The photo on your left is an ancient Eguptian white stone sarcophagus partial lid, from Egypt’s Twenty-sixth Dynasty; also known as the Ptolemaic or Saite Period. The lid was made in ancient Egypt; and was used as a stone cover for the inner coffins of Egypt's mummies. Today, this lid is on display at the Egyptian exhibit at the Field Museum in Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. " The Late Dynastic ( Saite) period lasted from 688 to 343 B.C. Visible below the statue' s head are the long strands of hair that lead down to the chest, and below the statues protruding swollen chin are ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs inside two vertical columns on the breast of the coffin lid.The Ptolemaic Kingdom founded in 305 B.C., by the Macedonian general Ptolmaic 1 Soter whodeclared himself Pharaoh of Egypt” (Wikipedia.org/Ptolemaic). Pharoah Soter's successors ruled until the Roman conquest in 30 B.C. “Pharaoh, meaning “ Great House”, originally refered to the Kings palace. The Egyptian Pharaoh Ptolemaic 1 Soter married first, probably, Thais, second Artakama, third Eurydice, and finally Berenice" ( Oaks, Loma and Gahlin).

Today, their is a belief among anthropologist, researchers and scientist that some members of the ancient Saite Dynasty had thyroid gland problems a condition found as in Graves disease. " The thyroid produces two hormones that regulate metabolism. The principle hormone is thyroxine (thi-rok-sin) which is symbolized as T4 based on the four iodine atoms in each molecule. The other hormone , which contains three atoms of iodine, is triiodothyronine (tri-i-o-do-thi-ro-ene), or T3. The thyroid gland needs an adequate iodine supply to produce its hormones. Iodine deficiency is rare now because of widespread available of this mineral in iodized salt, vegetables, seafood, dairy products, and processed foods" ( Cohen). A close examination of the white granite statue; it appears as to be a human face of a person who was larger or rounder in size compared to a normal health human being. “ Contemporaries describe a number of Ptolemaic dynasty members as having an autoimmune affliction such as being extremely obese, while some some sculptures displayed exophthalmos ( protusion of the eyeballs) resulting in part, from edema (an abnormal excess accumulation of serous fluid in connective tissue or in a serous cavity) such as at the back of the eye sockets" (Patton- Thibodeau). In what today is known as Graves’ disease; which probably also helps to explain the swollen neck on the statues. According to Patton, "when there is a lack of iodine in the persons diet it results an increase in size of the thyroid gland ( simple goiter) ". In addition, hyper secretion of thyroid hormone occurs in Graves disease, which thought to be an autoimmune condition"(Patton).

When, the Egyptian hieroglyphs located on the bust of the statue were translated. The Egyptian hieroglyphs were translated into Egyptian. Then translated into English as follows:

“ An offering which the king, grants, through Osiris ( Ausuar) foremost every bread, everything good and pure all sweet breads given to the chief" ( The Field Museum).

Without a doubt these time worn hieroglyphs describe a food offering to an Egyptian's pagan deity named Osiris, or Ausuar pronounced ( ow -sar ). On the right side at the bottom of the parallel lines are clearly carved symbols of Ausuar or Osiris. The mythology of the ancient Egyptians includes a pantheon of mythological deities. For instance, “ an ancient Egyptian's folk story concerning the death and rebirth of Osiris” (Hamilton). “The Egyptian deity of "the dead" Osiris is often seen in Egyptian hieroglyphic writing text” (Hamilton). According to Egyptian mythology, “ Osiris was the son of Seb and Nut and the husband of his sister Isis, the father of “Horus, the son of Isis, “ and brother of Set and Nephthys” (Budge). Osiris a king of the underworld is sometimes seen depicted on ancient Egyptian walls, and usually painted white representing the wrappings of mummy. While other times the mythological diety was painted black, signifying the rich dark silt of the Nile River. “ During the Old Kingdom ( ca. 2613 to 2494 B.C., from the 4th Dynasty onwards. Each king, or pharaoh, came to regard as the living embodiment of the Egyptian deity Horus who would become one with Osiris at death, to return to spend eternal life with the deities” (Hamilton). “The cult of Osiris promoted the belief that all the people of Egypt would share in eternal life in the “Field of Reeds,” an idealized kingdom of eternal spring; however, in practice seems that the idea was extended to the nobility, as seen in the “Coffin Texts” or ( hieroglyphic writings) of the Middle Kingdom, which were placed within the coffins of the important or wealthy people, and later, in the New Kingdom ( ca. 2000 BC and 1700 BC), as extracts from the “Book of the Dead” or the Papyrus of Anni came to be placed in even the poorest peoples graves” ( Hamilton). Today, old hieroglyphs of Ausar/ Osiris are seen engraved on many temple walls as well as painted inside ancient Egyptian palaces.

During Egypt's Archaic Period approximately five thousand years ago Egyptian scribes began to engrave hieroglyphs in stone. Back then hieroglyphic symbols and pictograms were made with great care and sharply cut into the stone. The earliest hieroglyphs appear just before this First Dynastic period; however, little is known of the spoken language they represent. Additionally, "The Archaic Period or First Dynastic Period of Egypt immediately follows the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt around 3100 B.C.; Egyptian carvings were a formal writing system used by the ancient Egyptians that combined logographic and alphabetic elements" ( Hamilton). Furthermeore, Egyptians were using a form of picture writing known as hieroglyphics (from the Greek word hieros, or sacred and glyphs,” I carve”). Three thousand years later the common people began to use a simple text. But, "In the seventh century B.C. a simpler form of writing, known as demotic ( because it was used by the ordinary people, demos in Greek); additionally, it was the standard for all; but religious texts. These three systems– hieroglyphs, hieratic, demotic- remained in use until the Christian Era, when they were replaced by Coptic, which was composed of Greek letters and supplemented by seven demotic signs. In addition, demotic as the language used by the commoners. As a result, "From the fifth century A.D to 1822 reading Egyptian scripts was a lost art. Until the Rossetta stone was discovered in Rashid (Rossetta) Delta" ( Hamilton).

“Primary credit for deciphering the Rossetta Stone, discovered in 1799, goes to Jean-Francois Champollion (1790-1832), a young French scholar who realized that hieroglyphs could be divided into two categories: ideograms, which recorded an idea pictorially and phonograms, which sounds representing one or more consonants independent of their meaning” (Adams). The Rossetta Stone was probably about 5ft to 6ft (1.52-1.82m) high originally, with a rounded top (now missing) that contained the winged disk of Horus of Edfu depicted over the figure of Potolemy V standing in the presence of various deities” (Adams). In conclusion, the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs has revealed valuable information, about the ancient Egyptians and their culture. The ancient Egyptian civilization lasted 3,000 years before it was taken over by the Roman Empire. The two thousand year old granite coffin lid is on display; at the Egyptian Exhibits Section at the Chicago Field Museum 1400 S. Lake Shore Drive Chicago, IL. AuthorM. MartinezSources: Adams Laurie Schenider “Art across time” 3rd Edition Volume 1 Prehistory to the Fourteenth Century (Print 2007). McGraw Hill Inc. Budge, E.A. Wallis “ The Egyptian Book of the Dead( The Papayrus of Ani) Egyptian Text Translitteration and Translation (Print 1967). Publisher Dover Books Inc.Cohen,Barbara Janson " Memmler's The Human Body in Health and Disease" print 11th edition (2009) Wolters Kluwer Lippencott Williams and WilkinsAncient Egyptian Exhibit at The Chicago Field Museum at Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.Hamilton, Robert “ Ancient Egypt the Kingdom of the Pharaohs” Print 2007 Paragon Publishing Queen Street House 4 Queen St.Oaks, Lorna and Gahlin, Lucia “Ancient Egypt An illustrated reference to themyths, religions, pyramids and temples of the land of the pharaohs”. Second Edition Print 2008.Patton Kevin T, and Thibodeau, Gary A. " Anatomy and Physiology" 7th Edition Print 2010 Publisher Mosby Elsevier 11830 Westline Industrial Drive St. Louis, MS.

Cobblestone Hammerhead discovered in Guanjuato, Mexico

The stone hammerhead made of basalt, in the photograph, was made by human hands; apparently, by the Indians who lived in Guanajuato, Mexico. The hammerhead was discovered under loose soil, in the 1930s, on at hilltop at a Mexican farm in western Guanajuato, Mexico. “ Humans use tools to a much higher degree, and are the only extant primates known to build fires and cook their food as well as the only known species to clothe themselves and create numerous other technologies such as stone tool making” (wikepedia.org/human). “ The reason humans are considered primates, because of the following characteristics: body hair, a relative long gestation period followed by live birth, mammary glands, different types of teeth incisors, canines, premolars and molars, the ability to maintain a constant body temperature physiological means or endotherm, increased brain size, and a considerate capacity of learning and behavioral flexibility” (Jurmain, Trevanthan, and Kilgore). "Modern man's brain size is 1300-1400 cubic centimeters, and the increased understanding of thought, experience, and the senses allowed for the making of stone tools"( Price and Fenman). Even so, bipedal locomotion freed the hands for carrying objects and for making and using stone tools" ( Jurmain,Trevanthan, and Kilgore). Rocks are grouped into three "families" based upon how they were formed: igneous, metamorphic, or sedimentary. Absolutely, igneous rocks are composed of randomly scattered, tightly inter locking mineral crystals. "A basic volcanic rock consisting of calcic-plagioclase, feldspar and pyroxene, basalt is the most abundant of all lava types. These minerals apatite and magnetite are nearly always present, while olivine may occur. Indeed, the texture of basalt is a fine grained rock; basalt has crystals which are both euhedral and anhedral. The crystals; however, are not easy to see, even with a hand lens. The origins forms by the cooling of highly mobile basaltic lava. Because of their fluidity, they may form very thick lava sheets. Basalt occurs widely in continental areas" ( Pellant). Also, igneous rocks form when a molten mixture of mineral cools and turns into a solid." (Denecke). " Earth's surface is much colder than molten rock, so when lava is pushed out of a volcano, or extruded, it cools rapidly. Basalt, a common volcanic rock, forms in this way. If cooling is very rapid , the rock may solidify before crystals have a chance to form" (Denecke). Large grained materials, such as basalts, granite, and sand stone, may be also be used as tool stones, but for very different purposes: they are ideal for ground stone artifacts. In fact, ground or polished implements are manufactured, from lesser grained materials such as basalts, jade and greenstone and some forms of rhyolite that was not suitable for flaking. "Lithic or stone analysis is a major specialized form of archaeological investigations. It involves the measurement of stone tools to determine their typology, function and the technology involved” ( wikepedia/org/archaeology). What's more, "On the basis of technology that was essentially Neolithic ( New Stone Age) - for metals were unknown until after AD 800 in Mexico" (Coe). The gray cobblestone was discovered in the 1930's on the Ornelas’s San Luisito farm; back then, the farm was located west of the capitol city Guanajuato, Mexico. The farm, was located 4.8 kilometers (3 miles) on a hilltop north of the village of San Juan de La Puertanext tohighway 84. The Mexican workers found the stone as they were tiling the farm land for the planting season.The Ornelas family Mexican landowners realized that the Indians had occupied this region. So, the cobblestone was kept by the Ornelas family as a reminder. Today, the land where the farm was located is owned by the Mexican government. On this occasion an examination of the light gray hammer stone indicates it weighs 320 grams., the length 92 mm. and width 51 mm. An interview back in 2012 with the Ornelas family at Guanajuato provided important information. According to Ms. Ornelas, the early inhabitants who lived on the land north of San Juan de La Puerta; consequently, had to adapt to the desert environment to survive. I asked, “ Who lived on the farm land Ms. Ornelas? “She replied, “According to my great-aunt she said,' before our family lived at the San Luisito farm, the Indians who lived north of the village of San Juan de La Puerta,' occupied the hills. I remember her telling me the story when I was a young girl." "Who do you think made the stone hammerhead?" She replied, "There is no doubt in my mind, the indigenous people made the cobblestone hammer head”.

The first known inhabitants who lived in Guanajuato, Mexico, were the Otomi (Oh-toe-me) Indians, and later replaced by another tribe called Chichimeca-Jonaz Indians. Back then, both Chichimeca and Otomi were hunters and gathers who pursued rabbits, birds, and fished in rivers and lakes. "Before long some indigenous groups had committed themselves to farming, with tremendous consequences: they settled down to protect their crops instead of ranging far after game and ripening plants. Thereafter, the Chichimeca-Jonaz indians who began to accumulate things instead of making only what they could carry. Moreover, women who did not have to carry children on long treks had more children, closer together and the population increased" (Heider). Around 1550, the Chichimeca Indians were living in the Mexican states of Guanajuato, Jalisco, Zacatecas and Queretaro. “ The home of the Chichimecca-Jonas Indians is at Guanajuato which is located between the arid north of the country and the lusher south and it is geographically part of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic belt " (Wikipedia.org/Guanajuato). "The indigenous people of Mexico selected horticultural and hybrid forms of the species and used them for a variety of purposes"( Quinn). The Chichimecas existed primarily by hunting rabbit, birds, and gathering, especially, mesquite beans, the edible parts of the agave plants ( i.e. Agavespp). "Like wise, the fruit (tunas), of the barrel cactus ( Ferocactus spp.), are eaten raw, and when the fruit is fully mature (yellow) the black seeds are eaten as is, or dried and ground into a meal" ( Klane). "Still, another example is the cane cholla ( Cylindropuntia spp.) whose pulp material, like prickly pear or Indian fig ( Opuntia ficus-indica) has blood sugar stabilizing and cholesterol lowering effects; the roots are a soothing diuretic" ( Kane). The Chichimeca people a long with, another indigenous group named Purepecha, pronounced ( poor-ra-peh-cha) Indians likewise occuppied most of the state of Guanajuatos hills and valleys. Nevertheless, these were Guanajuato's early inhabitants who made simple ground stone tools as the stone tool made of basalt found on the Mexican farm.

"Simple stone tools are the earliest human artifacts that archaeologist study. Stone tool technology has existed, since the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) which is a broad prehistoric period. During which different stones were widely used to make implements (tools) with a sharp edge, a point or percussion edge. "The first stone tools were intentionally modified; additionally, the tools appeared in on what now is known as Africa between 3 and 2 million years ago" ( Price and Feinman). Early man who lived in Central Africa would of needed a "power grip" to produce uncomplicated designed stone tools. So, "The power grip first appeared in Homo Erectus which means in Latin (up right man), a distant past genus, who was eventually replaced by Homo sapien which means (modern man) who made stone tools after 100,000 years ago" ( Price and Fenman). "Tools meant we did not need sharp teeth like other predators. Tools even made vegetable matter easier to deal with. As anthropologist Sara Bailey, at New York University says, they were the "external" teeth" (Joyce). Eventually, the "Formative stage or Neolithic ( New Stone Age) is characterized by polished stone tools, ceramics, a sedentary lifestyle, and some crop domestication. Then, stone tools were made by human hands, for farming ( i.e. stone hammer heads, pestle and mortar, thin flat stones were used as shovels to dig and thin hand sharpened stone axes).

"Humans are considered primates, because we have grasping hands, flexible limbs and a highly developed sense vision" ( Price and Fenneman). Even so, the human hand with opposable thumb is made of the following: bones, muscles, nerves, veins, ligaments, tendons, blood vessels, hair, nails and skin. “ The human hand is the expression of incredible structural organization and is able to sustain a great amount of abuse, not with standing its complexity” (McMurtie). Even so, prehensile is the quality of an appendage or organ that has adapted grasping or holding such as a thumb. The power grip is when fingers and sometimes palms clamp down on an object with the opposable thumb making counter pressure. For example, gripping a hammer or opening a jar using both your palm and fingers. Other examples of power grip are: firmly clutching onto the hand rail of a roller-coaster, holding a hand rail on a fast moving city bus, grasping a base ball bat, climbing a rope ladder, holding firmly a portable baby carrier, and a firm hand shake.

The precision grip of the human hand is when we use the intermediate and distal phalanges, fingertips, muscles, ligaments, and thumb press against each other; for instance, the precision grip is like writing with a pen, using lipstick or applying lip balm at the opening of the mouth, also applying a cosmetic wax with an eye brow pencil. The reason this happens is because, the first metacarpal bone joint (thumb) is surrounded by a capsular ligament which allows our thumb to move. It gives us the ability to open a glass jar with the finger tips alone, and gripping a ball only if the ball is not tight against the palm. Other examples of precision grip are threading a needle, using surgical tools, buttoning a shirt, turning a key in a door lock and changing a baby's diaper. But in regards to the thumb when we move our thumb back to its neutral position is called reposition; a rotary movement is referred to as circumduction” ( wikpedia.org/thumb). Moreover, “ Circumduction of the thumb involves the cyclic activity of three muscles, the opponens pollicis to the flexor pollicis brevis to the abductor pollicis brevis and back to the oppones brevis" (McMurtie). In addition, the oppones pollicis is a small triangular muscle of the hand that is located below the abductor pollicis brevis, arises from the trapezum and the flexor retinaculum of the hand, is inserted of the along the radial side of the metacarpal of the thumb, and functions as to abduct, flex and rotate the metacarpal of the thumb in opposing the thumb and fingers"( Merrian-Webster's Dictionary). Located below the radius bone is the external later ligament which extends from the summit of the styloid process of the radius to the outer side of the scaphoid bone, some of its fibers being prolonged to the trapezium bone and annular ligament. Below the external lateral ligament is the capsular ligament which is thick but loose and passes from the circumference of the upper extremity of the metacarpal bone to the rough edge bounding the articular surface of the trapezium bone; it is thickest externally and behind and lined by a separate synovial membrane" (Grays). " In a manner now indicated, in articulation of the metacarpal bone of the thumb with the trapezium, the thumbs movements permitted are flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, and circumduction. In addition, when the joint is flexed, the metacarpal bone is brought in front of the palm and the thumb is gradually turned to the fingers. As a result, It is this peculiar movement that the tip of the thumb is opposed to the other digits; for, by slightly flexing the fingers the palmar surface of the thumb can be brought within contact with their palmar surfaces one after another" (Grays). Some examples of this movement are: holding a fishing pole and casting the line, hook, and fish bait into a body of water, clasping the following items such as a tennis racket, a golf club, a stove pot by the handle and holding a telephone. "The act of grasping requires oppositional activity back and the opponens digiti minimi ( a triangular muscle of the hand " ( McMurtie). Even when relaxed, the hand is contracted inward slightly, toward the palmar surface. An example of this is sitting and resting are hands on our laps or knees, or sitting with our hands on a dinning table palm side down and contracted. "This is because the flexor muscles ( muscles used to bend a body part) are naturally stronger and more massive as a whole than the extensor muscles ( a muscle used to extend a body part) ”(McMurtie Merrian-Webster). For instance, "Table- tennis players in particular rely on their versatility of action" (Abrahams).

"Many powerful movements of the hand, which need the contractile strength of a large bulk of muscle tissue, are controlled by the action of muscles in the forearm via tendons, rather than the hand. Precise and delicate actions are produced by small, or intrinsic muscle. These can be divided into three groups: The muscles of the thenar eminence (the bulge of muscle which lies between the base of thumb and the wrist) which move the thumb. The muscles of the hypothenar eminence muscles (the muscle between the little finger and the wrist), which move the little finger. Finally the short muscles that run deep in the palm of the hand. Thus, the lumbricals and the interosseous muscles. There are four lumbricalis muscles arising in the palm of the hand " ( Abrahams). That flex and extend the fingers of the hand. These four four lumbrical muscles arising in the palm of the hand from the tendons of the flexor digitorium profundus, a powerful muscle of the forearm" ( Abrahams). "Muscles are formed of bundles of reddish fibers, endowed with the property of contractibility. The two principle kinds of muscular tissue found in the body are the voluntary and involuntary. The former of these, from the characteristic appearances which its fibers exhibit under the microscope, is known as striped muscles and from the fact that it is capable of being put into action and controlled by the will as voluntary muscle. The fibers of the latter do not represent any crossed-striped appearance and for the most part are not under the control of the will; hence they are known as the unstriped or involuntary muscles" ( Gray). "Likewise, the four lumbrical muscles pass around the thumb side of the corresponding digit and insert into the area on the back finger which contains the extensor tendons (extensor expansion, or hood). The human hand is made of: bones, ligamnents, finger joints, muscles, nerves, skin and an opposable thumb" (Abrahams)."The bones of the human hand are divided into the metacarpal bones which support the palm and phalanges of fingers. The joints of these bones allow the fingers and thumb great mobility” (McMurtie). The skeleton of the hand is made up of eight carpal bones of the wrist, the five metacarpal bones which support the palm and fourteen phalanges or finger bones”( Abrahams). The first metacarpal is the extremely mobile thumb bone: the action of opposition of the thumb is important as it allows humans to use tools effectively. This metacarpal bone at the base of the thumb is the shortest, and thickest of the five bones and is rotated slightly out of line. It is extremely mobile allowing a wider range of movement to the thumb than to the fingers, including the action of opposition whereby the thumb can touch the tips of each of the fingers. The metacarpal bones; “ are five slender bones, including the opposable thumb; radiate out from the wrist bones towards the fingers to from the wrists bones towards the fingers to form support of the palm of the hand. The first metacarpal is the thumb. The second metacarpal (bone) articulates with the index finger; it is the longest and least mobile of the five bones. The third of metacarpal is shorter and more mobile than the second metacarpal. The fourth metacarpal is short. The fifth metacarpal articulates with the bones of the little fingers; it is the smallest and mobile of the metacarpal bones” (Abrahams). Note “The thumb has no middle phalange and it consist of proximal and distal bones only. Equally important, are the finger joints between the phalanges are surrounded by fibrous capsules, lined with synovial membrane and supported by strong collateral ligaments. The thumb has a saddle shaped joint with the Trapezium bone allowing a wide range of movement while the other metacarpals form plane joints where articulating surfaces are flat then therefore have a limited range of movement" ( Abrahams). "In addition, the saddle joints are those in which the articulating ends of the bones resemble reciprocally shaped miniature saddles. Only saddle joints- one in each thumb-are present in the body. The thumb's metacarpal bone articulates in the wrist with a carpal bone (trapezium). The saddle shaped articulating surfaces of these bones make it possible for the thumb to move over to touch the tips of of the fingers-that is ,to oppose the fingers. Opposing the thumb to the fingers enables us to grip small objects" (Patton-Thibodeau).

Mummies

Accidental mummies were exhumed in the 19th and 20th centuries in Guanajuato, Mexico.

The Mummies of Guanajuato

In 1865, ” a mummy was found and subsequently exhumed from the old town's cemetery in Guanajuato, Mexico, because the burial taxes were not paid in full” (Mora). The historic cemetery eventually became overcrowded; as a result, the citizens of Guanajuato pronounced ( wah-nah-wa-toe), needed additional cemetery land to bury their dead relatives. Moreover, the concerned citizens were willing to pay the grave, burial cost, and any burial taxes mandated by the Mexican government.

When then Santa Paula cemetery caretakers determined which graves were not paid in full; they began to unearth the unpaid graves within the old graveyard. For this reason,” The dead may be exhumed out of legal necessity or medical curiosity”( Quigley). Although, cemeteries promise perpetual care;however, there is no guarantee against graves eventually being moved and grave markers mixed up if not discarded.”(Quigley). Some of the dead were naturally mummified while others had deteriorated. "Since, the discovery of the first mummy many naturally preserved corpses have been taken out of Guanajuato’s Santa Paula cemetery” (Mora). The corpses exhumed out of Santa Paula included men, women, children, and unborn; consequently, some of the names and identities of the dead became anonymous. Because, in the 19th century Gunajauto’s graveyard caretakers did not keep accurate records, diagrams, or log books of the deceased buried at Santa Paula. Consequently, all naturally preserved corpses found by gravediggers were not re-buried, but taken into a storage facility. In Mexico,” All human remains were subject to a grave tax” ( Josefonicz). ” The word mummy is applied to the corpse that naturally or by artificial procedure or preparation which dries up and inhibits getting rotten”(Mora). At first, ” the mummies were placed, leaning back and supported by wooden pegs, inside a long hallway for public view” (Cryptic Passage, Fraywick and Vasquez).One of the first mummies exhumed, from the graveyard on July 9, 1865, was a French Doctor Remegio Leroy”(Mora). Today, 130 years later the mummified remains of Leroy are restfully displayed at Gunajusto. When " The mummified corpse was removed from its grave and stored in the ossuary by workers, startled by its condition” (Gisleon). Within the next thirty years more naturally preserved corpses were discovered and exhumed from their crypts, tombs and mummy cases. Later, ” In 1894, the town’s first museum in Guanajuato was established, to display the mummies” (Josefonicz). In the early years at the museum, the mummies were placed in a hallway (Vasquez). Soon afterwards they were called Las Momias de Guanajuato ( the Mummies of Guanajuato). Then the mummies of Gunajuato were exhibited in the nude in a long hallway; until the museum's visitors complained about the naked mummified cadavers. That being so, ”Human remains always result in significant ethical issues”( Ashmore and Sharer). The museum custodians covered the mummies with white sheets. Soon the caretakers noticed that some mummified parts of the dead were missing such as: ears, nose, lips, fingers, and toes: possibly removed by rodents. Since, the first mummy was discovered more than one hundred years ago there has been a total of 104 naturally preserved cadavers unearthed out of Santa Paula’s graveyard” (Mora). Then in the 1950s, some of Gunajuatos mummies brought to the United States of America and displayed in various museums and science centers. Afterwords “on June 18,1984, in Guanajuato a baby mummy was discovered; a fetus 5 or 6 months old of gestation and 20 c.m. (7 7/8 inches) long. As far as any one knows the fetus died along with its mother during the cesarian section” (Mora).One of the effects of having a mummy exhibit; accordingly, it motivates some people to go and see the mummies. However, not everyone is influenced to see the exhibit, because most people are apprehensive, fearful, and nervous about seeing cadavers. First, others such as historians, researchers, scientist and archaeology students have a yearning to understand why these cadavers were naturally mummified and others decomposed. Secondly, some people are interested and will pay to see dehydrated bodies. At the museum on December of 2011, Guanajuatos exhibit had hundreds of visitors who waited outside the museum to see the mummies. A local street vendor said, " The museum usually admitted 250 visitors each day". The mummies are displayed in the City of Guanajuato's museum, because it depicts a period in the 1860s of a great financial predicament in Mexico’s history. Consequently, it was one reason why a strictly enforced grave tax was authorized and enforced by the Mexican government. ” Recently, the mummy museum was remodeled and re-inaugurated in November of 2007 by Dr. Eduardo Romero Hicks Municipal President” (Mora). As a result, today, the mummy museum at Guanajuato consists of ten large exhibition rooms, where 119 mummified bodies are exhibited in climate controlled coffins and display cases. There are 79 women, 21 men,19 children and one infant which, apparently, is the smallest mummy in the world” (Stampart). Inside, the air conditioned modern museum were approximately fifty visitors at the main exhibit who stood and gazed at Remigeo Leroy the 130 year old mummy.Behind, was a visitor in her early 40s gazing into the air conditioned mummy case which was made out of plexiglass which contained a mummified ten year old child. This large exhibit contained 15 mummified children. Within this large display each mummy was set in a different posture; for example, some of the children were laying down, some sitting, while others were standing next to small child size wooden chairs. In the next exhibit room was a small child’s white coffin which contained ” a tiny hollowed-eyed corpse of a female clutching a doll in her bony hands” ( Josefowicz). The missing layers of skin on both hands of the small child; revealed the bones of the mummy's hand: metacarpal bones, distal flanges, middle flanges, and proximal flanges.A closer exam of a mummified child revealed the mummy's dry skin and bones. "Bone is one of the hardest structures of the body; it possesses also a degree of toughness and elasticity. Generally its color, in a fresh state, is a pinkish white externally and deep red within" (Grey). In this case, the child's bones have a whitish-yellow tint." The integumentary system is an organ system consisting of the skin, hair, nails and exocrine glands. "The skin is only a few millimeters thick yet it is the largest organ in the body. The average persons skin weight is 10 pounds and has a surface area of almost 20 square feet. additionally, skin forms the body's outer covering and forms a barrier to protect the body from chemicals, disease, UV light and physical damage.The epidermis is the most superficial layer of the skin that covers almost the entire body surface. The epidermis rrsts upon and protects the deeper and thicker dermis layer of the skin"( innerbody.com). Another mummy in the enclosed exhibit was an 7-10 year old child whose eyes and eyelids were missing; as a result, only the eye sockets were visible. Additionally, “The thinnest skin on a human body is the eyelid” (McMurti). On this mummy plainly visible was the lacrimal bone which is the smallest bone of the face , that contributes to the orbit (eye socket)" (Abrahams). The next mummy exhibit was a large area; which contained an array of four more mummified children that were laying on small beds. As a result, the exhibit of dead children caused most the museum's visitors to stay relatively quiet as they gazed at the small mummified bodies. These mummified pre-teens were enclosed inside plexiglass boxes; that contained soft lighting and a regulated air temperature of 27 degrees Celsius (75 degrees F). In the next exhibit was a sign that indicated,” The smallest mummy in the world.” It was a mummified infant. Moreover, some of these corpses had name plates in front of them and others did not have any markers.

Upon a close examination of the mummy’s dry skin is very visible on the corpse. The dried out cadaver's skin has changed color, because of the natural mummification process. Besides, “Forms of human remains include mummies, fragmentary bones, and teeth,and coprolites”( Ashmore and Sharer). The inspection of the mummy's dermis (corium) indicated different shades of yellow. Necessarily, the skin is the largest organ in the body and is essential for the survival of the human organism (McMurtie). “The general thickness of the skin throughout the body is on an average 1.0-2.0 mm, and the thickest skin, which is elastic, is found on the soles of the feet 6.00 mm and with they epidermis 1.4mm; moreover, the epidermis ranges from 0.07 to 12mm” (Mcmurtie). Accordingly, “The skin is thicker on the dorsal surface (backside) of the part of the body than on the ventral surface (front side), and not in the feet and hands where the ventral portions are thick due to wear and abrasion” (McMurtie). My closer examination of the mummy's very dry skin reveals a change in color, as well as not warm, not soft, very brittle, and a great loss of flexibility. In the fourth exhibit lie two male skeletons and a partially mummified body, additionally, clearly visible on the partially mummified body was the: cranium, complete skull, fourteen face bones, clavicles, sternum, nails, some hair, and fragile rib cage’s first through twelfth slightly faded white ribs. Also, visible in this exhibit are the eight bones of the human skull such as: the occipital, two parietal, frontal, two temporal, sphenoid and ethmoid bones. " The human skeleton consists of 206 bones and makes up around 40 percent of body weight. Bones come in all shapes sizes, from the long bones in the limbs, to the flat sesamoid bones in the spine, skull, hands and feet. For example, the femur in the lower limb is the largest bone on the body at around 19 inches (48 cm) long and extends from the hip to the knee. The smallest is the stapes, around 1/10 inch (2.5 mm) long and weighing around 4 mg." ( Finn). In addition, the stapes ( stirrup-shaped) bone is located in the middle ear. Inside the next exhibit are four male mummies and a female mummy which was lying on her back with her hands covering her mouth.In the fifth exhibit was a mummified woman and according to the museum's records which indicated her name is Ignacia Aguilar de Chirilo who apparently had an epileptic attack which lasted more than two days. Sadly, the 19th century doctors thought she was dead, so she was buried alive. Years later, “When Chirillo was exhumed she was face down in her coffin; with her palms and arms covering her face as if she was pushing away at the coffin lid” ( Mora). Finally, in the last exhibit, there are ten mummified bodies all males and positioned upright. A close look revealed small wooden pegs are used to keep the dehydrated mummies along a wooden wall. The wooden pegs were positioned just below the arm muscle this area is known as the axillea or (armpit). The adult male mummies range from 1.5 meter (5ft) to 1.8 meters (6ft) in height. Some of these adult and pre-teen mummies still have hair visible on their head, arms and legs. " Human hair is composed of flexible strands of of the hard protein, called keratin " ( Abrahams). There are two main groups of hair vellus and terminal; in addition, " vellus hair is the name given to the soft hair that covers most of the body in women and children. Whereas, terminal hair is found on males and much coarser than vellus. Furthermore, terminal hair occurs on the top of the head on eyelashes and eyebrows, as pubic and axillary (armpit) hair and it makes up most of the body hair of adult men"( Abrahams). " The surface of the human body there is millions of hairs"( Gray). Moreover, each hair is made up of three concentric layers : the medulla, the cortex, and the cuticle.

However, the condition of the mummies hands very color and size, because some the nails are visible, and some nails are not present on the fingers of the corpses. "The nails are flattened ,elastic structures of a texture placed upon the dorsal surface of the terminal phalanges of the fingers and toes" (Gray). In addition, each nail is convex on its outer surface, concave within, and is implanted by a portion, called the root, into a groove in the skin; the exposed portion is called the body and the anterior extremity the free edge" (Gray). The mummies are kept inside a sterile environment. In other words they are kept away from any further damage and/ or deterioration. ”Human remains also yield information on the health and nutrition of the populations. Today, in Mexico, when a person dies and not embalmed by the medical coroners office; the deceased is buried within 24-48 hours. After the burial a process of grave tax is imposed by the Mexican goverment. As a result, burial taxes for the plot, crypt, or grave must be paid at the end of ten years.

In conclusion, the research project of the mummies of Guanajuato revealed some interesting facts of Mexico’s past inhabitants who lived during the 19th and 20th centuries. In December 2012 some of city dwellers were interviewed about the mummies; for instance, one long time resident of Guanajuato said,” the effects of Guanajuatos parched terrain might of been one cause for the mummification”. While other residents explained, ” the town’s water contains aricilla ( clay) might of been a factor in the mummification. Furthermore, minerals in the local dirt have preserved the large number of corpses in the local cemetery” ( Shemirani). Today, the Mexican people are required to follow the Mexican governments sanctions and ordinances regarding burial taxes. Similarly, rules that apply to the levying of burial taxes are enforced as they were back in the 19th century. AuthorM. MartinezWorks / citedAshmore,Wendy and Sharer,Robert J. “Discovering our Past a brief Introduction to Archaeology (Print 1998). Mayfield Publishing Company 1240 Villa St. Mountain View, CaliforniaAbramhams,Peter "How the Body Works A Comprehensive Illustrative Encyclopedia of Anatomy". Print 2012 Publisher Metro Books New York, Joyce, Christopher "Food for thought:meat based diet made us smarter" National Public Radio Aug 1,2014 www.npr.orgJozefowic,Chris”Dead Reckoning.” Current Science 96.4(2010):4-5. Academic Research Premier Web 26 Feb 2012Shemiranin,Shooka “Travelers Guide to Mexico Guanajuato,Mexico” print 2008 31st Edition Publicaciones Turisticas GUS.A.Cu Londres 22,Col Jures Ct. 06600 MexicoCryptic Passage.”Mummies National Geographic; Oct 99,Vol 196 Issue 4, p 1361p.1 Academic Search PremierGisleson,Anne ”Land of the Dead” Atlantic Monthly (10727825);Dec 2011 vol 308 Issue 5 p28-30 Academic Premier 29 Feb 2012Gray,Henry " Gray's Anatomy Classic Illustrated Edition" Print 2012 Published by Fall River Press Finn, Gabrielle M. "30 second anatomy" Print 2012 Published by Metro BooksFraywick and Vasquez Ben T, and Vasquez, Mary Dolores “Men and Mysteryies of Mexico” Print 1996. Published by Red Marie’s Bookstore Tombstone, Arizona.Mora,Jorge Alberto Ramirez.” Asi es Guanajuato” Esquema Groupo Editorial Impreso en Mexico Print 2011.McMurtie,Quigley,Christine,”The Corpse: Print 1996 A History.” McFarland and Company, Inc. PublisherVique, Jordi and Martin,Emilio-Orte ” Atlas of the Human body Print 2004 Chartwell Books,Inc 276 5th Ave Suite 206 New York New York i

Ancient Maya Stone Hacha

This ancient Mayahacha is made of volcanic stone and was used as an ancient rubber ball game marker; in addition, the hacha was discovered within the Cotzulmahuapan zone which is located in the southwestern region of the Pacific coast of Guatemala, Central America.In 1970, this volcanic hacha stone, two ceramic pots, and a skeleton were unearthed in an ancient Maya’s burial mound in the town of Esquintla, Guatemala, Central America. The country of Guatemala lies on the Republic of Mexico's southern border. The stone hacha was discovered by Enrique Moran (1948-1980); a Guatemalan Agricultural Engineer. The unmarked raised mass of earth was located at the center of Esquintla, the town square, which was chosen as the building site for a new hospital. The town of Esquintla has some cobblestone streets and lies approximately 30 kilometers ( 48 miles) west of the town of Santa Lucia Cotzulmahuapan, Guatemala. Nevertheless, a Guatemalan construction company was contracted; as a result, Guatemalan labors were hired to excavate the dirt mound, for the construction of a modern medical clinic. Afterwords, construction workers placed survey markers, measurements were calculated, and the excavation began at the market square. The heavy duty machinery such as: road graders, bull dozers, dump trucks, were brought to level an expanse of land at the old town square. During, the removal of the ground bumps and slopes; very surprised workers stumbled onto an unmarked ancient Maya's burial. When a wealthy ruler is buried in a tomb the finest ceramics and burial goods are placed in the tomb. However, this site contained a few less quality burial pots and indication that the deceased was not very wealth. Unfortunately, these workman were not archaeologist; as a result, the human remains, two ceramic pots, and Maya game volcanic stone marker were not given a detailed examination by the work crew. Afterwards, town leaders were informed of the unusual uncovering at the square; because of this, the volcanic stone hacha and two ceramic pots were set aside, and human skeletal remains were moved to an ossuary. The Neolithic, ( New Stone Age) hacha is an ancient stone game marker, in all likelihood, created during the ancient Maya’s late Classic Period 600-900 A.D. The volcanic game marker measures 165m.m. tall, 180m.m. long at the base, 35 m.m. thick, and weighs 1,250 grams. This hacha stone both sides have what appears to be a carved out human face, two elongated arms, and fingers. “Research has proven that ancient Maya game players used stone hachas, as game field markers. The teams played with a rubber ball against each other for points. The rules of the ancient ball game, probably, varied within the ancient Maya’s City-states” (Coe). Not only…but also, “ Stone age hachas, such as this one were distributed on the southern coast of Guatemalan highlands. Many of these prehistoric hachas depict the ancient Maya’s mythological deities, and various figures such as birds, animals, and warriors" ( Coe ). Furthermore, “ volcanic stone ball markers have been found in other areas of Guatemala, Central America, and north of Vera Cruz, Mexico, where the ancient Pipil civilization thrived long ago in the 15th century B.C. Similarly, secure evidence for the rubber ball game comes from certain stone objects that are frequent in the Cotzulmalhuapa zone; in fact, much over the Pacific coast of Guatemala southward to El Salvador ( Coe).” Consequently, ” Like wise a variety of motifs are decorative designs or patterns were adapted to fit the Maya’s hachas" ( Coe). Similarly, unearthed Maya painted ceramics, figurines, and hachas depict many ancient ballplayers, dating back to the Maya’s Classic period ( 600-900 A.D. Maya ceramics have been sculptured to resemble a rubber ball game hat, in all likelihood made of leather or animal skin, and a wide belt fastened around their waist with a stone hacha; additionally, ” volcanic stone hachas are thought to be grave goods and generally were found in ancient Maya tombs, that frequently contained ceramic pots with food ( i.e. atole, chocolate, chili and corn ), for the departed ruler or chief as well as his or hers personal objects ( i.e. flint knives, stone idols, hachas, and incense”(Coe). Not only…but also, " Objects related to the ritual ball game made by the people of El Tajin also, in Mexico, were exported widely" (Longhena ). " In accord with the importance of ball-court equipment in their art, there are no fewer than 17 ball courts at El Tajin, an elite center 8 km about ( 5 miles) southwest of Papantla, the the rich oil-producing zone of Northern Veracruz" (Coe). Like wise, "in the Veracruz region in particular , the ritual ball game was a great importance: the number of courts and objects relating to the game such as the stone " yokes," "hachas" and "palmas" suggest that championships were held, attended by people from throughout the region. These stone objects were carved with complex relief decorations in the form of intertwined volutes, spirals, and plant and animal montifs. (Longhena). Moreover, the objects were undoubtedly made for ritual use, and have mainly been found in tombs." Within Central America is the Cotzulmalhuapan zone where the dialect of " Chollan Mayan " is spoken by modern day Maya and the word for hacha or (axe) is pronounced (Ch’ah-ka). Again, the stone marker was discovered at Esquintla which is within the Cotzulmalhuapan Region. “ There are only three Cotzulmalhuapan sites known in Central America they are El Castillo, Bilbai,and Santa Maria Cotzulmalhuapan, or perhaps just one large one, for all lie within a tiny area of only 20 sq. mi. ( 52 square km. ) (Coe ).” Also, “From the evidence of art style and pottery, Cotzulmalhuapan culture, apparently, flourished during the Maya’s Terminal classic period 800-925 A.D. ( Coe ). "The particular style of hachas have been found in many locations such as on the pacific coast and the central highlands of Central America; the u-shaped stone yokes” are represented on heavy protective belts of wood and leather worn by the contestants ( Coe ). According to Core, "Thin heads or hachas with human faces, grotesque carnivores, macaws, and turkeys, generally thought to be markers for the zones of the court, but worn on the yoke during the post game ceremonies. The creators of the Cotzulmalhuapan civilization, then, were not Maya but Mexican most likely the Pipil themselves” (Coe). Today, the rubber ball game is played in Central America, but the rules have changed. In addition, it is is similar to soccer a game with eleven players and a rubber ball.

In conclusion, The research on this ancient Maya's ball marker artifact was completed in 2006. The ancient Maya's civilization thrived during the 6th and 9th centuries. During that time period, the ancient ball game was played in block stone ball courts. The rules varied from region to region as well as the number of players, and how the game was played. In the 10th century the Maya people mysteriously began to leave the city-states and temples. The temples remained somewhat empty until the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors. " "The Spanish explorers first entered Mexico and Central America early in the 16th century; they revealed one of the greatest geographical mysteries of their age" ( Gallenkamp). AuthorM. MartinezWorks citedCoe, Michael D. “The Maya” 6th Edition Print 2002 Thames and Hudson Inc. 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10110Coe,Michael D. and Koontz, Rex "Mexico from the Olmecs to the Aztecs" Print 2005 Thames and Hudson Inc. 500 Fifth New York, New York Gallenkamp, Charles " The Maya Riddle of and Rediscovery of a Lost Civilization" 3rd Edition Print 1985 Viking Penguin Inc., 40 W 23rd Street Newy York, N.Y. Longhena, Maria "Ancient Mexico The History and Culture of the Maya, Aztecs, and Other Pre-Columbian Peoples" Print 2006 Barnes and Noble Inc

The Aztec Calendar of the Sun

Early man’s recording of observable time, stone monuments, the Aztec’s ancient City of Tenochtitlan, and calendar of the sun.

Throughout, the history of homo sapiens; modern man built stone monuments. The name homo sapien is Latin which literally means ' wise man '. In the Old World at different locations, times and for various reasons. Many ancient cultures eventually developed into city-states: fashioned temples, public buildings, ceremonial courtyards, ball courts made of stone, and almanacs to keep track of time. These massive structures, in a sense, represented to the various ancient cultures a form of identity, purpose, and symbolism. Most of the structures were considered as sacred open plaza areas, astronomically based centers, as well as religious belief system enclosures; as a result, their world view allowed them to worshiped their pagan deities. "Humans are uniquely adept at utilizing systems of symbolic communication such as language and art for self expression, the exchange of ideas, and organization" ( wikpedia.org/wiki/Humans). Structures varied in size; for example, located in the desert of North Africa are Egypt’s pyramids, built 5,000 years ago by Egypt’s slaves. Consequently, some pyramids were used as tombs for Egypt’s royalty. For instance, the “ Egyptian temple dedicated to the pagan falcon-headed sun god Amon-Re was designed to capture the sun’s rays at the exact moment at sunrise on the summer solstice” ( Mathews).

The summer solstice occurs in the Northern Hemisphere around the 21st or 22nd of June and monuments were built by man to record this event. Around 3,000 B.C. Celtic builders, also known as the Druids, moved and placed megalithic stones; later the area was called Stonehedge which lies in a country known today as the United Kingdom. The Celts’s ancient site was a religious and astronomical site built by theDruids, on the plains of Wiltshire, United Kingdom. Another example is the Orkney Islands located in Northern Scotland where "at the heart of the Neolithic (New Stone Age) Orkney rises a giant Tolkiensque circle of stone known as the Ring of Brodgar. A second ceremonial stone circle, the famous Stones of Stenness, is visible across the cause way leading up to the Ness. And one mile away is an eerie mound called Maes Howe, an enormous chambered tomb more than 4,500 years old; Additionally, the entry passage is perfectly aligned to receive the rays of the setting sun on the eve of the winter solstice, illuminating its own chamber on the shortest day of the year" (Smith).

Located in the New World in Southeast Asia is a colossal ancient sun temple and Hindu monument. Southeast Asia lies south of China and east of India. “ Surely the most astonishing, and important sun temple is the vast complex of Ankor Wat which means ( Temple City) is the largest Hindu monument in present day Cambodia, Built by King Suryavarman II, somewhere between 1113 and 1150 A.D., this temple represents one of the largest, and most complex astronomically base buildings in the world” ( Mathews).

Discovered, in1998, "inside a long-unopened truck a calendar was found an ancient calendar in Ontario, California. The "Rosebud Winter Count" ( for the Sioux reservation in South Dakota where it likely was collected) is a piece of muslin, ( a light weight cotton cloth in plain weave) that measured sixty-nine and one-half inches long by thirty- five inches, on which is a drawn a pictographic calendar. The images-marking events documented elsewhere ( an entry for 1833-34, "the year the stars fell," refers to the Lenoid meteor showers of 1833) or particular to the tribe (1865-66 was the year" Four Crows stealing horses were killed") -appear to extend from 1752 to 1887."(Momaday).

Discovered inside Antikythera a sunken ship in 1900-1901 was a mechanical device; one investigator dubbed it " an ancient Greek computer". "The Antikythera is a ship wreck dating from the 2 nd quarter of the 1 st Century B.C" (wikpedia.com) Upon examination of the device revealed a knob, or handle on the side ,for winding the mechanism forward or backward. And as the knob turned there was trains of interlocking gearwheels drove at least seven hands at various speeds. Instead of hours and minutes the hands displayed celestioal time: one hand for the Sun, one for the Mood and one for each of the five planets -Mercury,Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn" ( Marchant).

On the North American continent in the Valley of Mexico lies, the ancient city of Teotihuacan's pyramids which were built in 200 A.D. The pyramids were built by Toltec civilization for their pagan deities. “ The ancient city of Teotihuacan lies, 48 kilometers ( 30 miles ) outside of, Mexico, City, was never a lost city, unlike those of the Maya farther to the South; as it was abandoned by its inhabitants” ( Stanton). On the southern border of Mexico is the country of Guatemala and home to the Maya.

The ancient Maya during their classic period 200-600 A.D. built stone pyramids, that resemble mountains. They were constructed for the ancient Maya’s royal family, ritual calendar priests, and their supernatural pagan deities. For example, in Northern Mexico on the Yucatan peninsula the Maya's pyramid, Chi-Chen-itza ( mouth of the well) is 30 m. high, and was built by Puccu Maya during the 10th century, consequently, later rebuilt for the Maya’s pagan deity Kukulcan. The geometrical design of the pyramid Chi-Chen Itza; allows a large shadow phenomena which occurs only on during the Equinoxes around September 22 and March 20. Another example, is the 1470 A.D. Kachiquel Maya Temple 2 located at Ximche in the Central highlands. This ancient Maya stone fortress is located 3 kilometers (1.9 miles) south of Tecpan, Guatemala; as a result, on the summer solstice the rising sun shines directly onto the east side of the stone Temple 2 at Ximche.

“ On the American continent at Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, a series of petroglyphs carved high on the rock face of Fajada Butte records the passage of the sun through the solstices and the equinoxes. Created by the mysterious Anazsazi whose culture flourished between 1300 and 1400 A.D in western New Mexico. They passed their knowledge to their descendants the Hopis and the Zunis “ ( Matthews). Again, these stone monuments were used to illustrate the equinoxes that represent a time twice a year, when the sun crosses the equator making day as long as night. Again, stone monuments were created by man for an assortment of reasons. One important reason was to keep track of time.

Today’s workshop is a cultural study of the Aztec People, also known as ( Mexica), and the ancient Calendar of the Sun

“ No understanding of Mexico can be complete without an examination of its prehistoric indigenous past” ( Foster). “ From the Independence to the present, Mexico has developed a view of its past that acknowledged the heritage of its many different peoples among whom the Aztecs occupy a place of particular interest” (Townsend).

As a result, for some people there is an intense fascination, about the Aztec’s culture their ancient calendar of the sun and Tenochtitlan (Modern day Mexico). " The word Mexico is pronounced (Me-shee-co)" (Bernal). The epic of the Aztec people begins at the end of the 10th century where oral history, and folk tale stories were fashioned to fit an indigenous people. “ The Aztec placed special importance on the coincidence of events in time and space, mythological happenings, and legendary history were always compared with recent events to legitimize justify, or otherwise explain them” ( Townsend ). The Aztec, a very superstitious people such as many Mesoamerican civilizations ( i.e. Maya, Toltec, Zapotec, Pipil, Olmec, etc.) The speakers of the Nauhult pronounced (Na waah) language were the nomadic Aztec tribe of hunters and gathers who apparently left northeast Mexico then traveled southward, and searched for a new place to live. The Aztec people and their journey is an oral legend, and is the most accepted version by the people of Mexico today. Accordingly, in the late 11th century the Aztec people migration story led them to ancient Tenochtitlan by a shaman named Huitzilopochtis ( Hueets-see-low-pooch-tees) who is depicted on the Borbonicus Codex.“ This shaman is depicted on many ancient Aztec codexs” (wikpedia.org/ Aztec). " The Aztec people ate mostly meat, yet also retained basic farming skills; grew beans, amaranth, chia, chilies, squash, and tomatoes, as well as maize (corn), the basic staple diet"( Townsend).

According to their oral histories recorded by the Spanish Fray Diego Duran late in the 16th century, the ancestors of the Aztec clan had originally emerged from caves” (Townsend). "Clans are unilineal descent groups in which people believe that they can trace their descent back to some founding ancestor and therefore have a sense of identity"(Heider). Just as the migration legend of the nomadic Aztec describes "a route of travel by foot to Tenochtitlan, from two important places; Culhuacan, which means ( Curved Mountain) and Chicomoztoc (Seven Caves). " While, the Aztec people as a mobile band moved from place to place preferred resources of food depleted and new supplies were sought" ( wikipedia.org/Pre-columbian). Then in 1250 A.D., the migrants arrived in the reed beds of the Lake Texcoco, and led by their torchbearer Huitzilopochtis who according to Aztec legend saw a vision of eagle on a cactus. This would be the sacred sign, apparently on 2 house 1325 A.D. Afterwords a shrine was built and the Aztec people found their city. "At first, they situated on an island in Lake Texcoco, and allude to be known as the Mexica-Tenocha or Colhual Mexica " (Townsend ). "The islet later became known as the city-state Tenochtitlan, founded in 1325 was a raised city built on an islet in the middle of Texcoco" ( Novas). In due course, the Aztec or Mexica civilization developed; they called themselves the people of the sun. “The ancient city of Tenochtitlan’s has two sun temples or pyramids founded in 1325 A.D. by the Mexica” ( wikpedia.com). These temples are named Tlacloc ( Taa-lock) and Huitzilopochtli; religion was central to the Aztec's life and Tenochtitlan was the Great Temple" (Stanton). Today, most of Tenochtitlan, the island city, consequently, is buried under modern day Mexico City. Although, still visible is the old pyramid “ Templo Mayor and as well as other Aztec ruins which were excavated by archaeologist in the late 1970s. Back then, "The ancient island city in the 15th century covered an area estimated (3.1 to 5.2 square miles), and situated on the western side of the shallow Lake Texcoco, and connected to the mainland by many causeways ( raised roads). As a result, it was interlaced with a series of canals, so that all sections of the city could be visited either by foot or by canoe” ( wikipedia.org). When, the Spaniards arrived in 1517 A.D., the entire pyramid rose some 35 m (115ft), offering a sweeping view of the city, the lake, and countryside” (Townsend). However, today one of the problems encountered by archaeologist working on what remains of Tenochtitlan is very high water table" (Stanton). “ It was the focal point of the city and stood in a large square enclosure which incorporated many other buildings and features, including other temples, a ball court, priest dormitories, a school ( calmecac ) which trained the sons of the elite, and houses for the warrior guilds” ( Stanton). While in the Aztec priesthood students were taught the Aztec calendar of the sun, rituals and religion. The Aztec people never realized that two centuries later, in 1521, their city would be taken over by Spanish foreign invaders, from the Iberian peninsula in Western Europe. Then two and one half centuries later a mysterious round stone with symbols and inscriptions was unearthed at Tenochtitlan (Mexico City). Roadway workers on December 17, 1790, a discovery of a 12.5 ton 3.6 meters wide stone calendar of the sun, that depicts hieroglyphic inscriptions, was buried under 40 feet of dirt at El Zocolo ( Main plaza). Today, this stone artifact is on display at the Museum of Anthropology in downtown Mexico City. Additionally, ancient Aztec temples, court yards and plazas can be seen in Mexico City.

During this autumn session workshop we will examine the Aztec’s sun calendars, hieroglyphics, day numbers, day names, and a variety of mythological symbolic hieroglyphs that were significant to ancient Aztecs. The hieroglyphic symbols of the Aztec Calendar have been translated into the Aztec's Nahuatl language into the English language. The calendar of the sun consists of three calendars called Tonalpohualli ( toe-nah-po-li) , Xiuhpohualli, ( Shew-po-alli) and Xiuhmopilli ( shew-mo-po-ali ). The three calendars had many purposes such as: number and day counts, fortune telling, religious days, ceremonial days, agricultural seasons, and certain days for human sacrifices. The tonalpuhuali pronounced ( toe-nah-po-ali) is a day count ritual calendar of 260 days in length. Next is the Xiupohualli a 360 day in length plus five days solar / agricultural calendar. Back then in the early 14th century at Tenochtitlan “ It was taught in the elite schools, the calmecac, ( kal-me-kak ) who’s attendees included the sons of upper nobility, some sons of lower nobles, and those in the priesthood” ( Foster). These two almanacs, the Tonapohuali ( ritual count), and Xiuhpohualli ( year count) calendars combined create a calendar round of 52 years or 18,980 days ( 52x365 ). The Aztec’s century consisted of fifty-two years, and was called the Xiumpolli which means ( bundle of years). During the Aztec empire the calendar priests used the calendars to predict, for example, the first appearance of the moon in the western sky, full moons, dark phases of the moon, equinoxes, and solstices. “ The arrangement of time governed all important activities of individual life as we as the scheduling and performance of city state organized events” (Townsend). Tonalpohualli Calendar

Each day of the 260 day tonalpohualli or tonal calendar day numbers and day names retained a personified suggestive meaning or message for the Aztec people. Subsequently, the first day of the tonalpohualli calendar begins with ' one alligator ' which translates to the Aztec’s Nahualt language ( ce cipactli). All Aztec symbols and illustrations have be translated into English. This ancient calendar has mythological origins and was used during the pre-Columbian period by Aztec shamanistic calendar priests seeking knowledge of the future, or the meaning of past supernatural events. Even so, each group of day numbers and day names were thought to have to be governed by a specific mythological pagan deities. As the superstitious Aztecs like many other ancient civilizations personified ( gave human or animal characteristics ) each day number and day name on the ancient almanac. Upon a close examination of the days on the calendar of the sun of the almanac is composed of various hieroglyphics such as: certain jungle animals, water reptiles, four elements of the earth, wind, fire, rain, plants, supernatural beings, and a human skull. In addition, “ these basic units of the tonalpohualli calendar is called trecena ( tray-si-enna) a group of thirteen days; the veintiena ( vein-tienna) a group of twenty day names. So that a combination of the tonalpohualli’s thirteen periods of trecenas, and twenty periods of veintenas results in a total of 260 days (13 x 20 equals 260). After, one complete cycle the tonal calendar it realigns itself to its original day number 1 and day name alligator, or ( ce cipactili) which means alligator in the language of the Aztec called Nahaualt). Start with 1 alligator which is the first hieroglyphic at the top of the calendar left of the central hieroglyphic square ( reed ). Now going counter clockwise in side the day count ring we count each day in sequence; these are the first thirteen ( trecena ) hieroglyphs. “ With each day, both the number and a day sign would be incremented beginning with: 1 alligator followed by 2 wind, 3 house, 4 lizard, 5, snake, 6 death, 7 deer, 8 rabbit, 9 water, 10 dog, 11 monkey, 12 grass and 13 reed; this is the first trecena of the tonal calendar. The total of this thirteen day period trecena plus the following day numbers and day names : 1 jaguar, 2 eagle, 3 vulture, 4 earthquake, 5 flint, 6 rain, 7 flower makes a twenty day period called a veintena. When this cycle of twenty day numbers and twenty day names or symbols intermesh; the tonal calendars 260 day period is completed. Xiuhpohualli Calendar

This second type of Aztec calendrical system has a 365 day solar day count is the Xiuhpohualli. This calendar is considered an agricultural almanac, and functioned as a record to establish planting and harvest times and to organize the tropical solar year into a series of feasts; 18 x 20 equals 360 plus 5 equals 365 days. However,“ This calendar was not an Aztec innovation, but part of the heritage shared by all Mesoamerican peoples” ( wikpedia.org/aztec). The days of the Xiupohualli were ruled by Aztec pagan deities, for example, the night was ruled by the nine lords of the night, a smaller calendar. The almanacs 20 day month was called metili or moon. During each of the 20 day periods of the calendar an Aztec festival was held, for each of their 20 pagan deities. Each day of the xiuhpohualli is ruled by a pagan deity. Furthermore, this calendar is made up of 18 months of 20 days each plus an additional five days called nemtomemi, and these are the extra five days that transitioned the calender into a new Aztec year.Transition of the calendar

An illustration of the Xiuhpohualli calendar of how the old Aztec previous year bearer ( 1 house ) will transition into the Aztec New Year ( 2 tochtli ) will be demonstrated at the G.C.C. workshop. On the Gregorian calendar October 1, 2013, the Aztec sun calendar will indicate 1 calli 1 calli 1 calli which means ( 1 house, 1 house, 1 house). The end of the Aztec year bearer 1 calli begins the last thirteen day period trecena; which includes an Aztec hieroglyphic day name for each number. Again, the trecena starts with one calli ( Ka-lee), which means ( 1 house) and ends with (13 eagle ). Going counter clockwise is the following day numbers and 13 day names: 1 house 2 lizard, 3 snake, 4 death, 5 deer, 6 rabbit, 7 water, 8 dog , 9 monkey, 10 grass, 11 reed, 12 jaguar, and 13 eagle. Now, the nementomi calender days transition beginnings on 2 lizard and for the next five days later starts the new year ( 2 rabbit).Nemontemi Days

The day number 2 and day name cuetzpalin ( lizard) begins the first nemontemi day; day number 3 and day name coatl ( snake) is the second nemontemi day; the day number 4 day name Miquiztli (death) is the third nemontemi day; the day number 5 and day name mazatatl (deer) is the fourth nemontemi day; and finally the fifth nementomi day number 6 and day name tochtli ( rabbit). Therefore, the next day is "7 atl (water), 1 calli (house), 2 tochtli ( rabbit) is the Aztec's New Year bearer" ( www. aztec calendar.com). Meanwhile, on the Gregorian calendar it will mark 6, October, 2013, but on the Aztec calendar day number will indicate " 7 atl ( trecena period ) 1 calli ( previous year bearer ) and 2 tochtli ( rabbit) Solar year or Aztec new year bearer.

Xuimopilli

The third calendar is called the Xuimopilli which is a 52 year calendar. In addition, the years began with one of the four hieroglyphic symbols or day names: house, rabbit, reed, and flint. They Aztec people firmly held an opinion or conviction; the completion of the 52 year cycle was a time life paused and had to begin anew. In the Nahault language, Xiumolpilli which means a bundle of years. A count of fifty-two reeds were bundled together symbolizing fifty-two years. Within the Xuimpopilli every fifty-two year period was divided into four thirteen year intervals. “ Just as the tonapohualli days progressed from sign to sign and from number to number, so did the years 1 rabbit preceded 2, reed, 3 flint 4 house, 5 rabbit and so forth” ( Foster). The year names was enclosed in a cartouche and most of the time painted blue on the calendar of the sun.

“The New Fire ceremony would occur at the end of each Xuimopilli (fifty-two year calendar). This fire drill was dedicated to Huizilotpoctli an pagan deity. " The fire drill was named mamalhuaztli in Nahautl" ( Townsend). The "This reasoning for the ancient Aztec meant their world would end unless the ritual of human sacrifice, and the New Fire ceremony would be carried out to insure the rebirth of the sun” ( Foster). Every fifty-two years the ceremony was reenacted: the Aztec people would extinguish all fires and threw away most of their belongings. In the Aztec homes all fires in their herths were extinguished. According to Foster, “ At night time as the Aztec priests climbed to the summit of the hill of Huiaxchtlan, south of Tenochtitlan they notice the star cluster tianquiztli today the star cluster is called the Pleiades( in Greek mythology Seven Sisters) can seen in the big dipper constellation. The moment when the stars reached the center of the heavens, the calendar priest sacrificed a man by cutting out his heart” ( Foster). Then the fire priest would make a drill board upon the center chest cavity of the victim. "The boards, 52 reeds were was taken by other Aztec priests as symbolic and religious ceremony, and life is renewed by the Aztec priests re-lighting each hearth in the village" ( wikipedia.org/Aztec calendar.

The Aztec five mythological agesAccording to Aztec legend the first era was four jaguar sun, second era was four wind sun, third era was four rain sun, and the fourth era was four water sun. The fifth, era or present sun is five earthquake sun. The Aztec of today believes that the current era is five earthquake sun.

Fate of the Aztecs and indigenous peoples of Mexico"On August 16,1519 Cortez assembled his troops in rank and file and spoke to them above the huff and snorts of horses and snarling hounds" ( Levy). These were the first horses brought from Spain to Mexico and the dogs were greyhounds and mastiffs" (Levy). According to Levy, " He had, after all, arrived at Cempola on Mexican mainland on 1 reed, on the Aztec calendar, which took place every fifty-two years and was the exact date on the Aztec calendar on which Quetzalcoatl ( feathered serpent) a mythological pagan deity was prophesied to return to Tenochtitlan. The Aztec people were very superstitious and they believed that Cortex was a pagan deity. Afterwards, "Cortez marched with his men to Tenochtitlan and arrived in November 8, 1519" (Levey). As a result, “ In 1520, smallpox killed 150,000 people in ( Tenochtitlan) Mexico, because there was not a vaccine against the disease brought by European explorers” ( wikpedia.org/Mexicos’s indigenous). Back then, in the 15th century, the Aztec nation was under the orders of the Spanish Conquistadors, led by Hernan Cortez.