The Path of Freedom Vimuttimagga

This article of Prof. Nagai took the Buddhist world by surprise; for,
according to the Culavamsa chapter XXXVII, 236-39, when the Venerable
Buddhaghosa Thera had written the Visuddhimagga at the behest of the Mahtisangha,
the devas had hidden it and he had to write it afresh. When this
was done, it too was hidden by the devas. So, when he wrote it for the third
time and presented it to the Mahtisangha, it is said, the devas produced the
first two copies. It was then found that the three copies agreed in every detail.

The Path of Freedom

(Vimuttimagga)

Anupubbena medhiivi thokathokariJ. khal).e khal).e kammiiro rajatass'eva niddhame malam attano. Gradually should the perspicacious one, Moment by moment, little by little, expel His own dross, as would the smith That which is in silver. Dhammapada v. 239 (Trans. by Soma Thera)

The Path of Freedom
(Vimuttimagga)
By the Arahant Upatissa
Translated into Chinese as Cie-to-tao-lun by Tipitaka Sanghapiila of Funan Translated from the Chinese by Rev. N.R.M. Ehara, Soma Thera, and Kheminda Thera

PUBLISHER'S NOTE
In several places in the Preface and the Introduction (p. xxxi, 1.2; p. xxxvi, 1.13; p. xlviii, 1. 10), the Gedatsu-Do-Ron is referred to as being the Chinese name for the .Vimuttimagga. That title, however, is actually the Japanese rendering of the Chinese characters used to translate the original title. The proper Chinese title of the work (as indicated on p. xxxvi) is Cie-to-tiio-Iun.

Truly it will not be long before this body lies in the earth, bereft of consciousness, like a useless piece of wood; which is thrown away. ' Soma Thera's translation in "Words Leading to Disenchant•. ment", Bosat, Oct. 1959. Truly, indeed, it was not long. after-just four months since he wrote this article-that he suddenly passed away. Often he used to say that this was the $ort of death. he preferred. It is fitting to record here the life and work of the Venerable Soma Mahii Thera, for, but for his indomitable energy and earnestness this work would not have been undertaken, persisted in, and brought to ·a conclusion in just four months. Whenever any difficulty arose it was to him that the others turned. When we were tempted to give up the work on encountering really hard patches, he was always ready with encouragement and with a way out of the difficulty. He loved to work hard, and half-hearted effort was unknown to him. Not infrequently he used to say, "Better wear out than rust out". Soma Maha Thera was born on December 23, 1898, in Kotahena, Colombo, and passed away at Vajiriiriima, Bambalapitiya, Colo~bo, Tuesday, February 23, 1960. His father was Emmanuel Marian Perera Pulle, and his mother, Theresa Rodrigo Babapulle. His name was Victor Emmanuel Perera Pulle. He receiyed his education at 5t. Benedict's College, Kotahena. Once at the age of eleven, when he was told by his teacher that God made man, he promptly asked him, "Who made God 7". The teacher, apparently unused to this sort -of question from his pupils, snapped back, "Do not question the antecedents of God". However, this incident pleased neither the teacher nor the pupil. He began to read and think for himself. One day his mother gave him one rupee as pocket-money, and Victor walked !lbout three miles to a bookshop in the Fort, Colombo, looking out for a book priced at one rupee or less, as that was all he had. Finding an English translation of the Dhammapada being sold for a rupee he quickly bought and read it again and again. This was his introduction to the Buddhadhamma. From that day' on he
1. Dh.41.
IX

In Memoriam
eagerly attended lectures and sermons on the Dhamma, the while reading what literature came his way on philosophY, art, archaeology, history-in fact anything that would add to his knowledge. And thus he moved further and further away from the faith of his fathers. During these years, as his mother objected to his reading late into the night, he would, after she had gone to sleep, begin reading by candle light under the bed. Sometimes he found that when he had finished reading it was already day. Such was his thirst for knowledge. Sometime in 1920 he had met Mr. W. Joseph Soysa, one of the foundermembers of the Servants of the Buddha, the well-known association which has its headquarters at Lauries Road, Bambalapitiya, and of which the Venerable Kassapa Thera is the founder-patron. After being actively engaged for sometime in the publication of the "Blessing" which was edited by the then president of the . association, Dr. Cassius A. Pereira, he, along with Mr. Soysa, joined the Colombo Buddhist Union in the early twenties, and presented a large collection of books to the Union library. He composed "A formula of associate worship"l to be used by members of tbe Union at their monthly joint flower-offering at one of the many shrines in the city. Shortly after this, once again with his equally keen friend Mr. Soysa, he founded the Fort Study Circle and was elected its organizing secretary. Later, as work increased, assistance was needed and Mr. W. Don Michael was elected joint secretary. The following extracts are from Mr. Michael's article entitled "Apostle of the Dhamma", written on the passing away of Soma Maha Thera: 'The sudden death of Soma Thera has uprooted from our midst a personality distinguished at once by the versality of his talents, self-sacrifice, personal sanctity, and crusading apostleship of the Dhamma. A deep understanding of human nature and the human problem of suffering had mellowed him and bred in him, in an unusual degree, qualities of tolerance, patience, restraint and sympathy with fellow-beings. Opposition and frustration left in him no sense of defeat or bitterness. He was the working bee in the Master's hive and, in His service, the very juice of the bitter thyme turned into honey at his touch. No wonder that, in the Augustan age of Buddhist renascence in Ceylon, Soma Thera was considered to represent the fine flower of Buddhist culture. He shed its fragrance wherever he moved. As scholar, preacher, organiser, monk and friend it may be aptly said of him: "Nihil tetigit quod non ornavit".
Associat< Offering OJ Flowers, Incms< And light To Th< Buddha. We have gathered here to pay homage to the Blessed One, who found the way to Happiness for all beings. With these flowers we honour the mainfold purity of the Master; with incense, his compassion; with the light of these lamps, his perfect enlightenment. By our joint worship of the Buddha, may we gain the strength to work together in friendliness, sympathising with those in trouble, rejoicing with those who are are fortunate, and avoiding all the evil courses of 'action, namely, the evil courses of selffish desire, hate, fear and delusion. 1.

x

In Memoriam
'These sterling qualities of Soma Thera were happily blended·in a character in which humility and service formed the keynote. He never spared himself. He gave till it hurt. He gave UNTO THIS LAST-unto death. Overwork, fatigue, were the proximate causes of the dire malady which struck down this jllighty oak of the Dhamma which was a shade and refuge of many a seeker after Truth. Today a void is left standing which may take years to fill. 'To those of us who knew him and enjoyd<i his friendship and affection for nearly four decades both as the. dashing young layman Victor E. P. PullC;, and as a monk of blessed memory, Soma Thera presents a remarkable character study. The child was the father of the man, Thera. Yet in his twenties, he was a rebel from the faith of his fathers and questing for the knowledge of the truth. In the 1930's, still hot on the pursuit, he was the leader of a band of young men who formed the Fort Study Circle under the Presidency of Mr. J. Tyagarajah, with Dr. L. A. (now Sir Lalita) Rajapakse and the late Mr. R. Nadarajah as Vice-Presidents. 'Their motto was sacrifice and service and their main object was the economic and cultural development of the country. The regular weekly programme of the Circle, all planned by Victor, included classes iii Pali, Hindi, Layman's Law, History, Economics and politics. With what resourcefulness, with what prevision of judgement and success, he organised and directed its activities towards the cultural and literary formation of the day are now matters of history ... 'Young Victor's reputation for literary and critical scholarship was such that Dr. Lucian De Zilwa prefaced his talk by saying that he accepted the invitation for a lecture with the major' object of making the acquaintance of Mr. V. E. P. Pulle; and Mr. K. P. S. Menon, one of the most graceful and eloquent public speakers this country has ever .had, began his lecture by saying that he was always anxious to see the set of young men who could produce an annual report of such literary excellence as that· turned out by the Fort Study Circle. 'For Victor Pulle reason Was the touchstone of truth. In this quest, he studied comparative religion, logic; philosophy-Dahlke and Schopenhauer had a particular appeal to him-art, sculpture, archaeologyY'$story, music and even astrology. In~eed, like Bacon, he took all knowledge' for his province. There was not a. single individual in the Fort of his day who
Service of the world is the highest homage we can pay to the Buddha, the friend and . helper of all beings. Let this act of homage with flowers, incense and light, .be the symbol of the homage of service of the world every Buddhist has to fulfil. Let us dedicate ourselves anew today to tread the Path of Service trodden by the Master-the 'path of Charity, Virtue and Clear Thought. Let III remind ourselves now and frequently that the greatest charity is in giving the mft of fearlessness (abhaya diina) to the world by refraining from killin.· g, steal1ilg, unchastityl fying and drink. Thus we shall be able. to become merciful, honest, chasti!, truthful &n\l sober, and make the society in which we live a noble one. Ma), ~t undemanding and right thought grow in the world I
XI

In Memoriam
combined ·in himself such a vast amalgam of knowledge. Literary and economic studies, however, could not satisfy his ardent mind and he joined the Sangha. It was in this august calling that his scholarship ripened and Buddhist revival throughout the World received from the results of his labour a new life and orientation. 'Meditation, study, teaching the Dhamma, canonical research and his own trials and tribulation in the process produced a vast transformation in Soma Thera. The elan and impulsiveness of the layman turned into serene calm. The combative debater of yesteryear became the sedate teacher and friendly adviser.. The glint of battle which earlier rose to his eyes when argument waxed high grew into sparks of sympathy and compassion. The chiselled square jaws which hurled challenge softened their contours. Above all, the terrific right fist which characteristically swung menacingly in debate would swing no more. It was obvious even to us his old boon companions to whom he stili accorded the privilege of "ragging" him once in a way, that this .great pioneer and savant, by a terrific ordeal of trial and error, had at last subdued himself and that he had not only found the Middle Path but had established himself so firmly in it that he was a fitting exemplar of his Master's Way of Life. 'As a writer, Soma Thera belongs to the genre whom Buffon's dictum "Le style est l'homme meme" is perfectly applicable. In his Study Circle days, he had a massive style. The exposition and argument would at times be obscured by the weight of movement. He used his pen as a tomahawk. Whe·n Carthage had to be destroyed, he made no bones about it but went and destroyed. As a Thera, the old asperity and venom disappeared and the style assumed a precision, clarity, mellowness and gentle movement which reflected the repose and. sureness of his own mind. It is significant that, in recent years, his thoughts· turned to poetry. They all centre on the Dhamma. One of them recalls so naturally the self-abnegation of the bees in Virgil's lines "Sic vas, non vobis, mellificatis, apes"-not for yourself, ye bees, your cells ye fill-that the verses "Giving· Up" deserve quotation'.1 One day, towards the end of 1928, our common friend, Mr. W. Joseph Soysa (Oliver as we call him), introduced me to Victor. But it was hardly necessary. Siinultaneously Victor and I knew that we had been friends before, in an earlier life. 2 But we were always grateful to Oliver for this. Later I was happy to find that the Buddha taught that it was not easy to find a being, who, during the vast period of time covered in the process of birth and death, and birth again and death, had not, at one time or another, been a mother, a father, a brother, a sister, a son, a daughter. The Blessed One then asks the question, "What is the reason for this"? and himself answers: "Not to be known is the.
I.. See page XVI. 2. Since writing this the Ven. Vinita Thera of Vajiriiriima was kind enough to draw.my attention to a sonnet in which Lord Tennyson describes how. he recognised a friend 0 XlI

In Memoriam
start of beings enmeshed in ignorance and fettered by craving, running on, speeding on through interminable births and deaths. Nor can it be said of the running 'on and the speeding on of ignorant and craving beings that they are tending to an end. And in this interminable process, for iong have you all experienced grief bitter and sharp and made the graveyards bigger and bigger. Because of that you should tum away from the formations (sankharas), cut them off, and become free of them"-S. II, 190 (Soma Thera's translation). This is no poetic fancy, as at first sight it may appear to be. This is the word of the Supremely Enlightened One who has done with poetic fancy. His is the vision of things as they are (yathabhUtanaa1Jdassana). And this vision he describes. without exaggeration; for exaggeration the Buddhas do not indulge in. In the late twenties, Victor and I had heard from the late Mr. Wong Mow Lam, the Chinese scholar, who was in Ceylon for sometime; that th~re were great possibilities for spreading the Theravada in his country and that there was much that could be translated from the Mahayana literature of China. So when we went to Burma in 1934, remembering the words of our scholar friend, we decided after careful thought to go to the Far East and return later to Burma for ordination. We began our journey to China by way of Kawkerik, over the misty Dawna Mountains and across the border for four days on foot to Raehaeng in Thailand, and thence by bus, river boat and train through Svankaloke (Svargaloka-heaven world), Pisalokc (Vi~lJuloka Vi~I.1.U's world), we arrived in Krum Teb (Deva Nagara - the city of the gods) which is Bangkok. Then again, after travelling by train to Penang, and by ship to Singapore and Hong Kong,. we arrived in Shanghai. Finding there no facilities for study we proceeded to Tokyo. There we met Prof. Nichiki Kimura of Rissho University, who invited us to attend his English lectures on Mahayana. Towards the end of 1935, through his good offices, we were invited to Jozaiji, the Nichiren temple in Kawatana-Machi, Nagasakiken. The head of that temple, the Rev. N. R. M. Ehara, had been a lecturer at Rissho for sometime. He was the perfect host-a most understanding, patient, pleasant, witty character with abundant laughter, and he was young. He did everything within his power to make our stay as comfortable as possible.
an earlier life, thus: "As when with downcast eyes we muse and brood, And ebb into a former Ii/e, or seem To lapse far back in some confused dream To states of mystical similitude.If one but speaks or hems or stirs his chair, Ever the wonder waxeth more and more, So that we say, 'All this hath been before, All this hath been, I know not when or wh•. d'. So, friend, wl!en first I look'd upon y(lur face, Our thought gave answer each to each, so trueOpposed mirr(lrs each reffecting eachThat tho' I knew' n(lt in what time or place, Methought that I had often met with you, And either lived in either's heart and speech".

¥IJI

In Memoriam
When we arrived at Kawatana-Machi, Jozaiji was being rebuilt. By the end of April, the building operations over, our host set apart the new guesthouse for our use and called it the Lion Hall, "in honour", as he said, "of the Lion Isle, the home of my friends". We spent a most· pleasant and fruitful year in our Lion Hall, for, it was here that the whole of the Gedatsu Do Ron (the Chinese translation of the Vimuttimagga) was translated into English for the first time. Perhaps it will not be out of place to mention here that when the late Ven. Nya~atiloka MaM Thera was in Japan during the years that followed the First World War, he tried, but failed, to persuade any Japanese scholar to undertake this translation. So when we sent him a copy of our translation he heartily welcomed it. The word for word translation the draft translation, copying, cyc1ostyling, binding, packing for the post, were all done by the three of us and that during the brief space of four months. Besides; the section on virtue had to be cyc10styled thrice before Vir.:tor was satisfied with it. This is how the translation began. Some days after we went into residence in the Lion Hall, our friend showed us around his new library. Pointing to three thin volumes he said that that was the Chinese translation of th!, Vimuttimagga, arid that originally it was supposed to have been written in Pali in Ceylon by a Sinhalese Thera. With one voice both of us exclaimed that we were ready to begin translating it that very instant,-of course, with his help. And our friend, with his great big ringing laughter, readily agreed. And we immediately. translated the first few pages though he had much to do, it being very close to Hanamatsuri, the Flower Festival, which corresponds to Vesa~ in Theravtida lands. Working incessantly we managed to issue the translation of the first fascicle on Hanamatsuri, May 28, 1936. Continuing to work even up to twenty hours a day sometimes we were able to post the last copy of the last section of the translation to fifty scholars by the last day of September, 1936. During this period Victor knew no fatigue in that most agreeable climate of South Japan. Jozaiji is beautifully situated a third of the way up the hill which rises abruptly from the broad paddy fields that stretch right up to the sea. In front is the river Kawa, the beauty of which they sing in Kawa-no-Kawatana, the song of the Kawa of Kawatana. Behind, the hill rises higher and higher and is level at the top. The temple was here in ancient times, and here Victor and I used to stroll under those attractively twisted and gnarled sungi trees, the cypresses, that adorn the grounds of Japanese temples. One summer day while walking there our attention was drawn to some plants we seemed to recognize. At first we thought they were well-grown violets. But soon found they were gotukola (Hydrocotyle Asiatica). Their stalks were nearly eighteen inches long with large leaves. We took a handful of them to the temple, and our host was agreeably surprised to hear· that this was eaten in Ceylon. He liked it so much that he introtiuced it to the whole village. They call it horseshoe.
XlV

In Memoriam
During these four months of translation work the thought that repeatedly arose in out,minds was how soon could we return to Burma for ordinatiop and put into practice the teaching of the Sambuddha so clearly set forth in the Vimuttimagga. It was plain, open, and easy to understand. What it said reached the heart direct - hadayangama seemed to be the correct word to describe one's reaction on reading the Vimuttimagga for the first time. There was no point in delaying. So we left Jozaiji with our friend the Rev. N. R. M. Ehara and a few others, went to Nagasaki and took ship to Rangoon, Our friend was much grieved that we were leaving so soon and repeatedly said as the ship was leaving, "Come back, come back again". That was the last time we were to see him. For, though we had hoped some day to see him again, word came shortly after the Second World War that he had suddenlypa~sedaway. This was sometime after he' had been appointed head of the Nichlren ~ect for the district of Omura. Before we decided to translate the Vimuttimagga our host was keen on translating some of the smaller treatises of Nichiren' Shonin which Victor did. Some of them were published in the Young East, the journal of the Japanese Buddhist Associations, Tokyo. We reached Moulmein by the end of October, and found that U. Chit Swe, our dayaka, had made all arrangements for our ordination in an araiiiiavasa (forest residence), as requested by us, and had gone over to India on pilgrimage. His close friend, U. Chit Su, deputised for 'him. And on November 6, 1936, Victor and I received our higher ordination With the' Venerable Pii.!;H;lava Maha Thera of Taungwainggyi Shewgyin Kyaung Taik, Moulmein, as teacher. Here we came to hear of the Venerable Narada Maha Thera, also known as Jetavana Sayadaw. As he was then living in nearby Thaton, we visited him. A lay pupil of his who had earlier instructed us in the practice of the Satipatthana method of meditation, too, accompanied us to seethe Sayadaw. His method was strictly in accordance with the Sa/ipatthana Suttas of the Digha and Majjhima Nikayas and their commentaries. He said that the necessary instruction was found in them and no new interpretation was necessary; the Buddha called it tile sole way and that there was no otHer 'sole' way to the purification of beings. On reaching Ceylon by way of India in the middle of 1937, Bhikkhu Soma met a companion of his childhood days who became so attached to him that he would not leave him till his death - that distressing thing called asthma. It would have rendered many a strong man useless for work quite early. But asthma or no asthma, he worked on and on up to the end with increasing vigour. Hearing that we were returning to Ceylon, a dayaka, the late Mr. W. M. Barnes de Silva, had set apart a small house for our use in a quiet place at Belihuloya. We could not stay there long as the Venerable Soma fell ill arid had to go to Colombo for treatment and we stayed at the Vidyalankara Oriental College, Kelaniya, fm a time. .

xv

In Memoriam
After he recovered from his illness, and wishing to live in quiet surroundings for a while, we were able to go into residence at the Mahanadi Arama at Gampolawela. Then at the invitation of the late Sir Baron Jayatilaka we visited Bangalore in 1939 with the Venerable Naravila Dhammaratana Mahii Thera, as leader of the Mission of Goodwill to India. There the mission was able to secure from the Government of Mysore a site for a Buddhist Centre, and both of us returned to Ceylon in 1940 owing to illness. As Bhikkhu Soma needed rest for sometime, Mr. A. B. C. de Soysa placed his bungalow, in his estate in Kurunegala, at our disposal. After a few months' stay there we were invited by the Venerable NyiiJfaponika Maha Thera to the Island Hermitage, Dodanduwa. As the Second World War had begun, all the German Theras of the Hermitage were interned and the Venerable Ny~I;liiloka Mahii Thera, the present adhipati (chief resident Thera) was then in. charge of the place. During this period the attacks of asthma were most severe. At one time the only available medicament was Himrod'·s Asthma Cure. It had to be lit with a match and the fumes inhaled. Bhikkhu Soma could hardly walk two yards without this Himrod's cure, and could not sleep at night without filling the room with these fumes. One night even this failed to help. So about 2 a.m. he sat at his table and scribbled these verses: Out ofthe womb of sightless night Rang out a word ()f healing strong, And put to flight the evil throng That stood betwixt the eye and light,
Whf!re lies, friend, the golden mean 1 Where's the heatt forever clean? Where is life at its best seen? Where reaches one Peace Serene? When does one a/ways see things clear? When is one to all beings dear? When does one wipe away all fear? When does one to Truth adhere ? How does one give full measure? How, end poverty's pressure? How, come to rarest treasure? How, know the purest pleasure? Why on self a tight hand keep? Why the heart in culture steep? Why twn on to wisdom deep? Why care not to sow or reap?
XVI

In giving up. In giving up. In.giving up. In giving up. In giving up. In giving up. In giving up. In giving up. By giving up. By giving up. By giving up. By giving up. For giving up. For giving up. For giving up. For giving up.

In Memoriam
He lived in this "our little island home", as he liked to call the Hermitage, from 1940-45 and from 1948-54. These were years he treasured much. For it was here that the first edition of The Way of Mindfulness (1941) and His Last Performa';ce (1943) were written. He also edited here in 1943 Anapana Sati of Dr. Cassius A. Pereira. In spite of his failing health he wrote unceasingly. He contributed articles to var).<lUS Buddhist journals regularly. The quiet of the Hermitage appealed to him a great deal. Frequently he sat beneath the trees by the water's edge in deep thought, and the following verses might indicate some of the thoughts that occupied his mind then:
Away against the lip of sea and sky A tiny fisher .craji tamled brown by sun, Pops up and down, like monk in russet clout; Upon the choppy sea of doubt and lust. The tender palms of gold and light green fronds Remind me of my youth and boyhood's days. Amidst their plumy, wavy forms I throv.e Imbibing nature's simple silent ways.

Once it was thought that his asthma might improve if he had a change and so he stayed at Asokarama in Nuwara Eliya for sometime. There, walking along in Moon Plains once, he was absorbed in the beauty of a waterfall. He used to watch the 'water', rushing down. :na silver streak; and very often the asthma left him on those occasions crhe forgot it. This tiresomefriend, Asthma, has a peculiar trait. He wants attention. And, sometimes, if no attention is paid to him, he sharply retorts in return by paying no attention. These were the times when Soma Thera would say, "I am thoroughly fit. I can work even the whole day", reminiscent of the Lion Hall days when he really worked almost the whole day. It is about this waterfall in Nuwara Eliya that he wrote:
I

E' er let me live and die where waters flow From hidden springs on heights that probe the sky, And come to light as white foam falling by The negro face of rocks that shine and glow.

Childlikeness was a prominent characteristic of his, and perhaps the following ver.ses illustrate some aspect of it:
E'er let me live and die with childlike sight, Beholding elfin gold and jewels bright, And dream-made treasure in the silent night Of travel on and on the Path of Light,

xvu

In Memoriam
At the invitation of the late Venerable Tai Tsu, the well known Buddhist leader of China, the Venerable Mac;lihe Paiiiiasiha Thera (now Mahi Nayaka' Thera), the Venerable Soma Thera, and I, went to China to establish a Pall College at Sianfu, the ancient Buddhist Centre in Shensi Province, the home of Fa Hsien the famous pilgrim. Arriving in Shanghai in early July, we found that fighting had broken out in Shensi between the Nationalist and the Communist forces. Tbere was no possibility of proceeding further. The Yassa-vasa, the rainy season residence, was spent in Shanghai after which the mission returned. During this period Som.a Thera's radio sermons were mucll· appreciated. Besides, he addressed many gatherings in various parts of the city. The Shanghai Y.M.B.A. which he founded had, by the time the mission left, nearly. three hundred members. He also' conducted a Pali' class, which was well attended. In November that year the Mission returned ·to Hong Kong where, too, Soma Thera addressed various groups of Buddhillts. Arriving Singapore in January 1947, the mission had to wait two months for a boat. Meanwhile Soma Thera delivered sermons and lectures to large gatherings both in Singapore and Kuala Lumpur. The Mission returned to Ceylon in March that year. Soma Thera returned to the Island Hermitage at the end of 1948 and remained there till 1954. After his return from China, on his initiative, two important Buddhist' associations in Colombo, The Sisanadhira Kanta'Samitiya and The Bank'S,' Asoka Society, were' formed in 1950 and 1956 respectively. He was the founder-patron of the latter~ With the approach of the Buddha Jpyanti celebrations, it was sugg~'te(i that a bi-monthly called 'Buddha Jayanti' be publi5hed for the duration of these celebrations for the benefit ·of the English reading public. Whea in 1953 the organizers came to ask Soma Maha Thera for· his belp, he threw himself wholeheartedly into the work, for half-hearted effort was. alien to his nature. Most of the editorials 'on the Dhamma in the 'Buddha JayanW and a large number of translations from the Pali and the German, besides original articles, and the Jayanti Miscellany, were from his versatile pen. His masterly articles on 'The Greatest Mahanayaka Thera of Our Time' and the editorial 'A Maker of Good Men' on the passing away of the. Venerable PaeHi.ene Siri Vajiraiia:t;la Maha NayaU Thera, were written at a time when he was much harassed by asthma. Finding that the long stay at the Island Hermitage had worsened his asthma and seeing the advantage of being with the Venerable Paelaene Sirl Vajiraiia:t;la Maha Nayaka Thera at Vajiririima with its well equipped library, Soma Thera came to reside once more at Vajirirama. Both the MahaNayaka Thera and Soma Thera were happy to meet; for, as far back as 1919, the former had iJ;J.spired the latter by his • great knowledge, understanding, and kindness. Soma Thera's regard. and respect for him kept on increasing during the years. They used to converse on the Dhamma and on allied subjects such as literature, history, grammar. folk-lore, and so on, for hours at a time. The Mahi Nayaka Thera. too, was always ailing, but when both of them began t1> convene they forgot their
xvru

m

In Memo-dam
ailments. It might be wondered how it was possible for one to get so interested in such atheme as grammar. But the Mahii Niiyaka Thera was such a master of the subject and an accomplished conversationalist that he was able to make even a subject like grammar interesting. I remember in the early thirties how the Mahii Niiyaka The.ra discoursed on the Dhamma to a group of us young men whose leader was Victor. Once the questions put by Victor so interested the Mahii Niiyaka Thera that he continued the conversation till three o'clock in the moming. This early earnestness he maintained to the very end. How this long and earriest practice of the Dhamma moulded Soma Mahii Thera's character is briefly shown in the following extracts from an article by Ceylon's Director of Education, Mr. S. F. de Silva: 'I came to know the Venerable Soma Thera as Mr. Victor Palle some thirty years ago .... My first impression' was of a remarkably earnest man who was determined to seek and find out the Truth. His face was an index to his 'earnestness and I often listened to him arguing a point .... We became very good friends and week in and week out I used to watch and realise that of the band that gathered together; he was one of the most earnest and untiring in his study of the Dhamma .. .. As a member of the Order he became a changed man. I noticed a strength of character al).d calmness of demeanour in everything he said and wrote. I used to visit him in his room and talk t~ngs over many an evening. Occasionaly the eye would flash and I could see the old time fighter but there was an unmistakable sense of toleration of others and a remarkable kindliness in everything he said. The Venerable Soma Maha Thera was very well known to English speaking audiences in the Island. Many may remember his thoughtful talks over Radio Ceylon. I am aware how deeply he was respected by Buddhist students in schools all over the island .... To me his translation, edition and notes of the Satipatthtina Sutta is characteristic of the man. He was one who wanted to practise the Dhamma, and the SatipaUhtina Sutta was to him 'the one way for the ending of unhappiness'. I can see his mind in his introductory notes and his interpretations of the text. The Venerable Soma Thera's edition of the Satipatthtina Sutta is a part of his own life because he was one who wanted to practise the Dhamma. I miss him very much as a friend but those who knew him have no cause to grieve for a life that had been so nobly spent, He had acquitted himself heroically in all things he did to the end .... Alert and intensely alive in the search and practice of the Truth, it is of these that the Buddha has said that 'those who are heedful do not die'. His life is an example to all ~ose who knew him, that there i~ nothing nobler for a Buddhist than to live the life that the Buddha has preached, to walk the way He had walked and to follow Him on the Noble Quest. May the Venerable Soma Thera attain the Noble Quest he started some forty years ago'. When one happens to be the only person in a powerful group to accept another teaching, much opposition may be expected. This Victor had in
XIX

In Memoriam
plenty. At these times he resorted to the calm atmosphere ~f Vajiriiriima, wherethe.lat,e Venerable Mahii Niiyaka Thera and the Venerable Niirada ·Mahii. Thera always found the time to speak with him, sometimes for hours, and he went away stimulate!!. Later, as a' bhikkhu, when the Venerable Soma, while residing at the Vidyiilankiira Oriental College, Kelaniya, found that the, opposition had grown into hostility,he. had the ready sympathy and unstint'edsuppo!t of the late Venerable Lunupokune. Dhammiinanda Niiyaka Thera, the Venerable Kirivattu4uve Siri Pafifiiisiira Niiyaka Thera (now ·Vice-Chancellor) and .the other veneral¥e theras· of the College. It is also fitting to record here the help readily .givenby . the' late Mr. Siigara Palansuriya and Mr. k. M. w. Kuruppu during this difficult period. But both as layman and .as monk his attitude to those who'were opposed to him, 'and who later became hostile, Was one of' kindness and l,mderstanding. True follower of the Master, he bore his sufferings· without rancour, like. the fragr~t sandal wood tree which perfumes the axe that Jays it low, and like tl).e sugarcane which sweetens the mouth where it .is being· crushed. Soma Thera participated in the making of the simd, chapter house, at the .Mahabodhi Society's Centre in Bangalore during the Buddha Jayanti ·celebratiol;lS in 1956. Some of the older members of the Buddhist Association there ,were pleasantly surpri~ed to see him,. for this was the site that the Mission of Goodwill had, in 1940, secured from the Government of Mysore for a Buddhist Centre. On his return to Ceylon in early 1957, Soma TQera was invited by the German pharmadiita Society to lead the first Buddhist Mission to Germany in June ·that yeat:, the other'members being Vinita Thera, Mr. W Joseph Soysa and myself; But though he underwent a serious operation just two weeks before the mission was due .to leave, he insisted on not altering the travel arrangements. Actually he went on board ship direct from the hospital. The wound had not. healed completely then, and the dressing had to be continued for another five weeks. At the end of this period he could not move his left arm. It was after a further three months' treatment that he recovered. Yet during all this, time Soma Thera worked' with a fortitude which evoked the admiration of all around him. Though the dry climate of Berlin helped his asthma he was not entirely free of attacks. Referring to his fortitude, a friend wrote, "No other monk except another Soma Thera would have ventured forth ·on such a mission .after· the serious operation he had to stand only a couple of weeks before". . Yet the work which he had undertaken absorbed all Soma Thera's time and attention. He met the leading Buddhists in Berlin, who were anxious to co-operate with the mission's work, and soon there began a series of weekly • meetings at which Soma Thera read a paper in German which was followed by answering questions that the audience liked to ask. The interpretingat these meetings was done by Mr. F. Knobelock, the then President of the Congress of German Buddhist Associations, or by Mr. Guido Auster. 'This progr~e was continued till the mission left Berlin. Meanwhile

xx

In Memoriam
Soma Thera addressed schools in various parts of the city. The children listened to him with the greatest interest. Just before leaving Berlin, the mission received an inyitation from the Municipality of Isedohn to conduct a- Meditation Seminar during the "Indian Week" which was a part of the 'Sauerland Cultural Season'. About one hundred people from all walks of life attended it. The late Mr. Egon Vietta was the organiser of the Seminar. On the last day of the Seminar he announced that he had brought a few questions from his teacher, the well-known Existentialist philosopher, Prof. Heidegger, who was ill and unable to travel. When- these questions were put to the Yen. Soma Mahii Thera his answers were prompt and so convincing that Mr. Vietta said that these same questions had been put by him to European scholars, individually and in groups, but he had not received such sat~fying answers as had been given by Soma Mahii Thera. Another invitation that the mission accepted was that of the Buddhists of Hamburg. They were anxious to have us with them during Vesak time. So from Islerlohn the-mission left for Hamburg, where Mr. W. Stegemann, the President of the Buddhist Society of Hamburg, welcomed us. From here, after making a brief visit to London, Oxford, and Cambridge, the mission returned to Hamburg where Soma Thera conducted classes in meditation, and delivered lectures and led discussions on the Dhamma. These meetings were well attended. He much liked working among the Hamburg Budd-hists because, as he said, they were well informed, organized, and greatly interested in their work as a body. In response to numerous requests, all the addresses delivered in Germany by Soma Mahii Thera were published by the Hamburg Buddhist Society in their Bulletin the Mitteilungsblatt. With all this incessant work and travel Soma Thera grew weak, and when he returned to Ceylon from Germany in June 1958 he was very tired; but with skilful medical attention and another operation he regained his former vigour and worked hard which he loved to do. Then again he fell ill-this time with renal colic-and after another spell in hospital he was once more in a fit condition to continue his work. This time he slept hardly four hours a day, from about midnight to 4 a.m. When told that he tired himself overmuch, he used to say, "I have gathered enough now but I have not time enough to give". So he worked on to the end never caring for his health. Yet he was happy doing it. He was held in affectionate and highest regard by all those who knew him for his qualities of heart and head. One of them wrote from England thus: "I was mentioning to the Dons of the Faculty of Eastern Religions at Oxford that there was in Ceylon a monk (referring to Soma Thera) who was eminently qualified by way of knowledge and learning to fill the Chair of Eastern Religions which is now vacant". Mr. Guido Auster, the Director of the Oriental Department of the German State Library, Berlin, hearing of his death wrote, "He contacted many personalities of the religious and intellectuallife in Berlin and Germany. He delivered lectures at various places,
XXI

In Memoriam
among them-most important in my opinion-several to pupils in our schools. He had an especially lucky hand in dealing with children and young people who admired him. fIe was most patient towards enquirers and beginners". Again, he says, "This impressive personality, reminding me in his dignity of It high prelate during the Middle Ages, weilding not only spiritual but also temporal power, has dissolved". The President of the Servants of the Buddha, Mr. Ananda Pereira, who, 19n9 before his 'teens, knew Soma Thera wrote thus of him in the Ceylon Daily News of February, 27, 1960. 'With the' death of the Venerable Soma Thera, Lanka loses one- of her noblest sons. Born of Roman Catholic parents on December 23, 1898, duly baptised and brought up in the faith of his parents, the youthful Victor Pulle began asking questions-deep, simple, direct questions-the answers to which as given by his parents and spiritual advisors did not satisfy him 'His inquiries in due course led him to Buddhism, where at last he found the answers, or .at least the hope of satisfactory answers to his questions. 'He plunged into the study of the Buddha Dhamm(J. It was at this period that he laid the foundation of that sure grasp of the Teachings that served him so well in later years as a missionary. He was associated with Dr. Cassius A. Pereira (later Ven. Kassapa Thera) in the preparation of the Blessing. He was an -enthusiastic and hard-working member of the Servants of the Buddha. He made many friends. 'Never one to be satisfi,ed with half measures, he was ordained as a Bhikkhu in 1936. From the day he joined the Sangha, he adorned it. As scholar, translator, writer, preacher and missionary, he strove mightily in the BUddhist cause. He, never spared himself. 'But tho.se who knew him, will remem1;ler him most for his humanity. His was not the cold way of the anaemic· academician. He lived his Buddhism with every beat of his warm generous heart. Sometimes he seemed impulsive, sometimes even a shade pugnacious, but never, never, did he say or do a mean, false, or deliberately unkind thing. 'He was generous-with his advice, with his time, with himself. Though to outward appearance he was strong, his health was never particularly robust. But he never let ill-health interfere with his work, and his work was always giving. I have seen him preaching sermons or reciting Pirith at times when the mere act of breathing was acutely difficult because of asthma. 'Soma Thera was a genuine monk. He observed the Vinaya rules with absolute strictness, never permitting himself the slightest infringement, His standards were the highest. His life was a shining example to others, Bhikkhus and lay-folk alike. 'One does not need to feel sorrow on his behalf. His road is the road -of the Bilddha, the Arahats, the mighty ones. He lived here a while and has
XXII

In Memoriam
gone on, strong and assured, brave and smiling, kind, gentle, untiring. The story is not done. We too must fare onward when our .time comes. We shall meet again'. During the last few months of his life he often spoke and wrote on death, quoting from the Suttas and other writings, fOr instance, his own translations from the Sanskrit of Vi~l).usarman thus:
In him who ever and again, Reflects on death's hard hand ofpain, The drive for gross material gain Grows limp like hide soaked through with rain;

and from the commentary to the Dhammapada: "Uncertain is life, certain is death; it is .necessary that I should die; at the close of my life there is death. Life is indeed unsure but death is sure, death is sure" - Dh.-a. III, 170; and from the Sutta-S. IV, 211: "Mindfully and with complete awareness should a bhikkhu meet his end. This is the advice I give you". 'I knew the Venerable Soma Mahii Thera intimately for nearly thirty-two years. During this period if the number of days we were absent from each other be added up it will not amount to more than a few months. Yet during all these years our interests centred round the Dhamma only. When I met him I knew very little Dhamma, having but recently accepted the Teaching of the Buddha. What Dhamma I now know was gleaned from him or in his company. So when he passed away suddenly the blow was difficult to bear. Before this event "the separation" referred to in the words of the Buddha: Piyehi vippayogo dukkho, "the separation from the loved is ill", did not seem so difficult a·thing to bear. Now it appeared in a different light. The passing away of the Venerable Siiriputta Thera caused in the Venerable Ananda Thera, who was then only Sotiipanna, Stream-entrant (he became Arahat later), great agitation of mind, in spite of his having been with the Buddha and learned the Dhamma from him for twenty-five years. How he served the Buddha during thos~ years is shown in the following verses, beautifully rendered by Mrs. C. A. F. Rhys Davids, thus:
For five-and-twenty years a learner I; No sensual consciousness arose in me. o see the seemly order of the Norm! For five-and-twenty years a learner I; No hostile consciousness arose in me. o see the seemly order of the Norm! For five-and-twenty years on the Exalted One I waited, serving him by loving deeds, And like his shadow followed after him. For five-and-twenty years on the Exalted One

xxm

In Memoriam
I waited, serving him with loving speech, And like his shadow followed.after him. For five-and-twenty years on the Exalted One I waited, serving him with loving thoughts, And like his shadow followed after him. When pacing up and down, the Budaha walked, Behind his back I kept the pace alway; And when the Norm was being taught, in me knowledge and understanding ofit grew. 1

And it is this 'knowledge and understanding' that he refers to as being 'confused' for him in the following verses, when the Venerable Sliriputta Thera passed away:
The firmament on every hand Grows dim, yea, all confus~d stand The truths I seemed to understand. Gone is the noble friend we love, And dark is earth and heaven above. 2

The following is a description by Soma Thera (Bosat, October 1959, pp. 170-71) of how the Buddha comforted the Venerable Ananda Thera on this occasion: 'When the Buddha was told ofthe passing away of the Venerable Siiriputta Thera, who was considered to be the Commander of the Army of Righteousness, the Blessed One said this to the Venerable Ananda Thera, who was upset, "Tell me Ananda, did Sliriputta take the aggregate of virtue along with him and become extinct? Or did he take the aggregate of concentration along with him and become extinct? Or did he take along with him the aggregate of wisdom and become extinct? Or did he take along with him the aggregate of freedom and become extinct? Or did he take along with him the aggregate of the knowledge and insight of freedom and become extinct?'-'No Venerable Sir'.-'Have I not, indeed, told you before that with all that is dear, pleasing, involved are change, separation, an4 variation?" 'The Buddha shows that it is not possible to stop the breaking up of what is born, produced, and put together, and of what has the nature of breaking, and compares the Venerable Sliriputta Thera to one of the greater branches of the mighty tree of the Community of Bhikkhus. Comparable to the breaking o( a bigger branch of a mighty tree, says the Buddha, is the Venerable Sliriputta Thera's passing away and no one can stop the breaking .of what is breakable by ordering that thing not to break'. But when this peerless comforter, the Blessed One himse~, passed away
1. Psalms of the Brethren, 1039-44.
XXIV

2. Psalms of the Brethren, 1034.

In Memoriam
shortly afterwards the Venerable Ananda Thera uttered the following verses:
And is the comrade passed away, And is 'the Master gone from hence? No better friend is left, methinks, Than to mount guard o'er deed and sense. They of the older time are gone; The new men suit me not at all, Alone to-day this child doth brood, Like nesting-bird when rain doth fall. 1

Thus did the Venerable Ananda Thera find comfort, and we, too, fina solace at the feet of the Teacher of divine and human beings. . Sometimes birds fly into houses and, staying a while, sing and cheer those there; but suddenly they flyaway, casting no glance behind, none knowing where. In like manner even. as it is said: Anavhdto tato dga, anuiiiidto ito gato B- 'uncalled he hither came, unbidden soon to go', Soma Mahii Thera, too, came uninvited and unbidden went away, the while having cheered some weary traveller on the way. To me Soma Mahii Thera was a kalyd!lamitta. In life he blessed me with the friendship extolled by the Blessed One in no uncertain terms: Sakalam
eva h-idam Ananda brahmacariyam yad idam kalyd!la-mittatd kalyiir)a-sahdyatd kalyd!la-sampavankatd,3-'the whole of this holy life consists in noble friendship,

in association, in intimacy with what is noble'. And in death he has drawn me ever near to the Dhamma, that sure refuge and support, as' has been sung by the ancients, thus:
Dhammam vind natthi pitd ca mdtd Tameva td!lam sara!lam patit!hd Tasmd hi bho kiccamaiiiiam pahdya SU!ldtha dhdretha cardtha dhamme. 4 Except the Dhamma of the Perfect One, There is no father and no mother here; The Dhamma is your refuge and support, And in the Dhamma is your shelter true, So hear the Dhamma, on the Dhamma think And spuming other things, live up to it. 5

May that 'trusty., staunch, true friend', the Venerable Soma Milia Thera, attain to that happiness, higher than which there is none - Nibblina, the Happiness Supreme I
Visstisaparamd iidli, nibbdnam paramam sukham. 8
Bambalapiliya, Colombo, September 3, 1960.

In the following pages is a draft translation of the first fascicle of Gedatsu Do Ron Wimuttimagga), No. 1648 of the Taisho Edition of the Chinese Tripi~aka (No. 1293 in Nanjio's Catalogue). The pages of the text are giVen ~n square brackets. This is circulated with the hope of receiving suggestions and criticisms helpful towards bringing out a complete translation of the Vimuttimagga.
We have derived much help from Prof R. Higata's

PREFACE
As stated elsewhere (In Memoriam (p. xv) the draft translation of the Gedatsu Do Ron (being the· Chinese name for the Vimuttimagga) was completed in four months. Therefore it was thought that it needed some revision. This the Venerable Soma Thera intended to do on his· return to Ceylon in 1937. But he fell ill and by the end of 1939 the Second World War was already three months old. All hope of publishing the revised edition of the Original Draft Translation during the war had to be given up. With the end of the war, however, conditions were even less favourable. Meanwhile, though the Venerable Soma Thera wished to complete the tevision. and await a favourable occasion to publish it, other work he had undertaken prevented him from doing so. Further, asthma robbed him of much. of his time. Thus the work he intended to do on the Vimuttimagga translation had to be postponed each time h.e took it up. When he passed away many venerable theras and dayakas were much interested in publishing, at least, the Original Draft Translation as it was, and they requested me to prepare it for publicatibn. Knowing.my own limitations, I was at first rather disinclined to undertake this work, .but later acceded to their earnest request for the following reasons. The Venerable Soma Thera had originally wished to have the English translation of the Vimuttimaggq, (The Path of Freedom) revised and published some day. But later, seeing difficulties, he. modified the idea and was even content with merely revising the Draft Translation, leaving the publication itself to some future time. He said that the important thing, the Draft Translation, had been done, and that if people felt that they needed it they would see to its publication. It was a work that had inspired both the Venerable Soma Thera and me, and there were many who welcomed its publication. I Dr. D. Roland D. Weerasuria of Balcombe House, Balcombe Place, Colombo, invited the Venerable Soma Thera sometime in 1959 to write an abridged version of the Visuddhimagga as he felt that such an edition would supply a long felt want. But shortly after he began. writing it death intervened. Dr. Weerasuria then requested the Venerable NalJamoli Thera to take up the work which, after ~ome hesitatio~; he agreed to finish within a year. But he, too, passed away within a week. Sometime after this Dr. Weerasuria, having seen the Original Draft Translation of the Vimuttimagga, was keen on its publication. This was a fitting occasion to pay a tribute to the memory of the two senior co-translators of the Vimuttimagga, the Reverend N. R. M. Ehara and the Venerable Soma Mahii Thera.
XXXI

Preface
And finally the urgent personal need to keep myself immersed in the Dhamma throughout the waking hours during this period of stress prompted me to take up the work. From the above it will be seen that this work was taken up due to sheer force of circumstances and not because of any special qualification on my part, Therefore, perhaps, some things stated here could have been said in other and better ways. Inexpert as I am in scholarly persuits there is bound to be many a lack in my portion of this work and so I ask reader to bear with me should he detect any errors of commission or omission here. In preparing this work for printing I have made a few alterations in the rendering of certain terms and passages, as they appeared in the Original Draft Translation, in accordance with notes and instructions left by the Venerable Soma Thera. The lacunae in the Draft Translation were filled, as far as possible, with the help of the word for word translation in consultation with Soma Thera's notes. All the longer Pali quotations in the footnotes, except a few from the Visuddhimagga and some from the DhammasangmJi etc., were inserted by me. They are given in full mainly with the idea of helping the general reader conversant with the Pali but "to whom reference books are not easily accessible. By this attempt of mine if but just a few readers happen to be benefitted, to any extent, I should consider myself amply rewarded. Since the Introduction had already been sent to the Printers by the time the 'Encyclopaedia of Buddhism' (1961 Government or Ceylon, Fascicule A-Ata) was out, the following is included here. In his article, Abhidharma Literature; Dr. K6gen Mizuno makes three statements on page 78 of the Encyclopaedia regarding the Vimuttimagga: (1) that the Vimuttimagga (along with the Dhammapada, the A!!hakavagga of the Suttanipiita etc.) "probably belonged to the Abhayagiri sect and not to the Mahiivihiira sect" (paragraph B continued from the previous page); (2) that "He (i. e., the Venerable Buddhaghosa Thera) evidently studied the Vimuttimagga, which was a manual of the Abhayagirivihiira sect" (paragraph c); and (3) "That the Vimuttimagga, was Upatissa's work and belonged to the Abhayagirivihiira sect is mentioned in the tikii (sub-commentary, i.e., Dhammapiila's Paramatthamafijiisii) of the Visuddhimagga" (paragraph c). The first statement, (1) aboVe, says that the. Vimuttimagga "probably belonged to the Abhayagiri sect", while the second, (2) above, says "Vimuttimagga, which was a manuel of the Abhayagirivihiira sect". How, precisely" did probability in paragraph B became certainty in paragraph c? As for the third statement, (3) above, the Paramatthamafijilsii does not say that the Vimuttimagga "belonged to the Abhayagirivihiira sect" as is claimed here. What it says is that the Vimuttimagga is the work of the Venerable Upatissa Thera. The fact that certain teachings are common to both the AbhayagiriXXXTJ

Preface
vihiira and the Vimuttimagga does not prove that the latter belonged to the Abhayagirivihiira sect. For details see Introduction pp. xxxvi, XXXVII and n. 2, p. 57 of the pre~ent translation. I have derived much help from Prof. Dr. P. V. Bapat's Vimuttimagga and Visuddhimagga-a Comparative Study, and the Venerable 1'riiI)amoli Thera's translation of the Visuddhimagga-The Path of Purification. The Pall Text Society's Pall-English Dictionary 1921, and Trenchner's Critical Pali Dictionary, Copenhagen 1924-1948 have been equally helpful. It is with great pleasure that I make the following acknowledgements to all those whose help and encouragement made my work less difficUlt. To the Venerable MaQihe Paiiiiiisiha Mahii Niiyaka Thera of Vajiriiriima for his. kindly and ready help and advice at all· times lacking which this work would not have been completed. To ~ll those venerable monks who encouraged me by word and deed when that encouragement was most needed. To the Venerable 1'riiI)aVifa Thera for his welcome· suggestions and the readiness with which he helped in many ways. To Mr. W. Joseph Soysa who helped in reading over some of the proofs. He has always been much interested in the Vimuttimagga and in its publication. To Mr. Lakshman de Mel who read through the type-script and made valuable suggestions. To Mr. R. D. Piyasena and those who helped.him for taking a great deal of trouble in preparing the English Index. Lastly, to Dr. D. Roland D. Weerasuria who has generously borne the entire cost of publishing this translation. Provision has been made by him to keep the price of this book within reach of the modest purse. He has performed this meritorious act (puiiiiakamma) with great faith (saddhii) wishing his father, Mudallyar D. D. Weerasuria I.P., who passed away on 25. 5. 1949, the happiness of Nibbana. May the result of this pure deed redound in full measure to his lasting happiness. The Printers have to be thanked for their patience and high quality'of work.

Vijiriiriima, Colombo, Ceylon.

KHEMINDA THERA,

October 2505/1961.

XXXllI

INTRODUCTION

INby Prof. Dr. M. Nagai on "The Vimutti-Magga, 'the Way to Deliverance'''. the Journal of the Pall Text Society of 1919, there appeared an article
Referring to it Mrs. C. A. F. Rhys Davids in a letter dated September 20, 1936 to the translators of the Gedatsu Do Ron (Vimuttimagga) said, "Then as to the issuing of the book (referring to the Path of Freedom) in a volume of print: Were this society in easier circumstances enjoyed by it up to the Great War, when we ·were immensely helped by the princely donations of your wealthy men, I would undertake at once to publish the work with Prof. Nag'J.i's excellent article in our Journal, 1919, as preface, with anything he liked to add. Or, if you objected, I should ask you three to write your .own preface, making such references to his article as you thought fit". . This article of Prof. Nagai took the Buddhist world by surprise; for, according to the Culavamsa chapter XXXVII, 236-39, when the Venerable Buddhaghosa Thera had written the Visuddhimagga at the behest of the Mahtisangha, the devas had hidden it and he had to write it afresh. When this was done, it too was hidden by the devas. So, when he wrote it for the third time and presented it to the Mahtisangha, it is said, the devas produced the first two copies. It was then found that the three copies agreed in every detail. The record goes on to say (Cv. Ch. XXXVII, 241-43): 'Then the bhikkhus read out all the three books together. Neit)ler in composition and content, nor also as regards the sequence (of the subjects), in the teaching of the Theras, in the quotations, in words, and sentences was there any kind of deviation in all three books. Then the community satisfied and exceedingly well pleased, eried again and again: "without doubt, this is Metteyya!" and handed over to him the books of the three Pitakas together with the commentary' Dr. Geiger's translation. By this statement it was, perhaps, only intended to stress the Venerable Buddhaghosa Thera's great ability, which is amply borne out by this (i.e., the Visuddhimagga) and his later ·works. No other view seems to be warranted, or else it has to be conceded that the Mahiivihiira Theras knew very well that the Bodhisatta Metteyya could not have been born in this world at this time; - see, for instance, the earlier statement of the Mahtivarhsa at Ch. XXXII, 73: 'Awaiting the time when he shall become a Buddha, the compassionate Bodhisatta Metteyya dwells in the Tusita-city'Dr. Geiger's translation. Further, that the Venerable Buddhaghosa Thera and the Bodhisatta Metteyya are two different persons has been established by the Venerable .Buddhaghosa Thera himself in his Postscriflt to the Visuddhimagga (found only in the Sinhalese texts and translated by l"Iii1J.amoli Thera): So may I in my last becoming Behold the joys of Tiivatirhsii, And having in my last life seen Metteyya, Lord of Sages, Highest Of persons in the World, and Helper Delighting in all beings' welfare, And heard that Holy One proclaim The Teaching of the Noble Law, May I grace the Victor's Dispensation By realizing its Highest Fruit'.
XXXV

Introduction
And this, too, the Mahavihara Theras would have known. But in thus stressing his ability, the Cii!avamsa account seems to make out that the visuddhimagga was written without recourse to other works. There is a discrepancy in this account of the Cii!avamsa. It will be noted that 'the three Pi/akas together with Commentary' were handed over to the Venerable Buddhaghosa Thera by the Mahasangha only after he had written the Visuddhimagga, which is correctly designated the General Commentary to the three Pifakas. Now, if he had access to the three Pilakas, and the Commentary only after he had 'written this General Commentary to the three Pilakas, how did he do it? , This is difficult to comprehend. Here is where the article of Prof. Dr. Nagai appears to fit in. Bearing No. 1293 in Prof. Nanjio's Catalogue is a work in Chinese called Cilf-to-tao-lun. It is also called Gedatsu Do Ron. Prof. Nanjio has rendered the title of this work in Sanskrit as 'Vimok~a-Marga', the author being Arahant Upatissa. In trying to identify him with a Ceylon Thera, Prof. Nagai adduces the following reasons: 1. It cannot be the Venerable Sariputta Thera, who was also called Upatissa, because he is often quoted in the Venerable Upatissa Thera's text. 2. In the Samantapdsddika (1, p. 263), it is said that there were two elders, named Upatissa Thera and Phussadeva Thera, pupils of the same teacher who was proficient in the Vinaya. Upatissa Thera was superior to the other; and he had two pupils named Mahapaduma Thera and Mahasumana Thera. The latter learned the Vinaya Pi/aka nine times from bis teacher, while Mahapaduma Thera learned it eighteen times and was, therefore, the superior. When the former left his teacher to live elsewhere Mahapaduma Thera remained with his teacher saying that as long as one's teacher was alive one should be with him and learn the Vinaya and the Commentaries many times more. The teacher, the Venerable Upatissa Thera, and his pupil the Venerable Mahapaduma Thera, recited the Vinaya in this manner for many years more. During this period they expounded the Vinaya and on one occasion the Venerable Upatissa Thera, at the request of the Mahasangha in assembly, pronounced a ruling on a question that arose regarding the first Parajika. 3. A teacher such as the Venerable Upatissa Thera was the most appropriate person to be the author of a work of such importance as the Vimuttimagga. , Then he goes on to mention the account of the gift of King Vasabha's queen to the Venerable Mahapaduma Thera who accepted it as his teacher's share. 4. To show that the Venerable Buddhaghosa Thera was aware of the ,existence of the Vimuttimagga, Prof. Nagai refers to the comments of the Venerable Buddhaghosa Thera regarding the "fourteen cariya's" of the Vimuttimagga. It is quite probable that the Venerable Buddhaghosa Thera had the Vimuttimagga in mind when he made this comment; for there is the definite statement of the Venerable Dhammapala Thera in his commentary to the Visuddhimagga (Paramatthamafijiisa, Venerable MorontuQuve Dhammananda Nayake Thera's Sinhalese ed. p. 103) which says: Ekacce ti Upa(issattherarh sandhdyaha. Tena hi Vimuttimagge tatha vuttarh,-" 'Some' is said with reference to the Venerable Upatissa Thera. It is said thus by him in the Vimuttimagga". From the foregoing it is clear that the Venerable Buddhaghosa Thera had the Vimuttimagga of Venerable Upatissa Thera before him when he wrote the Visuddhimagga.
XXXVI

Introduction
In his Pall Literature of Ceylon, Dr. G. P ..Malalasekera has this io say on the subject: (a) "The Vimutti"magga is an Abhidhamma exegesis, serving as a compendium for that portion of Buddhist literature ... , and in some points the Chinese wQrk ·seems to have been inlluenced by the Mahayana doctrine" (p. 86). (b) He says, further, that if it is granted that theVimuttimagga was taken to China by some of the schools of approximately the· same tradition, "it would not be difficult to conclude thai the Visuddhi~magga and Vimutti-magga are more or less independent works, written by men belonging to much the same school of thought - the Thera-vdda" (pp. 87-88). Regarding the statement (a) above, it will be seen that very liitle Abhidhamma is found in the Vimuttimagga, though of course, it begins by saying that he who wishes to "lead those on the other shore to perfection, should be versed in the Sutta, Abhidhamma and Vinaya". Here, the late Venerable ~aJ;la­ moli Thera's opinion on the subject will be of interest: "However the Vimuttimagga itself contains nothing at all of the Mahayana, its unorthodoxies being well within the 'Hinayana' field". Again he says: "Also Abhidhamma, which is the keystone of Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa's exegesis, is not used at all in the Vimuttimagga (Aggregates, Truths, etc., do not in themselves constitute Abhidhamma in the sense of that Pitaka). There is, for instance, even in its description of the Consciousness Aggregate, no reference to the Dhamma: sailga1)i's classification of 89 types, and nothin"g from the Patthtina; and though the 'Cognitive Series' is stated once in its full. form (in Ch. n) no use is made of it to explain conscious workings. This Vimuttimagga is in fact a book of practical instruction, not of exegesis" (path of Purification Introduction pp. xxvn-xxvm). The statement of the Venerable Dhammapiila Thera in the Paramatthamaiijiisti quoted earlier seems to disallow (b) above. The Venerable Buddhadatta Maha Nayaka Thera in the Pall Text Society's edition of the Saddhammappajotikd refers to Prof;· Nagai's view that the. author of the Vimuttimagga was the Venerable Upatissa Thera who :flourished during King Vasabha's reign, 66-109 A. c. He says, "However, there is no such great difference as cannot be bridged between his supposition and mine" (Introduction p. vm). Regarding the view that the Vimuttimagga was a work written at the Abhayagiri Monastery, the late Yenerable :t\raJ;lamoli Thera rightly says, "That it (the Vimuttimagga) contains some minor points accepted by the Abhayagiri Monastery does not necessarily imply that it had any special connection with that centre. The sources may have been common to both. The disputed points· are not schismatical. Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa himself never mentions it" (Introduction, xxvm). Prof. Dr. P. V. Bapat in the Introduction (p. liv) to his careful work "Vimuttimagga and Visuddhimagga, A Comparative Study" (1937), has examined a great deal of material. In support of his theory that the Vimuttimagga originated in India, he puts for;vard, among others, the following reasons (p. liv): (a) "It is very likely that Vimuttimagga.was one of the books brought over from India. From the internal evidence of the book we may say that there is no reference to any name2 or place in Ceylon". If·the view of
"2. Unless the name Niirada (p. 134) referred to any high personage from Ceylon, which seems to be very improbable". This name is found at S. II, 117-18. See p. 321.

xxxvn

Introduction
the late Venerable J.'itii1;lamoli Thera, that the "Vimuttimagga is in fact a book of practical instruction, not of exegesis" - which is also the view of the late Venerable Soma Thera and myself - is accepted, and if it is recognized that the whole style of the Vimuttimagga makes for brevity - it is even abrupt sometimes -, then it will be seen that the exclusion of any 'name or place in Ceylon' is not surprising. (b) "We find in this book many words which are transliterations of Indian words. The list of worms residing in different parts' of the body gives names which are transliterations ofIndian names. These names must have been taken by Upatissa from some old work or workS on medical science" (p. liv). This is as it should be, seeing that the Dhamma is of Indian origin, and when medicine or anything related to medical science is mentioned it is natural for Ceylon writers to use Indian terms: for what medical knowledge Ceylon possessed at the time was of Indian origin. The standard Ayurvedic medical works in use even now are SUSruta and Viigbhata. Caraka is not unknown.· The first two works have been in use in Ceylon through the ages. But if the list of worms is not derived from the first two works or one of them, then the Vimuttimagga most probably bases itself here on some other medical work of Indian origin known in Ceylon at the time. . R.egardihg the statement, "We find Upatissa going into the details of the development or the foetus week·byweek" (p.lvi), it will be seen from pp. 173-74, n. 3 that here the. Vimuttimagga follows the Sutta and its commentary. (c) "Besides, the reference to a Ca1;lrJdla, which we have alrea~y noticed, also points to the origin of the book in India, 3 particularly, in South or Dravidian India where there is a very strong prejudice against Ca1;lQiilas" (p. liv). References to Ca1;lrJdlas are found eslewhere, in the texts and commentaries. For instance, as pointed out by Prof. Bapat himself (p. xlvi), at A. I, 107 and A. III, 214, car:zrjdla is mentioned. Here it should be borne in mind that in the society of the time, and also later, the car:zrjdla· was a person looked down upon. To illustrate certain points in a way that the large mass of the people would understand, appropriate similes were used by the Buddha and his Disciples, and the commentators who came after them. It does not mean that they thereby endorsed some of the statements made in their similes: For instance, when the Buddha, in the Satipauhiina Suttas, says, "Just as if a clever butcher or butcher's apprentice, having slaughtered a cow and divided it into portions were sitting at the main cross-road," and so on, it does not follow that the Buddha upheld the buchers' profession. If the word car:zrjdla was used in a simile, the motive behind it was nothing else thaR to facilitate the understanding of the point under discussion. The upholding of the caste system does not ·come in here. On the contrary, the Buddha and his disciples were opposed to it as we see in the use of the word ca1;lrjdla in a different context referring to an updsaka (i.e., one who has gone to .the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha for refuge) but who does not ob~erve the silas etc. - he being called updsakacar:zrJdla (A. III, 206). The Vasata Sutta (Sn. 116-42) may also be mentioned here. Further, these sentences occur in the Vimuttimagga itself, thus: "Virtue is called exceII!:nt joy, the highest of all castes ... This is to
·Since writing the above the Caraka Samhitii has been translated into Sinhalese by Ayurveda Siistri R. Buddhadasa, Colombo. "3. Upatissa's change of the 'yellow' colour of the earth for kasi1,Ul (as said by B.) -into 'black' (p. 43) may be considered as significant. Can it suggest the black soil of the country of origin' of Upatissa?" The soil in many parts of Ceylon; too, is black.
XXXVIU

Introduction
wear the thread which must be worn. This is the sacred caste" (p. 8). What has largely prompted Prof. Bapat to protest seems to be the statement found in Chapter m dealing with the Austerities, and his objection runs thus: "Let us note one peculiar fact about Upatissa. He seems to have some kind of contempt for, or low opinion of, a Car.z401a" (p. xlvi). Then on the same page he goes on to say the following, which are possibly the reasons for the statement mentioned above. (1) "In one place, there is a reference to a CaT.IIfdla where we are told in a simile that he has no desire for a princely throne" (p. xlvi). The relevant passage is, "As an outcast h!lS no desire for a king's throne" (p. 25 of the present translation). The sarile idea is found in the Visuddhimagga too, namely, "Nirdso saddhamme cQ1).rjdlakumdrako viya rajje" (p. 54) - "He isdesiteless for the Good Law as a caT)rjtila (outcast) is for a kingdom". It is therefore not a statement peculiar to tlie Venerable Upatissa Thera. . (2) With regard to the next objection: "At another place, to see a CQT)rjdla on the way is considered to be a sufficient reason for the laxity in the observance of the practice of sapadiina-cdrikti (going from house to house in succession for begging one's food)" (p. xlvi). This is not quite what the text says, as will be seen later. There is no question of laxity. Then the next sentence continues, "Upatissa says that if a mendicant sees a CaT)rjdla on the way, he should cover his begging-bowl and may skip over some houses and go further. In the third place we find a lack of conscientiousness (ahirika) is 'compared to a CaT)q.tila" (pp. xlvi-xlvii). Further, at p. 23, "Even if he has taken up the practice of a sapadiinactirika, he should avoid elephants or horses that may be coming in his way. Seeing a caT)"t/.tila, he should cover his beggingbowl. 'Following one's dcariya or upajjhiiya' is also mentioned as an occasion for exception". Here is the relevant passage from the present translation (p. 36): "What is the teaching as regards expedience in the observance of 'regular almsround'? If a bhikkhu on seeing elephants or horses fighting or in rut, at the gate, avoids them, or on seeing an' putcast (cQ1).q.tila, transliteration) covers his bowl, or goes behind his preceptor, teacher or a visiting bhikkhu, and thus commits certain faults for expedience' sake, he does not fail in 'regular almsround' ". Now let us consider why the expedience in regard to elephants and horses may be resorted to. It is plain that it is to avoid being hurt or even killed. Regarding the preceptor or teacher - it is out of respect due to them. It is an offence not to do so. Again, covering the bowl on seeing a cQT)rjdla is for self-protection. The society at that time was very much caste-conscious. If the people objected to, or did not favour, the receiving of alms from one they considered an outcast, the support from the large majority of the people would be liable to be withdrawn and the life of the bhikkhu rendered difficult, to say the least. .Here the story of the son and heir of the King Dunhagamal].i comes readily to mind. It is said that the people were prosperous and happy during his reign and that he had a son named SaIiriijakumiira, concerning whom the following is recorded. "Greatly gifted was he and ever took delight in wor~ of merit; he tenderly loved a caQ.<;iiila woman of exceedingly great beauty. Since he was greatly enamoured of the Asokamiiliidevi, who already in a former birth had been his consort, because of her loveliness, he cared nothing for kingly rulc" (Mv. Ch. XXXIII, 2-4). Therefore King DunhagiimaQ.i, after his death, was succeeded by his brother, Saddhiitissa, who reigned for eighteen year~.
XXXIX

"He carecinotbingfor kingly rule", - So rajjam neva kiimayi. Surely something ~lar ,iiI this statement and the simile which is common to botl!. the Vintuttimagga and the Vi3Uddhimagga, namely, Nitiiso saddhamme i:m;44/akurrui.rako viya rqjje; - Vimllttimagga p. 25; He has no desire for the Noble (Law), as an outcast has no desire for a king's throne"; Vi3Uddhimagga p. 54; "He is desireless for the Good Law as an outcast (cQlJd4la) is for a kingdom"! Have not both the Vimuttimagga and the Visuddhimagga been making some sort of allusion. to this event, which would, noooubt, have shocked the whole land'1 Might it not seem that here was an actual story well-known in the land and even recent history as far as the Venerable Upatissa Thera of King Vasabha's reign was concerned (King Dutthagamar.U reigned from 161-137 B.C. and King Vasabha from 66-110 A.C.)? If our author is in fact this Upatissa Thera, this story will provide him with the most appropriate material for a simile to illustrate the regardlessness of an unvirtuous man for the Good Law. How appropriate the background provided by the prince's' story is for purposes of the simile, which was perhaps even inspired by it, can be seen from the present translation, p. 25. That the author of the Vimuttimagga, whoever it was, knew such passages as
~,is

is beyond doubt. And it is inconceivable that he had a prejudice which he put down in writing knowing full well that it was entirely against the Teaching of the Buddha. As for the statement that the Vimuttimagga "reveals no special mastery .of the' Vinaya which is claimed by Prof. Nagai for that Upatissa who lived in the first century A.D. in Ceylon" (p. lvi), the Vimuttimagga is hardly the place to display such special knowledge. Finally, to this following statement; "My discovery of the Tibetan version of the third chapter on 'dhutas' is also important... This Tibetan text provides an additional evidence to show the Indian origin of the book. It does not appear to be probable that a text from Ceylon was taken over to India and there it was studied tn Buddhist schools and that it assumed such importa,nce as to be translated, in part at least, in Tibetan" (pp. liv - Iv). An article which the late Lama Geshe La Gedum Chomphell originally contributed
• Lord Chalmers' translation.

XL

Introduction
to The Buddhist, the journal of the Y.M.B.A., Colombo, and which was reprinted in the Buddha Jayanti of July 22, 1956, begins - 'The horse of Buddhism iS'dead in India; only the tops of the horse's ears are still visible in the east and the west of the land'. This saying which had gained currency in Tibet once, perhaps originated with the monk Vanaratana, known, in Tibetan history, as the last great Indian Mahapa1}rjita who came to live and teach in Tibet. A native of Bengal, he was ordained young, as a sama1}era, in a monastery of one thousand monks. He received full ordination in Ceylon, with two well-known Theras, the Venerable Buddhaghosa and the Venerable Dhammakitti as' preceptor and teacher respectively. He studied the Vinaya FrabM (Splendour of the Discipline), a Sarvastivdda work. Then he returned to his native country and, after studying the Kalacakra, went to Tibet by way of Assam. The Lama says: "During the journey he is believed to have remembered his Sinhalese preceptor, and inscribed on a wayside rock these words: 'I salute Buddhaghosa the teacher of thousands of beings' ". And he says further that in the middle of the seventeenth century the lama king of' Bhutan, when at war with the Central Tibet government, had seen and mentioned it in one of his writings. On reaching Tibet his interpreter died, and so after a short stay there he returned to Bengal. "Vanaratana's second visit to Ceylon lasted six years; during that time he studied all branches of Buddhism", says the lama. The Venerable Vanaratana in his account of a pilgrimage he made to Sri Pada in Ceylon states that he received two bone relics there. Then again the lama goes on to say, "With the relics and some books he had collected, Vanaratana returned to his country and not long afterwards reentered Tibet. This time he was able to speak Tibetan well; he made many lamas his disciples through his preaching. The chief of Vanaratana's disciples was Rong-Thong-Pa, the founder of a new sect; to him Vanaratana gave one of the relics he had got in Ceylon. Rong-Thong-Pa built near Lhasa a monastery called Nalanda". The Venerable Vanaratana died fifteen years after he re-entered Tibet "at a monastery in Singpori in Tsang province; his tomb can still be seen in that monastery . . . The full admission of Vanaratana to the Sangha by Ceylon theras, and the long stay here, point to tke existence of cordial relations between the Indian and Ceylon Sangha of his time. Tibetan books show that Ratnakara Gupta of Vikramasila stayed in Ceylon for seven years on his way to Dhanyakataka; and AtiSa (Diparilkara Sri Jfiana), who became abbot of Vikramasila, was here in the eleventh century". Further, I myself remember the late lama, when he was prepa:uing this article, mentioning to the Venerable Soma Thera that he had seen in a monastery in Tibet a Sinhalese manuscript which, he said, probably dated back to the Venerable Vanaratana Thera's time. 1 In view of the above we are entitled to say that, while it· is not proved that the Vimuttimagga was written in Ceylon, it has been shown that the very reasons put forward to support the view that it must have been written in India, support equally well the view that it may well have been written in Ceylon. To this can be added the idea that the simile of the outcast having no desire for a king's throne, possibly drew inspiration from the story of Salirajakumara, which must certainly have been current at the time, though
1. Since writing the above, the Ceylon Daily News reported, in its issue of September 9, 1960, of the discovery of a Singhalese manuscript in a Buddhist monastery of Saiskya in Tibet by Prof. Rahula Sankrityayana of the Vidylilankara University, Kelaniya, in the years between 1929 and 1938. This manuscript has been assigned to the twelfth, or the thirteenth, century and is now deposited in the library of the Vidylilankara University.
XU

Introduction
the account of it in the M ahl'ivarnsa came to be written later. Yet the Mahiivarizsa, according to Dr. Geiger (Introduction, Mv. translation p. IX), was ",based upon older material", the "A!thakathd-Mahdvarnsa", as he calls it, l!J1d "existed as did the Atthakatha generally, in different monasteries of the Island, in various recensions which diverged only slightly from one another" (p. x). He further says, "The chronicle must originally have come down only to the arrival of Mahinda in Ceylon. But it was continued later, and indeed to all appearance, down to the reign of Mahasena (beginning of the fourth century A.D.)".
Tipi/aka Sanghapdla Thera of Funan

Below is given the Life of Tipitaka SanghapaIa Thera of Funan, being a translation.from Kosoden, Biographies of Famous Clerics, in Vol. 50, No. 2059, Taisho edition of the Chinese Tripi/aka: In the early years of the Ryo dynasty there was Sanghapala; he was a foreign scholar. His bearing was noble and he was handsome of feature. He was a skilful debater. Coming to the capital he stayed at ShOkwanji (Mahavidar~anarama). The Emperor Bii honoured and respected him, and treated him with great consideration. He .jVas requested by the emperor to translate Buddhist scriptures in Jiikoden (Ayus-prabha vihara) and Sen-unkwan (... megha-vihara). He translated the Mahl'i Asoka Satra, Vimok~a­ Mdrga-siistra, and others. Hosho, En-don-u and others assisted (lit. wrote). This occurs under the Biography of GU:Qavrddhi of Mid-India who built ShOkwanji and died in ShOkwanji in the second year of Chiiko (p. 345). The following is from Zokukosoden, Further Biographies of Famous Clerics, number 2060, volume 50 of the Taisho edition of the Chinese Tripi/aka. Here the life of SanghapaIa is given first. SanghapaIa: In the language of Ryo his name may be translated thus: So: Order; and Yo: Nurse. Or So: Order; and Gui: Protector. He was a Funan-man. From his youth, he was very clever. Having mastered the Law, he became a monk. He was expert in the knowledge of the Abhidharma, and was famous in the lands of the Southern Sea. After completing (possibly the study of the Abhidhamma), he studied the Vil7ayapi!aka. He was zealous in the propagation of the Vanquisher'S Faith, and hearing that the time was propitious for the spreading of the Truth in the country of Sai (Canton), he took ship and came to the capital. He stayed in ShOkwanji and became a disciple of GU:Qabhadra, a sramaT;la of India and studied Vaipulya under him. Sanghapala's knowledge was wide and deep and he was conversant with the languages and books of several countries . . . Pala was clean of body and of mind and was reluctant to engage in conversation. In the seclusion of his room he stayed and worked, taking very simple fare. In the 5th year of Tenkwan, he was offered by the emperor these five places of residence: Jukoden, Karinenden (Flower-forest-garden), Shokwanji Senunkwan and Funankwan of the Capital Yoto (Sun City). He translated for seventeen years. His translations amounted to eleven cases of forty-eight fascicles. They are the great Asoka satra, the Vimok~a-Mdrga-sdstra and others. When the translations began the Emperor Bii himself came to Jukoden, attended to the exposition of the Law by Sanghapala and himself wrote (down the translations). After that he handed them over to the writer who was to make the printing blocks. The· emperor commanded the sramaT;la Hosho, the
XLII

Introduction
iramana Echo and the sramaT;Ul Sochi to assist $anghapiila.

His translations were in elegant Chinese and faithful to the o~igina1. The emper~r treat~d ~ most cordially and respectfully and made him the court chaplam. It IS saId that he altered many customs of the people. PaIa did not J:!oard treasure. With offerings that were made to him Piila built the Ryu~l1ji (Arabdha-viryarama). The minister Rinsenoko was deeply attached to hllD.. In the fifth year of Futsu, he died at Sbokwanji. He was sixty five years old. About the beginning of the Ryo dynasty another iramtll,la of Funan named Mandiira came to China. He brought many Sanskrit texts and presented them ,to the emperor. The emperor ordered him to translate them together with Piila. They translated Ho-ung-ho-kai-taisho-monju-haiiiia-kyo: RIltna-megha-dharma-dhatu-ktiya-svabhava-maiijuiri-prajiiti-mtra. Though he translated, he could not understand Chinese well. So in his translations there are many vague renderings (p. 426, fascicle 1).
The Visuddhimagga

Much has been written about the Visuddhtmagga from the earliest times right down to the present day. King Pariikrama-Biihu II (1236-68 A.c.) is reported to have written the paraphrase to the Visuddhimagga after he had handed over the kingdom to his son Bodhisatta Vijaya-Biihu (1271-72 A.C.). During the last century Pandit M. Dharmaratna revised this work. Of him and his work on the Visuddhimagga, the Venerable Soma Thera wrote in the Buddha Jayanti of April 5, 1955 thus: "Had he not written any of the works mentioned above and not edited the paper, still people of this country would have been obliged to remem1:Jer him for his great gift of the tratlSlation of the Visuddhimagga, with his edition of the Visuddhi TeJ\:t, and the revised version of the ancient paraphrase of the Visudi;lhi by Parakrama-Biihu II,a. comprehensive work which is of never-failing interest and great usefulness to all students of the Dhamma and the Sinhalese language". Then again there is the late Venerable Pal)Qita Miitara Sri Dharmavamsa Maha Stavira's more recent translation which was completed by his pupil the Venerable Pa1)Qita Batuvita Nandarama Miiha Thera in 1957. There is also the English translation of the Pall TeJ\:t Society by Prof. ~e Maung Tin of Rangoon, completed in 1931, and that of the late Venerable Niil)amoli Thera of the Island Hermitage, Dodanduwa in 1956. The German translation is by the late Venerable Nyiil)atiloka Mahii Thera, founmer of the Island Herriritage, Dodanduwa, the publishers being Verlag Christiani, Konstanz, 1952. The Visuddhimagga is a houst:hold word in all Theravtida lands. No scholar of Buddhism whether of Theraviida or of Mahtiyiina i§ unacquainted with it. Therefore there is no need of repeating what has already been said at one time or another. But an introduction to the Vimuttimagga, can hardly avoid all mention of the Visuddhimagga, and I may be eJ\:cused if I go over ground already covered by others. An endeavour, however, is made to present some of these facts. briefly and with a slightly new approach. It is for the reader to assess how far this has been achieved. In the introduction to his translation of the Visuddhimagga, The Path of Purification,. the late Venerable Niil}.amoli Thera, after carefully sifting a large collection of material, points out that the influence of Sanskrit Buddhism, the centre of which was the Abhayagiri monastery in Anuradhapura, was so great in the first century A.C. that it became a threat to the Mahiivihiira's
XLIII

Introduction
position as the central authority of orthodox Pali Buddhism in Ceylon. Indeed that threat grew into open rivalry and even enmity between these two institutions, culminating in King Mahasena's (277-304) giving protection to Sanghamitta, "a Cola monk, follower of Vetullavada", and driving away the monks of the Mahavihara from Anuradhapura for nine years. Then, Mahasena, repenting of his deeds, restored the Mahavihara to its former position and burnt the Vetulyan books. But by then Sanghamitta had got the Lohapasada destroyed, and he and his friend, the minister SOJ).a, were killed by a labourer on the orders of the queen when they attempted to destroy the Thiiparama. The efforts of the Mahavihara monks since the beginning of the dispute with those of the Abhayagiri in the first century A.C. were solely directed to the establishment, says the Venerable NaJ).amoli Thera, of "Pali as the lang_ uage for the study and discussion of Buddhist teachings, and the founding of a school of Pali literary composition" (Intro. p. xiv). He then goes on to say, "It is not known what was the first original Pali composition in this period; but the Dipavamsa (dealing with historical evidence) belongs here (for it ends with Mahasena's reign and is quoted in the Samantaptisddikd), and quite possibly the Vimuttimagga (dealing with practice-see below) was another early attempt by the Great Monastery in this period (4th cent.) to reassert its supremacy through original Pali literary composition: there will have been others too. Of course, much of this is very conjectural" (Intro. p. xiv). It will be noted here that the Venerable NaJ).amoli Thera does not place the Vimuttimagga during the reign of King Vasabha, but in the 4th century. Still it does not contradict the fact that the Venerable Buddhaghosa Thera had access to the Vimuttimagga of the Venerable Upatissa Thera when he wrote the Visuddhimagga. If the suggestion that the Vimuttimagga "was another early attempt by the Great Monastery in this period to reassert its supremacy through Pali composition" is acceptable, it would then not be difficult to suppose that the Venerable Buddhaghosa Thera, with what knowledge he had already acquired of the Dhamma in India-(for he had written the Na(Zodaya, the Atthasalini and had begun""to compose a commentary to the Paritta", Cv. Ch. XXXVII, 225-26-), was able to write the Visuddhimagga, perhaps with the assistance of the Mahavihara Theras. This work is more comprehensive than the Vimuttimagga and in every sense more scholarly, with a wealth of material drawn from every imaginable source and interspersed with numerous Ceylon stories. Thus, not only did it provide instruction for those needing it in the practice of the Dhamma, but it was also capable of holding its own as a work of literary composition. Two things seem to have played an impo'rtant part in making available for later generations, even up to the present day, a work of such excellence as is the Visuddhimagga. They are: (I) The desperate need of the Mahavihara for a work which would prove its claim to be the centre of Buddhist learning in Ceylon; (2) the equally urgent need of the Venerable Buddhaghosa Thera to prove his ability as a worthy scholar in the eyes of the Theras of the Mahavihara. Without this recognition he could not have obtained from them the, commentaries and the expositipns of the teachers (dcariyavada) for translation into Pali as required by his teacher in India, the Venerable Revata Maha Thera, and for which express purpose he came to Ceylon (Cv. Ch. XXXVII, 227-32). That this dual need was supplied to the complete satisfaction of both parties is amply borne out by the recorded history of the centuries that followed.
XLIV

Introduction
The VimuJtimagga and the Visuddhimagga.

On certain points the Vimuttimagga and the Visuddhimagga hold contrary views. For instance. the latter says that by developing the Buddhiinussati (the recollection of the Buddha) the factors of meditation, jluintl, arise in a single moment;. that as the qualities of the Buddha are unfathomable or else owing to reflection on his numerous qualities appanii (fixed meditation) is not attained, and only upaciira (access-concentration) is reached. The Vimuttimagga on the other hand says that "from the recollection of the Buddha the four meditations, jhdnas arise". This statement seems to agree with the sutta and its commentary quoted in note 3 on pp. 148-49. They· agree that in practising Antipiinasati (mindfulness of respiration) the breath should not be followed inside or outside because it distracts the mind. This causes the body and the mind to waver and tremble. The simile of the man sawing wood illustrating where the breath should be noted (i.e.• at nose-tip or on the lip) is common to both works. The Visuddhimagga quotes other similes in illustration. It also quotes '(po 280) the Pa!isambhidtimagga (I, p. 165) whjch warns against the practice of trying to follow the inhaled breath to the heart (hadaya) and the navel (ntibhi) and the outgoing breath ·back from the navel to the heart and nose-tip, for, both the mind and the body become 'disquieted and perturbed and .shaky' if this practice is resorted to. The Visuddhimagga (p. 278) says that there are eight stages in the practice of Antiptinasati, the first four of which are (1) counting, (2) connection, (3) touching, and (4) fixing. Here the Venerable Buddhaghosa Thera does not quote authority for this statement as he usually does. The Vimuttimagga (p. 159) supplies this omission by saying that 'certain predecessors' taught these four ways. Here both base themselves on authority outside the texts and the commentaries. In discussing the earth kasi~a, the Visuddhimagga (p. 123) says, 'The four blemishes of the earth kasi~a are due to the intrusion of blue, yellow, red, or white'. But it does not 'give any reason. The Vimuttimagga (p. 72) says, 'By dwelling on white, black, or red, he practises colour kasi~a'. It is seen here that by practising one subject of meditation another cannot be developed - for instance, when one practises Antiptinasati one does not become proficient in, say, Buddhtinussati, though this is sometimes imagined to be possible. If, for instance, one sees the form of the Buddha or a Buddha statue while developing any other meditation, then it is a clear case of failure in the practice of that particular me,ditation, though the seeing of these signs in itself is a good thing. 1he proper occasion for these signs to appear is when iJuddhtinussati is practised. That the Vimuttimagga is an inspiring work is stated elsewhere. It is confirmed by the spontaneous testimony of those who have read the
XLV

Introduction
original draft translation. It has inspired men of ancient times. That is shown by the fact that the people of Ryo in the early years of the sixth century A.C. caIIed the author of the Vimuttimagga 'Great Light'. What connection there is between these two works has been shown, though briefly, in the foregoing pages. No mere can be expected in an introduction. For a detailed study the reader may consult the thorough investigation made by Prof. Bapat in his "Vimuttimagga and Visuddhimagga, a comparative Study", Poona 1937.

Salutation Introductory Stanza Path of Freedom Described Merits ~f Acknowledgement of the Path Three Trainings Meaning of Training Removal of the Impurities The Three Kinds of Good The Three Kinds of Happiness Perfection of the Middle Way CHAPTER II ON DlSTINGUISIDNG VIRTUE Virtue Defined Salient Characteristic of Virtue Function, Manifestation, Near Cause of Virtue Benefits of Virtue Meaning of Virtue Virtue and Mode of Life Three Kinds of Virtue What Produces Virtue Stages of Virtue Impediments and Causes of Virtue Groups of Virtue 01arious) What Purifies Virtue Causes Through Which One Dwells in Virtue FASCICLE II, CHAPTER ill

'Three Robes' 'Begged Food' 'Regular Alms-round' 'One-eating' 'Measured Food' 'No Food After Time' 'Dwelling in a Peaceful Place' 'Dwelling Under a Tree' 'Dwelling in a Dewy Place' 'Dwelling Among Graves' 'Any Chanced Upon Place' 'Always Sitting and Not Lying Down' 'Expedience in the Observance of the Austerities Miscellaneous Teachings CHAPTER

29
30

31
32 33

34 35

37

tv

ON DISTINGUISHING CONCENTRATION Meaning of Concentration Salient Characteristic etc. Benefits Produced by Concentration Obstacles to Concentration Causes of Concentration Requisites of Concentration Kinds of Concentrarion (Various) Why Four and Five Meditations are Taught CHAPTER V ON APPROACHING A GOOD FRIEND Qualities of a Good Friend The Search for a Good Friend A Beginner's Duties FASCICLE ill, CHAPTER VI

39

40
41

42 46

48 50 51

THE DISTINGUISHING OF BEHAVIOUR Kinds of Behaviour Fourteen Kinds of Persons Fourteen Kinds Reduced to Seven Modes of Practice
LII

54
55 56

Contents
PAGE

Seven Reduced to Three Causes of Behaviour Elements as Causes of Behaviour 'The Humours as Causes of Behaviour Seven Aspects of Behaviour On Robing, Begging, Sitting, Sleeping, and Resort Miscellaneous Teachings CHAPTER VII THE DISTINGUISHING OF THE SUBJECTS OF MEDITATION Thirty-eight Subjects of Meditation Method of Discerning the Qualities By Way of Meditation By Way of Tr<U1Scending By Way of Increasing By Way of Cause By Way of Object By Way of Speciality By Way of Plane By Way of Seizing By Way of Person 'FASCICLE IV, CHAPTER

57
58

61

62

63

64
65

67

68

vm,

SECTION I

ENTRANCE INTO THE SUBJECT OF MEDITATION Earth KasiI}a, Its Practice, Salient Characteristic, Function and Near Cause Benefits Meaning of KasiI}a Kinds of Earth Non-Prepared Earth On Making a MaI}~ala Method of Earth KasiI}a Meditation Tribulations of Sense-Desires Illustrated in Twenty Similes Renunciation and Its Benefits' Method of Practice of Earth KasiI}a Three Ways of Sign-Taking Grasping Sign The After-Image
LID

71

72

73

74 75
76

77

Contents
PAGE

The Sign Protecting the Sign Access-Meditation Fixed Meditation, Jhana Increasing the Kasil;ta . Skilfulness in Fixed Meditation, Jhana Ten Ways Simile of the Horse-Chariot Simile of the Inked-String The First Meditation, Jhana Three Kinds of Separation From Lust and Demeritorious States Two Kinds of Lust Roots of Demerit Reasons for Treating Lust and Demerit Separately Separation From Demeritorious States Difference Between Lust and Demerit Initial and Sustained Application of Thought Initial and Sustained Application of Thought Discriminated Similes of the Bell etc. Similes of the Bird etc. Solitude Joy and Bliss Five Kinds of Joy Bliss Five Kinds of Bliss Difference Between Joy and Bliss First Meditation, (Jhana) Five Hindrances . Five Factors Similes of Chariot and Army Three Kinds of Goodness Ten Characteristics Twenty-five Benefits Simile of the Bath-Attendant Three Kinds of Rebirth Meditation Which Partakes of Deterioration, Stability, Distinction and Penetration FASCICLE V, CHAPTER VIII, SECTION II The Simile of the Young Cow Entrance Into the Second Meditation, Jhana Simile of the Pool of Water The Third Meditation, Jhana
L1V

78 79 80 81

83 84
85

86
87

88
89

90

91

92 93
9495

96
97

99

100
103

104

Contents
PAGE

Simile of the Calf Simile of the Lotus Pond The Fourth Meditation, Jhana Simile of the White Cloth The Sphere of the Infinity of Space The Concentration of the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness The Sphere of Nothingness . The Sphere of Neither Perception Nor Non-Perception Miscellaneous Teachings . The Water KasiI).a The Fire KasiI).a . The Air KasiI).a . The Blue-Green KasiI).a The Yellow KasiI).a The Red KasiI).a . The White KasiI).a The Light KasiI).a FASCICLE VI, The (Separated) Space KasiI).a The Consciousness KasiI).a Miscellaneous Teachings THE TEN PERCEPTIONS OF PUTRESCENCE
(1) The Perception of Bloatedness . (2) The Perception of Discolouration (3) The Perception of Festering (4) The Perception of the Fissured . (5) The Perception of the Gnawed (6) The Per..;eption of the Dismembered (7) The Perception of the Cut and the Dismembered (8) The Perception of the Blood-Stained (9) The Perception of W orminess (10) The Perception of the Bony Miscellaneous Teachings The Recollection of the Buddha . The Recollection of the Law The Recollection of the Community of Bhikkhus The Recollection Virtue The Recollection of Liberality The Recollection of Deities
LV

107 108 109

112 113 116
117

118 120 121

122
123

124
125

126
127

128

CHAPTER VIII,

SECTION III 129 130

132 135 136 137 138

139

140
149

150
152

153
154

Contents
FASCICLE VII, CHAPTER VIII, SECTION IV
PAGE

Mindfulness of Respiration Benefits Procedure Counting, Connection, Contacting and Fixing Sixteen Ways of Training in Mindfulness of Respiration The Three Trainings The Four Foundations of Mindfulness The Seven Enlightenment Factors Mindfulness of Death . Similes of the Foam, Plantain Trunk and Bubble Mindfulness of Body . Thirty-two Parts of the Body Mindfulness in Thirteen Ways The Worms that Rely on the Body Bones of the Body Impurity of the Body . Some Diseases The Recollection of Peace Miscellaneous Te<Lchings FASCICLE VIII, CHAPTER VIII, SECTION V The I=easurable Thought of Loving-kindness Disadvantages of Anger and Resentment Simile of the Saw Twelve Means of Removing Hatred Simile of the Pond Ten Perfections The Four Resolves The I=easurable Thought of Compassion The Immeasurable Thought of Appreciative Joy The I=easurable Thought of Equanimity Miscellaneous Teachings The Determining of the Four Elements Twenty Ways of Grasping the Element of Earth' Twelve Ways Grasping the Element of Water Four Ways of Grasping the Element of Fire Six Ways of Grasping the Element of Air The Four Elements Simile of the Puppet The Loathsomeness of Food The Dwelling of the Homeless
LVI

THE FIVE METHODS The Aggregate of Form Four Primaries Defined Derived Material Qualities Sense-Organ of Eye Sense-Organ of Ear Sense-Organ Nose Sense-Organ of Tongue Sense-Organ of Body . Difference Between the Four Primaries and Derived Matter Similes of the Three Sticks . Material Qualities by Way of Arising Material Qualities by Way of Group Material Qualities by Way of Birth Material Qualities by Way of Diversity,-Groups of Two in Material Qualities .
LVII

237 238 239

240 241

243 244

Contents
PAGE

Groups of Three in Material Qualities Four Kinds of Material Qualities Material Qualities by Way of Unity Aggregate of Feeling " Aggregate of Perception Aggregate of Fonnations Thirty-one Similies Aggregate of Consciousness Through Sense-Organ-Object Through Object Through States Through"Word Meaning Through Characteristic Through Discrimination Through Comprehension Twelve Sense-Organs and Sense-Objects Through Word Meaning Through Limits " Through Condition Simile of the Thread Simile of the Mango Element Method Conditioned Arising Method (a) Direct Order (b) Reverse Order Ignorance Formations Simile of the Seeds Simile of the Sun Simile of the Two Bundles of Reeds Simile of the Seed, Shoot and Plant What Conditions Ignorance Simile of the Colours of a Painter Conditioned Arising to be Known in Seven Ways First Three links Death of the Ignorant Craving Evil-Doer Action, Action-Sign, Destiny, Destiny-Sign Four Group Division . Twenty Modes Direct and Reverse Order Mundane and Supramundane Conditioned Arising Four Kinds of Conditioned Arising Through Comprehension
LVIII

245 246 247
250

251 252 253 254 255 256 257 259

260

261 263 264 265 266 267

Contents
PAGE

FASCICLE XI, CHAPTER XI; SECTION IT THE FIVE METHODS The Four Noble Truths Truth of ill Five Groups of Clinging Two Kinds of ill Three Kinds of ill Truth of the Origin of ill Truth of the Cessation of ill Truth of the Path Leading to Cessation of ill Through Word Meaning Through Characteristics Through Series In Brief Similes of the Poisonous Tree, The Ship, The Burden Through Discrimination Through Enumeration Through Sameness Through Difference Through One Kind etc. Through Inclusion CHAPTER XII, SECTION I ON DISCERNING TRUTH Aggregates, Elements, Sense-Spheres . Similes of the Three Hundred Halberds and of the Burning Head Procedure Differences Between Name and Form Summary of the Truth of ill Cause and Condition of ill The purity of Transcending Uncertainty Truth of Cessation Truth of the Path One Hundred and Eighty Ways of Knowing the Five Clinging Aggregates Impermanence, m, Not-Self The Signless, the Unhankered, and the Void The Knowledge of the Rise and Fall Defilement-Grasp Concentration-Grasp Insight-Grasp
LlX

269 270 271 .272 274 275 276 277 278 279 281

283

284 285

286

288 289 290

Contents
PAGE

Two Ways of Grasping Thought-Characteristics Characteristics of Rise and Fall in Three Ways Acquiring the Highest Knowledge Simile of the Bird Surrounded by Fire Four States Non-Effort in the Rising of the Formations Reviewing of Breaking. Up Breaking Up in Three Ways- (a) Through assemblage (b) Through Duality (c) Through Understanding Similes of Drum-Sound, Town of Gods, Lightning FASCICLE XII, CHAPTER XII, SECTION II ON DISCERNING TRUTH Fear Knowledge Similes of the Man with the Sword, Poisonous Snake, and Heap of Fire Knowledge of the Desire For Release Adaptive Knowledge Knowledge of Adoption Similes of the Boat, Lamp, and Sun Simile of the Burning City Three Fetters Once-Returner Non-Returner Saintship Three Kinds of Stream-Entrant Five Kinds of Non-Returner Simile of the Fiery Sparks MisceIlaneous Teachings Serenity and Insight Initial Application of Thought and Bare Insight Joy Feeling Plane Faculties The Three Emancipations Emancipation and the Entrance Into it One Hundred and Thirty-four Defilements Three Immoral Roots The Three Kinds of Seeking
LX

291 . 293

294 295

296

299 300 301 302 304 305 306 307 308 309 310

311

312 314

Contents
PAGE

The Four Corruptions The FourKnots The Four Floods The Four Yokes The Four Clingings The Four Wrong Courses of Action The Five Kinds of Meanness The Five Hindrances The Six Roots of Contention The Seven Latencies The Eight W orldy Conditions The Nine Conciets The Ten Defilements The Ten Courses of Unskilful Actions The Ten Fetters The Ten Errors The Twelve Reversals The Twelve Arisings of Unskilful Thought The Two Enjoyrn~nts Enjoyment of the Fruit A Second Point of View A Third Point of View The Signless Concentration of the Mind The Enjoyment of the Dissolution of Perception and Sensation Indexes 1. Names and subjects 2. Pali words in footnotes Appendix (with index ofPali words in footnotes)

315

316

317 318

319 320 321 322 327 343 353

LXI

[399]

THE PATH OF FREEDOM!
FASCICLE THE FIRST WRITTEN

BY

THE ARAHANT UPATlSSA
WHO WAS CALLED

GREAT LIGHT IN
TRANSLATED IN RYO
BY

RYO

TIPlTAKA

SANGHAPALA OF

FUNAN

INTRODUCTORY

DfSCOURSE

CHAPTER THE FIRST

SALUTATION Homage to the Blessed One, the Consummate One, the Supremely Enliehtened One. 2 INTRODUCTORY STANZA Virtue, concentration, Wisdom and the peerless freedom: To these verities awoke Illustrious Gotama. 3 He who wishes to be released from all trouble, wishes to be unloosed from all attachment, wishes to gain the pre-eminent mind, wishes to be rid Of birth, old age and death, wishtjs to enjoy bliss and freedom, wishes. to achieve the yet unachieved extinction, Nibbana, and lead those on the other shore to 'perfection, should be versed in the Sutta, Abhidhamma and Vinaya, This is the Path of Freedom. Now will I expound, Hearken. Question: What is 'virtue' '? Answer: 'Virtue' means restraint. 4 'Concentration' means non-distractedness. 'Wisdom' means comprehension. 'Freedom' means freedom from bondage. 'Peerless' means canker-free. 'Awoke' means realized and understood through wisdom. 'These verities' means the four noble verities." 'Gotarna'
L Vimuttimagga 3. A. n, 2; D. II. 123:

is the name of a family. 'Illustriolls' means blessed. Through the excellent merits: virtue, concentration, wisdom and freedom, he gained boundless and, highest fame. PATH OF FREEDOM DESCRIBED What is the meaning of the Path of Freedom? 'Freedom' means the five kinds of freedom: freedom of suppression,l freedom of parts,2 freedom of eradication,3 freedom of tranquillity,4 and freedom of emancipation. 5 What is 'freedom of suppression'? It is the suppression of the passions through the practice of the first meditation. 6 This is' called 'freedom of supression'. 'Freedom of parts' is the freedom from views thrqugh the practice of concentration which partakes of penetration. 7 This is called 'freedom of parts'. 'Freedom of eradication' is the destruction of the fetters through the practice of the supramundane patb. s This is called 'freedom of eradication'. 'Freedom of tranquillity' is (to be understood) as the happy heart of a man who acquires fruit. This is called [400] 'freedom of tranquillity'. 'Freedom of emancipation' is extinction without residue of tbe substratum of being. 9 This is called 'freedom of emancipation'. This Path of Freedom is for the attainment ofJiberation. This perfect path is called the Path of Freedom through virtue, concentration and wisdom. Now will I preach concerning the Path of Freedom. Q. For what reason is the Path of Freedom taught? A. There is a good man. He is like a blind man who wanders to a distant land without guidance, because, although he wishes to gain freedom, he does not listen to the teaching offreedom; because he does not acknowledge freedom and because he wrongly acknowledges freedom. Since he is hemmed in by much suffering he cannot gain freedom. Although he wishes to gain freedom, he has not the means. To gain freedom means are necessary. The Buddha has declared: "There are beings covered with but a little dust. They will fall away unless they hear the Truth"Jo Again the Buddha has declared: "0 bhikkbus, through two occasioning causes can one arouse Right Understanding. Which two? Hearing from others is the first. Intelligent attention is the second".u Therefore do I preach freedom. I preach freedom to those who do not acknowledge freedom in order to produce in them the feeling of detachment. This is like a traveller to a distant land getting a good guide. MERITS OF ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF THE PATH If a man acknowledges this Path of Freedom, he fulfilIs three groups.12 What are the three? They are the group of virtue,13 the group of concentration,14 and the group of wisdom.15 '
1. Vikkhambana-vimutti. 2. Tadanga-vimutti. 3. Samuccheda-vimutti. 4. Pa/ippassaddlta6. Pathamajjhiina. 7. Nibbedhabhiigiya-samiidhi. vimutti. 5. Nissaral,la-vimutti. 8. Lokuttara-magga. 9. Anupiidisesanibbiina. 10. S. T, 105-6: Santi sattii apparajakkha11. A. I, 87: Dve'me bhikkhave paccayii jiitikii assaval,latii dhalJlmassa parihayanfi. sammiidi!lhijiii uppiidiiya. Katame dve? Para to ca ghoso yoltiso ca manasikiiro. 12. Khandhii. J3.Silakkhaltdha. 14, Samiidhikkhandha. 15. Paiiiiakkhandha.

Introductory Discourse

3

What is the group of virtue? It is Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood and the like. Or the group of virtue is the merit-ma,s of diverse virtues. What is the group of concentration? It is Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration and the like. Or (the group of concentration is) the merit-mass of diverse forms of concentration. What is the g,oup of wisdom? It is Right Understanding, Right Thought and the like. Or (the group of wisdom is) the merit-mass of diverse kinds of wisdom. Thus these three groups are completed. THREE TRAININGS A man who acknowledges the Path of Freedom should be versed in the triple training: the. training of the higher virtue, l the training of the higher thought,2 and the training of the higher wisdom. 3 (It is said:) Virtue is the training of the higher virtue; concentration is the training of the higher thought; wisdom is the training of the higher wisdom. And again (it is said:) There is virtue which is the training of virtue and there is virtue which is the training of the higher virtue. There is concentra" tion' which is the training of thought and th~re is concentration which is the training of the higher thought. There is wisdom which is the training of wisdom and there is wisdom which is the training of the higher wisdom. Q. What is the training of virtue? A. Indicated virtue5 - this is called the training of virtue. Virtue partaking of penetration G - this is called the training of the higher virtue. Again, the virtue of the commoner - this is called the training of virtue. Ariyan virtue - this is called the training of the highel virtue. Q. What is the training of thought? A. It is concentration pertaining to (the) sense (plane)'. Q. What is the training of the higher thought? A. [t is concentration pertaining to (the) form (plane)8 and (the) formless (plane)". This is called the training of the higher thought. And again, indicated concentration10 is the tra1ning of thought. Concentration partaking of penetration and concentration of the Path al:e called the training of the higher tbought. What is the training of wisdom? Worldly knowledge - this is called the training of wisdom. The fOUl truths, (enlightenment) factors' knowledge l l and the knowledge of the Path - these are called the. training of the higher wisdom. The Blessed One expoundeq the training of the higher virtue to a man of the lower type, the training of the higher thought to a man of the middle type and the training of the higher wisdom to a man of the higher type.
I. Adilisilasikkhii. 2. Adhicittasikkhii. J. Adhipaiilidsikkhd. 4. Lit. Samddhisikkhd. 5. The virtue that can be appreciated by ordinary men. 6. Nibbedhabhiigiya. 7. Kiimiivacara SGIIl,idlu'. 8. Rtipdvacara samiidhi. 9. Ariipdvacara samiidhi. 10. The concentration that c,in be appreciated by ordinary men. It. Bodhipakkhiyadhamma Iliilla.

4
THE MEANING OF TRAINING

Vimuttimagga

Q. What is the meaning of training? A. To be trained in the things wherein training is necessary, to be trained in the excellent training and to be trained to transcend all training. Thus to be trained in these three trainings is called the acknowledgement of the Path of Freedom.

REMOVAL OF THE IMPURITIES
Through these three kinds of training one attains to purity: purity of virtue,! purity of thought,' and purity of views. 3 Thus virtue is purity of virtue, concentration is purity of thought, and wisdom is purity of views. Virtue Cleanses away the impurities caused through transgression of precepts (- this is called the purification of virtue). Concentration cleanses away the encompassing impurities-this is called the pUlification of the mind. Wisdom removes the impurities of ignorance-this is called the purification of views. And again, virtue removes the impurities of demeritorious action. Concenhation removes the encompassing impurities. Wisdom removes the impurities of the latencies. 4 Through these three purities a man acknowledges Freedom's. Path.

THE THREE KINDS OF GOOD
Again, a man acknoweldges the path through three kinds of good: the initial good. the medial good, the final good. 5 Virtue is the initial (good); concentration is the medial (good); wisdom is the final (good). Why is virtue the initial good? There is a man who is energetic; he attains to the stage of non-retrogression; on account of non-retrogression, he is joyful; on account of joy, he becomes buoyant; on account of buoyancy, his body is thrilled; on account of his body being thrilled, he is happy; on account of happiness, his mind is at ease - this is called 'the initial good'. 'Concentration is the medial good' thus: T.hrough concentration a man understands things as they are - this is called the medial good. 'Wisdom is the final good' thus: U nderstanding things as they are, a man is disgusted; through disgust he separates from passion; through separation from passion, he frees himself; having freed himself, he knows it (the nature of his freedom).6 Thus a man accomplishes the Path of the triple good.
1. Silavisllddhi. 2. Ciltavisuddhi. J. Vilihivisliddhi. 4 Cpo Vis. Mag. 5, 6: lilfM silena kilesiinalil vilikkamapalipakkllO pakiis'Uo holi; samiidhillii pal'iYlIl!hiillapalipakkho; paiiiiiiya anllsayapafipakkho. Silena ca duccaritasankilesaviso.-fhuJlaln pakiisilarh hOli; samiidhinii la{lhiisankilesavisodhanarh; paiiiiiiya dilfhisankilesavisodhanam. 5. Adi-, majjha-, pariyosiina-kalyiir.za. 6. Cpo A. V, 2: IIi kho Allanda kusaliini siliini avippafisiirallhiini avippalisiiriinisamsiiJli, avippafisiiro piimujjallho piimujjiinisamso, piiinujjam pi/altham pit{lnisamsaIil, piti passaddhatthii passaddhiinisa1ilsii, passaddhi slIkhatthii sukhiinisamsii, sukham samiidhal/ham samiidhiinisan'lVan'l, samiidhi yat habhiitaM/Iadassanaltho 'yathiibhlitaiiiilJadassaniinisan'lSo, yathiibhlitaiiii/ladassanam nihbidaviriigattham nibbidaviriigiinisamsam, nibbidaviriigo, vimutlilliir.zadassanattho vimllltiMlJadassaniillisamso.

Introductory Discourse
THE THREE KINDS OF HAPPINESS After acknowledging the Path of Freedom, a man acquires three kinds of happiness: the happiness of the fault-free, the happiness of tranquillity and the happiness of Enlightenment. He acquires the happiness of the faultfree through virtue; he acquires the happiness of tranquillity through concentration; and he acquires the happiness of Enlightel)ment through wisdom. Thus a man acquires the three kinds of happiness. PERFECTION OF THE MIDDLE WAY After a man acknowledges the Path of Freedom, he attains to the perfection of the mid'dle wayl rejecting the two ex.tremes. Through this virtue he removes well the attachment to diverse sense-desires and arouses within him the joy of the fault-free. Through concentration he removes the weariness of the body. In the case of tranquillity he increases joy and bliss. Through wisdom he understands the four noble truths 2 reaches the middle way and deeply cherishes the delectable happiness of Enlightenment. Thus, he, rejecting the ex.tremes,3 attains to the l)erfection of the middle way. After acknowledging the Path of Freedom, through virtue he transcends the way to states of regress;4 through concentlation 'he transcends the sense plane;5 through wisdom he transcends all becoming. 6 If he practises virtue to the full and practises little of concentration and wisdom, he will rea9h the stage of the Stream-entrant? and the stage of the Once-returner.s If he practises virtue and concentration to the full and practises little of wisdom, he will reach the stage of the Non-returner. 9 If he practises virtue, cOncentration and wisdom to the full, he will reach the peerless freedom of the Consummate One. lO

Q. What is virtue? What is its salient characteristic?1 What is its function?2 What is its manifest~tidn?3 What is its near cause?4 What are its benefits?5 What is the meaning of virtue? What is the difference between virtue and mode of life?" How many kinds of virtue are there? What produces (virtue)? What are the initial, medial and final stages in virtue? How many states? are obstacles to progress in virtue? How many are the causes of virtue? How many groups of virtue are there? What purifies virtue? Owing to how many causes does one dwell in virtue?

VIRTUE DEFINED
A. 'What is virtue?' It is virtue of volition, B virtue of abstention" and virtue of non-transgression. lo What is 'virtue of volition'? It is this resolve: "1 will do no evil, because, if I do evil, I shall have to suffer for it". What is 'virtue of abstention'? It is keeping away from occasions of evil. What is 'virtue of non-transgression' ? (Here) a virtuous man has no fault of body and speech. Again, the meaning of cutting is 'abstention'. All good activitiesl l are virtue. It is said in the Abhidhamma12 thus: "The destruction of sense desires by renunciation (is virtue). This virtue can remove evil. It is the 'virtue of volition', the 'virtue of restraint'l3, the 'virtue of abstention'. The destruction of ill will by not-ill will, the destruction of rigidity and torpor by the perception of brightness, the destruction of agitation and anxiety by non-distraction, the destruction of uncertainty by the determination of states, the destruction of ignorance by knowledge, the destruction of discontent by gladness, the destruction of the five hindrances by the first meditation, the destruction of initial and sustained application of thought by the second meditation, the destruction of happiness by the third meditation, the destruction of bliss by the fourth meditation, the destruction (of perceptions ranging) from the :perception of form to (the perception of) sense-reaction and the perception of diversity by the concentration of the sphere of the infinity of space, U the destruction of the perception of the sphere of the infinity of space by the
LakkhQ/;a. 2. Rasa. 3. Puccuppanh<7na. 4. Ptufatthiina. 5. Anisams~ Vata. 7. Dhammii. 8. Cetanii sila. 9. Verama{li sila. 10. Avitikkama sila: II. Sabbe kusalii dhammii. 12. Cpo parallel passage in the Vis. Mag. 49·50, beginning with "Vuffam h'etam Parisambhidiiyam". The beginning of the quotation from "Abhi· dhamma" in the Vim. Mag. is confused, possibly due to copyist's error. The repetition of 'destruction' or 'severance' (or is it 'rejection'?) is perhaps due to the needs of Chinese .. composition. 13. SQI;,vara sila. 14. The ideograph for 'pa/igha' is 'hatred'.
I.

6.

6

On Distinguishing Virtue

1

concentration of the sphere of the infinity of consciousness; the destruction of the perception of the sphere of the infinity of consciousness by the concentration of the sphere of nothin'gness, the destruction of the (perception of the) sphere of nothingness by the concentration of the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception, the destruction of the perception of permanence by the view of impermanence, the destruction of the perception of bliss by the view of ill, the destruction of the perception of self by the view of not-self, the destruction of the perception of the pure by the view of the impure,' the destruction of the perception of craving by the view of tribulation, 2 the destruction of the perception of passion by the' view' of the stainless, the destruction of origination by the view of cessation,3 the destruction of density by the view of evanescence, the destruction of union by the view of separation, the destruction of fixity by the view of change, the destruction of the sign by the view of the signless, the destruction of yearning by the view of nOll-yearning, the destruction of adherence by the view of the void, the destruction of clinging and adherence (to essence?) by the view of the higher wisdom, the destruction of the adherence to delusion by the knowledge and discernment of things as they are, the destruction of adherence to dwelling4 by the view of tribulation, the destruction of non-reflection by the view of reflection, the destruction of adherence to fetters by the view of the rolling back (of delusion), the destruction of adherence to the cankers of views by the path of the Streamentrant, the destruction of the gross cankers by the path of the Once-returner, the destruction of the subtle cankers by the path of the Non-returner, and the destruction of all cankers by the path of the Consummate One" these are called the 'virtue of non-transgression', the 'virtue of volition', the virtue of restraint' and the 'virtue of abstention'. These are called virtue. SALIENT CHARACTERISTlC OF VIRTUE 'What is the salient characteristic of virtue'?: The removal of non-dignity by dignity. What is called 'non-dignity"! A. It is transgression of virtue. There are three kinds of transgression of virtue: transgression of the virtue pertaining to the rules of th~ Community of Bhikkhus;s transgression of the virtue pertaining to the requisites;6 transgression of the virtue pertaining to the faculties. 7 What is 'transgression of the virtue pertaining to the Community of Bhikkhus'? [401]. It is loss of faith in the Tath1i.gata owing to immodesty8 and indecorum.· What is 'transgression of the virtue pertaining to the requisites'? When a man's life is concerned with the adornment of the body, he loses contentment. What is 'transgression of virtue pertaining to the faculties'? It is separation from wise attentiveness through not closing the six sense doors. These three constitute 'non-dignity'. This is called the 'salient characteristic of virtue'.
I, 2. Not in Vis. Mag. And, 'nibbidiinupassaniiya nandiyii' ofPts. 1,46, quoted in Vis. Mag., is not here. 3. After this Vis. Mag. has 'pafinissaggiinupassaniiya iidiinassa'. 4. Alaya. 5. Lit. Piitimokkha dhamma. 6. Lit. Paccaya dhamma. 7. lndriya dhamma. 8. Ahiri. 9. Anottappa.

8

Vimuttimagga

FUNCTION, MANIFESTATION AND NEAR CAUSE OF VIRTUE What are its 'function', 'manifestation' and 'near cause'? Excellent joy is its 'function'. Non-repentance is its 'manifestation'. The three meritorious activities are its 'near cause'. And again, excellent delight is its 'function'. !'lon-repentance is its manifestation. . The shielding of all faculties is its near cause. BENEFITS OF VIRTUE What.are the 'benefits' of virtue? Non-repentance is the benefit of virtue.· This is in accord with the words of the Blessed One addressed to (the Venerable Elder) Ananda: "Non-repentance is the benefit and gain of virtue."! And again, virtue is called excellent joy, the highest of all castes, the treasure z and the noble. This is the ground of the Buddhas. This is to bathe without water. 3 This is to permeate with fragrance. 4 This is the shadow accompanying form. This is to wear the thread which must be worn. This is the sacred caste. This is the peerless training. This is the course of well-faring. If a man practises virtue, on account of that virtue, he will become fearless, ennoble his friends and be dear to the holy ones. This is the good ornament. 5 This rules all conduct. This is the place. of merit. This is the field of offering. This is the ground of growth in noble companionship. (He who practises virtue) will be steadfast in all good. He will fulfil purity of aspiration. Even in death he will be self-possessed. 6 Accomplishing the freedom of suppression he will experience the bliss of artifice (?). Thus there are many merits of virtue. MEANING OF VIRTUE 'What is the meaning of virtue'? A. It means coolness, the higher excellence, action, nature and natural condition of the nature of suffering and joy. Again, it means the head, coolness? and. peace. Why is it said that virtue is the 'head'? A. If a man has no head he cannot get rid of the dust of passion from his faculties. Then it IS called death. Thus the virtue of the bhikkhu is the . head. Beheaded, (he) loses all good qualities. Thus in the teaching of the Buddha it is called. death. This is the meaning of 'head' in virtue. Why is it said that virtue means 'coolness'? A. Just as the exceedingly cool sandal allays the fever-h~t of the body, just so does virtue allay the fever of the mind that fears aftqr breaking the precepts, and induce joy. This is the meaning of virtue as ·coolness'. Why is it said that 'peace' is the meaning
1. A.V,!: Avippafisiiratthiini kho Ananda kusa/iini si/lini avippafisiiriinisamsiini. 2. Dhana. 3. Th. 613: Titthan ca sabbabudc/hiinam tasmii si/am visodhaye. 4. Cpo Th. 615: Si/am vilepanalil setfhalil. 5. Cpo Th. 614: Silam iibharal,Ulm seuham. 6. ·D. II, 86: Si/avii silasampanno asammulho kiilam karoti. 7. See Vis. Mag. 8: Anile pana ·sirattho sila/altho Ii evam iidinii pi nayen' ev' eltha attham vaflflayanfi.

On Distinguishing Virtue
of virtue? A. If a man practises vhtue he will be quiet of behaviour. will not arouse fear. This is the meaning of virtue as 'peace'. VIRTUE AND MODE OF LIFE

9

He

'What is the difference between (virtue) and mode of life'?' Practice," energy, 3 resolution, ~ austerities? These are modes of life, not virtue. Virtue is also called mode of life. Virtue is called dignity. Feeling (?) is also called mode of life. THREE KINDS OF VIRTUE 'How many (kinds of) virtue are there' '? There are three kinds of virtue: skilful virtue, unskilful virtue and non-charactt'iezable virtue." What is skilful virtue? Bodily and verbal meritorious activities and right livelihood. (Here), because of a bsence of tribulation, good result ensues. What is unskilful virtue? Bodily and verbal demeritorious activities and wrong livelihood. (Here), because of tribulation, good result does not ensue. What is 'noncharacterizable virtue'? It is bodily and verbal can ker-free activities and spotless livelihood. (Here) there is neither tcibuJation nor good result. WHAT PRODUCES VIRTUE 'What produces virtue'? Virtue produced in a good heart is skilful virtue. Virtue produced in an evil heart is unskilful virtue. Virtue produced in a non-characterizable heart is non-characterizable virtue.' STAGES IN VIRTUE 'What are the initial, medial, and final (stages in) virtue'? The keeping of precepts is the initial (stage), non-transgression is the medial (stage) and rejoicing is the final (stage) in' virtue. a How many are the 'obstacles' to and how many are the 'causes' of virtue? A. Thirty-four states· are 'obstacles'. Thirty-four states are 'causes' of virtue. IMPEDIMENTS AND CAUSES OF VIRTUE Anger, malice, hypocrisy, agitation, covetousness, jealousy, wile, craftiness, resentment, disputatiousness, pride, self-conceit, arrogance, negligence, idleness, lust, non-contentment with litde, not following the wise, non-mindfulness, harsh speech, evil companionship, evil knowledge, evil views, impatience, want of faith, immodesty, indecorum, indulgence of body mouth and palate.,
1. Vala, Valla. Cpo Ndl 66, 92, 104, 106, 188. 2. Pa!ipalli. .1. Viriya. 4. Adiirluilla. 5. Dhutallga. 6. Lit. Indescribable virtue. PL~. r, 44: Kuti siianiln TilJi siliilli, kllsaiu.l"i/mil, akllsa/asilati. ah.wikufasilam. 7. and 8. Not in Vis. Mag. 9. Dhamm.i.

10

Vimuttimagga

vulgarity, contact with women, not honouring 'the teacher, non-practice of restr~int of the senses, non-practice of concentration in the first and last watches' of the night, not reciting the discourses in the first and last watches of the night - these thirty-four states are 'obstacles'. A man impeded by anyone of these cannot perfect his virtue. If his virtue is not perfected he will surely retrogress. The thirty-four states which counteract these ('obstacles') are the 'cause' of virtue. 1 FIRST GROUP OF TWO IN VIRTUE 'How many groups of virtue are there'? Group of two, group of three and group of four. What is the group of two? Precepts governing usage 2 llnd precepts governing prohibitions,3 Those decisions of the Buddha which indicate what ought to be done by body and speech are 'precepts governing usage', Those decisions of the Buddha which indicate what ought not to be done by body .and speech are 'precepts governing prohibitions'. 'Precepts governing usage' are accomplished through the effort of faith. 'Precepts governing prohibitions' are accomplished through being mindful of faith. SECOND GROUP OF TWO IN VIRTUE And again, there is a group of two in virtue: the virtue of discarding4 and the vir-tue of undertaking. 5 What is called. 'discarding'? It is the destruction of non-virtue. What is called 'undertaking'? It is the undertaking to keep many goo'd precepts. Just as light dispels d~rkness, just so a man who discards non-virtues, by the discarding of those non-virtues, will be freed from ill-faring. Through undertaking to keep good precepts he can enter the path of merit. Through the destruction of non-virtue he fulfils steadfastness. 6 THIRD GROUP OF TWO IN VIRTUE And again, there is a group of two in virtue. Mundane virtue 7 and supra.ffiundane virtue. R What is 'supramundane virtue'? The virtue which is fulfilled together with the fruit of the noble Path - this is 'supramundane virtue'. The rest is 'mundane virtue'. Through the fulfilment of 'mundane virtue' pre-eminence is accomplished. Through the fulfilment of 'supramundane virtue' freedom is accomplished.
I. Not in Vi~. Mag. 2. Oirilla sila. 3. V,irilla sila. 4. Pahiina. 5. Samiidana. Cpo with reference to both (1 and 2) D. I, 63: Kathan ca maharaja bhi~kllll sila-sampanno hoti? Idha mahartija bhikkhl/ ptil)titiptitadz pah/iya ptil)titiptitii pa!/VIrato hoti, nihita-dal)t/o nihita-sattho lajii doytipanno sabba-piil)a-bhiita-hitiinukampi viharati. Adilzntidtinam pahdya . . , . 6. Not in Vis. Mag. 7. Lokiya sila. 8, Lokl/ttara sila.

On Distinguishing Virtue
FOURTH GROUP OF TWO IN VIRTUE

II

And· again, there is a group of two in virtue: measurable virtue' and immeasurable virtue. 2 Incomplete virtue - this is called 'measurable virtue'. Complete virtue - this is called 'immeasurable' (virtue), according.to lhc declaration of the Buddha. FI'FTH GROUP OF TWO IN. VIRTUE And again, there is '\ group of two in viltue: with limit and without limit." What is 'with limit'? If a man undertakes to keep any precept but transgresses it for the sake of worldly welfare, for the sake of fame, for the sake offriends*, for the sake of the body** and for the sake of life, then his virtue makes woi'ldly welfare its limit, makes fame its limit, makes the body its limit, makes life its limit. What is 'without limit'? Here a bhikkhu undertakes to keep a precept rightly and does 110t entertain even the thought of transgressing (lhe precept) for the sake of worldly welfare, for the sake of fame. for the sake of the body and for the sake of life. How then Ivill he transgress it? This is called virtue 'without limit'. SIXTH GROUP OF TWO IN VIRTUE And again, there is a group of two in virtue: dependent and non-dependel1t.~ Virtue that is connected with becoming is dependent on craving. The virtue that is connected with addiction to rites and ceremonies is dependent on opinions. The virtue that is connected with self-praise and blame of others is dependent on pride. s These are 'dependent' virtues. Virtue that is for the sake of freedom is 'non-dependent' virtue. 'Dependent' virtue is not for wise men. 'Non-dependent' virtue is for the wise. SEVENTH GROUP OF TWO IN VIRTUE And again, there is a group bf two in virtue: the virtue of the fundamentals of the holy life6 and the virtue 01 enhanced practice.? What is 'the virtue of the fundamentals of the holy life'? The virtue comprising .purified bodily
I. Pamii(,a sila. 2. AppamiilJa sila. 3. Pariyanla-', apariyanta-sila. Cpo Pts. 1,43-44: Atthi silmi' pal'iyalllalil,atthi silamapariAtthi silalir lt1bhapal'iyallltl/;" yantat;l. Tattha kalalllati, lat;, silan, pariyalllClfil? allhi silM' yasapariyanlal;', allhi silan, liiilipariyanlam, atthi silan, atigapariyanlan" atthi silam jivilapariyanlan,. Kalamaln tam silam ltibhapariya/lfam? lelh' ekaeCiJ liihhahelll 1<iblrapaceayd IdbhakiiralJd yal!riisamiidilJ(,am sikkhtipadati, "ilikkamali - idam lan, silam hihhapariyanlam.... Katamam lam .filaln na aligapariyantan/? Jdh' ekaeco atigahelu angapaccayo atigakdl'QlJdyal!riisamiieli!,(,a';1 sikklllipadan/ vilikkamiiya cillam pi lIa IIppiideti kin' so vilikkami5sali; idaln Ian, silam na atigapfiriyall/mh. Kalamam lam silam na jivilapariyantam? fdh' ekacco jivitahela jivitapaccay(i .iMlakiiralJii yalh<isamtidi('lJalir sikkh<ipadan' vilikkamiiya eillmil pi l1a IIpptideli, kil;' so vitikkal11issati: idmil lOIn silam lIa jivilapariyanlam. • PIS. passage quoted above reads t7tili (relatives), "atiga (limb). 4. Nissifa, Anissila. 5. Miifla. 6. Adibrahlllacariyaka. 7. Abhisamdeiirika.

12

Vimutlimagga

action, purified verbal action and pure livelihood! is called 'the virtue of the fundamentals of the holy life'. The remaining virtue of training is called 'the virtue of enhanced practice'. EIGHTH GROUP OF TWO IN VIRTUE And again, there is a group of two in virtue: connected with mind and not connected with mind. What is 'connected with mind'? It is 'the virtue of the fundamentals of the holy life'. What is 'not connected with mind'? The other, 'the virtue of enhanced practice'. [n observing 'the virtuc of the fundamentals of the holy life' the hearer 2 accomplishes the austere and the lofty virtue .. By this 'virtue of enhanced practice' one does evil. Because the Buddha did not declare that (i.e., the virtue of enhanced practice), it is a hindrance to Enlightenment. (Therefore one does evil). NINTH GROUP OF TWO IN VIRTUE And again, there is a group of two in virtue: inviolable virtue and spotless virtue. 3 What is 'inviolable'? [t is hearer's virtue. What is 'spotless'? It is the virtue of the Buddhas and the Paccekabuddhas. TENTH GROUP OF TWO IN VIRTUE And again, there is a group oLtwo in virtue: virtue pr~ctised within a time-limit4 and virtue practised till the dissolution of the body. 5 What is practised for a short time and is not connected with life is called 'virtue practised within a time-limit'. What is practised to the end of life from the time a man follows his teacher and undertakes the precepts is called the 'virtue practised till the dissolution of the body'. There is time in the reward of virtue practised within a time-limit. There is no time in the reward of virtue practised tiII the dissolution of the body. FIRST GROUP OF THREE IN VIRTUE What (is the group of) three (in virtue)? It is (the virtue of) quelling evil and not transgressing, experiencing and not transgressing, extirpating and not transgressing. 6 What is 'quelling evil and not transgressing'"! Though hitherto not experienced feelings not belonging to one's practice arise, yct one does not suffer even the thought of transgression, in his mind-this is called 'quelling evil and not transgressing'.
I ..\'amnul kamman/a, s{lJllmii. ,,·tici;, .\'lllllll";' iijh'a.

2. 5;al'UJ."I.

4. Kiiiapariyanra.

5. Apiil;ako!ika.

3. Nl)l in Vis. !\tilg. 6. Not in Vis. Mag.

On Dij'tinguisizing Virtue

13

What is 'experiencing and not transgressing'? Having experienced a feeling one does not on that account transgress ever after - this is called 'experiencing and not. transgressing'. What is 'extirpating and not transgressing'? The noble individual! extirpates various causes of evil through the noble Path - this is called 'extirpating and not transgressing'. SECOND GROUP OF THREE IN VIRTUE And again, there is a group of three in virtue thus: tarnished virtue," not-tarnished virtue,3 tranquillized virtue.' What is 'tarnished virtue'? One clings to the appearance of a put-togetherthing at first sight-this is called 'tarnished virtue'. the
Path~this'is

The virtue of the commoner' which is also the means of entering into called 'not-tarnished' virtue. It is the virtue of the Consummate One.

What is 'tranquillized virtue'?

THIRD GROUP OF THREE IN VIRTUE And again, there is a group of three (in virtue} thus: the virtue swayed by the world, 6 the virtue swayed by the body and life,7 the virtue swayed by the Law. S What is virtue swayed by the world'? A man, through fear, removes various evils following the will of the world - this is called 'virtue swayed by the world'. What is 'virtue swayed by the body and life'? A man, through fear, removes various evils in order to protect his life-this is called 'virtue swayed by the body and life'. What is 'virtue swayed by the Law'? A man, through reverence, removes various demcritorlous states for the sake of the True Law - this is called 'virtue swayed by the Law.' FOU RTH GROUP OF THREE IN VIRTUE And again, there is a group of three in virtue [402] thus: virtue allied to dispa rate desires, virtue allied to like desires, virtue allied to no desires."
I. Ariya puggala.

What is 'virtue allied to disparate desires'? (A man, while) tormenting others, undertakes to observe the precepts - this is called 'virtue allied to' disparate desires'. What is 'virtue allied to like desires'? A man undertakes to observe the precepts for the sake of happiness in the present life and for the sake of the happiness offreedom in the future - this is called 'virtue allied to like desires'. What is 'virtue allied to no desires'? A man undertakes to observe the precepts, does not repent and benefits others - this is called 'virtue allied to no desires'.
F[FTH GROUP OF THREE IN VIRTUE

And again, there is a group of three in virtue thus: pure virtue,! impure virtue,:! doubtful virtue. s What is 'pure virtue'? Through two causes 'pure virtue' is fu[filled: the first is non-transgression; the second is confession after transgressionthis is called 'pure virtue'. Through two causes 'impure virtue' is fulfilled: the first is wilful transgression; the second is non-confession after transgression - this is called 'impul e virtue'. What is 'doubtful virtue~ '! Through three causes 'doubtful virtue' is fulfilled: the first is the non-distinguishing of place;. the second is the nondistinguishing of transgression; the third is the non-distinguishing of wrOl.lgful deeds - this is called 'doubtful virtue'. If a yogin's virtue is impure he confesses and experiences the bliss of the pul'ified. If he had doubt, he presently finds out the blemish and acquires peace.
SIXTH GROUP OF THREE IN V[RTUE

And again, there is a group of three in virtue: learner's virtuc,4 learningender's virtue," neither learner's nor learning-ender's virtue. s What is 'Iearner's·virtue'? It is the virtue of the sevcn learner-individuals.' What is 'Iearning-ender's virtue'? It is the virtue of the Consummate One. What is 'neither learner's nor learning-ender's virtue'? It is the virtue of the commoner.
SEVENTH GROUP OF THREE IN VIRTUE

What is 'fearful virtue'? There is a man who through fear does not . commit evil - this is called 'fearful virtue'. What is 'anxious. virtue'? A certain man, remembering 'in intimate friend from whom he is separated, is troubled with anxiety; owing to anxiety he does not commit evil - this is called 'anxious virtue'. What is 'fatuous virtue'? There is a man; he observes the precepts of cow-asceticism1 01 dog-asceticism 2 - this is called 'fatuous virtue'. If a man fulfils 'fatuous virtue', he will become a cow or a dog. If he does not fulfil, he will fall into hell. 3 EIGHTH GROUP OF THREE IN VIRTUE And again, there is a group of three in virtue: inferior,4 middling,s superior. 6 What is 'inferior'? (A certain man) is affected with much passion, excessive passion, great passion and is impl'egnated with non-paucity of wishes - this is called 'inferior' virtue. What is 'middling'? (A certain man) is affected with subtle passion and is impregnated with paucity of wishes - this is called 'middling' virtue. What is 'superior'? (A certain man) is not affected with passion and is impregnated with paucity of wishes - this is called 'superior' virtue. Through the fulfilment of 'inferior' virtue, one is reborn as a man i through the fulfilment of 'middling' virtue, one is reborn as a god; through the fulfilment of 'superior' virtue, one attians to freedom. FIRST GROUP OF FOUR IN VIRTUE And again, there is a group of four in vh'tue: partaking of deterioralion,7 partaking of stugnation,~ partaking of' cxcellcncc,Q partaking of penetru, lion. lu What is 'partaking ofdctel:ioration'? A certain man does not remove what shuts O:lt the attainment Qf the Path; he is not energetic; and he wilfully transgresses (lhe precepts) and thereafter conceals (his fault) - this is called 'partaking of deterioration'. What is 'partaking of stagnation'? A certain man keeps the precepts and is not heedless, but he does not arouse aversion - this is called 'partaking of stagnation'.
I. Go Silo. 2. KukkuI'a silo. For details of I and 2, SCI! M. I. 38~ f. (note 3). 3. M. I, 3B8-9; So go vatan, bhiil'clvii paripl/(I!Iarn ahbokilJI,an, ... kiiyassa Medii pal'ammal'al,lii gUllnan, sabavyalarn uppajjali. Sace kho pallassa evarn di/lhi holi: imina 'hanl si/ella va valeno wi tapena va brahmacal'iyena va <levo va bhavissami devan;;otaro "ati siissa holi l1IicchiiC/iflhi. Micchadilfhikas.va kho ahari, Seniya dvinnalil gatinalil aiiliataram gatinl "ac/cimi: nil'ay",i, I'ii tiracd,anayollim va. A similar result follows in the case of dog-

A certain man fulfils virtue and concentration, is not heedless, but does not arouse aversion - this is called 'partaking of excellence'. A certain man fulfils virtue and concentration, is not heedless and arouses aversion - this. is called 'partaking of penetration'. SECOND GROUP OF FOUR IN VIRTUE· And again, there is a group of four in virtue: the precepts for bhikkhus, the precepts for bhikkhunis, the precepts for the not-yet-ordained,l and precepts for the white-clothed householders.' What are 'the precepts for bhikkhus'?3 The Pdlimokkha-restraintsthese are 'the precepts for bhikkhus'. (What are) 'the precepts for bhikkhunis~?~ The Pdlimokkha-restraintsthese are 'the precepts for bhikkhunis'. The ten preccpts for male and female novices· and the precepts for female probationersll-these are called 'the precepts for the not-yet ordained'. The five precepts and the eight precepts for lay-disciples, male and femalethese are 'the precepts for the white-clothed householders'. THIRD GROUP OF FOUR IN VrRTUE And again, there is a group of four in virtue· thus: Virtue that is naturaJ;7 virtue that is good manners,s virtue that is law9 and virtue that is (the result of) former conditions. to What is 'virtue that is natural' '! The virtue of the people of Uttarakuruthis is called 'virtue that is natural'. What is 'virtue that is good manners'? Conduct conforming to rules of clan, caste, country, beliefs and the like-this is called 'virtue that is good manners'. What is 'virtue that is law'? The virtue (of the mother of the Bodhisatta) when he enters the womb - this is called 'virtue that is law'. What is 'virtue that is (the result of) former conditions'? The virtue of the .Bodhisatta and the Venerable Elder MaM Kas~apa-this is called 'virtue that is (thc result of! former .conditions'. FOURTH GROUP OF FOUR IN VIRTUE And again, there is a group of four in virtue: virtue as virtue, virtue as accumulation, virtue as ending, virtue as complete path of endingY
I. Allllpasampalllla sila. 2. Otll;lII-vasalla gulla!!hlt .'ila. Cpo D. III, 125: Semli kilO palla lIIe Cllllda etarahi IIpiisakii siivakii gihi o{l<ila-vasallii bralrmaciirillo. 3. Bhikkhu sila. 5. SiimaIJera-siima!/eI·i dasa silo. Cpo Vis. Mag. 15. 4. Bhikkhlllli sila. 6. Sikkhomiinii .•ila. 7. Pakati sila. 8. Aciira sila. 9. Dhammatii sila. D. 11, 13: Dlrammatii esii bhikkave, ya",; Botlhisatto miitll kllcchi,iI okkallto hoti, lIa Botllri..affltmiitll purisesl/ miillasam IIppajiati kiimagll{liipasarilhiraril, allatikkalllolliYl; co Bodlrisattamiitii hoti kellaci purisena ratta-cittena. Ayam effha dlrammatii. 10. Pllbbalretuka sila. Cpo Vis. Mag. 15. II. Not in Vis. Mag.-KlIsala .sila., "amlltlhiilla sila, nirodlra sila, lIirotllla paripadii silo.

On Distinguishing Virtue

17

What is 'virtue as virtue'? Two kinds: skilful and unskilful virtue - these are called 'virtue as virtue'. 1 What is 'virtue as accumulation'? A good heart accumulates skilful virtue; a bad heart accumulates unskilful virtue.' What is 'virtue as ending'? A man ends unskilful virtue through the acquisition of skilful virtue; a man ends skilful virtue through the accomplishment of sanctity." What is 'virtue as complete path of ending' '? Namely, the four-fold right effort 4 - this is called 'virtue as complete path of ending'. The four-fold activity is to be understood thus: It is called energy and is not real observance of virtue - this is named 'right effort'.
FIFTH GROUP OF FOUR fN VIRTUE

And again, there is a group of four in virtue: virtue of the rules-of-thcorder restraint,' virtue of the purity of livelihood,6 virtue of faculty restraint. 7 virtue connected with the requisites. s What is 'virtue of the rules-of-the-order-restraint'? Here a bhikkhu dwells, being restrained by rules-of-tile-order restraint, is endowed with good behaviour and lawful resort, fears even a small fault and well trains himself in the precepts in which he should be trained." 'Here' means in this Master's teaching. 'Bhikkhu' means good commoner. Also it means learner. Jcarningender, unshakable one. lO 'Rllies-of-thc-order-restraint' means virtue, manifestation, beginning, activities, protection, restraint, sloughing and unbil1ding. This is the entrance into the doctrines. By this the Good Law ll is accepted. This is the meaning of'rllles-of-the-ordel". Not transgressing through bodily and verbal action is 'restraint'. 'Restrained' means accomplished in the rules-of-the-order-restraint. 'Dwells' means guards the four postures. 'Is endowed with good behaviour and lawful resort':- (In his) there is good behaviour!' and there is misbchaviourY
l.

What is 'misbehaviour'? "Here a bhikkhu gives someone bamboo staves, or flowers, leaves and fruits, or tooth-sticks and bath-powder; or he' courts favour, speaking well or ill of others; or he is given to fawning; or he runs hither and thither and to far off places contrary to the rule, in order to invite folk to an assembly; or does such other actions censured by the Buddha and thus subsists by wrong livelihood-this is called 'misbehaviour''! And again, there are two kinds of 'misbehaviour': bodily and verbal misbehaviour, What is 'bodily misbehaviour'? A certain bhikkhu goes to the midst of the assembly of the Order with pride in his heart, brushing past the venerable ones; he recklessly pushes them, or goes forward, or haughtily stands, or sits on a high seat before the venerable ones (sit), or keeps back the venerable ones, or sits pompously, or disdainful of the venerable ones disposes himself on a seat; or patting them (the venerable ones) on the shoulder, he speaks lightly to them. While the venerable ones go barefooted, he wears sandals. When aged and venerable ones walk on the path below, he walks on the high and broad road above. In various ways he slights and troubles (others). He withholds what is good from the younger bhikkhus. He gives what is mean to the venerable ones. Without permission, he bums fuel in the bath-room and opens and shuts the door. Or when he goes to the waterside, he enters it (the water) before them (the venerable ones) and twists and turns his body, or pats, in the fashion of rustics. When he goes to another's house he enters abruptly, either by the back or by the front door; sits down and gets up in a disorderly manner; or he enters screened places and jokes with womcn and young girls and strokes their necks. Such misconduct is called 'misbehaviour' of body? What is 'verbal misbehaviour'? A certain bhikkhu has no reverence in his mind. Without finding out the wishes of the venerable ones he preaches on the Law or he preaches on the Piitimokkha; or he spe'lks to others patting them on the shoulder; or he enters another's house and asks of a woman bluntly thus: "Madam so and so of such and such a family, is there or is there not anything to eat? If there is, let me have it. I want to get food". Such words are 'verbal misbehaviour'." What is 'good behaviour'? It is the opposite of 'misbehaviour'. A certain bhikkhu has reverence in his mind, is obedient, is possessed of modesty and decorum and is thoroughly skilled in the postures. He has enough always, guards his senses and is abstemious as regards food and drink. He
1. Kiiyika aniiciira. Cpo Vbh. 246: Idh'ekacco vell/diinena va paltadiillena 1'</ pllpphadiillella va phaladiinena va siniinadanena vii dantakaf!hadcineno vii Cil!llkamyatc1ya vii l1111ggasfi.. patiiyavii piiribhatrhaliiya vii jangliapesanikena va annatara17iialarena bllddhapa/ikUf!hena micchd iijivenajivitan'l kappell: ay(un yucca!i anGeara. Cpo also Th. 937, 938: Mattikaril telam cUlJlJan ca udakasanabhojanam gihinam IIpanamellti akalikhantii bahullaram danta-pO(laril kapil/hm; ca pllpphakhtidaniyiini ca piJJljapiit~ ca sampanne ambe ama/akiini ca. 2. Kayika anaciira. Cpo Nd 1 228-9. 3. Vdcasika aniiciira. Cpo Nd 1 230.

On Distinguishing Virtue

19

never sleeps in the first and last watches of the night. He is endowed with wisdom and is aware of the paucity of his wislies. He is not troubled with worldly cares, is of energetic mind and deeply honours his companions. This is called 'good behaviour'. 'Lawful resort' means lawful resort and unlawful resort.· What is 'unlawful resort'? "A certain bhikkhu goes to a harlot's abode, a widow's abode, a virgin's abode, a eunuch's abode, a bhikkuni's abode, to liquor shops; he associates with kings, ministers, heretical monks, evil monks and with such fellows as have no heart of faith, never benefit the four classes and who are disliked by them (the four classes). This is called 'unlawful resort' ".1 The Buddha has declared: "A bhikkhu transgresses (the precept against) impure unlawful resort. What is 'impure unlawful resort'? Jt is to go to a harlot's abode". 'Lawful resort' is obvious. And again, there are three kinds of 'lawful resort': lawful resort Us clmc reliance; lawful resort as protection," lawful resort as a bond.' [403J What is 'lawful resort as close reliance"! It is a good friend endowed with the ten meritorious qualities.;; Owing to these qualities a man hears what he has not heard before and what has been heard is further expounded to him, he destroys doubt, attains to right views and clarity (of mind); and training himself well in the Law, believes strongly and deeply, and increases III virtue, learning,. liberality and wisdom." This is called 'I~\wflll resort as close reliance'. What is 'lawful resort as protection'? When a cC11ain bhikkhu goes to ethers' houses or to the village, he walks looking groundwards and not further than a fathom's distance; his bearing is dignified, calm and orderly; he is reverenced by the people; he does not look at elephant-chariots 01 horscchariots, or at men and women making merry, or at the balcony .of the palace, or at street-stalls. Thus he does not look up and down in the four dircctiol1~, This is called 'lawful resort as protection'. What is 'lawful resort as a bond'? It is as the Buddha has said: "A bhikkhu dwells within the preqincts of his home and land"1 - this is called 'lawful resort as a boneI'. These are called 'lawful resort'. Thus 'lawful resort' is fulfilled. Therefore, it is said, 'endowed with lawful resort'.
t. Gocara and agoeara. Cpo Vbh. 247: ldh'ckaccu resiyiigocaru va IlOli, vidhaviiguc",'u "Ii
Ihu/lakl/l7lari![ocaro va pa11\/akagocoro vii blzikkllll11igocaro ,·a paltligiiragocaro "ii, swilS"(fho viharati riijiihi rcijal7lahiimattehi tilthiyehi titthiyasavakehi ananalomikella gihiSQlil,rQ[(gena, yiilli ,'a palla lani kulalli assaddhalli appasam,iilli allopiillabliiitiilli akkosakapariMasakalli allat thakllmiilli ahitakiillliini aphiisukiilllani ayogakkhemakamiini bhikkhzinan, bhikkhlllli'nan, upiisak<inaJi, upiisikllnarh, tathiiriipalli kuWui scvati bhajati payirupiisati:
a)'Qfil vucca!i agocaro.

'Fears even a small fault' means fears the small faults committed in the course of training - this is called 'fears even a small fault'. And again, there is another teaching: One arouses unskilful states of consciousness - this is called slight en-or. One. wishes to dwell far from this 'slight error' seeing and fearing the retribution thereof. This is called seeing danger in 'slight error'. 'Trains himself in the precepts in which he should be trained' - What is the meaning of 'should be trained'? It means the seven groups of restraint. l 'Trains himself' means follows all (as taught above). This is called 'trains himself (in the precepts) in which he should be trained'. This is called 'virtue of the rules-of-the-order-restraint'. Q. What is 'virtue of purity (of livelihood),? A. It is to be not guilty of wrong livelihood. What is wrong livelihood '! It is trickery,2 talkativeness,a insinuation,4 detraction,s and giving in order to get more. S What is 'trickery' ? There are three bases of 'trickery' : .One schemes, and wants to have the four requisites, coarse and different (from the fine requisites offered to one): a certain bhikkhu corrects his behaviour, temporarily, advertises himself widely, or harbours evil desires; coveting property, he hands over excellent robes and food (to others), and for himself wants what is coarse; or, he pretends as if he did not want to get (any); or, he accepts the four requisites simulating compassion for others-this is called the 'trickery' of scheming for requisites.' A certain bhikkhu having evil desires and coveting property, simulates dignified demeanour, and says: 'I have attained to meditation (jllliTlo)'- and recites the Discourses wishing to receive offerings - this is called the 'trickery' of the postures. 8 A certain bhikkhu who is covetous and talkative, declares to others: "I possess the Ariyan Truth and dwell in solitude;" or, "I practise meditation," "My preaching is deep and subtle," "I possess the signs of a superman."· Thus, desiring gain, he extols himself. This is called the 'trickery' (of roundabout talk).lo Talkativeness means one is not genuine, flatters, jests and poses, hoping for gain. One causes amusement longing to attract gain to oneself. This is called talkativeness. What is 'insinuation'? A bhikkhu preaches the Law to a rich man whose support he desires. He longs for bencfits and does not endeavour for mastery over his own heart. This is called 'insinuation'.
l. Sattiipattikkhandha: pii,.iijika, sanghiidisesa, tlzlllfaccaya, piiciltiY'I, pii(idesaniya, dllkka!a, 2. Should read kuhanii. The ideograph means kosajja. 3. Lapanii. dubbhiisita. The ideograph also means vafikatii. 4. Nemittikatii. 5. Nippesikatii. 6. Liibltena l 224: Paccayapatisevanasamliibham nijigiliuanatii. For 2-6 Cpo Vbh. 352-3. 7. Nd klziitam kllhanavatthu. 8. Ibid: Iriyiipathasamkhiitmh kllhalravatthll. These are quite different from the details given at pp. 25-6 in the Vis. Mag. on the same subject. 10. Ndl 226: Siimantajappanasamkhiita,h klllzanavatthll.

9.

On Distinguishing Virtue

21

'Detraction' means that a man wishing to gain benefits, causes people to fear him,. because he abuses them, or because he creates dissensions among them; or terrifies people with harmful actions. What is 'giving in order to get more'? He makes small offerings and expects great returns. This is called 'giving in order t.o get more' .. These many evil actions constitute wrong livelihood. And again, there is another (teaching concerning) wrong livelihood: (It is) giving bamboo staves, or flowers, leaves and fruits, or tooth-sticks and path-powder; or, it is to divine, or to interpret dreams, or to make astrological predictions, or to interpret the language of birds, or to conjectUle conc;erning the auspiciousness or inauspiciousness of modes of walking; it is to wo·rship fire 1 and to offer flowers to it; or it is to drive a prosperous trade; or it is to lead armies; or it is to deal in sharp weapons. These, and such other activities constitute wrong livelihood. The not doing of these is called 'virtue of the purity (of livelihood),.

Q. What is 'virtue of the restraint of the faculties'?
A. On seeing a form, hearing a sound, smelling an odour, tasting a flavour or contacting a tangible, a man resolves to be (lot entranced by the defiling aspects thereof, and he does not transgress. 2 This is called 'virtue of the restraint of the faculties'. This 'virtue of the restraint of the faculties' is fulfilled through nine activities 3 : -

Through cutting down the signs of evil which arise in the faculties; through overcoming non-mindfulness; through not letting (evil states of consciousness) to continue, as (in the simile of) the man who saves his burning head;' through restraint comparable to that of the Venerable Elder Nanda;5 through conquering evil states of consciousness; through attaining to concentration of mind with ease; through living apart from men who do not guard the faculties; and through living in the company of those who guard the faculties. Q. What is 'virtue connected with the requisites'? A. Through eight ways one wisely reflects in accepting alms thus: The first: one does not takc (food and drink) for the sake of violent sport or intoxication; the second: one does not take (food and drink) for the sake of personal charm or beautification; the third; one takes (food and drink) in order to sustain the body and to preserve it; the fourth: one takes (food and drink) in order to stay hunger and thirst; the fifth: one takes (food and drink) in order to observe the holy life; the sixth: one always thinks that food and drink are intended to remove old ills and not to allow new ills
1. D. I. 9: Aggi-homa. 2. Cpo D. I, 70. 3. Only eight are treated in the explanation which follows. 4. Cp. S. nI, 143: Evam khandhe avekkheyya bhikkhu iiraddhaviriyo
divii vii yadi vii rattim sampajiino patissato. Jaheyya sabbasaiiiiogam kareyya sarQlJattamo Careyyiidittasiso va patthayam accutam padam. Cpo A. I, 25: Etad aggam ..•. indriyesu-gutta-dviiriinam yadidam Nando.

S.

22

Vim ut timagga

to arise; the seventh: one takes (food and drink) finding satisfaction with little; the eighth: one takes (food and drink) faultlessly and dwells in comfort. 1 , Q. What is 'one does not take (food and drink) for the sake of violent sport or intoxication'? A. "I take food greedily. I am strong. Therefore, I like violent sport, rough _play, competing with others and running." These constitute 'violent sport'. 'Intoxication' means self-arrogance and dissatisfaction, It is likened to the state of an angry man who beats anotheL 'Not for the sake of personal charm and beautification': (Not like) those who wish to be loved for the fullness of their body and limbs and good luoks, and do not know contentment, being full of desires. 'One takes (food and drink) in order to sustain the body and to preserve it': As a hub needs oil, so one yearns for the peaceful preservation of the body. 'One takes (food and drink) in order to stay hunger and thirst': One, always, takes little food. As a, man uses medicine for a disease of the ,kin, so one takes. 'One takes (food and drink) in order to observe the holy life': One wishes to reach the Noble Path through the advantages of abstemiousness. Feeling as a man who eats the flesh of his child, one takes.' 'Intended to remove old ills and not to allow new ills to arise': One takes not too little and not too much. As a man taking a mixture, so one takes. 'One takes (food and drink) finding satisfaction in little': One keeps one's body safe accepting little, always treating one's body as a nurse (treats a patient). 'Faultlessly' means one sets one's body at ease with little. Using in this way, one makes the body faultless and escapes the reproof of the wise. Thus 'one takes (food and drink) faultlessly and dwells in comfort'.

If one's food is suitable, one never feels tired and one does not sleep in the first, middle and last watches of the night. In this way one fulfils tranquillity. Thus 'through eight ways one wisely reflects in accepting alms'. Thus one should accept.
And again, these eight ways are shortened to four considerations: the consideration of what ought to be cut down, the consideration of reality, the consideration of being satisfied with little, the consideration of accepting little.
Q.

What is 'the consideration of what ought to be cut down'?

A. The state of not being addicted to 'violent sport', not being in a state of 'intoxication' and the state of not being concerned with 'personal charm and beautification' - these are calied 'the consideration of what ought to be cut down'. Using 'in order to sustain the body and to preserve it', 'in order to stay hunger and thirst', and 'in order to observe the holy life' - these are called 'the consideration of reality'.
I.

"I shall subdue the old ills and I shall cause no new ills to arise" - this is called ~the consideration of being saHsfied with little'. "I shall satisfy myself with little and, being faultless, I shall dwell in comfort" -this is called 'the consideration of accepting little'. These are the four considerations. These four considerations are further shortened to three thus: consideration of cutting down, consideration of mean (lit. taking the middle between two ends), consideration of completion.
A man cuts down the attachment to sense-pleasures through the 'consideration of cutting down' i.e., removes hunger and thirst, destroys the old ills and does not caus,e new ills to arise. And again, by this 'consideration' a man destroys karmic weariness of the body. The others should be practised in the 'consideration of mean' and thc 'consideration of completion'. And when one reflects on robes he understands that robes are for protection against wind, cold, heat, mosquitoes, gadflies and ants and for covering one's unsightly shame-producing parts. Thus one practises 'consideration of completion'.l And again, one reflects on medicines·for ailments.2 If that is so, when should one make consideration? As regards food and the taking of medicine one should make consideration whenever one takes (food and medicine). As regards robes and bedding one should make consideration at the time one accepts. And every day and every hour should one think thus: My life depends on others; therefore, I ought always to refiecf,a Thus one should consider everything. There are four kinds of use taught by predecessors thus: use as theft, use as debt, use as inheritance and use like a master.' What is 'use as theft'? Use (of requisites) by the transgressor of the precepts. What is 'use as debt'? Use (of requisites) by individuals guilty of immodesty, indecorum and wljong livelihood. What is 'use as inheritance'? Use (of requisites) by individuals who are strenuous. Whatis 'use like a master'? Use (of requisites) by the consummate ones. And again, there are two kinds of use. Namely, unclean use and clean use. What is 'unclean'? (Use of requisites by an) individual having modesty and decorum but who is not capable of wise reflection - this is called 'unclean'.
1. M. I, 10: Pa/isalikhii yoniso civaram pa/isevati yiivad eva sitassa pa/ighiiliiya IIlJhassa patighiiliiya cjamsamakasaviitiifapasirimsapa samphassiinaln patighiitiiya yiivad el'a hirikopinapa!icchiidanatlharil. 2. Ibid, 3. A.V, 87-8: Parapatibaddhii me jivikii Ii pabbajitena abhi(lhaln paccavekkhitabbam. 4. J. V, 253: Theyyaparibhoga, i(laparibhoga, dayajjaparibhoga, siimiparibhoga. Vis. Mag. does not attribute these four to the 'ancients' (porii1;lii) as it is done here.

24

Virnulfimagga

(Use of requisites by an) individual having modesty and decorum, who reflects wisely, knows, is self-moderated and is possessed of aversion - this' is called 'clean'. In this cleanliness one ought to train oneself always. Thus one should understand the four requisites. This is called 'virtue connected with the requisites'. FIFTH GROUP OF FOUR IN VIRTUE SUMMARIZED Thus 'virtue of the rules-of-thc-order-restraint' should be fulfilled through higher faith; 'virtue of purity of livelihood' should be fulfilled through higher energy; [404] 'virtue of the restraint of faculties' should be fulfilled through higher faith and 'virtue connected with the requisites' should be fulfilled through higher wisdom. Thus 'virtue of the purity of livelihood' goes together with the rules of the order, Pcltill1okkha. Why? Because, through separation from worldly affairs owing to non-attachment, one becomes quiet of behaviour and acquires restraint of bodily and verbal actions. These two kinds of virtue belong to the 'virtue of the restraint of faculties', What is the reason? If a man .guards his mind in goodness, he can well protect his bodily and verbal actions, '(Virtue) connected with the requisites' is 'restraint of faculties'. What is the reason? One knows the aggregations and their dependence and is disgusted with them, and dwells in Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration. It is as taught by the Blessed One thus: "A bhikkhu understands material food and the fivefold lust". 'Rules-of-the-order-restraint' and 'purity of livelihood' belong to the' 'group of virtue'; 'virtue of the restraint of faculties' belongs to the 'group of concentration' and 'virtue connected with the requisites' belongs to the 'group of wisdom'. WHAT PURIFIES VIRTUE 'What purifies virtue'? If a bhikkhu who has accepted the teaching of meditation1 and is mindful of the seven groups of offences, sees another committing a Defeat-offence 2 he falls from the state of a bhikkhu and lives in incomplete virtue. If he lives in complete virtue, he will acquire the excellent virtue. If he lives in complete virtue, he will acquire the excellent truth. This is the teaching of the predecessors. If a bhikkhu sees another committing a Suspension-offence3 he confesses fully. If he sees another committing any other offence, then he confesses concerning that transgression to one person. 4 If a bhikkhu sees another 5 committing wrong livelihood, he makes a proper confession concerning that transgression. After he confesses, he resolves: "I will not do it again." Thus having seen, he resolves.
1. JI/{ina dhamma. 2. Piiriijika. 5. Probably should read "himself".
3. Sanglriidisesa. 4. Apallidesallii.

On Distinguishing Virtue

25

When he transgresses '(virtue of)- the restraint of faculties' or '(virtue) connected with the requisites' he says: "I will not do it again". If he resolves he will acquire excellent restraint in the future. When a bhikkhu practises the purity of virtue, he does bodily and verbal actions that ought to be done. He reflects on his actions. He does well and removes ill. Reflecting thus he dwells in the purity of virtue, day and night. Thus doing he is able to purify his virtue. What is the salient characteristic of the purity of virtue?1 One can control the passions,2 destroy rigidity3 and fulfU concentration. 4 This is the salient characteristic of the purity of virtue. CAUSES THROUGH WHICH ONE DWELLS IN VIRTUE 'Owing to how many causes does one dwell in virtue?' Through two, one dwells in virtue. The first: one considers the tribulation of the transgression of virtue; the second: one considers the merits of virtue. What is to- consider 'tribulation'? If a man transgresses virtue, he makes demerit and prepares evil places (for himself) and fears the four classes; and doubting, blames the wise. Those who are virtuous avoid him. He is not taught meditation. Heavenly beings despise him. He is hated and slighted by all. When he hears others praising the merit of those who are virtuous, he feels sorrowful but does not believe it (the merit of those who are virtuous). He is always angry when he is amongst those of the four classes. He dislikes and hates (good) companions. He opposes those who are virtuous and takes the side of evil companions. And again, he has not the patience to enter into the way of excellent concentration. If he adorns himself, he looks, especially, ugly. He is disliked even as excrement and urine are disliked by men. (He does not endure) even as a makeshift article does not last long. (He is worthless) even as mud is of no value in the present or the future. He is anxious and dejected always. He is ashamed and remorseful/of the evil he has done and he has no peace of mind, like a thief in prison. He has no desire for the Noble (Law), as an outcast has no desire for a king's throne. 6 Though he is learned in the doctrine of wisdom, yet none honour him, even as a dung-fire (is honoured by none). He cannot find a good place in this life and after death he will go to an evil state. If a man wishes to forsake evil and fulfil the merits of virtue, he should consider thus: The mind of the transgressor of virtue is disu acted and dejected. The.virtuous man, through strenuous endeavour, grows in belief and becomes an energetic individual endowed with faith.
J. Sifavisl/ddhi. 2. Kilesa. 3. Thina. 4. Sanuidlti. 5. Cpo D. II, 85: Puna ca param gahapatayo dussilo sila-vipanno yonl yad eva parisam IljJasalnkamati yadi khattiya-parisam yadi briimQ{la-parisam yadi gahapati-parisalil yadi samalJaparisali1, avisiirado IljJasamkamati lIlaliku-bhulo.

6. Vis. Mag. 54: Niriiso saddhamme calJqiilakllllliirako viya rajje.

26

Vimuttimagga

A man should protect his virtue, with all his strength, as an ant protects her egg, as a yak loves his tail, as one protects an only son or one's sole eye,i as a diviner protects himself, as a poor man protects his treasure and as a fisherman protects his boat. More (strenuously) than these should he honour and protect the virtue he has undertaken to observe. If he thus observes, his mind will be guarded, he will dwell in the peace of concentration and his virtue will acquire protection.

Q. Now, if a yogin who dwells in pure virtue aspires to accomplish excellent good merits and wishes to acquire the benefits of the austerities, he should consider thus: "Why should one acquire the benefits of the austerities"? A. Because of the varying disposition of the yogin. For paucity of wishes, for contentment with little, for freedom from doubt, for the destruction of cravi~g, for the increase of energy, for the sake of using little and not accepting the offerings made to others, for solitude, for the cutting down of clinging and for the protection of moral virtue. These (the merits of the austerities) are the equipment of concentration. These are (practices of) the ancient lineage of the Ariyas. 2 These are the excellent considerations.
THE THIRTEEN AUSTERITIES
I

What are the austerities? There are thirteen teachings: 3 two teachings connected with robes, namely, dir"t-rags*'l and three robes; t 5 five teachings connected wi th alms, namely, begged food, t" regular alms-round, *7 one eating, *8 measured food, *9 no food after time ;*'0 five teachings connected with residence: the first: dwelling in a peaceful place, *11 the second: dwelling under a tree, *12 the third: dwelling in a dewy place, *13 the fourth: dwelling among the graves, *14 the fifth: any chanced upon place; *'0 and there is a kind of sitting connected with energy, namely, always sitting and not lying down.*'·
I. Dhllta (transliteration).

BRIEF EXPLANATION OF THE THIRTEEN AUSTERITIES
What is the quality of 'dirt-rags' ? A. The quality of enabling to observethis is the quality of dirt-rags'. Others are similar. What is the meaning of the observance of dirt-rags'? The non-acceptance of gifts of householders. What is the meaning of the observance of 'three robes'? The rejection of extra robes. What is the meaning of the observance of 'begged food'? The nonacceptance of the invitations of others. What is the meaning of the observance of 'regular alms-round'? The abandoning of skipped begging. What is the meaning of the observance of 'one-eating'? The not sitting again. What is the meaning of the observance of 'measured food'? The abandoning of greed. What is the meaning of the observance of 'refusing food after time'? The abandoning of the desire to eat afterwards. What is the meaning of the observance of 'dwelling in a peaceful place'? The abandoning of dwelling in a village. What is the meaning of the observance of 'dwelling under a tree'? The abandoning of dwelling in a house. What is the meaning of the observance of 'dwelling in a dewy place'? The abandoning of dwelling in sheltered places. What is the meaning of the observance of 'dwelling among the graves'? The abandoning of dwelling in other and in good places. What is the meaning of the observance of 'any chanced upon place'? The abandoning of desire for pleasant places. What is the meaning of the observance of 'always sitting and not lying down'? The abandoning of beds.

'DIRT-RAGS'
How does one undertake to observe (the austerity of) 'dirt-rags'? One sees the fault of asking householders for robes and the merit of 'dirt-rags' (and undertakes thus:) "J refuse the offerings of householders and observe (the austerity of) 'dirt-rags'''. What are the benefits of the observance of 'dirt-rags'? (,Dirt-rags') are just as useful as householders' robes l and are enough. One does not depend on others. There is no fear of losing, and one is not attached. Thieves do not want 'dirt-rags'. ('Dirt-rags') are always sufficient for one's purpose.
I. Galrapalicivara, robes offered by householders.

On Austerities

29

In getting ('dirt-rags') one is not troubled and (this observance) will be an example to good folk. This observance is proper to those who are doubt-free and virtuous. One lives happily in this life. (This observance) will cause one to be liked by the people, and cause them to practise rightly. These are the benefits of the observance of 'dirt-rags' praised by the Buddha.!

Q. How many kinds of 'dirt-rags' are there? Who observes 12 How does one fail 1
A. There are two kinds of 'dirt-rags'. The flrst: 'dirt-rags' which are ownerless, the second: 'dirt-rags' which are thrown away by people.

Those which one picks up in a cemetery, from a dirt-heap, in the street, or from the road-side and cuts, dyes, pieces together, sews to completion and uses, are called" 'dirt-rags' which are ownerless". Remnants of cut-cloth, torn pieces of cattle-bitten, mouse-gnawed or burnt cloth and cloth thrown away, cloth on corpses, and cast-off cloth of ascetics are called " 'dirt-rags' which are thrown away by people". What is the observance of 'dirt-rags'1 When a bhikkhu refuses the offerings of householders, it is called the observance of 'dirt-rags'. How does one fail? When a bhikkhu accepts the offerings of householders, it is called failing. 'THREE ROBES' How does one undertake to observe (the austerity of) 'three robes'? One immediately gives up one's extra robes. Knowing the fault of keeping (extra robes) and seeing the benefits of the observance of 'three robes', (one undertakes thus:) "I refuse extra robes from today and observe (the austerity of) 'three robes' ". What are the benefits of the observance of 'three robes'? It is an obscl'vance of good men. A bhikkhu gives up the hoarding of unneccssaries, lessens troubles and becomes m6dest. As a bird on wing that does not yearn for what it leaves behind is filled with content, so is he. [405] One gets a following of good men. This observance is doubt-free. Q_ What are 'three robes'? What is the observance? How does one fail ? A. Shoulder cloak,3 upper garment 4 and waist-cloth." These are cailed 'three robes'. What is the observance of 'three robes'1 When a bhikkhll does not hoard extra robes, it is called the observance of 'three robes'. When a bhikkhll accepts a fourth robe, it is called failing.
1. A. Ill, 219: 'ValJlJitam buddhehi buddhasiivakehi'. 2. According to the explanation which follows, this should be "what is the observance of 'dirt-rags' 1" 3. Sanghii!;. 4. Uttariisanga. 5. Alltaravdsaka.

30

Vimuttimagga

'BEGGED FOOD' How does one undertake' to observe (the austerity of) 'begged food'? If a bhikkhu accepts an invitation, he interrupts his activities and is not at ease. One sees these draw-backs and the merits of the observance of 'begged food' (and undertakes thus:) "I refuse invitations from today and observe (the austerity of 'begged food')". What are the benefits of the observance of 'begged food'? One is free to go or stay according to one's wishes. One does not need food to be prepared. One destroys rigidity and pride. One is not greedy of delicacies. One permits others to be benefitted and is never attached to any quarter. One gets a following of good men. This observance is doubt-free. Q. How many kinds of invitations are there? What is the observance? How does one fail?
A. There are three kinds of invitations. The first: (general) invitation, the second: invitation to visit, the third: repeated invitation.l

The non-acceptance of these thtee kinds of invitations is the observance of 'begged food'. If a bhikkhu accepts these three kinds of invitations, he fails in the observance of 'begged food'. 'REGULAR ALMS-ROUND' How does one undertake to observe (the austerity of) 'regular alms-round'"? When a bhikkhu is able to obtain tasty food from any house by making a 'regular alms-round', he does not go again (in that direction). If he goes again, it is an ordinary alms-round. If there is a doubtful place he avoids it. One sees these faults (of going again etc.) and the benefits of the observance of 'regular alms-round' (and undertakes thus:) "I abandon the irregular almsround from today and observe (the austerity of) 'regular alms-round'''. What are the benefits of the observance of 'regular alms-round'? One thinks of benefitting all beings equally, and destroys the fault of enjoyment. One is not pleased when invited, is not pleased with many words, and does not call on householders. One does not walk hurriedly. Rare as the moon at full, one appears and is appreciated and honoured. One gets ~ following of good men. This observance is doubt-free.
Q. What is a 'regular alms-round'? What is the observance? How does one fail ?

A. When a bhikkhu enters a village for alms, he begs in regular order from the last house backwards. This is called 'regular alms-round'.

How does one fail? Skipped begging I. Cpo Vis. Mag. 66. The Chinese is unclear.

this is called failing.

On

Austerities

'ONE-EATING' How does one undertake to observe (the austerity of) 'one-eating'? Eating in two places, eating frequently, taking food frequently, washing the bowl frequently - the opposite of these is 'one-eating'. This is an observance of good men. This observance is doubt-free. One sees the faults (of eating at two places etc.) and the merits of the observance of 'one-eating' (and undertakes thus:) "I abandon eating at two places from today and observe (the austerity of) 'one-eating'''. What are the benefits of the observance of 'one-eating'? One takes neither more nor less. One is not greedy of improper offerings, is not troubled with many ills, is untroubled as regards livelihood, and is happy. This is an observance of good men. This observance is doubt-free. Q. What is the observance of 'one-eating'? What are the limits?1 How does one fail? A. There are three limits: sitting-limit, water-limit, food-limit. What is 'sitting-limit'? After one ends eating one (cannot) sit again. After a bhikkhu fetches water and washes his bowl, he cannot eat agllin. This is called 'water-limit'. What is 'food-limit'? After one thinks: "This lump of food is the last," he should not drink or eat any more. This is called 'food-limit' . If a bhikkhu sits twice, except in taking liquid-medicine and such other things, he fails in the observance of 'one-eating'. This has been disapproved by the Buddhas. This is called 'food-limit'. 'MEASURED FOOD' How does one undertake to observe (the austerity of) 'measured food' '? If a bhikkhu drinks and eats too much, he increases sleepiness, always hankers for much food, and sets no linlit to his appetite. One sees these faults and the merits of the observance of 'measured food' (and undertakes thus:) "From today, I take food without greed, and observe· (the austerity of) 'measured food'''. This is called undertaking to observe (the austerity of) 'measured food'. What are the benefits of the observance of 'measured food'? One measures one's meal. One does not eat for belly's sake. One knows that too much eating induces fatigue and therefore one does not desire much, and causes diseases to perish, and abandons rigidity. This is an observance of good men. This observance is doubt-free. Q. What is the observance of 'measured food'? How does one fail?
J. Cpo Vis. Mag. 69.

32

Vimuttimagga

A. When a bhlkkhu.receives drink and food, he considers the measure of his wants. He does not take too much food and knows well the (proper)' quantity and does not exceed the limit. . (This is) called the observance of 'measured food'. If he does otherwise, he fails.

'NO FOOD AFTER TIME' How does one undertake to observe (the austerity of) 'no food after time'? One abandons expectation and avoids extra food. One knows these faults (expectation etc.) and sees the benefits of the observance of 'no food after time' (and undertakes thus:) "I abandon extra food from today and observe (the austerity of) 'no food after time'''. What are the benefits of the observance of 'no food after time'? One abandons greed, and experiences the joy of self-restraint. One protects the body, and avoids taking food in advance, does not hanker, does not ask others for things, does not follow his inclinations. This is an observance of good men. This observance is doubt-free. Q. How many kinds of '(no food) after time' are there? What is the observance? How does one fail?
A. There are two kinds of '(no food) after time': immoderate limit, accepting limit.

What is 'immoderate limit'? If a bhikkhu. accepts extra food, his offence is (equal to) that of one who accepts food offered to a particular person or persons. 1 He should not eat again. What is 'accepting limit'? A bhikkhu should not accept after he has eaten twenty-one handfuls. If he observes 'no food after time', he abandons extra food. If he accepts extra food he fails in the observance of 'no food after time'. 'DWELLlNG IN A PEACEFUL PLACE' How does one undertake (the austerity of) 'dwelling in a peaceful place' '! When the village is crowded, one's mind is touched by the five objects of sense and saturated with the desire for pleasure. When one dwells in a crowded place, one is disturbed by people going and coming. One sees these faults and the merits of the observance of 'dwelling in a peaceful place' (aad undertakes thus:) "I abandon dwelling in the village from today and observe (the austerity of) 'dwelling in a peaceful place'''. What are the merits of 'peaceful place'? Even when the village is crowded, one's mind is not touched by the five objects of sense and is kept away from attachment. If one dwells ill a crowded place, one is disturbed by the going and coming of many: One knows the excellence of the ten kinds of words
I. Uddesablralla.

On Austerities

33

praised by gods and men. One does not wish to become worldly, and wishes to gain tranquillity. One dwells in solitude, speaks little and meditates, according to one's bent of mind. This is an observance of good men. This observance is doubt-free. . Q. What is. the nearest distance of 'dwelling in a pe\lceful place'? What is the observance? How does one fail? A. One dwells outside (the village) keeping some distance from the walls and avoiding the far end of the suburb. The nearest distance of 'dwelling in a peaceful place' is five-hundred bow-Iengths. l One bow-length is four Avoidance of dwelling in a village is c.alled cubits of an average man. 'dwelling in a peaceful place'. If bhikkhu dwells in a village, he fails in "the observance of 'dwelling in a peaceful place'. 'DWELLING UNDER A TREE' How does one undertake to ·observe (the austerity of) 'dwelling under a tree'? One avoids roofed places. One does not keep animals. One does not build or long for (roofed places). One does not search (for roofed places). One sees the faults (of dwelling in roofed places) and the merits of the observance of '(dwelling) under a tree' (and undertakes thus:) "I abandon roofed places from today and observe (the austerity of) 'dwelling under a tree'. Thus one undertakes to observe. What are the benefits of '(dwelling) under a tree'? One relies on the place one likes, one does not hold intercourse with the world, one is pleased because one is free from all work, one dwells with the gods, cuts down resentment due to residence, and is free from attachment. This is an observance of good men. This observance is doubt-free. Q. Under what trees should a bhikkhu dwell? What trees should he avoid? What is the observance? How does one fail? A. The place on which sbadows of trees fall during the day and the place where leaves of trees fall when there is no wind are the places to dwell in. One avoids dangerous decayed trees, rotten trees with hollows and trees haunted by evil spirits. One avoids roofed places. This is the observance of 'dwelling under a tree'. If a bhikkhu goes to (live in) a roofed place, he fails in the observance of 'dwelling under a tree'. . 'DWELLING IN A DEWY PLACE' How does one undertake to observe (the austerity of) 'dwelling in a dewy place' ? One does not desire to dwell in roofed places, under trees, and in places where animals and goods are kept. One sees the faults of these, and
I.

Vin. TV, 18J:

Araiiiiakam seniisanam pOI;ca-dhanusatikam pacchimam.

34

Vimuttimagga

the benefits of 'dwelling in a dewy place' (and undertakes thus:) "r avoid unpleasant places from today and observe (the austerity of) 'dwelling. in a' dewy place'. What are the benefits of 'dwelling in a dewy place'? One does not go to unpleasant places and abandons negligence and torpor. One goes whithersoever one wills, like a forest-deer and is 110t attached to any particular place. l This is an observance of good men. This observance is doubt-free. What is the observance? How does one fail? One avoids roofed places and the shelter of trees. This is the observance of 'dwelling in a dewy place'. If one dwells in roofed places and under the shelter of trees, one fails in the observance of 'dwelling in a dewy place'. 'DWELLING AMONG THE GRAVES' How does one undertake to observe (the austerity of) 'dwelling among the graves'? One who dwells in other places becomes careless and does not fear wrongdoing. One sees these faults and the merits of 'dwelling among the graves' (and undertakes thus:) "r avoid other places from today and observe (the austerity of) 'dwelling among the graves' ". This is the undertaking to observe. What are the merits of the observance of '(dwelling) among the graves'? One understands the feeling of the time of death. One perceives that aM is impure. One acquin~s the homage of non-humans. One does not cause heedlessness to arise, overcomes passion and is much detached. One does not fear what common folk dread. One contemplates on the emptiness of the body and is able to reject the thought of permanence. This is an observance of good men. This observance is doubt-free. Q. (Wllat are the merits of 'dwelling among the graves' ?). Where should one dwell? What is the observance? How does one fail? . A. If in a place of graves there is always weeping and wailing and smoke and fire, one should consider, find out a calm place, and go to dwell there. If a bhikkhu dwells 'among the graves', he should not build a hut or make a comfortable bed. He should sit with his back to the wind. He should not sit facing the wind. He should not fall into deep sleep. He should not eat fish. He should not drink milk or buttermilk or eat sesamum or flesh of animals [406]. He should not dwell in a house or use a platter. When a person taking his mat and robes leaves (the monastery) and goes to dwell 'among the graves', he, as it were, flings all his belongings afar. At da,,!n, he takes mat and robes and returns to the monastery2 and avoids other dwellingplaces. If he dwells in any other place, he breaks or fails in the observance of 'dwelling among the graves'.
1. Sn. 39: Migo arafiiiamhi yathii abandho yen' icchakam gacchati gocariiya. 2. Sal1ghiiriima (transliteration).

On Austerities
'ANY CHANCED UPON PLACE'

35

How does one undertake to observe (the austerity of) 'any chanced upon place'? One does not like the place which men want greedily. One is not troubled when others wish him to leave any place. One sees these ,fauIts (greed for place etc.) and the merits of the observance of 'any chanced upon place'" (and undertakes thus:) "I abandon the greed for residence and observe (the austerity of) 'any chanced upon place' n. This is the undertaking to observe. What are the benefits of 'any chanced upon place'? One dwells satisfied with any place, longs for tranquillity, abandons various comforts, is honoured by others, dwe\,s with heart of compassion. This is an observance of good men. This observance is doubt-free. What is the observance? How does one fail? To abandon the longing which is dependent on dwelling-this is calleo dependence on 'any chanced upon place'. If a bhikkhu goes to dwell in a pleasant place, it is called failing. 'ALWAYS SITTING AND NOT LYING DOWN' How does one undertake to observe (the austerity of) 'always sitting and not lying down'? Onc sees the faults of sleeping and idling in the dwellingplace and the benefits of 'always sitting and not lying down' (and undertakes thus:) "I abandon sleeping and lying down from today and observe (the austerity of) 'always sitting and not lying down' n. This is the undertaking to observe. What are the benefits of 'always sitting and 110t lying down'? One avoius the place where idleness arises. One removes resentment produced on account of one's body, and is freed from the pleasures which taint the organ of touch. One diminishes the enshrouding torpor. One is always tranquil and becomes fit for the practice of excellent concentration. This is an observance of good men. This observance is doubt-free. , What is the observance? How does one lail? (Its observance is in) the abandoning of sleep and not lying down. " If one lies down, it is called failing. EXPEDIENCE IN THE OBSERVANCE OF THE AUSTERITIES What are not 'dirt-rags'? They are hemp, cotton, silk and woollen robesl and others 2 offered by house-holders. If a bhikkhu accepts these for expedience' sake, he does not fail in the observance of 'dirt-rags';
J. Khoma, kappa.a, koseyya, kamba/a-all transliterations. 2. According to the Chinese .. Samantapasadika" these are .alla and bhanga, two varieties of hemp,

36

Vimuttimagga

What are (not) 'three-robes'? Extra robes stored for more than ten days; ka{hina robes and those other extra robes used as bedding-holders; bed-spreads,1 cloth for skin-ailments and the like,2 napkins," rain-bath cloth,4 should not be kept if they are not spotless gifts. If a bhikkhu uses these for expedience' sake, he does not fail in the observance of 'three robes'. What is the teaching as regards expedience in the observance of 'beggedfood'? To partake of food given to the Order as a whole, s of assured food, 6 of ticket food,7 of food offered on lunar fortnights,S of food offered on a sacred day,' of food offered to the manyl0 and of food given in honour of a monastery,11 for expedience' sake is not to fail in the observance of 'begged food'. If one sees faults, on\: should reject such food. What is the teaching as regards expedience in the observance of 'regularalms-round' ? If a bhikkhu on seeing elephants or horses fighting or in rut, at the gate, avoids them, or on seeing an outcast12 covers his bowl, or goes behind his preceptor, teacher or a visiting bhikkhu, and thus commits certain faults for expedience' sake, he does not fail in 'regular alms-round'. What is the teaching as regards expedience in the observance of 'oneeating'? If in the course of taking a meal at the proper time, one sees elephants, horses, cattle or snakes, or if it rains, or if one sees one's preceptor l3 or teacher,H or a visiting bhikkhu, and stands up for expedience' sake, and after that resumes one's meal, one does not fail in the observance of 'one-eating'. In 'measured food' and 'no food after time', there is nothing by way of expedience. What is the teaching as regards expedience in the observance of 'dwelling in a peaceful place'? If one goes to the village for causing people to undertake the precepts, confession of faults, hearing the Law, the service of the sacred day,15 the service of the termination of the rainy season residence, tG sickness, nursing the sick, inquiries regarding doubts on the discourses, and the like, it is not failing in the observance of 'dwelling in a peaceful place'. What is the teaching as regards expedience in the observance of 'dwelling under a tree' ? If a bhikkhu, because of rain, goes to a roofed place and returns when it is bright, he does not fail in the observance of 'dwelling under a tree'. Expedience in the observance of 'dwelling in a dewy place', 'dwelling amongst the graves', and 'any chanced upon place' is also like this. A bhikkhu may dwell elsewhere. There is nothing by way of expedience regarding 'always sitting and not lying down'. Yet there is a tradition as regards the expediency of pouring (medicine) into the nose. By this one does not fail in 'always sitting and Qat lying down'.
1. PaccattharalJa. 5. Sanghabhalta. 2. KalJt/upa!icciidi. 6. Niccabhatta. 7. Saliikabhatta. 3. Mukhapufichana. 8. Pakkhikabhatta. 4. Vassikasiilika. 13. Upajjhiiya (probably transliteration). 14. Acariya (transliteration). 15. Uposatha.

9. 10.
12.

Uposathabhatta. Ganabhatta. CaT,1t/iila (transliteration).

H. Vihiirabhatta.
16. PaviirfJ'!ii.

On Austerities,
MISCELLANEOUS TEACmNGS

37

And again one fulfils eight teachings through these thirteen austerities. In the Abhidhamma these eight are taught: " 'Measured food' and 'oneeating' are involved in 'no food after time'. 'Dwelling under a tree', 'dwelling in a dewy place', 'dwelling among the graves' are involved in 'dwelling in a peaceful place', because, if one gathers funds for building a house, or if one 'likes to (do remunerative) work, keeps animals or is attached to 'dwelling in a peaceful place', one's mind isnot at ease. Thus thinking one dwells in peace 'under a tree', 'among the graves' or 'in a dewy place'''. Thus the eight are fulfilled. By these eight austerities three teachings are fulfilled: the first: 'dwelling in a peaceful place', the second: 'dirt-rags', the third: 'begged food'. If these three are pure, the austerities are fulfilled. Therefore the Buddha taught the Venerable Elder Nanda thus: "Always you should observe 'dwelling in a peaceful place', 'dirt-rags' and 'begged food'. You should not nurse your body and life. You should not see the objects of lust."1 Q. Who is called observer of the austerity-factors?2 How many kinds of teachings are there regarding austerities? Which of three persons observe the austerities? How many seasons are there for the observance of austerities? Who is an observer and teacher of the austerities? A. There are thirteen austerities taught by the Buddha. These are precepts of the Buddha. These are called austedty-factors. Here the skilful, unskilful and the non-characterizable" should not be taught, because the unskilful man is full of lust. He does not remove lust. .He lives in wickedness. He is greedy of worldly advantages. Therefore, unskill is (not) austerity. How many kinds of teachings are there? There are two teachings of austerities: non-greed and non-delusion. The Buddha has said, "If a bhikkhu who observes (the austerity of) 'dirt-rags' is endowed with paucity of wishes, is contented with little, enjoys tranquillity, is doubt-free and relies on freedom, then he is called one who obserVes (the austerity of) 'dirt-rags"'.' The othel' austerities are all greedless and delusion-free. By means of this greedlessness, a bhikkhu removes ignorance in thirteen places. And again by this greedlessness which the Buddha made possible (a bhikkhu) arouses in his mind aversion, and being free from doubt, reasonably removes the stain of lust and crookedness. By this freedom from delusion, he removes weariness of the flesh and crookedness. These are the two teachings of austerities. These are greedlessness and freedom from delusion.

'Which of the three persons observe the austerities'? The man of greed and the man of delusion observe the austerities. The man of hate cannot' observe the austerities. The man of greed and the man of delusion can observe the austerities. The man of greed accomplishes heedfulness through attachment. If he becomes heedless, he overcomes greed. Delusion is non-doubting. By means of the austerities a bhikkhu can fulfil heedfulness. If he is heedful, he can overcome delusion well. That is why the man of greed and the man of delusion observe the austerities. Heedless men suffer and do evil. A heedless man should not observe (because if he does, he will increase his sufferings), just as a person afflicted with a disease of phlegm worsens on taking hot drinks. And again there is a tradition. A heedless man should dwell 'in a peaceful place' or 'under a tree'. Why should he dwell 'in a peaceful place;? Because there are no worldly troubles there. How many seasons are there for the observance of austerities? Eight months are the period for three austerities, namely, 'dwelling under a tree', 'dwelling in a dewy place' an~ 'dwelling among the graves'. The Buddha has permitted dwelling in roofed places in the rainy season.l Q. 'Who is an observer and teacher of the austerities'? A. There is one who is an observer and teacher of the austerities. There is one who is an observer but not a teacher of austerities. There is one who is not an observer but only a teacher of austerities, and there is one who is neither an observer nor a teacher of austerities. Who is 'an observer and teacher of austerities'? The Consummate One who has fulfilled the observance of the austerities. Who is 'an observer but not a teacher of austerities' ? The Consummate One who has not fulfilled the observance of the austerities. Who is 'not an observer but only a teacher of austerities'? The learner or the commoner who has fulfilled the observance of the austerities. Who is 'neither an observer nor a teacher of austerities'? The learner or the commoner who has not fulfilled the observance of the austerities. Q. What is the salient characteristic, function and manifestation of the austerities? A. Paucity of wishes is the salient characteristic. Contentment is the function. Non-doubting is the manifestation. And again non-attachment is the salient characteristic. Moderation is the function. Non-retrogression is the manifestation. " What are the initial, medial and final stages of the austerities? The undertaking to observe is the initial stage. Practice is the medial stage and rejoicing is the final stage.
1. Vassiina.

ON DISTINGUISHING CONCENTRATION
CHAPTER THE FOURTH

Q. Now; what should the yogin who dwells in pure virtue do, when he has already observed the austerities and has reached an excellent station?

A.

Let him bring out concentration.

Q. What is concentration? What is its salient characteristic ?What is its function? What is its manifestation? What is its near cause? Who observes it? What differences are there between meditation, freedom, concentration and right observance? How many are the causes which produce concentration? How many states are obstacles to progress in concentration? How many benefits of concentration are there? What are the requisites of concentration? How many kinds of concentration are there? What is the bringing out of concentration?

MEANING OF CONCENTRATION
A. Concentration means that one has purity of mind, endeavours steadfastly, dwells with the truth having the benefit of tranquillity .and is not distracted. This is called concentration.

And again, it means not allowing one's mind to be bent by the strong wind of passion. It is comparable to the unfiickering flame of the lamp behind the palace.
It is said ill the Abhidhamma thus: "What fixes the mind aright, causes it to be not dependent on any, causes it to be unmoved, undisturbed, tranquillized and non-attached, and rightens the faculty of concentration and the power of concentration [407] is called concentration.'"

SALIENT CHARACTERISTIC ETC. What are its salient characteristic, function, manifestation and near cause? Dwelling of mind is its salient characteristic; overcoming of hatred is its function; tranquillity is its manifestation; non-association with defilement and the mind obtaining freedom are i~s near cause. . Who observes concentration? Namely, he who maintains the mind and the mental properties in a state of equilibrium. It is like the hand which holds a pair of scales evenly. The even practice of mindfulness and energy is. concentration. It is comparable .to the evenness of oil in an oiled bowl. Equilibrated tho\1ght,
I. In his Vimuttimagga and Visuddhimagga, p. 26, Prof. Dr. P. V. Bapat has traced this passage to Vbh. 217: Ya cittilssa (hiti sanfhiti avatthiti avisaharo avikkhepo avisahatamanasata samatho samadhindriYOIiJ samadhibafam sammasamadhi: ayam vuccati samadhi. 39
I

40

Vimuttimagga

like the equalized energy of four horses of a chariot, is concentration. It is like the attentiveness of a fletcher scrutinizing the straightness of a shaft.' It is like a drug which counteracts poison, because it removes resentment. It is said in the A'bhidhamma thus: "* .........is the meaning of ~oncentration." This explanation of concentration is comprehensive. 'Meditation' means the four meditations, namely, the first meditation and others. 'Freedom' means the eight kinds of freedom, namely, one having internal perception of form reflects on external form and so on.l 'Concentration' means the three kinds of concentration, namely, initial and sustained application of thought and others. 'Right observance' means the right observance of the nine gradually ascending states. 2 'What is 'meditation'? It is to contemplate on reality, to remove resentment, to make the mind happy, to discard the hindrances, to gain freedom, to equalize, to arouse concentration skilfully, to acquire liberation, to dwell in right observance, to wish to arouse concentration and to aspire to possess freedom. BENEFITS PRODUCED BY CONCENTRATION How many benefits can concentration produce? There are four benefits which concentration can produce. What are the four? Pleasant dwelling, in the happiness of truth in the present life; enjoyment of all objects through investigation; acquisition of worldly knowledge; the attainment of perfection. What is 'pleasant dwelling in the happiness of truth in the present life'? Namely, one acquires concentration and is freed from corruption. One's mind arouses joy, partakes of the joy of the supramundane and dwells pleasantly in the happiness of truth in the present life. Therefore, has the Blessed One said: "He produces joy from quietude, acquires coolness and becomes perfect gradually."3 And again, the Buddha declared to the bhikkhus: "At
'1. Affha Vimokkha. Cpo D.II, 70, 71. A. IV, 306. Riipi riipiini passali etc. In the Abhidharma Sailgiti Paryiiya Padasastra, the following account of the eight deliverances or kinds of freedom is given:- "Having (or with) form one reflects on form; not having internal perception of form, one reflects on external form; attaining to and realizing the ~mancipation of purity through one's body, one dwells; transcending all perceptions of form, destroying all perceptions of sense-reactions, becoming heedless of perceptions of diversity, one enters limitless space, and, attaining to the sphere of the infinif;f of space, dwells; entirely transcending the sphere of the infinity of space, one enters limitless consciousness, and, attaining to the sphere of the infinity of consciousness, dwells; entirely transcending, the sphere of the infinity of consciousness, one enters nothingness and, attaining to the sphere of nothingness, dwells; entirely transcending the sphcrc of nothingness, one enters the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception and, attaining to it, dwells; and entirely transcending the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception, one enters the state of the dissolution of perception and scnsation and, attaining to and realizing it through the body, dwells". 2. A. IV,410: Nava anupubbavihiirii. 3. Not traced.

• Unintelligible.

On Distinguishi'lg Concentration

41

first I was a naked ascetic; I did not move my body or open my mouth for seven days and seven nights; I sat in silence enwrapped in bliss."l This is the meaning, in the Noble Teaching, of 'pleasant dwelling in the happiness of truth in the present life'. 'Enjoyment of all objects through investigation' means that a' yogin acquires ,concentration and is not hindered by objects. Being pliant of mind, he is able to concentrate. He investigates the aggregations, the sense~spheres, the elements and others. He is well-disposed. Therefore, the Blessed One t'aught the bhikkhus thus: "Thus should you train yourselves. Everything depends on mind. Know this as it is."2 'Acquisition of worldly knowledge! means that one ,having acquired concentration, develops the five faculties of knowledge, namely, psychic power, divine ear, knowledge of others' thoughts, recollection of past existences, and the divine eye. Therefore, the Blessed One has declared: "With concentrated mind one is able to change one's body at will. Thus one produces psychic power in the various modes. "3 'The attainment of perfection' means that one having a concentrated mind, although one has yet to' reach the stage of the learning-ender, may not fall back at all. One gains (a good) reward through concentration. One attains to 'the form', 'the formless' and to perfection. The Buddha has declared: "Those who practise a little 'of the first meditation are able to join the retinue of Brahmii. All such are born in such a world.'" These four benefits can be produced by concentration. Each of them causes to arouse. OBSTACLES TO CONCENTRATION How many states are obstacles to progress in concentration? Namely, eight states: lust, hatred, indolence, rigidity, agitation, uncertainty, delusion, absence of joy and bliss. All other evil demeritorious states are obstacles.
J

What are the requisites of concentration? There are seven, namely: virtue, contentment, shielding of the faculties,. moderation in drink and food, not sleeping in the first, middle and last watches of the night, the being intent on wisdom and a calm and quiet dwelling-place. TWO KINDS OF CONCENTRATION How many kinds of concentration are there? There are two kinds of concentration. The first is mundane concentration; the second is· supramundane concentration. The acquisition of the Noble Fruit is called 'supramundane concentration'; the others are named 'mundane'. Mundane concentration is accompanied by corruption, is connected with the fetters and is bound. This is the flood. This is the bond. This is hindrance. This is the corruption of virtue and views. This is clinging. This is defilement. Such are the qualities of 'mundane concentration'. The opposite of this is named 'supramundane concentration'. And again, there are two kinds in concentration: wrong concentration! and Right Concentration. What is wrong concentration? Unskilful unification of mind is called 'wrong concentration'. Skilful unification of mind is called 'Right Concentration'. Wrong concentration should be abandoned. Right concentration should be practised. And again, there are two kinds of concentration: access concentration and fixed concentration. The antecedent portion - this is called 'access concentration'. Suppression. of the hindrances - this is called .'fixed concentration'. THREE KINDS OF CONCENTRATION And again, there are three kinds: concentration with initial and sustained application of thought; without initial and only with sustained application of thought; with neither initial nor sustained application of thought. 2 What is 'with initial and sustained application of thought'? The first meditation is 'with initial and sustained application of thought'. In the second meditation there is no initial application of thought, but there is sustained application of thought. In the other meditations there is 'neither initial nor sustained application of thought'. And again, there are three kinds of concentration. Namely, the concentration that is produced together with joy; the concentration that is produced
1. Micchiisamiidhl. 2. D.III, ·219: Tayo samiidhi. avitakko aviciiro samiidhi.

Savitakko saviciiro samiidhi, avitakko viciiramallo samiidhi,

On Distinguishing Concentration

43

together with bliss; the concentration that is produced together with indifference. The first and the second meditations (jhanas) are 'produced together with joy', the third is 'produced together with bliss' and the fourth meditation (jhiina) is 'produced together with equanimity'. And again, th~re are three kinds of concentration: skilful'concentration; skilful result (producing) concentration; real concentFation. What is 'skilful concentration'? The concentration pertaining to the form and the formless practised by the learner of the Noble Path and the commoner is called 'skilful concentration'. The concentration of the learner who is established in the Noble Fruit (in the spheres of form and the formless) and of the cQmmoner who is reborn in the spheres of the form and the formless is called 'result producing concentration'. The concentration of the form and the formless practised by the learning-ender is called 'real con centra [ion' . FOUR KINDS OF CONCENTRATION And again, there are four kinds of concentration: the sense plane concentration;l the form plane concentration;2 the formless plane concentration;3 uninc1uded concentration. 4 . The putting away of each of the five hindrances by its opposite and the maintaining of it is called 'the sense plane concentration'; the four meditations are called 'the form plane concentration'; the four formless plane meditations and the result of good action (1) are called 'the formless plane concentration'. The concentration of the four Paths and the four Fruits is called 'unincluded concentration' . And again, there are four practices in concentration: painful practice (of a man of) slow wit; painful practice (of a man of) quick wit; pleasant practice (of a man of) quick wit; pleasant practice (of a man of) slow wit. 5 (Here) the first of these four kinds of men has dense passion, and the second, rare passion; the third has keen faculties, and the fourth, dull faculties. To a man of dense passi6n and dull faclilties practice is 'painful'; he gains concentration with 'slow wit'. To a man of dense passion and keen faculties practice is 'painful', though he gains concentration with 'quick wit'. To a man of rare passion and dull faculties practice is 'pleasant', though he gains concentration with 'slow wit'. To a man of rare passion and keen faculties practice is 'pleasant'; he gains concentration with 'quick wit'.
l. Kiimiivacara samiidhi. Lit., 'That that' practice and 'true keeping'. The rendering is tentative. 2. Riipiivacara samiidhi. 3. Arupiivacara samiidhi. 4. Apariyiipanna samiidhi. S. A.II,149: Dukkhiipafipadii dandhiibhWiii, dukkhiipatipadii khippiibhiiiiiii, sukhiipatipadii
dandhiibhiii,iii,. sukhiipafipadii khippiibhiiiiiii.

44

Vimuttimagga

Because of the density of passion, a densely passionate man overcomes passion with difficulty. Therefore, his practice is painful. ' Because of the dullness of faculties, a man of dull faculties has to practise meditation assiduously for a long time and wake up his sluggish wit. Therefore, he is called (a man of) dull faculties. In this way the others also should be understood. And again, there are four kinds in concentration, namely, restricted concentration with restricted object; restricted concentration with immeasurable object; immeasurable concentration with restricted object; immeasurable concentration with immeasurable object.l What is 'restricted concentration with restricted o]Jject'? The concentration that is not able to keep pace with the mind and an object2 that is weak - these.are called 'restricted concentration with restricted object'. What is 'restricted concentration with immeasurable object'? The concentration that is not able to keep pace with the mind and an object that is powerful- these are called 'restricted concentration with immeasurable object'. What is 'immeasurable concentration with restricted object'? The concentration capable of keeping pace with the mind and an object that is weak - these are called 'immeasurable concentration with restricted object'. What is 'immeasurable concentration with .immeasurable object'? The concentration that is capable of keeping pace with the mind and an object that is powerful - these are called 'immeasurable concentration with immeasurable object'. And again, there are four kinds in concentration: will-concentration; effort-concentration; mind-concentration; scrutiny-concentration. 3 'Will-concentration' is attained by means of the will; 'effort-concentration' is attained by means of effort; what is attained by means of the mind is 'mindconcentration'; what is attained by means of scrutiny is 'scrutiny-concentration'. And again, there are four kinds in concentration: the concentration to which the Enlightened One attains but not the hearer; the concentration to which the hearer attains but not the Enlighteneq. One; the concentration to which both the Enlightened One and the hearer attain; the concentration to which neither the Enlightened One nor the hearer attains. The concentration of great comrniseration4 and the concentration of the twin-miracles are attainments of the Enliihtened One and not of the hearer. The fruition concentration of the learner" is an attainment of the hearer and not of the Enlightened One. The concentration of the nine gradually ascendi!1g states and the fruition concentration of the learning-ender are attainments of
1. Parilla-samtidhi, parilla-tirammalJa; parilla-samtidhi, appamtilJa-tirammalJa; appamtilJasamtidhi, parilla-tirammalJa; appamtilJa-samtidhi, appamtilJa-tirammalJa. 2. Lit. samtidhi. Possibly an error. 3. A.T, 39, 297-Chanda, viriya, cil/a and vimamsa. 5. Mahti karU/Jti samtipatti. 4. Yamakaptifihtiriya. 6. Sek hiya-phala-samiidhi.

On Distinguishing Concentration

45

both the Enlightened One and the hearer. And the concentration of inconscience 1 is an attainment neither of the Enlightened One nor the hearer. And again, there are four kinds in concentration: the concentration that is a cause of origination and not of cessation; of cessation and not of origination; of both origination and cessation; of neither origination nor cessation. Q. What are causes of 'origination and not of cessation'? Skilful and ':unskilful c'oncentration of the sense plane are causes of 'origination and not of cessation'. The concentration of the fourfold Noble Path causes cessation and not origination. Skilful concentration of the [earner and the commoner pertaining to the form plane and the formless plane cause 'origination and cessation'. [408] The concentrlltion of the Noble Fruit and object ,concentration caUse 'neither origination nor cessation'. And again, there are four kinds in concentration: the first meditation; the second meditation; the third meditation; the fourth meditation. Freedom from the five hindrances, the fulfilment of initial and sustained application of thought, joy, ease and unification of mind are called 'the first meditation' . Freedom from initial and sustained application of thought and the fulfilment of the other three (are called 'the second meditation'). Freedom rrom joy and the fulfilment of the other two (are called 'the third meditation'). Freedom from ease and the fulfilment of ~uanimity and unification of mind are called the fourth meditation. FIVE KINDS OF CONCENTRATION And again, there are five kinds in concentration, namely the first meditation; the second meditation; the third meditation; the fourth meditation; the fifth meditation. This fivefold (c1a~sification of) meditation is based on the five factors of meditation, namely, initial application of thought, sustained application of thought, joy, bliss, unification of mind. The separation from the five hindrances and the fulfilment of the five factors are called 'the first meditation'. The separation from initial application of thought and the fulfilment of the other four factors are called 'the second meditation'. The separation from initial and sustained application of thought and the fulfilment of the other three factors are called 'the third meditation'. The separation from (initial and sustained application of thought, joy) and the fulfilment of the other two factors are called 'the fourth meditation'.
1. The concentration that causes rebirth among the unconscious gods (asaiiifa samiipalli).

46

Vimuttimagga

The separation from. (initial and sustained application of thought, joy,) bliss and the fulfilment of two factors are called 'the fifth meditation. (The twofactors are) equanimity and unification of mind. WHY FOUR AND FIVE MEDITATIONS Aim TAUGHT
Q.

Why are four and five meditations taught?

A. Because the result depends on two sorts of men. In the second meditation there are two divisions: without initial and sustained application of thought, and without initial and only with sustained application of thought,

How does a yogin induce the second meditation from the first? He considers the coarseness of initial and sustained application of thought, knows the disadvantages of initial and sustained application of thought, and induces the second meditation which is free from initial and sustained application of thought. This is the way of progress in the four meditations.
Q.
A.

And again, there is another man. He is able to induce freely the second meditation out of the first meditation. He considers the coarseness of initial application of thought and knows the disadvantages· of initial application of thought. He discerns the state of being free from initial application of thought. Possessing restricted sustained application of thought, he induces the second meditation. Tlus is the way of progress in the five meditations. Therefore, the five me.ditations are taught. And again, there are five kinds in concentration, namely, complete fixed meditation in the five factors: joyfulness, blissfulness, mindfulness, luminousness and the perception of steadily moving thought. Here 'joyfulness' is in the first and the second meditations. 'Blissfulness' is in the third meditation. 'Mindfulness' is in the knowledge of others' thoughts. 'Luminousness' is in the knowledge of the divine eye. The knowledge of steadily moving thought is born of reflectionl concentration. This is called 'the perception of steadily moving thought''And again there are five kinds in concentration, namely, Right Concentration connected with the fivefold knowledge. These are consequences of present bliss and the bliss to be. These arise depending on the knowledge of the body. (1) This concentration is practised by the Noble Ones and is passion-free. (2) This concentration is practised by wise men. (3) This is the excellent bliss of solitude and the attainment of tranquillity. Although this accomplishes the unique, yet it does not overcome birth and death.
1. Lit. "That that knowledge".

On Distinguishing Concentration

41-

(4) This concentration is most pleasant and peaceful. This becomes one endowed with tranquillity. This does not overcome the (belief in) self (which is the cause) of birth and death. (5) This concentration moves in mindfulness and is a cause of mindfulness. These arise owing to knowledge of the body. And now, (the acceptance of) objects of meditation, what is connected with the requisites, and the inferior, the middling and the superior have been distinguished. Thus there are many divisions of concentration. (Further), it should be known that all concentration may be classified under the four meditations. 1

A. If a man wishes to bring out concentration, he, at first, should approach a pre-eminent friend. Why? If, at first, when a yogin wishes to accomplish excellent concentration, he dwells apart from a good friend, he will not acquire steadfastness. In a Discourse it is said: "Meghiya bhikkhu partakes of deterioration.'" It is comparable to a man who sets out alone on a distant journey. None guides him. When a man sets out alone, he is like an elephant that is not· guided by the goad. If, when a yogin practises, he listens to the discourses and Instructions of a good friend, he is able to remove his many difficulties and get into the right method and practice. If he strenuously endeavours and strictly trains himself, then he is able to acquire excellent concentration.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD FRIEND A good friend who may be likened to a wealthy chief of merchants honoured by all, to a kind good-hearted person, to a dearly loved parent, steadies one,_ as the chain the elephant. A good friend on whom one relies and accomplishes all meritorious activities is like a mahout who causes (the elephant) to go backwards and forwards, is like a good road on which a man can take a yoke of Qxen, like a physician who cures diseases and removes pain, like the rain from heaven which moistens everything, like a mother who nurses her child, like a father who guides his son, like parents who ward their children from perils and like a teacher who instructs (his pupils). Therefore, the Blessed One declared
1.
Hiinabhiigiya. Cpo A. IV, 357: Idha Meghiya bhikkhu kalyiilJamitto hoti kalyiinasahiiyo kaiyiilJsampavaliko, Aparipakkiiya Meghiya cetovimuttiyii ayan, pafhamo dhammo The following is a more or less free rendering of the relative paripakkiiya samvattati. passage from the Chinese Chu Agon (Madhyama Agama) No.5, Fascicle X, Sutra No. 56: "Thus have I heard. At one time, when the Enlightened One was wandering in the land of Magadha, he arrived at Jantugama, and his sole attendant was the Venerable Elder Meghiya. And in the morning, the Venerable Elder Meghiya taking bowl and robe went to the village of Jantugama for alms. And after completing his alms-round, he wended his way to the bank of the river Kimilala. The land there was level meadow, and it was known as the Grove of Sweet Mango. Beside it ran the excellent waters of Kimilala, sparklingly clear. Seeing the pleasant place, the Venerable Elder Meghiya was delighted and thought: 'The land here is level meadow and is known as the qrove of Sweet Mango, Beside it runs the excellent waters of Kimiliila, sparklingly clear. Meet is this spot for a clansman for the exercise of energy'. And having finished his meal, put aside his bowl and robe, washed his hands and feet, he, with one shoulder bared, went to the presence of the Enlightened One, bowed at the Enlightened One's feet, and sat on one side. And being seated he spoke thus: "Venerable Sir, in the morning, having taken bowl and robe, I went to the village of Jantugama for alms ........... : and I thought: 'The land here isJevel meadow and is known as the.Grove or-Sweet Mango. Beside it runs the excellent waters of Kimilala, 48

On Approaching a Good Friend

49

to (A)nanda: "Good companionship is the whole of the holy life."1 Therefore, one should search for the pre-eminently good man and make him the good friend. What is meant by pre-eminent good friend? (Here), the fulfilment of acquisition is the meaning (of 'pre-eminent'). The understanding. of the SUita, Abhidhamma and Vinaya is called 'fulfilment of acquisition'. One understands the seed (?) of kamma and is endowed with beneficient worldly knowledge. One knows the Four Noble Truths. These two kinds of men are merit-fulfillers. They should be searched for. If these two kinds of merit-fulfillers cannot be found, the fulfiller of seven qualities should be; considered as a good friend. Such (a man) should .also be searched for. What are the seven qualities?2 Loveableness, esteemableness, venerable.. ness, the ability to counsel well, patience (in listening), the ability to deliver deep discourses and the not applying oneself to useless ends. What is 'lovableness'? Led by two kinds of practice, a man preaches well: dwelling together happily, having come to a mutual understanding and not abusing one another.
sparklingly clear. Meet is this spot for a clansman for the exercise of energy': How, Venerable Sir, ifI should go' to that calm plae« in the Grove of Sweet Mango and exercise
energy?"

Then the Blessed One said: 'Meghiya, there is no one except you here. Stay awhile until another bhikkhu comes to wait on me. Then you may go to that calm place in the Grove of Sweet Mango to exercise energy' A second and a third time the Venerable Elder Meghiya requested permission and for a second and third time did the Blessed One refuse it. Then the Venerable Elder Meghiya said: 'Venerable Sir, the Blessed One has nothing more to do. The Blessed One need not exert energy any longer. But J. Venerable Sir, have much to do yet. Therefore, Venerable Sir, J wish to enter that calm place in the Grove of Sweet Mango and exercise energy'. Then the Blessed One said: "Meghiya, if you wish to exert yourself, I do not stop you. Go Meghiya and do as you plea~e'. The Venerable Elder Meghiya hearing the words of the Enlightened One and accepting them, bowed at the Enligh~ened One's feet, walked round Him three times and departed. Arriving at the Grove of Sweet Mango, he went to the foot of a tree, prepared a seat and sat down. And when he was thus seated in the forest, three demeritorious stl!tes of mind arose in him, namely, discursive thoughts connected with lust, discursive tlioughts connected with hate and discursive thoughts connected with harming. ;rhen the Venerable Elder Meghiya thought of the Blessed One, arose from his seat and forthwith returned to the presence of the Blessed One (and told the Blessed One everything) and the Blessed One said: 'Your mind is' not yet ripe for deliverance. If you wish to cause it to ripen, you should train yourself in the five ttainings. What are the five? Meghiya, a bhikkhu is a good friend and he should be in the company of a good friend, he should closely associate with a good friend. 'Meghiya, if your mind is not ripe for deliverance, and if you wish to cause it tp ripen. this is the first training ................................................ ' 1. S. I, 87-8: Sakalam eva h-idaril Ananda brahmacariyaril yad idarillr"lyo/Ju-millatii kaiyo(lasahiiyatii kalyiilJa-sampavatikatii .. 2. A. TV, 32: Sattahi bhikkhave dhammehi samanniigato bhikkhu mitlo sevitabbo bhajitabbo payirupiisitabbo api panujjamiinena pi. Katamehi sattahi? Piyo hoti maniipo ca, garu ca, bhiivaniyo ca, vattii ca, vacanukkhamo ca, gambhiraif ca kathom katto hoti, no ca af!hiine niyojeti. Cpo Vis. Mag. 98; Nett! 164.

so

Vimuttimagga

'Esteemableness' means that one is tranqnillized through the action of virtue, fulfils the protection of mindfulness, is not over-desirous and does not speak much. This is called 'esteemableness'. 'Venerableness' means that one is endQwed with the merit of much learning and appreciates well the value of meditation. This is 'venerableness'. 'The ability to counsel well' means that one considers thus: "Let my speech be lovable, esteemable, venerable and fruitful", ana benefits others and esteems the truth. Therefore, one restrains oneseir from things that ought not to be done. Thus one observes to the end and does not forsake. This is called 'the ability to counsel well'. 'Patience (in listening)' means that one is like a saint, understands well, never hesitates in one's speech arid does not flatter* .............. This is called 'patience (in listening),. '(The ability to deliver) deep discourses' means that one well understands • .......•........ This is called '(the ability to deliver) deep discourses'. 'The not applying oneself to useless ends' means that he understands well the place of kamma. This is 'the not applying oneself to useless ends>. Thus the seven qualities are completed. These (are qualities of) a good friend who should be searched for.

THE SEARCH FOR A GOOD FRIEND
Q. How should one search? A. If in such and such a place there is one who knows the accomplishment of these merits and is a teacher of meditation, one should go to that teacher. Though one may no.t know, yet if a fellow-student knows, one should go and serve him. At the proper time in a befitting way (one approaches a fellow-student) and without expressing one's wishes, one worships him and exchanges the customary greetings and consults him as to what one should do, thus: "In which country and in which place is it safe for a bhikkhu to dwell '1 Which is the suitable place of meditation for a bhikkhu? What is the name of the teacher who dwells there? For what practices and for what merits is he honoured by all"? Thus one should inquire.

The fellow-student will answer: "In such and such a country, in such and such a monastery, in such and such a place of meditation set apart' for the Order, such and such a teacher of meditation is honoured by all". On hearing this, one should think on this and be happy, and going thither serve that teacher and practise under him.
• Unintelligible.

On Distinguishing Concentration

51

Adjusting one's robes one should go to the presence of one's preceptor1 and open to him one's happy heart: "0 preceptor, hear me. I wish to go and serve such and such a teacher of meditation". Hearing this the preceptor will reply: "Sadhu! I too am glad. 'Your action is praiseworthy. It is called co-residence with a good man and is the action of a good man. It is the practice that accompanies the truth. Great is the merit of learning it and greater that of co-residence. You should go to him. After you go there, you should not be negligent". A BEGINNER'S DUTIES If one is good, one studies earnestly, honours (one's teacher) wholeheartedly, not' for a while but always. If one uses gentle speech and guards the body and the mouth, then, one may understand and fulfil the practice. One relies completely on the teacher in all things, does not slight him. and obeys him just as a newly-wed bride her mother-in-law. If one sees other bhikkhus lacking robes or liquid-medicine, one prepares (what is lacking) in the customary way. . When on going there one is instructed (through) expClsition, precept and p~ture - in the Good Law-one should adjust one's robes, bow at the feet of the teacher and circumambula~ him. At the water-side which .may be by the road or outside· the village, he goes to a certain spot, keeps his bowl, robe, sandals, washing-vessel and the meditation mat on a high place. He does not use the water which is near by, and without noise he bathes. After bathing he wears the upper-garment,1 arranges his robes and, carrying bowP and robe and the meditation mat on his right shoulder, rolls the shoulder-cloak4 or throws it across the shoulder. On entering a monastery, he lowers his umbrella and circumambulates the relic mound. If he sees any bhikkhu, he goes to him and asks ~ "Is there a yogin living here? Is there a ;dirt-rags' man living here? Is there a 'beggedfood' man living here? Is there a teacher of discipline living here? Where does he dwell? Which is the way to his dwelling? [409J If there is one, I wish to see him. If there are no such persons and if there is a (sub-) teacher of discipline, I wish to see him. If there is no teacher of discipline, who is the elder here? I wish to see him". If that bhikkhu is a senior or a venerable one, one should not hand one's bowl and robe. But if he is junior, one should. If there is none, one places one's bowl and robe on the ground. When one sees the elder, one bows at his feet and sits at one side. A bhikkhu who lives there will give one a seat and water, show the washing1. Upajjhaya. 2. Uttariisanga (transliteration). 3. Patta (transliteration). 4. Sanghiifi (transliteration).

52

Viinuttimagga

place, serve, give information; take care of bowl and robe and point out the place for easing. According to the rules for visiting bhikkhus, one should go round, within the precincts of the monastery, before sundown. If one sees a teacher of discipline, one should talk with him and ask him concerning any faults with regard to which one is in doubt, and which one has not yet committed. Or, if one sees a teacher of Abhidluzmma, one should inquire concerning the method of acquiring wisdom and about the aggregates, sense-spheres, elements and kamma. If one sees an observer of austerities, onel should inquire concerning the benefits of the austerities connected with wisdom. If one dwells there, one should go to many and daily make inquiries. If one wishes to leave, one folds one's bedding and bows at the seniors' feet and informs them and leaves. These are the rules for visiting bhikkhus. How does a yogin dwell in a monastery? When the teacher of meditation comes, one should take his bowl and robe, even if he be a junior. According to the rule of the teacher of meditation, one should practise that which ought to be practised or not practise the ought-not-to-be-practised, and one should not abandon the practising (of that which ought to be practised and of that which ought not to be practised). This is the practice that should be observed at first. Thus should one practise. If the yogin wishes to let others Jearn the Law at .first, he watches the dwelling-place and keeps the bowls and robes. After sometime has passed, he, at the proper time, approaches the teacher of' meditation, salutes him respectfully, and remaining silent a while, sits. Should the teacher of meditation question the yogin, he expresses his desire. If the teacher of meditation does not question, the yogin should not speak. Thereupon he should ask for tooth-sticks and water for washing, and should use them in the proper way. When the time for the alms-round comes, he should ask permission of the teacher and follow the usual way. When the meal-time arrives, one should wash the teacher's feet, arrange his seat, give him the bowl and inquire of the teacher what he wants from one's own· bowl. Having partaken of the remainder, one gives what is left over to the juniors. Thus one observes and abstains from quarrelling. After finishing one's meal, one washes the teacher's bowl and puts it in the proper place. 1seeing a suitable time, one approaches the teacher, respectfully salutes him, and remaining silent a while, sits. Should the teacher question, one should express one's desires. Should the teacher not question, one wors~ps and says: '·'1 will now say what I wanted to say from the first. If I am permitted, I wish to ask what I want". Should the teacher permit, one expresses everything. Should the teacher not question, one shQuld worship

him.

'

On Distinguishing Concentration

53

Finding a suitable opportunity, one should inform him (the teacher) concerning the reason for one's coming there thus: "0 teacher, kindly listen to me". If the teacher listens, one should tell him regarding all one's wants. The teacher will say, "Sadliu,I will instruct you in the regular manner. You should observe well. Therefore, the Blessed One uttered these stanzas :_1
'One goes, when 'tis the right and proper time, with lowly heart devoid of thoughts of pride, to him who guards the Law with holiness. As when no wayward winds assail a tree, in pleasant practice of the Law he dwells, feeding on the joyous calm of truth. Thus dwelling in the Law he knows the Law and so expounds that others too may know The Sublime Law, just as it truly is. He never speaks in dispraise of the Law, jests not, flatters not, speaks no fearful words. He has done with ill will and slothfulness. He dwells not in anger, revenge, greed or pride, is not deluded, craves not; is not attached. Thus does he practise, conquer, and reject. Conceit of righteous life he does not nurse. Sincere are his words and always true. For meditation's sake he knows and learns. The self-indulgent, heedless, feckless man, unsuited ever is to know the truth, and is not one who grows in wisdom's light. lfthere's a man conversant with the Law, a winner of (he homage of gods and men, whose lustrous splendour adds to his faith, who by much learning ably guards the Law, who is a happy hearer of tidings glad, possessor of an ample stock of virtues good, a follower of truth ·and a practiser-well, who causes the arising ofexcellent wit, and who has himself reached high wisdom's peak if there is such a teacher - under him, should one with zeal unremitting practise well"'.

1. Not traced.

THE PATH OF FREEDOM
FASCICLE THE THIRD WRITTEN

BY

THE ARAHANT UPATISSA
WHO WAS CALLED

GREAT LIGHT IN RYO
TRANSLATED IN RYO

BY

TIPITAKA SANGHAPA.LA OF FUNAN THE DISTINGUISHING OF BEHAVIOURl
CHAPTER THE SIXTH

. KINDS OF BEHAVIOUR Now, when the teacher2 on whom one depends has observed one's behaviour for several months and has fixed upon a suitable subject of meditation, 3 he will instruct. Here, 'behaviour' means the fourteen kinds 4 of behaviour: passionbehaviour, hate-behaviour, infatuation-behaviour, faith-behaviour, intelligencebehaviour, excogitation-behaviour, passion-hate-behaviour, passion-infatuationbehaviour, hate-infatuation-behaviour, passion-hate-infatuation-behaviour, faith-intelligence-behaviour, faith excogitation-behaviour, intelligence-excogitation-behaviour, faith-intelligence-excogitation-behaviour. And again, there are other kinds of behaviour such as craving-behaviour, opinion-behaviour, pride-behaviour." Here, in the case of greed and the rest, the meaning does not defer from the above. 6 FOURTEEN KINDS OF PERSONS There are fourteen kinds of persons corresponding to the fourteen kinds of behaviour thus: The person walking in passion, The person walking in hate, The person walking in infatuation,
I. Cariyii.

The person walking in faith, The person walking in intelligence, The person walking- in excogitation, The person walking in passion-hate, The person walking in passion-infatuation, The person walking in hate-infatuation, The person walking in passion-hate-infatuation,l The person walking in faith-intelligence, The person walking in faith-excogitation, The person walking in intelligence-excogitation, The person walking in faith-intelligence-excogitation. 2 Thus 'the person walking in passion', 'the person walking in passioninfatuation' and 'the person walking in passion-hate-infatuation' are called 'persons walking in passion'.3 One always behaves passionately and increases passion. This is called 'passion-behaviour'. The others should be distinguished in the same way.

FOURTEEN KINDS REDUCED TO SEVEN
These fourteen kinds of men may be reduced to seven kinds: through the walker in passion and the walker in faith becoming one, the walker in hate and the walker in intelligence becoming one, the walker in infatuation and the walker in excogitation becoming one, the walker in passion-hate and the walker in faith-intelligence becoming one, the walker in passion-infatuation and the walker in faith-excogitation becoming one, the walker in hate-infatuation and the walker in intelligence-excogitation becoming one, the walker in passion-hate-infatuation and the walker in faith-intelligence-excogitation becoming one. 4

Q. Why does a walker in passion become one with a walker in faith?
A. In a passionate person" when he does good, faith is strong, because this quality approaches passion.

And again, passion and faith are alike owing to three traits: clinging, searching for the good, non-repUlsion. Here 'passion' means the being intent on passion. 'Faith' means the being intent on good. 'Passion' means the search for what is passionally good. 'Faith' means the search for what is morally good. The nature of 'passion' is not to forsake what is bad. The nature of 'faith' is not to forsake what is good. Therefore, a walker in 'passion' becomes one with a walker in 'faith'.
I. & 2. Qualities of equal measure. 3. Tentative rendering. 4. Riiga=stiddhii; dosa-buddhi; moha~viltikka; riiga-dosa-stiddhii-buddhi; riiga-mohasaddhii-vitakka; dosa-moha= buddhi-vitakka; the last literally means: Through the two who walk in qualities of equal measure becoming one.

S6
Q.
A.

Vimuttimagga

Why does a walker in hate become one with walker in intelligence·! In a hating person, when he does good, intelligence is strong, because this quality approaches hate. And again, hate and intelligence are alike owing to three traits: nonclinging, searching for faults, repulsion. As a hating person does not cleave (to what is good), so an intelligent person does not cleave (to what is bad). As a hating person is given to faultfinding, so an intelligent person is given to the search for the faultsl of wrongful conduct. As a hating person repulses others, so an intelligent person repulses the conformations. Therefore, the walker in hate becomes one with the walker in intelligence. They are alike. Q. Why does a walker in infatuation become one with a walker in excogitation? A. In an infatuated person who endeavours to arouse virtuous states, incertitude increases, because this quality approaches infatuation and because of separation from faith and wisdom. And again, infatuation and excogitation are alike owing to two traits: instability and movement. As infatuation is not peaceful because it is disturbed; so excogitation is not peaceful because of various trends of discursive thought. As infatuation moves, not knowing where to go, so excogitation moves because of levity. Therefore, a walker 'in infatuation becomes one with a walker in excogitation. They are equal. .The others should be distinguished in the same way. Thus they are reduced to seven persons. MODES OF PRACTICE Among the seven which persons are or" quick practice and which are of slow practice? The walker in passion is of quick practice, because he is easily led, is strong in faith and because of the rarity of infatuation and excogitation in him. The walker in hate is of quick .practice, because he is easily led, is strong in intelligence and because of the rarity of infatuation and excogitation in him. The walker in infatuation is of slow practice, because he is led with difficulty owing to infatuation and excpgitation and because of the rarity of faith and intelligence in him. • The walker in passion-hate is of quick practice, because he is easily led, strong in faith and intelligence and because of the rarity of infatuation and excogitation in him.
1. Adinava.

.

The Distinguishing of Behaviour

57

The walker in passion-infatuation.is of slow practice, because he is led with difficulty, is not believing and because infatuation and excogitation are strong in him. The walker in hate-infatuation is of slow practice, because he is led with difficulty, lacks intelligence and because infatuation and excogitation are strong in him. The walker in qualities of equal measure (passion-hate-infatuation or faith-intelligence-excogitation) is of slow practice,. because he is led with difficulty, does not dwell in intelligence and because infatuation and excogitation are strong in him.

SEVEN REDUCED TO THREE
Now, these seven persons may be reduced to three according to their basic defilement. They are: the walker in passion, the walker in hate and the walker in infatuation.

CAUSES OF BEHAVIOUR
Q. What are the causes of these three kinds of behaviour? How may it be known that this man is a walker in passion, that man is a walker in hate and yet another is a walker in infatuation ?1 How may they be distinguished through robes, food, bedding, resort and postures? A. Deeds done in the past are causes of behaviour. The elements are causes of behaviour. The cardinal humours 2 are causes of behaviour. How do deeds done in the past become causes of behaviour? One who had accumulated good actions, in past existences, through lovable means, becomes a walker in passion, and also one who passing away from a heavenly mansion is reborn here.

ELEMENTS AS CAUSES OF BEHAVIOUR How do elements become causes of behaviour? Because of the heightening of two elements one becomes a walker in infatuation. They are the element of extension and the element of cohesion. Because of the heightening of two elements, one becomes a walker in hate. They aJ;e the element of mobility and the element of heat. Becausll of the equalizing of all elements, one becomes Ii walker in passion. Thus the different elements become causes of behaviour. THE HUMOURS AS CAUSES OF BEHAVIOUR How do the cardinal humours become causes of behaviour? One who has an excess of phlegm becomes a walker in passion. One who has an excess of choler becomes a walker in hate, and one who has an excess of wind becomes a walker in infatuation. And again, there is another teaching: One who has an excess of phlegm becomes a walker in infatuation, and one who has an excess of wind becomes a walker in passion. Thus the cardinal humours become causes of behaviour.1 How may it be known that this man is a walker in passion, that man is a walker in hate and yet another is a walker in infatuation? SEVEN ASPECTS OF BEHAVIOUR
A. It may be known through the seven aspects of behaviour, namely, through (the manner of seeing) objects, through the defilements, through (the manner of) walking, through (the manner of) robing, through (the manner of) eating, through work and through (the manner of) sleeping.z How may it be known 'through (the manner of seeing) objects'? One who walks in passion looks at an object as if he had not seen it before. He does not see its faults, and does not consider them. He does not make light of even a little merit (of the object): He cannot free himself of the desire for it. Even after he reflects he cannot mend his ways. Towards the other objects of sense also he behaves in the same way. Thus it may be known that one is a walker in passion. One who walks in hate looks at an object thus: he does not look IOl1g at an object, as though he were tired. When he is affected by the humours,
I. Cp. Vis. Mag. 103: Dvillllllmpana dhiitiinam ussannattiipuggalo mohacarito hoti: pathavidluituyii ca iipodluituyii ca. Itariisam dvilUllllh ussanattii dosacarito. Sabbiisam samattii paM riigacarito ti. Dosesu co semhiidhiko riigacarito hoti, viitiidhilco mohacarito, semhiidhilco vii mohacarito, viitiidhilco vii riigacarito ti evam dhiitudosanidiinii ti vtuianti. 2. Cp. Vis. Mag. 104ft": Iriyiipatho klccii bhojanii dassaniidito dhammappavattito c'eva cariyiiyo vibhiivaye ti.

The Distinguishing of Behaviour

59

he quarrels with others often. Even with very good things he is not pleased. Thus he .rejects all things. His way of life is .determined by the humours. Towards other objects. of sense also he behaves in the same way. Thus it may be known that one is a walker in hate. One who walks in infatuation looks at an object thus: he believes' others as regards merits and demerits (of anything). He considers worthless what others consider worthless. He praises what others praise, because he does not know. Towards the other objects of sense also he behaves in the same way. Thus it may be known that one is a walker in infatuation. Thus it may be known 'through (the manner of seeing) objects'.

Q. How may it be known 'through the defilements'? Five are the defilements of one who walks in passion. They are jealousy, pride, wiliness, deceitfulness, sensuality. These are the five. Five are the defilements of one who walks in hate. They are anger, vindictiveness, hypocrisy, niggardliness, hatred. These are the five. Five are the defilements of one who walks in infatuation. They are rigidity, negligence, uncertainty, anxiety, infatuation. These are the five. Thus it may be known, 'through the defilements'. Q. How may it be known 'through (the manner of) walking'? A. The natural gait of him who walks in passion is thus: Lifting up his feet, he walks swiftly, with even pace. He raises his feet evenly and does not bring them down fiat. In walking, he lifts his feet gracefully. Thus is one who walks in passion known 'through (the manner of) walking'. The natural gait of him who walks in hate is thus: He lifts up his feet jerkily and jerkily puts them down. His feet rub against each other as he puts them down half-wliY, as if digging the ground. Thus is one who walks in hate known, 'through (the manner of) walking'.
A.

The natural gait of him who walks in infatuation is thus: Shuffiingly he lifts his feet up and shuffiingry he puts them down. ~s feet graze against each other. Thus is one who walks in infatuation known, 'through (the manner of) walking'. Thus it may be known 'through (the manner of) walking'. Q. How may it be mown 'through (the manner of) robing'?
A. The natural manner of robing of him w,4o walks in passion is thus: He robes neither shabbily nor tardily.' His robes do not sit too low and are well-rounded, elegantly wor1l. and, in many ways, pleasing to see.

The natural manner of robing of him who walks in hate is thus: He robes hurriedly. The robes sit too high, are not well-rounded, are inelegantly worn and, in many ways, are not pleasing to see. The natural manner of him who walks in infatuation is thus: He dresses 'tardily. His robes are not well-rounded, are inelegantly worn, and in many

60

Vimuttimagga

ways are not pleasing to see. Thus it may be known, 'through (the manner of) robing'.
Q.
A.

How may it be known 'through (the manner of) eating'? A walker in passion relishes tasty, succulent, sweet food.

A walker in hate relishes acid food. A walker in infatuation relishes anything at all. And again, when a walker in passion eats, he serves himself a moderate quantity of food, takes it (to the mouth) in well-rounded, moderate lumps. and slowly' enjoys its taste. Even if it is of little taste, he enjoys it very much. When a walker in hate eats, he takes in big mouthfuls of immoderate lumps of food, not well-rounded. If the food is of little taste, he is displeased. When a walker in infatuation eats, he takes in small, not well-rounded lumps of food. He smears his mouth with food. A part of the food enters his mouth and a part falls back into the vessel. In the act of eating, he is not mindful. Thus it may be known, 'through (the manner of) eating'.

Q. How may it be known, 'through work'?
A walker in passion takes hold of the broom evenly,! and unhuriedly sweeps. Without scattering the sand, he cleans well. A walker in hate hurriedly takes the broom and sweeps, quickly, one end to the other, scattering the sand on both sides and making a harsh noise. He sweeps clean, but not evenly. A walker in infatuation takes hold of the broom tardily. Though he goes over the ground, certain parts are not swept well and not evenly. One who washes, dyes, sews and does everything evenly without letting his mind go astray, is a walker in passion. A walker in hate does all things unevenly, but does not let his mind go astray. A walker in infatuation is disturbed in mind. He does many things, but nothing successfully. Thus it may be known 'through work'.

Q. How may it be known, 'through (the manner of) sleeping'?
A. A walker in passion prepares his bed unhurriedly and in proper order. He lies down gently and sleeps drawing in his limbs. On being awakened at night, he gets up lmmediately and answers hesitatingly.

A walker in hate hurries and lies down in any place he gets. He frowns in his sleep. On being awakened at night, he gets up immediately and answers angrily.
1. Lit. With even body.

The Distinguishing of Behaviour

61

A walker in infatuation does not prepare his bed in an orderly manner. In sleep, .his limbs are out, ·and only his body is covered. On being awakened at night, he. murmurs and answers long after. Thus it may be known 'through (the manner of) sleeping'. ON ROBING, BEGGING, SITTING, SLEEPING, AND RESORT

Q. In what manner and with what thought should one wear the robes, beg, sit, and sleep and what should be one's resort?
A. A walker in passion should robe himself humbly, and his robes should not sit too low. He should not wear bright robes. Thus should he robe himself.

A walker in hate should robe himself with minute care, cleanly and with robes of bright colour. His robes should sit low and be elegant. Thus should he robe himself. A walker in infatuation should wear whatever robes he gets. A walker in passion1should beg humbly, should not look for clean and tasty food. He should beg little. A walker in hate may look for succulent, pure and tasty food, and for as mueh as he likes. A walker in infatuation should be satisfied with what he gets. A walker ill passion should sleep and sit under shade of trees, by the water's edge, in small secluded woodland glades, or in some half-built shrine, or in a place where there are no beds. Thus should he sleep and sit. A walker in hate should sleep and sit under shade of trees, by the water's edge, in a level place, in a completed shrine, or in a place provided with beds and sheets. A walker in infatuation should dwell near his teacher, relying on him. The resort of a walker in passion should be a pI aGe of humble drink and food. When he enters the village for alms, he should, facing the sun, go to the meanest quarter. To such a place he should go. The resort of a walker in hate is the place where rice, water, meat and drink are complete. When he enters the village for alms, he should not face the sun, and should go where there are many men of faith. To such a place he should go. The walker in infatuation should take what he gets. The walker in passion should adopt the posture of standing or walking to and fro; the walker in hate should adopt the posture of sitting or lying down;l the walker in infatuation [411] should adopt the posture of walking.
1. Text, MohQcarlta. ObviouSly ail error.
2. Cp.Vis. Mag. 108-9.

62
MISCELLANEOUS TEACHINGS

Vimuttimagga

Here, there are miscellaneous teachings. A passionate man gains faith through lovable objects. A hating man gains faith through being bound up with unlovely things. An infatuated man gains (faith) through non-investigation. A passionate mau is like a servant. A hating man is like a master. An infatuated man is like venom. A passionate man is little affected by the humours. He does not remove the defilements. A hating man is much affected by the humours, and does 110t allow himself to be stained by the defilements. An infatuated man is much affected by the humours. He does not remove the defilements. A man walking in passion is sensuous. A man walking in hate is quarrelsome. A man walking in infatuation is negligent.

THE DISTINGUISHING OF THE SUBJECTS OF MEDITATIONCHAPTER THE SEVENTH

THIRTY-EIGHT SUBJECTS OF MEDITATION Now, the teacher on whom one depends, having observed one's behaviour, teaches one the thirty-eight subjects of meditation. And again, he teaches one the two associated subjects of meditation. Q. What are the thirty-eight subjects of meditation? A. Namely, the ten kasi{IQS, - earth, water, fire, air, blue-green, yellow, red, white, space, consciousness;· the ten perceptions of putrescence, namely, the perception of bloatedness, the perception of discolouration, the perception of festering, the perception of the dismembered, the perception of the gnawed, the perception of the cut and the dismembered, the perception of the fissured, the perception of the blood-stained, the perception of worminess and the perception of the bony;3 the ten recollections, namely, Recollection of the Buddha, Recollection of the Law, Recollection of the ·Community of Bhikkhus, recollection of virtue, recollection of liberality, recollection of deities, mindfulness of death, mindfulness of body, mindfulness of respiration, recollection of peace;' the four immeasurable thoughts: loving-kindness compassion, appreciative joy, equammity;S the Determining of the elements;· the Perception of the foulness of food;' the sphere of nothingness, the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception. 8 METHOD OF .DISCERNING THE QUALITIES These are the thirty-eight subjects of meditation. The distinctive qualities of these thirty-eight subjects of meditation may be known (1) by way of meditation, (2) by way of transcending, (3) by way of increasing, (4) by way of cause, (5) by way of object, (6) by way of speciality, (7) by way of plane, (8) by way of seizing, (9) by way of person. 9
I

subjects of meditation fulfil the first meditation; three subjects of meditation fulfil the three-fold meditation. And again, one subject of meditation fulfils the four-fold meditation; nine subjects of meditation fulfil the four-fold and five-fold meditation. And again, four subjects of meditation fulfil the four-fold formless meditation.
Q.
A.

Which ten subjects of meditation fulfil access-meditation?

Excepting mindfulness of respiration and mindfulness of body, the remaining eight recollections, the determining of the four elements and the perception of the foulness of food are called the ten (objects of) accessmeditation.
Q. Which of the eleven subjects of meditation produce the filst meditation?
A. The ten perceptions of putrescence and mindfulness of body produce the first meditation.

Q.
A.

Which three subjects of meditation produce the three-fold meditation "! Namely, loving-kindness compassion and appreciative joy. Which subject of meditation produces the fOllT-fold meditation? Namely, equanimity.

Q. Which four subjects of meditation comprise the four-fold formless meditation? .
A. Space-kasil:za, consciousness-kasi(1u, the sphere of nothingness, the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception - these are called the four subjects of meditation.
Thus these should be known 'by way of meditation'. BY WAY OF TRANSCENDING

Q. How 'by way of transcending'?
A.

The sphere-subjects of meditation transcend form.

Excepting the .

formless-kasi/las, the remaining eight kasilJas and what remain of the thirty

subjects of meditation, do not transcend form.

Three subjects of meditation transcend the object: the two formlesskasi(1as and the sphere of nothingness. The other thirty-five subjects of meditation do not transcend the object.

Subjects of MedUation

65

And again, one subject of meditation transcends perception and sensation, namely, the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception. The other thirty-seven subjects oLmeditation do not transcend perception and sensat.ion. Thus these should be known 'by way of transcending'. BY WAY OF INCREASING
Q. How, 'by way of increasing'? A. Fourteen subjects of meditation should be increased, namely, the ten kasiJ;las and the four immeasurables. The other twenty-four should not be increased.

Thus these should be known 'by way of increasing'. BY WAY OF CAUSE

Q How, 'by way of cause'? Nine subjects of meditation are causes of supernormal power, namely, excepting the formless kasiJ;las, the remaining eight kasiJ;las and limited-space kasiJ;la. What remain of the other thirty subjects of meditation do not become causes of supernormal power. Thirty-seven subjects of meditation become insight-causes, namely, (all) except the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception. 1 And again:, one subject of meditation does not become insightcause, namely, the sphere of neither- perception nor non-perception. Thus these should be known 'by way of cause', .
A.

BY WAY OF OBJECT

Q. How, 'by way of object'? A. Twenty-one subjects of meditation have the sign as object. Twelve subjects of meditation have their intrinsic nature as object.
Which twenty-one su~jects of meditation have the sign as object? A. Excepting the consciousness kasiJ;la, the remaining nine kasiJ;las, the ten perceptions of putrescence, mindfulness of respiratic n and mindfulness of body. Q. Which twelve (subjects of meditation) have their intrinsic nature as object? A. Consciousness kasiJ;la, the sphere of neither perception nor nonperception and the ten objects of access-meditation.
Q. Q.
A.

Which five have neither the sign nor their intrinsic nature as object? Namely, the four immeasurables and the sphere of nothingness.
IIi kho bhikkhave yava!a san;;asamapatti, lavala annapativedho.

1. A. IV, 426:

66

Vimuttimagga

And again, two subjects of meditation have: internally developed object; internal object. And again, two subjects of meditation: internally developed object; external 0 bject. And again, one subject of meditation: externally developed object and internal object. And again, twenty-one subjects of meditation: externally developed object; external object. And again, four subjects of meditation: internally developed object; internal object; prepared external object. And again, four subjects of meditation: prepared internal object; prepared developed external object; external object. And again, two subjects of meditation: prepared internally developed object; prepared externally developed external object; prepared internal object; prepared external object. And again, one subject of meditation: internal-external developed object; internal object. And again, one subject of meditation: developed internal object; indescribable internal object; external object. Two subjects of meditation: developed internal object; internal object, namely, consciousness kasil).a and sphere of neither perception nor nonperception. And again, two subjects of meditation: internally developed object; external object, namely: mindfulness of respiration and mindfulness of body. And again, one subject of meditation: externally developed object; internal object, namely: recollection of death. And again, twenty-one subjects of meditation: externally developed 0hject; external object, namely, the ten perceptions of putrescence, the four In measurable thoughts, the four colour kasil;as, (limited-) space kasi1;la, ["('collection of the Buddha and recollection of the Community of Bhikkhus. And again, four subjects of meditation: internally developed object; nternal object; prepared (object); prepared external object, namely, recollection of virtue, recollection of liberality, the determining of the four elements and the perception of the foulness of food. And again, four subjects of meditation: prepared internally developed object; prepared externally developed object; prepared external object, namely, the four colour kasi1;las. Ahd again, two subjects of meditation: prepared internally developed object; prepared externally developed object; prepared internal object;

Subjects of Meditation

61

prepared external object, namely, recollection of the Law and recollection of peace. And· again, one subject of meditation: internal-external prepared object; internal object, namely, recollection of deities. And again~ one subject of meditation: inner developed object;· inner object; outer object; sphere object; namely, the sphere of nothingness. And again, two subjects of meditation belonging to the past, namely, consciousness kasilJa and the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception. And again, one subject of meditation is of the future, namely, recollection of death. And again, one subject of meditation is of the present, namely, recollection of deities. And again, six subjects of meditation: prepared past object; prepared future object; namely recollection of the Buddha, recollection of the Community of Bhikkhus, recollection of virtue, recollection of liberality, the determining of the four elements and the perception of the foulness of food. And again, two subjects of meditation: prepared past object; prepared present object; prepared non-characterizable past-future; namely, nine kiisilJ.as, the ten perceptions of putrescence, the four immeasurable thoughts, mindfulness of respiration, mindfulness of body and the sphere of nothingness. And again, four subjects of meditation, namely, fire kasil:za, air kasilJ.a, the perception ofworininess aridrnindfulrtess of respiration, have unsteady objects. Movement is their medium, but their after-image is steady. All the other thirty-four have steady objects. Thus these should be known 'by way of object'. BY WAY OF SPECIALITY

Q. How, 'by way of spediality'?
A. Eight kasilJ.as and the four formless (objects of) concentration are named special. The eight kasilJ.as, being true objects, are called (objects of) speciality in concentration. And because in the fourth meditation, jhdna, one reaches a special plane, the four formles~ (objects of) concentration become special. The ten perceptions of putrescence arid' the perception of the foulness of food are called special perception, because of colour, form, space, direction, distinctiveness, combination and coherence, and because of the impurityperception-object. The ten recollections are called special recollections, because of their subtility and because of attentiveness.

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[412] The four immeasurable thoughts are called special, because they cannot be surpassed. The determining of the four elements is called the speciality of wisdom, because of its connection with the void. Thus these should be known 'by way of speciality'. BY WAY OF PLANE How, 'by way of plane'? Twelve subjects of meditation do not arise in the higher heavens. Namely, the ten perceptions of putrescence, mindfulness of body and the perception of the foulness of food. And again, thirteen subjects of meditation do not arise in the form existence. 1 Namely, the first twelve and mindfulness of respiration do not arise in the form existence. No subject of meditation except the four formless (ones) arise in the formless existence. 2 Thus these should be understood 'by way of plane'.
A.

Q.

BY WAY OF SEIZING

Q. How, 'by way of seizing'?
A. Seventeen subjects of meditation seize the sign through sight, i.e., excepting air kasif)a and the formless kasilJas, the remaining seven kasilJas and ten perceptions of putrescence. And again, one subject of meditation seizes the sign through contact. Namely, mindfulness of respiration.

And again, one subject of meditation seizes the sign through sight or contact. Namely, air kasilJa. The remaining nineteen subjects of meditation seize the sign through audition. And again, five subjects of meditation should not be practised by the beginner. Namely, the formless and equanimity. The remaining thirty-five may be practised by the beginner. Thus these should be known 'by way of seizing'. BY WAY OF PERSON

Q. How 'by way of person'?
A.

A walker in passion should not practis~ the four immeasurables,

L Riipabhava. According to Vis. Mag. 113, Brahmaloka.

f.

Ariipabhava,

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·because oftheir auspicious sign. Why? A wa~er in·passion is not good at appreciating the auspicious sign. It (the practice of the four immeasurables by a walker in passion} is comparable to a man affected of a disorder ofphlegm partaking of very rich food that is harmful to him. A walker in hate should not practise the ten perceptions of putrescence, because of the arising of resentment-perception. A walker in hate is not .good at appreciating it and is comparable to a man with a bilious ailment partaking of hot drinks and food which are harmful to him. A walker in infatuation, who has not gathered wisdom, should not work at any subject of meditation, because of his lack of skill. Owing to lack of skill, his efforts will be fruitless. It (the practice of meditation by a walker in infatuation) is comparable to a man who rides an elephant withou,t a goad. A walker in passion should practise the perception of impurity and mindfulness of body, because these help overcome lust. A walker in hate should practise the four ·immeasurables, because these help overcpme hatred. Or he should practise colour kasilJa, because his mind attends to such. A walker in faith should practise the six recollections beginning with recollection of the Buddha. Then his. faith 'will gain fixity. A walker in intelligence should practise the determining of the four elements, the perception of the foulness of food, recollection of death and recollection of peace because he is profound. And again, a walker in intelligence is not debarred from working at any subject of meditation. A walker in excogitation should practise mindfulness of respiration, because it eradicates discursive thought. 1 A walker in infatuation should make inquiries regarding the Law, should hear expositions of the Law in due season, with reverential mind, and should honour the Law. He should live with his teacher. He should heap up wisdom and should practise what pleases him of the thirty-eight subjects of meditation. Recollection of death and the determining of the four elements are specially suited to him. And again, there is another teaching: "When I investigate the subjects of meditation, I see their distinctive qualities. The six persons may, through . discernment, be reduced to three". Q. If that be so, will there be difficulties at the beginning? A. There are two kinds of men who walk in passion, namely, (the man) of dull faculties and (the man) of keen faculties. A walker in passion who has dull faculties should practise the investigation of impurity in order to overcome lust. Thus he should practise and overcome lust.
1. A. I, 449: Cetaso vikkhepassa pahtinaya iiniipiinasati bhiivetabbii.

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The walker in passion who has keen faculties should, at first, increase faith. He should practise the recollections. Thus he should practise and' overcome lust. There are two kinds of men who walk in hate, namely, (the man) of dull faculties and (the man) of keen faculties. A walker in hate who has dull faculties should practise the four immeasurables. By this he will be able to overcome hatred. The walker in hate who has keen faculties, being oile endowed with wisdom, should practise the (meditation of the) special sphere. Thus should one practise and dispel hatred. There are two kinds of men who walk in infatuation, namely, (the man) of no faculties and (the man) of dull faculties. The walker in infatuation who has no faculties should not work at any subject of meditation. The walker in infatuation who has dull faculties should practise ntindfulness of respiration in order to dispel discursive thinking. Thus (the six persons) can be reduced to three. Therefore, there should be no difficulty. According to this teaching, the kasilJas and mindfulness of respiration are developed (further) through space. All the activities can be fulfilled without difficulty. If a man is endowed with merit, he will have no difficulty in fulfilling all the excellent subjects of meditation.

THE PATII OF FREEDOM
FASCICLE TIm FOURm
WRITTEN BY

THE ARAHANT UPATISSA
WHO WAS CALLED

GREAr LIGHT IN RYO
TRANSLATED IN RYO
BY

TIPITAKA SANGHAPALA OF FUNAN ENTRANCE INTO THE SUBJECT OF MEDITATION
CHAPTER TIm EIGHTH

Section One

Q. What is the earth kasi1;la?1 What is the practice of it? What is its salient characteristic? What is its function? What is ·its near cause? What are its benefits? What is the meaning of kasi1;la? How many kinds of earth are there? What is the earth sign? How is a ma1;l4ala made? What is the method of meditating on the earth kasi1;la?
EARTH KASINA, ITS PRACTICE, SALIENT CHARACTERISTIC, FUNCTION AND NEAR CAUSE
A. The thought that is produced relying on the earth sign - this is called earth kasi1;la. The undisturbed dwelling of the mind - this is called practice. Delight in being linked to the earth sign is its salient characteristic. Nonabandonment is its function. Non-differentiated thought is its near cause.

BENEFITS
What are its benefits?2 Twelve are its benefits, namely, the sign is easy of acquisition through meditation on the earth kasi1;la; at all times and in all actions, mental activity is unimpeded; acquiring supernormal power, a man is able to walk on water just as' on earth and to move freely in space; he gains the supernormal power of mllnifoldness, the knowledge of past lives, the heavenly ear and worldly higher knowledge; he fares well and draws near to the verge of the ambrosial.
1. In this text the ideograph for pa{havikasil.la - prthvikrtsniiyatana (Sk.) 2. Cp. Vis. Mag. 175. .
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MEANING OF KASINA Q. What is the meaning of kasilJa?
A. Pervasiveness - this is called kasil;za. One taught in the stanza:-1
It is even as the Enlightened

"When a man remembers the worth of the 'wakened ones, the joy that wells within him floods his body through. So, when with spreading earth-thought Rose-apple Isle's suffused, the earth-wrought state is likened to the body with bliss perfused".

Meditating thus one causes this ma;;rfala to prevail everywhere. KINDS OF EARTH
Q. How many kinds of earth are there? Taking which earth as sign should one practise? A. There are two kinds of earth,2 1. Natural earth. 2. Prepared earth. Solidity is the property of natural earth. This is called natural earth. What i& made of earth dug out by a man himself or by another is called prepared earth. Earth is of four colours, namely, white, black,3 red and the colour of dawn. Here a yogin should not add anything to natural earth.. He should exclude white, black and red. Why? When he meditates on earth of these colours, he does not get the after-image. By dwelling on white, black or red, he practises colour kasi;;a. Why? If a yogin meditates on natural earth or prepared earth, he will get the (after-) image. If it (i.e., earth) is of dawncolour, he should take that sign.

NON-PREPARED EARTH
Q.

What is non-prepared earth sign?

A. Level ground which is free from thickets, free from roots of trees or tufts of grass, within the range of v~sion and which arouses steady mental activity - this is earth perception. This is called non-prepared earth.

meditation, jhtina, takes prepared earth and makes a ma{lt/ala. He should not meditate on non-prepared earth. ON MAKING A MANDALA
Q. How is a ma{lt/ala made? A. If a yogin desires to make a ma7.lt/ala on the ground, let him at first

select a calm place in the monastery, or a cave, or a place under a tree, or a deserted, covered place unlit by the sun, or a place on an unused road. In ali such places, let him keep a distance of one fathom, sweep the place clean and make it smooth. In such places let him, with clay of the colour of dawn, prepare the ground in order to cause the arising of the sign. Taking a moderate quantity in a vessel, let him carefully mix it with water and remove grass, roots and dirt from it. With the edge of a cloth let him remove any dirt that may be on the swept place; Let him screen the sitting place and exclude the light, .and make a couch of meditation. Let him make a circle according to rule, neither too near nor too far. Let the circle be flat and full and without markings. After that let watery clay unmixed with any other colour or unmixed with special colour be applied. It should be covered and protected until it is dry. When it is dry, [413] it should be edged with another colour. It may be of the size of a round rice-sifter, a metal gong and may be circular, rectangular, triangular or square. Thus it should be understood. According to the principal teacher's instructions, a circle is the best. The ma7.lt/ala may be made on cloth, on a board or on a wall. But it is best on the ground. This is the teaching of predecessor teachers. METHOD OF EARTH KASINA MEDITATION
Q. How should one meditate upon the earth kasi{la? A. A yogin who wishes to meditate upon the earth kasi1)a should at first consider the tribulations of sense-desires, and again he should consider the benefits of renunciation.

yield of pleasure; (2) sense-desires are likened to a piece of flesh because they are followed by many (sufferings); (3) sense-desires are likened to a' (flaming) torch carried against the wind because they burn; (4) sense-desires are likened to a pit of glowing embers because of the great and the small (?); (5) sense-desires are likened to a dream because they vanish quickly; (6) sense-desires are likened to borrowed goods because they cannot be enjoyed long; (7) sense-desires are likened to a fruit tree because they are chopped down by others; (8) sense-desires are likened to a sword because they cut; (9) sense-desires are likened to a pointed stake because they impale; (10) sense-desires are likened to the head of a venomous snake because they are fearful;1 (11) sense-desires are likened to a flock of cotton blown about by the wind'because they are unresisting by nature; (12) sense-desires are likened to a mirage because they bewilder the fool; (13) sense-desires are likened to darkness because they are blinding; (14) sense-desires are likened to hindrances because they obstruct the way of good; (15) sense-desires are likened to infatuation because they cause the loss of Right Mindfulness; (16). sense-desires are likened to ripening because they are subject to decay; (17) sense-desires are likened to fetters because they bind one to another; (18) sense-desires are likened (to thieves) because they rob the value of merit; (19) sense-desires are likened to a house of hate because they provoke quarrels; (20) and sense-desires are pain-laden because they cause trials innumerable. Having considered the tribulations of sense-desires, in this manner, he should consider the benefits of renunciation. RENUNCIATION AND ITS BENEFITS Renunciation. Namely, good practices, like the first meditation, jhiina, from the time one retires from the world - these are named renunciation.
Simile No. 14 - A. TIl, 63: Kiimacchando bhikkha~e avara!'o nivara!,o. Simile No. 17 -·D. I, 245: Kama-gu!'a ariyassa vinaye andiiti pi vuccanti, bantlhanan Ii pi vuccanti. 1. In the Chinese 'Potaliya' (transliteration) Sutta, the simile of the snake is also found, and the eight doctrines taught in this sutta are illustrated with as many examples, though it is difficult to say exactly which illustration refers to which doctrine. In the 'Pali there are only seven illustrations. The following is taken from the Chii Agon (Madhyama Agama) No. 203: "Householder, it is as if, not far from a village, there were a huge venomous snake, very vicious, poisonous, black and terrible of aspect, and a man not foolish, not deluded, not insane, in full possession of his senses, desirous of weal and shunning woe, disliking sorrow very much, wishing to live, not wishing to die and disliking death very much, were to come. What do you think, householder, would that man stretch out his hand or any other member of his body to the snake, saying, 'Bite me, bite me'1" Then the householder answered: "No, venerable Gotama, because on seeing the venomous snake he would think: 'If I were to stretch forth my hand or other member of my body and let the snake bite it, I should die or suffer severely'. And so, on seeing that venomous snake, he wishes to.flee from it". Householder, the learned, noble disciple also thinks in the same way: 'Sense-desires are like a venomous snake, It was taught by the Blessed One that sense-desires are like a venomous snake. They yield little pleasure. produce much suffering and are pain-laden'. And he abandons sense-desires, becomes freed from evil states of mind and causes to perish all worldly enjoyment and clings to nothing".

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Q. What are the benefits of renunciation? A. Separation from the hindrances;l the dwelling in freedom; the joy of solitude; the dwelling in happiness and mindfulness and the ability to endure suffering; accomplishment of much good and attainment of the ground of great fruition; the benefitting of two places 2 through acceptance of gifts. This (renunciation) is profound wisdom. This is the best of all stations. This is called 'beyond the three worlds'. And again, what is called renunciation is the renunciation of sense-desires. This is solitude. This is freedom from all hindrances. This is happiness. This is the absence of defilement. This is the super-excellent path. This washes away the dirt of the mind. Through this practice is merit gathered. Through this practice inward calm is won. Sense-desires are coarse; renunciation is fine. Sense-desires are defiling; renunciation is non-defiling. Sense-desires are inferior; renunciation is superior. Sense-desires are connected with hate; renunciation is unconnected with hate. Sense-desires are not friendly towards fruition; renunciation is the friend of fruition. Sense-desires are bound up with fear; renunciation is fearless.

METHOD OF PRACTICE OF EARTH KASINA Having, in this manner, considered the tribulations of sense-desires and the benefits of renunciation, one accomplishes happiness through renunciation. One arouses the heart of faith and reverence, and meditates either on the non-prepared or the prepared. Taking food in moderation, one observes the rules regarding the bowl and robes, well. Bodily or mentally one is not heedless, and accepts little. Having taken a moderate meal, one washes the hands and feet, and sits down and meditates on the Buddha's Enlightenment,3 the Law and the Order. Through the doing of good actions and through these recollections one becomes happy and thinks: "Nbw it is possible for me to acquire perfection. Had I not renounced, long would it have been before I reached peace. Therefore, I should endeavour earnestly". And taking the mat of meditation to a place neither too far from nor too near the mal)rjaia, i.e., about the length of a plough-pole or a fathom (from the mal)rjaia), one sits down with legs crossed under him, faces the malJrjala, holds the body erect and arouses mindfulness from the very depths of his being, willi closed eyes. After sometime, one is able to exclude all disturbances of body and mind, collect his thoughts and unify his mind. Then opening the eyes neither too wide nor too narrowly, one should fix one's gaze on the mal)rjala.
1. Panca nivaralJiini. 2. Cpo A. II, 80: Atthi bhikkhave dakkhifJii diiyakato c'eva visujjhati pafiggiihakato ca. 3. Bodhi - transliteration.

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THREE WAYS OF SIGN-TAKING The yogin should meditate on the form of the ma1:uJala and take the sign through three ways: through even gazing, skilfulness and neutralizing disturbance. Q. How, through even gazing? A. When the yogin dwells on the malJrjala, he should not open his eyes too wide nor shut them entirely. Thus should he view it. If he opens his eyes too wide, they will grow weary, he will not be able to know the true nature of the malJrjaia, and the after-image will 110t arise. If he faces the malJrjaia closing the eyes fast, he will not see the sign because of darkness, and he will arouse negligence. Therefore, he should refrain from opening his eyes too wide and closing them fast. He should dwell with earnestness on the malJrjala. Thus should the yogin dwell (on the malJt/aia) in order to gain fixity of mind. As a man looking at his own face in a mirror sees his face because of the mirror, i.e., because the face is reflected by the mirror, so the yogin dwelling on the malJrjaia sees the sign of concentration which arises, because of the malJrjaia. Thus should he take the sign by fixing the mind through even gazing. Thus one takes the sign through even gazing. Q. How, through skilfulness? A. Namely, through four ways. The first is to put away any internal lack; the secorid is to view the malJrjala squarely; third is to supply the deficiency should it partial sign or half the malJrjala appear; (fourth:) at this time if his mind is distracted and becomes negligent, he should endeavour like a potter at the wheel l and, when his mind acquires fixity, he should gaze on the malJrjaia, and letting' it pervade (his mind) fully and without faults consider calmness (?). Thus should sklIfulness be known. Q. How, through neutralizing disturbance? A. There are four kinds of disturbance: the first is endeavour that is too quick; the second is endeavour that is too slow; the third is elation; the fourth is depression. Q. What is endeavour that is too quick? A. It is hurried practice. The yogin is impatient. He sits (to meditate) in the morning. By evening he ceases (to endeavour), because of weariness of body. This is called hurried doing. Q. What is endeavour that is too slow? A. It is to stray away froin the way of meditation. Though the yogih sees the malJt/ala he does not dwell on it with reverence. Often he gets up. Often he lies down.
I. Cpo M. IJ, 18: Seyyathapi Udayi, dakkho kumbhakaro va kumbhakiirantevasi va suparikammakataya mallikaya yanl yad eva bhajanavikatim akatikheyya, tam tad eva kareyyq abhinipphiideyya.

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When a yogin endeavours too vigorously, his body becomes weary and his mind flags. Or, the mind wanders and loses itself in frivolous thoughts. When he endeavours too slowly, his body and mind become dull and lazy and sleep overtakes him.1 Elation: If the yogin's mind becomes lax through losing itself in frivolous thoughts, he becomes discontented with the subject of meditation. If he, at first, does not delight in frivolous thoughts, his mind becomes elated through willing. Or again, it becomes elated, if he does many deeds through the will for happiness and bliss. Depression: The yogin fails owing to agitation and thereby partakes of uneasiness, and dislikes the subject of meditation. If he dislikes the subject of meditation from the start he resents activity and, accordingly through resentment, his mind becomes depressed. And again, his mind becomes weary of initial and sustained application of thought, falls from distinction and, owing to craving, becomes depressed. When this yogin's mind falls into a state of agitation, quickly, he overcomes and abandons agitation, with the faculty of mindfulness and the faculty of concentration. When his mind falls into a state of negligence, he should overcome and abandon that state of mind-negligence with the faculty of mindfulness and the faculty of energy. When the man of elatcd mind falls into a lustful state, he should abandon lust forthwith. When the man of depressed mind falls into an angry state, he should abandon anger forthwith. In these four places a man accomplishes and makes his mind move in one direction. If his mind moves in one direction, the sign can be made to arise: GRASPING SIGN There are two kinds of signs, namely, the grasping sign and the afterimage. What is the grasping sign? When a yogin, with undisturbed mind dwells on the ma/plata, he gains the perception of the mmJrjala and sees it as it were in space, sometimes /ar, sometimes near, sometimes to the left, sometimes to the right, sometimes big, sometimes small, sometimes ugly, sometimes lovely. Occasionally (he sees it multiplied) many (times) and occasionally few (times). He, without scanning the mavrj6la, causes the grasping sign to arise through skilful contemplation. This is named grasping sign. THE AFTER-IMAGE Through the following of that (the grasping sign) again and again the after.-image arises. The after-image means this: what when a man contem1. A. III, 375: Acciiraddhaviriyam uddhacciiya sarilvattati atilinaviriyam kosajjiiya samvattati. Tasrila ti ha tvam SOlla viriyasamatam adhilfhaha indriyiinaii ca samatam pafivijjha tattha ca nimittam ¥a(lhiihi 'ti.

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plates appears together with mind. Here the mind does not gain collectedness through viewing the ma1}r;/ala, but it (the after-image) can be seen with closed eyes as before (while looking at the ma1}r;/ala) only in thought. If he wills to see it far, he sees it afar. As regards seeing it near, to the left, to the right, before, behind, within, without, above and below, it is the same. It appears together with mind. This is called the after-image. THE SIGN What is the meaning of sign? The meaning of (conditioning) cause is the meaning of sign. It" is even as the Buddha taught the bhikkhus: [414] "All evil demeritorious states occur depending on a sign".! This is the meaning of conditioning cause. And again, it is said that the meaning of wisdom is the meaning of the sign. The Buddha has declared: "With trained perception one should forsake".2 This is called wisdom. And again, it is said that the meaning of image is the meaning of the sign. It is like the thought a man has on seeing the reflection of his own face and image. The after-image is obvious. PROTECTING THE SIGN After acquiring the sign the yogin should, with heart of reverence towards his teacher, protect that excellent sign. If he does not protect, he will, surely, lose it.
Q.

How should he protect it?

A. He should protect it through three kinds of actions: through refraining from evil, practice of good and through constant endeavour.

How does one refrain from evil? One should refrain from pleasure of work, of various kinds of trivial talk, of sleeping, of frequenting assemblies, immoral habits; (one should refrain from) the non-protection of the faculties, 3 intemperance as regards food, non-practice of the meditations, jluinas, and non-watchfulness in the first and last watches of the night, non-reverence for that which he has learned (the rule), the company of bad friends and seeing improper objects of sense. To partake of food, to sit and to lie down, at the improper time, are not wholesome. To conquer these states is (to do) good. Thus he should always practise. Q. What is the meaning of constant endeavour?
1. Cpo D.I, 70: Idha mahii-,aja bhikkhu eakkhunii '''pam disva na nimittaggiihi hoti nanuvyanjanaggiihi. Yatviidhika,al.lam enam eakkhllnd,iyam asamvutam viharantam abhijjhii-domanassii piipakii akusala dhamma anvassaveyyum tassa samvaraya pii!ipaijati, ,akkhati eakkhund,iyam, eakkhund,iye samva,am iipajjati. 2. Cpo D.I, 181: Sikkhii ekii sannii uppajjanti, sikkhii eM sanna ni,ujjhanti. 3. A. III, 116: Pane' ime bhikkhave dhamma sekhassa (=sekhassati sikkhakassa saka,aniyassa -Mp. III, 274) bhikkhuno pa,ihiinaya' samvattanti. Katame panca? Kammiiriimatii, bhassa,amatii nidda,iimatii, sangalJikii,amata, yathiivimuttam cittam na paechavekkhati.

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A. That yogin having taken the sign always contem,lates on its merit as if it were a precious jewel. He is always 'glad and practises. He practises constantly and much. He practises by day and by night. He is glad when he is seated. He is at ease when he lies down. Keeping his mind from straying hither and thither, he upholds the sign. Upholding the sign, he arouses attention. Arousing attention, he meditates. Thus meditating, he practises. In his practice, he contemplates on the ma{l{lala. Through this constant endeavour, he sees the sign and protecting the sign in this way, he acquires facility. And if the (after-) image appears in his mind, he gains access-meditation. And if access-meditation appears in his mind, he, by means of this, accomplishes fixed meditation. 1

ACCESS-MEDITATION
Q. What is access-meditation? A. It means that the man follows the object unimpeded by his inclinations. Thus he· overcomes the hindrances. But he does not practise initial and sustained application of thought, joy, bliss, unification of mind and the five faculties of faith and so forth. Though he gains meditation-strength, diverse trends of thought occur yet. This is called access-meditation.

FIXED MEDITATION, JHANA Fixed meditation, jhana, follows access. This state acquires the power of mental progress. This is the power of application of thought, faith and the others. This state does not move in the object. This is called fixed meditation, jhdna. Q. What is the difference between. access and fixed meditation, jhdna7 A. The overcoming of the five hindrances is access. One overcomes these five and thereby fulfils fixed meditation, jhana. Through access one approaches distinction in meditation, jhdna. When distinction in meditation is accomplished, it is fixed meditation, jhdnd. In access-meditation mind and body, not having attained to tranquillity, are unsteady like a ship on waves. In fixed meditation, jhana, mind and body having attained to tranquillity are steady like a ship on unruffled water. Because the factors 2 are not powerful the mind does not dwell long on the object, in access-meditation, like a child. 3 All factors' being powerful (in fixed meditation, jMna) one dwells on the object peacefully and 10I\g, like a powerful man. 5 In access1. Appand jhdna. 2. and 4. Text has ariga. 3. and 5. Cpo Vis. Mag., 126: Yathd ndma daharo kumdrako ukkhipitvd rhapiyamdno punappunam bhiimiyam patati, evam eva upacdre uppanne cittam kdlena nimittam drammaT]am karoti, kdlena bhavaligam otarati. Appandya palia aligdni thdmajdfdni honti, fesam thdmajdtattd. Yathd ndma balavd puriso dsand vutthdya divasam pi fittheyya, evam eva appandsamddhimhi uppanT]e cittam, sakiln bhavaligavdram chinditvii, kevalam pi rattim kevakam pi divasam tiffhati, kusalaJavanapatipii(ivasen'4va pavattafi ti.

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meditation one does not practise with facility. Therefore yoga is not accomplished. It is like the forgetfulness of a discourse-reciter who has stopped, (reciting) for a long time. 1 In fixed meditation, jhana, practice being facile, yoga is accomplished: It is like a discourse-reciter who keeps himself in training, always, and who does not forget when he recites. If a man does not overcome the (five) hindrances, he is blind as regards access-meditation.z These are the teachings regarding impurity. If a man overcomes the hindrances weII, he gains sight (lit. becomes not-blind), Concerning the accomplishment of fixed meditation, jhana, these are the teachings of purity:-From the state of facility in the sign to (the state of) repelling. is called access. Continued repelling of the hindrances is called fixed meditati6n, jhana. Q. What is the meaning of access? A. 'Because it is near meditation, jhana, it is called access, as a road near a village is called a village road. The meaning is the same, though the names differ. What is the meaning of fixed meditation, jhana? Fixed meditation, jhana, means yoga. Fixed meditation, jhana, is like the mind entering the mar;z4ala. There is no difference in meaning between renunciation, meditation' (jhana) and fixed meditation, (jhana). Here the yogin, dwelling in access, fixed meditation (jluina) or the first meditation (jhana) should increase: the kasir;za. INCREASING OF THE MSINA How should he increase? Namely, the kasir;za which is a span and four fingers, at the start, should be gradually increased. Thus should he contemplate; and he will be able gradually to increase with facility. Let him progressively increase it to the size of a wheel, a canopy, the shadow of a tree, a cultivated field, a small neighbourhood, a village, a walled village and a city. Thus should he progress gradually until he fills the great earth.. He should not contemplate on such things as rivers, mountains, heights, depths, trees and prot,uberances, all of which are uneven; he should contemplate on earth as if it were the great ocean. Increasing it in this way, he attains to distinction in meditation.
Q.
A.

SKILFULNESS IN FIXED MEDITATION, JHANA If the yogin attains to a*rcess-meditation but is unable, to obtain fixed meditation, jhana, he should effect the arising of skilfulness in fixed meditation, jhana, in two ways: the first, through causes; the second, through "good standing" .
1. A. IV, 195: Asajjhiiyamalii bhikkhave manlii. 2. Cpo S. V, 97: Paficime bhikkhave nivara(lii andhakara(lii ackkhukara(lii.

Subjects of Meditation
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By means of ten ways he effects the arising of skilfulness in fixed meditation, jhdna, through causes: (1) By the consideration of cleansing the physical basis. (2) By the consideration of equalizing (the work of) the faculties. (3) By skilfulness in taking the sign. (4) By restraining and regulating the mind. (5) By repressing negligence. (6) By (overcoming) mental inactivity. (7) By gladdening the mind. (8) By steadying the mind and fulfilling equanimity. (9) By separation from him who does not practise concentration and by associating with a concentration-practiser. (10) By intentness on fixed meditation concentration. 1 (I). Q. What is the consideration of cleansing the physical basis? A. Through three kinds of action 'One accomplishes the cleansing of the physical basis. Namely, through the partaking of suitable food, the enjoyment of the ease of agreeable weather and the practice of a posture that is pleasant. SIMILE OF THE HORSE-CHARIOT (2). By the consideration of equalizing (the work) of the faculties, i.e., faith or any of the other four faculties should not be allowed to fall back, through negligence. It is comparable to a swift horse-chariot. 2 SIMILE OF THE INKED-STRING (3). Skilfulnes:; in taking the sign: The mind-faculty takes (the sign) well, i.e., neither too hastily nor too slowly. It is like a skilful carpenter, who, having determined well, pulls the inked-string, lets it go at the right moment and thereby marks an even, uncurved line. (4). By restraining and regulating the mind: There are two ways. By these two, the mind is regulated: the first, through intense effort; the second, through profound investigation of the spheres or the mind becomes discursive, wandering to distant and unsuitable spheres and is .thus disturbed. Through two ways one restrains the mind: One arouses energy. 'One takes (food) temperately every day. If the mind wanders to unsuitable spheres and objects, one restrains the mind having considered the evil results (of such
1. Cpo Vbh.-a. 283: Api ca ekiidasa dhammii samiidhi-sambojjhangasSll uppiidiiya samvattanti: vatthuvisadakiriyatii, indrlyasamattapafipiidanatii, nimittakusalatii, samaye citlassa paggahalJatii, samaye ciftassa niggahalJatii, samaye sampahamsanatii, samaye ajjhupekkhanptii, asamiihitapuggalaparivajjanatii, samiihifapuggalasevanatii, jhiinavimokkhapaccare, kkhanalii, tad-adhimuttatii ti. 2. s.rv, 176; M.m, 97; A.III,28; Seyyathiipi bhikkhave subhumiyariJ ciitummahiipathe iijaililaratho yutto assa thito odhaSfapatodo tam enam dakkho yoggiicariyo assadammasiirathi abhiruhUvii viimena hatthena rasmiyo gahetvii dakkhilJena hatthena patodam gahetvii yen'icchakam yad lcchakam siireyya pi pacciisiireyya pi.

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actions). Thus one overcomes in two ways: through investigation of various sufferings and through the search for the reward of evil deeds. (5) (6) and (7). By repressing negligence: Through two ways negligence of mind is fulfilled: through lack of distinction jn concentration and through mental inactivity. When there is much negligence, the mind becomes sluggish and torpid. This means that, if the yogin does not gain distinction in concentration, his mind is steeped in negligence because of mental inactivity. Through two ways one should repress. Namely, through the consideration of merit and through the arousing of' energy. He should repress negligence of torpor and idleness of mind in four ways:- If he is a voracious person he considers (the faults of) negligence and practises the four restraints. Fixing his mind on the sign of brightness, he dwells in a dewy place, makes his mind rejoice and gets rid of attachment. Through three ways mental inactivity takes place: through insufficiency of skill, dullness of wit, non-obtainment of the ease of solitude. If a yogin's mind is inactive he makes it active in these two ways: through fear and through gladness. If he considers birth, decay, death and the four states of. woe, owing to fear, anxiety and mental agony arise in hJs mind. 1 If he practises the recollections of the Buddha, the Law, the Community of Bhikkhus, virtue, liberality and deities. he sees the merits of these objects and is gladdened. (8). By the mind becoming steady and fulfilling equanimity: Through two actions (the mind) fulfils access-meditation: by destroying the hindrances the mind fulfils fixity. Or, arousing the meditation (jhdna) factors on already acquired earth (kasiTJ.{l), the. mind attains· to fixity. After a yogin attains to calmness, there are two states to be abandoned ~ that which causes inattention, arid that which causes middling skill. (9). Separation from those· who do not practise concentration means that a man who has not attained to fixed meditation, access-meditation or restraint meditation, and he who does not train himself in these or practise these should not be served. Association with a meditation practiser means that if a man has attained to fixed meditation, jhana, he should be followed. Under him one should learn. Him should one serve. (10). By intentness on fixed meditation, jhdna, means that the yogin always reverences, enjoys (meditation) and practises much (regarding it) as the deepest depth, as a fountain and as a tender plant. Through the practice of these ten, fixed meditation, jhdna, is obtained. Q. How (does the yogin) produce skilfulness in fixed meditation, jhdnaJ well, through good standing? A. That yogin, having well understood the causes (which induce concentration), enters into solitude. With the sign of concentration which he has practised, he induces, in mind, desirous ease, with facility. Through this
1. Cpo Nd1 • 371: JiItlbhayamjariIbhayam byiIdhibhayam maraJ;labhayam .•• ',d(lggatibhayam.

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state, the mind acqul'res good standing. Through the arlsmg of joy, the mind acqwres good standing. [4.15] Through the arising of body-bliss, the mind acquires good standing. Through the arising of brightness, the mind acquires good standing. Through the arising of harmlessness, the mind attains to calmness. Through this calmness, the mind acquires good standing. Thus observing well, the mind attains to equanimity and acquires good standing. Liberating itself from limitless passions, the mind acquires good standing. By reason of freedom, the mind accomplishes the one-function-of-the-Law1 and practises. Therefore, owing to tllis excellence; the mind gains increase. Thus established in good standing, the yogin causes the arising of skilfulness in fixed meditation, jhdna. Understanding causes and good standing well, in this way, he, in no long time, brings out concentration. THE FIRST MEDITATION, JHANA That yogin, having separated himself from lust, having separated himself from demeritorious states, attains to the first meditation, jhdna, which is accompanied by. initial and sustained application of thought, born of solitude, and full of joy and bliss.s This is the merit of earth kasi1)Q. THREE KINDS OF SEPARATION FROM LUST AND DEMERITOR10Us STATES Now, there are thre,e kinds of separation from lust, viz., of ,the body, df the mind and of the defilements. 3 Q. What is separation from (lust of) the body? A. (A man) separates himself from desires, goes to a hill or moor and dwells there. What is separation from (lust of) the mind. With pure heart a man reaches a station of distinction. What is separation from (lust of) the defilements? A man is cut off ffom kindred, birth and death. And again, there are five kinds of separation, namely, suppressionseparation, part-separation, eradication-separation, tranquillity-separation, emancipation-separation. What is suppression-separation? Namely, practise of the first meditationjhdna, and the suppression of the five hindrances. What is part-separation? Namely, practice of penetration-concentration and the suppression of views. What is eradication-separation? Namely, the practice
1. A.IV, 203: Seyyathiipl Pahiiriida mahiisamuddho ekaraso I01;laraso, evam eva kho Pahiiriida ayam dhammavinayo ekaraso vimuiliraso. 2. A.III, 25: ldha hhlkkhave bhlkkhu vlvlcc'eva kiimehl vlvicca akusalehl dhammehi savitakkam sav/ciiram vlvekajam pir/-sukham pathamajjhiinam IIpasampajja vlharali. 3. (a) Nd 1• 26: Vivekii II layo vivekii, kiiyaviveko, cittaviveko, upadhiviveko. (b) Ibid. 27: Kiiyaviveko ca viipakafthakiiyiinam nekkhammiibh/raliillam; cittaviveko ca. parlsuddhacitliinam paramavodiinappattiinam; upadhlvlveko ca nirupadhinam puggaliinam vlsathkhiiragatiinam.

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of the supramundane Path and the cutting down of many defilements. What is tranquillity-separation? It is the joy of the time when one acquites the (Noble) Fruit. What is emancipation-separation? Namely, Nibbana. 1 TWO KINDS OF LUST There are two kinds of lust: the first is lust for things; the second is lust for pleasure. The lust for heavenly mansions and forms, odours, flavours and tangibles which men love is called lust for things. A man clings to this lust for things and attends to it. 2 The separation from these lusts through mind and through suppression - this is solitude, this is renunciation, this is freedom, this is the' unassociated, this is called separation from lust. ROOTS OF DEMERIT
Q. What is separation from demeritorious states? A. Namely, there are three kinds of roots of demerit: the first is lust, the second is hatred and the third is ignorance. 3 The sensations, perceptions, formations and consciousness connected with these and the actions of body, speech and mind (connected with these) are called demeritorious states. According to another tradition, there are three kinds of demerit: the first is natural; the second is associated; the third is causally produced. The three roots of demerit ale named natural. Sensations, perceptions, formations and consciousness which are connected with these' are named associated. The actions of body, speech and mind which are produced are called causally produced. The' separation from these three demeritorious states is called renunciation, freedom, the unassociated. This is called separation from demeritorious states. And again, separation from lust means the separation from the hindrance of lust. Separation from demeritorious states is separation from the other hindrances. 4
1. Pts. II, 220: Sammiidiflhiyii katame pai/ca vivekii? Vikkhambhanaviveko tadangaviveko samucchedaviveko pafippassaddhiviveko nissara~aviveko. Vikkhambhanaviveko ca nivara~iinQ1;' pa(hama/jhiinam bhiivayato, tadangaviveko ca di(fhigatiinarh nihbedhabhagiyarh samiidhirh bhiivayato, samucchedaviveko' ca lokuftararh khayagiimimaggarh bhiivayato, pa(ippassaddhiviveko ca phalakkhalle, nissaralJaviveko ca nirodho nibbiinarh. 2. Ndl 1-2: Dve kiimii, vatthukiimii ca kilesakiimii ca. Katame vatthukiimii? Maniipikii riipii, maniipikii sadda, maniipikii gandhii, maniipikii rasii, mariiipikii phoffhabbii; . .... . , dibba kiimii; . .... ,ime vuccanti vatrhukiimii. ,Katame kilesakiimii? Chando kiimo, rago kiimo, chandariigo kiimo, ...... sarhkappariigo kiimo; yo kiimesukiimacchando kiimariigo kiimanandi kiimata~hii kiimasneho kiimapari{dho kiimamucchii kiimajjhosiinarh kamogho kiimayogo kiimupiidiinarh kiimacchandanivara~am., ..... ime vuccanti kilesakiimii. 3. D. IU, 214: Ti~i akusala-miiliini. Lobho akusala-mUlarh, dasa akusala-miilarh, maho akusala-miilarh. ' 4. Vbh.256: Vivicc'eva kiimehi vivicca akusalehi dhammehiti: tattha katame kiimii? Chando kiima, riigo kiima, chandariiga kiima; sarhkappa kiima, riiga kiimo, sumkappariiga kama: ime vuccanti kiimii. Tattha katame akusalii dhammii? Kiimacchanda vyiipiido thinamiddham uddhaccakukkuccam vicikicchii: ime vuccanti akusalii dhammii.-Here see Vis. Mag. 141: Vivicca akusalehi dhammehi Ii imina pai/cannam pi nivarQ/;riinam, agahitaggaha~ena paiJa pafhamena kiimacchandassa, dutiyena
sesanivara~uinam.

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REASONS FOR TREATING LUST AND DEMERIT SEPARATELY

Q. Since separatipn from demeritorious states is preached and . lust as a demeritorious state is already within it, why should separation from lust be separately preached? A. Lust is conquered through emancipation. Every Buddha's teaching -can remove the defilements well. "The separation from lust is renunciatioa".l This is the teaching of the Buddha. It is like the attainment of the first meditation, jhdna. The thought connected with the perception of lust partakes of the state of deterioration. Thereby lust is connected with the defilements. With the dispersion of lust all defilements disperse. Therefore, separately, the separation from Iu,t is preached. And again, thus is separation from lust: Mter gaining emancipation, a man accomplishes the separation from lust.
SEPARATION FROM DEMERITORIOUS STATES Separation from demeritorious states is thus: Through the acquisition of non-hatred, a man fulfils separation from hatred; through the acquisition of the perception of brightness, he fulfils separation from torpor; through the acquisition of non-distraction, he fulfils separation from agitation and anxiety; through the acquisition of non-rigidity, he fulfils separation from rigidity; through the acquisition of fixed meditation, jhtina, he fulfils separation from uncertainty; through the acquisition of wisdom, he fulfils separation from ignorance; through the acquisition of right thought, he fulfils separation from wrong mindfulness; through the acquisition of bliss, he fulfils separation from non-bliss; through the acquisition of the twin bliss of the mind, he fulfils separation from suffering; through the acquisition of all meritorious states, he separates from all demerit. This is just as it is taught in the Tipitaka thus: "He is full of dispassion, therefore he fulfils separation from lust. He is full of non-hatred and non-delusion, therefore he fulfils separation from demeritorious states". 2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LUST AND DEMERIT And again, separation from lust is taught as the emancipation of the body, and separation from demeritorious states is taught as the emancipation of the mind.
1. It. 61: Kiimiinam-etam nissarafJam yad-idam nekkhammam. 2. Prof. Bapa! in his Vimuttimagga and Visuddhimagga, p.46 traces this passage to Petakopadesa. He quotes from the printed Burmese edition=P.T.S. Ed. 141: Tattha alobhassa piiripiiriyii, vivitto hot; kiimehi. Tattha adosassa piiripuriyii amohassa piiripuriyii ca vivitto hot; piipakehi akusalehi dhammehi.

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And again, separation from lust is taught as the abandoning of discursive sensuous thought, and the separation from demeritorious states is taught as, the abandoning of discursive thoughts of hate and harm. And again, separation from lust is taught as eschewing of sense-pleasures, and separation from demeritorious states is taught as the eschewing of negligence thlOUgh indulgence of the body. And again, separation from lust is taught as the abandoning of the sixfold pleasures of sense and of delight therein. Separation from demeritorious states is taught as the abandoning of discursive thoughts of hate and harm, anxiety and suffering. Also it is taught as (1) the mowing down of pleasure, (2) as indifference. And again, separation from lust is present bliss of relief from sensepleasures, and separation from demeritorious states is present bliss of relief from non-subjection to tribulation. And again, sepaffltion from lust is to get beyond the sense-flood entirely. Sepalation from demeritorious states is the surpassing of all other defilements which cause rebirth in. the sense and form (planes). INITIAL AND SUSTAINED APPLICATION OF THOUGHT Accompanied by initial application and sustained application of thought: What is initial application of thought? To perceive, to think, to be composed, to excogitate and to aspire rightly, though without understanding, constitute initial application of thought. Such are the qualities of initial application of thought. Owing to the fulfilment of initial application of thought there is initial application of thought in the first meditation, jhtina. And again, one dwells on the earth kasi7;la and considers the earth sign without end. These constitute initial application of thought. It is comparable to the reciting of discourses by heart. Q. What are the salient characteristic, function, manifestation and near cause cf initial application of thought?
A.l ...... ....................................................... .

What is sustained application of thought? When one practises sustained application of thought, the mind 'dwells in non-indifference following that which sustained application of thought investigates. This state is called sustained application of thought. In association with this one accomplishes the first meditation, jhtina. The first meditation, jhana, is (conjoined) with sustained application of thought. And again, the meditator who dwells on the earth kasi7;la considers many aspects which his mind discerns when working on the earth sign. This is sustained application of thought.
1. This passage is unintelligible.

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Q. What are the salient characteristic, function, manifestation and near cause of sustained application of thought? A. Reflection following investigation is its salient characteristic. The brightening of the mind - this is its function. The seeing that follows initial application of thought - this is its near cause.
INITIAL APPLICATION AND SUSTAINED APPLICATION OF THOUGHT DISCRIMINATED

Q. What is the difference between initial application and sustained application of thought?
SIMILES OF THE BELL ETC.
A. It is comparable to the striking of a bell. The 1hst sound is initial application of thought. The reverberations that follow constitute sustained application of thought. And 'again, it is comparable to the relation of the mind to its object. The beginning is initial application of thought; the rest is sustained application of thought. And again, to wish for meditation, jhtina, is initial application of thought; to maintain is sustained application of thought. And again, to recall is initial application of thought; to dwell on the recollection is sustained application of thought. And again, the state of the coarse mind is initial application of thought and the state of the fine mind is sustained application of thought. Where there is initial application ,of thought there is sustained application of thought, but where there is 'sustained application of thought, there mayor may not be initial application of thought. It is taught in' the Tipitaka thus: "The mind beginning to dwell on anything is initial application of thouiht. If, having acquired initial application of thought, the mind is still unfixed, it is sustained application of thought".l To see a person coming in the distance, without knowing whether one is a man or woman and to distinguish the form as male or female is initial application of thought. Thereafter to consider whether he or she is virtuous or not, is rich or poor, noble or humble~ is sustained application of thought. Initial application of thought wants (a thing), draws it·and brings it near.2 Sustained application of thought keeps it, holds it, follows and goes after it.

of thought and the planing movement (of a bird in the sky) is sustained application of thought. The first spreading (of the wings) is initial application of' thought. The spreading (of the wings) when it is continued long is sustained application of thought,1 With initial application of thought one protects; with sustained application of thought one searches. With initial application of thought one considers; with sustained application of thought one continues to consider. The walker in initial application of thought does not think of wrong states; the walker in sustained application of thought induces meditation. Sustained application of thought is like a man who is able, while reciting the discourses in mind, to gather the meaning. Initial application of thought is like a man who sees what he wants to see and after seeing understands It well. Expertness in etymology and dialectic is initial application of thought; expertness in theory and practice is sustained application of thought. 2 To appreciate distinction is initial application of thought; to understand the distinction of things is sustained application of thought. These are the differences between initial application and sustained application of thought. SOLITUDE Born of solitude. It is called solitude because of separation from the five hindrances. This is named solitude. And again, it is the merit-faculty of the form plane. And again, it is taught as the access of the first meditation, jhiina. And again, it is taught as the meditation-thought. What is produced from this is called born of solitude, as the flower which grows on earth is called earth-flower and the flower which grows in water, water-flower. JOy AND BLISS Joy and bliss. The mind at this time is greatly glad and at ease. The mind is filled with coolness. This is called joy. Q. What are the salient characteristic,. function, manifestation and near cause of joy and how many kinds of joy are there? A. Joy: the being filled with joy is its salient characteristic; to gladden is its function; the overcoming of mental disturbance is its manifestation; buoyancy is its near cause. How many kinds of joy are there? There are six kinds of joy: one
1. Vis. Mag. 142: Dukanipii/allhakalhiiyam pana iikiise gacchalo mahiisakul,lassa ubhohi pakkhehi viilam gahelvii pakkhe sannisidiipelvii gamanam viya iirammal,le celaso abhiniropanabhiivena pavatto vilakko; (so hi ekaggo hu/vii appeli;) viilagahal,lalfham pakkhe phandiipayamiinassa gamanam viya anumajjanasabhiivena pavalfo viciiro Ii vulfam.-This simile is not in the Cy., i.e., ManorathapiiraJ;li. 2. Here again Prof. Bapat has traced this passage to the Petaka, 142; Yalhii paliko IUl,lhiko sajjhiiyam karoti evam vitakko, yalhii lam yeva anupassati evam viciiro. Yathii aparilillii evanl vitakko, ya/hii pariiiiiii evam viciiro. Niruttipafisambhidiiyall ca palibhiinapafisambhidiiyall Ca vi/akko, dhammapalisambhidiiyall ca atthapafisambhidiiyall ca viciiro.

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proceeds from lust; one, from faith; one, from non-rigidity; one from solitude; one, from concentration and one, from enlightenment factors. Which, from lust? . The joy of passion and the joy that is bound up with the defilements are called joy that proceeds from lust. 1 Which, from faith? The joy of a man of great faith and the joy produced on seeing a potter. s Which, from non-rigidity? [416] The great joy of the pure-hearted and the virtuous. Which, from solitude? The joy of the individual who enters the first . meditation, jhdna. 3 Which, from concentration? The joy of the individual who enters the second meditation, jhdna.' Which, from the enlightenment factors? . The joy that follows the treading of the supramundane path in the second meditation, jhdna. FIVE KINDS OF JOy And again, it is taught that there are five kinds of joy, namely, the lesser thrill, momentary joy, streaming joy, swiftly going joy, all-pervading joy.· The lesser thrill is like the raising of the hairs of the body caused by being wet with fine rain. Momentary joy suddenly arises and suddenly passes away. It is comparable to showers 'at night. Streaming joy is like oil that streaks down the body without spreading. Swiftly going joy is joy that spreads through the mind and vanishes not long after. It is comparable to the store of a poor man. All-pervading joy permeating the body, continues. It is like a thundercloud that is full of rain. Thus the lesser thrill and momentary joy cause the arising of the access through faith. Streaming joy becoming poweIful causes the arising of the access. Swiftly going joy dwelling on the ma7)r/.aia causes the arising of both the good and the bad, and depends on skill. Allpervaqing joy is produced in the state of fixed meditation. BLISS
Q.

Q. What are the salient characteristic, function, manifestation and near cause of bliss? How many kinds of bliss are there? What are the difference~ between joy and bliss? A. Its function is its salient characteristic. Dependence on an agreeable object - this is its agreeable function. Peaceful persuasion is its manifestation. Tranquillity is its near cause.
FIVE KINDS OF BLISS How many kinds of bliss are there? There are five kinds of bliss, namely, caused bliss, fundamental bliss, the bliss of solitude, the bliss of non-defilement, the bliss of feeling. What is called caused bliss? Thus it is according to the Buddha's teaching: "The bliss of virtue lasts long". This, is called caused bliss. This is a merit of bliss. Thus is fundamental bliss according to the Buddha's teaching: "The Enlightened One produces worldly bliss".l The bliss of solitude is the development of concentration-in4ifference and the destruction of meditation, jhdna. The bliss of non-defilement is according to the Buddha's teaching "highest Nibbdna". ~ The bliss of dwelling is generally called the bliss of dwelling. According to this'treatise, the bliss of dwelling should be enjoyed. 3 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN JOY AND BLISS What are the differences between joy and bliss? Buoyancy is joy, ease of mind is bliss. Tranquillity of mind is bliss. Concentration of mind is joy. Joy is coarse; bliss is fine. Joy belongs to the formations-group; bliss belongs to the sensation-group. Where there is joy there is bliss, but where there is bliss there mayor may not be joy. FIRST MEDITATION (JHANA) The first is the basis for producing the second. After accomplishing the access one enters the first meditation, jhdna. The meditation-factors are initial application of thought and sustained application of thought, joy, bliss and unification of mind. What is meditation, jhdna? It is equalized meditation on an object. It is the plucking out of the five hindrances. It is to meditate and to overcome. Enters the first meditation, jhlina, and acquires good standing: Having already acquired, having already touched, having already proved, one dwells. And again, thus is separation from lust and demeritorious states: The first meditation, jhdna, is called the special characteristic of separation from the world of sense. The second meditation, jhlina, has the special characteristic of
L Dh. 194: Sukho Buddhanam uppiido. 2. Dh. 204: Nibbiinamparamam sukham. 3. Cpo I, 75: Punaca param mahii-riija bhikkhu pitiyii ca viriigd ca upekhako ca viharali salo ca sampajdno, sukhaif ca kdyena pafisamvedeli yan lam ariyii iickkihanri: "upekhako salima sukka-vihdri" II latiyajlhlinam upasampajja viharali.

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separation from initial application and sustained application of thought. In solitude are joy and bliss; therefore joy and bliss are called the special characteristics of solitude.1 And again, thus is separation from lust and demeritorious states: It is to remove well, and to overcome well. With initial application and sustained application of thought: This is said to be the characteristic of (the first) meditation, jhdna; Joy and bliss born of solitude: This state resembles meditation. Acquires good standing enters and dwells: One acquires the first meditation, jhtina, separates from five factors, fulfils five factors, three kinds of g~od­ ness, ten characteristics,2 and accomplishes the twenty-five merits. With these merits one can obtain rebirth in the Brahma or the deva world. s FIVE HINDRANCES Separation from five factors: This is separation from the five hindrances. What are the five? Sense-desire, ill will, rigidity and torpor, agitation and anxiety, uncertainty. 4 Sense-desire: (This refers to) a mind defiled by the dust of passion. III will: This is the practice of the ten defilements. Rigidity: This is negligence of the mind. Torpor: This is the desire for sleep owing to heaviness of the body. There are three kinds of torpor: the first, proceeds from food; the second, from time; the third, from the mind. If it proceeds from the mind, one removes it with meditation. If it proceeds from food and time as in the case of the Arah'ant, because it does not proceed from the mind, it is not a hindrance. If it proceeds from food and time, one cuts it with energy as the Venerable Elder Anuruddha taught: "Since first I destroyed the cankers for fifty-five years, have I not slept the sleep that proceeds from the mind. And during this period for twenty-five years, have I removed the sleep that proceeds from food and time". &
I

Q. If torpor is a bodily state, how can it be a mental defilement? A. The body-is produced only by mental defilement. It is like a man drinking wine and taking food. Thus should it be known. Q. If torpor is a bodily state and rigidity is a mental property, how do these two states unite and become one hindrance? A. These two states have one object and one function. What are called torpor and rigidity become one. Agitation is non-tranquillity of mind; anxiety is unsteadiness of mind; the characteristics of these are equal. Therefore they become one hindrance. Uncertainty is the clinging of the mind to diverse objects. There are four kinds of uncertainty: the first is a hindrance to serenity,l the second, to insight, a the third, to both and the fourth, to things non-doctrinal.
Here, is serenity won through the ending of these uncertainties, or is it possible or not to win tranquillity while having these uncertainties or the uncertainty concerning the self? If one has that uncertainty, it is called a hindrance to serenity; uncertainty concerning the Four Noble Truths and the three worlds is called a hindrance to insight; uncertainty concerning the Buddha, the Law and the Community of Bhikkhus is called a hindrance to both. Uncertainty concerning things like country, town, road, name of man or woman is called hindrance to things non-doctrinal. Uncertainty concerning the Discourses is a hindrance to solitude. Thus should these be understood. What is the meaning of hindrance? Hindrance to vehicle;3 superposing, defilement, fetter .. These are obvious.

Q. There are many fetters such as those which cover the defilements, and others. They are fetters. Then; why are only five hindrances taught?
A. Because these five include all. And again, the attachment to sensedesires includes all attachment to passion; all demeritorious states (of hatred) are included in the attachment to anger; and all demeritorious states of infatuation are included in the attachment to rigidity and torpor, agitation and anxiety and uncertainty. Thus all defilements are included in the attachment to the five hindrances. Because of this the five 'hindrances are taught.

FIVE FACTORS Five factors: These are fulfilled (through the fulfilment of) initial and sustained application of thought, joy, bliss, and unification of mind.

Q. It is said that the five factors together constitute the first meditationj
jhdna.

Therefore, it cannot be said that there is a meditation Uhdna) outside the five factors. If there is a meditation, jhdna, outside the five factors, how can it be said that the first meditation,jhdna, consists of the five factors?
2. Vipassana (transliteration).

1. Samatha (transliteration). 3. YalfQ. .

Subjects of Meditation
SIMILES OF CHARIOT AND ARMY

93

A. By means of the meditation, jhtina, factors, meditation (jhtina) is fulfilled. There is no meditation, jhtina, separate from meditation (jhtina) factors. Such meditation, jhiina, there is not. One can speak of a chariot because of all the parts of a chariot.1 There is no chariot outside the parts. Qwing to all the parts of an army, one can speak of an army. There is no army separate from the parts. Thus owing to meditation (jhiina) factors, it is called meditation, jhiina. There is no meditation, jhiina, separate from the meditation (jhiina) factors. 2 The factors combined are named meditation, jhiina. Separately, they are named factors. It is taught that the object is called meditation, jhiina, and the attributes, factors. By way of clan they are meditation, jhiina. By way of caste they are factors. Q. In spite of there being mindfulness, energy and others, why are only five factors taught? A. Because these five through combination accomplish meditation,. jhiina.

Q. What are the characteristics of combination? A. Initial application of thought follows the object of mind and acquires fixed meditation. Sustained application of thought goes together with the observing mind. When initial and sustained application of thought are unmixed, they cause the arising of skilfulness. If one is skilful, one produces joy and bliss. If one is skilful, one can produce the heart of joy, and after inc.reasing that, produce the heart of bliss. With these four qualities the mind becomes peaceful. If the mind becomes peaceful, it acquires concentration. These are called the characteristics of combination. Thus, these five, through combination, accomplish (meditation, jhiina). And again, the hindrances are overcome by the perfection of the five. The overcoming of the first hindrance is the first meditation, jhiina. Thus the overcoming of the five hindrances results in five meditations, jhiinas. In the first meditation, jhiina, initi~l application of thought is the special factor; through initial application of thought lust is abandoned. If initial application of thought enters into right concentration, the other factors are also awakened. Among the five factors, sustained application of thought is the beginning of the second meditation; joy, of the third meditation; bliss, of the fourth; and unification of mind, of the fifth. These are the special factors of the meditations, jhiinas. And again, with the overcoming of the five hindrances, the five are fulfilled, as it is taught in the Tipitaka: "Unification of mind is the overcoming of sensuous desire, joy is the overcoming of anger, initial application of thought
1. S. I, 135: Yalhii hi angasambhiirii h011 saddo ralho iti. 2. Sp. I, 146: Yalhii pana saralhii sapattisenii II vutte senaligesu eva senii eva senii samuttlevam idha p,,/lcasu aligesu yeva jhiinasammuII vedllabbii.

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is the overcoming of rigidity and torpor, bliss is the overcoming of agitation and anxiety, sustained application of thought is the overcoming of uncer~ tainty".l Thus, through the overcoming of the hindrances, the five are fulfilled. Q. Meditating on the earth kasi1)a sign, [417] how does the yogin cause the arising of joy and bliss? A. The earth kasi1)a does not bring joy and bliss. They (joy and bliss) naturally follow the separation from the five hindrances; Thus the son of truth2 causes the arising of joy and bliss. Q. If that be so, why does the son of truth not arouse joy and bliss in the fourth meditation, jhdna?
A. Because it is not a suitable state, and because he removes joy and bliss in the fourth meditation,jhdna. And again because of his having skilfully rooted out the joy and bliss which he caused to arise at first, and because, he, seeing the tribulation of bliss, forsakes it, and attaches himself to deep tranqUillity. For these reasons, he does not cause the arising of joy and bliss.

THREE KINDS OF GOODNESS The three kinds of goodness: These are the initial, medial and final stages of goodness. Purity of practice is the initial stage; the increase of equanimity is the medial stage; rejoicing is the final stage. 3 What is purity of practice? It is the foundation of all goodness. What is the increase of equanimity? It is fixed meditation. What is .\'~jqiCing? It is reflection. 4 Thus there are three kinds of goodness in the first meditation, jhdna. TEN CHARACTERISTICS Fulfilment of the ten characteristics: These comprise the three characteristics of the purity of practice, the three characteristics of the increase of equanimity and the four characteristics of rejoicing. 5 What are the three characteristics of the purity of practice? A. The mind purifies itself of that hindrance to the meditation, jhdna. Because of purity, the mind acquires the middle sign of serenity, and from that the mind leaps forward. These are called the three characteristics of the purity of practice. Q. What are the three characteristics of the increase of equanimity?
1. Vis. Mag. 141: Talhd hi samiidhi kiimacchandassa pafipakkho, pili vyiipiidassa, vllakko Ihinamiddhassa, sukkham uddhacca-kukkuccassa, viciiro viciklcchiiyii II Pefake vuttam. -But it is not in the Petaka.
2. Dhammaputta. 3. Cpo Vis. Mag. 147: Pafhamassa jhiinassa pafipadii-visuddhi adl, upekkhdnubriihalJii maJJhe, sampahamsanii pariyosiinam. 4. Cpo Vis. Mag. 148: Pafipadii-visuddhi niima sasambhiiriko upaciiro, upekkhiinubruhalJQ niima appanii, samapahamsana nama paccavekkhalJQ Ii evam eke valJlJayanli. The comment (in Pm. Sinh. Ed. I, 144:) ekeli AbhayaglrlVQsino, is quoted by Prof. Bapat in his Vim. Mag. and Vis.·Mag. p. 49. S. Cp.Ibid. 147. If.

Subjects of Meditation

9'5

A. If the mind is pure, ·it fulfils equanimity; if it attains to solitude, it fulfils equanimity; if it dwells on one object, it fulfils equanimity. These are called the three characteristics. Q. What are the four characteristics of rejoicing? A. Among these ten characteristics, there is rejoicing by reason of the gradual arising of the states produced; there is rejoicing by reason of the functions of the faculties becoming one; there is rejoicing ,by reaSOn of the possession of energy; and there is rejoicing by reason of devotion (to these states). These are called the four characteristics. Thus, in the first meditation, jhdna, the ten characteristics are fulfilled.

TWENTY-FIVE BENEFITS Twenty-five benefits: In the first meditation, initial and sustained application of thought, joy, bliss and unification of mind are accomplished. Faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom are accomplished. The initial, medial and final stages (of goodness) are accomplished ............ 1 is acpomplished. Practice is accomplished. Solitude is accomplished. Dependence is accomplished ........ 1 is accomplished .......... 8 is accomplished. Reflection is accomplished ...... , ..... ' is accomplished. Power is accomplished. Freedom is accomplished. Purity.is accomplished, and thc super-excellent purity is accomplished. Thus a man dwells togeth\)r with the twenty-five benefits. These are the excellent stations of the, deities. They are produced from tranquillity and are called the abodes of joy and bliss. In such excellent abodes surpassing the human do tho deities dwell. Hence the Blessed One, the Buddha, de~lared to the bhikkhus: SIMILE OF THE BATH-ATTENDANT "Just as a skilful bath-attendant or his apprentice heaps up bath-powder in a lovely copper vessel, adds water to it, kneads it, and makes it round, saturating it so that it adheres and does not scatter, just so a bhikkhu, having calmed his body and mind, produces joy and biiss and lets it eve'lly moisten and saturate (him) in such a way that there is no part of him that is not saturated with it. There is no place in his body or mind that is not saturated with joy and bliss born of solitude". 5 Like the skilf\d bath-attendallt or lIJis apprentice is the yogin. The copper vessel is the kasilJa sign. Thus itshoukt be known. Q. What is the kas/r,za sign? A: As the copper vessel contains the hard
1~ 4. These terms are not clear, Prof. Bapathas rendered them as: sankhepa-sangaha, sangaha, anunaya and sevami respectively at p. 49, Vim. Mag. and Vis. Mag. S. D.l, 74 and A. III, 25: Seyyathiipl bhikkhave dakkho nahiipako vii nahiipakanteviisi vii kamsathiile nahiiniyacuvviini iikiritvii udakena paripphosakam paripphosakam sannejyil, sii'ssa nahiiniyapiv4i snehiinugatii snehaparetii santarabiihirii phUfii snehena na cn paggharati, evam eva kho bhikkhave bh/kkhu Imam eva kiiyam vivekajena pit/sukhena abhisandell par/sandell paripiireti parippharati, niissa killci sabbiivilto kiiyassa vlv'ekajena pJ'f/-sukhena apphu;am hotl.

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bath-powder which is made fine and bright, so the kasilJa sign contains the hard (earth)- out of which one produces joy which is soft and pure and therefore' bright. Because the mind and the mental properties fill the object, the copper vessel is said to be like the kasir.za sign. Mind and the mental properties are like the bath-powder. Thus it should be understood. -Q. Why is the bath-powder likened to the mind and the mental properties? A. As bath-powder, owing to coarseness, does not adhere and is scattered by the wind, so the mind and mental properties when they are separated from joy and bliss, become coarse. And if they are separated from concentration they do not adhere and are scattered by the winds of the five hindrance~. Therefore it is said that the bath-powder is like the mind and mental properties. What is comparable to water? Namely, joy and bliss and concentration. As water moistens, renders malleable, makes it round, so joy and bliss moisten and render malleable the mind and mental properties, and produce concentration. Therefore water is like joy and bliss. Like the stirring of the bath-powder with water are initial and sustained application of thought. Thus they should be understood. Q. What is likened to the rounded thing? A. Namely, initial and sustained application of thought. As a skilful bathattendant puts the bath-powder into the copper vessel, mixes it with" water, makes it round with his hand, and having made it round, he rounds it further with more wet powder and puts"it into the vessel without scattering, so does the yogin place his mind and mental properties in the-object and produce tranquillity well. In- the first meditation; jhtina, joy arid bliss should be regarded as water, initial and sustained application of thought as tne hand that stirs and makes it (the powder) round. Thus one is able to produce tranquillity well. The mind and mental properties become rounded with joy and bliss and are not scattered because of the mind being kept on the object of meditation. Thus the rounded bath-powder is like initial and sustained application of thought. Just as the bath-powder is moistened thoroughly and just as it, through adhering, does not scatter, so the yogin in the first meditation, jhtina, is filled with joy from head to foot and from foot to skull, skin and hair, and dwells without falling. Thus one dwells in the realm of Brahma. Q. Joy and bliss are called formless states. How then can they fill the body? A. Name depends on form. Form depends on name. Therefore, if name is full of joy, form also is full of joy. If name is full of bliss, form also is full of bliss. And again, form that is bliss-produced, causes calm of body, and owing to the bliss of form the entire body is tranquillized. Thus there "is no contradiction.

Ie;'

THREE KINDS OF REBIRTH The ment which can produce rebirth in the world of Brahma is thus: In

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97

the first meditation, jhiina, there are three kinds: lower, middling and upper. When a man considers the special means, but does not remove the five· hind'rances well and does not reach the state of freedom, it is called lower meditation, jhiina. When a man considers the special means and removes the five hindrances, but does not reach the state of freedom, it is called middling meditation, jhiina. When a man considers the special means, removes the hindrances well and reaches the state of freedom, it is called higher meditation, jhiina. If a yogin attains to the lower first meditation, jhiina, after his death he will join the retinue of Brahma, and his life-span will be a third of an aeon; if he practises the middling first meditation, jhiina, he will, after his death, be reborn as a chief Brahma, and his life-span will be half an aeon; if he practises the higher first meditation, jhiina, he will be reborn as a Great Brahm a, and his life-span will be one aeon.! MEDITATION WHICH PARTAKES OF DETERIORATION, STABILITY, DISTINCTION AND PENETRATION There are four kinds of men who acquire the merit of rebirth in the world of Brahma. A man partakes of deterioration, a man partakes of stability, a man partakes of distinction and a man partakes of penetration. 2 A man of dull faculties causes the arising of meditation, jhiina, but is heedless. And again, through two kinds of conduct in meditation, jhiina, a man partakes of deterioration:- (1) Owing to the denseness of the encompassing impurities 3 , a man has not sufficient energy to destroy the evil discursive thinking which he caused to arise in the past. Thus, owing to the denseness of the encompassing impurities, he deteriorates. (2) Or, a man who is desirous of meditation, jhiina, is given to talk, addicted to sleep, and does not endeavour. Hence he deteriorates. Q. Who falls back and how? A. There is an opinion that if a man becomes impure of mind, he will fall back. And again, there is an opinion: Through slow pollution of the mind, one falls back. And agaiA, there is another opinion: If a man loses serenity, he falls back. And there is yet another opinion: If a man does not practise for a long time on the sign he caused to arise in the past, he becomes incapable of making it to arise as he likes and does not attain to concentration. So, he falls back. If a man of dull faculties dwells heedfully, he acquires the recollectedness of that state and partakes of stability in meditation, jhiina.
1. Brahma-piirisajja, Brahma-purohita, Mahii-Brahmii. 2. Cpo Pts. I, 3S - 6: Pafhamajihiinassa liibhith kiimasahagatii sarlliiimanasikiirii samudiiearanti, hiinabhiigiyo dhammo; tadanudhammatii sali santiffhati, fhitibhiigiyo dhammo; avitakkasahagatii safiflii manasikiirii samudiiearanti, visesabhiigiyo dhammo; nibbidiisahagatii sallllii manasikiirii samudiiearanti viriigiipasathhitii, nibbdehabhiigiyo dhammo. 3. Pariyulfhiina kilesa:- Cpo Thi. vv. 77-8: Ayonisomanasikiirii kiimariigena additii, ahosiril uddhafii pubbe eitte avasavattini. Pariyuflhitii kilesehi sukhasaiiiiiinuvattini, samaril eittassa nii'abhith riigacittavasiinugii.

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If a man of keen faculties dwells heedfully, he can acquire facility in the second meditation, jhiina, which .has no initial application of thought. If he develops ' further, he partakes of distinction in meditation, j/ulna. If a man of keen faculties dwells heedfully, he can attain to insight with ease. Dispelling the thoughts of agitation and anxiety, and developing further, he, through absence of passion, partakes of penetration in meditation, jhiina.

[418]

THE PATH OF FREEDOM
FASCICLE THE FIFTH WRITTEN
BY

THE ARAHANT UPATISSA
WHO WAS CALLED

GREAT LIGHT IN RYO
TRANSLATED IN RYO
BY

TIPITAKA SANGHAPALA OF FUNAN
CHAPTER THE EIGHTH

Section Two

Here I show how to get the second meditation,jhdna. I consider the tribulation of the first meditation, jhdna, and the 'benefits of the second meditation, jhdna.1 THE SIMILE OF THE YOUNG COW
,Now; the yogin who practises the first meditation; jhtina, with facility wishes to cause the arising of the second· meditation, jhdna. Why? If the yogin is not able to practise the first meditation, jhdna, with facility, though he wishes to remove initial and sustained application of thought and attain to the second meditation, jhdna, he falls back and is not able to enter the second meditation, jhdna. Further, he cannot re-enter the first meditation, jhdna. Hence the Blessed One taught the simile of the young mountain cow which, being foolish, knows not good pasturage, and which, though inexperienced, wanders to a far off precipitous place. She thinks: "How, if I were to enter the place I never entered before, eat the grass I never ate before and drink the water I never drank before"? Without planting her fore leg firmly, she raises her hind leg, becomes restless and is not able to go forwald. And not being able to enter the place she never entered before, eat the grass she never ate before, drink the water she never drank before, she thinks thus: "1 cannot go forward. 1 must return to the old pasturage".1
1. The passage in italics does not occur in the Sung Dynasty edition in the library of the Japanese Imperial household. This applies to all passages in italics in Section Two of Chapter Eight. 2. This passage does not occur in the Chinese Eleottara Agama. A. IV, 418: Seyyathii pi bhikkhave giivi pabbateyyii biilii avyattii akhettailRu akusalii vlsame pabbate carltum, tossii evam assa ',an nundham llfatapubbaR c'eva dlsam gaccheyyaril, akhiiditapubbiinl

99

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Vimuttimagga

There is a bhikkhu. He has not yet attain.ed (meditation, jhiina). ,He does not know a subject of meditation. 1 He has not yet separated ,himself' from lust and does. not know how to enter the first meditation, jhiina. He' does not practise this teaching nor study it, but thinks thus: "How, if I were to enter the second meditation, jhana, and rid myself of initial and sustained application of thought"? Being not at ease, he again thinks: "I cannot enter the setond meditation, jhtina, and I cannot rid myself of initial and sustained application of thought. I must retire, (from this), enter the first meditation, jhiina, and separate myself from lust". This foolish bhikkhu is as ignorant and inexperienced as the young mountain cow. Therefore, he should practise the first meditation,jhiina. He should make the mind free (from lust). ENTRANCE INTO THE SECOND MEDITATION, JHANA Before and after his meal, in the first and in the last watches of the night, according to his wish, a' bhikkhu practises adverting, entering, establishing, rising and reflecting. 2 If he enters (the meditation, jhiina,) often and goes out of it often and acquires facility in the practice of the first meditation, jhiina, he can acquire the bliss of facility, cause the arising of the second meditation, jhiina, and surpass the first meditation, jhiina. And again he thinks thus: "This first meditation, jhiina, is coarse; the second meditation, jhiina, is fine". And he sees the tribulations of the first and the merits of the second meditation, jhiina. Q. What are the tribulations of the first meditation, jhiina? A. The hindrances as the near enemy (of this meditation;jhdna,) stir up initial and sustained application of thought and cause negligence of body and disturbance of mind. Thereby the concentration becomes coarse and incapable of producing higher knowledge. Therefore, one does not relish the first meditation, jhiina, or partake of distinction in it. These are the tribulations of the first meditation, jhiina. 3 The merits of the second meditation, jhtina, consist in the overcoming of these. Thus we have seen the tribulations of the first meditation, jhiina, and the merits of the second. Here the mind separates itself from the first meditation, jhdna, and taking the kasilJa sign as the object of the second meditation, jhiina, dwells on it. The mind, dissociated from initial and sustained application of thought, at
ca titrani k/uitfeY)JQm, apit4Pubbanl ca paniyani piveyyim' ti; sa pur/nam piidam na suppatiffhitarhpatllfhiipetvapacchimampiidalh uddhareyya, sa na c'eva agatapubbam disam gaccheyya, na ca akhiidl1apubbanl tifjanl khddeyya, na ca apitapubbanl pam'yanl plveyya; yasmlr!! c' assa pade Ihltaya evam assa 'yan nimaham agatapubbafl c' eva disam gaccheyyam, akhiidltapubbanl ca tltranl khiideyyam, apitapubbani ca paniyani piveyyan' tl, tall ca padesam na sotthlnii pacchiigaccheyya. Tam klssa hetu? Taltha hi sa bhikkhave gavf pabbateyya haiti avyatta akhettallilu akusala vlsame pabbate carltum. 1. Kammalfhiina. 2. PIs. I, 99-100: Pallca vaslyo - avajjanavasi samiipal/antivasf adhlffhiinavasi vUffhiinavasi paccavekkhQflavasi. 3. A. IV, 440: So kho aham Anamla aparena sam~ena vlvicc' eva kamehi ........pafhamam jhanam upasampajja vlharaml. Tassa mayham Ananda Imina vlharena vihal'ato kiimasahagata sallilamanasikara samudacarantl, svassa me hotl iibadho.

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ease in joy and bliss born of concentration, attains (to the second meditation, jhtina). If the yogin strives, he accomplishes the destruction of initial and sustained application of thought quickly. He is at ease in joy and bliss born of concentration and cause the mind to abide tranquilly.
Here I show the four factors of the second meditation, jhiina.

That yogin "attains to and dwells in the second meditation, jhtina, which, through the stilling of initial and sustained application of thought, develops internal tranquillity and the state of mind-predominance, is without initiarand sustained application of thought, boni of concentration, full of joy and bliss".l This is the merit of the earth kasil;za. The stilling of initial and sustained application of thought is the stilling of initial and sustained application of thought through clear understanding. And also it is named ending. Q. What is "the stilling of initial and sustained application of thought"? A. It is the destruction of the tribulations of initial and sustained application of thought pertaining to the first meditation, jhiina. It is the destruction of the roots of all initial and sustained application of thought. It is the codestruction of the tribulations of initial and sustained application of thought, roots of initial and sustained application of thought, and initial and sustained application of thought themselves. This is "the stilling of initial and sustained application of thought". And again, after separating himself from the lower coarse meditation, jhiina, the yogin attains to the upper fine meditation, jhiina, and causes it (the lower) to perish, "Internal": what is one's own is named "internal". There are three kinds in what is internal: the first is internal in the sense of personal; the second is internal concentration; the third is internal object. What is "internal in the sense of personal"? The six internal sense spheres. "Internal concentration": The contemplation on one's own bodily state is called "internal concentration".' The thought which is inward (subjective), does not go outwards, and the nature of which is to understand is called "internal object". In this treatise "internal in the sense of personal" means "to be in a state of blissfulness". Faith, 2 right faith and the faith which develops meditation, jhiina, are called "tranquillity". In internal concentration this is internal tranquillity. What are the salient characteristic, function, manifestation and near cause of internal tranquillity? Non-disburbance is the salient characteristic of internal tranquillity. Repose is its function. Non-defilement is its manifestation. Initial and sustained application of thought are its near cause.
1. A. I, 53: Vitakka-viciiriinam vupasamii ajjhattam sampasiidanam cetaso ektJdibhiivam 'lvitakkam aviciiram samiidhijam pitisukkam dutiyajjhiinam upasampajja viharati. 2. Saddhii.

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"Develops the state of mind-predominance": the dwelling of the mind in right concentration is called the development of the state of mind-predominance. What is the meaning of "development of the state of mind-predominance"? "Mind" means mentality. "Predominance" is a name for mindfulness. "State" has the same meaning as that of "natural state" which is taught in the science of sound. "State" means nature. The stilling of initial and sustained application of thought and the arousing of the state of mindpredominance through unification of mind is called "the development of the . state of mind-predominance". What are the salient characteristic, function, manifestation and near cause of 'the state of mind-predominance'? Pure righteousness is its salient characteristic; repose is its function; unruffiedness is its manifestation; and the stilling of initial and sustained application of thought is its near cause. Q. (It is said that the yogin) '.'develops internal tranquillity and the state of mind-predominance". If that be so, why are these not included in the first meditation, jhtina?
A. In the first meditation, jhiina, owing to the waves of initial and sustained application of thought, the mind is muddied.

"Internal tranquillity and the state of mind-predominance": just as, owing to waves, water becoming turbid, does not clearly reflect any image, cast on it, just so in the first meditation, jluina, because of turbidity due to the movement of the waves of initial and sustained application of thought, internal tranquillity and the state of mind-predominance are not clear. Therefore, they are not included in the first meditation, jhiina. 'Without initial and sustained application of thought": After the stilling of initial application of thought, there is no initial application of thought. After the stilling of sustained application of thought, there is no sustained application of thought.
Q. The stilling of initial and sustained application of thought is the state that is without initial and sustained application ot thought. Are there two kinds of ending of initial and sustained application of thOl.zht? Why are two kinds taught?
A. The stilling of initial and sustained application of thought develops internal tranquillity. The state of mind-predominance becomes the cause of the state that is without initial and sustained application of thought, owing to the appearance of the excellent characteristic of joy and bliss which is born of solitude.

And again, the stilling of initial and sustained application of thought is thus: Seeing through initial and sustained application of thought, the tribulation of initial and sustained application of thought, he abandons them. The

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state that is without initial and sustained application of thought is the stilling of initial and sustained application of thought of the form element. And again, in what is without initial and sustained application of thought there are two divisions: the first is "without initial and sustained application of thought" that is not due to the stilling of initial and sustained application of thought; (the second) is "without initial and sustained application of thought" that is due to the stilling ()f initial and sustained application of thought. Thus, without the stilling of initial and sustained application of thought, the five branches of higher knowledge and the third meditation, jhdna, are without initial and sustained application of thought. The second meditation, jhtina, is without initial and sustained application of thought through skilful seclusion and the stilling of initial and sustained application of thought. These are the two divisions. "Born of concentration": this refers to concentration. The first meditation, jhiina, comes from that consciousness and the second meditation, jhdna, comes from the first meditation, jhdna. And again, "concentration" means that the second meditation, jhiina, comes together with unification of mind. "Joy and bliss born of concentration": 'Joy and bliss have already been expounded. "The second meditation, jhiina": It is called so because it follows the first. "Attains to the second meditation, jhiina", means that he enters the second meditation, jhtina. "Meditation, jhiina": Internal tranquillity, joy and bliss and unification

of mind are called "meditation,

jhdna".

"Attains to and dwells in the second meditation, jhdna": He acquires the second meditation, jhiina, which is free from two factors, endowed with two factors, three kinds of goodpess and ten c)1aracteristics and is associated with twenty-three merits. This is the heavenly abode. This is merit. This is birth in the Abode of Resplendence. 1 This has been expounded at length before. SIMILE OF THE POOL OF WATER "Heavenly abode" means that he dwells in a plane surpassing the human because of joy and bliss that proceed from concentration. Therefore it is called "heavenly abode". Hence the Blessed One taught the bhikkhus thus:
I. A.1I, 127: Puna ca parmi! bhikkhave idh' ekacco puggalo vitakkaviciiriinam vupasamii

"As in a pool of water with a spring and into which no water flows from the four directions, nor rain descends, the water wells up cool and pure from Within, saturates the entire pool and over-flowing spreads afar, even so [419] joy and bliss, cool and pure, welling up from concentration saturate~ every part of the body of a bhikkhu. Thus joy which is produceed from concentration saturates the body and the mind".! A yogin entering the second meditation, jhiina, should consider his body in the light of this simile of the pool with water welling up from within. The absence of any stream flowing from any of the four directions is to be understood as· the stilling of initial and sustained application of thought. As the water welling up from within fills the pool without causing waves to arise in it, [419] so joy and bliss springing from concentration fills the mental and bodily factors and there is no disturbance of mind. As water that is cold cools the body, so joy and bliss born of concentration causes all the mental and bodily factors to be at ease. Thus is the reward of the practice of concentration: One is reborn in the Abode of Resplendence. There are three kinds of rewards pertaining to the three divisions of the second meditaton, jhdna: lower, middling and higher. The yogin who practises the lower meditation, jhdna, will, after his death, be reborn in the Abode of Lesser Light. His life-span will be two aeons. 2 If he practises the middling meditation,jhdna, he will, after his death, be reborn in the Abode of Measureless Light. His life-span will be four aeons. 3 If he practises the higher meditation, jhdna, he will, after his death, be reborn in the Abode of Resplendence and his life-span will be eight aeons.4 THE THIRD MEDITATION, JHANA I consider the tribulations of the second meditation, jhdna. Now a yogin having practised the second meditation, jhdna, and acquired facility therein thinks: "The second meditation, jhdna, is coarse; the third meditation, jhdna, is fine". Knowing the tribulations of the second meditaI. Chu AgOD No. 98: M.I, 276-7; D.I, 74; A.III, 25-6: Seyyathiipi bhikkave udakarahado ubbhidodako tassa nev' ossa puratthimiiya disiiya udakassa iiyumukhariz na pacchimiiya disiiya udakassa iiyamukhariz no uttariiya disiiya udakassa iiyamukham na dakkhilJiiya disiiya udakassa iiyamukhariz, devoca no kiilena kiilariz sammiidhiirariz anuppaveccheyya atha kho tamhii co udakarahadii sitii viiridhiirii ubbhijjitvii tam eva udakarahadariz sitena viirina abhisandeyya parisandeyya paripureyya paripphareyya, niissa kinci sabbiivato udakarahadassa sitena viirinii apphu{ariz assa, evam eva kho bhikkhave bhikkhu imam eva kayam samiidhijena pitisukhena abhisandeti parisandeti paripiireti, parippharati, niissa kiiici sabbiivato kiiyassa samiidhijena pitisukhena apphulariz hoti. 2. Vbh. 424: Dutiyariz jhiinariz parittariz bhiivetvii parittiibhiinariz deviinariz sahavyatariz uppajjanti. Tesariz kittakariz iiyuppamiilJariz ? Dve kappii. 3. Ibid: Dutiyariz jhiinariz majjhimariz bhiivetvii appamiilJiibhiinariz deviinariz sahavyatariz uppajjanti. Tesariz kittakariz iiyuppamiilJariz? Cattaro kappii. 4. Ibid: Dutiyariz jhiinariz palJitariz bhiivetvii iibhassariinariz deviinariz sahavyatariz uppajjanti. Tesariz kittakariz iiyuppamiilJariz? Alfha kappii.

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tion, jhtina, and seeing the merits of the third meditation, jhiina, he causes the third meditation, jhiina, to arise. What are the tribulations of the second meditation, jhiina? This concentration has initial and sustained application of thought as its near enemy. This meditation, jhiina, being accompanied by joy, is coarse. The mind exults in the possession of joy and is not able to arouse other (higher) meditation (jhiina) factors. To be attached to joy is a fault. If he. understands these faults, he becomes fault-free. One is not able to acquire supernormal power; or one gains the second meditation, jhiina, and is not able to partake of distinction. Thus should one understand the tribulations· of the second meditation, jhiina. The merits of the third meditation, jhiina, lie in the overcoming of these (tribulations). If one considers the tribulations of the second meditation, jhiina, and the merits of the third, he can remove joy through meditation, jhiina, on the kasilJa sign and be at ease because of freedom from joy. Considering thus he can in no long time attain to fixed meditation, jhtina, through bliss free from joy.
I will elucidate the factors of the third meditatIOn, jhtina.

That yogin "through the absence of the desire for joy, abides in equanimity, mindful and completely conscious, experiencing in the body that bliss' of which the Noble Dues say: "Endowed with equanimity and mindfulness, and completely conscious, he abides in bliss. ·So he abides in the attainment of the third meditation, jhiina".l "Through absence of desire for joy": Joy has already been explained . .. Absence of desire": Removing joy one dwells· in equanimity. What is "equanimity"? Equipoise, protection, non-retreating, non-advancing, serenity and evenness of mind are called "equanimity". There are eight kinds of equanimity: equanimity of feeling, of effort, of insight, of the enlightenment factors, of the immeasurable states, of the six members (senses), of the meditation (jhiina) factors and of purity2. The equanimity of feeling is the equanimity of the five faculties. Reflection dn the sign of equanimity from time to timethis is the equanimity of effort. If, saying, "I will remove the cause of suffering", one attains to equanimity, it is called the equanimity of insight. The practising of the enlightenment factors is the equanimity of the enlightenment factors. Kindness, compassion, appreciative joy and equipoise - these are called the equanimity of the immeasurable states. If, on seeing a form, one, being indifferent, is neither glad nor sad, it is called the equanimity of the six members. The dwelling in the attainment of
1. A.1, 53: Pitiyii ea viriiga upekkhako ea viharati sato ea sampajiino sukhan ea kiiyena pafisamvedeti yan tam ariyii iicikkhanti upekkhako salimii sukha-vhiiri ti laliya}jhiinam upasampajja viharati. 2. Vedanupekkhii, viriyupekkhii, vipassanupekkhii, bojjhangupekkhii, appamiiIJupekkhii, ella/angupekkhii, jhiinupekkhii, piirisuddhupekkhii, Cpo Vis. Mag. 160 where brakmavihiirupekkhii is substituted for appamiiIJupekkhii.

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Vimuttimagga

equanimity because of dispassion is called the equanimity of the meditation Equanimity-mindfulness purity is the equanimity of purity. And again, there are three kinds of equanimity: equanimity r6garded as a vehicle of concentration; regarded as the state of little activity; and regarded as non-action. The equalized skilfulness that is present in all meditations, jhdnas, and is neither hasty nor slow is "equanimity considered as a vehicle of concentration". This inferior equanimity is near the second meditation, jhtina, and removes exultation of mind. If the mind is not active, it' is called "equanimity regarded as a state of little activity". This equanimity is near the third meditation, jhdna, and removes all exultation of mind. If one's mind is. not actively concerned with objects, through imperturbability of thought and body, it is called "equanimity regarded as non-action". This equanimity is near the fourth meditation, jhdna. What are the salient characteristic, function, manifestation and near cause of equanimity? Equipoise is its salient characteristic. Non-attachment is its function. Non-action is its manifestation. Dispassion is its near cause. Q. Why is it taught that equanimity is in this meditation, jhdna, and not in the second and the first meditations, jhtinas? A. In the second and the first meditations, jhdnas, the mind, being full of joy, does not become detached. Because of joy and bliss, exultation of mind is not removed. Therefore, this equanimity is not taught as being present in the second and the first meditations, jhtinas, Owing to absence of joy and bliss, owing to dispassion and owing to the removal of the process of combination in the third meditation, jhtina, this meditation (jhtina) factor arises . . Because of the mastering of the meditation (jhtina) factors, it is said "abides in equanimity, mindful and completely conscious". Q. What are the salient characteristic, func,tion, manifestation and near cause of "mindfulness"? A. Recollectedness is its salient characteristic; non-forgetting is its function; protection is its manifestation; and the four foundations of mindfulness are it near cause. What is it to be "completely conscious"? To be conscious is to be aware. It is to be completely conscious rightly. There are four kinds in being completely conscious rightly.1 They are the being completely conscious of oneself; the being completely conscious of one's distinctive mark; the being completely conscious undeludedly; the being completely conscious basically, Here, to be completely conscious of the four postures, is to be completely conscious "of oneself. Entering solitude is to be completely conscious of one's distinctive mark. To know the eight worldly conditions2 is to be completely conscious
1. Cp. D.- a. I, 184: Stitthaka-sampajaililam sappiiya-sampajaililam gocara-sampajwiiiam asammoha-sampajai/ilan ti catubbidham sampajailiiam. 2. Altha loka-dhammii.

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undeludedly. To dwell on the object of concentration is to be completely conscious basically. In this treatise ("completely conscious" in the sense of) "being completely conscious basically" has been taken. What are the salient characteristic, function, manifestation and near cause of the being "completely conscious"? Non-bewilderment is its salient characteristic; decision is its function; investigation of states is its manifestation; to consider rightly is its near cause. Q. Should one be mindful and completely conscious in all places? A. If a man is not mindful and is not completely conscious he is not even able to cause the arising of the access stage of meditation, jhiina. Q. Why is it taught in the third meditation, jhiina and not in the second and the first meditations, jhiinas? A. Here, joy and all other coarse meditation (jhiina) factors are stilled. Concentration becomes fine, enters a place of fineness, and through the state of being completely conscious remains firm in the third meditation, jhiina. Thus he gains facility in the exercise of the meditation (jhdna) factors. Again, the foolish mind longs for happiness and easily turns to the bliss of this meditation, jhiina, for its exceedingly sweet and named "alluring". Thus (through mindfulness and through the state of being completely conscious) one is able to remove joy and acquires facility in this meditation, jhiina. SIMILE OF THE CALF Again, joy and bliss are intimate. So, understanding mindfulness and the state of being completely conscious one dwells on the object in bliss separate from joy. It is like a calf following its mother. Unless someone holds it back by the ears, it will follow its mother with its head against her side. One understands bliss that is separate from joy, conjoined with mindfulness, and the state of being completely conscious, and dwells on the object of concentration. l On the contrary, if one does not understand, one re-enters joy and partakes of deterioration in concentration. Por the acquiring of mastery over the meditation (jhiina) factors, mindfulness and the state of being completely conscious are taught. Thus equanimity, mindfulness and the state of be.ing completely conscious are accomplished. Therefore, it is said "abides in equanimity, mindful and completely conscious, experiencing in the body that bliss". Q. What is mental bliss? A. Bliss experienced in mind is mental bliss. It comes from mental contact. This is the meaning of mental bliss. This is called "bliss". Q. What is "body"? The perception-group, formations-group and consciousness-group - these are called "body".
I. Cpo Vis. Mag. 163: Yalhii dhenupago vaccho dhenulo apanilo arakkhiyamiino punad-eva dhenum upagacchali. This simile. common to both the Vis. Mag and the Vim. Mag .•

has not been traced to its source.

I

lOB

Vimuttimagga

"Experiencing in the body that bliss" means to acquire ease of body. Q. Then, why is it said that there is no joy in this bliss and that it is not experienced in the body? A. In the third mediUltion, jhdna, the faculty of bliss is removed. This is according to the teaching of the Blessed One which says, that in the third meditation, jhdna, the faculty of bliss is removed. "That bliss of which the Noble Ones say": "Noble Ones" means the Buddha and his disciples. "Say" means to reveal, establish, explain, point out. Thus is "that bliss of which the Noble Ones say" to be known.
Q. Why. do the Noble Ones praise this state of body and not any other? In the third meditation, jhdna, although the yogin can easily dwell in pleasing bliss, he does not hold to bliss. The 'Noble Ones dwell looking beyond bliss. This is an accomplishment of the Noble Ones. Therefore, the Noble Ones praise this excellent meditation, jhtina.
A.

"Endowed with equanimity and mindfulness, he abides in bliss": Equanimity, mindfulness and bliss have already been explained. "Abides in the attainment of the third meditation, jhiina": It is called "third" because of the second. The third meditation, jhdna, comprises equanimity, mindfulness, the state of being completely conscious, bliss and unification of mind. The accomplishment of these is called (the third) meditation, jhiina. "Abides in the attainment" means that one who acquires the third meditation, jhdna, separates from one factor, fulfils five factors, three kinds of goodness, ten characteristi~ and is associated with twenty-two merits. To dwell in the heaven world means to be born in the Abode of All Lustre. l It is to be understood in the same way as it was taught in the first meditation, jhiina. "To dwell in the heaven world" is to dwell in that pleasant dwelling which is free from joy. "To dwell in the heaven world" is to dwell in a manner surpassing humans. SIMILE OF THE LOTUS POND Hence, the Buddha taught the bhikkhu thus: "Just as in a pond of blue and white lotuses, the blue, red and white lotuses are born, grow and stand in the water and are immersed in the cold water from root to neck, so this body is filled and saturated with bliss thai is free from joy".1 As the blue, red and white lotuses stand in the water, so he abides in the third meditation,
2. Chu AgOD No. 98; M.I1, 16; A.m, 26: Seyyathii pi bhikkhave uppaliniyam vii paduminiyaril vii pU1;lt/arikiniyam vii app' ekacce uppaliini vii padumiini vii pU1;ltfarikiini vii udake iiitiini udake samvatft/hiini udakiinuggatiini antonimuggaposini tiini yiiva c'tlCgii yiiva ca mlilii sitena viirinii abhisanniini parisanniini paripiiriini paripphutiini. niissa kifici sabbiivatam uppaliinam vii padumiinam. vii pU1;lt/arikiinaril vii sitena viirinii apphutam assa, evam eva kho bhikkhave bhikkhu imam eva kiiyam nippitikena sukhena abhisandeti pariSllntieti paripiireti parippharati. niissa kifici sabbiivato kiiyassa nippitikena sukhena apphutam hotl. 1. Subhaki1;l1J!l.

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jhlina. His body should be known thus: as the lotuses born in the water [420] -are immersed in the water from root to neck, so he abides in the third meditation, jhiina, with body and mind filled and saturated with bliss that -is free from joy. Thus is the reward of the practice of concentration: One is reborn in the Abode of the All Lustrous. There are three kinds of rewards pertaining to the three divisions of the third meditation, jhdna, namely: higher, middling and lower. If a yogin practises the lower meditation, jhdna, he will, after his death, be reborn in the Abode of Lesser Lustre. His life-span will be sixteen aeons. If he practises the middling meditation, jhiina, he will, after his aeath, be reborn in the Abode of Measureless Lustre. His life-span will be thirtytwo aeons. If he practises the higher meditation, he will be reborn in the Abode of All Lustre. His life-span will be sixty-four aeons l .

THE FOURTH MEDITATION, JHANA
I consider the tribulations of the third meditation, jhiina.

Now, a yogin, having practised the third meditation, jhiina, and acquired facility therein, wishes to cause the arising of the fourth meditation, jhiina,and to transcend the third meditation, jhdna. (He thinks), "The third is coarse. The fourth is fine". He sees the tribulations of the third meditation, jhiina, and the merits of the fourth meditation, jhdna. What are the tribulations of the third meditation, jhdna? Joy is the near enemy. Right concentration with bliss is coarse. So he is not able to acquire supernormal power. The third meditation, jhdna, does not partake of distinction. Thus he sees the tribulations of the third meditation, jhdna. The merits of the fourth meditation, jhdna, consist in the over-coming of these (tribulations). Thus the yogin, on seeing the tribulations of the third meditation, jhdna, and the merits of the fourth m~ditation, jhiina, meditates on the kasil)a sign and removes bliss at once. After removing it he can dwell with the mind of equanimity. Thus meditating his mind quickly attains to fixed meditation, jhdna, owing to equanimity.
I will elucidate the factors of the fourth meditation, jhiina.

accomplishes the fourth meditation, jhiina, and dwells".1 This is a merit of the earth kasi1J.(1. "Baving abandoned pleasure": This is the abandoning of bodily pleasure. Having abandoned "pain": This is the abandoning of bodily pain. "Leaving behind former joy and glief": Joy is the bliss of the mental properties. 2 This is the leaving behind of these.
Q. It is said, "having abandoned pleasure and pain, leaving behind grief". Where were these abandoned and left behind? A. They were abandoned and left behind at the access moments of the meditation, jhiina. The Buddha taught the removal of pain in this fourth meditation, jhtina. Q. Where does the faculty of pain that has arisen cease entirely? A. The Buddha taught the bhikkhus thus: "In the first meditation, jhtina, separation from sense-desires is fulfilled. There the faculty of pain which has arisen ceases entirely".3 Q. Why does the faculty of pain cease entirely inthe first meditation, jhtina? A. Because of the fullness of joy, there is bodily ease. 4 Because of bodily ease, the faculty of pain is ended, Le., through transcending, it is abandoned. Therefore, in the first meditation, jhtina, the faculty of pain is removed. In the second meditation, jhtina, the faculty of grief is removed. According to the teaching of the Buddha, the removal of the faculty of grief is thus.: "Where does the faculty of grief that has arisen cease entirely? Bere, bhikkh'l!s, initial and sustained application of tliought are stilted, and he abides in the attainment of the second meditation,jhdna. Here, the faculty of grief which has arisen ceases enttrely".6 Why does the faculty of grief, cease in the second meditation, jhdna? If a man has initial and sustained application of thought for long, his body and mind become negligent. If his mind becomes negligent, the faculty of grief arises immediately. In the second meditation, jhiina, initial and sustained application of thOUght are stilled. In the third meditation, jhtina, the faculty of bliss is removed. The Buddha taught thus: "Where does the faculty of bliss which has arisen cease entirely? Here, bhikkhus, owing to the distaste for joy, one abides in the attainment of the third meditation, jhtina. Here the faculty of bliss which
1. A.III, 26-7; M. II, 16: Puna caparam, Udiiyi, bhikkhu sukhassa capahiinii dukkhassa ca pahiinii pubbe va somanassadomanassiinam allhagamii adukkham asukham upekhiisatipiirisuddhim catutthajjhiinam upasampajjaviharati. 2. Cetasika. 3. S. V, 213: Idha bhikkhave bhikkhuno appamallassa atapino pahitattassa viharafo uppajjati dukkhindriyam ...... Kallha cuppannam dukkhindriyarit aparisesam nirujjhati? Idha bhikkhave bhikkhu vivicc' eva kiimehi vivicca akusalehi dhammehi savitakkafh saviciiram vivekajam pitisukham palhamam jhiinam upasampajja viharati. Ettha cuppannam dukkhindriyam aparisesam nirujjhati. 4. A. III, 285: Pitimanassa kayo passambhati, passaddhakayo sukham vediyati. S. S. V,213-4: Idha pana bhikkhave bhikkhuno appamatfassa atapino pahitattassa viharalo uppajjati domanassindriyam ...... Kallha cuppannam domanassindriyam apar;sesam nirujjhatl? Idha bhikkhave bhikkhu vitakkav/caranarit viipasama ajjhallam sampasadanam cetaso ekodibhiivam avitakkam avicaram samadhijam pitisukham dut/yam jhiinam upasampajja v/haratl. Ettha cuppanna,h domanassindriyam aparisesam nirujjhati.

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has arisen ceases entirely".l Q. Why does the faculty of bliss cease in the third meditation, jhdna? A. Joy perishes, and so, bliss that arises depending on joy aiso perishes. Therefore, in the third meditation, jhtina, the faculty of bliss perishes. Q. If the faculties of pain, bliss and grief were removed in the third meditation, jhdna, why is their ending taught in the fourth meditation, jhdna? A. These faculties were removed in the third meditation, jhdna. The third meditation, jhtina, is an approach to the fourth meditation, jhtina. In the third meditation, jhdna, these having arisen, passed away. Therefore, their removal is taught in the fourth meditation, jhdna. And again, "accomplishes" the "painless" and "pleasureless" means the overcoming of pain and pleasure. 2 Therefore, the overcoming of pain and pleasure is taught as the accomplishment of the painless and pleasureless. And again, it is because in the fourth meditation, jhdna, attainment and overeoming occur together. And again, equanimity removes the defilements immediately and entirely. The attaining to the "painless" and "pleasureless" means that the mind does not receive and thought does not reject. This is called the attaining to the "painless" and "pleasureless". What are the salient characteristic, function, manifestation and near cause of the accomplishing of the "painless" and "pleasureless" ? Middleness is the salient characteristic. Dwelling in a middle position is the function. Abandoning is the manifestation. Removal of joy is the near cause. What is the purity of equanimity-mindfulness? Ne.utrality is -called equanimity. That is called equanimity. "Mindfulness" is called attentiveness, recollectedness and Right Mindfulness. These are called "mindfulness". The mindfulness that is clarified and purified by equipoise is called "purity of equanimity-mindfulness". Q. How is mindfulness clarified and purified by equipoise? A. Here imperturbability and non-action are fulfilled, owing to the abandoning of all defilements and owing to resemplance and closeness to that attainment. This non-action is associated with equipoise. Tnerefore, mindfulness reaches imperturbability and fulfils impassivity. Therefore, this mindfulness is equanimity and acquires clarity and purity. " "Fourth": This means that because of the third, the fourth is fulfilled. "Accomplishes the meditation": This refers to the equanimity-mindfulness
1. S.V, 214: Idha bhikkhave bhikkhuno appamattassa iiliipino pahilallassa viharalo uppajjali sukhindriyam ...... Kattha cuppannam sukhindriyam aparisesam nirujjhati1 Idha bhikkhave bhikkhu piliya ca viriigii upekhako ca viharali salo sampajiino sukhalh ca kiiyena pafisamvedeli ..... . Ialiyam jhiinam upasampajja viharali. Ellha cuppannam sukhindriyam aparisesam nirujjhali. 2. S.V., 215: Idha pana bhikkhave bhikkhuno appamattassa iiliipino pahitattassa vlharalo uppajjali somanassindriyam ... ... Kattha cuppannam somanassindriyam aparisesam nirujjhali. Idha bhikkhave bhlkkhu sukhassa ca pahiinii dukkhassa ca pahiinii pubbeva somanassadomanassiinan', allhagamii adukkhamasukham upekhiisalipiirisuddhim calullham jhiinam upasampajja viharali. Ellha cuppannam somanassindriyam apar/sesam nlrujjhatl.

112

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and unification of mind of the fourth meditation, jhtina. This is the meaning of "accomplishes the meditation". "Accomplishes" and "dwells": One, separates from one factor, fulfils three factors, three kinds of goodliess and ten characteristics, and is associated with twenty-two merits. Thus one abides in the attainment of the fourth meditation, jhlina. The reward of this (meditation) is rebirth in the heaven world. The merit of this causes rebirth in the Abode of Great Fruition.1 This was taught fully before. "To dwell in the heaven world": This is to dwell in a manner surpassing humans. This . is to dwell in the bliss of equanimity. This is called dwelling in the heaven world. SIMILE OF THE WHITE CLOTH Therefore the Blessed One taught the bhikkhus thus: "As a man might sit down and cover his body with a white cloth from head to foot, in such a way that no part of his body is left uncovered, so a bhikkhu covers his body and limbs with purified mindfulness, in such a way that no part of him is not covered with purified mindfulness". 2 The yogin is like a man who has covered himself with a white cloth. 'Freed from all subtle defilements, he dwells in the fourth meditation, jhlina. Thus should it be known. As the man who covers his body from head .to foot with a white cloth is protected from extremes of heat and cold, experiences an even temperature and is undisturbed in body and mind, so that yogin who enters the fourth meditation, jhtina, experiences neither pain nor pleasure. This is the bliss of equanimity. With it he fills his body; Thus is the· merit of concentrl'l lion: One js reborn in the Abode of Great Fruition. A COIl1moner who practises the fourth meditation, jhtina, will, after his death, be reborn in the Abode of Great Fruition. If his mind dislikes effort, he will be reborn in the Abode of the Unconscious. His life-span will be fifty aeons. 3 If the yogin is a recluse, he will be reborn in the Abode of Great Fruition, or in one of the five Pure Abodes. 4 Such are the retributory fruits of this meditation, jhtina. Q. Why are the lower, middling and upper (meditation, jhtinas) alld the partaking of distinction of the fruition-ground tlnlght ill the third and not in the fourth meditation, jhtina?
1. Vehappha/a. 2. Chu Agoli No. 98. M. II, 16, 17; A. III, 27: Seyyathti pi bhikkhave purlso odiiteM vattheM sasisam piirupitvii nislnno assa, niissa kiRei sabbiiva/o kiiyassa odii/eM vattheM apphu,am assa, evam eva kho bhlkkhave bhik/fhu Imam eva kiiyam parisuddheM eetasii pariyodiiteM pharitvii nisinno hoti, niissa kiffe, sabbiiva/o kiiyassa parlsudtiheM eetaaii parlyodii/ena apphu,ariI holl. . 3. Vbh. 425: Catuttham jhiinam bhavetii .•.... appekaeee asaRRasattiinam deviinam sahilvyataril uppajjantl ...... AsiiRiiasattiinaR ea vehapphaliinaR ea deviinam killakam iiyuppamiiflllm? PaRea kappasatiini 'Fifty aeons' is obviously an error and it should read 'five hundred'. 4. (a) D.I1I, .237: Pailea SlIddhiiviisa: Avihii, Atappii; Sudassii, Sudassi, Akanifthii. (b) Vbh. 425: Catunnamjhiinam bhiivetvii .... . •appekacce avlhiinam deviinam sahtivyataril uppa/jantl ...•.. appekacce atappiinam deviinam ...... ,appekaece sudassiinarN deviinam ..... " appekacce sudasiinam deviinam ...... ,appekaece akanlnhiinaril deviinam Sfihavyatam uppaj/anti.

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A. There are differences of "coarse" and "fine", according to result, in the third meditation, jhiina. Therefore, the exceIlence of the fruitionground is taught through the partaking of distinction. In the fourth meditation, jhiina, the yogin reaches the limit of the partaking of distinction. Outside this there is no other partaking of distinction. Therefore, there is no partaking of distinction of the fruition-ground.

THE SPHERE OF THE INFINITY OF SPACE
I consider the tribulations of the fourth meditation, jhiina.

Now, the yogin who has acquired boundless happiness in the fourth meditation,jhdna, wishes to enjoy the space-concentration and to transcend the realm of form. He considers thus: "Concentration of form is coarse; spaceconcentration is fine". That yogin sees the tribulations of form and the merits of space-concentration. What are the tribulantions of form'1 There are many (tribulations) such as the taking up of sticks and weapons, beating, quarrelling, slander, lying, maiming and the like. There are many sufferings such as pain of the eye and other bodily ills, cold and heat, hunger and thirst. These are the severe trials of the sensuous form. What are the tribulations of the fourth meditation, jhiina'1 The depending on form objects has satisfaction for near enemy. It is called coarse. One who is attached to form and delights in it cannot partake of distinction. But depending on space, one liberates oneself peacefully. In this concentration one fulfils the gross. ThUl! the yogin sees the tribulations of the fourth meditation, jhdna, in form. The merits of space-concentration consist of the overcoming of these.
I have considered the troubles of the fourth meditation, jhiina. And now I show how to enter the concentration of the sphere of the infinity of space.

That yogin having seen form and the great tribulations thereof and the merits of space-concentration, rises from that (form) concentration, abandons the earth kasifUl, the earth sign and practises space-concentration. He should dwell on space regarding it as an infinite object. If he meditates thus, he quickly completes the destruction of the earth sign and his mind rises out of the earth sign and goes beyond the earth sign to space. Through the acquisition of facility in the perception of the sphere of the infinity of space he attains to fixed meditation, jhiina. That yogin "by passing enthely beyond perception of form, by the disappearance of the perception of impact, by being freed from attention to

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perceptions of diversity, thinking, 'Infinite is space', enters into and abides in the sphere of infinite space.1 "Entirely" means without remainder. "By passing beyond perception of form": What is perception of form? The perception, the perceiving, the state of having perceived pertaining to one who dwells in the concentration c;>fthe form-element - these are called perception of form. "Passing beyond" means the surpassing of this. [421] "By the disappearance of the perception of impact": What is the perception of impact? The perception of visible objects, of sounds, of odours, of flavours, and of tangibles - these are called the perception of impact. "Disappearance" means the ending of these var-ious kinds of (impact-) perception. "By being freed from attention to perceptions of diversity": What are perceptions of diversity? The perception, the perceiving, the state of having perceived pertaining to one who has not attained to concentration and who is endowed with the mind element and the consciousness element - these are called perceptions of diversity. "Freed from attention to perceptions of diversity" means that one is freed from attending to these perceptions of diversity. Q. Why is it that only the surpassing of perception is taught and not the surpassing of feeling, formations and consciousness?
A. If a man passes beyond perception of form, he passes beyond all the others; and if a man is not freed from perception of form, his mind is not capable of passing beyond the others. Hence the Blessed One taught the surpassing of perception of form with the intention of setting forth the surpassing {If all form-objects, because all (form) objects of concentration are dependent on perception. Q. If that does not happen (i.e., if he does not transcend the perception of form) is there or is there not perception of impact and diversity? A. There is the perception of impact and diversity in form concentration, because these are removed (later). Q. Why does he not proceed further in that concentration?

A. He dislikes form, therefore, he does not remove (these perceptions) in that (concentration). This is according to the teaching of the Buddha which says that, owing to the non-removal of these (perceptions of impact) in that (form concentration), sound is a thorn to one entering the first meditation, jhana. 2 Thus disliking form, he goes further. He destroys them here. Therefore, he attains to the imperturbability of the formless attainment and the peacefulness of liberation. A!iiIa Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta when they entered the formless attainment, did not see nor hear those five hundred
1. D. I, 183: Puna ca param POf{hapiida bhikkhu sabbaso rupasaflfliinam samalikkamii patigha-saflFfiinam allhagamii niiriatta-saflFfiinam amanasi-kiirii "ananlo iikiiso -Ii" iikiisiin_ aflciiyalanam upasampajja viharali.

2. A. V, 134--5: Pathamassa jhiinassa saddo kaTJfako.

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carts passing and repassing. l Therefore, it is, taught as the destruction of the (sense) spheres; and thus, surpassing of all form perception is taught as the destruction of the form states and the perception of impact. "By being freed from attention to perceptions of diversity" means the destruction of the sense states. Again, the surpassing of all form perception is taught as the attainment of the realm of the formless. The disappearance of the perception of impact is taught as the destruction of the outer disturbance to that concentration (of the formless) and the purification of imperturbability. "Freed from attention to perceptions of diversity" is taught as, destruction of the inner disturbance to that concentration and the purification of the peacefulness of liberat~on. Q. "The sphere of infinite space": What is space? A. It is the sphere of space, the element of space and vacuity.2 That which is untouched by the four primaries - this is called vacuity. When a man tranquillizes the mind by means of the perception of limitless space, it is said that he thinks, i'lnfinite is space". Infinite space means the entering into limitless space. The mind and the mental properties which enter space are called "sphere of space". What is "sphere of space"? Boundlessness is the nature of space. This boundless nature is the "sphere 'If space". This js taught as the meaning of space. As dwelling in heaven is called heaven, so (dwelling in) the concentration of the sphere of space is called "sphere of space". "Enters into and abides in the sphere of infinite space" means that he acquires the concentration of the sphere of infinite space, passes beyond all form objects, fulfils three factors, three kinds of goodness and ten characteristics, is associated. with twenty-two merits and dwells peacefully in the enjoyment of the reward of concentration practice. By reason of these good qualities, he will be reborn in the sphere of infinite space, as it was fully taught before. "By these good qualities he will be reborn in (the sphere of infinite) space" means that he who practises the concentration of the sphere of space will,
I. D. II, 130-31: Bhiila-pubbam bhante A{;iro Kiiliimo addhanamaggapatipanno maggii

after his dc:ath, be reborn in the sphere of infinite space. His life-span will be two thousand aeons. 1 THE CONCENTRATION OF THE SPHERE OF INFINITE CONSCIOUSNESS
I consider the tribulations of the concentration of the sphere of infinite space.

Now, that yogin having acquired mastery in the practice of (the concentration of) the sphere of infinite space wishes to cause the ari~ing of~e concentration of the infinite consciousness kasiI,UJ and to transcend the infinite space kasil,UJ. Considering the concentration of (the sphere of) space as coarse, he sees the fineness (of the concentration) of the sphere of infinite consciousness. And again, he sees the tribulations of the sphere of infinite space and the merits of the sphere of infinite consciousness. What are the tribulations of the sphere of infinite space? This concentration has form for near enemy. The object of the concentration of the sphere of infinite space is gross, and the perception of impact and the perceptions of diversity have not yet broken away from each other. Here, owing to attachment, the yogin is not able to partake of distinction. Thus he sees the tribulations of the concentration of the sphere of infinite space. The merits of the consciousness kasiI,UJ lie in the overcoming of these.
I show infinite consciousness.

That yogin, having seen the severe troubles of the concentration of .the sphere of infinite space and the merits of the sphere of infinite consciousness, should consider the sphere (of infinite consciousness) as calm, and steadily attend to the arising of the consciousness which proceeds spreading through space with the thought, "Infinite is consciousness". Thus his mind is held in the perception of the sphere of infinite consciousness. Thus he meditates and in no long time the mind rises out of the perception of the sphere of infinite space, and passes into the sphere of infinite consciousness. In this perception of the sphere of infinite consciousness, the mind attains to fixed meditation, jhtina. Thus "passing entirely beyond the sphere of infinite space, that yogin, thinking, 'Infinite is consciousness', enters into, and abides in the sphere of infinite consciousness". "Entirely" .means without remainder. "Passing beyond the sphere of infinite space" means the passing beyond the spher:e of infinite space. "Passing beyond" means to go rightly beyond. This is called "passing entirely beyond the sphere of infinite space". "Infinite space": "He attends to that consciousness as infinite with which space is filled".
l. Here 'two thousand' is obviously an error. Should read 'twenty thousand'. Cp. Vbh. 425; A. I, 267:· AkiisiiT/Qllciiyatanupagiinmh bhlkkhave devt1ntuh visatlm kappasahassiini iiyuppamiir,ta1h.

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Q. Among the fonn and formless states, which are infinite?

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A. Only formless states are infinite, because there are no bounds to the fonnless, and because they cannot be held. And again, space is limitless. Therefore, it is called infinite. The word "infinite" (ananta) means infinite (ananta). Thus, the word "infinite" is used. So is the word consciousness.

"Abides in the sphere" means abides in the sphere of infinite consciousness. The mind and the mental properties are called the sphere of infinite conscious~ ness. What is the "sphere of infinite consciousness"? It is boundless consciousness. This is called "the sphere of infinite consciousness". As dwelling in heaven is called heaven, so (dwelling in) the concentration of infinite' consciousness is called the sphere of infinite consciousness. When this consciousness is held in concentration, it is called "the sphere of infinite consciousness". "Enters into and abides in the sphere of infinite consciousness" means that he surpasses the spatial object in that concentration of the sphere of infinite consciousness. He fulfils three factors, three kinds of goodness, ten characteristics and is associated with twenty-two merits, and dwells peacefully in the enjoyment of the reward of concentration-practice. By reason of these good qualities, he will be reborn in the sphere of infinite consciousness. This was fully taught before. Thus is the merit of the practice (of the concentration) of the sphere of infinite consciousness. A man who practises the concentration of infinite consciousness will, after his death, be reborn in the sphere of infinite consciousness. His life-span will be four thousand aeons. 1 (The exposition of) the sphere of infinite consciousness has ended. THE SPHERE OF NOTHINGNESS
I consider the tribulations of the sphere of infinite consciousness.

Now, that yogin, having aCGluired mastery in the practice of the concentration of the sphere of infinite consciousness, wishes to cause the arising of the concentration of the sphere of nothingness, and to transcend the sphere of infinite consciousness. Again, he considers thus: "The concentration of the sphere of infinite consciousness is coarse; the concentration of the sphere of nothingness is fine". And he sees the tribulations of the sphere of infinite consciousness and the merits of the concentration of the sphere of nothingness. What are the tribulations of the concentration of the sphere of infinite consciousness? This concentration has space for near enemy. The consciousness object is coarse. Here, the yogin, owing to attachment, is not able to partake qf
1. Again an error; should read 'forty thousand'. Cpo Vbh. 425; A. I, 267: Viilfiii(lQilciiyatanilpagiinam bhikkhave' deviinam cattiirisam kappasahassiini iiyuppamiilJam.

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distinction through the considering of infinite perception. The merits of the sphere of nothingness lie in the overcoming of these. That yogin, having seen the tribulations of the sphere of infinite consciousness and the merits of the sphere of nothingness, rises out of the sphere of infinite consciousness peacefully, does not proceed along that consCiousness again, does not reflect on it again and puts away that consciousness. Seeing the freedom of the sphere of nothingness, he wishes to attain to it, and considering thus he quickly rises out of consciousness perception. Owing to the perception of the sphere of nothingness, he attains to fixed meditation, jhtina. Passing entirely beyond the sphere of infinite consciousness, that yogin, thinking, "There is nothing whatsoever", enters into and abides in the sphere of nothingness. "Entirely" means without remainder. "Passing beyond the sphere of infinite consciousness" means to go rightly beyond consciousness.' This is called "passing entirely beyond the sphere of infinite consciousness". "Nothingness" means that he does not practise (consciousness concentration) again; does not discern again; goes out of that consciousness (sphere), and sees only nothingness. Thus should nothingness be known. "Sphere (of nothingness)" : The mind and the mental properties which enter the sphere of nothingness, are called "sphere of nothingness". What is the sphere of nothingness? That which is without the nature of consciousness and empty. The sphere of nothingness is taught as "holding to nothing". "Enters into the sphere" means "attains to the concentration of the sphere of nothingness". "Enters into and dwells-": He attains to the concentration of (the sphere of) nothingness, passes beyond the consciousness object, fulfils three factors, three kinds of goodness, ten characteristics and is associated with twenty-two merits, and dwells peacefully in the enjoyment of the reward of concentration. By reason of these good qualities, he is reborn in the sphere of nothingness. This was fully taught before. The merit by which a man is reborn in the sphere of nothingness is thus: He who practises the concentration of the sphere of nothingness will be reborn, after his death, in the sphere of nothingness. His life-span will be six thousand aeons.l (The exposition of) the concentration of the sphere of nothingness has ended. THE SPHERE OF NEITHER PERCEPTION NOR NON-PERCEPTION
I consider the tribulations of the sphere of nothingness.

Now, the yogin having acquired mastery in the practice of concentration of the sphere of nothingness wishes to cause the arising of the concentration of neither perception nor non-perception, and to transcend the sphere of
h Again an error; should read 'sixty thousand'. Cp. Vbh.426; A. I, 268; AkiHcafiiliiyataniipaciinam bhikkhave c/eviinam saIFh;m kappasahassiini iiyuppamilt;ram,

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nothingness. He considers thus: "The sphere of nothingness is coarse; the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception'is fine". And again, he sees the tribuiations of the ,sphere of nothingness and the merits of the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception. [422] What are 'the tribulations of the sphere of nothingness'! It has consciousness for near enemy. It is accompanied by coarse perception. Therefore it is gross. Owing,to attachment to it one does not partake of distinction. Thus he sees the tribulations of the sphere of nothingness. The merits of the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception lie in the overcoming of these. And /!.gain, this perception is a disease, a boil, a thorn. Non-perception - this is right, tranquil and lofty. Thus he sees the sphere, of neither perception nor non-perception. And having seen the sphere of nothingness, having entered it and having reflected upon it, that yogin practises the other concentration by causing calmness to arise out of the solitude of the sphere of nothingness, Meditating thus he passes out of the perception of the sphere of nothingness in no long time, and attains to fixed meditation, jhdna, in the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception.
I will show the sphere of neither perception nor non-perceptio1J.

"Passing entirely beyond the sphere of nothingness, that yogin enters into and dwells in the 'sphere of neither perception nor-non-perception". "Entirely" means without remaindl;r. "Passing beyond the sphere of ,nothingness" means the surpassing of the sphere of nothingness and, the going beyond it, rightly. This is .called ,"passing entirely beyond the sphere of nothingness". "Neither perception nor non-perception": He, plactises.the other concentration by causing calmness to arise out of the solitude of the sphere of nothingness. This is called the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception. "Sphere of neither perception nor non-perception": The mind and the mental properties which enter the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception are called the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception. What is the meaning of "sphere of neither perception bor non-perception" 'I Through the removal of coarse perception, he is endowed with non-perception. Through there being a remainder of fine perception, he enters the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception. Thus should "sphere" and "neither perception nor non-perception" be understood. "Enters into and abides": He attains to the concentration of the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception, passes beyond the sphere of nothIngness, fulfils three factors, three kinds of goodness and ten characteristics, is associated with twenty-two merits and dwells in the enjoyment of the reward of concentration practice. By reason of these good qualities, he will be reborn in the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception. This was fully taught before. "By reason of these good qualities he will be reborn in the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception" means that he who practises the concentration of neither perception nor non-'

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perception will be reborn, after his death, in the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception. His life-span will be eighty-four thousand aeons. 1 Q. Why is this called "sphere of neither perception nor non-perception", and not "sphere of the infinity of consciousness"? A. He separates from the attachment to infinitude and causes the arising of subtle perception. Therefore, he does not attain to the sphere of the infinity of consciousness. Q. Why are the cankers not destroyed through this concentration? A. If a man separates himself from gross perception, he will not be able to see the Path. And again this concentration is exceedingly fine. So he cannot discern the nature of neither perception nor non-perception. Therefore he is not able to destroy the cankers. (The exposition of the) sphere of neither perception nor non-perception has ended. MISGELLANEOUS TEACHINGS
I further elucidate the meaning of the above. Q.
A.

What are the miscellaneous teachings in the field of concentration?

Stoppage of sounds; overturning; rising; transcending; access; initial application of thought; feeling; uncertainty. "Stoppage of sounds": In the first meditatioD, jhana, speech is stopped. On entering the fourth meditation,jhana, the yogin stops breathing.2 Gradual stoppage of sounds: When the yogin enters into concentration, he hears sounds, but he is not able to speak because the faculty of hearing and that of speech are not united. To a man who enters form concentration, sound is disturbing. Hence the Buddha taught: "To a man who enters meditation, jhana, sound is a thorn". S "Overturning":4 A man, concentrating on the earth kasilJa develops earth perception through non-earth perception. Q. If that be so, does he not fulfil "overturning"?
A. This earth perception should be known as that perception. It differs from the four kinds of overturning of perception. Therefore, it does not fulfil "overturning".6 "Rising":6 The rising. from concentration is conditioned
1. Vbh. 426: Neva-salflfii-niisalflfiiyatanupagiinarh deviinarh kittakarh iiyuppamiil;U1rh? Caturii,,;ti
kappasahassiini.

But the text is as follows: "It does not differ from the foUl' kinds of overturning of perception. Therefore it does not fulfil overturning".

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by five causes, namely, painfulness of posture; many bonds; arising of hindrances; unequal skill; and inclination. When a man enters formless concentration, he does not "rise" owing to "many bonds", because he dwells in imperturbability. If he enters the attainment of dissolution and the attainment of fruition, l he can "rise" through previous action2 and not through any other cause. "Transcending": In transcending there are two kinds, namely, transcending the factor and transcending the objecU To pass from form meditation, jhlina, to form meditation, jhlina, is called "transcending the factor". To pass from form meditation, jhlina, to formless concentration, and from formless concentration to formless concentration is called "transcending the object". "Access" is the access of all meditation, jhlina. It consists of five factors. "Initial application of thought": In the second meditation, jhdna, and the others through continued suppression, the state that is without initial and sustained application of thought is fulfilled. "Feeling": In the fourth meditation, jhlina, and the others, through continued suppression, the state that is with equanimity arises without extremes. "Uncertainty" : Owing to this, one does not remove the hindrances of sense-desires and the others, and abides in the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception. This is called "with remainder". It is as if, fearing a poisonous snake, a man were to climb up a tree. There are four kinds of men who cannot enter into concentration. They, surely, will be reborn in states of woe. Without cause they commit the five immediately effective deeds. 5 They are of perverted vision. (The exposition of) Miscellaneous teachings has ended. (The exposition of) the earth kasi1)a has been concluded.

practising. Absorption in the water kaSi1)a is its salient characteristic. Nonabandonment of water perception is its function. Undivided thought is its near cause. 1 There are five distinctive kinds of benefits belonging to (the practice of) the water kasi1)a: a man is able to dive into the earth and come out of it easily; ·to shake palaces, mountains or the earth; to bring down rain; cause \yater to gush from his body and make that (water) appear as it were the ocean. The (other) benefits of the water kasi1)a are the same as those of the earth kasi1)a. One who practises the water kasi1)a well, sees water in all places. "How is the sign grasped"?: The man who accepts the water kasi1)a grasps the sign in water, i.e., natural or prepared water. Here, a practised yogin grasps the water SIgn in a place where there is no water or on seeing water in various places, i.e., in a well, pot, pond, swamp, river, lake or lagoon. Thus he can see (the sign) wherever he likes, and can arouse the after-image of water. He is unlike a new yogin. A new yogin has to grasp the sign in a prepared place. He is not able to practise the water ka;i1)a with skill in an unprepared place. Thus that yogin, at first, should find out a calm place, in the monastery or in a rock cave or under a tree, which is not too dark and where the sun does not scorch. It should be a place where there is no dust or wind and where there are no mosquitoes, gadflies or other impediments. In such a place, he buries a bowl or a water pot in clean earth, and makes the ,rim level with the ground. The circumference should be one fathom. It should be filled with rain~water and unmixed with any colour. The bowl or pot should be full to the brim. Here, he shoulc;l dwell on the perception of water, and take the sign through three ways: through even gazing, skilfulness and the elimination of disturbance. The rest is.as fully-taught 'before under the earth kasi1)a and the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception.
The water kasi1)a has ended.

THE FIRE KASINA
Q. What is the fire kasi1)a? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What are its benefits? How is the sign grasped? A. The thought that is produced relying on fire - this is called the fire kasi1)a. The undisturbed dwelling of the mind - this is called practising. The skilfulness of sending the mind forth into the fire sign is its salient characteristic. Non-abandonment of fire perception is its function. Undivided thOUght is its near cause. . "What are its benefits"? There are five distinctive benefits. These are dispiayed in the fire kasi1)a. A man is able to produce smoke and flame, is able to reveal things through producing brightness, is able to destroy the
1. In the question it is "manifestation".

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light of other forms, is able to burn whatever he likes,1 is able to know fire through the arising of brightness. The other benefits are equal to those of the earth kasil;la. Owing to the practice of the fire kasil;la, a man is able to see fire everywhere. "How is the sign grasped'''?: The man who takes up the fire sign -grasps the sign in fire, Le., in a natural or a prepared place. Here, a practised yogin grasps the natural sign. (He grasps the sign) on seeing any fire, i.e., a grass-fire. a wood-fire, a forest-fire or a house that is on fire. He develops the natural or the prepared as he pleases and sees the appropriate sign. Thus the afterimage of fire occurs to him. The new yogin is different. He is able to grasp the sign only in a prepared place and not in an unprepared place. He follows what is expedient in the practice of the fire kasil;la. The new yogin should at first gather fuel, heap it up in a clean place and burn it. He burns it from below, at about the time the sun rises or sets. He does not think of the smoke or the flames that rise up. He sends his mind towards the fire sign by directing it to the middle of the thick flames and grasps the sign through three ways: through even gazing, skilfulness [423] and the elimination of disturbance. (The rest) is as was fully taught before. The fire kasil;la has ended.

THE AIR KASINA
Q. What is the air kasilJa? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause 7 What are its benefits 7 How is the sign grasped? A. The thought that is produced relying on the air sign - this is called the air kasil;la. The training and the undisturbed dwelling of the mind are called the practising of the air kasilJa. Sending forth the mind into the air sign is its salient characteristic. The nOI)-abandoning of air perception is its function. Undivided thought is its near cause.

"What are its benefits 7"; There are three distinctive benefits in air kasilJa: a man is able to go about with the speed of air, to cause wind to rise and coolness to prevail. The other benefits are the same as those taught in the earth kasil;la. One follow~ what is expedient in the practice of the air kasil;la. "How is the sign grasped 7": A new yogin grasps the air kasilJQ through two ways: through sight and touch. How does he grasp the sign through sight? That yogin, seeing a field of sweet potatoes, a bamboo grove or a grass-land moved by the wind, reflects on air perception. He grasps the sign through three ways; through even gazing, skilfulness and the elimination
I, The first four are similar to those of Vis. Mag. : 175--6.

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of disturbance. Thus he grasps the sign through sight. How does he grasp the sign through touch? In a calm abode, a new yogin makes an opening in the wall, inserts a pipe of bamboo or reed into it and sits near it, letting the wind that comes through it touch his body. Thus he grasps the air sign through touch. A practised yogin is able to grasp the sign whenever the wind touches his body whether he is sitting, walking, standing or lying down. Thus the after-image of air occurs to him. He is unlike the new yogin.
The air kasi1J.G has ended.

THE BLUE-GREEN KASINA

Q. What is the blue-green kasi1J.G? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause 7 What are its benefits 7 How is the sign grasped 7 A. The thought that is produced relying on the blue-green kasi1)a - this is called the blue-green kasi1J.G. The training and undisturbed dwelling of the mind are called practising. Sending forth the mind into the blue-green sign is its salient characteristic. Non-abandoning of the blue-green perception is its function. Undivided thought is its near cause. "What are its benefits?": There are five benefits. In the .blue-green kasi1)a, a man attains to the emancipation of the beautiful. He acquires the position of mastery of the blue l that is like a blue flower. He can change all things to blue. He sees the colour of blue anywhere through the practice of the blue kasi1)a. 2 "How is the sign grasped 7": The yogin grasps the sign in a prepared place or in a natural place. That yogin sees (the sign) in blue flowers, blue clothes or in blue-coloured things everywhere. He sees it always before him, in pleasure or in pain, and thus the after-image of the blue-green sign occurs to him. A new yogin is different. He grasps the sign in a prepared place. He is not able to grasp it in an unprepared place. He follows what is expedient
1. Lit. Nila abhibhiiyatana. D. lIT, 260: AffOO abhibhiiyataniini, the eight positions of mastery. The following is from the Abhidharma Sangiti Paryiiya Pada Siistra:- One having no internal perception of form sees external forms, blue, indigo-coloured, indigo in appearance, indigo in brightness. As cloth of Benares dyed the colour of the Ummaka flower, deeply blue, is blue, indigo-coloured, indigo in appearance ....... so it is when one having no internal perception of form sees external forms ...... Seeing such fOmIS, he thinks: "I kriow, I see". ThHs he perceives. This is the fifth position of mastery. D. n, 110: Ajjhattam arupa-saiiiii eko bahiddhii-riipiini passati ni/iini nila-vQ{I{liini nila-nidassaniini nila-nibhiisiini-seyyathii pi niima ummii-puppham ni/am ni/a-va(l(lam nila-nidassanam nila-nibhiisam-seyhathii vii pana tam vattham Biirii(IQSeyyakam ubOOtobhiigo-vimaflham nilam nila-vaMam nila-nidassanam ni/a-nibhiisam--evam eva ajjhattam arupa-saiiiii eko bahiddhii-riipiini passati niliini nila-va(l(liini nila-nidassaniini nila-nibhiisiini, "Tiini abhibhuyya jiiniimi passiimiti" evam-saiiiii hoti, idam pancamam abhibhiiyatanam. 2. Only three are trea ted in Vis. Mag. 176.

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in the practice of the blue-green kasiT;Ul. This yogin makes a malJr/ala on a cloth, plank or wall with blue of the colour of the Asital flower, in the form of a triangle or a square. He edges it round with another colour. Thus he prepares the blue-green sign. He grasps the sign through three ways: even gazing, skilfulness· and the elimination of disturbance. The rest is as was fully taught before.
The blue-green kasilJa has ended. THE YELLOW KASINA
Q. What is the yellow kasilJa 7 What is the practising of it 7 What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What are its benefits 7 How is the sign grasped 7 A. The thought that is produced relying on the yellow sign-this is called the yellow kasilJa. The training and the undisturbed dwelling of the mindthese are called the practising of it. Sending forth the mind into the yellow sign is its salient characteristic. Non-abandoning of the perception of yellow is its function. Undivided thought is the near cause. "What are its benefits 7": There are five distinctive benefits. A man is able to attain to the emancipation of the beautiful. He acquires the position of mastery of the yellow. He considers various yellow colours similar to that of the KalJiktira flower. 2 Practising the yellow kasilJa, he sees yellow everywhere. "How is the sign grasped?": The man who takes up the yellow kasiT;Ul grasps the yellow sign either in a prepared place or in a natural place. (The practised yogin) grasps the sign in a non-prepared place. That yogin sees the yellow colour of yellow flowers or yellow clothes anywhere. He sees it always, in pleasure or: in pain. Thus the after-image of yellow occurs to him. The new yogin is different. The new yogin grasps the sign in a prepared
I

1. Indigo plant. Black colour (of ashes) black-blue, black - P.T.S. Diet. 2. According to the Siistra quoted in note 1 on page 124, the sixth abhibhiiyatana differs from the fifth in colour and flower. For Ummaka, Kar1;likiira is substituted. D. II, Ill, confirms this.- Seyyathii pi niima ka1;likara-puppham pitam pita-va1;l1;lQm pita-nidassanam pita-nibhiisam. The late Venerable Soma Mahii Thera, one of the co-translators of the Vimuttimagga, seeing the kar1;likiira (Sinhala, ki1;lihiri; Pterospermum acerifolium) tree at the Island Hermitage in Dodanduwa, in bloom in the early forties, and, recalling this passage of the Vimuttimagga, wrote the following verses:-

In our little island home Where free the winged and reptile roam, The spirit weaves on silent loom: The Kar1;likiira is in bloom. There may frolic elf and gnome, Ay, hearts grow happy in the loam Of quiet! 'tis the fecund womb Of thought serene, the grave of gloom.

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place, and is not able to grasp it in a non-prepared place. He follows what is expedient in the practice of the yellow kasb;/a. This yogin makes a malJrjala with yellow of the colour of the KalJiktira flower, on cluth, plank or wall, in the shape of a triangle or square. He edges it with another colour. Thus he prepares the yellow sign. He grasps the sign through three ways: even gazing, skilfulness and the elimination of disturbance. The rest is as wl!s fully taught before. The yellow kasilJa has ended. THE RED KASINA
Q. What is the red kasilJa? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What are its benefits? How is the sign grasped? A. The thought that is produced relying on the red sign - this is called the red kasilJa. The training and the undisturbed dwelling of the mind these are called the practising of it. Sending forth the mind into the red sign is its salient characteristic. The non-abandoning of the perception of red is its function. Undivided thought is its near cause.

"What are its benefits?": There are four distinctive benefits. A man is able to attain to the emancipation of the beautiful in the red kasilJa. He acquires the position of mastery of the red. l He is able to change things into the colour of red. The other benefits are equal to those taught under the earth kasilJa. He who practises the red kasiJ:za sees the colour of red prevailing everywhere. "How is the sign grasped 1": A man who takes up the red kasilJa, grasps the red sign either in a prepared place or in a natural place. The practised yogin grasps the sign in a natural place, i.e., on seeing red flowers or red clothes anywhere. He sees always, in pleasure or in pain. Thus the afterimage of the red sign occurs to him. The new yogin is different. The new
Lean grey tree with outstretched hands, Your golden flow'r, a symbol, stands For inward vision yoga-wrought, For lustrous power nobly bought. Upward flows Ii/e's current strong, Should it for cool; calm, clean bliss long, Should it, to sense the silence, throng, To sense the golden flower's song. Stem will you the outward flow Of mind caught fast in maya-glow? Illusion's lure will you lay low? Then, lei the golden flower blow.

1. In the seventh abhibhayatana, according to the sastra quoted above, the flower associated with the redabhibhayatana is the Bandhujivaka. D. II, 111 confirms: Seyyathiipi nama
bandhujivaka-puppham lohitakam 10hitaka-vUlJlJam lohitaka'nidassanam lohitaka-nibhiisam.

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yogin grasps the sign in a prepared place, and is not able to do so in a non~ prepared place. He follows what is expedient in the practice of the red kasi1)a . .This yogin applies a red colour resembling that of the Bandhujivaka flower on cloth, plank or wall, in the shape of a triangle or a square. Or, he makes a ma1)t/aia of red flowers. He edges it with another colour. Thus he prepares the red. sign. He grasps the sign through three ways: through even gazing, skilfulness and the elimination of disturbance. The rest is as was fully taught before. . .

The red kasi1)a has ended.
THE WIDTE KASINA Q. What is the white kasi1)a? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? How is the sign grasped? A. The thought that is produced relying on the white sign-this is called the white kasi1)a. The training and the undisturbed dwelling of the mind - these are called the practising of it. Sending forth the mind into the white sign is its salient characteristic. The non-abandoning of the perception of white is its function. Undivided thought is its near cause. - "What are its benefits?": There are eight distinctive benefits. A man is able to attain to the emancipation of the beautiful, and the positions of mastery of the white. 1 He overcomes rigidity and torpor, dispels darkness, produces brightness and arouses the divine eye through the white kasi1)Q. The other benefits are the same as those taught in the earth kasi1)Q. He who practises the white kasi1)a sees the colour of white prevailing everywhere. "How is the sign grasped 1": A man who takes up the white kasi1)a grasps the white sign either in a prepared or natural place. The practised yo·gin grasps the sign in a natural place. He sees the sign in various places - in white flowers, moonlight, sunlight, starlight or a round mirror. Beginning with these, he sees the sign always before him, through pleasure and through pain. Thus the after-image of the white sign occurs to him. The new yogin is different. The new yogin grasps the sign in a prepared place. He is not able to grasp "it in a non-prepared place. He follows what is expedient in the practice of the white kasi1)a. This yogin makes a ma1)t/aia on cloth, plank or wall in the shape of a triangle or a square, with colour resembling that of the morning star. He edges it with another colour. Thus he prepares the white sign. He grasps the sign through three ways: even gazing, skilfulness and the elimination of disturbance. (The rest) is as was fully taught before.

[424] Q. What is the light kasi1)a? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? How is the sign grasped? A. The thought that is produced relying on the light sign - this is called the light kasi1)a. The training and the undisturbed dwelling of the mind - these are called the practising of it. Sending forth the mind into the white sign is its salient characteristic. The non-abandoning of the perception of light is its function. Undivided thought is its near cause. "What are its benefits '/" : They are equal to those of the white kasi1)a. He who practises the light kasi1)Q sees light everywhere. "How is the sign grasped '/": A man who takes up the light kasi1)a, grasps the light- sign in a prepared or in a natural place. The practised yogin grasps the sign in a natural place. He sees the sign in various places - in moonlight, sunlight, lamplight or in the light of gems. Beginning with these he sees (the sign) always through pleasure or through pain. Thus the after-image of the light sign 'occurs to him. The new yogin is different. The new yogin grasps the sign in a prepared place, and is not able to do so in a non-prepared place. He follows what is expedient in the practice of the light kasi1)a. This yogin chooses a wall facing east or west. He fills a bowl with water and keeps it in a sunny place nearby. This water causes a malJ4ala of light. From this ma1)r!ala, light rises and is reflected on the wall. Here he sees the light sign. He grasps it in three ways: through even gazing, skilfulness and the elimination of disturbance. (The rest) is as was fully taught before. The light kasi1)Q has ended.

THE PATH OF FREEDOM
FASCICLE THE SIXTH WRITTEN BY

THE ARAHANT UPATISSA
WHO WAS CALLED

GREAT LIGHT IN RYO
TRANSLATED IN RYO BY

TIPITAKA SANGHAP.ALA OF FUNAN
CHAPTER THE EIGHTH

Section Three

THE (SEPARATED) SPACE KASINA What is the (separated) space kasi1Ja? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What are its benefits? How is the sign grasped? A. In the space kasiQa, there are two kinds: The first is space that is separate from form; the second is space that is not separate from form. The sign of the space kasi1Ja is space that is separate from form; the space sign that is grasped in an opening is space that is not separate from form. The training and the undisturbed dwelling of the mind - these are called the practising of it. Sending forth the mind into space perception is its function. Undivided thought is its near cause. "What are its benefits 1": There are two distinctive benefits, thus: A man is able to pass through obstructions such as walls, mountains and the like. His bodily activities are not impeded, and he becomes fearless. "How is the sign grasped 1": The man who takes up the space kasi1Ja, grasps the sign in space that is natural or prepared. The practised yogin grasps the sign in a natural place. He sees· the sign in various places - in some opening (in a wall), in the space of an open window, in the space which is between the branches of trees. Beginning with these, he sees it always, in pleasure and in pain. Thus the after-image of the space sign occurs to him. The new yogin is different. The new yogin grasps the sign in a prepared place; and not in a non-prepared place. This yogin goes to a calm abode on the outside of which are no obstructions. He makes a circular opening (in the wall) and grasps the space sign, through three ways: through even
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gazing, skilfulness and the elimination of disturbance. In this space kasiT)(l, the fourth and the fifth meditations, jhdnas, are produced. The rest is as was fully taught before.
The (separatecf) space kasiIJa has ended. THE CONSCIOUSNESS KASINA

Q. What is the consciousness kasiIJa?
A. It is the concentration of the sphere of infinite consciousness. This is called the "Consciousness kasiIJa. The rest is as was fully taught before. The ten kasiIJas have ended. 1 MISCELLANEOUS TEACHINGS

Q. What are the miscellaneous teachings regarding these kasiIJQS? If one acquires facility in one sign, all other signs follow. If one acquires facility in the first meditation, jhdna, through one kasiIJa, one is able to acquire facility through the other kasiIJas also and is able to cause the arising of the second meditation, jhtina. In the same way, if one acquires facility in the second meditation, jhdna, one is able to cause the arising of the third meditation, jhdna. If one acquires facility in the third meditation, jhdna, one is able to cause the arising of the fourth meditation, jhdna. Q. Which are the most excellent of all kasiIJas? A. The four colour kasiIJas are the most excellent, because through them one attains to the emancipations2 and the positions of mastery. The white kasiIJa is excellent, because it illumines and because through it an unobstructed state of mind is attained. Here (the yogin) produces the eight attainments on eight kasiIJas, in sixteen ways, peacefully. (1) He dwells wherever he likes and (2) practises the concentration that he likes, (3) whenever he likes, (4) without hindrance, (5) in the direct order3 and (6) in the reverse order,4 (7) in the direct and in the. reverse order, 6 (8) by developing separately6 (9) by developing together, (10) by skipping over the middle,7 (11) by limiting 8 the factor, . (12) by limiting the object, (13) by limiting the factor and the object, (14) by fixing9 the factor, (15) by fixing the object, (16) by fixing the factor and the object.
A.
1. This and the subsequent passages in italics in this section do not occur in the Sung edition in the library of the Japanese Imperial household. Vimokkha. 3. Lit. Ascending gradually. Lit. Descending gradually. 5. Lit. Ascending and descending gradually. Lit. Increasing each one. 7. Lit. Making little or restricting the middle. Lit. Making little or restricting the factor. 9. Lit. Together with the factor.

2. 4. 6. 8.

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(1) "He stays wherever he likes"; He dwells in the village or forestwhichever. he likes-and enters into concentration. (2) "Practises the concentration that he likes": He produces the concentration which he desires. (3) "Whenever": He enters into concentration at the time he likes. (4) ("Without hindnmce"): He is able to remain finn in (concentration) at all times. (5) "In the direct order": He enters the first meditation, jhcina, and by degrees rises up to the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception. (6) "In the reverse order"; Starting from the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception, he comes down by degrees to the first meditation, jhdna. (7) "In the direct and in the reverse order": He excels in ascending .and in descending. He enters the third meditation,jhana, from the first meditation, jhdna. From the third meditation, jhcina, he enters the second, and from the second he enters the fourth.l Thus he enters the concentration of the sphere of neither perception nor non-perceptlon. (8) "By developing separately": Having gradually entered the fourth meditation, jhdna, he ascends or descends. (9) "By developing t{)gether": He enters the fourth meditation, jhiina. From that he enters space, and then enters the third meditation, jhdna. Thus he enters into concentration in these two ways. (10) "Skipping over the middle": He enters the first meditation, jhiina. From this he enters the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception. From this he enters the second meditation, jhana, and therefrom attains to the sphere of nothingness. Thus he abides in that attainment, and understands the sphere of the infinity of space. (11) "Limiting the factor": He enters into the concentration of one meditation, jhiina, on eight kasi1Jas. (12) "Limiting the object": He enters into eight kinds of concentration on three kasi1Jas. (13) "Limiting the factor and the object": Two meditations, jhiinas, and one kasi1Ja. (14) "Fixing the factor": On three kasi1Jas, he enters (Lit. two, two meditation, jhiinas). (15) "Fixing the object": He enters two meditations, jhiinas, on (Lit. two, two kasi1Jas). (16) "Fixing the factor and the object": This consists of the two (preceding) sentences.
I

(1) THE PERCEPTION OF BLOATEDNESS
Q. What is the perception of bloatedriess? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What are "its benefits'r How is the sign grasped? A. "The perception of bloatedness" : The state of being swollen throughout like a cast off smelly corpse which distends its bag of skin - this is called "bloatedness".l The viewing of bloatedness with right knowledge - this' !s called "perception". The training and the undisturbed dwelling of the mind in that perception - these are called the practising of it. The sending forth of the mind into the perception of bloatedness is its salient characteristic. The disgust connected with the perception of bloatedness is its function. Reflection on malodour and impurity are its near cause. "What are its benefits 1" : Nine are the benefits of the perception of bloatedness, thus: A man is able to gain mindfulness as regards the interior of his body, is able to gain the perception of impermanence and the perception of death. He increases disgust and overcomes sense-desires. He removes the clinging to form and well-being. He fares well and approaches the ambrosial. "How is the sign grasped 7": The new yogin who grasps the sign of the putrescence of bloatedness goes alone, without a companion, established in mindfulness, undeluded, with his faculties drawn in and his mind not going to things outside, reflecting on the path of going and coming. Thus he goes to the place of putrescent corpses. Avoiding contrary winds, he remains thele, standing or sitting, with the putrescent sign before him, and not too far from nor too near it. And that yogin makes a rock, an ant-hill, tree, bush or a creeper, near the place where the putrescent thing lies, one with the sign, one with the object, and considers thus: "This rock is impure, this is the impure sign, this is the rock". And so also with the ant-hill and the others.
samiipajji. ViiifliilJaiiriiyalana-samiipattiyii vUffhahilvii iikiisiinaiiciiyalanam samiipajji. Akiisiinaiiciiyalana-samiipalliyii vUffhahilvii calullhajjhiinam samiipajji. Calullhajjhiinii vUffhahilvii laliyajjhiinam samiipajji. Taliyajjhiinii vUffhahilvii dUliyajjhiinam samiipajji. DUliyajjhiinii vutthahilvii pafhamajjhiinam samiipajji. Paihamajjhiinii vuffhahilvii dUliyajjhiinam samiipajji. Duliyajjhiinii vUffhahilvii laliyajjhiinam samiipajji. Taliyajjhiinii vUffhahilvii calullhajjhiinam samiipajji. Calullhajjhiinii vUffhahitvii samananlarii Bhagavii parinibbiiyi. (b) Vis. Mag. 374: Pafhamajjhiinalo pana paffhiiya pafipiitiyii yiiva nevasaiiflii-niisaiiiiiiyatanam, liiva punappunam samiipajjanam jhiiniinulomam niima. Nevasaiiflii-niisaiiiJiiyalanoto pafthiiya yiiva pathamajjhiinam, liiva punappunam samiipajjanam jhiinapafilomam nama. Pafhamajjhiinato patthiiya yiiva nevasaiiiiii-niisaiiiiiiyatanom, nevasaiiiiii-nasaiiiiiiyatanala patfhiiya yiiva pafhamajjhiinan Ii evam anulomapatilomavasena punappunam samiipajjanam jhiiniinulomapatilomam niima. 1. Cp. (a) A. Ill, 323-4; M. I, 58; D. II, 295: Puna ca param bhikkhave bhikkhu seyyalhii pi passeyya sariram sivalikiiya cha4t!ilam . ..... uddhumiilakam • .•.. . so imam eva kiiyam upasarizharali: 'Ayampi kho kiiyo evam-dhammo evam-bhiivi elam analilo Ii'. (b) S. V", 131: Uddhumiitakasaiiiiii bhikkhave bhiivitii bahu/ikalii mahato phiisuvihiiriiya samvattati.

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[425] After making the sign and making the object, he practises, considering the putrescent -sign from its intrinsic nature in ten ways: From colour, sex, region, locality, limitation, joints, cavities, low parts, high parts and all sides. He considers all sides· of it. "From colour" means: "He determines black as black, the neither black nor white as neither black nor white. He determines white as white and malodorous skin as malodorous". "From sex" means: "He determines whether it is the body of a male or a female, and whether it is that of a young, an adult or an old person". To determine is to determine the long as long, the short as short, the fat as fat, the small as small. "From region" means: "He determines that in this direction is the head; in this, a hand; in this, a leg; in this, the back; in this, the abdomen; in this, the sitting place; in this, the putrescent sign". Thus he understands. "From locality" means: "He determines that on this place! is the hand; on this, a leg; on this, the head; on this, the sitting-place ; on this, the putrescent sign". "From limitation" means: "He determines (the limit of the body) from head to foot, from below up to the head and the edge of the scalp, understanding the whole body as an assemblage of dung". "From the joints" means: "He determines that there are six joints in the two hands, six joints in the two legs, and that there is one joint of the neck and one at the waist". These are known as the' fourteen great joints. "From the cavities" means: "He determines whether the mouth is open or closed, and whether the eyes are open or closed. He determines- the hollows -of the hands-and the feet". "From low'parts and from h~- -parts" means: «He determines whether-the putrescent SIgn is In a low-place or- in a high place; and -again, he determines thus: '1 am in a low place, the putrescent sign is in a high place', or, 'The putrescent sign is in a low place, I am in a high place'''. "He considers from all sides" means: "He determines a distance of two or three fathoms from the sign, because he does not grasp the sign by being too near it or too far from it, and considering all things, he grasps the sign (saying), "Sddhu! sddhu!". Thus observing he is contented. That yogin having grasped the sign, noted it well and determined it well, goes alone, without a companion, established in mindfulness, undeluded, with his faculties drawn in and his mind not going to things outside, reflecting on the path of going and coming. To and fro he walks on the path orhe sits absorbed in the putrescent sign. Why does he go without a companion? It is for the sake of acquiring calmness of body. "Established in mindfulness" means: "Owing to nondelusion the faculties are drawn in and the mind does not go to things outside". Why does he reflect on the path of going and coming? It is for the sake of acquiring calmness of body. Why does he avoid contrary winds? It is for the sake of avoiding malodour. Why does he sit neither far nor near the sign? If he sits far, he cannot grasp the sign. If he sits near, he cannot
1. Lit. Bright pla~ -

a dO\lbl~

transilltion of avakiisa.

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get a dislike for it, or see its nature. If he does not know its nature, he is not able to grasp that sign. Therefore, he sits neither too far from nor too near it. Why does he consider the sign on aU sides ? It is for the sake of non-delusion. Non-delusion is thus: When a yogin goes to a still place and sees the putrescent sign, fear arises in him; at such a time, if the corpse appears to stand up before him, he does not stand up, but reflects. In this way he knows, recollects, rightly understands, regards well and fully investigates the sign. In the same way he considers all signs. This is (the indication of) non-delusion. Q. Why does he grasp the sign in ten ways? A. It is for the sake of binding the mind. Why does one reflect on the path of going and coming? It is for the sake of progress in the course. "Progress in the course" means: "Though a yogin enters a still place, his mind is sometimes disturbed. If he does not always investigate it, the putrescent sign does not arise. Therefore, a yogin investigates the sign with all his heart by reflecting on the path of going and coming. He investigates the place of meditation. He investigates all signs. Thus should he investigate the sign to be grasped, in the ten ways. That yogin thus investigates again and again, and sees the sign as if it were with his eyes. This is (the indication of) progress in the course. A new yogin, meditating on a corpse, perceiving (it as) a jewel, rejoices, bears it in mind, resorts to it always, causes the hindrances to perish and arouses the factors of meditation, jhlina. Remote form sense-desires and demeritorious states, he abides in the attainment of the first meditation, jhlina, which is with initial and sustained application of thought, born of solitude and full of joy and bliss, through the perception of putrescence. Q. Why is the fir3t meditation, jhlina, only developed through the perception of putrescence and not any other meditation, jhtina? A. This perception always follows initial and sustained application of thought because (they go together) and because it is tied down to a place. When initial and sustained application of thought are present, this sign becomes manifest. Without initial and sustained application of thought, the yogin is not able, here, to gain the calming of the mind. Therefore, the first meditation, jhtina, is developed and not any other. And again, it is said that colour, sex and the others of this putrescent sign are considered in many ways. "Are considered in many ways": These (colour, etc.) are objects of initial and sustained application of thought. Separate from initial and sustained application of thought, these cannot be considered. Therefore, only the first meditation, jhtina, is developed and not any other. And again, it is said that this putrescent sign is an unenduring object. On an unenduring object the mind does not go higher. In an impure place JOY and bliss can onlv HTise bv the rejection of initial and sustained application

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of thought, which, in a place such as this, depend on malodour. Therefore, only the first meditation, jhdna, is developed and not any other. Q. On an unenduring object how do joy and bliss occur? A. The unenduring object is not the cause of joy and bliss. And again, joy and bliss arise owing to the removal of the heat of the hindrances and the training of the mind. The rest is as was fully taught above.
The perception of bloatedness has ended.
(2)

THE. PERCEPTION OF DISCOLOURATION

Q. What is discolouration? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What are its be}lefits? How. is the sign grasped? A. One, two or three nights after death, the body becomes discoloured, and appears as if it were stained blue. This is the discolouration sign. This discolouration is called the blue sign. The understanding of this through right knowledge is called the perception of discolouration. 1 The undisturbed dwelling of the mind (on the sign) is the practjsing of it. The reflection on the blue sign is its salient characteristic. (The perception of) disagreeableness is its function. The thought of non-durability is its near cause. Its benefits are equal to those of bloatedness. The way of grasping the Sign is as Was fully taught above. (The perception of) discolouration has ended.

(The perception of) disagreeableness is its function. The thought of no~­ durability is its near cause. Its benefits are equal to those of bloatedness; The way of grasping the sign is as was fully taught above. (The perception of) the festering has ended. (4) THE PERCEPTION OF THE FISSURED Q. What is the meaning of the fissured? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? A. "The fissured" means: "What resembles the scattered parts of a body that has been hacked with a sword". Again, a corpse that is thrown away . is also called the fissured. The understanding of this through right knowledge is called the perception of the fissured. 1 The undisturbed dwelling of the mind, (on the sign), is the practising of it. The reflection on the sign of the fissured is its salient characteristic. (The perception of) disagreeableness is its function. The thought of putrescence is its near cause. Its merits are equal to those of bloatedness.
Q.

"How is the sign grasped·?"

A. The sight of two ears or two fingers that are separated (from a body) causes the arising of the fissured sign. The sign thus grasped appears with one or two lllches 2 of space intervening. The rest is as was fully taught above.

(The perceptioll of) the fissured has. ended. (5) THE PERCEPTION OF THE GNAWED Q. What is the meaning of the gnawed? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What are its benefits? How is the sign grasped? .
A. "The gnawed": (leavings of a) corpse on which crows, magpies, brown kites, owls, eagles, vultures, wild pigs, dogs, jackals, wolves, tigers or leopards have fared - this is called the gnawed;8 The understanding of the gnawed sign through right knowledge - this is (the perception of) the gnawed. The undisturbed dwelling of the mind (on the sign) -this is called the practising of it. The reflection on the gnawed is its salient characteristic. (The perception of) disagreeableness is its function. The consideration of putrescence is
1. Cpo s. v, 131: Vlcchiddakasaffilii bhikkhave bhiivilii bahulikatii mahato phiisu~ihiiriiya samvattati. 2. This refers to the Chinese Sun -1.193 inches. 3. Cpo A. III, 324; M.I, 58; D.II,295: Puna caparam .. . . kiikehi vii khajjamiinam kulalehi vii khaJjamiinam gijjhehi vii khajjamiinam supiilJehi vii khajjamiinariJ sigiilehi vii khajjamiinam v~vidhehi vii piil)aka-jiilehl khaj;amiinam, so imam eVil kiiyam upasamharali: 'Ayam pi kho kiiyo evam-dhammo evam-bhiivi etam analito Ii',

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its near cause. Its merits are equal to those of bloatedness. The rest is as was fully taught above.

(The perception of) the gnawed has ended.
(61 THE PERCEPTION OF THE .DISMEMBERED
Q. What is the meaning of the dismembered? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What are its benefits? [426] How is the sign grasped? A. The state of (severed) limbs scattered hither and thither is called "the dismembered".l The understanding of this through right knowledgethis is called the perception of the dismembered. The undisturbed dwelling of the mind (on the sign) is called the practising of it. The reflection on the dismembered sign is its salient characteristic. (The perception of) disagreeableness is its function. The thought of putrescence is its near cause. Its benefits are equal to those of bloatedness. "How is the sign grasped?": All the (scattered) limbs are gathered and placed together so that they are about two inche;s apart from: each other. Having arranged them thus, one grasps the sign of the dismembered. This is how the sign is grasped. The rest is all wall fully taught ·above.

(The perception oj) the dismembered has ended.
(7) THE PERCEPTION OF THE CUT AND THE DISMEMBERED

Q. What is the meaning of the cut and the dismembered? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What ate its benefits? How is the sign grasped? A. "The cut and the dismpmbered": Corpses, lying in various places, of those done to death with stick, sword or arrow - these are called, the cut and the dismembered. z To know the cut and the dismembered through right knowledge is called the perception of the cut and the dismembered. The undisturbed dwelling of the mind (on the sign) is the practising of it. The reflection on the sign of the cut and the dismembered is its salient characteristic. (The perception of) disagreeableness is its function. The thought of putrescence is its near cause. Its benefits are equal to those of bloatedness.
1 Cpo A.lII, 324; M. I, 58; D. II, 296-7: Puna eaparam .... affhikiini apagata-sambandhiini disii-vidisiisu vikkhittiini annena hatthatthikam annena piidaffhikam annena jarighaffhikam annena uratthikam aiinena kafaUhikam annena pitthi-kalJfakam annena sisa-kafiiham. so imam eva kiiyam upasamharali: 'Ayam pi kho kiiyo evam-dhammo evam-bhiivi elam
anatfro Ii'.

Vimuttimagga
"How is the sign grasped" ?: This is as was fully taught above.
(The perception of the) cut and the dismembered has ended.

(8) THE PERCEPTION OF THE BLOOD-STAINED
Q. What is the meaning of the blood-stained? What is practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What are its benefits? How is the sign grasped 1 A. The blood-besmeared state of the body and the severed limbs is known as "the blood-stained".l The undisturbed dwelling of the mind (on the sign) is called the practising of it. The reflection on the blood-stained sign is its salient characteristic. (The perception of) disagreeableness is its function. The thought of putrescence is its near cause. Its benefits are equal to those of bloatedness. "How is the sign grasped 1": This was fully taught above.
(The percepion of) the blood-stained has ended.

(9) THE PERCEPTION OF WORMINESS
Q. What is worminess'1 What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What are its benefits? How is the sign grasped? A. "Worminess": The state of a body covered with worms as with a heap of white pearls is called worminess. The understanding of this through right knowledge is called the perception of worminess. 2 The undisturbed dwelling of the mind (on the sign ) is the practising of it. The reflection on the sign of worminess is its salient characteristic. (The perception of) disagreeableness is its function. The thought of putrescence is its near cause. Its benefits are equal to those of bloatedness. "How is the sign grasped?": This is as was fully taught above.
(The perception of) worminess has ended.

(10) THE PERCEPTION OF THE BONY
Q. What is the bony? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What are its benefits? How is .the sign grasped 1

A. "What is the bony"? The state of bones linked chain-like by means of flesh, blood and sinews or by sinews without flesh and blood, or without flesh and blood is called "the bony".l The understanding of this through right knowledge is called the perception of the bony. The undisturbed dwelling of the mind (on the sign) is called the practising of it. The reflection on the sign of the bony is its salient characteristic. (The perception of) disagreeableness is. its function. The thought of putrescence is its near cause. Its benefits are equal to those of bloatedness. "How is the sign grasped"? This is as was fullY,taught above.
(The perception of) the bony has ended.

MISCELLANEOUS TEACmNGS
Q. What are the miscellaneous teachings regarding putrescence? A. The beginner, being one who is affected by severe passion, should not grasp the sign in that which is not of the same kind. That which is "not of the same kind" means: "Like the body of a man to a woman". If one is of a calling associated with the perception of putrescence, he should not grasp the putrescent sign, because he, owtng to the close connection with these objects, does not develop the idea of their disagreeableness. One does not cause the arising of pure perception on the bodies of beasts (7). One causes the arising of the sign in one -bone and srasps the sign in the bone with . facility. And again, if a man grasps the sign of putrescence through colour, he should meditate on the kasil)a. If a man grasps the sign of putrescence through space, he should meditate on that element. If a man grasps the sign of putrescence through putrescence, he should meditate on putrescence. Q. Why are there ten putrescences and neither more nor less? A. Because the faults of rhe body are of· ten kinds and because there are ten kinds of perception owing to ten kinds of persons. A passionate person should meditate on the perception of bloatedness. A sensual person should meditate on discolouration. A passionate lover ot the beautiful should always meditate on the festering. The others should be understood in the same way. And again, the sign of putrescence ill grasped with difficulty. All signs of putrescence are means of overcoming passion. Therefore, whenever the walker in passion sees the putrescent sign, he should grasp it. Because of these reasons, it is said that among the putrescences there are ten kinds of putrescence perception.
1. Cp. A. III, 324; M. I, 58; D.II, 296: Aflhi-samkhalika,;, apagala-malhSa-lohila,;, IUlhiirusambandha';' • .. . pe . .. :, so imam eva kaya,;, upasarhharali: 'Ayam p;.kho kayo eva,;,dhammo eva,;,-bhtivi elam analito Ii'.

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Q. Why are these (putrescence signs) not increased? A. When a man wishes to separate from passion, he causes the arising of the perception regarding the nature of his body. Because, if he has the perception of the nature of his body, he can quickly acquire the perception of its disagreeableness and cause the arising of the after-image. If the perception of putrescence is increased, the sign which he has grasped in his body will disappear. If he loses the perception of his own body, he will not be able to acquire the thought of disagreeableness quickly. Therefore, he should not increase. And again,,it is taught that if a man is without passion, he may increase it for the sake of developing the great thought. This is in accordance with the teaching of the Abhidhamma: "One dwells without passion and the rest, practises the first meditatio.Q,jhdna, rightly, dwells on the perception of bloatedness and causes the arising of the boundless object".1 The great Elder Singiilapita uttered this stanza:
The heir of the Buddha, he, the almsman, in the fearful wood, Iws with "bony-precept" filled this earth, entirely. I think this almsman will, ill- n~ lont{ -tIme, abondon- lust}!

THE RECOLLECTION OF THE BUDDHA
Q. What is tlle recollection or-the Buddha? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What are its benefits? What is the procedure? A. The Enlightened One is the Blessed One who by his own efforts, with, out a teacher, understands tlle Noble Truths which were never heard before. He knows all. He possesses power. 8 He is free. Because of these qualities, he is called the Enlightened One. The yogin remembers the Enlightened One, the Blessed One, the Supremely Enlightened One and the worth of the Enlightenment. He recollects, repeatedly recollects, recollects again and again, does not forget to recollect on these. He remembers (the Enlightened One's) faculties and powers. He practises right recollectedness. Thus is tlle recollection of tlle Buddha. The undisturbed dwelling of the mind (in the recollection of the Buddha) - this is called the practising of it. The
1. Not traced. 2. Th. -18:
AM buddhassa diiyado bhikkhu Bhesakafiivane, kevalarir allhisaiiiliiya aphari pafhavirir imath. Maniie 'harir kiimariigarir so khippam eva pahiyatiti.

remembering of the Buddha's worth is its function. The growth in confidence is its near cause. He who practises the recollection of the Buddha acquires the following eighteen benefits: increase of confidence, mindfulness, wisdom, reverence, merit, great joy, ability to endure hardship, fearlessness, shamefastness· in the presence of evil, the state of living near the Teacher, enjoyment of activity belonging to the ground of the Buddhas, (the happiness of) faring wen and approaching the ambrosial.1 According to the Netti Sutta,2 if a man wishes to meditate on the Buddha, he should. worship Buddha images and such other objects. "What is the procedure?": The new yogin goes to a place of solitude and keeps his mind undisturbed. With this undisturbed mind, he remembers him who comes and goes in the same way, the Blessed One, consummate, supremely enlightened, endowed with true knowledge and conduct, sublime, knower of the world, matchless guide of men to be tamed, teacher of divine and human beings, enlightened, blessed. 8 Thus he reaches the further shore of merit. "Blessed One": Because he' gets the praise of the world, he is called the Blessed One. Because he has attained to excellent truth, he is called the Blessed One. Because he is worthy of offerings, he is called the Blessed One. Because he has acquired the highest merits, he is 'called the Blessed One and ~ecause he is the Lord of the Way-Truth, he is called the Blessed One. For these reasons is he called the Blessed One. "CiJnsummate": Because he is the recipient of gifts, he is consummate· Because he has killed the defilement-foes, he is consummate. Because he breaks the spokes of the wheel of birth and death, he is consummate.' "Supremely enlightened": Because he knows rightly all things, in all his activities, he is called the supremely enlightened. Because he has killed ignorance, he is called the supremely englightened and because he has attained to the enlightenment that is unrivalled, by himself, he is called the supremely enlightened.~ "Endowed with true knowledge and conduct": Knowledge means the three kinds of knowledge, i.e., the knowledge of past existences,.·the knowledge of the passing away and the arising of beings and the knowledge of the extinction of the cankers. The Blessed One has removed the ignorance of the past with the knowledge of past existences, the ignorance of the future with the know1. Only thirteen benefits are mentioned. 2. Lit. Netri Sutara. 3. cp. D. III, 76; A. I, 168; Sn. 132 (Selasutta): Iii pi so Bhagavii araham Sammas.ambuddho vijjiicaraJ;lasampanno sugalo lokavidu anuttaro purisatiammasiiralhi salthii devamanussiinam buddho Bhagavii. 4. Cpo Vis. Mag. 198; Sn.·a. 441: Arakii hi so sabbakilesehi maggena saviisaniinam kilesiinam viddhamsila(lii Ii iirakallii araham; Ie ca nena kilesiirayo mOlfllena halii Ii ar.inam halallii pi araham. 5. Cpo Vis. Mag. 201-2.

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ledge-of the passing away and the arising of beings, and the ignorance of the present with the knowledge of the extinction of the cankers.1 Having removed the ignorance of the past, the Blessed One sees, when he recollects, all past states in the course of all activities. Having removed the ignorance of the future, the Blessed One sees, when he recollects, all future states in the course of his activities. Having removed all present ignorance, the Blessed One sees, when he recollects, all present states in the course of his activities. "Conduct" means: "The being endowed with virtue' and concentration". in
knowled~e

"Virtue" means: "Endowed with all good states". and conduct".

He is caIled "perfect

"Perfect" means: "Endowed with supernormal powers". Hence he is called "perfect in knowledge and conduct". (Again) "endowed" means: "possessed of all concentration". Thus the Blessed One has great compassion and appreciative joy because of omniscience, the three kinds of knowledge and conduct. He acquired knowledge with facility, because he had benefitted the world [427]. He opened the path of science, because he knew all spheres. He is perfect in knowledge because none can surpass him, because he has destroyed all defilements and because of pure right action. He is perfect in conduct, because he has become the eye of the world and because he has blessed those who were unblessed. He is perfectly enlightened through knowledge, because .he has become the mainstay of the world and because he has rescued the fear-stricken. He saves through conduct, because he has acquired the supernormal power of the highest trutll. He, without a teacher, has acquired that excellent equipose of behaviour towards all things, because he has promoted the weal of the world. Thus, through being perfect in knowledge and conduct, he is caned the Blessed One. Thus is "perfect in knowledge and conduct" to be understood. a
1. M. I, 22-4: So evam samiihlle citle parisuddhe parlyodiite anailgaIJe vlgatiipakkilese muduMiite kammanlye thite iinejjappatte pubbenlviisiinussatliiiilJiiya cittam aMinlnniimeslm. So anekavlhltanl pubbenlviisam anussariiml, seyyathidam: ekampi jiitM dve pi jiitiyo . ...... So evam samiihile citle . ... iinejjappatte saltiinam cutiipapiitaiiiiIJiiya clltanl abhininniimeslm. So dlbbena eakkhunii visuddhena alikkantamiinusakena salle passiiml eavamiine upapajjamiine ... . So evam samiihlte eilte .... iinejjappalte iisaviinam khayaiiiiIJiiya ciltam abhininniimesith. So ldam dukkhanti yathiiMiitam abbhaililiisim .... 2. Cpo (a) D. 1,100: 'Katamampana tam Mo. Golama caraIJam, katamii sii vijjii ti?' 'Idha Ambattha Tathiigato loke uppajjatl araham sammiisamhuddho ....pe .... evam kho Amballha Mikkhu silasampanno hoti.' . ' .•. .pathamajjhiinam upasampajja viharati. Idam pi 'ssa hotl earaIJasmim' ... ,pe •.. . eatutthajjiinam upasampajja vlharali. Idam pi 'ssa hotl earQIJasmim. Idam kho tam Amba/tha earaIJam. . ' .. ..pe .... iiiilJa-dassaniiya cit/am abhiniharati abhinlnniimetl ....pe .... Idam pi 'ssa hoti vijjiiya ....pe . .. . niiparam itthattiiyiiti pajiiniili. Idam pi 'ssa hotl vijjiiya. Ayam kho sii Amballha vijjii. 'Ayam vuceali Ambattha·. bhikkhu vijjii-sampanno itl pi earaIJa-sampanno ItI pi vijjiiearQIJa-sampanno It I pi. Imiiy~ ell Ambaltha vijjii-earQIJa-sampadiiya aiiiiii vijjii-sampadii earaIJa-sampadii uttaritarii' vii pa(!itatarii vii n'atthi. (b) Sn.-a: II, 441: Sammii siimail ea saeeiinam buddhattii sammiisambuddho.

Subjects of Meditation

143

"Sublime": Because he has reached the good road, he is named "sublime". Be.causehe will not return again, and because he has attained to the extinction, Nibbtina, that is without residue of the substratum of being,! he is named "sublime". Again, because his teaching cannot be overturned he is called "sublime". And again, because his teachings are not untrue, he is called "sublime". And again, because his teachings are without disadvantages, he is called "sublime". And again, because his teachings are neither too many nor too few, he is called "sublime". "Knower of the world": World is of two kinds, i.e., the world of beings and the world of formations. 2 The Blessed One knows the world of being in the course of all his actions. Through the varying desires of beings, through the difference of faculties, through past lives, through the knowledge of the divine eye, through the knowledge of the passing away and arising of beings, through combination, through fulfilment, through various modes of differentiation, through various states of durability and non-durability, through various births, through various states of birth, through variqus planes, through various actions, through various defilements, through various results, through various kinds of good and evil and through various kinds of binding and unbinding, the Blessed One knows the world of beings. And again it is said "the world of formations": The Blessed One knows all action and he knows the many formations. Through concentration perception, through causes and conditions, through moral, immoral and the amoral, through various aggregations, through various worlds, through various spheres, through perfect .understanding, through impermanence, sorrow and not-self and through the born and the unborn, the Blessed One knows the world of formations. Thus is "knower of the world" to be understood. "Matchless": Because he is unsurpassable, in the world, he is called "matchless". And again, because he is without an equal, because he is most excellent, because he is incomparable and because others cannot excel him, he is named "matchless".3 "Guide of men to be tam~d": There are three kinds of persons: a man hears the Law and quickly is able to expound it; another man elucidates the principles of causes and conditions; and yet another makes clear-' the knowledge of past existences. But the Blessed One, having mastered the eightfold way of
1. cpo It. 38: Anupiidisesa nibbiinadhiitu. 2. Satta-Ioka, samkhiira-Ioka.-Cp. Sn.-a. II, 442: Sabbathii pi viditalokattii lokavidii, so hi sabhiivato samudayato nirodhato nirodhiipiiyato ti sabbathii khamihiiyataniidibhedam samkhiiralokam avedi, 'eko loko sabbe sattii ahiirallhitika, dye loka ndmail ca rupail ca, tayo loka tisso vedanii, cattiiro lokii cattaro ahara, pailca lokii pailc' upiidanakkhamiha, cha loka cha ajjhattikani ayatanani, satta loka satta viililiil;tallhitiyo, affha loka arrha lokadhamma, nava loka nava sattiiviisii, dasa lokii dasa iiyatanani, dvadasa lokii dvadasayalandni, allhiirasa lokii alfharasa dhaluyo' Ii evam pi sabbalha sarilkharalokam avedi; sattanam iisayam janati anusayam janati caritam janiiti adhimuttim jandti, apparajakkhe maharajakkhe tikkhindriye sviikare dvakare suviililiipaye duviililapaye bhabbe abhabbe satle janati ti subbathii sattalokam avedi. 3. Cpo Sn.-a.lI, 443: Attano pana gUl;tehi visillhatarassa kassaci abhiiva anultaro.

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emancipation, has tamed beings. Therefore, he is named "guide' of men to be tamed".l "Teacher of divine and human beings": The Blessed One has rescued divine and human beings from the fearful forest of birth, decay and death,. Therefore, he is called "teacher of divine and human beings". And again. he has taught the way of insight and the way of meditation, jhiina. Therefore, he is called "teacher of divine and human beings". Thus, in these ways should a man recall (the qualities) of him who comes and goes in the same way. Further, there is the teaching of the principal teacher:' In four ways should the Blessed One be remembered. He came to the world for the last 'time by his own efforts in the past. He was endowed with excellent virtue. He benefitted the world. During twenty incalculable 2 aeons from his first aspiration to his last birth, he had seen the faculties and the bases of faculties of countless 8 number of commoners. Therefore, he pities the world thus: "I have attained to liberation; now, I should liberate these. I have tamed myself; now, I should tame these. I have gained knowledge; now, I should cause knowledge to arise in these. I have reached Nibbana; now, I should cause these also to reach it".' He has reached completion and contentment in the fulfilling of charity, virtue, renunciation, fortitude, truth, resolution, loving-kindness, equanimity, energy and wisdom. He revealed the birth stories of the time when he was a Bodhisatta, in order to encourage others to gain the light. He was born as a hare and practised charity.5 One should recollect on virtue through the SamkhapaIa birth"story;8 on renunciation, through the Mahii-Govinda birthstory;7 on fortitude, through the Khanti birth-story;B on truth, through the Mahii Sutasoma birth-story;9 on resolution, through the Dumb-Cripple's birthstory;10 on loving-kindness, through the Sakka birth-story;l1 on equanimity, through the Lomahamsa birth-story;12 on energy, through the Chief of Merchants' birth-story;13 (on wisdom), through the Deer birth-story.u One should also recollect on the word of the father in the Dighiti-Kosala birth-story15 and one should recollect on the reverence of the White Six-tusked Elephant-sage.1s
1. Cpo Sn.-a. II, 443: Vicitrehi vinayanilpiiyehi purisadamme siireti ti purisadammasiirathi•. 2. Asankheyya. 3. Lit. 10,000,000,000,000. 4. Cpo (a) It. 123: Danto damayatam settho santo samayatam isi, multo mocayat<!m aggo ti1;lr.zo tiirayatam varo. (b) D. m, 54-5: Buddho so Bhagavii bodhiiya dhammalh desett, danto so Bhagaviidamathiiya dhammam deseti, santo so Bhagavii samathiiya dhammam deseti, tir.zr.zo so Bhagavii tarar.ziiya dhammam deseti, parinibbuto so Bhagavii parinibbiiniiya dhammam desetili. S. 7. 9. 11. 13. 15. J.-No. 316, C. Pit. 82-3. D. II, 230-251, C. Pit. 76. J. No. 537, C. Pit. 101-1. J. No. 31. Kuhaka J. No. 89, Seri Viinija J. No.3. 1. No. 371, ' 6. J. No. 524, C. Pit. 91. 8. J. No. 313. 10; Temiya J. No. 538, C. Pit. 96. 12. Nidiina-kathii, p. 10, C. Pit. p. 102. 14. J. No. 206 (1) 16. 1. No. 514.

Subjects of Meditation
Through the White-Horse birth-storyl one should recollect the visit of the Bodhisatta to help all beings. One should recollect that the Bodhisatta forsook his own life and saved another's life in the Deer birth-story.· One should recollect that the Bodhisatta, in the (Great) Monkey birth-story,8 saved a being from great suffering; and further one should remember that seeing a man who had fallen into a pit. he rescued him with heart of compassion and offered him roots, and fruits of trees and when that man, wishing to eat flesh, hurt the Bodhisatta's head, he taught that man the truth and pointed out the right road to him, in the Great Monkey birth-story.' Thus, one should concentrate on the merits of the birth-stories of the Blessed One in many ways. How should one recollect on the merits of the sacrifices of the Blessed One? The Blessed One fulfilled all things in his previous births. When he was young he removed the longing for all abodes. He removed the longing for child, wife, parents and friends. He forsook that which was hard to forsake. He lived alone in empty places. He aspired after Nibbtina. He .crossed the Neraiijarii in Magadha. He sat under the Bodhi tree, conquered the king of death and the demon armies. In the first watch of the night, he remembered his past lives; in the middle watch of the night, he gained the divine eye; and in the last watch of the night, he understood sorrow and its cause and saw the excellent.& Through the practice of the Noble Eightfold Path, he was able to destroy the cankers and attain to Enlighenment. He removed his body from the world and entered the highest and purest place of the extinction of the cankers. Thus one should recollect the sacrifices of the Blessed One in many ways. How should one recollect the virtues with which the Blessed One was endowed? The Blessed One acquired emancipation and the state of mind that is together with it, thus: through being endowed with the ten powers of him who comes and goes in the same way, the fourteen kinds of Buddhaknowledge' and the eighteen Buddha-virtues;7 through fuifilment of many meditations, jhdnas, and through reaching the further shore of freedom. Thus should the yogin recollect.
1. J. No. 196. 3. J. No. 407. 5. M. I, 248-9: 2. J. No. 12. 4. J. No. 516.

What are the ten powers of the Blessed One? He knows the proper from the improper, according to reality; knows the causes and consequenceS' of good actions of the past, future and present, according to reality; knows the various intentions of beings, according to reality; knows the various kinds of behaviour, according to reality; knows the causes and consequences leading to the world of deities, hrunans and others, according to reality; knows the differences in the faculties of beings, according to reality; knows the pure and that which is with defilement in meditation (jhtina), emancipation, concentration and attainment, according to reality; knows his past existences, according to reality; knows the passing away and the arising of beings, according to reality; knows the extinction of the cankers, according to reality.l The Blessed One is endo.wed with these ten powers. What are the fourteen kinds of Buddha-knowledge 7 They are, namely, knowledge of sorrow, knowledge of sorrow's cause, knowledge of sorrow's cessation, knowledge of the way, knowledge of the analysis of meaning, knowledge of the analysis of the law, knowledge of the analysis of derivation, knowledge of the analysis of argument, knowledge of the causes and consequences leading to the world of deities, humans and others, knowledge of the differences in the faculties of beings, knowledge of the twin miracle, knowledge of the great thought of compassion, omniscience, and knowledge that is without the hindrances. These are the fourteen kinds of Buddha-knowledge. Thus is the Blessed One endowed with these fourteen kinds of knowledge. 2 What are the eighteen virtues fulfilled by the Blessed One 7" Unobstructed Buddha-knowledge ofthe past; unobstructed Buddha-knowledge of the future; unobstructed Buddha-knowledge of the present; all bodily actions are led by knowledge and appear in accord with it; all verbal actions are led by knowledge and appear in accord with it; all mental actions are led by knowledge and appear in accord with it - these six virtues has the Blessed One fulfilled. Non-impairment of the will; non-impairment of energy; nonimpairment of mindfulness; non-impairment of concentration; non-impairment of wisdom; non-impairment of freedom - these twelve virtues has the Blessed One fulfilled. Absence of uncertainty; absence of deception; absence of that which is not clear; absence of hurry; absence of state that is not known; absence of equanimity that is removed from reflection.
1. Cpo Pts. II, 175-6; S. V, 304-6: Thiinii(hiiJla-, kammavipiika-, niiniidhimutli-, niinMhiitu-,
sabbatthagiimini-pa(ipadii-, indriyaparopariyatti-, jhiinavimokkhasalniidhi-salniipattisamkilesavodiinavufthiina-, pubbenivtisiinussati-, 'cutfipapiita-, tisavakkhaya- iIii(IIJ. 2. Cpo PIs. I, 3, 133: Dukkhe-, dtlkkha-samudllye-, dukkha-nirodhe-, dukkhanirocihagiiminiyiL pafipadiiya-, atthapa(isambhide-, dhammapa(isambhide-, niruttipafisambhide-, pa(ibhiinapa(isambhi<k-, indriyaparopariyatte-, sattiinam iisayiinusaye-, yamakapiifihire-, mahiikarUf,Uisamiipattiyii-, sabbaflfluta-, aniivara(IIJ- iIii(IIJm. 3. (a)LaI. V. 183,343: Atitamse, aniigamse, paeeuppannamse, buddhassa bhagavato appafihatam iliilJam. Sabbam kiiya kammam, sabbam vaei kammam, sabbam mano kammam iliilJapubbaligamam iiiilJiinuparivattam. Natthi chandassa hani, natlhi dhammadesaniiya hani, Mtthi viriyassa hiini, natthi samiid/Jissa hiini, natthi paiiiliiya hani, natiM vimuttiyii hani, Mtthl clavii, natlhi ravii, natlhi apphu/am, natthi vegayittatam, natthi abyiiila/amano, natiM appatisankhiinupekkhii - (Atfhiirasa- asiidharalJa-iivelJika BuddhagulJii). See Mil. 105, 285.

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"Absence of uncertainty" means: "His bearing is dignified; there is nothing unseemly in his action". "Absence of deception" means: "He has no craftiness". "Absence of that which is not clear" means: "That there is nothing that his knowledge cannot sense". "Absence of hurry" means: "His behaviour is free from hurry". "Absence of state that is not known" means: "He is completely aware of his mental processes". "Absence of equanimity that is removed from reflection" means: "There is no state of equanimity in him of which he is not aware". These eighteen virtues has the Blessed One fulfilled.! And again, the Blessed One has reached the other shore with facility having fulfilled all good through the skilfulness belonging to him who comes and goes in the same waY,2 through the four foundations of mindfulness, through the four right efforts, through the four bases of supernormal power, through the five faculties, the five powers, the six kinds of supernormal knowledge, the seven factors of enlightenment, through the Noble Eightfold Path, through the eight positions of mastery, through the eight kinds of emancipation, through the nine gradually ascending states, through the ten Ariyan abodes and through the way of analytical science. Thus one should recall to mind that Blessed One who has acquired the merits of the Excellent Law through these ways. How should one remember the benefits with which the Blessed One has blessed the world? The Blessed One has fulfilled all merits and has reached the further shore. No other being could have turned the Wheel, of the Law which the Blessed One set a-rolling out of compassion for all beings. Without making an esoteric and an exoteric division of doctrine, he has opened wide the gate of the immortaJ.3 He has caused an incalculable number of deities and humans to acquire the fruit of holiness. He has caused an incalculable
(b) Sv. III,994: Attharasa Buddhadhamma nama: N'atthi Tathagatassa kaya-duccaritam, n'atthi vaci-duccaritam, n' atthi mano-duccaritam: atite Buddhassa appalihatam i/iiJ;Iam, anagate . ..... , paccuppanne Buddhassa appalihatam iiaJ.Ulm: sabbam kaya-kammam Buddhassa Bhagavato iial;tanuparivatti, sabbam vaci-kammam . ..... , sabbam mano-kammam Buddhassa Bhagavato iial;tanuparivatti: n'atthi chandassa hani, n'atthi viriyassa hani, n'atthi satiya hani: n'atthi dava, n'atthi rava, n'atthi balitam, n'atthi sahasa, n'atthi avyava{o mano, n' atthi akusala-cittan ti. (c) M. Vyut: Atite'dhvany asarigam apratihatamjiianadharsanam pravartate. Anagate-. Pratyutpanne-. Sarvakayakarmajiianapurvarizgamam jiiananuparivarti. Sarvavakkarma-. Sarvamanaskarma-. Nasti chandasya hiini/.t: nast; viriyasya hani/.t; niisti smrter hiinifl; nosti samodher hani/.t; nosti prajiiaya hiini/.t; nasti vimukter hiini/.t; nasti skalitam; nasti nanatva samjiia; nosty-asamahitacittam; nasti ravitam; nasti mu#tasmrtita; nasty-apratisamkhiya-

1. The last six are not exactly according to the Pall or the Sanskrit. Here the text is not quite clear. 2. M. I, 71: Cattarimani Soriputta Tathiigatassa vesarajjonl. Cpo Vis. Mag. 524. 3. D. II, 39: Aparuta tesam amatassa dvara.

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number of beings to acquire merit with the three miracles, namely, the miracle of supernormal power, the miracle of mind reading and the miracle of instruction. l He has aroused confidence in the hearts of men. He has overthrown all soothsaying and all false views. He has obliterated the bad road and opened the good road and made men to acquire the fruit ofliberation or birth in the heaven world. He has caused his hearers to obtain peace and dwell in the law of the hearer." He has set down many precepts, preached the Piilimokkha, established beings in excellent merit, given them the perfect teaching of the Enlightened One and filled the world full (with the Truth). All beings worship and honour him, and all deities and humans hear him. Thus the Blessed One, who dwells unperturbed, has compassionated and benefitted the world, has done what should be done. That yogin recollects him who comes and goes in the same way, thus: Through these ways and these virtues, he arouses confidence in his mind. Being full of confidence and being easy in the recollection, his mind is always undisturbed. Because of his mind being undisturbed, he attains to accessmeditation. Q. How is it that one who meditates on the Buddha attains to access and not to fixed meditation, jhiina?
A.

wisdom. owing to When he This is a

In the highest sense, the virtue of the Buddha is a subject of profound In this sense the yogin cannot attain to fixed meditation, jhiina, abstruseness. And again, he has to recollect not merely one virtue. thinks on many virtues he cannot attain to fixed meditation, jhiina. subject of meditation of all access-concentration.

Q. Access is attained through concentration on a single object. Ifhe thinks on many virtues, his mind is not concentrated. How then does he gain access? A. If he recollects the virtues of him who comes and goes in the same way and of the Ellllghtened One, the yogin's mind becomes concentrated. Therefore, he is untroubled. Again it is taught that from the recollection of the Buddha, the four meditations, jhiinas, arise. 3 The recollection of the Buddha has ended.
1. D. I, 212 If.; m, 220: TilJi piilihiiriyiini. fddhi-piitihiiriyam, iidesanii-piilihiiriyam, anusiisani-

Q. What is the recollection of the Law? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What is the procedure? A. The Law means extinction, Nibbiina, or the practice by means of which extinction, Nibbdna, is reached. The destruction of all activity, the abandoning of all defilements, the eradication of craving, the becoming stainless and tranquillized-these are called extinction, Nibbdna. What are the practices leading to extinction, Nibbdna? Namely, the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the five powers, the seven factors. of enlightenment, the Noble Eightfold "Path -these are called the practices leading to Nibbdna. The recollection of the Law is the virtue of renunciatiou and the virtue of the Way. This recollection is recollectedness and right recollectedness. Thus is recollection of the Law to be understood. The undisturbed dwelling of the mind (in this recollection) is the practising of it. The awareness of the virtues of the Law is its salient characteristic. Analysis of the Law is its function. The understanding of the meaning is its near cause. Its benefits are equal to those of the recollection of the Buddha.

"What is the procedure?": The new yogin goes to a place of solitude and keeps his mind undisturbed. With. undisturbed mind, he recollects thus: The Law is well-taught by the Blessed One, is visible, not subject to time, inviting, conducive to perfection, to be attained by the wise, each one for himself.l "The Law is well-taught by the Blessed One": It is free from extremes, 2 therefore it is called "well-taught". There are no inconsistencies in it, therefore it is called "well-taught". There are no contradictions in it and it is endowed with the three kinds of goodness, therefore it is called "well-taught". It is completely spotless, therefore it is called "weIr-taught". It leads beings to extinction, Nibbdna, wherefore it is called "well-taught". "Visible": Because one gains the Paths and the Fruits in succession, it is called "visible". Because one sees extinction, Nibbdna, and the (other) Fruits of the Path, it is called "visible". "Not subject to time": Without lapse of time fruition occurs. Therefore, it is called "not subject to time".
bhati, passaddhakayo sukham vediyati, sukhino cittam samadhiyati. ( = Pamuditassa Ii duvidhena pilipamujjena pamuditassa; piti jayati Ii paficavidhii piti nibbattali; kayo passambhati ti namakiiyo ca karajakayo ca darathapa(ippassadhiya pa(ippassambhati; sukhan ti kiiyikacetasikam sukham; samadhiyati II aramma(le samma Ihapitam hoti. Corny. (Mp.) III, 337.). 1. S. II, 69; A. I, 207; D. III, 5:. Saviikkhiito Bhagavata Dhammo sandi/!hiko akaliko ehi-passiko opanayiko paccattam veditabbo vififiiihiti. 2. Yin. I, 10; S. Y, 421: Dve me bhikkhave antii pabbajitena na sevitabM. Katame dye? Yo cayam kamesu kamasukhallikdnuyogo hino gammo pothujjaniko anariyo anatthasamhlto. Yo cayariJ attakiiamatMnuyogo dukkho anariyo anatthasOlilhito. Ete te bhikkhave ubha ante anupagamma mqjjhlmd palipadii Tathiigatena abhisambuddha . ...

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"Inviting": It says: "Come and see my worth!". In the same way, those who have the ability to teach are called men who say "Come and see!". "Conducive to perfection": If a man acknowledges it, he will reach the immortal. Such is that which is "conducive to perfection". What leads to the fruition of holiness is called that which is "conducive to perfection". "To be attained by the wise, each one for himself": If a man acknowledges if and does not accept other teachings, he causes the arising of the knowl edge of cessation, the knowledge of the unborn and the knowledge of free dom. Therefore, it is called that which is "to be attained by the wise, each one for himself". Further, the yogin should recollect the Law in other ways thus: It is the eye; it is knowledge; it is peace; it is the way leading to the immortal; it is renunciation; it is the expedience whereby cessation is won; it is the way to the ambrosial; it is non-retrogression; it is the best; it is non-action, solitude, exquisiteness. It is not soothsaying. It is the most excellent object for the wise man's mind. It is to cross over to the other shore; it is the place of refuge. That yogin in these ways and through these virtues recollects the Law, and his mind is filled with confidence. On account of this confidence, his mind is undisturbed. Because of the undisturbed state of the mind, he destroys the hindrances, arouses the meditation, (jhiina) factors and dwells in access-concentration. The rest is as was fully taught above.

The recollection of the Law has .enaed.
THE RECOLLECTION OF THE COMMUNITY OF BHIKKHUS Q. What is the recollection of the Community of Bhikkhus 1 (What is the practising of it 1) What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause 1 What is the procedure 1 A. The congregation of the saints is the Community of Bhikkhus. This is called the Community of Bhikkhus~ The yogin recollects the virtue of the observances of the Community of Bhikkhus. This recollection is recollectedness and right recollectedness. Such is the recollection of the Community of Bhikkhus to be understood. The. undisturbed dwelling of the mind in this recollection is the practising of it. Awareness of the virtues of the Community of Bhikkhus is Its salient characteristic; reverence is its function; appreciation of the virtues of the Community of Bhikkhus is its near cause. Its benefits are equal to those of the recollection of the Buddha,. "What is the procedure 1" : The new yogin goes to a place of solitude and keeps his mind undisturbed. With undisturbed mind, he recollects thus: The Community of Hearers of the Blessed One is of good conduct, the Community of Hearers of the Blessed One is of upright conduct, the Community of Hearers of 'the Blessed One is of righteous conduct, the Community of

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Hearers of the Blessed One is of dutiful conduct. This Community of Hearers of the Blessed One, namely, the four pairs of men and the eight kinds of individuals, is worthy of offerings, worthy of hpspitality, worthy of gifts, worthy of reverential salutation, is the incomparable field of merit of the world. 1 "The Community of Hearers of the Blessed One is of good conduct": The Community of Hearers of the Blessed One is of "good conduct", because it follows the good word. It is of "good conduct" and "uptight conduct", because it benefits itself and others. It is of "good conduct" and "upright conduct" because it has no enemy. It is of "good conduct" and "upright conduct" because it avoids the two extremes and takes the mean. It is of ':'good conduct" and "upright conduct", because.it is free from hypocrisy. It is "good conduct", because it is free from wickedness and crookedness and free from unclean action of body and speech. "Is of righteous conduct": It is of "righteous conduct" because it follows the Noble Eightfold Path. And again, "righteous" is an appellation of extinction, Nibblina. It is of "righteous", "good conduct", because it follows the Noble Eightfold Path and reaches extinction, Nibblina. It is of "righteous", "good conduct", because it follows the Four Noble Truths taught by the Buddha. "Is of dutiful conduct": It is of "dutiful conduct" because it is perfect in the practice of unity in the Community of Bhikkhus. It is of "dutiful conduct", because, seeing the great fruit of virtue and the increase of virtue which follow the practice of unity, it observes this (unity). "The four pairs of men and the eight kinds of individuals": The Path and the Fruit of Stream-entrance are regarded as the attainments of a pair of men. The Path and the Fruit of Once-returning are regarded as the attainment of a pair of men. The Path and Fruit of Non-returning are regarded as the attainments of a pair of men. The Path and Fruit of the Consummate One are regarded as the attainments of a pair of men. These are called "the four pairs of men". "The eight kinds of indi~iduals" are they who gain the four Paths and the four Fruits. These are called the eight kinds of individuals. Because the Community of Bhikkhus dwells in these Paths and Fruits, it is said to consist of the four pairs of men. Those who dwell in the four Paths and the four Fruits are called the eight kinds of individuals. "Hearers": It (the Community of hearers) accomplishes after having heard. Therefore it is called (the Community of) hearers. "Community": The congregation of saints.
1.

worthy of offerings, worthy of gifts, worthy of reverential salutation, and is the imcomparable field of merit of the world. "Worthy of hospitality": Worthy of hospitality means worthy of receiving invitations. "Worthy of offerings": Great is the fruit that could be obtained through offerings made to it. And again, it is worthy of receiving offerings. "Worthy of gifts: One acquires great fruit by gifting various things to it. "Worthy of reverential salutation": It is fit to receive worship. Therefore it is called worthy of reverential salutation. "Incomparable": It is possessed of many virtues. Therefore it is called incomparable. "Field of merit of the world": This is the place where all beings acquire merit. Therefore it is called the field of merit .of the world. And again, the yogin should recollect through other ways thus: This Community of Bhikkhus is the congregation that is most excellent and good. It is called the best. It is endowed with virtue, concentration, wisdom, freedom and the knowledge of freedom. That yogin recollects these various Virtues in different ways. Through this recollection of the various virtues~ he becomes confident. Owing to the recollection of confidence, his mind is undisturbed. With undisturbed mind he is able to destroy the hindrances, arouse the meditation Uhiina) factors and attain to access. The rest is as was fully taught above.
The recollection of the Community of Bhikkhus haS ended.

THE RECOLLECTION OF VIRTUE
Q. Whatis the recollection of virtue? What is the practising of it. What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What is the procedure? A. Through virtue one recollects pure morals. This recollectedness is recollection and right recollectedness. Thus should the recollection of virtue be understood. The undisturbed dwelling of the mind in the recollection of virtue is the practising of it. Awareness of the merit of virtue is its salient characteristic. To see the fearfulness of tribulation is its function. Appreciation of the unsurpassable happiness (of virtue) is its near cause. Twelve are the benefits of the recollection of virtue thus: One honours th~ Teacher, esteems the Law, and the Contmunity 01 Bhikkhus, respects the precepts crt" virtue, esteems offerings, becomes heedful, sees danger in and fears the smallest fault,l guards oneself, protects others, has no fear of this world, has no fear of the other world and enjoys the many benefits accruing from the observance of all precepts. These are the benefits of the recollection of virtue.
1.. D. I, 63:
AlJumatfesu lIajjesu bhaya..tfassiivi.

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"What is the procedure?": The new yogin goes to a place of solitude and keeps his mind undisturbed. With this undisturbed mind, he recollects thus: "My virtue is unbroken, indefective, unspotted, unblemished, liberating, praised by the wise, untainted, conducive to concentration".1
If unbroken, they are indefective. If indefective, they are unspotted. The others should be known in the same way. Again, because when virtue is pure, they become the resorting-ground of all good states, they come to be called "unbroken and indefective". As they constitute the honour of caste, they are called unspotted and unblemished. As they constitute the joy of the Consummate One, and bear no tribulation, they are called "praised by the wise". As they are untouched by views, they are called "untainted". As they lead to sure stations, they are called "conducive to concentration".

Further, the yogin should practise recollection of virtue in other ways thinking thus: "Virtue is the bliss of separation from tribulation. This caste is worthy of honour. The treasure of virtue is secure. Its benci1its have already been taught". Thus should virtue be understood. That yogin practises recollection of virtue considering its merits through these ways. Owing to his recollectedness and confidence, his mind is not disturbed. With this undisturbed mind he destroys the hindrances, arouses the meditation (jluina) factors and attains to access-meditation. The rest is as was fully taught above.

The recollection of virtue has ended,
THE RECOLLECTION OF LIBERALITY

Q. What is the Recollection of liberality? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What is the procedure?
A. Liberality means that one gives one's wealth to others wishing to benefit them, and in order to derive the happiness of benefitting others. Thus is liberality to be understood. One dwells indifferent in the recollection of the virtue of liberality. This recollectedness is recollection and right recollectedness. This is called recollection of liberality. The undisturbed dwelling of the mind in this recollection is the practising of it. Awareness of the merit of liberality is its salient characteristic. Non-miserliness is its function. Non-covetousness is its near cause.
I

he is not miserly, thinks of others, becomes dear to others, does not fear in others' company, has much joy, acquires the compassionate mind, fares well' and approaches the ambrosial. "What is the procedure?": The new yogin goes to a place of solitude and keeps his mind undisturbed. With undisturbed mind he practises recol!ection of liberality thus: "Through abandoning things I have benefitted others; therefrom I have gained much merit. The vulgar, by reason of the dirt of covetousness, are drawn to things. I live with mind non-coveting and not unclean. Always I give and enjoy giving to others. Always I give and distribute".1 That yogin in these ways practises the recollection of liberality. Through the recollection of liberality his mind is endowed with confidence. Because of this recollection and confidence, his mind is always undisturbed. With undisturbed mind he destroys the hindrances, arouses the meditation (jhiina) factors and attains to access-concentration. The rest is as was fully taught above.
The recollection of liberality has ended.

THE RECOLLECTION OF DEITIES
Q. What is the recollection of deities? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What is the procedure? A. Considering the benefit of birth in a heaven, one recollects one's own merits. This recollectedness is recollection and right recollectedness. This is called recollection of deities. The undisturbed dwelling of the mind in this recollection is the practising of it. Awareness of one's own merits and the merits of the deities is its salient characteristic. To admire merit is its function. Confidence in the fruit of merit is its near cause. A man who practises the recollection of deities gains eight benefits: he increases five qualities, namely, confidence, virtue, learning, liberality and wisdom; he can gain that which heavenly beings desire and to which they are devoted; he is happy in the anticipation of the reward of merit; he honours his body; he is reverenced by heavenly beings. Through this, he is able to practise virtue and recollection ofliberality also. He fares well and approaches the ambrosial. "What is the procedure 1": The new yogin goes to a place of solitude and keeps his mind undisturbed. With undisturbed mind he practises the recollection of deities thinking thus: "There are the Four Regents. There are the deities
I. A. III, 287; Puna ca param Mahiilliima ariyasiivako attano ciigam anussarati 'liiMii vata me sllladdham vata me, yo' ham maccheramalaparlYU(fhitiiya pajiiya vigatamalamaccherena cetasii agiiram ajjhiivasiimi muttaciigo payatapii{li vossaggarato yiicayogo diinasamvibhiigarato'ti.

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of Ttivatimsa, Ytima, Tusita, Nimmtinarati, Paranimmitavasavatti heavens. There. are the Brahma-group deities and other deities. Those deities, being endowed with such confidence, on dying here, were born there. I too have such confidence. Endowed with such virtue, such learning, such liberality and such wisdom, those deities were born there. I too have such wisdom".l Thus he recollects his own and the deities' confidence, virtue, learning, liberality and wisdom. That yogin in these ways and through these virtues practises the recollection of deities, and is thereby endowed with confidence. Owing to confidence and recollectedness, his mind is undisturbed. With undisturbed mind he destroys the hindrances, arouses the meditation (jhtina) factors and attains to access-meditation. Q. Why does one recollect the merit of deities and not of humans? A. The merit of the deities is the most excellent. They are born in excellent realms and are endowed with excellent minds. Having entered a good realm, they are endowed with good. Therefore one should recollect the merit of the deities and not the merits of men. The rest is as was fully taught above.
The recollection of deities has ended.

Section Four MINDFULNESS OF RESPIRATION
Q. What is mindfulness of respiration 71 What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and ne;lr cause 7 What are its benefits 7 What is the procedure? A. Inhalation2 is the incoming breath. Exhalation3 is the outgoing breath. The perceiving of the incoming breath and the outgoing breath-this is being mindful, mindfulness and right mindfulness. The undisturbed dwelling of the mind (in this mindfulness) is the practising of it. To cause the arising of perception as regards respiration is its salient characteristic. Attending to contact4 is its function. Removal of discursive thoughtG is its near cause.

BENEFITS
"What are its benefits 7": If a man practises mindfulness of respiration, he attains to the peaceful, the exquisite, the lovely, and the blissful life. He causes evil and demeritorious states to disappear and to perish as soon as they arise. 6 He is not negligent as regards his body Of' his organ of sight. His body and mind do not waver or tremble. 7 He fulfils the four foundations of mindfulness, the seven enlightenment factors and freedom. This has been praised by the
1. Aniipanasati. 2. Ana. 3. Apana. 4. Phassa. 5. Vitakka. 6. S. V, 321-22: Aniipanasati samadhi bhlivito bahulikato santo ceva pal)ito ca asecanako ca sukho ca viharo uppannllpanne ca p{/pake akllsale dhamme thanaso antaradhapeti
vupasameti.

in and breathing out. That yogin attends to the incoming breath here. He considers the contact of the incoming and the outgoing breath, througfi mindfulness that is fixed at the nose-tip or on the lip. Mindfully, he breathes in; mindfully, he breathes out. He does not consider (the breath) when it has gone in and also when it has gone out. 1 He considers the contact of the incoming breath and the outgoing breath, at the nose-tip or on the lip, with rinndfulness. He breathes in and breathes out with mindfulness. It is as if a man were sawing wood. That man does not attend to the going back and forth of the saw. In the same way the yogin does not attend to the perception of the incoming and the outgoing breath in mindfulness of respiration. He is aware of the contact at the nose-tip or on the lip, and he breathes in and out, with mindfulness. ~ If, when the breath comes in or goes out, the yogin considers the inner or the outer, his mind will be distracted. If his mind is distracted, his body and mind will waver and tremble. These are the disadvantages. He should not purposely breathe very long or very short breaths. If he purposely breathes very long or very short breaths, his mind will be distracted and his body and mind will waver and tremble. These are the disadvantages. He should not attach himself to diverse perceptions connected with breathing in and breathing out. If he does so, his other mental factors will be disturbed. If his mind is disturbed, his body and mind will waver and tremble. Thus countless impediments arise because the points of contact of the incoming breath and the outgoing breath are countless. He should be mindful and should not let the mind be distracted. He should not essay too strenuously nor too laxly. If he essays too laxly, he will fall into rigidity and torpor. If he essays too strenuously, he will become restless. If the yogin falls into rigidity and torpor or becomes restless, his body and mind will waver and tremble. 3 These are the disadvantages. To the yogin who attends to the incoming breath with mind that is cleansed of the nine lesser defilements the image 4 arises with a pleasant feeling similar to that which is produced in the action of spinning cotton or silk cotton. Also,
1. Cpo Pts. 165: Assiisiidimajjhapariyosiinam satiyii anugacchato ajjhattam vikkhepagatena cittena kiiyo pi cittam pi siiraddhii ca honti iiijitii ca phanditii ca, passiisiidimajjhapariyosiinam satiyii anugacchato bahiddhii vikkhepagatena cittena kiiyo pi . .. .pe . .. .phanditii ca. 2. Cpo Pts. I, 171: Seyyathiipi rukkho same bhUmibhiige nikkhitto, tamenam puriso kakacena chindeyya, rukkhe phutthakakacadantiinam vasena purisassa sati upatthitii hoti, na iigate vii gate vii kakacadante manasikaroti, na iigatii vii gatii vii kakacadantii aviditii honti, padhiinaii ca paiiiiiiyati, payogaii ca siidheti, visesam adhigacchati: Yathii rukkho same bhiimibhiige nikkhitto, evam upanibandhanii nimittam, yathii kakacadantii evam assiisapassiisii, yathii rukkhe phutthakakacadantiinam vasena purisassa sati upaUhitii hoti, nti iigate vii gate vii kakacadante manasikaroti, na iigatii vii gatii vii kakacadantii aviditti honti, padhiinaii ca paiiiiiiyati, payogaii ca siidheti, visesam adhigacchati-evamevam bhikkhii ntisikagge vii mukhanimitte vii satim upafthapetvii nisinno hoti, na iigate vii gate vii assiisapassiise manaslKaroti na iigatii vii gatii vii assiisapassiisii aviditii honti, padhiinaii ca paiiiiiiyati, payogaii ca siidheti, visesam adhigacchati. 3. Pts. I, 166: Linena cittena kosajjiinupatitena kiiyo pi cittam pi siiraddhii ca honti iiijitii ca phanditii ca, atipaggahitena cittena uddhacciinupatitena kiiyo pi . .. .pe . .. .phanditii ca.
.

~~~

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it is likened to the pleasant feeling produced by a breeze.1 Thus in breathing in and out, air touches the nose or the lip and causes the setting-up of air perception mindfulness. This does not depend on colour or form.2 This is called the image. If the yogin develops the image and increases it at the nose-tip, between the eye-brows, on the forehead or establishes it in several places,3 he feels as if his head were filled with air. Through increasing in this way his whole body is charged with bliss. This is called perfection. And again, there is a yogin: he sees several images from the beginning. He sees various forms such as smoke, mist, dust, sand of gold, or he experiences something similar to the pricking of a needle or to an ant's bite. If his mind does not become clear regarding these different images, he will be confused. Thus he fulfils overturning and does not gain the perception of respiration. If his mind becomes clear, the yogin does not experience confusion. He attends to respiration and he does not cause the arising of other perceptions. Meditating thus he is able to end confusion and acquire the subtle image. And he attends to respiration with mind that is free. That image is free. Because that image is free, desire arises. Desire being free, that yogin attends to respiration and becomes joyful. Desire and joy being free, he attends to respiration with equipoise. Equipoise, desire and joy being free, he attends to respiration, and his mind is not disturbed. If his mind is not disturbed, he will destroy the hindrances, and arouse the meditation Uhana) factors. Thus this yogin will reach the calm and sublime fourth meditation, jhiina. This is as was funy taught above. COUNTING, CONNECTION, CONTACTING AND FIXING And again, certain predecessors4 taught four ways of practising mindfulness of respiration. They are counting, connection, contacting and fixing.5 Q. What is counting? A. A new yogin counts the breaths from one to ten, beginning with the outgoing breath and ending with the incoming breath. He does not count beyond ten. / Again, it is ta1.!ght that he counts from one to five but does not count beyond five. He does not miss. At that time (i.e., when he misses) he should count (the next) or stop that count. Thus he dwells in mindfulness of respiration, attending to the object. Thus should counting be understood. "Connection": Having counted, he follows respiration with mindfulness, continuously. This is called connection.
1. Vis. Mag. 285: Api ca kho kassaci sukhasamphassam uppiidayamiino, tUiapicu viya, kappiisapicu viya, viiladhiirii viya ca upaffhiili Ii ekacce iihu. Ayam pana affhakathiisu vinicchayo:-.... 2. Cpo Vis. Mag. 286: Athii'nena lam nimitlam neva va(l(lato manasikiilabbam, na lakkha(lalO paccavekkhilabbam. 3. Cpo Manual of a Mystic (P.T.S. translation) of Yogavacara's Manual 8 If. 4. Possibly Porii(lii. 5. Vis. Mag. 278: Tatrayam manasikiiravidhi:- ga(lana, anubandhanii, phusanii, fhapanii. Here it is interesting to note that the Venerable Buddhaghosa Thera does not ascribe this teaching to 'ekacce' as he usually does; nor does he go to the Atthakalhii for authority.

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"Contacting": Having caused the arising of air perception, he dwells, attending to the contact of respiration at the nose-tip or on the lip. This is called contacting. "Fixing": Having acquired facility in contacting, he should establish the image, and he should establish joy and bliss and other states which arise here. Thus should fixing be known. That counting suppresses uncertainty. It causes the abandoning of uncertainty. Connection removes gross discursive thinking and causes unbroken mindfulness of respiration. Contacting removes distraction and ..makes for steady perception. One attains to distinction through bliss. SIXTEEN WAYS OF TRA.INING IN MINDFULNESS OF RESPIRATION (1) and (2) "Breathing in a long breath, breathing out a short breath, breathing in a short breath, thus he trains himself"l ................... . Knowledge causes the arising of non-confusion and the object. Q. What is non-confusion and what is the object? A. The new yogin gains tranquillity of body and mind and abides in mindfulness of respiration. The respirations become subtle. Because of subtility they are hard to lay hold of. If at that time, the yogin's breathing is long, he, through fixing, knows it is long. If the image arises he .considers it through its own nature. Thus should non-confusion be known. And again he should consider the breaths, whether long or short (as the case may be). Thus should he practise. And again, the yogin causes the arising of the clear image through the object. Thus should one practise. (3) "Experiencing the whole body, I breathe in', thus he trains himself": In two ways he knows the whole body, through non-confusion and through the object. Q. What is the knowledge of the whole body through nonconfusion? A. A yogin practises mindfulness of respiration and develops concentration through contact accompanied by joy and bliss. Owing to the experiencing of contact accompanied by joy and bliss the whole body becomes non-confused. Q. What is the knowledge of the whole body through the object? A. The incoming breath and the outgoing breath comprise the bodily factors dwelling in one sphere. The object of respiration and the mind and the mental properties are called "body". These bodily factors are called "body"" Thus should the whole body be known. That yogin knows tlj,e whole body thus: "Though there is the body, there is no being or soul".s
1. This paragraph is not clear. Unintelligibility is not an uncommon feature of this Chinese text. The quotations (1) and (2) are not in full. The rest, (3) to (16), are from S. V, 311-12 quoted earlier. 2. Cpo S. V, 329-30: Kiiyafifiatariiham Ananda etam vadiimi yad idam assiisapassiisam. 3. As. 38, Sec .. 93: Tasmim kho pana samaye dhammii honti dhammesu dhammiinupassi viharati ti iidisu nissattanijjivatiiyam. Sviiyam idhiipi nissattanijjivatiiyam eva vattati.

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THE THREE TRAININGS

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"Thus he trains himself" refers to the three trainings. The first is the training of the higher virtue, the second is the training of the higher thought, the third is the training of the higher wisdom. l True virtue is called the trl,lining of the higher virtue; true concentration is called the training of the higher thought; and true wisdom is called the training of the higher wisdom. That yogin by these three kinds of training meditates on the object, recollects the object and trains himself. He practises repeatedly. This is the meaning of "thus he trains himself". (4) "'Calming the bodily formation, I breathe'; thus he trains himself": Which are the bodily formations? He breathes in and out with such bodily formations as bending down; stooping, bending all over, bending forward, moving, quivering, trembling and shaking. z And again, he calms the gross bodily· formations and practises the first meditation, jhtina, through the subtle bodily formations. From there, he progresses to the second meditation, jhiina, through the more subtle bodily formations. From there, he progresses to the third meditation, jhiina, through the still more subtle bodily formations. From there, he progresses to the fourth meditation, jhiina, having ended (the bodily formations) without remainder. A. If he causes the ending of respiration without remainder, 3 how is he able to practise mindfulness of respiration? A. Because he has grasped well the general characteristics, the image· arises even when the respirations lapse. And because of these many characteristics, he is able to develop the image and enter into meditation,
jhiina.

bliss can be known through two ways: through non-confusion and through ' the object. The rest is as was fully taught above. (7) "'Experiencing the mental formations, I breathe in', thus he trains himself": "Mental formations" means: "Perception and feeling". He arouses these mental formations in four meditations, jhtinas. He knows through two ways: through non-confusion and through the object. The rest is as was fuiIy taught above. (8) "'Calming the mental formations, I breathe in', thus he trains himself": The mental formations are called perception and feeling. He calms the gross mental formations and trains himself. The rest is as was fully taught above. (9) "'Experiencing the mind, I breathe in', thus he trains himself": He attends to· the incoming bre!lth and the outgoing breath. The mind is aware of entering into and going out of the object, through two ways: through non-confusion and through the object. The rest is as was fully taught above. (10) "'Gladdening the mind, I breathe in', thus he trains himself": Joy means rejoicing. In two meditations, jhtinas, he causes the mind to exult. Thus he trains himself. The rest is as was fully taught above. (11) "'Concentrating the mind, I breathe in', thus he trains himself": That yogin attends to the incoming breath and the outgoing breath. Through mindfulness and through meditation, jhtina, he causes the mind to be intent on the object. Placing the mind well he establishes it. l Thus he trains himself. (12) "'Freeing the mind, I breathe in', thus he trains himself": That yogin attends to the incoming breath and the outgoing breath. If his mind is slow and slack, he frees it from rigidity; if it is too active, he frees it from restlessness. Thus he trains himself. If his mind is elated, he frees it from lust. Thus he trains himself. If it is depressed, he frees it from hatred. Thus he trains himself. If his mind is sullied, he frees it from the lesser defilements. Thus he trains himself. And again, if his mind is not inclined towards the object and is not pleased with it, he causes his mind to be inclined towards it. Thus he trains himself. (13) "'Discerning impermanence, I breathe in', thus he trains himself": He attends to the incoming breath and the outgoing breath. Discerning the incoming and the outgoing breath, the object of the incoming and the outgoing breath, the mind and the mental properties and their arising and passing away, he trains himself. (14) "'Discerning dispassion, I breathe in', thus he trains himself": He attends to the incoming breath and the outgoing breath (thinking) thus: "This is impermanence; this is dispassion; this is extinction, this is Nibbtina". Thus he breathes in and trains himself.
1. Cpo PIs. I, 191: Digham assiisavasenacittassa ekaggatii avikkhepo samiidhi,dighaJhpassiisavasena . ... , yii cittassa (hiti salJ(hiti avatthiti avisiihiiro avikkhepo . ...

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(15) "'Discerning cessation, 1- breathe in', thus he trains himself": Discerning many hindrances, according to reality, (he thinks), "These are impermanent, the destruction of these is extinction, Nibbiina". Thus with tranquillized vision he trains himself. (16) "'Discerning renunciation, I breathe in', thus he trains himself": Discerning tribulation according to rel!lity, (he thinks), "These are impermanent", and freeing himself from tribulation, he abides in the peace of extinction, Nibbiina. Thus he trains himself and attains to bliss. The tranquil and the sublime are to be understood thus: All activities are brought to rest, All defilements are forsaken. Craving is destroyed. Passion 'is absent. It is the peace 9f blowing out.! Of these sixteen, the first twelve fulfil serenity and insight, and are discerned as impermanence. The last four fulfil only insight. Thus should serenity and insight be understood. 2 And again, all these are of four kinds. The first is that practice which leads to the completion of discernment. There is a time when one discerns (impermanence) through attending to the incoming breath and the outgoing breath. This is called the knowledge of the long and the short through practising. Calming the podily formations and the mental formations, gladdening the mind, concentrating the mind and freeing the mind - this is called the arising of the knowledge of the whole body, bliss and the mental formations. "Experiencing the mind" means: "The completion of discernment". "There is a time when one discerns" and so forth refers to the four activities which always begin with the discernment of impermanence. And again, . practice means attaining to a state (of meditation, jhiina) through mindfulness of respiration. This is practice. Through this mindfulness of respiration, one attains to the state which is with (-out, even) initial application of thought. That is the state which is with initial and sustained application of thought, and the state of sustained application of thought. 3 The experiencing of joy is the state of the second meditation, jhiina. The Theexperienexperiencing of bliss is the state df the third meditation, jhiina. cing of the mind is the state of the fourth ~editation, jhiina. And again, all these are of two kinds. They are practice and fulfilment. Such practice as is included within fulfilment does not cause decrease of the sixteen bases. Practice is like a seed; it is the cause of merit. Fulfilment is like a flower or a fruit, because it proceeds from a similar thing. If mindfulness of respiration is practised, the four foundations of mindfulness are fulfilled. If the four foundations of mindfulness are practised,
l. S. I, 136; A. V, 8: Etam santam, etampaTJitam, yad idam sabbasankharasamatho sabbiipadhipalinissaggo taTJhakkhayo viriigo nirodhd nibbanan II.

the seven enlightenment (actors are fulfilled. If the seven enlightenment factors are practised, freedom and wisdom are fulfilled. 1 THE FOUR FOUNDATIONS OF MINDFULNESS
Q.

How is such a state attained?

A. The foundation of mindfulness which begins with the long incoming oreath and the long outgoing breath is the reviewing of the body. That which begins with the experiencing of joy is the reviewing of feeling.' _That which begins with the experiencing of the mind is the reviewing of thought. That which begins with the discernment of impermanence is the reviewing of states. Thus one who practises mindfulness of respiration fulfils the four foundations of mindfulness. 2

of thought suppressed in mindfulness of respiration, and not the other? A. Itl is used here in a different sense. Discursiveness is a hindrance to meditation, jhiina, In this sense, it 2 is suppressed. Why is air contact pleasant? Because it calms the mind. It is comparable to the soothing of a heavenly musician's (gandhabba's) mind with sweet sounds. By this discursive thinking is suppressed. And again, it is like· a person walking along the bank of Ii. river. His mind is collected, is directed towards one object and does not wander. Therefore in mindfulness of respiration, the suppression of discursive thinking is taught. 3
Mindfulness of respiration has ended.'

MINDFULNESS OF DEATH·
Q. What is mindfulness of d«ath? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What are its benefits? What is the procedure? A. The cutting off of the life-faculty - this is called death. The undisturbed mindfulness of this - this is called the practising of it. The cutting off of one's life is its salient characteristic. Disagreeableness is its function. Well-being is its near cause. What are its benefits? He who practises mindfulness of death is possessed of diligence as regards the higher meritorious states, and of dislike as regards the demeritorious. He does not hoard clothes and ornaments. He is not stingy. He is able to live long, does not cling to things, is endowed with the perception of impermanence, the perception of subjection to ill and the perception of not-self. He fares well and approaches the ambrosial. When he comes to die, he does not suffer bewilderment. What is the procedure? The new yogin enters a place of solitude and guards his thoughts. He considers the death of beings with mind undistracted thus: "I shall die; I shall enter the realm of death; I shall not escape death". Thus it is taught in the Nettipada Sutta:" "If a man wishes to meditate on death, he should contemplate a person who is on the point of being killed and he should know the causes of death". Here there are four kinds in mindfulness of death: (1) Associated with anxiety. (2) Associated with fear. (3) Associated with indifference. (4) Associated with .wisdom. The mindfulness associated with the loss of one's own beloved child is associated with anxiety. The mindfulness connected with the sudden death
1. ·and 2. indicate vitakka. 3. (a) VIS. Mag. 291 quoteo A. IV, 353: Aniipiinasati bhiivetabbii vitakkiipacchediiya. (b) A. ITT, 449: Cetaso vikkhepassa pohiiniiya iiniipiinasati bhiivetabbii. 4. This and the subsequent passages in italics in this section do not occur in the Sung Dynasty edition mentioned earlier. 5. ~Iiteratio", Netri-pada-siitra; probablY refers to Netrl-pada-liistrq of Upagupra referred to m AbhidharmakoJa Jiistra.

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i67

of one's own child is associated with fear. The mindfulness of death by a burner (of corpses) is associated with indifference. Remembering (the nature of) the" world, one develops aversion ~ this is called associated with wisdom. Here the yogin should not practise the mindfulness associated with anxiety, fear or indifference, because [432] through them he is not able to remove tribulation. Tribulation can only be removed through the mindfulness associated with wisdom. There are three kinds of death" thus: death according to genera,l opinion, death as a complete cutting off, momentary death. What is "death according to general opinion"? Death as it is understood in common parlance. This is called "death according to general opinion". "Death as a complete cutting off" means: "The Consummate One has cut off the defilements". "Momentary death" means: "The momentary perishing of all formations".l ,And again, there are two kinds in death: untimely death and timely death. Death through suicide, murder or disease, or through being cut off in the prime of life without (assignable) cause is called untimely death. Death through the exhaustion of the life-span or through old age is called timely death. B One should recall to mind these two kinds of death. And again, predecessor-teachers8 have taught the practice of mindfulness of death in these eight ways:' through the presence of a murderer; through the absence of an efficient cause;'" through inference; through the body being common to the many; through the weakness of the "life-principle; through the distinguishing. of time; through the absence of the sign; through the shortness of the moment. How should one practise mindfulness of death "thiough the presence of "a murderer"? A. Like a man who is being taken to a place to be killed. When that man sees the murderer drawing out a sword and following him, he thinks thus: "This man intends to kill me; I shill be killed at any moment; I shall be killed at any step. I shall surely be killed if I turn back. I shall surely be killed if I sit down; I shall surely be killed if I sleep". Thus should the yogin practise mindfulness of death "through the presence of a murderer". Q. How should ,one practise mindfulness of death "through the absence of an efficient cause"? There is no cause or skill that can make life immortal. When the sun and the moon rise, no cause ~r skill can make them turn back. Thus the yogin practises mindfulness of death. Q. How does one practise mindfulness of death "through inference"? A; Many kings who possessed great treasures, great vehicle-kings, Mahii Sudassana of great supernormal power, Mandhiitu and all other kings entered the state of death. And again, many sages of old, Vessamitta and Yamataggi, who possessed
l. Cpo Vis. Mag. 229: Yam pon'elom orahonliinam vOfladuKkhasomucchedaSankhiilom somucchetiamoro{lom, sonkhiiriinam kha{labhangasonkhiilom kha{likomoro(lllm, rukkho malo, lohom mOlom Ii iidisu sommulimoro(lllil co, no lam idho atihippelom. 2. Cpo Ibid: Kiilomoro(lll and okiilomoro{lo. 3. Porii{lokiicoriyii. 4. Vodhokopoccupotthiinalo, sompotlivlpottilo (1), uposomhoro{lolO, kiiyobahusiidhiiro{loto, iiyudubbolato, oddhiinoporicchetialo, onimittoto, kho{loparilloto. Cpo Via. Mag. 230. • This ia different from Via. Mag.

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great supernormal power and who caused fire and water to issue forth from their bodies, also entered the state of death. Great hearers of old like the Venerable Elders Siiriputta, Moggallana and others, who were possessed of immense wisdom and power also entered the state of death. Many Paccekabuddhas who attained enlightenment without owning a teacher, and who were endowed with all virtue, also entered the state of death. And again, they who come and go in the same way, the Consummate, Supremely Enlightened, Matchless Ones, endowed with knowledge and conduct, who have won the further shore of merit - many such also entered the state of death. How shall I with my brief life-span escape entry into the state of death? Thus the yo~n practises mindfulness of death "through inference". Q. How does one practise mindfulness of death" through the body being common to the many"? A. Through the disorder of wind and phlegm, the state of death is fulfilled. Through the disturbance of many worms or through lack of drink and food, the state of death is fulfilled. Or through being bitten by poisonous snakes, centipedes, millepedes, or rats, death is fulfilled. Or through being mauled by a lion, a tiger or a leopard, or through being attacked by a demon (naga), or through being gored by a cow, death is fulfilled. Or through being killed by humans or non-humans, death is fulfilled. Thus one practises mindfulness of death "through the body being common to the many". Q. How does one practise mindfulness of death "through the weakness of the life-principle"? A. In two ways one practises mindfulness of death through the weakness of the life-principle. Through the state of being placed in pow.erlessness and through dependence pn the powerless, the weakness of the life-principle is fulfilled. SIMILES OF THE FOAM, PLANTAIN TRUNK AND BUBBLE
Q. How is the life-principle weak through its being placed in powerlessness? A. There is no substantiality in this body as it is taught in the simile of the foam, in the simile of the plantain trunk and in the simile of the bubble,1 because it is devoid of reality and it is separate from reality. Thus through the state of being placed in powerlessness, the life-principle is weak. Q. How is the life-principle weak through dependence on the powerless? A. This is kept together by the incoming breath and the outgoing breath, by the four great primaries, by drink and food, by four postures and by warmth. Thus it depends on the powerless.. Therefore the life-principle is weak. Thus one practises mindfulness of death "through the weakness of the life-principle" Q. How does one practise mindfulness of death "through in two ways. the distinguishing of time"? A. All beings were born is the past (and suffered death). At present, (nearly) all enter the state of death without
1.

reaching a hundred years. Thus one practises mindfulness of death "through the distinguishing of time". And again one practises thus: "I wonder whether it is possible for me to live a day and a night. I wonder whether during that time I could think on the teaching of the Blessed One-could I have that opportunity! I wonder whether I could live even for a day. Or could I live for half a day, or for a short while. Could I live long enough to partake of single meal, half a meal, or even long enough to gather and partake of four or five morsels of food! Could 1 live long enough to breathe out having breathed in, or could I live long enough to breathe in having breathed out".l (Thus) one practises mindfulness· of death "through the distinguishing of time".

conscious moment, :one did not live, one is not living, one will not live. In the future conscious moment, one did not live,. one is not living, one will not live. In the present conscious moment, one did not live, one will not' live, only one is living'',l And again, it is taught in this stanza:
"Life ll1Id personality, sorrow, happiness and all are jomed to one thought; quickly the moment passes. By the yet-not-become, nothing is born; by the present one lives. When mind's shattered, the world dies;2 so the world's end was taught".

Thus one practises mindfulness of death through the shortness of the moment. That yogin through these ways practises mindfulness of death and develops (the perception of) disagreeableness. Owing to facility in (the perception of) disagreeableness and owing to facility in mindfulness, his mind is not disturbed. When his mind is undisturbed, he is able to destroy the hindrances and cause the arising of the meditation Uhdna) factors and attain to access-concentration. Q. What is the difference between the perception of impermanence and mindfulness of death? A. The perception of thc passing away of the aggregations is called the perception .of impermanence. The mindfulness of the destruction of the faculties is called mindfulness of death. The practice of the perception of impermanence and the perception of not-self is called the rejection of pride. He who practises mindfulness of death can dwell in the perception of impermanence and the perception of SUbjection to ill through the thought of the cutting off of life and the destruction of the mind. These are the differences between them.
Mind/ul1.less

0/ death has ended.

MINDFULNESS OF BODY
Q. What is mindfulness of body? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic and function? What are its benefits? What is the procedure?
1. Looked at Cram the point of view oC the changing khandhas, there is no important divergence to be Doted here. For instance, in Vis. Mag. 301 this occurs: Kha{likattii ca dhammii1lll1h, yehi khandhehi te katam amaniipam niruddhii tekassa diini 'dha kujjhasi? The so-called being of the present did not exist in the past and will not exist in the future. 2. Nd 1 .42, 117-18: Jfvltam attabhiivo ca sukhadukkhii ca kevalii ekacittasilmiiyuttii lahuso vattati-kkhQ{lo•

A. Mindfulness as regards the nature of the body is the 'practi$ini of. it. That mindfulness is mindfulness and right mindfulness. Thus is mindfulness of body to be understood. The undisturbed dwelling of the mind in this 'mindfulness is the practising of it. The becoming manifest of the nature of the body is its salient characteristic. The perception of disagreeableness is its function. The indication of the unreal is its manifestation.l What are its benefits? A man who practises mindfulness of body can endure. He can bear to see the fearful and he can bear heat, cold and the like. He is endowed with the perception of impermanence, the perception of not-self, the perception of impurity,and the perception of tribul!ltion. He attains to·the four meditations, jluinas, ~ith ease, gains a clear view of things, is pleased with his practice, fares well and approaches the ambrosial. What is the procedure? The neW yogin enters a place of solitudl:, sits down and guards his thoughts. With mind undisturbed, he meditates on the nature of his body. How does he practise mindfulness of body?

THIRTY-TWO PARTS OF THE BODY This body consists of head-hair, body-hair, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bones, marrow, kidneys, liver, heart, spleen, IUIlgs, bile, gorge, grease, fat, brain, 2 midriff, intestines, mesentery, excrement, urine, pus, blood, phlegm, sweat, synovial fluid, tears, nasal mucus, saliva, and is impure. The new yogin at first should recite vocally these thirty-two parts of the body in the direct and in the reverse order. He should always vocally tecite well and investigate these (thirty-two parts). Vocally reciting well he should investigate always. Thereafter he should reflect on them only mentally in these four ways: through colour, through the formations, the fortp., the basis., He may, with discrimination, take one or two [433] or more and grasp the crude sign. Thus the yogin is able to cause the manifestation of three trends of thought, namely, of colour, of disliking and of space. When the yogin causes the arising of the sign through colour, he is able to meditate with facility through the colour kasif.la. When he causes the ari.sing of the sign through disliking he is able to meditate with facility on impurity. When'the yogin causes the arising of the sign through space, he is able to meditate with facility on the elements. Ii the yogin practises on the kasif.lOS, he will get to the fourth meditation, jhana. If the yogin practises on impurity, he will get to the first meditation, jhtina. If he practises on the elements, he will get to access-concentration. Here a walker in hate causes the manifestation of the sign through colour; a walker in passion, through disliking; and a walker in wisdom, through the elements. And again, a walker in hate should meditate through colour; a
1'. This is not among the questions. 2. M. I, 57; III, 9O;'D. II, 293-94; Vbh.193: (mallhalunga does not ace,or in' these references:-) Althi imasmim kaye kesa loma nakha danIa taco 11Ul1hsam 1UIiulriJ atthi atlhimiffja vakkam hadayam yakanam kilomakam pihakam'papphiisam antam anla,utuuh udariyam karisam pittam semham pubbo lohitam sedo medo assu vasa khelo .rill6htfnlkil lasikii muttan Ii.

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th~

walker in passion, through disliking and a walker in wisdom, through elements. MINDFULNESS IN THIRTEEN WAYS

And again, one should recall to mind the nature of the body through thirteen ways: through seed, place, condition, oozing, gradual formation, worms, connection,! assemblage, loathsomeness, impurity, dependence, nonawareness of obligation, finitude. Q. How should a man reflect on the nature of the body through "seed" ? A. As elaeagnus pungens, kosiitaki*,2 and the like burn, so this body produced from the impure. seed of parents also burns. This is impure. Thus one should recall to mind the nature of the body through "seed". Q. How should one reflect on the nature of the body through "place"? A. This body does not come out of uppala,*3 kumuda*4 or pU1:uJarika.*5 This comes out of the place where impuritY,malodour and uncleanness are pressed together. This body lies across the womb from left to right. It leans against the back-bone. of the mother, wrapped in the caul. This place is impure. Therefore the body is also impure. Thus should one recall the nature of the body through "place". 6 Q. How should one reflect on the nature of the body through "condition"? A. This body is not fed with gold, silver or gems. It does not groW up through being fed with candana*;7 tagara*,8 aloe-wood and the like. This body grows' in the womb of the mother and is mixed with nasal mucus, saliva, slobber and the tears which the mother swallows: This body is nourished with foul-smelling food and drink produced in the mother's womb. Rice, milk,' beans, nasal mucus, saliva, slobber and phlegm which are swallowed by the mother form part of this body. On malodorous, filthy fluid is this brought up. Thus should one recall to mind the nature of the body through "condition" _
Q. How should one reflect on the nature of the body through "oozing"? This body is like a bag of skin with many holes exuding filth and urine. This body is filled with filth and urine. This body is a conglomeration of drink and food taken in, of nasal mucus, saliva, filth and urine. These various
A.
1. Lit. "dwelling peacefully". Cp Vis, Mag. 355, under AUhisu, where "ukkipi/vii thitam" "patiUhi/am" are used in a similar description. • Transliteration. 2. Trichos.antbes dioeca, or lutfa acutangula or lutfa petandra. 3. Blue lotus (Nymphaea Coerulea). 4. Edible white water-lily (Nymphaea esculenta). 5. White lotus (Nymphaea Alba). 6. Vbh.-a. 96: Ayam hi sat/o miituhucchimhi nibbat/amiirw na uppa/a·paduma·puJ.U!arikiidisu nibbattati; attha kho hettha iimiisayassa upari pakkiisayassa, udarapatala-pitthika'.ltakii" nam vemajjhe, paramasambiidhe, /ibbandhakiire, niiniiku'.lQpagandha·paribhiivile, asuciparamaduggandha-pavana-vicarite, adhimattajegucche kllcchippadese piitimaccha-piitikummiisa-candanikiidisu kimi viya nibbat/ati. 7. Sandal wood.. 8. The fragrant powder of the shrub Tabernaemontana coronaria. 9. Unintelligible.

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impurities ooze from the nine openings. 1 Thus should one recall to mind the nature of the body through "oozing".
Q. How should one reflect on the nature of the body through "gradual formation"? A. This body gradually forms itself according to its previous kpmma. In the first week the kalala* is formed. In the second week the abbuda* is formed. In the third week the pesi* is formed. In the fourth week the ghana" is formed. In the fifth week five parts 2 are formed. In the sixth week four parts are formed. In the seventh week again four parts are formed. In the eighth week again twenty-eight parts are formed. In the ninth and tenth weeks the backbone is formed. In the eleventh week three hun<;lred bones are formed. In the twelfth week eight hundred parts are formed. In the thirteenth week nine hundred parts are formed, In the fourteenth week one hundred lumps of flesh are formed. In the fifteenth week blood is formed. In the sixteenth week the midriff is formed. In the seventeenth week the skin is formed. In the eighteenth week the colour of the skin is formed. In the nineteenth week the wind according to kamma fills the body. In the twentieth week the nine orifices are formed. In the twenty-fifth week the seventeen thousand textures of the skin are In the twenty-sixth week the body is endowed with hardness. [formed. In the twenty-seventh week the body is endowed with the powers. In the twenty-eighth week the ninety-nine thousand pores are produced. In the twenty-ninth week the whole is completed. And again it is taught that in the seventh week the child's body is complete, that it leans back with hanging head in a crouching position. In the forty-second week, by the aid of the kamma-produced ,wind, it reverses its position, turns its feet upwards and its head down and goes to the gate of birth. At this time it is born. In the world it is commonly known as a being. Thus one should reflect on the nature of the body through "gradual formation".s
1. Cpo (a) Sn. 197: Ath' assa navahi sotehi asuci savati sabba4ii. (b) Th. 1134: Najiitu bhastam dubhato mukham chupe;.
(c) Th. 394: dhiratthu puram navasotasandani. Aturam asucim putim passa Kulla samussayam uggharantam paggharantam biiliinam abhinanditam. These are stages of the embryo.

is called "body-hair licker". The worm that relies on the nails is Q}led "naillicker". .The worms that rely on the skin are of two kinds. The first is called tuna.· The sec.ond is called tunanda.· The worms that rely on the midriff are of two kinds. The first is called viramba.· The second is called maviramba.· The worms that rely on the flesh are of two kinds. T!:te first is called araba.· The second is called raba.. The worms that rely on the blood are of two kinds. The first is called bara.· The second is called badara. * The worms that rely on the tendons are of four kinds. The first is called rotara.· The second is called kitaba.· The third is called baravatara. '" The fourt4 is called ranavarana ..• The worm that relies on the veins is called karikuna. • The worms that rely on the roots of the veins are of two kinds. The first is called sivara.· The second is called ubasisira.· The worms that rely on the bones are of four kinds. The first is called kachibida.· The second is called anabida.· The third is called chiridabida.· The fourth is called kachigokara.· The worms that rely on the marrow are of two kinds. The first is called bisha.· The second is called bishashira.· The worms that rely on t1?e spleen are of two kinds. The first is called nira.· The second is called bita.· The worms that rely on the heart are of two kinds. The first is called sibita.· The second is called ubadabita.· The worms that rely on the root of the heart are of two kinds. The first is called manka. • The second is called sira.· The worms that rely on the fat are of two kinds. The first is called kara.· The second is called karasira.· The worms that rely on the bladder are of two kinds. The first is called bikara. '" The second. is called mahakara.· The worms that rely on the root of the bladder are of two kinds. The 'first is called kara.· The second is called karasira: '" .The worms that rely on the belly are of two kinds. The first is called rata.'" The second is called maharata. '" The worms that rely on the mesentery are of two kinds. The first is called sorata'" The second is called maharata. '" The worms that rely on the root of the mesentery are of two kinds. T!:te first is called (si-) ba.· The second is called mahasiba. '" The worms that rely on the intestines are of two kinds. The first is call~d anabaka.· The second is called kababaka.· The worms that rely on the stomach are of four kinds. The first is called ujuka. '" The second is called ushaba. '" The third is called chishaba. • The fourth is called senshiba. '" The worms thl!,t rely on the ripened womb are of four kinds. The first is called vakana. '" The second is called mahavakana.· . The third is called unaban. '" The fourth is called punamaka. • The worm that Telies on the bile is called hitasoka. '" The worm that relies on saliva is called senka.· .The worm that relies on sweat is called sudasaka.· The worm that relies on oil is called jidasaka. '" the worms that rely on vitality are of two kinds. The first is called subakama. '" The second is called samakita. '" The worms that rely on the root of vitality are of three kinds. The first is called sukamuka. '" The second is called darukamuka. '" The third is called sanamuka. '" There are five1 kinds of
• Transliterations.
1. Only four are explained below.

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worms: those that rely on the front of the body and gnaw the front of the body; those that rely on the back of the body and gnaw the back of the body; those that rely on the left side of the body and gnaw the left side of the body; those that rely on the right side of the body and gnaw the right si4e of the body. These worms are called candasira,'" sinkasira, * hucura* and so forth. There are three kinds of worms that rely on the two lower orifices. The first is called kurukulayuyu.·· The second is called sarayu· The third is called kandupada. • Thus one should recall to mind the nature of the body through "wonns" . Q .. How should one reflect on the nature of the body through "connection"? A. The shin-bone is connected with the foot-bone; the shin-bone is connected with the thigh-bolie; the thigh-bone is connected with the hip-bone; the hip-bone is connected with the backbone; the backbone is connected with the shoulder-blade; the shoulder-blade is connected with the humerus; the humerus is connected with the neck-bone; the neck-bone is connected with the skull; the skull is connected with· the cheek-bones. The cheek-bones are connected with the teeth. Thus by the connection of the bones and the covering of the skin, this unclean body is kept in position and is complete. This body is born of kamma. Nobody makes this. Thus should one recall the nature of the body through "connection". BONES OF THE BODY How should one reflect on the nature of the body through "assemblage"? There are nine bones of the head, two cheek bones, thirty-two teeth, seven neck-bones, fourteen ribs, twenty-four side-bones, eighteen joints of the spine, two hip-bones, sixty-four hand-bones, sixty-four foot-bones, and sixty-four soft-bones which depend on the flesh. These three hundred bones and eight or nine hundered tendons are connected with each other. There are nine hundred muscles, seventeen thousand textures of the skin, eight million hairs of the head, ninety-nine thousand hairs of the body, sixty interstices, eighty thousand worms. Bile, saliva and brain are each a palata* in weight - in Ryo this is equal to four .ryo - and blood is one attha* in weight - in Ryo this is equal to three shoo All these many and varied forms are only a heap of filth, a collection of urine and are called body. Thus should one recollect on the nature of the body throu,h "assemblage". How should one reflect on the nature of the body through "loathsomeness"? A man esteems purification most. The things which a man holds dear are such means of adorning himself as sweet perfume, unguents and pastes and beautiful clothes, and bedspreads, pillows, mats and cushions used for sleeping and sitting, bolsters, blankets, canopies, bedding, and various kinds of food and drink, dwelling-places and gifts. A man manifests much attachment to • Transliterations.

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these (at first) and afterwards dislikes them. Thus one should reflect on the nature of the body through "loathsomeness". IMPURITY OF THE BODY How should one reflect on the nature of the body through "impurity"? When clothes and adornments become dirty they can be made clean again. Their purity can be renewed because their nature is pure. But the body is impure. Thus should one reflect on the nature of the body through "impurity". SOME DISEASES How should one reflect on the nature of the body through "dependence"? Depending on a pond, flowers are produced. Depending on a garden, fruits are produced. In the same way, depending on this body, various defilements and diseases are produced. Thus ache of eye, ear, nose tongue, body, head, mouth and teeth, throat-ailments, shortness of the breath, heat and cold, abdominal ache, heart-disease, epilepsy, flatulence, diarrhoea and .vomiting, leprosy, goitre, vomiting of blood, itch, smallpox, skin-disease, ague, contagious diseases, gonorrhoea, chills and others give endless trouble to this body. Thus one should reflect on the nature of the body through "dependence". How should one reflect on the nature of the body through the "nonawareness of obligation"? Now, a man prepares tasty food and drink and takes them for his body's sake. He bathes and perfumes his body and clothes it with garments for sleeping and sitting. Thus he tends his body. But on the contrary, ungratefully, this body which is like a poisonous tree goes to decay, to disease and to death. The body is like an intimate friend who does not know his obligations. Thus one should reflect on the nature of the body through the "non-awareness of obligation". How should one reflect on the nature of the body through "finitude"? This body will be consumed by fire or devoured (by animals) or go to waste. This body is finite. Thus shoula one reflect on the nature of the body through "finitude" . This yogin, through these ways, practises minqfulness of body. Through the acquisition of facility in mindfulness and wisdom, his mind becomes undisturbed. When his mind is undisturbed, he is able to destroy the hindrances, cause the arising of the meditation (jhana) factors and attain to the distinction for which he yearns.

Mindfulness of body has ended.
THE RECOLLECTION OF PEACE

Q. What is the recollection of peace? What is the practising of it? What

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are its salient characteristic, function and near cause? What are its benefits? What is the procedure? A. Peace is the stilling of the movements of the, mind and' body. Complete stilling is called peace. One recalls peace to mind, well. This is recollectedness, recollection and right recollectedness. This is called the recollection of peace. The undisturbed dwelling of the mind in this recollection is called the practising of it. The manifestation of lasting merit is its salient characteristic. Non-restlessness is its function. Sublime freedom is its near cause. What are its benefits? When a man practises the recollection of peace, happily he sleeps, happily he awakes, is endowed with calm. His faculties are tranquil and he is able to fulfil his aspirations. He is pleasant of mein, modest of demeanour and is esteemed by others. He fares well and approaches the ambrosial. What is the procedure? The new yogin enters into a place of solitude and sits down with mind intent (on the recolleCtion of peace) and undisturbed. If this bhikkhucalms his faculties, his mind will be quietened and he will enjoy tranquillity immediately. This bhikkhu sees and hears, through bodily, verbal and mental action, through the recollection of peace and through the merits of peace. It was taught by the Blessed One thus: "That bhikkhu is endowed with virtue, endowed with concentration, endowed with wisdom, endowed with freedom and is endowed with the knowledge of freedom. Great, I declare, is the gain, great is the advantage of one l who sees that bhikkhu. Great, I declare, is the advantage of one who hears that bhikkhu. Great, I declare, is the advantage of one who goes near to that bhikkhu. Great, I declare, is the advantage of one who pays homage to that bhikkhu. Great, I declare, is the advantage of one who reflects on that bhikkhu or lives the holy life under him. "How is that so? Bhikkhus who listen to the words of that bhikkhu will be able to gain the twofold seclusion, namely, that of the body and that of the mind". 2 In the recollection of peace, one recollects (that bhikkhu) thus: When that bhikkhu entered the first meditation, jhdna, he destroyed the hindrances. One recollects: When he entered the second meditation, jhtina, he destroyed initial and sustained application of thought. One recollects: When he entered the third meditation, jhtina, he destroyed joy. One recollects: When he entered the. fourth meditation, jhdna, he destroyed bliss. One recollects: When he entered the sphere of the infinity of space, he destroyed perception of form, perception of sense reaction and perception of diversity. O~e
2. S. V, 67:
1. Bhikkhu Oit). Ye te bhlkkhave bhikkhu silasampannii samiidhisampannii paffffiisampannii vlmuttlsampannii vlmuttiffiif/adassanasampannii dassanam piiham bhikkhave tesam bhikkhiinam bahukiiram vadiiml. Savanam ...... Upasa1lkamanam ...... Payiriipiisanam .•.... Anussatlm .... Anupabbajjam piiham bhikkhave tesam bhikkhiinam bahukiiram vadiimi. Tam klssa ht!tu. Tathiiriipiinam bhikkhave bhikkhiinam dhammam sutvii dvayena viipakiisena viipakallho vlharatl kiiyaviipakiisena ca clttaviipakiisena ca.

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recollects: When he entered the sphere of the infinity of consciousness, he destroyed space. One recollects: When he entered the sphere of nothingness, he destroyed the perception of the sphere of the infinity of consciousness. One recollects: When ne entered the sphere of neither perception nor· nonperception, he destroyed the perception of the sphere of nothingness.· One recollects: When he entered the state of the dissolution of perception and sensation, he destroyed perception and sensation. One recollects: When he attained to the Fruit of Stream-entrance, he destroy.ed the defilem~nts which are togeth~r with views (Lit. as that of views)1. One recollects: When he attained to the' Fruit of Once-returning, he destroyed coarse passion, coarse hatred and coarse defilements.2 One recollects: When he attained to the Fruit of Non-returning, he destroyed fine defilements, fine passion and fine hate. 3 One recollects: When he attained to the Fruit of the Consummate One, he destroyed all defilements.' And one recollects: When he attains to extinction, Nibbdna, he destroys everything. Thus in the recollection of peace (one recalls that bhikkhu to mind.) That yogin, in these ways and through these merits recalls peace to mind, and is endowed with confidence. Through bein& unrestricted in faith, he recollects with ease, is in mind undisturbed. When his mind is undisturbed, he destroys the hindrances, causes the arising of meditation (jhana) factors and attains to access-meditation,

The recollection of peace has ended.
MISCELLANEOUS TEACHINGS The following are the miscellaneous teachings concerning these ten recollections. One recalls to mind the merits of the Buddhas of the past and the future-this is called the practice of the recollection of the Buddha. In the same way one recollects ort the Pacceka-buddhas. If a man recalls to mind one of the doctrines that has been taught, it is called the practice of the recollection of the Law. If a man recalls to mind the merits of the life of one hearer, it is called the recollection of the Community of Bhikkhus. If a man recalls virtue to mind, it is called the practice of the recollection of virtue. If a man recollects liberality, it is called the recollection of liberality. If a man rejoices in the recollection of liberality, he gives to men who are
1. D. I. 156: Idha Mahiili bhikkhu tiIJIJath sathyojaniinath (sakkiiyadlllhl. vicikicchii. silabbatapariimiisa) parikkhayii sotiipanno hoti. 2. Ibid.: TiIJIJath sathyojaniinath parikkhayii riiga-dosa-mohiinath tanuttii sakadiigiimi hoti. 3. Ibid.: Paifcannath orambhiigiyiinath sathyojaniinath parikkhayii opapiitiko hotl. 4. Ibid.: Asaviinath khayii aniisavath ceto-vimuttim paffffii-vimuttith dillhe va dhamme sayath abhlifffii sacchikatvii upasampajja viharati.

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worthy, and resolves to make that (giving) his object. [435] If he is offered food that is not (proper to be) offered, he should not partake of even a: handful of it. The recollection of deities endows one with confidence. There are five doctrines. One should practise the recoIlection bf deities.
The seventh fascicle has ended.

THE PATH OF FREEDOM
FASCICLE THE EIGHTH WRITTEN

BY

THE ARAHANT UPATIS SA
WHO WAS CALLED

GREAT LIGHT IN RYO
TRANSLATED IN RYO
BY

TIPITAKA SANGHAPALA OF
CHAPTER THE EIGHTH

FUNAN

Section Five

THE IMMEASURABLE THOUGHT OF LOVING-KINDNESS

Q. What is loving-kindness '11 What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and manifestation? What are its benefits? What i~ the procedure? A. As parents, on seeing their dear and only child, arouse thoughts of loving-kindness and benevolence towards that child, so one arouses thoughts of loving-kindness and benevolence towards all beings. Thus is lovingkindness to be known. The undisturbed dwelling of the mind in this practice is called the practising of it. To cause the arising of benevolence is its salient characteristic. The thought of loving-kindness is its function. Non-hatred is its manifestation. If a man I practises loving-kindness, he is benefitted in eleven ways thus: Happily he sleeps; happily he awakes; he does not see bad dreams; he is dear to humans; he is dear to non-humans; deities protect him; fire, poison, sword and stick come not near him; he concentrates his mind quickly; the colour of his face is pleasingly bright; at the time of death he is not bewildered; if he attains not the sublime state, he is reborn in the world of Brahma. 2
1. Mettii. . 2. A. Y, 342; PIs. II, 130: Mettiiya bhikkhave cetovimuttiyii iisevitiiya bhiivitiiya bahulikatiiya yiinikatiiya vatthukatiiya anUf/hitiiya paricitiiya susamiiraddhiiya ekiidasiinisarilsii piifikalikhii. Katame ekiidasa? Sukham sllpati, sukham paribujjhati, na piipakam supinam passati, manussiinam piyo hoti, amanussiinam piyo hoti, devatii rakkhanti niissa aggi vii visam vii sattham vii kamati, tuvafam cittam samiidhiyati, mukkhavat;l1;lo vippasidati, asammufho kiilarh karoti, uttarim appafivijjhantobrahmalokupago hoti.

181

182
DISADVANTAGES OF ANGER AND RESENTMENT

Vimuttimagga

What is the procedure? The new yogin who aspires to practise lovingkindness, should at first reflect on the disadvantages of anger and resentment and on the advantages of patience and bear patience in mind. What is meant by "should at first reflect on the disadvantages of anger and resentment"? If a man arouses anger and resentment, his thoughts of loving-kindness will be consumed and his mind will become impure. Thereafter he will frown; thereafter he will utter harsh words; thereafter he will stare in the four directions; thereafter he will lay hold of stick and sword; thereafter he will convulse with rage and spit blood; thereafter he will hurl valuables hither and thither; thereafter he 'will break many things; thereafter he will kill others or kill himself. And again, if a man is angry and resentful always, he, owing to his wicked mind, is liable to kill his parents, or kill a Consummate One or cause a schism in the Community of Bhikkhus, or draw blood from the body of an Enlightened One. Such fearful acts is he liable to do. Thus should one reflect. SIMILE OF THE SAW And again, one should reflect thus: I am called a hearer; I shall be put to shame, if I do not remove anger and resentment. I remember the simile of the Saw. 1 I like to enjoy good states (of mind); if now I arouse anger and resentment, I shall be like a man desirous of taking a bath, entering into a cesspool. I am one who has heard much;" if I do not overcome anger and resentment, I shall be forsaken like a physician who is afflicted with vomiting and diarrhoea. I am esteemed by the world; if I do not remove anger and resentment, I shall be cast away by the world like a painted vase containing filth, and uncovered. (Further, one reflects thus:) When a wise man grows angry and resentful, he inflicts severe sufferings. So he will be poisoned out of the fear of terrible punishment. If a man who is bitten by a snake has the antidote and refrains from taking it, he is like one who seems to relish suffering and not happiness. In the same way, a bhikkhu who arouses anger and resentment and does not suppress these, quickly, is said to be one who relishes suffering and not happiness, because he accumulates more fearful kamma than this anger and this resentment. And again, one should reflect on anger and resentment thus: He who arouses anger and resentment will be laughed at by his enemies, and cause his friends to be ashamed of him. Though he may have deep virtue, he will be slighted by others. If he was honour¢ before, he will be despised hereafter. Aspiring after happiness, he will acquire misery. Outwardly calm, he will be inwardly perturbed., Having eyes, he
1. (a) Th. 445: Uppajjate sace kodho iivajja kakaciipamam. (b) M. I, 129, 186, 189: Ubhatodar;ulakena ce pi bhikkhave kakacena corii ocarakii arigamaligiini okanteyyum, tatrapi yo mano padoseyya na me so tena sdsanakaro ti. 2. Bahussuta.

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will not see. Being intelligent, he will be ignorant. Thus one .should reflect on the disadvantages of anger and resentment. Q. What is meant by "one should reflect on the advantages of patience"? A. Patience is power.l This is armour. This protects the body well and removes anger and resentment. This is honour. This is praised by the wise. This causes the happiness of not falling away. this is a guardian. This guards all. This helps one to understand the meaning of things well. This is called "putting others to shame". And further, one should reflect thus: I have shorn off the hair of the head; now I must cultivate patience. 2 I have received the alms of the country; 1 will cause great merit to accrue to the givers, through having a mind of patience. I bear the form and the apparel of the Consummate Ones;3 this patience is a practise of the Noble Ones; therefore 1 will not allow anger to remain in my mind. 1 am called a hearer. 1 will cause others to call me a hearer in truth. The givers of alms give me many things; through this patience 1 will cause great merit to accrue to them. 1 have confidence; this patience is the place of confidence in me. I have knowledge; this patience is the sphere of knowledge in me. If there is the poison of anger and resentment in me, this patience is the antidote which will counteract the poison in me. Thus one should reflect on the disadvantages of anger and resentment and on the advantages of patience, and resolve: "I will reach patience. When people blame me, I will be patient. I will be meek and not haughty".4 Thus the yogin proceeds towards the bliss of patience and benefits himself. He enters into a place of solitude; and with mind ~ndisturbed begins to fill his body (with the thought) thus: "I am happy. My mind admits no suffering". What is meant by "I have no enemy; I have no anger; I am happily free from all defilements and perform all good".? That yogin controls his mind and makes it pliant. He makes his mind capable of attainment. If his mind is pliant, and is able to bear the. object, he should practise loving-kindness. He should regard all beings as (he regards) himself. In practising loving-kindness towards all beings, the yogin cannot at the start develop . loving-kindness for enemies, wicked men, beings without merit and dead men. That yogin develops loving-kindness for one towards whom he behaves with respectful reserve, whom he honours, whom he does not slight, towards whom he is not indifferent, and by whom he has been benefitted and, therefore, in regard to whom he is not jealous or ill-disposed. He should develop loving-kindness for such a one, thus: "I esteem a man who is of such and such a nature, namely, a man endowed with honour, learning, virtue, concentration and wisdom. I am benefitted through alms, sweet speech, liberality and intentness on that. These are of advantage to me". Thus he recalls to mind the virtues he esteems
1. (a) Dh. 399: Khantibalaril baliitrikam. (b) PIs. II, 171: 'Byiipiidassa pahinattii abyiipiido khantiti' khantibalaril. 2. Cpo Ps. I, 79: AVuso, pabbajito niima adhiviisanasilo hoti Ii. 3. Th. 961 S urrattaril arahaddhaJaril. 4. Cpo Ud.45: Sutviina viikyarilpharusaril udiritam adhiviisaye bhikkhu adu/thacitto 'ti.

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and the benefits he has acquired (in and through that one), and develops loving-kindness towards that one. One should develop the benevolent mind and always reflect and investigate. One should have a mind that is without anger and resentment. One should wish to be endowed with tranquillity, to be free from hatred, to be endowed with all merits and to gain good advantages. One should wish to gain a good reward, a good name, to gain confidence, to gain happiness, to be endowed with virtue, knowledge, liberality and wisdom. One should wish for happy sleep and happy awaking. 'One should wish to have no evil dreams. One should wish to become deat to humans and to be honoured by them. One should wish to become dear to non-humans and to be honoured by them. One should wish to be protected by the gods; t6 be untouched by fire, poison, sword or stick and the like; to concentrate the mind quickly; to have a pleasant complexion; to be born in the Middle Country;! to meet good men; to perfect oneself; to end craving; to be long-lived; and to attain to the peace and happiness of the Immortal. And again, one should recollect thus: If one has not yet produced demerit, one should wish not to produce it; and if one has already produced it, one should wish to destroy it. If one has not yet produced merit, one should wish to produce it; and if one has already produced it, one should wish to increase it. 2 And again, one should not wish to produce undesirable states, and if one has produced them, one should wish to destroy them. (One should wish to produce) desirable states of mind, (and if one has) produced them, one should wish to increase them). That yogin is able to gain confidence by means of the heart of kindness. Through confidence that is free, he can establish his mind. Through establishing that is free, he can dwell in mindfulness. Through mindfulness that is free, through establishing that is free and through confidence that is free, he is endowed with the unshakable mind, and he understands the state of the unshakable (mind). That yogin by these means and through these activities develops the thought 3 of loving-kindness for himself, repeats it and understands unshakability. [436] Having by these means and through these activities developed the thought of loving-kindness and repeated it, he makes his mind pliant and gradually develops the thought of loving-kindness for a person whom he holds dear. After he has developed the thought of loving-kindness for a person whom he holds dear, he gradually develops the thought of lovingkindness for an indifferent person. After he has developed the thought of loving-kindness for an indifferent person, he gradually develops the thought of
1. Majjhimadesa. 2. A. II, 15; IV, 462: lmesam kho bhikkhave paficannam sikkhiidubbalyiinam pahiiniiya cat/iiro sammappadhiinii bhiivetabbii. Katame cat/iiro? ldha bhikkhave bhikkhu anuppanniinam akusaliinam dhammiinam anuppiidiiya chandam janeti viiyamati viriyam iirabhati cillam pagga/:zhiiti padahati, uppanniinam piipakiinam akusaliinam dhammiinam pahiiniiya . .. , anuppanniinam kusaliina/h dhammiinam uppiidiiya ... , uppanniinam kusaliinam dhammiinam (hitiyii asammosiiya bhiyyobhiiviiya vepulliiya hhiivaniiya piiripiiriyii candam janeti viiyammi viriyam iirabhati cillam pagga1;zhiiti padahati. 3. Sannii.

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loving-kindness for an enemy. Thus he encompasses all beings (with lovingkindness) and identifies himself with them. If he does not develop lovingkindness for an indifferent person or is unable to do so and develops dislike, he should reflect thus: "In me are states of demerit. I have dislike. Wishing to acquire merit, I stirred up confidence and was ordained. And again, I said, 'I will develop great loving-kindness and compassion for the weal of all beings, through the merit of the Great Teacher'. If I cannot develop lovingkindness towards one indifferent person, how shall I develop loving-kindness towards enemies?". If that yogin is still unable to destroy dislike and hate, that yogin should not endeavour to develop loving-kindness, but should adopt another way to remove the hatred he has for that person. TWELVE MEANS OF REMOVING HATRED

Q. What are the means of success in removing hatred? A. (1) One should share in order to benefit the other (whom one hates). One should consider: (2) merit, (3) goodwill, (4) one's own kamma, (5) debt-cancellation, (6) kinship, (7) one's own faults. (8) One should not consider the suffering inflicted on oneself. One should investigate: (9) the nature of the faculties, (10) the momentary destruction of states, (11) and aggregation. (12) One should investigate emptiness. One should bear the.se in mind.
(1) Even if one is angry, one should give the other what he asks, accept willingly what he gives. And in speaking with rum; one should always use good words. One should do what the other does. By such action, the destruction of the anger of the one and the other takes place. (2) Merit-if one sees the merits of the other, one ought to think: "This is merit. This is not demerit". SIMILE OF THE POND It is like this: There is a pond covered with duckweed, and one, having removed the duckweed, draws out water.l If the other has no merit, one should develop loving-kindness for him thus: "This man has no merit; surely, he will fare ill".2 (3) Goodwill-one should think thus (of
1. A. III, 187-8: Seyyatha pi tivuso pokkhara/)i sevtilapa(lakapariyonaddha, atha puriso tigaccheyya ghammtibhitatto ghammapareto kilanto tasito piptisito, so tam pokkhara(lim ogtihetvti ubhohi hatthehi iti c'iti ca sevtilapa(lakam apaviyahitvii aiijalinti pivitvti pakkameyya, evam eva klzo tivuso yvtiyam puggalo aparisudhavacisamtictiro parisuddhaktiyasamtictiro, yassa aparisuddhavacisamticiiratti, na stissa tasmim samaye manasiktitabba, yti ca khvtissa parisuddhaktiyasamtictiratti, stissa tasmim samaye manasiktitabbti. Evam tasmim puggale tighato pativinetabbo. 2. Ibid. 189: Seyyathti pi tivuso puriso tibadhiko dukkhito balhagiltino addhanamaggapatipanno, tassa purato pi 'ssa dare gtimo pacchato pi 'ssa dare gtimo, so na labheyya sapptiytini bhojantini, na labheyya sapptiytini bhesajjtini na labheyya patiriipam upatthtikam na labheyya gtimantantiyakam, tam enam annataro puriso passeyya addhtinamaggapatipanno, so tasmim purise kiiruiinam yeva upaffhapeyya, anudayam yeva upaUhapeyya anukampam yeVa

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gaining) the other's goodwill: If a man does not revere (the other) let him arouse the thought of goodwill. If he is not revered, he should make merit. ' And again, the destruction of demerit is well-faring. Thus should the changing of hatred to goodwill be known, (4) One's own kamma-one should consider one's own evil kamma1 thus: "The evil that I do will cause anger to arise in others". (5) Debt-cancellation-(thus one thinks:) "Owing to my past kamma, others blame me. Now I am free from debt. Reflecting on this evidence (of debt-cancellation), I am glad". (6) Kinship-he remembers that beings succeed one another in (the cycle of) birth and death, thus: "This is my kinsman", and arouses the thought of kinship. 2 (7) One's own faultsone arouses self-perception thus: "That man's anger is produced on account of me. I acquire demerit on account of him". Thus arousing self-perception3 one sees one's own faults. (8) One should not consider-one should not consider the perception (of one's own suffering) which is unrelated to hatred. Suffering-(one thinks thus:) "Owing to folly, I see my own suffering as a hindrance". Thus one should see. One suffers by oneself, because one does not think on loving-kindness. It appears so (i.e., as a hindrance) because of mental suffering. Avoiding the place where the enemy lives, one should dwell where one does not hear (his voice) or see him. (9) Nature of the faculties - one should investigate thus: "To be tied to the lovely and the unlovely is the nature, of the faculties. Therefore I hate. Because of this I am unmindful". (10) The momentary destruction of states-one should investigate thus: "That man suffers because of birth. All these states perish in one thought-moment. With which state in him am'l angry?". (11) Aggregation - one should investigate thus: "The inner and the outer aggregates produce suffering. It is not possible for me to be angry with any part or place". (12) Emptiness - one should investigate thus: In the absolute sense it cannot be said, "This man causes suffering" or "This man suffers".
upallluipeyya 'aho valiiyam puriso labheyya sappiiyiini bhoJaniini labheyya sappiiyiini bhesajjiini labheyya pa/iriipam upatthiikam labheyya giimanlaniiyakam. Tam kissa helu? Miiya,;, puriso idh' eva anayavyasanam iipajjati' ti. EYam eva kho iivuso yviiyam puggalo aparisuddhakiiyasamiiciiro aparisuddhavacisamiiciiro na ca labhati kiilena kiilam cetaso vivaram cetaso pasiidam, evariipe iivuso puggale kiiruililam yeva upatthiipetabbam anudayii yeva upallluipetabbii anukampii yeva upal/hiipetabbii 'aho vata ayam iiyasma kiiyaduccarilam pahiiya kiiyasucaritam bhiiveyya, vaciduccaritam pahiiya vacisucarilam bluiveyya, manoduccarilam pahiiya manosucarilam bhiiveyya. Tam kissa helu? Miiyam iiyasmii kiiyassa bhedii parammarll{lii apiiyam duggatiih vinipiitam nirayam uppajjati' ti. Evam tasmim puggale iigluito pa/ivinetabbo. 1. A. V, 88: Kammassako 'mhi kammadiiyiido; M. I, 390: Evam paham PU(I(UJ: kammadiiyiidii sallii ti vadiimi. 2. S. II, 189-90: Na so bhikkhave satto sulabhariipo, yo na miitiibhiitapubbo imind dighena addhunii. Tam kissa hetu? Anamataggiiyam bhikkhave sarilsiiro pubbiikoti na paiiiiiiyaM avfjjpnivara/liinam salliinam tQ{lhiisamyoJandnam sandhiivalam samsaralam. Evam digharattam kho bhikkhave dukkham paccanubhiitam tibbam paccanubhiitam vyasanam pacca/lubhiitam kalasi vat/tlhitii, yiivaiicidam bhikkhave alam eva sabbasalikhiiresu nibbindilllm alam virajjitum aram vimuccitunti. Na so bhikkhave sallo sulabhariipo yo na pitiibhiilapubbo . . . Na so bhikkhave satto sulabhariipo yo na bhiitiibhiitapubbo . . . Na so bhikkhave satto sulabharilpo yo na bhaginibhiltapubbo . . . Na so bhlkkhave satto sulabhariipo yo na puttobhiltapubbo . .• ,3. Alta saiiiiii.

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This. body is the result of causes and conditions. There is no soul-entity in the aggregates. Therefore the Blessed One uttered this stanza:He who dwells amidst the village grove, experiencing pleasure and pain, is not burned because of self or other but because his mind is passionate. If one's mind were cleansed of passion's stain, who could touch that one immaculate'11

Thus after that yogin has clearly understood the way of destroying hatred, has idep.tified friends, indifferent ones and enemies with himself, and acquired facility in the practice, he should gradually arouse the thought of loving-kindness and develop it for various bhikkhus in (his) dwelling-place. After that he should develop loving-kindness for the Community of Bhikkhus in (his) dwelling-place. After that he should develop loving-kindness for the deities in his dwellillg-place. After that he should develop loving-kindness for beings in the village outside his dwelling-place. Thus (he develops lovingkindness for beings) from village to village, from country to country. After that he should develop (loving-kindness for beings) in one direction. That yogin "pervades one quarter with thoughts of loving-kindness; and after that, the second; and after that, the third; and after that, the fourth. Thus he spreads loving-kindness towards all beings of the four directions, above-, below and pervades the whole world with thoughts of loving-kindness immense immeasurable, without enmity, without ill will. 2 Thus that yogin develops loving-kindness ~nd attains to fixed meditation in three ways: through comprehending all beings, through comprehending all village-domains 3 and through comprehending all directions. He attains to fixed meditation, jhana, through developing loving-kindness for one being, and in the same way, for two, three and for all beings. He attains to fixed meditation, jhana, through developing loving-kindness for beings of one village-domain, and in the same way for (beings of) many vill:}ges. He attains to fixed meditation, jhana, through developing loving-kindness for one being in one direction, and in the same way (for beings) in the four directions. Here when one develops lovingkindness for one being, if that being is dead, that object is lost. If he loses the object, he cannot arouse loving-kindness. Therefore he should develop the thought of loving-kindness widely. Thus practising he can fulfil great fruition and merit.
1. Ud. 12: Giime araiiiie sukhadukkhapuflho nev' allato no parato dahetha, phusanti phassii upOOhim palicca, nirupadhim kena phuseyyum phassii 'ti. 2. D. II, 186; D. III, 223-4: Idh' iivuso bhikkhu mettii-sahagatena cetasii ekam disam pharitvii viharali, tathii duliyam, tathii tatiyam, tathii catuttham. Iii uddham adho tir/yam sabbadhi sabballatiiya sabbiivantam lokam mellii-sahagatena cetasii vipuletui mahaggatena appamiinena averena avyiipajjhena pharitvii viharali. 3. Giimakkhetla.

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Q. What are the roots, manifestation, fulfilment, non-fulfilment and object of loving-kindness? A. Absence of greed is a root; absence of hatred is a root; absence of delusion is a root. Willing is a root. Right considerationl is a root. What is its "manifestation"? T.he making visible of these roots is its manifestation. What is its "fulfilment"? When one is endowed with loving-kindness he destroys hatred, removes impure affection and purifies his bodily, verbal and mental actions. This is called "fulfilment". What is its "non-fulfilment" ? Through two causes one fails in the practice of loving-kindness: through regarding friends as enemies and through impure affection. "NOll-fulfilment" is produced when one arouses the feeling of enmity and rivalry. Thus should "non-fulfilnient" be known. What is its "object"? Beings are its "object".2
TEN PERFECTIONS Q. That is wrong. In the absolute sense there is no being. Why then is it said that beings are its object? A. Owing to differences in faculties, in common parlance, it is said that there are beings. Now, the Bodhisatta* and the Mahiisatta* develop loving-kindness for all beings and fulfil the ten perfections. 3 Q. How is it so? A. The Bodhisatta and the Mahiisatta develop loving-kindness for all beings and resolve to benefit all beings and give them . feadessness. 4 ' Thus they fulfil the "perfection of giving. 6 The Bodhisatta" and the Mahiisatta develop loving-kIndness for all beings. For the sake of benefitting all beings, they cause separation from suffering and do not lose the faculty of truth. It is like the relation of a father to his children. Thus they fulfil the perfection of virtue. 8
1. Stimmii·manasikiira. 2. Sattiiramma1)a.- Cpo hlp. II, 41: lme pana caffiiro brahmavihiirii vattii honti, vaffapiida honti, vipassaniipiidii honti, diffhadhommasukhavihiirii honti, abhinniipiidii va nirodhapada va, lokuttara pana na honti. Kasmii? SattarammQ{latta ti. • Transliteration. Cpo Sv. n, 428: ArhaMizhiisatto .. : panca-maha-vilokanam nama vilokesi. 3. Ud. -a. 128: Yatha va te Bhagavanto diina-paramim puretva, sila-nekkhamma-pafinaviriya-khanli-sacca-adhif/hiina-mertii-upekkha-parami ti ima dasa paramiyo dasa-upaparamiyo, dasa paramaltha-paramiyo ti samatimsa paramiyo puretva, panca maha-paricciige pariccajitva, pubba-yoga-pubba-cariya-dhamm' akkhana-nat' artha-cariyadayo purelva, buddhi-cariyaya kotim patva iigatii, tathii ayam pi Bhagava iigato. 4. Abhaya.- Cpo A. IV, 246: ldha bhikkha~e ariyasiivako pa1)iitipiitam pahiiya pii"atipalii pa/ivirato hoti. Piir;iitipiitii palivirato bhikkhave ariyasiivako aparimii"iinam sattiinam abhayam deti averam deti avyiipajjharh deti; aparimii"iinam sattiinam abhayam datva averam datva avyiipajjham da/vii aparima"assa abhayassa averassa avyiipajjhassa Miill,i holi. ldam bhikkhave pathamaJiI diinam mahiidiinam aggaflflam rattan;;am vamsaflflam porii1)Qm asamkir;1)am asamkifJIJapubbam na samkiyati na samkiyissati appatikuttham sama1)ehi briihmar;ehi viiinuhi . .. Puna ca param Mikkhave ariyasavako adinniidiinam pahiiya adinniidiinii pa/ivirato hoti ... pe... kiimesu micchiiciiram pahiiya kiimesu micchiiciira pa/ivirato hoti ... pe ... musiiviidam pahaya musaviida pafivirato holi... pe... suriimerayamajjapamiidatthiinii pativirato hoti. Surii",erayamajjapamiidalthiina pafivirato bhikkhave ariyasiivako aparimii1)iinam sattiinam abhayam deti ... pe... avyiipajjhassa bhiigi hoti. ldam bhikkhave paficamam diinam mahiidiinam aggaflflam. .. pe ... S. Diina-piirami(piirami is transliterated in this section). 6. Sila.

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The Bodhisatta and the Mahasatta develop loving-kindness f~r all beings. For the sake of benefitting all beings, they acquire non-greed, and in order to remove the non-merit of beings, they attain to meditation, jhiina, l and enter into homelessness. Thus they fulfil the perfection of renunciation. 2 The Bodhisatta and the Mahiisatta develop loving-kindness for all beings. Far the sake of benefitting all beings, they consider merit and non-merit. Understanding in accordance with truth, devising clean expedients,. they rejeGt the bad and take the good. Thus they fulfil the perfection of wisdom. 8 The Bodhisatta and the Mahasatta develop loving-kindness for all beings. For the sake of benefitting all beings, they, without abandoning energy, exert themselves at all times. Thus they fulfil the perfection of energy.4 The Bodhisatta and the Mahiisatta develop loving-kindness for all beings. For the sake of benefitting all beings, they practise patience and do not grow angry when others blame or hate them. Thus they fulfil the perfection of patience. s The Bodhisatta and the Mahasatta [743] develop loving-kindness for all beings. For the sake of benefitting all beings, they speak the truth, dwell in the truth and keep the truth. Thus they fulfil the perfection of truth. 6 The Bodhisatta and the Mahiisatta develop loving-kindness for all beings. For the sake of benefitting all beings, they do not break their promises but keep them faithfully unto life's end. Thus they fulfil the perfection of resolution. 7 The Bodhisatta and Mahasatta develop loving-kindness for all beings. For the sake of benefitting all beings, they identify themselves with all beings and fulfil the perfection of loving-kindness. 8 The Bodhisatta and the Mahiisatta develop loving-kindness for all beings. For the sake of benefitting all beings, they regard friends, indifferent ones and enemies, equally, without hatred and without attachment. Thus they fulfil the perfection of equanimity. 9 In these ways do the Bod.hisatta and the Mahiisatta practise lovingkindness and fulfil the ten perfections.
I elucidate (further) loving-kindness and the four resolved
1. Nearly always this is partially transliterated. Cpo M. I, 246: Na kho paniiham imiiya
kalukiiya dukkarakiirikiiya adhigacchiimi u/tarim manussadhammii alamariyaflii{ladassanavisesam, siyii nu kho anno maggo bodhiiyiiti. Tassa mayham Aggivessana etadahosi: Abhijiiniimi kho paniiham pitu Sakkassa kammante sitiiya jambucchiiyiiya nisinno vivicc' eva kiimeht vivicca akusaleht dhammeht savitakkam saviciiram vivekajam pitisUkham palhamam jhiinam upasampajJa viharitii, siyii nu kho eso maggo bodhayiiti. Tassa mayham Aggivessana satiinusiiri villflii{lam ahosi: eSO va maggo bodhiiyiiti. 2. Nekkhamma. 3. Pannii (transliteration). 4. Viriya. S. Khanti. 6. Sacca. 7. Adhillhiina. 8. Mettii. 9. Upekkhii. t This and all subsequent passages in italics and marked t are omitted in !be Sung edition

mel1tioned before.

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THE FOUR RESOLVES Now, the Bodhisatta and the Mahiisatta having practised loving-kindness, having fulfiJIed the ten perfections, fulfil the four resolves. They are the resolve of truth, the resolve ofliberality, the resolve of peace and the resolve of wisdom. 1 Here, the perfection of truth, the perfection of resolution and the perfection of energy,fulfil the resolve of truth. The perfection of giving, the perfection of virtue and the perfection of lenunciation, fulfil the resolve of liberality. The perfection of patience, the perfection of loving-kindness and the perfection of equanimity, fulfil the resolve of peace. The perfection of wisdom fulfil the resolve of wisdom. Thus the Bodhisatta and the Mahiisatta having practised 10vi!1g-kindness and fulfilled the ten perfections, fulfil the four resolves and attain to two states, namely, serenity and insight. s Here, the resolve of truth, the resolve of liberality and the resolve of peace fulfil serenity. The resolve of wisdom fulfils insight. Through the fulfilment of serenity, they attain to all meditations, jhdnas, and hold to emancipation and concentration firmly. They cause the arising of the concentration of the twin-miracle3 and the concentration of the attainment of great compassion. 4 With the attainment of insight, they are endowed with all supernormal knowledge, 5 analytical knowledge, 8 the powers, 7 the confidences. 8 Thereafter they cause the arising of natural knowledge 8 (?) and omniscience.10 Thus the Bodhisatta and the· Mahiisatta practise loving-kindness, and gradually attain to Buddhahood.

Loving-kindness has ended. t
THE IMMEASURABLE THOUGHT OF COMPASSION

Q. What is compassion? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and manifestation? What are its benefits? What is the procedure? A. As parents who on seeing the suffering of their dear and only child, compassionate it, saying, "0, how it suffers!", so one compassionates all beings. This is compassion. One dwells undisturbed in compassion - this
t. The order is different from D. III. 229:
2. Cattiiri adillhiiniini. Paillfil-addlffhiinarh 8acciidlffhiinarh, ciigiidiffhiinarh, upaaamiidhiffhiinarh. StII1IIItha, vlpaasanii (transliteration). Yamakapiifihiirlya. 4. Mahiikaruqii.ratniipatti. A.bhlflM. 6. Paf/sambhld4. 7. Bala. YesiirlljJa. 9. PaJcali-Rii(IQ. 10. Sabbaflflu1il-Riiqa.

3. :So

8.

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is called the practising of it. The non-manifestation of non-advantage is its salient characteristic. Happiness is its function. Harmlessness1 is its manifestation .. Its benefits a,re equal to those of loving-kindness. What is the procedure? The new yogin enters into a place of solitude and sits down with mind collected and undisturbed. If he sees or hears of a person stricken with disease, or a person affected by decay, or a person who is full of greed, he considers thus: "That person is stricken with suffering. How will he escape suffering?".1 And agRin, if he sees or hears of a person of perverted mind and bound with the defilements, or a person entering into ignorance, or one, who, having done merit in the past does not now train himself, he considers thus: "That person is stricken with suffering; he will fare ill. How will he escape suffering?".3 And again, if he sees or hears of a person who follows demeritorious doctrines and does not follow meritorious doctrines, or of a person who follows undesirable doctrines and does not follow desirable doctrines, he considers thus: "That person is stricken with suffering; he will fare ill. How will.he escape suffering?".' That yogin by these means and through these activities develops the thought of compassion for these persons and repeats it. Having by these means and through these activities developed the thought of compassion and repeated it, he makes his mind pliant, and capable of bearing the object. Thereafter he gradually develops (compassion) for an indifferent person and an enemy. The rest is as was fully taught above. Thus he fiUs the four directions. Q. What is the fulfilment of compassion and what, non-fulfilment? A. When a matt fulfils compassion, he separates from harming and from killing. He is not affiicted. He separates from impure affection. Through two causes compassion is not fulfilled: through resentment produced within himself and through affliction. Q. All do not suffer. Suffering does not prevail always. Then how is it possible to compassionate all beings? A. As all beings have at some previous time experienced suffering, they Clln grasp the sign well and practise compassion
1. Ahimsii, avihirilsii. (a) A. I, 151: Sabbhi diinaril upaiiiiatlaril ahirilsiisaililamo damo (-Ahirilsii ti karuflii c'eva karuflii-pubbabhiigo ca-Mp. II, 250). (b) Sv. III, 982: Avihirilsii tl karuflii karUfla-pubba-bhiigopi. Vuttam pi c'etaril: tattha katamii avihirilii? Yii sattesu karUflii karufliifanii karufliiyitattaril karUflti-cetovimuttl, ayaril vuccatl avihirilsii ti. (c) Dh. 300: Yesaril divii ca ratio ca ahirilsfiya rato mano (-Ahirilsiiya rato ti 'so karufliisahagatena cetasii ekaril dlsam pharitvii viharati' ti evaril vuttiiya karUfliibhiivaniiya rato-Dh.-a. III, 459). 2. Cp. (a) PIS. I, 128: 'Jariiya anusahagato lokasannlviiso'tl passantiinaril Buddhilnaril Bhagavantilnam sattesu mahiikarUflii okkamati... 'Byiidihl abhlbhlito lokasanniviiso'ti .. , 'Taflhiiya III/4lto lokasannivilso'tl . .. (b) S. I, 40: Taflhiiya ut/tlito loko, jariiya parivilrlto. 3. PIS. I, 128-9: 'Mahilbandhanabandho lokasanniviiso ... mohabandhanena ... kllesbandhanena. .. tassa natth' aiilla kocl bandham mocetil aIIIIatra mayil'ti;... 'tihi duccaritehi vlppatipanno lokasanniviiso' ti passantilnam.. . 4. Ibid. 129-30: 'Pailcahi kilmaguflehi rajjati lokasanniviiso' tl... 'atthahi micchattehi niyato .lokasanniviiso' ti ...

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in all places. Again, sorrow of birth and death is the common property of all beings. Therefore all beings can in all places practise compassion.

Compassion has ended.t
THE IMMEASURABLE THOUGHT OF APPRECIATIVE JOy Q. What is appreciative joy? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and manifestation? What are its benefits? What is the procedure? A. As parents, who, on seeing the happiness of their dear and only child .are glad, and say, "Sadhu!" so, one develops appreciative joy for all beings. Thus should appreciative joy be known. The undisturbed dwelling of the mind in appreciative joy - this is called the practising of it. Gladness is its salient characteristic. Non-fear is its function. Destruction of dislike is its manifestation. Its benefits are equal to those ofloving-kindness. What is the procedure? The new yogin enters a place of solitude and sits down with mind collected and undisturbed. When one sees or hears that some person's qualities are esteemed by others, and that he is at peace and is joyful, one thinks thus: "Sadhu! sadhu! may he continue joyful for a long time!". And again, when one sees or hears that a certain person does not follow demeritorious doctrines, or that he does not follow undesirable doctrines and that he follows desirable doctrines, one thinks thus: "Sadhu! siidhu! may he continue joyful for a. long time I". That yogin by these means and through these activities develops the thought of appreciative joy and repeats it. Having by these means and through these activities developed the thought of appreciative joy and repeated it, he makes his mind pliant, and capable of bearing the object. Thereafter he gradually develops appreciative joy for an indifferent person and an enemy. The rest is as was fully taught above. Thus with appreciative joy he fills the four directions. Q. What is the fulfilment of appreciative joy? What is its non-fulfilment? A. When one fulfils appreciative joy, he removes unhappiness, does not arouse impure affection and does not speak untruth. Through two causes appreciative joy is not fulfilled: through resentment produced within himself and derisive action. The rest is as was fully taught above.

Appreciative joy has ended.
THE IMMEASURABLE THOUGHT OF EQUANIMITY

Q. What is equanimity? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and manifestation? What are its benefits? What is the procedure?

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A. As parents are neither too attentive nor yet inattentive towards anyone of their children, but regard them equally and maintain an even mind towards them, so through equanimity one maintains an even mind towards all beings. Thus should equanimity be known. The dwelling undisturbed in equanimity-this is called the practising of it. Non-attachment is its salient characteristic. Equality is its function. The suppression of disliking and liking is ills manifestation. Its benefits are equal to those of loving-kindness. Q. What is tne procedure? That yogin at first attends to the third meditation, jhlina, with loving-kindness, with compassion and with appreciative joy. Having attained to the third meditation, jhlina, and acquired facility therein, he sees the severe trials of loving-kindness, compassion and appreciative joy. Liking and disliking are near. These (loving-kindness etc.) are connected with fawning, elation and gladness. The merits of equanimity lie in the overcoming of these severe trials. That yogin, having seen the severe trials of loving-kindness, compassion and appreciative joy and the merits of equanimity, develops equanimity towards a neutral person! and makes the mind calm. Having developed and repeated it, he makes his mind pliant and capable of bearing the object. Thereafter, he gradually develops (it) towards an enemy and then towards a friend. The rest is as was fully taught above. Thus he fills the four directions. That yogin practising thus attains to the f~urth meditation, jhlina, through equanimity. In three ways he attains to fixed meditation, jhlina, through comprehending beings, through comprehending village-domains and through comprehending all directions. Q. When the yogin practises equanimity, how does he consider beings? A. The yogin considers thus: "In loving-kindness, compassion and appreciative joy, one is overjoyed with beings", and removing joy, he induces equanimity. As a man might leap for joy on meeting a long-lost friend [43.8] and later, calm down, having been with him for sometime, so having lived long with loving-kindness, compassion and appreciative joy, the yogin attains to equanimity. And again, there is a man. He speaks concerning beings, "Beings consider thus: What is the fulfilment of equanimity? What is its non-fulfilment?". When equanimity is fulfilled, one destroys disliking and liking and does not cause the arising of ignorance. Through two causes equanimity is not fulfilled: through resentment produced within oneself and through the arising of ignorance. 2

MISCELLANEOUS TEACHINGS
Again I elucidate the meaning of the four immeasurables.t

What are the miscellaneous teachings concerning the four immeasurables?3
1. Lit. neither likable nor not likable. 2. What follows is unintelligible. 3. The miscellaneous teachings are in many places unintelligible as it is here. This portion is not in the three editions of the Sung, Yuan and Ming dynasties, i.e., roughly about 1239 A.C., 1290 A.C., and 1601 A.C., respectively. Also it is not found in the old Sung edition, 1104-1148 A.C., belonging to the library of the Japanese Imperial Household.

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One attains to distinction in the four immeasurables through practising (them) towards animals, immoral persons, moral persons, those who dislike passion, hearers, Silent Buddhas and Supreme Buddhas regarding them as a mother regards her children according to their stage in life! (lit. seasons). Q. Why is the third and not the fourth meditation, jhtina, attained ~n loving-kindness, compassion and appreciative joy? A. Through constant dwelling on the sorrows (of others) one develops loving-kindness, compassion and appreciative joy. (And so no equanimity is present). Therefore the third meditation, jhtina, is attained and not the fourth. Again the plane of equanimity belongs to the fourth meditation, jhtina, because it is endowed with two kinds of equanimity, namely, neutral feeling2 and neutrality as regards states. 3 Dwelling in the plane of equanimity and regarding all beings with equal favour, one accomplishes equanimity. Owing to the nature of the planes of the three immeasurables, the third meditation, jhtina, and not the fourth, is produced. And again, it is said that the four meditations, jhtinas, are produced with the four immeasurables. The Blessed One has declared: "Further, 0 bhikkhu, you should develop the concentration which is with initial and sustained application of thought; you should develop that which is without initial, and only with, sustained application of thought; you should develop that which is without initial and without sustained application of thought; you should develop that which is with joy; (you shonld develop that which is without joy); you should develop that which is accompanied by equanimity.4 Q. Why are these four immeasurables and not five or three taught? A. Were that so, uncertainty might arise concerning all. And again, in order to overcome hatred, cruelty, dislike and lust, one accomplishes the four immeasurables. And again, it is said that these four are (overcome with) only loving-kindness. If one arouses (in oneself) hatred, cruelty, unhappiness, one, through suppressing them in the four ways, attains to distinction. Equanimity is the purification of loving-kindness, compassion and appreciative joy, because through it hatred and lust are destroyed. Further, it should be understood that the four immeasurables are of one nature though their signs are different. Thus owing to the suppression of tribulation, owing to the object which comprises beings, owing to the wish to benefit, they fulfil one characteristic.
1. Cpo Sv. III, 1008: Appamafiiili tipamiil}Qm agahelvii anavasesa-pharava-vasena appamafifiii. 2. Vedanupekkhii. 3. Dhammassa majjhaltatii. 4. Lit. without sustained application of thought (viciira) with only initial application of thought (vilakka) which is evidently an error. Cp. (a) S. IV, 360: Kalamo ca bhikkhave asankhalagiimi'maggo. Savitakko saviciiro samiidhi avilakko viciiramalto samiidhi avitakko aviciiro samiidhi. Ayam vuccati bhikkhave asankhatagiimi maggo. (b)D. III, 219: Tayo samiidhi. Savilakko saviciiro samiidhi, avitakko viciira-malto samiidhi, avitakko aviciiro samiidhi (-Samiidhisu pa/hama-jjhiina-samt'idhi savitakka-

to consider the blue-green, yellow (or other) colour kasi1)a, and attains to fixed meditation, jhdna, without difficulty. At this time the yogin accomplishes' the fourth meditation,jhtina, of the element of form. Therefore loving-kindness is first in (the sphere of) the beautifuP At that time the yogin, depending on loving-kindness which he has developed in the fourth meditation, jhdna, of the element of form, surpasses that (element). Q. How is that shallow? A. He practises loving-kindness; therefore he knows the tribulations of the element of form. How? Seeing the sufferings of beings he develops loving-kindness through a material cause. After that he understands the tribulations of the element of form. He causes the mind to consider the abandoning of forms and of space, and attains to fixed meditation, jhtina, without difficulty in the sphere of the infinity of space, because he depends on it. Therefore it is said that compassion is first in the sphere of the infinity of space. 2 That yogin surpasses the sphere of the infinity of space through appreciative joy. Q. What is the meaning? A. That yogin, when he practises appreciative joy, contemplates on limitless consciousness, and is not attached to anything. How? (Through) this appreciative joy (the yogin) attains to fixed meditation, jhdna, through contemplation on beings in the un-attached sphere of the infinity of consciousness. After that, being not attached, he grasps the object of limitless consciousness. Freed from form and attached to space, he considers limitless consciousness and through contemplating many objects, he attains to fixed meditation without difficulty. Therefore, in the sphere of the infinity of' consciousness, appreciative joy is first. 3 Q. That yogin transcends the sphere of the infinity of consciousness through equanimity. What is the meaning of it? A. That yogin, practising equanimity fulfils freedom from attachment. How? If one does not practise equanimity, he will be attached (to things) and (think), "This being gets happiness", (or this being) "gets suffering". Or he depends on joy or bliss. Thereafter he turns away from all attachment. He turns away from the sphere of the infinity of consciousness' and is happy. He attains to fixed meditation, jhtina, without difficulty. His mind is not
1. See Comy. (Spk. lll, 172-3) passage marked * included in note 1 under mettti, page 195. 2. Karu{lii-vihtirissa daIJ4iibhighatddi-riipa-nimittam sattadukkham samanupassantassa karulJaya pavatti-sambhavato riipe adinavo -suparividito hoti. Ath' assa suparividitarupadinavatta pathavi kasilJadisu aFliiataram ugghatetva rupa-nissaralJe akase clttam upasalilharato appakasiren' eva tattha cittam pakkhandati. Iti karulJa akasanaiicayatanassa, upanissayo hoti, na tato paramo Tasma 'akasanaiicayatanaparama' tl vutta.-Spk. ill, 173, being comment on sutta passage marked ** in note 1, page 195. 3. Mudita-viharissa pana tena tena pamojja-karalJena uppanna-pamojja-sattanalil viiiiiiilJQm samanupassantassa muditaya pavatti-sambhavato viiiiialJQ-ggahana-paricitalil cittam hoti. Ath'assa anukkamadhigatam tikiisanaiicayatanam atikkamma iikiisa-nimitta-gocare viiiiiave cittam upasalhharato appakasiren' eva tattha cittam pakkhandati. Iti mudita villlliilJQifcayatanassa upanissayo hoti, na tato paramo Tasma' 'viiiiitilJQiiciiyatana-paramii' II vutta.-Spk. ill, 173-<:omment on passage marked t, page 195. 4. Lit. akiiicaiiiiayiltana.

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attached to any object. Why? Because in the sphere of nothingness he cannot be attached either to consciousness or to infinity. Therefore, in the sphere of nothingness, equanimity is first. 1 Miscellaneous teachings have ended. t THE DETERMINING OF THE FOUR ELEMENTS
Q. What is the determining of the four elements? What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function and manifestation? What are its benefits? What is the procedure? A. To discern the four elements within one's form - this is called distinguishing the four elements. The undisturbed dwelling of the mind (in determining) - this is called the practising of it. Close investigation of the four elements is its salient characteristic. The understanding of emptiness is its function. The removing of the thought of being" is its manifestation. What are its benefits? There are eight benefits: One who practises the determining of the four elements overcomes fear, worldly pleasure and discontent, is even-minded towards desirable and undesirable (objects), destroys the idea of male and female, is endowed with great wisdom, fares well and approaches the ambrosial. His states of mind are clear. He is able to perfect all his actions. What is the procedure? The new yogin grasps the elements in two ways: briefly and in· detail. Q. What is the grasping of the elements briefly? A. That yogin enters a place of solitude, and with mind collected considers thus: "This body should be known by the four elements. There is in this body the nature of solidity-that is the earthy element;3 (there is) the nature of humiditythat is the watery element ;4 (there is) the nature of heat - that is the fiery element;5 (there is) the nature of motion-that is the element of air.6 Thus in this body there are only elements. There is no being.' There is no soul"," In this way one grasps the elements briefly. Again it is said that the 'yogin grasps the elements briefly. He' understands the body through understanding the midriff, its colour, its form, its place. Thus that yogin grasps the elements briefly. He understands the nature of the whole body through understanding the midriff, its colour, its form, its place. He understands this body through understanding flesh, its colour, its form, its place. That yogin, having under1. Upekkhii-viharissa pana 'salta sukhita va hontu, dukkhato va vimuccantu, sampaltasukhato va ma vigacchantu' ti abhogabhiivato sukha-dukkhiidihi paramaltha-ggaha-vimukhasambhtivato avijjamana-ggahal,la-dukkham eiltam hoti. Ath' assa paramattha-ggahato vimukha-bhiiva-parieita-eittassa paramatthato avijjamana-ggllhal,la-dukkha-eiltassa ea anukkamiidhigatam viiiilal,lanaiieayatanam samatikkama-sabhavato avijjamiine paramatthabhUtassa viiiiial,lassa abhtive cittam upasarizharato appakasiren' eva taltha eittam pakkhandati. Iti upekkhti akiiieaiiiitiyatanassa upanissayo hoti, na tato paramo Tasma 'akiiieaiiiiayatanaparama' ti vulta ti.- Spk. III, 173-4-comment on sutta passage marked t in note 1, page 195). 2. Satta. 3. Pathnvi-dhiitu. 4. Apo-dhtitu. 5. Tejo-dhatu. 6. Viiyo-dhatu. i and· 8. Nissatta nijjiva. See note 2, p. 229.

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stood the whole body through understanding flesh, its colour, its form, its place, understands tIris whole body through understanding the veins, their colour, their form, their place. That yogin, having understood the whole body through understanding the veins, their colour, their form, their place, understands the whole body through understanding the bones, their colour, their form, their place. That yogin in these four ways dominates his mind. Mter dominating his mind, he makes his mind pliant and capable of bearing the object. That yogin, having in these four ways dominated his mind and having made his mind pliant and capable of bearing the object, in these four (other) ways knows that which has the nature of solidity as the element of earth; that which has the nature of humidity as the element of water; that which has the natut'e of heat as the element of fire; that which has the nature ofmotion as the element of air. Thus that yogin, in these four ways, knows that there are only elements and that there is no being and no soul. Here the other ways also are fulfilled. Thus one grasps the elements briefly. TWENTY WAYS OF GRASPING THE ELEMENT OF EARTH How does one grasp the elements in detail? One grasps the element of earth in detail through twenty ways, namely, (through) hair of the head and of the body, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, veins, bones, marrow, kidneys, heart, liver, lungs, spleen, gorge, intestines, mesentery, midriff, excrement, brain (that are) in this body. TWELVE WAYS OF GRASPING THE ELEMENT OF WATER One grasps the element of water in detail through twelve ways, namely, (through) bile, saliva, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, grease, slobber, nasal mucus, synovial fluid, [439] urine (that are) in the body. FOUR WAYS OF GRASPING THE ELEMENT OF FIRE One grasps the element of fire in detail through four ways, namely, (through) fever heat and normal heat of the body, weather, equality of cold and heat and (the heat) by means of which one digests the fluid or solid nutriment which one takes. These are called the element of fire. SIX WAYS OF GRASPING THE ELEMENT OF AIR One grasps the element of air in detail through six ways, namely, (through) " the air discharged upwards, the air discharged downwards, the air which depends on the abdomen, the air which depends on the back,1 the air which depends on the limbs, the air inhaled and exhaled. 2
1. Vbh.-a. S: Vala Ii kucchivata-pillhivatiidi-vasena vedilahba. 2. Netti 74: Katamehi chahi tikarehi vayodatum vitthiirena parlglJ1.l/u'jli? Uddharilgamd vata
adhogamd vata kucchisaya vata kollhasaya vala ancamtlllciinl/Siirino vala assiiso passiiso.

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Thus when one sees this body in forty-two ways, only the elements manifest themselves. There is no being. There is no soul. Thus the elements are grasped in detail. And again, predecessor-teachers1 have said that one should determine the four elements through ten ways, namely, through the meaning or terms, I through object, aggregation, powder,8 non-separation, condition,· characteristic, & similarity and dissimilarity, e sameness and difference, 7 puppet. First, the chapter which refers to the meaning of terms is as follows :Q. How should one determine the elements through terms? A. Two terms; viz., the common and the special terms. Here the four primaries are common (terms). Earth-element, water-element, fire-element, air-element are special terms. Q. What is the meaning of "four primaries"? A. Great manifestation is called primary. They are great; they are illusory; but they appear real. Therefore they are called "primaries" "Great" : By way of yakkha and others" the term great is applied. Q. Why is the "great manifestation" called great? The elements are "great manifestation" as the Blessed One has declared in the following stanza: .
"I declare the size 0/ earth to be two hWldred thousand nahutas and/our. Four hundred thousand nahutas and eight is of water the bulk; air's in space which reckoned is at nahutas six and nine times a hundred thousand; in that this world of ours lies. There is ill the world consuming fire that will in mighty flames rise up to Brahma's world for seven days" 8 "Great manifestation" is thus.1'herefore they.are called the primaries. Q.' How do the primaries that are unreal appear as real? A. what are called primaries are neither male nor female. They are seen through the form of a man or a woman; And element is neither long nor short. It is seen through the form of the long and the short. An element is neither a tree nor a mountain, but it is seen through the form of a tree or a mountain. Thus the primaries are not real, but appear real·and are called primaries. What is the meaning of "by way of yakkha and others"? It is as if a yakkha were to enter into a man and take possession of him. Through the possession of the yakkha that man's body would manifest four qualities:
1. Porii(lij. 2. Vacanatthato. 6. Sabhiigavisabhiigato.

a.

ClI1)I.Iato. 4. Paccayato. 7. Niinattekattato.

s. IAkkha{riitJito.
8. Not traced.

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hardness, (excess of) water, heat and lightness of movement. In the same way' the four elements in union with the body fulfil four qualities. Through the union of the earthy element hardness is fulfilled. Through the union of the watery element fluidity is fulfilled. Through the union of the. fiery element heat is fulfilled. And through the union of the airy element lightness of movement is fulfilled. Therefore the primaries are to be known "by way of yakkha and others". Primary is the meaning of the word. THE FOUR ELEMENTS

Q. What is the meaning of earth-element, water-element, fire-element and air-element? A. Extensiveness and immensity are called the meaning of earth. Drinkabilityand preservation - these constitute the meaning of water. Lighting up is the meaning of fire. Movement back and forth is the meaning of air. What is the meaning of element? It means the retention of own form, and next the essence of earth is the earthy element. The essence of water is the watery element. The essence of fire is the fiery element. The essence of air is the airy element. What is the essence of carth? The nature of hardness; the nature of strength; the nature of thickness; the nature of immobility; the nature of security; and the nature of supporting. These are called the essence of earth. What is the essence of water? The nature of oozing; the nature of humidity; the nature of fluidity; the nature of trickling; the nature of permeation; the nature of increasing; the nature of leaping; and the nature of cohesion. These are called the essence of water. What is called the essence of fire? The nature of heating; the nature of warmth; the nature of evaporation; the nature of maturing; the nature of consuming; and the nature of grasping. These are called the essence of fire. What is the essence of air? The nature of supporting; the nature of coldness; the nature of ingress and egress; the nature of easy movement; the nature of reaching low; and the nature of grasping. These are called the essence of air. These are the meanings of the elements. Thus one should determine the elements through the meaning of words. Q. How should one determine the elements through "objects"?
A. In the element of earth, stability is the object. In the element of water, cohesion is the object. In the element of fire, maturing is the object. In the element of air interception is the object.

And again, in the element of earth, upstanding is the object; in the element of water, flowing down is the object; in the element of fire, causing to go upwards is the object; in the element of air, rolling on is the object. And

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again, owing to the proximity of two elements, one, at first, (in stepping forward) raises up one foot; and afterwards, owing to the proximity of two elements, one lifts up the (other) foot. Owing to the proximity of two elements, one at first sits or sleeps. And owing to the proximity of two elements, one afterwards gets up and walks. Owing to the proximity of two elements, at. first, rigidity and torpor are induced. Owing to the proximity of two elements, one becomes energetic afterwards. Owing to the proximity of two elements, there is heaviness in one at first. Owing to the proximity of two elements, there is lightness afterwards. Thus one should determine the four primaries through "object"l. How should one determine the four primaries through "aggregation"? Aggregation consists of the earth-element, the water-element, the fire-element and the air-element. By means of-these elements form, smell, taste and touch take place. These eight are produced generally together; they co-exist and do not go apart. This combination is. named aggregation. And again, there are four kinds, namely, aggregation of earth, aggregation of water, aggregation of fire and aggregation of air. In the aggregation of earth, the earth-element predominates; and the water-element, the fire-element and the air-element gradually, in order, become less. In the aggregation of water, the water-element predominates; and the' earth-element, the air-element and the fire-element gradually, in order, become less. In the aggregation of fire, the fire-element predominates; and the earth-element, the air-element and the water-element gradually, in order, become less. In the aggregation of air, the air-element predominates; and ,the fire-element, the water-element and the earth-element gradually, in order, become less. t Thus one should determine the elements through "aggregation". Q. How should one determine the four primaries through ;'powder"? A. One determines the element of earth that is next the finest particle of space. 3 This earth is mixed with water; therefore it does not scatter. Being matured by fire, it is odourless; I being sUPl'orted by air, it rolls. Thus one should determine. Again, predecessors have said: "If pulverized into dust, the earth-element in the body of an average person will amount to one koku
1. Cp. Ps. I, 260-61: Tass' evaril abhikkamato ekekapiiduddharal.le palhavielhiitu iipodJiiitu
ti dye dhiituyo omattd honti mandd, Itard dye adhimattd honti balavatiyo. Tathd atiharal.lQvitihara1.lesu. Vossajjane tejodhiitu-vdyodhdtuyo omattd honti mandd, itard dye adhimattd balavatiyo. Tathd sannikkhepana-sannirumbhanesu. Tattha uddharaQe pavattd rilpdrupadhammd atiharal.lam na papUl.lanti. Tathii atihara1.le pavattd vitiharal.lQm, vitlhara1.le pavattd vossajjanam, vossajjane pavattd sannikkhepanam, sannikkhepane pavattd sannirumbhanam na piipul.IQnti. Tattha tatth' eva pabbapabbam sandhisanelhim oelhi-oelhim hutva tattakapdle pakkhltta-tild viya talataldyantd bhijjanti. , 2. Cp, A. ill, 340·41: Atha kho dyasmd sariputto .... ailliatarasmim padese mahantam diirUkkhandham disvd bhikkhU iimantesi:- Passatha no tumhe dvuso amum mahantam diirukkhandhan ti? Evam iivuso ti. Akarikhamano iivuso bhikkhu iddhimd cetovasippatto amum diirUkkhandharil palhavi tveva adhimucceyya. Tam kissa hetu? Atthi dvuso amusmim diirUkkhanelhe l!.alhavidhiitu, yam nissdya bhikkhu iddhimii... pe... palhavi tveva adhlmucceYYII. Akll1ilChamano dvuso bhikkhu iddhimii cetovasippatto amum diirukkhandham dpo tveva adhimucceyya .•. pe. .. tela tvlva aelhimucceyya. .. ydyo tyeya adhimucceyya. . . 3. Akiisaparamiinu.·

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and two sho. l Then, if mixed with water, it will become six sho and five gO.2, Matured by fire, it is caused to roll by the wind". Thus one should determine the body through ."powder". Q. How should one determine the body through "non-separation"? A. The· earth-element is held together by water; is matured by fire; is supported by air. Thus the three elements are united. The element of water rests on earth; is matured by fire; is supported by air. Thus the three elements are held together. The element of fire rests on the earth; is held together by water; is supportcd by air. Thus the three elements are matured. The element of air rests on earth; is held together by water; .is matured by fire. Thus the three elements are supported. The three elements rest on earth. Held together by water, the three elements do not disperse. Matured by fire, the three elements are odourless. Supported by air, the three elements roll on, and dwelling together, they do not scatter. Thus the four elements in mutual dependence dwell and do not separate. Thus one determines the elements through non-separation. Q. How should one determine the elements through "condition"? A. Four causes and four conditions produce the elements. What are the four? They are kamma, consciousness, season and nutriment. What is kamma? The four elements that are produced from kamma fulfil two conditions; namely, the producing-condition3 and kamma-condition.' The other elements fulfil the decisive-support-condition. 5 Consciousness:- The four elements that are produced from consCiousness fulfil six conditions, namely, producing-condition, co-nascence-condition,8 support-condition, 7 nutrimentcondition, 8 faculty-condition, 9 presence-condition.10 The other elements fulfil condition,11 support-condition and presence-condition. In the consciousness at the moment of entry into the womb, corporeality fulfils seven conditions, namely, co-nascence-condition, mutuality-condition,12 support-condition, nutriment-con.dition, faculty-condition, result-condition,13 presence-condition. The consciousness of the birth-to-be fulfils three conditions in regard to the pre-born body, namely, post-nascence-condition/' support-condition .and presence-condition. The four primaries that are produced from season fulfil two conditions, namely, producing-condition and presence-condition. The other elements fulfil two conditions, namely, support-condition and presence-condition. Nutriment:- The four primaries that are produced from food fulfil three conditions, namely, producing-condition, nutriment-. condition and presence-condition. The other elements fulfil two conditions,
1. 2. 3. .6. 9. 12. 1 koku-l0 sbo. 10 go-l sbo-1.S88 quart, 0.48 standard gallon, 1.804litres. Janalul-paccayii. 4. XammJl-paccayii. S. f!panissaya-paccayii• Saha-jiita-paccayii. 7. Nissaya-paccayii. 8. Ahiira-paccayil. lndriya-paccayil. 10. Atthi-paccayii. 11. Paccayii. Afllla-mtdIiID-paccayil. 13. Vipiika-paccayii. 14. Pacchii-jiita-paccayii.

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namely, support-condition and presence-condition. Here the four elements that are produced by kamma are co-nascent elements. (Elements that are mutually dependent) fulfil four conditions, namely, co-nascence-condition, mutuality-condition, support-condition, presence-condition. Other elements fulfil two conditions, namely, support-condition and presence-condition. Thus one should know (the elements) produced from consciousness, produced from season and produced from food. The earth-element becomes a condition of the other elements by way of resting-place. The water-element becomes a condition of the other elements by way of binding. The fire-element becomes a condition of the other elements by way of maturing. The air-element becomes a condition of the other elements by way of supporting. Thus one determines the elements through "condition". [440] How should one determine the elements through "characteristic"? A. The characteristic of the earth-element is hardness. The characteristic of the water-element is oozing. The characteristic of the fire-element is heating. The characteristic of the air-element is coldness. Thus one determines the elements according to "characteristic". Q. How should one determine the elements through "similarity and dissimilarity" ? A. The earthy element and the watery element are similar because of ponderability. The fire-element and the air-element are similar because of lightness. The water-element and the fire-element are dissimilar. The water-element can destroy the dryness of the fire-element; therefore they are dissimilar. Owing to mutuality, the eatth-element and the air-element are dissimilar. The earth-element hinders the passage of the air-element; the air-elem!'nt is able to destroy the earth-element. Therefore they are dissimilar. And again, the four elements are similar owing to mutuality or they are dissimilar owing to their natural characteristics. Thus one determines the elements according to "similarity and dissimilarity". Q. How should one determine the elements through "sameness and difference"? A. The four elements that are produced from kamma are of one nature, because they arel produced from kamma; from the point of characteristics they are different. In the same way one should know those that are produced from consciousness, from season and from nutriment. The (portions of the) earth-element of the four causes and conditions are of one nature owing to characteristics; from the point of cause they are different. In the same way one should know the air-element, the fire.element and the water-element of the four causes and conditions. The four elements are of one nature owing to their being elements, owing to their being great. primaries; are of one nature owing to their being things; are of one nature owing to their impermanence; are of one nature owing to their suffering; are of one nature owing to their being not-self. They are different owing to characteristics; are different owing to object; are different owing to kamma; are different owing to differing nature of consciousness; are different owing to the differing nature of the season; are different owing to the different

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nature of nutriment; are different owing to differences of nature; are different owing to differences of arising; are different owing to the differences in birth;' are different owing to differences in faring. Thus one determines the elements through "sameness and difference". SIMILE OF THE PUPPET
Q. How should one determine the elements through "puppet"? A. It is comparable to a skilful master of puppets who makes of wood (effigies) of humans, complete in every part, in the form of man or woman, and makes these walk, dance, sit or squat through the pulling of strings. Thus these puppets are called bodies; the master of puppets is the past defilement by which. this body is made complete; the strings are the tendons; the clay is flesh; the paint is the skin; the interstices are space. (By) jeweis, raiment and ornaments (they) are called men and women. Thoughts (of men and women) are to be known as the tugging by the element of air. Thus they walk, dwell, go out, or come in, stretch out, draw in, converse or speak. 1 These puppet-men, born together with the element of consciousness, are subject to anxiety, grief and suffering through the causes and conditions of anxiety and torment. They laugh or frolic or shoulder. Food sustains these puppets; and the faculty of life 2 keeps these puppets going. The ending oflife results in the dismembering of the puppet. If there happens to be defiling kamma, again a new puppet will arise. The first beginning of such a puppet cannot be seen; also, the end of such a puppet cannot be seen. 3 Thus one determines the elements through "puppet". And that yogin by these ways and through tliese activities discerns this body through "puppet" thus: "There is no being; there is no soul". When that yogin has investigated through the object of the elements and through the arising of feeling, perception, the formations and consciousness, he discerns name and form. Thenceforward he sees that name-and-form is suffering, is craving, is the source of suffering; and he discerns that in the destruction of craving lies the destruction of suffering, and that the Noble
1. (a) Sn. 193-94: Caram vu yadi vu tiftham, nisinno uda vu sayam, sammiiijeti pasureti,-esu kuyassa iiljana. Afthinaharusamyutto tacamamsuvalepano Chaviyu kuyo paticchanno yaihabhuram na dissati. (b) Ps. I, 252: "Nuvu mulutavegena jiyuvegenJ tejanam Yatha yati ta.tha kayoyuti vulahato ayam. Yantasuttavesen';:~va cittasuttllvasen' idam payuttam kayayaiztam pi yati thatinisidati. Ko nama ettha so satto yo vina hetupaccaye attano anubhavena titthe vu yadi vu vaje' ti. (c) Ps. I, 265; Sv. I, 197: Abbhantare atta nama koci sammiiljento va pasarento va n'atthi. Vutta-ppakara-citta-kiriya-vuyodhiitu-vippharena pana suttakat/tlhana-vasena daru-yantassa hattha-pada-lu/anam viya sammiiijana-pasaralJam hoUti evam pajiinanam pan' ettha asammoha-sampajailiian ti veditabbam. 2. Jivitindriya; 3. S. n, 178;' Ill, 149, IS},: Anamataggayam bhikkhave samsiiro pubbukoti na paflfliiyati avijjanivaralJ<inam sattanam talJhasamyojananam sandhavata,;/ samsaratam.

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Eightfold Path leads to the complete destruction of suffering. Thus that yogin discerns the Four Noble Truths fully. At that time he sees the tribulation of suffering through impermanence, sorrow and not-self. Always attending to these, his mind is undisturbed. He sees the merit of the destruction of suffering through wisdom, tranquillity and dispassion. In this way that yogin, seeing the tribulation of suffering and the merits of cessation, dwells peacefully endowed with the faculties, the powers and the factors of enlightenment. I He makes manifest the consciousness that proceeds from perception of the formations and attains to the element of the most excellent. 2
The determining of the four elements has ended.

THE LOATHSOMENESS OF FOOD
Q. What is the perception of the loathsomeness of food?3 What is the practising of it? What are its salient characteristic, function, near cause' and manifestation? What are its benefits? What is the procedure? A. The yogin, attending to the loathsomeness of what in the form of nourishment is chewed, licked, drunk or eaten, 5 knows and knows well this perception. This is called the perception of the loathsomeness of food. The undisturbed dwelling of the mind in this perception is the practising of it. The understanding of the disadvantages of food is its salient characteristic. Disagreeableness is its function. The· overcoming of desire is its manifestation. What are its benefits? The yogin can acquire eight benefits: He who develops the perception of the loathsomeness of food knows the nature of morsels of food; he understands fully the five-fold lust; he knows the material aggregate; he knows the perception of impurity; he develops fully the mindfulness as to the interior of his body; his mind shrinks from desiring what is tasty;6 he fares well; he approaches the ambrosial. What is the procedure? The new yogin enters into a place of solitude, sits down with mind composed ah.d undisturbed, and considers the loathsomeness of what in the form of nourishment is chewed, licked, drunk or eaten as follows: "Such and such are the several hundred sorts of tasty food cooked clean. They are relished of the people. Their colour and smell are perfect. They are fit for great nobles. But after these foods enter into the body, they become impure, loathsome, rotten, abominable". One develops the perception of the loathsomeness of food in five ways: through (the task of) searching for it; through (the thought of) grinding it; through receptacle; through oozing; and through aggregation.
1. Indriya, baTa, bojjhatiga. 2. Sappi-rnm;uIa dhiitu. 3. Ahiire palikkiiTa saiiilii. 4. Not answered in comment. 5. Khajja, Jeyya,peyya, bhojja. 6. Cpo Th. 580: Rasesu anugiddhassa jhiine na ramati mano.

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Q. How should the yogin develop the perception of the loathsomeness of food through (the task of) "searching for it"? A. This yogin sees that many beings encounter trouble in searching for drink and food; they commit many evil deeds such as killing and thieving (for the sake of food). Further, he sees that these beings are the recipients of various forms of suffering and are killed or deprived of liberty. And again, he sees that such beings commit diverse evil actions such as eagerly searching for things, deceiving and pretending to be energetic. Thus these beings perform evil. Seeing food thus, he develops dislike through the thought: "Impure urine and excrement are due to drink and food".1

THE DWELLING OF THE HOMELESS And again, he, sees the dwelling of the homeless man in the clean forestretreat where fragrant flowers bloom, where birds sing and the cry of the wild is heard. In that prosperous field which the good man cultivates, are shadows of trees, groves and water which captivate the mind of others. The ground is flat and exceedingly clean; so there is nothing uneven." Seeing this, men admire them with awe. Here are no quarrels and noises. This place where the homeless man trains for enlightenment is like the dwelling of Brahma. 3 In such a place the mind is unfettered; and he, reciting (the Law) and developing concentration always, enjoys the practice of good deeds. (Leaving such a place) the homeless man goes in search of food in cold and heat, wind and dust, mud and rain. He traverses steep paths. With bowl in hand, he begs for food, and in begging enters others' houses.' Seeing that, the yogin stirs up the thought of tribulation in his mind as follows: "Drink and food are impure. They come out in the form of excrement and urine. For that orie goes in search of food". Thus abandoning, he should look for the highest bliss. And again, the yogin sees the practice of the homeless man. When he (the homeless man) begs, he has to pass the places where fierce horses, elephants and other animals gather and the places where dogs and pigs live. He has to go to the places where evil-doers live. He has to tread on mud or excreta
1. In the text this precedes the previous sentence. 2. Cpo Th. 540: Supupphite Sitatane sitale girikandare
1103: 1135: 1136: 1137: gattiini parisiilcitvii cankamissiimi ekako. Kadii mayiirassa sikhal)r/ino vane dijassa sutvii girigabbhare rutam paccu(fhahitvii amatassa pattiyii samcifitaye tam nu kadii bhavissali. Variihael)eyyavigalhasevite pabbhiirakiite pakafe 'va sundare navambunii piivusasittakiinane tahim guhagehagato ramissasi. Sunilagivii susikhii supekhul;lii sucittapattacchadana vihamgama sumailjughasatthanifiibhigajjino te tam ramissanti vanamhi jhaJiinam. VUffhamhi cleve caturangule til)e sampupphite meghanibhamhi kiinane nagantare vifapisamo sayissam tam me mudu hohili tiilasannibham. Yathii Brahmii tatha eko yathii devo tatM duve, yathii gamo tatha tayo koliihalam tatuttarin Ii. .MUI)r/o vir{,po abhisapam iigaf() kapalahattho 'va kulesu bhikkhasu, yuiljassu satthu vacane mahesino, itissu mam ci/ta pure niyuiijasi.

3. Cpo Th. 245: 4. Cp. Th. 1118:

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in unclean places. He has to stand at the gates of other's houses, silently, for sometime. He has to conceal his body with a cloth. Further, he doubts as regards obtaining alms. 1 This yogin thinks: "This man's food is like dog's food", and he amuses disagreeableness as regards food thus: "This searching for food is most hateful. How could I take this food'll will simply beg from others" Thus one develops the perception of the loathsomeness of food through "searching for it". Q. How should the yogin develop the perception of the loathsomeness of food through "grinding"? A. That yogin sees a man who, having searched for and obtained drink and food, sits down in front of these. He makes the (solid food) soft, by mixing it with fish sauce. He kneads it with his hand, grinds it in his mouth, gathers it with his lips, pounds it with his teeth, turns it with his tongue, unites it with his saliva and serum. 2 These are most repulsive and unsightly as the vomit of a dog. Thus one develops the perception of the loathsomeness of food through "grinding". Q. How should one develop the perception of the loathsomeness of food through "receptacle" 'I A. Thus these foods are swallowed and go into the stomach mixed with impurities and remain there. After that they go to the intestines. They are eaten by hundreds of kinds of worms. Being heated, they are digested. Thus they become most repugnant. It is like one's vomit thrown into an unclean vessel. Thus one develops the perception of the loathsomeness of food through "receptacle". Q. How should one develop the perception of the loathsomeness of food through "oozing" 'I A. These foods are digested by heat and mixed with new and old impurities. Like fermented liquor escaping from a broken vat, they flood the body. By flowing, they enter into the veins, the textures of the skin, face and eyes. They ooze out of nine openings and ninety-nine thousand pores. Thus through flowing, [441] these foods separa'te into five partS: one part is eaten by worms; one part is changed to heat; one part sustains the body; one part becomes urine; and one part is assimilated with the body. Thus one develops the perception of the loathsomeness of food through "oozing".
Q. How should one develop the perception of. the loathsomeness of food through "aggregation"? A. This drink and food which flow become hair of the head and the body, nails and the rest. They cause to set up one hundred and one parts
1. Cpo Sn. 711-12:

of the body. If they do not trickle out, they cause one hundred and one diseases. Thus one develops the perception of the loathsomeness of food through "aggregation" . That yogin by these ways and through these activities develops the perception of the loathsomeness of food. Through disliking, his mind becomes free and is not distracted. His mind being undistracted he destroys the hindrances, arouses the meditation Uhtina) factors and dwells in accessconcentration.
The perception of the loathsomeness of food has ended. t

The sphere of nothingness and the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception are as was taught under the earth kasi{la before. Here the stanza says:The subjects of meditation are here indicated to the yogin in brief as if a man were pointing out the way to Piitaliputta.1 What's told concisely he can know in full. He sees what lies before and what behind and with discernment viewing understands truth from untruth. From. what have been here in detail set forth, namely, the marks and the merits complete, one ought to know, just as it is, the scope of Freedom's Path.
The chapter of the thirty"eight subjects of meditation has ended. The eighth chapter of the subjects of meditation has ended.

THE EIGHTH FASCICLE OF THE PATH OF FREEDOM.

1. Piilipufaf (transliteration).

THE PATH OF FREEDOM
FASCICLE THE NINTH
WRITTEN

BY

THE ARAHANT UPATISSA
WHO WAS CALLED

GREAT LIGHT IN RYO
TRANSLATED IN RYO

BY

TIPITAKA SANGHAPALA OF FUNAN THE FIVE FORMS OF IDGHER KNOWLEDGE
CHAPTER THE NINTH

Now, when that yogin, having practised concentration, dwells easy in the fourth meditation, jhtina, he is able to cause the arising of the five forms of higher knowledge, namely, supernormal power,l divine hearing,knowledge of others' thoughts,S recollection of former lives,' divine sight.& "Supernormal power" means "transformation". "Divine hearing" means "beyond the reach of human audition". "Knowledge of others' thoughts" means "the understanding of others' thoughts". "Recollection of former lives" means "the remembrance of past lives". "Divine sight" means "beyond the reach of human vision". Q. How many kinds of supernormal power are there? Who develops it? What is the procedure? THREE KINDS OF SUPERNORMAL POWER
/

A. There are three kinds of supernormal power, namely, the supernormal . power of resolve, the supernormal power of transformation, tlie supernormal power caused by mind. What is the supernormal power of resolve? That yogin being one becomes many; and being many becomes one. Developing the body, he reaches the world of Brahma. This is called the supernormal power of resolve. 8 What is the supernormal power of transformation? That yogin discards his natural body and appears in the form of a boy or a snake
1. JcldhividJui. 2. DibbasotafUi(IIJ 3. Cetopariyana(IIJ. 4. PubbenivQsanussatii/a(la. 5. Dibbacakkhui/a(la. 6. Cpo Pis. II, 207-10: Katama adillhand iddhl? Jdha bhikkhu anekaviditam icldhividham paccanubhoti: eko pi hutva bahudJui hoti, bahudha pi hutva eko hoti • ••• yava Brahmaloka pi kiiyena vasam vatteti. •• Ayam aditthana iddhi. 209

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or a king of Brahmas. These constitute· the supernormal power of transformation.l What is the supernormal power caused by mind? That yogin calls up from this body another body, readily, and endows it with all members and faculties, according to his will. This is called the supernormal power caused by mind. * SEVEN KINDS OF SUPERNORMAL POWER And again, there are seven kinds of supernormal power, namely, the supernormal power diffused by knowledge, the supernormal power diffused by concentration, the supernormal power of the Ai"iyas, the supernl'nnal power born of kamma-result, the supernormal power of the meritorious, the supernormal power accomplished by magic, the supernormal power accomplished by the application of the means of success. Q. What is the supernormal power diffused by knowledge? A. By the view of impermanence, one rejects the perception of permanence and accomplishes the supernormal power diffused by knowledge. By the Path of Sanctity, one rejects all defilements and accomplishes the supernormal power diffused by knowledge. Thus should supernormal power diffused by knowledge be understood. It is as in the case of Venerable Elder Bakkula, of the Venerable Elder SaIikicca and of the Venerable Elder Bhtitapiila. Thus is supernormal power diffused by knowledge. 3 Q. What is the supernormal power diffused by concentration? A. By the first meditation, jhdna, one rejects the hindrances and accomplishes the supernormal power diffused by concentration. By the attainment of the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception, one rejects the perception of nothingness and accomplishes the supernormal power diffused by concentration. It is as in the case of the Venerable Elder Siii"iputta, of the Venerable Elder Khii:QukoI;u;iafifia, of the lay-sister Uttarii and of the lay-sister Siimiivati. Thus is the supernormal power diffused by concentration. 4
1. Pts. II, 210: Katama vikubbana iddhi? •. . So pakativat;l1JQm vijahitva kumarakavalJ1JQm
va dasseti, nagavQl)t;lam va dasseti, supat;l!ravat;lt;lam va dasseti, yakkhavQl)t;lam va dasseti, indaval)l)am va dasseti, devavat;lt;lam va dasseti, Brahmavat;l1JQm va dasseti ...• Ayam vikubbana iddhi. 2. Ibid. 210-11: Katama manomaya iddhi? ldha bhikkhu imamha kiiyii aiiiiam kayam abhinimminiiti rupim manomayam sabbarigapaccarigam ahinindriyam ...... Ayam manomaya iddhi. 3. Ibid. 211: Katama iiiit;lavipphiirii iddhi? 'Anicctinupassaniiya nicca.vaiiiiiiya pahanattho ijjhatiti' iiiit;lavipphiirii icidhi, 'dukkhiinupassaniiya sukhasaiiiiiiya, anattiinupassanaya attasaiiiiiiya . ... palillissaggiinupassaniiya iidiinassa pahiinallho ijjhatit/' iiiil)QVipphiirii iddhi. Ayasmato Bakkulassa iiii1JQvipphiira iddhi, iiyasmato Sarikiccassa iiii1JQvipphiira iddhi, iiyasmato Bhatapiifassa iiiiI;ravipphiirii iddhi. Ayam iiiit;lavipphiirii iddhi. 4. (a) Ibid., 211-12: Katamii samiidhivipphiirii icidhi? 'Palhamajjhiinena nivarat;liinam pahanattho ijjhatiti' samadhivipphiirii icidhi, . •• pe... 'nevasaiiiiiiniisaiiiiiiyatanasamiipattiy.a iikiiicaiifliiyatanasaiiiiiiya pahiinallho ijjhatit/' samiidhivipphiirii icidhi. Ayasmato Siiriputtassa samiidhivipphiira icidhi, ayasmato Saiijivassa samiidhivipphiirii iddhi, iiyasmato KhiiI;rukot;l"aiiiiassa samiidhivipphiirii icidhi; Uttariiya upasikiiya samadhivipphiira iddhi, Siimiivatiya upiisikaya samiidhlvipphiira iddhi. Ayam samiidhivipphiirii icidhi. (b) A. I, 26: Btad aggam bhikkhave mama siivikiinam upiisikiinam palhamam jhayinam yadidam Uttara Nandamata.

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Q. What is the supernormal power of the Noble Ones? A. Here if a bhikkhu wishes to dwell perceiving non-repugnance in the repugnant, he could dwell perceiving non-repugnance. Here if a bhikkhu wishes to dwell perceiving repugnance in the non-repugnant, he could dwell perceiving repugnance. Here if a bhikkhu wishes to dwell perceiving non-repugnance in the non-repugnant and in the repugnant, he could dwell perceiving 'nonrepugnance. Here if a bhikkhu wishes to dwell perceiving repugnance in the repugnant and in the non-repugnant, he could dwell perceiving repugnance. Q. How does one dwell perceiving repugnance in the non-repugnant? A. One fills the nO,n-repugnant with the thought that is impure or regards it as impermanent. Q. How does one dwell perceiving non-repugnance in the repugnant and in the non-repugnant? A. One diffuses the repugnant and the non-repugnant with thoughts of loving-kindness and regards them as elements. Q. How does one dwell perceiving repugnance in the nonrepugnant and in the repugnant? A. One fills the non-repugnant and the repugnant with the thought that they are impure or regards them as impermanent. Q. How does one dwell indifferent, conscious and knowing separate from the non-repugnant and the repugnant? A, Here a bhikkhu, seeing a form with the eye is not delighted, is not anxious, dwells indifferent, aware, knowing. It is the same as to the (objects appearing at) the other doors. This is called the supernormal power of the Noble Ones. 1 Q. What is the supernormal power born of kamma-result? A. All deities, all birds, some men, some born in states of suffering, perform the supernormal power of traversing the sky. This is called the supernormal power born of kammaresult. 2 Q. What is the supernormal power of the meritorious? A. It is as in the case of a wheel-king; of Jotika, the rich householder; of Jatila, the
1. Pts. II, 212-13: Katamii ariyii iddhi? Idha bhikkhll sace iikalikhati 'Pa(ikkiile apafikkiilasaiiiii vihareyyan' ti, apafikkiilasaiiiii taltha viharati; sacce iikalikhati 'Apafikkiile pa/ikkiilasaiini vihareyyan' ti, pafikkiilasaiiiii taltha viharati; sace iikalikhati 'Pafikkiile ca apa/ikkiile ca apa/ikkiilasaiiiii vihareyyan' Ii, apafikkiilasaiiiii taltha viharati; sace iikalikhati 'Apa(ikkiile ca pa/ikkiile ca pa/ikkUlasaflfli vihareyyan' ti, pafikkzllasaflni taltha viharati; sace iikankhali 'Pa/ikkiile ca apafikkul~ ca tadubhayam (lbhinivajjetvii upekkhako vihareyyam sato sampajiino' ti, upekkhako tattha viharati sato sampajiino. Katham pa(ikkiile apa(ikkiilasafliii viharati? Ani!lhasmim vatthusmim mettiiya vii pharati, dhiituto vii upasamharati. Evam pa(ikkiile apa(ikkiilasaiiiii viharati. Katham apa/ikkiile pa(ikkiilasaiiiii viharati? I(thasmim vatthusmim asubhiiya vii pharati, aniccato vii upasamharati, Evam apa(ikkiile pa(ikkUlasaflfli viharati. Katham pafikkiile ca apatikkiile ca apa(ikkiilasaflfli viharati1 Anilfhasmim ca ittthasmim ca vatthusmim mettiiya vii pharati, dhiituto vii upasamharati. Evam patikkiile ca apa(ikkiile ca apafikkiilasaflfli viharati. Katham apa(ikkaJe ca pa(ikkilJe ca palikkiilasaflni viharati? Ilfhasmim ca anilfhasmim ca vatthusmim asubhiiya vii pharati, aniccato vii upasamharati. Evam apafikkiile ca pa(ikkiile ca patikkUlasaflfli viharati. Katham pa(ikkiile ca apafikkiile ca tadubhayam abhinivajjetvii upekkhako viharatl sato sampajiino? Idha bhikkhu cakkhunii rupam disvii n' eva sumano hot; na dummano, upekkhako viharali sato sampajuno; sotena saddam .utvii, ghiinena gandham ghiiyitvii, jivhiiya rasam siiyitvii, kiiyena pho//habbam phusitvii, manasii dhammam viiifliiya n'eva sumano hOli na dummano, upekkhako viharati sato sampajiino. Evam pa(ikkule ca apafikhile ca tadubhayam abhinivajjetvii upekkhako viharati sato sampajuno. Ayam ariyii iddhi. 2. Ibid 213: Katamii kammavipiikajii iddhi? Sabbesam pakkhinam, sabbesam deviinam, ekacciinam manussiinam, ekacciinam vinipiitikiinam. Ayam kammavipiikajii iddhi.

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rich householder; of Ghosita, the rich householder. And again, it is said that it is as in the case of the five persons of great merit. This is called the, supernormal power of the meritorious. 1 Q. What is the supernormal power accomplished by magic? A. A magician recites spells and goes through the sky. There he causes to appear elephants, horses, chariots, infantry or various other groups of an army. This is called the supernormal power accomplished by magic. 2 Q. What is the supernormal power accomplished by the application of the means of success. A. By renunciation, one accomplishes the rejection of lustful desire; by the Path of Sanctity, one accomplishes the rejection of all defilements. It is like a potter finishing his work. Thus through the application of the means of success, all things are accomplished. This is called the supernormal power accomplished by the application of the means of success. 3 PROCEDURE OF DEVELOPING SUPERNORMAL POWER

Q. Who practises supernormal power? How is supernormal power developed? A. It is said that there are nine connected with space. Again it is said that there are five in space. All men who attain to the fourth meditation, jhiina, with facility, develop supernormal power. Again it is said that the fourth meditation, jhiina, of the realm of form, makes for distinction. Therefore one. develops supernormal power. Again it is said that two of the four meditations, jhlina, are ease-giving. Thus is supernormal power practised. Q. How is supernormal power developed? A. Here a bhikkhu develops the basis of supernormal power which is endowed with the activities of endeavour and the concentration of will. It is the same with the concentration of energy, the concentration of thought and the concentration of scrutiny.4 "Will" is the wish to do. "Concentration" is non-distraction of the mind. That yogin wishes for supernormal power and the bases of supernormal power, and practises concentration and resolves upon the four kinds of endeavour. He endeavours to preclude the arising of evil demeritorious states that have not yet arisen; he endeavours to reject the evil demeritI. Pts. II, 213: Katamii puiiiiavato iddhi? Riijii Cakkavatti vehiisam gacchati saddhim caturaliginiyii sel/iiya antamaso assabandhagopake purise upiidiiya; Jotikassa gahapatissa puiiiiavato iddhi, Jafi/assa gahapatissa pufiiiavato iddhi, MelJ4akassa gahapatissa puiiiiavato iddhi, Ghositassa gahapatissa puiiiiavato iddhi, piliicannari. mahiipuiiiiiinam puiiiiavato iddhi. Ayam plliiiiavato iddhi. 2. Ibid.: Katamii vijjiimayii iddhi? Vijjadharii vijjam parijapetvii vehiisam gacchanti: akase antalikkhe hatthim pi dassenti, assam pi dassenti, ratham pi dassenti, pattim pi dassenti, vividham pi seniibyiiham dassenti .. Ayam vijjiimayii iddhi. 3. Ibid. 213-14: Katham tattha tattha sammiipayogapaccayii ijjhanaffhena iddhi? 'Nekkham; mena kiimacchandassa pahiinaffho ijjhatiti' tattha tattha sammiipayogapaccayii ijjhanaffhena iddhi, . .. Arahattamaggena sabbakilesiinam pahiinaffho ijjhatiti' tattha tattha sammiipayogapaccayii ijjhanaffhena iddhi. Evam tattha tattha sammiipayogapaccayii ijjhanaffhena iddhi. 4. D. II, 213: Yiiva supaiiiiattii v'ime tena Bhagavatii jiinatii passatii arahatii sammasambuddhena cattiiro iddhipiidii iddhipahutiiya iddhi-visavitiiya iddhi-vikubbanatiiya. Katame cattaro? Idha bho bhikkhu . chanda-samiidhi-padhiina-samkhiira-samanniigatam iddhlpiidam bhiiveti, viriya-samiidhi.,. citta-samiidhi... vimamsii-samiidhi-padhiina-samkhiira-samanniigatam iddhipiidam bhiiveti.

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orious states that have already arisen; he endeavours to cause the arising of meritorious states that have not yet arisen; he endeavours to increase and to consciously reproduce the meritorious states that have already arisen; and to develop them fully. These are called "the activities of endeavour". "Endowed" means that one is endowed with these three qualities. Thus the. six parts of the term are completed. "Basis of supernormal power": That by which one attains to supernormal power - the "basis of supernormal power" is only that. Therefore that state is called "basis of supernormal power". And again, the fulfilment of the activities of endeavour and the concentration of will-this is called the "basis of supernormal power". It is the means of attending to supernormal power. This is the principal meaning. "Develops" means: "Practises and repeats it". This is called "the development of the basis of supernormal power endowed with the activities of endeavour and the concentration of will". Thus that yogin practises. This is the mean~ of success:- Sometimes he falls back; sometimes he abides. He causes the arising of energy. He fulfils [442] this basis of supernormal power which is endowed with concentration of energy and the activities of endeavour. (In) this means of success, he sometimes slackens, sometimes falls back, sometimes is perturbed. When the mind slackens, he produces the mental characterjstic of alacrity; when the mind falls away, he produces concentration of mind; when the mind is perturbed, he produces the characteristic of equaniinity. Thus his mind acquires the basis of supernormal power which is endowed with concentration of mind and the activities of endeavour. If one has a mind that is without defilement, one understands advantage and disadvantage with ease. He practises (sa:ying): "Now is the time ~o develop", or "now is not the time to develop". rhus he accomplishes "the basis of supernormal power which is endowed with concentration of scrutiny and the activities of endeavour". Thus that yogin develops the four bases of supernormal power. His mind, being wieldy, responds to the body, and his body responds to the mind. Thus that yogin' sometU:hes controls the body with his mind, and sometimes the mind with his body. Depending on the body, the mind changes; depending on the mind, the body changes. Depending on the body, the mind resolves; depending on the mind, the body resolves. The perception of bliss and lightness adheres to the body. In that state he accomplishes and abides. Practising thus, that yogin reaches the acme of lightness, makes his body exceedingly pliant, and attains to the capacity-limit of resolve, even as a ball of iron made red-hot is capable of being fashioned into any shape easily. Thus having through mental culture made his body light, he, owing to the lightness of body, enters the fourth meditation, jhdna , and is mindful and tranquil. Rising therefrom, he knows space, and resolves through knowledge. Thus his body is able to rise up in space, Having resolved through knowledge,

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Vimuttimagga

he can rise up in space. It is comparable to cottonwool blown by the wind.1 Here the new yogin shouldno~ go far quickly, because he might, in the course, of his application, arouse fear. If he stirs up fear, his meditation, jhana, will fall away. Therefore the new yogin should not go far quickly. He should go gradually. At first one shaku;2 then he gradually rises and applies himself. And again, he attempts one fathom according to his size. Thus one should reach gradually the point he desires to reach. Q. Is it possible that the yogin will fall down from the sky, if he loses his meditation,jhana, there? A. No. This begins from one's meditation-seat. If, having gone far, the meditation, jhana, is lost, one reaches the sitting place. One sees the body in the first posture (and thinks): "ThiS is the possessor of supernormal power. This is his serenity-practice". SUPERNORMAL POWER OF RESOLVE That yogin applies himself gradually, and becomes capable of easy attainment. "He is able to enjoy supernormal power in the various modes. Being one, he becomes many; being many, he becomes one. Or he becomes visible (or invisible) or he goes across a wall; he goes across a barrier; he goes across a hill; he goes unimpeded as if he were in space. He can sink into the earth or come out of it, as if in water. He can walk on water as on dry land. He can move in space as a bird on the wing. In the greatness of supernormal power and might, he can handle the sun and the moan. He raises up his body and reaches the world of Brahma. "Being one, he becomes many": He, being one, makes himself many. He makes himself appear a hundred or a thousand, or a ten thousand and so on through supernormal power. He enters the fourth meditation, jhana, and rising therefrom peacefully resolves through knowledge: "May I be manyl", like Cullapanthaka, the Consummate One (arahant).
1. Cpo s. V, 283-85: Yasmirii Ananda- samaye Tathiigato kiiyam pi citte samiidahati cittam pi ca kiiye samiidahati sukhasafliianca lahusannanca kiiye okkamitvii viharati, tasmim Anandd samaye Tathiigatassa kiiyo lahutaro ceva hoti mudutaro ca kammaniyataro ca pabhassarataro ca. Seyyathiipi Ananda ayogulo divasam santalto lahutaro ceva hoti mudutaro ca kammaniyataro ca pabhassarataro ca, evam eva kho Ananda yasmim samaye Tathiigato kiiyam pi citte samiitiahati, ciltampi kiiye samiidahati, sukhasafliianca lahusaflflafica kiiye okkamitvii viharati, tasmim Ananda samaye Tathiigatassa kiiyo lahutaro ceva holi mudutaro ca kamma•niyataro ca pabhassarataro ca. Yasmim Ananda samaye Tathiigato kiiyampi citte samiitiahati, ciltamp} kiiye samiidahati, sukkhasafliianca lahusannanca kiiye okkamitvii viharati, tasmim Ananda samaye Tathiigatassa kiiyo appakasireneva pathaviyii vehiisam abbhuggacchati, so anekavihitam iddhividham paccanubhoti, eko pi hutvii bahudhii hoti, ... pe . .. Yiiva Brahmalokii pi kiiyena vasam valteli_ Seyydthiipi Ananda tUlapicu vii kappiisapicu vii lahuko viitupiidiino appakasireneva pathaviyii vehiisam abbhuggacchali, evam eva kho Ananda yasmim samaye Tathiigato kiiyam pi cltte samiidahatl, cittam'pi kiiye samiidahati, sukhasanflanca lahusaiifliiaca kiiye okkamitvii viharati, tasm;m Ananda samaye Tathiigatassa kiiyo appakasireneva pathaviyii vehiisam abbhuggacchati, so anekavihitam iddhividham pacchanubhoti, eko pi hutvii bahudhii hoti,. . • pe . .. yiiva Brahmalokii pi kiiyena vasam vattetiti. 2. Nearlv a fonf

"He moves like a bird on the wing in space" : Here there are three kinds of movement: movement on foot; movement on air; and mind-movement. Here the yogin gets the concentration of the earth kasi1:za and resolves through knowledge for a path in space, and moves on foot. Or if he gets the concentration of the air kasi1)a he resolves upon air, and goes through air like cottonwool. Or he fills his body and mind with the movement of the mind. The perception of bliss and lightness adheres to his body. Thus his body becomes buoyant, and he goes by the movement of the mind like a bird on the wing. Thus he goes by the movement of the mind. "In the (greatness of) supernormal power and might,l he can handle the sun and the moon": Having supernormal power, that yogin gets control of the mind. Having trained his mind, he enters the fourth meditation, jhiina, and rising from it peacefully, he handles the sun and the moon with the resolve through knowledge thus: "Let my hand reach theml", and he reaches them with his hand. Sitting or lying down, that yogin can handle the sun and the moon. 2 "He raises up his body and reaches the world of Brahma": Having supernormal power that yogin gets control of the mind and goes up even to the world of Brahma, happily. These are the four bases of supernormal power. By training. the mind thus he resolves that the distant should "be near, or that the near should become distant. He resolves that many should become few,or that the few should become many. He sees Brahma's form with divine sight. He hears the voice of Brahma3 with divine hearing and he knows Brahma's mind with the knowledge of others' thoughts. That yogin has three formations.' He goes to Brahma's world through two formations. This is
1. Lit. Supernormal power and divine might. 2. Pts. IT, 208-9: 'Uclake pi abhijjamiine gacchati, seyyalhapi pathaviyan' Ii. Pakaliyii pathavikasi{lasamiipattiyii liibhi hOII, udakam iivajjali; iivajjitvii ii~ena adhitthati 'pathavi holiiti' pathavi hoti. So abhijjamiine udake gacchati. Yalhii manussii pakaliyii aniddhimanto abhijjamiiniiya pathaviyii gacchanli, evamevam so iddhimii cetovasippatto abhijjamiine udake gacchati, seyyathiipi pathaviyam. " •Akase pi pallalikena cankarnati, seyyal/liipj pakkhi sakU{lo' ti. Pakatiyii pathavikasil.rasamiipatliyii liibhi holi, iikiisam iivajjati; iiviijjitvii Iiii{lena adhitthiiti 'pathavi hotiit!', pathavi hoti. So iikiise antalikkh'e calikamati pi titthati pi nisiclali pi seyyam pi kappeli. Yathii manussii pakaliyii aniddhimanto pathaviyii calikamanli pi litthanti pi nisiclanti pi seyyam pi kappenli, evamevam so iddhimii celovasippatto iikiise antalikkhe cankamati pi titthati pi nisiclati pi seyyam pi kappeli, seyyathiipi pakkhi sakU{lO, 'Ime pi candimasuriye evam-mahiddhike evam-mahiinubhiive pii{linii pariimasati parimajiatiti'. ldha so iddhimii celovasippatto nislnnako vii nipannako vii candimasuriye iivajjati; iivajji/vii iiii(lena adhitthiiti 'hatlhapiise hotiiti', hatthapiise hoti, So nlsinnako vii nipannako vii candimasuriye piininii iimasati pariimasati parimajjati. Yalhii manussii pakatiyii aniddhimanto kiiicid eva riipagalam hatthapiise" iimasanti pariimasanti parimajjanti, evamevam so iddhimii cetovasippatlo nisinnako vii nipannako vii candimasuriye pii{linii amasali pariimasati parimajjati, 3. Lit. Devii. ' 4. Sankhara.

Subjects of Meditation
the teaching of the supernormal power of resolve in fulP
Supernormal power. of resolve has ended. +

217

SUPERNORMAL POWER OF TRANSFORMATION Now the yogin, wishing to acquire the supernormal power of transformation, practises the four bases of supernormal power. He gets control of the mind. He makes his body easy in his mind; and he makes his mind easy in his body. He makes his mind easy with his body; and he makes his body easy with his mind. He resolves upon his mind with his body; and he resolves upon his body with his mind. The perception of bliss and the perception of lightness adhere to his body. In that he abides. Practising thus that yogin reaches the acme of lightness, making his body exceedingly pliant and reaches the capacity-limit of resolve, even as an iron ball made red-hot is capable of being fashioned into any shape easily. Thus having through mental culture made his mind pliant and capable of resolve, he resolves to fill his body with his mind. If that yogin wishes to take the form of a boy, he, discarding his form, enters the fourth meditation, j!uina, and .rising from it peacefully changes into the form of a boy, gradually. In changing his body, he resolves through knowledge: "May I fulfil the form of a boy!". Thus resolving, he can fulfil the form of a boy. In the same way in changing into the form of a snake or of a garulq, a yakkha, an asura, or into the form afSakka-Inda or Brahma, the ocean, a mountain, a forest, a lion; a tiger; a leopard, an elephant, a horse, infantry, groups of an army, he resolves through knowledge thus: "May I fulfil the form of infantry!" Resolving thus, he fulfils the form of infantry (and so on).2
'Yava Brahmaloka pi kiiyena vasam valletili. Sace so iddhima cetovasippatto Brahmalokam gantukamo hoti, dure pi sanlike adhiflhati 'santike hotuti' santike holi, sanlike pi dare adhi!fhati 'dure hotliti' dure hoti; bahukam pi thokmit adhif!hati 'thokam hotiiti' thokam holi, thokam pi bahukaTiI adhiflhati •bahukam hotiiti' bahukam hoti; dibbena cakkhuna tassa Brahmuno rupam passati, dibbaya sotadhatuya tassa Brahmuno sadda/it sUlJali, cetopariyaiialJena fassa Brahrnuna cittam pajanati. Sace so iddhima cetovasippatto dissamanena kayena Brahmalokam gantukamo holi, kayavasena cittam parilJameli, kayavasena cittam adhitfhati; kayavasena cittam parilJametva kayavasena cittam adhiflhahitva sukhasaiiiiaii ca lahusaiiiiaii ca okkamitva dissamanena kayena Brahmalokam gacchati. Sace so iddhima cetovasippatto adissamanena kayena Brahmalokam gantukamo hoti, cittavasena kayam paril;lameti, cittavasena kayam adhitfhati; cittavasena kayam paril;lametva cittavasena kayam adhifthahitva sukhasaiiiiaii ca lahusaiiiiaii ca okkamitva adissamanena kayena Brahmalokam gacchati. So lassa Brahmuno purato rupam abhinimminali manomayam sabbarigapaccarigam ahinindriyam. Sace so iddhima carikamati, nimmito pi tattha calikamati; sace so iddhima titfhati, nimmito pi tattha liffhati; sace so iddhima nisidati, nimmito pi tattha nisidali; sace so iddhimii seyyam kappeti, nimmito pi lattha seyyam kappeti; sace so iddhima dhiipayali, nimmito pi lattha dhiipayati; sace so iddhima pajjalati, nimmito pi tallha pajjalali; sace so iddhima dhammam bhasati, nimmito pi tallha dhammam bhasali; sace so iddhima paiiham pucchali, nimmilo pi tattha paiiham pucchati; sace so iddhima paiiham puf/ho vissajjeli, nimmito pi lattha paiiham pUl!ho vissajjeli; sace so iddhima lena Brahmuna saddhim santitthali saUapati sakaccham samapajjati, nimmito pi Ii tattha lena Brahmuna saddhim santiffhali saUapati sakaccham samapajjati; Yaii nad eva hi so iddhima karoti, tan tad eva hi so nimmito karotiti. Ayam adhiffhana iddhi. 2. Pts. II, 210: Katama vikubbana iddhi? Sikhissa Bhagavato Arahalo Sammasambuddhassa Abhibhii nama savako Brahmaloke /hito sahassilokadhiitum sarena viiiiiapeti. So dissamanena pi kayena dhammam deseli,
I. Pts. IT, 209-10:

218

Vimuttimagga

Q. What is the difference between the 'supernonnal power of resolve and the supernormal power of transformation? A. In the supernormal· power of resolve, one resolves without discarding the fann. In the supernonnal power of transformation, one discards the fonn. This is the difference.

The supernormal power of transformation has ended.t

SUPERNORMAL POWER CAUSED BY MIND Now the yogin wishes to acquire the supernormal power caused by the mind. Having got control of mind, he develops the bases of supernormal power and enters into the fourth meditation,jhtina. Rising therefrom peacefully, he attends to the interior of his body with the thought: "It is like an empty pot". Further that yogin meditates thus: "Within this hollow body of mine I will cause changes as I like. I will cause it to change". And in changing, he resolves through knowledge thus: "Following itI will accomplishl" Thus considering, he accomplishes the change. By this means, he makes many forms. Thereafter he engages himself in various activities. If the yogin wishes to go to the world of Brahma with a created body, he creates it in the form of a Brahma before entering the Brahma world. The fonn which is made according to his will is complete with all factors, and there is no faculty wanting in it. If [443J the possessor of supernonnal power walks to and fro, that created man also walks to and fro. If the possessor of supernormal power sits, or lies down, <!lr sends forth vapour and flame, or asks questions, or answers, that created man also sits or lies down, sends forth vapour and flame, or asks questions, or answers. Because that made fonn springs from supernonnal power, it does SO.l
The supernormal power caused by mind has ended.t

power creates could be distinguished at any time. At this time he does not appear. He knows when it is not the time. During that time shoul<I he wish to speak, he makes. himself invisible. He does not appear at any moment. The created form has no life-principle. Drinks, foods, things, and various forms of knowledge created proceed by way of nine objects, namely, limited object, sublime object, limitless object, past object, future object, present object, internal object, external object, internal-external object.
Miscellaneous Teachings have ended.t

DIVINE HEARING

Q. Who practises divine hearing? How is it developed?
A. One who enters the fourth meditation, jhdna, with facility on eight kasil;zas and two kasil:zas causes the arising of divine hearing relying on the

physical organ of hearing.
Q.
A.

Haw is the form element of the fourth meditation, jhtina, set free?
It occurs then.l

Q. How is it developed? A. The new yogin practises the four bases of supernormal power and controls his mind. He enters the fourth meditation, jhtina. Rising therefrom peacefully and depending on the physical organ of hearing, he attends to the sound sign. Hearing a sound afar off, or hearing a sound nearby, he attends to the sound sign. Hearing a gross sound or hearing a fine sound, he attends to the sound sign. Hearing a sound from the east, he attends to the sound sign. Thus as to all regions. Through the practice of the purity of mind and the purification of the ear element, that yogin strengthens the mental formations. That yogin hears what is beyond the reach of human ears owing to the purified divine hearing. He hears both sounds, namely, divine sounds and human sounds, also sounds afar and sounds near. 2 Here the predecessors have said: "At first the new yogin hears the sound of beings within ihimself after that he hears the sound of beings outside his body. Thence he hears the sound of beings anywhere. Thus he strengthens attention gradually". Again it is said: "At first the new yogin cannot hear the sound of beings within himself, because he is not able to hear fine sounds. He cannot reach the field of these (sounds) with the physical ear. But the new yogin could hear the sound of conchs, drums and the like, with the physical ear"
1. The question and the answer are not clear. 2. D. I, 79: Seyyathii pi maha-raja puriso addhaTUl-magga-palipanno so sU(leyya bheri-saddam pi mutinga-saddam pi sankha-pat;lava-det;ltjima-saddam pi. Tassa evam assa: "Bheri-saddo" iii pi, "mutinga-saddo" iti pi, "sairkha-pat;lava-deQtjima-saddo" iti pi. Evam eva kho maharaja bhikkhu evam samahite citte parisuddhe pariyodate anangane vigatilpakkilese mudubhilte kammaniye {hite anejjappatte dibbaya sota-dhatuya cittam abhiniharati abhininniimeti. So dibbiiya sota-dhatuya visuddhaya atikkanta-manusikaya ubho sadde .,u!lati, dibbe ca miinuse ca, ye diire scmtike ca.

220

Vimuttimagga

Fine sounds or gross sounds, sounds afar off or sounds' nearby could be heard with divine hearing. Here the new yogin should not attend to extremely fearful sounds, because he will (going to the other extreme) become attached to lovable sounds, and because he will stir up fear in his mind. Knowledge of divine hearing proceeds in three objects, namely, limited object, present object and external object. If one loses physical hearing, one also loses divine hearing. Here, the hearer, who acquires facility (in the practice), is able to listen to the sounds of a thousand world-systems. The Silent Buddhas can hear more. There is no limit to the power of hearing of the Tathagata. Divine hearing has ended-t KNOWLEDGE OF OTHERS' THOUGHTS
Q. Who develops the knowledge of others' thoughts? it developed?

How is

A. One entering the fourth meditation, jhiina, on the light kasi1;la and acquiring facility therein, gains divine sight and causes the arising of the knowledge of others' thoughts. How is it developed? The new yogin having acquired the bases of supernormal power and having got control of the mind, enters the light kasi1;la which is pure and immovable. Rising from the fourth meditation, jhiina, peacefully, he, at first, fills his body with light. He sees the colour of his own heart through divine sight. Through this colour he perceives his own states of consciousness, and knows through the changes in colour the changes in his own mind: "This colour proceeds from the faculty of joy; this colour proceeds from the faculty of fear; this colour proceeds from the facuIty of equanimity". If the consciousness which is accompanied by the faculty of joy arises, the heart is of the colour of curds and ghee. If the consciousness which is accompanied by the faculty of melancholy arises, it (the heart) is purple in colour. If the consciousness which is accompanied by the faculty of equanimity arises, it (the heart) is of the colour of honey. If the consciousness which is accompanied by lustful desire arises, it (the heart) is yellow in colour. If the consciousness which is accompanied by anger arises, it (the heart) is black in colour. If the consciousness which is accompanied" by ignorance arises, it (the heart) is muddy in colour. If the consciousness which is accompanied by confidence and knowledge arises, it (the heart) is pure in colour. Thus that yogin understands the changes in colour through the changes within himself. At this time he diffuses other bodies with light and sees the colour of others' hearts through divine sight. He understands the changing Colours through the changes in their hearts, and the changes

Subjects of Meditation

221

in their hearts through the changing colours.1 Having understood thus, he causes the arising of the knowledge of others' thoughts. Having aroused the knowledge of others' thoughts, he leaves off attending to the changes of colour and holds to the heart only as object. That yogin practises thus. Therefore his mind becomes pure.
If a certain individual has the heart of loving-kindness, he (the yogin) knows that that individual.possesses the heart ofloving-kindness. If a certain individual has the heart of hate, he knows that that individual has the heart of hate. If a certain individual has not the heart of hate, he knows that that individual has not the heart of hate. 2 Thus he knows alL

The knowledge of others' thoughts proceeds in eight objects, namely, limited object, lofty object, the path object, the immeasurable object, the past object, the future object, the present object and the external object. 3 The knowledge of the thoughts of those who are freed from the cankers is not within the power of the commoner. The thoughts of the beings of the formless realms are knowable only by the Buddhas. If the hearer gains freedom, he knows the thoughts (of beings) of a thousand world-systems. The Silent Buddhas know more. As to the Tathagata, there is no limit.
The knowledge of others' thoughts has ended:'

RECOLLECTION OF PAST LIVES
Q. Who practises the knowledge of the recollection of past lives ? How many kinds of knowledge of the recollection of past lives are there? How is it developed?

A. He who enters the fourth meditation, jhdna, with facility on the eight kasil;as and the two kasi1)as, is able to cause the arising of the knowledge of the recollection of past lives. Again it is asked: What the form plane meditation? The fourth meditation, jhdna, of the form plane where there is freedom of the mind. Again it is asked: "In the fourth meditation, jhiina, how many kinds

of knowledge of the recollection of past lives can be made to arise"? A. There are three kinds of knowledge of the recollection of past lives. Q. With the fourth meditation, jhcina, how many kinds of recollection of past lives are possible? A. There are three kinds of recollection of past lives: many lives, birth made, practice made. "Many lives" means: recollection of past lives produced through four ways, viz., one develops the sign well, then one grasps the mental sign, one calms one's faculties and one develops that ability. These four ways produce the recollection of past lives. Of these the recollection of seven past lives is the best. Through "birth made" means: deities, niigas (demons) and garulas (mythical birds) remember their past lives naturally. Of these the best remember fourteen past lives. "Practice made" means to produce by way of the four bases of supernormal power.

Q. How is the knowledge of the recollection of past lives developed? The new yogin, having practised the four bases of supernormal power, gains control of the mind through confidence, and becomes immovable and pure. He, having sat down, remembers what he had done in the day Qr all that he had done bodily, mentally and verbally. Thus also as regards the actions of the night. In the same way he recollects all that he had done during a day, during two days and thus backwards to one month. In the same way he remembers all that he had done during two months, one year, two years, three years, a hundred years up to his last birth. At this time the mind and the mental properties of the preceding birth and the mind and the mental properties of the succeeding birth appear. Owing to the mind and the mental properties of the preceding birth, he gets (the succeeding) birth. Owing to mind-succession, he is able to see the causes and conditions and remember the (backward) rolling of consciousness. The two (the preceding and the succeeding) are not disjoined and are produced in this world, having been produced in that world. Through ,such practice of the mind that is purified, that yogin remembers his varied lot in the past. Thus (he remembers) one life, two lives, three lives, four lives and so forth. The new yogin remembers all pertaining to this life. If any yogin is not able to remember his past births he should not give up exerting himself. He should develop meditation, jhiina, again and again. He, in developing meditation, jhcina, well, should purify the mind with action similar to the correct method of burnishing a mirror.l Having purified his mind, he remembers his past exactly. If he continues
A.
I. D. I, 80; M. U, 19-20: Seyyalluipi, Udiiyi, itthi vii puriso vii daharo yuvii malJrfakajiiliko iidiise vii parisuddhe pariyodiile acche vii udakapatle sakam mukhanimittam paccavekkhamiino sakalJikam vii sakanikan Ii jiineyya, akalJikam vii akalJikan Ii jiineyya,-evam eva kho, Udiiyi, akkluilii mayii siivakiinam pafijJadii, yalhii pafipannii me siivakii parasattiinam parapuggaliinam celasii celo paricca pajiinanli, sariigam vii Cittam: sariigam ciltan Ii pajiiniiti. . . •

entering into concentration1 or without entering into concentration, are able to recall to mind always. The rest can recall only through entering mto con-' centration.
The knowledge of the recollection of past iives has ended.t

DIVINE SIGHT
Q. Who practises divine sight? How many kinds of divine sight are there? How is divine sight developed? A, He who enters the fourth meditation, jluina, on, the light kasi1)a and acquires faCility therein, and by him who is in possession of natural sight. How many kinds of divine sight are there? A. There are two kinds of divine sight, namely, that which is produced by well-wrought kamma2 and that which is produced by the strength of energetic developing. 3 Here, divine sight which is accumulated kamma is born of (kamma) result. Thereby one can see whether there are jewels or not in a treasury. "That which is produced by the strength of energetic developing" means that which is produced by the practice of the four bases of supernormal power. How is divine sight developed? Having practised the four bases of supernormal power and gained control of the mind, the new yogin, being pure and immovable, enters the light kasi1)a. Attaining to the fourth meditation, jhiina, he attends to and resolves upon the perception oflight and the perception of day thus: "This day is like night; this night is like day" 4 His mind being free from all· obstruction and from all clinging, he is able to strengthen his mind and increase light. To that yogin who strengthens and increases his light, there is nothing obscure. There is nothing covered, and he surpasses the sun in splendour. Practising thus, that yogin diffuses his body with light and attends to colour and form. With the purified divine sight which surpasses human vision, that yogin "sees beings disappearing and reappearing, coarse and fine, beautiful and ugly, faring well or faring ill, according to their deeds. 5 Here, if one wishes to cause the a"rising of divine sight, he should suppress these defilements: uncertainty, wrong mindfulness, rigidity and torpor, pride, wrong joy, slanderous talk, excessive exercise of energy, too little exercise of energy, frivolous talk, perceptions of diversity, excessive
lahukam. Yo ciram jivati S(J vassasatari! appam vii bhiyyo. Miigadhakii bhikkhave manussii Vepullam pabbatam tnuhuttena arohanti muhuttena orohanti. Etarahi kho paniiham bhilckhave arahlzm sammasambuddho lake uppanno ... pe ••• Samadhi (transliteration). Sucaritakammanibbatta. Viriyabhiiviinii balanibbatta. Cpo D. III, 223: Idh' avuso bhikkhu alokasannam manasi-karoti, divii-sannam adhiffhiiti yathii divii tatha rattim, yatha rattim tatha diva, itl vivafena cetasii aparlyonaddhena sappabhasam cittam bhaveti. It. 100; A. IV, 178: Iti dibbena cakkhuna visuddhena atikkantamanusakena sattepassiimi cavamane upapajjamiine, hine pa7.lite suva7.l7.le dubba7.l7.le sugate duggate yathiikammiipage satte pajiinami.

internal-object, external-object and internal-external-object.1 From divine sight four .kinds of knowledge are produced. The knowledge of the future,2 the knowledge of the kamma sprung from each self, the knowledge of the passing away of beings according to their deeds and the knowledge of kammaresult. Here, through the knowledge of the future, he knows the arising of the form of the future. 3 Through the knowledge of the kamma sprung from each self, he knows the kamma which others make. By that kamma he knows that such and such a man will go to such and such a world.' Through the knowledge of the passing away of beings according to their deeds, he sees the world in which beings will appear, and he knows that such and such a man will be born in such and such a world through such and such a kamma. 5 Through the knowledge of the kahuna-result, he knows the time of arrival here; he knows the state he will reach here; he knows the defilement which causes the arrival here; he knows the means of arrival here; he knows that such and such a kamma will mature; he knows that such and such a kamma will not mature; he knows that such and such a kamma will result in much; and he knows that such and such a kamma will result in little. 6 Here the hearer who acquires freedom sees a thousand world-systems. The Silent Buddha sees more than that, and there is no limit to the vision of the Tathagata.
Divine sight has ended'+
1. Cpo Vis. Mag: 434: Vis. Mag.
2. AniigatamsaiitilJa, KammasakataiitilJa (SvamaytikammaiitilJa), YathtikammiipagafltilJa, KammavipiikafliilJa, Vis. Mag. mentions only the first and the third. 3. D. ITT, 75-6: Asiti-vassa-sahasstiyukesll bhikkhave manussesu Metteyyo ntima Bhagavti loke uppajjissati araham Sammti-Sambuddho vijjti-carlJa-sampanno .•. So aneka-sahassam bhikkhu-samgham pariharissati, seyyathti pi 'ham etarahi aneka-satam bhikkhu-sarilgham parihartimi. Atha kho bhikkhave Samkho ntima rtijti yen'assa yiipo raiiiiti Mahti-Pantidena ktirtipito, tam yiipam ussiipetvti ajjhtivasitvti daditvti vissajjetvti samalJa-brtihmalJa-kapafJiddhikavanibbaka-yticakiinam dtinam datvti Melleyyassa Bhagavato arahato Sammti-Sambuddhassa santike kesa-massum ohiiretvii ktisaytini vallhtini aechtidetvti agtirasmti anagtiriyam pabbajissati. So evaln pabbajito samtino eko viipakaffho appamatto tittipi pahitallo viharanlo na cirass' eva yass' allhtiya kula-pullti sammad eva agiirasmti anagtiriyam pabbajanti, tad anuttaram brahmacariyam pariyostinam diffhe va dhamme sayam abhiiiiiti sacchikatvti upasampajja viharissati. . 4. D. I, 83: So dibbena cakkhunti visuddhena atikkanta-mtinusakena salle passati cavamtine upapajjamtine, hine palJite suva1J1Je dubba1J1Je sugate duggate yathti-kammiipage satte pajtiniiti. 5. D. ITI, 111-12: 1dha bhante ekacco SamalJo va BrtihmalJo vti titappam anvtiya padhtinam anvtiya . .. pe . .. tathti-riipam ceto-iamtidhim phusati yathti samtihite citte dibbena cakkhunti visuddhena atikkanta-mtinusakena saile passati eavamtine upapajjamtine hine palJite suva1J1Je dubbalJlJe sugate duggate yathti·kammiipage salle pajtintiti: "lme vata bhonto sattti ktiyaduccaritena samanndgatii vaci~duccaritena samanndgata mano-{iuccaritena samanniigatii ariytinam upavtidakti micchti-diffhikti miechti-diffhi-kamma-samtidiinti, Ie ktiyassa bhedii param·maralJti· aptiyam duggatim viniptitam nirayam uppannti. 1me vti pana bhonlo sattti kiiya-sucaritena samanmigatii vaei ... pe ... mano-sucaritena samanniigalii ariyiina,;, anupavtidakii summti-dillhikti sammti-diffhi-kammii-samtidtinti, te ktiyassa bhedti param maralJti sugatim saggam lokam ujJpannti ti". 6. Dh-a, III, 65-6: Te 'allh' eso uptiyo' Ii sabbe ekaeehandti hUlvti 'yam kiiiei katvti tam mtiresstimti Ii aftano upallhtike samtidapetvti kahtipalJasahassam labhitvti purisaghtitakammam katvti carante core pakkostipetvii, 'Mahtimoggalltinatthero ntima Kiilasiltiyam vasati, DibbacakkhuiitilJam paritta-paccuppanna-ajjhatta-bahiddhtirammalJavasena calilsu tirammanesll pavattali. The fifth, ajjhattabahiddha-tirammalJa, is not in

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MISCELLANEOUS TEACHINGS

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Here there are the following miscellaneous teachings: If one practises one kind of concentration with the purpose of seeing forms through divine sight, he can only see forms. He cannot hear sounds. If he practises one kind of concentration for the purpose of hearing sounds through divine hearing, he can hear sounds only. He cannot see forms. If he practises concentration for the purpose of seeing and hearing, he can see and hear. If he practises concentration for the purpose of seeing, hearing and knowing others' thoughts, he can see, hear and know others' thoughts. If he practises concentration for the purpose of seeing in one direction, he cannot see in another direction, he cannot hear and he cannot know others' thoughts. If he practises concentration much, he can see in all directions, he can hear and he can know others' thoughts. Five supernormal powers are worldly higher knowledge. These are possessed by the denizens of the form plane who are with the cankers and commoners with the fetters. Meritorious higher knowledge belongs to both the learner and the commoner. To the Consummate One belongs noncharacterizable higher knowledge. The five kinds of higher knowledge are not produced in the formless plane. The section on supernormal power in the Path of Freedom has ended.t

Q. What is wisdom? What is its salient characteristic? What is its function? What is its manifestation? What is its near cause? What are its benefits? What is the meaning of wisdom? Through what merits can wisdom be acquired? How many kinds of wisdom are there?

A. The seeing, by the mind, of objects as they are-this is called wisdom. 1 And again, the considering of advantage and non-advantage, and of the sublilne, is called wisdom. It is according to the teaching of the Abhidhamma.

is knowledge. This is investigation of the truth, distinguishing, 1 synecdoche. That investigation is learned, skilful, clever, and in considering, it sees clearly' and draws knowledge (?). Wisdom is good; wisdom is faculty; wisdom is power; wisdom is sword; wisdom is a tower; wisdom is light; wisdom is splendour; wisdom is a lamp; and wisdom is a gem. Non-delusion, investigation of the truth, right views-these are called wisdom. 2 The attainment of truth is its salient characteristic. Investigation is its' function. Nondelusion is its manifestation. The four truths are its near cause. And again, clear understanding is its salient characteristic; the entering into the true law is its function; the dispelling of the darkness of ignorance is its manifestation; the four kinds of analytical science are its near cause. BENIFITS OF WISDOM What are its benefits? Incalculable are the benefits of wisdom. the statement in brief:Through wisdom are all morals made to shine. Two kinds of wisdom lead to jhdna-heights. Through wisdom does one tread the Holy Path and see the fruition great of sanctity. Supreme is wisdom; 'tis the eye of things. The loss of wisdom is impurity. Unrivalled is the growth in wisdom's state. Through wisdom does one break all heresy. The vulgar drawn by craving practise ill; Not so the wise, the highest of all kind, who rightly live and teach what profits both this world and that. They being free and strong see states of woe and welfare multiform, and know condition, cause. mind, Platter, norm. This wisdom is the doctrine of the Truths. This wisdom is the pasture of the good. Through wisdom one attains to excellence. Through wisdom one roots out the evil brood, which are called craving, hatred, ignorance, and birth and death, and all the rest that is, which naught else ever can exterminate.
1. Lit. Excellent characteristic. 2. Cpo Dhs. 11, para. 16: Yii lasmim samaye pannii pajiinanii vicayo pavicayo dhammavicayo sallakkhalJii upa/akkhQ/Jii paccupalakkhalJii paIJ4iccam kasallam nepufifiam vebhavyii cinlii upaparikkhii bhiiri medhii parilJiiyikii vipassanii sampajannam patado pannii paniiindriyam panniibalam panfiiisattham panniipiisiido pannii-iiloka pannii-obhiisa paflfliipajjala panniiralanam amoho dhammavicaya sammiidiflhi-idam tasmim samaye panfiindriyam hati,

This is

Subjects of Meditation
MEANING OF WISDOM

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Q. What is the meaning of wisdom? A. It means "knowledge" and it means "removing well". Through what merits can wisdom be acquired? Through these eleven merits, [445] namely, searching the meaning of the scriptures, many gO'od deeds, dwelling in purity, serenity and insight, the Four Truths, work of-science (?), calming the mind, dwelling in meditation, jhiina, at all times, ridding the mind of the hindrances, separating from the unwise and the habit of associating with the wise:
TWO KINDS OF WISDOM How many kinds of wisdom are there? A. Two kinds, three kinds and four kinds. Q. What are the two kinds in wisdom? A. Mundane wisdom and supramundane wisdom. 1 Here wisdom which is associated with the Noble Path and Fruit is supramundane wisdom. Others are mundane wisdom. Mundane wisdom is with cankers, with fetters and with tangle. This is flood. This is yoke. This is hindrance. This is contact. This is faring on. This is contamination. 2 Supramundane wisdom is without cankers, is without fetters, is without tangle., the non-flood, the non-yoked, the non-hindered, the non-contacted, the not faring on, the non-contaminated. FIRST GROUP OF THREE IN WISDOM The three kinds in wisdom are· wisdom sprung from thought, wisdom sprung from stu(iy and wisdom sprung from culture. 3 Here wisdom which one acquires without learning from others is the wisdom that kamma is property of each one or the wisdom which is conformable to the truth in respect of vocational works or works of science. Thus is wisdom sprung from thought to be known. The wisdom that is got by learning from others is called wisdom sprung from study. Entering into concentration one develops all wisdomthis is wisdom sprung from comtentration. SECOND GROUP OF THREE IN WISDOM Again there are three kinds in wisdom: skill in profit, skill in loss, skill
I. Lokiya-, lokuttara-panna. 2. Cpo Dhs. 125 para. 584: Lokiyam sasavam samyojaniyQlh ganthaniyam oghaniyam, yoganiyam, nivaralJiyam paramalfham upadaniyam sarikilesikam. 3. D. III, 219: Cinta-maya panna, suta-maya panna, bhavana-maya panna (=cintamay' iidisu ayam vittharo. Tattha katama cintamaya panna? Yoga-vihitesu va kamm' iiyatanesu yoga-vihitesu vii sipp'ayatanesu yoga-vihitesu va vijjiiyatanesu kamma-ssakatam vii sacciinulomikaril vii r{(pam aniccan Ii vii " .pe. .. vifliitilJam aniccan Ii va yam evarupam anulomikatil khanlim diflhim rucim muniril pekkham dhamma-nijjhiina-khantim parato asutvii pari/abhati, ayam vuccati cintiimayii pannii. Yoga-vihitesu va kamm' iiyatanesu ... pe . .. dhamma-nijjhiina-khanlim parato sulvii pa!ilabhati, ayam vuccali sulamayii panna. Tattha kalama bhavaniimayii panna? Sabba pi sammiipannassa pannii bhiivaniimaya panna.-Sv. III, 1002).

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in means. Here as one attends to these states, demeritorious states are put away; meritorious states are made to increase. This wisdom is called skill in profit. Again, as one attends to these states, demeritorious states arise, and meritorious states are put away. This wisdom is ·called "skill in loss". Here, the wisdom of all means of success is called "skill in means".l THIRD GROUP OF THREE IN WISDOM And again, there are three kinds in wisdom, namely, the wisdom that accumulates, the wisdom that does not accumulate and the wisdom that neither accumulates nor does not accumulate. The wisdom of the Four Paths is called the wisdom that does not accumulate. The neither describable nor non-describable wisdom of the Fruit of the four stages and the object of three stages-this is wisdom that neither accumulates nor does not accumulate. 2 FIRST GROUP OF FOUR IN WISDOM The four kinds in wisdom are knowledge produced by one's own kamma; knowledge that conforms to the truth, knowledge connected with the Four Paths and knowledge connected with the Four Fruits. Here, right view concerning the ten bases is the knowledge produced by one's own kamma. "Adaptable patience" in one who regards the aggregates as impermanent, ill, and not-self is called knowledge that conforms to the truth. The wisdom of the Four Paths is called knowledge connected with the Four Paths. The wisdom of the Four Fruit~ is called knowldege connected with the Four Fruits. 3 SECOND GROUP OF FOUR IN WISDOM And again, there are four kinds in wisdom, namely, wisdom of the sensuous element, wisdom of the form element, wisdom of the formless element and
1. D. lIT, 220 TI(li kosalliini-Aya-kosallam, apiiya-kosallam, upiiya-kosallam (=Kosallesu iiyo ti va4rJhi, apiiyo ti avaififhi. Tassa tassa kiira(lam upiiyo. Tesam pajiinanam kosallam. Vitthiiro pana Vibhange (32S-6) vutto yeva. Vuttam h' etam: Tattha katamam iiyakossallam? Ime dhamme manasikaroto anuppannii c' eva akusalii dhammii na uppajjanti, uppannii ca akusalii dhammii nirujjhanti. Ime vii pana me dhamme manasikaroto anuppannii c' eva kusalii dhammii uppajjanti, uppannii ca kusalii dhammii bhiyyo-bhiiviiya vepulliiya bhiivaniiya piiripuriyii samvattanti. Yii tattha pannii pajiinanii sammii-dillhi idam vuccati iiya-kosallam. Tattha katamam apiiya-kosallam? Ime me dhamme manasikaroto anuppannii C' eva akusalii dhammii uppajjqnti, uppannii ca kusalii dhammii nirujjhanti. Ime vii pana me dhamme manasikaroto anuppannii c' eva kusalii dhammii n'uppajjanti, uppannii ca akusalii dhammii bhiyyo-bhiiviiya vepulliiya bhiivaniiya piiripuriyii samvattanti. Yii tattha pannii pajiinanii sammii-diffhi, idam vuccati apiiya-kosallam. Sabbii pi tatr' IIpiiyii pannii upiiya-kosallan ti. !dam pana acciiyika-kicce vii bhaye vii uppanne tassa tassa tikicchan' atthum thiin' uppattiyii kiira(la-jiinana-vasen' eva veditabbam.-Sv.IIIIOOS). 2. Cpo Vbh. 326: Tisu bhumisu kusale paiiiiii iicayagiimini pannii. Catusu bhiimisu panna apacayagiimini pannii. TIsu bhumisu kiriyiivyiikate pannii neva iicayagiimini na apacayagiimini pannii. 3. Cpo Vbh. 328: Tattha katamam kammassakatam nii(lam? Atthi dinnam attlii yiffham, atthi hutam, atthi sukatadukkatiinam kammiinam phalavipiiko, atthi ayam loko, atthi paraloko, atthi miitii, atthi pitii, attM sattii opapiitikii, atthi loke sama(labriihmaIJii sammaggatii sammiipatipannii ye imam ca lokam paran ca lokam sayam abhiiiiiii sacchikatvii pavedentiti: yii evarupii pannii pajiinanii .. .pe ... amoho dhammavicayo sammiidilfhi:

nation nor to non-combination. Here meritorious wisdom of the sensuous element is due to combination and not to non-combination. The wisdom of the Four Paths ,is due to non-combination and not to combination. Meritorious wisdom of the form element and the formless element is due to combination and also to non-combination. Characterizable wisdom of the Fruit of the four stages and of the object of the three stages is neither due to combination nor to non-combination.1 FIFTH GROUP OF FOUR IN WISDOM And again, there are four kinds in wisdom. There is wisdom which is due to aversion and not to penetration. There is wisdom which is due to penetration and not to aversion. There is wisdom which is due to aversion and also to penetration. There is wisdom which is due neither to aversion nor to penetration. Here the wisdom which is due to aversion and which is not due to penetration of supernormal knowledge and the knowledge of the Four Truths is called wisdom which is due to aversion and not due to penetration: That which is due to supernormal knowledge is due to penetration and not due to aversion. The wisdom of the Four Paths are due to aversion and also to penetration. The other kinds of wisdom are due neither to aversion nor to penetration. 2 SIXTH GROUP OF FOUR IN WISDOM And again, there are four kinds in wisdom, namely, analysis of meaning, of the Law, of interpretation and of argument. Knowledge in regard to meaning is analysis of meaning. Knowledge in regard to doctrine is analysis of the Law. Knowledge in regard to etymological interpretation is analysis of interpretation. Knowledge in regard to knowledge is analysis of argument. 3 SEVENTH GROUP OF FOUR IN WISDOM Knowledge in rega{d to consequence of cause is analysis of meaning. ,Knowledge in regard to cause is analysis of the Law. Understanding in
1. Vbh. 330: Tattha katamii pannii iicayiiya no apacayiiya? Kiimiivacarakusale pannii iicayiiya no apacayiiya. Catusu maggesu pannii apacayiiya no iicayiiya. R/ipiivacaraarupiivacarakusale paiiiiii iicayiiya ceva apacayiiya ca. Avasesii paiiJiii neva iicayiiya no • apacayiiya. 2. Ibid.: Ta/tha katamii panifii nibbidiiya no pativedhiiya? Yiiya panniiya kiimesu vi/ariigo hoti, na ca abhiiiiiiiyo pativijjhati na ca sacciini: ayam vuccali paiiJiii nibbidiiya no pafivetlhiiya. Sveva paiiifiiya kiimesu vilariigo samiino abhiififiiyo pa(ivijjhati, na ca sacciini: ayam vuccali pannii pa(ivedhiiya no nibbidiiya. Calusu maggesu paniiii nibbidiiya ceva pativedhiiya ca. Avasesii pa/inii neva nibbidiiya no pa(ivedhiiya. 3. Ibid. 293, 331: Tattha kalamii' calasso patisambhidii? Atthapatisambhidii dhammapatisambhidii nir~ttipatisambhidii patibhiinapa(isambhidii. Atthe nii(lam atthapatisambhidii. Dhamme lIii{Iam dhammapa(isambhidii. Taira dhammaniruttiibhiliipe nii(IQm niruttipatisambhidii. fitiqleslI iiii(IQm patibhii(IQpatisambhidii. lmii catasso patisambh;dii.

Subjects of Meditation
regard to the analysis of the Law is analysis of interpretation. in regard to knowledge is analysis of argument. l EIGHTH GROUP OF FOUR IN WISDOM

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Knowledge

And again, the knowledge of ill and cessation is analysis of meaning. The knowledge of the origin of ill and the Path is called analysis of the Law. Etymological interpretation of the Law is called analysis of interpretation. Knowledge in regard to knowledge is called analysis of argument. 2 NINTH GROUP OF FOUR IN WISDOM And again, knowledge of the Law, namely, the discourses, mixed verse and prose, expositions, verse, solemn utterances, sayings, birth-stories, supernormal phenomena, divisions according to matter* is called analysis of the Law. One knows the meaning of what is spoken: "This is the meaning of what is spoken". This is called analysis of meaning. Knowledge of the meaning of what has been preached is called the analysis of interpretation. Knowledge in regard to knowledge is called analysis of argument. 3 TENTH GROUP OF FOUR IN WISDOM And again, knowledge in respect of the eye is called analysis of the Law. Eye-knowledge in respect of views is called analysis of meaning. Knowledge in interpreting ~hat has been preached is called analysis of interpretation. Knowledge in regard to knowledge is called analysis of argument.' ELEVENTH GROUP OF FOUR IN WISDOM And again, there are four kinds of knowledge, namely, knowledge of ill,
1. Vbh. 293: Hetumhi iici(!am dhammapalisambhidii. Httuphale flcil;lam atthapa/isambhidci. Tatra dhammaniruttcibhilcipe iicil;lam nirutfipalisambhidci. iVci(!esu iici(!Qm palibhci(!apalisambhidii. . 2. Ibid: Dukkhe iiii(!am atthapatisambhidii. Dukkhasamudayeiicil;lam dhammapafisambhidii. Dukkhanirodhe iiii(!am atthapafisambhidii. Dukkhanirodhagiiminiyci pafipadiiya flii(!am dhammapalisambhidii. Tatra dhammanirutfiibhilcipe flii(!am niruttipafsambhidii. iVii(!esu iiiil;lam pafibhii(!apafisambhidii. • Sulta, geyya, veyyiikara(!a,giithii, udiina, itivuttaka,jiitakci, abbhutadhamma vepulla(vedalla) -transliteration. . 3. Vbh. 294: [dha bhikkhu dhammam jiiniiti suttam geyyam veyyiikara(!am gcitham udiinali. itivuttakam jiitakam abbhutadhammam vedallam: ayam vuccati dhammapa/isambhidii. So fassa tass' eva bhiisitassa altham jciniiti: ayam imassa bhcisitassa altho, ayam imassa bhiisitassa altho Ii: ayam vuccati atthapatisambhidii. Tatra dhammaniruttcibhilcipe iiii(lam niruttipafisambhidii. iVii(!esu fliinam pafibhii(!apa/isambhidii. 4. Vbh. 296: Yasmim samaye akusalam cittam uppannam hoti somanassasahagatam diffhigatasampayultam, riipciramma(!am vci .. .pe ... dhammiiramma(lam vci yam yam vii pan' iirabbha, tasmim samaye phasso holi ... pe .. . avikkhepo holi: .ime dhammci akusalii. [mesu dhammesu iiii(!am dhammapa(isambhidii. Tesam vipiike flii(!am atthapafisambhidii. Yiiya niruttiyii tesam dhammiinam paiiiiatti holi, tatra dhammaniruttiibhi/ape iiii(!am niruttipatisambhidii. Yena iiii(!ena tiini iici(!iini jiiniiti: imcini iici(!cini idam atthajotakiiniti, iiii(lesu iiii(lam pafibhiil)apalisambhidii.

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of the origin of ill, of the ceasing of ill and of the Path. Knowledge in regard to ill is knowledge of ill. Knowledge in regard to the origin of ill is knowledge' of the origin of ill. Knowledge in regard to the ceasing of ill is knowledge of the ceasing of ill. Knowledge which practises. to completion is knowledge of the Path. l The Distinguishing of Wisdom in the Path of Freedom has ended. The Ninth Fascicle has ended.

Sedion One Here, if the new yogin aspires after release from decay and death, and wishes to remove the cause of arising and passing away, wishes to dispel the darkness of ignorance, to cut the rope of craving and to acquire holy wisdom, he should develop the methods, namely, the aggregate-method,2 sense-organ-method,3 element-method, 4 conditioned-arising-method6 and truth-method. 8 THE AGGREGATE OF FORM
Q. What is the aggregate-method? A. The five aggregates are, the aggregate of form,? the aggregate of feeling,S the aggregate of perception,8 the aggregate of formation,1O and the aggregate of consciousness. l l Q. What is the aggregate of form? A. The four primaries and the material qualities derived from the primaries.12

the nature of hardness and the nature of solidity. This is called the earthelement. What is the water-element? That which has the nature of flowing and the nature of cohesiveness. This is called the water-element. What is the firecelement? That which has the nature of heating and the nature of maturing matter. This is called the fire-element. What is the air-element? That which has the nature of moving and the nature of supporting. This is called the air-element. 1 The new yogin overcomes difficulties in two ways, namely, through viewing these briefly and through viewing these at length. This should be understood as was fully taught in the determining of the four elements.

DERIVED MATERIAL QUALITIES
What are the derived material qualities? The sense-organs of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, matter as sense-object, sound as sense-object, odour as sense-object, taste as sense-object, femininity, masculinity, life-principle, body-intimation, speech-intimation, element of space, buoyancy of matter, impressibility of matter, adaptibility of matter, integration of matter, continuity of matter, decay of matter, impermanency of matter, solid food,2 the basis of the material element and the material quality of torpor. 3

SENSE-ORGAN OF EYE
What is the sense-organ of eye? By this matter is seen. Visible objects

impinging on this, visual consciousness is aroused. 1 This is called the senseorgan of. eye. And again, the sensory matter that depends on the three small fleshy discs round the' pupil, and the white and black of the eye-ball that is in five layers of flesh, blood, wind, phlegm and serum, is half a poppy-seed in size, is like the head of a louseling, is made by the four primaries according to past kamma,2 and in which the primary of heat is in excess, is called the sense-organ of the eye. [446] It is as has been taught by the Possessor of Great Skill, the' Venerable Elder Sariputta, "The organ of visual sense, by which one sees objects, is soall and subtle like (the head of) a louse".8 SENSE-ORGAN OF EAR What is the sense-organ of ear? By this sounds are heard. Sound impinging on this, auditory consciousness is aroused. This is called the senseorgan of ear. And again, the sensory matter that is in the interior of the two ear-holes, -is fringed by tawny hair, is dependent on the membrane, is like the stem of a blue-green bean, is produced by the four primaries according to kamma and in which the element of space is in excess, is called the senseorgan of ear.' SENSE-ORGAN OF NOSE What is the sense-organ of nose? By this odours are sensed. Odour impinging on this, olfactory consciousness arises. This is called the senseorgan of nose. And again, the sensory matter that, in the interior of the nose, where the' three meet, 5 is dependent on one small opening, is like a Kovi!tira 6 (flower in shape), is produced by the four primaries, according to past kamma, and in which the primary of air is in excess, is called the senseorgan of nose. SENSE-ORGAN OF TONGUE What is the sense-organ of tongue? By this tastes are known. Tast-e impinging on this, gustatory consciousness is aroused. This is called the
1. M. III, 285: Cakkhuii ca, bhikkhave, paficca rape ca uppajjati cakkhuviiiiitilJam. 2. S. TV, 132: Cakkhum bhikkhave purtilJakammam abhisaJikhatam abhisaiicetayitam vedaniyam daffhabbam ... pe ... givlrti purtilJakammam abhisankhatti abhisaiicetayitti vedaniyti daffhabbti •• . Mano purtilJakammam abhisankhato abhisaiicetayito vedaniyo daffhabbo. 3. Vis. Mag. 446; Abhmv.66; Dbs. A. 307: Vuttampi c' etam Dhammasentipatinti: Yena cakkhuppastidena raptini samanupassati parittam sukhumam c' etam ilktisirasamapaman Ii. The common source of this verse has not been traced. 4. Cpo Abhmv. 66: SUlJtititi sotam; tam tanu'tamba-lomticite angulivefhaka-salJfhtine padese vuttappaktirtihi dhtilahi kat' apaktiram utu-cW' tihtirehi upatthambhiyamtinam tiYlmti pariptil!yamtinam, sotaviiiiitilJtidinam vatthu-dvtira-bhtivam stidhayamtinalil tiffhali. 5. Cp. IbId: Ghtiyatiti ghtilJam, tam sasambhtira-ghtilJabilassa anto ajapada-sQIJfhane padese yathtivuttappaktiram hutvti tiffhati. 6. A sort of ebony, Bauhinia variegata- P.T.S. Diet.

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sense-organ of tongue. And again, the sensory matter that is two-finger breadths in size, is in shape like a blue lotus,! is located in the flesh of the tongue, is a product of the four primaries, is wrought according to past kamma, and in which the primary of water is in excess, is called the sense-otgan of tongue. SENSE-ORGAN OF BODY What is the sense-organ of body? By this tangibles are knowp.. By the impact of tangibles on this, tactual consciousness is aroused. This is called sense-organ of body. And again, it is the sensory matter that is in the entire body, excepting the hair of the body and of the head, nails, teeth and other insensitive parts, is produced by the four primaries, according to past kamma, and in which the primary of earth is in excess. This is called the sense-organ of body. Materia! sense-object is the reaction of visible objects, auditory sense-object is the reaction of sound, olfactory sense-object is the reaction of odour, gustatory sense-object is the reaction of flavour. Femininity is the characteristic of female nature; masculinity is the characteristic of male nature; that which preserves the body wrought by kamma, is called lifeprinciple; body intimation means bodily activities; speech intimation means verbal activities; what delimits matter is called the element of space. Buoyancy of matter means, the lightness-characteristic of material nature; impressibility of matter means, the plasticity-characteristic of material nature; adaptibility of matter means, the workability-characteristic of material nature; these three are the characteristics of non-sluggishness in material nature; the accumulation of these sense-organs is called the integration of matter. This integration of matter is called the continuity of matter. The arising of material objects is the coming to birth of matter; the maturing of material objects is the decay of matter; matter decays-this is called the impermanency of matter. That, by which beings get nutritive essence, is called solid food. The growth which is dependent on the primaries,and the element of consciousness, is called the sense-organ of the material element. All primaries are characterized by the material quality of torpor. These twenty-six material qualities and the four primaries make up thirty kinds of matter,2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE FOUR PRIMARIES AND DERIVED MATTER
Q.

derived from the four primaries? A. Depending on one another, the four piimaries are produced. Though the four derived material qualities are produced in dependence on the four primaries, the four primaries do not depend on the derived material qualities and the material qualities derived from the four primaries are not interdependent. SIMILE OF THE THREE STICKS The four primaries should be known as three sticks which stand supporting one another. The material qualities derived from the four primaries should be known as the shadow cast by the three sticks, which support each other. This is the difference between them. Here the yogin knows that all these thirty material qualities are of five kinds by way of arising, group, birth, diversity, unity. MATERIAL QUALITIES BY WAY OF ARISING
Q. How, by way of arising? A. Nine material qualities arise owing to the cause-condition of kamma. They are the sense-organs of eye, ear, nose, tongue and body, femininity, masculinity, life-principle, and the basis of the material element. Two material qualities arise owing to the cause-condition of consciousness. They are body-intimation and speech-intimation. One material quality arises owing to the cause-condition of the caloric order and consciousness. It is the auditory sense-object. Four material qualities arise owing to the cause-condition of caloricity, consciousness and nutriment. They are buoyancy of matter, impressibility of matter, adaptibility of matter and the material quality of torpor. Twelve material qualities arise owing to four cause-conditions. They are material sense-object, olfactory senseobject, gustatory sense-object, space-element, integration of matter, continuity of matter, birth of matter, solid food and the four elements. Of two material qualities, namely decay of matter and impermanency of matter, there is no arising. And again, decay depends on birth; and depending on decay, there is impermanenpy. T,hus one should know the character of these by way of arising.

MATERIAL QUALITIES BY WAY OF GROUP
Q. How, by way of group?l A. Nine groups are produced by kamma. Nine groups are produced by consciousness. Six groups are produced by caloric order. Three groups are produced by nutriment. Q. What are the nine groups produced by kamma? A. They are the eye-decad, ear-decad, nose-decad, tongue-decad, body-decad femininity-decad, masculinity-decad, basis-decad, life-ennead. 2
1. Kaliipa. 2. Cakkhu-dasaka-, sota-dasaka-, ghiina-dasaka-, kiiya-dasaka-, itthindriya-dasaka-, purisindriya-dasaka-, iiyalana-dasaka-kaliipa (possibly for hadayavatthu); jivita-navaka-kaliipa.

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Q. What is the eye-decad? A. The four elements of eye-sentience ar\} its basis. And again, it consists of the four primaries, form, odour, flavour, 'contact,l life-principle and the sentient eye. This decad is produced together ,and does not separate. This is called "group" and this is called the eye-decad. The, arising of this is birth; its maturing is called decay; its destruction is called impermanency; what delimits it is called space-element; these four and the group arise together. When the eye-decad decays, it produces a second decad; these two kinds of decads should be known as "group". Coming after is called succession. These six states arise together. When decay sets in, the second eye-decad produces a third oecad. These, the second and the third eye-decads are called "group". Coming after is called succession. The first decad is scattered, the second decad decays, the third decad arises. These occur in one moment. Thus the eye-decad arises. None can discern the interval. So quick it is that by worldly knowledge it cannot be known. There is a yogin. He sees the succession of the eye. It is like a flowing stream. It is like the flame of a lamp.2 Thus should the eye-decad be known. In the same way one should know the ear-decad, the nose-decad, the tongue-decad, the body-decad, femininity-decad, masculinity-decad, lifeprinciple-ennead at length. Q. What are the nine consciousness-born groups? A. Bare-octad, bare-body-intimation-ennead, bare-speech-intimation-heptad, bare-buoyancyennead, buoyancy-body-intimation-decad, buoyancy-speech-intimation-undecad, bare-eye-ennead, eye-body-intimation-decad, eye-speech-intimationundecad. Q. What is the consciousness-born-bare-octad? A. The four elements and visible object, odour, flavour and contact which depend on the elements. These eight are named the bare-octad. The arising of these is birth; the maturing of these is decay; destruction of these is impermanency; what delimits these is space-element; these four states arise in them. At the time of their destruction, this bare octad sets going a second bare-octad together with the second consciousness. Destruction of the first bare (-octad) and the arising of the second bare (-octad) occur in a moment. * In the same way, the bare-buoyancy-nonary and the bare-eye-ennead (should be understood). These six groups 3 are not destroyed in the first and not produced in the second, do not occur in one instant, because no two intimations can take place in one conscious track. The rest should be known, in the way it was fully taught before.
1. Ojii according to abhms. 2. Abhms. Ch. VI, 10: Catu-samuuhiina-rupii-kaliipa-santafi kiimaloke dipa-jiilii vlya nodi sofo piya. • This line is unintelligible. , 3. Bare-body-intimation, bare-speech-intimation, buoyancy-body-intimation, buoyancyspeech-intimation, eye-body-intimation, eye-speech-intimation.

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Q. What are the six groups produced by the caloric order? A. Bareoctad, bare-sound-ennead, bare-buoyancy-ennead, buoyancy-sound-decad bare-eye-ennead, eye-sound-decad. External groups are of two kinds: bare: octad and sound-ennead. Q. What are the three groups which are produced in nutriment? A. Bare octad, bare-buoyancy-ennead and bare-eye-ennead. Of groups that are produced by caloric order and nutriment, the continuity, kamma and basis should be known as equal. The rest is as was taught above. The divine life-ennead is fulfilled in the sensuous element and in the sphere of action. Eight groups continue because of life: nose, tongue, body, masculinity or femininity, and the three beginning with buoyancy, and torpidity. These are not in the form-element. The divine life-ennead pertains to the unconscious Brahmas. In their body all the sense-organs exist. (Thus one should know), through groups.

MATERIAL QUALITIES BY WAY OF BIRTH Q. How, through birth? A. It should be known by way of a male or female entering a womb. In the first moment thirty material qualities are produced. 1 They are the basis-decad, body-decad, femininity-decad, masculinity-decad. In the case of a person who is neither a male nor a female, twenty material qualities are produced. 2 They are the basis-decad and the body-decad. Taking birth in the sensuous element, a male or a female possessed of the faculties and the sense-organs arouses seventy material qualities at the time of birth. Th~ are the basis-decad, the body-decad, the eye-decad, the ear-decad, the nose-decad, the tongue-decad, the femininity or masculinity-decad. When a blind male or female is born in an evil state, that person arouses sixty material qualities, at the moment of birth, namely, (all) except the eye-decad. In the same way a deaf person [447] arouses sixty material qualities, namely, (all) except the ear-decad. A deaf and blind person arouses fifty material qualities namely, (all) except the eye-decad and the ear-decad. When one who is neither a male nor a female is born, at the beginning of an aeon, in an evil state, having faculties and sense-organs, that person arouses sixty material qualities at the moment of birth, namely, (all) except the masculinity or femininity decad. A person; who is neither a male nor a female and is blind,
Gabbaseyyaka-sattassa, patisandikkhal;ze pana timsa rupiini jiiyante, sabhiivass' eva dehino. 2. (a) Ibid. v. 747: Abhiiva-gabbaseyyiinam; aI;lIjajiinaii ca visati bhavanti pana rapiini, kiiyavatthuvasena tu, (b) Cpo Vbh-a. 169-70: Evam pavattamiine c' etasmim niimarupe yasmii abhiivakagabbhaseyyakiinam alJllajiinaii ca patisandhikkhalJe vatthu-kiiyavasena rupato dYe san/atisisiini tayo ca arupino khandhii piitubhavanti, tasmii lesam vltthiirena ruparilpalo visali-dhammii tayo ca ariipino khandhii ti ele levisati-dhammii vlfflliilJOpaccayii niimariipan Ii veditabbii.

1. Abhms. 77, v. 746:

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produces fifty material qualities, namely, (all) except the eye-facult,y-decad and the masculinity or femininity-decad. A person who is neither a male nor' a female and who is deaf arouses fifty material qualities, namely, (all) except the ear-decad and masculinity or femininity. A person who is neither a male nor a female, and is blind and deaf, arouses forty material qualities,' namely, the basis-decad, the body-decad, the nose-decad and the tongue-decad. Brahma arouses forty-nine material qualities at the moment of birth. They are the basis-decad, the eye-decad, the ear-decad, the body-decad and the life-principleennead. The beings of the divine-plane of inconscience arouse nine material qualities at the moment of birth, namely, the life-principle-enlIead. Thus one should know through birth. MATERIAL QUALITIES BY WAY OF DIVERSITY,GROUPS OF TWO IN MATERIAL QUALITIES
Q. How, through diversity? A. All material qualities are of two kinds. They are gross or subtle. Here, twelve material qualities are gross, because internal and external material sense-objects are seized through impact. The other eighteen material qualities are subtle, because they are not seized through impact. And again, there are two kinds of material qualities. They are internal and external. Here, five material qualities are internal, because the five sense-organs of eye and others are limited. The other thirty-five material qualities are external matter, because they are not limited. And again, there are two kinds. They are faculty and non-faculty.l Here eight material qualities are faculty. They are the five internals (possibly, five sentient organs), the faculty of femininity, of masculinity and life; they are so because of dependence. The other twenty-two are non-faculty, because they are non-dependent. 2

GROUPS OF THREE IN MATERIAL QUALITIES All material qualities can be divided into three hinds. They are nonmaterial qualities and arrested material qualities. 3 Here nine material qualities are feeling. They are the eight faculties and the material basis, because they are produced owing to kamma-result. Nine material qualities are the senseobject of sound, body-intimation, speech-intimation, buoyancy of matter, impressibility of matter, workability of matter, decay of matter, impermanency of matter and torpidity. These are not produced through kamma-result. The other twelve material qualities are breakable ones because they have two kinds of significance (?). And again, material qualities are of three kinds: visible and reacting, invisible and reacting and invisible and
1. Lit. Life-faculty and non-life-faculty. 2. cpo Dbs. 125-27, para. 585. 3. Lit. Having broken material qualities.

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non-reacting. 1 Here one material quality is visible and reacting, that is, material sense-object, because it can be seen and touched. Eleven material qualities are invisible and reacting. They are gross matter except material sense-object, because they cannot be seen but can be touched. Eighteen material qualities are invisible and non-reacting. All other subtle matter is invisible and non-reacting. FOUR KINDS OF MATERIAL QUALITIES Again, all material qualities are of four kinds, by way of intrinsic nature of matter, material form, material characteristics and delimitation of matter. Here nineteen material qualities are intrinsic. They are the twelve gross material qualities, femininity, masculinity, life-principle, element of water, solid food, material basis and material quality of eye, because they limit (?). Seven material qualities are material form. They are body-intimation, speech-intimation, buoyancy of matter, impressibility of matter,' workability of matter, integration of matter, continuity of matter and intrinsic nature of matter, because they change. Three material qualities are material characteristics. They are birth of matter, decay of matter and impermanency of matter; because they are conditioned. One material quality is delimitation of matter. It is space-element, because it defines the groups. Here, through intrinsic nature one discriminates, not through the others. Thus one should understand through diversity. MATERIAL QUALITIES BY WAY OF UNITY

Q. How, through unity? A. All material qualities are one, as being not a condition, as not being non-conditioned, as being dissociated from condition, causally related, put-together, worldly, cankerous, binding, fettering, as being with flood, yoke, hindrance, as being infected, as being with faring-on, passion, as being indeterminate, objectl6ss, non-mental, dissociated from mind, as not arising together with pleasure, as not arising together with pain, as arising together with non-pain and non-pleasure, as neither group nor non-group, as neither learning nor non-learning, as neither broken by views nor broken by concentration. Thus one should know the character of matter through unity. This is called the aggregate of matter.
1. D. III, 217: Tividhena rupa-samgaho. Sanidassana-sappaligham riipam, anidassanasappaligham riipam, anidassana-appaligham rupam (= Sanidassan' adisu attanam arabbha pavatlena cakkhuviiiiialJa-sarikhalena saha nidassanen ali,sanidassanam. Cakkhu-pa/ihananasamatthalo saha-patighena Ii sappaliglzam. Tam attlzato riip' ayatalJam eva. Cakkhu-viiiiia1Jllsalikhalam nassa nidassanan Ii anidassanam. Sot' adi-palihananasamatthalo saha-pa/ighena Ii sappa/igham. Tam atlhalo cakkhayalanan' adini nava ayalanani. Vuttappakaram nassa nidassanan Ii anidassanam. Nassa paligho Ii appaligham. Tam atlhato (hapetva das' ayat. anani avasesOln sukhuma-riipam-Sv. III, 997),

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AGGREGATE OF FEELING
Q. What is the aggregate of feeling? A. From the point of characteristic, feeling is of one kind, as being experienced by the mind only. From the point of sense-organ, it is of two kinds thus: bodily and mental. From the point of intrinsic nature, it is of three kinds: blissful feeling, painful feeling, feeling that is neither blissful nor painfuJ.1 From the point of the Law, it is of four kinds: meritorious, demeritorious, retributive and objective. From the point of faculties, there are five kinds, namely, pleasure-faculty, painfaculty, joy-faculty, grief-faculty, indifference-faculty? From the point of black and white, it is of six kinds, namely, cankerous feeling of pleasure, non-cankerous feeling of pleasure, cankerous feeling of pain, non-cankerous feeling of pain, cankerous feeling of neither pain nor pleasure, non-cankerous feeling of neither pain nor pleasure. From the point of method, it is of seven kinds thus: feeling born of eye-contact, of ear-contact, of nose-contact, of tongue-contact, of body-contact, contact of mind-element, contact of mindconsciousness. Fully one hundred and eight kinds of feeling are fulfilled. Six states of feeling are aroused from craving; six from renunciation; six from grief-craving; six from grief-renunciation; six from equanimity-craving; six from equanimity-renunciation. Six times six are thirty-six, and in the three divisions of time, these thirty-six are increased three times. This is called the aggregate of feeling. 3

AGGREGATE OF PERCEPTION
Q. What is the aggregate of perception? A. From the point of characteristic, perception is single, because only the mind apprehends objects. From the point of black and white, it is of two kinds, namely, perception-reversal and perception-non_reversal,4 From the point of demerit, it is of three kinds, namely, lustful-perception, hating-perception and harming-perception. From the point of merit, it is of three kinds, namely, renunciation-perception, nonhating-perception and non-harming-perception. 5 From the point of not knowing the significant nature of sense-organ, it is of four kinds, namely, the perception of the ugly as beautiful, of ill as well, of impermanence as non-impermanence, of not-self as self. From the point of knowing the significant nature of sense-organ, it is of four kinds, namely, perception of the
1. S. IV, 231-32: Kalama ca bhikkhave dve vedana. Kayika ca celasika ca. [ma vuccanti bhikkhave dvevedana. Kalama ca bhikkhave tisso vedana. Sukha vedana dukkha vedana adukkhamasukhii vedana. Ima vuccanli bhikkhave lisso vedana. 2. Ibid. 232: Kalama ca bhikkhave panca vedana. Sukhindriyatiz dukkhindriyatiz somanassindriyatiz domanassindriyatiz upekkhindriyatiz. lma vuccanli bhikkhave panca vedana. 3. S. IV, 232: Kalama ca bhikkhave chattitizsa vedana. Cha gehasitani somanassani cha nekkhammasitani somanassani cha gehasilani domanassani cha nekkhammasilani domanassiini cha gehasita upekkha cha nekkhammasila upekkha. lmii vuccanli bhikkhave chattitizsa vedana. 4. Safifia vipalliisa, sanna avipallasa. 5. D. TIl, 215: ' Tisso akusala-sanna. Kama-sqfifiii, vyapiida-sanna, vihitizsa sanna. Tisso kusal(Nannii. Nekkhamma-sanna, avyapiida-saflfla. avihitizsa-saiifla.

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ugly, perception of ill, perception of impermanence and perception of not-self.l According to the Vinaya, it is of five kinds, thus: the perception of the. ugly as beautiful, of the ugly. as ugly, of the beautiful as beautiful and the perception of uncertainty. From the point of object, there are six kinds thus: formperception, sound-perception, perception of odour, perception of taste, perception of contact, perception of ideas. 2 By way of door, there are seven kinds thus: perception that is born of eye-contact, ear-contact, nose-contact, tongue-contact, body-contact, mind-element-contact, consciousness-elementcontact. Thus should the several kinds of perception be known. This is called the aggregate of perception. 3 AGGREGATE. OF FORMATIONS
Q. What is the aggregate of formations? A. Contact, volition, initial application of thought, sustained application of thought, joy, confidence, energy, mindfulness, concentration, wisdom, life-principle, (removal of) hindrance, non-greed, non-hate, modesty, decorum, repose, wish to do, resolve, equanimity, attention, greed, hatred, delusion, conceit, views, agitation and anxiety, uncertainty, indolence, immodesty, indecorum4 and all other mental properties, eJi;cept feeling and perception, belong to the aggregate of formations.

touching a wall,1 This is the basis of perception. Volit.ion means th~ movement of mind. It is like the movement of the foot or like the scaffolding to' the builder of a house. This is the near cause of door-object. Initial application of thought is mental action. It is likened to the reciting of discourses by heart. Perception is its near cause. Sustained application of thought is investigation of objects by the mind. It is likened to thought that follows the sense. Initial application of thought is its near cause. Joy is delight of mind. It is likened to a man gaining something. Exulting is its near cause. Confidence is purity of mind. It is likened to a man purifying water through the uttering of spells. The four attributes of stream-entrance 2 are its near cause. 'Energy is vigour of mind. It is likened to the energy of an ox bearing a burden. The eight bases of agitation3 are its near cause. Mindfulness is the guarding of the mind. It is likened to the oil which protects the bowl. The four foundations of mindfulness are its near cause. Concentration is unification of mind. It is likened to the flame of the lamp behind the palace. The four meditations, jhanas, are its near cause. Wisdom is seeing with the mind. It is likened to a man wbo has eyes. 4 The Four Noble Truths are its near cause. Life-faculty is formless dhamma. This is life. It is like water to lotus. 5 Name and form are its near cause. The rejection of the hindrances is the breaking free from the evils of the mind. It is likened to a man, wishing to enjoy life, avoiding poison.- . The activity of tbe four meditations, jhanas, is its near cause. Non-greed is the expelling of attachment from.the mind. It is likened to a man who gets rid of something that torments
1. S. II, 103: Seyyathiipi bhikkhave ku(iigiiram vii kutiigiirasiilii vii uttariiya vii dakkh'i;tiiya vii piiciniiya vii viilapiinii suriye uggacchante viitapiinena rasmi pavisitvii kviissa patillhitii Ii? Pacchimiiya bhante bhittiyan ti. Pacchimii ce bhikkhave bhitti niissa kviissa patitthitii ti? Pathaviyam blante ti. Pathavi ce bhikkhave niissa kviissa patilfhitii tt? Apasmim bhante Ii. Apo ce bhikkhave niissa kviissa patitthitii ti? Appatillhitii bhante Ii. Evam eva kho bhikkhave kabalinkiire ce bhikkhave iihiire natthi riigo natthi nandi natthi taf./hii . .. pe ... Phasse ce bhikkhave ohiire . .. pe . .. Manosancetaniiya ce bhikkhave iihiire . .. pe . .. Vinniif./e ce bhikkhave iihare natthi riigo natthi nandi natthi ta1)hii appatil!hitam tattha vinniif./am avirulham. 2. S. V, 347:' Sappurisasamsevo hi bhante sotiipattialig"am, saddhamma-saValJam sotiipattiarigam, yonisomanasikiiro sotiipattiaizgam, dhamniinudhammapatipatti sotiipattiaizgan ti. 3. Pts.-a. III, 547: Allhasamvegavatthiini niima: Jiiti-jarii-byiidhi-maraniiIJi cattiiri, apiiyadllkkham pancamam, atite vattamulakam dukkham, aniigate vattamiilakam dukkham, paccuppanne iihiirapariyellhimiilakam dukkhan 'ti. 4. Sn. v, 1142: Passiimi nam manasii cakkhunii va rattindivam, briihmalJa, appamatto; namassamiino vivasemi rattirh~' -ten' eva maiiiiiimi avippaviisarh. 5. D. I, 75: Seyyathiipi mahii-riija uppaliniyam paduminiyampu1)t!arikiniyam app ekacciini uppaliini vii padumiini vii pUIJt!arikiini vii udake-jiitiini ukade-samvatft!hiini udakii 'nuggatiifii anfo-llimuggti·posini, tani yava c' aggii yava co mUlii sitena varinii abhisanniini parisanniini paripiiriini paripphullhiini, niissa kinci sabbavantam uppaliinum vii padumiinum vii pUIJt!arikiinam vii sitena viirinii apphutam assa. 6. (a) Dh. v. 123: Visam jivitukiimo 'va, piipiini parivajjaye. (b) M. II, 260: Seyyathiipi, Sunakkhalfa, iipiiniyakamso valJlJasampanno gandhasampanno, so ca kho visena samsattho; atha puriso iigaccheyya jivitukiimo amaritukiimo dukkhaparikkulo. TGlil kim mannasi, Sunakkha/ta? Api nu so puriso amum iipaniyakamsam piveyya yam jannii: Imiiham pitvii maraf./am vii nigacchiimi maralJamattam vii dllkkhan ti? No h' e/am Man/e.

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him. Renunciation is its near cause. Non-hatred is the state of a mind that is not angry. It is likened to cat-skin.! The four immeasurables are its near cause. Modesty is the feeling of shame in a man when he does wrong. It is likened to the loathing one has for excrement and urine. 2 Self-respect is its near cause. Decorum is the fear to do what is wrong. It is like fearing one's superior. Respect for others is its near cause. 3 (448) Calm is the appeasement of mental excitement. It is like taking a cold bath in the heat of summer. Joy is its near cause. The wish to do is the wish to do. good. It is like a believing giver of alms. The four supernormal powers are its near cause. Resolve is the inclination of the mind. It is like water flowing deep downwards. 4 Initial and sustained application of thought are its near cause. Equanimity is that state of mind where it does not move back and forth. It is like a man holding a pair of scales. s Energy and the others are its near cause. Attention regulates the mind. It is like a helmsman. Both merit and demerit are its near cause. Greed is the clinging of the mind. It
1. (a) Th. v. 1138

is likened to a goose. Lovable and desirable forms are its near cause. Hatred is the excitement of mind. It is like an angered venomous snake. l The ten bases of hatred are its near cause. Delusion is mental blindness. It is like a man without eyes. 2 The four reversals are its near cause. Conceit is haughtiness of mind. It is like two men fighting. The three kinds are its near cause. Views are mental obsessions. They are compared to the blind men feeling the elephant.s The not giving heed to another's voice is its near cause. Excitement is the non-tranquil state of mind. It is like water that is boiling. Anxiety is its near cause. Sluggishness is the slackening of mind. It is compared to desiring the foul. The falling off of good owing to the performance of evil is its near cause. Uncertainty is the leaping of thc mind on to diverse objects. It is like a traveller to a distant land who is bewildered at a junction of two roads. 4 Wrong attention is its near cause. Indolence is negligence of mind. It is compared to a hibernating snake. The eight bases of indolence are its near cause. Immodesty is that state of mind which is not ashamed of doing ill. It is comparable to a caQ4iila. Irreverence is its near cause. Indecorum is the non-fearing of the mind to do evil. It is like a wicked king. The non-esteem of the six is its near cause. These are called the aggregate of formations. AGGREGATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS

depends on the five-door-adverting and the receiving of the desirable and the non-desirable. The cognizing (of form etc.) . immediatefy after the five kinds of consciousness.is called mind-element. Mind-consciousness-element: The mind, excepting these six kinds of consciousness, is called mind-consciousness-element. These seven kinds of consciousness should be known through these three ways: through organ-object, through object, through states.

THROUGH SENSE-ORGAN-OBJECT
Q. How, through sense-organ-object? A. Five kinds of consciousness are different a.s to sense-organ and as· to object. Mind-element and mind consciouness-element are one as to sense-organ. Five-fold is the object of mind-element. Six-fold is the object of mind-consciousness-element. Five kinds of consciousness are as to state, internal; as to organ, internal; as to object, external. Mind-element is as to state, internal; as to organ, external; as to object, external. Mind-consciousness-element is as to state, internal; as to organ, external; as to object, internal and external. In respect of the six kinds of consciousness, organ and object proceed from the past. In respect of mind-consciousness-element, organ-production· occurs at the moment of conception. There is no object of organ in the formless sphere because organ is produced first. Thus it should be understood through organ-object.

THROUGH OBJECT
Q. How, through object? A. Each of the five kinds of consciousness has its limits. These (five) are not produced by one another. They are produced neither before nor after but at once, and are not produced separately. Through the five kinds of consciousness, all states cannot be known; only the first arising can be known. Through the mind-element, all states cannot be known; only those which proceed in the mind can be known. Through the six kinds of consciousness there is no establlshing of postures. Through apperceptionl there is the fixing of them. Through the six kinds of consciousness there is no fixing of bodily and verbal activity. (Through apperception these are fixed). Through the six kinds of consciousness, meritorious and demeritorious states are not fixed. Through apperception these are fixed. Through the six kinds of consciousness, Olle does not enter or emerge out of concentration. Through apperception, one enters into concentration and is pacified through overcoming opposites. Through the six kinds of consciousness, nothing is caused to perish or to be produced. Through overcoming of opposites or through registration, perishing and production are caused. Mindconsciousne ss-element is born of result. Through the six kinds of consciousness one does not sl eep, awake or dream. Through opposites one sleeps. Through
I. Javana.

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Through apperception one dreams. Thus one should

subtle light one awakes. know through object. THROUGH STATES

Q. How, through states? A. Five kinds of consciousness are with initial and sustained application of thought. Mind-element is with initial and sustained application of thought. Mind-consciousness-element is with initial and sustained application of thought, or is without initial and only with sustained application of thought, or is neither with initial nor with sustained application of thought. I:ive kinds of consciousness act together with equanimity. Bodyconsciousness acts either together with pleasure or with pain. Mind,consciousness-element acts together with joy or grief or equanimity. Five kinds of consciousness are results. Mind-element is either result or means. Mindconsciousness-element is meritorious or demeritorious or result or means. Six kinds of consciousness do not arise without condition, are worldly states, with cankers, with fetters, with tangle, with flood, with yoke, with hindrance, infected, clinging, defiling, are not removed through seeing or through meditation. They are neither "group" nor "non-group". They are neither training nor non-training. They are the subtle fetters of the sense-plane, are not fixed and are not vehicle. Mind consciousness-element has the nature of breaking up. Thus one should know to distinguish by way of states. This is called the aggregate of consciousness. Thus should the five aggregares be known. And again, ·one should know the distinctive qualities of the five aggregates through four ways thus: through word meaning, through characteristic, through discrimination, through comprehension.

THROUGH CHARACTERISTIC
Q. How, through characteristic? A. Material quality is its own characteristic, like a thorn. The four primaries are its near cause. The characteristiq of feeling is sensitiveness. It is like disliking a leper. Contact is near cause. To support is the characteristic of perception. It is compared to an image. Contact is its near cause. The characteristic of formation is unity. It is like the turning of the wheel. Its near cause is contact. The characteristic of consciousness is awareness; it is likened to the perceiving of taste. Name and form are Ilear cause. Thus one should know through characteristic.

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Q. How, through discrimination? A. The aggregates are discriminated by the threefold discrimination of the five aggregates, the five clinging aggregates

and the five aggregates of the Law. 1 Here the five aggregates are all phenoThe five mena." The five clinging aggregates are all cankerous states. aggregates of the Law are: the aggregate of virtue, the aggregate of concentration, the aggregate of wisdom, the aggregate of freedom and the aggregate of the knowledge and discernment of freedom.3 Here the five aggregates are to be taken. THROUGH COMPREHENSION
Q. How, through comprehension? A. There are three comprehensions: sense-sphere-comprehension, element-comprehension, truth-comprehension. 4 Here the aggregate of form is comprehended in eleven sense-spheres. Three aggregates are comprehended in the sense-sphere of states. The aggregate of consciousness is comprehended in the sense-sphere of the mind. The aggregate of matter is comprehended in eleven elements. Three aggregates are comprehended in the element of states. The aggregate of consciousness is comprehended in seven elements. The aggregate of virtue, the aggregate of concentration, the aggregate of wisdom, the aggregate of the knowledge and discernment of freedom are comprehended in the sense-sphere and element of states. The aggregate of freedom is comprehended in the sense-sphere of states, the sense-sphere of mind, the element of states and the mind-consciousness-element. The five aggregates are comprehended in the Truths or not comprehended in the Truths. The five aggregates of clinging are comprehended in the Truth of III and in the Truth of Origin. The aggregates of virtue, concentration and wisdom are comprehended in the ·Path-Truth. The aggregate of freedom is not comprehended in the Truths. The aggr~gate of knowledge and discernment of freedom is comprehended in the Truth of Ill. Some states are compreherlded in the aggregates and not in the Truths. Some states are comprehended in the Truths and not in the aggregates. Some states are comprehended in the aggregates and also in the Truths. Some states are comprehended neither in the Truths nor in the aggregates. Here, the ma:terial qualities that are linked with the faculties do not associate with the Path (?). The recluse-fruit is comprehended in the aggregates and not in the Truths. Nibbiina is comprehended in the Truths and not in the aggregates.
I. Paiicakkhandha, paiicupadanakkhandha, paiicadhammakkhandha. 2. Sankhata-dhamma. 3. A. III, 134: Idha bhikkhave bhikkhu asekhena silakkhandhena samannagato hOli, asekhena samadhikkhandhena samannagalo holi, aseklrena pannakkhandhena samannagalo hoti, asekhena vimuttikkhandhima samannagalo hoti, asekhena vimuttiiialJOdassanakkhandhena samannagato hoti. . 4. Ayatana, dhatu, sacca.

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Three Truths are comprehended in the aggregates and also in the Truths. Restraint is not comprehended in the aggregates and also not in the Truths. Thus should one discern the method of understanding the aggregates. This is called the aggregate method.
The aggregate method has ended.

TWELVE SENSE-ORGANS AND SENSE-OBJECTS
Q. What is the sense-organ method? A. There are twelve sense-organs (and sense-objects): sense-organ of eye, sense-object of matter, sense-organ of ear, sense-object of sound, sense-organ of nose, sense-object of odour, senseorgan of tongue, sense-object of taste, sense-organ of body, sense-object of touch, sense-organ of mind, sense-object of ideas. l Here, eye-organ is sentient element. By this one sees material objects. Material object is elemental form. This is the field of eye. The ear-organ is sentient element. By this one hears sounds. Sound~object is elemental expression. This is the field of the ear. Nose-organ is sentient element. By this one smells. Odourobject is elemental scent. It is the field of the nose. Tongue-organ is sentient element. By this one tastes. Taste-object is elemental flavour. This is the field of the tongue. The body-organ is sentient element: By it one feels fineness, smoothness (and so on). Touch-object is hardness, softness, coolness and warmth of the elements of earth, water, fire and air. This is the field of the body. Mind organ is the element of the seven kinds of consciousness. Element of ideas comprises the three formless aggregates. the eighteen subtle material qualities and Nibbdna. These are the twelve sense-organs (and sense-objects). And again, these tw!:lve sense-organs (and sense-objects) should be known by their distinctive qualities in five ways: through word meaning, limits, condition, arising of ... * distinctive thought and comprehension.

Q. How, through limits? A. Eye and ear do not reach the object. Nose, tongue and body reach the object. Mind is together with object. There is another teaching: Ear reaches the object, because if there is an obstruction nearby one does not hear sounds, as when a spell is wrought. And again, there is another teaching: Eye by itself reaches the object, because one cannot see the reverse side of a wall. Thus should one know through limits.

THROUGH CONDITION

Q. How, ·through condition? A. Depending on eye, material object, light and attention, eye-consciousness arises. Here, to the arising of eyeconsciousness. the eye is in the fourfold relation of pre-nascence-condition, support-condition, faculty-condition, presence-condition. l (To eye-consciousness) material object is in the threefold relation of post-nascence-condition, object-condition, presence-condition. Light is in the threefold relation of pre-nascence,condition, support-condition and presence-condition. Attention is in the twofold relation of continuity-condition and absence-condition. Depending on ear, sound, ear-cavity and attention, ear-consciousness arises. Thus should' one know through the distinguishing of condition. Depending on nose, smell, air and attention, nose-consciousness arises. Depending on tongue, taste, water and attention, tongue-consciousness arises. Depending on body, touch and attention, bodily consciousness arises. Depending on mind, id.eas,. life-continuum and attention, mind-consciousness arises. Here, mind is ... '" ideas are the object of states. There are four kinds in this: Past, present and future of six internal sense-organs comprise the first; past, future and present of five external sense-objects, excepting non-sense-organ faculty, comprise the second. The third is the sense-object of ideas. There are eleven things viz., being, direction, season, ... '" comprise the fourth."'''' These are called the object of states. Concentration is intentness of mind on object. It is like light. Attention is mind-do or-adverting. Consciousness is apperception. Here, to mindconsciousness, mind is in the relation of support-condition. Ideas are in the relation of object-condition. Life-continuum is in the relation of supportcondition. Attention is in the twofold relation of continuity-condition and presence-condition. Thus should it be understood through condition. . Q. How, through the arising of distinctive thought? A. Three kinds are fulfilled at the eye-door. They are the objects of very great intensity, great intensity and slight intensity.2 Of these, those of very great intensity
1. In rendering the paccayas, here and elsewhere, in this translation, we have generally followed Venerable NyaQatiloka Maha Thera's "Paticcasamuppiida". • Unintelligible •• The meaning is not clear. 2. Cp. Compendium of Philosophy, 127.

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fulfil seven stages and are born in avici, the great hell. After the vibration of the life-continuum, adverting, discerning, receiving, examining, determining, apperceiving and registering follow. SIMILE OF THE THREAD Here the life-continuum is the consciousness-faculty of becoming. It is likened to the drawing of thread. 1 Adverting is conditioned by the visible object at the eye-door. Through the visible object entering the field (of presentation 1), the life-continuum vibrates, and is followed by adverting to the visible object. Adverting which depends on the eye is followed by discerning. This is followed by reception in the sense of experience. Then f()llows examining in the sense of (investigating) experience. After that comes determining in the sense of understanding. Determining proceeds and is followed by apperception according to action. Apperception proceeding in the sense of full cognition and not in the sense of means. is followed by registration of effect. After that consciousness lapses into the life-continuum. SIMILE OF THE MANGO
Q. What is the illustration? A. The king sleeps in his chamber, having closed the door. A slave-girl massages the king's feet. The queen sits near him. Ministers and courtiers are ranged in front of him. A deaf man is guarding the door with his back against it. At that time the king's gardener, bringing mangoes, knocks at the door. Hearing that sound, the king awakes, and says to the slave-girl, "Go and open the door". The slave goes to the door-keeper and speaks to him in gesture. That deaf door-keeper understands her wish and opens the door and sees the mangoes. The king takes his sword. The slave brings the fruits and hands them to a minister. The minister presents them to the queen. The queen washes them and sorts the ripe from the raw, places them in a vessel and gives them to the king. Getting them, the king eats the fruits. After eating them, he talks of the merit or non-merit of them. After that he sleeps again. The sleeping king is the life-continuum. The king's gardener, bringing mangoes and knocking at the door, is the impact of the visible object on the eye-door. The awakening of the king by the knocking at the door, and his command to open the door, illustrate the vibration of the life-continuum. The slave-girl's gestures, in requesting the door-keeper to open the door, is adverting. The opening of the door by the deaf door-keeper and the sight of the, mangoes illustrate eye-consciousness. The taking of the sword by the king and the handing of the fruits by the slave to the minister illustrate reception. The presentation of the fruits by the minister to the queen is examining. The
1. Cpo D. I, 54:, Seyyatha pi nama sutta-gu/e khitte nibbefhiyamanam eva phaleti. Perhaps the simile was drawn from this portion of the sutta.

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actions of wa~ing, sotting, placing the fruits in a vessel and offering them to .the king illustrate determining. The eating by the king is apperception. His talking as to the merits or demerits of the fruits illustrate registration of effect, and his sleeping again is the lapsing into the life-continuum.1 Here, consciousness depending on the impact of objects of middling intensity at the eye-door proceeds up to apperception and immediately lapses into the life-continuum. Through the impact of objects of lower intensity, consciousness lapses into the life-continuum immediately after determining. In the same way the procedure at the other doors should be understood. At the mind-door there is no impact of object. Conditioned by attention, and free from activities is the object grasped at the mind-door. Here, with reference to a very great object three stages are produced (after vibration) of the life-continuum, namely, adverting, apperception and registration. With reference to the objects of great and slight intensity two stages are fqlfilled: adverting and apperception. 2 Here, feeling and perception should be known through various conditions. Through the .conditioning of right-attention3 and non-right-attention, various kinds of merit and demerit should be known. Thus one should know through manifestation of the interlocking of distinctive thought.· Q. How, through comprehension? A. There are three kinds of comprehension, namely, aggregate-comprehension, element-comprehension, truth-comprehension. Here, ten sense-spheres are comprehended in the aggregate of matter. The sense-sphere of mind is comprehended in the aggregate of consciousness. The sense-sphere of states, excepting Nibbdna, is comprehended in the four aggregates. Eleven sense-spheres are comprehended in eleven elements. The sense-sphere of mind is comprehended in seven elements. The five internal sense-spheres are comprehended in the Truth of m. The.five external sense-spheres are either comprehended or not comprehended in the Truth of Ill. The sense-sphere of mind is either comprehended or not comprehended in the Truth of Ill. The sense-sphere of states is either comprehended or p.ot comprehended in the Truth of Ill. Thus should comprehension be known. In this way one 'develops discernment through the sense-sphere method. This is called sense-sphere method.
Sense-sphere method has ended.

element, sound-element, ear-consciousness-element; nose-element, odourelement, nose-consciousness-element; tongue-element, taste-element, tongueconsciousness-element; body-element, touch-element, body-consciousnesselement; mind-element, states-element, mind-consciousness-element. 1 Here, the senspry organ of eye is eye-element. Material form is material element. Eye-consciousness is ey'e-consciousness-element. In the same way the others should be lrnown. Mind-door-adverting translates the objects. Mindelement decides the result. [450] The mind-element is just mind-sphere. All kinds of consciousness except the ideas-element and the six consciousness-elements are mindeonsciousness-element. The rest is as was taught at length under sensesphere. Here, ten elements are comprehended in the form-aggregate. The tdeas-element"excepting Nibbtina, is comprehended in the four aggregates. Seven elements are comprehended in the consciousness-aggregate. Eleven elements are comprehended in elev~n sense-organs (and sense'-objects). Seven-elements are comprehended in the mind-organ. Eleven elements are coinpreh.ended in the Truth of Ill. Five elements are comprehended in the Truth of Ill, or not comprehended in the Truth of Ill. Ideas-element is comprehended in the Four Truths, or not comprehended in the Fonr Truths. Mind-consciousness-element is comprehended in the Truth of III or not comprehended in the Truth of TIL Q. What is the limit of manifestation? A. Just the sphere of ideas-element is the limit. The assemblage of the characteristics of a variety of states is called aggregate. The characteristic of entrance is called sense-organ. The characteristic of intrinsic nature is called element. Again, the Blessed One has taught the Truth of III by way of the aggregates for the quick 'witted man. He taught the Truth of III by way of the sense-sphere for the average man, and he taught the Truth of III by way of the elements for the slow witted man. And again, he has expounded form in brief to those who have the characteristic of attachment to name and aggregate, by way of discernment of name. He has expounded name and sense-sphere, in brief, through the determining of form, to those inclined towards attachment to form. He has expounded the elements through determining mind and form to those inclined to be attached to mind and form. And again, he has expoun!1ed the intrinsic nature of the sense-spheres. He has expounded the aggregates. He has expounded the (internal) sense"; spheres and objects. And he has expounded the sense-spheres. He has taught the ,arising of consciousness and element, through (internal) sense-sphere and
1. Vbh. 87: Alfhdrasa dhdtuyo: cakkhudhdtu riipadhdtu cakkhuviifiiQI;Uldhdtu sotadhdtu saddadhdtu sotaviiiildJ;ladhdtu ghdnadhdtu gandhadhdtu ghdnaviiiiid1)adhdtu jivluidhdtu rasadhdtu jivhdviiiiid1)ad"dtu kdyadhdtu' phoffhabbadhdtu kdyaviiiiid1)adhdtu manodhdtu dhammadhtitu manoviiiiid1)adhdtu.

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object. Thus should the ~stinctions in the element method be known. This is called element method.
Element method has ended.

CONDITIONED ARISING METHOD (a)
DIRECT ORDER

Q. What is the conditioned arIsmg method? A. Conditioned by ignorance .are the formations; conditioned by the formations, consciousness; conditioned by consciousness, name-form; conditioned by name-form, the six-sphered-sense; conditioned by the six-sphered-sense, contact; conditioned by contact, feeling; conditioned by feeling, craving; conditioned by craving, clinging; conditioned by clinging, becoming, conditioned by becoming, rebirth; conditioned by rebirth, decay, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair spring up. Such is the origin of this entire mass of ill.l
(b)
REVERSE ORDER

By the cessation of ignorance, the cessation of the formations (occurs); by the cessation of the formations, the cessation of consciousness; by the cessation of consciousness, the cessation of name-form; by the' cessation of name-form, the cessation of the six-sphered-sense; by the cessation of the six-sphered-sense,. the cessation of contact; by the cessation of contact, the cessation of feeling; by the cessation of feeling, the cessation of craving; by the cessation of craving, the cessation of clinging; by the cessation of clinging, the cessation of beCQming; by the cessation of becoming, the cessa~ tion of rebirth; by the cessation of rebirth, decay, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair cease. Such is the cessation of this entire mass of ilJ.2 IGNORANCE Here ignorance is ignorance of the Four Truths. Formations are bodily, verbal and mental actions. Consciousness is rebirth consciousness. NameAvijjiipaccayii bh(kkhave sali/c.hiirii; stilikhiirapaccayii viiifiii1,lam; viiifiii1,Iapaccayii niimariipam; niimartipapaccayii sa/iiyatanam; sa/iiyatanapaccayii phasso; phassapaccayii vedanii; vedalliipaccayii tQ1,lhii; tQ1)hiipaccayii upiidiinam; upiidiinapaccayii bhavo; bhavapaccayii jiiti; jiitipaccayii jariimara1)am soka-parideva-dukkha-domanassupiiyiisii sambhavanti. Evam' etassa kevalassa dllkkhakkhandhassa samudayo hoti. 2. Ud. 2; S. II, 1-2: Avijjiiya tveva asesaviriiganirodhii salikhiiranirodho; salikhiiranirodhii viiifiii1,lanirodho; viiifiii1,lanirodhii niimariipanirodho; niimariipanirodhii sa/iiyatananirodho; sa/iiyatallanirodhii phassanirodho; phassanirodhii vedaniinirodho; vedaniinirodhii tQ1,lhiinirodho; ta1,lhiinirodhii upiidiinanirodho; upiidiinanirodhii bhavanirodho; bhavanirodhii jiitinirodho; jiitinirodhii jariimara1,lam soka-parideva-dukkha-domanassupiiyiisii nirujjhanti. Evam 'etassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa nirodho hotifi.
I. Ud. 1; S. II, 1:

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form means the mental properties which arise together with the continuity of mind and the embryo (kalala). Six-sphered-sense means the six internal sense-spheres. Contact means the six groups of contact. Feeling means the six groups of feeling. Craving means the six groups of craving. Clinging means the four clingings. Becoming means sense-plane becoming, formplane becoming and formless-plane becoming where kamma works. Rebirth means the arising of the aggregates in becoming. Decay means the maturing of the aggregates. Death means the destruction of the aggregates. FORMATIONS
Q. How do the formations arise, conditioned by ignorance? How do decay and death arise, conditioned by rebirth? A. The five clinging groups arise for the uninstructed commoner, because of his ignorance of the Four Truths. In the long night (of ignorance), he clings to self and goods thinking: "These are my goods, this is my self". Thus he enjoys and clings to enjoyment. The thought of becoming brings about reconception. In that thought of becoming there is no knowledge. He clings to becoming because he desires it.1

SIMILE OF THE SEEDS
It is like seeds placed in a fertile field. If consciousness is extinguished, becoming, is extinguished. This is the meaning of conditioned by ignorance the formations arise. Mental formations, conditioned by ignorance, enter the course of. becoming, and integrate. Becoming proceeds; thus it, is continued. Consciousness does not separate from mind in becoming. Therefore, conditoned by the formations, consciousness arises.

of the mind-sphere is due to name. Conditioned by the foUr primaries, nutriment and caloric order, the other five (internal) sense-spheres develop and increase. The other does not depend on these. Therefore, conditioned by name-form, the six-sphered-sense arises. By the union of the other faculties, objects, elements and consciousness, contact arises. Therefore, conditioned by the six-sphered-sense, contact arises. Through the sense of touch one experiences'pain, pleasure and neither pain nor pleasure. Should one not be touched (then there would be no feeling for him). Therefore, conditioned by contact, feeling arises. The uninstructed commoner experiences pleasure and clings to it and craving for more, he experiences pain; and overcomin,g it (pain), he, desiring ease, develops the feeling of neither pain nor pleasure, or equanimity.1 Therefore, conditioned by feeling, craving arises. Through craving, one clings to what is lov.ely. Therefore, conditioned by craving, clinging arises. Through that clinging, one sows the seed of becoming. Therefore, conditioned by clinging, there is becoming. According to one's deeds one is born in various states. Therefore there is rebirth, and through birth, there is decay and death. Thus, conditioned by birth, there is decay and death. SIMILE OF THE SEED, SHOOT AND PLANT As paddy-seeds are conditioned by the paddy plant, so conditioned by ignorance the formations arise. Conditioned by the seed is the bud;2 sCi is the arising of consciousness, by the formations. Conditioned by the bud is the leaf; so is the' arising of name-form, by consciousness. Conditioned by the leaf is the branch; so is the arising of the six-sphered-sense, by nameform. Conditioned by the branch is the plant; so is the arising of contact, by the six-sphered-sense. Conditioned by the plant is the flower; so is the arising of feeling, by contact. Conditioned by the flower is the nectar; so is· the arising of craving, by feeling. . Conditioned by the nectar is the ear of rice; so is the arising of clinging, by craving. Conditioned by the ear of rice is the seed; so is the arising of becoming, by clinging. Conditioned by the seed is the bud; so is the arising of birth, by becoming. Thus the several successions come to be. Thus one cannot know the past or the future. Thus birth succeeds beginning with the causal condition of ignorance. Of it the past or the future cannot be known. 3 WHAT CONDITIONS IGNORANCE
Q. By what is ignorance conditioned?
A.

A. Three are the defilements, namely, ignorance, craving and clinging. Two are .actions, namely, the formations and becoming. The other seven results.

SIMILE OF THE COLOURS OF A PAINTER Here, the defilements are a cause of future life, like the colours of a painter. Their objects are not self-produced, as also are the colour-object of the painter. Defilements cause becoming like the different colours of the painter. These two are past, namely, ignorance and the formations. These two are of the futu~e, namely, 'birth and decay-and-death. The other eight are of the present. Thus it is as to the three divisions of time. Therefore one should know that birth and death proceed from beginniugless time. The factors of the twelvefold conditioned arising should not be taught (separately). Further, no conditioned arising should be taught which does not consist of these twelve. Then, what is conditioned arising.? .Just these twelve which in turn become condition·. Therefore this is called conditioned arising. The twelve factors are states which have already developed. What is the difference betwees. the two? The working of conditioned arising being different (in each case) and being not complete, one cannot speak of.it. Be they conditioned or nonconditioned,l they cannot be explained. Stlltes of conditioned arising that have already developed, have finished their task and .are cenditioned. This is the difference between the two. Why is this conditioned arising profound? One is able to know the way and characteristic by which ignorance cQnditiot:l& the formations .. 'A delivered one, without the aid of another, is able to di,scern its working, characteristics and nature. These constitute the profound nature of conditioned arising. ~ . CONDITIONED ARISING TO BE KNOWN IN SEVEN WAYS [451] And again, this conditioned arisin! should be known through seven ways thus: through the three links, the four groups, the twenty modes, the wheel, order, discernment and through· comprehension. FIRST THREE LINKS
Q. How, through the three links? A. Here the interval between the· formations and consciousness is the first lirlk; the interval between feeling and craving is the second link; the interval between becoming and rebirth is the third link. The conditioning of the present effect by past actions through the defilements
1. Sankhata, asankhata. 2. S. II, 92; D. II, 55: 'Acchariyam bhante abbhutam bhante yciva gambhiro cciyam bhante pa(icca-samuppcido gambhircivabhciso ca. Atha ca pana me utl.cinakuttcinako viya khayatiti.' Mci h'evam Ananda avaca, mci h'evam Ananda avaca. Gambhiro cciyam AnaMa pa/icca-samuppcido gambhircivabhcisv ca. .

Vimuttimagga
·is the first link. The oonditiooing of the present defilements. by present effects is called the second.1ink; the oonditioning of future effects by present deftlements is called the third link. The first and the third are condition-effect-link1 and becoming-link.B The second link is effect-condition links and non-becominglink. Q. What is becoming-link? A. Endlessly, the not yet enlightened aggregates, sense-organs and elements, through the conditioning of past actions and defilements, go again and 'again to various modes of birth. This is becoming-birth-link.' Q. How is it fulfilled? DEATH OF THE IGNORANT CRAVING EVIL-DOER
A. Here a man, who performs actions which are associated with ignorance and craving, is an evil-doer. When he comes to die, he suffers. Lying on his death-couch, he does not see this world. He does not see that world. He loses mindfulness and cannot recover it. At this time he suffers the ill of rebirth. Mindfulness draws away from his mind, and strength from his body. He'loses his faculties gradually. The body quakes. Vitality ebbs and his body becomes like a dried tdla leaf. At this time he is like one asleep and dreaming.

depends on the place of birth, namely, a palace, habitation, mountain, tree, or river, according to destiny. The appropriate grasping-sign arises, and the man, leaning or sitting or lying (on his death-couch), grasps that. After the consciousness which apperceives the past action or the action-sign or the destiny or the destiny-sign ends, the last consciousness arises without a break gradually through apperceptional consciousness. Only that action or actionsign or destiny or destiny-sign becomes the object of the basic resultant consciousness. Like the lighting of a lamp by a lamp,! or like fire issuing from a flame' is re-linking consciousness. 2 In the womb of the mother, through the impurity of parents, thirty material qualities are fulfilled by action of ten (?) sense-spheres. In the moment of decay, forty-six material qualities are fulfilled,*

Thus consciousness conditions name-form. Name-form conditions consciousness. 3 Thus the link of becoming' is fulfilled. Here, the fulfilment of the three links should be understood. FOUR GROUP DIVISION

Q. How, through the four groups? A. Ignorance and the formations are divisions of the groups of action and defilement of the past. Consciousness, name-form, the six-sphered-sense, contact and feeling are divisions of the groups of effect in the present. Craving, clinging and becoming' are divisions of action, and defilement of the present. Rebirth, and decay-and-death are divisions of effect of the future. Thus one should know through the fourgroup division.
TWENTY MODES

form, of the six-sphered-sense, of contact, of feeling and through birth and decay-and-death of the result-sign of the present being grasped. Through the grasping of craving, clinging and through the defilement-sign of the present being grasped. Through the grasping of becoming the present formations are grasped through the action-sign. Through the grasping of birth, decay and death, future consciousness, name-form, the six-sphcred-sense, contact, feeling are grasped. These twenty-four states become twenty.
It is according to the teaching in the Abhidhamma: "In the previous kamma-becoming, delusion is ignorance, effort is the formations, desire is craving, grasping is clinging, volition is becoming. Thus these five states. of the previous kamma-becoming are causes of the present rebirth. From the maturity of the sense-organs, here, delusion is ignorance; effort is the formations; desire is craving; grasping is clinging; volition is becoming. Thus these five states, here in kamma-becoming are causes of rebirth in the future. Here, rebirth is consciousness; descent is name-form; sensory organism is senseorgan; the being touched is touch; the being felt is feeling. Thus these five states, here, in rebirth-becoming are cause of kamma ~lready done. Thus one should know through twenty ways".l

How, through whecl? Ignorance conditions the formations; the formations condition consciousness; thus birth conditions decay and death. Thus the whole aggregate of ill arises. Therefore all constitute the aggregate of ill. Not knowing is called ignorance. Ignorance conditions the formations. Thus should it be known by way of the wheel.

DIRECT AND REVERSE ORDER
How, through order? Order is of two kinds. They are, the one which begins from ignorance and the one which begins from decay and death. Questioned as to that which begins from ignorance, one should answer in the direct order; and questioned as to that which ,begins from decay and death, the answer should be in the reverse order. And again, that which begins from ignorance is fixed; one can see the way to the future. That which begins with decay is the end; one can see the way to the past. Thus one should know through order.
1. Pts. J, 52: Purimakammabhavasmiriz moho avijjii, iiyuhanii sairkhiirii, nikanli la(lhii, upagamanariz upiidiinarh, celallii Mavo; ime paiica dhammii purimakammabhavasmiriz idha pa!isandhiyii paccayii ... Idha paripakkallii iiyalaniinariz moho avijjii, iiyuhanii salikhiirii, nikanli fa"hii, upagamanariz upiidiinariz, celanii bhavo; ime paiica dhammii idhakammabhavasmiriz iiyaliriz pa!isandhiyii paccayii. Ayaliriz pa!isandhi viiiiiii"ariz, okkanti niiman'pariz, pasiido iiyalanariz, phU!lho phasso, vedayitariz vedanii; ime paiica dhammii iiyaliriz upapatlibhavasmiriz idha kalassa kammassa paccayii. Iii ime calusalikhepe layo addhe Taii visatiyii iikiirehi lisandhiriz pa!iccasamuppiidariz jiiniili passati aiiiiiiti pafivijjhati. iiiilaf!hena iialJQriz, pajiinanaflhena paiiiiii; lena vuccali-'Paccaya pariggahe paiiiiii dhamma/fhitiiiii"ariz' .

The Five Methods
MUNDANE AND SUPRAMUNDANE CONDITIONED ARISING

267

Q. How, through discernme.nt? A. There are two kinds of conditioned arising: mundane conditioned arising and supramundane conditioned ,arising. Here, that which begins from ignorance is mundane. Q. What is supramundane conditioned arising? A. III depends on ill. Confidence depends on confidence. Joy depends on joy. Rapture depends on rapture. Calm depends on calm. Bliss depends on bliss. Concentration depends on concentration. Right views depend on right Views. Aversion depends on aversion, Dispassion depends on dispassion. Freedom depends on the knowledge of the freedom of extinction. This is called supramundane conditioned arising. l

FOUR KINDS OF CONDITIONED ARISING Again, four kinds of conditioned arising are taught thus: the defilementaction is cause; seed is cause; doing is cause; common action is cause. Q. What is meant by "defilement-action is cause"? A. Jt is that which begins from ignorance. What is meant by "seed is cause"? it is likened to the succession of seed and bud. What is meant by "doing is cause"? It is likened to the change of material qualities. What is meant by "common action is cause"? It is likened to earth, snow, mountain, sea sun and moon. There is another teaching. Common action is not a' cause. Material qualities, consciousness, states and caloricity are causes. There is no common action, according to the teaching of the Blessed One thus:
With none is kamma shared, none can rob it, and by itself comes the fruit of merit won}

Thus one should know through discernment.. THROUGH COMPREHENSION Q. How, through comprehension? A. There are four kinds of comprehension: aggregate-comprehension, sense-organ-comprehension, elementcomprehension and truth-comprehension. Here, ignorance, the formations,
I. There is another classification of conditioned arising at Netti. 67: Es' ev' anlo dukkhassii Ii pa!iccasamuppiido. So duvidho: lokiko ca lokullaro ca. Tal/ha lokiko: avijjiipaccayii

contact, craving, clinging and becoming are comprehended in the aggregate of the formations. Consciousness is comprehended in the consciousness-aggregate. Name-form is comprehended in the four aggregates. The sixsphered-sense is comprehended in the two aggregates. Feeling is comprehended in the feeling-aggregate. Birth and decay and death arecomprehended in the aggregate of form and in the aggregate of the formations. Ignorance, the formations, contact, feeling, craving, clinging, becoming, rebirth and decay and death are comprehended in the sense-sphere of ideas. Consciousness is comprehended in the mind-sphere. Name-form is comprehended in the five internal sense-spheres. The six-sphered-sense is comprehended in the six internal sense-spheres. Ignorance, the formations, contact, feeling, craving, clinging, becoming, rebirth and decay and death are comprehended in the element of ideas. Consciousness is comprehended in the rnind-consciousness-element. Name-form is comprehended in the five elements. The six· sphered-sense is comprehended in the twelvefold truth. Ignorance, craving and clinging arc comprehended in the tenfold truth. The other' nine. are comprehended in the Truth of Ill. Supramundane conditioned 'arising way-factor is comprehended in the Path-truth. The extinction of conditioned arising is comprehended in the Truth of Cessation. Thus one should know through comprehension. Through these ways should one understand the method of conditioned arising. This is .called conditioned arising method.
Conditil7l1ed arising method has ended. The Tenth Fascicle of the Path of Freedom .has ended.

[452]

THE PATH OF FREEDOM
FASCICLE THE ELEVENTH
WRITfEN
BY

THE ARAHANT UPATISSA
WHO WAS CALLED

GREAT LIGHT IN RYO
TRANSLATED IN RYO
BY

TIPITAKA SANGHAPALA OF FUNAN

THE FIVE METHODS
CHAPTER THE ELEVENTH

Section Two THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS
Q. What is the method of understanding the Noble Truths? A. There are Four Noble Truths: the Noble Truth of Ill, the Noble Truth of the Origin of Ill, the Noble Truth of the Cessation of III and the Noble Truth of the Path leading to the Cessation of Ill.

TRUTH OF ILL

Q. What is the Noble Truth of Ill? A. "Birth is ill; old age is ill; death is ill; sorrow is ill; lamentation and misery are. ill; grief and despair are ill; association with those one does not like is ill; separation from those one likes is ill; the not getting @f what is wished for is ill: in short the five aggregates of clinging are ill".1 "Birth is ill": This is the arising of the aggregates of various beings. All these are assemblages of ill. "Old age is ill": All the elements, proceeding from birth, come to maturity and lose vigour, colour, faculties, memory and intellect. "Death, is ill": Fear of the ending of life. "sorrow is ill": On going to the place of suffering, fear arises. This is the burning within. "Lamentation is ill": Suffering reaches .verbal expression. This is to burn within
I. D.· II, 304 If; Vbh. 99: Cattiiri ariyasacciini: dukkham ariyasaccam dukkhasamudayo ariyasaccam dukkhanirodho ariyasaccam dukkhanirodhagiimini paflpadii arlyasaccam. . Tattha katamam dukkham ariyasaccam? Jiitl pi dukkhii jarii pi d"kkhii maratlam pi dukkham sokaparidevadukkhadomanas. supiiyiisii pi dukkhd appiyehi sampayogo dukkho piyehi vippayogo dukkho yam p'iccham na labhati tam pi dukkham: sankhittena pancupiidiinakkhandhii pi dukkhii. 269

270 _

Vimuttimagga

and without. "Misery is ill": This is the suffering of the body. By this one suifers bodily pain. This is the meaning. "Grief and despair are ill": These are sufferings of the mind. By these one suffers mental anguish: This is the meaning. "Association with those one does not like is ill": This means ,that one is united with persons one dislikes. "Separation from those one likes is ill": This means that one is separated from persons one likes. ''The not getting of what is wished f.or": A man loses happiness because he is not able to separate from those whom he dislikes, and because he is not able to unite with those· whom he likes. Being unable to secure these .he loses happiness. "In short the five aggregates of clinging are ill": One is not able to separate oneself from these five aggregates of clinging. Therefore these five aggregates of clinging are ill.l FIVE GROUPS OF CLINGING
Q. What are the five aggregates of clinging? A. The form aggregate of clinging, the feeling aggregate of clinging, the perception aggregate of clin~ng, the formation aggregate of clinging, the consciousness aggregate of clinging. These should be understood according to the full explanation under the method of (understanding) the aggregates.

III is of three kinds thus: the ill of misery, change and existence. 1 Here bodily and mental suffering are the ill of misery. Pleasurable feeling connected with the cankers is subject to. renewal. Therefore it is called the ill of change. The five aggregates of clinging constitute the ill of existence. Thus should the Noble Truth of III be known. TRUTH OF THE ORIGIJW' OF ILL

Q. What is the Noble Truth of the Origin of Ill? A. "Even this craving, causing new rebirths, accompanied by delight and passion, finding gratification now here and now there, namely, the craving for pleasure, the craving for existence and the craving for annihilation". Here "causing new rebirth" means: "Craving, wherever it is, causes rebirth". "Even this craving" means: "Craving is the origin of ill; it is not a coarising". "Accompanied by delight and passion" means: "Craving causes the arising of delight. This is called manifestation. It causes to stain. This is called passion. It stirs up delight conjoined with passion". "Finding gratification now here and now there" means "It causes individuality to arise in various places where there are lovable forms and so forth, and to delight and find gratification therein". "Namely, the craving for pleasure, the craving for existence and the craving for annihilation": Everything, except the craving for existence and the craving for annihilation, is ·comprehended in
Tattha kalamam domanassam? Yam celasikaril asiilam celasikm;, dllkkham celosamphassajaril asiilam dllkkhal;' vedayitam celosamphassajii asiila dukkha vedana: idam
vuccati domanassarh.

the craving for pleasure. The craving for existence arises together the with view of etemalism.1 The craving for annihilation arises together with theo view of nihilism.· Thus should the Noble Truth of the Origin of ill be known. s TRUTH OF THE CESSATION OF ILL

The Five Methods
Exertion is the fourfold right exertion. Right Mindfulness means the four foundations of mindfulness. Right Concentration is the fourfold meditation, jh{ina. 1 And again, if a man practises the Noble Path, he sees Nibbana-this is called Right View. He awakes only in Nibbana-this is called Right Thought. He abandons wrong speech-this is Right Speech. He rejects wrong doingthis is Right Action. He gives up wrong livelihood-this is Right Livelihood. He abandons wrong exertion-this is Right Exertion. He recalls Nibbana to mind-this is Right Mindfulness. He concentrates on Nibblina-this is Right Concentration. Here, the faculty of wisdom, the power of wisdqm, the. basis of supernormal power of scrutiny and the enlightenment factor of the investIgation of states accomplish the entry into internal Right View. The faculty of exertion, the power of exertion, the basis of supernormal power of exertion, the basis of supernormal power of will, the enlightenment factor of exertion, and the fourfold right exertion accomplish the entry into internal Right Effort. The faculty of mindfulness, the power of mindfulness, the enlightenment factor of mindfulness and the four foundations of mindfulness accomplish the entry into internal Right Mindfulness. The faculty of concentration, the power of concentration, the basis of supernormal power of thought, the faculty of faith, the power of faith, the enlightenment factor of concentration, the enlightenment factor of joy, the enlightenment factor of calm and the enlightenment factor of equanimity accomplish the entry into internal Right Concentration. These thirty-seven enlightenment accessories accQmplish the entry into the Noble Eightfold Path. Thus should the Noble Truth of the Path leading to the Cessation of TIl be known. Thus should the Four Noble Truths be understood.
1. D. II, 311-13: Katamaii ca Mikkhave dukkha-nirodha-giimini-palipadii ariya-saccam? Ayam eva Ariyo Atthangiko Maggo, seyyathidam sammtidiffhi sammti-samkappo sammaviica sammii-kammanto
sammii~ajfvo sammii-Vtlyiimo

Q. Why are four Noble Truths taught and not three or five? A. (If three or five were taught) all might be doubted. These are the consequences .and causes of the mundane and the supramundane. Therefore they are four. Q. What is the consequence (and what, the cause) of mundane truth? A. ill and origin are the consequence and cause of mundance truth. Cessation is the consequence of supramundane truth. The Path is the cause of supramundane truth. Therefore four and not three or five are taught. And again, because of the four sentences: "One should comprehend, one should abandon, one should realize, one should practise'',! there are four. The characteristics of these Four Noble Truths should be known thr.ough eleven ways: through the meaning of words; through characteristics, 3 through series in beiiefs,4 through analogy,5 through discrimination, through enumeration, through sameness, through difference, through one kind and so forth,6 through inclusion. THROUGH WORD MEANING Q. How, through the meaning of words? A. The Noble Truths are the teaching of the Holy One. Therefore they are called Noble Truths. Through understanding these well, one fulfils the Four Noble Truths. "Truth" means: "Thus-isness, non-variability, identity". III is the consequence. Origin is the cause. Cessation is ending continued. The Path is the highest view. Thus should these be known through the meaning of words. THROUGH CHARACTERISTICS

Origin is the characteristic of cause. Cessation is the characteristic of nonbirth. The Path is the characteristic of the means of success. And again, ill is the characteristic of grief, despair, the put together, the limited. Origin is the characteristic of accumulation, cause, condition, fetters, clinging. Cessation is the characteristic of renunciation, solitude, the non-conditioned and the choice. The Path is the characteristic of vehicle, arriving~ seeing, reliance. Thus should these be known through characteristics. THROUGH SERIES

Q. How, through series? A. The Truth of III is taught first, becuase it is gross and because it could be easily understood in this world. The Truth of Origin is taught next. The ending of the origin is the ending of ill. After that the Truth of Cessation is taught for the purpose of ending completely. And the Path is taught last. This (method) is like (that of) a clever physician, who at first gets at the root of the disease and later inquires as to the contributory causes. For the ending of the disease, he prescribes according to the nature of the disease. Here, one should know the disease as ill; the cause and condition as origin; the ending of the disease as cessation; and the medicine as the Path. Thus should these be known through series.!
IN BRIEF
Q. How, in brief? A. Birth is ill; the being born is the ongm; the ending of ill is ce.ssation; the path leading to the cessation of ill is the Path. Where there is defilement, there is ill. Defilement is the origin. The removal of defilement is cessation. The means of removal is the Path. (The Truth of III removes the illusion of self; (the Truth of) Origin removes the view of nihilism; (the Truth of) Cessation removes the .view of eternalism; (the Truth of) the Path removes all wrong views. Thus should these be known in brief.
1. Cpo (a) A. lIT, 238: Seyyatha pi bho puriso abadhiko' dukkhito ba/hagilano, tassa kusalo bhisakko fhanaso abadharil nihareyya, evant eva' kho bho yato yato tassa bhoto Gotamassa dhammam sU(lati yadi suttaso yadi geyyaso yadi veyyakara(laso yadi abbhutadhammaso, tato tato sokaparidevadllkkhadomanassupayasa abbhattharh gacchanti. (b) A. IV, 340: 'Bhisakko' Ii bhikkhave Tathagatass' etarh adhivacanarh arahato
sammiisambuddhassa.

Q. How, through enumeration? A. Except craving, all skilful, unskilful and indeterminate states of the three planes compose the Truth of Ill; craving is the Truth of Origin; the removal of craving is the Truth of Cessation; the Noble Eightfold Path is tIie Truth of the Path. Again, except craving, all other defilements and the skilful, unskilful and indeterminate· states of the three planes compose the Truth of Ill; craving and the defilements (associated with it) compose the Truth of Origin; the removal of these is the Truth of Cessation; the path is the Truth of the Path. Again, except craving, all defilements and skil(ul, unskilful and indeterminate states of the three planes compose the TnJth of Ill; craving and the defilements, and all the unskilful states compose the Truth of Origin; the removal of these is the Truth of Cessation; the path is the Truth of the Path. And again, except craving and the defilements and all unskilful states (associated with it) the other unskilful states of the three planes and the indeterminate states of the three planes compose the Truth of Ill; craving, the remaining defilements, unskilful states and skilful states of the three planes compose the (Truth of) Origin; the removal of these is the Truth of Cessation; the path is the Truth of the Path. Here, to wish for the delightful is craving. Origin means "with craving" and "with .latent tendencies". Other defilements are origin in the sense of removing and in the sense of manifestation of becoming. All unskilful states are origin in the sense of causing to be. Merit of the three planes is origin. Here, craving and the other defilements are origin.
(b) Th. 604, 656: ParicilJrw mayii satlhii, katam buddhassa siisana,;"
ohito garuko bhiiro bhavanetti samiihatii. (c) Dh. 402; Sn. 626: Yo dukkhassa pajiilJiiti, idh' eva khayam atlano, pann¢Jhiirti,;, visa,;,yutta,;"tam aha';' brumi 'BriihmalJQ';". (d) S. III, 25-6: Siivatthiyam Tatra klzo . .. pe ... Bhdran ca vo bhikkhave desissiimi, bhiirahiiran ca bhiiriidtinan ca bhdranikkhepanaii ca. Ta,;, sUlJiitha ... Katamo ca bhikkhave bhiiro? Pancupiidiinakkhandhii tissa vacaniyanr. Katame panca? Seyyathida,;, riipupiidtinakkhandho ... viMiit;lupiidiinakkhandho. Aya,;, vuccati bhlkkhave bhii~o. . Katamo ca bhikkhave bhiirahiiro? Puggalo tissa vacaniya';'. Yoya,;, iiyasmii eva';' niimo eva';' gotlo. Aya,;, vuccati bhikkhave bhiirahiieo. Kataman ca bhikkhave bhiiriidiina,;,? Yiiya,;, tQt;lhd ponobhavikii nandiriigasahagatii tatra tratriiblrinandini, seyyathida,;" kiimatQt;lhd bhavatalJhii vibhavatalJhii. Ida';' vuccati bhikkhave bhiiriidtina';'. Kataman ca bhikkhave bhiiranikkhepana,;,? Yo tassii-yeva tQt;lhtiya asesaviriiganirodho ciigo palinissaggo mutti aniilayo. Ida';' vuccatl bhikkhave bhiiranikkhepanan Ii. Idam avoca Bhagavii ... etad avoca Satthd: Bhdrii have pancakkhandhii, bhiirahdro ca puggalo, bhiiriidtina,;, dukkha,;, loke, bhiiranikkhepana,;, sllkha';'. Nikkhipitvii garu,;, bhiira,;" anna';' bhiira,;, aniidiya, samula,;, talJha,;, abbhltyha, niechiito parinibbuto.

278

Vimuttimagga

All merit of the three planes belong to the Truth of III or the Truth of Origin. Because of the characteristics of despair, misery, the put together and the limited, there is the Truth of Ill. Because of the characteristics of accumulation, cause and condition, clinging and combination, the Truth of Origin is fulfilled. Thus should these be understood through enumeration. THROUGH SAMENESS
Q. How, through sameness? A. These Four Truths are one through four ways: through the meaning of truth; the meaning of thus-isness; the meaning Qf doctrine; and the meaning of the void. Thus these should be known through sameness.1

The formations in the ten directions are ill;l the ten fetters2 are origin; the removal of the fetters is cessation;3 the ten perceptions are the Path.4 Thus one should know through one kind and so forth.

Truth of III is included in the eighteen elements. Three Truths are included in the element of ideas. Thus one should know through inclusion. Through these ways knowledge of the Noble Truths should be known. This is called the method of understanding the Noble Truths.

ON DISCERNING TRUTH
CHAPTER THE TWELFTH

Section One AGGREGATES, ELEMENTS, SENSE-SPHERES Now the yogin has understood the aggregates, elements, sense-spheres; conditioned arising and the Truths. He has also heard concerning virtue, austerities. and meditation, jhdna. SIMILES OF THE THREE HUNDRED HALBERDS AND OF THE BURNING HEAD The commoner fears ill-faring, because he is not enlightened. If after contemplating on the fearfulness of ill-faring and of beginningless birth and death, he should think of not missing this opportunity, or on the similes of the points of the three hundred halberds,l and o(the man· desirous of saving his burning head, 2 the yogin is· yet unable to understand the Four Noble Truths; he should proceed to discern the Noble Truths by way of analogy. He should develop the wish to do, strive earnestly, and .accomplish (the knowledge of the Truths) through completing the mindf'ulnes·s of concentration. PROCEDURE

hearing, seizing the sense and reiteration, he should bear them in mind; At this time the yogin enters into a quiet place, sits down and oomposes his mind. He does not let it run hither and· thither, and recalls to mind the Four Noble Truths. First he should recall to mind the Truth of III through aggregation, sense-sphere and element. The idea of aggregation should be recalled to mind through one's own characteristics and through the characteristics of the aggregates, in the way it was taught, under the method of understanding the aggregates. The (idea of) sense-sphere should be recalled to mind through the characteristic of sense-sphere, in the way it was taught, under the method of understanding the sense-spheres. The (idea of) element should be recalled to mind through the characteristics of element, in the way it was taught, under the method of understanding the elements. Thus having understood aggregate, sense-sphere and element, that yogin knows that there are only aggregates, sense-spheres and elements, and that there is no being or soul. Thus he gains the perception of the formations l and gets to know the two diVisions, namely, name and form. Here the ten sense-spheres and the ten elements of the aggregate of matter constitute form. Four aggregates, the sense-sphere of mind and the seven elements. constitute name. The sensesphere of ideas and the element of ideas are name and form. Name is one, form is another. Form is void of name and name, of form. Name is not separate from form, and form is not s·eparate from name, like drum-soun'd." Only through dependence on name, form proceeds; and through dependence on form, name proceeds, like the journeying. afar of the blind and the cripple,3

does not accumulate; 'form accumulates. Name excogitates, knows, considers, is aware; form does not do these. Form walks, leans, sits, lies down, bends and stretches; name does. not do these. Name knows: "I go", "I lean", "I sit", "I lie down", "I bend", "I stretch"; form does not know these. Form drinks, eats, chews, tastes; name does not do these. Name knows: "I drink", "I.eat", "I chew;', "I taste"; form does not know these. Form claps the hands, frolics, laughs, cries and talks in many ways; name does not do these. Name knows thus: "I clap", "I frolic", "I laugh", "I cry", "I talk in such and such a manner" ; form does not know these. These are the differences between name and form; and that yogin knows name [454] and form thus: "Only name and form are here; there is no being, there is no soul". Thus he, making it manifest, gets the perception of the formations. SUMMARY OF THE TRUTH OF ILL Now, this is a summary of the w.hole Truth of Ill: One, causing to arise knowledge of pure views, according to reality, discerns name and form. All these should be known as descriptive of the Truth of Ill. That yogin, having made manifest the Truth of Ill, considers the idea of a being. 1 Thereafter he should attend to the .::ause and condition of Ill. CAUSE AND CONDITION OF ILL

Q. What are the cause and condition of ill? A. That yogin knows thus: This ill has birth for cause and condition; birth has becoming for cause and condition; becoming has clinging for cause and condition; clinging has craving for cause and condition; craving has feeling for cause and condition; feeling has contact for cause and condition; contact has the six sense-spheres for cause and condition; the six sense-spheres have name-form for . cause and condition; name-form has consciousness for cause and condition; consciousness has the formations for cause and condition; the formations have, ignorance for cause and condition. Thus depending on ignorance there are the formations; depending on the formations there is consciousness; depending on birth there are decay, death, and grief. Thus all the aggregates of iii arise. Thus that" yogin introspects the links of conditioned arising at length,
THE PURITY OF TRANSCENDING UNCERTAINTY Now, this is the summary: Depending on feeling there arises craving.

One makes manifest the origin of ill. The knowledge of the Law of conditioned arising, Ariyan understanding of conditioned arising and knowledge of the purity of transcending uncertainty "are terms descriptive of the knowledge which makes mantfe"sf the Truth of Origin.! TRUTH OF CESSATION That yogin, after having grasped the Truth of the Origin of III and transcended the uncertainty of "the three phases of time, considers the c~ssation of ill. The destruction of what is the destruction "of ill? That yogin knows thus: When birth is destroyed, ill is destroyed; when birth is destroyed, becoining is destroyed; when becoming is destroyed, clinging is destroyed; when clinging is destroyed, craving is destroyed. When ignorance is destroyed, the formations are destroyed. Thus, with the destruction of ignorance, the formations are destroyed; with the destruction of the formations, consCiousness is destroyed. Decay, death, sorrow, lamentation, misery and grief are destroyed through the destruction of birth. Thus all the aggregates of ill are destroyed. Thus having considered the links of conditioned arising at length, he views them in brief thus: Depending on feeling there is craving. Owing to its destruction, ill is destroyed. Thus he makes manifest the Truth of Cessation. TRUTH OF THE PATH Now, that yogin, having grasped the Truth of Cessation considers the Path of the Cessation of TIl thus: What Path and what perfection constitute the destruction of craving? He considers the five clinging aggregates 2 and the tribulation of these. (He thinks), "This is the Path, this is perfection". He eradicates craving, and causes the arising of the Way-Truth. One should know this as has been taught fully under the method of understanding the Truth. ONE HUNDRED AND EIGHTY WAYS OF KNOWING THE FIVE CLINGING AGGREGATES Thus that yogin, having serially grasped the Four Truths, knows the five clinging aggregates in one hundred and eighty ways and by way of accumulation. He considers at length ail matter of the past, future and the present, internal and external, great and small, gross and subtle, and far and near as imperma: nent, ill, and not-self. In the same way, he deals with all feeling, perception,
1. Cpo Vis. Mag. "604: Bvam niiniinayehi niimariipapaccayapariggaha1;lena tisu addhiisu
kankham vitaritvii fhitam M1)am kanJi:hiivitarQ1;lQVisuddhi ti veditabbam dhammaffhltifiii1JQ1l" ti pi yathiibhiitafiii1;lan ti pt sammiidassanan ti pi etass' ev' iidhivaccanam. 2. Paflcupiidiinakkhandhii.

Thus he discerns and investigates the fonnations through .suffering-: Through ill-faring a man experiences unhappiness, hunger and fear; he is separated from dear ones; he experiences old age, disease, death, -sorrow, lamentation,misery and grief. Such are the vicissitudes of the formations. IMPERMANENCE, ILL, NOT-SELF Thus he discerns and considers the formations as not-self: What is according to the teaching,concerning cause and condition of the aggregates, of the· sense-spheres and of the elements, is the Truth. According t{) kammaresult and conditioned arising, beings are born. There is no abiding being. There is no intrinsic nature in objects. He considers' form as impermanent in the sense of extinction, as ill in the sense of fear, as not-self in the sense of unreality. Thus he considers it in brief and at length. And in the same way he thinks that feeling, perception, the formations, consciou~ness are impermanent in the sense of extinction, are suffering in the sense of fear, are not-self in the sense of unreality. Thus briefly and at length he discerns. Here, through the discernment of impermanence, he removes the idea of permanence; through the discernment of ill, he removes the idea of bliss; and through the discernment of not-self, he removes the idea of self. THE SIGNLESS, THE UNHANKERED, AND THE VOID
Q. How does he discern fully through impermanence? A. In discerning the formations as they are, he limits the formations as not existing before their arising and as not going beyond their fall; and his mind, springing forth into the signless element, attains to pt:ace. Thus he discerns through impermanence, fully. Q. How does he discern through ill? A. In discerning the formations his mind is agitated with fear as regards hankering and springs forth into the unhankered. Thus he discerns through ill, fully. Q. How does he discern fully through not-self? A. In discerning all states, he regards them as alien, and his mind springs forth to- the element of the void and attains to peace. Thus he discerns not-self, fully.l
yame aeei sa paeehime yame aceili. - Na hi bhanle Ii. - Kin-nu kJw mahariija alflfo so ahosi purime yiime padipo, affiio majjhime' yame padipo, anlfo.pacchime yame padipo Ii. - Na hi bhanle, lam yeva nissaya sabbaraltim padipito Ii. Evam eva kho majiiriija' dhammasantati sandahati, alflfo uppajjali anno nlrujjhali, apubbam aearimam viya sandahati, lena na ca so na ca alflfo paeehimavilfnii1)QSangaham gacchatiti. I. Cpo (a) Pis. IT, 58: Aniccalo manasikaroto khayato smikhiira upalfhahanti, Dllkkhato manaslkaroto bhayato saFikhiirii upalfhahanti. Anattato manasikaroto sufiilato saFikhiirii upaf(hahanti. (b) Ibid. 61: Aniccato manasikarola animilto vimokkho adhimatto hOti, ariimittavimokkhassa adhimattattii saddhiivimutto hoti; dukkhato manasikaroto appm;lihiio vimokkhO adhimatto holi, appa1;lihitavimokkhassa adhimattatlii kiiyasakkhi holl; .anattato manasikaroto sunlfalo vimokkho adhimatto hOli. sulflfolavlmokkhassa adhimattattii dilfhippatto hoti.

The Five Methods

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Thus discerning the three states of becoming, the five states of existence, the seven stations of consciousness, the nine abodes of beings, through extinction, fear and unreality, he investigates these. l

The discernment of Truth has ended.

THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE RISE AND FALL
That yogin, having discerned the five clinging aggregates, applies the three characteristics to them, wishing for the happiness of being released from phenomena.' And when the internal five clinging aggregates are grasped by way of the characteristics, he penetrates rise and fall thus: "All these states, not having been, arise; arid having arisen, pass away".3 Here, in grasping (the aggregates) there are three kinds: defilement-grasp, concentration-grasp, insight-grasp.

Q. What is concentration-grasp? A. Here a yogin wishes to gain concentration and grasps the sign in each of the thirty-eight subjects of meditation, with the mind, beginning with the knowledge of Right Mindfulness, and thereby chains the mind' as one chains an elephant to make it quiet. 1 This is called concentration-grasp.
INSIGHT-GRASP
Q. What is insight-grasp? A. A man, beginning with the wisdom of steady viewing, discerns the characteristic of intrinsic nature2 of form, feeling, perception, the formations and consciousness. Wishing for and. happy in equanimity, he grasps the characteristics. It is like a man who lays. hold of a poisonous snake.' This is called insight-grasp. It is well when a man grasps by way of insight.

And again,. thrQ.ugli two, ways one grasp~ the characteristics of thQught: through object and throl,lgh taking to heart. Q. How does one. grasp .the characteristics of thought through the object? A. Thought arises owing to object. One shoUld grasp that, "Thro~gh . this 'form-object, feeling-objeCt, perception-object,. formation-object, and conscioU$ness-object, thought arises", -thus one grasps. This is the grasping of the characteristics of thought through the object. Q. 'How does one grasp the c~aracieristics ofthoughdhrough talongto "heart? .A: "Through tatcing to heart, thought arises";-tlius"one shoUld consider. "Through takiD.g feeling, perception 'and ·the formationS'to 'heart, thought ilrises",-thus should one introspect;· 'ThusthIough the ta~g to heart one grasps the characteristics of thought. Q. What.is the grasping well of the characteristics? A. Through these' activities and these characteristics, one grasps form, feeling"perception, the . forrtiations and consciousness. [45S]'Alid again, one is able to grasp the characteristics through these activities and these attributes. This is called the grasping well of the characteristics. "One penetrates rise and .fall" means: "OIIe sees clearly, 'There is arismg; there: is passirtg' 'away'''~ tIere the :form that has arisen continues. The sign' of "birth is arismg. The characteristic of change is passing away. When these two passages are perceived with the' eye of wisdom, .there is kriowledge of "rise' and faU". The feeling that has arisen, continues. The characteristic "bf the coming fo be of feeling, perception, the formations and consciousness is arising; "the characteristic of change in them· is passing away. When these two passages are perceived with -the eye of wisdom, there is knowledge of ""rise .and fall". CHARACTERISTICS OF RISE AND FALL TN THREE WAYS And again, one can be well acquainted with the characteristics of rise -and fall through three ways: through cause, condition and own property. Q. How can one be well acquainted with the characteristics of arising through "cause"? A. The aggregates arise