Introduction
1. Survey of certain historical facts
1.1 The occupation of Roman Empire.
1.2. Period of Celts invasion
1.3 Period of Latin, Scandinavian and Norman French borrowings. 1.4 The Renaissance Period
2. Etymology. The English word-stock
2.1 The most characteristic features, of English word-stock 2.2 Words of Native Origin
2.3 Criteria of borrowings in English
Conclusion
Sources

Introduction It is true that English vocabulary, which is one of the most extensive among the world's languages contains an immense number of words of foreign origin. Explanations for this should be sought in the history of the language which is closely connected with the history of the nation speaking the language. The most characteristic features, of English is said to be its mixed character. While it is wrong to speak of the mixed character of the language as a while, the composite nature of the English vocabulary cannot be denied.

The first century B. C. Most of the territory now known to us as Europe was occupied by the Roman Empire. Among the inhabitants of the Europe are Germanic tribes. Theirs stage of development was rather primitive, especially if compared with the high civilization of Rome. They are primitive cattle-breeders and know almost nothing about land cultivation. Their tribal languages contain only Indo-European and Germanic elements. Due to Roman invasion Germanic tribes had to come into contact with Romans Roman invasion in Britain began in 43 A.D. Romans had held on the country for 400 years (till 407 A.D.).. Romans built roads, bridges, military camps. Trade is carried on, and the Germanic people gain knowledge of new and useful things. The first among them are new things to eat. It has been mentioned that Germanic cattle-breeding was on a primitive scale. Its only products known to the Germanic tribes were meat and milk. It is from the Romans that they learn how to make butter and cheese and, as there are naturally no words for these foodstuffs in their tribal languages, they had to use the Latin words to name them (Lat. “butyrum”, “caseus”). It is also to the Romans that the Germanic tribes owe the knowledge of some new fruits and vegetables of which they had no idea before, and the Latin names of these fruits and vegetables entered their vocabularies: “cherry” (Lat. “cerasum”), “pear” (Lat. “pirum”), “plum” (Lat. “prunus”), “pea” (Lat. “pisum”), “beet” (Lat. “beta”), “pepper” (Lat. “piper”). Here are some more examples of Latin borrowings of this period: “cup” (Lat. “cuppa”), “kitchen” (Lat. “coquina”), “mill” (Lat. “molina”), “port” (Lat. “portus”), “wine” (Lat. “vinum”). The Germanic tribal languages gained a considerable number of new words and were thus enriched. Latin words became the earliest group of borrowings By a borrowing or loan-word we mean a word which came into the vocabulary of one language from another and was assimilated by the new language. in the future English language which was - much later - built on the basis of the Germanic tribal languages.

1.2. Period of Celts invasion The fifth century A.D. Several of the Germanic tribes (the most numerous among them were the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes) migrated across the sea to the British Isles. There they were confronted by the Celts, the original inhabitants of the Isles. The Celts desperately defended their lands against the invaders, but nevertheless gradually yielded most of their territory. They retreated to the North and South-West (modern Scotland, Wales and Cornwall). Through numerous contacts with the defeated Celts, the conquerors borrowed a number of Celtic words (bald, down, glen, bard, cradle). Especially numerous among the Celtic borrowings were place names, names of rivers, hills, etc. The Germanic tribes...

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...Etymologicalsurvey of the Englishword-stock
Learning objects:
After you have studied the material you should be able:
a) To speak on:
-The term "native (word-stock), sources of borrowing, “origin of borrowing”.
-To give characteristic of the words of "native origin"
b) Borrowings in English language (causes, ways, their assimilation, etc.)
c) To speak on the interrelation between native and borrowed elements in the English language.
Literature to be studied:
1. A course in Modern English Lexicology. By R. Ginsburg and others pp. 209-228.
2. English Lexicology. By Antrushina. Ch. З. pр.44-56 (n. 9 pp.48-54) Ex. 1, ch.4.p.62-71..Ex.l,?,3,o.71-72.
3.The Englishword. By I. Arnold pp. 248-55. Ch. 14
4. Этимологические основы словарного состава современного английского языка. Н. Амосова, стр.7-23,стр.160-166.
Etymology. The Englishword-stock.
Some basic notions
The most characteristic features, of English is said to be its mixed character. While it is wrong to speak of the mixed character of the language as a while, the composite nature of the English vocabulary cannot be denied.
l) The term native in linguistic literature is used to denote word of Anglo-Saxon origin brought to the...

...AN ENGLISHWORD
1. Definitions of the word
2. different kinds of motivation in the light of studying any word
3. Semasiology as the branch of linguisics
4. different approaches to the study of word meaning.
1. Word is a basic unit of language consisting of one or more morphemes.
Morphemes are meaningful units or sounds of written representation as parts of words.
Any word can be a subject of certain linking conditions, so we can form a new word adding a derivational affix, e.g. write and writer
Functional affixes can form new grammatical functions of any word, e.g. write – written, writing.
As for the definition of a word it’s a disputable question in linguistics because any word has many different aspects: phonemes compile a sound form;
Morphemes arrange a morphological structure; syntactic functions of any word are formed with different word forms.
So the word is closely connected with phonology, lexicology, syntax, morphology, philosophy and physiology.
Numerous linguists gave various definitions of words (Rosetti, Thomas Hobbes, I. Pavlov, H/ Sweet, L. Bloomfield, E. Sapir). All the definitions are correct but not complete, because the authors didn’t take into consideration all the aspects of a word,...

... 3
2. Native words 4
3. Influence of other languages 5
3.1 Latin influence 5
3.2 Norse influence 7
3.3 Celtic influence 8
4.Word-building means in Old English 8
5. Ways of word-formation 8
6. Conclusion 10
7. List of the literature used 11
Introduction
Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th century to the late 11th century, sometime after the Norman invasion.
Examination of the origin of words is of great interest in establishing...

...EnglishWords
‘The air is always thick with our verbal emissions. There are so many things we want to tell the world.
Some of them are important, some of them are not. But we talk anyway. A life without words would be a
horrendous privation.’
(from the Introduction)
Words and language, keys to human identity, are fascinating subjects. The aim of this book is to arouse
curiosity about Englishwords and about the nature of language in general, especially among students who
are not intending to specialise in linguistics.
The book covers a wide range of topics, including the structure of words, the meaning of words, how
their spelling relates to pronunciation, how new words are manufactured or imported from other languages,
and how the meaning of words changes with the passage of time. It also investigates how the mind deals
with words by highlighting the amazing intellectual feat performed routinely when the right word is
retrieved from the mental dictionary during conversation. Words of all sorts are examined—from great
poetry, nonsense verse and journalism to advertising. It is demonstrated that in their very different ways
they are all worthy of serious study.
This textbook is an accessible descriptive introduction, suitable for students of English language and...

...Characteristics of different types of borrowed elements in English
1.1. the definition of the term "borrowed word"……………………..………………..6
1.2. the semantic features of types of borrowed elements in English…………………9
1.2.1. translation loans.……………………………………………………………….10
1.2.2. semantic loans…………………………………………………………………11
1.2.3. etymological doublets………………………………………………………….12
1.2.3.4. hybrids……………………………………………………………………….15
1.2.3.4.5. international words………………………………………………………...18
1.3. assimilation of borrowings, its types and degrees……………………………….24
Part II.
Textual Characteristics of types of borrowed elements in Modern English…………26
Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………..28
Resume……………………………………………………………………………….29
Bibliography………………………………………………………………………….31
Electronic Sources…………………………………………….……………………...33
Introduction
Etymologically the vocabulary of the English language is far from being homogenous. It consists of two layers - the native stock of words and the borrowed stock of words. Numerically the borrowed stock of words is considerably larger than the native stock of words.
The topicality of the investigation is in the fact that native words comprise only 30% of the total number of words in the English vocabulary that is why a borrowing problem is very...

...LECTURE 4
Word stress in English
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3. Functions of the English stress
4. Tendencies of the English stress
5. Typology of accentual structures
1. The sequence of syllables in the word is not pronounced identically. The syllable or syllables which are uttered with more prominence than the other syllables of the word are said to be stressed or accented. Stress in the isolated word is termed word stress; stress in connected speech is termed sentence stress.
If we compare stressed and unstressed syllables in the words contract ['kσntrækt], to contract [kən'trækt], we may note that in the stressed syllable:
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(c) the quantity of the vowel [æ] in [kən'trækt] is greater, the vowel becomes longer;
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...Why does English have a large vocabulary compared to other languages? Please give reasons to support your argument.
(1) its extensive廣泛contacts with other languages.
(2) the large numbers of people all over the world use it.
(3) the increasingly many purposes for which is used.
2. Do you agree that “what a word means today is what it meant in the past?” Please explain what etymology詞源學can help with today’s meaning of a word.
I don’t agree because language would change gradually as the time went by. It would cause semantic and meaning change.The study of etymologies may throw light on how a present-day meaning developed or reveal something about the working of the human mind, but it doesn’t help in determining what a word means today.
3. What is language? Please define what language is.
Language is the usage of people who speak the language. A language is a system of conventional vocal signs by means of which human beings communicate.
4. Please define the following terms.
(A) generalization: increasing the scope範圍 of a word, reducing the number of features in its definition that restrict 限制 its application.
(B) specification: The opposite of generalization, a process in which, by adding to the features of meaning, the referential 指涉的 scope of a word is reduced.
5. Please list the five processes of new word formation.
1. Creating...

...﻿C H A P T E R I
The ways in which new words are formed, and the factors which govern their acceptance into the language, are generally taken very much for granted by the average speaker. To understand a word, it is not necessary to know how it is constructed, whether it is simple or complex, that is, whether or not it can be broken down into two or more constituents. We are able to use a word which is new to us when we find out what object or notion it denotes. Some words, of course, are more ‘transparent’ than others. For example, in the words unfathomable and indescribable we recognize the familiar pattern of negative prefix + transitive word + adjective-forming suffix on which many words of similar form are constructed. Knowing the pattern, we can easily guess their meanings – ‘cannot be fathomed’ and ‘cannot be described’ – although we are not surprised to find other similar-looking words, for instance unfashionable and unfavourable for which this analysis will not work. We recognize as ‘transparent’ the adjectives unassuming and unheard-of, which taking for granted the fact that we cannot use assuming and heard-of. We accept as quite natural the fact that although we can use the verbs to pipe, to drum and to trumpet, we cannot use the verbs to piano and to violin.
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