Exam 1 Definitions.doc

Psyc 4070 test 1 definitions
Chapter 1
1. lifespan development- the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change,
and stability in behavior that occurs
2. physical development- development involving the body’s physical makeup,
including the brain, nervous system, muscles, senses, and the need for food, drink
and sleep
3. cognitive development- development involving the ways that growth and change
in intellectual capabilities influence a person’s behavior
4. personality development- development involving the ways that the enduring
characteristics that differentiate one person from another change over the life span
5. social development- the way in which individuals’ interactions with others and
their social relationships grow, change and remain stable over the course of life
6. bioecological approach- the perspective suggesting that different levels of the
environment simultaneously influence individuals
7. cohort- a group of people born at around the same time in the same place, or,
more generally, a class of people sharing similar characteristics
a. history-graded influences- influences (biological and environmental)
associated with a particular historical movement
b. age-graded influences- biological and environmental influences that are
similar for individuals in a particular age group, regardless of when or
where they’re raised
c. sociocultural-graded influences- social and cultural factors present at a
particular time for a particular individual
8. continuous change- gradual development in which achievements at one level
build on those of previous levels; change at each stage is quantitative
9. discontinuous change- development that occurs in distinct steps or stages, with
each stage bringing about behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different
from behavior at earlier stages
10. critical period- a specific time during development when a particular event has its
greatest consequences and the presence of certain kinds of environmental stimuli
are necessary for development to proceed normally
11. sensitive period- a point in development when organisms are particularly
susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environment, but the absence of
those stimuli doesn’t always produce irreversible consequences
12. maturation- the predetermined unfolding of genetic information
13. theories- explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest,
providing a framework for understanding the relationships among an organized
set of facts or principles
14. psychodynamic perspective- the approach that states behavior is motivated by
inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people’s
awareness and control
15. psychoanalytic theory- the theory proposed by Freud that suggests that
unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior a. id- unorganized, inborn part of personality present at birth; represents
primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression and irrational impulses;
operates on pleasure principle (maximize satisfaction and reduce tension)
b. ego- part of personality that’s rational and reasonable; serves as buffer b/w
real world and primitive id; reality principle- maintain safety and integrate
person into society
c. superego- person’s conscience incorporating distinctions between right
and wrong
16. psychosexual development- according to Freud, a series of stages that kids pass
through in which pleasure, or gratification, is focused on a particular biological
function and body part
a. fixation- behavior reflecting an earlier stage of development due to an
unresolved conflict
17. psychosocial development- the approach that encompasses changes in our
interactions with and understandings of one another as well as in our knowledge
and understanding of ourselves as members of society
18. behavioral perspective- the approach that suggests that the keys to understanding
development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment
19. classical conditioning- a type of learning in which an organism responds in a
particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally doesn’t bring about that type of
response
20. operant conditioning- a form of learning in which a voluntary response is
strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative
consequences
21. behavior modification- a formal technique for promoting the frequency of
desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones
22. social-cognitive learning theory- learning by observing the behavior of another
person, called a model
23. cognitive perspective- the approach that focuses on the processes that allow
people to know, understand, and think about the world
24. information processing approaches- the model that seeks to identify the ways
individuals take in, use and store info
25. sociocultural theory- the approach that emphasizes how cognitive development
proceeds as a result of social interactions b/w members of a culture (Vygotsky)
26. cognitive neuroscience approaches- the approach that examines cognitive
development through the lens of brain processes
27. humanistic perspective- the theory that contends that people have a natural
capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior
a. self-actualization- important concept; it’s a state of self-fulfillment in
which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way
28. evolutionary perspective- the theory that seeks to identify behavior that’s a result
of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors
29. scientific method- the process of posing and answering questions using careful,
controlled techniques that include systematic, orderly observation and the
collection of data
30. hypothesis- a prediction stated in a way that permits it to be tested 31. correlational research- research that seeks to identify whether an association or
relationship b/w two factors exist
32. experimental research- research designed to discover causal relationships b/w
various factors
33. naturalistic observation- a type of correlational study in which some naturally
occurring behavior is observed without intervention in the situation
34. cases studies- studies that involve extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular
individual or small group of individuals
35. survey research- a type of study where a group of people chosen to represent
some larger population are asked questions about their attitudes, behavior or
thinking on a given topic
36. experiment- a process in which an investigator, called an experimenter, devises
two different experiences for participants
37. independent variable- the variable that researchers manipulate in an experiment
38. dependent variable- the variable that researchers measure in an experiment and
expect to change as a result of the experimental manipulation
39. sample- the group of participants chosen for the experiment
40. field study- a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting
41. laboratory study- a research investigation conducted in a controlled setting
explicitly designed to hold events constant
42. applied research- research meant to provide practical solutions to immediate
problems
43. longitudinal research- research in which the behavior of one or more participants
in a study is measured as they age
44. cross-sectional research- research in which people of different ages are compared
at the same point in time
45. sequential studies- research in which researchers examine a number of different
age groups over several points in time
46. nature- traits, abilities, and capacities inherited from one’s parents
47. nurture- refers to the environmental influences that shape behavior
48. reinforcement- process by which a stimulus is provided that increases the
probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated
49. punishment- introduction of unpleasant or painful stimulus or removal of
desirable stimulus to decrease the probability that a preceding behavior will occur
in the future
chapter 2
1. gametes- the sex cells from the mother and father that form a new cell at
conception
2. zygote- the new cell formed by the process of fertilization
3. genes- the basic unit of genetic info
4. DNA- the substance that genes are composed of that determines the nature of
every cell in the body and how it will function
5. chromosomes- rod-shaped portions of DNA that are organized into 23 pairs
6. monozygotic twins- twins who are genetically identical 7. dizygotic twins- twins who are produced when two separate ova are fertilized by
two separate sperm at roughly the same time
8. dominant trait- the one trait that’s expressed when two competing traits are
present
9. recessive trait- a trait within an organism that’s present but it isn’t expressed
10. genotype- the underlying combo of genetic material present (but not outwardly
visible) in an organism
11. phenotype- an observable trait; the trait that’s actually seen
12. homozygous- inheriting form parents similar genes for a given trait
13. heterozygous- inheriting from parents different forms of a gene for a given trait
14. polygenic inheritance- inheritance in which a combo of multiple gene pairs is
responsible for the production of a particular trait
15. x-linked genes- genes that are considered recessive and located only on the X
chromosome
16. behavioral genetics- the study of the effects of heredity on behavior and
psychological characteristics
17. down syndrome- a disorder produced by the presence of an extra chromosome on
the 21 pair; once referred to as mongolism; most frequent cause of MR
18. fragile X syndrome- a disorder produced by injury to a gene on the X
chromosome, producing mild to moderate mental retardation
19. sickle-cell anemia- a blood disorder that gets its name form the shape of the red
blood cells in those who have it
20. Tay-Sachs disease- a disorder that produces blindness and muscle degeneration
prior to death; there is no treatment
21. Klinefelter’s syndrome- a disorder resulting from the presence of an extra X
chromosome that produces underdeveloped genitals, extreme height and enlarged
breasts
22. genetic counseling- the discipline that focuses on helping people deal with issues
relating to inherited disorders
23. ultrasound sonography- a process in which high-frequency sound waves scan the
mother’s womb to produce an image of the unborn baby, whose size and shape
can be assessed
24. chorionic villus sampling CVS- a test used to find genetic defects that involves
taking samples of hairlike material that surrounds the embryo
25. amniocentesis- the process of identifying genetic defects by examining a small
sample of fetal cells drawn by a needle inserted into the amniotic fluid
surrounding the unborn fetus
26. temperament- patterns of arousal and emotionality that represent consistent and
enduring characteristics in an individual
27. multifactorial transmission- the determination of traits by a combo of both genetic
and environmental factors in which a genotype provides a range within which a
phenotype may be expressed
28. fertilization- the process by which a sperm and an ovum (the male and female
gametes) join to form a single new cell
29. germinal stage- the first and shortest stage of the prenatal period, which takes
place during the first 2 weeks following conception 30. placenta- a conduit between the mother and fetus, providing nourishment and
oxygen via the umbilical cord
31. embryonic stage- the period from 2 to 8 weeks following fertilization during
which significant growth occurs in the major organs and body systems
32. fetal stage- the stage that begins at about 8 weeks after conception and continues
until birth
33. fetus- a developing child, from 8 weeks after conception until birth
34. infertility- the inability to conceive after 12 to 18 months of trying to become
pregnant