1.
1st millennium in North American history
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The 1st millennium in North American history provides a timeline of events occurring within the North American continent from 1 AD through 1000 AD in the Gregorian calendar. Although this time line segment may include some European or other events that profoundly influenced later American life. The archaeological records supplements indigenous recorded and oral history, the assumptions implicit in archaeological dating methods also may yield a general bias in the dating in this timeline. 500 BC–700 AD, Old Bering Sea culture thrives in the western Arctic 50 BC–800 AD,1 AD, Some central and eastern prairie peoples learned to raise crops and shape pottery from the mound builders to their east. 100–1000, Weeden Island culture flourishes in coastal Florida and they are known for their extraordinarily well-preserved wood carvings. 200, The Adena culture of the Ohio River valley evolves into the Hopewellian exchange, 200–800, Late Eastern Woodlands cultures flourish in the Eastern North America. 200–1450, Hohokam cultures flourish in Arizona and north Mexico 400, Cultivation of maize begins in the American Southeastern Woodlands, originally domesticated in Mesoamerica, maize transforms the Eastern Agricultural Complex. 400, Ancestral Pueblo peoples of the American Southwest weave extraordinarily long nets for trapping animals and make yucca fibers into large sacks. 500, Late Basketmaker II Era phase of Ancestral Pueblo culture diminishes in the American Southwest,700, Basketmaker III Era of the American Southwest evolve into the early Pueblo culture. 800–1500, Mississippian culture spawns powerful chiefdoms of great agricultural Moundbuilders throughout the Eastern woodlands,875, Patayan people begin farming along the Colorado River valley in western Arizona and eastern California. 900, Earliest event recorded in the Battiste Good Winter count 900,900, American Southwestern tribes trade with Indigenous peoples of Mexico to obtain copper bells cast through the lost-wax technique. 915, Construction begins at Pueblo Bonito, the largest Ancestral Pueblo Great House,1000, Vikings from Europe land in Vinland on the coast of Newfoundland. Greene, Candace S. and Russel Thornton, ed, the Year the Stars Fell, Lakota Winter Counts at the Smithsonian

2.
11th century
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As a means of recording the passage of time, the 11th century is the period from 1001 to 1100 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Common Era, and the 1st century of the 2nd millennium. In the history of Europe, this period is considered the part of the High Middle Ages. There was a decline of Byzantine power and rise of Norman domination over much of Europe. In Northern Italy, a growth of population in urban centers gave rise to early organized capitalism, in Ukraine, there was the golden age for the principality of Kievan Rus. Rival political factions at the Song dynasty court created strife amongst the leading statesmen, chola-era India and Fatimid-era Egypt, had reached their zenith in military might and international influence. The Western Chalukya Empire also rose to power by the end of the century, in this century the Turkish Seljuk dynasty comes to power in Western Asia over the now fragmented Abbasid realm, while the first of the Crusades were waged towards the close of the century. In Japan, the Fujiwara clan continued to dominate the affairs of state, in Korea, the Goryeo Kingdom flourished and faced external threats from the Liao dynasty. In Vietnam, the Lý Dynasty began, while in Myanmar the Pagan Kingdom reached its height of political, in the Americas, the Toltec and Mixtec civilizations flourished in Central America, along with the Huari Culture of South America and the Mississippian culture of North America. In European history, the 11th century is regarded as the beginning of the High Middle Ages, the century began while the translatio imperii of 962 was still somewhat novel and ended in the midst of the Investiture Controversy. In 1054, the Great Schism rent the church in two, however, in Germany, the century was marked by the ascendancy of the Holy Roman Emperors, who hit their high-water mark under the Salians. In Italy, it opened with the integration of the kingdom into the empire, in Britain, it saw the transformation of Scotland into a single, more unified and centralised kingdom and the Norman conquest of England in 1066. The social transformations wrought in these lands brought them into the orbit of European feudal politics. There were also the first figures of the movement known as Scholasticism. In Spain, the century opened with the successes of the last caliphs of Córdoba, in between was a period of Christian unification under Navarrese hegemony and success in the Reconquista against the taifa kingdoms that replaced the fallen caliphate. Meanwhile, opposing political factions evolved at the Song imperial court of Kaifeng, in India, the Chola Dynasty reached its height of naval power under leaders such as Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, dominating southern India, Sri Lanka, and regions of South East Asia. They also sent raids into what is now Thailand, in Japan, the Fujiwara clan dominated central politics by acting as imperial regents, controlling the actions of the Emperor of Japan, who acted merely as a puppet monarch during the Heian period. In the Middle East, the Fatimid Empire of Egypt reached its only to face steep decline. The Seljuks came to prominence while the Abbasid caliphs held traditional titles without real, in Nigeria, formation of city states, kingdoms and empires, including Hausa kingdoms and Borno dynasty in north, Oyo and Benin kingdoms in south

3.
Dresden Codex
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The Dresden Codex is the oldest surviving book from the Americas, dating to the thirteenth or fourteenth century. The codex was rediscovered in the city of Dresden and is how the Maya book received its present name and it is located in the museum of the Saxon State Library in Dresden, Germany. The book received serious damage during World War II. The pages are 8 inches high and can be folded accordion-style and it has Mayan hieroglyphs and refers to an original text of some three or four hundred years earlier, describing local history and astronomical tables. The Dresden Codex contains 78 pages with decorative board covers on the front, most pages have writing on both sides. They have a border of red paint, although many have lost this framing due to age deterioration, the pages are generally divided into three sections, students of the codex have arbitrary labeled these sections a, b, and c. Some pages have just two sections, while one has four and another five sections. The individual sections with their own theme are generally separated by a red vertical line, sections are generally divided into two to four columns. The Dresden Codex is one of four hieroglyphic Maya codices that survived the Spanish Inquisition in the New World, three, the Dresden, Madrid, and Paris codices, are named after the city where they were ultimately rediscovered. The fourth is the Grolier Codex, located at the Grolier Club in New York City, the Dresden Codex is held by the Saxon State and University Library Dresden in Dresden, Germany. The Maya codices all have about the same pages, with a height of about 20 centimetres. The pictures and glyphs were painted by skilled craftsmen using thin brushes, black and red were the main colors used for many of the pages. Some pages have detailed backgrounds in shades of yellow, green, the codex was written by eight different scribes, who all had their own writing style, glyph designs, and subject matter. The Dresden Codex is described by historian J. Eric S. Thompson as writings of the people of the Yucatán Peninsula in southeastern Mexico. Maya historians Peter J. Schmidt, Mercedes de la Garza, Thompson further narrows the probable origin of the Dresden Codex to the area of Chichen Itza, because certain picture symbols in the codex are only found on monuments in that location. He also argues that the tables would support this as the place of origin. British historian Clive Ruggles suggests, based on the analyses of several scholars, Thompson narrows the date closer to 1200 to 1250. Maya archaeologist Linton Satterthwaite puts the date when it was made as no later than 1345 and it is the oldest surviving book from the Americas

4.
Maya codices
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This sort of paper was generally known by the word āmatl in Nahuatl, and by the word huun in Mayan. The folding books are the products of professional scribes working under the patronage of such as the Tonsured Maize God. The Maya developed their huun-paper around the 5th century, which is roughly the time that the codex became predominant over the scroll in the Roman world. However, Maya paper was more durable and a writing surface than papyrus. The codices have been named for the cities where they eventually settled, the Dresden codex is generally considered the most important of the few that survive. There were many books in existence at the time of the Spanish conquest of Yucatán in the 16th century, however most were destroyed by the Conquistadors, in particular, many in Yucatán were ordered destroyed by Bishop Diego de Landa in July 1562. Such codices were the primary records of Maya civilization, together with the many inscriptions on stone monuments. However, their range of subject matter in all likelihood embraced more topics than those recorded in stone and buildings, however, not all were unaware of the books value, Fr. The last codices destroyed were those of Nojpetén, Guatemala in 1697, with their destruction, access to the history of the Maya and opportunity for insight into some key areas of Maya life was greatly diminished. There are only four codices whose authenticity is beyond doubt and these are, The Dresden Codex also known as the Codex Dresdensis, The Madrid Codex, also known as the Tro-Cortesianus Codex, The Paris Codex, also known as the Peresianus Codex. The Grolier Codex, also known as the Sáenz Codex, the Dresden Codex is held in the Sächsische Landesbibliothek, the state library in Dresden, Germany. It is the most elaborate of the codices, and also an important specimen of Maya art. Many sections are ritualistic, others are of an astrological nature, the codex is written on a long sheet of paper that is screen-folded to make a book of 39 leaves, written on both sides. It was probably written just before the Spanish conquest, somehow it made its way to Europe and was bought by the royal library of the court of Saxony in Dresden in 1739. The only exact replica, including the huun, made by a German artist is displayed at the Museo Nacional de Arqueología in Guatemala City, since October,2007. Between 1880 and 1900, Dresden librarian Ernst Förstemann succeeded in deciphering the Maya numerals, subsequent studies have decoded these astronomical almanacs, which include records of the cycles of the Sun and Moon, including eclipse tables, and all of the naked-eye planets. The Serpent Series, pp. 61–69, is an ephemeris of these phenomena that uses a base date of 1.18.1.8.0.16 in the prior era. The Codex was discovered in Spain in the 1860s, it was divided into two parts of differing sizes that were found in different locations, the Codex receives its alternate name of the Tro-Cortesianus Codex after the two parts that were separately discovered

5.
Chichen Itza
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Chichen Itza was a large pre-Columbian city built by the Maya people of the Terminal Classic period. The archaeological site is located in Tinúm Municipality, Yucatán State, Chichen Itza was a major focal point in the Northern Maya Lowlands from the Late Classic through the Terminal Classic and into the early portion of the Postclassic period. The site exhibits a multitude of styles, reminiscent of styles seen in central Mexico and of the Puuc. Chichen Itza was one of the largest Maya cities and it was likely to have one of the mythical great cities, or Tollans. The city may have had the most diverse population in the Maya world, the ruins of Chichen Itza are federal property, and the sites stewardship is maintained by Mexicos Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. The land under the monuments had been privately owned until 29 March 2010, Chichen Itza is one of the most visited archaeological sites in Mexico, an estimated 1.4 million tourists visit the ruins every year. The Maya name Chichen Itza means At the mouth of the well of the Itza and this derives from chi, meaning mouth or edge, and chen or cheen, meaning well. Itzá is the name of an group that gained political. One possible translation for Itza is enchanter of the water, from its, sorcerer, the name is spelled Chichén Itzá in Spanish, and the accents are sometimes maintained in other languages to show that both parts of the name are stressed on their final syllable. Other references prefer the Maya orthography, Chichen Itza and this form preserves the phonemic distinction between ch and ch, since the base word cheen begins with a postalveolar ejective affricate consonant. The word Itza has a high tone on the a followed by a glottal stop, evidence in the Chilam Balam books indicates another, earlier name for this city prior to the arrival of the Itza hegemony in northern Yucatán. While most sources agree the first word means seven, there is debate as to the correct translation of the rest. This earlier name is difficult to define because of the absence of a standard of orthography. This name, dating to the Late Classic Period, is recorded both in the book of Chilam Balam de Chumayel and in texts in the ruins. Chichen Itza is located in the portion of Yucatán state in Mexico. The northern Yucatán Peninsula is arid, and the rivers in the interior all run underground, there are two large, natural sink holes, called cenotes, that could have provided plentiful water year round at Chichen, making it attractive for settlement. Of the two cenotes, the Cenote Sagrado or Sacred Cenote, is the most famous, according to post-Conquest sources, pre-Columbian Maya sacrificed objects and human beings into the cenote as a form of worship to the Maya rain god Chaac. Edward Herbert Thompson dredged the Cenote Sagrado from 1904 to 1910, a study of human remains taken from the Cenote Sagrado found that they had wounds consistent with human sacrifice

6.
Acoma Pueblo
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Acoma Pueblo is a Native American pueblo approximately 60 miles west of Albuquerque, New Mexico in the United States. Three villages make up Acoma Pueblo, Sky City, Acomita, the Acoma Pueblo tribe is a federally recognized tribal entity. The historical land of Acoma Pueblo totaled roughly 5,000,000 acres, the community retains only 10% of this land, making up the Acoma Indian Reservation. Acoma Pueblo is a National Historic Landmark, according to the 2010 United States Census,4,989 people identified as Acoma. The Acoma have continuously occupied the area for more than 800 years, Acoma tribal traditions estimate that they have lived in the village for more than two thousand years. The English name Acoma was borrowed from Spanish Ácoma or Acóma, the Spanish name was borrowed from the Acoma word ʔáák’u̓u̓m̓é meaning person from Acoma Pueblo. ʔáák’u̓u̓m̓é itself is derived from ʔáák’u, the name does not have any meaning in the modern Acoma language. Some tribal authorities connect it to the similar word háák’u preparedness, place of preparedness, the name does not mean sky city. Other tribal elders assert that it means place that always was while outsiders say it means people of the white rock, Acoma has been spelled in various other ways in historical documents. ákuma, ákomage, Acus, Acux, Aacus, Hacús, Vacus, Vsacus, Yacco, Acco, Acuca, Acogiya, Acuco, Coco, Suco, Akome, Acuo, Ako, the Spanish mission name was San Esteban de Acoma. Pueblo is the Spanish word for ‘village’ or ‘small town. ’ In general usage, the Acoma language is classified in the western division of the Keresan language family. In contemporary Acoma Pueblo culture, most people speak both Acoma and English, Pueblo people are believed to have descended from the Anasazi, Mogollon, and other ancient peoples. These influences are seen in the architecture, farming style, in the 13th century, the Anasazi abandoned their canyon homelands due to climate change and social upheaval. For upwards of two centuries, migrations occurred in the area, the Acoma Pueblo emerged by the thirteenth century. This early founding date makes Acoma Pueblo one of the earliest continuously inhabited communities in the United States, the Pueblo is situated on a 365 feet mesa, about 60 miles west of Albuquerque, New Mexico. The isolation and location of the Pueblo has sheltered the community for more than 1,200 years and they sought to avoid conflict with the neighboring Navajo and Apache peoples. The first mention of Acoma was in 1539, the slave Estevanico was the first non-Indian to visit Acoma and reported it to Fray Marcos de Niza who related the information to the viceroy of New Spain after the end of his expedition. Acoma was called the independent Kingdom of Hacus and he called the Acoma people encaconados, which meant that they had turquoise hanging from their ears and noses

7.
Oraibi, Arizona
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Oraibi, also referred to as Old Oraibi, is a Hopi village in Navajo County, Arizona, United States, in the northeastern part of the state. Known as Orayvi by the inhabitants, it is located on Third Mesa on the Hopi Reservation near Kykotsmovi Village. There are no accurate census counts or estimates for the village population, Oraibi was founded sometime before the year 1100 CE, making it one of the oldest continuously inhabited settlements within the United States. Archeologists speculate that a series of droughts in the late 13th century forced the Hopi to abandon several smaller villages in the region. As Oraibi was one of these surviving settlements its population considerably, and became populous. By 1890 the village was estimated to have a population of 905, Oraibi remained unknown to European explorers until about 1540 when Spanish explorer Don Pedro de Tovar encountered the Hopi while searching for the legendary Seven Cities of Gold. Contact with the Europeans remained scant until 1629 when the San Francisco mission was established in the village, in 1680 the Pueblo Revolt resulted in decreased Spanish influence in the area and the cessation of the mission. Subsequent attempts to reestablish the missions in Hopi villages were met with repeated failures, the former mission is still visible today as a ruin. Hopi interaction with outsiders slowly increased during the 1850–1860 time period through missionaries, contact remained sporadic and informal until 1870 when an Indian agent was appointed to the Hopi, followed by the establishment of the Hopi Indian Agency in Keams Canyon in 1874. Interaction with the US government increased with the establishment of the Hopi reservation in 1882 and this led to a number of changes for the Hopi way of life. Missionary efforts intensified and Hopi children were kidnapped from their homes and forced to attend school, in 1890 a number of residents more receptive to the cultural influences moved closer to the trading post to establish Kykotsmovi Village, sometimes called New Oraibi. Subsequent efforts by the residents to reintegrate resulted in an additional split. With the loss of much of its population Oraibi lost its place as the center of Hopi culture, Kykotsmovi Village is now the seat of the Hopi tribal government. Old Oraibi is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1964, Oraibi features prominently in a famous writing by Aby Warburg, Das Schlangenritual. Which is the transcript of a given in Kreuzlingen, Switzerland in 1923. Warburg visited Oraibi in 1896 and with the help of Henry Voth attended a spring dance. He found in the symbolism of the Hopi a key to understanding similar symbols in other cultures, Warburg took several pictures of Oraibi and of the Hopi ceremonies. Hopi life in Oraibi is also described in Don C, talayesvas autobiography, Sun chief, the autobiography of a Hopi Indian

8.
Fort Ancient
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They were a maize-based agricultural society who lived in sedentary villages and built ceremonial platform mounds. The Fort Ancient culture was thought to have been an expansion of the Mississippian cultures. It is now accepted as a developed culture that descended from the Hopewell culture. The Fort Ancient Cultures most famous mound is called the serpent mound, the name of the culture originates from the Fort Ancient, Ohio archeological site. However, the Fort Ancient Site is now thought to have built by Ohio Hopewellian people. It was likely occupied later by the succeeding Fort Ancient culture, the site is located on a hill above the Little Miami River, close to Lebanon, Ohio. Starting in about 1000 CE, terminal Late Woodland groups in the Middle Ohio Valley adopted maize agriculture and they began settling in small, year-round nuclear family households and settlements of no more than 40 to 50 individuals. These small scattered settlements, located along terraces that overlooked rivers and sometimes on flood plains, by 1200 the small villages began to coalesce into larger settlements of up to 300 people. They were occupied for longer periods, possibly up to 25 years, during the Early and Middle Fort Ancient period, the houses were designed as single-family dwellings. Later Fort Ancient buildings are larger multi-family dwellings, settlements were rarely permanent, as the people commonly moved to a new location after one or two generations, when the natural resources surrounding the old village were exhausted. The people laid out the villages around an oval central plaza. The arrangement of buildings in Fort Ancient settlements is thought to have served as a sort of calendar, marking the positions of the solstices. The people began to build low platform mounds for ceremonial purposes, the plaza was the center of village life, the place where ceremonies, games and other social events were held. The Late Fort Ancient period from 1400 to 1750 is the era in the Middle Ohio Valley. During this era, the formerly dispersed populations began to coalesce, the Gist-phase villages became much larger than during the preceding period, with populations as high as 500. This era also showed increased contact with Mississippian peoples, some of whom may have migrated to and these sites were abandoned during this time period. During the Montour phase, the people inhabited their villages year-round and this may indicate that during the winter, family groups and hunting parties may have returned to the regions previously occupied by their ancestors. Such a pattern was observed during historic times, for example, such artifacts appeared and were used in the area before the arrival of European explorers or settlers

9.
Mississippian culture
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The Mississippian culture was a mound-building Native American civilization archeologists date from approximately 800 CE to 1600 CE, varying regionally. It was composed of a series of settlements and satellite villages linked together by a loose trading network. The Mississippian way of life began to develop in the Mississippi River Valley, cultures in the tributary Tennessee River Valley may have also begun to develop Mississippian characteristics at this point. Almost all dated Mississippian sites predate 1539–1540, with exceptions being Natchez communities that maintained Mississippian cultural practices into the 18th century. A number of traits are recognized as being characteristic of the Mississippians. Although not all Mississippian peoples practiced all of the following activities, the construction of large, truncated earthwork pyramid mounds, or platform mounds. Such mounds were usually square, rectangular, or occasionally circular, structures were usually constructed atop such mounds. The adoption and use of shells as tempering agents in their shell tempered pottery. Widespread trade networks extending as far west as the Rockies, north to the Great Lakes, south to the Gulf of Mexico, the development of the chiefdom or complex chiefdom level of social complexity. The development of institutionalized social inequality, a centralization of control of combined political and religious power in the hands of few or one. The beginnings of a settlement hierarchy, in one major center has clear influence or control over a number of lesser communities. The adoption of the paraphernalia of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex, also called the Southern Cult and this is the belief system of the Mississippians as we know it. SECC items are found in Mississippian-culture sites from Wisconsin to the Gulf Coast, the SECC was frequently tied in to ritual game-playing, as with chunkey. The Mississippians had no writing system or stone architecture, the Mississippi stage is usually divided into three or more chronological periods. Each period is an historical distinction varying regionally. At a particular site, each period may be considered to begin earlier or later, the Mississippi period should not be confused with the Mississippian culture. The Mississippi period is the stage, while Mississippian culture refers to the cultural similarities that characterize this society. The Early Mississippi period had just transitioned from the Late Woodland period way of life, different groups abandoned tribal lifeways for increasing complexity, sedentism, centralization, and agriculture

10.
Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round

11.
Kentucky
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Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall

12.
Indiana
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Indiana /ɪndiˈænə/ is a U. S. state located in the midwestern and Great Lakes regions of North America. Indiana is the 38th largest by area and the 16th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital and largest city is Indianapolis. Indiana was admitted to the United States as the 19th U. S. state on December 11,1816, before becoming a territory, varying cultures of indigenous peoples and historic Native Americans inhabited Indiana for thousands of years. Indiana has an economy with a gross state product of $298 billion in 2012. Indiana has several areas with populations greater than 100,000. The states name means Land of the Indians, or simply Indian Land and it also stems from Indianas territorial history. On May 7,1800, the United States Congress passed legislation to divide the Northwest Territory into two areas and named the section the Indiana Territory. In 1816, when Congress passed an Enabling Act to begin the process of establishing statehood for Indiana, a resident of Indiana is officially known as a Hoosier. The first inhabitants in what is now Indiana were the Paleo-Indians, divided into small groups, the Paleo-Indians were nomads who hunted large game such as mastodons. They created stone tools made out of chert by chipping, knapping and flaking, the Archaic period, which began between 5000 and 4000 BC, covered the next phase of indigenous culture. The people developed new tools as well as techniques to cook food, such new tools included different types of spear points and knives, with various forms of notches. They made ground-stone tools such as axes, woodworking tools. During the latter part of the period, they built mounds and middens. The Archaic period ended at about 1500 BC, although some Archaic people lived until 700 BC, afterward, the Woodland period took place in Indiana, where various new cultural attributes appeared. During this period, the people created ceramics and pottery, an early Woodland period group named the Adena people had elegant burial rituals, featuring log tombs beneath earth mounds. In the middle portion of the Woodland period, the Hopewell people began developing long-range trade of goods, nearing the end of the stage, the people developed highly productive cultivation and adaptation of agriculture, growing such crops as corn and squash. The Woodland period ended around 1000 AD, the Mississippian culture emerged, lasting from 1000 until the 15th century, shortly before the arrival of Europeans. During this stage, the people created large urban settlements designed according to their cosmology, with mounds and plazas defining ceremonial

13.
West Virginia
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West Virginia /ˌwɛst vərˈdʒɪnjə/ is a state located in the Appalachian region of the Southern United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Ohio to the northwest, Pennsylvania to the north, West Virginia is the 9th smallest by area, is ranked 38th in population, and has the second lowest household income of the 50 United States. The capital and largest city is Charleston, West Virginia was admitted to the Union on June 20,1863, and was a key Civil War border state. The Census Bureau and the Association of American Geographers classify West Virginia as part of the Southern United States, the unique position of West Virginia means that it is often included in several geographical regions, including the Mid-Atlantic, the Upland South, and the Southeastern United States. It is the state that is entirely within the area served by the Appalachian Regional Commission. The state is noted for its mountains and rolling hills, its historically significant logging and coal mining industries and it is one of the most densely karstic areas in the world, making it a choice area for recreational caving and scientific research. The karst lands contribute to much of the states cool trout waters and it is also known for a wide range of outdoor recreational opportunities, including skiing, whitewater rafting, fishing, hiking, backpacking, mountain biking, and hunting. Many ancient man-made earthen mounds from various mound builder cultures survive, especially in the areas of Moundsville, South Charleston. The artifacts uncovered in these give evidence of village societies and they had a tribal trade system culture that crafted cold-worked copper pieces. The Iroquois drove out other American Indian tribes from the region to reserve the upper Ohio Valley as a ground in the 1670s. Siouan language tribes such as the Moneton had also recorded in the area previously. West Virginia was originally part of the British Virginia Colony from 1607 to 1776, residents of the western and northern counties set up a separate government under Francis Pierpont in 1861, which they called the restored government. Most voted to separate from Virginia and the new state was admitted to the Union in 1863, in 1864 a state constitutional convention drafted a constitution, which was ratified by the legislature without putting it to popular vote. West Virginia abolished slavery and temporarily disfranchised men who had held Confederate office or fought for the Confederacy, West Virginias history has been profoundly affected by its mountainous terrain, numerous and vast river valleys, and rich natural resources. These were all factors driving its economy and the lifestyles of its residents, a 2010 analysis of a local stalagmite revealed that Native Americans were burning forests to clear land as early as 100 BC. Some regional late-prehistoric Eastern Woodland tribes were involved in hunting and fishing, practicing the slash. Another group progressed to the more time-consuming, advanced companion crop fields method of gardening, also continuing from ancient indigenous people of the state, field space and time was given to tobacco growing through to early historic. Maize did not make a contribution to the diet until after 1150 BP

14.
Serpent Mound
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The Great Serpent Mound is a 1, 348-foot -long, three-foot-high prehistoric effigy mound on a plateau of the Serpent Mound crater along Ohio Brush Creek in Adams County, Ohio. Maintained within a park by the Ohio History Connection, it has designated a National Historic Landmark by the United States Department of Interior. Researchers have attributed construction of the mound to three different prehistoric indigenous cultures, originally thought to be Adena in origin, a 1996 carbon dating study led scholars to believe the mound was built by members of the Fort Ancient culture around 1070 CE. Most recent dating places the mound at around 300 BCE, once again suggesting Adena construction, Serpent Mound is the largest serpent effigy in the world. Including all three parts, the Serpent Mound extends about 1,376 feet, and varies in height from less than a foot to more than three feet, the effigys extreme western feature is a triangular mound approximately 31.6 feet at its base and long axis. There are serpent effigies in Scotland and Ontario that are very similar, in addition, contemporary American Indians have an interest in the site. Several attributions have been entered by academic, philosophic, and Native American concerns regarding all three of unknown factors of when designed, when built, and by whom. Over the years, scholars have proposed that the mound was built by members of the Adena culture, both Lenape and Iroquois legends tell of the Allegheny or Allegewi People, sometimes called Tallegewi. They were said to have lived in the Ohio Valley in an ancient period, believed pre-Adena. Recently the dating of the site has brought into question. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal discovered within the mound in the 1990s indicated that people worked on the mound circa 1070 AD, historically, researchers first attributed the mound to the Adena culture. William Webb, noted Adena exponent, found evidence through carbon dating for Kentucky Adena as early as 1200 BC, as there are Adena graves near the Serpent Mound, scholars thought the same people constructed the mound. The skeletal remains of the Adena type uncovered in the 1880s at Serpent Mound indicate that people were unique among the ancient Ohio Valley peoples. It was more than 45 years before scholars paid sufficient attention to the Adena studies, the Adena culture did build some nearby mounds, so for more than 125 years, many scholars thought they created the Serpent Mound as well. The Adena were renowned for their elaborate earthworks and their creation of sacred circles as part of their cosmology, an unrecorded number of their gravesites throughout the greater Ohio Valley were destroyed before any organized archeological supervision performed correct analysis of their contents. Carbon-dating studies published in 1996 of material from the mound appeared to place the Serpent Mound construction as later than the span of the Adena and this suggested that a people subsequent to the Adena may have built or refurbished the site for their own uses and purposes. Although a characteristic of excavation at most Adena mounds has been discovery of related artifacts and this study and its inferences drew the attention of many experts and is further discussed below. Scholars previously thought that the Fort Ancient culture, an Ohio Valley-based, mound-building society, the Fort Ancient culture was influenced by the contemporary Mississippian culture society based along the mid-Mississippi River valley with its North American center at Cahokia

15.
Pueblo Bonito
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The builders of Pueblo Bonito appear to have been well aware of this threat, but chose to build beneath the fractured stone anyway. The wall stood 97 feet high and weighed approximately 30,000 tons, Pueblo Bonito is considered the most famous Chaco site and was a large D-shaped building that housed many. In 2009, traces of Mexican cacao from at least 1,200 miles away were detected in pottery sherds at Pueblo Bonito. This was the first demonstration that the substance, important in rituals, had brought into the area that became the United States at any time before the Spanish arrived around 1500. Cylindrical pottery jars, common in Central America, had previously been found there,111 jars have been found in Pueblo Bonitos 800 or so rooms. The National Park Service website states, Pueblo Bonito is the most thoroughly investigated and celebrated cultural site in Chaco Canyon, planned and constructed in stages between AD850 to AD1150 by ancestral Puebloan peoples, this was the center of the Chacoan world. According to the anthropologist Brian Fagan, Pueblo Bonito is an icon, as famous as Englands Stonehenge, Mexicos Teotihuacan. United States army Lt. James H. Simpson and his guide, Carravahal, from San Ysidro, New Mexico and they briefly examined eight large ruins in Chaco Canyon, and Carravahal gave their Spanish names, including Pueblo Bonito, meaning beautiful town. Simpson later published the first description of Chaco Canyon in his military report, rancher Richard Wetherill and natural history student George H. Pepper from the American Museum of Natural History, began excavations at Pueblo Bonito in 1896 and ended in 1900. These excavations were financed by B, talbot Hyde and Frederick E. Hyde, Jr. of New York City, who were philanthropists and collectors. During this time, the two men uncovered 190 rooms and photographed and mapped all major structures in the canyon, among the artifacts recovered by Pepper, eight wood flutes were found in a room in the northwestern part of Pueblo Bonito that Pepper designated as Room 33. These flutes are in the style of the Anasazi flutes that are considered a predecessor to the Native American flute, the rituals at Pueblo Bonito were performed with cylindrical vessels, human effigy vessels, and ceramic incense burners. The Hydes donated the large collection of artifacts to the American Museum of Natural History. After the excavation, Wetherill sought to gain control of parts of Chaco Canyon, including Pueblo Bonito, Chetro Ketl. He filed an entry on these ruins, which was invalidated by the General Land Office in 1904 when the federal government took formal possession of these lands. Wetherill was required to stop his ongoing excavations on federal property, Pueblo Bonito is divided into two sections by a precisely aligned wall, which runs north to south through the central plaza. A Great Kiva is situated on side of the wall. In addition to the Great Kivas, over thirty other kivas or ceremonial structures have been found, interior living spaces were quite large by the standards of the Ancient Pueblo

16.
Chaco Culture National Historical Park
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Chaco Culture National Historical Park is a United States National Historical Park hosting the densest and most exceptional concentration of pueblos in the American Southwest. The park is located in northwestern New Mexico, between Albuquerque and Farmington, in a canyon cut by the Chaco Wash. Containing the most sweeping collection of ancient ruins north of Mexico, between AD900 and 1150, Chaco Canyon was a major center of culture for the Ancient Pueblo Peoples. Chacoans quarried sandstone blocks and hauled timber from great distances, assembling fifteen major complexes that remained the largest buildings in North America until the 19th century, evidence of archaeoastronomy at Chaco has been proposed, with the Sun Dagger petroglyph at Fajada Butte a popular example. Many Chacoan buildings may have been aligned to capture the solar and lunar cycles, requiring generations of astronomical observations, climate change is thought to have led to the emigration of Chacoans and the eventual abandonment of the canyon, beginning with a fifty-year drought commencing in 1130. The sites are considered sacred ancestral homelands by the Hopi and Pueblo people, the park is on the Trails of the Ancients Byway, one of the designated New Mexico Scenic Byways. Ancient Chacoans drew upon dense forests of oak, piñon, ponderosa pine, the canyon itself, located within lowlands circumscribed by dune fields, ridges, and mountains, is aligned along a roughly northwest-to-southeast axis and is rimmed by flat massifs known as mesas. Large gaps between the southwestern cliff faces—side canyons known as critical in funneling rain-bearing storms into the canyon. The principal Chacoan complexes, such as Pueblo Bonito, Nuevo Alto, the alluvial canyon floor slopes downward to the northwest at a gentle grade of 30 feet per mile, it is bisected by the Chaco Wash, an arroyo that rarely bears water. The canyons main aquifers were too deep to be of use to ancient Chacoans, today, aside from occasional storm runoff coursing through arroyos, substantial surface water—springs, pools, wells—is virtually nonexistent. A sandy and swampy coastline oscillated east and west, alternately submerging and uncovering the area atop the present Colorado Plateau that Chaco Canyon now occupies. The Chaco Wash flowed across the upper strata of what is now the 400-foot Chacra Mesa, cutting into it, the mesa comprises sandstone and shale formations dating from the Late Cretaceous, which are of the Mesa Verde formation. The canyon bottomlands were further eroded, exposing Menefee Shale bedrock, the canyon and mesa lie within the Chaco Core—which is distinct from the wider Chaco Plateau, a flat region of grassland with infrequent stands of timber. As the Continental Divide is only 15, an arid region of high xeric scrubland and desert steppe, the canyon and wider basin average 8 inches of rainfall annually, the park averages 9.1 inches. Chaco Canyon lies on the side of extensive mountain ranges to the south and west. The region sees four distinct seasons, rainfall is most likely between July and September, while May and June are the driest months. Occasional aberrant northward excursions of the convergence zone may boost precipitation in some years. Chaco endures remarkable climatic extremes, temperatures range between −38 to 102 °F, and may swing 60 °F in a single day, the region averages fewer than 150 frost-free days per year, and the local climate swings wildly from years of plentiful rainfall to prolonged drought

17.
Hohokam
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The Hohokam were an ancient Native American culture centered in the present US state of Arizona. The Hohokam are one of the four cultures of the American Southwest. Variant spellings in current, official usage include Hobokam, Huhugam, according to the National Park Service Website, Hohokam is an Oodham word used by archaeologists to identify a group of people who lived in the Sonoran Desert. According to local tradition, the Hohokam may be the ancestors of the historic Pima. Recent academic research focused on the Sobaipuri, ancient ancestors of the modern Pima, Hohokam, a term borrowed from the Oodham language, is used to define an archaeological culture that existed from the beginning of the common era to about the middle of the 15th century. As an abstract construct, this culture was centered on the middle Gila and this is referred to as the Hohokam Core Area, as opposed to the Hohokam Peripheries, or adjacent regions into which the Hohokam Culture extended. Collectively, the Core and Peripheries formed what is referred to as the Hohokam Regional System, the Hohokam also extended into the Mogollon Rim region. This prehistoric group from the Early Agricultural Period grew corn, lived year round in sedentary villages, the Hohokam used the waters of the Salt and Gila Rivers and constructed an assortment of simple canals combined with weirs in their various agricultural pursuits. These were constructed using relatively simple excavation tools, without the benefit of advanced engineering technologies, and achieved drops of a few feet per mile, balancing erosion and siltation. Over 70 years of research has revealed that the Hohokam cultivated varieties of cotton, tobacco, maize, beans. Late in the Hohokam Chronological Sequence, they used extensive dry-farming systems, primarily to grow agave for food. But, by the century, a distinct Hohokam architectural tradition emerged. Hohokam burial practices varied over time, initially, the primary method employed was flexed inhumation, similar to the tradition used by the southern Mogollon culture, located immediately to the east. Although the particulars of the practice changed somewhat, the Hohokam cremation tradition remained dominant until around 1300, at this time, extended inhumation, similar to that used by the Salado tradition to the north and northeast, was quickly adopted. Also, many of the details of the late Hohokam burial patterns were similar to the tradition practiced by the historic Tohono. This section provides an outline of the Hohokam chronological sequence. As an archaeological construct, the HCS uses a culture history-based period/phase scheme designed to provide a narrative of what has been perceived as a sequence of significant cultural change. Overall, the reason the HCS is confusing is that two primary methods of expressing this information are used, and within context, a vast plethora of theoretical variants have been posited

18.
Arizona
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Arizona is a state in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the Western United States and the Mountain West states and it is the sixth largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix, Arizona is one of the Four Corners states. It has borders with New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, California, and Mexico, Arizonas border with Mexico is 389 miles long, on the northern border of the Mexican states of Sonora and Baja California. Arizona is the 48th state and last of the states to be admitted to the Union. Historically part of the territory of Alta California in New Spain, after being defeated in the Mexican–American War, Mexico ceded much of this territory to the United States in 1848. The southernmost portion of the state was acquired in 1853 through the Gadsden Purchase, Southern Arizona is known for its desert climate, with very hot summers and mild winters. There are ski resorts in the areas of Flagstaff, Alpine, in addition to the Grand Canyon National Park, there are several national forests, national parks, and national monuments. To the European settlers, their pronunciation sounded like Arissona, the area is still known as alĭ ṣonak in the Oodham language. Another possible origin is the Basque phrase haritz ona, as there were numerous Basque sheepherders in the area, There is a misconception that the states name originated from the Spanish term Árida Zona. See also lists of counties, islands, rivers, lakes, state parks, national parks, Arizona is in the Southwestern United States as one of the Four Corners states. Arizona is the sixth largest state by area, ranked after New Mexico, of the states 113,998 square miles, approximately 15% is privately owned. The remaining area is public forest and park land, state trust land, Arizona is well known for its desert Basin and Range region in the states southern portions, which is rich in a landscape of xerophyte plants such as the cactus. This regions topography was shaped by volcanism, followed by the cooling-off. Its climate has hot summers and mild winters. The state is well known for its pine-covered north-central portion of the high country of the Colorado Plateau. Like other states of the Southwest United States, Arizona has an abundance of mountains, despite the states aridity, 27% of Arizona is forest, a percentage comparable to modern-day France or Germany. The worlds largest stand of pine trees is in Arizona

19.
Vikings
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The term is also commonly extended in modern English and other vernaculars to the inhabitants of Viking home communities during what has become known as the Viking Age. Facilitated by advanced seafaring skills, and characterised by the longship, Viking activities at times also extended into the Mediterranean littoral, North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia. A romanticized picture of Vikings as noble savages began to emerge in the 18th century, current popular representations of the Vikings are typically based on cultural clichés and stereotypes, complicating modern appreciation of the Viking legacy. One etymology derives víking from the feminine vík, meaning creek, inlet, various theories have been offered that the word viking may be derived from the name of the historical Norwegian district of Viken, meaning a person from Viken. According to this theory, the word simply described persons from this area, however, there are a few major problems with this theory. People from the Viken area were not called Viking in Old Norse manuscripts, in addition, that explanation could only explain the masculine and ignore the feminine, which is a serious problem because the masculine is easily derived from the feminine but hardly vice versa. The form also occurs as a name on some Swedish rune stones. There is little indication of any negative connotation in the term before the end of the Viking Age and this is found in the Proto-Nordic verb *wikan, ‘to turn’, similar to Old Icelandic víkja ‘to move, to turn’, with well-attested nautical usages. In that case, the idea behind it seems to be that the rower moves aside for the rested rower on the thwart when he relieves him. A víkingr would then originally have been a participant on a sea journey characterized by the shifting of rowers, in that case, the word Viking was not originally connected to Scandinavian seafarers but assumed this meaning when the Scandinavians begun to dominate the seas. In Old English, the word wicing appears first in the Anglo-Saxon poem, Widsith, in Old English, and in the history of the archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen written by Adam of Bremen in about 1070, the term generally referred to Scandinavian pirates or raiders. As in the Old Norse usages, the term is not employed as a name for any people or culture in general, the word does not occur in any preserved Middle English texts. The Vikings were known as Ascomanni ashmen by the Germans for the ash wood of their boats, Lochlannach by the Gaels, the modern day name for Sweden in several neighbouring countries is possibly derived from rōþs-, Ruotsi in Finnish and Rootsi in Estonian. The Slavs and the Byzantines also called them Varangians, Scandinavian bodyguards of the Byzantine emperors were known as the Varangian Guard. The Franks normally called them Northmen or Danes, while for the English they were known as Danes or heathen. It is used in distinction from Anglo-Saxon, similar terms exist for other areas, such as Hiberno-Norse for Ireland and Scotland. The period from the earliest recorded raids in the 790s until the Norman conquest of England in 1066 is commonly known as the Viking Age of Scandinavian history, Vikings used the Norwegian Sea and Baltic Sea for sea routes to the south. The Normans were descended from Vikings who were given feudal overlordship of areas in northern France—the Duchy of Normandy—in the 10th century, in that respect, descendants of the Vikings continued to have an influence in northern Europe

20.
Vinland
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Vinland, Vineland or Winland is the area of coastal North America explored by Norse Vikings, where Leif Erikson first landed in ca. 1000, approximately five centuries prior to the voyages of Christopher Columbus, Vinland was the name given to North America as far as it was explored by the Vikings, presumably including both Newfoundland and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence as far as northeastern New Brunswick. In 1960, archaeological evidence of a Norse settlement in North America was found at LAnse aux Meadows on the tip of the island of Newfoundland. Before the discovery of evidence, Vinland was known only from Old Norse sagas. The 1960 discovery conclusively proved the pre-Columbian Norse colonization of the Americas, LAnse aux Meadows may correspond to the camp Straumfjörð mentioned in the Saga of Erik the Red. Vinland or Winland was the given to part of North America by the Icelandic Norseman Leif Eiríksson. The exact meaning of this Norse toponym has not been established, to write it he visited the King of Denmark, Sweyn II Estridsson who had knowledge of the northern lands. The name contains Old Norse vin which means meadow, there is a long-standing Scandinavian tradition of fermenting berries into wine. The question whether the name refers to actual grapevines or just to berries was addressed in a 2010 excavation report on L’Anse aux Meadows, another proposal for the names etymology, was brought up by Sven Söderberg in 1898. This suggestion involves interpreting the Old Norse name not as vín-land but as vin-land, Old Norse vin has a meaning of meadow, pasture. It was rejected by Einar Haugen, who argued that the vin element had changed its meaning from pasture to farm long before the Old Norse period, names in vin were given in the Proto-Norse period, and they are absent from places colonized in the Viking Age. Haugens basis for rejection has since been challenged, there is a runestone which may have contained a record of the Old Norse name slightly predating Adam of Bremens Winland. The Hønen Runestone was discovered in Norderhov, Norway shortly before 1817 and its assessment depends on a sketch made by antiquarian L. D. Klüwer, now also lost but in turn copied by Wilhelm Frimann Koren Christie. The Younger Futhark inscription was dated to c. The stone had been erected in memory of a Norwegian, sophus Bugge read part of the inscription as ᚢᛁᚿ᛫ᛆᛁᚭ᛫ᛁᛌᛆ uin aią isa Vínlandi á ísa from Vinland over ice. This is highly uncertain, the sequence is read by Magnus Olsen as ᚢᛁᚿ᛫ᚴᛆᚭ᛫ᛁᛌᛆ uin kaą isa vindkalda á ísa over the wind-cold ice. The main sources of information about the Norse voyages to Vinland are two Icelandic sagas, the Saga of Eric the Red and the Saga of the Greenlanders and these stories were preserved by oral tradition until they were written down some 250 years after the events they describe. The existence of two versions of the shows some of the challenges of using traditional sources for history, because they share a large number of story elements. A possible example is the reference to two different men named Bjarni who are blown off course, a brief summary of the plots of the two sagas, given at the end of this article, shows other examples

21.
L'Anse aux Meadows
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LAnse aux Meadows is an archaeological site on the northernmost tip of the island of Newfoundland in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. Discovered in 1960, it is the most famous site of a Norse or Viking settlement in North America, dating to around the year 1000, LAnse aux Meadows is widely accepted as evidence of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact. It is notable for its connection with the attempted colony of Vinland established by Leif Erikson around the same period or, more broadly. It was named a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1978, the site now known as LAnse aux Meadows was first recorded as Anse à la Médée on a French nautical chart made in 1862. The toponym probably referred to a named after the Greek mythological figure of Medea. The cove facing the village of LAnse aux Meadows is still named Médée Bay. How the village came to be named LAnse aux Meadows is not clear. Parks Canada, which manages the site, states that the current name was anglicized from Anse à la Médée after English speakers settled in the area, another possibility is that LAnse aux Meadows is a corruption of the French designation LAnse aux Méduses, which means Jellyfish Cove. The shift from Méduses to Meadows may have occurred because the landscape in the area tends to be open, based on the idea that the Old Norse name Vinland, mentioned in the Icelandic Sagas, meant wine-land, historians had long speculated that the region contained wild grapes. The Ingstads doubted this theory, saying that the name Vinland probably means land of meadows. and this speculation was based on the belief that the Norse would not have been comfortable settling in areas along the American Atlantic coast. This dichotomy between the two views could have possibly been due to the two historic ways in which the first vowel sound of Vinland could be pronounced. In 1960, George Decker, a citizen of the fishing hamlet of LAnse aux Meadows. These bumps covered with grass looked like the remains of houses, Helge Ingstad and Anne Stine Ingstad carried out seven archaeological excavations there from 1961 to 1968. They investigated eight complete house sites and the remains of a ninth, though a possible Norse settlement has been found in southern Newfoundland at Point Rosee, LAnse aux Meadows is currently the only confirmed Norse site in North America. It represents the extent of European exploration and settlement of the New World before the voyages of Christopher Columbus almost 500 years later. Historians have speculated there were other settlement sites, or at least Norse-Native American trade contacts. In 2012, possible Norse outposts were identified in Nanook at Tanfield Valley on Baffin Island, as well as Nunguvik, Willows Island and the Avayalik Islands. The archaeological excavation at LAnse aux Meadows was conducted in the 1960s by a team led by archaeologist Anne Stine Ingstad under the direction of Parks Canada in the 1970s

22.
Newfoundland (island)
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Newfoundland is a large Canadian island off the east coast of the North American mainland, and the most populous part of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It has 29 percent of the land area. The island is separated from the Labrador Peninsula by the Strait of Belle Isle and it blocks the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River, creating the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, the worlds largest estuary. Newfoundlands nearest neighbour is the French overseas community of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, with an area of 108,860 square kilometres, Newfoundland is the worlds 16th-largest island, Canadas fourth-largest island, and the largest Canadian island outside the North. The provincial capital, St. Johns, is located on the southeastern coast of the island, Cape Spear, just south of the capital, is the easternmost point of North America, excluding Greenland. It is common to consider all directly neighbouring islands such as New World, Twillingate, Fogo, by that classification, Newfoundland and its associated small islands have a total area of 111,390 square kilometres. Additionally 6. 1% claimed at least one parent of French ancestry, the islands total population as of the 2006 census was 479,105. Long settled by peoples of the Dorset culture, the island was visited by the Icelandic Viking Leif Eriksson in the 11th century. The next European visitors to Newfoundland were Portuguese, Basque, Spanish, French, the island was visited by the Genoese navigator John Cabot, working under contract to King Henry VII of England on his expedition from Bristol in 1497. In 1501, Portuguese explorers Gaspar Corte-Real and his brother Miguel Corte-Real charted part of the coast of Newfoundland in a attempt to find the Northwest Passage. Newfoundland is considered Britains oldest colony, at the time of English settlement, the Beothuk inhabited the island. While there is evidence of ancient indigenous peoples on the island. LAnse aux Meadows was a Norse settlement near the northernmost tip of Newfoundland, the site is considered the only undisputed evidence of Pre-Columbian contact between the Old and New Worlds, if the Norse-Inuit contact on Greenland is not counted. There is a second suspected Norse site in Point Rosee, the island is a likely location of Vinland, mentioned in the Viking Chronicles, although this has been disputed. The indigenous people on the island at the time of European settlement were the Beothuk, later immigrants developed a variety of dialects associated with settlement on the island, Newfoundland English, Newfoundland French. In the 19th century, it also had a dialect of Irish known as Newfoundland Irish, Scottish Gaelic was spoken on the island during the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the Codroy Valley area, chiefly by settlers from Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia. The Gaelic names reflected the association with fishing, in Scottish Gaelic, it was called Eilean a Trosg, or literally, similarly, the Irish Gaelic name Talamh an Éisc means Land of the Fish. The first inhabitants of Newfoundland were the Paleo-Eskimo, who have no link to other groups in Newfoundland history

23.
Inuit
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Inuit are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Greenland, Canada and Alaska. Inuit is a noun, the singular is Inuk. The Inuit languages are part of the Eskimo-Aleut family, Inuit Sign Language is a critically endangered language isolate spoken in Nunavut. In the United States and Canada, the term Eskimo was commonly used to describe the Inuit and Alaskas Yupik, however, Inuit is not accepted as a term for the Yupik, and Eskimo is the only term that includes Yupik, Iñupiat and Inuit. However, aboriginal peoples in Canada and Greenlandic Inuit view Eskimo as pejorative, in Canada, sections 25 and 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982 classified the Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal Canadians who are not included under either the First Nations or the Métis. These areas are known in Inuktitut as the Inuit Nunangat, in the United States, the Iñupiat live primarily on the Alaska North Slope and on Little Diomede Island. The Greenlandic Inuit are descendants of migrations from Canada. In the 21st century they are citizens of Denmark, although not of the European Union, Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture, who emerged from western Alaska around 1000 CE. They had split from the related Aleut group about 4,000 years ago and from northeastern Siberian migrants, possibly related to the Chukchi language group and they spread eastwards across the Arctic. They displaced the related Dorset culture, the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture, Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as giants, people who were taller and stronger than the Inuit. Less frequently, the legends refer to the Dorset as dwarfs, researchers believe that the Dorset culture lacked the dogs, larger weapons and other technologies of the Inuit society, which gave the latter an advantage. By 1300, Inuit migrants had reached west Greenland, where they settled, faced with population pressures from the Thule and other surrounding groups, such as the Algonquian and Siouan to the south, the Tuniit gradually receded. They were thought to have become extinct as a people by about 1400 or 1500. But, in the mid-1950s, researcher Henry B. Collins determined that, based on the ruins found at Native Point, the Sadlermiut population survived up until winter 1902–03, when exposure to new infectious diseases brought by contact with Europeans led to their extinction as a people. In the early 21st century, mitochondrial DNA research has supported the theory of continuity between the Tuniit and the Sadlermiut peoples and it also provided evidence that a population displacement did not occur within the Aleutian Islands between the Dorset and Thule transition. In contrast to other Tuniit populations, the Aleut and Sadlermiut benefited from both geographical isolation and their ability to adopt certain Thule technologies, in Canada and Greenland, Inuit circulated almost exclusively north of the Arctic tree line, the effective southern border of Inuit society. The most southern officially recognized Inuit community in the world is Rigolet in Nunatsiavut, south of Nunatsiavut, the descendants of the southern Labrador Inuit in NunatuKavut continued their traditional transhumant semi-nomadic way of life until the mid-1900s. The Nunatukavummuit people usually moved among islands and bays on a seasonal basis and they did not establish stationary communities

24.
Thule people
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The Thule or proto-Inuit were the ancestors of all modern Inuit. They developed in coastal Alaska by 1000 and expanded eastwards across Canada, in the process, they replaced people of the earlier Dorset culture that had previously inhabited the region. The appellation Thule originates from the location of Thule in northwest Greenland, facing Canada, the links between the Thule and the Inuit are biological, cultural, and linguistic. Evidence supports the idea that the Thule were in contact with the Vikings, in Viking sources, these peoples are called the Skræling. Some Thule migrated southward, in the Second Expansion or Second Phase, by the 13th or 14th century, the Thule had occupied an area currently inhabited by the Central Inuit, and by the 15th century, the Thule replaced the Dorset. Intensified contacts with Europeans began in the 18th century, compounded by the already disruptive effects of the Little Ice Age, the Thule communities broke apart, and the people were henceforward known as the Eskimo, and later, Inuit. The Thule Tradition lasted from about 200 B. C. to 1600 A. D. around the Bering Strait, Thule culture was mapped out by Therkel Mathiassen, following his participation as an archaeologist and cartographer of the Fifth Danish Expedition to Arctic America in 1921–1924. There are three stages of development leading up to Thule culture, they are Okvik/Old Bering Sea, Punuk, Birnirk and these groups of peoples have been referred to as “Neo-Eskimo” cultures, which are differentiated from the earlier Norton Tradition. There are several stages of the Thule tradition, Old Bering Sea Stage, Punuk Stage and these stages represent variations of the Thule Tradition as it expanded over time. And spread across the coasts of Labrador and Greenland and it is the most recent “neo-Eskimo” culture. Jenness identified the Bering Sea culture as a highly developed Inuit culture of northeastern Asiatic origin, a strong maritime adaptation is characteristic of the Thule, and the OBS stage, and then can be seen in the archaeological evidence. Both Kayaks and umiaks appear in the record for the first time. The toolkits of the people of the time are dominated by polished-slate rather than flaked-stone artifacts, including knives, projectile heads. There are many important innovations that emerged that allowed hunting to be more efficient, harpoon mounted ice picks were used for seal hunting, as well as ivory plugs and mouthpieces for inflating harpoon line floats, which enabled them to recover larger sea mammals when dispatched. These people relied heavily on seal and walrus for subsistence and it is easy to pick out OBS technology because of the artistic curvilinear dots, circles, and shorter lines that were used to decorate their tools. The chronological relationship between the Okvik and Old Bering Seas cultures has been the subject of debate and remains largely undecided, based mainly on art styles. The Punuk stage is a development of Old Bering Sea stage, with distribution along the major Strait islands, the Punuk culture was initially defined by Henry Collins in 1928 from a 16 ft deep midden on one of the Punuk Islands. Punuk is differentiated with Old Bering Sea through its artifact styles and house forms, as well as harpoon styles, Punuk settlements were larger and more common than earlier villages

25.
Dorset culture
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The Dorset culture was a Paleo-Eskimo culture that preceded the Inuit in the Arctic of North America. It is named after Cape Dorset in Nunavut, Canada where the first evidence of its existence was found, the culture has been defined as having four phases due to the distinct differences in the technologies relating to hunting and tool making. Artifacts include distinctive triangular end-blades, soapstone lamps, and burins, the Dorset were first identified as a separate culture in 1925. Archaeology has been critical to adding to knowledge about them because the Dorset were essentially extinct by 1500 due to difficulties in adapting to the Medieval Warm Period, the Thule people, who began migrating east from Alaska in the 11th century, began the displacement of the Dorset. Modern genetic studies show the Dorset population were distinct from later groups, Inuit legends recount them driving away people they called the Tuniit or Sivullirmiut First Inhabitants. According to legend, the First Inhabitants were giants, taller and stronger than the Inuit, scholars now believe the Dorset and the later Thule people were the peoples encountered by Norsemen who visited the area. The Norse called these indigenous peoples skræling, in 1925 anthropologist Diamond Jenness received some odd artifacts from Cape Dorset. As they were different from those of the Inuit, he speculated that they were indicative of an ancient. Jenness named the culture Dorset after the location of the find and these artifacts showed a consistent and distinct cultural pattern that included sophisticated art distinct from that of the Inuit. For example, the carvings featured uniquely large hairstyles for women, much research since then has revealed many details of the Dorset people and their culture. The origins of the Dorset people are not well understood and they may have developed from the previous cultures of Pre-Dorset, Saqqaq or Independence I. There are, however, problems with this theory, these cultures had bow and arrow technology which the Dorsets lacked. Possibly due to a shift from terrestrial to aquatic hunting, the bow and arrow became lost to the Dorset, another piece of technology that is missing from the Dorset are drills, there are no drill holes in Dorset artifacts. Instead, the Dorset gouged lenticular holes, for example, bone needles are common in Dorset sites, but they have long and narrow holes that have been painstakingly carved or gouged. Both the Pre-Dorset and Thule had drills, Dorset culture and history is divided into four periods, the Early, Middle, Late, and Terminal phases. The Terminal phase was already in progress when the Thule entered the Canadian Arctic and it is probably closely related to the onset of the Medieval Warm Period, which started to warm the Arctic considerably around AD800. With the warmer climates, the sea ice became less predictable and was isolated from the High Arctic, the Dorset were highly adapted to living in a very cold climate, and much of their food came from hunting sea mammals through holes in the ice. The massive decline in sea-ice which the Medieval Warm Period produced would have had an impact upon their way of life

26.
World Digital Library
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The World Digital Library is an international digital library operated by UNESCO and the United States Library of Congress. It aims to expand non-English and non-western content on the Internet, the WDL opened with 1,236 items. As of late 2015, it more than 12,000 items from nearly 200 countries. After almost 20 years without participation, the United States re-established its permanent delegation to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, google Inc. became the first partner of this public–private partnership and donated $3 million to support development of the World Digital Library in 2005. Foremost was the belief that the World Digital Library should engage partners in planning the four project areas, technical architecture, selection, governance. The participants formed working groups to address the challenges of each of the four project areas. The working groups presented their findings to the larger WDL group in July 2007, findings from this planning process were presented at the thirty-fourth session of the UNESCO General Conference in October 2007 in Paris, France. In early September 2008, the Organization of American States agreed to join with the Library of Congress in developing the World Digital Library, secretary General José Miguel Insulza signed the Contributor Agreement with Librarian of Congress, Dr. James Billington, at an OAS headquarters ceremony. The World Digital Library was launched on April 21,2009 at UNESCO headquarters in Paris, the World Digital Library and Universal Access to Knowledge. Oudenaren, John Van, Beyond Access, Digitization to Preserve Culture, Library of Congress, UNESCO Oudenaren, World Digital Library In The Developing World

27.
Smithsonian (magazine)
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Smithsonian is the official journal published by the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D. C. The first issue was published in 1970, Thompson would later recall that his philosophy for the new magazine was that it would stir curiosity in already receptive minds. It would deal with history as it is relevant to the present and it would present art, since true art is never dated, in the richest possible reproduction. It would peer into the future via coverage of social progress and of science, technical matters would be digested and made intelligible by skilled writers who would stimulate readers to reach upward while not turning them off with jargon. We would find the best writers and the best photographers—not unlike the best of the old Life, in 1973, the magazine turned a profit for the first time. By 1974, circulation had nearly quadrupled, to 635,000, in 1980, Thompson was replaced by Don Moser, who had also worked at Life, and circulation reached upwards of two million, in turn, by Carey Winfrey upon his retirement in 2001. Smithsonian magazine provides in-depth analysis of varied topics within a range of scientific areas. Every year since 2012, the Magazine has sponsored the American Ingenuity Awards, winners have included Elon Musk, Lin-Manuel Miranda, OK Go, Dave Eggers, Aziz Ansari, Rosanne Cash, Jeff Bezos, Fred Armisen, Bill Hader and David Lynch. Presenters have included Stephen Hawking, Stephen Colbert, David Byrne, Herbie Hancock, Erin Brockovich, Ruben Blades, Bill Nye, Art Spiegelman, the American Ingenuity Award itself was created by the artist Jeff Koons. Notable past and current contributors to Smithsonian have included, Official website

28.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

29.
Pre-Columbian era
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For this reason the alternative terms of Precontact Americas, Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use. In areas of Latin America the term used is Pre-Hispanic. Other civilizations were contemporary with the period and were described in European historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya civilization, had their own written records, because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, men like Diego de Landa destroyed many texts in pyres, even while seeking to preserve native histories. Only a few documents have survived in their original languages, while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture. Indigenous American cultures continue to evolve after the pre-Columbian era, many of these peoples and their descendants continue traditional practices, while evolving and adapting new cultural practices and technologies into their lives. Now, the study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific. Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering Strait, genetic evidence found in Amerindians maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia. Over the course of millennia, Paleo-Indians spread throughout North and South America, exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago, however, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago, the chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 14, 000–17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants. The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at an earlier date, possibly 50. In that case, the Eskimo peoples would have arrived separately and at a later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago. The North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded and it finally stabilized by about 10,000 years ago, climatic conditions were then very similar to todays. Within this timeframe, roughly pertaining to the Archaic Period, numerous archaeological cultures have been identified, the unstable climate led to widespread migration, with early Paleo-Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes. The paleo-indians were hunter-gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family and these groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. During much of the Paleo-Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct giant land animals such as mastodon, Paleo-Indian groups carried a variety of tools

30.
Paleo-Indians
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The prefix paleo- comes from the Greek adjective palaios, meaning old or ancient. The term Paleo-Indians applies specifically to the period in the Western Hemisphere and is distinct from the term Paleolithic. Evidence suggests big-animal hunters crossed the Bering Strait from Eurasia into North America over a land and ice bridge, small isolated groups of hunter-gatherers migrated alongside herds of large herbivores far into Alaska. From c. 16,500 – c. 13,500 BCE, ice-free corridors developed along the Pacific coast and this allowed animals, followed by humans, to migrate south into the interior. The people went on foot or used primitive boats along the coastline, the precise dates and routes of the peopling of the New World are subject to ongoing debate. Stone tools, particularly projectile points and scrapers, are the evidence of the earliest human activity in the Americas. Crafted lithic flaked tools are used by archaeologists and anthropologists to classify cultural periods, scientific evidence links Indigenous Americans to Asian peoples, specifically eastern Siberian populations. There is evidence for at least two separate migrations, between 8000–7000 BCE the climate stabilized, leading to a rise in population and lithic technology advances, resulting in more sedentary lifestyle. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets, another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific coast to South America. Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea rise of hundreds of meters following the last ice age. Archaeologists contend that Paleo-Indians migration out of Beringia, ranges from c. 40,000 – c. 16,500 years ago and this time range is a source of debate and promises to continue as such for years to come. However, alternative theories about the origins of Paleoindians exist, including migration from Europe, the Paleo-Indian would eventually flourish all over the Americas. These peoples were spread over a geographical area, thus there were regional variations in lifestyles. However, all the groups shared a common style of stone tool production, making knapping styles. Food would have been plentiful during the few months of the year. Lakes and rivers were teeming with many species of fish, birds, nuts, berries and edible roots could be found in the forests and marshes. The fall would have been a time because foodstuffs would have to be stored

31.
Archaeology of the Americas
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The archaeology of the Americas is the study of the archaeology of North America, Central America, South America and the Caribbean. This includes the study of pre-historic/Pre-Columbian and historic indigenous American peoples and this differs from old world prehistory where the terms Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and Bronze Age are generally used. Lithic stage Defined by the prevalence of big-game hunting. In most places, this can be dated to before 8000 BCE, examples include the Clovis culture and Folsom tradition groups. The Archaic stage Defined by the increasingly intensive gathering of resources with the decline of the big-game hunting lifestyle. Typically, Archaic cultures can be dated from 8000 to 1000 BCE, examples include the Archaic Southwest, the Arctic small tool tradition, the Poverty Point culture, and the Chan-Chan culture in southern Chile. The Formative stage Defined as village agriculture based, most of these can be dated from 1000 BCE to 500 CE. Examples include the Dorset culture, Zapotec civilization, Mimbres culture, Olmec, Woodland, the Classic stage Defined as early civilizations, and typically dating from 500 to 1200 CE. Willey and Phillips considered only cultures from Mesoamerica and Peru to have achieved this level of complexity, examples include the early Maya and the Toltec. The Post-Classic stage Defined as later prehispanic civilizations and typically dated from 1200 CE until the advent of European colonisation, the late Maya and the Aztec cultures were Post-Classic. In some cases, notably, that of Kennewick Man, these laws have been subject to judicial scrutiny. The study does not address the question of separate migrations for these groups, Amerindian groups in the Bering Strait region exhibit perhaps the strongest DNA or mitochondrial DNA relations to Siberian peoples. The genetic diversity of Amerindian indigenous groups increase with distance from the entry point into the Americas. Certain genetic diversity patterns from West to East suggest at least some coastal migration events, geneticists have variously estimated that peoples of Asia and the Americas were part of the same population from 42,000 to 21,000 years ago

32.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age

33.
Caddoan Mississippian culture
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The Caddoan Mississippian culture was a prehistoric Native American culture considered by archaeologists as a variant of the Mississippian culture. The Caddoan Mississippians covered a territory, including what is now Eastern Oklahoma, Western Arkansas, Northeast Texas. The Caddoan Mississippians are thought to be an extension of Woodland period peoples and they were linked to other peoples across much of the Eastern Woodlands through trade networks. This time period saw the introduction of pottery making from peoples to their east, by 800 CE early Caddoan society began to coalesce into one of the earlier Mississippian cultures. Some villages began to gain prominence as ritual centers, with elite residences, the mounds were arranged around open plazas, which were usually kept swept clean and were often used for ceremonial occasions. As complex religious and social ideas developed, some people and family gained prominence over others. This hierarchical structure is marked in the record by the appearance of large tombs with exotic grave offerings of obvious symbols of authority. By 1000 CE a society defined as Caddoan had emerged, the Caddoans had developed a distinct type of pottery making, later described by the de Soto expedition as some of the finest they had seen, even in their European homeland. By 1200, the villages, hamlets, and farmsteads established throughout the Caddo world had begun extensive maize agriculture. Recent excavations have revealed more cultural diversity within the region than had been expected by scholars, Caddoan Mississippian towns had a more irregular layout of earthen mounds and associated villages than did towns in the Middle Mississippian heartland to the east. They also lacked the wooden palisade fortifications often found in the major Middle Mississippian towns, living on the western edge of the Mississippian world, the Caddoans may have faced fewer military threats from their neighbors. Their societies may also have had a lower level of social stratification. The location of the edge of the Eastern Woodlands may account for these differences. However, around 1400 CE, Caddoan populations had peaked, with many ritual centers beginning to decline in population, a more dispersed settlement system developed, with the bulk of the people living on dispersed homesteads and farms rather than in large villages. By this time the broad cultural unity began to break down. Caddoan Mississippian peoples were connected to the larger Mississippian world to the east, artifacts found in The Great Mortuary at the Spiro site included wood, conch shell, copper, basketry, woven fabric, lace, fur, feathers, and carved stone statues. Some artifacts came from as far away as Cahokia in Illinois, Etowah and Ocmulgee in Georgia, many featured the elaborate symbolism of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex, a multiregional and pan-linguistic trade and religious network. Exotic material found at Caddoan Mississippian sites included colored flint from New Mexico, copper from the Great Lakes, conch shells from the Gulf Coast, and mica from the Carolinas

34.
Chichimeca
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Chichimeca was the name that the Nahua peoples of Mexico generically applied to many bands and tribes of nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples who inhabited northern modern-day Mexico. Chichimeca carried the same sense as the Roman term barbarian to describe people living outside settled, the name and its pejorative sense was adopted by the Spanish. For the Spanish, in the words of scholar Charlotte M. Gradie, in modern times only one ethnic group is customarily referred to as Chichimecs, namely the Chichimeca Jonaz of whom a few thousand live in the state of Guanajuato. The Chichimeca peoples were groups of varying ethnicities and speaking distinct languages from different families. As the Spaniards worked towards consolidating the rule of New Spain over the indigenous peoples during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, a number of ethnic groups of the region allied against the Spanish. The first and most long-lasting of these conflicts was the Chichimeca War, for example, virtually nothing is known about the peoples referred to as the Guachichil, Caxcan, Zacateco, Tecuexe, or Guamare. Others, such as the Opata or Eudeve, are described in records. Still other Chichimec peoples maintain separate identities into the present day, for example the Otomi, Chichimeca Jonaz, Cora, Huichol, Pame, Yaqui, Mayo, Oodham, the Nahuatl name Chīchīmēcah means inhabitants of Chichiman, the placename Chichiman means Area of Milk. It is sometimes said to be related to dog, but the is in chichi are short while those in Chīchīmēcah are long. In modern Mexico, the word Chichimeca can have pejorative connotations, such as primitive, savage, uneducated, the first descriptions of Chichimecs are from the early conquest period. In 1526, Hernán Cortés writes in one of his letters of the northern Chichimec tribes and he commented that they might be enslaved and used to work in the mines. The Chicimec, Caxcanes and other people of Northern Mexico fought back against Spanish forces such as Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán when they began trying to enslave them. Their fight against Spanish forces became known as the Mixtón Rebellion, in the late sixteenth century, Gonzalo de las Casas wrote about the Chichimec. Las Casas account was called Report of the Chichimeca and the justness of the war against them and he described the people, providing ethnographic information. He wrote that only covered their genitalia with any clothing, painted their bodies. He mentions as further proof of their barbarity that Chichimec women, having given birth, while las Casas recognized that the Chichimecan tribes spoke different languages, he considered their culture as primarily uniform. This stereotype became even more prevalent during the course of the Chichimec wars, in some areas, the Chichimeca cultivated maize and calabash. From the mesquite, the Chichamecs made white bread and wine, many Chichimec tribes used the juice of the agave as a substitute for water when it was in short supply

35.
Hopewell tradition
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The Hopewell tradition was not a single culture or society, but a widely dispersed set of related populations. They were connected by a network of trade routes, known as the Hopewell exchange system. Within this area, societies participated in a degree of exchange with the highest amount of activity along waterways. The Hopewell exchange system received materials from all over what is now the United States, most of the items traded were exotic materials and were received by people living in the major trading and manufacturing areas. These people then converted the materials into products and exported them through local and regional exchange networks, the objects created by the Hopewell exchange system spread far and wide and have been seen in many burials outside the Midwest. Although the origins of the Hopewell are still under discussion, the Hopewell culture can also be considered a cultural climax, Hopewell populations originated in western New York and moved south into Ohio, where they built upon the local Adena mortuary tradition. Or, Hopewell was said to have originated in western Illinois, similarly, the Havana Hopewell tradition was thought to have spread up the Illinois River and into southwestern Michigan, spawning Goodall Hopewell. The name Hopewell was applied by Warren K. Moorehead after his explorations of the Hopewell Mound Group in Ross County, Ohio, the mound group itself was named for the family who owned the earthworks at the time. What any of the groups now defined as Hopewellian called themselves is unknown. The Hopewell inherited from their Adena forebears an incipient social stratification and this increased social stability and reinforced sedentism, social stratification, specialized use of resources, and probably population growth. Hopewell societies cremated most of their deceased and reserved burial for only the most important people, in some sites, hunters apparently received a higher status in the community because their graves were more elaborate and contained more status goods. The Hopewellian peoples had leaders, but they were not like powerful rulers who could command armies of slaves and these cultures likely accorded certain families a special place of privilege. Some scholars suggest that these societies were marked by the emergence of big-men and these leaders acquired their position because of their ability to persuade others to agree with them on important matters such as trade and religion. They also perhaps were able to influence by the creation of reciprocal obligations with other important members of the community. Today, the features of the Hopewell tradition era are mounds built for uncertain purposes. Great geometric earthworks are one of the most impressive Native American monuments throughout American prehistory, eastern Woodlands mounds have various geometric shapes and rise to impressive heights. The gigantic sculpted earthworks often took the shape of animals, birds, the function of the mounds is still under debate. Due to considerable evidence and surveys, plus the good condition of the largest mounds

36.
Coles Creek culture
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Coles Creek culture is a Late Woodland archaeological culture in the Lower Mississippi valley in the southern United States. The period marks a significant change in the history of the area. Population increased dramatically and there is evidence of a growing cultural and political complexity. Although many of the traits of chiefdom societies are not yet manifested. Coles Creek sites are found in Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi and it is considered ancestral to the Plaquemine culture. The Coles Creek culture is a development of the Lower Mississippi Valley that took place between the terminal Woodland period and the later Plaquemine culture period. The culture was defined by the unique decoration on grog-tempered ceramic ware by James A. Ford after his investigations at the Mazique Archeological Site and he had studied both the Mazique and Coles Creek Sites, and almost went with the Mazique culture, but decided on the less historically involved sites name. Although earlier cultures built mounds mainly as a part of customs, by the Coles Creek period these mounds took on a newer shape. Instead of being primarily for burial, mounds were constructed to support temples, pyramidal mounds with flat tops and ramps were constructed, usually over successive years and with many layers. A temple or other structures, usually of wattle and daub construction, a typical Coles Creek site plan consisted of at least two and more commonly three, mounds around a central plaza. This pattern emerged in roughly 800 CE and continued for several hundred years, by late Coles Creek times, the site plans are often enlarged to include up to three more mounds. Sites typical of this period are Mount Nebo, Holly Bluff, Kings Crossing, long distance trade seems to have been negligible at this time, as exotic goods and trade items are rare in Coles Creek sites. There is little evidence of domesticated or cultivated plants until the end of the Coles Creek period, acorns are a dominant food source, supplemented with persimmons, palmetto, and some starchy seeds such as maygrass. Coles Creek populations may have loosely managed certain plant resources in order to promote a better or more consistent food supply, maize is found in very limited quantities, but by 1000-1200 CE had begun to increase, although nowhere near the levels it would reach in later Mississippian times. The bow and arrow was introduced in this period, although the continued to be used. Pottery styles changed during this period, as began to create more durable wares with more diversified uses. Wet clay was tempered with particles of dry clay to prevent cracking during firing, most pots were decorated only on the upper half, usually with designs of incised lines or impressed tool marks

37.
Fremont culture
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In the Navajo culture the pictographs are credited to people who lived before the flood. The Fremont River itself is named for John Charles Frémont, an American explorer and it inhabited sites in what is now Utah and parts of Nevada, Idaho and Colorado from AD1 to 1300. It was adjacent to, roughly contemporaneous with, but distinctly different from the Ancestral Pueblo peoples located to their south, Fremont Indian State Park in the Clear Creek Canyon area in south-central Utah contains the biggest Fremont culture site in Utah. Thousand-year-old pit houses, petroglyphs, and other Fremont artifacts were discovered at Range Creek, nearby Nine Mile Canyon has long been known for its large collection of Fremont rock art. Other sites are found in The San Rafael Swell, Capitol Reef National Park, Dinosaur National Monument, Zion National Park, first, Fremont culture people foraged wild food sources and grew corn. The culture participated in a continuum of fairly reliable subsistence strategies that no doubt varied from place to place, other unifying characteristics include the manufacture of relatively expedient gray ware pottery and a signature style of basketry and rock art. Most of the Fremont lived in single and extended family units comprising villages ranging from two to a dozen pithouse structures, with only a few having been occupied at any one time. The Fremont are sometimes thought to have begun as a group of the Ancestral Pueblo people. According to archaelogist Dean Snow, Fremont people generally wore moccasins like their Great Basin ancestors rather than sandals like the Ancestral Puebloans and they were part-time farmers who lived in scattered semi-sedentary farmsteads and small villages, never entirely giving up traditional hunting and gathering for more risky full-time farming. Snow notes that Fremont culture declined due to changing climate conditions c.950 CE, the culture moved to the then-marshy areas of northwestern Utah, which sustained them for about 400 years. Traces of Fremont, Society and Rock Art in Ancient Utah, text by Steven R. Simms, photographs by Francois Gohier. ISBN 978-1-60781-011-7 Snow, Dean R. Archaeology of Native North America, video on Fremont culture- Scientific American Frontiers

38.
Marksville culture
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This culture takes its name from the Marksville Prehistoric Indian Site in Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana. Marksville Culture was contemporaneous with the Hopewell cultures of Ohio and Illinois and it evolved from the earlier Tchefuncte culture and into the Baytown and Troyville cultures and later the Coles Creek and Plum Bayou cultures. It is considered ancestral to the Natchez and Taensa Peoples, the Hopewell tradition was a widely dispersed set of related populations, which were connected by a common network of trade routes, known as the Hopewell Exchange System. The Marksville culture was a manifestation of this network. Settlements were large and usually located on terraces of major streams, the pipes had flat bases with a hole for a stem, and a bowl in the center. Animal figurines on the platform arent unusual, with the bowl being located in the animals back, the high status leaders organized community life, and officiated at burial ceremonies, an important part of the Marksville Culture. The mounds were constructed in stages over many years, with the first stage being a flat, the ceremonies may have been held years apart and those who died between ceremonies were temporarily stored in other locations, then gathered up and buried together. Although made from clay, Marksville pottery was similar in design and decoration to pottery found in Illinois. A typical vessel was three to five inches tall and three to seven inches in diameter and often decorated with geometric and effigy designs, usually stylized birds and this decorated pottery was made primarily for ceremonial uses, with other plainer utilitarian ware for daily use. Marksville pottery influenced Santa Rosa pottery, a character of the contemporary Santa Rosa-Swift Creek culture. Crooks mound Grand Gulf Mound List of Hopewell sites

39.
Mogollon culture
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The Mogollon culture is one of the major prehistoric Southwestern cultural divisions of the Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico. The culture flourished from the period, c.200 CE, to either 1450 or 1540 CE. The name Mogollon comes from the Mogollon Mountains, which were named after Don Juan Ignacio Flores Mogollón, the name was chosen and defined in 1936 by archaeologist Emil W. Haury. Key differences included brown-paste, coil-and-scrape pottery, deeply excavated semi-subterranean pithouses, eight decades of subsequent research have confirmed Haurys initial findings. The earliest Mogollon pithouses were deep and either circular or oval-shaped, over time, Mogollon people built rectangular houses with rounded corners and not as deep. Their villages also had kivas, or round, semi-subterranean ceremonial structures, Mogollon origins remain a matter of speculation. One model holds that the Mogollon emerged from a preceding Desert Archaic tradition that links Mogollon ancestry with the first prehistoric human occupations of the area, in this model, cultural distinctions emerged in the larger region when populations grew great enough to establish villages and even larger communities. The Mogollon were, initially, foragers who augmented their subsistence efforts by farming, through the first millennium CE, however, dependence on farming probably increased. Water control features are common among Mimbres branch sites from the 10th through 12th centuries CE, the nature and density of Mogollon residential villages changed through time. The earliest Mogollon villages are small hamlets composed of several pithouses, village sizes increased over time and by the 11th century surface pueblos became common. Cliff-dwellings became common during the 13th and 14th centuries, Research on Mogollon culture has led to the recognition of regional variants, of which the most widely recognized in popular media is the Mimbres culture. Others include the Jornada, Forestdale, Reserve, Point of Pines, San Simon, an alternate way of viewing Mogollon culture is through three periods of housing types, Early Pithouse Late Pithouse Mogollon Pueblo. Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument in southwestern New Mexico was established as a National Monument on 16 November 1907 and it contains several archaeological sites attributed to the Mimbres branch. At the headwaters of the Gila, Mimbres populations adjoined another more northern branch of the Mogollon culture, the TJ Ruin, for example, is a Classic Mimbres phase pueblo, however the cliff dwellings are Tularosa phase. The Hueco Tanks State Historic Site is approximately 32 mi northeast of El Paso, Mimbres may, depending on its context, refer to a tradition within a subregion of the Mogollon culture area or to an interval of time, the Classic Mimbres phase within the Mimbres branch. Classic Mimbres phase pottery is particularly famous pottery, and Classic Mimbres pottery designs were imitated on Santa Fe Railroad Mimbreños china dinnerware from 1936 to 1970, three Circle phase pithouse villages within the Mimbres branch are distinctive. Houses are quadrilateral, usually with sharply-angled corners, plastered floors and walls, local pottery styles include early forms of Mimbres black and white, red-on-cream, and textured plainware. Large ceremonial structures are dug deeply into the ground and often include distinctive ceremonial features such as foot drums, Classic Mimbres phase pueblos can be quite large, with some composed of clusters of communities, each containing up to 150 rooms and all grouped around an open plaza

40.
Plaquemine culture
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The Plaquemine culture was an archaeological culture in the lower Mississippi River Valley in western Mississippi and eastern Louisiana. Good examples of culture are the Medora Site in West Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana. Plaquemine culture was contemporaneous with the Middle Mississippian culture in the Cahokia site in St. Louis and it is considered ancestral to the Natchez and Taensa peoples. The Plaquemine Culture occupied the rest of Louisiana not taken by the Caddoan Mississippian culture during this time frame and its people are considered descendants of the Troyville-Coles Creek culture. A prominent feature of Plaquemine sites are large ceremonial centers with two or more large mounds facing an open plaza, the flat-topped, pyramidal mounds were constructed in several stages. Sometimes they were topped by one or two smaller mounds, mounds were often built on top of the ruins of a house or temple and similar buildings were usually constructed on top of the mound. In earlier times, buildings were circular, but later they were likely to be rectangular. They were constructed of wattle and daub, and sometimes with wall posts sunk into foot-deep wall trenches, at times, shallow, oval or rectangular graves were dug in the mounds. These might have been for primary burials, but more often they were for the reburial of remains originally interred elsewhere, one kind of pottery occasionally placed in the graves is called killed pottery. This type has a hole in the base of the vessel that was cut while the pot was being made and they also decorated their pots in other characteristic ways. They sometimes added small solid handles called lugs and textured the surface by brushing clumps of grass over the vessel before it was fired. They often cut designs into the surface of the wet clay and, like their Caddoan contemporaries, Plaquemine peoples also had undecorated pots that they used for ordinary daily tasks. Pottery during this phase still used dry clay particles as a tempering material, beginning during the Terminal Coles Creek period, Mississippian cultures far upstream from the Plaquemine area began expanding their reach southward. The Plaquemine peoples absorbed more Mississippian influence and the area of their culture began to shrink after 1350 CE. Eventually the last enclave of purely Plaquemine culture was the Natchez Bluffs area, while the Yazoo Basin, historic groups in the area during first European contact bear out this division. In the Natchez Bluffs, the Taensa and Natchez, had held out against Mississippian influence and they continued to use the same sites as their ancestors and carry on the Plaquemine culture. Groups who appear to have absorbed more Mississippian influence were identified at the time of European contact as those tribes speaking the Tunican, Chitimachan, ISBN 0-8203-1888-4 R. Barry Lewis and Charles Stout, editors. Mississippian Towns and Sacred Spaces, University of Alabama Press,1998, ISBN 0-8173-0947-0 Jeffrey P. Brain, Winterville-Late Prehistoric Culture Contact in the Lower Mississippi Valley, Mississippi Department of Archives and History,1989

41.
Plum Bayou culture
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Plum Bayou culture is a Pre-Columbian Native American culture that lived in what is now east-central Arkansas from 650—1050 CE, a time known as the Late Woodland Period. Archaeologists defined the culture based on the Toltec Mounds site and named it for a local waterway, exotic materials found at Plum Bayou sites reveal trade with the Ozark Plateau, West Gulf Coastal Plain, and the Ouachita Mountains. Major Plum Bayou sites with single or multiple mounds include, Plum Bayou culture was one of the earliest groups to build ceremonial community centers with platform mounds and they primarily lived in small villages in the uplands and floodplains of the White and Arkansas Rivers. Archaeologists divide Plum Bayou settlements into single household, multiple household, multiple household with mound, farmers grew crops such as amaranth, chenopodium, bottle gourd, knotweed, little barley, maygrass, squash, sunflower, and sumpweed. In some later Plum Bayou sites, maize was cultivated in small amounts, supplementing their farming, Plum Bayou peoples also hunted game and gathered wild plants, such as cherries, grapes, plums, persimmons, and nuts. This culture is defined in part by its ceramics, much of Plum Bayou ceramics was plainware, tempered with shells. Named types of ceramics found at Plum Bayou sites include Coles Creek incised var. Keyo, Larto Red, Officer Punctated, Red slip, or clay paint, was also used to decorate some ceramic vessels. While neighboring cultures adopted maize cultivation and increasingly complex religions and political organization, people continued to occupy the region, but they abandoned their ceremonial sites. Culture, phase, and chronological table for the Mississippi Valley Odell, George H. Stone Tools, Theoretical Insights into Human Prehistory

42.
Poverty Point culture
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Archeologists have identified more than 100 sites as belonging to this mound builder culture, which also formed a large trading network throughout the eastern part of what is now the United States. It was begun well before the construction of the pyramids in Egypt, next oldest is the Poverty Point Culture, which thrived from 2200 BC-700 BC, during the late Archaic period in the Americas. Evidence of this mound builder culture has been found at more than 100 sites, including the Jaketown Site near Belzoni, the largest and best-known site is at Poverty Point, which lies on the Macon Ridge near present-day Epps, Louisiana. The Poverty Point culture may have hit its peak around 1500 BC and it is one of the oldest complex cultures, and possibly the first tribal culture in the Mississippi Delta and in the present-day United States. The people occupied villages that extended for nearly 100 miles on side of the Mississippi River. Poverty Point culture was followed by the Tchefuncte and Lake Cormorant cultures of the Tchula period, although the earthworks at Poverty Point are not the oldest in the United States, they are notable as the oldest earthworks of this size in the Western Hemisphere. In the center of the site is a plaza, a constructed and leveled, flat, archeologists believe the plaza was the site of public ceremonies, rituals, dances, games and other major community activities. The site has six concentric earthworks separated by ditches, or swales, the ends of the outermost ridge are 1,204 metres apart, which is nearly 3/4 of a mile. The ends of the embankment are 594 metres apart. If the ridges were straightened and laid end to end, they would compose an embankment of 12 kilometres long, originally, the ridges stood 4 feet to 6 feet high and 140 feet to 200 feet apart. Many years of plowing have reduced some to only 1 foot in height, archeologists believe that the homes of 500 to 1,000 inhabitants were located on these ridges. This was the largest settlement at that time in North America, the site also had a 50 feet high,500 feet long earthen pyramid, which was aligned east to west. A large bird effigy mound, measuring 70 feet high and 640 feet across, is located on the Poverty Point site. On the western side of the plaza, archeologists have found some unusually deep pits, one explanation is these holes once held huge wooden posts, which served as calendar markers. Using the sun’s shadows, the inhabitants could have predicted the changing of the seasons and this great building project demanded a sustained investment of human labor, the organized skill and the cultural will to sustain the effort over many centuries. One authority calculated that it would more than 1,236,007 cubic feet of basket-loaded soil to complete the earthworks. That would mean 1,350 adults laboring 70 days a year for three years, stone cooking balls were used to prepare meals. Scholars believe dozens of the balls were heated in a bonfire

43.
Troyville culture
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The Troyville culture is an archaeological culture in areas of Louisiana and Arkansas in the Lower Mississippi valley in the southern United States. It was a Baytown Period culture and lasted from 400 to 700 CE during the Late Woodland period and it was contemporaneous with the Coastal Troyville and Baytown cultures and was succeeded by the Coles Creek culture. Where the Baytown peoples built dispersed settlements, the Troyville people instead continued building major earthwork centers, the Troyville-Coles Creek people lived on gathered wild plants and local domesticates, and maize was of only minor importance. Acorns, persimmons, palmetto, maygrass, and squash were all more important than maize. Tobacco was cultivated as well, and protein came from deer and smaller mammals, culture, phase, and chronological table for the Mississippi Valley

44.
Mesoamerican chronology
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Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into several periods, the Paleo-Indian, the Archaic, the Preclassic or Formative, the Classic, and the Postclassic. However, this applies to other pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations as well. 3500-2000 BCE During the Archaic Era agriculture was developed in the region, Late in this era, use of pottery and loom weaving became common, and class divisions began to appear. Many of the technologies of Mesoamerica in terms of stone-grinding, drilling. 1800 BCE–200 CE During the Preclassic Era, or Formative Period, large-scale ceremonial architecture, writing, cities, the Olmec civilization developed and flourished at such sites as La Venta and San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán. 200–1000 CE The Classic Era was dominated by numerous independent city-states in the Maya region and also featured the beginnings of political unity in central Mexico, regional differences between cultures grew more manifest. The city-state of Monte Albán dominated the Valley of Oaxaca until the late Classic, highly sophisticated arts such as stuccowork, architecture, sculptural reliefs, mural painting, pottery, and lapidary developed and spread during the Classic era. In the Maya region, numerous city states such as Tikal, Calakmul, Copán, Palenque, Uxmal, Cobá, each of these polities was generally independent, although they often formed alliances and sometimes became vassal states of each other. The main conflict during this period was between Tikal and Calakmul, who fought a series of wars over the course of more than half a millennium, each of these states declined during the Terminal Classic and were eventually abandoned. This is sometimes seen as a period of increased chaos and warfare, the Postclassic is often viewed as a period of cultural decline. However, it was a time of technological advancement in architecture, engineering, metallurgy came into use for jewelry and some tools, with new alloys and techniques being developed in a few centuries. The Postclassic was a period of rapid movement and population growth — especially in Central Mexico post-1200 —, for instance, in Yucatán, dual rulership apparently replaced the more theocratic governments of Classic times, whilst oligarchic councils operated in much of Central Mexico. Likewise, it appears that the wealthy pochteca and military orders became more powerful than was apparently the case in Classic times and this afforded some Mesoamericans a degree of social mobility. The Toltec for a time dominated central Mexico in the 11th–13th century, the northern Maya were for a time united under Mayapan, and Oaxaca was briefly united by Mixtec rulers in the 11th–12th centuries. The Aztec Empire arose in the early 15th century and appeared to be on a path to asserting dominance over the Valley of Mexico region not seen since Teotihuacan. Spain was the first European power to contact Mesoamerica, however, and its conquistadores, by the 15th century, the Mayan revival in Yucatán and southern Guatemala and the flourishing of Aztec imperialism evidently enabled a renaissance of fine arts and science. Examples include the Pueblan-Mexica style in pottery, codex illumination, and goldwork, the flourishing of Nahua poetry, arguably, the Post-Classic continued until the conquest of the last independent native state of Mesoamerica, Tayasal, in 1697. Mesoamerican civilization was a network of different cultures

45.
Capacha
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Capacha is an archaeological site located about 6 kilometers northeast of the Colima Municipality, in Colima State, Mexico. This site is the heart of the ancient Mesoamerican Capacha Culture, the Capacha Culture peoples were located between the Jalisco Sierra Madre Occidental and the Colima Valley. Several sites in the region have relations with Capacha, such as the Embocadero II site in the Mascota Valley, there is also evidence of green stone articles, Jadeite cylindrical beads and possibly Amazonite, as well as Turquoise fragments. Beatriz Braniff and other researchers pointed the presence of a tertium quid in central Mexico differentiated from Olmec traditions, during prehispanic times, the region of the Colima state was seat of various ethnic groups which flourished in western Mexico. The region was inhabited by various Lordships that disputed the territories, archaeologists recognize the origin of Mesoamerica in a mother culture represented by the Olmec style and culture. But in the region no evidence has been found to date nothing that can be identified as such. Indeed, there is no evidence even of Teotihuacan (central Mesoamerican influence from the Classic period and it is clear that Colima and other western regions cultures had their own personality. The detail and artistic quality of women, men, dogs, parrots, bats, snakes, etc. sculptures, recent excavations in Colima and Michoacán enable us to recognize at least two roots, as old as the Olmec. These are Capacha and El Opeño, Capacha, before 1500 BCE had burials that include beautiful ceramic bules and vases with Stirrup” handle, certain type figurines and metates. It was discovered and studied by Isabel Truesdell Kelly, American archaeologist who made excavations in the Colima area in 1939. Similarities between pieces of this culture and contemporary ceramics in the region of Ecuador suggest that there were some very the early western mesoamerican cultures, by this name is known the Capacha archaeological site in Colima. Was the first with complex features and developed in the region, Capacha was contemporary of other important regional cultural developments, such as El Opeño, Michoacán, and the first Tlatilco phase in the Valley Mexico. The geographical spread of ceramic Capacha parts covers the Pacific coast, particularly important are the burials discovered by Gordon F. Ekholm in Guasave, Sinaloa. The Capacha Culture includes nine sites identified in the half of the Colima State. Archaeological elements of this tradition have been discovered in the states of Nayarit, Jalisco, Sinaloa, Guerrero, among this sites are the following, El Opeño is an archaeological site located in the municipality of Jacona, in the Michoacán state, México. It is home to a site, mainly known from the ceramic material found in the funerary complexes of the site. El Opeño tombs are the oldest in Mesoamerica, have been dated to around 1600 BCE, hence they predate de Olmec culture development, with main centers in the Gulf of Mexico coast and flourished some centuries later. La Campana is a site located a few kilometers from Capacha

A mound diagram of the Mississippian cultural period showing the multiple layers of mound construction, mound structures such as temples or mortuaries, ramps with log stairs, and prior structures under later layers, multiple terraces, and intrusive burials.

Chichimeca (Spanish [tʃitʃiˈmeka] ) was the name that the Nahua peoples of Mexico generically applied to nomadic and …

Map of the location of prominent Chichimeca peoples around 1550. Map only reflects core areas, as these tribes moved freely back and forth from what today is southern Utah and had definite settlements in parts of Texas.