As the photovoltaics (PV) industry has grown, the need for accurately monitoring the solar resource of PV power plants has increased. Historically, the PV industry has relied on thermopile pyranometers for irradiance measurements, and a large body of historical irradiance data taken with pyranometers exists. However, interest in PV reference devices is increasing. In this paper, we discuss why PV reference devices are better suited for PV applications, and estimate the typical uncertainties in irradiance measurements made with both pyranometers and PV reference devices. We assert that the quantity of interest in monitoring a PV power plant is the equivalent irradiance under the IEC 60904-3 reference solar spectrum that would produce the same electrical response in the PV array as the incident solar radiation. For PV-plant monitoring applications, we find the uncertainties in irradiance measurements of this type to be on the order of +/-5% for thermopile pyranometers and +/-2.4% for PV reference devices.

, and secure a listing to UL1741 for a pre-assembled module/inverter device, and you have an AC PV module No discussion of PV systems would be complete without a look at the newest inverter technologies that installers Most grid-tied inverters are "string inverters"--they operate with a string of series-connected PV

A supported PV assembly may include a PV module comprising a PV panel and PV module supports including module supports having a support surface supporting the module, a module registration member engaging the PV module to properly position the PV module on the module support, and a mounting element. In some embodiments the PV module registration members engage only the external surfaces of the PV modules at the corners. In some embodiments the assembly includes a wind deflector with ballast secured to a least one of the PV module supports and the wind deflector. An array of the assemblies can be secured to one another at their corners to prevent horizontal separation of the adjacent corners while permitting the PV modules to flex relative to one another so to permit the array of PV modules to follow a contour of the support surface.

Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems can generate clean, cost-effective power anywhere the sun shines. This video shows how a PV panel converts the energy of the sun into renewable electricity to power homes and businesses.

Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems can generate clean, cost-effective power anywhere the sun shines. This video shows how a PV panel converts the energy of the sun into renewable electricity to power homes and businesses.

A stabilized PV system comprises an array of photovoltaic (PV) assemblies mounted to a support surface. Each PV assembly comprises a PV module and a support assembly securing the PV module to a position overlying the support surface. The array of modules is circumscribed by a continuous, belt-like perimeter assembly. Cross strapping, extending above, below or through the array, or some combination of above, below and through the array, secures a first position along the perimeter assembly to at least a second position along the perimeter assembly thereby stabilizing the array against wind uplift forces. The first and second positions may be on opposite sides on the array.

A fire resistant PV shingle assembly includes a PV assembly, including PV body, a fire shield and a connection member connecting the fire shield below the PV body, and a support and inter-engagement assembly. The support and inter-engagement assembly is mounted to the PV assembly and comprises a vertical support element, supporting the PV assembly above a support surface, an upper interlock element, positioned towards the upper PV edge, and a lower interlock element, positioned towards the lower PV edge. The upper interlock element of one PV shingle assembly is inter-engageable with the lower interlock element of an adjacent PV shingle assembly. In some embodiments the PV shingle assembly may comprise a ventilation path below the PV body. The PV body may be slidably mounted to the connection member to facilitate removal of the PV body.

PV PLANNER A DESIGN AND ANALYSIS TOOL FOR BUILDING INTEGRATED SOLAR ELECTRIC SYSTEMS FINAL Center for Energy and Environmental Policy University of Delaware December 2006 #12;#12;PV...............................................................................................................................1 1.2 PV Planner: An Overview

In the Device Performance group, within the National Center for Photovoltaic's Measurements and Characterization Division, we measure the performance of PV cells and modules with respect to standard reporting conditions--defined as a reference temperature (25 C), total irradiance (1000 Wm-2), and spectral irradiance distribution (IEC standard 60904-3). Typically, these are ''global'' reference conditions, but we can measure with respect to any reference set. To determine device performance, we conduct two general categories of measurements: spectral responsivity (SR) and current versus voltage (I-V). We usually perform these measurements using standard procedures, but we develop new procedures when required by new technologies. We also serve as an independent facility for verifying device performance for the entire PV community. We help the PV community solve its special measurement problems, giving advice on solar simulation, instrumentation for I-V measurements, reference cells, measurement procedures, and anomalous results. And we collaborate with researchers to analyze devices and materials.

Research of PV Application on UMore Park Community Design Arch 8563:Getting Blow the Surface Xiaoyu Liu #12;Getting Blow Surface: PV opportunity on the UMore Park 2 Research of PV application on U More community on the aspect of PV application. There are four parts in this report: (1) Introduction of UMore

available (from either the utility through the main breaker or from the PV system through the back-fed PV applies to the supply overcurrent devices on any conductor. If the PV inverter OCPD cannot be located common connection used for PV systems smaller than 10 kW. Section 690.64(B)--moving to 705.12(D

This manual provides the documentation of the MATLAB toolbox of functions for using OpenDSS to simulate the impact of solar energy on the distribution system. The majority of the functions are useful for interfacing OpenDSS and MATLAB, and they are of generic use for commanding OpenDSS from MATLAB and retrieving information from simulations. A set of functions is also included for modeling PV plant output and setting up the PV plant in the OpenDSS simulation. The toolbox contains functions for modeling the OpenDSS distribution feeder on satellite images with GPS coordinates. Finally, example simulations functions are included to show potential uses of the toolbox functions. Each function in the toolbox is documented with the function use syntax, full description, function input list, function output list, example use, and example output.

Much in demand are next-generation photovoltaic (PV) technologies that can be used economically to make a large-scale impact on world electricity production. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) initiated the High-Performance Photovoltaic (HiPerf PV) Project to substantially increase the viability of PV for cost-competitive applications so that PV can contribute significantly to both our energy supply and environment. To accomplish such results, the National Center for Photovoltaics (NCPV) directs in-house and subcontracted research in high-performance polycrystalline thin-film and multijunction concentrator devices with the goal of enabling progress of high-efficiency technologies toward commercial-prototype products. We will describe the details of the subcontractor and in-house progress in exploring and accelerating pathways of III-V multijunction concentrator solar cells and systems toward their long-term goals. By 2020, we anticipate that this project will have demonstrated 33% system efficiency and a system price of $1.00/Wp for concentrator PV systems using III-V multijunction solar cells with efficiencies over 41%.

This brochure summarizes the Open PV Project, a collaborative effort of government, industry, and the public to compile a comprehensive database of PV installations in the United States. The brochure outlines the purpose and history of the project as well as the main capabilities and benefits of the online Open PV tool. The brochure also introduces how features of the tool are used, and it describes the sources and characteristics of Open PV's data and data collection processes.

use their PV-based generation and controllable storage devices for peak shaving on their power demand controller should possess the ability of forecasting future PV-based power generation and load power consumption profiles for better performance. In this paper we present novel PV power generation and load power

This paper presents a brief overview of the status and accomplishments during fiscal year (FY) 2005 of the Photovoltaic (PV) System Performance and Standards Subtask, which is part of the PV Systems Engineering Project (a joint NREL-Sandia project).

A common misconception about solar photovoltaic (PV) panels is that they inherently cause or create "too much" glare, posing a nuisance to neighbors and a safety risk for pilots. While solar PV systems can produce glare, light absorption - rather than reflection - is central to the function of solar PV panels. This fact sheet describes the basic issues surrounding glare from solar PV panels, the new Federal Aviation Administration guidance, and the implications for local governments.

The DOE SUNSHOT workshop is seeking input from the community about PV reliability and how the DOE might address gaps in understanding. This presentation describes the types of testing that are needed for PV reliability and introduces a discussion to identify gaps in our understanding of PV reliability testing.

array. #12;Conductor Routing & Inverter Location The location of the inverter in relation to the PV of the conductors between the PV array and the inverter, and between the inverter and the AC load centerConsiderations for PV Site Surveys John Wiles Sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy this loss

The present invention is premised upon a connector device and method that can more easily electrically connect a plurality of PVdevices or photovoltaic system components and/or locate these devices/components upon a building structure. It also may optionally provide some additional sub-components (e.g. at least one bypass diode and/or an indicator means) and may enhance the serviceability of the device.

PV Fact Sheets Argument B1Some people state that "The external costs of PV electricity is much and the low one to thin-film cadmium telluride PV systems. Fossil fuel power plants PV displaces. 5.8 External

A Heavy Met that is 95% tungsten, 3% nickel and 2% iron and sintered to 100% density and is Ultra High Vacuum (UHV) compatible is proposed for use as the X-ray slit in the Front End Enclosure and the Fixed Mask for the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS). The Heavy Met was tested in the LLNL Vacuum Sciences and Engineering Lab (VSEL) to determine its outgassing rate and its overall compatibility with the vacuum requirements for LCLS.

As photovoltaic (PV) penetration of the power grid increases, it becomes vital to know how decreased power output; may affect cost over time. In order to predict power delivery, the decline or degradation rates must be determined; accurately. At the Performance and Energy Rating Testbed (PERT) at the Outdoor Test Facility (OTF) at the; National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) more than 40 modules from more than 10 different manufacturers; were compared for their long-term outdoor stability. Because it can accommodate a large variety of modules in a; limited footprint the PERT system is ideally suited to compare modules side-by-side under the same conditions.

In this paper, we review the latest developments in the area of printing technologies with an emphasis on the fabrication of control-embedded photovoltaics (PV) with on-board active and passive devices. We also review the use of power converters and maximum power point tracking (MPPT) circuits with PV panels. Our focus is on the investigation of the simplest implementations of such circuits in view of their integration with solar cells using printing technologies. We see this concept as potentially enabling toward further cost reduction. Besides a discussion as to feasibility, we shall also present some projections and guidelines toward possible integration. (author)

A number of candidate alternative encapsulant and soft backsheet materials have been evaluated in terms of their suitability for photovoltaic (PV) module packaging applications. Relevant properties, including interfacial adhesion and moisture transport, have been measured as a function of damp-heat (85 C/85% relative humidity) exposure. Based on these tests, promising new encapsulants with improved properties have been identified. Backsheets prepared by industry and at NREL have been found to provide varying levels of moisture ingress protection. To achieve significantly improved products, further development of these candidates is ongoing. The relative effectiveness of various packaging strategies to protect PVdevices has also been investigated.

Each PV assembly of an array of PV assemblies comprises a base, a PV module and a support assembly securing the PV module to a position overlying the upper surface of the base. Vents are formed through the base. A pressure equalization path extends from the outer surface of the PV module, past the PV module, to and through at least one of the vents, and to the lower surface of the base to help reduce wind uplift forces on the PV assembly. The PV assemblies may be interengaged, such as by interengaging the bases of adjacent PV assemblies. The base may include a main portion and a cover and the bases of adjacent PV assemblies may be interengaged by securing the covers of adjacent bases together.

A method for mounting PV modules to a deck includes selecting PV module layout pattern so that adjacent PV module edges are spaced apart. PV mounting and support assemblies are secured to the deck according to the layout pattern using fasteners extending into the deck. The PV modules are placed on the PV mounting and support assemblies. Retaining elements are located over and secured against the upper peripheral edge surfaces of the PV modules so to secure them to the deck with the peripheral edges of the PV modules spaced apart from the deck. In some examples a PV module mounting assembly, for use on a shingled deck, comprises flashing, a base mountable on the flashing, a deck-penetrating fastener engageable with the base and securable to the deck so to secure the flashing and the base to the shingled deck, and PV module mounting hardware securable to the base.

The Connecticut Rooftop Solar PV Permitting Guide is a compilation of best practices and resources for solar PV permitting. The guide includes a summary of current codes and regulations affecting solar PV, best practices for streamlining the municipal permitting process, and tools to assist municipalities in creating a streamlined permit process for residential solar PV. Resources include a solar PV permit application, a structural review worksheet, an inspection checklist, and a model solar zoning ordinance.

Photovoltaic power plants (PVPs) have been growing in size, and the installation time is very short. With the cost of photovoltaic (PV) panels dropping in recent years, it can be predicted that in the next 10 years the contribution of PVPs to the total number of renewable energy power plants will grow significantly. In this project, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) developed a dynamic modeling of the modules to be used as building blocks to develop simulation models of single PV arrays, expanded to include Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT), expanded to include PV inverter, or expanded to cover an entire PVP. The focus of the investigation and complexity of the simulation determines the components that must be included in the simulation. The development of the PV inverter was covered in detail, including the control diagrams. Both the current-regulated voltage source inverter and the current-regulated current source inverter were developed in PSCAD. Various operations of the PV inverters were simulated under normal and abnormal conditions. Symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults were simulated, presented, and discussed. Both the three-phase analysis and the symmetrical component analysis were included to clarify the understanding of unsymmetrical faults. The dynamic model validation was based on the testing data provided by SCE. Testing was conducted at SCE with the focus on the grid interface behavior of the PV inverter under different faults and disturbances. The dynamic model validation covers both the symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults.

Grid tied PV energy smoothing was implemented by using a valve regulated lead-acid (VRLA) battery as a temporary energy storage device to both charge and discharge as required to smooth the inverter energy output from the PV array. Inverter output was controlled by the average solar irradiance over the previous 1h time interval. On a clear day the solar irradiance power curve is offset by about 1h, while on a variable cloudy day the inverter output power curve will be smoothed based on the average solar irradiance. Test results demonstrate that this smoothing algorithm works very well. Battery state of charge was more difficult to manage because of the variable system inefficiencies. Testing continued for 30-days and established consistent operational performance for extended periods of time under a wide variety of resource conditions. Both battery technologies from Exide (Absolyte) and East Penn (ALABC Advanced) proved to cycle well at a Partial state of charge over the time interval tested.

Article 690.11 in the 2011 National Electrical Code{reg_sign} (NEC{reg_sign}) requires new photovoltaic (PV) systems on or penetrating a building to include a listed arc fault protection device. Currently there is little experimental or empirical research into the behavior of the arcing frequencies through PV components despite the potential for modules and other PV components to filter or attenuate arcing signatures that could render the arc detector ineffective. To model AC arcing signal propagation along PV strings, the well-studied DC diode models were found to inadequately capture the behavior of high frequency arcing signals. Instead dynamic equivalent circuit models of PV modules were required to describe the impedance for alternating currents in modules. The nonlinearities present in PV cells resulting from irradiance, temperature, frequency, and bias voltage variations make modeling these systems challenging. Linearized dynamic equivalent circuits were created for multiple PV module manufacturers and module technologies. The equivalent resistances and capacitances for the modules were determined using impedance spectroscopy with no bias voltage and no irradiance. The equivalent circuit model was employed to evaluate modules having irradiance conditions that could not be measured directly with the instrumentation. Although there was a wide range of circuit component values, the complex impedance model does not predict filtering of arc fault frequencies in PV strings for any irradiance level. Experimental results with no irradiance agree with the model and show nearly no attenuation for 1 Hz to 100 kHz input frequencies.

Distributed photovoltaic (PV) projects must go through an interconnection study process before connecting to the distribution grid. These studies are intended to identify the likely impacts and mitigation alternatives. In the majority of the cases, system impacts can be ruled out or mitigation can be identified without an involved study, through a screening process or a simple supplemental review study. For some proposed projects, expensive and time-consuming interconnection studies are required. The challenges to performing the studies are twofold. First, every study scenario is potentially unique, as the studies are often highly specific to the amount of PV generation capacity that varies greatly from feeder to feeder and is often unevenly distributed along the same feeder. This can cause location-specific impacts and mitigations. The second challenge is the inherent variability in PV power output which can interact with feeder operation in complex ways, by affecting the operation of voltage regulation and protection devices. The typical simulation tools and methods in use today for distribution system planning are often not adequate to accurately assess these potential impacts. This report demonstrates how quasi-static time series (QSTS) simulation and high time-resolution data can be used to assess the potential impacts in a more comprehensive manner. The QSTS simulations are applied to a set of sample feeders with high PV deployment to illustrate the usefulness of the approach. The report describes methods that can help determine how PV affects distribution system operations. The simulation results are focused on enhancing the understanding of the underlying technical issues. The examples also highlight the steps needed to perform QSTS simulation and describe the data needed to drive the simulations. The goal of this report is to make the methodology of time series power flow analysis readily accessible to utilities and others responsible for evaluating potential PV impacts.

Solar ADEPT Project: Satcon is developing a compact, lightweight power conversion device that is capable of taking utility-scale solar power and outputting it directly into the electric utility grid at distribution voltage levels—eliminating the need for large transformers. Transformers “step up” the voltage of the power that is generated by a solar power system so it can be efficiently transported through transmission lines and eventually “stepped down” to usable voltages before it enters homes and businesses. Power companies step up the voltage because less electricity is lost along transmission lines when the voltage is high and current is low. Satcon’s new power conversion devices will eliminate these heavy transformers and connect a utility-scale solar power system directly to the grid. Satcon’s modular devices are designed to ensure reliability—if one device fails it can be bypassed and the system can continue to run.

This webinar provides an overview of Connecticut's Structural Review Worksheet for Residential Rooftop Solar PV Systems. The webinar explains how the worksheet should be used and common concerns with wind and dead loads for rooftop solar PV.

November 21, 2000 PV Lesson Plan 3 ­ PV Array Generating Electricity Prepared for the Oregon in Arrays: Solar Cells Generating Electricity Lesson Plan Content: In this lesson, students will learn about electricity. Objectives: Students will learn to use a tool called PV WATTS to calculate the output of PV

PV Odds & Ends by John Wiles Sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy There are two primary wiring methods for connecting PV modules together--using exposed single-conductor cables, and using conduits. Each dictates a different grounding method, but in either case, PV modules must always

This thesis explores the design of a smart photovoltaic (PV) module- a PV module in which PV cells in close proximity are electrically grouped to form a pixel and are connected to dc-dc converter blocks which reside embedded in the back pane...

This thesis explores the design of a smart photovoltaic (PV) module- a PV module in which PV cells in close proximity are electrically grouped to form a pixel and are connected to dc-dc converter blocks which reside embedded in the back pane...

This manual provides the documentation of the MATLAB toolbox of functions for using OpenDSS to simulate the impact of solar energy on the distribution system. The majority of the functio ns are useful for interfacing OpenDSS and MATLAB, and they are of generic use for commanding OpenDSS from MATLAB and retrieving information from simulations. A set of functions is also included for modeling PV plant output and setting up the PV plant in th e OpenDSS simulation. The toolbox contains functions for modeling the OpenDSS distribution feeder on satellite images with GPS coordinates. Finally, example simulations functions are included to show potential uses of the toolbox functions. Each function i n the toolbox is documented with the function use syntax, full description, function input list, function output list, example use, and example output.

Properties of sharp observables (normalized PV measures) in relation to smearing by a Markov kernel are studied. It is shown that for a sharp observable $P$ defined on a standard Borel space, and an arbitrary observable $M$, the following properties are equivalent: (a) the range of $P$ is contained in the range of $M$; (b) $P$ is a function of $M$; (c) $P$ is a smearing of $M$.

Three different, innovative approaches have been taken to develop photovoltaic (PV) integrated electrochromic (EC) devices for smart-window applications. These are (1) a stand-alone, side-by-side PV-powered EC window; (2) a monolithically integrated PV-EC device; and, (3) a novel photoelectrochromic device based on dye-sensitized TiO{sub 2} solar cells. The compatibility of PV-EC devices has been analyzed and the potential for large energy savings for building applications has been suggested.

This report describes an algorithm, implemented in Matlab/Simulink, designed to reduce the variability of photovoltaic (PV) power output by using a battery. The purpose of the battery is to add power to the PV output (or subtract) to smooth out the high frequency components of the PV power that that occur during periods with transient cloud shadows on the PV array. The control system is challenged with the task of reducing short-term PV output variability while avoiding overworking the battery both in terms of capacity and ramp capability. The algorithm proposed by Sandia is purposely very simple to facilitate implementation in a real-time controller. The control structure has two additional inputs to which the battery can respond. For example, the battery could respond to PV variability, load variability or area control error (ACE) or a combination of the three.

Photovoltaic (PV) customers need to have confidence in the PV modules they purchase. Currently, no test can quantify a module's lifetime with confidence, but stress tests are routinely used to differentiate PV product designs. We suggest that the industry would be strengthened by using the wisdom of the community to develop a single set of tests that will help customers quantify confidence in PV products. This paper evaluates the need for quality assurance (QA) standards and suggests a path for creating these. Two types of standards are needed: 1) QA of the module design and 2) QA of the manufacturing process.

Summary Review of Advanced Inverter Technologies for Residential PV Systems This report summarizes current and emerging standards for residential PV systems and identifies the status of emerging inverter................................................................................................ 7 3. Grid-Connected PV inverters available in US

As the global energy needs grow, there is increasing interest in the generation of electricity by photovoltaics (PVs) devices or solar cells - devices that convert sunlight to electricity. Solar industry has seen an enormous growth during the last decade. The sale of PV modules has exceeded 27 GW in 2011, with significant contributions to the market share from all technologies. While the silicon technology continues to have the dominant share, the other thin film technologies (CdTe, CIGS, a-Si, and organic PV) are experiencing fast growth. Increased production of silicon modules has led to a very rapid reduction in their price and remains as benchmark for other technologies. The PV industry is in full gear to commercialize new automated equipment for solar cell and module production, instrumentation for process monitoring technologies, and for implementation of other cost-reduction approaches, and extensive research continues to be carried out in many laboratories to improve the efficiency of solar cells and modules without increasing the production costs. A large variety of solar cells, which differ in the material systems used, design, PV structure, and even the principle of PV conversion, are designed to date. This special issue contains peer-reviewed papers in the recent developments in research related to broad spectrum of photovoltaic materials and devices. It contains papers on many aspects of solar cells-the growth and deposition, characterization, and new material development.

This webinar provides training on two permitting resources for municipal inspectors; a prescriptive process for building inspectors and a guidance document for permitting for PV for electrical inspectors. The webinar also runs through a number of key code articles in Massachusetts 2014 electrical code and examines a variety of safety hazards commonly found during or after solar PV installations.

Webinar on navigating the legal, tax, and finance issues associated with the installation of Municipal PV Systems. The following agenda was developed based on Pat Boylston's experience assisting municipalities with their PV projects and the requests for information that the Solar America City technical team leads have received from many of the 25 Solar America Cities since the April 2008 meeting in Tucson.

stands for any variable that could be PV, grid power, or load power if calculation is valid for allPV Integration by Building Energy Management System Rim.Missaouią, Ghaith.Warkozeką, Seddik. BachaLab.grenoble-inp.fr Abstract- This paper focuses on Energy Management System (EMS) applied to the residential sector. The EMS

. It may also be implemented by means of customer-sited emergency power generation (e.g., diesel generators the case that distributed PV generation deserves a substantial portion of the credit allotted to demand response programs. This is because PV generation acts as a catalyst to demand response, markedly enhancing

There is disclosed methods of making photosensitive devices, such as flexible photovoltaic (PV) devices, through the use of epitaxial liftoff. Also described herein are methods of preparing flexible PVdevices comprising a structure having a growth substrate, wherein the selective etching of protective layers yields a smooth growth substrate that us suitable for reuse.

The evolution of PV into one of the world's largest industries is not going to happen without major unforeseen problems. However, this study attempts to address the obvious ones, so that we can put aside the mythology of PV (for example, that it is only ''boutique power'' or that one must pave the world with it to be useful) and get on with changing the world's energy infrastructure. With the years of rapid market growth now under way in PV, the author is sure this will not be the last effort to understand the real potential and pitfalls of meeting the Challenge.

This National Center for Photovoltaics sheet describes the capabilities of its PV module reliability research. The scope and core competencies and capabilities are discussed and recent publications are listed.

Power losses in PV arrays due to variations in the I-V characteristics of PV modules Wolfgang Damm-V characteristics of the 36 individual modules of a PV generator at the University of Oldenburg were measured the basis for the calculations of the mismatch losses due to series and parallel connection of PV modules

This presentation describes a comparison of the "predicted" energy (based on historical weather data) with the "expected" energy (based on the measured weather data) to determine whether a PV system is performing as modeled in order to verify the accuracy of a model. A key factor in defining this energy test is determining the test boundary so that weather variations are not inadvertently included in what is considered to be PV system performance.

The ability to harvest all available energy from a photovoltaic (PV) array is essential if new system developments are to meet levelized cost of energy targets and achieve grid parity with conventional centralized utility power. Therefore, exercising maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithms, dynamic irradiance condition operation and startup and shutdown routines and evaluating inverter performance with various PV module fill-factor characteristics must be performed with a repeatable, reliable PV source. Sandia National Laboratories is collaborating with Ametek Programmable Power to develop and demonstrate a multi-port TerraSAS PV array simulator. The simulator will replicate challenging PV module profiles, enabling the evaluation of inverter performance through analyses of the parameters listed above. Energy harvest algorithms have traditionally implemented methods that successfully utilize available energy. However, the quantification of energy capture has always been difficult to conduct, specifically when characterizing the inverter performance under non-reproducible dynamic irradiance conditions. Theoretical models of the MPPT algorithms can simulate capture effectiveness, but full validation requires a DC source with representative field effects. The DC source being developed by Ametek and validated by Sandia is a fully integrated system that can simulate an IV curve from the Solar Advisor Model (SAM) module data base. The PV simulator allows the user to change the fill factor by programming the maximum power point voltage and current parameters and the open circuit voltage and short circuit current. The integrated PV simulator can incorporate captured irradiance and module temperature data files for playback, and scripted profiles can be generated to validate new emerging hardware embedded with existing and evolving MPPT algorithms. Since the simulator has multiple independent outputs, it also has the flexibility to evaluate an inverter with multiple MPPT DC inputs. The flexibility of the PV simulator enables the validation of the inverter's capability to handle vastly different array configurations.

Solar photovoltaics (PV) is the dominant type of distributed generation (DG) technology interconnected to electric distribution systems in the United States, and deployment of PV systems continues to increase rapidly. Considering the rapid growth and widespread deployment of PV systems in United States electric distribution grids, it is important that interconnection procedures be as streamlined as possible to avoid unnecessary interconnection studies, costs, and delays. Because many PV interconnection applications involve high penetration scenarios, the process needs to allow for a sufficiently rigorous technical evaluation to identify and address possible system impacts. Existing interconnection procedures are designed to balance the need for efficiency and technical rigor for all DG. However, there is an implicit expectation that those procedures will be updated over time in order to remain relevant with respect to evolving standards, technology, and practical experience. Modifications to interconnection screens and procedures must focus on maintaining or improving safety and reliability, as well as accurately allocating costs and improving expediency of the interconnection process. This paper evaluates the origins and usefulness of the capacity penetration screen, offers potential short-term solutions which could effectively allow fast-track interconnection to many PV system applications, and considers longer-term solutions for increasing PV deployment levels in a safe and reliable manner while reducing or eliminating the emphasis on the penetration screen.

Most silicon PV road maps forecast a continued reduction in wafer thickness, despite rapid declines in the primary incentive for doing so -- polysilicon feedstock price. Another common feature of most silicon-technology forecasts is the quest for ever-higher device performance at the lowest possible costs. The authors present data from device-performance and manufacturing- and system-installation cost models to quantitatively establish the incentives for manufacturers to pursue advanced (thin) wafer and (high efficiency) cell technologies, in an age of reduced feedstock prices. This analysis exhaustively considers the value proposition for high lifetime (p-type) silicon materials across the entire c-Si PV supply chain.

In this paper, we report on the major accomplishments of the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) Solar Energy Technologies Program (SETP) Photovoltaic (PV) Technology Incubator project. The Incubator project facilitates a company's transition from developing a solar cell or PV module prototype to pilot- and large-scale U.S. manufacturing. The project targets small businesses that have demonstrated proof-of-concept devices or processes in the laboratory. Their success supports U.S. Secretary of Energy Steven Chu's SunShot Initiative, which seeks to achieve PV technologies that are cost-competitive without subsidies at large scale with fossil-based energy sources by the end of this decade. The Incubator Project has enhanced U.S. PV manufacturing capacity and created more than 1200 clean energy jobs, resulting in an increase in American economic competitiveness. The investment raised to date by these PV Incubator companies as a result of DOE's $ 59 million investment total nearly $ 1.3 billion.

During the development of a solar photovoltaic (PV) energy project, predicting expected energy production from a system is a key part of understanding system value. System energy production is a function of the system design and location, the mounting configuration, the power conversion system, and the module technology, as well as the solar resource. Even if all other variables are held constant, annual energy yield (kWh/kWp) will vary among module technologies because of differences in response to low-light levels and temperature. A number of PV system performance models have been developed and are in use, but little has been published on validation of these models or the accuracy and uncertainty of their output. With support from the U.S. Department of Energy's Solar Energy Technologies Program, Sandia National Laboratories organized a PV Performance Modeling Workshop in Albuquerque, New Mexico, September 22-23, 2010. The workshop was intended to address the current state of PV system models, develop a path forward for establishing best practices on PV system performance modeling, and set the stage for standardization of testing and validation procedures for models and input parameters. This report summarizes discussions and presentations from the workshop, as well as examines opportunities for collaborative efforts to develop objective comparisons between models and across sites and applications.

Encapsulant materials used in PV modules serve multiple purposes. They physically hold components in place, provide electrical insulation, optically couple superstrate materials (e.g., glass) to PV cells, protect components from mechanical stress by mechanically de-coupling components via strain relief, and protect materials from corrosion. To do this, encapsulants must adhere well to all surfaces, remain compliant, and transmit light after exposure to temperature, humidity, and UV radiation histories. Encapsulant materials by themselves do not completely prevent water vapour ingress [1-3], but if they are well adhered, they will prevent the accumulation of liquid water providing protection against corrosion as well as electrical shock. Here, a brief review of some of the polymeric materials under consideration for PV applications is provided, with an explanation of some of their advantages and disadvantages.

that are not likely to be met by research in your field alone? ­ Advances in medical devices domain requires12/16/2008 1 Medical Devices and Systems Insup Lee PRECISE Center Department Computer and Information Science University of Pennsylvania 12/15/08 CPS Information Day Medical Devices Containing

This research effort evaluates the impact of large-scale photovoltaic (PV) and distributed generation (DG) output on NV Energy’s electric grid system in southern Nevada. It analyzes the ability of NV Energy’s generation to accommodate increasing amounts of utility-scale PV and DG, and the resulting cost of integrating variable renewable resources. The study was jointly funded by the United States Department of Energy and NV Energy, and conducted by a project team comprised of industry experts and research scientists from Navigant Consulting Inc., Sandia National Laboratories, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory and NV Energy.

This white paper evaluates the origins and usefulness of the capacity penetration screen, offer short-term solutions which could effectively allow fast-track interconnection to many PV system applications, and considers longer-term solutions for increasing PV deployment levels in a safe and reliable manner while reducing or eliminating the emphasis on the penetration screen. Short-term and longer-term alternatives approaches are offered as examples; however, specific modifications to screening procedures should be discussed with stakeholders and must ultimately be adopted by state and federal regulatory bodies.

The International PV Quality Assurance Task Force is developing a rating system that provides comparative information about the relative durability of PV modules. Development of accelerated stress tests that can provide such comparative information is seen as a major step toward being able to predict PV module service life. This paper will provide details of the ongoing effort to determine the format of such an overall module rating system. The latest proposal is based on using three distinct climate zones as defined in IEC 60721-2-1 for two different mounting systems. Specific stresses beyond those used in the qualification tests are being developed for each of the selected climate zones.

This paper discusses the current research status of the MET (Microwave Electro-Thermal) thruster. In the MET thruster, an electrodeless, vortex stabilized, plasma is produced in a microwave resonator cavity for the purpose of heating gaseous fuel to produce a high temperature rocket exhaust for space propulsion. The higher specific impulse (momentum transfer per unit weight) of these heated gases offers advantages over traditional chemical rockets in terms of reduced fuel mass. In METdevices, dense plasmas have been produced in various possible fuel gases, nitrogen, hydrogen, and ammonia, using 600 to 2200 Watts of microwave power at a frequency of 2.45 GHz. Ammonia has been found to give a specific impulse of 550 sec. It has been found that the plasma is a 98{percent} absorber of microwave power leading to negligible reflection of power back to the microwave source and making the cavity operate at low {ital Q}. Taking advantage of this effect, it has been found that a very compact MET thruster design could be operated, with the magnetron microwave source and resonator cavity joined in one unit. The MET can run at a variety of power levels and use many fuels, including H{sub 2}O. {copyright} {ital 1996 American Institute of Physics.}

In September 2000, the Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC) began its 5-year work on contract # DE-FGO3-00SF22116, the Photovoltaics for You (PV4You) Project. The objective was to develop and distribute information on photovoltaics and to educate key stakeholder groups including state government agencies, local government offices, consumer representative agencies, school officials and students, and Million Solar Roofs Partnerships. In addition, the project was to identify barriers to the deployment of photovoltaics and implement strategies to overcome them. Information dissemination and education was accomplished by publishing newsletters; creating a base of information, guides, and models on the www.irecusa.org and the www.millionsolarroofs.org web sites; convening workshops and seminars; engaging multiple stakeholders; and widening the solar network to include new consumers and decision makers. Two major web sites were maintained throughout the project cycle. The www.irecusa.org web site housed dedicated pages for Connecting to the Grid, Schools Going Solar, Community Outreach, and Certification & Training. The www.millionsolarroofs.org web site was created to serve the MSR Partnerships with news, interviews, key documents, and resource material. Through the course of this grant, the Interstate Renewable Energy Council has been supporting the Department of Energy?s solar energy program goals by providing the Department with expertise services for their network of city, state, and community stakeholders. IREC has been the leading force at the state and federal levels regarding net metering and interconnection policy for photovoltaic systems. The principal goal and benefit of the interconnection and net metering work is to lower both barriers and cost for the installation of PV. IREC typically plays a leadership role among small generator stakeholders and has come to be relied upon for its expertise by industry and regulators. IREC also took a leadership position in developing quality and competency standards for solar professionals and for training programs ? critical components to bring the solar industry into step with other recognized craft labor forces. IREC?s objective was to provide consumer assurances and assist the states and the solar industry in building a strong and qualified workforce. IREC?s Schools Going Solar Clearinghouse provided channels of information to educate students, teachers, parents and the community at large about the benefits of solar energy. Solar school projects enhance science and math education while creating an initial entry market for domestic PV. And, IREC?s community and outreach network got the right information out to capture the interest and met the needs of different audiences and reached groups that weren?t traditionally part of the solar community. IREC?s PV4You project was effective because it resulted in reduced costs through easier interconnection and better net metering agreements and by raising the competency standards for solar practitioners. The project provided ways to eliminate barriers and constraints by providing technical assistance, offering model agreements based on industry consensus that were used by state and local decision makers. And, the project increased public acceptance by providing information, news and guidelines for different audiences.

November 21, 2000 PV Lesson Plan 2 ­ Sample Questions & Answers Prepared for the Oregon Million a single PV cell produces; so how can you get the amperage that you need? 4. You want to run your small CD player that requires 17 Watts. If you have a 12% efficient PV array operating about noon on a sunny day

IRRADIANCE MAPS APPLIED FOR THE PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF PV SYSTEMS - A CASE STUDY FOR THE GERMAN energy yield of a PV system,methods based on irradiance maps published by weather services or others-connected PV systems. DATA USED Hourly time series from ground and satellite-derived horizontal global

Distribution System Analysis Tools for Studying High Penetration of PV with Grid Support Features Electric Energy System #12;#12;Distribution System Analysis Tools for Studying High Penetration of PV project titled "Distribution System Analysis Tools for Studying High Penetration of PV with Grid Support

Experience Curves and Solar PV Fred Heutte, Senior Policy Associate NW Energy Coalition September 3 resources costs as being ranges rather than fixed values. It is evident that the question of future solar PV small percentage of all resources at present, there is a strong sense that once solar PV reaches "grid

NREL has contracted with Clean Power Research to provide 1-minute simulation datasets of PV systems located at three high penetration distribution feeders in the service territory of Southern California Edison (SCE): Porterville, Palmdale, and Fontana, California. The resulting PV simulations will be used to separately model the electrical circuits to determine the impacts of PV on circuit operations.

CALIFORNIA ENERGY COMMISSION A GUIDE TO PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) SYSTEM DESIGN AND INSTALLATION JUNE 2001 TO PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) SYSTEM DESIGN AND INSTALLATION Prepared for: California Energy Commission Energy Technology installing photovoltaic (PV) systems under the Emerging Renewables Buydown Program. This is the first

design and configuration -- and some of the newer systems with micro inverters or AC PV modules have 1202 IAEI NEWS September . October 2011 www.iaei.org perspectives on pv www.iaei.org September . October 2011 IAEI NEWS 3 perspectives on pv P hotovoltaic (PV) power systems have PV modules and PV arrays

This paper discusses the developments in thin-film PV technologies and provides an outlook on future commercial module efficiencies achievable based on today's knowledge about champion cell performance.

The project described in this report was a commercialization effort focused on cost-effective remote water pumping systems for use in utility-based photovoltaic (PV) service programs. The project combined a commercialization strategy tailored specifically for electric utilities with the development of a PV-powered pumping system that operates conventional ac pumps rather than relying on the more expensive and less reliable PV pumps on the market. By combining these two attributes, a project goal was established of creating sustained utility purchases of 250 PV-powered water pumping systems per year. The results of each of these tasks are presented in two parts contained in this Final Summary Report. The first part summarizes the results of the Photovoltaic Services Network (PSN) as a new business venture, while the second part summarizes the results of the Golden Photon system installations. Specifically, results and photographs from each of the system installations are presented in this latter part.

This report describes technical opportunities to serve as parts of a technological roadmap for Shoals Technologies Group in power electronics for PV applications. There are many different power converter circuits that can be used for solar inverter applications. The present applications do not take advantage of the potential for using common modules. We envision that the development of a power electronics module could enable higher reliability by being durable and flexible. Modules would have fault current limiting features and detection circuits such that they can limit the current through the module from external faults and can identify and isolate internal faults such that the remaining modules can continue to operate with only minimal disturbance to the utility or customer. Development of a reliable, efficient, low-cost, power electronics module will be a key enabling technology for harnessing more power from solar panels and enable plug and play operation. Power electronics for computer power supplies, communication equipment, and transportation have all targeted reliability and modularity as key requirements and have begun concerted efforts to replace monolithic components with collections of common smart modules. This is happening on several levels including (1) device level with intelligent control, (2) functional module level, and (3) system module. This same effort is needed in power electronics for solar applications. Development of modular units will result in standard power electronic converters that will have a lower installed and operating cost for the overall system. These units will lead to increased adaptability and flexibility of solar inverters. Incorporating autonomous fault current limiting and reconfiguration capabilities into the modules and having redundant modules will lead to a durable converter that can withstand the rigors of solar power generation for more than 30 years. Our vision for the technology roadmap is that there is no need for detailed design of new power converters for each new application or installation. One set of modules and controllers can be pre-developed and the only design question would be how many modules need to be in series or parallel for the specific power requirement. Then, a designer can put the modules together and add the intelligent reconfigurable controller. The controller determines how many modules are connected, but it might also ask for user input for the specific application during setup. The modules include protection against faults and can reset it, if necessary. In case of a power device failure, the controller reconfigures itself to continue limited operation until repair which might be as simple as taking the faulty module out and inserting a new module. The result is cost savings in design, maintenance, repair, and a grid that is more reliable and available. This concept would be a perfect fit for the recently announced funding opportunity announcement (DE-FOA-0000653) on Plug and Play Photovoltaics.

The Permit Application Checklist is intended to be used as a best management practice when establishing local government requirements for residential and commercial solar photovoltaic (PV) system permits. Local governments may modify this checklist to accommodate their local ordinances, code requirements, and permit procedures.

In this paper, a methodology of sizing optimization of a stand-alone hybrid wind/PV/diesel energy system is presented. This approach makes use of a deterministic algorithm to suggest, among a list of commercially available system devices, the optimal number and type of units ensuring that the total cost of the system is minimized while guaranteeing the availability of the energy. The collection of 6 months of data of wind speed, solar radiation and ambient temperature recorded for every hour of the day were used. The mathematical modeling of the main elements of the hybrid wind/PV/diesel system is exposed showing the more relevant sizing variables. A deterministic algorithm is used to minimize the total cost of the system while guaranteeing the satisfaction of the load demand. A comparison between the total cost of the hybrid wind/PV/diesel energy system with batteries and the hybrid wind/PV/diesel energy system without batteries is presented. The reached results demonstrate the practical utility of the used sizing methodology and show the influence of the battery storage on the total cost of the hybrid system. (author)

Compositions suitable for use as encapsulants are described. The inventive compositions include a high molecular weight polymeric material, a curing agent, an inorganic compound, and a coupling agent. Optional elements include adhesion promoting agents, colorants, antioxidants, and UV absorbers. The compositions have desirable diffusivity properties, making them suitable for use in devices in which a substantial blocking of moisture ingress is desired, such as photovoltaic (PV) modules.

Compositions suitable for use as encapsulants are described. The inventive compositions include a high molecular weight polymeric material, a curing agent, an inorganic compound, and a coupling agent. Optional elements include adhesion promoting agents, colorants, antioxidants, and UV absorbers. The compositions have desirable diffusivity properties, making them suitable for use in devices in which a substantial blocking of moisture ingress is desired, such as photovoltaic (PV) modules.

In July 1993, the Delmarva Power and Light Company (now Conectiv, Inc.) was awarded a contract for the development of a Dispatchable Photovoltaic Peak Shaving System under the US Department of Energy PV:BONUS Program. The rationale for the dispatchable PV peak shaving system is based on the coincidence between the solar resource and the electrical load in question. Where poor coincidence exists, a PV array by itself does little to offset peak demands. However, with the addition of a relatively small amount of energy storage, the energy from the PV array can be managed and the value of the PV system increases substantially. In Phase 2, Delmarva Power continued the refinement of the system deployed in Phase 1. Four additional dispatchable PV peak shaving systems were installed for extended testing and evaluation at sites in Delaware, Maryland, Wisconsin and North Carolina. A second type of system that can be used to provide back-up power as well as peak shaving was also developed in Phase 2. This PV-UPS system used a packaging approach nearly identical to the PV peak shaving system, although there were significant differences in the design of the power electronics and control systems. Conceptually, the PV-UPS system builds upon the idea of adding value to PV systems by increasing functionality. A prototype of the PV-UPS system was installed in Delaware for evaluation near the end of the contract period.

In this project, a team led by Delphi will develop and demonstrate a novel cascaded photovoltaic (PV) inverter architecture using advanced components. This approach will reduce the cost and improve the performance of medium and large-sized PV systems. The overall project objective is to develop, build, and test a modular 11-level cascaded three-phase inverter building block for photovoltaic applications and to develop and analyze the associated commercialization plan. The system will be designed to utilize photovoltaic panels and will supply power to the electric grid at 208 VAC, 60 Hz 3-phase. With the proposed topology, three inverters, each with an embedded controller, will monitor and control each of the cascade sections, reducing costs associated with extra control boards. This report details the final disposition on this project.

Important physical properties of materials used in PV module packaging are presented. High-moisture-barrier, high-resistivity, adhesion-promoting coatings on polyethyl-ene terephthalate (PET) films have been fabricated and characterized for use in PV module application and com-pared to standard polymer backsheet materials. Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) and an encapsulant replacement for EVA are studied for their water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) and adhesion properties. WVTR, at test conditions up to 85C/100% relative humidity (RH), and adhesion val-ues are measured before and after filtered xenon arc lamp ultraviolet (UV) exposure and damp heat exposure at 85C/85% RH. Water ingress is quantified by weight gain and embedded humidity sensors.

Energy devices such as energy conversion devices and energy storage devices and methods for the manufacture of such devices. The devices include a support member having an array of pore channels having a small average pore channel diameter and having a pore channel length. Material layers that may include energy conversion materials and conductive materials are coaxially disposed within the pore channels to form material rods having a relatively small cross-section and a relatively long length. By varying the structure of the materials in the pore channels, various energy devices can be fabricated, such as photovoltaic (PV) devices, radiation detectors, capacitors, batteries and the like.

Grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) systems with power electronic interfaces can provide both real and reactive power to meet power system needs with appropriate control algorithms. This paper presents the control algorithm design for a three-phase single-stage grid-connected PV inverter to achieve either maximum power point tracking (MPPT) or a certain amount of real power injection, as well as the voltage/var control. The switching between MPPT control mode and a certain amount of real power control mode is automatic and seamless. Without the DC-to-DC booster stage, PV DC voltage stability is an important issue in the control design especially when the PV inverter is operating at maximum power point (MPP) with voltage/var control. The PV DC voltage collapse phenomenon and its reason are discussed. The method based on dynamic correction of the PV inverter output is proposed to ensure PV DC voltage stability. Simulation results of the single-stage PV system during system disturbances and fast solar irradiation changes confirm that the proposed control algorithm for single-stage PV inverters can provide appropriate real and reactive power services and ensure PV DC voltage stability during dynamic system operation and atmospheric conditions.

This paper illustrates possible configurations for a large-scale photovoltaic power plant (PV), to operate as a FACTS (flexible AC transmission system) device in addition to operating as a source of renewable power generation. ...

This report summarizes the work performed by Delmarva Power and Light and its subcontractors in Phase 1 of the US Department of Energy's PV:BONUS Program. The purpose of the program is to develop products and systems for buildings which utilize photovoltaic (N) technology. Beginning with a cooperative research effort with the University of Delaware's Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research Delmarva Power developed and demonstrated the concept of Dispatchable PV Peak Shaving. This concept and the system which resulted horn the development work are unique from other grid-connected PV systems because it combines a PV, battery energy storage, power conversion and control technologies into an integrated package. Phase 1 began in July 1993 with the installation of a test and demonstration system at Delmarva's Northern Division General Office building near Newark, Delaware. Following initial testing throughout the summer and fall of 1993, significant modifications were made under an amendment to the DOE contract. Work on Phase 1 concluded in the early spring of 1995. Significant progress towards the goal of commercializing the system was made during Phase 1, and is summarized. Based on progress in Phase 1, a proposal to continue the work in Phase 2 was submitted to the US DOE in May 1995. A contract amendment and providing funds for the Phase 2 work is expected in July 1995.

This study develops a systematic framework for estimating the increase in operating costs due to uncertainty and variability in renewable resources, uses the framework to quantify the integration costs associated with sub-hourly solar power variability and uncertainty, and shows how changes in system operations may affect these costs. Toward this end, we present a statistical method for estimating the required balancing reserves to maintain system reliability along with a model for commitment and dispatch of the portfolio of thermal and renewable resources at different stages of system operations. We estimate the costs of sub-hourly solar variability, short-term forecast errors, and day-ahead (DA) forecast errors as the difference in production costs between a case with “realistic” PV (i.e., subhourly solar variability and uncertainty are fully included in the modeling) and a case with “well behaved” PV (i.e., PV is assumed to have no sub-hourly variability and can be perfectly forecasted). In addition, we highlight current practices that allow utilities to compensate for the issues encountered at the sub-hourly time frame with increased levels of PV penetration. In this analysis we use the analytical framework to simulate utility operations with increasing deployment of PV in a case study of Arizona Public Service Company (APS), a utility in the southwestern United States. In our analysis, we focus on three processes that are important in understanding the management of PV variability and uncertainty in power system operations. First, we represent the decisions made the day before the operating day through a DA commitment model that relies on imperfect DA forecasts of load and wind as well as PV generation. Second, we represent the decisions made by schedulers in the operating day through hour-ahead (HA) scheduling. Peaking units can be committed or decommitted in the HA schedules and online units can be redispatched using forecasts that are improved relative to DA forecasts, but still imperfect. Finally, we represent decisions within the operating hour by schedulers and transmission system operators as real-time (RT) balancing. We simulate the DA and HA scheduling processes with a detailed unit-commitment (UC) and economic dispatch (ED) optimization model. This model creates a least-cost dispatch and commitment plan for the conventional generating units using forecasts and reserve requirements as inputs. We consider only the generation units and load of the utility in this analysis; we do not consider opportunities to trade power with neighboring utilities. We also do not consider provision of reserves from renewables or from demand-side options. We estimate dynamic reserve requirements in order to meet reliability requirements in the RT operations, considering the uncertainty and variability in load, solar PV, and wind resources. Balancing reserve requirements are based on the 2.5th and 97.5th percentile of 1-min deviations from the HA schedule in a previous year. We then simulate RT deployment of balancing reserves using a separate minute-by-minute simulation of deviations from the HA schedules in the operating year. In the simulations we assume that balancing reserves can be fully deployed in 10 min. The minute-by-minute deviations account for HA forecasting errors and the actual variability of the load, wind, and solar generation. Using these minute-by-minute deviations and deployment of balancing reserves, we evaluate the impact of PV on system reliability through the calculation of the standard reliability metric called Control Performance Standard 2 (CPS2). Broadly speaking, the CPS2 score measures the percentage of 10-min periods in which a balancing area is able to balance supply and demand within a specific threshold. Compliance with the North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) reliability standards requires that the CPS2 score must exceed 90% (i.e., the balancing area must maintain adequate balance for 90% of the 10-min periods). The combination of representing DA forecast errors in the

Readily accessible credit has often been cited as a necessary ingredient to open up the market for residential photovoltaic (PV) systems. Though financing does not reduce the high up-front cost of PV, by spreading that cost over some portion of the system's life, financing can certainly make PV systems more affordable. As a result, a number of states have, in the past, set up special residential loan programs targeting the installation of renewable energy systems and/or energy efficiency improvements, and often featuring low interest rates, longer terms, and no-hassle application requirements. Historically, these loan programs have met with mixed success (particularly for PV), for a variety of reasons, including: (1) historical lack of homeowner interest in PV, (2) lack of program awareness, (3) reduced appeal in a low-interest-rate environment, and (4) a tendency for early PV adopters to be wealthy, and not in need of financing. Although some of these barriers have begun to fade--most notably, homeowner interest in PV has grown in some states, particularly those that offer solar rebates--the passage of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct 2005) introduced one additional roadblock to the success of low-interest PV loan programs: a residential solar investment tax credit (ITC), subject to the Federal government's 'anti-double-dipping' rules. Specifically, the residential solar ITC--equal to 30% of the system's tax basis, capped at $2000--will be reduced or offset if the system also benefits from what is known as 'subsidized energy financing', which is likely to include most government-sponsored low-interest loan programs. Within this context, it has been interesting to note the recent flurry of announcements from several U.S cities concerning a new type of PV financing program. Led by the City of Berkeley, California, these cities propose to offer their residents the ability to finance the installation of a PV system using increased property tax assessments, rather than a more-traditional credit vehicle, to recover both system and administrative costs. As discussed in more detail later, this seemingly innovative approach has a number of features that should appeal to PV owners, including: long-term, fixed-cost, attractive financing; loans that are tied to the tax capacity of the property rather than to the owner's credit standing; a repayment obligation that transfers along with the sale of the property; and a potential ability to deduct the repayment obligation from Federal taxable income, as part of the local property tax deduction. For these reasons, Berkeley's program--which was first announced on October 23, 2007--has received considerable nationwide attention in both the trade and general press. Since the announcement, cities from throughout California and the broader U.S. have expressed keen interest in the possibility of replicating this type of program. In California alone, the cities of Santa Cruz, Santa Monica, and Palm Desert are all reportedly considering similar programs, while the city of San Francisco has recently announced its own program, portions of which closely parallel Berkeley's approach. Berkeley's Proposed PV Program In addition, a bill (AB 811) that would authorize all cities (not just 'charter cities' like Berkeley) in California to create this type of program was approved by the California General Assembly on January 29, 2008 and passed on to the State Senate for consideration. That local governments from across California and the broader US are so genuinely excited about the prospect of supporting the installation of residential PV in their communities through this type of program is no doubt an interesting development. Given, however, the potential for such programs to negatively interact with the residential solar ITC, it is important to evaluate the financial attractiveness of this specific type of loan program, particularly in advance of any broader state- or nation-wide 'rollout'. This case study presents such an evaluation. Because Berkeley appears to have the most-well-developed proposa

Realisation of the full potential of PV Extract of report from workgroup 4 in EU's PV Technology. Realisation of the full potential of PV as an important and integral part of our energy supply to those that use it. There is thus an imperative to facilitate and promote education on PV

This report covers the comparisons of Photovoltaic System by TRNSYS simulation and PV F-Chart program to test TRNSYS simulation accuracy. The report starts with the Photovoltaic (PV) (PV) System introduction in Section one which is followed...

This report covers the comparisons of Photovoltaic System by TRNSYS simulation and PV F-Chart program to test TRNSYS simulation accuracy. The report starts with the Photovoltaic (PV) (PV) System introduction in Section one which is followed...

The Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) Laboratory supports the Solar Energy Technologies Program through the measurement and characterization of solar energy-related materials and devices. The FTIR technique is a fast, accurate, and reliable method for studying molecular structure and composition. This ability to identify atomic species and their bonding environment is a powerful combination that finds use in many research and development efforts. A brief overview of the technical approach used is contained in Section 2 of this report. Because of its versatility and accessibility, the FTIR Laboratory is a valuable contributor to the Solar Energy Technologies Program. The laboratory provides support for, and collaborates with, several in-house programs as well as our industry and university partners. By the end of FY 2004, the FTIR Laboratory performed over 1100 measurements on PV-related materials. These contributions resulted in conference and workshop presentations and several peer-reviewed publications. A brief summary of a few of these efforts is contained in Section 3 of this report.

In order to maximize solar energy harvesting capabilities, power converters have to be designed for high efficiency and good MPPT and voltage/current performance. When many converters are used in distributed systems, power density also becomes an important factor as it allows for simpler system integration. In this paper a high power density string dc-dc converter suitable for distributed medium to large scale PV installation is presented. A simple partial power processing topology, implemented with all silicon carbide devices provides high efficiency as well as high power density. A 3.5kW, 100kHz converter is designed and tested to verify the proposed methods.

An optoelectronic device is disclosed that can function as an emitter of optical radiation, such as a light-emitting diode (LED), or as a photovoltaic (PV) device that can be used to convert optical radiation into electrical current, such as a photovoltaic solar cell. The optoelectronic device comprises an anode, a hole injection/transport layer, an active layer, and a cathode, where the hole injection/transport layer includes transparent conductive nanoparticles in a hole transport material.

Deployment of high-penetration photovoltaic (PV) power is expected to have a range of effects -- both positive and negative -- on the distribution grid. The magnitude of these effects may vary greatly depending upon feeder topology, climate, PV penetration level, and other factors. In this paper we present a simulation study of eight representative distribution feeders in three California climates at PV penetration levels up to 100\\%, supported by a unique database of distributed PV generation data that enables us to capture the impact of PV variability on feeder voltage and voltage regulating equipment. When comparing the influence of feeder location (i.e. climate) versus feeder type on outcomes, we find that location more strongly influences the incidence of reverse power flow, reductions in peak loading and the presence of voltage excursions. On the other hand, we find that feeder characteristics more strongly influence the magnitude of loss reduction and changes in voltage regulator operations. We find th...

As the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE's) Solar Energy Technologies Program initiates new cost-shared solar energy R&D under the Solar America Initiative (SAI), it is useful to analyze the experience gained from cost-shared R&D projects that have been funded through the program to date. This report summarizes lessons learned from two DOE-sponsored photovoltaic (PV) projects: the Photovoltaic Manufacturing Technology/PV Manufacturing R&D (PVMaT/PVMR&D) project and the Thin-Film PV Partnership project. During the past 10-15 years, these two projects have invested roughly $330 million of government resources in cost-shared R&D and leveraged another $190 million in private-sector PV R&D investments. Following a description of key findings and brief descriptions of the PVMaT/PVMR&D and Thin-Film PV Partnership projects, this report presents lessons learned from the projects.

As photovoltaic (PV) penetration of the power grid increases, it becomes vital to know how decreased power output may affect cost over time. In order to predict power delivery, the decline or degradation rates must be determined accurately. For non-spectrally corrected data several complete seasonal cycles (typically 3-5 years) are required to obtain reasonably accurate degradation rates. In a rapidly evolving industry such a time span is often unacceptable and the need exists to determine degradation rates accurately in a shorter period of time. Occurrence of outliers and data shifts are two examples of analytical problems leading to greater uncertainty and therefore to longer observation times. In this paper we compare three methodologies of data analysis for robustness in the presence of outliers, data shifts and shorter measurement time periods.

Busbars are an integral component of any thin-film photovoltaic module and must be easy and quick to apply by PV manufacturers, as well as provide long-term reliability in deployed modules. Potential reliability issues include loss of adhesion and delamination, chemical instability under current collection conditions (electromigration or corrosion), compatibility of material and application method with subsequent encapsulation steps. Several new and novel busbar materials and application methods have been explored, including adhering metal busbars with various one- and two-part conductive epoxies or conductive adhesive films, ultrasonic bonding of metal busbar strips, and bonding of busbar strips using low-temperature solders. The most promising approach to date has been the direct application of metal busbars via various electrochemical techniques, which offers a variety of distinct advantages.

There is growing national interest in renewable energy development based on the economic, environmental, and security benefits that these resources provide. Historically, greater development of our domestic renewable energy resources has faced a number of hurdles, primarily related to cost, regulation, and financing. With the recent sustained increase in the costs and associated volatility of fossil fuels, the economics of renewable energy technologies have become increasingly attractive to investors, both large and small. As a result, new entrants are investing in renewable energy and new business models are emerging. This study surveys some of the current issues related to wind and solar photovoltaic (PV) energy project financing in the electric power industry, and identifies both barriers to and opportunities for increased investment.

Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems hold great potential for distributed energy generation by installing PV panels on rooftops of residential and commercial buildings. Yet challenges arise along with the variability and non-dispatchability of the PV systems that affect the stability of the grid and the economics of the PV system. This paper investigates the integration of PV arrays for distributed generation applications by identifying a combination of buildings that will maximize solar energy output and minimize system variability. Particularly, we propose mean-variance optimization models to choose suitable rooftops for PV integration based on Markowitz mean-variance portfolio selection model. We further introduce quantity and cardinality constraints to result in a mixed integer quadratic programming problem. Case studies based on real data are presented. An efficient frontier is obtained for sample data that allows decision makers to choose a desired solar energy generation level with a comfortable variability tolerance level. Sensitivity analysis is conducted to show the tradeoffs between solar PV energy generation potential and variability.

This report investigates the effects that increased distributed photovoltaic (PV) generation would have on the Kauai Island Utility Co-op (KIUC) system operating requirements. The study focused on determining reserve requirements needed to mitigate the impact of PV variability on system frequency, and the impact on operating costs. Scenarios of 5-MW, 10-MW, and 15-MW nameplate capacity of PV generation plants distributed across the Kauai Island were considered in this study. The analysis required synthesis of the PV solar resource data and modeling of the KIUC system inertia. Based on the results, some findings and conclusions could be drawn, including that the selection of units identified as marginal resources that are used for load following will change; PV penetration will displace energy generated by existing conventional units, thus reducing overall fuel consumption; PV penetration at any deployment level is not likely to reduce system peak load; and increasing PV penetration has little effect on load-following reserves. The study was performed by EnerNex under contract from Sandia National Laboratories with cooperation from KIUC.

Due to impressive cost reductions in recent years, photovoltaic (PV) generation is now able to produce electricity at highly competitive prices, but PV’s inherent intermittency reduces the potential value of this energy. The integration of battery storage with PV will be transformational by increasing the value of solar. Utility scale systems will benefit by firming intermittency including PV ramp smoothing, grid support and load shifting, allowing PV to compete directly with conventional generation. For distributed grid-tied PV adding storage will reduce peak demand utility charges, as well as providing backup power during power grid failures. The largest long term impact of combined PV and battery systems may be for delivering reliable off-grid power to the billions of individuals globally without access to conventional power grids, or for billions more that suffer from daily power outages. PV module costs no longer dominate installed PV system costs. Balance-of-System (BOS) costs including the PV inverter and installation now contribute the majority of installed system costs. Battery costs are also dropping faster than installation and battery power converter systems. In each of these separate systems power converters have become a bottleneck for efficiency, cost and reliability. These bottlenecks are compounded in hybrid power conversion systems that combine separate PV and battery converters. Hybrid power conversion systems have required multiple power converters hardware units and multiple power conversion steps adding to efficiency losses, product and installation costs, and reliability issues. Ideal Power Converters has developed and patented a completely new theory of operation for electronic power converters using its indirect EnergyPacket Switching™ topology. It has established successful power converter products for both PV and battery systems, and its 3-Port Hybrid Converter is the first product to exploit the topology’s capability for the industry’s first single-stage multi-port hybrid power converter. This unique low cost approach eliminates the hybrid power conversion bottlenecks when integrating batteries into PV systems. As result this product will significantly accelerate market adoption of these systems.

This report is a collaboration between Sandia National Laboratories, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and the Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC). The report provides feedback from the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) Solar Program PV Validation and Bankability Workshop in San Jose, California on August 31, 2011. It focuses on the current state of PV in the United States, private funding to fund U.S. PV industry growth, roles and functions of the regional test center program, and ways to improve the current validation and bankability practices.

This is one of two companion papers that describe the ENERGY-10 PV design-tool computer simulation program. The other paper is titled ''Hourly Simulation of Grid-Connected PV Systems Using Realistic Building Loads.'' While this paper focuses on the implementation method, the companion paper focuses on the PV aspects of the program. The case study in this paper is a residential building application, whereas the case study in the companion paper is a commercial application with an entirely different building load characteristic. Together, they provide a balanced view.

12 IAEI NEWS July.August 2004 www.iaei.org PERSPECTIVES ON PV A series of articles on photovoltaic (PV) power systems and the National Electrical Code Single Conductor Exposed Cables! Not In My or commercial PV installation. Yes, PV systems have some unusual wiring meth- ods allowed by the Code. However

Multiple Jets as PV Staircases: The Phillips Effect and the Resilience of Eddy-Transport Barriers D 2007) ABSTRACT A review is given that focuses on why the sideways mixing of potential vorticity (PV. PV mixing often produces a sideways layering or banding of the PV distribution and therefore

the PV array. However, dc and ac disconnects must be located at the inverter and an additional ac for a readily accessible, visible-blade, lockable ac disconnect for the PV system. These disconnect requirements were covered in the article on PV systems in the March/April 2004 issue of the IAEI News. PV Source

with large arrays of series-connected PV mod- ules connected to a central inverter. Figure 1(a) depicts, it is conceivable that these systems do not extract the maximum possible power from the PV array when individual PV to partial shading. In such systems, power electronics circuits are integrated directly with PV modules

components such as the PV array and PV inverters. The mainstream research is related to maxi- mum power pointBattery Management for Grid-Connected PV Systems with a Battery Sangyoung Park1, Yanzhi Wang2}@usc.edu ABSTRACT Photovoltaic (PV) power generation systems are one of the most promising renewable power sources

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS 1 Letters A Hybrid Power Control Concept for PV Inverters- cept for grid-connected Photovoltaic (PV) inverters. The control strategy is based on either a Maximum utilization factor of PV inverters, and thus to cater for a higher penetration level of PV systems

of utility-interactive PV systems use inverters that operate up to 600 volts direct current (dc conductors. PV Inverters Create Separately Derived Systems The second area focuses on the fact that PV, but not all, PV systems (both stand- alone systems and utility-interactive systems) employ an inverter

and code require- ments. However, they are different from the typical PV string inverters that use multiple80 IAEI NEWS May . June 2012 www.iaei.org Microinverters and ac Pv Modules M icroinverters and AC PV modules are becom- ing very common in residential and small commercial PV systems. See photos 1

Optimum Inverter Sizing in Consideration of Irradiance Pattern and PV Incentives Song Chen* Peng Li for a PV system. The method evaluates effects of PV incentive policies, inverter efficiency curves, different scenarios of PV incentives are discussed and compared to show that the optimal inverter size

and have not worked extensively with these new PV compa- nies. New equipment (inverters and PV modules IAEI NEWS November.December 2007 www.iaei.org WHY INSPECT PV SYSTEMS P hotovoltaic power systems. Previous articles in this "Perspectives on PV" series have covered the details of the Code requirements

shadows (a passing cloud) on the output power of solar PV arrays. Each solar array is composed of a matrix of a shaded solar PV array as well as the PV output power. The model is also able to simulate and compute the output power of solar PV arrays for any configuration, with or without bypass diode. NOMENCLATURE IM

This 5-page technical letter addresses air pollution effects on PV performance by quantifying, based on a literature search, the average annual loss due to soiling, the impact of cleaning, and a recommended cleaning schedule.

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has teamed with cities across the country through the Solar America Cities (SAC) partnership program to help reduce barriers and accelerate implementation of solar energy. The New York City SAC team is a partnership between the City University of New York (CUNY), the New York City Mayor s Office of Long-term Planning and Sustainability, and the New York City Economic Development Corporation (NYCEDC).The New York City SAC team is working with DOE s National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and Con Edison, the local utility, to develop a roadmap for photovoltaic (PV) installations in the five boroughs. The city set a goal to increase its installed PV capacity from1.1 MW in 2005 to 8.1 MW by 2015 (the maximum allowed in 2005). A key barrier to reaching this goal, however, is the complexity of the interconnection process with the local utility. Unique challenges are associated with connecting distributed PV systems to secondary network distribution systems (simplified to Ă?Â?Ă?Â˘Ă?Â?Ă?Â?Ă?Â?Ă?Â?networksĂ?Â?Ă?Â˘Ă?Â?Ă?Â?Ă?Â?Ă?Âť in this report). Although most areas of the country use simpler radial distribution systems to distribute electricity, larger metropolitan areas like New York City typically use networks to increase reliability in large load centers. Unlike the radial distribution system, where each customer receives power through a single line, a network uses a grid of interconnected lines to deliver power to each customer through several parallel circuits and sources. This redundancy improves reliability, but it also requires more complicated coordination and protection schemes that can be disrupted by energy exported from distributed PV systems. Currently, Con Edison studies each potential PV system in New York City to evaluate the system s impact on the network, but this is time consuming for utility engineers and may delay the customer s project or add cost for larger installations. City leaders would like to streamline this process to facilitate faster, simpler, and less expensive distributed PV system interconnections. To assess ways to improve the interconnection process, NREL conducted a four-part study with support from DOE. The NREL team then compiled the final reports from each study into this report. In Section 1Ă?Â?Ă?Â˘Ă?Â?Ă?Â?Ă?Â?Ă?Â?PV Deployment Analysis for New York CityĂ?Â?Ă?Â˘Ă?Â?Ă?Â?Ă?Â?Ă?Â?we analyze the technical potential for rooftop PV systems in the city. This analysis evaluates potential PV power production in ten Con Edison networks of various locations and building densities (ranging from high density apartments to lower density single family homes). Next, we compare the potential power production to network loads to determine where and when PV generation is most likely to exceed network load and disrupt network protection schemes. The results of this analysis may assist Con Edison in evaluating future PV interconnection applications and in planning future network protection system upgrades. This analysis may also assist other utilities interconnecting PV systems to networks by defining a method for assessing the technical potential of PV in the network and its impact on network loads. Section 2Ă?Â?Ă?Â˘Ă?Â?Ă?Â?Ă?Â?Ă?Â?A Briefing for Policy Makers on Connecting PV to a Network GridĂ?Â?Ă?Â˘Ă?Â?Ă?Â?Ă?Â?Ă?Â?presents an overview intended for nontechnical stakeholders. This section describes the issues associated with interconnecting PV systems to networks, along with possible solutions. Section 3Ă?Â?Ă?Â˘Ă?Â?Ă?Â?Ă?Â?Ă?Â?Technical Review of Concerns and Solutions to PV Interconnection in New Y

In October 2008, the United States Congress extended both the residential and commercial solar investment tax credits (ITCs) for an unprecedented eight years, lifted the $2,000 cap on the residential credit, removed the prohibition on utility use of the commercial credit, and eliminated restrictions on the use of both credits in conjunction with the Alternative Minimum Tax. These significant changes, which apply to systems placed in service on or after January 1, 2009, will increase the value of the solar credits for residential system owners in particular, and are likely--in conjunction with state, local, and utility rebate programs targeting solar--to spur significant growth in residential, commercial, and utility-scale photovoltaic (PV) installations in the years ahead. This article focuses specifically on the residential credit, describing three areas in which removal of the $2,000 cap on the residential ITC will have significant implications for PV rebate program administrators, PV system owners, and the PV industry.

Arizona Public Service Company has conducted side-by-side field tests of most of the leading tracking flat plate and concentrating PV technologies. The results verify the added value due to tracking, but show that additional reliability improvements are needed in most cases. Concentrator PV systems can be high performers in sunny regions. In addition, a novel inverter system design by Raytheon has demonstrated excellent performance and promises to be more reliable and have lower cost than competing technologies.

The use of appropriate performance parameters facilitates the comparison of grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) systems that may differ with respect to design, technology, or geographic location. Four performance parameters that define the overall system performance with respect to the energy production, solar resource, and overall effect of system losses are the following: final PV system yield, reference yield, performance ratio, and PVUSA rating. These performance parameters are discussed for their suitability in providing desired information for PV system design and performance evaluation and are demonstrated for a variety of technologies, designs, and geographic locations. Also discussed are methodologies for determining system a.c. power ratings in the design phase using multipliers developed from measured performance parameters.The use of appropriate performance parameters facilitates the comparison of grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) systems that may differ with respect to design, technology, or geographic location. Four performance parameters that define the overall system performance with respect to the energy production, solar resource, and overall effect of system losses are the following: final PV system yield, reference yield, performance ratio, and PVUSA rating. These performance parameters are discussed for their suitability in providing desired information for PV system design and performance evaluation and are demonstrated for a variety of technologies, designs, and geographic locations. Also discussed are methodologies for determining system a.c. power ratings in the design phase using multipliers developed from measured performance parameters.

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) has a major responsibility in the implementation of the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE's) Solar Energy Technologies Program. Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) has a major role in supporting inverter development, characterization, standards, certifications, and verifications. The Solar Energy Technologies Program recently published a Multiyear Technical Plan, which establishes a goal of reducing the Levelized Energy Cost (LEC) for photovoltaic (PV) systems to $0.06/kWh by 2020. The Multiyear Technical Plan estimates that, in order to meet the PV system goal, PV inverter prices will need to decline to $0.25-0.30 Wp by 2020. DOE determined the need to conduct a rigorous review of the PV Program's technical and economic targets, including the target set for PV inverters. NREL requested that Navigant Consulting Inc.(NCI) conduct a review of historical and projected cost and performance improvements for PV inverters, including identification of critical barriers identified and the approaches government might use to address them.

As the PV industry matures, successful risk management practices will become more imperative to ensure investor confidence, control costs, and facilitate further growth. This report discusses several key aspects of risk management during the commercial- and utility-scale project life cycle, from identification of risks, to the process of mitigating and allocating those risks among project parties, to transferring those risks through insurance. The report also explores novel techniques in PV risk management, options to offload risks onto the capital markets, and innovative insurance policies (namely warranty policies) that address risks unique to the PV sector. One of the major justifications for robust risk management in the PV industry is the cost-reduction opportunities it affords. If the PV industry can demonstrate the capability to successfully manage its risks, thereby inspiring confidence in financiers, it may be able to obtain a lower cost of capital in future transactions. A lower cost of capital translates to a lower cost of energy, which will in turn enhance PV?s competitiveness at a time when it will have to rely less on subsidies to support its market penetration.

Safety is a prime concern for the photovoltaics (PV) industry. As a technology deployed on residential and commercial buildings, it is critical that PV not cause damage to the buildings nor harm the occupants. Many of the PV systems on buildings are of sufficiently high voltage (300 to 600 Volts dc) that they may present potential hazards. These PV systems must be safe in terms of mechanical damage (nothing falls on someone), shock hazard (no risk of electrical shock when touching an exposed circuit element), and fire (the modules neither cause nor promote a fire). The present safety standards (IEC 61730 and UL 1703) do a good job of providing for design rules and test requirements for mechanical, shock, and spread of flame dangers. However, neither standard addresses the issue of electrical arcing within a module that can cause a fire. To make PV modules, they must be designed, built, and installed with an emphasis on minimizing the potential for open circuits and ground faults. This paper provides recommendations on redundant connection designs, robust mounting methods, and changes to the safety standards to yield safer PV modules.

Solar ADEPT Project: PV inverters convert DC power generated by modules into usable AC power. IPC’s initial 30kW 94lb. PV inverter reduces the weight of comparable 30kW PV inverters by 90%—reducing the cost of materials, manufacturing, shipping, and installation. With ARPA-E support, new bi-directional silicon power switches will be developed, commercialized, and utilized in IPC’s next-generation PV inverter. With these components, IPC will produce 100kW inverters that weight less than 100lb., reducing the weight of conventional 3,000lb. 100kW inverters by more than 95%. The new power switches will cut IPC’s $/W manufacturing cost in half, as well as further reduce indirect shipping and installation costs.

We describe a CZTSSe (Cu{sub 2}ZnSn(S{sub 1?x},Se{sub x}){sub 4}) photovoltaic (PV) device with an ALD (atomic layer deposition) coated buffer dielectric layer for CZTSSe surface passivation. An ALD buffer layer, such as TiO{sub 2}, can be applied in order to reduce the interface recombination and improve the device's open-circuit voltage. Detailed characterization data including current-voltage, admittance spectroscopy, and capacitance profiling are presented in order to compare the performance of PVdevices with and without the ALD layer.

The Met Lab was set up by the war-time Manhattan District, US Corp of Engineers to (i) find a system using normal uranium in which a chain reaction would occur; (ii) to show that if such a chain reaction did occur, it would be possible to separate plutonium chemically from the uranium matrix and the fission products formed in the chain reactions; and (iii) to prepare plans for the large-scale production of plutonium. Chemistry Section C-1 of the Met Lab was assigned the responsibility for developing separation methods for plutonium production on the industrial scale. This report describes some aspects of daily life in Section C-1.

In some situations involving weak grids or high penetration scenarios, the variability of photovoltaic systems can affect the local electrical grid. In order to mitigate destabilizing effects of power fluctuations, an energy storage device or other controllable generation or load can be used. This paper describes the development of a controller for coordinated operation of a small gas engine-generator set (genset) and a battery for smoothing PV plant output. There are a number of benefits derived from using a traditional generation resource in combination with the battery; the variability of the photovoltaic system can be reduced to a specific level with a smaller battery and Power Conditioning System (PCS) and the lifetime of the battery can be extended. The controller was designed specifically for a PV/energy storage project (Prosperity) and a gas engine-generator (Mesa Del Sol) currently operating on the same feeder in Albuquerque, New Mexico. A number of smoothing simulations of the Prosperity PV were conducted using power data collected from the site. By adjusting the control parameters, tradeoffs between battery use and ramp rates could be tuned. A cost function was created to optimize the control in order to balance, in this example, the need to have low ramp rates with reducing battery size and operation. Simulations were performed for cases with only a genset or battery, and with and without coordinated control between the genset and battery, e.g., without the communication link between sites or during a communication failure. The degree of smoothing without coordinated control did not change significantly because the battery dominated the smoothing response. It is anticipated that this work will be followed by a field demonstration in the near future.

A flexible solar power assembly includes a flexible photovoltaic device attached to a flexible thermal solar collector. The solar power assembly can be rolled up for transport and then unrolled for installation on a surface, such as the roof or side wall of a building or other structure, by use of adhesive and/or other types of fasteners.

The DOE Solar Energy Technologies Program includes a sub-key activity entitled ''Photovoltaic Module Reliability R&D''. This activity has been in existence for several years to help ensure that the PV technologies that advance to the commercial module stage have acceptable service lifetimes and annual performance degradation rates. The long-term (2020) goal, as stated in the Solar Program Multi-Year Technical Plan [1], is to assist industry with the development of PV systems that have 30-year service lifetimes and 1% annual performance degradation rates. The corresponding module service lifetimes and annual performance degradation rate would have to be 30 years lifetime and approximately 0.5% (or less, depending on the type of PV system) annual performance degradation. Reaching this goal is critical to achieving the PV technology Levelized Energy Cost Targets, as listed and described in the Solar Program Multi-Year Technical Plan. This paper is an overview of the Module Reliability R&D sub-key activity. More details and the major results and accomplishments are covered in the papers presented in the PV Module Reliability Session of the DOE Solar Energy Technology Review Meeting, October 25-28, 2004, in Denver, Colorado.

Daydreaming Devices is a project on aspects of daydream and the design of convertible furniture within the context of art. This thesis addresses the concepts and the design of two daydreaming devices developed during my ...

A flexible solar power assembly (2) includes a flexible photovoltaic device (16) attached to a flexible thermal solar collector (4). The solar power assembly can be rolled up for transport and then unrolled for installation on a surface, such as the roof (20, 25) or side wall of a building or other structure, by use of adhesive and/or other types of fasteners (23).

The performance of PV cells and modules with respect to standard reference conditions is a key indicator of progress of a given technology. This task provides the U.S. terrestrial PV community with the most accurate measurements that are technically possible in a timely fashion. The international module certification and accreditation program PVGap requires certification laboratories to maintain their calibration traceability path to groups like this one. The politics of a "world record" efficiency requires that an independent laboratory perform these measurements for credibility. Most manufacturers base their module peak watt rating upon standards and reference cells calibrated under this task. This task has been involved in reconciling disputes between manufacturers and their cell suppliers in terms of expected versus actual performance. This task has also served as a resource to the PV community for consultation on solar simulation, current versus voltage measurement instrumentation, measurement procedures and measurement artifacts.

systems: UL-1703 for PV modules and UL- 1741 for inverters andinverters). PV program administrators have sought to weed out poorly-designed systemsPV system at a discounted price. Efficiency rating for each inverter

Indoor and outdoor testing of photovoltaic (PV) device performance requires the use of solar simulators and natural solar radiation, respectively. This performance characterization requires accurate knowledge of spectral irradiance distribution that is incident on the devices. Spectroradiometers are used to measure the spectral distribution of solar simulators and solar radiation. On September 17, 2013, a global spectral irradiance intercomparison using spectroradiometers was organized by the Solar Radiation Research Laboratory (SRRL) at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). This paper presents highlights of the results of this first intercomparison, which will help to decrease systematic inter-laboratory differences in the measurements of the outputs or efficiencies of PVdevices and harmonize laboratory experimental procedures.

Photovoltaic (PV) module degradation rate analysis quantifies the loss of PV power output over time and is useful for estimating the impact of degradation on the cost of energy. An understanding of the degradation of all current-voltage (I-V) parameters helps to determine the cause of the degradation and also gives useful information for the design of the system. This study reports on data collected from 12 distinct mono- and poly-crystalline modules deployed at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) in Golden, Colorado. Most modules investigated showed < 0.5%/year decrease in maximum power due to short-circuit current decline.

The performance of an amp-hour (Ah) counting battery charge control algorithm has been defined and tested using the Digital Solar Technologies MPR-9400 microprocessor based PV hybrid charge controller. This work included extensive field testing of the charge algorithm on flooded lead-antimony and valve regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries. The test results after one-year have demonstrated that PV charge utilization, battery charge control, and battery state of charge (SOC) has been significantly improved by providing maximum charge to the batteries while limiting battery overcharge to manufacturers specifications during variable solar resource and load periods.

the inactive state in transgenic Arabidopsis leaves was accomplished by ectopic expression of the transcription factor PvALF (Phaseolus vulgaris ABI3-like factor), and application of abscisic acid (ABA). PvALF belongs to a family of seed...

This paper proposes a stationary-frame control method for voltage unbalance compensation using Interline Photovoltaic (I-PV) power system. I-PV power systems are controlled to compensate voltage unbalance autonomously. The ...

Photovoltaic (PV) modules have dramatically decreased in price in the past few years, spurring the expansion of photovoltaic deployment. Residential and commercial rooftop installations are connected to the distribution network; large-scale installation PV power plants (PVPs) have benefited from tax incentives and the low cost of PV modules. As the level penetration of PV generation increases, the impact on power system reliability will also be greater. Utility power system planners must consider the role of PV generation in power systems more realistically by representing PV generation in dynamic stability analyses. Dynamic models of PV inverters have been developed in the positive sequence representation. NREL has developed a PV inverter dynamic model in PSCAD/EMTDC. This paper validates the dynamic model with an actual hardware bench test conducted by Southern California Edison's Distributed Energy Resources laboratory. All the fault combinations -- symmetrical and unsymmetrical -- were performed in the laboratory. We compare the simulation results with the bench test results.

This paper presents a new system configuration for a large-scale Photovoltaic (PV) power system with multi-line transmission/distribution networks. A PV power plant is reconfigured in a way that two adjacent power system ...

Photovoltaic (PV) module I-V curves were measured at Florida, Colorado, and Oregon locations to provide data for the validation and development of models used for predicting the performance of PV modules.

An overview of the benefits and applications of microinverters and DC power optimizers in residential systems. Some conclusions from this report are: (1) The impact of shade is greater than just the area of shade; (2) Additional mismatch losses include panel orientation, panel distribution, inverter voltage window, soiling; (3) Per-module devices can help increase performance, 4-12% or more depending on the system; (4) Value-added benefits (safety, monitoring, reduced design constraints) are helping their adoption; and (5) The residential market is growing rapidly. Efficiency increases, cost reductions are improving market acceptance. Panel integration will further reduce price and installation cost. Reliability remains an unknown.

Readily accessible credit has often been cited as a necessary ingredient to open up the market for residential photovoltaic (PV) systems. Though financing does not reduce the high up-front cost of PV, by spreading that cost over some portion of the system's life, financing can certainly make PV systems more affordable. As a result, a number of states have, in the past, set up special residential loan programs targeting the installation of renewable energy systems and/or energy-efficiency improvements and often featuring low interest rates, longer terms and no-hassle application requirements. Historically, these loan programs have had mixed success (particularly for PV), for a variety of reasons, including a historical lack of homeowner interest in PV, a lack of program awareness, a reduced appeal in a low-interest-rate environment, and a tendency for early PV adopters to be wealthy and not in need of financing. Some of these barriers have begun to fade. Most notably, homeowner interest in PV has grown in some states, particularly those that offer solar rebates. The passage of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct 2005), however, introduced one additional roadblock to the success of low-interest PV loan programs: a residential solar investment tax credit (ITC), subject to the Federal government's 'anti-double-dipping' rules. Specifically, the residential solar ITC--equal to 30% of the system's tax basis, capped at $2000--will be reduced or offset if the system also benefits from what is known as 'subsidized energy financing', which is likely to include most government-sponsored low-interest loan programs. Within this context, it has been interesting to note the recent flurry of announcements from a number of U.S cities concerning a new type of PV financing program. Led by the city of Berkeley, Calif., these cities propose to offer their residents the ability to finance the installation of a PV system using increased property tax assessments, rather than a more-traditional credit vehicle, to recover both system and administrative costs. This approach has a number of features that should appeal to PV owners, including long-term, fixed-cost, attractive financing; loans that are tied to the tax capacity of the property rather than to the owner's credit standing; a repayment obligation that transfers along with the sale of the property; and a potential ability to deduct the repayment obligation from federal taxable income as part of the local property tax deduction. For these reasons, Berkeley's program, which was first announced on October 23, 2007, has received considerable nationwide attention in both the trade and general press. Since the announcement, cities from throughout California and the broader U.S. have expressed keen interest in the possibility of replicating this type of program. In California alone, the cities of Santa Cruz, Santa Monica and Palm Desert are all reportedly considering similar programs, while the city of San Francisco has recently announced its own program, portions of which closely parallel Berkeley's approach. In addition, a bill (AB 811) that would authorize all cities in California, not just charter cities like Berkeley, to create this type of program was approved by the California General Assembly on January 29 and is currently under consideration in the State Senate. A similar bill in Colorado (HB 1350) was signed into law on May 28. Elsewhere, the city of Tucson, Arizona has also considered this financing approach.

While solar PV's impact on utilities has been frequently discussed the past year, little attention has been paid to the potentially impact posed by solar PV-specific rate designs (often informally referred to as solar "fees" or "taxes") upon non-hardware "soft" cost reductions. In fact, applying some rate designs to solar PV customers could potentially have a large impact on the economics of PV systems.

THE DEVELOPMENT AND COMMERCIALIZATION OF SOLAR PV TECHNOLOGY IN THE OIL INDUSTRY Jonatan Pinksea regarding solar PV technology investments, a renewable energy technology that has seen explosive growth towards the development and commercialization of solar PV technology. To investigate this, a multiple case

RETI Phase 1B Final Report Update NET SHORT RECALCULATION AND NEW PV ASSUMPTIONS With Revisions distributed photovoltaic (PV) installations in the Report is unclear and perhaps misleading. At the direction-generation is required. The CEC forecast assumed that 1,082 GWh will be self-generated by consumers from new PV

The figure shows the current energy pay back time for PV systems using different cell technologies and installed either in Central Europe or Southern Europe. Argument B1 PV Fact Sheets Technology improvements: Manufacturing a PV system consumes more energy than it ever produces in its life time." The fact is

Design and Evaluation of a Modular Resonant Switched Capacitors Equalizer for PV Panels Shmuel (Sam of shaded panels in a serially connected PV array. The proposed solution is based on a modular approach module was designed for 185W PV panels and was found to boost the maximum available power by about 50

1 Chapter 6: Innovation-Focused Policy Framework for TW-Scale PV Deployment 6.1. Demand, and installation, which all have one common goal: to reduce the cost of PV technology and make it an affordable & development (R&D). These policy instruments in the PV sector can be broadly categorized into two approaches

QUALIFIED FORECAST OF ENSEMBLE POWER PRODUCTION BY SPATIALLY DISPERSED GRID- CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS: The contribution of power production by Photovoltaic (PV) systems to the electricity supply is constantly of the electricity grids and for energy trading. This paper presents an approach to predict regional PV power output

Evidence for Interhemispheric Processing of Inputs From the Hands in Human S2 and PV ELIZABETH S2 and PV. J Neurophysiol 85: 2236­2244, 2001. In the present investigation, we identified cortical somatosensory (S2) and the parietal ventral (PV) areas, was significantly larger for bilateral stimulation than

of both the installed PV power and storage capacity (lead-acid battery technology for purposes). Keywords: Battery storage and control, Lifetime simulation, PV system. 1. INTRODUCTION Given the sizableOPTIMIZATION WITH ENERGY MANAGEMENT OF PV BATTERY STAND-ALONE SYSTEMS OVER THE ENTIRE LIFE CYCLE

78 IAEI NEWS September.October 2006 www.iaei.org penetrating pv questions from inspectors B ased several calls and e-mails a week and sometimes several calls a day from inspectors looking at PV plans or inspecting PV systems. The questions that they pose are always challenging because most of the inspectors

Optimal Perturbations in the Eady Model: Resonance versus PV Unshielding H. DE VRIES Institute August 2004) ABSTRACT Using a nonmodal decomposition technique based on the potential vorticity (PV, such that the initial surface potential temperature (PT) is zero. These nonmodal structures are used as PV building

Distributed Solar PV systems have the potential of increasing the grid's resiliency to unforeseen events, such as extreme weather events and attacks. This paper presents the role that distributed PV can play in electric grid resiliency, introduces basic system design requirements and options, and discusses the regulatory and policy options for supporting the use of distributed PV for the purpose of increased electricity resiliency.

restrictions. In utility-interactive PV systems, the inverter can be greatly simplified to a conceptual system are ungrounded, the PV utili- ty-interactive inverter can be relatively simple compared to what16 IAEI NEWS September . October 2010 www.iaei.org prospectives on pv Ungrounded Electrical Systems

the performance of traditional and emerging PV materials and inverter technologies," Institute Director Richard of the inverters, which convert direct current or DC power generated by the PV panels into alternating currentHawaii Natural Energy Institute installs PV systems at public schools Pacific Business News

to the BES through a power electronic inverter · Residential roof top PV solar also has an inverter whichImpact of increased penetration of wind and PV solar resources on the bulk power system Vijay;Wind and PV solar grid interface · Modern wind turbine generators are typically rated between 1.5 MW

into 2008, the PV industry continues to grow by leaps and bounds. New module and inverter manufacturers of un- grounded PV arrays (see 690.35) that will be used with transformerless inverters, and those80 IAEI NEWS March.April 2008 www.iaei.org COMMON PV CODE VIOLATIONS by John Wiles A s we move

curve measurements from the inverters within each PV plant. The monitoring software stores the PVRemote and Centralized Monitoring of PV Power Plants Csaba Kopacz, Sergiu Spataru, Dezso Sera-cost and flexible monitoring system for PV plants. Compared to classical solutions which can require dedicated

to ease installation and are used in PV systems for battery cables, power conductors to large utility2 IAEI NEWS January.February 2005 www.iaei.org PERSPECTIVES ON PV T he use of fine stranded" industries like the photovoltaic (PV) industry, the fuel cell indus- try, and the uninterruptible power

plants, and satellites. The output power of a PV cell (also called solar cell) is dependent on the solar: naehyuck@elpl.snu.ac.kr). output power of a PV cell increases as solar irradiance increases and temperature irradiance level and temperature. Figure 1 shows PV cell output current-voltage and power

A sealing device for sealing a gap between a dovetail of a bucket assembly and a rotor wheel is disclosed. The sealing device includes a cover plate configured to cover the gap and a retention member protruding from the cover plate and configured to engage the dovetail. The sealing device provides a seal against the gap when the bucket assemply is subjected to a centrifugal force.

A significant increase in photovoltaic (PV) system installations is expected to come on line in the near future and as the penetration level of PV increases, the effect of PV may no longer be considered minimal. One of the most important attributions of additional PV is what effect this may have on protection systems. Protection engineers design protection systems to safely eliminate faults from the electric power system. One of the new technologies recently introduced into the electric power system are distributed energy resources (DER). Currently, inverter-based DER contributes very little to the power balance on all but a few utility distribution systems. As DER become prevalent in the distribution system, equipment rating capability and coordination of protection systems merit a closer investigation. A collaborative research effort between the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and Southern California Edison (SCE) involved laboratory short-circuit testing single-phase (240 VAC) residential type (between 1.5 and 7kW) inverters. This paper will reveal test results obtained from these short-circuit tests.

The presentation describes the value of adding DC converters and other power electronics to modules to improve their output even when shading or bad cells would otherwise decrease the module output. The presentation was part of a workshop sponsored by ARPA-E exploring the opportunities for power electronics to support PV applications.

(BOS) parameters. The flow chart in Fig. 1 illustrates input and output flows in a program. The flow chart in Fig. 2 illustrates the modeling approach used in CPE. The calculation of PV output: this is done by estimating reflected energy, Qr(h,m), from the horizontal reference table, Qh(h,m) using

The expansive flat rooftops of industrial and commercial buildings across America offer the largest, most secure, and potentially least-cost real estate opportunity to install massive amounts of solar photovoltaic generation in the building sector. Unfortunately, mechanical penetration of roofing membranes is very expensive and perceived by building owners and operators to increase the likelihood of leaking. In response Ascension Technology has pioneered the development of low-cost ballasted approaches for mounting PV arrays. Recently, however, we have experienced our first two instances in which strong winds have moved our arrays on rooftops and heightened our interest, and the PV industries' need, to develop zero-penetration mounting techniques that are more secure, yet remain low in cost. In this PV BONUS project, Ascension Technology and its partners addressed wind loading on solar panels and the suitability of using frictional forces between ballast trays and roofing materials to resist PV arrays sliding on rooftops. The primary goal of the project is to capture the potential cost savings made possible by ballast-mounting by showing under what conditions it can satisfy wind loading concerns. A secondary goal is to address a more geographically constrained concern regarding withstanding seismic forces.

rating of a photovoltaic module is typically quoted as the power output of the module when the incidentNovember 21, 2000 PV Lesson Plan 2 ­ Solar Electric Arrays Prepared for the Oregon Million Solar Roofs Coalition By Frank Vignola ­ University of Oregon Solar Radiation Monitoring Lab John Hocken

Purpose: c-Met is overexpressed in some non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines and tissues. Cell lines with higher levels of c-Met expression and phosphorylation depend on this receptor for survival. We studied the effects of AMG-458 on 2 NSCLC cell lines. Methods and Materials: 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl) -2H-tetrazolium assays assessed the sensitivities of the cells to AMG-458. Clonogenic survival assays illustrated the radiosensitizing effects of AMG-458. Western blot for cleaved caspase 3 measured apoptosis. Immunoblotting for c-Met, phospho-Met (p-Met), Akt/p-Akt, and Erk/p-Erk was performed to observe downstream signaling. Results: AMG-458 enhanced radiosensitivity in H441 but not in A549. H441 showed constitutive phosphorylation of c-Met. A549 expressed low levels of c-Met, which were phosphorylated only in the presence of exogenous hepatocyte growth factor. The combination of radiation therapy and AMG-458 treatment was found to synergistically increase apoptosis in the H441 cell line but not in A549. Radiation therapy, AMG-458, and combination treatment were found to reduce p-Akt and p-Erk levels in H441 but not in A549. H441 became less sensitive to AMG-458 after small interfering RNA knockdown of c-Met; there was no change in A549. After overexpression of c-Met, A549 became more sensitive, while H441 became less sensitive to AMG-458. Conclusions: AMG-458 was more effective in cells that expressed higher levels of c-Met/p-Met, suggesting that higher levels of c-Met and p-Met in NSCLC tissue may classify a subset of tumors that are more sensitive to molecular therapies against this receptor.

Under the PV:BONUS Program, ECD and United Solar developed, demonstrated and commercialized two new lightweight, flexible BIPV modules specifically designed as replacements for conventional asphalt shingles and standing seam metal roofing. These modules can be economically and aesthetically integrated into new residential and commercial buildings, and can be used to address the even larger roofing-replacement market. An important design feature of these modules, which minimizes the installation and balance-of-system costs, is their ability to be installed by conventional roofing contractors without special training. The modules are fabricated from high-efficiency, triple-junction spectrum-splitting a-Si alloy solar cells developed by ECD and United Solar. These cells are produced on thin, flexible stainless steel substrates and encapsulated with polymer materials. The Phase 3 program began in August 1995. The principal tasks and goals of this program, which have all been successfully completed by ECD and United Solar, are described in the body and appendices of this report.

EERE's Solar Energy Technologies Program is charged with leading the Secretary's SunShot Initiative to reduce the cost of electricity from solar by 75% to be cost competitive with conventional energy sources without subsidy by the end of the decade. As part of this Initiative, the program has funded the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) to develop module manufacturing and solar PV system installation cost models to ensure that the program's cost reduction targets are carefully aligned with current and near term industry costs. The NREL cost analysis team has leveraged the laboratories' extensive experience in the areas of project finance and deployment, as well as industry partnerships, to develop cost models that mirror the project cost analysis tools used by project managers at leading U.S. installers. The cost models are constructed through a "bottoms-up" assessment of each major cost element, beginning with the system's bill of materials, labor requirements (type and hours) by component, site-specific charges, and soft costs. In addition to the relevant engineering, procurement, and construction costs, the models also consider all relevant costs to an installer, including labor burdens and overhead rates, supply chain costs, and overhead and materials inventory costs, and assume market-specific profits.

Southern California Edison (SCE) is well into a five-year project to install a total of 500 MW of distributed photovoltaic (PV) energy within its utility service territory. Typical installations to date are 1-3 MW peak rooftop PV systems that interconnect to medium-voltage urban distribution circuits or larger (5 MW peak) ground-mounted systems that connect to medium-voltage rural distribution circuits. Some of the PV system interconnections have resulted in distribution circuits that have a significant amount of PV generation compared to customer load, resulting in high-penetration PV integration scenarios. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and SCE have assembled a team of distribution modeling, resource assessment, and PV inverter technology experts in order to investigate a few of the high-penetration PV distribution circuits. Currently, the distribution circuits being studied include an urban circuit with a PV penetration of approximately 46% and a rural circuit with a PV penetration of approximately 60%. In both cases, power flow on the circuit reverses direction, compared to traditional circuit operation, during periods of high PV power production and low circuit loading. Research efforts during year two of the five-year project were focused on modeling the distribution system level impacts of high-penetration PV integrations, the development and installation of distribution circuit data acquisition equipment appropriate for quantifying the impacts of high-penetration PV integrations, and investigating high-penetration PV impact mitigation strategies. This paper outlines these research efforts and discusses the following activities in more detail: the development of a quasi-static time-series test feeder for evaluating high-penetration PV integration modeling tools; the advanced inverter functions being investigated for deployment in the project's field demonstration and a power hardware-in-loop test of a 500-kW PV inverter implementing a limited set of advanced inverter functions.

Kenya's electric power system is heavily reliant on hydropower, leaving it vulnerable during recurring droughts. Supply shortfalls are currently met through the use of expensive leased diesel generation. Therefore, plans ...

An electrochromic device is disclosed having a selective ion transport layer which separates an electrochemically active material from an electrolyte containing a redox active material. The devices are particularly useful as large area architectural and automotive glazings due to there reduced back reaction.

AFDC Printable Version Share this resource Send a link to EERE: Alternative Fuels Data Center Home Page to someone by E-mail Share EERE: Alternative Fuels Data Center Home Page on Facebook Tweet about EERE: Alternative Fuels Data Center Home Page on Twitter Bookmark EERE: Alternative Fuels Data Center Home Page onYou are now leaving Energy.gov You are now leaving Energy.gov You are being directed off Energy.gov. Are you sureReportsofDepartmentSeriesDepartment of EnergyofMetLife,

The U.S. photovoltaic (PV) industry is forecast to grow, and it represents an opportunity for economic development and job creation in communities throughout the United States. This report helps U.S. cities evaluate economic opportunities in the PV industry. It serves as a guide for local economic development offices in evaluating their community?s competitiveness in the solar PV industry, assessing the viability of solar PV development goals, and developing strategies for recruiting and retaining PV companies to their areas.

The SunShot Vision Study explored the potential growth of solar markets if solar prices decreased by about 75% from 2010 to 2020. The SolarDS model was used to simulate rooftop PV demand for this study, based on several PV market assumptions--future electricity rates, customer access to financing, and others--in addition to the SunShot PV price projections. This paper finds that modeled PV demand is highly sensitive to several non-price market assumptions, particularly PV financing parameters.

A PV Dynamics for Rotating Shallow Water on the Sphere search for a balance dynamics on the full vorticity (PV) geometric obstacle: local Rossby number singular at Equator, 1 #12;rSW on the Full Sphere r2 gH0 !-1/2 1 Balanced Dynamics PV Inversion on a Hemisphere, McIntyre/Norton 1999 landmark for PV

Within the free troposphere, PV is conserved by frictionless, adiabatic motion. However, friction and diabatic processes in the boundary layer can create or destroy PV. PV is generated in the warm PV anomaly above the low centre, confined in the vertical but spread in the horizontal. This shape

ON THE PURE VIRTUAL BRAID GROUP PV3 V. G.BARDAKOV, R. MIKHAILOV, V. V. VERSHININ, AND J. WU Abstract. We investigate various properties of the pure virtual braid group PV3. Out of its presentation, we get a free product decomposition of PV3. As a consequence, we show that PV3 is residually torsion

where a utility-interactive PV system connection could backfeed this GFPD breaker? The answer-interactive PV situation. When a ground-fault trips a GFPD breaker that is being backfed by a PV inverter, both114 home power 138 · august & september 2010 In the course of helping the PV industry with NEC

of a utility-interactive PV inverter to the supply-side of a service disconnect is essentially connecting be sized at 125% of the rat- ed output current from the PV inverter(s). But in small systems, a question68 IAEI NEWS January.February 2010 www.iaei.org supply-side pv utility connections Supply-Side PV

The economic viability of photovoltaic (PV) technologies is inextricably tied to both the electrical performance and degradation rate of the PV systems, which are the generators of electrical power in PV systems. Over the past 15 years, performance data have been collected on numerous PV systems installed throughout the state of Florida and will be presented.

This report presents met - ocean data and wave energy characteristics at three U.S. wave energy converter (WEC) test and potential deployment sites . Its purpose is to enable the compari son of wave resource characteristics among sites as well as the select io n of test sites that are most suitable for a developer's device and that best meet their testing needs and objectives . It also provides essential inputs for the design of WEC test devices and planning WEC tests, including the planning of deployment and op eration s and maintenance. For each site, this report catalogues wave statistics recommended in the (draft) International Electrotechnical Commission Technical Specification (IEC 62600 - 101 TS) on Wave Energy Characterization, as well as the frequency of oc currence of weather windows and extreme sea states, and statistics on wind and ocean currents. It also provides useful information on test site infrastructure and services .

PG&E has developed a plan to install 500 MW of PV by the year 2015. The plan calls for 250 MW to be acquired through Power Purchase Agreements (PPA) and the other 250 MW to be purchased and owned by the utility. PG&E presented the plan at a public forum on April 27, 2009. A copy of the power point presentation is attached.

www.iaei.org May.June 2006 IAEI NEWS 85 THE 15-MINUTE PV SYSTEM INSPECTION by John Wiles The 15-minuteThe 15-minute PV System InspectionPV System Inspection CaCan You? Should You?n You? Should You? The 15-minuteThe 15-minute PV System InspectionPV System Inspection CaCan You? Should You?n You? Should

This CESA - LBNL Case Study examines how much economic value do new and expanded federal tax credits really provide to PV system purchasers, and what implications might they hold for state/utility PV grant programs. The report begins with a discussion of the taxability of PV grants and their interaction with federal credits, as this issue significantly affects the analysis that follows. We then calculate the incremental value of EPAct's new and expanded credits for PV systems of different sizes, and owned by different types of entities. The report concludes with a discussion of potential implications for purchasers of PV systems, as well as for administrators of state/utility PV programs. The market for grid-connected photovoltaics (PV) in the US has grown dramatically in recent years, driven in large part by PV grant or 'buy-down' programs in California, New Jersey, and many other states. The recent announcement of a new 11-year, $3.2 billion PV program in California suggests that state policy will continue to drive even faster growth over the next decade. Federal policy has also played a role, primarily by providing commercial PV systems access to tax benefits, including accelerated depreciation (5-year MACRS schedule) and a business energy investment tax credit (ITC). Since the signing of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct) on August 8, the federal government has begun to play a much more significant role in supporting both commercial and residential PV systems. Specifically, EPAct increased the federal ITC for commercial PV systems from 10% to 30% of system costs, and also created a new 30% ITC (capped at $2000) for residential solar systems. Both changes went into effect on January 1, 2006, for an initial period of two years, and in late 2006 were extended for an additional year. Unless extended further, the new residential ITC will expire, and the 30% commercial ITC will revert back to 10%, on January 1, 2009. How much economic value do these new and expanded federal tax credits really provide to PV system purchasers? And what implications might they hold for state/utility PV grant programs? Using a generic (i.e., non-state-specific) cash flow model, this report explores these questions.1 We begin with a discussion of the taxability of PV grants and their interaction with federal credits, as this issue significantly affects the analysis that follows. We then calculate the incremental value of EPAct's new and expanded credits for PV systems of different sizes, and owned by different types of entities. We conclude with a discussion of potential implications for purchasers of PV systems, as well as for administrators of state/utility PV programs.

The purpose of this presentation is to provide a brief introduction to measurement uncertainty analysis, outline how it is done, and illustrate uncertainty analysis with examples drawn from the PV field, with particular emphasis toward its use in PV performance measurements. The uncertainty information we know and state concerning a PV performance measurement or a module test result determines, to a significant extent, the value and quality of that result. What is measurement uncertainty analysis It is an outgrowth of what has commonly been called error analysis. But uncertainty analysis, a more recent development, gives greater insight into measurement processes and tests, experiments, or calibration results. Uncertainty analysis gives us an estimate of the I interval about a measured value or an experiment's final result within which we believe the true value of that quantity will lie. Why should we take the time to perform an uncertainty analysis A rigorous measurement uncertainty analysis: Increases the credibility and value of research results; allows comparisons of results from different labs; helps improve experiment design and identifies where changes are needed to achieve stated objectives (through use of the pre-test analysis); plays a significant role in validating measurements and experimental results, and in demonstrating (through the post-test analysis) that valid data have been acquired; reduces the risk of making erroneous decisions; demonstrates quality assurance and quality control measures have been accomplished; define Valid Data as data having known and documented paths of: Origin, including theory; measurements; traceability to measurement standards; computations; uncertainty analysis of results.

A building-integrated multifunctional PV/T solar window has been developed and evaluated. It is constructed of PV cells laminated on solar absorbers placed in a window behind the glazing. To reduce the cost of the solar electricity, tiltable reflectors have been introduced in the construction to focus radiation onto the solar cells. The reflectors render the possibility of controlling the amount of radiation transmitted into the building. The insulated reflectors also reduce the thermal losses through the window. A model for simulation of the electric and hot water production was developed. The model can perform yearly energy simulations where different features such as shading of the cells or effects of the glazing can be included or excluded. The simulation can be run with the reflectors in an active, up right, position or in a passive, horizontal, position. The simulation program was calibrated against measurements on a prototype solar window placed in Lund in the south of Sweden and against a solar window built into a single family house, Solgaarden, in Aelvkarleoe in the central part of Sweden. The results from the simulation shows that the solar window annually produces about 35% more electric energy per unit cell area compared to a vertical flat PV module. (author)

Under this four-year PV:BONUS Program, ECD and United Solar are developing and demonstrating two new lightweight flexible building integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) modules specifically designed as exact replacements for conventional asphalt shingles and standing seam metal roofing. These modules can be economically and aesthetically integrated into new residential and commercial buildings, and address the even larger roofing replacement market. The modules are designed to be installed by roofing contractors without special training which minimizes the installation and balance of system costs. The modules will be fabricated from high-efficiency, multiple-junction a-Si alloy solar cells developed by ECD and United Solar. Under the Phase I Program, which ended in March 1994, we developed two different concept designs for rooftop PV modules: (1) the United Solar overlapping (asphalt shingle replacement) shingle-type modules and (2) the ECD metal roof-type modules. We also developed a plan for fabricating, testing and demonstrating these modules. Candidate demonstration sites for our rooftop PV modules were identified and preliminary engineering designs for these demonstrations were developed; a marketing study plan was also developed. The major objectives of the Phase II Program, which started in June 1994 was (1) to develop, test, and qualify these new rooftop modules; (2) to develop mechanical and electrical engineering specifications for the demonstration projects; and (3) to develop a marketing/commercialization plan.

Problem Statement: (1) Uncertainties in PV system performance and reliability impact business decisions - Project cost and financing estimates, Pricing service contracts and guarantees, Developing deployment and O&M strategies; (2) Understanding and reducing these uncertainties will help make the PV industry more competitive (3) Performance has typically been estimated without much attention to reliability of components; and (4) Tools are needed to assess all inputs to the value proposition (e.g., LCOE, cash flow, reputation, etc.). Goals and objectives are: (1) Develop a stochastic simulation model (in GoldSim) that can represent PV system performance as a function of system design, weather, reliability, and O&M policies; (2) Evaluate performance for an example system to quantify sources of uncertainty and identify dominant parameters via a sensitivity study; and (3) Example System - 1 inverter, 225 kW DC Array latitude tilt (90 strings of 12 modules {l_brace}1080 modules{r_brace}), Weather from Tucumcari, NM (TMY2 with annual uncertainty).

control (grid-supplied induction motors and universal motors) stand as exceptions to this rule. However. Introduction Since the last building standards or eco-labels were created, the trend is to reduce building, recent work [3] revealed that using variable speed control on these electromechanical loads (passing

The Met Lab at the University of Chicago was established to build the world`s first nuclear reactor. The object was to see if a pile (CP-1) could be built to create a sustained chain reaction, i.e., controlled nuclear fission. New materials of the very best quality were needed and people of many skills worked together to achieve the goal as quickly as possible. This is the story of a select group of people who were scientific and engineering pioneers in this new field. Research continued at new sites on more advanced reactors and cooling systems. Many problems were encountered in the fabrication of reactor components, and metallography was a crucial method of analyzing the reactions and quality of consolidation. 1996 will be the 50th anniversary of the beginning of the National Laboratories, so it is appropriate to commemorate and recall some pioneering achievements.

a superior potential for the development of high performance photovoltaic (PV) devices with reduced cost Meeting; Symposium E, Photovoltaic Technologies, Devices and Systems Based on Inorganic Materials, Small investigated for use in photovoltaic solar cells for the past years. At present, almost all photovoltaic device

Recently, CdTe photovoltaic (PV) devices fabricated in the nonstandard substrate configuration have attracted increasing interest because of their potential compatibility with flexible substrates such as metal foils and polymer films. This compatibility could lead to the suitability of CdTe for roll-to-roll processing and building-integrated PV. Currently, however, the efficiencies of substrate CdTe devices reported in the literature are significantly lower ({approx}6%-8%) than those of high-performance superstrate devices ({approx}17%) because of significantly lower open-circuit voltage (Voc) and fill factor (FF). In our recent device development efforts, we have found that processing parameters required to fabricate high-efficiency substrate CdTe PVdevices differ from those necessary for traditional superstrate CdTe devices. Here, we investigate how oxygen incorporation in the CdTe deposition, CdCl2 heat treatment, CdS deposition, and post-deposition heat treatment affect device characteristics through their effects on the junction. By adjusting whether oxygen is incorporated during these processing steps, we have achieved Voc values greater than 860 mV and efficiencies greater than 10%.

Nanostructured Titania-Polymer Photovoltaic Devices Made Using PFPE-Based Nanomolding Techniques heterojunction photovoltaic (PV) cells using a perfluoropolyether (PFPE) elastomeric mold to control the donor photovoltaic materials because they are strong light absorbers and solution pro- cessable and can be deposited

Property Assessed Clean Energy (PACE) financing is one of several new financial models broadening access to clean energy by addressing the barrier of initial capital cost. The majority of the PACE programs in the market today include PV as an eligible measure. PV appeals to homeowners as a way to reduce utility bills, self-generate sustainable power, increase energy independence and demonstrate a commitment to the environment. If substantial state incentives for PV exist, PV projects can be economic under PACE, especially when partnered with good net metering policies. At the same time, PV is expensive relative to other eligible measures with a return on investment horizon that might exceed program targets. This fact sheet reviews the benefits and potential challenges of including PV in PACE programs.

Accurately determining PV module performance in the field requires accurate measurements of solar irradiance reaching the PV panel (i.e., Plane-of-Array - POA Irradiance) with known measurement uncertainty. Pyranometers are commonly based on thermopile or silicon photodiode detectors. Silicon detectors, including PV reference cells, are an attractive choice for reasons that include faster time response (10 us) than thermopile detectors (1 s to 5 s), lower cost and maintenance. The main drawback of silicon detectors is their limited spectral response. Therefore, to determine broadband POA solar irradiance, a pyranometer calibration factor that converts the narrowband response to broadband is required. Normally this calibration factor is a single number determined under clear-sky conditions with respect to a broadband reference radiometer. The pyranometer is then used for various scenarios including varying airmass, panel orientation and atmospheric conditions. This would not be an issue if all irradiance wavelengths that form the broadband spectrum responded uniformly to atmospheric constituents. Unfortunately, the scattering and absorption signature varies widely with wavelength and the calibration factor for the silicon photodiode pyranometer is not appropriate for other conditions. This paper reviews the issues that will arise from the use of silicon detectors for PV performance measurement in the field based on measurements from a group of pyranometers mounted on a 1-axis solar tracker. Also we will present a comparison of simultaneous spectral and broadband measurements from silicon and thermopile detectors and estimated measurement errors when using silicon devices for both array performance and resource assessment.

A tunnel protected electrochemical device features channels fluidically communicating between manifold, tunnels and cells. The channels are designed to provide the most efficient use of auxiliary power. The channels have a greater hydraulic pressure drop and electrical resistance than the manifold. This will provide a design with the optimum auxiliary energy requirements.

The present invention is directed to a detection device comprising: (1) an entrance chamber; (2) a central chamber; and (3) an exit chamber. The central chamber includes an ionizing gas, anode, and means for connecting the anode with an external power supply and pulse counter.

Characterizing the factors that affect reliability of a photovoltaic (PV) power plant is an important aspect of optimal asset management. This document describes the many factors that affect operation and maintenance (O&M) of a PV plant, identifies the data necessary to quantify those factors, and describes how data might be used by O&M service providers and others in the PV industry. This document lays out data needs from perspectives of reliability, availability, and key performance indicators and is intended to be a precursor for standardizing terminology and data reporting, which will improve data sharing, analysis, and ultimately PV plant performance.

As described in Part 1 of this two-part series, thermopile pyranometers and photovoltaic (PV) reference cells can both be used to measure irradiance; however, there are subtle differences between the data that are obtained. This two-part article explores some implications of uncertainty and subtleties of accurately measuring PV efficiency in the field. Part 2 of the series shows how reference cells can be used to more confidently predict PV performance, but how this could best be accomplished if historic irradiance data could be available in PV-technology-specific formats.

The purpose of this presentation is to provide a brief introduction to measurement uncertainty analysis, outline how it is done, and illustrate uncertainty analysis with examples drawn from the PV field, with particular emphasis toward its use in PV performance measurements. The uncertainty information we know and state concerning a PV performance measurement or a module test result determines, to a significant extent, the value and quality of that result. What is measurement uncertainty analysis? It is an outgrowth of what has commonly been called error analysis. But uncertainty analysis, a more recent development, gives greater insight into measurement processes and tests, experiments, or calibration results. Uncertainty analysis gives us an estimate of the I interval about a measured value or an experiment`s final result within which we believe the true value of that quantity will lie. Why should we take the time to perform an uncertainty analysis? A rigorous measurement uncertainty analysis: Increases the credibility and value of research results; allows comparisons of results from different labs; helps improve experiment design and identifies where changes are needed to achieve stated objectives (through use of the pre-test analysis); plays a significant role in validating measurements and experimental results, and in demonstrating (through the post-test analysis) that valid data have been acquired; reduces the risk of making erroneous decisions; demonstrates quality assurance and quality control measures have been accomplished; define Valid Data as data having known and documented paths of: Origin, including theory; measurements; traceability to measurement standards; computations; uncertainty analysis of results.

Solar energy systems hang their hats on payback. Financial payback is as tangible as money in your bank account, while other types of payback—like environmental externalities—are not usually calculated in dollars. There’s no doubt that photovoltaic (PV) and solar hot water (SHW) systems will pay you back. Maybe not as quickly as you’d like, but all systems will significantly offset their cost over their lifetimes. Here we’ll try to answer: Which system will give the quickest return on investment (ROI)?

New data on the decays of the charmed particles $D^0$, $D^+$, and $D_s$ to $PV$ final states consisting of a light pseudoscalar meson $P$ and a light vector meson $V$ are analyzed. Following the same methods as in a previous analysis of $D \\to PP$ decays, one can test flavor symmetry, extract key key amplitudes, and obtain information on relative strong phases. Analyses are performed for Cabibbo-favored decays and then extended to predict properties of singly- and doubly-Cabibbo-suppressed processes.

Photovoltaic (PV) systems deployed in desert areas are exposed to wind-blown particles during most of their lifetimes. Here I describe the characteristics of wind-blown particles and with their effect on exposed surfaces. I provide insights for use in array design to minimize the effects of exposure and keep system costs as low as possible. Finally, I present some data describing the exposure of polymer-encapsulated arrays to both field and laboratory wind-blown sand environments, and I present evidence that an encapsulated or ``soft`` array has a higher abrasion resistance and, therefore, a much higher probability of surviving a severe sand environment.

Photovoltaic (PV) systems deployed in desert areas are exposed to wind-blown particles during most of their lifetimes. Here I describe the characteristics of wind-blown particles and with their effect on exposed surfaces. I provide insights for use in array design to minimize the effects of exposure and keep system costs as low as possible. Finally, I present some data describing the exposure of polymer-encapsulated arrays to both field and laboratory wind-blown sand environments, and I present evidence that an encapsulated or soft'' array has a higher abrasion resistance and, therefore, a much higher probability of surviving a severe sand environment.

This conference paper describes the high moisture barrier high resistivity coatings on polyethylene terepthalate (PET) have been fabricated and characterized for use in PV module back sheet applications. These thin film barriers exhibit water vapor transmission rates (WVTR) as low as 0.1 g/m2-day at 37.8 C and have shown excellent adhesion (> 10 N/mm) to both ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) and PET even after filtered xenon arc lamp UV exposure. The WVTR and adhesion values for this construction are compared to and shown to be superior to candidate polymeric backsheet materials.

Overview of the solar resource assessment conducted by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) in cooperation with Kauai Island Utility Cooperative (KIUC) in Hawaii to determine the technical feasibility of increasing the contribution of solar renewable energy generation on the island of Kauaii through the use of photovoltaic (PV) arrays. The analysis, which was performed using a custom version of NREL's In My Back Yard (IMBY) software tool, showed that there is potential to generate enough energy to cover the peak load as reported for Kauai in 2007.

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A database of mechanical properties for weldment fusion and heat-affected zones was established for AerMet{reg_sign}100 alloy, and a study of the welding metallurgy of the alloy was conducted. The properties database was developed for a matrix of weld processes (electron beam and gas-tungsten arc) welding parameters (heat inputs) and post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) conditions. In order to insure commercial utility and acceptance, the matrix was commensurate with commercial welding technology and practice. Second, the mechanical properties were correlated with fundamental understanding of microstructure and microstructural evolution in this alloy. Finally, assessments of optimal weld process/PWHT combinations for cotildent application of the alloy in probable service conditions were made. The database of weldment mechanical properties demonstrated that a wide range of properties can be obtained in welds in this alloy. In addition, it was demonstrated that acceptable welds, some with near base metal properties, could be produced from several different initial heat treatments. This capability provides a means for defining process parameters and PWHT's to achieve appropriate properties for different applications, and provides useful flexibility in design and manufacturing. The database also indicated that an important region in welds is the softened region which develops in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and analysis within the welding metallurgy studies indicated that the development of this region is governed by a complex interaction of precipitate overaging and austenite formation. Models and experimental data were therefore developed to describe overaging and austenite formation during thermal cycling. These models and experimental data can be applied to essentially any thermal cycle, and provide a basis for predicting the evolution of microstructure and properties during thermal processing.

Why Are Residential PV Prices in Germany So Much Lower Than in the United States? A Scoping is significantly lower in Germany than in the U.S., due primarily to differences in "soft" costs ­ But relatively consultant data relevant to the cost structure of residential PV in Germany · Focus is the pre

Hosted by the Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP), this seminar covers operations and maintenance (O&M) best practices for photovoltaic (PV) systems of 100 kilowatt or less, including planning for a PV O&M scope of work and maintenance procedures to keep the system operating at optimal capacity.

BATTERY-POWERED, ELECTRIC-DRIVE VEHICLES PROVIDING BUFFER STORAGE FOR PV CAPACITY VALUE Steven, however, the use of batteries from parked electric- drive vehicles (EDV) to provide buffer storage for PV requirements that will result in a number of new battery-powered electric drive vehicles being sold beginning

for comparing multiple technologies and policies to one another), focusing exclusively on customer-sited solar customers to others constitute undue price discrimination against solar PV. Perhaps most damaging for solar TO DEEPER SOLAR PV COST REDUCTIONS The Current Terrain In recent years, electric utilities have experienced

PV reliability is a challenging topic because of the desired long life of PV modules, the diversity of use environments and the pressure on companies to rapidly reduce their costs. This presentation describes the challenges, examples of failure mechanisms that we know or don't know how to test for, and how a scientific approach is being used to establish international standards.

Conductor Color-Coding In the recent past, most PV arrays have grounded the DC negative conductor would be most clearly understood if it were black. The increasing use of transformerless inverters will dictate the use of ungrounded PV arrays (Section 690.35). Then we can adopt a "red is positive" and "black

optimizers or micro-inverters, DPPs only need to process the power difference between series connected PVA Distributed Approach to MPPT for PV Sub-Module Differential Power Processing Shibin Qin, Stanton for differential power processing in photovoltaic (PV) applica- tions. This distributed algorithm performs true

This PowerPoint presentation, originally presented at the NREL 2013 PV Module Reliability Workshop on Feb. 26-27, 2013 in Denver, CO, presents the literature review of the effects of prolonged UV exposure of PV modules, with a particular emphasis on UV exposure testing using artificial light sources, including fluorescent, Xenon, and metal halide lamps.

. Uncertainties An analysis of UK solar potential is based on a similar approach using aggregate land use data in suitable area to allow for shading and other effects. The solar PV potential per square metre of roof has was used to determine annual output for standard PV arrays in each location. It found annual production

) in presence of photovoltaic (PV) panel on the view of techno economic optimal sizing taking the considerationTHE INTEGRATION AND CONTROL OF MULTIFUNCTIONAL STATIONARY PV-BATTERY SYSTEMS IN SMART DISTRIBUTION stationary battery energy storage systems (BESS) in the public low-voltage distribution grid in order

PV Grounding Continued John Wiles Sponsored by the Photovoltaic Systems Assistance Center, Sandia methods will be covered. The subject is quite complex. Grounding photovoltaic (PV) systems with both AC-grounding conductors in other DC circuits and in AC circuits are sized according to Table 250.122 in the NEC

This presentation outlines the goals and specific tasks of break-out session 2 of the 2011 International PV Module Quality Assurance Forum, along with a review of accelerated stress tests used for photovoltaics (PV).

A diversionary device has a housing having at least one opening and containing a non-explosive propellant and a quantity of fine powder packed within the housing, with the powder being located between the propellant and the opening. When the propellant is activated, it has sufficient energy to propel the powder through the opening to produce a cloud of powder outside the housing. An igniter is also provided for igniting the cloud of powder to create a diversionary flash and bang, but at a low enough pressure to avoid injuring nearby people.

An OLED device having an emission layer formed of an ambipolar phosphine oxide host material and a dopant, a hole transport layer in electrical communication with an anode, an electron transport layer in communication with a cathode, wherein the HOMO energy of the hole transport layer is substantially the same as the HOMO energy of the ambipolar host in the emission layer, and the LUMO energy of the electron transport layer is substantially the same as the LUMO energy of the ambipolar host in the emission layer.

An electrochromic device includes a first substrate spaced from a second substrate. A first conductive member is formed over at least a portion of the first substrate. A first electrochromic material is formed over at least a portion of the first conductive member. The first electrochromic material includes an organic material. A second conductive member is formed over at least a portion of the second substrate. A second electrochromic material is formed over at least a portion of the second conductive member. The second electrochromic material includes an inorganic material. An ionic liquid is positioned between the first electrochromic material and the second electrochromic material.

on an earlier draft. #12;Introduction The Tri-County Metropolitan Transportation District of Oregon (TriTri-Met's Experience With Automatic Passenger Counter and Automatic Vehicle Location Systems James State University Portland, OR 97207 This report is benefited from interviews of Tri-Met staff involved

OFF-SHORE WIND AND GRID-CONNECTED PV: HIGH PENETRATION PEAK SHAVING FOR NEW YORK CITY Richard Perez-shore wind and PV generation using the city of New York as a test case. While wind generation is not known one year's worth of hourly site & time-specific data including electrical demand PV and off-shore wind