1.
1620s in architecture
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1619 - Børsen in Copenhagen, Denmark designed by Lorentz and Hans van Steenwinckel the Younger, is begun 1620 Work on Santa Maria delle Grazie Tower in Xgħajra, Malta begins. Reconstruction of Frederiksborg Palace, Denmark, is completed by Hans van Steenwinckel the Younger following the death of his brother Lorentz, skaill House on Orkney is built. 1621 - Princes Lodging at Newmarket, Suffolk, England, designed by Inigo Jones, 1622-1628 - The Tomb of Itimād-ud-Daulah in Agra, India, is built. 1622 - The Banqueting House, Whitehall, London, is opened with a performance of Ben Jonsons The Masque of Augurs designed by the buildings architect, 1623-1627 - Queens Chapel at St Jamess Palace in London, designed by Inigo Jones, is built. 1625/26 - Coymans house, Keizersgracht, Amsterdam, designed by Jacob van Campen,1627 Palazzo Barberini in Rome begun by Carlo Maderno and Francesco Borromini. Muchalls Castle in Scotland, reconstruction completed by Thomas Burnett of Leys,1628 - George Heriots Hospital in Edinburgh, Scotland. 1629 - Simtokha Dzong in Bhutan

2.
1630s in architecture
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1630s – Tomb of Ali Mardan Khan in Lahore is built. 1630–1631 – Church of San Caio in Rome rebuilt by Francesco Peparelli, 1630–1635 – The Pearl Mosque at Lahore Fort is built. 1631 – Work starts on the basilica of Santa Maria della Salute in Venice,1632 – Work starts on the Taj Mahal, probably designed by Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. 1633 Completion of the Palazzo Barberini in Rome by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, reconstruction of the Great Synagogue of Vilna completed. St Pauls, Covent Garden, designed by Inigo Jones, opened to worship, grange Court in Leominster, England, built by John Abel. 1634–1635 – House for Constantijn Huygens on the Binnenhof in The Hague,1635 Canterbury Quadrangle at St Johns College, Oxford, England, the first example of Italian Renaissance architecture in the city, is completed. The Radziwiłł Palace, Vilnius, is begun, 1635–1636 – Yerevan Kiosk, designed by Architect Kasemi, in the Topkapı Palace, Istanbul, is built. 1636 Completion of Sher-Dor Madrasah in Samarkand, Construction of Pont Fawr bridge at Llanrwst in Wales. Construction of the Floriana Lines around Floriana on Malta, designed by Pietro Paolo Floriani, is begun,1637 – Almshouses at Moretonhampstead, England, built in surviving form. 1638 May 13 – Construction begins on the Red Fort in Delhi for Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, november 7 – The Mariensäule Marian column in Marienplatz in Munich, the first one north of the Alps, is completed. The Queens House at Greenwich in England, designed by Inigo Jones in 1616 as the first major example of architecture in the country, is completed. 1638–1639 – Baghdad Kiosk, designed by Architect Kasemi, in the Topkapı Palace, Istanbul, is built

3.
1640s in architecture
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The Taj Mahal in Agra, India, is under construction. The mosque and jawab in the complex are completed in 1643,1640 Børsen in Copenhagen, designed by Lorentz and Hans van Steenwinckel the Younger and begun in 1619, is completed. 59-60 Lincolns Inn Fields, London, probably designed by Inigo Jones,1641 Tron Kirk in Edinburgh, Scotland, designed by John Mylne, is dedicated. The Mauritshuis at The Hague in the Dutch Republic, designed by Jacob van Campen, 1645–1648 - Main structure of Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet, is built. 1646 The St. Mary Magdalene Chapel, Dingli, Malta, is rebuilt after the chapel had collapsed. Chehel Sotoun in Isfahan, Persia, is completed,1647 - The Changdeokgung in Seoul, Korea, is reconstructed. 1648 - Jama Masjid, Agra, is built,1642 - Giovanni Barbara, Maltese architect and military engineer c

4.
Registan
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The Registan was the heart of the ancient city of Samarkand of the Timurid dynasty, now in Uzbekistan. The name Rēgistan means Sandy place or desert in Persian, the Registan was a public square, where people gathered to hear royal proclamations, heralded by blasts on enormous copper pipes called dzharchis - and a place of public executions. It is framed by three madrasahs of distinctive Islamic architecture, the three madrasahs of the Registan are, the Ulugh Beg Madrasah, the Tilya-Kori Madrasah and the Sher-Dor Madrasah. Madrasah is an Arabic term meaning school, the Ulugh Beg Madrasah, built by Ulugh Beg during the Timurid Empire era of Timur—Tamerlane, has an imposing iwan with a lancet-arch pishtaq or portal facing the square. The corners are flanked by high minarets, the mosaic panel over the iwans entrance arch is decorated by geometrical stylized ornaments. The square courtyard includes a mosque and lecture rooms, and is fringed by the cells in which students lived. There are deep galleries along the axes, originally the Ulugh Beg Madrasah was a two-storied building with four domed darskhonas at the corners. The Ulugh Beg Madrasah was one of the best clergy universities of the Muslim Orient in the 15th Century CE, abdul-Rahman Jami, the great Persian poet, scholar, mystic, scientist and philosopher studied at the madrasah. Ulugh Beg himself gave lectures there, during Ulugh Begs government the madrasah was a centre of secular science. In the 17th century the ruler of Samarkand, Yalangtush Bakhodur, ordered the construction of the Sher-Dor, the tiger mosaics on the face of each madrassa are interesting, in that they flout the ban in Islam of the depiction of living beings on religious buildings. Ten years later the Tilya-Kori Madrasah was built and it was not only a residential college for students, but also played the role of grand masjid. It has a main facade and a vast courtyard fringed by dormitory cells. The mosque building is situated in the section of the courtyard. The main hall of the mosque is abundantly gilded, to the east of the Tilya-Kori Madrasah, the mausoleum of Shaybanids is located. The real founder of Shaybanid power was Muhammad Shaybani - grandson of Abul Khair, in 1500, with the backing of the Chaghataite Khanate, then based in Tashkent, Muhammad Shaybani conquered Samarkand and Bukhara from their last Timurid rulers. The founder of the dynasty then turned on his benefactors and in 1503 took Tashkent and he captured Khiva in 1506 and in 1507 he swooped down on Merv, eastern Persia, and western Afghanistan. The Shaybanids stopped the advance of the Safavids, who in 1502 had defeated the Akkoyunlu, Muhammad Shaybani was a leader of nomadic Uzbeks. During the ensuing years they settled down in oases of Central Asia

5.
Tomb of Ali Mardan Khan
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The Tomb of Ali Mardan Khan is a Mughal era tomb in the city of Lahore, Pakistan that was built in the 1630s. Ali Mardan Khan was a Kurd who first worked in the court of the Persian Safavid ruler Shah Safi, the tomb is of octagonal plan. He was experienced in the management of engineering works, especially the construction of canals and he was appointed as the governor of Kashmir, Lahore and Kabul, then of the Punjab in 1639. Khan died in 1657 while going to Kashmir, though Khan was an engineer and courtier, he has come to be locally regarded as a notable spiritual figure, and locals call the tomb Mardan Khan’s durbar. The grave is in a chamber below ground level, accessed by stairs, the tomb is now in a semi-ruined state, lacking its decorations, though the main structure is intact. This is in brick with a dome of 42 feet in diameter above an octagonal drum with iwans on each side, there are kiosks around the top of the drum. The tomb stands on a podium, with each side 58 feet at the edge. It would have originally decorated with stone facings and inlays. The two storey gatehouse has retained more of its decoration, originally there were perhaps four gateways. The tomb would have stood in the centre of a garden as other Mughal tombs do. The tomb is surrounded by property, and located in Mughalpura road which is from right from the Grand Trunk Road. Near the railway track on the road is a board where MET-1 is written, beyond which lies the gate through which people can access the tomb

6.
Lahore
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Lahore is the capital city of the Pakistani province of Punjab. It is the second most populous city in Pakistan and the 32nd most populous city in the world, the city is located in the north-eastern end of Pakistans Punjab province, near the border with the Indian state of Punjab. Lahore is ranked as a world city, and is one of Pakistans wealthiest cities with an estimated GDP of $58.14 billion as of 2014. Lahore is the cultural centre of the Punjab region, and is the largest Punjabi city in the world. The city has a history, and was once under the rule of the Hindu Shahis, Ghaznavids, Ghurids. Lahore reached the height of its splendour under the Mughal Empire, the city was contested between the Maratha Empire and Durrani Empire, then became capital of the Sikh Empire, before becoming the capital of the Punjab under British rule. Following the independence of Pakistan in 1947, Lahore became the capital of Pakistans Punjab province, Lahore is one of Pakistans most liberal and cosmopolitan cities. It exerts a strong influence over Pakistan. Lahore is a centre for Pakistans publishing industry, and remains the foremost centre of Pakistans literary scene. The city is also a centre of education in Pakistan. Lahore is also home to Pakistans film industry, Lollywood, and is a centre of Qawwali music. The city is much of Pakistans tourist industry, with major attractions including the old Walled City. Lahore is also home to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of Lahore Fort, the etymology of Lahore is uncertain, but according to legend the city was once known as Lavapura, in honour of Prince Lava of the Hindu epic poem, the Ramayana. Lahore Fort also contains a vacant Lava temple, dedicated to the founder of the city. Lahore was called by different names throughout history, to date there is no conclusive evidence as to when it was founded. Lahore is described as a Hindu principality in the Rajput accounts, keneksen, the founder of Suryavansha, is believed to have migrated out from the city. The Solanki tribe, belonging to Amukhara Pattan, which included the Bhatti Rajputs of Jaisalmer, Lahore appears as the capital of the Punjab for the first time under Anandapala – the Hindu Shahi king who is referred to as the ruler of –after leaving the earlier capital of Waihind. Few references to Lahore remain from before its capture by Sultan Mahmud of Ghaznavi in the 11th century, the sultan took Lahore after a long siege and battle in which the city was torched and depopulated

7.
Moti Masjid (Lahore Fort)
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Moti Masjid, one of the Pearl Mosques, is a 17th-century religious building located inside the Lahore Fort. It is a small, white marble structure built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, the mosque is located on the western side of Lahore Fort, closer to Alamgiri Gate, the main entrance. Moti in Urdu language means pearl, which designates a perceived preciousness to the religious structure and it was an established practice among Mughal emperors to name the mosques after generic names for gemstones. Other such examples are Mina Masjid and Nagina Masjid, both located in Agra Fort and completed in 1637 under Shah Jahans reign. The mosque, built between 1630–35, is the first among the pearl named named mosques, the built by Shah Jahan in Agra Fort. After the demise of the Mughal Empire, the mosque was converted into a Sikh temple. Later, Ranjit Singh also used the building for the state treasury, when the British took over Punjab in 1849, they discovered precious stones wrapped in bits of rags and placed in velvet purses scattered inside the mosque, along with other inventory. The building was revived to its former status, and the religious relics were conserved at the nearby Badshahi Mosque. The structure, located in the corner of Dewan-e-Aam quadrangle, is typical of Mughal architecture of Shah Jahans times. It is completely built of marble that was brought from Makrana The façade is composed of cusped arches and engaged baluster columns with smooth. The mosque has three superimposed domes, two aisles of five bays, and a raised central pishtaq, or portal with a rectangular frame. This five-arched facade distinguishes it from other mosques of the class with three-arched facades. The interior is simple and plain with the exception of ceilings that are decorated and designed in four different orders, list of mosques in Pakistan Badshahi Mosque Naulakha pavilion Shaheed Ganj Mosque Shalimar Gardens Sheesh Mahal Walled City of Lahore Asher, Catherine E G Architecture of Mughal India. ISBN 0-521-26728-5 Koch, Ebba The Baluster Column, A European Motif in Mughal Architecture, journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol.45, p. 251-262 Koch, Ebba. Mughal Architecture, An Outline of Its History and Development, 1526-1858, ISBN 81-7017-414-7 Digital Library of Moti Masjid at ArchNet

8.
Lahore Fort
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The Lahore Fort, is a citadel in the city of Lahore, Pakistan. The fortress is located at the end of Lahores Walled City. It contains 21 notable monuments, some of which date to the era of Emperor Akbar, the Lahore Fort is notable for having been almost entirely rebuilt in the 17th century, when the Mughal Empire was at the height of its splendour and opulence. Though the site of the Lahore Fort has been inhabited for millennia, the foundations of the modern Lahore Fort date to 1566 during the reign of Emperor Akbar, who bestowed the fort with an architectural style that featured Hindu motifs. After the fall of the Mughal Empire, the Lahore Fort was used as the residence of Ranjit Singh, the fort then passed to British colonialists after they annexed Punjab following their victory over the Sikhs at the Battle of Gujrat in February 1849. In 1981, the fort was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site for its repertoire of Mughal monuments dating from the era when the empire was at its artistic and aesthetic zenith. The fort is located in the part of Lahores old walled city. The forts Alamgiri gate is part of an ensemble of buildings, which along with the Badshahi Mosque, Roshnai Gate, the Minar-e-Pakistan and Iqbal Park are adjacent to the northern boundary of the fort. Though the site is known to have inhabited for millennia. The first historical reference to a fort at the site is from the 1th century during the rule of Mahmud of Ghazni, the fort was made of mud, and was destroyed in 1241 by the Mongols during their invasion of Lahore. A new fort was constructed in 1267 at the site by Sultan Balban of the Turkic Mamluk dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. The present design and structure of the fort traces its origins to 1575, lofty palaces were built over time, along with lush gardens. Notable Akbar period structures included the Doulat Khana-e-Khas-o-Am, Jharoka-e-Darshan, many Akbari structures were modified or replaced by subsequent rulers. Emperor Jahangir first mentions his alterations to the fort in 1612 when describing the Maktab Khana, Jahangir also added the Kala Burj pavilion, which features European-inspired angels on its vaulted ceiling. British visitors to the fort noted Christian iconography during the Jahangir period, with paintings of the Madonna, in 1606, Guru Arjan of the Sikh faith was imprisoned at the fort before his death. Jahangir bestowed the massive Picture Wall, a 1,450 feet by 50 feet wall which is decorated with a vibrant array of glazed tile, faience mosaics. The Mosque of Mariyam Zamani Begum was built adjacent to the eastern walls during the reign of Jahangir. While the mosque served as a Friday congregational mosque for members of the Royal Court, it was not financed by Jahangir

9.
Santa Maria della Salute
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Santa Maria della Salute, commonly known simply as the Salute, is a Roman Catholic church and minor basilica located at Punta della Dogana in the Dorsoduro sestiere of the city of Venice, Italy. The Salute is part of the parish of the Gesuati and is the most recent of the so-called plague churches, in 1630, Venice experienced an unusually devastating outbreak of the plague. As a votive offering for the deliverance from the pestilence. The church was designed in the then fashionable baroque style by Baldassare Longhena, most of the objects of art housed in the church bear references to the Black Death. Beginning in the summer of 1630, a wave of the plague assaulted Venice, in the city,46,000 people died whilst in the lagoons the number was far higher, some 94,000. Repeated displays of the sacrament, as well as prayers and processions to churches dedicated to San Rocco and San Lorenzo Giustiniani had failed to stem the epidemic. It was not to be dedicated to a plague or patron saint, but to the Virgin Mary. It was also decided that the Senate would visit the church each year and this involved crossing the Grand Canal on a specially constructed pontoon bridge and is still a major event in Venice. The desire to create a monument at a place that allows for easy processional access from Piazza San Marco led senators to select the present site from among eight potential locations. The location was partially due to its relationship to San Giorgio, San Marco. The Salute, emblematic of the piety, stands adjacent to the rusticated single story customs house or Dogana da Mar, the emblem of its maritime commerce. A dispute with the patriarch, owner of the church and seminary at the site, was resolved, a competition was held to design the building. Of the eleven submissions, only two were chosen for the final round, the architect Baldassare Longhena was selected to design the new church. It was finally completed in 1681 the year before Longhenas death, the other design to make it to the final round was by Antonio Smeraldi and Zambattista Rubertini. Longhenas proposal was an architectural plan, detailing the structure. He wrote, I have created a church in the form of a rotunda, a work of new invention, not built in Venice, a work very worthy and desired by many. This church, having the mystery of its dedication, being dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, made me think, the Salute, while novel in many ways, still shows the influence of Palladian classicism and the domes of Venice. The Venetian Senate voted 66 in favor,29 against with 2 abstentions to authorize the designs of the 26-year-old Longhena

10.
Venice
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Venice is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is situated across a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and these are located in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay that lies between the mouths of the Po and the Piave Rivers. Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, the lagoon and a part of the city are listed as a World Heritage Site. In 2014,264,579 people resided in Comune di Venezia, together with Padua and Treviso, the city is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area, with a total population of 2.6 million. PATREVE is a metropolitan area without any degree of autonomy. The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC, the city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice. Venice has been known as the La Dominante, Serenissima, Queen of the Adriatic, City of Water, City of Masks, City of Bridges, The Floating City, and City of Canals. The City State of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial center which gradually emerged from the 9th century to its peak in the 14th century and this made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history. It is also known for its several important artistic movements, especially the Renaissance period, Venice has played an important role in the history of symphonic and operatic music, and it is the birthplace of Antonio Vivaldi. Venice has been ranked the most beautiful city in the world as of 2016, the name Venetia, however, derives from the Roman name for the people known as the Veneti, and called by the Greeks Eneti. The meaning of the word is uncertain, although there are other Indo-European tribes with similar-sounding names, such as the Celtic Veneti, Baltic Veneti, and the Slavic Wends. Linguists suggest that the name is based on an Indo-European root *wen, so that *wenetoi would mean beloved, lovable, a connection with the Latin word venetus, meaning the color sea-blue, is also possible. The alternative obsolete form is Vinegia, some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae, the traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto — said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421. Beginning as early as AD166 to 168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the center in the area. The Roman defences were again overthrown in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores, the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon, the traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was actually Exarch Paul, and his successor, Marcello Tegalliano, was Pauls magister militum. In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II

11.
Baldassare Longhena
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Baldassare Longhena was an Italian architect, who worked mainly in Venice, where he was one of the greatest exponents of Baroque architecture of the period. Born in Venice, Longhena studied under the architect Vincenzo Scamozzi, marks Square, a complex of imposing residences and offices for officials of the Venetian Republic that gives the square its appearance today. His best-known work is the elegantly decorated Basilica di Santa Maria della Salute begun in 1631 to thank the Virgin for the deliverance from the plague. This two domed church on the peninsula between the Canal Grande and the Zattere is one of the citys best-known landmarks, the main entrance, modeled on the Roman triumphal arch, was later copied in successive churches and cathedrals, in Venice and elsewhere. He also designed the Palazzo Belloni Battagia and the Palazzo Giustiniani Lolin, one of his largest designs was the Chioggia Cathedral, executed between 1624 and 1647. On the completion of the cathedral he designed two other palaces on the Grand Canal of Venice, Ca Rezzonico and Ca Pesaro, both completed after his death. Between 1641 and 1680 he designed the new library, the staircase, the monastery façade, the Novitiate building, the sick-room. Baldassare Longhena died at Venice in 1682, Longhena is considered a contemporary or near-contemporary of a number of prominent Italian architects of the 16th and 17th century such as Vincenzo Scamozzi and Andrea Palladio. Visually, this is a way to suggest from inside that there is another formal space beyond the entrance door, Baldassare Longhena used a similar system of non-orthogonal axes in Santa Maria della Salute in Venice. As with Palladio, it is unclear whether Longhena intended to form such visual axes or whether they are a by-product of his complex geometries, frank, Martina, Baldassare Longhena, Venice 2004 Andrew Hopkins, Baldassare Longhena, Milan,2006

12.
Taj Mahal
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The Taj Mahal is an ivory-white marble mausoleum on the south bank of the Yamuna river in the Indian city of Agra. It was commissioned in 1632 by the Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan, to house the tomb of his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal. The tomb is the centrepiece of a 17-hectare complex, which includes a mosque and a guest house, construction of the mausoleum was essentially completed in 1643 but work continued on other phases of the project for another 10 years. The construction project employed some 20,000 artisans under the guidance of a board of architects led by the architect to the emperor. The Taj Mahal was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983 for being the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the worlds heritage. Described by Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore as the tear-drop on the cheek of time, it is regarded by many as the best example of Mughal architecture, the Taj Mahal attracts 7–8 million visitors a year. In 2007, it was declared a winner of the New7Wonders of the World initiative. The Taj Mahal was commissioned by Shah Jahan in 1631, to be built in the memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, construction of the Taj Mahal began in 1632. The imperial court documenting Shah Jahans grief after the death of Mumtaz Mahal illustrate the story held as the inspiration for Taj Mahal. The principal mausoleum was completed in 1643 and the surrounding buildings, the Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Persian and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific inspiration came from successful Timurid and Mughal buildings including the Gur-e Amir, Humayuns Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulahs Tomb, while earlier Mughal buildings were primarily constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones. Buildings under his patronage reached new levels of refinement, the tomb is the central focus of the entire complex of the Taj Mahal. It is a large, white marble standing on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan topped by a large dome. Like most Mughal tombs, the elements are Persian in origin. The base structure is a large multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners forming an unequal eight-sided structure that is approximately 55 metres on each of the four long sides. Each side of the iwan is framed with a huge pishtaq or vaulted archway with two similarly shaped arched balconies stacked on either side and this motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners, the main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan, the actual graves are at a lower level. The most spectacular feature is the dome that surmounts the tomb

13.
Ustad Ahmad Lahori
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Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, also spelled as Ahmad Lahori was a Persian Muslim architect. He is said to have been chief architect of the Taj Mahal in Agra, India and its architecture is widely considered to be a wonder of the world and the scholar Rabindranath Tagore described it as a tear on the face of eternity. In writings by Lahauris son Lutfullah Muhandis, two architects are mentioned by name, Ustad Ahmad Lahauri and Mir Abd-ul Karim, Ustad Ahmad Lahauri had laid the foundations of the Red Fort at Delhi. Mir Abd-ul Karim had been the architect of the previous emperor Jahangir and is mentioned as a supervisor, together with Makramat Khan

14.
Palazzo Barberini
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The Palazzo Barberini is a 17th-century palace in Rome, facing the Piazza Barberini in Rione Trevi. It houses the Galleria Nazionale dArte Antica, the sloping site had formerly been occupied by a garden-vineyard of the Sforza family, in which a palazzetto had been built in 1549. The sloping site passed from one cardinal to another during the sixteenth century, when Cardinal Alessandro Sforza met financial hardships, the still semi-urban site was purchased in 1625 by Maffeo Barberini, of the Barberini family, who became Pope Urban VIII. Three great architects worked to create the Palazzo, each contributing his own style, Maderno began in 1627, assisted by his nephew Francesco Borromini. When Maderno died in 1629, Borromini was passed over and the commission was awarded to Bernini, Borromini stayed on regardless and the two architects worked together, albeit briefly, on this project and at the Palazzo Spada. Works were completed by Bernini in 1633, after the Wars of Castro and the death of Urban VIII, the palace was confiscated by Pamphili Pope Innocent X and was only returned to the Barberini in 1653. The palazzo is disposed around a forecourt centered on Berninis grand two-storey hall backed by an oval salone, with an extended wing dominating the piazza, which lies on a lower level. At the rear, a long wing protected the garden from the piazza below, the main block presents three tiers of great arch-headed windows, like glazed arcades, a formula that was more Venetian than Roman. On the uppermost floor, Borrominis windows are set in a perspective that suggests extra depth. Flanking the hall, two sets of stairs lead to the piano nobile, a large squared staircase by Bernini to the left, the salon ceiling is graced by Pietro da Cortonas masterpiece, the Baroque fresco of the Allegory of Divine Providence and Barberini Power. Also in the palace is a masterpiece by Andrea Sacchi, a critic of the Cortona style. The garden is known as a giardino segreto, for its concealment from an outsiders view and it houses a monument to Bertel Thorwaldsen, who had a studio in the nearby Teatro delle Quattro Fontane in 1822-1834. Today, Palazzo Barberini houses the Galleria Nazionale dArte Antica, one of the most important painting collections in Italy and it includes Raphaels portrait La fornarina, Caravaggios Judith Beheading Holofernes and a Hans Holbein portrait of Henry VIII. The palace also houses the Italian Institute of Numismatics, the European Convention on Human Rights, which created the European Court of Human Rights, was signed here on 4 November 1950, a milestone in the protection of human rights. Hidden in the cellars of the part of the building. Blunt, Anthony, The Palazzo Barberini, Journal of the Warburg, il palazzo Barberini, official site Rome Art-Lover, Palazzo Barberini Palazzo Barberini and Veneto Rome guide Italian army ends museum stand-off, BBC News, Friday,13 October 2006 Google Maps. The complex constituting the Palazzo Barberini is in the center, set back from the road on all sides, on the lower side of the image are the start of the Quirinal Palace gardens. Below, and in the first corner on the right, is the San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, diagonally opposite and above is the triangular Piazza Barberini with the Triton Fountain

15.
Rome
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Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth

16.
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
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Gian Lorenzo Bernini was an Italian sculptor and architect. While a major figure in the world of architecture, he was the sculptor of his age. Bernini was also a figure in the emergence of Roman Baroque architecture along with his contemporaries, the architect Francesco Borromini. Early in their careers they had all worked at the time at the Palazzo Barberini, initially under Carlo Maderno and, following his death. Later on, however, they were in competition for commissions, Peters Basilica, completed under Pope Paul V with the addition of Madernos nave and facade and finally re-consecrated by Pope Urban VIII on 18 November 1626, after 150 years of planning and building. Berninis design of the Piazza San Pietro in front of the Basilica is one of his most innovative, during his long career, Bernini received numerous important commissions, many of which were associated with the papacy. At an early age, he came to the attention of the nephew, Cardinal Scipione Borghese. Although he did not fare so well during the reign of Innocent X, under Alexander VII, he again regained pre-eminent artistic domination. Bernini and other artists fell from favor in later neoclassical criticism of the Baroque, the art historian Howard Hibbard concludes that, during the seventeenth century, there were no sculptors or architects comparable to Bernini. Bernini was born in Naples in 1598 to Angelica Galante and Mannerist sculptor Pietro Bernini and he was the sixth of their thirteen children. Gianlorenzo Bernini was the definition of childhood genius and he was “recognized as a prodigy when he was only eight years old, he was consistently encouraged by his father, Pietro. His precocity earned him the admiration and favor of powerful patrons who hailed him as ‘the Michelangelo of his century’” and his father was so impressed by his son’s obvious talent that he took him to Rome to showcase him to the cardinals and Pope. Bernini was presented before Pope Paul V, for whom he did a sketch of Saint Paul, once he was brought to Rome, he never left. “For Bernini there could be only one Rome, ‘You are made for Rome, ’ said Pope Urban VIII to him, ‘and Rome for you’”. It was in world of 17th century Rome and religious power. Under the patronage of the wealthy and most powerful Cardinal Scipione Borghese. By the time he was twenty-two, he was considered talented enough to have given a commission for a papal portrait. Berninis reputation, however, was established by four masterpieces

17.
Carlo Maderno
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Carlo Maderno was an Italian architect, born in todays Ticino, who is remembered as one of the fathers of Baroque architecture. His façades of Santa Susanna, St. Peters Basilica and SantAndrea della Valle were of key importance in the evolution of the Italian Baroque and he is often referred to as the brother of sculptor Stefano Maderno, but this is not universally agreed upon. He worked initially as a cutter, and his background in sculptural workmanship would help mold his architecture. The structure is a rhythm of columns and pilasters, with a protruding central bay. There is an incipient playfulness with the rules of classic design, the Santa Susanna façade won the attention of Pope Paul V, who in about 1603 appointed him chief architect of St Peters. Maderno was forced to modify Michelangelos plans for the Basilica and provide designs for a nave with a palatial façade. The façade is constructed to allow for Papal blessings from the emphatically enriched balcony above the central door. This forward extension of the basilica has been criticized because it blocks the view of the dome when seen from the Piazza, Maderno did not have as much freedom in designing this building as he had for others structures. Most of Madernos work continued to be the remodelling of existing structures, even Madernos masterpiece, the church of SantAndrea della Valle, is not entirely his. There he designed the façade and executed the dome, the second largest in the Roman skyline, the crossing contains the high altar, lit under Madernos dome on its high windowed drum. The earliest design is of 1608, construction took from 1621 to 1625, at Madernos death, the façade remained half built, it was completed to Madernos original conception by Carlo Fontana. His other works include the Roman churches of Gesù e Maria, San Giacomo degli Incurabili, Santa Lucia in Selci, in addition, he worked on the Quirinal Palace, the Papal palace in Castel Gandolfo and the Palazzo Barberini and for the Barberini Pope Urban VIII. In the Palazzo Barberini at Quattro Fontane, Madernos work is overshadowed at times by details added by Bernini and Borromini and his design of palaces is best represented by his design of Palazzo Mattei. Maderno was called upon to design chapels within existing churches, the Chapel of St Lawrence in San Paolo fuori le Mura and the Cappella Caetani in Santa Pudenziana. He designed the base supporting the Marian column in front of Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Carlo Maderno and Roman Architecture 1580–1630. Vitruvio site, Carlo Maderno Wittkower, Rudolf, pelican History of Art, Art and Architecture Italy, 1600-1750. Works by or about Carlo Maderno in libraries

18.
Great Synagogue of Vilna
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The Great Synagogue of Vilna which once stood at the end of Jewish Street, Vilnius, Lithuania, was built between 1630–1633 after permission was granted to construct a synagogue from stone. Standing on the spot of a synagogue built in 1572. According to legend it was so magnificent and impressive, Napoleon who stood on the threshold of this synagogue in 1812, the synagogue had a number of entrances. One, at level, consisted of a pair of iron gates which had been donated by a tailors’ society in 1640. The other entrance on the side, added in 1800, was a bit more imposing, it had an elevated two-tiered wooden gable with a portal. There was an iron door with an original Hebrew inscription indicating it was a gift of a society of Psalm reciters in 1642. At the time of its building, ecclesiastical regulations all through Europe specified that a synagogue could not be higher than a church. To obey the law, and yet create the interior height. Outside, the synagogue looked to be three stories tall, but inside it soared to over five stories. Another entrance with a vestibule and the “pillory” was located on the side of the building. The interior of the synagogue was redesigned in the century by Vilnian German Johann Christoph Glaubitz. It had the overwhelming grandeur of an edifice in the style of the Italian Renaissance, four massive, equidistant columns supported the vast stone-floored pile, and within them was the three-tiered ornate, rococo almemar, with a beautiful cupola, supported by eight small columns. It was built in the half of the eighteenth century by Rabbi Judah ben Eliezer. The two-tiered Holy Ark on the wall was a splendid structure, intricately carved with gilded woodcarvings, representing plants, animals and Jewish symbols. It was approached by a flight of steps, with iron balustrades, ascending from the right. Hanging from the walls and ceilings there were numerous bronze and silver chandeliers, the synagogue contained a valuable collection of ritual objects. The building was repaired in the 19th century, formerly there was an imposing seven-branched brass candelabrum in front of the Ark, but on the eve of the German invasion of the city during World War I, it was sent off to Moscow. There also once was a “Chair of Elijah” in the northwest corner on which the rite of Brit milah was performed, on both sides of the Holy Ark there were two-story structures, serving as the women’s sections, connected to the prayer hall by little windows

19.
St Columb's Cathedral
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St Columbs Cathedral in the walled city of Derry, Northern Ireland is the mother church of the Church of Ireland Diocese of Derry and Raphoe and the parish church of Templemore. It is dedicated to Saint Columba, the Irish monk who established a Christian settlement in the area before being exiled from Ireland and introducing Christianity to Scotland, the original site of the diocesan cathedral was in Templmore. Due to the violence of the Nine Years War, the church was destroyed and it was first damaged by an accidental explosion on 24 April 1568, the church having been appropriated for the storage of gunpowder. On 16 April 1600, Sir Henry Docwra entered Londonderry with a force of 4,000 soldiers and he tore down the ruins of the Big Church and used its stones to build the walls and ramparts of the city. A small square stone tablet from An Teampall Mór is today fixed into the porch of the present structure, the Latin inscription reads In Templo Vervs Devs Est Verec Colendvs. The present structure, located close to the original, was completed in 1633 by William Parrot, also in the porch is an inscription, If stones could speake then Londons prayse should sound who built this church and cittie from the grounde. St. Columbs has in its many documents dating back from the Siege of Derry. They have portraits of William of Orange and the keys of the city. The Cathedral also contains a memorial to Valentine Munbee McMaster VC, St Columbs is the first cathedral to be built by the Anglican church after the Reformation in the British Isles and the first non-RC cathedral to be built in Europe. The cathedral has three Sunday services,8, 00am Early Morning Eucharist,11, 00am Sung Eucharist, Matins,10, 00am Family Service and 4, 00pm Choral Evensong. On weekdays Morning Prayer is celebrated Mondays, Wednesdays, Thursdays and Fridays at 10, 30am, Dean of 19 years, Reverend William Morton, retired on 18 September 2016, and was appointed Dean of St Patricks Cathedral, Dublin. On 4 December 2016, Bishop Good appointed Reverend Canon Raymond Stewart as the new Dean of Saint Columbs Cathedral and Rector of the Parish of Templemore. Stewart was inaugurated on 28 March 2017, at the Cathedral, by Bishop Good and succeeded Rev Dr William Morton, who became Dean of St Patricks Cathedral, Dublin in September 2016

20.
Derry
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Derry, officially Londonderry, is the second-largest city in Northern Ireland and the fourth-largest city on the island of Ireland. The name Derry is an anglicisation of the Old Irish name Daire meaning oak grove, in 1613, the city was granted a Royal Charter by King James I and gained the London prefix to reflect the funding of its construction by the London guilds. While the city is usually known colloquially as Derry, Londonderry is also commonly used. The old walled city lies on the west bank of the River Foyle, the city now covers both banks. The population of the city was 83,652 at the 2001 Census, the district administered by Derry City and Strabane District Council contains both Londonderry Port and City of Derry Airport. Derry is close to the border with County Donegal, with which it has had a link for many centuries. In 2013, Derry was the inaugural UK City of Culture, according to the citys Royal Charter of 10 April 1662, the official name is Londonderry. This was reaffirmed in a High Court decision in 2007 when Derry City Council sought guidance on the procedure for effecting a name change. The council had changed its name from Londonderry City Council to Derry City Council in 1984, the decision of the court was that it had not but it was clarified that the correct procedure to do so was via a petition to the Privy Council. Derry City Council since started this process and were involved in conducting an equality impact assessment report, then the EQIA held two consultative forums, and solicited comments from the general public on whether or not the city should have its name changed to Derry. A total of 12,136 comments were received, of which 3,108 were broadly in favour of the proposal, and 9,028 opposed to it. Despite the official name, the city is usually known as Derry, which is an anglicisation of the Irish Daire or Doire. The name derives from the settlements earliest references, Daire Calgaich, the name was changed from Derry in 1613 during the Plantation of Ulster to reflect the establishment of the city by the London guilds. In McCaffertys survey of language use in the city, only very few interviewees—all Protestants—use the official form, apart from the name of Derry City Council, the city is usually known as Londonderry in official use within the UK. In the Republic of Ireland, the city and county are almost always referred to as Derry, on maps, in the media and in conversation. Whereas official road signs in the Republic use the name Derry, usage varies among local organisations, with both names being used. Most companies within the city choose local area such as Pennyburn. Londonderry railway station is referred to as Waterside railway station within the city but is called Derry/Londonderry at other stations

21.
Kingdom of Ireland
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The Kingdom of Ireland was a client state of the Kingdom of England that existed on Ireland from 1542 until 1800. It came into being when the Parliament of Ireland passed the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, the territory of the Kingdom had previously had the status of a lordship of the Crown. The Parliament of Ireland passed the Acts of Union 1800 by which it abolished itself, the act was also passed by the Parliament of Great Britain. The act also had the effect of establishing the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on the first day of 1801 by uniting the Crowns of Ireland, in its early years, the Kingdom of Ireland had limited recognition. While some Protestant powers in Europe recognised Henry and his heir Edward as monarch of Ireland, Henrys daughter, Queen Mary I of England, was recognised as Queen of Ireland by Pope Paul IV in 1555. The papal bull Laudabiliter of Pope Adrian IV was issued in 1155 and it granted the Angevin King Henry II of England the title Dominus Hibernae. Laudabiliter authorised the king to invade Ireland, to bring the country into the European sphere, in return, Henry was required to remit a penny per hearth of the tax roll to the Pope. This was reconfirmed by Adrians successor Pope Alexander III in 1172, when Pope Clement VII excommunicated the king of England, Henry VIII, in 1533, the constitutional position of the lordship in Ireland became uncertain. Henry had broken away from the Holy See and declared himself the head of the Church in England and he had petitioned Rome to procure an annulment of his marriage to Queen Catherine. The Treason Act 1537 was passed to counteract this, following the failed revolt of Silken Thomas in 1534–35, Grey, the lord deputy, had some military successes against several clans in the late 1530s, and took their submissions. By 1540 most of Ireland seemed at peace and under the control of the kings Dublin administration, Henry was proclaimed King of Ireland by the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, an Act of the Irish Parliament. The new kingdom was not recognised by the Catholic monarchies in Europe, after the death of King Edward VI, Henrys son, the papal bull of 1555 recognised the Roman Catholic Queen Mary I as Queen of Ireland. The link of personal union of the Crown of Ireland to the Crown of England became enshrined in Catholic canon law, in this fashion, the Kingdom of Ireland was ruled by the reigning King of England. This placed the new Kingdom of Ireland in personal union with the Kingdom of England, in line with its expanded role and self-image, the administration established the Kings Inns for barristers in 1541, and the Ulster King of Arms to regulate heraldry in 1552. Proposals to establish a university in Dublin were delayed until 1592, in 1603 James VI King of Scots became James I of England, uniting the Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland in a personal union. The political order of the kingdom was interrupted by the Wars of the Three Kingdoms starting in 1639, during the subsequent interregnum period, England, Scotland and Ireland were ruled as a republic until 1660. This period saw the rise of the loyalist Irish Catholic Confederation within the kingdom and, from 1653, the kingdoms order was restored 1660 with the restoration of Charles II. Without any public dissent, Charless reign was backdated to his fathers execution in 1649, Poynings Law was repealed in 1782 in what came to be known as the Constitution of 1782, granting Ireland legislative independence

22.
Reformation in Ireland
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The Reformation in Ireland was a movement for the reform of religious life and institutions that was introduced into Ireland by the English administration at the behest of King Henry VIII of England. His desire for an annulment of his marriage was known as the Kings Great Matter, in passing the Acts of Supremacy in 1534, the English Parliament confirmed the Kings supremacy over the Church in the Kingdom of England. This challenge to Papal supremacy resulted in a breach with the Catholic Church, by 1541, the Irish Parliament had agreed to the change in status of the country from that of a Lordship to that of Kingdom of Ireland. In Ireland, however, the policy was not embraced by public opinion. Norman and English monarchs used the title Lord of Ireland to refer to their Irish conquests dating from the Norman invasion of Ireland, in passing the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, the Irish Parliament granted Henry, by his command, a new title – King of Ireland. The state was renamed the Kingdom of Ireland, the King desired this innovation because the Lordship of Ireland had been granted by the Papacy, technically, he held the Lordship in fief from the Pope. As Henry had been excommunicated, he worried that his title could be withdrawn by his overlord – the Pope, Henry also arranged for the Irish Parliament to declare him the head of the Church in Ireland. The main instrument of power in the establishment of the state church in the new Kingdom of Ireland was the Archbishop of Dublin. He was appointed by the King upon the death of the incumbent, the Archbishop arrived in Ireland in 1536. The reforms were continued by Henrys successor – Edward VI of England, the dissolutions in Ireland followed a very different course from those in England and Wales. There were around 400 religious houses in Ireland in 1530—many more, relative to population and material wealth than in England and they constituted around half of the total number of religious houses. Henrys direct authority, as Lord of Ireland, and from 1541 as King of Ireland, from the late 1530s his administrators temporarily succeeded in persuading some clan chiefs to adopt his policy of surrender and regrant, including the adoption of his state religion. Nevertheless, Henry was determined to carry through a policy of dissolution in Ireland –, the process faced considerable opposition, and only sixteen houses were suppressed. Henry remained resolute however, and from 1541 as part of the Tudor conquest of Ireland, by the time of Henrys death around half of the Irish houses had been suppressed, but many houses of friars continued to resist dissolution until well into the reign of Elizabeth I. Bishopricks, colleges, glebes and tithes were divided without mercy amongst the men of the time, or leased out on small rents for ever to the friends. Many Irish bishopricks never recovered this devastation, as Aghadoe, Kilfenora, the Bishoprick of Ferns was left not worth one shilling. Killala, the best in Ireland, was worth only 300l. per annum, Clonfert, 8d. and the rest at even a lower rate. Henrys son Edward VI of England formally established Protestantism as the state religion and his reign only lasted for six years and his principal reform, the Act of Uniformity 1549, had much less impact in Ireland than in England

23.
Anglicanism
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Anglicanism is a tradition within Christianity comprising the Church of England and churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures. The word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to the Magna Carta and before, adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans. As the name suggests, the churches of the Anglican Communion are linked by bonds of tradition, affection and they are in full communion with the See of Canterbury, and thus the Archbishop of Canterbury, in his person, is a unique focus of Anglican unity. He calls the once-a-decade Lambeth Conference, chairs the meeting of primates, Anglicans base their Christian faith on the Bible, traditions of the apostolic Church, apostolic succession, and writings of the Church Fathers. Anglicanism forms one of the branches of Western Christianity, having declared its independence from the Holy See at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Protestantism, the word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the English Church. Adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans, as an adjective, Anglican is used to describe the people, institutions and churches, as well as the liturgical traditions and theological concepts developed by the Church of England. As a noun, an Anglican is a member of a church in the Anglican Communion, the word is also used by followers of separated groups which have left the communion or have been founded separately from it, although this is sometimes considered as a misuse. The word Anglicanism came into being in the 19th century, although the term Anglican is found referring to the Church of England as far back as the 16th century, its use did not become general until the latter half of the 19th century. Elsewhere, however, the term Anglican Church came to be preferred as it distinguished these churches from others that maintain an episcopal polity, as such, it is often referred to as being a via media between these traditions. Anglicans understand the Old and New Testaments as containing all necessary for salvation and as being the rule. Reason and Tradition are seen as means to interpret Scripture. Anglicans understand the Apostles Creed as the symbol and the Nicene Creed as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith. Anglicans celebrate the sacraments, with special emphasis being given to the Eucharist, also called Holy Communion. Unique to Anglicanism is the Book of Common Prayer, the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries and it was called common prayer originally because it was intended for use in all Church of England churches which had previously followed differing local liturgies. The term was kept when the church became international because all Anglicans used to share in its use around the world, in 1549, the first Book of Common Prayer was compiled by Thomas Cranmer, who was then Archbishop of Canterbury. The founding of Christianity in Britain is commonly attributed to Joseph of Arimathea, according to Anglican legend, Saint Alban, who was executed in 209 AD, is the first Christian martyr in the British Isles. A new culture emerged around the Irish Sea among the Celtic peoples with Celtic Christianity at its core, what resulted was a form of Christianity distinct from Rome in many traditions and practices

24.
Cathedral
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A cathedral is a Christian church which contains the seat of a bishop, thus serving as the central church of a diocese, conference, or episcopate. The counterpart term for such a church in German is Dom from Latin domus ecclesiae or domus episcopalis, also Italian Duomo, Dutch Domkerk, when the church at which an archbishop or metropolitan presides is specifically intended, the term kathedrikos naos is used. In addition, both the Catholic Church and Orthodox churches have formed new dioceses within formerly Protestant lands for converts, consequently, it is not uncommon to find Christians in a single city being served by three or more cathedrals of differing denominations. In the Catholic tradition, the term cathedral correctly applies only to a church houses the seat of the bishop of a diocese. The abbey church of a territorial abbacy serves the same function, the Catholic Church also uses the following terms. A pro-cathedral is a parish or other church used temporarily as a cathedral, usually while the cathedral of a diocese is under construction, renovation and this designation applies only as long as the temporary use continues. A co-cathedral is a cathedral in a diocese that has two sees. A proto-cathedral is the cathedral of a transferred see. The cathedral church of a bishop is called the metropolitan cathedral. The term cathedral actually carries no implication as to the size or ornateness of the building, nevertheless, most cathedrals are particularly impressive edifices. The building is now under renovation and restoration for solemn dedication under the title Christ Cathedral in 2018, in the ancient world the chair, on a raised dais, was the distinctive mark of a teacher or rhetor and thus symbolises the bishops role as teacher. A raised throne within a hall was also definitive for a Late Antique presiding magistrate. The history of cathedrals starts in the year 313, when the emperor Constantine the Great personally adopted Christianity, in the third century, the phrase ascending the platform, ad pulpitum venire, becomes the standard term for Christian ordination. During the siege of Dura Europos in 256, a complete Christian house church, or domus ecclesiae was entombed in a bank, surviving when excavated. Otherwise the large room had no decoration or distinctive features at all, in 269, soon after Dura fell to the Persian army, a body of clerics assembled a charge sheet against the bishop of Antioch, Paul of Samosata, in the form of an open letter. Characteristically a Roman magistrate presided from a throne in a large, richly decorated and aisled rectangular hall called a basilica. The earliest of these new basilican cathedrals of which remains are still visible is below the Cathedral of Aquileia on the northern tip of the Adriatic sea. The three halls create a courtyard, in which was originally located a separate baptistery

25.
British Isles
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The British Isles are a group of islands off the north-western coast of continental Europe that consist of the islands of Great Britain, Ireland and over six thousand smaller isles. Situated in the North Atlantic, the islands have an area of approximately 315,159 km2. Two sovereign states are located on the islands, Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the oldest rocks in the group are in the north west of Scotland, Ireland and North Wales and are 2,700 million years old. During the Silurian period the north-western regions collided with the south-east, the topography of the islands is modest in scale by global standards. Ben Nevis rises to an elevation of only 1,344 metres, and Lough Neagh, the climate is temperate marine, with mild winters and warm summers. The North Atlantic Drift brings significant moisture and raises temperatures 11 °C above the average for the latitude. This led to a landscape which was dominated by temperate rainforest. The region was re-inhabited after the last glacial period of Quaternary glaciation, Ireland, which became an island by 12,000 BC, was not inhabited until after 8000 BC. Great Britain became an island by 5600 BC, Hiberni, Pictish and Britons tribes, all speaking Insular Celtic, inhabited the islands at the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. Much of Brittonic-controlled Britain was conquered by the Roman Empire from AD43, the first Anglo-Saxons arrived as Roman power waned in the 5th century and eventually dominated the bulk of what is now England. Viking invasions began in the 9th century, followed by permanent settlements. Most of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom after the Irish War of Independence, the term British Isles is controversial in Ireland, where there are objections to its usage due to the association of the word British with Ireland. The Government of Ireland does not recognise or use the term, as a result, Britain and Ireland is used as an alternative description, and Atlantic Archipelago has had limited use among a minority in academia, while British Isles is still commonly employed. Within them, they are sometimes referred to as these islands. The earliest known references to the islands as a group appeared in the writings of sea-farers from the ancient Greek colony of Massalia. The original records have been lost, however, later writings, e. g. Avienuss Ora maritima, in the 1st century BC, Diodorus Siculus has Prettanikē nēsos, the British Island, and Prettanoi, the Britons. Strabo used Βρεττανική, and Marcian of Heraclea, in his Periplus maris exteri, historians today, though not in absolute agreement, largely agree that these Greek and Latin names were probably drawn from native Celtic-language names for the archipelago. Along these lines, the inhabitants of the islands were called the Πρεττανοί, the shift from the P of Pretannia to the B of Britannia by the Romans occurred during the time of Julius Caesar

26.
Protestantism
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists

27.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa

28.
St Paul's, Covent Garden
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As well as being the parish church of Covent Garden, the church has gained the nickname of the actors church by a long association with the theatre community. Completed in 1633, St Pauls was the first entirely new church to be built in London since the Reformation and its design and the layout of the square have been attributed to Inigo Jones since the 17th century, although firm documentary evidence is lacking. The building is described by Sir John Summerson as a study in the strictly Vitruvian Tuscan Order and it has been seen as a work of deliberate primitivism, the Tuscan order is associated by Palladio with agricultural buildings. In 1630, the 4th Earl of Bedford was given permission to demolish buildings on an area of land he owned north of the Strand, the result was the Covent Garden Piazza, the first formal square in London. The new buildings were classical in character, at the west end was a church, linked to two identical houses. The south side was left open, work on the church was completed in 1633, at a cost of to Bedford estate of £4,886, but it was not consecrated until 1638 due to a dispute between the earl and the vicar of St Martin-in-the-Fields. It remained a chapel within the parish of St Martin-in-the-Fields until 1645, when Covent Garden was made a separate parish, in 1789 there was a major restoration of the church, under the direction of the architect Thomas Hardwick. Six years later, in September 1795, the church was burnt out by a fire, a survey of the damage found that the outer walls were still structurally sound, but that the portico would have to be reconstructed. It is unclear whether this was in fact done, having been restored once more, again under Hardwicks supervision, the church was reconsecrated on 1 August 1798. Despite the destruction, the records were saved, as was the pulpit — the work of Grinling Gibbons. The puritan Thomas Manton ministered from the pulpit of St Pauls until the Great Ejection, on 23 September 1662 Simon Patrick, later Bishop of Ely, was preferred to the rectory of St. Paul’s where he served during the plague. The first known victim of the 1665–1666 outbreak of the Plague in England, the east end, facing the piazza, is faced in stone, with a massive portico, its boldly-projecting pediment supported by two columns and two piers. There were originally three doorways behind the portico, the one, which survives, was built as a false door as the interior wall behind it is occupied by the altar. The other two were blocked up in the 19th century, when the floor was raised. The main entrance to the church is through the plainer west front, which has a pediment, but no portico. William Prynne, writing in 1638 said that it was intended to have the altar at the west end. The earliest existing detailed description, dating from 1708, says that the exterior was not of bare brick, in 1789 it was decided to case the walls in Portland stone as part of a major programme of renovation, which Thomas Hardwick was chosen to supervise. When Hardwicks stone facing was removed from the church in 1888, the building was then reclad in the present unrendered red brick

29.
Inigo Jones
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Inigo Jones was the first significant English architect in the early modern period, and the first to employ Vitruvian rules of proportion and symmetry in his buildings. As the most notable architect in England, Jones was the first person who introduced the classical architecture of Rome and he made major contributions to stage design by his work as theatrical designer for several dozen masques, most by royal command and many in collaboration with Ben Jonson. Beyond the fact that he was born in Smithfield, London, the son of Inigo Jones, a Welsh cloth worker, at some point before 1603 a rich patron sent him to Italy to study drawing after being impressed by the quality of his sketches. From Italy he travelled to Denmark where he worked for King Christian on the design of the palaces of Rosenborg and Frederiksborg, Jones first became famous as a designer of costumes and stage settings, especially after he brought masques to the stage. Under Queen Annes patronage he is credited with introducing movable scenery and this development suggests a second visit to Italy, circa 1606, influenced by the ambassador Henry Wotton. Jones learned to speak Italian fluently and there is evidence that he owned an Italian copy of Andrea Palladios I quattro libri dellarchitettura with marginalia that refer to Wotton and his architectural work was particularly influenced by Palladio. To a lesser extent, he held to the architectural principles of the ancient Roman writer Vitruvius. Joness first recorded architectural design is for a monument to Lady Cotton, circa 1608 and he devised a masque for the Prince and was possibly involved in some alterations to St Jamess Palace. On this trip, Jones was exposed to the architecture of Rome, Padua, Florence, Vicenza, Genoa and his surviving sketchbook shows his preoccupation with such artists as Parmigianino and Schiavone. He is also known to have met Vincenzo Scamozzi at this time and he was probably the first Englishman to study these Roman remains first hand and this was key to the new architecture Jones introduced in England. In September 1615, Jones was appointed Surveyor-General of the Kings Works, fortunately, both James I and Charles I spent lavishly on their buildings, contrasting hugely with the economical court of Elizabeth I. As the Kings Surveyor, Jones built some of his key buildings in London, in 1616, work began on the Queens House, Greenwich, for James Is wife, Anne. With the foundations laid and the first storey built, work stopped suddenly when Anne died in 1619, work resumed in 1629, but this time for Charles Is Queen, Henrietta Maria. It was finished in 1635 as the first strictly classical building in England, employing ideas found in the architecture of Palladio and this is Joness earliest surviving work. The Banqueting House was one of several projects where Jones worked with his personal assistant, the Queens Chapel, St. Jamess Palace, was built between 1623 and 1627, for Charles Is Roman Catholic wife, Henrietta Maria. Parts of the design originate in the Pantheon of ancient Rome and these buildings show the realisation of a mature architect with a confident grasp of classical principles and an intellectual understanding of how to implement them. The other project in which Jones was involved is the design of Covent Garden square and he was commissioned by the Earl of Bedford to build a residential square, which he did along the lines of the Italian piazza of Livorno. It is the first regularly planned square in London, the Earl felt obliged to provide a church and he warned Jones that he wanted to economise

30.
English Reformation
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The English Reformation was a series of events in 16th century England by which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. Based on Henry VIIIs desire for an annulment of his marriage, the reality of political differences between Rome and England allowed growing theological disputes to come to the fore. Until the break with Rome, it was the Pope and general councils of the Church that decided doctrine, Church law was governed by the code of canon law with final jurisdiction in Rome. Church taxes were paid straight to Rome, and the Pope had the word in the appointment of bishops. Final authority in doctrinal and legal disputes now rested with the monarch, and the papacy was deprived of revenue, the theology and liturgy of the Church of England became markedly Protestant during the reign of Henrys son Edward VI largely along lines laid down by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer. Under Mary, the process was reversed and the Church of England was again placed under papal jurisdiction. Soon after, Elizabeth reintroduced the Protestant faith but in a moderate manner. The structure and theology of the church was a matter of dispute for generations. The legacy of the past Roman Catholic Establishment remained an issue for some time, a substantial minority remained Roman Catholic in England, and in an effort to disestablish it from British systems, their church organisation remained illegal until the 19th century. Henry VIII ascended the English throne in 1509 at the age of 17 and he made a dynastic marriage with Catherine of Aragon, widow of his brother Arthur, in June 1509, just before his coronation on Midsummers Day. Unlike his father, who was secretive and conservative, the young Henry appeared the epitome of chivalry and sociability. An observant Roman Catholic, he heard up to five masses a day, of powerful but unoriginal mind, he let himself be influenced by his advisors from whom he was never apart and he was thus susceptible to whoever had his ear. This contributed to a state of hostility between his young contemporaries and the Lord Chancellor, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, wolseys enemies at court included those who had been influenced by Lutheran ideas, among whom was the attractive, charismatic Anne Boleyn. By the late 1520s, Henry wanted his marriage to Catherine annulled and she had not produced a male heir who survived longer than two months, and Henry wanted a son to secure the Tudor dynasty. Before Henrys father ascended the throne, England had been beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the English crown, Henry wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession. Catherine of Aragons only surviving child was Princess Mary, Henry claimed that this lack of a male heir was because his marriage was blighted in the eyes of God. Henry argued that this had been wrong and that his marriage had never been valid, in 1527 Henry asked Pope Clement VII to annul the marriage, but the Pope refused. According to Canon Law the Pope cannot annul a marriage on the basis of a canonical impediment previously dispensed, Clement also feared the wrath of Catherines nephew, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, whose troops earlier that year had sacked Rome and briefly taken the Pope prisoner

31.
Grange Court
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Grange Court is a former market hall in Leominster, Herefordshire, England. It was built in 1633 by John Abel, and moved to its present location in 1859 and it was then used as a private house until the 1930s, and is now once again a civic building. The timber-framed building is decorated with carvings, including mermaids, angels, animals, flowers. The entablature above the columns includes a number of carved texts and it was known as the Butter Crosse. It has a tile roof, a bellcote, and a weathervane dated 1687. The market house originally stood on the site of a market building, at the junction of Broad Street, High Street, Church Street, Drapers Lane, High Street. In addition to meetings, it was used for meetings of the towns nine guilds and Quarter Session courts. Eventually, congestion caused by the location at an important junction led to calls for its removal. The building was dismantled and stored in the mid-1850s and it was purchased at auction for £95 by John Hungerford Arkwright, who offered the building to the council if they would re-erect it, but they refused. He moved the building himself and rebuilt it near the church in 1859. In the process, the floor was enclosed, a three-storey brick extension added at the rear. At some point two terracotta panels by the Leominster sculptor William Storr-Barber were added to the interior, until 2008, it was used as council offices by the District Council, and later Herefordshire County Council. In 2001, a campaign was started to raise money to restore the building, the building is Grade II* listed and is licensed for the conduct of civil marriage ceremonies. A bronze model of the house in its earlier configuration now stands at its original location

32.
Leominster
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With a population of approximately 11,700 people, Leominster is the largest of the five towns in the county surrounding the City of Hereford. From 1974 to 1996, Leominster served as the centre for the former local government district of Leominster District. The town takes its name from a minster, that is a community of clergy in the district of Lene or Leon, contrary to certain reports, the name has nothing to do with Leofric, an 11th-century Earl of Mercia. The Welsh name for Leominster, still used today by a few on the Welsh side of the border, is Llanllieni. During the Early Middle Ages, Leominster was home to Æthelmod of Leominster and he is reputedly buried in Leominster. Henry II bestowed the minster and its estates on Reading Abbey and its Priory Church of St. Peter and St. Paul, which now serves as the parish church, is the remaining part of this 12th-century Benedictine monastery. Quatrefoil piers were inserted between 1872–79 by Sir George Gilbert Scott, the priory was ransacked by the Welsh forces of Owain Glyndŵr after their victory at the Battle of Bryn Glas near Pilleth in 1402, along with several local manor houses. Investigations to the north of the priory in 2005 located the position of the cloister, discarded animal bones found on the site when submitted to carbon dating showed that the area was occupied in the 7th century. This agrees with the date of 660 CE associated with the founding myth, Leominster is also the historical home of Ryeland sheep, a breed once famed for its Lemster wool, known as Lemster ore. This wool was prized above all other English wool in trade with the continent of Europe in the Middle Ages and it was the income and prosperity from this wool trade that established the town and the minster and attracted the envy of the Welsh and other regions. The mill was financed by Lancashire native Daniel Bourn, and was owned by other men from Lancashire. One of the last ordeals by ducking stool took place in Leominster in 1809, the ducking stool is on public display in Leominster Priory, a mechanised depiction of it is featured on the town clock. As with all towns in the United Kingdom, Leominster has a maritime climate, the data below is from a weather station in Preston Wynne, a village about 10 miles South East of Leominster. The 4-mile A49 £9 million bypass opened in November 1988, the town also has a bus station linking it to Hereford and a number of nearby towns and villages. Earl Mortimer college, is a comprehensive school providing secondary education for about 650 pupils. The town has two schools, Leominster Primary School and Westfields School. Saint Cuthfleda was the abbess of the nunnery at Leominster and the patroness of the region, known for her holiness and chaste life. It is widely regarded as one of Abels finest works, john Scarlett Davis, artist, was born at 2 High Street

33.
John Abel
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John Abel was born in Sarnesfield, Herefordshire. He was a Catholic recusant, along with his wife Johanna, in 1618 he was brought before a church court to answer for his recusancy and also for his secret marriage to Johanna. The case against him was dismissed, but his name can be found on a list of Catholic recusants from 1640. Abel married twice, but there is no record of his wife except on his table tomb in Sarnesfield. He had one son, named John, who later became churchwarden of Sarnesfield, very little is known about Abels work, and some local traditions attribute buildings to him that are impossible in terms of their date. Abels first known commission was in 1625 when he was contracted to build Lady Hawkins grammar school in Kington, the contract was to fit into the terms of the will of Lady Margaret Hawkins. It is known that Abel supplied all the materials and that he was paid £240, the house design differs significantly from his later work in that it was built partially of stone. The stone window and ceiling beams of the house still survive, in March 1633, it is known that Abel was contracted again, this time by John, 1st Viscount Scudamore, to renovate Abbey Dore Church, a former Cistercian monastery in Herefordshire. The work was completed in March 1634, in time for the reconsecration of the building, there is no record of Abels work for another eighteen years, until in 1652, he was contracted to create a new building for which he was paid £30. The modell of ye New Building still exists and is kept at Tyberton Court. Abel is also known to have built houses in Brecnoc, Kington. The Lemster market house originally stood in Broad Street, but was rebuilt in 1855 by John Arkwright who bought the building for £95 and he offered the building to the council if they would re-erect it but they refused. He moved the building himself and rebuilt it in 1856 and it remained as a private house until the 1930s. It now stands next to the church and is currently used as council offices. It is widely regarded as one of Abels finest works and is built in the Renaissance tradition and it is now known as Grange Court. In 2001, a campaign was started to raise money to restore the building to its original state, the building is Grade II listed. The Kington market hall was demolished in 1820 and no record of its appearance remains, all of Abels market houses are known to have been built in timber and were known to contain lengthy religious inscriptions in their walls, some borrowing from both St Jerome and Cato the Elder. Some of these inscriptions can also be found on his work at Dore Abbey, in spite of the intricacies of his work, Abels style has still been described as restrained

34.
Constantijn Huygens
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Sir Constantijn Huygens, Lord of Zuilichem, was a Dutch Golden Age poet and composer. He was secretary to two Princes of Orange, Frederick Henry and William II, and the father of the scientist Christiaan Huygens. Constantijn Huygens was born in The Hague, the son of Christiaan Huygens, secretary of the Council of State. Constantijn was a child in his youth. His brother Maurits and he were educated partly by their father, when he was five years old, Constantijn and his brother received their first musical education. They started with singing lessons, and they learned their notes using gold colored buttons on their jackets and it is striking, that Christiaan senior imparted the modern system of 7 note names to the boys, instead of the traditional, but much more complicated hexachord system. Two years later the first lessons on the viol started, followed by the lute, Constantijn showed a particular acumen for the lute. Constantijn also had a talent for languages and he learned French, Latin and Greek, and at a later age Italian and English. He learned by practice, the way of learning techniques. Constantijn received education in maths, law and logic and he learned how to handle a pike, in 1614 Constantijn wrote his first Dutch poem, inspired by the French poet Guillaume de Salluste Du Bartas, in which he praises rural life. In his early 20s, he fell in love with Dorothea, however their relationship did not last, in 1616, Maurits and Constantijn started studies at Leiden University. Studying in Leiden was primarily seen as a way to build a social network, shortly after, Maurits was called home to assist his father. Constantijn finished his studies in 1617 and returned home and this was followed by six weeks of training with Antonis de Hubert, a lawyer in Zierikzee. In the Spring of 1618 Constantijn found employment with Sir Dudley Carleton, in the summer, he stayed in London in the house of the Dutch ambassador, Noël de Caron. During his time in London his social circle widened and he learned to speak English. In 1620, towards the end of the Twelve Years Truce, he travelled as a secretary of ambassador François van Aerssen to Venice and he was the only member of the legation who could speak Italian. In December 1621 he left with another delegation, this time with the aim of requesting support for the United Provinces, returning after a year, there was yet another trip to England in 1624. In 1619 Constantijn came into contact with Anna Roemers Visscher and with Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft, Huygens exchanged many poems with Anna

35.
Binnenhof
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The Binnenhof is a complex of buildings in the city centre of The Hague, next to the Hofvijver lake. It houses the place of both houses of the States General of the Netherlands, as well as the Ministry of General Affairs. Built primarily in the 13th century, the Gothic castle originally functioned as residence of the counts of Holland and it is counted among the Top 100 Dutch heritage sites. The Binnenhof is the oldest House of Parliament in the still in use. Little is known about the origin of the Binnenhof, presumably, the grounds next to the Hofvijver lake, and the small homestead on it, were purchased by Count Floris IV of Holland from Meiland van Wassenaar in November 1229. Between 1230 and 1234 he had the homestead expanded to a small keep, after Floris son and successor William II was crowned King of the Romans in 1248, this construction continued. Between 1248 and 1280, William had the Ridderzaal built, to its left and right, walls were built, which divided the area in front of the building from that behind it. At the end of the wall on the left, near the Hofvijver, the chapel was built. William died in battle in 1256, before the construction of the Ridderzaal had finished, the Binnenhof was the residence of the counts of Holland for a short period. After the house of Holland died out in 1299, the county fell in the hands of the counts of Hainaut, the counts of Hainaut barely resided in the Binnenhof in the early 14th century. Duke Albert I of Bavaria and his successor William II lived in the Binnenhof virtually permanently, under their reign, the castle saw a sizeable expansion, and gradually became enclosed by buildings. When Holland had become part of the Burgundian Empire in 1432, part of the complex was later made into the residence of the stadtholder of Holland, who governed the county in absence of its ruler. After Philip II was deposed as Count of Holland and the Dutch Republic was proclaimed in 1581, in 1584, stadtholder Maurice moved into the stadtholders quarter, and in the same year, the Ridderzaal became the meeting place of the newly formed States General of the Dutch Republic. Between 1806 and 1810, under French rule, the centre of the Netherlands was moved to Amsterdam. When the Netherlands gained independence from France, however, the government moved back to the Binnenhof, the local residents, however, cared more for the historic value of the building, and successfully protested against demolition. Originally built as a ballroom, the Gothic Ridderzaal today forms the centre of the Binnenhof, every third Tuesday of September, on Prinsjesdag, this is where the King holds his annual Speech from the Throne. Other buildings shape a rectangle around the Ridderzaal, creating a courtyard in front of the building. A gilt Neo-Gothic fountain adorns the courtyard and a statue of King William II, one of few Dutch equestrian statues, guards its gate, the Stadtholders Gate, today, the lower house meets in a chamber in the large modern eastern part of the complex

36.
The Hague
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The Hague is a city on the western coast of the Netherlands, and the capital city of the province of South Holland. With a population of 520,704 inhabitants and more than one million including the suburbs, it is the third-largest city of the Netherlands. The Rotterdam The Hague Metropolitan Area, with a population of approximately 2.7 million, is the 12th-largest in the European Union and the most populous in the country. Located in the west of the Netherlands, The Hague is in the centre of the Haaglanden conurbation and lies at the southwest corner of the larger Randstad conurbation. The Hague is the seat of the Dutch government, parliament, the Supreme Court, and the Council of State, but the city is not the capital of the Netherlands, which constitutionally is Amsterdam. King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands plans to live at Huis ten Bosch and works at Noordeinde Palace in The Hague, the Hague is also home to the world headquarters of Royal Dutch Shell and numerous other major Dutch companies. The Hague originated around 1230, when Count Floris IV of Holland purchased land alongside a pond, in 1248, his son and successor William II, King of the Romans, decided to extend the residence to a palace, which would later be called the Binnenhof. He died in 1256 before this palace was completed but parts of it were finished by his son Floris V, of which the Ridderzaal and it is still used for political events, such as the annual speech from the throne by the Dutch monarch. From the 13th century onwards, the counts of Holland used The Hague as their administrative centre, the village that originated around the Binnenhof was first mentioned as Haga in a charter dating from 1242. In the 15th century, the smarter des Graven hage came into use, literally The Counts Wood, with connotations like The Counts Hedge, s-Gravenhage was officially used for the city from the 17th century onwards. Today, this name is used in some official documents like birth. The city itself uses Den Haag in all its communication and their seat was located in The Hague. At the beginning of the Eighty Years War, the absence of city walls proved disastrous, in 1575, the States of Holland even considered demolishing the city but this proposal was abandoned, after mediation by William of Orange. From 1588, The Hague also became the seat of the government of the Dutch Republic, in order for the administration to maintain control over city matters, The Hague never received official city status, although it did have many of the privileges normally granted only to cities. In modern administrative law, city rights have no place anymore, only in 1806, when the Kingdom of Holland was a puppet state of the First French Empire, was the settlement granted city rights by Louis Bonaparte. After the Napoleonic Wars, modern-day Belgium and the Netherlands were combined in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands to form a buffer against France, as a compromise, Brussels and Amsterdam alternated as capital every two years, with the government remaining in The Hague. After the separation of Belgium in 1830, Amsterdam remained the capital of the Netherlands, when the government started to play a more prominent role in Dutch society after 1850, The Hague quickly expanded. The growing city annexed the rural municipality of Loosduinen partly in 1903, the city sustained heavy damage during World War II

37.
Dutch Republic
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It preceded the Batavian Republic, the Kingdom of Holland, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and ultimately the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands. Alternative names include the United Provinces, Seven Provinces, Federated Dutch Provinces, most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg. In 1549 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain. This was the start of the Eighty Years War, in 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II. In 1582 the United Provinces invited Francis, Duke of Anjou to lead them, but after an attempt to take Antwerp in 1583. After the assassination of William of Orange, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined the offer of sovereignty, however, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England, and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general. This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy, the Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Anglo-French war, the territory was divided into groups, the Patriots, who were pro-French and pro-American and the Orangists. The Republic of the United Provinces faced a series of revolutions in 1783–1787. During this period, republican forces occupied several major Dutch cities, initially on the defence, the Orangist forces received aid from Prussian troops and retook the Netherlands in 1787. After the French Republic became the French Empire under Napoleon, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland, the Netherlands regained independence from France in 1813. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names United Provinces of the Netherlands, on 16 March 1815, the son of stadtholder William V crowned himself King William I of the Netherlands. Between 1815 and 1890 the King of the Netherlands was also in a union the Grand Duke of the sovereign Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. After Belgium gained its independence in 1830, the state became known as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world, the free trade spirit of the time received a strong augmentation through the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries. The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands, the worlds first stock exchange, that of the Dutch East-India Company, went public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a city so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles

38.
Jacob van Campen
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Jacob van Campen, was a Dutch artist and architect of the Golden Age. He was born into a family at Haarlem, and spent his youth in his home town. Being of noble birth and with time on his hands, he took up painting mainly as a pastime, in 1614, he became a member of the Guild of Saint Luke, and studied painting under Frans de Grebber - a number of Van Campens oils survive. About 1616 to 1624 he is thought to have lived in Italy, on his return to the Netherlands, Van Campen turned to architecture, applying ideas borrowed from Andrea Palladio, Vincenzo Scamozzi and classical influences from Vitruvius. Van Campen was friendly with Constantijn Huygens, and together designed a new house for Huygens. Even after Van Campens death, his work greatly influenced Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen, the designer of the Kleefse gardens, the latter to own a book by Van Campen regardless of the expense. The city hall and the city palace of Potsdam owe a debt to ideas by Van Campen, Van Campens first known building was the Coymans house built in 1625 in Amsterdam. About 1645 Van Campen designed the Nieuwe Kerk in Haarlem, a church that influenced Christopher Wren and his best-known work is probably the large Town Hall of Amsterdam, now the Royal Palace in Dam Square. Van Campen worked as an architect, a painter and a designer of decorative schemes and he was assisted in his work by Pieter Post, Daniël Stalpaert, Matthias Withoos, Philips Vingboons, Artus Quellinus, Tielman van Gameren and Rombout Verhulst. During the building of the city hall, Van Campen lived in very expensive lodgings in the nearby Kalverstraat, in 1654 Van Campen left after an argument, probably in connection with the design of the barrel vaults. Stalpaert won, but his completion of the project was reported to be less fine than Van Campens designs, after a long career, Van Campen died in 1657 in his buitenplaats Randenbroek near Amersfoort, which he had inherited from his mother, and was buried there. He had expanded it himself and had it decorated by Caesar van Everdingen, Van Campen never married, but had one son, Alexander Van Campen. Van Campen was selective in what projects he took on and his best known works are, The Royal Palace, Amsterdam, former city hall. In 1647, his name is mentioned for the first time in connection with the design of the new city hall and it was to be a perfect building, perfect in its proportions and in the message it conveyed to the spectator. Its power lies in its strict and perfect proportions and extremely moderate decoration, critics loathed the simple entrance - without stairs - on the ground floor. He is suspected to have had a hand in the alteration of the Rembrandthuis at the Jodenbreestraat in Amsterdam, the Theatre of Van Campen, based on the example of Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza, in Amsterdam. The Paleis Noordeinde, a palace in The Hague. As well as houses and palaces, he designed a number of churches, such as those at Renswoude and at Hooge Zwaluwe

39.
St John's College, Oxford
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St Johns College is a constituent college of the University of Oxford. It was founded in 1555 by the merchant Sir Thomas White, the college occupies a central location on St Giles and has a student body of approximately 390 undergraduates and 250 postgraduates. As well as over 100 academic staff, the college is supported by a number of other staff. On 1 May 1555, Sir Thomas White, lately Lord Mayor of London, initially the new St Johns College was rather small and not well endowed financially. During the reign of Elizabeth I the fellows lectured in rhetoric, Greek, and dialectic, however, St Johns initially had a strong focus on the creation of a proficient and educated priesthood. White was Master of the Merchant Taylors Company, and established a number of educational foundations, although the College was closely linked to such institutions for many centuries, it became a more open society in the later 19th century. Female students were first admitted in 1979, and Elizabeth Fallaize was appointed as the first female fellow in 1990, although primarily a producer of Anglican clergymen in the earlier periods of its history, St Johns also gained a reputation for both law and medicine. The patronage of the parish of St Giles was included in the endowment of the college by Thomas White, vicars of St Giles were formerly either Fellows of the College, or ex-Fellows who were granted the living on marriage. The College retains the right to present candidates for the benefice to the bishop, today St Johns maintains the largest endowment of the Oxford colleges, for example owning the Oxford Playhouse building and the Millwall F. C. training ground. The college is situated on a single 5.5 hectares site, most of the college buildings are organised around seven quadrangles. The Front Quadrangle mainly consists of buildings built for the Cistercian St Bernards College. Construction started in 1437, though when the site passed to the crown in 1540, due to the Dissolution of the Monasteries, much of the exterior was as it is now, christ Church took control of the site in 1546 and Thomas White acquired it in 1554. Front Quad was gravelled until the colleges 400th anniversary when the current circular lawn, the turret clock, made by John Knibb, dates from 1690. The chapel was built and dedicated to St Bernard of Clairvaux in 1530, the chapel was re-dedicated to St John the Baptist in 1557. The Baylie chapel in the north-east corner was added 1662-9 and refitted in 1949, in 1840 the chapels interior underwent major changes which created the gothic revival pews, roof, wall arcading and west screen. Thomas White, William Laud and William Juxon are buried beneath the chapel, all three were presidents of the college, with the latter two also holding the role of Archbishop of Canterbury. Choral services have been sung in the chapel since 1618, orlando Gibbonss famous anthem This is the record of John was written at the Colleges request, and presumably received its first performance here. The college in 1620 commissioned the anthem As they departed from Michael East, the college choir today sings evensong services on Sundays and Wednesdays during term time, as well as singing the grace at Sunday formal hall

40.
Renaissance architecture
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Stylistically, Renaissance architecture followed Gothic architecture and was succeeded by Baroque architecture. Developed first in Florence, with Filippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators, the style was carried to France, Germany, England, Russia and other parts of Europe at different dates and with varying degrees of impact. Italy of the 15th century, and the city of Florence in particular, was home to the Renaissance, the scholarly approach to the architecture of the ancient coincided with the general revival of learning. A number of factors were influential in bringing this about, Italian architects had always preferred forms that were clearly defined and structural members that expressed their purpose. Many Tuscan Romanesque buildings demonstrate these characteristics, as seen in the Florence Baptistery, Italy had never fully adopted the Gothic style of architecture. In the 15th century, Florence, Venice and Naples extended their power through much of the area that surrounded them and this enabled Florence to have significant artistic influence in Milan, and through Milan, France. Successive Popes, especially Julius II, 1503–13, sought to extend the Pope’s temporal power throughout Italy, in the early Renaissance, Venice controlled sea trade over goods from the East. Trade brought wool from England to Florence, ideally located on the river for the production of fine cloth, by dominating Pisa, Florence gained a seaport, and also maintained dominance of Genoa. In this commercial climate, one family in particular turned their attention from trade to the business of money-lending. The Medici became the chief bankers to the princes of Europe, becoming virtually princes themselves as they did so, along the trade routes, and thus offered some protection by commercial interest, moved not only goods but also artists, scientists and philosophers. This commenced in the mid 15th century and gained momentum in the 16th century, the construction of the Sistine Chapel with its uniquely important decorations and the entire rebuilding of St Peters, one of Christendoms most significant churches, were part of this process. In wealthy republican Florence, the impetus for church-building was more civic than spiritual, the unfinished state of the enormous cathedral dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary did no honour to the city under her patronage. The dome inspired further religious works in Florence, through Humanism, civic pride and the promotion of civil peace and order were seen as the marks of citizenship. Some major ecclesiastical building works were commissioned, not by the church. During the Renaissance, architecture became not only a question of practice, printing played a large role in the dissemination of ideas. The first treatise on architecture was De re aedificatoria by Leon Battista Alberti in 1450 and it was to some degree dependent on Vitruviuss De architectura, a manuscript of which was discovered in 1414 in a library in Switzerland. De re aedificatoria in 1485 became the first printed book on architecture, Sebastiano Serlio produced the next important text, the first volume of which appeared in Venice in 1537, it was entitled Regole generali darchitettura. It is known as Serlios Fourth Book since it was the fourth in Serlios original plan of a treatise in seven books, in all, five books were published

Wales ((listen); Welsh: Cymru [ˈkəmri] (listen)) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of …

Britain in AD 500: The areas shaded pink on the map were inhabited by the CelticBritons, here labelled Welsh. The pale blue areas in the east were controlled by Germanic tribes, whilst the pale green areas to the north were inhabited by the Gaels and Picts.

Queen's House is a former royal residence built between 1616 and 1635 in Greenwich, then a few miles down-river from …

The Tulip Stairs and lantern; the first centrally unsupported helical stairs constructed in England. The stairs are supported by a combination of support by cantilever from the walls and each tread resting on the one below.

Plans of the Queen's House. The salon is a 40-foot (12.2 m) cube.

The Queen's House and the Greenwich Hospital in the painting London from Greenwich Park, in 1809, by William Turner