Henri of Artois, Count of Chambord (Henri Charles Ferdinand Marie Dieudonné d'Artois, duc de Bordeaux, comte de Chambord; 29 September 1820 – 24 August 1883)[1] was disputedly King of France from 2 to 9 August 1830 as Henry V, although he was never officially proclaimed as such. Afterwards, he was the Legitimistpretender to the throne of France from 1844 to 1883.

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Henri was born on 29 September 1820, in the Pavillon de Marsan, a portion of the Tuileries Palace which still survives in the compound of the Louvre Palace in Paris, his father, the duc de Berry, had been assassinated seven months before his birth. At the actual moment of Henri's birth, no member of the French court was present in the room; this enabled the supporters of Louis Philippe, duc d'Orléans to later spread the canard that Henri was not in fact a French prince.[citation needed]

At birth, Henri was given the title of duc de Bordeaux. Because of his posthumous birth when the senior line of the House of Bourbon appeared about to become extinct, he was given the name Dieudonné ("God-given"). Royalists called him "the miracle child".

On 2 August 1830, in response to the July Revolution, Henri's grandfather, Charles X, abdicated, and twenty minutes later Charles' elder son Louis Antoine, duc d'Angoulême, also abdicated in favor of the young duc de Bordeaux. Charles X urged his cousin Louis Philippe of Orléans, as Lieutenant général du royaume, to proclaim Henri as Henri V, King of France, but Louis Philippe ignored him, as a consequence, after seven days, a period in which legitimist monarchists considered that Henri had been the rightful monarch of France, the National Assembly decreed that the throne should pass to Louis Philippe, who was proclaimed King of the French on 9 August.[3]

Henri and his family left France and went into exile on 16 August 1830. While some French monarchists recognized him as their sovereign, others disputed the validity of the abdications of his grandfather and of his uncle[citation needed]. Still others recognised the July Monarchy of Louis Philippe, with the death of his 79 year old grandfather in 1836 and of his uncle in 1844, young Henri became the genealogically senior claimant to the French throne. His supporters were called Legitimists to distinguish them from the Orléanists, the supporters of the family of Louis Philippe.

Henri, who preferred the courtesy title of comte de Chambord (from the château de Chambord, which had been presented to him by the Restoration government, and which was the only significant piece of personal property of which he was allowed to retain ownership upon his exile), continued his claim to the throne throughout the July Monarchy of Louis Philippe, the Second Republic, the Second Empire of Napoléon III, and the Third Republic.

Plaque, at the château de Chambord, of the 5 July 1871 declaration, known as déclaration du drapeau blanc, by Henri, comte de Chambord (Henri V).

The French tricolore with the royal crown and fleur-de-lys was possibly designed by the count in his younger years as a compromise[4]

In the early 1870s, as the Second Empire collapsed following its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War at the battle of Sedan on 1 September 1870, the royalists became a majority in the National Assembly, the Orléanists agreed to support the aging comte de Chambord's claim to the throne, with the expectation that at his childless death he would be succeeded by their own claimant, Philippe d'Orléans, comte de Paris. Henri was then pretender for both Legitimists and Orléanists, and the restoration of monarchy in France seemed a close possibility. However, Henri insisted that he would accept the crown only on condition that France abandon its tricolour flag and return to the use of the white fleur de lys flag, he rejected a compromise, whereby the fleur-de-lys would be the new king's personal standard, and the tricolour would remain the national flag.

A temporary Third Republic was established, to wait for Henri's death and his replacement by the more liberal Comte de Paris, but by the time this occurred in 1883, public opinion had swung behind the Republic as the form of government which, in the words of the former President Adolphe Thiers, "divides us least". Thus, Henri could be mockingly hailed by republicans such as Georges Clemenceau as "the French Washington" — the one man without whom the Republic could not have been founded.

Henri's death left the Legitimist line of succession distinctly confused, on one hand, Henri himself had accepted that the head of the Maison de France (as distinguished from the Maison de Bourbon) would be the head of the Orléans line, i.e. the Comte de Paris. This was accepted by many Legitimists, and was the default on legal grounds; the only surviving Bourbon line more senior was the Spanish branch, which had renounced its right to inherit the throne of France as a condition of the Treaty of Utrecht. However, many if not most of Henri's supporters, including his widow, chose to disregard his statements and this law, arguing that no one had the right to deny to the senior direct-male-line male Bourbon to be the head of the Maison de France and thus the legitimate King of France; the renunciation of the Spanish branch is under this interpretation illegitimate and therefore void. Thus these Legitimists settled on Juan, Count of Montizón, the Carlist pretender to the Spanish throne (the Salic law having been suspended in Spain, the actual king, Alfonso XII, was not the senior descendant in the male line), as their claimant to the French crown.

Henri's patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son.

Patrilineal descent is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations - which means that if Henri were to choose an historically accurate house name it would be Robertian, as all his male-line ancestors have been of that house.

Henri's patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son, it follows the Bourbon, Kings of France, and the Counts of Paris and Worms. This line can be traced back more than 1,200 years from Robert of Hesbaye to the present day, through Kings of France & Navarre, Spain and Two-Sicilies, Dukes of Parma and Grand-Dukes of Luxembourg, Princes of Orléans and Emperors of Brazil. It is one of the oldest in Europe.

1.
List of French monarchs
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The monarchs of the Kingdom of France and its predecessors ruled from the establishment of the Kingdom of the Franks in 486 till the fall of the Second French Empire in 1870. Sometimes included as kings of France are the kings of the Franks of the Merovingian dynasty, which ruled from 486 until 751, and of the Carolingians, who ruled until 987. The Capetian dynasty, the descendants of Hugh Capet, included the first rulers to adopt the title of king of France for the first time with Philip II. The Capetians ruled continuously from 987 to 1792 and again from 1814 to 1848, the branches of the dynasty which ruled after 1328, however, are generally given the specific branch names of Valois and Bourbon. During the brief period when the French Constitution of 1791 was in effect and after the July Revolution in 1830 and it was a constitutional innovation known as popular monarchy which linked the monarchs title to the French people rather than to the possession of the territory of France. With the House of Bonaparte Emperors of the French ruled in 19th century France and it was used on coins up to the eighteenth century. During the brief period when the French Constitution of 1791 was in effect and after the July Revolution in 1830 and it was a constitutional innovation known as popular monarchy which linked the monarchs title to the French people rather than to the possession of the territory of France. They used the title Emperor of the French and this article lists all rulers to have held the title King of the Franks, King of France, King of the French or Emperor of the French. For other Frankish monarchs, see List of Frankish kings, in addition to the monarchs listed below, the Kings of England and Great Britain from 1340–60, 1369-1420, and 1422–1801 also claimed the title of King of France. For a short time, this had some basis in fact – under the terms of the 1420 Treaty of Troyes, Charles VI had recognized his son-in-law Henry V of England as regent and heir. Henry V predeceased Charles VI and so Henry Vs son, Henry VI, most of Northern France was under English control until 1435, but by 1453, the English had been expelled from all of France save Calais, and Calais itself fell in 1558. Nevertheless, English and then British monarchs continued to claim the title for themselves until the creation of the United Kingdom in 1801. The Merovingians were a Salian Frankish dynasty that ruled the Franks for nearly 300 years in a known as Francia in Latin. Their territory largely corresponded to ancient Gaul as well as the Roman provinces of Raetia, Germania Superior, the Carolingian dynasty was a Frankish noble family with origins in the Arnulfing and Pippinid clans of the 7th century AD. In 751, a Carolingian, Pepin the Younger, dethroned the Merovingians and with the consent of the Papacy, the Robertians were Frankish noblemen owing fealty to the Carolingians, and ancestors of the subsequent Capetian dynasty. Odo, Count of Paris, was chosen by the western Franks to be their king following the removal of emperor Charles the Fat, the Bosonids were a noble family descended from Boso the Elder, their member, Rudolph, was elected King of the Franks in 923. After the death of Louis V, the son of Hugh the Great and grandson of Robert I, the Capetian Dynasty, the male-line descendants of Hugh Capet, ruled France continuously from 987 to 1792 and again from 1814 to 1848. They were direct descendants of the Robertian kings, the cadet branches of the dynasty which ruled after 1328, however, are generally given the specific branch names of Valois and Bourbon

2.
Legitimist
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The Legitimists are royalists in France who adhere to the rights of dynastic succession of the descendants of the elder branch of the Bourbon dynasty, which was overthrown in the 1830 July Revolution. They reject the claim of the July Monarchy of 1830–1848, whose king was a member of the junior Orléans line of the Bourbon dynasty, the other two right-wing factions are, according to historian René Rémond, the Orléanists and the Bonapartists. Legitimists hold that the king of France must be according to the traditional rules of succession based in the Salic law. The main current legitimist pretender is Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou, following the Bourbon Restoration in 1814, a strongly restricted census suffrage sent to the Chamber of Deputies an ultra-royalist majority in 1815–1816 and from 1824 to 1827. By the same token, Ultras opposed all liberal, republican and their importance during the Restoration was in part due to electoral laws which largely favored them. Louis XVIIIs first ministers, who included Talleyrand, the duc de Richelieu, Louis XVIII finally decided to dissolve this chaotic assembly, but the new liberals who replaced them were no easier to govern. The death in 1824 of the moderate Louis XVIII emboldened the Ultra faction, in January 1825, Villèles government passed the Anti-Sacrilege Act, which punished by death the theft of sacred vessels. This anachronistic law was in the end never applied and repealed in the first months of Louis Philippe Is reign, the Ultras also wanted to create courts to punish Radicals, and passed laws restricting freedom of the press. They softened their views and made the restoration of the House of Bourbon their main aim, from 1830 on they became known as Legitimists. Until the deaths of Charles X and his son in 1836 and 1844, respectively, many Legitimists continued to each of them in turn as the rightful king. The fall of King Louis Philippe I in 1848 led to a strengthening of the Legitimist position, although the childlessness of Chambord weakened the hand of the Legitimists, they came back into political prominence during the Second Republic. Legitimists joined with Orleanists to form the Party of Order which dominated parliament from the elections of May 1849 until Bonapartes coup on December 2,1851, through much of this time there was discussion of fusion with the Orleanist Party so that the two could effect a monarchical restoration. This prospect prompted several sons of Louis Philippe to declare their support for Chambord, but fusion was not actually achieved, and after 1850 the two parties again diverged. The period of the Second Empire saw the Legitimists once again cast out of political life. Nevertheless, the Legitimists remained a significant party within elite opinion, after the Siege of Paris in 1870 and the 1871 Paris Commune, the Legitimists returned for one final time to political prominence. This time, the Legitimists were able to agree with the Orleanists on a program of fusion, the liberal Orleanists agreed to recognize Chambord as king, and the Orleanist claimant himself, Louis-Philippe Albert dOrléans, count of Paris, recognized Chambord as head of the French royal house. In return, Legitimists in the Assembly agreed that, should Chambord die childless, the death of Chambord effectively dissolved the parti légitimiste as a political force in France. Those Legitimists who had rallied to the Republic in 1893, after the comte de Chambords death ten years before, but they changed their name in 1899, and entered the 1902 elections under the name Action libérale

3.
Bourbon Restoration
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The Bourbon Restoration was the period of French history following the fall of Napoleon in 1814 until the July Revolution of 1830. The brothers of executed Louis XVI of France reigned in highly conservative fashion, and they were nonetheless unable to reverse most of the changes made by the French Revolution and Napoleon. At the Congress of Vienna they were treated respectfully, but had to give up all the gains made since 1789. King Louis XVI of the House of Bourbon had been overthrown and executed during the French Revolution, a coalition of European powers defeated Napoleon in the War of the Sixth Coalition, ended the First Empire in 1814, and restored the monarchy to the brothers of Louis XVI. The Bourbon Restoration lasted from 6 April 1814 until the uprisings of the July Revolution of 1830. There was an interlude in spring 1815—the Hundred Days—when the return of Napoleon forced the Bourbons to flee France, when Napoleon was again defeated by the Seventh Coalition they returned to power in July. During the Restoration, the new Bourbon regime was a monarchy, unlike the absolutist Ancien Régime. The period was characterized by a conservative reaction, and consequent minor but consistent occurrences of civil unrest. It also saw the reestablishment of the Catholic Church as a power in French politics. The eras of the French Revolution and Napoleon brought a series of changes to France which the Bourbon Restoration did not reverse. First of all, France became highly centralized, with all decisions made in Paris, the political geography was completely reorganized and made uniform. France was divided more than 80 departments, which have endured into the 21st century. Each department had an administrative structure, and was tightly controlled by a prefect appointed by Paris. The Catholic Church lost all its lands and buildings during the Revolution, the bishop still ruled his diocese, and communicated with the pope through the government in Paris. Bishops, priests, nuns and other people were paid salaries by the state. All the old rites and ceremonies were retained, and the government maintained the religious buildings. The Church was allowed to operate its own seminaries and to some extent local schools as well, bishops were much less powerful than before, and had no political voice. However, the Catholic Church reinvented itself and put a new emphasis on personal religiosity that gave it a hold on the psychology of the faithful, education was centralized, with the Grand Master of the University of France controlling every element of the entire educational system from Paris

4.
Frohsdorf
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Lanzenkirchen is a market town in the district of Wiener Neustadt-Land in the Austrian state of Lower Austria. Lanzenkirchen is situated on the river Leitha, south of the city Wiener Neustadt, the municipality consists of the 5 Katastralgemeinden Lanzenkirchen, Frohsdorf, Haderswörth, Kleinwolkersdorf and Ofenbach. Lanzenkirchen, The name comes from a German settler who built a church and his name was Anzo or Lanzo. The name Lanzenkirchen was first mentioned in 1130, Frohsdorf, The original name was Krottendorf because many toads were found in the water-rich area. It became Froschdorf in the 17th century and its present name has been used since the beginning of the 19th century. Haderswörth, This name means island of Hadurich. Kleinwolkersdorf, Until around 1800 the village was known as Wolfkersdorf, Ofenbach, The place was originally known as Quenbach. The origin of the name Ofenbach is unknown, schloss Frohsdorf, a baroque castle the 13th century St. Nicholas church in Lanzenkirchen

Frohsdorf
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Coat of arms

5.
Austria-Hungary
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The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories

6.
Kostanjevica Monastery
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Kostanjevica Monastery is a Franciscan monastery in Pristava near Nova Gorica, Slovenia. The locals frequently refer to it simply as Kapela, the monastery with the Church of the Annunciation of Our Lady stands on a 143-metre hill dividing the town of Nova Gorica and the suburb of Pristava. It is located just some 200 meters from the border with Italy and it is famous as the burial place of Charles X of France and his family. In 1623 as small Carmelite sanctuary was erected just outside the limits of the town of Gorizia, in the next hundred years, a monastery was built next to the church, while the monastic chapel became an important site for pilgrims from Friuli and Goriška regions. In 1781, the monastery was disbanded by the Habsburg Emperor Joseph II, in 1811, the Franciscan friars acquired the abandoned complex, re-establishing the monastery. Among other, they brought a notable library containing some 10,000 books, today, the library is named after Father Stanislav Škrabec, a renowned Slovene linguist from the 19th century who lived and worked in the monastery for more than 40 years. The Kostanjevica monastery was damaged in the Battles of the Isonzo during World War I. It was restored between 1924 and 1929, until the end of World War II, the monastery was part of the town of Gorizia. In 1947, the border between Italy and Yugoslavia was set just a few hundred meters westward from the monastery, and Kostanjevica became part of the newly established town of Nova Gorica. In the 19th century, the crypt of the Franciscan monastery was used for the burial of members of the French House of Bourbon who went into exile after the July Revolution, most of them had settled in Gorizia, then part of the Austrian Empire, in the 1830s

7.
Nova Gorica
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Nova Gorica is a town and a municipality in western Slovenia, on the border with Italy. Since 1948, Nova Gorica has replaced Gorizia as the urban centre of the Goriška or Gorizia region. Since May 2011, Nova Gorica has been joined together with Gorizia and Šempeter-Vrtojba in a common trans-border metropolitan zone, the name Nova Gorica means new Gorizia. However, the origin of the name Gorizia/Gorica itself is Slavic, the common local term for the town is Gorica, while residents tend to refer to the neighboring Italian town as Stara Gorica old Gorizia. This use is reflected in Slovenian license plates, as well as in the name of the local association football club ND Gorica. The word gorica is a form of the Slovene common noun gora hill. In archaic Slovene, it also meant vineyard and it is a common toponym in Slovenia and in other areas of Slovene settlement. In 1947, following World War II, Italy signed a treaty with the Allies. The treaty transferred most of the Slovene-inhabited areas of the Province of Gorizia to Yugoslavia, the town of Gorizia itself, however, remained under Italian rule. The new border cut the city off from its northern and eastern suburbs, around 40% of the municipalitys territory was transferred to Yugoslavia, including the suburbs of Solkan, Šempeter, Kromberk, Rožna Dolina, and Pristava. Together, these areas had a population of around 10,000, however, they lacked a cohesive structure, and were poorly connected. In order to overcome this problem, the Communist authorities of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia decided to build a new settlement that would connect these suburbs into a new urban space, the new town was called Nova Gorica or New Gorizia. The project had the backing of Marshal Tito, Yugoslavias Communist leader. The project was commissioned to the Slovenian architect Edvard Ravnikar, a pupil of Le Corbusier. The first projects were laid out in winter of 1947, the building of the town continued throughout the 1950s and 1960s, reaching the current extension by the mid 1980s. In the early 1990s, all of the older suburbs acquired again the status of independent settlements. This was however a purely symbolic act that affected the official statistics on population, because of this. In nevertheless remains the second largest urban conglomeration in western Slovenia, Nova Gorica hosts one of the three national theatres in Slovenia

8.
Slovenia
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Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia, is a nation state in southern Central Europe, located at the crossroads of main European cultural and trade routes. It is bordered by Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Croatia to the south and southeast, and it covers 20,273 square kilometers and has a population of 2.06 million. It is a republic and a member of the United Nations, European Union. The capital and largest city is Ljubljana, additionally, the Dinaric Alps and the Pannonian Plain meet on the territory of Slovenia. The country, marked by a significant biological diversity, is one of the most water-rich in Europe, with a river network, a rich aquifer system. Over half of the territory is covered by forest, the human settlement of Slovenia is dispersed and uneven. Slovenia has historically been the crossroads of South Slavic, Germanic, Romance, although the population is not homogeneous, the majority is Slovene. Slovene is the language throughout the country. Slovenia is a largely secularized country, but its culture and identity have been influenced by Catholicism as well as Lutheranism. The economy of Slovenia is small, open, and export-oriented and has strongly influenced by international conditions. It has been hurt by the Eurozone crisis, started in the late 2000s. The main economic field is services, followed by industry and construction, Historically, the current territory of Slovenia was part of many different state formations, including the Roman Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, followed by the Habsburg Monarchy. In October 1918, the Slovenes exercised self-determination for the first time by co-founding the State of Slovenes, Croats, in December 1918, they merged with the Kingdom of Serbia into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. During World War II, Slovenia was occupied and annexed by Germany, Italy, and Hungary, with a tiny area transferred to the Independent State of Croatia, in June 1991, after the introduction of multi-party representative democracy, Slovenia split from Yugoslavia and became an independent country. Present-day Slovenia has been inhabited since prehistoric times, and there is evidence of habitation from around 250,000 years ago. A pierced cave bear bone, dating from 43100 ±700 BP, in the 1920s and 1930s, artifacts belonging to the Cro-Magnon such as pierced bones, bone points, and needle were found by archaeologist Srečko Brodar in Potok Cave. It shows that wooden wheels appeared almost simultaneously in Mesopotamia and Europe, in the transition period between the Bronze age to the Iron age, the Urnfield culture flourished. Archaeological remains dating from the Hallstatt period have been found, particularly in southeastern Slovenia, among them a number of situlas in Novo Mesto, in the Iron Age, present-day Slovenia was inhabited by Illyrian and Celtic tribes until the 1st century BC

9.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic

10.
House of Bourbon
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The House of Bourbon is a European royal house of French origin, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. Bourbon kings first ruled France and Navarre in the 16th century, by the 18th century, members of the Bourbon dynasty also held thrones in Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Parma. Spain and Luxembourg currently have Bourbon monarchs, the royal Bourbons originated in 1268, when the heiress of the lordship of Bourbon married a younger son of King Louis IX. The house continued for three centuries as a branch, while more senior Capetians ruled France, until Henry IV became the first Bourbon king of France in 1589. Restored briefly in 1814 and definitively in 1815 after the fall of the First French Empire, a cadet Bourbon branch, the House of Orléans, then ruled for 18 years, until it too was overthrown. The Princes de Condé were a branch of the Bourbons descended from an uncle of Henry IV. Both houses were prominent in French affairs, even during exile in the French Revolution, until their respective extinctions in 1830 and 1814. When the Bourbons inherited the strongest claim to the Spanish throne, the claim was passed to a cadet Bourbon prince, a grandson of Louis XIV of France, who became Philip V of Spain. The Spanish House of Bourbon has been overthrown and restored several times, reigning 1700–1808, 1813–1868, 1875–1931, Bourbons ruled in Naples from 1734–1806 and in Sicily from 1734–1816, and in a unified Kingdom of the Two Sicilies from 1816–1860. They also ruled in Parma from 1731–1735, 1748–1802 and 1847–1859, all legitimate, living members of the House of Bourbon, including its cadet branches, are direct agnatic descendants of Henry IV. The term House of Bourbon is sometimes used to refer to this first house and the House of Bourbon-Dampierre, the second family to rule the seigneury. In 1268, Robert, Count of Clermont, sixth son of King Louis IX of France, married Beatrix of Bourbon, heiress to the lordship of Bourbon and their son Louis was made Duke of Bourbon in 1327. His descendant, the Constable of France Charles de Bourbon, was the last of the senior Bourbon line when he died in 1527. Because he chose to fight under the banner of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and lived in exile from France, the remaining line of Bourbons henceforth descended from James I, Count of La Marche, the younger son of Louis I, Duke of Bourbon. With the death of his grandson James II, Count of La Marche in 1438, all future Bourbons would descend from James IIs younger brother, Louis, who became the Count of Vendôme through his mothers inheritance. In 1514, Charles, Count of Vendôme had his title raised to Duke of Vendôme and his son Antoine became King of Navarre, on the northern side of the Pyrenees, by marriage in 1555. Two of Antoines younger brothers were Cardinal Archbishop Charles de Bourbon, Louis male-line, the Princes de Condé, survived until 1830. Finally, in 1589, the House of Valois died out and he was born on 13 December 1553 in the Kingdom of Navarre

House of Bourbon
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The castle of Bourbon-l'Archambault
House of Bourbon
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House of Bourbon
House of Bourbon
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Henry IV of France, the first Bourbon King of France
House of Bourbon
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Dynastic group portrait of Louis XIV (seated) with his son le Grand Dauphin (to the left), his grandson Louis, Duke of Burgundy (to the right), his great-grandson the duc d'Anjou, later Louis XV, and Madame de Ventadour, his governess, who commissioned this painting some years later; busts of Henry IV and Louis XIII in the background.

11.
Princess Caroline of Naples
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Caroline was born at Caserta Palace in Naples. Her parents were double first cousins, Caroline was baptised with the names of her paternal grandparents, Maria Carolina of Austria and King Ferdinand of Naples. She spent her youth in Palermo and in Naples and her mother died in 1801, her father married again in 1802 to Infanta Maria Isabella of Spain, another first cousin, and had twelve more children. In 1816, French ambassador Pierre Louis Jean Casimir de Blacas arranged with the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily for Caroline to marry Louis XVIII of Frances nephew, Charles Ferdinand, the marriage was held on 24 April 1816 in Naples. Caroline thus became Duchesse de Berry, known as Madame de Berry in France, even though it was an arranged marriage, it was a happy marriage, with Caroline and her husband living at the Élysée Palace in Paris which was given to them. They had four children, of which two survived infancy, the elder was Louise Marie Thérèse dArtois. He was thus going to be the heir to the throne. As his mother, Caroline became an important figure in the politics of the Bourbon Restoration, in 1824, Louis XVIII died and was succeeded by Carolines father-in-law as Charles X. In the July Revolution of 1830, Charles X was overthrown, both Charles and his elder son abdicated, but their cousin Louis Philippe of Orléans did not proclaim Henri as king. Instead he allowed the National Assembly to declare him king, Caroline and Henri went into exile in with Charles and his family. She lived in Bath for a time, and then joined Charles, Charles lived in Holyrood Palace, but Caroline lived in Regent Terrace. Caroline did not find conditions in Edinburgh agreeable, nor did she accept her sons exclusion from the throne by the Orléanist King of the French and she declared her son to be the legitimate king, and herself to be regent. In 1831 she left Edinburgh, and returned to her family in Naples via the Netherlands, Prussia, from Naples, with the help of the Vicomte de Saint Priest, she intrigued for a Legitimist rebellion to restore Henri to the throne. She also secretly married an Italian nobleman, Ettore Carlo Lucchesi-Palli, in April 1832 she landed near Marseille. Receiving little support, she made her way to the Vendée and Brittany, after remaining hidden for five months in a house in Nantes, she was betrayed by Simon Deutz to the government in November 1832, and imprisoned in the Chateau of Blaye. During her incarceration, she gave birth to a daughter, and her remarriage was revealed and she had French nationality by her marriage to the Duke of Berry, but lost it by her remarriage to an Italian, thus she was in theory ineligible to serve as regent. She was no longer an object of fear to the French government and she went to Sicily with her husband. The child born in prison died, but they had four living children

12.
Francis I of the Two Sicilies
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Francis I of the Two Sicilies was King of the Two Sicilies from 1825 to 1830. Francis was born the son of Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies and he was also the nephew of Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI, the last King and Queen of France before the first French Republic. At the death of his older brother Carlo, Duke of Calabria, Francis became the heir to the throne and Duke of Calabria, in 1796 Francis married his double first cousin Archduchess Maria Clementina of Austria, daughter of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor. When she died, he married his first cousin María Isabel, while still heir apparent he professed liberal ideas, and on the outbreak of the revolution of 1820 he accepted the regency, apparently in a friendly spirit towards the new constitution. On succeeding to the throne in 1825, however, he pursued a conservative course and he took little part in the government, which he left in the hands of favourites and police officials, and lived with his mistresses, surrounded by soldiers, ever in dread of assassination. During his reign the only revolutionary movement was the outbreak on the Cilento, repressed by the Marquis Delcarretto and he was, however, successful in having the Austrian occupation force withdrawn, thereby relieving a large financial burden on the treasury. During his reign, the Royal Order of Francis I was founded to reward civil merit, with Isabella of Spain, Luisa Carlotta, who married her mothers younger brother Infante Francisco de Paula of Spain. María Cristina, who married firstly her uncle Ferdinand VII of Spain, Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies, who became Francis Is successor and married twice. Carlo, Prince of Capua, who morganatically wed Penelope Smyth and had issue, leopoldo, Count of Syracuse, who married Princess Maria of Savoy-Carignan. Maria Antonia who married Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany, Maria Amalia, who married Infante Sebastian of Portugal and Spain. Maria Carolina, who married Don Carlos de Bourbon, Count of Montemolin, teresa Cristina, who married Emperor Pedro II of Brazil. Luigi, Count of Aquila, who married Januária, Princess Imperial of Brazil, francesco, Count of Trapani, who married Archduchess Maria Isabella of Austria, Princess of Tuscany, and had issue. He also had children by mistresses. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh

Francis I of the Two Sicilies
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Francis I

13.
Louvre Palace
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The Louvre Palace is a former royal palace located on the Right Bank of the Seine in Paris, between the Tuileries Gardens and the church of Saint-Germain lAuxerrois. Its present structure has evolved in stages since the 16th century, in 1793 part of the Louvre became a public museum, now the Musée du Louvre, which has expanded to occupy most of the building. The Palace is situated in the right-bank of the River Seine between Rue de Rivoli to the north and the Quai François Mitterrand to the south. To the west is the Jardin des Tuileries and, to the east, the Rue de lAmiral de Coligny, where its most architecturally famous façade, the Louvre Colonnade, the Cour Napoléon and Cour du Carrousel are separated by the street known as the Place du Carrousel. Some 51,615 sq m in the complex are devoted to public exhibition floor space. The Old Louvre occupies the site of the 12th-century fortress of King Philip Augustus and its foundations are viewable in the basement level as the Medieval Louvre department. This structure was razed in 1546 by King Francis I in favour of a royal residence which was added to by almost every subsequent French monarch. King Louis XIV, who resided at the Louvre until his departure for Versailles in 1678, completed the Cour Carrée, the Old Louvre is a quadrilateral approximately 160 m on a side consisting of 8 ailes which are articulated by 8 pavillons. With it, the last external vestiges of the medieval Louvre were demolished, the New Louvre is the name often given to the wings and pavilions extending the Palace for about 500 m westwards on the north and on the south sides of the Cour Napoléon and Cour du Carrousel. This consummation only lasted a few years, however, as the Tuileries was burned in 1871, the northern limb of the new Louvre consists of three great pavilions along the Rue de Rivoli, the Pavillon de la Bibliothèque, Pavillon de Rohan and Pavillon de Marsan. As on the side, three inside pavilions and their wings define three more subsidiary Courts, Cour du Sphinx, Cour Viconti and Cour Lefuel. The Chinese American architect I. M. Pei was selected in 1983 to design François Mitterrands Grand Louvre Project. The ground-level entrance to this complex was situated in the centre of the Cour Napoléon and is crowned by the prominent steel-and-glass pyramid, in a proposal by Kenneth Carbone, the nomenclature of the wings of the Louvre was simplified in 1987 to reflect the Grand Louvres organization. This allows the visitor to avoid becoming totally mystified at the bewildering array of named wings. The origin of the name Louvre is unclear, the French historian Henri Sauval, probably writing in the 1660s, stated that he had seen in an old Latin-Saxon glossary, Leouar is translated castle and thus took Leouar to be the origin of Louvre. According to Keith Briggs, Sauvals theory is often repeated, even in recent books, but this glossary has never seen again. Briggs suggests that H. J. Wolfs proposal in 1969 that Louvre derives instead from Latin Rubras, david Hanser, on the other hand, reports that the word may come from French louveterie, a place where dogs were trained to chase wolves. In 1190 King Philip II Augustus, who was about to leave on the Third Crusade, completed in 1202, the new fortress was situated in what is now the southwest quadrant of the Cour Carrée

14.
Rambouillet
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Rambouillet is a commune in the Yvelines department in the Île-de-France in north-central France. It is located on the outskirts of Paris,44.3 km southwest from the centre, Rambouillet is a sub-prefecture of the department. Rambouillet lies on the edge of the vast Forest of Rambouillet, and is famous for its castle, the Château de Rambouillet. Due to its proximity to Paris and Versailles, Rambouillet has long been a seat of government. Rambouillet is served by the SNCF Rambouillet railway station on the Transilien Paris – Montparnasse suburban rail line to Chartres. The Château de Rambouillet, a medieval fortress, was acquired by Louis XVI of France in 1783 as a private residence because of its ideal situation in the game-rich forest of Rambouillet. It became a bien national during the French Revolution of 1789, at the time of the Bourbon Restoration, the castle became royal residence, and it is there that Charles X signed his abdication on 2 August 1830. The Palais du Roi de Rome and its entrance is situated in the rue Charles de Gaulle, Rambouillets main street. The Hôtel de Ville, the former Bailliage was built in 1786 at the request of Louis XVI by the architect Jacques-Jean Thévenin and it was given by Napoléon I to the inhabitants of Rambouillet to serve as their City Hall. The inscription over the doors of the City Hall reads Donated to the inhabitants of Rambouillet by Napoleon the Great, the new Saint-Lubin church was built between 1868 and 1871. Its architect was Anatole de Baudot, a student of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, the Bergerie nationale was built on the grounds of the Domain of Rambouillet at the request of Louis XVI, and is the home of the Rambouillet Merino sheep since 1786. The Laiterie de la Reine, the Queens Dairy also built on the grounds of the Domain of Rambouillet, is adjacent to the Bergerie and it was built in 1787 at the request of Louis XVI for his wife Marie Antoinette and designed by the architect Jean-Jacques Thévenin. The Musée Rambolitrain, situated across from the Saint-Lubin church, is a museum featuring miniature trains and we find the a faithful reconstruction of a Parisian toy store of the 1930s. The Monument Américain, is situated at the entrance of the town on the D906 road to Chartres. The monument was erected in 1947, the names of nine American soldiers are inscribed on a plaque on the monument. Commemorative ceremonies are held at the monument every 19 August

Rambouillet
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Château of Rambouillet
Rambouillet
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The church in Rambouillet

15.
Abdication
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Abdication is the act of formally relinquishing monarchical authority. The word abdication derives from the Latin abdicatio meaning to disown or renounce, in its broadest sense abdication is the act of renouncing and resigning from any formal office, but it is applied especially to the supreme office of state. In Roman law the term was applied to the disowning of a family member. Today the term applies to monarchs, or to those who have been formally crowned. An elected or appointed official is said to resign rather than to abdicate, a notable exception is the voluntary relinquishing of the office of Bishop of Rome by the Pope, called Papal resignation or Papal renunciation. Among the most notable abdications of antiquity are those of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, the Dictator, in 79 BC, Emperor Diocletian in AD305, perhaps the most notable abdication in recent history is that of King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom and the Dominions. In 1936 Edward abdicated to marry American divorcée Wallis Simpson, over the objections of the British establishment, the governments of the Commonwealth, the Royal Family and it was the first time in history that the British or English crown was surrendered entirely voluntarily. Richard II of England, for example, was forced to abdicate after power was seized by his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, the Scottish parliament pronounced a decree of forfeiture and deposition. In Scotland, Mary, Queen of Scots, was forced to abdicate in favour of her one-year-old son, to give legal effect to the abdication of King Edward VIII, His Majestys Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 was passed. In Medieval Japan abdication was used often, and in fact occurred more often than death on the throne. A tradition developed that an emperor should accede to the relatively young. Thus, many Japanese emperors have acceded as children, some only 6 or 8 years old, several emperors abdicated while still in their teens. These traditions show in Japanese folklore, theater, literature and other forms of culture, over half of Japanese empresses abdicated once a suitable male descendant was considered to be old enough to rule. Since the Meiji Restoration and the subsequent reorganization of imperial succession, no emperor has abdicated, there is also no provision for abdication in the Imperial Household Law, the Meiji Constitution, or the current 1947 Constitution of Japan. On February 27,1946, the emperors youngest brother, Prince Mikasa, even stood up in the council and indirectly urged the emperor to step down. General Douglas MacArthur insisted that Emperor Hirohito retain the throne, MacArthur saw the emperor as a symbol of the continuity and cohesion of the Japanese people. However, senior officials within the Imperial Household Agency have denied there is any official plan for the monarch to abdicate. A potential abdication by the Emperor would require an amendment to the Imperial Household Act, on 8 August 2016 the Emperor gave a rare televised address, where he emphasized his advanced age and declining health, this address is interpreted as an implication of his intention to abdicate

16.
National Assembly (France)
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The National Assembly is the lower house of the bicameral Parliament of France under the Fifth Republic. The upper house is the Senate, the National Assemblys members are known as députés. There are 577 députés, each elected by a constituency through a two-round voting system. Thus,289 seats are required for a majority, the assembly is presided over by a president, normally from the largest party represented, assisted by vice-presidents from across the represented political spectrum. The term of the National Assembly is five years, however and it is guarded by Republican Guards. The Constitution of the French Fifth Republic greatly increased the power of the executive at the expense of Parliament, the President of the Republic can decide to dissolve the National Assembly and call for new legislative elections. This is meant as a way to resolve stalemates where the Assembly cannot decide on a political direction. The National Assembly can overthrow the government by a vote of no confidence. For this reason, the minister and his cabinet are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the assembly. The Government used to set the priorities of the agenda for the Assemblys sessions and this, however, was amended on 23 July 2008. Under the amended constitution, the Government sets the priorities for two weeks in a month, another week is designated for the Assemblys control prerogatives. And the fourth one is set by the Assembly, also, one day per month is set by a minority or opposition group. Members of the assembly can ask written or oral questions to ministers, the Wednesday afternoon 3 p. m. session of questions to the Government is broadcast live on television. Like Prime Ministers Questions in Britain, it is largely a show for the viewers, with members of the majority asking flattering questions, while the opposition tries to embarrass the government. Since 1988, the 577 deputies are elected by universal suffrage with a two-round system by constituency, for a five-year mandate. The constituencies each have approximately 100,000 inhabitants, however, districts were not redrawn between 1982 and 2009. As a result of population movements over that period, there were inequalities between the less populous rural districts and the urban districts, the constituencies were redrawn in 2009, but this redistribution was controversial. Among other controversial measures, it created eleven constituencies and seats for French residents overseas, albeit without increasing the overall number of seats beyond 577

National Assembly (France)
National Assembly (France)
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National Assembly Assemblée Nationale
National Assembly (France)
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Jacques Chaban-Delmas was three times President of the Assembly between 1958 and 1988.
National Assembly (France)
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The Palais Bourbon, where the National Assembly meets

17.
July Monarchy
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The July Monarchy, was a liberal constitutional monarchy in France under Louis Philippe I, starting with the July Revolution of 1830 and ending with the Revolution of 1848. It began with the overthrow of the government of Charles X. The king promised to follow the juste milieu, or the middle-of-the-road, avoiding the extremes of the supporters of Charles X. The July Monarchy was dominated by wealthy bourgeoisie and numerous former Napoleonic officials and it followed conservative policies, especially under the influence of François Guizot. The king promoted friendship with Great Britain and sponsored colonial expansion, by 1848, a year in which many European states had a revolution, the kings popularity had collapsed and he was overthrown. Louis Phillipe was pushed to the throne by an alliance between the people of Paris, the republicans, who had set up barricades in the capital, and the liberal bourgeoisie. However, at the end of his reign the so-called Citizen King was overthrown by similar barricades during the February Revolution of 1848, the Legitimists withdrew from the political stage to their castles, leaving the stage opened for the struggle between the Orleanists and the Republicans. Louis-Philippe was crowned King of the French, instead of King of France, Louis-Philippe, who had flirted with liberalism in his youth, rejected much of the pomp and circumstance of the Bourbons and surrounded himself with merchants and bankers. The July Monarchy, however, remained a time of turmoil, a large group of Legitimists on the right demanded the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne. On the left, Republicanism and, later Socialism, remained a powerful force, late in his reign Louis-Philippe became increasingly rigid and dogmatic and his President of the Council, François Guizot, had become deeply unpopular, but Louis-Philippe refused to remove him. The situation gradually escalated until the Revolutions of 1848 saw the fall of the monarchy, however, during the first several years of his regime, Louis-Philippe appeared to move his government toward legitimate, broad-based reform. And indeed, Louis-Phillipe and his ministers adhered to policies that seemed to promote the central tenets of the constitution, thus, though the July Monarchy seemed to move toward reform, this movement was largely illusory. During the years of the July Monarchy, enfranchisement roughly doubled, however, this still represented only roughly one percent of population, and as the requirements for voting were tax-based, only the wealthiest gained the privilege. By implication, the enlarged enfranchisement tended to favor the wealthy merchant bourgeoisie more than any other group, beyond simply increasing their presence within the Chamber of Deputies, this electoral enlargement provided the bourgeoisie the means by which to challenge the nobility in legislative matters. Thus, while appearing to honor his pledge to increase suffrage, Louis-Philippe acted primarily to empower his supporters, the inclusion of only the wealthiest also tended to undermine any possibility of the growth of a radical faction in Parliament, effectively serving socially conservative ends. The reformed Charter of 1830 limited the power of the King—stripping him of his ability to propose and decree legislation, one of the first acts of Louis-Philippe in constructing his cabinet was to appoint the rather conservative Casimir Perier as the premier of that body. Perier, a banker, was instrumental in shutting down many of the Republican secret societies, in addition, he oversaw the dismemberment of the National Guard after it proved too supportive of radical ideologies. He performed all of actions, of course, with royal approval

18.
French Second Republic
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The French Second Republic was the republican government of France between the 1848 Revolution and the 1851 coup by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte which initiated the Second Empire. It officially adopted the motto Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité, the Second Republic witnessed the tension between the Social and Democratic Republic and a liberal form of Republic, which exploded during the June Days Uprising of 1848. The industrial population of the faubourgs was welcomed by the National Guard on their way towards the centre of Paris, barricades were raised after the shooting of protestors outside the Guizot manor by soldiers. On 23 February 1848 Guizots cabinet resigned, abandoned by the petite bourgeoisie, the heads of the Left Centre and the dynastic Left, Molé and Thiers, declined the offered leadership. Odilon Barrot accepted it, and Bugeaud, commander-in-chief of the first military division, in the face of the insurrection which had now taken possession of the whole capital, Louis-Philippe decided to abdicate in favour of his grandson, Philippe, comte de Paris. The Republic was then proclaimed by Alphonse de Lamartine in the name of the government elected by the Chamber under the pressure of the mob. But this time the Palais Bourbon was not victorious over the Hôtel de Ville and it had to consent to a fusion of the two bodies, in which, however, the predominating elements were the moderate republicans. It was uncertain what the policy of the new government would be, the other party wished to maintain society on the basis of its traditional institutions, and rallied round the tricolore. The first collision took place as to the form which the 1848 Revolution was to take. On 5 March the government, under the pressure of the Parisian clubs, decided in favour of a reference to the people, and direct universal suffrage. This added the uneducated masses to the electorate and led to the election of the Constituent Assembly of 4 May 1848, the socialists thus formed a sort of state-within-a-state, complete with a government and an armed force. Even this pitiful dole, with no obligation to work, proved attractive, and all over France, workmen quit their jobs and traveled to Paris, where they swelled the ranks of the army under the red flag. The socialist economic plan was straining state finances, and as the émeute of 15 May had proven that it constituted a menace to the state. The socialist party was defeated and afterwards its members were deported, by the massacres of the June Days, the working classes were also alienated from it. The Duke of Wellington wrote at this time, France needs a Napoleon, the granting of universal suffrage to a society with Imperialist sympathies would benefit reactionaries, which culminated in the election of Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte as president of the republic. The new constitution, proclaiming a republic, direct universal suffrage. Under the new constitution, there was to be a single permanent Assembly of 750 members elected for a term of three years by the scrutin de liste, the Assembly would elect members of a Council of State to serve for six years. Laws would be proposed by the Council of State, to be voted on by the Assembly and he was to choose his ministers, who, like him, would be responsible to the Assembly

French Second Republic
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"Messrs. Victor Hugo and Émile de Girardin try to raise Prince Louis upon a shield [in the heroic Roman fashion]: not too steady!" Honoré Daumier 's: satirical lithograph published in Charivari, 11 December 1848
French Second Republic
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Flag

19.
Second French Empire
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The Second French Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France. The structure of the French government during the Second Empire was little changed from the First, but Emperor Napoleon III stressed his own imperial role as the foundation of the government. He had so often, while in prison or in exile and his answer was to organize a system of government based on the principles of the Napoleonic Idea. This meant that the emperor, the elect of the people as the representative of the democracy, ruled supreme. He himself drew power and legitimacy from his role as representative of the great Napoleon I of France, the anti-parliamentary French Constitution of 1852 instituted by Napoleon III on 14 January 1852, was largely a repetition of that of 1848. All executive power was entrusted to the emperor, who, as head of state, was responsible to the people. The people of the Empire, lacking democratic rights, were to rely on the benevolence of the rather than on the benevolence of politicians. He was to nominate the members of the council of state, whose duty it was to prepare the laws, and of the senate, a body permanently established as a constituent part of the empire. One innovation was made, namely, that the Legislative Body was elected by universal suffrage and this new political change was rapidly followed by the same consequence as had attended that of Brumaire. The press was subjected to a system of cautionnements and avertissements, in order to counteract the opposition of individuals, a surveillance of suspects was instituted. In the same way public instruction was strictly supervised, the teaching of philosophy was suppressed in the lycées, for seven years France had no democratic life. The Empire governed by a series of plebiscites, up to 1857 the Opposition did not exist, from then till 1860 it was reduced to five members, Darimon, Émile Ollivier, Hénon, Jules Favre and Ernest Picard. On 2 December 1851 Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, who had been elected President of the Republic and he thus became sole ruler of France, and re-established universal suffrage, previously abolished by the Assembly. His decisions and the extension of his mandate for 10 years were popularly endorsed by a referendum later that month that attracted an implausible 92 percent support. A new constitution was enacted in January 1852 which made Louis-Napoléon president for 10 years, however, he was not content with merely being an authoritarian president. Almost as soon as he signed the new document into law, in response to officially-inspired requests for the return of the empire, the Senate scheduled a second referendum in November, which passed with 97 percent support. As with the December 1851 referendum, most of the yes votes were manufactured out of thin air, the empire was formally re-established on 2 December 1852, and the Prince-President became Napoléon III, Emperor of the French. The constitution concentrated so much power in his hands that the only changes were to replace the word president with the word emperor

Second French Empire
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Napoléon III
Second French Empire
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Flag
Second French Empire
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The official declaration of the Second Empire, at the Hôtel de Ville de Paris, on December 2, 1852.

20.
Maria Beatrice of Savoy
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Maria Beatrice of Savoy was a Princess of Savoy and Duchess of Modena by marriage. She was the eldest daughter of Victor Emmanuel, Duke of Aosta and her father became King of Sardinia unexpectedly in 1802 when Charles Emmanuel IV abdicated. Her maternal grandparents were Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Este and Maria Beatrice Ricciarda dEste, Ferdinand was the third son of Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor and Maria Theresa of Austria. Maria Beatrice was the eldest daughter of Ercole III dEste and Maria Theresa, in December 1798, Maria Beatrice left Turin with her parents and uncles due to French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars. They fled to Parma, then Florence and they finally settled at Sardinia, the last dominion held by Kingdom of Sardinia, for refuge. Maria Beatrice spent most of her time at Cagliari in later 13 years, on 20 June 1812, Maria Beatrice married her maternal uncle Francis, Archduke of Austria-Este, the couple received a special dispensation for their marriage from Pope Pius VII. Maria Beatrices husband became Francis IV, Duke of Modena, Reggio and they were parents to four children, Maria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria-Este, married Henri, Count of Chambord. Francis V, Duke of Modena, married Princess Adelgunde of Bavaria, Ferdinand Karl Viktor, Archduke of Austria-Este, married Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska of Austria. Archduchess Maria Beatrix of Austria-Este, married Juan, Count of Montizón, the couple left Sardinia on 15 July 1813 for Zakynthos Island, and then sailed to Trieste off the east shore of Adriatic Sea, finally reached Vienna by land. On the invasion of Joachim Murat during The Hundred Days, they fled Modena until 15 May 1815. Due to the outbreak of a revolution Maria Beatrice had to fled Modena again with her family on 5 February 1831, Maria Beatrice died of a heart condition on 15 September 1840 at Castello del Catajo. Her remains were kept in the Chiesa di San Vincenzo in Modena, Maria Beatrice was a Lady of the Order of the Starry Cross. Had she gained the throne she would have been Mary III & II

Maria Beatrice of Savoy
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Portrait by Adeodata Malatesta

21.
Battle of Sedan
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The Battle of Sedan was fought during the Franco–Prussian War on 1 September 1870. Marshal MacMahon was wounded during the attacks and command passed to General Auguste-Alexandre Ducrot, after its defeat at Gravelotte, Marshal Bazaines Army of the Rhine retreated to Metz where it was besieged by over 150,000 Prussian troops of the First and Second Armies. Emperor Napoleon III, along with Marshal MacMahon, formed the new French Army of Châlons to march on to Metz to rescue Bazaine. The Prussians had repeatedly outmaneuvered the French in the string of victories through August 1870, the Prussians, under the command of von Moltke, took advantage of this maneuver to catch the French in a pincer grip. After a hard-fought battle with the French losing 5,000 men and 40 cannons in a sharp fight, the French withdrew towards Sedan. Their intention was to rest the army, which had involved in a long series of marches, resupply them with ammunition and then retreat. Having reformed in Sedan, the Army of Châlons deployed the First Corps to check the Prussian advance and they could not retreat owing to the exhaustion of their troops, and they were short on ammunition. The French rear was protected by the Fortress of Sedan, and offered a position at Calvaire dIlly. Moltke divided his forces into three groups, one to detain the French where they were, another to race forward and catch them if they retreated, the French were unable to move and had to fight where they stood. The Prussians thus encircled the French, Napoleon had ordered MacMahon to break out of the encirclement, and the only point where that seemed possible was La Moncelle, whose flank was protected by a fortified town. The Prussians also picked La Moncelle as one point where they would mount a breakthrough, prince George of Saxony and the Prussian XI Corps was assigned to the task, and General Baron von der Tann were ordered to attack Bazeilles on the right flank. This was the engagement, as the French First Corps had barricaded the streets. Von der Tann sent a brigade across pontoon bridges at 0400 hours, the combat drew new forces, as French brigades from the First, Fifth, and Twelfth Corps arrived. At 0800 the Prussian 8th Infantry Division arrived, and von der Tann decided it was time for a decisive attack. He had not been able to bring artillery to bear from long range, so he committed his last brigade to storm the town and his artillery reached Bazeilles at 0900 hours. Fighting began in earnest at 0600, and the wounded MacMahon had appointed General Auguste Ducrot to command, Wimpffen then threw his forces against the Saxons at La Moncelle. This led to a rally for the French, who drove back the artillery around La Moncelle and pressed the Bavarians. However, with the taking of Bazeilles, and the arrival of waves of Prussian troops

Battle of Sedan
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Battle of Sedan
Battle of Sedan
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A mural painted in 1884 by Carl Steffeck depicts General Reille delivering Napoleon's letter of surrender to King William I at the Battle of Sedan in September 1870. It was at the former Ruhmeshalle in Berlin and was destroyed by bombs during World War II
Battle of Sedan
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Napoleon III surrenders his sword
Battle of Sedan
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Napoleon III having a conversation with Bismarck after being captured in the Battle of Sedan (1878 painting by Wilhelm Camphausen)

22.
Flag of France
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The national flag of France is a tricolour flag featuring three vertical bands coloured blue, white, and red. It is known to English speakers as the French Tricolour or simply the Tricolour, the royal government used many flags, the best known being a blue shield and gold fleur-de-lis on a white background, or state flag. Early in the French Revolution, the Paris militia, which played a prominent role in the storming of the Bastille, wore a cockade of blue and red, the citys traditional colours. According to Lafayette, white, the ancient French colour, was added to the militia cockade to create a tricolour, or national and this cockade became part of the uniform of the National Guard, which succeeded the militia and was commanded by Lafayette. The colours and design of the cockade are the basis of the Tricolour flag, the only difference was that the 1790 flags colours were reversed. A modified design by Jacques-Louis David was adopted in 1794, the royal white flag was used during the Bourbon restoration from 1815 to 1830, the tricolour was brought back after the July Revolution and has been used ever since 1830. The colours adopted by Valéry Giscard dEstaing, which replaced a version of the flag. Currently, the flag is one and a half times wider than its height and, initially, the three stripes of the flag were not equally wide, being in the proportions 30,33 and 37. Blue and red are the colours of Paris, used on the citys coat of arms. Blue is identified with Saint Martin, red with Saint Denis, at the storming of the Bastille in 1789, the Paris militia wore blue and red cockades on their hats. White had long featured prominently on French flags and is described as the ancient French colour by Lafayette, white was added to the revolutionary colours of the militia cockade to nationalise the design, thus creating the tricolour cockade. Although Lafayette identified the white stripe with the nation, other accounts identify it with the monarchy, Lafayette denied that the flag contains any reference to the red-and-white livery of the Duc dOrléans. Despite this, Orléanists adopted the tricolour as their own, blue and red are associated with the Virgin Mary, the patroness of France, and were the colours of the oriflamme. The colours of the French flag may represent the three main estates of the Ancien Régime. Blue, as the symbol of class, comes first and red, representing the nobility, both extreme colours are situated on each side of white referring to a superior order. Lafayettes tricolour cockade was adopted in July 1789, a moment of unity that soon faded. Royalists began wearing white cockades and flying flags, while the Jacobins. The tricolour, which combines royalist white with red, came to be seen as a symbol of moderation

23.
Fleur-de-lis
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The fleur-de-lis or flower-de-luce is a stylized lily that is used as a decorative design or symbol. Many of the saints are depicted with a lily, most prominently St. Joseph. The fleur-de-lis is represented in Unicode at U+269C in the Miscellaneous Symbols block and it remains an enduring symbol of France that appears on French postage stamps, although it has never been adopted officially by any of the French republics. According to French historian Georges Duby, the three represent the medieval social classes, those who worked, those who fought. It is unclear where the fleur-de-lis originated, among the Egyptians, Persians, Arabs and Greeks, this arabesque evoked warrior-like power. In France it is used in city emblems like in the coat of arms of the city of Lille, Saint-Denis, Brest, Clermont-Ferrand, Boulogne-Billancourt. The fleur-de-lis was the symbol of Île-de-France, the core of the French kingdom, many of the current departments use the ancient symbol on their coats to express this heritage. In Italy, the fleur de lis, called giglio is mainly known as the crest of the city of Florence, in the Florentine fleurs-de-lis, the stamens are always posed between the petals. This heraldic charge is known as the Florentine lily to distinguish it from the conventional design. As an emblem of the city, it is found in icons of Zenobius, its first bishop. Several towns subjugated by Florence or founded within the territory of the Florentine Republic adopted a variation of the Florentine lily in their crests, often without the stamens. The heraldic fleur-de-lis is still widespread, among the cities which use it as a symbol are some whose names echo the word lily, for example, Liljendal, Finland. This is called canting arms in heraldic terminology, other European examples of municipal coats-of-arms bearing the fleur-de-lis include Lincoln in England, Morcín in Spain, Wiesbaden in Germany, Skierniewice in Poland and Jurbarkas in Lithuania. The Swiss municipality of Schlieren and the Estonian municipality of Jõelähtme also have a fleur-de-lis on their coats, in Malta, the town of Santa Venera has three red fleurs-de-lis on its flag and coat of arms. Another suburb which developed around the area known as Fleur-de-Lys. The coat of arms of the medieval Kingdom of Bosnia contained six fleurs-de-lis, understood as the native Bosnian or Golden Lily and this emblem was revived in 1992 as a national symbol of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and was the flag of Bosnia-Herzegovina from 1992 to 1998. The state insignia were changed in 1999, the former flag of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina contains a fleur-de-lis alongside the Croatian chequy. Fleurs also appear in the flags and arms of cantons, municipalities, cities

24.
French Third Republic
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It came to an end on 10 July 1940. Harsh reparations exacted by the Prussians after the war resulted in the loss of the French regions of Alsace and Lorraine, social upheaval, and the establishment of the Paris Commune. The early governments of the Third Republic considered re-establishing the monarchy, but confusion as to the nature of that monarchy, thus, the Third Republic, which was originally intended as a provisional government, instead became the permanent government of France. The French Constitutional Laws of 1875 defined the composition of the Third Republic and it consisted of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate to form the legislative branch of government and a president to serve as head of state. The period from the start of World War I to the late 1930s featured sharply polarized politics, Adolphe Thiers called republicanism in the 1870s the form of government that divides France least, however, politics under the Third Republic were sharply polarized. On the left stood Reformist France, heir to the French Revolution, on the right stood conservative France, rooted in the peasantry, the Roman Catholic Church and the army. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 resulted in the defeat of France, after Napoleons capture by the Prussians at the Battle of Sedan, Parisian deputies led by Léon Gambetta established the Government of National Defence as a provisional government on 4 September 1870. The deputies then selected General Louis-Jules Trochu to serve as its president and this first government of the Third Republic ruled during the Siege of Paris. After the French surrender in January 1871, the provisional Government of National Defence disbanded, French territories occupied by Prussia at this time did not participate. The resulting conservative National Assembly elected Adolphe Thiers as head of a provisional government, due to the revolutionary and left-wing political climate that prevailed in the Parisian population, the right-wing government chose the royal palace of Versailles as its headquarters. The new government negotiated a settlement with the newly proclaimed German Empire. To prompt the Prussians to leave France, the government passed a variety of laws, such as the controversial Law of Maturities. The following repression of the communards would have consequences for the labor movement. The Orléanists supported a descendant of King Louis Philippe I, the cousin of Charles X who replaced him as the French monarch in 1830, his grandson Louis-Philippe, Comte de Paris. The Bonapartists were marginalized due to the defeat of Napoléon III and were unable to advance the candidacy of any member of his family, the Bonaparte family. Legitimists and Orléanists came to a compromise, eventually, whereby the childless Comte de Chambord would be recognised as king, consequently, in 1871 the throne was offered to the Comte de Chambord. Chambord believed the monarchy had to eliminate all traces of the Revolution in order to restore the unity between the monarchy and the nation, which the revolution had sundered apart. Compromise on this was if the nation were to be made whole again

French Third Republic
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A French propaganda poster from 1917 is captioned with an 18th century quote: "Even in 1788, Mirabeau was saying that War is the National Industry of Prussia."
French Third Republic
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Flag
French Third Republic
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The Sacré-Cœur Basilica was built as a symbol of the Ordre Moral.
French Third Republic
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In France, children were taught in school not to forget the lost provinces of Alsace-Lorraine, which were coloured in black on maps.

25.
Adolphe Thiers
–
Marie Joseph Louis Adolphe Thiers was a French statesman and historian. He was the second elected President of France, and the first President of the French Third Republic and he was ex officio Co-Prince of Andorra during his term as president. Thiers was a key figure in the July Revolution of 1830, which overthrew the Bourbon monarchy, and the French Revolution of 1848, which established the Second French Republic. He served as a minister in 1836,1840 and 1848, dedicated the Arc de Triomphe. He was first a supporter, then an opponent of Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte. When Napoleon III seized power, Thiers was arrested and briefly expelled from France and he then returned and became an opponent of the government. Following the defeat of France in the Franco-German War, which Thiers opposed, he was elected executive of the new French government. When the Paris Commune seized power in March 1871, Thiers gave the orders to the army for its suppression, at the age of seventy-four, he was named President of the Republic by the French National Assembly in August 1871. His chief accomplishment as president was to achieve the departure of German soldiers from most of French territory two years ahead of schedule. Opposed by the monarchists in the French assembly and the wing of the Republicans, he resigned on 24 May 1873. He was also a literary figure, the author of a very successful ten-volume history of the French Revolution. In 1834 he was elected the second-youngest member ever of the Académie Française, Adolphe Thiers was born on 15 April 1797, during the rule of the Directorate. His father was a businessman and occasional government official under Napoleon and his father abandoned Adolphe and his mother shortly after he was born. His mother had little money, but Thiers was able to receive an education thanks to financial aid from an aunt. He won admission to a lycée of Marseille through a competitive examination, while studying at the faculty of law he began his lifelong friendship with François Mignet. They both were admitted to the bar in 1818, and Thiers made a living as a lawyer for three years. He showed a strong interest in literature, and won a prize of five hundred francs for an essay on the marquis de Vauvenargues. Nonetheless, he was unhappy with his life in Aix and he wrote to his friend Teulon, I am without fortune, without status, and without any hope of having either here

Adolphe Thiers
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Adolphe Thiers
Adolphe Thiers
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Thiers as a young man
Adolphe Thiers
Adolphe Thiers
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M. Thiers, Chief of the Executive Power of the French Republic, published in the 4 March 1871 issue of Harper's Weekly

26.
Gorizia
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Gorizia listen is a town and comune in northeastern Italy, in the autonomous region of Friuli Venezia Giulia. It is located at the foot of the Julian Alps, bordering Slovenia and it is the capital of the Province of Gorizia and a local center of tourism, industry, and commerce. Since 1947, a town of Nova Gorica has developed on the other side of the modern-day Italian–Slovenian border. Taken together, the two towns constitute a conurbation, which includes the Slovenian municipality of Šempeter-Vrtojba. Since May 2011, these three towns are joined in a common trans-border metropolitan zone, administered by a joint administration board, Gorizia is located at the confluence of the Isonzo and Vipava Valleys. It lies on a plain overlooked by the Gorizia Hills, sheltered from the north by a mountain ridge, Gorizia is protected from the cold Bora wind that affects most of the neighbouring areas. The town thus enjoys a mild Mediterranean climate throughout the year, the name of the town comes from the Slovene word gorica meaning little hill, which is a very common toponym in Slovene-inhabited areas. The document referred to Gorizia as the known as Goriza in the language of the Slavs. From the 11th century, the town had two different layers of development, the castle district and the village beneath it. The first played a role and the second a rural-commercial role. In 1500, the dynasty of the Counts of Gorizia died out and their County passed to Austrian Habsburg rule, under Habsburg dominion, the town spread out at the foot of the castle. Many settlers from northern Italy moved there and started their commerce, Gorizia developed into a multi-ethnic town, in which Friulian, Venetian, German and Slovene language was spoken. In mid-16th century, Gorizia emerged as a centre of Protestant Reformation, the prominent Slovene Protestant preacher Primož Trubar also visited and preached in the town. By the end of the century, however, Catholic Counter-Reformation had gained force in Gorizia, led by the local dean Janez Tavčar, Tavčar was also instrumental in bringing the Jesuit order to the town, which played a role in the education and cultural life in Gorizia thereafter. Gorizia was at first part of the County of Görz and since 1754, a new town quarter developed around the Cathedral where many treasures from the Basilica of Aquileia were transferred. Many new villas were built conveying to the town the typical late Baroque appearance, a synagogue was built within the town walls, too, which was another example of Gorizias relatively tolerant multi-ethnic nature. During the Napoleonic Wars, Gorizia was incorporated to the French Illyrian Provinces between 1809 and 1813, after the restoration of the Austrian rule, the Gorizia and its County were incorporated in the administrative unit known as the Kingdom of Illyria. During this period, Gorizia emerged as a summer residence of the Austrian nobility

Gorizia
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The old part of Gorizia seen from the castle
Gorizia
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The medieval center of Gorizia
Gorizia
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The Leopold Gate, built in the late 17th century in honour of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor
Gorizia
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The Strassoldo Palace, residence of the Bourbon family in exile

27.
Carlism
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Carlism was a traditionalist and legitimist political movement in Spain seeking the establishment of a separate line of the Bourbon dynasty on the Spanish throne. This line descended from Don Carlos, Count of Molina, and was founded due to dispute over the succession laws, the semi-salic law would have allowed this given the fact that Maria Theresa was the last member of the house of Habsburg. Carlism was a significant force in Spanish politics from 1833 until the end of the Francoist regime in 1975, in this capacity, it was the cause of Carlist Wars during the 19th century, and an important factor in the Spanish Civil War in the 1930s. Today, Carlists are considered by some to be an entity, with Carlist claimants supported only by the most reactionary of the Spanish nobility. Traditionally, all but one of the Spanish kingdoms allowed the succession of daughters in the absence of sons, the most elaborate rules of succession formed part of the Siete Partidas of the late 13th century. On 1 November 1700 a French Bourbon prince, Philip V, in the French royal house, Salic law applied, which did not permit female succession. This change was forced by external pressure to avoid any possible personal union of the Crown of Spain with a foreign monarchy like France. He decided in 1830 to promulgate the 1789 decree, securing the crown for the child even if female. The law placed the child, Princess Isabel, ahead of Ferdinands brother Infante Carlos, many contemporaries saw the changed succession as illegal on various counts. They formed the basis for the dynastic Carlist party, which recognized the semi-Salic succession law that gave Infante Carlos precedence over Ferdinands daughter. 1789, During the reign of Charles IV, the Cortes approves a reversion of the system of succession to the traditional Siete Partidas order of succession. However, the law was not promulgated, due in part to protests from the branches of the House of Bourbon. A new Spanish constitution outlines the rules of succession in accordance with the Siete Partidas,10 October 1830, The future Isabella II is born to Ferdinand VII. After several court intrigues, the Pragmatic Sanction is definitively approved in 1832, Ferdinands brother, the Infante Don Carlos, up to that time the heir presumptive, feels robbed of his rights, and leaves for Portugal. Carlism confronted not only the question of who could sit on the Spanish throne. Should it remain Roman Catholic or embrace Enlightenment values, do governments derive their power from God or from human beings. The long war for Spains independence from the Napoleonic Empire left a supply of experienced guerrilla fighters. The reign of Ferdinand VII proved unable to overcome the political divide or to create stable institutions, while in power, both groups had divided themselves into moderate and radical branches

Carlism
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Satire was used in attempts to discredit the opposition, whether Liberal or Royalist (Carlist)
Carlism
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Don Carlos calling the Navarrese in 1833.
Carlism
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Attack on the bridge of Luchana, near Bilbao during the first war.

28.
Monarchy of Spain
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The Monarchy of Spain, constitutionally referred to as the Crown, is a constitutional institution and historic office of Spain. It used to be called the Hispanic Monarchy. The monarchy comprises the monarch, his or her family. The Spanish monarchy is represented by King Felipe VI, his wife Queen Letizia, and their daughters Leonor, Princess of Asturias, the Spanish Constitution of 1978 reestablished a constitutional monarchy as the form of government for Spain. The 1978 constitution affirmed the role of the King of Spain as the personification and embodiment of the Spanish State, constitutionally, the king is the head-of-state and commander-in-chief of the Spanish Armed Forces. According to the constitution, the monarch is also instrumental in promoting relations with the nations of its historical community, the King of Spain serves as the president of the Ibero-American States Organization, purportedly representing over 700,000,000 people in twenty-four member nations worldwide. In 2008, Juan Carlos I was considered the most popular leader in all Ibero-America, a dynastic marriage between Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon united Spain in the 15th century. The last pretender of the Crown of the Byzantine Empire, Andreas Palaiologos, sold his title to Ferdinand II of Aragon. However, there is no evidence that any Spanish monarch has used the Byzantine imperial titles, the Spanish Empire became one of the first global powers as Isabella and Ferdinand funded Christopher Columbuss exploratory voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. This led to the discovery of America, which became the focus of Spanish colonization, in 2010, the budget for the Spanish monarchy was 7.4 million euros, one of the lowest public expenditures for the institution of monarchy in Europe. One of the earliest influential dynasties was the House of Jiménez which united much of Christian Iberia under its leadership in the 11th century. From Sancho III of Navarre until Urraca of León and Castile, the Jiménez rulers sought to bring their kingdoms into the European mainstream and often engaged in cross-Pyrenees alliances and marriages, and became patrons to Cluniac Reforms. Urracas son and heir Alfonso VII of León and Castile, the first of the Spanish branch of the Burgundy Family, was the last to claim the title of Spain. The Castilian Civil War ended with the death of King Peter at the hands of his illegitimate half-brother Henry, Henry II became the first of the House of Trastámara to rule over a Spanish kingdom. King Peters heiress, his granddaughter Catherine of Lancaster, married Henry III, reuniting the dynasties in the person of their son, each kingdom retained its basic structure. In 1492 the Catholic Monarchs conquered the Kingdom of Granada in southern Spain and this date marks the unification of Spain. The territories of the Spanish empire overseas were dependencies of the crown of Castile, in the early 16th century, the Spanish monarchy controlled several territories in Europe under the Habsburg King Charles I, son of Queen Joanna of Castile. His reign ushered in the Spanish Golden Age a period of colonial expansion

29.
Alfonso XII of Spain
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Alfonso XII was King of Spain, reigning from 1874 to 1885, after a coup détat restored the monarchy and ended the ephemeral First Spanish Republic. Having been forced into exile after the Glorious Revolution deposed his mother Isabella II from the throne in 1868, Alfonso studied in Austria and his mother abdicated in his favour in 1870, and he returned to Spain as king in 1874 following a military coup. Alfonso died aged 27 in 1885, and was succeeded by his unborn son, Alfonso was born in Madrid as the eldest son of Queen Isabella II. Officially, his father was her husband, King Francis, alfonsos biological paternity is uncertain, there is speculation that his biological father may have been Enrique Puigmoltó y Mayans. These rumours were used as propaganda against Alfonso by the Carlists. His mothers accession created the second cause of instability, which was the Carlist Wars, the supporters of the Count of Molina as king of Spain rose to have him enthroned. This led to the cause of instability of note, the Independence of the American Kingdoms. When Queen Isabella and her husband were forced to leave Spain by the Revolution of 1868, from there, he was sent to the Theresianum at Vienna to continue his studies. On 25 June 1870, he was recalled to Paris, where his mother abdicated in his favour, after Amadeos abandonment in 1873, Parliament declared the Federal Republic, the first act of President Estanislao Figueras was to extend the Abolition Act to Puerto Rico. Cuban slaves would have to wait until 1889, but the republicans were not in agreement either, and they had to contend with the War in Cuba, and Muslim uprisings in Spanish Morocco. By 1872, the Third Carlist War erupted and this unrest led to the creation of a group in favor of the Bourbon restoration, made by some sectors of the conservatives led by Canovas del Castillo. The Prince of Asturias, Alfonso, was the chosen to develop the new road map proposed by Canovas. The new road map, which indeed ended the eternal crisis begun in 1810 was called Alfonsismo, as having Alfonso in Spain would be a problem, Cánovas became responsible for his education. He sent Alfonso to the Sandhurst Military Academy in England, where the training Alfonso received was severe but more cosmopolitan than in Spain, on 1 December 1874, Alfonso issued the Sandhurst Manifesto, where he set the ideological basis of the Bourbon Restoration. It was drafted in reply to a greeting from his followers. Thereupon the President resigned, and his power was transferred to the kings plenipotentiary and adviser, the 29 December 1874 military coup of Gen. Martinez Campos in Sagunto ended the failed republic and meant the rise of the young Prince Alfonso. In 1876, a campaign against the Carlists, in which the young king took part, resulted in the defeat of Don Carlos. Cánovas was the architect of the new regime of the Restoration

30.
Maria Josepha of Austria
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Maria Josepha of Austria was born an Archduchess of Austria, and from 1711 to 1717 was heir presumptive to the Habsburg Empire. By her marriage to Augustus III of Poland she was the Electress of Saxony, Maria Josepha was born in Vienna, an Archduchess of Austria as the eldest child of Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor, and Princess Wilhelmina Amalia of Brunswick-Lüneburg. A marriage between Maria Josepha and Frederick Augustus II, Elector of Saxony had been suggested by Fredericks father, August II the Strong, the fact that Maria Josepha was not allowed to marry a non-Catholic, however, prevented the marriage. When Augustus converted to Catholicism in 1712, the negotiations became serious, on 20 August 1719, Maria Josepha and Frederick Augustus married. The couples eldest surviving son, Frederick Christian, eventually succeeded his father as Elector of Saxony, in Saxony, the couple lived at Dresden Castle. The marriage has been described as happy, and Augustus was apparently never unfaithful, in 1733, Frederick Augustus was elected King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as August III the Saxon. Maria Josepha was crowned 20 January 1734, Queen Maria Josepha was described as ambitious, intelligent and religious. She founded many churches and convents and gave her support to the Polish Jesuits. As queen of Poland and electress of Saxony, she divided her time between the two nations and she learned to speak Polish, and was often present during the assemblies of the Polish parliament. She shared an interest of music, art and hunting with her spouse and she was devoted to Catholicism and especially worshipped saint Francis Xavier, and was actively involved in the building of the Catholic Hofkirche in Dresden. Her personal confessor, the Jesuit Fr, despite her personal strict moral, she was reportedly not a prude and got along quite nicely with the illegitimate half siblings of her spouse. She was rivalled in her influence over her spouse by Heinrich von Brühl, Queen Maria Josepha was politically active and, though not formally proclaimed regent during the absence of her spouse, she informally acted as his representative. It was known and acknowledged by the court that she participated in the affairs of state, and she also managed a large diplomatic correspondence. Maria Josepha was reportedly not on terms with her eldest son Frederick Christian. During the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740, she claimed the throne on behalf of her spouse and she relinquished her claim in favor of her sister, Maria Amalias spouse, and in 1742 made an alliance with Austria. During the seven years war, Maria Josepha stayed behind in Dresden with Frederick Christian and his spouse Maria Antonia and she remained in Dresden when the city was taken by the Prussian army. She, as well as Frederick Christian and his spouse Maria Antonia, were all placed under house arrest at the palace of Dresden guarded by a Prussian commandant, on 4 April 1757, her Mistress of the Chamber, Countess Ogilvy, was arrested. Her last letter of 6 September was sent to the Austrian empress through her son, in which she also mentions that this would be her last

31.
Polyxena of Hesse-Rotenburg
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Princess Polyxena of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg was the second wife of Charles Emmanuel, Prince of Piedmont whom she married in 1724. The mother of the future Victor Amadeus III, she was queen consort of Sardinia from 1730 until her death in 1735, king Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia approached her family and proposed a union between Polyxena and Victor Amadeus IIs son and heir Charles Emmanuel, Prince of Piedmont. A previous match orchestrated by Agostino Steffani with a daughter of Rinaldo, although only two years younger, Polyxena was a niece of Charles Emanuels first wife, and belonged to the only Roman Catholic branch of the reigning House of Hesse. In fact, she had been nominally a canoness of Thorn since 1720, the engagement was announced on 2 July 1724, and she wed Charles Emmanuel by proxy on 23 July in Rotenburg. The marriage was celebrated in person at Thonon in Chablais on 20 August 1724. Her stepson Victor Amadeus, heir after his father and grandfather to the Sardinian crown, nonetheless, she is said to have had a close relationship with her mother-in-law Anne Marie dOrléans and the two frequented the Villa della Regina outside the capital, where the latter died in 1728. In 1732 she founded a home for mothers in Turin, redecorated the Villa della Regina, Stupinigis hunting lodge. She carried out various improvements with Filippo Juvarra and popularised chinoiserie and she was also a patron of Giovanni Battista Crosato, a baroque painter. Having been ill since June 1734, she died at the Royal Palace of Turin, two years after her death, her widower married Princess Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine, sister of the future Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor. The senior branch of the House of Savoy ended with her grandson Charles Felix of Sardinia, the Villa Polissena in Rome is named in her honour. Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia, had issue, Prince Emanuele Filiberto of Savoy, Duke of Aosta. Prince Carlo of Savoy, Duke of Chablais

Polyxena of Hesse-Rotenburg
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Polyxena of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg

32.
Princess Maria Theresa of Savoy
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Maria Theresa of Savoy was a princess of Savoy by birth and the wife of Charles Philippe, Count of Artois, grandson of Louis XV and younger brother of Louis XVI. Some nineteen years after her death, her husband assumed the throne of France as King Charles X, Princess Maria Theresa of Savoy was born at the Royal Palace in Turin during the reign of her grandfather Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia. The daughter of the apparent and his wife, Victor Amadeus and Maria Antonia Ferdinanda of Spain, she was the couples third daughter. She was raised with her sister Princess Maria Giuseppina who was three years her senior and whom she would join later as a member of the family of France. Following a series of alliances, Maria Theresa was betrothed to the Count of Artois. Artois had previously intended to marry Louise Adélaïde de Bourbon. However the union never took place as her rank was much lower than Artois who, Maria Theresa married the count in a proxy ceremony at the Palazzina di caccia di Stupinigi before her official marriage, which took place at the Palace of Versailles on 16 November 1773. This marriage was the second of three Franco-Savoyard marriages that would take place four years. As her husband was the grandson of a king, the newly named Marie Thérèse held the rank of granddaughter of France and this rank allowed her to maintain the style of Royal Highness that she had enjoyed from birth as the granddaughter of the king of Sardinia. However, at Versailles, the simple style Madame la comtesse dArtois was used instead, Maria Theresa was one of the most disliked figures at the French court of the time, although she avoided the worst of the abuse directed at her sister-in-law Marie Antoinette. The Count of Mercy-Argenteau, who corresponded with Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa regarding Marie Antoinette, said that she was silent, Maria Theresa was not regarded as a beauty at Versailles, but her complexion was generally admired. She was a cousin of the famous Princess Marie Louise of Savoy, Princess of Lamballe and she was also a cousin of the Prince of Condé, who would later be instrumental in leading a large counter-revolutionary army of émigrés. Roughly a year after Maria Theresas arrival at Versailles, she became pregnant with her first child, Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême, the next year she gave birth to a daughter Sophie, who was known as Mademoiselle as the most senior unmarried princess at court. She died at the age of six in 1783 and her second son, Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry, was born in 1778. Her last child, Marie Thérèse dArtois, presumably named after her mother, Maria Theresa fled France with her husband shortly after the storming of the Bastille, which marked the beginning of the French Revolution. Some time after, she took refuge in her homeland of Savoy and she died in exile at Graz, in 1805. Because she died before her husband became king of France, she remained Countess of Artois and she was buried in the Imperial Mausoleum next to Graz Cathedral. Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême married Marie Thérèse of France, had no issue, Sophie, Mademoiselle dArtois died in childhood

Princess Maria Theresa of Savoy
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Marie Thérèse by Jean-Baptiste André Gautier-Dagoty (1740–1786), with a bust of her husband and holding a portrait of her mother
Princess Maria Theresa of Savoy
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Signature
Princess Maria Theresa of Savoy
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Marie Thérèse with her three surviving children, by Charles Leclercq, 1783.

33.
Maria Antonia Ferdinanda of Spain
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Maria Antonia Ferdinanda of Spain was an Infanta of Spain and the youngest daughter of Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese. She was the wife of Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia whom she married in 1750 and she was the mother of the last three mainline Kings of Sardinia. She was born at the Royal Alcázar of Seville in Seville and was the youngest daughter of Philip V of Spain and she was born in Seville during the signing of the Treaty of Seville which ended the Anglo-Spanish War. She spent her infancy in the city of her birth before moving to Madrid in 1733 and she was baptised with the names María Antonia along with Fernanda in honour of her half brother, then the heir to the throne. Variations in her range from Antonia Fernanda and Antonietta Ferdinanda. As a daughter of the King of Spain, she held the title of Infanta of Spain, in a double marriage plan she would marry Louis, Dauphin of France, and her brother, Infante Philip, would marry the Dauphins sister Louise Élisabeth of France. Her mother consented to the union but insisted on waiting for Maria Antonia Ferdinanda to reach a more mature age. The Infantas hand was sought by the Electoral Prince of Saxony. The marriage between Infante Philip and Louise Élisabeth occurred in 1739 and eventually her older sister Infanta Maria Teresa Rafaela married the Dauphin in 1745. However, upon the death of Maria Teresa Rafaela in 1746 Ferdinand VI tried to engage Maria Antonia Fernandina to the Dauphin, instead he chose Maria Josepha of Saxony. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war, as a wedding gift, the apartments of the new Duchess of Savoy at the Royal Palace of Turin were remodelled by the architect Benedetto Alfieri. Maria Antonia Ferdinanda was given a dowry of 3,500,000 Piedmontese Lires as well as Spanish possessions in Milan, in Italy she was known as Maria Antonietta Ferdinanda. Operas by Baldassare Galuppi were specially composed for her marriage to the Duke of Savoy, the match was seen as unpopular, but the two remained close until her death. From marriage until her husbands accession she was styled as the Duchess of Savoy, the couple surrounded themselves with modern thinkers and various politicians. The first lady of the land, she brought a rigid etiquette from her native Spain to the court of Savoy and she was very religious and was said to have a cold, shy personality. She was the mother of children, three of whom died in infancy. Two of her children had issue, at the death of her father-in-law Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia in 1773, her husband succeeded him as Victor Amadeus III. She was the first queen of Sardinia in over thirty years since the death of Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine in 1741 and her oldest son Charles Emmanuel, Prince of Piedmont married Marie Clotilde of France, sister of Louis XVI in 1775

Maria Antonia Ferdinanda of Spain
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Maria Antonia holding a double image of her daughters at the French Court by Mengs
Maria Antonia Ferdinanda of Spain
Maria Antonia Ferdinanda of Spain
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Maria Antonia with her sister the Dauphine of France
Maria Antonia Ferdinanda of Spain
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Maria Antonia as a Spanish infanta by Amigoni

34.
Elisabeth Farnese
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Elisabeth Farnese was Queen of Spain by marriage to King Philip V. She exerted great influence over Spains foreign policy and was the de facto ruler of Spain from 1714 until 1746, from 1759 until 1760, she governed as regent. Elisabeth was born at the Palazzo della Pilotta in Parma, daughter of Odoardo Farnese, Elisabeth would later become the heiress of her fathers dominions after her uncle Francesco Farnese, Duke of Parma and his younger brother both remained childless. Elisabeth was raised in seclusion in an apartment in the Palace in Parma and she had a difficult relationship with her mother, but was reportedly deeply devoted to her uncle-stepfather. She was a student within dance, studied painting under Pierantonio Avanzini and enjoyed music. She survived a virulent attack of smallpox shortly after the War of the Spanish Succession and she was therefore made many marriage proposals. Victor Amadeus, Prince of Piedmont and Francesco dEste, Hereditary Prince of Modena both asked for her hand but negotiations failed, as well as Prince Pio della Mirandola. The Duchy of Parma would later be inherited by her first son, after his accession to the Spanish throne, the title passed on to her third son, Infante Felipe. It was he who founded the modern day House of Bourbon-Parma, on 16 September 1714 she was married by proxy at Parma to Philip V of Spain. The marriage was arranged by the ambassador of Parma, Cardinal Alberoni, with the concurrence of the Princesse des Ursins, Elisabeth was a natural choice for Philip V because of the traditional Spanish interests in Italian provinces, as she was the heir of the Parmesan throne. Elisabeth left Parma in September and traveled to Spain by land in a retinue led by Marquis Schotta, originally intended to travel by sea, she became ill in Genova, and the plans were therefore altered. On her way to Spain, she met the Prince of Monaco and the French ambassador, Elisabeth spent several days in Bayonne in November as guest of her maternal aunt, the Queen Dowager Maria Anna of Spain. At the Franco-Spanish border, she was met by Alberoni, who spent several days warning her against des Ursins, upon entrance to Spain, she refused to part with her Italian retinue in exchange with a Spanish one, as had originally been planned. On 23 December at Jadraque, Elisabeth met the Princesse des Ursins, the princess had sent out spies who reported that Elisabeth was in fact not at all a timid person who would be easy to control. Elisabeth received des Ursins and asked to speak with her privately, shortly after, the party could hear the sounds of a violent argument, after which des Ursins was arrested, fired, and immediately escorted over the border to France. There have been different versions of this incident, and different suggestions as to how it occurred. Her chief adviser was Alberoni, who guided her as how to protect the interests of herself and Parma, while he himself, Queen Elisabeth quickly obtained complete influence over Philip, who himself wished to be dominated. Reportedly she had physical charm and purposefulness, she was intelligent and could converse, be gay, jovial and charming, the king did not live in his own apartments but in the queens, where he spent the whole night

35.
Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies
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Ferdinand I, was the King of the Two Sicilies from 1816, after his restoration following victory in the Napoleonic Wars. Before that he had been, since 1759, Ferdinand IV of the Kingdom of Naples and he was deposed twice from the throne of Naples, once by the revolutionary Parthenopean Republic for six months in 1799 and again by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1805. Ferdinand was the son of King Charles III of Spain, Naples and Sicily by his wife. On 10 August 1759, Charles succeeded his brother, Ferdinand VI. Ferdinand was the founder of the cadet House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, Ferdinand was styled both Ferdinand III of Sicily and Ferdinand IV of Naples. On 21 January 1799, the Kingdom of Naples was abolished and replaced by the Parthenopaean Republic which lasted until 13 June 1799, Ferdinand was restored to the throne for a while. On 26 December 1805, Napoleon I of France declared Ferdinand deposed again, Ferdinand was restored for the second time following the Austrian victory at the Battle of Tolentino over rival monarch King Joachim I. On 8 March 1816 he merged the thrones of Sicily and Naples into the throne of the Two Sicilies and he continued to rule until his death on 4 January 1825. Ferdinand was born in Naples and grew up amidst many of the monuments erected there by his father which can be seen today, Ferdinand was his parents third son, his elder brother Charles was expected to inherit Naples and Sicily. When his father ascended the Spanish throne in 1759 he abdicated Naples in Ferdinands favor in accordance with the treaties forbidding the union of the two crowns, a regency council presided over by the Tuscan Bernardo Tanucci was set up. Ferdinands minority ended in 1767, and his first act was the expulsion of the Jesuits, the following year he married Archduchess Maria Carolina, daughter of Empress Maria Theresa. By the marriage contract the queen was to have a voice in the council of state after the birth of her first son, Tanucci, who attempted to thwart her, was dismissed in 1777. He became practically and afterward prime minister. Although not a mere grasping adventurer, he was responsible for reducing the internal administration of the country to a system of espionage, corruption. The French entered the city in spite of the resistance of the lazzaroni. When, a few weeks later the French troops were recalled to northern Italy, Ferdinand sent a hastily assembled force, under Cardinal Ruffo, to reconquer the mainland kingdom. Ruffo, with the support of British artillery, the Church, and the aristocracy, succeeded, reaching Naples in May 1800. After some months King Ferdinand returned to the throne, the king returned to Naples soon afterwards, and ordered a few hundred who had collaborated with the French executed

Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies
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Ferdinand I
Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies
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Ferdinand in 1760, at age nine.
Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies
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Ferdinand I King of the Two Sicilies depicted on a Duchy of Parma 8 Doppie coin (1791)
Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies
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Piastra of Ferdinand IV of Naples, dated 1805.

36.
Maria Amalia of Saxony
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She was the mother of thirteen children, many of whom died in childhood. A popular consort, she oversaw the construction of the Caserta Palace outside Naples as well as other projects in her husbands domains. Moving to Spain in 1759, she set about the improvements to the Royal Palace of Madrid. Maria Amalia was politically active and openly participated in affairs in both Naples and Spain. She was born at Dresden Castle in Dresden, the daughter of Augustus III of Poland, Elector of Saxony and Maria Josepha of Austria, herself daughter of Joseph I and her mother was the first cousin of Empress Maria Theresa. The infant was baptised with the names Maria Amalia Christina Franziska Xaveria Flora Walburga and her youngest sister, Princess Kunigunde was a possible wife for the future Philippe Égalité. She grew up at the court of Dresden and was educated in French, dance and she was also an accomplished musician and sang and played the keyboard from an early age. In 1738 Maria Amalia became engaged to Charles, King of Naples and Sicily, the impenetrable secret negotiations had taken place earlier in Vienna, where the Dowager Empress Wilhelmina Amalia, grandmother of Maria Amalia, played an important part in the negotiations. The Spanish ambassador in Vienna, Count Fuenclara, acted on behalf of the courts of Madrid and Naples, in December 1737, a papal dispensation was made, and the marriage announced in the beginning 1738. On May 8,1738, Maria Amalia had a ceremony at Dresden with her brother, Frederick Christian of Saxony. Since this marriage was looked upon favorably by the papacy, it soothed the diplomatic disagreements between Charles and the Papal states, on July 4,1738, Maria Amalia arrived at Naples and to what was described as a euphoric welcome. The couple met for the first time on June 19,1738 at Portella, at court, festivities lasted till July 3 when Charles created the Royal order of San Gennaro – the most prestigious chivalric order in the kingdom. He later had the Order of Charles III created in Spain on 19 September 1771, despite being an arranged marriage, the couple became very close, it was noted and reported to her mother-in-law in Spain, that Charles seemed happy and pleased when he first met her. Maria Amalia was described as a beauty and as a skillful rider, as Queen, she exerted great influence upon politics despite her frequent illnesses, and she actively participated in state affairs. He displeasure led directly to the latter being deposed as prime minister, Maria Amalia did not need to keep her influence secret, after the birth of her first son in 1747, she was given a seat in the council of state. In 1744, however she was forced to agree to declare war and she then favored Great Britain before France and Austria. Maria Amalia was talked about because of her favorites, which were to have influence over her policy when she was ill, such as princess Anna Francesca Pinelli. In 1754, she supported the career of Bernardo Tanucci as Foreign Minister, however, they left Naples before its completion due to her declining health so they never actually lived in the palace

37.
Maria Carolina of Austria
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Maria Carolina of Austria was Queen of Naples and Sicily as the wife of King Ferdinand IV & III. She was a proponent of enlightened absolutism until the advent of the French Revolution, born an Austrian archduchess, the thirteenth child of Empress Maria Theresa and Emperor Francis I, she married Ferdinand as part of an Austrian alliance with Spain, where Ferdinands father was king. Following the birth of an heir in 1775, Maria Carolina was admitted to the Privy Council. Thereafter, she dominated it until 1812, when she was sent back to Vienna, like her mother, Maria Carolina took pains to make politically advantageous marriages for her children. Maria Carolina promoted Naples as a centre of the arts, patronising painters Jacob Philipp Hackert and Angelica Kauffman and academics Gaetano Filangieri, Domenico Cirillo and Giuseppe Maria Galanti. Maria Carolina, abhorring her sister Marie Antoinettes treatment by the French, allied Naples with Britain and Austria during the Napoleonic, as a result of a failed Neapolitan invasion of French-occupied Rome, she fled to Sicily with her husband in December 1798. One month later, the Parthenopean Republic was declared, which repudiated Bourbon rule in Naples for six months. Deposed as Queen of Naples for a time by French forces, in 1806, Maria Carolina died in Vienna in 1814. Her godparents were King Louis XV of France and his wife, Maria Carolina was the daughter who resembled her mother most. Maria Carolina formed a close bond with her youngest sister. From very early on they shared the same governess Countess Lerchenfeld, a testament to their closeness is the fact that when one caught an illness the other did too. In August 1767 Maria Theresa separated the two girls, hitherto raised together under the auspices of Countess Marie von Brandis, because of their bad behaviour. Soon after in October of the year, Maria Carolinas sister Maria Josepha, destined to marry Ferdinand IV of Naples as part of an alliance with Spain. Anxious to save the Austro-Spanish alliance Charles III of Spain, father of Ferdinand IV, the Empress offered the court of Madrid, negotiating on behalf of that of Naples, Maria Amalia or Maria Carolina. Because Maria Amalia was five years older than his son Charles III opted for the latter, Maria Carolina reacted badly to her engagement, crying, entreating and saying that Neapolitan marriages were unlucky. Her objections, however, did not delay her preparation for her new role as Queen of Naples by the Countess of Lerchenfeld, nine months later, on 7 April 1768, Maria Carolina married Ferdinand IV of Naples by proxy, her brother Ferdinand representing the bride-groom. The fifteen-year-old Queen of Naples journeyed at leisure from Vienna to Naples, making stops at Mantua, Bologna, Florence and she entered the Kingdom of Naples on 12 May 1768, disembarking at Terracina, where she took leave of her native attendants. To the Countess of Lerchenfeld, she wrote, I love him only out of duty, Ferdinand, too, was not taken with her, declaring, after their first night together, She sleeps like the dead and sweats like a pig

38.
Maria Theresa
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Maria Theresa Walburga Amalia Christina was the only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of Habsburg. She was the sovereign of Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, Transylvania, Mantua, Milan, Lodomeria and Galicia, by marriage, she was Duchess of Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Holy Roman Empress. She started her 40-year reign when her father, Emperor Charles VI, Charles VI paved the way for her accession with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and spent his entire reign securing it. Upon the death of her father, Saxony, Prussia, Bavaria, Prussia proceeded to invade the affluent Habsburg province of Silesia, sparking a nine-year conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession, and subsequently conquered it. Maria Theresa would later try to reconquer Silesia during the Seven Years War. Of the sixteen, ten survived to adulthood and she had eleven daughters and five sons. She criticised and disapproved of many of Josephs actions, Maria Theresa understood the importance of her public persona and was able to simultaneously evoke both esteem and affection from her subjects. However, she refused to allow religious toleration and contemporary travelers thought her regime was bigoted and superstitious. As a young monarch who fought two wars, she believed that her cause should be the cause of her subjects. The dowager empresses, her aunt Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick-Lüneburg and grandmother Eleonor Magdalene of the Palatinate-Neuburg, were her godmothers and her father was the only surviving male member of the House of Habsburg and hoped for a son who would prevent the extinction of his dynasty and succeed him. Thus, the birth of Maria Theresa was a disappointment to him. Charles sought the other European powers approval for disinheriting his nieces and they exacted harsh terms, in the Treaty of Vienna, Great Britain demanded that Austria abolish the Ostend Company in return for its recognition of the Pragmatic Sanction. France, Spain, Saxony-Poland, Bavaria and Prussia later reneged, little more than a year after her birth, Maria Theresa was joined by a sister, Maria Anna, and another one, named Maria Amalia, was born in 1724. The portraits of the family show that Maria Theresa resembled Elisabeth Christine. The Prussian ambassador noted that she had blue eyes, fair hair with a slight tinge of red, a wide mouth. Unlike many other members of the House of Habsburg, neither Maria Theresas parents nor her grandparents were closely related to each other, Maria Theresa was a serious and reserved child who enjoyed singing and archery. She was barred from riding by her father, but she would later learn the basics for the sake of her Hungarian coronation ceremony. The imperial family staged opera productions, often conducted by Charles VI and her education was overseen by Jesuits

Maria Theresa
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Portrait by Martin van Meytens, 1759
Maria Theresa
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Three-year-old Maria Theresa in the gardens of Hofburg Palace
Maria Theresa
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Archduchess Maria Theresa in 1729, by Andreas Möller. The flowers which she carries in the uplifted folds of her dress represent her fertility and expectations to bear children in adulthood.
Maria Theresa
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Maria Theresa and Francis Stephen at their wedding breakfast, by Martin van Meytens.

39.
Maria Luisa of Spain
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Infanta Maria Luisa of Spain was Holy Roman Empress, German Queen, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, Grand Duchess of Tuscany as the spouse of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor. Maria Luisa was born a Princess of Naples and Sicily and her father, the future Charles III of Spain, had become King of Naples and Sicily in 1735 after its occupation by the Spanish in the War of Polish Succession. After her father became King of Spain at the death of her half-uncle, Ferdinand VI of Spain, in 1759 and she still had the use of the style of Royal Highness. Maria Luisa was born in Portici, in Campania, the site of the palace of her parents, King Charles, King of Naples and Sicily. She was the daughter, and second surviving child, of her parents. Her father became King of Spain as Charles III in 1759 and her first cousins included Louis XVI, Maria I of Portugal and Charles Emmanuel IV of Sardinia. Before her marriage, she was made to renounce her rights to the throne of Spain upon the wish of her father, after her wedding by proxy, she traveled to Austria by way of Barcelona, Genova and Bolzano. The next year, on 5 August, she married him in person at Innsbruck, the couple arrived to Florence 13 September 1765. They were settled in the Palazzo Pitti, by her strict Catholic upbringing, Maria Luisa was raised to endure any hardship of pregnancy and marriage without complaint, a role she also fulfilled during her marriage. The relationship between Maria Luisa and Leopold has been described as happy, and Maria Luisa as a supporting and she was never crowned as Grand Duchess, though she was present at the coronation of Leopold in July 1768. She accompanied her consort and her sister-in-law, Maria Carolina of Austria, at the marriage to her brother, the King of Naples. In 1770, she accompanied Leopold on his visit to Vienna, Maria Luisa and her spouse gave their children a very free upbringing, away from any formal court life, and occasionally took them on trips to the country side and the coast. She remained mostly unknown in the aristocracy, and restricted her private social life to a very small circle of friends. In 1790, on the death of Peter Leopolds childless brother, Joseph II, Maria Luisas husband inherited the Habsburg lands in Central Europe, and was shortly thereafter elected Holy Roman Emperor. Taking the name of Leopold II, the new Emperor moved his family to Vienna, Leopold died scarcely two years later, on 1 March 1792. Maria Luisa followed her husband to the grave in less than three months, not living long enough to see her eldest son Francis elected as the last Holy Roman Emperor, Maria Theresa of Austria married Anton of Saxony and had issue. Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany married Luisa of Naples and Sicily and had issue, Maria Anna of Austria died unmarried. Charles of Austria married Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg and had issue, alexander Leopold of Austria died unmarried

Maria Luisa of Spain
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Maria Luisa of Spain

40.
Robert IV the Strong
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Robert the Strong, also known as Rutpert, also known as Robert IV of Worms, was Margrave in Neustria. His family is named after him and called the Robertians, in 853 he was named missus dominicus by Charles the Bald, King of West Francia. He was the father of two kings of West Francia Odo and Robert I of France, Robert the Strong was the great-grandfather of Hugh Capet and thus the ancestor of all the Capetians. Robert was a son of Robert III of Worms, during the reign of Louis the German in East Francia, the Robertian family emigrated from East Francia to West Francia. After their arrival in his realm Charles the Bald rewarded the family defecting from his enemy by assigning to Robert the lay abbacy of Marmoutier in 852. Roberts rise came at the expense of the family of the Rorigonids and was designed to curb their regional power and to defend Neustria from Viking. In 858 Robert joined a rebellion against Charles the Bald, with the Bretons under Salomon he led the Frankish nobles of Neustria and invited Louis the German to invade West Francia and receive their homage. Charles had given Robert the counties of Autun and Nevers in Burgundy, but following Erispoes assassination in November 857, he and Salomon rebelled against Charles. Robert’s Neustrians chased Louis the Stammerer from Le Mans in 858, later that year, Louis the German reached Orléans and received delegations from the Breton and Neustrian leaders, as well as from Pepin II. In 861, Charles made peace with Robert and appointed him Count of Anjou, thereafter Robert successfully defended the northern coast against a Viking invasion. In 862 Charles granted Louis the Stammerer, his son, the lay abbacy of Saint Martin of Tours—a worthy benefice but small in comparison with the kingdom he had received in 856, and lost in 858. The young Louis rebelled and, befriended by Salomon who supplied him with troops, in 862 two Viking fleets converged on Brittany, one had recently been forced out of the Seine by Charles the Bald, the other was returning from a Mediterranean expedition. Salomon hired the Mediterranean fleet to ravage the Loire valley in Nuestria, Robert captured twelve of their ships, killing all on board save a few who fled. He then hired the former Seine Vikings to attack Salomon’s realm for 6,000 pounds silver, robert’s apparent purpose was to prevent the Vikings from serving Salomon. He presumably collected an amount in taxes for a Danegeld to pay for keeping the Vikings out of Neustria. But peace between the Franks and the Vikings did not last long, in 863 Salomon made his peace, Charles now made Robert Lay abbot of the influential abbey St. Martin at Tours. Robert warred with Pepin II in his later years, in 863 he again defended Autun from Louis the German, he campaigned in Neustria in 865 and again in 866, shortly before his death, dealing with Bretons and Vikings ravaging the environs of Le Mans. On 2 July 866, Robert was killed at the Battle of Brissarthe while defending Francia against a joint Breton-Viking raiding party led by Salomon, King of Brittany, during the battle the Viking commander was entrapped in a nearby church

Robert IV the Strong
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Map of early Frankland, showing Austrasia, where Robert the Strong originated, and Neustria, between the Seine and Loire, where he held the most power.

41.
Robert II of France
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Robert II, called the Pious or the Wise, was King of the Franks from 996 until his death. The second reigning member of the House of Capet, he was born in Orléans to Hugh Capet, immediately after his own coronation, Roberts father Hugh began to push for the coronation of Robert. Lewis has observed, in tracing the phenomenon in this line of kings who lacked dynastic legitimacy, ralph Glaber, however, attributes Hughs request to his old age and inability to control the nobility. Robert was eventually crowned on 25 December 987, Robert had begun to take on active royal duties with his father in the early 990s. In 991, he helped his father prevent the French bishops from trekking to Mousson in the Kingdom of Germany for a synod called by Pope John XV and she was the widow of Arnulf II of Flanders, with whom she had two children. Robert divorced her within a year of his fathers death in 996 and he tried instead to marry Bertha, daughter of Conrad of Burgundy, around the time of his fathers death. She was a widow of Odo I of Blois, but was also Roberts cousin, for reasons of consanguinity, Pope Gregory V refused to sanction the marriage, and Robert was excommunicated. After long negotiations with Gregorys successor, Sylvester II, the marriage was annulled, finally, in 1001, Robert entered into his final and longest-lasting marriage to Constance of Arles, the daughter of William I of Provence. Her southern customs and entourage were regarded with suspicion at court, after his companion Hugh of Beauvais urged the king to repudiate her as well, knights of her kinsman Fulk III, Count of Anjou had Beauvais murdered. The king and Bertha then went to Rome to ask Pope Sergius IV for an annulment so they could remarry, after this was refused, he went back to Constance and fathered several children by her. Her ambition alienated the chroniclers of her day, who blamed her for several of the kings decisions, Constance and Robert remained married until his death in 1031. Robert was a devout Catholic, hence his sobriquet the Pious and he was musically inclined, being a composer, chorister, and poet, and made his palace a place of religious seclusion where he conducted the matins and vespers in his royal robes. Roberts reputation for piety also resulted from his lack of toleration for heretics and he is credited with advocating forced conversions of local Jewry. He supported riots against the Jews of Orléans who were accused of conspiring to destroy the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, furthermore, Robert reinstated the Roman imperial custom of burning heretics at the stake. In 1003, his invasion of the Duchy of Burgundy was thwarted, the pious Robert made few friends and many enemies, including his own sons, Hugh, Henry, and Robert. They turned against their father in a war over power. Hugh died in revolt in 1025, in a conflict with Henry and the younger Robert, King Roberts army was defeated, and he retreated to Beaugency outside Paris, his capital. He died in the middle of the war with his sons on 20 July 1031 at Melun and he was interred with Constance in Saint Denis Basilica and succeeded by his son Henry, in both France and Burgundy

Robert II of France
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The Excommunication of Robert the Pious by Jean-Paul Laurens (1875)
Robert II of France
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Denier of Robert II the Pious, struck at Soissons
Robert II of France
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Seal of Robert II
Robert II of France
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Effigies of Robert II (middle) and Constance d'Arles (front) at Basilique Saint-Denis.

42.
Antoine of Navarre
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Antoine was the King of Navarre through his marriage to Queen Jeanne III, from 1555 until his death. He was the first monarch of the House of Bourbon, of which he was head from 1537 and he was the father of Henry IV of France. He was born at La Fère, Picardy, France, the son of Charles de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme. He was the brother of Louis I de Bourbon, Prince de Condé. On 20 October 1548, at Moulins, he married Jeanne III, Queen regnant of Navarre, daughter of Henry II of Navarre and his wife Margaret of Angoulême. By his marriage, he became King of Navarre, Count of Foix, of Bigorre, of Armagnac, of Périgord and it was reported that Jeanne was much in love with him, but his subsequent actions show that he had little loyalty to her. The southern territory of the Kingdom of Navarre had been occupied by the Spanish since 1512 and he was ready to sacrifice anything to his political interests. Antoine appears not to have had real religious conviction and officially changed religions several times and his reconversion to Catholicism separated him from his wife and he threatened to repudiate her. He had an affair with Louise de La Béraudière de lIsle Rouhet, la belle Rouet, with whom he had a son, although his brother Louis was the head of the Protestant faction, Antoine spent most of his life fighting for the King of France. Catherine de Medici, regent for her son Charles IX, named him lieutenant general of the kingdom in 1561, when his wife allowed the Huguenots to sack the chapel of Vendôme and the churches of the town in 1562, he threatened to send her to a convent. He often disappointed his followers and was manipulated by his superiors and he laid siege to Rouen and was mortally wounded on 13 November 1562. He died at Les Andelys, Eure, with his wife, Jeanne III of Navarre, he had the following issue, Henry, Duke of Beaumont Henry IV of France Louis, Count of Marle Madeleine Catherine. Married Henry II, Duke of Lorraine in 1599, with his mistress, Louise de La Béraudière de lIsle Rouhet, King Anthony had a son named Charles. Charles was Archbishop of Rouen from 1554 until 1610, achaintre, Nicolas Louis, Histoire généalogique et chronologique de la maison royale de Bourbon, Vol.2, Publisher Mansut Fils,4 Rue de lÉcole de Médecine, Paris,1825. Bergin, Joseph, The making of the French episcopate, 1589–1661, bryson, David, Queen Jeanne and the Promised Land, Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden,1999. Dupuy, Trevor, Curt Johnson and David L. Bongard, The Harper Encyclopedia of Military Biography, Castle Books, duruy, Victor, John Franklin Jameson and Mabell Shippie Clarke Smith, A history of France, Thomas Y. Dussieux, Louis, Généalogie de la maison de Bourbon, de 1256 à1871, the French wars of religion, 1562–1629, Cambridge University Press, New York,2005. Robin, Diana Maury, Larsen, Anne R. and Levin, Encyclopedia of women in the Renaissance, Italy, France, and England

43.
Henry IV of France
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Henry IV, also known by the epithet Good King Henry, was King of Navarre from 1572 to 1610 and King of France from 1589 to 1610. He was the first French monarch of the House of Bourbon, baptised as a Catholic but raised in the Protestant faith by his mother Jeanne dAlbret, Queen of Navarre, he inherited the throne of Navarre in 1572 on the death of his mother. As a Huguenot, Henry was involved in the French Wars of Religion, barely escaping assassination in the St. Bartholomews Day massacre, and later led Protestant forces against the royal army. Henry, as Head of the House of Bourbon, was a direct descendant of Louis IX of France. Upon the death of his brother-in-law and distant cousin Henry III of France in 1589 and he initially kept the Protestant faith and had to fight against the Catholic League, which denied that he could wear Frances crown as a Protestant. To obtain mastery over his kingdom, after four years of stalemate, as a pragmatic politician, he displayed an unusual religious tolerance for the era. Notably, he promulgated the Edict of Nantes, which guaranteed religious liberties to Protestants and he was assassinated in 1610 by François Ravaillac, a fanatical Catholic, and was succeeded by his son Louis XIII. Considered a usurper by some Catholics and a traitor by some Protestants, an unpopular king immediately after his accession, Henrys popularity greatly improved after his death, in light of repeated victories over his enemies and his conversion to Catholicism. The Good King Henry was remembered for his geniality and his concern about the welfare of his subjects. He was celebrated in the popular song Vive le roi Henri, Henry was born in Pau, the capital of the joint Kingdom of Navarre with the sovereign principality of Béarn. His parents were Queen Joan III of Navarre and her consort, Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme, although baptised as a Roman Catholic, Henry was raised as a Protestant by his mother, who had declared Calvinism the religion of Navarre. As a teenager, Henry joined the Huguenot forces in the French Wars of Religion, on 9 June 1572, upon his mothers death, he became King of Navarre. At Queen Joans death, it was arranged for Henry to marry Margaret of Valois, daughter of Henry II, the wedding took place in Paris on 18 August 1572 on the parvis of Notre Dame Cathedral. On 24 August, the Saint Bartholomews Day Massacre began in Paris, several thousand Protestants who had come to Paris for Henrys wedding were killed, as well as thousands more throughout the country in the days that followed. Henry narrowly escaped death thanks to the help of his wife and he was made to live at the court of France, but he escaped in early 1576. On 5 February of that year, he formally abjured Catholicism at Tours and he named his 16-year-old sister, Catherine de Bourbon, regent of Béarn. Catherine held the regency for nearly thirty years, Henry became heir presumptive to the French throne in 1584 upon the death of Francis, Duke of Anjou, brother and heir to the Catholic Henry III, who had succeeded Charles IX in 1574. Because Henry of Navarre was the senior agnatic descendant of King Louis IX, King Henry III had no choice

44.
Louis XIV of France
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Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood

45.
Louis, Grand Dauphin
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Louis of France was the eldest son and heir of Louis XIV, King of France, and his spouse, Maria Theresa of Spain. As the heir apparent to the French throne, he was styled Dauphin and he became known as Le Grand Dauphin after the birth of his own son, Le Petit Dauphin. As he died before his father, he never became king, as a Fils de France he was entitled to the style of Royal Highness. He was baptised on 24 March 1662 at the chapel of the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, at the ceremony, Cardinal de Vendôme and the Princess of Conti acted as proxies for the godparents, Pope Clement IX and Queen Henrietta Maria of England. For this ceremony, Jean-Baptiste Lully composed the motet Plaude Laetare Gallia, when Louis reached the age of seven, he was removed from the care of women and placed in the society of men. No prince could have been deserving of such feelings. Monseigneur, as the heir to the throne was now known, had inherited his mothers docility, all his life he remained petrified with admiration of his formidable father and stood in fear of him even while lavish proofs of affection were showered upon him. The best way for Monseigneur to do someone an injury was to him to the royal favour. He knew it, and did not conceal it from his rare petitioners, Louis XIV saw to it that his sons upbringing was quite the opposite of his own. Bossuet overwhelmed his backward pupil with such splendid lessons that the Dauphin developed a horror of books, learning. By the age of eighteen, Monseigneur had assimilated almost none of the knowledge amassed to so little purpose, and it was said that when Louis was an adult, he could pass a whole day simply tapping his cane against his foot in an armchair. Nonetheless, his generosity, affability, and liberality gave him popularity in Paris. Louis was one of six children of his parents. The others all died in childhood, the second longest-lived, Marie Thérèse of France. According to various reports, Marie Louise and Louis were in love, however, Louis XIV used Marie Louise to forge a link with Spain and forced her to marry the invalid Charles II of Spain, the Dauphins own half-uncle. Louis was engaged to his cousin, Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria. She was an older than Louis and, upon arriving at the French court, was described as being very unattractive. Nonetheless, she was a cultured princess

46.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

48.
The Times
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The Times is a British daily national newspaper based in London, England. It began in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register, the Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times are published by Times Newspapers, since 1981 a subsidiary of News UK, itself wholly owned by News Corp. The Times and The Sunday Times do not share editorial staff, were founded independently and have only had common ownership since 1967 and its news and its editorial comment have in general been carefully coordinated, and have at most times been handled with an earnest sense of responsibility. While the paper has admitted some trivia to its columns, its emphasis has been on important public affairs treated with an eye to the best interests of Britain. To guide this treatment, the editors have for long periods been in touch with 10 Downing Street. In these countries, the newspaper is often referred to as The London Times or The Times of London, although the newspaper is of national scope, in November 2006 The Times began printing headlines in a new font, Times Modern. The Times was printed in broadsheet format for 219 years, the Sunday Times remains a broadsheet. The Times had a daily circulation of 446,164 in December 2016, in the same period. An American edition of The Times has been published since 6 June 2006 and it has been heavily used by scholars and researchers because of its widespread availability in libraries and its detailed index. A complete historical file of the paper, up to 2010, is online from Gale Cengage Learning. The Times was founded by publisher John Walter on 1 January 1785 as The Daily Universal Register, Walter had lost his job by the end of 1784 after the insurance company where he was working went bankrupt because of the complaints of a Jamaican hurricane. Being unemployed, Walter decided to set a new business up and it was in that time when Henry Johnson invented the logography, a new typography that was faster and more precise. Walter bought the patent and to use it, he decided to open a printing house. The first publication of the newspaper The Daily Universal Register in Great Britain was 1 January 1785, unhappy because people always omitted the word Universal, Ellias changed the title after 940 editions on 1 January 1788 to The Times. In 1803, Walter handed ownership and editorship to his son of the same name, the Times used contributions from significant figures in the fields of politics, science, literature, and the arts to build its reputation. For much of its life, the profits of The Times were very large. Beginning in 1814, the paper was printed on the new steam-driven cylinder press developed by Friedrich Koenig, in 1815, The Times had a circulation of 5,000. Thomas Barnes was appointed editor in 1817

49.
Margaret of Valois
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Margaret of Valois was a French princess of the Valois dynasty who became queen consort of Navarre and later also of France. Charles IX arranged for her to marry a distant cousin, King Henry III of Navarre, and she thus became Queen of Navarre in 1572. In 1589, after all her brothers had died leaving no sons, Margarets husband, the senior-most agnatic heir to France, succeeded to the French throne as Henry IV, the first Bourbon King of France. A queen of two kingdoms, Margaret was subjected to political manipulations, including being held prisoner by her own brother, Henry III of France. However, her life was anything but passive and she was famous for her beauty and sense of style, notorious for a licentious lifestyle, and also proved a competent memoirist. She was indeed one of the most fashionable women of her time, while imprisoned, she took advantage of the time to write her memoirs, which included a succession of stories relating to the disputes of her brothers Charles IX and Henry III with her husband. The memoirs were published posthumously in 1628, Margaret was born Marguerite de Valois on May 14,1553, at the royal Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the seventh child and third daughter of Henry II and Catherine de Medici. Three of her brothers would become kings of France, Francis II, Charles IX and her sister, Elisabeth of Valois, would become the third wife of King Philip II of Spain. In 1565, her mother Catherine met with Philip IIs chief minister Duke of Alba at Bayonne in hopes of arranging a marriage between Margaret and Philips son Don Carlos, however, Alba refused any consideration of a dynastic marriage. Margaret was secretly involved with Henry of Guise, the son of the late Duke of Guise, when Catherine found this out, she had her daughter brought from her bed. Catherine and the king then beat her and sent Henry of Guise from court. The marriage of the 19-year-old Margaret to Henry, who had become King of Navarre upon the death of his mother, Jeanne dAlbret, the groom, a Huguenot, had to remain outside the cathedral during the religious ceremony. It was hoped this union would reunite family ties and create harmony between Catholics and the Protestant Huguenots, traditionally believed to have been instigated by Catherine de Medici, the marriage was an occasion on which many of the most wealthy and prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic Paris. Margaret has been credited with saving the lives of several prominent Protestants, including her husband, during the massacre, by keeping them in her rooms, Henry of Navarre had to feign conversion to Catholicism. After more than three years of confinement at court, Henry escaped Paris in 1576, leaving his wife behind, finally granted permission to return to her husband in Navarre, for the next three and a half years Margaret and her husband lived in Pau. Both openly kept other lovers, and they quarrelled frequently, after an illness in 1582, Queen Margaret returned to the court of her brother, Henry III, in Paris. Her brother was soon scandalized by her reputation and behavior, and forced her to leave the court, after long negotiations, she was allowed to return to her husbands court in Navarre, but she received an icy reception. Determined to overcome her difficulties, Queen Margaret masterminded a coup détat and seized power over Agen and she spent several months of fortifying the city, but the citizens of Agen revolted against her, and Queen Margaret fled to the castle of Carlat

Margaret of Valois
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Detail of painting by Pieter Paul Rubens
Margaret of Valois
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The young Margaret of Valois, by François Clouet, c. 1560
Margaret of Valois
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Henry of Navarre and Marguerite of Valois
Margaret of Valois
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Margaret of Valois age 20, by François Clouet, c. 1573

50.
Henrietta Maria of France
–
Henrietta Maria of France was queen consort of England, Scotland, and Ireland as the wife of King Charles I. She was mother of his two successors, Charles II and James II. Her Roman Catholicism made her unpopular in England, and also prohibited her from being crowned in an Anglican service, the execution of King Charles in 1649 left her impoverished. She settled in Paris, and then returned to England after the Restoration of her eldest son, Charles, in 1665, she moved back to Paris, where she died four years later. The North American Province of Maryland was named in her honour, Henrietta Maria was the youngest daughter of King Henry IV of France and his second wife, Marie de Medici. She was born at the Palais du Louvre on 25 November 1609, in England, where the Julian calendar was still in use, her date of birth is often recorded as 16 November. Henrietta Maria was brought up as a Catholic, as daughter of the Bourbon king of France, she was a Fille de France and a member of the House of Bourbon. She was the youngest sister of the future King Louis XIII of France and her father was assassinated on 14 May 1610, in Paris, before she was a year old. Henrietta was trained, along with her sisters, in riding, dancing, and singing, although tutored in reading and writing, she was not known for her academic skills, the princess was heavily influenced by the Carmelites at French court. By 1622, Henrietta was living in Paris with a household of some 200 staff, Henrietta Maria and Charles I of England were married on 13 June 1625, during a brief period in which Englands pro-Spanish policy was replaced by a pro-French policy. After an initial period, she and Charles formed an extremely close partnership. Henrietta never fully assimilated herself into English society, she did not speak English before her marriage, Charles was outraged, and upon returning to England in October, he and Buckingham demanded that King James declare war on Spain. Searching elsewhere for a bride, Charles looked to France instead, the English agent Kensington was sent to Paris in 1624 to examine the potential French match, and the marriage was finally negotiated in Paris by James Hay and Henry Rich. Henrietta was aged just 15 at the time of her marriage, views on Henriettas appearance vary, her husbands niece, Sophia of Hanover commented that the. Her arms were long and lean, her shoulders uneven, and she did, however, have pretty eyes, nose, and a good complexion. Henrietta married Charles by proxy on 11 May 1625, shortly after his accession to the throne and they were then married in person at St. Henrietta was allowed to watch Charles being crowned, at a discreet distance. Henrietta had strong Catholic beliefs, which would influence her time as queen. Charles liked to call Henrietta Maria simply Maria, with the English people calling her Queen Mary, in due course, Henrietta would unsuccessfully try to convert her Calvinist nephew Prince Rupert during his stay in England

Henrietta Maria of France
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Portrait by Anthony van Dyck
Henrietta Maria of France
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Signature
Henrietta Maria of France
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Henrietta Maria as a young princess of France
Henrietta Maria of France
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Henrietta Maria and King Charles I with their two eldest surviving sons, Charles, Prince of Wales, and James, Duke of York, painted by Anthony van Dyck, 1633. The greyhound symbolises the marital fidelity between Charles and Henrietta.

51.
Catherine de Bourbon
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Catherine de Bourbon, was a Princess of Navarre and Duchess consort of Lorraine. She was the daughter of Queen Jeanne III dAlbret and Antoine of Bourbon and she served as regent of Béarn for more than two decades. Catherine was born on 7 February 1559 to Antoine de Bourbon and his wife, Jeanne dAlbret and she was named after her godmother, Catherine de Medici. Catherines mother, Jeanne dAlbret, converted to Calvinism a year after Catherines birth, Antoine de Bourbon remained a Catholic and turned against Jeanne and threatened to divorce her. He died fighting for the Catholic cause on 17 November 1562, Catherine was with her mother and elder brother, the future Henry III and IV, as they fought for the Protestant cause. Jeanne died on 9 June 1572, and Catherines custody was assigned to Catherine de Medici, during the St. Bartholomews Day Massacre, Catherine and her elder brother were forced to convert to Catholicism. After the death of Charles IX in 1574, the new king, Henry III and she almost married James VI of Scotland. Her brother, who became ruler of the principality of Béarn in 1572, Henry IV of France, after his escape from captivity in 1576, he entrusted Catherine with the government of Béarn. She served almost continuously as regent until 1596, where among her other responsibilities, she, a staunch Protestant, hosted Antonio Perez, a famous Spanish Catholic refugee from King Philip II. After the accession of her brother, Henry of Navarre, to the French throne, in 1589, she was created Duchess of Albret and Countess of Armagnac. Appointed by her brother to sit on his Council as a representative of French Protestant interests in 1598, as part of the treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye between Henry IV and Charles III, Duke of Lorraine, it was agreed that Catherine should marry Charles elder son, Henry. The marriage agreement was signed on 13 July 1598, however, Catherine was a confirmed Calvinist, who refused to convert to Roman Catholicism, whilst her husband was a devout Catholic, and a former member of the Holy League. Thus, the Pope was required to make a dispensation to allow the two to marry, on 29 December 1598 Pope Clement VIII declared himself opposed to the marriage. Dissatisfied, Henry IV intimidated the Archbishop of Reims into granting an authorisation of marriage and this was made at Saint-Germain-en-Laye on 31 January 1599. Until the birth of her nephew on 27 September 1601, she was heir presumptive to the Navarrese crown, however, Catherine was not married long before she died, childless. Her husband remarried to Margerita Gonzaga, a niece of Marie de Medici, Catherine de Bourbon was also a writer. Her works consist principally of sonnets and correspondence, Catherine de Bourbon, Influence politique, religieuse et culturelle d’une princesse calviniste

Catherine de Bourbon
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Catherine de Bourbon

52.
Chelles Abbey
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Chelles Abbey was a Frankish monastery founded c.658 during the early medieval period. The abbey stood in the Val-de-Marne near Paris until it fell victim to the disestablishment of the Catholic Church in 1792 during the French Revolution and was dismantled, the abbey housed an important scriptorium and held the advantage of powerful royal connections throughout the Carolingian era. Before its religious designation, the site of the abbey, Cala had held a royal Merovingian villa, queen Clotilde, the wife of Clovis I, had previous built a small chapel there dedicated to Saint George circa 511. King Chilperic I and his wife, Fredegund, frequently resided at Cala and she gave the first of two great endowments to its construction, enabling the abbey and a large new Church of the Holy Cross to be built. Though no charters survive, in Life of Saint Balthild, there are references to the gifts she made to the abbey, Balthild herself retired to Chelles in 664, bringing with her a second endowment, and died there in 680, where she was also buried. Her hagiography was written soon after her death, probably by a nun at the abbey, according to the New Catholic Encyclopedia, the abbey represented a step in the progress of Celtic Christianity into Burgundy, especially in its admittance of monks. In any case, Balthild exerted control by appointing her own choice of abbess, Bertila. After the apparent shift to the Benedictine Rule from that of Columbanus, there was a dramatic increase in the number of such institutions providing for these women, particularly in France, Britain and the Low Countries. Royal assent remained crucial to ecclesiastical appointments, which meant that the Merovingian monarchs themselves were important patrons of the monasteries. Their support of the communities was a means of sanctifying and legitimating their royal power. Yitzhak Hen supports this, suggesting that the links to royalty encouraged local inhabitants to attend Sunday Mass regularly, if only to catch a glimpse of the king, queen or their representatives. During her abbacy, Gisela worked to broaden the scope of Chelles and effectively shaped the monastery into a hub where monarchs. Janet L. Nelson called it the centre of the cult, indicating a unique prominence for the abbey. Political contacts met there and information was collected from across the kingdom, abbess Gisela was the one person to send Alcuin the news at Tours of her brother Charlemagne’s official coronation. By the 9th century, the nuns of Chelles were renowned as skilled copyists, many memoria of monarchs and their family members are emerging from their scriptorium, along with the Lives of several saints. Gisèla was particularly famous for her intelligence and learning, and for demanding several books, the nuns owned, or at least had access to, the Annales regni Francorum and Continuationes Fredegarii, which were and both remain significant sources for history-writing. The monastery housed an important scriptorium, involving a consortium of at least nine nuns as scribes, the manuscripts that survive are not illuminated, yet Chelles Abbey is particularly strongly linked with the creation of a unique script style. The seminal work attributing these nuns to the scriptorium at Chelles is written by Bernhard Bischoff and he compared certain texts to other books written in the same minuscule and located them at Chelles between c.785 and 810, at the time when Gisèla was abbess

53.
Royal Highness
–
Royal Highness is a style used to address or refer to some members of royal families, usually princes other than monarchs and their female consorts. When used as a form of address, spoken or written. When used as a reference, it is gender-specific and, in plural. Holders of the style Royal Highness generally rank below holders of the style Imperial Highness, by the 17th century, all local rulers in Italy adopted the style Highness, that was once used by kings and emperors only. Thus, the first use of the style Royal Highness was recorded in 1633, gaston, Duke of Orléans, younger son of King Henry IV of France, encountered the style in Brussels and assumed it himself. His children later used the style, considering it their prerogative as grandchildren of France, by the 18th century, Royal Highness had become the prevalent style for members of a continental reigning dynasty whose head bore the hereditary title of king or queen. The titles of members of non-hereditary rulers were less clear. Even in the cases of the titles, they usually only exist as courtesies. The chiefly appellation Kabiyesi is likewise used as the equivalent of the HRH, the title of Archduke or Archduchess of Austria was known to be complemented with the style of Royal Highness to all of the members of the House of Habsburg and later the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. The title of Prince/Princess of the Netherlands with the style of H. R. H. is or may be granted by law to the following classes of persons. The heir apparent to the throne, the spouse of the heir apparent. The children of the monarch, other than the heir apparent, the children of the heir apparent. A Prince/Princess of Orange-Nassau who is not also a Prince/Princess of the Netherlands is addressed as His/Her Highness without the predicate royal and that is the case for example of the children of Princess Margriet, younger daughter of the late Queen Juliana. In the British monarchy the style of Royal Highness is associated with the rank of prince or princess and this is especially important when a prince has another title such as Duke by which he or she would usually be addressed. In the United Kingdom, letters patent dated 21 August 1996 stated that the wife of a member of the Royal Family loses the right to the style of HRH in the event of their divorce. It was for this reason that when the Prince and Princess of Wales divorced, she ceased to be Royal Highness, and was styled Diana, Princess of Wales. Almost a year before, according to the claim of writer Tina Brown. The Princess of Wales is said to have replied, My title is a lot older than yours and she noted that the Spencer family, the family she was born to, is older than the House of Windsor

Royal Highness
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Diana, Princess of Wales in 1987
Royal Highness
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The Duchess and Duke of Västergötland on their wedding day
Royal Highness
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Princess Madeleine and Christopher O'Neill at the celebrations of the National Day of Sweden, two days prior to the wedding.

54.
Louis, Count of Vermandois
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Louis de Bourbon, Légitimé de France, Count of Vermandois was the eldest surviving son of Louis XIV of France and his mistress Louise de La Vallière. He was sometimes known as Louis de Vermandois after his title and he died unmarried and without issue. Louis de Bourbon was born at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye on 2 October 1667 and he was named after his father. Like his elder sister, Marie Anne de Bourbon, who was known at court as Mademoiselle de Blois, as a child, he called his mother Belle Maman because of her beauty. Louis was legitimised in 1669, at the age of two, and was given the title of comte de Vermandois and was made an Admiral of France, in 1674, his mother entered a Carmelite convent in Paris, and took the name Sœur Louise de la Miséricorde. Afterwards, they saw little of each other. From his mother and his father, Louis had five full siblings, after his mother left, Louis lived at the Palais Royal in Paris with his uncle, Philippe of France, duc dOrléans, and his wife Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate. At the Palais-Royal, he became close to his aunt despite her well-known dislike of Louis XIVs bastards. The affection the aunt and nephew had for each other never diminished, while he was at the court of his libertine uncle, he met the Chevalier de Lorraine, his uncles most famous lover. The young count got involved with the chevalier and his set, joining a secret group of young aristocrats called, La Sainte Congregation des Glorieux Pédérastes. In order to cover up the scandal, it was suggested that the boy be married off as soon as possible, Louis was exiled before anything could materialise. In June 1682, Louis was exiled to Normandy, the king agreed with the suggestion and his son was sent to the Siege of Courtray. It was there that Louis fell ill, Louis died on 18 November 1683, at the age of sixteen. He was buried at the cathedral at Arras and his loving sister and aunt were greatly impacted by his death. His father, however, did not even shed a tear and his mother, still obsessed with the sin of her previous affair with the king, said upon hearing of her sons death, I ought to weep for his birth far more than his death. Louis was later suspected of being the Man in the Iron Mask but this could not be true as he died in 1683, while the man in the iron mask died in 1703. His other half siblings included the future duc du Maine, Madame la Duchesse, Mademoiselle de Tours, Duchess of Orléans, Madame le Régent and the Count of Toulouse

Louis, Count of Vermandois
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Portrait of Louis

55.
Louis Auguste, Prince of Dombes
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Louis Auguste de Bourbon, Prince of Dombes was a grandson of Louis XIV of France and of his maîtresse-en-titre Françoise-Athénaïs de Montespan. He was a member of the legitimised House of Bourbon-Maine, born at the Palace of Versailles on 4 March 1700, Louis-Auguste was the fourth child of Louis-Auguste de Bourbon, duc du Maine and of his wife, Anne Louise Bénédicte de Bourbon. Given the title of prince de Dombes at his birth, he was the child of his parents to hold the title. Unlike his father, the prince de Dombes was of military skill. Louis-Auguste served under the military commander Prince Eugene of Savoy in the Austro-Turkish War. He also fought in the War of the Polish Succession and in the War of the Austrian Succession, upon the death of his father, on 14 May 1736 at the Château de Sceaux, he inherited the bulk of his wealth and his titles. He became Colonel General of the Cent-Suisses et Grisons, Governor of Languedoc, Grand veneur de France, in 1750, he gained the titles of prince dAnet and comte de Dreux, when his mother gave him both estates three years before she died. Little seen at the court of his cousin Louis XV of France, he preferred living at the Château dAnet, in order to supply water for his gardens, he created a hydraulic system which he installed in the park of the domain near the Eure River. He also enjoyed hunting on his estate of Eu. Louis-Auguste remained unmarried and died childless, Louis-Auguste died on 1 October 1755, at the age of fifty-five, in a duel at Fontainebleau. His younger brother, Louis Charles, was his only heir

Louis Auguste, Prince of Dombes
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Louis Auguste

56.
Louis Charles, Count of Eu
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Louis Charles de Bourbon, Count of Eu was a grandson of Louis XIV of France and his maîtresse-en-titre Françoise-Athénaïs, marquise de Montespan. He grew up with his brother, Louis Auguste, Prince of Dombes and his younger sister Louise Françoise de Bourbon. Like his siblings he remained unmarried and childless all his life, on his fathers death in 1736 he gained the title of Duke of Aumale. He was also made Grand Master of the Artillery, a post that his father had also held. His elder brother was their fathers heir, but when he was killed in a duel in 1755 Louis Charles inherited his brothers estate. He was given his brothers governorship of Languedoc and inherited his brothers many châteaux, like his elder brother he was little seen at court and preferred to hunt on his estate of the Château dAnet. In March 1762 he exchanged with Louis XV the principality of the Dombes for the dukedoms of Gisors, like his cousin, Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, Duke of Penthièvre, Louis-Charles was popular as a result of his charitable donations. In 1773 he offered to sell the dukedom of Aumale, countship of Eu, Louis Charles died at Sceaux at the age of 73 in October 1775. As he was childless, he made his cousin the Duke of Penthièvre, son of Louis-Alexandre de Bourbon, comte de Toulouse

57.
Mariana Victoria of Spain
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Mariana Victoria of Spain was an Infanta of Spain by birth and was later the Queen of Portugal as wife of King Joseph I. The eldest daughter of Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese, rejected due to her age, the marriage never took place and she was sent back to Spain. In 1729 she was married to the son of John V of Portugal, as the mother of Maria I of Portugal, she also acted as regent of Portugal during the last months of her husbands life and acted as advisor to her daughter in her reign. Mariana Victoria was born at the Royal Alcazar of Madrid in Madrid and was given the same forenames as her paternal grandmother Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria and she was an Infanta of Spain by birth and the eldest daughter of Philip V of Spain and his second wife Elisabeth Farnese. Her father was a grandson of Louis XIV and had inherited the Spanish throne in 1700, as an Infanta of Spain she had the style of Royal Highness. After the War of the Quadruple Alliance, France and Spain decided to reconcile by engaging the Infanta Mariana Victoria to her first cousin the young Louis XV of France, saint-Simon, the French ambassador, requested her hand on 25 November 1721. The exchange of the young Infanta and Mademoiselle de Montpensier was on the Île des Faisans and was the site was where their ancestors, Louis XIV. Mariana Victoria arrived in Paris on 2 March 1721 amongst much celebration, the young Infanta was nicknamed the linfante Reine as the couple were not to be married till Mariana Victoria reached a more mature age. Mariana Victoria was in awe of Louis XV and was popular with the court apart from the king himself who avoided her presence. According to the mother of the Régent, Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate and her education was placed in the care of Marie Anne de Bourbon, an illegitimate daughter of Louis XIV and Louise de La Vallière. In February 1723, Louis XV reached his majority and thus governed the country by his own accord and her establishment in France was not to be. Bourbon had wanted to maintain influence over the young Louis XV and offered his sister Henriette Louise de Bourbon as a wife who. The situation was not helped by the Spanish rejection of Louise Élisabeth dOrléans whose husband died having ruled as Louis I of Spain for only seven months. As their marriage had not been consummated, the Spanish refused to support her, Mariana Victoria left Versailles on 5 April 1725 and travelled to the frontier where she and the two Orléans daughters were then exchanged. Louis XV subsequently married Marie Leszczyńska in September 1725 and Mariana Victorias sister the Infanta Maria Teresa Rafaela married Louis XVs son in 1745 to reassure the insulted Spanish court and her arrival in Spain was taken as a great insult and caused a diplomatic rift between Spain and France. The offended Spanish soon after concluded a treaty with Austria in the form of the 1725 Treaty of Vienna, having remained unmarried, she was still eligible to inherit the throne but was displaced by her younger brother Infante Philip who was born in 1720. Discussions with the Kingdom of Portugal began in 1727 and a marriage was negotiated by the Portuguese ambassador the Marquis of Abrantes and she was a rumored bride for Emperor Peter II of Russia, grandson of Peter the Great. Mariana Victoria would marry the Infante José, Prince of Brazil, son and her older half brother Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias would marry Josés sister the Infanta Bárbara

58.
Louis Alexandre, Prince of Lamballe
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Louis Alexandre de Bourbon was the son and heir of Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, grandson of Louis XIV by the kings legitimised son, Louis Alexandre de Bourbon. He was known as the Prince of Lamballe from birth and he pre-deceased his father, and died childless. Louis Alexandre was born on 6 September 1747, at the Hôtel de Toulouse, the Paris residence of his family. His father, the Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, duc de Penthièvre, was the legitimate child of Louis Alexandre de Bourbon. His mother, Princess Maria Teresa Felicity of Modena, the daughter of the Duke of Modena, also a descendant of Madame de Montespan, the prince de Lamballe, as he was known all his life, was the couples only surviving son. He was one of seven children and his title, prince de Lamballe, came from one of the seigneuries owned by his father, it was neither a sovereign princedom nor a legal title. Rather, it was a titre de courtoisie and his mother died in childbirth in 1754 at the age of twenty-seven. His father chose his bride, the Italian born Princess Maria Teresa Louisa of Savoy, the wedding celebration lasted from 17 January 1767, until 27 January with feasts in Turin and Nangis. Prior to the wedding, Louis Alexandre eager to see his future bride and he met her disguised as a simple country servant and offered her a bouquet of flowers in his masters name. During the wedding ceremony the next day, the princess was shocked to discover that the man from the previous day was in fact the prince himself. After the ceremony, for their honeymoon, Louis Alexandre and his bride stayed at the Château de Nangis and his father had specifically chosen Maria Teresa as his sons wife due to her renowned piety and beauty. He thought that such a spouse would help make his son change his libertine lifestyle, Princess Maria Luisa was the sixth child of the Prince of Carignan and his German wife Landgravine Christine Henriette of Hesse-Rotenburg, the sister of the late Princess of Condé. After three months of happiness, Louis Alexandre, a jaded hedonist, soon tired of his young wife and he eloped with Mademoiselle de La Chassaigne, an opera dancer, five months into his marriage. At one point, Louis Alexandre even sold his wifes diamonds to raise money to pay his debts. After a dissipated life, Louis Alexandre died on 6 May 1768, sixteen months after his marriage. He was born the 6th of September,1747 and he was married the 17th of January,1767, to Marie Thérèse Louise de Carignan. We cannot too highly commend the sentiments of piety and resignation, on account of his death the court will wear mourning for ten days. He was buried in the crypt in 13th-century Saint-Lubin church of the village of Rambouillet near the Château de Rambouillet

59.
Princess Henriette of France
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Anne Henriette de France was the twin sister of Louise Élisabeth de France, the eldest child of King Louis XV of France and of his queen consort Marie Leszczyńska. The twins were born at the Palace of Versailles on 14 August 1727 and she was the younger of the twins and as a result was known at the court of her father as Madame Seconde. As the daughter of the king, she was a fille de France, in her later life she was known as Madame Henriette. While her younger sisters were sent to be raised at the Abbey of Fontevraud in 1738 and she was put in the care of Marie Isabelle de Rohan, duchesse de Tallard. She spent her childhood at Versailles with her sisters Louise-Élisabeth and Adélaïde and their younger brother, Henriette fell in love with her cousin, Louis Philippe, duc de Chartres, the heir to the House of Orléans, and the two wished to marry. The King initially liked the idea, but changed his mind, like her younger sisters, Henriette never married. Henriette was passionate about music, as Jean-Marc Nattiers portrait shows and she studied the viola da gamba with Jean-Baptiste Forqueray. Growing up at the Palace of Versailles, Madame Henriette was present there during her fathers extramarital liaisons, the children of the king despised Mme de Pompadour because she caused their father to neglect their mother, the queen. With her brother, the Dauphin Louis, and her sister, Madame Adélaïde, she called the powerful mistress, Maman Putain. When Louise Élisabeth returned from Parma for a visit to Versailles in 1748, she and Madame de Pompadour became close friends. Henriette died of smallpox in 1752 at the age of twenty-four and she was buried at the Basilica of Saint Denis. Her tomb, like other royal tombs at Saint-Denis, was desecrated during the French Revolution and her nephews included Ferdinand, Duke of Parma, Louis XVI of France, Louis XVIII of France, Charles X of France. Her nieces included Madame Élisabeth and Queen Maria Luisa of Spain, the majority of this article is based on a translation of the equivalent article of the French Wikipedia Zieliński, Ryszard

60.
Princess Louise of France
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Marie Louise de France, fille de France was a French princess by birth. She was one of ten children, born at Versailles, the third child of Louis XV of France and his Queen Marie Leszczyńska, she was known as Madame Troisième until her baptism a few weeks before her death. Her birth was not greeted with much due to her gender, her father had been hoping for a son to call his Dauphin. When it was clear that a girl was born, the celebrations for the expected Dauphin, were cancelled. She grew up at Versailles with her twin sisters Madame Première. The following year,1729, the three children were joined by the Dauphin of France Louis, the royal family were again joined by another son in 1730, Philippe de France, duc dAnjou. In the winter of 1733, Madame Troisième caught a cold, the child was put in the care of the Gascon doctor Monsieur Bouillac, the doctor administered emetics and had the child bled. Madame Troisième was quickly baptised at Versailles and given the names of her parents Marie and she died at Versailles exhausted and was buried at the Royal Basilica of Saint Denis. Her portrait was painted by Pierre Gobert around 1730, in 1734 a posthumous portrait was painted by Charles-Joseph Natoire who represented her with her sister, the future Madame Adélaïde. She has been called Louise over time,28 July 1728 -19 February 1733 Her Royal Highness Madame Troisième

Princess Louise of France
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Louise (Madame Troisième)

61.
Philippe, Duke of Anjou
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Philippe de France, fils de France, Duke of Anjou was a French Prince and second son of king Louis XV of France and Marie Leszczyńska. He was the Duke of Anjou from birth, Philippe de France was born at the Palace of Versailles to the young,20 year old King Louis XV of France and his wife, the 27 year old Queen of France Maria Leszczyńska on the 30 August 1730. He was the son and fifth child to be born to the royal family. Named Philippe, that was the name of the second son - the first being called Louis. He was created the Duke of Anjou at birth, this title was associated with the second son, the little Philippe grew up at Versailles with his brother the Dauphin and their twin sisters Madame Élisabeth Madame de France and Madame Henriette Madame de Navarre. In March 1732, Philippe saw the birth of the future Madame Adélaïde, the next year his older sister Marie Louise de France died at Versailles on 19 February 1733 of a Common cold. She had been known as Madame Louise and named after her parents, always a sickly child, Philippe was cared for by a group of female attendants, as royal children were cared for by women until the age of 5. As part of their superstitious beliefs, the women mixed in earth from the grave of Saint Medard with his food. As a result, Philippe died at Versailles on 7 April 1733 at the age of 2 and he was buried at the Royal Basilica of Saint Denis outside Paris. Doctors reported that large amounts of earth were found in his intestines,30 August 1730 –7 April 1733, His Royal Highness The Duke of Anjou

Philippe, Duke of Anjou
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"Prince Philippe blowing bubbles": a depiction of Philippe on a snuffbox in the Walters Museum.

62.
Princess Victoire of France
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Victoire de France, Daughter of France was the seventh child and fifth daughter of King Louis XV of France and his Queen consort Maria Leszczyńska. Originally known as Madame Quatrième, signifying the daughter of the King. She outlived eight of her nine siblings, and was survived by her older sister Madame Adélaïde by less than a year, Marie Louise Thérèse Victoire de France was born at the Palace of Versailles. Unlike the older children of Louis XV, Madame Victoire was not raised at the Palace of Versailles, rather, she was sent to live at the Abbey of Fontevraud. She remained there till 1748 when she was 15, at the age of 15, she was allowed to return to her fathers court, where her fathers attention increasingly focused on his mistresses, Madame de Pompadour and later Madame du Barry. In 1753, it was suggested that she eventually marry her brother-in-law, Ferdinand VI of Spain, as his wife. Despite her illness, though, the Queen of Spain survived another five years, in 1768, her mother Maria Leszczyńska died, her father having acquired a new maîtresse-en-titre, the comtesse du Barry, not long previously. Louis XV, however, sent Madame du Barry away from Versailles just before he died in 1774 in order that he could receive the last rites of the Catholic Church. In 1770, Madame Victoires nephew, Louis-Auguste, the Dauphin of France, married Archduchess Maria Antoinette of Austria at Versailles, in Italy, they first visited their niece, Clotilde, Queen of Sardinia, the sister of Louis XVI, in Turin. They arrived in Rome on 16 April 1791, as a result of the increasing influence of Revolutionary France, the sisters were forced to constantly move. They went to Naples in 1796, where Marie Caroline, the sister of their niece and they then moved to Corfu in 1799, and finally ended up in Trieste, where Victoire died of breast cancer. Adélaïde died one year later in Rome, the bodies of both princesses were later returned to France by their nephew, King Louis XVIII, and buried at the Abbey of Saint-Denis. Madame Victoires nephews included Ferdinand, Duke of Parma, Louis XVI of France, Louis XVIII of France and her nieces included Madame Élisabeth and Queen Maria Louisa of Spain. Her goddaughter was Angélique Victoire, comtesse de Chastellux

63.
Princess Sophie of France
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Sophie Philippine Élisabeth Justine de France, fille de France was a French princess Daughter of France. She was the daughter and eighth child of Louis XV of France. First known as Madame Cinquième, she later became Madame Sophie, Sophie is less well known than many of her sisters. Her birth at the Palace of Versailles was relatively unremarked and her nephews included Ferdinand, Duke of Parma, Louis XVI of France, Louis XVIII of France, Charles X of France. Her nieces included Madame Élisabeth and Queen Maria Luisa of Spain and her niece, Madame Sophie, youngest daughter of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette was named after her. She had a shy, reserved nature, and was considered ugly and she is reported to have had a phobia of thunder, and it was known that she reacted strongly toward it. She was one of the four sisters to survive their parents. Her mother died on 24 June 1768 and all of her children were badly affected and her father died six years later on 10 May 1774. In 1776, Louis XVI made her the Duchess of Louvois with her sister Madame Adélaïde and she was buried in the royal tomb at the Royal Basilica of Saint Denis which was plundered and destroyed at the time of the French Revolution. In 2006, she was played by Scottish actress Shirley Henderson in the movie Marie Antoinette

64.
Marie Clotilde of France
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Marie Clotilde of France, known as Madame Clotilde, was a French princess who became Queen of Sardinia as Clotilda in 1796. She was the sister of Louis XVI of France and later the wife of Charles Emmanuel IV of Sardinia. She was politically active and acted as the de facto first minister of her spouse during his reign. Born in Versailles, Marie Clotilde was the daughter of Louis, Dauphin of France, the only son of King Louis XV. As the granddaughter of the king, she was a Petite-Fille de France, upon the death of their grandfather in May 1774, Clotildes oldest brother, Louis Auguste, became king Louis XVI of France. She adapted herself to strict Catholic devotion early on and had the wish to follow the example of her aunt, Madame Louise, because she was overweight, Marie Clotilde was nicknamed Gros-Madame in her youth. She and her younger sister Élisabeth were raised by Madame de Marsan after the death of their father in 1765 and their mother in 1767. Because she married and left France soon after Louis XVI acceded to the throne, Marie Clotilde did not have time to form a close relationship with her sister-in-law. Marie Clotilde was described as passive and apathetic, which gave the perception of insensitivity, but she was, however, very close to her sister, the match between Marie Clotilde and Charles Emmanuel was part of a wider scheme of marriages. Charles Emmanuels younger sister, Marie Joséphine, had married Marie Clotildes older brother, in 1773, another of Charles Emmanuels sisters, Marie Thérèse, had married Marie Clotildes youngest brother, the Count of Artois. Marie Clotilde traveled to Turin, met her husband on the way at Pont-de-Beauvoisin and finally her father-in-law and she was accompanied by her brother the Count of Provence and her husband. The official wedding took place in Turin, after her marriage some in the French court joked that perhaps her groom had been given two brides instead of one, in reference to her weight. Her father-in-law was concerned that her weight might affect her ability to bear children, the groom reportedly commented that he had been given more to worship. She was close to her sisters-in-law, the Duchess of Aosta, although the union was arranged for political reasons, Marie Clotilde and Charles Emmanuel became devoted to each other, united in their piety and a strong belief in the Roman Catholic faith. Additionally, Charles Emmanuel, being of passive character, leaned on Marie Clothilde as a stronger personality, the marriage, however, was to be childless. After eight years of attempts to have issue, in 1783 Marie Clothilde asked Charles Emanuel to end relations and live in chastity as uti frater et soror. After her marriage, Marie Clotilde never returned to France, the French Revolution proved to be a disaster for her family. Her oldest brother, King Louis XVI, his wife, Queen Marie Antoinette and her youngest brother, the Comte dArtois, left France in 1789 and was given permission by Turin to stay there under the protection of her father-in-law, the king of Sardinia

65.
Marie Antoinette
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Marie Antoinette (/ˈmæriˌæntwəˈnɛt/, /ˌɑ̃ːntwə-/, /ˌɑ̃ːtwə-/, US /məˈriː-/, French, born Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna, was the last Queen of France and Navarre before the French Revolution. She was born an Archduchess of Austria, and was the fifteenth and second youngest child of Empress Maria Theresa and Francis I, in April 1770, upon her marriage to Louis-Auguste, heir apparent to the French throne, she became Dauphine of France. After eight years of marriage, Marie Antoinette gave birth to a daughter, Marie-Thérèse Charlotte, the Diamond Necklace affair damaged her reputation further. On 10 August 1792, the attack on the Tuileries forced the family to take refuge at the Assembly. On 21 September 1792, the monarchy was abolished, after a two-day trial begun on 14 October 1793, Marie Antoinette was convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal of high treason, and executed by guillotine on Place de la Révolution on 16 October 1793. Maria Antonia was born on 2 November 1755, at the Hofburg Palace and she was the youngest daughter of Empress Maria Theresa, ruler of the Habsburg Empire, and her husband Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor. Her godparents were Joseph I and Mariana Victoria, King and Queen of Portugal, Archduke Joseph, shortly after her birth, she was placed under the care of the Governess of the Imperial children, Countess von Brandeis. Maria Antonia was raised with her older sister Maria Carolina. As to her relationship with her mother, it was difficult, despite the private tutoring she received, results of her schooling were less than satisfactory. At the age of ten she could not write correctly in German or in any language used at court, such as French. Under the teaching of Christoph Willibald Gluck, Maria Antonia developed into a good musician and she learned to play the harp, the harpsichord and the flute. During the familys gatherings in the evenings, she would sing and she also excelled at dancing, had an exquisite poise, and loved dolls. Following the Seven Years War and the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756, Empress Maria Theresa decided to end hostilities with her longtime enemy, on 14 May she met her husband at the edge of the forest of Compiègne. Upon her arrival in France, she adopted the French version of her name, a further ceremonial wedding took place on 16 May 1770 in the Palace of Versailles and, after the festivities, the day ended with the ritual bedding. The lack of consummation of the marriage plagued the reputation of both Louis-Auguste and Marie Antoinette for the seven years. The initial reaction to the marriage between Marie Antoinette and Louis-Auguste was mixed, on the one hand, the Dauphine was beautiful, personable and well-liked by the common people. Her first official appearance in Paris on 8 June 1773 was a resounding success, on the other hand, those opposed to the alliance with Austria, and others, for personal reasons, had a difficult relationship with Marie Antoinette. Madame du Barry, for example, was Louis XVs mistress and had political influence over him

66.
Louis Joseph, Dauphin of France
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Louis Joseph de France was the second child and elder son of King Louis XVI of France and Marie Antoinette. As son of a king of France, he was a Fils de France, Louis Joseph died at age seven of tuberculosis and was succeeded as Dauphin de France by his four-year-old brother Louis-Charles. Louis Joseph Xavier François de France was born at the Palace of Versailles on October 22,1781 and his elder sister, Marie Thérèse Charlotte, Madame Royale, was not allowed to succeed to the throne due to the Salic Law. The birth of Louis Joseph at that point ruined his uncles hopes of becoming the king and his private household was created upon his birth and he was put into the care of Geneviève Poitrine, one of his wet nurses. She was later accused of transmitting tuberculosis to the young Dauphin and his sous-gouverneur was the Maréchal de camp Antoine Charles Augustin dAllonville. Another member of his household was Yolande de Polastron, duchesse de Polignac, Louis Joseph was very close to his sister and to his parents, who closely watched over his education. He was always praised for being a bright child for his young age, however. Around April 1784, when he was just three years old, Louis Joseph had a series of high fevers, out of fear for his health, he was transported to the Château de La Muette where the air was reputed to have healing properties. The time spent at La Muette seemed to have helped Louis Joseph recover, and almost a year later on March 1785, Louis Joseph returned to La Muette, in 1786, the fevers returned but his household regarded them as being of no importance. These fevers, however, were the first signs of tuberculosis, in the same year, Louis Josephs education was turned over to men, as was customary for the sons of the kings of France. By January 1788 the fevers grew more frequent and the disease progressed quickly, Louis Joseph died at the Château de Meudon on June 4,1789, at the age of seven and a half, during the Estates General. He was buried on June 13 in a ceremony at the Basilica of St Denis. were desecrated. At the death of Louis Joseph, the title of Dauphin passed to his younger brother Louis Charles, Duke of Normandy, Dauphin County, Pennsylvania, is named after him. The borough of Dauphin, so named when it was incorporated in 1845, is located in Dauphin County. It is also, indirectly, named for him, history of Dauphin County, Pennsylvania Historical Commission, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania

67.
Louis XVII of France
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As the son of the king, he was a Fils de France. His older brother, Louis Joseph, died in June 1789, when his father was executed on 21 January 1793, during the middle-period of the French Revolution, he became King of France and Navarre in the eyes of the royalists. However, since France was by then a republic, and Louis XVII had been imprisoned from August 1792 until his death from illness in 1795 at the age of 10, he was never officially king, nor did he rule. Louis-Charles de France was born at the Palace of Versailles, the son and third child of his parents, Louis XVI. He became the Dauphin at the death of his elder brother, as customary in royal families, Louis-Charles was cared for by multiple people. Queen Marie Antoinette appointed governesses to look after all three of her children, Louis-Charles original governess was Yolande de Polastron, duchesse de Polignac, who left France at the beginning of the revolution, on the night of 16–17 July 1789. She was replaced by marquise Louise Élisabeth de Tourzel, additionally, the queen selected Agathe de Rambaud to be the official nurse of Louis-Charles. Alain Decaux wrote, Madame de Rambaud was officially in charge of the care of the Dauphin from the day of his birth until 10 August 1792, in other words, for seven years. During these seven years, she never left him, she cradled him, took care of him, dressed him, comforted him, many times, more than Marie Antoinette, she was a true mother for him. On 21 June 1791, the tried to escape in what is known as the Flight to Varennes. After the family was recognized, they were back to Paris. When the Tuileries Palace was stormed by a mob on 10 August 1792. On 13 August, the family was imprisoned in the tower of the Temple. At first, their conditions were not extremely harsh, but they were prisoners and were re-styled as Capets by the newborn Republic, on 11 December, at the beginning of his trial, Louis XVI, was separated from his family. Under the new constitution, the heir to the throne of France, Louis-Charles held that title until the fall of the monarchy on 21 September 1792. At the death of his father on 21 January 1793, royalists and foreign powers intent on restoring the monarchy held him to be the new king of France, the tales told by royalist writers of the cruelty inflicted by Simon and his wife on the child are not proven. Louis Charles sister, Marie Therese, wrote in her memoires, about the monster Simon, antoine Simons wife Marie-Jeanne, in fact, took great care of the childs person. Stories survive narrating how he was encouraged to eat and drink to excess, however, the scenes related by Alcide de Beauchesne of the physical martyrdom of the child are not supported by any testimony, though he was at this time seen by a great number of people

68.
Archduke
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Archduke was the title borne from 1358 by the Habsburg rulers of the Archduchy of Austria, and later by all senior members of that dynasty. It denotes a rank within the former Holy Roman Empire, which was below that of Emperor and King and above that of a Grand Duke, Duke, the territory ruled by an Archduke or Archduchess was called an Archduchy. All remaining Archduchies ceased to exist in 1918, in the Carolingian Empire, the title Archduke was awarded not as rank of nobility, but as a unique honorary title to the Duke of Lotharingia. Lotharingia was eventually absorbed by East Francia, becoming part of the Holy Roman Empire rather than a fully independent Kingdom, the later extended fragmentation of both territories created two succeeding Duchies in the Low Countries, Brabant and Geldre. Both claimed archducal status but were never recognised as such by the Holy Roman Emperor. Archduke of Austria, the archducal title to re-emerge, was invented in the Privilegium Maius in the 14th century by Duke Rudolf IV of Austria. Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV refused to recognise the title, as did all the ruling dynasties of the member countries of the Empire. But Duke Ernest the Iron and his descendants assumed the title of Archduke. Emperor Frederick III himself simply used the title Duke of Austria, never Archduke, the title was first granted to Fredericks younger brother, Albert VI of Austria, who used it at least from 1458. In 1477, Frederick III also granted the title of Archduke to his first cousin, Sigismund of Austria, the title appears first in documents issued under the joint rule of Maximilian and his son Philip in the Low Countries. Archduke was initially borne by those dynasts who ruled a Habsburg territory—i. e, only by males and their consorts, appanages being commonly distributed to cadets. But these junior archdukes did not thereby become sovereign hereditary rulers, occasionally a territory might be combined with a separate gubernatorial mandate ruled by an archducal cadet. From the 16th century onward, Archduke and its form, Archduchess. After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire this usage was retained in the Austrian Empire, thus those members of the Habsburg family who are residents of the Republic of Austria are simply known by their first name and their surname Habsburg-Lothringen. However, members of the family who reside in other countries may or may not use the title, in accordance with laws, for example, Otto Habsburg-Lothringen, the eldest son of the last Habsburg Emperor, was an Austrian, Hungarian and German citizen. Hence, no member of the family other than the King bears the title of Archduke. The insignia of the Archduke of Lower and Upper Austria was the archducal hat, List of rulers of Austria List of Austrian consorts

Archduke
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Archducal hat, the coronet of an archduke
Archduke
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Bust of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria
Archduke
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The heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand (right) with his family. Ferdinand, along with his wife, was assassinated at Sarajevo in 1914, which sparked World War I

69.
Merovingian dynasty
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The Merovingians were a Salian Frankish dynasty that ruled the Franks for nearly 300 years in a region known as Francia in Latin, beginning in the middle of the 5th century. Their territory largely corresponded to ancient Gaul as well as the Roman provinces of Raetia, Germania Superior and the southern part of Germania. The Merovingian dynasty was founded by Childeric I, the son of Merovech, leader of the Salian Franks, after the death of Clovis there were frequent clashes between different branches of the family, but when threatened by its neighbours the Merovingians presented a strong united front. During the final century of Merovingian rule, the kings were increasingly pushed into a ceremonial role, the Merovingian rule ended in March 752 when Pope Zachary formally deposed Childeric III. Zacharys successor, Pope Stephen II, confirmed and anointed Pepin the Short in 754, the Merovingian ruling family were sometimes referred to as the long-haired kings by contemporaries, as their long hair distinguished them among the Franks, who commonly cut their hair short. The Merovingian dynasty owes its name to the semi-legendary Merovech, leader of the Salian Franks, the victories of his son Childeric I against the Visigoths, Saxons, and Alemanni established the basis of Merovingian land. Childerics son Clovis I went on to unite most of Gaul north of the Loire under his control around 486, when he defeated Syagrius, the Roman ruler in those parts. He won the Battle of Tolbiac against the Alemanni in 496, at time, according to Gregory of Tours. He subsequently went on to defeat the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse in the Battle of Vouillé in 507. After Cloviss death, his kingdom was partitioned among his four sons, leadership among the early Merovingians was probably based on mythical descent and alleged divine patronage, expressed in terms of continued military success. In 1906 the British Egyptologist Flinders Petrie suggested that the Marvingi recorded by Ptolemy as living near the Rhine were the ancestors of the Merovingian dynasty, upon Cloviss death in 511, the Merovingian kingdom included all of Gaul except Burgundy and all of Germania magna except Saxony. To the outside, the kingdom, even when divided under different kings, maintained unity, after the fall of the Ostrogoths, the Franks also conquered Provence. After this their borders with Italy and Visigothic Septimania remained fairly stable, internally, the kingdom was divided among Cloviss sons and later among his grandsons and frequently saw war between the different kings, who quickly allied among themselves and against one another. The death of one king created conflict between the brothers and the deceaseds sons, with differing outcomes. Later, conflicts were intensified by the personal feud around Brunhilda, however, yearly warfare often did not constitute general devastation but took on an almost ritual character, with established rules and norms. Eventually, Clotaire II in 613 reunited the entire Frankish realm under one ruler, later divisions produced the stable units of Austrasia, Neustria, Burgundy and Aquitania. The frequent wars had weakened royal power, while the aristocracy had made great gains and these concessions saw the very considerable power of the king parcelled out and retained by leading comites and duces. Very little is in fact known about the course of the 7th century due to a scarcity of sources, clotaires son Dagobert I, who sent troops to Spain and pagan Slavic territories in the east, is commonly seen as the last powerful Merovingian King

70.
Clovis I
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He is considered to have been the founder of the Merovingian dynasty, which ruled the Frankish kingdom for the next two centuries. Clovis was the son of Childeric I, a Merovingian king of the Salian Franks, and Basina, in 481, at the age of fifteen, Clovis succeeded his father. Clovis is important in the historiography of France as the first king of what would become France and his name is Germanic, composed of the elements hlod and wig, and is the origin of the later French given name Louis, borne by 18 kings of France. Dutch, the most closely related language to Frankish, reborrowed the name as Lodewijk from German in the 12th century. Clovis was baptized on Christmas Day in 508, numerous small Frankish kingdoms existed during the 5th century. After the collapse of Roman power in the last days of 406 the Salian Franks had expanded to the south of the military highway Boulogne-Cologne. The powerbase of Clovis father was the area around Tournai, in the current province of Hainault, upon the death of his father, Merovech in 457 Childeric I, Clovis father, became king of the subgroup of the Salian Franks based around Tournai. In 463 he fought in conjunction with Aegidius, the magister militum of northern Gaul, Childeric died in 481 and was buried in Tournai, Clovis succeeded him as king, aged just 15. Under Clovis, the Salian Franks came to dominate their neighbours, historians believe that Childeric and Clovis were both commanders of the Roman military in the Province of Belgica Secunda and were subordinate to the magister militum. Clovis then had the Frankish king Chararic imprisoned and executed, a few years later, he killed Ragnachar, the Frankish king of Cambrai, along with his brothers. Another victory followed in 491 over a group of Thuringians to the east. By this time Clovis had conquered all the Frankish kingdoms to the west of the River Maas and he secured an alliance with the Ostrogoths through the marriage of his sister Audofleda to their king, Theodoric the Great. With the help of the Ripuarian Franks he narrowly defeated the Alamanni in the Battle of Tolbiac in 496 and he made Paris his capital and established an abbey dedicated to Saints Peter and Paul on the south bank of the Seine. In 500 Clovis fought a battle with the Burgundian kingdom at Dijon but was unable to subdue them, the battle added most of Aquitaine to Clovis kingdom and resulted in the death of the Visigothic king Alaric II. According to Gregory of Tours, following the Battle of Vouillé, since Clovis name does not appear in the consular lists, it is likely he was granted a suffect consulship. Clovis became the first king of all Franks in 508, after he had conquered Cologne and this contrasted with Catholicism, whose followers believe that God the Father, Jesus and the Holy Spirit are three persons of one being. By the time of the ascension of Clovis, Gothic Arians dominated Christian Gaul and this included his wife, Clotilde, a Burgundian princess who was a Catholic in spite of the Arianism that surrounded her at court. Clotilde evangelized Clovis to convert to Catholicism, which he initially resisted, Clotilde had wanted her son to be baptized, but Clovis refused to allow it, so Clotilde had the child baptized without Cloviss knowledge

71.
Childebert I
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Childebert I was a Frankish King of the Merovingian dynasty, as third of the four sons of Clovis I who shared the kingdom of the Franks upon their fathers death in 511. He was one of the sons of Saint Clotilda, born at Reims and he reigned as King of Paris from 511 to 558 and Orléans from 524 to 558. In the partition of the realm, he received as his share the town of Paris, the country to the north as far as the river Somme, to the west as far as the English Channel, and the Armorican peninsula. His brothers ruled in different lands, Theuderic I in Metz, Chlodomer in Orléans, in 523, Childebert participated with his brothers in a war against Godomar of Burgundy. Chlodomer died in the Battle of Vézeronce, thereafter, concerned that the three sons of Chlodomer would inherit the kingdom of Orléans, Clothar conspired with Childebert to oust them. They sent a representative to their mother Clotilde, who as the mother had authority as the head of the family line. She famously replied, It is better for me to see them dead rather than shorn, after the murder of Chlodomers two elder children—the third, Clodoald, escaping to a monastic life—Childebert annexed the cities of Chartres and Orléans. He took part in various expeditions against the kingdom of Burgundy. When Witiges, the king of the Ostrogoths, ceded Provence to the Franks in 535, the annexation of that province was completed, with Clotaires help, in the winter of 536–537. In 531, he received pleas from his sister Chrotilda, wife of King Amalaric of the Visigoths, the Arian king of Hispania, Chrotilda claimed, was grossly mistreating her, a Catholic. Childebert went down with an army and defeated the Gothic king, Amalaric retreated to Barcelona, where he was assassinated. Chrotilda died on her journey to Paris of unknown causes. Childebert made other expeditions against the Visigoths, in 542, he took possession of Pamplona with the help of his brother Clotaire and besieged Zaragoza, but was forced to retreat. He died on 13 December 558, and was buried in the abbey he had founded, st-Germain-des-Prés became the royal necropolis for the Neustrian kings until 675. He left no sons, only two daughters, Chrodoberge and Chrodesinde, by his wife Ultragotha and he expanded his domains in more foreign wars than any of his brothers, fighting in Burgundy, Spain, Provence, and elsewhere in Gaul. Gregory of Tours, a contemporary Neustrian, cites Childebert as saying, Velim unquam Arvernam Lemanem quae tantae jocunditatis gratia refulgere dicitur, oculis cernere. Childbert was also one of the religious of the sons of Clovis, cooperating with his brothers, rescuing his sister

72.
Chlothar I
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Chlothar I, also called Clotaire I and the Old, King of the Franks, was one of the four sons of Clovis I of the Merovingian dynasty. Although his father, Childeric I, had united Francia for the first time, in 511 at the age of circa 14, Clothar I inherited two large territories on the Western coast of Francia, separated by the lands of his brother Charibert Is Kingdom of Paris. Chlothar spent most of his life in a campaign to expand his territories at the expense of his relatives. His brothers avoided outright war by cooperating with his attacks on neighbouring lands in concert or by invading lands when their rulers died, the spoils were shared between the participating brothers. By the end of his life, Chlothar had managed to reunite Francia by surviving his brothers, but upon his own death, the Kingdom of the Franks was once again divided between his own four surviving sons. A fifth son had rebelled and was killed, along with his family, Frankish customs of the day allowed for the practice polygamy, especially among royalty. So it was not uncommon for a king to have multiple wives and this was a major deviation from the monogamy of late Roman customs, influenced by the Church. Frankish rulers followed this practice mainly to increase their influence across larger areas of land in the wake of the Roman empires collapse, the aim was to maintain peace and ensure the preservation of the kingdom by appeasing local leaders. In the Germanic tradition succession fell, not to sons, but to younger brothers, uncles, but under Salic law, Clovis I instituted the custom of sons being the primary heirs in all respects. However, it was not a system of primogeniture, with the eldest son receiving the vast majority of an inheritance, therefore, the greater Frankish Kingdom was often splintered into smaller sub-kingdoms. Chlothar was the son of Clovis I and the fourth son of Queen Clotilde. Chlothar was born around 497 in Soissons, but he was very ambitious and sought to extend his domain. Upon the death of Clovis I in the year 511, the Frankish kingdom was divided between Chlothar and his brothers, Theuderic, Childebert, and Chlodomer, because of the rights of mothers, queens were granted a portion of their sons kingdom. Clovis I, who had two wives, divided his kingdom into two for each of his wives, then parceled out pieces to his respective sons. The eldest, Theuderic, son of the first wife, had the benefit of receiving one half of the kingdom of Francia, Chlothar shared the second half of the kingdom with his brothers Childebert and Chlodomer. Chlothar received the northern portion, Childebert the central kingdom of Paris, in 516 Gundobad, king of Burgundy, died, and the throne passed to his son Sigismund, who converted to Catholicism. Sigismund adopted an extreme anti-Arian policy, going so far as to execute his Arian son Sigeric, in 523, at the instigation of their mother, Clotilde, Chlothar, Childebert, and Chlodomer joined forces in an expedition against the Burgundians. The Burgundian army was defeated, and Sigismund was captured and executed, sigismunds brother Godomar replaced him on the throne, with the support of the aristocracy, and the Franks were forced to leave

Chlothar I
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The division of Gaul upon Chlothar's death (561)
Chlothar I
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A denarius from the reign of Chlothar I
Chlothar I
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Bust of Chlothar
Chlothar I
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Imagined Bust of Chlothar on coin minted by Louis XVIII

73.
Charibert I
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Charibert I was the Merovingian King of Paris, the second-eldest son of Chlothar I and Ingund. His elder brother was Gunthar, who died sometime before their fathers death, in 556, Chlothar sent Charibert and his next youngest brother Gunthram against their stepmother Chunna and their younger stepbrother Chram who was in revolt. Chramn was hiding out on Black Mountain in the Limousin, negotiations failed and the two armies prepared for battle. A thunderstorm prevented any engagement and Chramn sent forged letters to his brothers, Charibert and Guntram immediately returned to Burgundy to secure their positions. After the actual death of Chlothar in 561, the Frankish kingdom was divided between his sons in a new configuration. Each son ruled a realm, which was not necessarily geographically coherent. Charibert received Neustria, Aquitaine, and Novempopulana with Paris as his capital and his chief cities were Rouen, Tours, Poitiers, Limoges, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Cahors, and Albi. Guntram received Burgundy, then Sigebert received Austrasia with his capital at Metz, Charibert married Ingoberga, of unknown parentage. By Merofleda, a daughter, and her sister Marcovefa, he had daughters. By Theodogilda, a daughter, Charibert had a son who died in infancy. His brutal behavior resulted in his excommunication, the first ever of a Merovingian king, Charibert was scarcely more than king at Paris when he married his daughter Bertha to Æthelberht, the pagan King of Kent. She took with her Bishop Liudhard as her private confessor and her influence in the Kentish court was instrumental in the success of St. Augustine of Canterburys mission in 597. Though Charibert was eloquent and learned in the law, he was one of the most dissolute of the early Merovingians and he was excommunicated, and his early death in 567 was brought on by his excesses. He was buried in Blavia castellum, a fort in the Tractatus Armoricani. At his death his brothers divided his realm between them, agreeing at first to hold Paris in common and his surviving queen, Theudechild, proposed a marriage with Guntram, though a council held at Paris in 557 had outlawed such matches as incestuous. Guntram decided to house her more safely, though unwillingly, in a nunnery at Arles, the main source for Chariberts life is Gregory of Tours History of the Franks, and from the English perspective Bedes Ecclesiastic History of the English People. Bachrach, Bernard S. Merovingian Military Organization, 481–751, minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press,1971. Historia Francorum Books I-IX at Medieval Sourcebook

74.
Guntram
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St. Guntram, also called Gontram, Gontran, Gunthram, Gunthchramn, and Guntramnus, was the King of Burgundy from AD561 to AD592. He was the third eldest and second eldest surviving son of Chlothar I, on his fathers death in 561, he became king of a fourth of the Kingdom of the Franks, and made his capital at Orléans. The name Guntram denotes war raven, later he married Marcatrude, daughter of Magnar, and sent his son Gundobad to Orléans. But after she had a son Marcatrude was jealous, and proceeded to bring about Gundobads death and she sent poison, they say, and poisoned his drink. And upon his death, by Gods judgment she lost the son she had and incurred the hate of the king, was dismissed by him, after her he took Austerchild, also named Bobilla. He had by her two sons, of whom the older was called Clothar and the younger Chlodomer, Guntram had a period of intemperance. He was eventually overcome with remorse for the sins of his past life, in atonement, he fasted, prayed, wept, and offered himself to God. Throughout the balance of his prosperous reign he attempted to govern by Christian principles, according to St. Gregory of Tours, he was the protector of the oppressed, caregiver to the sick, and the tender parent to his subjects. He was generous with his wealth, especially in times of plague and he strictly and justly enforced the law without respect to person, yet was ever ready to forgive offences against himself, including two attempted assassinations. Guntram munificently built and endowed many churches and monasteries, St. Gregory related that the king performed many miracles both before and after his death, some of which St. Gregory claimed to have witnessed himself. In 567, his elder brother Charibert I died and his lands of the Kingdom of Paris were divided between the brothers, Guntram, Sigebert I, and Chilperic I. They shared his realm, agreeing at first to hold Paris in common, chariberts widow, Theudechild, proposed a marriage with Guntram, the eldest remaining brother, though a council convened at Paris as late as 557 had forbidden such tradition as incestuous. Guntram decided to house her more safely, though unwillingly, in a monastery in Arles, in 573, Guntram was caught in a civil war with his brother Sigebert I of Austrasia, and in 575 summoned the aid of their brother Chilperic I of Soissons. He reversed his allegiance later, due to the character of Chilperic, if we may give him the benefit of the doubt in light of St. Gregorys commendation and he thereafter remained an ally of Sigebert, his wife, and his sons until his death. Mummolus defeated Chilperics general Desiderius and the Neustrians forces retreated from Austrasia. In 577, Chlothar and Clodomir, his two surviving children, died of dysentery and he adopted as his son and heir Childebert II, his nephew, Sigeberts son, however, Childebert did not always prove faithful to his uncle. In 581, Chilperic took many of Guntrams cities and in 583, he allied with Childebert and this time Guntram made peace with Chilperic and Childebert retreated. Supposed to take place on 4 July, the feast of St. Martin of Tours, in Orléans, it did not, Guntram marched against him, calling him nothing more than a millers son named Ballomer

75.
Chilperic I
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Chilperic I was the king of Neustria from 561 to his death. He was one of the sons of the Frankish king Clotaire I, immediately after the death of his father in 561, he endeavoured to take possession of the whole kingdom, seized the treasure amassed in the royal town of Berny and entered Paris. His brothers, however, compelled him to divide the kingdom with them, and Soissons, together with Amiens, Arras, Cambrai, Thérouanne, Tournai, and Boulogne fell to Chilperics share. His eldest brother Charibert received Paris, the second eldest brother Guntram received Burgundy with its capital at Orléans, on the death of Charibert in 567, his estates were augmented when the brothers divided Chariberts kingdom among themselves and agreed to share Paris. Not long after his accession, however, he was at war with Sigebert, Sigebert defeated him and marched to Soissons, where he defeated and imprisoned Chilperics eldest son, Theudebert. The war flared in 567, at the death of Charibert, Chilperic immediately invaded Sigeberts new lands, but Sigebert defeated him. Chilperic later allied with Guntram against Sigebert, but Guntram changed sides, when Sigebert married Brunhilda, daughter of the Visigothic sovereign in Spain, Chilperic also wished to make a brilliant marriage. He had already repudiated his first wife, Audovera, and had taken as his concubine a serving-woman called Fredegund and he accordingly dismissed Fredegund, and married Brunhildas sister, Galswintha. But he soon tired of his new partner, and one morning Galswintha was found strangled in her bed, a few days afterwards Chilperic married Fredegund. This murder was the cause of more long and bloody wars, interspersed with truces, in 575, Sigebert was assassinated by Fredegund at the very moment when he had Chilperic at his mercy. Chilperic then made war with the protector of Sigeberts wife and son, Chilperic retrieved his position, took from Austrasia Tours and Poitiers and some places in Aquitaine, and fostered discord in the kingdom of the east during the minority of Childebert II. In 578, Chilperic sent an army to fight the Breton ruler Waroch II of the Bro-Wened along the Vilaine, the Frankish army consisted of units from the Poitou, Touraine, Anjou, Maine, and Bayeux. The Baiocassenses were Saxons and they in particular were routed by the Bretons, the armies fought for three days before Waroch submitted, did homage for Vannes, sent his son as a hostage, and agreed to pay an annual tribute. He subsequently broke his oath but Chilperics dominion over the Bretons was relatively secure, most of what is known of Chilperic comes from The History of the Franks by Gregory of Tours. Gregory also objected to Chilperics attempts to teach a new doctrine of the Trinity, Chilperics reign in Neustria saw the introduction of the Byzantine punishment of eye-gouging. In September 584, while returning from an expedition to his royal villa of Chelles. Chilperic Is first marriage was to Audovera, merovech, married the widow Brunhilda and became his fathers enemy Clovis. Basina, nun, led a revolt in the abbey of Poitiers Childesinda His short second marriage to Galswintha produced no children and his concubinage and subsequent marriage to Fredegund in about 568 produced six more legitimate offspring, Rigunth, betrothed to Reccared but never married

Chilperic I
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Portrait of Chilperic I on a bronze medal 1720.
Chilperic I
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Chilperic I and Fredegund
Chilperic I
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Childeric I (457–481)
Chilperic I

76.
Clovis II
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Clovis II succeeded his father Dagobert I in 639 as King of Neustria and Burgundy. His brother Sigebert III had been King of Austrasia since 634 and he was initially under the regency of his mother Nanthild until her death in her early thirties in 642. This death allowed him to fall under the influence of the secular magnates, Clovis wife, Balthild, whose Anglo-Saxon origins are now considered doubtful, was sold into slavery in Gaul. She had been owned by Clovis mayor of the palace, Erchinoald and she bore him three sons who all became kings after his death. The eldest, Chlothar, succeeded him and his second eldest, the youngest, Theuderic, succeeded Childeric in Neustria and eventually became the sole king of the Franks. Clovis was a minor for almost the whole of his reign and he is sometimes regarded as king of Austrasia during the interval 656–57 when Childebert the Adopted had usurped the throne. He is often regarded as an early roi fainéant, medieval monks deemed him insane and attribute the stupidity of his descendants to that cause. Noted Belgian historian Henri Pirenne stated that Clovis died insane, Clovis II was buried in Saint Denis Basilica, Paris. Media related to Clovis II at Wikimedia Commons

77.
Chlothar III
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Chlothar III was the eldest son of Clovis II, king of Neustria and Burgundy, and his queen Balthild. When Clovis died in 658, Chlothar succeeded him under the regency of his mother, the Historia Langobardorum reports that in the early 660s a Frankish army invaded Provence and then Italy. This force came upon the camp of the Lombard king Grimoald I of Benevento, the Franks looted the camp and celebrated. Then, after midnight, Grimuald attacked and drove back to Neustria. After the death of Saint Eligius in 661, the Life of Eligius — written soon after Chlothars death — records that a reduced the population of Frances cities. A plague in the British Isles, according to Bede, did the same there in 664, during the regency, Austrasians begged for a king of their own and in 662, the Clothars government gave Austrasia to another son of Clovis II, Childeric II. Also during his reign, the mayor of the palace Erchinoald died, as of 668, Bede tells that Ebroin was running the nations foreign policy and internal security. Given that the Liber historiae Francorum admits four years for Chlothars reign and he was buried in Saint Denis Basilica and a tomb, probably his, was discovered there recently. Then, his brother Theuderic III succeeded him and it is notable that he is often described as the first roi fainéant—do-nothing king—of the Merovingian dynasty, and at least until the last four years of his life this description is fitting. Media related to Chlothar III at Wikimedia Commons

78.
Childeric II
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Childeric II was the king of Austrasia from 662 and of Neustria and Burgundy from 673 until his death, making him sole King of the Franks for the final two years of his life. Childeric was the second eldest son of King Clovis II and grandson of King Dagobert I and his mother was Saint Balthild and his elder brother was Chlothar III, who was briefly sole king from 661, but gave Austrasia to Childeric the next year. He was still a child when he was raised on the shields of his warriors. He soon invaded his brothers kingdom and displaced him, becoming sole king, in March 675, Childeric had granted honores in Alsace to Adalrich with the title of dux. This grant was most probably the result of Adalrichs continued support for Childeric in Burgundy, the final straw for the magnates of Neustria, however, was Childerics illegal corporal punishment of the nobleman named Bodilo. He was buried in Saint-Germain-des-Prés, near Paris, where the tombs of him, Bilichild, and his young son Dagobert were discovered in 1645, besides the aforementioned Dagobert, she bore him the future king Chilperic II. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Media related to Childeric II at Wikimedia Commons

79.
Theuderic III
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Theuderic III was the king of Neustria on two occasions and king of Austrasia from 679 to his death in 691. Thus, he was the king of all the Franks from 679. The son of Clovis II and Balthild, he has described as a puppet — a roi fainéant — of Mayor of the Palace Ebroin. He succeeded his brother Clotaire III in Neustria in 673, but Childeric II of Austrasia displaced him soon thereafter until he died in 675, when Dagobert II died in 679, he received Austrasia as well and became king of the whole Frankish realm. He and the Neustrian mayor of the palace, Waratton, made peace with Pepin of Heristal, mayor of the palace of Austrasia and he married Clotilda, a daughter of Ansegisel and Saint Begga of Landen. They had the children, Clovis IV, king Childebert III, king He married Amalberge before 674, daughter of Wandregisis. Possibly they had a daughter, Chrotlind, born about 670, Lambert II and Chrotlind are the parents of Robert I, Duke of Neustria. And possibly, Clovis III, king of Austrasia Clotaire IV, king of Austrasia Bertrada of Prüm Fouracre, Paul, Gerberding, late Merovingian France, History and Hagiography, 640-720. Les rois fainéants, De Dagobert à Pépin le Bref, the long-haired kings, and other studies in Frankish history. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450 -751, carlrichard Brühl, Theo Kölzer, Martina Hartmann. Diplomata regum Francorum e stirpe Merovingica

80.
Dagobert III
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Dagobert III was Merovingian king of the Franks. He was a son of Childebert III and he succeeded his father as the head of the three Frankish kingdoms—Neustria and Austrasia, unified since Pippins victory at Tertry in 687, and the Kingdom of Burgundy—in 711, at the age of twelve. Real power, however, still remained with the Mayor of the Palace, Pippin of Herstal, Pippins death occasioned open conflict between his heirs and the Neustrian nobles who elected the mayors of the palace. As for Dagobert himself, the Liber Historiae Francorum reports he died of illness, but otherwise says nothing about his character or actions

81.
Chilperic II
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Chilperic II, born Daniel, the youngest son of Childeric II and his cousin Bilichild, was king of Neustria from 715 and sole king of the Franks from 718 until his death. As an infant, he was spirited to a monastery to protect his life from the feuding of his family. He took the name of Chilperic, though due to his monastic upbringing. First, it appears he was supposed to be but a tool in the hands of Ragenfrid, Chilperic, however, was his own man, both a fighter and a leader, always at the forefront in battle at the head of his troops. In 716, he and Ragenfrid together led an army into Austrasia, then being warred over by Plectrude, on behalf of her grandson Theudoald, and Charles Martel, the son of Pepin of Heristal. The Neustrians allied with another invading force under Radbod, King of the Frisians and met Charles in battle near Cologne, Chilperic was victorious and Charles fled to the mountains of the Eifel. The king and his mayor then turned to besiege their other rival in the city, Plectrude acknowledged Chilperic as king, gave over the Austrasian treasury, and abandoned her grandsons claim to the mayoralty. At this juncture, events took a turn against Chilperic, as he and Ragenfrid were leading their triumphant soldiers back to Neustria, Charles fell on them near Malmedy and in the Battle of Amblève, Charles routed them and they fled. Thereafter, Charles Martel remained virtually undefeated and Chilperics strong will was subdued in a series of campaigns waged in Neustrian territory, in 717, Charles returned to Neustria with an army and confirmed his supremacy with a victory at Vincy, near Cambrai. He chased the king and mayor to Paris before turning back to deal with Plectrude. On succeeding there, he proclaimed Chlothar IV king of Austrasia in opposition to Chilperic. In 718, Chilperic, in response, allied with Odo the Great, the duke of Aquitaine who had made himself independent during the contests in 715, the king fled with his ducal ally to the land south of the Loire and Ragenfrid fled to Angers. In 719, he was raised on the shield as king of all the Franks. He died in Attigny and was buried in Noyon, from Merovingians to Carolingians, Dynastic Change in Frankia

82.
Chlothar IV
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Chlothar IV, king of Austrasia, was installed by the mayor of the palace, Charles Martel, as an ally during the civil war then raging. In 717, Charles, returning to Neustria with an army to assault King Chilperic II and his mayor, Ragenfrid, confirmed his supremacy with a victory at Vincy, near Cambrai. He chased the king and mayor to Paris before turning back to remove his other opponent, Plectrude. On succeeding there, he proclaimed Chlothar king of Austrasia in opposition to Chilperic, in 718, Chilperic was again defeated, at Soissons, by Charles. The king fled with his ally Odo the Great, duke of Aquitaine, soon Odo gave up on Chilperic and sued for peace. Charles now recognized Chilperic as king of all the Franks, and in exchange Chilperic surrendered his power to Charles. Chlothar is thought to have died in 718, when Chilperic was raised on the shield in 719, Charles may have been willing to recognize him as king as a result of Chlothars death. It is possible, however, that Chlothar survived until 719,720 or even 721 and it is also possible that Chlothar was a son of Childebert III or not a Merovingian at all, but merely a puppet or place-man who served Charles Martels political purposes at the time

83.
Childeric III
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Childeric III was King of Francia from 743 until he was deposed by Pope Zachary in March 751 at the instigation of Pepin the Short. Although his parentage is uncertain, he is considered the last Frankish king from the Merovingian dynasty, once Childeric was deposed, Pepin the Short, who was the father of emperor Charlemagne, was crowned the first king of the Franks from the Carolingian dynasty. In 718, Charles Martel combined the roles of mayor of the palace of Neustria and mayor of the palace of Austrasia, after the death of king Theuderic IV in 737, the throne remained vacant, and Charles Martel became de facto king. After Charles Martels death in 741, Carloman and Pepin the Short, his sons by his first wife Rotrude, however, they soon faced revolts from their younger half-brother Grifo and their brother-in-law Odilo, Duke of Bavaria. These revolts may have played a part in their decision to fill the throne with a Merovingian king after a vacancy to add legitimacy to their reigns. Childerics parentage and his relation to the Merovingian family are uncertain and he may have been either the son of Chilperic II or Theuderic IV. Childeric took no part in business, which was directed, as previously. Once a year, he would be brought in an ox cart led by a peasant and preside at court, after Carloman retired to a monastery in 747, Pepin resolved to take the royal crown for himself. Pepin sent letters to Pope Zachary, asking whether the title of king belonged to the one who had exercised the power or the one with the royal lineage, the pope responded that the real power should have the royal title as well. In early March 751 Childeric was dethroned by Pope Zachary and tonsured and his long hair was the symbol of his dynasty and thus the royal rights or magical powers, by cutting it, they divested him of all royal prerogatives. Once dethroned, he and his son Theuderic were placed in the monastery of Saint-Bertin or he in Saint-Omer, there are conflicts in information of when he exactly died with some references citing as early as 753 and other references saying it was as late as 758. Under the Carolingians, he received bad press, being called a rex falsus, false king, despite the fact that it was Pepin through Popes Zachary, junghans, W. Die Geschichte der fränkischen Konige Childerich und Clodovech. Chiflet, J. J. Anastasis Childerici I Francorum regis, le Tombeau de Childeric I, roi des Francs. Lavisse, E. Histoire de France, Vol. II, the Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar with its Continuations

84.
Louis the Pious
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Louis the Pious, also called the Fair, and the Debonaire, was the King of Aquitaine from 781. He was also King of the Franks and co-Emperor with his father, Charlemagne, during his reign in Aquitaine, Louis was charged with the defence of the empires southwestern frontier. He conquered Barcelona from the Muslims in 801 and asserted Frankish authority over Pamplona, as emperor he included his adult sons, Lothair, Pepin, and Louis, in the government and sought to establish a suitable division of the realm among them. In the 830s his empire was torn by war between his sons, only exacerbated by Louiss attempts to include his son Charles by his second wife in the succession plans. Though his reign ended on a note, with order largely restored to his empire. Louis is generally compared unfavourably to his father, though the problems he faced were of a different sort. He was the son of Charlemagne by his wife Hildegard. His grandfather was King Pepin the Younger, Louis was crowned King of Aquitaine as a child in 781 and sent there with regents and a court. Charlemagne wanted his son Louis to grow up in the area where he was to reign, Charlemagnes intention was to see all his sons brought up as natives of their given territories, wearing the national costume of the region and ruling by the local customs. Thus were the children sent to their respective realms at so young an age, each kingdom had its importance in keeping some frontier, Louiss was the Spanish March. In 797, Barcelona, the greatest city of the Marca, fell to the Franks when Zeid, its governor, rebelled against Córdoba and, failing, the Umayyad authority recaptured it in 799. Louis campaigned in the Italian Mezzogiorno against the Beneventans at least once, Louis was one of Charlemagnes three legitimate sons to survive infancy. He had a brother, Lothair who died during infancy. According to Frankish custom, Louis had expected to share his inheritance with his brothers, Charles the Younger, King of Neustria, to Louiss kingdom of Aquitaine, he added Septimania, Provence, and part of Burgundy. However, Charlemagnes other legitimate sons died – Pepin in 810 and Charles in 811 –, on his fathers death in 814, he inherited the entire Frankish kingdom and all its possessions. While at his villa of Doué-la-Fontaine, Anjou, Louis received news of his fathers death and he rushed to Aachen and crowned himself emperor to shouts of Vivat Imperator Ludovicus by the attending nobles. From start of his reign, his coinage imitated his father Charlemagnes portrait and he quickly sent all of his unmarried sisters to nunneries, to avoid any possible entanglements from overly powerful brothers-in-laws. Sparing his illegitimate half-brothers, he forced his fathers cousins, Adalard and Wala to be tonsured, placing them in Noirmoutier and Corbie, respectively and his chief counsellors were Bernard, margrave of Septimania, and Ebbo, Archbishop of Reims

Louis the Pious
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Louis the Pious, contemporary depiction from 826 as a miles Christi (soldier of Christ), with a poem of Rabanus Maurus overlaid
Louis the Pious
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Charlemagne crowns Louis the Pious
Louis the Pious
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Denarius of Louis.
Louis the Pious
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Louis the Pious doing penance at Attigny in 822

85.
Louis III of France
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Louis III was the king of West Francia from 879 until his death in 882. Louiss short reign was marked by military success, Louis was born while his father was King of Aquitaine and his grandfather Charles the Bald was ruling West Francia. Some doubts were raised about his legitimacy, since his parents had married secretly, in September 879 Louis was crowned at Ferrières Abbey. In March 880 at Amiens the brothers divided their fathers kingdom, Louis receiving the northern part, duke Boso, one of Charles the Balds most trusted lieutenants renounced his allegiance to both brothers and was elected King of Provence. In the summer of 880 Carloman II and Louis III marched against him and captured Mâcon and they united their forces with those of their cousin Charles the Fat, then ruling East Francia and Kingdom of Italy, and unsuccessfully besieged Vienne from August to November. In 881 Louis III achieved a victory against Viking riders, whose invasions had been ongoing since his grandfathers reign. Within a year of the battle an anonymous poet celebrated it, Louis III died on 5 August 882 at Saint-Denis in the centre of his realm, having hit his head and fallen from his horse while chasing a girl with amorous intent. He hit the lintel of a door with his head while mounting his horse and fractured his cranium on impact, which led to his death. Since he had no children, his brother Carloman II became the king of West Francia. The Ludwigslied and the Battle of Saucourt, in Judith Jesch, The Scandinavians from the Vendel Period to the Tenth Century, the Context of the Old High German Ludwigslied, Medium Aevum,46, 87–103. Kingship and Politics in the Late Ninth Century, Charles the Fat, the Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians, 751–987

86.
Charles the Fat
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Charles the Fat, also known as Charles III, was the Carolingian Emperor from 881 to 888. The youngest son of Louis the German and Hemma, Charles was a great-grandson of Charlemagne and was the last Carolingian to rule over the briefly re-united empire, over his lifetime, Charles became ruler of the various kingdoms of Charlemagnes former Empire. Crowned Emperor in 881 by Pope John VIII, his succession to the territories of his brother Louis the Younger the following year reunited the kingdom of East Francia. Upon the death of his cousin Carloman II in 884, he inherited all of West Francia, the reunited Empire would not last. During a coup led by his nephew Arnulf of Carinthia in November 887, Charles was deposed in East Francia, Lotharingia, forced into quiet retirement he died of natural causes in January 888, just a few weeks after his deposition. The Empire quickly fell apart after his death, splintering into five separate successor kingdoms, the nickname Charles the Fat is not contemporary. It was first used by the Annalista Saxo in the twelfth century, there is no contemporary reference to Charless physical size, but the nickname has stuck and is the common name in most modern European languages. Regino of Prüm, a contemporary of Charless recording his death, calls him Emperor Charles, third of that name, Charles was the youngest of the three sons of Louis the German, first King of East Francia, and Hemma from the House of Welf. An incident of demonic possession is recorded in his youth, in which he was said to have been foaming at the mouth before he was taken to the altar of the church and this greatly affected his father and himself. In 859 Charles was made Count of the Breisgau, an Alemannic march bordering southern Lotharingia, in 863 his rebellious eldest brother Carloman revolted against their father. The next year Louis the Younger followed Carloman in revolt and Charles joined him, Carloman received rule over the Duchy of Bavaria. In 865 the elder Louis was forced to divide his lands among his heirs, Duchy of Saxony went to Louis. Lotharingia was to be divided between the younger two, Louis the German sent first Charles and then Carloman himself, with armies containing Italian forces under Berengar of Friuli, their cousin, to the Italian kingdom. These wars, however, were not successful until the death of Charles the Bald in 877, in 876 Louis the German died and the inheritance was divided as planned after a conference at Ries, though Charles received less of his share of Lotharingia than planned. In his charters, Charles reign in Germania is dated from his inheritance in 876, three brothers ruled in cooperation and avoided wars over the division of their patrimony, a rare occurrence in the Early Middle Ages. In 877 Carloman finally inherited Italy from his uncle Charles the Bald, Louis divided Lotharingia and offered a third to Carloman and a third to Charles. In 878 Carloman returned his Lotharingian share to Louis, who divided it evenly with Charles. In 879 Carloman was incapacitated by a stroke and divided his domains between his brothers, Bavaria went to Louis and Italy to Charles, Charles dated his reign in Italia from this point, and from then he spent most of his reign until 886 in his Italian kingdom

87.
Odo of France
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Odo was the elected King of West Francia from 888 to 898 as the first king from the Robertian dynasty. Before assuming the kingship Odo had the titles of Duke of France, Odo was the eldest son of Robert the Strong, Duke of the Franks, Marquis of Neustria and Count of Anjou. After his fathers death in 866, Odo inherited his Marquis of Neustria title, Odo lost this title in 868 when king Charles the Bald appointed Hugh the Abbot to the title. Odo regained it following the death of Hugh in 886, after 882 he held the post of Count of Paris. Odo was also the lay abbot of St. Martin of Tours, Odo married Théodrate of Troyes and had two known sons, Arnulf and Guy, neither of whom lived past the age of fifteen. For his skill and bravery in resisting the attacks of Vikings at the Siege of Paris and he was crowned at Compiègne in February 888 by Walter, Archbishop of Sens. In 889 and 890 Odo granted special privileges to the County of Manresa in Osona, because of its position on the front line against the Moorish aggression, Manresa was given the right to build towers of defence known as manresanas or manresanes. This privilege was responsible for giving Manresa its unique character, distinct from the rest of Osona, to gain prestige and support, Odo paid homage to the East Francias King Arnulf. Odo died in La Fère on 1 January 898 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed

88.
Charles the Simple
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Charles III, called the Simple or the Straightforward, was the King of West Francia from 898 until 922 and the King of Lotharingia from 911 until 919–23. He was a member of the Carolingian dynasty, Charles was the third and posthumous son of king Louis the Stammerer by his second wife Adelaide of Paris. As a child, Charles was prevented from succeeding to the throne at the time of the death in 884 of his half-brother, instead, Frankish nobles of the realm asked his cousin, Emperor Charles the Fat to assume the crown. The nobility then elected Odo, the hero of the Siege of Paris as the new king, in 893 Charles was crowned by a faction opposed to the rule of Odo at the Reims Cathedral, becoming monarch of West Francia only after the death of Odo in 898. In 911 a group of Vikings led by Rollo besieged Paris, after a victory near Chartres on 26 August, Charles decided to negotiate with Rollo, resulting in the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte which created the Duchy of Normandy. Rollo also agreed to be baptised and to marry Charles daughter Gisela, Charles had tried to win Lotharingian support for years, for instance, by marrying in April 907 a Lotharingian woman named Frederuna, and in 909 his niece Cunigunda married Wigeric of Lotharingia. Charles defended Lotharingia against two attacks by Conrad I, in 925 Lotharingia was once again seized by East Francia. Queen Frederuna died on 10 February 917 leaving six daughters and no sons, on 7 October 919 Charles married Eadgifu, the daughter of Edward the Elder, King of England, who bore him a son, the future King Louis IV of France. By this time Charles excessive favouritism towards a certain Hagano had turned the aristocracy against him and he endowed Hagano with monasteries that were already the benefices of other barons, alienating them. In Lotharingia he earned the enmity of the new duke Gilbert, opposition to Charles in Lotharingia was not universal, however, he retained support of Wigeric. The nobles, completely exasperated with Charles policies and especially his favoritism of count Hagano, after negotiations by Archbishop Herveus of Reims the king was released. In 922 the Frankish nobles revolted again led by Robert of Neustria, Robert, who was Odos brother, was elected king by the rebels and crowned, while Charles had to flee to Lotharingia. On 2 July 922, Charles lost his most faithful supporter, Herveus of Reims, Charles returned with a Norman army in 923 but was defeated on 15 June near Soissons by Robert, who died in the battle. Charles was captured and imprisoned in a castle at Péronne under the guard of Herbert II of Vermandois, Roberts son-in-law Rudolph of Burgundy was then elected to succeed him as king. Charles died in prison on 7 October 929 and was buried at the abbey of Saint-Fursy. His son by Eadgifu would eventually be crowned in 936 as Louis IV of France, in the initial aftermath of Charless defeat, Queen Eadgifu and children had fled to England. On 6 December 884 King Carloman II of West Francia died without a heir and his half-brother. Because of this, their cousin Charles the Fat, already Holy Roman Emperor, since the beginning, the new monarch was forced to deal with constant Viking raids, with little success

Charles the Simple
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14th century depiction of the imprisonment of Charles III
Charles the Simple
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Denier of Charles III
Charles the Simple
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Carloman, son
Charles the Simple
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Pepin, son

89.
Louis V of France
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Louis V, was the king of West Francia from 986 until his premature death a year later. He died childless and was the last monarch in the Carolingian line in West Francia. The eldest son of King Lothair and his wife Emma of Italy, daughter of Lothair II of Italy, Louis was born c. Louis V was the last Carolingian King of West Francia and reigned in Laon from 2 March,986 until his death, at the age of 20, in 21 May,987. Immediately after their wedding, Louis and Adelaide-Blanche were crowned King, Louis, without suspecting the artifice, yielded to the advice of his wife, and went with her. When they were in Aquitaine, she left her husband to join his family, however, despite being recorded by relative contemporary and later sources, the existence of this marriage was recently challenged by historian Carlrichard Brülh. Upon his fathers death on 2 March 986, the already-crowned Louis V became the undisputed King of the Franks, in addition, the young monarch inherited a battle between his fathers line of elected kings, and the Ottonian house of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto I. As defender of Rome, Otto I had the power to name the clergy in Carolingian territory, the escape of the Archbishop was perceived by Louis V as treason, he turned violently against Adalberon and threatened him with a siege of Reims. The matter was settled in a trial court at Compiègne. Before all these events were resolved, Louis V died on 21 May 987 from a fall while hunting in the Forest of Halatte near the town of Senlis. He was buried in the Abbey of Saint-Corneille in Compiègne and he left no legitimate heirs, so his uncle Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine, was nominated as the hereditary successor to the throne. Capet was elected to the Frankish throne and Adalberon crowned him, thus the rule of the Carolingian dynasty ended and the Capetian era had begun. Gwatkin, H. M. Whitney, J. P. et al, the Cambridge Medieval History, Volume III. Frantz Funck-Brentano, National History of France, ferdinand Lot, Les derniers Carolingiens, Lothaire, Louis V, Charles de Lorraine, Paris 1891. Walther Kienast, Deutschland und Frankreich in der Kaiserzeit, vol

90.
Philip III of France
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It can also refer to Philippe III de Croÿ and Philippe III, Duke of Orléans. Philip III, called the Bold, was King of France from 1270 to 1285, Philip proved indecisive, soft in nature, and timid. The strong personalities of his parents apparently crushed him, and policies of his father dominated him, people called him the Bold on the basis of his abilities in combat and on horseback and not on the basis of his political or personal character. He was pious but not cultivated and he followed the suggestions of others, first of Pierre de La Broce and then of his uncle King Charles I of Naples, Sicily, and Albania. His father, Louis IX, died in Tunis during the Eighth Crusade, Philip, who was accompanying him, came back to France to claim his throne and was anointed at Reims in 1271. Philip made numerous territorial acquisitions during his reign, the most notable being the County of Toulouse which was annexed to the Crown lands of France in 1271. Following the Sicilian Vespers, a rebellion triggered by Peter III of Aragon against Philips uncle Charles I of Naples, Philip was forced to retreat and died from dysentry in Perpignan in 1285. He was succeeded by his son Philip the Fair, Philip was born in Poissy to King Saint Louis IX of France and Margaret of Provence, queen consort of France. As a younger son, Philip was not expected to rule a kingdom, at the death of his elder brother Louis in 1260, he became the heir to the throne. He was then 15 years old and has less skill than his brother, being of a character, submissive, timid and versatile. Pope Urban IV released Philip from his oath on June 6,1263, from 1268 Pierre de La Brosse became mentor. Saint Louis also provided him his own advice, writing in particular Enseignements and he also received a very faith-oriented education. Guillaume dErcuis was also his chaplain before being the tutor of his son, as Count of Orléans, he accompanied his father to the Eighth Crusade in Tunis,1270. After taking Carthage, the army was struck by an epidemic of dysentery and his brother John Tristan, Count of Valois died first, on August 3, and on August 25 the king died. To prevent putrefaction of the remains of the sovereign, they recoursed to Mos Teutonicus, Philip, then 25 years old, was proclaimed king in Tunis. With neither great personality or will, very pious, but a good rider and he was unable to command the troops at the death of his father. He left his uncle Charles I of Naples to negotiate with Muhammad I al-Mustansir, Hafsid Sultan of Tunis and he got the payment of tribute from the caliph of Tunis in exchange for the departure of the crusaders. A treaty was concluded October 28,1270 between the kings of France, Sicily and Navarre and the barons on one hand and the caliph of Tunis on the other

91.
Philip IV of France
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Philip IV, called the Fair or the Iron King, was King of France from 1285 until his death. By virtue of his marriage with Joan I of Navarre, he was also Philip I, Philip relied on skillful civil servants, such as Guillaume de Nogaret and Enguerrand de Marigny, to govern the kingdom rather than on his barons. Philip and his advisors were instrumental in the transformation of France from a country to a centralized state. Philip, who sought an uncontested monarchy, compelled his vassals by wars and his ambitions made him highly influential in European affairs. His goal was to place his relatives on foreign thrones, princes from his house ruled in Naples and Hungary. He tried and failed to make relative the Holy Roman Emperor. He began the advance of France eastward by taking control of scattered fiefs. To further strengthen the monarchy, he tried to control the French clergy and this conflict led to the transfer of the papal court to the enclave of Avignon in 1309. In 1306, Philip the Fair expelled the Jews from France and, in 1307, Friday 13th, Philip was in debt to both groups and saw them as a state within the state. His final year saw a scandal amongst the family, known as the Tour de Nesle Affair. His three sons were kings of France, Louis X, Philip V, and Charles IV. A member of the House of Capet, Philip was born in the fortress of Fontainebleau to the future Philip III. He was the second of four born to the couple. His father was the heir apparent of France at that time, in August 1270, when Philip was two years old, his grandfather died while on Crusade, his father became king, and his elder brother Louis became heir apparent. Only five months later, in January 1271, Philips mother died after falling from a horse, a few months later, one of Philips younger brothers, Robert, also died. Philips father was crowned king at Rhiems on 15 August 1271. Six days later, he married again, Philips step-mother was Marie, in May 1276, Philips elder brother Louis died, and the eight year old Philip became crown prince. It was suspected that Louis had been poisoned, and that his stepmother, one reason for these rumours was the fact that the queen gave birth to her own eldest son in the same month as the death of the crown prince

Philip IV of France
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Homage of Edward I (kneeling) to Philip IV (seated). As Duke of Aquitaine, Edward was a vassal to the French king.
Philip IV of France
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Sledgehammer denier during Philip the Fair
Philip IV of France
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Templars burned at the stake
Philip IV of France
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Tomb of Philip IV in the Basilica of St Denis.

92.
John I of France
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John I, called the Posthumous, was King of France and Navarre, as the posthumous son and successor of Louis X, for the five days he lived in 1316. Although considered a king today, his status was not recognized until chroniclers and historians in later centuries began numbering John II, if his reign is recognized, it is the shortest of any French king. He is also the person to be considered King of France since birth and, thus, the youngest person to be King of France. John reigned for five days under the regency of his uncle Philip the Tall, the infant King was buried in Saint Denis Basilica. He was succeeded by Philip, whose contested legitimacy led to the re-affirmation of the Salic law, the cause of his death is still not known today. The premature death of John brought the first issue of succession of the Capetian dynasty. When Louis X, his father, died without a son to succeed him and it was then decided to wait until his pregnant widow, Clementia of Hungary, delivered the child. The kings brother, Philip the Tall, was in charge of the regency of the kingdom against his uncle Charles of Valois, the birth of a male child was expected to give France its king. The problem of succession returned when John died five days after birth, Philip ascended the throne at the expense of Johns four-year-old half-sister, Joan, daughter of Louis X and Margaret of Burgundy. Various legends circulated about this royal child, first, it was claimed that his uncle Philip the Tall had him poisoned. Then a strange story a few decades later came to start the rumor that the little King John was not dead, during the captivity of John the Good, a man named Giannino Baglioni claimed to be John I and thus the heir to the throne. He tried to assert his rights, but was captured in Provence, shortly after they met in 1354, di Rienzo was assassinated, and Baglioni waited two years to report his claims. He went to the Hungarian court where Louis I of Hungary, nephew of Clemence of Hungary, recognized him as the son of Louis, in 1360, Baglioni went to Avignon, but Pope Innocent VI refused to receive him. After several attempts to gain recognition, he was arrested and imprisoned in Naples, maurice Druons historical novel series Les Rois maudits dramatises this theory. In La Loi des mâles, the infant John is temporarily switched with the child of Guccio Baglioni and he is subsequently poisoned by Mahaut, Countess of Artois, in order to place Johns uncle, Philippe, Count of Poitiers, on the throne. Marie is coerced into secretly raising John as her own son, an adult Giannino was portrayed by Jean-Gérard Sandoz in the 1972 French miniseries adaptation of the series, and by Lorans Stoica in the 2005 adaptation. List of shortest reigning monarchs of all time Summaries of Foreign Reviews, Natura ed Arte - Giannino Baglioni

John I of France
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Tomb Effigy of John the Posthumous
John I of France
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Funerary convoy of John I.

93.
House of Valois
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The House of Valois was a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty. They succeeded the House of Capet to the French throne, and were the house of France from 1328 to 1589. Junior members of the family founded cadet branches in Orléans, Anjou, Burgundy, the Valois descended from Charles, Count of Valois, the second surviving son of King Philip III of France. Their title to the throne was based on a precedent in 1316, the Capetian dynasty seemed secure both during and after the reign of Philip IV from 1285 to 1313. Philip had left three surviving sons and a daughter, each son became king in turn but died young without male heirs, leaving only daughters who could not inherit the throne. When Charles IV died in 1328, the French succession became more problematic, in 1328 three candidates had plausible claims to the throne, Philip, Count of Valois, son of Charles of Valois, who was the closest heir in male line and a grandson of Philip III. Because his father was the brother of the late Philip IV, he was therefore a nephew of Philip IV, further, Charles IV had chosen him as the regent before his death. Philip, Count of Évreux, another nephew of Philip IV and he strengthened his position by marrying Joan of France, daughter of Louis X. Edward III of England, son of Isabella of France, daughter and only surviving child of Philip IV. Edward claimed to be the heir as a grandson of Philip IV, in England, Isabella of France claimed the throne on behalf of her son. Like the French, the English law of succession did not allow the succession of females, the French rejected Isabellas claims, arguing that since she herself, as a woman, could not succeed, then she could not transmit any such right to her son. Thus the French magnates chose Philip of Valois, who became Philip VI of France, the throne of Navarre went its separate way, to Joan of France, daughter of Louis X, who became Joan II of Navarre. Because diplomacy and negotiation had failed, Edward III would have to back his claims with force to obtain the French throne, for a few years, England and France maintained an uneasy peace. Eventually, an escalation of conflict between the two led to the confiscation of the duchy of Aquitaine. Instead of paying homage to the French king, as his ancestors had done and these events helped launch the Hundred Years War between England and France. The Hundred Years War could be considered a war of succession between the houses of Valois and Plantagenet. The early reign of Philip VI was a one for France. The new king fought the Flemings on behalf of his vassal, the count of Flanders, Edward IIIs aggression against Scotland, a French ally, prompted Philip VI to confiscate Guyenne. In the past the English kings would have to submit to the King of France, but Edward, having descended from the French kings, claimed the throne for himself

House of Valois
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Arms of the King of France since 1376

94.
Philip VI of France
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Philip VI, called the Fortunate and of Valois, was the first King of France from the House of Valois. He reigned from 1328 until his death, Philips reign was dominated by the consequences of a succession dispute. It was held in France, however, that Edward was ineligible to inherit the French throne through the line according to the ancient Salic Law. The result was the beginning of the Hundred Years War in 1337, after initial successes at sea, Philips navy was annihilated at the Battle of Sluys in 1340, ensuring that the war would occur on the continent. The English took another decisive advantage at the Battle of Crécy, while the Black Death struck France, in 1349, Philip VI bought the Dauphiné from its ruined ruler Humbert II and entrusted the government of this province to his grandson Charles. Philip VI died in 1350 and was succeeded by his son John II the Good, little is recorded about Philips childhood and youth, in large part because he was not of royal birth. Philips father Charles, Count of Valois, the brother of King Philip IV of France, had striven throughout his life to gain a throne for himself but was never successful. He died in 1325, leaving his eldest son Philip as heir to the counties of Anjou, Maine, in 1328, Philips first cousin Charles IV died without a son and with his widow Jeanne dÉvreux pregnant. Philip was one of the two claimants to the throne. The other was King Edward III of England, who was the son of Charless sister Isabella, the question arose whether Isabella should have been able to transmit a claim that she herself did not possess. The assemblies of the French barons and prelates and the University of Paris decided that males who derive their right to inheritance through their mother should be excluded according to Salic Law. He formally held the regency from 9 February 1328 until 1 April, upon this birth, Philip was named king and crowned at the Cathedral in Reims on 29 May 1328. After his elevation to the throne, Philip sent the Abbot of Fécamp, Pierre Roger, after a subsequent second summons from Philip, Edward arrived at the Cathedral of Amiens on 6 June 1329 and worded his vows in such a way to cause more disputes in later years. The dynastic change had another consequence, Charles IV had also been King of Navarre, but, unlike the crown of France and these counties were closely entrenched in the economic and administrative entity of the Crown lands of France, being located adjacent to Île-de-France. Philip, however, was not entitled to that inheritance, the heiress was the surviving daughter of Louis X, the future Joan II of Navarre. His wife, the able Joan the Lame, gave the first of many demonstrations of her competence as regent in his absence, Philip initially enjoyed relatively amicable relations with Edward III, and they planned a crusade together in 1332, which was never executed. However, the status of the Duchy of Aquitaine remained a sore point, Philip provided refuge for David II of Scotland in 1334 and declared himself champion of his interests, which enraged Edward. By 1336, they were enemies, although not yet openly at war, Philip successfully prevented an arrangement between the Avignon papacy and Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV, although in July 1337 Louis concluded an alliance with Edward III

95.
Charles V of France
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Charles V, called the Wise, was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1364 to his death. In 1349, as a prince, Charles received from his grandfather King Philip VI the province of Dauphiné to rule. This allowed him to bear the title Dauphin until his coronation, after 1350, all heirs apparent of France bore the title of Dauphin until their coronation. Charles became regent of France when his father John II was captured by the English at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356. With the help of talented advisers known as the Marmousets, his management of the kingdom allowed him to replenish the royal treasury. He established the first permanent army paid with regular wages, which liberated the French populace from the companies of routiers who regularly plundered the country when not employed. Furthermore, the French Navy, led by Jean de Vienne and he was succeeded by his son Charles VI the Mad, whose disastrous reign allowed the English to regain control of large parts of France. Charles was born at the Château de Vincennes outside of Paris, the future king was highly intelligent but physically weak, with pale skin and a thin, ill-proportioned body. This made a sharp contrast to his father, who was tall, strong, as neither the pope nor the emperor wanted to buy, the transaction was concluded with Philip VI. Under the Treaty of Romans, the Dauphiné of Viennois was to be held by a son of the future king John the Good, so it was Charles, the eldest son of the latter, who became the first Dauphin. At the age of twelve, he was confronted with the exercise of power while staying in Grenoble. A few days after his arrival, the people of Grenoble were invited to the Place Notre-Dame, young Charles took his place next to Bishop John of Chissé and received the oath of allegiance of the people. On April 8,1350 at Tain-lHermitage, the Dauphin married his cousin Joanna of Bourbon at the age of 12, the prior approval of the pope was obtained for this consanguineous marriage. The marriage was delayed by the death of his mother Bonne of Luxembourg and his grandmother Joan the Lame, the dauphin himself had been seriously ill from August to December 1349. Gatherings were limited to slow the spread of the then raging in Europe. Despite his young age, the applied to be recognized by his subjects. Charles was recalled to Paris at the death of his grandfather Philip VI, the legitimacy of John the Good, and that of the Valois in general, was not unanimous. His father, Philip VI, had lost all credibility with the disasters of Crecy, Calais, the ravages of the plague, the royal clan had to cope with opposition from all sides in the kingdom

Charles V of France
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Charles V the Wise
Charles V of France
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The Château du Louvre, shown in this early fifteenth century illumination, representing the month of October in Les très riches Heures du duc de Berry, was rebuilt during the reign of Charles V – inaugurating a new era of royal architecture

96.
Henry VI of England
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Henry VI was King of England from 1422 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471, and disputed King of France from 1422 to 1453. Henry inherited the long-running Hundred Years War, where Charles VII contested his claim to the French throne. Henry married Charless niece, Margaret of Anjou, partially in the hope of achieving peace in 1445, the war recommenced, with France taking the upper hand, by 1453, Calais was Henrys only remaining territory on the continent. Henry experienced a breakdown after the failure of the war. Civil war broke out in 1460, leading to a period of dynastic conflict known as the Wars of the Roses. Henry was taken prisoner by Richard of York at Northampton on 10 July 1460 but was rescued that December by forces loyal to Margaret and he was deposed on 29 March 1461 following the victory at Towton by Richards son, who took the throne as Edward IV. Henry suffered another breakdown and, despite Margaret continuing to lead a resistance to Edward, he was captured by Edwards forces in 1465 and imprisoned in the Tower of London. Richard Neville, the Earl of Warwick, restored Henry to the throne in 1470, Henry died in the Tower during the night of 21 May 1471, possibly killed on the orders of Edward. He was buried at Chertsey Abbey, before being moved to Windsor Castle in 1484, miracles were attributed to Henry after his death, and he was informally regarded as a saint and martyr until the 16th century. He left a legacy of educational institutions, having founded Eton College, Kings College and All Souls College, William Shakespeare wrote a trilogy of plays about his life, depicting him as weak-willed and easily influenced by his wife, Margaret. Henry was the child and heir of King Henry V. He was born on 6 December 1421 at Windsor Castle and he succeeded to the throne as King of England at the age of nine months upon his fathers death on 31 August 1422, he was the youngest person ever to succeed to the English throne. A few weeks later on 21 October 1422 in accordance with the Treaty of Troyes of 1420 and his mother, Catherine of Valois, was then 20 years old. As Charles VIs daughter, she was viewed with suspicion by English nobles and was prevented from playing a full role in her sons upbringing. On 28 September 1423, the nobles swore loyalty to Henry VI and they summoned Parliament in the Kings name and established a regency council to govern until the King should come of age. One of Henry Vs surviving brothers, John, Duke of Bedford, was appointed regent of the realm and was in charge of the ongoing war in France. During Bedfords absence, the government of England was headed by Henry Vs other surviving brother, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester and his duties were limited to keeping the peace and summoning Parliament. Henry Vs half-uncle Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester, had an important place on the Council, after the Duke of Bedford died in 1435, the Duke of Gloucester claimed the Regency himself, but was contested in this by the other members of the Council

Henry VI of England
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Henry VI
Henry VI of England
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Henry VI, aged nine months, is shown being placed in the care of the Earl of Warwick
Henry VI of England
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Mid-15th century depiction of Henry being crowned King of France
Henry VI of England
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Margaret of Anjou, depicted in the Talbot Shrewsbury Book, 1444-45

97.
Louis XI of France
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Louis XI, called the Prudent, was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1461 to 1483. He succeeded his father Charles VII. Louis was a devious, the king forgave his rebellious vassals, including Louis, to whom he entrusted the management of the Dauphiné, then a province in southeastern France. Louiss ceaseless intrigues, however, led his father to him from court. From the Dauphiné, Louis led his own political establishment and married Charlotte of Savoy, daughter of Louis, Duke of Savoy, against the will of his father. Charles VII sent an army to compel his son to his will, but Louis fled to Burgundy, where he was hosted by Philip the Good, when Charles VII died in 1461, Louis left the Burgundian court to take possession of his kingdom. His taste for intrigue and his diplomatic activity earned him the nicknames the Cunning. In 1472, the subsequent Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, however, Louis was able to isolate Charles from his English allies by signing the Treaty of Picquigny with Edward IV of England. The treaty formally ended the Hundred Years War, with the death of Charles the Bold at the Battle of Nancy in 1477, the dynasty of the dukes of Burgundy died out. Louis took advantage of the situation to seize numerous Burgundian territories, including Burgundy proper, without direct foreign threats, Louis was able to eliminate his rebellious vassals, expand royal power, and strengthen the economic development of his country. He died in 1483 and was succeeded by his son Charles VIII, Louis was born in Bourges on 3 July 1423, the son of King Charles VII of France. At the time of the Hundred Years War, the English held northern France, including the city of Paris, and Charles VII was restricted to the centre and south of the country. Louis was the grandson of Yolande of Aragon, who was a force in the family for driving the English out of France. Just a few weeks after Louiss christening at the Cathedral of St. Étienne on 4 July 1423, shortly thereafter, a combined Anglo-Burgundian army threatened Bourges itself. Duke Philip II was the reigning Duke of Burgundy while he was king, phillip was an uncle of King Charles VI, and he actually served on a council of regents for King Charles. The Dukes of Anjou, Berry, and Bourbon, all uncles of Charles VI, all effective power in France actually lay with this council of dukes. In its position of independence from the French throne, Burgundy had grown in size, during the Hundred Years War, the Burgundians allied themselves with England against the French crown. Indeed, the Burgundians were responsible for the capture of Joan of Arc, Joan later led troops in other victories at the Battle of Jargeau and the Battle of Patay. Nevertheless, Louis grew up aware of the weakness of the French nation

Louis XI of France
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Louis XI wearing his Order of Saint Michael
Louis XI of France
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Engraving of Louis XI of France
Louis XI of France
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In this painting by Jean Fouquet, Louis' father Charles VII is depicted as one of the three magi and it is assumed that Louis, then Dauphin, is one of the other two.
Louis XI of France
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Coin of Louis XI, struck ca. 1470

98.
Henry II of France
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Henry II was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 31 March 1547 until his death in 1559. The second son of Francis I, he became Dauphin of France upon the death of his elder brother Francis III, Duke of Brittany, as a child, Henry and his elder brother spent over four years in captivity in Spain as hostages in exchange for their father. Henry pursued his fathers policies in matter of arts, wars and he persevered in the Italian Wars against the House of Habsburg and tried to suppress the Protestant Reformation, even as the Huguenot numbers were increasing drastically in France during his reign. Henry suffered a death in a jousting tournament held to celebrate the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis at the conclusion of the Eighth Italian War. The kings surgeon, Ambroise Paré, was unable to cure the infected wound inflicted by Gabriel de Montgomery and he was succeeded in turn by three of his sons, whose ineffective reigns helped to spark the French Wars of Religion between Protestants and Catholics. Henry was born in the royal Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, near Paris and his father was captured at the Battle of Pavia in 1525 by the forces of his sworn enemy, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, and held prisoner in Spain. To obtain his release, it was agreed that Henry and his brother be sent to Spain in his place. They remained in captivity for four years. Henry married Catherine de Medici, a member of the family of Florence, on 28 October 1533. The following year, he became involved with a thirty-five-year-old widow. They had always very close, she had publicly embraced him on the day he set off to Spain. Diane became Henrys mistress and most trusted confidante and, for the next years, wielded considerable influence behind the scenes. Extremely confident, mature and intelligent, she left Catherine powerless to intervene and she did, however, insist that Henry sleep with Catherine in order to produce heirs to the throne. When his elder brother Francis, the Dauphin and Duke of Brittany, died in 1536 after a game of tennis and he succeeded his father on his 28th birthday and was crowned King of France on 25 July 1547 at Reims Cathedral. Henrys reign was marked by wars with Austria and the persecution of Protestants, Henry II severely punished them, particularly the ministers, for example by burning at the stake or cutting off their tongues for uttering heresies. Even those only suspected of being Huguenots could be imprisoned and it also strictly regulated publications by prohibiting the sale, importation or printing of any unapproved book. It was during the reign of Henry II that Huguenot attempts at establishing a colony in Brazil were made, persecution of Protestants at home did not prevent Henry II from becoming allied with German Protestant princes at the Treaty of Chambord in 1552. Simultaneously, the continuation of his fathers Franco-Ottoman alliance allowed Henry II to push for French conquests towards the Rhine while a Franco-Ottoman fleet defended southern France, an early offensive into Lorraine was successful

Henry II of France
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Henry II
Henry II of France
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Henry as a child
Henry II of France
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Entrance of Henri II in Metz in 1552, after the signature of the Treaty of Chambord.
Henry II of France
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Engraving of Henry II

99.
Francis II of France
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Francis II was a monarch of the House of Valois-Angoulême who was King of France from 1559 to 1560. He was also King consort of Scotland as a result of his marriage to Mary, Queen of Scots. He ascended the throne of France at the age of fifteen after the death of his father, Henry II. His short reign was dominated by the first stirrings of the French Wars of Religion and they were unable to help Catholics in Scotland against the progressing Scottish Reformation, however, and the Auld Alliance was dissolved. Francis was succeeded by two of his brothers in turn, both of whom were unable to reduce tensions between Protestants and Catholics. Born eleven years after his parents wedding, Francis was named for his grandfather and he was baptized on 10 February 1544 at the Chapelle des Trinitaires in Fontainebleau. His godparents were Francis I, Pope Paul III, and his great-aunt Marguerite de Navarre and he became governor of Languedoc in 1546, and Dauphin of France in 1547, when his grandfather Francis I died. Franciss governor was Jean dHumières and his tutor was Pierre Danès and he learned dancing from Virgilio Bracesco and fencing from Hector of Mantua. King Henry II, his father, arranged a betrothal for his son to Mary, Queen of Scots, in the Châtillon agreement of 27 January 1548. Mary had been crowned Queen of Scots in Stirling Castle on 9 September 1543 at the age of nine following the death of her father James V. Besides being the queen of Scotland, Mary was a granddaughter of Claude, Duke of Guise, once the marriage agreement was formally ratified, the six-year-old Mary was sent to France to be raised at court until the marriage. On 24 April 1558, the fourteen-year-old Dauphin married the Queen of Scots in Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. It was a union that could have given the kings of France the throne of Scotland and also a claim to the throne of England through Marys great grandfather. Until his death, Francis held the title King of Scotland, Mary and Francis were to have no children during their short marriage, however, possibly due to Francis illnesses or his undescended testicles. A little over a year after his marriage, on 10 July 1559, Francis became king at the age of fifteen upon the death of his father Henry II, on 21 September 1559, Francis II was crowned king in Reims by his uncle Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine. The crown was so heavy that nobles had to hold it in place for him, the court then moved to the Loire Valley, where the Château de Blois and the surrounding forests were the new kings home. Francis II took the sun for his emblem and for his mottoes Spectanda fides, according to French law, Francis at the age of fifteen was an adult who in theory did not need a regent. But since he was young, inexperienced, and in health, he delegated his power to his wifes uncles from the noble House of Guise, François, Duke of Guise

100.
Henry III of France
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Henry III was a monarch of the House of Valois who was elected the monarch of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1573 to 1575 and ruled as King of France from 1574 until his death. He was the last French monarch of the Valois dynasty, as the fourth son of King Henry II of France and Catherine de Medici, Henry was not expected to assume the throne of France. He was thus a candidate for the vacant Commonwealth throne. Henrys rule over Commonwealth was brief, but notable, the Henrician Articles he signed into law accepting the Commonwealth throne established Poland as an elective monarchy subject to free election by the Polish nobility. Of his three brothers, two would live long enough to ascend the French throne, but both died young and without a legitimate male heir. He abandoned Commonwealth upon receiving word that he had inherited the throne of France at the age of 22, Henry III was himself a politique, arguing that a strong and religiously tolerant monarchy would save France from collapse. Henry IIIs legitimate heir was his distant cousin Henry, King of Navarre, the Catholic League, led by Henry I, Duke of Guise, sought to exclude Protestants from the succession and championed the Catholic Charles, Cardinal of Bourbon, as Henry IIIs heir. Henry was born at the royal Château de Fontainebleau, the son of King Henry II and Catherine de Medici and grandson of Francis I of France. His older brothers were Francis II of France, Charles IX of France and he was made Duke of Angoulême and Duke of Orléans in 1560, then Duke of Anjou in 1566. He was his mothers favourite, she called him chers yeux and lavished fondness and his elder brother, Charles, grew to detest him, partially because he resented his better health. In his youth, Henry was considered the best of the sons of Catherine de Medici, unlike his father and elder brothers, he had little interest in the traditional Valois pastimes of hunting and physical exercise. Although he was fond of fencing and skilled in it, he preferred to indulge his tastes for the arts. These predilections were attributed to his Italian mother, at one point in his youth he showed a tendency towards Protestantism as a means of rebelling. At the age of nine, calling himself a little Huguenot, he refused to attend Mass, sang Protestant psalms to his sister Margaret and his mother firmly cautioned her children against such behaviour, and he would never again show any Protestant tendencies. Instead, he became nominally Roman Catholic, reports that Henry engaged in same sex relations with his court favourites, known as the mignons, date back to his own time. Certainly he enjoyed relationships with them. The scholar Louis Crompton provides substantial contemporary evidence of Henry IIIs homosexuality, and it is difficult, he writes, to reconcile the king whose use of favourites is so logically strategic with the man who goes to pieces when one of them dies. In 1570, discussions commenced to arrange for Henry to court Queen Elizabeth I of England, Elizabeth, almost 37, was expected by many parties in her country to marry and produce an heir

101.
Napoleon III
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Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte was the only President of the French Second Republic and, as Napoleon III, the Emperor of the Second French Empire. He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I and he was the first President of France to be elected by a direct popular vote. He remains the longest-serving French head of state since the French Revolution, during the first years of the Empire, Napoleons government imposed censorship and harsh repressive measures against his opponents. Some six thousand were imprisoned or sent to penal colonies until 1859, thousands more went into voluntary exile abroad, including Victor Hugo. From 1862 onwards, he relaxed government censorship, and his came to be known as the Liberal Empire. Many of his opponents returned to France and became members of the National Assembly, Napoleon III is best known today for his grand reconstruction of Paris, carried out by his prefect of the Seine, Baron Haussmann. He launched similar public works projects in Marseille, Lyon, Napoleon III modernized the French banking system, greatly expanded and consolidated the French railway system, and made the French merchant marine the second largest in the world. He promoted the building of the Suez Canal and established modern agriculture, Napoleon III negotiated the 1860 Cobden–Chevalier free trade agreement with Britain and similar agreements with Frances other European trading partners. Social reforms included giving French workers the right to strike and the right to organize, womens education greatly expanded, as did the list of required subjects in public schools. In foreign policy, Napoleon III aimed to reassert French influence in Europe and he was a supporter of popular sovereignty and of nationalism. In Europe, he allied with Britain and defeated Russia in the Crimean War and his regime assisted Italian unification and, in doing so, annexed Savoy and the County of Nice to France, at the same time, his forces defended the Papal States against annexation by Italy. Napoleon doubled the area of the French overseas empire in Asia, the Pacific, on the other hand, his armys intervention in Mexico which aimed to create a Second Mexican Empire under French protection ended in failure. Beginning in 1866, Napoleon had to face the power of Prussia. In July 1870, Napoleon entered the Franco-Prussian War without allies, the French army was rapidly defeated and Napoleon III was captured at the Battle of Sedan. The French Third Republic was proclaimed in Paris, and Napoleon went into exile in England, charles-Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, later known as Louis Napoleon and then Napoleon III, was born in Paris on the night of 20–21 April 1808. His presumed father was Louis Bonaparte, the brother of Napoleon Bonaparte. His mother was Hortense de Beauharnais, the daughter by the first marriage of Napoleons wife Joséphine de Beauharnais, as empress, Joséphine proposed the marriage as a way to produce an heir for the Emperor, who agreed, as Joséphine was by then infertile. Louis married Hortense when he was twenty-four and she was nineteen and they had a difficult relationship, and only lived together for brief periods

Napoleon III
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Napoleon III
Napoleon III
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Louis Bonaparte (1778–1846), the younger brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, the King of Holland, and father of Napoleon III.
Napoleon III
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Hortense de Beauharnais (1783–1837), the mother of Napoleon III, in 1808, the year Napoleon III was born.
Napoleon III
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The lakeside house at Arenenberg, Switzerland, where Napoleon III spent much of his youth and exile.

102.
Carlos, Duke of Madrid
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Don Carlos, Duke of Madrid was the senior member of the House of Bourbon from 1887 until his death. Carlos was born in Ljubljana, the capital of Carniola in what is now Slovenia and his name in full was Carlos María de los Dolores Juan Isidro José Francisco, Quirico Antonio Miguel Gabriel Rafael. As an infant he lived with his family briefly in London where his younger brother Alfonso was born, after their father, considered too liberal for Carlist tastes, left their mother, the boys lived with her in Modena. Her brother Duke Francis V of Modena was largely responsible for the education of the boys and was the influence in their early lives. Carlos was known for his traditionalist views, much different from those of his father, on February 4,1867, at Frohsdorf in Austria, Carlos married Princess Margherita of Bourbon-Parma, daughter of Duke Charles III of Parma and of his wife, Louise Marie Thérèse of France. The couple had five children, Infanta Blanca of Spain m in 1889 at Frohsdorf Archduke Leopold Salvator of Austria, Jaime, Duke of Madrid Infanta Elvira of Spain died unmarried. Carlos organized and led the Third Carlist War, between 1872 and 1876 he effectively ruled much of peninsular Spain, having as much legitimacy as the Presidents of the First Republic. In January 1893 Carlos wife, Margarita, died, the following year he decided to remarry. He consulted his mother who suggested two ladies, Princess Theresia of Liechtenstein and Berthe de Rohan, having met both ladies, Carlos decided on the latter and asked for her hand in marriage. On April 28,1894, Carlos and Berthe were married by Cardinal Schönborn in his chapel in Prague. Berthe had a dominant personality, making the very unpopular among Carlists. All writers agree that this marriage was disastrous, not only for the family of Don Carlos and for himself. Carlos died in Varese in 1909 and he is buried in the Cathedral of San Giusto in Trieste. He was succeeded in his Spanish and French claims by his son Jaime, Carlos VII y su tiempo, Leyenda y realidad. The Curé Santa Cruz and the Carlist War, the Spanish Pretender, Who he is and What he has Been

103.
Alfonso XIII of Spain
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Alfonso XIII was King of Spain from 1886 until the proclamation of the Second Republic in 1931. Alfonso was monarch from birth as his father, Alfonso XII, had died the previous year, Alfonsos mother, Maria Christina of Austria, served as regent until he assumed full powers on his sixteenth birthday in 1902. With the political failure of the dictatorship, Alfonso impelled a return to the democratic normality with the intention of regenerating the regime, nevertheless, it was abandoned by all political classes, as they felt betrayed by the kings support of the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera. He left Spain voluntarily after the elections of April 1931. In exile, he retained his claim to the throne until 1941. Buried in Rome, his remains were not transferred until 1980 to the Pantheon of the Kings in the monastery of El Escorial, Alfonso was born in Madrid on 17 May 1886. He was the son of Alfonso XII of Spain, who had died in November 1885. The French newspaper Le Figaro described the king in 1889 as the happiest. His mother, Maria Christina of Austria, served as his regent until his 16th birthday, during the regency, in 1898, Spain lost its colonial rule over Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines to the United States as a result of the Spanish–American War. When he came of age in May 1902, the week of his majority was marked by festivities, bullfights, balls, by 1905, Alfonso was looking for a suitable consort. On a state visit to the United Kingdom, he stayed at Buckingham Palace with King Edward VII, there he met Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg, the Scottish-born daughter of Edwards youngest sister Princess Beatrice, and a granddaughter of Queen Victoria. He found her attractive, and she returned his interest, there were obstacles to the marriage. Victoria was a Protestant, and would have to become a Catholic, Victorias brother Leopold was a haemophiliac, so there was a 50 percent chance that Victoria was a carrier of the trait. Victoria was willing to change her religion, and her being a carrier was only a possibility. Maria Christina was eventually persuaded to drop her opposition, in January 1906 she wrote an official letter to Princess Beatrice proposing the match. Victoria met Maria Christina and Alfonso in Biarritz, France, later that month, in May, diplomats of both kingdoms officially executed the agreement of marriage. Alfonso and Victoria were married at the Royal Monastery of San Jerónimo in Madrid on 31 May 1906, with British royalty in attendance, including Victorias cousins the Prince, the wedding was marred by an assassination attempt on Alfonso and Victoria by Catalan anarchist Mateu Morral. As the wedding procession returned to the palace, he threw a bomb from a window which killed or injured several bystanders and members of the procession, on 10 May 1907, the couples first child, Alfonso, Prince of Asturias, was born

Alfonso XIII of Spain
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Alfonso XIII
Alfonso XIII of Spain
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As he was born King, early coins from Alfonso's reign, such as this 20 pesetas from 1889, featured his portrait as a baby.
Alfonso XIII of Spain
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Photograph taken moments after the assassination attempt on Alfonso and Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg on their wedding day.
Alfonso XIII of Spain
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Alfonso (left) in 1930 with his dictatorial Prime Minister, Miguel Primo de Rivera.

104.
Infante Jaime, Duke of Segovia
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Infante Jaime of Spain, Duke of Segovia, Duke of Anjou, RE, was the second son of King Alfonso XIII of Spain and his wife Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg. He was born in the Royal Palace of La Granja de San Ildefonso in Segovia Province, because he was deaf, as the result of a childhood operation, he renounced his rights to the Spanish throne for himself and his descendants on 21 June/23 June 1933. He was then created the title for life of Duke of Segovia by King Alfonso XIII, after his fathers death in 1941, he proclaimed himself the senior legitimate male heir of the House of Capet, heir to the French throne, and head of the House of Bourbon. He then took the title of Duke of Anjou and became, in the opinion of French legitimists and he was known to most French legitimists as Henri VI, though to a minority as Jacques II. In 1921, he became the 1, 153rd Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece and Knight with Collar of the Order of Charles III and they have two sons and three grandchildren. Gonzalo, Duke of Aquitaine he married, Carmen Harto on 18 April 1983 and he remarried Maria de las Mercedes Licer on 25 June 1984 and they were divorced on 31 January 1989. He remarried again Emanuela Protalongo on 30 June 1984 and they were separated on 7 March 1986, gonzalo and Emanuela were also married in a religious ceremony on 17 September 1992. He has a daughter and five grandsons. In the eyes of the Roman Catholic Church and of the French legitimists, the second marriage produced no children. His first wife remarried in Vienna, on 21 November 1949, to Antonio Sozzani, son of Cesare Sozzani and wife Cristina Alemani, on 6 December 1949, Don Jaime retracted his renunciation of the throne of Spain. On 3 May 1964, he took the title Duke of Madrid as head of the Carlist branch of the Spanish succession. On 19 July 1969, Don Jaime definitively renounced the Spanish succession in favour of his nephew, King Juan Carlos I of Spain, Don Jaime died in St. Gall Cantonal Hospital in Switzerland on 20 March 1975. He is buried at the Royal Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial, zavala, José M. Don Jaime, el trágico Borbón, la maldición del hijo sordomudo de Alfonso XIII. Madrid, La Esfera de los Libros,2006, Emanuela de Dampierre, memorias, esposa y madre de los Borbones que pudieron reinar en España. Madrid, Esfera de los Libros,2003, riddere af Elefantordenen 1559–2009, Odense, Syddansk Universitetsforlag,2009. ISBN8776744345 Royal House of Spain Royal House of France Princely House of Ruspoli

Infante Jaime, Duke of Segovia
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Infante Jaime

105.
Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou
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Louis Alphonse of Bourbon, Duke of Anjou is a member of the Royal House of Bourbon, and one of the current pretenders to the defunct French throne as Louis XX. He is also related to the British royal family, being the grandson of Queen Victoria of England. Louis Alphonse is a great-grandson of King Alfonso XIII of Spain, through his mother, he is also a great-grandson of Spains former dictator General Francisco Franco. Louis Alphonse was born in Madrid, the son of Alfonso de Borbón, Duke of Anjou and Cádiz. Alfonso was at time the dauphin according to those who supported the claim of his father, Infante Jaime. On 20 March 1975, the Infante Jaime died, Alfonso then asserted his claim to be both Head of the House of Bourbon and Legitimist claimant to the throne of France. As such, he took the title Duke of Anjou, Louis Alphonses parents separated in 1982, and their Catholic marriage was annulled in 1986. From that date Louis Alphonse was recognised as the apparent to his father by the Legitimists. As such, he was given the additional title Duke of Bourbon on 27 September 1984 by his father, on 30 January 1989, his father died in a skiing accident near Vail, Colorado. Later, in 1994 Louis Alphonse would receive 150 million pesetas following a lawsuit against Vail Associated, Louis Alphonse was recognised by some members of the Capetian dynasty as Chef de la Maison de Bourbon and took the title Duke of Anjou, but not his fathers Spanish dukedom. He is considered the rightful pretender to the French throne by adherents of the Legitimist movement, louis’ father was elected by the French Society of the Cincinnati to be the representative of Louis XVI. On 16 June 1994, Louis Alphonse was elected to succeed his father as the representative of Louis XVI, in accordance to the statutes of this society, he represents the French king by order of succession as the eldest male of the senior collateral line. In addition to his Spanish citizenship, Louis Alphonse acquired French nationality through his grandmother, Emmanuelle de Dampierre. He attended the Lycée Français de Madrid, obtaining his COU in June 1992 and he worked several years for BNP Paribas, a French bank in Madrid. Although he regularly visited France, where his mother lived for several years, Louis Alphonses engagement to marry Venezuelan María Margarita Vargas Santaella, the daughter of Victor Vargas, was announced in November 2003. They were married civilly in Caracas on 5 November 2004 and religiously on 6 November 2004 in La Romana, none of the members of the Spanish royal family attended the wedding. As from 2005, the couple resided in Venezuela, where he worked at Banco Occidental de Descuento, however, they currently live in Madrid. Louis Alphonse and Maria Margarita had their first child, a daughter, named Eugénie, on 5 March 2007, at Mount Sinai Medical Center, Miami and she was baptised at the papal nunciature in Paris in June 2007

Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou
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Louis Alphonse

106.
Prince Jean, Duke of Guise
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Prince Jean of Orléans, Duke of Guise, was the son of Robert, Duke of Chartres, grandson of Ferdinand Philippe and great-grandson of Louis Philippe I, King of the French. His mother was Françoise of Orléans, daughter of François, Prince of Joinville, the title was disputed by members of the Spanish Anjou branch of the family, descended from Louis XIV. Jean died in Larache, Morocco, in 1940 and he was succeeded as claimant to the French throne by his only son Henri d Orléans, Comte de Paris. In 1899, Jean dOrléans married his 1st cousin Isabelle dOrléans, Isabelle was the younger sister of Philip VIII and daughter of Philip VII and Marie Isabelle dOrléans. They had four children, Isabelle dOrléans, first married in 1923 to Marie Hervé Jean Bruno, Count of Harcourt and then to Prince Pierre Murat in 1934. Married to Christopher of Greece and Denmark in 1929 and he was a son of George I of Greece and Olga, Queen of Greece. They were parents of Prince Michael of Greece and Denmark and she married Amedeo, 3rd Duke of Aosta in 1927. Married to Princess Isabelle of Orléans-Braganza and his Royal Highness The Duke of Guise, Prince of Orléans

Prince Jean, Duke of Guise
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Jean

107.
Bonapartism
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Bonapartism is the political ideology of Napoleon Bonaparte and his followers and successors. It was later used to refer to persons who hoped to restore the House of Bonaparte, Marxism and Leninism developed a vocabulary of political terms that included Bonapartism, derived from their analysis of the career of Napoleon Bonaparte. Karl Marx was a student of Jacobinism and the French Revolution, Marx argued that in the process, Bonapartists preserve and mask the power of a narrower ruling class. According to his essay The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon, Marx believed that both Napoleon and his nephew Napoleon III had corrupted revolutions in France in this way. In this document, he drew attention to what he calls the phenomenons repetitive history by saying, History repeats itself, first as tragedy, more generally, Bonapartism may be used to describe the replacement of civilian leadership by military leadership within revolutionary movements or governments. Many modern-day Trotskyists and other leftists use the phrase left Bonapartist to describe those, such as Stalin and Mao, in addition, Leon Trotsky was accused of using his position as commander of the Red Army to gain top-level power after Lenins death. Noted political scientists and historians differ on the definition and interpretation of Bonapartism. Sudhir Hazareesinghs book The Legend of Napoleon explores numerous interpretations of the term, hazareesingh believes that although recent research shows Napoleon used forced conscription of French troops, some men must have fought believing in Napoleons ideals. Scholar Raymond Hinnebusch has characterized Hafez al-Asads regime in Syria as Bonapartist, philosophically, Bonapartism was Napoleons adaptation of principles of the French Revolution to suit his imperial form of rule. Desires for public order and French national glory had combined to create a Caesarist coup detat for General Bonaparte on 18 Brumaire, though he espoused adherence to revolutionary precedents, he styled his direct and personal rule on the Old Regime monarchs. For Bonapartists, the most significant lesson of the Revolution was that unity of government, the honey bee was a prominent political emblem for both the First and Second Empires. It represents the Bonapartist ideal of devoted service, self-sacrifice and social loyalty, the defining characteristics of political Bonapartism were flexibility and adaptability. Napoleon III once commented on the diversity of opinions in his cabinet, united under the banner of Bonapartism. Referring to the figures in the government of the Second Empire, he remarked, The Empress is a Legitimist, Morny is an Orléanist, Prince Napoleon is a Republican. There is only one Bonapartist, Persigny – and he is mad, in French political history, Bonapartistes were monarchists who desired a French Empire under the House of Bonaparte, the Corsican family of Napoleon Bonaparte and his nephew Louis-Napoleon. Bonapartism developed after Napoleon I was exiled to Elba, the Bonapartists helped him regain his power, leading to the Hundred Days period. Some of his acolytes could not accept his defeat in 1815 at Waterloo or the Congress of Vienna, after Napoleon Is death in exile on Saint Helena in 1821, many of these people transferred their allegiance to other members of his family. After the death of Napoleons son, the Duke of Reichstadt, the disturbances of 1848 gave hope to the nascent political undercurrent

Bonapartism
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On his exile to Elbe (1814–1815) Napoleon Bonaparte announced the would return in the spring. The violet became a symbol of this and of Bonapartism.
Bonapartism
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Coat of Arms of Bonaparte
Bonapartism
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Jérôme Bonaparte, founder of the legitimate line
Bonapartism
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Napoleon I 1814–1815

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Prince of Canino and Musignano
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The Princes of Canino and Musignano formed the genealogically senior line of the Bonaparte family following the death of Joseph Bonaparte in 1844. The line was founded by one of Emperor Napoleons younger brothers and it became extinct in the male line in 1924. The dynastic Bonapartist pretenders descend in the line from Prince Jérôme Napoléon. Canino and Musignano are two neighbouring villages in the Province of Viterbo in Italy, the titles were bestowed on Lucien Bonaparte by papal authority on 18 August 1814 and on 21 March 1824. On 22 March 1815, during the Hundred Days, Napoleon also recognized his brother Lucien, at no time, however, were Lucien and his issue recognized during the First Empire as eligible by law to inherit the French throne, or any other throne. The title of Principe di Canino e Musignano borne by Lucien and his heirs male was a title of nobility. Following his death without sons in 1844, the Imperial claim bypassed Luciens sons and devolved upon Louis Bonaparte, formerly King of Holland, louiss two elder sons pre-deceased their father, but his third son became Emperor Napoleon III in 1852. On 18 December 1852 the emperor appointed his only remaining uncle, Prince Jérôme Napoléon, former King of Westphalia, as heir presumptive, however, a few months later the French Empire was abolished, and has not been restored. Meanwhile, the descendants of Jérôme Napoléons branch are still extant. Children from his second marriage include, Charles Lucien Bonaparte, married Zénaïde Bonaparte,12 children including, Joseph Lucien Bonaparte Lucien Cardinal Bonaparte Napoléon Charles Bonaparte. Married Cristina Ruspoli, three daughters including, Marie Bonaparte, married Napoleon Ney, duc dElchingen, no children. Married Justine Eléonore Ruffin,1 son, Roland Bonaparte, married Marie Blanc, one daughter, Princess Marie Bonaparte. Married Prince George of Greece and Denmark,2 children, Prince Peter of Greece, married Irina Aleksandrovna Ovtchinnikova, no children. Princess Eugénie of Greece and Denmark, married first Prince Dominic Radziwiłł, two children including, Prince George Radziwiłł, unmarried. Married second Raymundo, Duke of Castel Duino, one son, Carlo Alessandro, married Veronique Lantz, three children including, Prince Dimitri della Torre e Tasso thePeerage. com European royal family trees website Prince Canino Line

Prince of Canino and Musignano
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Prince of Canino and Musignano

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Charles Lucien Bonaparte
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Charles Lucien Jules Laurent Bonaparte, 2nd Prince of Canino and Musignano, was a French biologist and ornithologist. Lucien and his wife had children, including Cardinal Lucien Bonaparte. Bonaparte was the son of Lucien Bonaparte and Alexandrine de Bleschamp, born in Paris, he was raised in Italy. On 29 June 1822, he married his cousin, Zénaïde, soon after the marriage, the couple left for Philadelphia in the United States to live with Zénaïdes father, Joseph Bonaparte. Before leaving Italy, Carlo had already discovered a new to science, the moustached warbler. On arrival in the United States, he presented a paper on this new bird, Bonaparte then set about studying the ornithology of the United States and updating Wilsons American Ornithology. The revised edition was published between 1825 and 1833, in 1824, Bonaparte tried to get the then unknown John James Audubon accepted by the Academy of Natural Sciences, but this was opposed by the ornithologist George Ord. At the end of 1826, Bonaparte and his family returned to Europe and he visited Germany, where he met Philipp Jakob Cretzschmar, and England, where he met John Edward Gray at the British Museum, and renewed his acquaintance with Audubon. In 1828, the family settled in Rome, in Italy, he was the originator of several scientific congresses, and lectured and wrote extensively on American and European ornithology and other branches of natural history. Between 1832 and 1841, Bonaparte published his work on the animals of Italy and he had also published Specchio Comparativo delle Ornithologie di Roma e di Filadelfia, presenting a comparison between birds of the latitude of Philadelphia and Italian species. He created the genus Zenaida, after his wife, for the mourning dove and he was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1845. In 1849, he was elected to the Roman Assembly and participated in the creation of the Roman Republic and he participated in the defense of Rome against the 40,000 French troops sent by his cousin Louis Napoleon. He left Rome after the Republican army was defeated in July 1849 and he landed at Marseilles, but was ordered to leave the country by Louis Napoleon. He reaffirmed his political beliefs the following year in naming Wilsons bird-of-paradise in honor of the republican idea and he travelled to England, attending the meeting of the British Association in Birmingham. He then visited Sir William Jardine in southern Scotland, Charles then began work on preparing a methodical classification of all the birds in the world, visiting museums across Europe to study the collections. In 1850, he was allowed to return to France and made Paris his home for the rest of his life, in 1854, he became director of the Jardin des Plantes. In 1855, he was made a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He published the first volume of his Conspectus Generum Avium before his death, Bonaparte also studied amphibians and reptiles, and is the author of Vipera ursinii, commonly known as Orsinis viper

Charles Lucien Bonaparte
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Charles Lucien Bonaparte

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Lucien Bonaparte (cardinal)
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Lucien Louis Joseph Napoleon Cardinal Bonaparte, 4th Prince of Canino and Musignano, was a French cardinal. He was born in Rome, the son of Charles Lucien Bonaparte and his paternal grandparents were Lucien Bonaparte and his second wife Alexandrine de Bleschamp. His maternal grandparents were Joseph Bonaparte and Julie Clary and his godfather was the future Napoleon III, first cousin to both his parents. Cardinal Bonaparte was ordained to the priesthood on 13 December 1856 by Pope Pius IX and he served at numerous posts both in France and in Italy. He was created Cardinal of Santa Pudenziana in 1868, in 1879, he was given the additional title of Cardinal Priest of S. Lorenzo in Lucina. Cardinal Bonaparte participated in the First Vatican Council and he also was one of the voting cardinals that elected Gioacchino Vincenzo Raffaele Luigi Cardinal Pecci, as Pope Leo XIII. He died in 1895 and was buried in Rome, the Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, Biographical Dictionary, Consistory of 13 March 1868

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Timeline of French history
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This is a timeline of French history, comprising important legal and changes and political events in France and its predecessor states. To read about the background to these events, see History of France, see also the list of Frankish kings, French monarchs, and presidents of the French Republic and list of years in France. Category, Timelines of cities in France France Profile, Timeline, archived from the original on March 2009 – via University of North Carolina in Greensboro