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Introduction

After almost 500 years of Portuguese rule, Angola became an independent country in 1975. The seventh largest country in Africa, Angola lies on the southwestern coast of the continent, bordered to the west by the Atlantic Ocean, to the far northwest by the Republic of the Congo, to the north and northeast by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the southeast by Zambia, and to the south by Namibia. In the northwest, a small area of Angola called Cabinda is separated from the rest of the country by the Congo River and the extreme southwestern tip of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The capital of Angola is Luanda. Area 481,354 square miles (1,246,700 square kilometers). Population (2017 est.) 28,360,000.

Angola had been the largest and richest of Portugal’s African colonies; after independence Angola’s resources helped fund nearly three decades of civil war. Two groups that had fought for Angola’s independence continued to fight with one another for control of the new country. One gained control of the government. Oil gave the government the revenue it needed to pursue military actions, while the rebel group’s resistance was funded through the sale of diamonds. The end of the war in 2002 brought new hopes for the country’s development.

Land and Climate

Gerald Cubitt/Bruce Coleman Ltd.

Most of Angola’s land consists of high plateaus covered by open grasslands and small bushes. It also has lowlands along the coast and in the north near the Congo River. The highest points in Angola are found in the central and southern regions. Mount Môco, located in west central Angola, is the highest point in the country, reaching an elevation of 8,596 feet (2,620 meters).

The country contains several rivers including the Cuanza (Kwanza), the largest river that is entirely within Angola’s borders. Other rivers include the Cuango (Kwango), which forms part of the boundary between the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola, and the Cunene (Kunene) River, which is found in the southwestern part of the country.

Angola has a tropical climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. In the north, the rainy season lasts from October to May. The relatively short rainy season in the south lasts only from November to March, leaving that region prone to droughts. Some places in the north receive as much as 70 inches (180 centimeters) of rainfall per year, while some coastal southern areas can have as little as two inches (five centimeters) of rain per year.

Plants and Animals

Tropical rainforests are found in northern Angola and in Cabinda. Roughly one fifth of the country is forested, though much woodland has been lost to deforestation practices that began in the 19th century. Much of central Angola is covered in wooded savanna, while scrubby grasslands predominate in the drier south. Desert vegetation predominates in the Namib, a region in the far southwest shared with bordering Namibia. One of the notable plants found there is the unusual tumboa (Weltwitschia mirabilis). The species has long leaves, some extending as much as 10 feet (3 meters) in length, that lie flat on the ground. The tumboa is an especially hardy plant, capable of withstanding considerable environmental stress. Some specimens are as much as 1,500 to 2,000 years old. Palm trees and mangrove swamps are found at various locations along the Atlantic coast. Acacia, a red flowering tree, is found in the central coastal region near the city of Lobito.

Angola is home to a rich variety of wildlife, including leopards, lions, hyenas, elephants, hippopotamuses, giraffes, black buffaloes, and zebras. The long period of civil war affected animals as well as humans. Many wild animal populations were drastically reduced owing to direct causes, such as land mines. Elephants were slaughtered for their ivory, and rhinoceroses for their horns. Other reductions were due to indirect causes, such as loss of habitat. Experts had long believed that the giant sable (Hippotragus niger variani), a rare antelope found only in Angola, was extinct; however, some of these animals have been found and are now sheltered in conservation parks. Various kinds of reptiles, including crocodiles, also live in the country, as do an abundance of insects and birds.

Angola has several national parks and game reserves, but they were not maintained during the civil war. Iona National Park, located in the southwest corner of the country, is the largest park. The Kissama Foundation, founded in 1996 by Angolans and South Africans, was established to help rehabilitate Angola’s national parks. Their first project focused on Quiçama National Park, located in the southwest. Animals were brought from neighboring Namibia and Botswana in southern Africa to repopulate the park.

People and Culture

Portuguese contact with Angola dates back to the 15th century. This long period of influence led to a distinctive blend of Portuguese and indigenous African traditions.

Ethnic Groups

Angola is home to more than 100 ethnic groups. The largest of these is the Ovimbundu, who live in the central part of the country and also in the capital city of Luanda. The Mbundu (or Kimbundu) are another prominent group. They are found in regions to the north of the Ovimbundu, in coastal cities, and in Luanda. The Kongo (or Bakongo), whose ancestors founded the historic kingdom of Kongo, live in the north and in Luanda. Other major ethnic groups include the Lunda, Chokwe, Ngangela, Ovambo, Herero, and the Nyaneka-Nkhumbi. Angola also contains some groups of !Kung, a migratory people.

Few Portuguese people lived in Angola prior to 1955. By independence in 1975, however, the Portuguese population had risen to more than 300,000. Most fled the country, however, after it gained independence and civil war broke out.

Language

The vast majority of Angola’s people speak languages of the Bantu group. Bantu languages are widely spoken throughout southern, western, and central Africa. Umbundu, the language of the Ovimbundu people, and Kimbundu, the language of the Mbundu people, are the most widely spoken African languages in Angola. Portuguese is the country’s official language and is used for written communication and education. It is also used as a lingua franca, or common language among people who speak different first languages, in many parts of Angola.

Religion

Christianity was introduced into Angola in the late 15th century, and it remains the country’s largest religion. Most of the people are Roman Catholics. Some Angolans follow traditional, or indigenous, religions. After independence, the government initially followed a Marxist ideology, and religion was officially discouraged. This policy was abandoned in the 1990s, however.

Culture

The strong remnants of Portuguese culture found in the largest cities in Angola lend an air comparable to that found in some Latin American cities. In Angola’s urban centers, the nightclubs and the annual Carnival celebrations could be equally at home in Brazil. In rural areas, however, the atmosphere is distinctly African. Despite differences between ethnic groups, all Angolan cultures have in common a respect and reverence for their elders and ancestors. Throughout Angola, the family is the fundamental unit of life.

Music is important to Angolan culture. Traditional instruments, including different kinds of drums, are widely played. Contemporary music that combines Western instruments such as electric guitar with musical styles from Africa, the United States, the Caribbean, Cuba, and Brazil is enjoyed throughout the country.

Artistic traditions are also important. Wood, clay, copper, reeds, ivory, shells, and the human body are the main media for Angolan decorative arts.

Oral literature is found in all cultures in Angola. There is also a substantial body of literature written in Portuguese. Angola’s most famous writer is the first president of the country, Agostinho Neto, who wrote poetry.

Education and Social Welfare

During the colonial period most education was in the hands of religious institutions. The Portuguese colonial government did not favor the education of Angola’s ordinary African citizens. Since independence, however, the Angolan government has tried to provide education to all the country’s children. In 1974, the year before independence, fewer than 500,000 children were in school. By 1980 the number had increased to at least 1.5 million. Enrollment declined by the beginning of the 21st century, however, because of budget cuts, population increases, and the ravages of war. Government estimates indicated that 60 percent of all schools were destroyed or in disrepair because of the civil war. The schools also lacked qualified teachers and school supplies. After the war, the government began to rebuild the schools and to train more teachers. The problems with the school system had contributed to the country’s low literacy rate. Dramatic gains were made in the early 21st century, so that by 2006 more than two thirds of the people age 15 and older were literate.

Since 1977, eight years of education have been compulsory for children between the ages of seven and 15. Education was free until 2001, when the government requested that students pay a nominal amount for their education. The main language of instruction is Portuguese, though indigenous languages also are used, especially in primary school education.

Agostinho Neto University was founded in Angola in 1963. Higher education is also provided by such institutions as the Catholic University of Angola and the Jean Piaget University of Angola.

The government expanded medical facilities after 1975, but this expansion was hampered by the unrest caused by war. Many doctors left the country after the civil war broke out. Traditional doctors are found in all parts of Angola, but Western-style medical facilities exist only in more urban areas. Besides malaria and diarrheal diseases, malnutrition—sometimes bordering on starvation—remained widespread in the country at the start of the 21st century. In the early 2000s there were repeated outbreaks of cholera due to unsanitary conditions, and in 2005 there was an epidemic of hemorrhagic fever caused by the deadly Marburg virus. The rate of HIV/AIDS remained fairly low in Angola compared to other sub-Saharan African countries. Angola had a birth rate more than double the world average; a death rate nearly three times higher than the world average; and a life expectancy for both men and women that did not reach 40 years.

Major Cities

The largest city in Angola is the capital, Luanda, a major port located on the northern Atlantic coast. Huambo, the second largest city, is a transportation hub located in the central interior. Benguela and Lobito are coastal cities in the central part of Angola; Benguela is building its fishing industry, while Lobito’s harbor is an important port and vital link with the country’s railways. Lubango, another large city, is located in the southern interior. During the prolonged civil war, refugees from the surrounding rural areas poured into the country’s cities, leading to extreme overcrowding in some places.

Angola’s cities are characterized by Portuguese colonial style architecture and multistory buildings. Unfortunately, the civil war caused serious damage to the buildings, especially in areas where the cities served as battlegrounds themselves. Many towns in the east were completely destroyed during the war.

Economy

While most African economies are based on agriculture, Angola’s agricultural sector declined significantly after independence. In large measure this was because of the civil war, which severely disrupted agricultural production. This disruption forced many Angolans to leave the country; those who remained had to rely on foreign aid. Many people died of starvation. Significant reserves of oil are found in the country, and these have the kept the country from total economic collapse. In addition to oil, Angola also has a great wealth of diamonds and is one of the world’s largest producers of these gemstones.

Agriculture, Fishing, and Forestry

Angola has limited land suitable for agriculture, owing to poor soils and lack of rain. Fertile agricultural land generally is found in the highlands and river valleys, though some agricultural potential exists in other parts of the country. Nevertheless, most of Angola’s workforce is engaged in agriculture. The main subsistence crops are cassava and grains, while the most important commercial crops are coffee, sugar, palm oil, tobacco, and cotton. Pastoralism is limited because the presence of tsetse flies limits the herding of cattle in certain areas; however, agriculture of any sort is limited because of the large number of land mines that were buried throughout the countryside during the war.

Angola’s substantial coastline harbors an abundance of fish and shellfish, including sardines, mackerel, catfish, tuna, lobsters, and prawns. Most fish is consumed domestically, but some is exported.

Despite their commercial value, Angola’s significant timber resources have not yet been exploited fully. Most of the timber harvesting has been for fuel. Among the most commercially valuable species are mahogany, eucalyptus, rosewood, ebony, and pine.

Manufacturing, Mining, and Natural Resources

Angola produces construction material, refined petroleum, processed food, textiles, and electrical goods. Manufacturing declined after independence, particularly because of the war, but also because of shortages of raw materials, disruptions of power, and problems with the transportation infrastructure. The government attempted to counteract this in the 1990s by selling businesses to private concerns. (In the earlier years of independence, the country’s industries had been owned by the state.) After the war Angola had much rebuilding to do, so business increased for the construction industries.

The presence of oil in Angola was first discovered in 1955. Since then, the country has become one of the largest exporters of oil in sub-Saharan Africa. Angola joined the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in 2007.

Angola has great hydroelectric potential because of the numerous rivers in the country. New power plants were constructed at the beginning of the 21st century.

Diamonds are found in the northeastern part of the country. Angola also has substantial reserves of copper, manganese, gold, phosphates, uranium, and platinum.

Transportation and Communications

U.S. Department of State

Good transportation systems existed throughout Angola at the time of independence, but decades of civil war caused severe damage to many important roads and bridges. Angola’s main roadways are connected to neighboring Namibia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the Republic of the Congo via a series of branches.

Much of Angola’s railway system was developed during the early 20th century but became inoperable during the long civil war. The Benguela Railway, the longest of the country’s railways, had served as a vital link between the port of Lobito and some of Angola’s landlocked neighbors, including the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia. After the war, the country began to repair and reopen sections of its railways.

Air travel was considered the safest form of travel during the war. Angola has a national airline (TAAG) and an international airport in Luanda. Domestic airports are located in several cities.

Telephone service was another sector that was damaged during the war. The government privatized the phone industry in 2001. Mobile cellular phone service has been available in Angola since the 1990s. The newspapers and television and radio stations are run by the government.

Government

Angola is a constitutional republic. The government is led by a president who is both chief of state and head of government; he is elected to a five-year term. The president appoints a prime minister, as well as the departmental ministers who, in turn, make up the Council of Ministers. This council functions in a manner similar to that of a presidential cabinet, serving to advise the president on matters of executive importance. A new constitution that allowed for multiparty elections was activated in 1992.

The legislative branch of the government consists of the National Assembly. Assembly members are elected to four-year terms. The judicial system consists of municipal and provincial courts, as well as a Supreme Court. A separate Constitutional Court was established to decide matters involving constitutional law. The country is divided into 18 provinces, each headed by a governor appointed by the national government.

History

Angola has been inhabited for thousands of years. Archeologists have found evidence of human inhabitants from as long ago as 40,000 bc. Sometime between 1000 bc and ad 500, Bantu speakers came into the region and began to displace the earlier population. These Bantu peoples had economies based on farming, raising cattle, hunting and fishing, and producing tools and household goods.

Angolan States

Centralized states slowly began to form in parts of Angola; by the 14th century, some of these were united to form the Kongo kingdom. The capital of Kongo was at Mbanza Kongo (renamed São Salvador in the late 16th century). The kingdom had great wealth, which was achieved through trade with other states. Much of the trade centered on agriculture, though some derived from exploitation of the region’s vast mineral resources.

Portuguese explorers first made contact with the kingdom in the 1480s. Contact with the Portuguese had an important and lasting effect on Kongo. Its kings adopted Christianity and began to trade with the Portuguese. Increasingly trade centered on slaves. The Kongo king Afonso I (who reigned in the first half of the 16th century) protested to the king of Portugal about the number of people who were being enslaved from his kingdom, but the slave trade continued.

The kingdom of Kongo was densely settled, with the population of some cities such as São Salvador reaching as many as 60,000 people in the mid-17th century. The kingdom began to fall apart as rival factions declared their independence from Kongo in an attempt to stop the Portuguese from dominating them. Queen Nzinga, the leader of the neighboring Ndongo and Matamba kingdoms, fought the Portuguese but was forced to make peace with them in the mid-1600s.

The Transatlantic Slave Trade

Until the end of the 19th century, Portugal actually ruled only parts of the coastal area and a small section of the interior of Angola. Through slave trade, military penetration into the interior, and trading in textiles, guns, and other imported goods, however, the Portuguese had an impact on the entire region. The Ovimbundu established their kingdom in the interior of Angola at the beginning of the 17th century. They traded with the Portuguese only after the Portuguese had pushed into the interior and had warred with them from 1774 to 1776. By 1800 the Ovimbundu had become an important part of the slave trade. The kingdom’s leaders prospered through their connection to this practice, as millions of people were sold into slavery.

Colonial Angola

By about 1920 Portugal had conquered all of Angola through a series of bloody wars. The Portuguese had officially abolished slavery in 1875, but many Africans remained in forced labor.

Under colonial rule Portuguese farmers and businessmen controlled the Angolan economy, which depended largely on the production of coffee, cotton, and other crops. Large companies from South Africa, Europe, and the United States administered Angola’s diamond and iron mines and the production of its petroleum, which was discovered in the 1950s.

Independent Angola

Although many African colonies became self-governing countries during the 1960s, the Portuguese dictator, António de Oliveira Salazar, refused to grant Angola its independence. Angola went to war against Portugal in 1961 to gain its freedom, and violent guerrilla fighting lasted for 14 years.

Organizations such as the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) were deeply involved in the fight for independence. In 1974 a coup in Portugal brought into power a new Portuguese government that wanted to end the colonial wars in Africa. The following year, Portugal at last released its hold on the colony, and Angola became independent on November 11, 1975.

Civil war

Despite their common desire to achieve independence, UNITA and MPLA had very different goals for how the new country of Angola would be governed. The MPLA, supported by the communistSoviet Union and Cuba, favored formation of a government based on Marxist principles, while UNITA was violently opposed to such a regime. South Africa and the United States provided military aid to UNITA. Almost immediately after independence the country was plunged into civil war when the two groups proclaimed two rival republics. The MPLA gained control of the government because they controlled Luanda, the capital city. Their leader, Agostinho Neto, took office as Angola’s first president and immediately set about instituting a government styled after the centralized regime of the Soviet Union. After Neto’s death in 1979, José Eduardo dos Santos became president.

Peace agreements

Both the MPLA and UNITA continued to receive outside support from other countries. By the end of the 1980s, however, the Cold War was ending. Both the United States and the Soviet Union wanted the two sides to end their fighting. South Africa was beginning to dismantle its apartheid policies and thus was focused on its own internal struggles. In the early 1990s the MPLA backed away from Marxism and restructured the government into a multiparty republic with elections open to all, including UNITA. The conflict continued, however, despite the signing of cease-fire agreements and peace accords in 1989 and the early 1990s.

The civil war finally ended in 2002, after government troops killed Jonas Savimbi, the leader of UNITA, and a peace agreement was signed. Many Angolans who had been displaced during the civil war began to return home. Angola then faced the problem of demobilizing MPLA and UNITA troops and rebuilding the infrastructure that had been destroyed during the war.

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