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Learning – any relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience Conditioning – learning (pairing different stimuli) Classical conditioning – one stimulus calls forth the response that is usually called forth by another stimulus

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Ivan Pavlov Studied salivation in dogs Dogs salivated when received meat Salivated at sight of assistants entering laboratory Pavlov rang a bell – meat given to dogs After a while, dogs salivated when they heard bell even if there was no meat

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Higher-Order Conditioning A previously learned neutral stimulus comes to serve as a learned, or conditioned, stimulus after being paired repeatedly with a stimulus that has already become a learned stimulus

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Taste Aversion Learned avoidance of a certain food May only take one pairing of food and illness to create aversion (most C.C. takes many associations)

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Extinction When a conditioned stimulus is no longer followed by an unconditioned stimulus, it will eventually lose it’s ability to bring about a conditioned response CS is disconnected from the US – the result – CS no longer causes CR

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Spontaneous Recovery Organisms can display responses that were extinguished earlier Sometimes response is weaker than original response

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Generalization and Discrimination Generalization – act of responding in the same ways to stimuli that seem to be similar, even if the stimuli are not identical Discrimination – act of responding differently to stimuli that are not similar to each other Help people adapt to their environments

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Applications of Classical Conditioning Can help people overcome fears of various objects and situations, or help children stop wetting their beds

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Flooding A person is exposed to the harmless stimulus until fear responses to that stimulus are extinguished Effective, but unpleasant

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Systematic Desensitization People are taught relaxation techniques Exposed gradually to whatever stimulus they fear while they remain relaxed Takes longer to work, but not unpleasant

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Counterconditioning A pleasant stimulus is paired repeatedly with a fearful one, counteracting the fear

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Section 2: Operant Conditioning

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Operant Conditioning People and animals learn to do certain things & not do others because of consequences In classical conditioning – conditioned responses are often involuntary biological behaviors In operant conditioning – voluntary responses (we control) are conditioned

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Reinforcement Process by which a stimulus increases the chances that the preceding behavior will occur again Skinner boxes held rats that were deprived of food Pressed lever – received food pellets Pellets reinforced lever-pressing behavior

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Positive Reinforcement Increase the frequency of behavior they follow when they are applied Food, fun activities, social approval Different reinforcers work with different people What serves as a reinforcer at one time may not work later on

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Immediate vs. Delayed Reinforcement Immediate much more effective Short-term consequences provide more of an incentive than the long-term consequences Examples: – Most students do better with frequent tests – Difficult to quit smoking – reinforcement of nicotn

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Primary Reinforcers Function due to biological makeup of the organism Food, water, warmth, sex (Don’t have to be taught to value these) Secondary Reinforcers Initially acquire their value through being paired with established reinforcers Money, attention, social approval

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Reward Increase frequency of behavior Some say it’s the same as positive reinforcement Positive reinforcement doesn’t make you get inside organism’s head to determine what they find rewarding

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Reward vs. Punishment Positive reinforcement: Telling a kid, "Great job! You said this perfectly!" or giving a High 5. This is good because, it makes the student want to learn more independently...he'll be satisfied with learning for learning's sake. This helps build self-motivation. Reward: Giving a kid candy for doing a great job or telling the winning team that they can eat lunch early. This is bad because, it'll teach kids to only work hard enough for a reward. Brattiness could arise with constant rewards.

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Punishment Discourage a behavior by being applied Strong punishment can quickly end bad behavior Not the ideal way to deal with a problem

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Schedules of Reinforcement When and how often reinforcement occurs Partial & Continuous

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Continuous Reinforcement Reinforcement of a behavior every time the behavior occurs New behaviors learned quickest using this method Only maintain behavior as long as you’re being reinforced

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Partial Reinforcement Behavior not reinforced every time it occurs Tends to last longer after no reinforcement than continuous reinforcement

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Fixed – Interval Schedule Fixed amount of time must elapse between reinforcements

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Variable – interval schedule Varying amounts of time go between reinforcements – Timing of the next reinforcement is unpredictable

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Fixed – Ratio Schedule Reinforcement provided after a fixed number of correct responses have been made People tend to want to get fixed number of responses “out of the way” If ratio is high, not very effective

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Variable – Ratio Schedule Reinforcement provided after a variable number of correct responses have been made unpredictable

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Extinction Repeated performance of the response without reinforcement Can spontaneously recover

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Shaping A way of teaching complex behaviors in which one first reinforces small steps in the right direction

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Applications of Operant Conditioning Induce children to acquire gender-appropriate behavior patterns Play with friends who are generous & non- aggressive Adults reward kids when they express attitudes similar to own and punish / ignore contradictory attitudes

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BFT & Behavior Modification Biofeedback Training – people receive reinforcement in the form of information Parents often reinforce bad behavior by pay8ing attention / punishing kids & ignoring when they behave well

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The Bell-and-Pad Method for Bed-Wetting Teaches kids to wake up in response to bladder tension Sleep on a special pad placed on bed When kid starts to urinate, water content triggers a bell, ringing wakes up kid After a few weeks, kids usually cured

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Effects of Media Violence TV is a main source of informal observational learning Link between media violence and aggression – Supplies models of aggressive skills – See violence as an acceptable way to behave – Leads to emotional desensitization to violence in real life – More likely to behave aggressively and violently