This is a working guide on writing a thesis. It is intended to assist ﬁnal year and postgraduate students in Electrical/Electronic/IT Engineering at the Centre for Intelligent Information Processing Systems (CIIPS), and the Australian Research Centre for Medical Engineering (ARCME), at The University of Western Australia (UWA). The guide is divided into three main parts: I Structure; II Substance; and III Style The structure of a thesis is governed by logic and is invariant with respect to subject. The substance varies with subject, and its quality is determined by the technical knowledge and mastery of essentials exhibited by the student. Style has two components: language and layout. The former deals with the usage of English as a medium of sound technical communication; the latter with the physical presentation of the thesis on paper, according to the requirements laid out by UWA. All three components—structure, substance and style—inﬂuence one another. A good thesis will not be found wanting in any of these three1 .

1.1

What is a thesis and why write one?

thesis/"Ti:sIs/ n 1 a proposition to be maintained or proved. 2 a dissertation esp. by a candidate for a degree. [Middle English via Late Latin from Greek = putting, placing, a proposition, etc.] [1] hypothesis/h2I"p6TI:sIs/1 a proposition made as a basis for reasoning without the assumption of its truth. 2 a supposition made as a starting point for further investigation from known facts. [Late Latin from Greek hypothesis ‘foundation’; Greek hypo ‘under’] [1] One might infer from the etymology above that a thesis is an (obligatory) oﬀering placed at the desk of the examiner by a candidate who wishes to get a degree. This is the most common, and often only, reason why a thesis is written. But there are other reasons for writing a thesis. A thesis is a written record of the work that has been undertaken by a candidate. It constitutes objective evidence of the author’s knowledge and capabilities in the ﬁeld of interest and is therefore a fair means to gauge them. Although thesis writing may be viewed as an unpleasant obligation on the road to a degree, the discipline it induces may have lifelong beneﬁts.
1 This guide does not cover the earlier phases, such as selecting a supervisor and research topic, doing a literature search etc., nor does it give advice on how to do research, except as it pertains to writing a thesis.

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It is only in the substance and the emphasis placed on it that the diﬀerences arise. a thesis—whether undergraduate or postgraduate—is evidence of the candidate’s capacity to carry out independent research under the guidance of a supervisor. graded on the quality of research. The PhD candidate should also show clearly what original contributions she or he has made [2]. the signiﬁcance of the contributions and the style of presentation.2
Diﬀerences between the undergraduate and postgraduate theses
The diﬀerences between the undergraduate and postgraduate theses is one of degree 2 rather than kind. The candidate for higher degrees must demonstrate. In short. independence. follows on with experiment and analysis. and why it is signiﬁcant3 . Speciﬁcally. This means a thorough and critical review of the literature. not necessarily limited to the narrow topic of research.
An undergraduate thesis is.
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. the candidate for a master’s or doctoral degree at UWA is generally not required to make an oral presentation and defence of her or his work. for example. UWA requires that:
A PhD thesis shall be a substantial and original contribution to scholarship. and leads to ﬁndings which are then shared with the larger community of scientists and perhaps even the public. the candidate should demonstrate familiarity with previous relevant work in his or her thesis. Indeed. and mastery [3]. a thesis is an attempt to communicate. the formulation of theories or the innovative re-interpretation of known data and established ideas [2].
1. and to analyse and communicate the signiﬁcant results of that work. the ﬁnal-year Electrical/Electronic/IT Engineering student is required to make an oral presentation that contributes a small percentage to the total marks for the thesis. at present. Thus. through the discovery of knowledge. but is also an attempt to communicate it to a larger audience. but covering the general area. Although neither of these requirements applies strictly to undergraduate work. The thesis is therefore not merely a record of technical work. mastery of the literature and indicate clearly which is his or her original work. in addition.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
1 Introduction
Most of all. Science begins with curiosity. By contrast. Candidates writing a higher degree thesis—and the PhD thesis in particular—are required to present their research in the context of existing knowledge.
Pun unintended! Contrary to custom elsewhere in the world. the undergraduate thesis is judged on a similar basis to the postgraduate one. They share a common structure and need for logical rigour. the three most commonly cited qualities that earn an undergraduate thesis the ﬁrst class grade are originality.

a statement of presentation in the form ‘This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of Western Australia’. p 110]: (a) Chapter 1: Introduction (b) Chapter 2: Review of the Literature (c) Chapter 3: Materials and Methods (d) Chapters 4 to n: Experimental Chapters (e) Chapter (n + 1): General Discussion or Conclusions If we now zoomed in on any Experimental Chapter (labelled (d) above). Experimental procedure (methods and materials) iii. 2.1
Structure
Thesis structure at UWA
The UWA PhD regulations [4] give the following format for the doctoral thesis:
1. Table of Contents 4. Summary or Abstract—of approximately 300 words. numbered 5 above. Acknowledgements 5. (It should not exceed 700 words. the candidate’s names and degrees. Results iv.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
2 Structure
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2. Main Text 6. Title page: gives the title of the thesis in full.) The Abstract or summary should summarize the appropriate headings. aims. scope and conclusion of the thesis. Bibliography or References 7. we should see something like this [5. A brief introduction ii. 3. The thesis proper consists of the Main Text. we should expect to see [5]: i. Discussion 5
. If we zoomed in on the Main Text. except that the title page is followed by a letter from the candidate addressed to the Executive Dean of the Faculty of Engineering and Mathematical Sciences saying ‘This thesis is submitted in partial fulﬁlment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering (with Honours)’ and certifying that it represents the candidate’s own work. the department and year of submission. Appendices
The format of the undergraduate thesis is similar.

Go back to section 1.1 to review the meaning and etymology of this word. the structure of the thesis is designed to enforce logical and scientiﬁc rigour and make it easy to read. Aim II. Materials and Methods III.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
2 Structure
This structure reﬂects the time-honoured format of science experiments: I. these explanations might help: • The hypothesis deﬁnes the aim or objective of an experiment.1 is simply that a thesis must tell a story clearly and convincingly.2
Rationale for structure
The rationale for the structure in section 2. Discussion VI. Follow the structure and you can be sure that you are telling your story in the right order. 6
. But what exactly is your story?
2.
Any ﬂaw in the reasoning or gap in the logic will be easily spotted if this structure is strictly followed. Results V. The components of the structure impart logical continuity to the thesis in much the same way that links in a chain confer on it integrity and strength. It is the foundation of your thesis. we would expect to make certain observations or measurements. p 131]: Introduction/Aim Materials and Methods Observations/Results Discussion Conclusions What did you do and why? How did you do it? What did you ﬁnd? What do your results mean to you and why? What new knowledge have you extracted from your experiment?
Table 1: This table shows the relationship between the structure of an experimental chapter
in a thesis. There is a ﬂow in the logic. which is adapted from [6. and its underlying logic.3
The hypothesis underpins the thesis
The hypothesis is all important. Thus. It gives coherence and purpose to your thesis. Conclusions We have just dissected the structure of a (scientiﬁc or engineering) thesis but have we obtained any insights in return?
2. If it is hard to grasp what hypothesis means. as shown in Table 1. that if some likely but unproven proposition were indeed true. Observations IV.

such anticipations are hypotheses [7. no matter how attractive. [7. has written: A hypothesis is . p 18]. you discovered that the system you had devised works well with green apples. you may be more familiar or comfortable with aims or objectives. John Gregory quoted by Medawar.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
2 Structure
• A hypothesis is an imaginative preconception of what might be true in the form of a declaration with veriﬁable deductive consequences [7. it is experiment that prevails and hypothesis that falls. there must be some point in view. • ‘In every useful experiment. p22]. ‘It is possible to sort good apples from bad using ANNs and suitable hardware’. we would not have known of electrons. some anticipation of a principle to be established or rejected’. . refutation of shaky theories. failure of a hypothesis may lead to a re-examination of assumptions. If you ﬁnd time. Note that implicit in your hypothesis is a deﬁnition of acceptable levels of accuracy (how do you quantify the words ‘possible’. and the two are not mutually exclusive anyway! I prefer the word hypothesis: that which underlies a thesis. Suppose your project involves using Artiﬁcial Neural Networks (ANNs). in conjunction with appropriate hardware. ‘good’. as happened in this case. but are they relevant to engineering theses? Because engineers invent rather than discover. To comply with the ﬁrst. because invention is a more tightly directed activity than discovery. If an experiment shows that a hypothesis is incorrect. Indeed. To comply with the second. let alone quarks. Without it. read an account of the famous Michelson-Morley experiment [8] to understand that if hypothesis and experiment are in conﬂict. then that hypothesis must be erroneous. . all the more so.4
Does an engineering thesis need a hypothesis?
Hypotheses may be relevant to science theses. • Hypotheses are the larval forms of theories [7. If the “known fact” that “atoms are indivisible” had not been challenged. and ‘bad’ ?). p 20]. but not with red ones. Suppose that on completing your project. The hypothesis for this project may be. Moreover. You would have discovered new knowledge and would be able to suggest a revised hypothesis as the starting point
But you should not be afraid to explore the unknown. p 30] Your hypothesis must ﬁt the known facts 4 and be testable. the great French physiologist. you must have read the literature. and ultimately to new knowledge. does an engineering thesis need a hypothesis? Yes. the obligatory starting point of all experimental reasoning. Claude Bernard. you must do the experiment. This is why the hypothesis is central to scientiﬁc investigation [5].
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. The hypothesis is the electromotive force or emf for your thesis.
2. and one would learn nothing: one could only pile up barren observations. no investigation would be possible. To experiment without preconceived ideas is to wander aimlessly. to sort good apples from bad.

We will steer clear of this controversy here. It is what your story is all about. Plan your experiments so that one experiment has only one hypothesis. numbers and pictures. still looms ahead. we take a look at some guidelines on how to write well.1
Substance
Begin at the beginning6 : keep records
The content of your thesis is being continuously gathered throughout the period of your project/research. its only requirement is ﬁdelity. His diary of his researches can serve very well as a model of how your own research record book should be like. • his own questions to himself: “Can induction through air take place in curves or round a corner?” [p 420].HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
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for further investigation. This is followed by advice from some experienced UWA professors on how to write a good
Philosophers of science contend [7] that a hypothesis cannot be proved conclusively. Remember this and keep clear. The italics are his. Your own project would have demonstrated5 the correctness of a hypothesis like ‘It is possible to sort good green apples from bad green apples. Today we may hide a smirk if anyone talks about smelling electricity. “and go on till you come to the end: then stop. with an accuracy of better than 90%. Such questions serve to clarify your own thoughts and to steer further work. your diagrams in your record book need not be works of art: save that for the thesis! • his accurate description of what he believed he was perceiving:“It still smelt strongly of Electricity” [p 200]. If you keep your hypothesis in view. 6 “Begin at the beginning.” the King said gravely. Do not be afraid to record your perceptions accurately. Never forget that underlying every thesis.
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3. Because it is a running record of experiment and observation. but remember that these are the observations of a scientiﬁc pioneer. using ANNs and suitable hardware’. You should do the same. the spectre of writing it up. well-annotated records in your “CIIPS Research Record Book”. there must be a hypothesis. In summary. using words. Many experiments may together shed light on a larger. For example. because you do not want to be lost when you refer to it later on. you will never stray into irrelevance when writing your thesis. in one volume of his diaries [10]. as and when they are still fresh in your mind. your record book is where you record your thoughts. You can aﬀord to be wordy and repetitive here. so that it looks like a thesis. Michael Faraday was an experimental scientist par excellence. not subsequent correctness. unifying hypothesis. he has recorded the following: • freehand drawings of experimental setups [pp 248–9]. but only falsiﬁed. Assuming that your experimental work is going well. How do you do that? In the following sections.” Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll [9. p 158]
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. perceptions and measurements. which is what we look at next.

3. if ZL = ZS [11.. They claim that readers have certain implicit expectations about what to encounter and when.
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. the maximum power transfer theorem: [11. they give seven sound generic guidelines that are worth re-stating here [13]: 1. i. p 432]. there are no reﬂections on an ideal. in trying to guess what the writer intended to mean. Although they warn that “there can be no ﬁxed algorithm for good writing”. The reﬂections at the end of a transmission line are like the reader’s confusion at what the writer intended to convey. as soon as possible. To ﬁx this concept in your mind. Follow a grammatical subject with its verb. such confusion is minimized again by matching what the reader expects with what the writer provides. If you write with the reader in mind you are more likely to communicate successfully. 2. The matching of source and load impedances for maximum power transfer to occur is analogous to matching the writer’s technique to the reader’s expectations for maximum communication to occur.
ZS + VS ZL
Figure 1: Maximum power is transferred from the source VS if the load impedance ZL is the
∗ complex conjugate of the source impedance ZS .2
Write with the reader in mind
All communication involves two parties: the sender of the message and the receiver. lossless transmission line if it is terminated with a load that is equal to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line [12.e. p 432] The transfer of power from a source to a load is maximum if the load impedance is the complex conjugate of the source impedance (see Figure 1).HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
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thesis. They exhort the writer to write so as to match the reader’s expectations. If the writer matches these expectations. I will introduce two analogies from electrical engineering with which you must be familiar: 1.
Gopen and Swan [13] have written an excellent article introducing scientiﬁc method into scientiﬁc writing. in written communication. The reader should not waste the eﬀort that would go into understanding the substance of the writing. The material that follows is the core of this working guide: so pay attention to it and try to understand it thoroughly. they are the writer and the reader. communication takes place easily. otherwise confusion or misinterpretation results. each time they read a sentence. p 355].

and how many times? As an entr´e. match the reader’s expectations by constructing sentences skilfully. you will detect it at once and can easily correct it. Provide context for your reader before asking him or her to consider anything new. Messy thinking leads to messy writing: cluttered. If anything is amiss. 5. Make clear the action of every clause or sentence in its verb. Think and plan before you write and revise. you will remember everything you did and document it accurately. 7. A well-written “Technical Report” will force you to think about what you have done.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
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2. before you move on to something else. let us listen to those with e experience. Start writing early. Lead the reader from the known to the unknown.
3. Write with the reader in mind: this is usually the examiner. What appears ﬁrst may be written last.3
Think-Plan-Write-Revise
Think. Plan. This is especially so if your work involves programming. Write.
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. 4. obscure and uninviting. Revise. This is the cycle advocated by Barrass [6] in his short but very useful book on scientiﬁc writing. 6. Match the emphasis conveyed by the substance with the emphasis anticipated by the reader from the structure. In summary. rather than have to re-visit the work later. This way. Place in the position of importance (stress position) the “new information” you want the reader to emphasize in his or her mind. how does one revise. when you may be pressured for time and have lost touch with it. Write complete and concise “Technical Reports” as and when you ﬁnish each nugget of work. Do not delay writing until you have ﬁnished your project/research. 2. he/she may be condemned to repeat your work before making further progress. Place the person or thing whose story is being told at the beginning of a sentence in the topic position. losing valuable time in the process. Place appropriate “old information” (material discussed earlier) in the topic position to provide linkage with what has gone before and context for what is to come later. where does one start. with the beneﬁt of hindsight and a uniﬁed perspective. Writing is not a linear process but a cyclic one. when the work is still fresh in your mind.
3. 3. If your thesis is not clear enough. but do not forget the poor student who gets to continue your project the next year.4
Attikiouzel’s aphorisms [14]
1. But. Spot errors early.

to see if the promises made in the former are indeed fulﬁlled in the latter. 15]
1. Ensure that your Introduction and Conclusions match 100%. It tolls for thee. because I am involved in Mankind. End with a bang.5
Lindsay’s laws [5. This way you get to say it directly and clearly. Usually. 6. as well as if a manor of thy friends or of thine own were. a part of the main. First things ﬁrst. 5. First and last impressions persist. Writing at one stretch is very demanding and it is all too easy to underestimate the time required for it. You will develop conﬁdence in writing them because you know your own work better than anyone else. what you have done yourself. The critical review of the literature places your work in context. And therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls. Research is ﬁnished only after it is written up. two thirds. Meditation XVII
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. After a thorough and critical literature review.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
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3. clarity and brevity.—John Donne (1571–1631). 2. Write your thesis from the inside out. the PhD candidate must be able to identify the major researchers in the ﬁeld and make a sound proposal for doctoral research. The hallmarks of scientiﬁc writing are precision. inﬂating your ﬁrst estimate by a factor of three is more realistic. 4. entire of itself. Begin with the chapters on your own experimental work. Try to write as if you were speaking to someone: “see a face”. Arrange your chapters so that your ﬁrst and last experimental chapters are sound and solid.
3. Write (your chapters) in four drafts: (a) ﬁrst: putting the facts together (b) second: checking for coherence and ﬂuency of ideas (c) third: readability (d) fourth: editing
No man is an Island. Write the Introduction after writing the Conclusions. and then the Conclusions. 7. 3. in that order. as well as if a promontory were. if a clod be washed away by the sea. move on to the other chapters. and save the best for last. The examiner will read the Introduction ﬁrst. every man is a piece of the Continent. Once you have overcome the initial inertia. Estimate the time to write your thesis and then multiply it by three to get the correct estimate. What you write must communicate and persuade. one third of the PhD thesis is about others’ work. Europe is the less. “No man is an Island”7 . not a whimper. any man’s death diminishes me. 4.

8. The scope and emphasis of the Literature Review must be directly relevant to the subject of the thesis. the scope of the thesis. Remember that the introductory pages are important because they create the ﬁrst. sub-headings etc. gleaned from a seminar at UWA [16]. Include a common chapter that presents in one place all the experimental details common to all your experimental chapters. The examiner ﬁnds out how the candidate thinks from reading this section. Use ﬂow diagrams. 1. 7. to iv.6
Hartmann’s hints [16]
Listed below are hints on writing the PhD thesis. focussed and objective. 3. 9. The reader ﬁnds in a clearly expressed hypothesis the skeleton of the thesis on which hangs all of the skin and meat that will be presented later. See i. giving. This avoids boring repetition and clears the way for a more ﬂuent presentation of experimental results in diﬀerent chapters without the intervening distraction of tedious methodology. 6. impression on the examiner.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
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Full details are given in Lindsay’s book [5. chapters 1 to 4]. and perhaps lasting. This should be a critical synthesis of the state of the knowledge. Undergraduate students may optionally skip this section. Examiners will look here to ﬁnd out whether it is new knowledge. as well as what has been done. but for which there is a conﬂict in the literature. on page 5 for the structure of each experimental chapter. Title. Especially important are the areas needing further investigation: what has not been done. Introduction. This should be done in the context of the unifying hypothesis of the thesis. The General Discussion or Conclusions integrate the whole thesis and present its main points at one place. with points made largely by the ﬁrst speaker during split group discussion.
3. 2. it is preferable to present this sequence individually for each experiment but to conclude with one Discussion. 5. This will meld the experiments together and unify the chapter. if possible.. The title should be succinct. The Introduction and this chapter along with the Summary or Abstract are the most important parts of the thesis. Where several related experiments are grouped into a single chapter. Experiments and results must be set out in careful detail in individual chapters. The Introduction should embody the (uniﬁed) hypothesis.
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. headings. Abstract or Summary. Literature Review. and subsequently by all three speakers at a panel discussion. to create and sustain interest. and if so what. 4.

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Cobbling together your ﬁrst draft
According to Newton’s ﬁrst law. 6. Writing a thesis from scratch is no exception.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
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5.
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I have taken pedagogic licence here by extrapolating Newton’s laws from the physical to the mental. The hypothesis must be framed carefully and experiments designed thoughtfully to test it.
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. you like to jot down “bullet points” before you formally commit your thoughts to writing. Retain enough details to allow repetition of experiments for up to seven (7) years. i. more or less in the order you should go about it. Use whatever writing techniques you are familiar and comfortable with. and use it to help you write your thesis. 11. This is why I suggested that you start writing your thesis before you know you are writing it: by keeping complete notes in your “CIIPS Research Record Book” and by writing “Technical Reports” as and when you complete each module of work.. Let us now tackle the nitty-gritty of actually writing the thesis. Hypothesis Testing. you may wish to apply them to write your thesis too. 8.e. Marshall whatever resource or technique that has worked for you. You have also beneﬁtted from the counsel of several experienced UWA professors.5). If.1). You may aﬀord to be speculative here. do so by all means. General Discussion or Conclusions. 10. If you have used “mind-maps” [17] in your study technique. 7. starting something new is diﬃcult because inertia must be overcome8 .
3. You are now familiar with the structure of the entire thesis and also with that of each experimental chapter (see section 2. they do not set out to read a thesis with the aim of failing the student. Keep in mind that examiners read a thesis in instalments and display a natural benevolence. Examiners ask the following questions when reading a thesis: • Has the student read all the references? • What questions does this thesis raise? • What richness does it contain that can spawn other work? • What is the quality of ﬂow of ideas? 9. Materials and Methods. Ensure proper quality control and statistical planning and analysis. Read the whole thesis to pick up repetition. Read your thesis for ideas and read it again for editing (see point 4 in section 3. as legally required. for example.

Do not intersperse your Results with Materials and/or Methods. Think of the story you want to tell. shed no light on what was unknown and generally convey no sense of excitement or new knowledge. present them logically. and give a reference citation [15]. When to present your results in a table and when to show them in a graph is discussed in section 5. preferably in a chapter preceding your experimental work. If you chose some “magic numbers” for your programs. Do not present results chronologically.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
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3. If you are using a method that has already been documented in the literature. you would describe your algorithm before giving details about the dataset on which you developed and tested it. or some speciﬁc conditions for your experiment that may not be readily apparent to your reader. Use informative headings. A morass of experimental results unilluminated by a hypothesis and unembellished by a discussion is insulting and confusing to your reader.3. Adopt a standard nomenclature for all your chapters and introduce this in one place. so that there are no breaks in the ﬂow of ideas in your presentation.8
The Experimental Chapters
Each of these should preferably be self-contained and clearly focused. if they say nothing new. It is customary to describe your Methods before the Materials. Resist the temptation to pepper your Results section with a Discussion. you should sit down and think carefully about everything you have done. For example. and entitled “Common Materials and Methods”. do not describe it in full. Indicate all assumptions. Choose and present only those results that are relevant to your hypothesis. or something similar. A discussion with your supervisor may also be in order. they are quite distinct in Figure 2.
Do not mix Materials and Methods with Results [18]. Relegate tedious but necessary details to an Appendix. If your results convey no sense of the new or the unexpected. State your hypothesis clearly. or “Experimental Framework and Notation”.
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. explain the reasons for your choice here. describe it brieﬂy or not at all. Include enough information about materials and methods to enable another suitably qualiﬁed person to repeat your experiments.
Assumptions Hypothesis Methods Materials Results Experiment Analysis Conclusions
Discussion
Figure 2: This diagram illustrates the relationship between the diﬀerent stages in the experimental process. you must ask yourself whether they are the right results to present. If your results are insipid. The sections in your chapter should follow the experimental schema set out in Figure 2. and also whether your hypothesis was well framed in the ﬁrst place.

The Discussion section of your experimental chapter is where you add value to your work.
3. You should capture the essence of current knowledge and comment critically on where the interesting questions and inconsistencies lie. your overall purpose is to tell a good story: interesting. This is where you comment on your results. but merges into the larger story of your thesis. Your work will be easier to understand if your results (measurements. Use your results to serve this purpose. perceptions) are separated from your discussion (inferences. an excellent discussion of results alone can earn you an A+ . knowledge and subject mastery that is apparent from the discussion.
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. Why are they what they are? What meaning can you wrest from them? Are they in accord with accepted theory? What do they mean with respect to your hypothesis? Do your results uphold your assumptions? How do you treat unexpected or inconsistent results? Can you account for them? Do your results suggest that you need to revise your experiments or repeat them? Do they indicate a revised hypothesis? What are the limitations in your methodology? How do your results ﬁt in with the work of others in the ﬁeld? What additional work can you suggest? An A+ student distinguishes himself or herself by the quality.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
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Do not change your symbols and their meanings as you go along: this will irritate your reader no end. It must be selective.9
The Literature Review
The literature review is the backdrop on which you present your work. There is a temptation to commingle fact and opinion. unless it is at the end of the sentence. Check all facts and results at least once. Even if the hypothesis fell as a result of the experiment. and plausible. Leave a blank space between the number and the SI unit and do not put a full stop after the abbreviation. even conjectures). Keep the links of a chain in mind. depth. especially in your speciﬁc area of research. which must be consistent with what is known. Absence of both means there is no chain! To sum up. so that it does not stick out as an extraneous chapter. and especially in your experimental chapters. there should be no gaps in the ﬂow of logic. opinions. but resist it. Absence of any one link is a weakness. It is especially critical for a PhD thesis where the claim of originality should be defended with a thorough and critical review of the literature. The literature review is vital to justify your hypothesis. Throughout your thesis. It is unprofessional to write 75 mhz when you mean 75 MHz. you would have done well. coherent. Each link is connected to two other links: one before and one after. If you present your literature review objectively but selectively. Try to present your Results separately from your Discussion. keeping the hypothesis in mind. but substantial enough for the merits of your work to be judged in relation to what is known. twice if possible. Use SI units and the preferred abbreviations. observations.

Write the Introduction after you have written the Conclusions and make sure the two match (see section 3. • one paragraph. globally and chapter by chapter.
3. where you can write down these aides-m´moire. This uniﬁed perspective is vital to writing the Summary. • one sentence. or require modiﬁcation? You may brieﬂy compare your work with that of others.12
The Summary or Abstract
The Summary or Abstract is perhaps the most diﬃcult part to write. Your Introduction has done its work if you have captured the reader’s curiosity and interest in this ﬁrst chapter. State the hypothesis clearly. fall. These forward and backward linkages give continuity to your thesis. • one line. present whatever new knowledge has been gained from your work. Keep a stack of pages. one for each chapter. and give the reader some satisfaction that the time spent on reading it has not been in vain. I have found the following exercise very helpful in trying to focus the mind on what the point of a thesis (or paper or article) is. check the “linklist” for that chapter and ensure that you have not forgotten anything. The Conclusions should give a sense of fulﬁlment and ﬁnality to your thesis. The Abstract should be written last. etc.
3. Give a preview of your thesis. writing the Experimental Chapters or the Literature Review.4). The Conclusions record the power of your scientiﬁc thinking. as and when e they occur to you.10
The Introduction and Conclusions
The Introduction is where you “soft launch” your reader on the work described in your thesis. The fate of your hypothesis is revealed here: did it stand. that was lacking when you had your nose to the grindstone. you might suddenly remember that an idea in Chapter 3 needs to be linked to an idea in Chapter 5. As you ﬁnish writing each chapter. and suggest what may be done to further new knowledge. Try condensing your thesis in: • one word.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
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3. Lead the reader from the known to the unknown.
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. This is where you say why you think your story is a good one and present evidence from your work to support your claim. You will then have a feel for the story being told by your thesis: a bird’s eye view so to speak. You have to unite all that has gone before with a “thread of uniﬁed perspective”. This is a healthy sign because it means that you are integrating your work and seeing your thesis as one whole in your mind.11
Linking your chapters
While you are writing your thesis. Do not make the mistake of trying to write it ﬁrst: you will waste time and get discouraged.

Get your supervisor.
3. it may be some experimental details. to read and criticize the early drafts of your thesis. It should include the keywords you might use to describe your work in a scientiﬁc paper or thesis-abstracting system.to two-page abstract. Include such material in an Appendix. This is a disciplined way to distill what is important from what you have written9 . it may be necessary to digress from your main story to explain something. especially for completeness. Finally. coherence. you are evaluating the chapter for its structure.. but only of its salient points. and all those whose work you have directly built upon. revise your thesis as you feel appropriate. Somewhere along the way. that is not central to your story. read it once more paying attention to spelling. typography. placement of illustrations. For example. When all the chapters are in place. it is unfair (and risky) to expect the examiner to do it for you. To quote an unread paper is misleading and dangerous. Moreover. you should have written your one. including the major ﬁndings and conclusions. You begin at the most “compressed” level of describing your thesis and successively relax the constraint on the number of words to achieve increasing levels of detail.1). substance and style (see also section 4. In all likelihood. paying attention this time to overall understanding. but whose exclusion would make your thesis incomplete. Try to use some verbs rather than a long list of nouns. Then read it again. references are usually cited by number. the better your chances
The Abstract is not a summary of the entire contents of your thesis. The Acknowledgements should include sources of ﬁnancial support and all those whose help you have sought and got. read the thesis again. a program listing. etc. do not parrot textbook material in an Appendix just to give your thesis length or to impress your examiners. In engineering theses. Sometimes. they would ignore such material and could take marks oﬀ for gratuitous length.13
Writing other parts of your thesis
The Title should be neither too long nor too short. an analytical method. paying attention this time to how comprehensible it is.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
3 Substance
• one page. comprehensibility and presentation. The Bibliography should only contain references you have actually read.
9
17
.
3. in order of citation. It should be focused and interesting. The more you polish up your thesis. paying attention to the ﬂow of logic and sense of continuity. summarising your thesis adequately. and • one chapter. In these three stages. If you have not gone through this process yourself. read it for understanding.14
Polishing up your thesis
As and when each chapter is written. grammar. and anyone else whom you can approach. etc. This method is somewhat like asking a dying man for a message: he will tell you only the most important thing(s). At each reading.

. ﬁnancial pressures will intensify. p 157].15
The time element
It is very easy to underestimate the time needed to plan.
3. • Don’t claim precision where it is not justiﬁed. • Do systematic work. Loss of motivation is one of the principal ways in which you can deprive yourself of your PhD [20]. Write up your thesis and get on with the rest of your life. write and revise your thesis.1
Style: Language
The craft of writing good English
Writing good English is a craft. You must develop your own style: no one can teach or bequeath it to 18
. Schroeder gives an interesting analysis. The period when you are writing up is the period when you are most vulnerable: the excitement of the research is now behind you. • Don’t present a conjecture as a fact. allow one to three months for writing up an undergraduate thesis and at least six months for a PhD thesis. It has to be learned by careful reading and even more careful writing.
4
4. This paragraph is addressed especially to PhD students. using a self-similar model. of how “. and there may be an obligation to work part-time and write up part-time. The task of writing up will not loom large at the end of your project if you have written your thesis in instalments as suggested in this guide. your scholarship would be running out or might already have. Do not lose motivation during this diﬃcult period. . the more remote the expected completion date becomes” [19. As a general guideline.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
4 Style: Language
of getting high marks for it. A well-written thesis is like a piece of highly polished ﬁne furniture: its elegance bespeaks its worth.16
Do’s and Don’ts in Science and Engineering
• Do keep records as you go along and date them. triple your initial estimate to arrive at a more realistic time frame. Remember that writing up is also an integral part of your project or research work. Do not procrastinate. the longer one works on such a project without actually concluding it. • Don’t falsify records or cook up data.
3. • Don’t plagiarize. As another rule of thumb. however much you dislike writing. There may also be attractive job oﬀers vying for your attention.

would keep the professors busy for centuries” [32] and that is indeed one of its merits.10 precisely and brieﬂy. that has a chapter entitled “Finnegans Wake: The Complexity of Artiﬁcial Life” [33]. to minimize the possibility of ambiguity and misinterpretation. or an unfortunate choice of words. Indeed. If everything you say is old hat to the reader. the wire is too taut and will break at some point. 29] and the biophysicist Harold Morowitz [30] which popularize science. Verbs are words of action. the wire is slack and you have lost your reader to boredom or even sleep. The sections that follow are devoted to clarifying what good scientiﬁc writing is and should be. take the trouble to revise it: if you yourself stumble on your own writing. why it was done etc. Good English is clear and easy to read and understand. but it helps even more to read exemplars of good writing. length and structure of a sentence is right. They infuse life and meaning to your writing. These authors have demonstrated how it is possible to present science simply. I particularly like and recommend the books of the chemist Peter Atkins [28. It has proven to be such a rich source of layered meanings that there is at least one interpretive book with a scientiﬁc ﬂavour. revise what you have written. A long catalogue of nouns is lifeless. but this time to incomprehension. correctly and engagingly. . your reader is bound to stumble too. Say what was done. how it was done. Monotony leads to boredom.2. If you ﬁnd yourself backtracking for any reason. If everything you say is new and not linked to something the reader already knows. poor punctuation. Starting with its title.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
4 Style: Language
you. The novel Finnegans Wake by the great Irish author James Joyce [31]. Whatever the cause. following the guidelines of Gopen and Swan in section 3. This is not true. It helps to read books devoted to the subject [21–27]. and when it needs revising. The cardinal rule is to keep it simple. however. and say this early.2
Ambiguity and Clarity
Ambiguity has its place. the novel was open to several interpretations. throw in a verb to add some sparkle! Style and substance are intertwined. Joyce had claimed that this book “. unpredictability to confusion. slowly and carefully. Say clearly why the busy reader should give you her time and attention. The least courtesy you can do to your reader is to revise your writing. engaged but not confused. You have a duty to keep the reader challenged but not frustrated. Read what you have written. This may be because of bad sentence structure. Scientiﬁc writing. As you progress in developing your own style.
10
19
. was ﬁrst published in 1939. poorly expressed ideas. excessive sentence length. comfortable but not bored. must be unambiguous and the engineering thesis is no exception. Think of your writing as a tense wire connecting your reader to you. You will again lose your reader..
4. It must communicate clearly. when so many others are clamouring for it.
Those for whom English is a second language sometimes mistakenly think that good English should be convoluted. . you will develop an internal feedback mechanism that will tell you just when the rhythm.

David Lindsay for introducing me to this priceless word. Precision is related to resolution of measurements. try deleting phrases and expressions that are “ﬁllers”. for example.3
Precision
Precision distinguishes science as a ﬁeld of intellectual endeavour. Precision. mostly):
Light Ampliﬁcation by S timulated E mission of Radiation.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
4 Style: Language
4.
4.11 have become entrenched in the common vocabulary. i. limited by technique. or it could lead to their proliferation. SMTP sounds so much more learned (and complicated) than “S imple M ail T ransfer P rotocol” when used in the context of e-mail.4
Brevity
Each of us is faced with more information than we can cope. It is vital in quantitative work.5
Examples of what to avoid
Lindsay [5] gives ten categories of cumbersome expressions that should be avoided in writing a scientiﬁc paper or thesis. the true value lies within the interval 5 ± 0. read a good text on the subject. Vagueness hides in expressions like “quite small”. You should know how they diﬀer and why they are related. instrumentation and other factors. Eschew expressions like “in order to”. Precision allows your work to be repeated by others for veriﬁcation and extension.
4. All measurements embody errors.
12 11
20
. in most cases. The reader of your thesis is no exception. “a considerable length” etc. acronyms hold other. let alone digest. it means the value could be in error by half the least signiﬁcant digit. for example [34. v.. and the disease. “as a result of”. As a courtesy to your reader. what remains would be clearer and read better. The use of acronyms is convenient and often unavoidable in specialist writing. Generally. However. if a measured voltage is quoted as 5 V. State the convention you have used in your thesis and stick to it throughout. to ﬁve decimal places simply because a digital multimeter displays it to that many decimal places. and error with departure from truth. Avoid saying the same thing twice except by choice.e.13 which destroys readability and sacriﬁces clarity for brevity. 13 I am indebted to Prof. especially for students: they may be used to advertise the writer’s erudition12 or to separate the cognoscenti from the “ignoscenti”. etc. Such use of acronyms is best avoided. Two other popular conventions used in stating experimental results are: v ± σv and v ± 3σv where v is the mean of a series of measurements of voltage. to ﬁdelity with truth. They will besmirch your writing and your work. However. accuracy and experimental error are an inseparable triad.5 V. be brief. brevity must not be at the expense of clarity or precision. Avoid them. 35]. Do not record a measured voltage. Some acronyms like “laser”. Repetition frustrates the able reader. acronymosis. If not. When revising your thesis. These are summarized below (using his examples. and σv is the standard deviation. accuracy. darker attractions.

and (c) sharpened the impact. Examples of dummyverb constructions to be avoided are “to be present”. Compare these two versions: Thus. “suppression of healing by chemicals”. apologetic]. instead write. [5. Adjectival clauses. . Use of passive voice rather than active voice. under the conditions of the experiment [subordinate phrase. . which is at the beginning (see section 3. etc. We have: (a) replaced the original dummy verb “made” with the genuine verb “recorded”. “Pulse rates were recorded”. or “suppression of chemical healing”. a dummy verb has been replaced with a genuine verb and the sentence has been shortened and strengthened. . Use prepositions to make your meaning clear. p 47]. This style puts the unimportant bits ﬁrst and the important ones later. “to perform”. p 47] The second sentence certainly reads better. Avoid writing “Recording of pulse rates was made”. eight. We have improved the original sentence in three ways by doing this. the ﬁrst. Again. Otherwise. ”. but it is bad English. passive voice lengthens
14 15
Least Signiﬁcant Bit Plot of ground. Again. Do not write “We conducted a study of group III-V compounds”. “to occur”. “We studied group III-V compounds”. “to obtain”. say “a culture of innovation based on return-on-investment” or whatever you actually meant to say. Passive voice is appropriate when the doer of an action is unknown or is irrelevant. use prepositions to make your meaning clear. Nouns instead of the verbs from which they are derived. . 4. 3. “Notwithstanding the fact that . . Avoid beginning sentences with constructions like “Despite the fact that . Thus. even if this construction is longer.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
4 Style: Language
1. all nouns except the last function as adjectives. 6. etc. although there were . although there were too few plots15 to show all of the interactions which we sought [subordinate clause. It is also a good example of putting the important information in the topic position. copper and zinc acted additively under the conditions of our experiment.
21
. Avoid expressions like “chemical healing suppression” and say instead. instead say. ”. It may be good electronics to do so (LSB14 ﬁrst). . or whatever else you intended to mean. copper and zinc acted additively [5. Subordinate clauses at the beginning. conditional]. The second sentence has ﬁve words. My footnote. 5. When clustered together. 2. Clusters of nouns. presumably. Use of ﬁller verbs. (b) shortened the sentence. Instead of “an innovation based return on investment culture”.2).

“some”. p 49] with “Two people observed the patients . The simplest way to ﬁnd out where to punctuate is to read aloud what you have written. you should add a punctuation symbol. If the ideas were “closer together”. Use of imprecise words. whereas active voice is direct. introduce an abbreviation consistent with the SI system. The semi-colon signiﬁes a longer pause than the comma. Sometimes. direct statement: they have no place in your thesis. and stick with your nomenclature all through. Unfamiliar abbreviations and symbols. If you want to avoid writing “Fifty-two percent of the images were correctly classiﬁed”. succinct and more forceful. a comma would have been used. Each time you pause. It is also used to separate two clauses that may stand on their own but which are too closely related for a colon or full stop to intervene between them. Do not use words like “quite”. There are four major pause symbols. Stick to SI units and preﬁxes. 22
. this is also done with a pair of “em dashes” which are printed like this: —. Multiple negatives do not. 7. in scientiﬁc writing. has impact or conveys just the right shade of meaning.
4. If you have to introduce a new unit called a ﬂip make sure that you deﬁne it somewhere. or meaning. • Semi-colon. 8.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
4 Style: Language
and weakens the sentence. “a great deal”. arranged below in ascending order of “degree of pause”: • Comma. 9. Use of compound prepositions. It separates segments of a sentence that are “further apart” in position.) 10. “considerable”.6
Punctuation
Good punctuation makes reading easy. you may wish to avoid numerical precision for some compelling reason. Be quantitative: you are writing an engineering thesis. . They serve only to confuse and should be avoided. ” [5. but rather “Slightly over half the images were correctly classiﬁed”. Sometimes.. etc. you have done yourself and your reader a disservice. A pair of commas may delimit the beginning and end of a subordinate clause or phrase. but which are nevertheless related.2. usually to gain time to think of a proper answer during a debate or a press conference. Debaters and politicians use expressions like “in the case of”. “in respect of”. use SI preﬁxes. Compare “Patients were observed by two people for signs of abnormal behaviour” [5. when used carefully. Such expressions dilute the force of the simple. What does “not unreasonably ineﬃcient” really mean? Anytime you cause your reader to backtrack or pause for mental breath to take in meaning. A double negative. Multiple negatives. Use the comma to indicate a short pause or to separate items in a list. (Remember the reﬂections on the transmission line in section 3. etc. p 49]. It is imprecise and unhelpful to the reader. do not say “The majority of the images were correctly classiﬁed”. .

For further guidance on punctuation. around or between magnets. . or when they refer to their personal conjectures or beliefs. p 113] I have recently been engaged in describing and deﬁning the lines of magnetic force . The readability of your writing will improve greatly if you take the trouble to learn the basic rules of punctuation given above. . it is ended with a question mark or exclamation mark.
4. and whenever items are to be listed in a visually separate fashion. ’we’ somehow seems more acceptable.. is an electrolyte. or where they introduce new nomenclature. ‘I’. The full stop ends a sentence. It may also be used to separate two fairly—but not totally—independent clauses in a sentence. —Michael Faraday in [38. because the subject ‘I’ is thereby avoided. Water. are less dogmatic (see for example.. The sentence that introduced the itemized list you are now reading ended in a colon. and have discovered the following: 1. those lines which are indicated in a general manner by the disposition of iron ﬁlings or small magnetic needles.—Michael Faraday in [37. 22]. • Full stop or period.g. I recommend the books by Carey [36]. (for et cetera). (for et alia) etc. then. is used by them liberally when they describe experiments they have themselves performed.7
The I/We Active/Passive controversy
There is a pervasive belief that because scientiﬁc writing should be objective. therefore. of course. The full stop is also used to terminate abbreviations like etc.. I saw an elongated dark spot running
16
The plural.5). Maxwell and Rayleigh to get some light on the matter. respectively. perhaps because it has royal connections!
23
. and Vallins [21. So what is acceptable and what is not? Is there any “right way”? I read the writings of Faraday. Some of those who hold these views are passionate about them. . Lindsay [5] and item 6 of section 4. one should avoid the ﬁrst person singular pronoun ‘I’16 . again in the interests of objectivity.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
4 Style: Language
• Colon. e. these I propose to call electrolytes. Gowers [26]. their elements being set free.. i. for (exempli gratia). This belief is embedded in another deeper conviction: scientiﬁc writing must be in the passive voice. Examples of the use of ‘I’ are given below: Many bodies are decomposed directly by the electric current. I suspect that this practice springs from the times when papers were literally read at meetings of learned societies before they appeared in journals. p 407] I ﬁrst observed this peculiarity of my eyes when observing the spectrum formed by a very long vertical slit. . The ﬁrst person singular pronoun. Others. but not with abbreviations for SI units. et al. The colon is used before one or more examples of a concept. If the sentence embodies a question or an exclamation.e. . The use of ‘I’ was both natural and authoritative in that context.

—Michael Faraday [37. in a manner. In strictness.—Lord Rayleigh [40. however. This I attribute to the presence of air dissolved in the acid used for decomposition. assumptions or previously derived results. for there is nothing to distinguish one direction transverse to the ray from another. The collected gas.—James Clerk Maxwell [41. or where it does not matter who did the experiments: There was also another eﬀect produced. and experiments done by others.—Lord Rayleigh [40.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
4 Style: Language
up and down in the blue.—Michael Faraday [38. and especially in textbooks where a didactic tone is normal. ‘we’ is used when stating facts.—James Clerk Maxwell [39. p 98] We have seen that the electrical charge on the surface of the glass is attracted by the rubber. p 89] 3. especially by the use of large electrodes. that though nothing ponderable passes. yet the lines of force have a physical existence independent. was found to contain small portions of nitrogen. Here are some examples: When we turn to radiation phænomena. p 397]
24
. p 318] The symmetry also requires that the intensity of the scattered light should vanish for the ray which would be propagated along the axis. which was both a consequence and a proof of the solution of part of the gas evolved there. Passive voice is used in textbooks and in describing facts. I believe. p 87] 2. generally admitted that the light which we receive from the clear sky is due in one way or another to small suspended particles which divert the light from its regular course. in (mathematical) proofs. The use of ‘we’ conveys the impression of a dialogue between writer and reader: something that is lacking with ‘I’. of the body radiating. then we obtain the highest proof. p 409] We have used the phrase Lines of Force because it has been used by Faraday and others. when examined.—James Clerk Maxwell [41. as if conﬁned in a groove. these lines should be called Lines of Electric Induction. or of the body receiving the rays. p 127] In each cell the copper plate is placed horizontally at the bottom and a saturated solution of sulphate of zinc is poured over it. p 435] It is now. but refusing to pass out of the blue into other colours. We have now got what we want.—James Clerk Maxwell [41. and following the motion of the eye as it moved up or down the spectrum. The ﬁrst person plural pronoun.

especially when used to describe what you yourself did. If.—Lord Rayleigh [40. for modesty or other reasons. you are uncomfortable with using the pronoun “I”. imperceptible entities might be. that your original work and contributions must be clearly distinguished from that of others [2]. .8
Examples of good writing
I now present two examples of good scientiﬁc writing with some commentary: An atom is a body which cannot be cut in two. again the plural number would be incorrect when describing this work. which means “not cuttable”—to deﬁne it clearly and directly. These are the opening lines of a paper entitled Molecules. p 320] It is clear that some very eminent scientists had no hesitation in using the ﬁrst person singular pronoun “I” to describe what they did. is one of those branches of study which deal with things invisible and imperceptible by our senses. A molecule is the smallest portion of a particular substance. The University regulations are clear. use the passive voice instead. “smallest indivisible particle”. but not the ﬁrst person plural pronoun “we”. No one has ever seen or handled a single molecule. Vol. invisible. The other method is one of which I have had a good deal of experience.. which is inappropriate for two related reasons: 1. VIII. 2.—James Clerk Maxwell [39. perceived or inferred. You are describing work that you have individually done rather than some collective eﬀort for which the plural number would be apt. . and estimating with the aid of a monochord the pitch of sound so produced. The expression “cannot be cut in two” is more picturesque and powerful than the usual textbook deﬁnition. and determining to what note of the scale the resonance is loudest. method consists merely in tapping the resonator with the ﬁnger or other hammer of suitable hardness.
4. originally delivered before the British Association and published in Nature. and which cannot be subjected to direct experiment. We are left anticipating what ingenious experiments he might have devised to demonstrate the
25
. therefore. It consists in putting the ear into communication with the interior of a resonator. that we have been brought up on. This usage is direct and is preferable to the passive voice. Maxwell uses the etymology of the word atom—from the Greek atomos. p 361] This is one of the founding fathers of the kinetic theory of gases holding forth on his home ground. and in many cases the most accurate.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
4 Style: Language
There are two methods by which the pitch of a resonator may be determined without the use of a stream of air. He then progresses to molecules and provokes our interest in what these mysterious. especially for the PhD thesis. The simplest. and which I can rely upon to give results of moderate accuracy. Molecular science.

whereas lack of structure signiﬁes incoherence. We can summarize these remarks (and sow the seed for the generalization) by saying that the particles of crystalline solids are arranged coherently: the locations are correlated. For example. Check also that you have not written “and” where you meant “an” and vice versa. pp 179–180] This is a ﬁne example of leading the reader from the known to the unknown. Now for the second example: A structure is an arrangement of particles. The idea that structure signiﬁes coherence. The last sentence summarizes and binds together the three ideas: structure. the relative locations of particles are indeﬁnite . with a hodge-podge of locations.
17
26
. The only exceptions are words like “surmise” which are never spelt with a “z” at all. progressively increasing the complexity of ideas.—Peter Atkins [29. If there are glaring spelling errors in your thesis. If your spelling-checker does not pick up repeated words like “the the”. including those in your bibliography. . using a good spelling-checker. The parenthetical statement “sow the seed for the generalization” again keeps the reader anxiously waiting for the rabbit out of the hat. Time spent in checking spelling and grammar is therefore time well spent.9
Spelling and grammar
Check the spelling of all words in your thesis. a crystal is a deﬁnite structure. positional regularity and coherence. molecules. examiners will get the impression that it is “poorly ﬁnished” and will not rate it highly for presentation. Be consistent. Atkins paints a picture in words. because in these the arrangements of particles are indeﬁnite. British usage allows both [26. If you can draw your reader into your work like this. Whereas in a crystal we can be sure to ﬁnd a particle at some deﬁnite location relative to another.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
4 Style: Language
existence and properties of molecules. .. p 239] where appropriate. In contrast. There is some confusion about which spelling is correct : “organize” or “organise”. neatly captures solids as structures but allows gases to escape as structureless. ﬁrst relating structure to regularity in position. Note also that most spelling-checker programs are unaware of the advice of authorities like Gowers [26]. you have written a good thesis. such as atoms. Use Australian or British spelling consistently throughout.
4. once you have made your choice and do not mix “organize” with “organise” in your thesis. a liquid. Then he moves on to the more mathematical and subtler concept of coherence and relates it to structure. and amorphous solids..
The use of a colloquial expression like “splodge” is permissible because the extract is from a book written to popularize science. or ions. It is distinct from a gas. Such errors will not be trapped by a spelling-checker. or even a splodge17 of butter. . as in this case. Be careful with grammar-checkers: I do not trust them. liquids. write a simple program to warn you of them. with orderly regiments of particles. in gases (and to a smaller extent in liquids) the locations are uncorrelated. in the “structureless” states of gases.

The actual regulations may vary with time and the interested student is referred to the web site [2]. The convention is to choose a font with serifs (e. theses were typed on typewriters and diagrams drawn by hand. I shall refrain from advising because I have a marked preference.2
Word Processor vs Markup Language
Twenty years ago. Helvetica) for text inside diagrams. you should browse the web and ﬁnd out.
5.
5. and margins should be mirrored accordingly. where an extra left margin should be allowed for binding the thesis. graphs and tables. the regulations for an Engineering thesis are in harmony with the layout of the PhD thesis. unremarkable data (that must nevertheless presented) in a table. scientiﬁc writing includes the judicious use of diagrams.. At present. Graphs and Tables
By its very nature.. If you do not know the diﬀerence between the two. All ﬁgure captions should be in the same font as the main text.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
5 Style: Layout
5
Style: Layout
The layout is the packaging for your thesis.g. Microsoft Word and Corel WordPerfect are examples of WYSIWYG 18 word-processing programs. The details of thesis layout are considered next. There should be a 2 cm margin on all other edges. preferably at one size smaller.or document-processing program to produce letterperfect output. Make sure that your variables are in diﬀerent columns. At UWA. Typing on both sides is encouraged. while TeX and LaTeX are examples of markup languages used in a document-processing system. A pleasing font and adequate margins make your thesis visually attractive. vary with Department and University.. They should be double or one and a half space typed on A4 paper with a left hand margin of 4 cm. etc. these regulations are: Theses are not restricted to one volume. Times Roman) for the main text and a sans serif font (e. before making an informed choice about which to use. size of margins. So present dull.
5. When do you present your results using a graph and when do you tabulate them? A table invokes an expectation of regularity.
18
What You See Is What You Get
27
. You now type your own thesis at a computer terminal and use a word.1
Format
The regulations governing size of paper. This has changed with the advent of personal computers.g. [2]. Your rows for any given column should represent diﬀerent observations of a given variable.3
Diagrams.

Caption all diagrams. Then complete the rest: Conclusions. by a reader who wants only to skim your paper. Ask your supervisor to critique your thesis draft and amend it accordingly. graph and table. departures from trends. Start writing your Experimental Chapters ﬁrst. Bibliography and Index
There are facilities to generate the table of contents. plan write. Introduction and Summary. bibliography and index automatically using word. The ready availability of graphical software should not entice you into presenting everything indiscriminately in pictorial form. independently of the main text.
5. Clarity. If you have done a Literature Review. Refer in your text to every diagram. graphs and tables are [18. Stick to the thesis structure you have been given. etc. Keep the hypothesis to the fore always. writing a good thesis. There are three aspects: structure. and this applies to the use of diagrams. The other bits and pieces like the Appendices may be written as you go along. 43]. are good candidates for graphs. graphs and tables so that they may be read by themselves. italics and bold typeface.4
Table of Contents.. You have more than enough on your plate. dramatic behaviours of variables. Understand what it is you are doing and why.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
6 Conclusions
A graph should be reserved for exciting ﬁndings or interesting. Emphasis is rightly gained with sparing and selective use. especially in the sections where you present and discuss your results. It is discourteous to embed the explanation or commentary for a diagram or graph somewhere in the text and let the skimmer hunt for it. Learn how to use them and unburden yourself from the bookkeeping that goes with manually numbering references. Avoid clutter. to fritter your attention away on such minutiae. substance and style. Think clearly and write carefully. Three books that give helpful guidance on presenting diagrams. Trends. ﬁgures. etc.
6
Conclusions
Writing a thesis well is simple if you know how. Leave no gaps in the chain of logic or ideas you express. in that order. 42. graphs. Avoid verbiage. write it next. Start at the beginning by keeping good records. revise. Develop your own writing style by careful reading and even more careful writing. Enjoy writing your thesis and good luck!
28
. Be clear what story you are going to tell. precision and brevity are the three watchwords. but unexpected results. but all three are entwined.or document processing programs. Think. Polish what you have written by repeated reading and revision.

• There are three aspects: – structure – substance – style but all three are entwined. • Understand what it is you are doing and why. • The three watchwords are: – Clarity – Precision – Brevity
32
. • Think. • Then complete the rest: – Conclusions – Introduction – Summary in that order. plan write. • Start at the beginning by keeping good records. • Keep the hypothesis to the fore always. • Start writing your Experimental Chapters ﬁrst. • Be clear what story you are going to tell. revise. • Think clearly. • The other bits and pieces like the Appendices may be written as you go along. • If you have done a Literature Review. write it next. • Stick to the thesis structure you have been given. • Write carefully.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
Quick Reference Guide
Quick Reference Guide
• Writing a thesis well is simple if you know how.

• Leave no gaps in the chain of logic or ideas you express. • Ask your supervisor to critique your thesis draft and amend it accordingly. • Polish what you have written by repeated reading and revision. • Avoid verbiage. • Submit your best eﬀort as your completed thesis. • Avoid clutter. • Develop your own writing style by – careful reading and – even more careful writing.HOW TO WRITE A THESIS
Quick Reference Guide
in that order.
33
.