2 Spanning Tree Protocol Overview Embed a tree that provides a single unique default path to each destination: Bridges designate ports over which they will or will not forward frames By removing ports, extended LAN is reduced to a tree 4 Spanning Tree Algorithm Root of the spanning tree is elected first the bridge with the lowest identifier. All ports are part of tree 2 B3 Each bridge finds shortest path to the root. Remembers port that is on the shortest path Used to forward packets B2 B5 B7 Select for each LAN a designated bridge that will forward frames to root Has the shortest path to the root. Identifier as tie-breaker B B6 B4 5 Spanning Tree Algorithm Each node sends configuration message to all neighbors. Identifier of the sender Id of the presumed root Distance to the presumed root Initially each bridge thinks it is the root. B5 sends (B5, B5, 0) When B receive a message, it decide whether the solution is better than their local solution. A root with a lower identifier? Same root but lower distance? Same root, distance but sender has lower identifier? Message from bridge with smaller root ID Not root; stop generating config messages, but can forward Message from bridge closer to root Not designated bridge; stop sending any config messages on the port 2 B2 B3 B6 B B5 B4 B7 6 2

3 Spanning Tree Algorithm Each bridge B can now select which of its ports make up the spanning tree: B s root port All ports for which B is the designated bridge on the LAN States for ports on bridges Forward state or blocked state, depending on whether the port is part of the spanning tree Root periodically sends configuration messages and bridges forward them over LANs they are responsible for 2 B3 B5 B2 B B6 B4 B7 7 Spanning Tree Algorithm Example Node B2: Sends (B2, B2, 0) Receives (B, B, 0) from B Sends (B2, B, ) up Continues the forwarding forever Node B: Will send notifications forever B2 2 B3 B5 B7 Node B7: Sends (B7, B7, 0) Receives (B, B, 0) from B Sends (B7, B, ) up and right Receives (B5, B5, 0) - ignored Receives (B5, B, ) suboptimal Continues forwarding the B messages forever to the right B B6 B4 8 Ethernet Switches Bridges make it possible to increase LAN capacity. Packets are no longer broadcasted - they are only forwarded on selected links Adds a switching flavor to the broadcast LAN Some packets still sent to entire tree (e.g., ARP) Ethernet switch is a special case of a bridge: each bridge port is connected to a single host. Can make the link full duplex (really simple protocol!) Simplifies the protocol and hardware used (only two stations on the link) no longer full CSMA/CD Can have different port speeds on the same switch Unlike in a hub, packets can be stored 9 3

4 A Word about Taking Turn Protocols First option: Polling-based Central entity polls stations, inviting them to transmit. Simple design no conflicts Not very efficient overhead of polling operation Still better than TDM or FDM Central point of failure Second (similar) option: Stations reserve a slot for transmission. For example, break up the transmission time in contention-based and reservation based slots Contention based slots can be used for short messages or to reserve time Communication in reservation based slots only allowed after a reservation is made Issues: fairness, efficiency 0 Token-Passing Protocols No master node Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) One token holder may send, with a time limit. known upper bound on delay. Token released at end of frame. 00 Mbps, 00km Decentralized and very efficient But problems with token holding node crashing or not releasing token This Lecture: IP addressing and Forwarding 2 4

7 Subnet Addressing: RFC97 (984) Original goal: network part would uniquely identify a single physical network Inefficient address space usage Class A & B networks too big Also, very few LANs have close to 64K hosts Easy for networks to (claim to) outgrow class-c Each physical network must have one network number Routing table size is too high Need simple way to reduce the number of network numbers assigned Subnetting: Split up single network address ranges Fizes routing table size problem, partially 9 Subnetting Add another floating layer to hierarchy Variable length subnet masks Could subnet a class B into several chunks Network Host Network Subnet Host Subnet Mask 20 Subnetting Example Assume an organization was assigned address (class B) Assume < 00 hosts per subnet (department) How many host bits do we need? Seven What is the network mask?

8 D For = destination IP address Forwarding D Example if (D ElseForward if each = nexthopis SM == forwarding SN) & Deliver D interface on table INTERFACE entry (SN, SM OI) to default router Host configured with IP adress and subnet mask Subnet number = IP (AND) Mask (Subnet number, subnet mask) Outgoing I/F 22 Inefficient Address Usage Address space depletion In danger of running out of classes A and B Why? Class C too small for most domains Very few class A very careful about giving them out Class B poses greatest problem Class B sparsely populated But people refuse to give it back 23 Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) RFC338 Allows arbitrary split between network & host part of address Do not use classes to determine network ID Use common part of address as network number Allows handing out arbitrary sized chunks of address space E.g., addresses have the first 20 bits in common. Thus, we use these 20 bits as the network number /20 Enables more efficient usage of address space (and router tables) Use single entry for range in forwarding tables Combine forwarding entries when possible 24 8

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