Sebastián de Eslava

Sebastián de Eslava y Lazaga (1684 in Enériz, Navarre – June 21, 1759 in Madrid) was a Spanish general and colonial official. From April 24, 1740 to November 6, 1749 he was viceroy of the newly reestablished Viceroyalty of New Granada, he was governing the colony at the time of the defeat of British Admiral Edward Vernon at Cartagena de Indias. After his death he was named marqués de la Real Defensa de Cartagena de Indias.

In 1740 the Viceroyalty of the Nuevo Reino de Granada (New Granada) was reestablished, this part of South America, including what are today the countries of Venezuela, Colombia, Panama and Ecuador, had originally been part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. It was removed from Peru and established as the separate viceroyalty of New Granada in 1718. However, this first viceregal establishment lasted only from 1718 to 1724; in 1724 it was returned to Peru.

There were difficulties governing this large territory from Lima, however; in 1740 New Granada was reestablished as a viceroyalty, for the same reasons as it had originally been established — large distances, growing population, tax collection, defense, and administrative control. In August 1739 Sebastián de Eslava was named the first viceroy of this second incarnation, with express instructions from the Crown to defend the colony against British attacks.

Eslava studied at the Royal Military Academy in Barcelona, he was a lieutenant general in the Royal Army of Spain and commander in the Order of Calatrava. In April 1740 he arrived at Cartagena de Indias, he remained there for the duration of his term as viceroy, not traveling to the interior.

He repaired the Castle of Bocachica and various forts protecting the port; in the Castle of San Lázaro he started a factory of gun carriages and esplanades. He took steps to supply arms, ammunition and military training to the Spanish forces. Elsewhere in the colony, he built defensive works in Santa Marta, Puerto Cabello and Gaira, he strengthened the fort at Ayara and the Castle of San Antonio in the province of Cumaná. He approved the construction of the fort on the islet of Caño de Limones and equipped the presidio of Guayana.

These steps were necessary because Britain, fighting for the commercial control of America, declared war on Spain in 1739 (the War of Jenkins' Ear), the defense of the coast was essential.

On November 21, 1739 British Admiral Edward Vernon captured Portobelo, on the Atlantic side of the Isthmus of Panama, which was part of the new colony, this was just before Eslava's arrival in Cartagena as viceroy of the colony. After this success, Vernon turned his attention to Cartagena, on March 13, 1741 he blockaded the port with 51 warships,[1] 135 transports, 2,000 cannon and more than 28,000 men, possibly the strongest fleet ever assembled up to this time.[2] The city was defended by the Spanish Admiral Blas de Lezo, who had at his command 3,000 Spanish troops, 600 Indian archers, and six Ships of the Line, he also relied on his careful preparations and the sturdy fortifications of the city.

On the night of April 19, as part of the battle of Cartagena de Indias, the British began a major assault on the wall of the fort of San Felipe. However, the attackers soon found that their scaling ladders were shorter than the walls they were attacking, the British were unable to advance and impeded from retreating by the equipment they carried. The Spanish opened fire on them, and then counterattacked outside the walls with bayonets, the carnage was great, and the remaining British soldiers were forced to remain on board their ships, with provisions running out.

Vernon finally had to raise the blockade and return to Jamaica. Eight thousand[3] British were said to have died,[4] against only 1,000 Spanish. Blas de Lezo, who had already lost a leg, an eye and an arm in other battles, lost his life in this one, dying of disease.

During his administration, Viceroy Eslava founded hospitals and towns, constructed roads, promoted the pacification of the Motilones Indians, and contributed arms, money and provisions to defend some cities (like Pamplona and San Faustino), and to maintain navigation on the Zulia River. He built 20 churches, repaired and enlarged others, protected the established missions and organized those of Darién, in Panama, he improved the finances of the colony and the administration of justice.

He left New Granada for Spain on February 23, 1750, after his return to Spain, King Ferdinand VI named him captain general of Andalucia, and later, on July 2, 1754, minister of war. In 1760 he was posthumously granted the title of marqués de la Real Defensa de Cartagena de Indias.

^Robert Beatson, Naval and Military Memoirs of Great Britain, from 1727 to 1783, London, 1804, Appendix pp.25-26. List of ships of the line under Vernon is 8 of 80 guns, 5 of 70 guns, 14 of 60 guns, 2 of 50 guns and 22 frigates. Hart, as well, in Admirals of the Caribbean gives 22 frigates. p.l40.

^Robert Beatson, Naval and Military Memoirs of Great Britain, from 1727 to 1783, London, 1804, Appendix pp.25-26. List of ships of the line under Vernon is 8 of 80 guns, 5 of 70 guns, 14 of 60 guns, 2 of 50 guns and 22 frigates and other warships. Additionally, the list gives a detail breakdown of the 12,000 troops: the 15th and 24th regiments of foot, 2,000; 6,000 marines; 2,500 American and some others. Ship of the Line crews total 11,000+, no numbers are given for the frigate and transport crews on that page, on the following page a list of frigates and their crews is given for the Cartagena expedition that corresponds to that of Vernon's fleet list with a few minor variations. The total for Royal Navy sailors then (at least as paper strength, full complements) is: 15,398, this total does not include the 12,000 soldiers, nor any civilian seamen, nor the crews for the over 120 transports.

^Francis Russel Hart, Admirals of the Caribbean, Boston, 1922, p.151. "So great were the losses to the troops through disease and battle that not over one third of the land troops appear to have returned with the fleet to Jamaica." This would indicate considerably more than 8,000 casualties for the entire force as there were some 12,000 land troops and over 20,000 sailors and seamen.

^Fortescue, J. W. A History of the British Army, MacMillan, London, 1899, Vol. II, pp. 72-79, gives a detailed account of the rapid and devastating withering away of the land forces to disease. By 7 May, only 1700 men were fit for service and no more than 1000 in condition to land against the enemy and within a month of leaving Cartagena 1100 died. British strength was reduced to 1400 and American to 1300.

Navarre
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The first documented use of a name resembling Navarra, Nafarroa, or Naparroa is a reference to navarros, in Eginhards early 9th Century chronicle of the feats of the Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne. Other Royal Frankish Annals feature nabarros, there are two proposed etymologies for the name. Basque nabar, brownish, multicolor (i. e. in contrast to

Madrid
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Madrid is the capital city of the Kingdom of Spain and the largest municipality in both the Community of Madrid and Spain as a whole. The city has a population of almost 3.2 million with an area population of approximately 6.5 million. It is the third-largest city in the European Union after London and Berlin, the municipality itself covers an area

Viceroyalty of New Granada
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The Viceroyalty of New Granada was the name given on 27 May 1717, to the jurisdiction of the Spanish Empire in northern South America, corresponding to modern Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela. The territory corresponding to Panama was incorporated later in 1739, in addition to these core areas, the territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granad

Edward Vernon
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Admiral Edward Vernon was an English naval officer. Vernon was born in Westminster and went to Westminster School and he joined the Royal Navy in 1700 and was promoted to Lieutenant in 1702. After five years as Lieutenant, he was appointed Captain in 1706 and his first command was the HMS Rye, part of the fleet of Admiral Sir Cloudesley Shovell. Ve

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The Ghost of Hosier appears to Vernon as he rests at anchor after his victory. Coloured etching by C. Mosley, July 1740. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich (PW 3959)

Cartagena de Indias
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It is the fifth-largest city in Colombia and the second largest in the region, after Barranquilla. The urban area of Cartagena is also the fifth-largest urban area in the country, economic activities include the maritime and petrochemicals industries, as well as tourism. The city was founded on June 1,1533, and named after Cartagena, Spain, settlem

Viceroyalty of Peru
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The Viceroyalty of Peru was a Spanish colonial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained most of Spanish-ruled South America, governed from the capital of Lima. The Viceroyalty of Peru was one of the two Spanish Viceroyalties in the Americas from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, the Spanish did not resist the Por

Barcelona
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Founded as a Roman city, in the Middle Ages Barcelona became the capital of the County of Barcelona. Barcelona has a cultural heritage and is today an important cultural centre. Particularly renowned are the works of Antoni Gaudí and Lluís Domènech i Montaner. The headquarters of the Union for the Mediterranean is located in Barcelona, the city is

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A marble plaque in the Museu d'Història de la Ciutat de Barcelona, dated from around 110-130 AD and dedicated to the Roman colony of Barcino

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Basilica of La Mercè (Mare de Déu de la Mercè)

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Barcelona in 1563

Order of Calatrava
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The Order of Calatrava was the first military order founded in Castile, but the second to receive papal approval. The papal bull confirming the Order of Calatrava as a Militia was given by Pope Alexander III on September 26,1164. Most of the political and military power of the order dissipated by the end of the 15th century and it was founded at Ca

Esplanade
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An esplanade or promenade is a long, open, level area, usually next to a river or large body of water, where people may walk. The original meaning of esplanade was a large, open, level area outside fortress or city walls to provide fields of fire for the fortress guns. In modern usage the space allows people to walk for recreational purposes, espla

Santa Marta
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Santa Marta, officially Distrito Turístico, Cultural e Histórico de Santa Marta, is a city in Colombia. It is the capital of the department of Magdalena and fourth largest urban city of the Caribbean Region of Colombia, after Barranquilla, Cartagena and this city is situated on a bay of the same name and as such, is a prime tourist destination. Bef

Puerto Cabello
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Puerto Cabello is a city on the north coast of Venezuela. It is located in Carabobo State, about 210 km west of Caracas, as of 2011, the city had a population of around 182,400. The city is home to the largest and busiest port in the country and is thus a vital cog in the countrys vast oil industry, the word cabello translates to hair. The Spaniard

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Seal

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Fort in Puerto Cabello

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Casco Historico, Puerto Cabello

Portobelo
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Portobelo is a port city and corregimiento in Portobelo District, Colón Province, Panama with a population of 4,559 as of 2010. It is the seat of Portobelo District and it was established during the Spanish colonial period. It slowly rebuilt and the economy revived briefly in the late nineteenth century during construction of the Panama Canal. But,

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Portobelo ruins and bay

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View of the fort, the Aduana building, and the church

Isthmus of Panama
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The Isthmus of Panama, also historically known as the Isthmus of Darien, is the narrow strip of land that lies between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, linking North and South America. It contains the country of Panama and the Panama Canal, like many isthmuses, it is a location of great strategic value. The isthmus was formed 12 to 15 milli

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An 1850 oil painting by Charles Christian Nahl, titled, The Isthmus of Panama on the height of the Chagres River

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Núñez de Balboa's travel route to the South Sea, 1513

Blas de Lezo
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He is considered one of the best strategists in the history of the Royal Spanish Navy. Born in Pasajes, in the Basque Province of Guipúzcoa in Spain, at this time, his left leg was hit by cannon-shot and was later amputated under the knee. Promoted to ensign, he was present at the relief of Peñíscola, Spain, participating in the 1707 defence of the

Ships of the Line
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However, the introduction of the ironclad frigate in about 1859 led swiftly to the decline of the steam-assisted ships of the line. The term ship of the line has fallen into disuse except in historical contexts, after warships, the heavily armed carrack, first developed in Portugal for either trade or war in the Atlantic Ocean, was the precursor of

Battle of Cartagena de Indias
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The Battle of Cartagena de Indias was an amphibious military engagement between the forces of Britain under Vice-Admiral Edward Vernon and those of Spain under Admiral Blas de Lezo. It took place at the city of Cartagena de Indias in March 1741, the battle was a significant episode of the War of Jenkins Ear and a large-scale naval campaign. The war

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British attack on Cartagena de Indias by Luis Fernández Gordillo. Oil on canvas, Naval Museum of Madrid.

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Sir Robert Walpole, Prime Minister of Great Britain, from the studio of Jean-Baptiste van Loo, 1740.

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British soldier of the 15th Regiment of Foot 1740s from the Cloathing Book of 1740

Pamplona, Colombia
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Pamplona is a municipality and city in Norte de Santander, Colombia. The natives, called Chitareros by the Spanish, were the first inhabitants of the old Province of Pamplona. They were called thus by the Spaniards, because of the custom that the men had to carry hanging from the waist calabazo or totumo with chicha or maize wine as the Spaniards c

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View of Pamplona, Colombia.

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Pamplona

Zulia River

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Zulia

Ferdinand VI of Spain
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Ferdinand VI, called the Learned, was King of Spain from 9 July 1746 until his death in 1759. He was the son of the previous monarch Philip V. Ferdinand, the member of the Spanish Bourbon dynasty, was born in Madrid on 23 September 1713. Born at the Royal Alcázar of Madrid, Ferdinand endured a lonely childhood and his stepmother, Elisabeth Farnese,

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Ferdinand VI

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Signature

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Ferdinand VI of Spain

Andalucia
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Andalusia is an autonomous community in southern Spain. It is the most populated and the second largest in area of the communities in the country. The Andalusian autonomous community is recognised as historical nationality. The territory is divided into eight provinces, Almería, Cádiz, Córdoba, Granada, Huelva, Jaén, Málaga and its capital is the c

Jorge de Villalonga
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Jorge de Villalonga, segundo conde de la Cueva was a Spanish lawyer, general and the first official viceroy of New Granada, from November 25,1719 to May 11,1724. Villalonga was a knight of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, in the army, he rose to the rank of lieutenant general. He was a member of the council of war and a solicitor in the Kingd

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Jorge de Villalonga, Viceroy of New Granada, 1719-24

List of Viceroys of New Granada
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Spanish viceroys of the colonial Viceroyalty of New Granada located in northern South America. The former territory within the Viceroyalty of New Granada corresponds to present day Colombia, Ecuador, Panama and it also encompassed areas of present-day Guyana, southwestern Suriname, northwestern Brazil, northern Peru, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua. From

Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transition

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Screenshot 2012

Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library netw

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GND screenshot

LIST OF IMAGES

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Navarre
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The first documented use of a name resembling Navarra, Nafarroa, or Naparroa is a reference to navarros, in Eginhards early 9th Century chronicle of the feats of the Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne. Other Royal Frankish Annals feature nabarros, there are two proposed etymologies for the name. Basque nabar, brownish, multicolor (i. e. in contrast to the mountainous lands north of the original County of Navarre. Basque naba, valley, plain + Basque herri, the linguist Joan Coromines considers naba to be linguistically part of a wider Vasconic or Aquitanian language substrate, rather than Basque per se. During the Roman Empire, the Vascones, a tribe who populated the southern slopes of the Pyrenees. In the mountainous north, the Vascones escaped large-scale Roman settlement, not so the flatter areas to the south, which were amenable to large-scale Roman farming—vineyards, olives, and wheat crops. Neither the Visigoths nor the Franks ever completely subjugated the area, the Vascones included neighbouring tribes as of the 7th century. In AD778, the Basques defeated a Frankish army at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass and that kingdom reached its zenith during the reign of King Sancho III, comprising most of the Christian realms to the south of the Pyrenees, and even a short overlordship of Gascony. When Sancho III died in 1035, the Kingdom of Navarre was divided between his sons and it never fully recovered its political power, while its commercial importance increased as traders and pilgrims poured into the kingdom throughout the Way of Saint James. In 1200, Navarre lost the key western Basque districts to Alphonse VIII of Castile, Navarre then contributed with a small but symbolic force of 200 knights to the decisive Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 against the Almohads. The native line of kings came to an end in 1234, however, the Navarrese kept most of their strong laws and institutions. To the south of the Pyrenees, Navarre was annexed to the Crown of Castile, but keeping a separate status. A Chartered Government was established, and the managed to keep home rule. After the 1839 Convention of Bergara, a version of home rule was passed in 1839. The relocation of customs from the Ebro river to the Pyrenees in 1841 prompted the collapse of Navarre’s customary cross-Pyrenean trade, amid instability in Spain, Carlists took over in Navarre and the rest of the Basque provinces. The end of the Third Carlist War saw a wave of Spanish centralization directly affecting Navarre. In 1893-1894 the Gamazada popular uprising took place centred in Pamplona against Madrids governmental decisions breaching the 1841 chartered provisions. Except for a faction, all parties in Navarre agreed on the need for a new political framework based on home rule within the Laurak Bat

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Madrid
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Madrid is the capital city of the Kingdom of Spain and the largest municipality in both the Community of Madrid and Spain as a whole. The city has a population of almost 3.2 million with an area population of approximately 6.5 million. It is the third-largest city in the European Union after London and Berlin, the municipality itself covers an area of 604.3 km2. Madrid lies on the River Manzanares in the centre of both the country and the Community of Madrid, this community is bordered by the communities of Castile and León. As the capital city of Spain, seat of government, and residence of the Spanish monarch, Madrid is also the political, economic, the current mayor is Manuela Carmena from Ahora Madrid. Madrid is home to two football clubs, Real Madrid and Atlético de Madrid. Madrid is the 17th most liveable city in the according to Monocle magazine. Madrid organises fairs such as FITUR, ARCO, SIMO TCI, while Madrid possesses modern infrastructure, it has preserved the look and feel of many of its historic neighbourhoods and streets. Cibeles Palace and Fountain have become one of the monument symbols of the city, the first documented reference of the city originates in Andalusan times as the Arabic مجريط Majrīṭ, which was retained in Medieval Spanish as Magerit. A wider number of theories have been formulated on possible earlier origins, according to legend, Madrid was founded by Ocno Bianor and was named Metragirta or Mantua Carpetana. The most ancient recorded name of the city Magerit comes from the name of a built on the Manzanares River in the 9th century AD. Nevertheless, it is speculated that the origin of the current name of the city comes from the 2nd century BC. The Roman Empire established a settlement on the banks of the Manzanares river, the name of this first village was Matrice. In the 8th century, the Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula saw the changed to Mayrit, from the Arabic term ميرا Mayra. The modern Madrid evolved from the Mozarabic Matrit, which is still in the Madrilenian gentilic, after the disintegration of the Caliphate of Córdoba, Madrid was integrated in the Taifa of Toledo. With the surrender of Toledo to Alfonso VI of León and Castile, the city was conquered by Christians in 1085, Christians replaced Muslims in the occupation of the centre of the city, while Muslims and Jews settled in the suburbs. The city was thriving and was given the title of Villa, since 1188, Madrid won the right to be a city with representation in the courts of Castile. In 1202, King Alfonso VIII of Castile gave Madrid its first charter to regulate the municipal council, which was expanded in 1222 by Ferdinand III of Castile

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Viceroyalty of New Granada
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The Viceroyalty of New Granada was the name given on 27 May 1717, to the jurisdiction of the Spanish Empire in northern South America, corresponding to modern Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela. The territory corresponding to Panama was incorporated later in 1739, in addition to these core areas, the territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada included Guyana, southwestern Suriname, parts of northwestern Brazil, and northern Peru. Sporadic attempts at reform were directed at increasing efficiency and centralizing authority, the rough and diverse geography of northern South America and the limited range of proper roads made travel and communications within the viceroyalty difficult. The Wayuu had never subjugated by the Spanish. The two groups were in a more or less permanent state of war, there had been rebellions in 1701,1727,1741,1757,1761 and 1768. In 1718, Governor Soto de Herrera called them barbarians, horse thieves, worthy of death, without God, without law, of all the Indians in the territory of Colombia, the Wayuu were unique in having learned the use of firearms and horses. In 1769 the Spanish took 22 Wayuus captive, in order to put them to work building the fortifications of Cartagena, the reaction of the Wayuus was unexpected. On 2 May 1769, at El Rincón, near Riohacha, they set their village afire, burning the church, the Spanish immediately dispatched an expedition from El Rincón to capture the Wayuus. At the head of this force was José Antonio de Sierra, the Guajiros recognized him and forced his party to take refuge in the house of the curate, which they then set afire. Sierra and eight of his men were killed and this success was soon known in other Guajiro areas, and more men joined the revolt. According to Messía, at the peak there were 20,000 Wayuus under arms, many had firearms acquired from English and Dutch smugglers, sometimes even from the Spanish. This enabled the rebels to take all the settlements of the region. According to the authorities, more than 100 Spaniards were killed, many cattle were also taken by the rebels. The Spaniards took refuge in Riohacha and sent urgent messages to Maracaibo, Valledupar, Santa Marta and Cartagena, the rebels themselves were not unified. Sierras relatives among the Indians took up arms against the rebels to avenge his death, a battle between the two groups of Wayuus was fought at La Soledad. That and the arrival of the Spanish reinforcements caused the rebellion to fade away, New Granada was estimated to have 4,345,000 inhabitants in 1819. With the dissolution of Gran Colombia, the states of Ecuador, Venezuela, the Republic of New Granada, with its capital at Bogotá, lasted from 1831 to 1856. The name Colombia reappeared in the United States of Colombia, the new name for the country having been introduced by a government after a civil war

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Edward Vernon
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Admiral Edward Vernon was an English naval officer. Vernon was born in Westminster and went to Westminster School and he joined the Royal Navy in 1700 and was promoted to Lieutenant in 1702. After five years as Lieutenant, he was appointed Captain in 1706 and his first command was the HMS Rye, part of the fleet of Admiral Sir Cloudesley Shovell. Vernon had a long and distinguished career, rising to the rank of Admiral after 46 years service and he fought during the War of the Spanish Succession, rising to the rank of post-captain and commanding the West Indies Station. During the War of Jenkins Ear Vernon was a Rear Admiral, in 1739 he was responsible for the capture of Porto Bello, seen as expunging the failure of Admiral Hosier there in a previous conflict. However, an amphibious operation against Cartagena de Indias suffered a severe defeat. Vernon served as MP on three occasions and was out-spoken on naval matters in Parliament, making him a controversial figure, the origin of the name grog for rum diluted with water is attributed to Vernon. He was known for wearing coats made of cloth, earning him the nickname of Old Grog. The use of citrus juice helped to avoid scurvy, mount Vernon, the home of the first American president George Washington, was named after Vernon, since Washingtons elder brother served under Edward Vernon, and gave it his name. Born in Westminster, London, Vernon was the son of James Vernon. Edward had one sibling, James who became British envoy to Denmark and served as a member of parliament. Vernon briefly attended Westminster School, then joined the Royal Navy on 10 May 1700 as a Volunteer per order on board HMS Shrewsbury, in March 1701, he was transferred to HMS Ipswich and three months later, joined HMS Mary. On 16 September 1702, Vernon was promoted Lieutenant and appointed to HMS Lennox serving in the Channel Squadron, the ship was later transferred to the Mediterranean and finally paid off in March 1704. He was then appointed to HMS Barfleur, which at the time was the flagship of Admiral Cloudesley Shovell in the Mediterranean, the ship was present at the capture of Gibraltar and the Battle of Málaga. In December, with Shovell, he transferred to HMS Britannia and was present at the capture of Barcelona in 1705, on 22 January 1706 he was promoted Captain and appointed to HMS Dolphin. However, he was moved ten days later into HMS Rye, with the rest of Shovells fleet, he returned to England, but was fortunate to escape the disaster that befell Shovell’s flagship, HMS Association at the Isles of Scilly. In November, he joined HMS Jersey and in April 1708, in 1710, he successfully broke up a Spanish squadron off Cartagena. At the end of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1712, in March 1715, he was appointed to HMS Assistance, in which he served in the Baltic until 1717 when the ship was paid off

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Cartagena de Indias
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It is the fifth-largest city in Colombia and the second largest in the region, after Barranquilla. The urban area of Cartagena is also the fifth-largest urban area in the country, economic activities include the maritime and petrochemicals industries, as well as tourism. The city was founded on June 1,1533, and named after Cartagena, Spain, settlement in the region around Cartagena Bay by various indigenous people dates back to 4000 BC. During the Spanish colonial period Cartagena served a key role in administration and expansion of the Spanish empire and it was a center of political and economic activity due to the presence of royalty and wealthy viceroys. In 1984, Cartagenas colonial walled city and fortress were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, archaeologists estimate that around 4000 BC, the formative culture was located near the boundary between the present-day departments of Bolívar and Sucre. In this area, archaeologists have found the most ancient ceramic objects of the Americas, archaeological investigations date the decline of the Puerto Hormiga culture and its related settlements to around 3000 BC. The Monsú culture appears to have inherited the Puerto Hormiga cultures use of the art of pottery and also to have developed an economy of agriculture. The Monsú peoples diet was based mostly on shellfish and fresh, the development of the Sinú society in what is today the departments of Córdoba and Sucre, eclipsed these first developments around the Cartagena Bay area. Until the Spanish colonization, many derived from the Karib, Malibu. In the late pre-Columbian era, the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta was home to the Tayrona people, around 1500 the area was inhabited by different tribes of the Carib language family, more precisely the Mocanae sub-family. Among these, according to the earliest documents available, the Kalamari had preeminence, rodrigo de Bastidas traveled to the Pearl Coast and the Gulf of Uraba in 1500-01. On 14 Feb.1504, Ferdinand V contracted Juan de la Cosas voyage to Uraba, However, Juan de la Cosa died in 1510, after an armed confrontation with indigenous people, before he could get possession of the Gulf of Urabá area. They preferred the better known Hispaniola and Cuba, De Nicuesa and De Ojeda noted the existence of a big bay on the way from Santo Domingo to Urabá and the Panama isthmus, and that encouraged Bastidas to investigate. Under contract to Queen Joanna of Castile, Pedro de Heredia invaded the Bay of Cartagena with three ships,150 men, and 22 horses, on 14 Jan.1533 and he soon found the village of Calamari abandoned. Proceeding onwards to Turbaco, where Juan de la Cosa had been mortally wounded 13 years earlier, using India Catalina as a guide, Heredia embarked on a three month exploration expedition. He returned to Calamari in April 1533 with gold pieces, including a gold porcupine weighing 132 pounds. In later expeditions, Heredia raided the Sinú tombs and temples of gold and his rule as governor of Cartagena lasted 22 years, before perishing on his return to Spain in 1544. Cartagena was founded on June 1,1533 by the Spanish commander, Pedro de Heredia, the town was named after Cartagena, Spain, where most of Heredias sailors had resided

Cartagena de Indias
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Cartagena, Colombia. Top: View of Santa Cruz Manga Island, Castle Grande, Bocagrande area from Cerrodela Popa, Middle left: Reloj Tower (Torre del Reloj), Center: View of Cartagena Wall and Bocagrande business area, Middle right: San Diego Square, Bottom: San Felipe Barajas Castle (Castillo de San Felipe de Barajas)
Cartagena de Indias
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According to descriptions that survive, the homes of the prehistoric inhabitants of the city may have looked very similar to these Taino culture huts in Cuba
Cartagena de Indias
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Colonial streets in Cartagena
Cartagena de Indias
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Pedro de Heredia founder of the city and explorer of its hinterland

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Viceroyalty of Peru
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The Viceroyalty of Peru was a Spanish colonial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained most of Spanish-ruled South America, governed from the capital of Lima. The Viceroyalty of Peru was one of the two Spanish Viceroyalties in the Americas from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian established by the Treaty of Tordesillas. The treaty was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal, eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. From September 2,1564 to November 26,1569 he was viceroy of Peru. In 1542, the Spanish created the Viceroyalty of New Castile, in 1544, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V named Blasco Núñez Vela Perus first viceroy, but the viceroyalty was not organized until the arrival of Viceroy Francisco Álvarez de Toledo. Toledo made a tour of inspection of the colony. He improved the safety in the viceroyalty with fortifications, bridges, still, Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera, 4th Count of Chinchón sent out the third expedition to explore the Amazon River, under Cristóbal de Acuña. Many Pacific islands were visited by Spanish ships in the sixteenth century and these included New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands and the Marquesas Islands by Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira. These groups had the advantage of remote geography and river access from the mouth of the Amazon, meanwhile, the Spanish were barred by their laws from slaving of indigenous people, leaving them without a commercial interest deep in the interior of the basin. One famous attack upon a Spanish mission in 1628 resulted in the enslavement of 60,000 indigenous people, in fact as time passed they were used as a self funding occupation force by the Portuguese authorities in what was effectively a low level war of territorial conquest. In 1617, Francisco de Borja y Aragón divided the government of Río de la Plata into two, Buenos Aires and Paraguay, both dependencies of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Viceroy Borja y Aragón also established the Tribunal del Consulado, a special court, Diego Fernández de Córdoba, Marquis of Guadalcázar reformed the fiscal system and stopped the interfamily rivalry that was bloodying the domain. Fernández de Cabrera suppressed an insurrection of the Uru and Mapuche Indians, viceroys had to protect the Pacific coast from French contraband and English and Dutch pirates. They expanded the naval forces, fortified the ports of Valdivia, Valparaíso, Arica and Callao and constructed city walls in Lima, nevertheless, the famous English privateer Henry Morgan took Chagres and captured and sacked the city of Panama in the early part of 1670. Also Peruvian forces repelled the attacks by Edward David, Charles Wager, the Peace of Utrecht allowed the British to send ships and merchandise to the fair at Portobello. In this period, revolts were common, around 1656, Pedro Bohórquez crowned himself Inca of the Calchaquí Indians, inciting the indigenous population to revolt. From 1665 until 1668, the rich mineowners José and Gaspar Salcedo revolted against the colonial government, the clergy were opposed to the nomination of prelates from Spain. Viceroy Diego Ladrón de Guevara had to take measures against an uprising of slaves at the hacienda of Huachipa de Lima, there were terrible earthquakes and epidemics, too

7.
Barcelona
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Founded as a Roman city, in the Middle Ages Barcelona became the capital of the County of Barcelona. Barcelona has a cultural heritage and is today an important cultural centre. Particularly renowned are the works of Antoni Gaudí and Lluís Domènech i Montaner. The headquarters of the Union for the Mediterranean is located in Barcelona, the city is known for hosting the 1992 Summer Olympics as well as world-class conferences and expositions and also many international sport tournaments. It is a cultural and economic centre in southwestern Europe, 24th in the world. In 2008 it was the fourth most economically powerful city by GDP in the European Union, in 2012 Barcelona had a GDP of $170 billion, it is leading Spain in both employment rate and GDP per capita change. In 2009 the city was ranked Europes third and one of the worlds most successful as a city brand, since 2011 Barcelona has been a leading smart city in Europe. During the Middle Ages, the city was known as Barchinona, Barçalona, Barchelonaa. Internationally, Barcelonas name is abbreviated to Barça. However, this refers only to FC Barcelona, the football club. The common abbreviated form used by locals is Barna, another common abbreviation is BCN, which is also the IATA airport code of the Barcelona-El Prat Airport. The city is referred to as the Ciutat Comtal in Catalan. The origin of the earliest settlement at the site of present-day Barcelona is unclear, the ruins of an early settlement have been excavated in the El Raval neighbourhood, including different tombs and dwellings dating to earlier than 5000 BC. The founding of Barcelona is the subject of two different legends, the first attributes the founding of the city to the mythological Hercules. In about 15 BC, the Romans redrew the town as a castrum centred on the Mons Taber, under the Romans, it was a colony with the surname of Faventia, or, in full, Colonia Faventia Julia Augusta Pia Barcino or Colonia Julia Augusta Faventia Paterna Barcino. It enjoyed immunity from imperial burdens, the city minted its own coins, some from the era of Galba survive. Some remaining fragments of the Roman walls have incorporated into the cathedral. The cathedral, also known as the Basilica La Seu, is said to have founded in 343

8.
Order of Calatrava
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The Order of Calatrava was the first military order founded in Castile, but the second to receive papal approval. The papal bull confirming the Order of Calatrava as a Militia was given by Pope Alexander III on September 26,1164. Most of the political and military power of the order dissipated by the end of the 15th century and it was founded at Calatrava la Vieja in Castile, in the twelfth century by St. Raymond of Fitero, as a military branch of the Cistercian family. The etymology of the name of military order, Calatrava, conveys the meaning. In the Cistercian Order, then recently formed, there had been a large number of knights or sons of knights. In Calatrava, on the contrary, those who had been monks became knights, monastic life has been called a warfare, and it would be a mistake to suppose those rough medieval warriors sought in the cloister only a comfortable asylum after a troubled career. These impetuous natures, who did nothing by halves, were eager to take Heaven, as they took earthly strongholds, by storm. It runs as follows, Calatrava is the Arabic name of a castle recovered from the Moslems, in 1147, by the King of Castile, Alfonso VII, called el Emperador. Located in what was then the southernmost border of Castile, this conquest was difficult to keep than to make. In part to correct this deficiency, the military such as Knights Templars were founded. The Templars, however, were unable to hold Calatrava, and this step is said to have been suggested to the abbot by Father Diego Velázquez, a simple monk, but one who had been a knight, and thus was well acquainted with military matters. Diego was inspired with the idea of employing the lay brothers of the abbey to defend Calatrava, Diego recommended that they become soldiers of the Cross. Thus a new order was created in 1157, motivated by the desire for religious and pecuniary rewards, these brethren were eager to take the offensive against the Moors. When the Abbot Raymond died, a certain Don García started to lead them in battle as their first grand master. At the same time, the monks, not without protest, left Calatrava to live under an abbot whom they had chosen. Only Velasquez and a few other clerics, to act as chaplains, remained in Calatrava with the knights and this somewhat revolutionary arrangement was approved by the general chapter at Cîteaux, and by Pope Alexander III. A general chapter held at Cîteaux in 1187 gave to the Knights of Calatrava their definitive rule, Calatrava was subject not to Cîteaux, but to Morimond in Champagne, the mother-house of Fitero, from which Calatrava had sprung. They had already called into the neighbouring Kingdom of Aragon, and been rewarded by a new encomienda

Order of Calatrava
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Castillo de Calatrava la Nueva
Order of Calatrava
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The order emblem, a greek cross in gules with fleur-de-lis at its ends.
Order of Calatrava
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A Knight of Calatrava killing his enemy.
Order of Calatrava
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A Calatrava castle in Alcañiz.

9.
Esplanade
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An esplanade or promenade is a long, open, level area, usually next to a river or large body of water, where people may walk. The original meaning of esplanade was a large, open, level area outside fortress or city walls to provide fields of fire for the fortress guns. In modern usage the space allows people to walk for recreational purposes, esplanades are often on sea fronts, esplanades became popular in Victorian times when it was fashionable to visit seaside resorts. A promenade, often abbreviated to Prom, was an area where people - couples and families especially - would go to walk for a while in order to be seen, in North America, esplanade has another meaning, being also a median dividing a roadway or boulevard. Sometimes they are just strips of grass, or some may have gardens, some roadway esplanades may be used as parks with a walking/jogging trail and benches. Esplanade and promenade are used interchangeably. The derivation of promenade indicates a place intended for walking, though many modern promenades and esplanades also allow bicycles. Some esplanades also include large boulevards or avenues where cars are permitted, a similar term with the same meaning in the eastern coastal region of Spain is rambla, but more widely referred to as paseo marítimo, paseo or explanada in the Hispanic world. C

10.
Santa Marta
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Santa Marta, officially Distrito Turístico, Cultural e Histórico de Santa Marta, is a city in Colombia. It is the capital of the department of Magdalena and fourth largest urban city of the Caribbean Region of Colombia, after Barranquilla, Cartagena and this city is situated on a bay of the same name and as such, is a prime tourist destination. Before the arrival of Europeans, the South American continent was inhabited by a number of indigenous groups, the Tairona formed mid- to large-size population centers, consisting of stone pathways, terraces, protected waterways, and spaces dedicated to agricultural produce. Their economy was agricultural, cultivating corn, pineapple, yucca. The Tayrona are considered advanced for their time period. Surviving archaeological sites consisted of formed terraces and small scale underground stone channels and they also were known to actively collect and process salt, which was a significant trading commodity. We know that they traded with indigenous groups along the coast. Archaeological excavations have recovered significant works in pottery, stonework and gold, Santa Marta’s flag consists of two colours, white and blue. White symbolises peace, in all are united without restriction. Blue symbolises the sky, the sea, the found in the horizon. Santa Marta is located on Santa Marta Bay of the Caribbean Sea in the province of Magdalena and it is 992 km from Bogotá and 93 km from Barranquilla. It is bordered to the north and west by the Caribbean and to the south by the municipalities of Aracataca, Santa Martas economy is based on tourism, trade, port activities, fishing and agriculture, in that order. The main agricultural products are, bananas, coffee, cocoa, Santa Marta is a major port. Simon Bolivar International Airport is 16 km from the city centre and it should be noted that historic figure Simon Bolivar died here, a significant event for South America as a whole. His villa known as La Quinta de San Pedro Alejandrino is located just outside the city centre, as the main city centre is located close to the coast, the city itself has had difficulty controlling expansion. Although, technically a separate locality, Rodadero is often considered part of Santa Marta itself, Santa Marta has one sister city, Miami Beach, Florida. Barranquilla Cartagena de Indias Taganga Santa Marta at analitica

11.
Puerto Cabello
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Puerto Cabello is a city on the north coast of Venezuela. It is located in Carabobo State, about 210 km west of Caracas, as of 2011, the city had a population of around 182,400. The city is home to the largest and busiest port in the country and is thus a vital cog in the countrys vast oil industry, the word cabello translates to hair. The Spaniards took to saying that the sea was so calm there that a ship could be secured to the dock by tying it with a single hair. Puerto Cabellos location made it an easy prey to buccaneers and was a trading post for Dutch smugglers during the 17th century. Most of the contraband trade consisted of cocoa with neighboring island Curaçao, Puerto Cabello was also at that time under Dutch control. It was not until 1730 that the Spanish took over the port and this company built warehouses, wharves and an array of forts to protect the harbor. The commodore Charles Knowles at command of the 70-gun HMS Suffolk in 1743 received orders to carry out attacks on the Spanish settlements at Puerto Cabello, the Spanish governor Gabriel de Zuluaga, well informed of the plans, recruits extra defenders and were supplied with gunpowder by the Dutch. Consequently, an attack on La Guaira, on 18 February 1743, Knowles withdrew his force and refitted at Curaçao before attempting an assault on Puerto Cabello on 15 April, and again on 24 April, but both assaults were beaten back. Knowles called off the expedition and returned to Jamaica, by the 1770s Puerto Cabello came to be the most fortified town on the Venezuela’s coast. The San Felipe castle and the Solano fortress remain from the period, the frigate Santa Cecilia, under the command of Captain Don Ramon de Chalas, sat in Puerto Cabello until Captain Edward Hamilton, aboard HMS Surprise cut her out of the harbour on 25 October 1799. The Spanish casualties included 119 dead, the British took 231 Spaniards prisoner, Hamilton had 11 men injured, four seriously, but none killed. The forces of the First Republic of Venezuela briefly held San Felipe castle, in 1812 Simón Bolívar, then a colonel in the independist forces, was appointed commandante of Puerto Cabello. He left after a royalist rebellion broke out, in 1821 the Spanish retreated to the castle after their defeat at the decisive Battle of Carabobo. Puerto Cabello was the last Spanish royalist stronghold during Venezuela’s war for independence, the harbour came under Anglo-German attack in the Venezuela Crisis of 1902-1903 and according to press reports was left in ruins. In 1962, Puerto Cabello was the site of an uprising, known as El Porteñazo, by pro-Fidel Castro naval officers, marines, and members of the FALN. Although loyalist naval forces were able to take back the base and arrest the rebels, they were unable to prevent the marines from occupying the city. Despite ambushes and bloody fighting, loyal National Guard and mechanized regular forces were able to retake Puerto Cabello

12.
Portobelo
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Portobelo is a port city and corregimiento in Portobelo District, Colón Province, Panama with a population of 4,559 as of 2010. It is the seat of Portobelo District and it was established during the Spanish colonial period. It slowly rebuilt and the economy revived briefly in the late nineteenth century during construction of the Panama Canal. But, today Portobelo is a city with a population of fewer than 5,000. Portobelo was founded in 1597 by Spanish explorer Francisco Velarde y Mercado, legend has it that Christopher Columbus originally named the port Puerto Bello, meaning Beautiful Port, in 1502. After Francis Drake died of dysentery in 1596 at sea, he was said to be buried in a lead coffin near Portobelo Bay. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, it was an important silver-exporting port in New Granada on the Spanish Main, the privateer William Parker attacked and captured the city in 1601 and Captain Henry Morgan repeated the feat in 1668. He led a fleet of privateers and 450 men against Portobelo and his forces plundered it for 14 days, stripping nearly all its wealth while raping, torturing and killing the inhabitants. It was captured again in 1680 by John Coxon The British had a disaster in the Blockade of Porto Bello under Admiral Hosier in 1726. As part of the campaigns of the War of Jenkins Ear, the port was attacked on November 21,1739, the British victory created an outburst of popular acclaim throughout the British Empire. More medals were struck for Vernon than for any other 18th-century British figure, the Spanish quickly recovered the Panamanian town and defeated Admiral Vernon in the Battle of Cartagena de Indias in 1741. Vernon was forced to return to England with a decimated fleet, despite the Portobello campaign, British efforts to gain a foothold in the Spanish Main and disrupt the galleon trade were fruitless. The ships also began to travel around Cape Horn to trade directly at ports on the western coast and its population as of 1990 was 3,058, its population as of 2000 was 3,867. Portobelo is hosting dozen of anchored sail boats, there is an immigration office in the village and boat services taking passengers to Colombia. From $160/person with the taxi boat Naturalstour to $550 on private sail boats, iglesia de San Felipe Rodger, N. A. M. The Command of the Ocean, A Naval History of Britain, 1649-1815

Portobelo
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Portobelo ruins and bay
Portobelo
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View of the fort, the Aduana building, and the church

13.
Isthmus of Panama
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The Isthmus of Panama, also historically known as the Isthmus of Darien, is the narrow strip of land that lies between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, linking North and South America. It contains the country of Panama and the Panama Canal, like many isthmuses, it is a location of great strategic value. The isthmus was formed 12 to 15 million years ago and this major geological event separated the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and caused the creation of the Gulf Stream. Vasco Núñez de Balboa heard of the South Sea from natives while sailing along the Caribbean coast, on 25 September 1513 he saw the Pacific. In 1519 the town of Panamá was founded near a small settlement on the Pacific coast. After the discovery of Peru, it developed into an important port of trade, in 1671 the Welsh pirate Henry Morgan crossed the Isthmus of Panamá from the Caribbean side and destroyed the city. The town was relocated some kilometers to the west at a small peninsula, the ruins of the old town, Panamá Viejo, are preserved and were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997. Silver and gold from the viceroyalty of Peru were transported overland across the isthmus to Porto Bello, Lionel Wafer spent four years between 1680 and 1684 among the Cuna Indians. Scotland tried to establish a settlement in 1698 through the Darien scheme, the California Gold Rush, starting in 1849, brought a large increase in the transportation of people from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Steamships brought gold seekers from eastern US ports who trekked across the isthmus by foot, horse, on the Pacific side, they boarded Pacific Mail Steamship Company vessels headed for San Francisco. Ferdinand de Lesseps, the man behind the Suez Canal, started a Panama Canal Company in 1880 that went bankrupt in 1889 in a scandal. In 1902–4, the United States forced Colombia to grant independence to the department of the isthmus, bought the assets of the Panama Canal Company. A significant body of water separated the continents of North and South America. Beneath the surface, two plates of the Earths crust were slowly colliding, forcing the Cocos Plate to slide under the Caribbean Plate. The pressure and heat caused by this led to the formation of underwater volcanoes. Meanwhile, movement of the two plates was also pushing up the sea floor, eventually forcing some areas above sea level. Over time, massive amounts of sediment from North and South America filled the gaps between the newly forming islands, over millions of years, the sediment deposits added to the islands until the gaps were completely filled. By no later than 4.5 million years ago, an isthmus had formed between North and South America and that warm currents can lead to glacier formation may seem counterintuitive, but heated air flowing over the warm Gulf Stream can hold more moisture

Isthmus of Panama
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An 1850 oil painting by Charles Christian Nahl, titled, The Isthmus of Panama on the height of the Chagres River
Isthmus of Panama
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Núñez de Balboa's travel route to the South Sea, 1513

14.
Blas de Lezo
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He is considered one of the best strategists in the history of the Royal Spanish Navy. Born in Pasajes, in the Basque Province of Guipúzcoa in Spain, at this time, his left leg was hit by cannon-shot and was later amputated under the knee. Promoted to ensign, he was present at the relief of Peñíscola, Spain, participating in the 1707 defence of the French naval base of Toulon cost him his left eye. In 1711 he served in the Spanish Navy under the orders of Andrés de Pez, in 1713 he was promoted to captain. In 1714 he lost use of his arm in the Siege of Barcelona. Later in this campaign, his ship captured the Stanhope commanded by John Combes, sometimes claimed to be a 70-gun but actually just a 20-gun merchantman. Thus, by age 25 or 27, depending on the sources, de Lezo had lost his eye, his left leg below the knee. Modern sources often focus on these salient features and refer to Lezo with nicknames such as Patapalo, there is no contemporary proof that these were actually used during Lezos lifetime. Lezo served in the Pacific in 1720-1728, although it has been claimed that he took many prizes during this period, documentary evidence indicates that in fact he took only two French frigates and not in the Pacific but in the Atlantic. He was separated from the expedition while attempting to sail past Cape Horn, the prizes attributed to Lezo were taken by Martinet, who reached Callao in June 1717 and left the Pacific in 1719 before Lezos arrival. Lezo married in Peru in 1725, deeming the honour of the Spanish flag to be at stake, Blas de Lezo threatened the city with bombardment. In the Battle of Aïn-el-Turk they recaptured the cities lost to the Ottoman Empire in 1708, after the defeat, Bey Abu l-Hasan Ali I managed to reunite his troops and surrounded the city of Oran. Lezo returned to its aid with six ships and 5,000 men, dissatisfied with this he took his 60-gun flagship into the corsairs refuge of Mostaganem Bay, a bastion defended by two forts and 4,000 Moors. He inflicted heavy damage on the forts and town, in 1734 the king promoted him to Lieutenant General of the Navy. He returned to South America with the ships Fuerte and Conquistador in 1737 as General Commander of the Spanish fleet stationed at Cartagena de Indias, in the early stages of the conflict, the British Admiral Edward Vernon undertook attacks on various Spanish outposts in America. One early victory involved the capture of Portobelo, the dismantling of its fortifications, Admiral Vernon tested Cartagena de Indias on three separate occasions. Both Vernon and Edward Trelawny, British governor of Jamaica, considered the Spanish gold shipping port to be a prime objective. The first attempt, in March 1740, was essentially a reconnaissance in force by a squadron including ships of the line, two fire ships, three bomb vessels, and transport ships

Blas de Lezo
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Portrait of Blas de Lezo in the Naval Museum of Madrid
Blas de Lezo
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Spanish Admiral Don Blas de Lezo, with only one eye, one leg and one hand. Defended the city of Cartagena against Admiral Vernon in 1741
Blas de Lezo
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A 19th-century depiction of Blas de Lezo's frigate towing its prize, the Stanhope, a 70-gun ship commanded by John Combs, that overcome by three times the firepower of the Lezo's frigate (1710).
Blas de Lezo
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Monument in Plaza de Colón (Madrid) built to commemorate Admiral Blas de Lezo.

15.
Ships of the Line
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However, the introduction of the ironclad frigate in about 1859 led swiftly to the decline of the steam-assisted ships of the line. The term ship of the line has fallen into disuse except in historical contexts, after warships, the heavily armed carrack, first developed in Portugal for either trade or war in the Atlantic Ocean, was the precursor of the ship of the line. Other maritime European states quickly adopted it in the late 15th and these vessels were developed by fusing aspects of the cog of the North Sea and galley of the Mediterranean Sea. Over time these castles became higher and larger, and eventually were built into the structure of the ship and this aspect of the cog remained in the newer-style carrack designs and proved its worth in battles like that at Diu in 1509. The Mary Rose was an early 16th century English carrack or great ship and she was heavily armed with 78 guns and 91 after an upgrade in the 1530s. Built in Portsmouth in 1510–1512, she was one of the earliest purpose-built men-of-war in the English navy and she was over 500 tons burthen, had a keel of over 32 m and a crew of 200 sailors,185 soldiers and 30 gunners. Although the pride of the English fleet, she sank during the battle of the Solent,19 July 1545. Henri Grâce à Dieu, nicknamed Great Harry, was another early English carrack, contemporary with Mary Rose, Henri Grâce à Dieu was 165 feet long, weighing 1, 000–1,500 tons and having a complement of 700–1,000. It is said that she was ordered by Henry VIII in response to the Scottish ship Michael, launched in 1511. She was originally built at Woolwich Dockyard from 1512 to 1514 and was one of the first vessels to feature gunports and had twenty of the new heavy bronze cannon, in all she mounted 43 heavy guns and 141 light guns. She was the first English two-decker, and when launched she was the largest and most powerful warship in Europe, but she saw little action. She was present at the Battle of the Solent against Francis I of France in 1545 but appears to have more of a diplomatic vessel. Indeed, the ships were almost as well known for their ornamental design as they were for the power they possessed. Carracks fitted for war carried large-calibre guns aboard, because of their higher freeboard and greater load-bearing ability, this type of vessel was better suited than the galley to gunpowder weapons. Because of their development for conditions in the Atlantic, these ships were more weatherly than galleys, the lack of oars meant that large crews were unnecessary, making long journeys more feasible. Their disadvantage was that they were reliant on the wind for mobility. Galleys could still overwhelm great ships, especially when there was wind and they had a numerical advantage. Another detriment was the forecastle, which interfered with the sailing qualities of the ship

16.
Battle of Cartagena de Indias
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The Battle of Cartagena de Indias was an amphibious military engagement between the forces of Britain under Vice-Admiral Edward Vernon and those of Spain under Admiral Blas de Lezo. It took place at the city of Cartagena de Indias in March 1741, the battle was a significant episode of the War of Jenkins Ear and a large-scale naval campaign. The war later was subsumed into the conflict of the War of the Austrian Succession. The battle resulted in a defeat for the British Navy. The defeat caused heavy losses for the British, Disease, rather than deaths in combat, the War of Jenkins Ear was a conflict between Great Britain and Spain that lasted from 1739 to 1748. The Asiento allowed Britain a monopoly to supply 5,000 slaves a year to the Spanish colonies, the Navio de Permiso permitted a single yearly trading ship, the Annual Ship, which could carry 1000 tons of imports to the yearly trade fair in Porto Bello. Upon receiving these concessions from Spain, the British government granted a monopoly for both to the South Sea Company. The merchants and bankers in Britain, who were the force behind Britains international commerce and trading. In turn, the Spanish colonists desired British-made goods, so a black market of smuggled goods developed. By the terms of the treaty, the Spanish were permitted to board British vessels in Spanish waters, after one such boarding in 1731, Robert Jenkins, captain of the ship Rebecca, claimed that a Spanish coast guard officer had severed his ear. The legend that Jenkins exhibited his pickled ear to the House of Commons appears to have no basis in fact and this served to heighten the war fever developing against Spain, which was also driven by the British desire for commercial and military domination of the Atlantic basin. On November 22,1739 the British captured Portobelo in the Viceroyalty of New Granada, the British attack was part of an attempt to damage Spains finances. The poorly defended port was attacked by six ships of the line under Vice-Admiral Edward Vernon, the relative ease of this capture, although the city was abandoned immediately after its capture, caused jubilation in Britain. Vernon was given command of the large naval force, which was one quarter of the British Royal Navy, of a major land. Lord Cathcart died en route and it remained unclear who was in command overall, cathcarts untimely demise resulted in dissension in the British command, preventing the coordination needed for this complex operation. The Duke of Newcastle advocated the publics demands before Parliament, Vice-Admiral Vernon was an active and ardent supporter of war against Spain and advocated offensive action both in Parliament and before the Admiralty. The decision to mount a large West Indies expedition was reached in December 1739, Walpole, who opposed the war categorically, and Vernon, who favored small squadron actions, were dissatisfied with the situation. He feared, particularly, that a siege would lead to heavy attrition from disease

Battle of Cartagena de Indias
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British attack on Cartagena de Indias by Luis Fernández Gordillo. Oil on canvas, Naval Museum of Madrid.
Battle of Cartagena de Indias
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Map of Cartagena de Indias from Gentleman's Magazine 1740.
Battle of Cartagena de Indias
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Sir Robert Walpole, Prime Minister of Great Britain, from the studio of Jean-Baptiste van Loo, 1740.
Battle of Cartagena de Indias
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British soldier of the 15th Regiment of Foot 1740s from the Cloathing Book of 1740

17.
Pamplona, Colombia
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Pamplona is a municipality and city in Norte de Santander, Colombia. The natives, called Chitareros by the Spanish, were the first inhabitants of the old Province of Pamplona. They were called thus by the Spaniards, because of the custom that the men had to carry hanging from the waist calabazo or totumo with chicha or maize wine as the Spaniards called it. Asking how the thing they carried was called, the natives responded that it was a chitarero, when the area was occupied by Pedro de Ursúa and Ortún Velasco in 1549, they reduced the primitive settlers to the regime of encomiendas. Around 100 groups or capitanejos were distributed in 53 encomiendas through all the territory, Pamplona was as important as Bogotá. The city of Pamplona is in the southwest of the Department, along with the municipalities of Pamplonita, Chitagá, Silos, Cácota, there are a couple of weather conditions you will encounter there in Pamplona such as cloudy, rainy and sunny. In average high temperatures of 18 °C -19 °C and lows of 7 °C -11 °C, the agricultural production, Potatoes are the principal product, followed by strawberry, garlic, wheat, morón, maize, beans, and carrots. Livestock, cows, pigs, fishing, rabbits and poultry Commercial activity, food production like candies and collations, garment production, alcaldiapamplona. gov. co MUSEO DE ARTE MODERNO RAMIREZ VILLAMIZAR

18.
Ferdinand VI of Spain
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Ferdinand VI, called the Learned, was King of Spain from 9 July 1746 until his death in 1759. He was the son of the previous monarch Philip V. Ferdinand, the member of the Spanish Bourbon dynasty, was born in Madrid on 23 September 1713. Born at the Royal Alcázar of Madrid, Ferdinand endured a lonely childhood and his stepmother, Elisabeth Farnese, was a domineering woman, who had no affection except for her own children, and who looked upon her stepson as an obstacle to their fortunes. The hypochondria of his father left Elisabeth mistress of the palace, Ferdinand was by temperament melancholic, shy and distrustful of his own abilities. When complimented on his shooting, he replied, It would be if there were not something I could do. Shooting and music were his only pleasures, and he was the patron of the famous singer Farinelli. Ferdinand was married in 1729 to Infanta Barbara of Portugal, daughter of John V of Portugal, when he came to the throne, Spain found itself in the War of the Austrian Succession which ended without any benefit to Spain. He started his reign by eliminating the influence of the widow Queen Elisabeth of Parma, as king he followed a steady policy of neutrality in the conflict between France and Britain, and refused to be tempted by the offers of either into declaring war on the other. Prominent figures during his reign were the Marquis of Ensenada, a Francophile, and José de Carvajal y Lancaster, the fight between both ended in 1754 with the death of Carvajal and the fall of Ensenada, after which Ricardo Wall became the most powerful advisor to the monarch. The most important tasks during the reign of Ferdinand VI were carried out by the Marquis of Ensenada and he suggested that the state help modernize the country. Among his reform projects were, New model of the Treasury suggested by Ensenada in 1749 and he proposed substitution of the traditional taxes with a special tax, the cadastre, that weighed the economic capacity of each contributor based on their property holdings. He also proposed a reduction of subsidies by the state to the Cortes, the opposition by the nobility caused the abandonment of the project. It is considered the predecessor to the Bank of San Carlos, the stimulation of commerce in the Americas, which tried to end the monopoly in the Indies and eliminate the injustices of colonial commerce. Thus he leaned toward registered ships rather than fleets of ships, the new system consisted of the substitution of the fleets and galleons so that a Spanish ship, previously authorized, could conduct trade freely in the Americas. This increased the revenues and decreased the fraud, even so, this system provoked many protests among merchants in the private sector. According to Ensenada, a navy was fundamental to power of an overseas empire and aspirations of being respected by France. Church relations which were really tense from start of the reign of Philip V because of the recognition of Charles VI as the King of Spain by the Pope

19.
Andalucia
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Andalusia is an autonomous community in southern Spain. It is the most populated and the second largest in area of the communities in the country. The Andalusian autonomous community is recognised as historical nationality. The territory is divided into eight provinces, Almería, Cádiz, Córdoba, Granada, Huelva, Jaén, Málaga and its capital is the city of Seville. Andalusia is the only European region with both Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines, the small British overseas territory of Gibraltar shares a three-quarter-mile land border with the Andalusian province of Cádiz at the eastern end of the Strait of Gibraltar. The main mountain ranges of Andalusia are the Sierra Morena and the Baetic System, consisting of the Subbaetic and Penibaetic Mountains, in the north, the Sierra Morena separates Andalusia from the plains of Extremadura and Castile–La Mancha on Spains Meseta Central. To the south the geographic subregion of Upper Andalusia lies mostly within the Baetic System, the name Andalusia is derived from the Arabic word Al-Andalus. Including an intense relationship with Naples, Italy, Andalusia has been a traditionally agricultural region, compared to the rest of Spain and the rest of Europe. However, the growth of the community especially in the sectors of industry and services was above average in Spain, the region has, however, a rich culture and a strong cultural identity. Many cultural phenomena that are seen internationally as distinctively Spanish are largely or entirely Andalusian in origin and these include flamenco and, to a lesser extent, bullfighting and Hispano-Moorish architectural styles. Andalusias hinterland is the hottest area of Europe, with cities like Córdoba, Late evening temperatures can sometimes stay around 35 °C until close to midnight, with daytime highs of over 40 °C common. Seville also has the highest average temperature in mainland Spain and mainland Europe. Its present form is derived from the Arabic name for Muslim Iberia. However, the etymology of the name Al-Andalus is disputed, the Spanish place name Andalucía was introduced into the Spanish languages in the 13th century under the form el Andalucía. This was a Castilianization of Al-Andalusiya, the form of the Arabic language al-Andalus. The etymology of al-Andalus is itself somewhat debated, but in fact it entered the Arabic language before this came under Muslim rule. Like the Arabic term al-Andalus, in historical contexts the Spanish term Andalucía or the English term Andalusia do not necessarily refer to the territory designated by these terms today. To designate the territories the Christians had regained by that time in the Guadalquivir valley and in the Kingdoms of Granada, in a document from 1253, Alfonso X styled himself Rey de Castilla, León y de toda Andalucía

20.
Jorge de Villalonga
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Jorge de Villalonga, segundo conde de la Cueva was a Spanish lawyer, general and the first official viceroy of New Granada, from November 25,1719 to May 11,1724. Villalonga was a knight of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, in the army, he rose to the rank of lieutenant general. He was a member of the council of war and a solicitor in the Kingdom of Majorca, in Madrid, he married his niece Catalina María de Villalonga y de Velasco, daughter of his brother Francisco. In 1708 he was placed in charge of the port and presidio of Callao, Peru. On December 15,1718 while he was serving as head of the army in Peru, the new colony included the present-day countries of Venezuela, Colombia, Panama and Ecuador. Until May 27,1717, this territory had been part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, Villalonga made a long overland trip to take up his new post, stopping on the way in Quito and Popayán. On December 17,1718, he made an impression on the inhabitants of Santa Fe de Bogotá by the great pomp of his formal entrance into the capital. His lifestyle thereafter continued to contrast greatly with the poverty of most of the inhabitants of the city, the viceroy had specific orders to clean up the disorder and corruption rampant among the royal officials of the colony. In 1722 he brought charges against the accountant Domingo de Mena, nevertheless, his administration was known for its arbitrariness and corruption. Villalongas instructions also specified that he was to prevent the development of wine-making and textile industries in the colony, in November 1720, Spanish forces attacked the long-time Dutch settlement in Tucacas, on the coast of what is now Venezuela. This was a center of the contraband trade and it was largely destroyed by the Spanish, including a synagogue that was located there. In 1721, following orders from the cabinet in Madrid, Villalonga expelled all foreigners and he took direct control of the treasury. He improved the civil registry and aided in the foundation of the Jesuit college in the city of Santa Fe de Antioquia, viceroy Villalonga sent repeated recommendations to the Crown to abolish the viceroyalty and reestablish the earlier government under Peru, for the sake of economy. He argued that the colony was too poor to support viceregal government, there being few Spaniards, in September 1723, three years into Villalongas administration, the King Philip V issued the order to do that. The reunification took effect on May 11,1724, Villalonga left Bogotá on May 31 of that year. The two colonies remained reunited until 1740, when the Viceroyalty of New Granada was established once again, short biography from Encarta Some information on his administration More details of his administration The attack on Tucacas

Jorge de Villalonga
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Jorge de Villalonga, Viceroy of New Granada, 1719-24

21.
List of Viceroys of New Granada
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Spanish viceroys of the colonial Viceroyalty of New Granada located in northern South America. The former territory within the Viceroyalty of New Granada corresponds to present day Colombia, Ecuador, Panama and it also encompassed areas of present-day Guyana, southwestern Suriname, northwestern Brazil, northern Peru, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua. From the initial Spanish colonization of northern South American in the 1540s to the Viceroyalty of New Granadas establishment in 1718 and they included the included smaller colonial Audiencia Real of Bogotá and New Kingdom of Granada. In 1777 the provinces of Venezuela were assigned to the new colonial Captaincy General of Venezuela, the territories of the viceroyalty gained independence from Spain between 1819 and 1822 after a series of military and political struggles, uniting in the republic of Gran Colombia. **In 1723, the Viceroyalty was dissolved and its government returned to the Presidency of the New Kingdom of Granada, part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, until the reestablishment of the separate viceroyalty in 1739. ***He was named to the post but did not formally occupy it, colonial Colombia Viceroyalty of New Granada topics History of Colombia

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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records

Virtual International Authority File
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Screenshot 2012

23.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format