Arabian Seanorthwestern part of the Indian Ocean, covering a total area of about 1,491,000 square miles (3,862,000 square kilometreskm) and forming part of the principal sea route between Europe and India. It is bounded to the west by the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, to the north by Iran and Pakistan, to the east by India, and to the south by the remainder of the Indian Ocean. To the north the Gulf of Oman connects the sea with the Persian Gulf via the Strait of Hormuz. To the west the Gulf of Aden connects it with the Red Sea via the Bab el-Mandeb (Bāb al-Mandab) Strait. It has a mean depth of 8,970 feet (2,734 metres). In Roman times its name was Mare Erythraeum (Erythraean Sea).

Political units bordering the sea—in addition to India, Iran, and Pakistan—are the Sultanate of Oman, Yemen, and Somalia. Islands in the sea include Socotra (a part of Yemen) off the Horn of Africa, the Khuriyyā Muriyyā (Kuria Muria) Islands off the coast of Oman, and Lakshadweep (a union territory of India consisting of the Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amīndīvi Amindivi islands; the latter constitute a group of coral atolls lying between 100 and 250 miles ([160 and 400 kilometreskm]) off the southwestern (Malabār) coast of India. The Indus River is the principal river and the Narmada rivers are the principal waterways draining into the sea.

Physical features

Most of the Arabian Sea has depths that exceed 9,800 feet (2,990 metres), and there are no islands in the middle. Deep water reaches close to the bordering lands except in the northeast, off Pakistan and India. To the southeast the Lakshadweep atolls form part of the submarine Maldive Ridge, which extends farther south into the Indian Ocean where it rises above the surface to form the atolls of the Maldives. On the western side of the sea, the plateau island of Socotra, about 70 miles (110 km) long and with an area of about 1,400 square miles (3,625 square km), is an insular extension of the Horn of Africa, lying 160 miles (260 km) east of Cape Gwardafuy (Guardafui).

Submarine morphology and geology

The Arabian Sea was formed within the past 150 roughly 50 million years (i.e., during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras) as the Indian subcontinent migrated north and collided with Asia. Stretching southeastward from Socotra is the submarine Carlsberg Ridge, which coincides with the belt of seismic activity in the Indian Ocean that divides the Arabian Sea into two major basins—the Arabian Basin to the east and the Somali Basin to the west. The maximum depth of the sea, 19,038 feet (5,803 metres), occurs at Wheatley Deep. The Carlsberg Ridge is longitudinally split by a central valley that reaches depths of about 11,800 feet (3,600 metres) below the sea’s surface. The coastal escarpments of the Gulf of Aden are formed by rift faults that converge toward the southwest to continue into Africa as the boundary scarps of the Eastern, or Great, Rift Valley, which forms part of the East African Rift System. The Arabian Basin is separated from the Gulf of Oman Basin by the Murray Ridge, a narrow, seismically active submarine ridge that extends northeast to southwest to meet the Carlsberg Ridge. West of Murray Ridge is the Malian subduction zone, an area where the ocean floor sinks below the adjacent continental crust.

A deep submarine canyon has been cut by the Indus River, which also has deposited an abyssal (i.e., deep-sea) cone of thick sediments some 535 miles (860 km) wide and 930 miles (1,500 km) long. This cone and an associated abyssal plain in the Arabian Basin occupy much of the northeastern floor of the Arabian Sea. To the east of the Somali coast, the Somali Basin forms another large abyssal plain.

The continental shelf is narrow along the coast of the Arabian Peninsula and is even narrower along the Somali coast. No true coral reefs are found along the Arabian coast. Sediments near Cape al-Ḥadd (the easternmost headland of the Arabian Peninsula), where upwelling of deep water occurs in summer, consist of fine greenish mud with a high organic content containing hydrogen sulfide. The region, which contains many fish remains, is known as a fish cemetery. Terrigenous (i.e., land-derived) deposits cover the major part of the continental slope to a depth of about 9,000 feet (2,700 metres). Below this, deposits consist of the calcareous tests (shells) of Globigerina (a genus of protozoans belonging to the Foraminiferida Foraminifera order), while basins below 13,000 feet (4,000 metres) are covered by red clay. Authigenic (i.e., formed in place) ferromanganese nodules have been discovered in the Somali and Arabian basins, and polymetallic sulfides have been found along the Carlsberg Ridge. Sediment thickness decreases from 8,200 feet (2,500 metres) in the north to about 1,600 feet (500 metres) in the south of the Arabian Basin.

Climate and hydrology

The Arabian Sea has a monsoon climate. Minimum air temperatures of about 75° 75 to 77° F 77 °F (24° 24 to 25° C25 °C) at the sea’s surface occur in the central Arabian Sea in January and February, while temperatures higher than 82° F (28° C82 °F (28 °C) occur in both June and November. During the rainy season, which occurs when the southwest monsoon winds blow (April to November), salinities of less than 35 parts per thousand have been recorded in the upper 150 feet (45 metres) of the sea, while during the dry season (November to March), when the northeast monsoon winds blow, salinities of more than 36 parts per thousand have been recorded at the surface over the entire Arabian Sea north of latitude 5° N, except off the Somali coast. Because evaporation exceeds the combined precipitation and riverine input, the sea exhibits a net water loss annually.

The complex Somali Current, which attains speeds of about seven 7 knots (eight 8 miles [13 km] per hour) off the coast of Socotra, becomes part of a clockwise circulation system that in summer continues to the northeast along the coast of Arabia and thence south along the coast of India to 10° N. At that point it merges with the Southwestern Monsoon Current, flowing east between 5° and 10° N. Pronounced upwelling of deeper waters occurs along the Somali and Arabian coasts in summer. The Somali Current weakens and reverses direction during the northeast (winter) monsoon. Of the five water masses that have been distinguished in the upper 3,000 feet (900 metres) of the north northern Indian Ocean, three have been identified as originating in the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the Arabian Sea, respectively. The paths of flow of these water masses are to the south and east.

Economic aspects

Resources

Petroleum and natural-gas deposits have been discovered in the Arabian Sea on the continental shelf off the coast of India to the west and northwest of Mumbai (Bombay) and have been intensively exploited. High levels of inorganic nutrients, such as phosphate concentrate, which produce a rich fish life, have been observed in the western Arabian Sea and off the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. Occurring in the euphotic zone (zone of light, which is found in the upper 450 feet [140 metres] of the sea), this fertilizing effect undoubtedly is attributable in part to coastal upwelling, which circulates settled nutrients from the seafloor.

Pelagic fish (i.e., those living at or near the surface far from the land) in the Arabian Sea include tuna, sardine, billfish (a species having a long sharp bill or snout), wahoo (a large, swift game fish), sharks, lancet fish (a large species having daggerlike teeth), and moonfish (a species of silvery fish with thin, deep-chested bodies).

A periodic occurrence in the Arabian Sea, however, is the mass mortality of fish. This phenomenon is attributed to a subsurface layer of water of tropical origin that is poor in oxygen but rich in phosphate; under . Under certain circumstances this layer is brought to the surface by strong upwelling, resulting in the death of fish from lack of oxygen.

Extensive small-scale fishing is carried on in the Arabian Sea, particularly off the east coasts of Africaand , the Arabian Peninsula, and west coast of the Indian subcontinent. These operations employ dugout and outrigger canoes, dhows, and a variety of other small craft, as well as mechanized trawlers and purse seiners. Commercial fishing also is undertaken by larger vessels. India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Iran, Oman, Yemen, France, the United Arab Emirates, South Korea, Japan, and the Maldives are the principal fishing nationscountries.

Transportation

The Arabian Sea, with its strategic location vis-à-vis the Red Sea (including the Suez Canal) and the Persian Gulf, contains some of the world’s busiest shipping lanes; and the chief routes originate in those two extensions. Persian Gulf shipping largely consists of tankers, some of immense capacity, that transit the Arabian Sea en route to destinations in East Asia, Europe, and North and South America. The Suez Canal–Red Sea route is used mainly by general-cargo vessels on their way to ports in South, Southeast, and East Asia. There are a number of ports serving the countries bordering the sea. Among the largest are Muhammad Bin Qāsim Qasim and Karāchi Karachi in Pakistan and Bombay (general cargo) and Marmagao (iron ore) Mumbai, Marmagao, Kandla, and Kochi in India.

Study and exploration

To medieval Arabs the Arabian Sea was known as the Sea of India or as part of the “Great Sea,” from which smaller gulfs such as the Sea of Faris (Persian Gulf) or Sea of Kolzum (Red Sea) were distinguished. From about the 8th or 9th century onward, Arab and Persian seafarers learned to use the surface currents propelled by the summer and winter monsoon winds. Detailed navigational instructions for sailing between southern Arabian, East African, and Red Sea ports, as well as ports in India, Malaysia, and China, were written down by pilots from Oman and the Hadhramaut (Ḥaḍramawt) region of southern Arabia between the 9th and 15th centuries. Some of these works, entitled in Persian rahmangs (“books of routes”), contain descriptions of coasts, approaches, and islands, as well as useful information on winds, currents, soundings, and navigation by stars. Among the flourishing medieval ports mentioned in these works are Diu and Surat in India, Hormuz in Persia, and Muscat and Aden on the Arabian Peninsula. Landmarks mentioned include Capes al-Ḥadd and Madrakah—both on the southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula—and Cape Gwardafuy in Somalia, which is the cape of the Horn of Africa.

In the 20th centurycontemporary times, the Arabian Sea has been studied by several oceanographic expeditions, of which . Perhaps the most important has been of these was the Mabahiss , (or John Murray, ) Expedition of 1933–34, which reported findings concerning hydrography, chemistry, currents, water masses, bottom topography, and sediments. Further information was obtained during the International Indian Ocean Expedition (1960–65), in which British, American, Soviet, Indian, and German ships participated, studying currents, biological productivity, seismology, and geology.

Geology and hydrology of the Arabian Sea are dealt with in N.K. Panikkar and R. Jayaraman, “Biological and Oceanographic Differences Between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal as Observed from the Indian Region,” Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, 64:231–240 (1966); Henry Stommel and Warren S. Wooster, “Reconnaissance of the Somali Current During the Southwest Monsoon,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 54(1):8–13 (July 1965). Economic resources are outlined in J.H. Rytheret al., “Primary Organic Production in Relation to the Chemistry and Hydrography of the Western Indian Ocean,” Limnology and Oceanography, 11:371–380 (1966). A series of short reports in Science, 209(4456):588–603 (Aug. 1, 1980), summarizes the results of the Indian Ocean Experiment in 1979 surveying the Somali Current and the western equatorial Indian Ocean.Western Equatorial Indian Ocean. More recent studies of physical, chemical, biological, climatic, and geological data include B.N. Desai (ed.), Oceanography of the Indian Ocean (1992); O.P. Singh, Changes in the Frequencies of Cyclonic Storms and Depressions Over the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea (1999); and P.D. Cliftet al. (eds.), The Tectonic and Climatic Evolution of the Arabian Sea Region (2002).