This studio explores material performance,
its manifold and deep interrelations with
technology, biology, and culture. It focuses
on fiber-composite materials as vehicles for
inquiry, since fibrous systems are omnipresent in natural structures, form part of
the most advanced material technologies,
and are at the same time deeply rooted in
the history and culture of material practices. However, in architecture, technical
fibrous-composite materials, such as glassor carbon-fiber reinforced plastics, are usually considered to be “amorphic,” meaning
they fully depend on a mold or formwork to
obtain a specific shape and structure. This
studio challenges this common conception
in a multifaceted manner. Instead of understanding fibrous form as being obedient
to a mold, this studio strives to reveal the
“morphic” character of fibrous systems and
discover their inherent tectonic qualities
and spatial characteristics.

A new understanding of the material in architecture is beginning to arise. No longer are we
bound to conceive the digital realm as separated
from the physical world. Instead we can explore
computation as an intense interface to material and vice versa. Thus materiality no longer
remains a fixed property and passive receptor
of form, but it transforms into an active generator of design. Accordingly, and in contrast
to linear and mechanistic modes of fabrication
and construction, materialization now begins
to coexist with design as explorative robotic
processes.1 This presents a radical departure
from both the trite modernist “truth to materials” and the dismissal of material altogether
as emblematic for the previous generation of
digital architecture.
The studio embraces this particular
contemporary condition of architecture, and
thus seeks to investigate the notion of material
performance as a vehicle for design exploration
and critical inquiry. By nature, this requires
focusing on a specific material, as only an
in-depth study and intense engagement with
the materiality and the related processes
of materialization enables innovation that
challenges entrenched design thinking and
established constructional logics. Due to its
manifold and deep interrelations with technology, biology, and culture, a material domain
that appears to be especially suited for this
investigation are fibrous-composites, such as
glass- or carbon-fiber reinforced plastics, which
have become the focal point of this design
research studio over the past three years.
Fiber-Reinforced Plastics (FRP) joined
the palette of building materials fairly late.
Processes for mass-producing FRP were first
developed in the early 1930s under the brand

name “Fiberglass,” and, once suitable resins
were introduced, taken up by the shipbuilding and aircraft industries. After the war,
designers began experimentation with these
novel material systems, with Charles and Ray
Eames being among the first. In architecture,
FRP experienced a first peak in the 1950s and
1960s mainly with experimental house designs,

11

In one philosophy one thinks of form or design as
primarily conceptual or cerebral, something to be
generated as a pure thought in isolation from the
messy world of matter and energy. Once conceived,
a design can be given a physical form by simply
imposing it on a material substratum, which is
taken to be homogeneous, obedient and receptive
to the wishes of the designer. The opposite stance
may be represented by a philosophy of design in
which materials are not inert receptacles for a
cerebral form imposed from the outside, but active
participants in the genesis of form. This implies
the existence of heterogeneous materials, with
variable properties and idiosyncrasies which the
designer must respect and make an integral part of
the design which, it follows, cannot be routinized.
—Manuel De Landa

such as the Monsanto House of the Future and
Matti Suuronen’s Futuro Houses. Both employ
glass-fiber-composites to break formal and
spatial norms of the time. However, these projects can still be considered as belonging to an
initial phase of borrowing design concepts and
mimicking constructional logics of preceding
materials, as is most often the case when new
materials are introduced in architecture. With
the oil crisis of 1973, petroleum-heavy plastics
was unattractive to most architects, before the
inherent materiality of these fibrous systems
was fully explored.
The introduction of both computer-aided
design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) in architectural practice in the 1990s
led to a renewed interest in FRP. These digital
technologies triggered a desire for freeform
surface while also providing suitable production processes. But the underlying conception

Studio Context: Biology and Enabling
Technologies
To reposition fibrous systems in architecture,
the study of natural fiber structures appears as
important as the investigation of technical precedents. Natural and man-made fiber-composites
are comparable, as they share their fundamental
structural logic, with both systems composed of
fibrous elements embedded in a matrix material.
From those two compositional elements almost
all load-bearing biological structures are built,
and, even more surprisingly given the diverse
spectrum of systems and traits, nature uses only
four basic fibrous materials for this: cellulose,
collagen, chitin, and silk.2 The astounding level

of diversity, performance capacity, and material resourcefulness observed in living nature
unfolds from the differentiation of fiber organization, density and arrangement across multiple
levels of hierarchy.3
A second critical component for rethinking
fibrous-composites is the development of new
modes of production. As a point of departure for
the studio’s architectural speculation, serve the
technological developments of the ICD Institute
for Computational Design (Professor Achim
Menges) and the ITKE Institute for Building
Structures and Structural Design (Professor
Jan Knippers) at the University of Stuttgart.
Over the past few years their collaborative
research has explored the transfer of morphological principles of fibrous structures from
nature to architecture, with a particular focus
on the related development of robotic, moldless,
or coreless fabrication processes.
The first phase of this research investigated a continuous, single-layer shell and
innovative coreless winding processes through
understanding the differentiated fiber structure of the exoskeleton of arthropods resulting
in the ICD/ITKE Research Pavilion 2012.4 In
this process, a full surface mandrel was reduced
to a simple linear scaffolding allowing the first
layer of glass-fiber to serve as the embedded
mold for the structural carbon-fiber layers.5 In
the second phase, the research culminating in
the subsequent ICD/ITKE Research Pavilion
2013–14 was based on morphological principles
of the hardened, yet very lightweight, double-layered fibrous shell that constitutes the
forewings of flying beetles.6 This second phase
further reduced the need for a mold by developing a novel coreless fiber-winding process
to fabricate highly differentiated composite
elements between two collaborating robots
using an adjustable toolkit.7 In phase three, the
research scope expanded from morphological
principles to procedural logics of fiber layup
processes in biology, specifically the subaquatic
webs of water spiders. Water spiders create
livable habitats by trapping an air bubble then
structurally reinforcing the interior with silk
fibers. Following extensive research on this
process, the ICD/ITKE Research Pavilion
2014–15 was fabricated by developing a robotic
process of applying fibers along the inside of
a inflatable membrane.8 Once sufficient fibers
were laid to form a self-supporting structure,
the initial pressure allowing the pneumatic
surface to serve as a mold was released and then
employed as a building skin.
The research by ICD/ITKE enables us to

13

Achim Menges

of the materials remained unchallenged, as
fiber-composites were, and usually still are,
considered to be amorphic—that is, intrinsically formless and thus dependent on external
formwork. This still applies to most uses of
fiber-composites in the building sector, as well
as the automotive, naval, and aerospace industries, where composites have found a much
wider application. What they still all share,
though, is the dependency on material-shaping
devices, in other words some kind of mold. These
molding techniques range from fiber placement
and fiber layup applications on external, positive,
and negative molds to fiber pultrusion dies, to
filament winding on internal male mandrels.
The studio seeks to challenge this conception. Instead of understanding fibrous form as
being obedient to a predefined mold, it strives
to reveal the “morphic” character of fibrous
systems and discover their inherent material
gestalt and architectural potential. In this way,
the studio seeks to investigate fibrous-composite in a twofold manner: First, there is the
pragmatic need to overcome the necessity for
comprehensive molds, as their expense (for
serial production) or wastefulness (for one-offs)
reduces the architectural application of FRP to
repetitious components or big-budget projects.
Second, and more importantly, there is the
design interest in engaging the self-expression
of the material as a designer driver. Employing
advanced computational design, simulation,
and fabrication allows addressing both points
by creatively engaging the specific material
performance and filamentous character of
fibrous-composite systems, which is at the
same time technically innovative and intellectually elegant.

Phase 1: Knowledge-Building
Each semester students undertake collaborative research into specific topics relevant tothe
entire studio development in order to produce
a shared pool of resources and expertise.
Topics explored include (1) Fibrous Systems in
Biology, (2) Fibrous Materials in Technology, (3)
Fibrous Fabrication in Technology with a focus
on advanced fabrication processes for fiber-reinforced composites, (4) Fibrous Systems in
Architecture from historical to cutting-edge
projects and experiments, and (5) Fibrous
Systems in Experimental Design Research fore-

14

Studio Structure: Toward Fibrous
Morphology in Architecture
The studio aims to introduce students to a
design approach that bridges the cultural and
technical dimension of fibrous materials in
architecture and the rich repertoire of fibrous

studio foregrounds design research during the
entire term, which is structured in the following phases.

material organization in nature. Therefore,
students investigate fiber-composite materials, experiment hands-on with related robotic
fiber lay-up and filament-winding processes,
and pursue the development of fibrous systems
in architecture as novel spatial and structural
possibilities. Throughout this inquiring, the

grounding innovation in speculative projects
and design. The results of this research are
accumulated in a foundational research document used by all students for technological,
biological, and cultural reference.

understand fibrous-composites no longer as
merely passive receptacles of form imposed by a
fixed and static mold, but rather as the critical constituents in a design methodology that
employs the very materiality and related materialization processes as generative drivers.9 The
studio seeks to explore the spatial ramifications
and architectural consequences of such novel
enabling technologies in order to investigate the
related notion of fibrous tectonics and, through
this, to foster material-oriented design thinking.

Phase 3: Spatial Fibrous Morphology
These matrices are then synthesized into
an initial, larger-scale fibrous morphology
demonstrating spatial hierarchy. In addition to
the local and regional fibrous logics this phase
requires the inclusion of a global geometry. The
prototype is conceived as a first test of spatial
and structural potentials of fibrous systems. As
a result, students develop a comprehensive definition of the prototype morphology, followed by
the fabrication of a spatial fibrous morphology
prototype through robotic fiber lay-up or filament-winding technique.
Phase 4: Spatial, Structural and Tectonic
Potentials of Fibrous Morphology Prototype
Development of the fibrous morphology prototypes is continued through spatial, structural,
and tectonic potentials in relation to morphological features and the underlying drivers of
the fiber-distribution process. System characteristics and features are defined in regards to
surface openings, surface opacity/translucency/
transparency, inhabitable surfaces, surface
structure, system/ground relation, mold/
scaffold integration, hard/soft transition, or
continuity and modularity.
Phase 5: Proto-architectural
Fibrous Morphology
The final phase of the studio explores a possible
synthesis of the previous phases through the
digital development and physical construction

of a scale model of the proto-architectural,
fibrous morphology. This provides the opportunity to enable and address different spatial
morphologies, multiple-performance criteria,
and abstracted-site topography. The final scale
model is accompanied by a partial full-scale
demonstrator indicating the system-buildup
and surface qualities.
The main objective of the studio is to expose
students to a design approach that conceives
of materiality and materialization as an active
generator of form, space, and structure, which
enables the uncovering of novel tectonics and formerly unexplored architectural
morphologies. The intense engagement with
the material, together with the rigorous yet
open-ended exploration of its performances,
aims at triggering a curiosity and criticality
that challenges disciplinary conventions of
entrenched design methodology and established tectonic systems. In this way, the studio
seeks not only to build material understanding and related design sensitivity among the
students. It also aims to trace the emergence of
new material cultures in architecture within
the context of the ever-accelerating integrative
technologies of design computation and robotic
fabrication, which will have a profound impact
on the material practice of the next generation
of architects.

Phase 2: Concurrent Design Syntax and
Material System Development
Following the research phase, students focus
on establishing design matrices of fibrous
structures, indicating their variable tectonic
potentials. The aim is to develop a design
syntax that incorporates the logics of the
fiber-distribution process. Initially expressed
as pseudo-code in plain English and executed
through manual fiber lay-up, these algorithmic processes enable the investigation of the
relation between the underlying scaffold, the
process sequences, and the resulting fibrous
structures. The variables of both the scaffold
and the process are explored in a comparative
manner, altering one parameter at a time and
resulting in graphical and physical matrices
that indicate the interrelation between scaffold
parameters, process parameters, and resulting material system. The developed matrices
graphically represent the algorithmic logic and
physically demonstrate the resultant fibrous
structures.

In the first half of the last century, the industrial
revolution was well underway and the popularization of mass production had dramatically
changed the culture of manufacturing and fabrication. Architecture in particular had become
transfixed by the efficiency of standardization
and serialized manufacturing. There was a
tendency toward a machinic understanding of
precision, measurability, and describability that
has become engrained in the profession today.
Material that was once transformed by the
skillful hand of a master craftsman, with all the
embedded knowledge of the material behaviour,
capabilities, and techniques, was then uniformly
processed and constrained to machines utilized
for rapid production. This had a dramatic effect,
not only on the construction processes of buildings but also on the process of architectural
conception.
This was the ethos of the time and the
climate in which fiber-reinforced polymers
were first developed. Fabrication techniques
developed for working with this material were
characteristic of that agenda. They relied on
formwork and molds that could be reused to

Marshall Prado,
Moritz Dรถrstelmann

make fibrous-composite copies of the desired
geometry. As a substantial amount of material,
cost, and time is devoted to the manufacturing of
these surface molds, there is a natural inclination to reuse these molds to make multiple
identical parts or risk even greater expense for
manufacturing unique parts in which the molds
would be discarded after only one use. Loose or
matted fibers were hand-laid on these molds,
impregnated with resin, and pressed to create a
homogeneous material structure with a smooth,
pressed, plastic-like finish. The formability of the
material as well as the high strength-to-weight
ratio allowed for a wide variety of surface geometries to be created and proved suitable for a
wide variety of performance-driven engineering
applications, such as the aerospace, automotive,
and boat-building industries.
Since the introduction of fiber-reinforced
polymers, many developments have been made
which make these material systems suitable
for architectural applications. The chemical
composition of resin matrixes can be optimized
to make the material stronger and more durable,
vacuum-infusion techniques have increased the

of the material system decades ago, do not meet
the changing demands of the architectural-design field and the construction industry. These
fields, which have changed considerably since
the inception of fiber-reinforced polymers, have
diverged from the uniform, machinic-industrialized paradigm, toward that which one might
say is based on geometric variation, material
resourcefulness, functional integration, and performative differentiation. This makes standard
tectonic and fabrication practices outdated or
irrelevant for current architectural applications.
Therefore new fabrication techniques and design
strategies are required to fully employ fiber-reinforced polymers in the building industry.
Research at the University of Stuttgartâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
Institute for Computational Design and
Construction (ICD) and the Institute for Building
Structures and Structural Design (ITKE) has
focused in recent years on developing new
fabrication and design processes for utilizing
fiber-reinforced polymers. Coreless filament

consistency of composite, and utilizing continuous fiber for mandrel-winding or pultrusion
have increased the structural capacity of the
fibrous system. The material is widely utilized in
other industries yet the basic process of molding
fiber-composites, however, has remained relatively unchanged. At the same time, technologies
such as industrial robots and computational tools
have developed, which have again changed the
way we design and make. The robots are generic
machines capable of being utilized for a wide
variety of tasks, including fiber winding, and the
computational tools can be used to negotiate the
wide variety of design and fabrication criteria. Other than a few attempts to utilize these
materials structurally, architecture has been
unable to capitalize on fiber-reinforced polymers
for their highly performative characteristics.
Manufacturers take advantage of the formability of the material for surface panelling or
lightness, as they have done in other industries,
but disregard the inherent structural capacities of the material. The standard processes for
manufacturing fiber-reinforced polymers, which
remain almost unchanged from the development

generation of curvature, to create structured
surfaces and thickened fibrous bundles, not
possible with surface molds, and the development of volumetric spaces with continuous fiber
structures. On a material level, the orientations
of the anisotropic fibers could be defined to
program the structural behavior and increase the
efficiency of the system by only placing fibers in
orientations where they could be most effective
and only in areas where material is needed.
Using fabrication constraints as a filter, several
of these design experiments were robotically
fabricated in the workshops to understand
how robotic limitations can further influence
the design process. Students were introduced
to basic robotic programming, strategies for
digitally controlled winding, and the benefits of
automated manufacturing.
These investigations are intended to explore
the intricate relationship between tectonics
and making, where form is not conceived in
isolation and subsequently manufactured to
specifications, but rather the form is derived
from the process of fabrication. This could not
be more true than for the generative winding
strategies being developed in this studio, as form
is not denoted by the dimensional designations
of length, width, and height, but rather as the
sequence in which the winding takes place. In
the case of fibrous tectonics, structural conception shares a similar distinction from modernist
tropes where assemblages of generic parts and
functional separations are typical, but performance is rather constructed at the material
level, where anisotropic system behaviours can
be embedded in the arrangement of fibers. This
challenges preconceived structural typologies
and creates a novel architectural expression.
Through the work of the studio and the related
research at the University of Stuttgart, it has
been shown that novel architectural systems
can be developed from performative materials,
systems, and processes.

Following page: Production photo from 2104 Research Project
Slack Systems by Alice Chai, Nancy Nichols.

Integrative Design and Fabrication Methodologies for Fibrous Systems

20

winding (CFW), a technique that requires no
surface mold but rather the interaction of subsequently laid fibers to form a structured surface,
is among the most promising techniques for
creating composite structures for architectural
applications. Since CFW requires no mold it is
not tied to serialized production or limited by the
use of superfluous material, it opens up new possibilities in architecture production and design.
In parallel to the research at the University of
Stuttgart, which has focused on developing these
novel fabrication strategies and implementing
them in large-scale architectural demonstrators, the fiber studios given by Achim Menges at
Harvard University Graduate School of Design
were intended to further explore the design
potentials in architecture that these processes
enabled. In this way both fabrication and design
could be simultaneously explored in various
arenas to expose a wider range of processes
and potentials within a shared subject matter
and methodology. It is clear from these concurrent investigations that neither area of interest,
fabrication or design strategies, can be explored
in isolation but rather are interdependent. Form
and formation are inherently linked to each other
and require an understanding of material logics
to be fully integrated into a design methodology.
As part of the Menges studio at Harvard
GSD from 2013 to 2015, a series of expert
workshops were held. These workshops were
intended to introduce the participating students
to fibrous morphologies through a study of
materials, processes, geometric investigations,
and fabrication techniques. These are part of
an integrative design process where material
behavior and fabrication strategies become
primary-design drivers. A bottom-up investigation into winding processes was utilized,
allowing the students to explore fibers and
matrixes as well as experimental techniques
for constructing form. Through hand-winding
experiments, moldless fabrication could be
explored. This included the creation of various
winding frameworks and the development of
performative winding syntaxesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the sequential
placement of fibers allow subsequent fiber to
press on previous fibers, creating a composite
surface without the need for a mold. Students
could intuitively explore fiber patterns, surface
generation, fiber interaction, and tension control
in order to understand the specific parameters of
coreless filament winding. The winding syntaxes
can be expressed algorithmically, bridging the
gap between material behavior and fabrication
processes through computational design tools.
This allowed morphologic studies, through the

This research began with the assumption that
New Materials are entitled to New Construction
Logics. The study methodically investigates the
inherent material properties specific to fibrous
systems as applied to a continuous structure of
interconnected fibrous surfaces. The research
trajectory begins with 2D-pattern studies,
integrating an internal logic of fiber build-up
before progressing into a three-dimensional
structure of armatures and spanning surfaces
as an integrated system. The goal is to investigate the attributes of fibrous tectonics to create
New Spatial Morphologies.
Our studies focus on the development of a
2D-fiber-distribution system embedded with
an internal logic. Our team resisted a traditional
approach, we wanted to develop a fiber form
inherent to the material system. An internal logic
was determined by a three to five step algorithm
that defined points around which we would wrap
a single fiber string. Subsequent steps would build
fiber density to approximate more developed 3D
structures exposed in later research. This family
of algorithms, called a series of linksets, was
always terminated at a different point than where

it began. This ensured that the algorithm would
not build up fiber in a single location, but would
also define a global movement of fiber placement
throughout the grid according to the applied
algorithm. Constraints included the container
in which the script operated, and unexpected
looping of the pattern according to its mathematical origin and set of operations. The internal logic
was initially a success, however it was apparent
that more control of a global form would be
required to evolve from a two-dimensional system
to a three-dimensional structural form.
Planar systems do not support positive
three-dimensional fiber-to-fiber interaction. By
integrating the linkset definition with the trajectory of a free-form line, the three-dimensional
architectural discourse could evolve into an a
more complex set of surface structures. Simple
2D extrusions, used initially as scaffolding techniques, revealed the three-dimensional potential
of the original linkset. However, fiber-to-fiber
contact was limited and spatial attributes were
non-existent. The link had to become an autonomous, spatially uninhibited element. Dimensional
characteristics were achieved by introducing a

points on the scaffolding. When the scaffolding
is curved, the skipping logic results in ridges of
concentrated fiber. The team constructed an
analytical tool which made it possible to investigate sequencing in the wrapping process. The
computer-run algorithm first identified a maximum “wrap-able” envelope defining a base layer
of fiber for a given set of scaffolds. Second, the
script identified structural wrapping patterns that
added fiber density to the system before the application of a final set of cinching patterns, which
offered additional rigidity and concentrated
fiber buildup. By combining a study of various
wrapping techniques with the varying degree
impacts of curvature with algorithmic skipping,
an informed hierarchical distribution of surface
articulation was introduced.
The algorithm for wrapping is not limited to
surface structures. Wrapping patterns can articulate apertures. Our investigations began with a
curve that defined an opening before mapping
the tangents to said curve. We allowed these
tangents to determine the spacing increments on
the armature, much like the initial 2D investigations used the algorithm to determine points
for fiber placement. This technique results in a
dense buildup of fiber around the opening of the
aperture perpendicular to the direction in which
cracks were likely to propagate in homogeneous
structural surfaces. We studied the steps necessary to articulate apertures of multiple sizes, and
degrees of lateral displacement.
With a system of fibrous construction logics,
the final stage examined spatial morphologies.
The result incorporated four bifurcating armatures, yielding an interconnected framework to
support structural surfaces. In cross-section,
one armature has a diameter large enough and
a bottom flat enough to become an occupy-able
tube-like enclosure. Another has a wide sectional
profile and a flat top to resist lateral bending and
function as a pathway. A third armature serves as
structural support, providing convex curvature
necessary to ensure surface structure. The final
armature responds to the other three, allowing
for head-height above the pathway and adjusting
in profile to accommodate ideal fiber-to-fiber
surface armature lamination.
This research offers the possibility of
constructing complex fibrous structures in a
two-phase process. Multiple armatures are constructed using acrylic scaffolding with subsequent
fibrous surfaces wrapped between armatures.
Future areas of inquiry might include an investigation into surface articulation with fiber buildup
and layering, further exploiting the benefits of the
material system.

27

Z-Axis dimension to the linkset algorithm, which
later resulted in the fiber armature. The system
retained a local internal logic with dimensional
characteristics.
The initial linkset of fiber of embroidery
thread would be wrapped around a temporary
acrylic scaffold before being embedded with
epoxy resin. This became an armature around
which subsequent fibrous surfaces could be
wrapped. It was necessary to harden the armature
before subsequent wrapping to create a rigid
element that resisted applied tensile forces of the
fibrous surface structure. Once the armature and
subsequent surface structures were wrapped, the
entire system was again emerged in the epoxy
matrix resulting in a continuous fibrous tectonic.
These assembly techniques became a palette of
fibrous strategies deployed as tectonic strategies.
Scaffolding was an important construction system that inevitably guided fibrous form
and determined the final spatial morphology.
We elected to develop a model of constructing
sweeps along a curve that moved freely in three
dimensions, requiring a support system. A wide
variety of scaffolding offered varying degrees of
3D movement, various states of structural rigidity,
and the ability to bifurcate armatures. Bifurcation
was particularly important for introducing
growth and tectonic continuity into the system.
Scaffolding connections had to be loose-fitting to
adapt to the tensile forces later introduced by the
fibrous lay-up (rigid connections caused unpredictable breakage). Control over the spacing of the
fiber lay-up (placement of scaffold), the curvature of the armature, and the global geometry
of the system allowed for a construction logic
that investigated surface construction, fiber-tofiber interaction, and articulation of structural
fibrous-surfaces.
The curvature between armatures determines the ability to cinch fibers onto each other.
Convex curvature allowed fiber-to-fiber interaction to be controlled with a modification to
the “skip” (the number of spacing increments
between scaffolding) within the wrapping
algorithm. Achieving fiber-to-fiber contact with
concave curvature is difficult because it requires
the use of complex cinching techniques from a
secondary scaffold, or the application of irregular,
seemingly erratic wrapping algorithms, to ensure
surface structures. Nevertheless, these relationships were manageable if the concavity was not
too acute nor abutted by relatively severe convex
areas of the scaffold.
The degree of curvature is closely related to
the algorithmic skip size. The skip spacing also
dictates the number of fibers that build up at

PROJECTION

Spt
ptSet
pt0

pt1
a

aa

pt4
bb

pt3

b

pt2
crvA

ENDPOINT

CODE SCRIPT

INPUTS

cvrA: drive curves

permA: perimeter curv (tentative)

snail: limit loop length

q: ?

div: evaluation parameter for cvrA

input: upper limit for link modifier

r: evaluation variable, application of aa

set new point to old point
move new point an increment
relative to input crv
get pt1, add pt to output list
set new point to old point

move new point an increment

relative to input first fiber

get pt2
set new point to old point

VARIABLES

move new point an increment
relative toto input first fiber
get pt3

(a)

where: a = ((Math.Abs(Ept.X)â&#x20AC;&#x201D;Math.Abs(Spt.X)) / div);

(aa)

set new point to old point
move new point an increment
rrelative to second and third fibers
get pt4
create line[pt3,pt1]

The projectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s primary attempt was to challenge
conventional tectonics through the inspiration
from biology and the fundamental principles of
fibers distribution. In order to achieve that, the
project was also oriented toward computational
design methods, not only for purposes of simulation, but as a way to apply computation tools
in order to pursue simple algorithmic logics that
would reflect fiber-distribution patterns.
As a starting point of critique and in order
to introduce an initial architectural hypothesis,
the group focused on tensile and membrane
structures. The reason for that was their ability
to cover large openings and their qualities as
light structures in general. The most important
finding was the idea that these structures require
a wide range of additional structural components
in order for them to function properly and bear
the required loads. For instance, tensile structures are based on a series of supplementary
components such as nodes, additional cables that
work in tension, as well as sizable steel masts.
That particular investigation lead to a crucial
inquiry of how an architectural morphology that
would be based on fibrous tectonics could avoid

any additional structural element and embody
all structural components into one system. This
would become the primary design principle for
the entire project, the creation of an algorithmic
system of fiber distribution capable of incorporating all the parts that are necessary for its
consistency and stability.
The most important aspect regarding fiber
distribution in nature would be their capacity
to transform all the forces that they receive into
tension instead of compression. This can happen
through their continuity as well as through the
interactions that happen among them. Another
guiding principle for the project was to achieve
as many fiber-to-fiber interactions as possible.
The first stage of experimentation was
based on the construction of two-dimensional
models that would obey simple algorithmic
patterns in order to enhance the number of
interactions between fibers. The patterns of
investigation were based on a circle, a grid,
and a boundary with internal points scaffolds.
An important finding was the fact that as the
fibers were laid, the result had three-dimensional properties and created space, even if the

time redefine its surroundings. At that point, a
series of additional architectural criteria were
introduced, such as points of entrance, circulation paths, and vertical circulation systems.
According to the length of the “span” structure,
the distribution of fibers would change its density at particular areas and, in that way, it would
provide different levels of translucency to the
interior space. Additionally, secondary layers
of fibers now could be articulated between the
prototypes, and thus upgrade the complexity of
the entire structure.

43

scaffolds were two-dimensional. Additionally, at
that particular stage, the group discovered the
opportunity of including scaffold components
that at the end were embedded through the
configuration of the fibers.
The next step was to shift the previous
two-dimensional fiber articulations to a series of
two-and-a-half-dimensional studies by moving
the internal generated points on the vertical (z)
axis. By doing so, there was the opportunity to
include more than one layer of fiber-distribution
patterns. This introduced a level of hierarchy
between primary structural fiber-distribution
layers and secondary systems. The principle of
embedded components was once more explored
through the secondary systems of articulation
and thus gave the opportunity to create a series
of aperture-like elements.
However the most important finding
through the experiments was the idea to include
three-dimensional embedded components
between the hierarchical layers of fibers. The
achievement was to introduce compression elements between the several layers of fibers that
would force the one layer of fibers down. This
lead to the establishment of self-determined surfaces as the result of the fibers under pressure.
Another set of studies tried to focus on
the idea of intersecting planes that could come
as a result from the winding patterns. By the
term “surface,” what is implied is the hypothetical epiphany that is created from parallel or
common ending-fibers. The intersecting planes
were conceived as a strategy that would offer
high-architectural qualities. This investigation
lead to the final distribution pattern of the fibers
which would result in the proto-architectural
morphology of the project.
As a next step, the aim was to follow the idea
of the embedded components within the winding patterns. The result was the construction of a
series of “pillar-like” structural components that
would be constructed independently and added
to the structure between the different layers of
fibers. The role of these components would be
to receive the compression forces of the fibers
that, indeed, were in tension. The “pillar-like”
components would generate an area around their
base that was perceived as inhabitable space.
An additional series of “pillar-like” components
would be reversed in order to support the entire
prototype to the ground.
As a next step, the aim was to create a
sequence of the prototype architectural-morphology. The goal was to articulate an
architectural configuration that would be
adaptable to its environment and at the same

A3

A4

A5

B1

B2

B3

B4

B5

C1

C2

C3

C4

C5

D1

D2

D3

D4

D5

E1

E2

E3

E4

E5

Matrix of two-dimensional winding studies.

Fiber Space Reciprocities

A2

44

A1

45

George Athanasopoulos, Brian Chu

P0

C1

P(n+1)

P0

C2

P(n+1)

P0

C3

P(n+1)

Algorithmic explorations of winding patterns.

End Condition
Reach the first starting point

Fiber Space Reciprocities

46
Above and following page: Resultant models
and studies of layered-embedded elements.

47

George Athanasopoulos, Brian Chu

Fiber Space Reciprocities

48
Above and following page: Three-dimensional models and studies of algorithmic
explorations.

Inspired by pneumatic-like structures found in
nature, our project utilizes carbon-and-glassfiber to translate biological constructs into
architectural space. The system consists of two
parts: first, a sectional cell structure; second, a
pair of surfaces, consisting of a fibrous layer and
a membrane layer which enclose the cell structure. These integrated design components rely
on the inherent qualities of fibrous materials—
providing both performative and experiential
functions, while responding parametrically
to desired structural, spatial, and luminous
qualities. Our project ultimately exemplifies
the seamless relationship between function
and aesthetic, allowing quantitative material
performance to be understood through diverse
architectural experiences.
Efficient material performance is often
exemplified in biological precedents. This project is rooted in the research of fibrous structures
in organisms. In many natural systems, pneumatic-like elements and fibers work together to
form complex structural networks. A “pneu” is
a structure with an envelope and a filling, such
as cells—membrane structures filled predomi-

nantly with water. Pneus form most soft-bodied
organisms as well as rigid structures by shaping
and orienting fibers. These pneumaticallyformed
fibers serve as compression reinforcements,
providing strength for organisms with rigid
structural systems.
Bones serve as a primary example of a
biological compression-reinforcement structure.
Bones are formed by a cell called an osteoblast, which creates an extracellular matrix of
hardened collagen-fibers; this network becomes
a rigid structure, where pneumaticallyformed
fibrous columns hold together the bone’s surface.
This structure operates at the local scale of each
compression reinforcement, and also defines
characteristics of the bone’s overall form. We
found this natural process particularly interesting, as the inflated fibrous material defines
natural forms at both micro and macro scales.
We searched for functionally and morphologically similar examples in architecture, and
arrived at double-membrane cushion structures.
This typology keeps its global form simply by
maintaining inflation between two membranes,
connected by stringers of varying lengths.

of pneus for overall control, we found that a
diagonal bracing system offers the most robust
support for containing pneumatic cells, while
also yielding multiple points of structural fiberto-fiber interaction. Carbon-fiber serves as the
appropriate material for this diagonal matrix; it
has high tensile strength and gains compressive
strength upon hardening into a composite with
resin. In addition to the diagonally oriented
carbon-fibers, “vertical” stringers—fibers that
attach to specific points on each surface of the
double-membrane system—control the overall
global form. These stringers are pulled in tension
upon inflation, while maintaining the slack of the
diagonal fibers to adjust naturally to the pneumatics. Because they take no structural load after
all fibers are cured with a matrix, the vertical
stringers could be constructed of any economic,
inelastic fibrous material found in construction
practices. These form-making vertical stringers,
in conjunction with the diagonal fibers, form the
sectional component of our system.
In addition to gaining control over the cell
array, we conducted experiments to develop the
double-membrane skin system. We focused on
effects of varying fiber densities. Our goal was
to form gradient transitions between opaque
and transparent regions using controlled fiber
patterns. To accomplish this, we first produced
a formula, outputting an initial list of skip points
along a perimeter which result in a homogeneous two-dimensional pattern when fibers are
placed accordingly. A script then pulls a user
input of desired transparency locations, and
reroutes fibers that pass through these regions.
The script parametrically relocates fiber paths,
allowing control over the size, quantity, and
shape of transparent regions, as well as the transitional depth between sparse and dense fibers.
This process is malleable to many forms, and
sustains varying fiber density as desired.
The aforementioned algorithm serves as a
crucial tool in the formation of the membrane
system. We initially studied the carbon-fiber
algorithm as a single-layered skin to contain
the pneumatic cell array, but we determined
an additional material was necessary for
weatherproofing. As a second membrane layer,
translucent and transparent materials best
maintained an airtight system while simultaneously transmitting light and shadow. We used
thermoplastic inflation to mimic the spatial
effects that would be achieved by other, more
available translucent materials found in architectural construction. From these experiments,
we resolved that fully transparent materials
generate the most successful luminous qualities,

59

Cushion structures have been deployed for a
wide range of uses, from temporary construction
tents to refined architectural projects, exemplified by Kengo Kuma’s translucent inflated tea
house in Frankfurt. Taking a more experimental
cushion-structure approach, the firm Numen/
For Use designs large pneumatic spaces with
complex fibrous interiors, expanding highly
interactive and experiential spaces upon inflation of an outer membrane.
While these projects illustrate the potential of pneumatics in architecture, they lack the
ability to maintain their form without constant
inflation. The precedents exemplify structures
that are air-supported rather than formed
through temporary air inflation. Carbon-andglass-fiber serve as promising materials to
explore pneumaticallyformed construction,
given their light and strong traits when cured
with a matrix such as epoxy resin. These
materials, when implemented using principles
of pneumaticity in bones, can generate static
pneumaticallyformed fibrous architecture.
In order for cushion structures to adapt to
qualities of rigid biological structural systems,
carbon-and-glass-fibers must act in two ways:
as compression reinforcements within a cellular
wall section, as well as a structural double-membrane skin. For both of these systems, we
developed specific numeric algorithms as a guide
for the fibrous materials, allowing them to perform both structurally and experientially.
As opposed to traditional cushion-structure
stringers that act in tension only while inflation
is maintained between the membranes on either
side, we were interested in identifying a fiber
arrangement that could provide compression
reinforcement as a composite system, taking
advantage of the sectional depth of the assembly. In our research, we observed that an array
of adjacent, round pneus will form polygonal
shapes when placed under pressure from above
and below, as the intersections between pneus
form planar cell-walls. With this process in
mind, we inflated pneus between two acrylic
sheets to study how fiber stringers operate
within a pressurized cell grid. We performed
a series of algorithmic experiments, exploring
how fibers of various lengths and organizations
responded to this pneumatic interaction. We
confirmed that fibers strung in tension between
acrylic sheets adjust minimally to the pneumatic
inflation, as expected; fibers with slack react
more organically, shaping themselves to the
pneus. We also noticed that slack strings bundle
upon inflation, forming columns of multiple
fibers. While utilizing a simple, rectangular array

The resulting morphology exhibits the system’s
adaptability as structure, skin, and inhabitable
space—all within a single form. While we are
able to design isolated moments of the morphology, the amalgamation of our performative
components produces many unexpected architectural episodes, bringing life to the form. The
system’s layered and transparent nature allows
primarily functional elements, such as the varying depth of the stringers and diagonal matrix,
to be understood through spatial moments. In
this way, the project challenges the relationship between performance and experience; our
morphology brings these two distinct qualities
together, providing a platform for them to operate harmoniously.

Pneumatic Fibrous Form

60

especially within the double-membrane section.
The carbon-fiber-strung skin, together with
the transparent surface, form a composite that
defines our membrane system.
With the layered surface components
resolved, we were equipped to bring all our
experiments into a single, cohesive system. To be
clear, our complete system is composed of four
distinct elements: (1) On each exterior face—a
carbon-fiber surface, placed using an algorithm
controlling density, (2) layered within each
carbon-fiber surface—an interior transparent
membrane, to maintain an airtight system, and
to reinforce the carbon-fiber surface structure,
(3) between the membranes—diagonally-oriented carbon-fiber matrix, to provide structural
and inhabitable depth to the system, and (4)
between the surfaces—non-structural stringers,
controlling the overall global form. The first and
second elements form the membrane component
of the system, and the third and fourth form the
sectional component.
When employing this system at an architectural scale, any desired form must be divided into
developable segments for ease of construction,
because the stringers operate most precisely on a
single-curved surface. As a construction process,
the four system elements are integrated into
each divided segment, then inflated with pneus
and resined. Pneus are then removed upon hardening, and each segment is joined together. The
result encompasses inhabitable exterior surfaces,
as well as interior spaces within the depth of the
cell section.
To test this system, we designed a proto-architectural morphology: a form used to
demonstrate the multifaceted qualities inherent to the system. By using an overall form,
generated from lofted closed splines, we are able
to showcase the system’s potential to operate
as surfaces in multiple orientations. As these
sections vary in shape, the loft expands and
contracts, opening spaces for human interaction inside and outside the structure. Rather
than applying the cellular grid in an orthogonal
rectangular array, as we did in tests, we shifted
points to create a diagrid: this prevents structural faults at critical locations along the lofted
form, and also helps to resist shear force. Linear
attractors manipulate the diagrid, to concentrate the cells into dense regions at structurally
weak locations and to widen them at locations
of inhabitable space. The applied fibrous surface
algorithm allocates varied moments of transparency and opacity on the interior and exterior,
while simultaneously providing support for
floor surfaces.

Following page: Matrix of diagrams and fiber structures of
project componets.

The studio Material Performance: Composite
Morphology and Fibrous Tectonics afforded
the opportunity to conduct rigorous research
and investigation into existing and emerging
methods of fibrous-composite material systems
within architecture. Our investigations focused
on developing a critical understanding of the
material characteristics embedded within the
carbon-and-glass-fiber-composites. Research
revealed that fibrous-composite systems were
introduced within architectural applications in
the early 1950-60s exemplified by the collaboration between Monsanto Chemical Company
and MIT in the design and construction of
the Monsanto House. The Monsanto House
captured the innovative potential of this material-systems ability to articulate more complex
geometries while tectonically yielding a high
structure-to-weight ratio. Fibrous-composites
emerged as a leading innovation in architectural
tectonic and material systems in the 1950-60s,
yet has not deviated from original form-based
application processes in current use today. This
is evident in the construction of the SFMOMA
expansion, which will represent the largest use

of fibrous-composite construction in the United
States once completed in 2016.
Fibrous-composite applications in architecture have relied heavily on the material-systems
ability to achieve more complex geometries,
evident in the 1960s Futura House and Zaha
Hadidâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Chanel Pavilion. Our research is focused
on developing a critical understanding of new
applications or processes of fibrous-composite
system in architecture. Utilizing carbon-andglass-fiber composites as a medium in which to
test the integration of form, structure, and resulting material properties. Initial investigations
employed the use of cotton fiber as this system
provided a scalar representation of carbon-andglass-fiber. However, early research revealed an
increased elasticity in cotton-fiber systems as
compared to carbon- or glass-fiber.
Depth-active structural systems (i.e. metal
I-beam extrusions), in this case single-section profile extrusions, are used as full-length
structural members. The aggregate loads a
structural member will carry determine the size
and shape of the extrusion section. Fundamental
to depth-active structural systems is the

deployment of glass-and-carbon-fiber through a
specific arrangement.
Scaffolding: a temporary structure on the
outside of a building made usually of wooden
planks and metal poles. The definition of the
term scaffolding in the context of the studio
Material Performance will refer to a temporary
structure in which glass-and-carbon-fiber are
laid through a fiber-laminate process to be hardened with resin. The hardened fibrous system
becomes a surface, which is separated from the
temporary scaffolding structure. Scaffoldings
used are generally constructed from materials
ranging from chipboard, plexi or acrylic, MDF,
plywood and metal.
Our research began from the basic achievement of a complete fiber acting on fiber surface,
which sets forth the premise of a structurally
sound fiber-composite system. Using a baseline
litmus of complete fiber-to-fiber engagement
within a single surface, a systematic series of
explorations were carried out using a range
of scaffolding sets. The types of scaffoldings
implemented can be categorized into parallel,
mirrored, radial, multidirectional-open, and
multidirectional-closed. Related to various scaffold conditions or sets, the variables of curvature
both in plan and in section of the scaffoldings,
various algorithmic deployment and fiber-laminate processes were adopted to guarantee
continuity of full fiber-to-fiber interaction. The
algorithmic deployment of fibers onto scaffolding explored in the initial investigations are
listed as follows: 1) Single algorithm—The initial
algorithmic study focused on basic fiber-to-fiber interaction, investigating a range of fiber
placements that offer opportunities of fiber
overlap. Physical models were generated using
white cotton fiber string ultimately becoming
a base layer of fiber. With the transition of the
models into glass-and-carbon-fiber the base
layer would be generated with glass-fiber and act
as a secondary scaffolding for the carbon-fiber
to engage. 2) Two part algorithm—The two part
algorithm studies implemented a combination of
algorithms to force fiber acting on fiber within
the single surface. The study paired a base-layer
fiber system with an addition layer of fiber to
deflect the fibrous surface into a doubly curved
system. The base-layer is generally comprised
of white cotton fiber-or-glass-fiber while the
second layer is composed of black cotton fiber
or carbon-fiber. 3) Layered algorithm—The
investigation into a layered algorithm exploits
the deployment of multiple algorithms across
specific surface conditions to maintain a complete lamination between fibers. Controlling

77

understandings that, the increase in loads is
counteracted by the increase in structural depth
through added material. Inherent to the nature
of extrusions, portions of the structural member
are not necessary to carry load but are instead a
residual condition of the extrusion process.
Heinrich Engle defined “Form-Active
Structural systems as a system, which transmits
loads only through simple ‘normal stresses,’
either through tension or compression, without bending.” Engle outlines predecessors
of Form-Active Structures which included
Catenary, Funicular Arch, Tensile Membrane,
and Compression-only Shells. In current
architectural practice the design of form and
structure have been separated into two separate
processes, as the architect designs the form, then
an engineer rationalizes the form through the
configuration of material.
Fibrous-composite form-active structural
systems challenge the current paradigm, as
this system has the potential to incorporate the
design of material, form, and structure into the
thickness of a single surface. Fibrous-composite
systems can produce heterogeneous surface
conditions as the algorithm and scaffold have the
potential to produce various structural conditions, translucencies, and apertures within a
single surface. No other material system is able to
achieve similar capacities within a single surface.
Our investigations focused on the application process of free-formed fibrous-composite
systems that are composed of continuous carbon-and-glass-fiber rovings. This process varies
from traditional mold-based applications that
compress layers of chopped-fiber mats resulting
in continuous fiber-to-fiber interaction throughout the surface. Free-formed fibrous-composite
applications utilize a temporary scaffolding
mechanism, which provide limited points of
support or contact in the application process.
This allows the fibers to act freely in varying
conditions of tension or compression throughout the surface.
Initial investigation focused on fundamental algorithmic studies through basic line
drawings, computer modeling, parametric
analysis, and physical models. The necessary descriptions of the terms Algorithm and
Scaffolding specific to the studio Material
Performance: Composite Morphology and
Fibrous Tectonics are as followed.
Algorithm: a process or set of rules to be
followed in calculations or other problem solving
operations, especially by a computer. The definition of the term algorithm in the context of the
studio Material Performance, will refer to the

Form-Active Fibrous-Composite Structural Surface

78

the algorithmic fiber placement allows laminate
of the individual fibrous layers to deflect the
surface into form-active structural surface. 4)
Selective wrap pathâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;The use of single, twopart and layered algorithmic fiber-laminate
acknowledges control of surface density and the
deflection of fibrous layers into a form-active
structural surface. The deployment of selective
wrap paths unites the language of the structural
surface, inclusive of single, two part, and layered
algorithms, with aperture, edge termination,
connections to bearing, bifurcation of form,
bisecting surfaces, and MĂśbius formations.
The research stemming from the investigations of algorithm, fiber-laminate hierarchy,
and scaffolding configuration developed into
the early thoughts of an architectural morphology. The investigation pressured one question,
where does the essence of a fiber-composite
architecture exist. In the final phase of the
project the research aimed to increase the complexity of architectural morphology and spatial
conditions. The opportunities rooted in the
fibrous-composites systems led to the achievement of embedded aperture within the surface,
bisecting surfaces, bifurcating forms, and
various connections to foundation conditions.
The final architectural morphology realized
five architectural conditions: foot condition,
arching forms, MĂśbius Strip, aperture, and
bifurcation while maintaining full fiber-to-fiber
interaction within the surface and coherence
between material, form and structure. The
final carbon-and-glass-fiber integrated model
realized a heterogeneous surface implying the
ability to host programmatic entities such as
transits stations.
In conclusion, the inquiry into the character
of a fibrous-composite architecture engages the
largely untapped potential of an architecture
informed by the integration of designed material
and form-active surface. Systematically questioning the relationship between material, form, and
structure through research as part of the Material
Performance: Composite Morphology and
Fibrous Tectonics studio uncovered a systemic
misunderstanding of the affiliations of structure,
material, and form in the field of design. The
open communication rooted in an informed logic
between material, form, and structure offers new
architectural possibilities uninhibited from the
constraints of borrowed methodology.

This project, Studies in Fiber Interaction, re-interprets the tectonic expression of doubly ruled
surfaces. Such surfaces have long been the subject of structural and geometric interest among
architectural engineers such as Felix Candela
and Pier Luigi Nervi. The construction of these
specific classes of anticlastic shell structures
has played an important role in the evolution of
building construction not only because of the
structural capacities of the surface type, but also
for the virtues of the straight ruling lines which
are able to generate formwork and structure
from conventional building materials. In most
cases, however, the complex and visually intricate tectonic of the construction is internalized
and masked by layers of smooth concrete. This
project attempts to reveal that hidden tectonic
by collapsing the stratified layers of skin, structure and texture into a single materialâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;all visible
and all functional.
The premise of this critique on construction
looks specifically at the Taichung Opera House
by Toyo Ito as a counterpoint precedent to fuel
the discussion of the desire to reveal the hidden
tectonic of forms that exhibit similar kinds of

3-dimensional spatial complexity. Though this
particular precedent does not utilize similar
classes of mathematical surface geometry, it is a
relevant example of how a composition of curved
walls could be organized into a rational structure-and-construction system. More importantly
in our case, however, it is a good example of
the stratified and cumbersome construction
sequence associated with these kinds of forms
using more traditional building methods. In this
example, the construction sequence is broken
down into four main steps: 1) a mesh of steel
beams lays the foundation for the curved walls; 2)
a finer steel mesh that shapes the walls and adds
support for the concrete; 3) shotcrete (spray-on
concrete) is applied to form the general massing;
and 4) a layer of hand-plastered concrete adds
the finish layer and desired texture.
Our process is driven largely by the pure
geometric definition of the surfaces we explored,
whereby the initial layer of ruling lines (glass-fiber) generate both the surface membrane and
function as the soft fibrous mold for the additional layer of structural (carbon) fiber. In this
state, the mold is subject to deformation by the

This sequence formed the basis of the concept of utilizing fiber as mold, whereby the initial
layering of ruling lines became both the primitive
definition of the mathematical surface tectonically and structurally, and the membrane onto
which additional layers of fiber could be laid.
The final product was a series of spatial
morphologies that demonstrated a varied range
of aggregation techniques, module orientation,
scale and type (wall/partition morphology,
structural canopy and long span bridge). By
assigning a specific scale and orientation to the
module aggregations, we were able to embed
a higher degree of specificity in the laying of
carbon-fiber as the secondary and tertiary
structural layers. We used a surface structural
analysis tool in Millipede, a Grasshopper Plugin,
to analyze the Von Mises stresses, and measure
the deflection-under-load for each of the aggregations. Through these tests, we generated stress
patterns on the surface and attempted to match
the laying of carbon-fiber along principal stress
lines while maintaining the geometric integrity
of the surface (finding a best-fit solution between
our algorithm and the directionality of the stress
lines). This ensured that the two systems were
visually cohesive.
The desire to utilize the surface as a hard
mold after the resin had been applied to the
initial layers demanded an integrated design of
the scaffold and attachment mechanism. The
layer of carbon-fiber that defined the principal
stress lines of the surface was laid last (over the
already hardened glass-fiber surface). In order
to provide an edge condition that allowed for
the addition of fiber to the module once the rigid
scaffold had been removed, we embedded plastic
tubing around the screws to which the first
layers of glass-fiber were attached. This allowed
for the clean and facile removal of the screws
along with the rigid MDF scaffold after the first
layer of resin had been applied, but left the surface with pieces of hardware on the edges that
became both an attachment mechanism between
hardened modules as well as pins for the final
layer of carbon-fiber.
The spatial morphologies we developed
were unspecific in programmatic definition.
The ambition of the project was to present an
idea about how a seemingly hermetic system
can adapt to highly specific conditions relating
to scale, orientation, load, and complex spatial
organization.

95

layering of geodesic curves along the soft glass-fiber surface. The aggregation of structural bays
constructed both individually and in hybrid forms
allows for the utilization of the glass-fiber mold
in its hard state (post-resin application). This
allows the carbon-fiber to trace geodesic curves
along principal stress lines on the surface, acting
as both a bonding agent and supplementary
structural layer in parts of the surface experiencing maximum stress and potential deflection.
The series of explorations that led to the
final product developed from an interest in
doubly ruled surfaces. The majority of our early
experiments looked into the hyperboloid of
revolution as a doubly ruled anticlastic surface
that operated within a closed and highly constrained system. The development of the project
was a reciprocal dialogue between the role and
function of the rigid scaffold (constructed out of
plexiglass for the cotton-thread scale models),
and the fiber layup algorithm. The focus of
the development tested the limits of the rigid
scaffold and the extent to which it was able to
produce a varied range of forms (through algorithm variation), as well as its ability to extract
specific desired characteristics of the geometries
they produced. For example, one major development we achieved through the redesigning of
the scaffold was the ability to lay geodesics on
both sides of the surface, allowing for greater
surface rigidity and strength. This was a multistep process that involved the re-thinking of
the hyperboloid as the building block, whereby
a calibrated sampling of the surface along its
generating lines produced a module representative of a quarter of the fully revolved surface.
In doing so, we were able to integrate a larger
portion of the rigid scaffold into the surface
generation for additional fiber attachment.
The generation of the hyperboloid module
of varying eccentricities (degrees) was defined
algorithmically by a given â&#x20AC;&#x153;skip countâ&#x20AC;? of the
list of pins on the rigid scaffold. Initial studies
demonstrated the ability to produce hyperboloids of different eccentricities using identical
rigid scaffolds. All of these models were woven
by hand due to the desire to weave along the
interior of the scaffold which would be inaccessible by the robotic arm. White cotton-thread
was used for the initial layer of fiber (representative of glass-fiber). This formed the
membrane and was generated from the two sets
of ruling lines of the hyperbolic surface. Red
cotton-thread represented the additional layers
of carbon-fiber, and took the form of geodesic
curves as supported by the fibrous mold of the
white layer.

Fiber as FORMWORK

Fiber as MEMBRANE

Studies in Fiber Interaction

96

Fiber as STRUCTURE

Fibrous-mold investigation of formwork,
membrane, and structure.

97

Iman Fayyad, Joshua Feldman
Investigations into intersection as part of
the hyperboloid series.

The fibrous tectonics studio investigates new
methodologies, arrangements, and applications
of composite-fiber materials, namely carbonand-glass-fibers which are saturated in epoxy
resin. The aim of the investigation is to propose
an innovative system of deploying these specific
materials.
Our system combines the traditional textile
technique of knitting with inflatable pneumatic
membranes to create composite-fiber structures.
We see these two techniques as inherently complementary. The pneumatic membrane is able
to pretension the fibers of the knit surface and
expand it into a spatial- and form-active volume
while knitting allows the fibrous surface to be
behaviorally and topologically programmed,
which, in turn, determines how the pneumatic
membrane inflates. The resulting configuration
of fibers is then saturated with resin and cured
into a rigid structure.
This system addresses three major issues in
the contemporary application of composite-fibers. First, composite-fibers today are most often
applied as a homogenous, anisotropic surface.
Fibers are woven into regular textiles or cut and

sprayed in a random (approximately homogenous) configuration. This is a misuse of fibers
which have definite isotropic properties and
should be deployed efficiently (i.e. not homogeneously, but where loads [or aesthetics] dictate).
Second, conventional processes compromise the
continuity (and furthermore the structural integrity) of fibers by cutting textiles into templates or
use cutto-length fibers in spray applications. The
result of these processes are often components
that are joined using alien hardware (nuts and
bolts). Third, almost all fibers are deployed with
the use of a mold or mandrel or scaffold. These
aids to production require significant material
investment often surpassing the cost of fibers
and resin (unless production number per mold
is high) and limit the complexity and variety of
forms produced.
Although the exploration of fibrous-composites such as carbon-fiber and fiberglass is
relatively new (1930s), the history of fibrous
tectonics is ancient. The notion of making with
a fibrous material is heavily rooted in textile
traditions. Knitting takes advantage of the anisotropic (and otherwise specific) nature of fibers

and component-based systems that rely on alien
hardware for aggregation or assembly.
Although knitting affords tremendous
possibilities in the deployment of these materials, interacting fibers may only form a tensile
surface, and therefore need a means of activation
in order to be deployed as a tensioned volumetric forms. Fibers can be formed and tensioned
within a mold or by winding fibers across the
surface of a mandrel or scaffold. Our system
investigates tensioning fibers via pneumatic
bladders which are inflated inside a (closed) knit
surface. Pneumatics require the least material
investment per volume of any activation (i.e.
forming and pre-tensioning) system and may be
easily scaled.
Since the pneumatic membranes are
relatively flexible and malleable, a single type
of membrane can be manipulated into a variety
of forms by a programmed, enclosing tensile
surface. Regular standardized pneumatics can
be arranged in a controlled way to achieve a
variety of unique volumetric configurations.
Complexity and uniqueness is a free consequence of the knitting algorithm. In other
words, the pattern and topology with which a
fibrous textile is knit will pre-determine the
form, behavior, and configuration of the interacting pneumatics and fibers.
In conclusion, our system combines the
traditional textile technique of knitting with
inflatable pneumatic membranes to create
composite-fiber structures. Knitting takes advantage of the anisotropic (and otherwise specific)
nature of fibers and is capable of deploying
material in a highly programmed heterogeneous
arrangement, allowing the designer to (softly)
control both form and material behavior. The
techniques of knitting and pneumatic inflation
are inherently complementary. The pneumatic
membrane is able to pre-tension the fibers of
the knit surface and expand it into a spatial
and form-active volume while a knit surface
may determine how the pneumatic membrane
inflates and aggregates. Complexity and customization are therefore a free consequence of the
algorithmic (and possibly automated) knitting
process. This opens possibilities beyond the constraints of the traditional mold. We investigated
how these processes allow for a continuous
aggregation of fibers that do not rely on the
traditional notion of joinery or hardware (which
often produce structural weak points in composite structures). Lastly, all processes we have
identified have counterparts at a much larger
scale, and therefore invite the notion of a scalable system that can approach an architecture.

113

and is capable of deploying material in a highly
programmed heterogeneous arrangement,
allowing the designer to control both form and
material behavior.
Knitting is an inherently programmable process. The algorithm which informs stitches may
allow for a variety of patterns. Alternating the
pattern, density, or tension of stitches results in a
fabric surface with specific behavioral properties. Elasticity or rigidity, density or porosity can
be programmed into the material via geometric arrangement. In this way a highly inelastic
material (carbon-fiber) can be rearranged at a
tectonic scale to mimic otherwise alien material
properties (elasticity). This geometric elasticity
can be witnessed in most looseknit clothing. For
example, a scarf can have much more elastic
than an individual length of yarn from which it is
knit. Knitting as a fabrication process allows for
material to be deployed in an extremely heterogeneous and specific arrangement, contrasting
the homogenous and anisotropic application of
conventional processes.
Unlike other textile techniques, knitting uses
a single, continuous fiber. Composites function
best when fibers are continuous. This configuration of continuous, interlocking loops has the
added benefit of allowing the fiber to be easily
recycled. Knitting also controls the profile of the
resulting surface through the stitch pattern. This
contrasts methods such as weaving, where looms
are often set to produce rectangular lengths of
fabric which are then cut into templates to be
assembled, compromising the continuity and
integrity of fibers at the edges.Knit surfaces may
have complex profiles and topologies where
fibers are always continuous at the edge.
Formal and structural investigations led
to the modeling of complex forms and topologies. These would often be approximated by
joining several knit-textile surfaces which were
produced separately. An incredible benefit of
the process is that separate knit surfaces may be
continuous/seamless when joined. Stitches identical to those used in the production of the fabric
surface may be used to close seams, ultimately
creating a uniform condition. Locating seams
appropriately allows for complex geometry to
be unrolled into manufacturable templates with
minimal distortion. Additional information
such as stress mapping and load flows may be
unrolled along with these surfaces, informing
the templateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s knit algorithm in terms of density
and pattern. Ultimately, complex configurations
of fibers may be accomplished as tectonically
continuous forms, improving upon processes
that cut and compromise the integrity of fibers,

The difficult relation between fibrous-composite systems and architecture can be illustrated
by the metaphor of the Butterfly Effect which,
derived from chaos theory, suggests that small
causes in one realm may have enormous effects
in another. That is to say, how do the material
geometry and geometrical inter-relations of
fibers on scales down to 10-3 produce effects on
the scale of buildings? For three-quarters of a
century architects have anticipated these effects,
even described them as revolutionary. Yet, as far
as buildings and construction go, there is little
to deny that the visionary qualities of the first
generation of fibrous-composite projects (early
1950s to 1973) have eclipsed most subsequent
work with these material systems.
There are at least two major reasons why
working with fibrous-composite systems is
so difficult. One is that these systems are not
materials in the classical sense but designed
concoctions of various material sub-systems.
This means that fibrous-composite systems
evade existing material epistemology and
categorization as well as much of our expertise

and assessment standards. The typical version
for architectural use consists of one or another
fibrous composition as reinforcement embedded
in a polymer matrix that guarantees cohesion
and surface continuity. The fibrous reinforcement is also a material system and thus given by
inter-relations between parts where the fibrous
unit is defined by its aspect ratio, that is, the geometrically given ratio between the cross section
and length of the fiber. Since these material and
geometrical variables are given on minuscule
scales and co-dependent on neighbouring variables, the architectural design task becomes vast,
staggeringly multifaceted, and complex.
The other major reason why the use of these
material systems date have not engendered a
unique expression and possible new forms of
architecture is that the vastness of the problem
has led to false assumptions about what is at
stake and excruciating simplifications of the
problem at hand. For instance, the minute and
difficult inter-relational dynamics of fibrous
geometry has become replaced by a quasi-textile appearance of material composition on a

geometry while exploiting the inherent spatiality
embedded in textiles and not compromising on
the needed material saturation. It is the latter
material saturation that is the endemic forfeiture
when the scalar refinement of fibers and textiles
is ignored.
1

C. D. Elliot, Technics and Architecture: The
Development of Materials and Systems for Building,
(Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1992) p.2.

building scale. Likewise, the simple but delicate
composite relation between reinforcement and
matrix has recently been replaced by an obsession with fibers and textiles only. Moreover, the
typical invocation of Gottfried Semper’s work
on textiles—Semper’s genius and many insights
notwithstanding—has little bearing on contemporary fibrous-composites in architecture. No
wonder, then, that visions for how these material
systems may present architecture with new
opportunities too often end up in substitutional
practices: Stylistic imitation of Greek columns
and pediments in malls, discrete panelization
where other materials work perfectly well (Zaha
Hadid for Chanel) and endless fiber projects
whose newness principally echoes known rebar
plans in a contrived pursuit of one or another
form of material optimization. Much of this
harks back to the question of scale, yet the overriding question is: What is the design problem?
In this context new technology presents the
significant change, since the material systems
were introduced for building construction along
with postwar industrialization of the Western
world. For instance, until recently and for
technological as well as economical reasons, the
standard fibrous reinforcement in composite systems used staple fibers that are cut into discrete
lengths instead of continuous fibers. Increased
digital computational capacities represent the
most important change as it enables access to
ever-smaller material and system scales for
design and fabrication purposes. The best work
of Achim Menges and colleagues, including
that in Menges’s design studios on Fibrous
Tectonics at GSD, comprises the most advanced
and groundbreaking efforts to break away from
the historical tendency to see technological
improvements change tools and methods but
lead to “little more than transferring traditional
[...] procedures to the operation of machinery.”1
Specifically, when Purisic, Varholick, Gao,
and Safaverdi in the 2015 GSD studio experiment with traditional knitting techniques in a
dynamical relation with pneumatic membranes,
they succeed in tapping into the power of textile
mechanics and geometry to produce startlingly
beautiful and fresh architectural effects. The
achievement depends by and large on their
detailed engagement with the fibers/yarns and
their inter-looping and includes the formation of
apertures in the surfaces, pinching and pleating
that engenders embedded, local forms and a
highly variegated surface topology.
However, their most impressive achievement is to benefit from the knitted form’s
elasticity to design the rich architectural

138

Fibrous Structures
Studio

Axel Kilian

As an invited critic to the three-year fibrous
structures studio led by Achim Menges at the
Harvard GSD, I had the opportunity to experience firsthand and comment on the studioâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
work and development. As an accumulative
research studio fibrous structures stands out
among architectural design studios for maintaining a very focused and consistent research
agenda over a three-year period. The studios
progressively explored more in-depth experiments on fibrous structures using mostly carbon
and fiberglass strand composites.
The studio explorations started with fixed
winding rigs to overcome the dependency on
large-scale one-time use molds, traditionally
used in composite lay-up structures. These
rigs were developed geometrically, then laser
cut. Parallel algorithms were developed for the
winding sequence to achieve the desired surface
results. In the early experiments, the physical
behavior of the fibers played an important role
as secondary layers would come to rest on the
hyperbolic surface defined by the first set of
strands. Based on friction and tension the equilibrium would slip into geodesic paths on these
surfaces. This combination of geometric and
material computation creates a number of very
intriguing surface explorations, culminating in
some of the most refined projects in the second
year of the studio series.
An important extension to the surface-based fibrous organization was started in
the 2014 studio with Pneumatic Fibrous Form by
Erin Cuevas, Mike Johnson, and Jana Masset.
This project explores fiber organization in a
volumetric fashion, cross-connecting fibers
between multi-layered fiber surfaces. This
theme was substantially expanded on by Yuan
Gao, Demir Purisic, Zahra Safaverdi, and Joe
Varholick in An Architectonic Notion for Knitting
and Pneumatics through their investigations
using pneumatic molds in combination with
parametrically controlled knitting to control the
surface membranes.
The design development throughout the
groups happened in parallel with very refined
prototype developments, calibrating the concept
with the material computation of the constructs.
All of the individual groups went to great depth
to document and communicate their research

process and procedural fabrication processes
through notational diagram, thereby sharing
their approach for possible future exploration.
This sharing of detailed knowledge is a key
requirement for a multi-year research effort
allowing follow-up groups to build on the
preceding work. In addition, the studio series
benefited from the parallel research developed
at ICD at the University of Stuttgart that was
shared in parts through visiting researchers from
Stuttgart. These researchers ran workshops as
part of the studio series in Cambridge. This is a
promising model for the research-studio concept
as a bridge between research and teaching,
allowing both researchers and students to benefit from each otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s contributions.
The clear focus on fibrous structures
produced a breadth of approaches that were
explored in depth. This research went beyond
work merely inspired by biomimetic principles,
or the often incomplete prototypical exploration
in more holistic studios (where development is
often shortened due to project requirements).
This is not to be misunderstood as a proposal
in which research would generally stand over
architectural design development, but as an
argument in support of the research studio
model as an essential component in the overall
approach to teaching design studios. The biggest
challenge that remains is to develop the fibrous
structures research findings beyond the proto
architectures of the design explorations shown
here. Can the rich material and spatial qualities
that were developed carry over to influence
architecture? Or do they simply substitute
established material regimes? I think it is clear
that the various student projects have shown a
deep integration of material culture with novel
scale-specific fabrication processes. These projects push fibrous structures knowledge beyond
the established fiber-composite industrial usage
and practices into the domain of architecture.
However, much work remains to develop an
architectural design response based on these
fascinating and provoking reports.

Frei Otto also took up the notion of self-generation and the analogy between biology and
building, but eschewed the imitation of nature in
favor of working directly in materials to produce
models that were at once natural and artificial.
At the same time, he also eschewed their translation into a universalizing mathesis. Rather than
focusing on form or formula, he took the idea of
analogy in an entirely different direction, preferring to stage experiments in which materials
find their own form.
—From Bioconstructivisms by Detlef Mertins

and regions of carbon-fiber; ribs organizing
strands in continuous closed-curve networks;
human-sized composite surfaces and panels;
fibril networks and fibrous assemblages generating thick components and larger architectural
elements. These were but a few of the models
that I examined. I looked closer as the review
commenced, pausing to decipher between what
had been made by hand versus what had been
digitally fabricated. This was, after all, a Menges
review. I struggled to understand the process,
and finally asked, “So, you placed each carbon
strand by hand?” Where were the dancing
industrial robots delicately winding carbon-fiber based on natural systems producing highly
differentiated morphologies for novel composite shell structures? Having visited Menges’s
ICD at Stuttgart the previous summer, I saw
first-hand the robotic fabrication process that
they had innovated involving two interacting
6-axis robots to produce doubly curved glassand carbon-fiber reinforced polymers through a
winding process. Through this simple process,
which basically entails winding layers of fibers
and strategically impregnating the hollow cores
with resin, 36 unique components were generated for a lightweight pavilion. Perhaps due to a
lack of resources and space, and partially due to
time restrictions, robotic fabrication was largely
absent from the Fibrous Tectonic studio at the
Harvard GSD. I was positively surprised to see
the strong presence of digital handcraft and
analog modeling in conjunction with sophisticated digital simulations, a process saturated in
material and computation, but largely analogic.
I returned the second year for the final
review held in December 2015, where again
the studio focused on fibrous tectonics and
materially driven generative design, but with
a stronger emphasis upon bioinspired models.
In one project, the four principles of fibrous
structures found in the natural world were discussed: hierarchy, heterogeneity, anisotropy, and
redundancy. The models were more voluminous,
making use of textile processes such as knitting
to explore these biological principles through
material analogs. Here, holes and ladders generate knots and openings in the knit system, a
continuous deposition of material, one link and
row to the next. Volumes were grafted to the

140

Upon first participating on Menges’s final review
in December 2014 at the Harvard GSD, I walked
into the pit mesmerized by the material beauty
and intricacy of the fibrous models, each one
telling a rigorous tale of process, materially
directed generative design, and digital handcraft.
Laser-cut jigs filtering and organizing hundreds
of well-placed strands; balloons arrayed in a
matrix generating pneumatic assemblages akin
to cells enmeshed in their extracellular matrix;
shells and composites impregnated with resin

material systems. Here, geometry, materiality,
pattern, structure, and form are inextricably
linked. Menges and his students resist the
post-rationalization of complex form through
an approach that engages materially directed
generative design. Here, architectural affordances reveal themselves as evolving flows of
force through geometry and matter that are computed, designed, and fabricated through analog
robotic interfaces that dance, collaborate, wind,
and weave. These transformative models may
in parallel provide potent contributions toward
issues of construction, digital fabrication, and

tonic systems. The studio operates across scales
through the explicit exploration of biological
models for novel structures in the context of
computational matter. While nonlinear concepts
are widely applied in analysis and generative
design, they have not yet convincingly translated
into the material realm of fabrication and construction in architecture. The work in this studio
offers some clues and answers where possible
design routes and techniques no longer privilege
column, beam, and arch through a broadened
definition of architectural tectonics successfully
made with advancements in computational
design. How might these advancements impact
material practice in architecture, engineering,
and construction at economic, technological and
cultural levels?
While these questions remain unanswered,
one of the most important deliverables of the
studio concerns fostering new habits of thought
and material intuition where nonstandard
tectonic elements emerge through the rigorous
investigation of the behaviors of natural models
and their corresponding translation into novel

material ecologies in architecture. Critical to this
approach are design processes rooted in experimentation without predetermination of form.
Here, emphasis is placed upon the dynamics of
natural models, of behavior and process in the
material formation of difference and heterogeneous entities.

2013 Research Project Skin as Structure: A Fibrous Architectural
Protoype by Catherine Soderberg.

141

next, synthetically exploring hierarchy and more
mature architectural morphologies. Failures and
messy computation become opportunities as the
assemblages adapt and design intuition is honed
through the agency of the material and process.
Perhaps the most important aspect of the studio
concerns the development of a design process
saturated in material computation and making
as steered and specified by a biological model
or dynamic template. Here, the intention is not
merely about mimicking biology, but learning
how to design like nature, opportunistically
extracting principles and processes for novel tec-

Achim Menges
Achim Menges is a registered architect and
professor at Stuttgart University where he
is the founding director of the Institute for
Computational Design. Since 2009, he has
been a Visiting Professor in Architecture at the
Harvard University Graduate School of Design.
He graduated with honors from the AA School
of Architecture.

Marshall Prado
Marshall Prado is a Research Associate at the
Institute for Computational Design at Stuttgart
University. He holds a Bachelor of Architecture
from North Carolina State University and
advanced degrees as a Master of Architecture
and a Master of Design Studies in Technology
from the Harvard University Graduate School
of Design.

Moritz DĂśrstelmann
Moritz DĂśrstelmann is a Research Associate
and Doctoral Candidate at the Institute for
Computational Design at Stuttgart University.
He studied architecture at the RWTH Aachen
University and the University of Applied Arts
in Vienna where he graduated with distinction
from the master class of Zaha Hadid and Patrik
Schumacher.

Johan Bettum
Johan Bettum is a professor of architecture
and the program director of the StĂ¤delschule
Architecture Class. He studied at the AA School
of Architecture after receiving a BA in biology
from Princeton University, and holds a PhD in
Design and fiber-reinforced composite systems
from Oslo School of Architecture and Design.

Jenny Sabin
Jenny Sabin is an Assistant Professor in
architecture and Director of Graduate Studies
at Cornell Universityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s AAP. She runs Jenny
Sabin Studio and Sabin Design Lab. She
completed a Master of Architecture with honors
from the University of Pennsylvania, and holds
Bachelor degrees in Visual Art and Ceramics
from University of Washington.

145

Axel Kilian
Axel Kilian is an Assistant Professor in
Computational Design at Princeton University.
He received a Diploma degree in Architecture
from University of the Arts Berlin, and holds
advanced degrees as a Master of Science in
architecture Studies (SMarchS) and PhD in
Design and Computation from Massachusetts
Institute of Technology.

Colophon

Material Performance:
Fibrous Tectonics &
Architectural Morphology
Instructors
Achim Menges
Report Design
A. Scottie McDaniel
A Harvard University Graduate
School of Design Publication
Dean and Alexander and Victoria
Wiley Professor of Design
Mohsen Mostafavi
Editor in Chief
Jennifer Sigler
Publications Coordinator
Meghan Sandberg
Editorial Support
Claire Barliant, Michael Eisenbrey
Series design by Laura Grey and Zak Jensen
ISBN 978-1-934510-57-5
Copyright ÂŠ 2016, President and Fellows of
Harvard College. All rights reserved. No part
of this book may be reproduced in any form
without prior written permission from the
Harvard University Graduate School of Design.

Acknowledgments
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to
the Harvard GSD for their interest in making
this venture possible and for their generous
support of the studio. I am equally thankful
to the students for their fantastic effort,
tremendous talent, and sheer dedication to
explore the design research field presented in
this publication. I would also like to thank my
colleagues at the ICD for their expert advice
and workshops, and the ICD/ITKE at the
University of Stuttgart for the development of
some of the decisive enabling technologies and
for the inspiration of the Research Pavilions.
Lastly, Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;d like to acknowledge the Getty Lab for
supporting the Harvard GSD and ICD research,
and for their contribution to this publication.
Image Credits
Student groups were responsible for all
documentation of their projects. All final review
photos were taken by photographer Justin
Knight.
Cover: 2014 Research Project Nature of
bi-stability in composite structures by Niccolo
Dambrosio, Ping Lu, Stefan Stanojevic.
The editors have attempted to acknowledge all
sources of images used and apologize for any
errors or omissions.
Harvard University
Graduate School of Design
48 Quincy Street
Cambridge, MA 02138
publications@gsd.harvard.edu
gsd.harvard.edu