Lummer i Pringsheim. Rola doświadczenia w narodzinach fizyki kwantów

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1 Lummer i Pringsheim. Rola doświadczenia w narodzinach fizyki kwantówLummer, Otto Richard ( ) German physicist who specialized in optics and thermal radiation. His investigations led directly to the radiation formula of Max Planck, which marked the beginning of quantum theory. Lummer was born in Jena, Saxony, and attended a number of different German universities. He became an assistant to Hermann Helmholtz at Berlin 1884 and moved with him to the newly established Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin In 1894 Lummer was made professor there. From 1904 he was professor at Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland). In collaboration with Eugen Brodhun, he designed a photometer (the Lummer-Brodhun cube) and worked towards the establishment of an international standard of luminosity. Lummer and Wilhelm Wien made the first practical black-body radiator by making a small aperture in a hollow sphere. When heated to a particular temperature, it behaved like an ideal black body. Studying emission from black bodies, Lummer later confirmed Wien's displacement law but found an anomaly in Wien's radiation law. Lummer designed a mercury vapour lamp for use when monochromatic light is required, for instance in fluorescence microscopy, and in 1902 designed a high-resolution spectroscope.Pringsheim, Ernst ( )German physicist whose experimental work on the nature of thermal radiation led directly to the quantum theory. In 1881 he developed a spectrometer that made the first accurate measurements of wavelengths in the infrared region. Pringsheim was born in Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland) and studied at several German universities. He was professor at Berlin and at Breslau from Pringsheim began in 1896 to collaborate with Otto Lummer on a study of black-body radiation (see black body. This led to a verification of the Stefan-Boltzmann law that relates the energy radiated by a body to its absolute temperature, but in 1899 they found anomalies in laws that had been devised to express the energy of the radiation in terms of its frequency and temperature. The results encouraged Max Planck to find a new radiation law that would account for the experimental results and in 1900, Planck arrived at such a law by assuming that the energy of the radiation consists of indivisible units that he called quanta. This marked the founding of the quantum theory.Jerzy Karpiuk, Zakład Fotochemii i Spektroskopii, ICHF PAN

2 „Rosencrantz i Guildenstern are dead”Jeden z najbardziej zaskakujących kontrastów w całej literaturze występuje pod koniec „Hamleta” Szekspira. Na scenę usłaną ciałami bohaterów – Hamleta, Laertesa, Klaudiusza i Gertrudy wkraczają ambasadorowie z Anglii i zawiadamiają, że “Rosenkranz i Guildestern nie żyją”. Nikt się tym nie przejmuje. Podobna reakcja mogłaby wystąpić wśród fizyków lub nawet historyków i filozofów nauki, gdyby ktoś zawiadomił, że “Lummer i Pringsheim nie żyją”.One of the great anticlimaxes in all of literature occurs at the end of Shakespeare’s Hamlet. On stage strewn with noble and heroic corpus —Hamlet, Laertes, Claudius, and Gertrude — the ambassadors from England arrive and announce that “Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are dead”. No one cares. A similar reaction might be produced among a group of physicists, or even among historians and philosophers of science, were someone to announce that “Lummer and Pringsheim are dead”.Allan Franklin, The Neglect of Experiment, 1986

4 Tradycyjny punkt widzenia„It is rare in any form of progress or in any discovery that the success can be with truth attributed to one man... But of Planck it can be said, and it is universally true that the formation of the quantum theory is his alone.”H. T. Flint, Nature 181 (1958) 1098„It is rare in any form of progress or in any discovery that the success can be with truth attributed to one man... But of Planck it can be said, and it is universally true that the formation of the quantum theory is his alone.”H. T. Flint, Nature 181 (1958) 1098„Planck’s unique position is best illustrated by what is in my opinion the singular fact that he had no precursors or competitors whose thoughs moved in a similar direction.”E. Segrè, Phys. Bl. 23 (1967) 62„Did Planck create them out of nothing?”H. Kangro, Early History of Planck’s Radiation Law (1976) p. 1

8 W poszukiwaniu wiarygodnego wzorca światłapłytka platynowa 1 cm2 o Ttop Pt (2042 K) (1884, Kongres Elektryczny w Paryżu)Świeca Hefnera (wzorzec w Niemczech: 1883 – 1947) (octan amylu, PTR) wrażliwa na zmiany wilgotności powietrzaLampa Carcel’a (wzorzec we Francji) (olej rzepakowy - 42 g/h)German physicist who formulated an equation describing the blackbody spectrum in Wien and Rayleigh had also developed equations, but Wien's only worked at high frequencies, and Rayleigh's only worked at low frequencies. Planck's spectrum was obtained by postulating that energy was directly proportional to frequency ( ). Planck believed that this quantization applied only to the absorption and emission of energy by matter, not to electromagnetic waves themselves. However, it turned out to be much more general than he could have imagined.Planck received the Nobel Prize in physics in 1918 for his quantum theory after it had been successfully applied to the photoelectric effect by Einstein and the atom by Niels Bohr. Planck showed there were difficulties in relating the statistical theory of molecular motion to the thermodynamical approach. He also criticized the probabilistic interpretation of entropy. He was the first to write down the equation usually attributed to Boltzmann, . In fact, the constant k (as opposed to R/NA, where R is the universal gas constant and NA is Avogadro's number ) was first used by Planck in Lorentz and others called k Planck's constant until 1911 (Pais 1991, p. 60), when the term Boltzmann's constant became generally accepted.Planck was also a philosopher of science. In his Scientific Autobiography and Other Papers, he stated Planck's Principle, which holds that "A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it." This view contradicts that forwarded by Karl Popper known as Popper's Principle.Karl Popper’s Principle:Austrian-born philosopher of science who defines science as a discipline founded on the creation of hypotheses that predict phenomena, preferably new ones, that can be tested. Popper's Principle holds that testability rather than truth should be the criterion for judging scientific truths. This principle views scientific progress in a different light than does Planck's Principle.Credit to:Na zdjęciu: Hefner-Kerze originalÓwczesne źródła światła (żarówka [1879] czy lampa gazowa) promieniowały dużo energii w niewidzialnej części widma - konieczność przejścia od fotometrii do radiometriiJak zrealizować absolutny pomiar natężenia światła i jak zdefiniować absolutną jednostkę natężenia światła ?

10 Ferdinand Kurlbaum 1857 - 1927 Otto Lummer 1860 - 1925Ernst PringsheimGerman physicist who formulated an equation describing the blackbody spectrum in Wien and Rayleigh had also developed equations, but Wien's only worked at high frequencies, and Rayleigh's only worked at low frequencies. Planck's spectrum was obtained by postulating that energy was directly proportional to frequency ( ). Planck believed that this quantization applied only to the absorption and emission of energy by matter, not to electromagnetic waves themselves. However, it turned out to be much more general than he could have imagined.Planck received the Nobel Prize in physics in 1918 for his quantum theory after it had been successfully applied to the photoelectric effect by Einstein and the atom by Niels Bohr. Planck showed there were difficulties in relating the statistical theory of molecular motion to the thermodynamical approach. He also criticized the probabilistic interpretation of entropy. He was the first to write down the equation usually attributed to Boltzmann, . In fact, the constant k (as opposed to R/NA, where R is the universal gas constant and NA is Avogadro's number ) was first used by Planck in Lorentz and others called k Planck's constant until 1911 (Pais 1991, p. 60), when the term Boltzmann's constant became generally accepted.Planck was also a philosopher of science. In his Scientific Autobiography and Other Papers, he stated Planck's Principle, which holds that "A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it." This view contradicts that forwarded by Karl Popper known as Popper's Principle.Karl Popper’s Principle:Austrian-born philosopher of science who defines science as a discipline founded on the creation of hypotheses that predict phenomena, preferably new ones, that can be tested. Popper's Principle holds that testability rather than truth should be the criterion for judging scientific truths. This principle views scientific progress in a different light than does Planck's Principle.Credit to:Heinrich RubensFriedrich PaschenWilhelm Wien

11 Gustav Kirchhoff – 1860In 1859 Gustav Kirchhoff proved a theorem about blackbody radiation. A blackbody is an object that absorbs all the energy that falls upon it and, because it reflects no light, it would appear black to an observer. A blackbody is also a perfect emitter and Kirchhoff proved that the energy emitted E depends only on the temperature T and the frequency v of the emitted energy, i.e.E = J(T,v). He challenged physicists to find the function J.G. Kirchhoff: Über das Verhältnis zwischen dem Emissionsvermögen und dem Absorptions-vermögen der Körper für Licht und Wärme, Annalen der Physik 19 (1860) 275.

13 Początkowo zaniedbywano problem znaczenia „czerni” ciał dla emitowanego promieniowania („man hat überhaupt außer acht gelassen”)Jako c.d.cz. stosowano np. blaszki metalowe – czernione - c.d.cz. tylko w ograniczonym zakresie T (Ch. Christiansen, 1880)Wien i Lummer (1895): „trzeba odejść od tych sztucznie czernionych blaszek” (“man muß überhaupt von den künstlich geschwärzten Blechen absehen” und stattdessen “die Strahlung eines schwarzen Körpers als den Zustand des Wärmegleichgewichts aufzufassen... Um hierauf auch eine praktisch brauchbare Methode zu gründen, durch die man die Strahlung eines schwarzen Körpers in beliebiger Annäherung herstellen kann, muss man einen Hohlraum auf gleichmässige Temperatur bringen und durch die Öffnung seine Strahlung nach aussen gelangen lassen”.)Lummer, Otto Richard ( ) German physicist who specialized in optics and thermal radiation. His investigations led directly to the radiation formula of Max Planck, which marked the beginning of quantum theory. Lummer was born in Jena, Saxony, and attended a number of different German universities. He became an assistant to Hermann Helmholtz at Berlin 1884 and moved with him to the newly established Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin In 1894 Lummer was made professor there. From 1904 he was professor at Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland). In collaboration with Eugen Brodhun, he designed a photometer (the Lummer-Brodhun cube) and worked towards the establishment of an international standard of luminosity. Lummer and Wilhelm Wien made the first practical black-body radiator by making a small aperture in a hollow sphere. When heated to a particular temperature, it behaved like an ideal black body. Studying emission from black bodies, Lummer later confirmed Wien's displacement law but found an anomaly in Wien's radiation law. Lummer designed a mercury vapour lamp for use when monochromatic light is required, for instance in fluorescence microscopy, and in 1902 designed a high-resolution spectroscope.W. Wien, O. Lummer, Annalen der Physik 56 (1895) 453.

14 O. Lummer & E. Pringsheim: 1895 - 1898ciekłe powietrzewrząca wodawrząca saletragorący gaz-188°C680°C1200°CLummer, Otto Richard ( ) German physicist who specialized in optics and thermal radiation. His investigations led directly to the radiation formula of Max Planck, which marked the beginning of quantum theory. Lummer was born in Jena, Saxony, and attended a number of different German universities. He became an assistant to Hermann Helmholtz at Berlin 1884 and moved with him to the newly established Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin In 1894 Lummer was made professor there. From 1904 he was professor at Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland). In collaboration with Eugen Brodhun, he designed a photometer (the Lummer-Brodhun cube) and worked towards the establishment of an international standard of luminosity. Lummer and Wilhelm Wien made the first practical black-body radiator by making a small aperture in a hollow sphere. When heated to a particular temperature, it behaved like an ideal black body. Studying emission from black bodies, Lummer later confirmed Wien's displacement law but found an anomaly in Wien's radiation law. Lummer designed a mercury vapour lamp for use when monochromatic light is required, for instance in fluorescence microscopy, and in 1902 designed a high-resolution spectroscope.Wnęki:cylindryczne i sferyczne, metalowedwuścienne, kuliste, porcelanowepowierzchnia kryta sadzą, FeO lub UO2100°CD. Hoffmann, On the Experimental Context of Planck’s Foundation of Quantum Theory, 2000

15 Elektrycznie wygrzewane c.d.cz. (Lummer & Kurlbaum, 1898)4 cm40 cmciało doskonale czarne:platynowa blaszka 0,01 mm100 A / 1500°Cgrafit °C (1903)Lummer, Otto Richard ( ) German physicist who specialized in optics and thermal radiation. His investigations led directly to the radiation formula of Max Planck, which marked the beginning of quantum theory. Lummer was born in Jena, Saxony, and attended a number of different German universities. He became an assistant to Hermann Helmholtz at Berlin 1884 and moved with him to the newly established Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin In 1894 Lummer was made professor there. From 1904 he was professor at Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland). In collaboration with Eugen Brodhun, he designed a photometer (the Lummer-Brodhun cube) and worked towards the establishment of an international standard of luminosity. Lummer and Wilhelm Wien made the first practical black-body radiator by making a small aperture in a hollow sphere. When heated to a particular temperature, it behaved like an ideal black body. Studying emission from black bodies, Lummer later confirmed Wien's displacement law but found an anomaly in Wien's radiation law. Lummer designed a mercury vapour lamp for use when monochromatic light is required, for instance in fluorescence microscopy, and in 1902 designed a high-resolution spectroscope.Lummer: Betriebsblindheit ślepota zawodowaW. Wien, O. Lummer, Annalen der Physik 56 (1895) 453.

16 Lummer, Otto Richard ( ) German physicist who specialized in optics and thermal radiation. His investigations led directly to the radiation formula of Max Planck, which marked the beginning of quantum theory. Lummer was born in Jena, Saxony, and attended a number of different German universities. He became an assistant to Hermann Helmholtz at Berlin 1884 and moved with him to the newly established Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin In 1894 Lummer was made professor there. From 1904 he was professor at Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland). In collaboration with Eugen Brodhun, he designed a photometer (the Lummer-Brodhun cube) and worked towards the establishment of an international standard of luminosity. Lummer and Wilhelm Wien made the first practical black-body radiator by making a small aperture in a hollow sphere. When heated to a particular temperature, it behaved like an ideal black body. Studying emission from black bodies, Lummer later confirmed Wien's displacement law but found an anomaly in Wien's radiation law. Lummer designed a mercury vapour lamp for use when monochromatic light is required, for instance in fluorescence microscopy, and in 1902 designed a high-resolution spectroscope.H. J. Kostkowski, R. D. Lee, Theory and methods of optical pyrometry, NBS Special Publication 300: Precision measurements and calibration. Temperature, Washington 1968, p. 361

17 Samuel P. Langley ( )Bolometr udoskonalony termometr oporowy 1880: T  10-5 °C, ± 1%Today Langley is primarily remembered for his pioneering work on the measurement of the solar constant, and equally pioneering studies of the infrared portion of the solar spectrum. By 1880 Langley has perfected his bolometer. This instrument was based on a then already well-known property of metals, namely the fact that their electrical resistivity is a sensitive function of temperature. Langley's bolometer was so sensitive that it could detect thermal radiation from a cow a quarter of a mile away. His first ``map'' of the infrared portion of the solar spectrum was published in In 1895, badly in need of addidional manpower due to ever increasing administrative duties, Langley hired Charles Greeley Abbot ( ), then a 23 year old graduate student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Abbot became equally fascinated with the solar constant problem, and carried out Langley's program with flying colors for the following half century.„Langley's bolometer was so sensitive that it could detect thermal radiation from a cow a quarter of a mile away.”termometr oporowy: Adolph F. Svenberg, Uppsala, 1851:

18 Bolometr w służbie fotometrii0°C – 10 m 100 °C – 7.5 mRównanie Michelsona (1887) dobrze odtwarzało dane LangleyaToday Langley is primarily remembered for his pioneering work on the measurement of the solar constant, and equally pioneering studies of the infrared portion of the solar spectrum. By 1880 Langley has perfected his bolometer. This instrument was based on a then already well-known property of metals, namely the fact that their electrical resistivity is a sensitive function of temperature. Langley's bolometer was so sensitive that it could detect thermal radiation from a cow a quarter of a mile away. His first ``map'' of the infrared portion of the solar spectrum was published in In 1895, badly in need of addidional manpower due to ever increasing administrative duties, Langley hired Charles Greeley Abbot ( ), then a 23 year old graduate student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Abbot became equally fascinated with the solar constant problem, and carried out Langley's program with flying colors for the following half century.„...stoi przed nami wielki problem czekający na rozwiązanie. Mam na myśli związek między temperaturą a promieniowaniem, nie wiemy bowiem prawie nic na temat tego zagadnienia, którego znajomość umożliwi nam nowe spojrzenie na niemal wszystkie procesy zachodzące w naturze.”S. P. Langley, 1889 (S. Barr, Am. J. Phys. 28 (1960) 42)W. Michelson, J. de Phys. 6 (1887) 467.

19 Rozwój technik detekcjiBolometr Lummera: T  10-7 °C, ± 1%Lummer, Otto Richard ( ) German physicist who specialized in optics and thermal radiation. His investigations led directly to the radiation formula of Max Planck, which marked the beginning of quantum theory. Lummer was born in Jena, Saxony, and attended a number of different German universities. He became an assistant to Hermann Helmholtz at Berlin 1884 and moved with him to the newly established Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin In 1894 Lummer was made professor there. From 1904 he was professor at Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland). In collaboration with Eugen Brodhun, he designed a photometer (the Lummer-Brodhun cube) and worked towards the establishment of an international standard of luminosity. Lummer and Wilhelm Wien made the first practical black-body radiator by making a small aperture in a hollow sphere. When heated to a particular temperature, it behaved like an ideal black body. Studying emission from black bodies, Lummer later confirmed Wien's displacement law but found an anomaly in Wien's radiation law. Lummer designed a mercury vapour lamp for use when monochromatic light is required, for instance in fluorescence microscopy, and in 1902 designed a high-resolution spectroscope.Raport PTR 1899/1900:Celem badań optycznych jest potwierdzenie fundamentalnych praw promieniowania cieplnego i świetlnego.

20 Detektory mikrostrukturalne z XIX w.Lummer, Otto Richard ( ) German physicist who specialized in optics and thermal radiation. His investigations led directly to the radiation formula of Max Planck, which marked the beginning of quantum theory. Lummer was born in Jena, Saxony, and attended a number of different German universities. He became an assistant to Hermann Helmholtz at Berlin 1884 and moved with him to the newly established Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin In 1894 Lummer was made professor there. From 1904 he was professor at Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland). In collaboration with Eugen Brodhun, he designed a photometer (the Lummer-Brodhun cube) and worked towards the establishment of an international standard of luminosity. Lummer and Wilhelm Wien made the first practical black-body radiator by making a small aperture in a hollow sphere. When heated to a particular temperature, it behaved like an ideal black body. Studying emission from black bodies, Lummer later confirmed Wien's displacement law but found an anomaly in Wien's radiation law. Lummer designed a mercury vapour lamp for use when monochromatic light is required, for instance in fluorescence microscopy, and in 1902 designed a high-resolution spectroscope.

21 Prawa promieniowania Potwierdzono prawo Stefana-Boltzmana (± 1%)J. Stefan (1879) + L. Boltzmann (1884) = prawo Stefana-BoltzmannaW. Wien (1893) - prawo przesunięć WienaW. Wien (1896) - prawo Wiena (do połowy 1900 zgodne z danymi eksperymentalnymi)Lummer, Otto Richard ( ) German physicist who specialized in optics and thermal radiation. His investigations led directly to the radiation formula of Max Planck, which marked the beginning of quantum theory. Lummer was born in Jena, Saxony, and attended a number of different German universities. He became an assistant to Hermann Helmholtz at Berlin 1884 and moved with him to the newly established Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin In 1894 Lummer was made professor there. From 1904 he was professor at Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland). In collaboration with Eugen Brodhun, he designed a photometer (the Lummer-Brodhun cube) and worked towards the establishment of an international standard of luminosity. Lummer and Wilhelm Wien made the first practical black-body radiator by making a small aperture in a hollow sphere. When heated to a particular temperature, it behaved like an ideal black body. Studying emission from black bodies, Lummer later confirmed Wien's displacement law but found an anomaly in Wien's radiation law. Lummer designed a mercury vapour lamp for use when monochromatic light is required, for instance in fluorescence microscopy, and in 1902 designed a high-resolution spectroscope.Potwierdzono prawo Stefana-Boltzmana (± 1%)(bolometr powierzchniowy)Prawo przesunięć Wiena(bolometr liniowy)

22 Precyzyjne pomiary widma c.d.cz.Test prawa Wiena rozkładu energii c.d.cz. (od roku Wiena-Plancka)Lummer, Otto Richard ( ) German physicist who specialized in optics and thermal radiation. His investigations led directly to the radiation formula of Max Planck, which marked the beginning of quantum theory. Lummer was born in Jena, Saxony, and attended a number of different German universities. He became an assistant to Hermann Helmholtz at Berlin 1884 and moved with him to the newly established Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin In 1894 Lummer was made professor there. From 1904 he was professor at Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland). In collaboration with Eugen Brodhun, he designed a photometer (the Lummer-Brodhun cube) and worked towards the establishment of an international standard of luminosity. Lummer and Wilhelm Wien made the first practical black-body radiator by making a small aperture in a hollow sphere. When heated to a particular temperature, it behaved like an ideal black body. Studying emission from black bodies, Lummer later confirmed Wien's displacement law but found an anomaly in Wien's radiation law. Lummer designed a mercury vapour lamp for use when monochromatic light is required, for instance in fluorescence microscopy, and in 1902 designed a high-resolution spectroscope.Spektrobolometr

23 Odchylenia od rozkładu Wiena-Plancka: pomiary do 6 m, T: °C „wskazują na niewielkie odchylenia od rozkładu Wiena-Plancka”Lummer, Otto Richard ( ) German physicist who specialized in optics and thermal radiation. His investigations led directly to the radiation formula of Max Planck, which marked the beginning of quantum theory. Lummer was born in Jena, Saxony, and attended a number of different German universities. He became an assistant to Hermann Helmholtz at Berlin 1884 and moved with him to the newly established Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin In 1894 Lummer was made professor there. From 1904 he was professor at Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland). In collaboration with Eugen Brodhun, he designed a photometer (the Lummer-Brodhun cube) and worked towards the establishment of an international standard of luminosity. Lummer and Wilhelm Wien made the first practical black-body radiator by making a small aperture in a hollow sphere. When heated to a particular temperature, it behaved like an ideal black body. Studying emission from black bodies, Lummer later confirmed Wien's displacement law but found an anomaly in Wien's radiation law. Lummer designed a mercury vapour lamp for use when monochromatic light is required, for instance in fluorescence microscopy, and in 1902 designed a high-resolution spectroscope.O. Lummer, E. Pringsheim, Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Gesell. 1 (1899) 36.

24 Odchylenia od rozkładu Wiena-Plancka: pomiary do 8,3 m, T do 1650°C: „rozbieżności między teorią a doświadczeniem mają charakter systematyczny”Lummer, Otto Richard ( ) German physicist who specialized in optics and thermal radiation. His investigations led directly to the radiation formula of Max Planck, which marked the beginning of quantum theory. Lummer was born in Jena, Saxony, and attended a number of different German universities. He became an assistant to Hermann Helmholtz at Berlin 1884 and moved with him to the newly established Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin In 1894 Lummer was made professor there. From 1904 he was professor at Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland). In collaboration with Eugen Brodhun, he designed a photometer (the Lummer-Brodhun cube) and worked towards the establishment of an international standard of luminosity. Lummer and Wilhelm Wien made the first practical black-body radiator by making a small aperture in a hollow sphere. When heated to a particular temperature, it behaved like an ideal black body. Studying emission from black bodies, Lummer later confirmed Wien's displacement law but found an anomaly in Wien's radiation law. Lummer designed a mercury vapour lamp for use when monochromatic light is required, for instance in fluorescence microscopy, and in 1902 designed a high-resolution spectroscope.O. Lummer, E. Pringsheim, Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Gesell. 1 (1899) 226.

25 Odchylenia od rozkładu Wiena-Plancka: w pomiarach do 18 m, T do 1772°C: „rozbieżności między teorią a doświadczeniem sięgały 50%”Kontra Paschena: w F. Paschen na podstawie swoich pomiarów potwierdza rozkład Wiena-PlanckaLummer, Otto Richard ( ) German physicist who specialized in optics and thermal radiation. His investigations led directly to the radiation formula of Max Planck, which marked the beginning of quantum theory. Lummer was born in Jena, Saxony, and attended a number of different German universities. He became an assistant to Hermann Helmholtz at Berlin 1884 and moved with him to the newly established Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin In 1894 Lummer was made professor there. From 1904 he was professor at Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland). In collaboration with Eugen Brodhun, he designed a photometer (the Lummer-Brodhun cube) and worked towards the establishment of an international standard of luminosity. Lummer and Wilhelm Wien made the first practical black-body radiator by making a small aperture in a hollow sphere. When heated to a particular temperature, it behaved like an ideal black body. Studying emission from black bodies, Lummer later confirmed Wien's displacement law but found an anomaly in Wien's radiation law. Lummer designed a mercury vapour lamp for use when monochromatic light is required, for instance in fluorescence microscopy, and in 1902 designed a high-resolution spectroscope.O. Lummer, E. Pringsheim, Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Gesell. 2 (1900) 163.

26 Equations Wien Thiesen Lummer & Pringsheim Planck (PTR, 1896)(PTR, Feb. 1900)EquationsLummer &Pringsheim(PTR, Feb. 1900)Lummer, Otto Richard ( ) German physicist who specialized in optics and thermal radiation. His investigations led directly to the radiation formula of Max Planck, which marked the beginning of quantum theory. Lummer was born in Jena, Saxony, and attended a number of different German universities. He became an assistant to Hermann Helmholtz at Berlin 1884 and moved with him to the newly established Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin In 1894 Lummer was made professor there. From 1904 he was professor at Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland). In collaboration with Eugen Brodhun, he designed a photometer (the Lummer-Brodhun cube) and worked towards the establishment of an international standard of luminosity. Lummer and Wilhelm Wien made the first practical black-body radiator by making a small aperture in a hollow sphere. When heated to a particular temperature, it behaved like an ideal black body. Studying emission from black bodies, Lummer later confirmed Wien's displacement law but found an anomaly in Wien's radiation law. Lummer designed a mercury vapour lamp for use when monochromatic light is required, for instance in fluorescence microscopy, and in 1902 designed a high-resolution spectroscope.Planck(Oct. 19, 1900)

27 Odchylenia od rozkładu Wiena-PlanckaH. Rubens i F. KurlbaumMetoda promieni resztkowych: pomiary rozkładu energii do 50 m. Jednoznaczne stwierdzenie odstępstw od rozkładu Wiena-Plancka. (die Abweichungen lassen sich nicht wegdiskutieren)Lummer, Otto Richard ( ) German physicist who specialized in optics and thermal radiation. His investigations led directly to the radiation formula of Max Planck, which marked the beginning of quantum theory. Lummer was born in Jena, Saxony, and attended a number of different German universities. He became an assistant to Hermann Helmholtz at Berlin 1884 and moved with him to the newly established Physikalische Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin In 1894 Lummer was made professor there. From 1904 he was professor at Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland). In collaboration with Eugen Brodhun, he designed a photometer (the Lummer-Brodhun cube) and worked towards the establishment of an international standard of luminosity. Lummer and Wilhelm Wien made the first practical black-body radiator by making a small aperture in a hollow sphere. When heated to a particular temperature, it behaved like an ideal black body. Studying emission from black bodies, Lummer later confirmed Wien's displacement law but found an anomaly in Wien's radiation law. Lummer designed a mercury vapour lamp for use when monochromatic light is required, for instance in fluorescence microscopy, and in 1902 designed a high-resolution spectroscope.