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The Schizoid Nature of Modern Hebrew: International Journal of the Sociology of Language The Oxford Russian Dictionary. The Penguin Book of Exotic Words. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. Whorf, Benjamin Lee Originally written in Williams, Edwin A Grammar of the Arabic Language. Shanghai Communication University Press. Bulletin of National Taiwan Normal University Jerusalem — Tel Aviv. Vocabolario della Lingua Italiana. Leshonenu La'am 47 2: Schur eds , Moscow: Sefer, Russian Academy of Science, pp.

This volume is divided into ten chapters and two parts: Cushitic, Berber, Semitic, Omotic In all HEC languages except Sidaama, negation is indicated by negative suffixes on verbal or non-verbal predicates.

In Sidaama, the negative morpheme is a proclitic, the host of which is not necessarily the predicate. After a short typological profile of the HEC languages sketched in section 2, section 3 shows which negative morphemes are used in which clause types. The subsequent sections 3. The negation of converb clauses is examined in section 3. Relative clause negation is dealt with in section 3. A short excursus on the means of negating verbal nouns is found in section 3.

In section 4, the division of labour of the negative morphemes in the individual HEC languages is compared and diachronic issues are addressed. Section 5 discusses how the analysis of negation can contribute to our understanding of the internal relationships in HEC. These Berber reconstructions are probably not without influence on our understanding of remaining elements of ancient stages still maintained in other Afroasiatic branches, and, in general, of structural features that are supposed to be proto-Afroasiatic, as well as of the evolution this family has undergone.

Now, how do the proto-Afroasiatic and its evolution appear at the point where Berber reconstructions are available? For reasons of clarity and to lay out some steps to facilitate productive discussions, I would like to answer this question in the form of a set of concise points. The leading semantic account on constructs, namely the one which treats constructs as individuals of type e , here referred to as the Individual approach, succeeds in accounting for the ban on the definite determiner semantically.

However, it encounters fundamental difficulties with constructs composing with adjectives. The chapter shows that these are difficulties which the predicate approach easily overcomes. However, establishing that constructs are predicates and abandoning the individual approach leave a supporter of the predicate approach with the task of explaining the ban on the definite determiner without resorting to type mismatch.

To resolve this, and following a phrasal movement of a projection containing both Head and Non-Head to SpecD for definite phrases and Spec for indefinite phrases, this chapter proposes an explanation on the ban on the occurrence of definite determiners on the head of a construct by the unavailability of a head noun in D that allows the determiner to be realised. According to the Babylonian Talmud Megila 3a , this translation is attributed to Onqelos the Convert.

According to research, however, the identity, time, and place of the translation are not definite. He converted to Judaism in the early second century AD. While the majority believe that each translation was made by a different individual, a minority claim that one individual made both translations.

Targum Onqelos is a literal-semantic translation of the majority of Pentateuch verses, closely adhering to the Hebrew text without deviations, additions, or omissions. This Chapter discusses three types of Pentateuch verses for which the Targum Onqelos deviates from the typical literal mode of translation. CHAPTER 6, Addressing Strangers in Riyadh, proposes that when addressing an adult Saudi male stranger, the terms that are used depend on the sex of the speaker, his age and the situation surrounding the interaction.

In normal situations, where the address mode is formal, male speakers across all age groups usually use the terms ax brother, and its derivatives and ash-shaix sheikh for the function of addressing adult males.

This difference between adults and teenagers may indicate an increased level of politeness that comes as one ages and as one becomes more exposed to different types of addressee. However, this variation could also be the beginning of a shift in what is perceived as polite in the Riyadh society. Working females and housewives usually use the terms axu-i my brother and walad boy, especially with younger males while younger females usually use axu-i my brother and law samaht excuse me.

In situations marked with anger or annoyance male speakers usually use the term abu ash-shabab father of youths but may prefer the terms axu-i my brother and abu-i my father if they want to maintain a polite demeanor. Terms like walad boy and hih or hoh hey you , however, are considered extremely impolite if used to address adult male strangers by other males. Based on linguistic evidence, analysis is carried out to delineate the similarities and differences between the three concepts.

The results demonstrate similarities in how ordinary native English speakers, Muslim Arabs, and native Israeli speakers categorize these beings, as well as what they think about their number, nature, and relation with people. Differences emerge when discussing where these beings live, whether or not there is a hierarchy among them, what they look like or how they are visualized, and how they are different from human beings.

One of the implications of this chapter is the limit of translation. The aim of the chapter is to present new etymologies in addition to those Omotic lexemes whose etymologies have already been demonstrated by other authors. The numeration of the lexical entries is continuous beginning from the very first paper II: Language, Religion and Identity. The Lexical Influence of … , How to protect language diversity in the world is a hotly discussed topic in linguistic research This study investigates the relationship between Tibetan language vitality and language users' identity in Maketang and Huazangsi Tibetan Autonomy County.

On the basis of empirical data, the study suggests that there are no strong, positive correlations between Tibetan language vitality and the speakers' language identity or with their language activities and inclinations. However, pragmatic matters constitute an important factor that influences speakers' activities and inclinations. These findings can be explained by conflicting functions performed by language: Bilingual or multilingual education can fulfill a useful role in balancing these two language functions.

As a result of the evidence in this study, we argue that language protection cannot preserve both language vitality and language identity, and that, therefore, language protection should pay more attention to issues of language identity rather than to issues of language vitality. This paper proposes the enactment of an ex gratia compensation scheme for loss of Indigenous lang Existing grant schemes to support Aboriginal languages are inadequate, and they should be complemented with compensation schemes, which are based on a claim of right.

The proposed compensation scheme for the loss of Aboriginal languages should support the effort to reclaim and revive the lost languages. We first outline the history of linguicide during colonisation in Australia. We then put a case for reviving lost Aboriginal languages by highlighting the benefits of language revival. Zuckermann, Ghil'ad and Walsh, Michael Lessons from the Hebrew Rev By comparison, language revival movements in Australia are in their infancy.

This article provides comparative insights and makes information about the Hebrew revival accessible to Australian linguists and Aboriginal revival activists.

Needless to say, the first stage of any desire by professional linguists to assist in language reawakening must involve a long period of thoroughly observing, carefully listening to the people, learning, mapping and characterizing the specific indigenous community. Only then can one inspire and assist. That said, this article proposes that there are linguistic constraints applicable to all revival attempts.

Mastering them would be useful to endangered languages in general and to Aboriginal linguistic revival in particular. This article contributes towards the establishment of Revival Linguistics, a new linguistic discipline and paradigm. Revival linguistics inter alia explores the universal constraints and mechanisms involved in language reclamation, renewal and revitalization.

It draws perspicacious comparative insights from one revival attempt to another, thus acting as an epistemological bridge between parallel discourses in various local attempts to revive sleeping tongues all over the globe. My sons ought to study mathematics and philosophy, geography, natural history, naval architecture, navigation, commerce, and agriculture, in order to give their children a right to study painting, poetry, music, architecture, statuary, tapestry, and porcelain.

Previous revival efforts have largely failed for obvious reasons, we are not going to single out specific failures here. While there have been some good results from several projects since e. Kaurna, see below , Aboriginal people overall do not see as many positive outcomes from revival programmes as they would like.

In large part this is the result of shortage of sufficient continuity of funding, lack of technical expertise, and lack of integration of school-based programmes with community language programmes. However, there are purely linguistic reasons too: Many revival efforts were not supported by a sound theoretical understanding of how successful language revival works.

As pointed out by Thieberger , decisions about the appropriate target for language maintenance programmes are too often driven by structural linguistics, where the supposed ideal is intergenerational transmission of the language with all its original structural complexity retained, thus creating unrealistic expectations among the Aboriginal community. This article is the first of its kind as it will innovatively draw crucial insights from 'Modern Hebrew' henceforth, Israeli — see Zuckermann , so far the most successful known reclamation attempt of a sleeping tongue.

Zuckermann's a, , , research on Israeli demonstrates which language components are more revivable than others. Words and conjugations, for example, are easier to revitalize than intonation, discourse, associations and connotations. We should encourage revivalists and Aboriginal leaders to be realistic rather than puristic, and not to chastise English loanwords and pronunciation, for example, within the emergent language.

Applying such precious conclusions from Hebrew will closely assist Australian revivalists in being more efficient, urging them not to waste time and resources on Sisyphean efforts to resuscitate linguistic components that are unlikely to be revivable.

Language revitalization contributes to social reconciliation, cultural tourism Clark and Kostanski , capacity building, and improved community health for Indigenous peoples Walsh forthcoming B. In the process of language revival, some Aboriginal people will go from being dysfunctional cf. Sutton to well-balanced, positive people.

The benefits to the wider community and to Australian society are immense. Language revival does not only do historical justice and address inequality but can also result in the empowerment of people who have lost their heritage and purpose in life. There are even those who claim that they own a language although they only know one single word of it: Consequently, some Indigenous Australians do not find it important to revive their comatose tongue.

The Hebrew Revival I suppose the process of acceptance will pass through the usual four stages: This is worthless nonsense. This is an interesting, but perverse, point of view. This is true, but quite unimportant. I always said so. On the other hand, if we are to be brutally truthful with ourselves, the modern-day vernacular spoken in downtown Tel Aviv is a very different language — both typologically and genetically — to that of the Hebrew Bible Old Testament or of the Mishnah, the first major redaction of Jewish oral traditions.

Hebrew was spoken since approximately the 14th century BC. It belonged to the Canaanite division of the northwestern branch of the Semitic languages, which constitute a branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Following a gradual decline, it ceased to be spoken by the second century AD. We believe that the Mishnah was codified around AD because Hebrew was then dying as a mother tongue. Rabbi Judah haNasi and his collaborators might have realized that if they did not act then to redact the oral tradition, it would soon have been too late because Jews were already speaking languages other than Hebrew.

In fact, the Gemara, the other component of the Babylonian Talmud, which was codified around AD, was written in Aramaic rather than in Hebrew. A most important liturgical and literary language, it occasionally served as a lingua franca — a means of communication between people who do not share a mother tongue — for Jews of the Diaspora, but not as a native language. Fascinating and multifaceted Israeli, which emerged in Palestine Eretz Israel at the end of the nineteenth century, possesses distinctive socio-historical characteristics such as the lack of a continuous chain of native speakers from spoken Hebrew to Israeli, the non-Semitic mother tongues spoken by the Hebrew revivalists, and the European impact on literary Hebrew.

Consequently, it presents the linguist with a unique laboratory in which to examine a wider set of theoretical problems concerning language genesis, social issues like language, identity and politics, and important practical matters, such as whether it is possible to revive a no-longer spoken language. The genetic classification of Israeli has preoccupied scholars since its genesis.

The still regnant traditional thesis suggests that Israeli is Semitic: The revisionist antithesis defines Israeli as Indo-European: Horvath and Wexler According to Zuckermann's mosaic rather than Mosaic synthesis, Israeli is not only multi-layered but also multi-parental.

The Success Rate of the Hebrew Revival The vernacularization of Hebrew was partially a success and partially a failure. It is hard to provide an exact quantification for such a multi-variable enterprise, but we would roughly estimate that on a scale, 10 being a complete success and one being a complete failure, the Hebrew revival is at seven.

More specifically, we propose the following continuum approximations for the extent to which Israeli can be considered Hebrew: European ; discourse communicative tools, speech acts: The factors leading to the partial failure of the Hebrew revival have little to do with a lack of motivation or zealousness, or with economic or political variables — not even with the fact that the revivalists, such as the symbolic father of Israeli, Eliezer Ben-Yehuda born Perelman, , were not as linguistically sophisticated as contemporary linguists.

Thus, when most native Israeli-speakers speak Israeli, their intonation is much more similar to that of Yiddish, the mother tongue of most revivalists, than to that of Arabic or any other Semitic language. It is high time to acknowledge that Israeli is very different from ancient Hebrew. We should embrace — rather than chastise — the multisourcedness of Israeli. That said, the Hebrew revival cannot be considered a failure because without the zealous, obsessive, enthusiastic efforts of Ben-Yehuda and of teachers, writers, poets, journalists, intellectuals, social activists, political figures, linguists and others, Israelis would have spoken a language such as English, German, Arabic or Yiddish that could hardly be considered Hebrew.

To call such a hypothetical language 'Hebrew' would have not only been misleading but also wrong. Hybridic Israeli is based on Hebrew as much as it is based on Yiddish. So, although the revivalists could not avoid the subconscious influence of their mother tongue s , they did indeed manage at the same time to consciously revive important components of Hebrew. Hybridity, Camouflage and the Congruence Principle Israeli is a new hybrid language rather than an evolutionary phase of Hebrew.

According to the Congruence Principle, the more revivalists speak contributing languages with a specific linguistic feature, the more likely this feature is to prevail in the emergent language. The distinction between forms and patterns is crucial here as it demonstrates multiple causation. Jew], speak Hebrew,' used to tear down signs written in 'foreign' languages and disturb Yiddish theatre gatherings. However, the members of this group only looked for Yiddish forms, rather than patterns in the speech of the Israelis who did choose to speak 'Hebrew.

Ironically, even the language defendants regiment's anthem included calques from Yiddish. Zuckermann , forthcoming analyzes the hitherto-overlooked camouflaged semantic networking transferred from one language to another. Native Israeli Speech and the Academy of the Hebrew Language Since its conception, Israeli has been the subject of purism the dislike of foreign words — as in Icelandic: Sapir and Zuckermann and the enforcement of 'correct' pronunciation.

As defined in its constitution, the Academy's functions are: The first goal is most useful, as Israeli is indeed a multi-layered language. Somewhat resembling the 'catastrophic success' of the Turkish Language Revolution see Lewis , many referents have several Israeli signifiers, one of which is puristically Hebrew and the other, often more commonly used, 'foreign' in fact, Israeli ab initio.

However, goal 3 , to direct the development of Hebrew in light of its nature, is oxymoronic cf. If the nature of a language is to evolve in a specific direction cf. Sapir's 'drift,' the pattern of change in which the structure of a language shifts in a determinate direction , why direct its evolution by language policing?

Questions of this kind, albeit in an implicit and sometimes confused fashion, are being raised within the context of Australian Aboriginal languages.

Current language revival activities are worthy but often under-theorized. The tendency has been to attempt to revive the language en masse despite what has been indicated about the Hebrew rate of success for take up of particular components of language. There is a need to examine a range of existing language revitalization programmes with a view to assessing the rate of success for take up of particular components of language and at the same time adduce the preferences and sometimes the prejudices of the group in question cf.

Couzens and Eira forthcoming. Indigenous Australians have been living in Australia for more than 40, years. Today Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders make up 2. Of an original number of over known Australian Indigenous languages, only about Indigenous languages are still spoken and the vast majority of these, about , are critically endangered: Eighteen languages are strong in the sense of being spoken by all age groups, but three or four of these are showing some disturbing signs of moving into endangerment.

Aboriginal language revival began recently — from the late s Amery and Gale — and has therefore much to learn from other revival efforts, especially that of Hebrew, which began in the late nineteenth century. There has been little coordination among the geographically-scattered language revival efforts in Australia. Most recently, language revitalization practitioners have begun to share experiences at various conferences and workshops Hobson et al.

There is thus an urgent need for an on-the-ground, ongoing input, creating intellectual and practical synergy and complementing the mission of the regional Aboriginal language centres and the recently-established mobile language team based at the University of Adelaide — by adding significant advice based on scholarly and universal perspectives.

Practical outcomes will include a useful handbook of the best practices for language revival in Australia Christina Eira, pers. There is community support in some parts of the country for revival and heritage learning programmes: At its broadest level language revival refers to the range of strategies for increasing knowledge and use of a language which is no longer spoken fully across all generations.

In practice, however, this can range from largely symbolic uses of ancestral languages like naming buildings or places through to more constant involvement with the language through school-based language instruction Walsh a.

Comparative Analysis of Hebrew and Aboriginal Language Revival Although they too were at the beginning very few in number, and encountered great hostility and animosity e. Jews have been exposed to literary Hebrew throughout the generations, e.

It would be hard to find a Jew who did not have access to Hebrew unless in totalitarian regimes such as the Soviet Union. Hebrew was considered a prestigious language as opposed to Yiddish, for instance, whose Australian sociolinguistic parallel might be Aboriginal English.

Jews from all over the globe only had Hebrew in common Aramaic was not as prominent , whereas there are dozens of 'sleeping' Aboriginal languages and it would be hard to choose only one unifying tongue, unless one resorts to Aboriginal English.

The revival of a single language is much more manageable than that of numerous tongues in varying states of disrepair. Yadin and Zuckermann Unlike in the case of Aboriginal languages cf. Walsh , anybody has the right to speak Hebrew, without getting permission from the Jews. Loanwords and foreign words are not considered theft.

For example, back in Europe many of them spoke Yiddish at home and Polish in the market, and prayed in Hebrew and Aramaic in the synagogue. There are many more Jews than Aboriginal people in Australia. As we see it, Aboriginal tongues deserve to be revived for historical, humanistic and social justice, inter alia addressing inequality cf. This can provide strength to the revival attempts. We hear again and again 'native title' but where is the 'native tongue title'?

Is land more important than langue and cultural lens? And if land, langue and heritage are bound together as a trinity, then why ask for reparation only for land? The revival of sleeping Aboriginal languages can result in personal, educational and economic empowerment, sense of pride and higher self-esteem of people who have lost their heritage and purpose in life see concluding remarks.

The Hebrew revival had many less utilitarian purposes, the main one being simply the constitution of a unifying tongue to Jews from all over the world. It would have been unfair, for example, for Ladino-speaking Sephardim if German were selected. Although it could obviously be greater, the Australian government does support the reclamation and maintenance of Aboriginal languages, or at least there is an obvious address to apply for money from. Nunga English in Adelaide , spoken by some revivalists, contain various linguistic features — such as connotations, associations, sounds and morphological characteristics like the dual — of the reclaimed Aboriginal languages at stake.

One might perspicaciously argue that Israeli semantics, which is deeply modelled on Yiddish semantics, also maintains the original Hebrew semantics after all because Yiddish, a Germanic language with Romance substratum, was deeply impacted by Hebrew and Aramaic. However, the Yiddish dialects that have been the most influential ones in Israel, e. Polish Yiddish, are, in fact, the ones that underwent Slavonization from the thirteenth century onwards, when Jews moved from Germany to Slavonic-speaking areas in Eastern Europe.

Aboriginal English is much younger and therefore is much more likely to retain features of Aboriginal languages, than Yiddish is to retain features of Hebrew. Universal Constraints of Language Revival And yet, although obviously language revival attempts should be tailored to the specific contexts, needs and desires of each community, there are some universal constraints that should be recognized.

Most relevantly, some Australian interest groups cf. Tiwi in Dorian On authenticity and language revival, see also Wong and Hinton and Ahlers Why should we encourage revivalists and Aboriginal leaders to be realistic rather than puristic?

Purism creates unrealistic expectations that may discourage learners from acquiring the emerging language. A revived language should not be viewed negatively if it is seen to be influenced by a neighbouring language or by English. The use of words from a neighbouring language should not discredit the revived language.

There might be some rare occasions when it is more appropriate for revivalists to favour purism — see Harlow on Maori. However, in the case of reclamation proper i. One might argue that the difference between the conditions that surround Aboriginal languages and Israeli are so large that it is impossible to learn across these contexts.

But denying universal traits or constraints in human language in general, and in reversing language shift in particular, is counter-productive. Linguistic reality lies between relativism and universalism. No progress will be made by turning a blind eye to any of these extremes. Based on a critical analysis of Israeli, one can predict accurately the situation in various reclaimed Aboriginal languages such as Kaurna [ga: There are scholars, e. These are simply loanwords used in a special context'.

A more balanced view is manifested in Crystal's The revived language is not the same as the original language, of course; most obviously, it lacks the breadth of functions which it originally had, and large amounts of old vocabulary are missing.

But, as it continues in present-day use, it will develop new functions and new vocabulary, just as any other living language would, and as long as people value it as a true marker of their identity, and are prepared to keep using it, there is no reason to think of it as anything other than a valid system of communication. In classical Kaurna, the r in these words belonged with the consonant it was be retroflex but many times we hear an er vowel as in English slur or sir.

Stress is often placed on the second syllable rather than on the first Amery Knowingly — and jocularly — cricket the sport game was replicated as yertabiritti the term for the insect with the same name in English Amery Almost everything said or written is translated from English.

Thus, the turn of phrase and the idiom are from English Amery a: And still, the impact of English on Kaurna is less than in many other revived languages in Australia — cf.

Case suffixes are used as prepositions — see p. We predict that any attempt to revive an Aboriginal language will result in a hybrid, combining components from Australian English, Aboriginal English, Kriol, other Aboriginal languages and the target Aboriginal tongue. But we are going to assist Aboriginal revivalists to make their efforts more efficient and to embrace hybridity. Concluding Remarks If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart.

Nelson Mandela This article contributes towards the establishment of Revival Linguistics, a new linguistic discipline and paradigm. There is a need to map the revival attempts throughout Aboriginal Australia by 1 assessing the success of the revival so far; and 2 categorizing the specific need on a continuum of revival efforts, e. Kaurna , renewal e. Ngarrindjeri and revitalization e.

Internal factional politics are likely to be far more influential in deciding the fate of a language revival movement that any linguistic theory or lack of one.

There is no doubt that the first stage of any desire by professional linguists to assist in language revival involves a long initial period of carefully observing, listening, learning and characterizing each indigenous community specifically.

Only then can we inspire and assist. Mastering them would be most useful to endangered languages in general and to Aboriginal linguistic revival in particular. While we know that language revitalization can have numerous beneficial effects, we also know that some revival efforts are more successful than others see Walsh forthcoming A.

A better understanding of success in this arena by surveying numerous language reinvigoration efforts in Australia, and by drawing on lessons from the Hebrew revival, will enable less waste of resources and better outcomes. Besides significant scholarly impact and intellectual benefits, the results of such endeavours will also improve substantially the future of Australia's Indigenous communities, promoting and maintaining their physical, spiritual and cultural good health through: Some Aboriginal people will undertake training only because they are interested in language s.

However, what they will learn in the process are useful generic skills such as literacy, computer literacy, conducting research and giving speeches in public; 3 Improved sense of well being in the local Aboriginal community; 4 Reconciliation and potential decrease in racism towards Aboriginal people in some country centres; 5 Promoting cultural tourism to Aboriginal areas in order to learn about their cultures and languages. Regaining language is a life-changing experience for many Aboriginal people.

One Aboriginal person has told us that he used to be angry, often drunk and in trouble with police and his home life was a mess. Two years later, when he had regained his language, his situation had turned around and his family life had greatly improved.

Through this and other experiences we became convinced that a small investment in language revitalization could yield very significant dividends.

Language revival can result in the saving of vast amounts of money and resources going into housing, social services and health intervention to little effect. A small investment into language revitalization can make an enormous difference to society. Public health can benefit from language intervention. To date such money as has been devoted to Aboriginal language revival and maintenance has not been well targeted. This is partly because Australian Indigenous language policies have been piecemeal and un-coordinated at best or otherwise non-existent or implicit Liddicoat , McKay , , Truscott and Malcolm forthcoming; see also http: We aim at a better informed Indigenous language policy at the national level, as well as in particular institutional contexts.

For instance, in considering Indigenous policies of Australian universities, Gunstone A Senegalese poet said 'In the end we will conserve only what we love. We love only what we understand, and we will understand only what we are taught. References Amery, Rob Reclaiming an Australian Language. Swets and Zeitlinger, Lisse, The Netherlands.

A Resource for Kaurna Language Programs. Includes corrections, addition of introductory notes about the Kaurna language, translations and protocols, timeline of significant events, recent neologisms and sections on modern clothing, modern artifacts and new technologies. Amery, Rob and Lester Irabinna Rigney Kaurna Warra Pintyandi, Adelaide.

Amery, Rob with Kaurna Warra Pintyandi Sounds Good to me! Biindu Ngaawa Nyanggan Bindaayili. Theory and practice in the revitalisation of Australia's Indigenous languages. Couzens, Vicki and Christina Eira forthcoming. Ideologies and Beliefs, Oxford University Press. Can Threatened Languages Be Saved? Reversing Language Shift, Revisited: A 21st Century Perspective. Australian Journal of Indigenous Education On the Death and Life of Languages. Haldane, John Burdon Sanderson Journal of the Polynesian Society Hinton, Leanne and Ahlers, Jocelyn Anthropology and Education Quarterly Authenticity and Identity: Lessons from Indigenous Language Education, March Horvath, Julia and Wexler, Paul eds Selected papers from the Conference of the Australian Linguistic Society.

Challenges for Applied Linguistics. The habitat of Australia's Aboriginal languages: Past, present and future. International Journal of the Sociology of Language , — Proctor, Jo and Gale, Mary-Anne eds Tauondi speaks from the heart: Aboriginal poems from Tauondi College.

Notes by Guy Tunstill. An Introduction to the Study of Speech. Clevedon — Buffalo — Toronto: Postvernacular Language and Culture. Herzl Institute for Research and Study of Zionism. The Politics of Suffering: Indigenous Australia and the End of the Liberal Consensus.

Current Issues in Language Planning 2 2and3 , McKenna Brown eds Maintaining the Links. Language, Identity and the Land. Broome, Western Australia, September Foundation for Endangered Languages, Transitions from the past to the present' in Gerhard Leitner and Ian Malcolm eds.

The Habitat of Australia's Aboriginal Languages: Past, Present and Future. Warra Wiltaniappendi Strengthening Languages: Discipline of Linguistics, University of Adelaide, Gardner eds Language is Life. Proceedings of the 11th Stabilizing Indigenous Languages Conference. June , , University of California at Berkeley.

Oxford — New York: Oxford University Press, Mizrahim, Ashkenazim, prescriptivism and the real sounds of the Israeli language. Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns. Language Revival and Multiple Causation. This has been a mixture of academic endeavours as well as consultancies since mainly relating to Aboriginal land issues. From he has participated in the revitalization of Aboriginal languages in NSW. From until he was part of the teaching staff of the Department of Linguistics, University of Sydney.

Since then, he has continued his research interests especially through a large ARC grant involving a team of linguists and musicologists running from to Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns Journal of Language Contact, Varia 2: Thus, one should expect revival efforts to result in a language with a hybridic genetic and typological character.

The article highlights salient morphological constructions and categories, illustrating the difficulty in determining a single source for Israeli grammar. The European impact in these features is apparent inter alia in structure, semantics or productivity. Being an article rather than a long book, this paper does not attempt to be grammatically exhaustive but rather to cast new light on the partial success of language revival in general and on the genetics of Israeli in particular.

Multiple causation is manifested in the Congruence Principle, according to which if a feature exists in more than one contributing language, it is more likely to persist in the emerging language. It suggests that the reality of linguistic genesis is far more complex than a simple family tree system allows. Generally speaking, whereas most forms of Israeli are Semitic, many of its patterns are European.

It is proposed that 1 Whereas Hebrew was synthetic, Israeli — following Yiddish etc. In Israeli there is a simpler — European — system, e. Israeli possesses distinctive socio-historical characteristics such as the lack of a continuous chain of native speakers from spoken Hebrew to Israeli, the non-Semitic mother tongues spoken by the revivalists, and the European impact on literary Hebrew.

The multisourced nature of Israeli and the role of the Congruence Principle in its genesis have implications for historical linguistics, language planning and the study of language, culture and identity.

The Population of Israel. Bernini, Giuliano and Ramat, Paolo. Negative Sentences in the Languages of Europe: Language Universals and Linguistic Typology.

Problems in Comparative Linguistics, edited by A. Problems and Perspectives, London: Trends in the Development of the Hebrew Language , edited by J. Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities. An International Handbook, Vol. Horvath, Julia and Wexler, Paul. Leaflets , Sh. Academy of the Hebrew Language. The Ecology of Language Evolution. Language Variation and Change 7. Orbis Bulletin international de Documentation linguistique Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Malkiel eds , Directions for Historical Linguistics, Austin: University of Texas Press.

Israel Studies in Language and Society 1. Yadin, Azzan and Zuckermann, Ghil'ad London - New York: A Socio-Philo sopho logical Perspective. New Vision for "Israeli Hebrew": Theoretical and Practical Implicati Now, the Australian government is being pushed to revalue Indigenous languages in a call for the payment of compensation for language loss, to be put towards increased funding for language revitalisation, with the claim that the loss of language is more detrimental than the loss of land.

Language, Religion and Identity in Israel. They changed the meanings of obsolete Hebrew terms to fit the modern world. This infusion often entailed the secularization of religious terms. MPs were at the very least angels or seraphs. He is currently working on two further books: If you can't beat them, join them; if you join them, cover your arse!: Quis custodiet ipsos custodes?

Over the past century, Israeli — somewhat misleadingly a. Linguistic issues are so sensitive in Israel that politicians are often involved. Brought into being by legislation in as the supreme institute for Hebrew, the Academy of the Hebrew Language prescribes standards for Israeli grammar, lexis, orthography, transcription and vocalization vowel marking 'based upon the study of Hebrew's historical development'.

This lecture will provide a critical analysis of the Academy's mission, as intriguingly defined in its constitution: It will shed light on the dynamics of the committees' meetings, and expose some U-turn decisions recently made by the Academy. I will suggest that the Academy has begun submitting to the 'real world', accommodating its decrees to the parole of native Israeli speakers, long regarded as 'reckless' and 'lazy'.

Based on Zuckermann, Ghil'ad The Genesis of the Israeli Language. The Genesis of the Israeli Language Prof Ghil'ad Zuckermann University of Queensland The aim of this lecture is to suggest that due to the ubiquitous phenomenon of multiple causation, the revival of a no-longer spoken language is unlikely without cross-fertilization from the revivalists' mother tongue s. Thus, one should expect revival efforts to result in a language with a hybrid genetic and typological character.

It will be argued that Israeli - a year-old language, somewhat misleadingly a. Both Hebrew an important liturgical and literary language and Yiddish the revivalists' mother tongue act as its 'primary contributors', with numerous other contributors such as Russian and Polish. Almost all Hebrew revivalists, e. Eliezer Ben-Yehuda born Perelman , were native Yiddish-speakers.

But they wished to speak Hebrew with Semitic grammar and pronunciation - like Arabs. This lecture will discuss multiple causation in 1 constituent order, 2 tense system, 3 copula enhancement, 4 calquing, and 5 phono-semantic matching in Israeli. It will suggest that the reality of linguistic genesis is far more complex than a simple family tree system allows. It will be proposed that 1 Whereas Hebrew was synthetic, Israeli - following Yiddish etc.

Latin habere 'to have', taking the direct object , in stark contrast to Hebrew; 3 European languages sometimes dictate the gender of Israeli coinages; 4 The hidden productivity and semantics of the allegedly completely Hebrew system of Israeli verbtemplates are, in fact, often European; 5 In Hebrew there was a polarity-of-gender agreement between nouns and numerals, e.

In Israeli there is a simpler - European - system, e. Securing the Future of Endangered Languages. Language is an integral part of society. Wherever we come from, the words we use and the way in w Wherever we come from, the words we use and the way in which we use them are fundamental to our cultural identity. But there is hope. The language revival movement has emerged as an important and effective response, and this course will introduce you to its key principles and techniques. Far more than just a simple process of recovering literacy and lost letters, language revival involves a deep and complex engagement with history, human rights, identity and wellbeing.

Producing a Dictionary for an Unfocused Language: Endangered Words in the Archive: You could've gone back to it, but the mood was ruined. Yup, it happened for a while though or maybe like one minute but either way you did it.

He freaks out after a micro-thrust or two. This isn't one you should have to add to your number if you care about that sort of thing , but it's something you know you won't forget about.

Sex with an identical twin This is always a risk when dating identical twins. Still, being able to tell them apart is the first rule of dating twins! Perhaps they play a prank on you This is not a two-for-one special.

People have sex and don't finish all the time sadly - so this definitely still counts. Or never see that person again if it was really terrible and just forget it ever happened. Move on to greener, and more satisfying, pastures.

You fell asleep during. Maybe he had this really comfortable memory foam mattress, and you drank a few too many glasses of wine, and if it was like, really slow the whole time instead of rowdy here and there, then totally understandable girl!

It's just like a massage And I hope he realizes soon enough because yes, you're having sex and it counts. At least for one of you. It also might offend him a little, too. Even though he's probably in need of the lesson. You dreamed that you did it and then can't look at that person the same afterwards. As Biggie would say, "it was all a dream..

For approximately years thereafter, Hebrew was not spoken. The Ecology of Language Evolution. Bialik, Chaim Nachman Der Purismus im Nynorsk: Natural Language and Linguistic Theory Addition of Sememe Versus Introduction of Lexeme 4.

The Hague — Paris: Leshonenu La'am 27 The Schizoid Nature of Modern Hebrew: International Journal of the Sociology of Language The Oxford Russian Dictionary. The Penguin Book of Exotic Words. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. Whorf, Benjamin Lee Originally written in Williams, Edwin A Grammar of the Arabic Language. Shanghai Communication University Press. Bulletin of National Taiwan Normal University Jerusalem — Tel Aviv.

This volume is divided into ten chapters and two parts: Cushitic, Berber, Semitic, Omotic In all HEC languages except Sidaama, negation is indicated by negative suffixes on verbal or non-verbal predicates.

In Sidaama, the negative morpheme is a proclitic, the host of which is not necessarily the predicate. After a short typological profile of the HEC languages sketched in section 2, section 3 shows which negative morphemes are used in which clause types. The subsequent sections 3. The negation of converb clauses is examined in section 3.

Relative clause negation is dealt with in section 3. A short excursus on the means of negating verbal nouns is found in section 3. In section 4, the division of labour of the negative morphemes in the individual HEC languages is compared and diachronic issues are addressed. Section 5 discusses how the analysis of negation can contribute to our understanding of the internal relationships in HEC.

These Berber reconstructions are probably not without influence on our understanding of remaining elements of ancient stages still maintained in other Afroasiatic branches, and, in general, of structural features that are supposed to be proto-Afroasiatic, as well as of the evolution this family has undergone. Now, how do the proto-Afroasiatic and its evolution appear at the point where Berber reconstructions are available?

For reasons of clarity and to lay out some steps to facilitate productive discussions, I would like to answer this question in the form of a set of concise points.

The leading semantic account on constructs, namely the one which treats constructs as individuals of type e , here referred to as the Individual approach, succeeds in accounting for the ban on the definite determiner semantically.

However, it encounters fundamental difficulties with constructs composing with adjectives. The chapter shows that these are difficulties which the predicate approach easily overcomes. However, establishing that constructs are predicates and abandoning the individual approach leave a supporter of the predicate approach with the task of explaining the ban on the definite determiner without resorting to type mismatch.

To resolve this, and following a phrasal movement of a projection containing both Head and Non-Head to SpecD for definite phrases and Spec for indefinite phrases, this chapter proposes an explanation on the ban on the occurrence of definite determiners on the head of a construct by the unavailability of a head noun in D that allows the determiner to be realised.

According to the Babylonian Talmud Megila 3a , this translation is attributed to Onqelos the Convert. According to research, however, the identity, time, and place of the translation are not definite.

He converted to Judaism in the early second century AD. While the majority believe that each translation was made by a different individual, a minority claim that one individual made both translations. Targum Onqelos is a literal-semantic translation of the majority of Pentateuch verses, closely adhering to the Hebrew text without deviations, additions, or omissions.

This Chapter discusses three types of Pentateuch verses for which the Targum Onqelos deviates from the typical literal mode of translation. CHAPTER 6, Addressing Strangers in Riyadh, proposes that when addressing an adult Saudi male stranger, the terms that are used depend on the sex of the speaker, his age and the situation surrounding the interaction. In normal situations, where the address mode is formal, male speakers across all age groups usually use the terms ax brother, and its derivatives and ash-shaix sheikh for the function of addressing adult males.

This difference between adults and teenagers may indicate an increased level of politeness that comes as one ages and as one becomes more exposed to different types of addressee.

However, this variation could also be the beginning of a shift in what is perceived as polite in the Riyadh society. Working females and housewives usually use the terms axu-i my brother and walad boy, especially with younger males while younger females usually use axu-i my brother and law samaht excuse me.

In situations marked with anger or annoyance male speakers usually use the term abu ash-shabab father of youths but may prefer the terms axu-i my brother and abu-i my father if they want to maintain a polite demeanor.

Terms like walad boy and hih or hoh hey you , however, are considered extremely impolite if used to address adult male strangers by other males. Based on linguistic evidence, analysis is carried out to delineate the similarities and differences between the three concepts.

The results demonstrate similarities in how ordinary native English speakers, Muslim Arabs, and native Israeli speakers categorize these beings, as well as what they think about their number, nature, and relation with people. Differences emerge when discussing where these beings live, whether or not there is a hierarchy among them, what they look like or how they are visualized, and how they are different from human beings.

One of the implications of this chapter is the limit of translation. The aim of the chapter is to present new etymologies in addition to those Omotic lexemes whose etymologies have already been demonstrated by other authors. The numeration of the lexical entries is continuous beginning from the very first paper II: Language, Religion and Identity.

The Lexical Influence of … , How to protect language diversity in the world is a hotly discussed topic in linguistic research This study investigates the relationship between Tibetan language vitality and language users' identity in Maketang and Huazangsi Tibetan Autonomy County.

On the basis of empirical data, the study suggests that there are no strong, positive correlations between Tibetan language vitality and the speakers' language identity or with their language activities and inclinations. However, pragmatic matters constitute an important factor that influences speakers' activities and inclinations. These findings can be explained by conflicting functions performed by language: Bilingual or multilingual education can fulfill a useful role in balancing these two language functions.

As a result of the evidence in this study, we argue that language protection cannot preserve both language vitality and language identity, and that, therefore, language protection should pay more attention to issues of language identity rather than to issues of language vitality.

This paper proposes the enactment of an ex gratia compensation scheme for loss of Indigenous lang Existing grant schemes to support Aboriginal languages are inadequate, and they should be complemented with compensation schemes, which are based on a claim of right.

The proposed compensation scheme for the loss of Aboriginal languages should support the effort to reclaim and revive the lost languages. We first outline the history of linguicide during colonisation in Australia. We then put a case for reviving lost Aboriginal languages by highlighting the benefits of language revival. Zuckermann, Ghil'ad and Walsh, Michael Lessons from the Hebrew Rev By comparison, language revival movements in Australia are in their infancy.

This article provides comparative insights and makes information about the Hebrew revival accessible to Australian linguists and Aboriginal revival activists.

Needless to say, the first stage of any desire by professional linguists to assist in language reawakening must involve a long period of thoroughly observing, carefully listening to the people, learning, mapping and characterizing the specific indigenous community.

Only then can one inspire and assist. That said, this article proposes that there are linguistic constraints applicable to all revival attempts. Mastering them would be useful to endangered languages in general and to Aboriginal linguistic revival in particular.

This article contributes towards the establishment of Revival Linguistics, a new linguistic discipline and paradigm. Revival linguistics inter alia explores the universal constraints and mechanisms involved in language reclamation, renewal and revitalization. It draws perspicacious comparative insights from one revival attempt to another, thus acting as an epistemological bridge between parallel discourses in various local attempts to revive sleeping tongues all over the globe.

My sons ought to study mathematics and philosophy, geography, natural history, naval architecture, navigation, commerce, and agriculture, in order to give their children a right to study painting, poetry, music, architecture, statuary, tapestry, and porcelain. Previous revival efforts have largely failed for obvious reasons, we are not going to single out specific failures here.

While there have been some good results from several projects since e. Kaurna, see below , Aboriginal people overall do not see as many positive outcomes from revival programmes as they would like.

In large part this is the result of shortage of sufficient continuity of funding, lack of technical expertise, and lack of integration of school-based programmes with community language programmes.

However, there are purely linguistic reasons too: Many revival efforts were not supported by a sound theoretical understanding of how successful language revival works. As pointed out by Thieberger , decisions about the appropriate target for language maintenance programmes are too often driven by structural linguistics, where the supposed ideal is intergenerational transmission of the language with all its original structural complexity retained, thus creating unrealistic expectations among the Aboriginal community.

This article is the first of its kind as it will innovatively draw crucial insights from 'Modern Hebrew' henceforth, Israeli — see Zuckermann , so far the most successful known reclamation attempt of a sleeping tongue.

Zuckermann's a, , , research on Israeli demonstrates which language components are more revivable than others. Words and conjugations, for example, are easier to revitalize than intonation, discourse, associations and connotations. We should encourage revivalists and Aboriginal leaders to be realistic rather than puristic, and not to chastise English loanwords and pronunciation, for example, within the emergent language. Applying such precious conclusions from Hebrew will closely assist Australian revivalists in being more efficient, urging them not to waste time and resources on Sisyphean efforts to resuscitate linguistic components that are unlikely to be revivable.

Language revitalization contributes to social reconciliation, cultural tourism Clark and Kostanski , capacity building, and improved community health for Indigenous peoples Walsh forthcoming B. In the process of language revival, some Aboriginal people will go from being dysfunctional cf.

Sutton to well-balanced, positive people. The benefits to the wider community and to Australian society are immense. Language revival does not only do historical justice and address inequality but can also result in the empowerment of people who have lost their heritage and purpose in life. There are even those who claim that they own a language although they only know one single word of it: Consequently, some Indigenous Australians do not find it important to revive their comatose tongue.

The Hebrew Revival I suppose the process of acceptance will pass through the usual four stages: This is worthless nonsense. This is an interesting, but perverse, point of view. This is true, but quite unimportant. I always said so. On the other hand, if we are to be brutally truthful with ourselves, the modern-day vernacular spoken in downtown Tel Aviv is a very different language — both typologically and genetically — to that of the Hebrew Bible Old Testament or of the Mishnah, the first major redaction of Jewish oral traditions.

Hebrew was spoken since approximately the 14th century BC. It belonged to the Canaanite division of the northwestern branch of the Semitic languages, which constitute a branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Following a gradual decline, it ceased to be spoken by the second century AD. We believe that the Mishnah was codified around AD because Hebrew was then dying as a mother tongue.

Rabbi Judah haNasi and his collaborators might have realized that if they did not act then to redact the oral tradition, it would soon have been too late because Jews were already speaking languages other than Hebrew.

In fact, the Gemara, the other component of the Babylonian Talmud, which was codified around AD, was written in Aramaic rather than in Hebrew. A most important liturgical and literary language, it occasionally served as a lingua franca — a means of communication between people who do not share a mother tongue — for Jews of the Diaspora, but not as a native language.

Fascinating and multifaceted Israeli, which emerged in Palestine Eretz Israel at the end of the nineteenth century, possesses distinctive socio-historical characteristics such as the lack of a continuous chain of native speakers from spoken Hebrew to Israeli, the non-Semitic mother tongues spoken by the Hebrew revivalists, and the European impact on literary Hebrew.

Consequently, it presents the linguist with a unique laboratory in which to examine a wider set of theoretical problems concerning language genesis, social issues like language, identity and politics, and important practical matters, such as whether it is possible to revive a no-longer spoken language.

The genetic classification of Israeli has preoccupied scholars since its genesis. The still regnant traditional thesis suggests that Israeli is Semitic: The revisionist antithesis defines Israeli as Indo-European: Horvath and Wexler According to Zuckermann's mosaic rather than Mosaic synthesis, Israeli is not only multi-layered but also multi-parental. The Success Rate of the Hebrew Revival The vernacularization of Hebrew was partially a success and partially a failure. It is hard to provide an exact quantification for such a multi-variable enterprise, but we would roughly estimate that on a scale, 10 being a complete success and one being a complete failure, the Hebrew revival is at seven.

More specifically, we propose the following continuum approximations for the extent to which Israeli can be considered Hebrew: European ; discourse communicative tools, speech acts: The factors leading to the partial failure of the Hebrew revival have little to do with a lack of motivation or zealousness, or with economic or political variables — not even with the fact that the revivalists, such as the symbolic father of Israeli, Eliezer Ben-Yehuda born Perelman, , were not as linguistically sophisticated as contemporary linguists.

Thus, when most native Israeli-speakers speak Israeli, their intonation is much more similar to that of Yiddish, the mother tongue of most revivalists, than to that of Arabic or any other Semitic language.

It is high time to acknowledge that Israeli is very different from ancient Hebrew. We should embrace — rather than chastise — the multisourcedness of Israeli. That said, the Hebrew revival cannot be considered a failure because without the zealous, obsessive, enthusiastic efforts of Ben-Yehuda and of teachers, writers, poets, journalists, intellectuals, social activists, political figures, linguists and others, Israelis would have spoken a language such as English, German, Arabic or Yiddish that could hardly be considered Hebrew.

To call such a hypothetical language 'Hebrew' would have not only been misleading but also wrong. Hybridic Israeli is based on Hebrew as much as it is based on Yiddish. So, although the revivalists could not avoid the subconscious influence of their mother tongue s , they did indeed manage at the same time to consciously revive important components of Hebrew.

Hybridity, Camouflage and the Congruence Principle Israeli is a new hybrid language rather than an evolutionary phase of Hebrew.

According to the Congruence Principle, the more revivalists speak contributing languages with a specific linguistic feature, the more likely this feature is to prevail in the emergent language.

The distinction between forms and patterns is crucial here as it demonstrates multiple causation. Jew], speak Hebrew,' used to tear down signs written in 'foreign' languages and disturb Yiddish theatre gatherings. However, the members of this group only looked for Yiddish forms, rather than patterns in the speech of the Israelis who did choose to speak 'Hebrew. Ironically, even the language defendants regiment's anthem included calques from Yiddish. Zuckermann , forthcoming analyzes the hitherto-overlooked camouflaged semantic networking transferred from one language to another.

Native Israeli Speech and the Academy of the Hebrew Language Since its conception, Israeli has been the subject of purism the dislike of foreign words — as in Icelandic: Sapir and Zuckermann and the enforcement of 'correct' pronunciation. As defined in its constitution, the Academy's functions are: The first goal is most useful, as Israeli is indeed a multi-layered language. Somewhat resembling the 'catastrophic success' of the Turkish Language Revolution see Lewis , many referents have several Israeli signifiers, one of which is puristically Hebrew and the other, often more commonly used, 'foreign' in fact, Israeli ab initio.

However, goal 3 , to direct the development of Hebrew in light of its nature, is oxymoronic cf. If the nature of a language is to evolve in a specific direction cf. Sapir's 'drift,' the pattern of change in which the structure of a language shifts in a determinate direction , why direct its evolution by language policing?

Questions of this kind, albeit in an implicit and sometimes confused fashion, are being raised within the context of Australian Aboriginal languages. Current language revival activities are worthy but often under-theorized.

The tendency has been to attempt to revive the language en masse despite what has been indicated about the Hebrew rate of success for take up of particular components of language. There is a need to examine a range of existing language revitalization programmes with a view to assessing the rate of success for take up of particular components of language and at the same time adduce the preferences and sometimes the prejudices of the group in question cf.

Couzens and Eira forthcoming. Indigenous Australians have been living in Australia for more than 40, years. Today Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders make up 2. Of an original number of over known Australian Indigenous languages, only about Indigenous languages are still spoken and the vast majority of these, about , are critically endangered: Eighteen languages are strong in the sense of being spoken by all age groups, but three or four of these are showing some disturbing signs of moving into endangerment.

Aboriginal language revival began recently — from the late s Amery and Gale — and has therefore much to learn from other revival efforts, especially that of Hebrew, which began in the late nineteenth century. There has been little coordination among the geographically-scattered language revival efforts in Australia.

Most recently, language revitalization practitioners have begun to share experiences at various conferences and workshops Hobson et al. There is thus an urgent need for an on-the-ground, ongoing input, creating intellectual and practical synergy and complementing the mission of the regional Aboriginal language centres and the recently-established mobile language team based at the University of Adelaide — by adding significant advice based on scholarly and universal perspectives.

Practical outcomes will include a useful handbook of the best practices for language revival in Australia Christina Eira, pers. There is community support in some parts of the country for revival and heritage learning programmes: At its broadest level language revival refers to the range of strategies for increasing knowledge and use of a language which is no longer spoken fully across all generations.

In practice, however, this can range from largely symbolic uses of ancestral languages like naming buildings or places through to more constant involvement with the language through school-based language instruction Walsh a. Comparative Analysis of Hebrew and Aboriginal Language Revival Although they too were at the beginning very few in number, and encountered great hostility and animosity e.

Jews have been exposed to literary Hebrew throughout the generations, e. It would be hard to find a Jew who did not have access to Hebrew unless in totalitarian regimes such as the Soviet Union. Hebrew was considered a prestigious language as opposed to Yiddish, for instance, whose Australian sociolinguistic parallel might be Aboriginal English.

Jews from all over the globe only had Hebrew in common Aramaic was not as prominent , whereas there are dozens of 'sleeping' Aboriginal languages and it would be hard to choose only one unifying tongue, unless one resorts to Aboriginal English. The revival of a single language is much more manageable than that of numerous tongues in varying states of disrepair.

Yadin and Zuckermann Unlike in the case of Aboriginal languages cf. Walsh , anybody has the right to speak Hebrew, without getting permission from the Jews. Loanwords and foreign words are not considered theft. For example, back in Europe many of them spoke Yiddish at home and Polish in the market, and prayed in Hebrew and Aramaic in the synagogue. There are many more Jews than Aboriginal people in Australia.

As we see it, Aboriginal tongues deserve to be revived for historical, humanistic and social justice, inter alia addressing inequality cf. This can provide strength to the revival attempts. We hear again and again 'native title' but where is the 'native tongue title'? Is land more important than langue and cultural lens? And if land, langue and heritage are bound together as a trinity, then why ask for reparation only for land?

The revival of sleeping Aboriginal languages can result in personal, educational and economic empowerment, sense of pride and higher self-esteem of people who have lost their heritage and purpose in life see concluding remarks. The Hebrew revival had many less utilitarian purposes, the main one being simply the constitution of a unifying tongue to Jews from all over the world.

It would have been unfair, for example, for Ladino-speaking Sephardim if German were selected. Although it could obviously be greater, the Australian government does support the reclamation and maintenance of Aboriginal languages, or at least there is an obvious address to apply for money from. Nunga English in Adelaide , spoken by some revivalists, contain various linguistic features — such as connotations, associations, sounds and morphological characteristics like the dual — of the reclaimed Aboriginal languages at stake.

One might perspicaciously argue that Israeli semantics, which is deeply modelled on Yiddish semantics, also maintains the original Hebrew semantics after all because Yiddish, a Germanic language with Romance substratum, was deeply impacted by Hebrew and Aramaic.

However, the Yiddish dialects that have been the most influential ones in Israel, e. Polish Yiddish, are, in fact, the ones that underwent Slavonization from the thirteenth century onwards, when Jews moved from Germany to Slavonic-speaking areas in Eastern Europe. Aboriginal English is much younger and therefore is much more likely to retain features of Aboriginal languages, than Yiddish is to retain features of Hebrew.

Universal Constraints of Language Revival And yet, although obviously language revival attempts should be tailored to the specific contexts, needs and desires of each community, there are some universal constraints that should be recognized.

Most relevantly, some Australian interest groups cf. Tiwi in Dorian On authenticity and language revival, see also Wong and Hinton and Ahlers Why should we encourage revivalists and Aboriginal leaders to be realistic rather than puristic? Purism creates unrealistic expectations that may discourage learners from acquiring the emerging language. A revived language should not be viewed negatively if it is seen to be influenced by a neighbouring language or by English.

The use of words from a neighbouring language should not discredit the revived language. There might be some rare occasions when it is more appropriate for revivalists to favour purism — see Harlow on Maori.

However, in the case of reclamation proper i. One might argue that the difference between the conditions that surround Aboriginal languages and Israeli are so large that it is impossible to learn across these contexts. But denying universal traits or constraints in human language in general, and in reversing language shift in particular, is counter-productive. Linguistic reality lies between relativism and universalism.

No progress will be made by turning a blind eye to any of these extremes. Based on a critical analysis of Israeli, one can predict accurately the situation in various reclaimed Aboriginal languages such as Kaurna [ga: There are scholars, e. These are simply loanwords used in a special context'. A more balanced view is manifested in Crystal's The revived language is not the same as the original language, of course; most obviously, it lacks the breadth of functions which it originally had, and large amounts of old vocabulary are missing.

But, as it continues in present-day use, it will develop new functions and new vocabulary, just as any other living language would, and as long as people value it as a true marker of their identity, and are prepared to keep using it, there is no reason to think of it as anything other than a valid system of communication.

In classical Kaurna, the r in these words belonged with the consonant it was be retroflex but many times we hear an er vowel as in English slur or sir. Stress is often placed on the second syllable rather than on the first Amery Knowingly — and jocularly — cricket the sport game was replicated as yertabiritti the term for the insect with the same name in English Amery Almost everything said or written is translated from English. Thus, the turn of phrase and the idiom are from English Amery a: And still, the impact of English on Kaurna is less than in many other revived languages in Australia — cf.

Case suffixes are used as prepositions — see p. We predict that any attempt to revive an Aboriginal language will result in a hybrid, combining components from Australian English, Aboriginal English, Kriol, other Aboriginal languages and the target Aboriginal tongue. But we are going to assist Aboriginal revivalists to make their efforts more efficient and to embrace hybridity. Concluding Remarks If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head.

If you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart. Nelson Mandela This article contributes towards the establishment of Revival Linguistics, a new linguistic discipline and paradigm. There is a need to map the revival attempts throughout Aboriginal Australia by 1 assessing the success of the revival so far; and 2 categorizing the specific need on a continuum of revival efforts, e.

Kaurna , renewal e. Ngarrindjeri and revitalization e. Internal factional politics are likely to be far more influential in deciding the fate of a language revival movement that any linguistic theory or lack of one. There is no doubt that the first stage of any desire by professional linguists to assist in language revival involves a long initial period of carefully observing, listening, learning and characterizing each indigenous community specifically.

Only then can we inspire and assist. Mastering them would be most useful to endangered languages in general and to Aboriginal linguistic revival in particular. While we know that language revitalization can have numerous beneficial effects, we also know that some revival efforts are more successful than others see Walsh forthcoming A. A better understanding of success in this arena by surveying numerous language reinvigoration efforts in Australia, and by drawing on lessons from the Hebrew revival, will enable less waste of resources and better outcomes.

Besides significant scholarly impact and intellectual benefits, the results of such endeavours will also improve substantially the future of Australia's Indigenous communities, promoting and maintaining their physical, spiritual and cultural good health through: Some Aboriginal people will undertake training only because they are interested in language s. However, what they will learn in the process are useful generic skills such as literacy, computer literacy, conducting research and giving speeches in public; 3 Improved sense of well being in the local Aboriginal community; 4 Reconciliation and potential decrease in racism towards Aboriginal people in some country centres; 5 Promoting cultural tourism to Aboriginal areas in order to learn about their cultures and languages.

Regaining language is a life-changing experience for many Aboriginal people. One Aboriginal person has told us that he used to be angry, often drunk and in trouble with police and his home life was a mess. Two years later, when he had regained his language, his situation had turned around and his family life had greatly improved. Through this and other experiences we became convinced that a small investment in language revitalization could yield very significant dividends.

Language revival can result in the saving of vast amounts of money and resources going into housing, social services and health intervention to little effect.

A small investment into language revitalization can make an enormous difference to society. Public health can benefit from language intervention. To date such money as has been devoted to Aboriginal language revival and maintenance has not been well targeted.

This is partly because Australian Indigenous language policies have been piecemeal and un-coordinated at best or otherwise non-existent or implicit Liddicoat , McKay , , Truscott and Malcolm forthcoming; see also http: We aim at a better informed Indigenous language policy at the national level, as well as in particular institutional contexts.

For instance, in considering Indigenous policies of Australian universities, Gunstone A Senegalese poet said 'In the end we will conserve only what we love. We love only what we understand, and we will understand only what we are taught. References Amery, Rob Reclaiming an Australian Language. Swets and Zeitlinger, Lisse, The Netherlands. A Resource for Kaurna Language Programs.

Includes corrections, addition of introductory notes about the Kaurna language, translations and protocols, timeline of significant events, recent neologisms and sections on modern clothing, modern artifacts and new technologies.

Australian Journal of Indigenous Education On the Death and Life of Languages. Haldane, John Burdon Sanderson Journal of the Polynesian Society Hinton, Leanne and Ahlers, Jocelyn Anthropology and Education Quarterly Authenticity and Identity: Lessons from Indigenous Language Education, March Horvath, Julia and Wexler, Paul eds Selected papers from the Conference of the Australian Linguistic Society.

Challenges for Applied Linguistics. The habitat of Australia's Aboriginal languages: Past, present and future. International Journal of the Sociology of Language , — Proctor, Jo and Gale, Mary-Anne eds Tauondi speaks from the heart: Aboriginal poems from Tauondi College. Notes by Guy Tunstill. An Introduction to the Study of Speech. Clevedon — Buffalo — Toronto: Postvernacular Language and Culture. Herzl Institute for Research and Study of Zionism.

The Politics of Suffering: Indigenous Australia and the End of the Liberal Consensus. Which parts of a language constitute a target for language maintenance programmes? Truscott, Adriano and Ian Malcolm forthcoming. Review of Rob Amery Warrabarna Kaurna! Current Issues in Language Planning 2 2and3 , McKenna Brown eds Maintaining the Links.

Language, Identity and the Land. Broome, Western Australia, September Foundation for Endangered Languages, Transitions from the past to the present' in Gerhard Leitner and Ian Malcolm eds. The Habitat of Australia's Aboriginal Languages: Past, Present and Future. Warra Wiltaniappendi Strengthening Languages: Discipline of Linguistics, University of Adelaide, Gardner eds Language is Life. Proceedings of the 11th Stabilizing Indigenous Languages Conference. June , , University of California at Berkeley.

Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns. Language Revival and Multiple Causation. This has been a mixture of academic endeavours as well as consultancies since mainly relating to Aboriginal land issues. From he has participated in the revitalization of Aboriginal languages in NSW.

From until he was part of the teaching staff of the Department of Linguistics, University of Sydney. Since then, he has continued his research interests especially through a large ARC grant involving a team of linguists and musicologists running from to Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns Journal of Language Contact, Varia 2: Thus, one should expect revival efforts to result in a language with a hybridic genetic and typological character.

The article highlights salient morphological constructions and categories, illustrating the difficulty in determining a single source for Israeli grammar. The European impact in these features is apparent inter alia in structure, semantics or productivity.

Being an article rather than a long book, this paper does not attempt to be grammatically exhaustive but rather to cast new light on the partial success of language revival in general and on the genetics of Israeli in particular. Multiple causation is manifested in the Congruence Principle, according to which if a feature exists in more than one contributing language, it is more likely to persist in the emerging language.

It suggests that the reality of linguistic genesis is far more complex than a simple family tree system allows. Generally speaking, whereas most forms of Israeli are Semitic, many of its patterns are European. It is proposed that 1 Whereas Hebrew was synthetic, Israeli — following Yiddish etc. In Israeli there is a simpler — European — system, e. Israeli possesses distinctive socio-historical characteristics such as the lack of a continuous chain of native speakers from spoken Hebrew to Israeli, the non-Semitic mother tongues spoken by the revivalists, and the European impact on literary Hebrew.

The multisourced nature of Israeli and the role of the Congruence Principle in its genesis have implications for historical linguistics, language planning and the study of language, culture and identity. The Population of Israel. Bernini, Giuliano and Ramat, Paolo. Negative Sentences in the Languages of Europe: Language Universals and Linguistic Typology.

Problems in Comparative Linguistics, edited by A. Problems and Perspectives, London: Trends in the Development of the Hebrew Language , edited by J. Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities. An International Handbook, Vol. Horvath, Julia and Wexler, Paul. Leaflets , Sh. Academy of the Hebrew Language. The Ecology of Language Evolution. Language Variation and Change 7. Orbis Bulletin international de Documentation linguistique Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Malkiel eds , Directions for Historical Linguistics, Austin: University of Texas Press.

New Vision for "Israeli Hebrew": Theoretical and Practical Implicati Now, the Australian government is being pushed to revalue Indigenous languages in a call for the payment of compensation for language loss, to be put towards increased funding for language revitalisation, with the claim that the loss of language is more detrimental than the loss of land. Language, Religion and Identity in Israel. They changed the meanings of obsolete Hebrew terms to fit the modern world.

This infusion often entailed the secularization of religious terms. MPs were at the very least angels or seraphs. He is currently working on two further books: If you can't beat them, join them; if you join them, cover your arse!: Quis custodiet ipsos custodes?

Over the past century, Israeli — somewhat misleadingly a. Linguistic issues are so sensitive in Israel that politicians are often involved. Brought into being by legislation in as the supreme institute for Hebrew, the Academy of the Hebrew Language prescribes standards for Israeli grammar, lexis, orthography, transcription and vocalization vowel marking 'based upon the study of Hebrew's historical development'.

This lecture will provide a critical analysis of the Academy's mission, as intriguingly defined in its constitution: It will shed light on the dynamics of the committees' meetings, and expose some U-turn decisions recently made by the Academy. I will suggest that the Academy has begun submitting to the 'real world', accommodating its decrees to the parole of native Israeli speakers, long regarded as 'reckless' and 'lazy'. Based on Zuckermann, Ghil'ad The Genesis of the Israeli Language.

The Genesis of the Israeli Language Prof Ghil'ad Zuckermann University of Queensland The aim of this lecture is to suggest that due to the ubiquitous phenomenon of multiple causation, the revival of a no-longer spoken language is unlikely without cross-fertilization from the revivalists' mother tongue s.

Thus, one should expect revival efforts to result in a language with a hybrid genetic and typological character. It will be argued that Israeli - a year-old language, somewhat misleadingly a. Both Hebrew an important liturgical and literary language and Yiddish the revivalists' mother tongue act as its 'primary contributors', with numerous other contributors such as Russian and Polish.

It will suggest that the reality of linguistic genesis is far more complex than a simple family tree system allows. It will be proposed that 1 Whereas Hebrew was synthetic, Israeli - following Yiddish etc. Latin habere 'to have', taking the direct object , in stark contrast to Hebrew; 3 European languages sometimes dictate the gender of Israeli coinages; 4 The hidden productivity and semantics of the allegedly completely Hebrew system of Israeli verbtemplates are, in fact, often European; 5 In Hebrew there was a polarity-of-gender agreement between nouns and numerals, e.

In Israeli there is a simpler - European - system, e. Securing the Future of Endangered Languages. Language is an integral part of society. Wherever we come from, the words we use and the way in w Wherever we come from, the words we use and the way in which we use them are fundamental to our cultural identity.

But there is hope. The language revival movement has emerged as an important and effective response, and this course will introduce you to its key principles and techniques.

Far more than just a simple process of recovering literacy and lost letters, language revival involves a deep and complex engagement with history, human rights, identity and wellbeing.

You could've gone back to it, but the mood was ruined. Yup, it happened for a while though or maybe like one minute but either way you did it.

He freaks out after a micro-thrust or two. This isn't one you should have to add to your number if you care about that sort of thing , but it's something you know you won't forget about. Sex with an identical twin This is always a risk when dating identical twins. Still, being able to tell them apart is the first rule of dating twins!

Perhaps they play a prank on you This is not a two-for-one special. People have sex and don't finish all the time sadly - so this definitely still counts. Or never see that person again if it was really terrible and just forget it ever happened. Move on to greener, and more satisfying, pastures. You fell asleep during. Maybe he had this really comfortable memory foam mattress, and you drank a few too many glasses of wine, and if it was like, really slow the whole time instead of rowdy here and there, then totally understandable girl!

It's just like a massage And I hope he realizes soon enough because yes, you're having sex and it counts. At least for one of you. It also might offend him a little, too. Even though he's probably in need of the lesson.

You dreamed that you did it and then can't look at that person the same afterwards. As Biggie would say, "it was all a dream..