TOXICOLOGY DEFINITION Toxicology is the 'science of poisons'. Poisons are defined as naturally occurring or man-made chemicals, which, following their entry via any route and in relatively small quantities into the body, produce biochemical abnormalities and/or physical lesions. Poisons are also known as toxicants or toxic agents. • Like medicine, toxicology is both a science and an art. • The science of toxicology is the phase involving observational and data-gathering, while the art of toxicology consists of utilization of data to arrive at the outcome to exposure in human and animal populations. • A more descriptive definition of toxicology can be 'the study of the adverse effects of chemicals or physical agents on living organisms and the ecosystems, including the prevention and amelioration of such adverse effects'. • Toxicology is concerned with all aspects of poisons and poisoning. • It includes the identification, chemical properties and biological effects of poisons as well as the treatment of disease conditions they cause. • The science of toxicology helps people make informed decisions and balance RISKS vs. BENEFITS. • Toxin is the word reserved to poisons produced by a biological source like venoms and plant toxins. Toxins from plants are called phytotoxins. Toxins from bacteria are called bacterial toxins. Endotoxins are those toxins found within the bacteria and exotoxins are those toxins elaborated from bacterial cells. Toxins from fungi are called mycotoxins. Toxins from lower animals are called as zootoxins. Toxins that are transmitted by a bite or sting are called venoms. • Toxinology deals with the study of toxic effects of toxins. • Toxicity is the term used to describe the amount of a poison that, under a specific set of conditions causes toxic effects or results in detrimental biologic changes. It is the inherent capacity of a substance to produce toxic effects or detrimental changes on the organism. Toxicity is the adverse end product of a series of events that is inhibited by exposure to chemical, physical or biological agents. Toxicity can manifest itself in a wide array of forms, from mild biochemical functions to serious organ damage and death. • Toxicosis is the term used to describe the condition resulting from exposure to poisons. This term is frequently used interchangeably with poisoning and intoxication. • Three phases under which toxicology is studied are: o exposure phase, o toxicokinetic phase and o toxicodynamic phase MAJOR DISASTERS
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Ergotism in France and Spain in 992 • Ergot poisoning or ergotism was known as 'holy fire'. The term 'fire' was used because of the burning sensations in the extremities that was experienced by the individuals showing gangrenous ergotism and the term 'holy' was used as it was feared to be punishment from God. Later ergotism was referred to as St. Antony's fire. More tahn 40,000 people died of ergotism. Nuclear Bomb Explosions In Japan in 1945
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During the final stages of World War II in 1945, the United States conducted two atomic bombings against the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan, the first on August 6, 1945 and the second on August 9, 1945. Within the first two to four months of the bombings, the acute effects killed 90,000 – 166,000 people in Hiroshima and 60,000 – 80,000 in Nagasaki. Of 2

the people who died on the day of the explosion, 60% died from flash or flame burns, 30% from falling debris and 10% from other causes. During the following months, large numbers died from the effect of burns, radiation sickness and other injuries. Nuclear accident in Pennsylvania orthe tree Mile Island accident was a core meltdown in a Unit of the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station in Pennsylvania in United States in 1979. It was the most significant accident in the history of the USA commercial nuclear power generating industry, resulting in the release of approximately 2.5 million curies of radioactive gases, and approximately 15 curies of 131I.
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The Bhopal disaster also known as Bhopal Gas Tragedy was one of the world's worst industrial catastrophes. It occurred on the night of December2–3, 1984 at the Union Carbide India Pesticide Plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India. A leak of methylisocyanate gas and other chemicals from the plant resulted in the exposure of hundreds of thousands of people. Estimates vary on the death toll. The official immediate death toll was 2,259 and the Government of Madhya Pradesh has confirmed a total of 3,787deaths related to the gas release.
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The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that occurred on 26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine. An explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive contamination into the atmosphere, which spread over much of Western USSR and Europe. It is considered the worst nuclear power plant accident inhistory. From 1986 to 2000, 350,400 people were evacuated Nuclear crisis in Japan occured recently due to floods and damage to nuclear reactors. The Fukushima disaster is the largest of the nuclear accidents and is the largest nuclear accident since the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, but it is more complex as multiple reactors and spent fuel pools are involved. SCIENTISTS ASSOCIATED WITH TOXICOLOGY

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Paracelsus Paracelsus determined that specific chemicals were actually responsible for the toxicity due to a plant or animal poison. He documented that the body’s response to those chemicals was based on the dose received studies. He also revealed that small doses of a substance might be harmless or beneficial whereas larger doses could be toxic, thus explaining the dose-response relationship, a major concept of toxicology. He is often quoted for his statement “ All substances are poisons; there is none which is not a poison. The right dose differentiates a poison and a remedy”. His views which hold good even today include • experimentation is essential in the examination of responses to chemicals • one should make a distinction between the therapeutic and toxic properties of chemicals • these properties are sometimes but not always indistinguishable except by dose • one can ascertain a degree of specificity of chemicals and their therapeutic or toxic effects. Emil Mark has also stated that "There are no harmless substances. There are only harmless ways of using substances." Pedanius Discorides (40-90 AD) Dioscorides a Greek physician made a significant contribution to toxicology by classifying poisons as animal, plant or mineral. He also recognized the value of emetics in the treatment of poisoning. M.J.B Orfila M.J.B. Orfila, a Spanish physician, is often referred as founder of modern toxicology. It was Orfila who first prepared a systematic correlation between the chemical and biological properties of poisons of the time. He demonstrated effects of poisons on specific organs by analyzing autopsy materials for poisons and their associated tissue damage and also laid the base for forensic toxicology. 3

Francois Megendie Megendie, M.J.B. Orfila and Bernard promoted experimental toxicology. Orfila laid the foundation for forensic toxicology. Megendie discovered the mechanism of action of emetine, strychnine and arrow poisons. Claude Bernard Claude Bernard discovered the mechanism of action of curare and carbon monoxide. INCIDENTS OF IMPORTANCE IN HISTORY OF TOXICOLOGY The early cave dwellers recognized poisonous plants and animals and used their extracts for hunting or in warfare. • By 1500 B.C, written recordings like Ebers papyrus indicated that hemlock, opium, arrow poisons and certain metals were used to poison enemies or for state executions. • Poisons such as arsenic, aconite and opium were also known to Hindu medicine as recorded in the Vedas. • The ancient Chinese used aconite as an arrow poison. • Greeks, Romans and Italians used poison for execution and murder of their political opponents. • Socrates was charged with religious heresy and corrupting the morals of local youth and was executed with extract of hemlock (Conium maculatum) and Greeks recognized hemlock as the state poison. The active chemical in hemlock was the alkaloid coniine which, when ingested causes paralysis, convulsions and eventually death. • Demosthenes committed suicide by consuming a poison hidden in his pen. • Cleopatra, the Queen of Egypt experimented with strychnine and other poisons on prisoners and poor. She committed suicide with Egyptian Asp (Egyptian cobra sometimes used in executions). • King Nero used poisons to eliminate his stepbrother Brittanicus and employed his slaves as food tasters to differentiate edible mushrooms from their more poisonous kin. • King Mithridates VI of Pontus, was afraid that he would be assassinated by his enemies. He used his prisoners as guinea pigs to test the poisons. He started taking antidotes for many poisons. He consumed a mixture containing about 36 ingredients. But, when he was caught by his enemies and wanted to commit suicide, he could not do so and he took the help of one of his slaves to stab himself to death. The term mithridatic (meaning antidote) is derived from his name. • A lady named Toffana prepared arsenic containing perfumes and such cosmetics were named as Aqua toffana. These perfumes were used to kill enemies. • In France, a lady named Catherine de Medici along with Marchioners de Brinvillen used most effective poisons in the name of providing treatment to sick and poor people. Later she was imprisoned for killing 2000 infants. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS Historical developments in toxicology during various periods • Antiquity • Middle Ages • Age of enlightenment • Modern Toxicology • After World War II
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Shen Nung 2696 BC • Shen Nung the father of Chinese medicine is noted for tasting 365 herbs and he died of a toxic dose and wrote treatise on ‘Herbal Medical Experiment Poisons’. • Homer (about 850 BC) wrote of the use of arrows poisoned with venom in the epic tale of ‘ The Odyssey’ and ‘ The Iliad’. Hippocrates (4604

337 BC) • Hippocrates in his writings (400 BC) showed that the ancient Greeks had a professional awareness of poisons and of the principles of toxicology, particularly with regard to the treatment of poisoning by influencing absorption. • Theophrastus (370–286 BC), a student of Aristotle, included numerous references to poisonous plants in 'De Historia Plantarum'. • Nicander of Colophon (185-135 BC), physician to Attalus, King of Bythnia, was allowed to experiment with poisons using condemned criminals as subjects. As a result of his studies he wrote a treatise on 'antidotes to poisonous reptiles and substances' and mentioned 22 specific poisons including white lead, lead oxide, aconite, cantharides, hemlock, hyoscyamus and opium. He recommended linseed tea to induce vomiting and sucking the venom from the bite of a venomous animal as treatments. Sulla 82 BC • The first known law against poisoning was issued in Rome by Sulla in 82 BC to protect against careless dispensing. The law prevented people from buying, selling or processing poisons . Pedanius Dioscorides (40-90 AD) • The Greek physician Dioscorides made a particularly significant contribution to toxicology by classifying poisons as animal, plant or mineral and recognizing the value of emetics in the treatment of poisoning. The classification was accompanied by descriptions and drawings. Middle Ages The writings of Maimonides (AD 1135–1204) included a treatise on the treatment of poisonings from insects, snakes and mad dogs. His 'Treatise on Poisons and Their Antidotes' is an early toxicology textbook that remained popular for centuries. Maimonides also refuted many of the popular remedies of the day and stated his doubts about others. During the middle ages more of misuse of poisons to kill enemies was on the rise. Age of Enlightenment More recently, in 1945, Sir Rudolph Peters studied the mechanism of action of arsenical war gases and so was able to devise an effective antidote known as British Anti-Lewisite for the treatment of soldiers exposed to these gases. Modern toxicology It is a continuation of the development of the biological and physical sciences in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. During this period the world witnessed an explosion in science that paved way for the beginning of the modern era of various aspects of science. The introduction of ether, chloroform, and carbonic acid led to several iatrogenic deaths. • These unfortunate outcomes spurred research into the causes of the deaths and early experiments on adverse and toxic effects. After World War II • The 20th century is marked by an advanced level of understanding of toxicology. • DNA (molecule of life) and various biochemicals that maintain body functions were discovered. • Our level of knowledge of toxic effects on organs and cells is now being revealed at the molecular level. • It is recognized that virtually toxic effects are caused by changes in specific cellular molecules and biochemical moiety. BRANCHES OF TOXICOLOGY Veterinary toxicology - Veterinary toxicology deals with the poisons causing toxicity in animals. • Immuno toxicology - This branch deals with toxins that impair the functioning of the immune system - for example, the ability of a toxicant to impair resistance to infection. • Forensic toxicology - It is the study of unlawful use of toxic agents and their detection for judicial purposes. Forensic toxicology is concerned with the medicolegal aspects of the adverse effects of chemicals on humans and animals. Although primarily devoted to the identification of the cause and circumstances of death and the legal issues arising there from, forensic toxicologists also deal with sublethal poisoning cases. 5

Molecular toxicology - Molecular toxicology focuses on why and how chemicals cause harm to life. The basis of cellular and molecular processes leading to toxic effects is studied under molecular toxicology. • Clinical toxicology – It is the study of the effects of poisons/toxicants on human beings, animals and other living organisms, their diagnosis and treatment and methods for their detection etc. • Nutritional toxicology – It is the study of toxicological aspects of food/feed stuffs and nutritional habits. • Environmental toxicology – It is the study of the effects of toxicants, whether used/applied purposely (e.g. pesticides, herbicides) or as industrial effluents or pollutants/contaminants, on the health of organisms and environment. • Analytical toxicology – It is the application of analytical chemistry tools in the quantitative and qualitative estimation of the agents involved in the process of toxicity. • Occupational toxicology – It is the study of occupational hazards associated with individuals working in a particular industry/occupation and their correlation with the possible toxicants and also the possible remedial measures. • Ecotoxicology – It is the study of fate and effects of toxic substances on ecosystem. • Regulatory toxicology – It is the conduct of toxicological studies as per the content and characteristics prescribed by regulatory agencies. • Developmental toxicology – It is the study of adverse effects on the developing organisms occurring any time during the life span of the organism due to exposure to chemical or physical agents before conception (either parent), during prenatal development or postnatal until the time of puberty. • Toxicoepidemiology – This refers to the study of quantitative analysis of the toxicity incidences in organisms, factors affecting toxicity, species involved and the use of such knowledge in planning of prevention and control strategies. CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS
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Based on their toxic effects in the body as: o Poisons which cause death by anoxia  Poisons which make haemoglobin incapable of transporting oxygen e.g. Carbon monoxide, nitrites 6

In addition to the symbols, colour codes and numbers are used to categorise poisons. Blue colour is used to indicate the toxic effects on health, red on the flammability, yellow on the irritability and white as a special code.
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TYPES OF POISONING
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Acute Acute poisoning is associated with exposure to a relatively large, often single, dose of a toxic agent, this being followed by rapid manifestation of more severe clinical signs of intoxication. o It is also defined as sudden violent syndrome caused by a single large dose of poison. Sub-acute o In sub-acute poisoning the exposure level is lower and the survival time longer, than in acute poisoning, but the period between exposure and manifestation of signs of poisoning and possible death is again relatively short. o Symptoms of toxicity develop gradually. o In sub-acute toxicity studies, low doses of poisons are administered for a period of 90 days. These tests are performed to study, the No Observed Effect Level or No Observed Adverse Effect Level and to identify the specific organ(s) affected by the test compound after repeated administration. Chronic o Chronic poisoning is usually caused by multiple exposures to the poison, while individual quantities are not sufficiently large to produce clinical intoxication. o It is also defined as persistent lingering condition brought about by small repeated doses. o A relatively long delay is observed between the first exposure to the toxic agent and the eventual development of signs of poisoning. o Agents that cause chronic poisoning exhibit a cumulative effect. They either accumulate within the body or produce additive tissue damage. Once this level becomes critical, symptoms of poisoning develop. o In some cases, the development of symptoms of poisoning may be noticed many months after the exposure, even if there is no contact with the poison during the intervening period.
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In the chronic toxicity studies, the exposure time is six months to two years for rodents and one year for non-rodents. TOXICITY TESTING • Different types of testing methods are undertaken to test the toxicity of drugs and chemicals. • This includes acute toxicity, subchronic toxicity, chronic toxicity, developmental toxicity, reproductive toxicity, phototoxicity, behavioural toxicity, hypersensitivity, ocular and skin irritation tests, mutagenicity, teratogenicity and carcinogenicity. In addition, toxicokinetic studies are conducted to estimate the toxicity. In many of these studies rodents are used as experimental animals. CHRONICITY FACTOR • The ratio of acute to chronic LD 50 doses is known as chronicity factor. • Compounds with cumulative effects have a high chronicity factor. • A chronicity factor greater than 2.0 indicates a relatively cumulative toxicant. • Chronicity factor may be influenced by the tendency to accumulate vs. being rapidly eliminated or detoxified . • It may also be influenced by cumulative and progressive damage that occurs from repeated toxic insults to a target tissue. • A compound may have low acute toxicity, but if it has the tendency to accumulate in body tissues it can cause sub acute or chronic toxicity. Such toxicants are termed as cumulative poisons. • The chronicity factor gives an indication of cumulative effects of poisons.
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However, chronicity factor may be influenced by the tendency to produce tolerance. The biological system may tolerate higher dose after prolonged exposure. Potassium cyanide is an example. Its acute LD50 is 10 mg/kg, but pre-exposed animals tolerate 250 mg/kg. Therefore the chronicity factor is 0.04 for potassium cyanide. UNTOWARD EFFECTS DUE TO POISONOUS SUBSTANCES There are other untoward effects caused by poisonous substances irrespective of the poisoning being acute, sub-acute or chronic. These may be produced by certain drugs even at therapeutic dose levels. • Allergy –The individual becomes sensitized to a previous dose of the same material. • Teratogenicity (Greek word meaning monster) – The exposure to certain naturally occurring or man-made agents during certain stages of gestation results in malformations of the offspring. Teratogen is defined as an agent which, when administered during gestation, produces nonlethal structural or functional changes in the embryo or fetus. Some plants and drugs have been identified to cause teratogenicity. For example: plants like Veratrum and Lupinus and drugs like thalidomide and colchicine. • Carcinogenicity – The agent after a considerable delay may induce neoplasia. The compound has the ability to transform normal cell into progressively and uncontrollably proliferating ones. • Mutagenicity – The agent induces mutation or changes through a change in the genotype or genetic material of a cell by covalent modification of bases in DNA particularly generation of DNA, which passes on when the cell divides. • Certain common terms used in toxicology studies include Parts Per Million (ppm) is the term commonly used to express the quantity of toxicant mixed within another substance (e.g., feed) 1 ppm = 0.0001% = 1 mg toxicant/kg feed. • Lethal concentration (LC) is the lowest concentration of compound in feed water or even in air that causes death. It is expressed as milligrams of compound per kilogram of feed (parts per million or billion as ppm or ppb)
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Toxic concentration (TC) relates to the first recognition of toxic effects. The specific (thereshold) toxic effects should be identified when a toxic concentration is given. • Highest nontoxic dose (HNTD) is the largest dose that does not result in clinical or pathologic drug-induced alterations. • Toxic-dose-low (TDL) is the lowest dose that will produce alterations; administration of twice this dose is not lethal. • Toxic-dose-high (TDH) is the dose that will produce drug-induced alterations and administration of twice this dose is lethal. • Lethal dose (LD) is the lowest dose that causes death in any animal during the period of observation. LD50 is a commonly used measure of toxicity. • Median Lethal Dose (LD50) is the dose at which a toxicant causes lethality in 50% of the population or animals exposed to that particular agent/compound. • No observed adverse effect level (NOEL or NOAEL) is the largest dose that will produce no deleterious effects when administered over a given period of time. This study is generally conducted in two species (rats and dogs) at three doses by the route of choice. • Reference dose (RfD) is the highest dose expected to have no effect on the species of interest (often human beings) despite a lifetime of exposure. The RfD may be set at 1/10 of the HNTD or 1/10 of the NOAEL. • Maximum tolerated dose (MTD) is sometimes used to indicate maximum tolerated dose (highest dose not causing death). Other times it is used to indicate minimum toxic dose (lowest dose causing any abnormality). Thus, it is best to ask what is meant by MTD. • Safety factor (SF) reflects the quality of the toxicological investigation and the degree of certainty with which the results can be extrapolated to human beings.
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COMMON CAUSES OF POISONING The materials causing intoxication in animals may be naturally occurring or man-made. o Naturally-occurring - These are either inorganic materials or minerals, plants and the products of moulds, venomous snakes, toads and insects. The inorganic materials include fluoride, nitrates, copper, molybdenum, selenium and lead. o Man-made hazards – Man made hazards may cause accidental, malicious or intentional and occupational poisoning. The agents of interest include industrial products or by-products, domestic materials, pharmaceutical preparations and feed additives. Industrial materials o Proximity of industrial and agricultural operations in association with inadequate control of emissions. The harmful agents, which may be involved, include inorganic materials arsenic, lead, molybdenum, fluoride, cadmium, mercury, copper and chromium and the organic substances ethanol, cyanide and fluoroacetamide. Discharge of sulphur dioxide and acid rain, accidental discharge of radioactive material and the disposal of radioactive material and industrial waste chemicals. 11

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Domestic materials o Lead in roofing felt, linoleum, piping, paint, accumulators, used engine oil, golf balls, fishing weights and shot, phenolic materials in bituminous floor coverings, discarded clay pigeons, creosote and disinfectants, toxic plants incorporated into or used as bedding, house plants, gases such as ammonia, carbon monoxide or hydrogen sulphide, fuel oils, herbicides and human medicaments. Pesticides o This includes herbicides, fungicides, molluscicides, insecticides and rodenticides. Medicaments o Misuse or over dosage of pharmaceutical material can produce intoxication. Dietary constituents o Inadequate cooking or poor storage of diets or their constituents, addition of excessive quantities or inadequate mixing of the recommended quantities of preservatives or growth-promoter feed additives, and either the incorporation of toxic materials into the diet or their use in feedstuffs. Diagnosis of poisoning: INTRODUCTION Diagnosis of poisoning could be tentative, presumptive and confirmative. The evidences, which may be of use include o Historical o Clinical o Circumstantial o Pathological and o Analytical evidences.

HISTORICAL EVIDENCES Historical evidences play a major role in the diagnosis of poisoning. Veterinarians depend much on the historical evidences in the diagnosis of a case of poisoning. • Whenever a case of poisoning is presented, a detailed history about any change in feed, any animal introduced newly in a herd, the number of animals which exhibited toxic symptoms, the clinical signs that were observed, treatment given, if animals are sent for grazing and if so, whether the field was recently given pesticide treatment, etc. should be recorded. • Answers for many of the questions can be obtained from the individuals looking after the animal rather than the owner. CLINICAL EVIDENCES • This involves the signs presented to the veterinarian. If the animal is already dead, the source of clinical evidence is the owner, animal attendant or others who have seen the animal at the time of death.
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Caution should be exercised while considering the clinical evidences based on the observations of an untrained person. • The symptoms noticed differ from animal to animal due to the differences in individual response at a given dose level, the amount of poison consumed, number of doses consumed and the interval between them, whether the animal has eaten recently or not, whether the diet contained factors influencing the solubility and absorption of the poison, general state of health of the animal, age and breed of the animal. • Sometimes the animals show atypical symptoms. In mass poisoning incidents the clinical signs are likely to be of importance. • In addition to the clinical signs, diagnostically helpful information can be gathered from the odour of the breath or colour of urine or faeces of the affected animal. • The odour of breath will be phenolic after ingestion of phenol or materials such as creosote, bitter almonds after cyanide, garlic after phosphorous and mouse like after hemlock. • The colour of the urine will be dark green after ingestion of phenolic compounds, red after phenothiazine, brown or black after acorns and deep yellow after picric acid. • The colour of the faeces is dark green due to the formation of a copper-chlorophyll complex in animals suffering from acute copper poisoning. • Colour of blood and mucous membrane will be cherry red in carbon monoxide, bright red in cyanide and chocolate brown in nitrite and chlorate poisoning. CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCES • This cannot be the sole basis for a diagnosis. • It may be of help in assessing the direction in which further information has to be gathered. • The veterinarian himself should undertake a search of the premises involved whenever possible. • The investigator should bear in mind that the sources of poison may include fabric and fittings, covering and atmosphere within the accommodation frequented by the animal, discarded domestic or industrial waste, pesticides, food and water and any medicaments or mineral supplements provided. • Any changes related to these, which preceded the suspected poisoning incidence, like change of feed/fodder, spray of green fodder with agrochemicals, urea-dressing of crops may provide valuable information regarding the source and nature of the poison involved. • The investigator should also look for any factories in the neighbouring areas, as water and soil contaminated with these wastes can also add to toxic effects. The gas released from these factories may also cause toxic effects. PATHOLOGICAL EVIDENCES • Gross changes observed during post mortem or on histopathological examination of tissue samples may provide evidence. • More characteristic lesions are found in chronic poisoning. • The pathological changes in live animal that may be of use include discolouration of the skin and mucous membrane. • The colour of blood also gives an indication of the poison to be suspected – cherry red colour in carbon monoxide poisoning, chocolate brown colour in nitrate, nitrite and chlorate poisoning. • The odour, nature and colour of gastrointestinal contents also provide valuable information. • The odour produced by toxicants that give an evidence for diagnosis of poisoning include: o bitter almond for cyanides o garlic for phosphorus o phenolic for phenols and phenolic compounds o mouse like for hemlock o acetaldehyde for metaldehyde
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The colour of the gastrointestinal tract contents of interest include greenish blue for copper sulphate, yellow to orange green colour for chromium salts, yellow for nitric and picric acids and black for corrosive acids like sulphuric acid. • Hepatic lesions are produced by such diverse materials as antimony, arsenic, boric acid, iron, lead, phosphorus, selenium, thallium, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride etc. • Renal lesions are produced by irritant or otherwise nephrotoxic agents like mercury, lead, ochrotoxin, citrinin, sulphonamides etc. • The presence of flakes of paint, leaves, twigs etc. in the gastrointestinal tract will give an indication for the poison to be suspected. ANALYTICAL EVIDENCES • Toxicological analysis should be considered only when there is sound evidence that the animal has been poisoned and where at least the group of compounds involved has been established. • The samples dispatched to the laboratory should be individually packed in strong, preferably glass containers and clearly labelled with details of the species, age, and name of the owner, the date, the nature of the sample and chemical examinations required. If a preservative is to be used, ethanol is the best and a sample of ethanol used should also be sent. • Samples are usually best if deep frozen as quickly as possible after collection and the dispatched. • The analyst must be informed about the medicolegal chances of the case. Samples for analytical evidence:
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Sample or specimen

Amou nt

Comments Antemortem

Blood

5-10 ml 5-10 ml

Useful for detecting exposure to most metals, trace elements, cholinesterase, pesticides and ethylene glycol and also for evaluating erythrocyte and leucocyte morphology Useful for evaluation of electrolytes, urea nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen and organ function; exposure to metals, drugs and vitamins. Serum should be removed from clotted blood, taking care to avoid hemolysis Useful for detecting exposure to alkaloids, metals, electrolytes, antibiotics, drugs, sulphonamides and oxalates Useful for detecting recent oral exposures or drugs or toxicants excreted primarily in bile Useful for detecting ingested poisons of all types, especially those that cannot be measured in tissue ( e.g. organophosphorous compounds, ionophores) Useful for detecting dermal exposure to pesticides, chronic accumulation of some metals like arsenic, selenium. Postmortem

Serum

Urine Faeces Vomitus

50 ml 250 g 250 g

Hair

5-10 g

Liver

100 g

Major oragn of biotransformation. Accumulates metals, pesticides, alkaloids, phenols and some mycotoxins. Bile may be usesul for detecting toxicants concentrated by bile like lead. Usually frozen till 14

analysis Kidney 100 g Major organ of excretion for antibiotics and other drugs, metabolized toxicants, alkaloids, herbicides, some metals, phenolic compounds and oxalates Confirmation of recent oral exposure of toxicant Confirmation of recent oral toxicant exposure. Rumen may degrade some toxicants like nitrates and mycotoxins. Quantitative analysis is difficult as a result of variability of concentrations and lack of correlation with toxic levels in the tissues. Samples should be collected from several locations in the rumen and kept frozen till analysis. Useful for detection of cumulative fat-soluble toxicants like chlorinated pesticides and dioxins Useful for evaluating electrolytes like sodium, calcium, potassium and magnesium, ammonia nitrogen, nitrates and urea nitrogen. Ocular potassium and urea have been used to estimate time since death. Both aqueous and vitreous humor are useful, but should be collected separately Useful for detecting some neurotoxins like chlorinated pesticides, pyrethrins, sodium, mercury. Brain should be separated by midline sagittal section and the caudate nucleus collected for cholinesterase determination. Half of the brain should be frozen and half fixed in 10% buffered formalin Environmental Feeds 2 kg Multiple representative samples should be taken and then either combined and mixed for a composite sample or retained as individual samples to detect variability in the source or both Samples should be taken from multiple locations in a pasture or storage facility using a forage sampler for baled hay or stacks. Silage should be frozen to prevent mold and deterioration Entire suspected bait and label should be submitted if available Useful for detection of nitrates, sulphates, total solids, metals, algae and pesticides. Water should be allowed to run to clear pipes before collecting from well or storage tank. Bodies of water from the probable site of exposure should be sampled. Water should be kept refrigerated until analysis. Soil should be collected from root zone depth if plant contamination is suspected. Sampling from multiple sites may be appropriate. A soil scientist or agronomist may be contacted, if possible.

Stomach contents Rumen contents

500 g 500 g

Fat Ocular fluids

250 g Entire eye

Brain

Entire brain

Forages (e.g. pasture, hay,silage) Baits Water

5 kg

All 0.5 – 1 L

Soil /mud/ sediment

1 kg

Toxicokinetics: 15

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INTRODUCTION • Toxicokinetics differs from pharmacokinetics. In clinical toxicology cases one deals with: o Potential poisoning (not yet absorbed) o Actual toxicoses (altered physiology may alter kinetics over time) o Residue contamination of foods such as meat, milk, or eggs • Whether the problem relates to poisoning or residues, toxicokinetic data may be used either: o to predict 'normal' rates of metabolic change (activation or detoxification) and/or elimination, or o to choose methods to help decrease the toxicant concentration at the receptor (e.g., to limit absorption, or increase detoxification or excretion) • As compared to typical uses of therapeutic drugs, in toxicoses, kinetics are more likely to be altered by: o Saturation of enzymes involved in metabolism (detoxification or toxification) or of enzymes employed in carrier systems necessary for elimination o Organ system dysfunction or failure : For toxicant-induced liver or kidney damage that alters metabolism and/or elimination of the toxicant e.g. circulatory problems resulting in hypotension secondary to shock, acidosis due to exertion and seizures. Before toxicity can develop, a substance must come into contact with a body surface such as skin, eye or mucosa of the alimentary or respiratory tract. TOXICANT DISPOSITION

ABSORPTION AND TRANSPORT • Absorption follows either pulmonary or cutaneous exposure or oral ingestion. • Other modes of entry are subcutaneous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal or intravenous administration. • Absorption also occurs via mammary gland, uterus and eye. • Transport of xenobiotic from the site of entry through the cell membrane depends on various transport mechanisms like simple diffusion, filtration, facilitated diffusion, active transport, pinocytosis and phagocytosis. • Toxic effects may be local, but the poison must be dissolved and absorbed to some extent to affect the cell. • The primary factor affecting absorption is solubility. • Insoluble salts and ionized compounds are poorly absorbed, while lipid-soluble substances are generally readily absorbed, even through intact skin. For example, barium is toxic due to its absorption, but barium sulphate is used for intestinal contrast radiography because of low absorption. • Pulmonary absorption is important in the case of gases, materials that can be volatilized at elevated temperatures, finely divided powders or dusts and the small droplets associated with the use of aerosols and spraying operations. Pulmonary absorption also plays a major role in painters and workers at pertol sumps, cement industry and flour mills . 16

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All the soluble substances are rapidly absorbed via the highly vascular pulmonary mucous membrane. • Species differences in susceptibility to volatile toxic agents exist. E.g. Birds are vulnerable to poisonous fumes produced by overheating polytetrafluroethylene coated cooking vessels. • Cutaneous absorption may be significant with materials presented either in oily solutions or as emulsions and with some chemicals such as nicotine. • DMSO increases the rate and degree of absorption. • Powders are generally not absorbed via the skin in terrestrial animals with chlorinated hydrocarbons as an exception. • Skin abrasions increase the rate of cutaneous absorption. • Toxic agents enter the portal circulation via the alimentary tract mucous membrane. • Small intestine is the important site of absorption while large intestine is also important in non-ruminants. • Absorption from the stomach in dogs and rumen and reticulum in the ruminant are also important sites of absorption. • Hydrochloric acid in the stomach can increase the solubility of certain poisons and thereby increase the absorption. • Presence of feed in the stomach will dilute the toxins and thereby delay the intoxication or protect the animal against harmful effects. This will be greater in the ruminants. • However, this is not true always. ANTU, which is a rodenticide, will be vomited out if taken in an empty stomach, but recent feeding prevents vomiting and thereby increases absorption. • Constipation increases toxicity while diarrhoea decreases absorption. • In general, solubility increases absorption of poisons. • With subcutaneous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal or intravenous administration, intoxication can be produced by considerably smaller quantities than oral ingestion. TISSUE DISTRIBUTION • Distribution or translocation of the toxicant follows via the bloodstream to reactive sites, including storage depots. • The selective deposition of foreign chemicals in various tissues depends on receptor sites. • The ease of chemical distribution depends largely on its water solubility. • Polar- or aqueous-soluble agents tend to be excreted by kidneys; lipid-soluble chemicals are more likely to be excreted via bile and get accumulated in fat depots. • Knowledge of the translocation characteristics of poisons is necessary for proper selection of organs for analysis. • Highest concentration of a poison is not necessarily found in the organ in which it exerts its greatest effect. • Substances absorbed from the gut may be transported either in association with plasma proteins or circulatory erythrocytes. • Following their absorption, toxic substances will first reach the liver via hepatic portal system. • Hence, hepatic damage is frequently observed. However, substances that are entering after pulmonary and subcutaneous exposure may also cause hepatic damage. • Some toxic agents are selectively deposited in certain tissues and organs like o iodine in thyroid o lead, fluorine and strontium in skeletal tissue o arsenic in hair and nails o halogenated hydrocarbons in adipose tissue o primaquine in liver o mercurials, aminoglycosides, certain antifungal drugs in kidneys o paraquat in lungs • This affinity for the toxic agent does not necessarily result in the development of pathological lesions in these tissues.
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However, they are of importance while conducting toxicological analysis. The concentration of a xenobiotic in the tissues/organs is directly proportional to the free xenobiotic concentration in plasma, which further depends on its binding to plasma proteins. • Protein bound xenobiotic will serve as a depot since bound toxicant cannot cross the capillary wall. This also serves to lower the intensity of toxic effects. BIOTRANSFORMATION • A few substances are excreted unchanged. But a majority of substances undergo biotransformation or metabolism. These reactions are normally known as detoxification reactions. But this may not be true always. • Some agents that are non-toxic by themselves are converted into toxic metabolites and this is known as lethal synthesis. • Parathion is a biologically inert organophosphorous compound while its metabolite paraoxon is a cholinesterase inhibitor. • Fluoroacetate and fluoroacetamide are converted into fluorocitrate. This fluorocitrate inhibits the action of the enzyme aconitase that catalyses the isomerization of citrate to isocitrate, thus blocking the tricarboxylic or Kreb’s cycle and producing intoxication. • As in the case of pharmacokinetics, biotransformation in toxicokinetics also includes phase I and phase II reactions. • A foreign compound is seldom exclusively metabolized along a single pathway and although one may predominate, a given animal species often produces a number of different metabolites from a single foreign compound. • Interspecies differences in the capacity to metabolize foreign compounds can result in a much greater susceptibility to poisoning by certain materials in some animals. For example, benzoic acid preserved pet food can be toxic to cats, as they have poorly developed glucuronic acid conjugating capacity. • In some cases, the increased tolerance to subsequent exposures of a toxicant is due to enzyme induction initiated by the previous exposure. • Biotransformation of xenobiotics occurs in two phases. o In the first phase, metabolites containing hydroxyl, carboxyl and amino groups are produced. These are polar in nature. They may be excreted in urine without being subjected to conjugation reactions. o The second phase involves conjugation reactions like glucuronic acid conjugation, sulfation, acetylation, glutathione conjugation, methylation and amino acid conjugation. • The most common first phase reactions are oxidative reactions involving hydroxylation (acetanilide to paracetamol), deamination (amphetamine to benzoic acid) or dealkylation (codeine to morphine) of foreign compounds. • Products of biotransformation are occasionally unstable and decompose to release reactive compounds as free radicals, strong electrophiles or epoxides. • Epoxides have a strong electrophilic character and are generally unstable and react with nucleophilic groups in macromolecules such as proteins, DNA and RNA. This may result in faulty replication, transcription and synthesis of abnormal proteins leading to mutation and carcinogenesis. EXCRETION OF XENOBIOTICS • Xenobiotics are excreted via faeces, urine, sweat, breath or milk. • The rate at which a foreign compound is eliminated from the body will depend upon its chemical or physical form, the route and carrier medium in which it was presented, the simultaneous presence of materials affecting its solubility in the diet, whether or not it has an affinity for a particular tissue or organ and the species, age, general health and the functional capacity of the liver and kidney in the exposed individual. • The excretion rate may be of primary concern because some toxicants can cause violative residues in food-producing animals. • When the absorption rate exceeds the excretion rate a foreign compound will accumulate in the body.
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Organochlorine compounds, arsenic trioxide, metallic copper, lead and its salts are poorly absorbed from the gut as they are relatively insoluble. They are consequently excreted in faeces. • Many compounds are excreted via kidneys. • Excretion of toxicants in sweat is importance for detecting agents used for doping. • The lungs excrete some agents like coniine, paraffin and ketone bodies. • Agents of toxicological importance like aflatoxins are excreted in milk. • Bioaccumulation is said to occur when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater than that at which the substance is excreted. • As people spend so much time, for so long periods, in toxic environments in work place, even very low levels of toxicants can be lethal over time. • Naturally produced toxins can also bioaccumulate. • Bioaccumulation occurs within a trophic level and it is the increase in concentration of a substance in an individual’s tissues due to uptake from food and sediments in an aquatic milleu. Bioaccumulation also takes place in mammals. • Biomagnification, also known as bioamplification or biological magnification, is the increase in concentration of a substance such as the pesticides that occurs in the food chain. • Bioconcentration is defined as occurring when uptake from the water is greater than excretion. • This bioconcentration and bioaccumulation occur within an organism and biomagnification occurs across trophic (food chain) levels.
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TOXICODYNAMICS (Mechanism of action) • Cellular basis for toxic injury – Cellular damage is the basis for most toxicological injury. • Toxic injury involves quantitative differences in the function of cells, tissues and organs. • Cellular response of chemical toxicants occurs through both structural and metabolic mechanism of the cell, like altered membrane integrity, altered cell volume regulation, abnormal accumulation of lipids and pigments, altered protein synthesis and altered growth regulation. • Mixed function oxidases play a role in biotransforming xenobiotics to electrophilic intermediates. • Mixed function oxidsases are a family of non specific enzymes that act primarily in the endoplasmic reticulum to promote phase I metabolism, which prepares xenobiotics for conjugation and excretion. These electrophilic intermediates are believed to bind covalently to important cellular macromolecules. These macromolecules may be denatured by binding. • Elecrophiles also bind to reduced glutathione which is considered to be a protective mechanism in the cell. • Cellular macromolecules may also be damaged by free radicals. • A free radical is a compound with an unpaired electron a result of an enzyme-catalyzed addition of electron to a carbon bond, with subsequent cleavage. • Superoxide (active oxygen) is formed when some compounds are oxidised by mixed function oxidases to free radical, with electrons transferred to oxygen. This active oxygen reacts with polysaturated lipids, initiating an autocatalytic chain reaction, leading to lipidfree radicals and then lipid peroxidation. • Glutathione can be depleted which enhances oxidative damage and leads to cell death. Agents that deplete glutathione, increase cell susceptibility to lipid peroxidation. • Several major effects are initiated after free radical formation. Defenses against free radicals are built into cells as antioxidants like superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and vitamin E. SPECIFIC MECHANISM OF INTOXICATION • Specific mechanisms of intoxication include o Chemical injury – e.g. Corrosives, caustics o Necrosis of epithelial cells resulting in energy deficit and ischemia o Inhibition of / or competition with enzymes like cholinesterase 19

Interference with body metabolism or synthesis like uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation, inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation, inhibition of nucleic acid and protein synthesis and interference with fat mobilization o Functional effects on the nervous system like enhanced reflexes, change in permeability of nerve cell membranes to ions and inhibition of enzymes o Lesions of the central and peripheral nervous systems like neuronal necrosis, demyelination and impaired transport within the axon itself o Injury to the blood and vascular system like hypoplasia and aplasia of cellular components, reduced synthesis of haemoglobin, formation of methhaemoglobin, oxidative denaturation of haemoglobin, formation of carboxyhaemoglobin and coagulopathy o Exposure of agents with actions similar to normal metabolites or nutrients o Immunosuppression o Developmental effects o Carcinogenesis In the normal drug action when a ligand binds with the receptor a positive response is produced. Sometimes a toxicant inactivates a receptor and by inactivation of the receptor, no response is elicited when a ligand binds with the receptor. This is shown as toxicant A action. In other instances, a toxicant competes with the ligand for the same receptor site, and when the toxicant occupies the receptor, it prevents the ligand from binding and thereby no response is produced. This is exhibited in toxicant B action. STAGES OF TOXICITY DEVELOPMENT • A toxicant may produce toxic effects at any one of the following stages o At delivery stage o Interaction with the target molecule o Cellular dysfunction and repair o Dysrepair
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ACTION AT DELIVERY STAGE At delivery stage – The toxicant is present at the critical sites in the body and causes toxic effects without interacting with the target molecules. Some toxicants precipitate in the renal tubules and block formation of urine, like sulphonamides causing crystalluria.
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INTERACTION WITH TARGET MOLECULE • Due to interaction with the target molecule there can be various reactions like noncovalent binding, covalent binding, hydrogen abstraction, electron transfer and enzymatic reactions. The interaction may cause a reactivity in the target organ and also affect its critical function. The outcome of a toxicant target molecule interaction can be dysfunction, destruction or neoantigen formation.

Enzymatic reaction - Botulinum toxin acts as a Zn-protease and hydrolyses the fusion proteins that assist in exocytosis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in cholinergic neurons. • Dysfunction - Tetrodotoxin and saxitoxin, inhibit opening of the voltage-activated sodium channels in the neuronal membrane. • Destruction - Free radicals such as Cl 3 COO • and HO • can initiate peroxidative degradation of lipids by hydrogen abstraction from fatty acids • Neo antigen formation - Penicillin-bound proteins as antigens react with IgE-type antibodies on the surface of mast cells and this reaction triggers release of mast cell mediators (e.g., histamine, leukotrienes), which in turn may cause bronchoconstriction (asthma), vasodilatation and plasma exudation (wheal, anaphylactic shock). CELLULAR DYSFUNCTION AND INJURY • Cellular dysfunction and injury - The toxicant after interaction with the target molecule causes cellular dysfunction and injury, and no repair mechanism can prevent this stage. For example, after ingestion, tetradotoxins reach the sodium channels and block these channels and cause excess muscle paralysis. The dysfunction may be either at the cell signalling stage or at the cell regulation stage. • Development of toxicity by alteration in the regulatory functions or maintenance functions of the cell
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DYSREPAIR • Normally, the cellular dysfunction induced by toxicant target organ interaction may be corrected by repair mechanisms at the molecular, cellular or tissue level. When these repair mechanisms fail, toxicity occurs. Carcinogenic and mutagenic actions of toxicants are due to failure of repair mechanisms. Development of toxicity due to dysrepair of any one of the repair process

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Factors modifying the toxicity:
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CLASSIFICATION OF FACTORS The factors modifying the action of a poison include 22

toxicant-related factors like  chemical identity  physical characteristics  vehicle  formulation o exposure-related factors like  dose  route and site of administration  frequency and duration of exposure  time of exposure o subject-related factors like  species  strain or breed  individual differences  age  nutritional status  sex  pregnancy  diseases o environmental factors like  temperature  stress  ventilation TOXICANT RELATED FACTORS • The physical state in which a toxicant is presented will have a considerable effect on its absorption and consequently on its intoxication. • In general the greater the solubility of the material, the greater is the extent to which it is absorbed. • The state of subdivision of a solid material is also important. Thus, in the case of zinc phosphide, relatively small particles produce rapid death due to the liberation of phosphine, whereas larger particles are associated with delayed death due to hepatotoxicity. • When the material is presented in solution, the nature of the carrier solvent will be important. • Absorption from oily, especially vegetable oil, solutions will be greater than that from aqueous solutions or emulsions of the toxic agent. EXPOSURE RELATED FACTORS • Dose – Low levels of many toxic agents will have no effect, intermediate and repeated doses may produce either no effect or chronic poisoning, and higher levels may produce either subacute or acute intoxication.
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Prior exposure – Prior exposure of individuals to non-toxic levels of a poison can result in the development of a tolerance to its action. This effect is seen with nicotine in smokers, morphine in drug addicts and the anticoagulant warfarin in rats.
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Route of exposure – Route of entry of a poison plays a major role in modifying the toxic effects. In general, toxic effects are more when a toxicant enters through inhalation or intravenous route. ANIMAL RELATED FACTORS Animal species • Variation among the different animal species in response to a toxic agent is mainly influenced by whether the animal is a ruminant or non-ruminant. • In ruminants the diluting effect of the relatively large bulk of the rumen contents and the ability of the rumen microflora to metabolize foreign compounds will have a protective effect. • The relatively shorter digestive tract of the non-ruminants is more efficient in absorbing ingested materials and this makes these species more vulnerable to the toxicants after ingestion. • The anticancer drug methotrexate, is toxic to human beings, mice, rats and dogs. But, guinea pigs and rabbits do not show toxicity to methotrexate. • Rabbits are resistant to atropine poisoning. Rats exhibit toxicity to red squill, while dogs are resistant to it. Sheep are more prone for copper poisoning. • The anti-oxidants, butylated hydoxytoluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) are potent inducers of epoxide hydrolases in mice but not in rats. In general, rats have low epoxide hydrolase activity relative to mice and rabbits. • Hydroxylation (at least of sulfonamides) occurs in human beings and dogs. Some hydroxy-metabolites are excreted by active renal tubular secretion, while others are conjugated with glucuronic acid before excretion. • Cats are highly susceptible to aspirin toxicosis (related to low glucuronide conjugation). • Swine have low sulfotransferase activity, and thus little ability to conjugate xenobiotics to sulfate. Size of the animal • The amount of the material ingested per unit body weight determines whether or not intoxication occurs. • Individual variations in the contribution made to the total body weightby the digestive tract and its contents and the body fat will also result indifferences in response between animals of the same weight exposed to the samequantity of the toxic agent. • Marked differences exist among species, strains and individuals with regard to the amount of body fat and its mobilization. • Mobilization of fat can greatly reduce the availability of adipose tissues to serve as a depot for xenobiotics. For acute exposures, this can increase the amount of xenobiotic in non-adipose tissues including the brain, as well as, sites of metabolism and excretion. For animals chronically exposed to lipid soluble metabolically-resistant compounds, mobilization of body fat can elevate plasma concentrations of the xenobiotic increasing the likelihood of toxicosis in the animal (or in it's developing or nursing offspring). • Barbiturates when adminstered at body weight basis in Large White Yorkshire pigs may induce toxic effects due to the presence of large body fat. o Age  Very young and very old animals are in general more vulnerable to thevtoxic agents.  Very young animals are affected more because of their poorly developed detoxification systems and very old animals are affected more because of the poorer state of health and age related lesions resulting in lowered metabolic and excretory capacity. o Sex  There is very little difference between the males and females in susceptibility to toxic agents. However, the rat is an exception.  The production of malformations in the offsprings in females exposed to some periods of gestation and the effects produced by oestrogenic agents are also exceptions to this rule.
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General health  Presence of renal, hepatic or cutaneous lesions and gut stasis influence the susceptibility. o Nutrition  Inadequate quantity and quality of feed supplied and the presence of gut parasites and their consequential nutritional effects could have a marked influence upon an animal’s response to a toxic agent. ENVIRONMENT RELATED FACTORS • Environmental factors, such as temperature, humidity, and barometric pressure, affect rates of consumption and even the occurrence of some toxic agents. Many mycotoxins and poisonous plants are correlated with seasonal or climatic changes, e.g., the ischemic effects of ergot poisoning are more often observed during the winter cold, and plant nitrate levels are affected by rainfall amounts. • Air circulation also affects toxicity. Silo gases accumulate in confined spaces and settle to low spots. • Light also plays a role in modifying toxicity. Some toxicants undergo degradation readily after exposure to bright sunlight. General line of treatment of poisoning - I: INTRODUCTION • Basic approach in the treatment of poisoning is to treat the animal and not the poison. • On initial presentation of poisoning case, adequate vital physiological functions must be ensured immediately. • Antidotal measures are useless if the animal has lost one or all of the vital functions. • For stabilization of vital functions, ensure that airways are open and if necessary ventilate animal. • Prevent aspiration of vomitus by keeping head lower than body.
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Treatment is based on the following principles. o Removal of the source of the poison and preventing further exposure o Delaying further absorption o Hastening elimination of the absorbed poison o Providing supportive therapy o Use of specific antidotes REMOVAL OF THE SOURCE OF THE POISON If skin contamination is suspected, wash the animal well with plenty of lukewarm water. 25

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Dry thoroughly and keep the animal warm. Clipping of the hair or wool may be necessary. • Epidermal structures (wings, nails, claws, feathers, fur) should all be cleaned with the greatest care, paying particular attention to areas such as the ears, between toes etc. • The cleaning should be undertaken quickly to avoid licking and ingestion of the poison and to limit cutaneous absorption. • Use soapy water (preferably a soap with a low pH) rinsing with copious tepid water and repeat this as often as necessary and dry carefully. • The following must never be used: Organic solvents (alcohol, white spirit etc.) or oily substances, which may actually increase percutaneous absorption of toxicant. • Do not rub the area vigorously. Cleaning and drying must be gentle but thorough. • The eyes should be flushed many times with water or normal saline. DELAYING FURTHER ABSORPTION WITH EMETICS • Delay further absorption of the toxicant by the use of emetics. However, emesis is of value in dogs, cats, and pigs if done within a few hours of ingestion. • Emetics are also contraindicated in rodents, rabbits, horses and ruminants because they cannot vomit safely and effectively. • Emesis is contraindicated when o the swallowing reflex is absent o the animal is convulsing o the animal is sedated o corrosive agents, volatile hydrocarbons, or petroleum distillates are involved o risk of aspiration pneumonia is imminent. • Local and central emetics can be used to induce emesis. • Local emetics like saturated salt solution, powdered mustard, crystals of washing soda are useful. • Central emetics like apomorphine, xyalzine and tincture of ipecacuanha can also be used. Sodium chloride 1-3 teaspoons in a cup of luke warm water can be used. • Emesis can also be produced by placing a teaspoonful of common salt on the back of the tongue, administering crystals of sodium carbonate (washing soda), mustard and water or administering 10-60 ml of 1% copper sulphate solution. • Ipecacuanha o Ipecacuanha acts both as a central and local (reflex) emetic. o It irritates the gastric mucosa and within 15-30 minutes after administration, emesis is observed. o It produces a toxic metabolite and hence if emesis does not occur after administering the syrup, it should be removed by administering a gastric lavage. o High concentrations of ipecac are cardiotoxic. o Animals with ipecac overdose may exhibit arrhythmias, hypotension and myocarditis. o In dogs 10-20 ml of ipecacunha and in cats 2-5 ml of ipecacuanha will be useful. o Activated charcoal (a constituent of universal antidote) should not be administered with ipecac as the charcoal adsorbs the syrup of ipecac and prevents it from irritating the gastric mucosa and in turn producing emesis. • Hydrogen peroxide is used as 3% solution and is most effective if the stomach contains ingesta. H2O2 at 1 ml/kg orally is also successful. • Copper sulphate in a concentrated form is not recommended as it is an irritant and facilitates absorption of poison. • Apomorphine can be administered at the rate of 0.05 – 0.1 mg/kg. Apomorphine is contraindicated in cats and pigs. • Xylazine can be administered, as a central emetic in cats. GASTRIC LAVAGE AND OTHER METHODS TO DELAY ABSORPTION Gastric lavage o If possible a gastric lavage may be given to remove the stomach contents. This can be used in unconscious patients or in sedated patients.
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For gastric lavage, a rubber tube with a funnel at one end is inserted into the stomach via the mouth. o The end of the tube passed into the stomach should not have sharp edges so as to avoid damage to the mucosa. o Raising the funnel will allow the liquid to run into the stomach, while, lowering will have an opposite effect. o Gastric lavage is not possible in large animals like cattle. o Flushing with water is done 10 to 15 times till the aspirate is clear. After flushing with a lavage, precipitants and astringents can be administered. o Activated charcoal can be used in lavage as it enhances the effectiveness of washing-out technique. o In small animals the head must be lowered to an angle of 30° and 10 ml of lavage fluid (water or normal saline) for every kilogram of body weight must be gently flushed into the stomach. • When the poison cannot be physically removed, certain agents administered orally can adsorb it and prevent its absorption from the alimentary tract. • Adsorbants like slurry of activated charcoal, precipitants like tannic acid, oxidizing agents like potassium permanganate, precipitants and demulcents like egg white and butter milk are useful.
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After activated charcoal is introduced into the gastrointestinal lumen, toxins are adsorbed to the charcoal. If the charcoal-toxin complex stays too long in the gastrointestinal lumen, the toxin begins to desorb and is available for absorption into the systemic circulation. • Milk is also believed to act as the best general antidote. In fact milk promotes the absorption of liposoluble poisons. • A cardinal rule therefore is not to administer milk. • Activated charcoal can be administered as a slurry in water at 1g/5ml of water and administered at the rate of 2-5 g of charcoal for every kilogram of body weight. • Universal antidote containing 10 g activated charcoal, 5g kaolin, 5g tannic acid and 5 g magnesium oxide in the form of a slurry with 200 ml of water can be administered. • Universal antidote can be used when the specific antidote is not available. This only helps in adsorbing the toxin and prevent further absorption. • Non-absorbed poisons may be amenable to chemical neutralization if acidic or alkaline in character or to other modes of chemical inactivation e.g. a freshly prepared mixture of ferric hydroxide and magnesium oxide for recently ingested arsenic. • Changing its physical state may prevent absorption of a poison from the gut. • A soluble poison may be rendered non available by causing it to be precipitated, by causing it to be complexed or by causing it to be adsorbed. To hasten elimination of the complexed mass as saline purgative may be given. • In the case of ruminants, emergency rumenotomy can be performed to prevent further absorption. HASTENING ELIMINATION OF THE ABSORBED POISON • Elimination can also be hastened by the use of cathartics and laxatives. Contraindicated in dehydration.
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Osmotic cathartics like sodium sulphate, magnesium sulphate or sorbitol can be given orally. • Forced diuresis is an effective method of increasing renal elimination of many compounds. It is indicated in cases of serious clinical toxicosis, ingestion of a potentially lethal dose, and if normal paths of elimination are impaired. • Forced diuresis can cause pulmonary edema, cerebral edema, metabolic acidosis or alkalosis, and electrolyte imbalances. Therefore, forced diuresis should only be used when a significant benefit is expected. • Osmotic diuretics, loop diuretics and water as diuretic are useful. • Many drugs are weak acids or weak bases. If they can be kept in an ionized state, their resorption can be decreased. • By altering the urinary pH, it is possible to increase elimination by increasing the proportion of ionized compound. • Alkalinizing the urine (increasing pH) increases excretion of acidic compounds such as aspirin while acidifying the urine (decreasing pH) increases excretion of basic compounds like amphetamine and other alkaloids. • Acidifiers like ammonium chloride, ascorbic acid and sodium acid phosphate can be used. • Alkalisers like sodium bicarbonate, sodium acetate, sodium citrate and Ringers lactate can be used. Hower, the acid-base balance should be monitered closely when pH altering agents are administered. • Ammonium chloride given orally will acidify the urine. • Urine acidification is contraindicated in liver or kidney failure and myoglobinuria. • Plasma potassium and urinary pH should be carefully monitored during urinary acidification. • Sodium bicarbonate is used to alkalinize the urine. This is effective in treating barbiturate, salicylate, ethylene glycol and 2,4-D poisonings. • Care should be taken to avoid producing metabolic alkalosis. • Dialysis can be used to remove toxicants that are not highly protein bound. • It is an option in animals with renal failure and when very large amounts of toxicant have been absorbed. • Peritoneal dialysis is indicated in small animals. SUPPORTIVE THERAPHY • Body temperature o Hyperthermia is controlled through the use of ice bags, cold water baths and cold water enemas. o In hypothermia, blankets, infrared lamps, heating pads and hot water jars may be considered. • Respiratory support o A patent airway must always be maintained. In severe respiratory depression or apnoea, analeptic drugs and respiratory stimulants should be used. o Analeptics such as doxapram are effective. • Cardiovascular support o An adequate circulatory volume, adequate tissue perfusion, correct acid-base balance and adequate cardiac output should be maintained. If hypovolaemia due to fluid loss is present, lactated Ringer solution or plasma volume expanders can be used. o Massive doses of corticosteroids can be administered intravenously if adequate tissue perfusion is not available. o Intravenous calcium gluconate can be administered for a good non-specific inotropic effect. Digoxin can also be used. • Central Nervous system o Analeptics like doxapram can be used if central nervous system depression is noticed. If CNS hyperactivity is noticed in poisoning, CNS depressants are useful.
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Avoid phenothiazine tranquilizers (acepromazine, chlorpromazine) to control CNS hyperactivity (seizures) as they can lower seizure threshold. o For small animals, to begin with diazepam can be given. If unsuccessful, phenobarbital or pentobarbital can be used. o Methocarbamol causes skeletal muscle relaxation and may be useful in controlling seizures. • Acid-base imbalance, shock and pain o Measures should be taken to correct acid-base imbalance, shock and alleviate pain as the case may be. General line of treatment of poisoning - II: ANTIDOTES • Ideally an antidote is a substance fully capable of arresting the action of a poison without itself having unwanted additional effects on the patient. • The term 'mithridatic' derived from the name of King Mithridates has been used synonymus with antidotes. The term 'theriac' has also become synonymous with 'antidote'. This word comes from the poetic treatise Theriaca by Nicander which dealt with poisonous animals and his poem 'Alexipharmaca' was about antidotes. • There are a number of specific antidotes that are commonly used in toxicology. The following is a partial list: o Ethanol, 4-methylpyrazole for ethylene glycol o N-Acetylcysteine for acetaminophen o Ammonium molybdate for copper o Antivenins and antitoxins for snake, spider, and bacterial toxins o EDTA, DMPS for lead and arsenic o Methylene blue, ascorbic acid for methemoglobinemia o Vitamin K1 for anticoagulants o Atropine sulfate, 2-PAM for anticholinesterases o Sodium nitrite, sodium thiosulfate for cyanide o Antibodies for digoxin SPECIFIC ANTIDOTES • Specific antidotes reduce or abolish the effects of poisons through a variety of mechanisms, which may be categorized as follows: o On receptors which may be stimulated, blocked or bypassed o On enzymes which may be inhibited or reactivated o By displacement from tissue binding sites o By exchanging with the poison o By replenishment of the essential substance o By binding to the poison (chelation) RECEPTOR ANTAGONISTS • Nalaxone or naltrexone or nalmefene: This drug rapidly reverses the effects of most opiates. • Flumazenil: This drug rapidly reverses effects of benzodiazipines. • Oxygen: Oxygen competes with carbon monoxide for binding to haemoglobin. Carbon monoxide has a higher affinity for haemoglobin, but can be displaced by oxygen and more rapidly by higher concentrations. ALTERATION OF DRUG METABOLISM n-acetylcysteine o n-acetylcysteine is a reducing agent that counteracts acetaminophen toxicity. o It is most effective if given within 8 – 16 hours of ingestion of the toxicant. o Acetaminophen is metabolized in part by cytochrome P450 to an extremely reactive elecrophiloic metabolite which can covalently bind to cell constituents in the hepatocytes where it is formed, resulting in hepatic necrosis. o Binding to hepatic glutathione normally detoxifies this type of electrophilic compound.
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Ethanol The toxic effects of methanol or ethylene glycol are due to metabolism via alcohol dehydrogenase to toxic acids. o Ethanol can compete with methanol or ethylene glycol for alcohol dehydrogenase and thereby reduce the rate of formation of toxic acids. PHYSIOLOGIC ANTAGONISTS Calcium o Calcium channel blockers reduce the influx of calcium into myocardial cells, resulting in impaired contractility with clinical manifestations of cardiac failure or hypotension. o Increasing the extracellular calcium concentration partly overcomes this blockade and reduces these toxic effects. Glucagon o Beta-blockers bind to cardiac beta-receptors and can cause bradycardia, heart block or impaired cardiac contractility. Since they bind with a very high affinity, they are difficult to be displaced with beta agonists. o Glucagon produces effects on myocardial cells that are similar to those of beta agonists, but it acts by binding to an unrelated class of receptors. o Glucagon is therefore effective even when there is profound beta blockade. CHELATING AGENTS Chelating agents o Chelating agents are used in the treatment of poisoning with heavy metals. They incorporate the metal ion into an inner ring structure in the molecule by means of chemical groups called ligands (Greek word chele = claw, Latin word ligare = to bind). o The ligand donates electrons to the metal to form co-ordinate bonds. o It is the strength of these bonds, which render the chelated metal nonbioavailable and hence inactive. o After incorporating the metal, these agents form stable, biologically inert complexes that are excreted in urine. British Anti-Lewisite (BAL) or Dimercaprol o This chelating agent was developed as an antidote for arsenical gas lewisite during 1939-45 war. o Arsenic and other metal ions are toxic in relatively low concentrations because they combine with the – SH groups of essential enzymes, thus inactivating them. o Dimercaprol provides –SH groups, which combine with the metal ions to from relatively harmless ring compounds, which are excreted mainly in the urine. o As dimercaprol itself, is oxidized in the body and readily excreted, repeated administration is necessary to ensure that excess is available until all the metal has been eliminated. o Adverse effects are common, particularly with larger doses and include nausea and vomiting, lacrimation and salivation, paresthesia, muscular aches and pain, urticarial rashes, tachycardia and a raised blood pressure. o Gross over dosage may cause over breathing, muscular tremors, convulsions and coma. o BAL is far from an ideal antidote as it is rapidly inactivated, irritant and unstable. o Its intravenous administration may cause excitement, tremors and convulsions. It may be administered at a dose of 2-3 mg/kg by intramuscular injection but the total quantity administered depends on the amount of arsenic that is to be removed. DMSA (Mesodimercaptosuccinic acid) o It is probably the preferred chelator as it is much safer than BAL. It may induce a sulfur odor to the breath and urine. Unithiol (DMPS – Dimercapto propane sulphonate) 30
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It is analogue of BAL with reduced toxicity and high water solubility. This agent effectively chelates lead and mercury. o It is well tolerated. It has also been shown to increase the rates of urinary excretion of antimony, cobalt, silver in poisoning cases in man. • Sodium calcium edetate o It is the calcium chelate of the disodium salt of ethylene diamine-tetra-acetic acid. o Its effectiveness is due to its capacity to exchange calcium for lead in lead poisoning. o The lead chelate is excreted in urine, leaving behind calcium. o Dimercaprol may be combined with sodium calcium edentate when lead poisoning is severe e.g., with encephalopathy. o Adverse effects are fairly common and include hypotension, lacrimation, nasal stuffiness, sneezing, muscle pain and chills.Renal damage can also occur. o Dosage suggested for all species is 75 mg/kg. This may be given as a 2% solution by intravenous route as drips daily for three days followed by an interval of 3-5 days and then a further three days course. • Dicobalt edetate o Cobalt forms stable non-toxic complexes with cyanide. It is toxic by itself especially when a wrong diagnosis is made. o Toxicity due to dicobalt edetate can be treated with sodium calcium edetate and intravenous glucose. • Penicillamine ( Dimethylcysteine ) o It is a metabolite of penicillin that contains –SH groups; it may be used to chelate lead and also copper. • Desferrioxamine o It is product isolated from Streptomyces pilosus. o When desferrioxamine comes into contact with ferric iron, it forms a non-toxic complex of great stability. This complex s excreted in urine giving it a reddish colour and also in faeces. o It is not absorbed from the gut and has to be injected. o It has negligible affinity for other metals in the presence of iron. o When given by mouth it forms complex with iron in the lumen and prevents further absorption. Metal poisoning-As: CHARACTERISTICS OF TOXIC METALS • Toxic metals may be cumulative and stored in definite tissue locations. • Although metals may be cumulative in nature, toxicosis is not necessarily due to storage. • This is because some storage sites are toxicologically inert. • Route of exposure may be important in modifying toxicosis. • Metallic compounds can bind to enzymes, membrane proteins, or other essential structural proteins. • Metals may complex with one another or with the same protein molecule resulting in altered toxicity. • Organic and inorganic forms of metals may result in marked variation in expression of toxicity. • Organomercurials result in clinical signs and lesions commonly affecting the central nervous system while inorganic mercury results in acute gastroenteritis and renal damage. SOURCES OF ARSENIC POISONING Among heavy metals, arsenic plays a major role in causing toxicological hazards . Sources • The most common arsenic compound in general use is arsenic trioxide. • With alkalies, arsenic trioxide forms various arsenites.
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Heating of metal ores results in the production of arsenic trioxide some of which is carried to the surrounding in dust or smoke. • Copper arsenite was formerly used as a cheap pigment for colouring wall papers, artificial flowers etc. But it has been discontinued, as it was the cause of many deaths. • Copper acetoarsenite (Paris green) was used as an insecticide. • Sodium and potassium arsenite are extensively used as weed killers, dressings for grains, insect poison, sheep dip and wood preservative. • Arsenical dips are usually combined with sulphur for the use in sheep and cattle. • Organic arsenicals are used in the treatment of blackhead (histomoniasis) in turkey and also as general tonics and skin alteratives. • Acetarsol, neoarsphenamine, sulpharsphenamine and liquor arsenicals (Fowler’s solution) were used in the treatment of certain skin conditions and as skin alteratives. • Arsenic poisoning in animals is practically always due to human carelessness. o Animals gaining access to receptacles that contained arsenical dips, weed killers or insecticides. o Contamination of herbage by lead and calcium arsenate sprays. o Contamination of water and herbage in the neighbourhood of metal smelting works. o Animals licking wood preserved with an arsenical preparation. o Inadvertent use of arsenicals because of their resemblance to other preparations. o Ingestion of arsenical rat poison. o Following dipping in arsenical baths. o Use of contaminated deep well water FACTORS AFFECTING TOXICITY • Trivalent compounds are more toxic than pentavalent compounds. • Pentavalent compounds are said to exhibit their toxic effects only after conversion to trivalent form. • The other factors, which affect the toxicity of arsenic, are: o The physical state – whether solid, coarse powder or fine powder or solution – finely divided soluble forms are more toxic. o The condition of the digestive tract. o Nature of ingesta. o Method of application. o Weak, debilitated and dehydrated animals are more susceptible. o Poisoning is more common in bovines and felines. Poisoning is also noticed in horses and sheep. It is occasional in dogs and rare in swine and poultry. • Herbivores are commonly poisoned as they eat contaminated forage. • Chronic poisoning can occur due to long continued small doses. ABSORPTION AND FATE • The rate of absorption of inorganic arsenicals from the digestive tract depends on their solubility. • Soluble salts are more toxic and are absorbed through skin also. Absorption is very rapid from a fresh wound. • After absorption, arsenicals tend to accumulate in liver. • After continued administration, there is a tendency for arsenic to be stored in the bones, skin and keratinized tissue such as hair and hoof. • Arsenic stored in the tissues may be found there for a long time, even after it has disappeared from the faeces and urine. • Once arsenic is deposited in the keratinized cells of hair, it is irremovable, moving slowly along the hair as the hair grows. • Arsenic is excreted in urine, faeces, sweat and milk. • In the body, arsenic is found in association with protein and it is believed that it attaches to the sulphydryl groups of the sulphur containing aminoacids. MECHANISM OF TOXICITY • Arsenic reacts with the sulphydryl group of lipoic acid. 32
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Lipoic acid is an essential co-factor for the enzymatic decarboxylation of keto acids such as pyruvate, ketoglutarate and ketobutyrate. • By inactivating lipoic acid, arsenic inhibits formation of acetyl, succinyl and propionyl coenzymes A. • So there is inhibition or slowing of glycolysis and of the citric acid cycle. • Arsenic also inactivates sulphydryl groups of oxidative enzymes and glutathione. Pentavalent arsenate is a well-known un-coupler of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation.
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CONSEQUENCES OF TOXICITY • Arsenic affects those tissues which are rich in oxidative enzymes especially in the alimentary tract, kidney, liver, lungs and epidermis. • It is a potent capillary poison. Although all beds are affected, the spalnchnic areas are more sensitive. • Loss of capillary integrity and dilatation allows transudation of plasma fluid into the intestinal mucosa and lumen which results in sharply reduced blood volume, hypotension, shock and circulatory collapse. • Toxic arsenic nephrosis is common in small animals and man. • Glomerular capillaries dilate, swell and varying degree of degeneration occur. This results in oliguria and urine contains red blood cells and casts. • Following percutaneous absorption, capillaries dilate and arsenic causes blistering and oedema. • Skin becomes dry, papery and may crack, bleed and develop secondary infection. Tolerance to arsenite: Habitual use of small quantities of arsenic is said to render the body tolerant much larger doses. CLINICAL SYMPTOMS • Per-acute – In per-acute poisoning death is rapid. The symptoms noticed are intense abdominal pain, staggering gait, collapse, paralysis and death. • Acute – In acute cases the symptoms are salivation, thirst, vomition in possible species, violent colic, watery diarrhoea with peel off mucous membrane sometimes haemorrhagic, exhaustion, collapse and death. • Sub-acute – Sub-acute cases may live for several days and there may be additional symptoms of depression, loss of appetite, staggering gait, apparent paralysis of the hind quarters, trembling, stupor, convulsions, coldness of the extremities and sub-normal temperature. Proteinuria and haematuria may also occur. Arsenical dermatitis is common in man. • Chronic – The symptoms include indigestion, thirst, wasting and general appearance of unthriftiness, dry staggering coat, brick red colour of visible mucous membrane, weak and irregular pulse. • Some organic arsenicals have been used as production aids in poultry and pigs. 33

Pigs in particular have suffered damage to peripheral nerves characterized as demyleination following repeated ingestion of medicated feeds. This problem is not amenable to BAL but is sometimes slowly reversible following withdrawal of medicated feed. PM LESIONS • Intense rose-red inflammation of the alimentary tract. • Soft and yellow liver. • Edematous and congested lungs. • Haemorrhages in the heart, peritoneum, kidneys and liver. • Inflammation of proventriculus and gizzard in birds. Horny layer of the gizzard may be sloughing off. DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT Diagnosis • Symptoms like colic, thirst, straining and purgation and vomiting occur suddenly. This might give a suspicion for some irritant poisoning like arsenic. Chronic poisoning is difficult to diagnose. Treatment • Induction of emesis. • Gastric lavage with warm water. • Enema in carnivores. • Purgatives in ruminants. • Use of demulcents to reduce irritation. • Freshly prepared ferric hydroxide can be given but its use is doubtful. • Sodium thiosulphate (hypo) can be given orally and intravenously. o Horse and cattle – 8 to 10 g as 10-20% solution i/v 20 to 30 g orally in about 300 ml of water. • Dimercaprol (BAL-British Anti Lewisite) o Dimercaprol binds with arsenic-lipoic acid complex and forms arsenic-mercaptide complex. This complex is non-toxic and easily excreted from the body. o BAL is relatively ineffective unless given prior to onset of clinical symptoms. Overdosage of arsenic is common in horses and is known as ‘tying up’ in animals. o Water soluble BAL compounds like DMSA (Succimer) and DMPS (Unithiol) are found to be effective. • Thioctic acid (lipoic acid) can also be administered. • d-Penicillamine is also useful as a chelating agent. Lead poisoning: SOURCES OF LEAD POISONING • The various forms of lead include red lead, white lead, lead arsenate, lead sulphate or lead chromate. • White lead and red lead are used by plumbers, used in the manufacture of linoleum, golf-balls, roofing felt etc. • Lead acetate (sugar of lead) is an important soluble salt of lead used in the preparation of white lotion. • Petrol contains tetraethyl lead as contaminant. • Grass near busy highways may contain toxic amounts from auto exhausts. • Licking of discarded storage batteries may also lead to poisoning. • Sheep may acquire a taste for lead and preferentially graze high contamination areas. • Lead arsenate is used as insecticide. Plants sprayed with this insecticide may be toxic. • Acidic food kept in lead coated vessels. • Drinking water contaminated with lead battery effluent. FACTORS INFLUENCING TOXICITY • Age – very young animals are more susceptible. • Species – goats, swine and chicken are more resistant. • Pregnant ewes are more susceptible. • Soluble salts of lead like lead acetate are more toxic than insoluble salts like lead oxide. • Rate of ingestion – large amounts ingested in one or two days is more toxic. 34
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Presence of other toxicants and debilitating disease enhances toxicity. Debilitated, weak, poorly nourished and emaciated animals are more susceptible than healthy animals. • Presence of food or ingesta in the stomach or intestine delays absorption and thereby reduced toxicity. ABSORPTION AND FATE • Lead almost always enters the body through mouth. • Only a small portion of lead is absorbed and over 98% is excreted in faeces. • After absorption, lead binds to haemoglobin in the RBCs and serum albumin. Only 1% of absorbed lead is in free form. • It is in dynamic equilibrium with lead bound to erythrocytes and serum albumin. • Absorbed lead is stored mainly in the bones after redistribution and its subsequent mobilization is similar to that of calcium. • About 95% of the body burden of lead is found in the bone. This trapping of lead in bones is called as 'bone sink for lead'. • Bone sink is an important detoxification mechanism in chronic exposure to lead in small amounts. Although in long bones highest content of lead is noticed, after recent exposure, it is also found in the flat bones. • Deposition of lead in the bones and its subsequent mobilization form the bones is similar to calcium.Lead is excreted in faeces, urine and milk. • Lead crosses both the blood brain barrier and the placental barrier. MECHANISM OF TOXICITY • Lead produces toxicity by inhibiting certain enzymes having free sulphydryl groups. This inhibition is particularly noted with the precursors of haeme and leads to a decrease of haeme synthesis with resultant anaemia. • Lead poisoning is characterized by accumulation of protoporphyrin IX and non-haeme iron in red blood cells, accumulation of aminolevulinate in plasma and increased excretion of aminolevulinate. • Lead also inhibits haeme synthetase, which is required for incorporation of iron in the haeme molecule. • It also prevents the entry of iron from cytosol to mitochondria. CLINICAL SYMPTOMS The poisoning can be acute or chronic. But there is no clear demarcation between these. Both are cumulative poisonings. • Acute poisoning o Acute poisoning is common in cattle. o Symptoms are not usually seen until 2-3 days after a fatal dose. o Calves show signs by starting to bellow and to stagger about with rolling eyes and frothing mouth. o Animal appears blind, is greatly excited and tries to climb the walls of its stall, during quiet phases remains with the head pushed against a wall and is inert to any external stimuli. o Muscular spasm, tetany and death will result. o In less severe cases, dullness and inappetance occur over a period of several days together with evidence of abdominal pain and constipation, sometimes followed by diarrhoea. • Chronic poisoning o Chronic poisoning in cattle is characterized by anorexia, constipation, recumbency and death. o In sheep the clinical signs are similar to those in cattle but tetany is not observed. Pregnant ewes may abort. o In horses the symptoms rare not well marked. o Paralysis of the limbs, anorexia, a tucked up appearance, nasal discharge and jaundice have been reported. o Laryngeal muscle paralysis gives rise to roaring. 35
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Pigs are considerably resistant to lead poisoning. In dogs two sets of clinical signs namely gastrointestinal and nervous symptoms. Gastrointestinal symptoms include anorexia, vomiting, colic and diarrhea with general loss of condition. o Nervous symptoms include anxiety, hysterical barking, salivation and epileptiform convulsions. o Lead poisoning in cats is not very common because they do not chew foreign objects, lick painted surfaces or eat material other than foodstuff. o In birds the symptoms are anorexia, ataxia, followed by excitement and loss of condition. Egg production fertility and hatchability decrease. Mortality is high. In human the important symptoms are blue line in the gums (Burton's line), wrist drop, growth arrest and lead lines in the bones. There is opacity of the extremities of long bones as evidenced by x-rays. Basophilic stippling of red cells is also seen in humans. PM LESIONS • No observable gross lesions. • Ingested lead containing material may be found in the stomach and intestines. • There may be gastritis, hyperemia, petichae on various organs and brain edema. • In horses there may be aspiration pneumonia secondary to laryngeal paralysis. DIAGNOSIS • Diagnosis is based on history, clinical symptoms, post mortem lesions and presence of a source of lead and the lead content of the blood and faeces in a living animal. • Measurement of ALA dehyratase in blood. • Urine δ ALA is increased. Level of lead >4 ppm in the liver, 0.2 ppm in whole blood indicates lead poisoning. • Twice these levels are fatal. Nucleated RBS and basophilic stippling are associated with lead poisoning in dogs. (These are also noticed in autoimmune haemolytic anaemia). Differential diagnosis • The symptoms of lead poisoning especially the nervous symptoms resemble the symptoms exhibited in other conditions like hypomagnesemic tetany, nervous form of acetonaemia, tetanus, vitamin A deficiency, listeriosis, barley poisoning, brain abscess or neoplasia and encephalitis. • In dogs differential diagnosis should be with acute pancreatitis, hepatitis, intestinal parasiticism, heat stroke, encephalitis, rabies and distemper. TREATMENT • Di sodium calcium edentate can be used as an antidote for lead poisoning. This chelates lead to make it non-toxic and the complex lead EDTA so formed is rapidly excreted. • This itself is nephrotoxic. This drug is administered in cattle and horses 110 mg/kg i/v or s/c two doses at 6 hours interval every other day for three treatments. • In dogs 110 mg/kg subcutaneously as a 1% solution diluted with 0.9% saline or dextrose divided into four doses every other day for three treatments is recommended. • Intestinal lavage or a cathartic can be administered to eliminate the unabsorbed lead. • Thiamine 2 – 4 mg/kg subcutaneously in cattle with sodium calcium edentate is found to be useful. • BAL increases lead excretion in urine and removes lead from the parenchymatous organs. • It can also reach the brain tissue. Unithiol (DMPS) and succimer (DMSA) are also useful as chelating agents for lead. They can be given orally or rectally. They have excellent margin of safety and sparing effect on chelation of essential minerals like zinc. • d- penicllamine can be used in dogs given in empty stomach at 110 mg/kg daily for two weeks. This drug may produce undesirable side effects. Hence the dog should be monitored closely during treatment. • It should not be used in cattle, horses and sheep. • Whenever chelating agents are used, close monitoring of water intake and urine output is required.
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Vitamin D and calcium borogluconate and sedatives may give additional support. Oral magnesium sulphate will also be useful. • Magnesium sulphate will prevent further absorption of lead by reducing the solubility of lead. • Seizures can be controlled with the use of barbiturates and diazepam. • Cerebral oedema can be controlled using dexamethasone and mannitol. Since lead is an immunosuppressant, broad spectrum antibiotics are required to control secondary bacterial infection. Mercury: SOURCES OF MERCURY POISONING Mercury is available as elemental mercury, inorganic mercury and organic mercury. • Sources o Feed treated with mercurial fungicides, indiscriminate use of mercury containing drugs like ointments and diuretics, contaminated water, thermometers, mirror etc. serve as sources for mercury. o Mercury is also used in dental amalgams. o Mercury circulates in the environment because of its volatile nature and the earth continuously degases mercury. o Mercury is also released while burning coal. o Both acute and chronic mercury poisoning are rare because of the limited exposure to mercury. o More often, poisoning is due to consumption of obsolete mercurials. o Fish and other marine living organisms take up organic mercury from water and this mercury gets accumulated in these living things. This is known as bioaccumulation of mercury. o Though mercury is present only in small amounts in seawater, it is absorbed by the algae. It is efficiently absorbed, but only very slowly excreted by organisms. o Bioaccumulation and biomagnification result in build up in the adipose tissue of successive trophic levels: zooplankton, small nekton, larger fish etc. o Anything which eats these fish also consumes the greater level of mercury the fish have accumulated. o The consumers of such marine organisms are likely to have mercury poisoning. o Minamata disease sometimes referred to as Chisso-Minamata disease is a neurological syndrome caused by severe mercury poisoning. o Symptoms include ataxia, numbness in the hands and feet, general muscle weakness, narrowing of the field of vision and damage to hearing and speech. o In extreme cases, insanity, paralysis and death follow. This was first discovered in Minamata city in Japan in 1956. It was caused by the release of methyl mercury in the industrial waste water from a chemical factory. This highly toxic chemical bioaccumulated in shell fish and fish in Minamata Bay and the Shiranui sea. o When these were eaten, toxicity resulted in human, cat and dog. Toxic cases were reported for more than 30 years. ABSORPTION AND FATE • Elemental mercury may become volatile and the mercury vapour, which is lipid soluble, can be absorbed by inhalation. • Ingested elemental mercury and inorganic mercury salts are absorbed very slowly from the gastrointestinal tract. • Organic mercurials are highly lipid soluble and are absorbed well from the gastrointestinal tract. • Inorganic mercury salts are transported in erythrocytes and plasma. • They accumulate in the renal cortex and localize in the lysosomes. • Mercury easily crosses the blood brain barrier. • Alkyl organic mercury compound accumulates in the brain. • All forms of mercury can pass through the placental barrier and affect the foetus. • Mercury in elemental form is oxidized to divalent mercury by catalases in tissues.
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Clinical symptoms • Poisoning with inorganic mercury exhibits stomatitis, pharyngistis, vomiting, diarrhoea, dehydration and shock. • Oliguria and azoturia are also observed. With organic mercurial toxicity, erythema of the skin, conjunctivitis, lachrymation, stomatitis and neurological seizures are reported. • A condition known as mercurial ptyalism, has been reported in humans. • The symptoms observed in this condition include profuse salivation, swelling of the gums, loosening of the teeth and necrosis of jaw bones. PM Lesions • Gastrointestinal ulcers, necrotic enteritis and colitis are noticed during post mortem. • Pale and swollen kidney with renal tubular necrosis and fibrinoid degeneration of cerebral arterioles are also noticed. DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT Diagnosis Diagnosis is based on the level of mercury in the renal cortex, brain and liver. Differential diagnosis: Mercury poisoning should be differentiated from lead, thallium and ethylene glycol poisoning, encephalitis, poliencephalomalacia and hog cholera erysipelas. Treatment • Treatment includes administration of egg white, activated charcoal, sodium thiosulphate (to bind mercury), saline cathartic and oral d-penicillamine. • D-penicillamine is useful only if the gut is free of significant ingested mercury and only if the renal function is proper. • BAL is not very effective after chronic exposure to organic mercurials. Iron: SOURCES OF IRON POISONING • Iron is an essential mineral, but when a large amount is ingested, it can also be lethal. • Ingestion of 20 to 40 mg of elemental iron/kg of body weight may result in toxicosis. Ingestion of > 60 mg/kg is potentially serious and oral dose of >200 mg/kg is roughly estimated to be lethal. This kind of acute poisoning occurs primarily in dogs owing to, their often indiscriminate eating habits. • Ingestion of large doses of soluble iron overwhelms the body’s protective defence mechanism and results in free circulating iron, which causes severe tissue damage. Sources • Iron is used as an anti-anaemic agent. • Injectable iron preparations include iron carbohydrate complex like iron-dextran or irondextrin and oral preparations include ferrous sulphate, ferrous fumarate and lactate. Soluble salts of iron pose the greatest risk of toxicosis.
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It is available as over the counter (OTC) drug, in multivitamin mineral preparations and gestational iron supplements. Since most of these preparations are sugar coated, dogs have a tendency to swallow more tablets. • Iron is also used in fortified lawn and garden fertilizers. PROPERTIES OF TOXICOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE • Metallic iron and ferric oxide (rust) are poorly soluble and are not considered as a threat for toxic ingestion. Iron is poorly absorbed. • Iron absorption is influenced by extraluminal (level of erythropoietic activity, body iron stores and anemia) and intraluminal factors (ascorbic acid, dicarboxylic acid, sugars increase absorption, phosphates, oxalates, phytates, bicarbonates, tannins and fibre decrease absorption). • In evaluating the potential toxicosis, the amount of elemental iron ingested should be taken into consideration. • Ferrous salts are more bioactive and more rapidly absorbed. But the overall toxicity is more dependent on the total soluble concentration of elemental iron. • Toxicity is usually noticed in pigs. • Toxicity is more in piglets born to selenium and vitamin E deficient pigs. • There is no effective mechanism for excretion of iron. So animals with enough iron in the body are susceptible than those actually requiring iron. ABSORPTION AND FATE • Excess iron is not readily excreted. Normally biological levels of iron are maintained by selective absorption using an energy dependent carrier mechanism. • Absorbed ferrous iron is oxidized to ferric iron and bound to transferrin. In this form iron is transported throughout the body. • Iron is primarily used for oxygen transport by haemoglobin and myoglobin. • Serum transferrin concentration greatly exceeds that necessary to bind iron under normal conditions. This capacity provides protection against iron becoming free in the systemic circulation. • But, in intoxication, transferrin gets saturated. So the free iron interacts with the cellular constituents. • In the cells, iron that is not needed for production of protein is bound to ferritin an iron storage protein in the tissues. • Excess iron absorbed over a period of time is stored as haemosiderin or ferritin. • In chronic exposure to iron, production of additional trasferrin and ferritin are induced. But, in acute cases this does not occur. • Kinetics of iron is more complex and does not follow normal pattern. • Overall body load of iron is regulated at the point of absorption. But there is no mechanism to actively eliminate iron. • So animals with enough iron in the body are susceptible than those actually requiring iron. • Absorption of iron from the gastric lumen follows two steps. o In the first step the iron from the lumen is transferred into the gastric mucosal cells. o In the second step this iron is either transferred to the systemic circulation or it is lost when the cells are sloughed off during normal cellular turnover. o Absorption of iron is affected by the extraluminal factors like level of erythropoitic activity, body iron stores and anaemic status and intraluminal factors like level of ascorbic acid, dicarboxylic acids, sugars and amino acids which increase the absorption and phosphates, calcium, phytates, oxalates, bicarbonates, tannins and fibre which decrease the absorption. • Haemosiderosis is a localized process of abnormal iron pigmentation caused by increased amounts of haemosiderin in tissues. • Haemochromatosis is a systemic disease characterized by widespread haemosiderosis and micronodular cirrhosis (inherited disease in humans and Saless cattle). MECHANISM OF TOXICITY
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Iron can change its valance states from ferrous to ferric and then back to ferrous very rapidly. • It plays a major role in redox reactions. • Anaphylactic reactions are noticed due to the release of histamine. • True iron toxicity is due to o Direct damage to the gastrointestinal epithelium as unbound iron is corrosive and a strong irritant and subsequent absorption of iron in excess o Iron has an ability to act as and produce free radiacls. Free readicals scavenge electrons and in doing so produce additional free radiacls. This causes direct damage to the liver by depletion of glutathione and peroxidation of lipids o Hypotension, increased capillary permeability and vasodilatation due to ferritin o Interference with blood coagulation • Death is due to inadequate perfusion of vital organs.
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TREATMENT • In anaphylactic reactions epinephrine, antihistaminics, oxygen and proper nursing care. • If toxicity is due to oral administration, milk of magnesia to precipitate iron will be useful. • Egg, water, milk and emetics are found to be useful. • Desferrioxamine can be administered slowly by intravenous route at the rate of 40 mg/kg every 4 to 8 hours. . If given faster, there may be hypotension and shock. • Shock should be treated symptomatically. • Ascorbic acid administered orally with desferroxamine enhances excretion of iron. After desferroxamine treatment, urine will be reddish brown in colour due to increased excretion of iron (vin rose colour). Selenium: SOURCES OF SELENIUM POISONING (Including plants) • Selenium is similar to sulphur and may replace sulphur in amino acids. Elemental selenium is insoluble in water. • Selenite is extremely toxic and selenate is soluble and toxic. In Ireland, selenium toxicity is known as dog murrain. Sources • Plants have diverse tendencies to accumulate selenium. • Obligate indicator plants require large amounts of selenium (100 – 10000 ppm) for growth and survival. These plants can accumulate high concentrations of selenium as watersoluble amino acid analogs of cysteine and methionine. Growth indicates the presence of selenium in soil. • Examples include Astralagus (locoweed) and Oonopsis (goldenweed). • Facultative indicator plants absorb and tolerate large amounts of selenium (25 – 100 ppm) if it is present in the soil, but they do not require selenium for growth. • Examples include Sideranthus and Atriplex (saltbrush). • Non-accumulator plants may accumulate selenium if grown on seleniferous soils, especially where selenium ( 1 – 25 ppm) has been brought to the soil surface, while other plants cannot tolerate selenium and are stunted or killed by it. • Plants containing high selenium are not palatable and eaten only when alternatives are not available. • Feed supplements, injectable drugs, industrial and commercial sources and seafood are the other sources of selenium. • Cattle, sheep and horses may graze selenium-containing plants. Swine and poultry may develop toxicosis after consuming grains raised in seleniferous soil. Some of the medicated shampoos also contain selenium. • Industrial and commercial sources include photoelectric cells, glass and ceramics. • Fish and shellfish can accumulate selenium that exists naturally in the ocean. But the accumulation is not to a toxic level. ABSORPTION AND FATE • At high concentrations naturally occurring seleno-amino acids and soluble selenium salts are readily absorbed. • Small intestine is the primary absorption site; no absorption takes place in the stomach and rumen. • Plasma proteins transport absorbed selenium. • Selenium is metabolized both by reduction and methylation. • Urine is the major route of excretion in monogastric animals. • Ruminants excrete significant amounts of selenium in the faeces as well. MECHANISM OF TOXICITY • Glutathione depletion and lipid peroxidation are probable important factors in toxicosis. • Selenium replaces sulphur in amino acids (cysteine and methionine), possibly affecting some essential proteins. • Chronic selenosis depresses adenosine triphosphate formation possibly by inhibition of sulphydryl enzymes. 41

Tissue ascorbic acid levels fall, possibly contributing to the vascular damage caused by selenosis. CLINICAL SYMPTOMS • Acute o Due to ingestion of obligate indicator plants clinical signs are noticed in 1 – 2 hours and animals may die between 2 hours to seven days. o Symptoms include colic, bloat, dark watery diarrhoea, polyuria, fever, mydriasis, uncertain gait, peculiar rooted-to-one-spot stance with head and ears lowered, fast and weak pulse, pale and cyanotic mucous membrane, blood tinged froth from the nostrils, prostration and death. • Subacute (Blind staggers) o Occurs due to ingestion of seleniferous plants and may develop after a relatively short period. o Poor appetite, staring coat, wander aimlessly, circling, disregarding obstacles and stumbling over them or walking through them. o Respiration and temperature are normal. o In the second stage depression, in-coordination and fore leg weakness, animal goes down on its knees. o In the third stage colic, subnormal temperature, emaciation, swollen eyelids, near blindness. o Salivation, lacrimation, severe abdominal pain, inability to swallow, complete paralysis, collapse and death have also been reported. • Chronic (Alkali disease) o The name alkali disease has been attributed to consumption of alkali waters. o Chronic poisoning is caused by daily ingestion of cereals, grains and other forage plants containing selenium. o Lameness, hoof and hair abnormalities, partial blindness, paresis, in-coordination, emaciation and lethargy may be noticed. o Lameness is due to erosion of the articulate surface of long bones. o Hoof begins to shed. Shedding is incomplete and old hoof fuses with new hoof and form abnormally long rocker shaped hoof. o In horses there will be loss of long hair from the mane and tail will occur. o In cattle, there will be a rough coat, dullness and lack of vitality and emaciation with deprived appetite. DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT Diagnosis • Diagnosis is based on clinical signs and estimation of selenium in whole blood and liver. Treatment • Removal of the source, saline purgatives and high protein diet are said to be useful. • Acetylcysteine a substitute for glutathione may be effective. • In chronic selenium toxicity, addition of copper to the diet is useful to prevent selenosis. • Addition of inorganic arsenicals enhances biliary excretion of selenium and increasing the dietary levels of sulphur containing proteins is also beneficial. Copper poisoning: SOURCES OF COPPER POISONING • The salts of copper are widely used in agriculture and animal practice. • Acute toxicosis occurs due to ingestion or administration of high doses of copper. However, copper toxicity is not very common. Sources • Copper sulphate is widely used as an antifungal agent in agricultural practice. It is used in the destruction of snails. • Copper sulphate also finds a place in the treatment of parasitic gastritis in sheep. • Soils and plants fertilised using poultry litter and swine manure have more copper content. • Soil also gets contaminated with copper by mining and smelting industries.
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The most common and serious problem in copper toxicosis is molybdenum deficiency in sheep, an acute syndrome which suddenly occurs after chronic dietary exposure to an excessive copper to molybdenum ratio. • Genetic defects in some dog breeds (Bedlington terriors) cause excessive storage of copper in the liver. ABSORPTION AND FATE • Copper after ingestion is absorbed from the intestine and then it enters the systemic circulation. • In blood it is present in the erythrocytes and also in the serum. • From blood copper is taken up by the liver. • Other soft tissues also store copper. • Copper is excreted by the bile. MECHANISM OF TOXICITY • Copper salts act as direct tissue irritants and oxidants and cause coagulative necrosis of the gastrointestinal mucosa. • Copper accumulates in the liver and causes progressive hepatocyte organelle damage and cellular degeneration or necrosis. • It inhibits the vital enzymes and as a consequence there will be elevated SGOT, lactic dehydrogenases, plasma arginase and plasma bilirubin. • There will be sudden and massive lysis of erythrocytes called haemolytic crisis. This symptom is absent in non-ruminants, probably because they store less copper than ruminants. • Due to this crisis, the kidneys fail because the renal tubules get clogged with haemoglobin and necrosis of tubules and glomeruli due to excess copper in the kidneys. CLINICAL SYMPTOMS AND PM LESIONS Clinical symptoms • In acute poisoning the symptoms noticed are nausea, vomiting, salivation, purgation, violent abdominal pain, dehydration, tachycardia, shock and collapse, ending in death. • The faeces of the affected animals contain mucous and are of deep green colour. • In chronic poisoning there will be decreased ruminal fermentation and ruminal stasis initially. • Later, there will be impairment of liver function characterised by anorexia, depression, thirst and diarrhoea. • In the later stages there will be generalised icterus, haemoglobinaemia, haemoglobinuria and recumbency. PM Lesions • In acute poisoning severe gastroenteritis with erosions and ulcerations are noticed in the abomasum of ruminants. • A characteristic feature is that blood is found to be coagulated at the time of death. • In chronic cases, generalised icterus, enlarged, yellow and fragile liver and enlarged spleen is noticed. • Animal voids port wine coloured urine. • The kidney is bluish black in colour and this is known as gun-metal kidney. This type of kidney is formed due to the haemolytic crisis with chronic copper poisoning. TREATMENT • Treatment is often unsuccessful. • Gastrointestinal sedatives to reduce irritation and other symptomatic treatment is useful. • Administration of d-penicillamine and calcium versenate are useful. • Ammonium tetrathiomolybdate is found to be effective. • Daily administration of ammonium molybdate and sodium thiosulphate are useful. Molybdnum: SOURCES OF MOLYBDENUM POISONING • Molybdenum present in excess quantities in the soil may be taken up by plants in sufficient quantities to produce toxic effects in grazing animals. 43
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The toxic syndrome of chronic molybdenum poisoning is known as teart. The severity of the disease is related to water-soluble molybdenum content of the herbage. • Hay made from teart pastures is harmless. FACTORS AFFECTING TOXICITY • Non-ruminants are less susceptible. • The susceptibility of ruminants depends on several factors. o When the intake of copper decreases, tolerance to molybdenum toxicity decreases. o High dietary content of sulphate with low copper increases toxicity. o Water soluble form of molybdenum is more toxic. o Cattle are less tolerant than sheep. o Young animals are more susceptible than old. ABSORPTION AND FATE • The inorganic sulphate content in the diet affects the retention or excretion of molybdenum. • When sulphate content is low, very little molybdenum is excreted in urine. MECHANISM OF TOXICITY • The storage of copper in the liver of sheep and cattle is significantly reduced by an increase in molybdenum intake. • There is competition between molybdenum and phosphorus. • Molybdenum can displace phosphorus. This causes skeletal lesions. • Molybdenum forms complexes with catechols and this leads to bacteriostatic activity causing static effect on gastrointestinal bacteria leading to passage of liquid faeces full of gas bubbles. • Anaemia due to copper deficiency is another feature of molybdenum toxicity. CLINICAL SYMPTOMS • Molybdenosis in cattle is characterized by persistent severe scouring with the passage of liquid faeces full of gas bubbles. This is known as peat scours or tearts or teart disease. • Affected animals loose weight, develop harsh, staring coats and their condition slowly deteriorates. • Affected animals show abnormal pacing gait and this is called as pacing disease. • Depigmentation of the hair occurs and this is visible mainly around the eyes giving a spectacled appearance to the affected animal. • In less severe cases there may be a general unthriftiness and stunted growth in young animals. • Sheep and young animals show stiffness of the back and legs and reluctance to rise. This condition is known as enzootic ataxia in Australia and swayback disease in UK. TREATMENT • Daily administration of copper sulpahte is found to be useful. Non metallic poisoning: Nitrate : SOURCES OF NITRITE POISONING • Nitrates are non-toxic. But in the feedstuff or in the alimentary tract they are converted into nitrites, which are toxic. • Nitrite is 6-10 times more toxic than nitrates. Sources • Whey, preserved feed, fertilizers containing sodium, phosphorus or ammonia, well water and plants that contain more nitrates. • Plants that accumulate nitrate when they grow on soils containing excess of nitrates include Amaranthus retroflexus, Brassica napobrassica, Chenopodium album, Datura sp., Tribulus sp., Beta vulgaris, Curcubita maxima, Ipomoea sp. and Solanaum sp. • Due to the lowered activity of nitrate reductase, the nitrate content of plants will be higher on dull days and at night.
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44

During periods of draught, the amount of nitrate in the soil can increase greatly because of lack of leaching, reduced uptake of nitrate by plants and decomposition of organic matter. • When draught breaks, nitrate uptake by the plants may be high especially in the first week after rain. If hungry animals are allowed access to such plants nitrate poisoning may occur. • Water run off from fertilized fields, decaying manure and silage juices may lead to nitrate poisoning through water. FACTORS AFFECTING TOXICITY • Nitrates from plants are converted into nitrites in the rumen. These excessive nitrites are absorbed into circulation. • Pigs are more susceptible than cattle and sheep. • Fasting increases toxicity. • Rate of intake , variations in gastrointestinal nitrate reduction, diet, metabolic state of the animal, pregnancy are some factors affecting toxicity. • The amount of preformed nitrite influences toxicity in monogastric animals. • Foetuses and neonates are more susceptible. MECHANISM OF TOXICITY • Nitrite is the actual toxic compounds. • Ruminants are more susceptible to nitrates than monogastric animals. • Rumen microorganisms reduce nitrate ion to nitrite ion. • Nitrites induce toxicity by two mechanisms. • In the first mechanism, circulatory haemoglobin is converted to methaemoglobin. • One mole of absorbed nitrite reacts excessively with two moles of haemoglobin and in this process there is loss of an electron and ferrous form of iron in haemoglobin is converted to ferric form resulting in methaemoglobin formation.
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When 20% of haemoglobin is converted to methaemoglobin, toxic symptoms are noticed. • When 80% of haemoglobin is converted, anoxia and clinical signs are noticed and death occurs. • Relaxation of vascular smooth muscle and consequent vasoldilatation are considered to be the other mechanisms of toxicity. • The vasodilatation due to nitrites results in systemic arterial hypotension and decreased cardiac output. • Nitrates have a direct caustic effect on the lining of the gut, if consumed in large quantities. CLINICAL SYMPTOMS AND PM LESIONS Clinical symptoms • Abdominal pain, diarrhoea, muscular weakness, incoordination, accelerated heart rate, dyspnoea and in severe cases progressive cyanosis which is first visible as bluish discolouration of the mucous membrane and unpigmented areas of the body, coma and death. • Rapid noisy and difficult breathing. • Abortion in pregnant animals. • In acute poisoning dyspnoea with violent respiratory efforts or gasping are noticed.
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PM Lesions Dark brown or coffee coloured blood which clots improperly, brown staining of tissues, congestion of the intra-abdominal organs, peticheal haemorrhages on the serous surface, dilatation of the blood vessels, generalised cyanosis and blood stained pericardial fluid are common postmortem changes. DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT Diagnosis • Dark chocolate coloured blood or coffee coloured blood indicates poisoning due to nitrites. • Analysis of stomach and intestinal contents for nitrites gives a conclusive diagnosis. Treatment • Methylene blue intravenously at the rate of 4-8 mg/kg in cattle and sheep as a 1% solution. • Methylene blue is an oxidising agent which is reduced to leucomethylene blue by the action of NADPH2 - reductase. • This leucomethylene blue converts methaemoglobin to haemoglobin.
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second dose of methylene blue is recommended after 6-8 hours. Ascorbic acid is also found to be useful. • Large doses of antibiotics can be administered orally to reduce conversion of nitrate to nitrite by the microflora of the rumen. Phosphorous poisoning: SOURCES AND MECHANISM OF TOXICITY • Accidental ingestion of fertilizer, baits containing lumps of white phosphorus kept for rats, pets and ants, ingestion of rats poisoned with phophorus baits. • Red phosphorus is inert and non toxic while white or yellow phosphorus is toxic. • Exact mechanism of toxicity is not known. • Local caustic action is responsible for the gastroenteritis and diarrhoea. CLINICAL SYMPTOMS, DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT Clinical symptoms • Violent convulsions, severe CNS depression and coma are noticed in per-acute cases. • Salivation, nausea, vomition, severe diarrhoea, fever, polydipsia and polyuria are observed in acute cases. • Chronic toxicity is rare. Diagnosis • Diagnosis mainly depends on garlic odour of the gastrointestinal contents. • Extravasation of blood into the subcutaneous tissues and muscles. • Estimation of phosphorus in blood, vomitus, intestinal contents and faeces. Treatment • No specific treatment is available. • Activated charcoal, emetics and saline purgatives are useful. • Symptomatic treatment with demulcents and astringents. SOURCES OF UREA POISONING
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Urea and other organic and inorganic sources of nitrogen are added to ruminant rations as a source of non-protein nitrogen.
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It is also used as a fertilizer. Ruminants generally obtain excess urea in feeds or in urea molasses mixtures. Sometimes mixing may not be proper and sometimes animals which are not accustomed to ingesting urea may ingest too much of it. • Ammonium salts are used as expectorants and in urolithiasis. • Urea, biuret and ammonia serve as non protein nitrogenous agents. PROPERTIES OF TOXICOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE • Urea and other commonly used non-protein nitrogen have the ability to liberate ammonia.
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Urease is present in many plants and microorganisms and hence is present in the rumen. • Hydrolysis of urea is speeded up by urease and an alkaline pH. • Excess urea can liberate sufficient ammonium ions to make the rumen contents more alkaline which in turn speeds up further hydrolysis of urea. • Toxicosis results from the accumulation of ammonia in the animal. • Other factors, which enhance urea toxicosis, are o Rapid ingestion o A diet low in energy and protein and high in fiber o Ingestion of palatable urea concentrate such as urea molasses mixtures o High pH in the rumen o High body temperature o Water deficiency and o Feeds rich in urease like soyabeans o Stress o Hepatic insufficiency ABSORPTION AND FATE • In the rumen, ammonia liberated is in the form of ammonium ion and hence it cannot be absorbed. • The rate of ammonia production depends primarily on the amount of ration ingested, amount of urease in the ruminal contents or the diet and pH of the ruminal contents. • At rumen pH 6.2 major fraction of the N2 released exists as NH4+ ions. This charged ion is highly water soluble and poorly absorbed.
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At pH 9, NH3/NH4+ reaches to one (pKa of ammonium ion is 9.3) and large amount of ammonia is available for absorption. • If rumen pH is elevated to 10 or above, then ammonia will be in soluble form and lacks charge and can be absorbed.
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In the blood at a pH of 7.4, almost all the ammonia is in the form of ions and cannot cross the cell membrane. • In the normal course, liver ammonia is converted into urea by the urea cycle or incorporated into glutamic acid in the synthesis of glutamine. • Both these detoxification processes are enzymatic and depend on substrates produced by citric acid cycle. MECHANISM OF ACTION • Toxicity of urea and non-protein nitrogen is due to ammonia absorbed from the stomach. • When the level of ammonia is high, the animal cannot detoxify ammonia fast because the urea and glutamine synthesizing mechanisms are saturated. • Increased ammonia leads to inhibition of citric acid cycle. • There is an increase in anaerobic glycolysis, blood glucose and blood lactate. • Acidosis is manifested. • A decreased energy production and cellular respiration leads to convulsions. CLINICAL SYMPTOMS AND PM LESIONS Clinical signs • Sometimes affected animal is found dead and sometimes the onset is slightly delayed. • The animal quickly dies after manifesting weakness, dyspnoea, severe colic and terminal toxic convulsions. • In some instances the onset of signs takes several hours and a range of clinical symptoms are seen. • Behavioural abnormalities like restlessness and dullness initially, later signs of excitation, head pressing, abnormal posturing, jumping over unseen objects and maniacal behaviour.
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Nervous phenomena like initial hyperaesthesia, tremors, twitching and spasm of muscles beginning from eyelids and proceeding towards the tail are noticed. • Autonomic manifestations include salivation, bradycardia, hypertension and severe colic. • Gastrointestinal signs include rumen atony, bloat, teeth grinding, groaning, kicking at the abdomen and other evidence of colic. Terminally ill animals may regurgitate and aspirate the rumen contents. • Locomotor disturbances like initial in-coordination and later staggering and stumbling prior to collapse. Post mortem lesions • No characteristic lesions are noticed in urea poisoning. Mild pulmonary edema with lung congestion and petichiae are also noticed. • Animals bloat rapidly and the carcasses decompose more rapidly. DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT Diagnosis • Diagnosis is based on history, clinical symptoms, post mortem lesions, laboratory investigations like BUN, blood ammonia concentration, ruminal pH, analysis of feed, stomach and ruminal contents for urea or ammonia. Treatment • In animals that are not too ill, cold water-acetic acid treatment can be given. 19-38 litres of water and 3.8litres of 5% acetic acid can be administered to an adult cow. By diluting the ruminal contents and by decreasing the ruminal pH and temperature, hydrolysis of urea can be slowed. • Hastening formation of urea from ammonia can decrease blood ammonia level. Larginine and N-Carbamyl-L-glutamate can stimulate urea cycle. But this treatment is doubtful. • Intravenous fluids should be administered to ensure adequate urine flow. • If bloat is noticed, it should be treated immediately. • Emptying the rumen provides prompt relief from urea toxicosis. But it is difficult to carry out the emptying of ruminal contents. • Convulsions can be controlled by pentobarbital sodium administration.
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Non metaalic poisoning: salt, fluorine etc:

SOURCES OF SODIUM CHLORIDE POISONING (Salt poisoning) • Common salt is added to the feed routinely. • However, toxicity may occur due to over dosage. This salt toxicity is also known as water dep supply of drinking water is available. • Poultry and pigs are more susceptible. • Young chicks are more susceptible because of their indiscriminate feeding behaviour, poor se filtration area. MECHANISM OF TOXICITY • The exact mechanism is not known. Disturbance in sodium and water balance is considered t • Sodium ions cause a mild irritation, diarrhoea and dehydration. • Hypertonicity, hypernatraemia, shrinkage of kidney tubules, deposition of sodium crystals in • Shrinkage of capillary vascular endothelial cells in the brain meninges causes stimulation of c water from blood to interstitial spaces and development of brain or cerebral oedema and hypoxia • Death from salt poisoning appears to be due to severe upset in the tissue water balance, res • kidneys and th intestinal tract to remove excess water from the blood stream, coupled with the effects due to ex • Breakdown in the blood brain barrier has also been suggested as a mechanism for toxicity.

DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT Diagnosis • Diagnosis is based on history, increased thirst and other clinical symptoms, post mortem changes, circumstantial evidences and increased sodium level in the plasma. Treatment • There is no specific treatment. • Salt free fresh water must be given initially in small quantities at more frequent intervals. • Isotonic or hypertonic saline intraperitoneally, gastrointestinal sedatives and • CNS depressants have been found useful. • About 50 per cent of affected animals die irrespective of treatment. Flourine: SOURCES OF FLUORIDE POISONING (Fluorosis) • Toxic quantities of fluorides occur naturally in some feed products like raw rock phosphates, • produced from them, partially defluorinated phosphates and the phosphatic limestones. • In certain areas the drinking water usually from deep wells contains high levels of fluorides. • Factory contamination also adds to increased fluorides in water. Sodium fluoride is • more toxic than calcium fluoride. Properties of toxicological importance • Chronic toxicity is seen in herbivores especially in dairy cows. • Acute toxicity is rare. • Level of fluoride, duration of exposure, solubility of the ingested fluorides, age and • nutritional status of the animal alter the levels of toxicity. • When solubility is higher, the toxicity is also higher. ABSORPTION AND FATE • Absorbed well from the gastrointestinal tract. • 96-99% of the absorbed fluoride is incorporated into hydroxyapatite crystalline structure 50

of the bone. Accumulation is proportional to the duration and rate of exposure. Fluoride is depleted slowly from the bones. Accumulation in skeleton is not of toxicological significance in foetal bone. MECHANISM OF TOXICITY • Excessive fluoride results in delayed and impaired mineralization of teeth and skeleton. • In the teeth, fluoride damages the ameloblasts and odontoblasts. This leads to abnormalities • on developing teeth. • In fully developed teeth, enamel formation does not occur and this leads to rapid and excess • wear of molars and incisors. • Oxidation of organic material in the areas of wear results in brown or black discolouration. • In the bones fluorides disrupt osteogenesis, causes acceleration of bone remodelling with • production of abnormal bones. • Occasionally osteoporosis may also be caused. CLINICAL SYMPTOMS AND TREATMENT Clinical symptoms • In acute cases the symptoms include excitement, clonic convulsions, bladder and • bowel incontinence, stiffness and weakness, weight loss, decreased milk production, • excessive salivation, nausea and vomiting, cardiac failure and death. • In chronic cases the symptoms include mottled and pitted enamel, unevenly worn teeth, • apendicular lameness, unnatural posture, generalised stiffness, cachexia, poor performance • and dull hair coat. Lapping of water indicates dental pain. • Exostosis of long bone extremities which are painful. Lesions • The teeth of affected animals will have periodic radiolucent areas. • The affected bones will be enlarged and chalky white in colour with no lustre. • the periosteal surface will be rough. • Bone marrow cavity is diminished and shows gelatinous degeneration and aplastic anaemia. Treatment • Treatment includes administration of aluminium sulphate, aluminium chloride, • calcium aluminate, calcium carbonate and defluorinated phosphates. CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING • Carbon monoxide is produced due to incomplete combustion of organic matter. • Carbon monoxide converts haemoglobin to carboxyhaemoglobin and thus the • oxygen carrying capacity is affected.
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Blood is bright red in colour and the mucous membrane is healthy pink. Oxygen can be given as treatment. Carbon monoxide has 200 times more affinity than oxygen for haemoglobin. Blood transfusion can also be tried. 51

SULPHUR DIOXIDE POISONING • Sulfur dioxide poisoning has been reported in animals grazing in the vicinity of copper works • Exposure to a concentration of 500 ppm of the gas in air for one hour is considered to be dan • Another potential hazard has been noticed after the introduction of sodium bisulphite as • a preservative for silage; sulfur dioxide is evolved from the bisulfite during the fermentation • Severe intoxication from silage preserved with bisulfite is not considered to be important • because of the anorexia noticed after consuming the contaminated silage. • H 2 S0 4 present as mist in air causes laryngeal spasm and deep lung damage which includes • degeneration of respiratory tract epithelium, hyperemia, edema, emphysema and hemorrhag • There is no specific antidote. HYDROGEN SULPHIDE POISONING • Hydrogen sulphide is released by the decomposition of sulphur compounds and • is found in petroleum refineries, tanneries, mines and rayon industries. • It is intensely toxic and relatively small amount are required to cause death. • The gas may be formed from sulphur within the gut or from sulphate in the rumen. • H 2 S is said to inhibit enzyme systems concerned in cellular respiration and to paralyze • the respiratory system. • Symptoms are dyspnoea and cyanosis, decrease of reflex activity and convulsions. • Post mortem findings include noncoagulation of the blood, endocardial and laryngeal hemorr and spleen, hyperemia and edema of the digestive tract. • Carbon dioxide may be a physiological antidote. • Inhalation of a mixture of oxygen (90%) and CO 2 (10%) • may increase the tolerance of animals to H 2 S. • Adequate ventilation is necessary. NITROGEN DIOXIDE POISONING • Animals are exposed to nitrogen dioxide in two ways. • It is formed in fermenting silage and also is produced within the rumen from plant nitrates. • It is postulated that high rates of fertilization increases the nitrate contents of plants. • When the nitrate containing forage is fermented in silo, nitric acid is formed which then • breaks down to release NO and N0 2• • Cattle, pigs and chickens have been reported to die from exposure to this gas. • It causes pulmonary lesions. • The effects of N0 2 in the lung are likely to be initiated by the peroxidation of lipids. • A condition in man known as "silo fillers disease" has been shown to be due to inhalation • of nitrogen dioxide formed in silos. • The safety limit value for continuous exposure is only 1 ppm. • Animals have survived exposure of 25 ppm. • Symptoms include apnoea, progressive dyspnoea, lacrimation, excessive salivation, grunting • anorexia, emaciation and dehydration. • Pathologic changes include methemoglobinemia, dark red kidneys and necrosis of skeletal m • Pulmonary lesions are hyperemia, edema, hemorrhage, bronchiolitis, infarction and emphyse • No specific treatment is available. Phytotoxins: Introduction: INTRODUCTION • Plants are the common sources for poisoning in cattle and buffaloes. • The plants contain alkaloids, glycosides, toxalbumin, essential oils, resins, bitter principles etc., which are of importance toxicologically besides their pharmacologic actions. • These phytotoxins also have public health impact as hazardous levels of toxins. • Phytotoxins are referred to as secondary plant metabolites. • These metabolites do not have any apparent function in the plant. • They also do not have nutrient characteristics for human beings. • They only serve as defence mechanisms or survival adaptations. • These are used as defences against predators, parasites and diseases, for inter species competition and to facilitate reproductive processes. 52

Phytotoxins: Alkaloides and glycosides ATROPA BELLADONNA Atropa belladonna (Deadly nightshade) This plant contains atropine an alkaloid. • Poisoning due to the plant is comparatively less due to the unattractive nature of the plant. • Herbivores are resistant compared to carnivores. • Rabbits show high resistance due to the presence of atropine metabolising enzyme atropinase. • The important symptoms noticed are nervous symptoms like delerium with hallucinations, dryness of mouth and mucous membrane, thirst, dilated pupils, visual disturbances due to loss of accommodation to vision, occasional blindness, increased temperature, peripheral vasodilatation, ruminal atony and the animal is unable to stand. • Post mortem changes include catarrhal inflammation of the stomach and small intestine. ONIUM MACULATUM (Hemlock) • This plant can be easily identified by the distinct mouse like odour emitted by all parts of the plant when crushed or bruised. • This plant contains many alkaloids of which coniine is the most important alkaloid. • Coniine produces nicotine like action in first-stimulating and then depressing the autonomic ganglia. • It also has curare like actions in paralyzing the motor nerve endplates of skeletal muscles. • The clinical symptoms include, papillary dilatation, weakness and a staggering gait, initially the pulse is low and later it becomes rapid and thready, respiration becomes slow, laboured and irregular and respiration is arrested before the heart beat stops. • Consciousness is not usually lost. • The alkaloid is excreted from the body through lungs and kidneys. Hence the exhaled air and urine have peculiar mouse-like smell. • The plant can produce teratogenic effects. • The post-mortem changes are not characteristic. • Treatment should be aimed at removing the source, emptying the stomach contents, administering purgatives and tannic acid to neutralize the alkaloid. • Stimulants are also found to be useful. DATURA STROMONIUM (Thorn apple, Jimson weed) • Cats, dogs and birds are more toxic. • The alkaloid of this plant is related to atropine. • The toxin is present in the entire plant, but is most concentrated in the seeds. • In cattle it causes dilatation of the pupil, staggering gait and other parasympatholytictic effects. • In sheep and goat there are impaired movement, dyspnoea, tremor, recumbency, hyperaesthesia, and rapid respiration and reduced water intake. • Seeds of this plant are not toxic. • Rabbits have an enzyme esterase and hence are not poisoned. • Diagnosis of poisoning in animals can be done by looking for pupillary dilatation in a normal animal after instilling a few drops of urine from a suspected animal. • Treatment includes use of stomachics, emetics and stimulants and administration of pilocarpine or physostigmine. IPOMOEA SPECIES Ipomoea species (Morning glory) 54

Ipomoea carnea is the most commonly encountered toxic species. The toxic principles include lysergic acid and indole alkaloids. Seeds are the major sources of toxin. Acute and subacute toxicity are reported in goats. Salivation, diarrhoea, mydriasis, shivering, inco-ordination, staggering gait, prostration, ataxia, paralysis of limbs, lateral recumbency, hypotension and death are the major clinical symptoms. • Activated charcoal may be useful after a gastric lavage. • Tranquillizers and sedatives are useful to keep the animal quiet.
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NERIUM AND THEVETIA • Plants of importance are Nerium oleander, Nerium indicum and Thevetia neerifolia. • All species of animals are poisoned. Usually horses and cattle do not eat this plant. But if cuttings of this plant get mixed with green fodder or hay, animals get poisoned. • Nerium olender and Nerium inidicum are equally toxic. • Leaves contain oleandrocide, nericide and other digitalis like glycosides. • Poisoning is also caused by drinking the water in which the leaves are floating or by eating the leaves. The plant contains alkaloids, glycosides and bitter principles. Toxins are readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and persist in the body due to enterohepatic recycling. Honey made from flowers, meat roasted using oleander sticks or milk from a cow poisoned with this plant, are toxic to human beings. The cardiotoxins interfere with the sodium potassium ATPase system resulting in a decrease in cellular potassium. The normal electrical conductivity on the myocardium is reduced, which results in conduction block, arrhythmias and eventually complete loss of myocardial conductivity or systole. Sympathetic nerves are also paralysed. Symptoms include vomiting, convulsions, diarrhoea, colic and death. Post mortem changes include gastroenteritis and peticheal hemorrhages. Solanine and solanidin are the toxic principles. The important members of this family that are toxic include Solanum tuberosum (potato) and Solanum nigrum (Black nightshade). • Green part of the potato and germinating potato contains solanine. • Unripe, old, rotten and sprouting potatoes are more toxic. • Eyes, skin and young green sprout of potato contain more alkaloid. • It is irritant to the mucous membrane, causes haemolysis of RBC, CNS stimulation and then depression. • Treatment is symptomatic and use of saline purgatives and stimulants are useful.
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SOLANUM

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STRYCHNINE • Strychnine obtained from Strychnos nuxvomica is used as a vertebrate poison to kill squirrels and rabbits. It is rapidly absorbed and distributed. Too many nerve impulses reach the skeletal muscle. Clinical signs include unrest, panting, nausea, vomiting, corners of the mouth are drawn out in a “grin”, twitching of eyelids, ears are drawn together, hyper responsive to tactile stimulus, muscle stiffness and stance become rigid and the animal exhibits opisthotonus position. Treatment is symptomatic. Phytotoxins:

Cyanide: 55

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SOURCES OF CYANIDE POISONING Hydrocyanic acid or prussic acid is most toxic and rapidly acting. The sodium and potassium salts of cyanide are slightly toxic. Ferrocyanide and thiocyanates are complex cyanides and they are practically harmless. Cyanide poisoning in animals is generally a result of ingestion of certain plants. The content of cyanogenetic glycosides in plants varies with stage of growth, climatic conditions, type of soil and fertilizer used. Young and immature plants, plants growing rapidly after drought, wittled and frost bitten plants are more toxic. Drying the plant or making silage reduces the toxic potential of the plant. Plants containing cyanogenetic glycosides release HCN by hydrolysis. Degradation of the glycoside is initiated by damage to the plant cells. In the stomach they continue to hydolyse and liberate more HCN. Immature sorghum contains cyanogenetic glycosides. Cyanide is used as a fumigant and cyanide compounds are used as rodenticide.

Plants that have cyanogenetic glycosides include: Acacia leucophloea, Lotus sp. Nerium oleander, Sorghum vulgare, Sorghum halepense etc. FACTORS AFFECTING TOXICITY Poisoning in ruminants depends upon o the quantity of the plant ingested o the previous diet of the animal o the pH of the stomach contents o the percentage of total hydrocyanic acid present in the free state in the plant o the concentration of cyanide liberating enzyme present in the plant and o the total hydrocyanic acid content of the plant. Ruminants are more susceptible to poisoning by cyanogenetic plants than horses and pigs, since the enzyme concerned in the release of hydrocyanic acid are destroyed by the gastric hydrochloric acid. ABSORPTION AND FATE HCN is rapidly absorbed from the intestinal tract and via the lungs. The gas is irritant to the mucous membrane. Some cyanide is also eliminated through the lungs, the exhaled air having a characteristic ‘Bitter almond’ smell. Cyanide is metabolized by rhodanase in the liver to thiocyanate. This reaction complexes cyanide with endogenous sulfur or sulfur supplied from the sodium thiosulfate antidote. Once thiocyanate is formed it is excreted mainly in the urine.

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Half-life for the metabolism of cyanide to thiocyanate is 20 min to 1 h. In animals, the dose of cyanide that produces signs is very close to the lethal dose and death can occur within seconds to minutes. 56

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MECHANISM OF TOXICITY Excess cyanide in blood and tissues bind to ferric iron of cytochrome oxidase and prevent the transfer of electrons. o Cyanide ion reacts with Fe +3 (ferric) ion of cytochrome oxidase to form a stable complex. o Conversion of Fe +3 to Fe +2 is thereby prevented so that electron transport and cellular respiration are stopped. The blood is oxygenated, but cannot be utilized by the cells. o The lack of O 2 utilization in chemoreceptors and/or neurons of the brain triggers increased respiratory efforts and the blood becomes hyperoxygenated ("bright red"). o End result is a functional tissue anoxia.

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Cells die from lack of usable oxygen. This results in tissue anoxia with serious effects in the brain. In the brain, cyanide decreases oxidative metabolism,increases glycolysis, and inhibits brain glutamic acid decarboxylase, thereby decreasing gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA). The corpus callosum, hippocampus, corpora striata, and substantia nigra are commonly damaged in cyanide poisoning. Death in acute cases occurs within a few seconds. CLINICAL SYMPTOMS AND PM LESIONS Clinical symptoms o Animals may be found dead. o The animal looses consciousness and stops breathing, but the heart continues to beat. o Symptoms of poisoning include panting, gasping and behavioural abnormalities, salivation, muscle tremor, urination, defecation, colic, emesis, prostration, bright red mucous membrane, clonic convulsions, mydriasis and death. PM lesions o Cherry red or bright red blood that does not clot, congestion in the gastrointestinal tract and lungs and peticheal haemorrhage. o Bitter almond smell will be experienced on opening the stomach/rumen. DIAGNOSIS Clinical symptoms and lesions are not characteristic. Examination of stomach contents is useful. Rumen contents may not give a clear indication because HCN is frequently found in the rumen of animals died of other causes and in the case of cyanogenetic plants a great amount of HCN may be released after death. 1% mecuric chloride is suggested as a preservative for sending the stomach and ruminal contents for analysis. TREATMENT The treatment of cyanide poisoning needs to be undertaken very rapidly if it is to be successful. The approach consists of administration of sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulphate. Sodium nitrite administered intravenously converts haemoglobin to methaemoglobin. 57

Ferric iron of methaemoglobin complexes with cyanide to form cyanmethaemoglobin and thus reactivates cytochrome oxidase. • Sodium thiosulphate detoxifies cyanmethaemoglobin by converting cyanide moiety to thiocyanate, which is non toxic. • Sodium nitrite treatment should not be repeated, as there is danger of producing nitrite poisoning. • In horses and cattle 10ml of a 20% solution of sodium nitrite intravenously followed immediately with 50 ml of 20% solution of sodium thiosulphate. • In sheep 10ml of 10% sodium nitrite and 10% of 20ml sodium thiosulphate should be given. In dogs 20mg/kg as 1% solution of sodium nitrite and 1g/kg of 25% solution sodium thiosulphate should be administered. • All injections should be given slowly. • Hydroxycobalamine and other compounds of cobalt have also been shown to be of value. Oxalate and thiaminase poisoning: OXALATE CONTAINING PLANTS • Source: Plants of the Araceae family Toxic Principle • All parts are usually poisonous. However, the leaves may sometimes do not have the toxin. • Calcium oxalate crystals are felt to be one cause of the clinical signs. Recently toxicity has also been attributed to several proteolytic enzymes, which trigger the release of some potent kinins and histamines by the body. • These kinins in turn cause several local reactions, which may be aggravated by the sharp calcium oxalate crystals contained in the plant tissues. • Calcium oxalate crystals are thought to mechanically damage cells in the mouth during ingestion and may allow toxin to enter and create cellular havoc. Signs • Immediate evidence of pain and irritation upon chewing. • Shaking of head • Intense salivation and change in phonation. • Swelling of the mucous membranes of the pharynx and tongue. • Severe dyspnoea may develop, but obstruction rarely develops. • Nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, secondary dehydration, electrolyte imbalance and shock are possible. • Very rarely - irregular heart beat, mydriasis, coma and death. Treatment • Rinse mouth. • Activated charcoal will help in adsorbing the toxins. • Oral calcium (e.g., milk) may be helpful in precipitating any soluble oxalates. • Antihistaminics. • Symptomatic and supportive care with IV fluids if vomiting or diarrhea are persistent causing dehydration or shock. THIAMINASE CONTAINING PLANTS • Source: Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) and horsetail (Equisetum arvense) Toxic principles • Several toxic principles are recognized including o Thiaminase. o A factor that damages the bone marrow. o Ptaquiloside is the suspected carcinogen in brackenfern. o Cyanogenic glycoside (significance not clearly established). Mechanism • Toxicity in horses (and rats) is due to a thiaminase enzyme which destroys thiamine in the digestive tract before it can be absorbed), resulting in central nervous system dysfunction and damage. • Thiamine deficiency results in impaired pyruvate utilization. Blood pyruvate levels rise. Animal suffers from abnormal energy metabolism due to inadequate ATP production.
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Toxicity in cattle is due to an unidentified toxic principle and not thiaminase. At least part of the problem is due to a carcinogen. Species affected • Cattle most commonly affected. Reports of poisoning in horses, swine, and sheep are less frequent. o Horses - Mainly neurologic. o Cattle - Mainly bone marrow damage.
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SIGNS AND TREATMENT Signs In the horse o Horses generally must consume bracken fern for 1 - 2 months before the onset of clinical signs occurs. Clinical signs can also occur even when horse is no longer on bracken fern. o Emaciation. o Loss of weight occurs despite maintenance of appetite until the late stages of the disease. o Lethargy. o Incoordination, especially when forced to walk. o Severe tremors, unable to arise, injuries from attempts to get to feet; most pronounced when attempt to work animal. o Bradycardia with arrhythmias seen early in disease course. Weak and fast pulse o Convulsions, recumbency, and opisthostonus terminally. Hyperthermia also observed terminally. o Hemolytic crisis rarely reported. o If not treated, death in 2 - 10 days (occasionally survive up to 30 days or more after onset). • In cattle o Thiamine production in the rumen results in resistance to the thiaminase syndrome seen in horses. o Disease develops as a result of bone marrow suppression. o Early fever (106 - 108º F). o Loss of condition, anorexia. o Anemia (late). o Bracken fern-induced hematuria in cattle is called bovine enzootic hematuria. o Leukopenia. o Thrombocytopenia, blood-tinged nasal discharges, bloody or "tarry" feces, blood clots in feces, hematuria. Prolonged clotting times, defective clot retraction. o Edema of larynx and dyspnea. o Differential diagnosis in cattle includes: septicemia, anaplasmosis, moldy sweet clover ingestion, and leptospirosis. Treatment • In horses o Use of saline cathartic activated charcoal and thiamine hydrochloride administration • In cattle o Blood transfusions, use of broad spectrum antibiotics, d,1-batyl alcohol, protamine sulfate (1%), a heparin antagonist administration as an injection, in conjunction with blood transfusions may be of benefit. Resinoides and miscellaneous phytotoxins: CANNABIS SATIVA AND CANNABIS INDICA • Synonyms - Marijuana, hemp, pot, grass
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Plant if consumed fresh is not considered to be toxic. But it becomes poisonous when damaged by drying, heating, smoking, and/or aging. The entire plant is toxic, especially the leaves, flowering parts, sap and resinous secretions. The amount of resinoid in the various plant parts varies with plant variety, sex of plant (female plant, "sensemilla" more toxic), geographic location, and growing season. Toxic substances are highest in plants grown in warm climates or seasons. Poisoning may result from drinking the extract and chewing or smoking the plant parts. Hashish is a concentrated form of marijuana. Sometimes hashish contains added opium.

Signs In humans Tetrahydrocannabinol is a CNS depressant which causes euphoria followed by depression. Exhilaration, delusions, mental confusion, dilated pupils, blurred vision, poor coordination, weakness, stupor, hallucinations and coma (with large doses). Death may result from its depressing effect on the heartbeat. Other symptoms include craving for sweets, increased appetite, dryness of mouth, inflamed eyes, anxiety, aggressiveness, sleep disturbance, tremors, decreased sexual potency, feeling of contentment, increased but faulty perception and imagination, loss of initiative, reduction of will power and concentration, and impairment of lung function. • Ingestion by dogs and rarely cats causes ataxia, vomiting, mydriasis, nystagmus, depression, and sometimes coma. Hypothermia in small animals has been demonstrated and may be dose related. Prolonged depression for 18 - 36 hours may be noticed in marijuana-poisoned dogs. Occasionally animals may act hyperexcitable. Less frequently reported signs include tremors and salivation. Treatment • Treatment is mainly symptomatic and no specific antidotal treatment is available. MILKWEEDS (Asclepias) • A resinoid named galitoxin. • Toxic dose almost same as lethal dose. • Taste is less objectionable when dried, but toxic principle is retained. • Roots and shoots are also toxic. Signs • Sheep affected most; occasionally in horses, cattle, goats, fowl. • Natural cases of milkweed poisoning, animals are usually found dead or in lateral recumbency within 24 hours of consuming a toxic quantity of the plant. • Clinical signs can develop within 2 hours of ingestion and can continue for hours or days. • Pulse initially slow and strong then rapid and weak. • Hyperthermia, bloat. Treatment • Activated charcoal administration and rumenotomy are beneficial in early stages of poisoning. • To control seizures chloral hydrate is found to be effective in relaxing sheep in the convulsive stages and allows time for recovery. Facilitation for respiration and good diet are useful measures. RICINUS COMMUNIS Ricinus Communis (Castor Bean, Castor-Oil-Plant, Palma Christi) Toxic principle • Ricin a tozxalbumin is the principal toxin. • Toxalbumins are very toxic proteinaceous compounds of plant origin. • Ricin is 100 times less toxic orally than parenterally; the difference is apparently not a result of the effects of trypsin or pepsin. • Toxicosis is not only associated with plant, but most often with seed and seed products. • Orally, ricin is readily absorbed from the stomach and intestine. • Ricin is water soluble and not present in castor oil. 60

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Being a protein, and a fairly large molecule, ricin is heat labile. In castor bean cake, meal, etc. the ricin is generally inactivated by heating. Aging also reduces toxicity. Another phytotoxin in castor bean, ricinine, is reportedly goitrogenic. The importance of this compound is not clearly established. Ricin acts as an antigen and protective antibodies may be elicited. Castor oil is not poisonous. It has been suggested that anaphylactic reactions may occur in all species.
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Signs Signs appear after a characteristic lag period of a few hours to days, usually onset is between 12 hours and 48 hours. • Nausea, gastrointestinal irritation, abdominal pain, diarrhea which is often bloody, tenesmus, dehydration and at postmortem severe inflammation of the stomach and intestine. • Anorexia, cessation of rumination. • Excessive thirst. • Weakness, muscle twitching. • Dullness of vision, convulsions, dyspnea, opisthotonus, coma and death. • Sometimes clonic convulsions and decreased tendon reflexes are described. • After convulsions, death may result from paralysis of the respiratory center - artificial respiration may not preserve life for long because of rapid onset of concurrent vasomotor paralysis. • Clotting time may be prolonged, possible hypoprothrombinemia. • Cyanosis. Treatment • Early - Use of emetics in appropriate species followed by activated charcoal and a saline cathartic unless contraindicated (as in marked diarrhea) is useful. • A gastrointestinal tract protectant such as kaolin-pectin and fluid therapy are useful. Appropriate fluid and electrolyte therapy can greatly increase chances of survival. • Judicious use of anticonvulsants if necessary. • Maintain (or establish) respiration, fluid, and electrolyte balance. • Oral antacids to alleviate local irritation. • Ascorbic acid increases survival rates. • Forced alkaline diuresis has been suggested to prevent nephrosis. ABRUS PRECATORIUS • Seeds of this plant contain abrin, which is a phytoroxin. • Spikes containing crushed seeds when implanted into the muscle causes toxicity. • The animal dies in 2 to 4 days. • Symptoms include salivation, stiffness, incoordination, muscular spasm, convulsions, extensive painful swelling around the site of implant. • Whole seeds are not toxic when given by mouth. However, powdered seeds are toxic. • But the whole seeds are toxic to fowl. They die within a few days. However the toxicity is much less compared to parenteral administration. • Abrin is neither degraded nor altered by gastric juices. • It is an important cytotoxin. • It acts as a proteolytic enzyme and has the highest inhibitory effect on protein synthesis by acting on ribosomes of the cells. • It is also known to cause agglutination of RBCs. • Abrin, probably because of its peculiar binding potential is selectively transported by the neurons. • This type of transport is known as suicidal transport. • Post mortem changes are congestion of visceral organs and peticheal haemorrhage throughout the body. • In cattle this poisoning is known as “sui or sutari” poisoning. • Treatment can be attempted with arecoline. ALLIUM SPECIES 61

The important members of this group are onion and garlic. The toxic principle identified is n-propyl disulphide. They cause haemolytic anaemia, enlargement of the liver and spleen. Haemosiderosis is noticed in the liver and spleen. The wild onion can cause haemoglobinuria and icterus in sheep. CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA • This contains caloctin, calotropin and calotixin as toxic principles. • The milky juice from the plant is acidic. • The coagulum is white in colour and a yellow coloured serum is produced after heating or after sometime. • It is an irritant to the gastrointestinal tract and is considered to be a cerebrospinal poison. Root is an antidote, but it is also considered to be toxic. • Symptoms include burning in the throat and stomach, salivation, stomatitis, vomiting, diarrhoea, dilated pupils, tetanic convulsions, collapse and death. • Treatment can be attempted with gastric lavage, demulcents and morphine to control pain. GOSSYPIUM (Cotton plant) • Gossypol is the toxic agent in the seeds. • Ruminants are not usually affected. Young calves, swine and poultry are affected. Gossypol content of the cottonseed cake varies depending on the solvent used and method of extraction. • Inappetance, loss of weigh and lowered feed utilization are noticed. • Presence of ferrous sulphate in the diet prevents toxicity
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PHOTOSENSITIZATION:
INTRODUCTION Photosensitization is a clinical condition in which skin (areas exposed to light and lacking significant protective hair, wool, or pigmentation) is hyper-reactive to sunlight due to the presence of photodynamic agents. • Molecules of photosensitizing agents present in the skin are energized by light. • When the molecules return to the less energized state, the released energy is transferred to receptor molecules that quickly initiate chemical reactions in various skin components. • Tissue injury is thought to result from the production of reactive oxygen intermediates or from alterations in cell membrane permeability. • Photosensitization can be difficult to differentiate clinically from actual sunburn. CLASSIFICATION OF PHOTOSENSITIZATION • Photosensitization is often classified according to the source of the photodynamic agent. These categories are o Primary or type I photosensitivity o Aberrant endogenous pigment synthesis or type II photosensitivity o Secondary (hepatogenous) photosensitivity type III o Idiopathic type IV photosensitivity • A wide range of chemicals, including some that are fungal and bacterial in origin, may act as photosensitizing agents. • However, most compounds that are important causes of photosensitivity in veterinary medicine are plant-derived. • Photosensitization occurs worldwide and can affect any species, but is probably most commonly seen in cattle, sheep, goats, and horses. PRIMARY PHOTOSENSITIZATION OR TYPE I • Primary photosensitization occurs when the photodynamic agent is absorbed either through the skin or from the GI tract unchanged, reaching the skin in its native form. • Examples of primary photosensitizers are hypericin (from Hypericum perforatum [St. John’s wort]).
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Plants in the families Umbelliferae and Rutaceae contain photoactive furocoumarins, which cause photosensitization in livestock and poultry. • Ammi majus (Bishop’s weed) and Cymopterus watsonii (spring parsley) have produced photosensitization in cattle and sheep, respectively. • Species of Trifolium , Medicago (clovers and alfalfa), Erodium , Polygonum , and Brassica have been incriminated as primary photosensitizers. • Many other plants have been suspected, but the toxins responsible have not been identified. • Additionally, some coal tar derivatives, phenothiazine, sulfonamides and tetracyclines have induced primary photosensitivity. ABERRANT ENDOGENOUS PIGMENT SYNTHESIS OR TYPE II • Type II photosensitivity due to aberrant pigment metabolism is known to occur in both cattle and cats. • In this syndrome, the photosensitizing porphyrin agents are endogenous pigments that arise from inherited or acquired defective functions of enzymes involved in heme synthesis. • Bovine congenital erythropoietic porphyria and bovine erythropoietic protoporphyria are the most commonly reported diseases in this category. SECONDARY (Hepatogenous) PHOTOSENSITIZATION • Secondary or type III photosensitization is by far the most frequent type of photosensitivity observed in livestock. • The photosensitizing agent, phylloerythrin (a porphyrin), accumulates in the plasma due to impaired hepatobiliary excretion. • Phylloerythrin is derived from the breakdown of chlorophyll by microorganisms present in the GI tract. • Phylloerythrin, but not chlorophyll, is normally absorbed into the circulation and is effectively excreted by the liver into the bile. • Failure to excrete phylloerythrin due to hepatic dysfunction or bile duct lesions increases the amount in the circulation. Thus, when it reaches the skin, it can absorb and release light energy, initiating a phototoxic reaction. • Phylloerythrin has been incriminated as the phototoxic agent in the following conditions: common bile duct occlusion; facial eczema, lupinosis, congenital photosensitivity and poisoning by numerous plants including Tribulis terrestris (puncture vine), Lippia rehmanni , Lantana camara , several Panicum spp (kleingrass, broomcorn millet, witch grass), Cynodon dactylon , Myoporum laetum (ngaio), and Narthecium ossifragum (bog asphodel). • Photosensitization also has been reported in animals that have liver damage associated with various poisonings: pyrrolizidine alkaloid (eg, Senecio spp , Cynoglossum spp , Heliotropium spp , Echium spp ), cyanobacteria ( Microcystis spp , Oscillatoria spp ), Nolina spp (bunch grass), Agave lechuguilla (lechuguilla), Holocalyx glaziovii , Kochia scoparia, Tetradymia spp (horse brush or rabbit brush), Brachiaria brizantha, Brassica napus, Trifolium pratense and T hybridum (red and alsike clover), Medicago sativa, Ranunculus spp, phosphorus, and carbon tetrachloride. • Phylloerythrin is likely the phototoxic agent in many of these poisonings. TYPE IV PHOTOSENSITIVITY • Photosensitivity where the pathogenesis is unknown is classified as type IV. • Examples include winter wheat, alfalfa, Brassica spp (mustards), and Kochia scoparia (fireweed). • Many plants that fall in this category may perhaps be type I photosensitizers. CLINICAL SIGNS • The clinical signs associated with photosensitivity are similar regardless of the cause. • Photosensitive animals are photophobic immediately when exposed to sunlight and squirm in apparent discomfort. • They scratch or rub lightly pigmented, exposed areas of skin (eg, ears, eyelids, muzzle). • Severe phylloerythrinemia and bright sunlight can induce typical skin lesions, even in black-coated animals.
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Erythema develops rapidly and is soon followed by edema. If exposure to light stops at this stage, the lesions soon resolve. • When exposure is prolonged, serum exudation, scab formation, and skin necrosis are marked. • In cattle, and especially in deer, exposure of the tongue while licking may result in glossitis, characterized by ulceration and deep necrosis. • Depending on the initial cause of the accumulation of the photosensitizing agent, other clinical signs may be seen. • For example, if the photosensitivity is hepatogenous, icterus may be present. • In bovine congenital erythropoietic porphyria, discoloration of dentin, bone (and other tissues), and urine often accompanies the skin lesions. • Photodermatitis is the sole manifestation observed in bovine erythropoietic protoporphyria. DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT Diagnosis • Clinical signs are easily recognized in cases of marked photosensitivity but are similar to the primary actinic effects of sunburn in early or mild cases. • Reference to the specific diseases in which photosensitization is an objective sign may assist in diagnosis of the underlying disease. • Evaluation of serum liver enzymes and liver biopsies may be necessary to confirm the presence of hepatic disease. • Examination of blood, feces, and urine for porphyrins can also be performed. Treatment • Treatment involves mostly palliative measures. While photosensitivity continues, animals should be shaded fully or, preferably, housed and allowed to graze only during darkness. • The severe stress of photosensitization and extensive skin necrosis can be highly debilitating and increase mortality. • Corticosteroids, given parenterally in the early stages, may be helpful. Secondary skin infections and suppurations should be treated with basic wound management techniques, and fly strike prevented. • The skin lesions heal remarkably well, even after extensive necrosis. • The prognosis and eventual productivity of an animal is related to the site and severity of the primary lesion and/or hepatic disease, and to the degree of resolution. PHENOTHIAZINE • Phenothiazine is very insoluble in water and although stable when dry, is readily oxidized when wet. • Due to the insolubility of phenothiazine in water, it is formulated in suspensions and if not shaken well prior to dosing, the drug will be unevenly distributed to the animals. • The toxicity of phenothiazine has limited its use in swine and altogether prevented its use in the dogs, cats and human beings. • It is used in ruminants, horses and fowl. • The problem in small animals is reportedly severe CNS depression. • Deaths among sheep from phenothiazine toxicosis are rare. However, debilitated, anemic cattle are even more susceptible than similarly debilitated sheep. • An important toxic effect of phenothiazine in animals in poor condition is hemolysis which compounds an existing anemia in some such animals resulting in death. • Phenothiazine toxicosis and death has occurred more in horses than in other domestic animals. • Most toxicoses have occurred in debilitated and anemic horses. ABSORPTION AND FATE • It is believed that phenothiazine is converted to phenothiazine sulfoxide by cellular enzymes of the intestinal epithelium. • Excess phenothiazine sulphoxide escapes liver and enters peripheral circulation and is responsible for the photosensitization.
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Some phenothiazine is absorbed intact. After absorption, phenothiazine is further oxidized in the liver, primarily to leucophenothiazine and leucothionol, 2 colorless substances which are excreted in the urine. • Upon further oxidation in the atmosphere, these compounds form the brown-red dyes, phenothiazine and thionol. • Urine and milk are, therefore, discolored for several days. • The presence of these dyes is not, however, indicative of toxicosis. • Constipation in the treated animals causes retention of phenothiazine and, thereby, increases absorption from the intestine, increasing the probability of toxicosis. CLINICAL SIGNS • Signs of phenothiazine toxicosis in the horse include dullness, weakness, anorexia, and possibly oliguria, colic, constipation, fever and rapid pulse. • Hemolytic effects include icterus, anemia and hemoglobinuria. • Photosensitization may accompany administration of phenothiazine when animals are subsequently exposed to bright sunlight. • Photosensitization occurs especially in calves but may also occur in goats, sheep and fowl but not horses. • When the dose of phenothiazine is sufficiently high, not all the phenothiazine sulfoxide is converted to leucophenothiazine and leucothionol by the liver. • Calves are apparently less adept at this conversion than older cattle or sheep. • A portion of the phenothiazine sulfoxide diffuses into the aqueous humor. • On exposure to sunlight, photochemical reaction results in keratitis and often corneal ulceration within 36 hours. • Non-pigmented areas of the skin may be reddened, especially commonly affected are the ears, muzzle and other parts of the face. • Shaking of the head, rubbing of the ears and other signs of irritation may be seen. • A slight increase in abortion in ewes given phenothiazine at 3 weeks before the end of gestation has been reported. • Generally, phenothiazine is contraindicated only during the last month of gestation. • Phenothiazine discolored milk can generally be regarded as safe for feeding other animals. • Permanent staining of wool or haircoat may result from phenothiazine excreted in the urine or from spilling the drench on the animal. DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT • Toxicosis can be reduced by the use of smaller doses in weakened animals, although these may be only partially effective in parasite removal. • For acute overdose, a saline cathartic combined with activated charcoal is used to reduce absorption and hasten removal from the gut. • Treatment of phenothiazine toxicosis in the horse is primarily intended to replenish lost red cells via blood transfusion. • Fluids and bicarbonate may lessen the likelihood and severity of renal tubular damage due to hemoglobin released from red cells. TETRADYMIA - ARTEMISIA POISONING • Toxic Principle in Tetradymia is cumulative resin hepatotoxin. • Artemisia contains sesquiterpene lactones which when consumed at about the same time as Tetradymia, often sets the stage for Tetradymia-associated photosensitization. • Susceptible species is sheep. Acute signs may develop within a few hours. Weakness, collapse, death after coma or convulsions. • Subacute signs develop in 1 - 3 days. "Bighead" - itching, uneasiness, swelling of head, inflammation of eyes, blindness, serum oozes from scabs, etc. • Abortion and sterility may occur. Degenerative changes in liver and kidney, elevated serum enzymes, atypical icterus are noticed. TRIBULUS TERRESTRIS (Puncture vine) • Spiny burs in the plant cause mechanical damage.
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Toxin in leaves of preflowering to fruiting plants is high. High mortality is observed among young animals. Susceptible species is s heep. Clinical signs are b ighead, swelling of ears and head and other signs reflecting photosensitivity. • Intensely yellow fat throughout body, lesions of the skin reflecting photosensitivity and crystals may be noted in the bile ducts.
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LANTANA CAMRA AND LIPPIA SPP. • Toxic principles are pentacyclic triterpene acids, including lantadene A, B, C and D, reduced lantadene A, dihydrolantadene A, and icterogenin, hepatogenous photosensitizer and gastrointestinal irritants. • Susceptible species are Lantana camara - sheep, cattle, children and Lippia spp. Cattle, sheep, goats, horses. Foliage and ripe berries of lantana contain toxic substance. Green berries have a higher concentration of the toxin. Berries may be lethal to children. However, some dark skinned people eat ripe berries without noticing ill effects. Poisoning commonly occurs among grazing animals. The toxic principles are hepatogenic photosensitizer; hepatotoxic and cause cholestasis. The toxins have effects on both hepatocytes and bile canaliculi. They decrease in canaliculi ATPase activity and cause collapse of canaliculi. Secretory function of hepatocytes is lost; metabolizing function is retained. In acute toxicosis the major clinical effect of Lantana toxicosis is photosensitization, the onset of which often takes place in 1 to 2 days after consumption of a toxic dose (1% or more of animal's body weight). Jaundice is usually prominent, animals usually become inappetent, and they often exhibit decreased digestive tract motility and constipation. Other signs may include: sluggishness, weakness, and transient, sometimes bloody diarrhea. In acute cases, death occurs in 2 to 4 days. In subacute and chronic toxicosis the symptoms include subacute poisoning is more common. Raw photosensitized surface areas are susceptible to invasions by blow fly maggots and bacteria. In severely affected cattle, lesions may appear at the muzzle, mouth, and nostrils. Ulceration may be present in the cheeks, tongue, and gums, while swelling, hardening, peeling of mucous membranes, and deeper tissues occur in the nostrils. Death may occur after 1 to 3 weeks of illness and weight loss. Lippia spp. toxicity results in emaciation, leg weakness and incoordination. Lesions include highly pigmented liver, icterus, general edema and hemorrhages in some organs. In sever cases of cattle lesions from muzzle to mouth and nostrils, ulceration of cheeks, tongue, and gums, swelling, hardening, peeling of mucous membranes and deeper tissues in the nostrils. Treatment is symptomatic. The animal should be maintained in shade. Itching and pruritus can be controlled with the use of H1 receptor antagonists (classical antihistamincs). Use of corticosteroids and fluids is also recommended. Hepatoprotectives are also recommended. Rumenotomy to remove the plant contents from the rumen may be useful. Physostigmine may initiate dramatic reversal of some of the signs within minutes. Since the animal will have wound, general measures of wound management including fly repellants, antiseptics and antibacterials is useful.

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PARTHENIUM • Parthenium is an aggressive weed invading all disturbed land, including farms, pastures, and roadsides. • Contact with this plant causes dermatitis and respiratory malfunction in humans, dermatitis in cattle and domestic animals, due to the presence of toxin parthenin. • It is a sesquiterpene lactone. • It is a photdynamic susbtance causing primary photosensitization. • Diarrhoea followed by cutaneous lesions characterised by itching, erythematous eruption on the tip and base of the ear, neck, sides of thorax, abdomen, knee joint and brisket region. • Oedema around the eyalids and facial muscle are also noticed. Treatment is symptomatic and supportive. Mycotoxins: aflatoxins and others causing liver toxicity: MYCOTOXIN • The word mycotoxin is derived from myco, meaning mold and toxin, a poison of biological origin. • A great number of mold metabolites have been identified as mycotoxins. • Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungi (i.e., metabolites not essential to the normal growth and reproduction of the fungus) that are toxic to other life forms. • Mycotoxicosis is the term used to describe poisoning of a biological system by a mycotoxin. • Mycotoxicosis can occur in acute, subacute and subclinical forms with predisposition to nutritional and/or infectious disorders. • Many factors contribute to the occurrence of mycotoxicoses in livestock. • Conditions predisposing to mycotoxin production include o Moisture o Temperature o Aeration o Substrate availability o Host stress • Mycotoxins may be grouped based on their major toxic effects as 67

mycotoxins that affect the liver – aflatoxins, sterigmatocystin, rubratoxin, sporodesmin, penicillinic acid o mycotoxins that affect the kidneys – ochratoxins, citrinin o mycotoxins that cause neurological effects – fumonisins, salframin, citreoviridin and patulin o mycotoxins causing reproductive damage – zearalenone, zearalenol, and T-2 Toxin o mycotoxins producing circulatory disturbances – ergot alkaloids AFLATOXIN POISONING • Aflatoxins are the toxic metabolites of the molds of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. • They are normally present in stored feedstuff. • They grow rapidly and become toxic in grains and feed stored under aerobic conditions when the moisture is more than 15% and temperature is 24 – 25 degrees C. • Peanuts, cottonseed meal and cake are affected frequently. • Corn ears with shortened husks maturing in upward position appear to be more susceptible. Although at least 13 aflatoxins have been identified , aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2 are the major types. B1 and B2 produce blue florescence while G1 and G2 produce green fluorescence. • Of these metabolites, AFB1 is of importance because of toxicity and concentration in moldy feeds. The order of toxicity is B1>G1>B2>G2 . • Metabolites of B1 and B2 are excreted in milk and are termed as M1 and M2 . PROPERTIES OF TOXICOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE • Aflatoxins are polycyclic unsaturated compounds. • They consist of a coumarin nucleus. • Relatively heat resistant and not soluble in water. • They are extractable in organic solvents. • Addition of fungicidal drugs can prevent the growth of the mold. But, will not destroy already developed mold. • Ammoniation is helpful, but, is not an approved procedure. TOXICITY • They are potent carcinogens, mutagens and teratogens and liver damaging agents. • Liver tumor is a common toxic effect. • Acute toxicity is not very common. • Most sensitive animals include rabbits, ducklings, minks, trout, dogs, turkeys and small pigs. • Other animals affected are horse, cattle, sheep, goat and guinea pigs. • Most resistant animals are monkeys, RIR chicks 16 week old, WLH chicks, rats, mice and hamsters. • Chronic toxicity is common. • Apart from age, sex, breed and strain of animal, other factors of importance include riboflavin, exposure to light diet low in protein, cholin and vitamin B12. • Animals on protein, vitamin E and selenium deficient diet are more susceptible. TOXICOKINETICS • Aflatoxins are rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. • They are bound to serum albumin. • Liver removes most of the toxins from the blood stream. • In hepatocytes it binds to macromolecules like DNA, endoplasmic sterol binding sites and enzymes. • Metabolites formed may be water-soluble conjugates or lipid soluble forms. Some metabolites undergo enterohepatic recirculation. • They are excreted in milk, faeces and urine. • Complete elimination takes several days. MECHANISM OF ACTION
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AFB1 binds to nuclear DNA and decreases synthesis of RNA and hence decreases enzymes and protein. AFB1 also binds to endoplasmic steroidal binding sites and cause ribosomal disaggregation. • Most of the toxicity is due to macromolecular binding. • Biochemical changes secondary to cytotoxic actions of aflatoxins include increased SGOT, SGPT and alkaline phosphatase, isocitric dehydrogenase and bilirubin. • There is decrease in serum protein, NPN and urea. • Synthesis of clotting proteins is also inhibited by aflatoxins. This is one of the basis for harmorrhagic lesions encountered at necropsy. • In the artificial rumen system, there is decreased cellulose digestion, reduced volatile fatty acid formation and inhibition of proteolysis.
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CLINICAL SYMPTOMS AND PM LESIONS Clinical signs • Acute – anorexia, depression, dyspnoea, coughing, nasal discharge, anaemia, epistaxis, bloody faeces, convulsions and rapid death. Animals may develop jaundice, hypoprothrombinaemia, haematoma and haemorrhagic enteritis. • Chronic – Gradual decrease in feed efficiency, productivity and weight gain as well as rough hair coat, anaemia, enlarged abdomen, mild jaundice, depression and anorexia. Abortion may also be noticed. Lesions • Icterus, widespread peticheal haemorrhages, haemorrhagic gastoenterisits, hepatic necrosis, enlarged liver, hepatic fibrosis, cirrhosis, ascitis, hydrothorax and oedema of the wall of the gall bladder. DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT Diagnosis • Diagnosis is by estimation of serum liver enzymes. • All the serum liver enzymes are elevated. • Serum albumin and albumin:globulin ratio is decreased. • Aflatoxin M can be detected in milk and urine. • Analysis of feed or grain by black light test. Bright greenish yellow florescence is seen under UV light. • Aflatoxin levels can also be estimated using TLC, GC and MS. Treatment • Contaminated feed must be removed. • Feed low in fat and high in protein must be fed. • Activated charcoal, anabolic steroid stanazolol and oxyteracycline have been found to be useful. • Hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate has a high affinity for aflatoxins and can adsorb aflatoxins. • Use of vitamin E and selenium has been found to be useful in ameliorating the effects of aflatoxin with varying success. • Use of vitamin B12 and vitamin K are found to be useful. 69

RUBRATOXINS Sources o Rubratoxins A and B are produced by P. rubrum and P. purpurogenum. o Both are common soil fungi. o Exposure to the toxin is through cereal grains-primarily corn. o The natural distribution of rubratoxin is not well established. • Toxicity o Male and female rats are equally susceptible; but neonates are 49 times as susceptible as adults. o At sufficient doses, chronic dosing causes same effects; but animals getting subclinical doses had no lesions suggesting effective detoxification. • Toxicokinetics o Long plasma half-life ( in days); most of the toxin is excreted in urine as parent compound (rats) and slightly less excreted in feces. • Mechanisms of Action o Mutagen, embryocidal, teratogenic in mice. So far carcinogenicity has bot been established in rats. o May potentiate the action of aflatoxin. • Signs o Clinical syndrome is similar to acute aflatoxicosis with anorexia, dehydration, diarrhoea and possibly hemorrhage. o It has been implicated in abortions in swine. • Lesions o Acute and chronic syndrome characterized by hepatotoxic insult, nephrosis and general bleeding tendency. o Congestion, hemorrhage and damage to liver, kidney and spleen. o Early midzonal hepatic necrosis. o Later extending to massive necrosis and replacement with hemorrhage with chronic doses. PENICILLIC ACID • Many Penicillium spp. and Aspergillus spp. produce penicillic acid. • It was the first known mycotoxin and it has been implicated in hepatic cirrhosis in swine. Mycotoxins causing toxicity other than liver toxicity: FUMONISINS Sources • Fumonisins are mycotoxins produced by the fungus Fusarium moniliforme primarily in corn. • Fumonisin B1 is generally the dominant toxin present. • Several climatic factors predispose to fungal growth and toxin production such as: midsummer drought, an early wet fall, fluctuating warm and cold temperatures, accompanied by an early frost and delayed harvests. Susceptible Species • Horses, ponies, and donkeys may develop leukoencephalomalacia and/or liver failure. • Other species such as swine develop pulmonary edema and rabbits may develop renal failure. MECHANISM OF ACTION • Fumonisin B1 apparently causes its toxic effects, at least in part, by inhibiting the action of sphingosine N-acyltransferase, an enzyme involved in the conversion of sphinganine and sphingosine into sphingolipids. • Sphingosine is an important second messenger in a range of cell types. • Sphinganine can be very cytotoxic or can lead to cell proliferation and affect a wide variety of cellular systems. • Inhibition of N-acyltransferase may cause increase in sphinganine concentration in tissues.
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Sphingolipids are important in regulation of cell growth, differentiation, and neoplastic transformation. • Alteration in sphingolipid concentrations and functions, especially in the vasculature, also are believed to contribute to the major signs and lesions of fumonisin toxicosis. • In swine, fumonisin causes damage to hepatocyte membranes causing release of membrane fragments to circulation. These are trapped in the lung where they are engulfed by pulmonary intravascular macrophages which may release substances that activate neutrophils and alter capillary permeability resulting in pulmonary edema. • Cardiac failure and pulmonary hypertension, due to pulmonary vasoconstriction, may also occur in swine, predisposing them to pulmonary edema. CLINICAL SYMPTOMS Neurotoxic syndrome • The clinical course is generally short with an acute onset of signs and deaths within 2 3 days. This syndrome is currently termed as equine leukoencephalomalacia (ELEM), although historical names include blind staggers, cerebritis, leukoencephalitis, encephalomyelitis, cornstalk disease, moldy corn poisoning, foraging disease, and cerebrospinal meningitis. • Partial anorexia often occurs early in the course. • Depression, ataxia, blindness, and hysteria are common. Head is often held low, especially when left alone. • Reluctance to move and loss of equilibrium are noted in some horses when forced to walk. • Anorexia progresses and coincides with glossopharyngeal paralysis, paralysis of the lips and tongue, and loss of the ability to grasp and chew food. Incoordination increases. • Aimless walking, circling, and ataxia often occur. Head pressing, marked stupor, and hyperesthesia are common. • Hyperexcitability, profuse sweating, delirium, mania, or convulsions are often present, especially terminally. Death-may occur even without previous signs being noted . Hepatotoxic syndrome • Icterus is usually prominent in horses with hepatic degeneration. There may also be edema of the face and submandibular space and oral petechia. • Elevated bilirubin, liver enzymes are typically present. Terminal diaphoresis, coma, and sometimes clonic convulsions may be noted, presumably due to hepatoencephalopathy. • Swine exhibit decline in feed consumption is usually the first sign. If toxin consumption is significant, acute pulmonary edema and, often, death follows. At low doses, slowly progressive liver disease may occur. • Poultry-poor performance, feed refusal, diarrhoea, weakness, and high mortality may be noted. • Rats exhibit hepatic neoplasia while rabbits show sudden renal failure. • Human beings-oesophageal cancer is suspected to be related to consumption of fumonisin-contaminated corn.
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PM LESIONS, DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT Lesions o In all mammals studied to date hepatic lesions have been found. Effects on other organs vary among species (species-specific effects). Diagnosis o Diagnosis is based on clinical signs and lesions. o Characteristic liquefactive necrosis of white matter in the brain may be only histologically evident even in lethally affected horses. Treatment o Isolate affected horses to prevent other horses from traumatizing them or vice versa. o Thiamine may be useful. o Activated charcoal and a saline cathartic for the first two days could be tried. 71

Change of diet-avoid corn. Support, quiet surroundings, maintenance of hydration, etc. have been found to be useful.
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CITREOVIRIDIN, PATULIN AND OCHRATOXINS • Citreoviridin o Citreoviridin is a Penicillium spp. mycotoxin sometimes found in rice (and probably other substrates). o It can cause ascending paralysis with convulsions and respiratory paralysis resulting in respiratory arrest. o Cardiovascular and respiratory failure may occur within three days after the initial onset of paralysis. • Patulin o Patulin is a mycotoxin produced by Penicilium spp. and Aspergillus spp. o It is produced in apples, pears, grapes, barley, malt, rice, and wheat straw. o Cattle have reportedly exhibited an ascending paralysis of motor nerves with convulsions, excitement and cerebral hemorrhage. o Lesions may include pulmonary and cerebral edema, ascites, congestion of liver, spleen, and kidneys in addition to the other effects. o It is an inhibitor of RNA polymerase. • Ochratoxins o Ochratoxins comprise a series of related metabolites (at least 7 in all) isolated from several species of Aspergillus and Penicillium molds. o Ochratoxins A, B, C, D, and their methyl and ethyl esters have been isolated. o Ochratoxin A is thus far believed to be the most toxic and most common of the ochratoxins. o Ochratoxin is primarily a contaminant of feed grains and cereals. o The toxin occurs in barley, sorghum and especially wheat. o It has also been found in corn, dried beans, rye, oats, mixed feeds, and peanuts. o Potentially hazardous to livestock. Toxicity has been demonstrated in swine, ducklings, chickens, turkeys, and dogs. ZEARALENONE • Source is Fusareum roseum. • The common substrates are corn, wheat, barley and milo. • The toxin is absorbed readily from the gastrointestinal tract. • Metabolised to alpha and beta zearalenol. • Excreted in faeces, urine and milk. • Enterohepatic recycling increases duration of action. • Binds to cytosolic receptors for oestradiol 17β . • This complex binds to oestradiol site on DNA and inhibits specific RNA synthesis. • Funtions as weak oestrogen and inhibits follicle stimulating hormone. • This in turn inhibits preovulatory ovarian follicle maturation. • Swine are more susceptible. • In cattle it causes infertility. • Hypoestrogenism is noticed in prepubertal females.Other symptoms are nymphomania, anoestrus, vaginitis and mammary enlargement in heifers. • Treatment is with the use of activated charcoal, supportive therapy and prostaglandins. Bacterial toxins: TYPES OF BACTERIAL TOXINS • Enterotoxins are defined as those bacterial exotoxins that are specific for the intestinal tract causing vomiting, diarrhoea and abdominal pain. • In contrast to enterotoxin, the term endotoxin is used to describe a cell-associated bacterial toxin, usually a lipopolysaccharide complex that is found on the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. • Endotoxins essentially remain associated with the cell wall until the destruction of the bacteria by autolysis, external lysis or phagocytic digestion. 72

While all animals can be affected by endotoxin, the horse is especially prone to disease complications due to endotoxemia. FACTORS CAUSING BACTERIAL GROWTH IN FOODSTUFF • Discarded foodstuffs are often high in proteins and carbohydrates. • They serve as excellent substrates for the rapid growth of bacterial, often with enterotoxin release. • Instances of intoxication due to food increases in warm weather and during festival seasons when increased food is prepared and discarded. • Under conditions of warm temperatures and adequate moisture, these discarded foodstuffs can have an almost explosive growth of bacteria, especially S. aureus and B. cereus, which are the most common causes of enterotoxin related food poisonings in the human. TOXICOKINETICS AND MECHANISM OF ACTION OF S. AUREUS AND B. CEREUS S. aureus • S. aureus is a facultative anaerobic Gram-positive coccus that may be single, paired or in a grape-like cluster. • S. aureus does not form spores and thus contamination may be avoided by proper heat treatment of food to kill the bacteria. • S. aureus is an important infective pathogen as well and can easily be found in the nostrils and on the skin of most mammals. • Staphylococcal enterotoxins are water soluble, very heat resistant and resist most proteolytic • enzymes, such as trypsin and pepsin, which make it possible for them to travel through the digestive tract to their site of action. • They have a direct effect on the intestinal epithelium as well as on the vagus nerve to cause stimulation of the emetic centre as well as increasing peristalsis. B. cereus • B. cereus is in the family Bacillaceae which are all Gram positive rod-shaped bacteria which form endospores. • The family has two main divisions: the anaerobic spore-forming bacteria of the genus Clostridium and the aerobic or facultatively anaerobic spore-forming bacteria of the genus Bacillus. • B. cereus is a primary inhabitant of soils and contaminates almost all agricultural products and is routinely involved in the contamination and spoilage of food products. • B. cereus can also be involved in wound, eye or systemic infections. • B. cereus food poisoning is generally described as having two types of illness caused by different metabolites. • The diarrheal type of illness is caused by one or several heat-labile high molecular weight proteins, while the vomiting (emetic) type of illness is believed to be caused by a low molecular weight, heat-stable peptide which has been named cereulide. CLINICAL SYMPTOMS • The first and most common clinical sign in dogs is vomiting, which usually occurs within 2–3 h following ingestion. • This time is often sufficient to remove enough contaminated food from the gastrointestinal tract to prevent the development of more severe clinical signs. • However, vomiting can be protracted and leads to fluid and electrolyte abnormalities. • Diarrhoea often develops within 2–48 h following ingestion of contaminated food and can be severe, sometimes bloody. • The combination of both vomiting and diarrhoea in affected animal can quickly lead to profound fluid and electrolyte abnormalities. • The animal may exhibit tenderness to the abdomen or the stomach and intestinal tract can be distended. TREATMENT • In general, treatment of garbage intoxication in animals should be directed at correcting the fluid and electrolyte abnormalities along with considerations of acid/base balance.
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Non-complicated cases will often resolve within hours of presentation with only supportive care. • In the case of protracted vomiting, the judicious use of antiemetics should be considered. • Activated charcoal should not be given to dehydrated animals unless fluid administration is also initiated. • Antibiotics are not indicated in uncomplicated cases of garbage intoxication. BOTULISM • Botulism, or 'sausage poisoning', was reportedly first recognized in Germany around the late 1700s. • Botulism is the disease caused by any one of 7 serotypically different, but functionally similar toxins produced by strains of Clostridium botulinum . • They are among the most potent toxins known. • Of these 7 serotypes (A-G), types C and D have historically been the most commonly implicated in domestic mammals and poultry. • These proteinaceous toxins are only slightly cross-reactive and can generally be regarded as immunologically specific. • A, B serotypes are primarily isolated from soil. B serotype has been a problem especially in horses and is also implicated in toxicoses of cattle. • C serotype is the most commonly implicated serotype in dogs, waterfowl, and poultry. This toxin has also been said to affect horses. • Birds are somewhat resistant to type D, but cattle are quite sensitive. • E serotype is isolated from mud and water of estuaries and sea food. Dogs are reportedly extremely sensitive to type E toxin. Sources • The most common source of botulinum toxin causing poisoning in most, if not all species of domestic animals, is carcasses of decaying animals form an anaerobic environment and the toxin may be present in maggots feeding on the contaminated tissues. • Maggots often serve as the vector of botulinum toxin. MECHANISM OF ACTION • Botulinus toxin enters presynaptic membranes of cholinergic nerve endings via receptor mediated endocytosis. • The toxin acts intracellularly via a metalloendoprotease action to cleave 3 proteins essential for neurotransmitter release. • Thus the toxin inhibits degranulation or exocytosis of acetylcholine granules. • A small number of molecules of this toxin binds irreversibly to the sites of action, producing an essentially irreversible cessation of all cholinergic transmission.
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Death results from respiratory failure. The toxin prevents exocytosis of acetylcholine. Lower motor neuron effects include paresis to paralysis, hypotonia and hyporeflexia. CLINICAL SIGNS • Myasthenia. • Inability to swallow. • Progressive muscle paralysis with muscle weakness first in the hindquarters and then progressing to the forequarters, then the head and neck become involved.
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signs start with the progressive paralysis of the neck, legs and wings. Birds gasp for air and sometimes pass greenish diarrhoea. Usually they die in coma within 24 48 hours due to respiratory and circulatory failure. • Dogs o show general weakness which is followed by an ascending paresis and paralysis with cranial nerve involvement (facial paralysis may be present). Remain alert and responsive, wag tail and move head even when paralyzed. Mydriasis with slow pupillary reflexes, decreased palpebral reflexes. May have secondary dehydration and/or urinary tract infections as well as secondary respiratory infections. • Cattle o Inability or decreased ability to stand. Sternal and sometimes subsequent lateral recumbency. Often down with head down or turned to the side, like a cow with milk fever, may die in sternal recumbency. Rumen motility decreased or absent. o Hypersalivation, Paralysis of muscles of mastication and cannot resist forced opening of the mouth. Tongue may have normal tone, but often exhibits varying degrees of flaccid paralysis. This is most apparent after pulling the tongue out of the mouth repeatedly. o Dry faeces with large amount of mucus. Slow pupillary response to light. Death occurs without agonal respiratory gasps. Deaths in a herd may occur in one to several cows per day every day or every few days. Hyperglycemia may be noted. • Foals and Horses o Progressive symmetrical muscle paralysis, with stilted gait. Muscle tremors, inability to remain standing for longer than 4 - 5 minutes, drop to sternum. o In foals, milk runs out of their mouths as they attempt to suckle. Difficulty in swallowing water; tongue and pharyngeal paralysis. Loss of tongue tone is often an early clinical sign in adult horses. o Reduced intestinal peristalsis. o Constipation. o Frequent attempts to urinate with voiding of only a few ml of urine. o Mydriasis. o Tachycardia. Respiratory arrest, generally after a period of lateral recumbency, with the neck extended. TREATMENT • In cases of recent ingestion of preformed botulinus toxin, measures to remove the contents of the gastrointestinal tract as well as activated charcoal and a cathartic are indicated. • Sodium/potassium penicillin intravenously to eliminate proliferating C. botulinum organisms. • Supportive care including padding, provision of a warm, dry environment and turning the animal with assistance in eating, drinking, urination and defecation are indicated. Supportive alimentation is required in a large number of cases. Prolonged ventilation for respiratory paralysis is probably not going to be practical for any animal patient. • In cattle, carbamylcholine to stimulate gastrointestinal motility and enhance removal of the toxin seemed to enhance the probability of survival in a small number of animals. TETANUS • Tetanus toxin is produced by Clostridium tetani, a gram-positive, spore-forming bacillus under anaerobic conditions. • C. tetani spores are also commonly present in the faeces of domestic animals, especially those of horses, and in soil contaminated by faeces. • C. tetani spores may persist in soil for many years and are resistant to many standard disinfection processes, including steam heat (100º C for 15 minutes). • Poisoning is known to result from clostridial growth in contaminated wounds in which anaerobic conditions predominate. • The usual incubation period is 1 - 3 weeks. 75

It is possible for the original point of entry to heal without any evidence of infection and for subsequent trauma, even months later to set up the necessary environment for clostridial growth and toxin production. • Animals given appropriate preventative measures (toxoid and antitoxin) are at low risk of developing tetanus. • The usual portal of entry in horses is deep puncture wounds. • Clinical toxicosis is most likely when there is sufficient accompanying tissue damage to result in an anaerobic environment favorable for clostridial growth. • Umbilical infections also occur in foals that receive no maternal immunity. • The usual portal of entry in cattle is via the reproductive tract at parturition. • Outbreaks of tetanus in cattle have suggested that the toxin may have been produced in the gut or ingested preformed in the feed. • Grazing of rough, fibrous feeds before such outbreaks is a common factor in the history, and it is possible that infection may have begun via wounds in the oral cavity. • Castrating and dehorning with elastic bands can also result in clostridial infection. • In pigs, castration wounds are the most common point of infection. • In lambs and adult sheep, infection is most often associated with castration, docking or shearing. • Docking with elastic bands is one of the most common causes of tetanus in lambs MECHANISM OF TOXICITY • Three exotoxins are produced by the vegetative form of C. tetani. • Transport to the CNS occurs retrograde within nerves and via the bloodstream . • The toxin binds to gangliosides in the brain stem or spinal cord. • It blocks inhibitory synaptic input, especially at glycine mediated sites, by binding to the presynaptic membrane and blocking the release of glycine , resulting in spastic paralysis. • It may also inhibit release of GABA and other amino acid neurotransmitters. • Tetanus toxin may also cause paralysis by inhibiting the release of acetylcholine at neuromuscular junctions. • Constant muscular spasticity may be produced and normally innocuous stimuli cause exaggerated responses. • Death occurs as a result of rigidity of the muscles of respiration and associated asphyxia. Susceptible species • Although all species of domestic animals are susceptible to tetanus, most cases appear to occur in the horse. • Horses are the domestic species most sensitive to tetanus toxin. • Pigs, cattle and sheep are less sensitive and dogs and cats are fairly resistant but are sometimes affected. • Poultry are more resistant. • Generally, tetanus occurs in individual animals although outbreaks have been described in cattle, young pigs and lambs. CLINICAL SIGNS • Tetany, the predominant clinical sign of tetanus, is characterized by sustained tonic contractions of muscle without twitching. • Signs include hyperesthesia, tetany and convulsions with eventual rigidity of the muscles of respiration, asphyxia, and death. • Clinical signs may include a sawhorse stance, protrusion of the third eyelid, rigidity of the generalized musculature, ‘sardonic grin’ and secondary postural effects which diminish defecation and urination. • Rigidity with extension of the tail has been described for cats ‘pump-handle tail’.
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Phenoxyacetic acids Bipyridium compounds Triazenes Chloraliphatic acids Substituted ureas Substituted dinitroanilines Rodenticides • Inorganic agents • Dicumarol derivatives • Glycosides ORGANOCHLORINE (Chlorinated hydrocarbon) Sources • Environmental residues are a source of chlorinated hydrocarbon poisoning. These agents were heavily used in the control of pests and in agricultural practices from 1950 to 1970s. • Contaminated soils or leakage from old dump sites occasionally leads to residues. • The organochlorine insecticides that are present already in the environment are slowly degraded and low levels of residues may persist in select areas. • The highly lipid soluble nature of these agents, combined with their environmental persistence, favour bioaccumulation upward in food chains from environment to animal or human hosts. • Accidental exposure to these products may lead to toxicity. • Improper dilution of organochlorines in sprays and dips may cause toxicity. • They are grouped as o Diphenyl aliphatic gents - DDT, methoxychlor, perthane, and dicofol o Cyclodiene agents – Aldrin, dieldrin, endosulpahan, chlordane, endrin, and heptachlor o Hexachlorocyclohexane agents – Lindane, mirex, kepone and paradichlorobenzene • Aldrin, endrin and heptachlor are used in termite control. They are also used in animal dips. • Lindane toxicosis is common in cats and dogs. It was never approved for cats, it is used for dogs (fleas, ticks, sarcoptic mange) and also for human beings (for scabies). ABSORPTION AND FATE • Organochlorines are readily absorbed from skin and mucous membrane as they are highly lipid soluble. • Organochlorines are not highly volatile and hence inhalation is not a major problem. But aerosols can be absorbed. • Organochlorines are distributed to vital organs namely liver, kidney and brain. But they do not get accumulated in the vital organs. • They readily accumulate in the lipid depots. • Metabolism is mainly by mixed function oxidases and the metabolite may be non toxic than the parent compound. • Dieldrin and heptachlor epoxide are persistent in the body and the environment. • Excretion is mainly in the faeces and in lactating animals, it is excreted in milk. MECHANISM OF TOXICITY • These drugs are neuro poisons. Being highly lipid soluble, they can enter the neuronal tissues easily. They act by o reducing the potassium transport through pores o inactivating sodium channel closure o inhibiting Na+-K+ and Ca 2+-Mg2+ ATPases o inhibiting calmodulin Ca2+ binding with release of neurotransmitter o In addition, some members act on the chloride ion transport by antagonizing the GABA receptors in the chloride channels.
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Sodium influx is enhanced and potassium outflow is inhibited. Hence there is enhanced action potential and increased tendency for seizures. • A metabolite of DDT inhibits the output of adrenal glands by selective necrosis of zona fasiculata and zona reticularis. CLINICAL SYMPTOMS AND PM LESIONS • Clinical symptoms o Initial stimulation of CNS followed by depression and death due to respiratory failure. o Behavioural changes like anxiety, aggressiveness, abnormal posturing, jumping over unseen objects, wall climbing and madness syndrome, neurological symptoms like hypersensitivity to external stimuli, fasciculation and twitching of facial and eyelid muscles, spasm and twitching of the fore and hind quarter muscles, champing of the jaws, seizures, pivoting on one foot, fall over backwards and hyperthermia and chloinergic symptoms like vomiting, marked salivation, mydriasis, diarrhoea and micturition are noticed. o In birds there will be sudden death after depression, disorientation, abnormal posture and apparent blindness. • Lesions o Large doses may sometimes cause centrolobular necrosis of liver and smaller doses cause liver enlargement DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT Diagnosis • Acute toxicosis is diagnosed based on history of exposure, appropriate clinical signs. • Brain analysis is important for diagnosis of acute toxicosis. • Half of the frozen brain should be submitted for analysis. • The other half should be fixed for histopathology to rule out infectious (encephalitides), degenerative, or neoplastic diseases. • To determine sources, it may be appropriate to submit specimens for analysis such as: feed. suspected insecticidal formulation - granules, liquid, old containers, etc., gastrointestinal tract contents and liver. Treatment • Remove the animal from the source. • There is no specific antidote for organochlorines and treatment is aimed at reducing further absorption and hastening elimination from the body. • If dermal exposure is suspected, bathe the animal with plenty of water and avoid human exposure by the use of heavy-gauge rubber gloves. • Supportive and symptomatic therapy is advantageous. • Suggested drug for initial control is diazepam (dogs) or, if it fails (or for other species), phenobarbital or pentobarbital . • For prolonged CNS stimulation, the drug of choice is phenobarbital which may also stimulate mixed function oxidase activity to shorten half-life. Agrochemicals: OPC’s and carbamates: ORGANOPHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDS - INTRODUCTION • Organophosphorous compounds are used as insecticides and parasiticides. They include malathion, parathion, tetraethyl pyrophosphate, dimethoate, coumaphos, fenchlorphos, trichlorphon etc. • They are either aliphatic carbon, cyclic and heterocyclic phosphate esters. In organothiophosphates, the double-bonded oxygen is replaced with a sulphur molecule. • Esters with a P = S functional group are usually less toxic than those with a P = O group. • Conversion of P = S to P = O functional group increases the anticholinesterase activity of the insecticide. • Organothiophosphates are usually more resistant to non-enzymatic hydrolysis which might occur in the environment.
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Tetraethyl pyro phosphate (TEPP) was the first organophosphate introduced during the World war II. • Extremely toxic nerve gases tabun and serin were introduced later. • They were highly toxic to mammals. • On the basis of their activity, organophosphates are classified as directly acting and indirectly acting. • The metabolite is responsible for the toxicological actions in indirectly acting organophosphorus compounds. • Directly acting include TEPP, DFP, tabun, serin, soman and diazinon. • Indirectly acting includes malathion, parathion, fenithion and fenitrothion. SOURCES OF ORGANOPHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDS • Organophosphorus compounds are used in the control of pests on crops and stored grains. • They are used to treat parasitic infestations in animals. • They are also used as flea collars in pets and as fly repellents and cockroach baits. • Feed may be contaminated with OPC, animal premises may be dusted or sprayed, systemic over dosage of antiparasitic compounds, drinking water may be contaminated, empty pesticide containers are never empty and animals can be poisoned if they are fed or watered with these containers. PROPERTIES OF TOXICOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE • There is great variation in toxicity between the compounds. • Most organophosphorous compounds are not persistent in the environment and dissipate in 2 – 4 weeks. • They are poorly soluble in water and so they may be used as dusts, wettable powders or emulsions. • Improper formulation of a pesticide vehicle mixture can lead to under exposure or over exposure. These compounds are soluble in organic solvents, fats and oils. Hence they can penetrate waxy coatings o f leaves or fruits or directly absorbed through the skin. • Oily vehicles or solvents can facilitate passage of organophosphorous pesticides through the skin. • Toxicity of the OPC decrease as they are degraded by sun, water, microbes, alkali or metal ions. • Highly toxic isomers can be formed spontaneously in poor solvents or water. So increase in toxicity occurs during storage. • Ambient temperature affects toxicity. • High temperature increases toxicity of parathion in mice and low temperature increases toxicity of malathion in mice. • Nature of the vehicle used also affects toxicity. • Cattle are more sensitive to sheep for a few compounds. • Many of the species differences are caused by differences in enzymatic activation or degradation of various pesticides. • Compounds that do not require enzymatic activation are more toxic in very young animals. • Dichlorvos, dioxathion and parathion are more toxic to female, while fenithion and dimethoate are less toxic to female compared to male. MECHANISM OF ACTION Acetylcholine (ACh) is the mediator at junctions including those between: o Preganglionic and postganglionic neurons in both parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system. o Postganglionic parasympathetic fibers and smooth muscles or glands. o Motor nerves and skeletal muscles. o Some neuron to neuron junctions in the CNS. • ACh has a cationic site and an esteric site.
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ACh is immediately metabolised by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) which has a anionic site and an esteratic site. • The binding of acetylcholinesterase by different organophosphous inhibitors varies somewhat in affinity and reversibility. • After binding, the enzyme is ‘phosphorylated’, and thus inhibited. Generally speaking, much of the binding of AChE by an OP is regarded as ‘irreversible’. There are four stages of anticholinesterase action produced by these compounds. They are inhibition (phosphorylation), reactivation, aging and regeneration/recovery • Phosphorylation: Organophosphorus compounds react only at the esteratic site of cholinesterase to form a phosphorylated enzyme. • Reactivation: Following alkylphosphorylation, spontaneous reactivation can occur. But, the rate is dependent on the nature of the alkyl group. • Aging : Aging is the loss of one alkyl group, which generally occurs more rapidly than spontaneous hydrolysis. Aging makes the product more resistant to regeneration by pralidoxime. The rate is dependent on the R group of the organophosphorus compound. Pralidoxime was a compound that was generated to reactivate the enzyme cholinesterase. This agent combines with the cation binding site which orients the oxime group of this agent to react with the elecrophillic phosphorus atom. The oxime-phosphonate is split off, leaving the regenerated enzyme. • Regeneration: If the enzyme is not reactivated, new acetylcholinesterase must be synthesized. This takes weeks or months. However, recovery can occur more rapidly since only a small fraction of acetylcholinesterase is needed to be resynthesized. • Irreversible inhibition of acetylcholinesterase causes accumulation of acetylcholine in the neuromuscular junction, parasympathetic postganglionic terminals in smooth muscles, cardiac muscle and glands and in all autonomic ganglia and in cholinergic synapses in the CNS. CLINICAL SYMPTOMS Three categories of effects occur in poisoned animals: muscarinic, nicotinic, and central nervous system effects. o Muscarinic effects include profuse salivation, lacrimation, serous or seromucous nasal discharge, increased respiratory sounds due to bronchoconstriction and excess 81
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bronchial secretions, pronounced gastrointestinal sounds, colic and diarrhoea due to increased gastrointestinal motility, bradycardia, pupil constriction, sweating, coughing, vomiting and frequent urination. These parasympathetic signs usually begin appearing first. o Signs of nicotinic cholinergic overstimulation occur soon after the onset of muscarinic signs and include muscle fasciculation, tremors, twitching, spasm and hypertonicity causing a stiff gait or rigid stance. o Central nervous system effects vary with species and severe CNS depression common in any species. Anxiety, restlessness and hyperactivity may also be noticed. o Death is usually due to respiratory failure, but, bronchoconstriction and convulsions may be life threatening. Chronic organophosphorus poisoning o The symptoms of chronic poisoning include polyneuritis, demyelination, sensory disturbances, muscle weakness, tenderness, depressed tendon reflexes, lower and upper motor neuron paralysis. The mechanism of action is not very clear. But, it is not due to anticholinesterase activity. No specific treatment is available. TREATMENT • Prevent further absorption • Maintain airway • Maintain blood pressure and airway • Control convulsions • Administer atropine – Atropine will block the muscarinic symptoms. In high doses, it can control central effects. But, it does not reverse peripheral muscular paralysis, which is mediated by nicotinic actions. The dose required is 0.2 – 0.5 mg/kg, one-fourth given intravenously and the rest intramuscularly or subcutaneously. The dose must be repeated at 3 – 6 hour intervals for a day or more. Adequate atropinisation exists when the pupils are dilated, salivation ceases and the animal appears to be recovering. • Administer cholinesterase reactivators – After atropinisation, before aging, oximes should be administered. o Cholinesterase reactivators can be used to counter the nicotinic receptor activation. Reactivators include diacetylmonoxime (DAM), pralidoxime (2 PAM), toxagonine etc. 2PAM chloride is the drug of choice because of the solubility and stability in water and few side effects. Oximes work best in the presence of atropine and hence should be given after atropinisation. 2 PAM chloride is administered at the rate of 20 – 50 mg/kg of 10% solution i/m or slow i/v in small animals and 25 – 50 mg/kg of 20% solution i/v in a 6 minute duration. If symptoms of toxicosis reappear, the dose can be repeated. • Oximes work by two mechanisms o They react directly with the organophosphate and form a relatively non toxic complex. This can be excreted in urine. So the organophosphate is removed from the cholinesterase and cholinesterase can metabolize acetylcholine. o If aging has not occurred in phosphorylated esters, the oximes are capable of breaking the bond between the esteratic site of acetylcholinesterase and the phosphoryl group of the pesticide. In this oxime gets phsophorylated and acetylcholinesterase is liberated. • Oxygen therapy if cyanosis and dyspnoea are prominent. • Washing the animal with plenty of water and detergent. • Administration of mineral oil. • Keeping the animal quiet and comfortable. • Oximes are not effective in carbamate poisoning. The anionic site is not free for the oximes to be attached to, in the case of carbamate poisoning. So they are ineffective. Oximes themselves have weak anticholinesterase activity and hence, they are contraindicated in carbamate poisoning. Administering oximes in carbamate poisoning will aggravate the condition. CARBAMATE COMPOUNDS - INTRODUCTION 82

Compared to organophosphates, carbamate pesticides are of relatively recent origin and constitute another important group of pesticides. • Carbamate insecticides, which are derivatives of carbamic acid are used as pesticides. • In addition to their use as pesticides, carbamates are used as drugs of choice in human medicine against Alzheimer's disease, myasthenia gravis and glaucoma and in veterinary medicine as parasiticides. • They are similar in many aspects to organophosphorus compounds. • The original carbamate, physostigmine, is a plant alkaloid, derived from the "ordeal bean" • Calabar bean containing biologically active carbamate was used as an ordeal poison. • Carbaryl (sevin) is the best known carbamate. • Some carbamates have structural similarity with the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) and therefore they cause direct stimulation of ACh receptors, in addition to acetylcholinesterase(AChE) inactivation. TOXICOKINETICS • Carbamates are absorbed through skin, lungs and gastointestinal tract. • They are widely distributed in the body and are rapidly metabolised. • Sulphate conjugation and glucuronide conjugation occur. • Excreted in urine, faeces and milk. • Carbamates are less toxic to warm blooded animals. MECHANISM OF ACTION • Carbamates cause reversible inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (unlike organophosphorus compounds which cause irreversible inhibition). But in the insects this is not reversible because the enzyme is cleaved in the process of carbamylation. • In addition they inhibit aliesterase enzyme in insects. • Carbamate complexes with acetylcholinesterase and the complex is known as carbamylated enzyme. • This undergoes hydrolysis or decarbamylation and the enzyme is released. CLINICAL SYMPTOMS AND TREATMENT Symptoms • The clinical symptoms are similar to organophosphorus compounds. • But the symptoms are not long lasting. Treatment • Atropine adminstration and symptomatic treatment are useful. • Oximes (enzyme reactivators) are not useful and they are contraindicated. • Carbamates attach to both the anionic and esteratic site of acetylcholinesterase and this does not allow oximes site to attach. Oximes themselves are weak anticholinesterase agents and may add on to aggravation of symptoms. • Hyderochlorothiazide diuretics are also said to be useful. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ORGANOPHOSPHATES AND CARBAMATES
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Organophosphates Phosphorylates acetylcholinesterase Irreversible inhibition of AChE Completely inhibits AChE Dephosphorylation does not occur easily Detach slowly from AChE Bind only to the esteratic site

Agrochemicals: pyrethrins, synthetic pyrethroides and other insecticides: SOURCES OF PYRETHRINS AND PYRETHROIDS • Pyrethrins are natural insecticides produced by certain exotic Chrysanthemums (sometimes called Pyrethrum) flowers, not by domestic horticultural varieties. • Pyrethrum contains pyrethrins and cinerins. Natural pyrethrins possess potential insecticidal properties without mammalian toxicity potential. • Pyrethroids are synthetic insecticides. • They have been developed by modifying the basic structure of the natural pyrethrins. • They have improved physical and chemical properties with greater biological activity. • They undergo rapid degradation and are not persistent in the environment. Hence they are widely used in practice. • They are used in numerous formulations including aerosols, sprays, dusts, tags, dips and shampoos. • Some formulations include additional insecticides and/or insect repellents. • Flea control products constitute the primary source of exposure leading to problems in small animals. CLASSIFICATION • Based on the structure of pyrethroids, they are classified as o Type I (Agents having no alpha cyano moiety) – Allethrin, permethrin, cismethrin o Type II (Agents having alpha cyano moiety) – Deltamethrin, cypermethrin, fenvalerate, fluvalinate, flumethrin • Toxicity is due to ingestion of pesticide contaminated feed or through dermal absorption when they are used as pesticides. TOXICITY • Toxicity varies with the specific compound and route of administration involved. • In general, introduction of an alpha - cyano moiety (type II pyrethroids) results in an increase in toxicity. • Drugs, chemicals, nutritional changes that alters the effectiveness of the mixed function oxidase system can change the toxicity of the pyrethroids. • Small animal poisoning occurs principally in cats. • Rodents are also susceptible. Fish are often extremely sensitive. TOXICOKINETICS • Pyrethroids are lipophilic and are absorbed rapidly after entry through oral, dermal or inhalation routes. • Rapid hydrolysis of ester linkage in digestive tract results in low oral toxicity. • Most are rapidly metabolized by ester hydrolysis and via oxidation by liver microsomal enzymes. • The resulting alcohol, phenol, or carboxylic acid metabolites are often conjugated with glycine, glucuronide, sulfate and glucoside prior to excretion through kidneys. MECHANISM OF ACTION • Pyrethrins and type I pyrethroids act on sodium ion channels; decreasing peak sodium conductance, prolonging the sodium conductance and suppressing potassium conduction. • These changes result in decreases in the amplitudes of action potentials and repetitive nerve discharges. • Nerve conduction block can occur. • Type II pyrethroids (contain a cyano group) also act on sodium ion channels which is thought to account for the sensory nerve stimulation associated with paresthesias in humans (and presumably other species). • A depolarization of nerve membranes without repetitive discharges occurs with decreased action potential amplitudes. • Type II pyrethroids are also believed to interfere with the binding of GABA and glutamic acid at their respective nervous system's receptor sites. 84

Allethrin (and perhaps other pyrethroids) allosterically affects binding at the acetylcholine nicotinic receptor. • Pyrethrins and pyrethroids also inhibit various adenosine triphosphatases including the calcium-ATPase and the calcium magnesium-ATPase in nervous tissues. CLINICAL SYMPTOMS AND PM LESIONS • Clinical symptoms o The symptoms are often associated with vigorous insecticide treatment of the animal. It is also possibly due in part to larger amounts of synergist(s) in the formulation. o Effects on rodents classified into two syndromes: type I and type II syndromes which correlate with the chemical structures.  Type I syndrome caused by classical pyrethrins and type I pyrethroids (no alpha cyano group) - There is increased sensitivity to stimuli, fine muscle tremors, whole body tremors and prostration.  Type II syndrome caused by alpha-cyano pyrethroids – There is salivation; rodents paw, burrow, writhe and may display clonic seizures; possible paresthesia of skin. o In cats and dogs, clinical signs associated with toxicosis from pyrethrins and type I or type II pyrethroids may include tremors, increased salivation, ataxia, vomiting, depression, increased body temperature, hyperexcitability or hyperactivity, seizures, dyspnea and death. o Clinical signs generally develop within hours of exposure, but may be delayed as a result of prolonged exposure from dermal absorption or grooming. Generally, sublethally exposed animals recover within 72 hours. • Lesions o No specific gross lesions noted and death is generally rare . DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT Diagnosis • Diagnosis is based upon a history of a potentially toxic level of exposure to a pyrethrin or pyrethroid containing insecticide and the development of compatible signs. • It should be differentiated from poisoning due to other insecticides, e.g., organophosphorus and/or carbamate compounds, in part by measuring acetylcholinesterase activity. Treatment • If topical exposure is suspected wash the animal thoroughly with plenty of water. • If recent oral exposure emetics, activated charcoal and saline cathartic are useful . • For severe CNS stimulation with seizures, diazepam and phenobarbital are recommended. • Cats with severe tremors due to inappropriate use of concentrated permethrin often improve after IV administration of methocarbamol. Half the dose should be given rapidly but no faster than 2 ml/min. • Administration should be discontinued briefly as the cat relaxes, then resumed until the desired effect is achieved. • The maximum dose on the label should not be exceeded. • Initial treatment with diazepam or pentobarbital, or mask induction with isoflurane may be needed for control of seizures. • Atropine can reduce some clinical signs (e.g., diarrhoea, hypersalivation). Phenothiazine tranquilizers are contraindicated. • Symptomatic and supportive therapy is recommended. ROTENONE • Sources o Derived from roots of the Derris and Lonchocupus plant. Also known as derris root powder. o Synonyms are derrin, nicourine, and tubatoxin. Used historically in Malaya and South America to kill fish and for poison arrows.
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It is used as an insecticide and is more toxic than pyrethrins. Formulated into products for use in gardens and on dogs and cats (dips, sprays, powders). o Formulations include dusts of 0.75 - 1.5% concentration, emulsifiable concentrates, wettable powders of 5% concentration, solutions (up to 57%) and resins. • Toxicity o Highly toxic to birds and fish, may affect any species. Cats most often affected after deliberate use of rotenone containing products for ectoparasitism. • Pharmacokinetics o Rotenone is metabolized by liver, undergoes hydroxylation to form equally toxic rotenoids. o Detoxification in liver by demethylation can also occur . • Mechanism of action o Rotenone blocks NAD-flavin electron transport in respiratory metabolism which results in blockade of nerve conduction. o Specifically, interferes with the electron transport process between flavoprotein and ubiquinone (coenzyme Q). Also blocks oxidation of NADH. • Clinical signs o Oral exposure results in gastric irritation and vomiting. o Dermal exposure may cause problems in dogs; more often in cats. o Possible skin irritation occurs and severe pulmonary irritation from inhalation of dust. o Signs may include vomiting, lethargy, tremors, stupor, clonic, repeated convulsions, respiratory failure, dyspnea and death. • Lesions o Pulmonary congestion and gastrointestinal tract irritation. o When chronically fed to rats or dogs, passive congestion of the liver with midzonal necrosis was observed. • Treatment o In oral exposure, avoid fatty or oily foods as they enhance absorption. o Control the fraction absorbed depending upon route of exposure and condition of patient. o Monitor blood glucose and administer glucose as needed. Monitor acid-base status and, if necessary, correct metabolic acidosis with diluted bicarbonate (slow iv). o Vitamin K3 which activates a bypass of the rotenone sensitive site has been recommended. Vitamin K3 should not be used in horses. o Supportive and symptomatic care will be useful. AMITRAZ • Amitraz is used as a topical miticide. • It is used as a topical solution or as a collar to control fleas. • In dogs, dermal absorption following dipping is a common route of exposure resulting in toxicosis. • Ingestion by dogs of amitraz -containing collars is becoming more common as their use becomes more widespread. • Puppies up to 3 - 4 months old seem to be especially sensitive to amitraz . • Amitraz is not approved for use in cats. Toxicosis has been reported in cats following administration of the liquid preparation in the external ear canal. • It is an α2 adrenergic agonist and weak mono amine oxidase inhibitor. • Causes cardiovascular collapse and respiratory depression. • Bradycardia, ataxia, depression, disorientation, vomiting, anorexia, polyuria, diarrhea, vocalization and seizures are the symptoms observed. • In poisoning treatment is symptomatic. Yohimbine can reverse the toxic effects. IVERMECTIN AND MILBEMYCIN • These drugs are fermentation products of Streptomyces avermitilis, a soil fungus discovered in Japan. 86
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They are used as endecticides. Cumulative toxicity possible which varies with species, breed, and age of animals. Younger animals appear more susceptible. Collies are apparently extremely susceptible to ivermectin. • Poisoning also occurs in shelties, border collies, and other related breeds which also appear to be predisposed. • GABA mediation at inhibitory interneurons in mammals occurs only in the CNS; whereas GABA acts peripherally in invertebrates. • Avermectins increase the activity of GABA receptors in 3 ways: o Avermectins potentiate GABA effect at synapse by stimulating the presynaptic release of GABA. o Avermectins enhance binding of GABA to postsynaptic receptors. o It also has direct GABA agonist effects. • GABA, the inhibitory neurotransmitter, opens postsynaptic chloride (Cl-) channels allowing a Cl- ion influx which causes an inhibitory effect through membrane hyperpolarization. • Increase in Cl- ion concentration inside the postsynaptic motor neuron causes retention of a negative charge (low electrical resistance) and subsequent excitatory or inhibitory signals are no longer registered by the recipient cell. This contrasts with the excitatory effects of acetylcholine which, instead, allows Na+ ions to enter. • In toxicosis dogs tend to show depression, ataxia, and sometimes coma, which may be prolonged or proceed to cause death. Some dogs show decreased menace response. • Pupils will respond to light. Blindness commonly occurs and with time is reversible. • Bradycardia and sinus arrhythmia reported. • There are no characteristic lesions in ivermectin poisoned animals. • Treatment is symptomatic and supportive. Agrochemicals: rodenticides, fungicides and herbicides: rodenticides,: INTRODUCTION • The commonly used rodenticides include o Anticoagulant rodenticides (warfarin and congeners) o Alphanaphthyl thiourea (ANTU) o Bromethalin o Cholecalciferol o Phopshorus o Red squill o Sodium fluoroacetate o Strychnine o Thallium o Zinc phosphide ANTICOAGULANT RODENTICIEDS (Warfarin and congeners) • The anticoagulant rodenticides are a potential hazard for all mammals, birds, and possibly other species. • The susceptibility varies among animal species and the toxicity of the compounds also varies. • Dogs and cats are most frequently involved, with occasional problems encountered in swine, ruminants, horses, pet birds, rodents and rabbits. • Pets and wildlife may be poisoned directly by eating the bait or indirectly by eating the poisoned rodents. • In domestic animals, intoxication is the result of feed contamination, malicious use and feed mixed in the equipment used to prepare rodent bait. • Although consumption of warfarin-poisoned rodents or birds by carnivores does not appear to present a likely hazard for the predator, consumption of tissues from diphacinonepoisoned animals has caused secondary poisoning in eagles, rats, dogs and mink.
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Secondary toxicity may rarely occur with other second-generation anticoagulants. All anticoagulants have the basic coumarin or indanedione nucleus. The 'first-generation' anticoagulants (warfarin, pindone, coumafuryl, coumachlor, isovaleryl indanedione, and others less frequently used) require multiple feedings to result in toxicity. • The 'intermediate' anticoagulants (chlorophacinone and in particular diphacinone) require fewer feedings than “first-generation” chemicals, and thus are more toxic to nontarget species. • The 'second-generation' anticoagulants (brodifacoum and bromadiolone) are highly toxic to non target species (dogs, cats and potentially livestock) after a single feeding. FACTORS ENHANCING TOXICITY Factors enhancing toxicity include • Deficiency of vitamin K due to oral sulphonamides (Prolonged sulphonamide therapy causes decreased synthesis of vitamin K). • High dietary fat concentration. Fatty acids displace the plasma protein bound anticoagulant increasing the free (active) fraction in the plasma so that more reaches the liver. • Liver abnormalities or other lesions in tissues that produce blood clotting factor. (Biliary obstruction and liver disease presumably reduces metabolism and excretion of the anticoagulant and reduces clotting factor synthesizing ability). • Presence of other poisons that cause clotting disorders – haemorrhage, anaemia, haemolysis and methaemoglobinaemia. • Restraint, motor activity and excitement. • Presence of drugs (phenylbutazone, oxyphenbutazone, phenytoin, salicylates) that displace the anticoagulant from plasma albumin . • Administration of ACTH, steroids, or thyroxine which increase the receptor site affinity for the anticoagulant. • Trauma . • Renal insufficiency (Uremia also causes decreased binding of the anticoagulant to serum proteins and may slow excretion of the unbound fraction). • Fever. TOXICOKINETICS • Absorption of warfarin is rather complete but occurs slowly. • Most of the warfarin is bound to plasma protein, but high concentrations are also found in the liver, spleen and kidney. • Plasma proteins (albumin) play a significant role in the patient's response to an anticoagulant. • Warfarin is over 90% bound in canine plasma which acts as a reservoir. • Inactive hydroxylated metabolites have been found in the urine. • The anticoagulant rodenticides are eliminated at various rates, depending on the compound and the amount ingested. MECHANISM OF TOXICITY • These anticoagulants have basic coumarin or indanidone nucleus. • They antagonize vitamin K, which in turn interferes with the normal synthesis of anticoagulant proteins (Factors II, VII, IX and X) in the liver. So prothrombin conversion to thrombin is affected. • A latent period which depends on species, dose and activity is required for using up the already present factors. CLINICAL SYMPTOMS • More often, the animal may be initially only depressed, anorexic and anemic. Pale mucous membranes, dyspnea (due to hypoxia or pulmonary hemorrhage), hematemesis, epistaxis and bloody or "tarry" feces are common soon thereafter. • The animal may be febrile and display nonlocalized abdominal pain. Scleral, intraocular, conjunctival, nasal, oral, urogenital and subcutaneous hemorrhage may be noted. • Staggering or ataxia can be observed with severe blood loss.
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The heart rate may be irregular and the pulse weak. Extensive external hematomata may occur at pressure points or traumatized areas. Swollen, tender joints are common, especially in pigs. Abortions have been noted in cattle. Animals experiencing prolonged toxicosis may be icteric from breakdown of impounded blood. DIAGNOSIS • Diagnosis is based on history and clinical signs. • Clinical signs may vary, but there should be an indication of hemorrhage or swellings. • Laboratory evaluation of clotting parameters and chemical detection of specific anticoagulants in biological fluids, vomitus, or baits also helps in diagnosis. TREATMENT • Correcting low PCV and/or hypovolemia and providing clotting factors as needed using transfusion of fresh whole blood. • Fresh or frozen plasma or whole blood may be administered. • Affected animals should be handled with care and sedated if necessary. Promazine is contraindicated. • Vitamin K is the specific antidote. This has to be administered subcutaneously at several places to increase the absorption and the needle used should be the smallest possible needle to reduce haemorrhage at the site of injection. This drug should not be given intravenously as there may be anaphylactic reactions. Vitamin K1 (phytonadione, phylloquinone) is the most effective form of the various forms of the vitamin. • It is similar to the natural form of the vitamin and works rapidly. • Oral vitamin K is faster acting and more effective than the parenteral form. It is absorbed from the GI tract and transported directly to the liver via the portal vein. • It should be given with food to enhance its absorption. Note - Do not use vitamin K3 (menadione) in Equidae. • Deaths have occurred from use of injectable menadione at manufacturer's recommended dosages. • Mechanism of toxicity is unknown, but acute renal failure is observed. • Pasture and green forages provide some vitamin K and may lessen the need somewhat for prolonged treatment of anticoagulant-exposed herbivores. • Oxygen may be beneficial in severely dyspneic animals. • The patient should be kept warm and still until stabilized. • During treatment coagulation time has to be monitered. • Protein bound drugs should be avoided as much as possible. • Contraindicated drugs during recovery period include corticosteroids, sulfa drugs, antihistamines, phenylbutazone, epinephrine and aspirin. • If the case is presented within a short period after exposure, emesis may be induced or giving gastric lavage or cathartics is useful. • If the animal is on treatment advice the owner not to administer large volumes of fatty foods and restrict exercise during treatment period. ALPHANAPHTHYL THIOUREA (ANTU) • This toxin causes local gastric irritation and most of the times vomited by the animals which can vomit and hence escape from toxicity. • When the toxin is absorbed, it increases the permeability of the lung capillaries. • ANTU kills by producing a marked hydrothorax and pulmonary edema. • The animal literally drowns in its own fluids. • The exact mechanism resulting in increased capillary permeability has not been determined. • Reaction of ANTU with sulfhydryl groups may be a necessary part of the mechanism of toxic action, since it has been reported that sulfhydryl group blocking agents are effective antidotes in rats in some experimental conditions. • Ruminants are resistant to poisoning. • Dogs and pigs are occasionally poisoned.
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The symptoms include: o vomiting, hypersalivation, coughing and dyspnoea. o Severe pulmonary oedema, moist rales, cyanosis, weakness, ataxia, rapid weak pulse, cold extremities and subnormal temperature have been noticed. • Animals continue to vomit as the disease progresses and the vomitus may consist entirely of blood. • A watery fluid diarrhea becomes hemorrhagic if the patient survives the acute symptoms. • The affected animal remains standing or sits on its haunches to relieve thoracic pressure. As the animals become weaker, they assume a position of sternal recumbency. • In the terminal stages, the lungs are congested or filled with fluid and fluid may escape from the mouth. • The animal becomes comatose and fails to respond to external stimuli. • Most deaths occur in 2 - 4 hours after symptoms appear. Owing to the seriousness of ANTU toxicosis, measures to eliminate the gastrointestinal tract contents should be followed as soon as possible after exposure. • Treatment includes use of emetics if no respiratory distress is noticed. • Activated charcoal may possibly be of value in the lavage solutions and should be left in the lumen thereafter. If a thorough enterogastric lavage is not performed, then a saline cathartic should also be administered. • Administration of n-amyl mercaptane and sodium thiosulphate, positive oxygen therapy and administration of osmotic diuretics and atropine are useful. • The prognosis for animals suffering from clinically significant ANTU poisoning is poor .
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BROMETHALIN It is a single dose rodenticide which is neurotoxic causing uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation leading to loss of sodium potassium-ATPase. Inhibition of this sodium pump leads to cellular oedema, cell swelling and degeneration. Increased cerebrospinal fluid pressure, nerve axonal pressure noticed, decreased nerve impulse conduction, paralysis and death are noticed. Symptoms include hyperexcitability, muscle tremors, grandmal seizures, hind limb hyperflexia, CNS depression and death. Bromethalin toxicosis should be considered when cerebral edema or posterior paralysis is present. Treatment includes preventing further absorption and reducing cerebral oedema. Use of mannitol as an osmotic diuretic and corticosteroids have been suggested but have shown little effect in dogs poisoned by bromethalin. Use of activated charcoal for several days may improve the recovery rate. CHOLECALCIFEROL Although this rodenticide was introduced with claims that it was less toxic to nontarget species than to rodents, clinical experience has shown that rodenticides containing cholecalciferol are a significant health threat to dogs and cats. • Cholecalciferol produces hypercalcemia, which results in systemic calcification of soft tissue, leading to renal failure, cardiac abnormalities, hypertension, CNS depression and GI upset. • Cholecalciferol and its metabolites are fat soluble and stored in adipose tissue. • The primary circulating metabolite is calcifediol. • Companion animals face the risk with this rodenticide. • Hypercalcaemia due to the metabolite is the reason for toxicity. This induces conduction dysfunction and abnormal mineralisation in soft tissues. • Vomiting, diarrhoea, anorexia, polydipsia, polyuria and acute renal failure are the symptoms. • In survivors there will be loss of musculo skeletal functions and cardiac anomalies. • Hematemesis and hemorrhagic diarrhea may develop as a result of dystrophic calcification of the GI tract and should not lead to a misdiagnosis of anticoagulant rodenticide toxicosis. 90
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Loss of renal concentrating ability is a direct result of hypercalcemia. As hypercalcemia persists, mineralization of the kidneys results in progressive renal insufficiency. • Treatment is aimed at detoxification mechanisms and supportive therapy. • A low-calcium diet should be provided in all cases of significant exposure to cholecalciferol rodenticides. PHOSPHOPRUS • Yellow phosphorus is used as a rodenticide. It is an oil-soluble, waxy solid with garlic odour. • It is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract and damaged epithelium. • It is hazardous to all domestic animals and is locally corrosive and hepatotoxic when absorbed. • It is excreted in urine and expired air. • Violent vomiting and diarrhoea are noticed. • The breath of the poisoned animal has characteristic garlic odour. • Phosphorus is locally corrosive and when absorbed causes hepatotoxicity. • Death is due to hepatic and renal failure. • Lesions include severe gastroenteritis; fatty liver; multiple hemorrhages; and black, tarry blood that fails to clot. • Body tissues and fluids may be phosphorescent, and the gastric contents have a garlic odor. • Lavage with potassium permanganate or emesis with copper sulphate followed by activated charcoal are found to be useful. • Any fat in the diet must be avoided for 3-4 days or longer because fats favor additional absorption of phosphorus. • Mineral oil orally has been recommended because it dissolves phosphorus and prevents absorption. RED SQUILL (Urginea maritima) • Red squill contains a cardiac glycoside. • It is unpalatable to domestic animals and induces vomiting when eaten. Since rodents do not vomit, they exhibit toxicity. • It is considered relatively safe, but dogs, cats and pigs have been poisoned. • Symptoms include vomiting, ataxia, hyperaesthesia followed by paralysis, depression and convulsions. • Bradycardia and cardiac arrhythmia leading to cardiac arrest are also noticed. • Treatment includes supportive therapy, gastric lavage, cathartics, atropine and phenytoin. SODIUM FLUROACETATE • This is highly toxic to all species. • Sodium fluroacetate is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, abraded skin and mucous membrane. • Sodium fluroacetae is metabolised to flurocitrate. This blocks the citric acid cycle. • Flurocitrate inhibits aconitase and the oxidation of citric acid thus blocking tri carboxylic acid cycle. • Energy depletion, accumulation of lactate and citrate and decrease in blood pH occur. • Cellular respiration and metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats are interfered with. • It causes toxic effects by over stimulating the CNS, resulting in death by convulsions, and by causing alteration of cardiac function that results in myocardial depression, cardiac arrhythmias, ventricular fibrillation and circulatory collapse. • CNS stimulation is the main effect in dogs, while the cardiac effects predominate in horses, sheep, goats and chickens. • Pigs and cats appear about equally affected by both. • Primates and birds are resistant while carnivores are more susceptible.
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A characteristic lag phase of ≥30 min after ingestion occurs before the onset of nervousness and restlessness. • Affected animals rapidly become prostrate, and the pulse is weak and 2-3 times normal rate. • Death is due to cardiac failure. Usually, dogs and pigs rapidly develop tetanic convulsions similar to those of strychnine poisoning. • Many exhibit severe pain. Vomiting is prominent in pigs. • Dogs usually have urinary and fecal incontinence and exhibit frenzied running. • The course is rapid; affected animals die within hours after signs appear. • Few animals that develop marked signs recover. • Congestion of organs, cyanosis, subepicardial hemorrhages, and a heart stopped in diastole are common necropsy findings. • No specific antidotal treatment is available. STRYCHNINE • Strychnine is known as gopher bait. • It is absorbed rapidly and acts by blocking the inhibitory actions of glycine. This leads to excessive neuronal activity, mild to severe muscular spasms. • Advanced signs include spontaneous and nearly continuous tetanic seizures with marked rigidity sometimes known as ‘sawhorse stance’. • Treatment of toxicity includes use of barbiturates to control convulsions.
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THALLIUM It is a cellular poison affecting all species. Toxicity is related to inhibition of sulphur containing compounds. The symptoms include gastroenteritis, abdominal pain, dyspnoea, blindness, fever, conjunctivitis, gingivitis, tremors and seizures. Necrosis of many tissues is a common necropsy finding. Eleveated levels of thallium in urine faeces and tissue provides a confirmative evidence for thallium poisoning. Treatment is symptomatic. Emetics, lavage with sodium iodide are useful. Diphenylthiocarbazone is antidotal in nature, but must be given within 24 hours. To prevent enterohepatic recycling prussian blue can be given.
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ZINC PHOSPHIDE Zinc phosphide is used as a rodenticide. Zinc phosphide has a disagreeable odour but not to the rodents. Under acid conditions, it liberates phosphine gas, which is highly inflammable and toxic. Phosphine gas is used as a grain fumigant. Absorption and fate o Zinc phosphide is absorbed from the stomach. o It is directly irritant to the gut and causes vomiting. o Phosphine gas at the acid pH in the stomach causes acute toxicosis. o In humans inhalation of phosphine causes dyspnoea, hypotension, bradycardia, nausea and vomiting. o Phosphine gas blocks cytochrome oxidase and this in turn reduces energy production. o There is also increase in reactive oxygen species resulting in peroxidation and other cellular oxidative damage. Clincal signs o Clinical signs include anorexia, lethargy; vomiting of blood, increase in rate and depth of respiration, abdominal pain, bloat, ataxia, weakness, prostration, gasping, convulsions, coma and death in 3 to 48 hors. o Dogs show symptoms of mad dog running – aimless running, howling and yelling, snapping of teeth, tremors and extensor rigidity seizures. PM Lesions 92

Lesions include pulmonary congestion, oedema, pleural effusion, subpleural haemorrhage, congestion of liver and kidney, gastroenteritis and acetylene like odour in the vomitus or stomach contents. o Zinc levels in the blood, liver, and kidneys may be increased. • Treatment o No specific treatment is available. o Sodium bicarbonate can be administered to alter the pH so as to reduce the conversion of zinc phosphide to phosphine gas. o Gastric emptying and lavage with 5% sodium bicarbonate, calcium gluconate and 1/6Molar sodium lactate is useful. o Intravenous dextrose can be administered to control kidney and liver disorders. METALDEHYDE • This polymer of acetaldehyde is used as a snail or slug bait, to which dogs and livestock may be exposed. • Toxic effects are due to absorption of limited acetaldehyde from metaldehyde hydrolysis in the stomach, but primarily to the metaldehyde itself. • Signs range from salivation and vomiting to anxiety and incoordination with muscle tremors, fasciculations, and hyperesthesia leading to continuous muscle spasms, prostration, and death. • Generally, the muscle spasms are not initiated by external stimuli, but excessive muscular activity is common, often producing high body temperatures. • Differential diagnoses include strychnine poisoning and anticholinesterase insecticide toxicity. • The finding of metaldehyde bait or pellets in the vomitus and the possible odor of acetaldehyde from stomach contents or on the animal’s breath may assist in diagnosis. • Treatment is most effective if initiated early. • Further toxicant absorption should be prevented by induced emesis, gastric lavage, and oral dosing with activated charcoal. • Hyperesthesia and muscle activity may be controlled with diazepam or light barbiturate anesthesia and muscle relaxants as needed. • IV fluid therapy with lactated Ringer’s solution or 5% glucose helps to promote toxin excretion and to combat dehydration and the acidosis induced by the excessive muscle activity. • Continuous supportive care is important. HERBICIDES AND FUNGICIDES Herbicides • Herbicides are used routinely to control noxious plants. • Vegetation treated with herbicides at proper rates normally will not be hazardous. • Herbicides are of two types – Inorganic and organic synthetic • Inorganic herbicides include – Arsenicals, ammonium sulfamate, borax and sodium chlorate • Organic herbicides include o Dipyridyl compounds or quaternary ammonium herbicides o Carbamate and thiocarbamate compounds o Aromatic/benzoic acid compounds o Phenoxyacetic and phenoxybutyric compounds o Oinitrophenolic compounds o Organophosphate compounds o Triazolopyrimidine compounds o Phenyl or substituted urea compounds o Polycyclic alkanoic acids o Sulfonylurea compounds • Animals get exposed to herbicides from o environmental residues o inadvertent consumption 93
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o grazing freshly sprayed pastures or eating treated hay. Phenoxy herbicides • 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5 trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5 – T) • 2,4,5 trichlorophenoxyacetic acid is commonly known as ‘agent orange’ as it was used as defoliating agents in the Vietnam War • It exerts its toxic effects on plants by blocking the action of plant growth hormones • It is a relatively non toxic herbicide to humans and animals. • They produce reproductive toxicity in cattle and hepato carcinoma in laboratory animals. Dipyridyl herbicides • This group of herbicides are caustic and irritant agents. • Paraquat and diquat are used as herbicides. Paraquat • A non selective contact herbicide, used extensively in Asian countries • It is poorly absorbed from the gut due to 2 positive charges • If it is absorbed into the blood stream, the lung is the major target organ for toxicity. • The shape of the paraquat molecule is perfect to be a substrate for specific uptake systems present in Type II alveolar cells and • There is abundant O 2 in the lungs • The mechanism of toxicity of paraquat is by an oxidative process generating oxygen radicals • The toxic effects on the lung include: Haemorrhage oedema, damage to type II alveolar cells and fibrosis. • The toxic effects are stow to develop (3 to 4 weeks) since paraquat is poorly absorbed from the gut. Treatment of paraquat toxicity • If ingested: Gastric lavage and use of activated charcoal • I n an emergency, clay can be used as it contains bentonile which is a negatively charged compound. This binds to paraquat (which is positively charged) to form an insoluble complex which is excreted in the faeces. Dinitro compounds • Act by interfering with electron transport chain of energy metabolism. • Uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation occurs and all the cellular energy is converted in the form of heat. • Causes severe hyperthermia. • Ruminal microflora reduces the dinitro compounds to diamine metabolites and this induces methaemoglobinaemia. • Treatment is symptomatic and antipyretics are contraindicated. Fungicides • Used to prevent or treat fungal infections in plants or plant products. • They are used to protect tubers, fruits and vegetables during storage. • Soil fungicides are used at the time of planting. • They are applied directly to ornamentals, trees, field crops, cereals and turf grasses. • Low toxicity of modern fungicides generally prevent poisoning in animals. • Misuse, accidents and carelessness are the major causes of toxicosis in pets and livestock. • Fungicides vary in toxicity from barely toxic to highly lethal. • Most available data are for laboratory animals; little information is available for farm animals and pets. • Fungicides are commonly marketed and used in combination with other insecticides. • The carriers or solvents, also known as ‘inert ingredients’, may be toxic. • Clinical signs are often nonspecific may include anorexia, depression, weakness and diarrhea. • Chemical analysis of treated or contaminated feeds and forages is usually more effective.

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Lesions, that are usually mild or generalized include gastroenteritis (acute exposure), rumen stasis and hepatic, renal and pulmonary congestion. • Detoxification and supportive therapy are useful. • Specific antidotes are generally not available. Fumigants • Fumigants are extremely toxic gases used to protect stored products, especially grains and to kill soil nematodes. • These materials are applied to storage warehouses, freight cars and houses infested with insects . • They present a special hazard due to inhalation exposure and rapid diffusion into pulmonary blood; thus extreme care must be taken when handling and applying this class of pesticides. • All fumigants are classified as restricted use compounds and require licensed applicators to handle them. Phospine (PH 3 ) • Used as a grain fumigant to kill weevils, nematodes, fungi • It is a gas generated by the reaction of moisture (found in the grain) with aluminium phosphide (AlP 3 ) • Aluminium phosphide is added to the grain as satchels or tablets. • The PH 3 formed is heavier than air, therefore it sinks down through the grain rather than rising up and polluting the atmosphere. • Phosphine has the odour of rotting fish. • The mechanism of toxicity is unknown. • Toxic symptoms include: o Pulmonary oedema o Ventricular arryhthmias o Kidney damage • Treatment of phosphine poisoning is based on treating the symptoms. AVICIDES • 3-chloro-p-toludine hydrochloride and 4-aminopyridine are used as avicides. • 3-chloro-p-toludine hydrochloride causes increased respiratory rate with mild dyspnoea in birds and death occurs in 1 – 3 days due to renal failure. • In mammals methaemoglobinaemia, CNS depression, flaccid paralysis, hypothermia and death have been reported. • There in no specific treatment for poisoning. 4-aminopyridine is absorbed well from the gastrointestinal tract and symptoms are noticed in 10 – 15 minutes. This drug blocks the potassium channel and increases release of acetlycholine in the synapse with enhanced neurotransmission. • Salivation, hyperexcitability, tremors, incoordination, tonic and clonic seizures and cardiac arrhythmia have been noticed. • Treatment is symptomatic. Verminous bites and stings: ZOOTOXINS • Venomous animals produce venom in a highly developed secretary gland or group of cells and deliver the toxin (venom) during a stinging or biting act. • Most of the zootoxins are composed of proteins (both low and high molecular weight). They may be amines, lipids, steroids, aminopolysaccharides, quinines, 5HT, glycosides etc. • Toxicity from zootoxins depends on: o Species of the venomous animal o Route of entry o Location/site o Quantity of venom injected o Absorption from the site o Distribution o Accumulation
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Biotransformation Excretion and Species of animals affected • In general the zoo toxins either affect the nervous system or the cardiovascular system. The venom components selectively target important sites of the nervous system in either agonistic or antagonistic manners. Interference with the fundamental communication of the body is a very effective manner of causing envenomation. Neurotoxins are found in a wide variety of animals, covering a great diversity from arachnids to amphibians to mollusks to snakes. Toxins acting on the cardiovascular system affect the hemostasis. • Hemostasis is a balance of two opposing forces: clot formation and dissolution. Venoms often have profound effects upon blood coagulation, acting directly upon important clotting factors either by inappropriate activation or through prevention of activation. The same net effect (i.e. inability to stop bleeding) may be produced by dramatically different mechanisms allowing for the selective use of venom or venom components to address a specific deficiency in blood chemistry. As blood coagulation therapies or diagnostic tools, the most important snake venom components have been homeostatic or antithrombotic agents. SNAKE POISONING • Snake venom is a complex mixture consisting of amino acids, polypeptides, glycopeptides and biogenic amines. The venom also contains an enzymatic portion and a non-enzymatic portion. Toxicity due to snakebite may be of two types – neurotoxicity and cardio or haemo toxicity. The enzymatic portion of the venom produces neurotoxicity. Of the 3500 types of snakes available, only 400 types belonging to six families are toxic. • Toxicity depends on: o Quantity of venom injected o Proportion between the quantity of venom injected and the body size of the animal to which the venom is injected o Species of snake o Location of the bite • Venoms of snakes contain necrotising, anticogaulant, coagulant, neurotoxic, cardiotoxic and haemolytic fractions. Cobra and krait venom is neurotoxic while viper and rattle venom is haemotoxic. • Venomous snakes fall into 2 classes: 1) the elapines, which include the cobra, mamba, and coral snakes; and 2) the two families of viperines, (a) the true vipers (e.g., Russell’s viper) and (b) the pit vipers (e.g., rattle snakes). • There are 4 common poisonous snakes in India. • They are o Indian cobra (Nag), o Indian krait (Bangam), o Russel’s viper (Daboia) and o Saw-scaled viper (Phoorsa). Elapine snakes have short fangs and tend to hang on and ‘chew’ venom into their victims. Their venom is neurotoxic and paralyzes the respiratory center. Animals that survive these bites seldom have any sequelae. Viperine snakes have long, hinged, hollow fangs; they strike, inject venom (a voluntary action), and withdraw. Many bites by vipers reportedly do not result in injection of substantial quantities of venom. Viperine venom is typically hemotoxic, necrotizing, and anticoagulant, although a neurotoxic component is present in the venom of some species, e.g., the Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ). Courtesy: indianwildanimal.webs.com/
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Fang marks from the Two rows of bite of a poisonous teeth mark snake. The teeth from marks are absent the bite of a nonpoisonous snake

CLINICAL SIGNS, DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT Clinical signs • Salvation, hyperexcitability, mydriasis, asphyxia, gasping, recumbency, convulsions and death in 2-4 hours. Regurgitation of ruminal contents, paralysis of the tongue, oesophagus and larynx are noticed in ruminants. • Diagnosis: Diagnosis is based on sudden death, fang marks, local swelling and oozing of blood from the site of bite. Typical pit viper bites are characterized by severe local tissue damage that spreads from the bite site. The tissue becomes markedly discolored within a few minutes and dark, bloody fluid may ooze from the fang wounds if not prevented by swelling. Frequently, the epidermis sloughs when the overlying hair is clipped or merely parted. Hair may hide the typical fang marks. Sometimes, only one fang mark or multiple punctures are present. In elapine snakebites, pain and swelling are minimal; systemic neurologic signs predominate. Treatment • Snake bite is an urgent emergency. In some cases, it is lethal, in many it can cause prolonged and disfiguring injury. Although the animal should receive veterinary care as soon as possible, this should be done while keeping the animal as quiet as possible. • Even if the snake is killed for identification purposes, caution must be exercised in handling it after death. Envenomation is possible even after a poisonous snake has been decapitated. • Objectives of therapy are to neutralize the venom, prevent shock, and prevent secondary infections; and sometimes to prevent the further spread of toxins, and remove the venom. The use of alcohol to clean the wound is contraindicated because of its vasodilatory effect, which would promote uptake and spread of venom.

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Includes administration of the specific anti-venom is the species of snake is known, administration of polyvalent anti-venom if the species of snake is not known and symptomatic. • Broad-spectrum antibiotics should be given to prevent wound infection and other secondary infections. Several potential pathogens, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Clostridium spp., Corynebacterium spp. and staphylococci have been isolated from rattlesnakes’ mouths. Antibiotics should be continued until all superficial lesions have healed. • Respiratory assistance (ventilator) may be needed for 48 - 72 hours for animals with coral snake poisoning. The maintenance of a patent airway is critical. Large diameter tubing or opened syringe cases are commonly placed in the nostrils of horses bitten on the face to keep the airways open. Emergency tracheostomy may be required. • Fluid therapy: Generally indicated in small animals. Hypotension is a common presenting sign. Diuresis to facilitate excretion and renal damage has been reported to be useful in man. • Corticosteroids: Use is controversial. Useful in treating shock but increases in mortality have been reported with their use. They can also alter results of laboratory tests that are otherwise useful in monitoring an animal's progress. Generally used for prevention of shock and hypotension. May not affect local swelling. • Transfusions: Commonly indicated in dogs, if necessary, to treat anemia and hemorrhage. • Tetanus antitoxin should always be given to the affected horse. • Antihistamines have been reported to be contraindicated, but diphenhydramine hydrochloride is frequently given along with antivenin to treat snakebite in humans. Tranquilization in horses may be required. Therapies generally contraindicated • Tourniquet - The use of tourniquets is controversial and usually they are avoided. When used they are most effective in first 30 minutes. Tourniquets increase local tissue damage due to hypoxia. The general location of snake bites (e.g., face) may prevent use. Recommended only for animals in which the tissues below the tourniquet will be sacrificed to save the animal's life. • Incision and suction - Also controversial. Requires restraint of animal to be effective. Minimal benefit with regards to the local removal of venom. Not recommended unless pocket of venom will clearly be removable. • Cryotherapy - Commonly associated with increased tissue damage. Not recommended. • Surgical debridement - Use has not been substantiated. May result in serious scarring and loss of function. May not prevent systemic signs. Not recommended early in course of treatment for envenomation. SCORPION PISONING • There are approximately 1000 species of scorpions but only around 75 are clinically important. • The most potent venoms are low molecular weight proteins that affect the nervous system. • The nomenclature of scorpion toxins recognizes two general classes, alpha-and betatoxins. • Scorpion alpha-toxins induce a prolongation of the action potential of nerves and muscles by slowing down the inactivation of the sodium channel with receptor affinity dependent upon membrane potential, while beta-toxins bind to a receptor site distinct from that of the alpha toxins with binding being independent of voltage.
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SPIDER POISONING Spiders use their venom toparalyze prey while they eat victim’s body fluids. The venom of spiders is acomplex mixture of neuroactive proteins and other chemicals. Toxic principle is p roteins which include protease, hyaluronidase, sphingomyelinase D and esterase. 98

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They have direct lytic effect on RBCs. The most venomous spiders in the world include Brown recluse spider, Hobo spider and Black widow spider. Some spider venoms can kill a mouse at a dose as low as 0.006 mg. The black widow species venom is made up of large proteins thought to affect the transmission of calcium ions of nervous system cells. The initial sting of the bite is followed by muscle cramps, sweating and possibly decreased blood pressure. There is no adequate treatment but the bite is seldom fatal.

Brown reculse spider Hobo Spider Black widow spider Signs • The bite initially stings, then any one of the two forms may take place. o The cutaneous form begins as edema, progresses to an ulcerated wound. o The viscerocutaneous form, which is severe, produces hemolytic anemia, hemoglobinuria, icterus and hyperthermia. • Ninety percent of the cases heal in 1 - 3 weeks. Some may need skin grafting. Mechanism • Unidentified venom component is cytotoxic to endothelial cells. This triggers intravascular coagulation and microthrombi formation within capillaries. Capillary occlusion, hemorrhage, and necrosis occur. • Polymononuclear leukocytes and complements play important roles in potentiating the response to envenomation. Treatment • Steroids may be used to protect against systemic effects. • Hemolytic anemia can be managed by use of fluids and bicarbonate to minimize hemoglobin deposition in renal tubules and by blood transfusion if anemia is severe enough to justify. WASP STING • A sting from a wasp, like that of other large stinging insects such as bees, hornets and yellow jackets, capable of triggering allergic reactions varying greatly in severity and scope from a localized reaction limited to swelling of the regions where the bite occurred to lifethreatening systemic reactions in which the airway can swell and get closed . • Stings by bees, wasps, hornets, and ants usually cause pain, redness, swelling, and itching. • Allergic reactions are uncommon but may be serious. Allergic reactions may cause rash, itching all over, wheezing, trouble breathing, and shock. In some cases, a red, swollen, itchy patch develops instead of a blister. Isolated nerves may become inflamed, and seizures may occur. • Stingers should be removed as quickly as possible by scraping with a thin dull edge. • An ice cube placed over the sting reduces the pain. • A cream or ointment containing an antihistamine, an anesthetic, a corticosteroid, or a combination of them is often useful. • Severe allergic reactions are treated with epinephrine, intravenous fluids, and other drugs. TOADS Toad venom, a defensive mechanism, is secreted by glands located dorsal and posterior to the eyes and by other dermal structures, including warts. • The venom, a thick, creamy white, highly irritating substance, can be expelled quickly by the contraction of periglandular muscles in the skin. • Its many components include bufagins, which have digitalis-like effects, catecholamines, and serotonin. Bufo vulgaris is the commonly available toad. • The parotid gland secretions of Bufo toads contain bufagins, bufotoxins, bufotenins, and other compounds. Bufotoxins are conjugated bufagins. Bufagin's and bufotoxin's action is described as digitalis-like, often resulting in ventricular fibrillation. Bufotenins have oxytocic action and frequently a marked pressor action.
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Other compounds found in Bufo toxin are epinephrine, cholesterol, ergosterol and 5hydroxytryptamine (5-HT). Clinical symptoms • Signs vary according to the animal's age, concurrent disease, amount of toxin absorbed and length of time since exposure. Signs of poisoning range from local effects to convulsions and death • There are three primary aspects to Bufo toxicosis: o the cardiac glycoside-like effects of the bufagins; o the pressor effects of the catecholamines and o the hallucinogenic effects of the indolealkylamines. Treatment • There is no specific antidote available. • Therapy is directed at minimizing absorption of the venom and controlling the associated clinical signs. The mouth should be washed well with copious water. • The victim should be prevented from inhaling aerosols of saliva or water that contain toad venom. • Atropine may reduce the volume of saliva and the risk of aspiration.
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More severely affected animals require more extensive therapy. Cardiac arrhythmias should be identified and controlled using standard treatment protocols. If bradyarrhythmias exist, atropine or dopamine should be considered; tachyarrhythmias should be treated with lidocaine, phenytoin, propranolol, or procainamide hydrochloride. CNS excitation, if present, should be controlled by pentobarbital anesthesia, diazepam, or a combination of the two. Thiamylal, halothane, and other forms of anesthesia may be contraindicated because they may predispose to ventricular fibrillation. Supplemental oxygen and mechanical ventilation may also be needed if cyanosis and dyspnea are prominent Toad s

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Poison arrow frogs Poison arrow frogs are much unusual in many aspects. Not only in their colouring or in the presence of powerful toxins on the skin unlike the vast majority of other frogs, they are active during the day and don't live in the water. • The toxins are stored in glands just below the surface of the frog's skin. • When the frog is threatened, i.e. a predator (say a snake for example) has taken it in its mouth, the toxin will be triggered and seep out. • As a general rule the toxins on the skin of the poison arrow frog are there as a deterrent against predation. • The toxins found in poison arrow frog secretions are alkaloids. • These toxins paralyze through a selective increase of the permeability of the Na+ channel, inducing the persistent transmission of a nerve signal. • This constant stimulation leads to uncontrollable muscle spasms. • The poison arrow frog toxins (such as the dendrobatid toxin) have also been included in the search for pain killers. Epibatidine, isolated from a type of arrow frog has 120 times the pain killing ability of nicotine. AVIAN POISONING
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The pitohui bird (Pitohui dichrous) and related species in New Guinea actually have on their feathers. The toxins are almost similar to the toxins of poison dart frogs. SNAIL POISONING • Cone snail venoms contain a tremendously diverse natural pharmacology. The active components of the venom are small peptide toxins. The conotoxins are some of the most potent and diverse neurotoxins known, having an incredibly wide range of actions. Three main classes of paralytic toxins have been the focus of intense investigation where all three interfere with neuronal communication but with different targets: alpha-conotoxins, binding to and inhibiting the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor; mu-conotoxins, directly abolishing muscle action potential by binding to the postsynaptic sodium channels; and omega-conotoxins, decimating the release of acetylcholine through the prevention of voltage activated entry of calcium into the nerve terminal. FISH POISONING • Tetrodotoxin is a bacteria-derived organic molecule assimilated into the tissues of the pufferfish or into the modified salivary glands of the blue-ringed octopus. • About 100 species of puffer fish use the powerful tetrodotoxin to discourage consumption by predators. The puffer fish is the best known neurotoxic fish. Tetrodotoxinis found in all organs of the fish but is highest in liver, skin, andintestine. Pufferfish may also have elevated levels of saxitoxin, a neurotoxin responsible for paralysis in shellfish poisoning. Saxitoxin is also produced by algae. Both saxitoxin and tetrodotoxin are heat stable and cooking does not reducetoxicity. Saxitoxin has a very different chemical structure to tetrodotoxin, but similar effects on transport of cellular sodium; it produces similar neurological effects, but isless toxic that tetrodotoxin. Tetrodotoxin causes paralysis by affecting sodium ion transport in both the central andperipheral nervous system. A low dose of tetrodotoxin produces tingling sensations and numbness around the mouth, fingers, and toes. Higher doses produce nausea, vomiting, respiratory failure, difficulty in walking,extensive paralysis, and death. species of puffer fish use the powerful tetrodotoxin to discourage consumption by predators.

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TICK POISONING • Ticks are not only carriers of a number of diseases but the saliva of some can cause paralysis. • The first indication of tick bite is redness and swelling around the site of the bite. • This is followed by neuromuscular weakness and difficulty in walking. • If the tick is not removed eventual respiratory paralysis and death are noticed. • Removal of the tick results in a quick recovery of function. • The exact mechanism of paralysis is not known but it appears to come from a substance that affects the neuromuscular junction. Residue toxicology:
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INTRODUCTION Drugs are applied in animal husbandry for different reasons. Drugs are used to cure or prevent diseases in animals, increase feed efficiency and/or growth rate or sedate animals in order to minimize the effects of stress. All applications are not therapeutic in character. It is customary to term any pharmacologically active substance used in animal husbandry, regardless of its purpose of use and mode of application as veterinary drug. 101

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Hence the substances used for increasing feed efficiency and/or growth rate are also considered as veterinary drugs. The range of drugs with a potential of use in food-producing animals is continuously widening. It has been estimated that as many as 400 drugs have the potential for use in food producing animals. HAZARD • Hazard is the likelihood of poisoning under the conditions of usage and the probability of exposure. • Hazard is not the same as toxicity. • Toxicity is the ability of a given dose to have a particular effect, but hazard also considers the likelihood of a person or animal ever being exposed to that dose. • Hazard depends on: volume available, concentration, location, use restrictions, label warnings, users allowed access, and many other factors. • A highly toxic chemical may not be that hazardous as the least toxic chemical. RISK • Risk is an estimate of the likelihood of adverse effects assuming that a chemical exposure of a population has occurred. • Risk is expressed in terms of the estimated frequency of a problem in the exposed population (i.e., one in a million) or in terms of relative risk, that is, the probability of a disease in an exposed vs. an unexposed population (i.e., twice the rate of the unexposed population). RISK ASSESSMENT Risk assessment is comprised of stages including Hazard Identification Dose-response assessment Characterization of innate adverse toxic effects of agents. Characterization of the relation betwen doses and incidences of adverse effects in exposed populations. Measurement or estimation of the intensity, frequency and duration of human exposures to agents. Estimation of the incidence of health effects under the various conditions of human exposure.

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RISK MANAGEMENT • Regulatory agencies often isolate risk assessment from risk management. • Risk management pertains to the measures taken to reduce risk. • In toxicology, risk management is given much importance for reducing exposure of the population of concern. • In veterinary practice, risk management may involve changing the feed and water or removing animals from the site until the source of exposure is known and eliminated. RESIDUE • Residue is defined as either the parent compound or a metabolite of the parent compound that may accumulate, deposit, or otherwise be stored within the cells, tissues, organs, or edible products (e.g., milk, eggs) of an animal following its use to prevent, control, or treat animal disease or to enhance production. 102

The term also includes elements (such as metals) or other chemicals which may be present in food either through natural circumstances or as a consequence of man's industrial or agricultural activities. • Chemical residues may be found in animal tissues, milk, or eggs following the administration of veterinary drugs and medicated premixes, the application of pesticides to animals, or the consumption of stock feeds previously treated with agricultural chemicals. • Accidental exposure to chemicals in the environment can also result in tissue residues. IMPORTANCE OF RESIDUES • Concerns over food residues are economical as well as public health related. • Both public health and economic concerns are the major driving forces behind the search of ways to minimize the threat of residue contamination of the public food supply. • Contamination of the food supply with the chemical residue is rarely an intentional act and usually results either from failure to observe the correct meat withdrawal or milk discard time for a drug after it has been used to treat a disease in food animals or from accidental contamination of feed by chemicals and drugs. • Generally a drug is administered to healthy animals, groups of animals are slaughtered at sequential time intervals and their edible tissues are analyzed for drug concentrations. AND RESIDUES • How a drug or a combination of drugs behaves in the body after administration not only is important from a therapeutic point of view but is of paramount importance to the producer and the veterinarian in order to prevent residues in the edible tissues after the disease process has been resolved and the animal is slaughtered. • For therapeutic usefulness and drug residue determinations, a known amount of drug is administered to a healthy animal. Serum concentration data are collected and mathematical models are created so that the overall disposition of the drug in the body can be evaluated in relation to absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination. • If the half-life of the drug in the muscle is doubled, perhaps due to a disease state, then the elimination half-life would also double, thereby increasing the risk of violative drug residues in the edible tissues of that animal. • Drugs that have a slow rate of elimination from body will tend to have protracted halflives, whereas those that are eliminated quickly will have shorter half-lives.
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SAFETY OF VETERINARY DRUGS Safety of the veterinary drug should be demonstrated for • the animal for which the drug is intended • the uses of veterinary drugs • the environment • the consumers likely to be exposed to residue of veterinary drugs in food of animal origin • the industrial processing of food. FORMATION OF DRUG RESIDUES The compound administered to a food-producing animal is not necessarily the substance present in the edible product from that animal. • The rate and extent of absorption, the rate and extent of metabolism of the parent compound and its various metabolites govern both the relative and absolute amount of each part of the residue. • The total drug residue in the treated animal therefore consists of parent compound, free metabolites and metabolites covalently bound to macromolecules. • Different toxicologic significances can be associated with these individual fractions of the total residue burden. TYPES OF RESIDUES Three types of residues rapidly appear after drug administration. • Total residues, determined by overall quantitative assessment of residual radioactivity after administration of the labeled compound. This value is often used but has the major disadvantage of expressing a nonspecific radioactivity. In this way, residues, the nature of which is unknown or different from that of the initial molecule are sometimes given an
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acceptable daily intake, which is relative to the initial compound. This practice is often disadvantageous. • Extractable residues, a fraction that, can be extracted from biological tissues or fluids using various solvents (water at varying pH, organic solvents) before and after denaturation of macromolecules. This fraction includes all compounds, i.e., the parent compound and its metabolites, in free form or loosely bound to tissues. • Non-extractable or bound residues, the fraction of radioactivity that persists in tissue extracts after the treatment. The nature of these residues can be determined only after almost complete breakage, particularly of proteins (enzymatic or acid hydrolysis for instance); it may or may not be related to that of their initial molecule. RESIDUES OF ANTIBACTERIAL DRUGS • Antibacterial drug residues may have a twofold effect on human health. • Drug residues in contaminated foodstuffs can produce direct toxic effects. • This impact may range from sensitizing reactions to drug induced organ damage. • In addition to direct toxic effects, microorganisms of the enteric flora could acquire antimicrobial resistance as a result of selection pressure by ingestion of trace amounts of antibiotics. CONSUMER SAFETY • The criteria for ultimate consumer safety include NOEL, ADI and safety factor. • NOEL is the highest dosage level leading to no observable morphologic or functional changes in the test animal. • Safety factor reflects the quality of the toxicologic investigations and the degree of certainty with which results can be extrapolated to humans. • ADI is the amount of residues that can be ingested for a lifetime without fear of deleterious health effects. • Any tolerance level for residues in food is obviously a function of the amount of food item ingested by the consumer and this is known as the food factor. • Human exposure is based on the residue in target tissues. ACCEPTABLE DAILY INTAKE Acceptable daily intake is calculated as mentioned below.

Having established the ADI, the withdrawal time can be calculated. This is the time required for the drug residues to decline below ADI. WITHDRAWAL TIME Definition • The withdrawal time is the time from the cessation of treatment to the time it takes for the residues of the drug to deplete below the safe concentration. Withdrawal times for the FDA approved drugs for use in food animals are only valid for the specified species, dose, 104
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route and frequency of administration. They are also specific to the manufacturer’s product and formulation: thus, a drug substance may have different withdrawal times when present in the differently formulated drug products. This term is often used more broadly to describe the time needed after drug administration to any food animal where drug residue may be found in marketed meats, eggs, organs, or other edible products. • The withdrawal time is based on the time for the average human to ingest 1/100 or 1/2000 of the NOEL. • The withdrawal period is the time required for the residue of toxicological significance to reach a safe concentration as defined by the tolerance. Safe concentration = (ADI x 60 kg )/ 500 g x Food factor • Withdrawal periods reflect the amount of time necessary for an animal to metabolize an administered product and the amount of time necessary for the product concentration level in the tissues to decrease to a safe, acceptable level. Withdrawal periods for meat and milk • Every federally approved drug or animal health product has a withdrawal period printed on the product label or package insert. • Products carry meat withdrawal periods ranging from 0 to 60 days. • Examples for meat range from o no withdrawal period with ceftiofur o 4-15 days with different penicillin products o 28 days with Pirlimycin. • Animals treated with a product that has a withdrawal period of 45 days should be withheld from sale or slaughter for at least 45 days. • Withdrawal times are not the same for all drugs. • Examples for milk include: o Pirlimycin - 36 hours o Cloxacillin - 48 hours, o Amoxicillin - 60 hours, o Penicillin - 72 hours o Cephapirin - 96 hours. • Milk produced during that period must be disposed off. • Withdrawal periods may be extended when combinations of drugs are used or when drugs are used in an extra-label manner. MRL • Maximum Residue Limit must be proposed for the various edible tissues and produces in which the residues of the substance concerned could occur. • The responsibility for keeping residues under the MRL lies with veterinary surgeons and farmers, using licensed animal medicines. • Many countries conduct their own evaluations to set MRLs using internationally accepted procedures. • This is necessary because different climates, crops and pests mean that different chemicals are likely to be used in different countries. • Problems can arise, however, when an importing country has not established an MRL for a chemical in common use in the exporting country. • This does not necessarily mean that the chemical has been banned but it could mean that the importing country has no need for the particular chemical and has had no cause to establish an MRL. • The absence of an MRL, however, has exactly the same effect as an MRL of zero because in the absence of an MRL, any detectable residue is unacceptable. PREVENTION OF RESIDUES • The prevention of harmful residues in the edible tissues of our food-producing animals is the responsibility of many producers, veterinarians, professional and lay-person associations and governmental agencies.

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All of these groups must continue to strive to regulate and utilize the drugs used to prevent or cure animal disease in a responsible manner in order to prevent accumulation of harmful amounts of residues in the food safety. • Especially antimicrobials should only be applied when indicated, using antibiotics directed against the causative agent(s), given in optimal dosage, dosage intervals and length of treatment with steps taken to ensure maximum concordance with the treatment regimen and only when the benefit of the treatment outweighs the inherent risks. CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR RESIDUE PREVENTION The control systems for residue prevention should include the following measures: • Identifying and tracking animals to which drugs were administered, in order to preclude the sale of edible animal tissue, milk, or eggs containing illegal residues. • Maintaining a system of medication/treatment records that, at a minimum, identifies the animal(s) treated (individual animals, pens, lots, etc.), the date(s) of treatment, the drug(s) administered, who administered the drug(s), the amount administered, and the withdrawal time prior to slaughter (and when milk, eggs, etc. can be used, if appropriate). • Properly storing, labeling, and accounting of all drug products and medicated feeds. • Obtaining and using veterinary prescription drugs only through a licensed veterinarian based on a valid veterinarian/client/patient relationship. • Educating all employees and family members involved in treating, and selling the animals on proper administration techniques, observance of withdrawal times, and methods to avoid marketing adulterated products for human food. • Veterinarians who practice food animal medicine have a great responsibility to ensure that food of animal origin complies with pure food laws relating to their acceptable levels of drug residues. Drugs not registered for animal use should not be used and, for those that are, the legal withdrawal times must be observed. CODEX ALIMENTARIUS COMMISSION • The Codex Alimentarius Commission is an international body established to develop international standards for food. • It aims to protect the health of consumers while ensuring fair practices in the food trade. Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) • HACCP system is the internationally recognized system to help assure safe food production. HACCP emphasizes prevention in the avoidance of food safety problems. • The HACCP system is made up of three parts: o The identification of hazards, and the determination of the severity of the hazard and risks. o The determination of critical control points (CCP) is required to control the hazard. A critical control point is a location, practice, procedure or process which can be used to minimize or prevent unacceptable contamination, survival or growth of food-borne pathogens or spoilage organisms, or introduction of unwanted chemicals or foreign objects. o Establishment and implementation of monitoring procedures to determine that each CCP is under control. Monitoring systems must be able to effectively determine if a CCP is under control. Corrective action must be defined to be used when a CCP monitoring point shows that the system is out of control.
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Radiation hazards:
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INTRODUCTION In veterinary medicine, the greatest potential for acute radiation damage lies in accidents releasing the contents of nuclear reactors, radiation cancer therapy used most commonly for dog mammary tumors or a gross miscalculation of irradiation dose needed for diagnostic imaging. Radiation fatalities at the highest dose can affect the CNS, possibly by damaging the BBB. At a lower dose they can damage intestinal epithelium with rapid turnover, causing the GI syndrome and at a still lower level that can damage blood cells causing the hematologic syndrome. 106

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT • 1895 -Wilhem Conrad Roentgen discovered X-rays and in 1901 he was awarded the first Nobel Prize for physics. • 1898 – Radium was discovered by Marie Curie • 1900-1930 –Radium Therapy -used to treat arthritis, stomach ailments and cancer • 1903 -Marie Curie and Pierre Curie, along with Henri Becquerel were awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for their contributions to understanding radioactivity, including the properties of uranium. • 1942 - Enrico Fermi and others started the first sustained nuclear chain reaction in a laboratory beneath the University of Chicago football stadium. • 1945 –Nuclear bombs were dropped on Japan. • 1979 - Nuclear accident in Pennsylvania. • 1986 - Nuclear disaster in Ukraine. • 2011 - Radiation hazard after earth quake in Japan. Story of the radium paint • The US Radium Corporation employed young women to paint radium on watch dials. These women used their lips to point the brushes. Each time they pointed their brushes, they ingested a small amount of radium. The radium thus ingested moved to the bone where it continued to emit alpha radiation. The alpha radiation damaged the cells near the radium particle. As a result of their exposure to radium, many of these women developed painfully debilitating bone decay and died of cancer. • The long half-life of radium combined with it being sequestered in the bone resulted in a lifetime of radiation exposure. During the 1920s, a group of these women sued the Radium Corporation. Many of them were victorious in court and received a small amount of money, becoming the first to receive compensation for occupational injury. UV RAYS AND INFRARED RAYS Sources for Ultra violet rays • Sun light. • Most harmful UV is absorbed by the atmosphere and this depends on altitude. • Fluorescent lamps. • Electric arc welding which can damage the cornea of the eye. • Germicidal lamps. Effects of Ultra violet radaiation • Ultraviolet rays kill bacterial and other infectious agents. • High dose can cause sun burn and there is increased risk of skin cancer. Effects of Infra red radiation • Can damage –cornea, iris, retina and lens of the eye (glass workers –“glass blower’s cataract”) RADIATION • Radiation can be ionizing radiation or non ionizing radiation. • Ionizing Radiation is defined as radiation capable for producing ions when interacting with matter –in other words enough energy to remove an electron from an atom. In general, ionizing radiation reduces the rate of metabolism of xenobiotics both in vivo and in enzyme preparations subsequently isolated. • Nonionizing radiation has less energy and, in general, is less interactive with biological material than ionizing radiation. • Sources of non-ionizing radiation include - Ultraviolet light, visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves, radio & television, power transmission. RADIATION SOURCE AND UNITS Radiation sources • X-rays • Radioactive material produce alpha, beta, and gamma radiation • Cosmic rays from the sun and space. • The four main types of irradiation are X-rays, gamma rays, electrons (negatively charged beta particles or positively charged positrons) and alpha particles. 107

Radiation units • The effect of radiation depends on the amount received and the exposure time. • The amount of radiation received is expressed as a dose, and the measurement of dose is known as dosimetry. • The dose per mass of body tissue unit is the gray (Gy), equal to 1J kg_1 and is named in honour of the British physicist Louis Gray. • The gray is a large dose and for most normal situations we use the milligray (mGy) and the microgray (μGy). • The absorbed dose is given the symbol D. • The gray is a numerical unit that quantifies the physical effect of the incident radiation (the amount of energy in joules deposited per kilogram), but it tells us nothing about the biological consequences of such energy deposition in tissue. • One Gy of α - or neutron radiation is more harmful than 1 Gy of γ -radiation. RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL • Either natural or created in nuclear reactor or accelerator. • Radioactive material is unstable and emits energy in order to return to a more stable state (particles or gamma-rays). Alpha particles • Neutrons and two protons . • Charge of +2. • Emitted from nucleus of radioactive atoms . • Transfer energy in very short distances (10 cm in air). • Shielded by paper or layer of skin. • Primary hazard from internal exposure. • Alpha emitters can accumulate in tissue (bone, kidney, liver, lung, spleen) causing local damage. Beta particles • Small electrically charged particles similar to electrons. • Charge of -1. • Ejected from nuclei of radioactive atoms . • Emitted with various kinetic energies. • Shielded by wood, body penetration 0.2 to 1.3 cm depending on energy . • Can cause skin burns or be an internal hazard of ingested. Gamma rays • Electromagnetic photons or radiation (identical to x-rays except for source) . • Emitted from nucleus of radioactive atoms –spontaneous emission . • Emitted with kinetic energy related to radioactive source. • Highly penetrating –extensive shielding required. • Serious external radiation hazard. X rays • Overlap with gamma-rays. • Electromagnetic photons or radiation. • Produced from orbiting electrons or free electrons –usually machine produced. • Produced when electrons strike a target material inside and x-ray tube. • Emitted with various energies & wavelengths. • Highly penetrating –extensive shielding required . • External radiation hazard. IRRADIATION-SENSITIVITY, HALF LIFE, EXPOSURE, ABSORPTION Tissue Sensitivity to irradiation • Very high - White blood cells (bone marrow), intestinal epithelium, reproductive cells • High - Optic lens epithelium, esophageal epithelium, mucous membranes • Medium - Glial cells of brain, lung, kidney, liver, thyroid, pancreatic epithelium • Low - Mature red blood cells, muscle cells, mature bone and cartilage Half – life • Rate of decay of radioisotope 108

This can range from very short to billions of years Half life of carbon is about 5730 years Reducing exposure to radiation can be achieved by • Time - Reduce the spent near the source of radiation. • Distance - Increase the distance from the source of radiation. • Shielding - Place shielding material between you and the source of radiation. Absorption of Radiation • Absorption of radiation is the prime consideration in radiation toxicology. • Radiation can reach all tissues of the body directly from an external source, but the capacity to penetrate body tissues varies with the type of radiation. • Radiation may be emitted as particles or as high-energy electromagnetic waves such as X-rays or gamma radiation. • α-particles released by radionuclides are dangerous if they are taken into the body by inhalation (breathing in) and/or ingestion (eating and drinking). • The adverse health effects caused by radon, an α -emitter, are explained by α -particles that are absorbed in the lung, thus becoming an internal radiation source. • Indoor radon exposure can lead to lung cancer. • Exposure from radon in drinking water is also of toxicological importance • The depth to which ß-particles can penetrate the body depends upon their energy. • When ß -emitters are taken into the body they irradiate internal tissues and become a more serious hazard. Treatemnt • There is no specific treatment. Treatment is only symptomatic. INDUSTRIAL TOXICANTS • There are a number of chemical substances used in industry ranging from metals and inorganic compounds to complex organic chemicals. • People who work in these industries have the risk of exposure. • Since such chemicals are used in closed systems, the operators do not come into contact with them and exposure is often minimized. • But in rapidly industrializing countries, exposure levels are higher and industrial diseases are more common than in the fully developed countries. In such countries exposure to toxic substances in the workplace is still a very real hazard. • Mining has always been a hazardous occupation and miners suffer silicosis, while asbestos workers suffer asbestosis and mesothelioma, and paper and printing workers are prone to diseases of the skin. • Similar to the environmental exposure, exposure in the workplace may occur via any or all of the three major routes: by oral ingestion, by inhalation and by absorption following skin contact. • The most common routes of exposure are, however, via inhalation and skin contact. These routes of exposure apply to gases, vapours, aerosols, volatile solvents and other liquids as well as to dusts and fibres. • The toxic effects of industrial chemicals may be either chronic or acute. • The acute inhalation of solvents in large quantities can cause asphyxiation, unconsciousness or death. • Inhalation of large quantities of very irritant substances, such as methyl isocyanate may cause immediate bronchoconstriction and pulmonary oedema leading to death. This was the toxicant responsible for Bhopal gas tragedy. • Both of these pulmonary effects are locally mediated rather than systemic effects. • However, such acute effects are usually accidental and so are probably less common than the chronic industrial diseases. • They may cause subsequent chronic toxicity. • In the work place exposure of the skin to some substances workplace may cause local irritation or contact dermatitis or other types of chronic skin disease.
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Some compounds may be absorbed through the skin and cause toxic effects in other parts of the body. For example, the insecticide parathion causes fatal poisoning following skin absorption. • Some chemicals may act simply as irritants to the skin while others may act as sensitizers. • Skin sensitizers act through immunological mechanism to cause contact dermatitis initially. The chemical may pass through the epidermis and react with proteins such as keratin, to produce an antigen. This antigenic protein then initiates the production of antibodies. Re-exposure to the substance will then initiate an allergic reaction. Asbestos • Asbestos is a relatively inert substance but causes lung cancer (mesothelioma, bronchial carcinoma) and asbestosis, a chronic lung disease. • The fibres lodge in the lungs, are taken up by phagocytic cells which leak cell contents and damage the surrounding tissue. • Fibre size is a crucial factor in determining the toxicity. Nickel • Nickel and its salts are a well-known cause of contact dermatitis (nickel itch). • This may result from occupational exposure and also from exposure to nickel in jewellery. Vinyl chloride • High levels of exposure to vinyl chloride have occurred in manufacturing plants and resulted in rare liver cancer developing some years later. • Vinyl chloride also caused liver damage and effects on skin and bones. Cadmium • Cadmium is an element widely used in industry in various forms. • Its toxic effects include kidney damage following oral or inhalation exposure, brittle bones (Itai-Itai disease) and after chronic inhalation of cadmium fumes, lung irritation and emphysema. Aromatic amines • A variety of aromatic amines are used in industry such as the production of rubber. • A number of these are suspected or known to cause carcinogenicity such as 2naphthylamine. • 2-Naphthylamine can be detoxified by acetylation, therefore the slow acetylator status is a factor and slow acetylators are more at risk from bladder cancer. • Other aromatic amines used in industry are also carcinogenic or toxic in other ways (jaundice, methaemoglobinaemia). Gaseoues pollutants • A number of gaseous agents caiuse toxicity. Although they are not directly industrial toxicants industries contribute to their release. • Carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide cause toxic effects. • Carbon monoxide has high affinity to haemoglobin and forms carboxy haemoglobin and a decrease in the oxygen carrying capacity. • Sulphur dioxide is a mild respiratory irritant and causes brnochoconstriction. OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS • Some Hazards due to occupation and associated cancers
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INTRODUCTION Chemicals are added to food for a number of reasons o as preservatives with antibacterial, antifungal or antioxidant properties o to change physical characteristics, particularly for processing o to change taste o to change colour and o to change odour • Substances intentionally added to food, ‘food additives’, has been common for centuries. Salt has been used as a preservative for years. • The use of food additives on such a wide scale is now beginning to be questioned by some toxicologists especially as the long-term effects of the substances in question are often not known. • Food additives have to be tested for toxicity before they can be used and before humans are exposed to them. • Although the quantities of food additives consumed by humans are very small, their consumption may occur over a lifetime and is chronic although it may be sporadic rather than continuous. CLASSES OF FOOD ADDITIVES Colouring agents - Tartrazine Anti-oxidants - Butylated hydroxytoluene Stabilizers - Vegetable gums Anti-caking agents - Magnesium carbonate Flavours - Cinnamaldehyde Preservatives - Sodium nitrate Emulsifiers - Polyoxyethylene sorbitan fatty esters 111

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Acids/Alkalis - Citric acid Buffers - Carbonates Bleaches - Benzoyl peroxide Propellants - Nitrous oxide Sweeteners - Saccharin Flavour - enhancers - Monosodium glutamate TOXICITY OF FEED ADDITIVES • Although tested for toxicity in animals, humans will be exposed to feed additives and preservatives for most, if not all of their lives and there are indications that some additives such as tartrazine, a common colouring agent, may lead to effects such as urticaria, in susceptible individuals. • Testing additives such as the sweetener saccharin at high doses in animals, lead to pathological changes (bladder tumours) which were difficult to interpret as the kinetics are different at such high doses when elimination becomes saturated. • Contaminants like products of mould growth may be toxic or even carcinogenic such as the aflatoxins from the mould Aspergillus flavus which grows on crops such as peanuts. SAFETY OF FEED ADDITIVES • In general, food additives have proved to be safe and without chronic toxicity. • Many were introduced when toxicity testing was relatively unsophisticated, and some of these have been subsequently shown to be toxic. • Thousands of food additives are in use worldwide and many have been introduced with inadequate testing. • The question of synergistic interactions between these compounds used as additives has not been explored adequately. • Not all toxicants in food are synthetic. There are many examples of naturally occurring toxicants in the human diet, including carcinogenic and mutagenic agents. REASON FOR USE OF FEED ADDITIVES IN ANIMAL FEED The feed additives used in animal feeds shall o favourably affect the characteristics of feed o favourably affect the characteristics of animal products o favourably affect the colour of ornamental fish and birds o satisfy the nutritional needs of animals o favourably affect the environmental consequences of animal production o favourably affect animal production, performance or welfare, particularly by affecting the gastro-intestinal flora or digestibility of feedingstuffs, or o have a coccidiostatic effect PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHILE USING FEED ADDITIVES IN ANIMAL FEED • Use of feed additives require safety precautions in order to minimize possible adverse effect on animal and human health. • Additives, premixtures and medicated premixtures must be mixed in appropriate quantity and in a homogeneous way. • Storage, production facilities and manufacturing equipment must be clean and in a good state. • The process flow within the manufacturing facility must be designed to minimize the potential for contamination and carryover. • Reasonable precautions must be taken against dust accumulation and other residual materials in place of processing and storage. • For feed additives and medicated premixtures with high possibility to generate dust, specific measures must be defined to minimize the impact of such dust on the level of carryover. Appendix: A 112

Acceptable daily intake (ADI): It is t he daily intake of a chemical which during an entire lifetime appears to be without appreciable risk on the basis of all the known facts at the time. ADI is defined as the amount of exposure determined to be ‘safe’; usually derived from the Lowest No-Effect Level in an experimental study, divided by a safety factor such as 100. It is also known as the Reference Dose (RfD). Acid rain: The deposition of acids (sulphuric and nitric) in rain and also the dry deposition of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Acute toxicity:Acute toxicity is associated with exposure to a relatively large, often single, dose of a toxic agent, this being followed by rapid manifestation of clinical signs of intoxication. It is also defined as sudden violent syndrome caused by a single large dose of poison. This refers to adverse effects on, or mortality of, organisms following soon after a brief exposure to a chemical agent. Either a single exposure or multiple exposures within a short time period may be involved, and an acute effect is generally regarded as an effect that occurs within the first few days after exposure, usually less than two weeks. Alkali disease:The name alkali disease has been attributed to consumption of alkali waters. Chronic selenium poisoning referred to as alkali disease is caused by daily ingestion of cereals, grains and other forage plants containing selenium. Analytical toxicology It is the application of analytical chemistry tools in the quantitative and qualitative estimation of the agents involved in the process of toxicity. Antidote It is a compound administered in order to reverse the harmful effect(s) of a toxicant. They may be toxic mechanism specific, as in the case of 2-pyridine aldoxime (2-PAM) and organophosphate poisoning, or nonspecific, as in the case of syrup of ipecac, used to induce vomiting and, thereby, elimination of toxicants from the stomach B Behavioral toxicity: Behavior may be defined as an organism’s motor or glandular response to changes in its internal or external environment. Such changes may be simple or highly complex, innate or learned, but in any event represent one of the final integrated expressions of nervous system function. Behavioral toxicity is the adverse or potentially adverse effects on such expression brought about by exogenous chemicals. Bioaccumulation:The accumulation of a chemical either from the medium (usually water) directly or from consumption of food containing the chemical. Bioaccumulation is said to occur when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater than that at which the substance is lost. As people spend so much time for so long periods in toxic environments in work place, very low levels of toxins can be lethal over time. Naturally produced toxins can also bioaccumulate. Bioaccumulation occurs within a trophic level and is the increase in concentration of a substance in an individual’s tissues due to uptake from food and sediments in an aquatic milleu. 113

Bioactivation:In toxicology, this term is used to describe metabolic reactions of a xenobiotic in which the product is more toxic than is the substrate. Such reactions are most commonly monooxygenations, the products of which are electrophiles that, if not detoxified by phase II (conjugation) reactions, may react with nucleophilic groups on cellular macromolecules such as proteins and DNA. BioconcentrationBioconcentration is defined as occurring when uptake from the water is greater than excretion. Bioconcentration and bioaccumulation occur within an organism and biomagnification occurs across trophic (food chain) levels Biomagnification:Biomagnification also known as bioamplification or biological magnification is the increase in concentration of a substance such as the pesticides that occurs in the food chain. Biomagnification is often used as a synonym for bioaccumulation, but it is more correctly used to describe an increase in concentration of a chemical as it passes from organisms at one tropic level to organisms at higher tropic levels. Blind staggersBlind staggers or subacute selenium poisoning occurs due to ingestion of seleniferous plants and may develop after a relatively short period. C Carcinogen:Any chemical or process involving chemicals that induce neoplasms that are not usually observed, the earlier induction of neoplasms than are commonly observed, and/or the induction of more neoplasms than are usually found. The compound has the ability to transform normal cell into progressively and uncontrollably proliferating ones. Carcinogenesis:This is the process encompassing the conversion of normal cells to neoplastic cells and the further development of these neoplastic cells into a tumor. This process results from the action of specific chemicals, certain viruses, or radiation. Chemical carcinogens have been classified into those that are genotoxic and those that are epigenetic (i.e., not genotoxic). Chelating agents Chelating agents are used in the treatment of poisoning with heavy metals. They incorporate the metal ion into an inner ring structure in the molecule by means of chemical groups called ligands (Greek word chele means claw, Latin word ligare means to bind). This trapping of lead in bones is called as ‘bone sink for lead’. Bone sink is an important detoxification mechanism in chronic exposure to lead in small amounts. Chronic toxicity: This term is used to describe adverse effects manifested after a long time period of uptake of small quantities of the toxicant in question. The dose is small enough that no acute effects are manifested, and the time period is frequently a significant part of the expected normal lifetime of the organism. The most serious manifestation of chronic toxicity is carcinogenesis, but other types of chronic toxicity are also known (e.g., reproductive effects, behavioral effects). Chronic toxicity is usually caused by multiple exposures to quantities of the poison while individual quantities are not sufficiently large to produce clinical intoxication. It is also defined as persistent lingering condition brought about by small repeated doses. Chronic toxicity tests: Chronic tests are those conducted over a significant part of the lifespan of the test species or, in some cases, more than one generation. The most important tests are carcinogenicity tests, and 114

the most common test species are rats and mice. Chronicity factor: The ratio of acute to chronic LD50 doses is known as chronicity factor. Compounds with cumulative effects have a high chronicity factor. A chronicity factor greater than 2.0 indicates a relatively cumulative toxicant. Clinical toxicologyIt is the study of the effects of poisons/toxicants on human beings, animals and other living organisms, their diagnosis and treatment and methods for their detection etc. Cocarcinogenesis:Cocarcinogenesis is the enhancement of the conversion of normal cells to neoplastic cells. This process is manifested by enhancement of carcinogenesis when the agent is administered either before or together with a carcinogen. Cocarcinogenesis should be distinguished from promotion as, in the latter case, the promoter must be administered after the initiating carcinogen Cytotoxicity:Cellular injury or death brought about by chemicals external to the cell. Such chemicals may be soluble mediators produced by the immune system, or they may be chemicals (toxicants) to which the organism has been exposed D Developmental toxicologyIt is the study of adverse effects on the developing organisms occurring any time during the life span of the organism due to exposure to chemical or physical agents before conception (either parent), during prenatal development or postnatal until the time of puberty E EcotoxicologyIt is the study of fate and effects of toxic substances on ecosystem Environmental toxicologyIt is the study of the effects of toxicants, whether used/applied purposely (e.g. pesticides, herbicides) or as industrial effluents or pollutants/contaminants, on the health of organisms and environment. This is concerned with the movement of toxicants and their metabolites in the environment and in food chains and the effect of such toxicants on populations of organisms. F Facultative indicator plants:Facultative indicator plants absorb and tolerate large amounts of selenium (25 – 100 ppm) if it is present in the soil, but they do not require selenium for growth. Examples include Sideranthus and Atriplex (saltbrush). Food additives:Chemicals may be added to food as preservatives (either antibacterial or antifungal compounds or antioxidants) to change the physical characteristics, for processing, or to change the taste or odor. Although most food additives are safe and without chronic toxicity, many were introduced when toxicity testing was relatively unsophisticated and some have been shown subsequently to be toxic. The most important inorganic additives are nitrate and nitrite. Well-known examples of food additives include the antioxidant butylatedhydroxyanisole (BHA), fungistatic agents such as methyl p-benzoic acid, the emulsifier propylene glycol, sweeteners such as saccharin and aspartame, and dyes such as tartrazine and Sunset Yellow 115

Forensic toxicology:It is the study of unlawful use of toxic agents and their detection for judicial purposes. Forensic toxicology is concerned with the medicolegal aspects of the adverse effects of chemicals on humans and animals. Although primarily devoted to the identification of the cause and circumstances of death and the legal issues arising there from, forensic toxicologists also deal with sublethal poisoning cases. G GenotoxicityGenotoxicity is an adverse effect on the genetic material (DNA) of living cells that, on the replication of the cells, is expressed as a mutagenic or a carcinogenic event. Genotoxicity results from a reaction with DNA that can be measured either biochemically or in short-term tests with end points that reflect DNA damage. H HaemochromatosisHaemochromatosis is a systemic disease characterized by widespread haemosiderosis and micronodular cirrhosis (inherited disease in humans and Saless cattle). Haemosiderosis Haemosiderosis is a localized process of abnormal iron pigmentation caused by increased amounts of haemosiderin in tissues. Hazard It is the likelihood of poisoning under the conditions of usage and the probability of exposure. Thus, hazard is not the same as toxicity. Toxicity is the ability of a given dose to have a particular effect, but hazard also considers the likelihood of a person or animal ever being exposed to that dose . Hazard depends on: volume available, concentration, location, use restrictions, label warnings, users allowed access, and many other factors. Hepatotoxicants Hepatotoxicants are those chemicals causing adverse effects on the liver. The liver may be particularly susceptible to chemical injury because of its anatomic relationship to the most important portal of entry, the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, and its high concentration of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes. Many of these enzymes, particularly cytochrome P450, metabolize xenobiotics to produce reactive intermediates that can react with endogenous macromolecules such as proteins and DNA to produce adverse effects. Highest nontoxic doseHighest nontoxic dose is the largest dose that does not result in clinical or pathologic drug-induced alterations I ImmunotoxicityThis term can be used in either of two ways. The first refers to toxic effects mediated by the immune system, such as dermal sensitivity reactions to compounds like 2,4dinitrochlorobenzene. The second, and currently most acceptable definition, refers to toxic effects that impair the functioning of the immune system - for example, the ability of a toxicant to impair resistance to infection. Industrial toxicology specific area of environmental toxicology dealin with the work environment; it includes risk assessment, establishment of permissible levels of exposure, and worker protection. L 116

LD50 (median lethal dose)The quantity of a chemical compound that, when applied directly to test organisms, is estimated to be fatal to 50% of those organisms under the stated conditions of the test. The LD50 value is the standard for comparison of acute toxicity between toxicants and between species. Because the results of LD50 determinations may vary widely, it is important that both biological and physical conditions be narrowly defined (e.g., strain, gender, and age of test organism; time and route of exposure; environmental conditions). The value may be determined graphically from a plot of log dose against mortality expressed in probability units (probits) or, more recently, by using one of several computer programs available. Lethal concentrationLethal concentration is the lowest concentration of compound in feed that causes death. It is expressed as milligrams of compound per kilogram of feed (parts per million or billion as ppm or ppb). Lethal dose (LD)Lethal dose is the lowest dose that causes death in any animal during the period of observation. Lethal synthesis Conversion of a non-toxic agent to a toxic agent is referred to as lethal synthesis. This term is used to describe the process by which a toxicant, similar in structure to an endogenous substrate, is incorporated into the same metabolic pathway as the endogenous substrate, ultimately being transformed into a toxic or lethal product. For example, fluoroacetate simulates acetate in intermediary metabolism, being transformed via the tricarboxylic acid cycle to fluorocitrate, which then inhibits aconitase, resulting in disruption of the TCA cycle and energy metabolism. Local toxicity :Toxicity which affects only the site of application or exposure. M Macromolecule: A very large molecule having a polymeric structure such as a protein or nucleic acid. Maximum tolerated dose (MTD):The MTD has been defined for testing purposes by the US environmental Protection Agency as the highest dose that causes no more than a 10% weight decrement, as compared to the appropriate control groups, and does not produce mortality, clinical signs of toxicity, or pathologic lesions (other than those that may be related to a neoplastic response) that would be predicted to shorten the animals’ natural life span. It is an important concept in chronic toxicity testing; however, the relevance of results produced by such large doses has become a matter of controversy. It is sometimes used to indicate maximum tolerated dose (highest dose not causing death). Other times it is used to indicate minimum toxic dose (lowest dose causing any abnormality). Thus, it is best to ask what is meant by MTD. Micronucleus test: A test for mutagenicity using red blood cell stem cells from mice. The mice are exposed to the chemical and after a suitable time period the bone marrow examined for an increase in the number of micronuclei. These are chromosome fragments resulting from spindle or centromere dysfunction. Mutagen/mutagenic:A substance/a property of a substance which causes some type of mutation in the genetic material of an organism exposed to it. Mutagenesis is the process in which a heritable change in DNA is produced. Mutagen is an agent that induces mutation or 117

changes through a change in the genotype or genetic material of a cell by covalent modification of bases in DNA particularly generation of DNA which passes on when the cell divides. Mutations are heritable changes produced in the genetic information stored in the DNA of living cells. Chemicals capable of causing such changes are known as mutagens, and the process is known as mutagenesis. Mycotoxins:Toxins produced by fungi are known as mycotoxins. Many, such as aflatoxins, are particularly important in toxicology N NecrosisDeath of areas of tissue, usually surrounded by healthy tissue and sometimes caused by chemical exposure. As disinct from apoptosis, which is a limited event, necrosis also involves an inflammatory response and wider areas of tissue. NephrotoxicityA pathologic state that can be induced by chemicals (nephrotoxicants) and in which the normal homeostatic functioning of the kidney is impaired. It is often associated with necrosis of the proximal tubule. NeurotoxicityThis is a general term referring to all toxic effects on the nervous system, including toxic effects measured as behavioral abnormalities. Because the nervous system is complex, both structurally and functionally, and has considerable functional reserve, the study of neurotoxicity is a many-faceted branch of toxicology. It involves electrophysiology, receptor function, pathology, behavior, and other aspects. No Observed Effect Level (NOEL):This is the highest dose level of a chemical that, in a given toxicity test, causes no observable effect in the test animals. The NOEL for a given chemical varies with the route and duration of exposure and the nature of the adverse effect (i.e., the indicator of toxicity). The NOEL for the most sensitive test species and the most sensitive indicator of toxicity is usually employed for regulatory purposes. Effects considered are usually adverse effects, and this value may be called the No Observed Adverse Effects Level (NOAEL). This study is generally conducted in two species (rats and dogs) at three doses by the route of choice. Non-accumulator plantsNon-accumulator plants may accumulate selenium if grown on seleniferous soils, especially where selenium ( 1 – 25 ppm) has been brought to the soil surface, while other plants cannot tolerate selenium and are stunted or killed by it. Nutritional toxicology:It is the study of toxicological aspects of food/feed stuffs and nutritional habits. O Obligate indicator plants:Obligate indicator plants require large amounts of selenium (100 – 10000 ppm) for growth and survival. These plants can accumulate high concentrations of selenium as water-soluble amino acid analogs of cysteine and methionine. Occupational toxicology:It is the study of occupational hazards associated with individuals working in a particular industry/occupation and their correlation with the possible toxicants and also the possible remedial measures. 118

P Phocomelia :The syndrome of having foreshortened arms and legs due to an adverse effect on the embryo such as caused by thalidomide. Photosensitization :Photosensitization is a clinical condition in which skin (areas exposed to light and lacking significant protective hair, wool, or pigmentation) is hyper reactive to sunlight due to the presence of photodynamic agents. Phycotoxins :Algal toxins such as from blue green algae as well as marine organisms such as dinoflagellates are collectively called as phycotoxins.Blue green algae are known as cyanobacteria which are photosynthetic bacteria. Some of the phycotoxins of marine dinoflagellates are known to bioaccumulate in food chain. Poisoning or intoxication :Poisoning or intoxication – Poisoning or intoxication is the manifestation of the harmful effects of a poison. This may involve behavioural abnormalities, diminished production, impaired health, reproductive failure, production of malformed offspring, induction of neoplasia and either rapid or delayed death. Poisons :Poisons are also known as toxicants or toxic agents. Poisons are defined as naturally occurring or man-made chemicals, which, following their entry via any route and in relatively small quantities into the body, produce biochemical abnormalities and/or physical lesions. If these are of a sufficient magnitude, they adversely affect the health or performance of the individual. Entry into the body may follow pulmonary or cutaneous exposure to a poison or be affected by oral ingestion or parenteral administration. Poison is usually considered as any solid, liquid or gas that when introduced into or applied to the body can interfere with homeostasis of the organism or life processes of its cells by its own inherent qualities, without acting mechanically and irrespective of temperature. Pollution :This is contamination of soil, water, food, or the atmosphere by the discharge or admixture of noxious materials. A pollutant is any chemical or substance contamination the environment and contributing to pollution. R Reference dose (RfD):Reference dose is the highest dose expected to have no effect on the species of interest (often human beings) despite a lifetime of exposure. The RfD may be set at 1/10 of the HNTD or 1/10 of the NOAEL. Regulatory toxicology:It is the conduct of toxicological studies as per the content and characteristics prescribed by regulatory agencies. Reproductive toxicologyIt is the study of occurrence of adverse effects on the male or female reproductive system due to exposure to chemical or physical agents. 119

RiskIt is an estimate of the likelihood of adverse effects assuming that a chemical exposure of a population has occurred. Risk is expressed in terms of the estimated frequency of a problem in the exposed population (i.e., one in a million) or in terms of relative risk , that is, the probability of a disease in an exposed vs. an unexposed population (i.e., twice the rate of the unexposed population). This may be absolute risk which is the excess risk due to exposure, or relative risk which is the ratio of risk in the exposed to the unexposed population. Risk assessment (risk analysis):The process by which the potential adverse health effects of human exposure to chemicals are characterized; it includes the development of both qualitative and quantitative expression of risk. The process of risk assessment may be divided into four major components: hazard identification, dose response assessment (high-dose to low-dose extrapolation), exposure assessment, and risk characterization. S Safety factor (uncertainty factor)This reflects the quality of the toxicological investigation and the degree of certainty with which the results can be extrapolated to human beings. A number by which the no observed effect level (NOEL) is divided to derive the reference dose (RfD), the reference concentration (RfC) or minimum risk level (MRL) of a chemical from experimental data. The safety factor is intended to account for the uncertainties inherent in estimating the potential effects of a chemical on humans from results obtained with test species. The safety factor allows for possible difference insensitivity between the test species and humans, as well as for variations in the sensitivity within the human population. The size of safety factor (e.g., 100–1000) varies with confidence in the database and the nature of the adverse effects. Small safety factors indicate a high degree of confidence in the data, an extensive database, and/or the availability of human data. Large safety factors are indicative of an inadequate and uncertain database and/or the severity of the unexpected toxic effect. Selectivity (selective toxicity):A characteristic of the relationship between toxic chemicals and living organisms whereby a particular chemical may be highly toxic to one species but relatively innocuous to another. The search for and study of selective toxicants is an important aspect of comparative toxicology because chemicals toxic to target species but innocuous to nontarget species are extremely valuable in agriculture and medicine. The mechanisms involved vary from differential penetration rates through different metabolic pathways to differences in receptor molecules at the site of toxic action. Sub-acute toxicity:In sub-acute toxicity the exposure level is lower and the survival time longer, than in acute poisoning, but the period between exposure and manifestation of signs of poisoning and possible death is again relatively short. Symptoms of toxicity develop gradually. In sub-acute toxicity studies, low doses of poisons are administered for a period of 90 days. These tests are performed to study the NOEL or NOAEL and to identify the specific organ(s) affected by the test compound after repeated administration. Subchronic toxicity:Toxicity due to chronic exposure to quantities of a toxicant that do not cause any evident acute toxicity for a time period that is extended but is not so long as to constitute a significant part of the lifespan or the species in question. In subchronic toxicity tests using mammals, a 30- to 90-day period is considered appropriate. T Teratogen:Teratogen is defined as an agent which, when administered during gestation, 120

produced nonlethal structural or functional changes in the embryo or fetus. Teratogenesis:This term refers to the production of defects in the reproduction process resulting in either reduced productivity due to fetal or embryonic mortality or the birth of offspring with physical, mental, behavioral, or developmental defects. Compounds causing such defects are known as teratogens. Teratogenicity:Teratogenicity is derived from a Greek word meaning monster. The exposure to certain naturally occurring or man-made agents during certain stages of gestation results in malformations of the offspring. Teratology:It is the study of the malformations induced by toxic agents during development between conception and birth Threshold dose:This is the dose of a toxicant below which no adverse effect occurs. The existence of such a threshold is based on the fundamental tenet of toxicology that, for any chemical, there exists a range of doses over which the severity of the observed effect is directly related to the dose, the threshold level representing the lower limit of this dose range. Although practical thresholds are considered to exist for most adverse effects, for regulatory purposes it is assumed that there is no threshold dose for carcinogens. Toxic concentration:Toxic concentration relates to the first recognition of toxic effects. The specific (thereshold) toxic effects should be identified when a toxic concentration is given. Toxic-dose-high (TDH): : Toxic-dose-high is the dose that will produce drug-induced alterations and administration of twice this dose is lethal. Toxic-dose-low :Toxic-dose-low is the lowest dose that will produce alterations; administration of twice this dose is not lethal. Toxicity:Toxicity is the term used to describe the amount of a poison that, under a specific set of conditions causes toxic effects or results in detrimental biologic changes. It is the inherent capacity of a substance to produce toxic effects or detrimental changes on the organism. Toxicity is the adverse end product of a series of events that is inhibited by exposure to chemical, physical or biological agents. Toxicity can manifest itself in a wide array of forms, from mild biochemical functions to serious organ damage and death. Toxicoepidemiology :This refers to the study of quantitative analysis of the toxicity incidences in organisms, factors affecting toxicity, species involved and the use of such knowledge in planning of prevention and control strategies. Toxicology:The traditional definition of toxicology is the ‘the science of poisons’. On understanding how various agents can cause harm to humans and other organisms, a more descriptive definition of toxicology can be ‘the study of the adverse effects of chemicals or 121

physical agents on living organisms and the ecosystems, including the prevention and amelioration of such adverse effects’. Toxicology is concerned with all aspects of poisons and poisoning. It is the study of poisons and includes the identification, chemical properties and biological effects of poisons as well as the treatment of disease conditions they cause. Toxicology is defined as that branch of science that deals with poisons (toxicants) and their effects; a poison is defined as any substance that causes a harmful effect when administered, either by accident or design, to a living organism. There are difficulties in bringing a more precise definition to the meaning of poison and in the definition and measurement of toxic effect. The range of deleterious effects is wide and varies with species, gender, developmental stage, and so on, while the effects of toxicants are always dose dependent. Toxicosis:Toxicosis is the term used to describe the condition resulting from exposure to poisons. This term is frequently used interchangeably with poisoning and intoxication. Toxin :Toxin is the wod reserved to poisons produced by a biological source like venoms and plant toxins. Toxins from plants are called phytotoxins. Toxins from bacteria are called bacterial toxins. Endotoxins are those toxins found within the bacteria and exotoxins are those toxins elaborated from bacterial cells. Toxins from fungi are called mycotoxins. Toxins from lower animals are called as zootoxins. Toxins that are transmitted by a bite or sting are called venoms. Toxinology:This branch of toxicology deals with the study of toxic effects of toxins V Venom:A venom is a toxin produced by an animal specifically for the poisoning of other species via a mechanism designed to deliver the toxin to its prey. Examples include the venom of bees and wasps, delivered by a sting, and the venom of snakes, delivered by fangs. X Xenobiotics:Xenobiotics is the general term, that is used for a foreign substance taken into the body. It is derived from the Greek term xeno, which means “foreigner”. Xenobiotics may produce beneficial effects (such as pharmaceuticals) or they may be toxic (such as lead). As Parscelsus proposed centuries ago, dose differentiates whether a substance will be a remedy or a poison. A xenobiotic in small amounts may be non-toxic and even beneficial but when the dose is increased, toxic and lethal effects may result.