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Editors' notes

Bogardus's Fundamentals of Social Psychology appeared
at the same time as Allport's Social Psychology. Both were influential
books within their own disciplines.

Fundamentals was Bogardus's second
Social Psychology textbook, expanding and supplanting his Essentials of Social Psychology first published in 1918. Fundamentals
went through four editions, the last published in 1950.

As one of the curiosities of history writing, when assembling
their Classics in Psychology series, published by Arno in the mid-1970s, Howard
Gardner and Judith Kreiger Garner included Bogardus's book as the Social
Psychology's representative textbook from the period.

Bogardus dedicated his book to E. A. Ross, the author of the 1908
textbook in Social Psychology.

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Fundamentals of Social Psychology

Chapter 2: Affective Nature

Emory S. Bogardus

HUMAN nature has many important phases, such as the affective and the
cognitive, which are often complementary. Affective nature, the theme of
this chapter, includes the feelings, emotions, sentiments, desires.

FEELING REACTIONS

Human nature possesses a tonal quality, somewhat after the fashion
perhaps of a musical instrument, only far more complex and significant. If all
goes well the human organism experiences a pleasant tone or feeling. If the
environment impinges harshly upon the organism, then a disagreeable tone is
experienced. An unbroken continuance of favorable or unfavorable circumstances
may cease to bring out the organic tonal quality. If the environment has few new
stimuli and arouses no new responses then the human organism lapses into a
chronic state of disagreeableness, or ennui. If the environmental factors
repeatedly defeat the organism at every turn then an essentially unpleasant
organic tone becomes chronic and is accompanied by cynicism and fatalism. If
circumstances present new problems from time to time the organism is likely to
be stimulated to its highest efficiency.

The tones of psychic nature are as old as psychic nature itself. They appear
almost simultaneously with the causal stimuli. They are the first or advance
responses of the organism to specific stimuli. A type of stimuli which as a rule
has been favorable in the past to the organism or to the race or to both
produces an agreeable tone in the organism. If some one were to suggest to me a
visit to the dentist's chair, I should experience an unpleasant tone, providing
my previous experiences have been exceedingly painful. The stimulus releases an
habitual reaction that has been built up on the basis of painful dental
experiences, and I experience disagreeable feelings again. On the other hand if
some one were to suggest to me a beefsteak fry in the Rockies, I should
experience a highly agreeable psychic tone, providing I have enjoyed several
such occasions.

This tonal character of one's nature seems to give a quicker-than-thought
evaluation to a proposed activity upon the basis of past experience. It

(
12) was this which Plato undoubtedly had in mind when he said that there are
two counsellors in one's bosom, one is pleasure and the other is pain.[1]

A pleasurable feeling is the beginning of a whole response of the organism
and indicates that in the history of the organism or the species, the act which
the given stimulus is calling forth has been helpful. The pleasurable tone is a
blind guide, implying but not necessarily proving the present value of a
proposed response. The fact that a certain type of responses has been helpful or
harmful in the past indicates that in all probability this type will continue to
be helpful or harmful. If, however, conditions have changed, the tonal voice may
prove a misleader. Before he responds to his tonal or feeling guidance, it is
necessary, therefore, for a person to notice whether or not the main factors in
a given social situation have changed.

People are alike in their tonal responses because they have had about the
same fundamental experiences of gain and loss. In the history of the human
species, certain ways of doing have proved favorable to race development ; and
others, unfavorable. Advantage is accompanied by agreeable tones or feelings,
and disadvantage by a disagreeable tonal quality, ranging from a sense of
complete loss (sorrow) to one of complete energization (angry determination).
Upholders of race prejudice and race pride should observe that all races
irrespective of color are characterized under similar circumstances by the same
psychic tones or feelings. Social traditions have developed variations, but
after all, the white, yellow, and black races alike experience joy, sorrow, and
anger when responding to the respective types of stimuli.

The feeling or tonal qualities developed earlier than thinking in the
species. The feelings have longer roots than ideas. They are more definitely a
part of the inner core of personality. They have helped to make personality,
long before thinking reached its full development, either in the individual or
in the race. It is difficult to argue down the feelings.

Again, feeling is not on the plane of thinking. It is not in the same class
of phenomena. Thinking is superior in quality to feeling in that it can describe
and analyze feeling, but it is inferior in that it can rarely overcome feeling.
If one has been taught throughout the earlier years of life that thirteen is an
unlucky number, it is with difficulty in later years that one can throw off the
feeling response that thirteen had better be avoided. Years of thinking to the
contrary do not always succeed in overcoming feeling. An idea which is thrown
against the feelings by way of argument

(
13) does not meet them on their plane. It would seem that the best way to
cope with the feelings is to stimulate counter feelings.

EMOTIONAL REACTIONS

Another type of inherited response is the emotional. An emotion, may be
considered a complex of feeling responses. It is usually accompanied by
marked activity of the glandular system and hence is related to the autonomic
neural system as well as to the central neural system. It may be accompanied not
only by muscular responses but also by special activity of both the duct and the
ductless glands, that is, in the case of anger, for example, there may be not
only clenched fists, but also perspiration, and marked activity by the adrenals.[2]
An emotion is a complete organic disturbance. It arises when the organized
inherited impulses or the habitual responses are blocked. Whenever an obstacle
appears in the path of a human tendency a disturbance occurs, accompanied by
affective manifestations. In a way, an emotion is a heightened affective phase
of a mental crisis. Whenever a conflict in the central neural system takes
place, an emotional disturbance occurs ; when no conflict exists, ennui is
likely to ensue. Emotions and ennui are the opposite feeling poles of
personality. It may also be said that ennui is the dead center between the
extremes represented by the joyful and the sorrowful feeling responses.
Angry emotion accompanies the conflict stages of a crisis when an individual
is struggling against obstacles. The function of anger is apparently that of
energizing the individual so that he may overcome obstructions in the path of
his tendencies. Anger is clearly a combatant emotion, but it becomes
transformed into joyful or sorrowful responses when the given conflict begins
to eventuate into gain or loss for the individual as judged by the individual.

A joyful response full of animation and expressions of surplus energy
marks the more or less sudden realization of some important personal desire.
A sorrowful response indicates the individual's realization of defeat, at
least temporary, in some of his aims ; while remorse, forlornness, pessimism,
fatalism are permanent expressions of defeated desires. The joyful tone of the
human organism accompanies a general expansion of the individual's powers—his
heart beats faster, circulation and respiration increase, and the organism is
actually larger; while a sorrowful tone accompanies a general organic
shrinking. Joyfulness is accompanied by a

Fear is an emotional response, which occurs whenever the individual
realizes that his life, his possessions, or his loved ones are in great danger.
Fear is an emotional response of a defensive nature and is closely associated
with the desire for security. Fear may easily be acquired and developed into a
standard set of habitual responses. That which is peculiarly strange naturally
causes the individual to shrink away or to assume a defensive attitude.

As concentrations of feeling tones, the emotions often run to extremes and
are expressed in wild, blind discharges of energy or possibly in a more or less
complete paralysis of organic activity. For example, anger results in
concentrated but irrational outbursts of activity or it may completely block all
motor activity ; while sorrow usually tends to produce only impotence.

One of the most elemental of emotional responses, basic to joy, sorrow, and
even anger, is sympathy. As the term implies, sympathy means "feeling
with," and it may be regarded as a generic social tone of all higher organic
life. An example of the expression of an elemental form of sympathetic emotion
is the immediate and appropriate response of the brood of chickens to the
warning cry of the mother hen.[3]
As a
result of sympathetic emotion, the vigorous crying of a baby is followed often
by the simultaneous wailing on the part of all nearby infants, even when they
apparently cannot have the slightest conception of the cause of the crying of
the first child. For the same reason a scream of terror on the part of an adult
evokes a similar pang on the part of bystanders, although the latter do not know
the cause of the scream. By virtue of sympathetic emotion, anger provokes anger.
If the parent or teacher spoken to angrily is able only by a great effort to
keep angry feelings from arising, how much less is a child able to control angry
response when spoken to in an angry tone. The wise parent, or teacher speaks
authoritatively, but not angrily.

The characteristic of "feeling with" others varies in degree with individuals
and circumstances. In an extreme form it often decreases personal efficiency. It
is unfortunate, for example, for a surgeon to be over-sympathetic. At the other
extreme a want of sympathy permits one's egoistic, selfish impulses to run riot.
Sympathy enables the individual to understand the experiences, attitudes, and
behavior of other people. While its generic nature contributes to self-sacrifice
and unselfish living, it may be

(
15) used by the shrewd in highly selfish ways. Through sympathy one can
learn to understand other people, and then by playing upon their sympathy, gain
their confidence and take advantage of them. Courtship is often characterized by
this abuse of sympathy, and many hasty and unwise marriages are to be explained
in this way. Politicians often acquire an unsavory reputation by overmuch appeal
to the sympathy of people.

When an important issue is to be settled, the party which is successful in
enlisting the sympathies of the public possesses a great advantage. The
sympathies often lead to erratic behavior. Inasmuch as they, like the feelings,
are not always in accord with the cognitive phases of mental life, they may be
expressed in strange, irrational, and at times in unreliable ways. Sympathy does
not always connote dependable conduct. Perhaps the most conspicuous social
characteristic of sympathy is its tendency to go out to the under dog in a
conflict. It is also commonly allied with the old, the tried, and the true. It
is a gigantic stabilizing force, but oftentimes it adds too much stability.
Occasionally it is so closely attached to outworn habits and customs that it
constitutes a stumbling block to progress. Nevertheless every new reform measure
tries to win the permanent sympathy of the people. In fact, it must win these,
if it is to achieve real success. Sympathetic feelings "always follow
activities, and if the new activities can be established long enough feeling is
sure in time to give them sanction”.[4]
In this way new social values may be established and social attitudes changed
and improved.

SENTIMENTS

Emotions tend to become organized in relation to personal values, and may
then be referred to as
sentiments. For example, there is the sentiment of admiration, or
a certain extension of one's personality toward another person who manifests
fine qualities of behavior. It always involves admirer and admired ; it implies
the expression of a measure of curiosity and wonder, or self-abasement, and also
of being responsive to the person for whom admiration is experienced. A leader
who is genuinely, successful must gain the permanent admiration of other
persons. Admiration plus fear constitutes awe; and awe with the sense of
indebtedness leads to reverence—the highest religious sentiment.[5]

Closely allied to admiration is respect. It involves more judgment and
less emotion, and hence is more permanent than admiration. Respect is

(
16) perhaps the most rationalized sentiment. Self respect means that one has
given thought to his behavior and has justified it in the light of social
standards. Without self respect it is almost impossible for one to maintain the
respect of other persons, for by suggestion one's attitudes toward one's self
influence the attitudes of others. Respect for another person means that one has
analyzed the activities of the other person and approved them. The available
evidence seems to show that McDougall [6]
may be mistaken in assuming that we always respect those who respect themselves
and that our respect for other persons is always a sympathetic reflection of
their self respect. It is usually true that others must respect themselves
before we will truly respect them, but if the social standards of others are
below our own or if their dependableness falls short of our own ideal of
dependableness, respect for them fails to develop.

There is a mild sentiment which arises out of sympathy for other persons but
which does not result in positive sacrifice for others ; this sentiment is
commonly known as pity. The person who pities usually feels that he is
definitely separated by some barrier from the one who is pitied. Pity may be
regarded as a differentiated form of sympathy which is held in check by a
feeling of superiority, of inability to render aid, or of the impractability of
giving aid. Pity rarely instigates activity but it may stay ruthless or vengeful
action.

When a person finds himself depreciated or when he falls below the standards
which others expect of him, his normal reaction is shame. To protect
himself from such an experience, he is apt to submit unflinchingly to severe
discipline. The group or the leaders in the group will often capitalize a
person's aversion to shame in order to secure his otherwise unattainable support
of either a worthy or unworthy cause.

When native impulses are closely organized and egoism has become
standardized, an exaggerated sense of self-feeling easily becomes stimulated
into the emotion of jealousy. Wherever invidious comparisons are made in
one's own field of activity, jealousy easily flares up. The suitor is
"jealous" of all rivals, because somebody whom he is willing to die for is in
danger of being won by other persons. The egoistic parent is sensitive regarding
the success of the companions of his children, for he does not want his
children to be outshone. He is especially jealous of those persons whom his
children listen to more than to him, for thereby his own opinions are being
flouted. The egoistic jealousy of artists, débutantes, prima donnas, and others,
"painters of the limelight and wooers of public favor," comes from their having
hinged their lives on applause. When

(
17) that applause is transferred, their lives are flattened out entirely,
except as jealousy blazes up.

As a rule jealousy narrows personality, lowers one's social standing, and
cuts down one's usefulness. In the long run one is justified in being "jealous"
only for his character, for the character of other persons and of social
institutions.

A more aggressive but often subtler type of sentiment than jealousy is
revenge. It arises when a person feels that he or someone in whom he is
interested has been grievously injured and when the alleged offender does not
make what is considered adequate amends. It is fitful, flaring high and dying
down quickly, or it may smolder for years and break out in unexpected ways. It
demands at least "an eye for an eye," and because of its emotional nature it is
likely to overrun its goal and to exact a double portion of atonement.
Furthermore it invites retribution, arousing furious emotional reactions on the
part of the persons against whom it is directed. Thus when the vindictive
attempt to secure justice, they use methods which prolong the justice-securing
processes indefinitely and inflict serious injustices.

Revenge easily becomes generalized, and organized into group reactions which
assume socially deep-seated and long term proportions, as in the case of blood
feuds. The development of courts of justice has met the general need which is
served by vengeance ; and consequently the overt and group-organized expressions
of the sentiment are losing their original function, although still persisting
tenaciously. Vengeance blazes up as in the case' of lynchings; it also holds a
concealed place in many lives as evidenced in class and race prejudices.

Sentiments, diametrically opposed, are hate and love. Hate is
an organization of emotional energy against a person or a group believed to be
hostile. It differs from revenge and jealousy in containing less pure feeling,
and in being more rationally organized. It is also more openly expressed ; it
does not cover itself up, except for conventional reasons. It stages open
warfare and declares publicly its reasons. It is a long-lived, ingrained
sentiment that functions unfortunately in behalf of narrow loyalties as
distinguished from larger ideals. It hinders the progress of both its subject
and its object. It is an ominous element in race prejudice. Its constructive
value appears when it is directed not against people as such, but against evil
behavior of any person and any group.

Love is a conserving, stabilizing, and yet tumultous sentiment of unmeasured
power. In its more primitive, elemental nature it may be made up largely of sex
impulses, and consequently it may easily lead to license.

(
18) A higher form is romantic love, which prompts one to great undertakings
and sacrifices in behalf of the one who is loved.[7]
The primitive nature of romantic love is demonstrated by its fickleness. It may
lead, however, to conjugal love which possesses remarkable qualities of
endurance. The strength of conjugal love develops out of the fact that husbands
and wives have common experience of great joys and sorrows. It is particularly
in the suffering together of husband and wife that fitful romantic love becomes
transformed into strong, deep, and abiding conjugal love.

Maternal love is the keenest, deepest, and most concentrated form of the love
of one person for another. The love of a mother for her child is the most
enduring; it persists despite continued gross neglect and even of utterly
despicable conduct on the part of the son or daughter. Paternal love is far less
intense and permanent than maternal ; it is more akin to fraternal love. Filial
love is often strongly expressed in childhood and adolescence; it may then
subside but be revived in the later years of life and assume its earlier
strength, gladdening parental hearts.

Consanguineal love ranges from the close attachment that is characteristic of
fraternal love, to the affective elements in the brotherhood-of-man principle.
It frequently takes on idealistic forms, and easily extends beyond blood
relationships, producing the highest bonds of friendship, as of him "who
sticketh closer than a brother." Consanguineal love leads to the most dependable
types of loyalty. In it lies the energizing power for socializing the world.

DESIRE

Repeated inability to respond to moderate environmental stimuli creates in
time a somewhat turbulent state known as desire. If the organism is
unable after repeated attempts to secure the object of desire, then a chronic
unpleasant tone results. Desire, declared Lester F. Ward,[8]
is painful. He asserted that the sensation must be a disagreeable one because
the organism struggles to end it. The reasoning is hardly complete. Many of the
objects of desire involve an expansion of the organism in definitely sought
directions. The desire for wealth if once gratified maintains itself, not
because it is painful but rather because wealth gives a person increased
control over things and people. This control results in an expansion of
the person's sense of the "me" and particularly of the "mine." It secures him an
increased degree of attention from and perhaps admiration

(
19) of other persons. Desire itself may contain a painful element, because
the individual is temporarily unable to respond the way he has been stimulated
to do. The agreeable psychic tone which results from the gratification of desire
more than offsets a temporarily painful element.

It is this aroused but temporarily unsatisfied condition of psychic nature,
or desire, that Ward believed to be the dynamic force in individual life and
hence in social life.[9]
To point simply
to an unsatisfied state of the psychic organism as the dynamic social agent is
to overlook the factors conditioning desire. Desire is a complex of affective
and cognitive mechanisms resulting from the interplay of environmental stimuli
and innate tendencies. It is in part an habitual seeking after objects, which
thereby become values that give the organism a pleasant reaction tone but do not
entirely satisfy it, and thus act as stimuli for further search after the
desired objects or values.

All the natural impulses, the feelings, emotions, sentiments may become
organized into what W. I. Thomas calls "wishes ;" he classifies four : (I) the
desire for new experience, (2) the desire for security, (3) the desire for
recognition, (4) and the desire for response.[10]
The last mentioned should perhaps be put first, for it appears to be basic to
all the others. The simpler forms of life, even the most elementary, are
characterized by response to stimuli but cannot be said to have desires, with
attention fixed on remote objectives. We therefore may refer to the fourth
mentioned desire as a basic mechanism of organic life. In a higher form it
appears as a desire for social response. The desire for recognition definitely
reflects the stimuli which come from social life; it expands into the desire for
power. The desire for security is evidently elemental and primary; it is made up
largely of the self-preservation impulses. The desire for new experience leads
out into the desire to do, to achieve. Thomas' fourfold classification seems to
be primarily individualistic. There may be also a fundamental desire to aid, to
help. Its objective is not primarily the individual's satisfaction, but rather
the growth and satisfaction that others experience. This ultimately becomes an
ethical attitude.

REPRESSED FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS

When a neuro-muscular mechanism is stimulated the natural tendency is for the
neural process to run its course and issue in some form of motor activity. This
process being largely physiological and psychological

(
20) takes place in accordance with the nature of the environmental stimulus
and not necessarily in harmony with socially derived standards of conduct. The
child cries for candy when it would be bad for him ; he wishes to stay up beyond
his regular bedtime, but regularity in sleeping hours is decreed; he wants a
bicycle when in the judgment of his parents the dangers of bicycle riding are
great, and the request is denied: in these illustrative instances, which might
be multiplied without end, environmental factors have served as stimuli to
perform actions that better adult judgment cannot permit. The ordinary adult
reply to the child is "don't", and the stimulated activity in the child is
repressed before reaching its fruition. This released but "blocked" energy wells
up and acts as a drive to emotional mechanisms, and thus may be expressed in
harmful ways. Sometimes an individual after suffering bitter disappointment
threatens to take his own life. Crying often serves as a means of discharge of
energy that is blocked by some objective "don't" to a desire that is in process
of being fulfilled. Occasionally when a desire mechanism has been thwarted, the
individual is "too angry" to express himself or to secure emotional
satisfaction. In cases such as these repression may do great and lasting harm.
The released but undischarged energy is held up in "mid-air" as it were,
producing a fundamental disturbance of the whole organism.[11]
It is to complexes of this type that psychotherapy has offered considerable aid.
It is important that the resentment which commonly follows repression be
dissipated quickly and not be allowed to assume chronic forms, such as a
permanently "balked disposition."

A boy or girl who possesses a high degree of energy naturally responds to
countless environmental stimuli to activity, and his parents find themselves
unwittingly "sitting on the lid." Through ignorance or sheer lack of ingenuity,
they fail to keep the boy's energies engaged in constructive enterprises, and
sooner or later find him guilty of destructive mischief. In rural life, there
are wholesome opportunities for expressions of energy in field and farmyard, but
in the city, these opportunities are cut off, one by one. Vacant lots disappear,
and the streets become increasingly dangerous playgrounds until city ordinance
forbids all play upon them. Houses encroach on all available yard space until
dark hallways and alleyways alone are left as spaces in which the normal
energies of youth may be released, but in these remaining places of rendezvous
the stimuli are too often of a vicious and evil nature. Cities, through their
encroachment

(
21) upon the playgrounds of youth act as crass repressive agents, meanwhile
letting loose influences, which prey upon the repressed energies of untrained
human nature. It is well to remember that psychic energy cannot be abolished.
"If it is neither exploded nor converted, it is turned inwards, to lead a
surreptitious, subterranean life." [12]

The Puritanic attitude, being repressive with reference to childhood, often
produced a rooted hatred of the Sabbath, of church, or of other religious
institutions or practices. Repression does not destroy, but causes a "welling
up" of psychical energy which too frequently takes the form of sullenness,
hatred, or even recalcitrancy. In its worthy aims of discipline, Puritanism
neglected to study the psychology of repressed desires. Many church bodies have
likewise neglected the psychology of repression and sublimation in their
emphases upon the "Thou shalt pots" of religious discipline as related
particularly to the play impulses of young people.

The "only" child has received a considerable amount of attention on the part
of the Freudians and other psychoanalysists. The repression is that of the
gregarious impulses and is produced indirectly by an absence of proper
environmental stimuli of the gregarious and playful types, The "only" child has
a normal social nature but possessing limited opportunities for expression of
his social traits in the company of other children, his energies are not
released. They well up until they force themselves over the void into non-social
or anti-social directions. They may turn into organized moroseness, selfishness,
sexual self-abuse, or other unfortunate channels. Such a child may receive a
surplus of attention from parents, and hence develop a chronic expectation of
receiving attention.

A child with a large endowment of energy may react to repression by
"contrariness." He often makes requests which cannot be granted ; his environment
as he sees it impinges upon him at nearly every turn. Being continually
repressed, his energies express themselves in beliefs that the world is against
him, that all is wrong. Sometimes these beliefs may lead to murder or suicide.
Most phenomena of the last mentioned type have been preceded by long periods of
repression of certain dominant desires, although occasionally life is taken as a
result of an abrupt repression, as in the case of the jilted lover, or the
jealous spouse.

Repression often leads to a super-development of imagination. Balked impulses
may seek satisfaction in religious imagery. In fact one of the chief
constructive phases of religious beliefs is that they are often sublimated
opportunities for broken hopes and defeated ambitions. Of course

(
22) the imagery results of repression may easily take harmful trends as well
as helpful ones.

Then there is wise repression, i. e., rational discipline. Without
repression, the developing child succumbs to pernicious stimuli, and
anti-personal as well as anti-social habits result. Youth cannot have the
discretion of age, and thus many tendencies are repressed by parent or by
society. This process is basic to
self control, without which there can be no dependable conduct. But
where repression is resorted to, the disciplinarian normally will provide for
adequate sublimation. This need may often be met by a simple explanation of the
dangers in the given stimulus, but if the stimuli are strong and insistent, then
an alternative activity, future or present, will need to be provided.

Discipline is essential to both personal and social progress, but it cannot
be achieved without obliging the individual to run the gauntlet of the psychical
dangers incident to repression. As a youth cannot well safe-guard himself from
these evils, the major responsibility rests on his elders, or those who have his
training in charge. Since these persons may be unversed in the psychology of
repression, they perpetrate all kinds of blunders upon relatively helpless
children.

The importance of disseminating the available knowledge concerning the nature
of repression and sublimation is seen in the cases of lenient parents who,
dismayed by the effects of repression in their children, find themselves
baffled. Oftentimes they have neglected to provide sublimated opportunities
until repression produces such a storm of angry opposition, based on untoward
habits, that they lose all control over their children.

Undue repression of the feelings and emotions has led to warped
personalities, insanity, and social radicalism. Psychiatry offers valuable data
for social psychology when it reveals case after case in which the impingement
of social conditions or personal insult and injustice has upset an individual's
feeling and emotional nature and thrown it into a distorted condition. The life
histories of revolutionists in various countries would doubtless reveal that
their revolutionary attitude arose out of feelings distorted by genuine or
imagined injustice.

Affective human nature is evidently the most delicately adjusted and at the
same time the most dynamic of all the factors involved in intersocial
stimulation. It operates now subtly, now rashly, now without control, but always
significantly in the formation of all social attitudes and values, while being
at the same time the colorful dynamo of personal achievement and social
progress.

(
24)

PRINCIPLES

1. The human organism is characterized by tonal qualities that are indicative
of the favorable or unfavorable results of past experience.

2. Because of similarities in basic experiences, people are remarkably alike
in their tonal or affective reactions.

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