Linking words, discourse markers and connectors may not be exactly the same in grammatical terms, for some are conjunctions while others are adverbs or even prepositions. Yet, they have something in common: they all are transition words or phrases that help us organise our oral speech or written texts. They bind the sentences and the ideas logically, making the text clearer to the listener or reader.

A text without them may seem illogical or uncohesive. However, we should not overuse them, either.Otherwise, the text will seem to pretentious. As you can see, in this first lines, we can already find quite a few.

Scientists think that the Earth is 4.54 billion years old, which means that the planet has gone through a lot of transformations to become the world we know today.

Humankind is much younger (some say just 200,000 years old) yet we are leaving a huge footprint. Population growth, progress and consumerism are having strong impact on our home, planet Earth, and problably changing its living conditions forever.

Our world is being affected in several ways. Look at the picture below↓:

Can you identify the problems above↑ (clockwise)?

F_ _D SH_ RT_ G

GL _B _L W _ RM_ N G

G R_ _ NH _US _ _ F F_ C T

_Z_ N_ L _Y_ R D _PL_ T_ _N

W_ T_ R S H_ R T_ G_

S _ _L C_N T_ M_ N_ T_ _N

_ X T_ N C T_ _ N

W_S T _ D_ S P_ S _ L

To train your listening skills and simultaneously revise vocabulary, try this link and do the exercises proposed there.

When we buy goods, we expect things to work properly, but sometimes they don’t. When it is not possible to resolve the problem personally, then we should complain in writing. Usually it is a lot more effective.

In that case there are procedures to respect if we want to do things right.

As this is a formal letter, the layout has also rigid norms to comply with.

The two most common formats are these two below. You can either start all the paragraphs on the left or put the sender’s address and the date on the right.

As for the content, your letter you should include the following:

describe what you purchased, as well as where and when,

explain why you are not happy with the purchase,

tell them what you would like them to do about the situation,

indicate a deadline for the resolution of the problem.

Look at this model:

Now, try to write one yourself. Imagine you have recently ordered an item through the Internet, but are not happy with the purchase. Write to the company.

When you finish, refer to the following link to compare the original with your letter.

Relatives

Relatives are a good way of connecting ideas and avoid repetitions. There are pronouns and adverbs and the clauses that carry them can be divided in two major groups: defining and non-defining, depending on their role.

Defining relative clauses

Defining relative clauses are used to give essential information about someone or something – information that we need to know so as to understand what or who is being referred to.

If a defining relative clause is removed, the meaning of the sentence changes significantly. A defining relative clause is not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas or parentheses.

A defining relative clause usually comes immediately after the noun it describes in order to retain a clear connection and the pronoun will depend on its role in the sentence (subject, object, possessive).

That young man is the customer that/who complained about the repair service.

You chose a brand whose reputation is indubitable.

Can you exchange it for one that /which works properly?

Can I talk to the young man who /that persuade me to take it?

…

When the relative is an object complement, it can be omitted. So its use is optional and we often drop it when we’re talking.

For example:

I purchased a watch (that/which) I was never able to wear.

I couldn’t identify the shop assistant (that/who) I had talked to.

Sometimes we use adverbs to refer to time, place or reason.

Spring is the time of the year when nature seems to come back to life again.

This is the place where I was born.

I can’t understand the reason why he says that.

Non-defining relative clauses

A non-defining or non-essential clause gives us more information about the person or thing we are talking about.

If a non-defining relative clause is removed from a sentence, we lose some detail, but the overall meaning of the sentence remains the same.

We always use a relative pronoun (who, which, whose or whom) to introduce a non-defining relative clause, but we don’t use that.

Non-defining relative clauses are always set off from the rest of the sentence with commas.

The young teacher, who graduated from the same university I did, gave a wonderful presentation.

Stratford-on-Avon, about which many people have written, is Shakespeare’s birthplace.

Doctors use a new testing kit for screening lung and stomach cancers, which account for 70% of cancers treated in the western world.

She’s studying to become a doctor, which is difficult.

Summing up the differences:

Relative clauses & prepositions

If the verb in the relative clause takes a preposition, we may put it at the end of the clause or at the beginning, but that can cause some changes in the sentence:

For example: talk to / work with / apply for / complain about / listen to

The shop assistant (who or whom / that) he talked to on that day had been recently hired.

He couldn’t forget the music (that/which) he had listened to.

He got the job (that/which) he had applied for.

Stratford-on-Avon, which many people have written about, is Shakespeare’s birthplace.

OR

The shop assistant to whom he talked on that they had been recently hired. (more formal)

Stratford-on-Avon, about which many people have written, is Shakespeare’s birthplace.

Advertising is almost as old as humankind. From the ancient Egyptian papyrus messages to the current neon lights advertising has changed a lot. Yet, the goals are basically the same: to make you aware of a certain product, to remind you of its existence and lead you to some sort of action.

Advertising has a lot of influence upon our lives. Owing to that, we all should know a little about its techniques and tricks.

Wherever you find them and whatever the medium used advertising tends to make us move towards a final action using four basic steps known as AIDA. This acronym stands for attention or awareness, interest, desire and action which usually means acquiring the product, joining the organisation, etc.

How does this model apply to the ads or adverts we see in print or online?

Look at this this online page. Words and images lead us to the same goal: the call to action button.

Print ads usually displayfour main elements: the headline, the illustration, the copy and the signature.

The signature usually consists of a logo, a slogan or tagline and a contact.

Now try to find the same elements in the following advert:

Is any of these elements missing?

Headline?

Illustration?

Copy?

Logo?

Slogan?

What about the strategy used here? Find your answer below.

To make you buy, marketeers use all sorts of strategies. Take a look at this list and try to identify some ads they may apply to.

If you want to create your own ad in four quick steps, follow this link and you’ll see an instant commercial:

Try to identify the mistakes in this first stanza. How many can you identify?

Early, I’ve been, I’ve been losing sleep
Thinking about the things that we could be
But baby, I’ve been, I’ve been crying hard,
Said, no more chasing dollars
We’ll be hunting stars, yeah we’ll be hunting stars

How many extra words are there?

I see in this life like a swinging vine
Swing my heart across the line fine
And my face now is flashing signs
Seek it out and you shall find me

Now what’s missing?

_________, but I’m not that _________
Young, but I’m not that _________
I don’t think the world is ______
I’m just doing what we’re _______
I feel something so right
Doing the ________ thing
I feel something so _________
Doing the right thing
I could lie, couldn’t I, could lie
Everything that kills me makes me feel alive

Connectors are very important to make the texts we write more cohesive.

There are many different types, but today we are simply going to sonsider the ones used to express contrast or concession, that means when ideas seem to diverge.

Look at the list below:

They all introduce a note of contrast and disagreement, but they have different ways of being used in the sentences. For example their placement may vary. Some are more often used at the beginning, some at the end and others in the middle.

Besides their position, they also require different types of completion. Note the differences in the explanation below:

Although / though / even though (Port. embora) – need a full clause (subject + verb).

With the new marketing strategies and advertising campaigns, shopping looks more like a modern pastime than simply an answer to our needs. More and more people do it for fun, not out of need. Nobody knows whether this is a good change or just a new form of allienation.

While you listen, try to figure out which word is missing. They all have to do with MONEY, of course.

I work all night, I work all day, to pay the ________ I have to pay
Ain’t it sad
And still there never seems to be a single ________ left for me
That’s too bad
In my dreams I have a plan
If I got me a __________ man
I wouldn’t have to work at all, I’d fool around and have a ball…

Money, money, money
Must be funny
In the __________ man’s world
Money, money, money
Always sunny
In the _________ man’s world
Aha-ahaaa
All the things I could do
If I had a little _________
It’s a rich man’s world

A man like that is hard to find but I can’t get him off my mind
Ain’t it sad
And if he happens to be free I bet he wouldn’t fancy me
That’s too bad
So I must leave, I’ll have to go
To Las Vegas or Monaco
And win a _________ in a game, my life will never be the same…