The Centennial International Exhibition of 1876, the first official World's Fair in the United States, was held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from May 10 to November 10, 1876, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia. Officially named the International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures and Products of the Soil and Mine, it was held in Fairmount Park along the Schuylkill River on fairgrounds designed by Herman J. Schwarzmann. Nearly 10 million visitors attended the exhibition and thirty-seven countries participated in it.

The Great Sanitary Fair (1864) was the model for the Centennial Exhibition. It had raised $1,046,859 for medicine and bandages during the American Civil War.

The Great Central Fair, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania held in 1864 (also known as The Great Sanitary Fair), one of the many sanitary fairs held during the Civil War, anticipated the combination of public, private, and commercial efforts that were necessary for the Centennial. The Great Central Fair, held on Logan Square, had a similar gothic appearance, the waving flags, the huge central hall, the "curiosities" and relics, handmade and industrial exhibits, and also a visit from the President and his family, provided a creative and communal means for ordinary citizens to promote the welfare of Union soldiers and dedicate themselves to the survival of the nation, they also made Philadelphia a vital center in the Union war effort.

The Franklin Institute became an early supporter of the exposition and asked the Philadelphia City Council for use of Fairmount Park, with reference to the numerous events of national importance that were held in the past and related to the City of Philadelphia, the City Council resolved in January 1870, to hold the Centennial Exposition in the city in 1876.[citation needed]

The United States Centennial Commission organized on March 3, 1872, with Joseph R. Hawley of Connecticut as president. The Centennial Commission's commissioners included one representative from each state and territory in the United States,[1] on June 1, 1872, Congress created a Centennial Board of Finance to help raise money. The board's president was John Welsh, brother of philanthropist William Welsh, who had raised funds for The Great Sanitary Fair in 1864,[2] the board was authorized to sell up to $10 million in stock via $10 shares. The board sold $1,784,320 ($36,449,692 today[3]) worth of shares by February 22, 1873. Philadelphia contributed $1.5 million and Pennsylvania gave $1 million. On February 11, 1876, Congress appropriated $1.5 million in a loan. Originally, the board thought it was a subsidy, but after the Centennial ended, the federal government sued for the money back, and the United States Supreme Court ultimately forced repayment. John Welsh enlisted help from the women of Philadelphia who had helped him in The Great Sanitary Fair. A Women's Centennial Executive Committee was formed with Elizabeth Duane Gillespie, a descendant of Benjamin Franklin, as president; in its first few months, the group raised $40,000. When the group learned the planning commission was not doing much to display the work of women, the group raised $30,000 for a women's exhibition building.[4]

In 1873, the Centennial Commission named Alfred T. Goshorn as the director general of the Exposition. The Fairmount Park Commission set aside 450 acres (1.8 km2) of West Fairmount Park for the exposition, which was dedicated on July 4, 1873,[4] by Secretary of the NavyGeorge M. Robeson. The Commission decided to classify the exhibits into seven departments: agriculture, art, education and science, horticulture, machinery, manufactures, and mining and metallurgy. Newspaper publisher John W. Forney agreed to head and pay for a Philadelphia commission sent to Europe to invite nations to exhibit at the exposition. Despite fears of a European boycott and high American tariffs making foreign goods not worthwhile, no European country declined the invitation.[5]

Philadelphia passed an ordinance that authorized Mayor William S. Stokley to appoint five hundred men as centennial guards for the exposition, among soldiers and local men hired by the city was Frank Geyer, best known for investigating one of America's first serial killers, H. H. Holmes.[7][8] Centennial guards policed exhibits, kept the peace, reunited lost children, and received, recorded, and when possible, returned lost items, the most unusual of which were front hair pieces and false teeth.[9][10][11] Guards were required to live onsite and were housed at 6 police stations strategically located throughout the Exposition. A magistrate's office and courtroom was located at the only two-story police station located on the grounds and was used to conduct prisoner hearings. Officers slept in cramped quarters, which posed health issues. Eight guards died while working the Exposition, six from typhoid fever, one from smallpox, and one from organic disease of the heart.[12][13]

The Centennial National Bank was chartered on January 19, 1876, to be the "financial agent of the board at the Centennial Exhibition, receiving and accounting for daily receipts, changing foreign moneys into current funds, etc.," according to an article three days later in the Philadelphia Inquirer. Its main branch, designed by Frank Furness, was opened that April on the southeast corner of Market Street and 32nd Street. A branch office operated during the Centennial on the fairgrounds,[14] the Centennial Commission ran out of funds for printing and other expenses. Philadelphia city officials appropriated $50,000 to make up for the shortfall.[15][16]

Herman J. Schwarzmann, an engineer for the Fairmount Park Commission, was assigned as the main designer of the exposition. Schwarzmann began working for the Fairmount Park Commission in 1869, which became the site of the 1876 Centennial Exposition, it is one of the great urban parks of America, its importance in landscape history exceeded only by Central Park. He was the chief architect for the Centennial Exposition, designing Memorial Hall, Horticultural Hall, other small buildings and landscape around them, the work done for the Centennial Exhibition was in reference to the Vienna International Exhibition in 1873, for which Schwarzmann visited the exhibition to analyse the buildings and the ground layout. Taking the Vienna International Exhibition in 1873 as a caution, the exhibition was planned in order to avoid the disastrous logistic planning that the Vienna exposition demonstrated.

In the Vienna Exposition, there was no convenient way for visitors to reach the fairgrounds, and exorbitant rates were charged by carriage drivers, with reference to these experiences, the Philadelphia expo was ready for its visitors, with direct rail road connections to service passenger trains for every 30 minutes, trolley lines, street cars, carriage routes and even docking facilities on the river.

More than 200 buildings were constructed within the Exposition's grounds, which were surrounded by a fence nearly three miles long.[17] There were five main buildings in the exhibition, they were the Main Exhibition Building, Memorial Hall, Machinery Hall, Agricultural Hall, and Horticultural Hall. Apart from these buildings, there were separate buildings for state, federal, foreign, corporate, and public comfort buildings, this strategy of numerous buildings in one exposition, set it apart from the previous fairs around the world that relied exclusively on having one or a few large buildings.

The Centennial Commission sponsored a design competition for the principal buildings, conducted in two rounds; winners of the first round had to have details such as construction cost and time prepared for the runoff on September 20, 1873. After the ten design winners were chosen, it was determined that none of them allowed enough time for construction and limited finances.[citation needed]

The Architecture of the Exhibition mainly consisted of two ways of building, the traditional masonry monuments and building of structural framework of Iron and Steel.

Main Exhibition Building, Centennial Exposition, Philadelphia (1875–76, disassembled and sold 1881). In terms of total area enclosed, 21½ acres, it was the largest building in the world.

The Centennial Commission turned to third-place winner's architect Henry Pettit and engineer Joseph M. Wilson for design and construction of the Main Exhibition Building. A temporary structure, the Main Building was the largest building in the world by area, enclosing 21.5 acres (8.7 ha).[5] It measured 464 ft in width and 1,880 ft in length.

It was constructed using prefabricated parts, with a wood and iron frame resting on a substructure of 672 stone piers, the wrought iron roof trusses were supported by the columns of the superstructure.

The building took eighteen months to complete and cost $1,580,000, the building was surrounded by portals on all four sides, the east entrance of the building was used as an access way for carriages and the south entrance of the building served as a primary entrance to the building for street cars. The north side related the building to the Art Gallery and the west side served as a passageway to the Machinery and Agricultural Halls.

In the Main Exhibition Building, columns were placed at a uniform distance of 24 feet, the entire structure consisted of 672 columns, the shortest column 23 ft in length and the longest 125 ft in length. The construction included red and black brick-laid design with stained glass or painted glass decorations, the Interior walls were whitewashed and woodwork was decorated with shades of green, crimson, blue and gold. The flooring of the building was made of wooden planks that rested directly on the ground without any space underneath it.

The orientation of the building was East-West in direction making it well lit and Glass was used between the frames to let in light. Skylights were introduced within the structure, over the central aisles, the corridors of the building were separated by fountains, that were aesthetic and also served the purpose of cooling.

The structure of the building, the central avenue was a series of parallel sheds that were 120 ft (37 m) wide, 1,832 ft (558 m) long, and 75 ft (23 m) high. It was the longest nave ever introduced into an exhibition building, on either sides of the nave, were avenues of 100 feet in width and 1832 feet in length. Aisles of 48 ft wide were between the nave and the side avenues, and smaller aisles of 24 ft in width were on the outer sides of the building.

The exterior of the building consisted of 4 towers of 75 feet in height that stood at each of the building's corners, these towers served as small balconies or galleries of observation at different heights.

Within the building, Exhibits were arranged in a grid, in a dual arrangement of type and national origin. Exhibits from the United States were placed in the center of the building, and foreign exhibits were arranged around the center, based on the nation's distance from the United States. Exhibits inside the Main Exhibition Building dealt with mining, metallurgy, manufacturing, education and science.[18] Offices for foreign commissioners were placed along the sides of the building, in the side aisles, in proximity to the products exhibited, the walkways leading to the exit doors were 10 feet in width.

After the Exposition, the building was turned into a permanent building for the International Exhibition, during the auction held on December 1, 1876 the building was bought for $250,000. It quickly ran into financial difficulty but continued to remain open through 1879, before being finally demolished in 1881.

The third largest structure at the Centennial was Agricultural Hall. Designed by James Windrim, Agricultural Hall was 820 ft (250 m) long and 540 ft (160 m) wide. Made of wood and glass, the building was designed to look like various barn structures pieced together, the building's exhibits included products and machines in agriculture and other related businesses.[19]

Situated high atop a hill presiding over Fountain Avenue, Horticultural Hall epitomized floral achievement, which attracted professional and amateur gardeners. Unlike the other main buildings, it was meant to be permanent. Horticultural Hall had an iron and glass frame on a brick and marble foundation and was 383 ft (117 m) long, 193 ft (59 m) wide and 68 ft (21 m) tall.[20] The building was styled after Moorish architecture and designed as a tribute to The Crystal Palace from London's Great Exhibition. Inside, nurserymen, florists and novice landscape exhibited a variety of tropical plants, garden equipments, and garden plans; in dramatic fashion, the Centennial introduced the general public to the notion of landscape design, as exemplified the building itself and the grounds surrounding it. In terms landscape around it, a long, sunken parterre leading from Horticultural Hall became the Centennial's Iconic floral feature, reproduced on countless postcards and other memorabilia, This low garden enabled visitors to best see the patterns and shapes of the beds from the raised walkways, the building's exhibits specialized in horticulture and after the Exposition it continued to exhibit plants until it was badly damaged by Hurricane Hazel in 1954 and was demolished.[17] As a replacement, the Fairmount Park Horticulture Center was built on the site in 1976 as part of the United States Bicentennial exposition.

Machinery Hall, the second largest building in the exposition, located west of the Main Exhibition Building was designed by Joseph M. Wilson and Henry Pettit, this structure consisted of a main hall, 1,402 ft long and 360 ft wide, with a wing of 208 ft by 210 ft attached on the south side of the building. The building occupied 558,440 square feet, had 1,900 exhibitors in the Hall and took six months to construct. Much like its name, the exhibits displayed at Machinery Hall focused on machines and evolving industries.[21]

The building was composed of a superstructure made of wood and glass, and rested on a foundation of massive masonry, the building was painted light blue and had 8 different entrances. The length of the building was 18 times its height. Machinery Hall was the show case for the state of the art industrial technology that was being produced at the time, the United States of America alone took up two-thirds of the exhibit space in the building.

One of the major attractions on display in the building was the Corliss Centennial Steam Engine that ran power to all the machinery in the building as well as other parts of the world's fair, the engine was 45 feet tall, produced 1,400 horsepower and weighed 650 tons. It had 1 mile of overhead line belts that connected to the machinery in the building, it symbolized the power of technology that was transforming the United States into an industrial nation.

Amenities available to the visitors within the hall were rolling chairs, telegraph offices and dinner for fifty cents. Machinery Hall had 8,000 operating machines and was filled with a wide assortment of hand tools, machine tools, material handling equipment and the latest fastener technology.

Designed by Herman J. Schwarzmann, the Art Gallery building (now known as Memorial Hall) is made of brick, glass, iron and granite. Memorial Hall, the only large exhibit building to survive on the Centennial site, was designed in the beaux-arts style and housed the art exhibits, it was the largest art hall in the country when it opened, with a massive 1.5-acre footprint and a 150-foot dome sitting atop a 59-foot-high structure with a 150-foot dome sitting on top. It provided 75,000 square feet of wall surface for paintings and 20,000 square feet of floor space for sculptures.The Centennial received so many art contributions that a separate annex was built to house them all. Another building was built for the display of photography.[22] Schwarzmann based his design for Memorial Hall on Nicholas Felix Escaliers project for the Prix de Rome published in 1867–69. Constructed of granite, brick, glass and iron, Memorial Hall consisted of a central domed area surrounded by four pavilions on the corners with open arcades east and west of the main entrance, during the exhibition, the building along with the Art Gallery Extension directly to its rear displayed the art of many nations.20. Memorial Hall became the prototype, both from a stylistic and organizational standpoint, for other museums such as the Art Institute of Chicago (1892–1893), Milwaukee Public Museum (1893–1897), Brooklyn Museum (1893–1924), and Detroit Institute of Art (1920–1927). Libraries like the Library of Congress, New York Public Library and Free Library of Philadelphia also emulated its form.

After the Exposition, Memorial Hall reopened in 1877 as the Pennsylvania Museum of Art and included the Pennsylvania Museum School of Industrial Art; in 1928 the museum moved to Fairmount at the head of the Benjamin Franklin Parkway, and in 1938 was renamed the Philadelphia Museum of Art. Memorial Hall continued to house the school, and afterward was taken over by the Fairmount Park Commission in 1958,[23] the museum school is now the University of the Arts. The building was later used as a police station and has now been renovated to house the Please Touch Museum,[5][24] the Please Touch Museum exhibits a beautiful 20 by 30 foot model of the Centennial Grounds and 200 buildings.

The Women's Pavilion, a project of the Women's Centennial Executive Committee, was appointed in 1873 by the United States Centennial Board of Finance, they hoped the Women's Pavilion would generate greater enthusiasm in the celebration of the fair by increasing subscriptions to Centennial stock. Much of the pavilion was devoted to what would be classified as woman's domestic production.

The president of the Women's Centennial Committee was Elizabeth Duane Gillespie, great grand daughter of Benjamin Franklin. Gillespie led the Women's centennial executive committee in raising money to create the first Women's pavilion in exposition history, with the help of Gillespie, the women's centennial committee reached their goal of 82,000 signatures in 2 days to raise money for the pavilion, she also helped convince Congress to give the committee more money. Female organizers of the event drew upon deeply rooted traditions of separatism and sorority, as they planned, funded and managed their own pavilion and devoted it entirely to the artistic and industrial pursuits of their gender, their overall goal was to increase female confidence and choices, win woman's social, economic, and legal advancement, abolish unfair restrictions discriminating against their gender, encourage sexual harmony, and gain influence, leverage, and freedom for all women in and outside of the home. They had to build their own building because they lost their spot in one of the larger pavilions (Main Building) due to a large increase in foreign interest, it only took them 4 months to raise the needed funds to build the pavilion. Their goal was to only use women to build their pavilion, even to power their own building. To which they did except for one aspect which was the design of the building, the building was designed by Hermann J. Schwarzmann, the Centennial Women not only showed domestic production but they also employed a popular means for justifying female autonomy outside of the home as well. They did this by demonstrating to visitors what ways women were making a profitable living. When entering the building visitors found exhibits that demonstrated positive achievements and influence such as; industrial and fine arts: wood-carvings, furniture-making, and ceramics; fancy articles: clothing, and woven goods, philanthropy: philosophy, science, and medicine; education; literature; and inventions. The pavilion also exhibited over eighty patented inventions for example: a reliance stove, a hand attachment for a sewing machine, a dish-washer, a fountain griddle- greaser, a heating iron with removable handle, a frame for stretching and drying lace curtains, and a stocking and glove darner.

Mexico participated in the pavilion's exhibits, indicating the growth of a sector of elite women during the Porfirio Díaz regime of the late nineteenth century, with many individual women sending examples of woven textiles and embroidery.[25]

The British buildings were extensive and among other things showed to America the evolved bicycle with Tension Spokes and a large front wheel. Two English manufacturers displayed their high wheel bikes (called "Ordinary bikes" or slang "penny farthings") at the Exposition: Bayless Thomas and Rudge, it was these displays that caused Col. A. Pope to decide to begin making high wheel bikes in the USA, he started the Columbia Bike Company and within a few years was publishing a journal "LAW Bulletin and Good Roads". This was the beginning of the Good Roads Movement.[citation needed]

Eleven nations beside the U.S. had their own exhibition buildings, along with 26 of the 37 U.S. states, though only the Ohio House and the Missouri House, beautifully restored in Spring Lake , N.J., survives.[26] The United States government had a cross-shaped building that held exhibits from various government departments, the Women's Pavilion was the first structure at an international exposition devoted to showing off the work of women. The exhibits in this building were created and operated by women. Domestic labor saving devices invented by women were also displayed, the items that were exhibited included a dishwasher, a reliance stove, a stocking and glove darner, etc. The goals of the exhibit was to promote labor saving household gadgets that would provide women relief from household work so that they can focus on other leisurely activities of interest, the rest of the structures at the Centennial were corporate exhibitions, administration buildings, restaurants, and other buildings designed for public comfort.[27]

The Centennial Tower, a 1,000-foot-tall (300 m) tower conceived in 1874 by engineers Clarke and Reeves for the 1876 Exposition, was featured in the January 24, 1874 edition of Scientific American but never built.

The formal name of the Exposition was the International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, and products of the Soil and Mine, but the official theme was the celebration of the United States Centennial, this was reinforced by promotional tie-ins, such as the publication of Kate Harrington's Centennial, and Other Poems, which commemorated the Exposition and the centennial. At the same time, the Exposition was designed to show the world the United States' industrial and innovative prowess,[1] the Centennial was originally set to begin in April for the anniversary of the Battles of Lexington and Concord, but construction delays caused the date to be pushed ahead to May 10. Bells rang all over Philadelphia to signal the Centennial's opening, the opening ceremony was attended by U.S. President Ulysses Grant and his wife and Emperor Pedro II of Brazil and his wife. The opening ceremony ended in Machinery Hall with Grant and Pedro II turning on the Corliss Steam Engine which powered most of the other machines at the Exposition, the official number of first day attendees was 186,272 people with 110,000 entering with free passes.

In the days following the opening ceremony, attendance dropped dramatically, with only 12,720 people visiting the Exposition, the average daily attendance for May was 36,000 and 39,000 for June. A deadly heat wave began in mid-June and continued into July hurting attendance, the average temperature was 81 °F (27 °C), and ten times during the heat wave, the temperatures reached 100 °F (38 °C). The average daily attendance for July was 35,000, but it rose in August to 42,000 despite the return of high temperatures at the end of the month.[28]

Cooling temperatures, news reports and word of mouth began increasing attendance in the final three months of the Exposition, with many of the visitors coming from farther distances; in September the average daily attendance rose to 94,000 and to 102,000 in October. The highest attendance date of the entire Exposition was September 28, the day, which saw about a quarter of a million people attend, was Pennsylvania Day. Pennsylvania Day celebrated the 100th anniversary of the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776 and Exposition events included speeches, receptions and fireworks. The final month of the Exposition, November, had an average daily attendance of 115,000. By the time the Exposition ended on November 10, a total of 10,164,489 had visited the fair,[6] among the attendees who were duly impressed by the exposition were Princeton University sophomore Woodrow Wilson and his minister father, Dr. Joseph Ruggles Wilson, visiting from North Carolina.[29]

Although not financially successful for investors, the Centennial Exposition impressed foreigners in that the country grew industrially and commercially, the number of exports increased, the number of imports decreased, and the balance grew in favor of America.

Mass-produced products and new inventions were on display at the 1876 World Fair, many found within the walls of Machinery hall, some of the main inventions on display included sewing machines, typewriters, stoves, lanterns and guns, plus horse-drawn wagons, carriages and agricultural equipment.

Some of the most well-known present day features on display at the Centennial Exposition, was a section of the Statue of Liberty (her arm and torch) and the debut of the world's first monorail system[contradictory] which featured a steam locomotive and passenger car which straddled a single elevated iron rail that rested several feet off the ground.

The exposition also featured many well-known items of today such as; Alexander Graham Bell's first telephone which was set up on opposite ends of Machinery Hall to demonstrate the transfer of human voice through wires, the Automatic telegraph system and electric pen by Thomas Edison, screw-cutting machines that drastically improved the production of screws and bolts from 8,000 to 100,000 a day, and a universal grinding machine by Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Co.

A new technology on display were air-powered tools along with the mechanical calculator by George B. Grant. John A. Roebling's Sons & Co. also displayed their 5 ¾ inch diameter slice of cable that was going to be used for the Brooklyn Bridge. Besides machinery, visitors could also find new foods such as bananas, popcorn and Heinz ketchup.

A reconstruction of a "colonial kitchen" replete with spinning wheel and costumed presenters sparked an era of "Colonial Revival" in American architecture and house furnishings, the Swedish Cottage, representing a rural Swedish schoolhouse of traditional style, was re-erected after the Exposition closed, in Central Park, New York. It is now the Swedish Cottage Marionette Theatre.

The New Jersey official State Pavilion was a reconstruction of the Ford Mansion, which served as General George Washington's Headquarters during the winter of 1779–80 in Morristown, New Jersey, the reconstruction had a working "colonial kitchen" featuring a polemical narrative of "old-fashioned domesticity." This quaint hearth and home view of the colonial past was juxtaposed against the theme of progress, the overarching theme of the exhibition serving to reinforce a view of American progress evolving from a small hearty colonial stock and not from a continual influx of multi-ethnic waves of immigration.

The right arm and torch of the Statue of Liberty were showcased at the Exposition, for a fee of 50 cents, visitors could climb the ladder to the balcony, and the money raised this way was used to fund the pedestal for the statue.

For Mexico, which was emerging from a long period of internal disorder and foreign invasions, the exposition was an opportunity for the Liberal regime of President Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada to garner international recognition of his regime and to counter anti-Mexican public opinion in the United States. Prominent Mexican painters including José María Velasco, José Obregón, and Santiago Rebull exhibited there. Velasco's work was greatly admired, gaining him international recognition and enhancing his standing in Mexico.[31]

Also displayed was the exquisite Gothic-style high altar that Edward Sorin (founder of University of Notre Dame) commissioned from the studios of Froc-Robert in Paris, after the exhibit, the altar was installed at the Basilica of the Sacred Heart on Notre Dame's campus where it remains to this day.

^Pennsylvania Board of Centennial Managers (1878). Pennsylvania and the Centennial Exposition: Comprising the Preliminary and Final Reports of the Pennsylvania Board of Centennial Managers Made to the Legislature at the Sessions of 1877-8. Pennsylvania: Gillan & Nagle. pp. 97–99.

^Pennsylvania Board of Centennial Managers (1878). Pennsylvania and the Centennial Exposition: Comprising the Preliminary and Final Reports of the Pennsylvania Board of Centennial Managers Made to the Legislature at the Sessions of 1877-8. Pennsylvania: Gillan & Nagle. p. 98.

^McCabe, James D. (1876). The Illustrated History of the Centennial Exposition Held in Commemoration of the One Hundredth Anniversary of American Independence. Philadelphia, PA: The National Publishing Company. p. 620.

^Pennsylvania Board of Centennial Managers (1878). Pennsylvania and the Centennial Exposition: Comprising the Preliminary and Final Reports of the Pennsylvania Board of Centennial Managers Made to the Legislature at the Sessions of 1877-8. Pennsylvania: Gillan & Nagle. pp. 93, 244.

Bruno Giberti, Designing the Centennial: A history of the 1876 International Exhibition in Philadelphia, University Press of Kentucky, 2002.

International Exhibition. 1876, Official Catalogue, John R Nagle and company.

Tenorio-Trillo, Mauricio, Mexico at the World's Fairs: Crafting a Nation. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1996

Crighton, JD (2017). Detective in the White City: The Real Story of Frank Geyer. RW Publishing House. ISBN978-1-946100-02-3. (Frank Geyer was hired to work as a centennial guard for the Centennial Exposition. He later became famous for his investigation of H. H. Holmes, one of America's first serial killers).

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New Zealand Centennial Exhibition
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The New Zealand Centennial Exhibition took place over six months from Wednesday 8 November 1939 until 4 May 1940. It celebrated one hundred years since the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, the New Zealand Government staged the exhibition with assistance from local government, New Zealand industry and the New Zealand public. The exhibition took for its site a location at Rongotai in Wellington, Edmund Anscombe designing the buildings, Construction began on 27 April 1939 by the firm Fletcher and Love Construction Companies and over 1,000 staff were employed in the process of building the exhibition. The exhibition grounds were just over 55 acres in size, with the main buildings accounting for around 14 acres of this, feature structures included, the Centennial Tower, the main focus of attention, standing 155 feet tall and weighing 700 tons. This icon featured on many of the celebrating the exhibition. A statue of a Neriad standing in the central fountain, the New Zealand Railways Department stand featuring a working model-railway constructed to scale and maintained by Frank Roberts. The last time an event of such a scale had been held was the New Zealand and South Seas International Exhibition in 1925–26, Anscombe had also been the architect for the Dunedin exhibition. In February 1938 tenders were invited by the New Zealand Centennial Exhibition Company Ltd for official photographer for the Exhibition, the photography rights covered all aspects of the exhibition, from construction to closing. Deste flew above the site in a plane to take aerial shots. Destes stall in the General Exhibits Building sold photographs and postcards in black and white, much of the photography at the exhibition came from the camera of an employee, Neville d’Eresby Aickin, while Deste did the processing and printing at her studio. Plans envisaged using the only for six months and then dismantling it. But with New Zealands ongoing participation in World War II, the New Zealand Air Force used the site, in 1946 what remained was burnt to the ground. Zealandia Appendices to the House of Representatives, Department of Industries and Commerce,1941, H-44, a Brilliant Spectacle, the Centennial Exhibition Buildings, in John Wilson, Zeal and Crusade, the Modern Movement in New Zealand, Christchurch,1997. New Zealand Centennial Exhibition 1939–40, Official Souvenir Catalogue, New Zealand Centennial Exhibition Company Ltd archives, held by Wellington City Council Archives. Official history of the New Zealand Centennial Exhibition, Wellington, 1939–1940, renwick, William, Creating a National Spirit, Celebrating New Zealands Centennial. ISBN 0-86473-475-1 Article on nzhistory Certificate of Attendance 700 ton tower Images and Videos of the Centennial Exhibition from DigitalNZ

2.
Bureau International des Expositions
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To February 4,2016,169 member countries have adhered to the BIE Convention. The BIE regulates two types of expositions, Registered Exhibitions and Recognized Exhibitions, Horticultural Exhibitions with an A1 grade, regulated by the International Association of Horticultural Producers, are recognized since 1960. The USA had its membership of the BIE withdrawn in June 2001, the cause was the non-allocation of funds by the U. S. Congress for two years. The United States Congress has not provided a reason for failing to pay membership. The BIE remains open to participation from the United States, in a letter from April 20,2006, the secretary-general said, As you are aware, the United States government withdrew from the BIE in June 2001. Citizens realize and would welcome the strong impact a worlds fair can have on their city, state and it would be wonderful to, once again, attend an exhibition in the United States. Participation in the BIE is controlled by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, rydell said the 1982 fair was not as bad as many people make it out to be. Since the start of the 21st century, Universal Expositions may occur every five years, lasting six months, on 5 and 0 ending years, i. e. Expo 2010 in Shanghai, Expo 2015 in Milan, and so forth. Countries, international organizations, civil societies, and corporations are allowed to participate in Registered Expositions, the Plaza of Africa at Seville was constructed for the same purpose. Registered Expositions are also massive in scale, sometimes 300 or 400 hectares in size, montreals Expo 67 attracted 54 million visitors, Osakas Expo 70,64 million visitors, the Seville Expo 92,41 million visitors and Shanghais Expo 2010 attracted 70 million visitors. Countries, international organizations, civil societies, and corporations are allowed to participate, the pavilions are built by the hosts and not the participants, and there is no rent for pavilions. Nevertheless, the largest pavilion may be no larger than 1000 square meters, for this reason Recognized Expositions are cheaper to run than Registered Expositions, and more money is spent on content of the pavilion as opposed to its design. A nation or organization does not need to be a member of the B. I. E. to be represented at a B. I. E, the use of mascots in World Exposition began with the 1984 Louisiana World Exposition. Seymore D. Fair, a 76 tall white pelican, was the mascot of the 1984 Louisiana World Exposition as well as the first mascot at any worlds fair. Seymore was seen as a way to highlight the water theme. Seymore D.9 in E Minor From the New World

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Memorial Hall (Philadelphia)
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Memorial Hall is a Beaux-Arts style building in the Centennial District of West Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Built as the art gallery for the 1876 Centennial Exposition, it is the major structure from that exhibition to survive. It subsequently housed the Pennsylvania Museum of Art and the Pennsylvania Museum School of Industrial Art, since October 18,2008, the Hall has served as home to the Please Touch Museum. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976, the building is located west of the Schuylkill River, at the corner of East Memorial Hall Drive and the Avenue of the Republic. Memorial Hall was designed by Herman J. Schwarzmann, and is an example of monumental Beaux-Arts architecture in the United States. Schwarzmann, the engineer of the Fairmount Park Commission, also designed the temporary Horticultural Hall for the Exposition. Construction began on 6 July 1874 and was completed for the ceremonies on 10 May 1876. President Ulysses S. Grant and other dignitaries presided over the event, the exterior is finished with granite and the interior is decorated with marble and ornamental plaster. The building is 365 feet by 210 feet with basement and ground floor, and 150 feet tall at the top of the buildings most distinctive feature, surmounting the dome is the 23-foot-tall statue of Columbia holding a laurel branch. At the corners of the dome stand four statues symbolizing industry, commerce, agriculture, Memorial Hall was the inspiration for the Reichstag building in Berlin, Germany. Memorial Hall was designed to house the Centennial Expositions art exhibits, the exposition received so many art contributions that a separate annex was built to house them all. Another building was built for the display of photography, the building was taken over by the Fairmount Park Commission in 1958. It also was used for a gymnasium and a pool in both wings. In 1982, the building was being used as a police station, in the 1980s and 1990s, the Philadelphia Orchestra made a number of recordings in a basketball court in Memorial Hall under the batons of Riccardo Muti and Wolfgang Sawallisch. Memorial Hall was used because the Academy of Music, the home at the time, was considered not resonant enough. In September 1997, a viewing for former Philadelphia Phillies baseball player, several hundred thousand people mourned his death as they walked by his casket in the Grand Hall. The Hall fell into disrepair until 2005, when the Please Touch Museum began a renovation to convert it into its new home. The museum opened its doors to the public on October 18,2008, Memorial Halls eastern lawn serves as the home field for Athletic Base Ball Club of Philadelphia, a vintage base ball team which plays by 1864 rules. S

4.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland

5.
1873 Vienna World's Fair
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Weltausstellung 1873 Wien was the large world exposition that was held in 1873 in the Austria-Hungarian capital of Vienna. Its motto was Kultur und Erziehung, the Rotunde was destroyed by fire on September 17,1937. The Russian pavilion had a section designed by Viktor Hartmann. Exhibits included models of the Port of Rijeka and the Illés Relief model of Jerusalem

6.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north

7.
Exposition Universelle (1878)
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The third Paris Worlds Fair, called an Exposition Universelle in French, was held from 1 May through to 10 November 1878. It celebrated the recovery of France after the 1870–71 Franco-Prussian War, however, efforts made in April were prodigious, and by 1 June, a month after the formal opening, the exhibition was finally completed. This exposition was on a far larger scale than any previously held anywhere in the world and it covered over 66 acres, the main building in the Champ de Mars and the hill of Chaillot, occupying 54 acres. The Gare du Champ de Mars was rebuilt with four tracks to receive rail traffic occasioned by the exposition, the Pont dIéna linked the two exhibition sites along the central allée. The French exhibits filled one-half of the space, with the remaining exhibition space divided among the other nations of the world. Germany was the major country which was not represented. The United States exhibition was headed by a series of commissioners, young, a former United States Congressman and major general in the Confederate States Army and Floyd Perry Baker, a Kansas newspaper editor, as well as other generals, politicians, and celebrities. The United Kingdoms expenditure was defrayed out of the consolidated revenue, the UK display was under the control of a royal commission, of which the Prince of Wales was president. The Gallery of Machines was a building, an industrial showcase of low transverse arches. Many of the buildings and statues were made of staff, a low-cost temporary building material invented in Paris in 1876, which consisted of fiber, plaster of Paris. On the northern bank of the Seine River, a palace was constructed for the exhibition at the tip of the Place du Trocadéro. It was a handsome Moorish structure, with towers 76 metres in height, on 30 June 1878, the completed head of the Statue of Liberty was showcased in the garden of the Trocadéro palace, while other pieces were on display in the Champs de Mars. Among the many inventions on display was Alexander Graham Bells telephone, thomas Edison had on display a megaphone and phonograph. International juries judged the various exhibits, awarding medals of gold, silver, one popular feature was a human zoo, called a negro village, composed of 400 indigenous people. Gold award for painting, Jan Matejko, for the The Hanging of the Sigismund Bell, Union of Lublin, gold award for photography, Aimé Dupont Over 13 million people paid to attend the exposition, making it a financial success. In addition to the impetus given to French trade, the revenue from customs. Concurrent with the exposition, a number of meetings and conferences were held to gain consensus on international standards, French writer Victor Hugo led the Congress for the Protection of Literary Property, which led to the eventual formulation of international copyright laws. Similarly, other meetings led to efforts to standardize the flow of mail from country to country, the International Congress for the Amelioration of the Condition of Blind People led to the worldwide adoption of the Braille System of touch-reading

8.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town

9.
World's fair
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A worlds fair, world fair, world exposition, or universal exposition is a large international exhibition designed to showcase achievements of nations. These exhibitions vary in character and are held in varying parts of the world, the next world Expo is Expo 2020 and is to be held in Dubai, UAE. Since the 1928 Convention Relating to International Exhibitions came into force, bIE-approved fairs are of three types, universal, specialized and horticultural. They usually last from three weeks to six months, Worlds fairs originated in the French tradition of national exhibitions, a tradition that culminated with the French Industrial Exposition of 1844 held in Paris. This fair was followed by other exhibitions in continental Europe. The best-known first World Expo was held in The Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London, United Kingdom, in 1851, under the title Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations. The Great Exhibition, as it is called, was an idea of Prince Albert, Queen Victorias husband. It influenced the development of aspects of society, including art-and-design education, international trade and relations. This expo was the most obvious precedent for the international exhibitions, later called worlds fairs. Since their inception in 1851, the character of world expositions has evolved, three eras can be distinguished, the era of industrialization, the era of cultural exchange, and the era of nation branding. The first era could be called the era of industrialization and covered, roughly, in these days, world expositions were especially focused on trade, and were famous for the display of technological inventions and advancements. World expositions were the platforms where the state-of-the-art in science and technology from around the world were brought together, inventions such as the telephone were first presented during this era. An important part of the image of worlds fairs stems from this first era, the 1939–40 New York Worlds Fair diverged from the original focus of the worlds fair expositions. From then on, worlds fairs adopted specific cultural themes, they forecasted a future for society. Technological innovations were no longer the primary exhibits at fairs, the fairs encouraged effective intercultural communication for the exchange of innovation. The 1967 International and Universal Exposition in Montreal was promoted under the name Expo 67, event organizers retired the term worlds fair in favor of expo. From Expo 88 in Brisbane onwards, countries started to use world expositions more widely, finland, Japan, Canada, France and Spain are cases in point. A large study by Tjaco Walvis called Expo 2000 Hanover in Numbers showed that improving national image was the primary goal for 73% of the countries at Expo 2000

10.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America

11.
United States Declaration of Independence
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Instead they formed a new nation—the United States of America. John Adams was a leader in pushing for independence, which was passed on July 2 with no opposing vote cast, a committee of five had already drafted the formal declaration, to be ready when Congress voted on independence. The term Declaration of Independence is not used in the document itself, John Adams persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson to compose the original draft of the document, which Congress would edit to produce the final version. The next day, John Adams wrote to his wife Abigail, The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, but Independence Day is actually celebrated on July 4, the date that the Declaration of Independence was approved. After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms and it was initially published as the printed Dunlap broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The source copy used for printing has been lost. Jeffersons original draft, complete with changes made by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, the best known version of the Declaration, a signed copy that is popularly regarded as the official document, is displayed at the National Archives in Washington, D. C. This engrossed copy was ordered by Congress on July 19, the sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. Having served its purpose in announcing independence, references to the text of the Declaration were few in the following years. Abraham Lincoln made it the centerpiece of his rhetoric, and his policies and this has been called one of the best-known sentences in the English language, containing the most potent and consequential words in American history. The passage came to represent a standard to which the United States should strive. Believe me, dear Sir, there is not in the British empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do. But, by the God that made me, I will cease to exist before I yield to a connection on such terms as the British Parliament propose, and in this, I think I speak the sentiments of America. By the time that the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, relations had been deteriorating between the colonies and the mother country since 1763. Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase revenue from the colonies, such as the Stamp Act of 1765, Parliament believed that these acts were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep them in the British Empire. Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire, the colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, and colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliaments authority in the colonies. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that no government could violate, after the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all

12.
Fairmount Park
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Fairmount Park is the largest municipal park in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and the historic name for a group of parks located throughout the city. Fairmount Park consists of two sections named East Park and West Park, divided by the Schuylkill River, with the two sections together totalling 2,052 acres. Fairmount Park, Philadelphias first park, occupies 2,052 acres adjacent to the banks of the Schuylkill River, since 2010, Philadelphia Parks & Recreation divides the original park into East and West Fairmount parks. The South Garden predated the establishment of the Park Commission in 1867, while Lemon Hill, after the Civil War, work progressed on acquiring and laying out West Park. In the 1870s, the Fairmount Park Commission expropriated properties along the Wissahickon Creek to extend Fairmount Park, the Schuylkill River Trail is a modern paved multi-use trail by Kelly Drive in the East Park. The park grew out of the Lemon Hill estate of Henry Pratt, whose land was owned by Robert Morris. Purchased by the city in 1844, the estate was dedicated to the public by city ordinance on September 15,1855. A series of state and local legislative acts over the three years increased the holdings of the city. In 1858, the city held a competition to re-landscape Lemon Hill. As the site of the 1876 Centennial Exposition and the first zoo in the United States, the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park, located to the immediate northwest, was also included in the Fairmount Park NRHP registration document. The Art Association continues to commission and care for a number of sculptures, in coordination with the park. In 2007, the Art Association installed Iroquois by Mark di Suvero near the Philadelphia Museum of Art on the Benjamin Franklin Parkway. Mount Pleasant, built in 1761 in what was then the countryside outside of the city by a privateer, is administered by the Philadelphia Museum of Art in Fairmount Park. The Art Museum also administers Cedar Grove, a house completed in 1750 in the Frankford neighborhood of the city, Sedgeley, a house built in 1799 on Lemon Hill, was abandoned and later demolished after being acquired through eminent domain by the city in 1857. The Sedgeley property also included a cottage constructed of stone which still exists. Philadelphia portal List of parks in Philadelphia Philadelphia Aquarium Subaru Cherry Blossom Festival of Greater Philadelphia Sedgley Woods Fletcher Street Urban Riding Club Fazio, Michael W

13.
Schuylkill River
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The Schuylkill River is an important river running west to east in eastern Pennsylvania, which was improved by navigations into the Schuylkill Canal. Several of its tributaries drain parts of the center-southern and easternmost Coal Regions in the state. It flows for 135 miles before joining the Delaware River as one of its largest tributaries in Philadelphia, in 1682 William Penn chose the left bank of the confluence upon which he founded the planned city of Philadelphia on lands purchased from the native Delaware nation. It is a designated Pennsylvania Scenic River, and its length was once part of the Delaware peoples southern territories. The waters of its upper end rise in what are called the richest anthracite coal fields in the world. The West Branch starts near Minersville and joins the branch at the town of Schuylkill Haven. It then combines with the Little Schuylkill River downstream in the town of Port Clinton, the Tulpehocken Creek joins it at the western edge of Reading. Wissahickon Creek joins it in northwest Philadelphia, other major tributaries include, Maiden Creek, Manatawny Creek, French Creek, and Perkiomen Creek. The Schuylkill joins the Delaware at the site of the former Philadelphia Navy Yard, now the Philadelphia Naval Business Center, the Lenape or Delaware Indians were the original inhabitants of the area around this river, which they called Tool-pay Hanna or Tool-pay Hok Ing. The river was discovered by European explorers from the Netherlands, Sweden and it was through historical documents called various names, including Manayunk, Manajungh, Manaiunk, and Lenni Bikbi. The Swedish explorer called it Menejackse kill or alternately Skiar kill or the Linde River, the headwaters of the river, up near Reading, was later called Tulpehocken by the English. The river was given the Dutch name Schuylkill. Another explanation is that the name translates to hideout creek in one of the Algonquian languages spoken by a Delaware tribe in their confederation. The two then backed the flagging effort to improve navigation on the Schuylkill, which efforts date back to legislation measures as early as 1762. The success, along with the opening of the first operable sections of New Yorks Erie Canal spurred stockholders of the Schuylkill Canal to finally fund the works. In the 1830s railway technology and new railroads grew in leaps and bounds, from 1820 to the 1860s Iron works, foundries, manufacturing mills, blast furnaces, rolling mills, rail yards, rail roads, warehouses and train stations sprang up throughout the valley. Tiny farm villages grew into vibrant company towns then transitioned into small cities as an industry and supporting businesses transformed local economics. Restoration of the river has been funded by money left for that purpose in Benjamin Franklins will, silt and coal dust from upstream industries, particularly coal mining and washing operations in the headwaters, led to extensive silting of the river through the early 20th century

14.
Herman J. Schwarzmann
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Herman J. Schwarzmann, also known as Hermann J. Schwarzmann or H. J. Schwarzmann, was a German-born American architect who practiced in Philadelphia and later in New York City. Before emigrating to the United States in 1868, Schwarzmann graduated from the Royal Military Academy in Munich, Schwarzmann began working for the Fairmount Park Commission in 1869, and in 1873 worked on landscaping the grounds of the Philadelphia Zoo. He was the architect for the Centennial Exposition of 1876, designing Memorial Hall, Horticultural Hall. Beginning in 1876, Schwarzmann attempted to go into private architectural practice, Schwarzmann moved to New York City and was successful there, achieving national prominence, and working until his retirement in 1888. He designed the New York Mercantile Exchange building in 1882

15.
Philadelphia in the American Civil War
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Philadelphia during the American Civil War was an important source of troops, money, weapons, medical care, and supplies for the Union. Before the Civil War, Philadelphia, Pennsylvanias economic connections with the South made much of the city sympathetic to Souths grievances with the North, once the war began, many Philadelphians opinion shifted in support for the Union and the war against the Confederate States of America. More than 50 infantry and cavalry regiments were recruited fully or in part in Philadelphia, the city, was the main source for uniforms for the Union Army, also manufactured weapons and built warships. Philadelphia was also the location of the two largest military hospitals in the United States, Satterlee Hospital and Mower Hospital, in 1863, Philadelphia was threatened by Confederate invasion during the Gettysburg Campaign. Entrenchments were built to defend the city but the Confederate Army was turned back at Wrightsville, Pennsylvania, the Civil Wars main legacy in Philadelphia was the rise of the Republican Party. Despised before the war because of its position, the party created a political machine that would dominate Philadelphia politics for almost a century. In antebellum days, Philadelphia, the United States second-largest city, had economic ties with to the South. This fostered political sympathy, for example, political leaders in the city called for the repeal of laws that might be considered unfriendly to South, meetings led to calls for Pennsylvania to decide which side the state was on in the case of Southern succession. Many blamed the abolitionist movement for the crisis and abolitionists in the city were harassed and threatened, in the 1860 mayoral election the Democratic Party candidate John Robbins challenged Peoples Party candidate and incumbent mayor Alexander Henry. The Peoples Party in Pennsylvania was aligned with the national Republican Party, during the election the Democrats attacked Alexander Henrys moderate position on slavery as virtual abolitionism. Alexander Henry was reelected, but vote tampering was alleged, in the election for governor Philadelphia gave Democrats 51 percent of the vote and in the U. S. presidential election Republican Abraham Lincoln won 52 percent of the citys vote. After the American Civil War officially began with the attack on Fort Sumter in South Carolina popular opinion in Philadelphia shifted, American flags and bunting appeared all over the city as Philadelphians moved their anger from abolitionists to southern sympathizers. A mob threatened the home of the Palmetto Flag, a secessionist newspaper, the police and Mayor Alexander Henry were able to prevent the mob from causing damage, but the newspaper shutdown shortly after. Other newspapers which also had a pro-southern slant also suffered from dwindling circulation, when The Philadelphia Inquirer reported that the Union lost the First Battle of Bull Run, which contradicted initial government reports, a mob threatened to burn The Inquirers office down. Another personal appearance by Mayor Henry prevented a riot at the home of prominent Democrat and grandson of Joseph Reed, other people with suspected pro-southern ties displayed American flags to avoid trouble. The initial enthusiasm at the beginning of the war soon diminished, around August 1861 federal authorities arrested eight people for expressing pro-southern sympathies. Most of the people were released soon after, but one, authorities also shutdown a pro-southern weekly newspaper called the Christian Observer. In 1862, after expressing anti-war sentiments, former Democratic congressman Charles Ingersoll was arrested for discouraging enlistments, the arrest of the well respected politician caused local Republicans embarrassment and he was released after direct orders from the federal government

16.
Great Central Fair
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The Great Central Fair was a fair that happened in June 1864. It took place in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and it was a fundraiser for the United States Sanitary Commission. The Great Central Fair took place from June 7 until June 28 of 1864 in the Logan Circle park in Philadelphia and it was inspired by past sanitary fairs that happened throughout the United States to raise funds for the United States Sanitary Commission. The main exhibit building was 200,000 square feet in size and it was designed by Samuel Honeyman Kneass and William Stickland. There was also Union Street, which was 540 feet long, Union Street was compared to a cathedral by Charles J. Stille. Inside the main building were departments with different themes, on June 16, Abraham Lincoln and his family visited the fair. He donated 48 copies of the Emancipation Proclamation at $10 a book and they were all autographed by Lincoln. The festival raised over $1 million

17.
United States Sanitary Commission
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The United States Sanitary Commission was a private relief agency created by federal legislation on June 18,1861, to support sick and wounded soldiers of the U. S. Army during the American Civil War. It operated across the North, raised an estimated $25 million in Civil War era revenue and in-kind contributions to support the cause, the president was Henry Whitney Bellows, and Frederick Law Olmsted acted as executive secretary. It was modeled on the British Sanitary Commission, set up during the Crimean War, Henry Whitney Bellows, a Massachusetts clergyman, planned the USSC and served as its only president. According to The Wall Street Journal, its first executive secretary was Frederick Law Olmsted, George Templeton Strong, New York lawyer and diarist, helped found the commission and served as treasurer and member of the executive committee. In June 1861, the Sanitary Commission set up its Central Office inside the Treasury Building downtown Washington, by late October 1861, the Central Office and the War Department had received detailed studies and reports from the Sanitary Inspectors of more than four hundred regimental camp inspections. C. Requesting water-beds, small tables for writing in bed, iron wire cradles for protecting wounded limbs, dominoes, checkerboards, Delphinium, the demands of the war soon required more frequent decision-making. This led to the creation of the Standing Committee, which met on a daily basis in New York City where most of its members resided. Also active in the association was Colonel Leavitt Hunt, a New York lawyer and photographer, in January 1864, he wrote to President Abraham Lincolns secretary John George Nicolay asking that Nicolay forward him any documents he might have available with the Presidents signature. Hunts mother, the widow of Vermont congressman Jonathan Hunt, planned to attach Lincolns signature to copies of casts of the Presidents hand. Other fund raising events included the famous 50 pound sack of flour that was auctioned off by Reuel Colt Gridley. By auctioning off the same sack of flour, which was then re-donated to be sold again, arising from a meeting in New York City of the Womens Central Relief Association of New York, the organization was also inspired by the British Sanitary Commission of the Crimean War. They organized Sanitary Fairs in numerous cities to support the Federal army with funds and supplies, dorothea Dix, serving as the commissions superintendent, convinced the medical corps of the value of women working in their hospitals. Over 15,000 women volunteered to work in hospitals, usually in nursing care and they assisted surgeons during procedures, gave medicines, supervised the feedings and cleaned the bedding and clothes. They gave good cheer, wrote letters the men dictated, a representative nurse was Helen L. Gilson of Chelsea, Massachusetts, who served in Sanitary Commission. She supervised supplies, dressed wounds, and cooked special foods for patients on a limited diet and she worked in hospitals after the battles of Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg. She was an administrator, especially at the hospital for black soldiers at City Point. Mary Livermore, Mary Ann Bickerdyke, and Annie Wittenmeyer played leadership roles, after the war some nurses wrote memoirs of their experiences, examples include Dix, Livermore, Sarah Palmer Young, and Sarah Emma Edmonds. Organizing the Sanitary Fairs offered ways for local communities to be part of supporting the war effort of the nation

18.
Natural philosophy
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Natural philosophy or philosophy of nature was the philosophical study of nature and the physical universe that was dominant before the development of modern science. It is considered to be the precursor of natural science, from the ancient world, starting with Aristotle, to the 19th century, the term natural philosophy was the common term used to describe the practice of studying nature. Even in the 19th century, a treatise by Lord Kelvin and Peter Guthrie Tait, in the German tradition, Naturphilosophie persisted into the 18th and 19th century as an attempt to achieve a speculative unity of nature and spirit. Some of the greatest names in German philosophy are associated with movement, including Goethe, Hegel. The term natural philosophy preceded our current natural science, empirical science historically developed out of philosophy or, more specifically, natural philosophy. In the 14th and 15th centuries, natural philosophy was one of many branches of philosophy, the first person appointed as a specialist in Natural Philosophy per se was Jacopo Zabarella, at the University of Padua in 1577. Modern meanings of the science and scientists date only to the 19th century. Before that, science was a synonym for knowledge or study, the term gained its modern meaning when experimental science and the scientific method became a specialized branch of study apart from natural philosophy. In general, chairs of Natural Philosophy established long ago at the oldest universities are nowadays occupied mainly by physics professors. Even in the 19th century, a treatise by Lord Kelvin and Peter Guthrie Tait, in Platos earliest known dialogue, Charmides distinguishes between science or bodies of knowledge that produce a physical result, and those that do not. Natural philosophy has been categorized as a rather than a practical branch of philosophy. Sciences that guide arts and draw on the knowledge of nature may produce practical results. The study of natural philosophy seeks to explore the cosmos by any means necessary to understand the universe, some ideas presuppose that change is a reality. George Santayana, in his Scepticism and Animal Faith, attempted to show that the reality of change cannot be proven. If his reasoning is sound, it follows that to be a physicist, one must restrain ones skepticism enough to trust ones senses, rené Descartes metaphysical system of Cartesian Dualism describes two kinds of substance, matter and mind. Humankinds mental engagement with nature certainly predates civilization and the record of history, Philosophical, and specifically non-religious thought about the natural world, goes back to ancient Greece. These lines of thought began before Socrates, who turned from his studies from speculations about nature to a consideration of man. The thought of philosophers such Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Democritus centered on the natural world

19.
Wabash College
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Wabash College is a small, private, liberal arts college for men, located in Crawfordsville, Indiana, United States. Founded in 1832 by several Dartmouth College graduates and Midwestern leaders, Wabash is one of the countrys three remaining male-only liberal arts colleges. The college was initially named The Wabash Teachers Seminary and Manual Labor College, many of the founders were Presbyterian ministers, yet nevertheless believed that Wabash should be independent and non-sectarian. Among these ministers was Caleb Mills, who became Wabash Colleges first faculty member, dedicated to education in the then-primitive Mississippi Valley area, he would come to be known as the father of the Indiana public education system. Elihu Baldwin, the first president of the college, served from 1835 until 1840 and he came from a church in New York City and accepted the presidency even though he knew that Wabash was at that time threatened with bankruptcy. After his death, he was succeeded by Charles White, a graduate of Dartmouth College and the brother-in-law of Edmund O. Hovey, a professor at the college. Joseph F. Tuttle, who became president of Wabash College in 1862 and served for 30 years, Gronert described him an eloquent preacher, a sound administrator and an astute handler of public relations. He is the namesake of Tuttle Grade School in Crawfordsville and Tuttle Junior High School, gregory D. Hess became the 16th President of Wabash College July 1,2013. Prior to coming to Wabash, Dr. Hess had been Dean of the Faculty and Vice President of Academic Affairs at Claremont McKenna College at Claremont, California. During World War II, Wabash College was one of 131 colleges and universities offered students a path to a Navy commission as part of the V-12 Navy College Training Program. In the early 1900s, the College closed its Preparatory School, in 1996, Wabash became the first college in America to stage Tony Kushners Angels in America. Wabash Colleges curriculum is divided into three, Division I, Division II, and Division III representing the sciences, humanities and arts. Wabash offers 24 major programs and several additional minors, seniors at Wabash College take a comprehensive exam in their major subject. Over three days, there are two days of exams and one day of oral exams. The two days of written exams differ by major, but the exams are relatively uniform. A senior meets with three professors, one from his major, another from his minor and a professor who represents the rest of his academic career. Over the course of an hour a senior answers questions from the professors which can relate to anything during his studies at Wabash, a senior must pass the examinations in order to be eligible for a degree. Rhyneship was an orientation program that took first semester freshmen, rhynes

20.
Crawfordsville, Indiana
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Crawfordsville is a city in Union Township, Montgomery County, Indiana, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 15,915, the city is the county seat of Montgomery County. It is home to Wabash College, which was ranked by Forbes as #12 in the United States for undergraduate studies in 2008, as of 2016, Crawfordsville has twelve properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Three of the properties are currently museums, Gen. Lew Wallace Study, Henry S. Lane House, two of the properties are historic districts, Crawfordsville Commercial Historic District, and Elston Grove Historic District. Two listings are active churches, Bethel AME Church of Crawfordsville and they returned a decade later to find at least one cabin built. In 1821, William and Jennie Offield had built a cabin on a creek, later to be known as Offield Creek. Major Whitlock laid out the town in March 1823, Crawfordsville was named in honor of Colonel William H. Crawford, a native Virginian who was the cabinet officer who had issued Whitlocks commission as Receiver of Public Lands. According to a diary of Sanford C, cox, one of the first schoolmasters in the area, in 1824, Crawfordsville is the only town between Terre Haute and Fort Wayne. Maj. Ristine keeps tavern in a log house and Jonathan Powers has a little grocery. There are two stores, Smiths near the office, and Issac C. It was successfully incorporated as a town in 1834, following a failed three years earlier. In November 1832, Wabash College was founded in Crawfordsville as The Wabash Teachers Seminary, on December 18,1833, the Crawfordsville Record carried a paid announcement of the opening of this school. Today, it is one of three remaining all-male liberal arts colleges in the country, and has a student body of around 900. Crawfordsville grew in size and amenities, adding such necessities as a bank and it gained status as a city in 1865, when Indiana granted its charters. In 1862, Joseph F. Tuttle, after whom Tuttle Grade School was named in 1906 and Tuttle Junior High School was named in 1960, became President of Wabash College and he was an eloquent preacher, a sound administrator and an astute handler of public relations. Joseph Tuttle, together with his administrators, worked to improve relations in Crawfordsville between Town and Gown, several future and past Civil War generals lived in Crawfordsville at different times. Generals Lew Wallace and Mahlon D. Manson spent most their lives in the town, generals Edward Canby and John P. Hawkins spent some of their youth in Crawfordsville. Carrington lived in the town after the war, and taught science at Wabash College

21.
Morton McMichael
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Morton McMichael was mayor of Philadelphia from 1866-1869 and a prominent newspaper publisher. Born in Burlington, NJ to John and Hannah McMichael, he moved to Philadelphia while still young and he attended the University of Pennsylvania, and then read law and was admitted to the Philadelphia bar in 1827. Morton married Mary Estell and had four children, Morton McMichael Jr. served as Lt. Colonel under General John Reynolds. He served as a staff member in the Army of The Potomac under Reynolds at the Battle of Gettysburg. McMichael Jr. became a prominent banker after the war, serving as President of the First National Bank, william McMichael served in a variety of positions during the war. He was captured at the Battle of Shiloh and endured four months as a prisoner of war before being exchanged and he rose to the rank of Brevet Colonel and serves as adjutant-general under Gen. Henry Halleck. After the war, he embarked on a legal career and he served as Minister to Santo Domingo, Asst. Attorney General, US Attorney for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania and he was also President of the Law Academy of Philadelphia. Clayton McMichael also served in the Union Army, fought at Gettysburg and he later replaced his father as Editor of The North American. He also served as a US Marshall for the District of Columbia, charles McMichael, too young to serve in the War, entered a career in law and served as a Judge in the Philadelphia Court of Common Pleas. Morton McMichael became an editor of The Saturday Evening Post in 1826, from 1831 to 1836 he was editor-in-chief of the Saturday Courier. In 1836 he founded the Saturday News, and published the Saturday Gazette with Joseph C. Neal from 1844 to 1847. At the outset of 1847, he became a publisher of The North American, the paper grew to prominence under McMichael, who became sole publisher in 1854. He remained publisher until his own death in 1879, though his sons took over operations in his final years. McMichael served in an number of positions throughout his life. He began his service as a magistrate and then an Alderman in Philadelphia. In 1843 he was elected Sheriff of Philadelphia County, serving until 1846, McMichael served as Sheriff during the Philadelphia Bible Riots of 1844. To win reelection in 1844, McMichael joined the Native American party, in 1854, McMichael chaired the Executive Consolidation Committee, which merged the city of Philadelphia with many of the surrounding districts into a single political entity

22.
Centennial Exposition
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Nearly 10 million visitors attended the exhibition and thirty-seven countries participated in it. The Great Central Fair of 1864, one of the fairs held during the Civil War, anticipated the combination of public, private. They also made Philadelphia a vital center in the Union war effort, the idea of the Centennial Exposition is credited to John L. Campbell, a professor of mathematics, natural philosophy and astronomy at Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Indiana. In December 1866, Campbell suggested to Philadelphias mayor that the United States Centennial be celebrated with an exposition in Philadelphia. Detractors said the project would not be able to find funding, other nations might not attend, the Franklin Institute became an early supporter of the exposition and asked the Philadelphia City Council for use of Fairmount Park. The Philadelphia City Council and the Pennsylvania General Assembly created a committee to study the project, congressman William D. Kelley spoke for the city and state and Daniel Johnson Morrell introduced a bill to create a United States Centennial Commission. The bill, which passed on March 3,1871, provided that the U. S. government would not be liable for any expenses, the United States Centennial Commission organized on March 3,1872, with Joseph R. Hawley of Connecticut as president. The Centennial Commissions commissioners included one representative from state and territory in the United States. On June 1,1872, Congress created a Centennial Board of Finance to help raise money, the boards president was John Welsh, brother of philanthropist William Welsh, who had raised funds for The Great Sanitary Fair in 1864. The board was authorized to sell up to US$10 million in stock via US$10 shares, the board sold US$1,784,320 worth of shares by February 22,1873. Philadelphia contributed US$1.5 million and Pennsylvania gave US$1 million, on February 11,1876, Congress appropriated US$1.5 million in a loan. John Welsh enlisted help from the women of Philadelphia who had helped him in The Great Sanitary Fair, a Womens Centennial Executive Committee was formed with Elizabeth Duane Gillespie, a descendant of Benjamin Franklin, as president. In its first few months, the group raised US$40,000, when the group learned the planning commission was not doing much to display the work of women, the group raised US$30,000 for a womens exhibition building. In 1873, the Centennial Commission named Alfred T. Goshorn as the general of the Exposition. The Fairmount Park Commission set aside 450 acres of West Fairmount Park for the exposition, the Commission decided to classify the exhibits into seven departments, agriculture, art, education and science, horticulture, machinery, manufactures, and mining and metallurgy. Newspaper publisher John W. Forney agreed to head and pay for a Philadelphia commission sent to Europe to invite nations to exhibit at the exposition, despite fears of a European boycott and high American tariffs making foreign goods not worthwhile, no European country declined the invitation. To accommodate out-of-town visitors, temporary hotels were constructed near the Centennials grounds, Philadelphia streetcars increased service and the Pennsylvania Railroad ran special trains from Philadelphias Market Street, New York City, Baltimore and Pittsburgh. The Philadelphia and Reading Railroad ran special trains from the Center City part of Philadelphia, a small hospital was built on the Expositions grounds by the Centennials Medical Bureau, but despite a heat wave during the summer, no mass deaths or epidemics occurred

23.
Franklin Institute
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The Franklin Institute is a science museum and the center of science education and research in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, US. It is named after the American scientist and statesman, Benjamin Franklin, founded in 1824, the Franklin Institute is one of the oldest centers of science education and development in the United States. On February 5,1824, Samuel Vaughan Merrick and William H. Keating founded the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts, in the late twentieth century the Institutes research roles gave way to educating the general public through its museum. The Bartol Research Foundation of the Franklin Institute, founded in 1924 to conduct research in the sciences, is now part of the University of Delaware. The Franklin Institute Laboratories for Research and Development operated from the Second World War into the 1980s, many scientists have demonstrated groundbreaking new technology at the Franklin Institute. From September 2 to October 11,1884, it hosted the International Electrical Exhibition of 1884, the worlds first public demonstration of an all-electronic television system was later given by Philo Taylor Farnsworth on August 25,1934. The first female member, Elizabeth Skinner, was elected to membership in 1833, the Franklin Institute was integrated in 1870, when Philadelphia teacher and activist Octavius Catto was admitted as a member. The Institutes original building at 15 South 7th Street, now the home of the Atwater Kent Museum, eventually proved too small for the Institutes research, educational programs, and library. The Institute moved into its current home on the Benjamin Franklin Parkway, near the intersection with 20th Street, in 1934. Funds to build the new Institute and Franklin Memorial came from the Poor Richard Club, the City Board of Trust, the Benjamin Franklin Memorial, Inc. and the Franklin Institute. John T. Windrims original design was a square building surrounding the Benjamin Franklin Statue. Despite the effects of the Great Depression, the Benjamin Franklin Memorial, only two of the four wings envisioned by Windrim were built, these face the Parkway and share design elements with other cultural and civic structures around Logan Circle. On March 31,1940, press agent William Castellini issued a release stating that the world would end the next day. The story was picked up by KYW, which reported, Your worst fears that the world will end are confirmed by astronomers of Franklin Institute, scientists predict that the world will end at 3 p. m. Eastern Standard Time tomorrow. This is no April Fool joke, confirmation can be obtained from Wagner Schlesinger, director of the Fels Planetarium of this city. This caused a panic in the city which only subsided when the Franklin Institute assured people it had no such prediction. James Ronaldson Samuel V. Merrick John C, cresson William Sellers John Vaughan Merrick Coleman Sellers Robert Empie Rogers William Penn Tatham Joseph Miller Wilson Dr. Walton Clark Dr. W. Laurence LePage Dr. Athelstan F. Spilhaus Dr. Bowen C. Dees Dr. Joel N. Bloom Dr. James L. Powell Dr. Dennis M. Wint Larry Dubinski In 2006, in 2011, the Franklin Institute received a $10 million gift from Athena and Nicholas Karabots towards the Inspire Science

24.
Philadelphia City Council
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The Philadelphia City Council, the legislative body of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, consists of ten members elected by district and seven members elected at-large. The council president is elected by the members from among their number, each members term is four years, and there are no limits on the number of terms a member may serve. While William Penns original 1691 charter for the city of Philadelphia included a common council and its successor, the Proprietors Charter of 1701, constituted the city as a municipal corporation with a non-elected council made up of major city officials who selected their own successors. It was replaced with a single 21-member chamber in 1919, which remained in effect until the adoption of a Home Rule charter in 1951, the 1951 Home Rule Charter established the council as the legislative arm of Philadelphia municipal government, consisting of seventeen members. Ten council members are elected by district and seven from the city at large, at-large council members are elected using limited voting with limited nomination, guaranteeing that two minority-party candidates are elected. Each is elected for a term of four years with no limit on the number of terms that may be served, the members of City Council elect from among themselves a president, who serves as the regular chairperson of council meetings. In consultation with the majority of members, the President appoints members to the various standing committees of the council. The president is responsible for selecting and overseeing most Council employees. Every proposed ordinance is in the form of an introduced by a Council member. Passage of a bill requires the vote of a majority of all members. A bill becomes law upon the approval of the mayor, if the mayor vetoes a bill, the council may override the veto by a two-thirds vote. Under the rules of the council, regular sessions are held weekly, usually on Thursday morning at 10, 00am, in Room 400. Council normally breaks for the months of July and August

25.
Pennsylvania General Assembly
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The Pennsylvania General Assembly is the state legislature of the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. The legislature convenes in the State Capitol building in Harrisburg, in colonial times, the legislature was known as the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly. Since the Constitution of 1776, written by American revolutionaries, the legislature has been known as the General Assembly, the General Assembly became a bicameral legislature in 1791. This is why today, Pennsylvania is the only U. S. state that has not yet completed a comprehensive codification of its general statutory law, Pennsylvania is currently undertaking its first official codification process in the Pennsylvania Consolidated Statutes. As of 2014, members base pay was $85,356, republicans hold a 31-19 majority in the Senate and a 120-83 majority in the House. The Pennsylvania general elections are held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November in even-numbered years, a vacant seat must be filled by special election, the date of which is set by the presiding officer of the respective house. Senators must be at least 25 years old, and Representatives at least 21 years old and they must be citizens and residents of the state for a minimum of four years and reside in their districts for at least one year. No one who has been expelled from the General Assembly may be elected. Legislative districts are drawn every ten years, following the U. S. Census, districts are drawn by a five-member commission, of which four members are the majority and minority leaders of each house. The fifth member, who chairs the committee, is appointed by the other four, if the leadership cannot decide on a fifth member, the State Supreme Court may appoint him or her. While in office, legislators may not hold civil office, even if a member resigns, the Constitution states that he or she may not be appointed to civil office for the duration of the original term for which he or she was originally elected. The General Assembly convenes at noon on the first Tuesday of January, both houses adjourn on November 30 in even-numbered years, when the terms of all members of the House and half the members of the Senate expire. Neither body can adjourn for more than three days without the consent of the other, the governor may call a special session in order to press for legislation on important issues. Most recently, a session was called for the purpose of property tax reform. The Assembly meets in the Pennsylvania State Capitol, which was completed in 1906, under the Pennsylvania Constitution, the Assembly must meet in the City of Harrisburg and can move only if given the consent of both chambers. Speaker of the House of Representatives, Mike Turzai President pro tem of the Senate, Joseph B

26.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent

27.
William D. Kelley
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William Darrah Kelley was a Republican member of the U. S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania. As an abolitionist, he was one of the founders of the Republican Party in 1854, Kelley was a man of strict principles, advocating the recruitment of black troops in the civil war, and the extending of the vote to them afterwards. His belief in protective tariffs was so extreme that he refused to wear a single imported garment, William Darrah Kelley was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the son of Hannah and David Kelley, his father died when he was two. David Kelley had been a watch and clock-maker, and later in life, William Kelleys daughter Florence later told of an incident that had occurred immediately after David Kelleys death. After the auction the woman returned the items to the Kelley family and his mother opened a boarding house to support her children. As a boy Kelley began working as a boy in a Philadelphia bookstore. He later apprenticed as a jeweler, and served in the State Fencibles, a unit commanded by Colonel John Page. Kelley then worked as a jeweler in Boston, Massachusetts for several years. Upon returning to Philadelphia, Kelley began the study of law in Pages office, Kelley was admitted to the bar in Philadelphia in 1841. Kelley came to attention after his 1854 speech against the slave trade, Slavery in the Territories, was published. After the repeal of the Missouri Compromise by the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854, Kelley was elected as a Republican to Congress in 1860 and served from March 4,1861, until his death in Washington, D. C. Friendly with Abraham Lincoln, he had served on the committee went to Springfield to inform the Republican that he had been nominated by the Chicago convention in 1860. He became one of the most prominent figures in the Union League in Philadelphia, at the wars end, when the United States flag was raised over Fort Sumter again, Kelley was one of the delegation sent to attend the ceremony. Kelley served as Chairman of the House Committee on Coinage, Weights, and Measures, Ways and Means Committee, as a member of Congress, Kelley was exempt from military service. Nevertheless, during the American Civil War he volunteered during a September,1862 emergency call up for service in the Independent Artillery Company and he served his term of enlistment as a Private. In his later career, Kelley was best known as an advocate of a protective tariff. His support for high duties on two Pennsylvania products, iron and steel, earned him the nickname, Pig-Iron Kelley, contrary to what his critics assumed, he never had any financial investments in ironworks or any branch of the iron trade, mines or mining stock. In 1872, Kelley was among the accused by the New York Sun of having taken bribes from Credit Mobilier

28.
Daniel Johnson Morrell
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Daniel Johnson Morrell was a Republican member of the U. S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania. Morrell was born in North Berwick, York County, Maine and he attended public schools and moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1836, and entered a counting room as clerk. He later engaged in mercantile pursuits, Morrell also served as president of the local gas and water company from 1860 to 1884 and as president of the First National Bank of Johnstown from 1863 to 1884. He was president of the city council for many years, Morrell was elected as a Republican to the Fortieth and Forty-first Congresses. He served as chairman of the United States House Committee on Manufactures during the Fortieth and he was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1870. He was a commissioner to the Paris Exposition of 1878, Morrell became a member of and hounded the officials of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, site of the infamous dam which formed Lake Conemaugh. The failure of that dam eventually caused the great Johnstown Flood of May 31,1889, Morrell insisted on inspections of the dams breastwork both by his own engineers and those of the Pennsylvania Railroad. He joined the club in order to keep a eye on the matter. Unfortunately, his warnings went unheeded, and his offer to effect repairs partially at his own expense was rejected by club president Benjamin Franklin Ruff. Morrell died four years before the Johnstown Flood, his membership was then bought by Cyrus Elder, legal counsel for the Cambria Iron, Morrell was again engaged in banking and died on August 20,1885, in Johnstown, Cambria County, Pennsylvania. He is the namesake of the ill-fated SS Daniel J. Morrell, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. The Political Graveyard Daniel Johnson Morrell at Find a Grave Pictorial History, Daniel J. Morrell 1906 -1966 Great Lakes Vessel Online Index, DANIEL J. MORRELL Lakeland Boating, The Morrell Survey

29.
Bill (law)
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A bill is proposed legislation under consideration by a legislature. A bill does not become law until it is passed by the legislature and, in most cases, once a bill has been enacted into law, it is called an Act or a statute. The term bill is used in the United States and the Commonwealth. In the United Kingdom, the subparts of a bill are known as clauses while the subparts of an Act are known as sections, the preparation of a bill may involve the production of a draft bill prior to the introduction of the bill into the legislature. In the United Kingdom, draft Bills are frequently considered to be confidential, in the British/Westminster system, where the executive is drawn from the legislature and usually holds a majority in the lower house, most bills are introduced by the executive. In principle, the legislature meets to consider the demands of the executive, while mechanisms exist to allow other members of the legislature to introduce bills, these are subject to strict timetables and usually fail unless a consensus is reached. In the US system, where the executive is formally separated from the legislature, Bills can be introduced using the following procedures, Leave, A motion is brought before the chamber asking that leave be given to bring in a bill. This is used in the British system in the form of the Ten Minute Rule motion, the legislator has 10 minutes to propose a bill, which can then be considered by the House on a day appointed for the purpose. While this rule remains in place in the rules of procedure of the US Congress, government motion, In jurisdictions where the executive can control legislative business a bill may be brought in by executive fiat. Bills are generally considered through a number of readings and this refers to the historic practice of the clerical officers of the legislature reading the contents of a bill to the legislature. While the bill is no longer read, the motions on the bill still refer to this practice, in the British/Westminster system, a bill is read the first time when it is introduced. This is accompanied by an order that the bill be printed and considered again, at the second reading the general merits of the bill are considered – it is out of order to criticise a bill at this stage for technical defects in drafting. After the second reading the bill is referred to a committee, the committee reports to the legislature, at which stage further amendments are proposed. Finally a third reading debate at which the bill as amended is considered in its entirety, in a bicameral legislature the process is repeated in the other house, before the Bill is submitted to the executive for approval. Where a piece of legislation is termed an act, the process of a bill becoming law may be termed enactment. Once a bill is passed by the legislature, it may become law, or it may need need further approval. Bills passed by the usually require the approval of the executive such as the monarch, president. In parliamentary systems, approval is normally a formality, since the head is directed by an executive controlled by the legislature

30.
Joseph Roswell Hawley
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Joseph Roswell Hawley was the 42nd Governor of Connecticut, a U. S. politician in the Republican and Free Soil parties, a Civil War general, and a journalist and newspaper editor. He served two terms in the United States House of Representatives and was a four-term U. S. Senator and he was born at the Stewart-Hawley-Malloy House, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1975. His father returned to Connecticut in 1837 and Joseph attended and graduated from Hamilton College in New York in 1847 and he was admitted to the bar in 1850 and practiced law in Hartford, Connecticut for six years. In 1856, he took a part in organizing the Republican Party in Connecticut, and in 1857 became editor of the Hartford Evening Press. Hawley served in the Federal army with distinction throughout the Civil War, in April 1861, Hawley helped recruit and organize an infantry company. He was mustered into the three-month 1st Connecticut Infantry with the rank of captain of Company A on April 22 and he first saw combat at the First Battle of Bull Run in July, receiving praise from his brigade commander, General Erasmus D. Keyes. After mustering out, he then assisted Col. Alfred H. Terry in raising the 7th Connecticut Infantry, a three-year regiment and he participated in the Port Royal Expedition in November, and commanded the forces assigned to garrison two captured forts. He was a part of the siege that culminated in the capture of Fort Pulaski in April 1862. Again, he commanded the garrison force, with Colonel Terrys promotion to brigade command, Hawley succeeded him as commander of the 10th Connecticut, leading the regiment in the battles of James Island and Pocotaligo. He was in Brannans expedition to Florida in January 1863, and commanded the post at Ferandina, in April, he participated in an unsuccessful expedition to capture Charleston, South Carolina. In the summer, he commanded a brigade on Morris Island during the siege of Charleston, during the autumn, he procured enough Spencer breech-loading rifles to outfit his regiment with the rapid-fire weapon. The following year, Hawley commanded a brigade under General Truman Seymour in the Battle of Olustee in Florida and he and his men were reassigned to the front lines in Virginia as a part of Terrys Division, X Corps, Army of the James. He was in the battles of Drewrys Bluff, Deep Run, Derbytown Road, with openings created by battlefield losses and reassignments, Hawley commanded a division during the Siege of Petersburg and was promoted in September 1864 to brigadier general of volunteers. Concerned over keeping the peace during the November elections, Hawley commanded a hand-picked brigade shipped to New York City to safeguard the election process. In January 1865, Hawley succeeded his mentor Alfred Terry as divisional commander when Terry was sent to troops in the attacks on Fort Fisher. Hawley later joined him in North Carolina as Chief of Staff for the X Corps, after the capture of Wilmington, North Carolina, Hawley took over command of the forces in southeastern North Carolina. He was breveted as a general in September 1865. After the war, Hawley served as governor of Connecticut from April 1866 to April 1867, a few months after stepping down from that office, he bought the Hartford Courant newspaper, which he combined with the Press

31.
Connecticut
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Connecticut is the southernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Connecticut is also often grouped along with New York and New Jersey as the Tri-State Area and it is bordered by Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York to the west, and Long Island Sound to the south. Its capital city is Hartford, and its most populous city is Bridgeport, the state is named for the Connecticut River, a major U. S. river that approximately bisects the state. The word Connecticut is derived from various anglicized spellings of an Algonquian word for long tidal river, Connecticut is the third smallest state by area, the 29th most populous, and the fourth most densely populated of the 50 United States. It is known as the Constitution State, the Nutmeg State, the Provisions State, and it was influential in the development of the federal government of the United States. Connecticuts center of population is in Cheshire, New Haven County, Connecticuts first European settlers were Dutch. They established a small, short-lived settlement in present-day Hartford at the confluence of the Park, initially, half of Connecticut was a part of the Dutch colony New Netherland, which included much of the land between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers. The first major settlements were established in the 1630s by England, the Connecticut and New Haven Colonies established documents of Fundamental Orders, considered the first constitutions in North America. In 1662, the three colonies were merged under a charter, making Connecticut a crown colony. This colony was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution, the Connecticut River, Thames River, and ports along the Long Island Sound have given Connecticut a strong maritime tradition which continues today. The state also has a history of hosting the financial services industry, including insurance companies in Hartford. As of the 2010 Census, Connecticut features the highest per-capita income, Human Development Index, and median household income in the United States. Landmarks and Cities of Connecticut Connecticut is bordered on the south by Long Island Sound, on the west by New York, on the north by Massachusetts, and on the east by Rhode Island. The state capital and third largest city is Hartford, and other cities and towns include Bridgeport, New Haven, Stamford, Waterbury, Norwalk, Danbury, New Britain, Greenwich. Connecticut is slightly larger than the country of Montenegro, there are 169 incorporated towns in Connecticut. The highest peak in Connecticut is Bear Mountain in Salisbury in the northwest corner of the state, the highest point is just east of where Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York meet, on the southern slope of Mount Frissell, whose peak lies nearby in Massachusetts. At the opposite extreme, many of the towns have areas that are less than 20 feet above sea level. Connecticut has a maritime history and a reputation based on that history—yet the state has no direct oceanfront

32.
John Welsh (diplomat)
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John Welsh was an American merchant and minister to England. His ancestors were among the early Swedish and English settlers in America and his father, also named John Welsh, moved from the state of Delaware to Philadelphia in 1786, and soon became a prominent merchant in that city. His father trained John and his brothers Samuel and William to mercantile life, John was the youngest, received a good preparatory education, including a classical course, but began the mercantile business, in which he was remarkably successful, at a very early age. In addition to the cares of his business, Welsh became interested in public affairs. During the last twenty-five years of his life he was a leader in all the great movements having for their object the promotion of the public good of his community. He was a vestryman in St. Peters Protestant Episcopal Church forty-two years, taking a very active interest in founding the Episcopal hospital, he made himself responsible for the entire building fund amounting to $331,000, of which he personally contributed $41,000. He was one of the founders and became president of an association which raised a fund for the benefit of merchants who met with reverses in business and he comprehended its importance and possessed the insight to appreciate its moral and material significance. With this fund, he founded the John Welsh chair of history, on October 30,1877, President Rutherford B. Hayes appointed Welsh minister to the United Kingdom, which he held until his resignation, August 31,1879. He was instrumental in securing the release of a number of Fenian prisoners, as the representative of the United States, he paid to the British government $5,500,000 awarded by the Halifax Fisheries Commission. Upon his return home, he passed the remainder of his life in retirement, for 20 years he was a trustee of the University of Pennsylvania, and during that period contributed $80,000 to its endowment fund. He also gave $10,000 to the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, the degree of LL. D. was conferred upon him by the University of Pennsylvania in 1878, and by Washington and Lee University in 1880. He died in Philadelphia April 19,1886 and his son, Herbert Welsh, was prominent as a civil service reformer and Indian rights activist. This article incorporates text from the public domain 1893 National Cyclopaedia of American Biography, the John Welsh papers, which include correspondence, financial records, prints, and other papers, are available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania

33.
Subsidy
–
A subsidy is a form of financial aid or support extended to an economic sector generally with the aim of promoting economic and social policy. Although commonly extended from government, the subsidy can relate to any type of support – for example from NGOs or as implicit subsidies. Subsidies come in forms including, direct and indirect. Furthermore, they can be broad or narrow, legal or illegal, ethical or unethical, the most common forms of subsidies are those to the producer or the consumer. Producer/production subsidies ensure producers are better off by either supplying market price support, direct support, consumer/consumption subsidies commonly reduce the price of goods and services to the consumer. For example, in the US at one time it was cheaper to buy gasoline than bottled water, whether subsidies are positive or negative is typically a normative judgment. As a form of intervention, subsidies are inherently contrary to the markets demands. However, they can also be used as tools of political, a production subsidy encourages suppliers to increase the output of a particular product by partially offsetting the production costs or losses. The objective of production subsidies is to expand production of a product more so than the market would promote. This type of subsidy is found in developed markets. Other examples of production include the assistance in the creation of a new firm, industry. A consumption subsidy is one that subsidises the behavior of consumers, for example, some governments offer lifeline rates for electricity, that is, the first increment of electricity each month is subsidised. An export subsidy is a support from the government for products that are exported, usha Haley and George Haley identified the subsidies to manufacturing industry provided by the Chinese Government and how they have altered trade patterns. Traditionally, economists have argued that subsidies benefit consumers but hurt the subsidizing countries, export subsidy is known for being abused. For example, some exporters substantially over declare the value of their goods so as to more from the export subsidy. Thus the trader benefits from the subsidy without creating real trade value to the economy. Export subsidy as such can become a self-defeating and disruptive policy, an employment subsidy serves as an incentive to businesses to provide more job opportunities to reduce the level of unemployment in the country or to encourage research and development. With an employment subsidy, the government provides assistance with wages, Another form of employment subsidy is the social security benefits

34.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote

35.
Benjamin Franklin
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Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Franklin was a polymath and a leading author, printer, political theorist, politician, freemason, postmaster, scientist, inventor, civic activist, statesman. As a scientist, he was a figure in the American Enlightenment. As an inventor, he is known for the rod, bifocals. He facilitated many civic organizations, including Philadelphias fire department and the University of Pennsylvania, Franklin earned the title of The First American for his early and indefatigable campaigning for colonial unity, initially as an author and spokesman in London for several colonies. As the first United States Ambassador to France, he exemplified the emerging American nation, in the words of historian Henry Steele Commager, In a Franklin could be merged the virtues of Puritanism without its defects, the illumination of the Enlightenment without its heat. To Walter Isaacson, this makes Franklin the most accomplished American of his age, Franklin became a successful newspaper editor and printer in Philadelphia, the leading city in the colonies, publishing the Pennsylvania Gazette at the age of 23. He became wealthy publishing this and Poor Richards Almanack, which he authored under the pseudonym Richard Saunders, after 1767, he was associated with the Pennsylvania Chronicle, a newspaper that was known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the British policies. He pioneered and was first president of The Academy and College of Philadelphia which opened in 1751 and he organized and was the first secretary of the American Philosophical Society and was elected president in 1769. Franklin became a hero in America as an agent for several colonies when he spearheaded an effort in London to have the Parliament of Great Britain repeal the unpopular Stamp Act. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired among the French as American minister to Paris and was a figure in the development of positive Franco-American relations. His efforts proved vital for the American Revolution in securing shipments of crucial munitions from France, during the Revolution, he became the first US Postmaster General. He was active in community affairs and colonial and state politics, from 1785 to 1788, he served as governor of Pennsylvania. He initially owned and dealt in slaves but, by the 1750s, he argued against slavery from an economic perspective, Franklins father, Josiah Franklin, was a tallow chandler, a soap-maker and a candle-maker. Josiah was born at Ecton, Northamptonshire, England on December 23,1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith-farmer, and Jane White. His mother, Abiah Folger, was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts, on August 15,1667, to Peter Folger, a miller and schoolteacher, and his wife, Mary Morrill, Josiah Franklin had seventeen children with his two wives. He married his first wife, Anne Child, in about 1677 in Ecton and emigrated with her to Boston in 1683, after her death, Josiah was married to Abiah Folger on July 9,1689 in the Old South Meeting House by Samuel Willard. Benjamin, their child, was Josiah Franklins fifteenth child and tenth

36.
Alfred T. Goshorn
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Alfred Traber Goshorn was a Cincinnati, Ohio businessman and booster who served as Director-General of the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. That was the first worlds fair in the United States and so resounding a success that Queen Victoria knighted Goshorn, Goshorn was born circa 1833 on the family homestead in Cincinnati. He graduated from Marietta College in 1854 and earned a law degree three years later, during the Civil War he enlisted in Company F, 137th Ohio Infantry, a 100 days service regiment, serving as captain. He never saw combat, having served as an officer at a Union prisoner of war camp, near Baltimore, after the Civil War, he owned a paint company and led the Cincinnati City Council for two years. New York style baseball boomed in the United States after the end of the Civil War, scattered clubs from as far away as Fort Leavenworth, Kansas sent delegates to the meeting of the games national association in December 1865, roughly tripling membership from 30 to 90. The Queen City of the West, Cincinnati was not represented, alfred Goshorn was the first president of the Cincinnati Base Ball Club, established July 23,1866. The Cincinnati club would rise to the pinnacle as parent of the first professional baseball team, affiliating with the Union Cricket Club before its second season, the club thereby arranged to share playing grounds and the services of club pro Harry Wright. The two built a grandstand and modern enclosure, putting competitive matches on a basis and making Union Grounds the physical center of cricket. For two decades beginning in 1870, Goshorn organized the Cincinnati Industrial Expositions, public exhibitions of the arts and industry of Cincinnati people and these local exhibitions grew to regional and occasionally national scope. Goshorn became world famous for the expositions according to the Ohio Historical Society, when planning for the Centennial Exposition began in 1873, Goshorn was appointed delegate from Ohio. Recognizing his achievement with the Cincinnati expos, the delegates elected him Director-General. The Worlds Fair was a success, attracting ten million visitors including thousands from Europe. General Goshorn returned to Cincinnati life as a leader, thereafter organizing the Cincinnati Art Museum as well as continuing the Cincinnati Expositions. He died in 1902 and his bequest to Marietta College financed A. T. Goshorn Gymnasium, Base Ball in Cincinnati, A History

37.
United States Secretary of the Navy
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The Secretary of the Navy is a statutory office and the head of the Department of the Navy, a military department within the Department of Defense of the United States of America. The Department of the Navy consists of two Uniformed Services, the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps. In effect, all authority within the Navy and Marine Corps, specifically enumerated responsibilities of the SECNAV in beforementioned section are, recruiting, organizing, supplying, equipping, training, mobilizing, and demobilizing. The Secretary also oversees the construction, outfitting, and repair of ships, equipment. The Secretary of the Navy is a member of the Defense Acquisition Board, chaired by the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, the CNO and the Commandant act as the principal executive agents of the SECNAV within their respective services to implement the orders of the Secretary. The United States Navy Regulations is the principal regulatory document of the Department of the Navy, the Chief of Naval Operations and the Commandant of the Marine Corps have their own separate staffs, the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations and Headquarters Marine Corps

38.
George M. Robeson
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Representative for New Jersey serving from 1879 to 1883. Robesons tenure as Secretary of Navy, lasting seven and a half years, was second in length only to that of Gideon Welles during the 19th century. Robeson was known to be a hot-tempered, industrious administrator and through his leadership was able to contain the established Naval officer hierarchy. Robeson headed the investigation concerning the death of Capt. Hall after the return of the shipwrecked Polaris crew in 1873. Robeson supported President Grant and the Radical Republican Reconstruction laws that supported the citizenship, under Robeson, the U. S. Navy constructed the United States first two propelled torpedo warships. Robeson was the subject of two Congressional investigations in 1876 and 1878 concerning profiting and bribery charges from shipbuilding contracts, but was exonerated for lack of material evidence. Robeson served briefly as both Secretary of Navy and as ad interim Secretary of War after Secretary of War William W. Belknap abruptly resigned in 1876, Robeson, a native of New Jersey, graduated from Princeton University at the young age of 18. Robeson studied law and passed the bar in 1850, practicing law, Robeson diligently worked his way through the legal profession and in 1858 he was appointed public prosecutor for Camden County. During the American Civil War Robeson associated with the Republican Party and was a member of the New Jersey Sanitary Commission, appointed Brigadier General by Governor Charles S. Olden, Robeson worked to recruit enlistments to fight for the Union. After the war in 1867, Robeson was appointed New Jersey Attorney General by Gov. Marcus L. Ward, Robeson, as Attorney General, gained national attention after successfully prosecuting Bridget Durgan for the brutal murder of Mrs. Coriell. Supported by New Jersey Senator A. G. Cattell, Robeson was appointed Secretary of Navy by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1869 after Sec. Adolph E. Borie had resigned office, in March 1877, Robesons Secretary of Navy term of office ended. In a speech to his former Navy Department staff at his Washington D. C. home, Robeson admitted that during his tenure he had made mistakes and he was later elected to the U. S. House of Representatives in both 1878 and 1880. Robesons grandfather was George C. Maxwell and he was nephew of John Patterson Bryan Maxwell, representative for New Jersey, Congressman Robeson served as minority leader of the Republican Party. Defeated from office by Democrat Thomas M. Ferrell in a highly contested 1882 election campaign, Robeson was left $60,000 in debt. As a result of his troubles, his wife and family abandoned him while traveling abroad. Robeson moved to Trenton, resumed his law practice, and lived a modest lifestyle until his death in 1897, due to his striking personal traits and size, Robeson was one of the most caricatured individuals during the 19th century by cartoonists. George M. Robeson was born on March 16,1829 in Oxford Furnace, New Jersey and his father was Philadelphia Judge William P. Robeson and his mother was the daughter of U. S. Maxwell, who served in the 12th U. S. Congress from 1811 to 1813 representing Hunterdon, Robesons family was of Scottish origin and he was a descendant of Andrew Robeson, the surveyor-general of New Jersey in 1668

39.
John Weiss Forney
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John Weiss Forney was an American journalist and politician. He was Clerk of the United States House of Representatives 1851-1856 and he was Secretary of the United States Senate 1861-1868. He was born at Lancaster, Pennsylvania and at the age of 16 entered the office of the Lancaster Journal. Four years later he purchased the Lancaster Intelligencer, and in 1840 he became proprietor of the Journal and combined the two papers under the name of the Intelligencer and Journal. From 1851 to 1855 he was Clerk of the United States House of Representatives, and, while continuing to write for the Pennsylvanian, he edited the Union, the organ of the Northern Democrats. While Clerk, it became Forneys duty to preside during a struggle for the speakership in 1855. His tact as presiding officer won the applause of all parties, in 1855 he headed the Pennsylvania delegation to the Democratic National Convention at Cincinnati, and was instrumental in securing the nomination of Pennsylvanias candidate, James Buchanan. He conducted Buchanans successful campaign for the presidency, and Buchanan would have him a cabinet office if the appointment had been more popular in the South. In January 1857, Buchanans influence was not strong enough to win Forney a seat in the United States Senate, in August 1857, Forney established the Philadelphia Press, an independent Democratic newspaper. He contributed to the organization of the Republican Party and its early successes, in 1861, he became Secretary of the United States Senate. On the death of Lincoln, Forney supported Andrew Johnson for a short time, but afterward became one of the foremost in the struggle which resulted in the presidents impeachment. In 1868, no longer Secretary of the Senate, he disposed of his interest in the Chronicle and he held the office for one year, and during that time perfected the system of direct transportation of imports in bond without appraisement and examination at the port of original entry. He was an earnest promoter of the Centennial Exposition and visited Europe in its interest in 1875, in 1877 he sold the Press and established a weekly, the Progress, which he edited until his death. Progress continued to be published by the Forney Publishing Company after his death, in 1880 he left the Republican Party and supported Winfield Scott Hancock for the presidency. He is buried in West Laurel Hill Cemetery, Bala Cynwyd, thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. This source reports his middle name as Wien, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Wilson, James Grant, Fiske, John, eds. Senate biography Biography-West Laurel Hill Cemetery web site

40.
Tariffs in United States history
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Graph, Share of tariff revenues in U. S. Federal budget. Tariffs in United States history have played important roles in trade policy, political debates, the main goal of the tariff was money to pay the federal budget. Controversy arose over whether manufacturing interests were favored and consumer interests hurt by high tariffs, the 1st United States Congress, wanting a straightforward tax that was not too onerous and easy to collect, passed the Tariff Act of 1789. Treasury agents collected the tariff before goods could be landed, Tariffs were the largest source of federal revenue until the Federal income tax began after 1913. For well over a century the government was largely financed by tariffs averaging about 20% on foreign imports. There are no tariffs for imports or shipments from other states, since the 1940s, foreign trade policies have focused more on reciprocal tariffs and low tariff rates rather than using tariffs as a significant source of Federal tax revenue. The goal of using higher tariffs to promote industrialization was urged by the first Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton and they generally failed because Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democrats said the tariff should be only high enough to pay the governments bills, otherwise, it would hurt the consumers. The Republicans, however, made high tariffs the centerpiece of their economic policy beginning in 1861, since 1930, tariffs have not been a major political issue. Tariffs were the source of all Federal revenue from 1790 to 1914. At the end of the American Civil War in 1865 about 63% of Federal income was generated by the excise taxes, in 1915 during World War I tariffs generated only 30. 1% of revenues. Since 1935 tariff income has continued to be a percentage of Federal tax income. Constitution of 1789 gave the government authority to tax, stating that Congress has the power to. Lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, pay the debts and provide for the common defense, and also To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes. Tariffs between states is prohibited by the U. S. Constitution, and all domestically made products can be imported or shipped to another state tax-free. The tariff issue was central to political party debates in the Second Party System, Third Party System and Fourth Party System, in general Democrats favored a tariff that would pay the cost of government, but no higher. Whigs and Republicans favored higher tariffs to encourage or protect industry, Tariffs were generally low before 1860, and high after that. Since the 1930s, however, tariffs have been low and have been much less a matter of partisan debate. It should be noted that the adjacent table determines the average tariff by calculating the ratio of customs duties collected to the value of dutiable *and* duty-free items

41.
Hotel
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A hotel is an establishment that provides paid lodging on a short-term basis. Small, lower-priced hotels may offer only the most basic guest services and facilities, Hotel rooms are usually numbered to allow guests to identify their room. Some boutique, high-end hotels have custom decorated rooms, some hotels offer meals as part of a room and board arrangement. In the United Kingdom, a hotel is required by law to serve food, in Japan, capsule hotels provide a tiny room suitable only for sleeping and shared bathroom facilities. The precursor to the hotel was the inn of medieval Europe. For a period of about 200 years from the mid-17th century, inns began to cater to richer clients in the mid-18th century. One of the first hotels in a sense was opened in Exeter in 1768. Hotels proliferated throughout Western Europe and North America in the early 19th century, Hotel operations vary in size, function, and cost. Most hotels and major hospitality companies have set standards to classify hotel types. Full service hotels often contain upscale full-service facilities with a number of full service accommodations, an on-site full service restaurant. Boutique hotels are independent, non-branded hotels that often contain upscale facilities. Small to medium-sized hotel establishments offer a limited amount of on-site amenities, economy hotels are small to medium-sized hotel establishments that offer basic accommodations with little to no services. Extended stay hotels are small to medium-sized hotels that offer full service accommodations compared to a traditional hotel. Timeshare and destination clubs are a form of property ownership involving ownership of a unit of accommodation for seasonal usage. A motel is a small-sized low-rise lodging with direct access to rooms from the car park. Boutique hotels are typically hotels with an environment or intimate setting. A number of hotels have entered the public consciousness through popular culture, some hotels are built specifically as a destination in itself, for example at casinos and holiday resorts. The organizational chart and volume of job positions and hierarchy varies by size, function and class

42.
Boarding house
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A boarding house is a house in which lodgers rent one or more rooms for one or more nights, and sometimes for extended periods of weeks, months, and years. The common parts of the house are maintained, and some services, such as laundry and cleaning and they normally provide room and board, that is, at least some meals as well as accommodation. A lodging house, also known in the United States as a rooming house, lodgers legally only obtain a licence to use their rooms, and not exclusive possession, so the landlord retains the right of access. Formerly boarders would typically share washing, breakfast and dining facilities, in recent years it has become common for room to have its own washing. Such boarding houses were found in English seaside towns and college towns. It was common for there to be one or two elderly long-term residents, Boarders can often arrange to stay bed-and-breakfast, half-board or full-board. Especially for families on holiday with children, boarding was an alternative and certainly much cheaper than staying in all. However some B&B accommodation is available on a long-term basis to UK local authorities who are legally obliged to house persons. Such a boarding-house may well cease to be attractive to short-term lodgers, much old seaside accommodation is so used, since cheap flights have reduced demand for their original seasonal holiday use. Apart from the spread of the concept of the B&B. For example, in Japan, minshuku are an almost exact equivalent although the arrangement would be the equivalent of the English half-board. In Hawaii, where the cost of living is high and incomes barely keep pace, in the Indian subcontinent boarders are also known as paying guests. Paying guests stay in a home and share a room with domestic facilities, rates are nominal and monthly charges are usually inclusive of food, bed, table and a cupboard. The rent can go higher for a room in a locality with facilities like single occupancy, air conditioning. In the United States, zoning was used by neighborhoods to limit boarding houses, sherlock Holmes lived in a boarding house at 221B Baker Street, of which the landlady Mrs. Hudson provided some domestic service. Mary Roberts Rinehart wrote the now classic boarding-house mystery, The Case of Jennie Brice, H. G. Wells satirized boarding houses of the Edwardian era in his novel The Dream. E. Phillips Oppenheim set his novel, The Strange Boarders of Palace Crescent in a London boarding house. Lynne Reid Bankss novel The L-Shaped Room is set in a boarding house

43.
SEPTA
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SEPTA also manages construction projects that maintain, replace, and expand infrastructure and rolling stock. SEPTA is the transit provider for Philadelphia and its suburbs in Delaware, Montgomery, Bucks. SEPTA is a state created authority and the majority of its board is appointed by the five Pennsylvania counties it serves. SEPTA has the 6th-largest U. S. rapid transit system by ridership, and it controls 290 active stations, over 450 miles of track,2,295 revenue vehicles, and 196 routes. SEPTA also manages Shared-Ride services in Philadelphia and ADA services across the region and these services are operated by third-party contractors. SEPTA is one of only two U. S. SEPTAs headquarters are located at 1234 Market Street in Center City, SEPTA was created by the Pennsylvania legislature on August 17,1963, to coordinate government subsidies to various transit and railroad companies in southeastern Pennsylvania. It commenced on February 18,1964, by 1966, the Reading Company and Pennsylvania Railroad commuter railroad lines were operated under contract to SEPTA. On February 1,1968, the Pennsylvania Railroad merged with the New York Central railroad to become Penn Central, Penn Central continued to operate in bankruptcy until 1976, when Conrail took over its assets along with those of several other bankrupt railroads, including the Reading Company. Conrail operated commuter services under contract to SEPTA until January 1,1983, when SEPTA took over operations and acquired track, rolling stock, and other assets to form the Railroad Division. Since 1913, a long proposed Roosevelt Boulevard Subway had a similar fate as New Yorks Second Avenue Subway where many proposals were made, many acquisitions had been made, but only amounted to continuous service cuts through consolidations of competing services of the Reading Railroad and Pennsylvania Railroad. It wasnt until the early 2000s that there was any talk of expansion, the PTC had been created in 1940 with the merger of the Philadelphia Rapid Transit Company and a group of smaller, then independent transit companies operating within the city and its environs. Today, this is the Victory Division, though it is referred to as the Red Arrow Division. On March 1,1976, SEPTA acquired the operations of Schuylkill Valley Lines. Future expansion of SEPTAs commuter rail lines has been discussed since the mid-1980s when the system suffered severe cutbacks, proposals have been made to restore service to Allentown, Bethlehem, West Chester and Newtown, with support from commuters, local officials and pro-train advocates. The Schuylkill Valley Metro and other plans that would re-establish service to Phoenixville, Pottsville, SEPTA has also considered the possibility of a cross-county metro that would provide service between the suburban counties without requiring the rider to go into Philadelphia. However, many derelict lines under SEPTA ownership have been converted to rail trails, additionally, some, such as Senator Bob Casey, have proposed expanding the Broad Street Line to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. Proposals have also made for increased service on existing lines, including later evenings and Sundays to Wilmington. Marylands MARC commuter rail system is considering extending its service as far as Newark Rail Station, as of 2014, an expansion of the Norristown High Speed Line is under consideration to extend service to the King of Prussia area

44.
Pennsylvania Railroad
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The Pennsylvania Railroad was an American Class I railroad, founded in 1846. Commonly referred to as the Pennsy, the PRR was headquartered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the PRR was the largest railroad by traffic and revenue in the U. S. for the first half of the 20th century. Over the years, it acquired, merged with or owned part of at least 800 other rail lines and companies and its only formidable rival was the New York Central, which carried around three-quarters of PRRs ton-miles. At one time, the PRR was the largest publicly traded corporation in the world, with a larger than that of the U. S. government. The corporation still holds the record for the longest continuous dividend history, in 1968, PRR merged with rival NYC to form the Penn Central Transportation Company, which filed for bankruptcy within two years. The viable parts were transferred in 1976 to Conrail, which was broken up in 1999, with 58 percent of the system going to the Norfolk Southern Railway. Amtrak received the electrified segment east of Harrisburg, with the opening of the Erie Canal and the beginnings of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, Philadelphia business interests became concerned that the port of Philadelphia would lose traffic. The state legislature was pressed to build a canal across Pennsylvania and it soon became evident that a single canal would not be practical and a series of railroads, inclined planes, and canals was proposed. Because freight and passengers had to change several times along the route and canals froze in winter, it soon became apparent that the system was cumbersome. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania granted a charter to the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1846 to build a rail line that would connect Harrisburg to Pittsburgh. The Directors chose John Edgar Thomson, an engineer from the Georgia Railroad, to survey, the crest of the mountain was penetrated by the 3, 612-foot Gallitzin Tunnels and then descended by a more moderate grade to Johnstown. The western end of the line was built from Pittsburgh east along the banks of the Allegheny. In 1857, the PRR purchased the Main Line of Public Works from the state of Pennsylvania, the line was double track from its inception, and by the end of the century a third and fourth track were added. Over the next 50 years, PRR expanded by gaining control of railroads by stock purchases. This line is still an important cross-state corridor, carrying Amtraks Philadelphia to Harrisburg Main Line and he served as PRRs first Chief Engineer and third President. Track connection in Philadelphia was made via the PRRs Connecting Railway, the PRRs Baltimore and Potomac Rail Road opened on July 2,1872, between Baltimore and Washington, D. C. This route required transfer via horse car in Baltimore to the lines heading north from the city. On June 29,1873, the Baltimore and Potomac Tunnel through Baltimore was completed, the PRR started the misleadingly named Pennsylvania Air Line service via the Northern Central Railway and Columbia, Pennsylvania

45.
Market Street (Philadelphia)
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Market Street, originally known as High Street, is a major east–west street in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It is signed as Pennsylvania Route 3 between the 38th Street and 15th Street, the High Street was the familiar name of the principal street in nearly every English town at the time Philadelphia was founded. But if Philadelphia was indebted to England for the name of High Street, nearly every American town is, in turn, indebted to Philadelphia for its Market Street. Long before the city was out or settled, Philadelphias founder. The citys first market stalls were situated in the center of the thoroughfare starting at Front Street, the stalls soon became covered and were not taken down as planned. Later, additional covered sheds appeared west of Center Square as the city expanded westward, the street began to be called Market Street around 1800. The roads new name was official by an ordinance of 1858, ironically. Market Street has been called the most historic highway in the United States because of the historic sites along its eastern section. Many of Benjamin Franklins activities were centered along Market Street and his house was located near the intersection of Fourth Street, and he may have performed his famous kite-flying experiment near Third and Market Streets. Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence in a house once located at the Seventh Street intersection. The mansion of Robert Morris, financier of the American Revolution, was located near Sixth and this house, known as the Presidents House, was used by George Washington and John Adams as their residence during their terms as President. Around 1795 Theophilus Cazenove lived at Market Street, several important finance and publishing firsts also occurred along Market Street between Second and Fourth Streets during the 18th century. Market Street is still one of the locations of business. Market Street runs from Millbourne to Front Street in Center City, at Front Street, a bridge over Interstate 95 brings traffic from Penns Landing, on the western bank of the Delaware River, onto westbound Market Street. Market Street runs one way, eastbound, between 20th Street and 15th Street, with traffic diverted onto JFK Boulevard. Market Street is interrupted between 15th Street and Juniper Street by Philadelphia City Hall, and technical does not intersect with Broad Street as a result, a pedestrian-only path continues Market Street across the City Hall block. Between 12th Street and roughly 20th Street, Market Street is heavily commercial, the street continues westward, crossing over the Schuylkill River via the Market Street Bridge, into and through University City and West Philadelphia. SEPTAs Market-Frankford Line runs along Market Street, as a subway east of 44th Street and as a line above Market Street

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New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange

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Baltimore
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Baltimore is the largest city in the U. S. state of Maryland, and the 29th-most populous city in the country. It was established by the Constitution of Maryland and is not part of any county, thus, it is the largest independent city in the United States, with a population of 621,849 as of 2015. As of 2010, the population of the Baltimore Metropolitan Area was 2.7 million, founded in 1729, Baltimore is the second largest seaport in the Mid-Atlantic. Baltimores Inner Harbor was once the leading port of entry for immigrants to the United States. With hundreds of identified districts, Baltimore has been dubbed a city of neighborhoods, in the War of 1812, Francis Scott Key wrote The Star-Spangled Banner, later the American national anthem, in Baltimore. More than 65,000 properties, or roughly one in three buildings in the city, are listed on the National Register, more than any city in the nation. The city has 289 properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the historical records of the government of Baltimore are located at the Baltimore City Archives. The city is named after Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, of the Irish House of Lords, Baltimore Manor was the name of the estate in County Longford on which the Calvert family lived in Ireland. Baltimore is an anglicization of the Irish name Baile an Tí Mhóir, in 1608, Captain John Smith traveled 210 miles from Jamestown to the uppermost Chesapeake Bay, leading the first European expedition to the Patapsco River. The name Patapsco is derived from pota-psk-ut, which translates to backwater or tide covered with froth in Algonquian dialect, a quarter century after John Smiths voyage, English colonists began to settle in Maryland. The area constituting the modern City of Baltimore and its area was first settled by David Jones in 1661. He claimed the area today as Harbor East on the east bank of the Jones Falls stream. In the early 1600s, the immediate Baltimore vicinity was populated, if at all. The Baltimore area had been inhabited by Native Americans since at least the 10th millennium BC, one Paleo-Indian site and several Archaic period and Woodland period archaeological sites have been identified in Baltimore, including four from the Late Woodland period. During the Late Woodland period, the culture that is called the Potomac Creek complex resided in the area from Baltimore to the Rappahannock River in Virginia. It was located on the Bush River on land that in 1773 became part of Harford County, in 1674, the General Assembly passed An Act for erecting a Court-house and Prison in each County within this Province. The site of the house and jail for Baltimore County was evidently Old Baltimore near the Bush River. In 1683, the General Assembly passed An Act for Advancement of Trade to establish towns, ports, one of the towns established by the act in Baltimore County was on Bush River, on Town Land, near the Court-House

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Pittsburgh
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Pittsburgh is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in the United States, and is the county seat of Allegheny County. The city proper has a population of 304,391. The metropolitan population of 2,353,045 is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 26th-largest in the U. S. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclines, a fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in manufacturing of aluminum, glass, shipbuilding, petroleum, foods, sports, transportation, computing, autos, and electronics. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment, Americas 1980s deindustrialization laid off area blue-collar workers and thousands of downtown white-collar workers when the longtime Pittsburgh-based world headquarters moved out. The area has served also as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research. The area is home to 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University, the region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, sustainable energy, and energy extraction. Pittsburgh was named in 1758 by General John Forbes, in honor of British statesman William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. The current pronunciation, which is unusual in English speaking countries, is almost certainly a result of a printing error in some copies of the City Charter of March 18,1816. The error was repeated commonly enough throughout the rest of the 19th century that the pronunciation was lost. After a public campaign the original spelling was restored by the United States Board on Geographic Names in 1911. The area of the Ohio headwaters was long inhabited by the Shawnee, the first known European to enter the region was the French explorer/trader Robert de La Salle from Quebec during his 1669 expedition down the Ohio River. European pioneers, primarily Dutch, followed in the early 18th century, Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a 1717 manuscript, and later that year European fur traders established area posts and settlements. In 1749, French soldiers from Quebec launched an expedition to the forks to unite Canada with French Louisiana via the rivers, during 1753–54, the British hastily built Fort Prince George before a larger French force drove them off. The French built Fort Duquesne based on LaSalles 1669 claims, the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years War, began with the future Pittsburgh as its center. British General Edward Braddock was dispatched with Major George Washington as his aide to take Fort Duquesne, the British and colonial force were defeated at Braddocks Field. General John Forbes finally took the forks in 1758, Forbes began construction on Fort Pitt, named after William Pitt the Elder while the settlement was named Pittsborough

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Reading Company
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The Reading Company operated an important railroad in southeast Pennsylvania and neighboring states from 1924-1976. Commonly called the Reading Railroad, it was a successor to the Philadelphia, until the decline in anthracite loadings in the Coal Region after World War II, it was one of the most prosperous corporations in the United States. Competition with the highway system and short hauls compounded the companys problems. Its railroad operations were merged into Conrail in 1976, but the corporation lasted into 2000, the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad was one of the first railroads in the United States. Along with the Little Schuylkill, a railroad in the Schuylkill River Valley. Primarily, the P&R was constructed to haul coal from the mines in northeastern Pennsylvanias Coal Region to Philadelphia. The P&R mainline had the distinction of being, upon its 1843 completion, the P&R became profitable almost immediately. In 1871, the Reading established a subsidiary called the Philadelphia and Reading Coal and Iron Company, the heavy investment in coal paid off quickly. By 1871, the Reading was the largest company in the world, with $170,000,000 in gross value, in 1879, the Reading gained control of the North Pennsylvania Railroad and gained access to the burgeoning steel industry in the Lehigh Valley. Instead of broadening its rail network, the Reading invested its vast wealth in anthracite and this led to financial trouble in the 1870s. In 1890, Reading president Archibald A. McLeod saw that more riches could be earned by expanding its rail network, McLeod went about trying to control neighboring railroads in 1891. He was able to control of the Lehigh Valley Railroad, Central Railroad of New Jersey. The Reading almost achieved its goal of becoming a road, but the deal was scuttled by J. P. Morgan and other rail barons. The Reading was relegated to a railroad for the rest of its history. The Philadelphia and Reading Rail Road was chartered April 4,1833, the portion from Reading to Norristown opened July 16,1838, the full line December 9,1839. An extension northwest from Reading to Mount Carbon, also on the Schuylkill River, opened on January 13,1842, at Mount Carbon, it connected with the earlier Mount Carbon Railroad, continuing through Pottsville to several mines, and would eventually be extended to Williamsport. On May 17 of 1842, a branch from West Falls to Port Richmond on the Delaware River north of downtown Philadelphia opened. Port Richmond later became a large coal terminal

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Center City, Philadelphia
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Center City includes the central business district and central neighborhoods of Philadelphia, in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. It is the former City of Philadelphia prior to the Act of Consolidation,1854 which extended the city borders to be coterminous with Philadelphia County. Greater Center City has grown into the second-most populated downtown area in the United States, after Midtown Manhattan in New York City, with an estimated 183,240 residents in 2015. Center City is bounded by South Street to the south, the Delaware River to the east, the Schuylkill River to the west and this means that Center City occupies the boundaries of the city before it was made coterminous with Philadelphia County in 1854. The Center City District, which has special powers of taxation, uses a complicated, irregularly shaped boundary that includes much but not all of this area, the Philadelphia Police Department patrols three districts located within Center City. The three patrol districts serving Center City are the 6th, 9th, and 17th districts, in March 1987, One Liberty Place broke the gentlemens agreement not to exceed the height of the statue of William Penn atop City Hall. Since the completion of One Liberty Place, no Philadelphia major-league sports team had won a championship for the next two decades, a phenomenon known as the Curse of Billy Penn. In an effort to reverse the curse, a 3-foot statue of Penn was affixed to the top of the Comcast Center upon its completion as the new tallest building in 2007. The Comcast Center, which was completed in 2007, is now the tallest building in Pennsylvania,30 feet taller than One Liberty Place, Two buildings now under construction —1441 Chestnut and the Comcast Technology Center — are also slated to be taller than City Hall. The latter would be the eighth-tallest building in the Western Hemisphere, the first publicly accessible vantage point higher than City Hall opened at One Liberty Observation Deck on the 57th floor of One Liberty Place in 2015. While Philadelphias population declined, Center Citys rose 10% between 1990 and 2000, in 2007, the city designated the area bound by 11th Street, Broad Street, Chestnut Street and Pine Street as the Gayborhood. Chinatown Fitler Square French Quarter Logan Square Market East Old City Rittenhouse Square Society Hill Washington Square West Sunoco has its headquarters in the BNY Mellon Center, cigna has its corporate headquarters in Two Liberty Place. Aramark is headquartered in Center City, Comcast is headquartered in the Comcast Center. The law firm Cozen OConnor has its headquarters in Center City, kogan Page has its United States offices in Center City. Lincoln National Corporation moved its headquarters from Indiana to Philadelphia in 1999, in Philadelphia Lincoln was headquartered in the West Tower of Centre Square in Center City. In 2007 the company moved 400 employees, including its top executives, the Philadelphia Fire Department operates 5 Fire Stations in the Center City area, Ladder 5, Medic 35, Battalion 1 -711 S. Broad St. Snorkel 2, Medic 44B, Battalion 4, Field Comm. Unit 1 -101 N. 4th St. Engine 11, Medic 21 -601 South St. Pipeline 20, Ladder 23, Medic 1 -133 N. 10th St. Squirt 43, Ladder 9, Medic 7 -2108 Market St