The full complex, spatial modulation of light at high frame rates is essential for a variety of applications. In particular, emerging techniques applied to scattering media, such as Digital Optical Phase Conjugation and Wavefront Shaping, request challenging performance parameters. They refer to imaging tasks inside biological media, whose characteristics concerning the transmission and reflection of scattered light may change over time within milliseconds. Thus, these methods call for frame rates in the kilohertz range. Existing solutions typically over frame rate capabilities below 100 Hz, since they rely on liquid crystal spatial light modulators (SLMs). We propose a diffractive MEMS optical system for this application range. It relies on an analog, tilt-type micro mirror array (MMA) based on an established SLM technology, where the standard application is grayscale amplitude control. The new MMA system design allows the phase manipulation at high-speed as well.

The article studies properties of the appropriate optical setup by simulating the propagation of the light. Relevant test patterns and sensitivity parameters of the system will be analyzed. Our results illustrate the main opportunities of the concept with particular focus on the tilt mirror technology. They indicate a promising path to realize the complex light modulation at frame rates above 1 kHz and resolutions well beyond 10,000 complex pixels.

The present study analyses three beam shaping approaches with respect to a light-efficient generation of i) patterns and ii) multiple spots by means of a generic optical 4f-setup. 4f approaches share the property that due to the one-to-one relationship between output intensity and input phase, the need for time-consuming, iterative calculation can be avoided. The resulting low computational complexity offers a particular advantage compared to the widely used holographic principles and makes them potential candidates for real-time applications. The increasing availability of high-speed phase modulators, e.g. on the basis of MEMS, calls for an evaluation of the performances of these concepts.

Our second interest is the applicability of 4f methods to high-power applications. We discuss the variants of 4f intensity shaping by phase modulation from a system-level point of view which requires the consideration of application relevant boundary conditions. The discussion includes i) the micro mirror based phase manipulation combined with amplitude masking in the Fourier plane, ii) the Generalized Phase Contrast, and iii) matched phase-only correlation filtering combined with GPC. The conceptual comparison relies on comparative figures of merit for energy efficiency, pattern homogeneity, pattern image quality, maximum output intensity and flexibility with respect to the displayable pattern. Numerical simulations illustrate our findings.

In our setup, we use a combination of two micromirror arrays, which allow not only to spatially structure the light in the field of view, but also to control the direction and angle of the incident light. In order to achieve this, a first MMA is imaged in the focal plane and used as a black and white (or even greyscale) mask. With a fully illuminated objective, this image would normally be formed from the complete light cone. By imaging the second MMA onto the backfocal plane of the objective only a portion of the light cone is used to form the image. This enables avoiding the unwanted illumination of out of focus objects. The MMAs in our setup consist of an array of 256x256 micromirrors, that can each be individually and continuously tilted up to 450nm, allowing the creation of greyscale images in real time in the illumination pattern. The mirrors themselves can be tilted for times as short as 10μs up to several seconds. This gives unprecedented control over the illumination times and intensities in the sample. Furthermore, our enhanced coating technology yields a high reflectivity over a broad optical spectrum (240- 1000nm).

Overall, the setup allows targetted illumination of subcellular regions enabling the precise, localized activation of optogenetic probes or the activation and deactivation of signaling cascades using photo-activated ion-channels.

Diffractive micromirror arrays (MMA) are a special class of optical MEMS, serving as spatial light modulators (SLM)
that control the phase of reflected light. Since the surface profile is the determining factor for an accurate phase
modulation, high-precision topographic characterization techniques are essential to reach highest optical performance.
While optical profiling techniques such as white-light interferometry are still considered to be most suitable to this task,
the practical limits of interferometric techniques start to become apparent with the current state of optical MEMS
technology. Light scatter from structured surfaces carries information about their topography, making scatter techniques
a promising alternative. Therefore, a spatially resolved scatter measurement technique, which takes advantage of the
MMA’s diffractive principle, has been implemented experimentally. Spectral measurements show very high contrast
ratios (up to 10 000 in selected samples), which are consistent with calculations from micromirror roughness parameters
obtained by white-light interferometry, and demonstrate a high sensitivity to changes in the surface topography. The
technique thus seems promising for the fast and highly sensitive characterization of diffractive MMAs.

Photoactivation and “optogenetics” require the precise control of the illumination path in optical microscopes. It is equally important to shape the illumination spatially as well as to have control over the intensity and the duration of the illumination. In order to achieve these goals we use programmable, diffractive Micro Mirror Arrays (MMA) as fast spatial light modulators for beam steering. By combining two MMAs with 256×256 mirrors each, our illumination setup allows for fast angular and spatial control at a wide spectral range (260-1000 nm). Illumination pulses can be as short as 50 μs, or can also extend to several seconds. The specific illumination modes of the individual areas results in a precise control over the light dose to the sample, giving significant advantage when investigating dosage dependent activation inasmuch as both the duration and the intensity can be controlled distinctly. The setup is integrated to a microscope and allows selective illumination of regions in the sample, enabling the precise, localized activation of fluorescent probes and the activation and deactivation of cellular and subcellular signaling cascades using photo activated ion channels. The high reflectivity in the UV range (up to 260nm) further allows gene silencing using UV activated constructs (e.g. caged morpholinos).

The ability to control the illumination and imaging paths of optical microscopes is an essential part of advanced
fluorescence microscopy, and a powerful tool for optogenetics. In order to maximize the visualization and the image
quality of the objects under observation we use programmable, fast Micro Mirror Arrays (MMAs) as high-resolution
Spatial Light Modulators (SLMs). Using two 256x256 MMAs in a mirror-based illumination setup allows for fast
angular-spatial control at a wide range of wavelengths (300-1000nm). Additionally, the illumination intensity can be
controlled at 10-bit resolution. The setup allows selective illumination of subcellular regions of interest enabling the
precise, localized activation of fluorescent probes and the activation and deactivation of subcellular and cellular
signaling cascades using photo-activated ion-channels. Furthermore, inasmuch as phototoxicity is dependent on the rate
of photo illumination [1] we show that our system, which provides fast, compartmentalized illumination is minimally
phototoxic.

The present article discusses an optical concept for the characterization of diffractive micromirror arrays (MMAs) within
an extended wavelength range from the deep ultra-violet up to near-infrared. The task derives from the development of a
novel class of MMAs that will support programmable diffractive properties between 240 nm and 800 nm. The article
illustrates aspects of the achromatic system design that comprises the reflective beam homogenization with divergence
control and coherence management for an appropriate MMA illumination as well as the transfer of phase modulating
MMA patterns into intensity profiles for contrast imaging. Contrast measurements and grey scale imaging demonstrate
the operation of the characterization system and reflect the encouraging start of technology development for
multispectral, diffractive MMAs.

A new generation of micromirror arrays (MMAs) with torsional actuators is being developed within the European
research project MEMI in order to extend the usable spectral range of diffractive MMAs from deep ultraviolet into the
visible and near infrared. The MMAs have 256 x 256 pixels reaching deflections above 350 nm at a frame rate of 1 kHz,
which enables an operation in the target wavelength range between 240 nm and 800 nm. Customized driver electronics
facilitates computer controlled operation and simple integration of the MMA into various optical setups. Tests in the
visible wavelength range demonstrate the functionality and the high application potential of first MMA test samples.

The present article discusses steps for the realistic description of optical properties of micro-mirror arrays (MMA),
which are utilized as programmable masks for microlithography. The article focuses on global contrast as an
elementary example for the understanding of MMA's diffractive operation principle. Central point will be a
discussion of those MEMS properties that influence the global MMA contrast, and how to introduce them into
simulation. Surface corrugations of single mirrors and slit properties will be taken into account. Comparison is
made with experimental contrast data to validate the theoretical assumptions.

This paper deals with vacuum UV optical coatings for micro mirrors applications. High reflecting low-stress optical coatings for the next-generation of micro mechanical mirrors have been developed. The optimized metal systems are applicable for the VUV spectral region and can be integrated in the technology of MOEMS, such as spatial light modulators (SLM) and micro scanning mirrors.

The present study of silica thin films illustrates a new way of direct writing diffractive phase elements by means of UV laser ablation. The concept consists in the conversion of highly absorbing silica layers, which are suitable for laser ablation, into UV transparent structures by thermal annealing, after a direct laser patterning process. This concept has been investigated in detail for several process parameters. As example, a pixel pattern, generated by an appropriate optical design algorithm, is transferred into a phase delay pattern in form of a silica surface relief, which results in a diffractive shaping of a beam transmitted (or reflected) by this structured layer. The direct mask patterning could be achieved at a moderate laser fluence of 350 mJ/cm2 with a 248 nm excimer laser.

Since excimer laser applications extend to deep and vacuum UV wavelengths at 248 nm, 193 nm and 157 nm, renewed research interest has recently arisen on fluoride thin films due to their unrivaled position as wide-band-gap material for the vacuum UV (VUV). Among these materials, only a very limited number can act as the high refractive index component in multiplayer interference stacks. Besides LaF3, gadolinium tri-fluoride is a potential candidate especially for wavelengths at about and below 200nm. We report on the evaluation of the structural properties, the optical properties with emphasis to the DUV - spectral range, and the mechanical properties of GdF3 single layer by means of XRD, GIXR, AFM measurements, spectral photometry and by ex - situ mechanical stress analysis using the laser beam deflection method to measure the substrate deformation. The samples were deposited onto fused silica and silicon substrates by a low-loss evaporation technology in a BAK 640 coating plant applying various deposition conditions.

The present candidates for low loss dielectric optical coatings at VUV excimer laser wavelengths are fluorides. Within this group, only one material - namely lanthanum fluoride - is used almost exclusively as high index film material. In search of additional high index film materials for use in VUV we investigated a broader spectrum of lanthanide tri-fluorides since little is known about their properties and the advantages or disadvantages with regards of their use in DUV- and VUV - optical stacks. Fluorides of lanthanum, neodymium, samarium, gadolinium, ytterbium and also yttrium were evaporated thermally. Precision VUV-measurement were initiated to give an overview of the ranges of UV-transparency up to the absorption edges and to determine the optical indices of these coating materials.
Supplementary, also stress measurements, atomic force microscopy and XRD measurements were performed to scrutinize the properties of the films.

The paper proposes to review briefly steps of classical experimental progress towards resistant VUV-XUV coatings. It intends to address some of the new challenges of the VUV-XUV radiation resistant coatings, including material investigations, manufacturing, characterizations and active optical components.

Since excimer laser applications extend to deep and vacuum UV wavelengths at 193 nm and 157 nm, renewed research interest has recently arisen on fluoride thin films due to their unrivaled position as wide-band-gap material for the vacuum UV (VUV). In order to evaluate the development of mechanical stress in all dielectric fluoride mirrors which causes difficulties to grow the layer stacks on fused silica substrates with a sufficient large number of quarter-wave pairs of a low (L) and of a high index (H) fluoride material, a systematic study was performed on evaporated quarter-wave stacks of LaF3/MgF2 and LaF3/AlF3 with a growing number of LH-pairs. The samples deposited onto fused silica and silicon substrates by a low-loss evaporation technology in a BAK 640 coating plant were investigated by means of complex ex - situ mechanical stress analysis including temperature dependence of stress, optical measurements, infrared measurements, evaluation of structural and morphological parameters by AFM and XRD. When deposited at high substrate temperature of about 300°C, the LaF3/MgF2 tends show high tensile stress due to the thermal stress component arise from the large thermal expansion coefficient difference between the substrate and the film materials resulting in micro crack formation already starting after deposition of about 10 layer pairs. LaF3/AlF3 appear to have a larger crack resistance due to lower stress which can be correlated to the higher water content in these kind of stacks. By adjusting the deposition temperature, mirror stacks with high reflectance at 193nm can be grown.

Radiation resistance of optical materials against synchrotron radiation is important, if optical components for the high energetic regime have to be produced. In the framework of the European project EUFELE, which deals with the development of optical coatings for the free electron laser at ELETTRA (Trieste), a set of CaF2 substrates was irradiated with synchrotron radiation. The synchrotron radiation was varied by wavelength, dose, and high energetic background illumination. Before and after irradiation, the CaF2 substrates were investigated spectrophotometrically in the VUV, VIS and IR range. The surface topology was characterized by Nomarski microscope methods. Structure investigations were carried out with X-ray diffraction measurements. CaF2 shows different types of degradation like color center formation, surface modification, and increased VUV absorption bands. Defect formation will be presented in dependence of synchrotron irradiation conditions.

Luminescence measurements have been set up in order to study the interaction of UV-laser radiation with dielectric thin films. The pulsed laser excitation was carried out at 193-nm (6.4eV), the coating materials comprised wide-band-gap oxides and fluorides. Experiments show the significant optical response of single- and multilayer coatings on the low fluence excitation at sub-band-gap energy. Time- and spectrally-resolved measurements indicate characteristic emission bands of color centers in the deep-UV and vacuum-UV coating materials. An assignment of these optical transitions can be derived from the comparison with known bulk-material studies.

We report on our investigations of spectrophotometric measurements in the vacuum UV. A commercially available VUV setup at Fraunhofer IOF is used to illustrate spectrally and angle-resolved reflection and transmission measurements together with an in-situ sample irradiation by a F2-excimer laser.

In order to improve the degradation stability of dielectric mirrors for the use in UV-Free Electron Laser optical cavities a comparative study of the properties of SiO2, Al2O3, and HfO2 single layers was performed which was addressed to grow very dense films with minimum absorption in the spectral range from 200 nm to 300 nm. The films have been deposited by low loss reactive electron beam evaporation, by ion assisted deposition using a Mark II ion source, and by plasma ion assisted deposition using the APS source. Optical and structural properties of the samples have been studied by spectral photometry, infrared spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction and - reflectometry, as well as by investigation of the surface morphology. The interaction of UV radiation with photon energies close to the band gap was studied. For HfO2 single layer, LIDT at 248 nm were determined in the 1-on-1 and the 1000-to-1 test mode in dependence on the deposition technology and the film thickness.

New absorption measurements for aluminum oxide optical coatings at 193nm are presented. Apart from the strong linear absorption at this wavelength the data indicate a nonlinear absorption within the thin dielectric layer. By varying the laser thickness, the intrinsic contribution of the layer material to the overall absorption was separated from the contribution of the substrate and the interface. In addition, the conditioning behavior of the coatings was examined. A strong long term conditioning in the linear absorption was found for Al2O3 containing systems. Comparing the absorption and conditioning behavior of the single layers and a high-reflective system, we can show that the absorption properties of the HR-system are determined by its Al2O3 layers.

A mode-mismatched surface thermal lens technique with pulsed top-hat beam excitation and near field detection scheme is developed to measure in situ the thermoelastic response of UV dielectric coatings and bulk materials under excimer laser irradiation. The thermal lens technique is demonstrated to be not only convenient for an accurate determination of the laser-induced damage threshold (LIDT), but also sensitive to measure the thermoelastic response of dielectric coatings irradiated with fluences much below the LIDT, and hence, to carry out time resolved predamage investigation. The minimum detectable surface displacement of approximately 0.002nm is achieved with a simple experimental configuration. Nonlinear absorption of UV dielectric materials and coatings are demonstrated. The surface thermal lens technique is also a convenient technique to distinguish different damage mechanisms: thermal stress induced damage or melting induced damage, depending on the thermo-elastic properties of the substrate. Hence, this technique allows to indicate qualitatively the relative contribution of linear and nonlinear absorption as possible causes for laser damage. Moreover, the nonlinear effect in laser conditioning of a LaF3/MgF2 highly reflective dielectric coating has been observed experimentally.

To grow dense and hard MgF2 films substrate temperatures of about 300 degrees C are required, which unfortunately leads to high tensile film stress and the ability of crack formation. Lowering tensile stress in MgF2 films can be achieved by admixture a second fluoride material of higher cation radius than Mg2+. While former investigation were performed with non-heated films the purpose of the present work was to verify the behavior of mixed films when deposited at elevated substrate temperatures. One of the promising add material is BaF2 which enables evaporation of appropriate pre-mixed materials from a single source. The BaF2 content in the mixed films was varied from 3 to 55 mol percent in the MgF2 host. Optical, mechanical, and structural properties of samples deposited at different substrate temperatures have been studied by spectral photometry, IR spectroscopy, ex situ measurement of mechanical stress, x-ray diffraction, and -reflectometry, RBS, as well as investigation of surface morphology.

In this paper, we report on our investigations of radiation induced processes in optical interference coatings for 193 nm applications with respect to the microstructure of the coating. Experimental studies revealed that fluoride coatings contribute the main source for radiation induced optical changes during its exposure to 193 nm laser irradiation due to their porous microstructure. NIR spectroscopy could identify the origin of optical changes in interference coatings as a reversible hydrocarbon contamination which occurs within the coatings from storage in air atmosphere. Additionally, Laser Induced Damage Threshold measurements show a direct influence of the hydrocarbon contamination on the radiation durability of the multilayer systems during laser exposure. Experiments were carried out by using several characterization techniques including DUV spectrophotometry, ATR-IR-spectroscopy, x-ray diffractometry, and the determination of the '1-on-1' laser induced damage threshold. Test methods were applied to DUV coatings before and after exposure to 193 nm radiation with irradiation doses of up to 108 laser pulses at a fluence of 70mJ/cm2. Test samples consisted of several coating designs, primarily of high reflective multilayer systems.

The exposure of optical interference coatings to low-fluence DUV-radiation reveals changes of thin layer properties due to interactions between radiation field and thin film structure. An experimental set up for irradiating antireflective as well a high reflective coatings with 193nm excimer laser was used in order to study permanent cumulative changes in optical coatings at fluences ranging from 20mJ/cm2 with up to 240 106 laser pulses. The optical ex-situ monitoring of radiation induced modifications enabled the differentiation of coating specific and substrate inherent alteration effects. The identification of conditions as well as degradation processes during the exposure could be achieved for several types of DUV-coating materials. They were deposited with an ultra low loss evaporation process onto calcium fluoride and fused silica substrates. Fluoride coating included LaF3, Na3AlF6, MgF2, AlF3 oxide coatings consisted of SiO2 and Al2O3 exclusively.

CaF2 has received increasing attention as a promising substrate for coatings in the VUV range. Optimization of the optical properties of these optical components requires the study of basic characteristics of the coated and uncoated CaF2 substrates such as surface roughness, optical performance, absorption and scatter losses, and laser induced damage threshold. The investigations have revealed the influence of different substrate polishing grades on the quality of AR-193nm -and HR-193nm/0 degrees coated samples. LIDT values at the ArF-excimer laser wavelength were measured as high as 5.6 J/cm2 and 4.6 J/cm2 for the best AR- and HR-coated samples, respectively.

The aim of our investigation was to explain the causes and kinds of the destruction of optical coatings during laser radiation at the wavelength of ArF excimer laser. Therefore, HR layer stacks with an increasing number of HL-pairs were deposited on different substrates CaF2 and fused silica, respectively. SiO2/Al2O3-, LaF3/MgF2- and AlF3/LaF3-combinations were used as coating materials. While fluoride coatings have been deposited by conventional evaporation, the oxide coatings were deposited by reactive e-beam evaporation with or without plasma ion assistance. The interaction of UV laser radiation with optical coatings as mentioned above was investigated by a pulsed two probe beam photothermal technique as well as optical microscopy, respectively. In the case of fluoride layers the single shot damage threshold increases with higher number of HL-pairs. Additionally, an aging effect could be observed.

We report on our investigations on the long-term behavior of optical coatings under 193 nm laser irradiation in dependence on coating materials, radiation conditions, and substrate properties. A wide variety of different highly reflective dielectric mirrors and antireflective coatings, deposited by an ultra low loss evaporation process onto calcium fluoride and fused silica, has been tested. Irradiation experiments with highly reflective coatings show that fluoride coatings exhibit nearly no changes of their optical function in air as well as in argon atmosphere due to low initial absorption levels. Temporal atmospheric contaminations can be removed by using appropriate irradiation conditions. Oxide layers tend to post-oxidize during 193 nm exposure in air and the DUV absorption level will be reduced. Effectively, reflectance of multilayer coatings on the basis of oxide materials can be improved through laser irradiation. Irradiation experiments with antireflective coatings point out the dominant role of bulk and surface properties of the substrate for prolonged laser irradiation. In addition, we present laser induced damage thresholds to demonstrate upper limits of laser radiation resistance that can be achieved nowadays with several types of coatings.

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