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The 11th Army was formed in early 1915. It briefly fought on the Western Front during the Battle of Ypres, holding the line against the Allied attack. On 22 April, it was transferred and placed with the Austrian 4th Army under Mackensen's command, behind the Gorlice–Tarnow gap, south of the Vistula River. In July 1915, the 11th Army advanced into Russian territory in a general German offensive. The 11th Army was dissolved on 8 September 1915.

1.
German Empire
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The German Empire was the historical German nation state that existed from the unification of Germany in 1871 to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918, when Germany became a federal republic. The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories, with most being ruled by royal families and this included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory. Although Prussia became one of kingdoms in the new realm, it contained most of its population and territory. Its influence also helped define modern German culture, after 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron, chemicals, and railways. In 1871, it had a population of 41 million people, and by 1913, a heavily rural collection of states in 1815, now united Germany became predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological, Germany became a great power, boasting a rapidly growing rail network, the worlds strongest army, and a fast-growing industrial base. In less than a decade, its navy became second only to Britains Royal Navy, after the removal of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II, the Empire embarked on a bellicose new course that ultimately led to World War I. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, the German Empire had two allies, Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, however, left the once the First World War started in August 1914. In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in autumn 1914 failed, the Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food. Germany was repeatedly forced to send troops to bolster Austria and Turkey on other fronts, however, Germany had great success on the Eastern Front, it occupied large Eastern territories following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 was designed to strangle the British, it failed, but the declaration—along with the Zimmermann Telegram—did bring the United States into the war. Meanwhile, German civilians and soldiers had become war-weary and radicalised by the Russian Revolution and this failed, and by October the armies were in retreat, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, Bulgaria had surrendered and the German people had lost faith in their political system. The Empire collapsed in the November 1918 Revolution as the Emperor and all the ruling monarchs abdicated, and a republic took over. The German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848, called Pan-Germanism, to Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarcks pragmatic Realpolitik. He envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany, the war resulted in the Confederation being partially replaced by a North German Confederation in 1867, comprising the 22 states north of the Main. The new constitution and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871, during the Siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William accepted to be proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The second German Constitution was adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, the political system remained the same. The empire had a parliament called the Reichstag, which was elected by universal male suffrage, however, the original constituencies drawn in 1871 were never redrawn to reflect the growth of urban areas

2.
Army
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An army or ground force is a fighting force that fights primarily on land. In the broadest sense, it is the military branch. It may also include other branches of the such as the air force via means of aviation corps. Within a national force, the word army may also mean a field army. They differ from army reserves who are activated only during such times as war or natural disasters, in several countries, the army is officially called the Land Army to differentiate it from an air force called the Air Army, notably France. In such countries, the army on its own retains its connotation of a land force in common usage. By convention, irregular military is understood in contrast to regular armies which grew slowly from personal bodyguards or elite militia, regular in this case refers to standardized doctrines, uniforms, organizations, etc. Regular military can also refer to full-time status, versus reserve or part-time personnel, other distinctions may separate statutory forces, from de facto non-statutory forces such as some guerrilla and revolutionary armies. Armies may also be expeditionary or fencible, india has had some of the earliest armies in the world. During the Indus Valley Civilization however, there was just a small force as they didnt fear invasion at the time. After the Aryan invasion, kingdoms and city-states started forming armies to protect their cities, one of the first known recorded battles, the Battle of the Ten Kings, happened when a Hindu king defeated an alliance of ten kings. During the Iron Age, the Maurya and Nanda Empires had large armies, in the Gupta age, large armies of longbowmen were recruited to fight off invading horse archer armies. Elephants, pikemen and cavalry were other featured troops, in Rajput times, the main piece of equipment was iron or chain-mail armour, a round shield, either a curved blade or a straight-sword, a chakra disc and a katar dagger. China has existed as a culture for thousands of years, the states of China raised armies for at least 1000 years before the Spring and Autumn Annals. By the Warring States period, the crossbow had been perfected enough to become a military secret, thus any political power of a state rested on the armies and their organization. China underwent political consolidation of the states of Han, Wei, Chu, Yan, Zhao and Qi, until by 221 BCE, Qin Shi Huang, sun Tzus The Art of War remains one of Chinas Seven Military Classics, even though it is two thousand years old. Since no political figure could exist without an army, measures were taken to only the most capable leaders could control the armies. Civil bureaucracies arose to control the power of the states

3.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany

4.
Eastern Front (World War I)
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It stretched from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south, included most of Eastern Europe and stretched deep into Central Europe as well. The term contrasts with Western Front, which was being fought in Belgium, in the opening months of the war, the Imperial Russian Army attempted an invasion of eastern Prussia in the northwestern theater, only to be beaten back by the Germans after some initial success. At the same time, in the south, they successfully invaded Galicia, in Russian Poland, the Germans failed to take Warsaw. But by 1915, the German and Austro-Hungarian armies were on the advance, dealing the Russians heavy casualties in Galicia and in Poland, Grand Duke Nicholas was sacked from his position as the commander-in-chief and replaced by the Tsar himself. Several offensives against the Germans in 1916 failed, including Lake Naroch Offensive, however, General Aleksei Brusilov oversaw a highly successful operation against Austria-Hungary that became known as the Brusilov Offensive, which saw the Russian Army make large gains. The Kingdom of Romania entered the war in August 1916, the Entente promised the region of Transylvania in return for Romanian support. The Romanian Army invaded Transylvania and had successes, but was forced to stop and was pushed back by the Germans and Austro-Hungarians when Bulgaria attacked them in the south. Meanwhile, a revolution occurred in Russia in February 1917, Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate and a Russian Provisional Government was founded, with Georgy Lvov as its first leader, who was eventually replaced by Alexander Kerensky. The newly formed Russian Republic continued to fight the war alongside Romania, Kerensky oversaw the July Offensive, which was largely a failure and caused a collapse in the Russian Army. The new government established by the Bolsheviks signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers, taking it out of the war and making large territorial concessions. Romania was also forced to surrender and signed a similar treaty, the front in the east was much longer than that in the west. This had an effect on the nature of the warfare. While World War I on the Western Front developed into trench warfare and this was because the greater length of the front ensured that the density of soldiers in the line was lower so the line was easier to break. Once broken, the communication networks made it difficult for the defender to rush reinforcements to the rupture in the line. Propaganda was a key component of the culture of World War I and it was most commonly deployed through the state-controlled media to glorify the homeland and demonize the enemy. Propaganda often took the form of images which portrayed stereotypes from folklore about the enemy or from glorified moments from the nations history, on the Eastern Front, propaganda took many forms such as opera, film, spy fiction, theater, spectacle, war novels and graphic art. Across the Eastern Front the amount of used in each country varied from state to state. Propaganda took many forms within each country and was distributed by different groups

5.
Balkans Campaign (World War I)
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The prime cause of World War I was the hostility between Serbia and Austria-Hungary. Consequently, some of the earliest fighting took place between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, Serbia held out against Austria-Hungary for more than a year before it was conquered in late 1915. Dalmatia was a region during World War I that both Italy and Serbia intended to seize from Austria-Hungary. Italy entered the war in 1915 upon agreeing to the Treaty of London that guaranteed Italy a substantial portion of Dalmatia, Allied diplomacy was able to bring Romania into the war in 1916 but this proved disastrous for the Romanians. Shortly after they joined the war, a combined German, Austrian and Bulgarian offensive conquered two-thirds of their country in a campaign which ended in December 1916. However, the Romanian and Russian armies managed to stabilize the front, the Serbian Army was successfully able to rebuff the larger Austro-Hungarian Army due to Russias assisting invasion from the north. In 1915 the Austro-Hungarian Empire placed additional soldiers in the front while succeeding to engage Bulgaria as an ally. Shortly after the Serbian forces were attacked both the north and east, forcing a retreat to Greece. Despite the loss, the retreat was successful and the Serbian Army remained operational in Greece with an established base. Romania before the war was an ally of Austria-Hungary but, like Italy, the Romanian government finally chose to side with the Allies in August 1916, the main reason for this was that they wanted the occupation and annexation of Transylvania, to the Kingdom of Romania. The war started as a disaster for Romania. Before the year was out, the Germans, Hungarians, Austrians, Bulgarians and Ottomans had conquered Wallachia and Dobruja –, in 1917, re-trained and re-supplied, the Romanian Army, together with a disintegrating Russian Army, were successful in containing the German advance into Moldavia. In May 1918, after the German advance in Ukraine and Russia signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Romania, surrounded by the Central Powers forces, had no other choice but to sue for peace. After the Vardar Offensive on the Macedonian Front knocked Bulgaria out of the war, prior to direct intervention in World War I, Italy occupied the port of Vlorë in Albania in December 1914. Upon entering the war, Italy spread its occupation to region of southern Albania beginning in the autumn 1916, Italian forces in 1916 recruited Albanian irregulars to serve alongside them. Italy with permission of the Allied command, occupied Northern Epirus on 23 August 1916, in June 1917, Italy proclaimed central and southern Albania as a protectorate of Italy while Northern Albania was allocated to the states of Serbia and Montenegro. By 31 October 1918, French and Italian forces expelled the Austro-Hungarian Army from Albania, Dalmatia was a strategic region during World War I that both Italy and Serbia intended to seize from Austria-Hungary. From 5–6 November 1918, Italian forces were reported to have reached Lissa, Lagosta, Sebenico, in 1918, Admiral Enrico Millo declared himself Italys Governor of Dalmatia

6.
Serbian Campaign of World War I
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The Serbian Campaign of World War I was fought from late July 1914, when Austria-Hungary invaded the Kingdom of Serbia at the outset of World War I, until the wars conclusion in November 1918. The front ranged from the Danube River to southern Macedonia and back north again, the Serbian Army declined severely towards the end of the war, falling from about 420,000 at its peak to about 100,000 at the moment of liberation. The Kingdom of Serbia lost more than 1,200,000 inhabitants during the war, according to estimates prepared by the Yugoslav government in 1924, Serbia lost 265,164 soldiers, or 25% of all mobilized people. By comparison, France lost 16. 8%, Germany 15. 4%, Russia 11. 5%, Austria-Hungary precipitated the Bosnian crisis of 1908–09 by annexing the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878. This angered the Kingdom of Serbia and its patron, the Pan-Slavic, Russian political manoeuvring in the region destabilised peace accords that were already unravelling in what was known as the powder keg of Europe. In 1912 and 1913, the First Balkan War was fought between the Balkan League of Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro and the fracturing Ottoman Empire. The resulting Treaty of London further shrank the Ottoman Empire by creating an independent Principality of Albania and enlarging the territorial holdings of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and this began a period of diplomatic manoeuvring among Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France, and Britain called the July Crisis. When Serbia agreed to eight of the ten demands, Austria-Hungary declared war on 28 July 1914. The dispute between Austria-Hungary and Serbia escalated into what is now known as World War I, and drew in Russia, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom. Within a week, Austria-Hungary had to face a war with Russia, Serbias patron, the result was that Serbia became a subsidiary front in the massive fight that started to unfold along Austria-Hungarys border with Russia. Serbias strategy was to hold on as long as it could and hope the Russians could defeat the main Austro-Hungarian Army, with or without the help of other allies. Serbia constantly had to worry about its hostile neighbor to the east, Bulgaria, with which it had fought several wars, the standing peacetime Austro-Hungarian army had some 36,000 officers and non-commissioned officers and 414,000 soldiers. During the mobilization, this number was increased to a total of 3,350,000 men of all ranks and this vast manpower allowed the Austro-Hungarian army to replace its losses regularly and keep units at their formation strength. According to some sources, during 1914 there were on average 150,000 men per month sent to replace the loses in the field army, during 1915 these numbers rose to 200,000 per month. However, with the beginning of the Russian general mobilization, Armeeoberkommando decided to move the 2nd Army to Galicia to counter Russian forces, furthermore, the Austro-Hungarian defeats suffered during the first invasion of Serbia forced AOK to transfer two divisions from the 2nd Army permanently to Potioreks force. By 12 August, Austria-Hungary had amassed over 500,000 soldiers on Serbian frontiers, with the departure of the major part of the 2nd Army to the Russian front, this number fell to some 285,000 of operational troops, including garrisons. Apart from land forces, Austria-Hungary also deployed its Danube River flotilla of six monitors, many Austro-Hungarian soldiers were not of good quality. About one-quarter of them were illiterate, and most of the conscripts from the subject nationalities did not speak or understand German or Hungarian

7.
Macedonian Front
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The expedition came too late and in insufficient force to prevent the fall of Serbia, and was complicated by the internal political crisis in Greece. The Macedonian Front remained quite stable, despite local actions, until the great Allied offensive in September 1918, which resulted in the capitulation of Bulgaria and the liberation of Serbia. Following the asassination of the Crown Prince by a Bosnian Serb, after the entry of the Ottoman Empire into the war on the side of the Central Powers, the decisive factor in the Balkans became the attitude of Bulgaria. Bulgaria occupied an important position on the Serbian flank and its intervention on either side of the belligerents would be decisive. Bulgaria and Serbia had fought each other twice in the thirty years, in the Serbo-Bulgarian War of 1885. Bulgaria had suffered defeat in 1913 and the Bulgarian government and people felt that Serbia had stolen land which rightfully belonged to Bulgaria. After the victory of the Serbian army in the Battle of Kolubara in December 1914, on 15 October 1915, two Bulgarian armies attacked, overrunning Serbian units, penetrating into the valley of the South Morava river near Vranje up to 22 October 1915. The Bulgarian forces occupied Kumanovo, Štip, and Skopje, and prevented the withdrawal of the Serbian army to the Greek border, for a year, the Allies had repeatedly promised to send serious military forces to Serbia, while nothing had materialized. But with Bulgarias mobilization to its south, the situation for Serbia became desperate, the main reason for the delay was the lack of available Allied forces due to the critical situation in the Western Front. The Entente used Greek neutrality as an excuse, although they could have used the Albanian coast for a deployment of reinforcements. The Entente also delayed due to protracted secret negotiations aiming at bringing Bulgaria into the Allied camp, in the event the lack of Allied support sealed the fate of the Serbian Army. Against Serbia the Central Powers marshalled the Bulgarian Army, a German Army, the Germans and Austro-Hungarians began their attack on 7 October with a massive artillery barrage, followed by attacks across the rivers. Then, on 11 October, the Bulgarian Army attacked from two directions, one from the north of Bulgaria towards Niš, the other from the south towards Skopje, the Bulgarian Army rapidly broke through the weaker Serbian forces which tried to block its advance. With the Bulgarian breakthrough, the Serbian position became hopeless, their army in the north faced either encirclement and enforced surrender. Marshal Putnik ordered a full Serbian retreat, southwards and westwards through Montenegro, the Serbs faced great difficulties, terrible weather, poor roads and the need for the army to help the tens of thousands of civilians who retreated with them. Only c.125,000 Serbian soldiers reached the Adriatic coast and embarked on Italian transport ships carried the army to Corfu. Marshal Putnik had to be carried during the retreat, he died just over a year later in a French hospital. The French and British divisions marched north from Thessaloniki in October 1915 under the joint command of French General Maurice Sarrail, however, the War Office in London was reluctant to advance too deep into Serbia

8.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form

9.
Field army
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A field army is a military formation in many armed forces, composed of two or more corps and may be subordinate to an army group. Likewise, air armies are equivalent formation within some air forces, a field army is composed of 100,000 to 150,000 troops. Particular field armies are named or numbered to distinguish them from army in the sense of an entire national land military force. In English, the style for naming field armies is word numbers, such as First Army, whereas corps are usually distinguished by Roman numerals. A field army may be given a name in addition to or as an alternative to a numerical name, such as the British Army of the Rhine. The term is derived from the fact that they were commanded by Roman emperors, while the Roman comitatensis is sometimes translated as field army, it may also be translated as the more generic field force or mobile force. In some armed forces, an army is or has been equivalent to a corps-level unit, prior to 1945, this was the case with a gun within the Imperial Japanese Army, for which the formation equivalent in size to a field army was an area army. In the Soviet Red Army and the Soviet Air Forces, an army was subordinate in wartime to a front and it contained at least three to five divisions along with artillery, air defense, reconnaissance and other supporting units. In peacetime, a Soviet army was subordinate to a military district. Modern field armies are large formations which vary significantly between armed forces in size, composition, and scope of responsibility. For instance, within NATO a field army is composed of a headquarters, a battle is influenced at the field army level by transferring divisions and reinforcements from one corps to another to increase the pressure on the enemy at a critical point. NATO armies are controlled by a general or lieutenant general, Military unit Military history List of numbered armies

10.
German Army (German Empire)
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The Imperial German Army was the name given to the combined land and air forces of the German Empire. The term Deutsches Heer is also used for the modern German Army, the German Army was formed after the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership in 1871 and dissolved in 1919, after the defeat of the German Empire in World War I. When operating together, the units were known as the Federal Army, Prussia formed the North German Confederation and the treaty provided for the maintenance of a Federal Army and a Federal Navy. Further laws on military duty also used these terms, through these conventions and the 1871 Constitution of the German Empire, an Army of the Realm was created. The contingents of the Bavarian, Saxon and Württemberg kingdoms remained semi-autonomous, the Constitution of the German Empire, dated April 16,1871, changed references in the North German Constitution from Federal Army to either Army of the Realm or German Army. After 1871, the armies of the four kingdoms remained relatively distinct. German Army was used in legal documents, such as the Military Penal Code. Württemberg and Saxon units were numbered according to the Prussian system, the commander of the Imperial German Army, less the Bavarian contingent, was the Kaiser. He was assisted by a Military Cabinet and exercised control through the Prussian Ministry of War, the Chief of the General Staff became the Kaisers main military advisor and the most powerful military figure in the Empire. Bavaria kept its own Ministry of War and General Staff, saxony also maintained its own Ministry of War and the Ministry of War of Württemberg also continued to exist. Command of the Prussian Army had been reformed in the wake of the defeats suffered by Prussia in the Napoleonic Wars, the General Staff system, that sought to institutionalize military excellence, was the main result. It provided planning and organizational work during peacetime and wartime, the Prussian General Staff, proven in battle in the Wars of Unification, became the German General Staff upon formation of the German Empire, given Prussias leading role in the German Army. During wartime, the staff of the Army inspectorates formed field army commands, during World War I, a higher command level, the army group, was created. Each army group controlled several field armies, Germany was divided into army inspectorates, each of which oversaw three or four corps. There were five in 1871, with three more added between 1907 and 1913, the corps consisted of two or more divisions and various support troops, covering a geographical area. The corps was responsible for maintaining the reserves and Landwehr in the corps area. By 1914, there were 21 corps areas under Prussian jurisdiction, besides the regional corps, there was also a Guard Corps, which controlled the elite Prussian Guard units. A corps usually included an infantry battalion, a heavy artillery battalion, an engineer battalion, a telegraph battalion

11.
Kassel
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Kassel is a city located on the Fulda River in northern Hesse, Germany. It is the seat of the Regierungsbezirk Kassel and the Kreis of the same name and has 200,507 inhabitants in December 2015. The former capital of the state of Hesse-Kassel has many palaces and parks, including the Bergpark Wilhelmshöhe, Kassel is also known for the documenta exhibitions of contemporary art. The citys name is derived from the ancient Castellum Cattorum, a castle of the Chatti, Kassel was first mentioned in 913 AD, as the place where two deeds were signed by King Conrad I. The place was called Chasella and was a fortification at a crossing the Fulda river. A deed from 1189 certifies that Cassel had city rights, in 1567, the Landgraviate of Hesse, until then centered in Marburg, was divided among four sons, with Hesse-Kassel becoming one of its successor states. Kassel was its capital and became a centre of Calvinist Protestantism in Germany, strong fortifications were built to protect the Protestant stronghold against Catholic enemies. Secret societies, such as Rosicrucianism flourished, with Christian Rosenkreutz’s work Fama Fraternitis first published in 1617, in 1685, Kassel became a refuge for 1,700 Huguenots who found shelter in the newly established borough of Oberneustadt. Landgrave Charles, who was responsible for this act, also ordered the construction of the Oktagon. In the early 19th century, the Brothers Grimm lived in Kassel and they collected and wrote most of their fairy tales there. At that time, around 1803, the Landgraviate was elevated to a Principality, shortly after, it was annexed by Napoleon and in 1807 it became the capital of the short-lived Kingdom of Westphalia under Napoleons brother Jérôme. The Electorate was restored in 1813, having sided with Austria in the Austro-Prussian War to gain supremacy in Germany, the principality was annexed by Prussia in 1866. The Prussian administration united Nassau, Frankfurt and Hesse-Kassel into the new Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, Kassel ceased to be a princely residence, but soon developed into a major industrial centre, as well as a major railway junction. Henschel & Son, the largest railway locomotive manufacturer in Germany at the end of the century, was based in Kassel. In 1870, after the Battle of Sedan, Napoleon III was sent as a prisoner to the castle of Wilhelmshohe above the city, during World War I the German military headquarters were located in the castle of Wilhelmshohe. In the late 1930s Nazis destroyed Heinrich Hübschs Kassel Synagogue, the most severe bombing of Kassel in World War II destroyed 90% of the downtown area, some 10,000 people were killed, and 150,000 were made homeless. Most of the casualties were civilians or wounded soldiers recuperating in local hospitals, Karl Gerland replaced the regional Gauleiter, Karl Weinrich, soon after the raid. The Allied ground advance into Germany reached Kassel at the beginning of April 1945, post-war, most of the ancient buildings were not restored, and large parts of the city area were completely rebuilt in the style of the 1950s

12.
Western Front (World War I)
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The Western Front or Western Theater was the main theatre of war during World War I. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, the tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a line of fortified trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France. This line remained unchanged for most of the war. Between 1915 and 1917 there were several major offensives along this front, the attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. However, a combination of entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire, as a result, no significant advances were made. In an effort to break the deadlock, this front saw the introduction of new technology, including poison gas, aircraft. But it was only after the adoption of improved tactics that some degree of mobility was restored, the German Armys Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that marked the end of the conflict on the Eastern Front. In spite of the stagnant nature of this front, this theatre would prove decisive. The terms of peace were agreed upon with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, belgiums neutrality was guaranteed by Britain under the 1839 Treaty of London, this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914, Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5–16 August, Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under von Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp, leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20–23 August, for their part, the French had five armies deployed on their borders. The pre-war French offensive plan, Plan XVII, was intended to capture Alsace-Lorraine following the outbreak of hostilities, on 7 August the VII Corps attacked Alsace with its objectives being to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with 1st and 2nd Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg-Morhange in Lorraine, in keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French advanced the 3rd and 4th Armies toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau, before being driven back

13.
Galicia (Eastern Europe)
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Galicia is a historical and geographic region in Central-Eastern Europe, once a small Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria that straddled the modern-day border between Poland and Ukraine. The area, which is named after the city of Halych, was first mentioned in Hungarian historical chronicles in the year 1206 as Galiciæ. The nucleus of historic Galicia lies within the regions of western Ukraine, Lviv, Ternopil. In the 18th century, territories that became part of the modern Polish regions of Lesser Poland Voivodeship, Subcarpathian Voivodeship. There is considerable overlap between Galicia and south-west Ruthenia, especially a cross-border region that is inhabited by various nationalities, Halych-Volhynia cut a swathe as a mighty principality under the reign of Roman the Great in 1170–1205. After the expulsion of the Hungarians in 1221, Ruthenians took back rule of the area, Romans son Daniel of Galicia was crowned king of Halych-Volhynia. He founded Lviv, named in honour of his son Leo I, the Ukrainian name Halych comes from the Khwalis or Kaliz who occupied the area from the time of the Magyars. They were also called Khalisioi in Greek, and Khvalis in Ukrainian, the Lypytsia culture supposedly replaced the existing Thracian Hallstatt and Vysotske cultures. Others assert that the name has Slavic origins – from halytsa, meaning a naked hill, the jackdaw was used as a charge in the citys coat of arms and later also in the coat of arms of Galicia. The name, however, predates the coat of arms, which may represent canting or simply folk etymology, although the Hungarians were driven out from Halych-Volhynia by 1221, Hungarian kings continued to add Galicia et Lodomeria to their official titles. In 1527, the Habsburgs inherited those titles, together with the Hungarian crown, in 1772, Empress Maria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary, decided to use those historical claims to justify her participation in the first partition of Poland. In fact, the territories acquired by Austria did not correspond exactly to those of former Halych-Volhynia, Volhynia, including the city of Volodymyr-Volynskyi – after which Lodomeria was named – was taken by Russia, not Austria. On the other hand, much of Lesser Poland – Nowy Sącz and Przemyśl, Zamość, Lublin, the full official name of the new Austrian province was Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria with the Duchies of Auschwitz and Zator. After the incorporation of the Free City of Kraków in 1846, it was extended to Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, each of those entities was formally separate, they were listed as such in the Austrian emperors titles, each had its distinct coat-of-arms and flag. For administrative purposes, however, they formed a single province, the duchies of Auschwitz and Zator were small historical principalities west of Kraków, on the border with Prussian Silesia. Lodomeria, under the name Volhynia, was not ruled by Austria, dale Dwellers, Krakowiacy, Mazury, Grębowiacy, Głuchoniemcy, Bełżanie, Bużanie, Opolanie, Wołyniacy, Pobereżcy or Nistrowianie. During the Great Migration period of Europe, a variety of nomadic groups invaded the area, overall, Slavs came to dominate the Celtic-German population. In the 12th century, a Rurikid Principality of Halych formed there, Galicia and Volhynia had originally been two separate Rurikid principalities, assigned on a rotating basis to younger members of the Kievan dynasty

14.
Second Battle of Ypres
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It was the first mass use by Germany of poison gas on the Western Front. For the first time, a colonial force defeated a European power on European soil. The eastern part of the salient was defended by one Canadian, the II Corps and V Corps of the Second Army comprised the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Cavalry Divisions and the 4th, 27th, 28th, Northumbrian, Lahore and 1st Canadian Divisions. Although poison gas had been used before, at the Battle of Bolimów three months earlier, the gas had liquified in the cold and become inert, German troops carried 5,730 gas cylinders, weighing 90 pounds each, to the front by hand. The cylinders, opened by hand, relied on the wind to carry the gas towards enemy lines. Because of this method of dispersal, a number of German soldiers were injured or killed while carrying out the attack. The French troops in the path of the gas cloud sustained about 6,000 casualties, many died within ten minutes, and many more were blinded. Chlorine gas forms hypochlorous acid when combined with water, destroying moist tissue such as the lungs, the chlorine gas, denser than air, quickly filled the trenches and forced the troops out into heavy enemy fire. Although many French troops ran for their lives, others stood their ground, the German High Command had not foreseen the effectiveness of the new weapon and all available troops had been transferred to Russia, leaving few reserves in the west. General von Falkenhayn, Chief of the German General Staff, had ordered the attack as an effort by the German 4th Army. German troops advanced at 5,00 p. m. but dusk, apprehension about the effect of the gas, Canadian troops defended the flank of the break-in by urinating into cloth and holding them to their faces to counter the effects of the gas. At Kitcheners Wood, the 10th Battalion of the 2nd Canadian Brigade was ordered to counter-attack in the gap created by the gas attack. They formed up after 11,00 p. m. on 22 April, both battalions attacked with over 800 men, in waves of two companies each, at 11,46 p. m. Without reconnaissance, the battalions ran into obstacles halfway to their objective, engaged in fire from the wood. The attack cleared the former oak plantation of Germans at a 75-percent casualty rate, the village of St. Julien was in the rear of the 1st Canadian Division until the poison-gas attack of 22 April, when it became the front line. Julien into the rear of the Canadian front line and he was killed the following day. On the morning of 24 April, the Germans released another gas cloud towards the re-formed Canadian line just west of St. Julien, word was passed to the troops to urinate on their handkerchiefs and place them over their nose and mouth. The countermeasures were insufficient, and German troops took the village, the next day the York and Durham Brigade units of the Northumberland Division counter-attacked, failing to secure their objectives but establishing a new line closer to the village

15.
Vistula
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The Vistula is the longest and largest river in Poland, at 1,047 kilometres in length. The drainage basin area of the Vistula is 194,424 km2, the remainder is in Belarus, Ukraine and Slovakia. The Vistula rises at Barania Góra in the south of Poland,1,220 meters above sea level in the Silesian Beskids, where it begins with the White Little Vistula and the Black Little Vistula. It empties into the Vistula Lagoon or directly into the Gdańsk Bay of the Baltic Sea with a delta, the name was first recorded by Pomponius Mela in AD40 and by Pliny in AD77 in his Natural History. Mela names the river Vistula, Pliny uses Vistla, the root of the name Vistula is Indo-European *u̯eis- to ooze, flow slowly and is found in many European rivernames. The diminutive endings -ila, -ula, were used in many Indo-European languages, in writing about the Vistula River and its peoples, Ptolemy uses the Greek spelling Ouistoula. Other ancient sources spell it Istula, ammianus Marcellinus refers to the Bisula, note the absence of the -t-. Jordanes uses Viscla, while the Anglo-Saxon poem Widsith refers to it as the Wistla, the Vistula river basin covers 194,424 square kilometres, its average altitude rising to 270 metres above sea level. In addition, the majority of its basin is located at heights of 100 to 200 m above sea level. The highest point of the basin lies at 2,655 metres. The asymmetry of the basin is 73–27%. The most recent glaciation of the Pleistocene epoch, which ended around 10,000 BC, is called the Vistulian glaciation or Weichselian glaciation in regard to north-central Europe. The river forms a delta called the Żuławy Wiślane around the town of Biała Góra near Sztum, about 50 km from the mouth. In the city of Gdańsk the Head of the Leniwka branch separates again into the Szkarpawa branch, the so-called Dead Wisła divides again into the Przegalinie branch flowing into Gdańsk Bay. Until the 14th century the Vistula was divided into an eastern branch, the Elbląg Vistula, and the smaller western branch. Since 1371 the Vistula of Gdańsk is the main artery. After the flood in 1840 an additional branch formed called the Śmiała Wisła, in 1890 through 1895, additional waterworks were carried out up the Świbna. The history of the River Vistula and her valley spans over 2 million years, the river is connected to the geological period called the Quaternary, in which distinct cooling of the climate took place

16.
Max von Gallwitz
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Max Karl Wilhelm von Gallwitz was a German general from Breslau, Silesia, who served with distinction during World War I on both the Eastern and Western Fronts. Gallwitz grew up in a Catholic family in Breslau and they had a daughter and son Werner, who became a Lieutenant general in the Second World War. Later, he began the First World War as a commander on the Western Front. In 1915 he took command of Armee-Gruppe Gallwitz and participated in the Galicia offensive alongside Mackensen, towards the end of 1915, he succeeded Mackensen as commander of the Eleventh Army, as the latter campaigned against Serbia. In 1916, Gallwitz moved back to the Western Front and defended against the British attack in the Battle of the Somme and he took over command of 2nd Army and of Heeresgruppe Gallwitz - Somme controlling 1st and 2nd Armies. From 1916-18 he commanded the Fifth Army in the west, most notably engaging the Americans during the Battle of Saint-Mihiel, following his retirement from the army, Gallwitz served as a deputy in the Reichstag for the German National Peoples Party. Pour le Mérite, Oak Leaves added on 28 September 1915 Grand Cross of the Order of the Red Eagle Order of the Black Eagle Notes Bibliography Jung, Jakob

17.
III Corps (German Empire)
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The III Army Corps / III AK was a corps level command of the Prussian and then the Imperial German Armies from the 19th Century to World War I. It was established in 1814 as the General Headquarters in Berlin and its headquarters was in Berlin and its catchment area was the Province of Brandenburg. In peacetime, the Corps was assigned to the IV Army Inspectorate and it was still in existence at the end of the war in the 7th Army, Heeresgruppe Deutscher Kronprinz on the Western Front. The Corps was disbanded with the demobilisation of the German Army after World War I, in 1813 the III Corps fought at the battles of Luckau, Grossbeeren, Dennewitz, Leipzig and Arnhem. In 1814, the fought at Hoogstraten and Laon. Part of the Corps fought in the Second Schleswig War of 1864, including the key Battle of Dybbøl, the III Corps formed part of Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussias 1st Army and fought in the Austro-Prussian War against Austria in 1866, including the Battle of Königgrätz. In the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, the Corps joined the 2nd Army and it saw action in the battles of Spicheren, Mars-la-Tour, Gravelotte, Beaune-la-Rolande, Orléans, and Le Mans, and in the Siege of Metz. The 25 peacetime Corps of the German Army had a standardised organisation. Each consisted of two divisions with two infantry brigades, one field artillery brigade and a cavalry brigade each. Each brigade normally consisted of two regiments of the type, so each Corps normally commanded 8 infantry,4 field artillery and 4 cavalry regiments. Each Corps also directly controlled a number of other units and this could include one or more Foot Artillery Regiment Jäger Battalion Pioneer Battalion Train Battalion On mobilization on 2 August 1914 the Corps was restructured. Divisions received engineer companies and other units from the Corps headquarters. On mobilisation, III Corps was assigned to the 1st Army on the wing of the forces for the Schlieffen Plan offensive in August 1914 on the Western Front. It participated in the Battle of Mons and the First Battle of the Marne which marked the end of the German advances in 1914, later, it participated in the Battle of Verdun and the Battle of Amiens. It was still in existence at the end of the war in the 7th Army, Imperial German Army 1914-18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle. The World War One Source Book, the End of Empire, Napoleons 1814 Campaign. Stellenbesetzung der deutschen Heere 1815-1939, Bd.1, the London Stamp Exchange Ltd.1920. The German Forces in the Field, 7th Revision, 11th November 1918, Compiled by the General Staff, Imperial War Museum, London and The Battery Press, Inc.1918

18.
IV Reserve Corps (German Empire)
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The IV Reserve Corps was a corps level command of the German Army in World War I. IV Reserve Corps was formed on the outbreak of the war in August 1914 as part of the mobilisation of the Army and it was initially commanded by General der Artillerie Hans von Gronau, who was recalled from retirement. From 24 July 1916 to 19 December 1917, the Corps was known as Karpathenkorps, the Corps was still in existence at the end of the war as part of the 2nd Army, Heeresgruppe Kronprinz Rupprecht on the Western Front. On formation in August 1914, IV Reserve Corps consisted of two divisions, made up of reserve units, 22nd Reserve Division was formed by units drawn from the XI Corps District. On mobilisation, IV Reserve Corps was assigned to the 1st Army, IV Reserve Corps had the following commanders during its existence, German Army order of battle German Army order of battle, Western Front Cron, Hermann. Imperial German Army 1914-18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle, the London Stamp Exchange Ltd.1920. The German Forces in the Field, 7th Revision, 11th November 1918, Compiled by the General Staff, imperial War Museum, London and The Battery Press, Inc.1918

19.
X Reserve Corps (German Empire)
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The X Reserve Corps was a corps level command of the German Army in World War I. X Reserve Corps was formed on the outbreak of the war in August 1914 as part of the mobilisation of the Army and it was initially commanded by General der Infanterie Günther Graf von Kirchbach, formerly President of the Military Tribunal. It was still in existence at the end of the war in the 4th Army, on formation in August 1914, X Reserve Corps consisted of two divisions, made up of reserve units. Despite its name, 2nd Guards Reserve Division was not formed by units drawn predominantly from the Guards Corps but from II Corps District, VII Corps District and X Corps District. On mobilisation, X Reserve Corps was assigned to the 2nd Army as part of the wing of the forces that invaded France. X Reserve Corps had the following commanders during its existence, German Army order of battle German Army order of battle, Western Front Cron, imperial German Army 1914-18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle. Formationsgeschichte der Deutschen Infanterie im Ersten Weltkrieg, the London Stamp Exchange Ltd.1920. The German Forces in the Field, 7th Revision, 11th November 1918, Compiled by the General Staff, imperial War Museum, London and The Battery Press, Inc.1918

20.
Veles, Macedonia
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Veles is a city in the central part of the Republic of Macedonia on the Vardar river. The city of Veles is the seat of Veles Municipality, vilazora was initially the Paeonian city Bylazora from the period of early Classical Antiquity. The citys name was Βελισσός Velissos in Ancient Greek, under Turkish rule it became a township called Köprülü in the Üsküp sanjak. From 1877 to 1912 the sandjak was part of the Kosovo vilayet, from 1929 to 1941, Veles was part of the Vardar Banovina of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. After World War II, the city was known as Titov Veles after Yugoslavian president Josip Broz Tito, cars registered in Veles were identified by the code TV, which was changed as late as 2000 to VE. The area of present-day Veles has been inhabited for over a millennium, in antiquity, it was a Paionian city called Bylazora, and contained a substantial population of Thracians and possibly Illyrians. It was then part of the Byzantine Empire, and at times the First, before the Balkan Wars, it was a township with the name Köprülü, part of the Sanjak of Üsküp. Some identify Veles with the Velitza of which Saint Clement of Ohrid was bishop and it is probably in Bosnia and Hercegovina. Through Macedonia Veles is known as center and recently, as a leader in the implementing of IT in the local administration in Macedonia. Veles is a place of poetry, culture, history and tradition, as well as a town with plentiful and precious cultural heritage, Veles is a municipality of 55,000 residents. The geographic location of the city of Veles makes it suitable for hiking and camping, one such location is the tranquil village Bogomilja. Nearby there is the man made lake Mladost, which is known as the recreational centre. Two TV stations operate in Veles -Channel 21 & Zdravkin- and many radio stations

21.
Prilep
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Prilep is the fourth largest city in the Republic of Macedonia. It has a population of 66,246 and is known as the city under Markos Towers because of its proximity to the towers of Prince Marko, the city also produces a large quantity of Macedonian Bianco Sivec. Tobacco is one of Prileps traditional cash crops and prospers in the Macedonian climate, many of the worlds largest cigarette makers, such as Marlboro, West and Camel use Prileps tobacco in their cigarettes after it is processed in local factories such as Tutunski kombinat Prilep. A Tobacco Institute is established in the city in order to new types of tobacco. The overwhelming majority of the city population is Macedonian, the Macedonian population at the last census counted 64,527, there is also a Romani minority, counting some 4,421 inhabitants, also Serbs and Turks. Prilep was founded on the ruins of the ancient Macedonian city of Styberra, first a town in Macedonia, Styberra, though razed by the Goths in 268, remained partly inhabited. Byzantium lost it to the Second Bulgarian Empire, but later retook it, Prilep was acquired in 1334 by Serbian King Dušan and after 1365 the town belonged to King Vukašin, co-ruler of Dušans son, Tzar Stefan Uroš V. After the death of Vukašin in 1371, Prilep was ruled by his son Marko, in 1395 it was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire, of which it remained a part of until 1913, when it entered into the Kingdom of Serbia. In the late 19th and early 20th century, Prilep was part of the Manastir Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire and it was occupied by Bulgaria between 17 November 1915 and 25 September 1918 during World War I. In 1918 Prilep became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, on 8 April 1941, just two days after the start of the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia, Prilep was occupied by the German Army, and on 26 April 1941 by the Bulgarian Army. Together with most of Vardar Macedonia, Prilep was annexed by the Kingdom of Bulgaria from 1941 to 1944, on 9 September 1944 Prilep was liberated for a short time by the Yugoslav Partisans, but the German Army soon seized control of the town again. Prilep was definitively liberated on 3 November 1944, from 1944 to 1991 the town belonged to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, as part of its constituent Socialist Republic of Macedonia. Since 1991 the town has been part of the Republic of Macedonia, one of the most important institutions in the city is the Institute of Old Slavic Culture. An art colony is hosted in the center of Prilep in the Center of Contemporary Visual Arts and it hosts painters and sculptors every year and, periodically, it hosts workshops and symposia for vitrage, mosaics, photography, graphics and clay, from countries around the world. The collection of sculptures carved in wood was acknowledged as a heritage by the most relevant criticizers. 2007 was the 50th anniversary of the colony, every year in October the International Childrens Music Festival Asterisks brings together children from all over the world. Every year the Professional Theater Festival of Macedonia, honoring Vojdan Chernodrinski, the Monastery of Zrze and the Monastery of the Holy Archangel Michael which has 12th and 14th century frescoes are notable sites of the culture of Prilep. Pivofest is a yearly 4 day party held in the middle of July that attracts around 200,000 visitors to the city, there are international popular music acts performing nightly on the main stage in the square as well as at the various clubs around town

22.
General of the Infantry (Germany)
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General of the Infantry is a former rank of German Ground forces. Present it is an appointment or position to an OF-6 rank officer, responsible for affairs of training. General of the Infantry was a rank of General of the branch OF8 in the German land forces and also in the Prussian Army. It was the third-highest General officer rank, subordinate only to Colonel General and it is equivalent to a three-star rank today. The same rank was adopted by the Finnish Army between the world wars, German cavalry officers of equivalent rank were called General der Kavallerie and those in the artillery corps were General der Artillerie. In 1935 the Wehrmacht added the ranks of General der Panzertruppe, General der Gebirgstruppen, General der Fallschirmtruppen, in the Luftwaffe, the equivalent rank was General der Flieger. The rank was generally referred to only in the form of General, in the modern German armed forces, the Bundeswehr, the rank of Generalleutnant corresponds to the traditional rank of General der Infanterie. There was no equivalent rank in the army of East Germany, in the Bundeswehr, the position of an infantry officer responsible for certain questions of troop training and equipment, usually with the rank of Brigadier Generals. The position of general of the infantry is connected with that of commander of the infantry school, corresponding service positions also exist for other branches of the army. Since in this usage it refers to a not a rank. The form of address is usually Herr General and/or Herr Oberst, note that a number of these officers may also have gone on to higher ranks during their careers. General Comparative officer ranks of World War II

23.
Max von Fabeck
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Herrmann Gustav Karl Max von Fabeck was a Prussian military officer and a German General der Infantarie during World War I. He commanded the 13th Corps in the 5th Army and took part in the Race to the Sea on the Western Front, subsequently, he commanded several German armies during the war until his evacuation from the front due to illness in 1916 and died on 16 December. A competent and highly decorated commander, von Fabeck is a recipient of the Pour le Mérite, Prussias, Fabeck was born in Berlin in 1854, when it was the capital of the Kingdom of Prussia. He was the son of Prussian Lieutenant-General Hermann von Fabeck and wife Bertha, by the time he was 17 years old he was already a second lieutenant in the 1st Footguards Regiment. From 1878 to 1879 he attended the Prussian Military Academy, in 1882 he was appointed to the German General Staff and was promoted to captain in 1884. From 1886 he served in the General Staff of the 28, on 24 October 1887 married Helene von Seldeneck, the daughter of the Grand Duke of Baden, chamberlain of William and Julie Brandt Seldeneck of Lindau. The couple had three daughters Ilse, Margaret and Hildegard and he became a staff officer to the VI Army Corps in Breslau in 1889 and shortly thereafter was promoted to Major. From 1893 he served in the regiment Grenadier König Friedrich Wilhelm II, in 1896 he was a Lieutenant Colonel Chief of Staff of the XI. Army Corps in Kassel. In 1898 he was promoted to Colonel and received his first command, from 1901 he led the 25th Infantry Brigade in the 13th Army Division in Münster. He was promoted to Major General that same year, in 1906 Fabeck was promoted to lieutenant general and commander of the 28th Army Division in Karlsruhe. In 1910 he was appointed general of the infantry and commanding general of the XV Army Corps in Strasbourg, in 1913 he assumed the same position at the XIII Army Corps in Stuttgart. At the beginning of World War, the XIII Army Corps commanded by von Fabeck was part of Germanys 5th Army which was commanded by Crown Prince Wilhelm and it participated in the mobile battles known as the Race to the Sea and the First Battle of Ypres. In March 1915 von Fabeck briefly commanded the newly formed 11th Army, in April 1915 he replaced the injured Alexander von Kluck as commander of the 1st Army. In September 1915 von Fabeck got command of the 12th Army and he was also attached à la suite to Infanterie-Regiment Nr.129 on 27 January 1916. Before he fell ill in October 1916 von Fabeck was the commander of 8th Army for a few weeks and he received a personal telegram from the Wilhelm II congratulating him on the award. In October 1916 von Fabeck became seriously ill and he committed suicide on 16 December 1916 at Partenkirchen, als oberster Kriegsherr im Ersten Weltkrieg. Quellen aus der militärischen Umgebung des Kaisers 1914–1918 Deutsche Geschichtsquellen des 19, ISBN 3-486-57581-3 Ian F. W. Beckett, Ypres. ISBN 0-582-50612-3 Robert T. Foley, German Strategy and the Path to Verdun, erich Falkenhayn and the development of Attrition 1870–1916 ISBN 0-521-84193-3 Stammbaum Familiengeschichte mit Kurzbiografie und Foto Stollwerck-Sammelbild mit Kurzbiografie

24.
1st Army (German Empire)
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The 1st Army was an army level command of the German Army in World War I. It was formed on mobilization in August 1914 from the VIII Army Inspection, the army was dissolved on 17 September 1915, but reformed on 19 July 1916 during the Battle of the Somme. It was finally disbanded in 1919 during demobilization after the war, the 1st Army during World War I, fought on the Western Front and took part in the Schlieffen Plan offensive against France and Belgium in August 1914. His army had the greatest striking power of the offensive, a density of about 18,000 men per mile of front, von Kluck was replaced in 1915 after being seriously wounded in the leg. With 10 army level commands, the German Supreme Command felt able to dispense with 1st Army and its units were distributed amongst neighbouring armies and the army was dissolved on 17 September 1915. 2nd Army bore the brunt of the Allied attack in the Battle of the Somme and it had grown to such an extent that a decision was made to divide it. The 1st Army was reformed on 19 July 1916 from the wing of the 2nd Army. The former commander of 2nd Army, General der Infanterie Fritz von Below, took command of 1st Army, von Gallwitz was also installed as commander of Heeresgruppe Gallwitz – Somme to co-ordinate the actions of both armies on the Somme. At the end of the war it was serving as part of Heeresgruppe Deutscher Kronprinz, armee-Abteilung or Army Detachment in the sense of something detached from an Army. It is not under the command of an Army so is in itself a small Army, armee-Gruppe or Army Group in the sense of a group within an Army and under its command, generally formed as a temporary measure for a specific task. Heeresgruppe or Army Group in the sense of a number of armies under a single commander, imperial German Army 1914–18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle

25.
Generaloberst
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It was equivalent to Generaladmiral in the Kriegsmarine until 1945, or to Flottenadmiral in the Volksmarine until 1990. The rank was the highest ordinary rank and the highest military rank awarded in peacetime. In general, a Generaloberst had the privileges as a general field marshal. Together with the rank of general field marshal, Generaloberst was generally reckoned as the equivalent of a five-star general in NATO armies. The rank was created originally for Emperor William I—then Prince of Prussia—because traditionally members of the family were not promoted to the rank of a field marshal. Such generals were entitled to four pips on their shoulder boards. As such, Generaloberst could be an equivalent of the general field marshal rank. In 1915 the Generaloberst rank was introduced to the Austro-Hungarian Common Army and it was the second highest behind the Feldmarschall rank. Pertaining to the NATO-Rangcode it might have been comparable to the three-star rank, the equivalent to the Generaloberst was Admiral of the Volksmarine

26.
August von Mackensen
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Anton Ludwig August von Mackensen, born August Mackensen, was a German field marshal. He commanded with success during the First World War and became one of the German Empires most prominent military leaders, after the Armistice, Mackensen was interned for a year. He retired from the army in 1920 and was made a Prussian state councillor in 1933 by Hermann Göring, during the Nazi era, Mackensen remained a committed monarchist and sometimes appeared at official functions in his First World War uniform. He was suspected of disloyalty to the Third Reich, although nothing was proven against him, Mackensen was born in Haus Leipnitz, near the village of Dahlenberg in the Prussian Province of Saxony, to Louis and Marie Louise Mackensen. His father, an administrator of agricultural enterprises, sent him to a Realgymnasium in Halle in 1865, Mackensen began his military service in 1869 as a volunteer with the Prussian 2nd Life Hussars Regiment. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 he was promoted to second lieutenant, after the war he left the service and studied at Halle University, but returned to the army in 1873 with his old regiment. He married Doris von Horn, the sister of a slain comrade and her father Karl von Horn was the influential Oberpräsident of East Prussia, they had two daughters and three sons. In 1891 Mackensen was appointed to the General Staff in Berlin, Mackensen was surprised by his next posting, as an adjutant to William II, because he was the first commoner to hold that position. For the next three and a half years he shadowed the Kaiser, meeting the high and mighty of Germany, the rest of Europe, and his sons shared gymnastics classes with the Kaisers. He was ennobled on the Kaisers 40th birthday,27 January 1899, next he received the command of the newly created Life Hussar Brigade from 1901 to 1903, and from 1903 to 1908 commanded the 36th Division in Danzig. He became a widower in 1905, and two later married Leonie von der Osten, who was 22 years old. When Schlieffen retired in 1906, Mackensen was considered as a possible successor, in 1908 Mackensen was given command of the XVII Army Corps, headquartered in Danzig. The Crown Prince was placed under his command, and the Kaiser asked Mackensen to keep an eye on the young man and to teach him to ride properly. He led XVII Corps in the battles of Gumbinnen, Tannenberg and the First Battle of the Masurian Lakes, on 2 November 1914 Mackensen took over command of the Ninth Army from Hindenburg, who became Supreme Commander East. On 27 November 1914 Mackensen was awarded the Pour le Mérite, Prussias highest military order, for successful battles around Łódź, by April 1915 the Russians had conquered all of western Galicia, the Austro-Hungarian slice of partitioned Poland, and were pushing toward Hungary. In response to desperate pleas the German supreme commander Erich von Falkenhayn agreed to an offensive against the Russian flank by an Austro-German Army under a German commander, the reluctant Austro-Hungarian supreme command agreed that the tactful Mackensen was the best choice for commanding the coalition army. Army Group Mackensen was established containing a new German Eleventh army, also under his command, as chief of staff he was assigned Hans von Seeckt, who described Mackensen as an amiable, hands-on commander with the instincts of a hunter. Mackensen was awarded oak leaves to his Pour le Mérite on 3 June 1915, in October 1915, a new Army Group Mackensen, launched a renewed campaign against Serbia

27.
9th Army (German Empire)
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The 9th Army was an army level command of the German Army in World War I. It was formed in September 1914 in Breslau to command troops on the sector of the Eastern Front. The army was dissolved on 30 July 1916, but reformed in Transylvania on 6 September 1916 for the Romanian Campaign and it was transferred to the Western Front on 19 June 1918 where it was finally dissolved on 18 September 1918. The 9th Army Headquarters was established in Breslau on 19 September 1914 and commanded units drawn from the 8th Army and it was originally placed on the southern sector of the Eastern Front on the left flank of the 1st Austro-Hungarian Army. 9th Army was reformed for the Romanian Campaign in September 1916 and it was dissolved on the Western Front on 18 September 1918. Armee-Abteilung or Army Detachment in the sense of something detached from an Army and it is not under the command of an Army so is in itself a small Army. Armee-Gruppe or Army Group in the sense of a group within an Army and under its command, heeresgruppe or Army Group in the sense of a number of armies under a single commander. 9th Army for the equivalent formation in World War II Great Retreat Cron, imperial German Army 1914–18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle

28.
Generalfeldmarschall
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Generalfeldmarschall was a rank in the armies of several German states and the Holy Roman Empire, in the Habsburg Monarchy, the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary, the rank Feldmarschall was used. The rank was the equivalent to Großadmiral in the Kaiserliche Marine and Kriegsmarine, the title of Kaiserlich-Königlicher Feldmarschall is used in statutes of the Holy Roman Empire to describe senior military officials. The rank existed in the Austrian Empire as Kaiserlicher Feldmarschall and in the Austro-Hungarian Empire as Kaiserlicher und königlicher Feldmarschall, both were based on usage in the Holy Roman Empire. The monarch held the ex officio, other officers were promoted as required. Between 1914 and 1918, ten men attained this rank, of four were members of the reigning Habsburg dynasty. The equivalent of colonel-general in the German Navy was the rank of Generaladmiral, in 1870 Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia and Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm—who had commanded armies during the Franco-Prussian War—became the first Prussian princes appointed as field marshals. Not even such well-known German commanders as Erich Ludendorff and Erich von Falkenhayn received marshals batons, the equivalent of a Generalfeldmarschall in the navy was Großadmiral. Unlike Kaiser Wilhelm II, Adolf Hitler distributed the rank more widely, promoting 26 Heer and Luftwaffe officers in total and two Kriegsmarine Grand Admirals. Four weeks after the Heer and Luftwaffe had won the Battle of France, in the promotion Hitler noted that no German or Prussian field marshal at that point in history had ever been captured alive. Paulus surrendered the day anyway, claiming Ich habe nicht die Absicht. A disappointed Hitler commented, Thats the last field marshal I make in this war, Generalfeldmarschall was the highest regular general officer rank in the German Wehrmacht, comparable to NATO rank codes OF10, and to the five-star rank in anglophone armed forces. It was equivalent to Großadmiral of the German Kriegsmarine and he also bestowed generous presents on his highest officers, with Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb receiving RM250,000 for his 65th birthday from Hitler. Promotion to the rank did not guarantee Hitlers ongoing favor, however, as the tide of the war turned, Hitler took out his frustrations on his top commanders, relieving most of the Generalfeldmarschalls of duty before the wars conclusion. Von Bock, Von Brauchitsch, Von Leeb, and List were all relieved of their posts in 1942 for perceived failures during Operation Barbarossa, paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist, Von Manstein and Sperrle were similarly retired in 1944 and Von Rundstedt and Maximilian von Weichs in March 1945. Grand Admiral Erich Raeder was retired in January 1943 following an argument with Hitler over the future of the German surface fleet. Walther Model, one of Hitlers most successful commanders, had nevertheless lost the Fuhrers confidence by wars end and committed suicide to avoid capture, ferdinand Schörner ignominiously abandoned his command to save himself in the wars last days. Von Kluge, Von Witzleben and Rommel were either executed or forced to suicide for their real or imagined roles in assassination plots against Hitler. By wars end, only Keitel, Kesselring, Robert Ritter von Greim, the Nationale Volksarmee of the Deutsche Demokratische Republik or DDR created the rank of Marschall der DDR on 25 March 1982

29.
General of the Artillery (Germany)
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General der Artillerie may mean,1. A rank of general, comparable to modern armed forces OF-8 grade, in the Imperial Army. Cavalry officers of equivalent rank were called general of the cavalry, the Wehrmacht also had General der Panzertruppen, General der Gebirgstruppen, General der Pioniere, General der Fallschirmtruppen, General der Nachrichtentruppen. Today in the Bundeswehr, the rank of lieutenant general corresponds to the rank of general of the artillery. There was no equivalent rank in the army of East Germany,2. in the Bundeswehr, the position of an artillery officer responsible for certain questions of troop training and equipment, usually with the rank of Brigadegenerals. The position of general of the artillery is connected with that of commander of the artillery school, corresponding service positions also exist for other branches of the army. Since in this usage it refers to a not a rank. The form of address is usually Herr General and/or Herr Oberst, walther von Reichenau (, date of rank,1 October 1936, promoted to Generalfeldmarschall,19 July 1940

30.
12th Army (German Empire)
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The 12th Army was an army level command of the German Army in World War I formed in August 1915 by the redesignation of Armee-Gruppe Gallwitz. It served exclusively on the Eastern Front and was dissolved on 9 October 1916 when its commander, on 9 February 1915 Guards Reserve Corps was redesignated Armee-Gruppe Gallwitz. Its commander was raised to the status of an Army Commander on 18 March 1915, on 22 July, the armies of Central Powers crossed the Vistula river. In August, the Russian Fourth Army left the Ivangorod fortress, with the continuing Russian retreat, Warsaw became isolated, and the 12th Army seized the opportunity and conquered it on 4–5 August. Armee-Gruppe Gallwitz was redesignated as 12th Army on 7 August 1915 with von Gallwitz remaining in command, the 12th Army was dissolved on 9 October 1916 when its commander was transferred to 8th Army. Armee-Abteilung or Army Detachment in the sense of something detached from an Army and it is not under the command of an Army so is in itself a small Army. Armee-Gruppe or Army Group in the sense of a group within an Army and under its command, heeresgruppe or Army Group in the sense of a number of armies under a single commander. 12th Army for the equivalent formation in World War II Great Retreat Cron, imperial German Army 1914–18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle

31.
I Corps (German Empire)
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The I Army Corps / I AK was a corps level command of the Prussian and then the Imperial German Armies from the 19th Century to World War I. It was established with headquarters in Königsberg, initially, the Corps catchment area comprised the entire Province of East Prussia, but from 1 October 1912 the southern part of the Province was transferred to the newly formed XX Corps District. In peacetime, the Corps was assigned to the VIII Army Inspectorate, the corps was still in existence at the end of the war, and was disbanded with the demobilisation of the German Army after World War I. The I Corps fought in the Austro-Prussian War against Austria in 1866, including the Battle of Trautenau, the Corps served in the Franco-Prussian War against France in 1870–1871. It saw action in the Battle of Noiseville, the Battle of Gravelotte, the Siege of Metz, the Battle of Amiens, the Battle of Hallue, from formation in 1820, the Corps commanded two divisions, 1st Division and 2nd Division. These were joined by 37th Division when it was formed on 1 April 1899, 37th Division was transferred to XX Corps when it was formed on 1 October 1912. The 25 peacetime Corps of the German Army had a standardised organisation. Each consisted of two divisions with two infantry brigades, one field artillery brigade and a cavalry brigade each. Each brigade normally consisted of two regiments of the type, so each Corps normally commanded 8 infantry,4 field artillery and 4 cavalry regiments. Each Corps also directly controlled a number of other units and this could include one or more Foot Artillery Regiment Jäger Battalion Pioneer Battalion Train Battalion On mobilization on 2 August 1914, the Corps was restructured. The Divisions received engineer companies and other units from the Corps headquarters. On mobilisation, I Corps was assigned to the 8th Army to defend East Prussia and it saw action at the battles of Stallupönen, Gumbinnen, and Tannenberg, and the First Battle of the Masurian Lakes. The Corps was still in existence at the end of the war, Imperial German Army 1914-18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle. The World War One Source Book, stellenbesetzung der deutschen Heere 1815-1939, Bd.1. The London Stamp Exchange Ltd.1920, the German Forces in the Field, 7th Revision, 11th November 1918, Compiled by the General Staff, War Office. Imperial War Museum, London and The Battery Press, Inc.1918

32.
Kuno von Steuben
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Kuno von Steuben was a Prussian military officer, and a general in the First World War. He was born in a family, of which Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben is best known. He joined the Prussian army at the age of 13, by 1911 he commanded the 36th Division as Lieutenant General. In 1913 he was director of the Prussian Military Academy, at the outbreak of World War I, he received command of the XVIII Reserve Corps with which he fought in the Battle of the Ardennes, Second Battle of Champagne and Battle of Verdun. On 5 June 1917, he was sent to the Salonika Front to lead the 11th German Army, von Steuben and his 11th Army had to withdraw behind the Danube into Hungary. After the German capitulation, they returned home on 8 December 1918, von Steuben retired from the Army on 31 January 1919. He died in 1935 and was buried in the Invalidenfriedhof

33.
XVIII Reserve Corps (German Empire)
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The XVIII Reserve Corps was a corps level command of the German Army in World War I. XVIII Reserve Corps was formed on the outbreak of the war in August 1914 as part of the mobilisation of the Army and it was initially commanded by Generalleutnant Kuno von Steuben, formerly of the Prussian War Academy. It was still in existence at the end of the war in the 18th Army, on formation in August 1914, XVIII Reserve Corps consisted of two divisions, made up of reserve units. It included one active Infantry Regiment, on mobilisation, XVIII Reserve Corps was assigned to the 4th Army forming part of the centre of the forces for the Schlieffen Plan offensive in August 1914. XVIII Reserve Corps had the following commanders during its existence, German Army order of battle German Army order of battle, Western Front Cron, imperial German Army 1914-18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle. The London Stamp Exchange Ltd.1920, the German Forces in the Field, 7th Revision, 11th November 1918, Compiled by the General Staff, War Office. Imperial War Museum, London and The Battery Press, Inc.1918

34.
Army group
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An army group is a military organization consisting of several field armies, which is self-sufficient for indefinite periods. It is usually responsible for a geographic area. An army group is the largest field organization handled by a single commander—usually a full general or field marshal—and it generally includes between 400,000 and 1,000,000 soldiers. In the Polish Armed Forces and former Soviet Red Army an army group was known as a Front, the equivalent of an army group in the Imperial Japanese Army was a general army. Army groups may be multi-national formations, for example, during World War II, the Southern Group of Armies comprised the U. S. Seventh Army and the French First Army, the 21st Army Group comprised the British Second Army, the Canadian First Army and the US Ninth Army. In U. S. Army usage, the number of a group is expressed in Arabic numerals. The French Army formed a number of groupe darmees during the First World War, the first of these was Army Group North, formed on a provision basis in October 1914. Army Group East and Army Group Centre both followed in 1915 while Army Group Reserve was established in 1917, a Franco-Belgian Army Group Flanders also existed briefly in 1918, under the command of Albert I of Belgium. The German Army formed its first two Heeresgruppen in 1915, to forces on the eastern front. A total of eight army groups would ultimately be raised, four for service on each front, originally the Imperial German army groups were not separate formations, but instead additional responsibilities granted to certain army commanders. Crown Prince Wilhelm for instance, was commander of the 5th Army and Army Group German Crown Prince from August 1915 to November 1916. All eight German army groups were named after their commanders, a Chinese army group was usually equivalent in numbers only to a field army in the terminology of other countries, as the regimental level was sometimes omitted. See Heeresgruppen and Armeegruppen The German Army was organized into army groups, some of these army groups were multinational, containing armies from several Axis countries. For example, Army Group Africa contained both German and Italian corps and these groupings were usually named after the commander of the unit in question, for example Armeegruppe Weichs, part of Army Group B during Operation Blau in 1942. The strength of the Kantōgun peaked at 700,000 personnel in 1941 and it faced and was destroyed by Soviet forces in 1945. Shina Hakengun, the China Expeditionary Army, was formed in Nanjing, in September 1939, at the end of World War II, it consisted of 620,000 personnel in 25 infantry and one armored divisions. Nanpo Gun was the Southern Army, also known as the Southern Expeditionary Army, after the surrender of Japan, the Imperial Japanese Army was dissolved, except for the Dai-Ichi So-Gun, which existed until 30 November 1945 as the 1st Demobilization Headquarters

35.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan

36.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

37.
2nd Army (German Empire)
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The 2nd Army was an army level command of the German Army in World War I. It was formed on mobilization in August 1914 from the III Army Inspection, the army was disbanded in 1919 during demobilization after the war. The 2nd Army during World War I, fought on the Western Front and took part in the Schlieffen Plan offensive against France and Belgium in August 1914. Commanded by General Karl von Bülow, the 2nd Armys mission was to support the 1st Armys sweep around the flank of the French Army and encircle Paris. 2nd Army bore the brunt of the Allied attack in the Battle of the Somme and it had grown to such an extent that a decision was made to split it into two still-powerful armies. Therefore, 1st Army was reformed on 19 July 1916 from the wing of the 2nd Army. The former commander of 2nd Army, General der Infanterie Fritz von Below, took command of 1st Army, von Gallwitz was also installed as commander of Heeresgruppe Gallwitz – Somme to co-ordinate the actions of both armies on the Somme. A large proportion of the Army would be wiped out during the joint Anglo-French offensive on the Somme, at the end of the war it was serving as part of Heeresgruppe Kronprinz Rupprecht. By the end of the war, the 2nd Army was organised as, armee-Abteilung or Army Detachment in the sense of something detached from an Army. It is not under the command of an Army so is in itself a small Army, armee-Gruppe or Army Group in the sense of a group within an Army and under its command, generally formed as a temporary measure for a specific task. Heeresgruppe or Army Group in the sense of a number of armies under a single commander, 2nd Army for the equivalent formation in World War II German Army order of battle German Army order of battle, Western Front Schlieffen Plan Cron, Hermann. Imperial German Army 1914–18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle

38.
3rd Army (German Empire)
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The 3rd Army was an army level command of the German Army in World War I. It was formed on mobilization in August 1914 seemingly from the II Army Inspectorate, the army was disbanded in 1919 during demobilization after the war. Upon the mobilization Max von Hausen was given command of the 3rd Army which mainly consisted of Saxons, the army participated in the Battle of the Frontiers, mainly in the battles of Dinant and Charleroi and the army were responsible for the destruction of Reims in September 1914. After the Second Armys retreat after the First Battle of the Marne, upon the stabilization of the front on the river Aisne, Von Hausen was relieved of his command and replaced by General Karl von Einem. Einems right wing units would participate in Erich Ludendorffs Champagne-Marne offensive on 15–17 July 1918 supporting the east flank of the German 1st Army. At the end of the war it was serving as part of Heeresgruppe Deutscher Kronprinz and it is not under the command of an Army so is in itself a small Army. Armee-Gruppe or Army Group in the sense of a group within an Army and under its command, Heeresgruppe or Army Group in the sense of a number of armies under a single commander. 3rd Army for the equivalent formation in World War II German Army order of battle German Army order of battle, Western Front Schlieffen Plan Cron, imperial German Army 1914–18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle

39.
4th Army (German Empire)
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The 4th Army was an army level command of the German Army in World War I. It was formed on mobilization in August 1914 from the VI Army Inspection, the army was disbanded in 1919 during demobilization after the war. The 4th Army defeated Belgian forces on the frontier, drove the French out of the Ardennes, at the end of the war it was serving as part of Heeresgruppe Kronprinz Rupprecht. By the end of the war, the 4th Army was organised as, armee-Abteilung or Army Detachment in the sense of something detached from an Army. It is not under the command of an Army so is in itself a small Army, armee-Gruppe or Army Group in the sense of a group within an Army and under its command, generally formed as a temporary measure for a specific task. Heeresgruppe or Army Group in the sense of a number of armies under a single commander, 4th Army for the equivalent formation in World War II German Army order of battle German Army order of battle, Western Front Schlieffen Plan

40.
5th Army (German Empire)
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The 5th Army was an army level command of the German Army in World War I. It was formed on mobilization in August 1914 seemingly from the VII Army Inspection, the army was disbanded in 1919 during demobilization after the war. The opening hostilities on the Western Front saw the Crown Princes 5th Army, along with the neighboring 4th Army, acting at the center of the Schlieffen plan attack into Belgium and France. On 21 August 1914, in became known as the Battle of the Ardennes, 4th and 5th Armies advanced into the Ardennes to counter a thrust by the French 3rd. Over the next two days 5th Army played a part in halting the opposing French forces. By 23 August, after taking losses and being outmaneuvered strategically. Following the German 5th Armys victory in the Battle of the Ardennes it moved to Verdun, in February 1916 the Crown Prince’s 5th Army would launch Operation Gericht, the German offensive that began the Battle of Verdun, one of the bloodiest and longest battles in history. Late in 1916, after suffering losses in its efforts at Verdun. The Fifth Army continued to oppose the AEFs Meuse-Argonne Offensive until the Armistice of 11 November 1918, at the end of the war it was serving as part of Heeresgruppe Gallwitz. It is not under the command of an Army so is in itself a small Army, armee-Gruppe or Army Group in the sense of a group within an Army and under its command, generally formed as a temporary measure for a specific task. Heeresgruppe or Army Group in the sense of a number of armies under a single commander, 5th Army for the equivalent formation in World War II German Army order of battle German Army order of battle, Western Front Schlieffen Plan Cron, Hermann. Imperial German Army 1914–18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle

41.
6th Army (German Empire)
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The 6th Army was an army level command of the German Army in World War I. It was formed on mobilization in August 1914 from the IV Army Inspectorate, the army was disbanded in 1919 during demobilization after the war. At the outbreak of World War I, command of the army was given to Rupprecht, the 6th Army initially consisted of the units of the Bavarian Army, with some additional Prussian units. During the execution of Plan XVII, the 6th Army was stationed in the Central sector, in August 1914, in the Battle of Lorraine, Rupprechts 6th Army managed to hold against the French offensive, using a feigned withdrawal to lure the advancing armies onto prepared defensive positions. After the Western Front turned to stalemate and the forces formed lines of trenches. Most of the Bavarian units were dispersed to other commands. Nevertheless, command of the 6th Army remained with the Bavarian Crown Prince, on 24 September 1915 the 6th Army was the target for the British Armys first chlorine gas attack of the war. Despite the horrific casualties inflicted, the British offensive became bogged down after several days. Rupprecht was promoted to the rank of marshal in July 1916 and assumed command of Army Group Rupprecht on 28 August that year, consisting of the 1st, 2nd. Following Rupprechts promotion, command of the 6th Army was given to General Ludwig von Falkenhausen, in March 1917 the 6th Army was the target for the assault of the Canadian and British forces at the Battle of Vimy Ridge. The 6th Army under von Falkenhausen suffered over 20,000 casualties in the fighting and were pushed back from the ridge by the Canadian Corps. At the end of the war it was serving as part of Heeresgruppe Kronprinz Rupprecht, armee-Abteilung or Army Detachment in the sense of something detached from an Army. It is not under the command of an Army so is in itself a small Army, armee-Gruppe or Army Group in the sense of a group within an Army and under its command, generally formed as a temporary measure for a specific task. Heeresgruppe or Army Group in the sense of a number of armies under a single commander, 6th Army for the equivalent formation in World War II German Army order of battle German Army order of battle, Western Front Schlieffen Plan Cron, Hermann. Imperial German Army 1914–18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle

42.
7th Army (German Empire)
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The 7th Army was an army level command of the German Army in World War I. It was formed on mobilization in August 1914 from the II Army Inspection, the army was disbanded in 1919 during demobilization after the war. Formed at the outbreak of World War I, 7th Army formed the left wing of the German Armies on the Western Front. During the execution of the French Plan XVII, the 7th Army covered Alsace and it then took part in the Race to the Sea, an attempt by both German and Anglo-French armies to turn each others flank. At the end of the war it was serving as part of Heeresgruppe Deutscher Kronprinz, by the end of the war, the 7th Army was organised as, The 7th Army had the following commanders during its existence. Armee-Abteilung or Army Detachment in the sense of something detached from an Army and it is not under the command of an Army so is in itself a small army. Armee-Gruppe or Army Group in the sense of a group within an Army and under its command, Heeresgruppe or Army Group in the sense of a number of armies under one commander. 7th Army for the equivalent formation in World War II German Army order of battle German Army order of battle, Western Front Schlieffen Plan Cron, imperial German Army 1914–18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle

43.
8th Army (German Empire)
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The 8th Army was an army level command of the German Army in World War I. It was formed on mobilization in August 1914 from the I Army Inspectorate, the army was dissolved on 29 September 1915, but reformed on 30 December 1915. It was finally disbanded in 1919 during demobilization after the war, on mobilisation in August 1914, the 8th Army Headquarters was formed in Posen to command troops stationed in East Prussia to defend against the expected Russian attack, Plan XIX. When he heard of this, Helmuth von Moltke, the German Army Chief of Staff, recalled Prittwitz and they were replaced by Paul von Hindenburg, called out of retirement, with Erich Ludendorff as his chief of staff. Under its new command, the Army was responsible for the victories at the Battles of Tannenberg, the Army of the Niemen was formed on 26 May 1915 to control the troops in Courland. The commander of the 8th Army, General der Infanterie Otto von Below, along with his Chief of Staff, Generalmajor von Böckmann, in the meantime, the 8th Army got a deputy commander, General der Artillerie Friedrich von Scholtz, who was simultaneously commander of XX Corps. 8th Army was dissolved on 29 September 1915, on 30 December 1915 the Army of the Niemen was renamed as the 8th Army with von Below still in command. The original 8th Army had the following commanders from mobilisation until it was dissolved 29 September 1915, a new 8th Army was formed by renaming the Army of the Niemen on 30 December 1915. It was dissolved after the end of the war on 21 January 1919, armee-Abteilung or Army Detachment in the sense of something detached from an Army. It is not under the command of an Army so is in itself a small Army, armee-Gruppe or Army Group in the sense of a group within an Army and under its command, generally formed as a temporary measure for a specific task. Heeresgruppe or Army Group in the sense of a number of armies under a single commander, 8th Army for the equivalent formation in World War II German Army order of battle Order of battle at Tannenberg Great Retreat Cron, Hermann. Imperial German Army 1914–18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle

44.
10th Army (German Empire)
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The 10th Army was an army level command of the German Army in World War I formed in January 1915 in Cologne. It served exclusively on the Eastern Front and it was dissolved on 6 January 1919. During World War I the 10th Army was stationed on the Eastern Front where it fought against Russia and it also took part in the occupation of Poland and Belorussia at the end of 1918 when the war ended. Published the newspaper Zeitung der 10, the 10th Army had the following commanders, Armee-Abteilung or Army Detachment in the sense of something detached from an Army. It is not under the command of an Army so is in itself a small Army, armee-Gruppe or Army Group in the sense of a group within an Army and under its command, generally formed as a temporary measure for a specific task. Heeresgruppe or Army Group in the sense of a number of armies under a single commander, 10th Army for the equivalent formation in World War II Great Retreat Lake Naroch Offensive Cron, Hermann. Imperial German Army 1914–18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle

45.
14th Army (German Empire)
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The 14th Army was an army level command of the German Army in World War I formed in September 1917 in Krainburg for use against Italy. Its Headquarters was located at Vittorio Veneto from 10 November 1917 until the army was disbanded on 22 January 1918, the 14th Army served on the Italian Front throughout its existence. After the Eleventh Battle of the Isonzo, the Austro-Hungarians were exhausted and they appealed to the Germans for help and the Germans, fearing a collapse on the Italian Front, sent 7 divisions,540 guns,216 mortars and about 100 aircraft from the Western and Eastern Fronts. To control these troops, a new 14th Army under General der Infanterie Otto von Below was concentrated between Tolmin and Bovec, for the Battle of Caporetto a number of Austro-Hungarian divisions were added. Following the successful offensive, the front soon froze again in trench warfare, the German High Command decided to withdraw its forces again to use on other fronts. On 23 January 1918 the Army Command was recalled, the German troops remaining on the Italian front came under the command of 51st Corps until it was withdrawn in February 1918. Units are German unless designated as Austria-Hungary, the 14th Army was commanded throughout its existence by General der Infanterie Otto von Below, former commander of 6th Army. On dissolution of 14th Army, von Below was transferred to command of the newly raised 17th Army on the Western Front, 14th Army for the equivalent formation in World War II Cron, Hermann. Imperial German Army 1914–18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle

46.
17th Army (German Empire)
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The 17th Army was an army level command of the German Army in World War I. It was formed in France on 1 February 1918 from the former 14th Army command and it served exclusively on the Western Front and was dissolved on 19 January 1919. 17th Army was one of three formed in late 1917 / early 1918 with forces withdrawn from the Eastern Front. They were in place to take part in Ludendorffs Spring Offensive, the Germans had realised that their only remaining chance of victory was to defeat the Allies before the overwhelming human and matériel resources of the United States could be deployed. They also had the advantage in numbers afforded by nearly 50 divisions freed by the Russian withdrawing from the war. At the end of the war it was serving as part of Heeresgruppe Kronprinz Rupprecht, by the end of the war, the 17th Army was organised as, 17th Army had the following commanders, Armee-Abteilung or Army Detachment in the sense of something detached from an Army. It is not under the command of an Army so is in itself a small Army, armee-Gruppe or Army Group in the sense of a group within an Army and under its command, generally formed as a temporary measure for a specific task. Heeresgruppe or Army Group in the sense of a number of armies under a single commander, 17th Army for the equivalent formation in World War II German Army order of battle, Western Front Cron, Hermann. Imperial German Army 1914–18, Organisation, Structure, Orders-of-Battle

The Eastern Front or Eastern Theater of World War I (Russian: Восточный фронт, Vostochnıy front, sometimes called the …

Clockwise from top left: soldiers stationed in the Carpathian Mountains, 1915; German soldiers in Kiev, March 1918; the Russian ship Slava, October 1917; Russian infantry, 1914; Romanian infantry.

World War I caricature from Russia depicting Wilhelm II, Franz Joseph I and Mehmed V. Top: "If only we could get to the top – it would be ours!" Bottom: "Let me help you with that!"

Illustration from the French magazine Le Petit Journal on the Bosnian Crisis: Bulgaria declares its independence and its prince Ferdinand is named Tsar, Austria-Hungary, in the person of Emperor Francis Joseph, annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina, while the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II looks on helplessly.

The Balkans Campaign, or Balkan Theatre of World War I was fought between the Central Powers, represented by …

A dead Serbian soldier in the snow, Albania 1915

Italian soldiers in Vlorë, Albania during World War I. The tricolour flag of Italy bearing the Savoy royal shield is shown hanging alongside an Albanian flag from the balcony of the Italian prefecture headquarters.

A field army (or numbered army or simply army) is a military formation in many armed forces, composed of two or more …

The standard map symbol for a field army. The four exes are the generic symbol of a field army (i.e. they do not represent Roman numerals); the army's specific number or name, if included, would be written numerically to the left of the symbol.