While there were concerns that the island, far from Britain and
near Italy, could not be defended, the British decided in July 1939
to increase the number of anti-aircraft guns and fighter
aircraft on Malta.[7] The
British leadership had further doubts about whether to hold the
island in May 1940 when the French prime minister, Paul Reynaud,
reported that the situation in France was dire, but that
Benito
Mussolini might be appeased by concessions, including Malta.
After some discussion, Winston Churchill convinced the
British War Cabinet
that no concessions should be made.[8] With
Britain itself at risk, Malta was not the highest priority, so it
was lightly protected when Italy declared war on Britain on 10 June
1940. Only six Gloster Gladiatorbiplanes were stationed on
the island, with another six in crates. Nevertheless, RAF and Royal
Navy anti-shipping squadrons and submarines posed a significant
threat to Axis supply and communications between Europe and North
Africa and both sides soon recognised the importance of the island
in controlling the Mediterranean.[6]

First
phase, 1940-41

The
Italian offensive

On 11 June 1940, the day after Italy declared war on Britain and
France, aircraft of the Italian Royal Air Force attacked Malta.
Most of Italy's land forces had been committed for the upcoming invasion of
Greece, so it resorted to aerial
bombardment. On the first day, ten Italian Cant bombers dropped
bombs on Grand
Harbour, Hal Far, and Kalafrana. In seven attacks,
eleven civilians and six soldiers were killed. In addition, roughly
130 civilians and some soldiers were injured.

Italian Macchi 200.

At the time, the defending fighter aircraft on Malta consisted
of obsolete Gloster Sea Gladiatorbiplanes, in the Hal
Far Fighter Flight. Legend has it that there were just three
aircraft, nicknamed 'Faith', 'Hope' and 'Charity' but, in reality,
at least six Gladiators were deployed. These were initially unable
to fly from Luqa Airfield, as it
was not finished, and operated out of Hal Far.[9]
Initially, the Italians flew at around 5,500 m
(18,000 ft); later, they dropped to 3,000 m
(9,800 ft) for improved accuracy. British Major R. I. K. Paine
later stated that "[after they dropped down], we bagged one or two
every other day, so they started coming in at [6,000 m
(20,000 ft)]. Their bombing was never very accurate. As they
flew higher it became quite indiscriminate." Journalist Mabel
Strickland said "The Italians [pilots] decided they didn't like
[the Gladiators and AA guns], so they dropped their bombs [30 km (19 mi)] off Malta and went
back."

Throughout the siege, resupplying the island proved to be a
significant challenge, as the British had limited resources to
spare. Both sides were aware of the strategic importance of Malta,
and large naval and air forces were committed with desperate
fighting and considerable losses. Allied convoys with naval escorts
resupplied the island. The Royal Navy also sent some critical
supplies to Malta by submarine.

By the start of July, the Gladiators had been reinforced by Hawker
Hurricanes and the defences organised into No. 261
Squadron RAF in August. Twelve were delivered by HMS
Argus in August, the first of several batches ferried
to the island by the carrier. A further attempt to fly Hurricanes
into Malta on 17 November, led by a Fleet Air ArmBlackburn Skua, ended in disaster with
the loss of three Hurricanes missing probably by accident. A
further two Hurricanes crashed, with one of the pilots rescued by a
Sunderland flying boat[10]

Arrival
of the Luftwaffe

In January 1941, the Luftwaffe'sX. Fliegerkorps arrived
in Sicily as the German Deutsches
Afrikakorps (DAK) reached Libya. The presence of the Luftwaffe led
to a notable increase in the bombing of Malta. The appearance in
February of a staffel of Messerschmidt Bf 109Es fighters of
Jagdgeschwader 26, led by 23-kill ace
OberleutnantJoachim
Müncheberg, quickly led to a sudden and marked increase in
Hurricane losses, as the experienced Luftwaffe fighter
pilots made their presence felt. The Allied pilots had little
combat experience and their Hurricanes were "well worn". Over the
next four months, few of JG 26s Bf 109s were damaged, let alone
shot down.[11]

In January 1941, while escorting a convoy to Malta, the aircraft
carrierHMS Illustrious was
seriously damaged by Junkers Ju-87 (Stuka) dive
bombers. The attack killed 126 crew members and wounded 91.[12] The
carrier docked at Grand Harbour for urgent repairs. While the ship
was being repaired, the harbour was subject to heavy aerial
bombardment, but the ship survived. In mid 1941, new squadrons —
No. 185 and No. 126 — were formed and the defenders received the
first cannon-armed Hurricane Mk II fighters. Naval carriers flew in
a total of 81 more fighters during April and May. These months also
saw the arrival of the first Bristol Blenheim and Bristol
Beaufighter units. On 1 June, Air Vice Marshal Forster Maynard,
Malta's Air Officer Commanding, was replaced by Air Commodore Hugh
Pughe Lloyd. The Allies were able to launch offensive operations
from Malta. Some 60 percent of Axis shipping was sunk in the second
half of 1941. The DAK and its allies needed 50,000 tons of supplies
a day, but were not receiving that much, and as a result were
unable to resist a strong counter-offensive by British forces in Operation
Crusader.[1]

Axis attacks decreased later that year, as the limited German
resources were diverted to the Eastern Front
and bombing operations reverted back to the Italian Royal Air Force
(Regia Aeronautica). But in December 1941, naval and
aerial offensive operations launched from Malta caused Germany to
renew intensive bombing.[1]
Fuel, food, and munitions all had to be imported, and resupply
became very difficult and costly. The island was almost cut off. 31
Allied ships were lost to bombing raids. The defenders had claimed
some 191 aircraft shot down from June 1940 to December 1941, while
losses were some 94 fighters.[13]

In February 1942, Squadron Leader Stan Turner arrived to take
over 249 Squadron. His experience flying with Douglas Bader over
Europe soon meant the adoption of the loose 'finger-four' formation
in an attempt to cut RAF losses. However, with the outmoded
Hurricanes still struggling against the very latest Bf 109-Fs of
Jagdgeschwader 53 and the
Italian Macchi
C.202s, in March 1942, a contingent of 15 Spitfire Mk Vs flew to Malta from
the aircraft carrier HMS Eagle, the first
Spitfires to serve overseas. The reinforcement of Malta by carrier
became more frequent through 1942. Spitfires were flown to Malta
from the carrier HMS Eagle on the 7 March
1942. No. 601 and 603 Squadron Spitfires arrived on 20 April. Then
the US carrier Wasp and HMS Eagle
despatched 59 more. While the Spitfires were a match for the Axis
aircraft, many of the ones delivered in March and April were
destroyed on the ground and in the air—where they were outnumbered.
For instance, for five days in April there was just one Spitfire
available to defend the island; for two days there were none.[14] Also,
the overwhelming Axis bombardments had substantially eliminated
Malta’s naval and aerial offensive capabilities.[15]

When the RAF could not put up a fighter cover, Malta's Fighter
Control would transmit a dummy radio communication, aping the
scrambling and interception of incoming raids as if fighters were
already in the air, knowing the Luftwaffe would be monitoring the
conversations.[19]

During May, accelerated and more effective deployments of
Spitfires allowed the British to gain air superiority over Malta
for the first time since the start of the war. In June, the Royal
Navy undertook Operation Harpoon and Operation
Vigorous. The two convoys departed for Malta, the former from
Gibraltar and the latter
from Haifa and Port Said. The eastern
convoy was forced to turn back in the face of air attacks. Two
freighters of the western convoy made it to Malta and delivered
15,000 tons of supplies. Without them, Malta would undoubtedly have
fallen. Yet the island appeared to the Axis forces to be
neutralised, and they decided that there was no need for further
intensive bombing raids. For instance, on 10 May, Albert
Kesselring, Commander-in-Chief South of Axis forces, reported
to the German High Command that "There is nothing left to
bomb."[20] By
July, the Axis air offensive had reached its peak, and the attacks
were reduced.[21
]

The
impact of Axis bombing

The George Cross

On 15 April 1942, King George VI awarded
Malta the George Cross,
the highest civilian award for gallantry in the Commonwealth, normally awarded
to individuals: "to honour her brave people, I award the George
Cross to the Island Fortress of Malta to bear witness to a heroism
and devotion that will long be famous in history". President
Franklin Roosevelt, describing the wartime period, called Malta
"one tiny bright flame in the darkness". Some historians argue that
the award was in fact a propaganda gesture to justify the huge
losses sustained by Britain to prevent Malta from capitulating as
Singapore had done in
the Battle of Singapore.[22]

In the first six months of 1942, there was only one 24-hour
period without air raids. Luftwaffe records indicate that between
20 March and 28 April 1942, Malta was subjected to 11,819 sorties
and 6,557 tonnes of bombs. 1,493 civilians were killed and 3,674
wounded out of a population of 270,000.[23]

The siege caused significant hardships for everyone on Malta.
Bombs killed many and left even more homeless. Businesses and civil
infrastructure were destroyed. The disruption of shipping caused
food, fuel, and other commodities to be in very short supply.
During the greatest times of starvation, it is said that foods were
rationed to "three boiled sweets, half a sardine and a spoonful of
jam a day". Poor nutrition and sanitation led to the spread of
disease. Soldiers rations were also reduced, from four to two
thousand calories a day. Malta was starting to starve.[21
]

Second
phase

The Siege Bell monument in Valetta

Commonwealth air force memorial in Valetta

Britain took advantage of the lull in Axis attacks to fly in 61
Spitfire Mk V aircraft from HMS Furious, which
immediately improved the aerial defensive situation, although food,
ammunition, and aviation fuel remained critically short. Operation
Pedestal was a major attempt to resupply Malta with a convoy of
14 merchant ships supported by 44 major warships, including
battleships and aircraft carriers, and diversionary naval attacks
by the Mediterranean Fleet at the other end of the
Mediterranean.[24] The
convoy was attacked relentlessly in the early days of August. On 13
August, the surviving merchant ships started arriving at Malta,
ending on 15 August 1942, the feast of Santa Marija (St Mary), a
public holiday on Malta, with the British-crewed U.S. tanker SS Ohio; she had been
hit by torpedoes, bombs, and a crashed dive bomber, but survived
with her vital aviation fuel. The cost: nine of the 14 freighters,
an aircraft carrier, two cruisers and a destroyer were sunk, and a
carrier and two cruisers were badly damaged.

Throughout this period, Royal Navy submarines, RAF bombers and
Fleet Air Arm
torpedo bombers operating from Malta continued to wreak havoc on
Axis shipping, severely curtailing vital supplies and
reinforcements to the German and Italian forces in North Africa,
thereby limiting Rommel's ability to advance across the western
desert towards Alexandria and Cairo.

The Luftwaffe responded with a renewed wave of attacks
on 11 October. However, this time the defenders were mass equipped
with Spitfire Mk VB/Cs. Over 17 days, the Luftwaffe
suffered 34 Ju
88s and 12 Bf 109s destroyed and 18 damaged. RAF
losses amounted to 23 Spitfires shot down and 20 crash landed. 12
RAF pilots were killed.[25]

The Allied efforts in the Middle East were beginning to have
their effect, and supplies were reaching Malta. As the Axis forces
were progressively defeated in North Africa, the siege of Malta was
lifted. On 6 December 1942, a supply convoy reached Malta without
suffering any losses. After that, ships sailed to Malta without
joining convoys. The last air raid over Malta occurred on 20 July
1943. It was the 3,340th alert since 11 June 1940.[5]

The Allied infrastructure built up on the island in 1942 was
later turned to offensive use, as over a dozen Spitfire squadrons
based there commenced operations covering the amphibious Allied invasion of
Sicily.

Invasion
plans

On 29–30 April 1942, a plan for the invasion of the island was
approved by Adolf
Hitler and Benito Mussolini. It envisioned an
airborne assault with one German and one Italian paratroop
division, under the command of German GeneralKurt Student. This
would have been followed by a seaborne landing of two or three
divisions protected by the Italian Royal Navy. However, while the
invasion was supported by Rommel wholeheartedly, Hermann
Göring was against it. In the end, the operation was repeatedly
delayed and eventually cancelled.