Guide to federally listed endangered and threatened species of North Carolina

Guide to
Federally Listed
Endangered and
Threatened Species of
North Carolina
— i —
Guide to Federally Listed Endangered
and Threatened Species of North Carolina
North Carolina Natural Heritage Program
Division of Parks and Recreation
1615 MSC
North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources
Raleigh, NC 27699-1615
www.ncsparks.net/nhp
Funded by a grant from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
2001
S T A T E P A R K S
Wonderful
Naturally
— ii —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface ....................................................................... iii
Introduction
Definition of Legal Status ............................................ 1
Information Sources for Current Legal Status .................. 1
Guide to Species Accounts ........................................... 2
Map of North Carolina ................................................... 3
SECTION 1: ANIMALS
Mammals
Carolina northern flying squirrel, Glaucomys sabrinus
coloratus ................................................................ 7
Eastern cougar, Felis concolor couguar ............................ 9
Indiana bat, Myotis sodalis ..........................................11
Red wolf, Canis rufus .................................................13
Virginia big-eared bat, Corynorhinus (=Plecotus)
townsendii virginianus ............................................ 15
West Indian manatee, Trichechus manatus ....................17
Birds
Bald eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus .............................21
Piping plover, Charadrius melodus melodus ...................23
Red-cockaded woodpecker, Picoides borealis ..................25
Roseate tern, Sterna dougallii dougallii ..........................27
Wood stork, Mycteria americana ..................................29
Reptiles
American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis .................33
Bog turtle, Clemmys muhlenbergii ................................ 35
General Sea Turtle Information ....................................37
Green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas .................................39
Loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta ............................41
Fishes
Cape Fear shiner, Notropis mekistocholas ......................45
Shortnose sturgeon, Acipenser brevirostrum ..................47
Spotfin chub, Caprinella (=Hybopsis) monacha ..............49
Waccamaw silverside, Menidia extensa .........................51
Invertebrates
Mollusks-Freshwater Bivalves
An Overview of Naiad Mollusks ...................................54
Appalachia elktoe, Alasmidonta raveneliana ...................57
Carolina heelsplitter, Lasmigona decorata ......................59
Dwarf wedgemussel, Alasmidonta heterodon .................61
Littlewing pearlymussel, Pegias fabula ...........................63
Tar spinymussel, Elliptio steinstansana .........................65
Mollusk-Terrestrial Gastropods
Noonday globe snail, Patera clarki nantahala ..................67
Arachnids
Spruce-fir moss spider, Microhexura montivaga ..............69
SECTION 2: PLANTS
Vascular plants
American chaffseed, Schwalbea americana .....................73
Blue Ridge goldenrod, Solidago spithamaea ....................75
Bunched arrowhead, Sagittaria fasciculata ......................77
Canby’s dropwort, Oxypolis canbyi ...............................79
Cooley’s meadowrue, Thalictrum cooleyi .......................81
Dwarf-flowered heartleaf, Hexastylis naniflora ...............83
Green pitcher plant, Sarracenia oreophila ......................85
Harperella, Ptilimnium nodosum .................................87
Heller’s blazing star, Liatris helleri ................................89
Michaux’s sumac, Rhus michauxii ................................91
Mountain golden heather, Hudsonia montana ................93
Mountain sweet pitcher plant, Sarracenia rubra jonesii ....95
Pondberry, Lindera melissifolia ....................................97
Roan Mountain bluet, Houstonia montana .....................99
Rough-leaved loosestrife, Lysimachia asperulaefolia ...... 101
Schweinitz’s sunflower, Helianthus schweinitzii ........... 103
Seabeach amaranth, Amaranthus pumilus ................... 105
Sensitive joint-vetch, Aeschynomene virginica .............. 107
Small-anthered bittercress, Cardamine micranthera ....... 109
Small whorled pogonia, Isotria medeoloides ................. 111
Smooth coneflower, Echinacea laevigata ...................... 113
Spreading avens, Geum radiatum ............................... 115
Swamp pink, Helonias bullata .................................... 117
Virginia spiraea, Spiraea virginiana ............................. 119
White irisette, Sisyrinchium dichotomum .................... 121
Non-vascular plants
Rock gnome lichen, Gymnoderma lineare .................... 125
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Other Federally Listed Species ................... 127
Appendix B: Distribution of Federally Listed Species
by County .............................................................. 128
Appendix C: Federal Candidates for Listing and Species of
Concern ................................................................ 131
Appendix D: Glossary of Terms ..................................... 137
Appendix E: References ............................................... 139
Appendix F: Illustration Credits .................................... 142
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PREFACE
The term “endangered species” most often evokes a
mental picture of exotic animals like the panda or tiger.
Rarely do we consider that many species in the United
States and especially in North Carolina are in this category.
At present, North Carolina is home to 5600 different
species of plants, 935 species of vertebrate animals, and
1640 species of invertebrate animals. Of these, 758 species
of plants and 644 of animals are presently considered rare,
threatened, or endangered according to federal and state
agencies and private conservation organizations. Among
these rarities are unique and well-known organisms such
as the Venus flytrap, which grows only on the Coastal Plain
of North and South Carolina, and many lesser-known
species of plants, mammals, reptiles and amphibians,
insects, and molluscs.
Sixty-nine North Carolina species (animals and plant)
are designated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and
the National Marine Fisheries Service as federally endan-gered
or threatened. The purpose of this publication is to
provide landowners, environmental consultants, natural
resource professionals, and the general public with infor-mation
on 52 of these federally listed endangered and
threatened species (the other 17 are marine species or
extirpated species). An attempt has been made to use
nontechnical terms whenever possible, though a glossary
is provided. Both metric and English units of measure are
used. Emphasis has been given to the distribution of the
species and to habitat requirements. Recognized causes for
species decline are given as well as recommendations for
correcting these.
It is hoped that the information within this book will
promote knowledge and understanding of the ecology of
these species and their place in life’s intricate web. Per-haps
this knowledge will lead to awareness of and concern
for native flora and fauna, and will encourage the active
appreciation and effective conservation of the natural
resources of North Carolina—the land, natural habitats,
and the species themselves.
The Endangered Species Act of 1973
The Federal Endangered Species Act (ESA) was enacted in
1973 to protect species in danger of extinction and to
provide means for their recovery to safe population levels,
thus preserving our nation’s wealth of biological diversity.
The need for such a law stemmed from the fact that
“various species of fish, wildlife, and plants in the United
States have been rendered extinct as a consequence of
economic growth and development untempered by
adequate concern and conservation . . .” and that others
were “in danger of or threatened with extinction.” Con-gress
recognized that endangered species “are of aesthetic,
ecological, educational, historical, recreational, and scien-tific
value.”
The three primary mechanisms of the ESA are (1) to
determine which species should be federally listed as
endangered or threatened, (2) to give them protection, and
(3) to implement conservation measures to recover them
so that they not longer need the protection of the ESA.
Endangered species are defined as those in danger of
extinction throughout all or a significant portion of their
range, while threatened species are likely to become
endangered in the foreseeable future. Subspecies and
distinct populations of vertebrate animals can also receive
protection under the ESA.
The listing of a species as endangered or threatened is
a complex process requiring extensive review by govern-ment
agencies, scientists, and the public. Once listed,
endangered and threatened species are federally protected.
Section 9 of the ESA makes it unlawful to trade listed
species without a specially obtained permit. It is also
illegal to “take” a listed animal species, which means to
harass, harm, pursue, hunt, wound, kill, or capture, or to
attempt any such activity. Listed plants are protected from
removal, malicious damage, and destruction on federal
property. The ESA also protects listed plants from the
violation of any protective state laws on any other prop-erty,
including the violation of state or criminal trespass
law. (See section below on North Carolina’s endangered
species protection laws.)
Under Section 7 of the ESA, federal agencies are
prohibited from issuing permits, funding, or carrying out
any project if the project will jeopardize the survival of any
listed species. Any agency planning a project in an area
used by a listed species should first consult with the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, which is the regulatory agency
for the ESA. (For marine species, consultation is made with
the National Marine Fisheries Service.) A biological assess-ment
describing impacts of the proposed project is re-quired
for consultation. Any projects that will jeopardize a
listed species must be modified to avoid adverse impacts;
exceptions are rarely made.
Private landowners are allowed some relief from the
prohibitions of Section 9. Incidental take of a listed species
may be permitted if the take is incidental to, and not the
purpose of, an otherwise legal activity, and if the take will
not jeopardize the continued existence of the species. For
such a permit, a habitat conservation plan must be submit-ted
to the Fish and Wildlife Service. If the plan is ap-proved,
some limited taking is allowed, provided the
impact to the species is minimized and mitigated.
— iv —
North Carolina’s Endangered Species Laws
North Carolina has its own laws that protect endangered
and threatened species—one for animals and one for
plants. These laws apply to species that are locally or
regionally rare in the state in addition to those that are
federally listed as endangered and threatened.
The N.C. Wildlife Resources Commission administers
the N.C. Endangered Species Act (General Statutes 113-
331–113-337; enacted in 1987), which protects animals,
and maintains the state’s list of “protected animal spe-cies.”
Under this law it is illegal to take, possess, transport,
sell, barter, trade, or export any animal on the protected
list without a permit. Though this law does not prohibit
habitat modification, another state law (G.S. 113-291) does
make it illegal to intentionally destroy or substantially
damage wildlife nesting or breeding areas (for example,
cutting down den trees, shooting into nests of animals or
birds, etc). Data on these protected species are tracked by
the N.C. Natural Heritage Program.
The North Carolina Plant Protection and Conservation
Act was enacted in 1979 (G.S. Chapter 106, Article 19B;
202.12–202.22) to provide protection for the state endan-gered,
threatened, and rare plants. This law is adminstered
by the Plant Conservation Program in the N.C. Department
of Agriculture. The Program maintains the list of endan-gered,
threatened and rare plants, and data on these
species are tracked by the N.C. Natural Heritage Program.
As with the animals statutes, the plant state law prohibits
the sale, barter, trade, exchange, or export of any plant on
the state’s protected list without a permit. However,
agricultural, forestry, or development operations on private
property are not regulated by this law, even though those
actions may incidentally disturbe rare plants, “so long as
the plants are not collected for sale or commercial use”
without a permit.
Why We Should Be Concerned About the Loss of
Species
Extinction is a natural process that has been occurring
since long before the appearance of humans on the planet.
Normally, new species develop through a process known as
speciation at about the same rate that other species
become extinct. However, because of air and water pollu-tion,
forest clearing, loss of wetlands, and other human-induced
environmental changes, extinctions are now
occurring at a rate that far exceeds the speciation rate.
Since the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock in 1620, more
than 500 species, subspecies, and varieties of our nation’s
plants and animals have become extinct. By contrast,
during the 3000 years of the Pleistocene Ice Age, all of
North America lost only about 90 species.
All living things are part of a complex and intercon-nected
network. The removal of a single species can set off
a chain reaction that could affect many other species. For
example, the loss of a single plant species can result in the
disappearance of up to 30 other species of animals and
plants. Each extinction diminishes the diversity and
complexity of life on earth.
Furthermore, wild plants and animals are important to
the development of new and improved medicines, agricul-tural
crops, and other industrial products. One-quarter of
all the prescriptions written in the United States today
contain chemicals that were originally discovered in plants
and animals. Industry and agriculture are increasingly
making use of wild plants, seeking out the remaining wild
strains of many common crops, such as wheat and corn, to
produce new hybrids that are more resistant to disease,
pests, and marginal climatic conditions. If these organisms
had been destroyed before their values were known, their
secrets would have died with them. When a species is lost,
the benefits it might have provided are gone forever.
Wild lands and the plant and animal life that in-habit
unique natural places are now dependent
on us for survival. These natural places, with their
diversity of life, can be enjoyed by and benefit all
of us; with our help, they can be there for future
generations.
— U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Endangered Species
Information Series: Mountain Sweet Pitcher Plant,
August1995
What You Can Do To Help
• Visit arboretums, botanical gardens, and parks and learn
all you can about plant and animal species, especially
rare species, and the causes of their declines. Share what
you have learned with others.
• Learn about basic ecological principles. Participate in the
protection of our remaining wild lands and the restora-tion
of damaged ecosystems. Encourage and participate
in proper land use practices in your community.
• When hiking, tread lightly, and stay on designated trails
in parks, gardens, and nature preserves. Take pictures
and leave only footprints.
• Do not collect animals or plants from wild areas. Taking
them out of their habitat deprives them of natural food
sources and other life-sustaining resources.
• Don’t collect or buy plants and animals collected from
wild populations.
• Recycle as much as you can. As landfills become full,
new ones are often placed in uninhabited areas, causing
the destruction of hundreds of acres of wild habitat.
• Compost kitchen and garden waste and use as garden
supplement and mulch. Reduce use of commercial
chemical fertilizers and pesticides on gardens, lawns,
farmlands, and golf courses. Practice organic farming and
alternative pest control methods.
— v —
• Do not litter or pollute. Take part in stream and land
cleanup projects.
• Conserve natural resources such as water and energy.
• Obey wildlife laws, especially those protecting rare
species and habitat.
• Support and/or be a member of local, state, national, or
international conservation organizations.
• Use the income tax checkoff to contribute to the NC
Wildlife Nongame and Endangered Wildlife Fund.
• Purchase hunting and fishing licenses and duck stamps
yearly even if you don’t use them. Many of the revenues
go to species and habitat protection.
—Adapted from A Guide To Endangered and Threatened Species in
Virginia (Terwilliger et al., 1995) and Endangered Species Informa-tion
Series (USFWS)
Acknowledgments
Funding for this publication was provided by the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, Asheville Field Office. The volunteer
efforts of Mary Frasier and James F. Shern, environmental
consultants, resulted in a first draft of this publication.
Over a period of seven years, the North Carolina Natural
Heritage Program worked toward its completion under the
oversight and persistence of staff member Susan Reece
Giles. Laura Mansberg Cotterman was responsible for final
copyediting and production.
Important sources used to compile the species ac-counts
included the Official World Wildlife Fund Guide to
Endangered Species of North America (Lowe et al. 1990),
Endangered and Threatened Plants and Animals of North
Carolina (Cooper et al. 1977), the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service Red Book of Endangered Species of the Southeast-ern
U.S., Federal Register (individual species) sections from
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Web site of the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, and the files of the North
Carolina Natural Heritage Program. Many other publica-tions
and sources were also consulted. These and addi-tional
literature are listed in Appendix E.
Many individuals and agencies provided Illustrations.
These are credited in Appendix F.
Appreciation is due to Nora Murdock of the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service for technical assistance and review of
this document. It should be noted that the information
contained in this publication represents countless hours of
fieldwork and research by many biologists. Their commit-ment
to science and conservation is greatly appreciated.
— 1 —
INTRODUCTION
Definition of Legal Status
Federal status is designated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service. Federally listed Endangered and Threatened species
are protected under the provisions of the Endangered Species
Act of 1973, as amended through the 100th Congress. Unless
otherwise noted, definitions are taken from the Federal
Register, Vol. 56, No. 225, November 21, 1991 (50 CFR Part
17).
Endangered
A taxon “which is in danger of extinction throughout all or a
significant portion of its range”(Endangered Species Act,
Sect. 3).
Threatened
A taxon “which is likely to become an endangered species
within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant
portion of its range” (Endangered Species Act, Sect. 3).
Federal Species of Concern [also known as Species at Risk]
“The service remains concerned about these species, but
further biological research and field study are needed to
resolve the conservation status of these taxa. Many species
of concern will be found not to warrant listing, either because
they are not threatened or endangered or because they do not
qualify as species under the definition in the [Endangered
Species] Act. Others may be found to be in greater danger of
extinction than some present candidate taxa. The Service is
working with the States and other private and public interests
to assess their need for protection under the Act. Such
species are the pool from which future candidates for listing
will be drawn“ (Federal Register, February 28, 1996). The
Service suggests that such taxa be considered as “Species of
Concern” or “Species at Risk,” neither of which has official
status.
Threatened Due to to Similarity of Appearance (S/A)
“Section 4 (e) of the [Endangered Species] Act authorizes the
treatment of a species (subspecies or population segment) as
endangered or threatened even though it is not otherwise
listed as endangered or threatened if (a) the species so closely
resembles in appearance an endangered or threatened species
that enforcement personnel would have substantial difficulty
in differentiating between the listed and unlisted species; (b)
the effect of this substantial difficulty is an additional threat
to an endangered or threatened species; and (c) such treat-ment
of an unlisted species will substantially facilitate the
enforcement and further the policy of the Act” Federal
Register, November 4, 1997). The American alligator has this
designation due to similarity of appearance to other rare
crocodilians, and the southern population of the bog turtle
has this designation due to similarity of appearance to the
northern population of the bog turtle, which is federally listed
as Threatened.
Information Sources for Current Legal Status
of Species
FOR STATE ENDANGERED AND THREATENED SPECIES
Regulatory Agencies
Animals (except insects)
N.C. Wildlife Resources Commission
Department of Environment and Natural Resources
MSC 1700
Raleigh, NC 27699-1700
919-661-4872
Plants and Insects
N.C. Department of Agriculture
Plant Conservation Program
P. O. Box 27647
Raleigh, NC 27611
919-733-3610
www.agr.state.nc.us/plantind/plant/conserv/cons.htm
Non-regulatory Agency
Animals and plants
N.C. Natural Heritage Program
Department of Environment and Natural Resources
Division of Parks and Recreation
MSC 1615
Raleigh, NC 27699-1615
919-733-4181
www.ncsparks.net/nhp
FOR FEDERAL ENDANGERED AND THREATENED SPECIES
Animals and Plants
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
160 Zillicoa Street
Asheville, NC 28801
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Ecological Services
551 Pylon Drive
Raleigh, NC 27606
http://endangered.fws.gov
— 2 —
Guide to the Species Accounts
The species accounts that form the remainder of this book are
organized by taxonomic grouping: first animals—subdivided
into mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes, and invertebrates (the
latter subdivided into mollusks-bivalves, mollusks-gastro-pods,
and arachnids), and then plants—subdivided into
vascular plants and nonvascular plants. Each account uses the
following format:
Name: The common and scientific name are given. If there
is more than one common name, or if the taxonomy is
unclear, alternative names are given in parentheses.
Federal status: As of December 1, 2001. A species may
change classifications if status is determined to be more or
less at risk. Dates are given for enactment of present status. If
this is a change in status, the original date and status are also
listed.
Description: Average lengths are given. In some cases,
English measurements were calculated from metric; such
measurements were rounded off. Animal lengths are mea-sured
from head to tail. Leaf lengths do not include stem
length. The flowering periods listed for plants indicate when
flowering is most likely to take place. Flowers will not
necessarily be visible for the entire period listed. (Note:
abbreviations are used for centimeters [cm], meters [m],
kilometers [km], hectares [ha], pounds [lb], and feet [ft],)
Life History: Reported habits and preferences for food,
nesting/shelter, seasonal activities, breeding seasons, growth
patterns and maturation, social styles and other characteris-tics
are given for the general population of the species.
Habitat: Known habitat preferences are given. Species may
be found in other habitats as well.
Distribution: Range and counties in which the species is
known to occur within North Carolina only. If a species is
discovered in a new county, it should be reported to state and/
or federal authorities. Counties in which the element was last
observed more than 20 years ago (1979 or earlier) are
marked with an asterisk (*). The asterisk does not necessar-ily
mean that the species is no longer known from that
county, only that the date of the last observation available to
the Natural Heritage Program and/or USFWS from that
county is at least 20 years old. Counties listed in brackets [ ]
indicate records listed by data bases at the North Carolina
State Museum of Natural Sciences and may be older records.
Occasionally areas in neighboring states are included as well.
Fishes and aquatic invertebrates are noted for counties where
they are known to occur.
Sea turtles occur in coastal waters and nest along beaches.
This publication includes sea turtles in the counties where
they are known to nest. The USFWS has jurisdiction over sea
turtle issues on terrestrial systems; the National Marine
Fisheries Service has authority over sea turtles in coastal
waters. Manatees occur throughout North Carolina’s coastal
water; this publication includes manatees in counties where
there are known concentrations. The USFWS has consulta-tion
and recovery responsibility for manatees.
Threats: Circumstances that have put species on protected
list; potential threats to present and future success of species.
Recommendations: Protective measures that are recom-mended
to protect species and/or habitat to maintain success
of species, correct negative impacts, or prevent future
negative impacts.
Sources: See Appendix E for full citations. USFWS = U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service.
— 3 —
Pitt
Wake
Hyde
Bladen
Pender
Duplin
Bertie
Robeson
Wilkes
Moore
Nash
Sampson Union
Surry
Halifax
Onslow
Columbus
Iredell
Johnston
Swain
Jones
Burke
Ashe
Anson
Randolph
Harnett Wayne
Chatham
Guilford
Brunswick
Macon
Rowan
Hoke
Lee
Stokes
Martin
Stanly Jackson
Buncombe
Lenoir
Gates
Davidson
Warren Person
Franklin
Dare
Haywood Beaufort
Tyrrell
Granville
Forsyth Orange
Caswell
Cumberland
Caldwell
Wilson
Polk
Madison
Rutherford
Gaston
Cherokee
Catawba
Clay
Cleveland
Richmond
Yadkin
Rockingham
Davie
Alamance
Edgecombe
Vance
McDowell
Northampton
Hertford
Mecklenburg
Yancey
Cabarrus
Avery
Lincoln
Montgomery
Graham Greene
Scotland
Durham
Pamlico
Watauga
Henderson
Craven
Washington
Transylvania
Camden
Carteret
Mitchell
Alexander
Alleghany
Perquimans
Chowan
Currituck
Pasquotank
New Hanover
North Carolina Counties
— 7 —
Carolina northern flying squirrel
Glaucomys sabrinus coloratus
Endangered (July 1, 1985)
Description: This nocturnal squirrel is medium-sized, 10-
12 inches (26-30.5 cm) in total length, with a broad, flat-tened
tail, prominent large black eyes, and dense silky fur.
The patagia, a large fold of fully haired skin, runs from the
front legs to the hind legs and enables the squirrel to glide, a
characteristic of this genus. The squirrel is brownish or
grayish on the back, with a whitish underside. Juveniles
have slate gray backs. Northern flying squirrels are larger
than Southern flying squirrels (G. volans), and have hairs on
the stomach that are gray at the base, while those of the
Southern flying squirrel are whitish from tip to base.
Life History: Is omnivorous, subsisting on lichens,
hypogenous fungi as well as seeds, buds, fruit, staminate
cones, catkins, tree sap, and insects.
Habitat: Favors the ecotone between coniferous (red
spruce and Fraser fir) and mature northern hardwood forests
(beech, yellow birch, maple, hemlock, red oak, and buck-eye).
Also inhabits northern hardwood with hemlock in the
absence of spruce and fir. Prefers moist forest with widely
spaced, mature trees and moderate to thick evergreen
understory, and large numbers of dead snags. Elevations are
usually above 4500 ft (1400 m), or narrow, north-facing
valleys above 4000 ft. (1200 m). Dependence on fungi may
be a factor in restricting species to cold, moist, high eleva-tions.
In winter, squirrels inhabit tree cavities in older
hardwoods, particularly yellow birch (Betula
alleghaniensis). Leaf and twig nests (“drey” nests) are used
primarily in summer and are usually found in the limbs of
spruce trees. Colonies aggregated in island-like distribution.
Distribution: A Southern Appalachian subspecies, it is
isolated in localities in Avery, Buncombe, Graham,
Haywood, Jackson, Mitchell, Swain, Transylvania, Watauga,
and Yancey counties.
Threats: Habitat destruction from logging, clear cutting,
certain forest management practices, and recreational
development has adversely affected populations, in some
cases by allowing displacement by more aggressive G.
volans in areas where the two species’ ranges overlap.
Infection by the parasitic nematode, Strongyloides, carried
by the Southern flying squirrel, is also a threat.
Management Recommendations: Preservation of high
elevation forests and bogs, including both spruce-fir stands
and adjacent zones of northern hardwood vegetation.
Sources: Cooper et al. 1977, Murdock pers. com., Terwilliger et al.
1995, USFWS 1992a, Weigl 1987.
— 9 —
Eastern cougar
Felis concolor couguar
(Panther, mountain lion, puma)
Endangered, possibly extirpated
(June 4, 1973)
Description: This large, long-tailed cat may measure up to
7.5 ft (2.3 m) in total length and 150 lb. (67.5 kg) at adult-hood.
Fur is light yellowish to tawny brown, with dull white
underparts. The sides of the muzzle, the backs of the ears,
and the tip of the tail are dark brown to black. Paw prints are
up to 4 inches (10 cm); the claws are retractable and there-fore
are usually not seen in paw prints. Cubs are light brown
with irregular brownish to black spots and a ringed tail.
Life History: Cougars are solitary, mostly nocturnal, and
active in all seasons. They are adept at climbing but stalk
prey and leap upon it from the ground. Preferred food is deer,
but they will prey upon rabbits, rodents, turkey, squirrel,
beaver, fish, birds, and arthropods. An adult may require 25-
50 square km area for range. Females mature at 2-3 years;
males mature at 4-5 years. Females breed at 2-3 year inter-vals
and produce one to four cubs after 90 days gestation.
Cubs disperse after 2 years with mother. Cougars normally
shun human contact and attacks are extremely rare.
Habitat: Remote areas with dense vegetation and rocky
crevices, such as hilly woodlands, mountains, gorges, and
Southern swamps with large deer populations. Often uses
caves as temporary shelter. Home range depends on age, sex,
reproductive status, and food availability.
Distribution: Historically the most widespread mammal of
North America and statewide in North Carolina. May exist in
remote areas of the coastal plain and mountains. Within the
last couple of decades, undocumented sightings have been
reported from the Great Smoky Mountains National Park,
Pisgah and Nantahala National Forests, the Blue Ridge
Parkway, northern portions of Uwharrie National Forest, and
from southeastern counties. Sightings are usually fleeting, in
poor light, and lack definition. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, U.S. Forest Service, and National Park Service have
conducted tracking surveys and constructed scent stations,
but have found no hard evidence of eastern cougars to date.
Some of the animals that have been reported have been
escaped or released pets of the non-endangered western
subspecies. Records indicated in Brunswick*, Buncombe*,
Carteret*, Haywood*, Montgomery*, Onslow*, Swain*, and
Yancey* counties.
Threats: Destruction of habitat by residential, commercial,
and recreational development. Intentional eradication of
species by hunting, poisoning, and trapping may have
extirpated species from state. Severe reduction of white-tailed
deer herds would also have adversely affected this
species.
Management Recommendations: Set aside extensive wild
areas as in designated national forest where vast wilderness
provides undisturbed habitat and sufficient white-tailed deer
population.
* No record has been reported in the county in the past 20 years.
Sources: Cooper et al. 1977, Lee 1987, Linzey 1995, Murdock
— 11 —
Indiana bat
Myotis sodalis
Endangered (March 11, 1967)
Description: The Indiana bat is one of the smallest bats in
the state with a total length of 3.5 inches. It has mouselike
ears and a plain nose with dull, grayish brown fur on the back
and lighter cinnamon brown on undersides. However,
coloration can be variable and cannot be relied upon solely
for species identification. The little brown bat, M. lucifugus,
is easily confused with the Indiana bat. The following
characteristics distinguish the two species: (1) The Indiana
bat has short toe hairs, while the little brown bat’s are long.
(2) The Indiana bat’s fur is dull, while the other’s is glossy.
(3) The Indiana bat has a light-colored nose, while the other’s
is dark. (4) The Indiana bat’s hair appears tri-colored (black
at base, gray in middle, brown at tip), while the other’s is bi-colored.
(5) The calcar, a bone leading to the foot, is keeled
in the Indiana bat, but not in the little brown bat.
Life History: The Indiana bat is nocturnal, feeding on moths,
mayflies, and other insects found over tree-lined streams and
over the tops of trees in upland woods. Five hundred to five
thousand bats will congregate into compact clusters aggre-gated
at the entrance to limestone caves. They will migrate
up to 300 miles to return to winter caves in September. They
hibernate from early October until late March and April, then
migrate to summer roosts. Mating occurs in fall at the
beginning of hibernation. Sperm is stored in the uterus until
spring when fertilization takes place. Females produce a
single offspring in June. Gestation period is not known.
Habitat: From fall to spring, Indiana bats hibernate in large
clusters in limestone caves and old mines, usually where
there is a water source close by. Most males use the same
caves year-round, while females and young (maternity
colonies) roost under loose bark and in tree hollows of
shagbark hickory and oak near small-to medium-sized
streams. Old buildings and undersides of bridges are some-times
used. Summer foraging habitat is in riparian and
floodplain areas. Males also forage in hillside forests.
Distribution: This species is found primarily in the Ohio
Valley where limestone caves are numerous; is a rare migrant
and winter and summer visitor to North Carolina and is
usually seen singly or in very small numbers. Records in
Graham, Jackson*, Mitchell*, Rutherford, Swain counties in
the mountain region, where caves are present.
Threats: Disturbance of cave colonies. Human disturbance
includes intentional destruction from burning, stoning,
clubbing, and shooting of the dormant bats as well as noise
from cavers, scientific research, and cave commercialization.
These types of disturbance, if not fatal initially to the bat
population, will cause loss of body fat and resulting starva-tion
before spring migration. Additional disturbances include
flooding of caves and pesticide poisoning of insects that bats
prey upon.
Management Recommendations: Protection of habitat,
especially hibernacula from disturbance and destruction.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20 years.
Sources: Adams 1987, USFWS 1992a.
— 13 —
Red wolf
Canis rufus
Endangered (March 11, 1967)
Description: The red wolf is a slender canid between the
coyote (C. latrans) and the gray wolf (C. lupus) in size, with
large ears and long legs. Adults weigh 40-80 lb (18-36 kg).
Coloration varies from red to yellow, gray, black, or brown
and may be mottled. The fur is slightly tawnier and coarser
than that of the coyote and the gray wolf. The red wolf holds
its bushy tail high while running unlike the coyote, which
tucks its tail between its hind legs.
Life History: The wolves usually travel in family groups of 2
or 3, but lone individuals are also seen. Red wolves are
opportunistic predators, feeding on small mammals and deer,
and do not hunt in packs. It is thought that red wolves mate
for life and both parents take part in rearing the young. They
exist as small family units (packs) of an adult pair and their
young with the offspring dispersing at about 6-12 months.
Breeding occurs in February and March, and pups are born in
April and May. The average litter size is 4-5 young.
Habitat: On the North Carolina coastal plain, red wolves
prefer areas with heavy vegetation for cover, such as fallow
fields, marshes, pocosins, and swamps. They were also
known to prefer dense forests in mountains and bottomlands
before they were eliminated in the wild. They will excavate
dens in sand knolls in coastal areas but will also den in
hollow trees and culverts.
Distribution: Red wolves were completely extirpated in the
wild by the 1970s. In North Carolina, they have been reintro-duced
into the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge and
the Pocosin Lakes National Wildlife Refuge in Dare, Wash-ington,
Tyrrell, and Hyde counties by the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service. They are also found in Beaufort County.
Threats: Expanding human populations and extensive land
clearing eliminated much of the red wolf habitat. Large
numbers of this species and other large predators were
intentionally destroyed by hunting, trapping, and poisoning.
Even today there is willful killing of wolves by local farmers
and other citizens concerned about the loss of farm animals
and pets to wolf predation. This extermination causes a
breakdown in the red wolf social structure. Habitat changes
have encouraged expansion of the coyote range into
historically red wolf territory, resulting in interbreeding
with unmated wolves, thus threatening the gene pool of
the wolves. Breeding with coyotes may also introduce
parasitic infections, which weaken the fecundity of
existing wolf groups.
Management Recommendations: Education of the
public about the importance of the red wolf in the
ecosystem. Protection of existing family units. Mainte-nance
of adequate habitat in undisturbed wilderness
such as national forests and wilderness preserves.
Sources: Jackson et al. 1992, Lowe et al. 1990, USFWS 1992a.
— 15 —
Virginia big-eared bat
Corynorhinus (=Plecotus) townsendii virginianus
Endangered (November 30, 1979)
Description: Two species of big-eared bats occur in North
Carolina. The Virginia big-eared bat is a medium-sized bat
with large ears connected by a low band across the forehead
and with a globular shaped mass on the muzzle and elongated
nostrils. The other species is Rafinesque’s big-eared bat
(Corynorhinus [=Plecotus] rafinesquii), a Federal Species of
Concern. The ears of these two species distinguish them
easily from all other bats in the state. Over 1 inch (2.5 cm)
long, the ears are twice as high as those of other species.
When the bats are at rest, the ears are curled alongside the
head and reach back to half the length of their body. Al-though
it is unlikely the two species overlap in range, the
following characteristics can be used to distinguish between
them: (1) The fur of the Virginia big-eared bat is long, soft,
and a uniform color from base to tip, while that of
Rafinesque’s big-eared bat is bi-colored. (2) The toe hairs of
Rafinesque’s big-eared bat extend past the toes, while the
Virginia big-eared bat’s do not. (3) The ventral fur of the
Virginia big-eared bat is light brown, while that of
Rafinesque’s big-eared bat is whitish.
Life History: In winter, individuals of this species hibernate
rather than migrate. They roost alone or in small clusters
along ceilings and walls near the mouth of caves where there
is air movement. In the spring and summer, females form
maternity colonies in warm caves while males are usually
solitary. Mating occurs in fall and winter and a single young
is born in June. Nocturnal feeders, they wait until well after
dark to forage for moths, beetles, flies, wasps, and winged
ants.
Habitat: Non-migratory, these bats live year round in caves
or old mines, although summer and winter roosts may differ.
Caves are usually located in mountainous limestone regions
over 1500 feet elevation where the dominant trees are oak
and hickory, or beech, maple, and hemlock. Most known
roost sites have been closed off with gates to prevent distur-bance.
Distribution: Fragmented into several populations, these
bats are found in Avery, Watauga, and Yancey counties in the
mountain region.
Threats: Habitat disturbance from noise, bright lights, or
human presence has caused several winter colonies to
disappear.
Management Recommendations: Protection of caves and
other habitat from interference by cavers, sightseers, and
other human activity.
Sources: Clark 1987a; Terwilliger et al. 1995; USFWS 1992a, 1992b;
Webster et al. 1985.
— 17 —
West Indian manatee
Trichechus manatus
Endangered (June 2, 1970)
Description: The manatee is a massive, barrel-shaped
aquatic mammal with a broad head and large stiffly bristled,
fleshy lips that overhang and hide the lower jaw. Both the
eyes and external ears are minute in relation to body size.
The tough, 2-inch-thick skin is uniformly gray to gray-brown,
wrinkled, and nearly hairless. It is often scarred and
covered with barnacles, algae, and other crustaceans. The
forearms are short and paddle-like and are used for locomo-tion,
scratching, touching and embracing other manatees,
manipulating food, and cleaning their mouths. Hind limbs are
lacking and the tail is horizontally flattened and rounded.
Adults are 7-13 ft long and may weight 11,000-13,000 lb.
Sexes are distinguished by the position of the genital opening
and presence or absence of mammary glands.
Life History: Manatees are essentially solitary animals, but
will exist in loosely organized groups of 2-6. The strongest
social unit is the family, which consists of a cow and calf.
Fecundity is low with no definite breeding season known.
Sexual maturity is reached between 4 and 9 years. Females
usually breed once every 2.5-3 years, producing one calf
after 11 months of gestation. Young remain with the mother
for several years. Herbivorous, they consume almost exclu-sively
submerged aquatic vegetation but sometimes eat
shoreline vegetation. They spend 5 hours a day feeding and
may consume 4-9% of the body weight in 1 day. They may
not need fresh water but have been observed drinking fresh
water from hoses, culverts and sewage outfalls. They often
feed at night, locating food by touch and smell.
Habitat: Wholly aquatic, manatees inhabit warm shallow
seas near shore, salt water bays, and estuarine habitats. They
live in both fresh and salt water and move up sluggish rivers
and canals for variable distances. Factors that influence
habitat choice are (1) availability of food, (2) sufficient water
depth of 1.5 to 6 m, (3) access to warm water during cold
winter weather, and (4) source of fresh water required for
osmoregulation.
Distribution: The manatee is known from shallow waters of
subtropical regions of the Atlantic coast ranging from coastal
North Carolina to the Florida Keys, Gulf of Mexico and west
to the Louisiana coast. Habitat is restricted to warm waters.
They are migratory and have been recorded in North Caro-lina
waters from June to October. They may overwinter in
warm water discharges from coastal North Carolina power
plants from October to April. Reported in Beaufort,
Brunswick, Carteret, Craven, Currituck, Dare, Hyde, New
Hanover, Onslow*, Pamlico, Pender, and Pitt counties.
Threats: The greatest enemy to manatee survival is humans.
Collisions with motor boats and propellers cause the greatest
numbers of injuries and death to these slow swimmers. Other
threats to the species are predation by humans for hide, meat,
and oil; harassment by swimmers and boaters; death from
entanglement and drowning in fishing nets, lines and flood-gates;
and loss of habitat to pollution, dredging, and filling.
Management Recommendations: Enforcement of laws
against death and injury, pursuit, and harassment. Protection
and restoration of habitat.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20 years.
Sources: Clark 1987b, Cooper et al. 1977, Terwilliger et al. 1995,
Webster et al 1985.
— 21 —
Bald eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Threatened (August 11, 1995; originally listed
as Endangered on March 11, 1967; proposed
for delisting, July 6, 1999)
Description: Bald eagles are large raptors, 32-43 inches (81-
109 cm) long, with a white head, white tail, yellow bill,
yellow eyes and feet. The lower section of the leg has no
feathers. Wingspread is about 7 ft (2.1 m). The characteristic
plumage of adults is dark brown to black with young birds
completely dark brown. Juveniles have a dark bill, pale
markings on the belly, tail, and under the wings and do not
develop the white head and tail until 5-6 years old.
Life History: Bald eagles do not adapt well to changes in
their habitat and this results in relatively low reproductive
rates. They are not sexually mature until the age of 4-5 years,
when they mate for life or until the death of a mate. In North
Carolina, nest building takes place in December and January,
with egg laying (clutch of 1-3 eggs) in February and hatching
in March. Incubation lasts 35 days. Hatchlings attain adult
size in 8 weeks. They are opportunistic feeders consuming a
variety of living prey and carrion. Up to 80% of their diet is
fish, self caught, scavenged, or robbed from osprey. They
may also take various small mammals and birds,
especially those weakened by injury or disease.
Habitat: Bald eagles in the Southeast
frequently build their nests in the
transition zone between forest and
marsh or open water. Nests are
cone-shaped, 6-8 ft (1.8-2.4 m)
from top to bottom, and 6 ft (1.8
m) or more in diameter. They
are typically constructed of
sticks lined with a combina-tion
of leaves, grasses, and
Spanish moss. Nests
are built in dominant
live pines or cypress
trees that provide a
good view and
clear flight path,
usually less than
0.5 mile (0.8 km)
from open water.
Winter roosts are
usually in
dominant trees, similar to nesting trees, but may be some-what
farther from water.
Distribution: Eagles range across North America but are
most common in Alaska. In 1985 there was just a single
active nest in NC, but by 2001, there were 34 nesting pairs in
the state. Although most nests are in the lower coastal plain
near estuaries, several are present at Piedmont foothills and
lakes. Non-nesting eagles are most abundant in the northern
coastal plain and along the Pee Dee-Yadkin River system,
where they occur year-round. Winter and summer roosts have
also been established at several Piedmont reservoirs. Eagles
may be nesting at Mattamuskeet National Wildlife Refuge,
where a hacking program released 33 eagles by 1990 (Lee
and Parnell 1990). They are reported in Anson, Beaufort,
Bertie, Brunswick, Burke, Chatham, Chowan, Craven,
Currituck, Dare*, Davidson, Durham, Gaston, Granville,
Guilford, Harnett, Haywood, Hyde, Johnston, Lenoir,
Martin, McDowell, Mecklenburg, Montgomery,
Northampton, Onslow, Pamlico, Pasquotank, Pitt,
Richmond, Rowan, Stanly, Tyrrell, Vance, Wake, and
Washington, Wilson counties.
Threats: Disturbance and destruction of roosting,
foraging and nesting habitat by urban and residential
development. Avian vacuolar myelinopathy (AVM), first
detected in 1994, which impairs flight and results in death.
Partial recovery of species is due to prohibition of pesticides
that caused death and low viability of eggs in reproduction.
Management Recommendations: Protection of vegetative
buffers on shorelines of lakes, rivers, and reservoirs where
development is encroaching; restoration of habitat;
and protection of good water quality. Enforcement of
protection of species from hunting and harassment.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20
years.
Sources: Henson 1990, Potter et al. 1980, USFWS 1992a.,
USGS 2001.
— 23 —
Piping plover (Atlantic)
Charadrius melodus melodus
Threatened (December 11, 1985)
Description: The piping plover is a short stocky bird a little
larger than a sparrow, 6-7 inches (15-17 cm) in total length.
Coloration is pale gray-brown on the back and top of the
head, with white underparts and a complete or partial band of
black around the neck. A black band also crosses the fore-head,
but becomes obscure in winter. The legs are yellow-orange;
the bill is yellowish in spring and dark in autumn.
Call is a whistled “peep-lo.”
Life History: Like most plovers, the piping plover runs in
short starts and stops. It eats worms, fly larvae, beetles,
crustaceans, mollusks, and other invertebrates plucked from
the sand. Plovers arrive on breeding grounds in March-April.
After courtship rituals and establishment of nesting territo-ries,
nests are made in small depressions in the sand and lined
with bits of shells or pebbles. Four buff-colored eggs pep-pered
with dark marks are laid. Eggs hatch after 27-31 days
incubation. If the first clutch is lost early, a second set of eggs
is laid. By September both adults and young depart for
wintering areas.
Habitat: In North Carolina, barrier island beaches are used
as nesting sites. Preferred sites are sparsely vegetated areas
on high ground near inlets or wash-over fans with a pond or
slough, or ocean edge nearby. During migration and winter,
piping plovers can be found along sandy beach shoals,
primarily on outer beaches and inner sand or mud flats.
Distribution: North Carolina lies at the southern end of the
breeding range and at the northern end of the wintering
range, and thus is the only state with both breeding and
wintering populations. Breeding birds occur in scattered
locations throughout the North Carolina coast, mostly on the
barrier islands between Cape Lookout and Cape Hatteras.
They are reported as nesting in Brunswick, Carteret,
Currituck, Dare, Hyde, New Hanover, and Pender counties.
Threats: Primary threats are habitat alteration and destruc-tion
from development, and disturbance of nesting adults and
flightless chicks by humans and unleashed dogs, and in some
areas, by vehicles driving on the beach. Many nests are also
lost to predation by a wide variety of animals, such as gulls,
crows, ghost crabs, raccoons, foxes, feral cats, and other
animals.
Management Recommendations: Protection and preserva-tion
of undisturbed breeding and wintering habitat. Restric-tion
of vehicular and pedestrian traffic in breeding areas.
Predator exclusion devices are recommended on some
beaches.
Sources: Golden and Parnell 1990, Lee 1990, Mignogno pers. com,
Potter et al.1980, USFWS 1992a.
— 25 —
Red-cockaded woodpecker
Picoides borealis
(RCW, term often used by biologists)
Endangered (October 13, 1970)
Description: The red-cockaded woodpecker is 8 inches (18-
20 cm) long with a wing span of 15-19 inches (35-38 cm). It
has a black cap and is black on the nape of its neck. The back
is horizontally barred with black and white and the underside
is white with black spots on the sides. There is a large white
patch on each cheek, which is a distinguishing characteristic
from other woodpecker species. The male has a small red spot
behind the eye, which is usually not visible. Fledgling males
have a red patch on the crown of the head.
Life History: RCWs live together in family groups, but each
adult has its own roost cavity. Foraging takes place during the
day; birds return to their roost cavities at dusk. Their diet
consists of ants, beetles, wood-boring insects, caterpillars, and
corn ear worms as well as seasonal wild fruit. Eggs are laid in
April through June in the male’s roosting cavity for nesting.
An average clutch is 3-5 with a maximum of 7 eggs. Rearing
the young is a shared group responsibility. The group, 3-5
birds, is composed of parent birds and male offspring from
previous years.
Habitat: The preferred habitat of RCWs is open, park-like
pine stands with little undergrowth. Habitats range from
savannas and flat woods in the lower coastal plain to rolling,
xeric uplands in the sandhills. They are also found in pond pine
pocosins in the northeastern coastal plain. The largest popula-tions
are found in forests of longleaf pine, but loblolly, short-leaf,
pond, slash, and occasionally Virginia and pitch pine are
also used. Living pines (30+ years old) are preferred for
foraging habitat, and mature, live trees (60+ years old),
especially those infected with a fungus producing red-heart
disease, are used for roosting and nesting cavities. The
territory of a group of birds is at least 125-175 acres (50-70
ha) in size; normally they do not travel more than 0.5 mile to
forage. RCWs are the only birds to regularly excavate cavities
in live southern pines, although other birds are known to nest
in dead limbs of live trees. Cavity trees are often highly
visible, as the birds peck the bark around the cavity, causing
the tree to ooze large amounts of light-colored sap. The birds
keep the sap flowing apparently as a defense mechanism
against rat snakes and other predators which find the sap
irritating to their skin.
Distribution: The southeastern states from southern Virginia
to eastern Texas, with the great majority of populations
occurring on the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains. In North
Carolina, found mostly in the sandhills and southern coastal
plain; scattered populations also live in the northern coastal
plain and the eastern piedmont. Found in Anson, Beaufort,
Bertie, Bladen, Brunswick, Camden*, Carteret, Chatham*,
Columbus, Craven, Cumberland, Currituck*, Dare, Duplin,
Edgecombe*, Forsyth*, Gates, Greene, Halifax*, Harnett,
Hertford*, Hoke, Hyde, Johnston, Jones, Lee*, Lenoir*,
Montgomery, Moore, Nash*, New Hanover, Northampton*,
Onslow, Orange*, Pamlico, Pender, Pitt*, Richmond,
Robeson, Sampson, Scotland, Tyrrell, Wake*, Wayne, and
Wilson* counties.
Threats: Loss of habitat through logging, residential and
commercial development, forestry management practices
such as conversion of old longleaf pine stands to short-rotation,
densely stocked stands of other species, and sup-pression
of periodic fire regime.
Management Recommendations: Protection of habitat of
old-growth longleaf pine forests from destruction. Use of
prescribed burning to stimulate existing and new longleaf
pine communities. Planting of longleaf pine in degraded sites
and old fields that are fallow.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20 years.
Sources: Henry 1989, Hooper et al. 1980, USFWS 1992a, Walters
1990.
— 27 —
Roseate tern
Sterna dougallii dougallii
Endangered (November 3, 1987)
Description: Roseate terns are robin sized, 14-17 inches
(35-43 cm) in length including tail. Coloration is white, with
a black cap and very pale gray back and wings. This species
looks similar to many other terns, however, its beak is
usually solid black, its back is paler, and the tail is longer and
more deeply forked than in other species. During breeding
season it has a rosy tinge on the chest and belly and the basal
three-fourths of the black bill and the legs turn orange-red.
Call is a loud, harsh “zaap,” similar to the tearing of cloth;
also a quieter “cue-lick.”
Life History: Roseate terns feed on small flounder, herring,
and mullet caught by plunge diving. They winter in the West
Indies and along the northern coast of South America.
Breeding grounds are on the Atlantic coast of North America
mainly from New York to Nova Scotia, where they arrive in
April. Egg laying commences in April and lasts through June.
Incubation averages 21 days. Young fledge after about 4
weeks. Nesting takes place in dense grasses on relatively
undisturbed coastal islands.
Habitat: These migratory birds are rarely seen in North
Carolina although they pass through coastal North Carolina
from March-May and August-October. Sight records of
roseate terns also exist for June, July, and August. They are
usually seen off shore along the barrier islands.
Distribution: One breeding record has been confirmed for
North Carolina. In addition, one to several individuals are
reported annually during the breeding season at tern colonies
along the North Carolina coast, but these appear to be un-mated
birds. If this species undergoes range expansion, North
Carolina could become a regular nesting site. They have been
reported in Carteret* and Dare counties.
Threats: Loss of habitat to human disturbance and develop-ment,
beach stabilization, and erosion.
Management Recommendations: Protection of barrier
islands from beach stabilization, development, and urbaniza-tion.
Protection of nesting colonies of terns.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20 years.
Sources: Bull and Farrand 1977, Lee 1990, USFWS 1998.
— 29 —
Wood Stork
Mycteria americana
(Wood ibis)
Endangered (February 28, 1984)
Description: The wood stork is a large, long-legged wading
bird about 3 ft (1.0 m) tall, with a wingspread of 5 ft (1.5 m).
The body is white with black flight and tail feathers. The
head and neck are largely unfeathered and colored dark gray.
The bill is long, stout, slightly curved, and colored black in
adults and yellow in immature individuals. During flight, the
neck is extended, unlike herons, which fly with their heads
tucked close to their bodies. The call is a dull croak.
Life History: Wood storks are colonial nesters and feeders
and often breed in rookeries with other species of wading
birds. Nesting periods vary geographically with nesting
generally occurring in spring and early summer. Birds nest in
trees with several nests placed in the same tree. Average
clutch size is 2-5 eggs with average fledgling rate of 2 young
per nest. Storks feed on small fish (1-6 inches long). They
have a rather selective foraging ecology capturing prey using
a specialized technique known as “grope-feeding” or “tacto-location.”
Feeding occurs in water 6-10 inches deep using a
probing, sweeping sideways motion with the bill partly open.
When the bill is touched by a fish, it snaps shut in as little as
25 milliseconds. This manner of feeding requires their prey
to be very concentrated as in low water conditions. Droughts
and floods alter the concentration of fish in the pools as the
water level becomes too low or too high.
Habitat: Storks prefer freshwater and brackish wetlands.
They forage in the shallow water of ponds, lakes, narrow
tidal creeks, flooded tidal pools, and marshes particularly
where the water level is dropping and prey are trapped in
isolated pools. They frequently nest in cypress and mangrove
trees.
Distribution: Breeding range extends from South Carolina
to Florida along the Atlantic seaboard, parts of Gulf Coast
and the Greater Antilles, both coasts of Mexico and South
America, and the interior of South America down to Argen-tina.
In the U.S., most nesting populations are located in
Florida. Non-nesting individuals have been reported as far
north as Canada and inland into the Mississippi Valley and
west to California. Most wood stork records in North Caro-lina
are from the Twin Lakes area in southwestern Brunswick
County where several dozen individual post-breeding birds
are sighted from late June into October. One or two sightings
are reported from elsewhere within the state each year, as far
inland as the mountains.
Threats: Loss of habitat and alteration of natural hydrologi-cal
regimes that provide suitable water levels for foraging.
Habitat loss is due to extensive logging of bald cypress,
wetland drainage and conversion to agriculture, and reduc-tion
of food sources due to environmental contamination and
unnatural fluctuations of hydrology in foraging areas.
Recommendations: Protection of wetland habitats (foraging
areas), especially shallow freshwater ponds and swamps.
Sources: LeGrand 1990, USFWS 1992a, Bull and Farrand 1977.
— 33 —
American alligator
Alligator mississippiensis
Threatened S/A (June 4, 1987)
Description: This large, aquatic reptile is rough backed with
a broad rounded snout. Most adults are 6-12 ft (1.8-3.7 m)
long with brown to dark brown coloration. The young are
marked with yellow bands. Often mistaken for the American
crocodile, which has narrower jaw with the fourth tooth
exposed while the jaws are closed, the American alligator’s
fourth tooth fits into a notch in the upper jaw and is not
exposed.
Life History: Alligators eat anything of a suitable size
including mammals, reptiles, amphibians, fish, birds, and
crustaceans. Sexual maturity is reached in 10-12 years in the
northern part of its range and at approximately 6 ft in length.
Nests are constructed near water in late spring and summer.
The nests are made from vegetation, debris, and soil
mounded to greater than 2 ft high and 6 ft across. Eggs are
laid in a cavity near the top of the nest and covered with 6-7
inches of vegetation. Clutch size averages between 35-40
eggs with a maximum of 60. The eggs are usually guarded by
the female.
Habitat: Slow-moving coastal rivers, canals, lakes, im-poundments,
marshes, and estuaries. In southern parts of the
state, alligators sometimes inhabit cypress ponds in
flatwoods and sandhills. Minimum home range for an adult
male averages 3100 acres and for an adult female, 21 acres.
Tolerance for salinity increases with age.
Distribution: Alligators range from the southern shore of
Albemarle Sound and southward, through the eastern and
southern coastal plain. Found in Bladen*, Brunswick,
Camden*, Carteret, Columbus, Craven, Cumberland*, Dare,
Duplin*, Gates*, Hyde, Jones*, New Hanover, Onslow,
Pamlico*, Pender, Robeson, Sampson*, Scotland*, Tyrrell*,
and Washington counties.
Threats: Threatened due to similarity of appearance to other
protected crocodilians. Alligators are no longer biologically
threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act,
but commercial hunting and trade are regulated. Overhunting
and illegal poaching in the 1950s and 1960s greatly reduced
their numbers. Excessive exploitation and habitat loss also
resulted from human encroachment.
Management Recommendations: Controlling habitat
destruction and exploitation appears to be effective in
conserving the species.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20 years.
Sources: Martof et al. 1980; Palmer and Braswell 1977, 1995; USFWS
1992a
— 35 —
Bog turtle
Clemmys muhlenbergii
Threatened S/A (November 4, 1997)
Description: The bog turtle is a small semiaquatic turtle,
usually with a bright orange or yellow blotch on each side of
the head. Carapace lengths range from 3-4.5 inches (7.6-11.4
cm). The carapace is elongated, brown to black, often with a
low median keel and large scutes with yellowish to reddish
centers. It is rough in texture in juveniles but is worn nearly
or entirely smooth in old adults, presumably from burrowing
into the earth. The hingeless plastron is dark brown to black,
usually with yellowish or pale brown mottling. The skin is
gray or brown, variously streaked or speckled with red or
orange.
Life History: Although bog turtles bask on tussocks of grass
and clumps of sphagnum, they are generally secretive and
burrow into the mud rapidly when disturbed. They may
remain buried for extended periods. Bog turtles hibernate
from October to April, often just below the upper surface of
frozen mud or ice. Natural food consists mostly of insects,
but includes earthworms, slugs and other snails, crayfish,
carrion, berries, and fleshy seeds (pondweed, sedge, arrow
arum). Mating occurs in May and June; eggs are laid in June
and July and hatch in August and September. Unlike most
other semi-aquatic turtles, bog turtles do not leave their
wetland habitat and travel to dry, upland areas to lay eggs.
Instead, they select slightly elevated sites, generally on sedge
or sphagnum tussocks, for nesting within their marshy
habitat. The eggs and hatchlings are preyed upon by various
birds and mammals like foxes, raccoons, and opossum.
Habitat: The bog turtle inhabits shallow, spring-fed fens,
sphagnaceous bogs, marshy meadows and pasture, with
thick, grassy cover and crossed by slow, muddy bottomed
streams, and swamps with aquatic and semiaquatic plants.
The best habitats in NC are open and sunny.
Distribution: Bog turtles have been recorded in the northern
and southern mountains and in the western and west-central
piedmont of North Carolina. Most of the known localities
are disjunct and populations are small and localized. Range
includes Alexander, Alleghany, Ashe, Avery, Buncombe,
Cherokee*, Clay, Davidson, Forsyth, Gaston, Graham,
Haywood, Henderson, Iredell*, Macon, McDowell,
Mitchell*, Surry, Transylvania, Watauga, Wilkes, and Yancey
counties.
Threats: Because of their local occurrence and highly
specific habitat requirements, many populations of bog
turtles are threatened by widespread draining, ditching,
dredging, filling, and flooding of wetlands for residential,
urban, and commercial development, road construction,
agricultural activities, and pond and reservoir construction.
Bog turtles are also highly valued in the pet trade and are
threatened by commercial collection.
Management Recommendations: Attempts
should be made to protect and maintain habitat and
prohibit collection.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20
years.
Sources: USFWS 1997a.
— 37 —
General Sea Turtle Information
Sea turtle populations were drastically reduced by hunting in the
past. Although hunting has almost been eliminated, sea turtles
remain threatened for several reasons. Turtles (and other marine
organisms, such as whales) sometimes eat discarded plastic bags
and other trash, and may die as a result. They also become en-tangled
in trash and fishing nets, although turtle excluder devices
in shrimp nets help reduce accidental drownings. Beach develop-ment
(sea walls, jetties, lights, off-road vehicles, loud noises, etc.)
may confuse females coming to shore to nest. Once the eggs hatch,
the hatchlings may become disoriented by artificial lights or be
trapped in tire tracks as they head for the sea, leaving them
vulnerable to predators. While five species of sea turtles (logger-head,
green, kemp’s ridley, leatherback, and hawksbill) have been
reported in the waters off the coast of North Carolina, only two are
detailed in this volume: the loggerhead sea turtle, which nests in
several counties along the coastline, and the green sea turtle, which
has been known to come ashore to bask and nest.
— 39 —
Green sea turtle
Chelonia mydas
Threatened (July 28, 1978)
Description: The green sea turtle grows to a maximum of 5
ft (1.2 m) long and a weight of 380 lb. It has a rather heart-shaped
shell that varies in color from light to dark brown
with dark markings. The common name comes from the
color of its body fat. The head is small, and in adults it is
light brown, marked with yellow. Hatchlings usually have a
black carapace, white plastron, and white margins on the
shell and limbs. The adult plastron is whitish yellow. None of
the plates along the edge of the carapace (the marginal
scutes) are jagged, and there is only one long pair of scales
between the eyes. Males have one claw on each of the front
flippers.
Life History: Adult green sea turtles feed largely
on marine algae and grasses in shallow water.
They also consume small mollusks, sponges,
crustaceans, and jellyfish. They migrate between
feeding and nesting sites.
Habitat: This species is
usually seen in shallow bays
and inlets. Lagoons and shoals
with plentiful marine grasses
and algae are important
feeding areas.
Distribution: Range from
Massachusetts to Mexico,
Puerto Rico, and the Virgin
Islands on the Atlantic coast
of North American. Reported
seen in Brunswick, Carteret,
Dare, Hyde, New Hanover,
Onslow, and Pender counties.
While they usually visit the entire
North Carolina coastline, they have
been observed nesting only in Onslow,
Brunswick, and Hyde counties.
Threats: Overutilization as a food source by humans,
excessive predation especially of hatchlings (some of the
predation is by non-native species, such as pigs), loss of
habitat to human encroachment, and drowning after entrap-ment
in fishing nets have all contributed to the decline in
populations. Artificial lighting on nesting beaches can result
in total disorientation of hatchling turtles so that they never
reach the ocean.
Management Recommendations: Protection of nesting
habitat and use of turtle excluder devices to prevent and
reduce incidental capture of sea turtles during shrimp harvest.
Sources: Martof et al. 1980, Palmer and Braswell 1995, USFWS
1992a.
— 41 —
Loggerhead sea turtle
Caretta caretta
Threatened (July 28, 1978)
Description: The loggerhead is probably the most common
sea turtle along North Carolina’s coast. The carapace and
flippers are reddish brown and the plastron is yellow. It has a
large head and blunt jaws (hence its common name). There
are three large scales (scutes) on the bridge between the
plastron and carapace. The front flippers have two claws
each. Adults grow to an average weight of 200 lb.
Life History: Loggerhead sea turtles are carnivores. They
feed on mollusks, crustaceans, fish, and other marine ani-mals.
Nesting occurs on beaches in the United States mostly
from May to August, and takes place at night. Hatching
usually takes place at night also. The hatchlings head straight
for the water once they emerge from the sand, but can be
disorientated by beach lights or be trapped in tire tracks in
the sand, making them easy prey for predators.
Habitat: Loggerheads are found in temperate and subtropi-cal
waters both far offshore and in bays, salt marshes, creeks,
and mouths of large rivers. Reefs and shipwrecks are fre-quently
used as feeding places. Hatchlings have been seen at
sea in patches of sargassum (a floating, offshore algae).
Nesting usually takes place on open beaches, or along narrow
bays with suitable soil, and usually occurs no further north
than Ocracoke Inlet. They will migrate as far as 1500 miles
between nesting sites and feeding areas.
Distribution: Entire coastline of North Carolina including
Brunswick, Carteret, Currituck, Dare, Hyde, New Hanover,
Onslow, and Pender counties.
Threats: Loss of nesting beaches to various types of human
encroachment, especially beach “armoring” against erosion
(riprap, seawalls, etc.). Other threats include artificial
lighting that disorients hatchlings, drowning from entrapment
in fishing nets and internal injury due to ingestion of marine
pollution including oil, plastics, and Styrofoam.
Management Recommendations: The National Marine
Fisheries Service is implementing regulations requiring the
use of turtle excluder devices by shrimp trawlers. Light
ordinances and protection of nesting sites from vehicular
traffic during the nesting season are effectively reducing
mortality on many beaches. Control of predation with nest-screening
is also helping in areas with unnaturally dense
populations of raccoon or feral animals.
Sources: Martof et al. 1980, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Schwartz
1977d, USFWS 1992a.
— 45 —
Cape Fear shiner
Notropis mekistocholas
Endangered (September 26, 1987)
Description: The Cape Fear shiner is a small minnow, rarely
exceeding 2.4 inches (6 cm) in length. It is a pale silvery
yellow with a black stripe along each side. The fins are
yellow and pointed, the upper lip is black, and the lower lip
has a thin black bar along its edge.
Life History: Unlike other members of the genus Notropis,
the Cape Fear shiner feeds extensively on plant material and
so has an elongated, convoluted intestine. No information is
available on its breeding behavior or longevity. Although
poorly known, spawning apparently occurs in late spring and
early summer based on breeding tubercles and ovarian
development of museum specimens.
Habitat: Water willow, (Justicia americana), beds in
flowing areas of creeks and rivers appear to be an essential
element of the species’ habitat. It is found in clean, rocky
streams over gravel, cobble, and boulder substrate; known to
inhabit pools, riffles, and slow runs. Juveniles are often found
in slack water, among mid-stream rock outcrops, and in side
channels and pools.
Distribution: Endemic to central North Carolina in the Cape
Fear drainage. This species has the most restricted distribu-tion
of any Notropis shiner. It is currently known from the
Deep River and Rocky River within several miles of their
confluence (this is the main population), in the Rocky River
above the Rocky River hydroelectric dam, as well as
Robseson Creek and Bear Creek in the Rocky River system;
in the Deep River system above the Highfalls Hydroelectric
Reservoir, and in the lower Haw River just above Jordan
Lake. It is also found a short distance up tributaries to these
rivers. It was formerly found in several tributaries to the
Cape Fear River in Harnett County. Three areas in North
Carolina have been designated critical habitat for the Cape
Fear shiner. They are in Chatham, Harnett, Lee, Moore, and
Randolph counties.
Threats: Deterioration of water quality due to toxic chemical
pollution, changes in stream flow, channel modification,
siltation, and impoundments.
Management Recommendations: Enforcement of regula-tions
to prevent erosion from road construction and land use
changes, stream channel modification, changes to stream
flow for hydroelectric power plants, impoundments, and
wastewater and chemical discharges.
Sources: Lee et al. 1980, Lowe et al. 1990, USFWS 1992a.
— 47 —
Shortnose sturgeon
Acipenser brevirostrum
Endangered (March 11, 1967)
Description: The shortnose sturgeon has five rows of bony
plates, or scutes, (1 dorsal, 2 lateral, and 2 ventral) separated
by naked skin that runs the length of the body, a tail with the
upper lobe larger and longer than the lower, and four barbels
(like droopy whiskers) along the mouth located under a long
pointed snout. This sturgeon has a blackish head and back,
yellowish-brown body, pale underside, and grows to about 39
inches (1 m) long. Young individuals have blotches of darker
color. The shortnose sturgeon resembles young Atlantic
sturgeon (A. oxyrhynchus), but can be distinguished by its
shorter snout, wider mouth (mouth width greater than 62% of
distance between eyes), and the usual lack of bony plates
between the anal fin base and the lateral row of plates.
Life History: This fish moves from the ocean and estuaries
into freshwater rivers between February and May, and
spawns from April through June. Juveniles may remain
upriver for up to 5 years after birth before migrating to the
ocean. Feeds on worms, crustaceans, insect larvae, small
clams, small fish, and stems and leaves of macrophytes. It
matures at 4-16 years of age and may live for up to 60 years.
Habitat: A bottom dweller, shortnose sturgeon prefer deep
water with soft substrate and vegetated bottoms. Found in
ocean and estuaries, at spawning requires freshwater of
inland portions of rivers with fast current and rough bottoms.
According to Jackson et al. (1992), the fish usually gather in
deep spots during the day and move to tidal flats for the
night, in the summer and early fall.
Distribution: This fish is found along the Atlantic coast from
New Brunswick to Florida. Historically, shortnose sturgeon
were widely reported from North Carolina rivers. Current
distribution is not well known. This species occurs sparingly
in the Cape Fear River drainage and Albemarle Sound, and
an unconfirmed report exists for Pamlico Sound. Most recent
reports have come from the Cape Fear River near
Wilmington. Also, it has been found in the Pee Dee River and
in the Roanoke River not far from the river’s mouth. Records
exist for Anson, Bertie, Bladen, Brunswick, Carteret, Colum-bus,
Currituck, Dare, Hyde, New Hanover, Onslow, Pamlico,
Pasquotank, Pender, and Richmond counties.
Threats: Overfishing and degradation of habitat by erosion,
siltation, toxic pollution, and dams that interfere with
upstream migration to spawning areas.
Management Recommendations: Enforcement of protec-tive
laws regarding fishing and water quality regulation.
Sources: Gilbert and Moran 1989, Jackson et al.1992, Lee et al. 1980,
Ross 1988.
— 49 —
Spotfin chub
Cyprinella monacha
Threatened (September 9, 1977)
Description: This small fish grows to a maximum size of
about 3.7 inches (9.2 cm) standard length. The body is
elongate; the mouth inferior; usually there is one pair of
minute, terminal labial barbels (like a short droopy whisker);
the scales are moderate to somewhat small in size; a distinc-tive
large black spot is present in the caudal region. Juveniles
and adult females are olive above with the sides largely
silvery and the lower parts white. Large nuptial males have
brilliant turquoise-royal blue coloring on the back, side of the
head, and along the mid-lateral part of the body; lesser blue is
found in at least some fins; all fins are tipped with satiny
white during peak development of color.
Life History: Based on observations and morphological
comparisons, it appears that the spotfin chub is a sight feeder,
selecting minute insect larvae from clean substrates. An
examination of nine specimens revealed that diptera were the
dominant food items, with the remaining food items consist-ing
of immature mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies. Its
maximum life span is suspected to be less than 4 years.
Spawning begins in May and extends into mid-August. They
lay their eggs in boulder crevices (where they are highly
vulnerable to the effects of siltation, as well as other
polluntants).
Habitat: The spotfin chub inhabits moderate to large
streams 50-230 feet (15-70 meters) wide with a good current,
clear water, and cool to warm temperatures. These streams
have pools frequently alternating with riffles. The fish
generally occupies areas with moderate to swift current with
a wide variety of substrates, although rarely, over sand or silt
substrates.
Distribution: This once widspread species was historically
known from 24 streams in the upper and middle Tennessee
River system. It is now extant in only four rivers/river
systems: the Buffalo River system in central Tennessee, the
Emory River system in eastern Tennessee, the Holston River
and its tributary, the North Fork Holston River, in northeast-ern
Tennessee, and the Little Tenness River in Swain and
Macon counties in North Carolina. Formerly found in the
French Broad River system in North Carolina. Found in
Buncombe*, Macon, Madison*, and Swain counties.
Threats: The reasons for the decline in some populations are
uncertain. However, most populations have been impacted by
a number of factors (e.g., dams, runoff from coal mining
operations and poor land use practices, municipal and
industrial wastes).
Management Recommendations: Protect extant popula-tions
by enforcing existing natural resource protection laws
and regulations. Improve habitat of extant populations and
restore habitat of historical populations. Gain a better
understanding of the species life history and habitat needs.
Reintroduce populations into restored historical habitats.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20 years.
Sources: Biggins and Fridell pers. com., Cooper et al. 1977, Jenkins,
et al. 1984, USFWS 1983, USFWS 1992a.
— 51 —
Waccamaw silverside
Menidia extensa
(Skip jack, glass minnow)
Threatened (April 8, 1987)
Description: The Waccamaw silverside is a small, almost
transparent minnow-like fish with a silver lateral stripe.
Adults are about 2.5 inches (6.5 cm) long. It is laterally
compressed with large eyes and a jaw that angles upward
sharply. There are two widely separated dorsal fins; the first
has thin spines. It may often be seen jumping out of the
water.
Life History: This species is a surface-feeder and travels in
schools. Food sources include zooplankton, particularly
cladocerans (microcrustaceans). Spawning occurs in open
water near the shoreline from March through July, peaking
when water temperatures are 68-72 F. Females produce
about 150 eggs. Maturity is attained by the following spring
when most adults die off after spawning. A few may survive
a second winter. Reproductive failure for a single year could
result in the species’ extinction.
Habitat: Forages in areas of shallow, high quality clear,
open water over clean, dark sand substrate with no vegeta-tion.
Distribution: Endemic to Lake Waccamaw, Columbus
County and occasionally the upper Waccamaw River (below
the lake) when water is high. This limited range has been
designated critical habitat by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service. Lake Waccamaw is a natural lake fed by acidic
swamp streams. However, the neutral composition of the
water may be a result of calcareous limestone, that underlies
the lake and is exposed on the north shore. The silverside
inhabits open water throughout the lake, schooling near the
surface over shallow, dark bottom areas.
Threats: Indiscriminate logging, land use changes such as
stream channelizing and bridge and road construction,
chemical pollution from pesticides and herbicides, and
wastewater discharge. These produce siltation and change
water quality, temperature, and nutrient enrichment which
threaten spawning success and increase odds for extinction
due to the short life span and restricted global distribution.
Management Recommendations: Monitoring and control
of water quality by regulating land and natural resource use
and development in the area.
Sources: Cooper et al. 1977, Lowe et al. 1990, Mignogno pers. com.,
USFWS 1992a.
— 55 —
Mollusks: Freshwater Bivalves
An Overview of Freshwater Mussels
The freshwater mussel could be described as the “canary” of
the aquatic world. As the canary in the underground mines of
historical times was the early-warning system that notified
miners of dangerous air pollution and lack of oxygen, so the
status of a mussel population is an indicator of the water
quality in the aquatic system that is its habitat. Because
mussels require clean water to survive, the reduction and
extirpation of these species in a lake or stream constitute a
warning that water quality has been lowered and may be
potentially hazardous for other species including humans.
Description: The freshwater bivalved mollusks have two
valves (shells) joined together at the dorsal surface by a hinge
ligament and by two strong internal muscles. The valves,
which remain slightly open, are secreted by a thin layer of
tissue called the mantle, which also forms incurrent and
excurrent openings (siphons) at the posterior end of the
animal. The anterior end is usually buried in the substrate.
All mussels are filter feeders. With its anterior buried in the
bottom, the naiad draws oxygen-bearing water and food
through the incurrent siphon, and passes deoxygenated
waste-carrying water out the excurrent siphon. Food (mostly
detritus, bacteria, one-celled algae, and small planktonic
organisms) is filtered from the water by the gills. Through
these filter-feeding activities, the mussels serve as a biologi-cal
filter by removing organic and inorganic particles from
the water, thus improving water quality downstream. This
filtering activity also puts these species at risk from pollut-ants
entering the streams.
The identification of freshwater mussel species relies prima-rily
on shell characteristics. The most important diagnostic
features are shape and dimensions of the shell, sculpture of
the beak and surface, and coloration of the epidermis and
nacre. Because of polymorphic shell characteristics in some
species, it is difficult, even for experts, to determine differ-ences
between species, and sometimes between individuals in
the same population. Therefore, only biologists with permits
are allowed to complete surveys for these species. Illustra-tions
are not included here, but the interested reader may
consult a state maintained Web site for more information
about these species (http://www.wildlife.state.nc.us/nongame/
mussel/).
Life History: Naiad females extrude eggs through their
oviducts and move them into the water tubes of the gills.
During this period, the water tubes become more or less
modified as gill pouches, forming a marsupium. Sperm shed
by the males are drawn into the marsupial water tubes by
ciliary action, and the fertilized eggs begin developing into
unique larval forms known as glochidia. Depending on the
genus, either all or only a portion of the gills may carry the
developing embryos. A single female may produce hundreds
of thousands of embryos. Short-term brooders spawn in
spring and release glochidia in the summer while long-term
brooders spawn in late summer, hold the glochidia through
the winter, and release them in the spring and early summer.
The bivalved glochidium lacks most of the internal organs of
the adult and is not capable of swimming or crawling. Almost
all appear to be obligate parasites of fish. Most are parasitic
on the gill filaments, skin, or fins of the fish. The infections
are usually light and produce little harm. A major function of
this parasitic relationship is to serve as a means of dispersal,
transporting the juveniles some distance from their parental
source. Specificity to particular host fishes limits the ability
of the glochidia to reach maturity if that host is not available.
Part of the plan for preserving threatened and endangered
naiads, therefore, should be the preservation of native fish
fauna and their natural migration and spawning patterns.
Of all the freshwater invertebrates, the freshwater mussels
probably have the longest natural life span. Some thin-shelled
pond species live only 4-10 years, but thicker shelled
river species may survive several decades. While sexual
maturity may require from 1-4 years, reproductive capability
continues until the end of life.
While river naiads can be found as isolated specimens, they
are most often found clustered in large groups called beds.
These units are far more important reproductively than single
individuals and are vital to perpetuating a population. Often,
a single bed may be the source for an entire stream popula-tion,
and destruction of such may result in extirpation of the
species from the area.
Habitat: Some species of mussels are found in both streams
— 56 —
and lakes, while others are restricted to one habitat. Species
specific to streams cannot survive in lakes, mostly because of
the lack of proper glochidia fish hosts and /or because of the
lack of currents that provide an adequate supply of food and
oxygen. The preferred habitat varies with the species; but
most riverine species do best in a cobble, gravel-sand
substrate with good current and high water quality. Little
movement occurs unless forced by environmental conditions.
An individual rarely moves more than a few hundred yards in
a lifetime. The range of any one species may be limited to a
single river system.
Threats: The decline of mussels in North Carolina is caused
by the degradation and destruction of instream habitat
including altered natural fish communities. Detrimental to the
aquatic environment are activities such as impoundment,
channelization, and dredging, which cause deadly amounts of
siltation as well as fragmentation of habitat. Riparian habitat
is disturbed as a result of cutting and clearing of vegetation
along stream banks, bank destabilization, and residential and
road construction. These produce erosion, siltation, and
sedimentation. Changes in water temperature, lowering of
oxygen levels, and reduction of water quality results from
wastewater discharges, toxic spills, pesticide and herbicide
runoff, and the introduction of other pollutants. The smother-ing
action of siltation seems to be the most detrimental factor.
Management Recommendations: Protection of water
quality and existing habitat, and restoration of degraded
habitat. Enforcement of protective laws so that potential
threats to specific sites can be identified and preventive
measures taken. Education of the public of the environmental
threats to the mussels and the important role they play in
aquatic ecosystems.
Sources: Terwilliger et al 1995, USFWS 1990.
— 57 —
Appalachian elktoe
Alasmidonta raveneliana
Endangered (November 23, 1994)
Description: The Appalachian elktoe has a thin, kidney-shaped
shell, reaching up to about 4 inches in length. Juve-niles
generally have a yellowish-brown outer shell, while the
shell of the adults is usually dark brown to greenish-black in
color. Rays are prominent on some shells, particularly in the
posterior portion of the shell, but some individuals have only
obscure greenish rays. The inside shell surface is shiny, white
to bluish-white but changing to a salmon, pinkish, or brown-ish
color in the central and beak cavities of the shell.
Life History: Feeds by filtering food particles from the water
column. Specific food habits are unknown but assumed to be
same as other mussels: detritus, one-celled algae, and
plankton. The reproductive system is similar to other mussels
with glochidia parasitizing a fish host. The mottled sculpin
(Cottus bairdi) and banded sculpin (Cottus carolinae) have
been identified as hosts for the species. The mussel’s life
span and many other aspects of its life history are unknown.
Habitat: Has been reported from relatively shallow, me-dium-
sized creeks and rivers with cool, well-oxygenated,
moderate- to fast-flowing water. Observed in gravelly
substrates often mixed with cobble and boulders, in cracks in
bedrock, and sometimes in relatively silt-free, coarse, sandy
substrates.
Distribution: Endemic to the upper Tennessee River system
in western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. It once had
a fairly wide distribution but has been extirpated from hte
majority of its historic range including the French Broad
River, Swannanoa River; and Talula Creek in the Little
Tennessee River Basin. It now occurs in short stretches of the
Little Tennessee River in Swain and Macon counties,
Tuckasegee River in Jackson and Swain counties, Pigeon
River in Haywood County, Little River in Transylvania
County, Cheoah River in Graham County, Cane River in
Yancey County, and the Nolichuchy, North Toe, and Toe
Rivers in Yancey and Mitchell counties.
Threats: Water quality and habitat degradation resulting
from impoundments, stream channelization projects, and
point and nonpoint sources of siltation and other pollutants
appear to be major factors in reducing the species’ distribu-tion
and reproductive capacity. The most immediate threats to
remaining populations of the species currently appear to be
associated with sedimentation and other pollutants (fertiliz-ers,
pesticides, heavy metals, oil, salts, organic wastes) from
nonpoint sources.
Management Recommendations: Protection of existing
water and habitat quality of the reaches of the river systems
where the species is still surviving; improve degraded
portions of the species habitat; reestablish and protect
additional populations of the species within portions of its
historical range. This requires compliance with existing state
and federal regulations by the public, local governments, and
industries. Additional research is also needed on the autecol-ogy
of the species, propagation, and reintroduction tech-niques
for freshwater mussels.
Sources: USFWS 1994a, 1996a., WRC website
Species identification key is available at
www.ncwildlife.org. (Click on “Wildlife Species and
Conservation” and then “Species” for Mussel atlas.)
— 59 —
Carolina heelsplitter
Lasmigona decorata
Endangered (May 30, 1993)
Description: This bivalve may be more than 4.5 inches
(11.4 cm) long as an adult. The shell has an ovate, trapezoid
shape. The shell varies in color from greenish brown to dark
brown. Younger individuals have fine rays (stripes radiating
outward from the hinge area) on the outer shell, which are
greenish brown or black. The inner shell varies from pearly
white to bluish white, becoming orange toward the hinge
area. Older individuals may be entirely orange on the inner
surface. There is a projection between the pseudocardinal
teeth and the lateral teeth in the left valve, but it may be small
and fused to the pseudocardinal tooth. The entire outer
sections of the gill are used by the female to carry embryos.
The Carolina heelsplitter is similar in appearance to L.
subviridis, but has a thicker shell and adults can be over
twice as large.
Life History: Because of its rarity, little is known of the life
span and other aspects of the life history of the Carolina
heelsplitter. Like other freshwater mussels, it is a filter-feeder.
It has a complex reproductive cycle in which the
mussel larvae parasitize a host fish -- an as yet unknown
species.
Habitat: Usually found in mud, muddy sand, or muddy
gravel substrate in cool, slow-moving, small to medium-sized
streams or rivers along stable, well-shaded streambanks. The
stability of the stream banks appears to be a very important
factor in the habitat.
Distribution: In North Carolina is known only from Goose,
Duck, and Waxhaw Creeks in Union County. Portions of
these three creeks in North Carolina and six creeks and one
river have been proposed for designation as critical habitat
for the Carolina heelsplitter. Historically known from several
locations within the Catawba and Pee Dee River systems in
Anson*, Cabarrus*, Mecklenburg*, and Richmond* counties
in North Carolina, and the Catawba, Pee Dee, Savannah, and
possibly the Saluda River systems in South Carolina.
Threats: The range has been drastically reduced by im-poundments
and deterioration of habitat and water quality by
siltation and other pollution resulting from stream
channelization, dredging, sand mining, sewage effluents, and
poorly implemented agricultural, forestry, and development
practices. Loss of forested buffers and poorly controlled
stormwater runoff from clearing and development activities
within the creeks’ watersheds, together with the effects of
pollutants in wastewater discharges have significantly
reduced the range of the surviving populations in North
Carolina. Due to limited range, any further adverse impact of
habitat or water quality in the remaining stream reaches
would likely lead to extirpation of the species from North
Carolina.
Management Recommendations: Preservation of habitat in
existing reaches and restoration of high water quality and
habitat in historical range waterways.
*No record has been reported in this county in the past 20 years.
Sources: Alderman 1991, Fridell 1992, Fridell and Biggins pers. com.,
Keferl and Shelley 1988, USFWS 1993a.
Species identification key is available at
www.ncwildlife.org. (Click on “Wildlife Species and
Conservation” and then “Species” for Mussel atlas.)
— 61 —
Dwarf wedgemussel
Alasmidonta heterodon
Endangered (March 14, 1990)
Description: The dwarf wedgemussel is a small bivalve,
rarely exceeding 45 mm in length. Clean young shells are
usually greenish-brown with green rays. As the animal ages,
the shell color becomes obscured by diatoms or mineral
deposits and appears black or brown. The shell is thin but
does thicken somewhat with age, especially toward the
anterior end. The anterior end is rounded while the posterior
end is angular forming a point near the posterio-ventral
margin. The ventral margin is only slightly curved. The nacre
is bluish-white, appearing whiter in the thicker anterior end.
The most distinctive shell character of the dwarf
wedgemussel is the arrangement of the lateral teeth. There
are two lateral teeth in the right valve and one in the left
valve. The typical arrangement for most freshwater mussel
species consists of two lateral teeth in the left valve and one
in the right valve. The incurrent and excurrent apertures and
their associated papillae are usually white. The foot and other
organs are also white.
Life History: Maximum age for the dwarf wedgemussel is
around twelve years. The species is a bradytictic breeder.
Females become gravid in the early fall and glochidia are
released by mid-spring. The tessellated darter (Etheostoma
olmstedi), johnny darter (Etheostoma nigrum), and mottled
sulpin (Cottus bairdi) have been identified as hosts for the
dwarf wedgemussel. An anadromous fish may also serve as a
host species but this has not been documented for the dwarf
wedgemussel in the southern portion of its range.
Habitat: Inhabits creeks and rivers close to banks, under
overhangs, and around submerged logs. Also known to live
on firm substrate of sand, gravel, and muddy sand with a
slow to moderate current. Requires clean water that is well-oxygenated
and nearly silt free.
Distribution: Atlantic slope rivers and creeks from New
Brunswick, Canada to the Neuse River system, North
Carolina. North Carolina supports the greatest number of
known sites: Neuse River Basin: Orange County, Wake
County, Johnston County, Wilson County, and Nash County;
Tar River Basin: Person County, Granville County, Vance
County, Franklin County, Warren County, Halifax County,
and Nash County. Unfortunately, most of these populations
are very small and isolated.
Threats: Construction of impoundments and pollution from
industrial, agricultural, and domestic sources has degraded
the habitat and water quality.
Management Recommendations: Preservation and restora-tion
of high water quality and habitat. Vegetative buffer
strips, conservation easements, and development of mussel
sanctuaries are suggested recovery methods. Research of
ecology and life history as well as identification of species of
fish host(s) is needed.
Sources: Hall pers. com.; Mignogno pers. com; USFWS 1990, 1994b.,
WRC website
Species identification key is available at
www.ncwildlife.org. (Click on “Wildlife Species and
Conservation” and then “Species” for Mussel atlas.)
— 63 —
Littlewing pearlymussel
Pegias fabula
Endangered (November 14, 1988)
Description: The littlewing pearlymussel is small, rarely
exceeding 1.5 inches (38 mm) in length. The shell’s outer
surface (periostracum) is usually eroded, giving the shell a
chalky appearance. When the periostracum is present, the
shell is light green or dark yellowish with dark rays. The
shells exhibit sexual dimorphism; females have an inflated
posterior ridge and a more truncated posterior end.
Life History: Much of the species’ life history is unknown.
However, it is thought to be a winter breeder and reproduce
like other freshwater mussels. Males release sperm into the
water, which are taken in by females through their siphons
during feeding and respiration. The fertilized eggs are
retained in the gills until the larvae (glochidia) are fully
developed. The glochidia are released into the water and
must then attach and encyst on a fish host’s gill or fin. Here
they transform into juvenile mussels and then drop off onto
the stream bed. Greenside darters (Etheostoma blennioides)
and emerald darters (E. baileyi) have been identified as host
fish. The mussels specific food habits are unknown. How-ever,
adults are filter feeders and likely ingest food items
similar to those consumed by other freshwater mussels (i.e.,
organic detritus, diatoms, phytoplankton, zooplankton,
bacteria).
Habitat: It inhabits cool, clear, and relatively high gradient
streams (of small to medium size) where it is sometimes
found lying on a rocky stream bed in shallow water. How-ever,
it is more often hidden under large rocks.
Distribution: This once wide ranging species once inhabited
numerous smaller tributaries of the upper Cumberland and
Tennessee River basins in Alabama, North Carolina (Little
Tennessee River, Swain County and Valley River, Cherokee
County), Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia. Currently, three
populations may still survive in the Cumberland River
system and three in the Tennessee River system, including a
very small population in the Little Tennessee River, North
Carolina.
Threats: The reasons for the decline in some populations
are uncertain. However, most populations have been im-pacted
by a number of factors (e.g., dams, runoff from coal
mining operations and poor land use practices, municipal and
industrial wastes, dredging).
Management Recommendations: Protect extant popula-tions
by enforcing existing natural resource protection laws
and regulations. Improve habitat of extant populations and
restore habitat of historical populations.
Sources: Bogan et al. 1983.
Species identification key is available at
www.ncwildlife.org. (Click on “Wildlife Species and
Conservation” and then “Species” for Mussel atlas.)
— 65 —
Tar spinymussel
Elliptio steinstansana
(Tar River spinymussel)
Endangered (June 27, 1985)
Description: The Tar spinymussel is one of only four
freshwater mussels with spines in the world. The brownish
shell is rhomboid-shaped, up to 2.4 inches (6 cm) long, with
0-6 spines on each valve. The shell is rather smooth and
shiny, with concentric rings, and ends in a blunt point.
Younger individuals are orange-brown with greenish rays
streaking outward from the hinge area. Adults are darker with
less distinct rays. One to three small thin ridges run on the
interior surface of the shell from the beak cavity to the lower
ventral area of the shell. The anterior half of the shell’s inner
surface is salmon-colored, the posterior half is iridescent
blue. Juveniles may have up to 12 spines, however, adults
tend to loose their spines as they mature.
Life History: Little is known about the life history except
that like most freshwater mussels, they are filter feeders and
require a fish host to complete their reproductive cycle.
Habitat: Stable, coarse sand or gravel substrates where the
gravel is uncompacted and silt free and in areas of relatively
fast-flowing, well-oxygenated water. They are often found in
association with other mussels but are usually in the minority.
Distribution: Known only from the Tar River system (Tar
River, Shocco Creek, Fishing Creek, Little Fishing Creek,
and Swift Creek) in Edgecombe, Franklin, Halifax, Nash,
Pitt*, and Warren counties, and one site in the Neuse River
system in Johnston County. The species has been reduced
from “relatively easily found” in the main stem of the Tar
River in Edgecombe County to “only two good populations .
. . in the two Tar River tribs . . . found with great difficulty in
two other trib and in the main stem of the Tar River. . . .”
(USFWS 1994f).
Threats: Degradation of habitat and water quality by
impoundment and pollution. Part of the Tar River has been
dammed. Clearing of land for agriculture and other uses in
the Tar River basin has caused erosion and siltation into the
river. The sand and silt smother the mussels and affect the
stability of the river bottom. Pollution from 21 wastewater
plants and discharges from agricultural, industrial, and other
domestic sources have drastically altered the river reaches
and tribs. Mussels that evolved in clean, flowing water are
unable to survive and reproduce in this degraded habitat.
Management Recommendations: Buffering riparian areas
along waterways with natural vegetation strips to help filter
silty runoff from disturbed lands. Prevention of livestock and
waste from entering rivers and tribs. Improved erosion
prevention and more stringent enforcement of pollution laws
for industrial and municipal wastewater facilities.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20 years.
Sources: Biggins and Fridell pers. com.; Lowe et al.1990; Murdock
pers. com.; USFWS 1992c, 1994f.
Species identification key is available at
www.ncwildlife.org. (Click on “Wildlife Species and
Conservation” and then “Species” for Mussel atlas.)
— 67 —
Mollusks: Terrestrial Gastropods
Noonday globe (snail)
Patera clarki nantahala
(Noonday helix)
Threatened (July 3, 1978)
Description: The shell of the noonday globe snail is
rounded with five and one-half spirals. The spire (center) of
shell is rounded and low, or may be depressed. The shell is
0.72 inch (18 mm) wide and 0.44 inch (11 mm) high, and is
glossy brownish-yellow, or red. Coarse bands texture the
shell. It is most active during wet weather, and is thought to
feed on fungi.
Life History: The feeding habits and development cycle of
this species are unknown. However, other related species in
the genus Mesodon feed on the subsurface hair-like structures
(mycelia) of fungi.
Habitat: Damp oak-hickory forests with thick undergrowth
and rich, moist soils. Found on damp rock faces and in damp
leaf litter. Prefers steep, rocky areas with northern exposure
or wet ravines. Cliffs in this habitat contain calcium,
which may be essential to shell formation and mainte-nance.
Dominant tree species in habitat include oak,
hickory, American beech, American elm, basswood,
birch, and tulip poplar.
Distribution: Nantahala Gorge in Swain
County. Occurs only on the east side of the
gorge.
Threats: Both natural and human
threats to habitat include forest
fires, logging, destruction of
cliff faces by climbing, road
widening, and mine explora-tion,
herbicide/pesticide
spraying.
Management Recommendations: Protection of habitat from
human destruction. Monitor natural stressors as well as
human ones. Monitoring and learning the life processes of
the species to document autecology.
Sources: Lowe et al. 1990; Murdock pers. com.; USFWS 1992a,
1994c.
— 69 —
Arachnids
Spruce-fir moss spider
Microhexura montivaga
Endangered (February 6, 1995)
Description: Coloration of M. montivaga ranges from light
brown to darker reddish brown with no markings on the
abdomen. The carapace is generally yellowish brown with
chelicerae that project forward well beyond the anterior edge
of the carapace. It has a pair of very long posterior spin-nerets,
and a second pair of book lungs that appear as light
patches posterior to the genital furrow. Adults measure only
0.10-0.15 inch (2.5 - 3.8 mm) in length.
Life History: The spider constructs its tube-shaped webs in
the interface between the moss mat and rock surface, occa-sionally
extending the web into the interior of the moss mat.
Although there are no records of prey being found in the
webs, the species has been observed taking prey in the wild.
The abundant springtails in the moss mats provide the most
likely source of food for the spider. Males of the species
mature during September and October, and females lay eggs
in June. The thin-walled, transparent egg sac may contain
seven to nine eggs. The female remains with the egg sac and
will carry it with her fangs if disturbed. Spiderlings emerge
in September. It is estimated that it may take three years for
the species to reach maturity.
Habitat: The spruce-fir moss spider is found in damp but
well-drained moss and liverwort mats growing on rocks or
boulders and in well-shaded areas of mature, high-elevation
Fraser fir and fir dominated spruce-fir forests. The moss mats
cannot be too dry, as the species is very sensitive to desicca-tion,
or too wet because large drops of water pose a threat to
the spider.
Distribution: The spider is known to only exist in six
locations: Mount Collins and Clingmans Dome in Swain
County, NC; Grandfather Mountain in Avery, Watauga, and
Caldwell counties, NC; Roan Mountain in Avery and
Mitchell counties, NC and Carter County, TN; and, Mount
LeConte and Mount Buckley in Sevier County, TN. It is
believed to be extirpated from Mount Mitchell in Yancy
County*, NC.
Threats: The high-elevation spruce-fir forests through much
of the species’ historic range are being decimated by the
exotic insect, balsam wooly adelgid (Adelges piceae), and
possibly by air pollution (acid rain). The death and thinning
of the forest canopy results in locally drastic changes in
microclimate, including increased temperatures and de-creased
moisture which lead to desiccation of the moss mats
on which the spruce-fir moss spider and its prey depend for
survival. Other threats include unauthorized collecting or
handling, unauthorized pesticide applications within the
occupied habitat, intentional or unauthorized destruction of
the habitat (burning, forest clearing, trampling, or other
disturbance of the moss mats).
Management Recommendations: Protection from unautho-rized
and authorized disturbance of habitat and collection.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20 years.
Sources: USFWS 1995e, 1997c., 2000.
— 73 —
American chaffseed
Schwalbea americana
Endangered (September 29, 1992)
Description: American chaffseed is an erect, densely hairy,
unbranched perennial, 1-2 ft (30-60 cm) tall. Leaves are
alternate, 0.8-1.6 inches (2-4 cm) tall, 0.2-0.4 inch (6-10 mm)
wide and attach directly to the stalk without a leaf stem. Each
leaf has three noticeable veins. Flowers are grouped in a long
terminal cluster. The sepals are fused to form a calyx in the
shape of two unequal lips, 0.5-0.7 inch (14-18 mm) long,
beneath the petals. The corolla are two-lipped and narrow,
twice as long as the calyx. The upper lip is triangular, while
the lower lip consists of three short, broad lobes, of which the
middle one is notched. Coloration is yellowish or
purplish. The numerous seeds are enclosed in a
loose-fitting, sac-like structure that provides
the basis for the common name,
chaffseed.
Life History: The American
chaffseed, with its hemiparasitic
behavior, is considered to be one of the
rarest root-parasite species of flowering
plants in the southeastern U.S. Although it is
not host-specific, a host is required and may be a
wide variety of woody and herbaceous plants.
Showy, insect-pollinated flowers occur May-June,
with fruits maturing in August. Fruit is a brown,
dry dehiscent capsule, narrowly oval-shaped,
about 0.4 inches (1 cm) long. Seeds are numer-ous,
flat, and winged. Fire appears to be a
requirement for long-term viability strongly
affecting the reproductive success by controlling
conditions necessary for successful seed germi-nation
and possibly required for young plants to
make their haustorial connection. The few brief
months immediately following a fire are enough
time for the minute seeds to germinate in the
mineral soil under full sun without litter and
competing vegetation. The coarse, thickened
chaffseed capsule insulates the seeds from the
higher temperature of the fire and the heat
exposure may increase germination rates.
Habitat: Prefers sandy, acidic, seasonally moist soils in
sunny or partly sunny areas subject to frequent fires in the
growing season.
Distribution: Occurs on moist to dryish pine flatlands, pine
savannas, and on longleaf pine/oak sandhills at the western
edge of the coastal plain in Bladen*, Cumberland, Hoke,
Moore, Pender*, and Scotland counties.
Threats: Rarity of populations and low numbers within the
population make this species especially vulnerable to
competition from other species and loss of habitat to
urban development, road building, wetland
drainage, and pine forest management. Fire
suppression allows succession to proceed so that
competition for light excludes this species.
Management Recommendations: Need for
additional research and monitoring of plant
populations. Protection of habitat and prescribed
burning to promote maintenance of extant
populations.
* No record has been reported in this county in the
past 20 years.
Sources: Jackson et al.1992, Radford et al. 1964,
USFWS 1992a.
— 75 —
Blue Ridge goldenrod
Solidago spithamaea
Threatened, (March 28, 1985)
Description: The Blue Ridge goldenrod is a hairy perennial
with stems erect and angled, 4-16 inches (10-41 cm) tall, and
strongly ribbed at the base. The deep yellow-green leaves are
distributed alternately along the stem. They are elliptically
shaped, smooth-surfaced with toothed edges, 1.2-2.4 inches
(3-6 cm) long and 0.3-0.8 inch (0.8-2 cm) wide, with pointed
tips. The flower head forms a compact, flat-topped cluster of
20-30 yellow flowers. Petals on the outer (ray) flowers are
0.8-1.6 inches (2-4 cm) long.
Life History: Blue Ridge goldenrod is an
early pioneer species. Plants spread vegeta-tively
from short, stout rhizomes and occa-sionally
reproduce by seed. Flowering occurs
July-September. Fruit are small nutlets,
0.11-0.16 inch (2.8-4 mm) long, with hairs
above the middle of the nutlet only and
are present from July to October.
Habitat: Cliffs, ledges, balds, and rock
outcrops of higher mountain peaks,
above 4600 ft (1400 m) elevation that
are exposed to full sun. Soils are
generally acidic and shallow humus
or clay loams, intermittently satu-rated.
Distribution: Endemic to mountains
of North Carolina and Tennessee.
Found in Avery and Mitchell counties.
Threats: Rarity of populations, small
numbers, and being confined to isolated
areas on a few rocky summits makes this
species extremely vulnerable to trampling
by hikers, climbers, and sightseers.
Weather-related hazards include climatic
extremes such as severe drought, ice and
wind damage, and erosion of the steep
habitat, which could decrease available
suitable habitat adjacent to sources of seed and
rhizomes. Erosion is often exacerbated by
recreational over-use.
Management Recommendations: Preservation of existing
plants and essential habitat. Search for additional popula-tions.
Enforce laws protecting the species and its habitat.
Route hikers and other visitors away from sites.
Note: Several other endangered plant species are ecological associates
of the Blue Ridge goldenrod, including Heller’s blazing star, Roan
Mountain bluet, and spreading avens.
Sources: Hardin 1977; Lowe et al. 1990; Radford et al. 1964; USFWS
1987, 1992a.
— 77 —
Bunched arrowhead
Sagittaria fasciculata
(Clustered arrowhead, duck potato)
Endangered (July 25, 1979)
Description: Bunched arrowhead is a small emergent aquatic
perennial 6-13 inches (36-40 cm) tall. Leaves are up to 12
inches (30 cm) long and taper downward into a long stalk,
which attaches to the base of the plant. Long, parallel veins
run almost the entire length of the leaf. Flowers grow in
whorls of 2-3 at intervals on a long stalk. Each flower grows
upward on its own stem from the main stalk, and has three
petals and three sepals. The petals are white, 0.2-0.7 inch (6-
18 mm) long. Seeds have broad wings and a wrinkled
surface. Small, flat, linear leaves (phyllodia) can be
seen under the water after emersed leaves die off.
Life History: Flowers from May to June and
fruits from June to August. Bunched arrowhead
is monoecious; upper flowers of the flowering
stem are male and lower flowers are female.
The stems of the lowest whorl of flowers
ascend in fruit. The fruiting head is 0.2-0.6
inch (5-15 mm) broad, and is made up of
numerous small, dry, single-seeded fruits.
Each fruit is 0.10-0.14 inch (2.5-3.5 mm)
long.
Habitat: Rooted in shallow water of
bogs and wooded swamps with a slight
but steady flow of cool, clean water.
Often found in soils that are character-istically
sandy loam covered with 10-
24 inches (25-60 cm) of muck, sand,
and silt. Plants will grow in full sun or
partial shade beneath red maple, black
gum, and alder at the base of steep slopes,
but larger, more vigorous plants grow in
shady areas.
Distribution: In North Carolina, endemic
to limited areas of Henderson County
in the southern mountains and into the upper piedmont of
South Carolina. Also found historically in Buncombe County
but not in the last 20 years.
Threats: Habitat degradation by drainage and clearing of
land for development, highway, railway and powerline
rights-of-way maintenance, water withdrawl and encroach-ment
of woody plants.
Management Recommendations: Identification of new
populations and maintenance and protection of existing
habitat. Research to learn more about the autecology,
cultivation, and propagation techniques for restoration,
including hydrology of extirpated populations. Some
reintroduction efforts have been tried but their success
is not yet known.
Sources: Hardin 1977, Murdock pers. com., Radford et al.
1964, USFWS 1992a.
— 79 —
Canby’s dropwort
Oxypolis canbyi
(Cowbane)
Endangered (February 25, 1986)
Description: Canby’s dropwort is a herbaceous perennial
with tuberous roots and pale, fleshy rhizomes. When crushed
the plant gives off a dill-like fragrance. The stems are erect
and stand up to 39 inches (1.2 m) tall and may be purplish at
the base. The leaves are like quills. By flowering time, the
lower leaves are absent. The flowers are small and white,
with five petals, and grow in flat-topped clusters (umbels).
The sepals are pale green, sometimes tinged with red.
Habitat: Moist areas in the coastal plain and
sandhills such as Carolina bays, wet meadows, wet
pineland savannas, ditches, sloughs, and edges of
cypress/pine ponds. Best occurrences are in
open bays and ponds with minimal cover that
are wet for most of the year. It typically
occurs on soils that are deep, acidic, with
medium to high organic content and a high
water table.
Life History: Flowering occurs May-early
August. The fruit is flattened and broadly
oblong, almost saucer-shaped, 0.2 to 0.3 inch
(4-7 mm) long, with prominent lateral wings.
Hogfennel (O. filiformis) is similar, but does not
have large wings on the fruit.
Distribution: Known from one site in Scotland
County in North Carolina. Present range is Mary-land,
North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia;
historic in Delaware.
Threats: The most critical threat is the direct loss or
alteration of the species’ wetland habitat. Ditching,
drainage, and subsequent bulldozing of lowland
areas for agriculture and pine plantations alters the
ground-water table. This enables succession to
proceed leading to increased competition from other
herbaceous species.
Management Recommendations: The population in
Scotland County is owned in part by The Nature Conser-vancy.
Monitoring is needed to determine whether the
population is stable or changing, whether reproduction is
vegetative or sexual through seeds, and if fire regimes are an
essential part of the reproductive cycle.
Sources: Jackson et al. 1992, Radford et al. 1964, USFWS 1992a.
— 81 —
Cooley’s meadowrue
Thalictrum cooleyi
Endangered (March 9, 1989)
Description: A totally smooth perennial herb of the butter-cup
family, growing up to 39 inches (1 m) tall. It may grow
as high as 6.5 ft (2 m) in recently burned areas. In full sun,
the slender stems are erect, while under shady conditions
they are lax, leaning or trailing along the ground. Leaves are
divided into small leaflets, usually in groups of three, and
may be doubly compound in lower leaves. The leaflets are
green above and pale beneath, and while the shape varies, are
usually oblong or lance-shaped, 0.1-2.4 inches (3-60 mm)
long, 0.1-0.5 inch (2-12 mm) wide, with edges rolled under
somewhat. Flowers are few and small and have no petals;
sepals on male flowers are yellowish-white with lavender
filaments, while sepals on female flowers are green.
Life History: Flowering occurs in
June. Fruiting occurs August-
September; seeds remain on the
plants until October. The fruits
are small, hard, and dry, with one
seed each, 0.18-0.24 inch (4.5-6
mm) long and 0.06-0.08 inch
(1.5-2 mm) broad. Few seedlings
are found in the wild. Lab studies
indicate poor seed germination
and a short seed life.
Habitat: Moist to wet bogs and
savannas kept open by frequent
fire or other disturbance, fire
plow lines, roadside ditches,
forest clearings dominated by
grass or sedge, and powerline
rights-of-way. Often grows in
association with tulip poplar
(Liriodendron tulipifera) cypress
and/or Atlantic white cedar
(Chamaecyparis thyoides).
Distribution: Endemic to the
Southeastern coastal plain with
11 locations in North Carolina
and 1 in Florida. Populations extant in Brunswick, Colum-bus,
Onslow, and Pender counties. May occur in New
Hanover County although record is over 20 years old.
Threats: Endangered by fire suppression, mining, drainage
activities associated with silviculture and agriculture, and
residential and industrial development. While it can with-stand
some timber harvesting operations if properly done,
this species cannot withstand bulldozing, drainage of habitat
as it is converted to pine plantation, highway construction
and maintenance, or direct herbicide application. Fire
suppression has already resulted in extirpation of 25% of the
known populations since discovery.
Disturbance that opens up the landscape
to full sun is conducive to species
success if mowing is done in the early
part of the growing season.
Management Recommendations:
Habitat protection, prescribed fire, reintro-duction
into historic habitat, and study and
collection of genetic materials. Search for
additional populations and potential habitat.
Sources: Boyer 1994, Jackson et al. 1992, Jordan 1995,
Radford et al. 1964, USFWS 1992a.
— 83 —
Dwarf-flowered heartleaf
Hexastylis naniflora
(Dwarf-flowered wild ginger)
Threatened (March 9, 1989)
Description: Dwarf-flowered heartleaf is a low-growing,
spicy-smelling, evergreen perennial herb that spreads via
rhizomes. Leaves are heart-shaped, alternate, leathery,
untoothed, and 1.6-2.4 inches (4-6 cm) long and wide. Each
leaf is supported by a long, thin petiole (stem) that rises
directly from the subsurface rhizome. The solitary flowers
are fleshy, firm, grow at the end of short stalks, and often are
under forest litter and leaves near the base of the leaf peti-oles.
The flowers are jug-shaped, .23-5 inches (6-13 mm)
long and .15-.27 inches (4-7 mm) in diameter, and have a
tubular caylx, ranging in color from brown to greenish or
purple.
Life History: Flowering occurs from mid March to early
June; fruiting begins in late May. Seeds may be distributed
via ants. Flowers are pollinated by
flies and thrips. Adults are rhi-zomatous
and seedling growth
has been observed in clumps of
mature plants.
Habitat: Along bluffs and
north-facing slopes, boggy areas
along streams, and adjacent
hillsides and ravines with acid,
sandy loam soils in deciduous
forests. Usually associated with
Kalmia latifolia or Asimina
triloba. Typically found on
these soil types: Pacolet or
Madison gravelly sandy loam,
or Musella fine sandy loam.
Distribution: Endemic to a nine-county
area in the western upper
piedmont of North Carolina and
South Carolina. In North Carolina,
found in Burke, Caldwell, Catawba,
Cleveland, Lincoln, Polk, and
Rutherford counties.
Threats: Habitat and population destruction from residential
and road construction, urbanization, and associated erosion.
Management Recommendations: Protection of habitat of
existing populations. Increase public awareness through
education.
Sources: Radford et al. 1964, USFWS 1992a.
— 85 —
Green pitcher plant
Sarracenia oreophila
Endangered (September 21, 1979)
Description: The green pitcher plant is an insectivorous,
rhizomatous perennial, 8-30 inches (20-75 cm) tall, with
green to yellow-green tubular, pitcher-like leaves. Leaves
widen near the top, with a flaring mouth, and are topped with
a hood. The hood is large, tilts upward slightly, and has a
keel, or ridge, down the back. When the leaves are exposed
to sunlight, they may develop reddish veins and a purple
blotch at the mouth of the pitcher. A solitary, nodding, yellow
flower blooms at the top of a 18-28 inches (45-70 cm) long
stem. The pitchers contain liquid and enzymes. Insects that
fall into the pitchers are digested and nutrients from their
bodies are absorbed into the plant’s tissue.
Life History: Pitchers and flower buds appear in early
April. Flowering occurs mid-April to early June. Pitchers die
off around mid-summer, and are replaced by small, flat,
sharply curved leaves (phyllodia), which persist until the
following spring. The numerous phyllodia are an important
feature in distinguishing this species from other pitcher
plants. There is considerable interaction with insects that
function as pollinators (queen bumblebees) and feed on
particulate matter in the pitcher fluid as well as plant tissue,
and serve as prey providing a mineral supplement for the
plant in the nutrient poor habitats. Reproduces both sexually
(by seed) and asexually (by rhizomes) but the latter appears
to be dominant.
Habitat: Favors highly acidic soils that are wet at least part
of the growing season. Habitat varies, ranging from seepage
bogs to streambanks in North Carolina and Alabama. Occurs
in poorly drained oak and oak-pine flatwoods in Georgia.
May require periodic fire to impede the growth of competing
woody plants. Thrives on nutrient-poor soils.
Distribution: Restricted to areas of the Cumberland Plateau,
the Ridge and Valley province in northeast Alabama, and the
Blue Ridge of Georgia and North Carolina. It previously
occurred in the coastal plain and piedmont of Alabama and
Georgia and the Cumberland Plateau of east Tennessee.
Threats: Shrub and tree encroachment due to fire suppres-sion,
degradation of habitat by residential and road construc-tion,
drainage from agricultural and silviculture practices,
commercial/amateur collection of live plants. Flooding and
streambank changes due to human disturbance have also
caused plant loss.
Management Recommendations: Restore natural hydrol-ogy
to degraded habitat. Provide protection to existing
populations and habitat. Burn where necessary.
Sources: Lowe et al. 1990, Radford et al.1964, Schnell 1976, USFWS
1992a.
— 87 —
Harperella
Ptilimnium nodosum (Harperella nodosa)
(Bishop’s weed)
Endangered (September 28, 1988)
Description: Harperella is an annual plant ranging from 6-36
inches (0.15-1 m) in height, with weak stems. Leaves are
hollow, quill-like structures. The plant is aromatic and smells
like dill. Flat clusters of

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Guide to
Federally Listed
Endangered and
Threatened Species of
North Carolina
— i —
Guide to Federally Listed Endangered
and Threatened Species of North Carolina
North Carolina Natural Heritage Program
Division of Parks and Recreation
1615 MSC
North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources
Raleigh, NC 27699-1615
www.ncsparks.net/nhp
Funded by a grant from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
2001
S T A T E P A R K S
Wonderful
Naturally
— ii —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface ....................................................................... iii
Introduction
Definition of Legal Status ............................................ 1
Information Sources for Current Legal Status .................. 1
Guide to Species Accounts ........................................... 2
Map of North Carolina ................................................... 3
SECTION 1: ANIMALS
Mammals
Carolina northern flying squirrel, Glaucomys sabrinus
coloratus ................................................................ 7
Eastern cougar, Felis concolor couguar ............................ 9
Indiana bat, Myotis sodalis ..........................................11
Red wolf, Canis rufus .................................................13
Virginia big-eared bat, Corynorhinus (=Plecotus)
townsendii virginianus ............................................ 15
West Indian manatee, Trichechus manatus ....................17
Birds
Bald eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus .............................21
Piping plover, Charadrius melodus melodus ...................23
Red-cockaded woodpecker, Picoides borealis ..................25
Roseate tern, Sterna dougallii dougallii ..........................27
Wood stork, Mycteria americana ..................................29
Reptiles
American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis .................33
Bog turtle, Clemmys muhlenbergii ................................ 35
General Sea Turtle Information ....................................37
Green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas .................................39
Loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta ............................41
Fishes
Cape Fear shiner, Notropis mekistocholas ......................45
Shortnose sturgeon, Acipenser brevirostrum ..................47
Spotfin chub, Caprinella (=Hybopsis) monacha ..............49
Waccamaw silverside, Menidia extensa .........................51
Invertebrates
Mollusks-Freshwater Bivalves
An Overview of Naiad Mollusks ...................................54
Appalachia elktoe, Alasmidonta raveneliana ...................57
Carolina heelsplitter, Lasmigona decorata ......................59
Dwarf wedgemussel, Alasmidonta heterodon .................61
Littlewing pearlymussel, Pegias fabula ...........................63
Tar spinymussel, Elliptio steinstansana .........................65
Mollusk-Terrestrial Gastropods
Noonday globe snail, Patera clarki nantahala ..................67
Arachnids
Spruce-fir moss spider, Microhexura montivaga ..............69
SECTION 2: PLANTS
Vascular plants
American chaffseed, Schwalbea americana .....................73
Blue Ridge goldenrod, Solidago spithamaea ....................75
Bunched arrowhead, Sagittaria fasciculata ......................77
Canby’s dropwort, Oxypolis canbyi ...............................79
Cooley’s meadowrue, Thalictrum cooleyi .......................81
Dwarf-flowered heartleaf, Hexastylis naniflora ...............83
Green pitcher plant, Sarracenia oreophila ......................85
Harperella, Ptilimnium nodosum .................................87
Heller’s blazing star, Liatris helleri ................................89
Michaux’s sumac, Rhus michauxii ................................91
Mountain golden heather, Hudsonia montana ................93
Mountain sweet pitcher plant, Sarracenia rubra jonesii ....95
Pondberry, Lindera melissifolia ....................................97
Roan Mountain bluet, Houstonia montana .....................99
Rough-leaved loosestrife, Lysimachia asperulaefolia ...... 101
Schweinitz’s sunflower, Helianthus schweinitzii ........... 103
Seabeach amaranth, Amaranthus pumilus ................... 105
Sensitive joint-vetch, Aeschynomene virginica .............. 107
Small-anthered bittercress, Cardamine micranthera ....... 109
Small whorled pogonia, Isotria medeoloides ................. 111
Smooth coneflower, Echinacea laevigata ...................... 113
Spreading avens, Geum radiatum ............................... 115
Swamp pink, Helonias bullata .................................... 117
Virginia spiraea, Spiraea virginiana ............................. 119
White irisette, Sisyrinchium dichotomum .................... 121
Non-vascular plants
Rock gnome lichen, Gymnoderma lineare .................... 125
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Other Federally Listed Species ................... 127
Appendix B: Distribution of Federally Listed Species
by County .............................................................. 128
Appendix C: Federal Candidates for Listing and Species of
Concern ................................................................ 131
Appendix D: Glossary of Terms ..................................... 137
Appendix E: References ............................................... 139
Appendix F: Illustration Credits .................................... 142
— iii —
PREFACE
The term “endangered species” most often evokes a
mental picture of exotic animals like the panda or tiger.
Rarely do we consider that many species in the United
States and especially in North Carolina are in this category.
At present, North Carolina is home to 5600 different
species of plants, 935 species of vertebrate animals, and
1640 species of invertebrate animals. Of these, 758 species
of plants and 644 of animals are presently considered rare,
threatened, or endangered according to federal and state
agencies and private conservation organizations. Among
these rarities are unique and well-known organisms such
as the Venus flytrap, which grows only on the Coastal Plain
of North and South Carolina, and many lesser-known
species of plants, mammals, reptiles and amphibians,
insects, and molluscs.
Sixty-nine North Carolina species (animals and plant)
are designated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and
the National Marine Fisheries Service as federally endan-gered
or threatened. The purpose of this publication is to
provide landowners, environmental consultants, natural
resource professionals, and the general public with infor-mation
on 52 of these federally listed endangered and
threatened species (the other 17 are marine species or
extirpated species). An attempt has been made to use
nontechnical terms whenever possible, though a glossary
is provided. Both metric and English units of measure are
used. Emphasis has been given to the distribution of the
species and to habitat requirements. Recognized causes for
species decline are given as well as recommendations for
correcting these.
It is hoped that the information within this book will
promote knowledge and understanding of the ecology of
these species and their place in life’s intricate web. Per-haps
this knowledge will lead to awareness of and concern
for native flora and fauna, and will encourage the active
appreciation and effective conservation of the natural
resources of North Carolina—the land, natural habitats,
and the species themselves.
The Endangered Species Act of 1973
The Federal Endangered Species Act (ESA) was enacted in
1973 to protect species in danger of extinction and to
provide means for their recovery to safe population levels,
thus preserving our nation’s wealth of biological diversity.
The need for such a law stemmed from the fact that
“various species of fish, wildlife, and plants in the United
States have been rendered extinct as a consequence of
economic growth and development untempered by
adequate concern and conservation . . .” and that others
were “in danger of or threatened with extinction.” Con-gress
recognized that endangered species “are of aesthetic,
ecological, educational, historical, recreational, and scien-tific
value.”
The three primary mechanisms of the ESA are (1) to
determine which species should be federally listed as
endangered or threatened, (2) to give them protection, and
(3) to implement conservation measures to recover them
so that they not longer need the protection of the ESA.
Endangered species are defined as those in danger of
extinction throughout all or a significant portion of their
range, while threatened species are likely to become
endangered in the foreseeable future. Subspecies and
distinct populations of vertebrate animals can also receive
protection under the ESA.
The listing of a species as endangered or threatened is
a complex process requiring extensive review by govern-ment
agencies, scientists, and the public. Once listed,
endangered and threatened species are federally protected.
Section 9 of the ESA makes it unlawful to trade listed
species without a specially obtained permit. It is also
illegal to “take” a listed animal species, which means to
harass, harm, pursue, hunt, wound, kill, or capture, or to
attempt any such activity. Listed plants are protected from
removal, malicious damage, and destruction on federal
property. The ESA also protects listed plants from the
violation of any protective state laws on any other prop-erty,
including the violation of state or criminal trespass
law. (See section below on North Carolina’s endangered
species protection laws.)
Under Section 7 of the ESA, federal agencies are
prohibited from issuing permits, funding, or carrying out
any project if the project will jeopardize the survival of any
listed species. Any agency planning a project in an area
used by a listed species should first consult with the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, which is the regulatory agency
for the ESA. (For marine species, consultation is made with
the National Marine Fisheries Service.) A biological assess-ment
describing impacts of the proposed project is re-quired
for consultation. Any projects that will jeopardize a
listed species must be modified to avoid adverse impacts;
exceptions are rarely made.
Private landowners are allowed some relief from the
prohibitions of Section 9. Incidental take of a listed species
may be permitted if the take is incidental to, and not the
purpose of, an otherwise legal activity, and if the take will
not jeopardize the continued existence of the species. For
such a permit, a habitat conservation plan must be submit-ted
to the Fish and Wildlife Service. If the plan is ap-proved,
some limited taking is allowed, provided the
impact to the species is minimized and mitigated.
— iv —
North Carolina’s Endangered Species Laws
North Carolina has its own laws that protect endangered
and threatened species—one for animals and one for
plants. These laws apply to species that are locally or
regionally rare in the state in addition to those that are
federally listed as endangered and threatened.
The N.C. Wildlife Resources Commission administers
the N.C. Endangered Species Act (General Statutes 113-
331–113-337; enacted in 1987), which protects animals,
and maintains the state’s list of “protected animal spe-cies.”
Under this law it is illegal to take, possess, transport,
sell, barter, trade, or export any animal on the protected
list without a permit. Though this law does not prohibit
habitat modification, another state law (G.S. 113-291) does
make it illegal to intentionally destroy or substantially
damage wildlife nesting or breeding areas (for example,
cutting down den trees, shooting into nests of animals or
birds, etc). Data on these protected species are tracked by
the N.C. Natural Heritage Program.
The North Carolina Plant Protection and Conservation
Act was enacted in 1979 (G.S. Chapter 106, Article 19B;
202.12–202.22) to provide protection for the state endan-gered,
threatened, and rare plants. This law is adminstered
by the Plant Conservation Program in the N.C. Department
of Agriculture. The Program maintains the list of endan-gered,
threatened and rare plants, and data on these
species are tracked by the N.C. Natural Heritage Program.
As with the animals statutes, the plant state law prohibits
the sale, barter, trade, exchange, or export of any plant on
the state’s protected list without a permit. However,
agricultural, forestry, or development operations on private
property are not regulated by this law, even though those
actions may incidentally disturbe rare plants, “so long as
the plants are not collected for sale or commercial use”
without a permit.
Why We Should Be Concerned About the Loss of
Species
Extinction is a natural process that has been occurring
since long before the appearance of humans on the planet.
Normally, new species develop through a process known as
speciation at about the same rate that other species
become extinct. However, because of air and water pollu-tion,
forest clearing, loss of wetlands, and other human-induced
environmental changes, extinctions are now
occurring at a rate that far exceeds the speciation rate.
Since the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock in 1620, more
than 500 species, subspecies, and varieties of our nation’s
plants and animals have become extinct. By contrast,
during the 3000 years of the Pleistocene Ice Age, all of
North America lost only about 90 species.
All living things are part of a complex and intercon-nected
network. The removal of a single species can set off
a chain reaction that could affect many other species. For
example, the loss of a single plant species can result in the
disappearance of up to 30 other species of animals and
plants. Each extinction diminishes the diversity and
complexity of life on earth.
Furthermore, wild plants and animals are important to
the development of new and improved medicines, agricul-tural
crops, and other industrial products. One-quarter of
all the prescriptions written in the United States today
contain chemicals that were originally discovered in plants
and animals. Industry and agriculture are increasingly
making use of wild plants, seeking out the remaining wild
strains of many common crops, such as wheat and corn, to
produce new hybrids that are more resistant to disease,
pests, and marginal climatic conditions. If these organisms
had been destroyed before their values were known, their
secrets would have died with them. When a species is lost,
the benefits it might have provided are gone forever.
Wild lands and the plant and animal life that in-habit
unique natural places are now dependent
on us for survival. These natural places, with their
diversity of life, can be enjoyed by and benefit all
of us; with our help, they can be there for future
generations.
— U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Endangered Species
Information Series: Mountain Sweet Pitcher Plant,
August1995
What You Can Do To Help
• Visit arboretums, botanical gardens, and parks and learn
all you can about plant and animal species, especially
rare species, and the causes of their declines. Share what
you have learned with others.
• Learn about basic ecological principles. Participate in the
protection of our remaining wild lands and the restora-tion
of damaged ecosystems. Encourage and participate
in proper land use practices in your community.
• When hiking, tread lightly, and stay on designated trails
in parks, gardens, and nature preserves. Take pictures
and leave only footprints.
• Do not collect animals or plants from wild areas. Taking
them out of their habitat deprives them of natural food
sources and other life-sustaining resources.
• Don’t collect or buy plants and animals collected from
wild populations.
• Recycle as much as you can. As landfills become full,
new ones are often placed in uninhabited areas, causing
the destruction of hundreds of acres of wild habitat.
• Compost kitchen and garden waste and use as garden
supplement and mulch. Reduce use of commercial
chemical fertilizers and pesticides on gardens, lawns,
farmlands, and golf courses. Practice organic farming and
alternative pest control methods.
— v —
• Do not litter or pollute. Take part in stream and land
cleanup projects.
• Conserve natural resources such as water and energy.
• Obey wildlife laws, especially those protecting rare
species and habitat.
• Support and/or be a member of local, state, national, or
international conservation organizations.
• Use the income tax checkoff to contribute to the NC
Wildlife Nongame and Endangered Wildlife Fund.
• Purchase hunting and fishing licenses and duck stamps
yearly even if you don’t use them. Many of the revenues
go to species and habitat protection.
—Adapted from A Guide To Endangered and Threatened Species in
Virginia (Terwilliger et al., 1995) and Endangered Species Informa-tion
Series (USFWS)
Acknowledgments
Funding for this publication was provided by the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, Asheville Field Office. The volunteer
efforts of Mary Frasier and James F. Shern, environmental
consultants, resulted in a first draft of this publication.
Over a period of seven years, the North Carolina Natural
Heritage Program worked toward its completion under the
oversight and persistence of staff member Susan Reece
Giles. Laura Mansberg Cotterman was responsible for final
copyediting and production.
Important sources used to compile the species ac-counts
included the Official World Wildlife Fund Guide to
Endangered Species of North America (Lowe et al. 1990),
Endangered and Threatened Plants and Animals of North
Carolina (Cooper et al. 1977), the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service Red Book of Endangered Species of the Southeast-ern
U.S., Federal Register (individual species) sections from
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Web site of the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, and the files of the North
Carolina Natural Heritage Program. Many other publica-tions
and sources were also consulted. These and addi-tional
literature are listed in Appendix E.
Many individuals and agencies provided Illustrations.
These are credited in Appendix F.
Appreciation is due to Nora Murdock of the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service for technical assistance and review of
this document. It should be noted that the information
contained in this publication represents countless hours of
fieldwork and research by many biologists. Their commit-ment
to science and conservation is greatly appreciated.
— 1 —
INTRODUCTION
Definition of Legal Status
Federal status is designated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service. Federally listed Endangered and Threatened species
are protected under the provisions of the Endangered Species
Act of 1973, as amended through the 100th Congress. Unless
otherwise noted, definitions are taken from the Federal
Register, Vol. 56, No. 225, November 21, 1991 (50 CFR Part
17).
Endangered
A taxon “which is in danger of extinction throughout all or a
significant portion of its range”(Endangered Species Act,
Sect. 3).
Threatened
A taxon “which is likely to become an endangered species
within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant
portion of its range” (Endangered Species Act, Sect. 3).
Federal Species of Concern [also known as Species at Risk]
“The service remains concerned about these species, but
further biological research and field study are needed to
resolve the conservation status of these taxa. Many species
of concern will be found not to warrant listing, either because
they are not threatened or endangered or because they do not
qualify as species under the definition in the [Endangered
Species] Act. Others may be found to be in greater danger of
extinction than some present candidate taxa. The Service is
working with the States and other private and public interests
to assess their need for protection under the Act. Such
species are the pool from which future candidates for listing
will be drawn“ (Federal Register, February 28, 1996). The
Service suggests that such taxa be considered as “Species of
Concern” or “Species at Risk,” neither of which has official
status.
Threatened Due to to Similarity of Appearance (S/A)
“Section 4 (e) of the [Endangered Species] Act authorizes the
treatment of a species (subspecies or population segment) as
endangered or threatened even though it is not otherwise
listed as endangered or threatened if (a) the species so closely
resembles in appearance an endangered or threatened species
that enforcement personnel would have substantial difficulty
in differentiating between the listed and unlisted species; (b)
the effect of this substantial difficulty is an additional threat
to an endangered or threatened species; and (c) such treat-ment
of an unlisted species will substantially facilitate the
enforcement and further the policy of the Act” Federal
Register, November 4, 1997). The American alligator has this
designation due to similarity of appearance to other rare
crocodilians, and the southern population of the bog turtle
has this designation due to similarity of appearance to the
northern population of the bog turtle, which is federally listed
as Threatened.
Information Sources for Current Legal Status
of Species
FOR STATE ENDANGERED AND THREATENED SPECIES
Regulatory Agencies
Animals (except insects)
N.C. Wildlife Resources Commission
Department of Environment and Natural Resources
MSC 1700
Raleigh, NC 27699-1700
919-661-4872
Plants and Insects
N.C. Department of Agriculture
Plant Conservation Program
P. O. Box 27647
Raleigh, NC 27611
919-733-3610
www.agr.state.nc.us/plantind/plant/conserv/cons.htm
Non-regulatory Agency
Animals and plants
N.C. Natural Heritage Program
Department of Environment and Natural Resources
Division of Parks and Recreation
MSC 1615
Raleigh, NC 27699-1615
919-733-4181
www.ncsparks.net/nhp
FOR FEDERAL ENDANGERED AND THREATENED SPECIES
Animals and Plants
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
160 Zillicoa Street
Asheville, NC 28801
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Ecological Services
551 Pylon Drive
Raleigh, NC 27606
http://endangered.fws.gov
— 2 —
Guide to the Species Accounts
The species accounts that form the remainder of this book are
organized by taxonomic grouping: first animals—subdivided
into mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes, and invertebrates (the
latter subdivided into mollusks-bivalves, mollusks-gastro-pods,
and arachnids), and then plants—subdivided into
vascular plants and nonvascular plants. Each account uses the
following format:
Name: The common and scientific name are given. If there
is more than one common name, or if the taxonomy is
unclear, alternative names are given in parentheses.
Federal status: As of December 1, 2001. A species may
change classifications if status is determined to be more or
less at risk. Dates are given for enactment of present status. If
this is a change in status, the original date and status are also
listed.
Description: Average lengths are given. In some cases,
English measurements were calculated from metric; such
measurements were rounded off. Animal lengths are mea-sured
from head to tail. Leaf lengths do not include stem
length. The flowering periods listed for plants indicate when
flowering is most likely to take place. Flowers will not
necessarily be visible for the entire period listed. (Note:
abbreviations are used for centimeters [cm], meters [m],
kilometers [km], hectares [ha], pounds [lb], and feet [ft],)
Life History: Reported habits and preferences for food,
nesting/shelter, seasonal activities, breeding seasons, growth
patterns and maturation, social styles and other characteris-tics
are given for the general population of the species.
Habitat: Known habitat preferences are given. Species may
be found in other habitats as well.
Distribution: Range and counties in which the species is
known to occur within North Carolina only. If a species is
discovered in a new county, it should be reported to state and/
or federal authorities. Counties in which the element was last
observed more than 20 years ago (1979 or earlier) are
marked with an asterisk (*). The asterisk does not necessar-ily
mean that the species is no longer known from that
county, only that the date of the last observation available to
the Natural Heritage Program and/or USFWS from that
county is at least 20 years old. Counties listed in brackets [ ]
indicate records listed by data bases at the North Carolina
State Museum of Natural Sciences and may be older records.
Occasionally areas in neighboring states are included as well.
Fishes and aquatic invertebrates are noted for counties where
they are known to occur.
Sea turtles occur in coastal waters and nest along beaches.
This publication includes sea turtles in the counties where
they are known to nest. The USFWS has jurisdiction over sea
turtle issues on terrestrial systems; the National Marine
Fisheries Service has authority over sea turtles in coastal
waters. Manatees occur throughout North Carolina’s coastal
water; this publication includes manatees in counties where
there are known concentrations. The USFWS has consulta-tion
and recovery responsibility for manatees.
Threats: Circumstances that have put species on protected
list; potential threats to present and future success of species.
Recommendations: Protective measures that are recom-mended
to protect species and/or habitat to maintain success
of species, correct negative impacts, or prevent future
negative impacts.
Sources: See Appendix E for full citations. USFWS = U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service.
— 3 —
Pitt
Wake
Hyde
Bladen
Pender
Duplin
Bertie
Robeson
Wilkes
Moore
Nash
Sampson Union
Surry
Halifax
Onslow
Columbus
Iredell
Johnston
Swain
Jones
Burke
Ashe
Anson
Randolph
Harnett Wayne
Chatham
Guilford
Brunswick
Macon
Rowan
Hoke
Lee
Stokes
Martin
Stanly Jackson
Buncombe
Lenoir
Gates
Davidson
Warren Person
Franklin
Dare
Haywood Beaufort
Tyrrell
Granville
Forsyth Orange
Caswell
Cumberland
Caldwell
Wilson
Polk
Madison
Rutherford
Gaston
Cherokee
Catawba
Clay
Cleveland
Richmond
Yadkin
Rockingham
Davie
Alamance
Edgecombe
Vance
McDowell
Northampton
Hertford
Mecklenburg
Yancey
Cabarrus
Avery
Lincoln
Montgomery
Graham Greene
Scotland
Durham
Pamlico
Watauga
Henderson
Craven
Washington
Transylvania
Camden
Carteret
Mitchell
Alexander
Alleghany
Perquimans
Chowan
Currituck
Pasquotank
New Hanover
North Carolina Counties
— 7 —
Carolina northern flying squirrel
Glaucomys sabrinus coloratus
Endangered (July 1, 1985)
Description: This nocturnal squirrel is medium-sized, 10-
12 inches (26-30.5 cm) in total length, with a broad, flat-tened
tail, prominent large black eyes, and dense silky fur.
The patagia, a large fold of fully haired skin, runs from the
front legs to the hind legs and enables the squirrel to glide, a
characteristic of this genus. The squirrel is brownish or
grayish on the back, with a whitish underside. Juveniles
have slate gray backs. Northern flying squirrels are larger
than Southern flying squirrels (G. volans), and have hairs on
the stomach that are gray at the base, while those of the
Southern flying squirrel are whitish from tip to base.
Life History: Is omnivorous, subsisting on lichens,
hypogenous fungi as well as seeds, buds, fruit, staminate
cones, catkins, tree sap, and insects.
Habitat: Favors the ecotone between coniferous (red
spruce and Fraser fir) and mature northern hardwood forests
(beech, yellow birch, maple, hemlock, red oak, and buck-eye).
Also inhabits northern hardwood with hemlock in the
absence of spruce and fir. Prefers moist forest with widely
spaced, mature trees and moderate to thick evergreen
understory, and large numbers of dead snags. Elevations are
usually above 4500 ft (1400 m), or narrow, north-facing
valleys above 4000 ft. (1200 m). Dependence on fungi may
be a factor in restricting species to cold, moist, high eleva-tions.
In winter, squirrels inhabit tree cavities in older
hardwoods, particularly yellow birch (Betula
alleghaniensis). Leaf and twig nests (“drey” nests) are used
primarily in summer and are usually found in the limbs of
spruce trees. Colonies aggregated in island-like distribution.
Distribution: A Southern Appalachian subspecies, it is
isolated in localities in Avery, Buncombe, Graham,
Haywood, Jackson, Mitchell, Swain, Transylvania, Watauga,
and Yancey counties.
Threats: Habitat destruction from logging, clear cutting,
certain forest management practices, and recreational
development has adversely affected populations, in some
cases by allowing displacement by more aggressive G.
volans in areas where the two species’ ranges overlap.
Infection by the parasitic nematode, Strongyloides, carried
by the Southern flying squirrel, is also a threat.
Management Recommendations: Preservation of high
elevation forests and bogs, including both spruce-fir stands
and adjacent zones of northern hardwood vegetation.
Sources: Cooper et al. 1977, Murdock pers. com., Terwilliger et al.
1995, USFWS 1992a, Weigl 1987.
— 9 —
Eastern cougar
Felis concolor couguar
(Panther, mountain lion, puma)
Endangered, possibly extirpated
(June 4, 1973)
Description: This large, long-tailed cat may measure up to
7.5 ft (2.3 m) in total length and 150 lb. (67.5 kg) at adult-hood.
Fur is light yellowish to tawny brown, with dull white
underparts. The sides of the muzzle, the backs of the ears,
and the tip of the tail are dark brown to black. Paw prints are
up to 4 inches (10 cm); the claws are retractable and there-fore
are usually not seen in paw prints. Cubs are light brown
with irregular brownish to black spots and a ringed tail.
Life History: Cougars are solitary, mostly nocturnal, and
active in all seasons. They are adept at climbing but stalk
prey and leap upon it from the ground. Preferred food is deer,
but they will prey upon rabbits, rodents, turkey, squirrel,
beaver, fish, birds, and arthropods. An adult may require 25-
50 square km area for range. Females mature at 2-3 years;
males mature at 4-5 years. Females breed at 2-3 year inter-vals
and produce one to four cubs after 90 days gestation.
Cubs disperse after 2 years with mother. Cougars normally
shun human contact and attacks are extremely rare.
Habitat: Remote areas with dense vegetation and rocky
crevices, such as hilly woodlands, mountains, gorges, and
Southern swamps with large deer populations. Often uses
caves as temporary shelter. Home range depends on age, sex,
reproductive status, and food availability.
Distribution: Historically the most widespread mammal of
North America and statewide in North Carolina. May exist in
remote areas of the coastal plain and mountains. Within the
last couple of decades, undocumented sightings have been
reported from the Great Smoky Mountains National Park,
Pisgah and Nantahala National Forests, the Blue Ridge
Parkway, northern portions of Uwharrie National Forest, and
from southeastern counties. Sightings are usually fleeting, in
poor light, and lack definition. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, U.S. Forest Service, and National Park Service have
conducted tracking surveys and constructed scent stations,
but have found no hard evidence of eastern cougars to date.
Some of the animals that have been reported have been
escaped or released pets of the non-endangered western
subspecies. Records indicated in Brunswick*, Buncombe*,
Carteret*, Haywood*, Montgomery*, Onslow*, Swain*, and
Yancey* counties.
Threats: Destruction of habitat by residential, commercial,
and recreational development. Intentional eradication of
species by hunting, poisoning, and trapping may have
extirpated species from state. Severe reduction of white-tailed
deer herds would also have adversely affected this
species.
Management Recommendations: Set aside extensive wild
areas as in designated national forest where vast wilderness
provides undisturbed habitat and sufficient white-tailed deer
population.
* No record has been reported in the county in the past 20 years.
Sources: Cooper et al. 1977, Lee 1987, Linzey 1995, Murdock
— 11 —
Indiana bat
Myotis sodalis
Endangered (March 11, 1967)
Description: The Indiana bat is one of the smallest bats in
the state with a total length of 3.5 inches. It has mouselike
ears and a plain nose with dull, grayish brown fur on the back
and lighter cinnamon brown on undersides. However,
coloration can be variable and cannot be relied upon solely
for species identification. The little brown bat, M. lucifugus,
is easily confused with the Indiana bat. The following
characteristics distinguish the two species: (1) The Indiana
bat has short toe hairs, while the little brown bat’s are long.
(2) The Indiana bat’s fur is dull, while the other’s is glossy.
(3) The Indiana bat has a light-colored nose, while the other’s
is dark. (4) The Indiana bat’s hair appears tri-colored (black
at base, gray in middle, brown at tip), while the other’s is bi-colored.
(5) The calcar, a bone leading to the foot, is keeled
in the Indiana bat, but not in the little brown bat.
Life History: The Indiana bat is nocturnal, feeding on moths,
mayflies, and other insects found over tree-lined streams and
over the tops of trees in upland woods. Five hundred to five
thousand bats will congregate into compact clusters aggre-gated
at the entrance to limestone caves. They will migrate
up to 300 miles to return to winter caves in September. They
hibernate from early October until late March and April, then
migrate to summer roosts. Mating occurs in fall at the
beginning of hibernation. Sperm is stored in the uterus until
spring when fertilization takes place. Females produce a
single offspring in June. Gestation period is not known.
Habitat: From fall to spring, Indiana bats hibernate in large
clusters in limestone caves and old mines, usually where
there is a water source close by. Most males use the same
caves year-round, while females and young (maternity
colonies) roost under loose bark and in tree hollows of
shagbark hickory and oak near small-to medium-sized
streams. Old buildings and undersides of bridges are some-times
used. Summer foraging habitat is in riparian and
floodplain areas. Males also forage in hillside forests.
Distribution: This species is found primarily in the Ohio
Valley where limestone caves are numerous; is a rare migrant
and winter and summer visitor to North Carolina and is
usually seen singly or in very small numbers. Records in
Graham, Jackson*, Mitchell*, Rutherford, Swain counties in
the mountain region, where caves are present.
Threats: Disturbance of cave colonies. Human disturbance
includes intentional destruction from burning, stoning,
clubbing, and shooting of the dormant bats as well as noise
from cavers, scientific research, and cave commercialization.
These types of disturbance, if not fatal initially to the bat
population, will cause loss of body fat and resulting starva-tion
before spring migration. Additional disturbances include
flooding of caves and pesticide poisoning of insects that bats
prey upon.
Management Recommendations: Protection of habitat,
especially hibernacula from disturbance and destruction.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20 years.
Sources: Adams 1987, USFWS 1992a.
— 13 —
Red wolf
Canis rufus
Endangered (March 11, 1967)
Description: The red wolf is a slender canid between the
coyote (C. latrans) and the gray wolf (C. lupus) in size, with
large ears and long legs. Adults weigh 40-80 lb (18-36 kg).
Coloration varies from red to yellow, gray, black, or brown
and may be mottled. The fur is slightly tawnier and coarser
than that of the coyote and the gray wolf. The red wolf holds
its bushy tail high while running unlike the coyote, which
tucks its tail between its hind legs.
Life History: The wolves usually travel in family groups of 2
or 3, but lone individuals are also seen. Red wolves are
opportunistic predators, feeding on small mammals and deer,
and do not hunt in packs. It is thought that red wolves mate
for life and both parents take part in rearing the young. They
exist as small family units (packs) of an adult pair and their
young with the offspring dispersing at about 6-12 months.
Breeding occurs in February and March, and pups are born in
April and May. The average litter size is 4-5 young.
Habitat: On the North Carolina coastal plain, red wolves
prefer areas with heavy vegetation for cover, such as fallow
fields, marshes, pocosins, and swamps. They were also
known to prefer dense forests in mountains and bottomlands
before they were eliminated in the wild. They will excavate
dens in sand knolls in coastal areas but will also den in
hollow trees and culverts.
Distribution: Red wolves were completely extirpated in the
wild by the 1970s. In North Carolina, they have been reintro-duced
into the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge and
the Pocosin Lakes National Wildlife Refuge in Dare, Wash-ington,
Tyrrell, and Hyde counties by the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service. They are also found in Beaufort County.
Threats: Expanding human populations and extensive land
clearing eliminated much of the red wolf habitat. Large
numbers of this species and other large predators were
intentionally destroyed by hunting, trapping, and poisoning.
Even today there is willful killing of wolves by local farmers
and other citizens concerned about the loss of farm animals
and pets to wolf predation. This extermination causes a
breakdown in the red wolf social structure. Habitat changes
have encouraged expansion of the coyote range into
historically red wolf territory, resulting in interbreeding
with unmated wolves, thus threatening the gene pool of
the wolves. Breeding with coyotes may also introduce
parasitic infections, which weaken the fecundity of
existing wolf groups.
Management Recommendations: Education of the
public about the importance of the red wolf in the
ecosystem. Protection of existing family units. Mainte-nance
of adequate habitat in undisturbed wilderness
such as national forests and wilderness preserves.
Sources: Jackson et al. 1992, Lowe et al. 1990, USFWS 1992a.
— 15 —
Virginia big-eared bat
Corynorhinus (=Plecotus) townsendii virginianus
Endangered (November 30, 1979)
Description: Two species of big-eared bats occur in North
Carolina. The Virginia big-eared bat is a medium-sized bat
with large ears connected by a low band across the forehead
and with a globular shaped mass on the muzzle and elongated
nostrils. The other species is Rafinesque’s big-eared bat
(Corynorhinus [=Plecotus] rafinesquii), a Federal Species of
Concern. The ears of these two species distinguish them
easily from all other bats in the state. Over 1 inch (2.5 cm)
long, the ears are twice as high as those of other species.
When the bats are at rest, the ears are curled alongside the
head and reach back to half the length of their body. Al-though
it is unlikely the two species overlap in range, the
following characteristics can be used to distinguish between
them: (1) The fur of the Virginia big-eared bat is long, soft,
and a uniform color from base to tip, while that of
Rafinesque’s big-eared bat is bi-colored. (2) The toe hairs of
Rafinesque’s big-eared bat extend past the toes, while the
Virginia big-eared bat’s do not. (3) The ventral fur of the
Virginia big-eared bat is light brown, while that of
Rafinesque’s big-eared bat is whitish.
Life History: In winter, individuals of this species hibernate
rather than migrate. They roost alone or in small clusters
along ceilings and walls near the mouth of caves where there
is air movement. In the spring and summer, females form
maternity colonies in warm caves while males are usually
solitary. Mating occurs in fall and winter and a single young
is born in June. Nocturnal feeders, they wait until well after
dark to forage for moths, beetles, flies, wasps, and winged
ants.
Habitat: Non-migratory, these bats live year round in caves
or old mines, although summer and winter roosts may differ.
Caves are usually located in mountainous limestone regions
over 1500 feet elevation where the dominant trees are oak
and hickory, or beech, maple, and hemlock. Most known
roost sites have been closed off with gates to prevent distur-bance.
Distribution: Fragmented into several populations, these
bats are found in Avery, Watauga, and Yancey counties in the
mountain region.
Threats: Habitat disturbance from noise, bright lights, or
human presence has caused several winter colonies to
disappear.
Management Recommendations: Protection of caves and
other habitat from interference by cavers, sightseers, and
other human activity.
Sources: Clark 1987a; Terwilliger et al. 1995; USFWS 1992a, 1992b;
Webster et al. 1985.
— 17 —
West Indian manatee
Trichechus manatus
Endangered (June 2, 1970)
Description: The manatee is a massive, barrel-shaped
aquatic mammal with a broad head and large stiffly bristled,
fleshy lips that overhang and hide the lower jaw. Both the
eyes and external ears are minute in relation to body size.
The tough, 2-inch-thick skin is uniformly gray to gray-brown,
wrinkled, and nearly hairless. It is often scarred and
covered with barnacles, algae, and other crustaceans. The
forearms are short and paddle-like and are used for locomo-tion,
scratching, touching and embracing other manatees,
manipulating food, and cleaning their mouths. Hind limbs are
lacking and the tail is horizontally flattened and rounded.
Adults are 7-13 ft long and may weight 11,000-13,000 lb.
Sexes are distinguished by the position of the genital opening
and presence or absence of mammary glands.
Life History: Manatees are essentially solitary animals, but
will exist in loosely organized groups of 2-6. The strongest
social unit is the family, which consists of a cow and calf.
Fecundity is low with no definite breeding season known.
Sexual maturity is reached between 4 and 9 years. Females
usually breed once every 2.5-3 years, producing one calf
after 11 months of gestation. Young remain with the mother
for several years. Herbivorous, they consume almost exclu-sively
submerged aquatic vegetation but sometimes eat
shoreline vegetation. They spend 5 hours a day feeding and
may consume 4-9% of the body weight in 1 day. They may
not need fresh water but have been observed drinking fresh
water from hoses, culverts and sewage outfalls. They often
feed at night, locating food by touch and smell.
Habitat: Wholly aquatic, manatees inhabit warm shallow
seas near shore, salt water bays, and estuarine habitats. They
live in both fresh and salt water and move up sluggish rivers
and canals for variable distances. Factors that influence
habitat choice are (1) availability of food, (2) sufficient water
depth of 1.5 to 6 m, (3) access to warm water during cold
winter weather, and (4) source of fresh water required for
osmoregulation.
Distribution: The manatee is known from shallow waters of
subtropical regions of the Atlantic coast ranging from coastal
North Carolina to the Florida Keys, Gulf of Mexico and west
to the Louisiana coast. Habitat is restricted to warm waters.
They are migratory and have been recorded in North Caro-lina
waters from June to October. They may overwinter in
warm water discharges from coastal North Carolina power
plants from October to April. Reported in Beaufort,
Brunswick, Carteret, Craven, Currituck, Dare, Hyde, New
Hanover, Onslow*, Pamlico, Pender, and Pitt counties.
Threats: The greatest enemy to manatee survival is humans.
Collisions with motor boats and propellers cause the greatest
numbers of injuries and death to these slow swimmers. Other
threats to the species are predation by humans for hide, meat,
and oil; harassment by swimmers and boaters; death from
entanglement and drowning in fishing nets, lines and flood-gates;
and loss of habitat to pollution, dredging, and filling.
Management Recommendations: Enforcement of laws
against death and injury, pursuit, and harassment. Protection
and restoration of habitat.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20 years.
Sources: Clark 1987b, Cooper et al. 1977, Terwilliger et al. 1995,
Webster et al 1985.
— 21 —
Bald eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Threatened (August 11, 1995; originally listed
as Endangered on March 11, 1967; proposed
for delisting, July 6, 1999)
Description: Bald eagles are large raptors, 32-43 inches (81-
109 cm) long, with a white head, white tail, yellow bill,
yellow eyes and feet. The lower section of the leg has no
feathers. Wingspread is about 7 ft (2.1 m). The characteristic
plumage of adults is dark brown to black with young birds
completely dark brown. Juveniles have a dark bill, pale
markings on the belly, tail, and under the wings and do not
develop the white head and tail until 5-6 years old.
Life History: Bald eagles do not adapt well to changes in
their habitat and this results in relatively low reproductive
rates. They are not sexually mature until the age of 4-5 years,
when they mate for life or until the death of a mate. In North
Carolina, nest building takes place in December and January,
with egg laying (clutch of 1-3 eggs) in February and hatching
in March. Incubation lasts 35 days. Hatchlings attain adult
size in 8 weeks. They are opportunistic feeders consuming a
variety of living prey and carrion. Up to 80% of their diet is
fish, self caught, scavenged, or robbed from osprey. They
may also take various small mammals and birds,
especially those weakened by injury or disease.
Habitat: Bald eagles in the Southeast
frequently build their nests in the
transition zone between forest and
marsh or open water. Nests are
cone-shaped, 6-8 ft (1.8-2.4 m)
from top to bottom, and 6 ft (1.8
m) or more in diameter. They
are typically constructed of
sticks lined with a combina-tion
of leaves, grasses, and
Spanish moss. Nests
are built in dominant
live pines or cypress
trees that provide a
good view and
clear flight path,
usually less than
0.5 mile (0.8 km)
from open water.
Winter roosts are
usually in
dominant trees, similar to nesting trees, but may be some-what
farther from water.
Distribution: Eagles range across North America but are
most common in Alaska. In 1985 there was just a single
active nest in NC, but by 2001, there were 34 nesting pairs in
the state. Although most nests are in the lower coastal plain
near estuaries, several are present at Piedmont foothills and
lakes. Non-nesting eagles are most abundant in the northern
coastal plain and along the Pee Dee-Yadkin River system,
where they occur year-round. Winter and summer roosts have
also been established at several Piedmont reservoirs. Eagles
may be nesting at Mattamuskeet National Wildlife Refuge,
where a hacking program released 33 eagles by 1990 (Lee
and Parnell 1990). They are reported in Anson, Beaufort,
Bertie, Brunswick, Burke, Chatham, Chowan, Craven,
Currituck, Dare*, Davidson, Durham, Gaston, Granville,
Guilford, Harnett, Haywood, Hyde, Johnston, Lenoir,
Martin, McDowell, Mecklenburg, Montgomery,
Northampton, Onslow, Pamlico, Pasquotank, Pitt,
Richmond, Rowan, Stanly, Tyrrell, Vance, Wake, and
Washington, Wilson counties.
Threats: Disturbance and destruction of roosting,
foraging and nesting habitat by urban and residential
development. Avian vacuolar myelinopathy (AVM), first
detected in 1994, which impairs flight and results in death.
Partial recovery of species is due to prohibition of pesticides
that caused death and low viability of eggs in reproduction.
Management Recommendations: Protection of vegetative
buffers on shorelines of lakes, rivers, and reservoirs where
development is encroaching; restoration of habitat;
and protection of good water quality. Enforcement of
protection of species from hunting and harassment.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20
years.
Sources: Henson 1990, Potter et al. 1980, USFWS 1992a.,
USGS 2001.
— 23 —
Piping plover (Atlantic)
Charadrius melodus melodus
Threatened (December 11, 1985)
Description: The piping plover is a short stocky bird a little
larger than a sparrow, 6-7 inches (15-17 cm) in total length.
Coloration is pale gray-brown on the back and top of the
head, with white underparts and a complete or partial band of
black around the neck. A black band also crosses the fore-head,
but becomes obscure in winter. The legs are yellow-orange;
the bill is yellowish in spring and dark in autumn.
Call is a whistled “peep-lo.”
Life History: Like most plovers, the piping plover runs in
short starts and stops. It eats worms, fly larvae, beetles,
crustaceans, mollusks, and other invertebrates plucked from
the sand. Plovers arrive on breeding grounds in March-April.
After courtship rituals and establishment of nesting territo-ries,
nests are made in small depressions in the sand and lined
with bits of shells or pebbles. Four buff-colored eggs pep-pered
with dark marks are laid. Eggs hatch after 27-31 days
incubation. If the first clutch is lost early, a second set of eggs
is laid. By September both adults and young depart for
wintering areas.
Habitat: In North Carolina, barrier island beaches are used
as nesting sites. Preferred sites are sparsely vegetated areas
on high ground near inlets or wash-over fans with a pond or
slough, or ocean edge nearby. During migration and winter,
piping plovers can be found along sandy beach shoals,
primarily on outer beaches and inner sand or mud flats.
Distribution: North Carolina lies at the southern end of the
breeding range and at the northern end of the wintering
range, and thus is the only state with both breeding and
wintering populations. Breeding birds occur in scattered
locations throughout the North Carolina coast, mostly on the
barrier islands between Cape Lookout and Cape Hatteras.
They are reported as nesting in Brunswick, Carteret,
Currituck, Dare, Hyde, New Hanover, and Pender counties.
Threats: Primary threats are habitat alteration and destruc-tion
from development, and disturbance of nesting adults and
flightless chicks by humans and unleashed dogs, and in some
areas, by vehicles driving on the beach. Many nests are also
lost to predation by a wide variety of animals, such as gulls,
crows, ghost crabs, raccoons, foxes, feral cats, and other
animals.
Management Recommendations: Protection and preserva-tion
of undisturbed breeding and wintering habitat. Restric-tion
of vehicular and pedestrian traffic in breeding areas.
Predator exclusion devices are recommended on some
beaches.
Sources: Golden and Parnell 1990, Lee 1990, Mignogno pers. com,
Potter et al.1980, USFWS 1992a.
— 25 —
Red-cockaded woodpecker
Picoides borealis
(RCW, term often used by biologists)
Endangered (October 13, 1970)
Description: The red-cockaded woodpecker is 8 inches (18-
20 cm) long with a wing span of 15-19 inches (35-38 cm). It
has a black cap and is black on the nape of its neck. The back
is horizontally barred with black and white and the underside
is white with black spots on the sides. There is a large white
patch on each cheek, which is a distinguishing characteristic
from other woodpecker species. The male has a small red spot
behind the eye, which is usually not visible. Fledgling males
have a red patch on the crown of the head.
Life History: RCWs live together in family groups, but each
adult has its own roost cavity. Foraging takes place during the
day; birds return to their roost cavities at dusk. Their diet
consists of ants, beetles, wood-boring insects, caterpillars, and
corn ear worms as well as seasonal wild fruit. Eggs are laid in
April through June in the male’s roosting cavity for nesting.
An average clutch is 3-5 with a maximum of 7 eggs. Rearing
the young is a shared group responsibility. The group, 3-5
birds, is composed of parent birds and male offspring from
previous years.
Habitat: The preferred habitat of RCWs is open, park-like
pine stands with little undergrowth. Habitats range from
savannas and flat woods in the lower coastal plain to rolling,
xeric uplands in the sandhills. They are also found in pond pine
pocosins in the northeastern coastal plain. The largest popula-tions
are found in forests of longleaf pine, but loblolly, short-leaf,
pond, slash, and occasionally Virginia and pitch pine are
also used. Living pines (30+ years old) are preferred for
foraging habitat, and mature, live trees (60+ years old),
especially those infected with a fungus producing red-heart
disease, are used for roosting and nesting cavities. The
territory of a group of birds is at least 125-175 acres (50-70
ha) in size; normally they do not travel more than 0.5 mile to
forage. RCWs are the only birds to regularly excavate cavities
in live southern pines, although other birds are known to nest
in dead limbs of live trees. Cavity trees are often highly
visible, as the birds peck the bark around the cavity, causing
the tree to ooze large amounts of light-colored sap. The birds
keep the sap flowing apparently as a defense mechanism
against rat snakes and other predators which find the sap
irritating to their skin.
Distribution: The southeastern states from southern Virginia
to eastern Texas, with the great majority of populations
occurring on the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains. In North
Carolina, found mostly in the sandhills and southern coastal
plain; scattered populations also live in the northern coastal
plain and the eastern piedmont. Found in Anson, Beaufort,
Bertie, Bladen, Brunswick, Camden*, Carteret, Chatham*,
Columbus, Craven, Cumberland, Currituck*, Dare, Duplin,
Edgecombe*, Forsyth*, Gates, Greene, Halifax*, Harnett,
Hertford*, Hoke, Hyde, Johnston, Jones, Lee*, Lenoir*,
Montgomery, Moore, Nash*, New Hanover, Northampton*,
Onslow, Orange*, Pamlico, Pender, Pitt*, Richmond,
Robeson, Sampson, Scotland, Tyrrell, Wake*, Wayne, and
Wilson* counties.
Threats: Loss of habitat through logging, residential and
commercial development, forestry management practices
such as conversion of old longleaf pine stands to short-rotation,
densely stocked stands of other species, and sup-pression
of periodic fire regime.
Management Recommendations: Protection of habitat of
old-growth longleaf pine forests from destruction. Use of
prescribed burning to stimulate existing and new longleaf
pine communities. Planting of longleaf pine in degraded sites
and old fields that are fallow.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20 years.
Sources: Henry 1989, Hooper et al. 1980, USFWS 1992a, Walters
1990.
— 27 —
Roseate tern
Sterna dougallii dougallii
Endangered (November 3, 1987)
Description: Roseate terns are robin sized, 14-17 inches
(35-43 cm) in length including tail. Coloration is white, with
a black cap and very pale gray back and wings. This species
looks similar to many other terns, however, its beak is
usually solid black, its back is paler, and the tail is longer and
more deeply forked than in other species. During breeding
season it has a rosy tinge on the chest and belly and the basal
three-fourths of the black bill and the legs turn orange-red.
Call is a loud, harsh “zaap,” similar to the tearing of cloth;
also a quieter “cue-lick.”
Life History: Roseate terns feed on small flounder, herring,
and mullet caught by plunge diving. They winter in the West
Indies and along the northern coast of South America.
Breeding grounds are on the Atlantic coast of North America
mainly from New York to Nova Scotia, where they arrive in
April. Egg laying commences in April and lasts through June.
Incubation averages 21 days. Young fledge after about 4
weeks. Nesting takes place in dense grasses on relatively
undisturbed coastal islands.
Habitat: These migratory birds are rarely seen in North
Carolina although they pass through coastal North Carolina
from March-May and August-October. Sight records of
roseate terns also exist for June, July, and August. They are
usually seen off shore along the barrier islands.
Distribution: One breeding record has been confirmed for
North Carolina. In addition, one to several individuals are
reported annually during the breeding season at tern colonies
along the North Carolina coast, but these appear to be un-mated
birds. If this species undergoes range expansion, North
Carolina could become a regular nesting site. They have been
reported in Carteret* and Dare counties.
Threats: Loss of habitat to human disturbance and develop-ment,
beach stabilization, and erosion.
Management Recommendations: Protection of barrier
islands from beach stabilization, development, and urbaniza-tion.
Protection of nesting colonies of terns.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20 years.
Sources: Bull and Farrand 1977, Lee 1990, USFWS 1998.
— 29 —
Wood Stork
Mycteria americana
(Wood ibis)
Endangered (February 28, 1984)
Description: The wood stork is a large, long-legged wading
bird about 3 ft (1.0 m) tall, with a wingspread of 5 ft (1.5 m).
The body is white with black flight and tail feathers. The
head and neck are largely unfeathered and colored dark gray.
The bill is long, stout, slightly curved, and colored black in
adults and yellow in immature individuals. During flight, the
neck is extended, unlike herons, which fly with their heads
tucked close to their bodies. The call is a dull croak.
Life History: Wood storks are colonial nesters and feeders
and often breed in rookeries with other species of wading
birds. Nesting periods vary geographically with nesting
generally occurring in spring and early summer. Birds nest in
trees with several nests placed in the same tree. Average
clutch size is 2-5 eggs with average fledgling rate of 2 young
per nest. Storks feed on small fish (1-6 inches long). They
have a rather selective foraging ecology capturing prey using
a specialized technique known as “grope-feeding” or “tacto-location.”
Feeding occurs in water 6-10 inches deep using a
probing, sweeping sideways motion with the bill partly open.
When the bill is touched by a fish, it snaps shut in as little as
25 milliseconds. This manner of feeding requires their prey
to be very concentrated as in low water conditions. Droughts
and floods alter the concentration of fish in the pools as the
water level becomes too low or too high.
Habitat: Storks prefer freshwater and brackish wetlands.
They forage in the shallow water of ponds, lakes, narrow
tidal creeks, flooded tidal pools, and marshes particularly
where the water level is dropping and prey are trapped in
isolated pools. They frequently nest in cypress and mangrove
trees.
Distribution: Breeding range extends from South Carolina
to Florida along the Atlantic seaboard, parts of Gulf Coast
and the Greater Antilles, both coasts of Mexico and South
America, and the interior of South America down to Argen-tina.
In the U.S., most nesting populations are located in
Florida. Non-nesting individuals have been reported as far
north as Canada and inland into the Mississippi Valley and
west to California. Most wood stork records in North Caro-lina
are from the Twin Lakes area in southwestern Brunswick
County where several dozen individual post-breeding birds
are sighted from late June into October. One or two sightings
are reported from elsewhere within the state each year, as far
inland as the mountains.
Threats: Loss of habitat and alteration of natural hydrologi-cal
regimes that provide suitable water levels for foraging.
Habitat loss is due to extensive logging of bald cypress,
wetland drainage and conversion to agriculture, and reduc-tion
of food sources due to environmental contamination and
unnatural fluctuations of hydrology in foraging areas.
Recommendations: Protection of wetland habitats (foraging
areas), especially shallow freshwater ponds and swamps.
Sources: LeGrand 1990, USFWS 1992a, Bull and Farrand 1977.
— 33 —
American alligator
Alligator mississippiensis
Threatened S/A (June 4, 1987)
Description: This large, aquatic reptile is rough backed with
a broad rounded snout. Most adults are 6-12 ft (1.8-3.7 m)
long with brown to dark brown coloration. The young are
marked with yellow bands. Often mistaken for the American
crocodile, which has narrower jaw with the fourth tooth
exposed while the jaws are closed, the American alligator’s
fourth tooth fits into a notch in the upper jaw and is not
exposed.
Life History: Alligators eat anything of a suitable size
including mammals, reptiles, amphibians, fish, birds, and
crustaceans. Sexual maturity is reached in 10-12 years in the
northern part of its range and at approximately 6 ft in length.
Nests are constructed near water in late spring and summer.
The nests are made from vegetation, debris, and soil
mounded to greater than 2 ft high and 6 ft across. Eggs are
laid in a cavity near the top of the nest and covered with 6-7
inches of vegetation. Clutch size averages between 35-40
eggs with a maximum of 60. The eggs are usually guarded by
the female.
Habitat: Slow-moving coastal rivers, canals, lakes, im-poundments,
marshes, and estuaries. In southern parts of the
state, alligators sometimes inhabit cypress ponds in
flatwoods and sandhills. Minimum home range for an adult
male averages 3100 acres and for an adult female, 21 acres.
Tolerance for salinity increases with age.
Distribution: Alligators range from the southern shore of
Albemarle Sound and southward, through the eastern and
southern coastal plain. Found in Bladen*, Brunswick,
Camden*, Carteret, Columbus, Craven, Cumberland*, Dare,
Duplin*, Gates*, Hyde, Jones*, New Hanover, Onslow,
Pamlico*, Pender, Robeson, Sampson*, Scotland*, Tyrrell*,
and Washington counties.
Threats: Threatened due to similarity of appearance to other
protected crocodilians. Alligators are no longer biologically
threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act,
but commercial hunting and trade are regulated. Overhunting
and illegal poaching in the 1950s and 1960s greatly reduced
their numbers. Excessive exploitation and habitat loss also
resulted from human encroachment.
Management Recommendations: Controlling habitat
destruction and exploitation appears to be effective in
conserving the species.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20 years.
Sources: Martof et al. 1980; Palmer and Braswell 1977, 1995; USFWS
1992a
— 35 —
Bog turtle
Clemmys muhlenbergii
Threatened S/A (November 4, 1997)
Description: The bog turtle is a small semiaquatic turtle,
usually with a bright orange or yellow blotch on each side of
the head. Carapace lengths range from 3-4.5 inches (7.6-11.4
cm). The carapace is elongated, brown to black, often with a
low median keel and large scutes with yellowish to reddish
centers. It is rough in texture in juveniles but is worn nearly
or entirely smooth in old adults, presumably from burrowing
into the earth. The hingeless plastron is dark brown to black,
usually with yellowish or pale brown mottling. The skin is
gray or brown, variously streaked or speckled with red or
orange.
Life History: Although bog turtles bask on tussocks of grass
and clumps of sphagnum, they are generally secretive and
burrow into the mud rapidly when disturbed. They may
remain buried for extended periods. Bog turtles hibernate
from October to April, often just below the upper surface of
frozen mud or ice. Natural food consists mostly of insects,
but includes earthworms, slugs and other snails, crayfish,
carrion, berries, and fleshy seeds (pondweed, sedge, arrow
arum). Mating occurs in May and June; eggs are laid in June
and July and hatch in August and September. Unlike most
other semi-aquatic turtles, bog turtles do not leave their
wetland habitat and travel to dry, upland areas to lay eggs.
Instead, they select slightly elevated sites, generally on sedge
or sphagnum tussocks, for nesting within their marshy
habitat. The eggs and hatchlings are preyed upon by various
birds and mammals like foxes, raccoons, and opossum.
Habitat: The bog turtle inhabits shallow, spring-fed fens,
sphagnaceous bogs, marshy meadows and pasture, with
thick, grassy cover and crossed by slow, muddy bottomed
streams, and swamps with aquatic and semiaquatic plants.
The best habitats in NC are open and sunny.
Distribution: Bog turtles have been recorded in the northern
and southern mountains and in the western and west-central
piedmont of North Carolina. Most of the known localities
are disjunct and populations are small and localized. Range
includes Alexander, Alleghany, Ashe, Avery, Buncombe,
Cherokee*, Clay, Davidson, Forsyth, Gaston, Graham,
Haywood, Henderson, Iredell*, Macon, McDowell,
Mitchell*, Surry, Transylvania, Watauga, Wilkes, and Yancey
counties.
Threats: Because of their local occurrence and highly
specific habitat requirements, many populations of bog
turtles are threatened by widespread draining, ditching,
dredging, filling, and flooding of wetlands for residential,
urban, and commercial development, road construction,
agricultural activities, and pond and reservoir construction.
Bog turtles are also highly valued in the pet trade and are
threatened by commercial collection.
Management Recommendations: Attempts
should be made to protect and maintain habitat and
prohibit collection.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20
years.
Sources: USFWS 1997a.
— 37 —
General Sea Turtle Information
Sea turtle populations were drastically reduced by hunting in the
past. Although hunting has almost been eliminated, sea turtles
remain threatened for several reasons. Turtles (and other marine
organisms, such as whales) sometimes eat discarded plastic bags
and other trash, and may die as a result. They also become en-tangled
in trash and fishing nets, although turtle excluder devices
in shrimp nets help reduce accidental drownings. Beach develop-ment
(sea walls, jetties, lights, off-road vehicles, loud noises, etc.)
may confuse females coming to shore to nest. Once the eggs hatch,
the hatchlings may become disoriented by artificial lights or be
trapped in tire tracks as they head for the sea, leaving them
vulnerable to predators. While five species of sea turtles (logger-head,
green, kemp’s ridley, leatherback, and hawksbill) have been
reported in the waters off the coast of North Carolina, only two are
detailed in this volume: the loggerhead sea turtle, which nests in
several counties along the coastline, and the green sea turtle, which
has been known to come ashore to bask and nest.
— 39 —
Green sea turtle
Chelonia mydas
Threatened (July 28, 1978)
Description: The green sea turtle grows to a maximum of 5
ft (1.2 m) long and a weight of 380 lb. It has a rather heart-shaped
shell that varies in color from light to dark brown
with dark markings. The common name comes from the
color of its body fat. The head is small, and in adults it is
light brown, marked with yellow. Hatchlings usually have a
black carapace, white plastron, and white margins on the
shell and limbs. The adult plastron is whitish yellow. None of
the plates along the edge of the carapace (the marginal
scutes) are jagged, and there is only one long pair of scales
between the eyes. Males have one claw on each of the front
flippers.
Life History: Adult green sea turtles feed largely
on marine algae and grasses in shallow water.
They also consume small mollusks, sponges,
crustaceans, and jellyfish. They migrate between
feeding and nesting sites.
Habitat: This species is
usually seen in shallow bays
and inlets. Lagoons and shoals
with plentiful marine grasses
and algae are important
feeding areas.
Distribution: Range from
Massachusetts to Mexico,
Puerto Rico, and the Virgin
Islands on the Atlantic coast
of North American. Reported
seen in Brunswick, Carteret,
Dare, Hyde, New Hanover,
Onslow, and Pender counties.
While they usually visit the entire
North Carolina coastline, they have
been observed nesting only in Onslow,
Brunswick, and Hyde counties.
Threats: Overutilization as a food source by humans,
excessive predation especially of hatchlings (some of the
predation is by non-native species, such as pigs), loss of
habitat to human encroachment, and drowning after entrap-ment
in fishing nets have all contributed to the decline in
populations. Artificial lighting on nesting beaches can result
in total disorientation of hatchling turtles so that they never
reach the ocean.
Management Recommendations: Protection of nesting
habitat and use of turtle excluder devices to prevent and
reduce incidental capture of sea turtles during shrimp harvest.
Sources: Martof et al. 1980, Palmer and Braswell 1995, USFWS
1992a.
— 41 —
Loggerhead sea turtle
Caretta caretta
Threatened (July 28, 1978)
Description: The loggerhead is probably the most common
sea turtle along North Carolina’s coast. The carapace and
flippers are reddish brown and the plastron is yellow. It has a
large head and blunt jaws (hence its common name). There
are three large scales (scutes) on the bridge between the
plastron and carapace. The front flippers have two claws
each. Adults grow to an average weight of 200 lb.
Life History: Loggerhead sea turtles are carnivores. They
feed on mollusks, crustaceans, fish, and other marine ani-mals.
Nesting occurs on beaches in the United States mostly
from May to August, and takes place at night. Hatching
usually takes place at night also. The hatchlings head straight
for the water once they emerge from the sand, but can be
disorientated by beach lights or be trapped in tire tracks in
the sand, making them easy prey for predators.
Habitat: Loggerheads are found in temperate and subtropi-cal
waters both far offshore and in bays, salt marshes, creeks,
and mouths of large rivers. Reefs and shipwrecks are fre-quently
used as feeding places. Hatchlings have been seen at
sea in patches of sargassum (a floating, offshore algae).
Nesting usually takes place on open beaches, or along narrow
bays with suitable soil, and usually occurs no further north
than Ocracoke Inlet. They will migrate as far as 1500 miles
between nesting sites and feeding areas.
Distribution: Entire coastline of North Carolina including
Brunswick, Carteret, Currituck, Dare, Hyde, New Hanover,
Onslow, and Pender counties.
Threats: Loss of nesting beaches to various types of human
encroachment, especially beach “armoring” against erosion
(riprap, seawalls, etc.). Other threats include artificial
lighting that disorients hatchlings, drowning from entrapment
in fishing nets and internal injury due to ingestion of marine
pollution including oil, plastics, and Styrofoam.
Management Recommendations: The National Marine
Fisheries Service is implementing regulations requiring the
use of turtle excluder devices by shrimp trawlers. Light
ordinances and protection of nesting sites from vehicular
traffic during the nesting season are effectively reducing
mortality on many beaches. Control of predation with nest-screening
is also helping in areas with unnaturally dense
populations of raccoon or feral animals.
Sources: Martof et al. 1980, Palmer and Braswell 1995, Schwartz
1977d, USFWS 1992a.
— 45 —
Cape Fear shiner
Notropis mekistocholas
Endangered (September 26, 1987)
Description: The Cape Fear shiner is a small minnow, rarely
exceeding 2.4 inches (6 cm) in length. It is a pale silvery
yellow with a black stripe along each side. The fins are
yellow and pointed, the upper lip is black, and the lower lip
has a thin black bar along its edge.
Life History: Unlike other members of the genus Notropis,
the Cape Fear shiner feeds extensively on plant material and
so has an elongated, convoluted intestine. No information is
available on its breeding behavior or longevity. Although
poorly known, spawning apparently occurs in late spring and
early summer based on breeding tubercles and ovarian
development of museum specimens.
Habitat: Water willow, (Justicia americana), beds in
flowing areas of creeks and rivers appear to be an essential
element of the species’ habitat. It is found in clean, rocky
streams over gravel, cobble, and boulder substrate; known to
inhabit pools, riffles, and slow runs. Juveniles are often found
in slack water, among mid-stream rock outcrops, and in side
channels and pools.
Distribution: Endemic to central North Carolina in the Cape
Fear drainage. This species has the most restricted distribu-tion
of any Notropis shiner. It is currently known from the
Deep River and Rocky River within several miles of their
confluence (this is the main population), in the Rocky River
above the Rocky River hydroelectric dam, as well as
Robseson Creek and Bear Creek in the Rocky River system;
in the Deep River system above the Highfalls Hydroelectric
Reservoir, and in the lower Haw River just above Jordan
Lake. It is also found a short distance up tributaries to these
rivers. It was formerly found in several tributaries to the
Cape Fear River in Harnett County. Three areas in North
Carolina have been designated critical habitat for the Cape
Fear shiner. They are in Chatham, Harnett, Lee, Moore, and
Randolph counties.
Threats: Deterioration of water quality due to toxic chemical
pollution, changes in stream flow, channel modification,
siltation, and impoundments.
Management Recommendations: Enforcement of regula-tions
to prevent erosion from road construction and land use
changes, stream channel modification, changes to stream
flow for hydroelectric power plants, impoundments, and
wastewater and chemical discharges.
Sources: Lee et al. 1980, Lowe et al. 1990, USFWS 1992a.
— 47 —
Shortnose sturgeon
Acipenser brevirostrum
Endangered (March 11, 1967)
Description: The shortnose sturgeon has five rows of bony
plates, or scutes, (1 dorsal, 2 lateral, and 2 ventral) separated
by naked skin that runs the length of the body, a tail with the
upper lobe larger and longer than the lower, and four barbels
(like droopy whiskers) along the mouth located under a long
pointed snout. This sturgeon has a blackish head and back,
yellowish-brown body, pale underside, and grows to about 39
inches (1 m) long. Young individuals have blotches of darker
color. The shortnose sturgeon resembles young Atlantic
sturgeon (A. oxyrhynchus), but can be distinguished by its
shorter snout, wider mouth (mouth width greater than 62% of
distance between eyes), and the usual lack of bony plates
between the anal fin base and the lateral row of plates.
Life History: This fish moves from the ocean and estuaries
into freshwater rivers between February and May, and
spawns from April through June. Juveniles may remain
upriver for up to 5 years after birth before migrating to the
ocean. Feeds on worms, crustaceans, insect larvae, small
clams, small fish, and stems and leaves of macrophytes. It
matures at 4-16 years of age and may live for up to 60 years.
Habitat: A bottom dweller, shortnose sturgeon prefer deep
water with soft substrate and vegetated bottoms. Found in
ocean and estuaries, at spawning requires freshwater of
inland portions of rivers with fast current and rough bottoms.
According to Jackson et al. (1992), the fish usually gather in
deep spots during the day and move to tidal flats for the
night, in the summer and early fall.
Distribution: This fish is found along the Atlantic coast from
New Brunswick to Florida. Historically, shortnose sturgeon
were widely reported from North Carolina rivers. Current
distribution is not well known. This species occurs sparingly
in the Cape Fear River drainage and Albemarle Sound, and
an unconfirmed report exists for Pamlico Sound. Most recent
reports have come from the Cape Fear River near
Wilmington. Also, it has been found in the Pee Dee River and
in the Roanoke River not far from the river’s mouth. Records
exist for Anson, Bertie, Bladen, Brunswick, Carteret, Colum-bus,
Currituck, Dare, Hyde, New Hanover, Onslow, Pamlico,
Pasquotank, Pender, and Richmond counties.
Threats: Overfishing and degradation of habitat by erosion,
siltation, toxic pollution, and dams that interfere with
upstream migration to spawning areas.
Management Recommendations: Enforcement of protec-tive
laws regarding fishing and water quality regulation.
Sources: Gilbert and Moran 1989, Jackson et al.1992, Lee et al. 1980,
Ross 1988.
— 49 —
Spotfin chub
Cyprinella monacha
Threatened (September 9, 1977)
Description: This small fish grows to a maximum size of
about 3.7 inches (9.2 cm) standard length. The body is
elongate; the mouth inferior; usually there is one pair of
minute, terminal labial barbels (like a short droopy whisker);
the scales are moderate to somewhat small in size; a distinc-tive
large black spot is present in the caudal region. Juveniles
and adult females are olive above with the sides largely
silvery and the lower parts white. Large nuptial males have
brilliant turquoise-royal blue coloring on the back, side of the
head, and along the mid-lateral part of the body; lesser blue is
found in at least some fins; all fins are tipped with satiny
white during peak development of color.
Life History: Based on observations and morphological
comparisons, it appears that the spotfin chub is a sight feeder,
selecting minute insect larvae from clean substrates. An
examination of nine specimens revealed that diptera were the
dominant food items, with the remaining food items consist-ing
of immature mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies. Its
maximum life span is suspected to be less than 4 years.
Spawning begins in May and extends into mid-August. They
lay their eggs in boulder crevices (where they are highly
vulnerable to the effects of siltation, as well as other
polluntants).
Habitat: The spotfin chub inhabits moderate to large
streams 50-230 feet (15-70 meters) wide with a good current,
clear water, and cool to warm temperatures. These streams
have pools frequently alternating with riffles. The fish
generally occupies areas with moderate to swift current with
a wide variety of substrates, although rarely, over sand or silt
substrates.
Distribution: This once widspread species was historically
known from 24 streams in the upper and middle Tennessee
River system. It is now extant in only four rivers/river
systems: the Buffalo River system in central Tennessee, the
Emory River system in eastern Tennessee, the Holston River
and its tributary, the North Fork Holston River, in northeast-ern
Tennessee, and the Little Tenness River in Swain and
Macon counties in North Carolina. Formerly found in the
French Broad River system in North Carolina. Found in
Buncombe*, Macon, Madison*, and Swain counties.
Threats: The reasons for the decline in some populations are
uncertain. However, most populations have been impacted by
a number of factors (e.g., dams, runoff from coal mining
operations and poor land use practices, municipal and
industrial wastes).
Management Recommendations: Protect extant popula-tions
by enforcing existing natural resource protection laws
and regulations. Improve habitat of extant populations and
restore habitat of historical populations. Gain a better
understanding of the species life history and habitat needs.
Reintroduce populations into restored historical habitats.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20 years.
Sources: Biggins and Fridell pers. com., Cooper et al. 1977, Jenkins,
et al. 1984, USFWS 1983, USFWS 1992a.
— 51 —
Waccamaw silverside
Menidia extensa
(Skip jack, glass minnow)
Threatened (April 8, 1987)
Description: The Waccamaw silverside is a small, almost
transparent minnow-like fish with a silver lateral stripe.
Adults are about 2.5 inches (6.5 cm) long. It is laterally
compressed with large eyes and a jaw that angles upward
sharply. There are two widely separated dorsal fins; the first
has thin spines. It may often be seen jumping out of the
water.
Life History: This species is a surface-feeder and travels in
schools. Food sources include zooplankton, particularly
cladocerans (microcrustaceans). Spawning occurs in open
water near the shoreline from March through July, peaking
when water temperatures are 68-72 F. Females produce
about 150 eggs. Maturity is attained by the following spring
when most adults die off after spawning. A few may survive
a second winter. Reproductive failure for a single year could
result in the species’ extinction.
Habitat: Forages in areas of shallow, high quality clear,
open water over clean, dark sand substrate with no vegeta-tion.
Distribution: Endemic to Lake Waccamaw, Columbus
County and occasionally the upper Waccamaw River (below
the lake) when water is high. This limited range has been
designated critical habitat by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service. Lake Waccamaw is a natural lake fed by acidic
swamp streams. However, the neutral composition of the
water may be a result of calcareous limestone, that underlies
the lake and is exposed on the north shore. The silverside
inhabits open water throughout the lake, schooling near the
surface over shallow, dark bottom areas.
Threats: Indiscriminate logging, land use changes such as
stream channelizing and bridge and road construction,
chemical pollution from pesticides and herbicides, and
wastewater discharge. These produce siltation and change
water quality, temperature, and nutrient enrichment which
threaten spawning success and increase odds for extinction
due to the short life span and restricted global distribution.
Management Recommendations: Monitoring and control
of water quality by regulating land and natural resource use
and development in the area.
Sources: Cooper et al. 1977, Lowe et al. 1990, Mignogno pers. com.,
USFWS 1992a.
— 55 —
Mollusks: Freshwater Bivalves
An Overview of Freshwater Mussels
The freshwater mussel could be described as the “canary” of
the aquatic world. As the canary in the underground mines of
historical times was the early-warning system that notified
miners of dangerous air pollution and lack of oxygen, so the
status of a mussel population is an indicator of the water
quality in the aquatic system that is its habitat. Because
mussels require clean water to survive, the reduction and
extirpation of these species in a lake or stream constitute a
warning that water quality has been lowered and may be
potentially hazardous for other species including humans.
Description: The freshwater bivalved mollusks have two
valves (shells) joined together at the dorsal surface by a hinge
ligament and by two strong internal muscles. The valves,
which remain slightly open, are secreted by a thin layer of
tissue called the mantle, which also forms incurrent and
excurrent openings (siphons) at the posterior end of the
animal. The anterior end is usually buried in the substrate.
All mussels are filter feeders. With its anterior buried in the
bottom, the naiad draws oxygen-bearing water and food
through the incurrent siphon, and passes deoxygenated
waste-carrying water out the excurrent siphon. Food (mostly
detritus, bacteria, one-celled algae, and small planktonic
organisms) is filtered from the water by the gills. Through
these filter-feeding activities, the mussels serve as a biologi-cal
filter by removing organic and inorganic particles from
the water, thus improving water quality downstream. This
filtering activity also puts these species at risk from pollut-ants
entering the streams.
The identification of freshwater mussel species relies prima-rily
on shell characteristics. The most important diagnostic
features are shape and dimensions of the shell, sculpture of
the beak and surface, and coloration of the epidermis and
nacre. Because of polymorphic shell characteristics in some
species, it is difficult, even for experts, to determine differ-ences
between species, and sometimes between individuals in
the same population. Therefore, only biologists with permits
are allowed to complete surveys for these species. Illustra-tions
are not included here, but the interested reader may
consult a state maintained Web site for more information
about these species (http://www.wildlife.state.nc.us/nongame/
mussel/).
Life History: Naiad females extrude eggs through their
oviducts and move them into the water tubes of the gills.
During this period, the water tubes become more or less
modified as gill pouches, forming a marsupium. Sperm shed
by the males are drawn into the marsupial water tubes by
ciliary action, and the fertilized eggs begin developing into
unique larval forms known as glochidia. Depending on the
genus, either all or only a portion of the gills may carry the
developing embryos. A single female may produce hundreds
of thousands of embryos. Short-term brooders spawn in
spring and release glochidia in the summer while long-term
brooders spawn in late summer, hold the glochidia through
the winter, and release them in the spring and early summer.
The bivalved glochidium lacks most of the internal organs of
the adult and is not capable of swimming or crawling. Almost
all appear to be obligate parasites of fish. Most are parasitic
on the gill filaments, skin, or fins of the fish. The infections
are usually light and produce little harm. A major function of
this parasitic relationship is to serve as a means of dispersal,
transporting the juveniles some distance from their parental
source. Specificity to particular host fishes limits the ability
of the glochidia to reach maturity if that host is not available.
Part of the plan for preserving threatened and endangered
naiads, therefore, should be the preservation of native fish
fauna and their natural migration and spawning patterns.
Of all the freshwater invertebrates, the freshwater mussels
probably have the longest natural life span. Some thin-shelled
pond species live only 4-10 years, but thicker shelled
river species may survive several decades. While sexual
maturity may require from 1-4 years, reproductive capability
continues until the end of life.
While river naiads can be found as isolated specimens, they
are most often found clustered in large groups called beds.
These units are far more important reproductively than single
individuals and are vital to perpetuating a population. Often,
a single bed may be the source for an entire stream popula-tion,
and destruction of such may result in extirpation of the
species from the area.
Habitat: Some species of mussels are found in both streams
— 56 —
and lakes, while others are restricted to one habitat. Species
specific to streams cannot survive in lakes, mostly because of
the lack of proper glochidia fish hosts and /or because of the
lack of currents that provide an adequate supply of food and
oxygen. The preferred habitat varies with the species; but
most riverine species do best in a cobble, gravel-sand
substrate with good current and high water quality. Little
movement occurs unless forced by environmental conditions.
An individual rarely moves more than a few hundred yards in
a lifetime. The range of any one species may be limited to a
single river system.
Threats: The decline of mussels in North Carolina is caused
by the degradation and destruction of instream habitat
including altered natural fish communities. Detrimental to the
aquatic environment are activities such as impoundment,
channelization, and dredging, which cause deadly amounts of
siltation as well as fragmentation of habitat. Riparian habitat
is disturbed as a result of cutting and clearing of vegetation
along stream banks, bank destabilization, and residential and
road construction. These produce erosion, siltation, and
sedimentation. Changes in water temperature, lowering of
oxygen levels, and reduction of water quality results from
wastewater discharges, toxic spills, pesticide and herbicide
runoff, and the introduction of other pollutants. The smother-ing
action of siltation seems to be the most detrimental factor.
Management Recommendations: Protection of water
quality and existing habitat, and restoration of degraded
habitat. Enforcement of protective laws so that potential
threats to specific sites can be identified and preventive
measures taken. Education of the public of the environmental
threats to the mussels and the important role they play in
aquatic ecosystems.
Sources: Terwilliger et al 1995, USFWS 1990.
— 57 —
Appalachian elktoe
Alasmidonta raveneliana
Endangered (November 23, 1994)
Description: The Appalachian elktoe has a thin, kidney-shaped
shell, reaching up to about 4 inches in length. Juve-niles
generally have a yellowish-brown outer shell, while the
shell of the adults is usually dark brown to greenish-black in
color. Rays are prominent on some shells, particularly in the
posterior portion of the shell, but some individuals have only
obscure greenish rays. The inside shell surface is shiny, white
to bluish-white but changing to a salmon, pinkish, or brown-ish
color in the central and beak cavities of the shell.
Life History: Feeds by filtering food particles from the water
column. Specific food habits are unknown but assumed to be
same as other mussels: detritus, one-celled algae, and
plankton. The reproductive system is similar to other mussels
with glochidia parasitizing a fish host. The mottled sculpin
(Cottus bairdi) and banded sculpin (Cottus carolinae) have
been identified as hosts for the species. The mussel’s life
span and many other aspects of its life history are unknown.
Habitat: Has been reported from relatively shallow, me-dium-
sized creeks and rivers with cool, well-oxygenated,
moderate- to fast-flowing water. Observed in gravelly
substrates often mixed with cobble and boulders, in cracks in
bedrock, and sometimes in relatively silt-free, coarse, sandy
substrates.
Distribution: Endemic to the upper Tennessee River system
in western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. It once had
a fairly wide distribution but has been extirpated from hte
majority of its historic range including the French Broad
River, Swannanoa River; and Talula Creek in the Little
Tennessee River Basin. It now occurs in short stretches of the
Little Tennessee River in Swain and Macon counties,
Tuckasegee River in Jackson and Swain counties, Pigeon
River in Haywood County, Little River in Transylvania
County, Cheoah River in Graham County, Cane River in
Yancey County, and the Nolichuchy, North Toe, and Toe
Rivers in Yancey and Mitchell counties.
Threats: Water quality and habitat degradation resulting
from impoundments, stream channelization projects, and
point and nonpoint sources of siltation and other pollutants
appear to be major factors in reducing the species’ distribu-tion
and reproductive capacity. The most immediate threats to
remaining populations of the species currently appear to be
associated with sedimentation and other pollutants (fertiliz-ers,
pesticides, heavy metals, oil, salts, organic wastes) from
nonpoint sources.
Management Recommendations: Protection of existing
water and habitat quality of the reaches of the river systems
where the species is still surviving; improve degraded
portions of the species habitat; reestablish and protect
additional populations of the species within portions of its
historical range. This requires compliance with existing state
and federal regulations by the public, local governments, and
industries. Additional research is also needed on the autecol-ogy
of the species, propagation, and reintroduction tech-niques
for freshwater mussels.
Sources: USFWS 1994a, 1996a., WRC website
Species identification key is available at
www.ncwildlife.org. (Click on “Wildlife Species and
Conservation” and then “Species” for Mussel atlas.)
— 59 —
Carolina heelsplitter
Lasmigona decorata
Endangered (May 30, 1993)
Description: This bivalve may be more than 4.5 inches
(11.4 cm) long as an adult. The shell has an ovate, trapezoid
shape. The shell varies in color from greenish brown to dark
brown. Younger individuals have fine rays (stripes radiating
outward from the hinge area) on the outer shell, which are
greenish brown or black. The inner shell varies from pearly
white to bluish white, becoming orange toward the hinge
area. Older individuals may be entirely orange on the inner
surface. There is a projection between the pseudocardinal
teeth and the lateral teeth in the left valve, but it may be small
and fused to the pseudocardinal tooth. The entire outer
sections of the gill are used by the female to carry embryos.
The Carolina heelsplitter is similar in appearance to L.
subviridis, but has a thicker shell and adults can be over
twice as large.
Life History: Because of its rarity, little is known of the life
span and other aspects of the life history of the Carolina
heelsplitter. Like other freshwater mussels, it is a filter-feeder.
It has a complex reproductive cycle in which the
mussel larvae parasitize a host fish -- an as yet unknown
species.
Habitat: Usually found in mud, muddy sand, or muddy
gravel substrate in cool, slow-moving, small to medium-sized
streams or rivers along stable, well-shaded streambanks. The
stability of the stream banks appears to be a very important
factor in the habitat.
Distribution: In North Carolina is known only from Goose,
Duck, and Waxhaw Creeks in Union County. Portions of
these three creeks in North Carolina and six creeks and one
river have been proposed for designation as critical habitat
for the Carolina heelsplitter. Historically known from several
locations within the Catawba and Pee Dee River systems in
Anson*, Cabarrus*, Mecklenburg*, and Richmond* counties
in North Carolina, and the Catawba, Pee Dee, Savannah, and
possibly the Saluda River systems in South Carolina.
Threats: The range has been drastically reduced by im-poundments
and deterioration of habitat and water quality by
siltation and other pollution resulting from stream
channelization, dredging, sand mining, sewage effluents, and
poorly implemented agricultural, forestry, and development
practices. Loss of forested buffers and poorly controlled
stormwater runoff from clearing and development activities
within the creeks’ watersheds, together with the effects of
pollutants in wastewater discharges have significantly
reduced the range of the surviving populations in North
Carolina. Due to limited range, any further adverse impact of
habitat or water quality in the remaining stream reaches
would likely lead to extirpation of the species from North
Carolina.
Management Recommendations: Preservation of habitat in
existing reaches and restoration of high water quality and
habitat in historical range waterways.
*No record has been reported in this county in the past 20 years.
Sources: Alderman 1991, Fridell 1992, Fridell and Biggins pers. com.,
Keferl and Shelley 1988, USFWS 1993a.
Species identification key is available at
www.ncwildlife.org. (Click on “Wildlife Species and
Conservation” and then “Species” for Mussel atlas.)
— 61 —
Dwarf wedgemussel
Alasmidonta heterodon
Endangered (March 14, 1990)
Description: The dwarf wedgemussel is a small bivalve,
rarely exceeding 45 mm in length. Clean young shells are
usually greenish-brown with green rays. As the animal ages,
the shell color becomes obscured by diatoms or mineral
deposits and appears black or brown. The shell is thin but
does thicken somewhat with age, especially toward the
anterior end. The anterior end is rounded while the posterior
end is angular forming a point near the posterio-ventral
margin. The ventral margin is only slightly curved. The nacre
is bluish-white, appearing whiter in the thicker anterior end.
The most distinctive shell character of the dwarf
wedgemussel is the arrangement of the lateral teeth. There
are two lateral teeth in the right valve and one in the left
valve. The typical arrangement for most freshwater mussel
species consists of two lateral teeth in the left valve and one
in the right valve. The incurrent and excurrent apertures and
their associated papillae are usually white. The foot and other
organs are also white.
Life History: Maximum age for the dwarf wedgemussel is
around twelve years. The species is a bradytictic breeder.
Females become gravid in the early fall and glochidia are
released by mid-spring. The tessellated darter (Etheostoma
olmstedi), johnny darter (Etheostoma nigrum), and mottled
sulpin (Cottus bairdi) have been identified as hosts for the
dwarf wedgemussel. An anadromous fish may also serve as a
host species but this has not been documented for the dwarf
wedgemussel in the southern portion of its range.
Habitat: Inhabits creeks and rivers close to banks, under
overhangs, and around submerged logs. Also known to live
on firm substrate of sand, gravel, and muddy sand with a
slow to moderate current. Requires clean water that is well-oxygenated
and nearly silt free.
Distribution: Atlantic slope rivers and creeks from New
Brunswick, Canada to the Neuse River system, North
Carolina. North Carolina supports the greatest number of
known sites: Neuse River Basin: Orange County, Wake
County, Johnston County, Wilson County, and Nash County;
Tar River Basin: Person County, Granville County, Vance
County, Franklin County, Warren County, Halifax County,
and Nash County. Unfortunately, most of these populations
are very small and isolated.
Threats: Construction of impoundments and pollution from
industrial, agricultural, and domestic sources has degraded
the habitat and water quality.
Management Recommendations: Preservation and restora-tion
of high water quality and habitat. Vegetative buffer
strips, conservation easements, and development of mussel
sanctuaries are suggested recovery methods. Research of
ecology and life history as well as identification of species of
fish host(s) is needed.
Sources: Hall pers. com.; Mignogno pers. com; USFWS 1990, 1994b.,
WRC website
Species identification key is available at
www.ncwildlife.org. (Click on “Wildlife Species and
Conservation” and then “Species” for Mussel atlas.)
— 63 —
Littlewing pearlymussel
Pegias fabula
Endangered (November 14, 1988)
Description: The littlewing pearlymussel is small, rarely
exceeding 1.5 inches (38 mm) in length. The shell’s outer
surface (periostracum) is usually eroded, giving the shell a
chalky appearance. When the periostracum is present, the
shell is light green or dark yellowish with dark rays. The
shells exhibit sexual dimorphism; females have an inflated
posterior ridge and a more truncated posterior end.
Life History: Much of the species’ life history is unknown.
However, it is thought to be a winter breeder and reproduce
like other freshwater mussels. Males release sperm into the
water, which are taken in by females through their siphons
during feeding and respiration. The fertilized eggs are
retained in the gills until the larvae (glochidia) are fully
developed. The glochidia are released into the water and
must then attach and encyst on a fish host’s gill or fin. Here
they transform into juvenile mussels and then drop off onto
the stream bed. Greenside darters (Etheostoma blennioides)
and emerald darters (E. baileyi) have been identified as host
fish. The mussels specific food habits are unknown. How-ever,
adults are filter feeders and likely ingest food items
similar to those consumed by other freshwater mussels (i.e.,
organic detritus, diatoms, phytoplankton, zooplankton,
bacteria).
Habitat: It inhabits cool, clear, and relatively high gradient
streams (of small to medium size) where it is sometimes
found lying on a rocky stream bed in shallow water. How-ever,
it is more often hidden under large rocks.
Distribution: This once wide ranging species once inhabited
numerous smaller tributaries of the upper Cumberland and
Tennessee River basins in Alabama, North Carolina (Little
Tennessee River, Swain County and Valley River, Cherokee
County), Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia. Currently, three
populations may still survive in the Cumberland River
system and three in the Tennessee River system, including a
very small population in the Little Tennessee River, North
Carolina.
Threats: The reasons for the decline in some populations
are uncertain. However, most populations have been im-pacted
by a number of factors (e.g., dams, runoff from coal
mining operations and poor land use practices, municipal and
industrial wastes, dredging).
Management Recommendations: Protect extant popula-tions
by enforcing existing natural resource protection laws
and regulations. Improve habitat of extant populations and
restore habitat of historical populations.
Sources: Bogan et al. 1983.
Species identification key is available at
www.ncwildlife.org. (Click on “Wildlife Species and
Conservation” and then “Species” for Mussel atlas.)
— 65 —
Tar spinymussel
Elliptio steinstansana
(Tar River spinymussel)
Endangered (June 27, 1985)
Description: The Tar spinymussel is one of only four
freshwater mussels with spines in the world. The brownish
shell is rhomboid-shaped, up to 2.4 inches (6 cm) long, with
0-6 spines on each valve. The shell is rather smooth and
shiny, with concentric rings, and ends in a blunt point.
Younger individuals are orange-brown with greenish rays
streaking outward from the hinge area. Adults are darker with
less distinct rays. One to three small thin ridges run on the
interior surface of the shell from the beak cavity to the lower
ventral area of the shell. The anterior half of the shell’s inner
surface is salmon-colored, the posterior half is iridescent
blue. Juveniles may have up to 12 spines, however, adults
tend to loose their spines as they mature.
Life History: Little is known about the life history except
that like most freshwater mussels, they are filter feeders and
require a fish host to complete their reproductive cycle.
Habitat: Stable, coarse sand or gravel substrates where the
gravel is uncompacted and silt free and in areas of relatively
fast-flowing, well-oxygenated water. They are often found in
association with other mussels but are usually in the minority.
Distribution: Known only from the Tar River system (Tar
River, Shocco Creek, Fishing Creek, Little Fishing Creek,
and Swift Creek) in Edgecombe, Franklin, Halifax, Nash,
Pitt*, and Warren counties, and one site in the Neuse River
system in Johnston County. The species has been reduced
from “relatively easily found” in the main stem of the Tar
River in Edgecombe County to “only two good populations .
. . in the two Tar River tribs . . . found with great difficulty in
two other trib and in the main stem of the Tar River. . . .”
(USFWS 1994f).
Threats: Degradation of habitat and water quality by
impoundment and pollution. Part of the Tar River has been
dammed. Clearing of land for agriculture and other uses in
the Tar River basin has caused erosion and siltation into the
river. The sand and silt smother the mussels and affect the
stability of the river bottom. Pollution from 21 wastewater
plants and discharges from agricultural, industrial, and other
domestic sources have drastically altered the river reaches
and tribs. Mussels that evolved in clean, flowing water are
unable to survive and reproduce in this degraded habitat.
Management Recommendations: Buffering riparian areas
along waterways with natural vegetation strips to help filter
silty runoff from disturbed lands. Prevention of livestock and
waste from entering rivers and tribs. Improved erosion
prevention and more stringent enforcement of pollution laws
for industrial and municipal wastewater facilities.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20 years.
Sources: Biggins and Fridell pers. com.; Lowe et al.1990; Murdock
pers. com.; USFWS 1992c, 1994f.
Species identification key is available at
www.ncwildlife.org. (Click on “Wildlife Species and
Conservation” and then “Species” for Mussel atlas.)
— 67 —
Mollusks: Terrestrial Gastropods
Noonday globe (snail)
Patera clarki nantahala
(Noonday helix)
Threatened (July 3, 1978)
Description: The shell of the noonday globe snail is
rounded with five and one-half spirals. The spire (center) of
shell is rounded and low, or may be depressed. The shell is
0.72 inch (18 mm) wide and 0.44 inch (11 mm) high, and is
glossy brownish-yellow, or red. Coarse bands texture the
shell. It is most active during wet weather, and is thought to
feed on fungi.
Life History: The feeding habits and development cycle of
this species are unknown. However, other related species in
the genus Mesodon feed on the subsurface hair-like structures
(mycelia) of fungi.
Habitat: Damp oak-hickory forests with thick undergrowth
and rich, moist soils. Found on damp rock faces and in damp
leaf litter. Prefers steep, rocky areas with northern exposure
or wet ravines. Cliffs in this habitat contain calcium,
which may be essential to shell formation and mainte-nance.
Dominant tree species in habitat include oak,
hickory, American beech, American elm, basswood,
birch, and tulip poplar.
Distribution: Nantahala Gorge in Swain
County. Occurs only on the east side of the
gorge.
Threats: Both natural and human
threats to habitat include forest
fires, logging, destruction of
cliff faces by climbing, road
widening, and mine explora-tion,
herbicide/pesticide
spraying.
Management Recommendations: Protection of habitat from
human destruction. Monitor natural stressors as well as
human ones. Monitoring and learning the life processes of
the species to document autecology.
Sources: Lowe et al. 1990; Murdock pers. com.; USFWS 1992a,
1994c.
— 69 —
Arachnids
Spruce-fir moss spider
Microhexura montivaga
Endangered (February 6, 1995)
Description: Coloration of M. montivaga ranges from light
brown to darker reddish brown with no markings on the
abdomen. The carapace is generally yellowish brown with
chelicerae that project forward well beyond the anterior edge
of the carapace. It has a pair of very long posterior spin-nerets,
and a second pair of book lungs that appear as light
patches posterior to the genital furrow. Adults measure only
0.10-0.15 inch (2.5 - 3.8 mm) in length.
Life History: The spider constructs its tube-shaped webs in
the interface between the moss mat and rock surface, occa-sionally
extending the web into the interior of the moss mat.
Although there are no records of prey being found in the
webs, the species has been observed taking prey in the wild.
The abundant springtails in the moss mats provide the most
likely source of food for the spider. Males of the species
mature during September and October, and females lay eggs
in June. The thin-walled, transparent egg sac may contain
seven to nine eggs. The female remains with the egg sac and
will carry it with her fangs if disturbed. Spiderlings emerge
in September. It is estimated that it may take three years for
the species to reach maturity.
Habitat: The spruce-fir moss spider is found in damp but
well-drained moss and liverwort mats growing on rocks or
boulders and in well-shaded areas of mature, high-elevation
Fraser fir and fir dominated spruce-fir forests. The moss mats
cannot be too dry, as the species is very sensitive to desicca-tion,
or too wet because large drops of water pose a threat to
the spider.
Distribution: The spider is known to only exist in six
locations: Mount Collins and Clingmans Dome in Swain
County, NC; Grandfather Mountain in Avery, Watauga, and
Caldwell counties, NC; Roan Mountain in Avery and
Mitchell counties, NC and Carter County, TN; and, Mount
LeConte and Mount Buckley in Sevier County, TN. It is
believed to be extirpated from Mount Mitchell in Yancy
County*, NC.
Threats: The high-elevation spruce-fir forests through much
of the species’ historic range are being decimated by the
exotic insect, balsam wooly adelgid (Adelges piceae), and
possibly by air pollution (acid rain). The death and thinning
of the forest canopy results in locally drastic changes in
microclimate, including increased temperatures and de-creased
moisture which lead to desiccation of the moss mats
on which the spruce-fir moss spider and its prey depend for
survival. Other threats include unauthorized collecting or
handling, unauthorized pesticide applications within the
occupied habitat, intentional or unauthorized destruction of
the habitat (burning, forest clearing, trampling, or other
disturbance of the moss mats).
Management Recommendations: Protection from unautho-rized
and authorized disturbance of habitat and collection.
* No record has been reported in this county in the past 20 years.
Sources: USFWS 1995e, 1997c., 2000.
— 73 —
American chaffseed
Schwalbea americana
Endangered (September 29, 1992)
Description: American chaffseed is an erect, densely hairy,
unbranched perennial, 1-2 ft (30-60 cm) tall. Leaves are
alternate, 0.8-1.6 inches (2-4 cm) tall, 0.2-0.4 inch (6-10 mm)
wide and attach directly to the stalk without a leaf stem. Each
leaf has three noticeable veins. Flowers are grouped in a long
terminal cluster. The sepals are fused to form a calyx in the
shape of two unequal lips, 0.5-0.7 inch (14-18 mm) long,
beneath the petals. The corolla are two-lipped and narrow,
twice as long as the calyx. The upper lip is triangular, while
the lower lip consists of three short, broad lobes, of which the
middle one is notched. Coloration is yellowish or
purplish. The numerous seeds are enclosed in a
loose-fitting, sac-like structure that provides
the basis for the common name,
chaffseed.
Life History: The American
chaffseed, with its hemiparasitic
behavior, is considered to be one of the
rarest root-parasite species of flowering
plants in the southeastern U.S. Although it is
not host-specific, a host is required and may be a
wide variety of woody and herbaceous plants.
Showy, insect-pollinated flowers occur May-June,
with fruits maturing in August. Fruit is a brown,
dry dehiscent capsule, narrowly oval-shaped,
about 0.4 inches (1 cm) long. Seeds are numer-ous,
flat, and winged. Fire appears to be a
requirement for long-term viability strongly
affecting the reproductive success by controlling
conditions necessary for successful seed germi-nation
and possibly required for young plants to
make their haustorial connection. The few brief
months immediately following a fire are enough
time for the minute seeds to germinate in the
mineral soil under full sun without litter and
competing vegetation. The coarse, thickened
chaffseed capsule insulates the seeds from the
higher temperature of the fire and the heat
exposure may increase germination rates.
Habitat: Prefers sandy, acidic, seasonally moist soils in
sunny or partly sunny areas subject to frequent fires in the
growing season.
Distribution: Occurs on moist to dryish pine flatlands, pine
savannas, and on longleaf pine/oak sandhills at the western
edge of the coastal plain in Bladen*, Cumberland, Hoke,
Moore, Pender*, and Scotland counties.
Threats: Rarity of populations and low numbers within the
population make this species especially vulnerable to
competition from other species and loss of habitat to
urban development, road building, wetland
drainage, and pine forest management. Fire
suppression allows succession to proceed so that
competition for light excludes this species.
Management Recommendations: Need for
additional research and monitoring of plant
populations. Protection of habitat and prescribed
burning to promote maintenance of extant
populations.
* No record has been reported in this county in the
past 20 years.
Sources: Jackson et al.1992, Radford et al. 1964,
USFWS 1992a.
— 75 —
Blue Ridge goldenrod
Solidago spithamaea
Threatened, (March 28, 1985)
Description: The Blue Ridge goldenrod is a hairy perennial
with stems erect and angled, 4-16 inches (10-41 cm) tall, and
strongly ribbed at the base. The deep yellow-green leaves are
distributed alternately along the stem. They are elliptically
shaped, smooth-surfaced with toothed edges, 1.2-2.4 inches
(3-6 cm) long and 0.3-0.8 inch (0.8-2 cm) wide, with pointed
tips. The flower head forms a compact, flat-topped cluster of
20-30 yellow flowers. Petals on the outer (ray) flowers are
0.8-1.6 inches (2-4 cm) long.
Life History: Blue Ridge goldenrod is an
early pioneer species. Plants spread vegeta-tively
from short, stout rhizomes and occa-sionally
reproduce by seed. Flowering occurs
July-September. Fruit are small nutlets,
0.11-0.16 inch (2.8-4 mm) long, with hairs
above the middle of the nutlet only and
are present from July to October.
Habitat: Cliffs, ledges, balds, and rock
outcrops of higher mountain peaks,
above 4600 ft (1400 m) elevation that
are exposed to full sun. Soils are
generally acidic and shallow humus
or clay loams, intermittently satu-rated.
Distribution: Endemic to mountains
of North Carolina and Tennessee.
Found in Avery and Mitchell counties.
Threats: Rarity of populations, small
numbers, and being confined to isolated
areas on a few rocky summits makes this
species extremely vulnerable to trampling
by hikers, climbers, and sightseers.
Weather-related hazards include climatic
extremes such as severe drought, ice and
wind damage, and erosion of the steep
habitat, which could decrease available
suitable habitat adjacent to sources of seed and
rhizomes. Erosion is often exacerbated by
recreational over-use.
Management Recommendations: Preservation of existing
plants and essential habitat. Search for additional popula-tions.
Enforce laws protecting the species and its habitat.
Route hikers and other visitors away from sites.
Note: Several other endangered plant species are ecological associates
of the Blue Ridge goldenrod, including Heller’s blazing star, Roan
Mountain bluet, and spreading avens.
Sources: Hardin 1977; Lowe et al. 1990; Radford et al. 1964; USFWS
1987, 1992a.
— 77 —
Bunched arrowhead
Sagittaria fasciculata
(Clustered arrowhead, duck potato)
Endangered (July 25, 1979)
Description: Bunched arrowhead is a small emergent aquatic
perennial 6-13 inches (36-40 cm) tall. Leaves are up to 12
inches (30 cm) long and taper downward into a long stalk,
which attaches to the base of the plant. Long, parallel veins
run almost the entire length of the leaf. Flowers grow in
whorls of 2-3 at intervals on a long stalk. Each flower grows
upward on its own stem from the main stalk, and has three
petals and three sepals. The petals are white, 0.2-0.7 inch (6-
18 mm) long. Seeds have broad wings and a wrinkled
surface. Small, flat, linear leaves (phyllodia) can be
seen under the water after emersed leaves die off.
Life History: Flowers from May to June and
fruits from June to August. Bunched arrowhead
is monoecious; upper flowers of the flowering
stem are male and lower flowers are female.
The stems of the lowest whorl of flowers
ascend in fruit. The fruiting head is 0.2-0.6
inch (5-15 mm) broad, and is made up of
numerous small, dry, single-seeded fruits.
Each fruit is 0.10-0.14 inch (2.5-3.5 mm)
long.
Habitat: Rooted in shallow water of
bogs and wooded swamps with a slight
but steady flow of cool, clean water.
Often found in soils that are character-istically
sandy loam covered with 10-
24 inches (25-60 cm) of muck, sand,
and silt. Plants will grow in full sun or
partial shade beneath red maple, black
gum, and alder at the base of steep slopes,
but larger, more vigorous plants grow in
shady areas.
Distribution: In North Carolina, endemic
to limited areas of Henderson County
in the southern mountains and into the upper piedmont of
South Carolina. Also found historically in Buncombe County
but not in the last 20 years.
Threats: Habitat degradation by drainage and clearing of
land for development, highway, railway and powerline
rights-of-way maintenance, water withdrawl and encroach-ment
of woody plants.
Management Recommendations: Identification of new
populations and maintenance and protection of existing
habitat. Research to learn more about the autecology,
cultivation, and propagation techniques for restoration,
including hydrology of extirpated populations. Some
reintroduction efforts have been tried but their success
is not yet known.
Sources: Hardin 1977, Murdock pers. com., Radford et al.
1964, USFWS 1992a.
— 79 —
Canby’s dropwort
Oxypolis canbyi
(Cowbane)
Endangered (February 25, 1986)
Description: Canby’s dropwort is a herbaceous perennial
with tuberous roots and pale, fleshy rhizomes. When crushed
the plant gives off a dill-like fragrance. The stems are erect
and stand up to 39 inches (1.2 m) tall and may be purplish at
the base. The leaves are like quills. By flowering time, the
lower leaves are absent. The flowers are small and white,
with five petals, and grow in flat-topped clusters (umbels).
The sepals are pale green, sometimes tinged with red.
Habitat: Moist areas in the coastal plain and
sandhills such as Carolina bays, wet meadows, wet
pineland savannas, ditches, sloughs, and edges of
cypress/pine ponds. Best occurrences are in
open bays and ponds with minimal cover that
are wet for most of the year. It typically
occurs on soils that are deep, acidic, with
medium to high organic content and a high
water table.
Life History: Flowering occurs May-early
August. The fruit is flattened and broadly
oblong, almost saucer-shaped, 0.2 to 0.3 inch
(4-7 mm) long, with prominent lateral wings.
Hogfennel (O. filiformis) is similar, but does not
have large wings on the fruit.
Distribution: Known from one site in Scotland
County in North Carolina. Present range is Mary-land,
North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia;
historic in Delaware.
Threats: The most critical threat is the direct loss or
alteration of the species’ wetland habitat. Ditching,
drainage, and subsequent bulldozing of lowland
areas for agriculture and pine plantations alters the
ground-water table. This enables succession to
proceed leading to increased competition from other
herbaceous species.
Management Recommendations: The population in
Scotland County is owned in part by The Nature Conser-vancy.
Monitoring is needed to determine whether the
population is stable or changing, whether reproduction is
vegetative or sexual through seeds, and if fire regimes are an
essential part of the reproductive cycle.
Sources: Jackson et al. 1992, Radford et al. 1964, USFWS 1992a.
— 81 —
Cooley’s meadowrue
Thalictrum cooleyi
Endangered (March 9, 1989)
Description: A totally smooth perennial herb of the butter-cup
family, growing up to 39 inches (1 m) tall. It may grow
as high as 6.5 ft (2 m) in recently burned areas. In full sun,
the slender stems are erect, while under shady conditions
they are lax, leaning or trailing along the ground. Leaves are
divided into small leaflets, usually in groups of three, and
may be doubly compound in lower leaves. The leaflets are
green above and pale beneath, and while the shape varies, are
usually oblong or lance-shaped, 0.1-2.4 inches (3-60 mm)
long, 0.1-0.5 inch (2-12 mm) wide, with edges rolled under
somewhat. Flowers are few and small and have no petals;
sepals on male flowers are yellowish-white with lavender
filaments, while sepals on female flowers are green.
Life History: Flowering occurs in
June. Fruiting occurs August-
September; seeds remain on the
plants until October. The fruits
are small, hard, and dry, with one
seed each, 0.18-0.24 inch (4.5-6
mm) long and 0.06-0.08 inch
(1.5-2 mm) broad. Few seedlings
are found in the wild. Lab studies
indicate poor seed germination
and a short seed life.
Habitat: Moist to wet bogs and
savannas kept open by frequent
fire or other disturbance, fire
plow lines, roadside ditches,
forest clearings dominated by
grass or sedge, and powerline
rights-of-way. Often grows in
association with tulip poplar
(Liriodendron tulipifera) cypress
and/or Atlantic white cedar
(Chamaecyparis thyoides).
Distribution: Endemic to the
Southeastern coastal plain with
11 locations in North Carolina
and 1 in Florida. Populations extant in Brunswick, Colum-bus,
Onslow, and Pender counties. May occur in New
Hanover County although record is over 20 years old.
Threats: Endangered by fire suppression, mining, drainage
activities associated with silviculture and agriculture, and
residential and industrial development. While it can with-stand
some timber harvesting operations if properly done,
this species cannot withstand bulldozing, drainage of habitat
as it is converted to pine plantation, highway construction
and maintenance, or direct herbicide application. Fire
suppression has already resulted in extirpation of 25% of the
known populations since discovery.
Disturbance that opens up the landscape
to full sun is conducive to species
success if mowing is done in the early
part of the growing season.
Management Recommendations:
Habitat protection, prescribed fire, reintro-duction
into historic habitat, and study and
collection of genetic materials. Search for
additional populations and potential habitat.
Sources: Boyer 1994, Jackson et al. 1992, Jordan 1995,
Radford et al. 1964, USFWS 1992a.
— 83 —
Dwarf-flowered heartleaf
Hexastylis naniflora
(Dwarf-flowered wild ginger)
Threatened (March 9, 1989)
Description: Dwarf-flowered heartleaf is a low-growing,
spicy-smelling, evergreen perennial herb that spreads via
rhizomes. Leaves are heart-shaped, alternate, leathery,
untoothed, and 1.6-2.4 inches (4-6 cm) long and wide. Each
leaf is supported by a long, thin petiole (stem) that rises
directly from the subsurface rhizome. The solitary flowers
are fleshy, firm, grow at the end of short stalks, and often are
under forest litter and leaves near the base of the leaf peti-oles.
The flowers are jug-shaped, .23-5 inches (6-13 mm)
long and .15-.27 inches (4-7 mm) in diameter, and have a
tubular caylx, ranging in color from brown to greenish or
purple.
Life History: Flowering occurs from mid March to early
June; fruiting begins in late May. Seeds may be distributed
via ants. Flowers are pollinated by
flies and thrips. Adults are rhi-zomatous
and seedling growth
has been observed in clumps of
mature plants.
Habitat: Along bluffs and
north-facing slopes, boggy areas
along streams, and adjacent
hillsides and ravines with acid,
sandy loam soils in deciduous
forests. Usually associated with
Kalmia latifolia or Asimina
triloba. Typically found on
these soil types: Pacolet or
Madison gravelly sandy loam,
or Musella fine sandy loam.
Distribution: Endemic to a nine-county
area in the western upper
piedmont of North Carolina and
South Carolina. In North Carolina,
found in Burke, Caldwell, Catawba,
Cleveland, Lincoln, Polk, and
Rutherford counties.
Threats: Habitat and population destruction from residential
and road construction, urbanization, and associated erosion.
Management Recommendations: Protection of habitat of
existing populations. Increase public awareness through
education.
Sources: Radford et al. 1964, USFWS 1992a.
— 85 —
Green pitcher plant
Sarracenia oreophila
Endangered (September 21, 1979)
Description: The green pitcher plant is an insectivorous,
rhizomatous perennial, 8-30 inches (20-75 cm) tall, with
green to yellow-green tubular, pitcher-like leaves. Leaves
widen near the top, with a flaring mouth, and are topped with
a hood. The hood is large, tilts upward slightly, and has a
keel, or ridge, down the back. When the leaves are exposed
to sunlight, they may develop reddish veins and a purple
blotch at the mouth of the pitcher. A solitary, nodding, yellow
flower blooms at the top of a 18-28 inches (45-70 cm) long
stem. The pitchers contain liquid and enzymes. Insects that
fall into the pitchers are digested and nutrients from their
bodies are absorbed into the plant’s tissue.
Life History: Pitchers and flower buds appear in early
April. Flowering occurs mid-April to early June. Pitchers die
off around mid-summer, and are replaced by small, flat,
sharply curved leaves (phyllodia), which persist until the
following spring. The numerous phyllodia are an important
feature in distinguishing this species from other pitcher
plants. There is considerable interaction with insects that
function as pollinators (queen bumblebees) and feed on
particulate matter in the pitcher fluid as well as plant tissue,
and serve as prey providing a mineral supplement for the
plant in the nutrient poor habitats. Reproduces both sexually
(by seed) and asexually (by rhizomes) but the latter appears
to be dominant.
Habitat: Favors highly acidic soils that are wet at least part
of the growing season. Habitat varies, ranging from seepage
bogs to streambanks in North Carolina and Alabama. Occurs
in poorly drained oak and oak-pine flatwoods in Georgia.
May require periodic fire to impede the growth of competing
woody plants. Thrives on nutrient-poor soils.
Distribution: Restricted to areas of the Cumberland Plateau,
the Ridge and Valley province in northeast Alabama, and the
Blue Ridge of Georgia and North Carolina. It previously
occurred in the coastal plain and piedmont of Alabama and
Georgia and the Cumberland Plateau of east Tennessee.
Threats: Shrub and tree encroachment due to fire suppres-sion,
degradation of habitat by residential and road construc-tion,
drainage from agricultural and silviculture practices,
commercial/amateur collection of live plants. Flooding and
streambank changes due to human disturbance have also
caused plant loss.
Management Recommendations: Restore natural hydrol-ogy
to degraded habitat. Provide protection to existing
populations and habitat. Burn where necessary.
Sources: Lowe et al. 1990, Radford et al.1964, Schnell 1976, USFWS
1992a.
— 87 —
Harperella
Ptilimnium nodosum (Harperella nodosa)
(Bishop’s weed)
Endangered (September 28, 1988)
Description: Harperella is an annual plant ranging from 6-36
inches (0.15-1 m) in height, with weak stems. Leaves are
hollow, quill-like structures. The plant is aromatic and smells
like dill. Flat clusters of