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On 1 January 1860, the city of Paris was enlarged by annexing neighbouring communes. On that occasion, a part of the commune of Saint-Ouen was annexed to the city of Paris. At the same time, the commune of La Chapelle-Saint-Denis was disbanded and divided between the city of Paris, Saint-Ouen, Saint-Denis, and Aubervilliers. Saint-Ouen received a small part of the territory of La Chapelle-Saint-Denis. The commune of Montmartre was also disbanded; the city of Paris annexed most of Montmartre, but Saint-Ouen did receive a small northern part of the territory of that commune.

Supméca, an accredited mechanical engineering school is located in the Vieux Saint Ouen quarter. It was created in 1948, is member of the university of Paris-Seine and now part of the ISAE Group, which has a total of 6000 students.
One literary and humanities Classe préparatoire aux grandes écoles at Lycée Blanqui High School's premises.[4]

1.
Communes of France
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The commune is a level of administrative division in the French Republic. French communes are roughly equivalent to civil townships incorporated municipalities in the United States or Gemeinden in Germany, the United Kingdom has no exact equivalent, as communes resemble districts in urban areas, but are closer to parishes in rural areas where districts are much larger. Communes are based on historical geographic communities or villages and have received significant powers of governance to manage the populations, the communes are the fourth-level administrative divisions of France. A French commune may be a city of 2.2 million inhabitants like Paris, communes typically are based on pre-existing villages and facilitate local governance. All communes have names, but not all named geographic areas or groups of people residing together are communes, a commune is a town, city, or municipality. Use of commune in English is a habit, and one that might be corrected. There is nothing in commune in French that is different from town in English. The French word commune appeared in the 12th century, from Medieval Latin communia, as of January 2015, there were 36,681 communes in France,36,552 of them in metropolitan France and 129 of them overseas. This is a higher total than that of any other European country. The whole territory of the French Republic is divided into communes and this is unlike some other countries, such as the United States, where unincorporated areas directly governed by a county or a higher authority can be found. There are only a few exceptions, COM of Saint-Martin and it was previously a commune inside the Guadeloupe région. The commune structure was abolished when Saint-Martin became an overseas collectivity on 22 February 2007, COM of Wallis and Futuna, which still is divided according to the three traditional chiefdoms. It was previously a commune inside the Guadeloupe region, the commune structure was abolished when Saint-Barthélemy became an overseas collectivity on 22 February 2007.88 square kilometres. The median area of metropolitan Frances communes at the 1999 census was even smaller, the median area is a better measure of the area of a typical French commune. This median area is smaller than that of most European countries. In Italy, the area of communes is 22 km2, in Belgium it is 40 km2, in Spain it is 35 km2, and in Germany. Switzerland and the Länder of Rhineland-Palatinate, Schleswig-Holstein, and Thuringia in Germany were the places in Europe where the communes had a smaller median area than in France. The communes of Frances overseas départements such as Réunion and French Guiana are large by French standards and they usually group into the same commune several villages or towns, often with sizeable distances among them

2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

3.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks

4.
Regions of France
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France is divided into 18 administrative regions, including 13 metropolitan regions and 5 overseas regions. The current legal concept of region was adopted in 1982, the term région was officially created by the Law of Decentralisation, which also gave regions their legal status. The first direct elections for representatives took place on 16 March 1986. In 2016, the number of regions was reduced from 27 to 18 through amalgamation, in 2014, the French parliament passed a law reducing the number of metropolitan regions from 22 to 13 with effect from 1 January 2016. However, the region of Upper and Lower Normandy is simply called Normandy. Permanent names were to be proposed by the new regional councils by 1 July 2016, the legislation defining the new regions also allowed the Centre region to officially change its name to Centre-Val de Loire with effect from January 2015. Two regions, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes and Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, opted to retain their interim names, between 1982 and 2015, there were 22 regions in Metropolitan France. Before 2011, there were four regions, in 2011 Mayotte became the fifth. Regions lack separate legislative authority and therefore cannot write their own statutory law and they levy their own taxes and, in return, receive a decreasing part of their budget from the central government, which gives them a portion of the taxes it levies. They also have considerable budgets managed by a council made up of representatives voted into office in regional elections. A regions primary responsibility is to build and furnish high schools, in March 2004, the French central government unveiled a controversial plan to transfer regulation of certain categories of non-teaching school staff to the regional authorities. Critics of this plan contended that tax revenue was insufficient to pay for the costs. In addition, regions have considerable power over infrastructural spending, e. g. education, public transit, universities and research. This has meant that the heads of regions such as Île-de-France or Rhône-Alpes can be high-profile positions. Number of regions controlled by each coalition since 1986, Overseas region is a recent designation, given to the overseas departments that have similar powers to those of the regions of metropolitan France. Radio France Internationale in English Overseas regions Ministère de lOutre-Mer some explanations about the past and current developments of DOMs and TOMs

5.
Departments of France
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In the administrative divisions of France, the department is one of the three levels of government below the national level, between the administrative regions and the commune. There are 96 departments in metropolitan France and 5 overseas departments, each department is administered by an elected body called a departmental council. From 1800 to April 2015, they were called general councils, the departments were created in 1791 as a rational replacement of Ancien Régime provinces with a view to strengthen national unity, the title department is used to mean a part of a larger whole. Almost all of them were named after geographical features rather than after historical or cultural territories which could have their own loyalties. The earliest known suggestion of it is from 1764 in the writings of dArgenson and they have inspired similar divisions in many countries, some of them former French colonies. Most French departments are assigned a number, the Official Geographical Code. Some overseas departments have a three-digit number, the number is used, for example, in the postal code, and was until recently used for all vehicle registration plates. For example, inhabitants of Loiret might refer to their department as the 45 and this reform project has since been abandoned. The first French territorial departments were proposed in 1665 by Marc-René dArgenson to serve as administrative areas purely for the Ponts et Chaussées infrastructure administration, before the French Revolution, France gained territory gradually through the annexation of a mosaic of independent entities. By the close of the Ancien Régime, it was organised into provinces, during the period of the Revolution, these were dissolved, partly in order to weaken old loyalties. Their boundaries served two purposes, Boundaries were chosen to break up Frances historical regions in an attempt to erase cultural differences, Boundaries were set so that every settlement in the country was within a days ride of the capital of the department. This was a security measure, intended to keep the national territory under close control. This measure was directly inspired by the Great Terror, during which the government had lost control of rural areas far from any centre of government. The old nomenclature was carefully avoided in naming the new departments, most were named after an areas principal river or other physical features. Even Paris was in the department of Seine, the number of departments, initially 83, was increased to 130 by 1809 with the territorial gains of the Republic and of the First French Empire. Following Napoleons defeats in 1814-1815, the Congress of Vienna returned France to its pre-war size, in 1860, France acquired the County of Nice and Savoy, which led to the creation of three new departments. Two were added from the new Savoyard territory, while the department of Alpes-Maritimes was created from Nice, the 89 departments were given numbers based on their alphabetical order. The department of Bas-Rhin and parts of Meurthe, Moselle, Vosges and Haut-Rhin were ceded to the German Empire in 1871, following Frances defeat in the Franco-Prussian War

6.
Seine-Saint-Denis
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Seine-Saint-Denis is a French department located in the Île-de-France region. Locally, it is referred to colloquially as quatre-vingt treize or neuf trois. The learned and rarely used demonym for the inhabitants is Séquano-Dionysiens, Seine-Saint-Denis is located to the northeast of Paris. It has an area of only 236 km², making it one of the smallest departments in France. Seine-Saint-Denis and two other departments, Hauts-de-Seine and Val-de-Marne, form a ring around Paris, known as the Petite Couronne. They form, together with Paris the Greater Paris since January 1st 2016, Seine-Saint-Denis is made up of three departmental arrondissements and 40 communes, Seine-Saint-Denis was created in January 1968, through the implementation of a law passed in July 1964. It was formed from the part of the Seine department to the north and north-east of the Paris ring road, Seine-Saint-Denis has a history as a veritable left-wing stronghold, belonging to the ceinture rouge of Paris. The French Communist Party especially has maintained a strong presence in the department. A commune of Seine-Saint-Denis, Clichy-sous-Bois, was the scene of the death of two youths which sparked the riots of autumn 2005. In October - November,9,000 cars were burned and 3,000 rioters were arrested, Seine-Saint-Denis is the French department with the highest proportion of immigrants,21. 7% at the 1999 census. This figure does not include the children of immigrants born on French soil as well as some native elites from former French colonies, the ratio of ethnic minorities is difficult to estimate accurately as French law prohibits the collection of ethnic data for census taking purposes. However estimates suggest there are 500,000 Muslims out of a population of 1.53 million. Saint-Denis is home to the Union of French Islamic Organizations in the Bourget district, in 2005,56. 7% of young people under 18 were of foreign origin including 38% of African origin. Islam is believed to be the most practiced religion in the department, Seine-Saint-Denis was scheduled to be the site of a 2004 International Exhibition. Website of the General council Prefecture website Seine-Saint-Denis Tourist Board

7.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year

8.
Central European Summer Time
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It corresponds to UTC + two hours. Other names which have been applied to Central European Summer Time are Middle European Summer Time, Central European Daylight Saving Time, and Bravo Time. Since 1996 European Summer Time has been observed between 1,00 UTC on the last Sunday of March and 1,00 on the last Sunday of October, the following countries and territories use Central European Summer Time. In addition, Libya used CEST during the years 1951–1959, 1982–1989, 1996–1997, European Summer Time Other countries and territories in UTC+2 time zone Other names of UTC+2 time zone

9.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town

10.
Kilometre zero
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In many countries, Kilometre Zero or similar terms in other languages is a particular location, from which distances are traditionally measured. They were markers where drivers could set their odometers to follow directions in early guide books, a similar notion also exists for individual roads, and for individual cities. The most famous such marker of any part survives from ancient times is the Milliarium Aureum of the Roman Empire. Argentina marks Kilometre Zero with a monolith in Plaza Congreso in Buenos Aires. The work of the brothers Máximo and José Fioravanti, the structure was placed on the side of Plaza Lorea on October 2,1935. Highways in Australia are usually built and maintained by the states and territories, in the state of New South Wales, highway distances were traditionally measured from a sandstone obelisk in Macquarie Place in Sydney, designed by Francis Greenway in 1818. The obelisk lists the distances to locations in New South Wales at the time. For the railway, it is located at platform 1 of Sydney Central Station, the Byzantine Empire had an arched building, the Milion of Constantinople, as the starting-place for the measurement of distances for all the roads leading to the other cities. In the 1960s, some fragments were discovered and erected in its location, now in the district of Eminönü, Istanbul. The kilometre zero marker of the origin of the Trans-Canada Highway is located in St. Johns. Coordinates, 47°33′39. 78″N 52°42′44. 33″W Altitude,14.02 m The western origin of the Trans-Canada Highway in Victoria, Mile zero of the Trans Canada Trail is located adjacent to the Railway Coastal Museum in St. Johns, Newfoundland. Coordinates, 47°33′14. 0″N 52°42′50. 5″W Altitude,4.5 m Mile zero for the Alaska Highway is located in Dawson Creek, all national distances from Santiago originate at the Km.0 plaque, located at the Plaza de Armas main square in downtown Santiago. Chiles Autopista Central – Eje Norte-Sur has its Kilometre Zero at the intersection with the Alameda del Libertador Bernardo OHiggins, China Railways 0 km is located at the entrance to the Fengtai Yard on the Jingguang Line just outside Beijing. This point was historically the start of the line, the marker is a concrete marker. The kilometre zero point for highways is located at Tiananmen Square and it is marked with a plaque in the ground, with the four cardinal points, four animals, and Zero Point of Highways, China in English and Chinese. Cubas Kilometre Zero is located in its capital Havana in El Capitolio, embedded in the floor in the centre of the main hall is a replica 25 carat diamond, which marks Kilometre Zero for Cuba. It was replaced in El Capitolio by a replica in 1973, dR-1, DR-2, and DR-3 all depart from Kilometre Zero from Santo Domingos Parque de Independencia. Kilometre Zero in Egypt is located at the Attaba Square Post Office in 1st of Abdel Khaliq Sarwat Pasha Street, Cairo

11.
Clichy, Hauts-de-Seine
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Clichy is a commune in the northwestern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located on the Seine River and 6.4 km from the center of Paris, the name Clichy was recorded for the first time in the 6th century as Clippiacum, later corrupted into Clichiacum, meaning estate of Cleppius, a Gallo-Roman landowner. In the 13th century, the plain of Clichy was used as a garenne, i. e. a hunting park, after the Revolution, the French administration officially recorded the name of the commune only as Clichy, dropping the la-Garenne. This is the term in use in the 21st century, but, in many instances the municipality of Clichy refers to the commune traditionally as Clichy-la-Garenne, although this has not been the official name for more than 200 years. Clichy was the capital of the Merovingians during the rule of Dagobert I and its church was built in the 17th century under the direction of St Vincent de Paul, who had previously been curé of Clichy. In 1830, part of the territory of Clichy was detached, on 1 January 1860, the city of Paris annexed neighboring communes, taking most of Batignolles-Monceau, which now forms the major part of the 17th arrondissement of Paris. A small part of the territory of Batignolles-Monceau was returned to Clichy, on 11 January 1867, part of the territory of Clichy was detached and merged with a part of the territory of Neuilly-sur-Seine to create the commune of Levallois-Perret. The canton covers a part of the commune, the other is in the part of Levallois-Perret. In addition, Monoprix has its office in Clichy. Société Bic has its office in Clichy. At one time Fnac had its office in Clichy. In 2008 the head office moved to Ivry-sur-Seine, Clichy is served by Mairie de Clichy station on Paris Métro Line 13 It is also served by Clichy – Levallois station on the Transilien Paris – Saint-Lazare suburban rail line. The commune has 22 primary schools, three high schools, and two senior high schools. The junior highs include, Collège Jean Jaurès Collège Jean Macé Collège Vincent Van Gogh The senior high schools, Lycée Newton Lycée René Auffray Olivier Messiaen, French composer, henry Miller, American author, lived with Alfred Perlès at 4 avenue Anatole France from 1932 to 1934

12.
Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis
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Saint-Denis is a commune in the northern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 9.4 km from the centre of Paris, Saint-Denis is a subprefecture of the department of Seine-Saint-Denis, being the seat of the arrondissement of Saint-Denis. Saint-Denis is home to the necropolis of the Basilica of Saint Denis and was also the location of the associated abbey. It is also home to Frances national football and rugby stadium, Saint-Denis is a formerly industrial suburb currently changing its economic base. Inhabitants of Saint-Denis are called Dionysiens, until the 3rd century, Saint-Denis was a small settlement called Catolacus or Catulliacum, probably meaning estate of Catullius, a Gallo-Roman landowner. About 250 AD, the first bishop of Paris, Saint Denis, was martyred on Montmartre hill, shortly after 250 his grave became a shrine and a pilgrimage centre, with the building of the Abbey of Saint Denis, and the settlement was renamed Saint-Denis. In 1793, during the French Revolution, Saint-Denis was renamed Franciade in a gesture of rejection of religion, in 1803, however, under the Consulate of Napoléon Bonaparte, the city reverted to its former name of Saint-Denis. During its history, Saint-Denis has been associated with the French royal house. Starting from Dagobert I, almost every French king was buried in the Basilica, however, Saint-Denis is older than that. In the 2nd century, there was a Gallo-Roman village named Catolacus on the location that Saint-Denis occupies today, Saint Denis, the first bishop of Paris and patron saint of France, was martyred in about 250 and buried in the cemetery of Catolacus. Denis tomb quickly became a place of worship, around 475, Sainte Geneviève had a small chapel erected on Denis tomb, which by then had become a popular destination for pilgrims. It was this chapel that Dagobert I had rebuilt and turned into a royal monastery, during the Middle Ages, because of the privileges granted by Dagobert, Saint-Denis grew to become very important. Merchants from all over Europe came to visit its market, in 1140, Abbot Suger, counselor to the King, granted further privileges to the citizens of Saint-Denis. He also started the work of enlarging the Basilica of Saint Denis that still exists today, the new church was consecrated in 1144. Saint-Denis suffered heavily in the Hundred Years War, of its 10,000 citizens, during the French Wars of Religion, the Battle of Saint-Denis was fought between Catholics and Protestants on 10 November 1567. The Protestants were defeated, but the Catholic commander Anne de Montmorency was killed, in 1590, the city surrendered to Henry IV, who converted to Catholicism in 1593 in the abbey of Saint-Denis. King Louis XIV started several industries in Saint-Denis, weaving and spinning mills and dyehouses. His successor, Louis XV, whose daughter was a nun in the Carmelite convent, took a lively interest in the city, he added a chapel to the convent and also renovated the buildings of the royal abbey

13.
Aubervilliers
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Aubervilliers is a French commune in the Seine-Saint-Denis department in the Île-de-France region in the north-eastern suburbs of Paris, France. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Albertivillariens or Albertivillariennes, Aubervilliers is one of three communes in the Plaine Saint-Denis,7.2 km north-east of the centre of Paris. The Canal Saint-Denis traverses the commune on the side from north to south. The Paris ring road is just outside the border of the commune. These roads provide access to the network of roads and motorways around Paris as well as Le Bourget. The Canal Saint-Denis once had important river ports and there was the Paris-Hirson railway, the RER railway passes through the north of the commune and the station of Corneuve-Aubervilliers, located just north of the commune on the N301 road, serves Aubervilliers. Ligne 3b of the Île-de-France tramway since 15 December 2012 with the opening of the Porte dAubervilliers located in the Paris area near the commune, the town is mentioned in the Latinised form Albertivillare in 1059. It is from this that the inhabitants are known as Albertivillarien, the place name of -villiers is a characteristic appellative for agricultural domains in the Merovingian and Carolingian periods. The first part is the Germanic personal name Adalbertus from which are derived the names Albert and Aubert and it is homonymous with a hamlet in Seine-et-Marne, Aubervilliers, and Auberville in Normandy. As with many communes in the suburbs the town had long been a rural area. Formerly known as Notre-Dame-des-Vertus, the village was on a plain which produced the best vegetables around Paris, Aubervilliers first appears in the archives in 1059 as Albertivillare, meaning estate of Adalbert. In the following year Henry I donated it to the Priory of Saint-Martin-des-Champs, in 1111 the serfs were freed in Aubervilliers. In 1182 the priory of Saint-Martin-des-Champs, located in Paris, granted Paris butchers the right to graze their cattle in the fields after the harvest was over. In 1221, Guillaume Bateste, lord of Franconville, became the first Lord of Vivier les Aubervilliers. The church, which at the beginning of the 13th century depended on one of the parishes of Saint Denis, in 1338 King Philip VI of France and his queen went to Aubervilliers to visit the image. From 1340 to 1792 people went there in each year from Paris. In 1402 Michel de Laillier, Lord of Ermenonville, became Lord of Vivier les Aubervilliers, in 1429 the town was occupied by the English but was retaken by Michel de Laillier in 1436. Louis XI went there in November 1474 to the house of Pierre L’Orfèvre, the image of the Virgin in lead that the king wore on his hat was a representation of the one at Aubervilliers

14.
Montmartre
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Montmartre is a large hill in Pariss 18th arrondissement. It is 130 m high and gives its name to the surrounding district, Montmartre is primarily known for the white-domed Basilica of the Sacré-Cœur on its summit and as a nightclub district. The other, older, church on the hill is Saint Pierre de Montmartre, Montmartre is also the setting for several hit films. This site is served by metro, with line 2 stations at Anvers, Pigalle, and Blanche and line 12 stations at Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck - Caulaincourt, texts from the 8th century cite the name of mons Mercori, and a 9th-century text speaks of Mount Mars. Excavations in 1975 north of the Church of Saint-Pierre found coins from the 3rd century, earlier excavations in the 17th century at the Fontaine-du-But found vestiges of Roman baths from the 2nd century. According to Hilduin, Denis collected his head and carried it as far as the fontaine Saint-Denis, then descended the slope of the hill. Hilduin wrote that a church had built in the place formerly called Mont de Mars. In 1134, king Louis VI purchased the Merovingian chapel and built on the site the church of Saint-Pierre de Montmartre and he also founded The Royal Abbey of Montmartre, a monastery of the Benedictine order, whose buildings, gardens and fields occupied most of Montmartre. He also built a chapel, called the Martyrium, at the site where it was believed that Saint Denis had been decapitated. It became a pilgrimage site. In the 17th century, a priory called abbaye den bas was built at that site, the abbey was destroyed in 1790 during the French Revolution, and the convent demolished to make place for gypsum mines. The church of Saint-Pierre was saved, at the place where the chapel of the Martyrs was located, an oratory was built in 1855. By the 15th century, the north and northeast slopes of the hill were the site of a surrounded by vineyards, gardens and orchards of peach. The first mills were built on the slope in 1529, grinding wheat, barley. The siege eventually failed when a relief force approached and forced Henry to withdraw. In 1790, Montmartre was located just outside the limits of Paris and that year, under the revolutionary government of the National Constituent Assembly, it became the commune of Montmartre, with its town hall located on place du Tertre, site of the former abbey. The main businesses of the commune were wine making, stone quarries, the mining of gypsum had begun in the Gallo-Roman period, first in open air mines and then underground, and continued until 1860. The gypsum was cut into blocks, baked, then ground, sold as montmartarite, it was used for plaster, because of its resistance to fire and water

15.
Flea market
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A flea market is a type of bazaar that rents or provides space to people who want to sell or barter merchandise. Used goods, cheap items, collectibles, and antiques are commonly sold, many markets offer fresh produce or baked goods, plants from local farms and vintage clothes. Renters of the flea market tables are called vendors and it may be indoors, as in a warehouse or school gymnasium, or outdoors, as in a field or parking lot or under a tent. Flea markets can be annually or semiannually, others may be conducted monthly, on weekends. Flea market vending is distinguished from street vending in that the market itself, many flea markets have food vendors who sell snacks and drinks to the patrons. Some flea market vendors have been targeted by law enforcement efforts to halt the sale of bootleg movies and music or knockoff brand clothing, toys, electrical goods, accessories, different English-speaking countries use various names for flea markets. In Australian English, they are also called trash and treasure markets, in Philippine English, the word is tianggê from the Nahuatl tianguis via Mexican Spanish, supplanting the indigenous term talipapâ. In India it is known as gurjari or shrukawadi bazaar or even as juna bazaar, in the United Kingdom they are known as car boot sales if the event takes place in a field or car park, as the vendors will sell goods from the boot of their car. If the event is held indoors, such as a school or church hall, then it is known as either a jumble sale, or a bring. In Quebec and France, they are often called Marché aux puces, while in French-speaking areas of Belgium, the name Brocante or vide-grenier is normally used. In Switzerland the Swiss German language term Flomärt, for example for the well-known Bürkliplatz-Flomärt is used, being a variation of the Allemanic word of Flohmarkt, in the predominantly Cuban/Hispanic areas of South Florida, they are called pulgero from pulga, the Spanish word for fleas. While the concept existed in such as what are now India, Bangladesh, and China for millennia. According to one theory, the Fly Market in 18th-century New York City began the association, the Dutch word vlaie was located at Maiden Lane near the East River in Manhattan. The land on which the market stood was originally a marsh with a brook. Another theory maintains that flea market is a common English calque from the French marché aux puces, the first reference to this term appeared in two conflicting stories about a location in Paris in the 1860s which was known as the marché aux puces. The traditional and most-publicised story is in the article What Is a Flea Market

16.
Antique
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An antique is a collectable item, at least 100 years old. It is collected or desirable because of its age, beauty, rarity, condition, utility, personal emotional connection and it is an object that represents a previous era or time period in human society. It is common practice to define antique as applying to objects at least 100 years old, antiques are usually objects that show some degree of craftsmanship—or a certain attention to design, such as a desk or an early automobile. They are bought at shops, estate sales, auction houses, online auctions. Antique dealers often belong to trade associations, many of which belong to CINOA. Motor vehicles are an exception to the 100-year rule, the customary definition of antique requires that an item be at least 100 years old and in original condition. In the United States, the 1930 Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act defined antiques as,1830 was the approximate beginning of mass production in the United States. These definitions were intended to allow people of that time to distinguish between genuine antique pieces, vintage items, and collectible objects, commonly refers to the remains of ancient art and everyday items from antiquity, which themselves are often archaeological artifacts. An antiquarian is a person who collects and studies antiquities or things of the past, traditionally, Chinese antiques are marked by a red seal, known as a chop, placed there by an owner. Experts can identify previous owners of an antique by reading the chops, the pre-revolution Chinese government tried to assist collectors of Chinese antiques by requiring their Department of Antiquities to provide a governmental chop on the bottom of a Chinese antique. This chop is visible as a piece of red sealing wax that bears the government chop to verify the date of the antique, the government of the Peoples Republic of China has its own definitions of what it considers antique. As of the Cultural Revolution and Chinas opening trade to other countries, antiquing is the act of shopping, identifying, negotiating, or bargaining for antiques. People buy items for use, gifts, or profit. Sources for antiquing include garage sales and yard sales, estate sales, resort towns, antique districts, collectives, note that antiquing also means the craft of making an object appear antique through distressing or applying an antique-looking paint applications. Often, individuals get confused between these handmade distressed vintage or modern items and true antiques, if you can not tell the difference between the two, you may find yourself paying a high amount of money for something that has little value in the antiquing industry. Antique furniture is an area of antiques because furniture has obvious practical uses as well as collector value. Many collectors use pieces in their homes, and care for them with the hope that they hold their value or appreciate and this is in contrast to buying new furniture, which typically depreciates from the moment of purchase. Antique furniture includes dining tables, chairs, bureaus, chests etc, the most common woods are mahogany, oak, pine, walnut, and rosewood

17.
Furniture
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Furniture refers to movable objects intended to support various human activities such as seating, eating, and sleeping. Furniture is also used to hold objects at a convenient height for work, Furniture can be a product of design and is considered a form of decorative art. In addition to furnitures functional role, it can serve a symbolic or religious purpose and it can be made from many materials, including metal, plastic, and wood. Furniture can be using a variety of woodworking joints which often reflect the local culture. People have been using natural objects, such as stumps, rocks and moss. Archaeological research shows that from around 30,000 years ago, people began constructing and carving their own furniture, using wood, stone, early furniture from this period is known from artwork such as a Venus figurine found in Russia, depicting the goddess on a throne. The first surviving extant furniture is in the homes of Skara Brae in Scotland, complex construction techniques such as joinery began in the early dynastic period of ancient Egypt. This era saw constructed wooden pieces, including stools and tables, sometimes decorated with valuable metals or ivory. The evolution of furniture design continued in ancient Greece and ancient Rome, with thrones being commonplace as well as the klinai, multipurpose couches used for relaxing, eating, the furniture of the Middle Ages was usually heavy, oak, and ornamented. Furniture design expanded during the Italian Renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth century, the seventeenth century, in both Southern and Northern Europe, was characterized by opulent, often gilded Baroque designs. The nineteenth century is defined by revival styles. The first three-quarters of the century are often seen as the march towards Modernism. One unique outgrowth of post-modern furniture design is a return to natural shapes and textures, the English word furniture is derived from the French word fourniture, the noun form of fournir, which means to supply or provide. Thus fourniture in French means supplies or provisions, the practice of using natural objects as rudimentary pieces of furniture likely dates to the beginning of human civilisation. Early humans are likely to have used tree stumps as seats, rocks as rudimentary tables, during the late palaeolithic or early neolithic period, from around 30,000 years ago, people began constructing and carving their own furniture, using wood, stone, and animal bones. The earliest evidence for the existence of constructed furniture is a Venus figurine found at the Gagarino site in Russia, a similar statue of a Mother Goddess was found in Catal Huyuk in Turkey, dating to between 6000 and 5500 BC. The inclusion of such a seat in the figurines implies that these were already common artefacts of that age, a range of unique stone furniture has been excavated in Skara Brae, a Neolithic village in Orkney, Scotland. Each house shows a degree of sophistication and was equipped with an extensive assortment of stone furniture, ranging from cupboards, dressers and beds to shelves, stone seats

18.
Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster
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Major General Gerald Cavendish Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster, KG CB CVO OBE TD CD DL was a British landowner, businessman, philanthropist, Territorial Army general and hereditary peer. He was the son of Robert George Grosvenor, 5th Duke of Westminster and he was Chairman of the property company Grosvenor Group. Born in Northern Ireland, Grosvenor moved from an island in the middle of Lough Erne to be educated at Sunningdale, after a troubled education he left school with two O-levels. He joined the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst and served in the Territorial Army, the business also has interests in other parts of Europe. According to the Sunday Times Rich List 2016, the Duke was worth £9.35 billion, placing him sixth in the list, after developing the two parts of Central London, the family business expanded. During the second half of the 20th century, the business expanded into the Americas and developed Annacis Island, the family business started developing in Australia in the 1960s. They moved to Asia in the early 1990s and to continental Europe just before the millennium, in April 2000, the firm moved into new London offices. The business was headed by the 6th Duke, who was Chairman of the Trustees, the Duke was also Director of Claridges Hotel from 1981 until 1993, and of Marcher Sound from 1992 until 1997. As a child the Duke lived on an island in the middle of Lough Erne and his early education was in Northern Ireland before he attended Sunningdale and Harrow boarding schools in England. He left school with a poor academic record, obtaining only two O-levels in history and English. As the Earl Grosvenor he joined the Territorial Army in 1970, as a trooper and he was promoted to lieutenant on 13 May 1975 and to captain on 1 July 1980. He was promoted to the rank of major on 1 January 1985. Promoted to lieutenant-colonel on 1 April 1992, he commanded the North Irish Horse, the Cheshire Yeomanry Squadron, founded by his ancestors. He was promoted to colonel on 31 December 1994 and was appointed colonel of the 7th Regt Army Air Corps. Promoted to brigadier on 17 January 2000, he was also appointed Honorary Colonel of the Royal Mercian and Lancastrian Yeomanry on 14 May 2001 and he was also appointed Colonel-in-Chief of the Canadian Royal Westminster Regiment, the North Irish Horse, and as Colonel Commandant Yeomanry. The Duke was Grand Prior of the Priory of England of the Military and Hospitaller Order of St Lazarus of Jerusalem, in 2004, he was appointed to the new post of Assistant Chief of the Defence Staff, with promotion in the rank of major-general. The Duke became Deputy Commander Land Forces in May 2011 and he retired from the Armed Forces in 2012. He was Vice-President of the Royal Engineers Music Foundation 1990–94, work started on the £300m project in April 2016, and it is intended that the new facilities which are under construction for completion in 2018 will replace those at Headley Court

19.
RER C
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The RER C is one of the five lines in the RER rapid transit system serving Paris, France. The RER C is the second longest line in the network, each day, over 531 trains run on the RER C alone, and carries over 490,000 passengers daily, which is 100,000 passengers more than the entirety of over 800 TGVs. It is also the most popular RER line for tourists which represents 15% of its passengers, as the line serves many monuments and museums, within the city, the RER functions like the Métro, but is faster as it has fewer stops. This has made it a model for proposals to improve transit within other cities, services operated between Versailles-Château – Invalides – Quai-dOrsay, branching to Massy – Palaiseau, and Juvisy – Dourdan / Saint-Martin dÉtampes. May 1980, Service extended Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines – Versailles – Chantiers – Gare des Invalides, on 25 September 1988 the VMI branch to the north-west opened. This extended services to Montigny – Beauchamp and Argenteuil, porte de Clichy opened on 29 September 1991. Located between Pereire – Levallois and St-Ouen, in 1992 the line was extended from Juvisy to Versailles. A further 9 kilometres extension from Montigny – Beauchamp to Pontoise was opened on 28 August 2000, on the same day a new station, Bibliothèque François Mitterrand, opened in order to create a new connexion with Métro Line 14. Located between Paris-Austerlitz and Boulevard Masséna, another new station, St-Ouen-lAumône-Liesse, opened on 24 March 2002. The C3 branch transferred to the Transilien Paris – Saint-Lazare suburban rail network on 27 August 2006, on 16 December 2006, Boulevard Victor was renamed Boulevard Victor – Pont du Garigliano to highlight the new interchange with tramway line T3. In February 2012, Versailles - Rive Gauche was renamed Versailles-Château, to avoid frequent tourists confusions with other stations in Versailles

20.
Josephine Baker
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Josephine Baker was a French vedette, singer and entertainer, whose career was centered primarily in Europe, mostly in her adoptive country of France. During her early career she was renowned as a dancer, and was among the most celebrated performers to headline the lavish revues of the Folies Bergère in Paris. She was celebrated by artists and intellectuals of the era, who dubbed her the Black Pearl, the Bronze Venus. Born in St. Louis, Missouri, she renounced her U. S. citizenship, Baker was the first person of African descent to become a world-famous entertainer and to star in a major motion picture, the 1934 Marc Allégret film Zouzou. Baker refused to perform for segregated audiences in the United States and is noted for her contributions to the Civil Rights Movement, in 1968 she was offered unofficial leadership in the movement in the United States by Coretta Scott King, following Martin Luther King Jr. s assassination. After thinking it over, Baker declined the offer out of concern for the welfare of her children and she was also known for aiding the French Resistance during World War II. After the war, she was awarded the Croix de guerre by the French military, Josephine Baker was born as Freda Josephine McDonald in St. Louis, Missouri. Her mother, Carrie, was adopted in Little Rock, Arkansas in 1886 by Richard and Elvira McDonald, Josephine Bakers estate identifies vaudeville drummer Eddie Carson as her natural father despite evidence to the contrary. Bakers foster son Jean-Claude Baker wrote a biography on her that was published in 1993 titled Josephine, Jean-Claude Baker did an exhaustive amount of research into the life of Josephine Baker, including the identity of her biological father. In the book, he discusses at length the circumstances surrounding Josephine Bakers birth, Carrie McDonald and Eddie Carson had a song-and-dance act, when Josephine was about a year old they began to carry her onstage occasionally during their finale. She was further exposed to business at an early age because her childhood neighborhood was home to many vaudeville theaters that doubled as movie houses. These venues included the Jazzland, Booker T. Washington, the incident was immortalized that year by songwriter Bill Dooley, in a song called Frankie Killed Allen, which later was revamped as the American classic blues ballad Frankie and Johnny. Josephine was always poorly dressed and hungry as a child, and she had little formal education, and attended Lincoln Elementary School only through the fifth grade. Josephines mother married a kind but perpetually unemployed man, Arthur Martin, with whom she had a son and she took in laundry to wash to make ends meet, and at eight years old, Josephine began working as a live-in domestic for white families in St. Louis. One woman abused her, burning Josephines hands when the girl put too much soap in the laundry. At 13, Josephine also worked as a waitress at the Old Chauffeurs Club at 3133 Pine Street. She also lived as a child in the slums of St. Louis, sleeping in cardboard shelters, scavenging for food in garbage cans. It was at the Old Chauffeurs Club where Josephine met Willie Wells, however, the marriage lasted less than a year and she left Wells to join a black vaudeville group

21.
Jules Michelet
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Jules Michelet was a French historian. He was born in Paris to a family with Huguenot traditions, historian François Furet wrote that his History of the French Revolution remains the cornerstone of all revolutionary historiography and is also a literary monument. His aphoristic style emphasized his anti-clerical republicanism and his father was a master printer, not very prosperous, and Jules assisted him in the actual work of the press. A place was offered him in the printing office, but his father was able to send him to the famous Collège or Lycée Charlemagne. He passed the university examination in 1821, and was appointed to a professorship of history in the Collège Rollin. Soon after this, in 1824, he married and this was one of the most favourable periods ever for scholars and men of letters in France, and Michelet had powerful patrons in Abel-François Villemain and Victor Cousin, among others. Although he was an ardent politician, he was all a man of letters. His earliest works were school textbooks, between 1825 and 1827 he produced diverse sketches, chronological tables etc. of modern history. His précis of the subject, published in 1827, is a sound and careful book, far better than anything that had appeared before it, in the same year he was appointed maître de conférences at the École normale supérieure. The events of 1830 had placed him in a position for study by obtaining him a place in the Record Office. Soon afterwards he began his chief and monumental work, the Histoire de France that would take 30 years to complete,1838 was a year of great importance in Michelets life. He published, in 1839, his Histoire romaine, but this was in his graver and earlier manner, the results of his lectures appeared in the volumes Du prêtre, de la femme et de la famille and Le peuple. However, when the revolution broke out, Michelet, unlike other men of letters, did not attempt to enter active political life. The coup détat lost Michelet his place in the Record Office, since he refused to take the oaths to the empire, the new régime kindled afresh his republican zeal, and his second marriage with Mlle. Athénaïs Michelet, a lady of some capacity and of republican sympathies. While his great work of history was still his main pursuit, sometimes they were expanded versions of its episodes, sometimes what may be called commentaries or companion volumes. In some of the best of them natural science, a new subject with Michelet, to which his wife is believed to have introduced him, supplies the text. The first of these was Les Femmes de la Révolution, in which Michelets natural and inimitable faculty of dithyrambic too often gives way to tedious and not very conclusive argument, in the next, LOiseau, a new and most successful vein was struck

22.
Secondary education in France
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Pupils are prepared for the baccalauréat. The baccalauréat can lead to higher studies or directly to professional life. The school year starts in early September and ends in early-July, lyon, for example, is in zone A, while Marseille is in zone B, and Paris and Bordeaux are in zone C. In contrast to the practice in most other systems, the various school years in France are numbered on a decreasing scale. Thus, pupils begin their education in the sixième, and transfer to a lycée in the seconde. In French, the word for étudiant is usually reserved for students, while collège. The curriculum is standardized for all French public institutions, the collège is the first level of secondary education in the French educational system. A pupil attending collège is called collégien or collégienne, men and women teachers at the collège- and lycée-level are called professeur. The City of Paris refers to a collège in English as a high school, entry in sixième occurs directly after the last year of primary school, called cours moyen deuxième année. There is no entrance examination into collège, but administrators have established an academic examination of students starting in sixième. The purpose of the examination is evaluating pupils level on being graduated from primary school, the table at the right details the French curriculum. Along with three-to-four weekly hours of education, a typical school week consists of some twenty-six hours of schooling. French language and literature occupy the most time, 4–5 hours per week, followed by mathematics,4 hours per week, the curriculum is devised by the French Ministry of National Education and applies to all collèges in France and also for AEFE-dependent institutions. Académies and individual schools have little margin for curriculum customisation, teachers compose syllabi per precise government educational regulations, and choose textbooks accordingly, every major French publishing house has a textbook branch. Each subject is taught by a different professeur or teacher. Collège pupils stay in the class throughout the school year. The strong belief in teaching in mixed-ability classes means that streaming is rare, class size varies from school to school, but usually ranges from 20 to 35 pupils. Each class has a principal who is the link between the teaching staff, administration, and pupils

23.
Marcel Cachin
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Marcel Cachin was a French politician. In 1891, Cachin joined Jules Guesde French Workers Party, in 1905, he joined the new French Section of the Workers International and won election to the Chamber of Deputies representing the Seine in 1914. He rallied the Union sacrée during the First World War and was sent to Russia in a mission in 1917, on that occasion he strongly supported Kerenskys Provisional Government, which was pledged to continue Russias participation in World War I, and denounced Lenin and the Bolsheviks. In 1918, he was one of the speakers at a rally held at Strasbourg. However, following the end of the war, there was a shift among Cachins grassroots supporters. In 1920 at the Tours Congress, Cachin became one of the founders of the French Communist Party, in 1923, he was jailed for denouncing the French occupation of the Ruhr and Morocco. As a strong supporter of the pro-Soviet Communist Party, he refused to disavow the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and was removed from elected office in 1940, after the Liberation of France, he returned to the National Assembly until his death in 1958. He was the editor of the newspaper LHumanité from 1918 to 1958, at the age of 88, he was the first foreigner to receive the Order of Lenin. In the later part of his life, he was nicknamed Grandfather of the Communist Party and his granddaughter, Françoise Cachin, was an art historian

24.
Louis Auguste Blanqui
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Louis Auguste Blanqui was a French socialist and political activist, notable for his revolutionary theory of Blanquism. Blanqui was born in Puget-Théniers, Alpes-Maritimes, where his father, Jean Dominique Blanqui and he was the younger brother of the liberal economist Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui. He studied both law and medicine, but found his vocation in politics, and quickly became a champion of the most advanced opinions. A member of the Carbonari society since 1824, he took a part in most republican conspiracies during this period. In 1827, under the reign of Charles X, he participated in a fight in Rue Saint-Denis. In 1829, he joined Pierre Lerouxs Globe newspaper before taking part in the July Revolution of 1830 and he then joined the Amis du Peuple society, where he made acquaintances with Philippe Buonarroti, Raspail, and Armand Barbès. He was condemned to repeated terms of imprisonment for maintaining the doctrine of republicanism during the reign of Louis Philippe, in May 1839, a Blanquist inspired uprising took place in Paris, in which the League of the Just, forerunners of Karl Marxs Communist League, participated. Implicated in the outbreak of the Société des Saisons, of which he was a leading member, Blanqui was condemned to death on 14 January 1840. He was released during the revolution of 1848, only to resume his attacks on existing institutions, the revolution had not satisfied him. While in prison, he sent an address to a committee of social democrats in London. The text of the address was noted and introduced by Karl Marx, upon the fall of the Empire, through the revolution of 4 September, Blanqui established the club and journal La patrie en danger. He was one of the group that briefly seized the reins of power on 31 October and for his share in that outbreak he was again condemned to death in absentia on 9 March of the following year. On 17 March, Adolphe Thiers, aware of the represented by Blanqui, took advantage of his resting at a friend physicians place, in Bretenoux in Lot. A few days afterwards the insurrection which established the Paris Commune broke out, the Communards offered to release all of their prisoners if the Thiers government released Blanqui, but their offer was met with refusal, and Blanqui was thus prevented from taking an active part. Karl Marx would later be convinced that Blanqui was the leader that was missed by the Commune, nevertheless, in 1872 he was condemned along with the other members of the Commune to transportation, on account of his broken health this sentence was again commuted to one of imprisonment. On 20 April 1879 he was elected a deputy for Bordeaux, although the election was pronounced invalid, Blanqui was freed, as a socialist, Blanqui favored what he described as a just redistribution of wealth. But Blanquism is distinguished in various ways from other socialist currents of the day and this period of transitional tyranny would permit the implementation of the basis of a new order, after which power would be handed to the people. In this he differs from the Utopian Socialists, for the Blanquists, the overturning of the bourgeois social order and the revolution are ends sufficient in themselves, at least for their immediate purposes

Aubervilliers (French pronunciation: [obɛʁvilje] (listen)) is a commune in the Seine-Saint-Denis department in the …

Town Centre

The square was once served by numerous tramways. The AR line (Aubervilliers - République), the Compagnie des tramways de Paris et du département de la Seine (TPDS) line and many others once terminated here...

The Paris metropolitan area (French: aire urbaine de Paris, pronounced [ɛʁ yʁbɛn də paʁi]) is a statistical area that …

Map showing the extent of the Paris metropolitan area at the 1999 census, when it included 1,584 communes and covered 14,518 km². Since then, the Paris metropolitan area has absorbed 214 further communes (not shown on the map), so that by the 2010 census it included 1,798 communes and covered 17,174 km².