The Tale of Genji (Genji Monogatari)

Introduction

The 'Genji Monogatari' ("Story of Genji") is the great novel of
classical Japanese literature, widely regarded as one of the greatest works
of Japanese literature. Within a few decades of its completion, it was
already deemed a classic. More recently, Yasunari Kawabata, the Japanese
winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature, said in his acceptance speech that:

"Genji in particular is the highest pinnacle of Japanese literature. Even
down to our day there has not been a piece of fiction to compare with it."

Its popularity has made motifs from it perennially prominent throughout
Japanese arts.

It details the lengthy and complex love adventures of Hikaru Genji
("Shining Genji"), an 'illegitimate' (not exactly, but this term gives a
roughly correct idea of his status) son of the Emperor. In doing so, it
covers the lives of those characters around him (principally in the court)
with whom he interacts. Genji manages to maintain an unfailing dignity while
passing through this landscape of life, death, and love. It continues on,
after Genji's disappearance from the scene (and presumed death) to cover some
of the lives of several of his descendants.

It does not have a clear unifying narrative arc; rather, it is composed of a
series of episodes which overlap each other, and whose entangling residues
complicate each other as the story progresses. A major theme of the 'Tale of
Genji' concerns love, lust, and the interaction of members of the opposing
sexes; it also explores the different themes of affection, friendship, filial
loyalty, and family bonds.

The experience of reading has been likened to looking through a small but
very clear window into a complete and brilliant world. Due to its richness and
complexity, the 'Tale of Genji' rewards re-reading, as passage and events
seen in one light by someone unfamiliar with the complete history reveal
entirely new aspects to a reader who knows what will transpire. Eventually,
most of the story can be seen as the operation of familiar human emotions,
but at the same time the influence of the hidden undercurrents that can
deeply affect the form of lives becomes obvious also.

It was written by a lady of the
Heian
court, whose name has come down to us as the Lady Murasaki Shikibu. She
wrote it in the late Heian period, shortly after the year 1000, when Japan's
capital was at Kyoto (then called Heian-kyo).

Despite the inclusion of several actual historical incidents, it is
fictional. It is set several decades before the time when it seems to have
actually been written, so it was historical fiction in its own time. Although
its plot borrowed elements from several other well-known works of the time,
it is distinct and unique. Other aspects of Genji may also recall indigenous
folktales or legend.

The Author

We know the identity of the author of the 'Tale of Genji', and a fair amount
about her, but not her real name. This lack of detailed information is
characteristic for court women of the
Heian Period,
though. The name by which she is now known, Murasaki Shikibu, is probably
taken from one of the major female characters in the 'Tale of Genji'; the
"Shikibu" comes from her father's position at court.

Her nickname, which we know from her journals (which have also survived), was
"the Library of Japanese History", which came from her knowledge of Chinese
literature (which was required for all aristocrats at that point in time); no
doubt her familiarity with literature was part of what allowed her to produce
the 'Tale of Genji'.

We do know that she was born around 973, the daughter of Fujiwara no
Tametoki, a member of the vast (and in some branches, supremely powerful)
Fujiwara family. He was a mid-rank nobleman who rose to be a provincial
governor; he was known as a scholar, who seems to have taken trouble to
ensure that his daughter was well educated. He let her study with her
brother, and even allowed her to learn Chinese characters, something which
was not considered proper for girls at that time. Her mother died while she
was young, as did her older sister, on whom she depended.

She married late (for that age), in 998, to a kinsman, Fujiwara no Nobutaka;
they had one daughter. Her husband died three years later.

In or around 1005 yet another kinsman, Fujiwara no Michinaga (who was 'Prime
Minister') enabled her to enter service with the Empress Akiko, the wife of
Emperor Ichijo (and also a relation of hers, as she was the daughter of
Fujiwara no Michinaga). During this period she kept a series of journals,
which reveal a great deal about the daily life of the court. She is thought
to have died around 1025.

Completeness and Authorship

Academic debate continues over whether she was the sole author, and whether
the 'Tale of Genji' is complete (as it ends very abruptly and inconclusively).

It is known that a version with at least fifty chapters was in existence by
1021, so it was definitely completed fairly quickly. One common argument
against the participation of multiple authors is that it is a work of such
genius that the likelihood of two writers of equal genius being available to
take over from Murasaki is implausible.

However, there are subtle stylistic differences in the sections of the last
fifth of the work, and in scattered spots elsewhere, which may indicate the
work of others, of whom her daughter, who was a distinguished poet, is the
most common suggestion. Also, internal evidence suggests that the chapters
were not all written in the order in which we now have them.

Some scholars believe that she did not have a planned overall structure for
the 'Tale of Genji', with a fixed "ending", and that she simply went on
adding new material for as long as she could, until death or some other
obligation forced her to leave the tale unfinished.

However, the ambiguity of the abrupt ending may also be intentional, like the
celebrated ending to the 'Sopranos' television series; that would be of a
part with the "slice of life" theme of the rest of the work.

The First Novel?

The 'Tale of Genji' is often describe as the "world's first novel", a claim
which is controversial for a variety of reasons: whether it is truly a novel;
whether it is the first, if so; etc.

Aspects of the novel which is does have include: a central character and a
number of other major and minor characters; a clear sequence of events
happening over a period of time; and well-developed characterization of the
major figures. In common with many other lengthy novels, it also contains
digressions, parallel plots, stories within stories, and changes in point of
view.

Arguments cited against it being a novel include: it is extremely episodic;
without a clear narrative arc, being more a series of more or less
independent stories; in its original form, verse is a prominent, and integral
part of the whole, and it was first read for its verse; the protagonist
(Prince Genji) dies in the middle of the book; it was intended for a limited
audience of aristocrats, not the popular audience of the Western novel.

If it does not have a coherent plot, it does seem to have a coherent theme,
though, which is to examine the lives of Genji and his descendants. Extended
novels also often treat the history of a family from differing viewpoints; a
common device is also to reveal secrets to the reader while they remain
unknown to some of the characters.

The 'Tale of Genji' is not the earliest monogatari; rather, much as the
three great Athenian tragedians outshine the other playwrights of their era,
it is so much better than the others that it has relegated its contemporaries
to vastly diminished visibility.

Characteristics of the 'Tale of Genji' as Literature

One unusual aspect of the "Tale of Genji' comes from from the manners of the
Heian-era court environment in which it was produced. Those made it
unacceptably familiar and blunt to freely mention someone's name; instead,
people were referred to by their post or function, an honorific, or their
relationship to others.

This convention is followed in the 'Tale of Genji', which produces
difficulties for readers and translators, since almost none of the characters
have an explicit name in the original text. In addition to the
circumlocutions referred to above, women are sometimes identified by the
colour of their clothing, or by a phrase used in a conversation. A further
complication is that the various formulas described above may all change
through the course of the work. As a result, modern translators have used
nicknames to refer to the many characters.

It is told in the voice of a court lady, who is also a character in the
novel. One theory about why it is narrated in this manner is that it was a
custom at that time for ladies-in-waiting to recite tales. Of course, the
'Tale of Genji' was probably not only read aloud, but was also enjoyed by
solitary reading, etc.

As mentioned above, it contains a great deal of verse: almost 800 poems,
often using the hikiuta technique, a common aristocratic pastime of
the period, which consisted of quoting one line from an older poem, and then
extemporaneously creating a new poem suited to the current circumstances from
that base.

As also mentioned above, it does not have a conventional plot; instead,
events simply transpire, much as in real life, and characters similarly
evolve simply through growing older.

One remarkable aspect of the 'Tale of Genji' (and an indication of the skill
of the writer) is its internal consistency: despite a cast of several hundred
characters, they all age in synchrony, and all the family and feudal
relationships are consistent across all the chapters.

Themes and Background

Genji spends much of his time writing poems to women he is attracted to, but
who have little interest in him; most of them know that nothing positive
would come of an affair with him, and so resist the impulse as much as
possible, although they often had similar feelings toward Genji. His numerous
affairs often involved women from outside the court, behavior which was
scandalous for a person of his position, so his affairs are usually conducted
in complete secrecy, which he took considerable trouble to maintain.

Each affair is significantly different in character from the others, though;
a factor which keeps this pattern from becoming repetitive and boring. For
instance, at one point he lusts after a princess after hearing her play
beautiful music on the zither; he quickly declares his love for her in a
flurry of letters, which she never answers. However, the more he finds out
about her, the less he likes her, but he cannot help feeling guilty after his
ardent pursuit, and he maintains the relationship long after his feelings
have waned. In one of his last affairs, he is on the receiving side of the
attentions of an elderly lady; he has to think of creative ways of dodging
the situation, without a loss of face for either party.

The last section, after Genji's death starts out like an uncertain epilogue,
but it soon takes on a life of its own, and the failings of the environment
portrayed there only heighten the allure of that of Genji himself. The
problems that seemed so double-edged when they were Genji's pale beside the
blunders and the folly of his descendants, and only make him look better in
retrospect. This can lead to nostalgia for his sphere, and against it the
troubles of the inhabitants of the later chapters seem both fated and
pitiable.

Some contemporary readers feel that the author may have used his series of
affairs simply as a device, to allow her to present a range of youthful
love's folly, in a series of devastating portraits, ranging from tragic
obsession to utter, hilarious disaster. Some feel that the 'Tale of Genji' is
not so much about Genji as it is about the women he interacts with in his
life - their feelings, their experiences, their fates. Much as they have
large roles, though, it is to Genji that the narrative returns time and
again.

A major ambition of many members of the aristocracy in the world of Heian
court was to present a daughter to the Emperor, or his Heir Apparent; the
supreme goal of a non-imperial noble was to be the grandfather (via his
daughter) of an Emperor. As a result, the Emperor usually had a range of
recognized relationships with women, not so much as a result of sexual
acquisitiveness, but because he was virtually required to make his prestige
relatively widely accessible. These ladies did not all have equal rank; those
on the lowest rungs had a birth rank which was too low, and they also lacked
the necessary political support.

The Plot

The 'Tale of Genji' consists of fifty-four chapters (each of which has
acquired its own special glyph, the Genji-mon, which notionally are in
the form of connected bundles of incense sticks), and is conventionally
divided into three parts:

One: The story of Genji's early life, and his period of success (33
chapters)

Two: The story of Genji's later years, when he looks back at the past (8
chapters)

Three: The story of several of Genji's descendants (13 chapters)

Part One

Genji is born as the second son for the Emperor, the son of a beloved
concubine of the Emperor, known as the Lady Kiritsubo, whose father is dead,
and who depends on the Emperor for all her status. However, Genji's birth
raises the ire of the mother of the first son, a lady of much higher rank.
Genji's mother dies soon afterwards, and as the Emperor likes Genji, he is
raised within the Court, becoming a very accomplished as well as good-looking
young man.

The Emperor would like to do more for Genji, but he cannot because of the
power of the first son's mother. His father worries about his son's future,
since he has no powerful family behind him, so he makes him a commoner, and
part of a non-royal family, giving him the last name "Minamoto". (This is the
origin of Genji's 'name': 'gen' is an alternate reading of the character for
his given last name, and 'ji' means 'name'; so "Genji" roughly means "bearer
of the Minamoto name". It is not his actual name, though.) This allows him to
serve as a government official; in writing terms, this device also allows him
to belong to both realms, and thereby gives him an increased scope as a
character.

As a young man, Genji is forced into a marriage of convenience with the
daughter of a powerful court figure, but he is never really happy with her,
although they do eventually have a son, Yugiri. Instead, he falls in love
with one of the Emperor's concubines, Fujitsubo; she strongly resembles his
own dead mother (which is why the Emperor, who adored Kiritsubo, brought her
to court). He has his first illicit affair with her; she becomes pregnant as
a result, and gives birth to a boy. The child's true parentage is kept
secret, and he is by the Emperor as his own son, eventually ascending to the
throne himself.

Although feeling guilt because of this affair, Genji goes on to have numerous
other affairs with a large number of other court ladies. One of them is the
Lady Murasaki, who is Fujitsubo's niece; she had been placed in his care when
she was a girl, and he raised her to be his ideal lady. Genji's wife
eventually dies, and he then marries Murasaki.

Finally, the exposure of Genji's adultery with a concubine of the new Emperor
(who had succeeded Genji's father), a lady of another court faction (which
includes the mother of the new Emperor, the old Emperor's first son) results
in his being exiled for a period. Although the Emperor is not much put out,
he is forced by propriety to send him away; since he is in disgrace, Genji
must leave Murasaki behind. After a short period in exile in Suma and Akashi,
Genji returns to the capital, where his son with Fujitsubo has now become
Emperor.

As a result, since the new Emperor knows Genji is his real father, Genji
rises high in status and position, being appointed to a high official rank.
He uses his power and wealth to bring benefits to the women he has loved,
including bringing them to live in a palace, a magnificent complex of four
interconnected mansions, one for each of the four seasons, and each housing
one of his ladies.

His focus becomes advancing the careers of his children and grand-children,
and when he manages to get his daughter, the Akashi Princess (who was the
outcome of an affair with a wealthy merchant's daughter in Akashi) presented
at court, he has reached the zenith of his power and influence.

Part Two

The previous Emperor, now retired and planning on entering a monastery, had
placed his daughter in Genji's care; Genji, moved by the fact that this girl,
like Lady Murasaki, is also a niece of his first love, Fujitsubo, agrees to
marry her too. However, the girl is very immature, casting him back on his
love for Lady Murasaki. However, now that Genji has an 'official' wife, and
one of high breeding, that forces Lady Murasaki into seclusion.

Genji cannot afford to slight his 'official' wife, the daughter of a retired
Emperor, but when Murasaki becomes ill, he abandons the daughter for a
lengthy period to look after Murasaki. While he is doing so, however, Genji's
nephew, one of the suitors who had been vying for the young wife's hand
before she married Genji, and has not given up his desire for her, eventually
manages an affair with her; she becomes pregnant, and bears a son, Kaoru.
Distraught at Genji's anger, the boy's mother retires to a nunnery, and Genji
in turn is forced to accept another man's son as his heir; this causes him to
repent for many of his own similar past actions.

Meanwhile, Lady Murasaki, Genji's real love and principal wife of more than
twenty years (in reality, if not legally), who had long asked Genji's
permission to become a nun, and who is still ill, dies before getting the
chance. Utterly devastated by this sequence of events, Genji begins
preparations to take the vows himself, leaving the capital to enter a small
mountain temple.

Part Three

The Tale of Genji continues, although without Genji, who is assumed to have
died in seclusion. In his place are Kaoru (his wife's son with her lover),
and Genji's grandson Niou, the son of his daughter, the Akashi Princess (who
is now Empress). These two carry on the Genji tradition of complex affairs of
the heart.

Kaoru considers entering the monastic life because he is unable to come to
terms with the world of his time. He begins visiting one of the princes, who
likewise disappointed with court life, has gone into reclusion in Uji; Kaoru
finds him a kindred spirit. While there, he finally hears the secret of his
own birth, and he also meets the Prince's daughter, Oigimi, to whom he is
strongly attracted.

After the death of the Prince, Kaoru proposes marriage to Oigimi, but she
suppresses her own feelings for him, and instead encourages him to marry her
younger sister, Nakanokimi. Kaoru, for his part, urges Niou to marry
Naka-no-kimi, and Niou succeeds in seducing Naka-no-kimi. Kaoru tries to get
Oigimi to agree to the marriage of Niou and Naka-no-kimi; however, the
sisters come to feel that both men are trifling with them, and Oigimi decides
to starve herself to death before she can reconsider her rejection of Kaoru.

After her death, Niou is forced by intense political and parental pressure to
take as his main wife a daughter of Genji's son Yugiri. Kaoru now transfers
his attentions to Naka-no-kimi, who reminds him of the dead Oigimi; she is
tormented by his persistent wooing. She tries to interest him in Ukifune, her
half-sister by a different mother, who also looks like Oigimi.

When Kaoru sees her, he falls in love with her - but so does Niou, when he
comes to visit. Kaoru succeeds in having an affair with her, but so does
Niou. Kaoru would be the more important catch, but she is much more strongly
drawn to Niou. Ukifune sees no solution to this tangle other than to drown
herself in the river.

On the verge of doing so, and suffering from amnesia from the stress, she is
saved by a senior religious figure; she then goes to Ono in his company, and
becomes a nun there when her memory partially returns. When Kaoru discovers
where she is, she refuses to meet him; the story abruptly ends there.

List of Chapters

It is not known exactly when the chapters acquired their current titles;
early references mention chapter numbers, or give alternate titles for some
of them, which suggests that the current titles were later additions.

The titles are largely derived from the poems that are in the text, or refer
to various prominent characters. (The English translations give here are
taken from the translation by Royall Tyler.)