Female infanticide in India has a history spanning centuries. Poverty, the dowry system, births to unmarried women, deformed infants, famine, lack of support services and maternal illnesses such as postpartum depression are among the causes that have been proposed to explain the phenomenon of female infanticide in India.

Infanticide is nowadays a criminal offence in India but it is an under-reported crime; reliable objective data is unavailable. There were around 100 male and female infanticides reported in the country in 2010, giving an official rate of less than one per million people.

The Indian practice of female infanticide and of sex-selective abortion have been cited to explain in part a gender imbalance that has been reported as being increasingly distorted since the 1991 Census of India, although there are also other influences that might affect the trend.[1]

Section 315 of the Indian Penal Code defines infanticide as the killing of an infant in the 0–1 age group, the Code differentiates between this and numerous other crimes against children, including foeticide and murder.[2][a]

Some scholarly publications on infanticide use the legal definition.[4][5] Others, such as the collaboration of Renu Dube, Reena Dube and Rashmi Bhatnagar, who describe themselves as "postcolonial feminists", adopt a broader scope for infanticide, applying it from foeticide through to femicide at an unspecified age.[6] Barbara Miller, an anthropologist, has "for convenience" used the term to refer to all non-accidental deaths of children up to the age of around 15–16, which is culturally considered to be the age when childhood ends in rural India, she notes that the act of infanticide can be "outright", such as a physical beating, or take a "passive" form through actions such as neglect and starvation. Neonaticide, being the killing of a child within 24 hours of birth, is sometimes considered as a separate study.[7]

British colonists in India first became aware of the practice of female infanticide in 1789, during the period of Company Rule, it was noted among members of a Rajput clan by Jonathan Duncan, then the British Resident in Jaunpur district of what is now the northern state of Uttar Pradesh. Later, in 1817, officials noted that the practice was so entrenched that there were entire taluks of the Jadeja Rajputs in Gujarat where no female children of the clan existed.[8] In the mid-19th century, a magistrate who was stationed in the north-west of the country claimed that for several hundred years no daughter had ever been raised in the strongholds of the Rajahs of Mynpoorie and that only after the intervention of a District Collector in 1845 did the Rajput ruler there keep a daughter alive.[9] The British identified other high-caste communities as practitioners in north, western and central areas of the country; these included the Ahirs, Bedis, Gurjars, Jats, Khatris, Lewa Kanbis, Mohyal Brahmins and Patidars.[8][10]

According to Marvin Harris, another anthropologist and among the first proponents of cultural materialism, these killings of legitimate children occurred only among the Rajputs and other elite land-owning and warrior groups, the rationale was mainly economic, lying in a desire not to split land and wealth among too many heirs and in avoiding the payment of dowries. Sisters and daughters would marry men of similar standing and thus pose a challenge to the cohesion of wealth and power, whereas concubines and their children would not and thus could be allowed to live,[11][12] he further argues that the need for warriors in the villages of a pre-industrial society meant female children were devalued, and the combination of war casualties and infanticide acted as a necessary form of population control.[13]

Sociobiologists have a different theory to Harris. Indeed, his theory and interest in the topic of infanticide is born of his more generalised opposition to the sociobiological hypothesis of the procreative imperative.[14][15] According to this theory of imperative, based on the 19th-century vogue for explanations rooted in evolution and its premise of natural selection,[16] the biological differences between men and women meant that many more children could be gained among the elites through support for male offspring, whose fecundity was naturally much greater: the line would spread and grow more extensively. Harris believes this to be a fallacious explanation because the elites had sufficient wealth easily to support both male and female children.[12] Thus, Harris and others, such as William Divale, see female infanticide as a way to restrict population growth, while sociobiologists such as Mildred Dickemann view the same practice as a means of expanding it.[13]

Another anthropologist, Kristen Hawkes, has criticised both of these theories, on the one hand, opposing Harris, she says both that the quickest way to get more male warriors would have been to have more females as child-bearers and that having more females in a village would increase the potential for marriage alliances with other villages. Against the procreative imperative theory she points out that the corollary to well-off elites such as those in northern India wanting to maximise reproduction is that poor people would want to minimise it and thus in theory should have practiced male infanticide, which it seems they did not.[13]

There is no data for the sex ratio in India prior to the British colonial era. Reliant as the British were on local high-caste communities for the collection of taxes and the maintenance of law and order, the administrators were initially reluctant to peer too deeply into their private affairs, such as the practice of infanticide, although this did change in the 1830s, the reluctance reappeared following the cathartic events of the Indian rebellion of 1857, which caused government by the East India Company to be supplanted by the British Raj.[17] In 1857, John Cave Browne, a chaplain serving in Bengal Presidency, reported a Major Goldney speculating that the practice of female infanticide among the Jats in the Punjab Province originated from "Malthusian motives";[18] in the Gujarat region, the first cited examples of discrepancies in the sex ratio among Lewa Patidars and Kanbis dates from 1847.[19] These historical records have been questioned by modern scholars, the British made their observations from a distance and never mixed with their Indian subjects to understand their poverty, frustrations, life or culture at close hand.[20] Browne documented his speculations on female infanticide using "they tell" hearsay.[18]Bernard Cohn states that the colonial British residents in India would not accuse an individual or family of infanticide as the crime was difficult to prove in a British court, nevertheless accused an entire clan or social group of female infanticide. Cohn says, "female infanticide thus became a 'statistical crime'", during the colonial rule of India.[21]

Aside from numerous reports and correspondence on infanticide from colonial officials,[10] there was also documentation from Christian missionaries. who were significant writers of ethnographies of India during the 19th century. They sent letters back to Britain announcing their missionary accomplishments and characterising the culture as savage, ignorant and depraved.[22][23] Scholars have questioned this distorted construction of Indian culture during the colonial era, stating that infanticide was as common in England during the 18th and 19th century, as in India.[22][24][25] Some British Christian missionaries of the late 19th century, states Daniel Grey, wrongly believed that female infanticide was sanctioned by the scriptures of Hinduism and Islam, and against which Christianity had "centuries after centuries come into victorious conflict".[22]

A review of scholarship by Miller has shown that the majority of female infanticides in India during the colonial period occurred in the north-west, and that it was widespread although not all groups carried out this practice.[26]

David Arnold, a member of the subaltern studies group who has used a lot of contemporary sources, says that various methods of outright infanticide were used, including reputedly including poisoning with opium, strangulation and suffocation. Poisonous substances such as the root of the plumbago rosea and arsenic were used for abortion, with the latter also ironically being used as an aphrodisiac and cure for male impotence. The act of direct infanticide among Rajputs was usually performed by women, often the mother herself or a nurse. Administration of poison was in any event a type of killing particularly associated with women; Arnold describes it as "often murder by proxy", with the man at a remove from the event and thus able to claim innocence.[27]

Major famines occurred in India every five to eight years in the 19th- and early 20th-centuries,[28][29] resulting in millions starving to death,[30][31] as also happened in China, these events begat infanticide: desperate starving parents would either kill a suffering infant, sell a child to buy food for the rest of the family, or beg people to take them away for nothing and feed them.[32][33][34] Gupta and Shuzhou state that massive famines and poverty-related historical events had influenced historical sex ratios, and they have had deep cultural ramifications on girls and regional attitudes towards female infant mortality.[34]

From 1881 through 1941, demographic data shows India had excess males overall in all those years,[36] the gender difference was particularly high in north and western regions of India, with an overall sex ratio – males per 100 females – of between 110.2 and 113.7 in the north over the 60-year period, and 105.8 to 109.8 males for every 100 female in western India for all ages.[36] Visaria states that female deficit among Muslims was markedly higher, next only to Sikhs.[37] South India region was an exception reporting excess females overall, which scholars attribute partly to selective emigration of males and the regional practice of matriarchy.[37]

The overall sex ratios, and excess males, in various regions were highest among the Muslim population of India from 1881 to 1941, and the sex ratio of each region correlated with the proportion of its Muslim population, with the exception of eastern region of India where the overall sex ratio was relatively low while it had a high percentage of Muslims in the population.[38] If regions that are now part of modern Pakistan are excluded (Baluchistan, North West Frontier, Sind for example), Visaria states that the regional and overall sex ratios for the rest of India over the 1881–1941 period improve in favour of females, with a lesser gap between male and female population.[39]

Infanticide in India, and elsewhere in the world, is a difficult issue to objectively access because reliable data is unavailable.[40][41] Scrimshaw states that not only accurate frequency of female infanticide is unknown, differential care between male and female infants is even more elusive data.[40] Reliable data for female infanticide is unavailable, its frequency, and that of sex-selective abortion, is indirectly estimated from the observed high birth sex ratio; that is, the ratio of boys to girls at birth or 0–1 age group infants, or 0–6 age group child sex ratio.[42] The natural ratio is assumed to be 106, or somewhere between 103 and 107, and any number above or below this range is considered as suggestive of female or male foeticide respectively.[43][44]

Higher sex ratios than in India have been reported for the last 20 years in China, Pakistan, Vietnam, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia and some Southeast European countries, and attributed in part to female infanticide, among other factors.[45] There is an ongoing debate as to the cause of high sex ratios in the 0–1 and 0–6 age groups in India, the suggested reasons for high birth sex ratio include regional female foeticide using amniocentesis regardless of income or poverty because of patrilineal culture,[46][47] the under-reporting of female births,[48] smaller family size and selective stopping of family size once a male is born,[49][50]

Sheetal Ranjan reports that the total male and female infanticide reported cases in India were 139 in 1995, 86 in 2005 and 111 in 2010;[51] the National Crime Records Bureau summary for 2010 gives a figure of 100.[52] Scholars state that infanticide is an under-reported crime.[53]

Reports of regional cases of female infanticide have appeared in the media, such as those in Usilampatti in southern Tamil Nadu.[54]

One of the biggest reason for increase in female infanticide is being associated with the increase in number of private Ultrasound Scanning Centres which often tell the sex of baby, and as they become more accessible and affordable people who could not find out the sex of baby historically, have started finding it out and often results in abortion in case of girl child.

Extreme poverty with an inability to afford raising a child is one of the reasons given for female infanticide in India.[55][56][clarification needed] Such poverty has been a major reason for high infanticide rates in various cultures, throughout history, including England, France and India.[24][57][58]

The dowry system in India is another reason that is given for female infanticide, although India has taken steps to abolish the dowry system,[59] the practice persists, and for poorer families in rural regions female infanticide and gender selective abortion is attributed to the fear of being unable to raise a suitable dowry and then being socially ostracised.[60]

Other major reasons given for infanticide, both female and male, include unwanted children, such as those conceived after rape, deformed children born to impoverished families, and those born to unmarried mothers lacking reliable, safe and affordable birth control.[55][61][40] Relationship difficulties, low income, lack of support coupled with mental illness such as postpartum depression have also been reported as reasons for female infanticide in India.[62][63][64][clarification needed]

Elaine Rose in 1999 reported that disproportionately high female mortality is correlated to poverty, infrastructure and means to feed one's family, and that there has been an increase in the ratio of the probability that a girl survives to the probability that a boy survives with favourable rainfall each year and the consequent ability to irrigate farms in rural India.[65]

Ian Darnton-Hill et al. state that the effect of malnutrition, particularly micronutrient and vitamin deficiency, depends on sex, and it adversely impacts female infant mortality.[66]

In 1992 the Government of India started the "baby cradle scheme", this allows families anonymously to give their child up for adoption without having to go through the formal procedure. The scheme has been praised for possibly saving the lives of thousands of baby girls but also criticised by human rights groups, who say that the scheme encourages child abandonment and also reinforces the low status in which women are held,[67] the scheme, which was piloted in Tamil Nadu, saw cradles placed outside state-operated health facilities. The Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu added another incentive, giving money to families that had more than one daughter. 136 baby girls were given for adoption during the first four years of the scheme. In 2000, 1,218 cases of female infanticide were reported, the scheme was deemed a failure and it was abandoned, it was reinstated in the following year.[68]

In 1991 the Girl Child Protection Scheme was launched, this operates as a long-term financial incentive, with rural families having to meet certain obligations such as sterilisation of the mother. Once the obligations are met, the state puts aside ₹2000 in a state-run fund, the fund, which should grow to ₹10,000, is released to the daughter when she is 20: she can use it either to marry or to pursue higher education.[69]

The census 2011 data showed a significant decline in the clid sex ratio(CSR). Alarmed by the decline the Government of India introduced "Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao" (BBBP) to address this issue. the overall motive of the program is to prevent gender discrimination, ensure survival and protection of the girl child and to ensure the education of the girl child.

In 1991 Elisabeth Bumiller wrote May You be the Mother of a Hundred Sons: A Journey Among the Women of India around the subject of infanticide.[73] In the chapter on female infanticide, titled No More Little Girls, she said that the prevailing reason for the practice is "not as the act of monsters in a barbarian society but as the last resort of impoverished, uneducated women driven to do what they thought was best for themselves and their families."[74]

Gift of A Girl Female Infanticide is a 1998 documentary that explores the prevalence of female infanticide in southern India, as well as steps which have been taken to help eradicate the practice. The documentary won an award from the Association for Asian Studies.[75][76]

^According to statistics published by the National Crime Records Bureau, a department of the Government of India, kidnapping and abduction represented 40.3 per cent of recorded crimes against children in 2010, rape was 20.5 per cent, murder (other than infanticide) was 5.3 per cent, and exposure and abandonment was 2.7 per cent. All other crimes against children accounted for 31.5 per cent.[3]

^Miller (1987), p. 97: "Most broadly defined, infanticide applies to the killing of children under the age of twelve months (deaths after that age would generally be classified as child homicide, although the definition and, hence, duration of childhood is culturally variable)."

Craig, Michael (February 2004), "Perinatal risk factors for neonaticide and infant homicide: can we identify those at risk?", Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 97 (2): 57–61, PMC1079289, PMID14749398, doi:10.1258/jrsm.97.2.57

Violence against women
–
Violence against women, also known as gender-based violence, is, collectively, violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women. Sometimes considered a crime, this type of violence targets a specific group with the victims gender as a primary motive. This type of violence is gender-based, meaning that the acts of violence are

Acid throwing
–
Perpetrators of these attacks throw acid at their victims, usually at their faces, burning them, and damaging skin tissue, often exposing and sometimes dissolving the bones. The most common types of acid used in these attacks are sulfuric and nitric acid, hydrochloric acid is sometimes used, but is much less damaging. The long term consequences of

Outline of domestic violence
–
It is also known as domestic abuse, spousal abuse, battering, family violence, and intimate partner violence. Negative reinforcement, removing one from a situation as a reward. For example, You wont have to walk home if you allow me to do this to you, intermittent or partial reinforcement, partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create a

1.
The four phases of the Cycle of Abuse in ongoing domestic violence situations

Management of domestic violence
–
The management of domestic violence deals with the treatment of victims of domestic violence and preventing repetitions of such violence. The response to violence in Western countries is typically a combined effort between law enforcement, social services and health care. The role of each has evolved as domestic violence has brought more into publi

1.
October is observed as domestic abuse month in the United States. This poster was issued by various branches of the United States Military to educate and prevent domestic abuse.

2.
Afghan National Police instructors conduct a role playing scenario dealing with sexual abuse at the Afghan National Police Academy, Kabul, Afghanistan on December 30, 2010. Dr. Anna Baldry taught the Train the Trainer Gender Seminar to give ANP instructors more comprehensive and effective delivery methods for the current curriculum on domestic violence and sexual abuse. (U.S. Navy photo by Chief Petty Officer Brian Brannon/Released)

Eve teasing
–
Considered a problem related to delinquency in youth, it is a form of sexual aggression that ranges in severity from sexually suggestive remarks, brushing in public places and catcalls to groping. Some non-governmental organizations have suggested that the expression be replaced by an appropriate term. According to them, considering the semantic ro

Infibulation
–
Infibulation is the surgical removal of the external female genitalia and the suturing of the vulva. It can also refer to placing a clasp through the foreskin in men and it is mostly practised in northeastern Africa, particularly Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia and Sudan. The procedure leaves a wall of skin and flesh across the vagina, by inse

Foot binding
–
Foot binding was the custom of applying painfully tight binding to the feet of young girls to modify the shape of the foot. Foot binding became popular as a means of displaying status and was adopted as a symbol of beauty in Chinese culture. Its prevalence and practice however varied in different parts of the country, Feet altered by binding were c

1.
A lotus shoe for bound feet. The ideal length for a bound foot was 3 Chinese inches (寸), which is around 4 inches (10 cm) in western measurement.

2.
Bound feet were once considered a mark of beauty

3.
18th century illustration showing Yao Niang binding her own feet

4.
A comparison between a woman with normal feet (left) and a woman with bound feet in 1902

Leblouh
–
Leblouh is the practice of force-feeding girls from as young as five to teenagers, in Mauritania, Western Sahara, and southern Morocco, where obesity was traditionally regarded as desirable. Especially prevalent in areas and having its roots in Tuareg tradition. The synonym gavage comes from the French term for the force-feeding of geese to produce

1.
Big Jew, from Garrigues on Djerba island.

2.
Tunisian Jewish woman of the 1910s.

Forced marriage

Human trafficking
–
Human trafficking is the trade of humans, most commonly for the purpose of forced labor, sexual slavery, or commercial sexual exploitation for the trafficker or others. This may encompass providing a spouse in the context of forced marriage, or the extraction of organs or tissues, including for surrogacy, Human trafficking can occur within a countr

Raptio
–
Raptio is a Latin term referring to the large scale abduction of women, i. e. kidnapping either for marriage or enslavement. The equivalent term Frauenraub, originally from German, is used in English in the field of art history. Bride kidnapping is distinguished from raptio in that the former is the abduction of one woman by one man, whereas the la

Witch trials in the early modern period
–
Those accused of witchcraft were portrayed as being worshippers of the Devil, who engaged in such acts as malevolent sorcery at meetings known as Witches Sabbaths. Many people were accused of being witches, and were put on trial for the crime, with varying punishments being applicable in different regions. Though some of the earliest trials are fro

Bride burning
–
Bride burning or bride-burning is a form of domestic violence practiced in Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and other countries located on or around the Indian subcontinent. A category of dowry death, bride-burning occurs when a woman is murdered by her husband or his family for her familys refusal to pay additional dowry. The wife is typically doused w

Dowry death
–
Dowry deaths are deaths of women who are murdered or driven to suicide by continuous harassment and torture by husbands and in-laws in an effort to extort an increased dowry. Dowry deaths are found in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, India reports the highest total number of dowry deaths with 8,391 such deaths reported in 2010,1.4 deaths per 100,000 wo

1.
A map of the Indian dowry death rate per 100,000 people, 2012.

Honor killing
–
The mere perception that a woman has behaved in a way that dishonors her family is sufficient to trigger an attack on her life. Although rarely, men can also be the victims of honor killings by members of the family of a woman with whom they are perceived to have an inappropriate relationship, the loose term honor killing applies to killing of both

Femicide
–
Femicide or feminicide is a sex-based hate crime term, broadly defined as the killing of women but definitions vary depending on the cultural context. Feminist author Diana E. H. Russell is one of the pioneers of the term. Other feminists place emphasis on the intention or purpose of the act being directed at females specifically because they are f

1.
Declaration of the enactment of the law against femicide in Chile, 2010

2.
17th Century persecution of the religiously dissident Waldensians gave Italian men a pretext to commit a very conspicuous act of Femicide - and to British men a pretext to very graphically portray it (illustration from Samuel Moreland 's "History of the Evangelical Churches of the Valleys of Piemont" published in London in 1658).

Female infanticide
–
Female infanticide is the deliberate killing of newborn female children. In countries with a history of female infanticide, the practice of sex-selective abortion is often discussed as a closely related issue. Female infanticide is a cause of concern in several nations such as China. It has been argued that the low status in women are viewed in pat

1.
Matteo Ricci

2.
Chinese anti infanticide tract circa 1800.

Matricide
–
Matricide is the act of killing ones mother. Amastris, queen of Heraclea, was drowned by her two sons in 284 BC, cleopatra III of Egypt was assassinated in 101 BC by order of her son, Ptolemy X, for her conspiracy. Ptolemy XI of Egypt had his wife, Berenice III, murdered shortly after their wedding in 80 BC and she was also his stepmother, or perha

Sati (practice)
–
Sati or suttee is an obsolete Hindu funeral custom where a widow immolates herself on her husbands pyre or commits suicide in another fashion shortly after her husbands death. Mention of the practice can be dated back to the 4th century BC, under British rule, the practice was initially tolerated. In the province of Bengal, Sati was attended by a g

Uxoricide
–
Uxoricide is murder of ones wife or romantic partner. It can refer to the act itself or the person who carries it out, overall, rates of uxoricide are much higher than rates of mariticide. Of the 2340 deaths at the hands of partners in America in 2007. In the region of South-East Asia, 55% of all murdered women died at the hands of their partner, f

1.
18th century illustration of Matthias Brinsden murdering his wife.

Pregnancy from rape
–
Pregnancy is a potential result of rape. It has been studied in the context of war, particularly as a tool for genocide, as well as other unrelated contexts, such as rape by a stranger, statutory rape, incest, and underage pregnancy. Rape can cause difficulties during and after pregnancy, with negative consequences for both the victim and a resulti

2.
The Ancient Greek physician Galen 's belief that women could not conceive without pleasure influenced medical and legal thinking for centuries.

Laws regarding rape
–
Rape is a type of sexual assault initiated by one or more persons against another person without that persons consent. The act may be carried out by force, or where the person is under threat or manipulation. Definitions of rape vary, and though rape is usually dependent upon whether or not consent was present during the act, minors, for example, a

Types of rape
–
These categories are referred to as types of rape. Acquaintance rape constitutes the vast majority of reported rapes, while DFSA is infrequent, DFSA is when the rapist intentionally incapacitates the victim via drugs, while acquaintance rape can occur when the victim is not incapacitated. A college survey conducted by the United States National Vic

2.
Amna Sur Museum in Sulaymaniyah. A replica of a Kurdish girl in prison. The girl was imprisoned at a young age. She was repeatedly beaten and raped by the guards in the prison, and died from her ordeal.

Corrective rape
–
Corrective rape is a hate crime in which one or more people are raped because of their perceived sexual orientation or gender identity. The common intended consequence of the rape, as seen by the perpetrator, is to turn the person heterosexual or to enforce conformity with gender stereotypes. The term corrective rape was coined in South Africa afte

1.
Soweto Pride 2012 participants remember two lesbians who were raped and murdered in 2007.

2.
Soweto Pride 2012 participants protest against violence against lesbians with a "Dying for Justice" banner and T-shirts which read "Solidarity with women who speak out".

Gang rape
–
Gang rape occurs when a group of people participate in the rape of a single victim. Rape involving at least two or more violators is widely reported to occur throughout the world, systematic information and statistics on the extent of the problem, however is limited. One study showed that offenders and victims in gang rape incidents were younger wi

1.
An artwork showing gang rape.

Marital rape
–
Marital rape is the act of sexual intercourse with ones spouse without consent. It is a form of violence and sexual abuse. Still, in countries, marital rape either remains outside the criminal law, or is illegal. Laws are rarely being enforced, due to ranging from reluctance of authorities to pursue the crime. Marital rape is more widely experience

Statutory rape
–
Statutory rape is sexual activity in which one of the individuals is below the age required to legally consent to the behavior in some common law jurisdictions. In statutory rape, overt force or threat is not present. Statutory rape laws presume coercion, because a minor or mentally handicapped adult is legally incapable of giving consent to the ac

Poverty in India
–
If current trends continue, Indias share of world GDP will significantly increase from 7. 3% in 2016 to 8. 5% by 2020. In 2015, around 170 million people, or 12. 4%, lived in poverty, the different definitions and different underlying small sample surveys used to determine poverty in India, have resulted in widely different estimates of poverty fro

1.
A comparative map of poverty in India and other countries in 2012, at national poverty line, according to the World Bank.

2.
Poverty rate map of India by prevalence in 2012, among its states and union territories.

3.
Poverty was intense during colonial era India. Numerous famines and epidemics killed millions of people each. Upper image is from 1876-1879 famine in South of British India that starved and killed over 6 million people, while lower image is of child who starved to death during the Bengal famine of 1943.

Dowry system in India
–
The Dowry system in India refers to the durable goods, cash, and real or movable property that the brides family gives to the bridegroom, his parents, or his relatives as a condition of the marriage. Dowry is referred to as Jahez in Arabic, in far eastern parts of India, dowry is called Aaunnpot. The dowry system is thought to put great financial b

1.
Wedding gifts of the son of the Imam of Delhi India with soldiers and 2000 guests

2.
Wedding Procession- Bride Under a Canopy with Gifts. Circa 1800

3.
A social awareness campaign in India on dowry

Foeticide
–
Feticide is an act that causes the death of a fetus. The suffix -icide is added in place of fetus last syllable and it derives back to occido, a Latin term meaning to fell or to kill. Other examples include homicide, genocide, infanticide, matricide, in the U. S. most crimes of violence are covered by state law, not federal law. Thirty-eight states

1.
Homicide or murder.

Murder
–
A murder is the unlawful killing of another human without justification or valid excuse, especially the unlawful killing of another human being with malice aforethought. This state of mind may, depending upon the jurisdiction, distinguish murder from other forms of unlawful homicide, manslaughter is a killing committed in the absence of malice, bro

3.
A group of Thugs strangling a traveller on a highway in India in the early 19th century.

Company Rule in India
–
Company rule in India refers to the rule or dominion of the British East India Company over parts of the Indian subcontinent. The Companys rule lasted until 1858, when, after the Indian rebellion of 1857, with the Government of India Act 1858, the British government assumed the task of directly administering India in the new British Raj. The Englis

Rajput
–
Rajput is a member of the patrilineal clans of the Indian subcontinent. They rose to prominence from the late 6th century AD and had a significant role in regions of central. The Rajput population and the former Rajput states are found spread across India where they are spread in north, west, in Pakistan they are found on the eastern parts of the c

1.
During their centuries-long rule, the Rajputs constructed several palaces. Shown here is the Junagarh Fort in Bikaner, Rajasthan, which was built by the Rathore Rajputs.

4.
Mayo College was established by the British government in 1875 at Ajmer, Rajputana to educate Rajput princes and other nobles.

British Resident
–
A Resident, or in full Resident Minister, is a government official required to take up permanent residence in another country. A representative of his government, he officially has diplomatic functions which are seen as a form of indirect rule. Residents could also be posted with shadowy governments, even after the Congress of Vienna restored the G

States and union territories of India
–
India is a federal union comprising twenty-nine states and seven union territories. The states and union territories are further subdivided into districts and further into smaller administrative divisions, the Constitution of India distributes the sovereign executive and legislative powers exercisable with respect to the territory of any State betw

1.
Hyderabad state in 1909

Uttar Pradesh
–
Uttar Pradesh, abbreviated as UP, is the most populous state in the Republic of India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. The state, located in the region of the Indian subcontinent, has over 200 million inhabitants. It was created on 1 April 1937 as the United Provinces during British rule, Lucknow is the capital city of

Jadeja
–
The Jadeja is a Rajput clan who claim to be descended from the Hindu god Krishna and thus to belong to the Yaduvanshi Rajputs, who in turn form a part of the Chandravanshi. A Jadeja dynasty ruled the state of Kutch between 1540 and 1948, at which time India became a republic. Khengarji and his successors retained the allegiance of these Bhayat unti

Gujarat
–
Gujarat is a state in Western India, sometimes referred to as the Jewel of Western India. It has an area of 196,024 km2 with a coastline of 1,600 km, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula, and a population in excess of 60 million. The state is bordered by Rajasthan to the north, Maharashtra to the south, Madhya Pradesh to the east, and the

District Collector
–
A District Collector, often abbreviated to Collector, is the foremost Indian Administrative Service officer in charge of revenue collection and administration of a district in India. The Collector is assisted by Deputy Collectors, Assistant Collectors, Sub Collectors, District Administration in India is a legacy of the British Raj. District Collect

1.
A District Collector/Magistrate during the weekly administrative meeting in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India.

Caste in India
–
The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic example of caste. It has origins in ancient India, and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval, early-modern, and, modern India, especially the Mughal Empire and it is today the basis of educational and job reservations in India. It consists of two different concepts, varna and

1.
Gandhi visiting Madras (now Chennai) in 1933 on an India-wide tour for Harijan causes. His speeches during such tours and writings discussed the discriminated-against castes of India.

2.
Hindu musician

Ahir
–
Ahir or Aheer is an Indian ethnic group, some members of which identify as being of the Yadav community because they consider the two terms to be synonymous. The Ahirs are variously described as a caste, a clan, a community, a race and they ruled over different parts of India and Nepal. The traditional occupation of Ahirs is cow-herding and agricul

Bedi clan
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Khatri is a caste from the northern Indian subcontinent. Khatris in India and Pakistan are mostly from the Punjab region, Khatris played an important role in Indias trans regional trade during the Mughal Empire. They adopted administrative and military roles outside the Punjab region as well, scott Cameron Levi describes Khatris among the most impo

Gurjar
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Gurjar or Gujjar are a pastoral agricultural ethnic group with populations in India and Pakistan and a small number in northeastern Afghanistan. Alternative spellings include Gurjara, Gurjjar, Gojar and Gūjar, although they are able to speak the language of the country where they live, Gurjars have their own language, known as Gujari. They variousl

Jat people
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The Jat people are a traditionally agricultural community in Northern India and Pakistan. Originally pastoralists in the lower Indus river-valley of Sindh, Jats migrated north into the Punjab region, Delhi, Rajputana, and the western Gangetic Plain in late medieval times. Primarily of Hindu, Muslim and Sikh faiths, they now mostly in the Indian sta

Khatri
–
Khatri is a caste from the northern Indian subcontinent. Khatris in India and Pakistan are mostly from the Punjab region, Khatris played an important role in Indias trans regional trade during the Mughal Empire. They adopted administrative and military roles outside the Punjab region as well, scott Cameron Levi describes Khatris among the most impo

Kanbi
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Kunbi is a generic term applied to castes of traditionally non-elite tillers in Western India. These include the Dhonoje, Ghatole, Hindre, Jadav, Jhare, Khaire, Lewa, Lonare, the communities are largely found in the state of Maharashtra but also exist in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala and Goa. Kunbis are included among the

4.
Photograph (1916) of boys with their toy animals crafted for the Pola festival celebrated by the Dhanoje Kunbis.

Mohyal
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Mohyal is a Brahmin caste of India. Alternative spellings include Muhiyal, Muhial, Mhial, Mohiyal or Mahjal, most Mohyals are Hindus, but many are Sikhs as well. In India, they are also called ‘Hussaini Brahmins’ as Muhiyals proudly claim that though being non-Muslim, Muhiyals are very close to Pushtuns in their character. For centuries, they never

1.
Mohyal Coat of Arms

Marvin Harris
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Marvin Harris was an American anthropologist. He was born in Brooklyn, New York City, a prolific writer, he was highly influential in the development of cultural materialism. In his work he combined Karl Marxs emphasis on the forces of production with Thomas Malthuss insights on the impact of demographic factors on other parts of the sociocultural

1.
Marvin Harris

Sociobiology
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Sociobiology is a field of scientific study that is based on the hypothesis that social behavior has resulted from evolution and attempts to examine and explain social behavior within that context. It is a branch of biology deals with social behavior, and also draws from ethology, anthropology, evolution, zoology, archaeology, population genetics.

4.
In the decades after World War II, the term "eugenics" had taken on a negative connotation and became increasingly unpopular within academic science. Many organizations and journals that had their origins in the eugenics movement began to distance themselves from the philosophy, as when Eugenics Quarterly became Social Biology in 1969.

Indian rebellion of 1857
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The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major, but ultimately unsuccessful, uprising in India in 1857–58 against British rule. For nearly 100 years, that rule had been presided over by the British East India Company, the rebellion began on 10 May 1857 in the form of a mutiny of sepoys of the Companys army in the garrison town of Meerut,40 miles northeas

1.
A 1912 map showing the centres of Indian rebellion

2.
India in 1837 and 1857 showing East India Company (pink) and other territories

3.
Silver rupee of the Bengal Presidency, in the name of the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, minted at Banaras in AH 1198 (= 1784-85 CE). The ability to mint local style coins was an important factor in allowing the East India Company to succeed in its commercial venture.

4.
1909 Map of the British Indian Empire, showing British India in two shades of pink and the princely states in yellow.

3.
Key figures of the Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther and John Calvin depicted on a church pulpit. These reformers emphasised preaching and made it a centerpiece of worship.

4.
The Bible translated into vernacular by Martin Luther. The supreme authority of scripture is a fundamental principle of Protestantism.

International Standard Book Number

1.
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

PubMed Identifier

1.
PubMed

LIST OF IMAGES

1.
Violence against women
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Violence against women, also known as gender-based violence, is, collectively, violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women. Sometimes considered a crime, this type of violence targets a specific group with the victims gender as a primary motive. This type of violence is gender-based, meaning that the acts of violence are committed against women expressly because they are women. At least one out of three women around the world has been beaten, coerced into sex, or otherwise abused in her lifetime with the abuser usually someone known to her. Violence against women can fit into broad categories. These include violence carried out by individuals as well as states, many forms of VAW, such as trafficking in women and forced prostitution are often perpetrated by organized criminal networks. The World Health Organization, in its research on VAW, has analyzed and categorized the different forms of VAW occurring through all stages of life from birth to old age. Other definitions of VAW are provided by the 1994 Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, Violence perpetrated or condoned by the state or its officials, d. These definitions of VAW as being gender-based are seen by some to be unsatisfactory and these definitions are conceptualized in an understanding of society as patriarchal, signifying unequal relations between men and women. Opponents of such definitions argue that the definitions disregard violence against men, Other critics argue that employing the term gender in this particular way may introduce notions of inferiority and subordination for femininity and superiority for masculinity. The history of violence against women remains vague in scientific literature and this is in part because many kinds of violence against women are under-reported, often due to societal norms, taboos, stigma, and the sensitive nature of the subject. It is widely recognized that even today, a lack of reliable, although the history of violence against women is difficult to track, it is clear that much of the violence was accepted, condoned and even legally sanctioned. This rule for punishment of wives prevailed in England and America until the late 19th century, the history of violence against women is closely related to the historical view of women as property and a gender role of subservience. Explanations of patriarchy and a world system or status quo in which gender inequalities exist and are perpetuated are cited to explain the scope. According to the UN, there is no region of the world, no country, several forms of violence are more prevalent in certain parts of the world, often in developing countries. For example, dowry violence and bride burning is associated with India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, acid throwing is also associated with these countries, as well as in Southeast Asia, including Cambodia. Honor killing is associated with the Middle East and South Asia, Female genital mutilation is found mostly in Africa, and to a lesser extent in the Middle East and some other parts of Asia. Marriage by abduction is found in Ethiopia, Central Asia and the Caucasus, Abuse related to payment of bride price is linked to parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania

2.
Acid throwing
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Perpetrators of these attacks throw acid at their victims, usually at their faces, burning them, and damaging skin tissue, often exposing and sometimes dissolving the bones. The most common types of acid used in these attacks are sulfuric and nitric acid, hydrochloric acid is sometimes used, but is much less damaging. The long term consequences of attacks may include blindness, as well as permanent scarring of the face and body, along with far-reaching social, psychological. Today, acid attacks are reported in parts of the world. Since the 1990s, Bangladesh has been reporting the highest number of attacks and highest incidence rates for women, Acid attacks have been used to punish married women if her family is unable or unwilling to pay additional dowry demanded by the husband or his family. Such attacks are common in societies where there is a level of gender inequality. Conflicts regarding inheritance and other property issues are a cause of acid attacks, people are often assaulted due to land disputes. Acid attacks related to conflicts between criminal gangs occur in places, ranging from the United Kingdom to Indonesia. The intention of the attacker is often to humiliate rather than to kill the victim, in the UK such attacks are believed to be underreported, and as a result many of them do not show up in official statistics. Attacks against individuals due to their social or political activities, or due to their religious beliefs also occur. These attacks may be targeted against an individual, due to their activities. In Pakistan, female students have had thrown in their faces as a punishment for attending school. Acid attacks due to religious conflicts have been reported in Tanzania, the most notable effect of an acid attack is the lifelong bodily disfigurement. According to the Acid Survivors Foundation in Pakistan, there is a survival rate amongst victims of acid attacks. These far-reaching effects on their lives impact their psychological, social, the medical effects of acid attacks are extensive. As a majority of attacks are aimed at the face. The severity of the damage depends on the concentration of the acid, the acid can rapidly eat away skin, the layer of fat beneath the skin, and in some cases even the underlying bone. Eyelids and lips may be destroyed, the nose and ears severely damaged

3.
Outline of domestic violence
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It is also known as domestic abuse, spousal abuse, battering, family violence, and intimate partner violence. Negative reinforcement, removing one from a situation as a reward. For example, You wont have to walk home if you allow me to do this to you, intermittent or partial reinforcement, partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. Partial or intermittent positive reinforcement can encourage the victim to persist, punishment, berating, yelling, refusing to speak to partner, intimidation, threats, swearing, emotional blackmail, the guilt trap, sulking, crying, and playing the victim. Oppression – exercise of authority or power in a burdensome, cruel, epidemiology of domestic violence – Domestic violence occurs across the world, in various cultures, and affects people across society, irrespective of economic status or gender. The following table includes the forms of violence typically defined as part of Intimate partner violence and it also includes a column for other family members or partners. The rate of occurrence varies considerably based upon ones country, socio-economic class, culture, religion, family history, LGBT Domestic violence - an under-researched area with a very wide range of estimates of prevalence. Lesbians often have resources available for shelter and counselling. Mens rights groups – state that women are as violent as men, a large study, compiled by Martin S. Fiebert, shows that women are as likely to be abusive to men, but the men are less likely to be hurt. However, he noted, men are injured in 38% of the cases in which extreme aggression is used. Fiebert additionally noted that his work was not meant to minimize the effects of men who abuse women. Women are far more likely to use weapons, such as throwing a plate or firing a gun and this survey was conducted within a safety or crime context and clearly found more partner abuse by men against women. Another study published in the Violence & Victims Journal Vol.1 concluded that a feminist analysis of Domestic Abuse was necessary to combat common misconceptions. The study found that 92% of women who used violence against their partners were in self-defense. Conflict tactics scale – research method for identifying intimate partner violence by measuring the conflict tactic behaviors, Cycle of violence Within a relationship – repeated acts of violence as a cyclical pattern, associated with high emotions and doctrines of retribution or revenge. The pattern, or cycle, repeats and can happen many times during a relationship, each phase may last a different length of time and over time the level of violence may increase. Intergenerational cycle of violence – violence that is passed from father to son or daughter, parent to child, misandry – the hatred or dislike of men or boys, which manifests like Misogyny. Misogyny – the hatred or dislike of women or girls, may be manifested in varying degrees of intensity, relational disorder – dysfunction within a relationship, versus being specific to a specific individuals dysfunction

Outline of domestic violence
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The four phases of the Cycle of Abuse in ongoing domestic violence situations

4.
Management of domestic violence
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The management of domestic violence deals with the treatment of victims of domestic violence and preventing repetitions of such violence. The response to violence in Western countries is typically a combined effort between law enforcement, social services and health care. The role of each has evolved as domestic violence has brought more into public view. Historically, domestic violence has been viewed as a family matter that need not involve the government or criminal justice. Police officers were reluctant to intervene by making an arrest. The courts were reluctant to any significant sanctions on those convicted of domestic violence. Medical professionals can make a difference in the lives of those who experience abuse, many cases of spousal abuse are handled solely by physicians and do not involve the police. Sometimes cases of violence are brought into the emergency room. Subspecialist physicians are increasingly playing an important role. Medical professionals are in a position to give advice, and refer them to appropriate services, the health care professional has not always met this role, with uneven quality of care, and in some cases misunderstandings about domestic violence. Carole Washaw suggests that many prefer not to get involved in peoples private lives. Jenny Clifton, John Jacobs, Jo Tulloch found that training for practitioners in the United States about domestic violence was very limited or they had no training. Furthermore, in the model of health care, injuries are often just treated and diagnosed. As well, there is substantial reluctance for victims to come forward, on average, women experience 35 incidents of domestic violence before seeking treatment. Health professionals have a responsibility to recognize and address exposure to abuse in their patients. Physicians must also consider abuse in the diagnosis for a number of medical complaints. In the 1970s, studies in Europe and North America showed that domestic violence was widespread in homes, resulting in emotional and physical trauma. Into the 21st century many countries have taken steps to eradicate domestic violence, such as criminalization of violence against women, organizations have been formed which provide assistance and protection of domestic abuse victims, laws and criminal remedies, and domestic violence courts

Management of domestic violence
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October is observed as domestic abuse month in the United States. This poster was issued by various branches of the United States Military to educate and prevent domestic abuse.
Management of domestic violence
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Afghan National Police instructors conduct a role playing scenario dealing with sexual abuse at the Afghan National Police Academy, Kabul, Afghanistan on December 30, 2010. Dr. Anna Baldry taught the Train the Trainer Gender Seminar to give ANP instructors more comprehensive and effective delivery methods for the current curriculum on domestic violence and sexual abuse. (U.S. Navy photo by Chief Petty Officer Brian Brannon/Released)
Management of domestic violence
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True Manhood - Anti-Domestic Violence Sign outside Entebbe, Uganda. "Beating my wife destroyed my marriage: Don't do what I did. A true man does not beat his partner."

5.
Eve teasing
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Considered a problem related to delinquency in youth, it is a form of sexual aggression that ranges in severity from sexually suggestive remarks, brushing in public places and catcalls to groping. Some non-governmental organizations have suggested that the expression be replaced by an appropriate term. According to them, considering the semantic roots of the term in Indian English, Eve teasing refers to the nature of Eve. The feminist publication Rethinking Violence Against Women referred to this behavior as a kind of little rape, some guidebooks to the region warn female tourists to avoid attracting the attention of these kinds of men by wearing conservative clothing. However, this harassment is reported both by Indian women and by conservatively dressed foreign women, the problem first received public and media attention in the 1970. In response, the problem grew to alarming proportions, despite not being the case in other cultures where women go. Soon the Indian government had to take measures, both judicial and law enforcement, to curb the practice. Efforts were made to sensitize the police about the issue, the deployment of plain-clothed female police officers for the purpose has been particularly effective. Other measures taken in various states by the police were setting up of dedicated womens helplines in various cities, police-stations staffed by women, and special police cells. Also seen during this period was a rise in the number of women coming forward to report cases of sexual harassment. In addition, the severity of incidents grew as well, in some cases leading to acid throwing. The number of organization and those working for womens rights also increased. The increase in the number of violent incidents involving women meant previously lackadaisical attitudes towards womens rights had to be revised and supported by law. The death of a student, Sarika Shah, in Chennai in 1998. After murder charges were brought, about a half-dozen reports of suicide have been attributed to pressures caused by this behaviour, many other cases go unreported for fear of reprisals and exposure to public shame. In some cases police let the offenders go, after public humiliation through the murga punishment, young men tend to emulate the example, depicted so flawlessly on screen and which gave rise to the term roadside Romeo, which even made it into a film version in Roadside Romeo. Nowadays, this issue is also featured in Indian television soaps like Savdhaan India @11, in the case of a repeated offense, the offender may have a fine of ₹5,000 with five years imprisonment imposed. The Amendment also introduced new sections making acts like disrobing a woman without consent, stalking, the National Commission for Women also proposed No 9

6.
Infibulation
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Infibulation is the surgical removal of the external female genitalia and the suturing of the vulva. It can also refer to placing a clasp through the foreskin in men and it is mostly practised in northeastern Africa, particularly Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia and Sudan. The procedure leaves a wall of skin and flesh across the vagina, by inserting a twig or similar before the wound heals, a small hole is created for the passage of urine and menstrual blood. The procedure is usually accompanied by the removal of the clitoral glans, the legs are bound together for two to four weeks to allow healing. The vagina is usually penetrated at the time of a marriage by her husbands penis. The vagina is opened further for childbirth, and usually closed again afterwards, infibulation can cause chronic pain and infection, organ damage, prolonged micturition, urinary incontinence, inability to get pregnant, difficulty giving birth, obstetric fistula and fatal bleeding. Infibulation also referred to placing a clasp through the male foreskin, in ancient Greece, male athletes, singers and other public performers used a clasp or string to close the foreskin and draw the penis over to one side, in a practice known as kynodesmē. It therefore conveyed the moral worth and modesty of the subject, many kynodesmē are depicted on vases, almost exclusively confined to symposiasts and komasts, who are as a general rule older men. ISBN 978-0-7432-8968-9 Pieters, Guy and Lowenfels, Albert B, infibulation in the Horn of Africa, New York State Journal of Medicine,77, April 1977, pp. 729–731. Whitehorn, James, Oyedeji Ayonrinde, and Samantha Maingay, female Genital Mutilation, Cultural and Psychological Implications, Sexual and Relationship Therapy,17.2, pp. 161–170

7.
Foot binding
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Foot binding was the custom of applying painfully tight binding to the feet of young girls to modify the shape of the foot. Foot binding became popular as a means of displaying status and was adopted as a symbol of beauty in Chinese culture. Its prevalence and practice however varied in different parts of the country, Feet altered by binding were called lotus feet. The Manchu Kangxi Emperor tried to ban foot binding in 1664, foot-binding resulted in lifelong disabilities for most of its subjects, and a few elderly Chinese women still survive today with disabilities related to their bound feet. There are many suggestions for the origin of foot binding, another story tells of a favorite courtesan of Emperor Xiao Baojuan, Pan Yuer, who had delicate feet, dancing barefeet over a floor decorated with golden lotus flower design. The emperor expressed admiration and said that lotus springs from her every step, a reference to the Buddhist legend of Padmavati under whose feet lotus springs forth. This story may have given rise to the golden lotus or lotus feet used to describe bound feet. The general view is that the practice is likely to have originated from the time of Emperor Li Yu, yao Niangs dance was said to be so graceful that others sought to imitate her. The binding of feet was then replicated by other upper-class women, the practice of foot binding became popular among the elite during the Song dynasty, and the earliest known references to bound feet appeared in the late eleventh century. In the twelfth century, in the earliest extant discourse on the practice of binding, Zhang Bangji considered that a bound foot should be arch-shape. A thirteenth-century writer, Che Ruoshui, complained that little children not yet four or five years old, I do not know what use this is. Evidence from archaeology indicates that footbinding was practiced among the wives, by the end of the Song dynasty, men would drink from a special shoe whose heel contained a small cup. During the Yuan dynasty, some would also directly from the shoe itself. This practice was called toast to the lotus and lasted until the late Qing dynasty. The practice however become common among the gentry families, later spreading to the general population, as commoners. By the Ming period, the practice was no longer the preserve of the gentry, however, few Han Chinese complied with the edicts and Kangxi eventually abandoned the effort in 1668. By the 19th century, it was estimated that 40-50% of Chinese women had bound feet, and among upper class Han Chinese women, Bound feet became a mark of beauty and was also a prerequisite for finding a husband. Her younger sisters would grow up to be bond-servants or domestic slaves and be able to work in the fields, but the eldest daughter would assume to never have the need to work

Foot binding
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A lotus shoe for bound feet. The ideal length for a bound foot was 3 Chinese inches (寸), which is around 4 inches (10 cm) in western measurement.
Foot binding
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Bound feet were once considered a mark of beauty
Foot binding
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18th century illustration showing Yao Niang binding her own feet
Foot binding
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A comparison between a woman with normal feet (left) and a woman with bound feet in 1902

8.
Leblouh
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Leblouh is the practice of force-feeding girls from as young as five to teenagers, in Mauritania, Western Sahara, and southern Morocco, where obesity was traditionally regarded as desirable. Especially prevalent in areas and having its roots in Tuareg tradition. The synonym gavage comes from the French term for the force-feeding of geese to produce foie gras, the practice goes back to the 11th century, and has been reported to have made a significant comeback after a military junta took over the country in 2008. Older women called fatteners force the girls to consume enormous quantities of food and liquid, inflicting pain on them if they do not eat. One way of inflicting pain is to pinch a limb between two sticks, a six-year-old might typically be forced to drink 20 litres of camels milk, and eat two kilos of pounded millet mixed with two cups of butter, every day. Although the practice is an abuse, mothers claim there is no way to secure a good future for their children. The younger generations of males in Mauritania now see fattening negatively, a similar practice is referred to in a folktale entitled The Tortoise with a Pretty Daughter, collected in Folk Stories from Southern Nigeria. The folklorist who wrote down the story explained the treatment of the pretty daughter and she is given plenty of food, and made as fat as possible, as fatness is looked upon as a great beauty by the Efik people. Women in Mauritania Human rights in Mauritania Obesity in the Middle East, forced to Be Fat July 21,2011 Force Feeding in Mauritania. The Price of Beauty Ep#104 Title, Uganda Air-date, April 5,2010 African Queens May 21,2003

9.
Human trafficking
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Human trafficking is the trade of humans, most commonly for the purpose of forced labor, sexual slavery, or commercial sexual exploitation for the trafficker or others. This may encompass providing a spouse in the context of forced marriage, or the extraction of organs or tissues, including for surrogacy, Human trafficking can occur within a country or trans-nationally. Human trafficking is a crime against the person because of the violation of the rights of movement through coercion. Human trafficking is the trade in people, and does not necessarily involve the movement of the person from one place to another, according to the International Labour Organization, forced labor alone generates an estimated $150 billion in profits per annum as of 2014. Estimated that 21 million victims are trapped in modern-day slavery, of these,14.2 million were exploited for labor,4.5 million were sexually exploited, and 2.2 million were exploited in state-imposed forced labor. Human trafficking is thought to be one of the activities of trans-national criminal organizations. Human trafficking is condemned as a violation of rights by international conventions. In addition, human trafficking is subject to a directive in the European Union, the protocol is one of three which supplement the CTOC. The Trafficking Protocol is the first global, legally binding instrument on trafficking in over half a century, one of its purposes is to facilitate international cooperation in investigating and prosecuting such trafficking. Another is to protect and assist human traffickings victims with full respect for their rights as established in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, in 2014, the International Labour Organization estimated $150 billion in annual profit is generated from forced labor alone. The average cost of a trafficking victim today is USD $90,000 which. The average slave in 1800 America was the equivalent to USD $40,000, though illegal, there may be no deception or coercion involved. After entry into the country and arrival at their ultimate destination, Human trafficking, on the other hand, is a crime against a person because of the violation of the victims rights through coercion and exploitation. Unlike most cases of smuggling, victims of human trafficking are not permitted to leave upon arrival at their destination. While smuggling requires travel, trafficking does not, trafficked people are held against their will through acts of coercion, and forced to work for or provide services to the trafficker or others. The work or services may include anything from bonded or forced labor to commercial sexual exploitation, the arrangement may be structured as a work contract, but with no or low payment, or on terms which are highly exploitative. Sometimes the arrangement is structured as debt bondage, with the not being permitted or able to pay off the debt. Bonded labor, or debt bondage, is probably the least known form of labor trafficking today, generally, the value of their work is greater than the original sum of money borrowed

10.
Raptio
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Raptio is a Latin term referring to the large scale abduction of women, i. e. kidnapping either for marriage or enslavement. The equivalent term Frauenraub, originally from German, is used in English in the field of art history. Bride kidnapping is distinguished from raptio in that the former is the abduction of one woman by one man, whereas the latter is the abduction of women by groups of men, possibly in a time of war. The English word rape retains the Latin meaning in literary language, the Latin term was also used for sexual violation, but only very rarely. Though the sexual connotation is today dominant, the word rape can be used in context in literary English. In Alexander Popes The Rape of the Lock, the means the theft of a lock. In the twentieth century, the classically trained J. R. R. Tolkien used the word with its old meaning of seizing and taking away in his The Silmarillion, the musical comedy The Fantasticks has a controversial song about an old-fashioned rape. Compare also the adjective rapacious which retains the meaning of greedy. In Roman Catholic canon law, raptio refers to the prohibition of matrimony if the bride was abducted forcibly. The practice is surmised to have been common since anthropological antiquity, in Neolithic Europe, excavation of the Linear Pottery culture site at Asparn-Schletz, Austria, the remains of numerous slain victims were found. Among them, young females and children were clearly under-represented, suggesting that attackers had killed the men. Abduction of women is a practice in warfare among tribal societies. The Rape of the Sabine Women is an important part of the legends of Rome. Romulus had established the settlement on the Palatine Hill with mostly male followers, seeking wives, the Romans negotiated with the neighboring tribe of the Sabines, without success. Faced with the extinction of their community, the Romans planned to abduct Sabine women, Romulus invited Sabine families to a festival of Neptune Equester. At the meeting he gave a signal, at which the Romans grabbed the Sabine women, the indignant abductees were implored by Romulus to accept Roman husbands. Livy claims that no sexual assault took place and he asserted that Romulus offered them free choice and promised civil and property rights to women. According to Livy he spoke to each in person

11.
Witch trials in the early modern period
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Those accused of witchcraft were portrayed as being worshippers of the Devil, who engaged in such acts as malevolent sorcery at meetings known as Witches Sabbaths. Many people were accused of being witches, and were put on trial for the crime, with varying punishments being applicable in different regions. Though some of the earliest trials are from the Late Medieval period, an estimated total of 40, 000-60,000 people were executed during the witch trials. Among the best known of these trials were the Scottish North Berwick witch trials, Swedish Torsåker witch trials, among the largest and most notable were the Trier witch trials, the Fulda witch trials, the Würzburg witch trial, the Bamberg witch trials and the Salem witch trials. The sociological causes of the witch-hunts have long been debated in scholarship, the work of Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century was instrumental in developing the new theology which would give rise to the witch hunts. Because sorcery was judged by secular courts, it was not until maleficium was identified with heresy that theological trials for witchcraft could commence. e, the recognition of the existence of witchcraft as a form of Satanic influence, and its classification as a heresy. Early Modern Europe and its North American colonies were replete with a belief in the reality of magic, belief in the witch, an individual who practiced malevolent magic, was not new to Modern Europe. Many Early Modern communities contained professional or semi-professional practitioners of folk magic, in contrast to this low magic was the high magic practiced by learned men of the Renaissance. It was also during the Medieval period that the concept of Satan, in particular, he was often viewed as a goat, or as a human with goat-like features, such as horns, hooves and a tail. As Thurston noted, By about 1200, it would have been difficult to be a Christian, by 1500 scenes of the devil were commonplace in the new cathedrals and small parish churches that had sprung up in many regions. The field of demonology had emerged in Medieval Christendom as certain members of the clergy began to focus in particular on the actions of demons in the world, in the 14th and 15th centuries, the concept of the witch in Christendom underwent a relatively radical change. Instead they became the all-out malevolent Devil-worshiper, who had made a pact with him in which they had to renounce Christianity, as a part of this, they gained, new, supernatural powers that enabled them to work magic, which they would use against Christians. It was believed that they would fly to their meetings, known as the Witches Sabbath. On their death, the souls, which then belonged to the Devil. For many educated Christians in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, including theologians and judges, the inquisition had the office of protecting Christian against the internal threat of heresy. An important turning-point was the Black Death of 1348–1350, which killed a large percentage of the European population, Witchcraft had not been considered a heresy during the High Medieval period. Indeed, since the Council of Paderborn of 785, the belief in the possibility of witchcraft itself was considered heretical, the anti-semitic sentiment prevalent in the Medieval era would also influence the later witch trials, with the alleged witches meetings being termed sabbaths and synagogues. The historian Richard Kieckhefer suggested that the late medieval trials paved the way for more dramatic prosecutions to come, there had been a growth in the number of sorcery trials in Europe during the fourteenth century

Witch trials in the early modern period
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Punishments for witchcraft in 16th-century Germany. Woodcut from Tengler's Laienspiegel, Mainz, 1508.
Witch trials in the early modern period
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A late-sixteenth-century illustration of a witch feeding her familiars from England. A number of historians believe that the familiar spirit is a pre-Christian idea.
Witch trials in the early modern period
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The Obscene Kiss, an illustration of witches kissing the Devil's anus from Francesco Maria Guazzo 's Compendium Maleficarum (1608).
Witch trials in the early modern period
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Witches by Hans Baldung Grien (Woodcut, 1508)

12.
Bride burning
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Bride burning or bride-burning is a form of domestic violence practiced in Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and other countries located on or around the Indian subcontinent. A category of dowry death, bride-burning occurs when a woman is murdered by her husband or his family for her familys refusal to pay additional dowry. The wife is typically doused with kerosene, gasoline, or other flammable liquid, Kerosene is most often used as the fuel. It is most common in India and has been a problem there since at least 1993. This crime has been treated as homicide and, if proven, is usually accordingly punished by up to lifelong imprisonment or death. Bride burning has been recognized as an important public health problem in India, in 1995, Time Magazine reported that dowry deaths in India increased from around 400 a year in the early 1980s to around 5800 a year by the middle of the 1990s. A year later, CNN ran a story saying that every year police receive more than 2500 reports of bride burning, according to Indian National Crime Record Bureau, there were 1948 convictions and 3876 acquittals in dowry death cases in 2008. A dowry death is the death of a woman in South Asian countries, primarily India. This results from the husband continually attempting to extract more dowry from the bride or her family, Bride burning is just one form of dowry death. Others include acid throwing and Eve teasing, because dowry typically depends on class or socioeconomic status, women are often subjected to the dowry pressures of their future husband or his relatives. These theories describe practices that contributed to the rise of dowry as a whole, thus ultimately contributing to bride burning. Because she is seen as a burden and a mouth to feed, her status as an economic liability promotes the idea that men. Once a woman marries, she is bound to her husband, another theory claims that consumerism, a primarily Western ideal that is newly founded in developing nations, has caused countries like India to become greedy. Because of this, dowry is used as a means to gain a higher socioeconomic status, as status is continually gained, the demand for bridal dowry increases in order to keep moving up the social ladder. A higher dowry would indicate a status and distinction from Islam. Finally, some argue that the dowry practice came out of British rule. When the dowry system was established within the higher castes, the British government sought to reinforce it in the lower castes as a means to eradicate their more ritualised marriages, such forms of union were discredited until only upper caste marriage systems were recognised. In India, dowry size is a reflection of wealth, the Indian author Rajesh Talwar has written a play on dowry deaths titled The Bride Who Would Not Burn

13.
Dowry death
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Dowry deaths are deaths of women who are murdered or driven to suicide by continuous harassment and torture by husbands and in-laws in an effort to extort an increased dowry. Dowry deaths are found in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, India reports the highest total number of dowry deaths with 8,391 such deaths reported in 2010,1.4 deaths per 100,000 women. Adjusted for population, Pakistan, with 2,000 reported such deaths per year, has the highest rate of death at 2.45 per 100,000 women. Dowry death is considered one of the categories of violence against women, alongside rape, bride burning, eve teasing. Most dowry deaths occur when the woman, unable to bear the harassment and torture. Most of these suicides are by hanging, poisoning or by fire, sometimes the woman is killed by setting herself on fire, this is known as bride burning, and sometimes disguised as suicide or accident. Death by burning of Indian women have been frequently attributed to dowry conflicts. In dowry deaths, the family is the perpetrator of murder or suicide. India has by far the highest number of dowry related deaths in the according to Indian National Crime Record Bureau. In 2012,18,233 dowry death cases were reported across India and this means a bride was burned every 90 minutes, or dowry issues cause 1.4 deaths per year per 100,000 women in India. Although Indias dowry death rate per 100,000 is lower than equivalent rate for Pakistan and Bangladesh, according to a 1996 report by Indian police, every year it receives over 2,500 reports of bride-burning. The Indian National Crime Records Bureau reports that there were about 8331 dowry death cases registered in India in 2011. Incidents of dowry deaths during the year 2008 have increased by 14.4 per cent over 1998 level, the ratio of dowry deaths are about the same as the ratio of population in India by religions. Gifts given without a precondition are not considered dowry, and are legal, asking or giving of dowry can be punished by an imprisonment of up to six months, or a fine of up to ₹5,000. It replaced several pieces of legislation that had been enacted by various Indian states. Murder and suicide under compulsion are addressed by Indias criminal penal code, Indian womens rights activists campaigned for more than 40 years to contain dowry deaths, such as the Dowry Prohibition Act 1961 and the more stringent Section 498a of Indian Penal Code. Under the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005, a woman can put a stop to the harassment by approaching a domestic violence protection officer. Although Indian laws against dowries have been in effect for decades, the practice of dowry deaths and murders continues to take place unchecked in many parts of India and this has further added to the concerns of enforcement

Dowry death
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A map of the Indian dowry death rate per 100,000 people, 2012.

14.
Honor killing
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The mere perception that a woman has behaved in a way that dishonors her family is sufficient to trigger an attack on her life. Although rarely, men can also be the victims of honor killings by members of the family of a woman with whom they are perceived to have an inappropriate relationship, the loose term honor killing applies to killing of both men and women in cultures that practice it. Some women who bridge social divides, publicly engage other communities, the distinctive nature of honor killings is the collective nature of the crime – many members of an extended family plan the act together, sometimes through a formal family council. Another significant feature is the connection of honor killings to the control of behavior, in particular in regard to sexuality/marriage. Another key aspect is the importance of the reputation of the family in the community, another characteristic of honor killings is that the perpetrators often dont face negative stigma within their communities, because their behavior is seen as justified. The incidence of honor killings is very difficult to determine and estimates vary widely, in most countries data on honor killings is not collected systematically, and many of these killings are reported by the families as suicides or accidents and registered as such. Although honor killings are often associated with the Asian continent, especially the Middle East and South Asia, in 2000, the United Nations estimated that 5,000 women were victims of honor killings each year. According to BBC, Womens advocacy groups, however, suspect that more than 20,000 women are killed each year. Murder is not the form of honor crime, other crimes such as acid attacks, abduction, mutilations, beatings occur. Methods of killing include stoning, stabbing, beating, burning, beheading, hanging, throat slashing, lethal acid attacks, shooting and strangulation. The murders are sometimes performed in public to warn the other individuals within the community of possible consequences of engaging in what is seen as illicit behavior. Often, minor girls and boys are selected by the family to act as the killers, so that the killer may benefit of the most favorable legal outcome. Boys and sometimes women in the family are often asked to control and monitor the behavior of their sisters or other females in the family legal, 2) preventive. First of all, legal measures refer to a modification of the criminal laws to guarantee equal legal protection of females. On top of that, Amnesty insisted the government to assure legal access for the victims of crime in the name of honor, when it comes to preventive measures, Amnesty underlined the critical need to promote public awareness through the means of media, education, and public announcements. Finally, protective measures include ensuring an environment for activists, lawyers. Also, Amnesty argued for the expansion of victim support services such as shelters, kremlin-appointed Chechen President Ramzan Kadyrov said that honor killings were perpetrated on those who deserved to die. He said that those who are killed have loose morals and are shot by relatives in honor killings

15.
Femicide
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Femicide or feminicide is a sex-based hate crime term, broadly defined as the killing of women but definitions vary depending on the cultural context. Feminist author Diana E. H. Russell is one of the pioneers of the term. Other feminists place emphasis on the intention or purpose of the act being directed at females specifically because they are female, often, the necessity of defining the murder of females separately from overall homicide is questioned. Opponents argue that over 80% of all murders are of men, in addition, the study of femicide is a social challenge. An alternative term offered is gendercide which is ambiguous and inclusive. However, some argue that the term gendercide perpetrates the taboo of the subject of the murder of females. Feminists also argue that the motives for femicide are vastly different than those for androcide, instead of centering in street violence, much of femicide is centered within the home. Feminist author Diana Russell narrows the definition of femicide to the killing of females by males because they are female, Russell places emphasis on the idea that males commit femicide with sexist motives. She also chooses to replace the word woman with female to show that femicide can occur to both girls and infants as well, whenever these forms of terrorism result in death, they become femicides. The term femicide was first used in England in 1801 to signify the killing of a woman, in 1848, this term was published in Whartons Law Lexicon. Another term used is feminicide, which is formed from the Latin femina. The current usage emerged with the 1970s feminist movements, which aimed to raise feminine consciousness, American author, Carol Orlock, is widely credited with initiating the usage of the term in this context in her unpublished anthology on femicide. Diana Russell publicised the term at the Crimes Against Women Tribunal in 1976, here is part of what she wrote for the proceedings, We must realize that a lot of homicide is in fact femicide. We must recognize the sexual politics of murder, but since it involves mere females, there was no name for it until Carol Orlock invented the word femicide. Until recently femicide was invisible in much of the scientific literature, according to the Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence. is proposed as an alternative to the gender-neutral term of homicide. Feminists and proponents of the word believe it is prudent to make the distinction between homicide and femicide, the distinction is not meant to denigrate or render invisible the murder of men because they make up 80% of the victims of global murders and are the vast majority of perpetrators. Part of this political oversight is the lack of data on violence against women and this data is related to how thoroughly and properly their murders are investigated, prosecuted and classified. Violence against women constitutes the most common crime in the world with the highest levels of impunity for perpetrators, often it is misreported as general manslaughter or accidental homicide showing a general tolerance for violence against women

Femicide
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Declaration of the enactment of the law against femicide in Chile, 2010
Femicide
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17th Century persecution of the religiously dissident Waldensians gave Italian men a pretext to commit a very conspicuous act of Femicide - and to British men a pretext to very graphically portray it (illustration from Samuel Moreland 's "History of the Evangelical Churches of the Valleys of Piemont" published in London in 1658).
Femicide
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A candle memorial to women killed by femicide (femicidio), Chile, 2007.

16.
Female infanticide
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Female infanticide is the deliberate killing of newborn female children. In countries with a history of female infanticide, the practice of sex-selective abortion is often discussed as a closely related issue. Female infanticide is a cause of concern in several nations such as China. It has been argued that the low status in women are viewed in patriarchal societies creates a bias against females. The practice has been documented among the indigenous peoples of Australia, Northern Alaska and South Asia. Initially Sens suggestion of gender bias was contested and it was suggested that hepatitis B was the cause of the alteration in the sex ratio. However it is now accepted that the numerical worldwide deficit in women, is due to gender specific abortions, infanticide. In seventh-century Arabia, before Islamic culture became established, female infanticide was widely practiced and this is attributed by scholars to the fact that women were deemed property within those societies. Others have speculated that to prevent their daughters from a life of misery, with the arrival of Islamic rule the practice was made illegal. Among the Inuit of Northern Alaska and Canada, the practice of infanticide was a common occurrence. China has a history of female infanticide spanning 2,000 years, in the seventeenth century, Matteo Ricci documented that the practice occurred in several of Chinas provinces and that the primary reason for the practice was poverty. In 19th-century China, female infanticide was widespread, readings from Qing texts show a prevalence of the term ni nü, and drowning was the common method used to kill female children. Other methods used were suffocation and starvation, leaving a child exposed to the elements was another method of killing an infant, the child would be placed in a basket which was then placed in a tree. Buddhist nunneries created baby towers for people to leave a child, in 1845 in the province of Jiangxi, a missionary wrote that these children survived for up to two days while exposed to the elements, and that those passing by would pay no attention. The majority of Chinas provinces practiced female infanticide during the 19th century, in 1878, French Jesuit missionary Gabriel Palatre collected documents from 13 provinces and the Annales de la Sainte-Enfance also found evidence of infanticide in Shanxi and Sichuan. According to the information collected by Palatre, the practice was widely spread in the southeastern provinces. In China, the practice of infanticide was not wholly condoned. Buddhism in particular was quite forceful in its condemnation of it, however the Buddhist belief in reincarnation meant that the death of an infant was not final, as the child would be reborn, this belief eased the guilt felt over female infanticide

17.
Matricide
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Matricide is the act of killing ones mother. Amastris, queen of Heraclea, was drowned by her two sons in 284 BC, cleopatra III of Egypt was assassinated in 101 BC by order of her son, Ptolemy X, for her conspiracy. Ptolemy XI of Egypt had his wife, Berenice III, murdered shortly after their wedding in 80 BC and she was also his stepmother, or perhaps his mother. In AD59, the Roman Emperor Nero is said to have ordered the murder of his mother Agrippina the Younger, mary Ann Lamb, the mentally ill sister of essayist Charles Lamb, killed their invalid mother during an episode of mania in 1796. Sidney Harry Fox, a British man, hanged in 1930 for killing his mother to gain from her insurance. Battle of Okinawa,1945, There are accounts in which Okinawan civilians killed their mothers to prevent them from being captured, raped, tortured, the Parker–Hulme murder case of 1954. This case was chronicled in the 1994 film Heavenly Creatures, jack Gilbert Graham killed his mother along with 44 people by planting a dynamite bomb in his mothers suitcase, that was subsequently loaded aboard United Airlines Flight 629 in 1955. Henry Lee Lucas killed his mother in 1960 by stabbing her in the neck and he was eventually shot and killed by Austin police. John Emil List murdered his mother, wife and his three children on November 9,1971, making List also guilty of filicide and uxoricide and he was a fugitive for 18 years. He was apprehended on June 1,1989 after an episode of Americas Most Wanted aired, on May 1,1990 he was sentenced to 5 life terms in prison. Antony Baekeland murdered his mother, Barbara Daly Baekeland on November 11,1972 and she had allegedly forced him to have sex with her, in order to cure his homosexuality. Savage Grace is a book and a movie based on this event, serial killer Edmund Kemper beat his mother to death in 1973, along with one of his mothers friends before turning himself in to the police. He had previously committed half-a-dozen sex-murders, Kemper had been psychologically abused by his domineering mother in his youth. He was indicted for murders and remains at large, jim Gordon, a session musician who played drums with Eric Clapton band Derek and the Dominos bludgeoned his mother with a hammer and then stabbed her to death with a butchers knife in 1983. In May 1984 he was sentenced to sixteen years to life in prison, susan Cabot, 1950s actress, was beaten to death in 1986 at her Hollywood home by her son Timothy Roman. He was convicted of involuntary manslaughter, the Menendez Brothers were convicted during a highly publicized trial in July 1996 for the shotgun killings of their parents in 1989. Brett Reider, a 15-year-old boy in Omaha, Nebraska, stabbed his mother to death during a dispute in 1993 and he was convicted of second degree murder and sentenced as an adult to 11–20 years. In 1996, his sister, Alissa Reider made an HBO documentary, Brett Killed Mom

18.
Sati (practice)
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Sati or suttee is an obsolete Hindu funeral custom where a widow immolates herself on her husbands pyre or commits suicide in another fashion shortly after her husbands death. Mention of the practice can be dated back to the 4th century BC, under British rule, the practice was initially tolerated. In the province of Bengal, Sati was attended by a government official, which states Ahmed, not only seemed to accord an official sanction. Between 1815 and 1818, the number of Sati in Bengal province doubled from 378 to 839, under sustained campaigning against Sati by Christian missionaries such as William Carey and Brahmin Hindu reformer such as Ram Mohan Roy, the provincial government banned Sati in 1829. This was followed up by similar laws by the authorities in the states of India in the ensuing decades. In Nepal, sati was banned in 1920, the Indian Sati Prevention Act from 1988 further criminalised any type of aiding, abetting, and glorifying of sati. Sati is derived from the name of the goddess Sati, who self-immolated because she was unable to bear her father Dakshas humiliation to her husband Shiva, the term sati was originally interpreted as chaste woman. Sati appears in Hindi and Sanskrit texts, where it is synonymous with good wife, Sati designates therefore originally the woman, rather than the rite, the rite itself having technical names such as sahagamana or sahamarana. Anvarohana is occasionally met, as well as satidaha as terms to designate the process, satipratha is also, on occasion, used as a term signifying the custom of burning widows alive. Two other terms related to sati are sativrata and satimata, sativrata, an uncommon and seldom used term, denotes the woman who makes a vow, vrat, to protect her husband while he is alive and then die with her husband. Satimata denotes a venerated widow who committed sati, the Indian Commission of Sati Act,1987 Part I, Section 2 defines sati as the act or rite itself. Few reliable records exist of the practice before the time of the Gupta empire, after about this time, instances of sati began to be marked by inscribed memorial stones. According to Axel Michaels, the first clear proof of the practice is from Nepal in 464 AD, in India, the earliest of these memorial stones are found in Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, the largest collections date from several centuries later and are found in Rajasthan. Those who declined to die were disgraced, in 317 BC Eumenes cosmopolitan army defeated that of Antigonus in the Battle of Paraitakene. Among the fallen was one Ceteus, the commander of Eumenes Indian soldiers, Diodorus writes that Ceteus had been followed on campaign by his two wives, at his funeral the two wives competed for the honour of joining their husband on the pyre. After the older wife was found to be pregnant, Eumenes generals ruled in favour of the younger and she was led to the pyre crowned in garlands to the hymns of her kinsfolk. The whole army then marched three times around the pyre before it was lit, according to Diodorus the practice of sati started because Indians married for love, unlike the Greeks who favoured marriages arranged by the parents. When inevitably many of these marriages turned sour, the woman would often poison the husband and find a new lover

19.
Uxoricide
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Uxoricide is murder of ones wife or romantic partner. It can refer to the act itself or the person who carries it out, overall, rates of uxoricide are much higher than rates of mariticide. Of the 2340 deaths at the hands of partners in America in 2007. In the region of South-East Asia, 55% of all murdered women died at the hands of their partner, followed by 40% in the African region, preliminary findings of an ongoing study estimate that globally, approximately 35% of murders of women are committed by intimate partners. Evolved Homicide Theory states that men have evolved a particular killing strategy in order to deprive male rivals of sexual access to their mate, therefore, when a man experiences partner infidelity, he may kill his partner as a reproductive strategy. Proponents of Psychodynamic theories have offered explanations for the underlying the occurrence of Uxoricide. It has been suggested that men who kill their partners experience both an unconscious dependence on their wife and a resentment of her. These men wish to leave the relationship, but unknowingly perceive themselves as too helpless to do so, links have also been established between violence in childhood and likelihood of uxoricide occurring. Other psychodynamic researchers have reported that Thematic Apperception tests reveal significant trends of rejection by a mother or wife in men who commit uxoricide, psychoanalytic dream interpretation has also argued that unconscious conflict manifests into violent outbursts. For example, in one instance one man had experienced and recorded over 200 distressing, cohabiting women are at greater risk of domestic violence and uxoricide than married women. Research has found that women are 9 times more likely to be killed by their intimate partner than married women. A number of reasons for this finding have been studied. Cohabiting women are likely to be younger, have a lower level of education and are more likely to bring children from a previous relationship into their home with their new intimate partner. This may be because investment from a stepfather reduces reproductive benefits, research has found that the presence of step-children can significantly increase the risk of uxoricide for women. A large number of filicides are accompanied by uxoricide and suicide, research has shown that females often experience increased abuse following the termination of a relationship. An Australian study found that of a sample of uxoricide cases, sexual jealousy may be a possible reason for this heightened risk following separation. Another risk factor for Uxoricide is estrangement, women who choose to leave their partner place themselves at higher risk of spousal homicide. Therefore, by killing his partner he will avoid the damage associated with intrasexual competition

20.
Pregnancy from rape
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Pregnancy is a potential result of rape. It has been studied in the context of war, particularly as a tool for genocide, as well as other unrelated contexts, such as rape by a stranger, statutory rape, incest, and underage pregnancy. Rape can cause difficulties during and after pregnancy, with negative consequences for both the victim and a resulting child. Medical treatment following a rape includes testing for, preventing, a woman who becomes pregnant after a rape may face a decision about whether to raise the child, give the child up for adoption or parenting by others, or to have an abortion. In some countries where abortion is illegal after rape and incest, over 90% of pregnancies in girls age 15, the false belief that pregnancy can almost never result from rape was widespread for centuries. Any female capable of ovulation may become pregnant after rape by a fertile male, estimates of the numbers of pregnancies from rape vary widely. Recent estimates suggest that rape conception happens between 25,000 and 32,000 times each year in the U. S. A1996 study of 44 cases of rape-related pregnancy estimated that in the United States, a 1987 study also found a 5% pregnancy rate from rape among 18- to 24-year-old college students in the US. A2005 study placed the rape-related pregnancy rate at around 3–5%, a study of Ethiopian adolescents who reported being raped found that 17% subsequently became pregnant, and rape crisis centres in Mexico reported the figure the rate of pregnancy from rape at 15–18%. Psychologist Robert L. Smith states that studies have reported unusually high rates of conception following rape. He cites a paper by C. A. Smith also cites veterinary scientist Wolfgang Jöchle, adjusting for these factors, they estimated that rapes are about twice as likely to result in pregnancies as consensual, unprotected penile-vaginal intercourse. They discuss a variety of explanations and advance the hypothesis that rapists tend to target victims with biological cues of high fecundity or subtle indications of ovulation. A1995 study of women who became pregnant after rape found that 60% had been impregnated during consensual intercourse, randy Thornhill and Craig T. Palmer are key popularizers of this hypothesis. They assert that most rape victims are women of childbearing age, rape-pregnancy rates are crucial in evaluating these theories, because a high or low pregnancy rate from rape would determine whether such adaptations are favored or disfavored by natural selection. In 1995–96, the journal Family Planning Perspectives published a study by the Guttmacher Institute, because of difficulties in bringing such cases to trial, however, data from the period 1975–1978. Indicate that, on average, only 413 men were arrested annually for statutory rape in California, in that state, it was found that two thirds of babies born to school-age mothers were fathered by adult men. A2007 paper by Child Trends examined studies from 2000 to 2006 to identify links between sexual abuse and teenage pregnancy, starting with Blinn-Pike et al. s 2002 metastudy of 15 studies since 1989 and it found that childhood sexual abuse has a significant association with adolescent pregnancy. The more severe forms of abuse, such as rape and incest, in Nicaragua, between 2000 and 2010, around 172,500 births were recorded for girls under 14, representing around 13% of the 10.3 million births during that period

21.
Laws regarding rape
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Rape is a type of sexual assault initiated by one or more persons against another person without that persons consent. The act may be carried out by force, or where the person is under threat or manipulation. Definitions of rape vary, and though rape is usually dependent upon whether or not consent was present during the act, minors, for example, are often considered too young to consent to sexual relations with older persons. Depending on the jurisdiction, rape may be characterized as an offence or an offence against the person. Rape may also be characterized as a form of aggravated assault or battery, to sustain a conviction, rape might require proof that the defendant had sexual penetration with another person. The essence of the corpus of international humanitarian law as well as human rights law lies in the protection of the human dignity of every person. Countries around the world differ in how they deal with the mens rea element in the law regarding rape, There is not always a requirement that the victim did not consent. In the England and Wales, section 5 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003 creates the offence of rape of a child under 13 and contains no reference to consent. After describing the act the offence prohibits, the explanatory notes to the Act say whether or not the child consented to this act is irrelevant. The issue arises in law as who can legally consent, for example with regard to persons who suffer from mental or physical disability, however, the abuse of the existence of such a disability in order to engage in sexual activities with a child should be criminalised. From the second part of the 20th century onwards, the crime of rape has undergone changes in definition in many countries. This redefinition of rape had the effect of defining male rape, There have also been changes in the legal definition of consent/coercion. This was supported by the laws in many legal systems. Such laws were ended in Mexico in 1991, Colombia in 1997, Peru in 1999, Egypt in 1999, Ethiopia in 2005, Brazil in 2005, Uruguay in 2005, Guatemala in 2006, Costa Rica in 2007, and Morocco in 2014. Throughout much of the history, rape in marriage was not a crime, with a few notable exceptions, it was during the past 30 years when most laws against marital rape have been enacted. The convention came into force in August 2014, furthermore, in many legal systems the consent of the woman to sexual intercourse was not a defense - the act was still a crime if done without the consent of her father. Rape was an offense under the law of England. That offense became an offense under the law of other countries, including Australia and it is discussed at Rape in English law#History

22.
Types of rape
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These categories are referred to as types of rape. Acquaintance rape constitutes the vast majority of reported rapes, while DFSA is infrequent, DFSA is when the rapist intentionally incapacitates the victim via drugs, while acquaintance rape can occur when the victim is not incapacitated. A college survey conducted by the United States National Victim Center reported that one in four women have been raped or experienced attempted rape. This report indicates that women are at considerable risk of becoming a victim of date rape while in college. Gang rape occurs when a group of people participate in the rape of a single victim, rape involving at least two or more violators is widely reported to occur in many parts of the world. Systematic information on the extent of the problem, however, is scant, one study showed that offenders and victims in gang rape incidents were younger with a higher possibility of being unemployed. Gang rapes involved more alcohol and other use, night attacks and severe sexual assault outcomes and less victim resistance. The two groups were about the same in the amount of drinking and other drug use during the assault, also known as marital rape, wife rape, husband rape, partner rape or intimate partner sexual assault, is rape between a married or de facto couple. Research reveals that victims of marital/partner rape suffer longer lasting trauma than victims of stranger rape, rape of a child is a form of child sexual abuse. When committed by another child or adolescent, it is called child-on-child sexual abuse, when committed by a parent or other close relatives such as grandparents, aunts and uncles, it is also incest and can result in serious and long-term psychological trauma. The offense is often based on a presumption that people under a certain age do not have the capacity to give consent. The age at which individuals are considered competent to consent, called the age of consent, varies in different countries and regions, in the US. Sexual activity that violates age-of-consent law, but is neither violent nor physically coerced, is described as statutory rape. Rates of prison rape have been reported as affecting between 3% and 12% of prison inmates in the US, although prison rapes are more commonly same-sex crimes, the attacker usually does not identify as homosexual. This phenomenon is less common elsewhere in the western world. This is partly because of the differences in the structure of the system in the US as compared to the prison systems in Canada, Australia. The attacker is most commonly another inmate, serial rape is rape committed by a person over a relatively long period of time and committed on a number of victims. Most times this type of rapist is unknown to the victim and follows a specific, payback rape, also called punishment rape or revenge rape, is a form of rape specific to certain cultures, particularly the Pacific Islands

Types of rape
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Brennus and His Share of the Spoils, by Paul Jamin, 1893
Types of rape
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Amna Sur Museum in Sulaymaniyah. A replica of a Kurdish girl in prison. The girl was imprisoned at a young age. She was repeatedly beaten and raped by the guards in the prison, and died from her ordeal.

23.
Corrective rape
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Corrective rape is a hate crime in which one or more people are raped because of their perceived sexual orientation or gender identity. The common intended consequence of the rape, as seen by the perpetrator, is to turn the person heterosexual or to enforce conformity with gender stereotypes. The term corrective rape was coined in South Africa after well-known cases of rapes of lesbians such as Eudy Simelane. Although some countries have laws protecting LGBT people, corrective rape is often overlooked, Corrective rape is the use of rape against people who do not conform to perceived social norms regarding human sexuality or gender roles. The goal is to punish perceived abnormal behavior and reinforce societal norms, the crime was first identified in South Africa, where it is sometimes supervised by members of the womans family or local community. The United Nations UNAIDS2015 Terminology Guidelines suggests that use of the corrective rape should no longer be used. The guidelines propose that the term homophobic rape should be used instead, Corrective rape is a hate crime. However, due to homophobia and heteronormativity, hate crimes based on sexuality are often not recognized by authorities, some people believe corrective rape can fix people who do not conform to gender norms or who are not heterosexual. ActionAid reports that survivors remember being told that they were being taught a lesson, some perpetrators of the hate crime are impelled by a sense of misogyny and chauvinism. Some sources argue that cases of corrective rape are caused by drawing moral conclusions from the nature–nurture debate. Because of this, some of people believe sexual orientation can be changed, or in this case. Intersectionality is intersecting social identities and related systems of oppression, domination, in South Africa, black lesbians face homophobia, sexism, racism, and classism. Research in 2008 by Triangle, a gay group, revealed that black lesbians were twice as afraid of sexual assault compared to white lesbians. In addition, black women who identify as lesbians are seen as un-African by their peers, taking into account race and sexuality together is essential when examining corrective rape, as both subjects cross into each other and influence each other heavily. Sexuality and gender especially, define the social and political rank of victims, many are ostracized, and other abusive measures are taken in order to cure individuals of their sexuality. Corrective rape and other accompanying acts of violence can result in physical and psychological trauma, mutilation, unwanted pregnancy, Corrective rape is a major contributor to HIV infection in South African lesbians. In South Africa approximately 10% of lesbians are HIV positive, with corrective rape being the most likely cause, HIV in South Africa is pandemic, and due to homophobia there is a lack of education about sexually transmitted diseases among lesbians. Homophobic laws and discrimination in South Africa contribute to the quality of health care for minorities

Corrective rape
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Soweto Pride 2012 participants remember two lesbians who were raped and murdered in 2007.
Corrective rape
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Soweto Pride 2012 participants protest against violence against lesbians with a "Dying for Justice" banner and T-shirts which read "Solidarity with women who speak out".

24.
Gang rape
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Gang rape occurs when a group of people participate in the rape of a single victim. Rape involving at least two or more violators is widely reported to occur throughout the world, systematic information and statistics on the extent of the problem, however is limited. One study showed that offenders and victims in gang rape incidents were younger with a possibility of being unemployed. Gang rapes involved more alcohol and drug use, night attacks and severe sexual assault outcomes and less victim resistance, the two groups were about the same in the amount of drug use and drinking during the assault. Gang rape is sometimes referred to as rape, party rape. Gang rapes often involve three or more men as perpetrators, gang rapes are more violent, the sexual and non-sexual injuries to the victim are often far more severe. The gang members typically dehumanize their target victim before and during the rape, porter and Alison have analyzed 739 gang rape cases from US and UK, and found over 20% of the gang rape victims died from injuries from the gang rape. A2013 study based on 25 year crime data from US and Europe, less than one in three gang rapes are reported, while less than 1 in 20 attempted but failed gang rapes are reported. Most cases were not reported to law enforcement, and just 23% of single or multiple perpetrator rapes that were reported by the victims ended in prison sentence. Everywhere there is a tendency to blame the victim, however, gang rapes are almost always premeditated in their intent, target victim, social proof, certain events such as civil wars, hate propaganda, and ethnic conflicts increase the incidence rate of gang rapes. According to one study, over 70% of the victims were raped by rapists of same race. Most covered and debated gang rapes tend to be those involving victim, gang rape can be interpreted as an example of a group criminal spin. Accordingly, a group of individuals may perform a behavior that proceeds in a criminal direction far beyond the initial intention of its participants. It is considered a group criminal spin because the most gang members perform this act only during a group interaction, in the same way, a group interaction may display an I must motive, thus social forces within the group directs it towards raping. This is an incomplete list of countries, where government and/or media have acknowledged the problem of gang rape. A2013 Lancet study reports 1. 9% of all men in Bangladesh have committed multiple perpetrator rape of a woman who was not a partner. 35% of those who have committed gang rapes against women have committed additional rapes where the victim was a man. The motives of rape included a combination of reasons, gang rape, or estupro coletivo, is prevalent in Brazil

Gang rape
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An artwork showing gang rape.

25.
Marital rape
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Marital rape is the act of sexual intercourse with ones spouse without consent. It is a form of violence and sexual abuse. Still, in countries, marital rape either remains outside the criminal law, or is illegal. Laws are rarely being enforced, due to ranging from reluctance of authorities to pursue the crime. Marital rape is more widely experienced by women, though not exclusively, Marital rape is often a chronic form of violence for the victim which takes place within abusive relations. It exists in a web of state governments, cultural practices. Most countries criminalized marital rape from the late 20th century onward—very few legal systems allowed for the prosecution of rape within marriage before the 1970s. One of the origins of the concept of an exemption from rape laws is the idea that by marriage a woman gives irrevocable consent for her husband to have sex with her any time he demands it. This view was described by Sir Matthew Hale, in History of the Pleas of the Crown, where he wrote that the wife hath given up herself in this kind unto her husband, which she cannot retract. Given that a wife had no standing of her own. English common law also had a impact on many legal systems of the world through colonialism. For this reason, in many cultures there was a conflation between the crimes of rape and adultery, since both were seen and understood as a violation of the rights of the husband. Rape as a crime was constructed as a property crime against a father or husband not as a crime against the right to self-determination. The property to be withheld in a female was her virginity, following this line of logic, a woman was first the property of her father, then, upon marriage, the property of her husband. Therefore, a man could not be prosecuted for raping his own wife because she was his possession, however, if another man raped someones wife, this was essentially stealing property. In English customs, bride capture was thought to be stealing a fathers property by raping his daughter, therefore, rape laws were created to …protect the property interests men had in their women, not to protect women themselves. This concept of women as property permeates current marital rape ideology, in some cultures, marriage is arranged for the purpose of creating access to procreation. In these situations, the parties do not necessarily consent to marriage, following this logic, if consent is not part of marriage, then it is not necessary for intercourse

26.
Statutory rape
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Statutory rape is sexual activity in which one of the individuals is below the age required to legally consent to the behavior in some common law jurisdictions. In statutory rape, overt force or threat is not present. Statutory rape laws presume coercion, because a minor or mentally handicapped adult is legally incapable of giving consent to the act, the term statutory rape generally refers to sex between an adult and a sexually mature minor past the age of puberty. Sexual relations with a prepubescent child, generically called child abuse or molestation, is typically treated as a more serious crime. In many jurisdictions, the age of consent is interpreted to mean mental or functional age, as a result, victims can be of any chronological age if their mental age makes them unable to consent to a sexual act. Other jurisdictions, such as Kentucky, eliminate the concept of mental age. Consensual teenage sex is common in the United States, a 1995 study revealed that 50% of U. S. teenagers have had sexual intercourse by the age of sixteen. In fact, it is estimated there are more than 7 million incidents of statutory rape every year. However, it is clear that most incidents are not prosecuted and do not lead to arrests, laws vary in their definitions of statutory rape. It is generally intended to punish heinous cases of an adult taking sexual advantage of a minor, thus, many jurisdictions prohibit allowing a juvenile to be tried as an adult under this law. Some jurisdictions also specify a difference in age in order for the offense to be applicable. Under such terms, if the adult is, for instance and these are called Romeo and Juliet clauses. Statutory rape laws are based on the premise that an individual is legally incapable of consenting to sexual intercourse until that person reaches a certain age, the law mandates that even if he or she willingly engages in sexual intercourse, the sex is not legally consensual. Another rationale comes from the fact that minors are generally economically, socially, by making it illegal for an adult to have sex with a minor, statutory rape laws aim to give the minor some protection against adults in a position of power over the youth. Another argument presented in defense of statutory rape laws relates to the difficulty in prosecuting rape in the courtroom, because forced sexual intercourse with a minor is considered a particularly heinous form of rape, these laws relieve the prosecution of the burden to prove lack of consent. This makes conviction more frequent in cases involving minors, the original purpose of statutory rape laws was to protect young, unwed females from males who might impregnate them and not take responsibility by providing support for the child. In the past, the solution to problems was often a shotgun wedding. This rationale aims to preserve the marriageability of the girl and to prevent unwanted teenage pregnancy, historically, a man could defend himself against statutory rape charges by proving that his victim was already sexually experienced prior to their encounter

27.
Poverty in India
–
If current trends continue, Indias share of world GDP will significantly increase from 7. 3% in 2016 to 8. 5% by 2020. In 2015, around 170 million people, or 12. 4%, lived in poverty, the different definitions and different underlying small sample surveys used to determine poverty in India, have resulted in widely different estimates of poverty from 1950s to 2010s. In 2012, the Indian government stated 22% of its population is below its official poverty limit. The World Bank, in 2011 based on 2005s PPPs International Comparison Program, estimated 23. 6% of Indian population, or about 276 million people, lived below $1.25 per day on purchasing power parity. According to United Nations Millennium Development Goals programme 270 millions or 21. 9% people out of 1.2 billion of Indians lived below poverty line of $1.25 in 2011-2012, Poverty in India is a historical reality. From late 19th century through early 20th century, under British colonial rule, poverty in India intensified, famines and diseases killed millions each time. After India gained its independence in 1947, mass deaths from famines were prevented, rapid economic growth since 1991, has led to sharp reductions in extreme poverty in India. However, those above poverty line live a fragile economic life, the World Bank reviewed and proposed revisions in May 2014, to its poverty calculation methodology and purchasing power parity basis for measuring poverty worldwide, including India. According to this methodology, the world had 872.3 million people below the new poverty line. In other words, India with 17. 5% of total population, had 20. 6% share of worlds poorest in 2011. As of 2014, 58% of the population were living on less than $3.10 per day. The Asian Development Bank estimates India’s population to be at 1.28 billion with a growth rate, from 2010-2015. In 2014,49. 9% of the population aged 15 years, however, there are still 21. 9% of the population who live below the national poverty line. Economic measures There are several definitions of poverty, and scholars disagree as to which definition is appropriate for India, inside India, both income-based poverty definition and consumption-based poverty statistics are in use. Each state in India has its own poverty threshold to determine how people are below its poverty line. These differences in definition yield a complex and conflicting picture about poverty in India, as with many countries, poverty was historically defined and estimated in India using a sustenance food standard. Indias current official poverty rates are based on its Planning Commission’s data derived from so-called Tendulkar methodology and it defines poverty not in terms of annual income, but in terms of consumption or spending per individual over a certain period for a basket of essential goods. Further, this methodology sets different poverty lines for rural and urban areas, since 2007, India set its official threshold at ₹26 a day in rural areas and about ₹32 per day in urban areas

Poverty in India
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A comparative map of poverty in India and other countries in 2012, at national poverty line, according to the World Bank.
Poverty in India
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Poverty rate map of India by prevalence in 2012, among its states and union territories.
Poverty in India
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Poverty was intense during colonial era India. Numerous famines and epidemics killed millions of people each. Upper image is from 1876-1879 famine in South of British India that starved and killed over 6 million people, while lower image is of child who starved to death during the Bengal famine of 1943.
Poverty in India

28.
Dowry system in India
–
The Dowry system in India refers to the durable goods, cash, and real or movable property that the brides family gives to the bridegroom, his parents, or his relatives as a condition of the marriage. Dowry is referred to as Jahez in Arabic, in far eastern parts of India, dowry is called Aaunnpot. The dowry system is thought to put great financial burden on the brides family, in some cases, the dowry system leads to crime against women, ranging from emotional abuse, injury to even deaths. The payment of dowry has long been prohibited under specific Indian laws including and it is a consideration from the side of the bride’s parents or relatives to the groom or his parents and/or guardian for the agreement to wed the bride-to-be. Although Indian laws against dowries have been in effect for decades, the practice of dowry deaths and murders continues to take place unchecked in many parts of India and this has further added to the concerns of enforcement. Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code required the bridegroom and his family to be arrested if a wife complains of dowry harassment. The law was wide abused and in 2014, the court ruled that arrests can only be made with a magistrate’s approval. The history of dowry in South Asia is not clear, some scholars believe dowry was practiced in antiquity, but some do not. Documentary evidence suggests that at the beginning of 20th century bride price, rather than dowry was the common custom, which often resulted in poor boys remaining unmarried. Stanley J. Tambiah claims the ancient Code of Manu sanctioned dowry and bridewealth in ancient India, bridewealth was restricted to the lower castes, who were not allowed to give dowry. Michael Witzel, in contrast, claims the ancient Indian literature suggests dowry practices were not significant during the Vedic period, Witzel also notes that women in ancient India had property inheritance rights either by appointment or when they had no brothers. Dowry was not infrequent when the girl suffered from some bodily defect, property rights for women increased in ancient India, suggest MacDonell and Keith, over the Epics era. Kane claims ancient literature suggests bridewealth was paid only in the asura-type of marriage that was considered reprehensible and forbidden by Manu, above analysis by various scholars is based on interpreting verses of ancient Sanskrit fiction and inconsistent smritis from India, not eyewitness accounts. Available eyewitness observations from ancient India give a different picture, one of these are the eyewitness records from Alexander the Great conquest as recorded by Arrian and Megasthenes. Arrian first book mentions a lack of dowry, Arrians second book similarly notes, about 1200 years after Arrians visit, another eyewitness scholar visited India named Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī, also known as Al-Biruni, or Alberonius in Latin. Al-Biruni was an Islamic era Persian scholar who went and lived in India for 16 years from 1017 CE and he translated many Indian texts into Arabic, as well as wrote a memoir on Indian culture and life he observed. Al-Biruni claimed, Al-Biruni further claims that a daughter, in 11th century India, had right to inherit from her father. It is unclear what happened to these daughters inheritance laws in India after Al-Birunis visit to India in the 11th century, various reasons have been suggested as cause of dowry practice in India

Dowry system in India
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Wedding gifts of the son of the Imam of Delhi India with soldiers and 2000 guests
Dowry system in India
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Wedding Procession- Bride Under a Canopy with Gifts. Circa 1800
Dowry system in India
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A social awareness campaign in India on dowry

29.
Foeticide
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Feticide is an act that causes the death of a fetus. The suffix -icide is added in place of fetus last syllable and it derives back to occido, a Latin term meaning to fell or to kill. Other examples include homicide, genocide, infanticide, matricide, in the U. S. most crimes of violence are covered by state law, not federal law. Thirty-eight states currently recognize the child or fetus as a homicide victim. These laws do not apply to legally induced abortions, federal and state courts have consistently held that these laws do not contradict the U. S. Supreme Courts rulings on abortion. The law defines child in utero as a member of the species Homo sapiens, at any stage of development, who is carried in the womb. For example, California treats the killing of a fetus as homicide, some other states do not consider the killing of a fetus to be homicide until the fetus has reached quickening or viability. Unlawful abortion may be considered feticide, Fetal homicide laws, as well as ordinary murder statutes, are increasingly used to prosecute pregnant women accused of intentionally or recklessly causing miscarriages or stillbirths. Widely publicized cases include that of Rennie Gibbs, Bei Bei Shuai, Gibbs was charged with murder in Mississippi in 2006 for having a stillborn daughter while addicted to cocaine. Gibbs is the first woman in Mississippi to be charged with murder relating to the loss of her unborn baby, the judge in that case ruled that the charges be dismissed. In 2011 Shuai was charged by Indiana authorities with murder and feticide after her suicide attempt resulted in the death of the child she was pregnant with. Shuais case was the first in the history of Indiana in which a woman was prosecuted for murder for a suicide attempt while pregnant, in 2013 Shuai pleaded guilty to a misdemeanor charge of criminal recklessness and was released, having been sentenced to time served. In 2015 Purvi Patel became the first woman in the United States to be charged, convicted, in English law, child destruction is the crime of killing a fetus capable of being born alive, before it has a separate existence. The Crimes Act 1958 defined capable of being alive as 28 weeks gestation. The 1990 Amendment to the Abortion Act 1967 means a medical practitioner cannot be guilty of the crime, the charge of child destruction is rare. A woman who had an abortion while 7½ months pregnant was given a suspended sentence of 12 months in 2007. In medical use, the word feticide is used simply to mean causing the death of the fetus, usually prior to some form of abortion. The Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists recommends feticide be performed before medical abortion after 21 weeks and 6 days of gestation to ensure there is no risk of a live birth

Foeticide
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Homicide or murder.

30.
Murder
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A murder is the unlawful killing of another human without justification or valid excuse, especially the unlawful killing of another human being with malice aforethought. This state of mind may, depending upon the jurisdiction, distinguish murder from other forms of unlawful homicide, manslaughter is a killing committed in the absence of malice, brought about by reasonable provocation, or diminished capacity. Involuntary manslaughter, where it is recognized, is a killing that lacks all but the most attenuated guilty intent, in most countries, a person convicted of murder generally faces a long-term prison sentence, possibly a life sentence where permitted. In many common law jurisdictions, a convicted of murder will receive a mandatory life sentence. In jurisdictions where capital punishment exists, the penalty may be imposed for such an act, however. The modern English word murder descends from the Proto-Indo-European mrtró which meant to die, the Middle English mordre is a noun from Anglo-Saxon morðor and Old French murdre. Middle English mordre is a verb from Anglo-Saxon myrdrian and the Middle English noun, the elements of common law murder are, Unlawful killing through criminal act or omission of a human by another human with malice aforethought. Killing – At common law life ended with cardiopulmonary arrest – the total, with advances in medical technology courts have adopted irreversible cessation of all brain function as marking the end of life. Сriminal act or omission – Killing can be committed by an act or an omission. of a human – This element presents the issue of life begins. At common law, a fetus was not a human being, life began when the fetus passed through the vagina and took its first breath. By another human – In early common law, suicide was considered murder, the requirement that the person killed be someone other than the perpetrator excluded suicide from the definition of murder. With malice aforethought – Originally malice aforethought carried its everyday meaning – a deliberate, Murder necessarily required that an appreciable time pass between the formation and execution of the intent to kill. The courts broadened the scope of murder by eliminating the requirement of actual premeditation and deliberation as well as true malice, all that was required for malice aforethought to exist is that the perpetrator act with one of the four states of mind that constitutes malice. The four states of mind recognized as constituting malice are, Under state of mind, intent to kill, thus, if the defendant intentionally uses a deadly weapon or instrument against the victim, such use authorizes a permissive inference of intent to kill. In other words, intent follows the bullet, examples of deadly weapons and instruments include but are not limited to guns, knives, deadly toxins or chemicals or gases and even vehicles when intentionally used to harm one or more victims. In Australian jurisdictions, the risk must amount to a foreseen probability of death. Under state of mind, the doctrine, the felony committed must be an inherently dangerous felony, such as burglary, arson, rape. Importantly, the underlying felony cannot be a lesser included offense such as assault, as with most legal terms, the precise definition of murder varies between jurisdictions and is usually codified in some form of legislation

Murder
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Murder in the House, Jakub Schikaneder.
Murder
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Aaron Alexis holding shotgun during his rampage.
Murder
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A group of Thugs strangling a traveller on a highway in India in the early 19th century.

31.
Company Rule in India
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Company rule in India refers to the rule or dominion of the British East India Company over parts of the Indian subcontinent. The Companys rule lasted until 1858, when, after the Indian rebellion of 1857, with the Government of India Act 1858, the British government assumed the task of directly administering India in the new British Raj. The English East India Company was founded in 1600, as The Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies, in 1640, after receiving similar permission from the Vijayanagara ruler farther south, a second factory was established in Madras on the southeastern coast. Bombay island, not far from Surat, a former Portuguese outpost gifted to England as dowry in the marriage of Catherine of Braganza to Charles II, was leased by the Company in 1668. Two decades later, the Company established a presence on the eastern coast as well, far up that coast, in the Ganges river delta, the Company thus became the de facto ruler of large areas of the lower Gangetic plain by 1773. It also proceeded by degrees to expand its dominions around Bombay, the Anglo-Mysore Wars and the Anglo-Maratha Wars left it in control of large areas of India south of the Sutlej River. With the defeat of the Marathas, no native power represented a threat for the Company any longer, the proliferation of the Companys power chiefly took two forms. The first of these was the annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the underlying regions. The annexed regions included the North-Western Provinces, Delhi, Assam, in 1854 Berar was annexed, and the state of Oudh two years later. The second form of asserting power involved treaties in which Indian rulers acknowledged the Companys hegemony in return for limited internal autonomy, since the Company operated under financial constraints, it had to set up political underpinnings for its rule. The most important such support came from the alliances with Indian princes during the first 75 years of Company rule. In the early 19th century, the territories of these princes accounted for two-thirds of India, in return, the Company undertook the defense of these subordinate allies and treated them with traditional respect and marks of honor. Subsidiary alliances created the states, of the Hindu maharajas. 1765, Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad, annexed after the Battle of Buxar,1795, Asaf Jah II the Nizam of Hyderabad was defeated at the Battle of Kharda, after the Maratha-Mysore War. 1799, Fall of Mysore after Siege of Seringapatam,1801, Nawab of the Carnatic, Nawab of Junagarh, Rohilkhand of Lower Doab, annexed. 1803, Rohilkhand of Upper Doab, annexed, nonresistance from the Emperor, clives victory, and the award of the diwani of the rich region of Bengal, brought India into the public spotlight in Britain. By 1772, the Company needed British government loans to stay afloat, the rights and duties of the British government with regards the Companys new territories came also to be examined. It could do this while concurrently being subject to oversight and regulation by the British government and parliament, the Court of Directors of the Company were required under the Act to submit all communications regarding civil, military, and revenue matters in India for scrutiny by the British government

Company Rule in India
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Imperial entities of India
Company Rule in India
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Flag
Company Rule in India
Company Rule in India

32.
Rajput
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Rajput is a member of the patrilineal clans of the Indian subcontinent. They rose to prominence from the late 6th century AD and had a significant role in regions of central. The Rajput population and the former Rajput states are found spread across India where they are spread in north, west, in Pakistan they are found on the eastern parts of the country. These areas include Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Jammu, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, the origin of the Rajputs is the subject of debate. Writers such as M. S. Naravane and V. P, one theory espouses that with the collapse of the Gupta empire from the late 6th century, the invading Hephthalites were probably integrated within Indian society. At the same time, some tribes were ranked as Rajput, examples of which are the Bhatis, Bundelas, Chandelas. Actually vary greatly in status, from princely lineages, such as the Guhilot and Kachwaha, aydogdy Kurbanov says that the assimilation was specifically between the Hephthalites, Gurjars, and people from northwestern India, forming the Rajput community. Pradeep Barua also believes that Rajputs have foreign origins, he says their practice of asserting Kshatriya status was followed by other Indian groups thereby establishing themselves as Rajputs. Thereafter, in the late 12th century Muhammad of Ghor attempted to invade Gujarat but was defeated by the Chaulukya dynasty of Rajputs. The Rajput kingdoms were disparate, loyalty to a clan was more important than allegiance to the wider Rajput social grouping, meaning that one clan would fight another. This and the jostling for position that took place when a clan leader died meant that Rajput politics were fluid. Even after the Muslim conquest of the regions in Punjab and the Ganges River valley, the Rajputs maintained their independence in Rajasthan and the forests of central India. Later, Sultan Alauddin Khilji of the Delhi Sultanate took the two Rajput forts of Chittor and Ranthambhor in eastern Rajasthan in the 14th century but could not hold them for long. In the 15th century, the Muslim sultans of Malwa Sultanate, accordingly, Rana Sanga came to be the most distinguished indigenous contender for supremacy but was defeated by the Mughal invader Babur at Battle of Khanwa in 1527. From as early as the 16th century, Purbiya Rajput soldiers from the regions of Bihar and Awadh, were recruited as mercenaries for Rajputs in the west. After the mid-16th century, many Rajput rulers formed close relationships with the Mughal emperors and it was due to the support of the Rajputs that Akbar was able to lay the foundations of the Mughal empire in India. Some Rajput nobles gave away their daughters in marriage to Mughal emperors, for example, Akbar accomplished 40 marriages for him, his sons and grandsons, out of which 17 were Rajput-Mughal alliances. Akbars successors as Mogul emperors, his son Jahangir and grandson Shah Jahan had Rajput mothers, the ruling Sisodia Rajput family of Mewar made it a point of honour not to engage in matrimonial relationships with mughals and thus claimed to stand apart from those Rajput clans who did so

Rajput
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During their centuries-long rule, the Rajputs constructed several palaces. Shown here is the Junagarh Fort in Bikaner, Rajasthan, which was built by the Rathore Rajputs.
Rajput
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An 1876 engraving of Rajputs of Rajasthan, from the Illustrated London News
Rajput
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A royal Rajput procession, mural at the fort in Jodhpur.
Rajput
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Mayo College was established by the British government in 1875 at Ajmer, Rajputana to educate Rajput princes and other nobles.

33.
British Resident
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A Resident, or in full Resident Minister, is a government official required to take up permanent residence in another country. A representative of his government, he officially has diplomatic functions which are seen as a form of indirect rule. Residents could also be posted with shadowy governments, even after the Congress of Vienna restored the Grand Duchy of Tuscany in 1815, the British posted a mere Resident to Florence. Some official representatives of European colonial powers, while in theory diplomats, a trusted Resident could even become the de facto prime minister to a native ruler. In other respects they acted as an ambassador of their own government, instead of being a representative to a single ruler, a Resident could be posted to more than one native state, or to a grouping of states which the European power decided for its convenience. This could create a geographical unit, as in Residency X in some parts of the British Indian Empire. Similar positions could carry alternative titles, such as Political Agent and Resident Commissioner, a Residents real role varied enormously, depending upon the underlying relationship between the two parties and even upon the personalities of the Resident and the ruler. In French protectorates, such as those of Morocco and Tunisia, the Residents of the governments of the United Kingdom and the dominions to a variety of protectorates include, In the Sultanate of Zanzibar, the second homeland of the Omani dynasty, since 1913. From 1913 to 1961 the Residents were also the Sultans vizier, there were Consuls and Consuls-general until 1963. In present-day Kenya, in the Sultanate of Witu, after the British took over the protectorate from the German Empire, which had itself posted a Resident. In British Cameroon, since 1916, in 1949 restyled Special Resident for Edward John Gibbons, in kwaZulu, which since 1843 was under a British protectorate, after it became the Zulu Native Reserve or Zululand Province on 1 September 1879, two British Residents. In the Dutch East Indies, Dutch residents and lower ranks such as assistant residents were posted alongside a number of the native princes in present Indonesia. For example, on Sumatra, there were Dutch Residents at Palembang, at Medan in Deli sultanate, another was posted with the Sultan of and on Ternate, france also maintained Residents, the French word being Résident. However the Jacobine tradition of state authority didnt agree well with indirect rule. Many were part of a white colonial hierarchy, rather than truly posted with a ruler or chieftain. A single post of Resident was also created in Côte dIvoire, the Resident-Superior of Cambodia answered to the Governor-General of Indochina, however. In the German colonies, the title was also Resident, the post was called Residentur. e, such function could also be performed under another title, such as Commissioner or High Commissioner. John Bridger Philby August 1924 – March 1939 Henry Cox March 1939 –17 June 1946 Alec Seath Kirkbride Also after World War II, in the colony of Western Australia regional administration was conducted under instruction of the Governor in Council by Government Residents

British Resident
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The Resident General of Morocco in the 1930s.
British Resident
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The British Residency at Hyderabad
British Resident
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The house of a Dutch resident in Central Java c. 1905

34.
States and union territories of India
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India is a federal union comprising twenty-nine states and seven union territories. The states and union territories are further subdivided into districts and further into smaller administrative divisions, the Constitution of India distributes the sovereign executive and legislative powers exercisable with respect to the territory of any State between the Union and that State. The Indian subcontinent has been ruled by different ethnic groups throughout its history. Between 1947 and 1950, the territories of the states were politically integrated into the Indian Union. The new Constitution of India, which came into force on 26 January 1950, the new republic was also declared to be a Union of States. The nine Part A states were Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. The eight Part B states were former princely states or groups of states, governed by a rajpramukh, who was usually the ruler of a constituent state. The rajpramukh was appointed by the President of India, the Part B states were Hyderabad, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Bharat, Mysore, Patiala and East Punjab States Union, Rajasthan, Saurashtra, and Travancore-Cochin. The ten Part C states included both the former chief commissioners provinces and some states, and each was governed by a chief commissioner appointed by the President of India. The Part C states were Ajmer, Bhopal, Bilaspur, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Cutch, Manipur, Tripura, the only Part D state was the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which were administered by a lieutenant governor appointed by the central government. The Union Territory of Puducherry was created in 1954 comprising the previous French enclaves of Pondichéry, Karaikal, Yanam, Andhra State was created on 1 October 1953 from the Telugu-speaking northern districts of Madras State. The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 reorganised the states based on linguistic lines resulting in the creation of the new states, as a result of this act, Madras State retained its name with Kanyakumari district added to from Travancore-Cochin. Andhra Pradesh was created with the merger of Andhra State with the Telugu-speaking districts of Hyderabad State in 1956, kerala was created with the merger of Malabar district and the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara districts of Madras State with Travancore-Cochin. The Laccadive Islands which were divided between South Canara and Malabar districts of Madras State were united and organised into the territory of Lakshadweep. Bombay State was enlarged by the addition of Saurashtra State and Kutch State, Rajasthan and Punjab gained territories from Ajmer and Patiala and East Punjab States Union respectively and certain territories of Bihar was transferred to West Bengal. Bombay State was split into the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra on 1 May 1960 by the Bombay Reorganisation Act. Nagaland was formed on 1 December 1963, the Punjab Reorganisation Act of 1966 resulted in the creation of Haryana on 1 November and the transfer of the northern districts of Punjab to Himachal Pradesh. The act also designated Chandigarh as a territory and the shared capital of Punjab

States and union territories of India
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Hyderabad state in 1909
States and union territories of India

35.
Uttar Pradesh
–
Uttar Pradesh, abbreviated as UP, is the most populous state in the Republic of India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. The state, located in the region of the Indian subcontinent, has over 200 million inhabitants. It was created on 1 April 1937 as the United Provinces during British rule, Lucknow is the capital city of Uttar Pradesh. Ghaziabad, Kanpur, Bhadohi, Raebareli, Moradabad, Bareilly, Aligarh, Sonbhadra, on 9 November 2000, a new state, Uttarakhand, was carved out from the Himalayan hill region of Uttar Pradesh. It covers 243,290 square kilometres, equal to 7. 33% of the area of India. Hindi is the official and most widely spoken language in its 75 districts, Uttar Pradesh is the third largest Indian state by economy, with a GDP of ₹9,763 billion. Agriculture and service industries are the largest parts of the states economy, the service sector comprises travel and tourism, hotel industry, real estate, insurance and financial consultancies. Uttar Pradesh was home to powerful empires of ancient and medieval India, the two major rivers of the state, the Ganges and Yamuna, join at Allahabad and then flow as the Ganges further east. Modern human hunter-gatherers have been in Uttar Pradesh since between around 85,000 and 72,000 years ago, the kingdom of Kosala, in the Mahajanapada era, was located within the regional boundaries of modern-day Uttar Pradesh. According to Hindu legend, the divine king Rama of the Ramayana epic reigned in Ayodhya, the aftermath of the Mahabharata yuddh is believed to have taken place in the area between the Upper Doab and Delhi, during the reign of the Pandava king Yudhishthira. The kingdom of the Kurus corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Gray Ware culture, most of the invaders of south India passed through the Gangetic plains of what is today Uttar Pradesh. Control over this region was of importance to the power and stability of all of Indias major empires, including the Maurya, Kushan, Gupta. Following the Huns invasions that broke the Gupta empire, the Ganges-Yamuna Doab saw the rise of Kannauj, during the reign of Harshavardhana, the Kannauj empire reached its zenith. It spanned from Punjab in the north and Gujarat in the west to Bengal in the east and it included parts of central India, north of the Narmada River and it encompassed the entire Indo-Gangetic plain. Many communities in parts of India claim descent from the migrants of Kannauj. Kannauj was several times invaded by the south Indian Rashtrakuta Dynasty, in the Mughal era, Uttar Pradesh became the heartland of the empire. Mughal emperors Babur and Humayun ruled from Delhi, in 1540 an Afghan, Sher Shah Suri, took over the reins of Uttar Pradesh after defeating the Mughal king Humanyun. Sher Shah and his son Islam Shah ruled Uttar Pradesh from their capital at Gwalior, after the death of Islam Shah Suri, his prime minister Hemu became the de facto ruler of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and the western parts of Bengal

Uttar Pradesh
–
Southern view of the Taj Mahal
Uttar Pradesh
–
Rama portrayed as exile in the forest, accompanied by his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana
Uttar Pradesh
–
Bisrakh, UttarPradesh, birthplace of the King Ravana.
Uttar Pradesh
–
A part of the Gangetic Plain

36.
Jadeja
–
The Jadeja is a Rajput clan who claim to be descended from the Hindu god Krishna and thus to belong to the Yaduvanshi Rajputs, who in turn form a part of the Chandravanshi. A Jadeja dynasty ruled the state of Kutch between 1540 and 1948, at which time India became a republic. Khengarji and his successors retained the allegiance of these Bhayat until the mid-18th century, among other territories or princely states ruled by Jadeja before independence of India, were Dhrol Gondal, Morvi, Nawanagar, Rajkot, and Virpur. The practice continues to some today, although where modern facilities are available it may take the form of female foeticide. After whom Duleep Trophy is named, himmatsinhji M. K. a noted ornithologist, politician hailing from ruling family of Cutch. The Politics and Poetics of Water, The Naturalisation of Scarcity in Western India, lauterpacht, E. ed. International Law Reports. Dilipsinh, K. S. Kutch, In Festival And Custom, migrant Races, Empire, Identity and K. S. Media related to Jadeja at Wikimedia Commons

37.
Gujarat
–
Gujarat is a state in Western India, sometimes referred to as the Jewel of Western India. It has an area of 196,024 km2 with a coastline of 1,600 km, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula, and a population in excess of 60 million. The state is bordered by Rajasthan to the north, Maharashtra to the south, Madhya Pradesh to the east, and the Arabian Sea and its capital city is Gandhinagar, while its largest city is Ahmedabad. Gujarat is home to the Gujarati-speaking people of India, the state encompasses some sites of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, such as Lothal and Dholavira. Lothal is believed to be one of the worlds first seaports, Gujarat was known to the ancient Greeks, and was familiar in other Western centres of civilisation through the end of the European Middle Ages. Modern-day Gujarat is derived from Sanskrit term Gurjaradesa, the Gurjar nation, parts of modern Rajasthan and Gujarat have been known as Gurjaratra or Gurjarabhumi for centuries before the Mughal period. Gujarat was one of the centres of the Indus Valley Civilization. It contains ancient metropolitan cities from the Indus Valley such as Lothal, Dholavira, the ancient city of Lothal was where Indias first port was established. The ancient city of Dholavira is one of the largest and most prominent archaeological sites in India, the most recent discovery was Gola Dhoro. Altogether, about 50 Indus Valley settlement ruins have been discovered in Gujarat, the ancient history of Gujarat was enriched by the commercial activities of its inhabitants. There is clear evidence of trade and commerce ties with Egypt, Bahrain. The early history of Gujarat reflects the grandeur of Chandragupta Maurya who conquered a number of earlier states in what is now Gujarat. Pushyagupta, a Vaishya, was appointed governor of Saurashtra by the Mauryan regime and he ruled Giringer and built a dam on the Sudarshan lake. Between the decline of Mauryan power and Saurashtra coming under the sway of the Samprati Mauryas of Ujjain, in the first half of the 1st century AD there is the story of a merchant of King Gondaphares landing in Gujarat with Apostle Thomas. The incident of the cup-bearer killed by a lion might indicate that the city described is in Gujarat. For nearly 300 years from the start of the 1st century AD, the weather-beaten rock at Junagadh gives a glimpse of the ruler Rudradaman I of the Saka satraps known as Western Satraps, or Kshatraps. Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I founded the Kardamaka dynasty which ruled from Anupa on the banks of the Narmada up to the Aparanta region which bordered Punjab, in Gujarat several battles were fought between the south Indian Satavahana dynasty and the Western Satraps. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni who defeated the Western Satraps, the Kshatrapa dynasty was replaced by the Gupta Empire with the conquest of Gujarat by Chandragupta Vikramaditya

38.
District Collector
–
A District Collector, often abbreviated to Collector, is the foremost Indian Administrative Service officer in charge of revenue collection and administration of a district in India. The Collector is assisted by Deputy Collectors, Assistant Collectors, Sub Collectors, District Administration in India is a legacy of the British Raj. District Collectors were members of the Indian Civil Service, and were charged with supervising general administration in the district, warren Hastings introduced the office of the District Collector in 1772. As District Magistrate, he exercised general supervision over the courts and in particular. The office was meant to achieve the purpose of collecting revenue. The Superintendent of Police, Inspector General of Jails, the Surgeon General, the Divisional Forest Officer, until the later part of the nineteenth century, no native was eligible to become a district collector. But with the introduction of competitive examinations for the Indian Civil Services. The district continued to be the unit of administration after India gained independence in 1947, the role of the District Collector remained largely unchanged, except for separation of most judicial powers to judicial officers of the district. They are appointed by the State government, from among the pool of Indian Administrative Service officers in the state, the members of the IAS are either directly recruited by the Union Public Service Commission or promoted from Provincial Civil Services. A District Magistrate, District Collector, Deputy Commissioner or District Commissioner are transferred from this post by State government, District Collectors are entrusted with a wide range of duties in the jurisdiction of the district. Acts as ex-officio chairman of the District Development Authority in absence of Divisional Commissioner, a District Magistrate/District Collector/Deputy Commissioner/District Commissioner is assisted by some I. A. S and P. C

District Collector
–
A District Collector/Magistrate during the weekly administrative meeting in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India.

39.
Caste in India
–
The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic example of caste. It has origins in ancient India, and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval, early-modern, and, modern India, especially the Mughal Empire and it is today the basis of educational and job reservations in India. It consists of two different concepts, varna and jati, which may be regarded as different levels of analysis of this system. The caste system as it today is thought to be the result of developments during the collapse of the Mughal era. The British Raj furthered this development, making rigid caste organisation a central mechanism of administration, between 1860 and 1920, the British segregated Indians by caste, granting administrative jobs and senior appointments only to the upper castes. Social unrest during the 1920s led to a change in this policy, from then on, the colonial administration began a policy of positive discrimination by reserving a certain percentage of government jobs for the lower castes. Caste-based differences have also been practised in regions and religions in the Indian subcontinent like Nepalese Buddhism, Christianity, Islam. It has been challenged by many reformist Hindu movements, Islam, Sikhism, Christianity, new developments took place after India achieved independence, when the policy of caste-based reservation of jobs was formalised with lists of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Since 1950, the country has enacted laws and social initiatives to protect. Discrimination against lower castes is illegal in India under Article 15 of its constitution, Varna literally means colour, and was a framework for grouping people into classes, first used in Vedic Indian society. It is referred to frequently in the ancient Indian texts, the four classes were the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas, and Shudras. The varna categorisation implicitly had an element, being those people deemed to be entirely outside its scope, such as tribal people. Jati, meaning birth, is mentioned less often in ancient texts. There are four varnas but thousands of jatis, the jatis are complex social groups that lack universally applicable definition or characteristic, and have been more flexible and diverse than was previously often assumed. This view has been disputed by scholars, who believe it to be a secular social phenomenon driven by the necessities of economics, politics. Jatis have existed in India among Hindus, Muslims, Christians and tribal people, the term caste is not an Indian word. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, it is derived from the Portuguese casta, meaning race, lineage, breed and, originally, There is no exact translation in Indian languages, but varna and jati are the two most proximate terms. The sociologist G. S. Ghurye wrote in 1932 that, despite much study by many people and it appears to me that any attempt at definition is bound to fail because of the complexity of the phenomenon

Caste in India
–
Gandhi visiting Madras (now Chennai) in 1933 on an India-wide tour for Harijan causes. His speeches during such tours and writings discussed the discriminated-against castes of India.
Caste in India
–
Hindu musician

40.
Ahir
–
Ahir or Aheer is an Indian ethnic group, some members of which identify as being of the Yadav community because they consider the two terms to be synonymous. The Ahirs are variously described as a caste, a clan, a community, a race and they ruled over different parts of India and Nepal. The traditional occupation of Ahirs is cow-herding and agriculture and they are found throughout India but are particularly concentrated in the northern areas. They are known by other names, including Gaoli, Ghosi in the north. Some in the Bundelkhand region of Uttar Pradesh are known as Dauwa and he believes the word Ahir to be the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word, Abhira, and he notes that the present term in the Bengali and Marathi languages is Abhir. Garg distinguishes a Brahmin community who use the Abhira name and are found in the states of Maharashtra. That usage, he says, is because that division of Brahmins were priests to the Abhira tribe. S. D. S. Some, such as A. P. Karmakar, consider the Abhira to be a Proto-Dravidian tribe who migrated to India and point to the Puranas as evidence. Others, such as Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya, dismiss this theory as anachronistic and say that the Abhira are recorded as being in India in the 1st-century CE work, Bhattacharya considers the Abhira of old to be a race rather than a tribe. Similarly, there is no certainty regarding the status of the Abhira, with ancient texts sometimes referring to them as pastoral and cowherders. They had been recruited into the army from 1898, in that year, the British raised four Ahir companies, two of which were in the 95th Russells Infantry. The Ahirs have been one of the more militant Hindu groups, for example, in 1930, about 200 Ahirs marched towards the shrine of Trilochan and performed puja in response to Islamic tanzeem processions. It was from the 1920s that some Ahirs began to adopt the name of Yadav, several caste histories and periodicals to trace a Kshatriya origin were written at the time, notably by Mannanlal Abhimanyu. These were part of the jostling among various castes for socio-economic status and ritual under the Raj and they invoked support for a zealous, traditionally Ahirs are divided into subdivisions such as Yaduvanshi, Nandvanshi and Goalvanshi. They have more than 20 sub-castes, for centuries the Ahirs were eclipsed as a political power in Haryana until the time of the Pratihara dynasty. In time, they became independent rulers of southwest Haryana and they are majority in the region around Behror, Alwar, Rewari, Narnaul, Mahendragarh, Gurgaon and Jhajjar which is therefore known as Ahirwal or the abode of Ahirs. Neighbouring Gurgaon has 106 villages and Noida has around 12 villages, there are five main castes of Ahirs in Kutch, Pancholi, Paratharia, Machhoya, Boricha, and Sorathia and Vagadia. These communities are mainly of farmers who sold milk and ghee

41.
Bedi clan
–
Khatri is a caste from the northern Indian subcontinent. Khatris in India and Pakistan are mostly from the Punjab region, Khatris played an important role in Indias trans regional trade during the Mughal Empire. They adopted administrative and military roles outside the Punjab region as well, scott Cameron Levi describes Khatris among the most important merchant communities of early modern India. All the Sikh Gurus were Khatris, Khatris consider themselves to be of pure Vedic descent and thus superior to the Rajputs, who also claim Kshatriya status. Their standards of literacy and caste status were such during the years of the Sikh community that, according to W. H. McLeod. Nath called Khatris a warlike race, a claim supported by their employment as soldiers by Mughal emperors. However, by the time of British arrival in India, the Khatris were mostly involved in merchant, Khatris sources explain this transition as follows, the Mughal emperors terminated the services of Khatris chieftains for moving against the imperial order of widow remarriage. There are Khatris that are found in states of India. The Khatris of Gujarat and Rajasthan are said to have tailoring skills like Darji caste, dasrath Sharma described Khatris as a mixed pratiloma caste of low ritual status but suggested that Khatris could be a mixed caste born of Kshatriya fathers and Brahmin mothers. The descendants of Kush, according to the disputed Bachitar Natak legend, learned the Vedas at Benares, similarly, according to the same legend, the Sodhi sub-caste claims descent from Lav, the other son of Rama. The Khatri were originally engaged in the weaving of silk saris, the region in which the Khatris originally lived was ruled by Hindu kings until 1013 AD. Khatris encountered hardships after the Muslim conquest of the region, because of high levels of education and scholarship, they were able to survive even in difficult times. The Khatris subsequently rose as an important trading community, and played an important role in Indias trans regional trade under the Mughal Empire, with the patronage of Mughal nobles, the Khatris adopted administrative and military roles outside the Punjab region. According to a 19th-century Khatri legend, the Khatris followed the profession until the time of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. Several Khatris were killed during the Aurangzebs Deccan Campaign, and the emperor ordered their widows to be remarried, when the Khatris refused to obey this order, Aurangzeb terminated their military service, and directed them to be shopkeepers and brokers. Khatris were estimated to constitute 9% of the population of Delhi in 2003. Dayananda Saraswati was invited to Punjab by prominent individuals who founded the Singh Sabha. He established Arya Samaj in Lahore in 1877, a society and reform movement which was against casteism, rituals, the group promoted strict monotheism, which Swami Dayanand claimed was the essential message of the Vedas

42.
Gurjar
–
Gurjar or Gujjar are a pastoral agricultural ethnic group with populations in India and Pakistan and a small number in northeastern Afghanistan. Alternative spellings include Gurjara, Gurjjar, Gojar and Gūjar, although they are able to speak the language of the country where they live, Gurjars have their own language, known as Gujari. They variously follow Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism, the Gurjars are classified as Other Backward Class in some states in India, however, Gurjars in Jammu and Kashmir and parts of Himachal Pradesh are categorised as a Scheduled Tribe. Hindu Gurjars were assimilated into various varnas in the medieval period, historians and anthropologists differ on issue of Gurjar origin. According to this view, Gurjars came in waves of migration. Aydogdy Kurbanov states that some Gurjars, along with people from northwestern India, according to scholars such as Baij Nath Puri, the Mount Abu region of present-day Rajasthan had been abode of the Gurjars during medieval period. The association of the Gurjars with the mountain is noticed in many inscriptions and these Gurjars migrated from the Arbuda mountain region and as early as in the 6th century A. D. In Sanskrit texts, the ethnonym has sometimes been interpreted as destroyer of the enemy, gur meaning enemy, irawati Karve, the Indologist and historian, believed that the Gurjars position in society and the caste system generally varied from one linguistic area of India to another. In Maharashtra, Karve thought that they were absorbed by the Rajputs and Marathas. Bhandarkar believed that Gurjara-Pratiharas were a clan of Gurjars, in the 18th century, several Gurjar chieftains and small kings were in power. During the reign of Rohilla Nawab Najib-ul-Daula, Dargahi Singh, the Gurjar chieftain of Dadri possessed 133 villages at a revenue of Rs.29,000. A fort at Parlchhatgarh in Meerut District, also known as Qila Parikishatgarh, is ascribed to a Gurjar Raja Nain Singh, during the revolt of 1857, the Gurjars of Chundrowli rose against the British, under the leadership of Damar Ram. The Gurjars of Shunkuri village, numbering around three thousand, joined the rebel sepoys, according to British records, the Gurjars plundered gunpowder and ammunition from the British and their allies. In Delhi, the Metcalfe House was sacked by Gurjar villagers from whom the land was taken to erect the building, the British records claim that the Gurjars carried out several robberies. Twenty Gurjars were reported to have been beheaded by Rao Tula Ram for committing dacoities in July 1857, in September 1857, the British were able to enlist the support of many Gurjars at Meerut. The colonial authors always used the word turbulent for the castes who were generally hostile to British rule. They cited proverbs that appear to evaluate the caste in an unfavorable light, a British administrator, William Crooke, described that Gurjars seriously impeded the operations of the British Army before Delhi. Small pockets of Gurjars are found in Afghanistans northeastern region, particularly in, some in India remain Hindu, although further west many are Muslim

43.
Jat people
–
The Jat people are a traditionally agricultural community in Northern India and Pakistan. Originally pastoralists in the lower Indus river-valley of Sindh, Jats migrated north into the Punjab region, Delhi, Rajputana, and the western Gangetic Plain in late medieval times. Primarily of Hindu, Muslim and Sikh faiths, they now mostly in the Indian states of Haryana, Punjab, Delhi, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. The Hindu Jat kingdom reached its zenith under Maharaja Suraj Mal of Bharatpur, the Jat community of the Punjab region played an important role in the development of the martial Khalsa Panth of Sikhism, they are more commonly known as the Jat Sikhs. By the 20th century, the landowning Jats became a group in several parts of North India, including Haryana, Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan. Over the years, several Jats abandoned agriculture in favour of urban jobs, Jats are classified as Other Backward Class in seven of Indias thirty-six States and UTs, namely Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. However, only the Jats of Rajasthan – excluding those of Bharatpur district, in 2016, the Jats of Haryana organized massive protests demanding to be classified as OBC in order to obtain such affirmative action benefits. The Jats are an example of community- and identity-formation in early modern Indian subcontinent. Jat is a label applied to a wide-ranging, traditionally non-elite. At the time of Muhammad bin Qasims conquest of Sind in the 8th century, Arab writers described agglomerations of Jats in the arid, the wet, and the mountainous regions of the conquered land. Between the eleventh and the centuries, Jat herders migrated up along the river valleys, into the Punjab. Many took up tilling in regions such as Western Punjab, where the sakia had been recently introduced, by early Mughal times, in the Punjab, the term Jat had become loosely synonymous with peasant, and some Jats had come to own land and exert local influence. According to historians Catherine Asher and Cynthia Talbot, The Jats also provide an important insight into how religious identities evolved during the precolonial era, before they settled in the Punjab and other northern regions, the pastoralist Jats had little exposure to any of the mainstream religions. Only after they became integrated into the agrarian world did the Jats adopt the dominant religion of the people in whose midst they dwelt. Many new rulers of the 18th century came from such martial, the effect of this interaction on Indias social organization lasted well into the colonial period. During the heyday of Mughal rule, Jats had recognized rights, according to Barbara D. Metcalf and Thomas R. Their successes were a part of the Mughal success, as the Mughal empire now faltered, there were a series of rural rebellions in North India. Although these had sometimes been characterized as peasant rebellions, others, such as Muzaffar Alam, have pointed out that small local landholders, or zemindars, often led these uprisings

Jat people
–
Chaudhary Charan Singh, the first Jat Prime Minister of India, accompanied by his wife, on his way to address the nation at the Red Fort, Delhi, Independence Day, 15 August 1979.
Jat people
–
A Jutt (Jat) Muslim camel-driver from Sind, 1872
Jat people
–
Jat Sikh of the "Sindhoo" clan, Lahore, 1872.
Jat people
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Jats in the Delhi Territory in 1868.

44.
Khatri
–
Khatri is a caste from the northern Indian subcontinent. Khatris in India and Pakistan are mostly from the Punjab region, Khatris played an important role in Indias trans regional trade during the Mughal Empire. They adopted administrative and military roles outside the Punjab region as well, scott Cameron Levi describes Khatris among the most important merchant communities of early modern India. All the Sikh Gurus were Khatris, Khatris consider themselves to be of pure Vedic descent and thus superior to the Rajputs, who also claim Kshatriya status. Their standards of literacy and caste status were such during the years of the Sikh community that, according to W. H. McLeod. Nath called Khatris a warlike race, a claim supported by their employment as soldiers by Mughal emperors. However, by the time of British arrival in India, the Khatris were mostly involved in merchant, Khatris sources explain this transition as follows, the Mughal emperors terminated the services of Khatris chieftains for moving against the imperial order of widow remarriage. There are Khatris that are found in states of India. The Khatris of Gujarat and Rajasthan are said to have tailoring skills like Darji caste, dasrath Sharma described Khatris as a mixed pratiloma caste of low ritual status but suggested that Khatris could be a mixed caste born of Kshatriya fathers and Brahmin mothers. The descendants of Kush, according to the disputed Bachitar Natak legend, learned the Vedas at Benares, similarly, according to the same legend, the Sodhi sub-caste claims descent from Lav, the other son of Rama. The Khatri were originally engaged in the weaving of silk saris, the region in which the Khatris originally lived was ruled by Hindu kings until 1013 AD. Khatris encountered hardships after the Muslim conquest of the region, because of high levels of education and scholarship, they were able to survive even in difficult times. The Khatris subsequently rose as an important trading community, and played an important role in Indias trans regional trade under the Mughal Empire, with the patronage of Mughal nobles, the Khatris adopted administrative and military roles outside the Punjab region. According to a 19th-century Khatri legend, the Khatris followed the profession until the time of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. Several Khatris were killed during the Aurangzebs Deccan Campaign, and the emperor ordered their widows to be remarried, when the Khatris refused to obey this order, Aurangzeb terminated their military service, and directed them to be shopkeepers and brokers. Khatris were estimated to constitute 9% of the population of Delhi in 2003. Dayananda Saraswati was invited to Punjab by prominent individuals who founded the Singh Sabha. He established Arya Samaj in Lahore in 1877, a society and reform movement which was against casteism, rituals, the group promoted strict monotheism, which Swami Dayanand claimed was the essential message of the Vedas

45.
Kanbi
–
Kunbi is a generic term applied to castes of traditionally non-elite tillers in Western India. These include the Dhonoje, Ghatole, Hindre, Jadav, Jhare, Khaire, Lewa, Lonare, the communities are largely found in the state of Maharashtra but also exist in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala and Goa. Kunbis are included among the Other Backward Classes in Maharashtra, Sant Tukaram, one of the most revered Varkari saints of the Bhakti tradition of Maharashtra belonged to this community. On the other hand Kumar, Munshi, Kincaid and Parasanisa, most of the Mawalas serving in the armies of the Maratha Empire under Shivaji came from the community. The Shinde and Gaekwad dynasties of the Maratha Empire are originally of Kunbi origin, the boundary between the Marathas and the Kunbi became obscure in the early 20th century due to the effects of colonisation, and the two groups came to form one block, the Maratha-Kunbi. Tensions along caste lines between the Kunbi and the Dalit communities were seen in the Khairlanji killings, and the media have reported instances of violence against Dalits. In April 2005 the Supreme Court of India ruled that the Marathas are not a sub-caste of Kunbis, according to the Anthropological Survey of India, the term Kunbi is derived from kun and bi meaning people and seeds, respectively. Fused together, the two terms mean those who germinate more seeds from one seed, another etymology states that Kunbi is believed to have come from the Marathi word kunbawa, or Sanskrit kur, meaning agricultural tillage. Yet another etymology states that Kunbi derives from kutumba, or from the Dravidian kul, thus anyone who took up the occupation of a cultivator could be brought under the generic term Kunbi. G. S. Ghurye has posited that while the term may signify the occupation of the group and it is not improbable that the name may be of tribal origin. There are a total of 305 communities in Maharashtra of which 161 are rural,37 are urban,97 are suburban, the Kunbi, along with the Marathas and Mali, compose the main peasant communities in the state. In 1981 the population of Kunbis in the Dangs district was recorded at 35,214, older gazetteers of various relevant districts record two to three other agricultural castes in addition to the Kunbis. These include the Mali at 53,000 while the Kunbi are put at 397,000 in the Pune district, the Sholapur gazetteer groups the Kunbi and the Marathas together for a total of 180,000 in 1881. Marathas and Kunbis are recorded under the heading of Kunbi in the census of 1881. The group is associated with the Kurmi caste, though scholars differ as to whether the terms are synonymous. In 2006, the Indian government announced that Kurmi was considered synonymous with the Kunbi, very little information was recorded prior to the 19th century regarding the significantly large group of Maharashtrian agricultural castes, known as Maratha-Kunbis. Both individual terms, Kunbi and Maratha are equally complex, in the fourteenth century, the term Maratha referred to all speakers of the Marathi language. An example of this is the record of the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta whose use of the term included multiple castes who spoke Marathi, several years later, as the Bahamani kings started employing the local population in their military, the term Maratha acquired a martial connotation

Kanbi
–
A group of Kunbis in Central India, 1916
Kanbi
–
Jyotiraditya Scindia of the Scindia (Anglicized from Shinde) dynasty. Scindia's ancestors were originally of the Kunbi community.
Kanbi
–
Kunbis carrying out the dead, 1916.
Kanbi
–
Photograph (1916) of boys with their toy animals crafted for the Pola festival celebrated by the Dhanoje Kunbis.

46.
Mohyal
–
Mohyal is a Brahmin caste of India. Alternative spellings include Muhiyal, Muhial, Mhial, Mohiyal or Mahjal, most Mohyals are Hindus, but many are Sikhs as well. In India, they are also called ‘Hussaini Brahmins’ as Muhiyals proudly claim that though being non-Muslim, Muhiyals are very close to Pushtuns in their character. For centuries, they never or seldom paid in their revenue until coerced by a military expedition involving a number of casualties on both sides. On one occasion, they fought three battles against Baburs army as they refused to surrender a khatri girl to Mughals who had sought their protection. The testament to their chivalry is the fact that during Muslim rule, during British rule, a number of them were residing in the military belt of Campbelpur, Rawalpindi and Jhelum area. A number of Muhiyals served with distinction in British Indian army especially cavalry and they served in many regiments especially 9th, 11th, 13th, and 19th Lancers, 3rd, 4th and 15th Punjab Cavalry and Guides Cavalry. As per Mohyal folklore, a Mohyal of the Dutt clan had fought on behalf of Imam Hussain in the battle of Karbala, according to legend, Rahab Sidh Datt was the leader of a small band of career-soldiers living near Baghdad around the time of the battle of Karbala. The legend mentions the place where he stayed as Dair-al-Hindiya, meaning The Indian Quarter and this legend occupies an important part in the Dutt clans oral history, and is considered a source of pride for them. Bhai Mati Das - Martyr executed by Aurangzeb, son of Bhai Praga, a Jathedar and a martyr from Battle of Chamkaur Bhai Sati Das - Martyr executed by Aurangzeb.5 No.10

Mohyal
–
Mohyal Coat of Arms

47.
Marvin Harris
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Marvin Harris was an American anthropologist. He was born in Brooklyn, New York City, a prolific writer, he was highly influential in the development of cultural materialism. In his work he combined Karl Marxs emphasis on the forces of production with Thomas Malthuss insights on the impact of demographic factors on other parts of the sociocultural system. Labeling demographic and production factors as infrastructure, Harris posited these factors as key in determining a societys social structure and culture, after the publication of The Rise of Anthropological Theory in 1968, Harris helped focus the interest of anthropologists in cultural-ecological relationships for the rest of his career. Many of his publications gained wide circulation among lay readers, over the course of his professional life, Harris drew both a loyal following and a considerable amount of criticism. He became a fixture at the annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association where he would subject scholars to intense questioning from the floor, podium. He is considered a generalist, who had an interest in the processes that account for human origins. Being born just before the Great Depression, Harris was poor during his childhood in Brooklyn and he entered the U. S. Army toward the end of the Second World War and used funding from the G. I. Bill to enter Columbia University along with a new generation of post-war American anthropologists, the book, affectionately known as The RAT among graduate students, is a remarkable synthesis of classical and contemporary macrosocial theory. According to Harris, the mechanisms by which a society exploits its environment are contained in a societys infrastructure—the mode of production and population. Since such practices are essential for the continuation of life itself, widespread social structures and cultural values, to endow the mental superstructure with strategic priority, as the cultural idealists advocate, is a bad bet. Nature is indifferent to whether God is a father or a bloodthirsty cannibal. But nature is not indifferent to whether the period in a swidden field is one year or ten. We know that powerful restraints exist on the level, hence it is a good bet that these restraints are passed on to the structural and superstructural components. Harris made a distinction between emic and etic, which he refined considerably since its exposition in The Rise of Anthropological Theory. The terms “emic” and “etic” originated in the work of missionary-linguist Kenneth Pike and that is, emic is the participants perspective, whereas etic is the observers. Harris had asserted that both are in fact necessary for an explanation of human thought and behavior, Marvin Harris’ early contributions to major theoretical issues include his revision of biological surplus theory in obesity formation. He also became known for formulating a materialist explanation for the treatment of “Cattle in religion” in Indian culture

Marvin Harris
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Marvin Harris

48.
Sociobiology
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Sociobiology is a field of scientific study that is based on the hypothesis that social behavior has resulted from evolution and attempts to examine and explain social behavior within that context. It is a branch of biology deals with social behavior, and also draws from ethology, anthropology, evolution, zoology, archaeology, population genetics. Within the study of societies, sociobiology is closely allied to Darwinian anthropology, human behavioral ecology. Sociobiology investigates social behaviors, such as mating patterns, territorial fights, pack hunting, and it argues that just as selection pressure led to animals evolving useful ways of interacting with the natural environment, it led to the genetic evolution of advantageous social behavior. While the term sociobiology can be traced to the 1940s, the concept did not gain recognition until the publication of Edward O. Wilsons book Sociobiology. The new field became the subject of controversy. Sociobiologists responded to the criticism by pointing to the relationship between nature and nurture. E. O. Wilson defines sociobiology as, “The extension of population biology, Sociobiology is based on the premise that some behaviors are at least partly inherited and can be affected by natural selection. It begins with the idea that behaviors have evolved over time and it predicts that animals will act in ways that have proven to be evolutionarily successful over time. This can, among other things, result in the formation of social processes conducive to evolutionary fitness. The discipline seeks to explain behavior as a product of natural selection, behavior is therefore seen as an effort to preserve ones genes in the population. Genetic mouse mutants have now been harnessed to illustrate the power that genes exert on behaviour, for example, the transcription factor FEV has been shown, through its role in maintaining the serotonergic system in the brain, to be required for normal aggressive and anxiety-like behavior. Thus, when FEV is genetically deleted from the genome, male mice will instantly attack other males. In addition, FEV has been shown to be required for correct maternal behaviour in mice, Wilson in his 1975 book, Sociobiology, The New Synthesis. However, the influence of evolution on behavior has been of interest to biologists, peter Kropotkins Mutual Aid, A Factor of Evolution, written in the early 1890s, is a popular example. Antecedents of modern sociobiological thinking can be traced to the 1960s, the more general term behavioral ecology is commonly used as substitute for the term sociobiology in order to avoid the public controversy. Sociobiologists believe that human behavior, as well as animal behavior. They contend that in order to understand behavior, it must be analyzed in terms of evolutionary considerations

Sociobiology
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E. O. Wilson, a central figure in the history of sociobiology.
Sociobiology
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Diagrammatic representation of the divergence of modern taxonomic groups from their common ancestor
Sociobiology
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Nikolaas Tinbergen, whose work influenced sociobiology.
Sociobiology
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In the decades after World War II, the term "eugenics" had taken on a negative connotation and became increasingly unpopular within academic science. Many organizations and journals that had their origins in the eugenics movement began to distance themselves from the philosophy, as when Eugenics Quarterly became Social Biology in 1969.

49.
Indian rebellion of 1857
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The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major, but ultimately unsuccessful, uprising in India in 1857–58 against British rule. For nearly 100 years, that rule had been presided over by the British East India Company, the rebellion began on 10 May 1857 in the form of a mutiny of sepoys of the Companys army in the garrison town of Meerut,40 miles northeast of Delhi. It then erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions chiefly in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, though incidents of revolt also occurred farther north and east. The rebellion posed a threat to British power in that region. On 1 November 1858, the British granted amnesty to all rebels not involved in murder, though they did not declare the hostilities formally to have ended until 8 July 1859. The rebellion is known by names, including the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection. Many Indians did rise against the British, however, very many also fought for the British, after the outbreak of the mutiny in Meerut, the rebels very quickly reached Delhi, whose 81-year-old Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar, they declared the Emperor of Hindustan. Soon, the rebels had captured large tracts of the North-Western Provinces. The East India Companys response came rapidly as well, with help from reinforcements, Kanpur was retaken by mid-July 1857, and Delhi by the end of September. However, it took the remainder of 1857 and the better part of 1858 for the rebellion to be suppressed in Jhansi, Lucknow. Other regions of Company controlled India—Bengal province, the Bombay Presidency, in the Punjab, the Sikh princes crucially helped the British by providing both soldiers and support. In some regions, most notably in Awadh, the took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against European presence. However, the rebel leaders proclaimed no articles of faith that presaged a new political system, even so, the rebellion proved to be an important watershed in Indian- and British Empire history. India was thereafter administered directly by the British government in the new British Raj, on 1 November 1858, Queen Victoria issued a proclamation to Indians, which while lacking the authority of a constitutional provision, promised rights similar to those of other British subjects. In the following decades, when admission to these rights was not always forthcoming, the victory was consolidated in 1764 at the Battle of Buxar, when the East India Company army defeated Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. After his defeat, the granted the Company the right to the collection of Revenue in the provinces of Bengal, Bihar. The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras, later, the Anglo-Mysore Wars, in 1806, the Vellore Mutiny was sparked by new uniform regulations that created resentment amongst both Hindu and Muslim sepoys. After the turn of the 19th century, Governor-General Wellesley began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories and this was achieved either by subsidiary alliances between the Company and local rulers or by direct military annexation

Indian rebellion of 1857
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A 1912 map showing the centres of Indian rebellion
Indian rebellion of 1857
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India in 1837 and 1857 showing East India Company (pink) and other territories
Indian rebellion of 1857
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Two sepoy officers; a private sepoy, 1820s
Indian rebellion of 1857
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Charles Canning, the Governor-General of India during the rebellion.