Topics in this essay:

After a series of delays caused by Wilberforce's health, stonewalling in the
House of
Lords, the war with France, a British bill was finally passed in 1806. It prohibited the
sale of slaves by the British into other countries, and prohibited the importation of
additional slaves into the new British colonies in the Caribbean. A second bill was passed
in 1807 in which "all manner of dealing and trading in slaves...[was] utterly
abolished, prohibited and declared to be unlawful." A final bill in 1811 made
slave trading punishable by execution or exile. By this time, about 2.8 million slaves had
been transported by the British.

Although the British slave trade had now ended, slavery itself continued in various
British colonies. An Anti-Slavery Society was founded in 1823. It was
successful in forcing the government to pass laws to improve the treatment of slaves.
After some slave revolts and mass executions, outraged public opinion in Britain forced
passage of a Bill for the Abolition of Slavery in 1833. This ended slavery in
Britain and its colonies, including Canada. Through a series of treaties and the capture
of over 1,000 slave ships, the slave trade was finally snuffed out by 1865.

Anti-slave activity in the U.S. lagged significantly behind that of Britain, Canada,
and other British colonies. Some milestones were:

1800: By this time, slavery was economically marginal in the Northeast
states. An act of 1787 prohibited slavery in the Northwest Territory (now OH, MI, IN, IL
& WI). States north of Delaware also did not allow slavery. The southern states
retained slavery for almost another century. The industrialized North and agricultural
South had long been divided on economic grounds. This was joined by a "growing
sense of a moral and social divide based on attitudes towards slavery."1

1807: A federal ban was placed on the importation of new slaves into
the U.S.

1810: A census was held; the black population was
found to be 1,377,080.

1819: The "Missouri Compromise" is reached in
Congress. It allowed each new state to be admitted to the Union with its slavery laws
intact. However slavery was prohibited in that area of the Louisiana Purchase territory
north of latitude 36' 30".

1820's: The "Underground Railroad"began as
an informal network of safe houses which helped runaway slaves escape to freedom It
was mainly organized by Quakers and Mennonites. 2"It
existed rather openly in the North and just beneath the surface of daily life in the upper
South and certain Southern cities. The Underground Railroad, where it existed, offered
local service to runaway slaves, assisting them from one point to another."
3
Harriet Tubman (circa 1820 - 1913), a black abolitionist, walked to freedom. Then
she returned 19 times into slave territory and led over 300 individuals, including her
family and relatives, out of slavery. Lucretia Mott was a Quaker abolitionist who
harbored runaways slaves in her Philadelphia home.

Not all traffic was northbound.
There were also two escape routes to Spanish held territories: via Florida and Mexico.
About 1,000 slaves successfully escaped to the North each year. Many more were caught and
returned to a horrendous fate.

1833: Over 1,000 regional, state and city groups joined together to
found the American Anti-Slavery Society

1840's: By this time, the slavery issue had emerged
in the U.S. as a
major conflict. In the northern states, "a small but articulate group of
abolitionists developed. In the South, white spokesmen rallied around slavery as the
bedrock of Southern society." 4 The issue of slavery
became so volatile that Congress debated whether it could even be discussed. Between 1836
and 1844, the House of Representatives argued over their "gag rule". It
prohibited any discussion of slavery and whether the right of petition should include the
petitioning against human bondage. The gag rule angered many Americans who were anxious to
preserve their freedom of political expression. The overall effect was to add support to
the Abolitionist cause.

1850: The "Compromise of 1850" is approved by
Congress. Slavery was abolished in the District of Columbia. California was admitted to
the union as a free state. Slavery was permitted in the new territories of New Mexico and
Utah.

1852: Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811-1896) was an author and the daughter
of a Christian minister. She became one of the first women to earn a living by writing, by
publishing the best-seller Uncle Tom's Cabin. It publicized the evils of slavery to
the general public.

1857: Chief Justice Roger B. Taney of the US Supreme Court issued the Dred
Scott decision. It stated that the US Congress could not prohibit slavery in any
state; that an African-American could not be an American citizen; and that
slaves were not
considered persons. A runaway slave only became safe if he/she escaped from the country.
2
Benjamin Drew, an American abolitionist working with the Canadian Anti-Slavery Society,
visited towns in what is now Ontario, Canada in the mid 1850's. He interviewed refugees
who had successfully fled to Canada, and recorded their stories.6
Slavery was becoming more widespread at this time, and starting to become entrenched in some territories
to the West of the Mississippi river.

1861: The slave population totaled about 4 million. The Civil War
began on APR-12 with an southern attack on Fort Sumter, SC. 180,000 African-Americans served
as soldiers; 25,000 as sailors. Julia Ward Howe, a Unitarian, wrote The Battle Hymn
to inspire Union soldiers.

1863: President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation
Proclamation on 1863-JAN-1.7 It applied only to the
"rebellious states" and stated "that all persons held as
slaves are, and henceforward shall be free." It allowed African-Americans to join
the Union Army and Navy. Unfortunately, the Proclamation did not free a single slave:

The loyal border states who did not secede from the Union were still allowed to keep
people enslaved.

Persons in the south that had already come under Northern control were also able to
retain their slaves.

The remaining Southern states ignored the Proclamation.

1865: The 13th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States
ended slavery on 1865-JAN-31. It states: "Neither slavery nor involuntary
servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly
convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their
jurisdiction."

As many as 17 million slaves were exported to North Africa, the
Middle East and countries on the coast of the Indian Ocean.

At least 5 million African slaves were exported via the Red Sea,
East Africa to other parts of the world.

At least 12 million slaves were exported from Africa to North
America, South American and the West Indies.

Perhaps 4 million Africans died in wars that were caused by the
slave trade and in forced marches.

"It is estimated that some five percent died in Africa on the
way to the coast, another thirteen percent in transit to the West Indies,
and still another thirty percent during the three-month seasoning period
in the West Indies. This meant that about fifty percent of those
originally captured in Africa died either in transit or while being
prepared for servitude." 7

In the American colonies, "a slave was chattel--an article of
property that could be bought, punished, sold, loaned, used as collateral,
or willed to another at an owner's whim. Slaves were not recognized as
persons in the eyes of the law; thus they had no legal rights. Slaves
could not legally marry, own property, vote, serve as witnesses, serve on
juries, or make contracts. The offspring of female slaves also belonged to
their owners, regardless of whom their fathers were." 7

Slavery in North America was closely connected to race. "Although there were
black, mulatto and American - born slave owners in some colonies in the Americas, and many
whites did not own slaves, chattel slavery was fundamentally different in the Americas
from other parts of the world because of the racial dimension."
8 Elsewhere
in the world, slaves were often of the same race and same or similar culture as the slave
owners. An ex-slave could mix freely into society. A generation later, their former slave
status would be forgotten. This is not so in North America. The effects of slavery lived
on in the form of racial segregation and racial intolerance; both are still with us.

An estimated 30% of the population of Brazil and the United States were descended from
slaves, as of 1950. In Cuba and the West Indies, it is estimated at 15%.1

Slavery was abolished in most of the world during the 19th century. It has been
outlawed by a number of international conventions: 9

The Slavery Convention of 1927-MAR-9

The Forced Labour Convention of 1930, and

Protocol amending the Slavery Convention of 1953-DEC-7. Signed by Canada in
1953; ratified by the U.S. in 1956.

The U.N. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and
Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery, of 1957-APR-30. 9 Ratified
by Canada in 1963, and by the U.S. in 1967.

The U.N. Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the
Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others of 1951-JUL-25.

In 1962, Saudi Arabia became the last country in the world to abolish slavery.
However, slavery continues today in a few countries:

"According to the United Nations, the United States and a number of human
rights groups," slavery continues in the Sudan10
(The Sudanese government vigorously denies that the practice exists.) In 1999-JAN, Christian
Solidarity International announced that it had released 5,066 Sudanese people from
slavery in the previous four years by buying their freedom. It is not clear whether they
were actually slaves who were purchased. They might have been prisoners of war being
redeemed, or kidnap victims being ransomed.11 The Muslims in
the north of Sudan are engaged in a long-standing civil war with the Animists and
Christians in the south.

Four human rights activists in Mauritania, North West Africa, gave an interview to a
French TV crew in early 1998 about the continued slavery in their country. They were
arrested.

Trafficking in children and women for purposes of prostitution continues in many
countries. Child labor is common. People are still trapped in indentured servanthood which
differs little from actual slavery.