iic v:vix, wn:ii, little earth spirits, and a deity named

Vahiyinin, are the actors in a tale a Siberian Koryak shaman told a
Russian ethnographer at the turn of the nineteenth century. Big
Raven is both culture hero and trickster in tribal Siberia. Whale is
whale; the earth spirits are the fly agaric, Amanita muscaria; and
Vahiyinin, meaning Existence, is the great sky god. In guides to
mushrooms, the fly agaric is sometimes called “deadly poisonous,”
but although it can cause intestinal upsets, this is undeserved.
For centuries, and probably many millennia, the fly agaric
served shamans in Siberia, and probably across much of the north-
Eurasian forest belt, as an ecstatic inebriant. Fly agaric was the means
by which they believed themselves, and were believed by others, to
free their souls for out-of-body journeys to the spirit world.
In the Koryak tale, Raven and Whale were friends. One day, so
goes the tale, Whale swam too close to shore and became stuck in
the mud. He called on Raven to lift him up and escort him back to
deep water; but try as Raven tried, he was not strong enough. He
told Whale to wait while he asked advice from Vahiyinin.
The god told Raven to go to a certain plain where he would
find earth spirits called wapaq. If he ate some wapaq they would
give him the strength to help his brother Whale. Vahiyinin spat
upon the earth, and wherever his spittle fell, there sprang up little
white spirit beings with big red hats shaped like umbrellas and
spotted with white flecks.
Raven ate some and soon felt so exhilarated and powerful that
he was able to lift Whale and return him to the open sea. He told
the wapaq spirits to grow forever on this earth. To his children, the
Koryak people, Raven said that when anyone who was sick ate a
wapaq it would tell him what ailed him, or explain the meaning of
a dream, show him the Upperworld, the world beneath the
ground, or foretell the future.
The fly agaric grows in many places, including North and
Middle America. There are tantalizing hints but no firm evidence
that it ever enjoyed the same importance in the Indian Americas
as it did in Siberian shamanism. But other plants with similar
effects on consciousness did. Yet it is Siberia, where numerous
tribal religions were focused on the fly agaric as visionary inebri-
ant, that is the homeland of the ancestors of the First Americans.
Beginning perhaps 30-40,000 years ago and ending around
10,000 B.C., small groups of Siberian hunters pulled up stakes for
unknown lands across the Bering Sea and gradually spread into
virtually every corner of the western hemisphere.
Why they would have ignored the fly agaric’s American
cousins—if indeed they did—remains a mystery. Still, it may be
that the Siberian tradition of the fly agaric was indirectly responsi-
ble for the extraordinary proliferation of species with comparable
effects on consciousness in the Indian Americas.
To date, :oo such species in ritual use have been identified,
and there are undoubtedly more yet to be recognized. That’s a
hundred times more than the two species reported by the earliest
Spanish explorers. One was a powerful snuff with which Fray
Ramón Pané, a companion of Christopher Columbus on his sec-
ond voyage in 1494, saw the Taíno inhabitants of the island of
Hispaniola intoxicate themselves into ecstatic out-of-body jour-
neys to Otherworlds. The other was a shrub the misnamed
:o voiuxv ¡o, xuxnvv I vxvvui 1i ox
Chumash cave painting of a toloache (Datura inxoia) vision. Painted Cave,
Santa Barbara, California.
Visionary
Plants and
Ecstatic
Shamanism
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“Indians”called tabaco, whose leaves they set on fire to inhale the
smoke for the same “diabolical” purpose. Smoking is in fact the
most common method of tobacco use, but there are others,
including licking, sucking, drinking, inhaling as snuff, and intes-
tinal absorption by enema.
ANTI QUI TY OF PSYCHEDELI C PLANTS
It was not until the :oth century that the antiquity of plant
“hallucinogens” as triggers of shamanic ecstasy was firmly
established. In South America, the earliest evidence concerns
San Pedro, the popular name of Trichocereus pachanoi, a tall,
columnar cactus that is native to Peru and Ecuador. Its princi-
pal visionary alkaloid is mescaline, first isolated from the pey-
ote cactus in Germany in I8,o and brought to popular
attention in I,,¡ in Aldous Huxley’s The Doors of Perception.
Peyote (Lophophora williamsii) is a small cactus native to the
north-central Mexican desert and the lower Río Grande valley.
Historically, it was used by the Aztecs and other indigenous
peoples. For Huichols, who take peyote to be the herbal trans-
formation of a divine deer and who gather it on arduous pil-
grimages in the state of San Luis Potosí, peyote stands at the
very heart of their indigenous religion.
Except for sharing mescaline, and that both are succu-
lents, peyote and San Pedro are unrelated. Spines of San Pedro,
which is highly valued by Andean shamans and Mestizo
curanderos and their clienteles, have been excavated in sites
dating to ca. I,oo i.t. But in ceramics of the great Chavín civ-
ilization of Peru, which flourished around 8oo-Iooo i.t., we
see the cactus, itself, in direct association with the jaguar, the
principal animal alter ego of Amazonian shamans.
The proven age of San Pedro use was put to shame by dis-
coveries in ancient Desert Culture rock shelters in southern
Texas. Among cultural debris in these caves, archaeologists
have found two ritual intoxicants, the red bean-like seeds, mis-
named “mescal beans,” of Sophora secundiflora, a flowering tree
native to the southern plains; and peyote. The seeds were first
reported by Cabeza de Vaca in I,,, as an item of trade among
Texas Indians, and thereafter as a ritual intoxicant in shamanis-
tic initiation ceremonies sometimes called “Deer Dance.”
This ritual intoxication practice, shared by a number of
tribes in the southern Plains, died out in the last quarter of
the 19th century. The amazing thing is, that on the evidence
of radiocarbon dating, the practice endured for some ten
thousand years —notwithstanding that one of the alkaloids
isolated from the seeds is cytisine, capable of causing con-
vulsions and even death from respiratory failure when taken
in large doses.
The oldest dates for ceremonial caches of Sophora secun-
diflora seeds, 8I:, and 8¡¡o i.t., came from a Desert Culture
cave in the Trans-Pecos region of Texas called Bonfire
Shelter, where the caches were associated with the bones of
extinct Bison antiquus. At another Trans-Pecos location,
Frightful Cave, the earliest occurrence of Sophora was dated
www. xusvux. uvvxx. vuu⁄ vunii c.1i oxs :,
Huichols have mixed feelings about the solanaceous Datura and its
relatives, crediting them with both good and evil powers. On a visit to
Bandelier National Monument, an Anasazi pueblo in northern New Mexico,
Guadalupe de la Cruz Ríos, widow of the late Huichol shaman-artist
Ramón Medina, implores a large flowering Datura inoxia not to do harm.
Carved slate snuff tablet and forked bird bone inhaler, excavated by Max
Uhle. (Tiahuanaco, Peru.Tablet L. 4
3
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1
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1
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at ,:o, i.t., and the seeds were also present in all subse-
quent cultural strata. And at Fate Bell Shelter, in the Amistad
Dam area of Trans-Pecos Texas, a region rich in shamanistic
rock paintings of spirit beings and shamans, the seeds were
present in every cultural stratum from ,ooo i.t. to :.n.
Iooo when the Desert Culture gave way to a new way of life
based on maize cultivation.
The archaeological peyotes from Texas are not far behind
in age. One pair preserved in the Witte Museum in San
Antonio, and tested at uti:, yielded t-I¡ dates equivalent to
,ooo years before the present. And a recent issue of the British
medical journal The Lancet reported a radio-
carbon date of ,,oo years before the present
for another pair, with the added bonus of a
small but significant residue of mescaline.
All this points to very early discoveries of
hallucinogens, their integration into Amerindian
religions, and rituals related to a variety of
visionary plants. This, in turn, relates to an
intriguing and quite plausible hypothesis
advanced by anthropologist Weston La Barre.
La Barre is the author of The Peyote Cult, a
classic history of the :,o,ooo-member pan-
Indian Native American Church, originally
published in I,,8 and expanded and reissued
several times since.
LA BARRE, SI BERI AN SHAMANI SM, AND
AMERI NDI AN RELI GI ON
In I,,o, two old friends and professional asso-
ciates, both now deceased, engaged in a
friendly debate. Richard Evans Schultes was
director of the Botanical Museum of Harvard
University and preeminent authority on New
World plant hallucinogens. Weston La Barre
was professor of anthropology at Duke University. What,
asked Schultes, explains the small number of known visionary
plants recorded in the Old World, and their infinitely greater
number in the New? The differential fates of shamanism in the
two hemispheres, answered La Barre. La Barre’s argument was
essentially this:
At some time in the distant past, when small bands of
Siberian hunters set out for unknown lands across the Bering Sea,
their baggage might have been light, but surely it included items
that related to their well-developed religions and rituals. These
would not have been very different from the ecstatic tribal
shamanism that focused on the fly agaric mushroom, described
from Siberia since the 1700s. Once settled in the Americas, their
shamanic core remained intact through time and space, so much
so, that to this day, all American Indian religions, including that of
the militaristic and expansionist Aztec civilization, can rightly be
called shamanic.
Even if they seemingly ignored the American varieties of the
sacred mushroom of their ancestors—and we have no evidence
either way—as inheritors and practitioners of religious beliefs
and practices originating in ecstatic Siberian shamanism, with
the ecstatic trance as the indispensable foundation of shamanic
ideology and practice, the First Americans would have been “cul-
turally programmed” for conscious exploration of their new
environments for plants with divine powers that replicated those
their ancestors attributed to the fly agaric. The
shamanic character of Native American reli-
gions remained intact. Prior to the European
invasion and colonization, the Indian Americas
experienced none of the profound religious
and socio-economic transformations that
caused the eradication of ecstatic shamanism in
much of the Old World, and with it, knowledge
and use of visionary plants.
It was La Barre’s contention that the exten-
sive reliance by diverse Amerindians on psy-
choactive plants is evidence of the survival of
ecstatic Mesolithic/Paleolithic shamanism. And
so we find an abundance of such plants as
“allies” of the shaman in Amazonia and the
Andes. In Mexico they include especially the
“sacred mushrooms,” peyote; several species of
Datura and its relatives; and perhaps most inter-
esting, ololiuhqui. This is a Nahuatl term mean-
ing no more than “little round thing.” The
Aztecs applied this term to the seeds of two
species of morning glory, the white-flowered
Turbina (form. Rivea) corymbosa and the pur-
ple or blue Ipomea violacea. Ololiuhqui gives
nary a hint of the remarkable qualities inherent in these seeds.
The reason why ololiuhqui, which modern Indians abbrevi-
ated to ololuc, is of such interest was due to an entirely unexpected
discovery by Albert Hofmann, the brilliant Swiss chemist who, in
1938, was the co-discoverer of LSD (d-lysergic acid diethylamide).
Several investigators had previously failed to uncover the morning
glories’ secret. But in 1960, Hofmann, having received several
pounds of the seeds from Mexico, announced his discovery of the
active principles of ololiuhqui as lysergic acid derivatives.
Such derivatives are closely related to synthetic LSD and to
ergot, the primitive fungus infestation of rye that in the Middle
Ages was responsible for the mass hysteria known as St.
Anthony’s Fire. As Hoffman pointed out, never before had
these fungal alkaloids been identified in the higher plants.
:8 voiuxv ¡o, xuxnvv I vxvvui 1i ox
Peruvian stirrup vessel with San
Pedro cactus effigy (Trichocereus
pachanoi). With its high content of
the visionary alkaloid mescaline, it is
widely employed in shamanic curing
in north coastal Peru and elsewhere
in the Andes. There is also archaeo-
logical evidence for its use in ancient
Peru as far back as 1500 B.C.
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TOBACCO: FOOD OF THE GODS
Notwithstanding his path-breaking Tobacco and Shamanism in
South America by Johannes Wilbert, the UCLA ethnographer of
Indian South America, it comes as a surprise to many people that
tobacco functions for a number of South American Indian
shamans as their only ritual intoxicant, or at least as the most
prominent of several in their ecstatic pharmacopoeias. Up and
down the Indian Americas, indigenous people insist that
tobacco was a gift from their ancestors and their Gods. They
also believed that, though requiring tobacco as their most
essential sustenance, in giving it to the people, the deities
failed to keep some for
themselves and so made
themselves dependent on
humankind.
This is no ordinary
tobacco, of course. It is
Nicotiana rustica, one of
the two hybrid cultigens
that, six to eight thou-
sand years ago, may well
have been, with manioc,
the first fruits of tropical
forest agriculture. The
other hybrid cultigen
was N. tabacum. Both
had their origin in the valleys between Peru and Ecuador, or
possibly Bolivia. N. rustica has a content of the addictive
nicotine many times higher than N. tabacum. It is also far
more capable of triggering the desired and indispensable
ecstatic trance. This, Wilbert believes, explains why Indian
peoples adopted, and became dependent on, N. rustica as
shamanic intoxicant, while N. tabacumbecame the ancestor of
modern blends.
There is much more to be said, as Wilbert does, about
the history, ethnology, and biological and psychological
effects of N. rustica, as well as the interplay between these
and some of the physical and emotional characteristics of
South American shamans. Wilbert has been working closely
for half a century with the shamans of the Warao of the
Orinoco Delta in Venezuela, who use nothing but tobacco
in their intoxicant practice and who have constructed a
complex and sophisticated philosophical cosmos of
tobacco smoke. But perhaps nothing exemplifies the close
functional and ideological relationship of shamans and
tobacco better than that the Matsigenka of eastern Peru,
who live north of the famous Inca city of Machu Picchu,
and call their shaman seripi’gari, “he who is intoxicated by
tobacco.”
After receiving his Ph.D. in Anthropology at UCLA in 1966,
vv1vv 1. vuvs1 served as Associate Director of the UCLA Latin
American Center until 1971, when he was appointed Professor of
Anthropology and Latin American Studies and Department Chair
at the State University of New York at Albany. From 1972 until 1987
he was also a Research Associate of Harvard University’s Botanical
Museum. In 1987, he joined the research staff of the University of
Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. He is also
currently a Research Associate of the Museum of Indian Arts and
Culture/Laboratory of Anthropology, in Santa Fe, New Mexico.
Dr. Furst has done fieldwork in Venezuela among the Warao
Indians, in Mexico among the Huichols, and throughout
Mesoamerica, focusing on pre-Columbian art and archaeology,
religion, and shamanism. In 1964 he curated the first exhibition
in the United States of Precolumbian gold, and in 1968 the first
exhibition of Huichol art, both at the Los Angeles County
Museum of Natural History. He is author of more than 120
books and scholarly articles, including many on Huichol art,
religion, and mythology.
www. xusvux. uvvxx. vuu⁄ vunii c.1i oxs :,
For Further Reading
Baer, Gerhard. “Tobacco in the Shamanism of the Matsigenka
(Eastern Peru).”Acta Americana 3-2 (1995):101-116.
Bruhn, Jan G., Peter A.G. M. de Smet, Hesham R. El-Seedi, and Olof
Beck. “Mescaline Use for 5700 Years.” The Lancet 359 (2002):1866.
Furst, Peter T. Hallucinogens and Culture. San Francisco, CA:
Chandler and Sharp, 1976.
Furst, Peter T. Visions of a Huichol Shaman. Philadelphia, PA:
Univesity of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology, 2004.
Huxley, A. Doors of Perception. New York: Harper & Row, 1963.
La Barre, Weston. The Peyote Cult. New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press, 1938.
La Barre, Weston. “Old and New World Narcotics: A Statistical
Question and an Ethnological Reply.” Economic Botany
24(1970):368-373.
Schultes, Richard Evans. “An Overview of Hallucinogens in the
Western Hemisphere.” In Flesh of the Gods: The Ritual Use of
Hallucinogens, edited by Peter T. Furst, pp. 3-54. New York: Praeger
Publishers, 1972. New edition: Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press,
1990.
Schultes, Richard Evans, Albert Hofmann, and Christian Rätsch. Plants of
the Gods: Their Sacred, Healing, and Hallucinogenic Powers.
Rochester, VA: Healing Arts Press, 2002.
Wilbert, Johannes. Shamanism and Tobacco in South America. New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987.
The late shaman-artist Ramón Medina
Silva, with gourd bowl filled with slices
of peyote for sacramental distribution to
participating peyoteros on a peyote pil-
grimage to the sacred peyote desert in
San Luis Potosí in December, 1968.
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