The coconut tree (Cocos nucifera) is a member of the
palm treefamily (
Arecaceae) and the only living
species of the
genusCocos.[1] The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut")[2] can refer to the whole coconut palm, the
seed, or the
fruit, which botanically is a
drupe, not a
nut. The name comes from the old
Portuguese and
Spanish word coco, meaning 'head' or 'skull' after the three indentations on the coconut shell that resemble facial features. They are ubiquitous in coastal tropical regions, and are a cultural icon of the
tropics.

It is one of the most useful trees in the world, and is often referred to as the "tree of life". It provides food, fuel, cosmetics, folk medicine and building materials, among many other uses. The inner flesh of the mature seed, as well as the
coconut milk extracted from it, forms a regular part of the diets of many people in the
tropics and
subtropics. Coconuts are distinct from other fruits because their
endosperm contains a large quantity of clear liquid, called coconut water or coconut juice. Mature, ripe coconuts can be used as edible seeds, or processed for
oil and
plant milk from the flesh,
charcoal from the hard shell, and
coir from the fibrous
husk. Dried coconut flesh is called
copra, and the oil and milk derived from it are commonly used in cooking –
frying in particular – as well as in
soaps and
cosmetics. The hard shells, fibrous husks and long pinnate leaves can be used as material to make a variety of products for
furnishing and decoration.

The coconut has cultural and religious significance in certain societies, particularly in
India, where it is used in
Hindurituals. It forms the basis of wedding and worship rituals in Hinduism, a
coconut religion in Vietnam, and features in the
origin myths of several societies. The falling nature of their mature fruit has led to preoccupation with
death by coconut.[3]

Coconuts have been used by humans for thousands of years, and may have spread to their present range because of Pacific island settlers. The evolutionary origin of the coconut is under dispute, with theories stating that it may have evolved in Asia, South America, or on islands in the Pacific. Trees grow up to 30 m (98 ft) tall and can yield up to 75 fruits per year, though less than 30 is more typical. Plants are intolerant of cold weather and prefer copious precipitation, as well as full sunlight. Many insect pests and diseases affect the species, and are a nuisance for commercial production. About 74% of the world's supply of coconuts derives from
Indonesia, the
Philippines, and
India combined.

In March 1521, a description of the coconut was given by
Antonio Pigafetta writing in Italian and using the words "cocho"/"cochi", as recorded in his journal after the first European crossing of the Pacific Ocean during the
Magellancircumnavigation and meeting the inhabitants of what would become known as
Guam and the
Philippines. He explained how at Guam "they eat coconuts" ("mangiano cochi") and that the natives there also "anoint the body and the hair with coconut and
beniseed oil" ("ongieno el corpo et li capili co oleo de cocho et de giongioli").[15]

Origin

The American botanist
Orator F. Cook proposed a theory in 1901 on the location of the origin of Cocos nucifera based on its current worldwide distribution. He hypothesized that the coconut originated in the Americas, based on his belief that American coconut populations predated European contact and because he considered pan-tropical distribution by ocean currents improbable.[18][19]

A study in 2011 identified two highly genetically differentiated subpopulations of coconuts, one originating from
Island Southeast Asia (the Pacific group) and the other from the southern margins of the
Indian subcontinent (the Indo-Atlantic group). The Pacific group is the only one to display clear genetic and phenotypic indications that they were domesticated; including dwarf habit, self-pollination, and the round "niu vai" fruit morphology with larger endosperm-to-husk ratios. The distribution of the Pacific coconuts correspond to the regions settled by Austronesian voyagers indicating that its spread was largely the result of human introductions. It is most strikingly displayed in
Madagascar, an island settled by Austronesian sailors at around 2000 to 1500
BP. The coconut populations in the island show genetic admixture between the two subpopulations indicating that Pacific coconuts were brought by the Austronesian settlers that later interbred with the local Indo-Atlantic coconuts.[20][26]

Genetic studies of coconuts have also confirmed pre-Columbian populations of coconuts in
Panama in South America. However, it is not native and display a genetic bottleneck resulting from a
founder effect. A study in 2008 showed that the coconuts in the Americas are genetically closest related to coconuts in the
Philippines, and not to any other nearby coconut populations (including
Polynesia). Such an origin indicates that the coconuts were not introduced naturally, such as by sea currents. The researchers concluded that it was brought by early Austronesian sailors to the Americas from at least 2,250 BP, and may be proof of pre-Columbian contact between Austronesian cultures and South American cultures, albeit in the opposite direction than what early hypotheses like Heyerdahl's had proposed. It is further strengthened by other similar botanical evidence of contact, like the pre-colonial presence of
sweet potato in Oceanian cultures.[25][22][32] During the
colonial era, Pacific coconuts were further introduced to
Mexico from the
Spanish East Indies via the
Manila galleons.[20]

In contrast to the Pacific coconuts, Indo-Atlantic coconuts were largely spread by Arab and Persian traders into the
East African coast. Indo-Atlantic coconuts were also introduced into the
Atlantic Ocean by
Portuguese ships from their colonies in coastal
India and
Sri Lanka; first being introduced to coastal
West Africa, then onwards into the
Caribbean and the east coast of
Brazil. All of these introductions are within the last few centuries, relatively recent in comparison to the spread of Pacific coconuts.[20]

In attempting to determine whether the species had originated in South America or Asia, a 2014 study proposed that it was neither, and that the species evolved on coral atolls in the Pacific. Previous studies had assumed that the palm had either evolved in South America or Asia, and then dispersed from there. The 2014 study hypothesized that instead the species evolved while on coral atolls in the Pacific, and then dispersed to the continents. It contended that this would have provided the necessary evolutionary pressures, and would account for morphological factors such as a thick husk to protect against ocean degradation and provide a moist medium in which to germinate on sparse atolls.[33]

Evolutionary history

The
evolutionary history and
fossil distribution of Cocos nucifera and other members of the tribe
Cocoseae is more ambiguous than modern-day dispersal and distribution, with its ultimate origin and pre-human dispersal still unclear. There are currently two major viewpoints on the origins of the genus Cocos, one in the Indo-Pacific, and another in South America.[34][35] The vast majority of Cocos-like fossils have been recovered generally from only two regions in the world:
New Zealand and west-central
India. However, like most palm fossils, Cocos-like fossils are still putative, as they are usually difficult to identify.[35]
The earliest Cocos-like fossil to be found was "Cocos" zeylanica, a fossil species described from small fruits, around 3.5 cm (1.4 in) × 1.3 to 2.5 cm (0.51 to 0.98 in) in size, recovered from the
Miocene (~23 to 5.3 million years ago) of
New Zealand in 1926. Since then, numerous other fossils of similar fruits were recovered throughout New Zealand from the
Eocene,
Oligocene, and possibly the
Holocene. But research on them is still ongoing to determine which of them (if any) actually belong to the genus Cocos.[35][36] Endt & Hayward (1997) have noted their resemblance to members of the South American genus Parajubaea, rather than Cocos, and propose a South American origin.[35][37][38] Conran et al. (2015), however, suggests that their diversity in New Zealand indicate that they evolved endemically, rather than being introduced to the islands by long-distance dispersal.[36] In west-central India, numerous fossils of Cocos-like fruits, leaves, and stems have been recovered from the
Deccan Traps. They include
morphotaxa like Palmoxylon sundaran, Palmoxylon insignae, and Palmocarpon cocoides. Cocos-like fossils of fruits include "Cocos" intertrappeansis, "Cocos" pantii, and "Cocos" sahnii. They also include fossil fruits that have been tentatively identified as modern Cocos nucifera. These includes two specimens named "Cocos" palaeonucifera and "Cocos" binoriensis, both were dated by their authors to the
Maastrichtian–
Danian of the early
Tertiary (70 to 62 million years ago). C. binoriensis has been claimed by their authors to be the earliest known fossil of Cocos nucifera.[34][35][39]

Outside of New Zealand and India, only two other regions have reported Cocos-like fossils, namely
Australia and
Colombia. In Australia, a Cocos-like fossil fruit, measuring 10 cm (3.9 in) × 9.5 cm (3.7 in), were recovered from the Chinchilla Sand Formation dated to the latest
Pliocene or basal
Pleistocene. Rigby (1995) assigned them to modern Cocos nucifera based on its size.[34][35] In Colombia, a single Cocos-like fruit was recovered from the
middle to late PaleoceneCerrejón Formation. The fruit however was compacted in the fossilization process and it was not possible to determine if it had the diagnostic three pores that characterize members of the tribe
Cocoseae. Nevertheless, the authors Gomez-Navarro et al. (2009), assigned it to Cocos based on the size and the ridged shape of the fruit.[40]

Description

Plant

Canopy of a tall coconut tree

Cocos nucifera is a large palm, growing up to 30 m (100 ft) tall, with
pinnate leaves 4–6 m (13–20 ft) long, and pinnae 60–90 cm (2–3 ft) long; old leaves break away cleanly, leaving the
trunk smooth.[41] On fertile soil, a tall coconut palm tree can yield up to 75 fruits per year, but more often yields less than 30.[42][43][44] Given proper care and growing conditions, coconut palms produce their first fruit in six to ten years, taking 15 to 20 years to reach peak production.[45]

Many different varieties are grown, including the
Maypan coconut,
King coconut, and
Macapuno. These vary by the taste of the coconut water and color of the fruit, as well as other genetic factors.
Dwarf varieties are also available.[46]

Fruit

Layers of a matured coconut

Botanically, the coconut
fruit is a
drupe, not a true
nut.[47] Like other fruits, it has
three layers: the
exocarp,
mesocarp, and
endocarp. The exocarp and mesocarp make up the "husk" of the coconuts. The
endosperm is initially in its nuclear phase suspended within the coconut water. As development continues, cellular layers of endosperm deposit along the walls of the coconut, becoming the edible coconut "flesh".[48] Coconuts sold in the shops of nontropical countries often have had the exocarp (outermost layer) removed. The mesocarp is composed of a
fiber, called coir, which has many traditional and commercial uses. The shell has three
germination pores (
micropyles) or "eyes" that are clearly visible on its outside surface once the husk is removed.[citation needed]

A full-sized coconut weighs about 1.4 kg (3.1 lb). It takes around 6,000 full-grown coconuts to produce one tonne of
copra.[49]

Roots

Unlike some other plants, the
palm tree has neither a
tap root nor
root hairs, but has a
fibrous root system.[50] The root system consists of an abundance of thin roots that grow outward from the plant near the surface. Only a few of the roots penetrate deep into the soil for stability. This type of root system is known as fibrous or adventitious, and is a characteristic of grass species. Other types of large trees produce a single downward-growing tap root with a number of feeder roots growing from it. 2,000-4,000
adventitious roots may grow, each about 1 cm (0.39 in) large. Decayed roots are replaced regularly as the tree grows new ones.[24]

Inflorescence

The palm produces both the female and male
flowers on the same
inflorescence; thus, the palm is
monoecious.[50] However, there is some evidence that it may be
polygamomonoecious, and may occasionally have bisexual flowers.[51] The female flower is much larger than the male flower. Flowering occurs continuously. Coconut palms are believed to be largely cross-
pollinated, although some[which?] dwarf varieties are self-pollinating.[citation needed]

Distribution

Coconuts have a nearly cosmopolitan distribution thanks to human action in using them for agriculture. However their historical distribution was likely more limited.

Natural habitat

Coconut palm heavy with fruit

The coconut palm thrives on sandy soils and is highly tolerant of
salinity. It prefers areas with abundant sunlight and regular rainfall (1,500–2,500 mm [59–98 in] annually), which makes colonizing shorelines of the tropics relatively straightforward.[52] Coconuts also need high
humidity (at least 70–80%) for optimum growth, which is why they are rarely seen in areas with low humidity. However, they can be found in humid areas with low annual precipitation such as in
Karachi,
Pakistan, which receives only about 250 mm (9.8 in) of rainfall per year, but is consistently warm and humid.

Coconut palms require warm conditions for successful growth, and are intolerant of cold weather. Some seasonal variation is tolerated, with good growth where mean summer temperatures are between 28 and 37 °C (82 and 99 °F), and survival as long as winter temperatures are above 4–12 °C (39–54 °F); they will survive brief drops to 0 °C (32 °F). Severe frost is usually fatal, although they have been known to recover from temperatures of −4 °C (25 °F).[52] They may grow but not fruit properly in areas with insufficient warmth, such as
Bermuda.

The conditions required for coconut trees to grow without any care are:

Mean daily temperature above 12–13 °C (54–55 °F) every day of the year

Mean annual rainfall above 1,000 mm (39 in)

No or very little overhead
canopy, since even small trees require direct sun

The main limiting factor for most locations which satisfy the rainfall and temperature requirements is canopy growth, except those locations near coastlines, where the sandy soil and salt spray limit the growth of most other trees.

Domestication

Coconut plantation in India

Coconuts could not reach inland locations without human intervention (to carry seednuts, plant seedlings, etc.) and early germination on the palm (vivipary) was important,[53] rather than increasing the number or size of the edible parts of a fruit that was already large enough. Human cultivation of the coconut selected, not for larger size, but for thinner husks and increased volume of endosperm, the solid "meat" or liquid "water" that provides the fruit its food value. Although these modifications for domestication would reduce the fruit's ability to float, this ability would be irrelevant to a cultivated population.[citation needed]

Among modern C. nucifera, two major types or variants occur: a thick-husked, angular fruit and a thin-husked, spherical fruit with a higher proportion of
endosperm reflect a trend of cultivation in C. nucifera. The first coconuts were of the niu kafa type, with thick husks to protect the seed, an angular, highly ridged shape to promote buoyancy during ocean dispersal, and a pointed base that allowed fruits to dig into the sand, preventing them from being washed away during
germination on a new island. As early human communities began to harvest coconuts for eating and planting, they (perhaps unintentionally)[citation needed] selected for a larger endosperm-to-husk ratio and a broader, spherical base, which rendered the fruit useful as a cup or bowl, thus creating the niu vai type. The decreased buoyancy and increased fragility of this spherical, thin-husked fruit would not matter for a species that had started to be dispersed by humans and grown in plantations. Harries' adoption of the Polynesian terms niu kafa and niu vai has now passed into general scientific discourse, and his hypothesis is generally accepted.[54][55]

Variants of C. nucifera are also categorized as tall (var. typica) or dwarf (var. nana).[56] The two groups are genetically distinct, with the dwarf variety showing a greater degree of artificial selection for ornamental traits and for early germination and fruiting.[57][58] The tall variety is
outcrossing while dwarf palms are
incrossing, which has led to a much greater degree of
genetic diversity within the tall group. The dwarf subspecies is thought to have mutated from the tall group under human selection pressure.[59]

Coconut fruit in the wild are light, buoyant, and highly water resistant. It is claimed that they evolved to disperse significant distances via
marine currents.[60] However, it can also be argued that the placement of the vulnerable eye of the nut (down when floating), and the site of the coir cushion are better positioned to ensure that the water-filled nut does not fracture when dropping on rocky ground, rather than for flotation.

It is also often stated that coconuts can travel 110 days, or 3,000 miles (4,800 km), by sea and still be able to germinate.[61] This figure has been questioned based on the extremely small sample size that forms the basis of the paper that makes this claim.[32]Thor Heyerdahl provides an alternative, and much shorter, estimate based on his first-hand experience crossing the Pacific Ocean on the raft Kon-Tiki:

"The nuts we had in baskets on deck remained edible and capable of germinating the whole way to
Polynesia. But we had laid about half among the special provisions below deck, with the waves washing around them. Every single one of these was ruined by the sea water. And no coconut can float over the sea faster than a
balsa raft moves with the wind behind it."[62]

He also notes that several of the nuts began to germinate by the time they had been ten weeks at sea, precluding an unassisted journey of 100 days or more.[32]

Drift models based on wind and ocean currents have shown that coconuts could not have drifted across the Pacific unaided.[32] If they were naturally distributed and had been in the Pacific for a thousand years or so, then we would expect the eastern shore of Australia, with its own islands sheltered by the
Great Barrier Reef, to have been thick with coconut palms: the currents were directly into, and down along this coast. However, both
James Cook and
William Bligh[63] (put adrift after the
Bounty mutiny) found no sign of the nuts along this 2,000 km (1,200 mi) stretch when he needed water for his crew. Nor were there coconuts on the east side of the African coast until
Vasco da Gama, nor in the Caribbean when first visited by
Christopher Columbus. They were commonly carried by Spanish ships as a source of sweet water.

These provide substantial circumstantial evidence that deliberate
Austronesian voyagers were involved in carrying coconuts across the Pacific Ocean and that they could not have dispersed worldwide without human agency. More recently, genomic analysis of cultivated coconut (C. nucifera L.) has shed light on the movement. However,
admixture, the transfer of genetic material, evidently occurred between the two populations.[64]

Given that coconuts are ideally suited for inter-island group ocean dispersal, obviously some natural distribution did take place. However, the locations of the admixture events are limited to
Madagascar and coastal east Africa, and exclude the
Seychelles. This pattern coincides with the known trade routes of Austronesian sailors. Additionally, a genetically distinct subpopulation of coconut on the Pacific coast of Latin America has undergone a genetic bottleneck resulting from a
founder effect; however, its ancestral population is the Pacific coconut from the
Philippines. This, together with their use of the South American
sweet potato, suggests that Austronesian peoples may have sailed as far east as the Americas.[64]

Specimens have been collected from the sea as far north as
Norway (but it is not known where they entered the water).[65] In the
Hawaiian Islands, the coconut is regarded as a
Polynesianintroduction, first brought to the islands by early Polynesian voyagers from their homelands in the southern islands of Polynesia.[9] They have been found in the Caribbean and the Atlantic coasts of Africa and South America for less than 500 years (the Caribbean native inhabitants do not have a dialect term for them, but use the Portuguese name), but evidence of their presence on the Pacific coast of South America antedates
Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas.[23] They are now almost ubiquitous between 26° N and 26° S except for the interiors of Africa and South America.

The 2014 coral atoll origin hypothesis proposed that the coconut had dispersed in an island hopping fashion using the small, sometimes transient, coral atolls. It noted that by using these small atolls, the species could easily island-hop. Over the course of evolutionary time-scales the shifting atolls would have shortened the paths of colonization, meaning that any one coconut would not have to travel very far to find new land.[33]

The coconut palm is damaged by the
larvae of many
Lepidoptera (
butterfly and
moth) species which feed on it, including the
African armyworm (Spodoptera exempta) and Batrachedra spp.: B. arenosella, B. atriloqua (feeds exclusively on C. nucifera), B. mathesoni (feeds exclusively on C. nucifera), and B. nuciferae.[68]

Brontispa longissima (coconut leaf beetle) feeds on young leaves, and damages both
seedlings and mature coconut palms. In 2007, the Philippines imposed a
quarantine in
Metro Manila and 26 provinces to stop the spread of the
pest and protect the Philippine coconut industry managed by some 3.5 million farmers.[69]

The fruit may also be damaged by
eriophyidcoconut mites (Eriophyes guerreronis). This mite infests coconut plantations, and is devastating; it can destroy up to 90% of coconut production. The immature seeds are infested and desapped by larvae staying in the portion covered by the
perianth of the immature seed; the seeds then drop off or survive deformed. Spraying with wettable
sulfur 0.4% or with
Neem-based pesticides can give some relief, but is cumbersome and labor-intensive.

Cultivation

Coconut palms are normally cultivated in hot and wet tropical climates. They need year round warmth and moisture to grow well and fruit. Coconut palms are hard to establish in dry climates, and cannot grow there without frequent irrigation; in drought conditions, the new leaves do not open well, and older leaves may become desiccated; fruit also tends to be shed.[52]

The extent of cultivation in the tropics is threatening a number of habitats, such as
mangroves; an example of such damage to an ecoregion is in the Petenes mangroves of the
Yucatán.[71]

Cultivars

Coconut has a number of commercial and traditional
cultivars. They can be sorted mainly into tall cultivars, dwarf cultivars, and hybrid cultivars (hybrids between talls and dwarfs). Some of the dwarf cultivars such as 'Malayan dwarf' have shown some promising resistance to lethal yellowing, while other cultivars such as 'Jamaican tall' are highly affected by the same plant disease. Some cultivars are more drought resistant such as 'West coast tall' (India) while others such as 'Hainan Tall' (China) are more cold tolerant. Other aspects such as seed size, shape and weight, and copra thickness are also important factors in the selection of new cultivars. Some cultivars such as 'Fiji dwarf' form a large bulb at the lower stem and others are cultivated to produce very sweet coconut water with orange-coloured husks (
king coconut) used entirely in fruit stalls for drinking (Sri Lanka, India).[citation needed]

Harvesting

In some parts of the world (Thailand and Malaysia), trained
pig-tailed macaques are used to harvest coconuts. Thailand has been raising and training pig-tailed macaques to pick coconuts for around 400 years.[72] Training schools for pig-tailed macaques still exist both in southern
Thailand and in the
Malaysian state of
Kelantan.[73]

Substitutes for cooler climates

In cooler climates (but not less than
USDA Zone 9), a similar palm, the
queen palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana), is used in
landscaping. Its fruits are similar to the coconut, but smaller. The queen palm was originally classified in the genus Cocos along with the coconut, but was later reclassified in Syagrus. A recently discovered palm, Beccariophoenix alfredii from
Madagascar, is nearly identical to the coconut, more so than the queen palm and can also be grown in slightly cooler climates than the coconut palm. Coconuts can only be grown in temperatures above 18 °C (64 °F) and need a daily temperature above 22 °C (72 °F) to produce fruit.[citation needed]

Production by country

Indonesia

In 2010, Indonesia increased its coconut production. It is now the world's largest producer of coconuts. The gross production was 15 million tonnes.[74] A sprouting coconut seed is the logo for
Gerakan Pramuka Indonesia, the Indonesian scouting organization. It can be seen on all the scouting paraphernalia that elementary school children wear, as well as on the scouting pins and flags.[75]

Philippines

Harvesting coconuts in the
Philippines is done by workers who climb the trees using notches cut into the trunk.

The
Philippines is the world's second-largest producer of coconuts. It was the world's largest producer for decades until a decline in production due to aging trees as well as typhoon devastation. Indonesia overtook it in 2010. It is still the largest producer of coconut oil and copra, accounting for 64% of the global production. The production of coconuts plays an important role in the
economy, with 25% of cultivated land (around 3.56 million hectares) used for coconut plantations and approximately 25 to 33% of the population reliant on coconuts for their livelihood.[76][77][78]

Two important coconut products were first developed in the Philippines,
macapuno and nata de coco. Macapuno is a coconut variety with a jelly-like coconut meat. Its meat is sweetened, cut into strands, and sold in glass jars as coconut strings, sometimes labeled as "gelatinous mutant coconut". Nata de coco, also called coconut gel, is another jelly-like coconut product made from fermented coconut water.[79][80]

India

Coconuts being sold on a street in India

Traditional areas of coconut cultivation in India are the states of
Kerala,
Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka,
Puducherry,
Andhra Pradesh,
Goa,
Maharashtra,
Odisha,
West Bengal and,
Gujarat and the islands of
Lakshadweep and
Andaman and Nicobar. As per 2014–15 statistics from Coconut Development Board of Government of India, four southern states combined account for almost 90% of the total production in the country:
Tamil Nadu (33.84%), Karnataka (25.15%), Kerala (23.96%), and Andhra Pradesh (7.16%).[81] Other states, such as Goa, Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal, and those in the northeast (
Tripura and
Assam) account for the remaining productions. Though Kerala has the largest number of coconut trees, in terms of production per hectare, Tamil Nadu leads all other states. In Tamil Nadu,
Coimbatore and
Tirupur regions top the production list.[82]

In Goa, the coconut tree has been reclassified by the government as a palm (like a
grass), enabling farmers and real estate developers to clear land with fewer restrictions.[83] With this, it will no more be considered as a tree and no permission will be required by the forest department before cutting a coconut tree.[84]

Maldives

The coconut is the national tree of the
Maldives and is considered the most important plant in the country. A coconut tree is also included in the country's
national emblem and coat of arms. Coconut trees are grown on all the islands. Before modern construction methods were introduced, coconut leaves were used as roofing material for many houses in the islands, while
coconut timber was used to build houses and boats.[citation needed]

Middle East

The main coconut-producing area in the Middle East is the
Dhofar region of
Oman, but they can be grown all along the
Persian Gulf,
Arabian Sea, and
Red Sea coasts, because these seas are tropical and provide enough humidity (through seawater evaporation) for coconut trees to grow. The young coconut plants need to be nursed and irrigated with drip pipes until they are old enough (stem bulb development) to be irrigated with
brackish water or seawater alone, after which they can be replanted on the beaches. In particular, the area around
Salalah maintains large coconut plantations similar to those found across the Arabian Sea in
Kerala. The reasons why coconut are cultivated only in
Yemen's
Al Mahrah and
Hadramaut governorates and in the Sultanate of Oman, but not in other suitable areas in the
Arabian Peninsula, may originate from the fact that Oman and Hadramaut had long
dhow trade relations with
Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia, East Africa, and
Zanzibar, as well as southern India and China. Omani people needed the coir rope from the coconut fiber to stitch together their traditional seagoing
dhow vessels in which nails were never used. The knowhow of coconut cultivation and necessary
soil fixation and
irrigation may have found its way into Omani, Hadrami and Al-Mahra culture by people who returned from those overseas areas.

The coconut cultivars grown in Oman are generally of the drought-resistant Indian 'West Coast tall' variety. Unlike the
UAE, which grows mostly non-native dwarf or hybrid coconut cultivars imported from Florida for ornamental purposes, the slender, tall Omani coconut cultivars are relatively well-adapted to the Middle East's hot dry seasons, but need longer to reach maturity. The Middle East's hot, dry climate favors the development of
coconut mites, which cause immature seed dropping and may cause brownish-gray discoloration on the coconut's outer green fiber.[citation needed]

The ancient coconut groves of Dhofar were mentioned by the medieval Moroccan traveller
Ibn Battuta in his writings, known as Al
Rihla.[85] The annual rainy season known locally as khareef or
monsoon makes coconut cultivation easy on the Arabian east coast.

Coconut trees also are increasingly grown for decorative purposes along the coasts of the
United Arab Emirates and
Saudi Arabia with the help of irrigation. The UAE has, however, imposed strict laws on mature coconut tree imports from other countries to reduce the spread of
pests to other native palm trees, as the mixing of date and coconut trees poses a risk of cross-species palm pests, such as
rhinoceros beetles and
red palm weevils.[86] The artificial landscaping may have been the cause for
lethal yellowing, a viral coconut palm disease that leads to the death of the tree. It is spread by host insects, that thrive on heavy turf grasses. Therefore, heavy turf grass environments (
beach resorts and
golf courses) also pose a major threat to local coconut trees. Traditionally,
dessert banana plants and local wild beach flora such as Scaevola taccada and Ipomoea pes-caprae were used as humidity-supplying green undergrowth for coconut trees, mixed with
sea almond and
sea hibiscus. Due to growing
sedentary lifestyles and heavy-handed landscaping, a decline in these traditional farming and soil-fixing techniques has occurred.

In
Florida, wild populations of coconut palms extend up the East Coast from
Key West to
Jupiter Inlet, and up the West Coast from
Marco Island to
Sarasota. Many of the smallest coral islands in the
Florida Keys are known to have abundant coconut palms sprouting from coconuts that have drifted or been deposited by ocean currents. Coconut palms are cultivated north of south Florida to roughly
Cocoa Beach on the East Coast and
Clearwater on the West Coast.

Australia

Coconuts are commonly grown around the northern coast of Australia, and in some warmer parts of
New South Wales. However they are mainly present as decoration, and the Australian coconut industry is small; Australia is a net importer of coconut products. Australian cities put much effort into de-fruiting decorative coconut trees to ensure that the mature coconuts do not fall and injure people.[88]

Uses

Green coconuts

The coconut palm is grown throughout the
tropics for decoration, as well as for its many culinary and nonculinary uses; virtually every part of the coconut palm can be used by humans in some manner and has significant economic value. Coconuts' versatility is sometimes noted in its naming. In
Sanskrit, it is kalpa vriksha ("the tree which provides all the necessities of life"). In the
Malay language, it is pokok seribu guna ("the tree of a thousand uses"). In the Philippines, the coconut is commonly called the "
tree of life".[89]

Macapuno

A special cultivar of coconut known as
macapuno has a jelly-like coconut meat. It was first developed for commercial cultivation in the
Philippines and is used widely in
Philippine cuisine for desserts, drinks, and pastries. It is also popular in
Indonesia (where it is known as kopyor) for making beverages.[80]

Coconut milk

Coconut milk, a widely used ingredient in the cuisines of regions where coconuts are native

Coconut milk, not to be confused with coconut water, is obtained by pressing the grated coconut meat, usually with hot water added which extracts the
coconut oil, proteins, and aromatic compounds. It is used for cooking various dishes. Coconut milk contains 5% to 20% fat, while coconut cream contains around 20% to 50% fat.[91][92] Most of which (89%) is
saturated fat, with
lauric acid as a major
fatty acid.[93] Coconut milk can be diluted to create
coconut milk beverages. These have much lower fat content and are suitable as
milk substitutes.[91][92] The milk can be used to produce virgin coconut oil by controlled heating and removal of the oil fraction.

Coconut water

Coconut water serves as a suspension for the
endosperm of the coconut during its
nuclear phase of development. Later, the endosperm matures and deposits onto the coconut rind during the cellular phase.[47] It is consumed throughout the humid tropics, and has been introduced into the
retail market as a processed
sports drink. Mature fruits have significantly less liquid than young, immature coconuts, barring spoilage. Coconut water can be fermented to produce
coconut vinegar.

Coconut flour

Coconut oil

Another product of the coconut is
coconut oil. It is commonly used in cooking, especially for frying. It can be used in liquid form as would other
vegetable oils, or in solid form as would
butter or
lard.

Coconut butter

Coconut butter is often used to describe solidified coconut oil, but has also been adopted as an alternate name for
creamed coconut, a specialty products made of coconut milk solids or
puréed coconut meat and oil.[90] Coconut chips, made from oven-baked coconut meat, have been sold in the tourist regions of Hawaii and the Caribbean.[103]

Heart of palm

Apical buds of adult plants are edible, and are known as "palm cabbage" or
heart of palm. They are considered a rare delicacy, as harvesting the buds kills the palms. Hearts of palm are eaten in salads, sometimes called "millionaire's salad".

Sprouted coconut

Newly germinated coconuts contain an edible fluff of marshmallow-like consistency called
sprouted coconut or
coconut sprout, produced as the
endosperm nourishes the
developing embryo. It is a
haustorium, a spongy absorbent tissue formed from the distal portion of embryo during coconut germination, facilitates absorption of nutrients for the growing shoot and root.[104]

Toddy and sap

The sap derived from incising the flower clusters of the coconut is drunk as neera, also known as toddy or tubâ (Philippines), tuak (Indonesia and Malaysia) or karewe (fresh and not fermented, collected twice a day, for breakfast and dinner) in
Kiribati. When left to ferment on its own, it becomes
palm wine. Palm wine is distilled to produce arrack. In the Philippines, this alcoholic drink is called lambanog or "coconut vodka".[105]

The sap can be reduced by boiling to create a sweet syrup or candy such as te kamamai in
Kiribati or dhiyaa hakuru and addu bondi in the Maldives. It can be reduced further to yield
coconut sugar also referred to as
palm sugar or
jaggery. A young, well-maintained tree can produce around 300 litres (66 imp gal; 79 US gal) of toddy per year, while a 40-year-old tree may yield around 400 litres (88 imp gal; 110 US gal).[106]

Copra

Copra is the dried meat of the seed and after processing produces coconut oil and coconut meal. Coconut oil, aside from being used in cooking as an ingredient and for frying, is used in soaps, cosmetics, hair oil, and massage oil. Coconut oil is also a main ingredient in
Ayurvedic oils. In
Vanuatu, coconut palms for copra production are generally spaced 9 m (30 ft) apart, allowing a tree density of 100 to 160 per hectare (40 to 65 per acre).

Husks and shells

The husk and shells can be used for fuel and are a source of
charcoal.[113]Activated carbon manufactured from coconut shell is considered extremely effective for the removal of impurities. The coconut's obscure origin in foreign lands led to the notion of using cups made from the shell to neutralise poisoned drinks. The cups were frequently engraved and decorated with precious metals.[114]

A "coconut monkey" from
Mexico, a common souvenir item carved from coconut shells

A dried half coconut shell with husk can be used to buff floors. It is known as a bunot in the Philippines and simply a "coconut brush" in
Jamaica. The fresh husk of a brown coconut may serve as a dish sponge or body sponge. A coco chocolatero was a cup used to serve small quantities of beverages (such as chocolate drinks) between the 17th and 19th centuries in countries such as Mexico, Guatemala, and Venezuela.

In Asia, coconut shells are also used as bowls and in the manufacture of various handicrafts, including buttons carved from dried shell. Coconut buttons are often used for Hawaiian
aloha shirts. Tempurung, as the shell is called in the Malay language, can be used as a soup bowl and—if fixed with a handle—a ladle. In Thailand, the coconut husk is used as a potting medium to produce healthy forest tree
saplings. The process of husk extraction from the coir bypasses the retting process, using a custom-built coconut husk extractor designed by
ASEAN–Canada Forest Tree Seed Centre in 1986. Fresh husks contain more
tannin than old husks. Tannin produces negative effects on sapling growth.[115] In parts of South India, the shell and husk are burned for smoke to repel mosquitoes.

Fish curry being served in coconut shell in Thailand

Half coconut shells are used in theatre
Foley sound effects work, struck together to create the sound effect of a horse's hoofbeats. Dried half shells are used as the bodies of musical instruments, including the Chinese yehu and banhu, along with the Vietnamese đàn gáo and Arabo-Turkic rebab. In the Philippines, dried half shells are also used as a music instrument in a folk dance called maglalatik.

The shell, freed from the husk, and heated on warm ashes, exudes an oily material that is used to soothe dental pains in
traditional medicine of Cambodia.[112]

Leaves

The stiff midribs of coconut leaves are used for making
brooms in India, Indonesia (sapu lidi), Malaysia, the Maldives, and the Philippines (walis tingting). The green of the leaves (lamina) is stripped away, leaving the veins (long, thin, woodlike strips) which are tied together to form a broom or brush. A long handle made from some other wood may be inserted into the base of the bundle and used as a two-handed broom.

The leaves also provide material for
baskets that can draw well water and for roofing
thatch; they can be woven into mats, cooking
skewers, and kindling
arrows as well. Leaves are also woven into small piuches that are filled with rice and cooked to make pusô and ketupat.[118]

Dried coconut leaves can be burned to ash, which can be harvested for
lime. In India, the woven coconut leaves are used to build wedding
marquees, especially in the states of
Kerala,
Karnataka, and
Tamil Nadu.

The leaves are used for
thatching houses, or for decorating climbing frames and
meeting rooms in Cambodia, where the plant is known as dôô:ng.[112]

Timber

Coconut trunks are used for building small bridges and huts; they are preferred for their straightness, strength, and salt resistance. In
Kerala, coconut trunks are used for house construction.
Coconut timber comes from the trunk, and is increasingly being used as an ecologically sound substitute for endangered hardwoods. It has applications in furniture and specialized construction, as notably demonstrated in
Manila's
Coconut Palace.

Hawaiians hollowed the trunk to form drums, containers, or small canoes. The "branches" (leaf
petioles) are strong and flexible enough to make a
switch. The use of coconut branches in corporal punishment was revived in the Gilbertese community on Choiseul in the
Solomon Islands in 2005.[119]

Other uses

Making a rug from coconut fiber

The leftover fiber from coconut oil and coconut milk production, coconut meal, is used as livestock feed. The dried
calyx is used as fuel in wood-fired
stoves. Coconut water is traditionally used as a growth supplement in
plant tissue culture and
micropropagation.[120] The smell of coconuts comes from the 6-pentyloxan-2-one molecule, known as δ-decalactone in the food and fragrance industries.[121]

A coconut can be hollowed out and used as a home for a rodent or small birds. Halved, drained coconuts can also be hung up as bird feeders, and after the flesh has gone, can be filled with fat in winter to attract
tits.

The coconut was a critical food item for the people of
Polynesia, and the Polynesians brought it with them as they spread to new islands.[130]

In the
Ilocos region of the northern Philippines, the
Ilocano people fill two halved coconut shells with diket (cooked sweet rice), and place liningta nga itlog (halved boiled egg) on top of it. This ritual, known as niniyogan, is an offering made to the deceased and one's ancestors. This accompanies the palagip (prayer to the dead).

A coconut (
Sanskrit: narikela) is an essential element of
rituals in
Hindu tradition.[131] Often it is decorated with bright metal foils and other symbols of auspiciousness. It is offered during worship to a Hindu god or goddess.
Narali Purnima is celebrated on a
full moon day which usually signifies the end of
monsoon season in India. The word ‘Narali’ is derived from naral implying ‘coconut’ in
Marathi. Fishermen give an offering of coconut to the sea to celebrate the beginning of a new fishing season.[132] Irrespective of their religious affiliations, fishermen of India often offer it to the rivers and seas in the hopes of having bountiful catches. Hindus often initiate the beginning of any new activity by breaking a coconut to ensure the blessings of the gods and successful completion of the activity. The Hindu goddess of well-being and wealth,
Lakshmi, is often shown holding a coconut.[133] In the foothills of the temple town of
Palani, before going to worship
Murugan for the
Ganesha, coconuts are broken at a place marked for the purpose. Every day, thousands of coconuts are broken, and some devotees break as many as 108 coconuts at a time as per the prayer.[citation needed] They are also used in Hindu weddings as a symbol of prosperity.[134]

The flowers are used sometimes in wedding ceremonies in Cambodia.[112]

The
Zulu Social Aid and Pleasure Club of
New Orleans traditionally throws hand-decorated coconuts, one of the most valuable
Mardi Gras souvenirs, to parade revelers. The tradition began in the 1910's, and has continued since. In 1987, a "coconut law" was signed by Governor
Edwin Edwards exempting from insurance liability any decorated coconut "handed" from a Zulu float.[135]

The coconut is also used as a target and prize in the traditional British fairground game
coconut shy. The player buys some small balls which are then thrown as hard as possible at coconuts balanced on sticks. The aim is to knock a coconut off the stand and win it.[136]

It was the main food of adherents of the now discontinued Vietnamese religion
Đạo Dừa.[137]

Myths and legends

Some South Asian, Southeast Asian, and Pacific Ocean cultures have
origin myths in which the coconut plays the main role. In the
Hainuwele myth from
Maluku, a girl emerges from the blossom of a coconut tree.[138] In
Maldivian folklore, one of the main myths of origin reflects the dependence of the
Maldivians on the coconut tree.[139] In the story of
Sina and the Eel, the origin of the coconut is related as the beautiful woman Sina burying an eel, which eventually became the first coconut.[140]