Kyrgyzstan is a mountainous, landlocked country in Central Asia,
bordered on the north by Kazakhstan, in the east and south-east by China, in the
south-west by Tajikistan and in the west by Uzbekistan. It became independent in 1991 and
has a total area of 198 500 km². About 94% of the country is located at more than 1 000
metres above sea level and 40% above 3 000 metres, covered with glaciers and snow. The
highest mountain is Victory Peak (7 429 m), which stands in the immense Mustag massif, one
of the world's largest glaciers, covering 1 579 km . To the south are the Pamirs, another
towering range of mountains.

In 1990, the cultivated area was estimated at 1.32 million ha, which is
almost 7 % of the total area of the country. About 1.28 million ha consisted of annual
crops and 40 600 ha consisted of permanent crops. Agriculture is highly mechanized. In
1990, there were 176 collective farms and 290 state farms with about 29 000 tractors.

The total population is about 4.7 million (1995), of which 61 % is
rural.

The natural annual demographic growth rate is estimated at 2.2%.
However, taking into consideration migration it is estimated at 1.8%. In 1991, 35% of the
labour force was engaged in agriculture. In 1994, agriculture accounted for 34% of the
country's GDP.

TABLE 1 - Basic statistics and population

Physical areas.

Area of the country

1995

19850000

ha

Cultivable area

-

ha

Cultivated area

1990

1323 400

ha

- annual crops

1990

1282 800

ha

- permanent crops

1990

40 600

ha

Population:

Total population

1995

4 745 000

inhabitants

Population density

1995

24

inhab./km²

Rural population

1995

61

%

Water supply coverage:

Urban population

1990

86

%

Rural population

1990

75

%

CLIMATE AND WATER RESOURCES

Climate

The climate in Kyrgyzstan is of the continental type with hot summers
and cold winters, during which frost occurs in all parts of the country. Average annual
precipitation is estimated at 316 mm, varying from 150 mm in the plains to over 1 000 mm
in the mountains.

Water resources

As a result of tens of thousands of years of glaciation, there are some
3 000 lakes (many of which are located at an elevation of over 3 000 metres), continuously
filled by rivers flowing down from the mountains. Average natural surface water flow in
the country is estimated at 47.23 km³/year, all internally produced, of which 28.97 km³
or 61% flows through the Amu Darya and Syr Darya that drain into the Aral Sea. Of these
47.23 km³/year, the former Soviet Unionallocated 11.60 km to Kyrgyzstan, while the rest
was allocated to the surrounding republics of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and
Tajikistan. This allocation is apparently still endorsed by the five states of Central
Asia. Out of the Kyrgyzstan allocation, 5.30 km originate from the Amu Darya and Syr
Darya. Fresh groundwater resources, usually of very high quality, have been estimated at
13 km³/year and constitute the baseflow of surface runoff.

TABLE 2 - Water: sources and use

Renewable water resources:

Average precipitation

316

mm/yr

62.73

km³/yr

Internal renewable water resources

47.23

km³/yr

Total (actual) renewable water resources

1995

11.60

km³/yr

Dependency ratio

1995

0

%

Total {actual} renewable water resources per
inhabitant

1995

2 445

m³/yr

Total dam capacity

1990

21500

106 m³

Water withdrawal:

- agricultural

1990

10 465

106 m³/yr

- domestic

1990

259

106 m³/yr

- industrial

1990

312

106 m³/yr

Total water withdrawal

11 036

106 m³/yr

per inhabitant

1990

2 527

m³/yr

as % of total (actual) renewable water
resources

95.1

%

Other water withdrawal

1990

137

106 m³/yr

Average groundwater depletion

-

10 6m³/yr

Wastewater - Non-conventional
water sources:

Wastewater:

- produced wastewater

1990

115

106 m³/yr

- treated wastewater

1990

11

106 m³/yr

- reused treated wastewater

1990

9

106 m³/yr

Desalinated water

-

106 m³/yr

Dams

In 1990, total dam capacity was 21.5 km³. The largest dam is the
Toktogul dam on the Syr Darya river with a reservoir capacity of 19.5 km³. However, due
to its location downstream near the border with Uzbekistan. it does not play an important
role in the irrigation of areas within Kyrgyzstan. The same applies to the Kirov dam which
has a capacity of 0.55 km .

Water withdrawal

In 1990, total water withdrawal was about 11 km³, which is almost the
total allocation of Kyrgyzstan (11.6 km³/year) (Figure 1). Average annual surface water
availability for irrigation during the period 1985-1992 was about 10.77 km³, although the
water requirement had been evaluated at 10.83 km³, leading to an irrigation water deficit
for the whole country of 0.06 km³. However, in some provinces there is a fairly severe
water shortage, while in other provinces there is a surplus. Surface water is mainly used
for irrigation purposes, while groundwater is mainly used for domestic and industrial
purposes.

Irrigation is a key input into the agricultural sector of Kyrgyzstan,
reaching over 80% of the cultivated area. It has also been critical in m`intaining and
stabilizing agricultural production. Irrigation potential has been estimated at about 2.25
million ha. In 1990, the total water managed area, all equipped for fully or partially
controlled irrigation, was estimated at 1.07 million ha, which is almost 48 % of the
irrigation potential.

Sprinkler irrigation is practiced on 141000 ha and only 12 ha of
micro-irrigation are reported. On the remaining part, representing 87 % of the total area,
surface irrigation methods are used (Figure 2). Out of the total irrigated area, only 20%
has dependable water either from storage dams or groundwater. The remaining 80% is
supplied through the diversion of mountain streams (Figure 3).

The main systems, particularly those downstream of large storage dams,
are well maintained. However, the distribution systems within the state and collective
farms are generally poorly designed, built and maintained. Seepage and leakage losses in
the distribution system are considerable, resulting in a conveyance/distribution
efficiency estimated at 55 %.

In 1990, there were in total 1 346 irrigation schemes, the
characteristics of which are presented in the table below.

Large schemes represent 60 % of the irrigated area (Figure 4). They are
state or collective farms. With the government programme to privatize agricultural
production it is expected, however, that the number of small-scale farms (even less than
50 ha) will increase considerably.

The average cost of irrigation development varies from $US 1 080/ha for
small schemes to $US 2 340/ha for medium schemes and $US 3 530/ha for large schemes.
Average annual operation and maintenance costs are estimated at $US 26, 55 and SO/ha
respectively.

In the past years, farmers were not charged for water, although the land
tax is two or three times higher on irrigated land than it is on non-irrigated land of
similar quality. However, the financial situation has changed dramatically and the
Ministry of Irrigation (MOI) is no longer able to cover irrigation costs by general tax
revenues. In 1992-93, a water fee was imposed on state and collective farms, a service
charge for delivering water. Only 20-30% of the farms paid the fee. According to the draft
budget for 1995, water users would have to pay 78% of the maintenance costs of the
irrigation system through this water fee and the state budget would pay 22 %. Over half
the equipped area is said to need rehabilitation.

The major irrigated crops are fodder crops and cereals (Figure 5).
Although yields are generally low for irrigated land by world standards, they are about
five times higher than yields in nonirrigated areas.

Salinity and drainage problems are likely to increase in the near
future. With the very restricted budget facing MOI, it is unlikely that it will be able to
maintain and operate the existing drainage system effectively, nor improve or extend it.
Most drainage and salinity problems are in the northern part of the country, in the Chui
province.

The Ministry of Water Resources/Economy and the Ministry of Agriculture
are the main institutions involved in water resources, irrigation and drainage planning
and development.

In the past, irrigation systems were designed and operated to deliver
water to the large state or collective farms and it was a relatively easy task for MOI to
deliver water to each farm. However, the increasing number of small farms following the
privatization programmes, will need new legal institutions to interface with the farmers
and provide adequate support.

Article 18 of the new water law includes specific provisions for
establishing water users associations that receive water from MOI and allocate it among
members of the association, many of whom will be farmers. They would have legal standing,
be independent of the government, and be able to collect taxes from their members, borrow
funds, and take appropriate action to maintain and upgrade 'their' part of the irrigation
system, which are the on-farm systems formerly operated by the state and collective farms.

TRENDS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

According to the agricultural sector review of the World Bank (1995) the
following three key issues need immediate attention to secure the sustainability of
irrigation in Kyrgyzstan.

New institutional arrangements must be made at farm level to manage and
maintain the distribution of water within the former state and collective farms as farming
units are privatized. For this, the need to create water users' associations has been
felt.

The financing of operation and maintenance of the existing systems must
be secured and obtained largely from water users. The new water law has a section devoted
to water fees and taxes. There are charges for water use, for the service of providing
water (collection, transport, distribution and purification) and for the discharge of
polluting substances into water. There are also provisions for increased fees if water
consumption rates exceed these forecast levels and there are fee exemptions for the use of
water-saving technologies and other water conservation measures.

Environmental degradation of the irrigation systems and the irrigated
lands must be guarded against through increased efforts to improve drainage and to reduce
salinity and soil erosion. For this, a programme to improve irrigation efficiency and
reduce water applications, especially in the higher lands, is needed. The steep slopes of
the irrigated lands in the mountain areas with shallow soils should enable the conversion
to pressurized irrigation methods, especially where gravity pressure is feasible.

MAIN SOURCES OF INFORMATION

World Bank. 1993. Kyrgyzstan: The transition to a market economy. A
World Bank Country Study. Washington D.C.