Analyzing the early monastic traditions

Since the early
years of the Christian era, Christians have been called by Christ Himself to
life in the world without being of the world (John 17:13-16). They are distinct
from the world, because of their special conduct and their exemplary ethical
life. When, toward the middle of the second century of the Christian era,
Christian life reached a low ebb, some Christians, both men and women, reacted
to this by raising their own personal standards of austere Christian life. They
practiced chastity, celibacy, poverty, prayer and fasting (Justin, I Apology
15:6; Athenagoras, Apology 33; and Galenus, De Sententiis Politiae Platonicae).

These people
considered themselves Christians selected to live the life of angels (Matt.
22:30). They lived by themselves or in special houses as a community. At about
the middle of the third century, they began fleeing the world and going to the
desert, where they established permanent habitations, whether by themselves or
in small groups. They are known as the "anchorites" (from
anachoresis: departure, flight); the hermits (from eremos: desert); and the
monastics (from monos: alone, for a monastic "lives in the presence of God
alone").

A good example of
an anchorite monk is Saint Anthony the Great, who fled the world [c. 285] and
established himself in the desert of Middle Egypt. Many people imitated his
example; they went and lived close to him, thus "populating the
desert" (Troparion of St. Anthony). These monks lived by themselves in
huts and small houses to form a village called "lavra" (later the
concept of "lavra" develops, as we will see). St. Anthony is
considered the Father of Orthodox monasticism, for his kind of monasticism, that
of "living alone with God as his only companion" remained the most
cherished monastic ideal for the monks of the Eastern Orthodox Church
throughout the ages.

The establishment
of Christianity as a legal religion of the roman Empire by Constantine the Great,
with the edict of Milan (313), led to a new decline in the ethical life of
Christians. In reaction to this decline, many refused to accept any compromises
and fled the world to become monastics. Monasticism thrived, especially in
Egypt, with two important monastic centers, one in the desert of Nitria, by the
Western Bank of the Nile, with Abba Ammoun (d. 356) as its founder, and one in
the desert of Skete, south of Nitria, with Saint Makarios of Egypt (d. ca.
Egypt 330) as its founder. These monks were anchorites, following the monastic
ideal of St. Anthony. They lived by themselves, gathering together for common
worship on Saturdays and Sundays only.

Whereas Saint
Anthony the Great is the founder of anchorite monasticism, Saint Pachomios of
Egypt (d. 346) is the founder of the so-called "cenobitic" (from
Koinos bios: communal life) monasticism. Pachomios started as an anchorite
himself in the Thebaid, Upper Egypt. Later in that same place, he founded the
first "monastery" in the modern sense of the term. St. Anthony's
lavra was a village of anchorites who lived by themselves in their own huts and
had a life in common, practiced common daily prayer evening and morning, worked
in common, had common revenues and expenditures, and common meals, and wore the
same identical monastic garb. This garb consisted of a linen tunic or robe and
belt, a white goat skin or sheep skin coat and belt, a cone-shaped head-cover
or hood (koukoulion) and a linen scarf (maforion or pallium). At this stage,
monks were identified with lay people seeking Christian perfection. No
religious ceremony was required, and no monastic vows. Monks were prohibited
from becoming clergy.

Anchorite
monasticism existed in other places besides Egypt. However, "organized
monasticism," that is, of the "cenobitic" type, spread to Sinai,
Palestine and Syria from Egypt. Two monks from Egypt, St. Ilarion (d. 371) and
St. Epiphanios, later bishop of Salamis in Cyprus (d. 403), brought organized
monasticism to Palestine.

Monasticism at this
time was identified with the "charismatics" of the ancient church.
This identification of monasticism with the "enthusiastic element" in
the church led to some abuses, of which those around Eustathios of Sebastia (d.
380) are good example. Eustathios introduced monasticism into Asia Minor from
Egypt. His followers became overzealous; they taught that marriage and
meat-eating made salvation impossible; they were, in fact, advocating
monasticism for all Christians. The Council of Gangra (343) condemned these
over-enthusiastic practices. Another heresy that affected monasticism during
this same time was "Messalianism," which appeared in Mesopotamia (c.
350 A.D.). Messalians were ascetics who practiced poverty, celibacy and
fasting. They rejected the sacramental life of the church and pretended to see
God with their physical eyes. They spread in Syria and Asia Minor; they finally
were anathematized by the Third Ecumenical Council of Ephesus [431]. Under the
influence of the Messalians, the non-sleepers or Vigilant (Akoimetoi) type of
monasticism was developed in the area of Constantinople (mid-fifth century).
The most famous instance was the Studion monastery, renowned for its polemic
against the Iconoclasts. St. Symeon of Antioch [ca. 460] also developed the
Stylite type of monasticism, living himself on a pole (stylos) for over 36
years.

Monasticism became
a strong movement in the life of the church. The church not only condemned
anti-church groups and tendencies within monasticism, but also guided and
directed the monastic movement to meet its own needs. One of the ways through
which this occurred was through a convergence of monasticism and clergy: monks
were now ordained in a special religious service at which they subscribed to
special monastic vows, thus becoming a special class of Christians standing
between the clergy and the laity. This development was mostly due to the
efforts of Saint Basil, Archbishop of Caesaria in Cappadocia.

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