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Introduction

In ancient times Iraq was called Mesopotamia, a Greek word meaning “land between the rivers.” This Middle Eastern country, located at the headwaters of the Persian Gulf, lies partly between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in a fertile area often regarded as the cradle of civilization. Its history dates back some 5,000 years. In modern times the Republic of Iraq became a leading producer of petroleum. The capital of Iraq is Baghdad. Area 167,618 square miles (434,128 square kilometers). Population (2017 est.) 38,893,000.

Land and Climate

Iraq is bordered by Turkey on the north, Iran on the east, and the Persian Gulf on the southeast. It is bounded by Kuwait and Saudi Arabia on the south and Jordan and Syria on the west. The Great Zab River flows into Iraq from Turkey. The river eventually merges with the Tigris 30 miles (48 kilometers) southeast of Mosul. Much of Iraq consists of lowlands that seldom exceed 300 feet (90 meters) in elevation. The hills in northeastern Iraq rise into the Zagros Mountains, which extend along the border with Iran. The mountains reach an elevation of 12,001 feet (3,658 meters) at Rawanduz. To the south and southwest, Iraq shares desert steppe with Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan. Part of the Syrian Desert extends into the country in the northwest. A region unique to Iraq is the marshy lowland area that surrounds the Shatt Al-ʿArab waterway and the union of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers just below the town of Al-Qurnah. Palm trees and reed marshes cover the land there.

The country’s desert regions have poorly developed soils containing many stones and rock fragments. In northwestern Iraq the soils vary considerably. Some regions with steep slopes are badly eroded, while the river valleys contain some light fertile soils. The lowland areas of the country are covered by heavy alluvial soils that may be suitable for cultivation. However, salinity, or the concentration of salt, is a serious problem in Iraq. Salinity affects about two-thirds of the land. The problem is caused in part by overirrigation and poor drainage. As a result of salinity, large areas of agricultural land have had to be abandoned.

The climate of Iraq varies widely by region. The hot, arid lowlands, which include the desert and alluvial plains, stretch across most of Iraq. The lowlands have essentially two seasons: summer and winter. Summer, which extends from May to October, brings clear skies and hot daytime temperatures averaging around 95 °F (35 °C). Temperatures of up to 123 °F (51 °C) have been recorded. At night, temperatures drop considerably. There is scant humidity during the summer. No rain falls between June and September. During the winter, which lasts from December through February, the lowlands experience mild temperatures ranging from roughly 35 to 60 °F (2 to 16 °C). The winter season also brings rainfall to the lowlands of southern Iraq. Annual rainfall ranges from approximately 4 to 7 inches (10 to 18 centimeters), though this varies from year to year. Most of the rainfall occurs between November and April.

In contrast to the arid lowland region, the highlands of northeastern Iraq are fairly damp. The highlands experience relatively milder temperatures overall and considerably more precipitation. Very little rain falls during the summer, but annual winter rainfall averages about 12 to 22 inches (30 to 56 centimeters) in the foothills. In the mountains, most of the winter precipitation falls as snow and may total as much as 40 inches (102 centimeters). Winters are considerably colder and longer in the highlands than in the lowlands. January temperatures range roughly between 24 and 63 °F (−4 and 17 °C), though it can get as cold as 12 °F (−11 °C). Summers, which last from June to September, are hot and dry. In the highlands, summer temperatures average roughly 5 to 10 degrees lower than summer temperatures in the lowlands.

Because of its location, Iraq is affected by several strong wind currents. In the summer, a steady northerly and northwesterly wind called the shamal brings very dry air to all of Iraq. The steady wind prevents clouds from forming, leading to the intense heat that parches the land. During early summer and early winter, another wind, called the sharqi, blows from the south and southeast. The country is also subjected to intense and frequent dust storms. Some of these arrive with the sharqi, but they can occur year-round. The storms can reach several thousand feet in height. Dust storms are especially frequent in summer.

Plants and Animals

The intense heat and arid climate of Iraq are reflected in the plants and animals that are native to the region. The relatively cool and moist conditions in the northeast support a variety of plant life. Mediterranean and alpine plant species thrive in the mountains. On the lower slopes one can find hawthorns, junipers, terebinths, and wild pears. The steppe region north of the Hamrin Mountains harbors a wide range of grasses and shrubs.

A different variety of plants are found in the lowlands. Date palms are widely distributed throughout southern Iraq. Willows, tamarisks, poplars, licorice plants, and bulrushes can be found near the lower Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Licorice plants are so common that they have often been used as fuel. Vegetation is extremely sparse in the desert regions, however.

Among the many varieties of birds found in Iraq are ducks, partridges, and snipes as well as herons and others native to the marshes. Lions and oryx (a type of antelope), once common, are now extinct in Iraq. Ostriches and wild asses are highly endangered. Wolves, foxes, hyenas, wild pigs, and wildcats can be found, however. Smaller mammals such as martens, badgers, and porcupines are also found. The lakes and rivers harbor good-sized populations of a number of fish species, including carp and catfish.

People and Culture

People

The population of Iraq consists mainly of an Arab majority and a Kurdish minority. Roughly two-thirds of the people are Arab. Nearly a quarter are Kurdish. The Kurds live primarily in the mountainous north. The region that the Kurds inhabit is part of an area called Kurdistan that also includes parts of Turkey, Iran, Armenia, and Syria. The remainder of Iraq’s population consists of small minority groups. These include Turks, Turkmen, Assyrians, Armenians, and others.

Most of the people in Iraq speak Arabic, which is the official language. Several dialects of the Arabic language are spoken in Iraq. However, dialects among different groups are usually mutually intelligible. Kurdish is the official language in the autonomous Kurdish region in the north. A number of other languages, including Turkish, Turkmen, and Syriac, are spoken in Iraq by smaller ethnic groups. Persian (Farsi), once commonly spoken, is now seldom heard. English is widely used in commerce.

Islam is the official religion of Iraq. Roughly three-fifths of the population belong to the Shiʿite branch of Islam. More than one-third are Sunni Muslims. Shiʿites are almost exclusively Arab, while Sunnis are divided mainly between Arabs and Kurds. There is also a small Christian community in Iraq. About one million Christians lived in the country when the Iraq War began. However, more than half have left the country since then, mostly to escape poverty and violence by Muslim extremists. Jews formerly constituted a small but significant minority in Iraq, their ancestry in the region tracing back to ancient Mesopotamia. With the establishment of Israel in 1948, however, most Jews emigrated there or elsewhere.

The majority of Iraqis live in urban areas. Baghdad, the capital, is by far the largest city. Emigration of rural people to the country’s larger urban centers increased dramatically in the late 20th century. The trend continued in the early 21st century, despite government efforts to stem the tide of people departing rural areas. In addition to the country’s major cities, there are a considerable number of towns spread throughout Iraq. Many towns are market centers, provincial capitals, or the headquarters of local government districts.

Although the proportion of urban dwellers has risen over time, about one-third of Iraqis still live in rural areas. The greatest concentration of rural villages is in the valleys and lowlands around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Most of these villages have between 100 and 2,000 houses. Their populations are engaged almost exclusively in agriculture. Villages in the foothills and mountains of the largely Kurdish northern region tend to be smaller and more isolated than those of lowland Iraq. The arid and semiarid areas in the west and south also have sparse populations. The arid regions were traditionally inhabited by nomadic Bedouin tribes, but few of these people remain in Iraq. Another lifestyle under threat is that of the Shiʿite marsh dwellers of southern Iraq. They traditionally have lived in reed dwellings built on brushwood foundations or on sandy areas known as sandspits. However, environmental damage to the marshes has threatened their way of living.

Culture

Despite the wars and instability that have plagued Iraq, literary and artistic pursuits flourish in the country. This is most notable in Baghdad. In the city, Western traditions in arts such as dance, theater, and modern art are interspersed with traditional Middle Eastern forms of artistic expression. Poetry is held in especially high esteem. During the late 20th and early 21st centuries, a number of Iraqi poets became known throughout the Arab-speaking world. Among these were ʿAbd al-Wahhab al-Bayati, who made use of free verse rather than classical Arabic poetic forms, and Nazik al-Malaʾika, who became one of the Arab world’s most prominent woman poets. Works of visual art are also abundant. Iraqi painters and sculptors are among the best in the Middle East. In addition, traditional arts and crafts, such as leatherworking, copper working, and carpet making, are much in evidence throughout the country.

Interfoto Scans/age fotostock

Baghdad has many museums and many examples of architecture from the ʿAbbasid period in the 8th and 9th centuries. The country’s location at the heart of Mesopotamia has endowed it with a number of important archaeological sites. These sites in turn have yielded an abundance of artifacts, which are on display at the country’s museums. The most notable of these are the Iraq Museum in Baghdad and the Mosul Museum. However, some museums suffered extensive losses and some archaeological sites were damaged during the Iraq War and its aftermath.

As in other parts of the Middle East, much of daily life in Iraq centers on Islam. Most Iraqis visit mosques for readings of the Koran and prayers, and they observe religious holidays. In rural areas the family, the extended family, and the tribe remain a primary focus of social life. In contrast, life in the cities and larger towns has become increasingly Westernized, with less of an emphasis on traditional social relationships. The role of women has also been changing in Iraq. A higher proportion of women are participating in the labor force, in spite of encouragement from the government to stay at home and raise large families.

Soccer (association football) has become a national passion in Iraq. The sport grew increasingly popular as a means of coping with the political and economic turmoil after 1980. A popular venue in Baghdad is Al-Shaab (“People’s”) Stadium. Throngs of Iraqis wait outside the gates even after the stadium has filled. Millions more watch games via television throughout the country. In 2006 the national soccer team participated in the Asian Cup finals for the first time in more than two decades. In 2007 the team won the title. Since missing the 1972 and 1976 Olympic Games, Iraqi athletes have also consistently participated in the Summer Olympics.

Education and Social Welfare

The education system in Iraq experienced a dramatic and rapid expansion after the 1958 revolution that overthrew the monarchy. The number of scientists and skilled workers in Iraq traditionally has been among the highest in the Middle East. Education at all levels is funded by the state. Schooling is compulsory through the primary grades. Secondary education is widely available. Although opportunities for higher education began to increase in the 1970s, the economic embargoes following the Persian Gulf War created enormous hardships for many families. Many young adults were forced to leave school and enter the workforce. Moreover, most Iraqi schools lacked access to the latest texts and equipment. The schools slowly fell behind those of other countries in the region in terms of the quality of education they offered. Today, literacy among Iraqi adults is less than 80 percent. The University of Baghdad, founded in 1958, had campuses in Basra and Mosul that became separate universities in 1964 and 1967, respectively. There are a number of other universities and training institutes.

Wars and violent conflicts in Iraq have greatly damaged components of the country’s infrastructure. This has led to higher rates of mortality and increased instances of malnutrition, especially among young children. Most medical facilities are controlled by the government. However, health care is no longer free, as it had been prior to the Persian Gulf War. Care is administered at hospitals in cities and towns and at clinics in rural areas. There is a severe shortage of physicians and trained medical staff. As many as half of all physicians in Iraq left the country after 2003, and most have not returned.

Major Cities

Robert Smith

Diane Rawson/Photo Researchers

Iraq has many large towns and cities of great historic importance. Some urban centers are built on the ruins of cities dating back to biblical times. The capital city of Baghdad, located in central Iraq, is one of the great cities of history. Modern Baghdad is a center for commerce, transportation, and trade. It has many Islamic works of art and historic architecture. Many antiquities, however, were damaged during the Persian Gulf War and the Iraq War.

Another of Iraq’s major cities is Irbil (also spelled Arbil or Erbil). Located in the mountainous north, Irbil is a commercial and agricultural hub and a center for Kurdish political activity and culture. One of the oldest continually settled towns in the world, Irbil sits on the site of the ancient Sumerian and Assyrian city of Urbillum. The ancient city was a center for Christianity before the Muslim conquests of the 7th century. A large Christian population remains, though a substantial portion of the population are Sunni Muslims. Irbil has several institutions of higher learning, including Salahaddin University-Erbil, founded in 1968, and an institute for agricultural studies.

Diane Rawson/Photo Researchers

Northwest of Irbil is Mosul, one of Iraq’s largest cities. Situated on the Tigris River, Mosul is located south of the ruins of Nineveh, the ancient capital of Assyria. Agricultural trade and the oil industry are the main sources of local employment. Mosul is also a manufacturing center and the seat of the University of Mosul. Mosul’s urban population is predominantly Arab. Most of the people living in the surrounding region are Kurdish. In 2013 an insurgent group known as the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL; also known as the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria [ISIS]) began to take control of majority-Sunni cities in western Iraq. In June 2014 Mosul became the largest city to fall to ISIL. By 2017, however, Iraqi government forces had retaken control of Mosul.

Another key northern city is Kirkuk, which sits at the foot of the Zagros Mountains in the northeast. A major center of Iraq’s oil industry, Kirkuk is connected by road and rail to Baghdad. Oil pipelines run from Kirkuk to Mediterranean ports via Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey. The city is also a hub for the trade and export of produce and other agricultural products raised in the region. Most of the population is Kurdish, though there is a small Turkmen minority. The historic north-central town of Tikrit housed a large fortress and a Christian monastery in the 10th century. It was the birthplace of Saladin, a famous Muslim military hero of the 12th century, and of Saddam Hussein.

In southeastern Iraq, the port city of Basra sits on the western bank of the Shatt Al-ʿArab, a waterway formed by the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. As the largest and most important Iraqi port, Basra is a center of trade and commerce. However, it is perhaps best known in the West as the hometown of Sinbad the Sailor in the legendary folklore tales of The Arabian Nights.

The holy cities of Karbalaʾ and Al-Najaf are both located in south-central Iraq. Al-Najaf lies roughly 100 miles (160 kilometers) south of Baghdad. It is the site of the tomb of ʿAli, the son-in-law and successor of Muhammad and the first imam (leader) of the Shiʿah branch of Islam. The tomb is an important stop for Shiʿite Muslims during their religious pilgrimages to Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Karbalaʾ is situated approximately 55 miles (88 kilometers) southwest of Baghdad. The Shiʿite leader Al-Husayn ibn ʿAli was killed there in 680. His tomb is an important shrine to Muslims, especially during the pilgrimage to Mecca. Although Karbalaʾ has many shrines, the Husayn tomb, with its gilded dome and three gilded minarets (towers), is the city’s most notable structure. After being destroyed by the Wahabis in 1801, it was quickly restored. In addition to its importance to Islam, Karbalaʾ is a trade center.

Economy

Prior to the 1950s, Iraq’s economy was mainly agricultural. Following the revolution of 1958 that overthrew the Iraqi monarchy, the government placed increasing emphasis on the export of petroleum. This resulted in an economic boom. By 1980 Iraq had the second largest economy in the Arab world—after Saudi Arabia—and the third largest in the Middle East.

Subsequent wars badly hurt the Iraqi economy, however. An economic embargo imposed on Iraq by the United Nations (UN) in the 1990s isolated the country for a period of years. By the early 21st century, Iraq was saddled with an enormous national debt. After the initial phase of the Iraq War, portions of the country’s debt were canceled by creditor nations, beginning in 2004. Modest signs of economic improvement, including a decline in soaring inflation, began to appear in the following years. Oil export revenues made a strong comeback in 2009. Nevertheless, crumbling infrastructure, violence, and other problems have continued to weigh down Iraq’s recovery.

Agriculture, Fishing, and Forestry

Agriculture traditionally has accounted for up to one-third of Iraq’s gross domestic product (GDP; the total value of goods and services produced during the year). The sector now accounts for about 10 percent of the GDP. About one-eighth of the land in Iraq is arable (suitable for farming). Another one-tenth is permanent pasture. Most farming is done in the north and northeast, where rainfall is adequate for the cultivation of winter crops. Among the main crops are wheat, barley, rice, corn (maize), potatoes, and tomatoes. Iraq was once the world’s largest producer of dates. However, date production was seriously damaged during the Iran-Iraq War and approached prewar levels only in the early 21st century. Livestock and their products are also important, cattle and sheep being the most important domestic animals.

The country’s fishing industry is not large, despite the abundance of rivers. Iraq harvests both freshwater and marine fish for local consumption. The country also supports a modest aquaculture industry.

Timber resources in Iraq are rather scarce and difficult to access. Such resources are situated almost entirely in the highlands and mountains of Iraqi Kurdistan in the northeast. The timber that is most readily available is used almost exclusively for firewood and the production of charcoal. Limited amounts of timber are used for local industry. Most wood for industrial production (for furniture, construction, and other purposes) must be imported.

Industry

Lisa Coghlan/U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Gulf Region District

Iraq’s industrial sector continues to be dominated by the production of petroleum. The country’s oil reserves are among the largest in the world. The first commercial oil field in Iraq was developed in Kirkuk in 1927 by the Iraq Petroleum Company. This largely British-owned firm obtained an exploration agreement from the Iraqi government for the provinces of Mosul and Baghdad. Other companies obtained similar agreements. Iraq soon became one of the major petroleum-producing countries of the Middle East. By 1975 the industry was fully nationalized (owned and run by the state). Production decreased dramatically during the Iran-Iraq War of the 1980s but had largely recovered just prior to the onset of the Persian Gulf War.

In May 1996 the UN and Iraq reached an agreement that would allow Iraq to sell 1 billion dollars’ worth of oil every 90 days. Most of the proceeds were to be used to purchase food and medicine for the civilian population suffering the effects of economic sanctions. One-third of the money earned by the oil sales was to go into a fund to compensate victims of Iraq’s August 1990 invasion and subsequent occupation of Kuwait. The UN later raised the ceiling of the permitted sales of Iraqi oil. By the early 21st century, oil production and exports had risen to roughly three-fourths of the levels achieved prior to the Persian Gulf War. Oil production rebounded slowly following the initial phase of the Iraq War. Exports of crude oil have been supplemented by the production of natural gas.

Iraq has mineral resources other than petroleum and natural gas, though they have not been fully exploited. Experts believe the country has a good amount of mineral deposits such as coal, iron, lead, and copper. Construction materials such as stone and gypsum are also abundant.

Manufacturing industries account for a relatively small portion of Iraq’s GDP. In addition to refineries for petroleum and natural gas, the country built factories for steel and iron production. Among the most important products manufactured in Iraq are building materials, chemicals and chemical products, food and beverages, and fabricated metal products.

Services

Trade, construction, government, and other service activities are important to Iraq’s economy. However, like every other part of the economy, the service sector has been weakened by the years of violent conflict in Iraq. The country’s instability has seriously hurt the chances of tourism soon becoming a major source of national income.

Among the strongest components of the service sector is the construction industry. The industry is supported in large part by government investment aimed at repairing widespread damage from the wars. Trade is also a vital activity. Iraq’s exports consist mostly of petroleum and petroleum products, which are shipped to a number of countries, including China, India, the United States, and South Korea. Food products are imported in large quantities, as are consumer goods of all types.

Transportation and Communications

Iraq’s development as a modern industrial society has been aided by a network of highways and railroads between the major cities and the outlying provinces. Pipelines for oil exports run to the Mediterranean Sea and Turkey and to the port of Basra. In 1914 Iraq had only two main roads, one from Baghdad across the desert to Al Fallujah on the Euphrates and the other, used mainly for produce, from Mosul to Mardin, Turkey. Roads and railways were built to meet the transportation needs of the Allied forces during the two world wars. These became the nucleus of the country’s present system. Today, Iraq’s transportation network includes roughly 37,000 miles (60,000 kilometers) of roads. Iraq has international airports at Baghdad (the country’s main point of entry) and Basra and has major port facilities at Basra, Umm Qasr, and Al-Faw on the Persian Gulf.

Iraq’s telecommunications network was once one of the best in the region. However, it was heavily damaged during the Persian Gulf War and was further degraded after the beginning of the Iraq War in 2003. The network has been repaired only partially. Access to fixed telephone lines is limited, though cellular telephone service is available in urban areas. There is a national television and radio service as well as a growing number of private stations. Internet access and television service via satellite are also growing. There are a number of newspapers published in Arabic or in English, in addition to a variety of magazines and journals.

Government

From 1968 to 2003 the government of Iraq was headed by a president who also served as chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), as prime minister, and as commander in chief of the armed forces. The people elected a legislature, which was called the National Assembly. All legislative and executive powers were exercised by the RCC. Political parties other than the Baʿth Party were banned in the country from the overthrow of the monarchy in 1958 until 1991, when Saddam Hussein authorized other parties. Following Saddam’s removal from power in 2003, interim governments ruled the country. In October 2005 a new constitution made Iraq a parliamentarydemocracy. Soon thereafter, voters elected a new government.

Under the 2005 constitution, Iraq is governed by separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The chief of state is the president, a position that is largely ceremonial. The president’s main tasks include presiding over state ceremonies and endorsing treaties and laws. The president is limited to two four-year terms and is elected by the national legislature, known as the Council of Representatives. The council enacts Iraq’s federal laws. The leading party in elections for the Council of Representatives nominates the prime minister, who must be approved by a majority of representatives to assume power. The prime minister serves as the head of government. The prime minister and the cabinet together are responsible for setting policy and for the day-to-day running of the government. Judicial affairs in Iraq are administered by the Supreme Judicial Council. The Supreme Judicial Council nominates the justices of the Supreme Court and other high judicial officials for approval by the Council of Representatives.

Iraq’s constitution also calls for the formation of a second legislative body, the Council of Union. This body has not yet been established, however. The Council of Union was expected to take the form of an upper house, with representatives from all of the country’s 18 administrative units, or governorates.

History

Courtesy of the Iraq Museum, Baghdad; photograph, David Lees

The history of Iraq begins with that of ancient Mesopotamia. The region became established with the emigration of the Sumerians from Iran and northern Anatolia about 3000 bc. Two kingdoms, Sumer and Akkad, combined about 2350 bc to form one nation under King Sargon of Akkad. About 2000 bc the Amorites assumed control. Their king, Hammurabi, made Babylon a famous city, though he is best known for his code of laws. After his death came invasions by the Hittites and then by the Kassites, who formed the kingdom of Assyria about 1350 bc. The Kassites originally had their capital at Ashur, but they moved it in 720 bc to Nineveh.

Nik Wheeler/Corbis

Various tribal invasions weakened the Assyrian empire during the next century. The Chaldeans under King Nebuchadnezzar II rebuilt Babylon and ruled for 40 years. The Persian ruler Cyrus the Great invaded in 539 bc, and Persia ruled Babylonia until Alexander the Great’s conquests in 331 bc. His successors, the Seleucids, ruled for 175 years. During that period, Greek cultural influences became established in the region. Persian invasions under the Parthians and the Sassanids established a new capital at Ctesiphon near the midpoint of the Tigris. The Persians constructed many irrigation systems and canals.

Arab Conquest and Rule (637–1534)

A new era began with the Arab conquests in ad 637 when tribes from Arabia, bearing the message of Islam, spread throughout Mesopotamia. The region was already weakened by conflicts between the Sassanids of Persia to the east and the Byzantine Empire to the west. Iraq thus became a province of the extensive Muslim state called the caliphate. The Muslims established their first dynasty, the Umayyad, with their capital at Damascus in Syria. By 750, conflicts over the succession of rulers and discord between Arab and Persian Muslims led to a change in rule. The ʿAbbasid dynasty in Iraq was established, with its capital at Baghdad.

The ʿAbbasid dynasty ruled from 750 to 1258. Under the ʿAbbasids, Arab-Muslim culture and scholarship merged with Persian administration and arts. This was a period during which many Greek and Roman philosophical and scientific works were translated into Arabic. The stories in The Arabian Nights give an idea of life in the court of one of the most famous ʿAbbasid rulers, Caliph Harun al-Rashid. The tales include those about Sinbad the Sailor, Ali Baba and the 40 thieves, and Aladdin and his magic lamp. They describe the clothing, court life, and government of the period. They also show that the role of the grand vizier, or royal minister, in directing state affairs came from Persian administrative practices.

The splendor of the ʿAbbasid period began to dim as it came under the influence of the Seljuq Turkish empire, centered at Esfahan (now in Iran). Turks in the court at Baghdad assumed powerful administrative positions. The role of the grand vizier also grew. By the beginning of the 12th century, the ʿAbbasid caliph was often only a figurehead. Although the Turks seized authority from the caliph, they held the empire together until the Mongols conquered Baghdad in 1258. The ʿAbbasid caliphate then ended, though a member of the ʿAbbasid clan continued to reign in Egypt. Iraq became a land of small kingdoms—a situation that prevailed for almost 300 years.

Ottoman Rule in Iraq (1534–1918)

The Turkish family of Osman eventually gained a foothold in Anatolia (Asia Minor), the peninsula of land that today constitutes the Asian portion of Turkey. There the Osmans established the Ottoman Empire, pushing aside the last influences of the Byzantines in the process. The Ottomans conquered Baghdad in 1534, sending administrators to deal with what was considered an outlying province of their empire. The neighboring Safavid dynasty in Persia attempted to gain control of portions of Iraq, but the area remained under Ottoman control. The Ottoman sultan ruled all of Egypt, Syria, and portions of Arabia, including the holy cities of Mecca and Medina.

Ruling Iraq involved maintaining peace with the local Bedouin tribes, many of whom held great power outside the more thickly settled areas. The Ottoman government followed a policy of supporting the principal tribes. Under this policy, Ottoman administrators gave payments to certain influential sheikhs, in exchange for which these tribal leaders were expected to keep the peace and not raid the cities. These payments maintained the system for hundreds of years.

At the end of the 19th century, some factions in the Ottoman regime began to support policies that alienated ethnic groups within the empire. One of these groups, the Young Turks, supported the supremacy of the Turkish people and language. When this group came to power, they sent administrators—who often treated non-Turks as second-class citizens—to the various provinces, including Iraq. Both urban and rural Iraqis opposed these policies. Some of the country’s intellectuals began making plans to break away from the Ottoman Empire.

The Ottomans sided with the Germans in World War I. The British, who wanted to protect their lifeline to India through the Middle East, made Egypt a British protectorate, or dependent state. The British supported the leaders in Mecca and Medina in their revolt against the Ottomans. The British also sent an expeditionary force from India to Iraq. They did this not only to ensure their position in the Middle East but also to protect their interests in the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. The British force landed at Al-Faw in November 1914. It advanced to Al-Kut, where it was surrounded by Turkish troops and urged to surrender. T.E. Lawrence, later known as Lawrence of Arabia, made an unsuccessful attempt to buy the release of the besieged British force from the Turkish commander. The British troops finally surrendered to the Turkish force in April 1916. However, the British sent more troops and occupied Baghdad in March 1917.

Modern Iraq (1918–present)

At the end of World War I in 1918, the League of Nations gave Great Britain a mandate to administer Iraq until it established its own government. Many Iraqis resented the British. Tribal rebellions broke out in northern Iraq in 1920. The British reacted by placing Faysal I on the throne as king in 1921. Faysal was a member of the Hashemite family, a 20th-century dynasty that traced its heritage back to the Prophet Muhammad. The establishment of a monarchy in Iraq was followed by the signing of a treaty of alliance with Great Britain and the drafting of a constitution. The latter, which was called the Organic Law, was adopted in 1924. It went into effect after being signed by the king on March 21, 1925. The new constitution provided for a parliamentary government and the establishment of a bicameral, or two-chambered, legislature.

The move toward complete independence was driven by the country’s prime minister, General Nuri al-Saʿid, who assumed office in 1930. That same year, Britain agreed to end the League of Nations mandate and signed a new treaty with Iraq. The new treaty established an alliance between the two countries, particularly with respect to foreign policy and trade agreements. In 1932 Iraq was granted full independence.

Faysal I ruled Iraq until his death from heart failure in 1933. He was succeeded by his son, Ghazi. The new king was young and inexperienced at leadership, a situation that invited much intrigue as more-seasoned political leaders moved in to compete for power. This led to much dissent and some resignations within the government. The country underwent five changes in government within the first two years following independence. Other factors contributing to the country’s political instability were tribal uprisings and military interventions. In 1936 a bloodless coup d’état led by the military passed control of the country to the army. The army dominated politics for the next five years.

Despite the political instability during this period, Iraq made great strides with regard to its economic position and infrastructure. During King Ghazi’s short reign, an important irrigation project was completed and oil pipelines extending to the Mediterranean Sea were opened. The country’s railroads were purchased from Britain, which had maintained control over them. Construction and foreign trade increased, and educational facilities were established. Foreign relations, particularly with Iraq’s neighbors, were mended. In 1937 the Saʿdabad Pact between Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, and Iraq was signed. The pact established a policy of nonaggression among those countries.

In 1939, shortly before the outbreak of World War II, King Ghazi was killed in a car accident. He was succeeded by his son, Faysal II. Because the new king was only four years old, however, his uncle, Emir ʿAbd al-Ilah, was appointed regent. ʿAbd al-Ilah served in this capacity for the next 14 years.

World War II

At the onset of World War II, Iraq initially maintained friendly relations with Great Britain, which sent troops into the area. Public support for this policy changed drastically, however, when France fell to the Germans. Many Iraqis began to favor the position taken by Arab leadership in other countries—that is, hostility toward foreign control. In particular, Iraq was urged to join with other Arab nations to help liberate Syria and Palestine from British control. Some extremists advocated alliance with Germany. They believed that Germany would support independence for the Arab states. The foreign minister of Iraq moved toward an alliance with other Arab nations against Britain. In response, Britain sent troop reinforcements into Iraq in 1940. A short-lived armed conflict between British and Iraqi troops ensued in 1941. After Iraqi forces surrendered, the pan-Arab supporters in the cabinet fled the nation. They were replaced by moderate leaders who supported Britain and its allies. Accordingly, Iraq declared war on the Axis powers—the coalition of Germany, Italy, and Japan—in 1942. In 1945 Iraq became a founding member of the United Nations and the Arab League.

During the war, a leadership settled into place that was more moderate in nature than earlier regimes. The people of Iraq weathered the supply shortages and loss of civil liberties that are typical in such a period. They believed that these liberties would be restored when the war ended. When conditions did not change following the resolution of the war, the populace became agitated. The regent, ʿAbd al-Ilah, called for the establishment of a true parliamentary system and political parties, believing this would move the country toward reform. Although his ideas were received favorably, the new government established in early 1946 was quickly overthrown by the military. The new regime was headed by General Nuri; he resigned in 1947, however, in the face of widespread opposition to his policies. Nuri was replaced by Salih Jabr, the country’s first Shiʿite prime minister.

The postwar period

As prime minister, Jabr attempted to help the Arabs in Palestine in order to enhance his image with other Arab leaders. At the same time, he entered into negotiations for a new treaty with Great Britain, which was eager to maintain control of their air bases in Iraq. Although his actions enhanced relations with Britain, they were not widely supported at home. A series of uprisings ensued, leading to Jabr’s forced resignation in 1948.

The uprisings were as much about popular discontent with the government in general as they were about Jabr’s alliance with Britain. Younger, and often more liberal, politicians were eager to gain a foothold within the government. However, their entry was repeatedly suppressed by the older and considerably more conservative factions that were in power. This led to more uprisings in 1952. The military was called in to quell the disturbances. Martial law was invoked. The following year, civilian rule was returned, though popular discontent continued.

During this time, King Faysal II had come of age and began to exercise his authority. This ended the regency of his uncle, ʿAbd al-Ilah. Many hoped al-Ilah, whom Faysal named crown prince, would withdraw from political life, thus allowing the government to make a fresh start. Instead, the prince continued to exert control over Iraqi politics from behind the scenes. The subsequent power struggle fostered increasing political instability despite economic advances for the country—Iraq was quickly becoming a wealthy state thanks to its oil industry.

The Iraqi Revolution and its aftermath

In 1958 the monarchy was overthrown by a coalition headed by the Iraqi military. King Faysal II and Crown Prince ʿAbd al-Ilah were both assassinated. Iraq was subsequently declared a republic by its new leader, ʿAbd al-Karim Qasim, a general in the Iraqi army. Other members of the group that had led the coup also sought power, however. A new organization, the Arab Socialist Resurrection Party, also known as the Baʿth Party, persuaded the army that Qasim should be overthrown. In 1963 the leader of the Baʿth Party, Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr, overthrew Qasim. He established the rule of the National Council for Revolutionary Command with a non-Baʿthist president, ʿAbd al-Salam ʿArif. Qasim was executed.

In 1965 a conflict broke out between opposing groups of Baʿthists in the council. One group wanted a union with Egypt. The other favored an alliance with Syria. An attempted plot against ʿArif failed, but he later died in a helicopter accident. The National Defense Council then elected his brother, ʿAbd al-Rahman ʿArif, as president. Struggles between Baʿth government officials and the pro-Egyptian Unionists continued until 1968, when al-Bakr took over the presidency in a coup.

Under al-Bakr, conflicts intensified between the government and the Kurds. During the late 1920s Iraq and Iran had cooperated in controlling the Kurds, who lived on both sides of the border between the two countries. After the 1958 coup in Iraq, each country began to support Kurdish rebels in the other’s territory. In 1974 the Iraqi army decided to move into the northern province against the Kurdish rebels, who wanted to overthrow the new Iraqi regime. In March 1975 Iraq reached an agreement with Iran to settle the conflict. Many Kurds fled to Iran. Al-Bakr’s regime strengthened Iraq’s ties with the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union had provided assistance in the war against the Kurds.

Relations with Iran remained strained, however. Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, the shah, or monarch, of Iran, was overthrown in the 1979 revolution in that country. Iraq at first supported the new Iranian regime led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. However, the two countries went to war in 1980 after Iraq voided a treaty giving Iran passage rights in the Shatt Al-ʿArab waterway. Much discord also resulted from Iran’s desire to extend its Islamic revolution to Iraq.

Iraq under Saddam Hussein and the post-Saddam era

In 1979 al-Bakr resigned as president of Iraq and was immediately succeeded by Saddam Hussein. Saddam instituted the first legislative elections since the overthrow of the monarchy in 1958. Despite the efforts of mediators, disagreements between Iraq and Iran escalated. On September 22, 1980, the Iran-Iraq War began when Iraqi forces invaded western Iran along the countries’ joint border. The Iraqi forces also bombed Iranian air bases and other strategic targets. The UN Security Council called for a cease-fire, appealing to both sides to settle the dispute peacefully. Iraq replied that they would cease their aggression if Iran would do likewise, but Iran refused. The subsequent conflict extended into the gulf region. Iranian forces were aided by Iraqi Kurds. Iraq used chemical weapons against the Kurdish rebels as well as some Iranian cities.

By the late 1980s, the struggle began to favor the Iraqi side. Iraq obtained arms from France and the Soviet Union as well as general military support from Great Britain and the United States. In 1987 the UN Security Council again attempted to intervene by passing a resolution calling for a cease-fire. Once again, Iraq agreed to stop fighting if Iran would agree to do the same. Iran neither accepted nor refused the agreement but rather demanded a number of amendments. However, popular discontent in Iran eventually forced its leaders to accept the terms of the cease-fire in 1988. Peace talks between the two countries ensued.

After the cease-fire, Saddam began a program of reconstruction to repair the damage wrought by the war with Iran. He promised to institute political reforms at home. He also attempted to establish improved relations with neighboring countries, particularly Saudi Arabia and Bahrain. He remained wary of Iran, however, since peace negotiations had stalled. He continued to develop a large arsenal of weapons, including biological and chemical arms. This, along with reports of human rights abuses and increasing hostility toward Israel—which had attacked and destroyed an Iraqi nuclear facility in 1981—caused much alarm among Western countries.

In July 1990 Iraq accused Kuwait of overproducing oil and stealing petroleum from a disputed oil field. Iraq had had a long-standing dispute with Kuwait over its borders. After talks failed in early August, Iraqi troops invaded Kuwait, stormed the capital, overthrew the government, and annexed the country. The invasion of Kuwait triggered the Persian Gulf War. The UN Security Council responded by imposing a ban on all trade by member states with Iraq. The council set a deadline of January 15, 1991, for Iraq to withdraw its troops from Kuwait.

The United States, which considered Iraq’s new position to be a threat to Western interests in the gulf region, moved troops into the Persian Gulf a week after the Kuwaiti invasion. Iraq failed to comply with the UN resolution by the deadline. An allied military coalition from 28 countries, including several Middle Eastern states and led by the United States, moved into the region on January 17. This action came to be known as Operation Desert Storm. Kuwait was liberated just over a month later in a ground assault after a 100-hour ground war. It would take three more years before Iraq officially recognized Kuwait’s independence and borders. Iraq accepted the UN requirements to identify for destruction all chemical and biological weapons, ballistic missiles, and material usable in nuclear weapons. However, it resisted UN inspection. The embargoes placed on Iraq by the UN, including the ban on commercial air traffic in and out of Baghdad’s airport, remained in place.

During the war, Iraq brutally crushed a Kurdish uprising. It also put down a Shiʿite rebellion in the south. In August 1996 Iraqi troops occupied Irbil, the makeshift capital for the autonomous Kurdish territory. The United States launched a barrage of cruise missiles at Iraq in retaliation for the occupation, forcing withdrawal of the Iraqi troops. Despite the withdrawal, the Iraqi government had reasserted its influence over the often rebellious region of northern Iraq.

In April 1995 the UN passed a resolution partially lifting the oil embargo it had placed on Iraq at the onset of the invasion of Kuwait. The new resolution allowed Iraq to pump a limited amount of oil to be exported in exchange for money to buy humanitarian supplies such as food and medicine. Iraq initially refused to accept the terms of the resolution but finally agreed more than a year later. In December 1996, oil flowed through Iraqi pipelines for the first time in six years. Iraq began pumping 650,000 barrels of crude oil a day for export. At the height of pre-Gulf War production, Iraqi oil fields had pumped as many as 3 million barrels a day, second only to Saudi Arabia internationally.

Tensions between Iraq and the West over the ongoing economic sanctions continued. In early 1998 a standoff over the issue of weapons inspections brought Iraq and the UN to the brink of warfare. The problem had begun after Iraqi officials barred UN inspectors from conducting mandatory weapons inspections of several government compounds. UN officials argued that the Iraqi government had blocked the weapons inspection teams in order to conceal an ongoing program to create and store chemical, biological, and possibly nuclear weapons, a clear violation of the 1991 peace accord that ended the Gulf War.

Little agreement, however, developed between various members of the UN Security Council as to what measures were to be taken to force Iraq to comply with the 1991 accord. The United States and Britain threatened to use military force to ensure that Iraq complied with the weapons inspections. France, Russia, and China instead called for a UN-negotiated diplomatic solution. The United States and Britain, assisted by a handful of nations from the Middle East, proceeded to mount a military presence in the Persian Gulf. They warned that Iraq would face a substantial military assault if it did not agree to let weapons inspections resume.

With the Iraqi conflict threatening to develop into warfare, newly elected UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan ventured to Iraq to negotiate directly with the government. He succeeded in negotiating an agreement to bring Iraq into compliance with the 1991 accord. Although Iraq agreed to allow UN weapons inspectors to resume their inspections without hindrance, tensions between the weapons inspectors and the Iraqi government continued. In December 1998 UN chief weapons inspector Richard Butler issued a report declaring that Iraq was willfully thwarting weapons inspectors. U.S. and British officials ordered the withdrawal from Iraq of all UN personnel. Just after 1:00 am local time on December 17, 1998, the United States and Britain began four days of intensive missile strikes and bombings. Despite the Butler report, many countries, particularly Russia, a traditional ally of Iraq, strongly condemned the air strikes.

After the bombing, the United States claimed victory in its mission to damage Iraq’s weapons of mass destruction and to reduce the capacity of Iraq to use such weapons. However, Iraq did not allow the UN inspectors to reenter the country. When the UN in late 1999 passed a resolution to create a new inspection commission, Iraq rejected the proposal.

By 2000, the effects of the economic sanctions on civilians had begun to garner international sympathy. Humanitarian missions brought much-needed aid. However, the Iraqi government rejected new proposals for weapons inspections. The United States and Britain launched air strikes against the Iraqi military in early 2001. The air strikes received little support from the international community.

In November 2002 the UN passed a new resolution providing for the return of inspectors to Iraq. Though inspections resumed, the United States and Britain challenged the Iraqi government’s compliance with the process. In early 2003 U.S. President George W. Bush and British Prime Minister Tony Blair declared that Iraq was continuing to hinder the inspections and that it still possessed prohibited weapons. The issue divided the UN Security Council. China, France, and Russia wanted inspections to continue. The United States and Britain sought prompt military action.

United States Department of Defense/Specialist Katherine M. Roth/U.S. Army

On March 17, 2003, Bush gave Saddam two days to leave the country or face removal by force. Saddam refused to leave. On March 20 the United States and its allies launched a series of air attacks on Iraq. This marked the beginning of the Iraq War. The bombings were followed by a ground invasion of U.S. and British troops. Within four weeks coalition troops had taken control of Iraq. In subsequent months, however, the coalition lost control of many areas to insurgent guerrilla fighters. The guerrillas included both Iraqis and non-Iraqi fighters from other Arab and Islamic countries. As the insurgency escalated over the next several years, attacks on coalition forces became more sophisticated and violent. At the same time, Shiʿite and Sunni groups attacked each other, killing tens of thousands of civilians.

Meanwhile, steps were taken to hand over control of the government to the Iraqis. In June 2004 an interim Iraqi government took power. Elections in December 2005 produced a coalition government that was led by Shiʿites but also included Sunnis and Kurds. The new government was sworn in on May 20, 2006.

Department of Defense

Saddam had been captured by U.S. troops in December 2003. He was put on trial in 2005 for crimes against the Iraqi people. Although coalition troops had found no weapons of mass destruction, mass graves and other evidence proved the atrocities committed by Saddam’s regime. Saddam was executed in December 2006. However, the violence continued. The war, long opposed by many throughout the world, became increasingly unpopular in the United States.

In early 2007 Bush proposed to increase the number of U.S. troops in Iraq by more than 20,000 in an effort to stem the violence. Following the so-called troop surge, joint U.S.-Iraqi operations began to yield results. By the end of 2007, the number of attacks and casualties had decreased significantly in Baghdad and other areas of Iraq. The decline in violence was due not only to the surge itself but also in part to the efforts of Sunni militias called the Awakening Councils. These militias had formerly opposed U.S. forces but, beginning in 2006, had turned against other insurgent guerrilla groups, particularly those affiliated with the terrorist group al-Qaeda.

As the security situation stabilized in Iraq, progress was made toward finalizing an agreement to determine the future of U.S. forces in the country. In November 2008 the Iraqi parliament approved a security agreement that called for U.S. troops to leave Iraqi cities and towns by June 2009. The agreement called for a complete withdrawal from the country by the end of 2011. In February 2009 newly elected U.S. President Barack Obama announced that U.S. combat forces would be withdrawn from the country by August 2010, with the remaining troops due to pull out by December 2011. On June 30, 2009, after turning security responsibilities over to Iraqi forces, U.S. troops completed their withdrawal from the country’s cities and towns as scheduled. The remaining U.S. forces left Iraq in December 2011.

Tensions between religious and ethnic groups in Iraq remained high following the withdrawal of U.S. forces from the country. Those tensions soon led to an increase in violence. Bombings by Sunni extremists targeting Shiʿites and the government once again became a regular occurrence. The security situation took a turn for the worse in 2013 after a Sunni insurgent group was formed under the name Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL; also known as the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria [ISIS]). The group—composed of Iraqi, Syrian, and foreign militants—carried out attacks and acts of sabotage almost daily. It quickly began to take control of areas of eastern Syria and of majority-Sunni cities in western Iraq. In January 2014 ISIL took over the Iraqi cities of Al Fallujah and Al-Ramadi. Its fighters pushed forward and took Mosul, Iraq’s second largest city, in June. ISIL then declared the establishment of a caliphate in the territory that it controlled, with the group’s leader, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, as caliph.

Osama Sami/AP Images

ISIL’s sudden advances in Iraq alarmed the international community. The group’s rise also set off a political crisis in Baghdad that eventually toppled Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki. He resigned office in August 2014 and was replaced by Haider al-Abadi. Responding to calls for international intervention, the United States launched a series of air strikes in Iraq. The air strikes succeeded in halting ISIL’s advance in the country. The United States also increased military aid to the Iraqi army and to Kurdish forces engaged in the fight against ISIL. Slowly, Iraqi government forces regained lost territory in Iraq. They retook key cities including Al-Ramadi in 2015, Al Fallujah in 2016, and Mosul in 2017.

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