Biting the Bullet prepared a series of briefing papers on key issues for international agreement which fed into the July 2001 UN Conference on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All its Aspects. At this conference, UN member states agreed a Programme of Action which is the primary global framework for tackling the proliferation of SALW. Biting the Bullet is currently engaged in two major areas of activity related to the implementation and further development of the Programme of Action.
. Biting the Bullet, in partnership with the International Action Network on Small Arms (IANSA), produced a report monitoring states implementation of the programme of action for the 2003 Biennial Meeting of States (BMS) 'Implementing the Programme of Action 2003, followed by 2005 and 2006.

Historically, UN conferences have been criticised for resulting more in compromises than in
commitments to real change, which is also a charge that has been levelled against the UN
Conference on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (UN Small
Arms Conference). The consensus-based approach adopted throughout the negotiations had
the advantage of binding all participating States to all aspects of the agreed Programme of
Action (PoA), but it also ensured that it would be difficult to achieve a sufficiently rigorous and
comprehensive agreement on all of the measures required to tackle the trafficking,
proliferation and misuse of small arms and light weapons (SALW). Therefore, in spite of the
efforts of many governments and NGOs, the UN Small Arms Conference did not agree
sufficiently robust agreements in several areas. Nonetheless, it was a valuable and productive
process. The resulting PoA includes a reasonably comprehensive set of key principles and
commitments, which provide a basis for taking forward action at national, regional and global
levels. The PoAwas agreed by all of the participating States, amounting to more than 100,
and each are politically bound to adopt and implement it.
Given that the UN Small Arms Conference was the first of its kind, its achievement in
generating political will and momentum for efforts to control SALW is important. Although
many of the commitments are weaker and less comprehensive than hoped for by many
governments and organisations, it is significant that the PoAcontains at least some important
commitments in all but two of the `core¿ issue areas raised by States. The two exceptions
relate to transfers to non-State actors and to civilian trade, possession and use of SALW,
restrictions which were strongly opposed by the USA. Equally, human rights related issues
were noteworthy by their absence in the PoA.
Whilst the process of reaching agreement began with a far-reaching draft PoA in December
2000 (A/Conf.192/L.4), most of the comments that were tabled on this text during the second
Preparatory Committee in January 2001 came from countries that sought to weaken its
commitments. The subsequent draft (A/Conf.192/L.4/Rev.1) was therefore weaker, with the
result that progressive States faced an uphill task in seeking to strengthen its provisions.
The next draft PoA emerged at the UN Small Arms Conference itself in the form of a third draft
(A/Conf.192/L.5). Although still limited in a number of key areas ¿ such as export criteria and
transparency ¿ this document went further than L.4/Rev.1 in a number of respects and included
specific international commitments, including on brokering and tracing lines of supply. This,
however, proved too ambitious an agenda for a small group of States and in the end the document
that was adopted by consensus (A/Conf.192/L.5/Rev.1) represented a lower-level compromise.
Despite the difficulties of agreeing the consensus-based PoA, the process culminating in the
agreement was perhaps as important as the agreement itself. UN Small Arms Conference
represented the first time that all UN Member States had met to discuss the illicit trade in SALW
in all its aspects with a view to agreeing a comprehensive set of measures to address the
problem. Although many of the commitments contained in the PoAare couched in equivocal
language that will allow States to do as much or as little as they like, it is clear that the UN Small
Arms Conference has contributed to a much better understanding, amongst all stakeholders, of
the nature of the illicit trade in SALW and of the particular concerns and priorities of different
countries and sub-regions. It is also clear that although the Programme of Action provides a set
of minimum standards and commitments which all states should adopt, it also encourages
further action from all States willing to adopt more stringent commitments and stronger
programmes. There is a willingness among a number of States to build upon the PoAand take
more concrete and far-reaching measures at national, sub-regional, regional and international
levels, such as specific arrangements for tracing co-operation, or mechanisms to co-ordinate
e fforts to improve stockpile security or weapons destruction. This briefing provides a critical assessment of key provisions in the UN Small Arms
Conference PoA. Section 1 measures the overall outcomes of the conference against those
that the Biting the Bullet (BtB) project proposed as optimal conclusions, and suggests ways to
put the commitments contained in the PoA into practice. Section 2 assesses the
implementation and follow-up commitments contained in the PoA, and identifies ways of
promoting the implementation of Sections III and IV, as well as options for making the most of
the Biennial Meetings of States and the Review Conference in 2006. Section 3 examines
funding and resourcing possibilities for the PoA including identifying needs, mobilising
resources and matching needs with resources. The final section of the briefing focuses on the
way forward, and in particular on how implementation of the PoA could build on existing
regional initiatives and develop common international approaches to controlling SALW
proliferation, availability and misuse. It also examines how action to prevent and combat the
illicit trade in SALW in all its aspects can be taken forward at sub-regional and regional levels
in conjunction with all major stakeholders, including civil society, in the period leading up to
the first Review Conference.

Small arms and light weapons can enter the illicit market at many stages in their lifecycle.
From manufacture, to sale/export, to import, and then to final end use, States must establish
and enforce stringent and comprehensive licensing and monitoring systems to ensure that
small arms and light weapons (SALW) remain under legal control. The UN Conference on the
Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects and ensuing follow-up process
provide States with important opportunities to analyse and compare how existing systems
governing the manufacture and trade in SALW are working. They further provide the context
in which best practice can be agreed and implemented internationally, and for the discussion
of how future trends and developments in SALW manufacture and transfer can be more
effectively brought within State control.
To this end, this briefing paper covers two separate but closely related issues. The first
section of the report will analyse existing State and regional controls on SALW manufacture
and examine how international measures, including the UN Conference, can reinforce such
controls. In this regard, the growth of licensed production and co-production agreements is
highlighted, together with implications for the development of adequate regulations. The
second section examines those systems that are currently in place for the authorisation of
SALW transfers and for the certification and monitoring of their ultimate end-use.
Recommendations for best practice and implications for the UN Conference process are also
discussed.

The majority of small arms and light weapons currently in circulation are in civilian possession1. An
estimated fifty-nine percent of weapons around the world are in civilian hands and in some regions such
as Europe this is closer to eighty per cent.2 While the majority of these arms are used for lawful purposes
a significant percentage are not. The misuse of these arms by civilians can cause major damage to
people¿s livelihoods, health and security as well as broader repercussion such as hampering economic,
social and political development and the provision of health care. One of the more controversial outcomes of the UN Small Arms conference was the failure of states
to explicitly commit to more effective regulation of civilian possession and use of small arms and light
weapons (SALW). Despite clear evidence of the opportunities for diversion of SALW from civilian
possession to illicit trade and the serious impact of this on human security, opposition from some
states to any mention of this issue within the Programme of Action (PoA) prevented the inclusion of
language concerning the regulation of privately owned SALW. Nevertheless, the Programme of
Action does contain limited provisions including the criminalisation of illicit possession of SALW and
a requirement that states ensure responsibility for SALW issued by them.
This Policy Briefing elaborates on how these and other international commitments should be
interpreted and implemented so as to enhance human security.

Kirkham, E.; Flew, C.(International Alert, Saferworld and University of Bradford, Department of Peace Studies, Centre for International Co-operation and Security., 2003)

Arms embargoes are one of the principal tools of states in seeking to prevent, limit and bring an end
to armed conflict and human rights abuses. Despite the frequency with which arms embargoes
have been imposed, there are significant problems with their implementation. Pressure is therefore
growing for the international governmental community to act in order to ensure that the political
commitment embodied by the imposition of arms embargoes is matched by the commitment to
ensure their rigorous enforcement and to achieve enhanced human security on the ground. Increasing the effectiveness of arms embargoes is a specific aim of the United Nations Programme
of Action for Preventing and Combating the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its
Aspects1 which specifically calls upon states "To take appropriate measures, including all legal or
administrative means, against any activity that violates a United Nations Security Council arms
embargo in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations".2 Accordingly, within the context of
the implementation of the UN PoA, the overall aim of this paper is to explore ways in which the
international community can act in order to strengthen the impact of arms embargoes and enhance
human security. It will begin by examining the purposes, processes and effects relating to arms
embargoes, with particular attention to those agreed at international (UN) level, and by highlighting
issues of concern in each regard. An overview of the main issues and challenges facing
implementation of arms embargoes will include the elaboration of three case-study examples
showing the impact of UN arms embargoes on the availability of arms and on human security and a
further five that illustrate the dilemmas faced by states in seeking to implement arms embargoes.
Priority areas for attention in any international effort to strengthen the effectiveness of arms
embargoes will be followed by more extensive proposals for enhancing international embargo
regimes within the context of implementing the UN PoA.
Whilst it is recognised that the UN PoA contains measures that relate only to the illicit trade in small arms
and light weapons (SALW), if implemented fully, many of these would serve to strengthen the
international apparatus of control, information exchange and provision of assistance relating to arms
proliferation and misuse as a whole. In turn, this would greatly enhance the implementation of UN arms
embargoes. Therefore, as well as providing an opportunity for reviewing progress on implementing the
PoA, the first Biennial Meeting of States in July 2003 is clearly a major opportunity for states to address
a number of the pressing challenges facing states in the implementation of UN embargoes.

Greene, Owen J.; Holt, Sally E.; Wilkinson, Adrian(International Alert and Saferworld and University of Bradford, Department of Peace Studies, Centre for International Co-operation and Security, 2004)

[Introduction]International commitments and measures to prevent, reduce and combat uncontrolled or illicit small arms
and light weapons (SALW) holdings and flows are widely understood to encompass not only the weapons
but also their ammunition. This is obviously necessary. Thus the UN Programme of Action to Prevent
Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (PoA) includes
many commitments that apply to ammunition as well as to small and light weapons. Progress in
implementing the PoA includes many measures concerning ammunition, including: controls on transfers;
preventing diversion to illicit trade; marking, record-keeping and tracing; weapons collection; secure
storage; and destruction.1
Unfortunately, progress in implementing the PoA in relation to ammunition remains particularly patchy
and inadequate. This is partly because it has too often been considered as a residual category.
Negotiations and programmes to control SALW have tended in the first instance to focus on the
weapons systems, and have then been deemed to apply, `as appropriate¿, also to ammunition. But
control and reduction of ammunition raise their own distinct and challenging issues. Without focused
attention, and clarification of what is meant by `appropriate¿, controls and measures on ammunition
have often been neglected or mishandled.[Executive summary] The 2001 United Nations Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in
Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (PoA) and other associated Small Arms and Light
Weapons (SALW) international commitments and measures are widely understood to encompass not
only the weapons but also their ammunition. Unfortunately, progress in implementing the PoA in relation
to ammunition remains particularly patchy and inadequate. This is partly because it has too often been
considered as a residual category. But control and reduction of ammunition raise their own distinct and
challenging issues. This relative neglect is resulting in large numbers of avoidable deaths and injuries.

As the agenda for the United Nations (UN) 2001 Conference on The Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects takes shape, governments should begin to identify a set
of standards, mechanisms and specific agreements that will help consolidate, reinforce and
co-ordinate regional and national measures to address the problem of the proliferation and
misuse of small arms. An important element of this approach will be to build upon the wealth
of regional and national experiences and perspectives that illustrate the different contexts
in which efforts to combat the proliferation and misuse of small arms and light weapons have
occurred. At the same time, agreements reached at the UN 2001 Conference should be
substantial, establishing an agreed comprehensive `international action programme¿ f o r
sustained global effort on this complex problem. However there remain issues and concerns
that are common to all regions: these should be identified and addressed internationally
within the context of the UN 2001 Conference.
This briefing, the second in the Biting the Bullet series, reviews some of the current regional
e fforts on small arms and light weapons. It identifies common approaches that have been used
in different regions to counter the proliferation and misuse of small arms and light weapons,
these include: law enforcement and crime control; supplier restraint and transparency; national
legislation and regulation of arms; and arms reduction and control. The briefing analyses
initiatives using these approaches that are moving forward in West Africa, Eastern and
Southern Africa, the European Union (EU), and the development of cooperation between
EU Member States and other countries and regional organizations, including Cambodia
and the Southern African Development Community. The briefing identifies the impact and
priorities of these initiatives, suggesting ways in which the UN 2001 Conference is both
relevant to the region and what the region can contribute to the outcomes of the Conference.
The briefing concludes with recommendations on the ways in which regional processes can be
reinforced and further developed by the international community, focusing especially on the
contribution of the UN 2001 Conference. Experience is showing that much of what happens
nationally and regionally needs reinforcement and further development with assistance from
the international community. The UN 2001 Conference comes at an important time for providing
the framework ¿ through the international action programme ¿ to develop, reinforce and
c o-ordinate these national and regional processes, through developing appropriate international
norms, standards, programmes and mechanisms. Using the illustration of combating illicit arms
trafficking, this briefing outlines some of the processes that could be taken forward through
the UN 2001 Conference which would build upon and strengthen national and regional eff o r t s .
The briefing contains an annex, which provides background information on many current
regional and international initiatives, including those in Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe
and inter-regionally, such as the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe and
the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation.

Greene, Owen J.(British American Security Information Council (BASIC), International Alert and Saferworld., 2001)

Measures to enhance the security and management of legal stocks of small arms and
to reduce `surplus¿ weapons are clearly essential components of an effective international
action programme to combat illicit trafficking and prevent and reduce the proliferation
of small arms. Many of the weapons of concern are lost from official stockpiles through theft,
corruption or neglect. Moreover, the existence of large quantities of `surplus¿ small arms
is a major factor in the excessive availability and flows of these weapons.
The primary responsibility for measures to address these problems lies with governments.
Regional and international organisations involved in any way with managing and disposing
of small arms also have important responsibilities to take action. Nevertheless, this is a global
issue, and the entire international community should play a role in developing policies on the
management of stockpiles and the disposal or destruction of surplus weapons. This briefing
outlines the dimensions of the issues, drawing on recent experience, and identifies ways
in which an international action programme could usefully be developed to address them.

Greene, Owen J.(British American Security Information Council (BASIC), International Alert and Saferworld., 2001)

Efforts to combat and prevent illicit trafficking and proliferation of small arms and light weaponsEfforts to combat and prevent illicit trafficking and proliferation of small arms and light weapons
(SALW) are obstructed by lack of capacity to trace sources and lines of supply for arms. Such
efforts are necessary in order to identify points of diversion or loss of responsible control so that
actions can be taken to tackle the problems. This hampers efforts to prevent future loss and
diversion, for example, or to close down unauthorised or destabilising arms supply networks.
Measures to enable tracing of sources and lines of supply of SALW are therefore a priority.
Because of the international scope of the flows of SALW, such measures need to be taken by
all states and all other relevant members of the international community. International standards
and mechanisms to enable tracing need to be established and developed as a priority.
An effective international system to enable tracing of sources and flows of SALW requires
three essential elements: adequate marking to uniquely identify each weapon; detailed and
accessible record-keeping; and mechanisms for international co-operation in tracing sources
and lines of supply of SALW. At present there are substantial weaknesses and problems in
each of these three areas.
(SALW) are obstructed by lack of capacity to trace sources and lines of supply for arms. Such
efforts are necessary in order to identify points of diversion or loss of responsible control so that
actions can be taken to tackle the problems. This hampers efforts to prevent future loss and
diversion, for example, or to close down unauthorised or destabilising arms supply networks.
Measures to enable tracing of sources and lines of supply of SALW are therefore a priority.
Because of the international scope of the flows of SALW, such measures need to be taken by
all states and all other relevant members of the international community. International standards
and mechanisms to enable tracing need to be established and developed as a priority.
An effective international system to enable tracing of sources and flows of SALW requires
three essential elements: adequate marking to uniquely identify each weapon; detailed and
accessible record-keeping; and mechanisms for international co-operation in tracing sources
and lines of supply of SALW. At present there are substantial weaknesses and problems in
each of these three areas.

The United Nations will convene the `UN Conference on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and
Light Weapons in All Its Aspects¿ in June/July 2001. The `2001 Conference¿ is now the primary
focus for international efforts to strengthen and develop co-ordinated and comprehensive global
action to prevent and reduce the proliferation and misuse of small arms and light weapons.
A powerful international coalition of States, international organisations and civil society groups
is uniting to promote effective global action. Expectations for the 2001 Conference are high and
public awareness of the opportunities it offers is growing. It is critical that the 2001 Conference
is a success.
The 2001 Conference must achieve agreement on an effective International Action Programme
to prevent and reduce small arms and light weapons proliferation and combat illicit trafficking
in such weapons. This International Action Programme should reinforce, co-ordinate and
extend measures being taken at local, national and regional levels. In addition to establishing
an appropriate set of international norms and standards, the 2001 Conference should achieve
agreement on specific international action on the problems associated with small arms and
light weapons.
The specific objectives of the 2001 Conference are currently undecided. This paper, the first
in a series of briefings, outlines a proposed scope for the Conference. It further proposes
concrete objectives and practical agreements which could be achieved during the Conference.
It is hoped that the proposals and recommendations presented will contribute to efforts to secure
a comprehensive and progressive framework for the Conference.

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