ABBREVIATIONA shortened version of a written word or
phrase used to replace the original (e.g., a.s.a.p., bldg., m.l.s., mr., mrs.,
chapt., a.c.). Abbreviations may be used wherever acceptable. The commonly used abbreviations vary by industry or field of study or endeavor.

ACCENTA symbol used to indicate
emphasis, stress, or pitch on a particular letter or syllable, or another
distinction in pronunciation. Accents include a French grave, acute, circumflex,
or cedilla, or any similar mark.

ACTIVE
VOICEThe form of
the verb (voice of verbal inflection) in which the grammatical subject of the
sentence is represented as performing the action expressed by the verb (e.g., the
cow jumped over the moon. The stock market slumped. He arose shortly after
sunrise.). The active voice is the opposite of the passive voice. See PASSIVE VOICE

ADJECTIVEA word that describes or modifies a noun
(e.g., tall man). It is termed a modifier, because it adds something to
(modifies) a noun. An adjective can precede a noun (black cat) or follow
it (The prize made the winner rich. The meal was delicious). An
adjective is sometimes used to modify groups of words, such as noun phrases
(the astonishing turn of events) or noun clauses (it appeared obvious
that the contestant was drunk.)

ADVERBA word or clause that typically describes or
modifies a verb (He ate noisily), but can also modify an
adjective (She is extremely short) or another adverb (He sang exceptionally
poorly). In fact, an adverb can be used to modify anything, except a noun. This includes phrases (almost out
of sight), participles (a well-earned vacation) clauses, and
pronouns (nearly everyone).

ALLITERATIONThe repetition for effect of the same initial letter in
successive words within a group of words. The letter is usually, but not
necessarily, a consonant (e.g., Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers).

ANAGRAMA new word or phrase created by changing the sequence of the
letters in another word or phrase (e.g., ten and net, God
and dog). Also, the transposition of the letters to form the new word or
phrase. See also ANASTROPHE

ANALOGYThe comparison of two things,
which are alike in some respects, in order to explain or clarify an idea or
object by showing how similar it is to something familiar. Although a simile
and analogy are somewhat similar, a simile normally is a more
artistic likening done for effect and emphasis. In contrast, the analogy
serves more to explain a thought process or reasoning, or the abstract, in
terms of the tangible. See also METAPHORSIMILE

ANASTROPHEThe inversion of the normal word for effect.
A change in the usual order in which words appear in order to achieve an
effect. The normal sequence of words in English is subject followed by verb,
and then object. See also ANAGRAM

ANTECEDENTThe word, group of words, or clause to which
a pronoun in a sentence refers. The antecedent may follow the pronoun, although
it usually precedes it (e.g., William telephoned to say he would be
late) (They encountered Tom and said hello to him.).

ANTONYMA word that has the exact opposite meaning of another (e.g., parallel
is an antonym of opposite, poor is an antonym of excellent). See
also HOMONYMSYNONYM

APPOSITIVEA noun, noun
phrase, or noun clause that follows a noun or pronoun and identifies or
explains it, or supplements its meaning. Commas sometimes set off the
appositive (e.g., a biography of the genius, Benjamin Franklin) (Sales
of his book, Profiles in Courage, sold widely following his
tragic death.) (We teachers like to be right). See also NON-RESTRICTIVE CLAUSE

APOSTROPHEThe sign (')
used to create the possessive form of a noun. This is usually accomplished by
adding an apostrophe to the noun followed by a letter s. The apostrophe is also
used to denote the plural form of certain abbreviations and letters (e.g., several
C.P.A.'s). Finally, the apostrophe is used in contractions to show where letters have been omitted (e.g., don't), although this should be
avoided in formal prose. See also CONTRACTIONPUNCTUATION

ARCHAISMThe use in literature of what
is archaic, such as words, expressions, spelling, or construction. Thee,
quoth, and methinks are examples of archaic words, terms that are
no longer in general use.

ARTICLEThe three articles (a, an, the) are
adjectives that indicate whether a noun refers to a specific thing or to merely
one of many things (e.g., to a particular chair or to any chair). The definite
article (the) is used with a specific thing. An indefinite article (a,
an) is used with any one of many things. That is, the definite article
indicates definiteness, whereas the indefinite article indicates
indefiniteness.

AUXILIARY
VERBA verb that
accompanies another verb in order to help to express the person, tense, mood,
voice, or condition of the latter verb. The verbs to have, to be, to do,
with, can, may, and shall are commonly used auxiliary verbs.An
auxiliary verb is also termed a helping verb. See also VERB

BRACKETSPunctuation marks used in pairs to enclose a subsidiary thought.
They are the left ([) or right (]) bracket characters on the standard computer
keyboard. Brackets are used in writing and printing to enclose parenthetical
writing, interpolations, quoted material
or excerpts, etc. (e.g., "My
age [67 years] is my only secret," insisted William.) See also PUNCTUATION

CLAUSEA group of words that contains both a
subject and a verb, but represents only part of a compound sentence or complex
sentence. The clause may express a thought completely on its own (e.g., I
run every morning). In this case, it is termed an independent clause.
Alternatively, it may not express an idea completely without the aid of an
independent or main clause (e.g., when I am in town) In this last case,
it is called a subordinate clause.

Adjective clauses, adverb
clauses, and noun clauses are
three types of subordinate clauses. An adjective clause modifies a noun
or pronoun in the independent clause (e.g., The man, who was also
a gambler, usually carried large amounts of cash). An adverb clause
modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverbin the independent clause
(e.g., Shortly after the sun sets, twilight begins). Finally, a
noun clause acts as a noun in an independent clause (e.g., whoever
finishes first can take the rest of the day off). See alsoINDEPENDENT CLAUSECOMPLEX SENTENCECOMPOUND SENTENCESENTENCESUBORDINATE CLAUSE

CLICHÉA trite, overused and worn out expression or phrase conveying a
popular thought or idea, which has become part of our language, but is no
longer fresh or original. It has long lost its originality and impact due to
overuse. (e.g., The early bird gets the worm.) A writer, who uses
clichés, may be perceived to be coasting - putting insufficient effort into his
craft. A figure of speech that is
overworked becomes a cliché. See also FIGURE OF SPEECHJOURNALESESTYLE

COLLECTIVE
NOUNA noun that
refers to individual persons or items as a group, such as number, total,
audience, or clergy. A collective noun can be considered to be
singular or plural (e.g., The number of rejects was extremely
high. A number of attendees to the convention have already left).
See also NOUN

COLLOQUIALISMA colloquial expression. Colloquial
language. A familiar expression found in ordinary speech and acceptable in
everyday conversation, although not suitable for formal writing or speaking
(e.g., a burger, coke, and double fries). See also STYLE

COLONA punctuation mark used to mark a significant break in a
sentence. It creates a stop within a
sentence that is almost as abrupt as that caused by a period. The colon
indicates that the text following is a summary, expansion, or implication,
etc., of that, which it precedes.Alternatively,
a colon is used to separate numbers in ratios (e.g., 2:1) or groups of numbers
that refer to different things, such as hours from minutes (e.g., 7:15), or to
mark the beginning of lists. See also PUNCTUATION

COMMAA punctuation mark (,) is the equivalent
of a brief pause. It used to mark a division in a sentence, as may be caused by
a word, phrase, or clause, particularly when accompanied by a pause. The comma
also separate items in a list, designates thousands in numerals, and separates
types of information in bibliographic and other data.Commas are used for clarity and to make sentences less unwieldy.
Comma is derived from the Greek komma for segment or clause, which
designated a portion of a sentence. It appeared as a full slash mark or solidus
(/) in early manuscripts, but later shrank to today's size. See also PUNCTUATION

COMPLEX
SENTENCEA sentence
consisting of one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses (e.g.,
The dogquicklydiscovered the cat, which had left the
safety of its hiding place). In the preceding example, the independent
clause has been underlined. The subordinate clause is written in italics. See
also COMPOUND SENTENCE

COMPOUNDINGThe act of joining two words to create a new
word. Examples of words so formed include walk-out, blackout, and
doghouse.

COMPOUND
PREDICATEA compound
predicate consists of two or more predicates that share the same subject (e.g.,
Franklin Delano Roosevelt enacted a great deal of legislation to reform
America's institutions and get citizens back to work and subsequently led the
country through the Second World War). See also CONJUNCTIONPREDICATE

COMPOUND
SENTENCEA sentence
that consists of two or more independent clauses and no subordinate clause. A
comma and a conjunction separate the independent clauses. (e.g., I finished my
work for the day, and now I am ready to go out. See also COMPLEX SENTENCE

CONJUNCTIONA word (e.g., and, but, or) used
to connect words, phrases, or clauses. Subordinating conjunctions (e.g.,
whether, unless) join subordinate clauses to main clauses. Correlative
conjunctions (e.g., either…or, neither…nor) are used in pairs to
join alternatives or equal elements. Coordinating conjunctions are
normally used to join like with like, such as a noun with another noun, an
adjective with another adjective, an adverb with another adverb, etc. (e.g., a
fork and a knife, hot but dry, quickly but quietly, Jack and
Jill). Common coordinating conjunctions include and, but, for, or, nor,
either, yet, and so. See also CLAUSEPHRASE

CONSONANTGenerally, a letter with a "hard"
sound: b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z.
That is, any letter except a, e, I, o, or u. Consonants
originally were letters or letter sounds formed with the breath at least
partially obstructed. They were combined with a vowel (a letter with a
"soft" openmouthed sound) in order to form a syllable. Hence, the
term derives from consonans, Latin for sounding with. The consonants w
and y sometimes act like vowels. Further, some consonants (e.g., g
and h) are not pronounced. See also VOWEL

CONTRACTIONA term used to describe a word formed by
combining two words into one and replacing the letter(s) omitted with an
apostrophe (e.g., can't, don't, I'm). The three common constructions of
contractions are:

DASH
A short
horizontal typographical mark (-) that indicates a break between thoughts, sets
off a parenthetical clause, marks an omission, or substitutes for a colon.
There are two main kinds of dashes, an em dash and an en dash. An
em dash is longer than an en dash and much longer than a hyphen.
The em dash is a full square of type in size. An en-dash is only
one-half of a square of type in size and resembles a hyphen. An em dash
is used mainly to denote a sudden change in tone, or to set off a clause or
phrase, instead of using parentheses. The main use of an en dash is to
represent missing, but implied, items of a series. For example, 2-4 denotes the
numbers 2 through 4. See also ELLIPSISHYPHEN

DICTIONARYA reference
book that contains a selection of the words of a language, usually arranged in
alphabetical order and expressed in the same or another language. It provides
the meaning of each entry, its abbreviation, and information about
pronunciation and various spellings. In addition, the dictionary may give
grammatical forms, etymologies, synonyms and antonyms, and illustrative
quotations. The word, dictionary, comes from the Latin word dictionaries
for a collection of words. In word processing, the term also applies to
a list of words contained in the computer's spell checking program. See also GLOSSARYTHESAURUS

DIRECT
OBJECTA word,
phrase, or clause that tells what the action of the verb accomplished or sought
to accomplish. It represents the result or objective of the action (e.g., He
closedthe door. She did whatever was asked. I'll
seeyoulater," he responded.) See also INDIRECT OBJECT

DOUBLE
NEGATIVEThe
construction produced by using two negatives in a clause or sentence. This
results from combining the negative form of verb (e.g., can't, won't,dislike),
or "not," with a negative pronoun (e.g., nobody, nothing
or nobody), a negative adverb (e.g., never, hardly, rarely), a
negative conjunction (e.g., neither,nor), or "not."
Some obvious examples of double negatives are:

I didn't see nobodyShe is not unattractive

It wasn't uninterestingIt's not impossible.

The use of double negatives
is generally associated with uneducated users. Consequently, their use is
usually avoided in written and spoken language. See also NEGATIVE

ELLIPSISA set of three dots, periods, or dashes in a row. They are used
between two sentences or phrases to indicate that a word or phrase has been
omitted. An ellipsis is also used when bits or quips of information have been
taken from a long quotation or when wanting to signify a trailing off in
thought or to leave it to the reader's imagination to complete. When the ellipsis appears at the end of the sentence,
a period precedes it. Consequently, there are four dots instead of three. See also DASHPERIODPUNCTUATION

EMOTIVE
LANGUAGEWords that
have an emotional content. Most ideas can be expressed in a manner that is
positive or negative, welcoming or threatening, depending on the word selected.
See also STYLE

EUPHEMISMThe use of a
polite, agreeable, or inoffensive word or expression in place of one that is
harsh, rude, or offensive. Also, to use pleasant or inoffensive language to
soften or mask upsetting truths (e.g., to pass on instead of to die).
Also, the word(s) so used. See also STYLE

EXCLAMATION POINTThe mark used in writing after an exclamation. It is often used
to indicate intensity of emotion or loudness, etc. The mark evolved from the
Roman habit of saying "lo" as an exclamation. In order to save time
in writing, scribes wrote the two letters together, with the "I" on
top and the "o" beneath it. Eventually, the "o" was filled
with ink and became a dot. See also PUNCTUATION

FIGURATIVEOf the nature
of, or involving, a figure of speech, particularly. a metaphor. Metaphorical,
not literal. Figurative language uses words in uncommon or imaginative ways. It
often exaggerates or overlooks reality in order to make a point (e.g., He
has become as big as a horse, rather than He has gained a great deal of
weight).

GERUNDThe present participle of a
verb that is used as a noun. The verb form that ends in "ing"
when used as a noun. Although the gerund is used like a noun, it retains
certain characteristics of a verb, such as the ability to take an object (e.g. Preparing
lasagna is time-consuming or Golfingis his first love). The same word can be used as an adjective (I spied the running
figure) or part of a verb (She was knitting). See also PARTICIPLE

GLOSSARYA list of terms used in a book
or publication covering a technical or specific field and their definitions. A
glossary appears in the back matter of the book. Also, a feature of a word
processing program that stores frequently used words or text for future
insertion in documents when needed. See
also DICTIONARYTHESAURUS

GRAMMARThe formal system for describing the
structure of a language or the rules of its use. We combine words into larger
units. Grammar covers the system of rules that specify such combinations. The
rules that specify how others want us to use our language. See also SYNTAX

HOMONYMA word that is pronounced the
same as another word, but that has a different meaning. The two words may be
spelled differently. Hare and hair are examples of homonyms, as
are bear and bare, and mat and matte. See also ANTONYMSYNONYM

HYPERBOLEObvious and
extravagant overstatement of fact. Intentional exaggeration in order to sell a
product or service, or for effect. Also termed hype.

HYPHENA punctuation mark (-) used to
join two words together, to indicate where a word has been broken between
syllables at the end of a line, or to separate parts of a compound word. The normal
hyphen, optional hyphen, and nonbreaking hyphen are three
types of hyphen. Both normal hyphens and nonbreaking hyphens are
visible. The normal hyphen is used as part of the usual spelling of the
word. It is also termed required hyphen or hard hyphen. Nonbreaking
hyphens do not permit a line break. That is, the word cannot be broken into
parts at the end of a line. An optional hyphen only appears if a word is
split between syllables at the end of a line. It is also called a discretionary
hyphen or soft hyphen. See also DASHSYLLABLE

IDIOMAn expression whose meaning
cannot be concluded from the normal meanings of the words that comprise it, or
from the rules of grammar of the language. Examples of idioms used in North
America include bust or flat broke, flush, pushing up
daisies, and give me a break.

IMPERATIVEA term applicable to the mood or form of a
verb that is used when giving command or making a request. (e.g., Close the
door as you leave the room.Put up your hand when you have the answer.
Please be home by midnight.) See also INDICATIVEMOODSUBJUNCTIVE

INDICATIVEA term applicable to the mood or form of a
verb that is used when making a conventional clear-cut statement or asking a
question: (e.g., The train left at noon. The old toaster no longer
functions. What classes are you taking this semester?)See also IMPERATIVEMOODSUBJUNCTIVE

INDEPENDENT
CLAUSEA clause - a
group of word containing both a subject and a predicate - that can stand alone
as a complete sentence. It expresses a complete thought. In contrast, a subordinate
clause is incomplete and requires an independent clause to express
the idea fully. (e.g., I prefer French cuisine, although Italian food
is fine.) An independent clause is also termed a main clause.
See also CLAUSESUBORDINATE CLAUSE

INDIRECT
OBJECTA word,
phrase, or clause that gives the secondary goal of the action of the verb. It
typically answers the question, "To or for whom, what,
or which?" (e.g., She gave him a hug. He bought her
flowers.)See also DIRECT OBJECT

INFINITIVEA verb form that possesses characteristics
of both verb and noun and is usually preceded by "to" (to start,
to leave, to sing). Although the preposition announces the infinitive, it
does not form part of the infinitive itself. The infinitive form of a verb is
typically used in constructions that are subordinate to another verb. (e.g., I
made him do it.) See also SPLIT INFINITIVE

INTERJECTIONA term used
in reference to an exclamation, particularly as a part of speech, such as Oh!
Wow! Dear me! An interjection typically relates to state of mind and has no
relation with other words.

INTERROGATIVEA term
applicable to a sentence or construction that asks a question. Also, a pronoun
or adverb, etc. that provides a line of questioning, such as "who"
in Who was that person? or "what" in What did
you buy?

INTRANSITIVE
VERBA verb that
has no direct object. An intransitive verb is neither an auxiliary verb nor a
linking verb. Although the verb involves an action, the action is not done to
anyone or anything else (e.g., He runs every morning. She shopped
until she dropped. They danced until dawn.). Many verbs can
be transitive or intransitive depending on their use. See also AUXILIARY VERBLINKING VERBTRANSITIVE VERBVERB

IRONYThe utterance or use of words to express
something that differs from, and is often the direct opposite of, their literal
meaning. A. figure of speech, or mildly sarcastic or humorous use of words, to
imply the opposite of the literal meaning. (e.g., Oh sure! That's what I
really need.) See also FIGURE OF SPEECHLITERALSATIRE

JOURNALESELoose, slangy,
cliché-ridden writing characterized by faulty or unusual syntax, new contrived
words, etc., used by some journalists who feel that it typifies the
journalistic style. See also CLICHÉSLANGSYNTAXSTYLE

LINKING VERBA verb that connects a subject to its predicate without
expressing action. Linking verbs describe or rename their subjects. They
include the so-called sense verbs (to feel, to look, to taste, to
smell), to be, to appear, to become, to seem, and to sound. With the
exception of to seem, linking verbs can be transitive or intransitive.
The verb to be can be a linking verb or an auxiliary verb. (e.g., he is
the owner, she seems healthy, it tastes great, the food on the
bottom shelf smelled terrible, it sounds interesting)See also AUXILIARY
VERBINTRANSITIVE
VERBTRANSITIVE
VERBVERB

LITERALIn accordance with the primary or strict meaning of the word,
statement, or text. Not figurative or metaphorical. The most straightforward
meaning. A literal translation is one that attempts to follow the words of the
original very closely and convey the exact meaning of the text. True to fact
and without exaggeration. See also FIGURE OF SPEECHIRONYMETAPHOR

METAPHORThe use of a word or phrase with an object or concept, to which
it does not literally apply, in order to suggest comparison with another object
or concept. A metaphor is a figure of speech in which one idea or action is
conveyed by a word or phrase that normally indicates a different idea or
action. It is an unstated comparison of
one thing with another. Metaphors are the most frequently used figures of
speech. Unlike a simile or analogy,
a metaphor asserts that one thing, instead of saying that it is like another
(e.g., The moon was a silver coin upon the surface of the lake.) See also ANALOGYFIGURE OF SPEECHIMAGERYMIXED METAPHORSIMILE

METONYMYA figure of speech in which the name of one
thing or concept is used in place of the name of something associated with it
or which it symbolizes. Examples are crown for king and bottle for strong drink. See also FIGURE OF SPEECH

MODIFIERA word or phrase that is used to restrict or
limit the meaning of another word or phrase. For example, in the phrase, green
Honda, greenmodifiesHonda. It narrows the meaning of
the phrase from all Honda vehicles to only Honda vehicles that are
green in color. See also ADJECTIVEADVERB

MOODA reference to the moods or modes expressed
through verbs by the writer. The verbs reflect the writer's mood about what he
writes. Verbs have three possible moods. The indicative mood describes
ordinary statements of fact or questions (I have only one examination
remaining.). The subjunctive verb is used to express a wish or something
that is contrary to fact (If I graduate, you won't see me here again.)
The imperative mood is used for a request or a command. (Bring my dinner!)See also INDICATIVEIMPERATIVESUBJUNCTIVE

NEGATIVEA modifying word or expression
that is used to assert that something is not true (e.g., he will not
leave, the cat appears to be unhappy, she never asked for
assistance, he scarcely had enough money for bus fare). Commonly
used negatives are no, never, and not. However, other
words, such as hardly and scarcely, add a negative connation. The
term, negative, also describes words, such as unhappy,
unappealing, disinterested, etc. The opposite of such words are
happy, affirmative, or positive. See also DOUBLE NEGATIVE

NEOLOGISMA new word or phrase, or new use of a word or phrase. Also, the
introduction or use of new words or phrases. Finally, the use of a word or
phrase in a new sense, or for a new meaning. See also DICTIONARYGLOSSARYTHESAURUS

NONRESTRICTIVE CLAUSEA
subordinate clause that is not essential to assure the certainty of the word it
modifies. If the subordinate clause were omitted, the meaning of the main
clause would be unchanged. The nonrestrictive clause is set off by commas from
the rest of the sentence. (e.g., The hostess, who was a tall blonde woman
with green eyes, led us to the drawing room.) A nonrestrictive
clause is also termed a nonessential clause) See also APPOSITIVERESTRICTIVE CLAUSE

NOUNAny of the
category of words used to designate a person, place, thing, idea, quality, or
action, such as Charles, Pittsburgh, grapefruit, privacy, durability,
arrival.Nouns may be singular or
plural. A proper noun begins with a capital letter (e.g., Nashville,Nancy Drew, Nationair), whereas a common noun begins in lowercase
(e.g., city, girl, airline).

OBJECTA noun, noun phrase, pronoun, or clause that
follows a preposition, or on which a verb acts directly or indirectly (e.g., He
petted the dog.She gave him
the gift. She did what was asked. They watched television
after dinner. He opened the curtains.) Objects may be direct
or indirect. A direct object is the result of an action, whereas an indirect
object tells to whom or what it happened. See also DIRECT
OBJECTINDIRECT
OBJECT

ONOMATOPOEIAThe use of words that, when pronounced, suggest their meaning.
Such words appear to imitate the sound with which they are associated.Examples include hiss, buzz, sizzle, pop,
click, murmur, whisper, babble, and growl.

OXYMORONA figure of speech in which two apparently
contradictory terms are combined to produce an effect. Bittersweet is an
example of an oxymoron. A paradox expressed in to two words, usually an
adjective-noun or adverb-adjective, and used to emphasize a contrast,
incongruity, or hypocrisy, or for effect. See also FIGURE
OF SPEECH

PARADOXA statement or
proposition that appears to be self-contradictory or unreasonable, but that
expresses a possible truth. (e.g., The child is father of the man.)
Also, a self-contradicting proposition.

PARAGRAPHA distinct
portion of written or printed matter that usually contains more than one
sentence, but is shorter than a chapter, and deals with a particular idea. A
paragraph begins on a new line and is usually indented. It is a subsection of a
larger piece, article, manuscript, book, or text. To a word processing program, a
paragraph is a unit of information that can be selected or formatted differently
from adjacent paragraphs.

PARENTHESESPunctuation marks used in pairs () to mark an explanatory
interjection or remark that is inserted into a sentence, which is grammatically
complete without the insertion. Parentheses set off subsidiary thoughts or
phrases that represent asides. They are also used to separate several
qualities or a group of elements in a formula, equation, etc. that are to be
treated as a whole. Parentheses are rounded brackets that are used in similar
manner to brackets. They are also called parens. See also BRACKETSPUNCTUATION

PARTICIPLEA verb form used as an adjective (e.g., rising
sun, cooked food, broken lamp). It may be a present
participle, past participle, or perfect participle. The present participle ends
in -ing (e.g., charming, rising, falling, singing). The past
participle usually ends in -ed (e.g., jumped, skipped, cooked, aged,
shopped). The perfect participle combines having and the past
participle (e.g., having cooked, having aged, having skipped). See also AUXILIARY VERBMODIFIERGERUNDPOSSESSIVE

PASSIVE
VOICEThe form of
the verb (voice of verbal inflection) in which the grammatical subject of the
sentence is not represented as performing the action expressed by the verb.
Instead, it is represented as the goal of that action (e.g., the dishes were
washed in the sink. Most sales were made in the easternmost territory. A great
deal of money was lost in the stock market.). The passive voice is
the opposite of the active voice. See ACTIVE
VOICE

PERIODA punctuation mark that signifies the completion of a sentence
and the pause that should occur between sentences. This pause is longer than
that required by a comma. The period is also termed a full stop. The period is also used in abbreviations, such as
U.S. or Ph.D., etc. Period is derived from
the Greek periodos, which means cycle and therefore completion
of a thought. See also ELLIPSISPUNCTUATION

PHRASEA group of related words that does not
contain both a subject and a verb and that functions as a noun, adjective,
adverb, preposition, conjunction, or verb. A phrase represents only part of a
sentence. Consequently, it cannot convey a complete thought (e.g., spectacular
sunrise, the old woman, in the boat, to the horizon, extending for miles,
hanging at an angle, in place of, break away, in the interval, flapping in the
breeze).In contrast to a phrase, a clause is a group of words that contains
both a subject and a verb. See also CLAUSESUBJECTVERB

PLURALThe word form that denotes a quantity
greater than one. In contrast, the singular form denotes only one. The endings
of plural nouns usually differ from those of singular nouns. (e.g., cherries
instead of cherry, windows instead of window, houses
instead of house, mice instead of mouse, men
instead of man, children instead of child) See also SINGULAR

POSSESSIVEThe form of a
noun or pronoun that indicates ownership. The possessive form of a noun is
usually created by adding 's to the word, or by preceding the word with
the preposition "of" (e.g., Cynthia's mother, Bill's
wallet, a dog's breakfast, the radiator's heat, home of Bill,
his hat, her dress, their gifts, its color)

PREDICATEOne of the two principal parts of a
sentence, the predicate contains the verb and the words used to further
describe or clarify what is said of the subject. It is the action segment of
the sentence (e.g., All members of the graduating class attended
convocation. The writer received the Nobel Prize for Literature. He picked
up his marbles and went home.). See also COMPOUND
PREDICATE

PREFIXAn affix attached to the beginning of a word
in order to modify its meaning. The prefix may be a syllable, a group of
syllables, or a group of letters.

PREPOSITIONA word that is normally combined with a
noun, pronoun, adverb, or prepositional phrase. It typically precedes what it
modifies (e.g., to town, in summer, from here, outside of the home, over the
table, behind the barrier). However, despite popular belief, a preposition
can be used at the end of a sentence. Some prepositions are also used as
conjunctions, adverbs, and other grammatical elements.

A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun that refers to
itself. It is formed by combining a personal pronoun (my, your, him, her,
them, it, our) with self or selves. The result is myself,
yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, themselves, itself, ourselves).
Reflexive pronouns are used to refer to the subject (He voted for
himself) or for emphasis (They are newcomers themselves).

A demonstrative pronoun (this, that, these,
those) points out something. It functions as adjective (Who was thatmasked man?) or by a noun (Stop that!).

An interrogative pronoun is used when asking a
question (who, whom, whose, which, what). It may be used by itself (e.g., What
did I hear?) or combined with the suffix -ever (e.g., Whom do you
suggest?)

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that introduces
a subordinate clause (e.g., This is the cat, which caught the
bird in our backyard). The relative pronouns are who, whoever,
whom, whomever, whose, what, whatever, which, whichever, that.

A reciprocal pronoun. There are two - each
other and one another.

PROPER
NOUNAny noun that gives the name of a specific being or thing. Proper
nouns are usually capitalized (e.g., Philadelphia, Agatha, October,
Microsoft Corporation, Tuesday, Columbia University, War of the Roses). See
also NOUN

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASEA phrase that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or
pronoun. The latter serves as the object of the preposition. The prepositional
phrase serves to link its noun or pronoun to the sentence. (e.g., They drove under
the bridge. His desk was in the cornerof the building. The
dog rushed to his food dish.) See also PHRASEPREPOSITION

PROSEThe-normal form of written or
spoken language, as contrasted to poetry or verse. The language of common
discourse or writing. See also EMOTIVE LANGUAGE

QUESTION MARKA mark (?) that denotes a question. A question mark is used at
the end of a direct question. It behaves like a period when accompanied by quotation
marks. The question mark has its origin in quaestico, Latin for "I
ask." This was shortened by space-saving scribes to become QO and
later, the letter Q above the letter O. Subsequently, the Q was degraded into a
squiggle and the O into a little round spot. The question mark is also called
an interrogation point or interrogation mark. See also PUNCTUATIONQUOTATION MARK

QUOTATION (QUOTE)A term that is used in reference to a passage or phrase from a
book or speech, etc., and in particular to one that may be used in an article
or as an endorsement of a product.

QUOTATION MARKSPunctuation marks that are
used to identify spoken or quoted words. Quotation marks stimulate interest by their location as well as
shape. In the United States, it is normal to begin the quotation with
"66" and end with "99." However, "99" is often
flipped over left-to-right and used in place of "66." Single quotation
marks are used for quotations within quotations. See also PUNCTUATION

RESTRICTIVE
CLAUSEA
subordinate clause that is essential to the certainty of the word it modifies.
If the restrictive clause is omitted, the meaning of the main clause will
differ. Commas are not used to set off a restrictive clause from the rest of
the sentence (e.g., All automobilesthat are parked in the
prohibited area in front of the school will be towed away). A restrictive
clause is also termed an essential clause. See also APPOSITIVENONRESTRICTIVE CLAUSE.

RUN
ON SENTENCEA sentence
that consists of two or more independent clauses that are joined together
without suitable punctuation. The term applies also to sentences that, although
technically correct, would be easier to read if separated into shorter
segments. Although a person may speak in run-on sentences, he or she uses
pauses and changes in emphasis and tone. This aids listener comprehension. However,
this is not possible when writing. Consequently, it is desirable to avoid the
use of unnecessarily long sentences.

SATIREA literary composition that exposes the failings of individuals or
societies to ridicule. Satire is a manner of writing that uses irony,
sarcasm, exaggeration, ridicule, or humor to
expose or denounce foolishness, sin, or pomposity. It mixes a critical attitude with wit and humor in
an effort to improve mankind and human institutions. Although the writer may
introduce serious statements, he usually relies on a moral code understood by
the readers. The satirist's goal is to show the hypocrisy of his target in the
hope that readers will return to the real intent of it. Therefore, satire is
indisputably moral even when no clear values are promoted in the work.
See also IRONY

SEMICOLONA punctuation
mark (;) used to denote a break in continuity that is greater than that, which
a comma implies, but less final than that which a period creates. Semi-colons are
often used to separate independent clauses in a series when commas will not add
sufficient clarity. More commonly, the semi-colon is used in a sentence to
separate the two main clauses, which are not joined by a conjunction. See also PUNCTUATION

SENTENCEA group of words (or a single word) that
expresses a complete thought. A sentence always contains a verb and, usually,
has a subject. However, if the statement is an imperative, the subject may only
be implied (e.g., Stop! Go!). Similarly, an interrogative sentence may
consist of only a verb (e.g., Why? How? When?)

A simple sentence consists
of one independent clause. Complex or compound sentences contain two or more
clauses. All sentences begin with a capital letter and end with a period,
question mark, or exclamation point. Sentences are categorized on the basis of
their function (declaratory, interrogatory, or imperative) and structure
(simple, complex, compound). The common sentence

SIMILEA figure of speech in which
one thing is likened to another (unlike) thing in one aspect by the use of
"like," "as," etc. (e.g., He is as slow as a turtle).
See also FIGURE OF SPEECHIMAGERYMETAPHOR

SINGULAR Only one. The word form that denotes one
person, place, thing, or instance. A verb or noun is singular if it denotes
only one person or place, etc. Anything more than that is plural. For example,
in "He is confidant," both the subject and verb are
singular. See also PLURAL

SLANGWidely used and understood, but very informal in use in
vocabulary and idioms, slang is more
metaphorical, playful, and vivid than the normal language of polite usage
(e.g., pinch for steal, smack for heroin, bike,
for bicycle). It consists of
entirely new words, as well as new meanings ascribed to existing words. With
time, slang either passes into disuse or is accepted as part of standard usage.
See also JOURNALESESTYLE

SPLIT
INFINITIVEA term that
describes an infinitive when an adverb or adverbial phrase appears between the
"to" and the verb stem (e.g., He decided to quickly leave).
In the past, the use of split infinitives was frowned on. The common practice
was for the adverb to follow the infinitive. Today, split infinitives are considered
to be more acceptable. The use of a split infinitive enables the writer to
emphasize the adverb. See also INFINITIVE

STYLEThe general way in which
something is written. A particular writer's manner of expression. This may be
characterized by long, flowing prose or short, clipped sentences.
Alternatively, the choice of words, literary devices, or grammar, may
constitute a distinguishing feature. Perhaps, the general style is plain,
ornate, or emotive. A writer normally has his or her own style. The term, style,
may also be used in reference to a publisher's or editor's style guidelines for
its writers. In typography and printing, style also refers to the variations
within a type family, such as without boldface, italic, underlined, etc.

SUBJECT That part of the sentence or clause about
which something is said. It is a word or group of words that identifies or
describes who or what is doing what is being done. The subject is normally the
doer of the action and typically consists of a noun or pronoun. However, a
phrase or gerund also can serve as the subject of a sentence (e.g., He
ate his breakfast. Darkness came early. You and I must
leave now. Swimming is his sport of choice. What they want us
unacceptable. Coming to work late must stop.) See also GERUNDNOUNOBJECTPHRASE

SUBJUNCTIVEA term that describes the mood or form of a
verb that is used to:

2. Expresses a suggestion or demand (e.g., I insist that
Marsha attend).

SUBORDINATE
CLAUSEA clause - a group of word containing both a
subject and a predicate - that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. It
requires an independent clause to express the idea fully. A subordinate
clause is also termed a dependent clause because it depends on an
attached independent clause to complete the meaning. A subordinating
conjunction or relative pronoun normally introduces the subordinate clause.
(e.g., I prefer French cuisine, although Italian food is fine.)
See also CLAUSEINDEPENDENT CLAUSESENTENCE

SUFFIXAn affix attached to the end of a word in
order to modify its meaning or to change its grammatical function, as from an
adjective to an adverb (e.g., from sad to sadlyor light
to lightly). The prefix may be a syllable, a group of syllables,
or a group of letters. See also PREFIX

SYLLABLEA segment of
speech, typically produced with a single pulse of air from the lungs and
consisting of a central part of relative sonority with or without one or more
accompanying sounds of less sonority. That is, a word part that is pronounced
as a single element. Also, a character or set of characters representing such
an element of speech. A syllable consists of a vowel with (or without) one or
more consonant sounds immediately before or after. (e.g., fine, but soon,
that). Syllables that end in a consonant are closed syllables. Those
that end in a vowel are open syllables. See also HYPHENWORD

SYNONYMA word that is equivalent to
another word and that can be substituted for it in a particular context,
although the words do not have identical meanings. For example, the verbs type
and keyboard are synonyms in the context of inputting data to a personal
computer. A synonym is a word accepted as another for something. See also ANTONYMHOMONYM

SYNTAXThe study of the rules for the formation of grammatically correct
sentences and phrases in a language. Also, the rules or patterns of structure
and content of statements. Finally, the specifications for the sequence and punctuation of command words,
parameters, and switches for a programming language. That is, the statements,
which tell the computer what to do and how to do it. See also GRAMMARPUNCTUATION

TAUTOLOGYThe needless
repetition of an idea or information, especially in different words, but
without imparting additional force or clarity (e.g., single bachelor).

TENSEThe form of a verb that denotes the
relationship between the action and time. The basic tenses (present, past,
future) and variations tell if an action is taking place, took place, or
will take place, etc. The progressive tenses also denote action either
in progress (is walking), in the past (was walking), or in the
future (will be walking). The perfect tense is used for action
that began in the past and continues in the present (has walked), that
was completed in the past (had walked), or that will be completed in the
future action (will have walked)See also VERB

TEXT
In word
processing and desktop publishing, the main body of material on a page or in a
manuscript, book, newspaper, etc., in contrast to headlines, headings,
footnotes, tables, appendixes, illustrations, or other elements. Text is the
main body of written or printed material of a publication. Words, sentences,
paragraphs.

THESAURUSA dictionary,
encyclopedia, or other comprehensive reference book, especially a dictionary of
synonyms and antonyms. A collection of
words or concepts relating to, or associated with, a particular occupation,
field of study, or field of activity, as exemplified by a thesaurus of legal or
medical terminology. A thesaurus enables a user to quickly find
the appropriate choice of word, or an alternative. See also DICTIONARYGLOSSARY

TRANSITIVE
VERBAny verb that
acts on a direct object (e.g., She read the letter. He washed
the dishes. He manages a small business. She teachesschool.). See also INTRANSITIVE VERBVERB

VERBThe word or
words used to express action (e.g., ride, jump, speak), occurrence
(e.g., is, exists, lives, understand), or state of being (e.g., feel,
seem, is, be). It tells what is happening. It is the key element in the predicate,
one of the two main parts of a sentence. A verb is called intransitive
if it makes sense without an object or transitive, if it requires one. A
verb is also termed a simple predicate. See also AUXILIARY
VERBINTRANSITIVE
VERBLINKING
VERBMOODTENSETRANSITIVE VERB

VOWELA soft,
open-mouthed speech sound produced without obstructing the flow of air from the
lungs and represented in English by a, e, I, o, u, and sometimes y.
Alternatively, the letter itself. See also CONSONANT

WORDA unit of language, consisting of one or more spoken sounds (or
their written representation), which form a complete expression or can be
differentiated from the elements that accompany it. In word processing, a word
is a unit of information comprised of characters, that are treated as a single
entity and which can be stored in one location. It includes any space at the
end of the characters. See also SYLLABLE