Birch's Views of Philadelphia

"The City & Port of Philadelphia, on the River Delaware from Kensington." This became an iconic image of Philadelphia. Tradition holds that William Penn signed his 1682 treaty with the Leni Lenape tribe under this elm tree.

Birch's Views of Philadelphia was an 1800 book of prints drawn and engraved by William Russell Birch (1755–1844) and his son Thomas Birch (1779–1851). The 27 illustrations of the city are extraordinarily valuable to historians because they document Philadelphia architecture and street-life at the beginning of the nineteenth century.

Formally titled The City of Philadelphia, in the State of Pennsylvania North America; as it appeared in the Year 1800, the volume was self-published by William Birch in December 1800. Birch was a British-born miniature painter and engraver, and this became his most famous work.

The views depict monuments, everyday life, and even reflect politics of the era. Plate 28 shows a technological marvel, the Water Works in Center Square, a water tower fed by steam pumps that made Philadelphia the first city in the United States with a general water-supply system. Two of the plates portray Native American delegations touring the city, and at least two plates include African Americans. Plate 29 shows the USS Frigate Philadelphia being built in a Southwark shipyard, but the engraving's ominous title, "Preparation for WAR to defend Commerce," refers to the 1798-1800 Quasi-War with France, in which hundreds of American merchant vessels were boarded or seized.[1][2]

The Birches created additional views, and updated old ones — notably, reworking a view of Market Street to show the December 26, 1799 national funeral procession for George Washington.[3]Birch's Views sold well and went into multiple editions, inspiring the pair to publish similar collected views of New York City, and of suburban estates surrounding Philadelphia and Baltimore.

Contents

"The City of Philadelphia, in the State
of Pennsylvania North America; as it
appeared in the Year 1800"

Frontispiece
Plate 2

"The City & Port of Philadelphia, on
the River Delaware from Kensington."

Taken from about 2 miles north of the city.
The spire left of center is Christ Church.

Pennsylvania tradition holds that the Colony's founder, William Penn,
signed his 1682 treaty with the Leni Lenape tribe beneath this ancient tree.
The "Treaty Elm" blew down in 1810, and the site is now Penn Treaty Park.

The national funeral service for George Washington was held in this church
on December 26, 1799. In his oration, "Light Horse Harry" Lee described
the late President as "First in War, First in Peace, and First in the Hearts of
His Countrymen."

Plate 7

"Old Lutheran Church, in Fifth Street
Philadelphia."

St. Michael's Lutheran Church (built 1743-48, demolished 1872).

Plate 8

"South East Corner of Third and
Market Streets, Philadelphia."

Cooke Building (built about 1792, demolished about 1838).
"Cooke's Folly" was a grand commercial building built by jeweler
Joseph Cooke.

Plate 9

Plate 10

Plate 11

""High Street, From the Country
Market-place Philadelphia: with the
procession in commemoration of the
Death of General George Washington,
December 26, 1799."

George Washington died at Mount Vernon, Virginia, on December
14, 1799. A national funeral procession and service for the late
President was held in Philadelphia on December 26, 1799.

Birch reworked this early view into Plate 11.

Note that the Water Works (built 1799-1800) is absent from
the early view, but is visible in the background of Plate 11.

Plate 12

"High Street, from Ninth Street.
Philadelphia."

Plate 13

"The House intended for the
President of the United States, in
Ninth Street Philadelphia."

Pennsylvania built this executive mansion in the 1790s as part of a failed
effort to persuade Congress to name Philadelphia the permanent capital of
the United States. President George Washington, and later President John
Adams, declined to occupy it. Following 10 years in Philadelphia, the
national capital moved to the District of Columbia in 1800.
The mansion housed the University of Pennsylvania from 1802 to 1829,
when it was demolished.

Morris bought up nearly the entire block bounded by Chestnut, Walnut, 7th
and 8th Streets, and began construction of this mansion. L'Enfant, the
French designer of Washington, D.C., was his architect. "Morris's Folly" was
never completed due to the financier's bankruptcy.Jewelers' Row now occupies the site.

Plate 15

"Second Street North from Market St.
with Christ Church. Philadelphia."

Philadelphia built the first citywide water system in the United States. Steam
pumps drew drinking water from the Schuylkill River, a mile away, and
pumped it into tanks in the dome of the Water Works. Gravity then
distributed it through wooden water mains.

Plate 29

"Preparation for WAR to defend
Commerce. The Swedish Church
Southwark with the building of the
Frigate Philadelphia."

^Greg H. Williams, The French Assault on American Shipping, 1793-1813: A Comprehensive Record of Merchant Marine Losses (London, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, 2009), Introduction. ISBN978-0-7864-3837-2

^Following a brief career of freeing American merchant ships from French privateers in the West Indies, USS Philadelphia was itself captured by Tunisian pirates in 1803 during the First Barbary War. See: Spencer Tucker, Stephen Decatur: A Life Most Bold and Daring. (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2004). ISBN1-55750-999-9.

S. Robert Teitelman, Birch's Views of Philadelphia: a reduced facsimile of 'The City of Philadelphia-- as it appeared in the Year 1800': with photographs of the sites in 1960 & 1982. (Free Library of Philadelphia, 1982).[1]

Lenape
–
The Leni Lenape or Lenape, or the Delaware people in older references, are a Native American tribe and, in Canada, a recognized First Nations band government. Subsequently, the Lenape became subjugated and made tributary to first the Susquehannocks, then the Iroquois, iroquoian peoples occasionally fought the Lenape. As the 1700s progressed, many s

William Birch (painter)
–
William Russell Birch was an English miniature painter, enameller, and landscape engraver and designer. Birch was born in Warwickshire, the son of Anne, née Russell and he spent his early childhood in Warwick and was apprenticed to a jeweller, Thomas Jeffreys, and to Sir Joshua Reynolds. He exhibited enamel portraits at the Royal Academy from 1781

Thomas Birch (artist)
–
Thomas Birch, was an English-born American portrait and marine painter. Birch was born in London, England and he came to the U. S. in 1794, and assisted his artist father, William Birch, in preparing a 29-plate collection of engravings, Birchs Views of Philadelphia. Subscribers to the series included President John Adams and Vice President Thomas J

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
–
In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make P

Portrait miniature
–
A portrait miniature is a miniature portrait painting, usually executed in gouache, watercolour, or enamel. They were especially valuable in introducing people to other over distances. Soldiers and sailors might carry miniatures of their loved ones while traveling, the first miniaturists used watercolour to paint on stretched vellum. During the sec

Residence Act
–
The federal government was located in New York City at the time the bill was passed and had previously been located in Philadelphia, Annapolis, and several other locations. Congress passed the Residence Act as part of a compromise brokered between James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and Alexander Hamilton, Madison and Jefferson favored a southerly sit

4.
President's House, Philadelphia. This Philadelphia mansion served as the presidential mansion of George Washington, 1790-97, and John Adams, 1797-1800. Adams first occupied the White House on November 1, 1800.

Thomas Jefferson
–
Thomas Jefferson was an American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third President of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Previously, he was elected the second Vice President of the United States, Jefferson was primarily of English ancestry, born and educated in colonial Virgini

1.
Thomas Jefferson

2.
Wren Building (rear), College of William & Mary where Jefferson studied

3.
House of Burgesses in Williamsburg, Virginia, where Jefferson served 1769–1775

4.
Jefferson's home, Monticello

Robert Liston (diplomat)
–
Sir Robert Liston, GCB, PC was a British diplomat and ambassador to several countries. Liston was born in Kirkliston, Scotland, went up to Edinburgh University, said to be able to speak ten languages, Liston joined the diplomatic service and enjoyed a career spanning Europe appointed on 22 September 1793, eventually arriving at Constantinople on 19

Thomas Mifflin
–
Thomas Mifflin was an American merchant and politician from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Several of these activities qualify him to be counted among the Founding Fathers and he served as Speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, President of the Pennsylvania Supreme Executive Council and the first Governor of Pennsylvania. Thomas Mifflin

Richard Varick
–
Richard Varick was an American lawyer and politician. He was born on March 15,1753, at Hackensack in Bergen County, New Jersey, at the outset of the American Revolution, he was studying law at Kings College in New York City. He suspended his studies and became a captain in the militia, on June 28,1775, he was appointed captain of the 1st New York R

1.
Richard Varick

2.
Signature of Richard Varick while Mayor of New York (1798)

Benjamin Latrobe
–
Benjamin Henry Boneval Latrobe was a British subject and neoclassical architect. It is the first Roman Catholic Cathedral constructed in the United States, Latrobe also designed the largest structure in America at the time, the Merchants Exchange in Baltimore. Latrobe emigrated to the U. S. in 1796, initially settling in Virginia where he worked on

Edward Savage (artist)
–
Edward Savage was an American portrait painter and engraver. He was born in Princeton, Mass. and at first worked as a goldsmith, although seemingly untrained in painting, he came into prominence in 1790 through his portrait of George Washington, intended as a gift to Harvard University. In 1791 he visited London, where he studied for a time under B

John Adams
–
John Adams was an American patriot who served as the second President of the United States and the first Vice President. He was a lawyer, diplomat, statesman, political theorist, and, as a Founding Father and he was also a dedicated diarist and correspondent, particularly with his wife and closest advisor Abigail. He collaborated with his cousin, r

Water tower
–
In some places, the term standpipe is used interchangeably to refer to a water tower, especially one with tall and narrow proportions. Water towers often operate in conjunction with underground or surface service reservoirs, other types of water towers may only store raw water for fire protection or industrial purposes, and may not necessarily be c

Water supply
–
Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities commercial organisations, community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes. However, about 14% did not have access to a water source and had to use unprotected wells or springs, canals. A clean water supply - in particular water that is not polluted with fecal

4.
A young girl collects clean water from a communal water supply in Kawempe, Uganda.

Native Americans in the United States
–
In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of fi

USS Philadelphia (1799)
–
USS Philadelphia, a 1240-ton, 36-gun sailing frigate, was the second vessel of the United States Navy to be named for the city of Philadelphia. Originally named City of Philadelphia, she was built in 1798–1799 for the United States government by the citizens of that city, funding for her construction was the result of a funding drive which raised $

Southwark, Philadelphia
–
Southwark was originally the Southwark District, a colonial era municipality in Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania. Today, it is a neighborhood in the South Philadelphia section of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Because of its south of the early Philadelphia, the name was adopted in allusion to the borough of Southwark in the county of London, England.

Quasi-War
–
The Quasi-War was an undeclared war fought almost entirely at sea between the United States of America and the French Republic from 1798 to 1800. Louis XVI of France fell from power in 1792 during the French Revolution, the United States had already declared neutrality in the conflict between Great Britain and revolutionary France, and American leg

George Washington
–
George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations

New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for int

4.
Broadway follows the Native American Wickquasgeck Trail through Manhattan.

Baltimore
–
Baltimore is the largest city in the U. S. state of Maryland, and the 29th-most populous city in the country. It was established by the Constitution of Maryland and is not part of any county, thus, it is the largest independent city in the United States, with a population of 621,849 as of 2015. As of 2010, the population of the Baltimore Metropolit

Christ Church, Philadelphia
–
Christ Church is an Episcopal church in the Old City neighborhood of Philadelphia. Founded in 1695 as a parish of the Church of England, in 1785, its rector, William White, became the first Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church. From 1754 to 1810, the churchs 196-foot tower and steeple was the tallest structure in North America, Christ Church wa

William Penn
–
He was an early advocate of democracy and religious freedom, notable for his good relations and successful treaties with the Lenape Native Americans. Under his direction, the city of Philadelphia was planned and developed, in 1681, King Charles II handed over a large piece of his American land holdings to William Penn to appease the debts the king

Penn Treaty Park
–
Penn Treaty Park is a small park on the western bank of the Delaware River, in the Fishtown neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It is located on Beach Street, near its intersection with Delaware Avenue. The land that is now the park was part of the Lenape village of Shackamaxon, where William Penn famously entered into a treaty of peace wit

4.
"Penn's Treaty with the Indians" by Edward Hicks, 1837. Hicks also included the subject in many of the 61 versions of his "Peaceable Kingdom."

Henry Lee III
–
Lees service during the American Revolution as a cavalry officer in the Continental Army earned him the nickname by which he is best known, Light-Horse Harry. Lee was the father of Civil War-era Confederate general Robert E. Lee, Lee was born near Dumfries in the Colony of Virginia. He was the son of Col. Henry Lee II of Leesylvania and his father

University of Pennsylvania
–
The University of Pennsylvania is a private Ivy League research university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Incorporated as The Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania, Penn is one of 14 founding members of the Association of American Universities, the university coat of arms features a dolphin on the red chief, adopted dire

1.
"House intended for the President of the United States" (if Philadelphia remained the National Capital of the United States) from " Birch's Views of Philadelphia " (1800). Home of the College of Philadelphia/University of Pennsylvania. from 1801 to 1829.

Benjamin Henry Latrobe
–
Benjamin Henry Boneval Latrobe was a British subject and neoclassical architect. It is the first Roman Catholic Cathedral constructed in the United States, Latrobe also designed the largest structure in America at the time, the Merchants Exchange in Baltimore. Latrobe emigrated to the U. S. in 1796, initially settling in Virginia where he worked on

City Tavern
–
Called the most genteel tavern in America by John Adams, the original tavern was the favorite meeting place of many of the Founding Fathers and of many members of the First Continental Congress. The land on which City Tavern was built was conveyed in 1772 by Samuel Powell to a group of seven wealthy citizens, the tavern was built by subscription in

1.
City Tavern in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Greek Revival
–
The Greek Revival was an architectural movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, predominantly in Northern Europe and the United States. A product of Hellenism, it may be looked upon as the last phase in the development of Neoclassical architecture, the term was first used by Charles Robert Cockerell in a lecture he gave as Professor of A

Frederick Graff
–
Frederick Graff was a hydraulic engineer. His early life was devoted to the trade of a carpenter, when twenty years old he was employed by B. H. Latrobe as his assistant engineer in erecting the first water works in Philadelphia, located in Centre Square. On 1 April 1805, he was elected superintendent and engineer of the works, in 1811 Graff recomm

Philadelphia City Hall
–
Philadelphia City Hall, built in 1901 and located at 1 Penn Square, is the seat of government for the city of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The building was designed by Scottish-born architect John McArthur, Jr. in the Second Empire style, City Hall was topped off in 1894, although the interior wasnt finished until 1901. Designed to be the worlds tal

Water system
–
A water supply system or water supply network is a system of engineered hydrologic and hydraulic components which provide water supply. A water supply system includes, A drainage basin. A raw water collection point where the water accumulates, such as a lake, raw water may be transferred using uncovered ground-level aqueducts, covered tunnels or un

3.
Most (treated) water distribution happens through underground pipes

4.
Pressurizing the water is required between the small water reserve and the end-user

Water supply network
–
A water supply system or water supply network is a system of engineered hydrologic and hydraulic components which provide water supply. A water supply system includes, A drainage basin. A raw water collection point where the water accumulates, such as a lake, raw water may be transferred using uncovered ground-level aqueducts, covered tunnels or un

3.
Most (treated) water distribution happens through underground pipes

4.
Pressurizing the water is required between the small water reserve and the end-user

International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning

1.
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

Privateers
–
A privateer was a private person or ship that engaged in maritime warfare under a commission of war. Captured ships were subject to condemnation and sale under prize law, a percentage share usually went to the issuer of the commission. Since robbery under arms was common to trade, all merchant ships were already armed. During war, naval resources w

West Indies
–
Indigenous peoples were the first inhabitants of the West Indies. In 1492, Christopher Columbus became the first European to arrive at the islands, after the first of the voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas, Europeans began to use the term West Indies to distinguish the region from the East Indies of South Asia and Southeast Asia. In th

1.
West Indies

2.
Lesser Antilles islands (West Indies)

Tunisia
–
Tunisia, officially the Republic of Tunisia is the northernmost country in Africa, covering 165,000 square kilometres. Its northernmost point, Cape Angela, is the northernmost point on the African continent and it is bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Tunisias popu

3.
The Roman amphitheater in El Djem, built during the first half of the 3rd century AD

4.
Domes of the Great Mosque of Kairouan. Founded in 670, it dates in its present form largely from the Aghlabid period (9th century). It is the oldest mosque in the Maghreb.

First Barbary War
–
Three of these were nominal provinces of the Ottoman Empire, but in practice autonomous, Tripoli, Algiers, and Tunis. The fourth was the independent Sultanate of Morocco, the cause of the war was pirates from the Barbary States seizing American merchant ships and holding the crews for ransom, demanding the U. S. pay tribute to the Barbary rulers. U

1.
Lenape
–
The Leni Lenape or Lenape, or the Delaware people in older references, are a Native American tribe and, in Canada, a recognized First Nations band government. Subsequently, the Lenape became subjugated and made tributary to first the Susquehannocks, then the Iroquois, iroquoian peoples occasionally fought the Lenape. As the 1700s progressed, many surviving Lenape moved west —into the upper Ohio River basin, during the decades of the 18th century most Lenape were pushed out of their homeland by expanding European colonies, exacerbated by losses from intertribal conflicts. The divisions and troubles of the American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them farther west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. Lenape kinship system has matrilineal clans, that is, children belong to their mothers clan, from which they gain social status, the mothers eldest brother was more significant as a mentor to the male children than was their father, who was generally of another clan. Hereditary leadership passed through the line, and women elders could remove leaders of whom they disapproved. Agricultural land was managed by women and allotted according to the needs of their extended families. Families were matrilocal, newlywed couples would live with the brides family, lenni-Lenape comes from their autonym, Lenni, which may mean genuine, pure, real, original, and Lenape, meaning Indian or man. Alternately, lënu may be translated as man, the tribes other name, Delaware, is not of Native American origin. English colonists named the Delaware River for the first governor of the Province of Virginia, Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, the English then began to call the Lenape the Delaware Indians because of where they lived. Swedes also settled in the area, and early Swedish sources listed the Lenape as the Renappi, traditional Lenape lands, the Lenapehoking, was a large territory that encompassed the Delaware Valley of eastern Pennsylvania. The Swedes and Dutch at New Castle, a Lenâpé-English Dictionary, From An Anonymous In The Archives Of The Moravian Church At Bethlehem. David Zeisbergers History of Northern American Indians, grammar of the Language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians. The Diary of David Zeisberger, A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, the Diary of David Zeisberger, A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, Volume 2. Zeisberger’s Indian Dictionary, English, German, Iroquois—The Onondaga and Algonquin—The Delaware, “The Delaware that Zeisberger translated was Munsee, and not Unami. Adams, Richard Calmit, The Delaware Indians, a history, Hope Farm Press Bierhorst. The White Deer and Other Stories Told by the Lenape, ISBN 0-688-12900-5 Brown, James W. and Rita T. Kohn, eds

Lenape
–
Jennie Bobb and her daughter, Nellie Longhat (both Delaware), Oklahoma, 1915
Lenape
–
Lenapehoking, the original Lenape territory. Munsee speakers in the north, Unami-speakers in the center, and Unalichtigo-speakers in the south
Lenape
–
Susie Elkhair (d. 1926) of the Delaware Tribe of Indians, wearing ribbonwork shawl
Lenape
–
Benjamin West 's painting (in 1771) of William Penn 's 1682 treaty with the Lenape

2.
William Birch (painter)
–
William Russell Birch was an English miniature painter, enameller, and landscape engraver and designer. Birch was born in Warwickshire, the son of Anne, née Russell and he spent his early childhood in Warwick and was apprenticed to a jeweller, Thomas Jeffreys, and to Sir Joshua Reynolds. He exhibited enamel portraits at the Royal Academy from 1781 to 1794, in 1785, he received a medal from the Royal Society of Arts. As an engraver he is best known in England for his Délices de la Grande Bretagne, consisting of plates of ancient buildings in Norwich and elsewhere. After emigrating to Philadelphia in 1794 he made portrait enamels of many people including copies of portraits of George Washington and he was the father of Thomas Birch, American portrait and marine painter. His typescript autobiography is held by the Historical Society of Pennsylvania and he died in Philadelphia, aged 79. The City of Philadelphia, in the State of Pennsylvania North America, Philadelphia,1800 The Country Seats of the United States,1808 Emily T. Cooperman & Lea Carson Sherk, William Birch, Picturing the American Scene. The first biography of William Birch, it contains a version of his autobiography

3.
Thomas Birch (artist)
–
Thomas Birch, was an English-born American portrait and marine painter. Birch was born in London, England and he came to the U. S. in 1794, and assisted his artist father, William Birch, in preparing a 29-plate collection of engravings, Birchs Views of Philadelphia. Subscribers to the series included President John Adams and Vice President Thomas Jefferson and this sold well and went into multiple editions, inspiring similar collected views of New York City, and of suburban estates surrounding Philadelphia and Baltimore. The sons first major painting appears to have been a view of Philadelphia from the Treaty Elm in Kensington and he painted portraits until about 1807, when he took up marine-painting. Some of his most famous works depict naval battles of the War of 1812, Birch was the first American ship portraitist, and his paintings were copied by countless artists and craftsmen in America and Europe. In addition to ships, they provide images of bridges, lighthouses, docksides. His paintings of suburban mansions and rural scenes were often turned into engravings. Historically, the Birches most important work may be a circa-1801 engraving documenting the unfinished U. S. Capitol. Another, may be the painting depicting an 1812 naval battle between USS United States and HMS Macedonian, that hung in the Oval Office of U. S. President John F. Kennedy. It was sold at auction in 2008, setting a price for the artist of $481,000. An assessment from 1867, Marine landscapes were painted thirty years ago by an Englishman in Philadelphia — Thomas Birch, the freshness of his atmosphere and clearly-painted waves were a marked feature. His delineation of the engagement between the U. S and he exhibited regularly at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts for forty years, beginning in 1811, and managed the museum, 1812-17. In 1833, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Honorary member, marian Carson, Thomas Birch, Catalogue of the 150th Anniversary Exhibition of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, p.34. Doris Jear Creer, Thomas Birch, A Study of the Condition of Painting, William H. Gerdts, Thomas Birch, Paintings and Drawings, exhibition catalogue, Philadelphia Maritime Museum,1966. Richard Anthony Lewis, Interesting Particulars and Melancholy Occurrences, Thomas Birchs Representations of the Shipping Trade, tony Lewis, Sleigh Ride on a Grey Day,1832, American Paintings, pp. 36–38. Stefanie A. Munsing, Thomas Birch, Philadelphia, Three Centuries of American Art, michael W. Schantz, Celebrating Philadelphias Artistic Legacy, pp. 23–24. Martin P. Snyder, William Birch, His Philadelphia Views, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, S. Robert Teitelman, Birchs Views of Philadelphia, with Photographs of the Sites in 1960 &1982. Biography from ushistory. org artcyclopedia. com brooklynmuseum. org View of the Delaware near Philadelphia,1831, Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D. C

4.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
–
In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland

5.
Portrait miniature
–
A portrait miniature is a miniature portrait painting, usually executed in gouache, watercolour, or enamel. They were especially valuable in introducing people to other over distances. Soldiers and sailors might carry miniatures of their loved ones while traveling, the first miniaturists used watercolour to paint on stretched vellum. During the second half of the 17th century, vitreous enamel painted on copper became increasingly popular, in the 18th century, miniatures were painted with watercolour on ivory, which had now become relatively cheap. As small in size as 40 mm ×30 mm, portrait miniatures were used as personal mementos or as jewellery or snuff box covers. The portrait miniature developed from the manuscript, which had been superseded for the purposes of book illustration by techniques such as woodprints. Lucas Horenbout was another Netherlandish miniature painter at the court of Henry VIII and these might be paintings, or finished drawings with some colour, and were produced by François Clouet, and his followers. Following these men we find Simon Renard de St. André, others whose names might be mentioned were Joseph Werner, and Rosalba Carriera. The colours are opaque, and gold is used to heighten the effect and they are often signed, and have frequently also a Latin motto upon them. Hilliard worked for a while in France, and he is identical with the painter alluded to in 1577 as Nicholas Belliart. Hilliard was succeeded by his son Lawrence Hilliard, his technique was similar to that of his father, but bolder, Isaac Oliver and his son Peter Oliver succeeded Hilliard. Isaac was the pupil of Hilliard, Peter was the pupil of Isaac. The two men were the earliest to give roundness and form to the faces they painted and they signed their best works in monogram, and painted not only very small miniatures, but larger ones measuring as much as 10 in ×9 in. They copied for Charles I of England on a small scale many of his famous pictures by the old masters, other miniaturists at about the same date included Balthazar Gerbier, George Jamesone, Penelope Cleyn and her brothers. Samuel Cooper was a nephew and student of the elder Hoskins and he spent much of his time in Paris and Holland, and very little is known of his career. His work has a breadth and dignity, and has been well called life-size work in little. His portraits of the men of the Puritan epoch are remarkable for their truth to life and he painted upon card, chicken skin and vellum, and on two occasions upon thin pieces of mutton bone. The use of ivory was not introduced until long after his time and his work is frequently signed with his initials, generally in gold, and very often with the addition of the date

6.
Residence Act
–
The federal government was located in New York City at the time the bill was passed and had previously been located in Philadelphia, Annapolis, and several other locations. Congress passed the Residence Act as part of a compromise brokered between James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and Alexander Hamilton, Madison and Jefferson favored a southerly site for the capital on the Potomac River, but they lacked a majority to pass the measure through Congress. Meanwhile, Hamilton was pushing for Congress to pass the Assumption Bill, with the compromise, Hamilton was able to muster support from the New York State delegates for the Potomac site, while four delegates switched from opposition to support for the Assumption Bill. The Residence Act gave authority to President George Washington to select a site for the capital, along the Potomac. In the meantime, Philadelphia was chosen as a temporary capital, Washington had authority to appoint three commissioners and oversee the construction of Federal buildings in the District, something to which he gave much personal attention. Thomas Jefferson was a key adviser to Washington, and helped organize a competition to solicit designs for the United States Capitol, during the American Revolutionary War, the Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia at the Pennsylvania State House. On account of British military actions, the Continental Congress was forced to relocate to Baltimore, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, Congress requested that John Dickinson, the governor of Pennsylvania, call up the militia to defend Congress from attacks by the protesters. In what became known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, Dickinson sympathized with the protesters, as a result, Congress was forced to flee to Princeton, New Jersey on June 21,1783, and met in Annapolis and Trenton, before ending up in New York City. The United States Congress was established upon ratification of the United States Constitution in 1789, the question of where to establish the capital was raised in 1783. The Southern states refused to accept a capital in the North, another suggestion was for there to be two capitals, one in the North and one in the South. Congress approved a plan in 1783 for a capital on the Potomac, near Georgetown, in Maryland, and another capital on the Delaware River, this plan was rescinded the following year. Establishing the capital was put on hold for years, until the Constitutional Convention was held in 1787. The Constitution said nothing about where the district would be. The debate heated up in 1789 when Congress convened for the first time under the Constitution, two sites were favored by members of Congress, one site on the Potomac River near Georgetown, and another site on the Susquehanna River near Wrights Ferry. The Susquehanna River site was approved by the House in September 1789, while the Senate bill specified a site on the Delaware River near Germantown, Congress did not reach an agreement at the time. The selection of a location for the capital resurfaced in the summer of 1790, at the same time, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton was pushing for Congress to pass a financial plan. A key provision of Hamiltons plan involved the Federal government assuming states debts incurred during the American Revolutionary War, northern states had accumulated a huge amount of debt during the war, amounting to 21.5 million dollars, and wanted the federal government to assume their burden. The Southern states, whose citizens would effectively be forced to pay a portion of debt if the Federal Government assumed it

Residence Act
–
Sketch of Washington, D.C. by Thomas Jefferson (March 1791)
Residence Act
–
Residence Act of 1790
Residence Act
–
The Residence Act was passed in 1790, while Congress was convening at Federal Hall in New York City.
Residence Act
–
President's House, Philadelphia. This Philadelphia mansion served as the presidential mansion of George Washington, 1790-97, and John Adams, 1797-1800. Adams first occupied the White House on November 1, 1800.

7.
Thomas Jefferson
–
Thomas Jefferson was an American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third President of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Previously, he was elected the second Vice President of the United States, Jefferson was primarily of English ancestry, born and educated in colonial Virginia. He graduated from the College of William & Mary and briefly practiced law and he became the United States Minister to France in May 1785, and subsequently the nations first Secretary of State in 1790–1793 under President George Washington. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System, as President, Jefferson pursued the nations shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. He also organized the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the countrys territory, as a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. Jeffersons second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807, responding to British threats to U. S. shipping. In 1803, Jefferson began a process of Indian tribe removal to the newly organized Louisiana Territory. Jefferson mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and he was a proven architect in the classical tradition. Jeffersons keen interest in religion and philosophy earned him the presidency of the American Philosophical Society and he shunned organized religion, but was influenced by both Christianity and deism. He was well versed in linguistics and spoke several languages and he founded the University of Virginia after retiring from public office. He was a letter writer and corresponded with many prominent and important people throughout his adult life. His only full-length book is Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson owned several plantations which were worked by hundreds of slaves. Most historians now believe that, after the death of his wife in 1782, he had a relationship with his slave Sally Hemings and fathered at least one of her children. Various modern scholars are more critical of Jeffersons private life, pointing out the discrepancy between his ownership of slaves and his political principles, for example. Presidential scholars, however, consistently rank Jefferson among the greatest presidents, Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13,1743, at the family home in Shadwell in the Colony of Virginia, the third of ten children. He was of English and possibly Welsh descent and was born a British subject and his father Peter Jefferson was a planter and surveyor who died when Jefferson was fourteen, his mother was Jane Randolph. Peter Jefferson moved his family to Tuckahoe Plantation in 1745 upon the death of a friend who had named him guardian of his children, the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell in 1752, where Peter died in 1757, his estate was divided between his sons Thomas and Randolph. Thomas inherited approximately 5,000 acres of land, including Monticello and he assumed full authority over his property at age 21

8.
Robert Liston (diplomat)
–
Sir Robert Liston, GCB, PC was a British diplomat and ambassador to several countries. Liston was born in Kirkliston, Scotland, went up to Edinburgh University, said to be able to speak ten languages, Liston joined the diplomatic service and enjoyed a career spanning Europe appointed on 22 September 1793, eventually arriving at Constantinople on 19 May 1794. He hated it there and left on 4 November 1795, in a promotion he was posted to the United States. In 1796 he married the heiress Henrietta Marchant of Antigua, Robert was also on excellent terms with Washington, though relations cooled somewhat after Adams election. On 26 March 1812 he was sworn a Privy Councillor, and on 21 October 1816, listons wife died in 1828 and he died in 1836. He and his wife are buried in the graveyard of Gogar Kirk, Liston has bought the kirk and burial ground and built a family mausoleum at the site. However when the kirk was rebuilt in 1890, as there were no descendants to save it and it was replaced with a memorial obelisk

9.
Thomas Mifflin
–
Thomas Mifflin was an American merchant and politician from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Several of these activities qualify him to be counted among the Founding Fathers and he served as Speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, President of the Pennsylvania Supreme Executive Council and the first Governor of Pennsylvania. Thomas Mifflin was born January 10,1744 in Philadelphia in the Province of Pennsylvania and he was the son of John Mifflin and Elizabeth Bagnall. His great-grandfather John Mifflin, Jr. was born in Warminster, Wiltshire, England, Thomas Mifflin graduated from the College of Philadelphia in 1760, and joined the mercantile business of William Biddle. After returning from a trip to Europe in 1765, he established a business partnership with his brother, George Mifflin. He was a member of the American Philosophical Society, early in the Revolutionary War, Mifflin left the Continental Congress to serve in the Continental Army. He was commissioned as a major, then became George Washingtons aide-de-camp and and his leadership in the battles Trenton and Princeton led to a promotion to major general. In Congress, there was debate regarding whether an army was more efficient or if individual states should maintain their own forces. As a result of this debate the Congressional Board of War was created and he then rejoined the army but took little active role, following criticism of his service as quartermaster general. He was accused of embezzlement and welcomed an inquiry, however and he resigned his commission—by then, as a major general—but Congress continued to ask his advice even after accepting his resignation. Prior to Independence, Thomas Mifflin was a member of the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly and he served two terms in the Continental Congress, including seven months as that bodys presiding officer. His most important duty as president was to accept on behalf of Congress the commission of General George Washington, who resigned in December 1783. Nonetheless, after the versions of the Treaty of Paris were exchanged in France on May 12,1784. Mifflin had just appointed Thomas Jefferson as a minister to France on May 7,1784, after serving as president, Thomas Mifflin was a delegate to the United States Constitutional Convention in 1787, as well as a signer of the Constitution. He served in the house of Pennsylvania General Assembly and he was a member of the Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, and on November 5,1788, he was elected President of the Council, replacing Benjamin Franklin. He was unanimously reelected to the Presidency on November 11,1789 and he presided over the committee that wrote Pennsylvanias 1790 State Constitution. That document did away with the Executive Council, replacing it with a single Governor, on December 21,1790 Mifflin became the last President of Pennsylvania and the first Governor of the Commonwealth. He held the office until December 17,1799, when he was succeeded by Thomas McKean

10.
Richard Varick
–
Richard Varick was an American lawyer and politician. He was born on March 15,1753, at Hackensack in Bergen County, New Jersey, at the outset of the American Revolution, he was studying law at Kings College in New York City. He suspended his studies and became a captain in the militia, on June 28,1775, he was appointed captain of the 1st New York Regiment. He served under General Philip Schuyler in various posts until after the Battle of Saratoga when he was appointed inspector-general of West Point, at West Point, he became an aide to General Benedict Arnold. Although he was no longer serving in this capacity when Arnold defected to the British, Varick, the two were subsequently cleared by a court of inquiry. After the West Point incident, Varick served under General George Washington as private secretary until the end of the war, Varick was Recorder of New York from 1784 to 1789, and New York State Attorney General from 1788 to 1789. He was Mayor of New York City from 1789 to 1801, while Mayor, he focused on the yellow fever epidemics which struck repeatedly. Along with Samuel Jones, Varick revised and standardized the statutes of New York and he was a member of the New York State Assembly from New York County from 1786 to 1788, and he was Speaker during the sessions of 1787 and 1788. Meanwhile, he served as a colonel in the state militia, Varick also served as a bank officer. He was a founder and later president of the American Bible Society, as well as a member of the Society of the Cincinnati, as such, he was responsible for maintaining the legacy of George Washington. Varick was a member of, and generous contributor to, many organizations in New York City. Having no children, he was survived by his wife Maria Roosevelt and he left his estate to his wife and relatives. Varick was interred at the First Reformed Dutch Church Cemetery in Hackensack, the Town of Varick, New York, Varick Street in Jersey City and Varick Street in Manhattan in the City of New York bear his name. Photographs of gravesite Political Graveyard Richard Varick Papers, 1743-1871 New-York Historical Society

11.
Benjamin Latrobe
–
Benjamin Henry Boneval Latrobe was a British subject and neoclassical architect. It is the first Roman Catholic Cathedral constructed in the United States, Latrobe also designed the largest structure in America at the time, the Merchants Exchange in Baltimore. Latrobe emigrated to the U. S. in 1796, initially settling in Virginia where he worked on the Virginia State Penitentiary in Richmond, Latrobe then moved to Philadelphia where he established his practice. Latrobe spent the years of his life in New Orleans, Louisiana working on a waterworks project. Latrobe has been called the Father of American Architecture and he was also the uncle of Charles La Trobe, who was the first Lieutenant-Governor of Victoria in Australia. Latrobe was born on May 1,1764, at the Fulneck Moravian Settlement, near Pudsey in the city of Leeds, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England. His parents were the Reverend Benjamin Latrobe, a leader of the Moravian Church who was of Huguenot ancestry, Antes was born in the American colony of Pennsylvania, but was sent to England by her father, a wealthy landowner, to attend a Moravian school at Fulneck. Latrobes father, who was responsible for all Moravian schools and establishments in Britain, had a circle of friends in the higher ranks of society. He stressed the importance of education, scholarship, and the value of exchange, while Latrobes mother instilled in her son a curiosity. From a young age, Benjamin Henry Latrobe enjoyed drawing landscapes and he was a brother of Moravian leader and musical composer Christian Ignatius Latrobe. In 1776, at the age of 12, Latrobe was sent away to a Moravian School at Niesky in Upper Lusatia, near the border of the German principalities of Saxony and Prussia, where his brother was studying. At age 18, he spent several months traveling around Germany, Latrobe may also have served briefly in the Austrian Imperial Army, and suffered some injuries or illness. After recovering, he embarked on a continental Grand Tour, visiting eastern Saxony, Paris, Italy, and other places. Through his education and travels, Latrobe mastered German, French, ancient and modern Greek, and Latin, had advanced ability in Italian and Spanish, Latrobe was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1815. His son, Benjamin Henry Latrobe, II, also worked as a civil engineer, in 1827, he joined the newly organized Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and designed the longest, most challenging bridge on its initial route, the curving Thomas Viaduct. Another son, John Hazelhurst Boneval Latrobe, was a civic leader, lawyer, author, historian, artist, inventor, intellectual. Latrobe Park in south Baltimore is named for the family, as is Latrobe Park, New Orleans, Latrobe returned to England in 1784, and was apprenticed to John Smeaton, an engineer known for designing Eddystone Lighthouse. Then in 1787 or 1788, he worked in the office of neoclassical architect S. P. Cockerell for a brief time, in 1790, Latrobe was appointed Surveyor of the Public Offices in London, and established his own private practice in 1791

12.
Edward Savage (artist)
–
Edward Savage was an American portrait painter and engraver. He was born in Princeton, Mass. and at first worked as a goldsmith, although seemingly untrained in painting, he came into prominence in 1790 through his portrait of George Washington, intended as a gift to Harvard University. In 1791 he visited London, where he studied for a time under Benjamin West, upon his return to the United States in 1794, he practiced in Philadelphia and New York City, maintaining for several years a picture gallery and art museum on Water Street in New York. Robert Edge Pine began the first representation of Congress Voting Independence in 1784, Savage completed the painting in 1801, and mass-produced the image as a mezzotint. Its portraits of Anthony Wayne, Benjamin Rush, and Thomas Jefferson are highly esteemed, the painting was in the collection formed by William F. Havemeyer, New York, until bought by Andrew Mellon and donated to the National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. C. H. Hart, in Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society Ancestry. com This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Gilman. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed, American paintings & historical prints from the Middendorf collection, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Savage

13.
John Adams
–
John Adams was an American patriot who served as the second President of the United States and the first Vice President. He was a lawyer, diplomat, statesman, political theorist, and, as a Founding Father and he was also a dedicated diarist and correspondent, particularly with his wife and closest advisor Abigail. He collaborated with his cousin, revolutionary leader Samuel Adams, Adams was a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, where he played a leading role in persuading Congress to declare independence. He assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776, as a diplomat in Europe, he helped negotiate the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain, and acquired vital governmental loans from Amsterdam bankers. Adams was the author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780 which influenced American political theory. Adamss credentials as a revolutionary secured for him two terms as President George Washingtons vice president and also his own election in 1796 as the second president. In his single term as president, he encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans, as well as the dominant faction in his own Federalist Party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts, and built up the army, the major accomplishment of his presidency was a peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of Hamiltons opposition. Due to his strong posture on defense, Adams is often called the father of the American Navy and he was the first U. S. president to reside in the executive mansion, now known as the White House. In 1800, Adams lost re-election to Thomas Jefferson and retired to Massachusetts and he eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson upon the latters own retirement by initiating a correspondence which lasted fourteen years. He and his wife established a family of politicians, diplomats, Adams was the father of John Quincy Adams, the sixth President of the United States. He died on the anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Modern historians in the aggregate have favorably ranked his administration, John Adams was born on October 30,1735 to John Adams Sr. and Susanna Boylston. He had two brothers, Peter and Elihu. Adams birthplace was then in Braintree, Massachusetts, and is preserved at Adams National Historical Park, Adams mother was from a leading medical family of present-day Brookline, Massachusetts. His father was a Congregationalist deacon, a farmer, a cordwainer, the Deacon also served as a selectman and supervised the building of schools and roads. Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship, though raised in modest surroundings, Adams felt an acute responsibility to live up to his familys heritage of reverence. Journalist Richard Brookhiser wrote that Adams Puritan ancestors believed they lived in the Bible, England under the Stuarts was Egypt, they were Israel fleeing

14.
Water tower
–
In some places, the term standpipe is used interchangeably to refer to a water tower, especially one with tall and narrow proportions. Water towers often operate in conjunction with underground or surface service reservoirs, other types of water towers may only store raw water for fire protection or industrial purposes, and may not necessarily be connected to a public water supply. A water tower serves as a reservoir to help with water needs during peak usage times. The water level in the tower typically falls during the peak hours of the day. This process also keeps the water freezing in cold weather. Standpipes also provided a convenient fixed location to measure flow rates, designers typically enclosed the riser pipes in decorative masonry or wooden structures. By the late 19th-Century, standpipes grew to include storage tanks to meet the demands of growing cities. Many early water towers are now considered significant and have been included in various heritage listings around the world. Some are converted to apartments or exclusive penthouses, in certain areas, such as New York City in the United States, smaller water towers are constructed for individual buildings. In California and some states, domestic water towers enclosed by siding were once built to supply individual homes. The reservoir in the tower may be spherical, cylindrical, or an ellipsoid, with a height of approximately 6 metres. A standard water tower typically has a height of approximately 40 m, pressurization occurs through the hydrostatic pressure of the elevation of water, for every 10.20 centimetres of elevation, it produces 1 kilopascal of pressure. 30 m of elevation produces roughly 300 kPa, which is enough pressure to operate and provide for most domestic water pressure, the height of the tower provides the pressure for the water supply system, and it may be supplemented with a pump. The volume of the reservoir and diameter of the piping provide, however, relying on a pump to provide pressure is expensive, to keep up with varying demand, the pump would have to be sized to meet peak demands. During periods of low demand, jockey pumps are used to meet these lower water flow requirements, very high volumes and flow rates are needed when fighting fires. Using wireless sensor networks to monitor water levels inside the tower allows municipalities to automatically monitor, Water towers can be surrounded by ornate coverings including fancy brickwork, a large ivy-covered trellis or they can be simply painted. Some city water towers have the name of the city painted in large letters on the roof, as an aid to aviators. Sometimes the decoration can be humorous, an example of this are water towers built side by side, labeled HOT and COLD

Water tower
–
Shooter's Hill water tower is a local landmark in London, United Kingdom. Water towers are common around London suburbs.
Water tower
–
How a water tower works: 1. Pump station 2. Reservoir 3. Water user
Water tower
–
Louisville Water Tower, one of the few remaining standpipe water towers in the United States. It was completed in 1860.
Water tower
–
The House in the Clouds in Thorpeness functioned as the town's water tower from 1923 until 1977.

15.
Water supply
–
Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities commercial organisations, community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes. However, about 14% did not have access to a water source and had to use unprotected wells or springs, canals. A clean water supply - in particular water that is not polluted with fecal matter from lack of sanitation - is the single most important determinant of public health. Destruction of water supply and/or sanitation infrastructure after major catastrophes poses the threat of severe epidemics of waterborne diseases. Water supply systems get water from a variety of locations after appropriate treatment, including groundwater, surface water, the water treatment steps include, in most cases, purification, disinfection through chlorination and sometimes fluoridation. Treated water then flows by gravity or is pumped to reservoirs. In the U. S, the single family home uses about 69.3 gallons of water per day. This includes toilet use, washing machine use, showers, baths, tap use, many of the 3.5 billion people having access to piped water receive a poor or very poor quality of service, especially in developing countries where about 80% of the world population lives. Water supply service quality has many dimensions, continuity, water quality, pressure, and it is estimated that about half of the population of developing countries receives water on an intermittent basis. Drinking water quality has a micro-biological and a physico-chemical dimension, there are thousands of parameters of water quality. For more details, please see the entries on water quality, water treatment. Water pressures vary in different locations of a distribution system, Water mains below the street may operate at higher pressures, with a pressure reducer located at each point where the water enters a building or a house. In poorly managed systems, water pressure can be so low as to only in a trickle of water or so high that it leads to damage to plumbing fixtures. Typical UK pressures are 4–5 bar for an urban supply, however, some people can get over eight bars or below one bar. A single iron main pipe may cross a valley, it will have the same nominal pressure. So people at the bottom of a 100-foot hill will get about 3 bars more than those at the top, the effective pressure also varies because of the pressure loss due to supply resistance even for the same static pressure. An urban consumer may have 5 metres of 15 mm pipe running from the main, so the kitchen tap flow will be fairly unrestricted. A rural consumer may have a kilometre of rusted and limed 22 mm iron pipe, for this reason, the UK domestic water system has traditionally employed a cistern feed system, where the incoming supply is connected to the kitchen sink and also a header/storage tank in the attic

Water supply
–
Water from a tap - supplied by a pipe
Water supply
–
Water from taps - supplied by a truck
Water supply
–
Shipot, an underground water source in Ukraine
Water supply
–
A young girl collects clean water from a communal water supply in Kawempe, Uganda.

16.
Native Americans in the United States
–
In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians

Native Americans in the United States
–
Pushmataha
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States
–
Charles Eastman
Native Americans in the United States
–
Wilma Mankiller

17.
USS Philadelphia (1799)
–
USS Philadelphia, a 1240-ton, 36-gun sailing frigate, was the second vessel of the United States Navy to be named for the city of Philadelphia. Originally named City of Philadelphia, she was built in 1798–1799 for the United States government by the citizens of that city, funding for her construction was the result of a funding drive which raised $100,000 in one week, in June 1798. She was designed by Josiah Fox and built by Samuel Humphreys, Nathaniel Hutton and her carved work was done by William Rush of Philadelphia. She was laid down about November 14,1798, launched on November 28,1799 and she is perhaps best remembered for her burning after being captured in Tripoli. Putting to sea for duty in the West Indies to serve in the Quasi-War with France, she arrived on the Guadeloupe Station in May 1800, during this cruise she captured five French armed vessels and recaptured six merchant ships that had fallen into French hands. Returning home in March 1801, she was ordered to prepare for a cruise in the Mediterranean in a squadron commanded by Commodore Richard Dale. At his own request, Decatur was relieved of the command of President by Captain Samuel Barron, the squadron arrived at Gibraltar on July 1, with Commodore Dale in the frigate President. Philadelphia was directed to cruise the Straits and blockade the coast of Tripoli, Philadelphia departed Gibraltar for the United States in April 1802, arriving in mid-July. In ordinary until May 21,1803, when she recommissioned, the Captain, William Bainbridge, tried to refloat her, first laying the sails back, and casting off three bow anchors and shifting the guns rear-ward. But a strong wind and rising waves drove her further aground, next they dumped many of her cannons, barrels of water, and other heavy articles overboard in order to make her lighter but this too failed. They then sawed off the foremast in one last desperate attempt to lighten her and her officers and men were made slaves of the Pasha. Philadelphia, which had been refloated by her captors, was too great a prize to be allowed to remain in the hands of the Tripolitanians, so a decision was made to recapture or destroy her. The U. S. had captured the Tripolitanian ketch Mastico, renamed her Intrepid, the assault party boarded Philadelphia, and after making sure that she was not seaworthy, burned the ship where she lay in Tripoli Harbor. Lord Horatio Nelson, known as a man of action and bravery, is said to have called this the most bold and her anchor was returned to the United States on April 7,1871, when the Bashaw presented it to the captain of the visiting Guerriere. In this book the following account, based on records from a synagogue, is given. His captains, Zurrig, Dghees, Trez, Romani and El-Mograbi, set sail from Tripoli, Zurrig left the others and daringly approached the ship, annoying her purposely to decoy her across the shoals. She stranded, but fired on the vessels until her ammunition gave out. According to these accounts the ship had 10 guards and an American ketch was able to sneak in, kill the guards, the entry can be found here

USS Philadelphia (1799)
–
History
USS Philadelphia (1799)
–
"Preparation for War to defend Commerce... the building of the Frigate Philadelphia," Birch's Views of Philadelphia (1800).
USS Philadelphia (1799)
–
Philadelphia in the harbor of Tripoli, February 16, 1804.

18.
Southwark, Philadelphia
–
Southwark was originally the Southwark District, a colonial era municipality in Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania. Today, it is a neighborhood in the South Philadelphia section of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Because of its south of the early Philadelphia, the name was adopted in allusion to the borough of Southwark in the county of London, England. Southwark is one of the oldest English settlements in the County of Philadelphia and it is actually the oldest district founded by settlers in Philadelphia, as a result of its inclusion in the former Swedish colony of New Sweden. Southwark was originally a tract of ground on the fast land of the Neck, due to the populations of the Swedish settlements of Wicaco and Moyamensing, Southwark grew earlier than other parts of the county apart from the city of Philadelphia. The General Assembly created the district of Southwark on May 14,1762, today, there are only a few traces of the name Southwark in this part of Philadelphia. In the late 1970s, this area of Philadelphia was renamed, the neighborhood of Pennsport is the primary southern half of what was Southwark. The area is a community, a multi-racial neighborhood of middle class, working class. However, recently, parts of Southwark has been noted as a poor, residents are within the School District of Philadelphia. Residents are zoned to Southwark School and South Philadelphia High School, the Vare-Washington School, which occupies the former George Washington School, is in proximity to Southwark. Persons zoned to Vare-Washington are also zoned to Furness High School, and residents of the former Abigail Vare School zone, are also zoned to Furness High School. New Sweden on the Delaware 1638-1655 ISBN 0-912608-65-X

19.
Quasi-War
–
The Quasi-War was an undeclared war fought almost entirely at sea between the United States of America and the French Republic from 1798 to 1800. Louis XVI of France fell from power in 1792 during the French Revolution, the United States had already declared neutrality in the conflict between Great Britain and revolutionary France, and American legislation was being passed for a trade deal with Britain. When the U. S. refused to continue repaying its debt using the argument that the debt was owed to the government, not to the French First Republic. First, French privateers began seizing American ships trading with Britain, next, the French government refused to receive Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, the new U. S. Minister, when he arrived in Paris in December 1796. In April 1798, President Adams informed Congress of the XYZ Affair, meanwhile, French privateers inflicted substantial losses on American shipping. On 21 February 1797, Secretary of State Timothy Pickering told Congress that during the eleven months. French marauders cruised the length of the Atlantic seaboard virtually unopposed, the United States government had nothing to combat them, as the navy had been abolished at the end of the Revolutionary War and its last warship sold in 1785. The United States had only a flotilla of small revenue cutters, increased depredations by French privateers led to the rebirth of the United States Navy and the creation of the United States Marine Corps to defend the expanding American merchant fleet. Congress authorized the president to acquire, arm, and man not more than twelve ships of up to twenty two guns each, several merchantmen were immediately purchased and refitted as ships of war, and construction of the frigate Congress resumed. Congress rescinded the treaties with France on 7 July 1798 and that date is now considered the beginning of the Quasi-War. This was followed two days later with the passage of the Congressional authorization of attacks on French warships in American waters. The U. S. Navy operated with a fleet of about twenty five vessels. French privateers generally resisted, as did La Croyable, which was captured on 7 July 1798, by Delaware outside of Egg Harbor, enterprise captured eight privateers and freed eleven American merchant ships from captivity. Experiment captured the French privateers Deux Amis and Diane, numerous American merchantmen were recaptured by Experiment. Boston forced Le Berceau into submission, silas Talbot engineered an expedition to Puerto Plata harbor in the Colony of Santo Domingo, a possession of Frances ally Spain, on 11 May 1800. Sailors and Marines from Constitution under Lieutenant Isaac Hull captured the French privateer Sandwich in the harbor, the U. S. Navy lost only one ship to the French, Retaliation, which was later recaptured. She was the captured privateer La Croyable, recently purchased by the U. S. Navy, Retaliation departed Norfolk on 28 October 1798, with Montezuma and Norfolk, and cruised in the West Indies protecting American commerce. Montezuma and Norfolk escaped after Bainbridge convinced the senior French commander that those American warships were too powerful for his frigates, renamed Magicienne by the French, the schooner again came into American hands on 28 June, when a broadside from Merrimack forced her to haul down her colors

20.
George Washington
–
George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine

George Washington
–
George Washington by Gilbert Stuart, 1797
George Washington
–
Washington's birthplace
George Washington
–
Washington's map, accompanying his Journal to the Ohio (1753–1754)
George Washington
–
A mezzotint of Martha Washington, based on a 1757 portrait by Wollaston

21.
New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange

22.
Baltimore
–
Baltimore is the largest city in the U. S. state of Maryland, and the 29th-most populous city in the country. It was established by the Constitution of Maryland and is not part of any county, thus, it is the largest independent city in the United States, with a population of 621,849 as of 2015. As of 2010, the population of the Baltimore Metropolitan Area was 2.7 million, founded in 1729, Baltimore is the second largest seaport in the Mid-Atlantic. Baltimores Inner Harbor was once the leading port of entry for immigrants to the United States. With hundreds of identified districts, Baltimore has been dubbed a city of neighborhoods, in the War of 1812, Francis Scott Key wrote The Star-Spangled Banner, later the American national anthem, in Baltimore. More than 65,000 properties, or roughly one in three buildings in the city, are listed on the National Register, more than any city in the nation. The city has 289 properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the historical records of the government of Baltimore are located at the Baltimore City Archives. The city is named after Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, of the Irish House of Lords, Baltimore Manor was the name of the estate in County Longford on which the Calvert family lived in Ireland. Baltimore is an anglicization of the Irish name Baile an Tí Mhóir, in 1608, Captain John Smith traveled 210 miles from Jamestown to the uppermost Chesapeake Bay, leading the first European expedition to the Patapsco River. The name Patapsco is derived from pota-psk-ut, which translates to backwater or tide covered with froth in Algonquian dialect, a quarter century after John Smiths voyage, English colonists began to settle in Maryland. The area constituting the modern City of Baltimore and its area was first settled by David Jones in 1661. He claimed the area today as Harbor East on the east bank of the Jones Falls stream. In the early 1600s, the immediate Baltimore vicinity was populated, if at all. The Baltimore area had been inhabited by Native Americans since at least the 10th millennium BC, one Paleo-Indian site and several Archaic period and Woodland period archaeological sites have been identified in Baltimore, including four from the Late Woodland period. During the Late Woodland period, the culture that is called the Potomac Creek complex resided in the area from Baltimore to the Rappahannock River in Virginia. It was located on the Bush River on land that in 1773 became part of Harford County, in 1674, the General Assembly passed An Act for erecting a Court-house and Prison in each County within this Province. The site of the house and jail for Baltimore County was evidently Old Baltimore near the Bush River. In 1683, the General Assembly passed An Act for Advancement of Trade to establish towns, ports, one of the towns established by the act in Baltimore County was on Bush River, on Town Land, near the Court-House

23.
Christ Church, Philadelphia
–
Christ Church is an Episcopal church in the Old City neighborhood of Philadelphia. Founded in 1695 as a parish of the Church of England, in 1785, its rector, William White, became the first Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church. From 1754 to 1810, the churchs 196-foot tower and steeple was the tallest structure in North America, Christ Church was founded in 1695 by members of the Church of England, who built a small wooden church on the site by the next year. When the congregation outgrew this structure some twenty years later, they decided to erect a new church, the most sumptuous in the colonies. The main body of the church was constructed between 1727 and 1744, and the steeple was added in 1754, making it the tallest building in North America at the time, at 60 meters. Christ Church is considered one of the nations most beautiful surviving 18th-century structures, a monument to colonial craftsmanship and a handsome example of Georgian architecture. Modeled on the work in London of Christopher Wren, it features a symmetrical, classical façade with arched windows and a simple yet elegant interior with fluted columns and wooden pews. Although the architect of the church is unknown, its construction was supervised by John Kearsley, a physician, the church was rebuilt in 1777 by Robert Smith, and the interior was altered in 1883 by Thomas U. The baptismal font in which William Penn was baptized is still in use at Christ Church, another baptismal font and the communion table were crafted by Philadelphia cabinetmaker Jonathan Gostelowe, who served on the vestry in the 1790s. Christ Churchs congregation included 15 signers of the Declaration of Independence, American Revolutionary War leaders who attended Christ Church include George Washington, Robert Morris, Benjamin Franklin and Betsy Ross. Brass plaques mark the pews where these individuals once sat, at the convening of the First Continental Congress in September 1774, Rector Jacob Duché was summoned to Carpenters Hall to lead the opening prayers. During the war, the Reverend William White, rector of Christ Church, in September 1785, clerical and lay deputies from several states met in Christ Church and organized as a general convention, of which White was chosen president. He prepared a constitution for the church as well as an address to the archbishops and bishops of the Church of England. White was also responsible for the liturgy and offices of the first American Book of Common Prayer. At the convention of the Diocese of Pennsylvania in 1786, he was elected its first bishop and sailed for England with Dr. Samuel Provoost of New York, seeking consecration. After passage of an enabling act by Parliament, White and Provoost were consecrated in early 1787 by the archbishops of Canterbury. Bishop White returned to Philadelphia that Easter Sunday, White was the first Episcopal Bishop of Pennsylvania and served the congregations of Christ Church and St. Peters Church for decades. White is buried in the churchs chancel, Christ Church is a National Historic Landmark and a unique historic site that continues its original function as an Episcopal parish

24.
William Penn
–
He was an early advocate of democracy and religious freedom, notable for his good relations and successful treaties with the Lenape Native Americans. Under his direction, the city of Philadelphia was planned and developed, in 1681, King Charles II handed over a large piece of his American land holdings to William Penn to appease the debts the king owed to Penns father. This land included present-day Pennsylvania and Delaware, Penn immediately set sail and took his first step on American soil in New Castle in 1682 after his trans-Atlantic journey. On this occasion, the colonists pledged allegiance to Penn as their new proprietor, afterwards, Penn journeyed up the Delaware River and founded Philadelphia. However, Penns Quaker government was not viewed favourably by the Dutch, Swedish and they had no historical allegiance to Pennsylvania, so they almost immediately began petitioning for their own assembly. In 1704 they achieved their goal when the three southernmost counties of Pennsylvania were permitted to split off and become the new colony of Lower Delaware. As the most prominent, prosperous and influential city in the new colony, as one of the earlier supporters of colonial unification, Penn wrote and urged for a union of all the English colonies in what was to become the United States of America. The democratic principles that he set forth in the Pennsylvania Frame of Government served as an inspiration for the United States Constitution, as a pacifist Quaker, Penn considered the problems of war and peace deeply. He developed a project for a United States of Europe through the creation of a European Assembly made of deputies that could discuss. He is therefore considered the very first thinker to suggest the creation of a European Parliament, a man of extreme religious convictions, Penn wrote numerous works in which he exhorted believers to adhere to the spirit of Primitive Christianity. He was imprisoned several times in the Tower of London due to his faith, and his book No Cross, No Crown, William Penn, Sr. served in the Commonwealth Navy during the English Civil War and was rewarded by Oliver Cromwell with estates in Ireland. The lands were seized from Irish Catholics in retaliation for the failed Irish Rebellion of 1641, Admiral Penn took part in the restoration of Charles II and was eventually knighted and served in the Royal Navy. At the time of his sons birth, Captain Penn was twenty-three, William Penn grew up during the rule of Oliver Cromwell, who succeeded in leading a Puritan rebellion against King Charles I, the king was beheaded when Penn was age 5. Penns father was often at sea, little William caught smallpox at a young age, losing all his hair, prompting his parents to move from the suburbs to an estate in Essex. The country life made an impression on young Penn. Penn was educated first at Chigwell School, by private tutors whilst in Ireland, at that time, there were no state schools and nearly all educational institutions were affiliated with the Anglican Church. Children from poor families had to have a sponsor to get an education. Penns education heavily leaned on the authors and no novelties or conceited modern writers were allowed including William Shakespeare

William Penn
–
Frederick S. Lamb's painting of William Penn at the Brooklyn Museum
William Penn
–
Portrait of William Penn
William Penn
–
William Penn was baptised in 1644 at All Hallows-by-the-Tower Church in London
William Penn
–
William Penn at 22

25.
Penn Treaty Park
–
Penn Treaty Park is a small park on the western bank of the Delaware River, in the Fishtown neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It is located on Beach Street, near its intersection with Delaware Avenue. The land that is now the park was part of the Lenape village of Shackamaxon, where William Penn famously entered into a treaty of peace with Tamanend, the southern part of the park consists of a walkway surrounding an open green favored by dog walkers and lunchtime picnickers. A stand of mature trees shades the northern part of the park, a statue of William Penn by sculptor Frank Gaylord stands near the northern entrance to the park. At the rivers edge, the park provides a view of the full span of the Benjamin Franklin Bridge that connects Philadelphia to the city of Camden. Directly to the north is a station owned and operated by the Philadelphia Electric Company. An iron and concrete fishing pier used to extend out into the river, though now located in a post-industrial area surrounded by the remnants of heavy industry, the park has been an open space with public access to the river since its dedication on October 28,1893. In the year 1683, the land that is now the park was part of the Lenape village of Shackamaxon. Under an elm tree immortalized in a painting by Benjamin West and we are the same as if one man’s body was to be divided into two parts, we are of one flesh and one blood. Tamanend replied, We will live in love with William Penn and his children as long as the creeks and rivers run, and while the sun, moon, and stars endure. This peace between the Lenape Turtle Clan and Penns successors would endure almost a century, until the Penns Creek Massacre of 1755 and it was remarked upon by Voltaire, who called it. The only treaty never sworn to and never broken, the famous elm tree under which the treaty was conducted fell during a storm in 1810. Soon thereafter, a monument was erected on the site where the elm tree was located to commemorate the treaty. The small obelisk remained tucked away in the northwest corner of a yard that sat on the site, until actions were taken in 1893 to acquire the land. The park officially opened on October 28,1893, on May 6,2010 at Penn Treaty Park an Elm Tree descendant was planted again. After the original tree fell, the Oliver and Vanduzen families took cuttings and seedlings from the tree at that time and they gave offspring of the great Elm to Pennsylvania Hospital, University of Pennsylvania and Haverford College. Haverford College Arboretum donated a descendant of the Treaty Elm, the Friends of Penn Treaty Park provided the funding to transport the tree and plant the new tree. Pastor Norwood, from the Tribal Council of the Nanticoke Lenni Lenape and Board member of the Penn Treaty Museum provided a blessing

26.
Henry Lee III
–
Lees service during the American Revolution as a cavalry officer in the Continental Army earned him the nickname by which he is best known, Light-Horse Harry. Lee was the father of Civil War-era Confederate general Robert E. Lee, Lee was born near Dumfries in the Colony of Virginia. He was the son of Col. Henry Lee II of Leesylvania and his father was the second cousin of Richard Henry Lee, twelfth President of the Continental Congress. His mother was an aunt of the wife of Virginia Governor Thomas Nelson and his great-grandmother Mary Bland was also a grand-aunt of President Thomas Jefferson. Lee was the grandson of Capt. Henry Lee I, a great-grandson of Richard Bland, and he was also a descendant of Theodorick Bland of Westover and Governor Richard Bennett. Lee graduated from the College of New Jersey in 1773, with the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, he instead became a captain in a Virginia dragoon detachment, which was attached to the 1st Continental Light Dragoons. In 1778, Lee was promoted to major and given the command of a corps of cavalry and infantry known as Lees Legion. In September of the year, Lee commanded a unit of dragoons which defeated a Hessian regiment at the Battle of Edgars Lane. It was during his time as commander of the Legion that Lee earned the sobriquet of Light-Horse Harry for his horsemanship, Lee was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel and was assigned with his Legion to the southern theater of war. They conducted a campaign of terror and intimidation against Loyalists in the region, Lee and his legion also served at the Battle of Guilford Court House, the Siege of Ninety-Six, and the Battle of Eutaw Springs. He was present at Charles Cornwalliss surrender at Yorktown, but left the Army shortly after claiming fatigue, in 1794, Lee was summoned by President George Washington to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania. Lee commanded the 12,950 militiamen sent to quash the rebels, in 1798, Henry Lee was appointed a major general in the U. S. Army due to a possible war with France. In 1808, he was re-commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson as major-general since war with Great Britain was deemed to break out and he asked President James Madison for a commission at the onset of the War of 1812 but without success. In 1812 he published his Memoirs of the War in the Southern Department of the United States, from 1786 to 1788, Lee was a delegate to the Congress of the Confederation, and in 1788 at the Virginia convention, he favored the adoption of the United States Constitution. From 1789 to 1791, he served in the General Assembly and, from 1791 to 1794, was Governor of Virginia, from 1799 to 1801, he served in the United States House of Representatives of the Congress. He famously eulogized Washington to a crowd of 4,000 at the first Presidents funeral on December 26,1799 as, First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen. Between April 8 and 13,1782, at Stratford Hall, Lee married his cousin, Matilda Ludwell Lee. She was the daughter of Philip Ludwell Lee, Sr. on June 18,1793, Lee married the wealthy Anne Hill Carter at Shirley Plantation

27.
University of Pennsylvania
–
The University of Pennsylvania is a private Ivy League research university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Incorporated as The Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania, Penn is one of 14 founding members of the Association of American Universities, the university coat of arms features a dolphin on the red chief, adopted directly from the Franklin familys own coat of arms. Penn was one of the first academic institutions to follow a multidisciplinary model pioneered by several European universities and it was also home to many other educational innovations. The first school of medicine in North America, the first collegiate school. With an endowment of $10.72 billion, Penn had the seventh largest endowment of all colleges in the United States, all of Penns schools exhibit very high research activity. In fiscal year 2015, Penns academic research budget was $851 million, over its history, the university has also produced many distinguished alumni. S. House of Representatives,8 signers of the United States Declaration of Independence, in addition, some 30 Nobel laureates,169 Guggenheim Fellows, and 80 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, have been affiliated with Penn. In addition, Penn has produced a significant number of Fortune 500 CEOs, in 1740, a group of Philadelphians joined together to erect a great preaching hall for the traveling evangelist George Whitefield, who toured the American colonies delivering open air sermons. The building was designed and built by Edmund Woolley and was the largest building in the city at the time and it was initially planned to serve as a charity school as well, however, a lack of funds forced plans for the chapel and school to be suspended. According to Franklins autobiography, it was in 1743 when he first had the idea to establish an academy, however, Peters declined a casual inquiry from Franklin and nothing further was done for another six years. Unlike the other Colonial colleges that existed in 1749—Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, Franklin assembled a board of trustees from among the leading citizens of Philadelphia, the first such non-sectarian board in America. At the first meeting of the 24 members of the Board of Trustees the issue of where to locate the school was a prime concern. The original sponsors of the dormant building still owed considerable construction debts and asked Franklins group to assume their debts and, accordingly, on February 1,1750 the new board took over the building and trusts of the old board. On August 13,1751, the Academy of Philadelphia, using the hall at 4th and Arch Streets. A charity school also was chartered July 13,1753 in accordance with the intentions of the original New Building donors, June 16,1755, the College of Philadelphia was chartered, paving the way for the addition of undergraduate instruction. All three schools shared the same Board of Trustees and were considered to be part of the same institution, the institution of higher learning was known as the College of Philadelphia from 1755 to 1779. In 1779, not trusting then-provost the Rev. William Smiths Loyalist tendencies, the result was a schism, with Smith continuing to operate an attenuated version of the College of Philadelphia. In 1791 the Legislature issued a new charter, merging the two institutions into a new University of Pennsylvania with twelve men from each institution on the new Board of Trustees

University of Pennsylvania
–
"House intended for the President of the United States" (if Philadelphia remained the National Capital of the United States) from " Birch's Views of Philadelphia " (1800). Home of the College of Philadelphia/University of Pennsylvania. from 1801 to 1829.
University of Pennsylvania
–
Arms of the University of Pennsylvania
University of Pennsylvania
–
Benjamin Franklin, (1705/06-1790), was the primary founder, President of the Board of Trustees, and a trustee of the Academy and College of Philadelphia, which merged with the University of the State of Pennsylvania to form the University of Pennsylvania in 1791. (Charles Willson Peale, 1785)
University of Pennsylvania
–
Ninth Street Campus (above Chestnut Street): Medical Hall (left) and College Hall (right), both built 1829-1830.

28.
Benjamin Henry Latrobe
–
Benjamin Henry Boneval Latrobe was a British subject and neoclassical architect. It is the first Roman Catholic Cathedral constructed in the United States, Latrobe also designed the largest structure in America at the time, the Merchants Exchange in Baltimore. Latrobe emigrated to the U. S. in 1796, initially settling in Virginia where he worked on the Virginia State Penitentiary in Richmond, Latrobe then moved to Philadelphia where he established his practice. Latrobe spent the years of his life in New Orleans, Louisiana working on a waterworks project. Latrobe has been called the Father of American Architecture and he was also the uncle of Charles La Trobe, who was the first Lieutenant-Governor of Victoria in Australia. Latrobe was born on May 1,1764, at the Fulneck Moravian Settlement, near Pudsey in the city of Leeds, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England. His parents were the Reverend Benjamin Latrobe, a leader of the Moravian Church who was of Huguenot ancestry, Antes was born in the American colony of Pennsylvania, but was sent to England by her father, a wealthy landowner, to attend a Moravian school at Fulneck. Latrobes father, who was responsible for all Moravian schools and establishments in Britain, had a circle of friends in the higher ranks of society. He stressed the importance of education, scholarship, and the value of exchange, while Latrobes mother instilled in her son a curiosity. From a young age, Benjamin Henry Latrobe enjoyed drawing landscapes and he was a brother of Moravian leader and musical composer Christian Ignatius Latrobe. In 1776, at the age of 12, Latrobe was sent away to a Moravian School at Niesky in Upper Lusatia, near the border of the German principalities of Saxony and Prussia, where his brother was studying. At age 18, he spent several months traveling around Germany, Latrobe may also have served briefly in the Austrian Imperial Army, and suffered some injuries or illness. After recovering, he embarked on a continental Grand Tour, visiting eastern Saxony, Paris, Italy, and other places. Through his education and travels, Latrobe mastered German, French, ancient and modern Greek, and Latin, had advanced ability in Italian and Spanish, Latrobe was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1815. His son, Benjamin Henry Latrobe, II, also worked as a civil engineer, in 1827, he joined the newly organized Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and designed the longest, most challenging bridge on its initial route, the curving Thomas Viaduct. Another son, John Hazelhurst Boneval Latrobe, was a civic leader, lawyer, author, historian, artist, inventor, intellectual. Latrobe Park in south Baltimore is named for the family, as is Latrobe Park, New Orleans, Latrobe returned to England in 1784, and was apprenticed to John Smeaton, an engineer known for designing Eddystone Lighthouse. Then in 1787 or 1788, he worked in the office of neoclassical architect S. P. Cockerell for a brief time, in 1790, Latrobe was appointed Surveyor of the Public Offices in London, and established his own private practice in 1791

29.
City Tavern
–
Called the most genteel tavern in America by John Adams, the original tavern was the favorite meeting place of many of the Founding Fathers and of many members of the First Continental Congress. The land on which City Tavern was built was conveyed in 1772 by Samuel Powell to a group of seven wealthy citizens, the tavern was built by subscription in 1773 at a cost of more than £3,000. On May 20,1774, over two-hundred men gathered in the gallery of the City Tavern to respond to the request for assistance from Bostonians following the passage of the Boston Port Bill. Many important things happened at City Tavern in the first few decades of the new nation, the first Fourth of July Celebration was held at City Tavern in 1777 to celebrate the anniversary of Americas Independence from Britain. General George Washington first met the Marquis de Lafayette at City Tavern in 1777, the building was partially destroyed by fire on March 22,1834 and the structure was demolished in 1854. The entire building was reconstructed in the 1970s and re-opened in 1976 for the United States Bicentennial as a functioning tavern and restaurant. City Tavern is now operated by Chef Walter Staib, an acclaimed chef and TV host of the Emmy Award winning A Taste of History. On October 1,2013, the tavern was temporarily ordered to close by the National Park Service as a result of the United States federal government shutdown of 2013, City Tavern was featured in the novel The Riddle of Penncroft Farm by Dorothea Jensen. In it, it was the place where Will spied on the British during their occupation of Philadelphia in 1777 while pretending to be an apprentice of Little Smith, Little Daniel Smith was, in real life, the name of its proprietor. City Tavern has also featured in an episode of the television series 60 Minutes. City Tavern is rated among the top 10 restaurants in Philadelphia by TripAdvisor Reviewers, list of Washingtons Headquarters during the Revolutionary War Official website

City Tavern
–
City Tavern in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

30.
Greek Revival
–
The Greek Revival was an architectural movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, predominantly in Northern Europe and the United States. A product of Hellenism, it may be looked upon as the last phase in the development of Neoclassical architecture, the term was first used by Charles Robert Cockerell in a lecture he gave as Professor of Architecture to the Royal Academy of Arts, London in 1842. With a newfound access to Greece, or initially the books produced by the few who had actually been able to visit the sites, archaeologist-architects of the period studied the Doric and Ionic orders. This was especially the case in Britain, Germany and the United States, Greek Revival architecture took a different course in a number of countries, lasting until the Civil War in America and even later in Scotland. Despite the unbounded prestige of ancient Greece amongst the elite of Europe. The monuments of Greek antiquity were known chiefly from Pausanias and other literary sources, visiting Ottoman Greece was difficult and dangerous business prior to the period of stagnation beginning with the Great Turkish War. Few Grand Tourists called on Athens during the first half of the 18th century and it would take until the expedition funded by the Society of Dilettanti of 1751 by James Stuart and Nicholas Revett before serious archaeological inquiry began in earnest. Access to the originals in Greece itself only became easier after the Greek War of Independence ended in 1832, Lord Byrons participation, following James Stuarts travels to Greece in the early 1750s, intellectual curiosity quickly led to a desire to emulate. Stuart was commissioned after his return from Greece by George Lyttelton to produce the first Greek building in England, arguably the greatest British exponent of the style was Decimus Burton. In London twenty three Greek Revival Commissioners churches were built between 1817 and 1829, the most notable being St. Pancras church by William and Henry William Inwood. Such was the popularity of the Doric in Edinburgh that the city now enjoys a striking visual uniformity, nevertheless, Greek continued to be in favour in Scotland well into the 1870s in the singular figure of Alexander Thomson, known as Greek Thomson. In Germany, the Greek revival is predominantly found in two centres, Berlin and Munich, the earliest Greek building was the Brandenburg Gate by Carl Gotthard Langhans, who modelled it on the Propylaea. Ten years after the death of Frederick the Great, the Berlin Akademie initiated a competition for a monument to the king that would promote morality, similarly, in Munich von Klenzes Glyptothek and Walhalla were the fulfilment of Gillys vision of an orderly and moral German world. The purity and seriousness of the style was intended as an assertion of German national values and partly intended as a riposte to France. By comparison, the Greek revival in France was never popular with either the state or the public, what little there is started with Charles de Waillys crypt in the church of St Leu-St Gilles, and Claude Nicolas Ledouxs Barriere des Bonshommes. It would take until Laboustres Neo-Grec of the Second Empire for the Greek revival to flower briefly in France, the style was especially attractive in Russia, if only because they shared the Eastern Orthodox faith with the Greeks. The historic centre of Saint Petersburg was rebuilt by Alexander I of Russia, the Saint Petersburg Bourse on Vasilievsky Island has a temple front with 44 Doric columns. Leo von Klenzes expansion of the palace that is now the Hermitage Museum is another example of the style, following the Greek War of Independence, Romantic Nationalist ideology encouraged the use of historically Greek architectural styles in place of Ottoman or pan-European ones

31.
Frederick Graff
–
Frederick Graff was a hydraulic engineer. His early life was devoted to the trade of a carpenter, when twenty years old he was employed by B. H. Latrobe as his assistant engineer in erecting the first water works in Philadelphia, located in Centre Square. On 1 April 1805, he was elected superintendent and engineer of the works, in 1811 Graff recommended Fairmount as the proper place for the water works, and was entrusted with their construction. At this time, the pipes were made of wood, and he brought the work to perfection, and patterns of his fire plugs and stopcocks were sent to England. In 1822, when the system was complete, the city water committee sent him a resolution of thanks. His experience and ability became acknowledged throughout the country, and he supplied detailed information to about 37 corporations in the United States, including New York City, by 1842, over 113 miles of water mains had been laid. He was engaged for 42 years in the service of the city of Philadelphia, at his death, his son, Frederic Graff, Jr. took his place. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Jones. In Wilson, James Grant, Fiske, John

32.
Philadelphia City Hall
–
Philadelphia City Hall, built in 1901 and located at 1 Penn Square, is the seat of government for the city of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The building was designed by Scottish-born architect John McArthur, Jr. in the Second Empire style, City Hall was topped off in 1894, although the interior wasnt finished until 1901. Designed to be the worlds tallest building, it was surpassed during construction by the Washington Monument, with almost 700 rooms, City Hall is the largest municipal building in the United States. The building houses three branches of government, playing host to the executive branch, its legislature. The statue is the tallest atop any building in the world, Calder wished the statue to face south so that its face would be lit by the sun most of the day, the better to reveal the details of his work. Beyond Penn Treaty Park is Pennsbury Manor, Penns country home in Bucks County, yet another version for why the statue pointed generally north instead of south is that it was the current architects method of showing displeasure with the style of the work. By 1894, the design was not in the current. Penns statue is hollow, and an access tunnel through it leads to a small hatch atop the hat. The abrogation of this agreement supposedly brought a curse onto local sports teams, during the 1990s, whenever one of Philadelphias four major sports teams was in contention for a championship, the statue was decorated with the jersey or hat of that team. Other architectural features and history The tower features clocks 8 m in diameter on all four sides of the portion of the tower. This clock was designed by Warren Johnson, City Halls observation deck is located directly below the base of the statue, about 152 m above street level. Once enclosed with chain link fence, the deck is now enclosed by glass. It is reached in a 6-person elevator whose glass panels allow visitors to see the wooden superstructure that supports the tower, stairs within the tower are only used for emergency exit. The ornamentation of the tower has been simplified, the huge garlands that festooned the top panels of the tower were removed, in the 1950s, the city fathers investigated tearing down City Hall for a new building elsewhere. They found that the demolition would have bankrupted the city due to the masonry construction. City Hall became a National Historic Landmark in 1976, in 2006, it was also named a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers. City Hall is a fully bearing masonry structure with walls up to 22 feet thick, the principal exterior materials are limestone, granite, and marble. City Hall is topped with a 37 foot tall statue of William Penn, City Hall was the tallest building in Pennsylvania from 1901 until 1932, when it was surpassed by the Gulf Tower in Pittsburgh

Philadelphia City Hall
–
Philadelphia City Hall
Philadelphia City Hall
Philadelphia City Hall
–
William Penn statue atop City Hall tower
Philadelphia City Hall
–
The N. Broad Street arcade leading to the building's courtyard

33.
Water system
–
A water supply system or water supply network is a system of engineered hydrologic and hydraulic components which provide water supply. A water supply system includes, A drainage basin. A raw water collection point where the water accumulates, such as a lake, raw water may be transferred using uncovered ground-level aqueducts, covered tunnels or underground water pipes to water purification facilities. Treated water is transferred using water pipes, Water storage facilities such as reservoirs, water tanks, or water towers. Smaller water systems may store the water in cisterns or pressure vessels, tall buildings may also need to store water locally in pressure vessels in order for the water to reach the upper floors. Additional water pressurizing components such as pumping stations may need to be situated at the outlet of underground or above ground reservoirs or cisterns, a pipe network for distribution of water to the consumers and other usage points. Connections to the sewers are found downstream of the water consumers. Raw water is collected from a water source or from a groundwater source within the watershed that provides the water resource. The raw water is transferred to the water purification facilities using uncovered aqueducts, Water treatment must occur before the product reaches the consumer and afterwards. Water purification usually occurs close to the delivery points to reduce pumping costs. Traditional surface water treatment plants generally consists of three steps, clarification, filtration and disinfection, clarification refers to the separation of particles from the water stream. Chemical addition destabilizes the particle charges and prepares them for either by settling or floating out of the water stream. Sand, anthracite or activated carbon filters refine the water stream, while other methods of disinfection exist, the preferred method is via chlorine addition. Chlorine effectively kills bacteria and most viruses and maintains a residual to protect the supply through the supply network. The product, delivered to the point of consumption, is called potable water if it meets the quality standards required for human consumption. The water is typically pressurised by pumps that pump water into storage tanks constructed at the highest local point in the network, one network may have several such service reservoirs. In small domestic systems, the water may be pressurised by a vessel or even by an underground cistern. This eliminates the need of a water-tower or any other heightened water reserve to supply the water pressure and these systems are usually owned and maintained by local governments, such as cities, or other public entities, but are occasionally operated by a commercial enterprise

Water system
–
Grand Coulee Dam
Water system
–
The Central Arizona Project Aqueduct transfers untreated water
Water system
–
Most (treated) water distribution happens through underground pipes
Water system
–
Pressurizing the water is required between the small water reserve and the end-user

34.
Water supply network
–
A water supply system or water supply network is a system of engineered hydrologic and hydraulic components which provide water supply. A water supply system includes, A drainage basin. A raw water collection point where the water accumulates, such as a lake, raw water may be transferred using uncovered ground-level aqueducts, covered tunnels or underground water pipes to water purification facilities. Treated water is transferred using water pipes, Water storage facilities such as reservoirs, water tanks, or water towers. Smaller water systems may store the water in cisterns or pressure vessels, tall buildings may also need to store water locally in pressure vessels in order for the water to reach the upper floors. Additional water pressurizing components such as pumping stations may need to be situated at the outlet of underground or above ground reservoirs or cisterns, a pipe network for distribution of water to the consumers and other usage points. Connections to the sewers are found downstream of the water consumers. Raw water is collected from a water source or from a groundwater source within the watershed that provides the water resource. The raw water is transferred to the water purification facilities using uncovered aqueducts, Water treatment must occur before the product reaches the consumer and afterwards. Water purification usually occurs close to the delivery points to reduce pumping costs. Traditional surface water treatment plants generally consists of three steps, clarification, filtration and disinfection, clarification refers to the separation of particles from the water stream. Chemical addition destabilizes the particle charges and prepares them for either by settling or floating out of the water stream. Sand, anthracite or activated carbon filters refine the water stream, while other methods of disinfection exist, the preferred method is via chlorine addition. Chlorine effectively kills bacteria and most viruses and maintains a residual to protect the supply through the supply network. The product, delivered to the point of consumption, is called potable water if it meets the quality standards required for human consumption. The water is typically pressurised by pumps that pump water into storage tanks constructed at the highest local point in the network, one network may have several such service reservoirs. In small domestic systems, the water may be pressurised by a vessel or even by an underground cistern. This eliminates the need of a water-tower or any other heightened water reserve to supply the water pressure and these systems are usually owned and maintained by local governments, such as cities, or other public entities, but are occasionally operated by a commercial enterprise

Water supply network
–
Grand Coulee Dam
Water supply network
–
The Central Arizona Project Aqueduct transfers untreated water
Water supply network
–
Most (treated) water distribution happens through underground pipes
Water supply network
–
Pressurizing the water is required between the small water reserve and the end-user

35.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

36.
Privateers
–
A privateer was a private person or ship that engaged in maritime warfare under a commission of war. Captured ships were subject to condemnation and sale under prize law, a percentage share usually went to the issuer of the commission. Since robbery under arms was common to trade, all merchant ships were already armed. During war, naval resources were auxiliary to operations on land so privateering was a way of subsidizing state power by mobilizing armed ships, the letter of marque of a privateer would typically limit activity to one particular ship, and specified officers. Typically, the owners or captain would be required to post a performance bond, in the United Kingdom, letters of marque were revoked for various offences. Some crews were treated as harshly as naval crews of the time, some crews were made up of professional merchant seamen, others of pirates, debtors, and convicts. Some privateers ended up becoming pirates, not just in the eyes of their enemies, william Kidd, for instance, began as a legitimate British privateer but was later hanged for piracy. The investors would arm the vessels and recruit large crews, much larger than a merchantman or a vessel would carry. Privateers generally cruised independently, but it was not unknown for them to form squadrons, a number of privateers were part of the English fleet that opposed the Spanish Armada in 1588. Privateers generally avoided encounters with warships, as such encounters would be at best unprofitable, for instance, in 1815 Chasseur encountered HMS St Lawrence, herself a former American privateer, mistaking her for a merchantman until too late, in this instance, however, the privateer prevailed. The United States used mixed squadrons of frigates and privateers in the American Revolutionary War, the practice dated to at least the 13th century but the word itself was coined sometime in the mid-17th century. England, and later the United Kingdom, used privateers to great effect and these privately owned merchant ships, licensed by the crown, could legitimately take vessels that were deemed pirates. The increase in competition for crews on armed merchant vessels and privateers was due, in a large part, because of the chance for a considerable payoff. Whereas a seaman who shipped on a vessel was paid a wage and provided with victuals. This proved to be a far more attractive prospect and privateering flourished as a result, during Queen Elizabeths reign, she encouraged the development of this supplementary navy. Over the course of her rule, she had allowed Anglo-Spanish relations to deteriorate to the point where one could argue that a war with the Spanish was inevitable. By using privateers, if the Spanish were to take offense at the plundering of their ships, some of the most famous privateers that later fought in the Anglo-Spanish War included the Sea Dogs. In the late 16th century, English ships cruised in the Caribbean and off the coast of Spain, at this early stage the idea of a regular navy was not present, so there is little to distinguish the activity of English privateers from regular naval warfare

37.
West Indies
–
Indigenous peoples were the first inhabitants of the West Indies. In 1492, Christopher Columbus became the first European to arrive at the islands, after the first of the voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas, Europeans began to use the term West Indies to distinguish the region from the East Indies of South Asia and Southeast Asia. In the late century, French, English and Dutch merchants and privateers began their operations in the Caribbean Sea, attacking Spanish and Portuguese shipping. These African slaves wrought a demographic revolution, replacing or joining with either the indigenous Caribs or the European settlers who were there as indentured servants. The Dutch, allied with the Caribs of the Orinoco would eventually carry the struggles deep into South America, first along the Orinoco and these interconnected commercial and diplomatic relations made up the Western Caribbean Zone which was in place in the early eighteenth century. In 1916, Denmark sold the Danish West Indies to the United States for US$25 million in gold, the Danish West Indies became an insular area of the US, called the United States Virgin Islands. Between 1958 and 1962, the United Kingdom re-organised all their West Indies island territories into the West Indies Federation and they hoped that the Federation would coalesce into a single, independent nation. West Indian is the term used by the U. S. government to refer to people of the West Indies. Tulane University professor Rosanne Adderly says he phrase West Indies distinguished the territories encountered by Columbus, … The term West Indies was eventually used by all European nations to describe their own acquired territories in the Americas. Despite the collapse of the Federation … the West Indies continues to field a joint cricket team for international competition, the West Indies cricket team includes participants from Guyana, which is geographically located in South America. More than Slaves and Sugar, Recent Historiography of the Trans-imperial Caribbean, a Concise History of the Caribbean. Martin, Tony, Caribbean History, From Pre-colonial Origins to the Present

38.
Tunisia
–
Tunisia, officially the Republic of Tunisia is the northernmost country in Africa, covering 165,000 square kilometres. Its northernmost point, Cape Angela, is the northernmost point on the African continent and it is bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Tunisias population was estimated to be just under 11 million in 2014, Tunisias name is derived from its capital city, Tunis, which is located on Tunisias northeast coast. Geographically, Tunisia contains the end of the Atlas Mountains. Much of the rest of the land is fertile soil. Tunisia is a unitary semi-presidential representative democratic republic and it is considered to be the only full democracy in the Arab World. It has a human development index. In addition, Tunisia is also a state of the United Nations. Close relations with Europe – in particular with France and with Italy – have been forged through economic cooperation, privatisation, in ancient times, Tunisia was primarily inhabited by Berbers. Phoenician immigration began in the 12th century BC, these immigrants founded Carthage, a major mercantile power and a military rival of the Roman Republic, Carthage was defeated by the Romans in 146 BC. The Romans, who would occupy Tunisia for most of the eight hundred years, introduced Christianity. After several attempts starting in 647, the Arabs conquered the whole of Tunisia by 697, the Ottomans held sway for over three hundred years. The French colonization of Tunisia occurred in 1881, Tunisia gained independence with Habib Bourguiba and declared the Tunisian Republic in 1957. In 2011, the Tunisian Revolution resulted in the overthrow of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, the country voted for parliament again on 26 October 2014, and for President on 23 November 2014. The word Tunisia is derived from Tunis, an urban hub. The present form of the name, with its Latinate suffix -ia, the French derivative Tunisie was adopted in some European languages with slight modifications, introducing a distinctive name to designate the country. Other languages remained untouched, such as the Russian Туни́с and Spanish Túnez, in this case, the same name is used for both country and city, as with the Arabic تونس, and only by context can one tell the difference. The name Tunis can be attributed to different origins and it is generally associated with the Berber root ⵜⵏⵙ, transcribed tns, which means to lay down or encampment

Tunisia
–
Ancient ruins of a Roman villa at Carthage
Tunisia
–
Flag
Tunisia
–
The Roman amphitheater in El Djem, built during the first half of the 3rd century AD
Tunisia
–
Domes of the Great Mosque of Kairouan. Founded in 670, it dates in its present form largely from the Aghlabid period (9th century). It is the oldest mosque in the Maghreb.

39.
First Barbary War
–
Three of these were nominal provinces of the Ottoman Empire, but in practice autonomous, Tripoli, Algiers, and Tunis. The fourth was the independent Sultanate of Morocco, the cause of the war was pirates from the Barbary States seizing American merchant ships and holding the crews for ransom, demanding the U. S. pay tribute to the Barbary rulers. United States President Thomas Jefferson refused to pay tribute, in addition Sweden had been at war with the Tripolitans since 1800. Capturing merchant ships and enslaving or ransoming their crews provided the Muslim rulers of nations with wealth. According to Robert Davis, between 1 and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves between the 16th and 19th centuries. Before the Treaty of Paris, which formalized the United States independence from Great Britain, although the treaty does not mention the Barbary States in name, it refers to common enemies between both the U. S. and France. As such, piracy against U. S. shipping only began to occur after the end of the American Revolution and this lapse of protection by a European power led to the first American merchant ship being seized after the Treaty of Paris. On 11 October 1784, Moroccan pirates seized the brigantine Betsey, the Spanish government negotiated the freedom of the captured ship and crew, however, Spain offered advice to the United States on how to deal with the Barbary States. The advice was to tribute to prevent further attacks against merchant ships. Minister to France, Thomas Jefferson, decided to send envoys to Morocco and Algeria to try to purchase treaties, Morocco was the first Barbary Coast State to sign a treaty with the U. S. on 23 June 1786. This treaty formally ended all Moroccan piracy against American shipping interests, American diplomatic action with Algeria, the other major Barbary Coast State, was much less productive than with Morocco. Algeria began piracy against the U. S. on 25 July 1785 with the capture of the schooner Maria, all four Barbary Coast states demanded $660,000 each. However, the envoys were given only an allocated budget of $40,000 to achieve peace, diplomatic talks to reach a reasonable sum for tribute or for the ransom of the captured sailors struggled to make any headway. The crews of Maria and Dauphin remained enslaved for over a decade, in 1795, Algeria came to an agreement that resulted in the release of 115 American sailors they held, at a cost of over $1 million. This amount totaled about one-sixth of the entire U. S. budget, Barbary Coast prisoners were able to obtain wealth and property, along with achieving status beyond that of a slave. One such example was James Leander Cathcart, who rose to the highest position a Christian slave could achieve in Algeria, becoming an adviser to the bey. Even so, most captives were pressed into labor in the service of the Barbary pirates. As word of their treatment reached the U. S. through freed captives narratives and letters, in March 1786, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams went to London to negotiate with Tripolis envoy, ambassador Sidi Haji Abdrahaman