Coffee is darkwy cowored, bitter, swightwy acidic and has a stimuwating effect in humans, primariwy due to its caffeine content.[3] It is one of de most popuwar drinks in de worwd,[4] and it can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways (e.g., espresso, French press, café watte). It is usuawwy served hot, awdough iced coffee is a popuwar awternative. Cwinicaw studies indicate dat moderate coffee consumption is benign or miwdwy beneficiaw in heawdy aduwts, wif continuing research on wheder wong-term consumption wowers de risk of some diseases, awdough dose wong-term studies are of generawwy poor qwawity.[5]

The earwiest credibwe evidence of coffee-drinking appears in modern-day Yemen in soudern Arabia in de middwe of de 15f century in Sufi shrines.[6] It was here in Arabia dat coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed in a simiwar way to how it is now prepared. But de coffee seeds had to be first exported from East Africa to Yemen, as de Coffea arabica pwant is dought to have been indigenous to de former.[7] Yemeni traders took coffee back to deir homewand and began to cuwtivate de seed. By de 16f century, de drink had reached Persia, Turkey, and Norf Africa. From dere, it spread to Europe and de rest of de worwd.

Etymowogy

Unroasted coffee beans.

The word "coffee" entered de Engwish wanguage in 1582 via de Dutchkoffie, borrowed from de Ottoman Turkishkahve, borrowed in turn from de Arabicqahwah (قهوة).[11]

The Arabic word qahwah was traditionawwy hewd to refer to a type of wine whose etymowogy is given by Arabwexicographers as deriving from de verb qahiya (قَهِيَ), "to wack hunger", in reference to de drink's reputation as an appetite suppressant. It has awso been proposed dat de source may be de Proto-Centraw Semitic root q-h-h meaning "dark".[12]

Awternativewy, de word Khat, a pwant widewy used as a stimuwant in Yemen and Ediopia before being suppwanted by coffee has been suggested as a possibwe origin, or de Arabic word qwwwah' (meaning "strengf").[13] It may awso come from de Kingdom of Kaffa in soudeast Ediopia where Coffea arabica grows wiwd, but dis is considered wess wikewy;[12] in de wocaw Kaffa wanguage, de coffee pwant is instead cawwed "bunno".[14]

History

Legendary accounts

According to wegend, ancestors of today's Oromo peopwe in a region of Kaffa in Ediopia were bewieved to have been de first to recognize de energizing effect of de coffee pwant.[6] However, dere is no direct evidence dat has been found earwier dan de 15f century indicating where in Africa coffee first grew or who among de native popuwations might have used it as a stimuwant.[6] The story of Kawdi, de 9f-century Ediopian goaderd who discovered coffee when he noticed how excited his goats became after eating de beans from a coffee pwant, did not appear in writing untiw 1671 and is probabwy apocryphaw.[6]

Oder accounts attribute de discovery of coffee to Sheikh Omar. According to an ancient chronicwe (preserved in de Abd-Aw-Kadir manuscript), Omar, who was known for his abiwity to cure de sick drough prayer, was once exiwed from Mocha in Yemen to a desert cave near Ousab (modern-day Wusab, about 90 km east of Zabid).[16] Starving, Omar chewed berries from nearby shrubbery but found dem to be bitter. He tried roasting de seeds to improve de fwavor, but dey became hard. He den tried boiwing dem to soften de seed, which resuwted in a fragrant brown wiqwid. Upon drinking de wiqwid Omar was revitawized and sustained for days. As stories of dis "miracwe drug" reached Mocha, Omar was asked to return and was made a saint.[17]

Historicaw transmission

The earwiest credibwe evidence of coffee-drinking or knowwedge of de coffee tree appears in de middwe of de 15f century in de accounts of Ahmed aw-Ghaffar in Yemen, uh-hah-hah-hah.[6] It was here in Arabia dat coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed, in a simiwar way to how it is prepared now. Coffee was used by Sufi circwes to stay awake for deir rewigious rituaws.[18] Accounts differ on de origin of de coffee pwant prior to its appearance in Yemen, uh-hah-hah-hah. From Ediopia, coffee couwd have been introduced to Yemen via trade across de Red Sea.[19] One account credits Muhammad Ibn Sa'd for bringing de beverage to Aden from de African coast.[20] Oder earwy accounts say Awi ben Omar of de Shadhiwi Sufi order was de first to introduce coffee to Arabia.[21] According to aw Shardi, Awi ben Omar may have encountered coffee during his stay wif de Adaw king Sadadin's companions in 1401. Famous 16f-century Iswamic schowar Ibn Hajar aw-Haytami notes in his writings of a beverage cawwed qahwa devewoped from a tree in de Zeiwa region, uh-hah-hah-hah.[18]

By de 16f century, coffee had reached de rest of de Middwe East, Persia, Turkey, and nordern Africa. The first coffee smuggwed out of de Middwe East was by Sufi Baba Budan from Yemen to Indian subcontinent in 1670. Before den, aww exported coffee was boiwed or oderwise steriwised. Portraits of Baba Budan depict him as having smuggwed seven coffee seeds by strapping dem to his chest. The first pwants grown from dese smuggwed seeds were pwanted in Mysore. Coffee den spread to Itawy, and to de rest of Europe, to Indonesia, and to de Americas.[22][better source needed]

In 1583, Leonhard Rauwowf, a German physician, gave dis description of coffee after returning from a ten-year trip to de Near East:

A beverage as bwack as ink, usefuw against numerous iwwnesses, particuwarwy dose of de stomach. Its consumers take it in de morning, qwite frankwy, in a porcewain cup dat is passed around and from which each one drinks a cupfuw. It is composed of water and de fruit from a bush cawwed bunnu.

— Léonard Rauwowf, Reise in die Morgenwänder (in German)

From de Middwe East, coffee spread to Itawy. The driving trade between Venice and Norf Africa, Egypt, and de Middwe East brought many goods, incwuding coffee, to de Venetian port. From Venice, it was introduced to de rest of Europe. Coffee became more widewy accepted after it was deemed a Christian beverage by Pope Cwement VIII in 1600, despite appeaws to ban de "Muswim drink." The first European coffee house opened in Rome in 1645.[22]

A 1919 advertisement for G Washington's Coffee. The first instant coffee was invented by inventor George Washington in 1909.

When coffee reached Norf America during de Cowoniaw period, it was initiawwy not as successfuw as it had been in Europe as awcohowic beverages remained more popuwar. During de Revowutionary War, de demand for coffee increased so much dat deawers had to hoard deir scarce suppwies and raise prices dramaticawwy; dis was awso due to de reduced avaiwabiwity of tea from British merchants,[29] and a generaw resowution among many Americans to avoid drinking tea fowwowing de 1773 Boston Tea Party.[30] After de War of 1812, during which Britain temporariwy cut off access to tea imports, de Americans' taste for coffee grew.

During de 18f century, coffee consumption decwined in Engwand, giving way to tea-drinking. The watter beverage was simpwer to make, and had become cheaper wif de British conqwest of India and de tea industry dere.[31] During de Age of Saiw, seamen aboard ships of de British Royaw Navy made substitute coffee by dissowving burnt bread in hot water.[32]

The Frenchman Gabriew de Cwieu took a coffee pwant to de French territory of Martiniqwe in de Caribbean[when?], from which much of de worwd's cuwtivated arabica coffee is descended. Coffee drived in de cwimate and was conveyed across de Americas.[33] Coffee was cuwtivated in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) from 1734, and by 1788 it suppwied hawf de worwd's coffee.[34] The conditions dat de swaves worked in on coffee pwantations were a factor in de soon to fowwow Haitian Revowution. The coffee industry never fuwwy recovered dere.[35] It made a brief come-back in 1949 when Haiti was de worwd's 3rd wargest coffee exporter, but feww qwickwy into rapid decwine.

Meanwhiwe, coffee had been introduced to Braziw in 1727, awdough its cuwtivation did not gader momentum untiw independence in 1822.[36] After dis time massive tracts of rainforest were cweared for coffee pwantations, first in de vicinity of Rio de Janeiro and water São Pauwo.[37] Braziw went from having essentiawwy no coffee exports in 1800, to being a significant regionaw producer in 1830, to being de wargest producer in de worwd by 1852. In 1910–20, Braziw exported around 70% of de worwd's coffee, Cowombia, Guatemawa, and Venezuewa, exported hawf of de remaining 30%, and Owd Worwd production accounted for wess dan 5% of worwd exports.[38]

Cuwtivation was taken up by many countries in Centraw America in de watter hawf of de 19f century, and awmost aww invowved de warge-scawe dispwacement and expwoitation of de indigenous peopwe. Harsh conditions wed to many uprisings, coups and bwoody suppression of peasants.[39] The notabwe exception was Costa Rica, where wack of ready wabor prevented de formation of warge farms. Smawwer farms and more egawitarian conditions amewiorated unrest over de 19f and 20f centuries.[40]

Rapid growf in coffee production in Souf America during de second hawf of de 19f century was matched by growf in consumption in devewoped countries, dough nowhere has dis growf been as pronounced as in de United States, where high rate of popuwation growf was compounded by doubwing of per capita consumption between 1860 and 1920. Though de United States was not de heaviest coffee-drinking nation at de time (Nordic countries, Bewgium, and Nederwands aww had comparabwe or higher wevews of per capita consumption), due to its sheer size, it was awready de wargest consumer of coffee in de worwd by 1860, and, by 1920, around hawf of aww coffee produced worwdwide was consumed in de US.[38]

Coffee has become a vitaw cash crop for many devewoping countries. Over one hundred miwwion peopwe in devewoping countries have become dependent on coffee as deir primary source of income. It has become de primary export and backbone for African countries wike Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, and Ediopia,[41] as weww as many Centraw American countries.

Biowogy

Severaw species of shrub of de genus Coffea produce de berries from which coffee is extracted. The two main species commerciawwy cuwtivated are Coffea canephora (predominantwy a form known as 'robusta') and C. arabica.[42]C. arabica, de most highwy regarded species, is native to de soudwestern highwands of Ediopia and de Boma Pwateau in soudeastern Sudan and possibwy Mount Marsabit in nordern Kenya.[43]C. canephora is native to western and centraw Subsaharan Africa, from Guinea to Uganda and soudern Sudan, uh-hah-hah-hah.[44] Less popuwar species are C. wiberica, C. stenophywwa, C. mauritiana, and C. racemosa.

Aww coffee pwants are cwassified in de warge famiwy Rubiaceae. They are evergreen shrubs or trees dat may grow 5 m (15 ft) taww when unpruned. The weaves are dark green and gwossy, usuawwy 10–15 cm (4–6 in) wong and 6 cm (2.4 in) wide, simpwe, entire, and opposite. Petiowes of opposite weaves fuse at de base to form interpetiowar stipuwes, characteristic of Rubiaceae. The fwowers are axiwwary, and cwusters of fragrant white fwowers bwoom simuwtaneouswy. Gynoecium consists of an inferior ovary, awso characteristic of Rubiaceae. The fwowers are fowwowed by ovaw berries of about 1.5 cm (0.6 in).[45] When immature dey are green, and dey ripen to yewwow, den crimson, before turning bwack on drying. Each berry usuawwy contains two seeds, but 5–10% of de berries[46] have onwy one; dese are cawwed peaberries.[47] Arabica berries ripen in six to eight monds, whiwe robusta takes nine to eweven monds.[48]

Coffea arabica is predominantwy sewf-powwinating, and as a resuwt, de seedwings are generawwy uniform and vary wittwe from deir parents. In contrast, Coffea canephora, and C. wiberica are sewf-incompatibwe and reqwire outcrossing. This means dat usefuw forms and hybrids must be propagated vegetativewy.[49] Cuttings, grafting, and budding are de usuaw medods of vegetative propagation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[50] On de oder hand, dere is great scope for experimentation in search of potentiaw new strains.[49]

In 2016, Oregon State University entomowogist George Poinar, Jr. announced de discovery of a new pwant species dat's a 45-miwwion-year-owd rewative of coffee found in amber. Named Strychnos ewectri, after de Greek word for amber (ewectron), de fwowers represent de first-ever fossiws of an asterid, which is a cwade of fwowering pwants dat not onwy water gave us coffee, but awso sunfwowers, peppers, potatoes, mint – and deadwy poisons.[51]

Cuwtivation

The traditionaw medod of pwanting coffee is to pwace 20 seeds in each howe at de beginning of de rainy season. This medod woses about 50% of de seeds' potentiaw, as about hawf faiw to sprout. A more effective process of growing coffee, used in Braziw, is to raise seedwings in nurseries dat are den pwanted outside at six to twewve monds. Coffee is often intercropped wif food crops, such as corn, beans, or rice during de first few years of cuwtivation as farmers become famiwiar wif its reqwirements.[45]Coffee pwants grow widin a defined area between de tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, termed de bean bewt or coffee bewt.[52]

Of de two main species grown, arabica coffee (from C. arabica) is generawwy more highwy regarded dan robusta coffee (from C. canephora). Robusta coffee tends to be bitter and have wess fwavor but better body dan arabica. For dese reasons, about dree-qwarters of coffee cuwtivated worwdwide is C. arabica.[42] Robusta strains awso contain about 40–50% more caffeine dan arabica.[53] Conseqwentwy, dis species is used as an inexpensive substitute for arabica in many commerciaw coffee bwends. Good qwawity robusta beans are used in traditionaw Itawian espresso bwends to provide a fuww-bodied taste and a better foam head (known as crema).

Additionawwy, Coffea canephora is wess susceptibwe to disease dan C. arabica and can be cuwtivated in wower awtitudes and warmer cwimates where C. arabica wiww not drive.[54] The robusta strain was first cowwected in 1890 from de Lomani River, a tributary of de Congo River, and was conveyed from de Congo Free State (now de Democratic Repubwic of de Congo) to Brussews to Java around 1900. From Java, furder breeding resuwted in de estabwishment of robusta pwantations in many countries.[55] In particuwar, de spread of de devastating coffee weaf rust (Hemiweia vastatrix), to which C. arabica is vuwnerabwe, hastened de uptake of de resistant robusta. Hemiweia vastatrix is a fungaw padogen[56] and resuwts in wight, rust-cowored spots on de undersides of coffee pwant weaves. Hemiweia vastatrix grows excwusivewy on de weaves of coffee pants.[57] Coffee weaf rust is found in virtuawwy aww countries dat produce coffee.[58]

Mycena citricowor is anoder dreat to coffee pwants, primariwy in Latin America. Mycena citricowor, commonwy referred to as American Leaf Spot, is a fungus dat can affect de whowe coffee pwant.[59] It can grow on weaves, resuwting in weaves wif howes dat often faww from de pwant.[59]

Over 900 species of insect have been recorded as pests of coffee crops worwdwide. Of dese, over a dird are beetwes, and over a qwarter are bugs. Some 20 species of nematodes, 9 species of mites, and severaw snaiws and swugs awso attack de crop. Birds and rodents sometimes eat coffee berries, but deir impact is minor compared to invertebrates.[60] In generaw, arabica is de more sensitive species to invertebrate predation overaww. Each part of de coffee pwant is assaiwed by different animaws. Nematodes attack de roots, coffee borer beetwes burrow into stems and woody materiaw,[61] and de fowiage is attacked by over 100 species of warvae (caterpiwwars) of butterfwies and mods.[62]

Mass spraying of insecticides has often proven disastrous, as predators of de pests are more sensitive dan de pests demsewves.[63] Instead, integrated pest management has devewoped, using techniqwes such as targeted treatment of pest outbreaks, and managing crop environment away from conditions favouring pests. Branches infested wif scawe are often cut and weft on de ground, which promotes scawe parasites to not onwy attack de scawe on de fawwen branches but in de pwant as weww.[64]

The 2-mm-wong coffee borer beetwe (Hypodenemus hampei) is de most damaging insect pest to de worwd's coffee industry, destroying up to 50 percent or more of de coffee berries on pwantations in most coffee-producing countries. The aduwt femawe beetwe nibbwes a singwe tiny howe in a coffee berry and ways 35 to 50 eggs. Inside, de offspring grow, mate, and den emerge from de commerciawwy ruined berry to disperse, repeating de cycwe. Pesticides are mostwy ineffective because de beetwe juveniwes are protected inside de berry nurseries, but dey are vuwnerabwe to predation by birds when dey emerge. When groves of trees are nearby, de American yewwow warbwer, rufous-capped warbwer, and oder insectivorous birds have been shown to reduce by 50 percent de number of coffee berry borers in Costa Rica coffee pwantations.[65]

Beans from different countries or regions can usuawwy be distinguished by differences in fwavor, aroma, body, and acidity.[66] These taste characteristics are dependent not onwy on de coffee's growing region, but awso on genetic subspecies (varietaws) and processing.[67] Varietaws are generawwy known by de region in which dey are grown, such as Cowombian, Java and Kona.

This medod is commonwy referred to as de traditionaw shaded medod, or "shade-grown". Starting in de 1970s, many farmers switched deir production medod to sun cuwtivation, in which coffee is grown in rows under fuww sun wif wittwe or no forest canopy. This causes berries to ripen more rapidwy and bushes to produce higher yiewds, but reqwires de cwearing of trees and increased use of fertiwizer and pesticides, which damage de environment and cause heawf probwems.[70]

Unshaded coffee pwants grown wif fertiwizer yiewd de most coffee, awdough unfertiwized shaded crops generawwy yiewd more dan unfertiwized unshaded crops: de response to fertiwizer is much greater in fuww sun, uh-hah-hah-hah.[71] Whiwe traditionaw coffee production causes berries to ripen more swowwy and produce wower yiewds, de qwawity of de coffee is awwegedwy superior.[72] In addition, de traditionaw shaded medod provides wiving space for many wiwdwife species. Proponents of shade cuwtivation say environmentaw probwems such as deforestation, pesticide powwution, habitat destruction, and soiw and water degradation are de side effects of de practices empwoyed in sun cuwtivation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[68][73]

Anoder issue concerning coffee is its use of water. It takes about 140 witers (37 U.S. gaw) of water to grow de coffee beans needed to produce one cup of coffee, and coffee is often grown in countries where dere is a water shortage, such as Ediopia.[78]

Processing

Coffee berries and deir seeds undergo severaw processes before dey become de famiwiar roasted coffee. Berries have been traditionawwy sewectivewy picked by hand; a wabor-intensive medod, it invowves de sewection of onwy de berries at de peak of ripeness. More commonwy, crops are strip picked, where aww berries are harvested simuwtaneouswy regardwess of ripeness by person or machine. After picking, green coffee is processed by one of two medods—de dry process medod, simpwer and wess wabor-intensive as de berries can be strip picked, and de wet process medod, which incorporates fermentation into de process and yiewds a miwd coffee.[85]

Then dey are sorted by ripeness and cowor, and most often de fwesh of de berry is removed, usuawwy by machine, and de seeds are fermented to remove de swimy wayer of muciwage stiww present on de seed. When de fermentation is finished, de seeds are washed wif warge qwantities of fresh water to remove de fermentation residue, which generates massive amounts of coffee wastewater. Finawwy, de seeds are dried.[86]

The best (but weast used) medod of drying coffee is using drying tabwes. In dis medod, de puwped and fermented coffee is spread dinwy on raised beds, which awwows de air to pass on aww sides of de coffee, and den de coffee is mixed by hand. In dis medod de drying dat takes pwace is more uniform, and fermentation is wess wikewy. Most African coffee is dried in dis manner and certain coffee farms around de worwd are starting to use dis traditionaw medod.[86]

Next, de coffee is sorted, and wabewed as green coffee. Some companies use cywinders to pump in heated air to dry de coffee seeds, dough dis is generawwy in pwaces where de humidity is very high.[86]

An Asian coffee known as kopi wuwak undergoes a pecuwiar process made from coffee berries eaten by de Asian pawm civet, passing drough its digestive tract, wif de beans eventuawwy harvested from feces. Coffee brewed from dis process[87] is among de most expensive in de worwd, wif bean prices reaching $160 per pound[88] or $30 per brewed cup.[89] Kopi wuwak coffee is said to have uniqwewy rich, swightwy smoky aroma and fwavor wif hints of chocowate, resuwting from de action of digestive enzymes breaking down bean proteins to faciwitate partiaw fermentation.[87][89]

Roasting

The next step in de process is de roasting of de green coffee. Coffee is usuawwy sowd in a roasted state, and wif rare exceptions aww coffee is roasted before it is consumed. It can be sowd roasted by de suppwier, or it can be home roasted.[90] The roasting process infwuences de taste of de beverage by changing de coffee bean bof physicawwy and chemicawwy. The bean decreases in weight as moisture is wost and increases in vowume, causing it to become wess dense. The density of de bean awso infwuences de strengf of de coffee and reqwirements for packaging.

The actuaw roasting begins when de temperature inside de bean reaches approximatewy 200 °C (392 °F), dough different varieties of seeds differ in moisture and density and derefore roast at different rates.[91] During roasting, caramewization occurs as intense heat breaks down starches, changing dem to simpwe sugars dat begin to brown, which awters de cowor of de bean, uh-hah-hah-hah.[92]

Sucrose is rapidwy wost during de roasting process, and may disappear entirewy in darker roasts. During roasting, aromatic oiws and acids weaken, changing de fwavor; at 205 °C (401 °F), oder oiws start to devewop.[91] One of dese oiws, caffeow, is created at about 200 °C (392 °F), which is wargewy responsibwe for coffee's aroma and fwavor.[24]

Roasting is de wast step of processing de beans in deir intact state. During dis wast treatment, whiwe stiww in de bean state, more caffeine breaks down above 235 °C (455 °F). Dark roasting is de utmost step in bean processing removing de most caffeine. Awdough, dark roasting is not to be confused wif de Decaffeination process.

Grading roasted beans

Depending on de cowor of de roasted beans as perceived by de human eye, dey wiww be wabewed as wight, medium wight, medium, medium dark, dark, or very dark. A more accurate medod of discerning de degree of roast invowves measuring de refwected wight from roasted seeds iwwuminated wif a wight source in de near-infrared spectrum. This ewaborate wight meter uses a process known as spectroscopy to return a number dat consistentwy indicates de roasted coffee's rewative degree of roast or fwavor devewopment.

Roast characteristics

The degree of roast has an effect upon coffee fwavor and body. Darker roasts are generawwy bowder because dey have wess fiber content and a more sugary fwavor. Lighter roasts have a more compwex and derefore perceived stronger fwavor from aromatic oiws and acids oderwise destroyed by wonger roasting times.[93] Roasting does not awter de amount of caffeine in de bean, but does give wess caffeine when de beans are measured by vowume because de beans expand during roasting.[94]

A smaww amount of chaff is produced during roasting from de skin weft on de seed after processing.[95] Chaff is usuawwy removed from de seeds by air movement, dough a smaww amount is added to dark roast coffees to soak up oiws on de seeds.[91]

Decaffeination

Decaffeination of coffee seeds is done whiwe de seeds are stiww green, uh-hah-hah-hah. Many medods can remove caffeine from coffee, but aww invowve eider soaking de green seeds in hot water (often cawwed de "Swiss water process")[96] or steaming dem, den using a sowvent to dissowve caffeine-containing oiws.[24] Decaffeination is often done by processing companies, and de extracted caffeine is usuawwy sowd to de pharmaceuticaw industry.[24]

Storage

Coffee is best stored in an airtight container made of ceramic, gwass or non-reactive metaw.[97] Higher qwawity prepackaged coffee usuawwy has a one-way vawve which prevents air from entering whiwe awwowing de coffee to rewease gases.[98] Coffee freshness and fwavor is preserved when it is stored away from moisture, heat, and wight.[97] The abiwity of coffee to absorb strong smewws from food means dat it shouwd be kept away from such smewws.[97] Storage of coffee in refrigerators is not recommended due to de presence of moisture which can cause deterioration, uh-hah-hah-hah.[97] Exterior wawws of buiwdings which face de sun may heat de interior of a home, and dis heat may damage coffee stored near such a waww.[97] Heat from nearby ovens awso harms stored coffee.[97]

In 1931, a medod of packing coffee in a seawed vacuum in cans was introduced. The roasted coffee was packed and den 99% of de air was removed, awwowing de coffee to be stored indefinitewy untiw de can was opened. Today dis medod is in mass use for coffee in a warge part of de worwd.[99]

Brewing

Coffee beans must be ground and brewed to create a beverage. The criteria for choosing a medod incwude fwavor and economy. Awmost aww medods of preparing coffee reqwire dat de beans be ground and den mixed wif hot water wong enough to awwow de fwavor to emerge but not so wong as to draw out bitter compounds. The wiqwid can be consumed after de spent grounds are removed. Brewing considerations incwude de fineness of grind, de way in which de water is used to extract de fwavor, de ratio of coffee grounds to water (de brew ratio), additionaw fwavorings such as sugar, miwk, and spices, and de techniqwe to be used to separate spent grounds. Ideaw howding temperatures range from 85–88 °C (185–190 °F) to as high as 93 °C (199 °F) and de ideaw serving temperature is 68 to 79 °C (154 to 174 °F).[100] The recommended brew ratio for non-espresso coffee is around 55 to 60 grams of grounds per witre of water, or two wevew tabwespoons for a 5- or 6-ounce cup.[101]

The roasted coffee beans may be ground at a roastery, in a grocery store, or in de home. Most coffee is roasted and ground at a roastery and sowd in packaged form, dough roasted coffee beans can be ground at home immediatewy before consumption, uh-hah-hah-hah. It is awso possibwe, dough uncommon, to roast raw beans at home.

Coffee beans may be ground in various ways. A burr grinder uses revowving ewements to shear de seed; a bwade grinder cuts de seeds wif bwades moving at high speed; and a mortar and pestwe crushes de seeds. For most brewing medods a burr grinder is deemed superior because de grind is more even and de grind size can be adjusted.

The type of grind is often named after de brewing medod for which it is generawwy used. Turkish grind is de finest grind, whiwe coffee percowator or French press are de coarsest grinds. The most common grinds are between dese two extremes: a medium grind is used in most home coffee-brewing machines.[102]

Coffee may be brewed by severaw medods. It may be boiwed, steeped, or pressurized. Brewing coffee by boiwing was de earwiest medod, and Turkish coffee is an exampwe of dis medod.[103] It is prepared by grinding or pounding de seeds to a fine powder, den adding it to water and bringing it to de boiw for no more dan an instant in a pot cawwed a cezve or, in Greek, a bríki. This produces a strong coffee wif a wayer of foam on de surface and sediment (which is not meant for drinking) settwing at de bottom of de cup.[103]

Coffee percowators and automatic coffeemakers brew coffee using gravity. In an automatic coffeemaker, hot water drips onto coffee grounds dat are hewd in a paper, pwastic, or perforated metaw coffee fiwter, awwowing de water to seep drough de ground coffee whiwe extracting its oiws and essences. The wiqwid drips drough de coffee and de fiwter into a carafe or pot, and de spent grounds are retained in de fiwter.[104]

In a percowator, boiwing water is forced into a chamber above a fiwter by steam pressure created by boiwing. The water den seeps drough de grounds, and de process is repeated untiw terminated by removing from de heat, by an internaw timer,[104]
or by a dermostat dat turns off de heater when de entire pot reaches a certain temperature.

Coffee may be brewed by steeping in a device such as a French press (awso known as a cafetière, coffee press or coffee pwunger).[105] Ground coffee and hot water are combined in a cywindricaw vessew and weft to brew for a few minutes. A circuwar fiwter which fits tightwy in de cywinder fixed to a pwunger is den pushed down from de top to force de grounds to de bottom. The fiwter retains de grounds at de bottom as de coffee is poured from de container. Because de coffee grounds are in direct contact wif de water, aww de coffee oiws remain in de wiqwid, making it a stronger beverage. This medod of brewing weaves more sediment dan in coffee made by an automatic coffee machine.[105] Supporters of de French press medod point out dat de sediment issue can be minimized by using de right type of grinder: dey cwaim dat a rotary bwade grinder cuts de coffee bean into a wide range of sizes, incwuding a fine coffee dust dat remains as swudge at de bottom of de cup, whiwe a burr grinder uniformwy grinds de beans into consistentwy-sized grinds, awwowing de coffee to settwe uniformwy and be trapped by de press.[106] Widin de first minute of brewing 95% of de caffeine is reweased from de coffee bean, uh-hah-hah-hah.[citation needed]

The espresso medod forces hot pressurized and vaporized water drough ground coffee. As a resuwt of brewing under high pressure (ideawwy between 9–10 atm), de espresso beverage is more concentrated (as much as 10 to 15 times de qwantity of coffee to water as gravity-brewing medods can produce) and has a more compwex physicaw and chemicaw constitution, uh-hah-hah-hah.[107] A weww-prepared espresso has a reddish-brown foam cawwed crema dat fwoats on de surface.[102] Oder pressurized water medods incwude de moka pot and vacuum coffee maker.

Cowd brew coffee is made by steeping coarsewy ground beans in cowd water for severaw hours, den fiwtering dem.[108] This resuwts in a brew wower in acidity dan most hot-brewing medods.

Serving

Once brewed, coffee may be served in a variety of ways. Drip-brewed, percowated, or French-pressed/cafetière coffee may be served as white coffee wif a dairy product such as miwk or cream, or dairy substitute, or as bwack coffee wif no such addition, uh-hah-hah-hah. It may be sweetened wif sugar or artificiaw sweetener. When served cowd, it is cawwed iced coffee.

Espresso-based coffee has a variety of possibwe presentations. In its most basic form, an espresso is served awone as a shot or short bwack, or wif hot water added, when it is known as Caffè Americano. A wong bwack is made by pouring a doubwe espresso into an eqwaw portion of water, retaining de crema, unwike Caffè Americano.[111]
Miwk is added in various forms to an espresso: steamed miwk makes a caffè watte,[112] eqwaw parts steamed miwk and miwk frof make a cappuccino,[111] and a dowwop of hot foamed miwk on top creates a caffè macchiato.[113] A fwat white is prepared by adding steamed hot miwk (microfoam) to espresso so dat de fwavour is brought out and de texture is unusuawwy vewvety.[114][115] It has wess miwk dan a watte but bof are varieties of coffee to which de miwk can be added in such a way as to create a decorative surface pattern, uh-hah-hah-hah. Such effects are known as watte art.

Coffee can awso be incorporated wif awcohow to produce a variety of beverages: it is combined wif whiskey in Irish coffee, and it forms de base of awcohowic coffee wiqweurs such as Kahwúa and Tia Maria. Darker beers such as stout and porter give a chocowate or coffee-wike taste due to roasted grains even dough actuaw coffee beans are not added to it.[116][117]

Instant coffee

A number of products are sowd for de convenience of consumers who do not want to prepare deir own coffee or who do not have access to coffeemaking eqwipment. Instant coffee is dried into sowubwe powder or freeze-dried into granuwes dat can be qwickwy dissowved in hot water.[118] Originawwy invented in 1907,[119][120] it rapidwy gained in popuwarity in many countries in de post-war period, wif Nescafé being de most popuwar product.[121] Many consumers determined dat de convenience in preparing a cup of instant coffee more dan made up for a perceived inferior taste,[122] awdough, since de wate 1970s, instant coffee has been produced differentwy in such a way dat is simiwar to de taste of freshwy brewed coffee.[citation needed] Parawwewing (and compwementing) de rapid rise of instant coffee was de coffee vending machine invented in 1947 and widewy distributed since de 1950s.[123]

Canned coffee has been popuwar in Asian countries for many years, particuwarwy in China, Japan, Souf Korea, and Taiwan, uh-hah-hah-hah. Vending machines typicawwy seww varieties of fwavored canned coffee, much wike brewed or percowated coffee, avaiwabwe bof hot and cowd. Japanese convenience stores and groceries awso have a wide avaiwabiwity of bottwed coffee drinks, which are typicawwy wightwy sweetened and pre-bwended wif miwk. Bottwed coffee drinks are awso consumed in de United States.[124]

Liqwid coffee concentrates are sometimes used in warge institutionaw situations where coffee needs to be produced for dousands of peopwe at de same time. It is described as having a fwavor about as good as wow-grade robusta coffee, and costs about 10¢ a cup to produce. The machines can process up to 500 cups an hour, or 1,000 if de water is preheated.[125]

Sawe and distribution

Coffee ingestion on average is about a dird of dat of tap water in Norf America and Europe. Worwdwide, 6.7 miwwion metric tons of coffee were produced annuawwy in 1998–2000, and de forecast is a rise to seven miwwion metric tons annuawwy by 2010.[126]

Braziw remains de wargest coffee exporting nation, however Vietnam tripwed its exports between 1995 and 1999 and became a major producer of robusta seeds.[127] Indonesia is de dird-wargest coffee exporter overaww and de wargest producer of washed arabica coffee. Organic Honduran coffee is a rapidwy growing emerging commodity owing to de Honduran cwimate and rich soiw.

In 2013, The Seattwe Times reported dat gwobaw coffee prices dropped more dan 50 percent year-over-year.[128] The downward trend continued, and in September 2018 coffee futures dropped to a 12-year wow, bewow de cost of production for many farmers in mountainous regions who cannot use mechanized harvesting medods.[129]

In Thaiwand, bwack ivory coffee beans are fed to ewephants whose digestive enzymes reduce de bitter taste of beans cowwected from dung.[130] These beans seww for up to $1,100 a kiwogram ($500 per wb), achieving de worwd's most expensive coffee[130] some dree times costwier dan beans harvested from de dung of Asian pawm civets.[88][89]

Dating to de 1970s, coffee has been incorrectwy described by many, incwuding historian Mark Pendergrast, as de worwd's "second most wegawwy traded commodity".[134][135] Instead, "coffee was de second most vawuabwe commodity exported by devewoping countries," from 1970 to circa 2000.[136] This fact was derived from de United Nations Conference on Trade and Devewopment Commodity Yearbooks which show "Third Worwd" commodity exports by vawue in de period 1970–1998 as being in order of crude oiw in first pwace, coffee in second, fowwowed by sugar, cotton, and oders. Coffee continues to be an important commodity export for devewoping countries, but more recent figures are not readiwy avaiwabwe due to de shifting and powiticized nature of de category "devewoping country".[134]

Internationaw Coffee Day, which is cwaimed to have originated in Japan in 1983 wif an event organized by de Aww Japan Coffee Association, takes pwace on September 29 in severaw countries.[137][138][139]

Heawf effects

A 2017 review of cwinicaw triaws found dat drinking coffee is generawwy safe widin usuaw wevews of intake and is more wikewy to improve heawf outcomes dan to cause harm at doses of 3 or 4 cups of coffee daiwy. Exceptions incwude possibwe increased risk in women having bone fractures, and a possibwe increased risk in pregnant women of fetaw woss or decreased birf weight.[5] Resuwts were compwicated by poor study qwawity, and differences in age, gender, heawf status, and serving size.[5]

Cardiovascuwar disease

Moderate coffee consumption is not a risk factor for coronary heart disease.[145] A 2012 meta-anawysis concwuded dat peopwe who drank moderate amounts of coffee had a wower rate of heart faiwure, wif de biggest effect found for dose who drank more dan four cups a day.[146] A 2014 meta-anawysis concwuded dat cardiovascuwar disease, such as coronary artery disease and stroke, is wess wikewy wif dree to five cups of non-decaffeinated coffee per day, but more wikewy wif over five cups per day.[147] A 2016 meta-anawysis showed dat coffee consumption was associated wif a reduced risk of deaf in patients who have had a myocardiaw infarction.[148]

Drinking four or more cups of coffee per day does not affect de risk of hypertension compared to drinking wittwe or no coffee; however, drinking one to dree cups per day may be at a swightwy increased risk.[149]

Mentaw heawf

Long-term prewiminary research, incwuding assessment of symptoms for dementia and cognitive impairment, was inconcwusive for coffee having an effect in de ewderwy, mainwy due to de poor qwawity of de studies.[5][150] There appears to be a beneficiaw rewationship between coffee intake and Parkinson's disease as weww as coffee intake and depression, uh-hah-hah-hah.[5]

Parkinson's disease

Type II diabetes

In a systematic review and meta-anawysis of 28 prospective observationaw studies, representing over one miwwion participants, every additionaw cup of caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee consumed in a day was associated, respectivewy, wif a 9% and 6% wower risk of type 2 diabetes.[151]

Caffeine content

Depending on de type of coffee and medod of preparation, de caffeine content of a singwe serving can vary greatwy.[164][165][166][167]
The caffeine content of a cup of coffee varies depending mainwy on de brewing medod, and awso on de coffee variety.[168] According to de USDA Nationaw Nutrient Database, an 8-ounce (237 mw) cup of "coffee brewed from grounds" contains 95 mg caffeine, whereas an espresso (25 mw) contains 53 mg.[169]

Whiwe de percent of caffeine content in coffee seeds demsewves diminishes wif increased roast wevew, de opposite is true for coffee brewed from different grinds and brewing medods using de same proportion of coffee to water vowume. The coffee sack (simiwar to de French press and oder steeping medods) extracts more caffeine from dark roasted seeds; de percowator and espresso medods extract more caffeine from wight roasted seeds:[170][cwarification needed What are de units?]

Widewy known as coffeehouses or cafés, estabwishments serving prepared coffee or oder hot beverages have existed for over five hundred years.[citation needed] Coffeehouses in Mecca became a concern as pwaces for powiticaw gaderings to de imams who banned dem, and de drink, for Muswims between 1512 and 1524. In 1530 de first coffeehouse was opened in Damascus.[172] The first coffeehouse in Constantinopwe was opened in 1475[173] by traders arriving from Damascus and Aweppo. Soon after, coffeehouses became part of de Ottoman Cuwture, spreading rapidwy to aww regions of de Ottoman Empire.

In de 17f century, coffee appeared for de first time in Europe outside de Ottoman Empire, and coffeehouses were estabwished and qwickwy became popuwar. The first coffeehouses in Western Europe appeared in Venice, as a resuwt of de traffic between La Serenissima and de Ottomans; de very first one is recorded in 1645. The first coffeehouse in Engwand was set up in Oxford in 1650 by a Jewish man named Jacob in de buiwding now known as "The Grand Cafe". A pwaqwe on de waww stiww commemorates dis and de cafe is now a cocktaiw bar.[174] By 1675, dere were more dan 3,000 coffeehouses in Engwand.[175]

A wegend says dat after de second Turkish siege of Vienna in 1683, de Viennese discovered many bags of coffee in de abandoned Ottoman encampment. Using dis captured stock, a Powish sowdier named Kuwczycki opened de first coffeehouse in Vienna. This story never happened. Nowadays it is proven dat de first coffeehouse in Vienna was opened by de Armenian Johannes Theodat in 1685.[176][177]

In 1672 an Armenian named Pascaw estabwished a coffee staww in Paris dat was uwtimatewy unsuccessfuw and de city had to wait untiw 1689 for its first coffeehouse when Procopio Cutò opened de Café Procope. This coffeehouse stiww exists today and was a major meeting pwace of de French Enwightenment; Vowtaire, Rousseau, and Denis Diderot freqwented it, and it is arguabwy de birdpwace of de Encycwopédie, de first modern encycwopedia.[178] America had its first coffeehouse in Boston, in 1676.[179] Coffee, tea and beer were often served togeder in estabwishments which functioned bof as coffeehouses and taverns; one such was de Green Dragon in Boston, where John Adams, James Otis, and Pauw Revere pwanned rebewwion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[31]

First patent for de espresso machine, Angewo Moriondo (1884).

The modern steamwess espresso machine was invented in Miwan, Itawy, in 1938 by Achiwwe Gaggia,[180] and from dere spread in coffeehouses and restaurants across Itawy and de rest of Europe in de earwy 1950s. An Itawian named Pino Riservato opened de first espresso bar, de Moka Bar, in Soho in 1952, and dere were 400 such bars in London awone by 1956. Cappucino was particuwarwy popuwar among Engwish drinkers.[181] Simiwarwy in de United States, de espresso craze spread. Norf Beach in San Francisco saw de opening of de Caffe Trieste in 1957, which served Beat Generation poets such as Awwen Ginsberg and Bob Kaufman awongside Itawian immigrants.[181] Simiwar such cafes existed in Greenwich Viwwage and ewsewhere.[181]

The first Peet's Coffee & Tea store opened in 1966 in Berkewey, Cawifornia by Dutch native Awfred Peet. He chose to focus on roasting batches wif fresher, higher qwawity seeds dan was de norm at de time. He was a trainer and suppwier to de founders of Starbuck's.[182]

The American coffeehouse chain Starbucks, which began as a modest business roasting and sewwing coffee beans in 1971, was founded by dree cowwege students, Jerry Bawdwin, Gordon Bowker, and Zev Siegw. The first store opened on March 30, 1971 at de Pike Pwace Market in Seattwe, fowwowed by a second and dird over de next two years.[183] Entrepreneur Howard Schuwtz joined de company in 1982 as Director of Retaiw Operations and Marketing, and pushed to seww premade espresso coffee. The oders were rewuctant, but Schuwtz opened Iw Giornawe in Seattwe in Apriw 1986.[184] He bought de oder owners out in March 1987 and pushed on wif pwans to expand—from 1987 to de end of 1991, de chain (rebranded from Iw Giornawe to Starbucks) expanded to over 100 outwets.[185] The company has 25,000 stores in over 75 countries worwdwide.[186]

Souf Korea experienced awmost 900 percent growf in de number of coffee shops in de country between 2006 and 2011. The capitaw city Seouw now has de highest concentration of coffee shops in de worwd, wif more dan 10,000 cafes and coffeehouses.[187]

A contemporary term for a person who makes coffee beverages, often a coffeehouse empwoyee, is a barista. The Speciawty Coffee Association of Europe and de Speciawty Coffee Association of America have been infwuentiaw in setting standards and providing training.[188]

Society and cuwture

Coffee is often consumed awongside (or instead of) breakfast by many at home or when eating out at diners or cafeterias. It is often served at de end of a formaw meaw, normawwy wif a dessert, and at times wif an after-dinner mint, especiawwy when consumed at a restaurant or dinner party.[citation needed]

Break

A coffee break in de United States and ewsewhere is a short mid-morning rest period granted to empwoyees in business and industry, corresponding wif de Commonweawf terms "ewevenses", "smoko" (in Austrawia), "morning tea", "tea break", or even just "tea". An afternoon coffee break, or afternoon tea, often occurs as weww.

The coffee break originated in de wate 19f century in Stoughton, Wisconsin, wif de wives of Norwegian immigrants. The city cewebrates dis every year wif de Stoughton Coffee Break Festivaw.[189] In 1951, Time noted dat "[s]ince de war, de coffee break has been written into union contracts".[190] The term subseqwentwy became popuwar drough a Pan-American Coffee Bureau ad campaign of 1952 which urged consumers, "Give yoursewf a Coffee-Break – and Get What Coffee Gives to You."[191]John B. Watson, a behavioraw psychowogist who worked wif Maxweww House water in his career, hewped to popuwarize coffee breaks widin de American cuwture.[192] Coffee breaks usuawwy wast from 10 to 20 minutes and freqwentwy occur at de end of de first dird of de work shift. In some companies and some civiw service, de coffee break may be observed formawwy at a set hour. In some pwaces, a cart wif hot and cowd beverages and cakes, breads and pastries arrives at de same time morning and afternoon, an empwoyer may contract wif an outside caterer for daiwy service, or coffee breaks may take pwace away from de actuaw work-area in a designated cafeteria or tea room. More generawwy, de phrase "coffee break" has awso come to denote any break from work.

Prohibition

Coffee was initiawwy used for spirituaw reasons. At weast 1,100 years ago, traders brought coffee across de Red Sea into Arabia (modern-day Yemen), where Muswim dervishes began cuwtivating de shrub in deir gardens. At first, de Arabians made wine from de puwp of de fermented coffee berries. This beverage was known as qishr (kisher in modern usage) and was used during rewigious ceremonies.[193]

Coffee drinking was prohibited by jurists and schowars (uwema) meeting in Mecca in 1511 as haraam, but de subject of wheder it was intoxicating was hotwy debated over de next 30 years untiw de ban was finawwy overturned in de mid-16f century.[194] Use in rewigious rites among de Sufi branch of Iswam wed to coffee's being put on triaw in Mecca: it was accused of being a hereticaw substance, and its production and consumption were briefwy repressed. It was water prohibited in Ottoman Turkey under an edict by de Suwtan Murad IV.[195]

Coffee, regarded as a Muswim drink, was prohibited by Ediopian Ordodox Christians untiw as wate as 1889; it is now considered a nationaw drink of Ediopia for peopwe of aww faids. Its earwy association in Europe wif rebewwious powiticaw activities wed to Charwes II outwawing coffeehouses from January 1676 (awdough de uproar created forced de monarch to back down two days before de ban was due to come into force).[31]Frederick de Great banned it in Prussia in 1777 for nationawistic and economic reasons; concerned about de price of import, he sought to force de pubwic back to consuming beer.[196] Lacking coffee-producing cowonies, Prussia had to import aww its coffee at a great cost.[197]

A contemporary exampwe of rewigious prohibition of coffee can be found in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.[198] The organization howds dat it is bof physicawwy and spirituawwy unheawdy to consume coffee.[199] This comes from de Mormon doctrine of heawf, given in 1833 by founder Joseph Smif in a revewation cawwed de Word of Wisdom. It does not identify coffee by name, but incwudes de statement dat "hot drinks are not for de bewwy," which has been interpreted to forbid bof coffee and tea.[199]

Quite a number of members of de Sevenf-day Adventist Church awso avoid caffeinated drinks. In its teachings, de Church encourages members to avoid tea, coffee, and oder stimuwants. Abstinence from coffee, tobacco, and awcohow by many Adventists has afforded a near-uniqwe opportunity for studies to be conducted widin dat popuwation group on de heawf effects of coffee drinking, free from confounding factors. One study was abwe to show a weak but statisticawwy significant association between coffee consumption and mortawity from ischemic heart disease, oder cardiovascuwar disease, aww cardiovascuwar diseases combined, and aww causes of deaf.[200]

For a time, dere had been controversy in de Jewish community over wheder de coffee seed was a wegume and derefore prohibited for Passover. Upon petition from coffeemaker Maxweww House, de coffee seed was cwassified in 1923 as a berry rader dan a seed by ordodox Jewish rabbi Hersch Kohn, and derefore kosher for Passover.[201]

Fair trade

The concept of fair trade wabewing, which guarantees coffee growers a negotiated preharvest price, began in de wate 1980s wif de Max Havewaar Foundation's wabewing program in de Nederwands. In 2004, 24,222 metric tons (of 7,050,000 produced worwdwide) were fair trade; in 2005, 33,991 metric tons out of 6,685,000 were fair trade, an increase from 0.34% to 0.51%.[202][203]
A number of fair trade impact studies have shown dat fair trade coffee produces a mixed impact on de communities dat grow it. Many studies are skepticaw about fair trade, reporting dat it often worsens de bargaining power of dose who are not part of it. Coffee was incorporated into de fair-trade movement in 1988, when de Max Havewaar mark was introduced in de Nederwands. The very first fair-trade coffee was an effort to import a Guatemawan coffee into Europe as "Indio Sowidarity Coffee".[204]

Since de founding of organizations such as de European Fair Trade Association (1987), de production and consumption of fair trade coffee has grown as some wocaw and nationaw coffee chains started to offer fair trade awternatives.[205][206] For exampwe, in Apriw 2000, after a year-wong campaign by de human rights organization Gwobaw Exchange, Starbucks decided to carry fair-trade coffee in its stores.[207] Since September 2009 aww Starbucks Espresso beverages in UK and Irewand are made wif Fairtrade and Shared Pwanet certified coffee.[208]

A 2005 study done in Bewgium concwuded dat consumers' buying behavior is not consistent wif deir positive attitude toward edicaw products. On average 46% of European consumers cwaimed to be wiwwing to pay substantiawwy more for edicaw products, incwuding fair-trade products such as coffee.[207] The study found dat de majority of respondents were unwiwwing to pay de actuaw price premium of 27% for fair trade coffee.[207]

Fowkwore and cuwture

The Oromo peopwe wouwd customariwy pwant a coffee tree on de graves of powerfuw sorcerers. They bewieved dat de first coffee bush sprang up from de tears dat de god of heaven shed over de corpse of a dead sorcerer.[209]

Economic impacts

Market vowatiwity, and dus increased returns, during 1830 encouraged Braziwian entrepreneurs to shift deir attention from gowd to coffee, a crop hiderto reserved for wocaw consumption, uh-hah-hah-hah. Concurrent wif dis shift was de commissioning of vitaw infrastructures, incwuding approximatewy 7,000 km of raiwroads between 1860 and 1885. The creation of dese raiwways enabwed de importation of workers, in order to meet de enormous need for wabor. This devewopment primariwy affected de State of Rio de Janeiro, as weww as de Soudern States of Braziw, most notabwy São Pauwo, due to its favorabwe cwimate, soiws, and terrain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[211]

Coffee production attracted immigrants in search of better economic opportunities in de earwy 1900s. Mainwy, dese were Portuguese, Itawian, Spanish, German, and Japanese nationaws. For instance, São Pauwo received approximatewy 733,000 immigrants in de decade preceding 1900, whiwst onwy receiving approximatewy 201,000 immigrants in de six years to 1890. The production yiewd of coffee increases. In 1880, São Pauwo produced 1.2 miwwion bags (25% of totaw production), in 1888 2.6 miwwion (40%), in 1902 8 miwwion bags (60%).[212] Coffee is den 63% of de country's exports. The gains made by dis trade awwow sustained economic growf in de country.

The four years between pwanting a coffee and de first harvest extends seasonaw variations in de price of coffee. The Braziwian Government is dus forced, to some extent, to keep strong price subsidies during production periods.

Competition

Coffee competitions take pwace across de gwobe wif peopwe at de regionaw competing to achieve nationaw titwes and den compete on de internationaw stage. Worwd Coffee Events howds de wargest of such events moving de wocation of de finaw competition each year. The competition incwudes de fowwowing events: Barista Championship, Brewers Cup, Latte Art and Cup Tasters.
A Worwd Brewer's Cup Championship takes pwace in Mewbourne, Austrawia, every year dat houses contestants from around de worwd[213] to crown de Worwd's Coffee King.[214][215]

^Tawbot, John M. (2004). Grounds for Agreement: The Powiticaw Economy of de Coffee Commodity Chain. Rowman & Littwefiewd. p. 50. So many peopwe who have written about coffee have gotten it wrong. Coffee is not de second most vawuabwe primary commodity in worwd trade, as is often stated. [...] It is not de second most traded commodity, a nebuwous formuwation dat occurs repeatedwy in de media. Coffee is de second most vawuabwe commodity exported by devewoping countries.

^"Stoughton, WI – Where de Coffee Break Originated". www.stoughtonwi.com. Stoughton, Wisconsin Chamber of Commerce. Archived from de originaw on May 20, 2009. Retrieved June 11, 2009. Mr. Osmund Gunderson decided to ask de Norwegian wives, who wived just up de hiww from his warehouse, if dey wouwd come and hewp him sort de tobacco. The women agreed, as wong as dey couwd have a break in de morning and anoder in de afternoon, to go home and tend to deir chores. Of course, dis awso meant dey were free to have a cup of coffee from de pot dat was awways hot on de stove. Mr. Gunderson agreed and wif dis simpwe habit, de coffee break was born, uh-hah-hah-hah.

^"The Coffee break". npr.org. December 2, 2002. Archived from de originaw on May 28, 2009. Retrieved June 10, 2009. Wherever de coffee break originated, Stamberg says, it may not actuawwy have been cawwed a coffee break untiw 1952. That year, a Pan-American Coffee Bureau ad campaign urged consumers, 'Give yoursewf a Coffee-Break – and Get What Coffee Gives to You.'

^
Oder historians accredit de conception of de Coffee Break to John Catrone, an ewectrician, who coined de phrase whiwe working in Revere, Massachusetts in de 1950s.
Hunt, Morton M. (1993). The story of psychowogy (1st ed.). New York: Doubweday. p. 260. ISBN978-0-385-24762-7. [work] for Maxweww House dat hewped make de 'coffee break' an American custom in offices, factories, and homes.