Backcountry Skiing

The rec.skiing.backcountry FAQ is a work in progress and is
maintained by David Eyre (eyre@math.utah.edu). Additions and
corrections to the FAQ are welcome. HTML markup by Shamim Mohamed
(pongo@drones.com).

REALLY IMPORTANT DISCLAIMER STUFF!!

The rec.skiing.backcountry FAQ is a compendium of
questions and answers that frequently appear on
rec.skiing.backcountry. Neither the contributors to
the FAQ, the posters of the FAQ, nor their employers
make any claim whatsoever regarding the accuracy or
safety of ANYTHING in the FAQ. Any item that may appear
to be offering either medical or legal advice is doing
neither.

See rec.skiing FAQ for more skiing related material. This
FAQ is periodically posted to rec.skiing.announce.

The material in this FAQ is directed to novice backcountry
skiers. It contains brief descriptions of the basic ideas
and techniques of backcountry skiing, comments on the
equipment used during backcountry skiing, and safety concerns
related to backcountry travel in the winter. For more
detailed information on these topics, the reader should
consult the resources presented at the end of this FAQ.

This FAQ does not contain equipment reviews. These and
available from various other sources, including magazines
and this newsgroup.

Finally, this FAQ does not contain information on specific
ski routes. The bibliography contains a list of guide books,
sorted by location, that contain this information.

So far the emphasis of this FAQ is on mountain skiing. This
reflects the interests of the maintainer/author, and not an
editorial bias. If you have comments on topics that are included
or not included, please feel free to write a paragraph or two
and it will be included in future versions.

That's a tough one, even the readers of this group have argued
over what defines backcountry skiing. However, a reasonable
definition may be that backcountry skiing is the sport (and art)
of skiing in places and terrain that have not been altered by
people, and away from snow that has been groomed for skiing.

While many people would argue about what defines backcountry
skiing, not many would have trouble answering a better question.

Why do people backcountry ski? Simply because its fun.

Backcountry skiing is one of the most relaxing, pleasant and
rewarding activities of our lives. We enjoy the terrain we
travel through, and we enjoy the solitude that a little effort
will bring. We enjoy the company of our companions, and
we find the skiing to be unmatched in quality. What more
could a skier ask for?

There are basically two types of backcountry skiing. One
approximates cross-country skiing while the other more closely
approximates alpine skiing. However, the lines between these
two activities are very blurred, and on any given ski tour,
you could easily participate in both types.

Overland ski touring is the cross-country like skiing. The
focus here is on covering terrain, seeing the sights and
simply being away from more well traveled roads.

This type of skiing may take place at just about anywhere
patch of ground where there is snow and there aren't any
roads. Examples would include a mountain hiking trail,
a forest, on rolling hills, or even in the artic regions.

Mountain ski touring focuses on climbing mountains and
downhill skiing. Your legs, lungs, and stamina replace
ski lifts, but again the most important factor is getting
away.

This type of skiing is usually done in mountainous regions
outside of alpine ski resorts.

There are two downhill skiing styles of mountain touring.
One of the styles is called telemark skiing. The telemark is
a type of turn that requires that the heel of the boot not be
attached to the ski (thus the terms, free heel skiing).
Telemark skiing uses boots and bindings specifically designed
to allow this turn. The other style of mountain touring
uses "alpine touring equipment". This equipment is used
to execute parallel turns with the boot heel firmly attached
to the ski, like standard alpine bindings.

Backcountry travel in the winter exposes the skier to
potentially severe weather. Travelers should be prepared
with enough gear and supplies to safely handle extreme
cold, high winds, snow/ice and sudden severe weather
changes. Backcountry travelers should also have plans for
an emergency due to weather or injury, and should consider
how they would survive the night if circumstances forced
that upon them.

In the Fall of 1996, rsb had a discussion of what people
carried with them on backcountry ski tours. The following
lists are some of their suggestions. These are not
exhaustive lists, and they don't include the obvious such
as extra clothing and food, they are just what some people
carry with them for emergencies.

Andrew McLean

Headlamp - so you can keep going.

Lighter - so you can start a fire.

Space Blanket - can be made into a little shelter

Avy Shovel - for digging a snow cave

Lowell Skoog

Zdarsky tent - It is lighter, more compact, and more
versatile than a sleeping bag or bivi sack. You can
put three people under one.

Use a rectangular piece of waterproof fabric about 10 ft
by 5 ft. Fold it in half so that each half is about 5
ft by 5 ft. Get a piece of fabric about 5 ft by 1.5 ft
and cut it in half along the diagonal so you end up with
two triangular shaped pieces. Get two climber's
quickdraws about 1 foot long each. Sew the triangular
end pieces onto the tent roof, sewing the quick draws
through each apex so that you can clip into them from
either the inside or outside of the tent. Sew a pair
of tunnel vents on one side of the tent about 1/4 to
1/3 of the way down from the top and in from the ends.
The finished tent looks as shown above. The O's are
tunnel vents and the single quotes are quickdraws.
The tent has no floor.

If you travel in avalanche prone terrain, you should know as
much as you possibly can! The reasons why are obvious.
In the 1995-96 ski season, avalanches killed 27 people in
North America. These people ranged from backcountry novices
to a professional ski patrolman working on avalanche control.
The avalanches ranged from quite small slides with little
power to slides that snapped 100+ year old trees like they
were twigs.

Almost certainly, unless you're sticking to particularly
flat terrain. Anywhere where snow accumulates on slopes
may well be an avalanche risk, and as a backcountry skier,
slopes where snow accumulates are just the sort of places
you're likely to be.

However, there's a lot of difference between "worry" and
"fear". If you make a point of learning about avalanches,
as long as you have respect for them and use that
knowledge, then you needn't be afraid of them, as you
shouldn't end up in one.

This varies from nothing to death, but you cannot assume
anything about escape if you're in one. There is no sure
way of escaping from an avalanche intact, except by not
being caught in the first place, which is what you should
concentrate on.

Yes, they are, but before you can reliably avoid an
avalanche you need to have a reasonable understanding
of what causes them and in what conditions you can expect
them. Once armed with this knowledge you can make use of
multiple sources of information, including maps, weather
forecasts, visual and structural inspection and even
"6th sense gut feelings" in order to avoid them. Note
that nobody knows everything there is to know, so don't
try and learn everything at once. Just like learning ski
turns, if you build up gradually it's easy, but if you
try and emulate Olympic slalom champions on your first run
you'll come unstuck.

There are plenty of good sources available, both general
and local. For general sources, widely available, see
Question 5.

Local sources are primarily people-oriented, and represent
local knowledge of conditions and tendencies in an area.
It is well worth seeking out such information in advance,
as it can reveal persistent black spots and good avoidance
routes. Areas may publish local avalanche forecasts, which
should always be read if available, along with local
weather forecasts. If specific mountain forecasts are
available, make sure you read them. Make a point of asking
other backcountry users in the area their opinions if you
feel there is possible danger: the more information you
have, the better you can forecast and avoid activity.

In mountain areas there are often avalanche professionals
who will gladly spend time on lectures to interested
groups. If this facility is available, make use of it.
Find out if an area has an avalanche service and contact
it if it does for information and guidance. Nobody knows
all there is about avalanches, and the more information
you have, the better your chances of avoiding them.

Numerous courses on avalanches and safe backcountry travel
are available, and if you are planning backcountry travel,
you should take a course. For a list of courses see
CSAC Courses
Aside from an avalanche course, the groundwork theory is
easiest to pick up by videos or reading, either books or
Web sites. Following is a list of various of each.

Don't rely on it. The only sure way of being safe is not
to get caught. Probes and shovels are for getting other
people out, not you. Beacons (radio transceivers for
locating buried victims) can be a big help, but they
require PRACTICE in their use and though certainly a good
idea that could save your life they are not a substitute
for avoidance. Don't let safety items like these lull
you into a false sense of security by reducing your respect
for avalanches.

Erdme Kuljurgis-Worswick's tragic death in an avalanche
in the spring of 1984 alerted the communities of Southwest
Colorado to the lack of information available on the subject
of winter mountaineering and backcountry travel. Erdme perished
in a small avalanche while cross country skiing on relatively
non-threatening ground in the San Juan Mountains. Shortly
after Erdme's death, the EKW Memorial Mountain Safety Fund,
a non-profit educational organization, was created to increase
public awareness of avalanches and their potential hazards in
the backcountry. Dissemination of information that might
prevent injuries and death has always been the primary purpose
of the fund. Through donations and fund-raising activities,
the EKW Fund is now able to provide free avalanche seminars
in southwest Colorado. The avalanche safety seminars focus
on avoiding potentially dangerous situations. Free emergency
first aid seminars involving cold weather medical problems are
also offered. An important aspect of safe winter backcountry
travel is safety gear. The Fund determined that the possession
and trained use of avalanche rescue equipment was also vitally
important to backcountry safety. Avalanche rescue transceivers,
collapsable shovels, and ski pole probes are well-known as the
basic safety gear for backcountry travel. The EKW Fund makes
transceivers and shovels available at wholesale cost to the
communities in Colorado. This outfits many who may not be
able to afford the necessary equipment with important safety
devices needed for safe travel on avalanche terrain. The EKW
Fund continues to grow each year, thanks to donations of time
and money from concerned people. Contributions take many
forms. And each little bit counts to help save maybe another
life. Spread the word. The more people who know about the fund,
the stronger its message will become.

The EKW Fund
P. O. Box 300
Ridgway, Colorado 81432

Editors Note: This is a non-profit service provided by the
the friends and family of EKW. PLEASE treat these people with
the respect and kindness they richly deserve. Furthermore,
if you can afford it, please add a donation to the fund with
your purchase.

Solo backcountry skiing is generally not recommended due
to weather and avalanche hazards, and the possibility
of injury. After having stated the obvious, solo backcountry
skiing can be an enormously rewarding experience, but
it involves risks that cannot be taken lightly.

Loosely speaking, the camber of a ski is the amount of bow in
the ski, and different amounts of camber are used on skis
designed for different purposes. Double camber skis have a
large bow, and they are primarily designed for touring in
rolling or flat terrain with a kick and glide style. Single
camber skis have a smaller bow, and they are designed to ski
downhill and turn. To tell if skis are double cambered or
single cambered, place the skis bottom to bottom and squeeze.
If you can make the bottoms touch in the middle of the ski
without much exertion, the skis are probably single cambered.
Because these double camber and single camber skis are designed
for different types of skiing, many experienced skiers will
have at least one pair of each kind of ski. If you can only
afford one pair of skis, then you should buy double camber if
you plan to use your skis mostly for overland travel and
single camber skis if you are skiing in the backcountry
skiing for downhill runs.

Overland touring skis are generally double cambered and are
designed to ski in rolling terrain. Waxable and non-waxable
versions are available. Generally, the waxable skis perform
better when the skier is knowledgeable about the use of wax,
but the non-waxed skis are easier to use for inexperienced
skiers. Narrow and wide overland touring skis are available.
The wide skis are used for overland backcountry skiing in deep
snow, while the traditional narrow skis are generally used
where a ski track has been set. Narrow skis can still be
used to ski in deep backcountry snow as well. Skating ski
gear is only appropriate for skiing on a groomed track.

The proper length for narrow skis is generally about 10cm
longer than the skier is tall. The proper length for wide
skis is about 5-10 cm shorter than the skier is tall. Annual
ski reviews are available in the magazines such as Backpacker
and Cross Country Skier.

Telemark skis are usually single cambered and designed to
ski downhill using the telemark turn. Most telemark skis
have metal edges and have a relatively soft uniform flex.
Different telemark skis are also designed for use in different
snow types including powder, hard pack and racing. Beginning
telemark skiers should look for a ski with a softer flex, a
broad tip and tail and a narrow waist. This ski profile will
make learning the turn easier.

The proper length for telemark skis depends on the type of ski
purchased, but generally a wide single camber skis should be
about the height of the skier, a narrow single camber should
be about 10 cm longer than the skier is tall, and a double camber
ski should be 10 to 20 cm longer than the skier. Annual reviews
of telemark skis are available in magazines such as
Backcountry, Couloir, and Powder.

Alpine touring skis are generally short, wide and light skis
that are designed to ski hard snow with tight turns. They
are used for mountain skiing and ski mountaineering where
steep slopes and difficult snow conditions will likely be
encountered. Models are also available for soft snow
conditions. Most alpine touring skis range from 160cm to
190cm in length and are more than 80mm wide in the shovel.
Many alpine touring skis weigh 3kg or less (about 2/3 the
weight of an alpine ski of equal length). Most alpine touring
skis have hole in the tip and a notch in the tail. The notch
in the tail is used as a attachment point for climbing skins,
and the hole is used build an emergency rescue sled from the
skis.

Annual reviews of alpine touring skis are available in
magazines such as Backcountry and Couloir.

Regular alpine skis have been used by generations of
backcountry skiers in the mountains. Many telemark and
alpine touring skiers use all mountain alpine skis, and
some skiers use alpine equipment exclusively in the
backcountry. The biggest disadvantage of alpine skis is
that they are heavy to carry up the mountain. To learn more
about alpine skis, see the rec.skiing FAQ in
rec.skiing.announce.

Shortly after the telemark turn was popularized (again)in
the 1970's, telemark boots were similar to heavy hiking
boots or were converted from old leather downhill ski
boots (called Steincomps). Since that time, some telemark
boots have remained virtually unchanged from their hiking
boot origins, and others have undergone radical transforma-
tions. The latter boots include models with a full plastic
buckled shell (similar to alpine ski boots), models with an
upper plastic cuff that is buckled and a lower laced leather
boot, models with a lower plastic shell but are fully laced
and models with plastic underneath the leather exterior.

There are two big differences between plastic and leather
boots. Generally the more plastic a boot has, the better
that boot is at controlling the ski during a turn. On the
other hand, plastic boots are usually less comfortable and
weigh more than their leather counterparts.

Most telemark boots are constructed with a 75mm nordic-norm
toe that uses a three-pin or cable style binding. Some
telemark boots are constructed to use with the NNN-BC (New
Nordic Norm - BackCountry) bindings. NNN-BC boots and 75mm
toe boots are incompatible with each others bindings. The
primary advantage of the NNN-BC system is that the boots are
generally lighter than their 75mm counterparts. The 75mm toe
is used on most heavy telemark boots designed for downhill
skiing. See the binding description in this FAQ for more
information on the 75mm vs. NNN-BC binding systems.

When deciding which boots to purchase, first and foremost,
only buy boots that fit. Second, you must decide how much
plastic you need. If your primary backcountry skiing activity
is a hike in the mountains, then you should opt for lighter
(most likely leather, possibly NNN-BC) boots. If your primary
skiing activity is telemarking on steep terrain, then you
should opt for the control of stiff boots.

Annual reviews of telemark boots are available in magazines
such as Backcountry, Couloir, and Powder.

Alpine touring boots are constructed with a plastic shell and
a removable inner lining. The soles of these boots have a
"Vibram" style lug, they are rigid, and they are designed to
be used with Alpine Touring bindings only. Some AT boots are
designed more for walking comfort while others are designed
more for skiing control. A good salesperson that has several
models of AT boots should be able to explain the differences.

Since AT boots have a rigid sole, a proper fit is critical
to have a comfortable boot. AT boots should be fit with more
room than alpine boots, particularly in the ball of the foot
and the toe box. Yet they should still be snug to prevent
blisters. Remember you are going to walk in these things,
not just ski in them.

Annual reviews of AT boots are available in magazines such as
Backcountry, and Couloir.

As with alpine skis, alpine boots are regularly used in the
backcountry. For an overview of alpine boots, see the
rec.skiing FAQ. Generally alpine boots that are comfortable
when the buckles are open are best for backcountry skiing
because during the ascent many people leave their buckles
undone. The two biggest disadvantages of alpine boots
are that they are heavy and uncomfortable when walking.

There are three major types of integral systems which are
mutually incompatible. NNN (New Nordic Norm) is a system
in which the three holes in front of the boot toe are
replaced by a horizontal metal rod which is locked into the
binding by a lever. The heavier-duty NNN-BC (Back Country)
system moves the rod under the toes, rather than in front of
it, which many find to be more comfortable than either
standard NNN or three-pin systems. Both NNN and NNN-BC boots
and bindings are made by a variety of companies.

The third system is Salomon's Profil system, a version of
which is used by most racers. They also make a backcountry
version. Profil, like NNN-BC, has the pivot point under the
toes rather than in front of the boot. A few other companies
make Profil-compatible boots.

All three of these systems partially interlock the sole of
the boot with the surface of the binding under the foot,
reducing or (for the Profil) eliminating the role of the
heel plate. You must use a boot compatible with your
particular binding type.

Telemark bindings are available in two basic design styles,
the 75mm Nordic Norm and the NNN-BC. Boots designed for one
system are not compatible with the other.

The 75mm Nordic Norm telemark bindings are designed to
accommodate the large square toe of a telemark boot. Two
basic binding types exist. The three pin binding consists
of a 75mm toe piece with three vertical pins protruding off
of the base and a sturdy metal bale that clamps the boot onto
the plate and pins. When using this type of binding, be
careful to ensure that the pins are inserted into the holes on
the boot toe. The other binding type consists of a 75mm toe
piece and a cable that forces the boot forward and into the
binding. There are also bindings with both pins and cables.
Both binding types are accompanied by a small heel piece
design to keep the heel from slipping. Which binding type
you use depends on your personal preference and pocketbook.
The cable bindings are generally more expensive, but since
they don't use pins they are less damaging to the boots.

The NNN-BC binding system can also be used for telemark
skiing with NNN-BC boots, but generally the NNN-BC system
is not available with heavy telemark equipment. Opinions
about whether it will be available in this type of equipment
and how well it performs are mixed.

In addition to the bindings, devices can be purchased which
allow the ski to release during a bad crash. The effectiveness
and need for these devices is a hotly debated topic, but they
may save your knee from a surgeons blade.

Alpine touring bindings are a hybrid of free heel and alpine
bindings. They are designed to be used in one of two modes,
climbing and skiing. In the climbing mode AT bindings are
free in the heel and hinge at the tip of the boot toe so the
heel can lift. AT are also equipped with heel "lifters" which
attempt to keep the boot heel and toe level while climbing.
In skiing mode, the heel and toe are clamped down on the
ski like downhill ski boots and bindings. Most AT bindings
have some ability to release during a fall.

Models of AT bindings exist that are designed for a particular
boot and other models exist that will accept any AT boots. AT
bindings should not be used with regular alpine ski boots
because the release mechanism is designed to use a Vibram
soled boot.

For an overview of alpine gear, see the rec.skiing FAQ. Alpine
bindings have improved greatly in the last 20 years, but for
backcountry use they still clamp your heel to the ski and so
they are not easy to use when hiking. Fortunately for alpine
skiers, a recent addition to the spectrum of backcountry gear
is a hinged device which fits into alpine bindings and allow
alpine skiers to hike with more comfort in their boots,
bindings and skis.

These poles are generally sized to the arm pit of the
skier. They are used for locomotion while skiing, so
they should be quite stiff. If you plan on skiing in
deep soft snow, you should purchase poles with a large
basket.

These poles are generally sized to about the elbow of the
skier. They are used mostly for balance (going uphill
and downhill) and not as often for locomotion. Most
styles will work, and $2 poles from the local thrift shop
are not an unreasonable possibility. Beware that the
basket on many alpine poles are far too small, and that
larger baskets are available.

A useful hint: If you have a set of poles that will be
only for ski touring, get them about 3 inches longer than
the standard alpine length. Then at the standard alpine
length (i.e. elbow height), wrap each pole with enough
duct tape to create a comfortable handle. This gives
you "adjustable pole" on the cheap. You have short poles
for climbing (and possibly the descent) and long poles
to help with locomotion on the approach. You will also
have a ready supply of duct tape.

Alpine probe poles are adjustable length alpine-style
poles. They can be assembled together to form a probe
for use in recovering an avalanche victim (among other
uses). They can also be adjusted to a short length for
downhill skiing and long lengths for climbing or pushing
on flat terrain. They are a nice "extra" piece of equipment
but not essential.

Generally, avalanche probe poles are not very good avalanche
probes, and you might want to invest in an actual avalanche
probe (see safety equipment) if you ski in avalanche
terrain frequently.

Older avalanche probe poles that used a twist mechanism
to adjust the pole length were difficult to use because
either they would collapse or get stuck. Therefore, beware
of used poles.

There are three methods to carrying a snowboard up a
hill that you plan to board. The first method is
the least expensive in terms of gear. Use your hands.

Long leashing straps are also frequently used. This is
easier than using your hands and not expensive, but its
also uncomfortable. To make a leash, just get a long
piece of medium width webbing and two adjustable buckles.
Size it at home and cut off the excess webbing.

Finally, the most comfortable and most expensive option
is to purchase a pack that can carry your board. Many
manufacturers are offering packs that have an exterior
pocket specifically designed for a board.

A recent addition to the spectrum of snowboarding equipment
are split boards. A split board is a snowboard that has
been cut into two separate pieces, and has a simple system
that hooks the two pieces together. So for uphill travel,
you use one piece of the board on each foot, and a pair of
climbing skins (see Section 9.1). For downhill travel, the
pieces of the board are attached to each other to create a
full snowboard. The bindings on these boards have the ability
to rotate so they are comfortable for both modes of travel.
These boards are reasonably stong, but probably not strong
enough for really big air, dOOd.

The most common way snowboarders climb a hill to board is to
is simply to walk up in their boots by kicking steps in the
snow. Should you choose this method, please do not walk in
the skiers skin track.

Other options include lightweight snowshoes and cutoff skis
with skins.

Climbing skins are long textured pieces of fabric
that are attached to the bottom of the skis and provide
enough friction for a skier to climb rather steep
hills. Once upon a time, skins were actually made
from seal pelts (thus the name), but now they are
made from mohair or nylon. The fabrics have a dense
mat of directional "fur" that prevents the skier from
slipping backwards but still slide forward.
Using skins, you can walk up amazingly steep trails.

Skins are attached to skis by two different systems.
The first system is a mechanical system of straps.
The second system is a special type of glue where
the ski-side of the skin is coated with an adhesive
which sticks to the base of the ski.

The mechanical system is relatively carefree, but
the straps interfere with ski edges, and it does
not climb as well as the glue system.

The glue system requires the ski base to be fairly
clean, dry and free of sticky wax. The tip of the
skin has a loop which goes over the ski tip; usually
there is no attachment at the tail, just the glue, but
you can buy "tail-fix" kits which provide a hook for
the back end of the skin. (Duct tape works in a pinch.)

Use and care:

Keep the glue as clean as possible, and avoid dropping
the glue side onto snow.

Keep your skins near your body so they stay warm
on ski runs. They will stick better.

Use skin wax to keep your skins from absorbing water.

To fold skins: Remove one skin at a time. Grab the
tip in one hand and the tail in the other. Stick
the exposed glue near the tip to the glue side of the
tail. With one hand, hold the two pieces together,
and slide your other hand down the length of the skin
sticking the bottom half to the top half of the skin.

Hints:

Air dry skins between uses.

Make sure your skins are in good condition prior to
the trip. Remove/reapply skin glue if necessary.

Take spray-on skin glue on the trip in case
reapplication becomes necessary.

If your skins don't stick well, use duct tape.

Skins may be critical to your safety. Take good
care of them.

Don't let your skins get overheated in your car.

To recoat skins with glue:

Lay skin flat on a firm surface with glue side up.

Lay strips of brown paper bags on top of the skins.

Run a hot iron (cotton setting) over the paper, this
removes most of the glue.

Pull paper bag strips off while still warm.

Using an old putty knife, scrape way any glue that is
left.

Clean the putty knife.

Apply a thin, even and covering coat of glue with the
putty knife to the clean skins.

Waxes are used more by overland touring skiers than
by downhill skiers because waxes are most effective
for shorter climbs where the hill is not very steep.

When the work well, waxes are much more convenient than
skins. This includes using wax for mountain skiing too.

There are two schools of thought on waxing: some
people use a glide wax such as Maxiglide on the
tips and tails, and kick wax in the kick pocket
(under the foot); others use a colder kick wax (which
functions as a glide wax) on the tips and tails, and
the temperature- indicated kick wax in the kick pocket.

Many people suggest beginning with a "two (or three)
wax system". These use two hard (solid) waxes and one
klister (gooey liquid) wax. The hard waxes are for
new snow - one for cold/dry snow and one for warmer/wet
snow. The klister is for old snow or snow that has
thawed and refrozen.

The next step up is with a hard wax system that uses a
color-coded progression of waxes that correspond to the
snow temperature.

You can purchase skis with fish scaled bottoms. These
are great when they work, but unfortunately they don't
work well on steep slopes and in many snow conditions.
Still they are an excellent "hassle free" alternative
for overland skiing in relatively flat terrain.

There are some skiers that use a router to put very deep
fish scales into their skis. With a router and a bit that
has the following shape

create about 25 cm of scales. On the hill, these scales
allow you to climb slowly but steadily, but the require
a low angle climbing track.

Finally a strong piece of cord can be tied around the ski
to help with climbing. The idea is to take a long piece
cord (about 10 meters if memory serves me well) and fold
it in half. Loop the cord over the tip and tie it in place.
Then alternating on the bottom and top, tie a square knot
cord for at least half the length of the ski. This isn't
something you would want to do for a lot of up and down
skiing, but it works in a pinch. Keep this in mind if
a skin fails too.

It makes sense to have some extra clothes, extra food
a small first aid kit, a map and compass, a knife,
some matches and firestarter, a whistle, a mirror and
maybe a few other basic things for safety. See any
book on hiking for good lists on safety equipment.

YES. When you are skiing in avalanche terrain, you must
always carry a sturdy snow shovel. If a member of your
party is buried, a shovel is needed to dig them out
(skis, boards, gloves, poles, packs, etc don't work).

Lightweight shovels are available from many manufacturers
and they are inexpensive. So buy one. Shovels are
made of aluminum or plastic. Both are adequate, but
many people would prefer that you to have an aluminum
shovel.

A persistent and untrue rumor is that metal shovels can
interfere with beacon signals. See
Couloir Magazine
for the test.

When you are skiing in avalanche terrain, you should
also carry an avalanche beacon. These are radio based
devices that transmit and receive a radio signal. This
radio signal is used to locate buried avalanche victims.

The internationally accepted frequency for avalanche
beacons is 457 kHz. Older North American beacons
operated at a different frequency (2275 Hz) and should
be retired. For this reason, you should not buy a used
beacon unless you are sure that its frequency is 457 kHz.

Beacons retail for about $250 US (1997). They are
expensive, but you've got to have one if you want to
decrease the risk to get killed by an avalanche.

Just having a beacon is not enough to ensure your
survival. To successfully use one requires basic
instruction and lots of practice. Beacon use and
practice is part of the curriculum of every avalanche
class, so take one.

You should think of backcountry skiing as a full-on aerobic
sport that is conducted in a cold climate. You will be very
warm (and possible sweaty) when you are going uphill, and
unless you put on additional clothes, you will get cold if
you stop for very long.

Therefore, it is important that your clothes be as versatile
as possible, and this can only be accomplished by layering
your garments.

Most manufacturers of high quality outdoor clothing recommend
that you have 3 basic layers, a inner layer that wicks away
perspiration, a middle insulating layer and a outer shell
layer that keeps the snow and wind out.

This system works well, but there seems to be a nearly
infinite number of ways that you can accomplish it. For
example, the middle insulating layer can be as light as
another piece of underwear, or maybe its a pile vest or
jacket, or it might even be a down vest or jacket. This
is complicated by geography, i.e. what works well in British
Columbia is probably far too warm for New Mexico.

Because good quality outdoor clothing is expensive, use
what you already have at first, and add clothing as you
find needs. As a target point, you should dress a bit
warmer than you would for track skiing (and have extra,
warm garments), and you should dress considerably cooler
than for resort skiing. Good things to wear that you might
already have include cold weather running clothing, nordic
ski clothing, and alpine ski clothing. Avoid using
insulated jackets and pants for the outer shell because
they are just too warm. Finally, other than wool, avoid
most natural fiber clothing (i.e. cotton) because they get
wet and cold.

It will take some trial and error to find the clothing
system that works best for you and the area you ski in.
You can learn a lot from watching what other people are
wearing.

Winter camping with skis is a lot like summer backpacking
with a few big exceptions that are the result of the cold
temperatures. You should consult books on winter camping
before going to get a better picture of the difficulties
you may encounter. To get an idea of these difficulties,
a few are listed here.

You need to stay warm at night, so either you need a
winter sleeping bag, or you need a three season
sleeping bag and you need to build a snow shelter
(cave or igloo).

You will probably need to melt ALL of the water you are
going to drink. Most likely there will not be a supply
of liquid water, so plan on melting snow. Bring a stove,
a big pot and a lot of fuel.

The turn first originated in the Telemark region of
Norway around the 1860's. Sondre Norheim is often credited
for first demonstrating the turn in ski races, which
included cross country, slalom and jumping, in Norway
around 1868. Sondre Norheim also experimented with ski
and binding design, introducing side cut to skis and
heel bindings (like a cable).

Telemark skiing was reborn in the 1971 in the United States.
Doug Buzzell, Craig Hall. Greg Dalbey, Jack Marcial, and Rick
Borcovec are credited reintroducing the style after reading
the book "Come Ski With Me" by Stein Eriksen. Telemark skiing
gained popularity during the 1970's and 80's. Of course
Telemark racing, generally giant courses, were a part of
the growth.

In 1981, the first Berzerkebeiner race at Mazama, Washington
was held in reaction to the specialized telemark slalom
competitions. The berzerkebeiner had uphill and downhill
components more like today's Telemark Classic race. In 1986,
first modern Telemark Classic race called the Skiathlom or
Telemark Combination was held in Vradal, Norway.

Today, there are two basic camps in Telemark racing: Those who
wish to pursue a more alpine approach - faster and more exciting
slalom courses - to Telemark racing; and those who prefer to
preserve the roots of Telemark ski racing with competitions
including downhill as well as uphill and jumping.

Telemark Skiing became officially recognized by FIS in 1995
at the World Championships at Hafjel, in Lillehammer, Norway.
Until then, Telemark Racing was governed by the ITF
(International Telemark Federation) which disbanded at that
time.

Telemark Racing has 2 official disciplines: Telemark Classic
and Telemark Giant Slalom. A third, the Telemark Sprint Classic
has been introduced for the 1997 season. Rules for the
competitions are available but have not yet become part of
the FIS ICR.

FIS World Cup races are scheduled in pairs in the 2nd, 5th and
12th weeks of each year. The locations rotate between North
America, Central Europe, and Scandinavia. Each World Cup race
consists of 2 events: the Telemark Classic and Giant Slalom.
World Championships are held in odd years and usually have
additional races such as the Parallel Slalom, Super G or Sprint
Classic at the organizers discretion.

Race organizers interested in hosting FIS races should submit
bids or proposals to their National Telemark organization
before March of the preceding year.

In addition, the FIS Telemark Committee holds an international
Telemark conference (meeting) at every World Championships or
World Cup final. One member from each competing nation is
welcome to attend. At this meeting, recommendations are made
to the FIS Telemark Committee.

As FIS points are new to telemark racing, there will be a few
years of adjustments. Each competitor who gets less than 200
points in the Classic or 250 points in the Giant Slalom are
registered for FIS points. Each competitor receives a code
number, which will not change. Racers are required to register
with their National Telemark Association (usually associated with
their National Ski Association)

Competitors who have only one or no results this year will be
assessed a double penalty. If racers are unable to compete for
medical reasons or for their studies, a single penalty may be
assessed. However medical certificates are due before May 1st and
applications for single penalties (studies) are due before the
beginning of school.

The single penalty is 22added to the racers points.

Note that all races which can be considered for FIS race points
must be sent to the FIS no later than 3 days after the event.
Only National or International Cups or Championships held on
Alpine GS homologated hills (National homologation is sufficient)
are considered for FIS points.

The telemark giant slalom (GS) resembles an alpine GS with a
few notable exceptions. The course includes 1 jump and all turns
must be telemark turns. At each gate (The finish is not a gate),
a proper telemark turn must be made; failure to do so results in
a 1 second penalty. The telemark jump has no kick, but requires
the racer to clear a set minimum distance. Failure to clear the
distance results in a 1 second penalty; failure to land in a
telemark position results in a 1 second penalty. The jump must
allow for distances of 5 to 25 m following the profile of the
hill.
For FIS races, a GS must be set on a FIS (or national)
homologated Alpine GS hill.

Two racers simultaneously, side by side race down two
identical and easy GS courses each with 12-18 gates and an
average best time of 20 to 25 seconds. Jumps (no distance
requirements) are permitted, and the landing should be in a
telemark position.

Telemark racing is a great way of learning to smooth out the
rough spots in your telemark style. It is much easier to make a
perfect turn when YOU decide where to turn; however, in gates,
you have no choice. The gates dictate where to turn. Hopefully,
skiing gates will take you to the next level of control.

So where do you turn in gates?
Before the gate. If you ski directly towards the next gate, then
you must quickly make a panic turn to get around the gate. The
general rule of thumb is to make your turn above the gate so that
you have finished your turn as you pass the gate. That is, as you
pass the gate, you are facing across the hill and finished the
turn (not heading downhill and starting the turn). If you turn
before the gate, your turns will be rounder and you will carry
more speed down the hill.

Skiers tend to freeze and cease being dynamic in a course. It's
this "hold on for dear life" outlook which often causes the
dreaded fall. Try to concentrate on constant compression and
extension of the body all the way through the turn. We are good
at compressing into the turn; however, at the bottom of the turn
we try to dig in with our edges and freeze in the compressed
position. Instead of holding this low telemark, try to stay
dynamic and immediately start your slow extension into the next
turn. It's surprising, but you'll actually edge better if you do
this.

So what do those gate keepers do at the edge of a race course? As
in alpine skiing, they perform minor course repair and determine
whether the gate was negotiated properly (both ski tips and both
feet pass over the gate line). But in telemark racing, those
gatekeepers also check that each racer performs a perfect
telemark turn. They look for three things in each turn:

1.

The inside ski is trailing the lead ski such that the
trailing boot is at least one boot length behind the lead foot.

2.

The heel of the trailing ski is visibly off the ski.

3.

Once the trailing foot begins to move forward, the foot
must move continuously forward, without hesitation, into the next
telemark position.

Each imperfect telemark turn is penalized by ONE second added to
your time. It is this requirement, to try to stay in a telemark
position, that makes telemark racing so challenging. Practice
this smooth transition when you are free skiing.

See the rec.backcountry FAQ for an extensive list
of backcountry equipment suppliers. Also see the
Couloir Magazine link page
.
Finally, support your local shop. They are the ones
that can help you when you need it, and it motivates
them to help you if they know that you have purchased
stuff from them.