantity of labour contributed. Conceived as a voluntary union of peasants, the kolkhoz became the dominant form of agricultural enterprise as the result of a state p...