How to Determine whether Regional Markets are Electricity Markets

How to Determine whether Regional Markets are
Integrated? Theory and Evidence from European
Electricity Markets
Georg Gebhardt1 and Felix H¨offler2
November, 2008
Abstract
Integrating national markets is a major regulatory target in the European energy market. Yet, wholesale prices for electricity still differ significantly. Whether
these price differences are caused only by limited interconnector capacities or also
by lack of cross-border competition, is an open question. To address this question, we develop a new approach to determine to which extent price differences
stem from limited participation in cross-border trade. We derive a theoretical integration benchmark, using Grossman’s (1976) notion of a rational expectations
equilibrium. We compare the benchmark to data from European electricity markets. The data reject the integration hypothesis and indicate that well informed
traders do not engage in cross-border trade.
Keywords: Market integration, electricity markets, interconnector, competition policy, rational expectations equilibrium
JEL-Classification: G14, D84, L94
1
Department of Econmics, University of Munich, Ludwigstr. 28 (Rgb), D-80539 Munich,
Tel.:++49 (0)89 2180 2876, [email protected]
2
Chair of Regulatory Economics, WHU - Otto Beisheim School of Management - Burgplatz
2, 56179 Vallendar , Germany. ++49(0)261 6509220. [email protected] . Part ot the work
on the paper was done while Felix H¨offler was at the Max Planck Institute, Bonn.
Financial support from Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft through SFT-TR 15 is gratefully
acknowledged. We would like to thank Martin Hellwig and Klaus M. Schmidt for helpful discussions and Jan Schikora for excellent research assistance.
1
Introduction
The integration of regional markets into a single supraregional market features
high on the agenda of regulators and policy makers; integrated markets allow more
efficient production and increase competition. A case in point is the European
market for electricity. In its 2007 “Sector Inquiry” the EU commission states:
Well functioning energy markets that ensure secure energy supplies
at competitive prices are key for achieving growth and consumer welfare in the EU. To achieve this objective the EU decided to open up
Europe’s gas and electricity markets to competition and to create a
single European energy market. (EU, Sector Inquiry 2007, para.1)
However, “...the objectives of the market opening have not yet been achieved.”
(ibid., para.2). Spot market prices still differ significantly among the member
countries. At least some of this price divergence is caused by limited interconnector capacities between the national electricity grids; exactly how much, remains an
open question. Limited interconnector capacity could just mask a lack of participation in cross-border trade. Similar questions arise in other markets that require
a dedicated transportation infrastructure with bottlenecks, e.g., the markets for
oil or natural gas. These examples have in common that markets for transportation capacity have to clear before the final product markets opens. For instance,
in most European electricity markets, auctions for scarce interconnector capacity
take place before the spot markets.
In this paper, we investigate the question of market integration by first proposing a theoretical benchmark and then empirically applying it to the case of the
European electricity market; however, our new approach could be used in any
market with a similar timing. The results should help to inform regulators and
policy makers to assess whether price differences are solely a result of technical
congestion (such that capacity increases would be an obvious policy implication)
or possibly a result of strategic behavior (such that alternative institutional designs or stricter regulatory oversight might be called for).
For the test we propose, we consider both interconnector and spot market
prices. The (theoretical) integration benchmark is based on a standard idea in
economics: Prices aggregate information. All traders value interconnector capacity at the spot market price differential between the two sides of the border. Every
trader has some private information about this price differential, but there is no
aggregate uncertainty since all traders together determine spot market prices.
If interconnector prices aggregate the traders’ information, interconnector prices
1
should perfectly predict the price differential in the direction in which trading is
profitable, and should be zero in the opposite direction.3
If not all traders undertake cross-border trades — this is our definition of
imperfect integration — interconnector prices contain less information; however,
there could be a confounding source of noise: Since traders must buy interconnector capacity before they can trade in the spot markets, they may receive additional
information between the two trades; in this case, even if all traders try to buy
interconnector capacity, interconnector prices cannot contain this additional information. Yet, the arrival of additional information has a second effect - traders
assign an option value to interconnector capacity: Suppose, in the interconnector
market, a trader expects that the spot price will be higher in country A, but is
aware that additional information, arriving before the spot market, may invert
her estimate of the price differential; this trader is willing to pay a positive price
also for capacity into country B. Thus, if we observe that interconnector prices are
only a noisy predictor of the price differential but that there is no corresponding
option value, i.e., the lower interconnector price is zero, we can conclude that our
integration benchmark is violated.
We compare this theoretical benchmark for integration to data from the Danish–
German and the Dutch–German borders for the years 2002-2006. We have price
data resulting from interconnector capacity auctions and the respective spot markets, in each case for hourly, day-ahead electricity contracts. In the first two
countries, electricity prices are very similar on average; on the second border,
spot market prices in the Netherlands are on average significantly higher than in
Germany.4
The stylized facts of the data are not in line with the integration benchmark.
The lower of the two interconnector prices is almost always zero or very close to
zero, suggesting that cross-border traders expect little new information to arrive.
At the same time, interconnector prices predict the spot market price differentials
on average correctly but only with a lot of noise, suggesting that cross-border
traders possess a limited amount of information. We conclude that the missing
information is private information of market participants who do not conduct
cross-border trades.
In order to make this reasoning more precise, we calibrate our theoretical model
to find out exactly how much information arrives between the interconnector and
the spot markets, and how much information the interconnector prices actually
3
We model this using Grossman’s (1976) notion of a rational expectations equilibrium.
Another important example for electricity markets is the path 15 interconnector between
Northern California and Southern California, which often is a bottleneck between the two regions.
4
2
contain. We find that the information cross-border traders receive after they have
bought capacity but before they trade across borders is essentially zero. The
information cross-border traders possess when they buy capacity is only between
24% (Germany/Netherlands) and 36% (Germany/Denmark) of the total variance
of the price differential. Thus, our main conclusion is that traders with a large
amount of relevant information do not participate in the interconnector auction
although they could generate profits based on their information. To explain the
absence of these informed traders is beyond the scope of our paper; however, crossborder collusion could provide a plausible motive for such behavior; the suspicion
of cross-border collusion is expressed by several competition authorities.5
In our analysis, we choose the simplest and most conservative benchmark.
When we calibrate our model, we treat each capacity price pair as an independent observation. We can and should do so, because each hour of capacity is a
separate asset for which once a price is quoted. This is in stark contrast to almost
all other asset markets, in which long term assets are traded. Two stock prices,
on two subsequent days, price essentially the same dividend stream; two capacity prices, on two subsequent days, relate to two entirely different payoff streams
resulting from capacity utilisation on the two different days. Furthermore, we
compare the unconditional variance of the ex-ante capacity prices to the unconditional variance of the ex-post profits from owning capacity. This is correct if the
market for capacity is informationally efficient, i.e., if prices contain all information on returns. As in any other financial market, that will not be exactly true
in this market; variables other than the price will predict the return on owning
capacity. E.g., there might be, so called, day effects: The price for capacity will
be higher (and the return on holding capacity lower) on certain days of the week,
even though the expected payoff is the same. These additional price movements,
unrelated to the fundamental value of owning capacity, increase the unconditional
variance of any asset price (excess volatility), as has been known for a long time
in the literature (Cochrane 1991). The more we control for variables that predict
returns, the lower the remaining variance of the capacity prices will be. Thus,
by simply taking the unconditional variance without further controls we present
the most conservative benchmark. As we find even in this case too little capacity
price volatility, we can be confident that lack of participation in cross-border trade
drives capacity price volatility down.
Our results are complementary to the theoretical analysis of the competitive
effects of limited transmission capacity developed by Borenstein, Bushnell, and
Stoft (2000), who show that expanding transmission capacity between two oth5
We provide references in the Discussion.
3
erwise separated markets may result in a large reduction of market power. The
authors caution, however, that they have “considered only one-shot Nash equilibria (. . . ). In reality, the firms that compete in electricity markets will do so
repeatedly and, thus, may be able to reduce rivalry through the threat of retaliation. To the extent that firms can reach more cooperative outcomes through such
supergame strategies, the competitive effects of transmission lines (. . . ) are likely
to be dampened.” (p. 320). Our analysis suggests that multi-period considerations are likely to play a role in electricity markets.6
Our analysis is also related to the literature on the Law of One Price (LOOP),
see, e.g., Engel and Rogers (2001) and Goldberg and Verboven (2005). The LOOP
cannot be expected to hold with infrastructure bottlenecks, which are common in
electricity or gas, but could also occur for other commodities like milk or crude oil
if transport capacities are scarce. We extend this literature in that we do not only
consider the spot market prices but also transport capacity prices. This approach
allows us to separate the effects of transport capacity constraints from limited
participation in cross-border trading.
Due to the high policy relevance of electricity interconnectors, they have drawn
a lot of attention in the applied literature. An introduction to “interconnector
economics” can be found in Turvey (2006), or, more generally, in Crampes and
Laffont (2001). Hobbs, Rijkers, and Boots (2005) and H¨offler and Wittmann
(2007) discuss the effects of different institutional designs for the interconnector
auctions on the market outcome. None of these approaches directly tackles the
question of how to explain the relation between spot market prices and interconnector prices, which is the main contribution of our paper.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: In section 2 we introduce
the institutional set up of the cross-border electricity trade in Europe. Section 3
describes the data and the main stylized facts. Section 4 contains the theoretical
model and its predictions. Section 5 presents the calibration of the model and
the main empirical results. The findings are discussed in section 6; section 7
concludes.
2
European Electricity Markets
The European Union has clearly spelled out that a unified electricity market
should be implemented in Europe. Since electricity can be transported at the
high voltage level at very low cost, there could be supraregional or supranational
6
Another related article is (Neuhoff 2002), who investigates the effect of the market design
of cross-border electricity trade on the level of competition.
4
Figure 1: Differences in European Electricity Spot Market Prices
electricity markets. A geographically large market, based on imports and exports
of electricity, could increase the level of competition and increase efficiency by
supplying electricity by the least-cost producer.
Electricity should, as far as possible, flow between Member States
as easily as it currently flows within Member States. Improved cross
border flows will increase the scope for real competition which will
drive economic efficiency in the sector... (European Commission 2004,
3)
However, it is obvious that this goal has not been achieved yet. In Europe,
wholesale electricity markets are still largely national markets. There exist different electricity exchanges in almost all countries, and the spot market prices
differ considerably, up to more than 100 percent. Figure 1 shows the results of an
investigation of this issue by the European Commission.7
7
Communication from the EU Commission to the Council and the EU Parliament. Report on
progress in creating the internal gas and electricity market, COM (2005) 568 final (15/11/2005),
p.5. Similar findings are in the “Sector Inquiry” of 2007, Part 2, p. 180 (European Commission
2007). In a recent, more rigorous study, Zachmann (2007) shows that, by and large, there was
no convergence of wholesale prices in Europe for the period we investigate (2002-2006).
5
An important reason for the fragmentation of the European electricity market
are limited interconnector capacities. In its ”Sector Inquiry”, the EU Commission
finds that “In electricity, integration is hampered by insufficient interconnector
capacity”(European Commission 2007, para. 23). There exist only limited capacities for the exchange of electricity between national grids.8 There are historical
reasons for this: “Transmission networks were not developed in order to support
efficient trade”, but rather to optimize intra-country operations (CEER 2003, par.
8). With the liberalization of national electricity markets, increasing interest in
the international trade of electricity has turned cross-border transmission capacities into a bottleneck. At most interconnectors, the scarce capacities are now
allocated in auctions.9
Although limited interconnector capacities set an upper bound for trading
volumes between countries, an important question is whether differences in prices
between national electricity markets, and therefore limited cross-country competition, is only due to congestion. The availability of interconnector pricing data
and of spot market prices allows us to investigate this question. We focus on
two interconnectors and the interaction between the spot markets: (i) Denmark
(West) and Germany, with the spot markets ‘Nord Pool West’ and ‘EEX’, and
(ii) the Netherlands and Germany, with the spot markets ‘APX’ and ‘EEX’. Figure 1 illustrates that these two examples captures the main interesting cases, i.e.
the comparison of markets with – on average – similar spot prices (Denmark and
Germany) and markets with – on average – different price levels (Netherlands and
Germany).10
At the Danish-German interconnector and at the Dutch-German interconnector there are day-ahead auctions for hourly contracts, i.e. for the right to transport
1 Mega Watt for a specific hour the next day. Holding such a transmission right
is compulsory if one wants to engage in cross-border sales on the electricity ex8
We abstract from insufficient transmission capacities within each national grid. Congestion
on the national level is rather rare for the countries we are considering. We also abstract from
implications of loop flows for the network operations.
9
The scarcity of capacity is also due to inefficiencies in the allocation mechanism. There
is clear evidence that even heavily ‘congested’ interconnectors are rarely used up to physical
capacity. For this and alternative allocation mechanisms, see H¨offler and Wittmann (2007).
10
These are physical hourly contracts in which a bidder has to specify day ahead a demand
/ supply function for electricity of a particular hour. Thus, there are essentially 24 markets per
day. Bids have to be continuous. Delivery of successful bids is on the high voltage level to a
virtual trading point. This implies that for trades on the electricity exchange, no transportation
cost within a country has to be incurred (any transportation cost towards the customer on lower
voltage levels has to be borne by downstream companies). Therefore, the spot market prices
are comparable.
6
Time 1
Intercon.
Auction
Time 2
Spot
Market
-
9:30
10:00
12:00
12:15
bids must be allocation of bids must be results of
submitted to capacity submitted to spot market
interconnector
spot market
auction
auction
auctions
announced
Next Day
physical
delivery
Figure 2: Timing of spot markets and interconnector auction
change; if, for instance, a Danish power producer wants to offer electricity on the
German EEX, it has to hold sufficient transmission rights to be able to fulfill a
successful bid.
Therefore, the interconnector auction takes place first; afterwards firms get
informed about the auction outcome, and on that basis might submit bids in the
adjacent market’s spot market. Figure 2 shows the typical timing of the actions.11
Note that there is only a time frame of 2.5 hours between the submission of the bids
for the two auctions. Thus, differences in information between the two auctions
must be due to interim information arriving precisely between 9:30 a.m. and 12.00
a.m.
There is certainly no aggregate uncertainty regarding the spot market prices,
since all traders jointly determine the spot market prices. Any random events
(e.g. like actual weather conditions, unexpected power plant outages, etc.) have
to be handled after the spot market has closed, on the day of delivery. This is
done by the electricity system operator when dispatching, i.e. calling power plants
to produce electricity, in real time.
3
The Data
Our data for the spot prices stem from the respective electricity exchanges, APX
(Netherlands), EEX (Germany), and NordPool (Denmark). They are in current
Euro / MW for each respective hour in the day ahead trading for the time from
11
Note that the two spot market clear simultaneously but independently. Thus, bids in one
market can not be conditional on outcomes of the other spot market.
7
the first hour (0-1) on 1/1/2002, to the last hour (23-24) on 30/9/2006, implying
41,616 observations. Interconnector prices were provided by the operators of the
interconnector auctions,12 and also contain 41,616 observations, one for every hour
of the same time period. The time 2002-2006 covers almost the whole history of
interconnector auctions at these borders. Table 1 contains the summary statistics
for the prices.
Spot Price
Interconnector
Prices
Table 1: Summary Statistics
Region
Mean Std. Dev.
Denmark
33.6
17.1
Germany
35.0
29.3
Netherlands
43.2
59.4
Den → Ger
4.3
13.3
Ger → Den
2.1
5.2
NL → Ger
0.04
0.09
Ger → NL
6.7
25.7
Min.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Max.
597
2000
2000
500
64
5
639
Values in e/MWh
As noted before, the price is on average almost the same in Germany and
Denmark, while on average the price is 23% higher in the Netherlands than in
Germany. Average interconnector prices can be ordered according to the average
spot market price difference: they are on average highest for trade from Germany
to the Netherlands, followed by trade from Denmark to Germany. They are on
average close to zero for trade from the Netherlands to Germany.
Trade between the different regions should depend on the difference of the different spot market price levels. Table 2 therefore provides the summary statistics
for the difference of the spot market prices (Spotdiff ) and of the interconnector
prices (Interdiff ) for both borders. For the theoretical analysis, it will turn out
to be important to distinguish between the higher and the lower interconnector
price at each point in time. The summary statistics for these data are also provided in Table 2. Intermax (Intermin) describes — for each hour — the price for
capacity in the direction with the higher (lower) price. To allow comparisons with
Interdiff, the interconnector price from Germany to another country is reported
as a negative value, the interconnector price in the opposite direction as a positive
value; e.g. suppose the price from Germany to Denmark was 1.5 e while in the
opposite direction it was 1.0 e, then Intermax is -1.5 e and Intermin is 1 e.
12
We use the data for the interconnector between the German E.ON network and the Dutch
network. There is also an interconnector connecting the German RWE network and the Dutch
network.
8
Spotdiff
Interdiff
Intermin
Intermax
Table 2: Price Differences
Ger-Den
Ger-NL
Mean Variance Mean Variance
1.4
606.5 −8.28
2, 777.9
2.14
191.3 −6.61
658.0
−0.01
0.13
0.02
0.05
2.18
219.5 −6.63
658.2
Values in e/MWh
It is remarkable that the variance of the smaller of the two prices is by far
lower than the variance of the larger of the two prices. This reflects that the lower
of the two prices at each interconnector is essentially zero, or very close to zero
almost always. Table 3 shows the frequency of zero prices (or prices close to zero)
for the lower of the two interconnector prices. Almost half of the time, the price
for interconnector capacity is exactly zero in one direction. While in the GermanDanish case this can be either direction, in the German-Dutch case it is (almost
always) the price from the Netherlands to Germany which is zero, while the price
in the opposite direction is strictly positive. Because the lower of the prices is
mostly close to zero, the variance of the difference of the two prices is (Interdiff )
essentially equal to the variance of the larger of the two prices (Intermax ).
Table 3: Frequency of zero interconnector prices
Interconnector Price
Min = 0.00 e/MWh
Min < 0.03 e/MWh
Min < 0.05 e/MWh
Total
Den #
17, 706
32, 505
34, 877
41, 616
Ger
%
42.5%
78.1%
83.8%
100%
NL #
19, 242
30, 967
33, 068
41, 616
Ger
%
46.2%
74.4%
79.5%
100%
Finally, we can investigate with a regression analysis how well the interconnector prices predict potential profits from cross-border trades. Figures 3 and 4
show the data for both interconnectors. The horizontal axis shows the higher of
the two interconnector prices. The vertical axis shows the realized profit from
using the capacity.
9
Figure 3: Denmark-Germany: Interconnector Prices and Spot Market Prices 20022006
Figure 4: Netherlands-Germany: Interconnector Prices and Spot Market Prices
2002-2006
10
The interconnector prices predict on average the price differential in the spot
market correctly (the coefficient is close to unity). For the Dutch case, the intercept is positive, which would be in line with the assumption of some fixed trading
costs (only if the spot market price difference exceeds some threshold will traders
start to trade). The slightly negative intercept in the case of Denmark is more
difficult to explain in such a simple model. The most striking result of the regression is the low R2 ; i.e., how little information capacity prices contain about the
value of capacity, i.e. the price differential. We could try to increase the R2 of
the regression by including additional explanatory variables, such as the day of
the week or a weather forecast. We will fail to increase the R2 , if the market for
capacity is informationally efficient. In an informationally efficient market, prices
contain all the information available at the time of market clearing and additional
variables, available at the time of market clearing, have no additional explanatory
power. As a matter of fact, the market for capacity prices is not completely informationally efficient, just as no other asset market is, and we can find additional
variables with explanatory power. If we include these variables, the R2 of the
equation will go up, but the contribution of prices will even go down; the puzzle
of the low informational content of capacity prices will become even larger.
The low R2 of the regression is closely related to an important feature of the
data: The variance of the larger of the two prices is considerably smaller than
the variance of the spot price differential. Since we can interpret interconnector
capacity as a risky asset that has the realized price differential as a payoff, this
implies that interconnector capacity is an asset whose price has a lower volatility
than its payoff. If, on average, the ex-ante capacity price moves much less than
the ex-post realized value of capacity, it cannot contain a lot of information about
the value of capacity. This lack of volatility is highly unusual because financial
assets almost always display excess volatility; e.g. stock price volatility is larger
than dividend volatility. Similar results have been obtained for assets ranging
from bonds to foreign exchange rates (see Shiller 1981 for an overview); moreover,
Cochrane (1991) argues that excess volatility is just the flip-side of the most
common deviations from the efficient market hypothesis, such as bubbles and
return predictability. This finding makes it very unlikely that any of these well
known anomalies can account for the data observed on the interconnector capacity
markets; rather these data require an explanation that is specific to cross-border
trades in electricity.
We can summarize the data discussion with three stylized facts:
1. The difference in the interconnector prices predicts the price differential very
well in the sense that a regression of the price differential on the intercon11
nector price yields a highly significant coefficient of about one.
2. The correlation is, however, quite weak, i.e. there is a lot of noise.
3. The lower interconnector price is close to zero almost always.
4
Model
We model the cross-border trade of electricity between two countries, home and
abroad (C ∈ {H, A}), as two sets of markets that open sequentially. In the second
stage, every market participant, indexed by n ∈ {1, . . . , N }, trades in at least
one spot market. However, only those market participants that have acquired
interconnector capacity in the first stage can engage in cross-border trade. In the
spot markets, demand and cost functions depend on a random shock s˜. We are
interested in the outcomes, prices pH∗ and pA∗ , of the second stage spot markets
only in so far as they influence the interconnector fees in the first stage; i.e., we
care only about the price differential between the two spot markets that obtains
if the shock s is realized:
∆p(s) ≡ pH∗ (s) − pA∗ (s).
Let s consist of N + 1 components:
s = (s1 , . . . , sN , sI ).
Before time one, sn is revealed to firm n, but not to the other firms. This could be
the level of firm n’s demand or factors influencing firm n’s supply, like power plant
outages. All firms learn interim information sI between time one and two; i.e.,
after they have bought interconnector capacity, but before they have to decide
wether to use it by submitting cross-border trades. The variable sI could be
interpreted as information such as more up-to-date weather forecasts.13
The functional form and distribution of s and ∆p(s) are characterized by three
assumptions: (1) The price differential is the sum of a deterministic component δ
and the shocks s1 , . . . , sN and sI :
X
∆p(s) ≡ δ +
sn + sI ;
n
13
We use public interim information for simplicity only. We get qualitatively the same results
with private interim information.
12
(2) the firm-specific information s1 , . . . , sN takes the form of random variables
2
i.i.d. from a Normal distribution with mean zero and variance σN ; (3) public
interim information sI is independently drawn from a Normal distribution with
mean zero and variance σ 2I . Note that the spot market price differential is assumed
to be independent of cross-border trades.14
During the first stage, all market participants can buy interconnector capacity
in both directions on two competitive markets, capacities that may allow them
to profit from spot price differentials by engaging in cross-border trades. The
¯ in either direction. Let kn be the actual
maximum interconnector capacity is K
use of the interconnector by firm
Pn; a positive kn indicates that electricity flows
from abroad to home. Let K = n kn be the total net use of the interconnector.
Each trader n can hold no-interest-paying cash or buy capacity in either or both
directions. We denote the (non-negative) capacity that trader n buys to send
electricity from home to abroad by knHA and the (non-negative) per unit fee she
pays by f HA . Capacities and fees in the reverse direction are called knAH and f AH ,
respectively. Before time one, each trader n observes the component sn of the
shock, an information that she can use to decide on her capacity demands at time
one. Between times one and two, interim information sI is revealed to all traders
and, at time two, they have to decide on kn ∈ [−knHA , knAH ], the net capacity they
want to use for cross-border trades. Trader n’s capacity purchase and utilization
decisions result in time three profits of
Π = ∆p · kn − fnHA · knHA − fnAH · knAH .
Assuming that all market participants are risk neutral, each buys interconnector
capacity to maximize E(Π).
To characterize the equilibrium prices on the market for interconnector capacity, we use the concept of the fully revealing rational-expectations equilibrium,
introduced by Grossman (1976). It requires that traders act as price takers and
stipulates market clearing; i.e., given equilibrium fees f HA∗ and f AH∗ ,
X
X
¯
knHA =
knAH = K.
n
n
In addition to market clearing, the definition of a rational-expectations equilibrium demands that the traders use all available information, in particular, the
14
This assumption can be justified by the fact that interconnector capacity is small relative
to the total spot market. If we relax this assumption, the traders do not necessarily exhaust the
capacity of the interconnector for a range of values of s, because they expect a price differential
of zero. This introduces a discontinuity that complicates the exposition considerably, while all
the results continue to hold qualitatively.
13
information contained in the realized market prices; furthermore a fully revealing
rational-expectations equilibrium requires that the price is a sufficient statistic for
the information of each trader. In such an equilibrium, no trader has a desire to
revise her demand once the realized fees become known, and even if the trader
could observe the signals of all other traders, she would still not want to revise
her demand.15
4.1
No Interim Information
For the predictions of the theoretical integration benchmark – the fully revealing
rational-expectations equilibrium – regarding the relation between spot market
price differentials and the interconnector prices, we start with the simplest case.
We assumeP
that the information consists only of private information s1 , . . . , sN .
Let SN =
n sn denote the sum of all private signals. If no interim information arrives at the market between times one and two, the following proposition
characterizes stage one prices:
Proposition 1 If σ 2I = 0, the interconnector fees equals ∆p in one direction and
zero in the other; i.e.
∗
f AH = max {δ + SN , 0} and
∗
f HA = max {−δ − SN , 0} ,
f conditional on the equilibrium fees f HA∗ and f AH ∗ equals
and the variance of ∆p
zero,
f f HA∗ , f AH ∗ = 0.
V ar ∆p
Proof. See Appendix.
Without interim information, no new information arrives after the market for
interconnector capacity closes. Since the interconnector prices aggregate all relevant information, traders know the price differential when they have to decide
15
The fully revealing rational-expectations equilibrium makes a prediction of the resulting
market price but it remains silent on how these prices come about; in particular, demand curves
are not well specified. This problem has already been extensively studied in the literature,
and Hellwig (1980) has shown that the fully revealing rational expectations equilibrium can
be interpreted as the limit of a slightly perturbed market as the perturbation goes to zero.
In the perturbed market, traders have well defined demand functions which are used by the
Walrasian auctioneer to derive equilibrium prices and quantities. We consider the direct use
of the unperturbed model as a useful shortcut whose simplicity compensates for its reduced
intuitive appeal.
14
whether to submit cross-border trades, and they will trade only in the one direction that is profitable. The price in this direction must be equal to the profit;
i.e., the price differential. Capacity in the other direction is not used and its price
must be zero in equilibrium.
4.2
Interim Information
If interim information arrives at the market between times one and two, the
interconnector prices can no longer contain all the information. Interconnector
prices are characterized by the following proposition.
Proposition 2 If σ 2I > 0, the interconnector fees equal
Z ∞
sI
AH ∗
dsI and
f
[δ + SN + sI ] φ
=
σI
δ+SN
Z −δ−SN
sI
HA∗
f
[δ + SN + sI ] φ
dsI ,
= −
σI
−∞
where φ (·) is the p.d.f. of the standard Normal distribution.
Proof. See Appendix.
As long as there is interim information, fees in both directions are strictly
positive because owning capacity entails an option value. When traders decide
whether to use the capacity they have bought, they have observed sI . Therefore, they know the realization of ∆p and they use the capacity in the profitable
direction only. Because traders can leave capacity idle, they can never lose by
owning capacity but they may profit from it. Consider a trader who at time
one (i.e. when he has to submit bids in the interconnector auction) believes that
spot prices abroad will exceed prices at home. He will buy capacity from home
to abroad. However, such a trader might know that additional information (e.g.
updated weather forecasts before time two) can make him revise his expectation.
With a small probability he knows that before he submits the spot market bids,
his expectation on the spot market difference can be reversed. Thus, he attaches
an option value to capacity into the opposite direction (from abroad to home) and
will also be willing to buy in this direction.
Since the support of sI is (theoretically) unbounded,16 for any realization of SN
there is a strictly positive probability that this will happen, i.e. there is a strictly
16
As Figures 3 and 4 indicate, there are rare occasions where possible gains from cross-border
trader become very large; the highest gain for trading from Denmark to Germany was e 568,
for the opposite direction e 1,946; for Netherlands to Germany, the maximum gain was e 1,954,
and in the opposite direction e 2,778 (all values per MWh).
15
positive probability that capacity in either direction will become profitable, and
traders are willing to pay a strictly positive price for capacity in both directions at
time one. The larger the variance of sI , the less important is ex ante information
(s1 , . . . , sN ), and the closer both fees are to each other in equilibrium.
4.3
Limited Participation - No Interim Information
In the light of the model presented so far, the empirical observations from Section
3 that the lower of the two interconnector fees is almost always zero or close to zero
suggests that little interim information arrives between 9:30, when traders submit
interconnector bids, and 12:00, when they submit spot market bids. However,
if all the information is available to traders at 9:30, it should be aggregated into
interconnector fees, and the fees should predict the price differential without noise.
As noted in Section 3, this is not the case; the interconnector fees’ prediction of
the price differential is very noisy. To replicate the qualitative features of the
observed interconnector fees, we modify our framework to include the possibility
that not all firms will be participating in the interconnector auction.
If some second stage market participants abstain from the interconnector auction, their information cannot be contained in the interconnector prices. There
ˆ who take part in the
are two sets of second stage market participants: Those N
ˆ who do not. Let us denote the sum of all private
first stage and those N − N
ˆ firms participating in the market by
signals of the N
SNˆ =
ˆ
N
X
sn .
n=1
We can then characterize the equilibrium fee structure in the following proposition:
b < N traders participate in the interconnecProposition 3 If σ 2I = 0 and only N
tor auction, the interconnector fee equals
∗
f AH = max {δ + SNˆ , 0} , and
∗
f HA = max {−δ − SNˆ , 0} ,
f conditional on the equilibrium fees f AH ∗ and f HA∗ equals
and the variance of ∆p
the variance of the information of the missing traders, i.e.
b
f f HA∗ , f AH ∗ = N − N σ 2 .
V ar ∆p
N
16
b takes the place of
Proof. Identical to the proof of Proposition 2, except that N
N.
Although we assumed no interim information, the interconnector prices can no
longer perfectly predict the spot market price differential, since the information
of the non-participating traders is missing. However, the prediction should be
correct on average, just with some noise. The amount of the noise depends on
the number on non-participating traders. Even though there is noise, the price
for one direction is always zero. The missing information (which is responsible for
the noise) is revealed only in the spot markets. Hence the traders do not derive
an option value from holding capacity in the direction where – given their time
one information – prices are lower.
To understand the difference to the case with interim information consider
again a trader who at time zero believes that spot prices abroad will be higher
than at home. He knows that not all information will be aggregated in the interconnector prices due to the absence of some informed traders. However, if he
is sure that he will not receive any additional informational information before
time two (i.e. there will be no updates on the weather forecasts which are of
relevance), then this trader will never revise his believe on the spot market price
difference before time two (given that the interconnector auction outcome is part
of a fully revealing equilibrium). He will nevertheless often find that his expectation was wrong – but when he learns this (at time two) he has already submitted
his bids for the spot market. Therefore, the missing information does not create
any option value for him.
The weak predictive quality of the interconnector fees creates profit opportunities for the non-participating traders. Given the equilibrium fees, any of these
traders could use its own signal to buy capacity in the one direction that is underpriced considering its private signal; such a trade would yield a strictly positive
expected payoff; hence limited market participation is not profit maximizing, at
least form a purely static perspective.
5
Quantitative Results
In the case of the European electricity market, we can easily determine that the
data are not in line with the theoretical prediction if all informed traders participate. Our task is made easy because the lower price is almost always zero; thus,
we know immediately that we can essentially neglect interim information; a fact
we should have expected given that only two and a half hours elapse between the
interconnector auction and the spot markets. Without interim information, we
17
just have to compare the variance of interconnector prices with the variance of
the spot market differential to obtain a measure of integration. In other markets,
however, we may encounter non-trivial amounts of interim information. To determine the degree of integration in these markets, we need a more robust way
to account for interim information. In the following, we calibrate a version of our
theoretical model that captures all three types of information. Thus, we can quantify how much of the variance of the price differential is information cross-border
traders have, how much is interim information, and how much is the information
possessed by non-participating firms.
f which is a
To do so we write the price differential as a random variable ∆p,
sum of variables, namely:
∆p ≡ δ + d0 + d1 + d2 ,
where δ is the deterministic unconditional expectation of the price differential and
d0 , d1 , and d2 are i.i.d., normally distributed variables with mean zero, where
ˆ firms have that trade
• d0 with variance σ 20 represents the information the N
in stage one,
• d1 with variance σ 21 represents public interim information,
ˆ firms that
• and d2 with variance σ 22 represents the information of the N − N
were not in the market for interconnector capacity.
ˆ
The random variable d˜0 is time zero information, i.e. the information of the N
firms that take part in the market for interconnector capacity. From our model, it
follows that this information is contained in the interconnector prices. The expectation of the price differential conditional on this information – i.e. conditional
on the prices for interconnector capacity – is:
f 1 , . . . , s ˆ ) ∼ N (δ 0 , σ 21 + σ 22 ), where δ 0 = δ + d0 .
∆p|(s
N
(1)
The realization of d˜1 takes place between time one and two and reflects the arrival
of interim information. The price differential conditional on (s1 , . . . , sNˆ , sI ), i.e.
on all information that traders have when they decide on the utilization of their
acquired capacities, is
f 1 , . . . , s ˆ , sI ) ∼ N (δ 1 , σ 22 ), where δ 1 = δ + d0 + d1 .
∆p|(s
N
(2)
Finally, d˜2 is time two information, i.e. information obtained exclusively by firms
not taking part in the interconnector market but only in the spot markets. Because all traders together determine the spot market prices, the price differential
18
conditional on all trader’s information and the public interim information is exactly the realization of the price differential:
f 1 , . . . , sN , sI ) = δ + d0 + d1 + d2 .
∆p|(s
(3)
At time two, each trader will decide on the utilization of acquired capacity
depending on the sign of the mean of the expected price differential after interim
information; i.e. the sign of ˜δ 1 . From the perspective of time zero, ˜δ 1 is a random
variable that is normally distributed with mean δ 0 and variance σ 21 . Given that we
know from our theoretical model that equilibrium interconnector fees aggregate
all information, we can calculate them as the integral over the profits for those
realizations of interim information for which it is profitable to utilize the capacity
in the respective direction:
Z ∞
0
φ δ1σ−δ
2
1 dδ 1
(4)
δ1
f HA∗ = E(˜δ 1 |d0 , δ 1 > 0) =
0
0
1 − Φ 0−δ
σ2
1
and
f AH∗ = (−1) · E(˜δ 1 |d0 , δ 1 < 0) = −
Z
φ
0
δ1
−∞
Φ
δ 1 −δ 0
σ 21
0−δ 0
σ 21
dδ 1 ,
(5)
where φ(·) is the p.d.f. and Φ(·) is the c.d.f. of the standard Normal distribution.
Note that if interim information becomes negligible the probability mass of
the distribution of δ 1 becomes concentrated around δ 0 . This implies that
δ 0 , if δ 0 > 0;
HA∗
lim
E(f
|d0 ) =
(6)
2
0, if δ 0 ≤ 0.
σ 1 →0
and
lim
E(f
2
σ 1 →0
AH∗
|d0 ) =
0,
if δ 0 ≥ 0;
−δ 0 , if δ 0 < 0.
(7)
Hence, the fees converge to the fees in the model without interim information. In
this sense, our quantitative model also captures the case without interim information.
To take the model to the data, it is useful to construct two more variables.
Let
HA∗
f
,
if f HA∗ ≥ f AH∗ ,
¯
f=
(8)
−f AH∗ , if f HA∗ < f AH∗ ,
19
be the higher one of the two equilibrium fees and
HA∗
f
,
if f HA∗ ≤ f AH∗ ,
f=
AH∗
−f
, if f HA∗ > f AH∗ ,
(9)
the lower one. For σ 21 → 0, we are back in the situation without interim information, and the lower of the two prices will be almost always zero because there is
no option value. Formally, this means that the unconditional variance of f , σ 2 ,
goes to zero:
lim
σ 2 = 0.
(10)
2
σ 1 →0
Likewise, vanishing interim information implies that f¯ will be very close to δ 0 .
Formally, this means that the unconditional variance of f¯, σ
¯ 2 goes to σ 20 :
lim σ
¯ 2 = σ 20 .
σ 21 →0
(11)
Note that σ 2 increases in σ 21 , while σ
¯ 2 decreases in σ 21 .
The aim of the following calibration exercise is to make our basic intuition
¯ 2 to calculate the underlying
precise by using the observed variances, σ 2 , σ 2 , and σ
variances of the different kinds of information: σ 0 , σ 1 and σ 2 . We use the following
procedure:
From the data, we know the unconditional expectation of the price differential
δ and the unconditional variance σ 2 . Moreover we know σ
¯ 2 and σ 2 . From the
latter two, the two parameters σ 20 and σ 21 are identified. σ 22 can be calculated as
the residual variance according to
σ 22 = σ 2 − σ 20 − σ 21 .
(12)
We find numerically values for σ 20 and σ 21 that match σ
¯ 2 and σ 2 by the following
simulation procedure.
1. We start with some values σ 20 and σ 21 .
2. We draw many (1 million) signals s0 from a Normal distribution with mean
zero and variance σ 20 .
3. Using σ 21 we calculate f and f¯ for each s0 .
4. From the resulting sample we calculate σ 2 and σ
¯2.
5. Iteratively we adjust σ 20 and σ 21 until σ 2 and σ
¯ 2 match the empirically observed values.
20
Using data from the German-Danish and the German-Dutch border and denoting Germany by home and Denmark by abroad we collect the following values
for the observable variances (Table 4):
δ
σ2
σ2
σ
¯2
Table 4: Observed Values
Germany/Denmark Germany/Netherlands
1.4
−8.28
606.5
2, 777.9
0.13
0.05
219.5
658.2
Using the above described procedure, as the main results we get:
σ 20
σ 21
σ 22
Table 5: Calibration Results
Germany/Denmark Germany/Netherlands
219.1
654.4
0.5
0.2
386.4
2, 123.3
We can conclude that a highly similar picture emerges in the two cases: There
is essentially no interim information (σ 21 is close to zero), which accords well with
the observation that lower prices are almost always zero. But just between a quarter and a third of the final information is included in the interconnector capacity
prices: σ 20 /σ 2 ≈ 0.24 for the German Dutch border and σ 20 /σ 2 ≈ 0.36 for the German Danish border. Given that a large part of the available information should
be public (for example, weather, business cycle, holidays, . . . ), this indicates that
firms with a significant amount of private information do not participate in the
interconnector market.
6
Discussion
Given the prices we observe, there seem to be firms which have private information
but do not use it. These firms could (on average) make profits by trading in the
market, but they do not do so. We can conclude that these firms do not maximize
expected per period payoff. One hypothesis that would be consistent with the
observed prices is that national electricity providers do not compete with each
other cross-border to avoid the price reductions arising from this, which can be
21
significant as shown by Borenstein, Bushnell, and Stoft (2000). Such a collusive
arrangement could be an equilibrium in a repeated game.
The industry structure of the markets makes such an explanation not unlikely.
Electricity markets are highly concentrated: In Germany, the share of total production capacity (installed capacity) of the three largest firms is 69%, in Denmark
it is 72%, in the Netherlands it is 69%. At the same time, a large part of the electricity market is still an OTC (over the counter, i.e. bilateral trades) market (for
Germany, 88% of the market is OTC, in Denmark it is 62%, for the Netherlands
it is 85%).17 Thus, it could be a motivation to exploit market power in the home
market, in particular, on the OTC markets, and mutually abstain from competing
in the neighboring market, where entry is easiest on the wholesale level (i.e. at
the electricity exchanges). This is in line with the view of the Danish competition
authority:
Cross border trade in the Danish-German interconnector functions
poorly. These elements mean that the dominant players in West and
East Denmark are not exposed to effective competition.18
The dominant power producer thus might have a lot to lose from increased
cross-border competition. At the same time, it is reasonable to assume that large
producers have a lot of price relevant information that is not available to pure
electricity traders. While a lot of information is public (like weather conditions,
fuel prices), important supply side information is proprietary, in particular the actual availability of production capacity (e.g. power plant outages due to revisions,
repair or maintenance).
Thus, large, well-informed producers might forgo relatively small profits from
cross-border trading, in order to protect the dominant position in the home market. This is also reflected in the view of the European Commission on the behavior
of European Electricity incumbents:
Cross-border sales do not currently impose any significant competitive constraint. Incumbents rarely enter other national markets as
competitors. (European Commission 2007, para. 21)
17
Data are from the contributions of the Danish, Dutch and German energy regulators’ annual reports to the European Commission 2005. The figure for Germany includes the 7%
capacity of STEAG, which is contracted long term to RWE. Downloadable from ERGEG’s
(European Regulators Group for Electricity and Gas) website, http://www.ergeg.org/ portal/page/portal/ERGEG HOME/ ERGEG DOCS/ NATIONAL REPORTS/2005.
18
Regulator’s Annual Report to the European Commission - 2005. Contribution for Denmark
compiled by Danish Energy Regulatory Authority, p. 13.
22
Thus, it is likely that mainly pure traders, who want to exploit trading opportunities between the regions, are active and determine the interconnector price.
Since a significant part of the information is missing, transportation prices are
only a bad predictor of the spot market prices (although correct on average).
Prices in the opposite direction are zero because there seems to be little interim
information.
To summarize: If only poorly informed traders trade in the interconnector
market, but all traders (including the traders of the large incumbents) take part
in the spot market, it will not be surprising to see a large variation between interconnector prices and the spot market prices. We believe that this is a convincing
explanation of the data. However, as far as collusion is concerned, it is speculative.
7
Conclusion
We have analyzed a situation in which a commodity is traded in two connected
spot markets. The commodity can be shipped between the two markets, but this
incurs transportation costs. Firms first have to buy transportation capacity and
afterwards submit demand functions or supply functions in the spot market. If
spot markets are integrated, only specific combinations of transport prices and
spot market prices are possible. If all firms participate in both steps (transport
market and spot market), either (i) transport prices already include all the information and they perfectly predict the spot market prices. This obtains if no
new information becomes available between the two steps. Or (ii), with interim
information, transport prices do not perfectly predict the spot market prices; but
then, transport prices must never be zero in one direction, since transport capacities contain an option value. Alternatively, if not all informed firms participate
in the transport market, we expect the transport prices to correctly predict the
spot prices only on average, even in the absence of interim information.
The data from the electricity markets suggest that the last hypothesis is the
only one consistent with the data. Given the underlying market structure, it
could be a plausible explanation that well informed producing companies do not
participate intensively in cross-border activities in order to exploit market power
in the own region. This assumes some sort of collusive behavior of large producers
between the two regions.
Although this is not an example of a violation of the ‘no-arbitrage’ principle
in the strict sense (since informed traders who do not participate can make profits
only on average, and exploiting the option value of the transport capacity also involves some risk), the results suggest that ‘inefficiencies’ can persist in commodity
23
markets. Our explanation for this empirical finding rests on the idea that traders
are asymmetric. Some traders might have addition interests at stake, preventing
them from exploiting all profit opportunities.
A standard notion of market integration is that the law of one price holds
(LOOP). Our discussion of integration differs from that in an important aspect:
for integration, we require that all traders holding relevant information participate
in cross-border trader. If this was the case, then (absent congestion) the LOOP
would hold. However, the opposite is not necessarily true. If only poorly informed
traders participate, while national incumbents do not, national incumbents could
set identically high prices in each country, while abstaining from cross-border
trade to suppress competition.
Though our paper focuses on the electricity markets, the approach and the
calibration method might also be of interest in other contexts. It is often interesting to know whether commodity markets are ‘global’ or still mainly ‘regional’ or
‘local’, i.e. whether the difference in the prices observed at different commodity
exchanges are only due to transportation costs, or whether firms still mainly buy
and sell in their ‘home market’ and do not compete for supply and demand across
different regions. From an efficiency point of view, global markets will usually
be preferred due to the higher level of competition. For the same reason, players
with market power in regional markets will usually prefer to keep markets regional
and avoid cross-market competition. For instance, European national electricity
incumbents probably prefer a situation with national monopolies or oligopolies to
a unified European electricity market with European-wide competition.
Often it will be difficult to judge from the spot market prices alone whether
differences in spot market prices in different regions are due to a lack of crossmarket competition or due to transportation costs. The approach used in this
paper might help in providing answers with the help of market data not only
from the ”downstream” spot market but also from the ‘upstream’ market for
transport capacity, provided such data is available.
Even if the transport market is not organized in an exchange, data on the
prices for transport capacities – e.g. for shipping capacities, freight trains, road
transport and the like – might also be informative and allow some conclusions on
the question whether regional markets form a unified market or are distinct.
24
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26
8
Appendix: Proofs
Proof of Proposition 1: Note that for any value of SN the larger of the two equilibrium fee is strictly monotonic in SN . To prove that f HA∗ and f AH∗ are an
equilibrium, note first that due to the strict monotonicity of the fees in SN the
traders can infer SN from the fees in equilibrium. Second, the distribution of
f given SN is the same as the distribution given SN and any sn (SN is a suf∆p
ficient statistic for (SN , sn )). In equilibrium, all traders expect the same profits π HA (SN ) = max {−δ − SN , 0} and π AH (SN ) = max {δ + SN , 0} from owning
capacity. If f HA∗ = π HA (SN ) and f AH∗ = π AH (SN ), they are just indifferent
¯ units of capacity in both
between buying or not, and they can be allocated K
directions so that both markets clear.
0
0
For uniqueness, suppose that there is a different set of fees, f ∗ 0 = (f HA∗ , f AH∗ ),
that also are fully revealing; i.e., all traders know the realization of SN . At least
one element of f ∗ 0 cannot be equal to the expected profits from owning capacity
in this direction, and demand must be either zero or infinity for this direction so
that f ∗ 0 cannot be an equilibrium; hence the equilibrium must be the only fully
revealing rational-expectations equilibrium. Proof of Proposition 2:Note that both equilibrium fees are strictly monotonic
in SN :
SN
∂f HA∗ (SN )
= Φ
> 0, and
∂SN
σI
SN
∂f AH∗ (SN )
= − 1−Φ
< 0,
∂SN
σI
To prove that f HA∗ and f AH∗ are an equilibrium, note first that due to the strict
monotonicity of the fees in SN the traders can infer SN from of either of the
f given SN is the same as the
fees in equilibrium. Second, the distribution of ∆p
distribution given SN and any sn (SN is a sufficient statistic for (SN , sN )). In
equilibrium, all traders expect the same profits
Z ∞
sI
AH
dsI ,
π (SN ) =
[δ + SN + sI ] φ
σI
δ+SN
and
π
HA
Z
−δ−SN
(SN ) = −
[δ + SN + sI ] φ
−∞
sI
σI
dsI .
from owning capacity. If f HA∗ = π HA (SN ) and f AH∗ = π AH (SN ), they are just
¯ units of capacity
indifferent between buying or not, and they can be allocated K
in both directions so that both markets clear.
27
0
0
For uniqueness, suppose that there is a different set of fees, f ∗ 0 = (f HA∗ , f AH∗ ),
that also are fully revealing; i.e., all traders know the realization of SN . At least
one element of f ∗ 0 cannot be equal to the expected profits from owning capacity
in this direction, and demand must be either zero or infinity for this direction so
that f ∗ 0 cannot be an equilibrium; hence the equilibrium must be the only fully
revealing rational-expectations equilibrium. 28