The word vermilion came from the Old French word vermeillon, which was derived from vermeil, from the Latin vermiculus, the diminutive of the Latin word vermis, or worm. It has the same origin as the English word vermin,[4] the name originated because it had a similar color to the natural red dye made from an insect, the Kermes vermilio, which was widely used in Europe.[7] The words for the color in Portuguese (vermelho), Galician (vermello) and Catalan (vermell) have the same origin. The first recorded use of vermilion as a color name in English was in 1289,[8][9] the term cinnabar was used interchangeably with vermilion until the 17th century, when vermilion became the more common name. By the late 18th century 'cinnabar' applied to the unground natural mineral only.

Vermilion is a dense, opaque pigment with a clear, brilliant hue,[10] the pigment was originally made by grinding a powder of cinnabar, which contains mercury. The chemical formula of the pigment is HgS (mercury(II) sulfide); like most mercury compounds, it is toxic.

Vermilion is not one specific hue; Mercuric sulfides make a range of warm hues – from bright orange-red to a duller reddish-purple that resembles fresh duck liver. Differences in hue are caused by the size of the ground particles of pigment. Larger crystals produce duller and less-orange hue.

Cinnabar pigment was a side-product of the mining of mercury, and mining cinnabar was difficult, expensive and dangerous, because of the toxicity of mercury, the Greek philosopher Theophrastus of Eresus (371-286 BC) described the process in "De Lapidibus", the first scientific book on minerals. Efforts began early to find a better way to make the pigment.

The Chinese were probably the first to make a synthetic vermilion as early as the 4th century BC, the Greek alchemist Zosimus of Panopolis (Third–Fourth century AD) wrote that such a method existed. In the early ninth century the process was accurately described by the Arab or Persian alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (722–804) in his book of recipes of colors, and the process began to be widely used in Europe.[10][11]

The process described by Jabir ibn Hayyan was fairly simple. Mercury and sulfur were mixed together, forming a black compound of sulphide of mercury, called Aethiopes mineralis, this was then heated in a flask. The compound vaporized, and recondensed in the top of the flask, the flask was broken, the vermilion was taken out, and it was ground. When first created the pigment was almost black, but as it was ground the red color appeared, the longer the color was ground, the finer the color became. The Italian Renaissance artist Cennino Cennini wrote: "if you were to grind it every day even for twenty years it would keep getting better and more perfect."[12]

During the 17th century a new method of making the pigment was introduced, known as the 'Dutch' method. Mercury and melted sulfur were mashed to make black mercury sulfide, then heated in retort, producing vapors condensing as a bright, red mercury sulfide. To remove the sulfur these crystals were treated with a strong alkali, washed and finally ground under water to yield the commercial powder form of pigment,[13] the pigment is still made today by essentially the same process.

Vermilion has one important defect; it is liable to darken, or develop a purplish-gray surface sheen.[10]Cennino Cennini wrote, "Bear in mind...that it is not in its character to be exposed to air but it is more resistant on panel than on walls since, when it is used and laid on a wall, over a period of time, standing in the air, it turns black"[14] The darkness is not a result of the vermilion itself, which is very stable, but is caused by impurities and adulteration of the pigment. Newer research indicates that chlorine ions and light may aid in decomposing vermilion into elemental mercury, which is black in finely dispersed form.[15][16]

Vermilion was the primary red pigment used by European painters from the Renaissance until the 20th century. However, because of its cost and toxicity, it was almost entirely replaced by a new synthetic pigment, cadmium red, in the 20th century.

Genuine vermilion pigment today comes mostly from China; it is a synthetic mercuric sulfide, labeled on paint tubes as PR-106 (Red Pigment 106). The synthetic pigment is of higher quality than vermilion made from ground cinnabar, which has many impurities, the pigment is very toxic, and should be used with great care.[17]

The first documented use of vermilion pigment, made with ground cinnabar, dates to 7000–8000 BC, and was found at the neolithic village of Catalhoyuk, in modern-day Turkey. Cinnabar was mined in Spain beginning in about 5300 BC; in China, the first documented use of Cinnabar as a pigment was by the Yangshao culture (5000–4000 BC), where it was used to paint ceramics, to cover the walls and floors of rooms, and for ritual ceremonies.[18]

The principal source of cinnabar for the ancient Romans was the Almaden mine in northwest Spain, which was worked by prisoners, since the ore of mercury was highly toxic, a term in the mines was a virtual death sentence. Pliny the Elder described the mines this way:

Nothing is more carefully guarded, it is forbidden to break up or refine the cinnabar on the spot. They send it to Rome in its natural condition, under seal, to the extent of some ten thousand pounds a year, the sales price is fixed by law to keep it from becoming impossibly expensive, and the price fixed is seventy sesterces a pound.[19]

In Rome, the precious pigment was used to paint frescoes, decorate statues, and even as a cosmetic; in Roman triumphs, the victors had their faces covered with vermilion powder, and the face of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill was also colored vermilion. Cinnabar was used to paint the walls of some of the most luxurious villas in Pompeii, including the Villa of the Mysteries. Pliny reported that the painters of that villa stole a large portion of the expensive pigment by frequently washing their brushes and saving the wash water.[20]

In the Byzantine Empire, the use of cinnabar and the vermilion color was reserved for the use of the Imperial family and administrators; official letters and imperial decrees were written in vermilion ink, made with cinnabar.[20]

Vermilion was also used by the peoples of Central and South America, to paint ceramics, figurines, murals, and for the decoration of burials, it was used in the Chavin Civilization (400 BC – 200 AD), and in the Maya, Sican, Moche, and Inca Empire. The major source was the Huancavelica mine in the Andes mountains in central Peru.

The most dramatic example of the use of vermilion in the Americas was the so-called Tomb of the Red Queen, located in Temple XIII in the ruins of the Mayan city of Palenque in Chiapas, Mexico, dated to between 600–700 AD, discovered in 1994 by Mexican archeologist Arnoldo Gonzales Cruz. The body and all the objects in the sarcophagus were covered with bright red vermilion powder made from cinnabar.[21]

The technique for making a synthetic vermilion by combining sulphur and mercury was in use in Europe in the 9th century, but the pigment was still expensive, since it was almost as expensive as gold leaf, it was used only in the most important decoration of illuminated manuscripts, while the less expensive minium, made with red lead, was used for the red letters and symbols in the text.

Vermilion was also used by painters in the Renaissance as a very vivid and bright red, though it did have the weakness of sometimes turning dark with time, the Florentine artist Cennino Cennini described it in his handbook for artists:

this pigment is made by alchemy, prepared in a retort, which subject I will leave be since to put every method and recipe into my discussion would be too longwinded. The reason? Because if you care to take the trouble you will find a lot of recipes for it, and particularly if you cultivate friendships with monks. But, so that you do not waste your time with the many different techniques, I advise you, just take what you can find at the apothecary's for your money. And I want to teach you how to buy it and how to recognise the good vermilion. Always buy solid vermilion and not crushed or ground, the reason? Because more often than not you are cheated either with red lead or crushed brick.

By the 20th century, the cost and toxicity of vermilion led to its gradually being replaced by synthetic pigments, particularly cadmium red, which had a comparable color and opacity.

The first documented use of cinnabar or vermilion pigment was found at the neolithic village of Çatalhöyük in modern-day Turkey, this mural, from 7000–8000 BC, shows aurochs, a deer and humans. (Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara)

The first documented use of cinnabar, or vermilion, for decorating pottery in China dates to the Yangshao culture (5000–4000 BC), this bowl is from Banpo Village, Shaanxi, China.

The Villa of the mysteries in Pompeii was a showcase for the expensive vermilion pigment made from ground cinnabar.

The walls of the tombs of Maya rulers were sometimes painted with cinnabar, and in the Tomb of the Red Queen in Palenque (600–700 AD), the remains of a noblewoman were covered with bright vermilion cinnabar powder.

On the other side of the world, in China, the color vermilion was also playing an important role in the national culture, the color was most used in creating Chinese lacquerware, which was exported around the world, giving rise to the term "Chinese red."

The lacquer came from the Chinese lacquer tree, or Toxicodendron vernicifluum, a relative of the sumac tree, which grew in regions of China, Korea and Japan. The sap or resin of the tree, called urushiol, was caustic and toxic (it contained the same chemical compound as poison ivy) but, painted on to wood or metal, it hardened into a fine natural plastic, or lacquer surface, the pure sap was dark brown, but beginning in about the 3rd century BC, during the Han Dynasty, Chinese artisans colored it with powdered cinnabar or with red ochre (ferric oxide), giving it an orange-red color.[23][24] Beginning in about the 8th century, Chinese chemists began making synthetic vermilion from mercury and sulfur, which reduced the price of the pigment and allowed the production of Chinese lacquerware on a larger scale.

The shade of red of the lacquerware has changed over the centuries, during the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD) the Chinese word for red referred to a light red. However, during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), when the synthetic vermilion was introduced, that color became darker and richer, the poet Bai Juyi (772–846) wrote that "the flowers in the river when the sun rises are redder than flames", and the word he used for red was the word for vermilion, or Chinese red.[25]

When Chinese lacquerware and the ground cinnabar used to color it were exported to Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, European collectors considered it to be finer than the European vermilion; in 1835 "Chinese vermilion" was described as a cinnabar so pure that it only had to be ground into powder to become a perfect vermilion. Historically European vermilion often included adulterants including brick, orpiment, iron oxide, Persian red, iodine scarlet—and minium (red lead), an inexpensive and bright but fugitive lead-oxide pigment.[26]

In China, From ancient times vermilion was regarded as the color of blood, and thus the color of life, it was used to paint temples, the carriages of the Emperor, and as the printing paste for personal name chops. It was also used for unique red calligraphic ink reserved for Emperors. Chinese Taoists associated vermilion with eternity.

A lacquerware bowl from the Western Han Dynasty, 2nd century BC (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)

A page of the Roman de Girart de Roussillon (1450). Both vermilion and minium, or red lead, were used in Medieval manuscripts. Vermilion, as expensive as gilding, was usually reserved for the most important illustrations or designs.

Hindu culture

Sindoor is a vermilion-colored powder with which Indian women make a mark in their hairline to indicate they are married.

Hindu women use vermilion along the hair parting line known as Sindoor, to signify that they are married. Hindu men often wear vermilion on their forehead during religious ceremonies and festivals.

In the Bible vermilion is listed as a pigment that was in use for painting buildings during the reign of Shallum the son of Josiah king of Judah and is named in the book of the prophet Ezekiel as a pigment used in art that portrayed Chaldean men. (Jeremiah 22:11–14, Ezekiel 23:14-17)

In Han China's Five Elements cosmology (cf. Chinese mythology), one of the four symbols of the four directions is a bird called Vermilion Bird, which represents the direction of south. The color red (particularly as exemplified by cinnabar/vermilion) was also symbolically associated with summer, fire, a certain note on the musical scale, a certain day of the calendar, and so on.[28]

Vermilion City is one of the locations used in the English translated versions of the Pokémon video games and anime. It is a port town in the Kanto area and the name is derived from the original Japanese name クチバシティ (Kuchiba City). Kuchiba is an orange-red color associated with sunsets and autumnal leaves and Vermilion was used as an approximate translation.[30]

"China red" or "Chinese red" is the name used for the vermilion shade used in Chinese lacquerware. One version is shown in the color box at right; the shade could vary from dark to light depending upon how the pigment was made and how the lacquer was applied. Chinese red was originally made from the powdered mineral cinnabar, but beginning in about the 8th century it was made more commonly by a chemical process combining mercury and sulphur. Vermilion has significance in Taoist culture, and is regarded as the color of life and eternity.

The first recorded use of Chinese red as a color name in English was in 1924.[35]

^The color displayed in the color box above matches the color called vermilion in the 1930 book by Maerz and Paul A Dictionary of Color New York:1930 McGraw-Hill; the color vermilion is displayed on page 27, Plate 2, Color Sample L11. It is noted on page 193 that the color cinnabar is another name for the color vermilion.

^Maerz and Paul A Dictionary of Color New York:1930 McGraw-Hill Page 193; Color Sample of Cinnabar (It is noted on page 193 that Cinnabar is the same color as Vermilion): Page 27 Plate 2 Color Sample L11

1.
Red
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Red is the color at the longer-wavelengths end of the spectrum of visible light next to orange, at the opposite end from violet. Red color has a predominant light wavelength of roughly 620–740 nanometers, light with a longer wavelength than red but shorter than terahertz radiation and microwave is called infrared. Red is one of the secondary colors, resulting from the combination of yellow. Traditionally, it was viewed as a primary colour, along with yellow and blue, in the RYB color space and traditional color wheel formerly used by painters. Reds can vary in shade from light pink to very dark maroon or burgundy. Red is the color of cyan. In nature, the red color of blood comes from hemoglobin, the red color of the Grand Canyon and other geological features is caused by hematite or red ochre, both forms of iron oxide. It also causes the red color of the planet Mars, the color of autumn leaves is caused by pigments called anthocyanins, which are produced towards the end of summer, when the green chlorophyll is no longer produced. One to two percent of the population has red hair, the color is produced by high levels of the reddish pigment pheomelanin. Since red is the color of blood, it has historically been associated with sacrifice, danger, modern surveys in the United States and Europe show red is also the color most commonly associated with heat, activity, passion, sexuality, anger, love and joy. In China, India and many other Asian countries it is the color of symbolizing happiness, since the 19th century, red has also been associated with socialism and communism. The word red is derived from the Old English rēad, the word can be further traced to the Proto-Germanic rauthaz and the Proto-Indo European root rewdʰ-. In Sanskrit, the word means red or blood. In the Akkadian language of Ancient Mesopotamia and in the modern Inuit language of Inuit, the words for colored in Latin and Spanish both also mean red. In Portuguese the word for red is vermelho, which comes from Latin vermiculus, in the Russian language, the word for red, Кра́сный, comes from the same old Slavic root as the words for beautiful—красивый and excellent—прекрасный. Thus Red Square in Moscow, named long before the Russian Revolution, in heraldry, the word gules is used for red. Red can vary in hue from orange-red to violet-red, and for each hue there is a variety of shades and tints. Red hematite powder was found scattered around the remains at a grave site in a Zhoukoudian cave complex near Beijing

2.
Green
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Green is the color between blue and yellow on the spectrum of visible light. It is evoked by light with a predominant wavelength of roughly 495–570 nm, the modern English word green comes from the Middle English and Anglo-Saxon word grene, from the same Germanic root as the words grass and grow. It is the color of living grass and leaves and as a result is the color most associated with springtime, growth, by far the largest contributor to green in nature is chlorophyll, the chemical by which plants photosynthesize and convert sunlight into chemical energy. Many creatures have adapted to their environments by taking on a green hue themselves as camouflage. Several minerals have a color, including the emerald, which is colored green by its chromium content. In surveys made in Europe and the United States, green is the color most commonly associated with nature, life, health, youth, spring, hope and envy. In Europe and the U. S. green is associated with death, sickness, or the devil. In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, when the color of clothing showed the social status, green was worn by merchants, bankers. The Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci wears green, showing she is not from a noble family, Green is also the traditional color of safety and permission, a green light means go ahead, a green card permits permanent residence in the United States. It is the most important color in Islam and it was the color of the banner of Muhammad, and is found in the flags of nearly all Islamic countries, and represents the lush vegetation of Paradise. It is also associated with the culture of Gaelic Ireland. Because of its association with nature, it is the color of the environmental movement, political groups advocating environmental protection and social justice describe themselves as part of the Green movement, some naming themselves Green parties. This has led to campaigns in advertising, as companies have sold green, or environmentally friendly. The word green comes from the Middle English and Old English word grene, which, like the German word grün, has the same root as the words grass and grow. It is from a Common Germanic *gronja-, which is reflected in Old Norse grænn, Old High German gruoni, ultimately from a PIE root *ghre- to grow. The first recorded use of the word as a term in Old English dates to ca. Latin with viridis also has a genuine and widely used term for green, related to virere to grow and ver spring, it gave rise to words in several Romance languages, French vert, Italian verde. Likewise the Slavic languages with zelenъ, Ancient Greek also had a term for yellowish, pale green – χλωρός, chloros, cognate with χλοερός verdant and χλόη the green of new growth

3.
CMYK color model
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The CMYK color model is a subtractive color model, used in color printing, and is also used to describe the printing process itself. CMYK refers to the four used in some color printing, cyan, magenta, yellow. Though it varies by print house, press operator, press manufacturer, the K in CMYK stands for key because in four-color printing, cyan, magenta and yellow printing plates are carefully keyed, or aligned, with the key of the black key plate. Some sources suggest that the K in CMYK comes from the last letter in black and was chosen because B already means blue. Some sources claim this explanation, although useful as a mnemonic, is incorrect, the CMYK model works by partially or entirely masking colors on a lighter, usually white, background. The ink reduces the light that would otherwise be reflected, such a model is called subtractive because inks subtract brightness from white. In additive color models such as RGB, white is the combination of all primary colored lights. In the CMYK model, it is the opposite, white is the color of the paper or other background. To save cost on ink, and to produce deeper black tones, unsaturated and dark colors are produced by using black ink instead of the combination of cyan, magenta, with halftoning, a full continuous range of colors can be produced. To improve print quality and reduce moiré patterns, the screen for each color is set at a different angle. Common reasons for using black ink include, In traditional preparation of color separations, in some cases a black keyline was used when it served as both a color indicator and an outline to be printed in black. Because usually the black plate contained the keyline, the K in CMYK represents the keyline or black plate, also sometimes called the key plate. A combination of 100% cyan, magenta, and yellow inks soaks the paper with ink, making it slower to dry, causing bleeding, adding black ink absorbs more light and yields much better blacks. Using black ink is less expensive than using the corresponding amounts of colored inks. When a very dark area is desirable, a colored or gray CMY bedding is applied first, then a black layer is applied on top, making a rich, deep black. A black made with just CMY inks is sometimes called a composite black, the amount of black to use to replace amounts of the other ink is variable, and the choice depends on the technology, paper and ink in use. Processes called under color removal, under addition, and gray component replacement are used to decide on the final mix. CMYK or process color printing is contrasted with spot color printing, some printing presses are capable of printing with both four-color process inks and additional spot color inks at the same time

4.
Magenta
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Magenta is a color that is variously defined as purplish-red, reddish-purple, or mauvish-crimson. On computer screens, it is made by mixing equal amounts of blue, on color wheels of the RGB and CMY color models, it is located midway between red and blue. It is the color of green. It is one of the four colors of ink used in printing and by an inkjet printer, along with cyan, yellow. The tone of magenta used in printing is called printers magenta, Magenta was first introduced as the color of a new aniline dye called fuchsine, patented in 1859 by the French chemist François-Emmanuel Verguin. Its name was changed the year to magenta, to celebrate a victory of the French and Sardinian army at the Battle of Magenta on June 4,1859. The web color magenta is called fuchsia. Magenta is a color, meaning that it is not found in the visible spectrum of light. Rather, it is physiologically and psychologically perceived as the mixture of red and violet/blue light, with the absence of green. In the RGB color system, used to all the colors on a television or computer display, magenta is a secondary color, made by combining equal amounts of red. In this system, magenta is the color of green. In the CMYK color model, used in printing, it is one of the three primary colors, along with cyan and yellow, used to print all the rest of the colors. If magenta, cyan, and yellow are printed on top of each other on a page, in this model, magenta is the complementary color of green, and these two colors have the highest contrast and the greatest harmony. If combined, green and magenta ink will look dark gray or black, the magenta used in color printing, sometimes called process magenta, is a darker shade than the color used on computer screens. A purple hue in terms of theory, magenta is evoked by light having less power in green wavelengths than in blue/violet. In the Munsell color system, magenta is called red–purple, if the spectrum is wrapped to form a color wheel, magenta appears midway between red and violet. Violet and red, the two components of magenta, are at opposite ends of the spectrum and have very different wavelengths. The additive secondary color magenta, as noted above, is made by combining violet and red light at equal intensity, in optics, fuchsia and magenta are essentially the same color

Magenta
–
In the RGB color model, used to make colors on computer and television displays, magenta is created by the combination of equal amounts of blue and red light.
Magenta
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Magenta
Magenta
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The flower of Fuchsia plant was the original inspiration for the dye, which was later renamed magenta dye.
Magenta
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Magenta took its name in 1860 from this aniline dye that was originally called " fuchsine ", after the fuchsia flower.

5.
Yellow
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Yellow is the color between green and orange on the spectrum of visible light. It is evoked by light with a predominant wavelength of roughly 570–590 nm, in traditional color theory, used in painting, and in the subtractive color system, used in color printing, yellow is a primary color. In the RGB color model, used to create colors on television and computer screens, yellow is made by combining red, the word yellow comes from the Old English geolu, geolwe, meaning yellow, yellowish, derived from the Proto-Germanic word gelwaz yellow. It has the same Indo-European base, gʰel-, as the gold and yell. In Iran it has connotations of pallor/sickness, but also wisdom and it plays an important role in Asian culture, particularly in China, where it is seen as the color of happiness, glory, wisdom, harmony, and culture. The word yellow comes from the Old English geolu, geolwe, meaning yellow, yellowish and it has the same Indo-European base, gʰel-, as the words gold and yell, gʰel- means both bright and gleaming, and to cry out. The English term is related to other Germanic words for yellow, namely Scots yella, East Frisian jeel, West Frisian giel, Dutch geel, German gelb, and Swedish and Norwegian gul. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the oldest known use of word in English is from The Epinal Glossary in 700. Yellow, in the form of yellow pigment made from clay, was one of the first colors used in prehistoric cave art. The cave of Lascaux has an image of a horse colored with yellow estimated to be 17,300 years old, in Ancient Egypt, yellow was associated with gold, which was considered to be imperishable, eternal and indestructible. The skin and bones of the gods were believed to be made of gold, the Egyptians used yellow extensively in tomb paintings, they usually used either yellow ochre or the brilliant orpiment, though it was made of arsenic and was highly toxic. A small paintbox with orpiment pigment was found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun, men were always shown with brown faces, women with yellow ochre or gold faces. The ancient Romans used yellow in their paintings to represent gold and it is found frequently in the murals of Pompeii. During the Post-Classical period, yellow became firmly established as the color of Judas Iscariot, from this connection, yellow also took on associations with envy, jealousy and duplicity. The tradition started in the Renaissance of marking non-Christian outsiders, such as Jews, in 16th century Spain, those accused of heresy and who refused to renounce their views were compelled to come before the Spanish Inquisition dressed in a yellow cape. The color yellow has been associated with moneylenders and finance. The National Pawnbrokers Associations logo depicts three golden spheres hanging from a bar, referencing the three bags of gold that the saint of pawnbroking, St. Nicholas, holds in his hands. Additionally, the symbol of three golden orbs is found in the coat of arms of the House of Medici, a fifteenth century Italian dynasty of bankers and lenders

6.
Saturation (color theory)
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Colorfulness or saturation in colorimetry and color theory refers to the perceived intensity of a specific color. Colorfulness is the visual sensation according to which the color of an area appears to be more or less chromatic. Chroma is the relative to the brightness of a similarly illuminated area that appears to be white or highly transmitting. Therefore, chroma should not be confused with colorfulness, saturation is the colorfulness of a color relative to its own brightness. A highly colorful stimulus is vivid and intense, while a less colorful stimulus appears more muted, with no colorfulness at all, a color is a “neutral” gray. Any color can be described using three color appearance parameters — colorfulness, lightness, and hue, saturation is one of three coordinates in the HSL and HSV color spaces. The saturation of a color is determined by a combination of light intensity, the purest color is achieved by using just one wavelength at a high intensity, such as in laser light. If the intensity drops, then as a result the saturation drops, to desaturate a color of given intensity in a subtractive system, one can add white, black, gray, or the hues complement. CIELUV The chroma normalized by the lightness, s u v = C u v ∗ L ∗ =132 +2 where is the chromaticity of the white point, and chroma is defined below. Nevertheless, this provides a reasonable predictor of saturation. S a b = C a b ∗ C a b ∗2 + L ∗2100 % where Sab is the saturation, L* the lightness and C*ab is the chroma of the color. CIECAM02 The square root of the colorfulness divided by the brightness, M is proportional to the chroma C, thus the CIECAM02 definition bears some similarity to the CIELUV definition. An important difference is that the CIECAM02 model accounts for the conditions through the parameter FL. Different color spaces, such as CIELAB or CIELUV may be used, the naïve definition of saturation does not specify its response function. However, both color spaces are nonlinear in terms of perceived color differences. It is also possible—and sometimes desirable—to define a quantity that is linearized in term of the psychovisual perception. The transformation of to is given by, C a b ∗ = a ∗2 + b ∗2 h a b = arctan ⁡ b ∗ a ∗ and analogously for CIE L*C*h. The chroma in the CIE L*C*h and CIE L*C*h coordinates has the advantage of being more psychovisually linear, and therefore, chroma in CIE1976 L*a*b* and L*u*v* color spaces is very much different from the traditional sense of saturation

7.
Brightness
–
Brightness is an attribute of visual perception in which a source appears to be radiating or reflecting light. In other words, brightness is the perception elicited by the luminance of a visual target and it is not necessarily proportional to luminance. This is a subjective attribute/property of an object being observed and one of the color appearance parameters of color appearance models, brightness refers to an absolute term and should not be confused with Lightness. The adjective bright derives from an Old English beorht with the same meaning via metathesis giving Middle English briht, the word is from a Common Germanic *berhtaz, ultimately from a PIE root with a closely related meaning, *bhereg- white, bright. Brightness was formerly used as a synonym for the term luminance. As defined by the US Federal Glossary of Telecommunication Terms, brightness should now be used only for non-quantitative references to physiological sensations and perceptions of light, a given target luminance can elicit different perceptions of brightness in different contexts, see, for example, Whites illusion. With regard to stars, brightness is quantified as apparent magnitude, brightness is, at least in some respects, the antonym of darkness. The United States Federal Trade Commission has assigned a meaning to brightness when applied to lamps. When appearing on light bulb packages, brightness means Luminous flux, Luminous flux is the total amount of light coming from a source, such as a lighting device. Luminance, the meaning of brightness, is the amount of light per solid angle coming from an area. The table below shows the ways of indicating the amount of light. The term brightness is used in discussions of sound timbres. Luma Luminance Luminosity Media related to brightness at Wikimedia Commons Poyntons Color FAQ

8.
National Museum of China
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The National Museum of China flanks the eastern side of Tiananmen Square in Beijing, China. The museums mission is to educate about the arts and history of China and it is directed by the Ministry of Culture of the Peoples Republic of China. It is one of the largest museums in the world, the building was completed in 1959 as one of the Ten Great Buildings celebrating the ten-year anniversary of the founding of the Peoples Republic of China. It complements the opposing Great Hall of the People that was built at the same time, the structure sits on 6.5 hectares and has a frontal length of 313 metres, a height of four stories totaling 40 metres, and a width of 149 metres. The front displays eleven square pillars at its center and it has a total floor space of nearly 200,000 m2 to display. The renovations were designed by the German firm Gerkan, Marg, the museum, covering Chinese history from the Yuanmou Man of 1. However Yves Carcelle, Chairman and Chief executive officer of Louis Vuitton Malletier defended the exhibition by stating, I think before money, theres history,157 years of creativity and craftsmanship

National Museum of China
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West (front) facade of museum, from Tiananmen Square, 2014
National Museum of China
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Front foyer with model of the Temple of Heaven, in 2014
National Museum of China
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A Han Dynastyjade burial suit laced with gold thread at the National Museum of China
National Museum of China
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A pastel pierced porcelain vase, from the Qianlong era of the Qing Dynasty

9.
Cinnabar
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Cinnabar generally occurs as a vein-filling mineral associated with recent volcanic activity and alkaline hot springs. The mineral resembles quartz in symmetry and in its exhibiting birefringence, cinnabar has a refractive index of ~3.2. The color and properties derive from a structure that is a crystalline lattice belonging to the hexagonal crystal system. Associated modern precautions for use and handling of cinnabar arise from the toxicity of the mercury component, the name comes from Ancient Greek, κιννάβαρι, a Greek word most likely applied by Theophrastus to several distinct substances. Other sources say the word comes from the Persian, شنگرف‎‎ shangarf, in Latin it was sometimes known as minium, meaning also red cinnamon, though both of these terms now refer specifically to lead tetroxide. Cinnabar is generally found in a massive, granular or earthy form and is bright scarlet to brick-red in color and it resembles quartz in its symmetry. It exhibits birefringence, and it has the highest refractive index of any mineral and its mean refractive index is 3.08, versus the indices for diamond and the non-mineral gallium arsenide, which are 2.42 and 3.93, respectively. The hardness of cinnabar is 2. 0–2.5 on the Mohs scale, structurally, cinnabar belongs to the trigonal crystal system. It occurs as thick tabular or slender prismatic crystals or as granular to massive incrustations, crystal twinning occurs as simple contact twins. Note, mercury sulfide, HgS, adopts the structure described. Cinnabar is the stable form, and is a structure akin to that of HgO. In addition, HgS is found in a black, non-cinnabar polymorph that has the zincblende structure, Cinnabar generally occurs as a vein-filling mineral associated with recent volcanic activity and alkaline hot springs. Cinnabar is deposited by epithermal ascending aqueous solutions far removed from their igneous source and it is associated with native mercury, stibnite, realgar, pyrite, marcasite, opal, quartz, chalcedony, dolomite, calcite and barite. Cinnabar is essentially found in all mineral extraction localities that yield mercury, notably Puerto Princesa, Almadén, New Almaden, Hastings Mine and it was also mined near Red Devil, Alaska on the middle Kuskokwim River. Red Devil was named after the Red Devil cinnabar mine, a source of mercury. It has been found in Dominica near its sulfur springs at the end of the island along the west coast. Cinnabar is still being deposited, e. g. at the present day from the hot waters of Sulphur Bank Mine in California and Steamboat Springs, Nevada. As the most common source of mercury in nature, cinnabar has been mined for thousands of years, during the Roman Empire it was mined both as a pigment, and for its mercury content

10.
Color
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Color or colour is the characteristic of human visual perception described through color categories, with names such as red, yellow, purple, or blue. This perception of color derives from the stimulation of cells in the human eye by electromagnetic radiation in the spectrum of light. Color categories and physical specifications of color are associated with objects through the wavelength of the light that is reflected from them and this reflection is governed by the objects physical properties such as light absorption, emission spectra, etc. By defining a color space, colors can be identified numerically by coordinates, there may also be more than three color dimensions in other color spaces, such as in the CMYK color model, wherein one of the dimensions relates to a colours colorfulness). The photo-receptivity of the eyes of species also varies considerably from our own. Honeybees and bumblebees for instance have trichromatic color vision sensitive to ultraviolet but is insensitive to red, papilio butterflies possess six types of photoreceptors and may have pentachromatic vision. The most complex color vision system in the kingdom has been found in stomatopods with up to 12 spectral receptor types thought to work as multiple dichromatic units. The science of color is sometimes called chromatics, colorimetry, or simply color science and it includes the perception of color by the human eye and brain, the origin of color in materials, color theory in art, and the physics of electromagnetic radiation in the visible range. Electromagnetic radiation is characterized by its wavelength and its intensity, when the wavelength is within the visible spectrum, it is known as visible light. Most light sources emit light at different wavelengths, a sources spectrum is a distribution giving its intensity at each wavelength. Although the spectrum of light arriving at the eye from a given direction determines the color sensation in that direction, in each such class the members are called metamers of the color in question. The table at right shows approximate frequencies and wavelengths for various pure spectral colors, the wavelengths listed are as measured in air or vacuum. A common list identifies six main bands, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, Newtons conception included a seventh color, indigo, between blue and violet. It is possible that what Newton referred to as blue is nearer to what today is known as cyan, the color of an object depends on both the physics of the object in its environment and the characteristics of the perceiving eye and brain. Some objects not only light, but also transmit light or emit light themselves. This effect is known as color constancy, opaque objects that do not reflect specularly have their color determined by which wavelengths of light they scatter strongly. If objects scatter all wavelengths with roughly equal strength, they appear white, if they absorb all wavelengths, they appear black. Opaque objects that reflect light of different wavelengths with different efficiencies look like mirrors tinted with colors determined by those differences

Color
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Colored pencils

11.
Illuminated manuscripts
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An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented with such decoration as initials, borders and miniature illustrations. Comparable Far Eastern and Mesoamerican works are described as painted, islamic manuscripts may be referred to as illuminated, illustrated or painted, though using essentially the same techniques as Western works. This article covers the technical, social and economic history of the subject, for an art-historical account, the earliest surviving substantive illuminated manuscripts are from the period 400 to 600, produced in the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths and the Eastern Roman Empire. The significance of these works lies not only in their inherent artistic and historical value, had it not been for the monastic scribes of Late Antiquity, most literature of Greece and Rome would have perished in Europe. As it was, the patterns of textual survivals were shaped by their usefulness to the severely constricted literate group of Christians, the majority of surviving manuscripts are from the Middle Ages, although many survive from the Renaissance, along with a very limited number from Late Antiquity. The majority of manuscripts are of a religious nature. However, especially from the 13th century onward, a number of secular texts were illuminated. Most illuminated manuscripts were created as codices, which had superseded scrolls, a very few illuminated manuscript fragments survive on papyrus, which does not last nearly as long as vellum or parchment. Most medieval manuscripts, illuminated or not, were written on parchment, beginning in the late Middle Ages manuscripts began to be produced on paper. Illuminated manuscripts continued to be produced in the early 16th century, Manuscripts are among the most common items to survive from the Middle Ages, many thousands survive. They are also the best surviving specimens of medieval painting, indeed, for many areas and time periods, they are the only surviving examples of painting. There are a few examples from later periods, the type of book that was most often heavily and richly illuminated, sometimes known as a display book, varied between periods. In the first millennium, these were most likely to be Gospel Books, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels, the Romanesque period saw the creation of many huge illuminated complete Bibles – one in Sweden requires three librarians to lift it. Many Psalters were also illuminated in both this and the Gothic period. Finally, the Book of Hours, very commonly the personal book of a wealthy layperson, was often richly illuminated in the Gothic period. Other books, both liturgical and not, continued to be illuminated at all periods, the Byzantine world also continued to produce manuscripts in its own style, versions of which spread to other Orthodox and Eastern Christian areas. See Medieval art for other regions, periods and types, reusing parchments by scraping the surface and reusing them was a common practice, the traces often left behind of the original text are known as palimpsests. The Gothic period, which saw an increase in the production of these beautiful artifacts, also saw more secular works such as chronicles

Illuminated manuscripts
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In the strictest definition of illuminated manuscript, only manuscripts with gold or silver, like this miniature of Christ in Majesty from the Aberdeen Bestiary (folio 4v), would be considered illuminated.
Illuminated manuscripts
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The decoration of this page from a French Book of Hours, ca.1400, includes a miniature, initials and borders
Illuminated manuscripts
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A 13th-century manuscript illumination, the earliest known depiction of Thomas Becket 's assassination
Illuminated manuscripts
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The 11th century Tyniec Sacramentary was written with gold on purple background.

12.
Sindoor
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Sindoor or sindooram is a traditional vermilion red or orange-red colored cosmetic powder from India, usually worn by married women along the parting of their hair. Use of sindoor denotes that a woman is married in Hindu communities, the main component of traditional sindooram is usually turmeric. Commercial sindoor contains synthetic dyes and chemicals some of which not manufactured to proper standards may contain mercury, Sindoor is traditionally applied at the beginning or completely along the parting-line of a woman’s hair or as a dot on the forehead or bottu in Telugu. Sindoor is the mark of a woman in Hinduism. Single women wear the dot in different colors but do not apply sindoor in their parting of the hairline, widows do not wear sindoor, signifying that their husband is no longer alive. The sindoor is first applied to the woman by her husband on the day of her wedding, after this, she applies it herself every day. A similar coloring ritual is known as pasupu kumkuma, named after another name for sindoor, the wiping off of the sindoor is very significant for a widow. There are many associated with this practice. The most common is when a mother-in-law or older sister-in-law wipes off the sindoor when a woman becomes a widow, the widow will break her bangles and remove her bottu as well, and many will also remove their nose ring and toe rings. The parting of hair is symbolic of a river of red blood full of life, when the sindoor is removed then the river becomes barren, dry and empty. This custom is prevalent in areas and is followed by all castes. The red sindoor is significant for the woman as she is full of colour. When she becomes a widow she adopts plain white dress and removes all colour from her including the bright red sindoor. Methods and styles of applying the sindoor vary from personal choice to regional customs, many new brides will fill the whole hair line with sindoor, while other married women may just apply a red spot at the end of the hair line and forehead. Recently, a shape on the forehead pointing towards the nose. Female figurines excavated at Mehrgarh, Baluchistan seem to imply application of sindoor to the partition of womens hair in Harappa culture, according to the legends, Radha the consort of Lord Krishna turned the kumkum into a flame-like design on her forehead. In the famous epic Mahabharata, Draupadi the wife of the Pandavas wipes off her sindoor in disgust, use of sindoor is frequently mentioned in the puranas Lalitha Sahasranama and Soundarya Lahari. Adi Shankaracharya writes in Soundarya Lahari, Jain women apply the sindoor, Jain nuns are forbidden to apply this to their hair line or foreheads

Sindoor
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Sindoor (Vermilion)
Sindoor
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The ritual of applying the sindoor as part of a Hindu Indian wedding
Sindoor
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Shop selling sindoor (vermilion) in Pushkar, Rajasthan

13.
Galician language
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Galician is an Indo-European language of the Western Ibero-Romance branch. It is spoken by some 2.4 million people, mainly in Galicia, a community located in northwestern Spain. The divergence has continued to this day, producing the modern languages of Galician, the language is officially regulated in Galicia by the Royal Galician Academy. Modern Galician and its sibling, Portuguese, originated from a medieval ancestor designated variously by modern linguists as Galician-Portuguese. This common ancestral stage developed in the territories of the old Kingdom of Galicia, in the 13th century it became a written and cultivated language. In the past Galician and Portuguese formed a dialect continuum, for many scholars this continuum still exists today at the level of rural dialects. Others point out that modern Galician and Portuguese have diverged to such an extent during the past seven centuries that they now constitute two closely related but separate languages. During the 16th century the Galician language stopped being used in documentation, becoming de facto an oral language, with just some use in lyric, theatre. The linguistic status of Galician with respect to Portuguese is controversial, there are linguists who deal with modern Galician and modern Portuguese as norms or varieties of the same language. Fernández Rei in 1990 stated that the Galician language is, with respect to Portuguese, a language, a language through elaboration, and not an abstand language. Mutual intelligibility is very high between Galicians and Portuguese, on 20 October 2016, the city of Santiago de Compostela, the capital of Galicia, approved by unanimity a proposal to become an observer member of the Union of Portuguese-Speaking Capitals. On 1 November 2016, the Council of Galician Culture was admitted as an observer of the Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries. The official position of the Galician Language Institute is that Galician and these contrasting attitudes have distinct political implications. On the other hand, viewing Galician as a part of the Lusophony, while not denying its own characteristics and it is taught bilingually, alongside Castilian, in both primary and secondary education. It is also used at the three established in Galicia, having also the consideration of official language of the three institutions. Galician has also legal recognition in the Bierzo region in León, the other languages with official status elsewhere in Spain are Castilian, Catalan, Basque and Aranese. Galician has also been accepted orally as Portuguese in the European Parliament, having used by some Galician representatives, among others, José Posada, Camilo Nogueira. Controversy exists regarding the inclusion of Eonavian into the Galician language, there are those defending these linguistic varieties as dialects of transition to the Astur-Leonese group on the one hand, and those defending it as clearly Galician varieties on the other

Galician language
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Vindel's parchment, containing music and lyrics of several 13th-century cantigas by Martin Codax
Galician language
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Distribution of the various dialects of Galician in Spain and the extreme north of Portugal.
Galician language
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One of the oldest legal charters written in Galician, the constitutional charter of the Bo Burgo (Good Burg) of Castro Caldelas, 1228
Galician language
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Mediaeval Galician inscription in a 14th-century house, in Noia: "ESTAS CASAS MANDOU FAZER VASCO DA COSTA, ERA DE MCCCLXXVII" These houses were ordered by Vasco da Costa, era 1377 (1339 AD)

14.
Zosimus of Panopolis
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Zosimos of Panopolis was a Greek alchemist and Gnostic mystic who lived at the end of the 3rd and beginning of the 4th century AD. He was born in Panopolis, present day Akhmim in the south of Egypt and he wrote the oldest known books on alchemy, which he called Cheirokmeta, using the Greek word for things made by hand. Pieces of this work survive in the original Greek language and in translations into Syriac or Arabic, Arabic translations of texts by Zosimos were discovered in 1995 in a copy of the book Keys of Mercy and Secrets of Wisdom by Ibn Al-Hassan Ibn Ali Al-Tughrai, a Persian alchemist. Unfortunately, the translations were incomplete and seemingly non-verbatim, F. Sezgin has found 15 manuscripts of Zozimos in six libraries, at Tehran, Caire, Istanbul, Gotha, Dublin and Rampur. In general, Zosimos understanding of alchemy reflects the influence of Hermetic and Gnostic spiritualities and he asserted that the fallen angels taught the arts of metallurgy to the women they married, an idea also recorded in the Book of Enoch and later repeated in the Gnostic Apocryphon of John. In a fragment preserved by Syncellus, Zosimos wrote, The ancient and divine writings say that the angels became enamoured of women, and, descending, taught them all the works of nature. From them, therefore, is the first tradition, chema, concerning these arts, for they called this book chema, the external processes of metallic transmutation—the transformations of lead and copper into silver and gold —had always to mirror an inner process of purification and redemption. The science and wisdom of the most excellent dominate the one, the symbol of chemistry is drawn from the creation by its adepts, who cleanse and save the divine soul bound in the elements, and who free the divine spirit from its mixture with the flesh. Greek alchemists used what they called ὕδωρ θεῖον, meaning both divine water, and sulphurous water, similar ideas of a spiritual baptism in the waters of the transcendent Pleroma are characteristic of the Sethian Gnostic texts unearthed at Nag Hammadi. This image of the vessel as baptismal font is central to his Visions. One of Zosimos texts is about a sequence of related to Alchemy. In his dream he first comes to an altar and meets Ion, who calls himself the priest of inner sanctuaries, Ion then fights and impales Zosimos with a sword, dismembering him in accordance with the rule of harmony. He takes the pieces of Zosimos to the altar, and burned upon the fire of the art, till I perceived by the transformation of the body that I had become spirit. From there, Ion cries blood, and horribly melts into the opposite of himself, Zosimos wakes up, asks himself, Is not this the composition of the waters. And returns to sleep, beginning the visions again—he constantly wakes up, ponders to himself and returns to sleep during these visions. Returning to the altar, Zosimos finds a man being boiled alive, yet still alive, who says to him, The sight that you see is the entrance, and the exit. He then sees a Brazen Man, a Leaden Man, Zosimos also dreams of a place of punishments where all who enter immediately burst into flames and submit themselves to an unendurable torment. Jung believed these visions to be a sort of Alchemical allegory, the central image of the visions are the Sacrificial Act, which each Homunculus endures

15.
Jabir ibn Hayyan
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Born and educated in Tus, he later traveled to Kufa. He is sometimes referred to as the father of early chemistry, as early as the 10th century, the identity and exact corpus of works of Jabir was in dispute in Islamic circles. In 988 Ibn al-Nadim compiled the Kitab al-Fihrist which mentions Jabir as a follower and as a companion to Jafar as-Sadiq. In another reference al-Nadim reports that a group of philosophers claimed Jabir was one of their own members, another group, reported by al-Nadim, says only The Large Book of Mercy is genuine and that the rest are pseudographical. Their assertions are rejected by al-Nadim, joining al-Nadim in asserting a real Jabir, Ibn-Wahshiyya Rejecting a real Jabir, Abu Sulayman al-Mantiqi claims the real author is one al-Hasan ibn al-Nakad al-Mawili. The 14th century critic of Arabic literature, Jamal al-Din ibn Nubata al-Misri declares all the attributed to Jabir doubtful. Jabir was a philosopher who lived mostly in the 8th century, he was born in Tus, Khorasan, in Persia. Jabir in the sources has been entitled differently as al-Azdi al-Barigi or al-Kufi or al-Tusi or al-Sufi. There is a difference of opinion as to whether he was a Persian from Khorasan who later went to Kufa or whether he was, as some have suggested, of Syrian origin and later lived in Persia and Iraq. His ethnic background is not clear, but most sources reference him as a Persian, in some sources, he is reported to have been the son of Hayyan al-Azdi, a pharmacist of the Arabian Azd tribe who emigrated from Yemen to Kufa during the Umayyad Caliphate. While Henry Corbin believes Geber seems to have been a client of the Azd tribe, Hayyan had supported the Abbasid revolt against the Umayyads, and was sent by them to the province of Khorasan to gather support for their cause. He was eventually caught by the Umayyads and executed and his family fled to Yemen, where Jabir grew up and studied the Quran, mathematics and other subjects. Jabirs fathers profession may have contributed greatly to his interest in alchemy, after the Abbasids took power, Jabir went back to Kufa. He began his practicing medicine, under the patronage of a Vizir of Caliph Harun al-Rashid. His connections to the Barmakid cost him dearly in the end, when that family fell from grace in 803, Jabir was placed under house arrest in Kufa, where he remained until his death. It has been asserted that Jabir was a student of the sixth Imam Jafar al-Sadiq and Harbi al-Himyari, in total, nearly 3,000 treatises and articles are credited to Jabir ibn Hayyan. The 112 Books dedicated to the Barmakids, viziers of Caliph Harun al-Rashid and this group includes the Arabic version of the Emerald Tablet, an ancient work that proved a recurring foundation of and source for alchemical operations. In the Middle Ages it was translated into Latin and widely diffused among European alchemists, the Seventy Books, most of which were translated into Latin during the Middle Ages

16.
Cadmium red
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Cadmium pigments are a class of pigments that have cadmium as one of the chemical components. The principal pigments are a family of yellow/orange/red cadmium sulfides and sulfoselenides as well as compounds with other than cadmium. Their greatest use is in the coloring of plastics and specialty paints which must resist processing or service temperatures up to 3,000 °C, the color-fastness or permanence of cadmium requires protection from a tendency to slowly form carbonate salts with exposure to air. Most paint vehicles accomplish this, but cadmium colors will fade in fresco or mural painting, the following are commonly used as pigments in artists paints, Cadmium yellow is cadmium sulfide. Pigment Yellow 37 Cadmium sulfoselenide is a solution of CdS. Depending on the S/Se ratio, C. I, zinc cadmium sulfide is a greenish, solid solution of CdS and ZnS. Cadmium yellow is sometimes mixed with viridian to give a bright, when first introduced, there were hardly any stable pigments in the yellow to red range, with orange and bright red being very troublesome. The cadmium pigments eventually replaced compounds such as mercury sulfide with greatly improved light-fastness, Cadmium pigments are known for excellent light-fastness, although the lighter shades can fade in sunlight. Cadmium sulfide is not very toxic when used as a pigment, the cadmium pigments have been partially replaced by azo pigments. These have significantly inferior lightfastness, but still good, and they have the advantage of both being cheaper and non-toxic, list of inorganic pigments Fiedler, I. Bayard, M. A. Cadmium Yellows, Oranges and Reds, a Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Vol.1, Feller, R. L. Oxford University Press 1986, p.65 –108 National Pollutant Inventory - Cadmium and compounds Cadmium yellow. Why are cinnabar, vermilion, and cadmium orange colored, Cadmium yellow, ColourLex Cadmium orange, ColourLex Cadmium red, ColourLex

17.
Dolomite
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Dolomite is an anhydrous carbonate mineral composed of calcium magnesium carbonate, ideally CaMg2. The term is used for a sedimentary carbonate rock composed mostly of the mineral dolomite. An alternative name used for the dolomitic rock type is dolostone. Most probably the mineral dolomite was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1768, nicolas-Théodore de Saussure first named the mineral in March 1792. The mineral dolomite crystallizes in the trigonal-rhombohedral system and it forms white, tan, gray, or pink crystals. Dolomite is a carbonate, having an alternating structural arrangement of calcium and magnesium ions. It does not rapidly dissolve or effervesce in dilute hydrochloric acid as calcite does, solid solution exists between dolomite, the iron-dominant ankerite and the manganese-dominant kutnohorite. Small amounts of iron in the give the crystals a yellow to brown tint. Manganese substitutes in the structure also up to three percent MnO. A high manganese content gives the crystals a rosy pink color, lead, zinc, and cobalt also substitute in the structure for magnesium. The mineral dolomite is closely related to huntite Mg3Ca4, because dolomite can be dissolved by slightly acidic water, areas of dolomite are important as aquifers and contribute to karst terrain formation. Modern dolomite formation has been found to occur under conditions in supersaturated saline lagoons along the Rio de Janeiro coast of Brazil, namely, Lagoa Vermelha. It is often thought that dolomite will develop only with the help of sulfate-reducing bacteria, however, low-temperature dolomite may occur in natural environments rich in organic matter and microbial cell surfaces. This occurs as a result of magnesium complexation by carboxyl groups associated with organic matter, vast deposits of dolomite are present in the geological record, but the mineral is relatively rare in modern environments. Reproducible, inorganic low-temperature syntheses of dolomite and magnesite were published for the first time in 1999, the general principle governing the course of this irreversible geochemical reaction has been coined breaking Ostwalds step rule. There is some evidence for an occurrence of dolomite. One example is that of the formation of dolomite in the bladder of a Dalmatian dog. In 2015, it was discovered that the direct crystallization of dolomite can occur from solution at temperatures between 60 and 220 °C

18.
Guizhou
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Guizhou, formerly romanized as Kweichow, is a province of the Peoples Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country. The area was first organized as a region of a Chinese empire under the Tang. During the Mongolian Yuan dynasty, the character 矩 was changed to the more refined 貴, the region formally became a province in 1413, with an eponymous capital then also called Guizhou but now known as Guiyang. From around 1046 BCE to the emergence of the Qin Dynasty, during the Warring States period, the Chinese state of Chu conquered the area, and control later passed to the Dian Kingdom. During the Three Kingdoms period, parts of Guizhou were governed by the Shu Han state based in Sichuan, followed by Cao Wei, during the 8th and 9th centuries in the Tang Dynasty, Chinese soldiers moved into Guizhou and married native women. Their descendants are known as Lǎohànrén, in contrast to new Chinese who populated Guizhou at later times and they still speak an archaic dialect. Many immigrants to Guizhou were descended from soldiers in garrisons who married these pre-Chinese women. It was during the following Ming Dynasty, which was again led by Han Chinese. The Ming established many garrisons in Guizhou from which to pacify the Yao and Miao minorities during the Miao Rebellions, chinese-style agriculture flourished with the expertise of farmers from Sichuan, Hunan and its surrounding provinces into Guizhou. Wu Sangui was responsible for the ousting the Ming in Guizhou, after the Second Opium War, criminal triads set up shop in Guangxi and Guizhou to sell British opium. For a time, Taiping Rebels took control of Guizhou, concurrently, Han Chinese soldiers moved into the Taijiang region of Guizhou, married Miao women, and their children were brought up as Miao. More unsuccessful Miao rebellions occurred during the Qing, in 1735, from 1795–1806, after the overthrow of the Qing in 1911 and following Chinese Civil War, the Communists took refuge in Guizhou during the Long March. While the province was ruled by the Guomindang warlord Wang Jialie. As the Second Sino-Japanese War pushed Chinas Nationalist Government to its southwest base of Chongqing, after the Chinese economic reform began in 1978, geographical factors led Guizhou to become the poorest province in China, with a GDP growth average of 9 percent from 1978–1993. Guizhou is a province, although its higher altitudes are in the west. It lies at the end of the Yungui Plateau. Guizhou has a humid climate. Its annual average temperature is roughly 10 to 20 °C, with January temperatures ranging from 1 to 10 °C, like in Chinas other southwest provinces, rural areas of Guizhou suffered severe drought during spring 2010

19.
Paolo Uccello
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Paolo Uccello, born Paolo di Dono, was an Italian painter and mathematician who was notable for his pioneering work on visual perspective in art. In his book, Lives of the Artists, Giorgio Vasari wrote that Uccello was obsessed by his interest in perspective, while his contemporaries used perspective to narrate different or succeeding stories, Uccello used perspective to create a feeling of depth in his paintings. His best known works are the three representing the battle of San Romano, which were wrongly entitled the Battle of Sant Egidio of 1416 for a long period of time. Paolo worked in the Late Gothic tradition, emphasizing colour and pageantry rather than the classical realism that other artists were pioneering and his style is best described as idiosyncratic, and he left no school of followers. He has had influence on twentieth-century art and literary criticism. The sources for Paolo Uccello’s life are few, Giorgio Vasari’s biography, written 75 years after Paolo’s death, due to the lack of sources, even his date of birth is questionable. It is believed that Uccello was born in Pratovecchio in 1397, and his tax declarations for some years indicate that he was born in 1397 and his father, Dono di Paolo, was a barber-surgeon from Pratovecchio near Arezzo, his mother, Antonia, was a high-born Florentine. His nickname Uccello came from his fondness for painting birds, from 1412 until 1416 he was apprenticed to the famous sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti. Ghiberti was the designer of the doors of the Florence Baptistery, ghibertis late-Gothic, narrative style and sculptural composition greatly influenced Paolo. It was also around this time that Paolo began his friendship with Donatello. In 1414, Uccello was admitted to the guild, Compagnia di San Luca. These featured a scene that might well have impressed itself in the mind of the young Uccello. According to Vasari, Uccello’s first painting was a Saint Anthony between the saints Cosmas and Damianus, a commission for the hospital of Lelmo, next, he painted two figures in the convent of Annalena. Shortly afterwards, he painted three frescoes with scenes from the life of Saint Francis above the door of the Santa Trinita church. For the Santa Maria Maggiore church, he painted a fresco of the Annunciation, in this fresco, he painted a large building with columns in perspective. According to Vasari, people found this to be a great and beautiful achievement because this was the first example of how lines could be used to demonstrate perspective. As a result, this became a model for artists who wished to craft illusions of space in order to enhance the realness of their paintings. Paolo painted the Lives of the Church Fathers in the cloisters of the church of San Miniato, Uccello was asked to paint a number of scenes of distempered animals for the house of the Medici

20.
Neolithic
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It ended when metal tools became widespread. The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops, the beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant about 10, 200–8800 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period was between 12,000 and 10,200 BC, and the so-called proto-Neolithic is now included in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic between 10,200 and 8800 BC. By 10, 200–8800 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep. By about 6900–6400 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order, the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. Early Japanese societies and other East Asian cultures used pottery before developing agriculture, unlike the Paleolithic, when more than one human species existed, only one human species reached the Neolithic. The term Neolithic derives from the Greek νέος néos, new and λίθος líthos, stone, the term was invented by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system. In the Middle East, cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BC, early development occurred in the Levant and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by around 8000 BC. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square yards, the Neolithic 1 period began roughly 10,000 years ago in the Levant. A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated around 9500 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the period. This site was developed by nomadic tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres, contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects, Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which might have supported roofs. Other early PPNA sites dating to around 9500–9000 BC have been found in Jericho, Israel, Gilgal in the Jordan Valley, the start of Neolithic 1 overlaps the Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic periods to some degree. The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming, in the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour, emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated

21.
Pliny the Elder
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In the latter number will be my uncle, by virtue of his own and of your compositions. Pliny is referring to the fact that Tacitus relied on his uncles now missing work on the History of the German Wars. The wind caused by the sixth and largest pyroclastic surge of the eruption would not allow his ship to leave the shore, and Pliny probably died during this event. Plinys dates are pinned to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD79 and a statement of his nephew that he died in his 56th year, Pliny was the son of an equestrian, Gaius Plinius Celer, and his wife, Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the names and their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription found in a field in Verona and recorded by the 16th century Augustinian monk Onofrio Panvinio at Verona. The reading of the inscription depends on the reconstruction, but in all cases the names come through, whether he was an augur and whether she was named Grania Marcella are less certain. Jean Hardouin presents a statement from a source that he claims was ancient, that Pliny was from Verona. Hardouin also cites the conterraneity of Catullus, additional efforts to connect Celer and Marcella with other gentes are highly speculative. Hardouin is the scholar to use his unknown source. He kept statues of his ancestors there, a statue of Pliny on the facade of the Duomo of Como celebrates him as a native son. He had a sister, Plinia, who married into the Caecilii and was the mother of his nephew, Pliny the Younger, whose letters describe his work and study regimen in detail. In one of his letters to Tacitus, Pliny the Younger details how his uncles breakfasts would be light and simple following the customs of our forefathers. This shows that Pliny the Younger wanted it to be conveyed that Pliny the Elder was a good Roman and this statement would have pleased Tacitus. Two inscriptions identifying the hometown of Pliny the Younger as Como take precedence over the Verona theory, one commemorates the youngers career as imperial magistrate and details his considerable charitable and municipal expenses on behalf of the people of Como. Another identifies his father Lucius village as Fecchio near Como and it is likely therefore that Plinia was a local girl and Pliny the Elder, her brother, was from Como. Gaius was a member of the Plinii gens and he did not take his fathers cognomen, Celer, but assumed his own, Secundus. As his adopted son took the same cognomen, Pliny founded a branch, no earlier instances of the Plinii are known. In 59 BC, only about 82 years before Plinys birth, Julius Caesar founded Novum Comum as a colonia to secure the region against the Alpine tribes, whom he had been unable to defeat

Pliny the Elder
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One of the Xanten Horse-Phalerae located in the British Museum, measuring 10.5 cm (4.1 in). It bears an inscription formed from punched dots: PLINIO PRAEF EQ; i.e., Plinio praefecto equitum, "Pliny prefect of cavalry". It was perhaps issued to every man in Pliny's unit. The figure is the bust of the emperor.
Pliny the Elder
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Pliny the Elder, as imagined by a 19th-century artist. No contemporary depiction of Pliny is known to survive.
Pliny the Elder
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City and Lake of Como, painted by Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, 1834.
Pliny the Elder
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The temple of Castor and Pollux in Rome

22.
Capitoline Hill
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The Capitoline Hill, between the Forum and the Campus Martius, is one of the Seven Hills of Rome. The hill was known as Mons Saturnius, dedicated to the god Saturn. The word Capitolium first meant the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus later built here, Ancient sources refer the name to caput and the tale was that, when laying the foundations for the temple, the head of a man was found. Some sources even saying it was the head of some Tolus or Olus, the Capitolium was regarded by the Romans as indestructible, and was adopted as a symbol of eternity. By the 16th century, Capitolinus had become Capitolino in Italian, influenced by Roman architecture and Roman republican times, the word Capitolium still lives in the English word capitol. The Capitol Hill in Washington, D. C. is widely assumed to be named after the Capitoline Hill, at this hill, the Sabines, creeping to the Citadel, were let in by the Roman maiden Tarpeia. For this treachery, Tarpeia was the first to be punished by being flung from a cliff overlooking the Roman Forum. This cliff was named the Tarpeian Rock after the Vestal Virgin. The Sabines, who immigrated to Rome following the Rape of the Sabine Women, the Vulcanal, an 8th-century BC sacred precinct, occupied much of the eastern lower slopes of the Capitoline, at the head of what would later become the Roman Forum. The summit was the site of a temple for the Capitoline Triad, started by Romes fifth king, Tarquinius Priscus and it was considered one of the largest and the most beautiful temples in the city. The city legend starts with the recovery of a human skull when foundation trenches were being dug for the Temple of Jupiter at Tarquins order, recent excavations on the Capitoline uncovered an early cemetery under the Temple of Jupiter. There are several important temples built on Capitoline hill, the temple of Juno Moneta, the temple of Virtus, the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus Capitolinus is the most important of the temples. It was built in 509 BC and was nearly as large as the Parthenon, the hill and the temple of Jupiter became the symbols of Rome, the capital of the world. The Temple of Saturn was built at the foot of Capitoline Hill in the end of the Forum Romanum. According to legend Marcus Manlius Capitolinus was alerted to the Gallic attack by the geese of Juno. Vespasians brother and nephew were also besieged in the temple during the Year of Four Emperors, the Tabularium, located underground beneath the piazza and hilltop, occupies a building of the same name built in the 1st century BC to hold Roman records of state. The Tabularium looks out from the rear onto the Roman Forum, the main attraction of the Tabularium, besides the structure itself, is the Temple of Veiovis. During the lengthy period of ancient Rome, the Capitoline Hill was the geographical and ceremonial center, however, by the Renaissance, the former center was an untidy conglomeration of dilapidated buildings and the site of executions of criminals

23.
Maya civilization
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The Maya civilization developed in an area that encompasses southeastern Mexico, all of Guatemala and Belize, and the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador. The Archaic period, prior to 2000 BC, saw the first developments in agriculture, the first Maya cities developed around 750 BC, and by 500 BC these cities possessed monumental architecture, including large temples with elaborate stucco façades. Hieroglyphic writing was being used in the Maya region by the 3rd century BC, in the Late Preclassic a number of large cities developed in the Petén Basin, and Kaminaljuyu rose to prominence in the Guatemalan Highlands. Beginning around 250 AD, the Classic period is defined as when the Maya were raising sculpted monuments with Long Count dates. This period saw the Maya civilization develop a number of city-states linked by a complex trade network. In the Maya Lowlands two great rivals, Tikal and Calakmul, became powerful, the Classic period also saw the intrusive intervention of the central Mexican city of Teotihuacan in Maya dynastic politics. In the 9th century, there was a political collapse in the central Maya region, resulting in internecine warfare, the abandonment of cities. The Postclassic period saw the rise of Chichen Itza in the north, in the 16th century, the Spanish Empire colonized the Mesoamerican region, and a lengthy series of campaigns saw the fall of Nojpetén, the last Maya city in 1697. Classic period rule was centred on the concept of the divine king, kingship was patrilineal, and power would normally pass to the eldest son. A prospective king was expected to be a successful war leader. Maya politics was dominated by a system of patronage, although the exact political make-up of a kingdom varied from city-state to city-state. By the Late Classic, the aristocracy had greatly increased, resulting in the reduction in the exclusive power of the divine king. Maya cities tended to expand haphazardly, and the city centre would be occupied by ceremonial and administrative complexes, different parts of a city would often be linked by causeways. The principal architecture of the city consisted of palaces, pyramid-temples, ceremonial ballcourts, the Maya elite were literate, and developed a complex system of hieroglyphic writing that was the most advanced in the pre-Columbian Americas. The Maya recorded their history and ritual knowledge in screenfold books, there are also a great many examples of Maya text found on stelae and ceramics. The Maya developed a complex series of interlocking ritual calendars. As a part of their religion, the Maya practised human sacrifice, the Maya civilization developed within the Mesoamerican cultural area, which covers a region that spreads from northern Mexico southwards into Central America. Mesoamerica was one of six cradles of civilization worldwide, the Mesoamerican area gave rise to a series of cultural developments that included complex societies, agriculture, cities, monumental architecture, writing, and calendrical systems

Maya civilization
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El Castillo, at Chichen Itza
Maya civilization
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Detail of Lintel 26 from Yaxchilan
Maya civilization
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Maya civilization
Maya civilization
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Kaminaljuyu, in the highlands, and El Mirador, in the lowlands, were both important cities in the Late Preclassic.

24.
Inca
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The Inca Empire, also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, and possibly the largest empire in the world in the early 16th century. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru, the Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century. Its last stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572, from 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. The Incas considered their king, the Sapa Inca, to be the son of the sun, the Inca Empire was unique in that it lacked many features associated with civilization in the Old world. In the words of one scholar, The Incas lacked the use of wheeled vehicles, the Incan economy has been described as feudal, slave, socialist. The economy functioned largely without money and without markets, instead, exchange of goods and services was based on reciprocity between individuals and among individuals, groups, and Inca rulers. Taxes consisted of an obligation of a person to the Empire. The Inca rulers reciprocated by granting access to land and goods and providing food, the Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, the four suyu. The four suyu were, Chinchaysuyu, Antisuyu, Qullasuyu and Kuntisuyu, the name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces. The Spanish transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo or Tahuatinsuyu, the term Inka means ruler or lord in Quechua and was used to refer to the ruling class or the ruling family. The Incas were a small percentage of the total population of the empire, probably numbering only 15,000 to 40,000. The Spanish adopted the term as a term referring to all subjects of the empire rather than simply the ruling class. As such the name Imperio inca referred to the nation that they encountered, the Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Incan oral history tells a story of three caves. The center cave at Tampu Tuqu was named Qhapaq Tuqu, the other caves were Maras Tuqu and Sutiq Tuqu. Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave and they were, Ayar Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Awqa and Ayar Uchu, and Mama Ocllo, Mama Raua, Mama Huaco and Mama Qura. Out of the side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans, Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live and they traveled for a long time

25.
Andes
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The Andes or Andean Mountains are the longest continental mountain range in the world. They are a range of highlands along the western edge of South America. This range is about 7,000 km long, about 200 to 700 km wide, the Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, the Andes are the location of several high plateaus – some of which host major cities, such as Quito, Bogotá, Arequipa, Medellín, Sucre, Mérida and La Paz. The Altiplano plateau is the worlds second-highest after the Tibetan plateau and these ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate, the Tropical Andes, the Dry Andes, and the Wet Andes. The Andes are the worlds highest mountain range outside of Asia, the highest mountain outside Asia, Mount Aconcagua, rises to an elevation of about 6,961 m above sea level. The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is farther from the Earths center than any other location on the Earths surface, the worlds highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m. The etymology of the word Andes has been debated, the majority consensus is that it derives from the Quechua word anti, which means east as in Antisuyu, one of the four regions of the Inca Empire. In the northern part of the Andes, the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is considered to be part of the Andes. The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word cordel, meaning rope, the Andes range is about 200 km wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about 640 kilometres wide. The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American plate. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate. In the south, the Andes share a boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane. To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean, from a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and a less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in mountains within the range. The Andean orogen has a series of bends or oroclines, the Bolivian Orocline is a seaward concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S. At this point the orientation of the Andes turns from Northwest in Peru to South in Chile, the Andean segment north and south of the orocline have been rotated 15° to 20° counter clockwise and clockwise respectively. The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau, the specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the Arica Elbow

26.
Tomb of the Red Queen
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It has been dated to between 600 and 700 AD. The tomb was discovered in 1994 by the Mexican archeologist Arnoldo Gonzalez Cruz and it takes its popular name from the fact that the remains of the noblewoman and the objects in the sarcophagus were covered with bright red cinnabar powder when the tomb was discovered. Palenque was one of the most wealthy and powerful of the Maya city states in Pre-Columbian Central America. It was located in the foothills of the Chiapas mountains, on a site where several rivers come together, with waterfalls and pools, the site was first occupied in the early Classical Period and fell in about 800 AD. The City went into a decline and was abandoned and reclaimed by the jungle. Several explorers visited the city in the 19th century, making drawings, the ruins of Palenque cover an area of about a square mile, with hundreds of structures. In the center of the city are a palace and a group of three pyramids, located on the Great Plaza, or main square. An internal stairway with an entrance on the side of the pyramid led down to the burial chamber beneath the pyramid. Next to it are two smaller but similar pyramids, Temple XIII is next to the Pyramid of the Inscriptions, and much smaller in size. It is about twelve meters high, built in steps, with a stairway leading to the top. An internal stairway led into the center of the pyramid, in 1973 the archeologist Jorge Acosta explored the first two levels of Temple XIII, but did not find the entrance to the burial chamber. In the spring of 1994 archeologist Arnoldo Gonzales Cruz, working for the National Institute of Anthropology and History of Mexico and he located a small blocked door on a vertical section on the second level of the pyramid, about 2.8 meters above the level of the Plaza. His team removed the masonry and found a narrow corridor six meters long, blocked by debris and that corridor led to another corridor, fiifteen meters long, made of large limestone blocks, which ran from north to south inside the pyramid. This corridor was free of debris, there were three chambers on the south side of the corridor, two were open and empty, but the third was blocked by a stone wall covered with stucco, and traces of pigment. Cruz and his team were extremely curious to know what was inside, after deliberation, they made a small hole fifteen centimeters by fifteen centimeters, and peered inside. They saw a sarcophagus and what appeared to be an intact tomb. This is what they found when they opened the chamber in May 1994, the chamber was 3.8 meters long and 2.5 meters wide, with a vaulted stone ceiling. There were no decorations or paintings on the walls, in the center, occupying almost all the burial chamber, was a limestone sarcophogus 2.4 meters long and 1.8 meters wide, closed by a stone lid ten centimeters thick

Tomb of the Red Queen
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Mask of the Red Queen from the tomb found in Temple XIII The diadem and mask are made of pieces of jade and malachite.
Tomb of the Red Queen
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The Pyramid of the Inscriptions is in the foreground, the smaller Temple XIII is just next to it to the right.
Tomb of the Red Queen
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The burial chamber and the stairway leading into it.

27.
Minium (pigment)
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Minium, also known as red lead, is a bright orange red pigment that was widely used in the Middle Ages for the decoration of manuscripts and for painting. It was made by roasting white lead pigment in the air, the color varied depending upon how long the mineral was roasted. During the Roman Empire, the term minium could refer either to the pigment made from ground cinnabar or to the expensive red lead. The name came from the river Minius in Iberia, located near the main Roman cinnabar mines, pliny the Elder referred to it as flammeus, or flame color. The color was used in particular for the signs, versals, capitals. The Latin verb for this kind of work was miniare, to apply minium, and these medieval artists also made small illustrations and decorative drawings in the manuscripts, which became known as miniatures, the source of the English word for small works of art. There was considerable confusion among the names of ancient and medieval pigments, as noted above, the term minium was used for cinnabar, vermilion, and for red lead. Minium of red lead was sometimes called stupium in classical Latin, minium may have been manufactured in China as early as 300 B. C. It was known in the Han Dynasty under the name cinnabar of lead, minium was widely used for Persian miniature painting and Indian miniature painting. List of inorganic pigments Thomson, Daniel, the Materials and Techniques of Medieval Painting

Minium (pigment)
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A sample of minium pigment, made by roasting white lead pigment.
Minium (pigment)
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The Códice del Escorial (1272-1284) from Spain. Medieval manuscripts often used red-orange minium pigment in the letters of the text and for small illustrations, called miniatures.

28.
Red lead
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Lead oxide, also called minium, red lead or triplumbic tetroxide, is a bright red or orange crystalline or amorphous pigment. Chemically, red lead is Pb3O4, or 2 PbO·PbO2 and it is used in the manufacture of batteries, lead glass and rust-proof primer paints. Lead oxide has a crystal structure at room temperature, which transforms to an orthorhombic form at temperature 170 K. This phase transition only changes the symmetry of the crystal and slightly modifies the interatomic distances and angles. Lead oxide is prepared by calcination of lead oxide in air at about 450 to 480 °C,6 PbO + O2 →2 Pb3O4 The resulting material is contaminated with lead oxide. g. The best known natural specimens come from Broken Hill, New South Wales, Australia, red lead is virtually insoluble in water and in alcohol. However, it is soluble in hydrochloric acid present in the stomach and it also dissolves in glacial acetic acid and a diluted mixture of nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide. When heated to 500 °C, it decomposes to lead oxide, at 580 °C, the reaction is complete. Lead tetraoxide is most often used as a pigment for primer paints for iron objects, due to its toxicity, its use is being limited. In the past, it was used in combination with linseed oil as a thick, the combination of minium and linen fibres was also used for plumbing, now replaced with PTFE tape. Currently it is used for manufacture of glass, especially lead glass. It finds limited use in amateur pyrotechnics as a delay charge and was used in the past in the manufacture of Dragons eggs pyrotechnic stars. Red lead is used as an agent in some polychloroprene rubber compounds. It is used in place of magnesium oxide to provide better water resistance properties, red lead was also used for engineers scraping, before being supplanted by Engineers blue. When inhaled, lead oxide irritates lungs, in case of high dose, the victim experiences a metallic taste, chest pain, and abdominal pain. When ingested, it is dissolved in the acid and absorbed. High concentrations can be absorbed through skin as well, and it is important to safety precautions when working with lead-based paint. Long-term contact with lead oxide may lead to accumulation of lead compounds in organisms, chronic poisoning displays as agitation, irritability, vision disorders, hypertension, and also a grayish facial hue

29.
Cadmium pigments
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Cadmium pigments are a class of pigments that have cadmium as one of the chemical components. The principal pigments are a family of yellow/orange/red cadmium sulfides and sulfoselenides as well as compounds with other than cadmium. Their greatest use is in the coloring of plastics and specialty paints which must resist processing or service temperatures up to 3,000 °C, the color-fastness or permanence of cadmium requires protection from a tendency to slowly form carbonate salts with exposure to air. Most paint vehicles accomplish this, but cadmium colors will fade in fresco or mural painting, the following are commonly used as pigments in artists paints, Cadmium yellow is cadmium sulfide. Pigment Yellow 37 Cadmium sulfoselenide is a solution of CdS. Depending on the S/Se ratio, C. I, zinc cadmium sulfide is a greenish, solid solution of CdS and ZnS. Cadmium yellow is sometimes mixed with viridian to give a bright, when first introduced, there were hardly any stable pigments in the yellow to red range, with orange and bright red being very troublesome. The cadmium pigments eventually replaced compounds such as mercury sulfide with greatly improved light-fastness, Cadmium pigments are known for excellent light-fastness, although the lighter shades can fade in sunlight. Cadmium sulfide is not very toxic when used as a pigment, the cadmium pigments have been partially replaced by azo pigments. These have significantly inferior lightfastness, but still good, and they have the advantage of both being cheaper and non-toxic, list of inorganic pigments Fiedler, I. Bayard, M. A. Cadmium Yellows, Oranges and Reds, a Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Vol.1, Feller, R. L. Oxford University Press 1986, p.65 –108 National Pollutant Inventory - Cadmium and compounds Cadmium yellow. Why are cinnabar, vermilion, and cadmium orange colored, Cadmium yellow, ColourLex Cadmium orange, ColourLex Cadmium red, ColourLex

30.
Shaanxi
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Shaanxi, formerly romanized as Shensi, is a province of the Peoples Republic of China. Officially part of the Northwest China region, it lies in central China, bordering the provinces of Shanxi, Henan, Hubei, Chongqing, Sichuan, Gansu, Ningxia and it covers an area of over 205,000 km2 with about 37 million people. Xian—which includes the sites of the former Chinese capitals Fenghao and Changan—is the provincial capital, Xianyang, which served as the Qin capital, is located nearby. The other prefecture-level cities into which the province is divided are Ankang, Baoji, Hanzhong, Shangluo, Tongchuan, Weinan, Yanan and Yulin. Shaanxi comprises the Wei Valley and much of the surrounding fertile Loess Plateau, stretching from the Qin Mountains and Shannan in the south to the Ordos Desert in the north. Along with areas of adjacent Shanxi and Henan, it formed the cradle of Chinese civilization, with its Guanzhong region sheltering the capitals of the Zhou, Qin, Han, Jin, Sui, and Tang dynasties. It does not include the territory of the Yellow Rivers Ordos Loop, with the Great Wall of China separating it from the grasslands. The name Shaanxi is a romanization of the Mandarin pronunciation of the Chinese name 陕西. Because the Mandarin pronunciation of Shaanxi and its eastern neighbor Shanxi differ only in tone, the Peoples Republic of China therefore adopted the special official spelling Shaanxi for occasions when such marks are omitted. The first syllable is derived from Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization, which reflects the tones of the vowels in their spelling. The second syllable—which would be shi in Gwoyeu Romatzyh—is instead given its usual pinyin spelling xi, when tone marks are noted, it is spelled Shǎnxī rather than Shǎanxī or Shaǎnxī. Shaanxi is considered one of the cradles of Chinese civilization, thirteen feudal dynasties established their capitals in the province during a span of more than 1,100 years, from the Zhou Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty. Under the Han Dynasty, the Northern Silk Road was expanded to advance exploration and this Northern Silk Road is the northernmost of the Silk Roads and is about 2,600 kilometres in length. It connected the ancient Chinese capital of Xian to the west over the Wushao Ling Pass to Wuwei, under the Ming dynasty, Shaanxi was incorporated into Gansu but was again separated in the Qing dynasty. One of the most devastating earthquakes in history occurred near Hua Shan, in part of Shaanxi Province on January 23,1556. The end of the short-lived Jiangxi Soviet signalled the beginning of the Long March by Mao Zedong, the Lantian Man site, with hominin fossils of one million years ago, was found in Lantian County in northwestern Shaanxi province, near the city of Xian. Scientists classify Lantian Man as a subspecies of Homo erectus, the fossils are displayed at the Shaanxi History Museum, Xian, China. In between the Loess Plateau and the Qinling lies the Wei River Valley, or Guanzhong, a cradle of early Chinese civilization, going clockwise, Shaanxi borders Shanxi, Henan, Hubei, Chongqing, Sichuan, Gansu, Ningxia, and Inner Mongolia

31.
Color in Chinese culture
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Color in Chinese culture refers to the certain values that Chinese culture attaches to colors, like which colors are considered auspicious or inauspicious. The Chinese word for color is yánsè, in Classical Chinese, the character sè more accurately meant color in the face, or emotion. It was generally used alone and often implied sexual desire or desirability, during the Tang Dynasty, the word yánsè came to mean all color. A Chinese idiom which is used to describe many colors, Wǔyánliùsè, ==Theory of the Five Elements==F Canncer In traditional Chinese art and culture, black, red, qing, white and yellow are viewed as standard colors. These colors correspond to the five elements of water, fire, wood, metal and earth, throughout the Shang, Tang, Zhou and Qin dynasties, Chinas emperors used the Theory of the Five Elements to select colors. Black, corresponding to water, is a neutral colour, the I Ching, or Book of Changes, regards black as Heavens color. The saying “heaven and earth of mysterious black” was rooted in the observation that the sky was black for a long time. They believed Tian Di, or Heavenly Emperor, resided in the North Star, the Taiji symbol uses black and white to represent the unity of Yin and Yang. Ancient Chinese regarded black as the king of colors and honored black more consistently than any other color, lao Zi said that five colors make people blind, so the Dao School chose black as the color of the Dao. In modern China, black is used in daily clothing, white is associated with death and mourning and was formerly worn at funerals, but depends on the age of passing. Red, corresponding with fire, symbolizes good fortune and joy, red is found everywhere during Chinese New Year and other holidays and family gatherings. A red envelope is a gift which is given in Chinese society during holiday or special occasions. The red color of the packet symbolizes good luck, in modern China, red remains a very popular color and is affiliated with and used by the Government. Generally green is associated with health, prosperity, and harmony, separately, green hats are associated with infidelity and used as an idiom for a cuckold. This has caused uneasiness for Chinese Catholic bishops, who in ecclesiastical heraldry would normally have a green hat above their arms, Chinese bishops have compromised by using a violet hat for their coat of arms. Sometimes this hat will have a feather to further display their disdain for the color green. White, corresponding with metal, represents gold and symbolises brightness, purity, white is also the color of mourning. It is associated with death and is used predominantly in funerals in Chinese culture, ancient Chinese people wore white clothes and hats only when they mourned for the dead

32.
Toxicodendron vernicifluum
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Other common names include Japanese lacquer tree, Japanese sumac, and varnish tree. The trees are cultivated and tapped for their sap, which is used as a highly durable lacquer to make Chinese, Japanese. The trees grow up to 20 m tall with large leaves, Urushiol is the oil found in poison ivy that causes a rash. A caustic, toxic sap, containing urushiol, is tapped from the trunk of the Chinese lacquer tree to produce lacquer and this is done by cutting 5 to 10 horizontal lines on the trunk of a 10-year-old tree, and then collecting the greyish yellow sap that exudes. The sap is then filtered, heat-treated, or coloured before applying onto a material that is to be lacquered. Curing the applied sap requires drying it in a warm, humid chamber or closet for 12 to 24 hours where the urushiol polymerizes to form a clear, hard, in its liquid state, urushiol can cause extreme rashes, even from vapours. Once hardened, reactions are possible but less common, products coated with lacquer are recognizable by an extremely durable and glossy finish. Lacquer has many uses, some applications include tableware, musical instruments, fountain pens, jewelry. There are various types of lacquerware, unpigmented lacquer is dark brown but the most common colors of urushiol finishes are black and red, from powdered iron oxide pigments of ferrous-ferric oxide and ferric oxide, respectively. Lacquer is painted on with a brush and is cured in a warm, artistic application and decoration of lacquer can be a long process, requiring many hours or days of careful and repetitive layers and drying times. The creation of a piece of urushi art, such as a bowl or a fountain pen. Lacquer is a strong adhesive. The leaves, seeds, and the resin of the Chinese lacquer tree are used in Chinese medicine for the treatment of internal parasites. Compounds butein and sulfuretin are antioxidants, and have effects on aldose reductase. Buddhist monks who practiced the art of Sokushinbutsu would use the sap in their ceremony. Lacquer Urushiol Urushi-e Duke, James A. and Ayensu, Edward S. Medicinal Plants of China, a Little more information on Urushi. Kim, Ki Hyun, Moon, Eunjung, Choi, Sang Un, Pang, Changhyun, Kim, Sun Yeou, Lee, identification of cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory constituents from the bark of Toxicodendron vernicifluum FA Barkley

Toxicodendron vernicifluum
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Toxicodendron vernicifluum

33.
Sumac
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Sumac is any one of about 35 species of flowering plants in the genus Rhus and related genera, in the family Anacardiaceae. Sumacs grow in subtropical and temperate regions throughout the world, especially in East Asia, Africa, sumacs are shrubs and small trees that can reach a height of 1–10 m. The leaves are arranged, they are usually pinnately compound. The flowers are in panicles or spikes 5–30 cm long, each flower very small, greenish, creamy white or red. The fruits form clusters of reddish drupes called sumac bobs. The dried drupes of species are ground to produce a tangy crimson spice. Sumacs propagate both by seed, and by new shoots from rhizomes, forming clonal colonies. The taxonomy of Rhus has a history, with de Candolle proposing a subgeneric classification in 1825. At its largest cicumscription Rhus, with over 250 species, has been the largest genus in the family Anacardiaceae, other authors used subgenera and placed some species in separate genera, hence the use of Rhus sensu lato and Rhus sensu stricto. One classification uses two subgenera, Rhus and Lobadium, while at the same time Cotinus, Duckera, Malosma, Metopium, Searsia, other genera that have been segregated include Actinocheita and Baronia. As defined, Rhus s. s. appears monophyletic by molecular phylogeny research, however the subgenera do not appear to be monophyletic. The larger subgenus, Lobadium, has divided further into sections, Lobadium. The word sumac traces its etymology from Old French sumac, from Mediaeval Latin sumach, from Arabic summāq, from Syriac summāq - meaning red. Species including the fragrant sumac, the littleleaf sumac, the skunkbush sumac, the smooth sumac, the fruits of the genus Rhus are ground into a reddish-purple powder used as a spice in Middle Eastern cuisine to add a tart, lemony taste to salads or meat. In Arab cuisine, it is used as a garnish on dishes such as hummus and tashi. In Iranian, Afghan and Kurdish cuisines, sumac is added to rice or kebab, in Jordanian and Turkish cuisines, it is added to salad-servings of kebab and lahmajoun. Rhus coriaria is used in the spice mixture zaatar, in North America, the smooth sumac and the staghorn sumac are sometimes used to make a beverage termed sumac-ade, Indian lemonade, or rhus juice. This drink is made by soaking the drupes in cool water, rubbing them to extract the essence, straining the liquid through a cotton cloth, Native Americans also use the leaves and drupes of the smooth and staghorn sumacs combined with tobacco in traditional smoking mixtures

34.
Urushiol
–
Urushiol /ʊˈruːʃi. ɒl/ is an oily organic allergen found in plants of the family Anacardiaceae, especially Toxicodendron spp. and also in parts of the mango tree. In most individuals, urushiol causes an allergic rash on contact. The name urushiol is derived from the Japanese word for the lacquer tree, urushiol is a pale-yellow liquid with a specific gravity of 0.968 and a boiling point of 200 °C. It is soluble in alcohol, ether, and benzene, urushiol is a mixture of several closely related organic compounds. Each consists of a catechol substituted with a chain that has 15 or 17 carbon atoms. The alkyl group may be saturated or unsaturated, the exact composition of the mixture varies, depending on the plant source. Whereas western poison oak urushiol contains chiefly catechols with C17 side-chains, poison ivy, the likelihood and severity of allergic reaction to urushiol is dependent on the degree of unsaturation of the alkyl chain. Less than half of the general experience an reaction with the saturated urushiol alone. Longer side chains tend to produce a stronger reaction, before the urushiol has been absorbed by the skin, it can be removed with soap and water. However, time is of the essence, as 50% of the urushiol can be absorbed within 10 minutes, once urushiol has penetrated into the skin, attempting to remove it with water is ineffective. After absorption into the skin it is recognized by the immune systems dendritic cells, dermatitis is mediated by an induced immune response. Urushiol acts as a hapten, leading to a Type IV hypersensitive reaction, anti-itch drugs, for treating the toxin. Bentoquatam, a barrier creme applied before exposure, burows solution which can treat the symptoms of the rash caused by urushiol. Ginkgo biloba and cashew, plants containing chemicals closely related to urushiol, hapten, small molecules that can elicit an immune response under certain conditions. Mango trees, which may cause cross reaction allergies with urushiol

35.
Han dynasty
–
The Han dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period. Spanning over four centuries, the Han period is considered an age in Chinese history. To this day, Chinas majority ethnic group refers to itself as the Han people and it was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han, and briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han dynasty into two periods, the Western Han or Former Han and the Eastern Han or Later Han, the emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society. He presided over the Han government but shared power with both the nobility and appointed ministers who came largely from the gentry class. The Han Empire was divided into areas controlled by the central government using an innovation inherited from the Qin known as commanderies. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States, from the reign of Emperor Wu onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized with the cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu. This policy endured until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 AD, the Han dynasty was an age of economic prosperity and saw a significant growth of the money economy first established during the Zhou dynasty. The coinage issued by the government mint in 119 BC remained the standard coinage of China until the Tang dynasty. The period saw a number of limited institutional innovations, the Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation, defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to submit as a de facto inferior partner, but continued their raids on the Han borders. Emperor Wu of Han launched several campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries, the territories north of Hans borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Imperial authority was seriously challenged by large Daoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion. When Cao Pi, King of Wei, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, following Liu Bangs victory in the Chu–Han Contention, the resulting Han dynasty was named after the Hanzhong fief. Chinas first imperial dynasty was the Qin dynasty, the Qin unified the Chinese Warring States by conquest, but their empire became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. Within four years, the authority had collapsed in the face of rebellion. Although Xiang Yu proved to be a commander, Liu Bang defeated him at Battle of Gaixia. Liu Bang assumed the title emperor at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu, Changan was chosen as the new capital of the reunified empire under Han

Han dynasty
–
History of China
Han dynasty
–
Han dynasty in 1 AD.
Han dynasty
–
A silk banner from Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan province. It was draped over the coffin of Lady Dai (d. 168 BC), wife of the Marquess Li Cang (利蒼) (d. 186 BC), chancellor for the Kingdom of Changsha.
Han dynasty
–
A gilded bronze oil lamp in the shape of a kneeling female servant, dated 2nd century BC, found in the tomb of Dou Wan, wife of the Han prince Liu Sheng; its sliding shutter allows for adjustments in the direction and brightness in light while it also traps smoke within the body.

36.
Ferric oxide
–
Iron oxide or ferric oxide is the inorganic compound with the formula Fe2O3. It is one of the three main oxides of iron, the two being iron oxide, which is rare, and iron oxide, which also occurs naturally as the mineral magnetite. As the mineral known as hematite, Fe2O3 is the source of iron for the steel industry. Fe2O3 is ferromagnetic, dark red, and readily attacked by acids, Iron oxide is often called rust, and to some extent this label is useful, because rust shares several properties and has a similar composition. To a chemist, rust is considered a material, described as hydrated ferric oxide. Fe2O3 can be obtained in various polymorphs, in the main ones, α and γ, iron adopts octahedral coordination geometry. That is, each Fe center is bound to six oxygen ligands, α-Fe2O3 has the rhombohedral, corundum structure and is the most common form. It occurs naturally as the mineral hematite which is mined as the ore of iron. It is antiferromagnetic below ~260 K, and exhibits weak ferromagnetism between 260 K and the Néel temperature,950 K and it is easy to prepare using both thermal decomposition and precipitation in the liquid phase. Its magnetic properties are dependent on many factors, e. g. pressure, particle size and it is metastable and converted from the alpha phase at high temperatures. It occurs naturally as the mineral maghemite and it is ferromagnetic and finds application in recording tapes, although ultrafine particles smaller than 10 nanometers are superparamagnetic. It can be prepared by thermal dehydratation of gamma iron oxide-hydroxide, another method involves the careful oxidation of Fe3O4. The ultrafine particles can be prepared by decomposition of iron oxalate. Several other phases have been identified or claimed, the β-phase is cubic body centered, metastable, and at temperatures above 500 °C converts to alpha phase. It can be prepared by reduction of hematite by carbon, pyrolysis of iron chloride solution, the epsilon phase is rhombic, and shows properties intermediate between alpha and gamma, and may have useful magnetic properties. Preparation of the pure epsilon phase has proven challenging due to contamination with alpha. Material with a proportion of epsilon phase can be prepared by thermal transformation of the gamma phase. This phase is metastable, transforming to the alpha phase at between 500 and 750 °C

37.
Han Dynasty
–
The Han dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period. Spanning over four centuries, the Han period is considered an age in Chinese history. To this day, Chinas majority ethnic group refers to itself as the Han people and it was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han, and briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han dynasty into two periods, the Western Han or Former Han and the Eastern Han or Later Han, the emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society. He presided over the Han government but shared power with both the nobility and appointed ministers who came largely from the gentry class. The Han Empire was divided into areas controlled by the central government using an innovation inherited from the Qin known as commanderies. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States, from the reign of Emperor Wu onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized with the cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu. This policy endured until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 AD, the Han dynasty was an age of economic prosperity and saw a significant growth of the money economy first established during the Zhou dynasty. The coinage issued by the government mint in 119 BC remained the standard coinage of China until the Tang dynasty. The period saw a number of limited institutional innovations, the Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation, defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to submit as a de facto inferior partner, but continued their raids on the Han borders. Emperor Wu of Han launched several campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries, the territories north of Hans borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Imperial authority was seriously challenged by large Daoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion. When Cao Pi, King of Wei, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, following Liu Bangs victory in the Chu–Han Contention, the resulting Han dynasty was named after the Hanzhong fief. Chinas first imperial dynasty was the Qin dynasty, the Qin unified the Chinese Warring States by conquest, but their empire became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. Within four years, the authority had collapsed in the face of rebellion. Although Xiang Yu proved to be a commander, Liu Bang defeated him at Battle of Gaixia. Liu Bang assumed the title emperor at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu, Changan was chosen as the new capital of the reunified empire under Han

Han Dynasty
–
History of China
Han Dynasty
–
Han dynasty in 1 AD.
Han Dynasty
–
A silk banner from Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan province. It was draped over the coffin of Lady Dai (d. 168 BC), wife of the Marquess Li Cang (利蒼) (d. 186 BC), chancellor for the Kingdom of Changsha.
Han Dynasty
–
A gilded bronze oil lamp in the shape of a kneeling female servant, dated 2nd century BC, found in the tomb of Dou Wan, wife of the Han prince Liu Sheng; its sliding shutter allows for adjustments in the direction and brightness in light while it also traps smoke within the body.

38.
Bai Juyi
–
Bai Juyi was a renowned Chinese poet and Tang dynasty government official. Many of his poems concern his career or observations made about everyday life and he is also, thanks to the translations and biographical studies by Arthur Waley, one of the most accessible to English readers. Bai was also influential in the development of Japanese literature. His younger brother Bai Xingjian was a story writer. Bai Juyi often referred to himself in life as Letian, roughly the equivalent of happy-go-lucky, later in life, he referred to himself as the Hermit of Xiangshan. Bai Juyi lived during the Middle Tang period and this was a period of rebuilding and recovery for the Tang Empire, following the An Lushan Rebellion, and following the poetically flourishing era famous for Li Bai, Wang Wei, and Du Fu. Bai Juyi lived through the reigns of eight or nine emperors and he had a long and successful career both as a government official and a poet, although these two facets of his career seemed to have come in conflict with each other at certain points. Bai Juyi was also a devoted Chan Buddhist, Bai Juyi was born in 772 in Taiyuan, Shanxi, which was then a few miles from location of the modern city, although he was in Zhengyang, Henan for most of his childhood. His family was poor but scholarly, his father being an Assistant Department Magistrate of the second-class. At the age of ten he was sent away from his family to avoid a war broke out in the north of China. Bai Juyis official career was initially successful and he passed the jinshi examinations in 800. Bai Juyi may have taken up residence in the capital city of Changan. Not long after this, Bai Juyi formed a friendship with a scholar Yuan Zhen. Bai Juyis father died in 804, and the young Bai spent the period of retirement mourning the death of his parent. 806, the first full year of the reign of Emperor Xianzong of Tang, was the year when Bai Juyi was appointed to a minor post as a government official, at Zhouzhi and it was not a high-ranking position, but nevertheless one which he was soon to lose. While serving as a palace official in 814, Bai managed to get himself in official trouble. He made enemies at court and with individuals in other positions. It was partly his written works led him into trouble

Bai Juyi
–
Portrait of Bai Juyi by Chen Hongshou
Bai Juyi
–
Picture of Bai Juyi from the book "Wan hsiao tang".
Bai Juyi
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The Three Gorges of the Yangzi had to be traversed on the boat ride from Jiujiang to Sichuan.
Bai Juyi
–
Suzhou

39.
Orpiment
–
Orpiment is a deep orange-yellow colored arsenic sulfide mineral with formula As 2S3. It is found in volcanic fumaroles, low temperature hydrothermal veins and it takes its name from the Latin auripigmentum because of its deep-yellow color. Orpiment was traded in the Roman Empire and was used as a medicine in China even though it is very toxic and it has been used as a fly poison and to tip arrows with poison. Because of its color, it was of interest to alchemists. For centuries, orpiment was ground down and used as a pigment in painting and for sealing wax and it was one of the few clear, bright-yellow pigments available to artists until the 19th century. Orpiment, as the Latin Auripigmentum, is mentioned by Robert Hooke in Micrographia for the manufacture of shot in the 17th century. Orpiment is used in the production of infrared-transmitting glass, oil cloth, linoleum, semiconductors, photoconductors, pigments, mixed with two parts of slaked lime, orpiment is still commonly used in rural India as a depilatory. It is used in the industry to remove hair from hides. Orpiment is a common monoclinic arsenic sulfide mineral and it has a Mohs hardness of 1.5 to 2 and a specific gravity of 3.49. It melts at 300 °C to 325 °C, optically it is biaxial with refractive indices of a =2.4, b =2.81, g =3.02. List of inorganic pigments The Merck Index, An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, a Text Book of Notes on China and the Chinese. Vol. III, p.251, Vol. IV, pp.26

40.
Iron oxide
–
Iron oxides are chemical compounds composed of iron and oxygen. All together, there are sixteen known iron oxides and oxyhydroxides, common rust is a form of iron oxide. Iron oxides are used as inexpensive, durable pigments in paints, coatings. Colors commonly available are in the end of the yellow/orange/red/brown/black range. When used as a coloring, it has E number E172. Limonite Iron oxide nanoparticles List of inorganic pigments Information from Nano-Oxides, http, //chemed. chem. purdue. edu/demos/demosheets/12.3. html http, //minerals. usgs. gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/iron_oxide/ CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards de

Iron oxide
–
Iron oxide pigment

41.
Seal (East Asia)
–
China, Japan, Taiwan, and Korea currently use a mixture of seals and hand signatures, and increasingly, electronic signatures. It is used to an extent in Vietnam by authorised organisations and businesses. Chinese seals are made of stone, sometimes of metals, wood, bamboo, plastic, or ivory. The colloquial name chop, when referring to these kinds of seals, was adapted from the Hindi word chapa, in the past, fingerprints and handprints were used in East Asia for this function, being first impressed in clay, then printed on paper. This has been recorded since the 3rd century BCE in China – continuing for at least a millennium, see history of fingerprints for details and reference. Earlier similar devices are the seals used in Babylonia to make impressions on clay tablets. Zhuwen seals imprint the Chinese characters in red ink, sometimes referred to as yang seals, baiwen seals imprint the background in red, leaving white characters, sometimes referred to as yin seals. These were usually made of jade, and were square in shape. They were changed to a rectangular form during the Song dynasty, the Heirloom Seal was passed down through several dynasties, but had been lost by the beginning of the Ming dynasty. These seals typically bore the titles of the offices, rather than the names of the owners, different seals could be used for different purposes, for example, the Qianlong Emperor had a number of informal appreciation seals used on select paintings in his collection. The most popular style of script for government seals in the eras of China is the Nine-fold Script. The government of the Republic of China has continued to use traditional square seals of up to about 13 centimetres each side, known by a variety of names depending on the users hierarchy. Part of the ceremony for the President of the Republic of China includes bestowing on him the Seal of the Republic of China. In the Peoples Republic of China, the seal of the Central Peoples Government from 1949 to 1954 was a square, the inscription reads Seal of the Central Peoples Government of the Peoples Republic of China. Notably, the uses the relatively modern Song typeface rather than the more ancient seal scripts. Government seals in the Peoples Republic of China today are usually circular in shape, the name of the governmental institution is arranged around the star in a semicircle. There are many classes of personal seals, are the equivalent of todays email signature, and can contain the persons personal philosophy or literary inclination. These can be any shape, ranging from ovals to dragon-shaped, carry the name of the persons private studio 書齋, which most literati in ancient China had, although probably in lesser forms

42.
Song dynasty
–
The Song dynasty was an era of Chinese history that began in 960 and continued until 1279. It succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, coincided with the Liao and Western Xia dynasties and it was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or true paper money nationally and the first Chinese government to establish a permanent standing navy. This dynasty also saw the first known use of gunpowder, as well as the first discernment of true north using a compass, the Song dynasty is divided into two distinct periods, Northern and Southern. During the Northern Song, the Song capital was in the city of Bianjing. The Southern Song refers to the period after the Song lost control of its half to the Jurchen Jin dynasty in the Jin–Song Wars. During this time, the Song court retreated south of the Yangtze, the Southern Song dynasty considerably bolstered its naval strength to defend its waters and land borders and to conduct maritime missions abroad. To repel the Jin, and later the Mongols, the Song developed revolutionary new military technology augmented by the use of gunpowder, in 1234, the Jin dynasty was conquered by the Mongols, who took control of northern China, maintaining uneasy relations with the Southern Song. Möngke Khan, the fourth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire and his younger brother Kublai Khan was proclaimed the new Great Khan, though his claim was only partially recognized by the Mongols in the west. In 1271, Kublai Khan was proclaimed the Emperor of China, after two decades of sporadic warfare, Kublai Khans armies conquered the Song dynasty in 1279. The Mongol invasion led to a reunification under the Yuan dynasty, the population of China doubled in size during the 10th and 11th centuries. The Northern Song census recorded a population of roughly 50 million, much like the Han and this data is found in the Standard Histories. However, it is estimated that the Northern Song had a population of some 100 million people and this dramatic increase of population fomented an economic revolution in pre-modern China. The expansion of the population, growth of cities, and the emergence of a national economy led to the withdrawal of the central government from direct involvement in economic affairs. The lower gentry assumed a role in grassroots administration and local affairs. Appointed officials in county and provincial centers relied upon the gentry for their services, sponsorship. Social life during the Song was vibrant, citizens gathered to view and trade precious artworks, the populace intermingled at public festivals and private clubs, and cities had lively entertainment quarters. The spread of literature and knowledge was enhanced by the expansion of woodblock printing. Technology, science, philosophy, mathematics, and engineering flourished over the course of the Song, although the institution of the civil service examinations had existed since the Sui dynasty, it became much more prominent in the Song period

Song dynasty
–
History of China
Song dynasty
–
Northern Song in 1111
Song dynasty
–
Emperor Taizu of Song (r. 960–976), a court portrait painting
Song dynasty
–
Pillow, sandstone with white and brown slip black, incised decoration, Northern Song dynasty, 12th century

43.
Washington, D.C.
–
Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing

44.
Palace of Heavenly Purity
–
The Palace of Heavenly Purity, or Qianqing Palace is a palace in the Forbidden City in Beijing, China. It is the largest of the three halls of the Inner Court, located at the end of the Forbidden City. During the Qing dynasty, the palace served as the Emperors audience hall. The Palace of Heavenly Purity is a building, and set on a single-level white marble platform. It is connected to the Gate of Heavenly Purity to its south by a raised walkway, in the Ming dynasty, it was the residence of the Emperor. The large space was divided into nine rooms on two levels, with 27 beds, for security, on any one night the Emperor would randomly choose from any of these beds. This continued through the early Qing dynasty, however, when the Yongzheng Emperor ascended to the throne, he did not wish to inhabit the palace occupied by his father for 60 years. He and subsequent emperors lived instead at the smaller Hall of Mental Cultivation to the west, the Palace of Heavenly Purity then became the Emperors audience hall, where he held court, received ministers and emissaries, and held banquets. At the centre of the Palace, set atop a platform, is a throne. A caisson is set into the roof, featuring a coiled dragon, above the throne hangs a tablet with a right-to-left script reading zhèng dà guāng míng, penned by the Shunzhi Emperor. This tablet has been translated several ways but the loose transliteral meaning is let the righteous shine and it is often used as a Chinese idiom, meaning to be decent, honest and magnanimous, or to have no secret or do a shameless deed

45.
Hindu
–
Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion

46.
Bodhidharma
–
Bodhidharma was a Buddhist monk who lived during the 5th or 6th century. He is traditionally credited as the transmitter of Chan Buddhism to China, according to Chinese legend, he also began the physical training of the monks of Shaolin Monastery that led to the creation of Shaolin Kung Fu. In Japan, he is known as Daruma, little contemporary biographical information on Bodhidharma is extant, and subsequent accounts became layered with legend. Throughout Buddhist art, Bodhidharma is depicted as an ill-tempered, profusely-bearded, wide-eyed non-Chinese person and he is referred as The Blue-Eyed Barbarian in Chan texts. Aside from the Chinese accounts, several popular traditions also exist regarding Bodhidharmas origins, the accounts also differ on the date of his arrival, with one early account claiming that he arrived during the Liu Song dynasty and later accounts dating his arrival to the Liang dynasty. Bodhidharma was primarily active in the territory of the Northern Wei, modern scholarship dates him to about the early 5th century. Bodhidharmas teachings and practice centered on meditation and the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall identifies Bodhidharma as the 28th Patriarch of Buddhism in an uninterrupted line that extends all the way back to the Gautama Buddha himself. There are two known extant accounts written by contemporaries of Bodhidharma, according to these sources, Bodhidharma came from the Western regions, and was either a Persian Central Asian or a South Indian the third son of a great Indian king. Later sources draw on these two sources, adding additional details, including a change to being descendent from a Brahmin king, which accords with the reign of the Pallavas, who were Brahmins. Sometimes it was used generally to refer to other regions to the west of China as well. The earliest text mentioning Bodhidharma is The Record of the Buddhist Monasteries of Luoyang which was compiled in 547 by Yáng Xuànzhī, yang gave the following account, At that time there was a monk of the Western Region named Bodhidharma, a Persian Central Asian. He traveled from the borderlands to China. He exclaimed, Truly this is the work of spirits and he said, I am 150 years old, and I have passed through numerous countries. There is virtually no country I have not visited, even the distant Buddha-realms lack this. He chanted homage and placed his palms together in salutation for days on end, the second account was written by Tánlín. He was the son of a great Indian king. Although Tánlín has traditionally been considered a disciple of Bodhidharma, it is likely that he was a student of Huìkě. Tanlins preface has also preserved in Jingjues Lengjie Shizi ji Chronicle of the Laṅkāvatāra Masters

47.
Western world
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The Western world or the West is a term usually referring to different nations, depending on the context, most often including at least part of Europe. There are many accepted definitions about what they all have in common, the Western world is also known as the Occident. The concept of the Western part of the earth has its roots in Greco-Roman civilization in Europe, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Its political usage was changed by the antagonism during the Cold War in the mid-to-late 20th Century. The term originally had a literal geographic meaning, Western culture was influenced by many older great civilizations of the ancient Near East, such as Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, Sumer, Babylonia, and also Ancient Egypt. It originated in the Mediterranean basin and its vicinity, Greece, over time, their associated empires grew first to the east and west to include the rest of Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal areas, conquering and absorbing. Later, they expanded to the north of the Mediterranean Sea to include Western, Central, numerous times, this expansion was accompanied by Christian missionaries, who attempted to proselytize Christianity. There is debate among some as to whether Latin America is in a category of its own, specifically, Western culture may imply, a Biblical Christian cultural influence in spiritual thinking, customs and either ethic or moral traditions, around the Post-Classical Era and after. European cultural influences concerning artistic, musical, folkloric, ethic and oral traditions, the concept of Western culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic, much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history is marked by European immigration or settlement, such as the Americas, and Oceania. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire, Roman Catholic Western and Central Europe, as such, maintained a distinct identity particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance. Even following the Protestant Reformation, Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the civilized world. Use of the term West as a cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the Age of Exploration as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world. Additionally, closer contacts between the West and Asia and other parts of the world in recent times have continued to cloud the use, herodotus considered the Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC a conflict of Europa versus Asia. The terms West and East were not used by any Greek author to describe that conflict, the Great Schism and the Fourth Crusade confirmed this deviation. The Renaissance in the West emerged partly from currents within the Roman Empire, Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula about the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. In its 12-century existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy, to a republic, nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline of the Roman Empire

48.
Kung Fu (TV series)
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Kung Fu is an American action-adventure martial arts western drama television series starring David Carradine. The series aired on ABC from October 1972 to April 1975 for a total of 63 episodes, Kung Fu was preceded by a full-length feature television pilot, an ABC Movie of the Week, which was broadcast on February 22,1972. The series became one of the most popular programs of the early 1970s, receiving widespread critical acclaim. Kung Fu was created by Ed Spielman, directed and produced by Jerry Thorpe, and developed by Herman Miller, who was also a writer for, and co-producer of, the series. Many of the used in the series are adapted from or derived directly from the Tao Te Ching. Keye Luke and Philip Ahn were also members of the regular cast, David Chow, who was also a guest star in the series, acted as the technical and kung fu advisor, a role later undertaken by Kam Yuen. Kwai Chang Caine is the son of an American man, Thomas Henry Caine. After his maternal grandfathers death he is accepted for training at a Shaolin Monastery, in the pilot episode Caines beloved mentor and elder, Master Po, is murdered by the Emperors nephew, outraged, Caine retaliates by killing the nephew. With a price on his head, Caine flees China to the western United States, although it is his intention to avoid notice, Caines training and sense of social responsibility repeatedly force him out into the open, to fight for justice or protect the underdog. After each such encounter he must move on, both to capture and prevent harm from coming to those he has helped. Searching for his family, he meets a preacher and his mute sidekick Sonny Jim, flashbacks are often used to recall specific lessons from Caines childhood training in the monastery from his teachers, the blind Master Po and Master Chen Ming Kan. Part of the appeal of the series was undoubtedly the emphasis laid, via the flashbacks, the Shaolin Monastery which appeared in flashbacks was originally a set used for the 1967 film Camelot. It was inexpensively and effectively converted for the setting in China, in her memoirs, Bruce Lees widow, Linda Lee Cadwell, asserts that Lee created the concept for the series, which was then stolen by Warner Bros. There is circumstantial evidence for this in a December 8,1971 television interview that Bruce Lee gave on The Pierre Berton Show. In the interview, Pierre Berton comments, Theres a pretty good chance youll get a TV series in the States called The Warrior, in it, where you use what. Lee responds, That was the original idea. both of them, I think, they want me to be in a type of a thing. Whereas I want to do the Western, because, you see, how else can you justify all of the punching and kicking and violence, except in the period of the West. Later in the interview, Berton asks Lee about the problems that you face as a Chinese hero in an American series, have people come up in the industry and said well, we dont know how the audience are going to take a non-American

49.
Bible
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The Bible is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans. Many different authors contributed to the Bible, what is regarded as canonical text differs depending on traditions and groups, a number of Bible canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents. The Christian Old Testament overlaps with the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint, the New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, believed to be mostly Jewish disciples of Christ, written in first-century Koine Greek. These early Christian Greek writings consist of narratives, letters, among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon, primarily the Apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect. Attitudes towards the Bible also differ amongst Christian groups and this concept arose during the Protestant Reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only source of Christian teaching. With estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies, the Bible is widely considered to be the book of all time. It has estimated sales of 100 million copies, and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the West. The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin. Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra holy book, while biblia in Greek and it gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe. Latin biblia sacra holy books translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια ta biblia ta hagia, the word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of paper or scroll and came to be used as the ordinary word for book. It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, Egyptian papyrus, possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece, the Greek ta biblia was an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books. Christian use of the term can be traced to c.223 CE, bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer to use the Greek phrase ta biblia to describe both the Old and New Testaments together. The division of the Hebrew Bible into verses is based on the sof passuk cantillation mark used by the 10th-century Masoretes to record the verse divisions used in oral traditions. The oldest extant copy of a complete Bible is an early 4th-century parchment book preserved in the Vatican Library, the oldest copy of the Tanakh in Hebrew and Aramaic dates from the 10th century CE. The oldest copy of a complete Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus and he states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. In Christian Bibles, the New Testament Gospels were derived from traditions in the second half of the first century CE. Riches says that, Scholars have attempted to reconstruct something of the history of the oral traditions behind the Gospels, the period of transmission is short, less than 40 years passed between the death of Jesus and the writing of Marks Gospel. This means that there was time for oral traditions to assume fixed form

50.
Ezekiel
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Ezekiel is the central protagonist of the Book of Ezekiel in the Hebrew Bible. In Judaism, Christianity, Islam and the Baháí Faith, Ezekiel is acknowledged as a Hebrew prophet, the author of the Book of Ezekiel presents himself as Ezekiel, the son of Buzzi, born into a priestly lineage. Apart from identifying himself, the author gives a date for the first divine encounter which he presents, if this is a reference to Ezekiels age at the time, he was born around 622 BCE, about the time of Josiahs reforms. His thirtieth year is given as 5 years after the exile of Judahs king Jehoiachin by the Babylonians, josephus claims that at the request of Nebuchadnezzar II, Babylonian armies exiled three thousand Jews from Judah, after deposing King Jehoiachin in 598 BCE. According to the Bible, Ezekiel and his wife lived on the bank of the Chebar River, there is no mention of him having any offspring. Ezekiel describes his calling to be a prophet by going into detail about his encounter with God. For the next five years he incessantly prophesied and acted out the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple, on the hypothesis that the thirtieth year of Ezekiel 1,1 refers to Ezekiels age, Ezekiel was fifty years old when he had his final vision. On the basis of dates given in the Book of Ezekiel, the last dated words of Ezekiel date to April 570 BCE. Ezekiel, like Jeremiah, is said by Talmud and Midrash to have been a descendant of Joshua by his marriage with the proselyte, some statements found in rabbinic literature posit that Ezekiel was the son of Jeremiah, who was called Buzi because he was despised by the Jews. Ezekiel was said to be active as a prophet while in the Land of Israel, and he retained this gift when he was exiled with Jehoiachin. Ezekiel, like all the prophets, has beheld only a blurred reflection of the divine majesty. At first God revealed to the prophet that they could not hope for a rescue, whereupon the prophet was greatly grieved. But after they had left the house of the prophet, fully determined to sacrifice their lives to God, Ezekiel received this revelation and that shall not happen, but do thou let them carry out their intention according to their pious dictates, and tell them nothing. Ezekiel is commemorated as a saint in the calendar of the Eastern Orthodox Church—and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite—on July 23. Ezekiel is commemorated on August 28 on the Calendar of Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church, certain Lutheran churches also celebrate his commemoration on July 20. Ezekiels statement about the gate is understood as another prophecy of the Incarnation, the gate signifying the Virgin Mary. This is one of the readings at Vespers on Great Feasts of the Theotokos in the Eastern Orthodox, the imagery provides the basis for the concept that God gave Mary to mankind as the Gate of Heaven, an idea also laid out in the Salve Regina prayer. According to 17th-century commentator Matthew Henry Ezekiel is also believed to have known as Nazaratus Assyrius

51.
Chaldea
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Chaldea or Chaldaea was a Semitic nation which existed between the late 10th or early 9th and mid-6th centuries BC, after which it and its people were absorbed and assimilated into Babylonia. It was located in the land of the far southeastern corner of Mesopotamia. The earliest waves consisted of Suteans and Arameans, followed a century or so later by the Kaldu and these migrations did not affect the powerful kingdom of Assyria in the northern half of Mesopotamia, which repelled these incursions. The short-lived 11th dynasty of the Kings of Babylon is conventionally known to historians as the Chaldean Dynasty, although the last rulers, Nabonidus and these nomad Chaldeans settled in the far southeastern portion of Babylonia, chiefly on the right bank of the Euphrates. The names Chaldea and Chaldaea are latinizations of the Greek Khaldaía, the name appears in Hebrew in the Bible as Kaśdim and in Aramaic as Kaldo. At some point after the Chaldean tribes settled in the region it became called mat Kaldi land of Chaldeans by the native Mesopotamians. The expression mat Bit Yakin is also used, apparently synonymously, Bit Yakin was likely the chief or capital city of the land. The king of Chaldea was also called the king of Bit Yakin, just as the kings of Babylonia and Assyria were regularly styled simply king of Babylon or Assur, the capital city in each case. In the same way, what is now known as the Persian Gulf was sometimes called the Sea of Bit Yakin, the boundaries of the early lands settled by Chaldeans in the early 800s BC have not been identified with precision by historians. Chaldea generally referred to the low, marshy, alluvial land around the estuaries of the Tigris and Euphrates, the Old Testament book of the prophet Habakkuk describes the Chaldeans as a bitter and swift nation. The ancient Chaldeans seem to have migrated into Mesopotamia sometime between c, 940–860 BC, a century or so after other new Semitic arrivals, the Arameans and the Suteans, appeared in Babylonia, c.1100 BC. They first appear in record in the annals of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III during the 850s BC. This was a period of weakness in Babylonia, and its ineffectual native kings were unable to prevent new waves of foreign peoples from invading and settling in the land. The Chaldeans were rapidly and completely assimilated into the dominant Assyro-Babylonian culture, as was the case for the earlier Amorites, Kassites, the Chaldeans originally spoke a West Semitic language similar to but distinct from Aramaic. However, they adopted the Akkadian language of the Assyrians and Babylonians. During the Assyrian Empire, the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III introduced an Eastern Aramaic dialect as the lingua franca of his empire in the mid 8th century BC. One form of this once widespread language is used in Daniel and Ezra, but the use of the name Chaldee to describe it, first introduced by Jerome, is linguistically incorrect and a misnomer. In the Hebrew Bible, the prophet Abraham is stated to have come from Ur of the Chaldees

52.
Mary, mother of Jesus
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Mary, also known by various titles, styles and honorifics, was a 1st-century Galilean Jewish woman of Nazareth and the mother of Jesus, according to the New Testament and the Quran. The gospels of Matthew and Luke in the New Testament and the Quran describe Mary as a virgin, the miraculous birth took place when she was already betrothed to Joseph and was awaiting the concluding rite of marriage, the formal home-taking ceremony. She married Joseph and accompanied him to Bethlehem, where Jesus was born, the Gospel of Luke begins its account of Marys life with the Annunciation, when the angel Gabriel appeared to her and announced her divine selection to be the mother of Jesus. According to canonical gospel accounts, Mary was present at the crucifixion and is depicted as a member of the early Christian community in Jerusalem. According to the Catholic and Orthodox teaching, at the end of her life her body was assumed directly into Heaven. Mary has been venerated since Early Christianity, and is considered by millions to be the most meritorious saint of the religion and she is claimed to have miraculously appeared to believers many times over the centuries. The Eastern and Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran churches believe that Mary, there is significant diversity in the Marian beliefs and devotional practices of major Christian traditions. The Roman Catholic Church holds distinctive Marian dogmas, namely her status as the Mother of God, her Immaculate Conception, her perpetual virginity, many Protestants minimize Marys role within Christianity, based on the argued brevity of biblical references. Mary also has a position in Islam, where one of the longer chapters of the Quran is devoted to her. Marys name in the manuscripts of the New Testament was based on her original Aramaic name ܡܪܝܡ‎. The English name Mary comes from the Greek Μαρία, which is a form of Μαριάμ. Both Μαρία and Μαριάμ appear in the New Testament, in Christianity, Mary is commonly referred to as the Virgin Mary, in accordance with the belief that she conceived Jesus miraculously through the Holy Spirit without her husbands involvement. The three main titles for Mary used by the Orthodox are Theotokos, Aeiparthenos as confirmed in the Second Council of Constantinople in 553, Catholics use a wide variety of titles for Mary, and these titles have in turn given rise to many artistic depictions. For example, the title Our Lady of Sorrows has inspired such masterpieces as Michelangelos Pietà, the title Theotokos was recognized at the Council of Ephesus in 431. However, this phrase in Greek, in the abbreviated form ΜΡ ΘΥ, is an indication commonly attached to her image in Byzantine icons. The Council stated that the Church Fathers did not hesitate to speak of the holy Virgin as the Mother of God, some Marian titles have a direct scriptural basis. For instance, the title Queen Mother has been given to Mary since she was the mother of Jesus, the scriptural basis for the term Queen can be seen in Luke 1,32 and the Isaiah 9,6. Queen Mother can be found in 1 Kings 2, 19-20 and Jeremiah 13, other titles have arisen from reported miracles, special appeals or occasions for calling on Mary

53.
Wu Xing
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The Five Phases are Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water. This order of presentation is known as the generation sequence. In the order of mutual overcoming, they are Wood, Earth, Water, Fire, the system of five phases was used for describing interactions and relationships between phenomena. The system is used as a reference in some forms of complementary and alternative medicine. Xing of Wu Xing means moving, a planet is called a star in Chinese. Wu Xing originally refers to the five planets that create five dimensions of earth life. Wu Xing is also translated as Five Elements and this is used extensively by many including practitioners of Five Element acupuncture. This translation arose by analogy with the Western system of the four elements. By the same token, Mù is thought of as Tree rather than Wood, the word element is thus used within the context of Chinese medicine with a different meaning to its usual meaning. It should be recognized that the phase, although commonly preferred, is not perfect. Phase is a translation for the five seasons mentioned below. Manfred Porkert attempts to resolve this by using Evolutive Phase for 五行 Wǔ Xíng and Circuit Phase for 五運 Wǔ Yùn, some of the Mawangdui Silk Texts also present the Wu Xing as five virtues or types of activities. Within Chinese medicine texts the Wu Xing are also referred to as Wu Yun or a combination of the two characters these emphasise the correspondence of five elements to five seasons, another tradition refers to the Wǔ Xíng as Wǔ Dé, the Five Virtues. Wood parts Earth Earth dams Water Water extinguishes Fire Fire melts Metal Metal chops Wood This cycle might also be called controls, according to Wu Xing theory, the structure of the cosmos mirrors the five phases. Each phase has a series of associations with different aspects of nature. In the ancient Chinese form of known as Feng Shui practitioners all based their art. All of these phases are represented within the trigrams, associated with these phases are colors, seasons and shapes, all of which are interacting with each other. Based on a directional energy flow from one phase to the next

Wu Xing
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Five Chinese Elements - Diurnal Cycle
Wu Xing
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Diagram of the interactions between the Wu Xing. The "generative" cycle is illustrated by grey arrows running clockwise on the outside of the circle, while the "destructive" or "conquering" cycle is represented by red arrows inside the circle.
Wu Xing
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Tablet, in Chinese and Manchu, for the gods of the five elements in the Temple of Heaven. The Manchu word "usiha", meaning star, explains that this tablet is dedicated to the 5 basic planets, Jupiter, Mars, Saturn, Venus & Mercury rather than their respect element itself.

54.
Four Symbols (Chinese constellation)
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The Four Symbols are four mythological creatures in the Chinese constellations. They are the Azure Dragon of the East, the Vermilion Bird of the South, the White Tiger of the West, each one of them represents a direction and a season, and each has its own individual characteristics and origins. Symbolically and as part of spiritual and religious belief, they have been important in China, Korea, Vietnam. The Four Symbols were given names after Daoism became popular. The Azure Dragon has the name Meng Zhang, the Vermilion Bird was called Ling Guang, the White Tiger Jian Bing, in 1987, a tomb was found at Xishuipo in Puyang, Henan. There were some clam shells and bones forming the images of the Azure Dragon, the White Tiger, and it is believed that the tomb belongs to the Neolithic Age, dating to about 6,000 years ago. These mythological creatures have also been synthesized into the 5 element system, the Azure Dragon of the East represents Wood, the Vermilion Bird of the South represents Fire, the White Tiger of the West represents Metal, and the Black Turtle of the North represents Water. In this system, the fifth element Earth is represented by the Yellow Dragon of the Center, the four beasts each represent a season. The Azure Dragon of the East represents Spring, the Vermilion Bird of the South represents Summer, the White Tiger of the West represents Autumn, Four Benevolent Animals Four Holy Beasts, the Vietnamese version Four temperaments Chinese constellations Chinese astrology Purple Forbidden enclosure 28 Chinese Constellations

55.
South
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South is a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating direction or geography. It is one of the four directions or compass points. South is the polar opposite of north and is perpendicular to east and west, the word south comes from Old English sūþ, from earlier Proto-Germanic *sunþaz, possibly related to the same Proto-Indo-European root that the word sun derived from. By convention, the side of a map is south. To go south using a compass for navigation, set a bearing or azimuth of 180°, alternatively, in the Northern Hemisphere outside the tropics, the Sun will be roughly in the south at midday. True south is the direction towards the end of the axis about which the earth rotates. The South Pole is located in Antarctica, magnetic south is the direction towards the south magnetic pole, some distance away from the south geographic pole. Roald Amundsen, from Norway, was the first to reach the South Pole, on 14 December 1911, the Global South refers to the socially and economically less-developed southern half of the globe. 95% of the Global North has enough food and shelter, in the South, on the other hand, only 5% of the population has enough food and shelter. It lacks appropriate technology, it has no political stability, the economies are disarticulated, in the card game bridge, one of the players is known for scoring purposes as South. South partners with North and plays against East and West, in Greek religion, Notos, was the south wind and bringer of the storms of late summer and autumn. The dictionary definition of south at Wiktionary

56.
J.G. Ballard
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James Graham J. G. Ballard was an English novelist, short story writer, and essayist. In the late 1960s, Ballard produced a variety of short stories. Described by The Guardian as the best British novel about the Second World War, in the following decades until his death in 2009, Ballards work shifted toward the form of the traditional crime novel. Several of his works have been adapted into films, including David Cronenbergs controversial 1996 adaptation of Crash. The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography entry describes Ballards work as being occupied with eros, thanatos, mass media and his mother was Edna, née Johnstone. Ballard was born and raised in the Shanghai International Settlement, an area under foreign control where people lived an American style of life and he was sent to the Cathedral School, the Anglican Holy Trinity Church near the Bund, Shanghai. After the Japanese attack on Hong Kong, the Japanese occupied the International Settlement in Shanghai, in early 1943, they began to intern Allied civilians, and Ballard was sent to the Lunghua Civilian Assembly Center with his parents and younger sister. He spent over two years, the remainder of World War II, in the internment camp and his family lived in a small area in G block, a two-story residence for 40 families. He attended school in the camp, the teachers being camp inmates from a number of professions. These experiences formed the basis of Empire of the Sun, although Ballard exercised considerable artistic licence in writing the book and it has been supposed that Ballards exposure to the atrocities of war at an impressionable age explains the apocalyptic and violent nature of much of his fiction. Martin Amis wrote that Empire of the Sun gives shape to what shaped him, however, Ballards own account of the experience was more nuanced, I dont think you can go through the experience of war without ones perceptions of the world being forever changed. But also, I have—I wont say happy—not unpleasant memories of the camp, I remember a lot of the casual brutality and beatings-up that went on—but at the same time we children were playing a hundred and one games all the time. In late 1945, after the end of the war, his mother returned to Britain with Ballard and they lived in the outskirts of Plymouth, and he attended The Leys School in Cambridge. He won an essay prize whilst at the school but did not contribute to the school magazine, after a couple of years his mother and sister returned to China, rejoining Ballards father, leaving Ballard to live with his grandparents when not boarding at school. In 1949 he went on to study medicine at Kings College, Cambridge, at university, Ballard was writing avant-garde fiction heavily influenced by psychoanalysis and surrealist painters. At this time, he wanted to become a writer as well as pursue a medical career, however, he was asked to leave at the end of the year. Ballard then worked as a copywriter for an agency and as an encyclopaedia salesman. He kept writing short fiction but found it impossible to get published, in spring 1954 Ballard joined the Royal Air Force and was sent to the Royal Canadian Air Force flight-training base in Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan, Canada

J.G. Ballard
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Ballard in 1993
J.G. Ballard
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Ballard's Vermilion Sands story "The Singing Statues" took the cover of the July 1962 issue of Fantastic, featuring artwork by Ed Emshwiller
J.G. Ballard
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Ballard's novelette "The Time Tombs" was the cover story on the March 1963 issue of If

57.
Digital Equipment Corporation
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Digital Equipment Corporation, also known as DEC and using the trademark Digital, was a major American company in the computer industry from the 1950s to the 1990s. DEC was a vendor of computer systems, including computers, software. Their PDP and successor VAX products were the most successful of all minicomputers in terms of sales, DEC was acquired in June 1998 by Compaq, in what was at that time the largest merger in the history of the computer industry. At the time, Compaq was focused on the market and had recently purchased several other large vendors. DEC was a major player overseas where Compaq had less presence, however, Compaq had little idea what to do with its acquisitions, and soon found itself in financial difficulty of its own. The company subsequently merged with Hewlett-Packard in May 2002, as of 2007 some of DECs product lines were still produced under the HP name. From 1957 until 1992, DECs headquarters were located in a wool mill in Maynard. DEC was acquired in June 1998 by Compaq, which merged with Hewlett-Packard in May 2002. Some parts of DEC, notably the business and the Hudson. Initially focusing on the end of the computer market allowed DEC to grow without its potential competitors making serious efforts to compete with them. Their PDP series of machines became popular in the 1960s, especially the PDP-8, looking to simplify and update their line, DEC replaced most of their smaller machines with the PDP-11 in 1970, eventually selling over 600,000 units and cementing DECs position in the industry. Originally designed as a follow-on to the PDP-11, DECs VAX-11 series was the first widely used 32-bit minicomputer and these systems were able to compete in many roles with larger mainframe computers, such as the IBM System/370. The VAX was a best-seller, with over 400,000 sold, at its peak, DEC was the second largest employer in Massachusetts, second only to the Massachusetts State Government. The rapid rise of the business microcomputer in the late 1980s, DECs last major attempt to find a space in the rapidly changing market was the DEC Alpha 64-bit RISC instruction set architecture. DEC initially started work on Alpha as a way to re-implement their VAX series, DEC was acquired in June 1998 by Compaq, in what was at that time the largest merger in the history of the computer industry. At the time, Compaq was focused on the market and had recently purchased several other large vendors. DEC was a major player overseas where Compaq had less presence, however, Compaq had little idea what to do with its acquisitions, and soon found itself in financial difficulty of its own. The company subsequently merged with Hewlett-Packard in May 2002, as of 2007 some of DECs product lines were still produced under the HP name

Digital Equipment Corporation
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DEC was headquartered at a former wool mill in Maynard, Massachusetts, from 1957 until 1992
Digital Equipment Corporation
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System Building Blocks (System Module) 1103 hex-inverter card (both sides)
Digital Equipment Corporation
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PDP-1 System Building Block #4106, circa 1963 - note that one transistor (yellow) has been replaced
Digital Equipment Corporation
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A PDP-1 system, with Steve Russell, developer of Spacewar! at the console. This is a canonical example of the PDP-1, with the console typewriter on the left, CPU and main control panel in the center, the Type 30 display on the right.

58.
List of Crayola crayon colors
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Since the introduction of Crayola drawing crayons by Binney & Smith in 1903, more than two hundred distinctive colors have been produced in a wide variety of assortments. The table below represents all of the found in regular Crayola assortments from 1903 to the present. Since the introduction of fluorescent crayons in the 1970s, the colors have been complemented by a number of specialty crayon assortments. Along with the regular packs of crayons, there have been many specialty sets, including Silver Swirls, Gem Tones, Pearl Brite, Metallic FX, Magic Scent, Silly Scents, and more. In 1972, Binney & Smith introduced eight Crayola fluorescent crayons, the following year, they were added to the 72-count box, in place of the duplicate colors. These crayons remained steady until 1990, when all eight were renamed, one of the new colors, Hot Magenta, shared a name with one of the original colors, now Razzle Dazzle Rose. For some reason, two of the original eight fluorescent crayons have the color as two of the newer crayons. In 1992, the fluorescent colors were added to the new No.96 box, when four new crayons were added to the No.96 assortment in 2003, four existing colors were discontinued, including two of the fluorescents. Also beginning in 1993, packs of fluorescent crayons were regularly labeled neon or neons, in 1976, Crayola released a pack of 8 Fabric crayons. Each crayon is named after a standard color, in 1980, Light Blue is discontinued and replaced by Black. The colors hexadecimal values are currently unknown, the names of the colors are listed below, Black Blue Burnt Sienna Green Light Blue Magenta Orange Violet Yellow In 1987, Crayola released a pack of 16 metallic crayons in Canada. 4 of the colors are named after 4 of the standard colors, also, one of the colors is named before a Metallic FX color. The colors hexadecimal values are currently unknown, the colors hexadecimal values are approximated below. In 1992, Crayola released a set of eight multicultural crayons which come in an assortment of skin hues that give a child a realistic palette for coloring their world. The eight colors used came from their standard list of colors, in 1994, Crayola produced a 16-pack of crayons that released fragrances when used. In 1995, Crayola changed some of the scents because of complaints received from parents that some of the crayons smelled good enough to eat, like the Cherry, Chocolate, Crayons with food scents were retired in favor of non-food scents. The thirty crayons all consisted of regular Crayola colors, in 1994, Crayola released the Gem Tones, a pack of 16 crayons modeled after precious stones. The colors hexadecimal values are approximated below, In 1994, Crayola released the Glow in the Dark crayons, however, it didnt contain any color names in North America

59.
World Wide Web
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The World Wide Web is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989 and he wrote the first web browser computer program in 1990 while employed at CERN in Switzerland. The Web browser was released outside of CERN in 1991, first to research institutions starting in January 1991. The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the Information Age and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the Internet, Web pages are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with Hypertext Markup Language. In addition to formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, audio, embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a theme, a common domain name. Website content can largely be provided by the publisher, or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their actions, websites may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or largely for commercial, governmental, or non-governmental organisational purposes. In the 2006 Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum, Tim Berners-Lees vision of a global hyperlinked information system became a possibility by the second half of the 1980s. By 1985, the global Internet began to proliferate in Europe, in 1988 the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was made and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN. Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the meanings of the word hypertext. At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for two months and the first Web server was about a month from completing its first successful test. While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the concept, WebDAV, blogs, Web 2.0. The proposal was modelled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the worlds first web server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the necessary for a working Web, the first web browser. The first web site, which described the project itself, was published on 20 December 1990, jones stored it on a magneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt. hypertext. This date is confused with the public availability of the first web servers. The first server outside Europe was installed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in Palo Alto, California, accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event

60.
Interior design
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An interior designer is someone who plans, researches, coordinates, and manages such projects. Interior design is the process of shaping the experience of interior space, in the past, interiors were put together instinctively as a part of the process of building. The profession of design has been a consequence of the development of society. The pursuit of effective use of space, user well-being and functional design has contributed to the development of the interior design profession. The profession of design is separate and distinct from the role of Interior Decorator. The term is common in the UK where the profession of interior design is still unregulated and therefore, strictly speaking. In ancient India, architects used to work as interior designers and this can be seen from the references of Vishwakarma the architect - one of the gods in Indian mythology. Additionally, the sculptures depicting ancient texts and events are seen in palaces built in 17th century India, in ancient Egypt, soul houses or models of houses were placed in tombs as receptacles for food offerings. Architects would also employ craftsmen or artisans to complete design for their buildings. Large furniture firms began to branch out into general interior design and management and this business model flourished from the mid-century to 1914, when this role was increasingly usurped by independent, often amateur, designers. This paved the way for the emergence of the interior design in the mid-20th century. In the 1950s and 1960s, upholsterers began to expand their business remits and they framed their business more broadly and in artistic terms and began to advertise their furnishings to the public. Firms began to publish and circulate catalogs with prints for different lavish styles to attract the attention of expanding middle classes, as department stores increased in number and size, retail spaces within shops were furnished in different styles as examples for customers. One particularly effective advertising tool was to set up rooms at national and international exhibitions in showrooms for the public to see. Some of the firms in this regard were Waring & Gillow, James Shoolbred, Mintons. This type of firm emerged in America after the Civil War, the Herter Brothers, founded by two German emigre brothers, began as an upholstery warehouse and became one of the first firms of furniture makers and interior decorators. A pivotal figure in popularizing theories of interior design to the class was the architect Owen Jones. His most significant publication was The Grammar of Ornament, in which Jones formulated 37 key principles of interior design, in 1882, the London Directory of the Post Office listed 80 interior decorators

Interior design
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The lobby of Hotel Bristol
Interior design
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Historical example: Balliol College Dining Hall, Oxford
Interior design
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Typical interior of one of the houses in the Folk Architecture Reservation in Vlkolínec (Slovakia).
Interior design
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Illustrated catalog of the James Shoolbred Company, published in 1876.

61.
Taoism
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Taoism, also known as Daoism, is a religious or philosophical tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao. The Tao is an idea in most Chinese philosophical schools, in Taoism, however. Taoism differs from Confucianism by not emphasizing rigid rituals and social order, the Tao Te Ching, a compact book containing teachings attributed to Laozi, is widely considered the keystone work of the Taoist tradition, together with the later writings of Zhuangzi. By the Han dynasty, the sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent tradition of religious organizations. In earlier ancient China, Taoists were thought of as hermits or recluses who did not participate in political life, Zhuangzi was the best known of these, and it is significant that he lived in the south, where he was part of local Chinese shamanic traditions. Women shamans played an important role in this tradition, which was strong in the southern state of Chu. Early Taoist movements developed their own institution in contrast to shamanism, shamans revealed basic texts of Taoism from early times down to at least the 20th century. Institutional orders of Taoism evolved in various strains that in recent times are conventionally grouped into two main branches, Quanzhen Taoism and Zhengyi Taoism. After Laozi and Zhuangzi, the literature of Taoism grew steadily and was compiled in form of a canon—the Daozang—which was published at the behest of the emperor, throughout Chinese history, Taoism was nominated several times as a state religion. After the 17th century, however, it fell from favor, Chinese alchemy, Chinese astrology, Chan Buddhism, several martial arts, traditional Chinese medicine, feng shui, and many styles of qigong have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history. Beyond China, Taoism also had influence on surrounding societies in Asia, Taoism also has a presence in Hong Kong, Macau, and in Southeast Asia. English speakers continue to debate the preferred romanization of the words Daoism and Taoism, the root Chinese word 道 way, path is romanized tao in the older Wade–Giles system and dào in the modern Pinyin system. In linguistic terminology, English Taoism/Daoism is formed from the Chinese loanword tao/dao 道 way, route, principle and the native suffix -ism. The debate over Taoism vs. Daoism involves sinology, phonemes, loanwords, Daoism is pronounced /ˈdaʊ. ɪzəm/, but English speakers disagree whether Taoism should be /ˈdaʊ. ɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊ. ɪzəm/. In theory, both Wade–Giles tao and Pinyin dao are articulated identically, as are Taoism and Daoism, an investment book titled The Tao Jones Averages illustrates this /daʊ/ pronunciations widespread familiarity. In speech, Tao and Taoism are often pronounced /ˈtaʊ/ and ˈtaʊ. ɪzəm/, lexicography shows American and British English differences in pronouncing Taoism. Taoist philosophy or Taology, or the mystical aspect — The philosophical doctrines based on the texts of the I Ching, the Tao Te Ching and these texts were linked together as Taoist philosophy during the early Han Dynasty, but notably not before. It is unlikely that Zhuangzi was familiar with the text of the Daodejing, however, the discussed distinction is rejected by the majority of Western and Japanese scholars

62.
English language
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English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩

English language
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The opening to the Old English epic poem Beowulf, handwritten in half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language
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Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language
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Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales c.1400

63.
Kumkum
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Kumkuma is a powder used for social and religious markings in India. It is either made from turmeric or any other local materials, the turmeric is dried and powdered with a bit of slaked lime, which turns the rich yellow powder into a red color. In India, it is known by names including kuṅkumam, kumkuma (Telugu కుంకుమ, kunku, kumkum, kunkuma. Kumkuma is most often applied by Indians to the forehead, the sixth chakra, also known as the third eye, is centered in the forehead directly between the eyebrows and is believed to be the channel through which humankind opens spiritually to the Divine. Thus the kumkuma is placed at the location of the body which is believed by Indians to be the most holy, saivites, Followers of Siva usually apply three white horizontal lines with a dot of kumkuma at the center. Vaisnavas, Followers of Vishnu make use of clay to apply two vertical lines joined at the base and intersected by a bright red streak. Many times the white clay is applied in a U-shape, Swaminarayana, Followers of the Swaminarayan faith apply kumkuma at the center of the forehead and in between a U-shaped tilaka. The tilaka is normally yellow and made from sandalwood, in the Vaishnava tradition, the white lines represent the footprint of their God, while the red refers to his consort, Lakshmi. The Swaminarayana tradition holds that the tilaka is a symbol of the feet of Paramatma. In both of these traditions, the forehead mark serves as a reminder that a devotee of God should always remain as a servant at the feet of God and it is important to note that the color of womb is yellow and is symbolically represented by turmeric. The blood stains on the womb is represented by kumkuma and it is believed that the combination of turmeric and kumkuma represents prosperity. When a girl or a woman visits a house, it is a sign of respect or blessings to offer kumkuma to them when they leave. However, it is not offered to widows, when visiting a temple, married women from southern India usually dip their ring finger in yellow turmeric powder, and apply a dot on their neck. Men, women, girls, and boys apply a dot on their forehead of red turmeric powder, Kumkuma in temples is found in heaps. People dip their thumb into the heap and apply it on the forehead or between the eyebrows, in most of India, married women apply red kumkuma to the parting of their hair above their forehead every day as a symbol of marriage. This is called vermilion, or in Hindi, sindoor, in southern India, many unmarried girls will wear a bindi every day unlike northern India where it is only worn as a symbol of marriage. Kumkum may be made from pigment and there are toxicity concerns with this. Kumkum is said to be made from turmeric by treating with alkali and it is certain that no saffron is sold for use as kumkum

64.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

65.
Auburn (color)
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Auburn hair is a variety of red hair, most commonly described as reddish-brown in color or dark ginger. Auburn hair ranges in shades from medium to dark and it is common with a wide array of skin tones and eye colors, but as is the case with most red hair, it is commonly associated with light skin features. Auburn can be used to describe many shades of hair with similar definitions or hues. It is often conflated in popular usage with Titian hair, while Titian hair is a brownish shade of red hair, auburn hair is specifically defined as including the actual color red. Most definitions of Titian hair describe it as a brownish-orange color and this is in reference to red hair itself, not the color red. Auburn encompasses the color maroon, but so too do chestnut, in contrast with the two, auburn is more red in color, while chestnut is more brown, and burgundy is more purple, chestnut hair is also often referred to as chestnut-brown. The word auburn comes from the Old French word alborne, which meant blond, the first recorded use of auburn in English was in 1430. The word was corrupted into abram, for example in early folios of Coriolanus, Thomas Kyds Soliman and Perseda and Thomas Middletons Blurt. Auburn hair is common among people of northern and western European descent and this hair color is less common farther south and southeast, but can occur somewhat regularly in Southern Europe. It can also be found in parts of the world colonized by genetically European people, such as North America, South America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Siberia. Auburn is sometimes seen among the people of Formosa. Blond hair Titian hair Online Etymology Dictionary

66.
Carmine (color)
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Carmine is the general term for some deep red colours that are very slightly purplish but are generally slightly closer to red than the colour crimson is. Some rubies are coloured the colour shown below as rich carmine, the first recorded use of carmine as a color name in English was in 1523. The color wild watermelon is displayed at right, ultra red is a color formulated by Crayola in 1972. In 1990, the name of the color was changed to wild watermelon, with a hue code of 350, this color is within the range of carmine colors. This color is supposed to be fluorescent, but there is no mechanism for displaying fluorescence on a computer screen, the Crayola crayon color radical red is displayed at right. The color radical red was formulated by Crayola in 1990, with a hue code of 348, this color is within the range of carmine colors. This color is supposed to be fluorescent, but there is no mechanism for displaying fluorescence on a computer screen, displayed at right is the color paradise pink. The source of color is the Pantone Textile Paper eXtended color list. Since it has a hue code of 347, the color pink is within the range of carmine colors. The rich carmine color tone displayed at right matches the color shown as carmine in the 1930 book A Dictionary of Color and this color is also called Chinese carmine. This is the color referred to as carmine in fashion. This is a tone of carmine pigment used in painting. The color Japanese carmine is shown at right, the name of this color in Japanese is enji-iro, which means cochineal color. Crime Scene Investigation The name is applied to descriptions of blood. Music Carmine is one of the mentioned in Donovans Wear Your Love Like Heaven. Sports Carmines is occasionally used as a nickname for the Boston Red Sox, Carmine is an original colorway of the Air Jordan VI sneaker from 1991. Television The color worn by the Redshirt who wears Star Treks carmine colored engineering uniforms is carmine, in addition, as a play on this, a quickly-dying soldier in the game Gears of War is named Carmine. Underwood responds, You must be a writer, national Flags Carmine is the color used in the flag of Latvia

Carmine (color)
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Powdered carmine pigment

67.
Coquelicot
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For the of Montreal album, see Coquelicot Asleep in the Poppies, A Variety of Whimsical Verse. For the Sakura Wars character, see List of Sakura Wars characters, Coquelicot is a shade of red. The term was originally a French vernacular name for the corn poppy, Papaver rhoeas, which is distinguished by its bright red color. It eventually passed into English usage as the name of a color based upon that of the flower, the first recorded use of this usage was in the year 1795. Claude Monet painted Les Coquelicots or Poppies Blooming in 1873, media related to Papaver rhoeas at Wikimedia Commons

68.
Variations of red
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Varieties of the color red may differ in hue, chroma or lightness, or in two or three of these qualities. Variations in value are also called tints and shades, a tint being a red or other hue mixed with white, a large selection of these various colors is shown below. At right is displayed the web color pink, a tint of red. The pink is considered to be a basic color term on its own. At right is displayed the tone of salmon that is called salmon in Crayola crayons. This color was introduced by Crayola in 1949, see the List of Crayola crayon colors. The color coral pink is displayed at right, an orange color. The web color salmon is displayed at right, the color displayed at right, Red, RGB red, or electric red is the brightest possible red that can be reproduced on a computer monitor. This color is an approximation of a red spectral color. It is one of the three colors of light in the RGB color model, along with green and blue. Portable devices such as mobile phones might have even narrower gamut due to this purity–power tradeoff and their red may be less colorful and this color is also the color called red in the X11 web colors, which were originally formulated in 1987. It is also called color wheel red and it is at precisely zero degrees on the HSV color wheel, also known as the RGB color wheel. Pigment red is the red that is achieved by mixing process magenta. This is the red that is shown in the diagram located at the bottom of the following website offering tintbooks for CMYK printing. The purpose of the CMYK color system is to provide the maximum possible gamut of colors capable of being reproduced in printing. Psychedelic art made people used to brighter colors of red, the result approximates the electric red shown above. The color defined as red in the NCS or Natural Color System is shown at right, the Natural Color System is a color system based on the four unique hues or psychological primary colors red, yellow, green, and blue. The NCS is based on the opponent process theory of vision, the Natural Color System is widely used in Scandinavia

69.
Fuchsia (color)
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Fuchsia is a vivid purplish red color, named after the color of the flower of the fuchsia plant, which took its name from the 16th century German botanist Leonhart Fuchs. The color fuchsia was first introduced as the color of a new aniline dye called fuchsine, patented in 1859 by the French chemist François-Emmanuel Verguin. The dye was renamed later in the same year, to celebrate a victory of the French army at the Battle of Magenta on June 4,1859. In color printing and design, there are variations between magenta and fuchsia. Fuchsia is usually a more color, whereas magenta is more reddish. Fuchsia flowers themselves contain a variety of purples. The first recorded use of fuchsia as a name in English was in 1892. The first synthetic dye the color of fuchsia, called fuchsine, was patented in 1859 by François-Emmanuel Verguin and it was later renamed magenta, and became highly popular under that name. The name fuchsia is used on the HTML web color list for this color and they are both composed the same way, by combining an equal amount of blue and red light at full brightness, as shown in the image on the left. Displayed at right is the pale tint of fuchsia. The first recorded use of fuchsia as a color name in English was in 2014. At right is displayed the color French fuchsia, which is the tone of fuchsia called fuchsia in a color list popular in France, fashion fuchsia is a color used in fashion when a slightly less saturated color than shocking pink is desired. It also goes by the name Hollywood cerise, Fuchsia rose is the color that was chosen as the 2001 Pantone color of the year by Pantone. The source of color is the Pantone Textile Paper eXtended color list. Although red-purple is a seldom used color name in English, in Spanish it is regarded one of the tones of purple. The color fuchsia purple is displayed at right, the source of this color is the Pantone Textile Paper eXtended color list, color #18-2436 TPX—Fuchsia Purple. Deep fuchsia is the color that is called fuchsia in the List of Crayola crayon colors, displayed at right is the color fandango. The first recorded use of fandango as a name in English was in 1925

Fuchsia (color)
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Flower of Fuchsia plant
Fuchsia (color)
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A sample of fuchsine dye in an aqueous solution.
Fuchsia (color)
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Crystals of fuchsine dye and the color they produce.
Fuchsia (color)
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On computer screens, red and blue light combined at full intensity produce fuchsia or magenta. The two web colors are identical, and have the same hex code, FF00FF.

70.
Indian red (color)
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Indian red is a pigment composed of naturally occurring iron oxides that is widely used in India. Other shades of iron oxides include Venetian Red, English Red, Chestnut is a color similar to but separate and distinct from Indian red. The name Indian red derives from the red soil found in India. The first recorded use of Indian red as a term in English was in 1792. At right is displayed the color Venetian red, Venetian red is a light and warm pigment that is a darker shade of scarlet, derived from nearly pure ferric oxide of the hematite type. Modern versions are made with synthetic red iron oxide. The first recorded use of Venetian red as a name in English was in 1753. Deep Indian red is the originally called Indian red from its formulation in 1903 until 1999. This color was produced in a special limited edition in which it was called Vermont maple syrup. At the request of educators worried that children believed the name represented the skin color of Native Americans, in reality, the color Indian red has nothing to do with American Indians but is an iron oxide pigment the use of which is popular in India. At right is displayed the color English red and this red is a tone of Indian red, made like Indian red with pigment made from iron oxide. The first recorded use of English red as a name in English was in the 1700s. In the Encyclopédie of Denis Diderot in 1765, alternate names for Indian red included what one also calls, however improperly, the source of this color is, ISCC-NBS Dictionary of Color Names – Color Sample of English Red. At right is displayed the color kobe, the color kobe is a dark tone of Indian red, made like Indian red from iron oxide pigment. The first recorded use of Kobe as a name in English was in 1924. Railroads The Furness Railway in the UK used Indian Red for its locomotive livery

Indian red (color)
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Furness Railway Nº20, as restored today

71.
Lust (color)
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Varieties of the color red may differ in hue, chroma or lightness, or in two or three of these qualities. Variations in value are also called tints and shades, a tint being a red or other hue mixed with white, a large selection of these various colors is shown below. At right is displayed the web color pink, a tint of red. The pink is considered to be a basic color term on its own. At right is displayed the tone of salmon that is called salmon in Crayola crayons. This color was introduced by Crayola in 1949, see the List of Crayola crayon colors. The color coral pink is displayed at right, an orange color. The web color salmon is displayed at right, the color displayed at right, Red, RGB red, or electric red is the brightest possible red that can be reproduced on a computer monitor. This color is an approximation of a red spectral color. It is one of the three colors of light in the RGB color model, along with green and blue. Portable devices such as mobile phones might have even narrower gamut due to this purity–power tradeoff and their red may be less colorful and this color is also the color called red in the X11 web colors, which were originally formulated in 1987. It is also called color wheel red and it is at precisely zero degrees on the HSV color wheel, also known as the RGB color wheel. Pigment red is the red that is achieved by mixing process magenta. This is the red that is shown in the diagram located at the bottom of the following website offering tintbooks for CMYK printing. The purpose of the CMYK color system is to provide the maximum possible gamut of colors capable of being reproduced in printing. Psychedelic art made people used to brighter colors of red, the result approximates the electric red shown above. The color defined as red in the NCS or Natural Color System is shown at right, the Natural Color System is a color system based on the four unique hues or psychological primary colors red, yellow, green, and blue. The NCS is based on the opponent process theory of vision, the Natural Color System is widely used in Scandinavia

72.
Maroon
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Maroon is a dark brownish red color which takes its name from the French word marron, or chestnut. The Oxford English Dictionary describes it as a crimson or claret color. In the RGB model used to create colors on computer screens and televisions, Maroon is derived from French marron, itself from the Italian marrone, from the medieval Greek maraon. The first recorded use of maroon as a name in English was in 1789. Displayed on the right is the tone of maroon that was designated as maroon in Crayola crayons beginning in 1949. It is a medium shade of maroon halfway between brown and rose. The color halfway between brown and rose is crimson, so color is also a tone of crimson. Displayed on the right is the color maroon, i. e. maroon as defined in the X11 color names. See the chart Color name clashes in the X11 color names article to see those colors which are different in HTML/CSS, displayed on the right is the web color dark red. Books In The Silence of the Lambs by Thomas Harris, the serial killer Dr Hannibal Lecter has eyes that are described as being maroon brown, Maroon is frequently associated with Ron Weasley, a character in J. K. Rowlings Harry Potter series, though Ron tells Harry that he dislikes the color, business Maroon is the main color of the Hollister Co. logo. Maroon was the livery applied to coaching stock of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, Maroon is the signature color of the Japanese private rail company, Hankyu Railway, decided by a vote of women customers in 1923. In the 1990s, Hankyu planned an alternative color as it was developing new vehicles and that plan was called off following opposition by local residents. Government Maroon is the color associated with the historic County of Midlothian. While the declared shade of maroon is RGB 115/24/44, Queenslanders display the spirit of the state by wearing all shades of maroon at sporting, Maroon is the official color of the Socialist Party of America. Military The distinctive maroon beret has been worn by airborne forces around the world since 1942, Maroon 5 is a pop rock band. Religion Vajrayana Buddhist monks, such as the Dalai Lama, wear maroon robes, Maroon, along with golden yellow, is worn in the Philippines by Catholic devotees of the Black Nazarene, especially during its procession on 9 January. School colors Many universities, colleges, high schools and other institutions have maroon as one of their school colors

73.
Oxblood
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Oxblood is a color considered to be a dark shade of red. It resembles burgundy, but has purple and dark brown hues. The first use of the term oxblood as a name in the English language dates back to 1695–1705. The name is derived from the color of the blood of an ox, the ox blood was used as a pigment to dye fabric, leather and paint. It is most commonly described as a red with purple. The blood would change from a red to a darker, oxidized. The term oxblood can be used to describe a range of colors red to reddish-purple to nearly black with red, brown. The color is used in fashion terms and it was popular and the name was used frequently in the 2012 Fall/Winter fashion season. Oxblood is a common color for leather shoes. It is sometimes called cordovan although this more properly refers to a particular type of horse leather. During the Fall/Winter fashion seasons of 2012 and 2013, oxblood was one of the commonly used colors, oxblood lipstick was popular, as well as oxblood-colored apparel and accessories

Oxblood
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Oxblood, the color.

74.
Pink
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Pink is a pale red color which takes its name from the flower of the same name. According to surveys in Europe and the United States, pink is the color most often associated with charm, politeness, sensitivity, tenderness, sweetness, childhood, femininity, when combined with white, it is associated with innocence. When combined with violet or black, it is associated with eroticism, Pink was first used as a color name in the late 17th century. The color pink is named after the flowers called pinks, flowering plants in the genus Dianthus, the name derives from the frilled edge of the flowers—the verb to pink dates from the 14th century and means to decorate with a perforated or punched pattern. The color pink has been described in literature since ancient times, in the Odyssey, written in approximately 800 BCE, Homer wrote Then, when the child of morning, rosy-fingered dawn appeared. Roman poets also described the color, roseus is the Latin word meaning rosy or pink. Lucretius used the word to describe the dawn in his epic poem On the Nature of Things, Pink was not a common color in the fashion of the Middle Ages, nobles usually preferred brighter reds, such as crimson. However, it did appear in fashion, and in religious art. In the 13th and 14th century, in works by Cimabue and Duccio, the Christ child was sometimes portrayed dressed in pink, in the high Renaissance painting the Madonna of the Pinks by Raphael, the Christ child is presenting a pink flower to the Virgin Mary. The pink was a symbol of marriage, showing a spiritual marriage between the mother and child, during the Renaissance, pink was mainly used for the flesh color of faces and hands. John’s white, as it is called in Florence, and this white is made from thoroughly white, and when these two pigments have been thoroughly mulled together, make little loaves of them like half walnuts and leave them to dry. When you need some, take much of it seems appropriate. And this pigment does you great credit if you use it for painting faces, hands, the golden age of the color pink was the Rococo Period in the 18th century, when pastel colors became very fashionable in all the courts of Europe. Pink was particularly championed by Madame de Pompadour, the mistress of King Louis XV of France. Who wore combinations of blue and pink, and had a particular tint of pink made for her by the Sevres porcelain factory, created by adding nuances of blue, black. In this painting, it symbolized childhood, innocence and tenderness, sarah Moulton was just eleven years old when the picture was painted, and died the following year. In 19th century England, pink ribbons or decorations were worn by young boys, boys were simply considered small men. In fact the clothing for children in the 19th century was almost always white, since, before the invention of chemical dyes, queen Victoria was painted in 1850 with her seventh child and third son, Prince Arthur, who wore white and pink

Pink
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The color pink takes its name from the flowers called pinks, members of the genus Dianthus.
Pink
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Pink
Pink
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In most European languages, pink is called rose or rosa, after the rose flower.
Pink
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Cherry blossoms in Senai, Miyagi, Japan. The Japanese language has different words for the pink of cherry blossoms (sakura-iro), and peach blossoms (momo-iro). Recently the word pinku has also become popular.

75.
Red-violet
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Red-violet is a rich color of high medium saturation about 3/4 of the way between red and magenta, closer to magenta than to red. It is classified in color theory as one of the purple colors—a non-spectral color between red and violet that is a version of a color on the line of purples on the CIE chromaticity diagram. Both its saturation and brightness falling short of 100%, red-violet is not a pure chroma, there is a color of similar hue that, however, comes close to being a pure chroma, process magenta. The pure chroma color composed of parts of magenta and red is called rose. The Munsell color system also refers to red-violet as purple, in the Munsell color system and this convention is for chromatic purposes, since Red-Purple lies between violet and printers magenta. The color that is the complement of red-violet, mint green and it is very close to sea green, but highly saturated, and of a bright hue. In some traditional usage, red-violet is the given to an intermediate or tertiary color that, along with yellow-orange and also green-blue. Most contemporary usage, however, would list magenta as the name for the color in question. Red-violet or pigment purple represents the way the color purple was normally reproduced in pigments, paints and this color is displayed at right and is identical to the web color medium violet red. Reproducing electric purple in pigment requires adding some white pigment and an amount of blue pigment to red-violet pigment. Even then, the reproduction will not be exact because it is impossible for pigment colors to be so bright as colors displayed on a computer, at the right is displayed the color kobi. The color name kobi for this tone of red-violet has been in use since 2001. The color pink lavender is displayed at the right, the source of this color is the Pantone Textile Paper eXtended color list, color #14-3207 TPX—Pink Lavender. Puce is a medium grayish red-violet color, the color pale red-violet is displayed at the right. This color is a tone of red-violet. The color violet-red is displayed at the right, violet-red, a bright tone of red-violet, has been a Crayola color since 1958. Although red-purple is a seldom used color name in English, in Spanish it is regarded one of the tones of purple. The color blush is displayed at the right, the first recorded use of blush as a color name in English was in 1590

Red-violet
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A red-violet used on a postage stamp

76.
Ruby (color)
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Ruby is a color that is a representation of the color of the cut and polished ruby gemstone and is a shade of red. The somewhat deeper color of the uncut, unpolished ruby crystal is called rubelite, the first recorded use of ruby as a color name in English was in 1572. Displayed at right is the Pantone color rubine red, at right is displayed the color ruber. The source of color is, ISCC-NBS Dictionary of Color Names --Color Sample of Ruber. Medium ruby is the color called ruby in Crayola Gem Tones, displayed at right is the color ruby red. This is one of the colors in the RAL color matching system, the RAL color list originated in 1927, and it reached its present form in 1961. Displayed at right is the big dip oruby. Big dip oruby is one of the colors in the set of metallic Crayola crayons called Metallic FX. This is supposed to be a metallic color, however, there is no mechanism for displaying metallic colors on a flat computer screen. At right is displayed the color antique ruby, the first recorded use of antique ruby as a color name in English was in 1926. The color antique ruby is a tone of ruby. The source of color is, ISCC-NBS Dictionary of Color Names --Color Sample of Antique Ruby. Displayed at right is deep tone of ruby that is called ruby in the British Standards 381 color list and this color is #542 on the 381 color list. The 381 color list is for used in identification, coding. The British Standard color lists were first formulated in 1930 and reached their present form in 1955, the ruby-throated hummingbird is a small hummingbird. It is the species of hummingbird that regularly nests east of the Mississippi River in North America. Infrared light in the portion of the spectrum where it is visible to humans appears ruby red. Starting at about 660 nm in the red, a monochromatic source such as an LED or laser begins to look very slightly purplish

77.
Tuscan red
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Tuscan red is a shade of red that was used on the passenger cars of the Pennsylvania Railroad, as well as on the PRR TrucTrailers. It also was used extensively by the New South Wales Government Railways in Australia, the Canadian Pacific Railway used it historically and painted its luxury revival cars in this color. It is also a Prismacolor colored pencil, the first recorded use of Tuscan red as a color name in English was in the early 1800s. The color was popular in the late 19th century but non-standardized and it became the ‘signature color’ of the Pennsylvania Railroad, which instituted specifications for its formulation. Before the 1880s, pigments extracted from Brazil wood were used in its manufacture, a 1916 US National Bureau of Standards circular describes it as based on Indian red, which derives its color from iron oxides. The color was then modified by treatment with a lake pigment. The pigment’s stability lent itself to use in applications such as rail cars. Lower-cost imitations were made without iron oxides by using gypsum or whiting as a base, the traditional color Tuscan red is shown above. The lighter tones of Tuscan red tend toward tan and beige, the darker tones of Tuscan red tend toward purplish tones. These purplish tones of Tuscan red are exemplified by the color deep Tuscan red, displayed at right is the color Tuscan. The first recorded use of Tuscan as a name in English was in 1887. The color Tuscany is displayed at right, the first recorded use of Tuscany as a color name in English was in 1922. The source of color is the Pantone Textile Paper eXtended color list. Displayed at right is the color Tuscan tan, the first recorded use of Tuscan tan as a color name in English was in 1926. Medium Tuscan red is that tone of Tuscan red that is called Tuscan red in the ISCC-NBS color list, displayed at right is the color Tuscan brown. The first recorded use of Tuscan brown as a name in English was in 1913

78.
Tyrian purple
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Tyrian purple, also known as Tyrian red, royal purple, imperial purple or imperial dye, is a bromine-containing reddish-purple natural dye. It is a produced by several species of predatory sea snails in the family Muricidae. In ancient times, extracting this dye involved tens of thousands of snails and substantial labor, Tyrian purple may first have been used by the ancient Phoenicians as early as 1570 BC. The dye was greatly prized in antiquity because the colour did not easily fade and its significance is such that the name Phoenicia means land of purple. It came in shades, the most prized being that of blackish clotted blood. Tyrian purple was expensive, the 4th-century-BC historian Theopompus reported, Purple for dyes fetched its weight in silver at Colophon in Asia Minor, the expense meant that purple-dyed textiles became status symbols, and early sumptuary laws restricted their uses. The production of Tyrian purple was tightly controlled in Byzantium and was subsidized by the imperial court, later a child born to a reigning emperor was said to be porphyrogenitos, born in the purple. Some speculate that the dye extracted from the Bolinus brandaris is known as argaman in Biblical Hebrew, another dye extracted from a related sea snail, Hexaplex trunculus, produced a blue colour which according to some is known as tekhelet, used in garments worn for ritual purposes. The dye substance is a secretion from the hypobranchial gland of one of several species of medium-sized predatory sea snails that are found in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. The dye is a compound of bromine, a class of compounds often found in algae and in some other sea life. In nature the snails use the secretion as part of their behaviour in order to sedate prey. The snail also secretes this substance when it is attacked by predators, therefore, the dye can be collected either by milking the snails, which is more labour-intensive but is a renewable resource, or by collecting and destructively crushing the snails. David Jacoby remarks that twelve thousand snails of Murex brandaris yield no more than 1.4 g of pure dye, the dog whelk Nucella lapillus, from the North Atlantic, can also be used to produce red-purple and violet dyes. The Phoenicians also made a dye, sometimes referred to as royal blue or hyacinth purple. The Phoenicians established a production facility on the Iles Purpuraires at Mogador. The sea snail harvested at this western Moroccan dye production facility was Hexaplex trunculus also known by the older name Murex trunculus and this second species of dye murex is found today on the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts of Europe and Africa. The colour-fast dye was an item of trade, prized by Romans. Used as a dye, the shifts from blue to reddish-purple

Tyrian purple
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Two shells of Bolinus brandaris, the spiny dye-murex, source of the dye
Tyrian purple
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A small amount of dibromindigo as a powder, and its effect on a piece of fabric
Tyrian purple
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Byzantine Emperor Justinian I clad in Tyrian purple, 6th-century mosaic at Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy
Tyrian purple
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Purple dye-bath with fresh Hexaplex trunculus

79.
Wine (color)
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The color wine is a dark shade of red. It is a representation of the color of red wine. The first recorded use of wine as a name in English was in 1705. The term Bordeaux is also used to describe this color. The source of color is, ISCC-NBS Dictionary of Color Names --Color Sample of Wine. The color champagne is displayed at right, the first recorded use of champagne as a color name in English was in 1915. At right is displayed the color claret, another name for this color is bordeaux. This color is a representation of the color of bordeaux wine. The first recorded use of claret as a name in English was in 1547. Burgundy is a red color associated with the Burgundy wine of the same name, the first recorded use of burgundy as a color name in English was in 1881. At right is displayed the color wine dregs, a tone of the color wine. The first recorded use of wine dregs as a name in English was in 1924. Fashion The color wine is used in fashion for various articles of clothing. Sports Wine is the color of the National Basketball Associations Cleveland Cavaliers along with gold. Claret is a colour for Association Football clubs, it is used by FC Barcelona. West Ham United F. C. Burnley F. C. Northampton Town F. C. Bradford City A. F. C. and Scunthorpe United F. C

80.
Shades of orange
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In optics, orange has a wavelength between approximately 585 and 620 nm and a hue of 30° in HSV color space. In the RGB color space it is a tertiary color numerically halfway between gamma-compressed red and yellow, as can be seen in the RGB color wheel, the complementary color of orange is azure. Orange pigments are largely in the ochre or cadmium families, varieties of the color orange may differ in hue, chroma or lightness, or in two or three of these qualities. Variations in value are also called tints and shades, a tint being an orange or other hue mixed with white, a large selection of these various colors is shown below. At right is the orange, also known as color wheel orange. This is the tone of orange that is a pure chroma on the HSV color wheel, the complementary color of orange is azure. At right is the web color called orange and it is defined in CSS as the hex triplet FFA500. The web color called dark orange is at the right, at right is displayed the color that is called orange in Pantone. The source of color is the Pantone Textile Paper eXtended color list. At right is displayed the color that is called orange by Crayola, orange was one of the original colors formulated by Crayola in 1903. Displayed at right is the web color papaya whip, a tint of orange. Papaya whip is a representation of the color that would result if mashed papayas were blended with ice cream, whipped cream. At right is displayed the color peach, the first recorded use of peach as a color name in English was in 1588. Displayed at right is the light orange. This color was formulated for Crayola colored pencils, at right is displayed the color apricot. Apricot has been in use as a name since 1851. Displayed at right is the color melon and this color is a representation of the color of the interior flesh of a cantaloupe, the most commonly consumed melon. The first recorded use of melon as a name in English was in 1892

81.
Amber (color)
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The color amber is a pure chroma color, located on the color wheel midway between the colors of gold and orange. In English the first recorded use of the term as a color name, Amber is one of several technically defined colors used in automotive signal lamps. In North America, SAE standard J578 governs the colorimetry of vehicle lights, both standards designate a range of orange-yellow hues in the CIE color space as amber. In the past, the ECE amber definition was more restrictive than the SAE definition, the SAE formally uses the term yellow amber, though the color is most often referred to as yellow. This is not the same as selective yellow, a used in some fog lamps and headlamps. The color box shown above is an approximation, created by taking the centroid of the standard definition and moving it towards the D65 white point. Computers VT220 computer terminals were available with amber phosphors on their CRTs, interior design The original Amber Room in the Catherine Palace of Tsarskoye Selo near Saint Petersburg was a complete chamber decoration of amber panels backed with gold leaf and mirrors. Due to its beauty, it was sometimes dubbed the Eighth Wonder of the World. Sports In Gaelic games Armagh play in a darker Amber color, Offaly play in the colors of the Irish flag and Kilkenny also play in black and amber. Amber is a worn by English Football Clubs Hull City AFC, Bradford City AFC, Barnet FC, Shrewsbury Town FC, Mansfield Town, Cambridge United FC. The color is worn by the Scottish football club Motherwell FC. Traffic engineering Amber is used in traffic lights and turn signals, business management Amber is used in business management to indicate a status of work, as in RAG status. R stands for Red, A stands for Amber, usually represented as the color Yellow in the reports, spectral color List of colors UNECE Regulation No. 6, Uniform Provisions Concerning the Approval of Direction Indicators for Motor Vehicles,48, Uniform Provisions Concerning the Approval of Vehicles with Regard to the Installation of Lighting and Light-Signalling Devices

82.
Brown
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In the CMYK color model used in printing or painting, brown is made by combining red, black, and yellow, or red, yellow, and blue. In the RGB color model used to project colors onto television screens and computer monitors, brown is made by combining red and green, the brown color is seen widely in nature, in wood, soil, human hair color, eye color and skin pigmentation. Brown is the color of wood or rich soil. According to public opinion surveys in Europe and the United States, brown is the least favorite color of the public, the color most often associated with plainness, the rustic, the term is from Old English brún, in origin for any dusky or dark shade of color. The first recorded use of brown as a name in English was in 1000. The Common Germanic adjective *brûnoz, *brûnâ meant both dark colors and a glistening or shining quality, whence burnish, the current meaning developed in Middle English from the 14th century. In Southeast Asia, the name often comes from chocolate, coklat in Malay. In Japan, the word means the color of tea. Brown has been used in art since prehistoric times, paintings using umber, a natural clay pigment composed of iron oxide and manganese oxide, have been dated to 40,000 BC. Paintings of brown horses and other animals have found on the walls of the Lascaux cave dating back about 17,300 years. The female figures in ancient Egyptian tomb paintings have brown skin, light tan was often used on painted Greek amphorae and vases, either as a background for black figures, or the reverse. The Ancient Greeks and Romans produced a fine reddish-brown ink, of a color called sepia and this ink was used by Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael and other artists during the Renaissance, and by artists up until the present time. In Ancient Rome, brown clothing was associated with the classes or barbarians. The term for the plebeians, or urban poor, was pullati, in the Middle Ages brown robes were worn by monks of the Franciscan order, as a sign of their humility and poverty. Each social class was expected to wear a color suitable to their station, russet was a coarse homespun cloth made of wool and dyed with woad and madder to give it a subdued grey or brown shade. By the statute of 1363, poor English people were required to wear russet, the medieval poem Piers Plowman describes the virtuous Christian, And is gladde of a goune of a graye russet As of a tunicle of Tarse or of trye scarlet. The umbers were not widely used in Europe before the end of the fifteenth century, artists began using far greater use of browns when oil painting arrived in the late fifteenth century. In Northern Europe, Jan van Eyck featured rich earth browns in his portraits to set off the brighter colors, the 17th and 18th century saw the greatest use of brown

83.
Champagne (color)
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The color champagne is a name given for various very pale tints of yellowish-orange that are close to beige. The colors name is derived from the color of the beverage Champagne. The color champagne is displayed at right, the first recorded use of champagne as a color name in English was in 1915. At right is displayed the color medium champagne, the medium tone of champagne displayed at right is the color called champagne in the Dictionary of Color Names in color sample #89. The deep tone of champagne displayed at right is the color called champagne in the Dictionary of Color Names in color sample #73, at right is displayed the color dark champagne. The dark tone of champagne displayed at right is the color called champagne in the ISCC-NBS Dictionary of Color Names in color sample #90, animal husbandry Champagne is a horse color used to describe some horses. Astronomy SN 2003fg was an aberrant type Ia supernova discovered in 2003 and it was nicknamed the Champagne Supernova after the 1996 song Champagne Supernova by the English rock band Oasis. Merchandise Champagne is most often used to describe gemstones or paint finishes in order to imply that one is purchasing a luxury product, music Champagne is a song by alternative/rock/reggae/hip-hop band 311, off their album From Chaos, released in 2001. Champagne Supernova is a released in 1996 by the band Oasis

84.
Coral (color)
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The various tones of the color coral are representations of the colors of those cnidarians known as precious corals. The web color coral is a shade of orange and it is displayed at the upper right. The first recorded use of coral as a name in English was in 1513. The color coral pink is displayed at right, a pinkish color, the complementary color of coral pink is teal. The first recorded use of pink as a color name in English was in 1892. The web color coral is displayed at right. Sports Coral is one of the Miami Dolphins colors, literature Petrarchan poetry often describes womens lips as coral

85.
Coffee (color)
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Coffee is a brownish color that is a representation of the color of a roasted coffee bean. Different types of coffee beans have different colors when roasted--the color coffee represents an average, the first recorded use of coffee as a color name in English was in 1695. The source of the color displayed at right is the ISCC-NBS Color List, the color displayed at right is café au lait, also known as coffee and milk or latte. This is a representation of the color of coffee mixed with milk, the first recorded use of cafe au lait as a color name in English was in 1839. The source of the color cafe au lait displayed above right is the ISCC-NBS Color List, the color displayed at right is café noir, also known as black coffee. It is a representation of the color of brewed black coffee, the first recorded use of cafe noir as a color name in English was in 1928. The source of the color cafe noir displayed at right is the ISCC-NBS Color List, ethnography African people are sometimes described as being coffee colored. People who are mulatto sometimes describe themselves or are described as being colored café au lait, List of colors YouTube—Coffee Roasting Basics--Color Changes

86.
Orange (color)
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Orange is the colour of carrots, pumpkins and apricots. It is between red and yellow in the spectrum of light, and on the traditional painters colour wheel and it is named after the fruit of the same name. In Asia it is an important symbolic colour of Buddhism and Hinduism, the colour orange is named after the appearance of the ripe orange fruit. The word comes from the Old French orange, from the old term for the fruit, the French word, in turn, comes from the Italian arancia, based on Arabic nāranj, derived from the Sanskrit naranga. The first recorded use of orange as a name in English was in 1512. Prior to this word being introduced to the English-speaking world, saffron already existed in the English language, crog also referred to the saffron colour, so that orange was also referred to as ġeolurēad for reddish orange, or ġeolucrog for yellowish orange. Alternatively, orange things were sometimes described as red such as red deer, red hair, in ancient Egypt artists used an orange mineral pigment called realgar for tomb paintings, as well as other uses. It was also used later by Medieval artists for the colouring of manuscripts, pigments were also made in ancient times from a mineral known as orpiment. Orpiment was an important item of trade in the Roman Empire and was used as a medicine in China although it contains arsenic and is highly toxic and it was also used as a fly poison and to poison arrows. Because of its colour, it was also a favourite with alchemists searching for a way to make gold. Before the late 15th century, the colour orange existed in Europe, portuguese merchants brought the first orange trees to Europe from Asia in the late 15th and early 16th century, along with the Sanskrit naranga, which gradually became orange in English. The House of Orange-Nassau was one of the most influential houses in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. It originated in 1163 the tiny Principality of Orange, a state of 108 square miles north of Avignon in southern France. The family of the Prince of Orange eventually adopted the name, the colour came to be associated with Protestantism, due to participation by the House of Orange on the Protestant side in the French Wars of Religion. One member of the house, William I of Orange, organised the Dutch resistance against Spain, another member, William III of Orange, became King of England in 1689, after the downfall of the Catholic James II. Due to William III, orange became an important political colour in Britain, William was a Protestant, and as such he defended the Protestant minority of Ireland against the majority Roman Catholic population. As a result, the Protestants of Ireland were known as Orangemen, Orange eventually became one of the colours of the Irish flag, symbolising the Protestant heritage. When the Dutch settlers of South Africa rebelled against the British in the late 19th century, in the United States, the flag of the City of New York has an orange stripe, to remember the Dutch colonists who founded the city

Orange (color)
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The colour orange derives its name from the orange fruit.
Orange (color)
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Orange
Orange (color)
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Lifeboats in Arklow Harbour, Ireland. Orange is chosen for lifeboats and lifesaving jackets because of its high visibility.
Orange (color)
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A young Buddhist monk in Laos

87.
Orange (colour)
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Orange is the colour of carrots, pumpkins and apricots. It is between red and yellow in the spectrum of light, and on the traditional painters colour wheel and it is named after the fruit of the same name. In Asia it is an important symbolic colour of Buddhism and Hinduism, the colour orange is named after the appearance of the ripe orange fruit. The word comes from the Old French orange, from the old term for the fruit, the French word, in turn, comes from the Italian arancia, based on Arabic nāranj, derived from the Sanskrit naranga. The first recorded use of orange as a name in English was in 1512. Prior to this word being introduced to the English-speaking world, saffron already existed in the English language, crog also referred to the saffron colour, so that orange was also referred to as ġeolurēad for reddish orange, or ġeolucrog for yellowish orange. Alternatively, orange things were sometimes described as red such as red deer, red hair, in ancient Egypt artists used an orange mineral pigment called realgar for tomb paintings, as well as other uses. It was also used later by Medieval artists for the colouring of manuscripts, pigments were also made in ancient times from a mineral known as orpiment. Orpiment was an important item of trade in the Roman Empire and was used as a medicine in China although it contains arsenic and is highly toxic and it was also used as a fly poison and to poison arrows. Because of its colour, it was also a favourite with alchemists searching for a way to make gold. Before the late 15th century, the colour orange existed in Europe, portuguese merchants brought the first orange trees to Europe from Asia in the late 15th and early 16th century, along with the Sanskrit naranga, which gradually became orange in English. The House of Orange-Nassau was one of the most influential houses in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. It originated in 1163 the tiny Principality of Orange, a state of 108 square miles north of Avignon in southern France. The family of the Prince of Orange eventually adopted the name, the colour came to be associated with Protestantism, due to participation by the House of Orange on the Protestant side in the French Wars of Religion. One member of the house, William I of Orange, organised the Dutch resistance against Spain, another member, William III of Orange, became King of England in 1689, after the downfall of the Catholic James II. Due to William III, orange became an important political colour in Britain, William was a Protestant, and as such he defended the Protestant minority of Ireland against the majority Roman Catholic population. As a result, the Protestants of Ireland were known as Orangemen, Orange eventually became one of the colours of the Irish flag, symbolising the Protestant heritage. When the Dutch settlers of South Africa rebelled against the British in the late 19th century, in the United States, the flag of the City of New York has an orange stripe, to remember the Dutch colonists who founded the city

Orange (colour)
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The colour orange derives its name from the orange fruit.
Orange (colour)
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Orange
Orange (colour)
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Lifeboats in Arklow Harbour, Ireland. Orange is chosen for lifeboats and lifesaving jackets because of its high visibility.
Orange (colour)
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A young Buddhist monk in Laos

88.
Vermilion
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Vermilion is a brilliant red or scarlet pigment originally made from the powdered mineral cinnabar, and is also the name of the resulting color. The word vermilion came from the Old French word vermeillon, which was derived from vermeil, from the Latin vermiculus and it has the same origin as the English word vermin. The name originated because it had a color to the natural red dye made from an insect, the Kermes vermilio. The words for the color in Portuguese, Galician and Catalan have the same origin, the first recorded use of vermilion as a color name in English was in 1289. The term cinnabar was used interchangeably with vermilion until the 17th century, by the late 18th century cinnabar applied to the unground natural mineral only. Vermilion is a dense, opaque pigment with a clear, brilliant hue, the pigment was originally made by grinding a powder of cinnabar, which contains mercury. The chemical formula of the pigment is HgS, like most mercury compounds, Vermilion is not one specific hue, Mercuric sulfides make a range of warm hues – from bright orange-red to a duller reddish-purple that resembles fresh duck liver. Differences in hue are caused by the size of the particles of pigment. Larger crystals produce duller and less-orange hue, Cinnabar pigment was a side-product of the mining of mercury, and mining cinnabar was difficult, expensive and dangerous, because of the toxicity of mercury. The Greek philosopher Theophrastus of Eresus described the process in De Lapidibus, efforts began early to find a better way to make the pigment. The Chinese were probably the first to make a synthetic vermilion as early as the 4th century BC, the Greek alchemist Zosimus of Panopolis wrote that such a method existed. In the early ninth century the process was described by the Arab or Persian alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan in his book of recipes of colors. The process described by Jabir ibn Hayyan was fairly simple, Mercury and sulfur were mixed together, forming a black compound of sulphide of mercury, called Aethiopes mineralis. This was then heated in a flask, the compound vaporized, and recondensed in the top of the flask. The flask was broken, the vermilion was taken out, when first created the pigment was almost black, but as it was ground the red color appeared. The longer the color was ground, the finer the color became, the Italian Renaissance artist Cennino Cennini wrote, if you were to grind it every day even for twenty years it would keep getting better and more perfect. During the 17th century a new method of making the pigment was introduced, Mercury and melted sulfur were mashed to make black mercury sulfide, then heated in retort, producing vapors condensing as a bright, red mercury sulfide. To remove the sulfur these crystals were treated with an alkali, washed

Vermilion
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The bright vermilion murals in the Villa of Mysteries in Pompeii (before 79 AD) were painted with ground and powdered cinnabar, the most expensive red pigment of the time.
Vermilion
Vermilion
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A page of the Roman de Girart de Roussillon (1450). Both vermilion and minium, or red lead, were used in Medieval manuscripts. Vermilion, as expensive as gilding, was usually reserved for the most important illustrations or designs.
Vermilion
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A "Chinese red" lacquerware roundbox from the Qing dynasty (1736-1795), from the National Museum of China in Beijing.

89.
Peach (color)
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Peach is a color that is named for the pale color of the exterior flesh of the peach fruit. Like the color apricot, the color called peach is paler than most actual peach fruits, peach can also be described as a pale, pinkish-yellow. At right is displayed the color peach, the shade of peach shown at right approximates the color of the interior flesh of that variety of peaches known as white peaches. The first recorded use of peach as a name in English was in 1588. The etymology of the peach, the word comes from the Middle English peche, derived from Middle French, in turn derived from Latin persica. In actuality, the origin of the peach fruit was from China. Displayed at right is the web color peach puff, displayed at right is the deep tone of peach called peach in Crayola crayons. Fungi The peach-colored fly agaric is a peach-colored mushroom, sexuality In the bandana code of the gay leather subculture, wearing a peach bandana means that one is a bear or a cub looking for a bear

Peach (color)
–
The flesh of the peach fruit, depending on the variety of peach, can be peach colored, or more pale, or more yellow-orange as here.
Peach (color)

90.
Peach-orange
–
Peach is a color that is named for the pale color of the exterior flesh of the peach fruit. Like the color apricot, the color called peach is paler than most actual peach fruits, peach can also be described as a pale, pinkish-yellow. At right is displayed the color peach, the shade of peach shown at right approximates the color of the interior flesh of that variety of peaches known as white peaches. The first recorded use of peach as a name in English was in 1588. The etymology of the peach, the word comes from the Middle English peche, derived from Middle French, in turn derived from Latin persica. In actuality, the origin of the peach fruit was from China. Displayed at right is the web color peach puff, displayed at right is the deep tone of peach called peach in Crayola crayons. Fungi The peach-colored fly agaric is a peach-colored mushroom, sexuality In the bandana code of the gay leather subculture, wearing a peach bandana means that one is a bear or a cub looking for a bear

Peach-orange
–
The flesh of the peach fruit, depending on the variety of peach, can be peach colored, or more pale, or more yellow-orange as here.
Peach-orange

91.
Sunset (color)
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The color sunset is a pale tint of orange. It is a representation of the color of clouds when the sunlight from a sunset is reflected from them. The first recorded use of sunset as a name in English was in 1916. The color sunglow is displayed at right, the first recorded use of sunglow as a color name in English was in 1924. The Crayola crayon color was formulated in 1990, at right is displayed the color sunray. The first recorded use of sunray as a name in English was in 1926. The color sunset orange is displayed at left, Sunset orange was formulated as a Crayola color in 1997. Interior Design Sunset is popular color in interior design which is used when a pale warm tint is desired

92.
Tawny (color)
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Tawny is a light brown to brownish-orange color. Other than CD5700, there are other hex numbers that are used for this color, dictionary of Color lists tawny as AE6938 or A67B5B, and tawny birch as A87C6D, A67B5B or 958070. It also lists lion tawny as C19A6B or 826644, Orange tawny is listed as CB6D51. Resene RGB Values List includes Resene Tawny Port as 105,37,69, while tan is defined since HTML4 and elsewhere, the color names tawny, tenné and fulvous do not appear in the standard web colors used by HTML, CSS, and SVG. Most standard X11 color name files also do not have these names, however, many color lists include Tenné as #CD5700. The proprietary Pantone TC color system includes Tawny Olive, Tawny Birch, Tawny Brown, Tawny Orange and it also has several shades of tan, Apricot Tan, Copper Tan, Rose Tan, Tan, Pastel Rose Tan, and Indian Tan. The color burnt orange, having the hex number CC5500, is considered to be a close approximation to tawny. The color tan may also be considered synonymous with tawny, or a different shade, Fulvous, meaning tawny-colored, may also be considered synonymous or its own shade. Related colors Synonyms Colors listed as synonyms by HP Labs Online Color Thesaurus, variations Fulvous Tan Tenné, the color used in heraldry Lion Camel Fallow List of colors

Tawny (color)
–
The tawny owl (Strix aluco) gives an example of tawny used as an adjective in a name. Latin scientific names may use the adjective fulvus (or variations), meaning tawny or fulvous. An example is Cinnycerthia fulva, the binomial name of the fulvous wren.

93.
Shades of yellow
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Varieties of the color yellow may differ in hue, chroma or lightness, or in two or three of these qualities. Variations in value are also called tints and shades, a tint being a yellow or other hue mixed with white, a large selection of these various colors is shown below. Displayed at right is the web color light yellow, displayed at right is the web color cream, a pale tint of yellow. Displayed at right is the web color lemon chiffon Lemon chiffon is a color that is reminiscent of the color of lemon chiffon cake. The color box at right shows the most intense yellow representable in 8-bit RGB color model and this color is also called color wheel yellow. It is at precisely 60 degrees on the HSV color wheel, process yellow, also known as canary yellow, is one of the three colors typically used as subtractive primary colors, along with magenta and cyan. Process yellow is not an RGB color, and in the CMYK color model there is no fixed conversion from CMYK primaries to RGB, different formulations are used for printers ink, so there can be variations in the printed color that is pure yellow ink. The first recorded use of yellow as a color name in English was in 1789. The color defined as yellow in the NCS or Natural Color System is shown at right, the Natural Color System is a color system based on the four unique hues or psychological primary colors red, yellow, green, and blue. The NCS is based on the opponent process theory of vision, the “Natural Color System” is widely used in Scandinavia. The color defined as yellow in the Munsell color system is shown at right, in order for all the colors to be spaced uniformly, it was found necessary to use a color wheel with five primary colors—red, yellow, green, blue, and purple. The Munsell colors displayed are only approximate as they have adjusted to fit into the sRGB gamut. The color that is called yellow in Pantone is displayed at right, the source of this color is the Pantone Textile Paper eXtended color list, color #C, EC, M, PC, U, or CP—Yellow. The color that is called yellow in Crayola crayons is displayed at right, Yellow was one of the original Crayola colors formulated in 1903. The color unmellow yellow is shown at right, the color unmellow yellow was formulated by Crayola in 1990. The color unmellow yellow is a fluorescent yellow to Laser Lemon. In crayons, the color may look a little bit orange-ish, the color is supposed to be fluorescent, but there is no mechanism to display fluorescence on a flat computer screen. Lemon is a color somewhat resembling yellow and named after the fruit, the color lemon is a representation of the color of the outer skin of a lemon

Shades of yellow
–
Red, green and blue lights, representing the three basic additive primary colors of the RGB color system, red, green, and blue. Pure yellow light is composed of equal amount of red and green light.
Shades of yellow
–
Yellow
Shades of yellow
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Two lemons, one whole and one sliced in half
Shades of yellow
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The Xuande Emperor of the Chinese Ming dynasty —reigned 1425 to 1435

94.
Shades of blue
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Varieties of the color blue may differ in hue, chroma, or lightness, or in two or three of these qualities. Variations in value are also called tints and shades, a tint being a blue or other hue mixed with white, a large selection of these various colors is shown below. In this section, the term tint is used in its sense as used in color theory. Baby blue is known as one of the pastel colors, with a hue code of 199, this color is a tone of azure. The first recorded use of blue as a color name in English was in 1892. The web color blue is displayed in the color box at right. Variations of this color are known as sky blue, baby blue, within the X11 color system, with a hue code of 194, this color is closer to cyan than to blue. The first recorded use of blue as a color term in English is in the year 1915. Shown in the right is the color periwinkle, or periwinkle blue, another name for this color is lavender blue. The color is a mixture of white and blue and it is named after the Periwinkle flower and is also commonly referred to as a tone of light blue. The web color blue is shown on the right. The first recorded use of blue as a color name in English was in 1774. Displayed at right is the color morning blue and it is a representation of the color of the morning sky. The year the first recorded use of morning blue as a name in English is unknown. Source of color, ISCC-NBS Dictionary of Color Names --Color Sample of Morning Blue The color defined as blue in the RGB color model and this color is the brightest possible blue that can be reproduced on a computer screen, and is the color named blue in X11. It is one of the three colors used on the RGB color space, along with red and green. This color is called color wheel blue. It is at precisely 240 degrees on the HSV color wheel and it is a spectral color which lies at, or near, the short-wave end of the traditional blue and possibly was classified as indigo by Newton

95.
Indigo
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Indigo is a deep and rich color close to the color wheel blue, as well as to some variants of ultramarine. The color indigo is named after the indigo dye derived from the plant Indigofera tinctoria, the first known recorded use of indigo as a color name in English was in 1289. Species of Indigofera were cultivated in Peru, India, East Asia, the earliest direct evidence for the use of indigo dates to around 4000 BCE and comes from Huaca Prieta, in contemporary Peru. Pliny mentions India as the source of the dye, imported in small quantities via the Silk Road, the Greek term for the dye was Ἰνδικὸν φάρμακον, which, adopted to Latin as indicum and via Portuguese gave rise to the modern word indigo. El Salvador has lately been the biggest producer of indigo, Indigo was actually a plant that got its name because it came from the Indus Valley, discovered some 5,000 years ago, where it was called nila, meaning dark blue. And by the 7th Century BC, people starting using the plant as a dye — the Mesopotamians were even carving out recipes for making indigo dye onto clay tablets for record-keeping. By 1289, knowledge of the dye made its way to Europe, but it wasn’t until 1640 when demand started to pick up for indigo. Spanish explorers discovered an American species of Indigo and began to cultivate the product in Guatemala, the English and French subsequently began to encourage indigo cultivation in their colonies in the West Indies. Indigo dye could be made from two different types of plants — the indigo plant, which produced the best results, the British were producing indigo with woad, a plant that yielded a lesser quality dye, but a plant they could grow. They even tried to hold their monopoly on indigo dye by managing to ban the indigo plant for years, but eventually the British began to focus on tea and other crops — and meanwhile, the French started to get their fair share of the market. The French had gone to war with Britain, so the British could hardly rely on the French for this precious blue dye, consequently, the British had to turn to their colonies in America. It was Eliza Lucas from South Carolina who figured out how to grow the indigo plant, the same indigo dye is contained in the woad plant, Isatis tinctoria, for a long time the main source of blue dye in Europe. Woad was replaced by true indigo as trade routes opened up, the Early Modern English word indigo referred to the dye, and not to the color itself, and indigo is not traditionally part of the basic color-naming system. Modern sources place indigo in the spectrum between 420 and 450 nanometers, which lies on the side of color wheel blue. However, the correspondence of this definition with colors of actual indigo dyes is disputed, isaac Newton introduced indigo as one of the seven base colors of his work. In a pivotal experiment in the history of optics, the young Newton shone a narrow beam of sunlight through a prism to produce a band of colors on the wall. He linked the seven prismatic colors to the seven notes of a major scale, as shown in his color wheel, with orange. Indigo is therefore counted as one of the colors of the rainbow

Indigo
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A piece of indigo plant dye from India, about 2.5 inches (6 cm) square
Indigo
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Extract of natural indigo applied to paper
Indigo
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Newton's observation of prismatic colors. Comparing this to a color image of the visible light spectrum will show that "Indigo" corresponds to blue, while "Blue" corresponds to cyan.
Indigo
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Indigo is created in potholes carved in pumice "tufgrond" in Karoland, Sumatra

96.
Shades of violet
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There are numerous variations of the color violet, a sampling of which are shown below. The tertiary color on the HSV color wheel halfway between blue and magenta is called color wheel violet. This tone of violet—an approximation of the color violet at about 417 nanometers as plotted on the CIE chromaticity diagram—is shown at right. This tone of violet is actually somewhat toward indigo assuming indigo is accepted as a separate spectrum color, another name for this color is near violet. The color at right, electric violet, is the closest approximation to middle spectrum violet that can be made on a screen, given the limitations of the sRGB color gamut. Other names for this color are middle violet or simply violet, displayed at right is the color vivid violet, a color approximately equivalent to the violet seen at the extreme edge of human visual perception. When plotted on the CIE chromaticity diagram, it can be seen that this is a hue corresponding to that of a stimulus of approximately 380 nm on the spectrum. Thus another name for this color is extreme violet, the so-called web color violet is in actuality not really a tint of violet, a spectral color, but is a non-spectral color. This same color appears as violet in the X11 color names, mauve is a color that is named after the mallow flower. Another name for the color is mallow with the first recorded use of mallow as a name in English in 1611. Since the color mauve has a hue code of 276, it may be regarded as a tone of violet. At right is displayed the color lavender and this color may also be called lavender or floral lavender to distinguish it from the web color lavender. It is the color of the part of the lavender flower. The first recorded use of the word lavender as a term in English was in 1705. Since the color lavender has a hue code of 275, it may be regarded as a tone of violet. At right is displayed the color French violet, which is the tone of violet that is called violet in the Pourpre. com color list, the color African violet is displayed at right. The source of color is the Pantone Textile Paper eXtended color list. The color Chinese violet is displayed at right, the first recorded use of Chinese violet as a color name in English was in 1912

Shades of violet
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Violet

97.
Shades of white
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Shades of white are colors that differ only slightly from pure white. Variations of white include what are commonly termed off-white colors, which may be considered part of a color scheme. In color theory, a shade is a pure color mixed with black, strictly speaking, a “shade of white” would be a neutral gray. This article is also about off-white colors that vary from white in hue. Colors often considered shades of white include, cream, eggshell, ivory, Navajo white, even the lighting of a room, however, can cause a pure white to be perceived as off-white. Off-white colors were pervasively paired with beiges in the 1930s, whiteness measures the degree to which a surface is white in colorimetry. Below is a showing the computer web color shades of white. An achromatic white is a color in which the red, green. The web colors white and white smoke are achromatic colors, a chromatic shade of white is a white color in which the red, green, and blue codes are not exactly equal, but are close to each other, which is what makes it a shade of white. A white visual stimulation will be void of hue and grayness, white is the lightest possible color. The web color ghost white is a tint of white associated with what it is imagined the color of a ghost might be, there is no evidence that this color name was in use before the X11 color names were formulated in 1987. The web color white smoke is displayed on the left, there is no evidence that this color name was in use before the X11 color names were formulated in 1987. The Crayola crayon color baby powder was introduced in 1994 as part of its specialty Magic Scent crayon collection, the web color snow is displayed at left. The first recorded use of snow as a name in English was in 1000. The color snow was included as one of the X11 colors when they were formulated in 1987, ivory is an off-white color that resembles ivory, the material out of which the teeth and tusks of animals are made. It has a slight tint of yellow. The first recorded use of ivory as a name in English was in 1385. The color ivory was included as one of the X11 colors when they were formulated in 1987, the web color floral white is displayed at left

Shades of white
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White

98.
Shades of gray
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Variations of gray or grey include achromatic grayscale shades, which lie exactly between white and black, and nearby colors with low colorfulness. A selection of a number of various colors is shown below. Below is a showing the computer web color grays. An achromatic gray is a color in which the red, green. The web colors gray, gainsboro, light gray, dark gray, a chromatic gray is a gray color in which the red, green, and blue codes are not exactly equal, but are close to each other, which is what makes it a shade of gray. The colors white and black are not usually thought of as shades of gray, since achromatic colors have no hue, the hue code is left blank for achromatic colors. A white visual stimulation will be void of hue and grayness, white is the lightest possible color. Black is the color of objects that do not emit or reflect light in any part of the visible spectrum, black is the darkest possible color. Achromatic grays are colors in which the rgb values are exactly equal, since achromatic grays have no hue, the hue code is indicated with a dash. Achromatic grays are the axis of the sphere, with white at the north pole. The various tones of gray are along the axis of the color sphere from white at the top of the axis to black at the bottom of the axis. At right is displayed the web color gainsboro, gainsboro is a pale tone of gray. There is no evidence the name gainsboro was used as a name before it was included as one of the X11 colors when they were formulated in 1987. At right is displayed the web color light gray, displayed at right is the web color silver. This color is a representation of the color of the metal silver This is supposed to be a color, however. At right is displayed the color gray, or gray in the X11 color names. The coordinates in the X11 were set at 190 to avoid gray being displayed as white on 2-bit grayscale displays, see the chart Color names that clash between X11 and HTML/CSS in the X11 color names article to see those colors which are different in HTML/CSS and X11. At right is displayed the dark medium gray, or dark gray in the X11 color names

99.
Shades of black
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Shades of black are colors that differ only slightly from pure black. These colors have a low lightness, from photometric point of view, a color which differs slightly from black always has low relative luminance. Black and dark colors are powerful accent colors that suggest weight, dignity, formality. In color theory, a shade is a pure color mixed with black and it decreases its lightness while nearly conserving its chromaticity. Strictly speaking, a “shade of black” is always a pure black itself, unlike these, many off-black colors possess a hue and a colorfulness. Colors often considered shades of black onyx, black olive, charcoal, and jet. A black visual stimulation will be void of hue and grayness, Black is the darkest possible color. A black body is a physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation. To the human eye it seems black, midnight blue is a dark shade of blue named for its resemblance to the identifiably blue color of a moonlit night sky on or near the night of a full moon. This is the X11 web color midnight blue and this color was originally called midnight. The first recorded use of midnight as a name in English was in 1915. At right is displayed the web color dim gray and this color is a dark tone of gray. The color name dim gray first came into use in 1987, after the invention of the World Wide Web in 1991, these colors became known as the X11 web colors. Displayed at right is the color ebony and this color is a representation of the color of the wood ebony, a tropical hardwood widely used to make fine furniture, notably for French kings. The first use of ebony as a name in English was in 1590. The color displayed at left matches the color called taupe referenced below in the 1930 book A Dictionary of Color. However, the word taupe is currently used to refer to lighter shades of taupe. The first use of taupe as a name in English was in the early 19th century

100.
Rainbow
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A rainbow is a meteorological phenomenon that is caused by reflection, refraction and dispersion of light in water droplets resulting in a spectrum of light appearing in the sky. It takes the form of a multicoloured arc, Rainbows caused by sunlight always appear in the section of sky directly opposite the sun. However, the observer sees only an arc formed by illuminated droplets above the ground. In a primary rainbow, the arc shows red on the outer part and this rainbow is caused by light being refracted when entering a droplet of water, then reflected inside on the back of the droplet and refracted again when leaving it. In a double rainbow, an arc is seen outside the primary arc. A rainbow is not located at a distance from the observer. Thus, a rainbow is not an object and cannot be physically approached, indeed, it is impossible for an observer to see a rainbow from water droplets at any angle other than the customary one of 42 degrees from the direction opposite the light source. Even if an observer sees another observer who seems under or at the end of a rainbow, Rainbows span a continuous spectrum of colours. Rainbows can be caused by many forms of airborne water and these include not only rain, but also mist, spray, and airborne dew. Rainbows can be observed there are water drops in the air. Because of this, rainbows are seen in the western sky during the morning. The most spectacular rainbow displays happen when half the sky is dark with raining clouds. The result is a rainbow that contrasts with the darkened background. During such good visibility conditions, the larger but fainter secondary rainbow is often visible and it appears about 10° outside of the primary rainbow, with inverse order of colours. The rainbow effect is commonly seen near waterfalls or fountains. In addition, the effect can be created by dispersing water droplets into the air during a sunny day. Rarely, a moonbow, lunar rainbow or nighttime rainbow, can be seen on strongly moonlit nights, as human visual perception for colour is poor in low light, moonbows are often perceived to be white. It is difficult to photograph the complete semicircle of a rainbow in one frame, for a 35 mm camera, a wide-angle lens with a focal length of 19 mm or less would be required

Rainbow
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Double rainbow and supernumerary rainbows on the inside of the primary arc. The shadow of the photographer's head on the bottom marks the centre of the rainbow circle (antisolar point).
Rainbow
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Image of the end of a rainbow at Jasper National Park
Rainbow
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Rainbows can form in mist, such as that of a waterfall.
Rainbow
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Rainbow with a faint reflected rainbow in the lake

101.
Chromophore
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A chromophore is the part of a molecule responsible for its color. The color that is seen by our eyes is the one not absorbed within a certain spectrum of visible light. The chromophore is a region in the molecule where the difference between two separate molecular orbitals falls within the range of the visible spectrum. Visible light that hits the chromophore can thus be absorbed by exciting an electron from its state into an excited state. In biological molecules that serve to capture or detect light energy, in the conjugated chromophores, the electrons jump between energy levels that are extended pi orbitals, created by a series of alternating single and double bonds, often in aromatic systems. Common examples include retinal, various food colorings, fabric dyes, pH indicators, lycopene, β-carotene, various factors in a chromophores structure go into determining at what wavelength region in a spectrum the chromophore will absorb. Lengthening or extending a conjugated system with more unsaturated bonds in a molecule will tend to shift absorption to longer wavelengths, woodward-Fieser rules can be used to approximate ultraviolet-visible maximum absorption wavelength in organic compounds with conjugated pi-bond systems. Some of these are metal complex chromophores, which contain a metal in a complex with ligands. Examples are chlorophyll, which is used by plants for photosynthesis and hemoglobin, the highly conjugated pi-bonding system of the macrocycle ring absorbs visible light. The nature of the metal can also influence the absorption spectrum of the metal-macrocycle complex or properties such as excited state lifetime. The tetrapyrrole moiety in organic compounds which is not macrocyclic but still has a conjugated pi-bond system still acts as a chromophore, examples of such compounds include bilirubin and urobilin, which exhibit a yellow color. An auxochrome is a group of atoms attached to the chromophore which modifies the ability of the chromophore to absorb light. Halochromism occurs when a substance changes color as the pH changes and this is a property of pH indicators, whose molecular structure changes upon certain changes in the surrounding pH. This change in structure affects a chromophore in the pH indicator molecule, because of their limited extent, the aromatic rings only absorb light in the ultraviolet region, and so the compound appears colorless in the 0-8 pH range. However, as the pH increases beyond 8.2, that central carbon becomes part of a double bond becoming sp2 hybridized and this makes the three rings conjugate together to form an extended chromophore absorbing longer wavelength visible light to show a fuchsia color. At pH ranges outside 0-12, other molecular structure changes result in other color changes, visual phototransduction Woodwards rules Chromatophore Pigment Photophore Fluorophore Litmus Biological pigment Causes of Color, physical mechanisms by which color is generated. High Speed Nano-Sized Electronics May be Possible with Chromophores - Azonano. com

Chromophore
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Conjugated chromophore that straightens in response to a photon γ (light), of the correct wavelength: 11-cis-retinal becomes all-trans-retinal

102.
Color depth
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For consumer video standards, such as High Efficiency Video Coding, the bit depth specifies the number of bits used for each color component. When referring to a pixel the concept can be defined as bits per pixel, which specifies the number of bits used. When referring to a component the concept can be defined as bits per component, bits per channel, bits per color. Color depth is one aspect of color representation, expressing how finely levels of color can be expressed. The definition of both color precision and gamut is accomplished with a color encoding specification which assigns a code value to a location in a color space. Comparison, same image on five different color depths, different looks, but also different file sizes. With the relatively low color depth, the value is typically a number representing the index into a color map or palette. The colors available in the palette itself may be fixed by the hardware or modifiable within the limits of the hardware, modifiable palettes are sometimes referred to as pseudocolor palettes. 1-bit color, monochrome, often black and white, compact Macintoshes, 2-bit color, CGA, gray-scale early NeXTstation, color Macintoshes, Atari ST. 12-bit color, some Silicon Graphics systems, Color NeXTstation systems, for example, in the ZX Spectrum, the picture is stored in a two-color format, but these two colors can be separately defined for each rectangular block of 8x8 pixels. A very limited but true direct color system, there are 3 bits for each of the R and G components, the normal human eye is less sensitive to the blue component than to the red or green, so it is assigned one bit less than the others. Used, amongst others, in the MSX2 system series of computers in the early to mid 1990s, do not confuse with an indexed color depth of 8bpp. High color supports 15/16-bit for three RGB colors, in 16-bit direct color, there can be 4 bits for each of the R, G, and B components, plus optionally 4 bits for alpha, enabling 4,096 different colors with 16 levels of transparency. Or in some systems there can be 5 bits per color component and 1 bit of alpha, or there can be 5 bits for red,6 bits for green and these color depths are sometimes used in small devices with a color display, such as mobile telephones. Variants with 5 or more bits per component are sometimes called high color. More expensive LCDs can display 24-bit or greater color depth, true color supports 24-bit for three RGB colors. Usually, true color is defined to mean 256 shades of red, green, the human eye can discriminate up to ten million colors. Color processing in the eye occurs through retinal cone cells which are of three types, although not corresponding to red, green and blue hues, true color can also refer to an RGB display-mode that does not need a color look-up table

103.
Color photography
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Color photography is photography that uses media capable of reproducing colors. By contrast, black-and-white photography records only a channel of luminance. In color photography, electronic sensors or light-sensitive chemicals record color information at the time of exposure, monochrome images which have been colorized by tinting selected areas by hand or mechanically or with the aid of a computer are colored photographs, not color photographs. Their colors are not dependent on the colors of the objects photographed. Color photography has been the dominant form of photography since the 1970s, Color photography was attempted beginning in the 1840s. Early experiments were directed at finding a substance which would assume the color of the light falling on it. Other experimenters, such as Edmond Becquerel, achieved better results, over the following several decades, renewed experiments along these lines periodically raised hopes and then dashed them, yielding nothing of practical value. Gabriel Lippmann is remembered as the inventor of a method for reproducing colors by photography, based on the interference phenomenon, in 1886 Lippmanns interest had turned to a method of fixing the colors of the solar spectrum on a photographic plate. By April 1892, he was able to report that he had succeeded in producing color images of a glass window, a group of flags, a bowl of oranges topped by a red poppy. He presented his theory of photography using the interference method in two papers to the Academy, one in 1894, the other in 1906. The named colors are somewhat arbitrary divisions imposed on the spectrum of visible light. The test subject was a bow made of ribbon with stripes of colors, apparently including red. Creating colors by mixing colored lights in various proportions is the method of color reproduction. LCD, LED, plasma and CRT color video displays all use this method and this is also known as the RGB color model. In photography, the dye colors are cyan, a greenish-blue which absorbs red, magenta, a purplish-pink which absorbs green, and yellow. The red-filtered image is used to create a dye image, the green-filtered image to create a magenta dye image. When the three dye images are superimposed they form a color image. This is also known as the CMYK color model, most commonly, three pigment images were first created separately by the so-called carbon process and then carefully combined in register

Color photography
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A circa 1850 "Hillotype" photograph of a colored engraving. Long believed to be a complete fraud, recent testing found that Levi Hill 's process did reproduce some color photographically, but also that many specimens had been "sweetened" by the addition of hand-applied colors.
Color photography
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The first color photograph made by the three-color method suggested by James Clerk Maxwell in 1855, taken in 1861 by Thomas Sutton. The subject is a colored ribbon, usually described as a tartan ribbon.
Color photography
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An 1877 color photographic print on paper by Louis Ducos du Hauron, the foremost early French pioneer of color photography. The overlapping yellow, cyan and red subtractive color elements are apparent.
Color photography
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The Emir of Bukhara in a 1911 color photograph by Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii. At right is the triple color-filtered black-and-white glass plate negative, shown here as a positive.

104.
Color mapping
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Color mapping is a function that maps the colors of one image to the colors of another image. A color mapping may be referred to as the algorithm that results in the function or the algorithm that transforms the image colors. Color mapping is also called color transfer or, when grayscale images are involved. There are two types of color mapping algorithms, those that employ the statistics of the colors of two images, and those that rely on a given pixel correspondence between the images, an example of an algorithm that employs the statistical properties of the images is histogram matching. This is an algorithm for color mapping, suffering from the problem of sensitivity to image content differences. Newer statistic-based algorithms deal with this problem, an example of such algorithm is adjusting the mean and the standard deviation of Lab channels of the two images. The corresponding regions can be found by detecting the corresponding features, Color calibration is an important pre-processing task in computer vision applications. Many applications simultaneously process two or more images and, therefore, need their colors to be calibrated, examples of such applications are, Image differencing, registration, object recognition, multi-camera tracking, co-segmentation and stereo reconstruction. List of colors Color chart Color management ICC profile IT8

105.
Chrominance
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Chrominance is the signal used in video systems to convey the color information of the picture, separately from the accompanying luma signal. Chrominance is usually represented as two color-difference components, U = B′ − Y′ and V = R′ − Y′, each of these difference components may have scale factors and offsets applied to it, as specified by the applicable video standard. In digital-video and still-image color spaces such as Y′CbCr, the luma, separating RGB color signals into luma and chrominance allows the bandwidth of each to be determined separately. Typically, the bandwidth is reduced in analog composite video by reducing the bandwidth of a modulated color subcarrier. The idea of transmitting a color signal with distinct luma and chrominance components originated with Georges Valensi. Previous schemes for color television systems, which were incompatible with existing monochrome receivers, in analog television, chrominance is encoded into a video signal using a subcarrier frequency. Depending on the standard, the chrominance subcarrier may be either quadrature-amplitude-modulated or frequency-modulated. In the PAL system, the subcarrier is 4.43 MHz above the video carrier. The NTSC and PAL standards are the most commonly used, although there are other standards that employ different subcarrier frequencies. For example, PAL-M uses a 3.58 MHz subcarrier, the presence of chrominance in a video signal is indicated by a color burst signal transmitted on the back porch, just after horizontal synchronization and before each line of video starts. If the color burst signal were visible on a television screen, in NTSC and PAL, hue is represented by a phase shift of the chrominance signal relative to the color burst, while saturation is determined by the amplitude of the subcarrier. In SECAM and signals are transmitted alternately and phase does not matter, chrominance is represented by the U-V color plane in PAL and SECAM video signals, and by the I-Q color plane in NTSC. Digital video and digital photography systems sometimes use a luma/chroma decomposition for improved compression. On decompression, the Y′CbCr space is rotated back to RGB

Chrominance
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Luminance only, Chrominance only, and full color image.

106.
False color
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False color refers to a group of color rendering methods used to display images in color which were recorded in the visible or non-visible parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. A false-color image is an image that depicts an object in colors that differ from those a photograph would show, to understand false color, a look at the concept behind true color is helpful. An image is called an image when it offers a natural color rendition. When applied to images, true-color means that the perceived lightness of a subject is preserved in its depiction. There are three sources of color error, Different spectral sensitivities of the human eye and of an image capture device. Different spectral emissions / reflections of the object and of the image render process, differences in spectral irradiance in the case of reflective images or reflective objects – see color rendering index for details. Color management can be used to mitigate this problem within the physical constraints, while a false-color image can be created using solely the visual spectrum, typically some or all data used is from electromagnetic radiation outside the visual spectrum. The choice of bands is governed by the physical properties of the object under investigation. As the human eye uses three spectral bands, three bands are commonly combined into a false-color image. In contrast, an image made from one spectral band. For true color, the RGB channels from the camera are mapped to the corresponding RGB channels of the image, for false color this relationship is changed. The simplest false-color encoding is to take an RGB image in the visible spectrum, for traditional false-color satellite images of Earth a NRG→RGB mapping is used, with N being the near-infrared spectral band – this yields the typical vegetation in red false-color images. False color is used for satellite and space images, Examples are remote sensing satellites, some spacecraft, with rovers being the most prominent examples, have the ability to capture approximate true-color images as well. Weather satellites produce, in contrast the spacecrafts mentioned previously, grayscale images from the visible or infrared spectrum, a pseudocolor image is derived from a grayscale image by mapping each intensity value to a color according to a table or function. Pseudo color is used when a single channel of data is available. A typical example for the use of color is thermography. Pseudocoloring can make some more visible, as the perceived difference in color space is bigger than between successive gray levels alone. A further application of pseudocoloring is to store the results of image elaboration, density slicing, a variation of pseudo color, divides an image into a few colored bands and is used in the analysis of remote sensing images

False color
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A mosaic constructed from a series of 53 images taken through three spectral filters by Galileo ’s imaging system as it flew over the northern regions of the Moon in December 1992.
False color
False color
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This approximate true-color panorama shows the impact crater Endurance on Mars. It was taken by the panoramic camera on the Opportunity rover and is a composite of a total of 258 images taken in the 480, 530 and 750 nanometer spectral bands (blue / green, green and near infrared).
False color
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A traditional false-color satellite image of Las Vegas. Grass-covered land (e.g. a golf course) appears in red.

107.
Chroma key
–
Chroma key compositing, or chroma keying, is a visual effects / post-production technique for compositing two images or video streams together based on color hues. The technique has been used heavily in many fields to remove a background from the subject of a photo or video – particularly the newscasting, motion picture and videogame industries. A color range in the footage is made transparent, allowing separately filmed background footage or a static image to be inserted into the scene. The chroma keying technique is used in video production and post-production. No part of the subject being filmed or photographed may duplicate the color used as the backing, when using a blue screen, different weather maps are added on the parts of the image where the color is blue. If the news presenter wears blue clothes, his or her clothes will also be replaced with the background video, chroma keying is also common in the entertainment industry for visual effects in movies and videogames. Prior to the introduction of travelling mattes and optical printing, double exposure was used to introduce elements into a scene which werent present in the initial exposure and this was done using black draping where a green screen would be used today. George Albert Smith first used this approach in 1898, in 1903, The Great Train Robbery by Edwin S. Porter used double exposure to add background scenes to windows which were black when filmed on set, using a garbage matte to expose only the window areas. In 1918 Frank Williams patented a travelling matte technique, again based on using a black background and this was used in many films, such as The Invisible Man. In the 1920s, Walt Disney used a backdrop to include human actors with cartoon characters. The blue screen method was developed in the 1930s at RKO Radio Pictures, at RKO, Linwood Dunn used an early version of the travelling matte to create wipes – where there were transitions like a windshield wiper in films such as Flying Down to Rio. In 1950, Warner Brothers employee and ex-Kodak researcher Arthur Widmer began working on a travelling matte process. He also began developing techniques, one of the first films to use them was the 1958 adaptation of the Ernest Hemingway novella, The Old Man. Petro Vlahos was awarded an Academy Award for his refinement of techniques in 1964. His technique exploits the fact that most objects in real-world scenes have a color whose blue-color component is similar in intensity to their green-color component, zbigniew Rybczyński also contributed to bluescreen technology. An optical printer with two projectors, a camera and a beam splitter, was used to combine the actor in front of a blue screen together with the background footage. In the early 1970s, American and British television networks began using green backdrops instead of blue for their newscasts, during the 1980s, minicomputers were used to control the optical printer. For the film The Empire Strikes Back, Richard Edlund created an optical printer that accelerated the process considerably

Chroma key
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Film set for The Spiderwick Chronicles, where a special effects scene using bluescreen chroma key is in preparation.
Chroma key
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Today's practicality of green-screen compositing is demonstrated by Iman Crosson in a self-produced YouTube video. Top panel: A frame of Crosson in full-motion video as shot in his own living room. Bottom panel: Frame in the final version, in which Crosson, impersonating Barack Obama, "appears" in the White House's East Room.
Chroma key
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Virtual television studio with green-screen technique.
Chroma key
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Girl wearing blue clothing in front of green screen.

108.
Color balance
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In photography and image processing, color balance is the global adjustment of the intensities of the colors. An important goal of this adjustment is to specific colors – particularly neutral colors – correctly. Hence, the method is sometimes called gray balance, neutral balance. Color balance changes the mixture of colors in an image and is used for color correction. Generalized versions of color balance are used to correct colors other than neutrals or to change them for effect. Image data acquired by sensors – either film or electronic image sensors – must be transformed from the values to new values that are appropriate for color reproduction or display. In film photography, color balance is achieved by using color correction filters over the lights or on the camera lens. It is particularly important that neutral colors in a scene appear neutral in the reproduction, most digital cameras have means to select color correction based on the type of scene lighting, using either manual lighting selection, automatic white balance, or custom white balance. The algorithms for these processes perform generalized chromatic adaptation, many methods exist for color balancing. Setting a button on a camera is a way for the user to indicate to the processor the nature of the scene lighting, another option on some cameras is a button which one may press when the camera is pointed at a gray card or other neutral colored object. This captures an image of the ambient light, which enables a digital camera to set the color balance for that light. There is a literature on how one might estimate the ambient lighting from the camera data. A variety of algorithms have been proposed, and the quality of these has been debated, a few examples and examination of the references therein will lead the reader to many others. Examples are Retinex, a neural network or a Bayesian method. Color balancing an image not only the neutrals, but other colors as well. An image that is not color balanced is said to have a color cast, Color balancing may be thought in terms of removing this color cast. Color balance is related to color constancy. Algorithms and techniques used to color constancy are frequently used for color balancing

Color balance
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The left half shows the photo as it came from the digital camera. The right half shows the photo adjusted to make a gray surface neutral in the same light.
Color balance
–
A showcase of the effects of color balancing.
Color balance
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A seascape photograph at Clifton Beach, South Arm, Tasmania, Australia. The white balance has been adjusted towards the warm side for creative effect.
Color balance
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Photograph of a ColorChecker as a reference shot for color balance adjustments.

109.
Colour cast
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A colour cast is a tint of a particular colour, usually unwanted, which affects the whole, or portion, of a photographic image evenly. Certain types of light can cause film and digital cameras to have a colour cast, illuminating a subject with light sources of different colour temperatures will usually cause colour cast problems in the shadows. In general, the eye does not notice the unnatural colour, because our eyes and brains adjust. In film, colour casts can also be caused by problems in development, improper timing or imbalanced chemical mixtures can cause unwanted casts. Colour casts can also occur in old photographs due to fading of dyes and these may be correctable on a scanned version of the photograph with image editing techniques. High end digital cameras try to detect and compensate colour cast. Otherwise, photo editing programs, such as Photoshop, often have built in colour correction facilities, for film, blue filters and amber filters are used to counter casts. Amber filters are used to reduce the blueish tint caused by daylight, blue filters reduce the orange colour caused by incandescent light. A variety of coloured filters in varying degrees of intensity are available, kodaks amber filters, for example, vary from palest yellow to deepest amber. A photographer chooses which filter to use based on the quality of the ambient light, colour temperature meters can read the temperature of the existing lighting conditions and guide the selection of the filter. Clouded sky, for example, requires a paler amber than clear blue sky, if a filter is unavailable, flash is an alternative solution which usually provides enough neutral white light to counter the cast. In the case of film, if photographs all contain the same cast, if the film itself does not contain any cast, it can be reused to create another set of photographs in proper chemical conditions. If the film contains a cast, filters can be used during processing to correct it

Colour cast
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Example of a photo with a uniformly green colour cast due to differential absorption of light before reaching certain depths at sea.
Colour cast
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The same photo with the colour cast corrected

110.
Color temperature
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The color temperature of a light source is the temperature of an ideal black-body radiator that radiates light of comparable color to that of the light source. Color temperature is a characteristic of light that has important applications in lighting, photography, videography, publishing, manufacturing, astrophysics, horticulture. Color temperature is conventionally expressed in kelvins, using the symbol K, Color temperatures over 5000 K are called cool colors, while lower color temperatures are called warm colors. The fact that warm lighting in this sense actually has a color temperature often leads to confusion. The color temperature of the radiation emitted from an ideal black body is defined as its surface temperature in kelvins. This permits the definition of a standard by which light sources are compared, to the extent that a hot surface emits thermal radiation but is not an ideal black-body radiator, the color temperature of the light is not the actual temperature of the surface. An incandescent lamps light is thermal radiation, and the bulb approximates an ideal black-body radiator and this means that the emitted radiation does not follow the form of a black-body spectrum. These sources are assigned what is known as a color temperature. CCT is the temperature of a black-body radiator which to human color perception most closely matches the light from the lamp. Because such an approximation is not required for incandescent light, the CCT for an incandescent light is simply its unadjusted temperature, the Sun closely approximates a black-body radiator. The effective temperature, defined by the radiative power per square unit, is about 5780 K. The color temperature of sunlight above the atmosphere is about 5900 K, as the Sun crosses the sky, it may appear to be red, orange, yellow or white depending on its position. The changing color of the Sun over the course of the day is mainly a result of scattering of light and is not due to changes in black-body radiation. The blue color of the sky is caused by Rayleigh scattering of the sunlight from the atmosphere, some early morning and evening light has a lower color temperature due to increased low-wavelength light scattering by the Tyndall effect. Daylight has a similar to that of a black body with a correlated color temperature of 6500 K or 5500 K. For colors based on theory, blue occurs at higher temperatures. This is the opposite of the cultural associations attributed to colors, in red is hot. For lighting building interiors, it is important to take into account the color temperature of illumination

Color temperature
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The house above appears a light cream during the midday, but seems a bluish white here in the dim light before full sunrise. Note the different color temperature of the sunrise in the background.
Color temperature
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The CIE 1931 x,y chromaticity space, also showing the chromaticities of black-body light sources of various temperatures (Planckian locus), and lines of constant correlated color temperature.

111.
Color theory
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In the visual arts, color theory or colour theory is a body of practical guidance to color mixing and the visual effects of a specific color combination. There are also definitions of colors based on the wheel, primary color, secondary color. From there it developed as an independent artistic tradition with only superficial reference to colorimetry, the foundations of pre-20th-century color theory were built around pure or ideal colors, characterized by sensory experiences rather than attributes of the physical world. This has led to a number of inaccuracies in traditional color theory principles that are not always remedied in modern formulations. The most important problem has been a confusion between the behavior of light mixtures, called additive color, and the behavior of paint, ink, dye, or pigment mixtures, called subtractive color. This problem arises because the absorption of light by material substances follows different rules from the perception of light by the eye, thus, the visual impact of yellow vs. blue hues in visual design depends on the relative lightness and saturation of the hues. e. Any three real primary colors of light, paint or ink can mix only a range of colors, called a gamut. Color theory was formulated in terms of three primary or primitive colors—red, yellow and blue —because these colors were believed capable of mixing all other colors. This color mixing behavior had long known to printers, dyers and painters. Subsequent research anchored these primary colors in the responses to light by three types of color receptors or cones in the retina. It also created the dyes and chemical processes necessary for color photography, a wider range of color can be obtained with the addition of other colors to the printing process, such as in Pantones Hexachrome printing ink system, among others. For the mixing of colored light, Isaac Newtons color wheel is used to describe complementary colors. Newton offered as a conjecture that colors exactly opposite one another on the hue circle cancel out each others hue, this concept was demonstrated more thoroughly in the 19th century. A key assumption in Newtons hue circle was that the fiery or maximum saturated hues are located on the circumference of the circle, while achromatic white is at the center. These contrasts form the basis of Chevreuls law of color contrast, thus, a piece of yellow fabric placed on a blue background will appear tinted orange, because orange is the complementary color to blue. However, when complementary colors are based on definition by light mixture. This discrepancy becomes important when color theory is applied across media, digital color management uses a hue circle defined according to additive primary colors, as the colors in a computer monitor are additive mixtures of light, not subtractive mixtures of paints. One reason the artists primary colors work at all is that the imperfect pigments being used have sloped absorption curves, a pigment that is pure red at high concentrations can behave more like magenta at low concentrations

112.
Pastel (color)
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Pastels or pastel colors are the family of colors which, when described in the HSV color space, have high value and low to intermediate saturation. The name comes from pastels, art media characteristic of this color family, the colors of this family are usually described as soothing, soft, near neutral, milky, washed out, desaturated, and lacking strong chromatic content. Pink, mauve, and baby blue are typical pastel colors, the 1980s saw a huge trend in the use of pastel colors in mens fashion. The abundance of pastel was also visible in the locations with Art Deco buildings around the Miami area. Media related to Pastel colors at Wikimedia Commons

113.
Color gradient
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In computer graphics, a color gradient specifies a range of position-dependent colors, usually used to fill a region. For example, many window managers allow the background to be specified as a gradient. The colors produced by a gradient vary continuously with position, producing smooth color transitions, an axial color gradient is specified by two points, and a color at each point. The colors along the line through those points are calculated using linear interpolation, in digital imaging systems, colors are typically interpolated in an RGB color space, often using gamma compressed RGB color values, as opposed to linear. CSS and SVG both support linear gradients, a radial gradient is specified as a circle that has one color at the edge and another at the center. Colors are calculated by linear interpolation based on distance from the center and this can be used to approximate the diffuse reflection of light from a point source by a sphere. Both CSS and SVG support radial gradients, in vector graphics polygon meshes can be used, e. g. Adobe Illustrator supported gradient meshes. Image gradient Color banding Posterization Diffusion curve www. 22BulbJungle. com Background Image Color Overlay

Color gradient
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Linear color gradient

114.
Color scheme
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In color theory, a color scheme is the choice of colors used in design for a range of media. For example, the Achromatic use of a background with black text is an example of a basic. Color schemes are used to style and appeal. Colors that create a feeling when used together will commonly accompany each other in color schemes. A basic color scheme will use two colors that look appealing together, the addition of light blue creates an Accented Analogous color scheme. Color schemes can contain different Monochromatic shades of a color, for example. A color scheme in marketing is referred to as a dress and can be sometimes be copyrighted. Color schemes are described in terms of logical combinations of colors on a color wheel. Different types of schemes are used, Monochromatic colors are all the colors of a single hue. Monochromatic color schemes are derived from a single hue, and extended using its shades, tones and tints (that is. As a result, the energy is more subtle and peaceful due to a lack of contrast of hue. For the mixing of colored light, Newtons color wheel is used to describe complementary colors. Newton offered as a conjecture that colors exactly opposite one another on the hue circle cancel out each others hue, this concept was demonstrated more thoroughly in the 19th century. A key assumption in Newtons hue circle was that the fiery or maximum saturated hues are located on the circumference of the circle, while achromatic white is at the center. The split-complementary color scheme is a variation of the color scheme. In addition to the color, it uses the two Analogous colors adjacent to its complement. Split-complementary color scheme has the strong visual contrast as the complementary color scheme. Any color that lacks strong chromatic content is said to beunsaturated, achromatic, pure achromatic colors include black, white and all grays, near neutrals include browns, tans, pastels and darker colors

115.
Impossible color
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Examples of these colors are bluish-yellow and reddish-green. Those colors that appear to be similar to, for example, the color opponent process is a color theory that states that the human visual system interprets information about color by processing signals from cone and rod cells in an antagonistic manner. The opponent color theory suggests that there are three opponent channels, Red versus green, blue versus yellow Black versus white. Real colors are colors that can be produced by a light source. Any additive mixture of two colors is also a real color. When colors are displayed in the CIE1931 XYZ color space, by mixing any three colors, one can therefore create any color contained in the triangle they describe—this is called the gamut formed by those three colors, which are called primary colors. Any colors outside of this triangle cannot be obtained by mixing the chosen primaries, when defining primaries, the goal is often to leave as many real colors in gamut as possible. Since the region of colors is not a triangle, it is not possible to pick three real colors that span the whole region. The gamut can be increased by selecting more than three real colors, but since the region of real colors is not a polygon. Therefore, one selects colors outside of the region of colors as primary colors, in other words. Mathematically, the gamut created in this way contains so-called imaginary colors, see page Gamut for more information about the color range available on display devices. Thus, no object can have an imaginary color, but such imaginary colors are useful as mathematical abstractions for defining color spaces. The spectral sensitivity curve of medium-wavelength cone cells overlaps those of short-wavelength and long-wavelength cone cells, light of any wavelength that interacts with M cones also interacts with S or L cones, or both, to some extent. Therefore, no wavelength, and no non-negative spectral power distribution, such a hyper-green color would be in the CIE1931 color space chromaticity diagram in the blank area above the colored area and between the y-axis and the line x+y=1. They are explained by the opponent process color theory, for example, staring at a saturated primary-color field then looking at a white object results in an opposing shift in hue, causing an afterimage of the complementary colors. Exploration of the space outside the range of real colors by this means is major corroborating evidence for the opponent process theory of color vision. Chimerical colors can be seen while seeing with one eye or with eyes, and are not observed to reproduce simultaneously qualities of opposing colors. Chimerical colors include, Stygian colors, these are simultaneously dark, the eye retina contains some neurons that fire only in the dark

116.
Color solid
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A color solid is the three-dimensional representation of a color model, an analog of the two-dimensional color wheel. The added spatial dimension allows a color solid to depict an added dimension of color variation, different color theorists have each designed unique color solids. Many are in the shape of a sphere, whereas others are warped three-dimensional ellipsoid figures—these variations being designed to express some aspect of the relationship of the more clearly. The color spheres conceived by Phillip Otto Runge and Johannes Itten are typical examples and prototypes for other color solid schematics. The models of Runge and Itten are basically identical, and form the basis for the description below, pure, saturated hues of equal brightness are located around the equator at the periphery of the color sphere. As in the wheel, contrasting hues are located opposite each other. Moving toward the center of the sphere on the equatorial plane, colors become less and less saturated. Moving vertically in the sphere, colors become lighter and darker. At the upper pole, all meet in white, at the bottom pole. The vertical axis of the sphere, then, is gray all along its length. All pure hues are located on the surface of the sphere, all impure comprise the spheres interior, likewise varying in brightness from top to bottom. Color model Color triangle Color wheel Runges Color Sphere

117.
Color triangle
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A colour triangle is an arrangement of colours within a triangle, based on the additive combination of three primary colors at its corners. An additive colour space defined by three colors has a chromaticity gamut that is a color triangle, when the amounts of the primaries are constrained to be nonnegative. After the development of the CIE system, color triangles were used as chromaticity diagrams, since the sum of the three chromaticity values has a fixed value, it suffices to depict only two of the three values, using Cartesian co-ordinates. In the modern x, y diagram, the triangle bounded by the imaginary primaries X, Y, and Z has corners. Maxwell was intrigued by James David Forbess use of color tops, initially, he compared the color he observed on the spinning top with a paper of different color, in order to find a match. Later, he mounted a pair of papers, snow white and ivory black, in an inner circle, thereby creating shades of gray. For pale chrome he found 0.33 P C +0.55 U +0.12 E G =0.37 S W +0.63 B K. Next, he rearranged the equation to express the test color in terms of the primaries. This would be the precursor to the color matching functions of the CIE1931 color space, whose chromaticity diagram is shown above

118.
Color realism (art style)
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Color realism is a fine art style where accurately portrayed colors create a sense of space and form. The actual color of an object, or local color, is secondary to how that color interacts with surrounding light sources that may alter the look of the original color. Warm light of the sun, cool light from the sky, earliest proponents of this style include the Dutch Master Johannes Vermeer and Hendrick Terbrugghen. Recent artists working with this include the Boston School of painters, such as Edmund Tarbell. These artists combined vibrant Impressionist pastel colors with a more traditional palette, contemporary artists utilizing elements of this style include Sam Vokey, Charles Tersolo, and Barbara Glee Lucas

Color realism (art style)
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Detail of Woman with a Water Pitcher, by Johannes Vermeer, showing arm broken into two large areas of mixed color.
Color realism (art style)
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The Lute Player by Hendrick Terbrugghen, detail of hand and sleeve showing skin color and white shirt broken into planes of color from direct light and reflected light of room.
Color realism (art style)
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Detail of Woman with a Water Pitcher, by Johannes Vermeer, showing yellow bodice becoming a mixture of purple and orange-yellow in shadow between waist and arms from reflected light

119.
Purple
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Purple is a color intermediate between blue and red. It is similar to violet, but unlike violet, which is a color with its own wavelength on the visible spectrum of light, purple is a composite color made by combining red. According to surveys In Europe and the U. S. purple is the color most often associated with royalty, magic, mystery, when combined with pink, it is associated with eroticism, femininity and seduction. Purple was the color worn by Roman magistrates, it became the color worn by the rulers of the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Roman Empire. Similarly in Japan, the color is associated with the Emperor. The first recorded use of the purple in the English language was in the year 975 AD. In heraldry, the word purpure is used for purple, in the traditional color wheel used by painters, violet and purple are both placed between red and blue. Purple occupies the space closer to red, between crimson and violet, violet is closer to blue, and is usually less saturated than purple. While the two look similar, from the point of view of optics there are important differences. There is no such thing as the wavelength of purple light, monochromatic violet light cannot be produced by the red-green-blue color system, the method used to create colors on a television screen or computer display. This means that when light strikes the eye, the S-cone should be stimulated strongly. The resulting color has the same hue as pure violet, however, one curious psychophysical difference between purple and violet is their appearance with an increase in luminance. Violet, as it brightens, looks more and more blue, the same effect does not happen with purple. This is the result of what is known as the Bezold–Brücke shift, while the scientific definitions of violet and purple are clear, the cultural definitions are more varied. The color known in antiquity as Tyrian purple ranged from crimson to a deep bluish-purple, in France, purple is defined as a dark red, inclined toward violet. The color called purple by the French, pourpre, contains red and half the amount of blue of the color called purple in the United States. In German, this color is sometimes called Purpurrot to avoid confusion, Purple first appeared in prehistoric art during the Neolithic era. These works have been dated to between 16,000 and 25,000 BC, as early as the 15th century BC the citizens of Sidon and Tyre, two cities on the coast of Ancient Phoenicia, were producing purple dye from a sea snail called the spiny dye-murex

Purple
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Purple is the color of royalty. A ticket for the coronation of Elizabeth II (1953)
Purple
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Purple
Purple
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In Catholicism purple is a liturgical color representing piety
Purple
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Purple has become a popular color for neckties; it is less aggressive than red, but more active than blue.

120.
Human skin color
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Human skin color ranges in variety from the darkest brown to the lightest hues. An individuals skin pigmentation is the result of genetics, being the product of both of the biological parents genetic makeup. The actual skin color of different humans is affected by many substances, melanin is produced within the skin in cells called melanocytes and it is the main determinant of the skin color of darker-skinned humans. The skin color of people with skin is determined mainly by the bluish-white connective tissue under the dermis. The red color underlying the skin becomes more visible, especially in the face, Color is not entirely uniform across an individuals skin, for example, the skin of the palm and the sole is lighter than most other skin, and this is especially noticeable in darker-skinned people. There is a correlation between the geographic distribution of UV radiation and the distribution of indigenous skin pigmentation around the world. Areas that receive higher amounts of UVR, generally located closer to the equator, areas that are far from the tropics and closer to the poles have lower intensity of UVR, which is reflected in lighter-skinned populations. Natural skin color can darken as a result of tanning due to exposure to sunlight. In addition, it has observed that adult human females on average are significantly lighter in skin pigmentation than males. Females need more calcium during pregnancy and lactation, the body synthesizes vitamin D from sunlight, which helps it absorb calcium. Females evolved to have lighter skin so their bodies absorb more calcium, the social significance of differences in skin color has varied across cultures and over time, as demonstrated with regard to social status and discrimination. Melanin is produced by cells called melanocytes in a process called melanogenesis, melanin is made within small membrane–bound packages called melanosomes. As they become full of melanin, they move into the arms of melanocytes. Under normal conditions, melanosomes cover the part of the keratinocytes. One melanocyte supplies melanin to thirty-six keratinocytes according to signals from the keratinocytes and they also regulate melanin production and replication of melanocytes. People have different skin colors mainly because their melanocytes produce different amount, the genetic mechanism behind human skin color is mainly regulated by the enzyme tyrosinase, which creates the color of the skin, eyes, and hair shades. Differences in skin color are also attributed to differences in size, melanocytes produce two types of melanin. The most common form of melanin is eumelanin, a brown-black polymer of dihydroxyindole carboxylic acids

121.
Colorfulness
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Colorfulness or saturation in colorimetry and color theory refers to the perceived intensity of a specific color. Colorfulness is the visual sensation according to which the color of an area appears to be more or less chromatic. Chroma is the relative to the brightness of a similarly illuminated area that appears to be white or highly transmitting. Therefore, chroma should not be confused with colorfulness, saturation is the colorfulness of a color relative to its own brightness. A highly colorful stimulus is vivid and intense, while a less colorful stimulus appears more muted, with no colorfulness at all, a color is a “neutral” gray. Any color can be described using three color appearance parameters — colorfulness, lightness, and hue, saturation is one of three coordinates in the HSL and HSV color spaces. The saturation of a color is determined by a combination of light intensity, the purest color is achieved by using just one wavelength at a high intensity, such as in laser light. If the intensity drops, then as a result the saturation drops, to desaturate a color of given intensity in a subtractive system, one can add white, black, gray, or the hues complement. CIELUV The chroma normalized by the lightness, s u v = C u v ∗ L ∗ =132 +2 where is the chromaticity of the white point, and chroma is defined below. Nevertheless, this provides a reasonable predictor of saturation. S a b = C a b ∗ C a b ∗2 + L ∗2100 % where Sab is the saturation, L* the lightness and C*ab is the chroma of the color. CIECAM02 The square root of the colorfulness divided by the brightness, M is proportional to the chroma C, thus the CIECAM02 definition bears some similarity to the CIELUV definition. An important difference is that the CIECAM02 model accounts for the conditions through the parameter FL. Different color spaces, such as CIELAB or CIELUV may be used, the naïve definition of saturation does not specify its response function. However, both color spaces are nonlinear in terms of perceived color differences. It is also possible—and sometimes desirable—to define a quantity that is linearized in term of the psychovisual perception. The transformation of to is given by, C a b ∗ = a ∗2 + b ∗2 h a b = arctan ⁡ b ∗ a ∗ and analogously for CIE L*C*h. The chroma in the CIE L*C*h and CIE L*C*h coordinates has the advantage of being more psychovisually linear, and therefore, chroma in CIE1976 L*a*b* and L*u*v* color spaces is very much different from the traditional sense of saturation

122.
Pantone
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Pantone Inc. is a corporation headquartered in Carlstadt, New Jersey. X-Rite Inc. a supplier of color measurement instruments and software, Pantone began in New York City in the 1950s as the commercial printing company of M & J Levine Advertising. In 1956, its founders, advertising executives brothers Mervin and Jesse Levine, for instance, a particular page might contain a number of yellows of varying tints. The idea behind the PMS is to allow designers to color match specific colors when a design enters production stage and this system has been widely adopted by graphic designers and reproduction and printing houses. Pantone recommends that PMS Color Guides be purchased annually, as their inks become yellowish over time, Color variance also occurs within editions based on the paper stock used, while interedition color variance occurs when there are changes to the specific paper stock used. The Pantone Color Matching System is largely a standardized color reproduction system, by standardizing the colors, different manufacturers in different locations can all refer to the Pantone system to make sure colors match without direct contact with one another. One such use is standardizing colors in the CMYK process, the CMYK process is a method of printing color by using four inks—cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. A majority of the printed material is produced using the CMYK process. Those that are possible to simulate through the CMYK process are labeled as such within the companys guides, however, most of the Pantone systems 1,114 spot colors cannot be simulated with CMYK but with 13 base pigments mixed in specified amounts. The Pantone system also allows for many special colors to be produced, such as metallics, while most of the Pantone system colors are beyond the printed CMYK gamut, it was only in 2001 that Pantone began providing translations of their existing system with screen-based colors. Screen-based colors use the RGB color model—red, green, blue—system to create various colors, the Goe system has RGB and LAB values with each color. Pantone colors are described by their allocated number, PMS colors are almost always used in branding and have even found their way into government legislation and military standards. In January 2003, the Scottish Parliament debated a petition to refer to the blue in the Scottish flag as Pantone 300, countries such as Canada and South Korea and organizations such as the FIA have also chosen to refer to specific Pantone colors to use when producing flags. US states including Texas have set legislated PMS colors of their flags and it has also been used in an art project by the Brazilian photographer Angelica Dass which applies Pantone to the human skin color spectrum. On September 5,2007, Pantone introduced the Goe System, Goe consisted of over 2,000 new colors in a new matching and numbering system. The Goe system was streamlined to use base colors and accommodate many technical challenges in reproducing colors on a press. The Pantone Goe system was discontinued in November 2013, in mid-2006 Pantone, partnering with Vermont-based Fine Paints of Europe, introduced a new line of interior and exterior paints. The color palette uses Pantones color research and trending and has more than 3,000 colors, in November 2015, Pantone partnered with Redland London to create a collection of bags inspired from Pantones authority on color

Pantone
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A logo designed by the Government of Singapore to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the nation's independence. The usage instructions for the logo described it as being in Pantone Red 032 and White.
Pantone
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This article is about the corporation and its color space. For other uses, see Pantone (disambiguation).

123.
International Color Consortium
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This specification is technically identical to ISO 15076-1,2010, available from ISO. The ICC profile which describe the attributes of a particular device or viewing requirement by defining a mapping between the source or target color space and a profile connection space. The ICC defines the format precisely but does not define algorithms or processing details and this means there is room for variation between different applications and systems that work with ICC profiles. Details are at http, //www. color. org/iccmax/ The eight founding members of the ICC were Adobe, Agfa, Apple, Kodak, Microsoft, Silicon Graphics, Sun Microsystems, and Taligent. At the beginning of 2014, ICC membership has grown to a total of 61 members, including their founding, regular, and honorary members. Aside from members of the photography, printing, and painting industry, new members from different industries include MathWorks, Nokia, Sony Corporation. International Colour Association International Commission on Illumination Official Web site

International Color Consortium
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International Color Consortium

124.
History of Crayola crayons
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Since the introduction of Crayola drawing crayons by Binney & Smith in 1903, more than two hundred distinctive colors have been produced in a wide variety of assortments. The line has several major revisions in its history, notably in 1935,1949,1958. Numerous specialty crayons have also produced, complementing the basic Crayola assortment. After several decades producing commercial pigments, Binney & Smith produced their first crayon, the following year, the company decided to enter the consumer market with its first drawing crayons. Early Crayola advertising mentions thirty different colors, although there is no official list, the largest labeled assortment was box No. 51, titled Crayola Young Artists Drawing Crayons, which included twenty-eight different crayons, other colors were found in different boxes, including the Rubens No. The colors in the following table approximate each of the colors produced during this early period. In 1926, Binney & Smith acquired the Munsell Color Companys line of crayons and this marked the first time that Crayola crayons incorporated the concept of the color wheel. The Munsell color wheel consisted of five principal hues, and five intermediate hues, each color was available in either maximum chroma or with middle value and middle chroma. The Munsell color wheel prompted Binney & Smith to adopt a color wheel concept for Crayola crayons in 1930, using six principal hues and six intermediate hues. These were combined with Black, Neutral Gray, White, Munsell crayons were not produced again after the war, but the concept of the color wheel pioneered by Munsell remained a fundamental part of the Crayola lineup until 1990. All of the Munsell colors depicted in table are based on physical swatches of Crayola Munsell crayons. From 1930 to 1935, Binney & Smith refined the Crayola line-up, discontinuing some colors and adjusting others, and incorporating the Munsell colors into its regular line. In 1939, the introduced the No.52 assortment, containing fifty-two colors, including all of the Munsell colors and all. When full production was resumed in 1949, Binney & Smith eliminated most of the Munsell colors, the new lineup was based around the twelve-color wheel of Crayola colors, first developed during the 1930s. For ten years, the No.48 box was Crayolas largest collection, introduced in 1958, the Crayola No.64 was Binney & Smiths largest regular assortment for more than thirty years, and featured the last major changes to Crayola colors before 1990. The iconic flip-top box arranged sixty-four crayons in four rows of sixteen, progressively raised to allow for access. Although a few of the colors from the No, the first changes to the No.64 box were made in its first year of production, as Light Blue and Brilliant Rose were replaced by Turquoise Blue and Magenta

History of Crayola crayons
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An assortment of crayon boxes produced by Binney & Smith between 1903 and 1920
History of Crayola crayons
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A Crayola ad from 1905.
History of Crayola crayons
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Three boxes of Munsell crayons; the first from the Munsell Color Company, and the others from Binney & Smith.
History of Crayola crayons
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The Crayola No. 48, introduced in 1949. Note both the "Rubens" and "Gold Medal" emblems.

125.
Visual perception
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Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment using light in the visible spectrum reflected by the objects in the environment. The resulting perception is known as visual perception, eyesight, sight. The visual system in animals allows individuals to assimilate information from their surroundings, the act of seeing starts when the cornea and then the lens of the eye focuses light from its surroundings onto a light-sensitive membrane in the back of the eye, called the retina. The retina is actually part of the brain that is isolated to serve as a transducer for the conversion of light into neuronal signals. These signals are processed via complex feedforward and feedback processes by different parts of the brain, signals from the retina can also travel directly from the retina to the superior colliculus. The perception of objects and the totality of the scene is accomplished by the visual association cortex. The visual association cortex combines all sensory information perceived by the cortex which contains thousands of modules that are part of modular neural networks. The neurons in the cortex send axons to the extrastriate cortex. The major problem in perception is that what people see is not simply a translation of retinal stimuli. Thus people interested in perception have long struggled to explain what visual processing does to create what is actually seen, there were two major ancient Greek schools, providing a primitive explanation of how vision is carried out in the body. The first was the theory which maintained that vision occurs when rays emanate from the eyes and are intercepted by visual objects. If an object was seen directly it was by means of coming out of the eyes. This theory was championed by scholars like Euclid and Ptolemy and their followers, the second school advocated the so-called intro-mission approach which sees vision as coming from something entering the eyes representative of the object. Plato makes this assertion in his dialogue Timaeus, as does Aristotle, alhazen carried out many investigations and experiments on visual perception, extended the work of Ptolemy on binocular vision, and commented on the anatomical works of Galen. Leonardo da Vinci is believed to be the first to recognize the special qualities of the eye. He wrote The function of the human eye, was described by a large number of authors in a certain way. But I found it to be completely different and his main experimental finding was that there is only a distinct and clear vision at the line of sight—the optical line that ends at the fovea. Although he did not use these words literally he actually is the father of the distinction between foveal and peripheral vision

Visual perception
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Leonardo da Vinci: The eye has a central line and everything that reaches the eye through this central line can be seen distinctly.
Visual perception
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The visual dorsal stream (green) and ventral stream (purple) are shown. Much of the human cerebral cortex is involved in vision.
Visual perception
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Eye movement first 2 seconds (Yarbus, 1967)
Visual perception
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Vision