William Stallings, Cryptography and Network Security 5/e

Network
Security
Essentials
Fifth Edition
by William Stallings
Chapter 8
Electronic Mail Security
“Despite the refusal of VADM Poindexter and LtCol North to
appear, the Board's access to other sources of information filled much
of this gap. The FBI provided documents taken from the files of the
National Security Advisor and relevant NSC staff members,
including messages from the PROF system between VADM
Poindexter and LtCol North. The PROF messages were
conversations by computer, written at the time events occurred and
presumed by the writers to be protected from disclosure. In this sense,
they provide a first-hand, contemporaneous account of events.”
—The Tower Commission Report to President
Reagan on the Iran-Contra Affair, 1987
Pretty Good Privacy
(PGP)
• Provides a confidentiality and authentication service that
can be used for electronic mail and file storage applications
• Developed by Phil Zimmermann
• Selected the best available cryptographic algorithms as building
blocks
• Integrated these algorithms into a general-purpose application
that is independent of operating system and processor and that
is based on a small set of easy-to-use commands
• Made the package and its documentation, including the source
code, freely available via the Internet, bulletin boards, and
commercial networks
• Entered into an agreement with a company to provide a fully
compatible, low-cost commercial version of PGP
PGP Growth
It is available free worldwide in versions that run on a variety of platforms
The commercial version satisfies users who want a product that comes with
vendor support
It is based on algorithms that have survived extensive public review and are
considered extremely secure
It has a wide range of applicability
It was not developed by, nor is it controlled by, any governmental or standards
organization
Is now on an Internet standards track, however it still has an aura of an
antiestablishment endeavor
Table 8.1
Summary of PGP Services
PGP Authentication
• Combination of SHA-1 and RSA provides an effective
digital signature scheme
• Because of the strength of RSA the recipient is assured
that only the possessor of the matching private key can
generate the signature
• Because of the strength of SHA-1 the recipient is assured
that no one else could generate a new message that
matches the hash code
• As an alternative, signatures can be generated using
DSS/SHA-1
• Detached signatures are supported
• Each person’s signature is independent
and therefore applied only to the document
PGP Confidentiality
• Provided by encrypting messages to be transmitted or to be stored locally as
files
•
In both cases the symmetric encryption algorithm CAST-128 may be used
•
Alternatively IDEA or 3DES may be used
•
The 64-bit cipher feedback (CFB) mode is used
In PGP each symmetric key is used only once
• Although referred to as a session key, it is in reality a one-time
key
• Session key is bound to the message and transmitted with it
• To protect the key, it is encrypted with the receiver’s public key
• As an alternative to the use of RSA for key encryption, PGP uses ElGamal,
a variant of Diffie-Hellman that provides encryption/decryption
PGP Confidentiality
and Authentication
• Both services may be used for the same message
• First a signature is generated for the plaintext message and
prepended to the message
• Then the plaintext message plus signature is encrypted using
CAST-128 (or IDEA or 3DES) and the session key is
encrypted using RSA (or ElGamal)
• When both services are used:
The sender first
signs the message
with its own private
key
Then encrypts the
message with a
session key
And finally
encrypts the
session key with
the recipient’s
public key
PGP Compression
• As a default, PGP compresses the message after
applying the signature but before encryption
• This has the benefit of saving space both for e-mail
transmission and for file storage
• The placement of the compression algorithm is critical
• Applying the hash function and signature after compression
would constrain all PGP implementations to the same
version of the compression algorithm
• Message encryption is applied after compression to
strengthen cryptographic security
• The compression algorithm used is ZIP
PGP E-mail Compatibility
• Many electronic mail systems only permit the use of
blocks consisting of ASCII text
• To accommodate this restriction, PGP provides the
service of converting the raw 8-bit binary stream to a
stream of printable ASCII characters
• The scheme used for this purpose is radix-64 conversion
• Each group of three octets of binary data is mapped into
four ASCII characters
• This format also appends a CRC to detect
transmission errors
Secure/Multipurpose Internet
Mail Extension (S/MIME)
• A security enhancement to the MIME Internet e-mail
format standard based on technology from RSA Data
Security
• Defined in:
• RFCs 3370, 3850, 3851, 3852
RFC 5322
• Defines a format for text messages that are sent using
electronic mail
• Messages are viewed as having an envelope and
contents
• The envelope contains whatever information is needed to
accomplish transmission and delivery
• The contents compose the object to be delivered to the
recipient
• RFC 5322 standard applies only to the contents
• The content standard includes a set of header fields
that may be used by the mail system to create the
envelope
Multipurpose Internet
Mail Extensions (MIME)
• An extension to the RFC
5322 framework that is
intended to address some
of the problems and
limitations of the use of
Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP)
• Is intended to resolve
these problems in a
manner that is
compatible with
existing RFC 5322
implementations
• The specification is
provided in RFCs 2045
through 2049
MIME specification includes the following
elements:
Five new message header
fields are defined, which
may be included in an
RFC 5322 header; these
fields provide
information about the
body of the message
Transfer encodings are
defined that enable the
conversion of any content
format into a form that is
protected from alteration
by the mail system
A number of content
formats are defined, thus
standardizing
representations that
support multimedia
electronic mail
The Five Header Fields
Defined in MIME
MIME-Version
• Must have the parameter value 1.0
• This field indicates that the message conforms to RFCs 2045 and 2046
Content-Type
• Describes the data contained in the body with sufficient detail that the receiving user agent can pick
an appropriate agent or mechanism to represent the data to the user or otherwise deal with the data in
an appropriate manner
Content-Transfer-Encoding
• Indicates the type of transformation that has been used to represent the body of the message in a way
that is acceptable for mail transport
Content-ID
• Used to identify MIME entities uniquely in multiple contexts
Content-Description
• A text description of the object with the body; this is useful when the object is not readable
Table 8.2
MIME
Content
Types
Table 8.3
MIME Transfer Encodings
Figure 8.3 Example MIME Message Structure
Table 8.4
Native and Canonical Form
S/MIME Functionality
Enveloped data
• Consists of encrypted content of any type and
encrypted content encryption keys for one or
more recipients
Signed data
• A digital signature is formed by taking the
message digest of the content to be signed and
then encrypting that with the private key of the
signer
• The content plus signature are then encoded
using base64 encoding
• A signed data message can only be viewed by a
recipient with S/MIME capability
S/MIME
Clear-signed data
• Only the digital signature is encoded using
base64
• As a result recipients without S/MIME
capability can view the message content,
although they cannot verify the signature
Signed and enveloped data
• Signed-only and encrypted-only entities may be
nested, so that encrypted data may be signed
and signed data or clear-signed data may be
encrypted
Table
8.5
Cryptographic
Algorithms
Used in
S/MIME
Table 8.6
S/MIME Content Types
Securing a MIME Entity
• S/MIME secures a MIME entity with a signature,
encryption, or both
• The MIME entity is prepared according to the normal
rules for MIME message preparation
• The MIME entity plus some security-related data, such as
algorithm identifiers and certificates, are processed by
S/MIME to produce what is known as a PKCS object
• A PKCS object is then treated as message content and
wrapped in MIME
• In all cases the message to be sent is converted to
canonical form
Enveloped Data
• The steps for preparing an EnvelopedData MIME are:
Generate a pseudorandom session key for a particular
symmetric encryption algorithm
For each recipient, encrypt the session key with the recipient’s
public RSA key
For each recipient, prepare a block known as RecipientInfo
that contains an identifier of the recipient’s public-key
certificate, an identifier of the algorithm used to encrypt the
session key, and the encrypted session key
Encrypt the message content with the session key
Signed Data
• The steps for preparing a SignedData MIME are:
Compute the
message digest
(hash function) of
the content to be
signed
Select a
message digest
algorithm
(SHA or MD5)
Encrypt the
message digest
with the signer’s
private key
Prepare a block
known as
SignerInfo
that contains the
signer’s publickey certificate,
an identifier of
the message
digest algorithm,
an identifier of
the algorithm
used to encrypt
the message
digest, and the
encrypted
message digest
Clear Signing
• Achieved using the multipart content type with a
signed subtype
• This signing process does not involve transforming the
message to be signed
• Recipients with MIME capability but not S/MIME
capability are able to read the incoming message
S/MIME Certificate
Processing
• S/MIME uses public-key certificates that conform to version
3 of X.509
• The key-management scheme used by S/MIME is in some
ways a hybrid between a strict X.509 certification hierarchy
and PGP’s web of trust
• S/MIME managers and/or users must configure each client
with a list of trusted keys and with certificate revocation lists
• The responsibility is local for maintaining the certificates needed
to verify incoming signatures and to encrypt outgoing messages
• The certificates are signed by certification authorities
User Agent Role
• An S/MIME user has several key-management functions to
perform:
Key generation
Registration
The user of some related
administrative utility must be
capable of generating separate
Diffie-Hellman and DSS key
pairs and should be capable of
generating RSA key pairs
A user’s public key must be
registered with a certification
authority in order to receive an
X.509 public-key certificate
A user agent should generate
RSA key pairs with a length
in the range of 768 to 1024
bits and must not generate a
length of less than 512 bits
Certificate storage and
retrieval
A user requires access to a
local list of certificates in
order to verify incoming
signatures and to encrypt
outgoing messages
VeriSign Certificates
• VeriSign provides a certification authority (CA) service that is
intended to be compatible with S/MIME and a variety of other
applications
• Issues X.509 certificates with the product name VeriSign Digital
ID
• At a minimum, each Digital ID contains:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Owner’s public key
Owner’s name or alias
Expiration date of the Digital ID
Serial number of the Digital ID
Name of the certification authority that issued the Digital ID
Digital signature of the certification authority that issued the Digital
ID
Table 8.7
VeriSign Public-Key Certificate Classes
IA
CA
PCA
PIN
LRAA
Issuing Authority
Certification Authority
VeriSign public primary certification authority
Personal Identification Number
Local Registration Authority Administrator
Enhanced Security
Services
• Three enhanced security services have been proposed in
an Internet draft:
Signed receipt
• Returning a signed receipt provides proof of delivery to the originator of
a message and allows the originator to demonstrate to a third party that
the recipient received the message
Security labels
• A set of security information regarding the sensitivity of the content that
is protected by S/MIME encapsulation
Secure mailing lists
• An S/MIME Mail List Agent (MLA) can take a single incoming
message, perform the recipient-specific encryption for each recipient, and
forward the message
DomainKeys
Identified Mail (DKIM)
• A specification for cryptographically signing e-mail
messages, permitting a signing domain to claim
responsibility for a message in the mail stream
• Message recipients can verify the signature by querying
the signer’s domain directly to retrieve the appropriate
public key and can thereby confirm that the message was
attested to by a party in possession of the private key for
the signing domain
• Proposed Internet Standard RFC 4871
• Has been widely adopted by a range of e-mail providers
and Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
E-mail Threats
• RFC 4684 (Analysis of
Threats Motivating
DomainKeys Identified Mail)
• Describes the threats being
addressed by DKIM in
terms of the characteristics,
capabilities, and location of
potential attackers
• Characterized on three levels
of threat:
The most sophisticated and financially
motivated senders of messages are those who
stand to receive substantial financial benefit,
such as from an e-mail based fraud scheme
The next level are professional senders of
bulk spam mail and often operate as
commercial enterprises and send messages
on behalf of third parties
At the low end are attackers who simply
want to send e-mail that a recipient does not
want to receive
Summary
• Pretty good privacy
• Notation
• Operational description
• DomainKeys Identified
Mail
•
•
•
•
Internet mail architecture
E-mail threats
DKIM strategy
DKIM functional flow
• S/MIME
• RFC 5322
• Multipurpose Internet
mail extensions
• S/MIME functionality
• S/MIME messages
• S/MIME certification
processing
• Enhanced security
services