1.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety

2.
1st millennium
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The first millennium was a period of time that began on January 1, AD1, and ended on December 31, AD1000, of the Julian calendar. It was the first period of one years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. In Europe and the Mediterranean, the first millennium was a time of great transition, the 1st century saw the peak of the Roman Empire, followed by its gradual decline during the period of Late Antiquity, the rise of Christianity and the Great Migrations. In Arabia, in the century, a man called Muhammad became the leader. After his death, his companions extended the religion, in East Asia, the first millennium was also a time of great cultural advances, notably the spread of Buddhism to East Asia. In China, the Han dynasty is replaced by the Jin dynasty and later the Tang dynasty until the 10th century sees renewed fragmentation in the Five Dynasties, in Japan, a sharp increase in population followed when farmers use of iron tools increased their productivity and crop yields. In South Asia, the Indian subcontinent was divided among numerous kingdoms throughout the first millennium, in Mesoamerica, the first millennium was a period of enormous growth known as the Classic Era. Teotihuacan grew into a metropolis and its empire dominated Mesoamerica, in South America, pre-Incan, coastal cultures flourished, producing impressive metalwork and some of the finest pottery seen in the ancient world. In North America, the Mississippian culture rose at the end of the millennium in the Mississippi, numerous cities were built, Cahokia, the largest, was based in present-day Illinois, and may have had 30,000 residents at its peak about 1250 AD. The circumference of the 10-story-high Monks Mound at Cahokia was larger than that of the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan or the Great Pyramid in Egypt

3.
2nd millennium
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The second millennium was a period of time that began on January 1,1001 and ended on December 31,2000 of the Gregorian calendar. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Renaissance saw the beginning of the migration of humans from Europe, Africa. The interwoven international trade led to the formation of multi-national corporations, international business ventures reduced the impact of nationalism in popular thought. The world population doubled over the first seven centuries of the millennium, consequently, unchecked human activity had considerable social and environmental consequences, giving rise to extreme poverty, climate change and biotic crisis. The 2nd millennium was a period of time began on January 1,1001. It was the period of one thousand years in the Anno Domini or Common Era. The Julian calendar was used in Europe at the beginning of the millennium, so the end date is always calculated according to the Gregorian calendar, but the beginning date is usually according to the Julian calendar. Stephen Jay Gould argued that it is not possible to decide if the millennium ended on December 31,1999, or December 31,2000. The second millennium is perhaps more popularly thought of as beginning and ending a year earlier, thus starting at the beginning of 1000 and finishing at the end of 1999. Many public celebrations for the end of the millennium were held on December 31,1999 – January 1, the civilizations in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. The events in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme, the people in this section are organized according to the UN geoscheme. See also Lists of people by nationality Category, People by century Category, People by nationality and period Gottlieb, Agnes Hooper, Henry Gottlieb, Barbar Bowers,1,000 Years,1,000 People, Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium

4.
15th century
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The 15th century was the century which spans the Julian years 1400 to 1500. In Europe, the 15th century is seen as the bridge between the Late Middle Ages, the Early Renaissance, and the Early modern period. Many technological, social and cultural developments of the 15th century can in retrospect be seen as heralding the European miracle of the following centuries, in religious history, the Roman Papacy was split in two parts in Europe for decades, until the Council of Constance. The division of the Catholic Church and the unrest associated with the Hussite movement would become factors in the rise of the Protestant Reformation in the following century. The event forced Western Europeans to find a new route, adding further momentum to what was the beginning of the Age of Discovery. Explorations by the Spanish and Portuguese led to European sightings of the Americas and these expeditions ushered in the era of the Portuguese and Spanish colonial empires. The fall of Constantinople led to the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy and these two events played key roles in the development of the Renaissance. The Spanish Reconquista leads to the fall of the Emirate of Granada by the end of the century, ending over seven centuries of Muslim rule. The Hundred Years War end with a decisive French victory over the English in the Battle of Castillon, financial troubles in England following the conflict results in the Wars of the Roses, a series of dynastic wars for the throne of England. The conflicts ends with the defeat of Richard III by Henry VII at the Battle of Bosworth Field, establishing the Tudor dynasty in the later part of the century. In Asia, under the rule of the Yongle Emperor, who built the Forbidden City and commanded Zheng He to explore the world overseas, tamerlane established a major empire in the Middle East and Central Asia, in order to revive the Mongol Empire. In Africa, the spread of Islam leads to the destruction of the Christian kingdoms of Nubia, the formerly vast Mali Empire teeters on the brink of collapse, under pressure from the rising Songhai Empire. In the Americas, both the Inca Empire and the Aztec Empire reach the peak of their influence, 1400s 1401, Dilawar Khan establishes the Malwa Sultanate in present-day central India 1402, Ottoman and Timurid Empires fight at the Battle of Ankara resulting in Timurs capture of Bayezid I. 1402, Sultanate of Malacca founded by Parameshwara,1403, The Yongle Emperor moves the capital of China from Nanjing to Beijing. 1403, The settlement of the Canary Islands signals the beginning of the Spanish Empire, 1405–1433, Zheng He of China sails through the Indian Ocean to India, Arabia, and East Africa to spread Chinas influence and sovereignty. 1405, Paregreg war, Majapahit civil war of succession between Wikramawardhana against Wirabhumi, 1405–1407, The first voyage of Zheng He, a massive Ming dynasty naval expedition visited Java, Palembang, Malacca, Aru, Samudera and Lambri. 1410s 1410, The Battle of Grunwald is the battle of the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War leading to the downfall of the Teutonic Knights. 1410–1413, Foundation of St Andrews University in Scotland,1414, Khizr Khan, deputised by Timur to be the governor of Multan, takes over Delhi founding the Sayyid dynasty

5.
16th century
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The 16th century begins with the Julian year 1500 and ends with either the Julian or the Gregorian year 1600. It is regarded by historians as the century in which the rise of the West occurred, during the 16th century, Spain and Portugal explored the worlds seas and opened worldwide oceanic trade routes. In Europe, the Protestant Reformation gave a blow to the authority of the papacy. European politics became dominated by conflicts, with the groundwork for the epochal Thirty Years War being laid towards the end of the century. In Italy, Luca Pacioli published the first work ever on accounting, in United Kingdom, the Italian Alberico Gentili wrote the first book on public international law and divided secularism from canon law and Roman Catholic theology. In the Middle East, the Ottoman Empire continued to expand, with the Sultan taking the title of Caliph, China evacuated the coastal areas, because of Japanese piracy. Japan was suffering a civil war at the time. Mughal Emperor Akbar extended the power of the Mughal Empire to cover most of the South Asian sub continent and his rule significantly influenced arts, and culture in the region. These events directly challenged the notion of an immutable universe supported by Ptolemy and Aristotle. Polybius The Histories translated into Italian, English, German and French, medallion rug, variant Star Ushak style, Anatolia, is made. It is now kept at The Saint Louis Art Museum,1500, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain was born. 1500, Guru Nanak the beginning and spreading of the 5th largest Religion in the World Sikhism,1500, Spanish navigator Vicente Yáñez Pinzón encounters Brazil but is prevented from claiming it by the Treaty of Tordesillas. 1500, Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral claims Brazil for Portugal,1500, The Ottoman fleet of Kemal Reis defeats the Venetians at the Second Battle of Lepanto. 1501, Michelangelo returns to his native Florence to begin work on the statue David,1501, Safavid dynasty reunified Iran and ruled over it until 1736. Safavids adopt a Shia branch of Islam,1502, First reported African slaves in The New World 1503, Foundation of the Sultanate of Sennar by Amara Dunqas, in what is modern Sudan 1503, Spain defeats France at the Battle of Cerignola. Considered to be the first battle in history won by gunpowder small arms,1503, Leonardo da Vinci begins painting the Mona Lisa and completes it three years later. 1503, Nostradamus was born on either December 14, or December 21,1504, A period of drought, with famine in all of Spain. 1504, Death of Isabella I of Castile, Joanna of Castille became the Queen,1505, Zhengde Emperor ascended the throne of Ming Dynasty

6.
17th century
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The 17th century was the century that lasted from January 1,1601, to December 31,1700, in the Gregorian calendar. The greatest military conflicts were the Thirty Years War, the Great Turkish War, in the Islamic world, the Ottoman, Safavid Persian and Mughal empires grew in strength. In Japan, Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Edo period at the beginning of the century, European politics were dominated by the Kingdom of France of Louis XIV, where royal power was solidified domestically in the civil war of the Fronde. With domestic peace assured, Louis XIV caused the borders of France to be expanded and it was during this century that English monarch became a symbolic figurehead and Parliament was the dominant force in government – a contrast to most of Europe, in particular France. It was also a period of development of culture in general,1600, On February 17 Giordano Bruno is burned at the stake by the Inquisition. 1600, Michael the Brave unifies the three Romanian countries, Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania after the Battle of Șelimbăr from 1599. 1601, Battle of Kinsale, England defeats Irish and Spanish forces at the town of Kinsale, driving the Gaelic aristocracy out of Ireland and destroying the Gaelic clan system. 1601, Michael the Brave, voivode of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania, is assassinated by the order of the Habsburg general Giorgio Basta at Câmpia Turzii, 1601–1603, The Russian famine of 1601–1603 kills perhaps one-third of Russia. 1601, Panembahan Senopati, first king of Mataram, dies and passes rule to his son Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak 1601,1602, Matteo Ricci produces the Map of the Myriad Countries of the World, a world map that will be used throughout East Asia for centuries. 1602, The Portuguese send an expeditionary force from Malacca which succeeded in reimposing a degree of Portuguese control. 1602, The Dutch East India Company is established by merging competing Dutch trading companies and its success contributes to the Dutch Golden Age. 1602, Two emissaries from the Aceh Sultanate visit the Dutch Republic,1603, Elizabeth I of England dies and is succeeded by her cousin King James VI of Scotland, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England. 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu takes the title of Shogun, establishing the Tokugawa Shogunate and this begins the Edo period, which will last until 1869. 1603–1623, After modernizing his army, Abbas I expands the Persian Empire by capturing territory from the Ottomans,1603, First permanent Dutch trading post is established in Banten, West Java. First successful VOC privateering raid on a Portuguese ship,1604, A second English East India Company voyage commanded by Sir Henry Middleton reaches Ternate, Tidore, Ambon and Banda. 1605, Gunpowder Plot failed in England,1605, The fortresses of Veszprém and Visegrad are retaken by the Ottomans. 1605, February, The VOC in alliance with Hitu prepare to attack a Portuguese fort in Ambon,1605, Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak of Mataram establishes control over Demak, former center of the Demak Sultanate. 1606, Treaty of Vienna ends anti-Habsburg uprising in Royal Hungary,1606, Assassination of Stephen Bocskay of Transylvania

7.
1570s
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January 9 – Ivan the Terrible starts the Massacre of Novgorod. January 23 – The assassination of Scottish regent James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray, february 8 – A magnitude 8.3 earthquake occurs in Concepción, Chile. February 15 – Venus occults Jupiter, this will happen in 1818. February 25 – Pope Pius V excommunicates Queen Elizabeth I of England with the bull Regnans in Excelsis, may 20 – Abraham Ortelius publishes the first modern atlas, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, in Antwerp. June 10 – The Kingdom of Livonia is established, july 3 – Ottoman conquest of Cyprus begins. July 14 – Pope Pius V issues Quo primum, promulgating the 1570 edition of the Roman Missal, August 8 – The Peace of Saint-Germain ends the Third War of Religion in France. Again, the Huguenots are promised freedom and political autonomy. Spanish conquistador Juan de Salcedo in the service of Miguel López de Legazpi begins conquest of the Kingdom of Maynila, construction of the original Catedral Nuestra Señora de La Asunción, the oldest church in Venezuela, begins. Whitechapel Bell Foundry known to be in existence in London, by 2017, when it closes its premises in Whitechapel, it will be the oldest manufacturing company in Great Britain. Andrea Palladio publishes I quattro libri dellarchitettura in Venice, volcanic eruption in the Santorini caldera begins. The Andean population of the Viceroyalty of Peru reaches 1.3 million, january 11 – The Austrian nobility are granted freedom of religion. January 23 – The Royal Exchange opens in London, England, march 18 – The Order of the Knights of Saint John transfer the capital of Malta from Birgu to Valletta. May 24 – Moscow is burnt by the Crimean army under Devlet I Giray, June 3 – Following conquest of the Kingdom of Maynila, Spanish Conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi makes Manila a city and the capital of the Philippines. June 25 – Queen Elizabeths Grammar School, Horncastle, is founded in Lincolnshire, June 27 – Establishment of Jesus College within the City and University of Oxford of Queen Elizabeths foundation in England by Welsh cleric and lawyer Hugh Price. July 25 – St Olaves Grammar School is founded in Tooley Street, August 1 – Ottoman conquest of Cyprus is concluded by the surrender of Famagusta. Cyprus is established as an eyalet of the Ottoman Empire and the first Turkish colony moves into the island, August 29 – Foundation of Liliw, Laguna, Philippines, by Gat Tayaw, followers and residents as a municipality of Laguna. September 28 – The House of Commons of England introduces the first pro forma bill, october 7 – Battle of Lepanto, Spanish, Venetian, and Papal naval forces under Don John of Austria defeat the Turkish fleet of Ali Monizindade Pasha. Using mercury in the extraction process dramatically increases the output of the Potosí mine, thus begins the great silver flow that links the New

8.
1600s (decade)
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January 1 – Scotland adopts January 1 as New Years Day. January – Sebald de Weert makes the first definite sighting of the Falkland Islands, february 17 – Giordano Bruno is burned at the stake for heresy in Rome. February 19 – Huaynaputina volcano in Peru undergoes a catastrophic eruption, March 20 – Linköping Bloodbath, Public execution by decapitation of five Swedish nobles and de facto deposition of the Polish–Swedish King Sigismund III Vasa as ruler of Sweden. April 19 - First Dutch ship ever to arrive in Japan, the ship, called Liefde, anchored in Sashifu, in the Bungo area. July 2 – Battle of Nieuwpoort in the Eighty Years War between the Dutch and the Spanish. August 5 – The brothers Alexander Ruthven and John Ruthven, 3rd Earl of Gowrie, are killed during an attempt to kidnap or murder King James VI of Scotland at their home. October 21 – Battle of Sekigahara in Japan, granting Tokugawa Ieyasu nominal control over the whole country, December 31 – East India Company granted a Royal Charter in the Kingdom of England on trades in Asia Sumo wrestling becomes a professional sport in Japan. William Shakespeares A Midsummer Nights Dream is first performed and his play The Merchant of Venice is published, William Gilbert publishes De Magnete, which describes the Earths magnetic field and is the beginning of modern Geomagnetism. Fabritio Carosos Nobiltà de dame is published, Ulster chieftains, with the lead of Hugh ONeill, 2nd Earl of Tyrone, resist the English reconquest of Ireland. A Persian embassy arrives in Prague and meets with Rudolf II, Martin Möller is appointed chief pastor of Görlitz. The Lutheran orthodox campaign intensifies to reinforce the Book of Concord, thessaly Rebellion January 17 – Treaty of Lyon, France gains Bresse, Bugey and Gex from Savoy, ceding Saluzzo in exchange. February 8 – Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, longtime favorite of Queen Elizabeth I of England, rebels against the queen, february 25 – Robert Devereux is beheaded. Spring – Possible first performance of William Shakespeares tragedy Hamlet, December 24 – The Battle of Kinsale ends the siege of Kinsale, Ireland. Dutch troops attack the Portuguese in Malacca, the Jesuit Matteo Ricci becomes the first European to enter the Forbidden City in Beijing, China, during the Ming dynasty. A bad harvest occurs in the Tsardom of Russia, due to a rainy summer, Russian famine of 1601–03 killed about two million people By 1601 - Martin Möller is accused of Crypto-Calvinism. The Battle of Seaton is fought, february 2 – First known production of William Shakespeares comedy Twelfth Night, in London. March 20 – The United East India Company is established by the United Provinces States-General in Amsterdam, may 15 – English explorer Bartholomew Gosnold becomes the first European at Cape Cod. June – James Lancasters East India Company fleet arrives at Achin, having defeated Portugals ally, the ruler is happy to do business, and Lancaster seizes a large Portuguese galleon and loots it

9.
1593
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As of the start of 1593, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January – Siege of Pyongyang, A Japanese invasion is defeated in Pyongyang by a force of Korean. January 27 – The Roman Inquisition opens the trial of scholar Giordano Bruno. February 2 - Battle of Piątek, Polish forces led by Janusz Ostrogski are victorious, february 12 - The Battle of Haengju is victory for Korea over Japan. March 14 - The Pi Day giving the most digits of Pi when written in mm/dd/yyyy format, flemish mathematician Adriaan van Roomen arrived at 15 decimal places of Pi in 1593 using the polygon approximation method. May 18 - Playwright Thomas Kyds accusations of heresy lead to an arrest warrant for Christopher Marlowe, june 22 – Battle of Sisak in Croatia, The Habsburgs defeat the Ottoman Empire. July 29 - The Long War breaks out in Hungary, between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans, mihai Viteazul becomes prince of Walachia. Henry Constables Spiritual Sonnetts are written, the book Controversiae written by Robert Bellarmine

10.
1598
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As of the start of 1598, the Gregorian calendar was 10 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. February 21 – Boris Godunov seizes the throne of Russia, following the death of his brother-in-law, Tsar Feodor I, the Time of Troubles starts. April 13 – Edict of Nantes, Henry IV of France grants French Huguenots equal rights with Catholics, may 2 – The Peace of Vervins ends the war between France and Spain. August 14 – Battle of the Yellow Ford in Ireland, Hugh ONeill, Earl of Tyrone, september 13 – Philip III of Spain starts to rule on the death of his father. December 16 – Battle of Noryang, An allied Korean and Chinese fleet under Korean Admiral Yi Sun-sin and Chinese Admiral Chen Lin defeats the Japanese navy, pentecost – Calvinist congregations in Zürich introduce music into their services. Philosopher Tommaso Campanella organizes an uprising in Calabria against the rule of the Spanish viceroy, the Parliament of England passes an act that allows transportation of convicts to colonies. Illustrations of Ottoman Turkish and European riflemen, with detailed illustrations of their firearms, appear in Zhao Shizhens book Shenqipu in this year, during the Ming dynasty of China

11.
Red Dragon (1595)
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Scourge of Malice or Malice Scourge or Mare Scourge was a 38-gun ship ordered by George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland. She was built and launched at Deptford Dockyard in 1595, the Earl used her as his flagship during raids on the Spanish Main, where she provided additional force to support his fleet. She was later renamed Red Dragon and used by the East India Company during at least five voyages to the East Indies, the first recorded performance of the play Hamlet took place on the ship in 1607, as it was anchored off the coast of Sierra Leone. In the 1590s, the Earl of Cumberlands passion for adventure was at its peak. As a result, he declared that he would have his own ship built, the ship is variously recorded as being between 600 and 900 tons and was named by Queen Elizabeth I as Scourge of Malice. Having had Scourge of Malice built, the Earl then departed in his new ship, however, the fleet had only travelled as far as Plymouth when he was recalled to London by the Queen. He returned, leaving the remainder of the fleet to continue without him. With the repairs completed, the Earl set sail again on 6 March 1598. After Sir Francis Drakes defeat at San Juan in 1595, the Earl of Cumberland was under orders to capture Brazil from the Spanish. Following Drakes attack, the fort at San Juan was left with 200 men and 150 volunteers, bolstered by a further 200 men when reinforcements arrived from Spain. By the time the Earls fleet appeared off the coast of the islands on 16 June 1598, many of the Spanish soldiers had lost their discipline and turned to theft due to dysentery and the lack of food. Two initial attacks by the English were fruitless, costing them lives without any gain, the Earl of Cumberland himself almost drowning trying to cross the San Antonio channel. Knowing that the Spanish were short of supplies, the English preferred to lay siege to the castle of El Morro rather than destroy it, and on 29 June allowed the Spanish commander and troops to leave. Before they left, the English sacked the town, burning houses to the ground and stealing whatever caught their eye, the fleet lost two vessels and over a thousand men. Formed on 31 December 1600, the East India Companys first voyage departed on 13 February 1601. The flagship of the fleet was Malice Scourge, purchased from the Earl of Cumberland for £3700 who had initially asked for £4000. )The Company subsequently renamed the vessel Red Dragon. The other vessels in the fleet were Hector, Ascension, Susan and Gift, in spite of their February departure, the fleet did not clear the English Channel until early April due to delays from contrary winds. They landed at the Canary Islands, and then, keeping too close to Africa, fell into the Doldrums, where they remained for a month

12.
East India Company
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The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the Companys shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control, during its first century of operation the focus of the Company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own armies, exercising military power. Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances, the official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies. Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean, one of them, Edward Bonventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594. In 1596, three ships sailed east, however, these were all lost at sea. Two days later, on 24 September, the Adventurers reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project, the Adventurers convened again a year later. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Anybody who traded in breach of the charter without a licence from the Company was liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo, the governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or committees, who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolphs church in Bishopsgate. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601, in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the Companys Ascension, thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607–8. Initially, the company struggled in the trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, the factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat. In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal

13.
Guru Hargobind
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Guru Hargobind was the sixth of the Sikh gurus. He was barely eleven years old when he became Guru on 11 June 1606, after the execution of his father, Guru Arjan and he initiated a military tradition within Sikhism to resist Islamic persecution and protect the freedom of religion. He had the longest tenure as Guru, lasting 37 years,9 months and 3 days, Hargobind was born in 1595 in Vadali Guru, a village 7 km west of Amritsar, the only son of Guru Arjan, the fifth Sikh Guru. He suffered from smallpox as a child and survived an attempt by an uncle, as well as another attempt on his life. He studied religious texts with Bhai Gurdas and trained in swordsmanship, shortly afterwards, Guru Arjan was arrested, tortured and killed by order of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir, Guru Hargobinds succession ceremony took place on 24 June 1606. He put on two swords, one indicated his spiritual authority and the other, his temporal authority and he followed his martyred fathers advice and always kept himself surrounded by armed Sikhs for protection. The number fifty two was special in his life, and his retinue consisted of fifty two armed men and he thus founded the military tradition in the Sikh faith. Guru Hargobind had three wives, Mata Damodari, Mata Nanaki and Mata Maha Devi and he had children from all three wives. Two of his eldest sons from the first wife died during his lifetime and his youngest son by his third wife was Tegh Bahadur, who became the influential ninth Sikh Guru. The Guru was a martial artist, a hunter and, according to Persian records, unlike earlier Gurus, he. Guru Hargobind encouraged people to physical fitness and keep their bodies ready for physical combat. The arming and training of some of his followers began. The Guru came to possess seven hundred horses and his Risaldari grew to three hundred horsemen and sixty musketeers and he nominated his grandson to succeed him as the seventh Guru Har Rai. He died in 1644, and was cremated on the banks of River Sutlej, because of the execution of Guru Arjan by Mughal Emperor Jahangir, Guru Hargobind from the very start was a dedicated enemy of the Mughal rule. He advised Sikhs to arm and fight the mughals, the death of his father at the hands of Jahangir prompted him to emphasise the military dimension of the Sikh community. He symbolically wore two swords, which represented miri and piri and he built a fort to defend Ramdaspur and created a formal court, Akal Takht. Jahangir responded by jailing the 14 year old Guru Hargobind at Gwalior Fort in 1609, on the pretext that the fine imposed on Guru Arjan had not been paid by the Sikhs and it is not clear as to how much time he spent as a prisoner. The year of his release appears to have been either 1611 or 1612 and it is unclear why he was released

14.
Punjab
–
The Punjab, also spelled Panjab, panj-āb, land of five rivers, is a geographical and cultural region in the northern part of South Asia, comprising areas of eastern Pakistan and northern India. Not being a unit, the extent of the region is the subject of debate. The foreign invaders mainly targeted the most productive region of the Punjab known as the Majha region. The people of the Punjab today are called Punjabis and their language is called Punjabi. The main religions of the Punjab region are Islam, Sikhism and Hinduism, other religious groups are Christianity, Jainism and Buddhism. The name of the region is a compound of two Persian words Panj and āb and was introduced to the region by the Turko-Persian conquerors of India, Punjab literally means Five Waters referring to the rivers, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas. All are tributaries of the Indus River, the Chenab being the largest, there are two main definitions of the Punjab region, the 1947 definition and the older 1846–1849 definition. The third definition incorporates both the 1947 and the definitions but also includes northern Rajasthan on a linguistic basis. 1947 definition The 1947 definition defines the Punjab region with reference to the dissolution of British India whereby the then British Punjab Province was partitioned between India and Pakistan, in Pakistan, the region now includes the Punjab province and Islamabad Capital Territory. In India, it includes the Punjab state, Chandigarh, Haryana, Using the 1947 definition, the Punjab region borders Kashmir to the north, Sindh and Rajasthan to the south, the Pashtun region and Balochistan to the west, and the Hindi belt to the east. Accordingly, the Punjab region is diverse and stretches from the hills of the Kangra Valley to the plains. Present day maps Major cities Using the 1947 definition of the Punjab region, some of the cities of the area include Lahore, Faisalabad. Older 1846–1849 definition The older definition of the Punjab region focuses on the collapse of the Sikh Empire, According to this definition, the Punjab region incorporates, in Pakistan, Azad Kashmir including Bhimber and Mirpur and parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In India the wider definition includes parts of Delhi and Jammu Division, the formation of the Himalayan Range of mountains to the east and north-east of the Punjab is the result of a collision between the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The plates are moving together, and the Himalayas are rising by about 5 millimetres per year. The upper regions are snow-covered the whole year, Lower ranges of hills run parallel to the mountains. The Lower Himalayan Range runs from north of Rawalpindi through Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, the mountains are relatively young, and are eroding rapidly. The Indus and the five rivers of the Punjab have their sources in the range and carry loam, minerals and silt down to the rich alluvial plains

15.
Bihari Lal
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Today it is considered the most well known book of the Ritikavya Kaal or Riti Kaal of Hindi literature. The language is the form of Hindi called Brajbhasha, spoken in the country about Mathura, each couplet is independent and complete in itself. Bihari was born in Gwalior in 1595, and spent his boyhood in Orchha in the Bundelkhand region, after marriage he settled with in-laws in Mathura. His father, Keshav Rai, was a twiceborn by caste, early in his life, he studied ancient Sanskrit texts. In Orchha state, he met the famous poet keshavdas from whom he took lessons in poetry. Later, when he had shifted to Mathura, he got an opportunity to present his in court of visiting Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, once at Agra, he learnt Persian language and came into contact with Rahim, another famous poet. He left the court & went to Vrindavan, where he died in the year 1663, the collection has also twice been translated into Sanskrit. The best-known commentary is that of Lallu ji-Lal, entitled the Lala-chandrika, the author was employed by Dr Gilchrist in the College of Fort William, where he finished his commentary in 1818. A critical edition of it has published by Dr G. A. Grierson. The Veiled moon, English translations of Bihari satsai, Amar Nath Jha, new Delhi, Indian Council for Cultural Relations,1973. Bihari Satsai, Aalochana evam Vyakhaya, Nemichand Jain, Humour in the Satsai of Biharilal, Snell, Rupert. In, Of Clowns and Gods Brahmans and Babus, Humour in South Asian Literatures, kangra Paintings of the Bihari Sat Sai by M. S. Randhawa. Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol.90, No, Bihari at Kavita Kosh THE SENTIMENTS OF LOVE A Selection of Indian Miniatures from the Collection of the National Museum of Ethnology, Leiden – I

16.
Gwalior
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Gwalior is a major city in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh and one of the Counter-magnet cities. Located 319 kilometres south of Delhi, the city of India. The city and its fortress have been ruled by several historic northern Indian kingdoms, from the Tomars in the 13th century, it was passed on to the Mughal Empire, then to the Maratha in 1754, followed by the Scindia in 18th century. Besides being the headquarters of Gwalior district and Gwalior division. Several administrative and judicial organisations, commissions and boards have their state, Gwalior was the winter capital of the state of Madhya Bharat which later became a part of the larger state of Madhya Pradesh. Prior to Indian independence on 15 August 1947, Gwalior remained a state of the British Raj with the Scindia as the local rulers. High rocky hills surround the city from all sides, on the north it just forms the border of the Ganga- Yamuna Drainage Basin, the city however is situated in the valley between the hills. Gwaliors metropolitan area includes Lashkar Gwalior, Morar Gwalior, Thatipur, Gwalior was one of the major sites of rebellion during the 1857 uprising. Post-independence, Gwalior has emerged as an important tourist attraction in central India while many industries, before the end of the 20th century it became a million plus agglomeration and now it is a metropolitan city in central India. Gwalior is surrounded by industrial and commercial zones of neighbouring districts on all three main directions, a 2016 report of the World Health Organization found Gwalior to be the second-most air-polluted city in the world and the most polluted city in India. Gwalior has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a city under PM Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. According to local tradition, Gwalior owes its name to a sage of former times, Suraj Sen, a prince of the gurjar-pratihar clan of the eighth century, is said to have lost his way in the forest. On a secluded hill, he met an old man, the sage Gwalipa, upon asking the sage for some drinking water, he was led to a pond, where the waters not only quenched his thirst but cured him of leprosy. Suraj Sen later built a palace inside the fort, which was named Gwalior after the sage, after being founded by Maharaj Suraj Sen, Gwalior Fort saw many different rulers ruling the city and suburbs around it. Gwalior became a prominent place for religious practices, cultures and other disciplines coming up during that time in the country, during the 6th century BC Gwalior was ruled by the Nanda dynasty of Pataliputra. During the first century AD, Gwalior came under Naga Dynasty, from the carving found at Pawaya, it has been discovered that the kushanas ruled the city till the 3rd century AD. After that, it came under the Guptas till 467 AD, during the 5th century, The Kannauj of Gurar-Pratihara Dynasty ruled Gwalior and played a prominent role in shaping its history. From 700–740 AD Gwalior became the capital of Kannauj, a Magnificent Sun Temple was created at the fort hill during that period

17.
Akbar
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Abul-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad, popularly known as Akbar I and later Akbar the Great, was a Mughal Emperor from 1556 until his death. He was the ruler of the Mughal Dynasty in India. Akbar succeeded his father, Humayun, under a regent, Bairam Khan, a strong personality and a successful general, Akbar gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include nearly all of the Indian Subcontinent north of the Godavari river. His power and influence, however, extended over the country because of Mughal military, political, cultural. To unify the vast Mughal state, Akbar established a system of administration throughout his empire and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through marriage. To preserve peace and order in a religiously and culturally diverse empire, Mughal India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture. Akbar himself was a patron of art and culture, holy men of many faiths, poets, architects and artisans adorned his court from all over the world for study and discussion. Akbars courts at Delhi, Agra, and Fatehpur Sikri became centres of the arts, letters, perso-Islamic culture began to merge and blend with indigenous Indian elements, and a distinct Indo-Persian culture emerged characterised by Mughal style arts, painting, and architecture. A simple, monotheistic cult, tolerant in outlook, it centred on Akbar as a prophet, for which he drew the ire of the ulema, many of his courtiers followed Din-i-Ilahi as their religion as well, as many believed that Akbar was a prophet. One famous courtier who followed this religion was Birbal. Akbars reign significantly influenced the course of Indian history, during his rule, the Mughal empire tripled in size and wealth. He created a military system and instituted effective political and social reforms. By abolishing the tax on non-Muslims and appointing them to high civil and military posts, he was the first Mughal ruler to win the trust. He had Sanskrit literature translated, participated in festivals, realising that a stable empire depended on the co-operation. Thus, the foundations for an empire under Mughal rule was laid during his reign. Akbar was succeeded as emperor by his son, Jahangir, defeated in battles at Chausa and Kannauj in 1539–40 by the forces of Sher Shah Suri Mughal emperor Humayun fled westward to Sindh. There he met and married the then 14-year-old Hamida Banu Begum, daughter of Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, a teacher of Humauyuns younger brother Hindal Mirza. Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar was born the year on 15 October 1542 at the Rajput Fortress of Umerkot in Sindh