In Japan, any vehicle that is over 3,400 mm (133.9 in) long, 1,480 mm (58.3 in) wide, 2,000 mm (78.7 in) high and with an engine over 660 cc (40 cu in) but is under 4,700 mm (185.0 in) long, 1,700 mm (66.9 in) wide, 2,000 mm (78.7 in) high and with engines at or under 2,000 cc (120 cu in) is considered a compact vehicle. The dimension standards are absolute, meaning special consideration is not made for SUVs, CUVs, minivans, station wagons or hatchbacks.

Compact cars usually have wheelbases between 100 inches (2,540 mm) and 109 inches (2,769 mm). The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines a "compact" car as measuring between 100 cubic feet (2.8 m3) and 109 cubic feet (3.1 m3) of combined passenger and cargo volume capacity. Vehicle class size is defined in the U.S. by environmental laws in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40—Protection of Environment, Section 600.315-82 Classes of comparable automobiles.[3] Passenger car classes are defined based on interior volume index or seating capacity, except automobiles classified as a special vehicle such as those with only two designated seating positions.

In the United States, the compact car segment currently holds a 16% share of the market,[4] this segment is dominated by import models.

One of the first truly small cars on the U.S. market, in the sense that it was considerably smaller than the standard- size cars of its day, was the Austin Bantam that appeared in 1930.[5] Production of the British-based city car lasted only four years with a total of 20,000 units, although other little cars such as the Crosley focused on low price and economy, "Americans did not take easily to small cars."[6]

The U.S. market after World War II experienced growth in sales in standard-sized cars. By 1947, Chevrolet had prototypes of the Cadet, an economy car developed by Earle S. MacPherson.[6] Ford also experimented with a "light car" and, unlike Chevrolet's Cadet, production ensued for the European market as a large car, the Ford Vedette.[6]

In 1950, Nash introduced a convertibleRambler model. It was built on a 100-inch (2,540 mm) wheelbase to which a station wagon, hardtop, and sedan versions were added. Compared to European standards, they were large.[6] Conceived by George W. Mason, the term "compact" was coined by George W. Romney as a euphemism for small cars with a wheelbase of 110 inches (2,794 mm) or less.[7][8] The Nash Rambler established a new market segment, it became known as "America's first small car", and the U.S. automobile industry soon adopted the "compact" term.[9][10]

In 1952, Ford Division assistant general manager Robert S. McNamara started the Market Research Unit, which was given the job of finding out why smaller cars were becoming popular. In 1954, 64,500 of over 5 million cars sold in the United States were imports or small American cars. Ford alone sold over 1.4 million big cars. Yet 5 percent of those surveyed said they would consider a small car, the potential market totalled 275,000.[11]

Ford Division marketing research manager George Brown said smaller cars appealed to people with a college education and a higher income whose families were buying more than one car, the cars had to offer not only high gas mileage but also headroom, legroom, and plenty of trunk space.[11]

Within a few years after that, the compacts had given rise to a new class called the pony car, named after the Ford Mustang, which was built on the Falcon chassis, at that time, there was a distinct difference in size between compact and full-size models, and an early definition of the compact was a vehicle with an overall length of less than 200-inch (5,080 mm), much larger than European designs.

During the 1960s, compacts were the smallest class of North American cars, but they had evolved into only slightly smaller versions of the 6-cylinder or V8-powered two-bench six-passenger sedan, they were much larger than imports by makers such as Volkswagen and Datsun, which were typically five-passenger 4-cylinder engine cars, even though ads for the Ford Maverick and Rambler American would make comparisons with the popular Volkswagen Beetle. In the early 1970s, the domestic automakers introduced even smaller subcompact cars that included the AMC Gremlin, Chevrolet Vega, and Ford Pinto.

The 1977 model year marked the beginning of a downsizing of all vehicles, so that cars such as the AMC Concord and the Ford Fairmont that replaced the compacts were re-classified as mid-size, while cars inheriting the size of the Ford Pinto and Chevrolet Vega (such as the Ford Escort and Chevrolet Cavalier) became classified as compact cars. And even after the reclassification vehicles like the Ford Fairmont were far larger than international midsize sedans and rather on par with large cars such as the Ford Granada (Europe), it would not be until the 1980s that American cars were being downsized to truly international dimensions.

According to 2011 sales,[13] compact cars are currently the second segment in Europe after the subcompact one (which in Europe corresponds to A-segment + B-segment), with approximately 3 million units sold.

For those whose budgets can't stretch to a Compact Executive, more luxurious versions of small family cars have been offered through the years, these are usually saloons which have a more upmarket image in Europe than hatchbacks, although a full range of body styles are available.

Volkswagen has long marketed its Jetta sedan above the Golf hatchback its based on, the current Jetta, the sixth generation, is uprated for the European market with multi-link rear suspension instead of torsion beam rear axles and has a higher quality interior than the North American derivative.[19] Volkswagen stablemate, Audi, has offered its compact A3 since 1996 - initially as a hatchback before adding a convertible in 2003 and a sedan in 2012.

Some small family cars have also spawned compact MPVs, the first of which was the 1996 Renault Mégane Scénic, named 1997 European Car of the Year; in a few years at the end of the 1990s, they outsold estates and saloons in many countries. Nevertheless, the MPV segment began to lose the customer interest at the beginning of the 2010s, while the SUV segment increased, the Renault Scenic and the Citroën C4 Picasso are the leaders of this segment in Europe over the past two decades.[20]

In 1955, the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry set forth a goal to all Japanese makers at that time to create what was called a "national car". The concept stipulated that the vehicle be able to maintain a maximum speed over 100 km/h (62 mph), weigh below 400 kg (882 lbs), fuel consumption at 30 km/L (85 mpg‑imp; 71 mpg‑US) or more, at an average speed of 60 km/h (37 mph) on a level road, and not require maintenance or significant service for at least 100,000 km (62,000 mi). This established a "compact car" target that was larger than what has become known as the "light car" or the kei car. Under Japanese regulations, this class is defined as vehicles at or less than 4.7 m (15.4 ft) long, 1.7 m (5.6 ft) wide, 2 m (6.6 ft) high and with engines at or under 2,000 cc (120 cu in). Interior dimensions and available cargo space are not taken into consideration. All vehicles in Japan, regardless of origination of manufacture, are held to this standard, these goals also took into consideration speed limits in Japan and typical driving conditions, where urban areas are usually zoned at 40 km/h (24.9 mph).[21]

By 1970, Nissan released their first front-wheel-drive car that was originally developed by Prince Motor Company which had merged with Nissan in 1966, this was introduced in 1970 as the Nissan Cherry. In 1972, the Honda Civic appeared with the CVCC engine that was able to meet California emission standards without the use of a Catalytic converter. In 1973, the Energy Crisis started, which made small fuel efficient cars more desirable, and the North American driver began exchanging their large cars for the smaller, imported compacts that cost less to fill up and were inexpensive to maintain.

Small family saloons had a strong following among car buyers in the UK as the 1970s dawned, and enjoyed a popularity similar to that of larger family cars such as the successful Ford Cortina, these two sectors were in fact dominant of the new car market at this time, as the Mini and - to a lesser degree - the Hillman Imp were the only popular mini-cars at this time. The Morris/Austin 1100/1300 had been Britain's best selling car for most of the time since its launch in 1962, and rival British products included the Ford Escort, Vauxhall Viva and Hillman Avenger. Cars such as the Citroën GS and Datsun Sunny 120Y were also being imported.

British Leyland replaced the 1100/1300 with the Austin Allegro in 1973. Ford updated the Escort in 1975. The Vauxhall Viva finished production in late 1979 on the launch of the all-new Astra - which abandoned the traditional rear-wheel drive saloon in favour of the front-wheel drive hatchback format that was spreading across Europe, the Allegro was front-wheel drive but only came as a saloon or estate though the Austin Maxi was a hatchback. The Escort was still a rear-wheel drive saloon in 1979 but was due for an imminent replacement by an up-to-date third generation model, the Hillman Avenger continued to sell well as a Chrysler following the 1976 rebranding and as a Talbot after the sale of Chrysler's European operations to French carmaker Peugeot in 1979, in spite of the 1978 launch of the Horizon front-wheel drive hatchback.

One of the first foreign cars to have a major impact on this sector in the UK was the Golf - a Giugiaro-styled front-wheel drive hatchback launched in 1974, the sporty GTI version sparked a huge demand for "hot hatchbacks" in the UK and many other countries.

The MK3 Ford Escort went on sale in the autumn of 1980 replacing the rear-drive saloon format in favour of hatchbacks and front-wheel drive, it was available in several versions, as well as the Orion saloon that was launched in 1983. Vauxhall'sAstra entered the market with the 1984 MK2 model. Austin Rover, as British Leyland was now called, replaced the Allegro in early 1983 with the all-new Maestro. The venture with Japanese carmaker Honda saw the launch of the Triumph Acclaim, a four-door saloon based on the Honda Ballade with a Honda-designed engine. The Rover 200 succeeded it in 1984, the first British built Peugeot car - the compact 309 - rolled off the Ryton-on-Dunsmore production line at the end of 1985.

Ford began the 1990s by replacing its 10-year-old Escort (and the Orion saloon version) with an all-new model. The Escort was Britain's best selling small family car throughout the decade.[citation needed] Its eventual successor - the Focus - went on sale in September 1998. Vauxhall rejuvenated its Astra with the launch of an all-new model in October 1991, and in early 1998 with a new version. The 200 Series was launched during the autumn of 1989, and its successor was launched in 1995. Later, a facelift transformed it into the Rover 25 and re-positioned as a supermini.

1.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less

2.
Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895

3.
Subcompact car
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A subcompact car is the American term for an automobile with a class size smaller than a compact car, usually not exceeding 165 inches in length, but larger than a microcar. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, a car is classified as subcompact if it has between 85 cubic feet and 99 cu ft of interior volume. The subcompact segment equates roughly to A-segment and B-segment in Europe, or city car, in 2012, the New York Times described the differences, saying today’s small cars actually span three main segments in the global vehicle market. The tiny A-segment cars include the Chevrolet Spark and Smart Fortwo, they’re extremely short and very light. Slightly larger are B-segment cars like the Ford Fiesta and Chevrolet Sonic, the A- and B-cars are known as subcompacts. Previously, cars in this size were variously categorized, including small automobile and this type of car has been around since the 1940s with the Crosley, and in the 1950s with the captive import, the Nash Metropolitan. A number of imported models, notably the Volkswagen Beetle and various small British cars, were marketed as economy cars during this time. The AMC Gremlin was described at its April 1970 introduction as the first American-built import, the Chevrolet Vega and Ford Pinto subcompacts were introduced in September 1970 for the 1971 model year. The Pontiac Astre, the Canadian-born re-badged Vega variant was released in the U. S, the Camaro was scheduled for cancellation, but sales stabilized with the end of the 1970s energy crisis. The Monza with its GM variants Pontiac Sunbird, Buick Skyhawk, Plymouth Turismo, Oldsmobile Starfire, at this time another segment started opening up below Gremlin, Pinto and Vega that became the new subcompact segment. The Chevrolet Chevette was GMs new entry-level subcompact introduced as a 1976 model and it was an Americanized design from Opel, GMs German subsidiary. S. Renault Alliance, a version of the Renault 9, in Kenosha, Wisconsin, during the 1990s GM offered the Geo brand featuring the Suzuki-built Metro subcompact. Because of consumer demand for fuel-efficient cars during the late-2000s, sales of cars made it the fastest growing market category in the U. S. The Ford Fiesta is still only European subcompact car ever offered in North America, and there are even subcompact SUVs like the Jeep Renegade and the Mazda CX-3 Car classification Mini SUV Economy car Official US government car size class definitions

4.
Mid-size car
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A mid-size car is the North American/Australian standard for an automobile with a size equal to or greater than that of a compact. In Europe mid-sizers are referred to as D-segment or large family cars, the automobile that defined this size in the United States was the Rambler Six that was introduced in 1956, although it was called compact car at that time. The mid-size class then grew out of the compacts of the early-1960s, for example, the Ford Fairlane was referred to at its introduction in 1962 as a compact intermediate because it was barely bigger than its close relative, the Falcon. General Motors first entries in the class, such as the Oldsmobile F-85, Pontiac Tempest, and Buick Special were not mechanically related to the compact Chevrolet Corvair, at that time vehicle classes were defined more by their wheelbase than interior passenger space and cargo capacity. The class began to rapidly, and for the next ten years each expansion in size in the full-size field was followed by a proportionate growth in the mid-size models. By the mid-1960s, they were as big as the cars of the mid-1950s. By the mid-1970s, they were nearly as big as the cars of the mid-1960s. During the 1970s, the class was generally defined as vehicles with wheelbases between 112 inches and 118 inches. A turning point occurred in the late 1970s, when rising costs and government fuel economy regulations caused all car classes to shrink. Automakers moved previously full-size nameplates to smaller platforms, new official size designations in the U. S. were introduced by the EPA, which defined market segments by passenger and cargo space. Formerly mid-sized cars that were built on the platform, like the AMC Matador sedan, had a combined passenger and cargo volume of 130 cubic feet. The situation was complicated when General Motors began to downsize its models about two years before everybody else, in 1978, the Chevrolet Malibu nameplate had been redesigned on a 108-inch wheelbase, while the Ford Granada moved to the 105-inch wheelbase of the Ford Fairmonts Fox platform in 1981. Both competed with the Chrysler standard and extended K-cars, often classified as compact, former mid-size platforms such as the Plymouth Satellite would be rebranded as full-size, rebodied, or dropped in the face of the downsized Chevrolet Caprice. Some were subsequently replaced by used to be large compacts. The Granada would be badged with the LTD moniker before being replaced by the class-defining Ford Taurus, similarly, import models such as the Honda Accord and Toyota Camry that had been classified by the EPA as compact in 1985 grew to the mid-size class by the 1990s. The Accord later grew even larger, its eighth North American sedan version was classified by the EPA as a full-size car, the current ninth generation North American sedan was slightly smaller than its immediate predecessor, putting it once again in the mid-size class. Mid-size vehicles today usually have wheelbases between 105 inches and 110 inches, another widely used definition is that of the EPA, which classifies cars between 110 cubic feet and 119 cubic feet of interior volume as mid-size. Mid-size cars are the most popular category of cars sold in the United States, in Japan, the term mid-size car probably does not have the intermediate sense that it does in other markets

5.
C-segment
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C-segment is a Euro Car Segment, a car classification loosely defined by the European Commission as the third smallest segment in the European market. Although the definition is vague, there is overlap between segments A-F based on mass and area parameters. In 2011, the C-segment had an EU market share of 23%, the tiny A-segment cars include the Chevy Spark and Smart Fortwo. Theyre extremely short and very light, slightly larger are B-segment cars like the Ford Fiesta and Chevy Sonic. The A- and B-cars are known as subcompacts, in the C-segment — typically called compacts — are the largest of the small cars

6.
Luxgen S5
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The Luxgen S5, or previously known as the Luxgen5 Sedan is a 5-seater compact sedan car produced by the Taiwanese car company Luxgen. The model is the first car developed entirely in Taiwan and it was styled by the HAITEC Design Center led by James Shyr. It was unveiled in November 2011 at the Taipei Auto Show, Luxgen5 Sedan is the first sedan of Luxgen series. It has a 1. 8-liter turbo charged petrol engine or an 2. 0-liter 4-cylinder turbo charged petrol engine giving 175-180 hp/26. 0-27.0 kgm and 150 hp/21. 0-22.0 kgm and it also has Think+ and Eagle View features for night-vision and 360 degrees vision. The starting price is around $23,000, Luxgen Dominican Republic Luxgen S5 Official Taiwanese Website

7.
United States Environmental Protection Agency
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The EPA was proposed by President Richard Nixon and began operation on December 2,1970, after Nixon signed an executive order. The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House, the agency is led by its Administrator, who is appointed by the president and approved by Congress. The current administrator is Scott Pruitt, the EPA is not a Cabinet department, but the administrator is normally given cabinet rank. The EPA has its headquarters in Washington, D. C. regional offices for each of the ten regions. The agency conducts environmental assessment, research, and education and it has the responsibility of maintaining and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with state, tribal, and local governments. It delegates some permitting, monitoring, and enforcement responsibility to U. S. states, EPA enforcement powers include fines, sanctions, and other measures. The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs. In 2016, the agency had 15,376 full-time employees, more than half of EPAs employees are engineers, scientists, and environmental protection specialists, other employees include legal, public affairs, financial, and information technologists. Beginning in the late 1950s and through the 1960s, Congress reacted to increasing concern about the impact that human activity could have on the environment. Senator James E. Murray introduced a bill, the Resources and Conservation Act of 1959, the 1962 publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson alerted the public about the detrimental effects on the environment of the indiscriminate use of pesticides. In the years following, similar bills were introduced and hearings were held to discuss the state of the environment, in the colloquium, some members of Congress expressed a continuing concern over federal agency actions affecting the environment. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 was modeled on RCA, President Nixon signed NEPA into law on January 1,1970. The law created the Council on Environmental Quality in the Executive Office of the President, NEPA required that a detailed statement of environmental impacts be prepared for all major federal actions significantly affecting the environment. The detailed statement would ultimately be referred to as an impact statement. On July 9,1970, Nixon proposed a reorganization that consolidated many environmental responsibilities of the federal government under one agency. After conducting hearings during that summer, the House and Senate approved the proposal, the agency’s first administrator, William Ruckelshaus, took the oath of office on December 4,1970. In May 2013, Congress renamed the EPA headquarters as the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building, the EPA is led by an Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. As of 2017 Scott Pruitt is the 14th administrator, each EPA regional office is responsible within its states for implementing the Agencys programs, except those programs that have been specifically delegated to states

8.
Hatchback
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A hatchback is a car body configuration with a rear door that swings upward to provide access to a cargo area. Hatchbacks may feature fold-down second row seating, where the interior can be reconfigured to prioritize passenger vs. cargo volume. Hatchbacks may feature two- or three-box design, while early examples of the body configuration can be traced to the 1930s, the Merriam-Webster dictionary dates the term itself to 1970. The hatchback body style has been marketed worldwide on cars ranging in size from superminis to small family cars, Hatchbacks may be described as three-door or five-door cars. A model range may include multiple configurations, as with the 2001–2007 Ford Focus which offered sedan, wagon, the models typically share a platform, drivetrain and bodywork forward of the A-pillar. Hatchbacks may have a rigid parcel shelf, liftable with the tailgate. Both station wagons and hatchbacks typically feature a two-box design configuration, with one shared, flexible, interior volume for passengers, further distinctions are highly variable, Pillars, Both configurations typically feature A, B & C pillars, station wagons more likely also feature a D pillar. Cargo volume, Station wagons prioritize passenger and cargo volume, with alongside the cargo volume. Cargo floor contour, Favoring cargo capacity, a station wagon may prioritize a fold-flat floor, seating, Station wagons have two or three rows of seats while hatchbacks have one or two rows of seats. Rear suspension, A station wagon may include reconfigured rear suspension for additional load capacity, Station wagons also have numerous tailgate configurations. Typically, a hatch or liftgate does not extend down to the bumper. You could have a 90-degree break in the back and have a station wagon, a liftback is a broad marketing term for a hatchback where the rear cargo door is more horizontal than vertical, with a sharply raked or fastback profile. In comparison with the hatchback the back opening area is sloped and longer and is lifted up to open. Liftback and fastback are often misused, a fastback is described as a hatchback where the rear cargo door flows down continuously from the roof of the car and most of the time is not as raked as the liftback. In 1946, DeSoto marketed the Suburban as a station wagon, in 1949, Kaiser-Frazer introduced the Vagabond and Traveler hatchbacks. Although these were styled much like the typical 1940s sedan, they incorporated an innovative split rear tailgate, folding rear seats, the design was neither fully a sedan nor a station wagon, but the folding rear seat provided for a large, 8-foot long interior cargo area. These Kaiser-Frazer models have described as America’s First Hatchback. In 1953, Aston Martin marketed the DB2 with a rear tailgate

9.
Convertible
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A convertible or cabriolet is an automobile body style that can convert between an open-air mode and an enclosed one, varying in degree and means by model. Convertibles evolved from the phaeton, an open vehicle without glass side windows that sometimes had removable panels of fabric or other material for protection from the elements. Historically, a retractable roof consisted of a frame covered with a folding. A lesser seen detachable hardtop provided a more weatherproof and secure alternative, as technology improved, a retractable hardtop which removes and stows its own rigid roof in its trunk appeared, increasingly becoming the most popular form. A semiconvertible also known as a coach has a retractable or removable top which retains fully framed windows on its doors. A landaulet is a convertible with a fully enclosed front cabin. Other common terms include cabriolet, cabrio, soft top, and drop top, and where the roof is more than emergency weather protection, open two-seater, rag top, spider. The erected top secures to the frame header with manual latches, semimanual latches. The folded convertible top is called the stack, a tonneau cover provides a solution. A range of materials is available for soft tops, automakers had problems in securing raw materials to fulfill orders after World War II, including canvas in various shades for convertible tops and limiting their manufacture. Polyvinyl chloride material was used for many convertible tops, the material consists of two layers, a top layer made of PVC, which has a specific structure depending on the vehicle model, and a lower layer made of fabric. Side windows were not existent in open cars, which may have detachable side screens, rear windows have evolved similarly, with plastic rear windows appearing as late as the first-generation Porsche Boxster. Plastic windows can degrade, fade, yellow, and crack over time, a windblocker or wind deflector minimizes noise and rushing air reaching the occupants. Mazda pioneered a version on the RX7 convertible which featured an integral rigid opaque panel that folded up from behind the front seats, current convertibles feature windblockers of various designs including detachable fold-up designs, vertically retractable glass, minimal flaps – or other integrated wind controlling systems. According to the responsible for the 2008 Chrysler Sebring, its windblocker reduces wind noise by roughly 11 to 12 dB. Mercedes and Audi currently offer a heating duct to the area of the seat on SLK, SL. Windblockers are also available on the aftermarket for use on convertibles that do not have them, the Volvo C70 retractable hardtop includes a door-mounted side-impact protection inflatable curtain which inflates upward from the interior belt-line – vs. downward like the typical curtain airbag. The curtain has an extra stiff construction with double rows of slats that are offset from each other

10.
Sedan (automobile)
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A sedan /sᵻˈdæn/ or saloon is a passenger car in a three-box configuration with A, B & C-pillars and principal volumes articulated in separate compartments for engine, passenger and cargo. The passenger compartment features two rows of seats and adequate passenger space in the compartment for adult passengers. The cargo compartment is typically in the rear, with the exception of some rear-engined models, such as the Renault Dauphine, Tatra T613, Volkswagen Type 3 and it is one of the most common car body styles. A battery electric sedan such as the Tesla Model S has no engine compartment, but a front cargo compartment, the primary purpose of the sedan is to transport people and their baggage on ordinary roads. Sedan versions of the body style have a central pillar that supports the roof and come in two-. Sedans usually have a two-box or three-box body, popular in the U. S. from the 1950s through the 1970s, true hardtop body designs have become increasingly rare. For example,1962 Rambler Classic sedans feature identical windshield, A-pillar, roof, C-pillar, and rear window. A two- or four-door design built on a chassis, but with a shorter roof and interior space. Originating from the car on a Pullman passenger train that was well appointed. A notchback sedan is a sedan, where the passenger volume is clearly distinct from the trunk volume of the vehicle. The roof is on one plane, generally parallel to the ground, the window at a sharp angle to the roof. A fastback sedan is a sedan, with continuous slope from the roof to the base of the decklid. They are not fastbacks because their bodyline changes from the roof to the rear deck and their steeply raked rear windows end with a decklid that does not continue down to the bumper. Instead, their ends are tall — sometimes in a Kammback style — to increase trunk space. Typically this design is chosen for its aerodynamic advantages, automakers can no longer afford the penalty in fuel consumption produced by the traditional notchback three box form. In historic terminology, a sedan will have a frame around the door windows, a true hardtop design also has no center or B pillar for roof support behind the front doors). This pillarless body style offers greater visibility, however, it requires extra underbody strengthening for structural rigidity. The hardtop design can be considered separately, or it can be called a hardtop sedan, during the 1960s and 1970s, hardtop sedans were often sold as sport sedans by several American manufacturers and they were among the top selling body styles

11.
Station wagon
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The body style transforms a standard three-box design into a two-box design — to include an A, B, and C-pillar, as well as a D-pillar. Station wagons can flexibly reconfigure their interior volume via fold-down rear seats to prioritize passenger or cargo volume. Can be loaded through a tailgate, when a model range includes multiple body styles, such as sedan, hatchback and station wagon, the models typically share their platform, drivetrain and bodywork forward of the A-pillar. In 1969, Popular Mechanics said, Station wagon-style, follows that of the production sedan of which it is the counterpart. Most are on the wheelbase, offer the same transmission and engine options. Station wagons have evolved from their use as specialized vehicles to carry people and luggage to and from a train station. Station wagon and wagon are the names in American, Canadian, New Zealand, Australian and African English, while estate car. Both names harken to the role as a shuttle, with storage space for baggage. Having shared antecedents with the British shooting-brake, station wagons have been marketed as breaks, early U. S. models often had exposed wooden bodies and were therefore called woodies. Manufacturers may designate station wagons across various model lines with a proprietary nameplate. Examples include Estate, Avant, Touring, Tourer and Cross-Tourer, SW for Station Wagon or Sports Wagon, Estate, MCV, Tourer, Kombi or Variant and Sports Tourer, SW - Sportswagon or Caravan. Both station wagons and hatchbacks typically share a two-box design configuration, with one shared, flexible, interior volume for passengers and cargo — and a rear door for cargo access. Further distinctions are highly variable, Pillars, Both configurations typically feature A, B & C-pillars, station wagons feature a D-pillar, cargo Volume, Station wagons prioritize passenger and cargo volume — with windows aside the cargo volume. Cargo floor contour, Favoring cargo capacity, a station wagon may prioritize a fold-flat floor, seating, Station wagons may have two or three rows of seats while hatchbacks may only have one or two. Rear suspension, A station wagon may include reconfigured rear suspension for additional load capacity, Station wagons have also enjoyed numerous tailgate configurations. Hatchbacks may be called Liftbacks when the area is very sloped. You could have a 90-degree break in the back and have a station wagon, a model range may include multiple configurations, as with the 2005–2007 Ford Focus which offered sedan, wagon and three and five-door hatchback models. The first station wagons were a product of the age of train travel and they were originally called depot hacks because they worked around train depots as hacks

12.
Minivan
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A minivan is a vehicle designed primarily for passengers, with two or three rows of seating accessed via large doors. In international markets, the minivan is classified as multi-purpose vehicle or people carrier, in North America, the term minivan derives from the size comparison to traditional full-size vans. Full-size vans derived their underpinnings upon full-size pickup trucks, while the first generation of minivans sold in North America derived from either compact pickup trucks or passenger cars. Predecessors include the 1936 Stout Scarab, which featured a removable table, the DKW Schnellaster, manufactured from 1949 to 1962 was one of the first vehicles to feature the characteristics of modern minivans. In 1950, the Volkswagen Type 2 adapted a bus-shaped body to the compact Volkswagen Beetle, Fiat built a similar vehicle, the 1956 Multipla based on the Fiat 600 with the same cab over engine and door layout. In 1972, designers at Ford Motor Company developed the Ford Carousel prototype as a variant of the redesign of the 1975 Ford E-Series. The vehicle was never produced, due to the fuel crisis. Nearly a decade later, the concept was revisited by designers, in the late 1970s Chrysler began a six-year development program to design a small affordable van that looked and handled more like a car. The automaker introduced the first modern minivans in 1983, the front-wheel-drive Dodge Caravan, in Taiwan, the Taiwanese market features the Luxgen M7. BYD M6 is the choice of minivan in China. The Japanese market has had the Mazda Bongo since 1966 and more recently includes the Toyota Alphard, the Nissan Elgrand, in South Korea, minivans include the Kia Carnival and SsangYong Rodius. The Buick GL8 is produced and sold since 2000 in China under the Buick brand name by SAIC-GM, for the 1984 model year, the Chrysler minivans arrived on the market to great success. The minivan replaced the station wagon as the passenger car of choice in the US. In 1987 Chrysler introduced the extended-length minivans, the Chrysler Town & Country debuted in 1990. The term minivan came into use in North America in contrast to full-size vans, the minivans market share peaked in 2000 with sales of 1.4 million units in US. This shrank to half a million in 2013. In 2014, sales of minivans in America increased 6% over 2013, the remaining 6% of the segment is shared largely by the Ford Transit Connect, Kia Sedona, Mazda 5, and Nissan Quest. Toyota, former models included the Van/Wagon from 1984 to 1989, General Motors, former models included the Chevrolet Astro/GMC Safari from 1985 to 2005, a rear-wheel drive minivan based on light trucks

13.
Sport utility vehicle
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A sport utility vehicle or suburban utility vehicle is a vehicle classified as a light truck, but operated as a family vehicle. They are similar to a station wagon or estate car. Some SUVs include the capacity of a pickup truck with the passenger-carrying space of a minivan or large sedan. Popular in the late-1990s and early–mid-2000s, SUVs sales temporarily declined due to oil prices. The traditional truck-based SUV is gradually being supplanted by the crossover SUV, by 2010, SUV sales around the world were growing, in spite of high gas prices. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, a utility vehicle is a rugged automotive vehicle similar to a station wagon. The SUV term is defined as a vehicle that is designed to be used on rough surfaces. The SUV acronym is used to describe nearly anything with available all-wheel drive. There is no one definition for an SUV, Most government regulations simply have categories for off-highway vehicles, which in turn are lumped in with pickup trucks and minivans as light trucks. The auto industry has not settled on one definition, starting in 2004, the United States Environmental Protection Agency began to hold sport utility vehicles to the same tailpipe emissions standards as cars. Many people question how can an SUV be called a truck, for industry production statistics, SUVs are counted in the light truck product segment. Not all SUVs have four-wheel drive capabilities, and not all passenger vehicles are SUVs. While automakers tout an SUVs off-road prowess with advertising and naming, in India, all SUVs are classified in the Utility Vehicle category per the Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers definitions and carry a 27% excise tax. Those that are 4 metres long, have a 1,500 cc engine or larger, although designs vary, SUVs have historically been mid-size passenger vehicles with a body-on-frame chassis similar to that found on light trucks. Early SUVs were mostly two-door models, and were available with removable tops, however, consumer demand pushed the SUV market towards four doors, by 2002 all full-size two-door SUVs were gone from the market. Two-door SUVs were mostly carry-over models, and their sales were not viable enough to warrant a redesign at the end of their design cycle. The Jeep Wrangler remained as a compact two-door body style, although it was joined by a four-door variant starting with the 2007 model year. The number of two-door SUV models increased in the 2010s with the release of the Range Rover Evoque, Most SUVs are designed with an engine compartment, a combined passenger and cargo compartment, and no dedicated trunk such as in a station wagon body

14.
Compact MPV
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A compact MPV is a car classification used in Europe to describe multi-purpose vehicle versions of small family cars, fitting between the mini MPV and large MPV sub-segments. In Japan, the term space wagon is used to refer to this type of vehicle. Concept cars that many aspects of the compact MPV approach to space effiency in a small footprint include American Motors 1977 Concept 80 AM Van,1978 Lancia Megagamma. The first production vehicle to be described by that term was the Renault Scénic, in Japan, the 1982 Nissan Prairie was introduced featuring many features now associated with the MPV format, along with the Mitsubishi Space Runner in 1991. Examples from Japanese manufacturers were the Toyota Gaia, Nissan Lafesta, some models have an extended version, for example the Citroën Grand C4 Picasso, Ford Grand C-Max, BMW 2-Series Gran Tourer, and Renault Grand Scénic. Most compact MPVs have better flexibility than other styles, for example. Due to the architecture, the bonnet may be shorter. Compact MPVs remain predominantly a European phenomenon, although they are also built, as of 2016, the only MPVs sold widely in the United States are the Kia Rondo and the Ford C-Max. Larger MPVs are referred to as minivan in the U. S. examples are the Hyundai Trajet, Kia Carnival, Mitsubishi Grandis, Ford Galaxy, Volkswagen Sharan and Renault Espace. Generally, compact MPVs are five and seven-seaters — the first, the two rear seats are sometimes smaller than the others, enough for children or for short distances. In some cars, these seats can only carry a limited weight, some compact MPVs referred to as six-seaters have three seats both in the front and rear row — examples are the Fiat Multipla and the Honda FR-V. Many automakers are releasing modified compact MPVs with off-road accessories, either as a level or under a new nameplate. Examples of the first are the Renault Scénic Conquest and Seat Altea Freetrack, in some cases, a compact SUV is released with shared platform and structural and mechanical elements with a compact MPV. The Peugeot 3008 combines the roominess of a MPV to a high ground-clearance or all-wheel-drive Hybrid4 capability

15.
Compact sport utility vehicle
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The modern compact SUV models were introduced in 1983. General Motors released the two-door Chevrolet S-10 Blazer, a four-wheel drive wagon with an engine as standard. Mid-year, Ford brought out the Ford Bronco II, both models were body-on-frame designs based on each automakers small pickup trucks, the Chevrolet S-10 and Ford Ranger respectively. Chevrolets S-10 pickup based baby Blazer came with an all-steel, permanent roof, the Bronco IIs general dimensions, drive train, and cab details were identical to those of the compact truck with differences in the interior only aft of the doors. Both were station wagon-like vehicles with seating for four adults and a cargo area. The first purpose-designed unibody compact SUV, and the first with four-doors, was the Jeep Cherokee and it was introduced by American Motors Corporation in 1983 for the 1984 model year and was produced almost unchanged through 2001 in the U. S. and through 2005 in China. Automobile magazine called it a masterpiece of design with room for five passengers. Although the compact XJ Cherokee shared its name from the full-size SJ model, it had no true pickup truck heritage, the original Jeep XJ combined a passenger car comfort with a rugged chassis for ease of driving in difficult conditions, and established the modern SUV market segment. The compact Cherokees design, appearance, and sales popularity spawned imitators as other automakers noticed that the Jeep XJ models began replacing regular cars, compact SUVs have become an alternative to the minivans for families who need cargo space. While almost unchanged since its introduction, Cherokee XJ production continued through 2005 in China, there were over 2.8 million Jeep XJs built in the U. S. between 1984 and 2001. Most current compact SUVs since the mid-2000s are crossover SUVs, of monocoque construction and these models are often derived from a compact car or small family automobile platform. As with crossover SUVs, third-row seating became optional on most models, such as the Toyota RAV4 and it became the first wheeled vehicle to spend more than ten years in Antarctica. Most automakers create new market niches by mixing segments with the goal of attracting new customers, on the other hand, some compact SUVs appear SUV-like and are regarded as smaller-size alternatives to medium-size SUVs in a manufacturers line. The Ford Escape, introduced in 2001, is an example, others, such as the Jeep Liberty, Range Rover Evoque, or Toyota FJ Cruiser have independent front suspension and a rack-and-pinion steering setup, but remain purpose built for off-road performance

16.
Dodge Dart (PF)
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The Dodge Dart is a transverse front-engine, front-wheel drive, four-door compact sedan manufactured and marketed by FCA since its debut at the 2012 North American International Auto Show. The Dart uses a variant of the Fiat Compact Platform, shared with the Alfa Romeo Giulietta, widened by 1.5 in. The modified platform, adapted to U. S. requirements, resurrecting a nameplate used by Dodge for model years 1960-1976 for a compact four-door sedan, the Dart was the brands first compact sedan since 2005, when the Neon was discontinued. A mini MPV concept car was designed and developed by Chrysler and this was Dodges first attempt at building a car this small and the car was expected to be released in 2010. The concept was dropped because of the 2009 financial crisis and the restructuring of the Chrysler Group, after Chryslers merger with Fiat in late 2010, the small Dodge Hornet concept took on a new form to share a Fiat platform. In December 2011, the announced the new small sedan would be called the Dodge Dart. Production of the 2013 Dodge Dart started on Monday, May 7,2012, the first Dart off the production line was a Rallye model with Black and Red Interior and Redline Red exterior color. The Dart was scheduled to be available for sale at dealerships in the U. S. beginning at the end of June 2012, the Aero model began production in the third quarter of 2012. The GT began production in the quarter of 2013. Interiors are customizable with 12 different color/fabric combinations and optional ambient lighting systems, storage includes a glove box, center console with auxiliary electronics jacks, and console map pockets. Trunk volume is 13.1 cu ft, in 2014, all Darts aside from the SE got standard U Connect Bluetooth telephone for 2014. The Dart was the first compact sedan to feature a rear obstacle detection system, a Dart version managing an unadjusted combined driving 40 miles per US gallon made it possible for Fiat to acquire an additional 5% share of Chrysler Group. According to Dart chief engineer the suspension is slightly softened compared with the Alfa, Weve taken a little edge off it, Its a blast to toss around. The Dart has 10 airbags standard, it also has a reactive head-restraint system for the front seats, the Giulietta, on which the Dart is based, has achieved the highest rating for a compact car in the EuroNCAP tests. The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety gave the 2013 Dart a five-star safety rating in the frontal offset barrier, rollover, the Dart also earned an IIHS Top Safety Pick for 2012. That engine has been retuned for American use in the Fiat 500 Abarth The 1. 4T Dart also will have more torque than the Abarth, marchionne has stated that a 9-speed automatic will not be available until sometime later. All Dart engines are built in Dundee, Michigan, in 2014, the Dart SXT and Limited both got a 2. 4L I4 engine with increased horsepower ratings, making the 2. 0L Tigershark I4 engine only available in the base SE model. The 2. 4L I4 engine was offered in late 2013 with the introduction of the Dart GT model, the Dart Aero model is the only model available with the 1. 4L MultiAir turbocharged I4 engine

17.
Chevrolet Cruze
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The Chevrolet Cruze is a compact car sold by Chevrolet since 2009. The nameplate has been used previously in Japan, for a version of a hatchback car produced under a joint venture with Suzuki between 2001 and 2008 and based on the Suzuki Ignis. The Cruze was actually released earlier in 2008 to the South Korean market under the name Daewoo Lacetti Premiere until the phasing out of the Daewoo brand in favor of Chevrolet in 2011, in Australasia, the model has been on sale since 2009 as the Holden Cruze. This new generation Cruze does not serve as a replacement for the Suzuki-derived Japanese market predecessor, before the release of the global Chevrolet Cruze compact sedan in 2008, General Motors made use of the name Cruze between 2001 and 2008 in Japan. Announced as the Chevrolet YGM1 concept car at the Tokyo Motor Show in 1999, despite the Chevrolet branding, the YGM1, like the production car, was the work of GMs Australian arm, Holden. Along with the styling, Holden executed most of the work and were responsible for devising the Cruze nameplate. The Cruze came either with a 1. 3- or 1. 5-liter engine coupled to either five-speed manual or four-speed automatic transmissions, manufactured by Suzuki in Japan, GM revealed the production Chevrolet Cruze in October 2001, with Japanese sales commencing the following month. The Cruze was also sold in Australasia from 2002 through to 2006 as the Holden Cruze, the production Cruze had standard front-wheel drive, with all-wheel drive optional. Chevrolet pursued a strategy that positioned the high-riding Cruze as a light-duty sport utility vehicle. This contrasted with Suzukis approach with the Ignis marketed as a passenger model. From 2003, Suzuki of Europe began manufacturing the Cruze as the Suzuki Ignis—representing a facelift of the original Ignis, in 2008, GM introduced the Cruze compact car, carrying the J300 internal designation. This J300 iteration serves as a replacement for the Chevrolet Cobalt, Daewoo Lacetti, GM phased out production of the Cobalt and its badge engineered counterpart, the Pontiac G5 in 2010, just prior to the manufacturing of the Chevrolet Cruze was to commence. The first renderings of the Cruze were revealed by GM at a conference on July 15,2008. Holdens localized hatchback version of the Cruze built at the Elizabeth, South Australia factory from late 2011 joined the Cruze sedan manufactured there since March 2011. GM in the United States has upgraded the plant in Lordstown, Ohio to manufacture the Cruze. At the ceremony of the start of production of Cruze at Ohio, Mark Reuss, underpinned by the front-wheel drive GM Delta II platform, GM has confirmed the Cruze development program occurred under a global design and engineering team. GM Daewoo in South Korea played a role in the design and engineering of the Cruze. This development program spanned over 27 months at a cost of US$4 billion, a total of 221 prototypes were tested in Australia, Canada, China, South Korea, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States

18.
Wheelbase
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In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder

19.
Cargo
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Multi-modal container units, designed as reusable carriers to facilitate unit load handling of the goods contained, are also referred to as cargo, specially by shipping lines and logistics operators. Similarly, aircraft ULD boxes are also documented as cargo, with associated packing list of the contained within. When empty containers are shipped each unit is documented as a cargo and when goods are stored within, seaport terminals handle a wide range of maritime cargo. Automobiles are handled at many ports and are carried on specialized roll-on/roll-off ships. Break bulk cargo is typically stacked on pallets and lifted into. The volume of bulk cargo has declined dramatically worldwide as containerization has grown. One way to secure break bulk and freight in intermodal containers is by using Dunnage Bags, bulk cargo, such as salt, oil, tallow, and scrap metal, is usually defined as commodities that are neither on pallets nor in containers. Bulk cargoes are not handled as individual pieces, the way heavy-lift, alumina, grain, gypsum, logs, and wood chips, for instance, are bulk cargoes. Neo-bulk cargo comprises individual units that are counted as they are loaded and unloaded, in contrast to bulk cargo that is not counted, containers are the largest and fastest growing cargo category at most ports worldwide. Containerized cargo includes everything from auto parts, machinery and manufacturing components to shoes and toys to frozen meat, air cargo, commonly known as air freight, is collected by firms from shippers and delivered to customers. Aircraft were first used for carrying mail as cargo in 1911, eventually manufacturers started designing aircraft for other types of freight as well. There are many commercial aircraft suitable for carrying cargo such as the Boeing 747 and the bigger An‑124, such large aircraft employ quick-loading containers known as unit load devices, much like containerized cargo ships. The ULDs are located in the front section of the aircraft, most nations own and utilize large numbers of military cargo aircraft such as the C‑17 Globemaster III for logistical needs. Popular commercial aircraft transformed to an aircraft such as Saab 340A is designed for high revenue. Trains are capable of transporting a number of containers that come from shipping ports. Trains are also used for the transportation of water, cement, grain, steel, wood and they are used because they can carry a large amount and generally have a direct route to the destination. Under the right circumstances, freight transport by rail is more economic and energy efficient than by road, the main disadvantage of rail freight is its lack of flexibility. For this reason, rail has lost much of the business to road transport

20.
Seating capacity
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Seating capacity is the number of people who can be seated in a specific space, in terms of both the physical space available, and limitations set by law. Seating capacity can be used in the description of anything ranging from an automobile that seats two to a stadium that seats hundreds of thousands of people. The International Fire Code, portions of which have adopted by many jurisdictions, is directed more towards the use of a facility than the construction. It specifies, For areas having fixed seating without dividing arms and it also requires that every public venue submit a detailed site plan to the local fire code official, including details of the means of egress, seating capacity, arrangement of the seating. Once safety considerations have been satisfied, determinations of seating capacity turn on the size of the venue. For sports venues, the decision on maximum seating capacity is determined by several factors, chief among these are the primary sports program and the size of the market area. Seating capacity of venues also plays a role in what media they are able to provide, in contracting to permit performers to use a theatre or other performing space, the seating capacity of the performance facility must be disclosed. Seating capacity may influence the kind of contract to be used, the seating capacity must also be disclosed to the copyright owner in seeking a license for the copyrighted work to be performed in that venue. Venues that may be leased for private functions such as ballrooms and auditoriums generally advertise their seating capacity, seating capacity is also an important consideration in the construction and use of sports venues such as stadiums and arenas. The seating capacity for restaurants is reported as covers, a restaurant that can seat 99 is said to have 99 covers, seating capacity differs from total capacity, which describes the total number of people who can fit in a venue or in a vehicle either sitting or standing. Use of the term public capacity indicates that a venue is allowed to more people than it can actually seat. Again, the total number of people can refer to either the physical space available or limitations set by law

21.
Nash Rambler
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The Nash Rambler is a North American automobile that was produced by the Nash Motors division of Nash-Kelvinator Corporation from 1950 to 1954. On May 1,1954, Nash-Kelvinator merged with the Hudson Motor Car Company to form American Motors Corporation, the Nash Rambler was then built by AMC in Kenosha, Wisconsin through 1955. The Nash Rambler established a new segment in the market and is widely acknowledged to be the first successful modern American compact car. The 1950-1955 Nash Rambler was the first model run for this automobile platform, using the same tooling, AMC reintroduced an almost identical new 1958 Rambler American for a second model run. This was a feat of having two distinct and successful model runs, an almost unheard of phenomenon in automobile history. The Rambler was designed to be smaller than cars, yet still accommodate five passengers comfortably. Nash engineers had originally penned the styling during World War II, the new model was the companys entry in the lower-price segment dominated by models from Chevrolet, Ford, and Plymouth. The Rambler was designed to be lighter and have smaller dimensions than the popular cars. A strategy of efficiency, Nash could save on materials in its production while owners would have fuel economy compared to the other cars of the era. The Nash Rambler rode on a 100 in wheelbase, and power came from Nashs proven 173 cu in L-head Straight-6 cylinder engine that produced 82 hp. Following the design of the larger senior Nash models, the compact Ramblers styling was rounded in form and this design feature did not impair the cars cornering ability significantly. The compact Rambler line was designed with several styles, but the inaugural year was limited to a single model. The decision to bring the new car out first in a market segment with more standard features was a calculated risk by Mason. Foremost in this strategy was the need to give the new Rambler a positive public image, Mason knew the car would fail if seen by the public as a cheap little car. Unlike almost all traditional convertibles of the era that used frame-free side windows and this metal structure served as the side guides or rails for the retractable waterproof canvas top. This design allowed Nash to utilize its unibody construction on its new compact and it made the body very rigid for an open-top car, without additional bracing. The convertible top was cable-driven and electrically operated, the design is similar to other fixed-profile convertibles including the 1936 Fiat 500 Topolino, Nissan Figaro, Citroën 2CV and the 1957 Fiat 500 as well as its 2007 Fiat 500 successor. In developing this new car, Nash had originally planned to call it the Diplomat and this name would have rounded out the Nash family of cars, as for 1950, the 600 line was renamed the Statesman, and the Ambassador remained the flagship line

22.
Chevrolet Corvair
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The Chevrolet Corvair is a compact automobile manufactured and marketed by Chevrolet for model years 1960–1969 over two generations. The Corvair competed with imported cars such as the original Volkswagen Beetle as well as the Ford Falcon, Plymouth Valiant, Studebaker Lark, the name Corvair is a portmanteau of Corvette and Bel Air. The name was first applied in 1954 to a Corvette-based concept with a hardtop fastback-styled roof, in 1952, Ed Cole was promoted to chief engineer of the Chevrolet Motor Division. Four years later, in July 1956, he was named manager of Chevrolet — GMs largest automotive division —. At Chevrolet, Cole pushed for many of the engineering and design advancements introduced in the Chevrolet car. He was the force behind the development and production of the rear-engined, air-cooled Corvair. Despite its infamous history, the Corvair was a small car in its day. As chief engineer, he was involved in the development of the Corvette sports car. He is also known as the father of the small block Chevy V8, until 1960, the Big Three domestic auto manufacturers produced only one basic size of passenger cars, large. However, a modern compact car market segment was established in the U. S. by the 1950 Nash Rambler. Moreover, imports from Europe, such as Volkswagen, Renault, American Motors also reincarnated its predecessor companys smallest Nash model as the new 1958 Rambler American for a second model run, an almost unheard of phenomenon in automobile history. During 1959 and 1960, the Big Three automakers planned to introduce their own compact cars, Ford and Chryslers designs were scaled-down versions of the conventional American car, using four- or six-cylinder engines instead of V8s, and with bodies about 20% smaller than their standard cars. An exception to this strategy was the Chevrolet Corvair, led by General Manager Cole, Chevrolet designed a revolutionary new car. It was powered by an air-cooled horizontal six-cylinder engine made many major aluminum components. The engine was mounted in the rear of the car, driving the wheels through a compact transaxle. Suspension was independent at all four wheels, there was no conventional frame, it was the first Unibody built by Fisher Body. The tires were a new wide low-profile design. The styling was unconventional for Detroit, subtle and elegant, with no tailfins or chrome grille and its engineering earned numerous patents, while Time magazine put Ed Cole and the Corvair on the cover, and Motor Trend named the Corvair as the 1960 Car of the Year

23.
AMC Concord
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The AMC Concord is a compact car produced by the American Motors Corporation for the 1978 through 1983 model years. The Concord replaced the AMC Hornet and to some extent the mid-size AMC Matador, discontinued after 1978 in a market moving to downsized automobiles. Offered in four-door sedan, two-door coupe, three-door hatchback and four-door station wagon forms, AMC sought to give its, by this time venerable, compact car an image of luxury, class, the Concord was AMCs volume seller from the time it appeared. Vehiculos Automotores Mexicanos assembled and marketed modified Concord versions in Mexico as the VAM American, Concord station wagons were converted to electric cars in Cortland, New York, and marketed independently of AMC as the Solargen Electric for only the 1979 and 1980 model years. American Motors was unable to develop a new car to replace its successful. Competition was expected from the new Ford Fox platform, therefore, the smallest domestic American automaker needed something fresh to continue competing in a class that had long been their core market segment. The 1978 Concord offered slightly revised styling, higher level of appointments and features, the transformation of the old Hornet into the new 1978 Concord included promoting the new model as an upscale luxury compact with competitive starting price in the mid-US$4,000 range. The U. S. automobile industry has had a place for a small company deft enough to exploit special market segments left untended by the giants, meyers, AMC transformed the austere old Hornet into the handsomer Concord. On cars with the optional D/L package, the featured a outlined quarter-vinyl cover that was available in matching or contrasting color. The new model featured increased sound insulation and suspension upgrades to isolate the interior from vibration, the new compact cars luxury ride - aiming at a virtually noiseless boulevard ride was engineered by isolating the front suspension and rear axle from the car. All Concord models included special insulation in the dashboard and front floor, top models also came with molded fiberglass acoustical headlining and sound absorption pads behind all interior panels. The Concord also came with numerous comfort and upscale features, gaining an inch of rear seat headroom. An advantage of using the aging and heavy Hornet design was its body stiffness, in its inaugural model year, three Concord models were available, Base, Sport, and the top-line D/L in four body styles. The AMX version was only on the liftback. The D/L wagon featured exterior woodgrain trim and reclining seats in a leather-like perforated vinyl, the Sport package included slot-style road wheels and bodyside tape stripes on the lower half of the vehicle, running up around the wheel flares. Options included cruise control and air conditioning, however, power windows, the base model Concords retained the previous Hornets two-door and four-door sedan rooflines, but incorporated the new front and rear end styling, as well as the other mechanical improvements. The 232 cu in I6 engine was standard, with the 258 cu in six-cylinder, transmission options included a three-speed manual, a three-speed automatic, or a floor-shifted manual four-speed. A Concord with the V8 engine accelerated from 0 to 60 mph in 10.4 seconds, American Motors also introduced an optional Volkswagen/Audi-designed 2.0 L I4 engine, which was also available in the Gremlin and later the Spirit

24.
American Austin Car Company
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The American Austin Car Company was an American automobile manufacturing corporation. The company was founded in 1929, and produced motorcars licensed from the British Austin Motor Company from 1930 through 1934, in 1935 the company was reorganized under the name American Bantam. Production resumed in 1937 and continued through 1941, including the first prototype of what became the Jeep. American Austin Car Company was founded in 1929, in Butler, Pennsylvania and their intention was to assemble and sell in the United States a version of the Austin 7 car, called American Austin. After some initial success the Great Depression set in, and sales fell off to the point that production was suspended, in 1934 the company filed for bankruptcy. The automobile was designed in the hopes of creating a market for small-car enthusiasts in the United States. The cars had 747 cc inline-four engines, enabling the car to return 40 mpg‑US and it was capable of 50 mph in high gear. Styling resembled small Chevrolets, with Stutz- and Marmon-style horizontal hood louvres, the bodies were designed by Alexis de Sakhnoffsky and made by the Hayes Body Company of Detroit. The coupe was billed as a sedan, and sold for $445, the Great Depression made the cheaper secondhand cars more appealing, so sales dropped off. More than 8,000 cars were sold during the companys first year of sales and it restarted in 1934 with bodies now made in-house, but stopped again between 1935 and 1937. Beginning in the 1960s, the car gained a following with hot rodders, the 75 in wheelbase made it attractive, even compared to the Anglia. In 1935, Roy Evans, a salesman for Austin, bought out the bankrupt company. The formal connection with UK Austin was severed, though a relationship was maintained, a series of changes was made to the American Austin car design, including a modified engine, and an exterior sheetmetal designed by Alexis de Sakhnoffsky. Production was resumed in 1937, and continued through 1941, despite a wide range of Bantam body styles, ranging from light trucks to woodie station wagons, only about 6,000 Bantams of all types were produced. American Bantams 1938 model was the inspiration for Donald Ducks car which was first seen in Don Donald, American Bantam also pioneered the first Jeep to a design by Karl Probst, still with rounded fenders, and built 2765 of these after discontinuing the manufacture of passenger vehicles. Some of the motors and chassis were imported from Toledo, Ohio, eventually the U. S. Army gave the BRC40 designs to Willys-Overland and awarded the bulk of orders to Willys and Ford, while Bantam went on to produce Jeep trailers. After Jeep production stopped, Bantam made two-wheel trailers and this continued until the company was taken over by American Rolling Mills in 1956

25.
Crosley
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The Crosley was an automobile manufactured by the Crosley Corporation and later by Crosley Motors Incorporated in the United States intermittently from 1939 to 1952. In May 1939, the first car was shown at the Indianapolis Speedway and it was a two-door convertible that weighed under 1, 000-pound and sold for US$250. It did not achieve success, but in 1941 more body styles were introduced. The chassis had an 80-inch wheelbase using half-elliptic springs with beam axle in front, the power came from a two-cylinder Waukesha air-cooled engine that had the fan as an integral part of the flywheel. The engine was connected with a transmission and then directly via a torque tube to the rear axle. However, this arrangement was judged unreliable, and conventional universal joints were fitted beginning in 1941, Crosleys first metal-topped sedan was introduced for 1942. During World War II, the Crosley became attractive because of gasoline rationing, civilian car production resumed at the Marion facility in 1946 with the new, larger and aerodynamic CC model, designed by the firm of Sundberg & Ferar of Royal Oak, Michigan. 1950 brought the Farm-O-Road model, a 63-inch wheelbase utility vehicle predictive of the John Deere Gator, with 24,871 cars sold, Crosleys best year was 1948. Sales began to slip in 1949, and adding the Crosley Hotshot, in 1952, only 1522 Crosley vehicles were sold. Production ceased after the July 3rd shift that year, and the plant was sold to the General Tire, a plan to sell the Crosley auto concern to Nash failed to materialize, when Nash merged with Hudson. Regardless of its life and small size, the Hotshot is well remembered as a phenomenal sports car within its class. A Hotshot won the 1950 Sam Collier Memorial Sebring Grand Prix of Endurance Six Hours, throughout, the 1950s Crosley engines dominated 750 cc sports car racing, winning 10 out of 12 SCCA west-coast races alone. The original engine is the Waukesha Model 150 Cub Twin, a 580 cc air-cooled L-head opposed twin-cylinder engine built by Waukesha Engines of Waukesha, Wisconsin, and used from 1939 through 1942. It was replaced in 1946 with the CoBra, a 724 cc overhead-cam four with a 2.5 in bore and 2.25 in stroke and that engine in turn was replaced in 1949 by the new and more reliable CIBA engine utilizing five main bearings. The CoBra was originally developed by Lloyd Taylor, of Taylor Engines in California, for use aboard PT boats. The engine was made from metal rather than cast iron like most other engines. These engines were used mainly to power generators, refrigeration compressors, the engine was adopted for automobile use in 1946. It was a small, lightweight engine with overhead camshaft driven by two sets of bevel gears and a vertical shaft at the front of the block

26.
Ford Vedette
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The Ford Vedette is a large car that was manufactured by Ford SAF in their Poissy plant from 1948-1954. It was the only French car of its time with a V8 engine, under the direction of the new company president, Mr. The 1953 October Mondial de lAutomobile also saw a version of the Vedette. Also updated in 1953 was the five-door, five-seat Abeille estate with a two-piece tailgate, at the October 1953 Motor Show the standard Abeille was listed at 845,000 Frances as against 935,000 francs for the least expensive version of the Vedette. An opportunity arose in 1954, when Henri-Theodore Pigozzi, the founder of the increasingly successful French automaker Simca, was looking for a new plant to expand its operations. Ford France was merged into Simca with both the Poissy plant and the rights to all models manufactured there — including a newly designed new Vedette. The new car had debuted already in France under the name of Simca Vedette, club Vedette France Mademoiselle Ford @ Best Cars Web Site

27.
Nash Motors
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Nash Motors Company was an American automobile manufacturer based in Kenosha, Wisconsin, in the United States from 1916 to 1937. From 1937 to 1954, Nash Motors was the division of the Nash-Kelvinator Corporation. Nash production continued from 1954 to 1957 after the creation of American Motors Corporation, Nash Motors was founded in 1916 by former General Motors president Charles W. Nash who acquired the Thomas B. Jefferys best-known automobile was the Rambler whose mass production from a plant in Kenosha, the 1917 Nash Model 671 was the first vehicle produced to bear the name of the new companys founder. Nash enjoyed decades of success by focusing its efforts to build cars embodying honest worth, a price level which held out possibilities of a very wide market. The four-wheel drive Jeffery Quad truck became an important product for Nash, approximately 11,500 Quads were built between 1913 and 1919. They served to move material during World War I under severe conditions, the Quad used Meuhl differentials with half-shafts mounted above the load-bearing dead axles to drive the hubs through hub-reduction gearing. In addition, it featured four-wheel steering, the Quad achieved the reputation of being the best four-wheel drive truck produced in the country. The newly formed Nash Motors became the largest producer of four-wheel drives, by 1918, capacity constraints at Nash meant the Paige-Detroit Motor Car Company began to assemble the Nash Quad under license and Nash patents. Nash became the producer of military trucks by the end of World War I. After the war ended, surplus Quads were used as work trucks in fields such as construction. Charles Nash convinced the chief engineer of GMs Oakland Division, Finnish-born Nils Eric Wahlberg, the first Nash engine introduced in 1917 by Wahlberg had overhead valves. Wahlberg is also credited with helping to design flow-through ventilation that is used today in nearly every motor vehicle. Introduced in 1938, Nashs Weather Eye directed fresh, outside air into the cars fan-boosted, filtered ventilation system, where it was warmed, the process also helped to reduce humidity and equalize the slight pressure differential between the outside and inside of a moving vehicle. Another unique feature of Nash cars was the unequal wheel tracks, the front wheels were set slightly narrower than the rear, thus adding stability and improving cornering. Wahlberg was also a proponent of wind tunnel testing for vehicles. Nashs slogan from the late 1920s and 1930s was Give the customer more than he has paid for, innovations included a straight-eight engine with overhead valves, twin spark plugs, and nine crankshaft bearings in 1930. The 1932 Ambassador Eight had synchromesh transmissions and free wheeling, automatic centralized chassis lubrication, a rear end

28.
Hardtop
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A hardtop is a rigid form of automobile roof. They may be detachable for separate storing, retractable within the vehicle itself, the term is also used to describe such vehicles, principally the last. Hardtops may be either two-door or four-door, and tend to be more expensive, early automobiles were open, described as having a torpedo, runabout, phaeton, or touring car bodystyle. In time, some were made with rudimentary weather protection composed of a canvas top. Some instead had removable rigid roofs, which were cumbersome and laborious to seasonally alternate, once fully closed bodies became the norm, it was considered fashionable to remove the central roof support post to give them a more open touring look. The Springfield design featured folding upper frames on the doors and the glass frames is removable. By the time of World War I some automakers offered a removable roof, typically with a frame with a canvas or leather covering. They typically used side curtains like the conventional folding soft tops, the elaborate cloth covered California top originated in the West, with either a permanent or a folding frame. These were designed with an emphasis on proportions to accent and provide distinctiveness to the appearance of the automobile, one objective of these aftermarket tops was to bring the cost of the closed car nearer to the prices of corresponding open cars. Automobile dealers were encouraged to equip a car with a California top to demonstrate that they were cool and clean in summer. The hard tops were frequently equipped with windows that retracted like a roller blind for open sided motoring offering a low-cost compromise between an open and closed car. The metal-framed Carson top was an addition for the 1930s Ford convertibles or roadsters because it turned these models into an almost instant hardtop. The design mimicked a convertible top, but lacking the bulky folding mechanisms enabled the removable hardtop to have a much lower, following the ascendancy of steel tops for closed bodies in the 1930s, detachable hardtops with metal roofs began to appear. After World War II, the availability of new types of plastic, because the convertible top mechanism is itself expensive, the hardtop was customarily offered as an additional, extra-cost option. On early Thunderbirds, buyers could choose between a detachable hardtop and a canvas top at no additional cost, but paid extra for both. Some open cars continue to offer it as an option, for example, some Mazda MX-5s are believed to have been delivered with an accessory hardtop, which is compulsory for some auto racing series. The automotive usage of the term hardtop is most often applied for a roof body style without a b or center pillar. They were sometimes called a hardtop convertible because they were designed to look like a convertible with the top raised, while some early models retained side window frames and B-pillars, by the 1950s, most were pillarless hardtops

29.
George W. Mason
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George Walter Mason was an American industrialist. During his career Mason served as the Chairman and CEO of the Kelvinator Corporation, Chairman and CEO of the Nash-Kelvinator Corporation, George W. Mason was born in Valley City, North Dakota. Mason had worked for local garages in his youth and upon receiving his degree from Michigan, Mason changed employers several times before entering military service during World War I. In 1921, Mason secured a position with Walter P, Chrysler at Maxwell-Chalmers, which Chrysler had reorganized and would use to develop Chrysler brand automobiles. From Maxwell-Chalmers, Mason went to Copeland Products of Detroit in 1926 before becoming the President of the Kelvinator Corporation, under Mason, Kelvinator quadrupled its profits and became second only to General Motors Frigidaire product line in home refrigeration sales despite the effects of the Great Depression. When Charles W. Nash, founder of Nash Motors began looking for his successor, Nash saw merit in this idea, General Motors owned Frigidaire, Borg-Warner owned Norge Appliance, and Chrysler operated its own air conditioning division, Airtemp. Nash and Mason came to terms and the deal announced in November 1936, the two firms merged to form Nash-Kelvinator Corporation with Mason as its CEO. By 1940, Mason continued to grow Kelvinator’s market share and returned Nash to profitable status, continuing Charles Nashs decades of success by building cars embodying honest worth. A price level which held out possibilities of a wide market. Mason began exploring the possibilities of aerodynamics for automobile designs and used of wind tunnel tests during World War II, Nash’s Chief of engineering, Nils Erik Wahlberg, worked with Theodore Ulrich in the development of Nashs all-new and radically styled 1949 Airflyte models. This was an adoption of aerodynamic principles in a low-priced mass-produced post-war automobile. The Airflytes design also extended its body over cars front wheels, Mason was a large and gregarious man, standing well more than six feet tall and weighing over 300 pounds. Despite his large size, he was fascinated with small cars, especially the concept of a small, inexpensive car and Nash’s marketing. Nash-Healey – the first American sports car after the Great Depression and developed with partners in Great Britain, Nash Metropolitan – a subcompact car built in cooperation with Great Britains Austin Motors. General Motors responded by doing the same, with the market flooded by inexpensive cars, Studebaker, Packard, Willys, Hudson, Kaiser Motors, and Nash were all unable to sell their vehicles at loss leader prices to keep up with Ford and GM. The frantic 1953–54 Ford/GM price war devastated the remaining independent automakers, the smaller automakers responded to their shrinking market shares by conducting formal and informal merger talks. Willys and Kaiser merged in 1953, Mason brought together Nash and the Hudson Motor Car Company to cut costs and strengthen their sales organizations to meet the intense competition from the Big Three. This merger occurred on May 1,1954 to form American Motors Corporation, at the same time, he tried to bring Studebaker and Packard into AMC

30.
George W. Romney
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George Wilcken Romney was an American businessman and Republican Party politician. He was the father of former Governor of Massachusetts and 2012 Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney, Romney was born to American parents living in the Mormon colonies in Mexico, events during the Mexican Revolution forced his family to flee back to the United States when he was a child. The family lived in states and ended up in Salt Lake City, Utah. Romney worked in a number of jobs, served as a Mormon missionary in the United Kingdom and he joined Nash-Kelvinator in 1948, and became the chief executive of its successor, American Motors Corporation, in 1954. There he turned around the firm by focusing all efforts on the compact Rambler car. Romney mocked the products of the Big Three automakers as gas-guzzling dinosaurs and became one of the first high-profile, devoutly religious, he presided over the Detroit Stake of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Having entered politics by participating in a constitutional convention to rewrite the Michigan Constitution during 1961–1962. Romney was a supporter of the American Civil Rights Movement. He briefly represented moderate Republicans against conservative Republican Barry Goldwater during the 1964 U. S. presidential election and he requested the intervention of federal troops during the 1967 Detroit riot. Initially a front runner for the Republican nomination for President of the United States in the 1968 election, he proved an ineffective campaigner, after Nixons election as president, he appointed Romney as Secretary of Housing and Urban Development. Romneys ambitious plans for housing production increases for the poor, and for housing to desegregate suburbs, were modestly successful. Romney left the administration at the start of Nixons second term in 1973, returning to private life, he advocated volunteerism and public service, and headed the National Center for Voluntary Action and its successor organizations from 1973 through 1991. He also served as a representative of the Twelve within his church. Romneys grandparents were polygamous Mormons who fled the United States with their children owing to the governments prosecution of polygamy. In the 1920s, Romneys uncle Rey L. Pratt played a role in the preservation and expansion of the Mormon presence in Mexico. A more distant kinsman was George Romney, a portrait painter in Britain during the last quarter of the 18th century. Romneys parents, Gaskell Romney and Anna Amelia Pratt, were United States citizens and they married in 1895 in Mexico and lived in Colonia Dublán in Galeana in the state of Chihuahua, where George was born on July 8,1907. George had three brothers, two younger brothers, and a younger sister

31.
Henry J
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The Henry J was an American automobile built by the Kaiser-Frazer Corporation and named after its chairman, Henry J. Kaiser. Production of six-cylinder models began in July 1950, and four-cylinder production started shortly after Labor Day,1950, official public introduction was September 28,1950. The car was marketed through 1954, the Henry J was the idea of Henry J. The goal was to attract less affluent buyers who could afford a used car. To finance the project, the Kaiser-Frazer Corporation received a government loan in 1949. This financing specified various particulars of the vehicle, Kaiser-Frazer would commit to design a vehicle that in its base form retailed for no more than $1,300.00. It was to seat at least five adults, be capable of going at least 50 miles per hour for sustained periods of time, to accomplish this, the Henry J was designed to carry the fewest possible components, and built from the fewest number of parts. To save body stamping costs, early Henry Js did not have rear trunk lids, another cost-saving measure was to offer the car only as a two-door sedan with fixed rear windows. Also lacking in the basic version were glove compartment, armrests, passenger-side inside sun visor, power for the Henry J was delivered by a 134.2 cu in four-cylinder 68 hp engine. Later models were available with a 161 cu in L-head six-cylinder engine producing 80 hp, the Henry J production provided a substantial revenue source for Willys-Overland. This standard engine could achieve up to 35 mpg‑US when driven conservatively, while the Henry J was priced low, a Chevrolet 150 model could be bought for a few dollars more, and Chevy included operating rear windows and a trunk lid. The standard Chevrolet, Ford, Plymouth, and other low priced competitors were also larger cars, Kaiser-Frazer started offering the deck lid as part of an Accessory Group during the 1951 model year, as well as a variety of other dress-up items. However, advertising for the Henry J still focused on operating costs at a time when the rationing of gasoline by the War Production Board ended, the car could achieve 25 mpg‑US and in 1953, a Henry J won the Mobil Economy Run. The Henry J proved to be a disappointment for Kaiser. Leftover 1951 models were modified with a continental tire and an upgraded interior. Available in either four- or six-cylinder engines, a total of 7,017 were sold, in 1952, Kaiser began selling rebadged Henry Js through Sears, under the nameplate of Allstate. Allstates were nearly identical to Henry Js but they carried a unique grille, hood ornament, hubcaps, identification badges and interior trim, after two years of disappointing sales, Sears dropped the car. The Henry J was also available in Japan from 1951 to 1954, through a deal with East Japan Heavy-Industries

32.
Kaiser-Frazer
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The Kaiser-Frazer Corporation was the result of a partnership between automobile executive Joseph W. Frazer and industrialist Henry J. Kaiser. In 1947, the acquired the automotive assets of Graham-Paige. Kaiser-Frazer was the only new US automaker to achieve success after World War II, the company was founded on July 25,1945 and in 1946 K-F displayed prototypes of their two new cars at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in New York City. The Kaiser was of a front wheel drive design while the Frazer was an upscale conventional rear wheel drive car. The production costs and the time available prevented the front wheel drive design from entering production, so the new 1947 Kaiser and Frazer shared bodies. Being some of the first newly designed cars on the market while the Big Three were still marketing their pre-war designs, Kaiser and Frazer continued to share bodies and engines through 1950 with different exterior and interior trim. Henry Kaiser had no marketing experience, Joseph Frazer did, having held various positions with Packard, GM, Chrysler. Kaiser believed in pressing forward in the face of adversity, while Frazer was more pragmatic, in 1952, the Kaiser-Frazer Corporation was renamed Kaiser Motors Corporation and continued building passenger cars through 1955. In 1953 Kaiser bought the ailing Willys-Overland company for US$63,381,175 and merged the Kaiser, the decision was then made to exit the passenger car market, which was accomplished at the end of the 1955 model year. By 1956, Willys Motors built only utility vehicles, many for export, in 1970, the Kaiser Jeep Corporation, as the company had been renamed in 1963, was sold to American Motors Corporation. Production of Kaiser-Frazer models was centered at Willow Run, Michigan, Willow Run, the largest building in the world at that time, was built by the U. S. government just prior to World War II for Henry Ford to build B-24 Liberator bombers. Once the war ended, Ford had no interest in the facility, when K-F expressed interest in the facility, the WAA offered them an attractive five-year lease rate. K-F also had manufacturing facilities in Jefferson MI, Long Beach CA, Portland OR, Leaside, Ontario, Canada, Haifa, Israel, Kawasaki, Japan, Mexico City and Rotterdam. U. S. Kaiser includes Custom, Deluxe, Virginian, Carolina and Manhattan sedans, first post war production car to offer supercharging. Henry J, an economy car including Corsair and Vagabond. Darrin, the first production sports car in the US. Frazer includes Standard, Deluxe and Manhattan sedans and the Vagabond hatchback, the 1951 Frazer Manhattan convertible was the last four-door American convertible until the 1961 Lincoln Continental. Early production 1947 Frazers were marketed and identified as a Graham-Paige product, Willys, including Aero-Willys and all sub-trim levels include Aero-Lark, Aero Ace

33.
Allstate (automobile)
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The Allstate is a badge engineered version of the Henry J American automobile that was offered for sale through Sears, Roebuck during the 1952 and 1953 model years. The Sears retail chain marketed vehicles made by the Lincoln Motor Car Works under the name Sears Motor Buggy between 1908 and 1912 and these horseless carriages were of the high-wheeler variety with large wagon-type wheels. Their high ground clearance was well-suited to muddy, wagon-rutted country roads, customers were accustomed to mail-ordering through the Sears catalog, and the Sears Motor Buggy could be delivered to the nearest railroad siding. The Allstate was the brainchild of Henry J. Kaiser, who saw Sears as another means to mass-market his slow-selling Henry J two-door sedan, introduced in 1950. Most notably, the Allstate featured a unique grille and jet-plane hood ornament designed by Alex Tremulis. Houser and Kaiser-Frazer administrative vice-president Eugene Trefethen, the three-year delay was due in part to tension from existing Kaiser-Frazer dealerships fearing competition with Sears. The Allstate was built by Kaiser-Frazer, in Willow Run, Michigan and was based on Kaisers compact Henry J, one body style was offered, a fastback two-door sedan in two lines, the Series 4 and the Series 6. For 1952, the Series 4 came in the Model 111 Standard and Model 113 DeLuxe trim versions, the Series 6 Basic was priced at $1,594 and the well-trimmed, swift Model 115 DeLuxe was offered at $1,693. The cars had a 100 in wheelbase, the marketing slogan was Your one brand new car for 52. Virtually no appearance changes were made for 1953 but Allstate cars weighed as much as 145 lb more than their 1952 counterparts. All the Allstate Basic models were dropped and Allstate prices jumped substantially, the entry-level Series 4 Standard Model 210 sold for $1,528 and the DeLuxe Model 213 for $1,589. The Series 6 was now offered in the upscale DeLuxe Model 215 version at $1,785. Seat covers were popular in the 1950s, and many were made of this type of material. Unlike early Henry Js, which were built without trunk lids to reduce costs, Allstates offered opening trunk lids. Series 4 cars used an 134.2 cu in L-head four-cylinder 68 hp engine, a three-speed manual transmission was standard, with overdrive available for $104 extra. Initially, the Allstate was offered only in the south and southwest United States, while some Sears outlets tried to stock at least one sample of the car, most were built on demand by Kaiser-Frazer, which made delivery to the store where they were sold. Kaiser-Frazer urged its dealers to service Allstate cars when asked, however, Sears did not accept trade-ins from Allstate buyers, and there may have been reluctance to buy a car through a department store where service was thought to be questionable. Only 2,363 Allstates were sold in two years before the marque was discontinued,1,566 during 1952 and 797 in 1953

34.
Willys Aero
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The Willys Aero was a line of passenger cars manufactured first by Willys-Overland and later by Kaiser-Willys Corporation from 1952 through 1955. The father of the Aero was Clyde Paton, former engineer for Packard Motor Car Company, the Eagle and Lark models were built from 1952 to 1954. A Wing model was only in 1952, a Falcon model in 1953. The Ace was the model built through all U. S. production. 1955 saw two new models, the two- and four-door Ace sedans and two-door hardtop Bermuda, production in the U. S. A. ended that year as Henry J. Kaiser decided to give up the Kaiser and Willys Aero lines and concentrate solely on Jeeps. A total of 91,377 Aeros were built in Toledo, the Aero tooling went to Brazil where, from 1960 to 1971, the Aero,2600, Itamaraty, and Executivo models were produced. The four-cylinder was used only in Aero Lark and was only exported, for 1952, the model names Eagle, Wing and Ace were used for cars that had the six-cylinder F-head Hurricane engine and the Aero-Lark had the six-cylinder flathead Lightning engine. All 1952s had a split windshield. Eagles and Aces had a wraparound rear window, while the larks. Owners of the 1952 model tended to buy the cars for their fuel economy. They tended to find acceleration to be good, unsurprising given the cars had the best power-to-weight ratio among US production cars. The primary complaint from two-door owners was the difficulty of access to the rear seat, many felt the cars cost too much, even if they were a bargain on performance for cost grounds. Floyd Clymer noted the car was capable of comfortably cruising at highway speeds of 80–90 miles per hour. This continued for 1953 except the Wing was dropped and replaced by the Aero-Falcon, all 1953s were available as two-door or four-door sedans except the Eagle, which was a two-door hardtop. One-piece windshields were given to the Aces and the Eagles, but the Lark, export Larks were available with the four-cylinder F-head engine. Dual-range Hydramatic transmissions were bought from GM and were optional in Aces and Eagles beginning in August 1953,1954 was the most involved year when it came to models, Only the Lark, Ace and Eagle survived. On the regular run, all Aeros received wraparound one piece windshields and rear windows, all 1954s received larger taillights, hooded headlight and parking light bezels, and different bumper guards. Nameplates were shuffled slightly on the run cars

35.
Hudson Jet
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The Hudson Jet is a compact automobile that was produced by the Hudson Motor Car Company of Detroit, Michigan during the 1953 and 1954 model years. The Jet was the response to the popular Nash Rambler. The Hudson Motor Car Company was one of independent firms competing with the much larger Big Three U. S. automakers that produced mainly standard large-sized models. Hudson had limited resources, and management decided to develop a compact-sized model instead of refurbishing its line of full-size cars. The Jet was introduced in the middle of the 1953 model year, however, Hudson was unable to foresee the dramatic decline in overall compact car sales during the 1952-1954 period which already included three other makes. As a result, they were able to produce a little more than 20,000 units for the 1953 model year. It was a car with no vices, but it effectively destroyed the Hudson Motor Car Company. Consequently, the company was forced to merge with Nash-Kelvinator because of the losses resulting from the Jet project, the initial inspiration for the new small Hudson car was the 1950 Fiat 1400 sedan. Early clay models of Hudsons new compact car carried the name Bee in keeping with the automakers Wasp and Hornet models. From the beginning, the Jet project was hampered by Hudson President A. E. Barit,63 years old in 1953, for example, Barit insisted that the compact-sized Jet offer full-size car amenities. Barit also decided that the Jets rear design would incorporate Oldsmobile-like high rear fender, moran fancied the 1952 Fords wrap around rear window and roofline, and Barit ordered a similar design for the Jet. The final result was that the Jets styling closely mimicked the larger 1952-1954 Ford in many respects, the strong unitized Monobuilt bodies for the Jet were produced by the Murray Corporation of Detroit. The new small car was powered by Hudsons new inline L-head 202 cu in engine that produced 104 horsepower at 4000 rpm and 158 pound force-feet of torque @1600 rpm. Early Studebaker body development mule vehicles suffered damage because the engine produced so much torque, a Twin-H power version with two 1-bbl downdraft carburetors, aluminum cylinder head, and 8.0,1 compression ratio producing 114 hp was optional. This was more power available from the standard Ford, Chevrolet. The 202 cu in engine was a version of Hudsons 1932 3x4.5254 cu in I8. It was a design at a time when the rest of the industry was moving to overhead valves. The Hudson Jet was unveiled in December 1952 at the Hotel Astor in New York City

36.
Ford Motor Company
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The Ford Motor Company is an American multinational automaker headquartered in Dearborn, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16,1903, the company sells automobiles and commercial vehicles under the Ford brand and most luxury cars under the Lincoln brand. Ford also owns Brazilian SUV manufacturer, Troller, and Australian performance car manufacturer FPV, in the past, it has also produced tractors and automotive components. Ford owns an 8% stake in Aston Martin of the United Kingdom, and it also has a number of joint-ventures, one in China, one in Taiwan, one in Thailand, one in Turkey, and one in Russia. It is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is controlled by the Ford family, Fords former UK subsidiaries Jaguar and Land Rover, acquired in 1989 and 2000 respectively, were sold to Tata Motors in March 2008. Ford owned the Swedish automaker Volvo from 1999 to 2010, in 2011, Ford discontinued the Mercury brand, under which it had marketed entry-level luxury cars in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Middle East since 1938. During the financial crisis at the beginning of the 21st century, it was close to bankruptcy, Ford is the second-largest U. S. -based automaker and the fifth-largest in the world based on 2015 vehicle production. At the end of 2010, Ford was the fifth largest automaker in Europe, Ford is the eighth-ranked overall American-based company in the 2010 Fortune 500 list, based on global revenues in 2009 of $118.3 billion. In 2008, Ford produced 5.532 million automobiles and employed about 213,000 employees at around 90 plants, the company went public in 1956 but the Ford family, through special Class B shares, still retain 40 percent voting rights. The Ford Motor Company was launched in a factory in 1903 with $28,000 in cash from twelve investors, most notably John. During its early years, the company produced just a few cars a day at its factory on Mack Avenue and later its factory on Piquette Avenue in Detroit, Michigan. Groups of two or three men worked on car, assembling it from parts made mostly by supplier companies contracting for Ford. Henry Ford was 39 years old when he founded the Ford Motor Company and it has been in continuous family control for over 100 years and is one of the largest family-controlled companies in the world. The first gasoline powered automobile had been created in 1885 by the German inventor Carl Benz, between 1903 and 1908, Ford produced the Models A, B, C, F, K, N, R, and S. Hundreds or a few thousand of most of these were sold per year, in 1908, Ford introduced the mass-produced Model T, which totalled millions sold over nearly 20 years. In 1927, Ford replaced the T with the Model A, Ford launched the first low-priced car with a V8 engine in 1932. In an attempt to compete with General Motors mid-priced Pontiac, Oldsmobile, Henry Ford purchased the Lincoln Motor Company in 1922, in order to compete with such brands as Cadillac and Packard for the luxury segment of the automobile market. The creation of a laboratory in Dearborn, Michigan in 1951, doing unfettered basic research

37.
Robert McNamara
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Robert Strange McNamara was an American business executive and the eighth Secretary of Defense, serving from 1961 to 1968 under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, during which time he played a role in escalating the United States involvement in the Vietnam War. Following that, he served as President of the World Bank from 1968 to 1981, McNamara was responsible for the institution of systems analysis in public policy, which developed into the discipline known today as policy analysis. McNamara consolidated intelligence and logistics functions of the Pentagon into two centralized agencies, the Defense Intelligence Agency and the Defense Supply Agency. Prior to his service, McNamara was one of the Whiz Kids who helped rebuild Ford Motor Company after World War II. A group of advisors he brought to the Pentagon inherited the Whiz Kids moniker, McNamara remains the longest serving Secretary of Defense, having remained in office over seven years. Robert McNamara was born in San Francisco, California and his father was Robert James McNamara, sales manager of a wholesale shoe company, and his mother was Clara Nell McNamara. His fathers family was Irish and in about 1850, following the Great Irish Famine, had emigrated to the U. S. first to Massachusetts and later to California. He graduated from Piedmont High School in Piedmont in 1933, where he was president of the Rigma Lions boys club, McNamara attended the University of California, Berkeley and graduated in 1937 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics with minors in mathematics and philosophy. He was a member of Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, was elected to Phi Beta Kappa his sophomore year, and earned a varsity letter in crew. McNamara was also a member of the UC Berkeleys Order of the Golden Bear which was a fellowship of students and he then attended Harvard Business School and earned an MBA in 1939. One major responsibility was the analysis of U. S. bombers efficiency and effectiveness, especially the B-29 forces commanded by Major General Curtis LeMay in India, China, and the Mariana Islands. McNamara established a control unit for XX Bomber Command and devised schedules for B-29s doubling as transports for carrying fuel. He left active duty in 1946 with the rank of lieutenant colonel, in 1946, Charles Tex Thornton, a colonel under whom McNamara had served, put together a group of officers from his AAF Statistical Control operation to go into business together. Thornton had seen an article in Life magazine portraying Ford as being in dire need of reform, henry Ford II, himself a World War II veteran from the Navy, hired the entire group of 10, including McNamara. The Whiz Kids, as came to be known, helped the money-losing company reform its chaotic administration through modern planning, organization. Whiz Kids origins, Because of their youth, combined with asking lots of questions, Ford employees initially and disparagingly, the Quiz Kids rebranded themselves as the Whiz Kids. Starting as manager of planning and financial analysis, he advanced rapidly through a series of management positions

38.
Studebaker Lark
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The Studebaker Lark is a compact car which was produced by Studebaker from 1959 to 1966. From its introduction in early 1959 until 1962, the Lark was a product of the Studebaker-Packard Corporation, in mid-1962, the company dropped Packard from its name and reverted to its pre-1954 name, the Studebaker Corporation. The cars were exported to a number of countries around the world as completed units. Lark-based variants represented the bulk of the produced by Studebaker after 1958 and sold in far greater volume than the contemporary Hawk. The Studebaker company, which celebrated its 100th anniversary in 1952, at the time the Lark was conceived, Studebaker-Packard Corporation was under a management contract with Curtiss-Wright Aircraft Company. The Lark was ingeniously designed around the core bodyshell of the full-sized 1953–1958 Studebakers, by reducing the front and rear overhangs and shortening the wheelbase ahead of the firewall, the car could still seat six people comfortably and hold a surprising amount of luggage. In fact, it was the Champion which Churchill specifically took as his inspiration for the Lark, two series of Larks were available, the Lark VI and the Lark VIII, both designations indicated engine type of the cars. Both series were available in Deluxe and Regal trim levels, initial models included two- and four-door sedans, a two-door hardtop coupe and a two-door station wagon, with two levels of trim offered on most. Aside from American Motors Corporations Rambler line, the Lark offered the broadest line of compacts on the U. S. market, the lineup grew for 1960, when the company issued a convertible and a four-door station wagon. A taxicab version of the Lark, originally called the Econ-O-Miler, was built on the station wagons longer 113 in wheelbase, the extra 4.5 in of wheelbase translated into extra rear seat legroom, which was important in the taxi trade. For 1959 and 1960, Larks were available with either an L-head 170 cu in engine or the companys 259 cu in V8. Testers at the time gave high marks to the V8s performance, a V8 Lark could turn out a 0 to 60 mph time of around 10 seconds, which was on par with much larger cars. By comparison, among the early Big Three compacts that arrived on the scene in 1960, none of the Big Three compacts offered a V8 until the second wave of such cars — the so-called senior compacts — arrived for 1961. To meet the challenge of new cars head-on, for 1961 Studebaker created a new four-door sedan. The resulting car harked back to the long-wheelbase Studebaker Land Cruiser sedans of the late Forties, a new option, a canvas-covered folding sunroof dubbed the Skytop was introduced as an extra-cost feature for sedans and the two-door hardtop. A mild restyling, too, was carried out, non-Cruiser sedans and the two-door hardtop received a squared-off roofline, and a new front end design gave the Lark a broader grille and the availability of quad headlamps. Although the styling was modified, engineering enhancements were the big news for 1961, the bigger news, as far as the general public was concerned, involved the six-cylinder engine. Studebakers engineers had long known that their little flathead mill, which dated in its form to 1939, was falling farther and farther behind the competition in both power and fuel economy

39.
Ford Falcon (North America)
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The Ford Falcon is an automobile that was produced by Ford from 1960 to 1970 across three generations. It was a success for Ford initially, outselling rival compacts from Chrysler. The television marketing for this featured the first animated appearances of the characters from Charles Schulzs acclaimed comic strip, Peanuts. The Falcon was offered in two-door and four-door sedan, two-door and four-door station wagon, two-door hardtop, convertible, sedan delivery, for several years, the Falcon name was also used on passenger versions of the Ford Econoline van. Variations of the Ford Falcon were manufactured in Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, Edsel Ford first used the term Falcon for a more luxurious Ford he designed in 1935. He decided the new car did not fit with Fords other offerings, historically, the Big Three auto manufacturers, focused purely on the larger and more profitable vehicles in the US and Canadian markets. Towards the end of the 1950s, all three manufacturers realized that this strategy would no longer work, large automobiles were becoming increasingly expensive, making smaller cars such as Fiats, Renaults, Toyotas, and Volkswagens increasingly attractive. Furthermore, many American families were now in the market for a second car, at the same time, research showed many buyers would prefer to buy US or Canadian if the domestic manufacturers offered a smaller car with lower cost of ownership. Thus, all three introduced compacts, the Valiant from Chrysler, GMs Chevrolet Corvair, and the Ford Falcon, studebaker also introduced the Lark, and Rambler downsized its near-compact American in 1960. Ford United Kingdom had begun production of the Ford Anglia in 1939, and the earlier Ford Model Y in 1932, followed by the Ford Zephyr, the European Fords, Anglia, Zephyr, and Taunus, were in production at the same time the Falcon was introduced. Engineer Harley Copp employed a unibody atop a standard suspension and sourced parts from Fords existing bin to keep the price low yet provide room for six passengers in reasonable comfort. The sales success of the conventional Falcon along with sales of GMs rear-engined Corvair led General Motors to introduce their own compact car based on the Falcons principles. The 1960 Falcon was powered by a small, lightweight 95 hp,144 CID Mileage Maker straight-6 with a single-barrel carburetor, construction was unibody, and suspension was fairly standard, with coil springs in front and leaf springs in the rear. A three-speed manual column shift was standard, and the two-speed Ford-O-Matic automatic was optional, there was room for six passengers in reasonable comfort in the simple interior. Body styles included two- and four-door sedans, two- or four-door station wagons, a Mercury derivative, the Mercury Comet, originally intended for the defunct Edsel marque, was launched in the US midway through the 1960 model year. The market shift which spurred the development of the Falcon and its competitors also precipitated the demise of several well-established marques in the late-1950s and early-1960s, besides the infamous tale of the Edsel, the Nash, Hudson, DeSoto, and Packard nameplates all disappeared from the marketplace. In 1960, Fords Canadian subsidiary introduced the Falcon-based Frontenac and it was designed to give Mercury-Meteor dealers a smaller model to sell, since the Comet was originally intended as an Edsel, which was sold by Ford-Monarch dealers. Produced for the 1960 model year only, the Frontenac was essentially a rebadged 1960 Falcon with its own unique grille, tail lights, despite strong sales, the Frontenac was discontinued and replaced by the Mercury Comet for 1961

40.
Rambler American
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The Rambler American is an automobile manufactured by the American Motors Corporation between 1958 and 1969. The American was the incarnation of AMCs forerunner Nash Motors second-generation Rambler compact that was sold under the Nash. The American can be classified in three distinct model year generations,1958 to 1960,1961 to 1963, and 1964 to 1969. During the entire length of its production, the car was sold under the Rambler brand name, the compact Rambler American was most often the lowest priced car built in the U. S. It was popular for its economy in ownership, as was proven by numerous Mobilgas Economy Run championships, the compact Rambler Americans were exported from the U. S. and Canada, as well as produced in other markets by AMC subsidiaries or assembled under license. In Iran it was assembled from knocked down kits and the models were named Aria. Rambler Americans were built in South Africa starting in 1961 by Stanley Motors, the genesis of the Rambler American began with the Nash Rambler, introduced in 1950. AMC President George Mason believed in small cars, and had introduced the Austin built/Nash designed Metropolitan in 1954, the Rambler line grew to a larger size in 1956. With costs to produce the Metropolitan rising, AMC decided to reintroduce a version of the 1955 Nash Rambler. The domestically produced replacement let AMC control costs more closely, new AMC president George Romney also wanted to build momentum in AMCs challenge to the domestic Big Three automakers by adding a third car line. The introduction of the new low priced sub compact Rambler was ideal—America had just entered into a recession in 1958 as the car was introduced. The first proposals were to modify AMCs captive import by extending the Metropolitan with a wagon type roof design to make room for four passengers. However the 85-inch wheelbase of the Metropolitan severely limited the necessary interior room, on the other hand, the company had retained the tooling from its 1955 model Rambler. The old models 100-inch wheelbase fit between its bigger family-sized 108-inch wheelbase Ramblers and the small import, the old design could be slightly modified and then used for the basis of the new American. American Motors financial condition meant it could not afford to develop a new model. The original taillights were turned upside down, saving money on retooling and this design was originally mandated by Nashs Airflyte styling motif, which sought to reach for the blinding optimism of post-World War II transportation. The cars seemingly narrow 55-inch track was not much different from the industry standard, the American went on sale late January 1958, with a minimum of marketing and promotion. It was available in two trims, a base Deluxe model priced at US$1,789 allowing AMC to claim the lowest-priced car made in America, the car was advertised as being the only small car with an automatic transmission

41.
Compact van
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For compact minivans, see Compact MPV. Popular in the United States during the early 1960s, they were replaced by full-size vans at the end of the decade and these large vans used body-on-frame construction and featured front engines under a short hood. The flat-front configuration is used for Japanese vans, and the format remains popular in Japan. Those that comply with Kei car regulations are known as microvans and they were also later supplemented by minivans. In these markets the compact vans often survive as combined commercial passenger, due to their resemblance to a loaf of bread they are colloquially known as bread vans. The main characters of the Scooby-Doo cartoon series drove a van called the Mystery Machine. Dodge A100 First generation Ford E-Series General Motors van, the original Chevy van and Greenbrier Toyota HiAce Nissan Caravan Daihatsu Hijet

42.
Volkswagen Type 2
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Following – and initially deriving from Volkswagens first model, the Type 1 – it was given the factory designation Type 2. European competition included the 1947-1981 Citroën H Van, the 1959-1980 Renault Estafette, japanese manufacturers also introduced similar vehicles, such as the Nissan Caravan, Toyota LiteAce and Subaru Sambar. Brazil contained the last factory in the world that produced the T2, production in Brazil ceased on December 31,2013, due to the introduction of more stringent safety regulations in the country. This marks the end of an era with the rear-engine Volkswagens manufactured, the concept for the Type 2 is credited to Dutch Volkswagen importer Ben Pon. He first sketched the van in a doodle dated April 23,1947, proposing a payload of 690 kg, production would have to wait, however, as the factory was at capacity producing the Type 1. When capacity freed up, a prototype known internally as the Type 29 was produced in a three months. The stock Type 1 pan proved to be too weak so the prototype used a chassis with unit body construction. Coincidentally the wheelbase was the same as the Type 1s, engineers reused the reduction gear from the Type 81, enabling the 1.5 ton van to use a 25 hp flat four engine. Although the aerodynamics of the first prototypes were poor, engineers used the tunnel at the Technical University of Braunschweig to optimize the design. Simple changes such as splitting the windshield and roofline into a vee helped the production Type 2 achieve Cd=0.44, only two models were offered, the Kombi, and the Commercial. The Microbus was added in May 1950, joined by the Deluxe Microbus in June 1951, in all 9,541 Type 2s were produced in their first year of production. An ambulance model was added in December 1951 which repositioned the fuel tank in front of the transaxle, put the spare tire behind the front seat and these features became standard on the Type 2 from 1955 to 1967. 11,805 Type 2s were built in the 1951 model year and these were joined by a single-cab pickup in August 1952, and it changed the least of the Type 2s until all were heavily modified in 1968. However, only generations T1 to T3 can be seen as related to the Beetle. The Type 2, along with the 1947 Citroën H Van, are among the first forward control vans in which the driver was placed above the front roadwheels. They started a trend in Europe, where the 1952 GM Bedford CA,1958 RAF-977,1959 Renault Estafette,1960 BMC Morris J4, except for the Greenbrier and various 1950s–70s Fiat minivans, the Type 2 remained unique in being rear-engined. The Type 2 was available as a, Panel van, a van without side windows or rear seats. Double-door Panel Van, a van without side windows or rear seats

43.
Car platform
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It is practiced in the automotive industry to reduce the costs associated with the development of products by basing those products on a smaller number of platforms. This further allows companies to create models from a design perspective on similar underpinnings. Platform sharing is a development method where different products and the brand attached share the same components. The purpose with platform sharing is to reduce the cost and have a more efficient product development process, the companies gain on reduced procurement cost by taking advantage of the commonality of the components. However, this limits their ability to differentiate the products. The companies have to make a trade-off between reducing their development costs and the degree of differentiation of the products, one of the first car companies to use this product development approach was General Motors in 1908. A basic definition of a platform in cars, from a point of view, includes, underbody and suspensions — where the underbody is made of front floor, underfloor, engine compartment. Many vendors refer to this as product or vehicle architecture, the concept of product architecture is the scheme by which the function of a product is allocated to physical components. The car platform strategy has become important in new product development, the finished products have to be responsive to market needs and to demonstrate distinctiveness while — at the same time — they must be developed and produced at low cost. Adopting such a strategy affects the development process and also has an important impact on an organizational structure. A platform strategy also offers advantages for the process of automobile firms. Manufacturers are then able to offer products at a lower cost to consumers, additionally, economies of scale are increased, as is return on investment. In the 1980s, Chryslers K-cars all wore a badge with the letter K to indicate their shared platform, in later stages, the K platform was extended in wheelbase, as well as use for several of the Corporations different models. GM used similar strategies with its J platform that debuted in mid-1981 in four of GMs divisions and they were popular through the 1980s, primarily. Even Cadillac started offering a J body model called the Cimarron, a similar strategy applied to what is known as the N-J-L platform, arguably the most prolific of GMs efforts on one platform. Once more, GMs four lower level divisions all offered various models on this throughout the 1980s. For example, the Lexus ES is essentially an upgraded and rebadged Toyota Camry, after Daimler-Benz purchased Chrysler, Chrysler engineers used several M-B platforms for new models including the Crossfire which was based on the M-B SLK roadster. Other models that share platforms are the European Ford Focus, Mazda 3, differences between shared models typically involve styling, including headlights, tail lights, and front and rear fascias

44.
Pony car
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Not to be confused with the Hyundai Pony car. Pony car is an American class of automobile launched and inspired by the Ford Mustang in 1964, the term describes an affordable, compact, highly styled car with a sporty or performance-oriented image. The pony car had its origins in the late 1950s demise of the original two-seat Ford Thunderbird, while the models 1958 transformation into a larger, four-seat personal luxury car proved to be a sales success, Ford dealers and consumers alike lamented the loss of the sporty halo car. For several years Ford explored various plans for a similar showroom traffic-builder to attract buyers who would purchase more mundane automobiles. An added impetus came from the 1960 introduction of the popular Chevrolet Corvair, the Monzas bucket seats and floor-mounted transmission shifter started a trend toward sportier cars equipped with both in all sizes from compacts to full-size cars. Other sporty bucket-seat compact cars that appeared during the early 1960s included the Mercury Comet S-22, Oldsmobile F-85 Cutlass, Buick Special Skylark, some technical developments that debuted in early sporty compact cars in the U. S. In 1963, the LeMans introduced a large-for-a-compact-car 326 cu in V8 option producing up to 280 hp, during this period there was a strong influx of young buyers with discretionary income and a taste for vehicles with a younger image than a standard sedan. Iacoccas marketing studies revealed that if a unique-looking sporty car could be offered at an affordable price, fords response was the Mustang, an enormous success right from its April 17,1964 launch. Year 1 sales forecasts of 100,000 units were shattered on the first day, the extended model year sales totaled 618,812 Mustangs. The 1964 Mustang provided the template for the new class of automobiles, the term Pony car to describe members of its ranks was coined by Car Life magazine editor Dennis Shattuck. Although the Mustang was based on the Falcon platform, its long hood, offered as a two-door coupé and convertible, it was nevertheless mechanically mundane in its basic form, with a 170 cu in six-cylinder engine coupled to a three-speed manual transmission. Its attractive US$2,368 base price included bucket seats, carpeting, floor shifter, sport steering wheel, a fully dressed V8 Mustang could increase sticker price by up to 60%, which generated excellent profits for Ford. Similarly as other muscle car versions, for the most part, despite the immediate success of the Mustang, many feared that the bubble would soon burst. Even though an early competitor, the Plymouth Barracuda, had gone on sale two weeks earlier, other manufacturers were generally relatively slow to respond. Well aware of the Mustangs upcoming debut, Chrysler had sought a low-cost way to expand the appeal of its mainstream compact Valiant, the companys precarious financial situation meant the resulting Barracuda was compromised, with insufficient distinction from the Valiant and styling that drew mixed reactions. As a result, its sales were a fraction of the Mustangs, initially, General Motors believed that the restyled 1965 Corvair would be an adequate challenger for the Mustang. However, when it became clear that the Corvair itself was doomed and it appeared in 1967, at the time the Mustang received its first major redesign, and was joined by the Camaro-based Pontiac Firebird and the Mustang-based Mercury Cougar. American Motors made its entry late in 1967 with the Javelin and it was described by race driver Gordon Johncock as a roomy, comfortable, peppy and handsome example of a so-called pony car, the type of automobile thats showing up more and more on US highways

45.
Ford Mustang
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The Ford Mustang is an American automobile manufactured by Ford. It was originally based on the platform of the second generation North American Ford Falcon, the 1963 Mustang II concept car was designed with a variation of the production models front and rear ends with a roof that was 2.7 inches shorter. Introduced early on April 17,1964, and thus dubbed as a 1964½ by Mustang fans, the Mustang has undergone several transformations to its current sixth generation. The Mustang is also credited for inspiring the designs of such as the Toyota Celica and Ford Capri. The Ford Mustang was brought out five months before the start of the 1965 production year. With production beginning in Dearborn, Michigan on March 9,1964, executive stylist John Najjar, who was a fan of the World War II P-51 Mustang fighter plane, is credited by Ford to have suggested the name. Najjar co-designed the first prototype of the Ford Mustang known as Ford Mustang I in 1961 and his lap times were only slightly off the pace of the F1 race cars. An alternative view was that Robert J. Eggert, Ford Division market research manager, Eggert, a breeder of quarterhorses, received a birthday present from his wife of the book, The Mustangs by J. Frank Dobie in 1960. Later, the title gave him the idea of adding the Mustang name for Fords new concept car. The designer preferred Cougar or Torino, while Henry Ford II wanted T-bird II, the name could not be used in Germany, however, because it was owned by Krupp, which had manufactured trucks between 1951 and 1964 with the name Mustang. Ford refused to buy the name for about US$10,000 from Krupp at the time, kreidler, a manufacturer of mopeds, also used the name, so Mustang was sold in Germany as the T-5 until December 1978. Mustangs grew larger and heavier with each year until, in response to the 1971–1973 models, Ford returned the car to its original size. It has since seen several generations and designs. Although some other cars have seen a revival, the Mustang is the only original model to remain in uninterrupted production over five decades of development. The T-5 prototype was a two-seat, mid-mounted engine roadster and this vehicle employed the German Ford Taunus V4 engine. It was claimed that the decision to abandon the design was in part due to the increase in sales the Thunderbird had seen when enlarged from a two-seater to a 2+2 in 1958. Thus, a car with full space for the front bucket seats, as originally planned. Favorable publicity articles appeared in 2,600 newspapers the next morning, a Mustang convertible also appeared in the James Bond film Goldfinger in September 1964

46.
V8 engine
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A V8 engine is an eight-cylinder V configuration engine with the cylinders mounted on the crankcase in two sets of four, with all eight pistons driving a common crankshaft. Most banks are set at an angle to each other, some at a narrower angle, with 45°, 60°. In its simplest form, the V8 is basically two parallel inline-four engines sharing a common crankshaft, since the 1920s, most V8s have used the somewhat more complex crossplane crankshaft with heavy counterweights to eliminate the vibrations. This results in an engine that is smoother than a V6, most racing V8s continue to use the single plane crankshaft because it allows faster acceleration and more efficient exhaust system designs. In 1902, Léon Levavasseur took out a patent on a light and he called it the Antoinette after the young daughter of his financial backer. From 1904 he installed this engine in a number of competition speedboats, the aviation pioneer Alberto Santos-Dumont saw one of these boats in Côte dAzur and decided to try it on his 14-bis aircraft. Its early 24 hp at 1400 rpm version with only 55 kg of weight was interesting, Santos-Dumont ordered a larger and more powerful version from Levavasseur. He changed its dimensions from the original 80 mm stroke and 80 mm bore to 105 mm stroke and 110 mm bore, obtaining 50 hp with 86 kg of weight and its power-to-weight ratio was not surpassed for 25 years. Levavasseur eventually produced its own line of V8 equipped aircraft, named Antoinette I to VIII, hubert Latham piloted the V8 powered Antoinette IV and Antoinette VII in July 1909 on two failed attempts to cross the English Channel. However, in 1910, Latham used the VII with the engine to become the first in the world to reach an altitude of 3600 feet. Voisin constructed pusher biplanes with Antoinette engines, also, notably the one first flown successfully by Henry Farman in 1908, the V8 engine configuration became popular in France from 1904 onward, and was used in a number of aircraft engines introduced by Renault, and Buchet among others. Some of these found their way into automobiles in small quantities. In 1905, Darracq built a car to beat the world speed record. They came up with two racing car built on a common crankcase and camshaft. The result was monstrous engine with a displacement of 1,551 cu in, victor Hemery fixed that record on 30 December 1905 with a speed of 109.65 mph. Rolls-Royce built a 3,535 cc V8 car from 1905 to 1906, in 1907 The Hewitt Motor Company built a large 5 passenger Touring Car. It was equipped with a hefty V8 engine that developed 50/60 horsepower and had a bore of 4 inches, the Hewitt was the first American Automobile to be equipped with a V8 engine. De Dion-Bouton introduced a 7,773 cc automobile V8 in 1910 and it was produced only in small quantities, but inspired a number of manufacturers to follow suit

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA or sometimes U.S. EPA) is an agency of the federal government of …

Same smokestacks in 1975 after the plant was closed in a push for greater environmental protection

Ruckelshaus sworn in as first EPA Administrator.

A bulldozer piles boulders in an attempt to prevent lake shore erosion, 1973 (photograph by Paul Sequeira, photojournalist and contributing photographer to the Environmental Protection Agency's DOCUMERICA project in the early 1970s)