which you are holding in yourhands. Every year for several decades the Latvian Academy of Sport Education (LASE)published the Annual Issue in Sport Science Papers, where both original research papersand methodological articles for sport specialists in one of the following languages–

Latvian, English or Russian–

are included.

The development of this issue of publications is logical and natural. It wasdetermined by the fast time of information society of the

21th

century with the necessity ofnarrow specialization and quick availability of information. Starting from 2010 the issue ofpublications had two parts, and as a result a newjournal

in LatvianSport in Theory andPractice

for sports practitioners andthe newjournal

in EnglishLASE Journal of SportScience

appeared.

Sports Science is an interdisciplinary branch of science that researches theregularities of a man’s physical health, development, condition and sports achievements.Thus in the newjournal

you will find original research papers of sport integrated researchin pedagogy, psychology, medicine, biology, biomechanics, sociology and economics, aswell asshort communications, letters to the Editor, and current news.

The aim of this study was to detect the peculiarities of autonomic nervous system(ANS) in migraineurs and to elaborate optimal biofeedback (BFB) training methods.Heartrate (HR), arterial blood pressure and baroreflex sensitivity (BRS) at rest, static workload,arterial occlusion and during recovery period were measured.Migraine patients weremediatized.Twenty two migraineurs (female aged 22.2 ± 2.4) and fourteen healthy age andgender matched controls participated. Migraine patients were divided into 2 groups (M1and M2) according to HR and BRS at rest. Physical activities were stated to have positiveeffect on migraine process in patients.At rest 60 % of migraine patients (group M1) hadsignificantly decreased HR vs. control group (P=0.002). M2 group showed tendency todecreased BRS at rest comparing to control group and statistically significant (P=0.004)difference comparing to M1 group. In 10 s precontraction period M1 group hadsignificantly lower HR increase comparing to other analyzed groups (P=0.005). HR wassignificantly decreased in M1 group during recovery period comparing to control and M2groups (P=0.018).

Psychological factors that influence pain experience are numerous and can includemood, anxiety, thought processes, personal coping mechanisms, social support, andpersonality factors for example stress tolerance (Mc Guire et al. 2008).Migraine is ahighly prevalent disease affecting individuals, their families, and economies across theworld (Lipton et al. 2003). The highest prevalence rates have been reported in NorthAmerica where 18% of the women and 7% of the men experience one or more migraineattacks per year (Lipton et al. 2001), but figures from Europe are similar (Stovner et al.2006).

72 hours (HeadacheClassification Subcommittee of The International Headache Society 2004; Olesen 2005).Extensive research of the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms of migraineheadaches based on the above-mentioned symptomatic features would favour a betterunderstanding of the abnormalities and, thus contribute to the improvement of life-quality

of migraineurs. The knowledge gained would enable to select the most appropriate andeffective medical treatment as well as utilize alternative non-medically oriented techniquesalongside with the pharmacologically oriented methods, for example, self-regulatingbiofeedback mechanisms (relaxation trainings etc.)

The studies regarding the function of autonomic nervous system (ANS) ofmigraineurs are inconclusive. It is stated both hyperfunction (Yakinci et al. 1999) andhypofunction (Peroutka 2004) of sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity. Likewise, thedata on the function of parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) are inconsistent: theevidence of several studies investigating clinical features and mechanisms of headachesupports a decreased PNS

In our study, we utilized similar methodology in order to assess the peculiarities ofANS function in migraineurs in comparison with controls.

In many clinics all over the world, non-medical treatment are considered as analternative or an addition methodology to pharmacological treatment for the reduction offrequency and severity of migraine attacks. One of

these approaches is biofeedbackmethod (BFB) (Nestoriuc and Martin 2007; Kabbouche and Gilman 2008) used in ourstudy.

Moreover, there are some considerations that regular aerobic exercises can affectfavourably migraine process and reduce pain in migraine attacks (Narin et al. 2003).

18-25, average 22,2±2,4 years)and 14 healthy, non trained age and sex matched control group persons without any otherdiseases were analysed. All medications, if any, had been discontinued at least 1 weekbefore the study. The migraine patients were divided in two groups (M1 and M2)according to HR and baroreceptor reflex sensitivity (BRS) at rest. We suggested that itcould be related with differences in ANS function in M1 and M2 groups. There is noconsensus about whether migraine is contributed with decreased HR or increased HRaccording to previous studies. So, migraine patients were divided according to their HR atrest to see clearly differences between migraine patient groups and control group healthyvolunteers.

Procedure

Subjects were interviewed

to determine

their migraine characteristics and theirlifestyle before testing. They were asked to evaluate their physical activities and mark howthey affect migraine severityin subjective patient scale from 1 to 5(1 means doesn’t havepositive effecton migraine and 5 means have the best positive effect on migraine).Subjects were tested in supine position in a quiet room after 10 min adaptation period. HR,

LASE JOURNAL OF SPORT SCIENCE

6

ABP and BRS were recorded continuously during physical rest, precontraction orientationreaction

(10s countdown), static muscular effort (handgrip), afterwork arterial occlusion(AO) on loaded extremity and recovery period by Task Force Monitor device (CNSystemsMedizintechnik, Austria). Handgrip (HG) was performed with 50% of maximal voluntarycontraction force (MVC) by dominant arm comfortably fixed on the support. The MVCwas determined by applying a hydraulic dynamometer system securing optimal visualfeedback control. MVC was measured as the mean force obtained in two maximalcontractions separated at least 2 min. HG with force 50 % of MVC was performed during60 s after 10 sec of countdown. During the last 5 sec of HG, a pneumatic cuff was inflatedon the upper arm of loaded extremity for AO. Recovery period was 10 min.

was used withaim to optimize ANS function and reduce PVA. Migraine drug usage, pain frequency andintensity were fixed before and during biofeedback training sessions.

Statistical analysis of data

Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD). Analysis of variance(ANOVA) and paired Student t-tests were performed to indicate significant differences(p<0.05).

Study was approved by Ethics committee of Latvian University Institute ofCardiology for clinical and physiological research, and pharmaceutical product clinicalinvestigations.

Results

Questionnaire results about migraine, everyday lifestyle and physical activitiesshowed that 54 % of migraineurs are physically active and at least for 3 times a weekattend sports activities : swimming 27% of all patients, jogging-18% and other activities–

9% (Fig 1).

Fig. 1. Attendance of physical activities in migraineurs

In subjective patient scale about aerobic exercise effect on migraine most of thepatients (58 %) marked that possibly aerobic exercises have positive effect on migraine(Fig 2).

Fig. 5. Baroreflex sensitivity (BRS) at physical rest in migraine and control groups

We have found that PVA training fora. temporalis

significantly decreasedmedication use in M2 group comparing to period before nonmedical treatment (Fig 6).

Fig. 6. Medication use (%) per week during nontreatment period and duringbiofeedback (BFB) treatment

Also, insignificant tendency of decreased pain intensity and migraine attackfrequency in biofeedback period was stated. Mentioned tendencies were not found in M1group.

Discussion

Our results about sports activities in migraine patients are in agreement

withpreviously made some studies (Köseoglu et al. 2003;Lockett and Campbell

2005;

Varkeyet al. 2009) that aerobic exercises have favourable effect on migraine although in our studythere were no specially made fitness programme for migraineurs.

Obtained results agreed with the previously performed studies regarding HR at restin control group (Agelink et al. 2001). There were not found statistically significantdifferences in HR between M2 group and controls at relative physical rest. In contrast,statistically significant lower HR was detected in M1 group which could be related withincreased PNS activity. It was confirmed also by data gained by BRS analyses. Statisticallysignificant increase in sBP and unchanged dBP variables could be related with inhibitionof PNS activity in M2 group patients. Alternatively, in some studies an opposite effect wasfound. For example, decreased sBP (Gudmundsson et al. 2006) and increased dBP051015202530354045M1M2ControlsBRS(mm/Hg)M1M2Controls**10032,0020406080100NontreatmentPVA BF treatmentMedicament usage per week ( %)NontreatmentPVA BF treatment

(Shechter et al. 2002) at rest were stated. These discrepancies may beconnected withanalyses of migraine patients with different ANS activity properties.

BRS data in control group matched with the variables found in other studies(Kardos et al. 2001).

The changed sympatho-vagal balance in both M1 and M2 patientgroups was proved by significantly increased BRS in M1 group and decreased BRS in M2group in comparison with controls. We found studies using spontaneous sequence methodwhere like our findings BRS was increased in migraineurs in comparison with controlgroup at rest

(Nilsen et al. 2009). We also studied BRS only at relative physical rest due tomethodical restrictions.

Orientation reaction in a pre-load period also showed statistically significanttendency

of PNS inhibition in M2 group in comparison with controls. This was approvedby a significant HR increase even before the onset of the HG. It could be related withdecreased stress tolerance in M2 group patients. In contrary, M1 group showed decreasedHR increase comparing to M2 group during preload orientation reaction. There is lack ofdata in literature regarding orientation feedback in migraine patients.

The decreased HR increase at the end of HG in M2 group might be associated withthe already inhibited PNS activity in a pre-load period. Only in some studies HG

were usedfor ANS function detection in migraineurs. It would be mentioned that in one of thesestudies where another muscle contraction force-

30 % MVC were used significantlydecreased HR increment during HG were stated, which was associated with sympathetichypofunction (Pogacnik et al. 1993) There were not find any substantial differences in dBPdynamics in our study, whereas different results were presented in above mentioned studyat static load. Authors reported a tendency toward decreased dBP increase where itsabsolute value compared with value at rest was decreased. Also study about commonmigraine and migraine with panic attacks revealed decreased increase of dBP during HGwith 30 % MVC in both migraine groups (Osipova 1992). It was also shown that meanblood pressure increase at the end of HG with 30 % MVC was decreased due to SNShypofunction (Mosek et al. 1999). It was supported by other study where difference inABP increase during static load (HG) between migraine patients and controls wasrevealed. Migraine group showed a significantly decreased ABP increase during HG with50 % MVC what evidenced about SNS dysfunction (Benjelloun et al. 2005).

Also it should be mentioned that different age migraine patients participated inabove analyzed studies (Pogacnik et al. 1993; Mosek et al. 1999). Thus, comparing withour study group and found discrepancies might be associated with analyses of different agegroups.

The sBP increase was higher in controls comparison to M2 group and M1 groupduring HG. At after load AO what was connected with activation of III-IV group afferentsby metabolites in loaded extremity remaining increase was smaller in M2 group comparingto controls and M1 group. This could be explained by decrease of PNS inhibition bycentralcommand, PNS function normalization as well as by re-establishing of ANSbalance suggesting that sympathetic part of ANS is also impaired in M2 group. Pressorreaction during AO didn’t differ significantly in M1 group comparing with controls.During the recovery period, HR and sBP decreased below the baseline level in M2 group.This suggests about inhibition of PNS function in a pre-load period and lowered stresstolerance.

It is strongly recommended to improve sympatho-parasympathetic balance inmigrainepatients using BFB training method (Herman and Blanchard 2002; Scharff et al.2002; Blanchard and Kim 2005; Martin et al. 2007; Nestoriuc and Martin 2007;Kabbouche and Gilman 2008; Nestoriuc et al. 2008). The migraineurs were trained usingBFB training method with aim to estimate the efficacy and elaborate an optimal trainingregimen. The most used and effective training methods for migraine therapies are

LASE JOURNAL OF SPORT SCIENCE

10

temperature training and PVA training (Herman and Blanchard 2002). We preferred to usePVA training due to its proven efficacy showed in previous investigations (Blanchard andKim 2005).

In BFB training sessions female migraineurs aged 18-

25 years participated. Wedidn’t find related literature data regarding trainings of migraineurs in this age group in

taking into account peculiarities of ANS function.

We found that the average training period when biofeedback gives effect was 6weeks for each person in M2 group. The optimal training session lasted at least 20 min andwould be performed 2-3 times weekly. To our opinion, better results could be possiblewith longer biofeedback training period. We didn’t find approval for our hypothesis inprevious studies, so longitudinal studies would be necessary. It was suggested thatelaborated relaxation training methodology which include 2-3 sessions weekly for 1-1,

5months was optimal for improving of ANS function in migraine patients with decreasedstress tolerance. It was also shown that PVA training was the most suitable and effectivemethod in comparing with other methods recommended for non medication migraine

treatment (electromyography-EMG , temperature trainings) for M2 group about whatsuggestedreduced frequency of migraine attacks as well as the medication-intake, soproviding evidence of beneficial potential of elaborated training session methodology.

Such beneficial effects was not found in M1 group suggesting that elaboration ofoptimal BFB methodology would be connected with assessment of ANS peculiarities inmigraineurs.

In future optimal training regimen for other migraine group will beelaborated.

Conclusions

Obtained data regarding function of ANS in migraineurs suggested aboutimpairment of both parts of ANS activity. There was most likely impairment in bothbranches of ANS in M2 group with decreased PNS activity and impaired SNS activity, butM1 group patients showed increased PNS activity.

According to subjective migraineurs opinion and literature data we suggestelaborate aerobic training regimen in addition to BFB trainings to reduce migraine severityin M1 group patients. To evaluate the longitudinal effect of BFB training, larger patientgroups must be studied.

Modern World level tennis is a game with high dynamics and tempo, it is requiredof a sportsmen to be well physically and technically prepared as well as have anunderstanding of modern game. A great deal of controversy in tennis strokes has involvedthe changes in the forehand technique. Despite the existing researches in this area,currently no consensus about the implementation of most effective forehand. Aim of thisstudy was biomechanical model of forehand in tennis. To investigate the scale of forehandsapplication in modern tennis were analyzed Sony Ericsson WTA Tour final game 2010.Six experienced tennis players (age 23,2 ± 4,4) were studied using three-dimensional videoanalysis system “Qualisys” and force plate “AMTI”. Results: sum of all strokes(exceptserves and smashes) in Sony Ericsson WTA Tour final 2010 were 283 strokes, included138 forehands 94 in open stance and only 44 in square stance. Forehand movementorganization principle is whip’s mechanism. The open stance forehands developed slightlylower racquet velocities (32,5 ± 4,6 m/s vs. 34,2 ± 4,5 m/s) at impact compared with thetraditional square stance. Horizontal component of ground reaction forces wereconsiderably greater in the direction of the main movement in square stance forehands(90,3 ± 9,3 N vs. 70,3 ± 25,9 N). Conclusions: forehand in open stance is more applied inmodern tennis game. Forehand movement organization principle is whip’s mechanisms.Stance version of forehand is situation specific and it has nothing to do withdevelopmentof largest racquet velocities. Ground reaction forces addict of stance form. In square stancehorizontal component were greater, it may be involved with developing linear momentum.

Key words:forehand, open stance, square stance, modern tennis

Introduction

Modern World level tennis–

it’s a game with high dynamics and tempo, it isrequired of an athletes to be well physically and technically prepared as well as have anunderstanding of modern game. A great deal of controversy in tennis strokes

has involvedthe changes in the forehand technique [1, 2, 3, 4, 9].

The forehand (table 1) groundstroke has developed as a key offensive weapon. Themain feature of this stroke is the ability to hit considerable power combined with heavytopspin for control. Professor Bruce Elliot and Associates in the Department of HumanMovement and Exercise at the University of Western Australia presented that in the earlierstyle, sometimes referred to as “unit” forehand; the hitting arm was rotated around theshoulder. For the modern forehand the hitting arm is rotated around the elbow

and theshoulder. This is an important difference because the latter techniques enables increasedracquet speed and therefore power. The “unit” style forehand was generally more suited tothe relatively contact heights typical of grass courts. On the other hand, the modernforehand is adapted well for contact at waist height and above. This is important inallowing players to manage the higher bounce of the ball encountered in today’s game withtournaments predominantly played on hard and clay court surfaces [3, 4].

LASE JOURNAL OF SPORT SCIENCE

14

Table 1

Comparative table about the forehand drive [6, 9]

Aspect

Traditional technique

Modern technique

Recommended grip

Eastern

Semi Western or Western

Position in readiness

Closed

Open

First work of the foot

Step forward

Step displacedtowards theside

Movement of preparation ofthe racquet

Pivoting from the shoulder

Many segments

Action of the articulations

Similar action of the articulations which is used forgenerating force in the movement towards the impact inboth forehands

Area of impact

More precision in the areaof impact

Reduction of the area ofmistakes in which the ballmay by successfullyimpacted

To investigate the scale of open and square stances applications in forehand.

2.

To investigate forehand stroke movement organization features.

3.

To evaluate the influence of stance form to racquet velocities.

4.

To assess effect of stance form to ground reaction forces horizontal component.

Material and methods

To investigate the scale of open and square stances application in forehand in moderntennis today we made visual analysis of SONY ERICSSON Tour women’s final game2010 (Kim Clijsters vs. Venus Williams. Miami, USA). Game recorded on video cassetteby video-recorder “Toshiba”.

The experiment was organized in Russian University of Physical Education, Sport andTourism laboratory of biomechanics in Moscow. Six experienced tennis players (age 23,2± 4,4) took part in this event–

three of them had “sport master” class and three “sportmaster’s candidate” class by Russian standards. To investigate forehand stroke movementorganization features and to evaluate the influence of stance form to racquet velocitieswere utilized high-speed video registration and analysis system “Qualisys” (Sweden). Thissystem consisted from six digital cameras, measuring unit, body segment’s markers.Cameras maximal frequency was 1000 frames per second. For our experiment cameras

15

BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF FOREHAND IN MODERN TENNIS

were set to 250 frames per second. Body segment’s markers were put at lateral part ofbody.

To assess effect of stance form to horizontal component of ground reaction forceswere used force plate “AMTI” (ASV). Size of force plate was 100 x 100cm, independentfluctuations was 1000 Hz.

Both systems “Qualisys”and “AMTI” were synchronized.

Results

Analyze of SONY ERICSSON WTA Tour final 2010: sum of all strokes in game,except the serves and smashes (strokes under the head) were 283 strokes, included 138forehand groundstrokes. 68% of all forehands in game were

executed in open stance (94strokes) and only 32% of all forehands in final game were executed in square stance (44strokes). This is demonstrated in next graphic (Fig. 2).

Summarizing and analyzing the data of racquet velocities during the impact fromopen and square stance, we have obtained the following results: the open stance forehandsdeveloped slightly lower racquet velocities (32,5 ± 4,6 m/s vs. 34,2 ± 4,5 m/s) at impactcompared with the traditional square stance (Fig. 4). In our opinion the differences in the

LASE JOURNAL OF SPORT SCIENCE

16

racquet velocities in forehand groundstroke from open and square stance were notsignificant.

Fig. 4.

Racquet velocities to perform forehand in open and square stances

Any movements of a human are realized in interaction with the ground. To getfeatures of ground reaction forces during the forehand in different stances, we comparedone of the three components of ground reaction forces–

horizontal component. Groundreaction forces horizontal component were considerably greater in square stance forehands(90,3 ± 9,3 N vs. 70,3 ± 25,9 N) (Fig.5). We expect that this may be involved withdeveloping linear momentum: in forehand from open stance exist a greater rotation, inturn, in forehand from square stance is pronounced movement in the direction of thestroke.

groundstroke’s movement in tennis is based on whip’s mechanism.Whip technique: coordinated translator movement of the proximal to distal segments thatinvolves consecutive acceleration and deceleration of the joints. At the beginning of themovement theproximal joints moves quickly in the direction of the stroke, but afterwardsit’s actively decelerated. Such movement organization principle allows using muscle’s,ligament’s, tendon’s energy of elastic deformation and low of kinetic momentumconservationwhich helps to increase the speed of the distal segments [7, 8].

During our experiment we have observed an interesting fact that “sport masters”had slightly higher velocity of racquet in stroke from square stance, in turn “sport master’s0153045607590105Open stanceSquare stanceN

Ground reaction forces in forehand

17

candidates” hadslightly higher velocity of racquet in forehand from open stance. In ouropinion it may be related to the elaborated stereotype of movement. Representatives of“sport master” class were students of the “classic” tennis school–

all stroke technique wasbased mainly on closed and square stances. On the other hand representatives of “sportmaster’s candidate” class (younger athletes) were students of “modern” tennis school andhence in training process were taught and applied strokes mainly in open stance.

One more fact which drew our attention is that ground reaction forces don’tsignificantly affect on racquet velocity during forehand groundstroke. Our experimentshowed, that the apparent change of ground reaction forces horizontal component instrokes from

We can conclude, that the choice of the stance form in forehand ground-strokes isnot associated with the desire of athletes to increase racquet velocity, but is more gamesituation specific. Game dynamics and tempo in last ten years has grown and as a resultbiomechanics of on-court movement and stroke technique has been changed. Open stancerequires less time to perform the stroke, and therefore is more demand and more suitable

intennis game today.

Conclusions

1.

Forehand in open stance is more applied in modern tennis game.

2.

Forehand movement organization principle–

whip’s mechanisms.

3.

Stance version of forehand is situation specific and it has nothing to do withdevelopment of largest racquet velocities.

4.

Ground reaction forces depend on stance form. In square stance horizontalcomponent is greater, it may be involved with developing linear momentum.

SELF-ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH RELATED QUALITY OF LIFE ANDPHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN OLDER ADULTS

Aivars Kaupužs, Viesturs Lāriņš

Latvian Academy of Sport Education

Brivibas gatve 333, Riga, LV-1006, Latvia

Abstract

In spite of consistent evidence that physical activity (PA) affect to functionalfitness and health-related quality of life (HRQOL), related papers show ambiguous resultswith large dispersion. This study examined the relationship between fitnesstest results,self-rated PA and HRQOL in older adults. 96 persons aged 60 years and older participatedin this study. Data was collected using Senor Fitness Test (SFT), international genericEuropean Quality of Life Questionnaire–

p<0.01). Results show the significance of PA inmaintaining quality of life, but do not answer the importance of fitness for higher level oflife satisfaction.

Key words:Elderly,fitness, physical activity,quality of life.

Introduction

Previous researches show that regular physical activity, fitness, and exercises areimportant components for people of all ages to remain healthy and well.Physical Activityand Health report, which wereissued under Acting Surgeon General Audrey Manley(1996), shows that theoretically all individuals can benefit from regular physical activity,whether they participate in vigorous exercise or some type of moderate health-enhancingphysical activity. The maintenance of functional capacity, and thereby the independence ofthe older person, is beneficial for the individual and society alike.

The growing number of older people in society has both social and economicimplications affecting most nations.

The age-related decline in physical and cognitiveperformance has been the focus of many studies and the health benefits from physicalactivity (i.e., decreased risk for cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hypertension, cancer, andall-cause mortality) arewell established (Siscovick et al. 1997). Kelley and colleagues(2009)

functionas a result of physical activity. Thus mobility and functioning can be improved throughphysical activity.

Relationships between physical activity, health related fitness, and health are fairlywell known. The health related fitness concept indicates that physical activity shows aninteraction with health related fitness and health. The interactions between these three maincomponents are widely described on Toronto model by Bouchard and Shephard (1994).

Maintaining a high level of quality of life into advanced age is a growing publichealth concern as the older adult population continues to increase.Stewart and King (1991)have conceptualized quality of life (QOL) as two broad categories, function and well-being. Shephard

(1993) noted that physical activity plays an important part in increasingthe health related quality of life (HRQOL) of the older adult, by improving physiologicaland psychological function, which helps to maintain personal independence and reduces

19

CORRELATION BETWEEN FUNCTIONAL FITNESS RESULTS AND

SELF-ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH RELATED QUALITY OF LIFE AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN OLDER ADULTS

the demands for short term and long term care services. A number of recent studies havesuggested a consistent association between physical activity and quality of life in olderadults (McAuley et al. 2006; Rejeski and Mihalko 2001). Low physical activity isconsidered a primary marker of physical frailty, which predicts subsequent disability(Fried et al. 2001).

without undue fatigue or pain. In the beginning of this decade waspublished the functional fitness fest for older people that had been designed by thephysiotherapists Rikli and Jones (2002) in Lifespan Wellness Clinic at California StateUniversity in Fullerton. In literature it is called as Fullerton or Senior Fitness Test. Basedon the studies conducted by the authors, normal values for the population of healthyelderly persons in the United States were determined. 7183 persons aged 60 to 94 yearsparticipated in these studies.

Good data are a prerequisite for systematic research and knowledge-based politybuilding. Internationally comparable data on physical activities, health related fitness andself rated health indicators of elderly people are still lacking in Latvia. Unfortunately,normative data for the elderly population in Latvia have not been determined yet. For thisreason it is necessary to adapt a well developed and validated research instruments forfurther researches.

The aim of this study

was to conduct the adaptation process for Senior Fitness Test(SFT) for Latvian older adults and compare results with self rated physical activity andhealth related quality of life.

Material and methods

Participants

Subjects were volunteers,

communitydwelling adults who were older than 60years, without serious cardiovascular or musculoskeletal diseases, performing activities ofdaily living without mobility aids. All participants before testing had medical clearance inHeart Health Cabinet. We recruited 96 persons for this study (29 men and 67 women). Themean age± SD of the samples was 67±4.75 years (60-75years). All this respondents tookpart in the interviewing stage of survey, but by medical reasons SFT could complete 82persons (25 men and 47 women).

Functional fitness

The Senior Fitness Test consists of six assessment items. The chair stand testassesses lower body strength. Each subject completed two practice repetitions and one 30second test trial. The score was the total number of stands executed correctly within 30seconds. The arm curl test assesses upper body strength. Each subject completed twopractice repetitions and one 30 second test trial. The score was the total number of handweight curls through the full range of motion in 30 seconds. The chair sit and reach testassesses lower body flexibility. Each subject completed two practice trials and two testtrials. The score was the best distance achieved between the extended fingers and the tip ofthe toe. The back scratch test assessesupper body flexibility. Each subject completed twopractice trials and two test trials. The score was the best distance achieved between theextended middle fingers. The 8 foot up and go test assesses agility and dynamic balance.Each subject completed one

practice trial and two test trials. The score was the shortesttime to rise from a seated position, walk 8 feet, turn, and return to the seated position. Thesix minute walk test assesses aerobic endurance. Each subject completed one practice trial

LASE JOURNAL OF SPORT SCIENCE

20

two days before the test and one test trial. The score was the total distance walked in sixminutes along a 45.72 m rectangular course, which was marked every 4.57 m.

HRQOL assessment

We used latvian version of an international generic European Quality of LifeQuestionnaire–

EuroQol (EQ-5D). The EQ-5D consisting of five three-level items,representing various aspects of health: mobility, self-care, usual activities, pain/discomfortand anxiety/depression (mood). Respondents were able to evaluate their health in

eachdomain by reporting whether they are experiencing none (score 1), some (score 2) orextreme (score 3) problems. These scores result in a health profile, e.g. a patient withprofile 12113 has no problem with mobility, usual activities and pain/discomfort, someproblems with self-care and extreme problems with anxiety/depression. Data of a visualanalogue scale (VAS) are also included in the EQ-5D and used by subjects to rate theirhealth status between worst imaginable health state (score 0) to best imaginable healthstate (score 100). A utility index score was calculated for each subject's EQ-5D healthstatus by applying the time trade-off-based valuations from a general EU populationsample to the observed EQ-5D profile, as data from Latvian norm arenot available at thepresent time.

Physical activity

For assessment of the physical activity level we used International PhysicalActivity Questionnaire (IPAQ) short version, because compared with long version weavoid risks to overestimate self-ratedactivity. The short version systematicallyunderestimates physical activity level, since it consists of fewer questions (7 questions inthe short version compared with 27 questions in the long version). The items in IPAQ arestructured to provide separatedomain-specific scores for walking, moderate-intensity, andvigorous-intensity activity. All questions refer to the previous 7 days. The results werepresented as the estimation of energy expenditure in metabolic equivalent-minutes perweek (MET/min/week).

To calculate physical activity scores we have analyzed theactivities which lasted at least 10 minutes.

Data Analysis

All obtained data were statistically analyzed and expressed as the mean, medianand standard deviation (SD). Data were analyzed using specific software called SPSSversion 15.0 for Windows OS.

Results

For estimating the level of physical activity, the short form Latvian version ofIPAQ was used. The median of total physical activity for the whole sample was 3786MET/min/week. The meanvalue was 4757 (SD±2998.1) MET/min/week.

HRQOL was assessed using the generic instrument EQ-5D. The utility indexmedian score was 0.78, mean–

0.80; SD±0.13. The median and mean value of a visualanalogue scale were 69; SD±15.9.

After completing the questionnaires respondents performed the Senior FitnessTest. Respondents who did not pass medical inspection were not admitted to perform thetest. All results have been transfiguring as percentile data based on normal values for thegender and age as it is given by the authors (Rikli and Jones 2002). The SFT results areshown in Table 1.

21

CORRELATION BETWEEN FUNCTIONAL FITNESS RESULTS AND

SELF-ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH RELATED QUALITY OF LIFE AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN OLDER ADULTS

Table 1

The results of the Senior Fitness Test in the percentile scale

Chairstand

Arm curl

Sit andreach

Backscratch

Up andgo

6 minwalk

Mean

61.7

74.4

47.4

38.3

60.2

40.7

Median

60

85

40

35

60

40

SD

27.4

23.4

24.6

28.9.

19.3

24.4

The next set of analyses examined the correlation between SFT result and selfrated physical activity and health related quality of life data.

Total results show thatbeing more active significantly correlates only with healthrelated quality of life data. The primary findings were that healthy older adults whoparticipated in regular physical activity for at least moderate intensity for more than onehour per day had higher values in all five domains of HRQL than those who were lessphysically active. We found no significant relationship between functional fitness andphysical activity or HRQOL results.

Discussion

The health-related quality of life defined as a person’s or group’s perceivedphysical and mental health over time (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2007).This is important variable to determining the health benefits of various interventions ordetecting the baseline level of population. A focus on HRQOL versus the broader conceptof quality of life is especially relevant in our study because, for example income, that ismore distant from health and may not be modifiable. One potential approach for improvingHRQOL in older adults is physical activity, a relatively low-cost, non-pharmacologicalintervention that is available to the vast majority of the general public. Our study resultsconcur with recently conducted a meta-analysis that addressed the effects of physicalactivity on psychological well-being in older adults. Across all designs and categories,there was a statistically significant (small to moderate) improvement in psychological well-being compared to the control group (Netz and Wu 2005).

Our findings of functional fitness results show that samples have higher scores inmuscular and dynamic balance, but are lower than average in flexibility and cardiovascularparameters. Although many studies suggest that functional fitness and physical activity isinteracted variables, our research did not find such pathway. This fact leads us to concludethat subjective method for assessment of physical activity does not provide the realevaluation of the person functional abilities. Available data generally suggest that fitnesslevel more strongly predicts health benefits than physical activity patterns (Blair et al.2001; Williams 2001). The reason for this might be that the assessment of fitness is more

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objective than activity. Fitness is generallydeterminate directly from exercise testing offunctional abilities, whereas activity level is dependent on person recollection of activitiesand subjective judgment of different variables (frequencies, intensity, and duration). Thatcan lead to misestimating of the real physical activity level. The same circumstancesassociated with questionnaires limitations apply to results of correlations between fitnesstest and HRQOL assessment.

Our study has several limitations. Although relations between fitness, activity andhealth benefits have been shown to be similar between men and women, our sampleinclude mostly women. Our sample was comparatively small and results cannot begeneralized. As with any questionnaire approach, the responses were dependent on subjectrecollection and how attentive subjects may have been in their responses.

Conclusions

The only hypothesized pathway between fitness and HRQOL results wassupported. In this study we funded significant correlation between 6 minute walking testand EQ-5D Index results (r=0.436,p<0.01). As it is expected, it was mostly correlated inEQ-5D mobility domain.

In summary, our study provides the adaptation process for SFT procedure and ourfindings are useful for further researches. It is well known that physical activity offers aneffective, non-pharmacological, public health intervention for increasing and maintainingquality of life among older adults. According to Rejeski and Mihalko (2001), persons whoare more active report higher level of life satisfaction. Quality of life is an importantcomponent of “successful aging” for older persons. The emphasis of physical activitypromotion should be moved from a focus upon achieving “fitness” towards optimisation ofquality of life.

CORRELATIONS OF SPECIAL ENDURANCE AND PEAK FORCE TESTS INTHE WATER AND ON THE LAND OF QUALIFIED SWIMMERS

Evita Volkova1, Jeļena Solovjova1, Ilona Zuoziene2,Marius

Brazaitis2

1

Latvian Academy of Sport Education

Brivibas gatve 333, Riga, LV-1006, Latvia

2

Lithuanian Academy of Physical Education

Sporto 6, Kaunas, LT-44221, Lithuania

Abstract

In order to achieve high results in swimming it is important to pay a lot ofattention to physical qualities, absence of which might limit the growth of the results. Theuse of tests allows controllingsportsmen's functional condition, as well as determiningdifferent levels of endurance and force and its sufficiency. The aim of our work is tooptimize the management of swimmers' training process on the basis of special testingresults. In experiment were involved 11 Lithuanian junior national team swimmers (age18±3, height 183±4 cm, weight 75±9 kg, BMI (body mass index) 22±2). In two weeks weaccomplished special endurance tests in pool: 2x25m with 80s interval, 4x50m with 45sinterval, 4x50m with 10s interval, 8x50 with 10s interval. Force tests consisted of pullingforce in water swimming only with hands, swimming only with legs, swimming with fullcoordination, swimming in 30 second and fixed force endurance index. We have measuredisometric torque, maximal force moment, and maximal force moment at musclestimulation (20 Hz/s, 100Hz/250ms, 100Hz/s), force moment at the angular velocity of 30,90, 180 degrees per second of curved and straighten upper shank and thigh extensormuscles was measured using an isokinetic dynamometer (System 3; Biodex MedicalSystems, Shiley, New York). After the tests we calculated group average results and madecorrelative analysis and estimation of swimmers' results.

Key words:Sport swimming, special endurance, peak force.

Introduction

Previous researches show that the use of tests allows controlling sportsmen’sfunctional condition and helps to optimise training process and improve the swimmer'sdistance result Guzman (2007), Fomičenko (2001), Petrovič (2001), Platonovs(2000).

In experiment we determined anthropometric parameters of swimmers, peakforce parameters of swimmers in the water and on the land,special endurance parametersof swimmers in the water andmutual coherence of obtained parameters.

Our research data

allows Lithuanian junior national team swimmers to learn thenecessary control of their training process, helps determine strengths and weaknesses oftheir preparation, and succeed to apply operative corrections. Our research tests can help todeterminate

efficiency of different levels of endurance and peak force and its sufficiency.Testing results can help to plan and predict results of competitions. Using specific sets canimprove all the levels of endurance and peak force in each individual, as well as

in wholegroup of swimmers.

Materials and Methods

Eleven Lithuanian junior national team swimmers were involved in our research.To achieve results following six methods were used.

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CORRELATIONS OF SPECIAL ENDURANCE AND PEAK FORCE TESTS IN THE WATER AND ON THE LAND OFQUALIFIED SWIMMERS

We have obtained following average results of group (see Figure 1) in thedetermination of swimmer anthropometric parameters(with the meter TBF-300, TanitaUK Ltd.Philpots Close, UK): the average age, height, weight, body mass index, fat massinpercentage, fat mass in kilograms of swimmers.

3. Dynamometry

We have measured maximal traction force (with dynamometerNp 120, TPG,Ivanovo, PSRS) and gained average results of the group(see Figure 2) in the determinationof swimmers’ special force in the water: traction force of hands, legs, in full coordinationand traction force during 30 seconds. All participants have made repetitions after standardwarming. Swimmer in the water had to pull out rubber, which included dynamometer. Weregistered results

of swimmers, who seven seconds

tried to reach peak force. The bestresult was gained after twoattempts.

4. Testing

We have calculated average results of group (see Figure 3)2x25 m in the testwith interval 80 s (anaerobic-ablactate power), 4x50 m in the test with interval 45 s(anaerobic-lactate power), 4x50 m in the test with interval 10 s (anaerobic-lactate power),8x50 m in the test with interval 10 s (aerobic power) in the determining of swimmers’special endurance in the water(fixing time with the chronometer in the tests“CASIO”).Only one test was performed during one day. All participants made repetitions afterwarming up, from low start after the signal. The time was stopped, when swimmer touchedthe pool wall. Two synchronized chronometers were used to evaluate time measures.

(0,06 x 0,11 m) was placed transversely across the width of the proximalportion of the quadriceps femoris. Another electrode (0,06 x 0,20 m) covered the distalportion of the muscle above the patella. A standard electrical stimulator (MG 440;Medicor, Budapest, Hungary) was used. The electrical stimulation was applied by 0.5-

was reached and maintained some three seconds before relaxation; twice at eachangles). In all cases muscle torque registrations at different angles were used randomly.The rest interval between MVC measurements was 1 min. In isokinetic torque (IT)measurements subjects were asked to perform three continuous repetitions of kneeextension with maximal intensity at angle velocity 30, 90, 180 deg/s. The equipment andprocedures for electrical stimulation of arm extensor muscles were essentially the same aspreviously described.

6. Mathematical statistical methods

We have calculatedPearson’s correlation coefficient, based on alpha level of0.05 and s\criteria of student to the independent test groups.

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Results

1. Anthropometric parameters of swimmers

Average results of group were obtained (as shown in Figure 1.) in thedetermination of swimmer anthropometric parameters

We have measured maximal traction force (with dynamometerNp 120, TPG,Ivanovo, PSRS) gaining following average results of the group(see Figure 2) in thedetermination of swimmers’ special force in the water: traction force of hands 13±3 kg,traction force of legs 9±1 kg, traction force in full coordination 17±3

kg, traction forceduring 30 seconds 12±3 kg.

3. Special force parameters of swimmers on land

We have measured maximal force moment of thigh (see Figure 3).

Fig.

2. Maximalpulling

force, mean results of group (n=11)

Fig.

1. Anthropometric parameters, mean results of group (n=11)

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CORRELATIONS OF SPECIAL ENDURANCE AND PEAK FORCE TESTS IN THE WATER AND ON THE LAND OFQUALIFIED SWIMMERS

Fig. 3 Determination of thigh muscles force on land

and upper shank muscles (see Figure 4) in the isometric work regime, maximalforce moment at stimulation of muscles (20 Hz/s, 100Hz/250ms, 100Hz/s), force momentat the angular velocity 30, 90, 180 degrees per second and carried out activation test ofmuscles in the determination of special force parameters of swimmers on land with theisometric device (System 3; Biodex Medical Systems, Shiley, New York).

In the producing of the results and calculatingaverage results of group, therewas determined their coherence with special force and parameters of endurance in thewater.

Fig. 4 Determination of upper shank muscles force on land

4. Special endurance parameters of swimmers in the water

We have obtained average results of group (see Figure 3) during following tests:2x25 m in the test with interval 80 s-

26 s, 4x50 m in the test with interval 45 s-

31 s, 4x50m in the test with interval 10 s-

34 s, 8x50 m in the test with interval 10 s-

35 s in thedetermining of swimmers’ special endurance in the water(fixing time with thechronometer in the tests“CASIO”).