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A ANCIENT INDIA ...... : .......................................... . .......................•....................... .. ...........
KNOWING about one's past is natural to
all of us. We are always curious to know
as to who were our ancestors i.e.
grandfather, great-grandfather and so
on; from where did they come, how they
lived etc. This is known as the quest for
knowing the h istory of an individual
family, which can differ vastly within a
single society. But when the study is
extended beyond the individual families,
to the society, it takes a completely
different shape. Then we talk about the
entire society and the whole nation. This
quest about knowing the past is known as
history. I
Through the study of history of a
society or nation we have come to know
about the past of that society or nation.
We came to know how that society or the
nation has developed over a long period
of time. Some of these aspects are: how
they started agriculture, when they
began the use of metal and how
spinning, weaving, metalworking
developed. With all these economic
aspects, also came a whole lot of other
things like the development of pplitical
and administrative systems, evolution of
urban life, development of science and
literature and architecture etc. The
study of all this is known as history. As
you can see, the study of history does
not mean just the study of dates and
events connected with some kings or
dynasties.
The various aspects that we study
form the part of an overall personality of
the society and the people. Therefore, we
can say that the study of history is the
study of the entire human past, which
goes back to millions of years.
It must be emphasised that all
societies have developed over a long
2
,
period of time but they differ in terms of
courses they followed and the processes
they underwent. Though they all were
stone-age hunter-gatherers, they all
practised agriculture, they all began to
use metal at one time or other, still they
differ in their cultural, social, political
and religious identity. It is because
beyond the economic realm lie people's
ideas regarding their social system,
religious practices, 'political system, art
and architecture, language and
literature and so on. These things are
very individual to each society and
nation.
Therefore, the study of history also
helps in understanding the people,
societies and nations and finally the
whole humanity gets a sense of identity
and belonging. Many people, including
some leading scientists and statesmen,
ask, why study history? It does not
contribute anything economically. It
cannot solve the' problem of poverty and
unemployment. There is also ~
perception that it only creates problems
and increases animosity among the
people. It may be said here that this is a
. very superficial view. It helps us in
knowing people, their culture, their
religion, and their social systems, and
respecting them. The study of history
makes us learn lessons from the past
for the present and future. It helps us in
not repeating the mistakes which led to
various manmade calamities and
disasters like wars in the ,past. History
also tells us how to igq.ore the bad things
that created problems in society and
follow' the things which promote
........................ . .... . ............ . ............................................... THE STUDY OF INDIAN HISTORY
harmony, peace and prosperity. For
example, more .than two thousand years
back Ashoka, in his Rock Edict XII, insisted
on the following measures and practices
to maintain harmony, peace and
prosperity in society:
"(i) promotion of what constitutes the
essence of all religions as their
common ground or root (mula);
(ii) cultivation of this sense of unity
of all religions by the practice of
vachaguti or restraint of criticism
of {'+her religions and sects;
(iii) the' · .ming together (samavaya) of
exponents of different religions in
religious assemblies; and
(iv) learning the texts of other religions
so as to become bahusruta or
proficient in the scriptures of
different religions".
History gives people their identity.
The study of past does not mean that one
lives in the past but one learns to live with
the past. History is not something that
we can disown.
As mentioned earlier, history gives
a society or a nation an identity. On the
basis of this study of history, British
historian A.L. Basham (1914-1986), in
his book, The Wonder That was India,
writes:
"At most periods of her history,
India, though a cultural unit, has
been torn by internecine war.
In statecraft her rulers were
cunning and unscrupulous.
Famine, flood and plague visited
her from time to time, and killed
millions of her people. Inequality
of birth was given religious
sanction, and the lot of the
humble was generally hard. Yet,
our overall impression is that in
no other part ofthe ancient world
were the relations of man and
man, and of man and the state,
so fair and humane. In no other
early civilization were slaves so
few in number, and in no other
ancient law-book are their rights
so well protected as in the
Arlhashastra. No other ancient
lawgiver proclaimed such noble
ideals of fair play in battle as did
Manu. In all her history of warfare
Hindu India has few tales to tell
of cities put to the sword or ofthe
massacre of noncombatants. The
ghastly sadism of the kings. of
Assyria, who flayed their captives
alive, is completely without
parallel in ancient India. There
was sporadic cruelty and
oppression no doubt, but, in
comparison with conditions in
other early cultures, it was mild.
To us the most striking feature of
ancient Indian civilization is its
humanity" .
3.
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... . . . .............. . ............................................................... ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY WRITING c11'
Indian Tradition of History Writing
One ofthe most interesting aspect of the
study of history is knowing the history
of history writing itself. It gives you an
idea how history itself can be moulded
by interpretation. How same data and
the same evidence get .completely
different meaning in the hands of
different scholars. In this chapter, we
are going to learn precisely this aspect
of ancient Indian history. We shall
study when and how the writing of
ancient Indian history began and how
it progressed, traversing different paths
over a long period oftime. Many foreign
scholars opined that Indians had no
sense of history writing and whatever
was written in the name of history is
nothing more than a story without any
sense. This appears to be a very harsh
judgement. To say that Indians had no
consciousness about their own history
and no sense of writing history is simply
incorrect. The knowledge of history was
given a very high place in ancient India.
·It was accorded sanctity equal to a
Veda. Atharvaveda, Brahmanas and
Upanishads include ltihas-Purana as
one of the branches of knowledge.
Kautilya in his Arthashastra (fourth
century B.C.) advises the king to devote
a part of his time everyday for hearing
the narrations of history. According to
the Puranas, following are the subject
matters of history: sarga (evolution of
universe), pratisarga (involution of
universe), manvantantar (recurring of
time), vamsa (genealogical list of kings
and sages), and vamsanucharita
(life stories of some selected characters).
The Puranic literature is very vast
and we have 18 main Puranas, 18
subsidiary Puranas and a large
n u ~ b e r of other books. It is interesting
to note that in all the Puranas royal
genealogies are dealt with the reign of
Parikshit, the grandson of Arjun, as a
benchmark. All the earlier dynasties
and kings have been mentioned in past
tense. While the latter kings and
dynasties have been narrated in future
tense. This may be because of the fact
that the coronation of Parikshit marks
the beginning of Kali Age. Many
scholars think that this also points to
the fact that perhaps the Puranas were
completed durjng the reign ofParikshit.
In the context of the Puranas it may
be remembered that in ancient India,
ltihas was looked upon as a means to
illuminate the present and future in the
light of the past. The purpose of history
was to understand 'and inculcate a
sense of duty and sacrifice by
individuals to their families, by the
families to their clans, by the clans to
their villages and by the villages to
Janapada and Rashtra and ultimately
to the whole humanity. History was not
meant to be an exhaustive compendium
of the names of the kings and dynasties
and their achievements etc. It was
treated as a powerful vehicle of
awakening of cultural and social
consciousness. It was perhaps, for this
reason that the narration of Puranas
were a part of the annual ritual in every
village and town during the rainy
season and at the time offestivals. The
Puranas may not satisfy the modern
.......................... ~ .
5
.
, ANCIENT INDIA ........................... , ............................................. . .................. .. ...... .... . . . , .... .
definition of historiography: qr tpos.e
who wrote it may not have bee:q. aw4te.
of the "historian's crafts", but tijey.W,e(.Q"
fully aware of the purpose of their
and the purpose of history itself.
Many historians like F.E. Pargitar
and H.C. Raychaudhury have
attempted to write history. on the basis
of genealogies Of various dynasties
given in Puranas. The Greek
ambassador Megasthenese (in the court
of Chandragupta Maurya c. 324-300
B.C.) testifies the existence of a list of
153 kings whose reigns had covered a
period of about 6053 years up till then.
Kalhana's Rajatarangini is another
work of history which is indeed a
solitary example of its kind. It enjoys
great respect among the historians for
its approach and historical content.
Early Foreigners
When we look at the writings on
history of ancient India beyond the
Indian frontiers, we find that earliest
attempts were those of Greek writers.
Most notable are Herodotus, Nearchus,
Megasthenese, Plutarch, Arrian, Strabo,
Pliny the Elder, and Ptolemy. However,
except for Megasthenese all others have
touched Indian history in the true
sense very marginally. They were
concerned mostly with the north-
western part of India and primarily the
areas which were either part of the
Persian and Greek Satrapies or
Alexander's campaign. Megasthenese
wrote extensively in a bo.ok called
'Indica' which is no longer available to
us. We know about Megasthenese's
6
,
wtings through various extracts if'
the writings of Diodorous, Strabo
and Arrian. It is very clear that
Megasthenese had little understanding/.
of Indian society and social systems.,
For example, he mentions that Indian!
society comprisecsi of seven castes oatis)
The discrepancies in Megasthenese's
works seem to be because of his lack ot
knowledge any Indian language and!
being not part of Indian society an?
psyche. It is surprising that intensive
trade relation with India during the firJt
few centuries of the Christian era left ·
such few traces in the IndIan litera&-
tradition of the period. ' i
Next important phase of historib-
I
graphy begins with Al-Beruni, wljlO
was born in central Asia in A.D. 913
and died in Ghazni (present-dry
Afghanistan) in A.D. 1048 . He was ope
of the greatest scholars of his time a[-a-
a contemporary of Mahmud ofGhaz i.
When Mahmud conquered part of
central Asia, he took Al-Beruni w,th
him. Though Al-Beruni deplored his
loss of freedom, he appreciated
favourable circumstances for his
Unlike Al-BerUini
studied Sanskrit language and to
gain a precise knowledge of
sources. The list of works consulted!by
him is long and impressive. Ifis
observations range from
religion, culture, society to sciente,
literature, art and medicine.
work can be termed as fairly objectl've
and wherever he has faltered is
not because of any other reason qut
his lack of proper understandi4g.
Al-Beruni can be credited to J:>e
.......... .. ..... ..... ............. ... .................. ... ........................ . ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY WRITING
comparatively free from religious or
racial biases, we so often encounter in
the writing of his successor Muslim
and European writers. However,
sometime AI- Beruni does show his
annoyance when he says sarcastically,
" ... the Hindus believe that there is no
country but theirs, no nation like
theirs, no kings like theirs, no religion
like theirs, no science like theirs".
Christian Missionaries and
Enlightenment
The next phase of historiography
belongs to the European interest
mainly the Christian Missionaries. A
large number of works were produced
on India but none of them compared to
the works of AI-Beruni. While AI-Beruni
also possess a well defined religious
and hermeneutics awareness, he was
essentially a scholar and not driven to
preach his faith. Most of the missionary,
writings can hardly be said to be fair.
They were more interested in learning
and writing about Indian history in
order to depict its flaws and prepare the
ground for evangelical activity. Their
during the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries are also
affected by the religious, intelleclJlal and
political movements in Europe.
However, it must be pointed out that
all this led not only to the accumulation
of large amount of contributions about
Indian history but also Indian history
became the victim of political and
religious problems of Europe.
With the coming of Enlightenment
another phase of European
ography on India begins. Many
scholars like John Holwell, Nanthaniel
Halhed, and Alexander Dow - all
associated in various capacities with
the British East India Company - wrote
about Indian history and culture
proving the pre-eminence of Indian
civilization in the ancient world.
On the basis of Puranic sources,
they also described the immense
antiquity of human race. Holwell wrote
that Hindu texts contained a higher
revelation than the Christian one and
they pre-dated the flood described in
the Old Testament and that, "the
' mythology, as well as cosmogony of the
Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, were
borrowed from the doctrines of the
Brahmins". Halhed also critically
examined the various aspects of Indian
history, religion, mythology etc. He
discussed the vast periods of time of
human history assigned to four Yugas
and concluded that reason can
no more reconcile to itself the idea of
Patriarchal longevity of few thousand
years for the entire span of human race.
Based on the huge amount of
literature produced in Europe during
the seventeenth and eighteenth
century Europe, many scholars and'
intellectuals who never travelled to
India wrote about it. The great
intellectual and statesman, Voltaire
viewed India as the homeland of religion
in its oldest and purest form; and also
as the cradle of worldly civilizations.
Voltaire was convinced of the priority
of Indian achievement in the area of
secular learning and worldly culture.
He describes Indians as the people, "to
........................... :
7
~
" ANCIENT INOlA ............................................................. . ......................... . . .. ... . ....... . .. . . . . . .... .
whom we owe our numbers, our
backgammon, our chess, our first
principles of geometry and fables which
have become our own." He further
wrote, "In short I am convinced that
everything - astronomy, astrology,
metaphysics, etc. - comes to us from
the bank of Ganges".
The French naturalist and traveller
Pierre de Sonnerate also believed that
all knowledge came from India which
he considered as the cradle of
civilizations. In 1807 the well known
metaphysician Schelling wrote, "what
is Europe really but a sterile trunk
which owes everything to oriental
grafts?" The great philosopher
Emannual Kant also acknowledged
greatness of ancient Indian culture and
civilization. He wrote, "Their religion has
a great purity ... (and) one can find
traces of pure concept of divinity which
cannot easily be found elsewhere". He
also declared that Indian religious
thoughts were free of dogmatism and
intolerance.
Imperialist Historiography
We have earlier mentioned about the
missionary activities in India and their
interest, in writing Indian history.
Besides the colonial interests the
establishment of Asiatic Society of
Bengal in .1784 also contributed
towards the Writing of Indian History
in its own way. However, it must be
mentioned at this stage itself that
much of these writings reflect the
contemporary debate on religious faith
and nationality and also their interests
in enlarging the European colonies for
8
economic exploitation. Some of the
leading intellectuals of the nineteenth
century trading of this path are William
Jones, Max Muller, Monier Williams,
J.S. Mill, KarIMarxandF.W. Hegel. The
most prominent among the twentieth
century historians belonging to this
school of thought was Vincent Arthur
Smith (1843-1920) who prepared the
first systematic history of ancient India
published in 1904.
A large section of the European
scholars became worried when the
greatness of India's past started
becoming popular and the Indian
philosophy, logic and writings on such
things as origin of universe, humanity
and its age etc. started gaining
acceptance. For well over a millennium
much of the Europe had accepted the
Old Testament as the final testament
documenting the history of human
race. Thomas Maurice, for example,
was bitterly upset and wrote in 1812
about, "the daring assumptions of
certain sceptical French philosophers
with respect to the Age of the world ...
argument principally founded on the
high assumptions of the Brahmins ...
(which) have a direct tendency to
overturn the Mosaic system, and, with
it, Christianity". These people were
also very worried about the Bible story
of Creation. Bishop Usher had
calculated that the whole universe
was created at 9.00 a.m. on 23rd
October 4004 B.C. and the Great Flood
took place in 2349 B.C. These dates
and creation stories were being
threatened to be wrong in the face of
Indian mythologies which talked in
terms of four Yugas and several
............................................................. . ....................... ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY WRITING
hundred million years. This threatened
the very foundation of the faith.
However, the faithful were relieved
by "the fortunate arrival of... the
various dissertations, on the subject, of
Sir William Jones". On his own part, Sir
William Jones concern was second to
none. He wrote in 1788, "some
intelligent and virtuous persons are
inclined to doubt the authenticity of the
accounts delivered by Moses". Jones too
was very clear that, "either the first
eleven chapters of Genesis ... are true
or the whole fabric of our national
religion is false, a conclusion which
none of us, I trust, would wish to be
drawn".
In view of the growing concern ofthe
faithful, Boden Professorships of
Sanskrit at Oxford University was
endowed by Colonel Boden, specifically
to promote the Sanskrit learning among
the English, so as "to enable his
countrymen to proceed in the
conversion of the natives ofIndia to the
Christian religion". Prizes were offered
to the literary works undermining
Indian tradition and religion. The first
occu pan t of the Boden Chair was
Horace Hayman Wilson. Writing about
a series of lectures he gave, Wilson
himself noted that, "these lectures were
written to help candidates for a prize of
£ 200 given by John Muir. .. for the best
refutation of the Hindu religious
systems".
Friedrich Max Muller is considered
as one of the most respected Indologists
of the nineteenth century. He was a
German but spent most of his life in
England. On the request and financial
support of the British East India
Company he undertook massive jobs
of translation and interpretation of the
Indian religious texts in English.
Though he achieved an unparalleled
feat of getting translated a huge mass
of Sanskrit texts into English, thereby,
bringing it to the knowledge of the
English speaking world, his approach
and intention were never free from
prejudice. They were necessitated by
his religious belief and political
requirements. Both these coloured the
entire approach for the writing and
interpretation of Indian history.
In 1857 Max Muller wrote to the
Duke of Argyll, "I look upon the creation
given in the Genesis as simply
historical". Therefore, in terms of time
span all he had was 6000 years i.e. upto
4000 B.C. within which entire history
of universe had to be fitted. It was under
this guiding principle William Jones,
Max Muller, Vincent Smith and others
wrote Indian history.
Eager to settle the matter first,
William Jones undertook the
responsibility of unravelling Indian
chronology for the benefit and
appeasement of his disconcerted
colleagues , " I propose to lay before
you a concise history of Indian
chronology extracted from Sanskrit
books, attached to no system, and as
much disposeq to reject Mosoick
history, ifit be proved erroneous, as to
believe it, if it be confirmed by sound
reason from indubitable evidence".
Despite such assurances, Jone's own
predispositions on this matter was
revealed in several earlier writings. For
9
ANCIENT INDIA ......... . ............ ... . . .. ~ ........................... . ................................. . . . ........... ... , .... .
example in 1788 he wrote, "I am bbliged
of course to believe the . sanctity 'of
venerable books [of Genesis)". In 1 790
Jones c'oncluded his researches by
claiming to have "traced the foundation
of the Indian empire above three
thousand eight hundred years from
now", that is to say, safely within the
confines of Bishop Usher' s creation
date of 4004 B.C. and, more important,
within ' the parameters of the Great
Flood, which Jones considered to have
occurred in 2350 B.C. Same w a ~ the
constraint with Max Muller when the
question of chronology of Sanskrit
literature came up. Lacking any firm
basis of his own and rejecting every
Indian evidence, he arbitrarily dated the
entire Sanskrit literature taking the
earliest i.e. Rig Veda to be of 1500 B.C.,
once again }Vithin the safe limits of
Genesis chrdpology.
Such efforts on the part of
European scholars, chiefly British,
brought some relief and made this new
approach safe for Christianity and its
faithful followers. Assessing the impact
of such works, mainly of Jones ,
Trautmann writes ; } 997), "Jones in
effect showed that Sanskrit literature
was not an enemy but an ally of
the Bible, supplying independent
corroboration of Bi ble's version of
history. Jone's chronological researches
did manage to calm the waters
somewhat and effectively guaranteed
that the new admiration for Hinduism
would reinforce Christianity and would
not work for its overthrow".
1hus, the fate of Indian history
now. got intertwined with the safety
.. •.. . . ... ', 0' ...•.. : . ~ ? } . ~ .
10
. and pleasure of Christianity. The
culmination of the objectives and the
results of the efforts of great European
scholars of Indology is seen in private
correspondence. Max Muller, writes to
his wife of his monumental work oj
editing 50 vols. of Sacred Books of thf
East, " .. . this edition of mine and thl
translation of Veda, will herein after tel
a great extent on the fate of Illldia an(!
on the growth of millions of souls in th8 ,
country. It .is the root of their religiOJ
and to show them what the root is,
feel sure, is the only way of uprootin
f
all that has sprung from it during the
last three thousand years". Two year:-
after this, Max Muller wrote in 1868 tt
the Duke of Argyll, then Secretary 01
State for India, "The ancient religion of'!
India is doomed, and if Christianity does
not step in, whose fault will it be?"
Max Muller was not alone in this
type of writing history and desiring to
uproot all Indian tradition from the soil.
Monier-Williams, famous for his
Sanskrit- English and English-Sanskrit
dictionaries, and a Boden Professor of
Sanskrit at Oxford, wrote in 1879, " ...
when the walls of the mighty fortress
of Brahmanism [Hinduism] are
. encircled, undermined and finally
stormed by the soldier of the Cross, the
victory of Christianity must be single
and complete".
Thus, we can safely say that most
of the works done on Indian history
during the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries were perforce guided by the
preconditions imposed by the belief
in the Genesis and to counter all
the writing that were projecting India's
................... . ............................................... ......... . ... ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY WRITING
past in terms of great civilization and
Indian philosophy and thoughts
indicating great antiquity for the origins
of universe and human beings.
As mentioned earlier, another factor .
which contributed to the distortion of
ancient Indian history was the British
imperial interests in India. By 1804 we
find a marked shift in British attitude
towards India. After the defeat of French
forces in the hands of British and
weakened Maratha power, the British
were sure of their rule over ' India.
However, they were worried of the fact
that British civilians coming to India
were getting Brahmanised and
developing inferiority complex. To
overcome this problem and to
inculcate a sense of superiority
complex among the British officers
about western culture they adopted a
two pronged strategy. First and the
most important was the one initiated
by the Utilitarian school led by James
Mill who wrote six volumes on history
of India between 1806 and 1818,
without ever visiting India or knowing
any Indian language. In it he divided
Indian history into three periods - first
Hindu Period, second Muslim Period
and third British Period - without any
logic and justification. He presented
an extremely denigrading picture of
Hindu periods. He condemned every
institution, idea and action of the Hindu
period and held Hindus responsible for
all the ills of the country. This book was
introduced as a text book in the
Harleybury school in England which
was established to educate the young
Englishmen coming to India as
administrators and civil servants.
J ames Mill, his son John Stuart Mill,
and his disciple Thomas Macauley
played a very imp()rtant role in shaping
the imperialist policy in India and the
future of Indian education in the core
of which was the distorted history of
ancient India.
Following in the footsteps. of James
Mill, V.A. Smith an IeS officer serving
the British Government in India,
prepared the text book called Early
History of India in 1904. As a loyal
member of the civil service he
emphasized the . role of foreigners in
ancient India. Alexander's invasion
accounted for almost one-third of his
book. Smith's racial arrogance is
obvious when he writes, "The
triumphant progress of Alexander from
the Himalayas to the sea demonstrated
the inherent weakness of the greatest
Asiatic armies when confronted with
European skill and discipline". V.A.
gives the impression as if
Alexander had conquered whole of
India from Himalayas to seas while the
fact is he only touched the north-
western borders of India and as we shall
see in relevant chapter, it was a virtual
non-event. Smith presented India as a
land of despotism which did not
experience political unity until the
establishment of . British rule. He
observed, "Autocracy is substantially
the only form of government with which
the historians of India are concerned".
The whole approach of Imperial
historians has been best summed up
by historian R.S. Sharma. He observes,
"British interpretations of Indian
1 1
ANCIENT INDIA ........ .. ..................... . . ......... .. ......... . .. : . . ..................................................... . . .
history served to denigrate Indian
character and achievements, and
justify the colonial rule ... However,
the generalisations made by historians
were either false or grossly exaggerated.
They could serve as good propaganda
material for the perpetuation of the
despotic British rule .... At the heart of
all such generalisations lay the need of
demonstrating that Indians were
incapable of governing themselves".
tionalist Approach
The difference of opinion and different
interpretations on the same evidence is
not only respected but also considered
essential for the healthy development
of the academic world. But the
difference of opinion is quite different
regarding the distortion of ones past
history. The educated intelligentsia of
the nineteenth. century was horrified at
the distortions of the ancient Indian
history. In the late nineteenth century
some scholars like Rajendra Lal Mitra,
R.G. Bhandarkar, and V.K. Rajwade
tried to look at the ancient Indian history
from the Indian point of view. Both
Bhandarkar and- Rajwade worked on
the history of Maharashtra region and
r econstructed the social, political and
economic history of the area.
However, the real impetus and
challenge to the imperialist version
of history came in the first quarter
of the t w ~ n t i e t h century. Some of
the most notable historians of
this period are D.R. Bhandarkar,
H.C. Raychaudhary, R.C. Majumdar,
P.V. Kane, A.S. Altekar, K.P. Jayaswal,
K.A. Nilakant Sastri; T.V. Mahalingam,
12
H.C. Ray and R.K. Mookerji.
D.R. Bhandarkar (1875-1950)
reconstructed the history of ancient
India on the basis of epigraphic and
numismatic evidence. His books on
Ashoka and on ancient Indian polity
helped in clearing many myths created
by imperialist historians. The biggest
blow to the imperialist school in the
realm of political ideas and institutions
was given by K.P. Jayaswal (1881-
1937). In his book Hindu Polity,
published in 1924, Jayaswal effectively
knocked down the myth that Indians
had no political ideas and institutions.
His study of literary and epigraphical
sources showed that India was not a
despotic country as propagated by the
imperialist historians. Beside the
hereditary kingship, India had the
tradition of republics right from
RigVedic times. He also convincingly
showed that contrary to the views of
British historians, Indian polity and art
of governance was far more developed
than that of any other part of
contemporary world. His book Hindu
Polity is considered as one of the most
important book ever written on ancient
Indian history.
H.C. Raychaudhury (1892-1957)
in his book Political History of Ancient
India reconstructed the history of
ancien t India from the time of
Mahabharata war to the time of Gupta
empire and practically cleared the
clouds created by V.A. Smith.
R.C. Majumdar is considered as the
doyen among Indian historiaps. He was
one of the most prolific writers and has
written on almost every aspect ofIndian
...................................................................................... ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY WRITING C"
History. He wrote a large number of
books covering the time period from
Ancient India to the freedom struggle.
The publication of History and Culture
of the Indian People in eleven volumes
under his general editorship is one of
the most outstanding achievements.
This multi-volume series deals with
Indian history and civilization right
from the prehistoric times to the India's
independence in 1947 and remains a
singular reference work.
K.A. Nilakant Sastri (1892-1975)
contributed immensely towards the
understanding of South Indian history.
His books like A History of Ancient
India and A History of South India are
the shining examples of brilliant
scholarship. R.K. Mookerji (1886-
1964) was perhaps one of most
outstanding writers when it came to
expressing even the most difficult
subjects in simple terms. His books like
Hindu Civilization, Chandragupta
Maurya, Ashoka and Fundamental
Unity of India put the cultural,
economic and political history of
India not only on firm ground but also
made it accessible even to a lay reader.
P.V.Kane (1880-1972) was a great
Sanskritist. His monumental work
entitled History of Dharmasastra in
five volumes running into over six
thousand pages is an encyclopaedia of
social, religious and political laws and
customs.
The contributions of all these great
scholars helped in clearing the mist
built by the mi s siona ries and the
imperialist historians.
Marxist School of History
The Marxist school of historiography
used to be the most influential school
of history in the second half of the l a ~ t
century. Despite the inherent
contradiction and total failure of
Marxist model of history writings it is
academically important to discuss it
and give respect to the contributions it
has made.
The Marxists believe in universal
laws and stages of history. They believe
that all the societies pass through at
least five stages of history - (i) Primitive
Communism (ii) Slavery (iii) Feudalism
(iv) Capitalism and (v) Communism.
These stages were defined by Karl
Marx and F. Engels, the propounders
of Communism. They clearly
acknowledged their intellectual debt to
F.W. Hegel and Lewis Henry Morgan. It
must be mentioned here that the
stages of history proposed "by Marx
and Engels was based on their
understanding of European history.
Before we come to Indian Marxist
historiography it is important to know
as to what Hegel and Marx said about
Indian history and civilization.
G.W.F. Hegel (1770-1831) was a
great western philosopher. Hegel was
not an Indologist and made no attempt
to learn Sanskrit or any other Indian
language. He made use of translations ,
reports etc. His writings on Indian
history and philosophy were based
mainly on the writings of William Jones,
James Mill and other British writers
whose approach to ancient Indian
history has already been discussed
in detail. The results were indeed
disastrous.
13
~
ANCIENT INDIA ............ ........ . ...... ..... ...... .................. . ........... .... ... .. ............... . .. ... .. .... .... ... ... . .
In the beginning Hegel felt that
India, as the Orient in general, has to
be excluded from the history of
philosophy. However, in the light of
several writings though Hegel
reluctantly accepted that India had a
philosophical system and its history
had great antiquity, he explicitly
considered it to be inferior to that of the
Greeks and the Romans. Even his
contemporary European scholars were
appauled at his conclusions about
Indian history and philosophy. He was
seen by 'them as a "prototype of
Westerner" who saw western thoughts
as a measure of all things: "Therefore,
whatever he had to say about the Indian
world, turned out to be very insufficient;
and the result was a caricature which
shows ... that he ventured on a task for
which he was not qualified ... " Despite
such shortcomings Hegel's influence is
not confined to Europe alone. In India
also there is a significant tradition of
"Hegelianism"; "Neo-Hegelianism" and
"Anti-Hegelianism".
Similarly, Marx was also very
superficial in his knowledge about
India and not really free from racial
considerations. Most of what Marx had
to say about India is 'found in
newspaper articles. Marx took his lead
from Hegel. Marx was a great votary of
India being enslaved by British and
dismissed India as a backward and
uncivilized nation with no history. In
1853 he wrote, "India, then could not
escape being conquered, and the whole
of her past history, if it be anything, is
the history of the successive conCJ.uests
she has undergone. Indian society has
14
no history at all, at least no known
history. What we call its history, is but
history of the successive intruders who
founded their empires on passive basis
of that unresisting and unchanging
society ... ".
The Hegelian and Marxi an
approach to Indian history by and large
remained dormant for a long time. It
was largely non-existent during the
British rule in India. After the
independence of India, the Marxist
school of historiography became one of
the most influential and dominant
schools. Following Marx's scheme, the
history of India also came to be re-
written. Consequently, primitive
communism, slavery, feudalism and
capitalism i.e. the various stages of
history propounded by Marx and
Engels came to be applied in Indian
History also. This school also, like the
imperialist school, does not find
anything good with Indian civilization.
Like Marx, they feel that all that is good
in Indian civilization is the contribution
of conquerors and that is why,
according to this school, the Kushana
period is the golden period and not the
Satavahanas or Guptas. The period
from the Gupta's to the conquest of
Muslims in the twelfth century A.D. has
been termed as the "Period of
Feudalism" i.e. "Dark Age" during
which every thing degenerated. This
has been despite the fact that,
irrespective of political upheaval, there
was anal1 round development in the
fields of literature, sciences, art,
architecture, economy etc. Also when
it came to literary evidence and its
chronology, they largely follow Max
Muller and other British historians.
.. . ... .. . r . .. ...... .. .... .. .. .. ...... .. .......... .. ...... ................. .. .......... ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY WRITING
Indian Marxist historians lay great
emphasis on economic interpretation
'of all social and religious ideas,
cu stoms and institutions. Being allergic
:to r eligion a nd s p irituality their
i rrever ence for saints and sages is too
! obvious. However, it mu st be mentioned
't hat their writings, nevertheless, have
' contributed immensely towards the
understanding of various aspects of
Indian history which had r emained
ignored earlier.
D.D. Kosambi can be called
the first among the pioneers of this
school of thought. D.R. Chanana, R.S.
Sharma , Romila Thaper, Irfan Habib,
Bipan Chandra, and Satish Chandra
a re some of the leading Marxist
historians of India.
In the Marxist scheme of history
Marxism is a n ideal philosophy and
polity and the Soviet Union was the
ideal stat e. Since the break-u p of Soviet
Exercises
1. Explain the following:
Union and almost the total eclipse of
Marxian polity and economy, the
historians are finding it difficult to
explain the reasons for the collapse. It
is perhaps this phenomenon which has
contributed to the loss of lustre in the
Marxist historiography.
Multi-disciplinary Approach
In t he last t en years due to the
huge accumul a ti on of data from
various disciplines like archaeology,
palaeontology, anthropology, astro-
nomy and space research, there has
been renewed interest in studying the
ancient Indian history. Many scholars
have broken the shackles of the old
mould and have been looking at ancient
Indian history in the light of data
obtained from different disciplines. This
is known as the multidisciplinary
approach, examples of which will be
s een in the following chapters.
Vamsanucharita, Manvantantar, Sarga, Pratisarga, Yuga, KaZpa.
2. Write short notes on:
(i ) Importance of HistOlY
(ii) Multi-disciplinary Approach
(iii) Biblical Concept of Creation
3. Describe the Indian tradit ion of history writing.
4. Write a note on the foreign travellers who visited India from t he fourth century
B.C to the tenth century A.D. and what they wrote about India? '
5. What were the views of the Christian missionaries about . India? ./
6. Describe the Imperialist school of Historiography and their approach towards
t he writing of Indian -history.
7. Describe the Nationalist school of Historiography. How was it different from
the Imperialist approach?
8. Define the Marxist school of history and their approach to Indian history.
15
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TIm' .SOURCES OF ANCIENT '
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......................................................................... THE SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY
WE have a variety of sources for
reconstructing the history of ancient
India. Broadly, the sources for ancient
India's history can be classified under
two main categories. The first is the
literary and the second archaeological.
Under the literary sources can
be included Vedic, Sanskrit, Pali,
Prakrit and other literature besides
foreign accounts. Under the broad
head of archaeology we may consider
epigraphic, numismatic and archi- .
tectural remains besides archaeological
explorations and excavations which
have opened great vistas of new
information about which we had no
knowledge earlier.
Literary Sources
There has been much debate about the
reliability of ancient Indian literature for
the history of India. It revolves around
the opinion that most of the ancient
literature is religious in nature, and
those which are claimed to be history
by Indians, i.e., puranic and epic
literature, contain no definite dates for
events and kings. A large number of
inscriptions, coins and local chronicles
do indicate an effort towards history
writing. The rudiments of history are
preserved in the Puranas and epics. We
find genealogies of kings and sometimes
their achievements. But it is difficult to
arrange them in chronological order.
Vedic literature, mainly the four
Vedas i.e. Rik, Yajur, Sama and
Atharva Vedas, are entirely in a
different language, which can be called
the Vedic language. Its vocabulary ·
contains a wide range of meaning and
at times different in grammatical
usages. It has a definite mode of
pronunciation in which emphasis
changes the meaning entirely. This is
the reason why an elaborate means to
protect and preserve the mode of
pronunciation of the Vedas have been
devised. By the means of Ghana, Jata
and other types of pathas we can not
only determine the meaning of the
mantras but also can hear the original
tone on which these were sung
thousands of years ago. It is on account
of these pathas no interpolations in the
Vedas are possible. However, we cannot
find much trace of political history in .
the Vedas, but can have reliable
glimpses of the culture and civilization
of the Vedic period.
Six vedangas (limbs of Vedas) were
evolved for the proper understanding
of the Vedas. These are Siksha
(phonetics), Kalpa (rituals), Vyakarna
(grammar), Nirukta (etymology),
Chhanda (metrics), and Jyotisha
(astronomy). Each vedanga has
developed a credible literature around
it which are in the sutra form i.e.,
precepts. This is a very p r ~ c i s e and
exact form of expression in prose which
was developed by the ancient Indians.
Panini's Ashtadhyayi, book on
grammar in eight chapters is the final
culmination of this excellent art of
writing in sutra (precepts) in which
every chapter is precisely interwoven.
Besides the Vedas, the Brahmanas,
the Aranyakas and the Upanishads
are also included in the vedic literature
and are known as the later vedic
literature. The Brahmanas elaborate
1 7

, ANCIENT INDIA .................... . .. . ............................................ .. .... ....... .... ............................ .
vedic rituals and the Aranyakas and
the Upanishads give discourses on
different spiritual and philosophical
problems.
The Puranas, eighteen in number,
are mainly historical accounts. Five
branches of historical studies
are considered to form the subject
matter of the Puranas. These are
(i) sarga (evolution of universe),
(ii) pratisarga (involution of universe),
(iii) manvantantra (recurring of time),
(iv) vamsa (genealogical list of kings and
sages), and (v) vamsanucharita (life
stories of some selected characters).
Later on description of the tirthas
(sacred places of pilgrimage) and
their mahatmya (religious importance)
was also included in it. The two
great epics, the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata, may also be used as a
source . It is generally held that
there have been constant interpolations
in these works.
The Jain and the Buddhist
literature were written in Prakrit and
Pali languages. Prakrit was a form of
Sanskrit language and early Jain
literature is mostly written in this
language. Pali can be regarded as the
form of Prakrit language which was in
vogue in Magadha. Most of the early
Buddhist literature is written in this
language. With the Buddhist monks it
reached Sri Lanka, where it is a living
language. Ashokan edicts are also in
this language. Since the modern
historians have discarded most of the
dynasties mentioned in the Puranas
and' Mahavira and Buddha are
considered historical personalities, only
.
18
those portions of the puranic dynastic
lists have been accepted which are
supplemented and supported by the
Buddhist and Jaina literature. The
Buddhist books, called, Jataka stories .
also are given some historical
importance, as they are related with the
previous births of the Buddha. There
are more than 550 such stories. The
Jaina literature also contains same
information which may help us in
reconstructing the history of different
regions of India.
The Dharmasutras and the Smritis,
are rules and regulations for the general
public and the rulers. It can be termed
in the modern concept as the
constitution and the law books for the
ancient Indian polity and society. These
are also called Dharmashastras. These
were compiled between 600 and 200
B.C. Manusmriti is prominent among
Kautilya's Arthashastra, a book
on statecraft was written in the
Maurya period. The text is divided into
15 chapters known as books. Different
books deal with different subject
matter concerning polity, economy and
society. It appears that even befolfe
the final version of Arthashastra was
written in the fourth century B.C. by
Kautilya, there appeared a tradition of
writing on and teaching of statecrafts
because Kautilya acknowledges his
debt to his predecessors in the field.
Mudrarakshasha, a play by
Vishakhadatta, also gives a glimpse of
society and culture.
Kalidasa's Malavikagnimitram is
based on some events of the reign of
Pusyamitra Sunga, a dynasty which
....................................................................... THE SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY
followed the Mauryas. Bhasa and
Sudraka are other poets who have
written plays based on historical
events. Banabhatta's Harshacharita
throws light on many historical facts
about which we could not have known
otherwise. Vakpati wrote Gaudavaho,
based on the exploits of Yasovarman
of Kanauj. Similarly, Bilhana's
Vikramankadevacharita describes the
victories of the later Chalukya king
Vikramaditya. There are some other
biographical works based on the
lives of different kings. Prominent
among these are: Kumarapalacharita
of J ayasimha, Kumarapalacharita
or Dvayashraya Mahakavya of
Hemachandra, Hammirakavya of
N ayachandra, Navasahasankacharita
of Padmagupta, Bhojaprabandha of
Billal, Priihvirajacharit of Chandbardai.
But the historical text, Rajatarangini
by Kalhana is the best illustration of
history writing appreciated by modern
historians. His critical method of
historical research and impartial
treatment of the historical facts have
earned him a great respect among the
modern historians.
The Sangam literature, describes
many kings and dynasties of South
India. Poetic compilatiops by group of
poets of different times patronised by
many chiefs and kings are, called
Sangama. These are, in all , 30,000
lines of poetry arranged in two main
groups, Patinenkilkanakku and the
Pattupattu. The former is older than the
latter? The Sangam literature consists
of short and long poems which were
composed by a large number of poets
in praise of their kings. Some kings and
events are supported by inscriptions
also. This literature generally describes
events up to the fourth century A.D.
Foreign Accounts
For a great deal of our knowledge of
ancient Indian history we are indebted
to the foreigners. India figures in the
foreign inscriptions like in those of
Darius. Herodotus and Ctesian got
their information through the Persian
sources. Herodotus in his "Histories"
gives us much information about
Indo-Persian relations. Arrian wrote
a detailed account of the invasion
of India by Alexander on the
basis of information from those
who accompanied the campaign.
Ambassadors were sent to Pataliputra
by Greek kings. Some of them were
Megasthenese, Deimachus and
Dionysios. Megasthenese was in the
court of Chandragupta Maurya. He
wrote a book on India called Indica. The
original work has been lost bu(we have
some idea about it from the quotations
in the works of the later writers. An
anonymous author, who.was a Greek,
settled in Egypt wrote a book Peri plus
of the Erythrean Sea, on the basis
of his personal voyage of Indian coast
in about A.D.80. He gives valuable
information about the Indian coasts.
Another writer Ptolemy wrote a
geographical treatise on India in the
second century A.D. Most of the Greek
writing about India are based on
secondary sources resulting - in
numerous errors and, contradictions.
Therefore, it is necessary to be cautious
19
~
, ANCIENT INDIA ...................................................................... . .......................... . ............... .
when using Greek sources. They were
ignorant of the language and the
customs of the country and their
information is full of unbelievable
facts and fancies. The works of
Megasthenese and so also of those
who accompanied Alexander have
been lost and are available only in
fragments as quoted in later works.
Chinese travellers visited India from
time to time. They came here as
Buddhist pilgrims and therefore their
accounts are somewhat tilted towards
Buddhism. Chinese tradition has
preserved a long list of such pilgrims.
Three of these pilgrims namely, Fa-Hien
visited India in fifth century A.D. while
Hiuen-Tsang and I-tsing came in
seventh century. They have left fairly
detailed accounts which have been
translated in English. Hiuen-Tsang has
given the most interesting and valuable
account about Harshavardhana and
some other contemporary kings of
Northern India. Fa-Hien and Hiuen-
Tsang travelled many parts of the
country. However, they have given
somewhat exaggerated account of
Buddhism during the period of their
visit. For example Hiuen-Tsang depicts
Harsha as a follower of Buddhism while
in his epigraphic records Harsha
mentions himself as a devotee of Siva.
But considering the fact that Indian
rulers always have, like their subjects,
been multi-religious people, ~ t is not
difficult for a foreigner to be confused.
Some Arabs also have left their
of Mahmud of Ghazni. His observations
are based on his knowledge of Indian
society and culture which he acquired
through literature. For this he studied
Sanskrit. However, he does not give any
political information of his times.
Archaeological Sources
The utilisation of archaeological sources
in reconstructing India's past is only
about two centuries old. They not only
supplemented our knowledge about
our past but have also yielded materials
which we could not have got otherwise.
It was generally held even up to the
1920s that Indian civilization was
considered to have begun about sixth
century B.C. But with the excavations
at Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan and
Harappa the antiquity of Indian
civilization has gone back to about
5000 B.C. The fi:nds of prehistoric
artifacts has shown that human
activities had started here as early as
about two million years ago.
We have been benefitted much with
other branches like epigraphy and
numismatics also without which our
knowledge about India's past would
have been very limited. We could not
have known about most of the Indo-
Greek, Saka-Parthian and Kushana
kings without numismatic sources.
Similarly, Ashoka's views on dharma
and conquests of Samudragupta, and
several others would have remained
unknown without their epigraphs.
accounts about India. Most famous ,Inscriptions: One of the most important
among these are Abu Rihan better and reliable sources of history writing
known as AI-Beruni, a contemporary are inscriptions. An inscription, being
20
........ , ................................................................ THE SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY
a contemporary document, is.free from
later interpolations. It comes in the form
it was composed in and engraved for
the first time. It is almost impossible to
add something to it at a later stage.
However, in the works written on soft
materials like birch bark, palm leaf,
paper etc., this can not be said to be
true because they were frequently
required to be copied, since the old
manuscripts become fragile in course
of time. At the time of copying, some
errors tend to creep in or sometimes
even additions are made. This is not
possible with inscriptions. The study of
inscriptions is called epigraphy.
The script of the inscriptions also .
helps the historian in many ways. The
earliest system of writings is found in
the Harappan seals. However, there
has been no success in deciphering
it. Thus, the writing system of the
Ashokan inscriptions are considered
to be the earliest. These are found
written in four scripts. In his empire
in Afghanistan he used Aramaic and
Greek scripts for his edicts. In the
Pakistan region Kharoshthi script was
used. Kharoshthi evolved on the
Varnamala system of the Indian
languages is written from right to left.
The Brahmi script was used for the
rest of his empire from Kalsi in the
north in Uttsrranchal upto Mysore in
the south. After Ashoka it was adopted
by the rulers of the succeeding
centuries. The most interesting thing
about the Brahmi script is that its
individuaI letters were modified century
after century and through this process
all the scripts of India, including Tamil,
Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam in
the south and Nagari, Gujarati,'Bangia,
etc. in the north have developed from
it. This modification in the form of
individual letters gave another
advantage. It has made it roughly
possible to ascertain the time or the
century in which the inscription was
written. A study of development of
scripts is called palaeography.
However, with the passage of time,
the Indians had lost interest in their
ancient scripts and therefore, had
virtually forgotten a large portion of
written history. When .the epigraphic
studies started in the late eighteenth
century, inscriptions only belonging
upto the tenth century A.D. could be
read with some difficulty. But the
decipherment of earlier epigraphs
was not easy. Some western
scholars prepared alphabetic tables
meticulously. But credit to complete
the chart of Ashokan alphabets goes
to James Prinsep who did it in 1837.
,
After this the study of epigraphs became
a subject in itself. India is particularly
rich in epigraphic material.
The inscriptions of Ashoka are a
class in itself. These were recorded in
different years of his reign and are
called edicts because they are in the
form of the king's order or desire. They
also give a glimpse of Ashoka's image
and personality as a benevolent king
concerned with the welfare of not only
his subjects but also of the whole
humanity.
Inscriptions of the Indo-Greeks,
Saka-kshatrapas and Kushanas adopt
Indian names within two ,0-r three
21

, ANCIENT INDIA ..... . ............. ..... . .......... . ............................... . .. . ......... . .. . . .. .... .. ...... ; ............... .
generations. These inscriptions show
them engaged in social and religious
welfare activities like any other Indian.
Sanskrit also came to be used in
inscriptions. The Junagarh Rock
inscription of Rudradaman is
considered as an early example of
chaste Sanskrit, written in mid second
century A.D . .
Sanskrit came to occupy a prime
place since the Gupta period.
The Allahabad Pillar inscription
enumerates the achievements of
Samudragupta. But for this sole
inscription, this great Gupta king
would have remained unknown in the
history of India. Most of the Gupta
epigraphs give genealogy. This became
the practice of the subsequent
dynasties. They took the opportunity
to give an account of their conquests
and achievements of their
including mythology of their origins.
The Chalukya king Pulkeshin/ II
gives a dynastic genealogy and
achievements in his Aihole inscription.
Similarly, the Gwalior inscription of
Bhoja gives full account of his
predecessors and their achievements.
From the inscriptions we also came to
know about the grant of land, free
from all taxes, to the learned brahmans.
These are called Agraharas.
Coins: The branch of knowledge which
studies coins is called numismatics.
This is considered as the second most
important source for reconstructing
the history of India, the first
being inscriptions. Several hundred
thousands of coins have been found and
deposited in different museums ofIndia
.....................
,
22
and abroad. Coins are mostly found in
hoards most of which have found
while digging field or excavating
foundation for the construction of a
building, making road etc. Coins found
in systematic excavations are less in
number but are very valuable because
their chronology and cultural context
can be fIxed precisely.
Earliest coins, called punch-
marked, are in silver and copper. Some
gold punch-marked coins are also
reported to have been found, but they
are very rare and their authenticity is
doubtful. Then come the Indo-Greek
coins also in silver and copper and
rarely in gold. The Kushanas issued
their coins mostly in gold and copper,
rarely in silver. The imperial Guptas
issued mostly gold and silver coins but
the gold coins are numerous.
The punch-marked coins are the
earliest coins of India and they bear
only symbols on them. Each symbol is
punched separately, which sometimes
overlap the another. These have been
found throughout the country, from
Taxila to Magadha to Mysore or even
further south. They do not bear any
inscription, or legend on them.
The Indo-Greek coins show
beautiful artistic features on them. The
portrait or bust of the king on the
observe side appear to be real portraits.
On the reverse some deity is depicted.
It is through the coins alone we know
that more than forty Ind.o-Greek rulers
who ' ruled in a small. north-western
region ofIndia. We know about several
Saka-Parthians kings about whom we
would have no information from any
T S
~
. . .......... . ...........• ......... . .................. .. ..... . .... .. .. ...•. . HE OURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY . ~
other sources. The Kushanas issued
mostly gold coins and numerous
copper coins which are found in most
parts of north India up to Bihar. Indian
influence can be seen on them from the
very beginning. The coins of Virna
Kadphises bear the figure of Siva
standing beside a bull. In tbe legend
on these coins the king calls himself
Mahesvara, i.e. devotee of Siva.
Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva etc.
all have this depiction on their coins.
We find many Indian gods and
goddesses depicted on Kusbana coins
besides many Persian and Greek
deities.
The Guptas appear to have
succeeded Kushanas in the tradition of
minting coins. They completely
Indianised their coinage. On the observe
kings are depicted engaged in activities
like hunting a lion or rhinoceros,
holding a bow or battle-axes, playing
musical instrument or performing
Ashvamedha yajna.
Archaeological Monuments,
Excavations and Explorations
In addition to epigraphic and
numismatic sources there are many
other antiquarian remains which speak
much about our past. Temples and
sculptures are found all over the
country right from the Gupta period
upto recent times. These show
architectural and artistic history of the
Indians. They excavated large caves in
the hills in Western India which are
mostly chaityas and viharas. Large
temples bave been carved out of rocks
from outside like Kailasa temple of
Ellora and rat has at Mamallapuram.
In excavations we find a large
number offigurines in stone, metal and
terracotta which tell us about the
artistic activities of the time. The
discovery of the cities of Mohenjodaro
and Harappa which pushed back the
antiquity of Indian culture and
civilization by two thousand years is
welllmown. The subsequent discovery
of sites of Kalibangan. Lothal, Dholavira,
Rakhigarhi etc. show the extent of this
civilization upto Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar
Pradesh. The period between 1500 and
600 B.C. was known as the dark period
of Indian history because not much
was known about this period. The
archaeological discoveries of such
cultures as Black-and-Red Ware,
Painted Grey Ware, Malwa and Jorwe
cultures since 1950s have not only filled
the chronological gaps but also the
geographical extent. It is through ·
archaeological discoveIies that we know
now that Indians domesticated sheep
and goat and started agriculture about
8000 years ago. Also iron came in
regular use about 1600 B.C.
Archaeological excavCj.tions also
brought to light the townships of
Taxila, Kausambi, Kasi (Rajghat),
Ayodhya, Vaisali, Bodhgaya, etc.
belonging to Buddha's time. All of
these places except Taxila are said to
h a ve been visited by Buddha in
the sixth century B.C.
The resear ches carried out in the
field of prehistory show that the
human activities started in the
subcontinent as early as two million
23
ANCIENT INDIA .................................................................................. . ................................. .
years ago. In the Kashmir and Narmada
valleys such remains and tools
are reported. Also, archaeological
discoveries have shown that tradition
of rock paintings in India goes back to
more than twelve thousands years.
Exercises
•
1. Explain the following:
Epigraphy, Numismatics, Inscriptions, Archaeology, Script, Palaeography,
Excavations, Explorations. .
2. Write short notes on:
(i) Six Vedangas
(ii) Archaeological sources of Indian history
(iii) Buddhist literature
3. Describe the literary sources for the study of the past?
4. What is an Inscription? How are they important for the study of the
political, social and economic history of India.
5. Discuss the importance of coins for the study of the past.
24
• Visit a museum to see the various sources of history and try to
identify them.
• Make a collage to show the various sources of history.
• Make posters of some monuments.
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the;river
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'In. our constitution it 18 oalled
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~ .
" ANCIENT INDIA ......... .. ............ ....... ....... .... ....... . .. ... .. . ....... ... ....... . ... .. ....... ... ... . ... . ........... . . . . . .
INDIAN subcontinent is a well defined
land with natural borders. At present
there are six countries in this area:
Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, India,
Bhutan and Bangladesh. In ancient
times this whole mass of land was
known as Bharatavarsha or Hindustan;
the latter is derived from the name of
the river Sindhu, pronounced by the
westerners as Hindu or Indu. India gets
its derivation from this. In our
constitution it is called India, that is
Bharata.
This land is' bordered in the north
by the Himalyas, the western and north-
western side by Pamir pla t eau and
Sulaiman Kirthar ranges, on the eastern
side by the Bay of Bengal and western
side by the Arabian Sea. Southern
borders are bounded by Indian Ocean.
Physically the subcontinent can be
studied in three parts : (i) The Himalayas,
(ii) The Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra
plain (iii) The Deccan plateau.
The Himalayas
The Himalaya s are stretched from
Afghanistan in the west upto Myanmar
in the east. The Tibetan plateau forms
the northern part of it. It is more than
2,400 Kms long and about 250 to 320
kms wide. There are about 114 peaks
which are more than 20,000 feet high.
Some of the highest peaks are: Gauri-
Shankar or Everest (the highest
mountain in the world), Kanchanjanga,
Dhaulagiri, Nanga Parvat and Nanda
Devi. The Hindukush mountains, right
from the Pamirs, form the natural
western boundary of the Indian
subcontinent. The mountains of Safed
26
Koh, Sulaiman and Kirthar separate
Iran from the Indian subcontinent. 'But
the large stretches ofland to the west of
this line in modern Afghanistan and
Baluchistan, like those to the south and
east of the Hindukush, were for long
both culturally and politically parts of
India'.
On the eastern side are the Patkoi
hills, Naga hills, the Manipur Plateau
including the Khasi, Garo and Jaintia
hills. The Lushai and Chin hills are to
the south of Manipur.
The Himalayas form a formidable
barrier against the foreign invasions
from the north. But it is not altogether
secluded from the rest of the world.
There are some important passes
through which interaction with western,
central and northern Asia has been
maintained since time immemorial. It
is said that 'since early Siwalik times
there has been a more or less constant
intercourse between East Africa,
Arabia, Central Asia and India
maintained by the migratiQns of herds
of mammals'. It is also stated that (India)
'received large a c c e s s i ~ m s by migration
of the larger quadrvpeds from Egypt,
Arabia, Central Asia, and even from the
distant North America by way of land
bridges across Alaska, Siberia and
Mongolia'. Human migration is also
possible on these routes. In historical
times the use of the Khyber and Bolan
passes in the west is well known. Among
these, the use of the former was very
frequent and is known as the gateway
to India.
. Besides guarding the northern
frontier ofIndia from human invasions
AFGHANISTAN
ARABIAN
SEA
METRES
~
' 4000
10 I
.... 1000
":': 500
. - - ~ 200
:;:> "" ..... _ .. _.
o
G
~ .
o 8 MALDIVES
ot]
o ()
o
"
o
THE GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND OF INDIAN HISTORY
(;
A
BAY 0 F
BENGAL
o
I
200 400 600 800
KM,
Fig. 4.1 Physical Map of Indta
27
~
- " ANCIENT INDIA .... . ............ . ....... . ... . .... . ................... . .................. .. .... . ......... . ........ .. . . ... ... ...... .
the Himalayas protect us from the cold
Siberian winds. The great Indus, Ganga
and Brahmaputra plains with most
fertile land, natural resources and
perennial rivers is a gift of the
Himalayas, for which Indians gratefully
worship it as God.
Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain
To the south of the Himalayas lies the
great plain ofIndia which is more than
3200 kms long and about 240 kms to
320 kms broad. It is formed by the solid
waste of the Himalayas brought by
hundreds of descending streams. The
alluvium thus formed made the plains
most fertile.
There are three great river systems,
originating from the Himalayas, which
supply perennial water to this great
plain. These are the Indus, the Ganga
and the Brahmaputra. But a big tract
ofland to the west of Yamuna and east
of Indus in this plain is devoid of any
water system at present. This tract
includes the states ofHaryana, Punjab
and Rajasthan. Now it has been proved
that in ancient times the river Saraswati
and its tributaries used to flow in this
area.
The Sindhu or Indus rises from the
Kailasa Manasarovar area in the
Tibetan plateau, runs west and north-
west for about l300 Kms, between the
Karakoram range. Then joined by the
Oilgit river, it turns south and reaches
the plains where the five rivers join it to
form Panchananda desha or Punjab.
These five tributaries of the Sindhu
from east to west are: the Sutlej
(Satudri), the Beas (Vipasa), the Ravi
(Parushm), the Chenab (Asikni) and the
Jhelum (Vitesta). The first mentioned
28
river, Sutlej or Satudri was once a
tributary of the lost river Saraswati, but
changed its course.
The Ganga, rising from the
Himalayas, reaches the plain at
Hardwar and passes through the states
of Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar
and Bengal, then joins the Bay of
Bengal. On the west of it flows the river
Yamuna also rising from the
Himalayas. Some Vindhyan rivers like
the Chambal, the Betwa and the Ken
join the Yamuna before its confluence
with the Ganga at Allahabad. Another
great Vindhyan river, the Son, joins
the Ganga near Patna in Bihar. From
the Himalayas side, rivers like the
Gomati, the Sarayu, the Gandak and
the Kosi join the Ganga in the states
of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. There are
several mouths through which the
Ganga falls into the Bay Of Bengal. The
main stream is called Bhagirathi or
Hooghli on which are situated the
towns of Murshidabad, Hooghly and
Kolkata. The eastern most mouth of
the Ganga is called the Padma.
The great Brahmaputra, originating
from the eastern part of the lake
Manasarovar in the Kailasa flows
eastward through the.plateau of Tibet
under the name of Tsangpo. Then it
turns south and enters in India where
it assumes the name Dihang. Later,
the rivers Dihang and Luhit join and
are called Brahmaputra or Lauhitya.
Passing through Assam and Bengal it
joins the eastern most mouth of the
G a n g a ~ i.e., Padma. But before falling
into the Bay of Bengal another mighty

............ . ...... . .... . .................. . ......... . ..... THE GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND OF INDIAN HISTORY ,"
river, the Meghna, joins it. The delta thus
formed is one of the most fertile part of
Bengal and is known as Sundarban
delta.
The Deccan Plateau and Central
India
Peninsular India can be studied under
two distinct sections. The mountain
ranges of the Vindhyas and Satpura
run parallel to each other from east to
west. In between these two, flows the
river Narmada going towards the
Arabian sea. The only other river
flowing towards west is Tapti, lying a
little south of the Satpura. All other
rivers of the Peninsula run from west
to east falling into the Bay of Bengal
indicating that the plateau is titled
towards east. The northern portion of
the plateau, separated by the Vindhya-
Satpura ranges is known as the Central
Indian plateau, while the southern
portion is called the Deccan plateau.
Central Indian Plateau
The Central Indian plateau stretches
from Gujarat in the west to Chhota
Nagpur in the east. The great Indian
desert, called Thar, lies to the north
of the Aravalli range. To the south of it
is the Vindhyas, which rises abruptly
from the Narmada side, i.e., south, and
has a slopy formation in the north. The
Malwa plateau and the tablelands of
Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand are
parts of this. As a result, all the rivers
on this side flow towards north or
north-east to join the Yamuna and the
Ganga. The eastern stretches of the
Vindhyas, known as the Kaimur
ranges, extend almost up to the south
of Banaras and run parallel with the
Ganga up to the Rajmahal hills.
Between the Ganga and the Rajmahal
is a narrow defile or a passage from
Chunar in the west (i.e. Mirzapur, U.P.)
to Teliagarhi in the east. This is the only
high road, which connects Western and
Eastern India. Its strategic importance
from the military point of view was fully
understood which is evident by the
presence of hill forts of Rohtas and
Chunar in the east and Kalijar and
Gwalior in the west. It is said that the
passes of Shahabad and Teliagarhi,
situated at a distance of only about five
kilometers from each other, served as
the to Bengal.
On the Western side of the plateau
and the Thar desert is situated the rich
lowland of Gujarat having several low
hills and watered by a number of rivers
like Mahi, Sabarmati, and lower
courses of Narmada and Tapti. The
Kathiawar peninsula and the Rann of
Kutch are marshy and dry during the
hot season. /
The Deccan Plateau
As we have noted earlier, the surface of
the Deccan plateau slopes down from
west to east. On the western side lies a
range of high cliffs running south to
north leaving a narrow strip of plain
between it and the sea. It is called the
Western Ghats, which rises up to 3,000
feet. The plateau is higher in the south
being about 2000 feet in the Mysore
region and about half of that in the
Hyderabad. The Eastern Ghats,
consisting of groups of low hills, is
marked by several gaps through which
many peninsular rivers join the Bay of
29
::- .
" ANCIENT INDIA .............................. . ........................ . ..... ....... ....... . . . . ................................. .
Beng(l.1. The hills going southwards
gradually receding from the sea turn
westward to join the Western Ghats at
the Nilgiri. The plain between Eastern
Ghats and the sea is wider than that of
Western Ghats.
Except the Narmada and the Tapti,
which run towards west and join the
Arabian sea, all the rivers of the
Peninsular India run from west to east.
Most of them rise from the Western
Ghat and traversing the whole breadth
of the plateau, fall in the Bay. The
Mahanadi forms a broad plain known
as the Chattisgarh plain in the north-
east. It passes through Orissa before
joining the sea. The valley of Godavari
with its tributaries, has a large flat land
in the north but it narrows in the east
before meeting the sea. Further south,
the Krishna, with its tributaries like the
Tungabhadra, divide the Deccan
plateau into two sections. Further
south, the Kaveri and its tributaries
form another important river system.
One thing should be mentioned here
that these rivers are different from those
of the north India. Devoid of a perennial
water source like the Himalayas, these
southern rivers are mostly dry during
the hot season, hence less valuable for
irrigation and navigation purposes.
. The Coastal Regions
The fertile coastal plains are important
because they also provide
opportunities for maritime activities
and trade. The western coastal plain
stretches from the Gulf of Cambay in
the north to Kerala ' in south. The
northern part is called the Konkan while
the southern one is called the Malabar
30
Coast. The rainfall in this region is very
high. There are no big rivers but smaller
rivers provide easy communication
and irrigation. There are some good
harbours in the Konkan region and also
in the Malabar. On the other hand the
eastern coast has a few natural
harbours but during the historical
period maritime activities lead to more
vigorous and fruitful contacts with the
south-east Asian countries.
The southern tip of the peninsula
is known as Cape Comorin or
Kanyakumari. To its south-east is the
island of Sri L?llka, which though not
an integral part, has been closely
associated with India. An almost
continuous chain of islands and shoals
connect India with this island which has
been given the name of Adam's Bridge:
The mango shaped island was known
in ancient times by the name of
Tambaparni, a corrupt word from
Sanskrit Tambrapgrni, i.e., having a
look or shape of tambula or betel leaf.
It was also known as Simhaladvipa.
Climate
The Indian subcontinent is situated
mostly in the tropical zone. Guarded
by the lofty Himalayas from the cold
arctic winds from Siberia, it has a
fairly warm climate throughout the
year. It has regular six ritus of two
months each and three seasons offour
months. Roughly March through June
is the hot season when temperature
goes up to 48° C or more in some
regions. Then follows the rainy season
for four months from July to October.
The south-west monsoon brings rain
in varying degrees throughout the
country.
THE GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND OF INDIAN HISTORY
..

08
HALDIVES
0
150 eM.
OJ
v 0
00 Cpl.
0 200 "00 600 800
$0 eM.
0
kllOttr"ES .. 1 __ -'-1 __ --'1 __ ---"'-_-"'1
l' CII. 0
Fig. 4.2 Annual Rainfall Z01J-es
3 1
~ .
• - I ANCIENT INDIA ........ .. ........................................................... .. ........................... .. ............ ..
In the Indo-Gangetic plains the
annual rainfall varies from region to
region. The northern portion of the
Indus region and the whole of the
Ganga plain receives rainfall between
100-200 cms per annum, While the
north -eastern part of India falls in the
range of 200-400 cm. or even more. In
modern times the regions of Haryana
and Rajasthan induding parts of Sind
and Gujarat receive less rainfall. But the
evidence show that in ancient times it
received higher rainfall and the
Harappan civilization flourished in this
region.
In a major part of India, the south-
west monsoon brings rain which is most
important for the Kharif crops.
Similarly, the rain caused by the
western disturbances in the winter
gives rise to the second crop of the year
called the Rabi during winter season.
Rice is cultivated in the plains of the
Ganga and Brahmaputra and in the
eastern coast upto Tamil Nadu. Wheat
and barley are the main Rabi crops
grown in the western and most other
parts of India.
The third season is winter when the
mercury comes down to 50 C or even
less. But it should be considered warm
as compared to the northern regions
beyond the Himalayas.
Thus, India is a country with vast
variety of rich vegetation and congenial
regular weather chain. It is most suited
for human habitat. Conditions for
population saturation resulting in mass
human migrations are more probable
here than in any other part of the world
like central Asia or Europe.
32
The Geography of India as described
in Ancient Indian Literature
The vast subcontinent of India was
known in the past as Bharatavarsha,
the land of the Bharatas, bounded on
the north by the Himalayas and by the
ocean in the south. It formed the
southern part of Jambu-dvipa. The
name 'India' was first applied by the
Achaemenid Persians to the region
watered by the Sindhu. The Sapta-
Sindhu, referring to the region of the
seven rivers of the Saraswati (or five
streams of the Saraswati together with
the Ganges and the Jamuna), was the
term used for India in the Zend Avesta,
the sacred book of Paras is. The Greeks,
calling the river Sindhu 'Indos',
subsequently borrowed the term from
the Persians. In the Mehre Yasht and
Yasna of the Persians we actually find
the word Hindu in place of Hafta-
Hendu, indicating the extension of the
name to the land beyond the territory
of the Indus. Herodotus, the famous
Greek historians, used the term 'Indos'
to the kshatrapy ofthe Persian Empire,
but gradually it was extended to the
whole country both by Greek and
Roman writers.
Since the introduction of Buddhism
into China in the first century A.D. the
Chinese used the term Tien-Chu or
Chuantu for India. But after Hiuen-
Tsang the term Yin -Tu came to be in
vogue there. Hindu in Persian, Indos
in Greek, Hoddu in Hebrew, Indus in
Latin and Tien-chu in Chinese are all
corrupt forms of Sindhu. Thus
descendants of Bharata came to be
known as Indians or Hindus. "Hindu",
I . ~
............................................................ THE GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND OF INDIAN HISTORY ..
says I-tsing, "is the name used only by
the northern tribes, and the people of
India themselves do not know it".
The first defmite mention of Bharata
as a region is to be found in Panini who
lived about sixth century B.C. It is only
one out of 22 janapadas specified from
Kamboja to Magadha, all in Northern
India. Buddhist literature subsequently
speaks of seven Bharata regions
(Sapta-Bharatas) corresponding to the
ancient Sapta-Sindhu. Arya-desa and
Brahmarashtra were other names of
India mentioned by I-tsing. Aryavarta
was also another ancient name given
at the time ofPatanjali (150 B.C.) to the
northern part ofIndia lying between the
Himalayas and the Pariyatraka or the
western part of the Vindhyas. On the
west it was bounded by the Adarsavali
or Aravalli and on the east by the
Kalakavana or the Rajmahal Hills. The
Puranas define the term Bharatavarsha
as "the country that lies north of the
ocean (i.e. the Indian Ocean) and south
of the snowy mountains (Himalayas),
marked by the seven main chains of
mountains, viz. Mahendra, Malaya,
Sahya, Suktimat, RL.1{sha (mountains of
Gondwana), Vindhya, and Pariyatra
(western Vindhyas up to the Aravallis);
where dwell the descendants of
the Bharatas, with the Kiratas living
to its east, the Yavanas (Ionians or
Greeks) to its west, and its own
population consisting of the Brahmans,
Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras (i.e.
the Hindus)".
But the name Bharatavarsha is not
a mere geographical expression like the
term India. It has historical signillcance,
indicating the country of the Bharatas
of RigVeda. It engaged their deepest
sentiments of love and service as
expressed in their literature. One of
the commonest prayers for a Hindu
requires him to recall and worship the
image of his mother country as the
land of seven sacred rivers, the Ganga,
Yamuna, Godavari, Saraswati,
Narmada, Sindhu, and Kaveri, which
between them cover its entire area.
Another prayer calls its image as the
land of seven sacred cities, Ayodhya,
Mathura, Maya (modern Hardwar),
Kasi, Kanchi (Conjeeveram), Avantika
(Ujjain), Dvaravati (Dwarka),
representing important regions of
India. The spirit of these prayers is
further sustained by the peculiar
Hindu institution of pilgrimage. It
expects a Hindu to visit in his life the
holy places associated with his faith.
Each of the principal Hindu faiths like
Vaishnava, Saiva, or Sakta and other
sects have their own list of holy places,
and these are spread throughout the
length and breadth of India and not
confined to a single province. The
different sects are at one in enjoining
upon their respective votaries, a
pilgrimage to the different and distant
parts of India and thereby fostering in
them a live sense of what constitutes
their common mother country. In the
same spirit, Sankara established his
four Mathas (religious schools) at the
four extreme points of the country viz.
Jyotirmatha in the north (near Badri-
Kedar on the Himalayas), Saradamatha
at Dwarka in the west, Goverdhana
matha at Puri in the east, and Sringeri
33
. ~
, ANCIENT INDIA ... . .. ... . .... .. ... .• ............................. . . . . ... ..... . .... ......... .......... .. .. ... .. . . . ........... ... . . .
matha in Mysore. Sectarianism is thus
an aid to nationalism in Hindu culture.
In some of the sacred texts like the
Bhagavata Purana, or Manusmriti are
found passages of patriotic fervour
describing Bharatavarsha as the land
fashioned by the Gods themselves
(devani rmita sthanam) who even
wish to be born in it as heaven on earth,
for the spiritual stimulus of its
environment, and above these as the
culminating utterance - "Mother and
Mother-Country are greater than
Heaven!" (Janani janmabhumischa
svargadapi gariyasl) .
All these prayers and passages
show that a Hindu has elevated
patriotism into a religion. In the words
of a distinguished British critic, "the
Hindu regards India not only as a
political unit, naturally the subject of
one sovereignty - whoever holds
that sovereignty, whether British,
Mohamedan, or Hindu - but as the
outward embodiment, as the temple -
nay, even as the Goddess mother - of
his spiritual culture ... He made India
the symbol of his culture; he filled it with
this soul. In his consciousness, it was
his greater self".
But besides religion, the political
experiences of the ancient Hindus also
aided them in their conception of the
mother country. The unity of a country
is easily grasped when it is controlled
by a single political authority. The
ancient Hindus were familiar with
the ideal and institution of paramount
sovereignty from very early times. It
is indicated by such significant
Vedic words as Ekarat, Samrat,
34
Rajad hi raja, or Sarvabhauma, and
such Vedic ceremonies as the Rajasuya,
Vajapeya, or Ashvamedha, which were
prescribed for performance by a king
who by his digvijaya or conquest made
himself the king of kings. Some of the
Vedic works and later texts like the
Mahabharata or the Puranas even
contain lists of such great kings or
emperors. Apart from these prehistoric
emperors, there have been several
such emperors in historical times, such
as Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka,
Samudragupta, Harsha, Mihira Bhoja,
and in later times, Akbar and
Aurangzeb. Some even performed
the horse-sacrifice in declaration of
their paramount sovereignty, such ·
as Pushyamitra, Samudragupta,
Kumaragupta I, Adityasena and
Pulkeshin I. Thus the institution. of
paramount sovereignty has had a long
history in India.
Influences of Geography on
Indian History
In many respects geographical
features influence man's activities and
his interactions with nature and other
groups of men. The natural barriers of
hills, mountains and rivers, etc., give
him an idea of a geographical unite and
belonging. He develops his living
habits and mode of thinking as per his
surroundings. We have seen that Indian
subcontinent is a vast country with well
defined natural barriers in the form of
Himalayas in the north and coastal
boundaries on the three remaining
sides. This gives the inhabitants a
........................................................... THE GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND OF INDIAN HISTORY ,;i.
feeling of oneness. They regard this as
their motherland. Its vastness can be
measured when compared to Europe
and finding it almost equal except for
the former Soviet Union. Europe has
several nations with their own history,
tradition, language, etc. On the
. contrary, although there always had
been many states in India but their
social and cultural setup had been
broadly the same throughout. Sanskrit
was the most respected language
besides the local languages. States were
administered and governed on the basis
of law-books called Dharmasastras.
Places of worship and pilgrimage are
distributed throughout the country.
These cultural bonds gave the Indians
a sense of unity and nationality.
At the same time there are distinct
regional variations. There are several
regions which have a distinct sense of
regional spirit and cultural traits. Larger
kingdoms and empires rose from these
units and weakened, in due course,
giving way to another unit to come up.
Some historians have defined it as forces
of centralisation and decentralisation
acting and reacting with each other. In
other words, forces of integration and
disintegration were always at work. But
it will be more appropriate to say that
the Indian system of polity recognised
the chakravarti concept of conquest,
where every king should aspire for
ruling the whole country. Thus empires
fell and new ones arose from it, but the
tradition continued. Even the
early conquerors from the north-west
like Indo-Greeks, Saka-Pallavas,
Kushanas, etc., established kingdoms
and empires but never failed to show
their eagerness to adopt Indian ideas
of polity and willingness to assimilate
themselves in the main stream ofIndian
society.
Even in earlier periods these regions
maintained their individuality despite
their political ups and downs. 'The old
kingdoms of Kosala, Magadha, Gauda,
Vanga, Avanti, Lat and Saurashtra in
the north, and Kalinga, Andhra,
Maharashtra, Kamataka, Chera, Chola
and Pandya in the south, among others,
seem to possess eternal lives. Empires
rose and fell, they vied with each other
very frequently, but these states under
different names and urtder various
ruling dynasties, continued their
individual existence almost throughout
the course of history.
India has a long coast line on its
three sides. The people living here were
experts in maritime activities. They had
trade relations with other countries on
both sides. No dynasty other than the
Cholas in the south has even attempted
to conquer lands beyond the sea. But
it was not a lasting attempt.
On the contrary we find that
Indians had spread in many parts of
the known world, but in the South
East Asia they developed a lasting
cultural influence in countries like
Vietnam, Indonesia, Cambodia, etc.
These were individual efforts by
traders and princes and not by any
State. A distinct contrast from the
European colonist must be noted here.
Indians never attempted genocide or
35
~
'. ANCIENT INDIA ....................................................... ........ ............... •...•..............................
cruel suppression; they established
large kingdoms and became part of
that land. They gave their religion and
philosophy to them but assimilated
their religion and philosophy as well.
Thus it can be said in conclusion
that the geographical features of India
not only shaped its history and culture
but also the mind and thoughts of the
people.
Exercises
1. Explain the meaning of the following:
Aryavrata, Panchanada desa, Rabi and Khan! crops.
2. Define the physical features of India.
3. Define the climate of India.
4. Discuss the geography of India as defined in the ancient literature.
5. How do these geographical features influence history?
• Prepare a map of India and show important rivers on it.
36
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ANCIENT INDIA ........................................... . ........................................................................ '
Introduction
Ten years is a long time in moden).
science and a long time in the life of a
man. But in the case of our planet ten
years is' almost nothing. It is scarcely
enough to add a tenth of an inch to the
great thickness of rocks that grow by
the accumulation of mud on the bed
of the shallow sea. Only the most sharp
eyed among us will notice how the
earth changes in his lifetime, except
in its most active zones.
By of fossils and of
subtleties in atomic composition of
rocks, geologists can fix dates of
events in the earth's history with a fair
amount of confidence. With the age of
earth estimated 4,600 million years
(m.y.), we can make only very
inadequate comparisons with familiar
things.
Age of the Earth
One of the best ways to understand
the relation between the earth and all
that exists on it is to imagine that the
earth is 46 years old. And when we
write her life history, we find that we
know nothing about the first seven
years of her life, but the deeds of her
later childhood are to be seen in the
old rocks. (See Table 1)
Most of what we recognise on earth,
including all substantial life is the
product of the last six years of its life
(Le. 600 m.y.). She flowered, in her
middle age. Her continents were quite
bare of life till she was almost 42 and
flowering plants did not appear until
she was 45 - just a year ago. At that
time the great reptiles, including the
dinosaurs, came into existence and the
38
break-up of the last super-continent
was in progress.
The dinosaurs passed away eight
months ago and the early mammal
replaced them. In the middle of last
week, in Africa, some manlike apes
developed into apelike man and at the
weekend mother earth began shivering
with the latest series of extremely cold
ice-ages. Just over four hours have
elapsed since a new species Homo
sapiens came into existence and in the
last hour it invented agriculture and
settled down. Just about 30 minutes
back the Pre-Harappan and Early
Harappan cultures started developing.
Just about 14 minutes back Buddha
delivered his first sermon at Saranath,
and the Mauryan empire flourished
about 12 minutes back. Harsha gave
all, whatever he had, the religious
assembly at Prayag about 7 minutes
back, and Akbar made a pilgrimage to
Sufi Saint Salim Chisti just about two
minutes back. India became a proud
independent nation hardly two seconds
back. (See Tables 1 and 2)
Another way to appreciate the age
of earth in proportion to the period
during which life has existed, and even
more significant humans have existed,
is to imagine a series of photographs
put together to form a fIlm. Suppose our
first imaginary picture was taken 500
m.y. ago when the evidence of life
appears in the fossiliferous rocks in the
form of vertebrate and armoured fishes,
and succeeding pictures were taken
every 5000 years, we would have
1,00,000 (one lakh) negatives and the
film would last an hour. At least half of

'fr,)VIJ. f '-.
Mahadaha
Sarai·Nahar·Rai ..
----
BeianJiver :;i!es
.:-
• Bhimbetkl!
Adamgarh
Fig. 5.1 Important Stone Age Sites in India
39
• ANCIENT INDIA ................................................................. .. .................... .. ........ . ... .. ............... .
~ ; n i o n }
years
before
present
600
1000
2000
3000
3300
3900
4000
4600
40
see chart
opposite
abundant
fossils begin
major
continental
collisions
major
continental
collisions
approximate
origin of life
. oldest known
rocks
origin of Earth
Table 1 Age of the Earth and the Origin of Life
THE STONE AGE CULTURES
years in
millions QUATERNARY
years in
millions
o
I
PLEISTOCENE First Homo
I 2
PLIOCENE Manlike apes
U
,.
MIOCENE 0
'"
N
."
OLIGOCENE Monkeys and apes 0
;::
'"
Z
"'
...
EOCENE W
<
PALAEOCENE First primates U
64-
00
::0
100 0
"' First flowering plants
()
."
...
'"
'"
136
()
()
;;
00
U
~ First birds ......
:>
0
190
..,
N
0
200
()
;;
First dinosaurs rn
00
W
:s
First mammals
~
'"
225
...
z
..,
First coniferous trees
s:
0:
"'
280
0.
00
:>
300
0
'"
"'
...
First reptiles
z
0
III
'"
..,
345
()
z
First insects ..,
z
First amphibians
0
;>
First bony fish 400
"'
c
410
z u
<
First land plants
0
Ii!
:>
First fish with jaws
N
-'
;;
0
440
z W
:s
First vertebrates
:s
()
:;:
First armoured fish
p:; 0
c
500
500
'"
0
z
First known invertebrates :s
'"
First shells
III
~
()
600
600
First living things
Algae
Bacteria
700
Table 2 Evolution of Life on the Earth
41
l\
ANCIENT I NDIA ............. .. .......................... . ..... .......... .. .. . ......... . . .. •.. .. . .... ....... . ....... ............ .. ....
1
the rock-forming history would have
already passed, during which some
51 km. thick sedimentary rocks were
laid down in the ocean and laters
raised up. During the 500 million year
covered by the film another 34 km. of
rocks were made. When the r eel
opens, we see shells, j elly fish, crab-
like creatures, and sea lilies. Phase
by phase we see fishes, then
amphibians and reptiles, and fmally
mammals . In the last 3 seconds
human beings appear and the
civilized man appears just in the last
tenth of a second.
Early Humans
It is now well established that the
earliest human fossils found in Africa
dates back to about 4.2 m.y. These
specimens show that the earliest
human beings were shorter in height
and had a smaller brain. The humans
evolved over a period of these 42lakhs
years and the present form reached
about 50,000 years ago. The fossils of
various periods and stages of human
development have been found from
many parts of the world like Africa,
China, Java, Sumatra and southern
Europe. Unfortunately, due to the
climatic conditions, except the solitary
fmd of a hominid fossil from Hathnaura
in the Narmada Valley, no early human
fossils have been found in India.
According to the experts the estimated
cranial capacity of this fossil is equal to
' that of homo erectus. However, some
scholars· feel that it may belong to the
last phase of homo erectus, or an
'archaic' homo sapien.
·,··· r·· .. · ...... · .. ·
42
Earliest Palaeolithic Tools
The beginning of the use of tools by
the humans have been a unique
phenomenon and may be said to have
laid the foundation of science of use of
tools and machines for the aid of
humans in their various endeavour. The
regular use of tools, beginning 2.6 m.y.
ago in east Africa is well attested and
accompanies many earlier and later
hominid fossils. In case of Indonesia
several hominid remains have recently
been dated between 1.8 and 1.6 m.y.
In China the early stone tools are
associated with human fossils dated
between 1.7 and 1.9 m.y.
In India, unfortunately, no human
fossils have been found associated with
Stone Age tools but we do have some
idea of the antiquity of tools from the
geological datings. The various strata
of the Sivalik hills containing stone tools
have been dated between 2 m.y. and
1,2 m.y. Another scientific date for the
early stone tools came from the
archaeological site of Bori in Pune
district of Maharashtra. Which is
1.38 m.y old. When we assess the
evidence for early human settlement in
India we fmd that it is later than that in
the African region, but contemporary
to the rest of the Asian countries.
Palaeolithic Cultures
The Palaeolithic Age in India is divided
into three phases, based on tool
technology. These phases are:
(i) Lower Palaeolithic
Handaxe and cleaver industries
(ti) Middle Palaeolithic
Tools made on flakes
...... . ......... .. .... . . ........................................................... ............. THE STONE AGE CULTUREp
(iii) Upper Palaeolithic
Tools made on flakes and blades
Lower Palaeolithic Culture
The main tool types in this phase were
hand axes and cleavers, along with
chopper-chopping tools. They were
made both on cores as well as flakes.
Lower Palaeolithic sites are of several
O
·
"
. ~
~ , ' \ ~
•
---.. 'I.'
, ',', "'"\.;1 . ~ 1
J -,' • ~ ! \
<."\1 • I
Fig. 5.2 Lower Palaeolithic Tools
types: habitation sites (either under
rock-shelters or in the open; factory
sites associated with sources of raw
materials; sites that combine elements
of both these functions; and open air
sites in any of these categories
subsequently. The raw materials used
for making these stone tools 'are of
various kinds of stone, like quartzite,
chert and sometimes even quartz and
besalt, etc. These have been found
covered with sand, silt, etc., ' as seen
in river sections and terraces. The
Lower Palaeolithic tools have been
found over a large area, virtually from
allover India, except the plains of the
Indus, Saraswati, Brahmaputra and
Ganga where raw material in the form
of stone is not available.
Some of the important sites of Lower
Palaeolithic cultures are Pahalgam in
Kashmir, Belan valley in Allahabad
district (Uttar Pradesh) Bhimbetka and
Adamgarh in Hoshangabad district,
(Madhya Pradesh), 16 Rand Singi
Talav in Nagaur district (Rajasthan),
Nevasa in Ahmadnagar district
(Maharashtra), Hunsgi in Gulburga
district (in Kanlataka) and the famous
site of Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu).
The sites have been widespread in
Sivalik range of Kashmir and Himachal
Pradesh, Punjab, Belan valley in
Uttar Pradesh, Berach basin and the
hilly area of Rajasthan, and Narmada
and Sone valleys in Madhya Pradesh,
Malprabha and Ghatprabha basins
in Karnataka, several areas of
Maharashtra, areas near Chennai in
Tamil Nadu and Chhota Nagpur
plateau, and in areas of Orissa, West
Bengal and Madhya Pradesh.
Besides the early dates mentioned
above, other dates available from
the Potwar plateau, western
Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka
Palaeolithic sites indicate that the
43
~ ANCIENT INDIA ........... .... .. ..... . ................................... .. ....... .... .. .............. ..... . ... . ..... ... ............ .
Lower Palaeolithic culture was quite
widespread phenomenon between
6,00,000 and 60,000 B.C.
Middle Palaeolithic Culture
The middle Palaeolithic tool technology
. is characterised basically by the flake-
tool industry. The tools are made on
flakes obtained by striking them out
from pebbles or cobbles. The tool types
include small and medium-sized
handaxes, cleavers and various kinds
of scrapers, borers, and knives. The
tools show regional variations both in
terms of available raw materials as well
as shapes and sizes. There are large
borers or awls , worked with steep
retouch on thick flakes. The scrapers
are of several kinds, like straight,
Fig. 5.3 Middle Palaeolithic Tools
44
concave and convex-sided. Burins are
also found to be associated with this
industry but not as widely dist:J.ibuted
as in the later periods. .
Middle Palaeolithic tools have
mostly been found in Central India,
Deccan, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and Orissa. Wherever
the Middle Palaeolithic industries
have developed from those of the
Lower Palaeolithic, there is an unbroken
continuity of occupation of the site.
Some of the most important sites of
Middle Palaeolithic period are
Bhimbetka, Nevasa, Pushkar, Rohiri
hills of upper Sind, and Samnapur on
Narmada.
On the basis of scientific dates
the middle Palaeolithic can be dated
between 1,50,000 B.C. and 40,000B.C.
or even slightly later.
Upper Palaeolithic Culture
The middle Palaeolithic culture slowly
evolved into the Upper Palaeolithic
culture. The basic technological
innovation of the Upper Palaeolithic
period is the method of producing
parallel sided blades from a carefully
prepared core. One good core of this
kind, once prepared, can yield many
parallel-sided blades with very little or
no further preparation.
The upper Palaeolithic tools have
been found in Rajasthan, parts of the
Ganga and Belan valleys, Central and
Western India, Gujarat, Andhra
Pradesh and Karnatakct. The main tool
types are scrapers, points, awls, burins,
borers, knives, etc. It appears that the
concept of composite tools start
developing during this cultural period.
............................................................................................ THE STONE AGE CULTURES
Fig 5.4 Upper Palaeolithic Tools
The blade tools are comparatively large,
sometimes upto to 8 cm.
From the scientific dates available
from the various sites in Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh and Maharashtra one may
safely say that upper Palaeolithic
period lasted from about 45,000 to
10,000 B.C.
One of the most remarkable
discovery of the Upper Palaeolithic
period is that of a rubble built, roughly
circular platform of about 85 cm in
diameter. In the centre of this rubble
platform the excavators of Allahabad
and Berkeley Universities located a
triangular piece of natural stone
(15 cm high, 6.5 cm wide and about
6.5 cm thick). According to the
excavators, ' ... there is absolutely no
doubt that the rubble platform with its
unique stone, and the chert artefacts
throughout the rest of the site, are
contemporaneous and w e r ~ made by a
group of final upper palaeolithic
hunter-gatherers'. A piece of natural
stone found in the center of the platform
has generated great interest. Such
stones are found on the top of the
Kaimur escarpment nearby and show
triangular or ellipsoidal laminations
which are yellowish-brown to reddish-
brown in colour. They are placed
on rubble-made platforms and
worshipped as female principle or Sakti
in the countryside, passing for one Mai
(Mother Goddess) or another. The
identical shape, size and nature of the
Upper Palaeolithic specimen, dated
9000-8000 BC, and the ones that are
kept in the modern village shrines is
significant.
Mesolithic Culture
With the passage of time there was a
marked diminution in the size of stone
tools, reaching its culmination in the
mesolithic period. This period is labelled
in India variously as, Late Stone Age,
Mesolithic or Microlithic period. The
microlithic tools are characterized by
parallel-sided blades taken out from
prepared cores of such fine material as
chert, chalcedony, crystal, jasper,
carnelian, agate, etc. These tools are
generally 1 to 5 cm. long and the types
. include smaller version of upper
Palaeolithic types such as points,
scrappers, burins, awls, etc., besides
some new tool-types like lunates,
45
ANCIENT INDIA ... .. ....... ..••.. ..................................... . ..................................................... .. ....
trapezes, triangles, arrowheads, of
various shapes and sizes. Their size
makes it very obvious that they were
used as composite tools, and were
hafted in wood, bones, etc. That the
micro lithic industry is rooted in the
preceding phase of the Upper
Palaeolithic industry is proved both
by the continuation of the archaeo-
logical stratigraphy from the Upper
Palaeolithic into the microlithic and
from the physical evolution of the later
category from the former.
The C-14 dates available for the
Mesolithic culture from various sites in
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Kerala and
Andhra Pradesh show that this
industry began around 12,000 B.C.
and survived up to 2,000 B.C. From
sites in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Uttar
Pradesh we come to know that these
communities were essentially hunters,
food-gatherers and fishermen, but also
practised some form of agriculture. The
evidence from several sites like
Mahadaha and Damdama in the Ganga
plains, shows th?t seasonally they
Fig. 5.5 (a) Mesolithic Tools Hafted in
Wooden Handle
46
occupied some of these sites. From the
sites of Bagor in Rajasthan and also
Langhnaj in Gujarat we came to know
that these Mesolithic communities were
in touch with people of the Harappan
and other Chalcolithic cultures and
traded various items with them. From
Bagor three copper arrowheads, typical
of the Harappan Civilization, have been
found.
Some of the most important and
extensively studied sites of Mesolithic
culture are Bagor in Rajasthan,
Langhnaj in Gujarat, Sarai Nahar Rai,
Chopani Mando, Mahdaha and
Damdama in Uttar Pradesh, and
Bhimbetka and Adamgarh in Madhya
Pradesh.
Fig. 5.5 (b) Mesolithic Tools
. ............... ...• ...... .•. ... •• ... . . •....... ..... . ... ... ... . .... , .......................... THE STONE AGE CULTURES
From Bagor and Adamgarh we get
the evidence of the associEl-tion of sheep
and goat with the Mesolithic people,
around sixth millennium B.C. This
suggests that they may have partly
adopted the settled way of life.
We must not be surprised by the
occurrence of Mesolithic culture and
advanced Harappan civHi.zation in the
same period. We must recall that in
India distinct, self-contained social
groups, at different levels of cultural
and technological development
survived right into this century. They
include hunting and food-gathering
tribes, pastoral nomads, shifting
cultivators, traditional settled
agriculturists, modern developed
agriculturists, and several levels of
urban industrial society, all coexisting
and economically independent as
well as interdependent. This provides
us with the basic model for our past
developments.
In the context of modern India we
know that even today for about 2-3
months in the lean agricultural seasons
every year, the landless labourers, tribal
people and poor people survive, at least
partly, by foraging for edible roots, leaves,
seeds and fruits which grow naturally in
the countryside. The Mesolithic way of
life in India is still far more important to
us than we are willing to admit. Besides,
some of our modern cults and important
cult spots may well have a Mesolithic
background or ancestry.
Prehistoric Rock Art
Almost all the rock-shelters in India
occupied by the Upper Palaeolithic and
Mesolithic people, and many others as
well, contain rock-paintings depicting
a variety of subjects, chiefly animals, or
scenes including both people and
animals. The distribution of these
rock-paintings is very wide: They have
been found in Chargul in north-west
Fig. 5.6 Mesolithic Rock Art
47
" ANCIENT INDIA ........................................ . .....................•...................................................
Pakistan to Orissa in the east, and from
the Kumaon hills in the north to Kerala
in the south. Some of the important
rock-painting sites are Murhana Pahar
in Uttar Pradesh, Bhimbetka,
Adamgarh, Lakha Juar in Madhya
Pradesh and Kupagallu in Kamataka.
The occurrence of haematite pieces
found in the occupational debris of
Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic
periods conclusively proves that these
paintings were made by the occupants
of those caves and shelters. Animals are
the most frequently depicted subject
either alone or in large and small groups
and shown in various poses. There are
also some hunting scenes, of which the
rhinoceros hunt from the Adamgarh
group of rock-shelters is indicative of
the joining of large number of people
for the hunt of bigger animals. The
Exercises
1. Explain the following:
animals are drawn in. bold outline, and
the bodies are sometimes filled in
completely, or partially with cross-
hatching. Examples of all the three
methods can be seen among the
drawings of animals in the caves or
rock-shelters at Morhana Pahar in
Uttar Pradesh, and Bhimbetka and
Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh.
Besides the animals, birds, fishes, etc.
have also been depicted.
Depiction of human figures in rock-
paintings is quite common. These are
in simple outline forms as well as with
hatched body. The humans are shown
in various activities, such as dancing,
running, hunting, playing games and
engaged in battle. The colours used in
making these drawings are deep red,
green, white and, yellow.
Fossils, Homo erectus, Homo sapien, Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Rock Art.
2. Write short notes on:
(i) Earth and life on it
(ii) Early Humans
(iii) Palaeolithic tools
3. • Describe the Paleolithic cultures of India.
4. Describe the Mesolithic culture of India and write how was it different from the
Paleolithic cultures.
5. Write an essay on prehistoric rock art.
48
• Visit a musem and see the implements used by the early man, collect the
photographs of various types of tools and make a collage or sketches.
• Draw a map of India and plot on it some important Palaeolithic sites.
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ANCIENT INDIA .... . ... .. ... ....... .. .. . . .... .............................................. . . •................... ... . . ... . .........
AT the end of the Pleistocene Age,
approximately 10,000 years ago,
clima tic conditions more or less similar
to those of today were established in
western and southern Asia. This
provided the setting for a number of
important advances in human control
of the environment and led to a series
of events which resulted ultimately in
the appearance of the first urban
societies in both regions, some six
thousand years ago. Perhaps the most
fundamental advance that has affected
the course of human life was the
domestication of a large number of
animals and plants. The present
evidence suggests that in west Asia,
wheat and barley were domesticated
by c. 7000 B.C. Rice seems to have
been domesticated in India by about
7000 B.C., as the evidence from
Koldihwa in the Belan valley shows.
Evidence from several sites (especially
Aq Kupruk in Afghanistan) suggests
that wild precursors of domesticated
sheep, goat and cattle were being
exploited by man about 16,000 years
back. The continuing presence of sheep
and goat bones in good quantities in
early phase of Neolithic culture in that
area (dated to c. 7000-10000 B.C.) has
been interpreted as an indication that
they had already been domesticated by
that time.
The domestication of various
species of animals produced the
specialised pastoraIists who appear to
have continued to the modern times to
lead a nomadic and semi-nomadic life.
On the other hand the domestication
and successful exploitation of various
50
species of wild plants produced a shift
towards sedentary settlements, and
came to dominate the subsequent
economic and cultural developments.
In the Indian context, the Neolithic-
agriculture based regions can roughly
be divided into four groups: (i) the
Indus system and its western
borderland; (ii) Ganga valley (iii) western
India and the northern Deccan and
(iv) the southern Deccan.
The economy of all these early
Neolithic cultures was based on
agriculture and animal domestication.
The earliest evidence for Neolithic
culture based on agricultural economy
comes from the north-western part of
the Indo-Pakistan region - basically
in the Quetta valley and in the Valleys
of Loralai and Zob rivers. The
archaeological sites of Kile Ghul
Mohammad, Gumla, Rana Ghundai,
Anjira, Mundigak, and Mehrgarh in the
Kacchi plain give evidence of a date
between c. 7000-5000 B.C. Of these,
Mehrgarh has been most extensively
examined. The evidence shows that
the habitation here began in about
c. 7000 B.C. but in the early period no
use of ceramic is seen. However, in
about a 1000 years time i.e. around
c. 6000 B.C. earthen pots and pans
come in use: first handmade and then
wheel-made. In the pre-ceramic period
an irregular scatter of square or
rectangular houses made of mud-
bricks and separated by refuse dumps
and passage ways made up the
first village. The houses were sub
divided into four or more internal
compartments, some of which may have
been used for storage.
):.
......... ....... . .... .................. .......... ........ THE NEOLITHIC AGE: THE BEGINNING OF SE'ITLED LIFE
Kile Gol Mohammad
e
eQuetta
e
Mehrgarh
ARAB/AN
5 EA
BAY
OF
BEN GA L
Fig. 6.1 Important Neolithic Sites
•
tJ
51
~ ANCIENT INDIA ... . . ......... ... ......................................................................... .............. .... ...... . .
The subsistence of early inhabitants
was focused primarily on hunting and
food gathering, supplemented by some
agriculture and animal husbandry. The
domestic cereals found in these levels
include wheat and barley. Bones of
domesticated animals 1nclude sheep,
goat, pig and cattle.
With the onset of the sixth
millennium B.C. , pottery, first
Fig. 6.2 (a) Neolithic Bone Tools
handmade, and then wheel-made, came
into use. From the bone remains, it is
clear that humped variety of cattle also
came to be domesticated. The beads
found with burial remains show that
people used beads made oflapis lazuli,
carnelian, banded age te and white
marine shell. A single copper bead has
52
also been found. The occurrence of shell
bangles and pendants made of mother-
of-pearl indicates long-distance trade.
In short, the ceramic Neolithic
occupation (c. 7000 B.C.) at Mehrgarh
during the early food-producing era
shows a basic subsistence economy of
the Indus valley and beginning of trade
and crafts. During the next 2500 years
these communities ' developed new
Fig. 6.2 (b) Neolithic Stone Tools
technologies to produce pottery and
figurines of terracotta, elaborate
ornaments of stone and metal, tools and
utensils, and architectural style.
To the east of the Indus valley, in
Ganga valley, Assam and the
north-east region, a large number of
Neolithic sites have been found. Some
........................... . ... . ...................... THE NEOLITHIC AGE: THE BEGINNING OF SETTLED LIFE ~
of the most important sites are Gufkra1
and Burzahom in Kashmir, Mahgara,
Chopani Mando and Koldihwa in Belan
va1ley in Uttar Pradesh, and Chirand
in Bihar.
Three radiocarbon dates from
Koldihwa provide the earliest evidence
for the domesticated variety of rice going
back to about c. 6500 B.C. which make
it the oldest evidence of rice in any part
of the world. Thus, in a11 probability
agriculture in the Belan va1ley began
around c. 6500 B.C. Besides rice,
evidence for barley cultivation is
attested at Mahgara.
The bone remains from Koldihwa
and Mahgara show that cattle, sheep
and goat were domesticated in the
region. In Mahgara, evidence of a cattle
pen has a1so been met with.
In the north-west, the early Neolithic
settlers in Burzahom lived in pit
dwellings, rather than building houses
over the ground.
The settlement at Chirand in Bihar
is relatively late. From Assam and
further north-east regions small
polished Neolithic stone axes have been
found from Cochar hills, Garo hills and
Naga hills. Unfortunately, so far very
little cultural material has been found
to throw light on the life of the makers
of these axes and there is little or no
dating evidence. The excavations at
Sarutaru near Guwahati revealed
shouldered celts and round-butted
axes associated with crude cord-or
basket-marked pottery.
In south India, we have the most
decisive evidence of new patterns of
subsistence, almost contemporary with
t, 1---- )
wQ)
Fig. 6.3 Neolithic Pottery
the Harappan culture. Some of the
most important sites in southern India
are Kodekal, Utnur, Nagatjunikonda
and Palavoy in Andhra Pradesh;
Tekkalkolta, Maski, T. Narsipur,
Sangankallu, Hallur and Brahmagiri in
Karnataka and Paiyampalli in Tamil
Nadu. The southern Neolithic Age is
dated between 2600 and 800 B.C. It
has three phases. Phase I is tota1ly
devoid of metal tools and in the second
phase tools of copper and bronze are
found in limited quantity. The evidence
shows that people domesticated cattle,
sheep and goat and practised some
agriculture. Pottery of both handmade
as well as wheel-made variety was used.
53
~ . ANCIENT INDIA ................... ..... ........... . ...... ...... ............................................................... ..
They built houses of wattle-and-daub,
with rammed floor, tended cow, bull,
goat, sheep, and cultivated horse gram,
millet and ragi. In the third phase iron
has also been reported to have been
found.
The evidence discussed above leads
us to draw certain broad conclusions.
The earliest Neolithic settlements in
the Indian subcontinent first developed
in the west of the Indus. Here at
Mehrgarh the Neolithic culture began
Exercises
1. Explain the following:
about 8,000 B.C. and soon it became a
widespread phenomenon. People lived
in mud houses, wheat and barley were
cultivated, and cattle, sheep and goat
were domesticated. Long-distance trade
for precious goods was also carried 011.
Almost about the same time, similar
developments took place in the Belan
valley also. By about 3,000 B.C.
Neolithic culture was a widespread
phenomenon and covered a large part
of the Indian subcontinent.
Domestication of plants and animals, Food gathering.
2. Wha.t is Neolithic culture and which are the earliest sites belonging to this
culture?
3. Describe the economy of the Neolithic period. How is it different from Pa.laeolithic
and Mesolithic economies?
4. Discuss some important sites of Neolithic culture and important findings
associated with them.
5. Describe the lifestyle and religious beliefs of the Neolithi::: people.
54
• Make sketches of Neolithic tools and describe them.
• Make sketches of Palaeolithic tools.
• Visit a museum and note the difference between Neolithic. Palaeolithic
and Mesolithic tools.
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~
'. ANCIENT INDIA ................................. ... ....... . . ..... ................................................. . ............. .
THE end of the Neolithic period saw
very different kind of developments
in different areas. While in the
Indus and Saraswati valleys there
emerged, though slowly, a full-fledged
civilization, in central India and
Deccan a very different kind of culture
developed which, though using metal,
never reached the level of urbanisation.
This was known as Chalcolithic
culture. Some of these cultures were
contemporary with the Harappan
''-.....
'--..
culture and other were decidedly later
than Harappan. These cultures shared
certain common features. They are
all characterised by painted ceramic,
usually black-on-red, a specialised
blade and flake industry of the silicious
material like chalcedony and chert, and
copper and bronze tools, though on a
restricted scale. Their economy was
based on subsistence agriculture,
stock-raising and hunting and fishing.
-t
o
Fig. 7.1 Important Cha1colithic and Copper Hoard Sites
........................................... ..................................... THE CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES OF INDIA
Some important Chalcolithic cultures
are:
Ahar culture
Kayatha culture
Malwa culture
Savalda culture
Jorwe culture
Prabhas culture
c.2800-1500 B.C
c. 2450- i 700 B.C.
c. 1900-1400 B.C.
c. 2300-2000 B.C.
c. 1500 -900 B.C.
c. 2000-1400 B.C.
Rangpur culture c. 1700-1400 B.G.
The most distinguishing feature of
these Cha1colithic cultures is their
distinct painted pottery. The Kayatha
culture is characterized by a sturdy
red-slipped ware p a i n t ~ d with designs
in chocolate colour, a red painted buff
ware and a com bed ware bearing
incised patterns. The Ahar people
made a distinctive black-and-red ware
decorated with white designs. The
Malwa ware is rather coarse in fabric,
but has a thick buff surface over which
designs are made either in red or black.
The Prabhas and Rangpur wares are
both derived from the Harappan, but
have a glossy surface due to which they
are also called Lustrous Red Ware.
Jorwe ware too is painted black-on-red
but has a .matt surface treated with a
wash. Some of the most well-known
pottery forms are dishes-on-stand,
spouted vases, stemmed cups,
pedestalled bowls, big storage jars, and
spouted basins and bowls.
Most of these Chalcolithic cultures
flourished in semi-arid regions of
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat
and Maharashtra. The settlements of
Kayatha culture are only a few in
number, mostly located on the
Chambal and its tributaries. They are
57
~
- i ANCIENT I NDIA . ... . ..... .... .. . . . ..... . . . . . .. ..... . . ... . . . .. ..... . .... .. ... .. . .. . .. . . ... . ............ .. ... . ... . . .. .. .. ... .. ... .. .
relatively small in size and the biggest
may be not over two hectares. In
contras t to small Kayatha culture
settlements those of Ahar Culture are
big. At least three of them namely Ahar,
Balathal and Gilund are of several
hectares. Stone, mud bricks, and mud
were used for the construction of
houses and other structure s .
Excavations reveal that Bala thal was a
well fortified settlement. Th e people of
Malwa cu lture settled mostly on the
Narmada and it s tributaries. Navdatoli,
Eran and Nagada are the three best
known settlements of Malwa culture.
Navdatoli measures almost 10 hectares
and is one of the largest Cha1colithic
settlements in the country. It has been
seen t h at some of t hese sites were
fortified and Nagada had even a bastion
of mud-bricks. Eran similarly had a
fortification w 'll1 with a moat.
Unfortu nately not more than half a
dozen settlement s of Prabhas culture
are known. The Rangpur culture sites
are located mostly on Ghelo and
Kalubhar rivers in Guj arat. The Jorwe
settlements are comparatively larger in
number. More than 200 settlements are
known from Maharashtra. Prakash,
Daimabad and Inamgaon are some of
the best known settlements of this
culture. The largest of these is
Daimabad which measured almost 20
hectares. •
The Chalcolithic people built
rectangular and circular houses of mud
wattle-and-daub. The circular houses
were mostly in clusters. These houses
and huts had roofs of straw supported
on bamboo and wooden rafters. Floors
58
Fig. 7.3 Recon..struction of an Excavated
Chalco lithic Village - Ahar, Raj asthan
were made of rammed clay and huts
were used for storage also. People
raised cattle as well as cultivat ed both
khari! and rabi crops in rotation. Wheat
and barley were grown in the area of
Malwa. Rice is reported to have been
fou nd from Inamgaon and Ahar. These
people also cultivatedjowar and bajra
and so also kulth, ragi, green peas , lentil
and green and black grams.
Almost all these Chalco lithic
cultures flourished in the black cotton
soil zone. This clearly represents an
ecological adaptation dictated by
available technology, knowledge and
means. An analogy with present-day
agricultural methods in these regions
leads to the supposition that we are
dealing here with a system of dry
farming, dependent on moisture-
retentive soils.
Trade and Commerce
There is evidence to show that the
Chalcolithic communities traded and
......... •.. . ... . ......... . . . .•... . ...•...... . ...• . .. . ...•..•........ . ... . ... THE CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES OF INDIA
exchanged materials with other
contemporary communities. Large (a)
settlements like Ahar, Gilund, Nagada,
Navdatoli, Eran, Prabhas, Rangpur,
Prakash, Daimabad and Inamgaon
would have served as maj or centres
of trade and exchange. It appears that
Ahar people, settled close to the copper
source, supplied copper tools and
objects to other contemporary
communities in Malwa and Gujarat.
IwewwtI : I .
eMS.
It has been suggested that most of (b)
the copper a..xes found in Malwa,
Jorwe and Prabhas cultures bear
some identification marks, which are
almost identical, suggesting that
they may be the trademarks of the
smiths who made them. Conch shell
for bangles were traded from the
Saurashtra coast to various other parts
of the Chalcolithic regions. Similarly,
gold and ivory may have come from
Tekkalkotta (Karnataka) to Jorwe
people who in tum traded these to their
contemporaries. The semiprecious
stones may have been traded to
various parts from Rajpipla (Gujarat).
It is interesting to note that the Jorwe
people traded even the pottery to
distant places, as Inamgaon pottery
has been found at several sites located
away from it. This reminds us of
Northern Black Polished Ware being
exported with the trade from the plain
Gangetic to far off regions, in the early
historical period. Wheeled bullock
carts, drawings of which have been
found on pots, were used for long-
distance trade, besides the river
transport.
Fig. 7.4 Objects of Religious Beliefs
(a) Stylised Bull Figurines from Kayatha,
(b) Terracotta Objects from lnamgaon
Religious Beliefs
Religion was an aspect which
interlinked all the Chalcolithic cultures.
The worship of mother goddess and the
bull was in vogue. The bull cult seems
to have been predominant in Malwa
during the Ahar period. A large number
of these both naturalistic as well as
stylised lingas have been found from
most of the sites. The naturalistic ones
59
!!..
. " ANCIENT INDIA ............. . ....... . ........ . .......... . . . ............... .. ......................... •. . ....... . .. .. ... . .......
may have served as votive offerings, but
the small stylised ones may h.ave been
hung around the neck as the Lingayats
do today.
The Mother Goddess is depicted on
a huge storage jar of Malwa culture in
an applique design. She is flanked by
a woman on the right and a crocodile
on the left, by the side of which is
represented the shrine. Likewise the
fiddle-shaped figurines p r o b ~ b l y
resembling srivatsa, the symbol of
Lakshmi, the Goddess of wealth in
historical period represent a mother
Goddess.
In a painted design on a pot, a deity
is shown with dishevelled hair, recalling
the Rudra oflater period. A painting on
a jar found from Daimabad; shows a
deity surrounded by animals and birds
such as tigers and peacocks. Some
scholars compare it with the 'Siva
Pashupati' depicted on a seal from
Mohanjodaro.
Two figurines from Inamgaon,
belonging to late Jorwe culture, have
been identified as proto-Ganesh, who
is worshipped for success before
embarking on an undertaking. Several
headless figurines found at Inamgaon
have been compared with Goddess
Visira of the Mahabharata. Fire-
worship seems to have been a very
widespread phenomenon among the
Chalcolithic people. Fire-altars have
been found from a large number of
Chalcolithic sites during the course of
excavations.
The occurence of pots and other
funerary objects found along with the
burials of the Malwa and Jorwe people
indicate that people had a belief in life
after death.
60
The Chalcolithic cultures flourished
during the third millennium and
second millennium B.C. A large
number of settlements like Kayatha,
Prabhas, Ahar, Balathal, Prakash and
Nevasa were deserted, to be reoccupied
after four to six centuries later. It has
been postulated that these cultures
declined due to decline in rainfall which
made it hard for the agricult ural
communities to sustain.
Technology
The Chalcolithic farmers had made
considerable progress in ceramic as
well as metal technology. The painted
pottery was well made and well fired in
kiln. It was fired at a temperature
between 500-700° C. In metal tools
we find axes, chisels, bangles, beads,
hooks, etc. which were mostly made
of copper. The copper was obtained,
perhaps, from the Khetri mines of
Rajasthan. Gold ornaments were
extremely rare and have been found
only in the Jorwe culture. An ear
ornament has been found from
Prabhas also. The fmd of crucibles and
pairs of tongs of copper at Inamgaon
shows the working of goldsmiths.
Chalcedony drills were used for
perforating beads of semiprecious
stones. . Lime was prepared out of
Kankar and used for various purposes
like painting houses and lining the
storage bins, etc.
Copper Hoard Culture
Since the first reported discovery of a
copper harpoon from Bithur in Kanpur
district in 1822, nearly one thousand
copper objects have been found from
......................................................... . ...................... THE CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES OF INDIA
almost 90 localities in various parts
of India. As these copper objects
have mostly been found in hoards,
they are known as Copper Hoards.
The largest hoard from Gungeria
(Madhya Pradesh) comprises 424
pieces of copper objects and 102
thin sheets of silver. The main types
of objects are various kinds of celts,
harpoons, antennae swords, rings
and anthropomorphs. We find that
harpoons, antennae swords and
anthropomorphs are basically confined
to Uttar Pradesh while various kinds of
celts, rings and other objects are
found from such diverse geographical
~ ~ .
..
4 •
3 .
-·0
6
areas as Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal and
Maharashtra. Scientific analysis of
these copper objects show that they
were made in open or closed moulds.
These are generally made of pure
copper, although very insignificant
quantities of alloys have been noticed
in some. The source of metal for these
copper hoards appears to the Khetri
copper mines as well as hilly regions of
Almora District in Uttaranchal.
The Copper Hoards include
weapons and tools as well as objects of
worship. The harpoons and antennae
swords are likely to have been used as
weapons, while various kinds of celts
and axes may have been used as tools.
Bar celts appear to have been used for
mining ores. The anthropomorphs,
weighing quite a few kilos and
measuring upto 45 cm. in length and
43 cm. in width, were possibly objects
of worship. Even today all over northern
India tiny anthropomorphs of the
size of 4-10 cm. are worshipped as
Shani devata.
It is difficult to say as to who were
10 the authors of these Copper Hoards.
In the Gangetic plains a few pieces of
these copper hoards have been found
1391'
• associated with Ochre Coloured
HW ee Pottery (OCP), discussed below . .
Fig. 7.S Copper Hoard Objects
1. Anthropomorph, 2-3. Antennae Swords,
4-5, 7 Harpoons, 6, Ring, 8-11, Celts,
12-13 Bar Celts
OCPCulture
Almost contemporary to the later half
of the Mature Harappan civilization,
there flourished a culture in the upper
Gangetic plains which is identified by
the use of pottery with bright red slip
61
j ~
, ANCIENT INDIA .... •..............................................................................................................
\. I (
ffi
JB
7=H
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QJ
and painted in black. This pottery has
been found all over upper Gangetic
plains. During the course of excavation
in the region it has been found that the
sites yielding this pottery have suffered
from extensive floods. Many scholars
think that the entire upper Gangetic
plains was for some length of time
submerged under water. The OCP
people used copper tools and cultivated
rice, barley, gram and khaseri. The OCP
shares many shapes with the Harappan
ware.
During the course of excavations,
Copper Hoard objects were found in
association with OCP deposit at Saipai,
in District Etah. Also, from almost all
the places in Ganga-Yamuna doabfrom
where Copper Hoards have been found,
62
\ ..
,7
m
\U
-,rr'
'W
Fig. 7.6 Ochre Coloured Pottery
the OCP ~ a s also been found. Due to
this, some scholars think that the
Copper Hoards are associated with OCP
people, in doab. But their cultural
association in Bihar, Bengal and
Orissa is not clear. As mentioned in
previous section on Chalcolithic
cultures, some of the copper hoard
types, mainly celts, have been found
associated with Cha1colithic people
also.
Besides, there are some other sites
of the upper Ganga valley like
Bahadarabad, Nasirpur (Hardwar)
Rajpur-Parsu (Meerut) Bisauli
(Badaun) and Baheria (Shahjahanpur)
from where copper hoards were found
earlier also yielded OCP sherds in
subsequent explorations.
.... . .... .. ................ .. ........................ .. ..... .. ......... .. .. .... THE C HALCO LITHIC CULTURES OF INDIA
Exercises
1. Explain the following:
Chalcolithic, OCP, Anthropomorphs, Copper Hoards.
2. Write short notes on:
(i) Chalcolithic technology
(ii) Important Chalcolithic cultures
(iii) Copper Hoards
3. How is the Chalcolithic culture different from the Neolithic culture?
4. Describe the religious beliefs of Chalcolithic people.
• Locate on the outline map of India some important Chalcolithic sites.
• Draw on your sketch book some vessels like glass, cups and vase.
63
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CHAPTER 8
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I, THE :HARAPPAN CIVILIZA'l'ION
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'Ar the time of partition, at lnelia in 1947
i
, 40
settlerrlents belonging to this, ,civilizgtion were
known. ,Researches, carried, out during the ' ,last 50
have altered the picture completely.
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............................................. . ............................................. THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
THE Harappan civilization was
discovered in 1920-21 following
the excavations by R.D. Banerjee at
Mohenjodaro and by D.R. Salini at
Harappa. Since at that time the remains
of the civilization were found only in the
1
Indus valley, it came to be known also
as the Indus civilization. A culture may
also be named after the site from where
it came to be known for the first time.
Since, it was at Harappa that the relics
of this civilization were first noticed, it
. Shof tVQhol
AFGHANISTAN
11 Q / .P.rlano
Ohundol
PAKISTAN
o 200
I" " I
400KM
I
N o A
~
- - - - - - ~
GOdavari
Fig. 8.1 The Extent of the Harappan Civilization and its Important Sites
65
~
ANCIENT INDIA ................................................................................................................ .
is also known as the Harappan
civilization. At the time of partition of
India in 1947, barely 40 settlements
belonging to this civilization were
known. Researches carried out during
the last 50 years have altered the
picture completely. Now about 1400
settlements belonging to the different
phases of this culture are known from
parts of India. In terms of political
boundaries of today, ofthese 1400 sites
nearly 925 settlements are in India and
475 in Pakistfln. This ancient
civilization of India, like any other,
cannot properly be studied on the basis
of its present day political boundaries.
The geographical distribution should
be its basis.
The 1400 settlements, discovered so
far are distributed over a very wide
geographical area. Its known extent in
the west is upto Sutkagendor in
Baluchistan; Alamgirpur in Meerut
District (Uttar Pradesh) in the east;
Daimabad (Ahmadnagar District,
Maharashtra) in south; and Manda
(Akhnoor District, Jammu and
Kashmir) in the north, covering an
area of almost 1600 km. east-west
and 1400 km. north-south. The total
geographical area over which this
civilization flourished is more than 20
times of the area of Egyptian and more
than 12 times of the area of Egyptian
and Mesopotamian civilizations
combined. It covers an area of about
12,50,000 sq. lpn. These settlements
are mostly located on river banks.
When we look at the distribution
pattern of these settlements in terms of
rivers, we find that (i) only 40
settlements are located on the Indus
66
and its tributaries and (ii) as many as
1,100 (80%) settlements are located on
the vast plain between the Indus and
the Ganga, comprising mainly the
Saraswati river system which is dry
today, and (iii) about 250 settlements
are found in India beyond the Saraswati
river system a number of them in
Gujarat, and a few in Maharashtra.
It is clear from the above
distribution pattern of settlements that
the focus of Harappan civilization was
not the Indus but the Saraswati
river and its tributaries which flowed
between the Indus and the Ganga. It is
because of this reason that some
scholars call it Indus-Saraswati
civilization, and few prefer the
nomenclature Saraswati civilization.
Most of the 1400 settlements
belonging to this civilization can be
classified as small villages (which are
upto 10 hectares), a few larger towns
and small cities (10 to 50 hectares). Some
of the settlements like Moherijodaro (+ 250
hectares), Harappa (+150 hectares),
Ganawariwala (+80 hectares) and
Rakhigarhi (+80 hectares), Kalibangan
(+100 hectares), and Dholavira (+100
hectares) can easily be classed as
large cities. The first five are inland
centres located approximately at an
equidistance in a zigzag pattern that
covers Indus and Saraswati river plain.
The last two are located in Rann of
Kachchha.
Each of these cities were
surrounded by vast agricultural lands,
rivers and forest that were inhabited by
scattered farming and pastoral
communities and bands of hunters
food-gatherers.
................................................................................... . .. ...... THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
Major excavations undertaken at
the sites of Mohenjodaro, Harappa
Kalibangan, Lothal, Surkotada,
Dholavira etc. have given us a fair idea
about the various aspects like town
planning, economy, technology, religion
etc. of this civilization.
Town Planning
The overall layout of the Indus-
Saraswati cities is distinguished by the
orientation of streets and buildings,
according to the cardinal directions -
east-west, and north-south. The idea
of settlement planning did not appear
suddenly with the first large cities but
was already well established in earlier
period as has been revealed from the
excavations at Kot Diji, Kalibangan,
Harappa, Rahman Dheri, Nausharo etc.
The basic layout at all these settlements
(a)
MOHENJODARO: CITADEL AND LOWER TOWN
was established along a grid that was
defined by large streets running north-
south and east-west and fortification all
around.
Earlier it was thought that all cities
were having a standard division into a
high western citadel and a lower town
to the east reflecting the division of the
cities into rulers and the service
communities, with the crafts
workshops located in the lower city.
But this interpretation is not correct
because large public buildings, market
areas, large and small private houses
as well as crafts workshops have been
found in all areas.
Each city comprised a series of
walled sectors or mounds, oriented in
different direction. Mohenjodaro,
Harappa and Kalibangan have a high
rectangular 'mound on the west and
. ______ -- _____ o,r "'1"£<9
"-
(b)
f

(HI 'tl4L $rFIJCTVR£)
'-/
Fig. B.2 Outlay Plan of a Harappan City
(a) Mohenjodaro (b) Kalibangan
67
ANCIENT INDIA ............ . .............. . ... .. ... . . . .... . .... . ..... . . ... . .. . . ... . ..... . ... . . ............................ .... . .
extensive mound to the north, south
and the east. But at the sites like
Dholavira and Banavali there was only
a single walled mound internally
divided into three or four walled sectors.
The excavations at the Harappan
city sites like Mohenjodaro, Harappa,
Kalibangan, Surkotada show that there
were large gateways at various entry
points of the city. These gateways are
seen even in the inner fortification areas
also. At Dholavira a large inscription,
possibly a fallen signboard, was found
close to the main gateway. The letters
of the inscription are the largest
example of writing ever discovered from
any Harappan city, is made from white
gypsum paste inlay set into a wooden
plank. Ten symbols each measuring
approximately 37 cm. high and 25 to
27 cm. wide proclaimed some name
or title. Mounted above the gateway the
signboard would have been visible from
a long distance.
Materials used in Buildings
The houses built by people usually
show considerable variation in the raw
materials used and the style of
construction. The most common
building materials in the alluvial plains,
where most settlements are located,
were mud-bricks and kiln-fired-bricks,
wood and reeds. However, in rocky
foothills and on the Islands of Kutch
and in Saurashtra, where stone is
commonly available, dressed stone
replaced bricks. The average size of brick
used for houses was 7 lh x 15x30 cm.
but for the construction offortification
walls the size of the brick was of bigger
68
size viz. 10x20x40 cm. Both sizes of
bricks have identical proportions 1 :2:4,
that the width is double the thickness
and the length four times, the thickness.
The doors windows were made of
wood and mats. The floors of houses
were generally hard-packed earth that
was often plastered. Bathing areas and
drains were made with baked bricks or
stone. Some rooms were paved with
bricks or fired terracotta cakes. Very
few actual roof fragments have been
recovered. They were probably made
of wooden beams covered with reeds
and packed clay. In rare instances
timber also seems to have formed a
semi-structural frame or lacing for
brickwork.
Types of Bulldings
Excavations have uncovered many
types of houses and public buildings
at both large and small settlements.
Most ofthe architecture can be grouped
into three categories, with some
variations: (i) private houses, (ii) large
houses surrounded by smaller units,
and (iii) large public structures.
Considerable variation is seen in the
size of dwellings, which range from
single roomed tenements to houses
with courtyards having up to
dozen rooms of varying sizes.
Doorways and windows rarely opened
out into the main street, but faced side
lanes. The view into the house was
blocked by a wall or a room around
the front door. This was done to protect
the activities in the central courtyard
from the view of passers-by. This
pattern is still maintained in
... .. . . .. . .... . ............ ..... ........... ............... .... .... . . ..... .... . ........ ... ... THE HARAPPAN CIVlLIZATION
traditional houses throughout the
Indo .. Gangetlc plains.
Many houses were at least two
stoned and some schola : - ~ ; think that
some of the houses may have been
three storied . Hf':1rths were commonly
found h"'1 the n)(lms. \111'1ost every house
had a bathn)om, and In some cases
there i ~ evidence of bathrooms on the
fIrst floor. The doors were made with
wooden frames and a brick socket set
in the threshold served as door pivot.
Some of the doors seem to have been
painted and possibly carved with
simple ornamentation The windows
were small at first and second stories.
The adjacent houses were separated by
a n arrow space of "no man's land".
Almost all the big houses had a well
within their courtyard. Deep grooves
on the bricks at the top edge of the well
Fig. 8.3 Ariel View of Excavated Citadel Area
of Mohenjodaro
show that ropes were used to lift the
water up, probably with leather or
wooden buckets.
Public Buildings
In several cities some large and distinct
structures have been found. Their
special nature is seen in their plan
Fig. 8.4 The Great Bath of Mohenjodaro
and in their construction. Here we shall
confine ourselves only to a few
structures.
Perhaps the most remarkable
feature of the citadel mound at
Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath. This
fInely built brick structure measures
12 m by 7m, and is nearly 3m deep
from the surrounding pavement. It
is approached at either end by flights
of steps. The floor of the bath was
constructed of sawn bricks set on edge
in gypsum mortar, with a layer of
bitumen sandwiched between the
inner and outer brick l:tyers. Water was
evidently supplied by 3. large well in an
adjacent room, and an outlet from one
corner of the bath Jed to a high corbelled
drain disgorging on the west side of the
mound. Surroupding the bath were
69
; ~
" ANCIENT INDIA ..... ... .... . .............. . ........ . ... ........ . . ... .. ........ . .. ... ... .. .... ........ ...... ... . . ............. . .. . . .
porticos and sets of rooms, while a
stairway led to an upper storey. It has
been generally agreed that this bath
was linked with some sort of ritual
bathing which has been very common
in Indian life right from the ancient
times till today.
Immediately to the west of the
Great Bath at Mohenjodaro is a group
of 27 blocks of brickwork criss-
crossed by narrow lanes. Overall it
measures 50 m. east-west and 27 m.
north-south. Somewhat similar
structures have been found at
Harappa, Kalibangan and Lothal.
These structures have been identified
as granaries · which were used for
storing grains. To the south of granaries
at Harappa lay working platforms
consisting of the rows of circular brick
platforms. During the course of
excavation, impression of a large
wooden mortar was found placed in the
centre of one of these circular brick
platforms. Such wooden mortars are
used in many parts of the world to
remove the husk from the grain.
An important structure is the
dockyard found at Lothal. It is a large
structure measuring 223 m. in length,
35 m. in width and 8 m. in depth,
provided with an inlet channel (12.30
m. wide) in the eastern wall and a
spillway. The inlet channel was
connected to a river. By its side is a 240
m. long and 21.6 m wide wharf. Most
scholars have identified this structure
as a dockyard where ships and boats
came for loading and unloading of
goods. In view of the fact that a large
number of seals have been found in a
warehouse close to the dockyard,
scholars think that Lothal was a major
trading centre of the Harappa n
civilization.
Fig. 8.5 Dockyard at Lothal
70
· ............................................ .. .. ... ...... .. ................... . .. .. ........... THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
Streets and Drains
Well laid-out streets and side lanes
equipped with drains are the most
outstanding features of the Harappan
civilization.
The towns were well planned and
the streets cut each other on the right
angles. Even the width of these streets
were in a set ratio. If the narrowest lane
was one unit in width, the other streets
were twice, thrice and so on in width.
Further, the civic sense of people in this
civilization was such that during the
hey-day of the civilization, no
encroachment on the streets was to be
seen. According to scholars, such town-
planning was not seen even in the
nineteenth century London and Paris.
Even smaller towns and villages had
impressive drainage systems. This
indicates that people had a great civic
sense of sanitation and care for health
and hygiene. Small drains made of
burnt bricks were connected with
bathing platforms and latrines of
private houses joined the medium-
sized drains in the side streets. These
drains ran into larger sewers in the
main streets which were covered with
bricks or dressed stone blocks.
Corbelled-arch drains have also been
found. One of them is almost 6 ft. deep
which functioned as main drain taking
all the waste water out of the town. At
regular intervals along the main sewage
drains were rectangular sump pits for
collecting waste and these were
regularly cleaned.
Crafts and Industries
Although the Harappan civilization is
referred to as a bronze age civilization,
mostly unalloyed copper was used for
manufacturing artefacts, and only
rarely tin was alloyed in copper to make
bronze. Tools and weapons were simple
in form. They included flat -axes, chisels,
arrowhead, spearheads, knives, saws,
. razors, and fish-hooks. People also
made copper and bronze vessels. They
made small plates and weights oflead,
and gold and silver jewellery of
considerable sophistication.
The Harappans continued to use
knives of chert blades also. Some of
these chert blades are the finest
examples known from any early culture.
A great skill and expertise is seen in
precious and semi-precious stone
beads and weights. Long barrel shaped
cornelian beads (upto 10 cm. long) are
the finest examples of craftsmanship.
Steatite was used for making a
variety of objects like seals, beads,
bracelets, buttons, vessels, etc. but its
use in making faience (a form of glass)
is particularly noteworthy. In this
material beads, amulets, sealings and
even animal models have been found.
In the Harappan civilization, . gold
objects occur in the form of beads,
pendants, amulets, brooches, and
Fig. 8.6 Ornaments
7 1
'. ANCIENT INDIA ............................................................................. ........ ... .. ............ ... . . .... . .. .. .
other small ornaments. The Harappan
gold is of light colour indicating high
silver content. On the basis of alloys,
it has been suggested that gold may
have come from Karnataka. Silver was
relatively more common than gold
which is indicated by the occurrence of
a number of large vessels and other
objects.
Mature Harappan pottery
represents a blend of the ceramic
tradition of the pre-Harappan culture
of both west of the Indus region as
well as of the Saraswati area. The
pottery technology was quite advanced.
Most of the pots were wheel-made. Big
storage jars were also produced. Pots
were beautifully painted in black on the
bright red surface with geometric
designs, plants, animals, and a few
paintings seem to depict scenes from
stories.
More than 2500 seals have been
found. These are made of steatite. They
mostly depict a single animal-unicorn
bull, elephant, rhinoceros etc.-but
some also depict trees, semi-human
and human figurines,in some cases
participating in a ceremony.
Shell working was another
flourishing industry. Artisans,
settlements close to the sea
manufactured shell ornaments like
pendants, rings, bracelets, inlays,
beads etc., beside objects as bowls,
ladles and gamesmen.
Trade and Commerce
In the Harappan civilization, the
elaborate social sttucture and the
standard of living must have been
72
achieved by a highly developed system
of communication and strong
economy. In this, intensive agricultural
production and large-scale trade
played significant roles. In the
beginning, trade must have been
internal, i.e. between one zone and
another, and later external trade also
developed. Agricultural produce,
industrial raw material, like copper
ores, stone, semi precious shells, etc.
were traded. Besides the raw material,
finished products of metals (pots and
pans, weapon, etc.), precious and senri-
precious stones (beads, pendants,
amulets etc.) ornaments of gold and
silver were also traded to various areas.
Copper may have been procured from
Khetri mines of Rajasthan, chert blades
from Rohri hills of Sindh, carnelian
beads from Gujarat and Sindh, lead
from south India, lapis-lazuli from
Kashmir and Afghanistan, turquoise
and jade from central Asia or Iran,
amethyst from Maharashtra, and agate,
chalcedony, and carnelian from
Saurashtra.
The occurrence of mature
Harappan seals and other artefacts
in contemporary Mesopotamian
civilization, and some of the
MesopotaIman and Egyptian objects in
Harappan civilization, and the
evidence of Mesopotamian documents,
establish that the Harappans had
trading relationship with that land.
Weights and Measures
The trade, both long as well as short
distance, implies a regulation of
exchange and of weights and measures.
. .......... . ...... ... .... .......... ............................................................ THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
Harappan weights and measures were
cubical and spherical in shape and
were made of chert, jasper and agate.
The weights proceed in a series, first
doubling, from 1,2,4,8, to 64, then
going'to 160; and from then on in
decimal multiples of sixteen, 320, 640,
1600, 6400 (1600
x
4), 8000 (1600
x
5)
and 128,000 (i.e. 16000 x 8).
Interestingly, the tradition of 16 or its
multiples continued in India till 1950s.
Sixteen chhatank made a ser, and 16
annas made one rupee. The measures
of length was based upon a foot of
37.6 cm. and a cubit of51.8 to 53.6 cm.
Transport and Travel
Representations of ships and boats
are found on some seals and as
graffiti an pottery from Harappa and
Mohenjodaro. A terracotta model of a
(a) Bullock cart
(b) Boat depicted on seals
Fig. 8.7 Modes oJTransport
ship or a boat, with stick-impressed
socket for the mast and eyeholes for
fixing oars has been found from Lothal.
The boats depicted on seals and
pottery resemble the ones used today
in Sindh and Punjab areas. Travel and
transport were carried on through
ships and boats. For the overland
transport bullock-carts and pack
animals like bull, camel, ass etc. w ~ r e
used. The"terracotta models of bullock-
cart and cart tracks found on roads
from various sites indicate that carts
used in those days were in size and
shape practically Jike the present day
ones.
Agriculture
The granaries at some Harappan cities
clearly suggest that cereals were
produced in such large quantities that
not only were all the immediate needs
Fig. 8.8 The Plough Field Excavated at
Kalibangan
of 1" 'ople duly met with, but there was
also enough reserve to face any future
emergency.
The principal cereals seem to have
been wheat and barley. Rice, though
known, was a favoured grain. Six
varieties of millets including ragi,
73
,
~
, ANCIENT INDIA ........ . ................. .. ........ . .... . ....... . ... . ........... . .......... . .... . ... . ........... . ...... . ........... .
kodon, sanwa, and jowar were
cultivated, as also peas and beans.
Remains of rice have been found
!llainly from Gujarat and Haryana
·areas. Other crops include dates,
varieties of legumes, sesame and
mustard. Fragments of cotton cloth
found at Mohenjodaro and other sites
show that cotton was also grown.
Cotton has been found at Mehrgarh at
least 2000 years before the mature
phase of the Civilization. This is the
oldest evidence of cotton in the world.
. Agriculture was generally practised
along the river banks most of which
were flooded during the summer and
monsoons. The flood deposited every
year fresh alluvial silt which is highly
productive and for which no major
furrowing and certainly no manures
and irrigation are required. The
cultivated field excavated at Kalibangan
(period I) shows crisscross furrow-
marks indicating that two crops were
grown simultaneously. This method is
followed even today in the Rajasthan,
Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.
For tilling fields, wooden plough
with a copper o ~ · wooden ploughshare
was used. Terracotta models of
the plough J ave been found at
Mohenjodaro cu j Banawali. Harvesting
of crops would have been done with
copper sickles as well as stone blades
hafted in wood.
The range of animals domesticated
by the Harappan people is quite large.
Bones of several animals have been
found in excavations. Skeletal remains
in clude sheep, goat, bull, buffalo,
I' lephant, camel, pig, dog and cat, which
74
were all domesticated. A large number
of animal have been depicted on the
seals. These include sheep, goat,
humped bull, buffalo, elephant, etc.
Bones of wild animals like spotted deer,
sambhar deer, hog deer, wild pig, etc.
are also found which evidently were
hunted for food. Several types of birds
as well as fishes were also hunted for
food.
The bones of camels have been
found in large number from various
sites but the animal is not depicted
on seals. Bones of horses have been
reported from Lothal, Surkotada,
Kalibangan and several other sites.
Terracotta figurines of the horse have
been found at Nausharo and Lothal.
But no unambiguous depiction of
this animal on seal has so far been
found.
Arts
A large variety of objects such as seals,
stone statues, terracotta, etc. are
superb examples of art activities. The
most outstanding pieces are a yogi from
Mohenjodaro and two small figurines
from Harappa. Bronzes are rare, the
most famous being a small female
statue of about 11.5 cm. in height
identified as dancing girl, from
Mohenjodaro. Significantly, this has
been made by the lost wax method of
casting. Daimabad bronze animals
workmanship most probably belong to
Harappan period. The red sandstone
torso found at Harappa is made of
detachable limbs and head and the grey
stone torso perhaps shows a dancing
figure. Both these are so realistic
......... . ......... . .... . ............... . .............. .. ... ... ....... . , ....................... THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
that had they not been found in
archaeological excavations none would
believe that they belong to the
Harappan period.
Harappan people produced a large
number of terracotta figurines which
were handmade. The figurines include
humans, animals, birds, monkeys,
Fig. 8.9 Specimen of Arlfrom
Harappan Civilization
(a) Bronze statue - 'Dancing Girl'
(b) Terracotta Bulls (c) Terracotta
Female Figurine (d) Head of a Yogi
(e) Painted Jar
dogs, sheep and cattle. Figurines of both
humped and humpless bulls are found.
The largest number of seals depict
unicorn. But the most artistic
depictions are the figures of humped
bull. Other animals are elephants,
tigers, rhinoceros, ram, etc. Humans
are also occasionally depicted.
75
ANCIENT INDIA ...................... . .................. ... ........... .. ................... .. ... ..... .. .. .... .... . ..... ... .. . ... . .
As for the evidence of paintings we
have it only on pottery. Unfortunately
no wall paintings, even if there were
any, have survived.
Script
The language of Harappans is at
present still unknown and must remain
so until the Harappan script is read.
Though several attempts have been
made but none has been convincing
and acceptable to all. Some scholars
connect it to Dravidian languages and
others to Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit.
There are nearly 400 specimens of
Harappan signs on seals and other
materials such as copper tablets, axes,
and pottery. Most of the inscriptions
on seals are small, a group of few letters.
.'19. 8.10 (a) Seal popularily known as Siva
Pasupati (b) and (c) Other seals with
Haroppan Script
76
A few bear only one single sign. The
Harappa.."1. script has 400 to 500 signs
and its is generally agreed that it is not
an alphabetic form of writing. Some
scholars opine that Harappan
inscriptions present 3 logosyllablic
writing system, where a sequenc..'C of two
or more signs would represent either a
complete word, a syllable or a sound
and sometimes even a sentence of
several words and grammatical
indicators. The script was written from
right to left. When the inscription was
of more than one line it could be first
line from right to left and second from
left to right.
Religion
There are generally two aspects of
religion: one conceptual or philoso-
phical, and the other, practical or
ritualistic. The former is enshrined in
metaphysical texts while the latter is
reflected in the material remains. Since
we have not been able to decipher the
script it is difficult to talk about the
metaphysical aspect, but due to
abundance of material r emains we
have some idea about the other aspect
of the Harappan religion.
From the available evidence we may
say that the religion of the Indus people
comprised: (i) the worship of the
Mother Goddess (ij) the worship of a
male deity, probably of Siva: (iii) worship
of animals, natural, semi .. human, or
fabulous; (iv) worship of trees in their
natural state or of their indwelling
spirits; (v) worship of inanimate stones
or other objects, of linga and yoni
symboh; (vi) chrematheism as
................... ... ............................................. ... ...................... THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
illustrated in the worship of the sacred
"incense-burners"; (vii) faith in
amulets and charms indicative of
demonophobia: and (viii) practice of
yoga. These characteristics suggest that
this religion was mainly of an
indigenous growth and "the lineal
progenitor of Hinduism", which is
characterised by most of these features.
A large number of female figurines
of terracotta have been discovered. The
accepted view is that these are
representations of the Great Mother
Goddess. A striking oblong sealing
found at Harappa represents the Earth
or Mother Goddess, with a plant
growing from her womb. Also depicted
are a man with a knife in hand, and a
woman with raised hands.
A male deity, "the prototype of the
historic Siva," is portrayed on a seal
with three faces, seated on a low throne
in the typical posture of a Yogi, with two
Fig. B.11 (a) Kamandalu
(b) Siva-Linga (c) Sacrificial Altar (d)
Seven Human Figurines Performing
some Ritual
animals on each side - elephant and
tiger on right and rhinoceros and buffalo
on left, and two deer standing under
the throne. The depiction shows Siva
as Pasupati. There is also the last
characteristic of the historic Siva in this
figure, a pair of horns crowning his
head with a central bump which
appears like the trisula or trident of the
Saivas. Another seal depicts a deity in
the same posture of a Yoga, with a Naga
kneeling in prayer to him with uplifted
hands on either side of him.
Some linga and yoni like objects
have been found. Some scholars opined
that these were not linga and yonis but
gamesmen. However, the find of a
terracotta piece from Kalibangan
having linga and yoni in one piece, like
the ones in the historical period, show
that these were linga and yoni meant
for worship. Whether they we re
worshipped independently or are
77
, ~
~ ANCIENT INDIA .................... . ........... . ...................................... . ... . .................... ............... . .
symbolic representation of Siva and
Sakti respectively, cannot be
ascertained.
There is also evidence of tree-
worship in two forms. In one, the tree
was worshipped in its natural form. In
the other, what was worshipped was not
the tree but its indwelling spirit.
A remarkable seal found at
Mohenjodaro represents a deity,
standing between two branches of a
pipal tree. The worship of the deity is
indicated by a line of seven human
figures and by the figure of a half-
kneeling suppliant with long hair,
behind whom is a goat, with a human
face. The continuance of this religious
tradition is found in the sculptures
of Bharhut and Sanchi showing
the Yaks his as Dryads.
(a) ®
. ~ .
'. ' . I
4
5
6
Fig. 8.12 (a) Terracotta Yogic Figurines in
different Asanas (b) Seal Depicting a Yogi
(c) Swastika
78
Evidence of animal worship is also
found in the animals represented on
seals and sealings, or in terracotta,
faience, and stone figurines. Firstly,
there are mythical and c.omposite
creatures; e.g. human faced goat or
part ram or goat, part bull and part
elephant, three-headed chimeras, semi-
human semi-bovine creatures. The
most common depiction an seal is
unicorn, which is perhaps mythical.
Thirdly, there are the natural animals,
such as (i) the water buffalo, (ii) the gaur
or Indian bison, (iii) the Indian humped
bull or zebu, (iv) the rhinoceros, (v) a
short-horned humpless bull (vi) the
tiger, and (vii) the Indian elephant. In
later period some of these animal figure
as the vehicles of Hindu deities, e.g. the
bull of Siva, the lion of Durga, and the
buffalo of Yam a, the elephant of Indra.
A large number of 'fire-altars'
have been found from sites in
Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana. At
Kalibangan, Lothal, and Banawali a
number of 'fire-altars' have been
found which seem to have been used
as sacrificial altars. Besides these the
Swastika, a sacred symbol with Hindus,
Buddhists and Jaina has been depicted
on seals, painting and graffiti, etc.
There is yet another aspect of the
Harappan people that needs
consideration. A large number of
terracotta figurines depict the
individuals in various yogic postures
(asanas) indicating thereby that the
Harappans practised yoga.
Social Stratification and Political
setup
The Harappan society seems to have
been divided into three sections, viz. an
.. ....................................... . ............... . ... . .............................. THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
elite class associated with the Citadel,
a well-to-do middle class, and a
relatively weaker section, occupying
the lower town which were generally
fortified. Some of the craftsmen and
labourers resided outside the fortified
area. Whether these divisions were
based purely on economic factors or
had a socio-religious basis we cannot
say. At Kalibangan it appears that the
priests resided in the upper part of the
citadel and performed rituals on fire
altars in the lower part of it.
It is difficult to be sure of the kind
of political setup that prevailed at the
time of the Harappan civilization. An
Indus empire is often talked about,
implying that the entire area was
administered from one capital, with a
few regional administrative centres or
provincial capitals. However, it is also
possible that there were several
independent states or kingdoms each
with cities like Mohenjodaro in Sindh,
Harappa in Punjab, Kalibangan in
Rajasthan, Lothal in Gujarat as their
capitals. It may be recalled that during
the first millennium B.C. though
the archaeological culture all over
northern India was almost the same,
yet the area was divided into sixteen
Mahajanapadas each independent
with its own capital.
Disposal of the Dead
Scattered burials, as well as discreet
cemeteries, have been found at many
major sites. The skeletal remains are
few in comparison to the size of
settlements and the population that
may have lived on them. Obviously,
cremation was also practised. This is
proved by many cinerary urns or other
receptacles containing calcined human
bones and ashes together with vessel
offerings for the use of dead person
in the next life. Only certain groups
practised burials. The general practice
was that skeletons were placed in an
extended position with the head
towards the north. Earthen pots
containing food grains, etc. were placed
in the grave and, in some cases, the
body was buried with ornaments.
Chronology
When the Harappan civilization was
first recognised in 1920s the dating
was done mainly on the basis of the
findings of Harappan seals in Ur and
Kish in Mesopotamia. On that basis
Marshall suggested that Harappan
civilization flourished between
3250 and 2750 B.C. Wheeler dated
it to 2500-1500 B.C. Since then radio-
carbon dating method has been
invented and on the basis of radio-
carbon dating of this civilization
following chronology emerges:
Early Harappan Phase : c. 3500 - 2600 B.C.
Mature Harappan Phase: c. 2600 -1900 B.C.
Late Harappan Phase : c. 1900 - 1300 B.C.
Speaking of the Mature Harappan
period, 700 years is an extremely long
time, spanning nearly 30 generations.
Many changes in social organisation,
politics, language and even religion
would have taken place during
this long period. We know that in
contemporary Egypt and Meso-
potamia mahy kingdoms rose and
fell within a period of even 100 years.
79
~ ' . ANCIENT INDIA ............................................. ................... .... ...... ..................................... ..
After about 1900 B.C. the
uniformity of the Harappan civilization
weakened and regional variations
started emerging.
Decline
John Marshall and many other
scholars, on the basis of evidence
available from the sites along the Indus
river, felt that this civilization declined
due to environmental degradation. The
cutting of forests for agricultural land
and timber for fuel and over-
exploitation of resources, etc. resulted
in the land to become barren and in the
silting of rivers. Due to all this, flood,
drought and famine must have become
a recurring feature which finally led to
its decline. Wheeler who dated the
Harappan civilization between 2500
and 1500 B.C. opined that it was
destroyed by the 'barabarian' Aryans
who came to India in about 1500 B.C.
Later researches proved that Wheeler's
thesis of Aryan being destroyers of the
Harappan civilization was a myth. In
fact, there is no a rcha eological or
biological evidence for invasion or mass
migration from west or central Asia to
the Indus or Saraswati valleys between
5000 and 800 B.C. All skeletons found
during thj.s period belong to the same
group of people.
The Harappan civilization was
spread over a large area, and the causes
of its decline in all the regions can not
be one and the same. While in the
Saraswati region it declined mainly due
to shifting of river channels, along the
Indus it declined largely due to
recurring floods. The rainfall declined
80
in general which affected the
agriculture, the main economic
resource. With the decline in economic
conditions all other institutions like
trade and commerce, administrative
and political structures, CIVIC
amenities, etc. also declined over a
period of time.
However, it must be emphasised
that Harappan civilization did not
disappear suddenly. Archaeological
evidence shows that the decline was
gradual and slow which is witnessed
over a period of almost six hundred
years from c. 1900-1300 B.C.
Late Harappan Cultures
Once the decline of the Harappan
civilization set in what we see is the
gradual disappearance of hallmarks of
urban phase of this civilization.
Features such as town-planning, grid-
patterns, drainage system, standard
weights and measures etc. slowly
disappear and a kind of ruralisation
takes place with distinctive regional
variations. Three regions can be
broadly detected - (i) north Indian late
Harappan culture which includes the
areas of Punjab, Harayana, western
Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and
Pakistan part of Punjab; (ii) Gujarat
and Maharashtra and (iii) Baluchistan.
These cultures interacted with the then
existing Chalcolithic cultures of different
regions.
In all these three areas certain
residual features like some shapes of
pottery, bronze tools, beads and other
smaller objects provide their link with
Harappan civilization. Though the
.............................................................................................. THE H ARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
Harappan civilization disappeared by
about 1300 B.C., number of cultural
traits developed in this civilization can
be seen as a part of our daily cultural
and material Hfe, as we shall see in the
next chapter.
Exercises
1. Discuss the extent and settlements of the Harappan civilization. Why is it
called the Harappan civilization?
2. Describe the characteristic features of town planning of the Harappan
civilization.
3. Describe the developments in the field of crafts and industries during the
Harappan period.
4. Write a note on the contact of Harappans with contemporary civilizations.
5. Discuss the economy of the Harappans.
6. Describe the art and architecture during the Harappan period.
7. Describe the religious beliefs of the Harappan people. Mention some of the
characteristic features of Harappan religion which are still continuing.
8 . What wer e the causes for the decline of the Harappan civilization?
9. Write short notes on:
(i) Chronology of the Harappan civilization
(ii) Late Harappan culture
(iii) Harappan weights and measures
(iv) Harappan script
• On an Outline Map show the extent of the Harappan civilization with
some important sites.
• Collect photographs of seals and make a chart of signs and figures of these
seals.
81
•
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............... . ................................ . ... . ..... . ....................................... THE VEDIC CIVILIZATION
BEFORE we proceed to discuss the Vedic
civilization it will be useful to have some
idea about its source - the Vedic
literature. The most important
source are the Vedas. Veda means
"knowledge". The Vedas are neither
any individual religious work nor a
collection of definite number of books
compiled at a particular time. The Vedic
literature had grown in the course of
many centuries and was handed down
from generation to generation by word
of mouth. It consists of three
successive classes of literary creations.
Some of these still exist, but many have
been completely lost for ever. These
three classes are :
1. The Vedas: A collection of hymns,
prayers, charms, litanies and
sacrificial formulae. There are four
Vedas, namely:
(i) RigVeda - a collection of
hymns
(ii) Samveda - a collection of
songs mostly taken from
Rig Veda
(iii) Yajurveda - a collection of
sacrificial formulae
(iv) Atharvaveda - a collection of
spells and charms
The Vedas formed the earliest
segment of Vedic literature and
amongst the Vedas, RigVeda is the
oldest.
2. The Brahmanas : These are prose
texts which contain details about the
meanipg of Vedic hymns, their
applications, stories of their origins, etc.
In a way these contain details about
rituals and philosophies.
3. Aranyakas and Upanishads:
These are partly included in the
Brahmanas or attached there to, and
partly exist as separate works. They
embody philosophical meditations of
the hermits and ascetics on soul, god,
world etc.
The Brahmanas, the Aranyakas
and the Upanishads are attached to
one or the other of the four Vedas.
Authorship of the Vedic Literature
Although the hymns are attributed to
rishis, pious Hindus have always laid
stress upon their divine origin. Thus,
the Vedas are called apaurusheya (not
created by man) and nitya (existing in
all eternity) while the rishis are known
as inspired seers who received the
mantras from the Supreme deity.
Age of RigVeda
The date of Rig Veda and Vedic literature
has formed the subject of keen a nd
protracted controversy. Max Muller,
who first dealt with the question,
began with the age of Buddha a nd
arbitrarily assigned 200 years to
the development of each of the three
stages of Vedic literature and thus
came to the conclusion that RigVeda
mus t have been composed around
1200- 1000 B. C. When questioned and
criticised by his contemporaries like
W.D. Whitney for his totally arbitrary,
'unscientific and unacademic method,
Max Muller confessed that he was
merely speculating and stated:
"whether the Vedic hymns were
composed 1000,1500 or 2000 or
3000 B.C., no power on earth will ever
83
~
-:. ANCIENT INDIA .................................................................................................................. .
determine". It may, in passing be stated
that Max Muller as a true Christian
believed in the genesis stories of the
Bible and that the world was created in
4004 B.C. We have seen in Chapter 5
that the origin of the earth goes back to
about 4600 million years and the origin
. of humans themselves goes back to
about 4.2 million years.
Similarly, on the analogy of the
language of Avesta, some scholars
opined that the date of RigVeda may
be 1000 B.C. But the fact that some of
the Vedic gods namely Indra, Varuna,
Mitra and the two Nasatyas are
mentioned in Boghaz-Koi (Asia Minor)
inscription of 1400 B.C. prove that
Rig Veda must have come into existence
much before that date. The Boghaz-
Koi inscription records a treaty between
the Hittite and the Mitanni Kings and
these gods are cited as witness to this
treaty, exactly the way even today oath
is taken in the courts and on
assumption of a public office in the
name of god.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak, on
astronomical grounds, dated RigVeda
to . 6000 B.C. According to Harmon
Jacobi Vedic civilization flourished
between 4500 B.C. and 2500 B.C. and
the Samhitas were composed in the
latter half of the period. Famous
Sanskritist , Winternitz felt that the
Rig Veda was probably composed in the
third millennium B.C. R.K. Mookerjee
opined that "on a modest computation,
we should come to 2500 B.C. as the
time of Rig Veda" . G . C. Pande also
favours a dal e of 300u B.C. or even
earlier.
84
RigVedic Geography: From the
names of rivers, mountains and regions
mentioned in RigVeda we have a clear
idea of the geographical area in which
RigVedic people, who called themselves
Aryans, lived. The Nadisukta hymn of
the RigVeda mentions 21 rivers which
include the Ganga in the east and the
Kubha (Kabul) in the west. All rivers
like the Yamuna, Saraswati, Sutlej,
Ravi , Jhelum and Indus located
between the Ganga and Kabul rivers
are mentioned not arbitrarily but
serially beginning from the east i.e.
Ganga to the west i.e. Kubha. In the
north, the RigVeda mentions the
Himalayas and Mujavant mountains.
It also mentions ocean (samudra) in
connection with rivers Sindhu and
Saraswati falling into ocean. The ocean
is also mentioned in the context of
foreign trade. The RigVedic geography,
therefore, covers present-day western
Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, whole of Pakistan
and south Afghanistan.
~ ,. t es· The territory
known to Vedic people was divided into
a number of states-republics and
monarchical. The battle of ten kings,
gives names of ten kings who
participated in a war against Sudas
who was Bharata king ofTritsus family.
The ten kings were of the states of
Purus, Yadus, Turvasas, Anus and
Druhyus along with five others viz
Alinas, Pakhtas, Bhalanas, Sibis
and Vishanins. The battle was fought
on the bank of Parushani (Ravi) and
Sudas emerged victorious. In the
context of another battle of Sudas,
.. . .... . .... . . .. ............ ... .... . .. . ......... .. ........ . ...... . .... . . . .... . .... . . . ... ........... THE VEDlC CiViLIZATION ;.t
Rig 'Veda mentions people and kings
like Ajias, Sigrus, Yakshus etc. The
8 haratas, who gave their name to the
whole country as 'Bharatvarshd, are
the most important people of the
Rig Veda. They were settled in the
region between the Saraswati and
Yamuna. Similarly the RigVeda gives
the location of other people like the
Purus in the region of Kurukshetra;
the Tritsus east of Ravi; the Alinas, the
Pakhtas, the Bhalanas and the Sibis
west of Indus upto Kabul river and
so on.
The struggle for supremacy
among different kings and republics
chiefs was a part of the evolutionary
process towards the formation of a
larger political entity.
Polity and Administration : The
political structure of RigVedic India
may be traced in the following
ascending order:
(i) The Family (kula)
(ii) The Village (grama)
(iii) The Clan (vis)
(iv) The People Uana)
(v) The Country (rashtra)
Kula (family) was the smallest unit.
It included all the people living under
the same roof (griha). An aggregate of
several families made up the grama lilce
today, and its headman was called
gramini. The next larger formation was
called t.he vis, under the head called
vispati. Larger than vis was jana.
Regarding jana we get mention of
panchajanah and of people called
Yadus, (Yadva-janaha) and Bharatas
(Bharata-janaha). The king is also
called the protector of t he jana or
people. Above the jana was rashtra,
i.e . t h ~ country.
The hereditary n10narchy was t he
normal form of Government but an
elected king also fmds mention. We also
hear of chiefs, democratically elected by
the assembly of people Uana).
The kingdoms (rashtra) were
generally small states ruled by kings
(rajana) but the word samrat does
indicate that s ome of them must have
had bigger kingdoms and enjoyed
position of greater authority and
dignity, markedly different from others.
The king administered justice with the
assistance of purohita and other
officials. For his services the king was
paid bali (voluntary gift or tribute). The
bali came to the king from his own
people and also from defeated people.
Theft, burglary, robbery, and cattle
lifting were the principal crimes which
were strongly dealt with by the
administration.
Among the important royal officials,
were the purohita (chief priest and
minister), senani (army chief) and
gramini (head of village). We hear also
of dutas (envoys) and spies (spas).
There must have been many others,
who are not mentioned in the literature.
Great prominence is given in the
RigVeda to two popular assemblies
ca lled sabha and samiti which seem to
have formed an essential feature of the
government. We possess no definite
information about the composition of
the either, or the distinction between the
two. Most probably the samiti, which
mainly dealt with policy decisions and
political business, included common
85
ANCIENT INDIA ......................................................................... . . . ..................... . .. . ......... . . .
people while the sabha, less political
in character, was a more select body of
the Elders or Nobles.
It was through these two assemblies
that the will of the people on important
matters of the rashtra was expressed.
Society: The RigVedic society
comprised four varnas, namely
Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya and
Sudra. This classification of society was
based on the occupation of individuals.
The teacher and priests were called
Brahmanas; rulers and administrators
kshatriyas; farmers, merchants and
bankers vaisyas; and artisan and
labourers as sudras. These vocations
were followed by persons according to
their ability and liking, and the
occupations had not become hereditary
as they become later on. Members of
the same family took to different
professions and belonged to different
varnas is well illustrated by a hymn of
the RigVeda (ix.1l2). In this hymn a
person says:
I am a singer;
my father is a physician,
my mother is a grinder of corn;
having various occupations,
desiring riches we remain (in the
world) like cattle (in the stalls).
It is, therefore, clear that there was
freedom and mobility for the adoption
of a profession and the idea of
hereditary trades and occu pations was
not envisaged in t he society.
The unit of s ociety was family,
primar ily monoga mous a n d patri-
achical. Child marriage was not in
vogue. There are a few references to the
... ~ .... . . ... . .... . .. .. .
86
freedom of choice in marriage. A widow
could marry the younger brother of her
deceased husband. Th e wife was
husband's partner in all religious and
social ceremonies . The father' s
property was inherited by son. The
daughter could inherit it only if she
was the only child of her parents.
Righ t to property was known in
moveable things like cattle, horse, gold
and ornament and so a l so in
immoveable property like land and
house.
Education: The home of the teacher
was the school where he taught the
particular sacred texts. The texts were
in the first instance learnt by pupils
repeating the words taught by
their teacher. A great importance
was attached to enunciation and
pronunciation. Intense training was
given to students in oral tradition. It
was this training and learning which
saved a huge mass of Vedic literature.
Food and Drinks: Milk and its
products - curd, butter and ghee-
formed an important part of the diet.
There is also mention grain cooked with
milk' (kshira-pakamodanam).Bread
{chappatl) of wheat and barley was
eaten mixed with ghee. Not only were
fish, birds, wild animals like boar,
antelopes, and buffalo (gawl, etc. eaten
but on ceremonial occasion s the meat
of animals which were sacrificed, such
as sheep, goat and buffalo etc. was also
eaten. The cow was already deemed
aghnya "not to be killed". The Vedas
pre scribe a penalty of death or
expUlsion from t he kingdom to those
who kill or injure cows. Alcoholic drinks,
sura and soma were also consumed,
. .. .. ... .. .... .. ................................... . ..................... . ...................... THE VEDIC CIVILIZATION
though their consumption has been
condemned because of its intoxicating
effect, which sometimes gave rise to
broils in the Sabha.
Economic Life: The economic
life of the RigVedic people centered
around agriculture, cattle rearing and
trade and commerce. Oxen were used
for ploughing and drawing carts and
horses for drawing the chariots. Other
domestic animals were cows, sheep,
goats, asses, dogs, buffalos etc.
The RigVeda attached great
importance to agriculture. The plough
was drawn by the oxen at times in
teams of six, eight or even twelve. The
grains were harvested with sickles.
The manure was also used. From
various references in the RigVeda it
appears that irrigation was also
practised; excess of rains and drought
is mentioned as damaging the crops.
The grains are collectively called Yava
and dhanya. The later Vedic texts
mention ten cultivated kinds of grains.
Among the other occupations,
pottery-making, weaving, carpentry,
metal working, leather-working etc. are
most noteworthy. During the RigVedic
period only copper was used for which
the general term - 'ayas' has been
used. In a later period when iron came
into use, copper and iron came to be
known as lohit ayas and syam ayas
respectively.
The trade and traders (vanik) were
known in the RigVedic era. Barter was
in vogue. It has been found that ten
cows were quoted as the price for an
image ofIndra. The conception of money
can be traced in the mention of a gift
of 100 nishkas. Money-lending was
also known. There is a mention of an
eighth or a sixteenth part of one being
paid either as an interest or part of the
principle. The sea is mentioned in the
context of trade and ocean wealth, like
pearls and shells.
Religion and Philosophy: During
the RigVedic time the gods worshipped
are generally the personified powers
of nature. The Vedic gods can be
classified into three categories, namely
terrestrial (prithivisthana) , aerial or
intermediate (antarikshasthana) , and
. celestial (dyusthana). Prithivi, Agni,
Soma, Brihaspati and rivers belong to
the first category; Indra, Apam-napat,
Rudra, Vayu-Vata, Prujanya, andApah
(water) to the second and Dyaus,
Varuna, Mitra, Surya, Savitri, Pushan,
Vishnu, the Adityas, Ushas and the
Asvins to the third. Indra and Varuna
(the supreme cosmic and moral ruler)
stand out, in that order, pre-eminent
above the rest. Agni and Soma were also
popular deities. Agni was revered as the
messenger between the earth and the
heaven. Further, Agni is the only God
who is regarded as present among all
the categories of Gods.
The Gods are described as born, yet
they are immortal. In appearance they
are humans, though sometimes they are
conceived as animals, e.g. Dyaus as
bull and Sun as a swift horse. The food
of men such as milk, grain, flesh, etc.
becomes the food of Gods when
offered in the sacrifice. On the whole,
the gods are benevolent, some of them
also had malevolent traits, like Rudra
and Maruta. Splendour, strength,
87
;... ANCIENT INDIA ..................... . ..........•..... •...... •..... •..•. .•.•...•. . ..•.•..•.•.• •••. . •.•.• . .... ............•.......
knowledge, possession and tnlth are
common attributes of the deities.
Prayers and offering to these Gods
were made for material gains, also for
enlightenment and knowledge. For
example, the most popular and famous
Gayatri Mantra is recited daily by the
pious Hindus even today.
Besides the ritualistic aspect of
religion, there is profound philosophy.
The multiplicity of gods is openly
questioned and the ultimate unity of
universe is asserted as the creation of
one God to whom different designations
applied. The creation is deemed as the
outcome of the sacrifice made by the
Vzratpurusha or of evolution from non-
being manifested in the form of water.
It is said that Hiranyagarbha arose
from the great waters, pervading the
universe, and thus created the waves
out of eternally pre-existing matter.
This hymn devoted to Visvakarman
tells us that the waters contained the
primordial germ -- the floating world-
egg from which arises Visvakarman ,
the first born in the universe - the
creator and maker of the world. It is
now confirmed by science that life first
developed in water. One of the RigVedic
hymns pointedly says, " There is one
reality (ekarn sat} whom the sages
speak of in many ways, calling it Agni,
Yama or Matarisvan".
The Question of the Aryan Invasion
The Florentine merchant Filippo
Sassetti, who lived in Goa for five years
from A.D. 1583 to 1588, was struck by
similarities between Sanskrit and
European languages, especially Latin
88
and Greek. Later it was further
elaborated by Sir William Jones and
many other scholars who were in the
service of East India Company. To
account for similarities between
European and Indian languages, some
scholars postulated that the ancestors
of Indians and Europeans must at one
time have lived in the same region and
spoken the same language. They
called this Indo-European language,
and their common homeland as the
Indo-European homeland. Scholars do
not agree about many of these linguistic
propositions. However, the problem
with the original homeland of the
Aryans is still a matter of debate and
there is a great divergence of opinion.
Various scholars have propounded
different homelands like Steppe of
centra] Asia, southern Russia ,
southern Europe, Germany, Chinese
Turkistan or even Mediterranean area
like Palestine and Israel, almost where
except India where the Vedic language
and its literature found the full
expreSSIOn and endured the longest.
Schclars do not agree also regarding
the time of their migration to various
areas like India, Eurasia, western Asia
and Europe. Some think that the
Aryans spread along with the spread
of Neolithic (agriculture about 9000
years ago) while others link it with the
spread of Bronze Age.
The oldest surviving records of the
Aryans is the Rig Veda. The RigVeda
does not give even an inkling of any
migration of AryclT)s from any other
area. It does not even have a faint
memory of any such migration. It does
....... . .... . ... . .................. . .......................................... .. ... .. ............ THE VEDIC CIVILIZATION
not have any knowledge even of the
geography beyond the known
boundaries of Ancient India. Some
scholars think that Aryans came to
India around 1500 B.C. Max Muller
thought that even 1200 or 1000 B.C.
date could be assigned to this event.
This was because Max Muller as a true
Christian believed in Bible according to
which the world was created on 23rd
October 4004 B.C. and thus the entire
human history has to be fitted within
the 6000 years.
Many scholars think that the Aryans
were originally inhabitants of India
and did not come from outside. It has
been argued by such scholars that there
is no archaeological or biological
evidence which could establish the
arrival of any new people from outside
between 5000 B.C. and 800 B.C. This
would mean that if at all there was any
migration of Aryans or for that matter
of any, other people, in India, it may
have taken place at least eight or nine
thousand years ago or after 800 B.C.
to both of which there is no evidence.
Further, the skeletal remains found
from various Harappan sites resemble
the skeltons of the modern popu lation
of the same geographical area.
Harappan Civilization and
the RigVeda
Since the discovery of the Harappan
civilization many scholars have tried to
identify this with the long literary and
cultural tradition of In dia on the one
hand and the Aryans on the other. In
the very first decade of its discovery some
historians and archaeologists thought
Harappan civilization represents the
Vedic civilization, but the paucity of
evidence became the main argument
of the opponents of the theory. The
researches carried out over a period of
last 50 years have added a new
evidences and have altered the picture
considerably.
A crit ical consideration of the
evidence of the Rig Veda will lead to the
conclusion that references it contains
about people and their civilization may
be taken to refer to the Harappan
civilization. The reference to RigVedic
deities in Boghaz-Koi inscription of
fourteenth century B.C. would indicate
that the Rig Veda existed earlier and the
culture migr ated from India to Asia
Minor in that early age. As has been
explained in the chapter earlier, the age
of the RigVeda in its fmal form should
be placed not later than about 3,000
B.C. In the following pages we shall look
at the s imilarit ies and differences
between the RigVedic and Harappan
civilizations.
The geographical distribution of the
Harappan sites can be s e ~ n in the light
of RigVedic geography also. As we have
seen in t he previous section, the
RigVedic geography extended from
Mghanistan in the north to Gujarat in
the south, Ganga in the east to Kubha
(Kabul) Pakistan in the west. Among
a ll t he rivers in the RigVeda the
Saraswati is considered to be the most
importa nt and sacred and the areas
around the Saraswati and its
tributaries were the core culture areas.
As we have seen earlier, the main area
of Harappan civilization is the
89
ANCIENT INDIA .... .. .. . .. . . .• .......•...•.. . . . ............ . ... . .... . ..... . ............... . .. .... . .. ... . ..................... . .
Saraswati valley where more than 80%
of the Harappan settlements are
located. Thus the RigVedic and the
Harappan geography are the same.
The Rig Veda refers to hundreds of
cities, towns and forts, which are broad
(prithvi) and wide (urui) , full of kine
(gomaa), of 100 pillars (satabhujl) built
of stone (asmamaYl), and to autumnal
(saradi) forts as refuge against
inundations. Indra is known as
Purandara "Lord of cities". The
RigVeda also mentions of business and
mercantile people to whom it calls
vanik and panis respectively and refers
to the Vedic people such as Turvasa
and Yadu, as hailing from the sea.
Most of the animals known to the
Indus people are also known to the
RigVeda, such as sheep, dog, buffalo,
bull, etc. The animals hunted by the
RigVedic people vere antelopes, boars,
buffalos (gaur), lions, and elephants most
(a) (b)
of which are also familiar to the Indus
people. Horse was an important animal
in the vedic period. Horse bones and
terracotta figurines have been found at
some Harappan sites.
Fig. 9.1 A Terracotta Figurine of
Horse from Lothal
Some of the religious practices of
the Harappan people are followed by
the modern Hindus. Worship of pipal
trees, bull, Siva-lingas is seen in the
Harappan civilization. The kamandalu,
, ~
I-L--'--;-"---'-' -...I eM
__..c:=..._-'----'L.
(c) (d)
Fig. 9.2 (a) A Terracotta Figurine in Namaskar Mudra (b) Pipal Tree (c) Painting Depicting the
Story of "Thirsty Crow" (d) A Terracotta Figurine with. Vermillion i n the Hair Parting
90
........................... . ...................... . .. . .............. . ....................... . . .. THE VEDIC CIVILIZATION
which is seen in the modern days as
one of the most auspicious possessions
of asetics, is also found in the
Harappan civilization. A large number
of figurines in various yogic postures
have also been found. Some terracotta
figurines of women found at Nausharo
still have vermillion in their
hair-parting. This is the most precious
and sacred symbol of married
Hindu women. A terracotta tablet
from Harappa depicts the scene of
Mahisa sacrifice, reminding us of
Mahisasuramardini.
These are earrings, necklaces, bracelets,
anklets, garlands and jewels for the
neck. We have seen that most of these
ornaments were also in use by the
Harappan people.
Besides gold, the RigVeda mentions
another metal called ayas, of which
vessels were made. In RigVeda, ayas
is used as a general term for metal. but
in Atharvaveda we find the mention of
lohit ayas and syam ayas meaning
copper and iron respectively. Scholars
agree that in RigVedic times only copper
was known and so the term ayas
Fig. 9.3 A row of Seven Fire Altars (havana-kundas) found at Kalibangan
The stories of the "cunning fox" and
"thirsty crow" are found painted on
Harappan vases. The swastika, the
sacred symbol of the Hindus, is found
on seals as well as in paintings. The
fire-altars serving as havana-kundas
are also very much a part of the
Harappan civilization.
As regards metals, the RigVeda
knows ornaments of gold (hiranya).
denotes copper. The RigVeda also
mentions implements of stone, such as
stone pulley i.e., sling-stones.
The treatment of hair by the men
and women as mentioned in the
RigVeda also bears some resemblance
to Harappan practice. The hair was
combed and oiled. There is a mention
of a maiden wearing her hair in four
plaits. Men also sometimes styled their
91
A NCIENT INDIA .. . • . . .. . .• . ....................................... . .. .. . ...... .. ........ ... .. .. . .... . .. .................... ..
hair in coils, and grew beards, which is
all visible in the teITacotta fi gurines of
the Harappan civilization.
The Rig Veda refers to the weaver
and to his loom, the shuttle, the warp
and the woof for weaving a doth.
Remains of cloth have been found in
certain Harappan sites and some
figures are shown as wearing a cloth.
The above similarities, and many
others found between the RigVedic and
Harappan civilization have l e d a
number of scholars to conclude that the
Harappan civilization is the same as the
Vedic civili.7..a.tion and the Aryans did not
come to India from outside. However,
there are other scholars who
Vedic culture as different from that of
the Harappan civilization.
The whole question of the Aryan
invasion theory has most aptly
been summed up by the famous
anthropologist , Professor Edmund
Leach ofCambrid.-;e University. In 1990
in his famous arucle 'Aryan Invasions
over Four Millennia' published in
the book, Culture Through Time:
Exercises
1. .Explain the following :
Anthropological Approaches he wrote,
"Why do serious scholars persist in
believing in the Aryan invasion? ( ... )
Why is this sort of thing attractive?
Who finds it attractive? Why has the
development of early Sanskrit come
to be so dogmatically associated with
an Aryan Invasion? ( ... ) The details of
this theory fit in with this racist
framework ( ... ) The origin myth of
British Colonial imperialism helped
the elite administrators in the Indian
Civil Service to see themselves as
bringing 'pure' civilization to a country
in which civilization of the most
sophisticated kind was already nearly
6000 years old. Here, I will only remark
that the hold if this myth on the
British middle class imagination is so
strong that even today, 44 years after
the death of HitJer and 43 years after
the creation of an independent India
and independent Pakistan, the Aryan
invasions of the second millennium
BC are still treated as if they were an
established fact of history ( ... ) The
Aryan invasions never happenend
at all".
Vedas, Brahmana..<;, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Gramini, Bali, Sabha, Samiti,
Hiranyagarbh.a, Kula, Rash.tra.
2. Describe the Vedic literature.
3. Describe the RigVedic geography with reference to rivers and mountains.
4. Describe the RigVedic states and their political structure.
5. Discuss the society and economy of the RigVedic people.
6. Discuss the religion and philosophy of the RigVedic period.
7. Discuss the evidence pointing towards similarities between the Harappan
and RigVediccultures.
8. Discuss the question of Aryan migration and the age of RigVeda.
92
, (
, "
CHAPTER 10
, ,
ru THE LATER AGE
\ 1, t 'l\;:
.
l 1 THE ,four,"Vedas were. fOllow(
f ,. , .... '
'!he 'AranyC{kas artd the Upar
"T tV: ':.j,t\'"'}1 \ {'
l"J!'" II rt .\ .... t,
L l'k:til i \1"
.t.
"
"
,.'-' J (
,/
I'
t'e Brahrrianas,
"
\ 0,
'Tt
1 '
\,
, ,
\ J
.. f ...
. ~
~ " ANCIENT INDIA ................................................................................................................. .
WE have seen earlier how different
branches of Vedic literature had grown
out of one another. The four Vedas
were followed by the Brahmanas, the
Aranyakas and the Upanishads. The
Brahmanas, the earliest of the Aryan's
prose literature, explain in detail
various Vedic sacrificial ceremonies and
their origins. Aranyakas are the
concluding portions of the Brahmanas
and are called so because the
philosophical and mystical character of
their contents required that they should
be studied in the solitude ofthe aranya
or forest. The Aranyakas form a
tradition that culminates in the
Upanishads, the last phase ofthe Vedic
literature. The RigVeda broadly deals
with ritualistic (Karmakanda) and
philosophical aspects. The ritualistic
aspect is elaborated in the Brahmanas
and the philosophic aspect is
elaborated in the Upanishads.
Upanishads do not believe in the
sacrificial acquiring ceremonies but in
knowledge by which deliverance is
obtained from mundane existence
through the absorption of the
individual soul (Atman) in the
world-soul. (Brahma). The two oldest
and most important of the
Upanishads are the Chhandogya and
Brihadaranyaka. Other important
Upanishads include Kathak, [sa,
Mundaka, Prasna, etc.
Geography and the New Political
States : We have already seen that the
main settlement of the RigVedic people
was the region of Indus and Saraswati
Valleys. During the period represented
by the later Samhitas and Brahmanas
the settlements covered virtually the
94
whole of northern India. The centre of
civilization now shifted from Saraswati
to Ganga which now occupies the
proud place of the most revered and
sacred river ofIndia. This progress was
accompanied by another remarkable
development and that is gradual
expansion and consolidation of vis.
The earlier known jana like Bharatas,
Purus, Tritsus, and Turvasas of the
RigVedic period slowly were merging
with other janas and disappearing
from the scene. In a way gradual
consolidation and expansion of some
of the states started taking place.
Relatively minor janas of RigVedic
times like Purus became more powerful
and began to play more dominant role.
We no longer hear of the Anus,
Druhyus, Turvasas, the Krivis, etc.
Besides these, in the eastern Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar areas also such
states as Kasi, Kosala, Videha, Magadha
and Anga developed. However, the areas
of south India are not clearly
mentioned. The political life became
more vivid and the struggle for
supremacy among different states was
of frequent occurrence. The ideal of
universal empire loomed large.
The expansion of people towards the
east is indicated in a legend of Satapatha
Brahmana - how Videgh Madhav
migrated from Saraswati region, the land
of Vedic Culture, crossed Sadanira
(modern Gandak river), the eastern
boundary of Kosala and came to the land
of Videha (modern Tirhut). The texts
testify the growth of three kingdoms,
namely, Kosala, Kasi and Videha. It may
be noted that ti111950 no archaeological
evidence could take the antiquity of
, ...................................................................... . ..... . . . ..................... THE LATER VEDIC AGE A
cultures in the Ganga valley prior to
the sixth century B.C. Thereafter,
the excavations at Hastinapur,
Atranjikhera, and many other sites have
revealed cultures ranging from 2000
B.C. onwards. The recent excavations
at Raja-Nal-ka-Tila in Sonbhadra
district and other sites have taken
back the date for use of iron in
adjoining Varanasi district, ancient
Kasi, to c. 1500 B.C. Some characteristic
pottery of post Harappan period are
Ochre Coloured Pottery (O.C.P.)
(c. 2000-1500) Black and Red ware,
Painted Grey Ware (c. 1200-600 B.C.)
etc. By about seventh century B.C.,
Northern Black Polished (N.B.P.) ware
came to be manufactured.
Kuru-Panchala appears to be the
same geographical region as modern
western and central Uttar Pradesh. In
the Upanishads the Kuru-Panchala
region is mentioned as the seat of
culture and prosperity. The Panchala
king Pravahana Jaivali is mentioned as
daily attending the Panchala parishad.
The texts testify the three kingdoms of
Kosala, Kasi and Videha as seats of
Vedic culture. Magadha and Anga are
also mentioned as distant lands in the
Atharvaveda. The RigVedic Kikatas
have been identified with Magadha.
Matsya janapada also gets mentioned.
In south, Vidarbha (Maharashtra) is
mentioned. Madra was located in the
Punjab region, further west is
associated with Bahlikas, Kesins,
Kekayas and Kamboja.
Polity and Administration : Side by
side with the growth oflarger states, we
find that detailed political and
administrative structure was also
emerging. Kingship was consolidating
itself as the normal form of government
with the states growing both in number
and size. The kingship was being given
the status of divine origin. There was
also emerging the concept of a king of
kings. Expressions like adhiraj,
rajadhiraja, samrat and ekrat are
used in most of the texts. The
Atharvaveda defines ekrat to be the
paramount sovereign. There also
developed special ceremonies for the
anointment of kings, such as the
Vajpeya, Rajsuya and Ashvamedha.
Though the monarchy established
itself on firm foundations, it was not
absolute but limited in several ways.
Within the framework of kingship, there
were operating certain democratic
elements. These were: (i) The people's
right in choosing their king; (ii) the
conditions imposed on king's rights and
duties; (iii) the kings dependence on the
council of his ministers; and the
assemblies of people, sabha and samiti,
as check upon king's absolutism.
Under no circumstances was the
king considered the sole owner of the
kingdom with absolute power over the
objects and subjects. The king was
supposed to be only a trustee and the
kingdom as a trust. The condition of
his holding it was, "the promotion of the
people's well being and progress".
Besides, the ministers and officials,
sabha and samiti played important role
in the administration. The sabha
functioned as a parliament for disposal
of public business by debate and
discussion. The Chief of the sabha
was called sabhapati, the keepers as
sabhapala and the members as
sabheya, sabhasad or sabhasina.
95
' ~
, ANCIENT INDIA ....... . .. . . .. .. ..... . ........................................... . .. . ... . ... . ............ . .... . ...... . ...... .. ..... .
There were rules which governed
the debate in sabha and Vajsaneyi
Samhita mentions that erring members
were 'rebuked'. Sabha also seems to
have functioned as a court of justice. It
is said that, "one who attends the sabha
sits as a law court to dispense dharma
Uustice)".
The samitiwas different than sabha
in the function and composition. The
sabha was a smaller select body and
also functioned as the lower court, while
the samiti was the larger General
Assembly of the people. Accordingly,
the latter is referred to as expressing
the voice of vis (people), which is
explained by the fact that in one
instance it is the samiti which chooses
the king and in another it withdraws
that choice for the king's misdeeds and
tyranny.
However, the increase in complexity
in the society and political structure is
duly reflected in the enlarged entourage
of the state. We hear of new officials such
as suta (charioteer), sangrahitri
(treasurer), bhagadugha (collector of
taxes) , gramini (head of village),
sthapati (chief judge), takshan
(carpenter), kshatri (chamberlain) and
several others whose exact function
cannot be ascertained. Everything
indicates that the administrative
machinery was highly organised and
became an efficient instrument for
ruling over a large kingdom.
The liberal spirit of the age is
reflected in the following advice which,
according to the Yajurveda, was
tendered by the priest to the king at the
coronation ceremony: "As a ruler, from
this day onwards, judge the strong and
96
weak impartially and fairly. Strive
unceasingly to do good to the people
and above all protect the country from
all calamities".
We find that legal institutions were
also coming into sharper focus . The
king administered justice and wielded
the rod of punishment. Among the
crimes enumerated are theft, robbery,
adultery, incest, abduction, killing of
man. Killing of cow, slaying of
brahmana, drinking intoxicating liquor,
treachery, etc. were punishable by
death. Petty offences were left to "village
judges". For evidence, the eye-witness
was more important than informer. The
punishments for crime were rather
severe. The law was also very clear on
the question of inheritance of property,
ownership of land, etc. The father's
property was to be inherited by sons
alone. The daughters could inherit it
only if she was the only child or there
were no male issues.
Social System : The gradual political
evolution was by no means the most
important factor in the history of
later Vedic period. Changes of far
greater significance were gradually
taking place in the society and religion.
In the RigVedic period society
comprised four varnas depending on
one's profession and within a family,
members could follow the professions
of different varnas. In later Vedic period,
varnas came to be birth-based rather
than profession-based. The proliference
of professions gave rise to jatis. But the
jati system was not yet as rigid as it
became during the period of the sutras.
It was somewhere in the middle of
flexible RigVedic society and rigid
............................................. . . ................................ .... .. ........ .... .. THE LATER VEDIC AGE , -
society of the Sutra period. Emergence
of jati was very unusual but perhaps
not impossible in that age. The RigVeda
describes Vishvamitra as a rishi but
Aitareya Brahmana mentions him as
kshatriya. In the same Brahmana we
find that rigidity in terms of jati is
coming up. The position offourth varna,
i.e. sudra was made miserable by
depriving them of the rights of
performing sacrifices, learning the
sacred texts and of even holding landed
property. The most glaring evil of the
jati system, namely, the concept of
untouchability had not yet reared its
ugly head. There are instances of
individuals such as Kavasha, Vatsa and
Satyakama Jabala who were born in
non-brahman jatis but came to be
known as great brahmans. On the
whole, jati had not yet become a rigid
system, and none of the three factors
which characterised it later viz.
prohibition of inter-dining, inter-
marriage and determination of varna by
descent, were yet established on a rigid
basis.
Economic life: The growth of economic
prosperity is indicated in many prayers
contained in the Atharvaveda for
the success of farmers, shepherds,
merchants and so on. There are prayers
for ploughing, sowing, rains, increase
in cattle, wealth and exorcism against
beasts, wild animals and robbers and
the likes. The plough was known as
sira and the furrow sita. Cow dung
was used as manure. There is mention
of six, eight and even twenty-four oxen
yoked to a plough. Many kinds of grains
were grown such as rice, barley, beans
and sesame. Their seasons are also
mentioned: barley sown in winter,
ripened in summer; rice sown in the
rains, reaped in autumn. The
Satapatha Brahmana enumerates
various operations of agriculture such
as ploughing, sowing, reaping and
threshing.
Agriculture suffered from the
usual pests - the moles that destroyed
the seed and other creatures that
harmed the tender shoots . The
Atharvaveda mentions that drought
and excess rains threatened
agriculture. Cattle wealth was
considered to be of great significance
and a fairly long hymn in the
Atharvaveda shows reverence to cow
and the death penalty prescribed for
cow -killing.
Rich merchants have been often
referred to. Moneylending was in vogue.
Specific weight and measure-units were
also known. Niska and satamana were
the units of currency. There is no
evidence of the use of coins with specific
weight, size and device during the time
under discussion. Haggling in the
market was known from RigVedic times
itself. Sea-borne trade was well known
and Aitareya Brahmana speaks of the
"inexhaustible sea" and "the sea as
encircling the earth".
Bali, which was earlier only a
voluntary gift to chief, had now
become a regular tax and was collected
to maintain the political and
administrative structure.
There has been a striking develop-
ment in industry and occupations.
During this period, we hear of
97
- ANCIENT INDIA ... •. . ............ . . . ............................. .... .. .. . . .... . . . ........................................ . ....
fishennen, fire and rangers, washennen,
barbers, butchers, elephant-keepers,
footmen, messengers, makers of
jewels, baskets, ropes, dyes, chariots,
bows, smelters, smiths, potters etc.
Merchants, long distance caravans
and sea trade are mentioned. Guilds of
craftsmen also came into existence.
The word sreshthi, head of guild, finds
mention in several texts.
During the period of Rig Veda we
find the mention of only ayas which has
been taken as copper/bronze. With the
introduction of a new metal i.e. , iron
in this age we get the tenns syam ayas
(iron) and lohit ayas (copper). Besides
these, gold, lead and tin are also
referred to. While the iron was used for
making weapons and other objects
like nail-parers, hammers, clamps,
ploughshares etc. The copper was used
for making vessels. Silver (rajat) and
Gold were used for making ornaments,
dishes etc.
Education: This period witnessed the
growth of a vast and varied literature.
The Upanishads, being the highest
level of intellectual attainments, which
was no doubt the outcome of
intellectual pursuits of the time.
Education began with the Upanayana
ceremony which was considered as
second birth of the child and that is why
after this ceremony he came to be
known as dvija. The aim of learning
was faith, retention of knowledge
acquired, progeny, wealth, longevity
and immortality. They, thus ,
comprehended success in both worldly
as well as spiritual life. The duties of
pupils were well defined.
98
During this period under
discussion there were three stages of
studies. In the first stage, pupils
studied at the homes of their teachers
where they lived as family members and
participated in the household works
also. Beside these, there were small
schools of learning run by an
individual teacher who would choose
his own pupils. There were other
means of education. The educated
men even as a householder carried on
their quest of knowledge by mutual
discussions and regularly visiting the
distinguished--sages and learned
scholars at different centres or while
they were moving from one place to
another. There were also parishads in
different janapadas patronised by
kings. Besides these residential
schools, academies for advanced
study and circles of philosophical
discussions, a great impetus to
learning came from the assemblies of
learned men, gathered together by
kings. A typical example of these was
the conference of the learned organised
by king Janak of Videha, which is
mentioned in the Brihadaranyaka
Upanishad. The participants in this
conference were Yajnavaikya, Uddalaka
Aruni, Sakalya, Gargi and a number
of other scholars. The details of
this conference and various topics
discussed there are given in
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Learning
was sought from those who were
knowledgeable. We learn that
Yajnavalkya, after completing his
education with Uddalaka Aruni, went
to Janaka (a king and kshatriya) to
A
.......................... . ............................................................. .. ........ THE LATER VEDIC AGE ~
study philosophy and other subjects.
However, in the Janaka's conference
Yajnavalkya defeated all the
participants in discussions and was
declared as the most learned and wise.
Significantly, an active part was
taken in intellectual pursuit by women.
Gargi and Maitreyi are the great
examples. The RigVeda refers to a
number of women who composed
hymns. An important feature of the time
is the part taken by kshatriyas in the
intellectual pursuit. Janaka, the king
of Videha, Pravahana J aivali, the king
of Panchala, Asvapati Kaikeya the
king of Kasi - all kshatriyas, were well
known scholars to whom even the
learned brahmans came to for
further instructions.
The texts mention the subjects
of study at the time. The Chhandogya
Upanishad mentions such subjects as
the study of Vedas, Mathematics,
Mineralogy, Logic, Ethics, Military
Science, Astronomy, Science dealing
with poisons, Fine Arts and Crafts,
Music, and Medical Sciences.
The Mundaka Upanishad classifies
all these subjects of study under
Aparavidya. It reserves the term
Paravidya for the highest knowledge,
the knowledge of atman, which involves
knowledge of life, death, God etc.
Religion and Philosophy: The
Brahmanas record the growth of
ritualIsm and ceremonial religion and
the consequent growth of priesthood.
From simple sacrifices occupying just
one day or a couple of days, there were
now many, lasting from twelve days to
a year or even more. While the Rig Veda
knows of only seven priests and two
chief priests, now a large-scale
ceremonies required seventeen
priests. There were domestic rites and
sacraments which embraced the entire
life span of a man - from his birth to
death, or rather beyond it, as
ceremonies were also performed for the
departed souls.
These rites and ceremonies were not
the only means of attaining success in
life in this world, or the bliss in heaven.
Soon the idea of penance and meditation
took the precedence. Men took to
ascetic practices under the belief that
they would not only gain heaven but
also develop "mystic, extraordinary and
superhuman faculties".
On one hand elaborate rites,
ceremonies and ascetic practices were
taking the place of simple religious
worship of the RigVedic period, on the
other, the intellectual pursuit of the
people continued with the conviction
that salvation was attainable only
through true knowledge. Thus, was laid
down the doctrine: "he who knows
God, attains God, nay, he is God". As
explained earlier, the distinction
between rituals and knowledge was
recognised by the Vedas. But it is only
towards the later phase of the Vedic
period where it was elaborated upon.
The general body of early
philosophical treatises is known
by the name of Upanishad. The
number of Upanishads is about
200. The oldest among these are the
Brihadaranyaka and Chhandogya
which contain bold speculations about
the eternal problems of human thought
concerning God, man and the universe
etc. The Upanishads are justly regarded
99
...~
~ J ANCIENT INDIA ............ ... ...................................................................... . ............ .. ... . ...... .
as the most important contribution of
India towards the world's stock of
spiritual thought. The great
philosopher Schoperhaur, after reading
the Latin translation of the Persian
translation of Upanishads wrote:
"From every sentence deep, original and
sublime thoughts arise, and the whole
is pervaded by a high and holy and
earnest spirit. Indian air surrounds us,
and original thoughts of kindred
spirits". Even Max Muller held that, "the
earliest of these philosophical treatises
will always maintain a place in the
literature of the world, among the most
astounding productions of the human
mind in any age and in any country".
Science and Technology
Vedas, Brahmanas and Upanishads
give enough idea about sciences during
this period. Mathematics has been
called by the general name ganita which
includes Arithmetic (anka ganita),
Geometry (rekha ganita) , Algebra (bija
ganita) , Astronomy and Astrology
Uyotisa).
Exercises
1. Explain the following:
Vedic people knew the methods of
making squares equal in area to
triangles, circles and calculate the sums
and differences of squares. The Zero was
known in RigVedic times itself and due
to this, large numbers could also be
recorded. Also the positional value of
each number with its absolute value
was known. Cubes, cuberoots,
squareroots and underroots were also
known and used.
In the Vedic period, astronomy was
well developed. They knew the
movement of heavenly bodies and
calculated about their positions at
different times. It helped them in
preparing accurate calendars and
predicting the time of solar and lunar
eclipses. They also knew that the earth
moved on its own axis and around the
sun. The Moon moved around the
earth. They also tried to calculate the
time period taken for revolution and
distances among heavenly bodies from
the sun. The results of these
calculations are almost the same as
the ones done by modern methods.
Varna, Jati, Niska, Satamana, Ekrat, Samrat, Bhagadugha, Ashvamedha, Vajpeya,
Upanayana.
2. Describe the sources for the history of the Later Vedic Age.
3. Discuss the Later Vedic geography with reference to its political states.
4. Describe the social system during the Later Vedic period. How was it different
from the RigVedic period?
5. Describe the following during Later Vedic period.
(i) The development in the field of economy.
(ii) The political and administrative system.
(iii) The religion and philosophy.
(iv) The learning and education.
100
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"", ANCIENT INDIA ....... . ... . . . ...................... . .........................................•.... . .. . ............ , ............. .
INDIAN philosophy, with a distinctive
character of its own, originated in the
speculations of Vedic sages and
reached its fruition in the Advaita
Vedanta of Sankara.
In the Vedic age, the forces of Nature
were personified as gods, as living on
the earth, in the sky and in the heaven.
Men offered oblations to the gods and
asked for cattle, crops, wealth,
prosperity, health, longevity, progeny,
victory, peace and happiness here, and
heaven after death. Some Vedic seers
however believed that there was an
Ultimate Being which manifested Itself
as the various gods.
The famous Nasadiya hymn of
RigVeda speculates: "He from whom
this creation arose, whether He made it
or did not make it, the highest seer in
the highest heaven, he forsooth knows,
or does even he not know?"
There were speculations about the
nature of the Ultimate Reality, the
process of Creation, the nature of the
Self and its relation with the Ultimate
Reality, the highest Value of life and the
Right Way of living. All this resulted in
a large number of books called
Upanishads. Though, the number of
Upanishads is large, but only eleven
are considered to be of great
importance. They are: [sa, Kathak,
Keno. Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya,
Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chhandogya,
Brhadaranyaka and Svetasvatara.
There seems to be a general agreement
among all on the following:
(i) The Ultimate, Enduring, and
Unitary Reality in the individual is
Atman (self).
102
(ii) The UltimateReality in and beyond
the objective world is called
Brahma. It is from Brahma that the
entire world originates: it is in
Brahma that it exists; and it is in
Brahma that it merges. Brahma
is real, infinite and blissful
Consciousness.
(iii) The pure Atman and Brahma are
one. An individual would be right
in saying "I am Brahma".
(iv) The one appears as many, on
account of Its wonderful power
Maya.
(v) All unhappiness and sufferings of
man are due to ignorance of the
fact that man is the Atman which is
the same as the Brahma. The union
of Atman with Brahma is called
Moksha, which liberates one from
the chain of birth and death and is
therefore the achievement of
highest g0al.
(vi) To realise the Atman one has to give
up all desires for worldly and finite
objects, purify one's intellect, and
live a righteous life.
These doctrines have been echoed
and re-echoed throughout Indian
history. Ramkrishna Paramahamsa,
Swami Vivekananda, Swami
Ramatirtha, Aurobindo, and other
great thinkers of modern age have also
dwelt upon Upanishadic philosophy.
The Ramayana 'and the
Mahabharata, also contain ethical and
philosophical p r e c e p t s ~ The Ramayana
makes Rama the embodiment of the
highest ethical ideals.
............... . . .. .......... .. ................... .. .. ...... .......................... FRUITION OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY ( ~
The Bhagavad-Gita embodies the
teachings of Lord Krishna. It is highly
valued all over India and the world, and
has been translated into a number of
languages. It says one should remain
balanced both in happiness and sorrow,
in profit and loss and in victory and
defeat. It tells that Atman is
indestructible, neither weapons can
pierce it nor fire can burn it. Death is
always that of body and not of Atman
which takes another body as its abode.
The god incarnates himself with a view
to punish the wicked and protect the
good people.
One can attain moksha in three
ways - by acquiring highest knowledge
(Janan) , by devotion to God (bhaktl)
and by action, i.e. selfless performance
of one's duties (karma) without caring
for reward.
According to the doctrine of karma
one's present birth and condition is
determined by the karma of his
previous birth. Belief in karma does not
necessarily involve fatalism. Most
thinkers have said that though our
present condition is due to karma in
previous birth, but by our
foresightedness and righteous deeds in
the present life we can change these
conditions.
The continuous quest by the sages
gave birth to great philosophical
systems, which looked upon man and
the universe with an unbiased, free and
rational mindset. The important
systems are Charvaka, Jaina, Buddha,
Vaisesika, Nyaya, Samkhya, Yoga,
Mimamsa and Vedanta. The first three
systems are nastika i.e. do not believe
in the authority of the Vedas and the
God, while all others are astika, i.e.
believe in the Vedas and the God.
The Charvaka system (also called
Lokayata) believes only in materialism.
The physical body composed of
material elements is the only essence of
man. Death only is the end of man ;
and enjoyment of pleasures are the only
objects in life. There is no life beyond
death, no h eaven or hell, no 'Law of
karma, and no rebirth. The Charvaka
system does not believe in soul, god, or
any other life beyond the present one.
About the other two in this category
i.e. Jainism and Buddhism you will
learn in detail in the next chapter.
Among the remaining six systems
of philosophy there is some similarity
and affinity between Nyaya and
Vaisesika, Samkhya and Yoga, and
Mimamsa and Vedanta. The Mimamsa
recognises the Vedas as the final
authority in determining the duties of
man, and the Vedantists in gaining true
knowledge about Man and the
Universe. One is concerned with the
Kar,makanda and the other with the
Jnanakanda of the Vedas, that is, the
Samhitas and the Brahmanas, and the
Upanishads respectively.
Vaisesika
The Vaisesika system is a realistic,
analytic, and objective philosophy of
the world. It tries to distinguish between
the various kinds nfultimate things and
to classify all the objects under five
elements - Earth Water, Air, Fire, and
Ether - existing in the form of Atom,
Time, Space, Minds and Self. The
103
. ~
" ANCIENT INDIA ...................... . . .. ................ . ..... . ........ . .... . ....................... ... .. . .. . .. . .......... . ... .
creation of the world begins when the
atoms of these five elements start to
combine, and when they disintegrate,
the world comes to an end. Vaisesika,
thus postulates a dualism of the matter
and soul, and declares that salvation
depends on fully recognising the atomic
nature of the universe, and its difference
with the soul.
Nyaya
The Nyaya system accepts all the
categories recognised by the Vaisesika
system and adds one Abhava
(negation). It also accepts all the
substapces admitted by the Vaisesika
system, and considers God to be the
creator of the world. He is a soul
(atman) free from the 'Law of karma'
and rebirth. The 'Law of karma'
operates independently of Him. In the
state of praZaya (cosmic dissolution)
and Apavarga (moksha) or freedom
from the life of samsara (birth and
death) there is no consciousness in the
soul. Nyaya makes a detailed study
of the sources of knowledge (pramana).
According to Nyaya school there are
four pramanas, namely perception
(pratyaksha) , inference (anumana) ,
comparison (upamana) and verbal
testimony i.e. "words" (sabda).
Samkhya
The Samkhya is the oldest of all SLX
systems of philosophy. It teaches the
existence of twenty-five basic principles
(tattva). Of these twenty-five tattvas,
first is Prakriti i.e. "matter". The
Samkhya system believes that the
evolution of universe is not due to God
104
but due to the inherent nature of the
Prakriti. It is from Prakriti that all things
like air, water, ether (akasa),
intelligence (buddhl), self conciousness,
sight, touch, hea ring, speech, etc.
develop. One of the most important
tattva in all this is Purusa, the "soul".
As in Jainism the Samkhya believes
that there are infinite number of souls
and Purusa is not dependent on Prakriti
nor Prakritiis dependent on Purusa. Yet
Purusa is involved in some way in the
Prakritii.e. the matter and salvation lies
in recognising their differences.
A very important feature of
Samkhya is the doctrine of three
qualities (guna). These are virtue
(Sattva), passion (Rajas) and dullness
(Tamas). It is said that in the beginning
these three gunas are present in· all
beings in equilibrium, but as they
evolve, one or other of these three gunas
come to dominate. The Sattvaguna
represents the truth, wisdom, beauty
and goodness; the Rajas signifies
fierceness, activeness, violence, energy
and; while the Tamas is darkness,
foolishness, gloomy, unhappy etc.
However, the distinction between
the Purusa (soul) and Prakriti (matter)
was modified in Tantricism which
developed in later days. In Tantricism
Purusa came to signify "man" and
Prakriti "woman".
Yoga
Yoga is probably the best known Hindu
philosophical system in the world. In
this system the self-control and self-
mortification is supreme. Anyone who
has mastered the various aspect of this
;-
....................................................................................... FRUITION OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY ,-
doctrine is known as yogi. According
to yoga the god is not the creator but
an exalted soul which has existed all
through without ever having merged
with the matter. The salvation in this
system is by practicing the following
eight things:
(i) Yama (self-control): yama means
the practice of five moral rules
which are truth, non-violence,
chastity, not stealing and no greed.
(ii) Niyama (observance): complete
and regular observance of five
more moral rules which are purity,
contentment, austerity, study of
Vedas and devotion to God.
(iii) Asanas (postures): sitting in
certain prescribed postures which
are an essential part of yoga. These
are known as yogasanas. The
most famous is Padmasa'na in
whi ch gods and sages are
commonly depicted.
(iv) Pranayama (control of breath): the
control of breath at will is another
step in this doctrine. This is
considered to be of great physical
and spiritual value.
(v) Pratyahara (restrain): in which the
sense organs are trained in such a
way that they do not take notice of
their own perceptions and feelings.
(vi) Dharana (steadying the mind):
concentrating on a single object
such as tip of the nose or a sacred
symbol.
(vii) Dhyana (meditation): by
concentration the mind can be
filled only by that object on which
concentration is being made and
completely emptied of all other
things.
(viii) Samadhi (deep meditation): in
which it is only the soul which
remains and the whole personality
is temporarily disolved.
A person who has mastered yoga
can live a very long life, hold his breath
for a long period without suffering
injury, can control the rhythm of his
own heartbeat and can withstand
extremes of heat and cold.
In yoga, it is through Samadhi the
soul gets released from the life cycle and
joins the exalted soul i.e. the God.
Mimamsa
The Mimamsa system is a philosophy
of interpretation, application and use
of the texts of the Samhita and
Brahmana portions of Vedas. The
Mimamsa system recognises the Vedas
as the final authority in determining
the duties of man, and the Vedantists
in gaining the true knowledge about
man and universe. It recognises two
paths of salvation. One is concerned
with the karmakanda (ritualism) and
other with the jnanakanda (pursuit of
knowledge) of the Vedas i.e. the
Samhitas, Bfahmanas, and the
Upanishads respectively.
Vedanta
The ancient Indian thoughts on
philosophy reached its peak in the
philosophy of Vedanta. Sankara's
commentaries on Upanishads,
Brahmasutra and Bhaguada- Gita are
important for understanding the
Vedanta Philosophy. Sankara held
that all works teach the Ultimate Reality
i.e. Brahma is One. The Vedanta
105
.
- " ANCIENT INDIA ................ . ..... .. ........ ... .......................... . .......... •........ •.. ... .... ... .... ....... ... .. .. ..
philosophy expanded by Sankara is
known as Advaita Vedanta. The
Brahma has an infinite number of
powers (sakti) and the creative power
(Maya) is one of them. The power is not
separate from the powerful and hence
there is no duality. The world as a whole
and in all its parts has purpose.
For the purpose of carrying out the
work of creation, preservation and
destruction, God (Isvara) assumes
three distinct names and forms, namely,
Brahma, Visnu and Rudra (also known
as Siva or Mahesha).
The doctrine clearly recognises that
the highest level of truth is that the
whole world and all that exists is Maya
- an illusion, a dream, a mirage and a
figment of imagination. Ultimately, the
whole Universe is unreal, i.e. Maya. The
Exercises
1. Explain the following :
only reality is Brahma (the Universal
Soul) with which the individual soul is
identical. The salvation of the individual
soul is possible only by merging it with
Brahma.
The post-Sankara period saw the
elaboration of the doctTines of all the
above mentioned schools of thoughts,
and the evolution of each system in its
own way in the light of criticism by
others. There was a great development
of dialectics in each school which led
to highly technical and systematic
works being written by thinkers.
One of the great sages who differed
with Sankara was Ramanuja, who
wrote his own commentaries on the
Upanishads, Brahmasutras and
Bhagavad-Gita.

2. What is the aim of Indian philosophy? What are the charact eristic
features of it?
3. Describe the six schools of Indian Philosophy.
4. Write short notes on:
(i) Bhugavada-Gita
(ii) YOI:l
(iii) N! rya
(iv) VE. .:anta
• Find a teacher who teaches yogasanas and practice t hem at home.
• Find out the merits of these yogasanas and discuss them in class.
106
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' ~ " , ANCIENT INDIA ....... . ................ . ........... . ......... . . . ..... . . ..... . ....... . . . . ... ..... . . . ............ .......... .... .. .. .
THE SIXTH century B.C. may be regarded
as an important landmark in the
history of Indian culture. The old
ritualistic Vedic tradition had gradually
ceased to be a strong force. The
Upanishads had initiated freedom of
speculation into the fundamental
problem of life. The brooding over the
ills and sorrows of life, a passionate
desire to remove them by finding out
new mode of salvation became the
concern of "the learned. It created
a ferment of new ideas and philo-
sophic principles, leading to the
establishment of numerous religious
sects, which had never occurred in
India before or since. We come to know
of about 62 such religious sects, many
of which were based on local customs
and rituals. Of these religious sects,
which may be regarded as direct or
indirect products of thought currents
of this period, we shall discuss mainly
two sects which have greatly influenced
the society and culture of India. These
are Jainism and Buddhism.
It may be mentioned that 'both
J ainism and Buddhism take their
stand on certain aspects of the pre-
existing system. Both are organised as
ascetic orders and brotherhoods.
Asceticism in fact, has its origin in the
Vedic thought and has been directly
encouraged by the Upanishads. The
Aranyakas are the products of
hermitages of the forests while the
Upanishads recommend retirement to
forests as essential to those who seek
the highest knowledge. Both Jainism
and Buddhism can be seen and
understood better in this light.
108
Nirgranthas discuss as many as
sixty-two systems of doctrines before
Buddhism arose. Some Jain works like
Sutra-Kritanga gives their number as
363. Some of these were Ajivikas,
Nirgranthas, Jatilakas, etc. Some of the
prominent teachers of these sects were
Purana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosal,
Ajitkeshakambalin, Nigantha Natputta
and Sanjaya Belatthaputta.
Jainism
Jainism has great antiquity. The
names of two Tirthankaras namely,
Rishabhanath and Aristhanemia find
mention in RigVeda: Vayu Purana and
Bhagwat Purana mention Rishabha as
the incarnation of Narayana. A few
scholars believe that the nude torso
found at Harappa belongs to some
Tirthanakara. The Jain tradition
traces Jainism to a remote antiquity
represented by a succession of
twenty-four Tirthankaras. The first
Tirthankara was Rishabhnath. We do
not know much about him except that
the traditions say that he was a king
and renounced the kingdom in
favour of his son, Bharata, and
became an ascetic. Some Puranic
traditions say that name
Bharatavarsha is after 'Bharata', the son
of Rishabhanath. We know a little
more about the twenty-third
Tirthankara, Parsva, who was the son
of Ikshvaku king Asvasena of Kasi and
was born to the daughter of
Naravanman, king of Kausasthala. He
renounced the world at the age of
t hirty and attained perfect
knowledge after nearly three months
of intense meditation and spent the
............................................................. ... . .... THE EVOLUTION OF JAINISM AND BUDDHISM C:
remaining life as a religious teacher,
till his death at the age of hundred.
He is said to have flourished 250
years before Mahavira, the twenty-
fourth Tirthankara. He, thus, lived in
the eighth century B.C.
Vardhamana Mahavira is the last
Tirthankara. He was born in the village
Kundagrama near Vaisali about 540
B.C. His father Siddhartha was the head
of famous kshatriya Jnatrika clan and
his mother Trisala was the sister of
Chetaka, an eminent Lichchhavi noble
of Vaisali. Chetaka's daughter was
married to Bimbisara, the king of
Magadha.
According to some Jain traditions.
Mahavira was married to Yasoda and
lived a life of a householder. He had a
daughter also. After the death of his
parents, Vardhamana left his home, and
became an ascetic at the age of thirty.
During the next twelve years he
practised most rigorous asceticism. At
the age of 42, he attained kaivalya i.e.
the supreme knowledge and final
deliverance from the bonds of pleasure
and pain. Henceforth, he came to be
known as Mahavira and Jina or the
conqueror. His followers came to be
known as Jainas. Originally they were
designated as Nirgranthas, i.e. free from
fetters. Mahavira spent the remaining
thirty years of his life in preaching. He
passed away at Pawapuri, in 468 B.C.
at the age of seventy twQ.
Vardhaman Mahavira accepted four
doctrines of Parsva . namely (i) non-
injury to living beings, (ii) speaking the
truth, (iii) non possession of property,
and (iv) not stealing. To these four
doctrines Mahavira added a fifth one,
namely, celibacy. As an example of
complete renunciation and free from
any possessions Mahavira asked his
followers to discard even their clothes.
Though the J ains did not deny the
existence of God, they simply ignored
him. The world for Jains is not created,
maintained or destroyed by a God but
functions through a universal or
eternal law. The universe is eternal.
It's existence is divided into cycles of
progress (utsarpini) and declines
(avasarpim). The universe functions
through the interaction of living souls
Uiva) and everything in the universe
has a soul. The purification of the soul
is the purpose of living, for it is only
the pure soul after being released from
the body that resides in bliss. The souls
are found not only in the living beings
like animals and plants but also in
stones, rocks, water etc. The soul
which has finally set itselffree rises at
once to the top of the universe, above
the highest heaven, where it remains
in an inactive omniscient bliss through
eternity. This for the Jains is Nirvana.
According to J ainism salvation is
possible only by abandoning ,all
possessions, a long course of fasting,
self-mortification, study and meditation.
Hence, the monastic life is
salvation.
Chandragupta Maurya is said to
have patronised Jainism. According to
the Jaina tradition, Chandragupta not
only accepted Jaina religion, but had
actually abdicated the throne and died
as a Jaina Bhikshu in southern India.
109
, ~
ANCIENT INDIA ......................................................... . ............. .. ... . .. : ........... . .................... .
It is said that about two hundred
years after the death of Mahavira
a terrible famine broke out in Magadha.
At that time Chandragupta Maurya
was the king, and the Thera
Bhadrabahu was the chief of the Jaina
community. These two, with their
followers, went to Karanataka, leaving
Sthulabhadra incharge of the J ainas
that remained in Magadha.
Bhadrabahu convoked a council at
Patliputra, in which the Jaina canon
was arranged. Later in the fifth century
A.D. it was further rearranged.
When the Jainas returned from
south India, they held that complete
nudity be an essential part of the
teachings ofMahavira, while the monks
in Magadha began to put on white
clothes. Thus arose the two sects, the
Svetambaras (those who put on white
robes) and the Digambaras (those who
were stark naked). It must be
remembered that it is the munis who
follow the strict code like wearing
white clothes (Svetambaras) or not
keeping even a small peice of cloth on
themselves or remaining completely
nude (Digambaras). The followers of
both the sects live alike i.e. wearing
clothes etc.
Buddhism
Like Jainism, Buddhism was also
founded by an illustrious kshatriya. He
was born in 566 B.C. His family name
was Gautama who was born in Sakya
clan. His father, Suddhodhan, was the
king of Sakya republic. His mother was
Mayadevi who died after seven days of
110
his birth. The popular legend has it that
an astrologer predicted that Gautama
would either be a great chakravartin
sam rat or a great sanyasin. Fearing his
son's reflective cast of mind, his father
married him at an early age to beautiful
Yasodhara from whom he had a son,
Rahul. However, Gautama was horrified
at the sight of an old. man, a diseased
person, a dead body, and then being
attracted by the saintly appearance of
an ascetic. One night he left his home,
wife and son and renounced the worldly
life. He studied for some time in the
philosophical schools of two renowned
teachers. Thereafter, six years of
profound meditation led to the
discovery of truths. Gautama became
the Buddha i.e. the enlightened one.
The fundamental principle of
Buddha's teachings are represented by
the Four Noble Truths (Arya-Satyas)
viz : (i) that the world is full of sorrow
(Dukkha), (ii) that there are causes of
sorrow (Dukkha Samuddaya), (iii) that
this sorrow can be stopped (dukkha
nirodha) , and (iv) path leading to
cessation of sorrow (Dukkha nirodha-
gamini-pratipada). According to
Buddha, root of all human misery was
'desire' and its annihilation was the
surest way of ending unhappiness. He
held that death was no escape from it,
as it lead to rebirth and further
suffering. One could get out of this
chain of suffering and achieve the
final salvation (Nirvana) by following
the eight fold path. (Ashtangika-
marga). These eight fold paths are:
(i) right speech, (ii) right action, (iii) right
means of livelihood, (iv) right exertion,
............ : ........................................................ THE EVOLUTION OF JAINISM AND BUDDHISM
(V) right mindfulness, (vi) right
meditation, (vii) right resolution, and
(viii) right view. The ultimate aim oflife
is to attain nirvana, the eternal state of
peace and bliss, which means freedom,
from further birth and death. In some
places Buddha is said to have
summarised the whole process in three
words viz. Sila (Right conduct),
Samadhi (Right concentration) and
Prajna (Right knowledge). The first two
lead to the last one which is the direct
cause of nirvana or liberation from the
cycle of birth and death. Buddha
advocated "The Middle Path" in which
extremes are avoided.
After enlightenment Buddha
journeyed to the Deer Park (modern
Sarnath) Kasi and gave his first sermon
which is also known as "Set in Motion
the Wheel of Law".
The moral doctrines preached. by
Buddha were quite simple. Man is
arbiter of his own destiny and not any
God or Gods. Ifhe does good deed in his
life, he will be reborn in a higher life and
so on till he attains salvation or the final
emancipation from the evils of birth. On
the other hand, evil deeds are sure to be
punished and the man will be reborn into
lower and lower life, each life taking him
further away from nirvana. Man should
avoid both extremes, viz. a life of
comforts and luxury, and a life of severe
asceticism- the middle path was the
best. In addition to the ordinary moral
codes such as truthfulness, charity,
purity and control over passions,
Buddhism laid great stress on love,
compassion, equanimity and non-
injury to the living creatures in thought,
word and deed. Buddhism denied the
efficacy of Vedic rituals and practices for
the purpose of salvation, and the
superiority assumed by the brahmans.
The followers of the Buddha fell
into two categories: the Upasakas or
the lay followers, who lived with family;
and the Bhikshus (monks) who
renounced the world and led the life of
an ascetic. They lived as a commune
called Sangha founded by Buddha
himself. The women were also admitted
in Sangha and were known as
Bhikshunis. All the members in
Buddhism enjoyed equal rights
irrespective of their varna and jati.
Further, Buddha discoursed in the
language of common people. For eight
months Buddha and his followers
would travel from place to place,
preaching and four months during the
rainy season they stayed at one place.
Buddha died at the age of 80 in the
year 486 B.C. at Kushinagar. After the
cremation, the ashes of Buddha were
distributed among his followers. These
ashes were kept in caskets and stupas
were built over them. Sanchi Stupa is
one such example.
Mahavira was a contemporary of
Gautama Buddha, and there are
striking resemblances in the doctrines
of these two teachers. Both started
with a frank recognition of the fact that
the world is full of sorrows and the
salvation of a man means his
deliverance from the eternal chain of
birth and death; both derived their
basic principles from the Upanishads.
Both did not accept the idea of God;
both, laid great stress upon a pure
111
· ~
, ANCIENT INDIA ................. ..... ........................................................................................ ..
and moral life, specially non-injury to
living beings, both emphasised the
effects of good and bad deeds upon a
man's future births and ultimate
salvation; both decried caste; both
preached their religion in the common
language of the people, and lastly, both
encouraged the idea of giving up
the world, and organised a church
of monks and nuns. We can trace
distinct historic origins of the two, they
differ in fundamental conceptions
about salvation and certain other
matters which cannot be explained
away as later additions. The Jaina
conception of soul, for example, is
radically different from that of a
Buddhist. Again, Jainism laid great
stress upon asceticism and practised
it in a very rigorous manner, whereas,
Exercises
1. Explain the following:
Buddha decried it, and asked his
disciples to follow the middle path
between a life of ease and luxury on
one hand, and rigorous asceticism on
the other. Besides, Buddha denounced
the practice of going out naked, and
the Jaina attitude of non-injury to
animals was carried to far greater
excesses than was ever contemplated
by Buddhism.
It may be said that within five
hundred years Buddha spread far and
wide in different parts of the world.
However, J ainism never spread beyond
the boundaries of India. On the other
hand, while Buddhism declined
considerably in the land of its birth
Jainism is still a living force in India,
and has got a stronghold upon a large
and influential section of the people.
Tirthankara, Nirvana, Jina, Ashtangika-marga, Sangha, Bhikshu.
2. Why the sixth century B.C. is called the landmark in the history of India?
3. Describe the Jain Tirthankaras. What are their main teachings?
4. Describe the main teachings of Buddhism.
5. Write short notes on:
(i) Vardhamana Mahavira
(ii) Gautama Buddha
(iii) Ajivikas
6. Describe the similarities and differences between Jainism and Buddhism.
112
• On the outline map of India locate important places associated with
Jainism and Buddhism. Describe the events associated with these
places.
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,'By (he 'ti,rne.' ()f the sixth century -B.C.,
me'ntio'ns as many as 22 different J'anapadas,
\.vhjcp ,considered very lHlportant. These
wer'e'Magadh8; Kosala and Vatsa,
Panini
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'. ANCIENT INDIA ..... . ............................................................................................................ .
Mahajanapadas
IN the later Vedic period itself we start
hearing of many J anapadas and
Mahajanapadas. The names of at least
nine Janapadas have been given in
Vedic literature beside such people as
the Andhras, Pulindas, Sabaras and
Pundaras. However, by the time of the
sixth century B.C. Panini mentions as
many as 22 different Janapadas of
which three were considered very
important. These were Magadha,
Kosala and Vatsa. A clearer picture
emerges from the early Buddhist and
Jain literature. They present a list of
sixteen Mahajanapadas with minor
variation of names in different works.
Though the number is the same, the
names in the lists differ. Perhaps they
show the political conditions at
different times and the geographical
nearness or knowledge of the author.
According to Anguttara Nikaya there
were following Mahajanapadas:
(i) Anga (including the modern
districts of Monghyr and Bhagalpur
in Bihar) with its capital of Champa,
(ii) Magadha (covering the districts of
Patna, Gaya and parts of Shahabad)
with its earlier capital at Rajgriha or
Girivraj, (iii) Vajji (a confederacy of eight
republican clans, situated to the north
of the river Ganga in Bihar) with its
capital, VaisaJi, (iv) Malla (also a
republican confederacy covering the
modern districts of Deoria, Basti,
Gorakhpur and Siddharthnagar in
eastern Uttar Pradesh) with two
capitals at Kusinara and Pawa, (v) Kasi
with its capital at Varanasi, (vi) Kosala
(covering the present districts of
114
Faizabad, Gonda, Bahraich etc.), with
its capital at Sravasti, (vii) Vatsa
(covering the modern districts
Allahabad, Mirzapur etc.), with its
capital at Kausambi (viii) Chedi,
(covering the modern Bundelkhand
area with its capital at Shuktimati),
(ix) Kuru (covering the modern
Haryana and Delhi area to the west
of river Yamuna) with its capital
at Indraprastha (modern Delhi),
(x) Panchala (covering the area of
western Uttar Pradesh up to the east of
river Yamuna up to the Kosala
Janapada) with its capital at
Ahichhatra, (xi) Surasena, (covering
Brij Mandal with its capital at Mathura),
(xii) Matsya (covering the area of Alwar,
Bharatpur and Jaipur in Rajasthan)
(xiii) Avanti (modern Malawa) with
its capital at Ujjayini and Mahishmati,
(xiv) Ashmaka (between the rivers
Narmada'and Godavari) with its capital
at Potana, (xv) Gandhara (area covering
the western part of Pakistan and eastern
Afghanistan) with its capitals at Taxila
and Pushkalavati, and (xvi) Kamboja
(identified with modern district of
Hazara disricts of Pakistan).
Obviously this list of sixteen
Mahajanapadas covers India only from
Bihar in the east to Afghanistan in the
west, and Hindukush in the north to
river Godavari in the south. It leaves out
vast areas of Bengal and eastern
India and practically the whole of south
India. But these very Buddhist texts
show familiarity with whole of India.
Mahagovinda Sutta of Digha Nikaya
describe the shape of India as
rectangular in the north and triangular
•
MAHAJANAPADAS TO NANDAS
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KAMBOJA '.-') THE MAHAJANAP ADAS
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MATSYA AYOdhya , '._ . ........ _ .. 71. l
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Present Boundary or India
L_' ___ -,---....-1
Fig. 13.1 Map of Mahajanapadas
115
ANCIENT INDIA .......... . ......... ... .. . . . . ....... . . . . . . .. ... ... .... ... ... . . . . . . . .... .. . .. . ....... . ..... .. ... . ... . . . ... ..... .. .... .
in the south, just like a bullock cart.
The Buddhist Nikayas mention the five
fold division of India into Uttarapatha
north -western), Madhyadesha (central),
Prachi (eastern), Dakshinapath (south) ,
and Apranta (western), which confrrms
that the geographical unity of
India had been visualised much
before the sixth century B.C. Ifwe study
the lists of Janapadas preserved in
the Jain texts Bhagvatisutra, and
Sutrakntang, great Grammarian
Panini's Ashtadhyayi (sixth century
B. C.), Baudhayandharmasutra
(seventh century B.C.), and the
Janapada list available in the
Mahabharata, the whole of India
from Himalayas in the north to
Kanyakumari in the south, from
Gandhara in the west to Bengal and
Assam in the east are covered by these
Janapadas. Kautilya (fourth century
B.C.) clearly visualises the goal of
political unity of the whol e land
under a Chakravarti ruler, and clearly
defines the Chakravarti kshetra from
the Himalayas in the north to the
ocean in the south. The distribution of
punch-marked coins, which were in
circulation from sixth century B.C. to
second century B.C. shows that by the
fourth century B.C. there was only one
currency for the whole ofIndia. It shows
political and economic unification for
the entire territory.
The Buddhist literature shows that
some Janapadas followed the
monarchical system. Each Janapada
has its own independent dynasty
of rulers. Megasthenese, the
Greek ambass ador in the court of
116
Chandragupta Maurya (fourth century
B.C.) has left on record that he saw a
royal genealogy of 151 generations
covering a time period of about 6051
(or 6015) years. During this time,
Magadha experimented in the
republican system thrice. This extract
from Megasthenese's Indica is in
conformity with the post -Mahabharata
war royal genealogy preserved in the
Puranas.
Along with the list of Mahajanapadas
'we also find the names of many famous
cities during the time of Buddha. Some
of these were Champa , Rajagriha,
Sravasti, Saket, Kausambi and Kasi.
These were mostly the capital cities of
Mahajanapadas.
There were also non-monarchical
states which can be called republics or
ganasanghas. Buddhist texts revea l
that during the time of the Buddha
t h er e were many such republican
states. Some of the important ones
were:
(i) Mallas of Kusinara
(ii) Mallas of Pava
(iii) Sakyas of Kapilavastu
(iv) Koliyas of Ramagrama
(v) Moriyas of Pipphalivana
(vi) Bulis of Alakappa
(vii) Kalamas of Kesaputta
(viii) Bhaggas of Sumsumaragiri
(ix) Lichchhavis ofVaisali
The Buddhist texts also speak of
nine ganas of the Mallas and nine of
Kasi. These helped the Vajjis against the
aggression of Magadha. The Mallas of
Kusinagara and Pava were the
kshatriyas of the Ikshvaku dynasty.
According to Divyavadana, perhaps at
,t. ..
. . ... ..... ....•.. . . ..... . ...... .. .. ... .. .. .. .... . .. . ... .... ..... .. . . ... ........ . . ... ... . . . .... . M AHAJANAPADAS TO NANDAS , ~
the time of Buddha, the Mallas were
divided into two branches, namely
Kusinara (Kusinaga ra) and Pava in
eastern Uttar Pradesh. Perhaps they
also fonned a sangha of nine republican
states.
The Sakyas ofKapilavastu, modern
Piparahwa in the Siddharthanagar
district of Uttar Pradesh on the Nepal
border, were also Ikshvaku kshatriyas.
Gautama Buddha was born in the
Sakya family and Suddhodana was the
'King' of the Sakyas. The Koliyas of
Ramagrama were eastern neighbours of
theSakyas.
Fig. 13.2 Punch-marked Coins
The Moriyas of the Pippha-
livana a lso claimed to be a
kshatriya. According to Mahavamsa,
Chandragupta Maurya belonged to this
kshatriya clan.
We do not have much information
about the Bulis of Allakappa, Kalamas
of Kesaputta and Bhaggas of
Sumsumaragiri.
The Vaiiis were the most important
republican state during the period of
Buddha. They were settled on the
northern side of the Ganga, while
Magadha was on the south. Vajji
was a confederation of eight ganas
among which the Lichchhavis were
most prominent. These were called
astakulika (eight families). Vajjis,
Lichchhavis, Videhas and Jnatrika were
important families. Mahavira, the
twenty-fourth Jaina Tirthankara was
born in the last mentioned family.
During the time of Buddha, the
Lichchhavis, under the leadership of
Chetaka, were the most prominent
gana in the Vaiii sangha. They are also
called kshatriyas.The Vajjis were
defeated and assimilated in the
Magadha empire by Ajatasattu.
The Rise of Magadha
The four important royal dynasties that
stand out prominently in the sixth
century B.C. are the Haryankas of
Magadha, the Ikshvakus of Kosala, the
Pauravas of Vats a and the Pradyotas
of Avanti. Haryanka is the name of a
new dynasty founded in Magadha by
Bimbisara after overthrowing the
Brihadrathas. The Pradyotas are so .
called after the founder Pradyota . The
117
ANCIENT INDIA ............................................. .... ..... . ............................ . ............... . ................ .
other two are old royal dynasties. It is
interesting to note that the kingdom of
Kuru-Panchala, Kasi and Matsya,
celebrated in the Mahabharata,
continued in this period, although
they ranked as minor powers.
There were matrimonial alliances
between the kings of many of these
states, but that did not prevent the
outbreak of hostility among them. Each
of the four important royal dynasties,
mentioned above, tried to establish its
•
...
..
o
•
o Shay lind of punctlmarilltd
si lVa'
• AI11tuavab..
Fig. 13.3 Distribution of Silver Punch-marked Coins
118
£;
......... . .......... . ..................................................................•.. . .. . .. MAHAJANAPADAS TO NANDAS ~ ...
supremacy, and aggrandise itself at the
cost of minor States. We hear, for
example, that Pradyota, king of Avanti,
fought with Udayana, king of
Kausambi, although the latter was his
son-in··law, and at another time he
threatened Rajagriha, the capital of
Magadha. Prasenajit, king of Kosala,
was already the master of Kasi, and his
son afterwards conquered the Sakya
state of Kapilavastu. Again, Bimbisara,
king of Magadha, annexed Anga, and
his son Ajatasatru conquered the
Lichchhavis ofVaisali. All these kings -
Pradyota, Udayana, Bimbisara and
Prasenajit - flourished in the second
half of the sixth century B.C.
At the beginning of the ftfth century
B.C., the Pauravas and the Pradyotas
seem to have retired from the contest
for supremacy, which was thus left to
be fought out between the Haryankas
of Magadha, and the Ikshvakus of
Kosala. A fterce and protracted struggle
ensued between Prasenajit and
Ajatasatru, and although the results
were indecisive for a long time, victory
ultimately went to the Magadha
kingdom. Henceforth, Magadha stands
out as the supreme power in northern
India, which ftnally culminated into one
of the greatest empires that had ever
been seen. Ajatasatru, became the
founder of Magadhan supramacy. He
died about - 475 B.C. and was
succeeded by Udayi, to whom tradition
ascribes the foundation ofPataliputra,
the new capital of the Magadha
kingdom. As described in epic
literature, Rajagriha, now represented
by the ruins at Rajgir in the Patna
district, served as the capital of the
Magadha kingdom. While Ajatasatru
was ftghting against the Lichchhavis, he
built, as a defensive measure, a fortress
at Pataligrama, a village at the junction
of the Ganga and the Son. In course of
time, the strategic importance of the
place must have attracted the attention
of the statesmen of Magadha, and
Udayi evidently thought it a more
suitable capital for his kingdom, which
had extended its boundaries in all
directions by then.
Sisunaga
According to the Buddhist tradition
Udayi and his three successors were all
unworthy to rule. So the people got
disgusted and elected Sisunaga as the
king, the minister of the last king. The
Puranas, however, take Sisunaga to be
the founder of the royal line to which
Bimbisara belonged, and hence calls it
the Sisunaga Dynasty.
Nanda Dynasty
Kalasoka, the son and the successor
of Sisunaga, was succeeded by a
barber (according to some accounts)
named Mahapadma Nanda, who
founded a new dynasty known as the
Nandas. Mahapadma seems to have
been a great military genius. He
defeated and destroyed the far-famed
kshatriya families, such as the
Pauravas, the Ikshvakus, and the
Pradyotas, who were ruling in
Kausambi, Kosala and Avanti, and
established an empire which included
the greater part of northern India. Thus,
the task begun by Bimbisara and
Ajatasatru made triumphant progress.
119
. ~
.: ANCIENT INDIA ............ . ........ . .. ..... ... .... .... . ......... . . .. .............. . ........... . ........... .. . . .... ... ............. .
Foreign Invasions
Persian conquest of Indian
Borderland
The western borderland of India
comprising the Punjab, Sindh and
Afghanistan did not have any strong
political power during this period. Of
the sixteen Mahajanapadas mentioned
in the literature, only two, Kamboja and
Gandhara, may be placed in this
outlying region. It appears to have been
divided into a large number of
independent principalities which were
frequently at war with one another, and
thus an easy prey to foreign invaders.
The powerful Achaemenian kings of
Persia naturally cast their eyes towards
this region, and perhaps Cyrus (558-
530 B.C.) subjugated a number of
principalities living to the south of the
Hindukush mountains. It was in the
reign of Darius (522-486 I3.C.) that we
have positive evidence of the extension
of Achaemenian rule in the north-
western part ofIndia. Two inscriptions
of this monarch mention "Hi(n)du" as a
part of his dominion. The exact
connotation of this term is not known,
but it certainly comprised some
territory to the east of the Sindhu, which
Darius must have conquered about
518 B.C. Herodotus, the Greek
historian, tells us that in 517 B.C.
Darius sent a naval expedition to
explore the valley of the Sindhu river.
How long the Persian domination
lasted in India is not definitely known.
Its continuance up to about 330 B.C.
is generally presumed on the ground
120
that the Indian soldiers formed part of
the Achaemenian army that conquered
Greece in the time of Xerxes (486-465
B.C.) and fought against Alexander at
Gaugamela in 330 B.C. But this is by
no means a sure conclusion, as the
Indians might have been a part of the
army.
Alexander's Campaign
In the fourth century B.C. the Greeks
and Persian fought with each other for
the supremacy over western Asia. The
defeat of Achaemenian king Da rius III
in the hands of Alexander became a
turning point. Alexander dismantled
the Persian empire, conquered most of
the western Asia including Iraq and
Iran. He then turned his attention to
India. After the conquest of the Persian
empire Alexander marched to India
through the Khyber pass in 326 B.C.
It is interesting to know that the
history of Alexander's campaign of
India is reconstructed on the basis of
accounts available in Greek and Roman
sources. Surprisingly, no Indian source
mentions anything about Alexander or
his campaign.
It is also surprising that while Greek
sources give a very detailed account of
Alexander's campaign to India, they are
completely silent about Kautilya.
However, the identification of
Sandrocottas or Androcottas of Greek
sources with that of Chandragupta
Maurya and fixing 326 B.C. as the date
of Chandragupta's accession to the
throne has become the sheet anchor of
the chronological framework of Indian
history.
"f
""."" ......... "" ... .. .. . ... .... .. . ............................... .... ... . ......... .. ....... MAHAJANAPADAS TO NANDAS "
/-l'
Once Alexander reached the Indian
soil, the king ofTakshasila (Taxila, near
Rawalpindi in Punjab) offered to help
Alexander. Only a couple of Indian
princes followed the ignoble example of
Taxila. Most of the numerous kings and
republican Chiefs in Afghanistan,
Punjab and Sindh offered brave
resistance, though in vain. Despite the
fact that petty chieftains were no match
for the seasoned troops of Alexander
and knew that they had no chance of
success, they refused to submit without
a fight. The Greek writers have paid
glowing tributes to the bravery and
patriotism of a large number of them.
After crossing the Hindukush,
Alexander divided his army into two
parts. One part was kept under his own
command and the other under the two
of his best Generals. Alexander himself
undertook the task of conquering the
north -western part of India. The Greeks
had to face a strong resistance from
Hasti, a tribal chief whose capital was
Pushkalavati. He stood the Greek siege
for full 30 days till he fell fighting. These
local people fought the invader to the
last man. When the king of Assakenoi
fell fighting, his army was led by the
queen. They "resolved to defend their
country to the last extremity". So great
was the enthusiasm for the defence of
the country that even women took part
in fighting. Even the mercenaries
"preferred a glorious death to a life with
dishonour". After a brave resistance of
several days, Massaga, the capital city,
was captured by Alexander. The
mercenary army of 7000 were granted
their lives by a special agreement
which Alexander had himself
concluded with them. But in the night
they were surrounded and slaughtered
mercilessly by him and his soldiers.
This massacre has been condemned
even by the Greek writers.
After defeating Assakenoi and
others Alexander joined his other
division of army. A bridge was
constructed on the Indus river at Ohind
about 24 km. above Attock. After
crossing the Indus Alexander proceeded
towards Taxila. When he was about
7 km. from Taxila, Ambhi came forward
to great Alexander and recognised him
as his sovereign.
However, the most powerful among
the north-western Indian was the ruler
of a kingdom between the Jhelum and
the Chenab whom the Greeks call
Porus , probably a corruption of
Paurava. When he was summoned by
Alexander's envoys he proudly replied
that he would undoubtedly do so,
but at his own frontiers and with
arms. Alexander made elaborate
preparations to fight him. It must be
remembered that Porus was a ruler of
a small state, perhaps not bigger than
a modern district in the Punjab. Porus
fought bravely and with nine wounds
on his body, was led a captive before
Alexander. The latter asked him how he
would like to be treated. "Like a King"
came the proud and prompt reply.
Alexander secured the alliance of this
brave king by restoring his kingdom
and adding to it the territories of "15
republican states with their 5000 cities
and villages without number". In
course of his advance to the next river,
121
~ . ANCIENT INDIA .................................. . ........................ . .. . .......................... . .. .. ..................... .
Beas, Alexander had to fight hard with
the Kathaioi (Kathas) whose casualties
amounted to 17,000 killed and 70,000
captured.
Alexander's Retreat
Alexander's advance was arrested on
the bank of the Beas, for his soldiers
mutinied and refused to proceed further
(end of July 326 B.C.). It is difficult to
say whether this insubordination of the
soldiers was due to merely war-
weariness, as represented by the Greek
writers, or partly to the fear inspired by
the mighty empire of the Nandas which
lay beyond the river. But it is interesting
to note that in course of their reply to
Alexander's pleading to go on further,
the troops laid great stress on the
calamity that would befall the whole
army if Alexander met with an accident
in course of the campaign. While saying
this the heroic resistance and patriotic
spirit displayed by the whole
population of the tiny republics must
have loomed large over the soldiers.
Many ancient Greek historians have
recorded that the retreat was because
of the terror of mighty powers of the
Nanda empire.
Whatever may be the real reason,
Alexander had to bow to the decision
of his mutinous soldiers and decided
to return. Near the confluence of the
Jhelum with the Chenab he had to fight
with a confederacy of republican states
led by the Malloi (Malavas) and the
Oxydrakai (Kshudrakas) . All the towns
of the Malavas became citadels of
resistance. In one of them, 5000
brahmans left the pen for the sword and
122
died fighting and only a few being taken
prisoners. While taking another town
by assault Alexander was severely
wounded, and when it was captured,
his infuriated soldiers killed everybody
they found irrespective of age and sex.
Another ganasanghas, the Agalassoi
(Arjunayanas) also fought with great
valour, and when one of their towns was
captured by Alexander all the citizens,
numoering 20,000; after a heroic
resistance, threw themselves into the
fire with their wives and children. There
is a long list of such sagas of bravery,
patriotism and sacrifice. In September
325 B. C. Alexander reached Patala, and
began his homeward journey. He
proceeded with his army by land, but
sent the ships under Nearchus.
Alexander reached Susa in Persia in 324
B.C. and died there the next year. Before
leaving India, he had put several
kshtrapas incharge of different parts of
the conquered territories. But some
conquered ganasanghas rebelled and
there were other troubles even before
he left India. After his death the Greek
edifice collapsed within a short time.
Impact of Alexander's Campaign
The invasion of Alexander the Great has
been recorded in minute details by the
Greek historians who naturally felt
elated at the triumphant progress of their
hero. It is a great puzzle that why Indian
tradition should have remained silent
over such an event. Was it because
Alexander only touched the western
border of the then India and returned
without leaving any lasting impact on
/.1'
.................. . ............................................ .. ............................... MAHAJANAPADAS TO NANDAS ,
Indian people. His campaign can hardly
be called a great military success as the
only military achievement to his credit
was the conquest of petty
ganasanghas and small states. The
exertion ,he and his army had to make
against Porus, the ruler of a small state,
. Exercises .
do not certainly favour the hypothesis
that he could have faced the might of
Nandas with ease. Further, whatever
little he could conquer in this campaign
was lost within three months of his
departure, as most of the conquered
areas asserted their independence.
L Describe the political condition of India in the sixth century B.C. with
reference to the rise of Mahajanpadas.
2, Describe the ganasanghas (Republics) in the sixth century B.C.
3. Discuss' the rise of Magadha. What were the methods adopted by
Magadhan kings of various dynasties for the expansion of Magadha ?
4. Who was Alexander? Discuss his invasion of north-west India.
• Draw the map of India and locate Mahajanpadas with their capitals.
123
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.................................................................................................................... THE MAURYAS ,..
THE MAURYAN empire was the first and
one of the greatest empires that were
established on Indian soil. The vast
Mauryan empire stretching from the
valley of the Oxus to the delta of Kaveri
was given a well-knit, common
administration. Chandragupta Maurya
was the first ruler who unified entire
India under one political unit. About
Mauryan rulers we have epigraphical
sources, literary sources, foreign
accounts and materials obtained
from archaeological excavations.
The Arthashastra gives us detailed
information about the administrative
system of the Mauryan empire. The
work was written by Kautilya who is
also known as Chanakya. Some
scholars think that Kautilya was the
real architect of the Mauryan empire
and was also the Prime Minister of
Chandragupta Maurya. Megasthenese,
the Greek ambassador from the court
of Seleucus to that of Chandragupta
Maurya, wrote accounts of India and
Indian people. His book Indica is lost
but some fragments of it are known to
us in the form of quotations in the
works of the later Greek writers.
Despite some discrepancies and
inaccuracies in the information
provided by Megasthenese it is,
nevertheless, an useful source.
However, the most important and
authentic source for the history of
Mauryan period is provided by the
inscriptions of Ashoka.
Chandragupta Maurya (324-300 B.C.)
Not much is known about the early life
and ancestry of Chandragupta. The
Buddhist sources like Mahavamsa and
Dipavamsa describe Chandragupta
Maurya as a scion of the Kshatriya
clan of the Moriyas branch of Sakyas
who lived in Pipphalivana, in eastern
Uttar Pradesh. The Mudrarakshasa, a
play written by Vishakha Datta,
uses the terms like Vrishala and
.
Kulahina, for Chandragupta which
mean a person of humble origin.
Justin, a Greek writer, also says
that Chandragupta was "born in
humble life".
According to Buddhist sources
Chandragupta's father was killed in a
battle and he was brought up by his
maternal uncle . Chanakya, finding
the signs of royalty in the child
Chandragupta, took him as his
pupil, and educated him at Taxila
which was then a great centre of
learning. Chandragupta's early life and
education at Taxila is indirectly proved
by the fact that the Greek sources tell
us that he had seen Alexander in
course of the latter's campaign of
Punjab.
The details of Chandragupta's
conquests and empire building process
are not available to us. From the Greek
and Jain sources it seems that
Chandragupta took advantage of the
disturbances caused by the invasion
of Alexander and his sudden death
in 323 B.C. in Babylon. He, with the
help of Kautilya raised a large army
and launched campaigns. He first
overthrew the Greek kshatrapas ruling
in the region of north-western India.
Justin writes, "India after the death of
Alexander, had shaken, as it were, the
125
ANCIENT INDIA .................................................................................................................. .
yoke of servitude from its neck and put
his Governors to death. The architect
of this liberation was Sandrocottas".
Sandrocottas of Greek writers has been
identified with Chandragupta Maurya.
After liberating north-western
india from the Greek rule,
Chandragupta turned his attentiQn to
the conquest of Magadha from the
Nandas. The details of this conquest
is not known to us. The Jain text,
Parisistha Parvam, describes that with
the help of Chanakya, Chandragupta
defeated the Nanda king and
captured him. After defeating Nanda,
Chandragupta became the ruler of
. Magadha empire. .
Chandragupta's western and
southern Indian conquests are known
to us through indirect evidences.
The Junagarh rock inscription of
Rudradaman says that a dam on the
Sudarshana lake for irrigation was
constructed by Pushyagupta, ·a
provincial governor of Chandragupta
Maurya. Later, Yavanaraja Tushapha
excavated canals for irrigation during
Ashoka's reign. Similarly, the find of
Ashokan inscriptions at Girnar hills in
Junagarh district (in Gujarat) and at
Sopara (Thane district, ' Maharashtra)
shows that these areas formed part of
Mauryan empire.
Ashoka's inscriptions have been
found at Maski, Yerragudi and
Chitaldurga in Karnataka. Rock
Edict II and XIII of Ashoka mentions
that his immediate neighbouring
states were those of Cholas, 'Pandyas,
Satyaputras and Keralaputras. Since
Ashoka and his father Bindusara are
126
not known to have made conquest in
south India, it can be said that it was
conquered by Chandragupta. This
conclusion is further strengthened
by the Jain tradition which says
that in his old age Chandragupta
abdicated the throne and retired to
Sravanbelgola in Karnataka with his
teacher, the Jain ascetic Bhadrabahu.
Local inscriptions of later period refer
to his giving up life as a devout Jaina
by fast unto death at that place. There
is a hill nearby called Chandragiri,
which seems to be named after him.
defeated the
invading army of the Greek Kshatrapa
Seleucus who had succeeded
Alexander in the eastern part of his
empire. This victory was achieved
in about 305 B.C. The Greek writers
do not give details of the war but
state that a treaty was concluded in
which Seleucus conceded the territories
of Kandahar, Kabul,Herat and
Baluchistan and Chandragupta
presented him 500 elephants. It is
also stated that this also led to
the matrimonial alliance between the
two - perhaps Seleucus married his
daughter to Chandragupta Maurya or
to his son Bindusara. Seleucus sent
Megasthenese as his ambassador to
the court of Chandragupta. Plutarch
writes, "Sandrocottas who had by that
time mounted the throne overran and
subdued the whole of India with an
army of 6,00,000".
Thus, Chandragupta established a
vast empire which with the exception
of Kalinga, extended from Afghanistan
in the west to Assam in the east and
................................................................................................................... THE MAURYAS
........ --.. \
,-----...... --.-... ----"' ... La
2t-..J " _
I ""s "
Shahbazgarhi
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... J"r. •
u ... \./ . ,,- '
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(Ta.xHa)

Pataliputra
... -1//., Barabar
. "'?"'6 ....
"0'
Rupnath
BA Y OF BENGAL
Fig. 14.1 Map afthe Mauryan Empire
127
· ~
. . ANCIENT INDIA .. . ......... . . .. . . ......... . .. ..... .. .. .......... . ............................. . ... . ...... . ........ . . . .... . ..... . .
from Kashmir in north to Karnataka in
south. This is indirectly proved by the
find spots of the edicts of his grandson,
Ashoka. Ashoka is said to have added
only Kalinga to the Mauryan empire,
and there is no definite evidence that
his father Bindusara made any
conquests at all. Chandragupta
Maurya is said to have ruled for 24
years i.e. from 324 B.C. to 300 B.C.
Bindusara (300-273 B.C.)
Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded
by his son Bindusara. We know
little about this king. The Jain
scholar Hemachandra and Tibetan
historian Taranath say that Chanakya
outlived Chandragupta and continued
as a minister of Bindusara. From
Divyavadana we came to know that
Bindusara appointed his eldest son
Sumana (also named Susima) as his
viceroy at Taxila and Ashoka at Ujjain.
It also tells us that a revolt broke out at
Taxila and when it could not be
suppressed by Susima, Ashoka was
sent to restore peace. Some scholars
give the credit of south Indian conquest
to Bindusara, but most scholars believe
that this was done by his father
Chandragupta Maurya.
Bindusara continued the policy of
friendly relations with Hellenic
world. Pliny mentions that Ptolemy
Philadelphus of Egypt sent Dionysius
as his ambassador to his court.
Ashoka (273-232 B.C.)
After the death of Bindusara in 273 B.C.
Ashoka succeeded to the throne. On the
early life of Ashoka we have only
128
traditional accounts. According to the
Buddhist sources his mother was
Janapada Kalyani or Subhadrangi. As
a prince he served as a viceroy, first at
Ujjain and then at Taxila.
According to the Buddhist
tradition, Ashoka was very cruel in his
early life and captured the throne after
killing his 99 brothers. But this does
not appear to be correct. Not only
because of the exaggerated figure of
99, but also because Ashoka himself
speaks affectionately about his
brothers, sisters and relatives in his
edicts.
Ashoka is the first king in the Indian
history who has left his records
engraved on stones. The history of
Ashoka and his reign can be
reconstructed with the help of these
inscriptions and some other literary
sources. The inscriptions on rocks are
called Rock Edicts, and those on Pillars,
Pillar Edicts. The Ashokan inscriptions
are found in India, Nepal, Pakistan and
Afghanistan. Altogether, they appear at
47 places. However, the name of Ashoka
occurs only in copies of Minor Rock
Edict I found at three places in
Karnataka and one in Madhya
Pradesh. All other inscriptions refer to
him as devanampiya (beloved of the
gods) and piyadasi. These inscriptions
are generally located on ancient
highways.
The inscriptions of Ashoka were
written in four different scripts. In
Afghanistan area they were written in
Greek and Aramaic languages and
scripts, and in Pakistan area, in Prakrit
language and Kharosthi script.
.....................................•.....•....................................•................................. THE MAURYAS
Inscriptions from all other areas are in
Prakrit language, written in Brahmi
script.
Kalinga War and Its Impact
The earliest event of Ashoka's reign
recorded in his inscriptions is his
conquest of Kalinga (modern Orissa
and probably some adjoining areas) in
the eighth year of his reign. This turned
ou t to be the first and also the last
battle fought by him. The Rock Edict
XIII describes vividly the horrors and
miseries of this war and its impact on
Ashoka. According to this edict, one
lakh people were killed in this war,
severallakhs perished and a lakh and
a half were taken prisoners. These
numbers may be exaggerated but one
fact comes out clearly that this war
had a devastating affect on the people
of Kalinga. The horrors of war
completely changed the personality of
Ashoka. He felt great remorse for the
atrocities the war brought in its wake.
He thus abandoned the policy of
aggression and tried to conquer the
hearts of the people. The 'drums
declaring wars were replaced by the
drums announcing ethical and moral
principles with dhammaghosa. He took
steps for the welfare of people and
animals. He sent ambassadors of peace
to the Greek kingdoms in west Asia and
several other countries.
But this did not mean that he
became a weak hearted pacifist.
Contrary to this he warned people that
these good measures may not be taken
as a sign of weakness. If need be, he
would not hesitate in dealing severely
with the erring. He did not pursue the
policy of peace for the sake of peace
and under all conditions. Within the
empire he appointed a class of officers
known as rajjukas who were vested with
the authority of not only rewarding
people but also punishing them if
required.
Ashoka's Dhamma
There is no doubt that Ashoka's
personal religion was Buddhism. In his
Bhabru edict he says he had full faith
in Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.
Though Ashoka accepted Buddhism
as his main faith, it would be wrong to
think that he forced Buddhist ideals on
his subjects. He showed respect to all
sects and faiths and believed in unity
among ethical and moral values of all
sects. In Rock Edict VII he says, "All
sects desire both self control and purity
of mind". In Rock Edict XII he
pronounces his policy of equal respect
to all religious sects more clearly. He
says, that he "honours all sects and
both ascetics and laymen, with gifts and
various forms of recognition".
After the Kalinga war, the greatest
ideal and objective before Ashoka was
the propagation of Dhamma. The
Dhamma, as explained in Ashoka's
edicts is not a religion or a religious
system but a 'Moral Law', a 'Common
Code of Conduct' or an 'Ethical Order'.
In Pillar Edict II Ashoka himself puts
the question: "What is Dhamma?" Then
he enumerates the two basic attributes
or constituents of Dhamma : less evil
and many good deeds. He says such
evils as rage, cruelty, anger, pride and
129
A"<CIENT INDIA ... .. ...... . . . ................. . ............................ . ... .. . ............ ............. ............ . . ....... .
envy a re to be avoided. and many good (ii)
deeds like kindness, liberality, (iii)
truthfulness, gentleness, self control,
purity of heart, attachment to morality,
Respect towards teachers.
Proper treatment towards
ascetics, relations, slaves,
servants and dependents, the
poor and miserable, friends,
acquaintances and companions.
Liberality towards ascetics,
friends, comrades, relatives and
the aged.
inner and outer purity etc. - are to be
pursued vigorously.
Ashoka, in Rock Edict XII and (iv)
many other edicts prescribes the
following codes to be followed:
(i) Obedience to mother and father, (v) Abstention from killing of living
beings.
130
elders , teachers and other
respectable persons. (vi) Non-injury to all living creatures.
Spending little and accumulating
little wealth.
Fig. 14.2 Ashokan Edict
Engraved on a Pillar
(vii)
(viii) Mildness in case of all living
creatures.
(ix) Truthfulness .
(x) Attachment to morality.
(xi) Purity of heart.
Thus, Ashoka tried to instill moral
law (Dhamma) as the governing
principle and forced in every sphere of
life. Dhamma of Ashoka, thus, is a code
for moral and virtuous life. He never
discussed god or soul or religion as
such. He asked people to have control
over their passion, to cultivate purity
of life and character in innermost
thoughts , to be tolerant to other
religions, to abstain from killing or
injuring animals and to have regard for
them, to be ch aritable to all, to be
respectful to parents, teachers,
relatives, friends, and ascetics, to treat
slaves and servant kindly and above all
to tell the truth.
Ashoka not only preached but also
practiced these principles. He gave up
hunting and killing of animals. He
established hospitals for humans and
animals and made liberal donations to
.................. . ......... . ............................. . ..................................... . .................. THE MAURYAS it!
Fig. 14.3 Rummindei Pillar Inscription
the brahmans and ascetics of different
religious sects. He erected rest-houses,
caused wells to be dug and trees to be
planted along the roads.
After the Kalinga war Ashoka
adopted Buddhism, one of whose
cardinal doctrines was non-violence
and non-injury to living beings. Ashoka
took for the propagation of Buddhism.
He conducted Dharmayatras and
instructed his officials to do the same.
He appointed special class of officials
called Dharmamahamatras whose sole
responsibility was to propagate
Dhamma among the people.
Ashoka sent missions to foreign
countries also to propagate dhamma.
His missionaries went to western Asia,
Egypt and Eastern Europe. Of the
foreign kings, whose kingdoms thus
received the message of Buddhism; five
are mentioned in the inscriptions of
Ashoka, namely, Antiochus Theos, of
Syria and western Asia, Ptolemy
Philadelphus of Egypt, Antigonus
Gonatas of Macedonia, Megas of
Cyrene and Alexander of Epirus. The
king even sent his son Mahendra and
daught er Sanghamitra to propagate
Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
Ashoka's Place in History
Ashoka was one of the greatest kings
in the history of the world. His reign
constitutes one of the "rare and lighting
epochs in the annals of nations". The
most remarkable thing about Ashoka
is that his faith in Buddhism never
made him to neglect his duties as a king
and impose it on his subjects. His
greatness lay in his realisation of the
values of life. His conception of duties
and responsibilities of a king, the zeal
with which he succeeded in giving effect
to them are shining examples of his
greatness. Probably no ruler has ever
expressed the relation between a king
and his subjects in such a simple and
noble language. He declared, "All men
are my children and just as I desire for
my children that they may enjoy every
kind of prosperity and happiness, in
both this world and the next, so also I
desire the same for all men".
Ashoka is the only king in the
history of human kind who apologised
to his conquered subject for having
waged war against them and caused
them misery and sufferings. The Rock
Edict XIII is a moving document which
could have been written only by a
. human being as noble and as great as
Ashoka.
Decline of the Mauryan Empire
Ashoka ruled for over forty years and
met with his death in 232 B.C. the
decline set in and soon after the empire
broke up. Seven kings followed Ashoka
131
ANCIENT INDIA ............. .. ............................................... . ............. ...... ................................ .
in succession in a period of about 50
years. 't is impossible to construct a
continuous history of the empire after
Ashoka. Perhaps, after the death of
Ashoka, the empire was divided into
an eastern and an western part. The
western part was governed by Kunala,
Samprati and others and the eastern
part with southern India, with its
capital at Pataliputra, by six later
Mauryan kings from Dasarath to
Brihadratha. The revolt of the Andhras
in the south and victorious raids of
Greek king in the west gave a blow to
the power and prestige of the Mauryan
empire. Apparently due to concern for
the empire and total disillusionment
on kings unworthiness, Pushyamitra,
the commander-in-chief killed the
king Brihadratha while he was
reviewing the army. Too little is known
of the actual circumstances leading to
such an act. However, what is very clear
is that the king was killed in full view of
the public, and that too in the presence
of his army, this shows that he neither
enjoyed the loyality of his own army nor
the sympathy of the people. This is the
only recorded and undisputed incident
in the history of India till the twelfth
century A.D. where the king was
murdered and replaced. Though
Pushyamitra, ascended the throne,
curiously enough, he retained the title
of the Senapati. He did not adopt any
title declaring himself as the king.
There is something very dramatic in
the way in which Mauryan empire
declined and disappeared just in 50
years after the death of Ashoka.
Historians have given various reasons
132
for it. Most of the historians agree that
after Ashoka, his successors were weak
who could not control the unrest and
revolt in various parts of the empire.
Consequently the north-western and
southern portions were the first to go
out. Some historians hold Ashoka
responsible for this decline. Ashoka's
pacifist policies weakened the empire
in terms of wars and military strength.
The centralised empire needs very
strong willed rulers which was not the
case with Ashoka's successors. Some
historians think that Ashoka's welfare
measures must have eaten away a large
chunk of income and over all income
must have been very inadequate to
main tain the army and the
administrative machinery. This must
have weakened the entire edifice of
the empire. But weak economy does
not appear to be the case, as the
excavations of Mauryan settlements
and also other evidence point to an
expending and flourishing economy.
Polity and Administration
The Mauryan empire was one of the
largest in the whole of the ancient
world. It ushered in a centralised form
of government. From the Arthashastra,
Ashokan inscriptions and from
the fragments available from
Megasthenese's accounts, we have a
fairly good idea about the various
aspects of administration, economy,
society and religion of the people.
The king was head of the state. He
had judicial, legislative and executive
powers. The king issued what were
known as sasana or ordinances. The
....... . ............ . ......................... . .................................................................. THE MAURYAS
edicts of Ashoka are examples of those
sasanas. But king could not do
whatever he liked. He had to follow the
law of the country given by law givers
and had to govern according to the
customs of the land. The king was
assisted in administration by a
Council of Ministers (Mantriparishad).
Besides, there were some officers known
as Adhyakshas (superintendents).
Kautilya refers to a large number of
superintendent like those of gold, store
houses, commerce, agriculture, ships,
cows, horses, elephants, chariots,
infantry, passports, the city, etc.
In the Mauryan administration
there was an officer called yukta who
was perhaps the subordinate/ officer
incharge of the revenues of the king.
The rajjukas were officers responsible
for land measurement and fixing their
boundaries. They were also given
power to punish the guilty and set
free the innocents. Another officer of
the Mauryan administration was
Pradeshikas. Some scholars think that
he was responsible for the collection
of revenue while others think that he
was the provincial governer.
The Mauryan empire was divided
into provinces. We do not know about
the number of provinces during the
reign of Chandragupta and Bindusara.
But we know that during the reign of
Bindusara, Ashoka was posted at
Uiiain as Governor of the Avanti region
while his brother Susima was posted
at Taxila as the Governor of the north-
western provinces. The important
provinces were directly under Kumaras
(princes). According to the Junagarh
rock inscription of Rudradaman,
Saurashtra (Kathiawar) was governed
by vaisya Pushyagupta at the time of
Chandragupta Maurya and by
yavana-raia Tushaspa at the time of
Ashoka, both provincial governors.
Provinces were subdivided into the
districts, each of these were further
divided into groups of villages and the
final unit of administration was the
village. A group of officials worked in
each district. The pradeshika was the
head of district administration who
toured the entire district every five years
to inspect the administration of areas
under his control. The rajjuka was
responsible for surveying and assessing
the land, fixing its rent and record
keeping beside judicial functions
enumerated above. The duties of Yukta
largely comprised secretarial work,
collection and accounting of revenue
etc. There were an intermediate levels
of administration between district and
that of village. This unit comprised five
to ten or more villages.
The village was the smallest unit of
administration. The head of the village
was called gramika who was assisted
in village administration by "village
elders". It is difficult to say whether the
gramika was a paid servant, or was
elected by the village people. The
villages enjoyed considerable
autonomy. MQst of the disputes of the
village were settled by gramika with the
help of village assembly. The
Arlhashastra mentions a wide range
of scales in salary, the highest being
48,000 panas and the lowest 60
panas.
133
ANCIENT INDIA ..... .. . . ..... . . . ................... ...... .. . .. .... ...... . ......... .. ............... . ............. . .. . ......... . .
City Administration
A number of cities such as Pataliputra,
Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali, Suvarnagiri,
Samapa, Isila, and Kausambi are
mentioned in the edicts of Ashoka. The
Arthashashtra has a full chapter
on the administration of cities.
Megasthenese has described in detail
the administration of Pataliputra and
it can be safely presumed that similar
administrative system was followed in
most of the Mauryan cities.
Megasthenese tells us that the city
of Pataliputra was administered by
a city council comprising 30 members.
These thirty members were divided
into a board of five members
each. Each of these boards had
specific responsibilities towards the
administration of city. For example, first
board was concerned with the
industrial and artistic produce. Its
duties included fixing of wages, check
the adulteration etc. The second board
dealt" with the affairs of the visitors,
especially foreigners who came to
Pataliputra. The third board was
concerned with the registration of
birth and death. The fourth board
regulated trade and commerce, kept
a vigil on the manufactured goods and
sales of commodities. The fifth board
was responsible for the supervision of
manufacture of goods. The sixth board
collected taxes as per the value of sold
goods. The tax was normally one-tenth
of the sold goods.
The city council appointed officers
who looked after the public welfare
such as maintenance and repairs of
roads, markets, hospitals, temples,
134
educational institutions, sanitation,
water supplies, harbors etc. The officer
incharge of the city was known as
Nagaraka.
The administrative machinery
of the Mauryan state was fairly
developed and well organised.
Numerous departments regulated and
controlled the activities of the state.
Several important departments that
Kautilya mentions are accounts,
revenue, mines and minerals, chariots,
customs and taxation. The state was
conceived as a complex of activities of
its various departments which covered
almost every sphere of the state's affairs.
Sooiety and Culture
Megasthenese speaks of Mauryan
society as comprising seven castes -
philosophers, farmers, soldiers ,
herdsmen, artisans, magistrates and
councillors. Megasthenese could not
properly comprehend the Indian society
and failed to distinguish between jati,
varna and the occupation. The
chaturvarna. system continued to
govern the society. But the craftsmen,
irrespective ofjatienjoyed a high place
in the society. The material growth
mellowed the jati restrictions and gave
p ~ o p l e prosperity and respectibility.
The urban way of life developed. The
residential accommodation, its wealth
etc. were entered into official records
and rules and regulation were well
defined and strictly implemented.
The Education was fairly wide
spread. Teaching continued to be the
main job of the brahmans. But
Buddhist monasteries also acted as
educational institutions. Taxila, Uiiayini
. . ............................................................................................................... THE MAURYAS
and Varanasi were famous educational
centres. The technical education was
generally provided through guilds,
where pupils learnt the crafts from early
age.
In the domestic life, the joint family
system was the norm. A married
woman had her own property in the
form of bride-gift (stree-dhana) , and
jewels. These were at her disposal in
case of widowhood. The widows had a
very honourable place in the society.
There are frequent references to women
enjoying freedom and engaged in
gainful occupation. Offences against
women were severely dealt with.
Kautilya laid down penalties against
officials, in charge of workshops and
prisons who misbehaved with women.
Megasthenese has stated that
slavery did not exist in India. However,
forced labour and bonded labour did
exist on a very limited scale but were
not treated so harshly as the slaves in
the western world.
About one and a half century of
Mauryan rule witnessed the growth of
economy, art and architecture,
education, etc. which made India into
a great civilization and one of the
greatest countries in the contemporary
world.
Economy
The Mauryan state created a machinery
which governed vast areas directly and
to enforce the rules and regulations in
respect of agriculture, industry,
commerce, animal husbandry, etc. The
measures taken by the Mauryan state
for the promotion of the economy gave
great impetus to economic development
during the period. The vastness of
India's agricultural and mineral
resources and the extraordinary skill
of her craftsmen have been mentioned
with admiration by Megasthenese and
other Greek writers.
The large part of the population was
agriculturists and lived in villages. New
areas were brought under cultivation
after cleaning the forest. The state
helped people in this endeavour.
Certain types of forests were protected
by law. People were encouraged to
settle down in new areas. Among the
crops, rice of different varieties, coarse
grains (kodrava), sesame, pepper and
saffron, pulses, wheat, linseed,
mustard, vegetable and fruits of various
kinds and sugarcane were grown.
The state also owned agricultural
farms, cattle farms, dairy farms etc.
Irrigation was given due importance.
Water reservoirs and dams were
built and water for irrigation was
distributed and measured. The
famous inscription of Rudradaman
found at Junagarh mentions that
one of Chandragupta's governors,
Pushyagupta, was responsible for
building a dam on Sudarshana lake
near Girnar in Kathiawad. From an
inscription of Skandagupta we came to
know that this very dam was repaired
during his reign, almost 800 years after
it was built.
Industry was organised in various
guilds. The chief industries were
textile, mining and metallurgy, ship
building, jewellery making, metal
working, pot making etc. Some other
135
ANCIENT INDIA ......................................................... . ................................... . .......... . ...... .
industries were, manufacturing dyes,
gums, drugs, perfumes, etc. The trade
was regulated by the state. India
supplied the western countries with
indigo, various medicinal substances,
cotton and silk. Foreign trade was
carried on by land as well as by sea.
Special arrangements were made for the
protection of trade-routes. Provisions of
warehouses, godowns and transport
arrangements were also made. The
traderhad to get a license to trade. The
state controlled and regulated the
weights and measures. The artisans
and craftsmen were specially protected
by the state and offences against them
were severely punished.
The guilds were powerful
institutions. It gave craftsmen great
economic, pblitical and judicial powers
and protection. The chief of a guild was
called Jesthaka. The guilds settled the
disputes of their members. A few guilds
issued theIr own coins. The guilds also
made donations to educational
institutions, learned brahmans and to
the destitute. This can be understood
by later inscriptional evidences. The
Sanchi stupa inscription mentions that
one of the carved gateways was donated
by the guilds of ivory workers.
Similarly, the Nasik cave inscription
mentions that two weaver's guilds gave
permanent endowments for the
maintenance of a temple.
Kautilya says, "A full treasury is a
guarantee of the prosperity of the
state" and it is the most important duty
of the king to keep the treasury full at
all the times for all works. During the
Mauryan period, taxes were levied both
136
Fig. 14.4 Ashokan Pillar with Lion
Capital at Lauriya Nandangarh
in cash and in kind and were collected
by local officers. The chief source of
revenue was land tax and the tax levied
on trade etc. The land tax was one-
............ . ........................ . •... •. . ... .• . •. . . ..... •• ......... •......... . .. . ........ . .. . .. . . ... ... .. .... THE MAURYAS
A
fourth to one-sixth of the produce. Toll
tax was levied on all items which were
brought for sale in the market. Tax
was also levied on all manufactured
goods. Those who could not pay the tax
in cash or kind were to contribute their
dues in the form of labour. Strabo
mentions that craftsmen, herdsmen,
traders, farmers, all paid taxes. The
Arthashashtra describes revenue at
great length. This was furth,er
augmented by income from mines,
forests, pasture lands, trade, forts etc.
The income from the king's own land
or estate was known as sita.
Brahmans, children, and
handicapped people were exempted
from paying taxes . Also no tax was
levied in areas where new trade routes
or new irrigation projects or new
agricultural land were being developed.
Tax evasion was considered a very
serious crime and offenders were
severely punished.
Art and Architecture
During the Mauryan period we notice
a great development in the field of art
and architecture. The main examples
of the Mauryan art and architecture
that have survived are:
.(i) Remains of the royal palace and the
dty of Pataliputra
(ii) Ashokan pillars and capitals
(iii) Rock cut Chaitya caves in the
Barabar and Nagarjuni hills
(iv) Individual Mauryan sculptures and
terracotta figurines
The famous city of Pataliputra
(modern Patna) was described in detail
by Megasthenese, reference of which are
found in the writings of Strabo, Arrian
and other Greek Writers. It stretched
along the river Ganga in the form of a
parallelogram. It was enclosed by a
wooden wall and had 64 gates.
. Excavations have brought to light
remains of palaces and the wooden
palisade. Arrian described the palace
in these terms, "where the greatest of
all kings" ofIndia resided, "was a marvel
of workmanship with which neither
Memnomian Susa with all its costly
splendour, nor Ekbatana with all its
magnificence, can vie". The Mauryan
wooden palace survived for about 700
years because, at the end of the fourth
century A.D. when Fa-Hien saw it, it
was astounding. The palace and also
the wooden palisade seems to have been
destroyed by fire. The burnt wooden
structure and ashes have been found
from Kumrahar . .
Seven rock-cut caves in the Barabar
and Nagarjuni hills show that the
Fig. 14.5 The Barabar Cave
137
ANCIENT INDIA ................................................ . ................................... . ........................ . .... .
considered to be one of the most unique
historical record. It gives a biographical
account of the king's life and his
achievements, not in general terms but
year-wise. The inscription, for example,
says that after having received his
training in writing, mathematics, law
and finance, necessary for a crown-
prince, Kharvela ascended the throne
in his twenty fourth year. He spent the
first year in rebuilding the capital of
Kalinga. In the second year, he defied
the might of Satakarni and attacked
and destroyed the city of Mushika; in
the fourth year he subduded Rathiras
and Bhojakas ofBerar. In the fifth year
he extended the old canal which was
built by the Nandas about 300 years
earlier and had fallen in disuse.
Kharavela invaded the kingdom of
Magadha in the eighth and twelfth years
of his reign. During the second
campaign, Kharavela carried home an
image of the Jain tirthankara from
Magadha which had been previously
taken away from Kalinga to Magadha.
The wealth he got during this campaign
was used to built a magnificent temple
at Bhubaneswar. In the thirteenth year
of his reign he undertook many public
welfare schemes and also subduded the
Pandya rulers.
The inscription mentions the
achievements only upto the thirteenth
year of Kharavela's reign. Nothing is
heard of him or his successors, if any.
Some Ganasanghas
Apart from some important dynasties
ruling in post-Mauryan north India we
have a number of republics ruling over
142
. ~ .. ~ .
Fig. 15.1 Tribal Coins
smaller states. We know about these
republics through their coins on
which their names are found. Some of
these were Arjunayanas, Malavas,
Audumbaras, Kunindas, Yaudheyas
etc. Most of these, later on became
tributaries of the Guptas and vanished
altogether after the fourth century A.D.
Satavahanas of Deccan
Before the emergence of the
Satavahanas in Maharashtra and
Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in
southern India the region was settled
by megalithic people.
While northern India was reeling
under turmoil after the fall of Mauryas
a very powerful kingdom was
established by the Satavahanas, also
known as Andhras, in Deccan covering
parts of Andhra Pradesh and
Maharashtra. The Andhras are an
ancient people and are mentioned in
the Aitareya Brahmana also. The Greek
,4
............................................................................. THE AGE OF SUNGAS AND SATAVAHANAS '
writer Pliny mentions that the Andhras
were powerful people who possessed a
large number of villages and thirty
towns, an army of one lakh infantry,
two thousand cavalry and one
thousand elephants. During the
Mauryan age they were part of the
Mauryan empire but it appears that
immediately after the fall of the
dynasty, the Andhras declared
themselves free.
The founder of this dynasty is
known as Simuka and he ruled from
Fig. 15.2 Coins of Satavahanas
235 B.C. to 21.3 B.C. He was succeeded
by his brother Krishna. The third king
was Satakarni I who seems to have made
extensive conquests and performed two
Ac hvamedhayajna. His achievements
a" e described in detail in the Nanaghat
It appears that he
cO'.lquered western Malwa, Vidarbha
and Anupa (Narmada Valley). He is also
referred to as the lord of Dakshinapatha.
His name also occurs on one of the
gateways of Sanchi stupa. It is well
known that substantial donations were
made by the Satavahanas for the
renovation and decoration of Sanchi
stupas and monasteries.
The next important king was
Gautamiputra Satakarni. In between,
three kings ruled, of whom
Satakarni II ruled for about 56 years.
He wrested Malwa from the Sungas.
After Satakarni II, the expansion of
Satavahana empire received a set
back and N ahapana seems to have
conquered part ofSatavahana territory.
A large number of coins of Nahapana
has been found in N asik area. /
The Satavahanas became powerful
again during the reign of Gautamiputra
Satakarni. His achievements are
recorded in glowing terms in the Nasik
inscription of Queen-mother, Gautami
Balasri. This inscription was engraved
after his death and in the nineteenth
year of the reign of his son and
successor Pulmavi II. In this inscription
he has been described as one who
destroyed the Sakas, Yavanas and
Pahlavas. He overthrew Nahapana and
restruct large number of his silver
coins. He also recovered northern
Maharasthra, Konkan, Vidarbha,
Saurashtra and Malwa from the Sakas.
Satakarni dedicated a cave in Nasik in
the eighteenth year of his reign and
granted some land to ascetics in the
twenty fourth year. Gautamiputra
Satakarni is the first king bearing
matronym and this practice was
followed by nearly all his successors.
143
~
- ANCIENT INDIA ..................................... . ............................................................. . .. ............ .
Gautamiputra was succeeded by
his son Vasisthiputra Sri Pulmavi in
about A.D. 130 and ruled for about
twenty four years. The coins and
inscription of Pulmavi have been found
in Andhra Pradesh. This shows that
Andhra had become a part of
Satavahana empire in the second
century A.D. Perhaps in order to save
the Satavahana empire from the
onslaught of the Sakas, Pulmavi
married the daughter of Saka ruler
Rudradaman. But this Saka king
defeated the next Satavahana ruler
twice and took from him Aparant
(Konkan) and Anupa (Narmada valley).
Sri Yajna Satakarni (A.D. 165-195)
was perhaps the last of the great
Satavahana rulers. His inscriptions
have been found in Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra -and Madhya Pradesh.
From the distribution of his coins it
appears that he ruled over a large
kingdom extending from bay of Bengal
in east to Arabian sea in the west. Thus
he regained the land that the Sakas had
conquered from his predecessors.
Maritime trade and activities during his
reign are indicated by depiction of ship
with a fish and conch on his coins.
The successors ofYajna were weak
and unworthy to govern such a large
empire. They ruled over small
territories. The Satavahana empire
. collapsed when Abhiras seized
Maharashtra and Ikshvakus and
Pallavas appropriated the eastern
provinces.
The Epoch of Foreign Invaders
One of the most important events of the
reign of Pushyamitra Sunga was the
144 '
invasion of Yavanas from the
west. Patanjali, a contemporary of
Pushyamitra, mentions this invasion.
Kalidasa also mentions about
Vasumitra's conflict with Yavanas, in his
Malavikagnimitram. It may be
mentioned that the word Yavana
originally meant Ionian Greeks, but
later it came to denote, all people of
Greek nationality. The Yavanas were the
first ones to establish foreign supremacy
on Indian soil; they were succeeded by
several central Asian tribes who
invaded India and established their
political authority. Some of them are
being discussed here.
The Indo-Greeks
The advent of the Yavanas, also known
as Indo-Greeks, in India was the result
of incidents on the western border of
India. After Alexander a large part of
his empire came under the rule of his
Generals. The two main areas were
Bactria and the adjoining areas of Iran
known as Parthia. About 250 B.C.
Diodotus, the governor of Bactria
revolted against the Greeks and
proclaimed his independence. Some
important Indo-Greek kings were
Euthydemus, Demetrius, Eucratides
and Menander.
Among all the Indo-Greek rulers,
Menander (165-145 B.C.), was the most
illustrious. He ruled for almost twenty
years. His capital was Sakala (modern
Sialkot) in Pakistan. G r e e ~ writers tell
us that he was a great ruler and his
territory exfended from Afghanistan to
Uttar Pradesh in east and Gujarat in
the west. Menander was converted to
A
. ... . . .... . .. .. ... . ........ . .......... .. ..... .. ..... .. . . ..... . ....... . . . ..... THE AGE OF SUNGAS AND SATAVAHANAS '
Fig. 15.3 Coins of Indo-Greeks
Buddhism by Buddhist monk
Nagasena. Menander asked Nagasena
many questions related to philosophy
and Buddhism, which together with
Nagasena's answers are recorded in
Milindapanho or the Questions of
Milinda.
In the history of India, the Indo-
Greek rulers are the first ones whose
coins carried the portraits of kings and
their names. Before this, the coins in
India did not carry names or portraits
of the kings. Also they were the first
rulers who issued gold coins. The Indo-
Greek coins are known for the depiction
of realistic and artistic portraits.
The Parthians
The Parthians also known as Pahlavas
were Iranian people. Their history is
obscure. But a few facts may be gleaned
from coins and inscriptions. The earliest
king of this dynasty was Vonones, who
captured power in Arachosia and
Seistan and adopted the title of "great
king of kings". Vonones was succeeded
by Spalirises. Gondophernes was the
greatest of the Parthian rulers. He ruled
from A.D. 19 - 45. It appears that for a
very brief period he was master of the
Saka-Pahalva area both in eastern Iran
and north-western India. Soon after
Gondopher nes, the Pahlava rule in
India ended and the Kushanas moved
in. Excavations at Begram in
Afghanistan have brought to light a
large number of coins of Gondophernes
but none of his successors.
The Sakas
The Indo-Greek rule in north-western
India was destroyed by the Sakas who
are also known as the Scythians. The
Sakas or Scythians were nomadic tribes
who belonged to central Asia. In about
165 B.C. they were turned out of their
original home by the Yueh-chi, later
came to be known as Kushanas, who
in turn were also pushed out of their
land and came to India. The in-roads
made by the central Asian tribes was
the result of the prevailing situations
in central Asia and adjoining north-
western China. After the construction
of the great wall of China in the third
century B.C. the tribes like Hiung-nu,
Wu -sun and Yueh -chi had no option
but to move towards south and west.
The first migrants were Yueh-chi, who
displaced Sakas, who in turn, invaded
Bactria and Parthia and then entered
India through the Bolan Pass. The
Sakas were divided in five branches and
established themselves in various parts
of north-western and northern India.
One branch settled in Afghanistan. The
second branch settled in' Punjab with
145
- ANCIENT INDIA . ..... . ...... . ............................................ .. ................... . ................................. .
Taxila as its capital. The third branch
settled in Mathura. The fourth in
Maharashtra and Saurashtra and the
fifth in central India with Ujjain as its
capital. The Sakas ruled in different
areas from the first century B.C. to
about fourth century A.D.
Although the Sakas ruled in
different parts of the country, only those
who ruled in central and western India
rose to prominence. The most
prominent ruler of western India was
Nahapana whose reference is found in
various inscriptions found in
Maharashtra and in the records of the
Satavahanas. Of the central Indian
branch, the most illustrious ruler was
Rudradaman who ruled from about
A.D. 130-150. From the Junagarh rock
inscription of Rudradaman, it appears
that his rule extended ' over a vast
territory including the areas of Gujarat,
Sindh, Saurashtra, north Konkan,
Malwa and parts of Rajasthan. He
undertook the repairs of the Sudarsan
lake dam that had been built by the
provincial governer Chandragupta
Maurya, in Kathiawad when it was
damaged by heavy rains.
Ujjayini, the capital of Rudradaman
became a centre of culture and
education. Many scholars think that
Saka Era was founded by Sakas. The
dynasty came to an end with the defeat
of the last king in the hands of
Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty,
in about A.D. 390.
The Kushanas
The Chinese historians tell us that the
Yueh-chi were a nomadic tribe settled
146
on north-western border of China. In
the year 165 B.C., they came in conflict
with a neighbouring tribe known as
Hiung-nu. The Yueh-chi were defeated
and forced to move out of their land.
They could not move towards the east,
since the China Wall had become a
barrier. They had no alternative but to
move west and south. While moving
westwards the Yueh-chi came in conflict
with another tribe called Wu-sun whom
they defeated easily. At about this time
the Yueh-chi were divided into two
groups - Little Yueh-chi which migrated
to Tibet and great Yueh-chi which
finally came to India. After Wu -sun the
next people, the Yueh-chi, met were the
Sakas who occupied the territory of
Bactria. The Saka's were forced to
leave their land and they came to
India and the Yueh-chi settled down
in the land of the Sakas. It is here that
they gave up their nomadic life and
adopted an agricultural and a settled
way of life. Further, perhaps its in this
area great Yueh-chi were divided into
five branches.
According to Chinese sources, the
first great Yueh-chi king was Kujula
Kadphises, also known as Kadphises I
who united all the five groups and
established his authority over
Afghanistan. He called himself 'great
king'. He is also called dharma thida
and sachadharmathida (steadfast in
true faith), which is taken to suggest
that he was a Buddhist.
Kadphises I was succeeded by his
son We rna Kadphises or Kadphises II
who extended Kushana territory upto
Punjab, or perhaps even in the Ganga-
............................................................................. THE AGE OF SUNGAS AND SATAVAHANAS ,6
Fig. 15.4 Coins of Kushana
Yamuna doab. He issued gold and
copper coins and is referred to as great
king and a devotee of Siva. On some of
his coins Siva holding a trident and bull
are shown.
Kadphises II was succeeded by
Kanishka, the most well known and
greatest of all the Kushana kings.
Kanishka seems to have come to throne
in A.D. 78 and some historians think
that Kanishka founded the Saka era.
At its peak, Kanishka's empire
extended from Khotan in the north-
west to Benaras in the east and
Kashmir in north to Saurashtra and
Malwa in the south. The capital of this
vast empire of Kanishka was '
Purushapur i.e. modern Peshawar.
Coins of Kanishka had been found
from almost all over the above
mentioned area.
Fig. 15.5 Statue of Kanishka
Kanishka was a follower of
Buddhism. The fourth Buddhist
council was held during Kanishka's
reign. Kanishka's court was adorned by
the presence of such scholars as Parsva,
Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha, Charaka,
and Nagarjuna. ' During his reign
Taxila and Mathura emerged as great
centres of art and culture.
Kaniskha ruled from A.D. 78-101.
After him came Vasishka, Huvishka,
Vasudeva and others. The last name is
purely Indian and suggests the
complete Indianisation of Kushana.
Though his name is after the Vaishnava
deity, he was a Saiva. The decline of
Kushana power set in after Vasishka,
though the Kushanas continued to rule
up to the fourth century A.D. over small
principalities, independently under
some sovereign rulers.
147
ANCIENT INDIA .................................. . .. ..... ................................................. . . ................... . .
Exercises
1. Describe the political condition of India after Mauryans.
2. Who were the Satavahanas? Describe their political achievements.
3. Who were Indo-Greek and how do we know about them?
4. Who were Kushanas? Describe their political history.
5. Write short notes on:
(i) Sakas
148
(ii) Kanishka
(iii) Parthians
(iv) Kharvela
• Collect some pictures of the coins found in different dynasties. Try
and find out their value in terms of Rupees.
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. ~
.. ANCIENT INDIA ............ . ..... . ................................................................................................ .
WE have seen in an earlier chapter that
southern India, mainly the present
states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, were
inhabitated by megalithic people in the
first millennium B. C. In this chapter we
shall learn about the history of south
India from the Megalithic period to
about A.D. 300.
The Megalithic Phase in South India
The megalithic culture is mostly known
for its burials, which have been
generically termed megaliths (lit. = big
stones), even when the big stones are
not associated. These burials are
marked by an abundance of iron tools
and a Black-and-Red pottery. It
appears that there was an abrupt
change from the Neolithic stage into
the Iron Age, without any significant,
intermediate Chalcolithic or Bronze
Fig. 16.1 Different Types of Megalithic
Burials
150
Age. The following are the main
Megalithic burial types.
(i) Pit Circle graves: The body was first
excarnated and then interred. Grave
goods included pots and iron
artifacts. A stone circle is erected
around the pit.
(ii) Cists: These graves have a variety
of forms. Cists are made out of
granite slabs with one or more
capstones, with or without port
holes. Cists are fully buried, half
buried, or even on the bare rocks.
They may contain single or multiple
burials. A single or multiple stone
circle surrounds the cists.
(iii) Laterite chambers: In Malabar,
instead of granite slabs, there are
grave-chambers excavated into
laterite.
................ . .... . . ...... . .............. . ...................... . ............ . . THE EARLY HISTORY OF SOUTH INDIA
(iv) Alignments: In Gulbarga district
and south of Hyderabad, a large
number of standing stones
(menhirs) arranged in squares or
diagonals have been found, their
height ranging from 2 to 6 m. In
Kashmir, menhirs are however
arranged in a semi-circle.
(v) Sacrophagi: These legged urns of
terracotta sometimes have animal
heads and are not very common.
(vi) Urns: The practice of burying
excarnated bones in urns seems to
be a' hangover from the Neolithic
Fig. 16.2 Megalithic Iron Tools
past. They are marked by capstones
or stone circles. Their main
concentration is on the eastern coast.
There is no doubt about the variety
in Megalithic construction, but the
common denominator is provided by a
Black-and -Red ware and typical iron
tools. They have a surprising uniformity
all over the peninsula. In the pottery
shapes conical or looped lids , carinated
vases, pedestalled bowls , spouted
dishes etc. are quite characteristic. Of
the iron implements the main 1:'"jpes are
axes with crossed straps, sickles,
tripods, tridents, spearheads, swords,
lamp hangers, arrowheads and lamps.
Horse-harness bit s and bells are also
commol) finds. Occasionally, beads of
etched carnelian, gold ornaments and
sundry objects of copper or stone are
associat ed with the megaliths.
These Megalithic monuments,
whatever their external shape and
contents , seem in our present
knowledge to herald not only the Iron
Age, that is a period of India's history
when the use of iron for tools and
weapons became common, but also a
time when dated literature begins to be
available. Thus, in a sense with
Megaliths, prehistory ends and history
begins . Though this is largely true, we
still know very littl e as how the
Megalithic people lived, because no
such site has been excavated. Naturally,
the builders of t hese Megaliths remain
unknown. No reference to these
monuments has been traced in Sanskrit
or Prakrit literature, though the early
Tamil literature does contain
descriptions of these burial practices.
151
ANCIENT INDIA .......................................................................................... . ......................... .
The Early History
The earliest references that we find
about the people and kingdoms
of the area are preserved in three forms
- Ashokan inscriptions, Sangam
literature and Megasthenese's
accounts. The Rock Edict II and
XIII of .Ashoka mentions the
southern kingdoms of Chola, Pandya,
Satyaputra, Keralaputra and
Tambapanni. All these lay outside
the Ashokan empire but Ashoka's
benevolence to these neighbouring
states is very much attested by the fact
that he made provisions for medicines
and food items etc. for animals
and humans of these kingdoms.
Megasthenese also mentions these
states. In the Hathigumpha inscription
of Kharvela, he is credited for defeating
a confederacy of Tamil states.
The first detailed description of
south Indian states is found in Sangam
literature belonging to the first four
centuries of the Christian era. It may
be mentioned that Tamil is the oldest
among the spoken and literary
languages of south India and the
earliest literature of this language is
known as Sangam literature. This
literature represents the collection of
odes, lyrics and idylls which were
composed by poets and scholars for the
presentation in three successive
literary assemblies called "Sangam",
established by the Pandyan kings. The
Sangam literature preserves folk
memory about the society and life in
south India between the third Century
B.C. and third Century A.D.
From the Ashokan inscriptions,
Meganthenese's accounts, Sanskrit
'and Sangam literature, it is clear that
I
-, 152
there has been a lot of cultural
interactions between the southern and
northern India. With the regular settled
life, development of strong sedentary
communities and a strong economy,
three states, namely, Cholas, Cheras
and Pandya emerged. The Sangam
literature believes that the dynasties of
Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas belong to
immemorial antiquity.
Cholas
The. Cholas occupied the delta of the
Kaveri river and the adjoining region.
The region of Kanchi was also part of
their kingdom. It was also called
Cholamandalam in early medieval
times. It was situated towards the
north-east of Pandya kingdom.
Earlier its capital was Uraiyur in
Tiruchirapalli but subsequently it was
shifted to Puhar which came to be
known as Kaveripattanam. In the
middle of the second century B.C. it
seems that a Chola king known as Elara
conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it
for about 50 years.
The most distinguished of the early
Chola kings was Karikala. His two great
achievements seem to be the crushing
defeat he inflicted upon the joint forces
of Chera and Pandya kings and
successful invasion of Sri Lanka.
It appears that Karikala defeated,
in a great battle at Venni, near Tanjore,
a confederacy of about a dozen rulers
headed by Chera and Pandya kings
and established his supremacy over
the whole of Tamil land. Karikala
maintained a powerful navy and
conquered Sri Lanka. He is credited
to have built big irrigation channels by
................................................................... . ................ THE EARLY HISTORY OF SOUTH INDIA .-
I NDIAN OCEAN
THE SANGAM AGE

Kanchi
•
BAYOF
BJ:.'NGAL
e
V
• Gongaikondacholapuram
Kaveripattinam (Puhar)
Nagapattinam
Fig. 16.3 Sangam Age
means of building a 160 km. long
embankment along the river Kaveri. He
fortified the town, the famous sea part
of Puhar, at the mouth of the Kaveri.
These two great works were chiefly done
by 12,000 people brought as prisoners
of war from Sri Lanka. All this lead to
the growth of agriculture, trade,
commerce, arts and craft etc. He
a great patron of literature and
education. He was a follower of Vedic
religion and performed many Vedic
sacrifices.
After Karikala, the Chola kingdom
faced confusion and chaos. The
successors were quite weak and family
members squabbled for power and
position. The only other king, after
Karikala, who is known as a great king
is Illanjetcenni who captured two
fortresses from the Cheras. But the fact
remains that after Karikala, the Chola
153
, ~ ANCIENT I NDIA . ... . . . . ..... .. . . . . ........ . ... . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. . .......... . ... . ... . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ..... . ..... . ..... . ..... . .... . .
empire declined and the Cheras and
Pandyas extended their territories at
the cost ofthe Chola kingdom. After the
defeat at the hands of the Pallavas, the
Cholas were reduced to a small ruling
family from about the fourth to the
ninth century A.D.
Pandyas
The Pandya kingdom occupied roughly
the region of the modern districts of
. Tirunelveli, Ramnad and Madurai in
Tamil Nadu. The capital of the kingdom
was Madurai. The Sangam literature
gives some disjointed information and
names of a few kings. Nedunjeliyan is
mentioned as a great Pandya king. The
Chera, Chola and five other minor states
combined against him and advanced
against him at Madura i. But he
defeated the combined forces . This great
victory was remembered for long and
has even been mentioned in a tenth
century A.D. inscription. He is also said
to have performed seve ral Vedic
sacrifices. He may be taken to have
ruled around A. D. 210.
Under the Pandyas, the capital
Madurai and port city Korkai were great
centres of trade and commerce. The
Pandyan kingdom was very wealthy
and prosperous. The traders profited
from trade with the Roman empire.
Pandya kings even sent embassies to
the Roman emperor Augustus qnd
Trojan.
Cheras
The Cheras, also known as
Keralaputras, were situated to the west
and north of the Pandya kingdom. The
154
area of the kingdom included the
narrow strip of land between the sea
and the mountains of Konkan range.
Like the Pandyas and the Cholas, the
Chera rulers also occupy high position
in the history of south India. The Chera
ruler Nedunjeral Adan conquered the
Kadambas with their capital at Vanavasi
(near Goa). He also fought a battle with
the father of the Chola king Karikala.
In this battle both the kings were killed .
He is said to have defeated the Yavanas
also. Probably, the reference is to the
Greeks and Romans who came in large
number as traders and set up large
colonies in south India. According to
the Chera tradition, the greatest king
of the Chera dynasty was Sengutturan.
He is said to have subjugated the Chola
and the Pandya kings.
It is interesting to note that some
kings of all the three kingdoms claim
that their rulers lead victorious
expeditions to the north, as far as
Himalayas. The Chera king Nedunjeral
Adan is called Imayavaramban i.e. "he
who had the Himalaya mountains as
the boundary of his kingdom" . But
clearly all this was exaggeration. At the
end of the third century A.D. the Chera
power declined and we hear about them
again in the eighth century A.D.
However, one important fact about
these three early kingdoms of south
India is that they constantly fought with
each other and made new alliances
against the ones who became powerful,
irrespective of past friendship and
alliances. They also fought regularly
with Sri Lanka.
..... . ........................................ . .................................. THE EARLY HISTORY OF SOUTH INDIA
Exercises
1. Discuss the Megalithic culture in south India.
2. Describe the economy of the Megalithic people.
3. Describe the political history of Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas.
• Collect photographs of the Megalithic burials and tools and show it
in the classroom.
• Draw the map of India and show the locations of the kingdom of
Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras.
155
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THE SUNGAS AND THE 'SATAVAHANAS
,\
centuries that passed between the .fall of
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.................... . ................ SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND ULTURE DURING UNGAS AND SATAVAHANAS ,.
THE five centuries that passed between
the fall of the Mauryas and the rise of
the Guptas witnessed a lot of political
instability and upheaval, but during
the same period there had been a lot of
progress in the areas of literature,
science, art, architecture, etc. Many new
avenues in the field of the sciences and
arts were opened which provided the
base for future developments. Also,
during this period, there were close
cultural and economic relations with
foreign countries. India had benefited
by these foreign contacts.
Language and Literature
In the field of language and literature
this period is characterised by the
development of manifold literarY
activities both in north and south India.
It saw the development of Dravidian
languages and literature in the South.
In the north there was progress in the
Sanskrit language and literature, and
various forms of Prakrit with a
distinctive literature of its own.
The most remarkable compilations
of the period are the two great Epics,
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
Some of the Dharmasastra works were
also composed in this period.
The smritis have played a very
important role in Hindu life during the
last two thousand years. These smritis
define the religious duties, usage, laws
and social customs. In general, the
smritis may be regarded as the
expanded and contemporary version of
the Dharmasutras which covered the
period from about sixth century to third
century B.C. The works on the smritis
follow almost immediately afterwards
and continues for almost eight hundred
years or even more.
The Manava Dharmasastra or
Manusmriti is not only the oldest work
of this class, but is also the most well
known and has its hold even today all
over India. This was composed in about
the first century B.C. Some other
important smritis are Naradasmriti,
Vishnusmriti, Yajnavalkyasmriti,
Brihaspatismriti and Katyayanasmriti.
They are all very important sources of
law and social customs of the
contemporary society. These smritis
were declared to be of divine origin.
The most outstanding work in the
field of grammar, Mahabhasya written
by Patanjali in the second century B.C.,
is a commentary on Panini's
Asthadhyayi. After Patanjali, the centre
of Sanskrit grammar learning shifted to
the Deccan where the Katantra school
flourished in the first century A.D.
Sarvavarman, a scholar of great repute
in the court of the Satavahana King
Hala, composed the grammar of
Katantra. This work was short and
handy which helped the learning
of Sanskrit in about six months.
Hala wrote a great poetical work
Gathasaptasati in Prakrit.
An important literary figure of the
period was Asvaghosha. He was not
only a play writer and a poet but a great
Buddhist philosopher. He wrote
Saundarananda, Buddhacharita,
Vajrasuchi and a number of other
works. Buddhacharita is a complete life
of Buddha written in the form of
Mahakavya. ,This work has been
157
~
ANCIENT INDIA ..• .... ... . ... .. . ............... . .. . . . . .. . .. . . .. .... . ............... . ................ . ... . ... . ................ . ..
translated into many languages of the
world. Fragments of Asvaghosha's
plays have been recovered from Turfan,
in central Asia. Bhasa's Svapna-
vasavadatta is another famous
Sanskrit play of the period.
The art of dance and drama had
already been codified by Panini's time
and mentioned by Kautilya and
Patanjali. All these early forms of art
contributed to the development of
Natyashastra written by Bharata.
The important Pali work of the
period was Milindapanho, which
explains the Buddhist doctrines in the
form of a dialogue between Milinda
(who is generally identified with the
Indo-Greek king Menander) and
his teacher, the great Buddhist
philosopher, Nagasena.
.. "
Sangam Literature
Tamil is the oldest among spoken
literary languages of south India. The
earliest known phase of this literature
is associated with the three Sangams
i.e., academies or societies of learned
men, all of which flourished in the
Pandya kingdom. Each Sangam
consisted of a number of distinguished
poets and erudite scholars who selected
the best ones from amongst the works
submitted to them and set their seal of
approval.
It is believed that the .Sangam
literature produced by these
assemblies, was compiled between
A.D. 300 and 600. On the whole corpus
of literature, Ettuttogai (the eight
anthologies) collection is considered to
be the earliest one belonging to c. third
158
century B.C. to third century A.D., and
a good deal of literature was compiled
later on.
Tirukkural or Kural, of
Tiruvalluvar is the best of the minor
didactic poems, and its teachings have
been described as an eternal inspiration
and guide to the Tamilians.
Silappadikaram and Manimekhalali
are the two Tamil epics which occupy a
high place in Tamil literature and
are important sources for the
construction of the early history of
south India.
Social Conditions
During this period varna and ashrama
systems continued to govern the
society. Society comprised four varnas
i.e., Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and
Sudra. The duties, status, and
occupations of these varnas are
enumerated in the Dharmasastras.
The most significant development in the
varna system is the increase in the
number of mixed jatis. According to
Manusmriti the origin of the numerous
mixed (sankara) varnas is in the
marriage between different varnas.
These were called anuloma i.e.,
marriage between the male of higher
varna and female of lower varna, or
pratiloma - marriage between male of
lower varna and female of higher
varna. The social status of a person
born of anuloma was higher than
partiloma and they followed their
father's occupation. Buddhist texts and
other evidence also leave no doubt that
the so called mixed castes really resulted
from organisations like guilds of people
...... . . ....... .. .... . ..... .. ......... SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE DURING SUNGAS AND SATAVAHANAS
following different arts and crafts. The
general theory of intermarriages
leading to the birth of different mixed
jatis appears superficial and handy.
The Buddhist texts also show thatjatis
was not rigidly tied to craft in those
days. They tell of a kshatriya working
successively as a potter, basket-maker,
reed-worker, garland-maker, and cook,
also of a Setthi (Vaisya) working as a
tailor and a potter, without loss of
prestige in both cases. We find
kshatriyas of the Sakya and Koliya
clans cultivating their fields. The
Vasettha Sutta refers to brahmans
working as cultivators, craftsmen,
messengers, sacrificers and landlords.
The fragment on Silas mentions
brahmans following many diverse
occupations as physicians, sorcerers,
architects, story-tellers, cattle-breeders,
farmers and the like. The Jatakas refer
to brahmans pursuing tillage, tending
cattle, trade, hunting, carpentry,
weaving, policing of caravans, archery,
driving of carriages, and even snake-
charming. The Jatakas hold up a
brahman peasant as a supremely pious
man and even a Bodhisattva.
One of the most important
development of this period was the
gradual absorption of foreigners
like Indo-Greek, Sakas, Yavanas,
Kushanas, Parthians etc. into Indian
society. These foreigners came to India
as conquerors but adopted Indian
culture and way of life so completely
that no trace was left of their
individuality or separate existence as a
community.
Ashramas : Just as society comprised
four varnas, so too the life of an
individual was divided into four stages.
It may be pointed out that this four fold
division of life dates back to the vedic
age and we get a fairly comprehensive
account of it in the Dharmasutras.
These four stages of an individual life
are:
(i) Brahmacharya : In this ashrama,
after the investiture with the sacred
thread, a person lead a celibate life as a
student at the home of his teacher.
(ii) Grihastha : Having mastered the
Vedas or part of them, a person returns
to his parental home, gets married and
becomes a householder (grihastha).
Grihastha has manifold duties broadly
marked out as (i) yajna (ii) adhyayana,
and (iii) dana and has to release himself
from three debts: debt to Gods, by
yajna; to pitris (ancestors) by
offsprings; and to rishis (teachers) by
continuing learning and leading a
religious life.
(iii) Vanaprastha: When well advanced
in middle age and a Pef-son has seen
his grandchildren, he leaves home for
the forest to become a hermit. As a
hermit he must not have any
possessions, abstain from movement in
rains, going from village to village for
the exclusive purpose of begging,
wearing only loin-cloth or old rags duly
washed, to cover nakedness, not
staying in the same village for the
second night and not destroying seeds
for the purposes of food (e.g. by
pounding rice by a pestle) but
depending on cooked food if given as
alms,
(iv) Sanyas : In sanyas by meditation
and penance one frees his soul from
159
~
ANCIENT INDIA .......... . . . . . ...... . ............... . ........................ . ................. . ............................. . . .
material things, leaves hermitage and
becomes a homeless wanderer, and
thus earthly ties are broken. This
fourth ashrama is the one when person
abandons, truth and falsehood,
pleasure and pain, the vedas, this
world and the next, seeks only atman.
The scheme of the four ashramas
was designed to give a wide scope to
individuals in the choice of a vocation
in life which was best suited to their
intellectual capacity and mental
inclinations. It was not absolutely
necessary that one should strictly follow
the four stages one after another. The
choice was left to every individual. The
family included parents, children,
grandchildren, uncles and their
·descendents, servants etc.
Family Life
The joint family system characterised
the society. Family rather than the
individual was considered as the unit
of the social system. Obedience to
parents and elders was held as the
highest duty for children. Marriage
between the members of the same
jatis was also preferred, though
intermarriage between different jatis
was prevalent. The marriage in the same
gotra and pravara is restricted. Eight
forms of marriage are mentioned in the
Dharmasastras. These are-brahma,
daiva, arsha, prajapatya, asura,
gandharva, rakshasa, and paisacha.
Among these the last one is condemned
by al
t
the Dharmasatras. Women not
only got good education but also held
honourable position in the society and
household. Two classes of women
160
students are mentioned - Brahmavadin
or lifelong students of sacred texts and
Sadyodvaha who pursued their
studies till their marriage. They also
received training in fine arts like music,
dancing and painting. From the
description of Megasthenese and
Kautilya it appears that some of them
went for militaiy and administrative
trainings also. The ideal marriages were
those where the father and guardian of
the girls selected the bridegroom on
account of his qualifications. The
women enjoyed honourable place in the
society. Sometimes they reached high
eminence in various branches of arts
and science and administration as
revealed from the literature of the period.
Even the class of courtesans enjoyed a
social status not accorded to them
anywhere else in the world. The theme
of several dramas of the period revolved
around courtesans. We find the
reference to the practice of sati also. In
the family property, all the sons had
equal share. Unfortunately, a large
number of Dharmasastras reject the
right of women to inherit, but
Yajnavalkya lays down a list of priority
in inheritance, which places wife,
followed by the daughters, immediately
after sons. The right of a wife to inherit,
if no sons were living, has been
accepted by most of the ancient Indian
authorities. However, she was allowed
some personal property (stree-dhana)
in the form of jewellery, clothing etc. The
Arthashastra allows her to own money
upto 2,000 silver panas, and amount
above this could be held by her
husband in trust on her behalf.
. ... .................... .. .. . ........ . S OCIETY, E CONOMY AND CULTURE DURING SUNGAS AND SATAVAHANAS
Religions
The period witnessed an efflorescence of
new ideas leading to the rise of new
philosophica l sch ools and religious
sects, w h i c h ~ modified the outlook of
society and are visible in all four major
religi ous sects of the p eriod i.e. ,
Vaishnavism, Saivism, Buddhism and
Jainism.
Buddhism
During the reign of Ashoka , Buddhism
became one of the leading religions of
India. The group of foreign invaders
that appeared on Indian soil from the
firs t century B.C. onwards were
attracted by its libe rali ty ahd
simplicity and accepted Buddhism in
large numbers. One of these, the Greek
king Menander, lived in the Buddhist
tradition, as raja Milinda. But by far
the greatest name among the foreign
patrons of Buddhism is that of
Kanishka. His fame in the Buddhist
world is only second to that of Ashoka.
During his time Buddhism spread to
central Asia, China , South East Asia
and West . Like Ashoka, Kanishka
called a Buddhist council - the fourth
council in Kashmir under the joint
presidents hip of Vasumitra and
Ashvaghosha. The convening of this
council led to the division of Buddhism
into two broad sects - the Hinayana
and the Mahayana. While the
Hinayana followed the older order
and philosophy of Buddhism, the
Mahayana introduced many new
elements in the older order.
Fig. 17.1 The Great Stupa at Sanchi
161
ANCIENT INDIA .................... . . . ...... : .............................................................. . ................... .
Some new features that were was in Karnataka and in Tamil Nadu.
introduced in the older order were:
(i) The introduction of a belief in the
Bodhisttavas, being those "who
were in the process of obtaining, but
had not yet obtained, Buddha-
hood".
(ii) ~ u d d h a began to be worshipped in
the icon form with elaborate rituals
instead of symbols. To Hinayanists,
Buddha was a great teacher and the
Mahayanists considered him as
God.
(iii) Hinayanists believed in the
salvation of individual as the goal
of life while Mahayanaists believed
in the salvation of all beings.
(iv) Sanskrit was adopted as the
language of the religious literature,
and a new cannon was developed
differing from the old in many
essential respects.
The development of Mahayana
phjlosophyis ascribed to Nagarjuna, a
contemporary of Kanishka. He
propounded madhyamika , school of
Buddhist philosophy popularly known
as sunyavada.
Jainism
Sravanbelagola in modern Karnataka
became the great centre of Jainism.
Despite the divisions, Jain
communities remained more faithful to
its original teaching hence the number
of its adherents has remained fairly
constant.
Vedic Religion
Vedic religion did not remain
unchanged through all these centuries.
Some of the Vedic Gods had quietly
passed into oblivion and some were
reborn as new Gods with additional
attributes. This was the time when the
Vedic religion assumed features which
today are recognised as Hinduism. This
new religious development was based
on the philosophy of the Upanishads
with its concept of the absolute or
universal soul. This concept also helped
to develop the idea of the Trinity of
Gods at this time - Brahma as the
creator, Vishnu as the preserver, and
Siva (also known as Rudra and
Mahesh) as the God who eventually
destroys the universe when it is evil
ridden. Of the three Gods, the cult of
Vishnu and Siva, sometime associated
Jainism also flourished during this with Sakti cult became more popular.
period along with Buddhism and One form of Vaishnavism is
enjoyed patronage of kings and wealthy Bhagavatism. The supreme deity of
people. The group of Jain monks began Bhagavatism was Vasudeva Krishna,
to settle in different parts of the country. son of Devaki, of the Vrishni family.
One group from Magadha moved - By the second century B.C. this new
towards west and settled in sect had spread in a large area
Saurashtra, while the other group as inscriptional evidence shows.
settled in Kalinga where it enjoyed royal The famous Besnagar (district
patronage under king Kharvela. In Vidisa, Madhya ' Pradesh) inscription
south India their main concentration mentions that Heliodorus, the Greek
162
;.i:
.... .. .. .... ... .. ... . ...... . . .. .. ... . . . . S OCIE1Y, E CONOMY AND CULTURE DURING SUNGAS AND S ATAVAHANAS "
ambassador of King Antialcidas, called
himself Bhagavata and erected a
Garudadhavja, in honour of Vasudeva,
at Besna gar. It is thus apparent
that Bhagavat ism like Buddhism
was popular e nough to attract
the foreigners . The philosophy of
Bhagvatism is described in
the Bhagavad-Gita. Other early
inscriptions related to Bhagavatism
came from Ghosundi (Rajasthan),
Mathura (Uttar Pradesh) and Nasik
(Maharashtra) .
Saivism seems to have evolved from
the Vedic God Rudra and the Harappan
deity known as Pasupati. The worship
of Siva incorporated a number of
fertility cults such as those of phallic
emblem (lingam), the bull (NandI) etc.
and was also associated with Sakti cult.
The most common cult object of the
Saivas is lingam, the earliest specimens
of which have been found in I the
Harappan period. One of the important I
schools of Saivism was Pasupata sect
funded by Lakulin or Lakulisa around
s econd century B.C. Saivism also
a ttracted the foreigners . . Wema
Kadphises the second king of the
Kushana dynasty was a Saiva. The
reverse of some of his coins depict the
figures of Siva, with a long trident and
bull, and the legend refers to him as
devotee of Siva.
In addition to Vaishnavism and
Saivism, other minor sect that became
popular during this period were those
related to Sakti, Ganapati, Skanda,
Surya etc. The characteristics features
of all these sects were a gradual shift
in emphasis from rituals to the view
that a completely personal relationship
between God and the devotee was
possible. This relationship was the one
where God could bestow his grace on
the devotee, and the degree of devotion
or bhakti varied from person to person.
This idea of personal devotion or bhakti
was to became the dynamic force oflater
Hinduism.
It was in the first century A.D. that
Christianity was introduced in India by
the traders from the west. The coming
Fig. 17.2 Besnagar Pillar of
Heliodorus, near Vidisa
163
j ANCIENT INDIA . ... . .. ....... . . . . . . .. .. ..................................................... . .. . . ... . . ........ ... ....... . .... . .. . .
of Christianity is associated with the
legend of st. Thomas, who according
to the Catholic Church of Edessa, came
twice on mission to India .
Economic Condition
The period witnessed all round
development in the field of agriculture,
industry and trade. Agriculture was the
main occupation of a large section of
the people. Outside the grama lay the
arable land of the village, the grama-
kshetra which was protected by fences
and field-watchmen against pests like
birds and beasts. Land was held by
individuals as well as by the state.
Sometimes the land holdings were big
consisting of u pto 1,000 acres. Usually
holdings were small enough that could
be cultivated by the individual family.
Beyond the arable land of the village lay
its pastures, which were common for
the grazing of cattle, arid also those
belonging to the state. Kautilya gives a
complete scheme of village plan. The
land of the village was divided into -
. cultivated, uncultivat ed, grove, forest,
pastures etc. Among the crops, rice of
different varieties, coarse grains,
sesame, saffron, pulses, wheat, linseed,
sugarcane, mustard and large number
of vegetables. and fruits were grown. On
the boundary of the village was
generally a forest. The village had
artisans like carpenter, potter,
b lacksmith, barber, rope maker,
washerman etc.
Remarkable progress in trade and
industry is noticeable during this
period. A la rge number of arts and
crafts and occupations are not only
164
referred to in literature and epigraphic
records, but also r epresented in the
sculptures. The literature refers to
eighteen types of guilds. Guilds became
an important i nstitution in the
economy. The guilds implemented well
defined rules of work and controlled the
quality of the finished product and its
prices to safeguard both the artisans
and the customers. The behaviour of
the guild members was controlled
through a guild court. The guilds also
acted as a banker, financier and a
trustee. These functions were carried
out by a different category of merchants
known as sresthies in north India anL.
chettis in south India. Guilds also
carried out benevolent a nd welfare
works such as ivory workers guild at
Fig. 17.3 The Gateway of Sanchi Stupa
.. . ................••.......••.•.. SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE DURING SUNGAS AND SATAVAHANAS
Vidisa carved the stone sculptures on
the gateways and railings surrounding
the stupa at Sanchi. Mining and metal
industry had grown very important.
Markets and streets were established
in cities for different goods. Markets for
perishable foods were located outside
the town at their gates. Loans were given
on security of gold and other things.
Money was lent for interest on
promising rates to be renewed every
year. The Nasik cave inscription refers
to the interest rates on money deposited
to guilds. The usual rate of interest was
between 12% and 15% per annum.
Trade is the natural corollary of
industry and it is the main channel of
distribution of industrial products.
From the Mauryan period, both internal
and external trade was vigorous in most
parts ofIndia. All the internal cities and
ports were interconnected with a well
knit road system. A large number of
modern national highways were
developed during this period including
Grand Trunk road which was very
much a part ofUttarapath and was later
developed by Chandragupta Maurya.
The same road was further maintained
and developed by Sher Shah Suri. The
discovery of monsoon winds in the first
century facilitated to reduce the
distance between the western ports of
India to the ports of Alexanderia in
Egypt. With the help of monsoon winds
the whole distance could be covered in
forty days or so. India's trade with Rome
increased enormously by sea as well
Fig. 17.4 Kar le Cave
165
ANCIENT INDIA ................... ...... .. .. . ........ ....... ..... .................... ...... ..................................
as by land route which is generally
known as the silk route. This connected
the world from China to Rome and
served as a transmitter of not only the
trading commodity but the culture,
ideas and religion etc.
About the trading commodities the
author of Periplus of Erythean Sea,
accounts of Roman historians like Pliny,
Ptolemy etc. Indian literature, both in
Tamil and Sanskrit, refer to the trading
establishments and items of trade like
Indian spices, sandalwood and other
variety of woods, pearls, textiles of
various types, sea products, metals,
semi-precious stones and animals.
Arikamedu was an important Roman
settlement and trading station. It was
located close to a port and was
excavated in 1945. The Romans paid
for the goods mainly in gold currency.
The number of hoards of Roman coins .
found in the Deccan and south India
indicate the. volume of this trade in
favour of India. 'The Roman historian
Pliny laments that Indian trade was a
serious drain on the wealth of Rome,
when 550 million sesterces went to
India each year on luxury items. One
of the lasting results of this contact was
the fairly detailed reference made about
India in the various works of the Roman
period.
Trade and contacts with Rome and
the west was not the only commercial
outlet open for India. India saw a
growth in Indo-China relations and the
introduction of Indian culture South
East Asia. It has been referred to as
Suvarnabhumi in the literature· of the
period.
166
Art and Architecture
The excavation of the Taxila, Sakala,
Bhita, Kausambi, Ahichchhatra,
Patliputra, Nagrujunkonda, Amaravati,
Kaveripattanam and the description of
some of these cities in the literature
depict that these cities were well
planned, protected by fortification walls
and moats. Beautiful and large
gateways were erected with lofty towers.
The houses were big and beautiful.
In the field of architecture the
I
new activities were witnessed. Some
scholars think the Sunga period
represents the Brahmanical reaction
against Buddhism. But the art and
architectural activities reflect totally a
a contradictory story. Sanchi,
Amaravati, Bharhut and Sarnath
stupas are the best examples of
Buddhist art and architecture that
flourished during this period. The
stupa is a hemispherical dome or
mound built over sacred relics either of
the Buddha himself or of a sanctified
monk or a sacred text. The relics were
generally kept in a casket in a smaller
chamber in the centre of the base ofthe
stupa. The stupa has a fenced path
called pradakshinapatha. At the four
cardinal points there was a break in the
railing because of gateways. The four
gateways of Sanchi stupa built in the
first century B.C. are extremely artistic
with every inch of space utilised for
carving and are one of the finest
examples of art and architecture of
India. One of these gateways was
donated by the Guild of ivory workers
ofVidisa.
.................................... SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE DURING SUNGAS AND SATAVAHANAS
Fig. 17.5 Amaravati Stupa
Another form of architecture is
represented by rock-cut caves. These
rock-cut caves are of two types. The one
with a stupa and worshipping hall
called chaitya and monastery called
vihara. The famous cave of Karle
consist of a fairly complicated
structure, all cut into the rock. The
ceilings of a few of these caves show an
imitation of a barrel vault with wooden
ribs. This indicates the impact of
wooden construction in stone.
Sculpture
The post Mauryan period is an age of
great sculptural activity., Bharhut,
Sanchi, Bodh Gaya, Mathura,
Amaravati, Gandhara were the
important centres of art activities. The
Mathura and Gandhara schools
flourished during the Kushana period.
The Mathura school has the distinction
the Buddha. Mathura also produced
many fine specimens of sculptures that
include, images of Brahmanical, Jain
and Buddhist deities and the life size
sculptures of yakshas, yakshini and
portraits of kings.
In the north-west, developed the
hybrid Indo-Greek form of art where,
though the themes were Ihdian, the
depiction was heavily influenced by
western art. It is popularly known as
Gandhara School of Art. The Gandhara
school depicted, ' almost exclusively,
Buddhist themes. Stucco was a popular
medium in Gandhara art and the
monasteries of Afghanistan were
decorated with an abundance of stucco
images. Gandhara artists produced the
images of Buddha in different postures
and sizes. The large statues of Buddha
at Bamiyan were one of the finest
example of the Gandhara art.
of having produced the first image of Fig. 17.6 Statue of Buddha from Mathura
167
' ~ ANCIENT INDIA ................................................................ ........ ..................................... .
Fig. 17.7 Statue of Jain
Tirthankara from Mathura
Terracotta art also flourished
during this time. The most prolific
centres of its production were
Ahichchhatra, Mathura, Kausambi,
Bhita, Rajghat, Pataliputra, Tamralipti,
Mahasthan etc.
Fig. 17.8 Fasting Buddha
from Gandhara
Science and Technology
Engineering skill;;; are evident from the
remains of the building of dams and
irrigation works. The famous example
is the dam built during Chandragupta
Maurya's period and r e p a i r e ~ by Saka
Fig. 17.9 Plan of Tank excavated at Shringaverapura
168
.........................•.....••.. SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE DURING SUNGAS AND SATAVAHANAS !!:
Fig. 17.10 Excavated view of one of the tanks at Shringaverapura
king Rudradaman. One of the most
remarkable structure that has been
excavated is a complex of four water
tanks at Shringaverapura which shows
a very advanced level of hydrolic
engineering. The tanks are built of
millions of bricks and water was
brought from the river Ganga through
a canal. It measures about 250 mts in
length and 38 mts in width. It would
have contained about eighty lakh litres
of water. The use of geometry in
building construction and town
planning became obvious. In the field
of astronomy, Indian astronomers
developed much more elaborate
astronomical system after modifying
and adopting the more accurate values
by counting the periods of revolution
of the sun, the moon, the five planets
and two nodes known as Rahu and
Ketu. Eclipses were also predicted with
accuracy. All these observations have
been described by Varahamihira in
Pancha Siddhantika which gives the
summary of five schools of astronomy
present in his time.
The Indian medicinal system made
remarkable progress during this period.
It was based on the theory of three
humours - air, bile and phlegm - the
correct balance of these gave in a
healthy body. The surgical equipment
commonly consisted of twenty-five types
of knives and needles, thirty probes,
twenty-six articles of dressing etc.
169
. ~
, ANCIENT INDIA ............•.................•........................................................................ . ... . ...
Ayurveda has its . origin in
Atharavaveda. During this time,
medicine became a regular subject, of
study at centres of learning like Taxila
and Varanasi. The school at Varanasi
specialised in surgery and Sushruta
Samhita is an encyclopaedia of surgery,
compiled by the great surgeon
Sushruta. At Taxila, the teachings of
Atreya were collected by his pupils and
compiled by Charaka in his Charaka
Samhita. Charaka and Sushruta were
the contemporaries of Kushana king
Kanishka.
The works of Charaka and
Sushruta reached as far as Manchuria,
China, Central Asia through
translations in various languages.
Evidently, the knowledge of Indian
herbs and medicinal plants had
reached the western world through
Greeks and Romans. Theophrastus
gives details of the medicinal use of
various plants and herbs from India in
his book History of Plants. Arabic
translation of Charaka and Sushruta
Samhitas in the eighth century A.D.
influenced European and west Asian
medicinal system during the middle
ages.
By the beginning of the Christian
era, there was large scale production of
copper, iron, steel, brass, and their
alloys. The large number of gold and
silver coins-shows the purity of metal
and craftsmanship of the period.
India and her relations with the
outside world
As you have learnt earlier, India
established its external contacts from
170
the Harappan period onwards.
Excavation at Harappan and
Mesopotamian cities reveal material
remains which clearly establish
trade relations. The Boghaz Koi
Inscriptions of the fourteenth century
B.C. records the names of deities like
Indra, Mitra, Varuna and twin Nasatyas
as well as numerical and other words
of Indian origin which shows close
contacts.
With the rise of the Persian Empire
in the sixth century B.C. the foundation
was laid for regular contacts between
India and the West. Persians under
Darius I unified a vast area ofland from
Afghanistan to Mediterranean sea. To
maintain its control properly they
established road, postal system and
other means of communication. These
were linked with India which provided
a great impetus to trade and exchange
of ideas.
A new dimension to this contact was
added by the invasion of Alexander in
the last quarter of the fourth century
B.C. Alexander came up to the north-
western frontiers of India and
established several cities and settlement
of Greek people on his way. The famous
city of Alexandria in Egypt became the
great meeting point of the East and
West. The first three Mauryan kings
namely, Chandragupta Maurya,
Bindusara and Ashoka established
intimate relations with the Greek
kingdoms of the West. We have the
evidence of a matrimonial alliance
between Chandragupta Maurya and
Seleucus , a Greek King of Syria.
Megasthenese and Daimachus lived in
.............................. .. ... SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE DURING SUNGAS AND SATAVAHANAS ·;e·
the Mauryan court as ambassadors of
the Seleucid kings. Dionysius was an
ambassador of Egyptian king Ptolemy
Philadelphus to Mauryan court. The
diplomatic relationship between India
and the West are recorded in the Rock
Edict XIII of Ashoka also, in which five
Greek rulers are specifically named,
and it is claimed that on account of the
activities of Ashoka's missionaries his
dhamma spread to these countries.
One important development of this
commercial and political intercourse
was that an increasingly large number
of people from India and the West visited
each other's country. The contacts are
recorded in detail in the works of
Strabo's Geography, Arrian's Indica,
Pliny the elder's Natural History, the
Periplus of Erythraen sea and
ptolemy'S Geography. India had come
to occupy an important position in the
world as known to the Greeco-Romans.
A number of Indian kings sent
embassies to Rome. The best known
Indian embassy was sent to Rome
Exercises
1. Explain the following:
about 25 B.C. It took about four years
to reach Rome. It presented animals
and other gifts were presented to the
Roman king, Augustus. Indian art and
coinage bear marks of Hellenistic
influences. The Gandhara school of art
and coins of Indo-Greek and
kings are its best examples. In . -.; a
of religion both influenced eac ::;"'?i r
as is shown in the I
development of Greeco-Rom ' ."
Christianity reached India as
first century A.D. throug
commercial and cultural co
Indian religion, such as Bhagavatism,
Saivism and Buddhism influenced the
foreigners. The people as well as the
kings of the Kushanas, Sakas, Indo-
Greeks, Parthians dynasties adopted
Indian religion and culture and become
a part of the Indian society. The
cultural contacts between India and
central Asia, China and eastern Asia
also began during this period. These
have been discussed in detail in the
next chapter.
Sangams, Dharmasastras, Boddhisattvas, Pratiloma, Anuloma, Shreni,
Pradakshinapatha
2. Write a note on the language and literature of the period.
3. Describe the rise of Mahayanism.
4. Write a note on Bhagavatism.
5. Describe the social conditions of the period.
6. Write a note on the four Ashramas.
171
... ANCIENT INDIA ............... .......... . .. .. ....................... . . .. .. . ...... .... . . . ... . ............................... .
7. Describe the economic conditions with special reference to trade and
commerce.
8. Write about the development in the field of architecture.
9. Write a note on Gandhara and Mathura schools of arts.
10. Write about the developments in the field of science and technology.
11. Write an essay on India's contacts with the outside world.
172
On an outline map of India show the major routes connecting
important trade centres in India.
On an outline map of world show the silk route and connect it with
Indian trade routes.
Visit museums and collect pictures of coins of this period and identify
them.
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' ~
~ , ANCIENT INDIA ........................................... ....................... .... .......... ........ ........ ....... ...... .... ...
Emergence of the Guptas
As you have seen in the earlier chapter,
north India intermittently came under
the rule of several foreign people, such
as the Yavanas (the name given to the
Greeks, Romans and west Asians)
Kushanas, Sakas, Parthians, etc. These
people began to settle in north-west
India ·from the first century B.C.
onwards. Most of these people came to
India due to the turbulent condition in
central Asia. They adapted themselves
with Indian culture, and at the same
time, introduced some new elements in
it. Between the first century B.C. and
third century A.D. the Satavahanas in
the Deccan, the Kushanas in the north
and the Sakas in the west emerged as
the three big political powers, and
worked as a stabilising factor in
these regions. The empires of the
Satavahanas and Kushanas came to an
end in the middle of the third century
A.D. and a new dynasty emerged in
north India, known as the Guptas. Like
the Mauryas a few centuries earlier, the
Guptas made a permanent impact on
Indian history by building up a large
empire and by firmly establishing
several trends of Indian culture which
had begun in the earlier periods. The
Gupta kings are known not only for
their political might and strength but
also for great achievements in the field
of science, art, culture and literature.
About the early Guptas we do not
know much in detail. The Allahabad
pillar inscription of Samudragupta
mentions maharaja Srigupta and
maharaja G ha totkacha as hi s
174
ancestors. I-tsing, who travelled India
from A.D. 671 to 695 refers to Srigupta
as the builder of a temple at Gaya for .
the Chinese pilgrims, 500 years before
his time. This k:lt;1g Srigupta has been
identified with tHe first Gupta king of
that name mentioned in the Allahabad
pillar inscription. ,Tl;fe Puranas mention
that the early duptas controlled the
area along the Gang ' l the middle
Gangetic basin), PraY,'a;!?/ (!Jlahabad and
surrounding regionl :J§8:keta (Ayodhya
region) and Magadp.a. Srigupta was
succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha who
too is referred to as ' raja in Gupta
records.
In A.D. 320 C "dragupta I
succeeded his fatheJ.# 'totkacha. It is
said that he laid 'the' foundation of the
great Gupta empire. Chandragupta I
married a Lichchhavi princess
Kumaradevi. The Lichchhavis (to whom
Gautama Buddha belongs) were an old
and established Ganarajya and quite
ppwerful, still being respected in north
India. This marriage alliance of
Chandragupta I was important for his
political career as is proved by the coins
of Chandragupta I and Kumaradevi
type. These coins portray the figures of
Chandragupta and Kumaradevi
and mention the name of the
Lichchhavis. Samudragupta, son of
Chandragupta I and Kumaradevi, in
the Allahabad inscription proudly
called himself Lichchhavis-dauhitra
'son of the daughter of Lichchhavis'.
Chandragupta I introduced a new era,
the Gupta era, starting with
his coronation in A.D. 320. He was
...................................................................... .......... INDIA FROM THE GUPTAS TO HARSHA
ARJUNAYANAS
•
ARABIAN SEA
THE GUPTA EMPIRE
Boundaries of Gupta Empire
SamundragupLa's Cl:unpaign
tll South India
. Sarvasti
Kanauj'
Kapilavaslu. Kusinagara
. Ayodhya e .
[jr?
(J
Brahmaputra
padmavati -
.o.l'ogarh'Kausambi M,GADHA .Nalanda
• . p \
"'"" e Nachna '11i'1v.
Udayagiri e liCe ,i'i'4J4J.-• •
Sanchi . ''''i,s
Vidisa P4,s
BA l' OF BENGAL
i'NIJ .l AN
Fig. 18.1 Map of the Gupta Empire
Samudragupta
the first Gupta king to adopt the
title maharajadhiraja and issued
gold coins.
Samudragupta succeeded his father
about A.D. 340. He earned a reputation
175

ANCIENT INDIA .......................... .. ............... .. .................... .... . . ....... . . . . . .. .. ..... ... ........ .... . . . ... .
as one of the greatest kings and
conquerors. He was chosen by his father
as his successor because of his
qualities that would make him into a
good king. The Allahabad pillar
inscription gives a detailed account of
the career and personality of
Samudragupta. The inscription was
composed by one of his officials,
Harishena, and engraved on the
Ashoka's pillar at Allahabad.
The military achievements of
Samudragupta contain a long list of
kings and rulers defeated and subdued
by· him. In the aryavarta he uprooted
nine kings and princes and annexed
their kingdom.
His next most important campaign
was in southern India. Altogether twelve
kings and princes of the south
(dakshinapatha) are listed in the
inscription. In the case of the kings of
this area, he followed the policy of first
capturing the kings, then releasing
them from captivity and then
reinstalling them as kings in their
territory. By showing royal mercy he
won their allegiance. For his south
Indian campaign, Samudragupta
proceeded through the eastern and
southern parts of Madhyadesha ' to
Orissa and then advanced along the
eastern coast and reached Kanchi and
beyond and returned to his capital by
way of Maharashtra and Khandesh.
After these conquests he performed
Ashvamedhayajna. On this occasion
he issued gold coins depicting the
. sacrificial horse and bearing the legend
conveying that he performed the
A;;#f.vamedha sacrifice.
176
The Allahabad pillar inscription aJso
lists fourteen kingdoms bordering his
kingdom. These rulers paid tribute,
followed his orders and showed their
obedience by attending his court. These
were located in eastern Rajasthan,
northern Madhya Pradesh, Assam and
Nepal. Further, some forest kings
(atavika-rajas) are mentioned whom
Samudragupta had made his
paricharaka (helpers).
Another group of political powers
listed in the inscription are such as
Kushanas, Sakas, Murundas as well as
Simhalas (Sri Lanka) and inhabitants
of other islands. These rulers sent
embassies to Samudragupta' s court.
According to a Chinese source,
Meghavarna, king of Sri Lanka, sent an
embassy to Samudragupta for his
permission to build a monastery and a
guest house for Buddhist pilgrims at
Bodh Gaya.
Samudragupta was a versatile
genius. He was not only proficient in
war, but also in the sastras. He is called
kaviraja i.e. ' king of poets'. The
Allahabad pillar inscription calls him a
great musician. This is also confirmed
by his lyricist type of coins which shows
him playingveena (lute). He patronised
learned men in his court and
them as his ministers. Samudragupta
died in about A.D. 380 and was
succeeded by his son Chandragupta II.
Chandragupta II
The Gupta empire reached its highest
glory, both in terms of territorial
expansion and cultural
under Chandragupta II, son of
~ .
........ . .. ................... . .................................. . ...... ... ....... . INDIA FROM THE GUPTAS TO HARSHA •
Samudragupta and Dattadevi. Like his
father, Chandragupta II was chosen by
his father as his successor.
Chandragupta II inherited a strong and
consolidated empire from his father,
which he furthe r extended. He
established matrimonial alliance with
Vakatakas and married his daughter
Prabhavatigupta to Rudrasena II of the
Vakataka dynasty. Chandragupta II
probably concluded this alliance with
the Vakatakas before attacking
the Sakas so as to be sure of having
.a friendly power to back him up
in Deccan. After the death of
Rudrasena II, Prabhavatigupta acted as
a regent on behalf of her two minor sons.
During her regency, which lasted over
~ I )
~ a )
••
(d)
(e)
Fig. 18.2 Coins (a,b,c) Samudragupta
(d,e) Chandragupta
twenty years, and even after that, the
relations between the Guptas and
Vakatakas remained fiiendly and close.
His foremost success was his victory
over the mighty Sakas dynasty. The
ann exation of their prosperous
kingdom comprising Gujarat and part
of Malwa not only strengthened the
Gupta empire but also brought it into
direct touch with western sea ports.
This gave a tremendous impetus to
overseas trade and commerce. Ujj ain ,
a great centre of trade, religion and
culture, became the second capital of
the Gupta empire after the conquest.
Perhaps it was after this victory over
Sakas, that Chandragupta II adopted
the title ofVikramaditya, which became
popular in the legends as a patroniser
'of learned men and a great liberator
who overthrew the yoke offoreign rule.
The identification of Chandragupta II
with Vikramaditya is doubted by some
scholars. Chandragupta II issued
dated silver coins to commemorate his
victory over Saka kshatrapas.
The Mehrauli iron pillar inscription
erected originally in front of a temple of
Vishnu (near Qutub Minar in Delhi)
records the exploits of a king named
Chandra. He is said to have vanquished
the group of enemies in Vanga (Bengal),
perfumed the southern ocean by the
breeze of his prowess and overcome the
Vahlikas (across the Indus river). This
king Chandra of iron pillar is generally
identified as Chandragupta II. This
would mean his kingdom extended
from Bengal to the north-west frontiers.
Other than his conquests,
Chandragupta II's reign is remembered
177
ANCIENT INDIA .................................................................................................................. .
for his patronage of literature and arts
and for the high standard of artistic
and cultural life. Kalidas the great
Sanskrit poet was a member of his
court. Fa-Hien, the Chinese Buddhist
pilgrim visited India between A.D. 405
and A.D. 411 collecting Buddhist
manuscripts and text and studying
at Indian monasteries. He described
the country as a happy and
prosperous one.
Kumaragupta I
Chandragupta II dieq. about A.D. 413
and was succeeded by his son
Kumaragupta I, who enjoyed a reign of
more than forty years. Like his
grandfather, Samudragupta, he issued
Ashvamedha type of coins. He may
have performed an Ashvamedha
sacrifice, though we do not know of any
of his military achievements. The
epigraphic records, however, show that
he organised the administration of vast
empire and maintained its peace,
prosperity and security for a long
period of forty years. This is no small
credit upon his tact and ability. At
the end of Kumaragupta's reign,
the Gupta empire was challenged by
the Pushyamitras, a community
living on the banks of the Narmada.
Skandagupta, son of Kumaragupta I
and future king fought and subdued
them and restored peace.
Skandagupta
Kumaragupta I died in A.D. 455
and was succeeded by his son
Skandagupta. His succession to the
throne was not peaceful and perhaps
178
there was a struggle between him and
his brother Purugupta. Skandagupta's
reign seems to have been full of wars.
His greatest enemies were the Hunas, a
ferocious barbarian horde which lived
in central Asia and were at this very
time threatening also the mighty
Roman empire in the west. One branch
of them, known as white Hunas,
occupied the Oxus valley and advanced
against both Persia and India. They
crossed the Hindukush, occupied
Gandhara and defied the Gupta empire.
Skandagupta inflicted such a terrible
defeat upon the Hunas that for half
a century they dared not disturb
the Gupta empire, though they to
wrought havoc on Persia during this
period. Another important event of
Skandagupta's reign is the restoration
and repair of the dam on Sudarsana
lake which had been built during
Chandragupta Maurya's reign. We have
seen above that this lake was previously
repaired during the reign of Saka
kshatrapa Rudradaman I.
Decline of the Guptas
The Gupta dynasty, no doubt
continued to be in existence for more
than 100 years after the death of
Skandagupta in A.D. 467. He was
succeeded by his brother Purugupta.
Nothing is known about his
achievements and perhaps there were
none to his credit. Thereafter, the only
Gupta ruler who continued to rule fairly
a large part of the empire was
Budhagupta, whose inscriptions have
been found from Bengal, Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. His
......... . ........ .. .. . .... . ... . ............ . ....... . ........................... INOlA FROM THE GUPTAS TO HARSHA
successors were not able to handle the
administration, rebellions of some
governors and officials and the Huna
invasion. Though the Huna rule was
one of the shortest instances of foreign
rule over India, the Gupta empire
suffered much from it. The Hunas arlee
more attacked under the leadership, of
ToramanainA.D. 512. They conquered
a large part of north India upto Gwalior
and Malwa. Toramana was succeeded
by his son Mihirakula who established
his capital at Sakala (Sialkot). The
Huna, rule in India was very short lived ..
Hiuen-Tsang describes how Mihirkula
invaded Magadha, was defeated and
captured by the Gupta king Baladitya,
and how his life was saved at the
intercession of the queen mother of
Magadha. According to an inscription
from Malwa, Yasovarman, a powerful
local ruler of Malwa, also defeated
Mihirakula. It is not known whether he
did it independently or as an ally of
Baladitya.
North India after the Guptas
From the decline ofthe Guptas until the
rise of Harsha, in the beginning of
seventh century, there flourished four
major kingdoms in north India. These
were the Guptas of Magadha, the
Maukharis, the Pushyabhutis, and the
Maitrakas. These powers vied with each
other to succeed to the past glory of the
Guptas. The present Guptas of
Magadha (not to be confused with the
main imperial Gupta dynasty) were a
minor dynasty of Magadha. It is not
possible to determine whether they were
connected in any way with the imperial
Guptas. Some of the kings of this
family were very powerful and carried
victorious arms as far as the
Brahmaputra. The Maukharis held the
region of western Uttar Pradesh around
Kanauj. The Maukharis conquered a
part of Magadha. Isanavarman and his
son Sarvavarman were powerful
Maukhari kings and adopted the title
of maharajadhiraja. Isanavarman is
remembered for the heroic opposition
he offered to the Hunas who had once
more moved towards the heart of India.
In the west, the Maitraka clan, under
its leader Bhatarka, established a
kingdom in Saurashtra with Valabhi as
its capital. Under the Maitrakas, Valabhi
became 'not only a seat of learning and
culture, but also a centre of trade and
commerce. Of the four main kingdoms,
the Maitrakas survived the longest and
ruled until the middle of the eighth
century, when they succumbed to the
attacks from the Arabs,
Another dynasty which was
founded about the same time as
Maitraka Valabhi, but was destined to
play a far more distinguished part
in Indian history, was that of
Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar. The
Pushyabhuti family came to the fore
after the Huna invasion and made its
political presence felt on the accession
of Prabhakarvardhana. He assumed
the title of paramabhattaraka
maharajadhiraja. He has been
described by Banabhatta as, ".,. a lion
to the Huna deer, a ,burning fever to the
king of Sindhu, a troubler of sleep of
179
' ~
ANCIENT INOlA . .. . .......... . . . . . .. . . . . ....... . .. . .... . . . .... . . . .... . .... . ........... . ....... .. .............. . .... . .. . .. . . . ... .
Gurjara king, a bilious fever to that
scent-elephant, the lord of Gandhara,
destroyer of the skill of the Latas, an
axe to the creeper which is the goddess
of fortune of Malawa."
His sovereignty probably extended
to the whole of the Punjab in the
north-west and part of Malwa in the
south. In the last phase of his rule there
was a Huna invasion. He had two sons,
Rajyavardhana and Harshavardhana
and a daughter Rajyasri, married to
the Maukhari king Grahavarman.
While Prabhakaravardhana was
rapidly extending the boundaries of
his kingdom towards the west and
south, two powerful kingdoms were
established in Bengal and Assam.
About A.D. 525 an independent
kingdom wa s established in Bengal.
When the Gupta empire fell , Gauda
comprising western and northern parts
of Bengal, asserted its independence,
but the Maukharis subdued it. Half a
century later the throne of Gauda was
occupied by Sasanka. He established
his capital at Karnasuvarnfl (near
Murshidabad) and soon made himself
master of the whole of Bengal. He
conquered Orissa and then advanced
towards Kanauj in the west against the
Maukharis. The Maukhari king
Grahavarman was married to Rajyasri,
daughter of Prabhakaravardhana.
This marriage alliance strengthened
the position of the two families. After
the death of Prabhakaravardhana,
Sasanka, with the help of Malawa king,
invaded Kanauj . King Grahavarman
was killed and the queen Rajyasri was
180
thrown into prison. Hearing this news,
Rajyavardhana immediately started
with his troops to suppress the kings
of Gauda and Malawa. But he was
treacherously killed by Sasanka.
Harsha
After the death of Rajyavardhana, his
younger brother, Harshavardhana also
known as Siladitya, ascended the
Pushyabhuti throne in A.D. 606 at the
age of sixteen, and ruled for forty-one
years. After Grahavarman's dea t h, the
Councilors ofMaukhari state offered the
throne to Harsha. The period of Harsha,
in comparison with most other early
Indian kings, is remarkably well
documented. The poet Banabhatta has
written a detailed account of the events
leading upto his rise to power, in the
Harshacharita (life of Harsha). At the
Fig. 18.3 Signature of Harsha in his
own handwritjng
same time the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-
Tsang also wrote in great detail about
Harsha and India of Harsha's time.
After ascending to the throne
Harsha first rescued his widowed sister,
from the Vindhyan forest, where she
was going to throw herself into the fire
with all her attendants. Harsha
ARABIAN
SEA
INDIA FROM THE GUPTAS TO HARSHA
THE HARSHA'S

• Ajanta
. • Ellora
.i.

V

"

Aihol
.
.
;J

Q.'fit Kanctll Mahabal'puram
p"";. •
Kavenpattnam
.:1
2
q,

.p •
I., --Boundaries of Barsha Empire ij\ q'r'
Fig. 18.4 Map of Harsha's Empire
thereafter, proceeded towards the east
against Sasanka with a view to avenge
the death of his brother, Rajyavardhana
and brother-in-law, Grahavarman.
Harsha was not successful in his first
expedition against Gauda, but in his
second expedition towards the close of
his reign, after the death of Sasanka,
181
~
~ ANCIENT INDIA ....................................................................................................................... .
he conquered Magadha and Sasanka's whom Banabhatta, the author of
empire. Gauda was divided between Harshacharita and Kadambari is the
Harsha and Bhaskaravarman, the king most well known.
of Kamarupa, who was an ally of H a r ~ h a was not only an efficient
Harsha. He was successful in his administrator who personally looked
military enterprise, and conquered a into the affairs of state, and constantly
large part of northern India. Hiuen- travelled over different parts of his
Tsang tells us that, "he waged incessant empire to see things with his own eyes,
warfare, until in six years, he had fought but also a tolerant king. He was a Saiva
the five Indians. Then, having extended by faith, but he showed equal respect
his territory, he increased his army, to other religious sects as well. Hiuen-
bringing the elephant corps upto Tsang portrays him as a liberal
60,000, and the cavalry to 100,000, . Buddhist who also honoured gods of
and reigned in peace for thirty years others sects. His charitable acts
without raising a weapon". Harsha benefitted all the communities, sects
launched a campaign so as to extend and religions. Like Ashoka, he built rest
his empire beyond the Narmada but houses, hospitals, and endowed
failed to do so. The Aihole inscription numerous Brahmanical, Buddhist and
mentions that Harsha met defeat at the Jain establishments.
hands of Pulakesin II, the Chalukya Hiuen-Tsang mentions two most
king of Badami. Hiuen-Tsang also says celebrated events of Harsha's reign the
that Harsha could not defeat the assemblies at Kanauj and at Prayaga.
Chalukya king. Harsha's empire The Kanauj assembly was held in
extended from the Punjab to northern honour of Hiuen-Tsang for whom the
Orissa and from Himalayas to the king had great affection and regard.
banks of Narmada. Dhruvabhatta II, This assembly was "'""-"""'"
the Maitraka king of Valabhi and attended by twenty
Bhaskaravarman, the king of kings, four thousand
Kamarupa, were his allies. Buddhist monks, and
In the history of India, Harsha about three thousand
earned an undying reputation not so Jains and brahmans.
much for his conquests as for After the ceremony
his peaceful activities, so vividly at Kanuaj, Harsha,
described by Hiuen-Tsang and by his a c com pan i e d by
biographer Banabhatta. The great Hiuen-Tsang, pro-
emperor was not only a patron of ceeded to Prayaga
learning, but was himself an (Allahabad), where he
accomplished author. He wrote three used to celebrate
Sanskrit plays - Nagananda, Ratnavali religious fest,ivals
and Priyadarsika. He gathered at the end of every five
around him a circle of learned men, of years, at the confluence
182
Fig. 18.5
Hiuen-Tsang
G
,,! .
........................... . ............. .. . . ........................ . .... . . . .. . .... . .. INDIA FROM THE UPTAS TO HARSHA
of the Ganga, the Yamuna and the
Saraswati. Here he performed the
ceremony of dana, which lasted for
about three months . During these
three months most of the accumulation
of five year's wealth was exhausted. He
even gave his clothes and jewellery and
once begged from his sister an
ordinary garment to put on. Harsha
attended six such assemblies at
Prayaga in his life time and donated all
he had. Harsha sent an .embassy in
A.D. 641 with Hiuen-Tsang to the
Chinese emperor and received the
Chinese embassy in return. He died in
A.D. 647. Harsha does not appear to
have any heir to his throne, which was
usurped·after his death by his minister.
Deccan and South India
In Deccan and south India, after the
Satavahana rule had ended in the first
half of the third century A.D., the
Vakatakas rose to power in the second
half of the third century A.D. Not much
is known about the founder of this
dynasty, Vindhyasakti. His son and
successor Pravarasena was the
real founder of the Vakataka empire
in western and central India. He is
the only Vakataka ruler to whom
the title samrat was accorded. He
performed Vajapeya and four
Ashvamedhayajnas. The Vakataka
empire was divided by the successors
ofPravarsena into two parts. The main
branch and the other known as
Vatsagulma branch. The importance of
the Vakatakas as a political power in
western and central Deccan was
r ealised by Chandragupta II, who
,
married his daughter Prabhavati
Gupta into the Vakataka family. The
Vakatakas and the Guptas remained
friendly for a long-time. After the
Vakatakas, three major kingdoms,
namely the Chalukyas of Badami,
Pallavas of Kanchipuram and Pandyas
of Madurai dominated the Deccan and
south India for about 300 years.
The Vakatakas in the Deccan were
followed by the Chalukyas of Badami.
The Chalukyas began with a base at
Vatapi or Badami and Aihole, from
where they moved northwards and
annexed the areas around Nasik and
the upper Godavari region. Pulakesin II
was the greatest king of Chalukya
dynasty, who ruled from A.D. 610 to
642 He was the contemporary of
Harshavardhana of Kanauj. The
detailed account of his victories
as well as early history of the
Chalukyas is recorded in the Aihole
inscription composed by Ravikirti.
Vishnuvardhan, son of Pulakesin II,
founded the eastern branch of the
Chalukyas with its capital first at
Pishtapuri and later at Vengi. This
branch remained independent of the
main or western branch and exercised
uninterrupt e d sway over the
kingdom up to the twelfth century.
The Rashtra kutas succeeded the
Chalukyas of Badami and maintained
the vast empire in the Deccan. The first
known rul er of the dynasty was
Dantidurga I who conquered Badami
in A.D. 752, defeating the Chalukyas.
The contemporaries of the
Chalukyas and t he Pallavas in the
Deccan were t h e Ga ngas and' the
183
ANCIENT INDIA ..................................................................................................................... .
ARABIAN
. SEI'.
SOUTH INDIA
A.D. 320-800
Fig. 18.6 Map of South India
Kadambas. The western Gangas, so
called, to distinguish them from the
eastern Gangas of Kalinga, ruled over
a large part of modern Mysore. The
region was called after · them as
184
Gangavadi. The founder of the family,
Konkanivarman Dharmamahadhiraja, .
probably ruled in the second half ofthe
fourth century A.D. and had his capital
at Kolar. They ruled independently from
g .
..................................... . .................. . . ... . ......... ... . ........... . I NDIA FROM THE GUPTAS TO H ARSHA ,' .-
A.D. 350-550. They had matrimonial
relations with the Pallavas, the
Chalukyas of Badami and the
Rashtrakutas who were their powerful
contemporaries.
Ganga king Durvinita was a
prominent ruler and scholar of
Kannada and Sanskrit literature.
Sripurusha was another important
ruler of dynasty who shifted his capital
Manyapura (Manne near Bangalore)
and his kingdom was known as
Srirajya, evidently on account of its
prosperity.
The Kadamba dynasty was founded
by Mayursarman, a learned brahman.
It is said that he came to receive
education at Kanchi, but he was
insulted by some Pallava officials. To
avenge his insult he took up military
profession, defeated Pallava officials
and then Pallavas recognised the
independence of Mayursarman. The
Kadambas ruled from Banavasi from
A.D. 345 to 365. Kakusthavarman
(A.D. 435-455) was the most powerful
king and administrator of the dynasty.
He extended his territory and
established matrimonial relations with
the Gangas and the Guptas. After his
death, family split into two and one of
the branches continued to rule from
Banavasi and another from Triparvata.
The ruler from Triparvata,
Krishnavarma I, again united the
family. But the Chalukyas of Badami
defeated the Kadambas around A.D.
540 and annexed their kingdom.
In the southern Peninsula, three
dynasties the Pallavas, Pandyas and the
Cholas were the major powers. The
Pallavas played an important role after
the fall of Satavahanas from the third
century until the rise of Cholas in the.
ninth century A.D. The origin of Palla va
is under debate. The Pallava kings were
divided into two groups, the early
Pallavas and greater Pallavas. About
the early Pallavas we have come to
know from the Tamil and Sanskrit
inscriptions. They performed sacrifices
and ruled over a well organised territory
that covered the northern part of the
Peninsula extending from the eastern
sea to the western sea. Simhavishnu was
the famous king ruling in the sixth
century A.D. He increased the influence
and prestige of his family. His son
and successor Mahendravarman I
(A.D. 600-630) was a versatile genius.
He was both a poet and a singer
and composed a play Mattavilas
Prahasana (the Delight of the
Drunkards) in Sanskrit. In his time, the
practice of scooping entire temples out
of solid rock was introduced, of which
the rathas of Mahabalipuram are fine
examples. He was the contemporary of
the Chalukya king, Pulakesin II and
Harshavardhan of Kanauj. This
period was marked with the clash
between Pulakesin II and Harsha on
the one hand and Pulakesin II
and Mahendravarman I on the other,
and in both Pulakesin II emerged
victorious.
After deaf eating Mahendravarman I
he captured the northern provinces of
his kingdom. Pulakesin II, in turn was
defeated by Narsimhavarman, son and
successor of Mahendravarman I, who
185
ANCIENT INDIA ............................................... . ...................................................................... .
advanced as far as Badami and
occupied it after a siege. After this
victory Narasimhavarman adopted the
tittle of Vatapikonda. He is also said to
have defeated the Cholas, the Cheras,
the Pandyas and the Kalabhrs.
Narasimhavarman gave asylum to a
Ceylonese prince, Manavarman, and
sent two naval expeditions to Ceylon to
help him to secure the throne of that
country. He was one of the most
powerful rulers of south India and
raised the power and prestige of the
Pallavas as far as Ceylon and South
East Asia.
The reign of Narasimhavarman II
(c. A.D. 695-722) was peaceful. It is
knowri for remarkable architectural
activities which initiated a particular
style popularly known as the Dravidian
Exercises
style of temple architecture. The Pallava
ruler also sent embassies to the Chinese
emperor.
In the first half of the eighth
century, the Pallavas faced
attacks from the Chalukya king
Vikramaditya II (A.D. 733-745) who
is said to have overrun Kanchi
thrice. The Pallavas also suffered
severely from, the attacks of the
Pandyas and the Rash traku tas
during the reign of Dantivarman
(around A.D. 796-840). Soon the
power of the Pallavas began to
decline due to these struggles and
they were succeeded by the Cholas,
destined to be the greatest imperial
power in the south, whose influence
and power was felt also by Ceylon
and the South East Asian countries.
1. Describe the emergence of Guptas up to the reign of Chandragupta I.
2. Describe the expansion of Gupta empire during Samudragupta's reign.
3. Discuss the personality of Samudragupta.
4. Discuss the achievements of Chandragupta II. Why was he known as
Vikramaditya?
5. Discuss the causes for the decline of the Gupta empire.
6. Describe the political condition of India after Guptas.
7. Who were Pushyabhutis? Write about their political history.
8. Describe the personality of Harsha and his achievements.
9. Describe the political condition of south India after Satavahanas, up
to the eighth century A.D.
186
/.!.
INDIA FROM THE GUPTAS TO HARSHA .: .
10. Write short notes on:
(i) Kumaragupta
(ii) Pulakeshin II
(iii) Mahendravarman
(iv) Narshimahavarman
11. Discuss the Pallavas of Kanchi and Chalukyas of 'Badami and their
political relationships.
Draw a map of India and show the extent of the Gupta empire and
locate important cities.
Collect some literary works of Gupta period and read in the
classroom.
Collect material on the Nalanda University and photographs of its
archaeological remains.
Discuss the system of education imparted in the university in the
classroom.
On an outline map of India show the south Indian kingdoms with
their capitals and other important places.
Make a collage of the archaeological monuments of the period.
187
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CHAPTER 19
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SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND FROM
THE GUPTAS TO
HARSHA; '
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Empires may rise and fall; and dynastiys may appear
and disappear on the' sands of time; But when our
attention turns away from these clashes of" ar:ms
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· ........... . ....... . ..................... SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE FROM THE GUPTAS TO HARSHA i t . ~
IN the previous chapter we had a
glimpse of the fascinating panorama
of events which unfolded during a
span of five hundred years. Empires
may rise and fall; and dynasties may
appear and disappear on the sands
of time. But when our attention
turns away from these clashes of arms,
we find the splendours of time.
These splendours include the state
of polity, religion, society, economic
life, literature, art and architecture
and technology.
Polity and Administration
The governments set up during this
period were fairly well organised. This
would be clear from the fact that
notwithstanding the shocks of
intermittent wars, and sometimes of
disputed succession, the reigns of the
Guptas, Chalukyas, and Pallavas
lasted for about two hundred, four
hundred and six hundred years
respectively. In those days of slow
means of communication it is
remarkable indeed that they could hold
together extensive territories for such
long periods. The machinery of
administration was more or less the
same in all cases except that its parts
or constituents varied with time or
locality. The name of the functionaries
might have changed but not their
functions.
As before, the kingdom (rajya) was
divided for administrative convenience
into a number of provinces - bhukti in
the riorth and mandala or mandalam
in the south. The provinces in tum were
sub-divided into divisions - vishaya or
bhoga in north Kottams or valanadu
in the south. The other units of
administration in the descending scale
were the districts - ad his thana or
pattana in north and nadu in the south;
groups of villages i.e. modern tahsil
called vithis in north and pattala and
kurram in south Indian records. The
villages formed the lowest
administrative units.
There existed a host of central,
provincial and local officials to carry on
the administration. The Guptas
continued with the old bureaucratic
form of administration, though it was
more elaborately organised. The
. governor of bhukti called uparika was
appointed by king. He, in turn
appointed the officer in charge of a
vishaya - known as vishayapati.
Epigraphic records of the Gupta period
have thrown interesting light on the
functions of these vishayapatis. They
had their headquarters in towns where
they had their own officers and were
aided in their administrative work by a
Board of Advisors consisting of four
members representing the various
important sections, namely, (i) the
nagarsresthis (chief of the guild of
traders and bankers) represented the
guilds in particular a.nd the urban
population in general (ii) sarthavaha
(the head of guild of traders)
represented the various trading
communities, (iii) the prathamakuUka
(the chief of artisan) representing
various artisan classes, (iv) the
prathamakayastha (the chief scribe),
who might have represented the
Kayastha or government official like
189
. ~ I
, ANCIENT NDlA . . .... . . . .. ... ....... . . . .. . ....... ..... ................. .. .. .. . . . .. . .. .. . . . . . .. . ...... ..... .. . . ... ... . . .. . . . ... . .
the Chief Secretary of the present
day. This body was known as
Adhisthanadhikarana.
Similarly, each city had a council.
The village carne under the control of
rural bodies consisting of a headman
and the village elders. This period is
characterised by a remarkable growth
of the local self governing institutions
such as the village committees and
district committees. Their existence
from a very early period has been
noticed, hundreds of inscriptions and
literature of this period from various
parts of the country throw a flood of
light on their nature and activities, and
testify to the most wonderful
organisation that the ancient Indians
evolved. These types of village
administrations still continue.
Two new classes of officers were
introduced by the Guptas. These were
Sandhivigrahika - the minister of peace
and war i.e. modern foreign minister,
and Kumaramatyas - a body of top
ranking officials attached not only to
the king but also to the crown-prince,
and sometimes placed as in charge of
districts. Another class of important
officials were Ayuktas, probably the
same as Yuktas mentioned in the
Ashokan inscriptions and in Kautilya's
Arthasastra. During the Gupta
period we find the tittle maha prefixed
to many known officials - such as
mahapratihara, mahabaladhikrita
and mahadandanayaka etc.
The powers of all these officials and
officers emanated from the king who
was helped by the crown-prince. The
royal powers and prestige was
190
undoubtedly on the increase. Gupta
rulers assumed several titles such as
maharajadhiraja, parambhattaraka,
parmesvara etc. Samudragupta, for
example, is described in Allahabad
pillar inscription, not only equal to the
Gods Indra, Varuna, Kuvera and Varna,
but also as a 'God dwelling on the earth'.
In the preceding period such titles were
used by the rulers of foreign origin such
as the Greeks, or the Kushanas but
never by a king of an Indian origin.
Guptas were the first among the
Indians, who adopted such high
sounding titles.
But old ideals of popular
government are freely expressed in the
literature of the period. The Smritis say
that, "the ruler has been made by
Brahmaa servant of the people, getting
his revenue as remuneration". The king
was advised to rule with the help of
ministers and to respect the decision of
guilds and corporate bodies. It appears
that royal powers were more
circumscribed in the Gupta period and
later during the Mauryas. Kings were
advised to keep themselves in touch
with the public through various
agencies. Harsha maintained contact
with public opinion both through his
officers and by his own tours. This gave
him an opportunity of supervising the
administration also.
The numerical strength of the Gupta
army is not known as we know about
the army Chandragupta Maurya and
Harsha. Evidence that the king
maintained a standing army is
confirmed from the conquests of
Sainudragupta and Chandragupta II.
SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE FROM THE GUPTAS TO HARSHA ,;':.:
The Gupta kings are described as
excellent and unrivalled chariot
warriors and horsemen and are usually
represented on their coins.
The Gupta period provided a
landmark in the history of the
administration of law and justice in
early India. It produced a rich corpus
of legal literature, which reflects a
distinct advance in the legal system. For
the first time lawgivers of the period
drew a clear line between civil and
criminal law. The Brihaspatismriti
enumerates eighteen titles of land and
adds that fourteen of these have their
origin in property (dhanamula) and
four in injury (himsamula). On account
of the growth of private property in land,
which could be sold for money, we find
detailed laws about partition, sale,
mortgage and lease ofland in law-books
and in inscriptions of the period.
The list of taxes enumerated in the
Arthashastra of Kautilya is much
bigger than that found in the Gupta
inscriptions. This could suggest that
the burden of taxation decreased in
Gupta times because of the prosperity
of the state. There is no trace of
emergency taxes in this period. Land
tax was collected varying from one-
fourth to one-sixth:bfthe produce, both
in cash and kind. Various officers
mentioned in the inscriptions kept
proper records of assessment and
collection of revenues, land transactions
etc.
Language and Literature
The period marked the brilliant phase
of Indian literature whether in poetry,
drama, grammar or prose. The
wonderful corpus of literature is the
visible product of the system of
education and learning. The Puranas,
eighteen in number, preserved the
traditions, legends, moral codes,
religious and philosophical principles
and itihas. The smritis are metrical
texts containing the rules and
regulations and laws for the guidance
and governance of society. They
are based on dharmasutras and
grihyasutras of Vedic literature. But
additions and alterations have been
done to make them suitable to the
changing conditions of society. They are
written in verse. The phase of writing of
commentaries on the smritis -begins
after the Gupta period.
The compilation of the two great
epics, Ramayana arid Mahabharata
was completed by the fourth century
A.D. The philosophical works of the
period are many and varied in character
such as philosophic works of
Mahayana and other schools of
Buddhist thoughts and those of various
Saiva and Vaishnav school.
In the field of kavya or poetical
works, the name of Kalidas
stands foremost in the history of
Indian literature. He is credited
with having written the best works
in poetry, dramma as well as in
prose. His kavyas such as
Meghaduta, Raghuvamsa and
Kumarasambhava, and dramas such
as Abhijnashakuntalam are considered
to be among the best literary works in
the world and have been translated into
many languages. Kalidas graced the
191
....
, ANCIENT INDIA ........ . ...... . .. ................. . ..... . ....... . ... . ........ .... . .. . ....... . ... . ....... . . .. .. .. ..... . .... . ..... .
court of Vikramaditya, the king of
Ujjayini, who has been identified with
Chandragupta II. A few inscriptions of
the period also possess, in some degree,
most of the characteristics features of
Sanskrit kavya. The Allahabad pillar
inscription by Harisena, Mandsor
inscription composed by Vatsabhatti,
Junagarh rock inscription, Mehrauli
Pillar inscription, Aihole inscription by
Ravikriti etc. are fme examples ofliterary
expression.
In the field of drama, Bhasa,
Sudraka, Kalidas and Bhavabhuti are
the most noteworthy. Sudraka is the
author of Mrichchakatika - 'Little
clay cart' . His play deals with the
love of a brahman with the beautiful
daughter of a courtesan; it is
considered one of the best plays
of ancient India. Vishakhadatta
wrote two plays: Mudrarakshasa
and Devichandraguptam, which
are the two best known
historical plays. Malavikagnimitram,
Abhijnanashakuntalam and Vikramor-
vasiyam the three famous plays written
by Kalidas. Bhavabhuti's works are
Uttararama-charita, Malati-Madhava
etc.
In prose, earliest notable works are
Dasakumaracharita by Dandin and
Vasavadatta of Subandhu. One of the
most famous works is Panchatantra,
written by Vishnu Sharma, which was
translated into Persian and Arabic in
the eighth century A.D. and has been
translated in almost all European
languages since then. The popular
work Hitopadesa is based on the
Panchatantra. The biography of
192
Harsha, Harshacharita, written by
Banabhatta, is an outstanding work of
the period.
This period also saw the
development of Sanskrit grammar
based on Panini and Patanjali. Mention
may also be made of three Shatakas of
Bhartrihari. He has also been credited
for writing the commentary on the
Mahabhasya of Patanjali. This period
is particularly memorable for the
compilation of the Amarakosha by
Amarasimha, who was a luminary in
the court of Chandragupta II. This
lexicon is memorised by heart by the
students who learn Sanskrit.
The Prakrit was as much popular
in this period as it was earlier. The
Svetambara Jain canon was written
in Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit and
religious texts of the Digambara
Jain:;; of the south were written in
the Mahar ashtri and Sauraseni
Prakrits. The comme ntaries on
Buddhist texts were written in Pali. The
well known Prak rit and Pali
grammar works of the period are
Prakritaprakasha written by Vararuchi
and Prakritalakshana written by
Chanda. The book on grammar of Pali
is Katyayanaprakarna.
Tamll Literature
The Tamil literature of the period
consists of large number of works
resembling those of the Sangam Age.
The development of devotional songs of
the Saiva and Vaishnava saints are
characterised alike by the depth and
sincerity of feeling and the beauty
of literary expression. Among the
· A
.... . ...................................... SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE FROM THE GUPTAS TO HARSHA
Nayanar saints, Tirumular occupies a
very high position. The hymns
composed by them were collected into
eleven Tirmurais which are held in
great venerations by the people ofIndia.
Another important work contains the
lives of sixty-three Saiva saints.
The Vaishnava saints known as
Alvars are traditionally twelve in
numbers. The collection of their works
known as Nalayiraprabandham,
consists of 4,000 stanzas. It is
considered the most sacred text in
Tamil and celebration of it in special
festivals in all prominent temples of
south India raised the status of Tamil
as language of religious writing.
Foreign Accounts
Three great Chinese pilgrims Fa-Hien,
Hiuen-Tsang and I-tsing visited India
in search of knowledge, manuscripts
and relics between the fifth and seventh
centuries A.D. Fa-Hien with four other
monks came to India during the reign
of Chandragupta II. He came to India
via central Asia, Kashmir and travelled
all over north India. He stayed at
Patliputra for three years, learning
Sanskrit. As' he was interested only in
Buddhism, his report does not contain
much political information, but he has
given a general description of northern
India at that time. His report gives an
idea of general peace and welfare during
Gupta period.
Hiuen-Tsang visited India during
Harsha's reign. He spent thirteen years
in India (A.D. 630-643), of which
eight were in Harsha's kingdom.
Like Fa-Hien, Hiuen- Tsang also came
to India via central Asia. But unlike
Fa-Hien, Hiuen-Tsang has left an
account of his travels, giving details of
the various Indian kingdoms visited by
him. His book Si-yu-ki forms ' an
invaluable source to ancient Indian
history. He studied at Nalanda
University, which was at that time one
of the most famous and prestigious
centers of education. He was honoured
by Harshavardhana of Kanauj and
Bhaskarvarma of Assam. He left India
with 20 horses loaded with 657
Buddhist texts and 150 relics and spent
the remaining years of his life in
studying and translating Buddhist
texts. Hiuen-Tsang played the most
distinguished role in establishing
Buddhism on a solid footing in China
and improving the cultural relations
between the two countries.
The example of Hiuen-Tsang
inspired Chinese monks to visit India
in large numbers. Chinese texts have
preserved the biographies of sixty
monks who visited India during the
second half of the seventh century A.D.
The greatest among these later pilgrims
was I-tsing. He came to India via sea
route spending several years in
Sumatra and Sri Vijaya learning
Buddhism. He stayed at Nalanda for
ten years studying and translating
Buddhist texts and returned to China
with a collection of 400 Sanskrit
manuscripts. He translated a number
of texts and compiled a Sanskrit-
Chinese dictionary. In his book entitled,
A Record of the Buddhist Religion as
Practised in India and the Malay
Archepelago, he gives detail account of
193
~
. ANCIENT INDIA .................................................................... . .................... . ...................... .
Buddhism and general condition of the
two countries.
Economic Condition
I t has been shown in the preceding
chapters that long before the rise of the
imperial Guptas, India had developed
an advanced system of agriculture,
industry and trade. This economic
stability and prosperity provided the
basis for the all round cultural progress
made during this period.
The agriculture system was well
developed during this period. Scientific
methods were followed for better and
more agricultural production. The
Brihat Samhita and the Amarakosha
. contain special chapters on the study
of plants and gardens, forest, crops and
manure etc.
The various branches of industry
were maintained at the same high level
as in the earlier period, because of
abundance of raw materials and the
skill and enterprise of the artisans and
the craftsmen. Literary works mention
a large variety of clothing materials.
These consists of cotton, silk, wool and
linen. Hiuen-Tsang classifies the
clothing material of Indians under the
heads - silk, cotton, linen, wool and goat
hair. Amarakosha mentions different
terms in use for the finer and coarser
varieties of cloth as well as for
unbleached and bleached silk and the
like. Ajanta frescos also revealed
different techniques of weaving.
Dashapura, Banaras, Mathura, and
Kamarupa were great centres of textiles
production. The Mandsor inscription
gives details about the guilds of silk
194
weaver, and corporate activities of the
period. Ivory work flourished as earlier.
We come to know about the guilds of
ivory workers from a seal found in the
excavation at Bhita. Leather industry
also flourished. We see the depiction of
leather boots and shoes in the
contempary sculptures and paintings.
The art of the jeweller seems to have
been in the same advanced condition
as in the preceding period. The Brihat
Samhita mentions no less than twenty-
two jewels. Ratna pariksha, the science
of testing . gems, was included by
Vatsyayana in his Kamasutra as one
of the sixty-four arts. Literary evidence
as well as foreign accounts ofthe period
prove that jewels were used at this
period for a large variety of purposes.
As in the earlier centuries, technical
sciences were utilised for the
manufacture of metals. Vatsyayana
mentions Ruparatnapariks ha,
dhatuveda and maniragakarajnanam
i.e. testing of precious stones, the
smelting of metals and the technology
of jewels and so forth. According to
Hiuen-Tsang's testimony, brass, gold
and silver were produced in
abundance. The Gupta period's gold
and silver coins, seals, the Mehrauli iron
pillar, a few statues belonging to this
period are the best examples of metal
workmanships.
Ship building was another . big
industry which was well developed in
the period that facilitated trade and
communication activities.
Large number of guilds flourished
in the period. The elaborate laws of
partnership, contract, constitution of
·. .. . . . . ..... .................... .. ......... SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE FROM THE GUPTAS TO HARSHA ,.;
guild and right and duties of the
individual members are mentioned
in detail in smritis and corroborated
by contemporary literature and
inscriptions.
During this period, various guilds
activitely participated in the
administration Of city, as seals and
inscriptions mention the legends
Sreshthi-kulika-nigama and sreshthi-
sarthavaha-kulika-nigama. The
inscriptions of the Gupta and of the
later periods record the endowments by
princes and other individuals deposited
with the guilds for regular payments
to be made to people concerned for the
performance of acts of piety and charity.
These permanent endowments
. show the function of the guilds in the
capacity of banks as well as confirm
their stable position in terms of
business stability. This in turn
generated faith in the people to invest
their money safely in the guilds.
Public works were undertaken and
executed by the state as well as guilds.
Reference may specially be made to the
repairs of, the dam on Sudarshana lake
and the connected irrigation canal,
carried out in the province of
Saurashtra, under the rule of
Skandagupta provincial governor
Parnadatta and his son Chakrapalita.
Other works included measures taken
to improve public health, construction
of roads and bridges, improvement of
communication, setting up of big and
small industries and working of mines.
There were also other numerous
endowments of various public welfare
activities such as education.
Trade and commerce flourished
during the entire period. Trade was
carried on between India on the one
hand and eastern and western countries
on the other, both through land as well
as coastal routes.
During this period, India
maintained regular maritime relation
with Sri Lanka, Persia, Arabia,
Byzantine Empire, Africa arid
further west. In the eastern part, India
developed commercial relations with
China, Burma, and South East Asia.
The important trade items were
silk, spices of various kind, textiles
metals, ivory, sea produce etc.
Tamralipti, Arikamedu, Kaveri-
pattnam, Barbaricum, Muziris,
Pratishthana, Sopara and Brighu-
kachchha were the important sea ports
of the time. These were well connected
through inland routes from all parts of
India.
The highly flourishing trade
and commerce made the country
enormously wealthy and the reputation
of the riches of India spread far and
wide. In the beginning of the fifth
century the people of the 'Middle
Kingdom', according to Fa-Hien, were
prosperous and happy. Hiuen-Tsang
gives a similar account of peace and
plenty in India. He says that 'the rare
and valuable products of distant
regions are stored here in great
quantities'. Description of the city,
dwelling houses, luxurious items,
ornaments and wealth etc. in literary
accounts prove the high standard of
living and the luxury of town life.
\
195
A
- ANCIENT INDIA ........ . ........................................ . ............................................... . ................ .
However, some historians feel that
with the G u p t a ~ began the rise of
feudalism in India. For this they cite the
evidence of land grants given to
. brahmans, temples, viharas, mathas
and other institutions. According to
those who subscribe to this view, these
land grants gave rise to the emergence
of landed intermediaries and feudal
lords, whose position can be equated
to the feudal lands in Europe. These
scholars also believe that there was a
general decline in the industries, trade
and commerce and coins became rare.
All these factors weakened the economy
and the state, and gave rise to feudalism
in India, as in Europe.
But, as we have seen above, the
decline in industries, trade and
commerce does not seem to be the fact.
We have seen the evidence of trading
relations with various countries for
which enormous amount of literary
evidence ~ s t in the Indian, Chinese
and Arab sources. There was prosperity
all around.
There was no decline in the urban
and commercial centres nor any
paucity of coins. Some historians have
made a detailed study of inscriptions
dealing with the land grants given by
several dynasties. They have made a
quantitative study of the areas given
in the land grant in relation to the total
land area of the kingdom. The study
shows that the total area given in land
grant is between 0.017% and 0.026%
of the total land area of the kingdom.
Further, in Europe, to which India
has been compared, the reciever ofland
- (fief) grants had to' provide military
196
service, annual gifts, fmancial help, etc.
to the king and also had to regularly
attehd to the court of the king. This was
not the case in India. First it was not a
land grant given in the European sense.
Infact, the donee had no obligation
towards the doner except to use the
grant for the purpose it was given.
The land grants given to various
charitable institutions and the
brahmans to run the educational
institutions etc. were hardly enough
to meet the regular and essential
expenditure. The area of the land grant
and the income therefore was so little
that it would have hardly been ever'
noticed by the st ate. Therefore, many
historians rightly think that these land
grants meant for charitable purposes
should not be compared with the feudal
grants in Europe. The tradition ofland
grant for charitable purposes continued
into the medieval period also. These
were known as madad-i-mash,
suyarghal, milk and [damr. In fact in
the medival period the total expenditure
under these heads went upto 5% of the
total income of the state.
Religions
The development and spread of
religions like Buddhism, Jainism, and
Brahmanism to foreign countries testify
the high degree of maturity in the
mother country. Although the Guptas,
Chalukyas, Pallavas and others were
followers of Brahmanism they never
imposed their religion as the official
religion of the empire. They encouraged
equally the promotion of all religions,
including Buddhism and Jainism,
· ............. . .......................... SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE FROM THE GUPTAS TO HARSHA
Buddhism
Sanchi, Sarnath, Gaya, Nalanda
continued to be the great centres of
Buddhism. Buddhism became much
popular not only in India but in China,
Ceylon and South East Asia. A large
number of pilgrims and students from
. these countries came to India to study
Buddhism during this period. Some of
the most famous ones are Fa-Hien ,
Hiuen-Tsang and I-tsing. All of them
mention in detail the flourishing
condition of Buddhism and recount
things such as number of monasteries,
number of students in these
monasteries etc. The King of Ceylon
requested Samudragupta to build a
Fig. 19.1 Jain Trithankara
rest house for Buddhist pilgrims at
Gaya. A large number of chaityas,
stupas and viharas were built .during
this period. Nalanda, Valabhi and
Kanchipuram became important
centres of education. During this period
Buddhism assimilated several features
of Brahmanism, and Brahmanism
imbibed some of the essential teachings
of Buddhism.
Jainism
Jainism made considerable progress
during this period. Some of the
Chalukyas, Rashtrakuta, Ganga. and
Kadamba kings patronised the Jain
religion. It continued to be popular
among the merchant communities of
western India. In the sixth century A.D.
the second Jaina Council was held at
Valabhi and Jain canon was defined
substantially as it exists today.
Hinduism
Buddhism and Jainism both either
discarded, or passed over in silence, the
doctrine of the existence of God. But
within the Vedic religion there grew
certain religious system which attained
considerable popularity within a short
time. This system now centered around
the idea of a supreme God conceived
as Vishnu, Siva, Sakti and some other
form. Salvation was possible through
His Grace (prasada) alone and this
could be attained only by bhakti i.e.
intense love and devotion leading to
complete surrender of self to the
personal God. The chief vehicle of this
new system were Bhagavatism, (later
came to be known ' as Vaishnavism),
Saivism and Saktism.
197
ANCIENT INDIA ... .. . .. . . . . .. .. . . . ........ . . .. . . .... ... ... . . . .... : . . ...... .. ..... .... ........................... . .. . .. ... . . .. .. .
The three important aspects of Vedic
religion became crystallised at this time.
The images of gods and goddesses
emerged as the centre of worship and
greater stress now began to be laid on
dana (gifts) than on yajnas (sacrifices)
although offering to the images
remained central to the ritual. This in
turn encouraged bhakti (devotion)
where worship of a god became much
more the concern of the individual. They
expressed themselves by defining the
four ends of life known as Purshartha
- religious and the social laws
(dharma), economic well being (artha),
pleasure (kama), and the salvation of
the soul (moksha).
Fig. 19.2 Depiction of Varahavatar
at Udaygiri
Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism, as the name implies,
means religion in which Vishnu is the
object of worship and devotion as
the Supreme God. Originally, it
merely laid stress upon the idea of a
supreme God, God of Gods, called
Hari, and emphasised the necessity of
198
worshipping him with devotion, in
preference to other older methods of
sacrifices and austerities. It did not, of
course, do away with either the sacrifice
or Vedic literature which prescribed it.
It therefore, can be said that this new
system made an attempt to introduce
a religious reform on more conservative
principles than Buddhism and Jainism
did.
The Vaishnavism centered around
the Vasudeva cult of Bhagavata religion
where Vasudeva Krishna is identified
with the Vedic diety Vishnu.
An important feature of
Vaishnavism during this period was the
popular worship of avataras i.e.,
incarnations of Vishnu. It was believed
that whenever the social order faced
c.risis, Vishnu appeared in an
appropriate form to save the earth and
humanity. Epigraphic and literary
records of the period throw light on the
evolution of the avataras, the roots of
this can be traced to the later Vedic
literature.
The number and nature of these
avatar as are variously given in different
treatises. Gradually, the concept often
avataras became more popular.
Through these avutaras we find the
biological as well as historical evolution
of life on earth. These are Matsya
(fish), Kurma (tortoise), Varah (Boar),
Narasimha (man-lion), Vaman (dwarf),
Parasurama (Rama with the axe),
Rama ( King of Ayodhya and hero of
the Ramayana) , Krishna (Hero of
the Mahabharata) , Buddha (the
Enlightened one) and Kalki (to appear).
Of these, Krishna was the most popular
................ . .. . ........... . .... .. ... SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE FROM THE GUPTAS TO HARSHA '"
incarnation of Vishnu because several
aspects of Krishna's life occupy an
important position in modern
Vaishnavism.
Another feature of Vaishnavism in
this period is the conception of Lakshmi
or Sri as Vishnu's wife. Goddess
Lakshmi is associated with prosperity.
The Gupta kings were followers of
Vaishnavism and called themselves
paramabhagavatas. As worshippers of
Vishnu, the Gupta emperors
introduced the depiction of his vahana,
Garuda, Goddess Lakshmi, and chakra
on their coins.
In south India, Vaishnavism
became quite popular and the
Vaishnava devotees were known as
Alvars. Their Tamil songs are so
marked by depth of feeling and true
piety that they are looked upon as
Vaishnava Veda. These songs are very
popular in south India, and their
authors are held in great veneration.
Their images are worshipped side by
side with those of Vishnu and his
various incarnations.
Saivism
The origin of Saivism may be traced to
the conception of Rudra in the RigVeda.
The worship of the Siva-linga in
Harappan civilization also point to the
great antiquity of Saivism. Rudra
represented the malignant and
destructive phenomena in nature. We
can trace the development of the
worship of Rudra right from the
RigVedic times to the period of
Upanishad. Kena Upanishad eulogised
Siva and his consort Uma as supreme
deities.
Siva was at fIrst worshipped, not by
a particular sect, but by the Vedic
people in general. The existence of the
Saiva sect may be traced as early as the
second century B.C. It is possible that
a defInite Saiva system or school was
established, in imitation of the
Bhagvata sect. Saiva sect was earlier
known as Lakula, Pasupata or
Mahesvara.
The worship of Siva as a sect seems
to have spread rapidly after the
Kushana period. By about the sixth
century A.D. Saivism became more
popular and spread to south India and
became the predominant religion in
Anman and Cambodia from fifth
century onwards. In the fIrst half of the
seventh century A.D. Hiuen-Tsang
found followers of Saiva sect as far west
as Baluchistan.
In south India a large number of
saints, called Nayanars, composed
their devotional hymns with the highest
spiritual sentiments and set up Saivism
on a strong foundation. The number of
these saints is usually given as 63 and
their hymns are still widely read and
held in great veneration.
Lingayata was another important
sect of Saivism in south India, whose
philosophy was influenced both by
Sankara and Ramanuja. The
Lingayatas gave prominence to the
worship of Linga (Phallus) and the
Nandi (Bull).
The Saiva sect became very popular
in the south under the patronage of the
Rashtrakutas and the Cholas and the
magnificent temples and monastic
establishment still testify its former
199
ANCIENT INDIA ............. . . . . .. ..... . ................ . .... . .. . .. . ... . ..... . : ............. . .. . ........... . . . ................... .
grandeur. The Buddhist kings of Pala
dynasty established Saiva temples for
the Pasupata sects.
The other sects that became
popular during this period are Saktism,
Kartikeya and Ganapati. .
Mother Goddesses have been
worshiped in India right fwm pre-
historic periods onwards. During the
Gupta period, the Goddesses Durga,
Kali, and Parvati were associated with
the Sakti, as the strength or potency of
her male counterpart. These goddesses
were worshipped as wives of gods and
played an active and positive role in the
life of human beings in their benevolent
aspects such as Lakshmi, Annapurna,
and Saraswati. Ardhanarisvara, a
figure, half Siva and half Parvati,
representing the union of the God with
his sakti, was an important
development of this period. The Siva
and Sakti were worshipped in benign
as well as terrible forms.
The numerous solar deities of the
Vedas were merged into a single God
usually known as surya (the sun).
Several temples in northern and
western India were built during this
period dedicated to the Sun God. The
Mandsor inscriptiort of the time of
Kumaragupta I mentions the
construction and repair of Sun Temple
by the guild of weavers.
In the epic and puranic mythology,
Kartikeya and Ganapati are usually
described as the two sons of Siva and
Parvati. Kartikeya was the war -God
known as Kumara, Skanda, and
Subramanya. Ganapati or Ganessa is
venerated and worshipped first among
200
the Gods by every Hindu. He is
considered as Vighnaharta (remover of
all obstacles).
Art and Architecture
The economic prosperity of the country
led to the all round development in the
field of sculptural art, architecture and
painting. The manuals on the
construction of stone temples were
written during this period giving minute
details of construction which were
faithfully followed by the craftsmen.
Caves continued to be excavated
during the Gupta and the post Gupta
period. In the Deccan, some of the finest
rock-cut caves were excavated. There
are nine caves at Udaygiri near Vidisa ..
These are partly rock-cut and partly
Fig. 19.3 Bhitargaon Temple
SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE FROM THE GUPTAS TO HARSHA , "'.
Fig. 19.4 Remains of the Great Stupa at. Nalanda
stone-built. The caves exhibit a gradual
advance in the design showing
combined features of the rock-cut and
structural design. The caves at Ajanta
retaining the essential features of old,
present an altogether new line of
architecture by the great beauty of their
pillars of varied design and size and the
fine paintings with which the inner wall
and ceiling are decorated. Another
group, is the series of caves at Bagh,
though simple in architecture, but are
famous for their paintings. Another ·
notable group of rock-cut monasteries
and chaitya halls are those of Ellora.
The Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jain
caves show the final phase of
development. For the Kailash temple,
a block ofhi11 side was cut off, and was
carved into a magnificent monolithic
temple with a spacious hall and finely
carved pillars. At Mamallapuram,
number of pillared halls and the
seven monolithic temples popularly
called rathas were carved by the
Pallava kings, Mahendravarman and
Narasimhavarman in the seventh
century A.D. The rathas are the
culmination of complete reproduction
of massive structural temples cut out
of rock.
Monasteries and stupas were also
built during this period. The monastic
institutions which were also the centres
of education, attained vast proportions
consisting of large aggregations of
various kinds of building grouped
together. The famous centres were at
Bodhgaya, Sarnatha, Kusinagara,
Sray,asti, Kanchi and Nalanda.
The ' Nalanda University grew into
a most prestigious establishment
from about the fifth century A.D.
Hiuen-Tsang describes in detail the ·
201
ANCIENT INDIA ................................................................................................................ .
great temples, monasteries, and library
buildings of Nalanda mahavihara. The
period also saw the ushering in of a new
epoch connected with the growth and
development of structural temples of
distinctive forms and styles. Small,
flat-roofed platforms are characte.ristics
of the early Gupta period. Small, but
elegant temple No. XVII at Sanchi,
Kankali temple at Tigawa, Vishnu and
Varaha Temples at Eran and at Nachna
Kuthpra in Madhya Pradesh are good
Fig. 19.5 (a) The Rathas at Mamallapuram
Fig. 19.5 (b) Carving on the Rathas
202
A
........................................ SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE FROM THE GUPTAS TO HARSHA -
Fig. 19.6 Deogarh Temple
Fig. 19.7 Shore Temple at Mamallapuram
203
ANCIENT INDIA ............................................................................................................... .
examples of early temple architecture.
Gradually, these temples developed a
shikhara on the roof which came to be
adopted allover the country. Two best
examples of this type are the brick
temple Bhitargaon in Kanpur and the
Dasavatara temple at Deogarh, both
in the Uttar Pradesh.
The shape of shikhara i.e., the
superstructure above the sanctum-
sanctorum containing the images of
deities marked the development of two
distinctive style viz., northern Indian
Fig. 19.8 Dharamachakra Pravartana
Mudra of Buddha from Samath
.. ... ; ................... .
204
style (Nagar style) and south -Indian
style (Dravidian style). At Aihole,
Badami and Pattadakal we find temples
of both styles.
The earliest examples of Dravidian
style temple is the rock-cut temple
known as Dharmaraja ratha at
Mamallapuram and structural temples
at Kanchi, known as Kailasanatha and
Vaikuntha Perumal, all built by the
Pallava Kings.
Sculptures
In the domain of sculpture, the Gupta
period witnessed the highest
development of art in India. The period
is known as the "classical period"
because it saw the culmination of
spirituality,idealism and art into one.
The figures of Buddha, found in
large numbers at Sarnath and other
places, show a fully developed form of
Buddhist art and came to be regarded
as the model for succeeding ages. They
. exhibit at once, grace and refinement
as well as delicacy and repose, and
offers a unique combination of
perfection in technique with the
expression of the highest spiritual
conception which makes them
masterpieces.
This high quality was generally
maintained 'in the images of
Brahmanical gods also as is illustrated
by the images of Siva, Vishnu and
others in the sculptured panels of the
Deogarh temples and other places.
These divine images not only possess
beauty and charm, but are also
beaming with a radiant spiritual
expression.
SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE FROM THE GUPTAS TO HARSHA
Fig. 19.9 Cave 19 at Ajanta
The Gupta artists and craftsmen
were no less capable in working with
metals. The famous iron pillar at Delhi,
near Qutub Minar, is a marvel in
metallurgical skill and technology.
The art of casting copper statues, coins,
and copper seals etc, on a large
scale shows the handling of metal work
at its best. A copper image of Buddha,
about 80 feet high was erected at
Nalanda in Bihar, and a fine Sultanganj
Buddha, 7V2 feet high, can still be seen
in Birmingham Museum. Coins
were finely struck and dies were
carefully engraved. Seals attached to
copper-plates are also examples offine
workmanship.
Paintings
The tradition of paintings in India can
be traced from prehistoric rock art
painting found at Bhimbetaka,
Mirzapur and various other sites.
Literary evidence also leaves no doubt
that the art of painting was cultivated
in India from very remote times. The
paintings were used for the decoration
of walls. The best examples of
paintings in India in J\janta and Bagh
caves were done between the first and
the seventh century A.D. At Ajanta of .
the 29 caves traces of paintings
can be seen in sixteen caves. In Ajanta
the surface of the caves were first
covered by a mixture of clay, cowdung,
Fig. 19.10 Sheshashayee Vishnu,
Vishnu temple Deograh
fine pulverised traprock, and then a thin
coating of fine white plaster. The
ground thus prepared was carefully
smoothened and kept moistened. This
produced a surface on which the design
was first sketched and then painted.
205
ANCIENT INDIA .......................................................................................................... . ....... .
Fig. 19.11 Durga Temple at Aihole
The usual colours used are white, red,
brown, green and blue in various
shades. The pictures depict figures of
Buddha and various episodes of his
present and past lives i.e., Jataka
stories. Animals and vegetables are is
drawn in profusion for the sake of
ornamentalion . The designs are as
varied and graceful as they are fanciful.
The painting on the rock-cut temple
at Kailasa and the adjoining caves
contain paintings of a somewhat
different type and style from those of
Ajanta and Bagh.
The cave temple of Sittannavasal in
Pudukottai (Madras) contains some fine
paintings ofthe time of the Pallava king
Mahendravarman. They are elegant
and beautiful, and show the degree of
excellence which the art had attained
during Pallava era.
206
Fig. 19.12 PaintingEi in Ajanta Cave
SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE FROM THE GUPTAS TO HARSHA f
Science and Technology
In the field of mathematics, astronomy
and medicine, India had much
advanced knowledge during this period
in comparison to any other country in
the world. These developments in
science and technology in India were
first borrowed by Arabs and then by
the western world.
In Ancient India, mathematics
and astronomy originated and
developed in Vedic times itself. In
mathematics, Aryabhata wrote t h ~
book Aryabhattiya, in Kusumpura
(Pataliputra) when he was 23 years old.
Aryabhattiya is divided into four parts.
As regards geometry, Aryabhata
considers among other topics, an area
of a triangle, the theorem on similarity
of triangles, the area of circle and the
theorem relating to rectangles
contained by the segments.
One of the most important features
of Aryabhata's mathematical system is
his unique system of notation. It is
based on the decimal place-value
system, unknown to other ancient
people, but now in use throughout the
civilized world. The other famous
mathematician was Brahmagupta who
wrote Brahmsiddhanta in c. A.D. 628
His other well known work was
Khandakhadya probably composed in
A.D. 665. He d eveloped rules for
operating with negative qualities and
with zero. He began to apply Algebra
to astronomical problems.
Astronomy
Astronomy and Astrology are included
in ancient India in a term known as
Jyotisa. Varahamihira, who flourished
in the court of Chandragupta II, has
preserved in his Panchasiddhantika,
written in A.D. 505, the accounts offive
astronomical works which were
evidently regarded as authority in his
own time. These five works or
siddhantas are known as Paitamaha,
Romaka, Paulisa, Vasishtha and
Surya. The Suryasiddhanta is the
most important and complete work on
the astronomy of the period. In the field
of astrology, we are also much indebted
to Varahamihira. He has, in his
encyclopaedic work Brihatsamhita,
preserved a considerable amount of
ancient knowledge on the subject. His
Brihatsamhita, besides being the most
important textbook on natural
astrology, is a veritable compendium
of Ancient Indian learning in the
field of science. Varahamihira's son,
Prithuyashas too was an ardent
student of astronomy, and wrote, in
about A.D. 600, a work called
Harashatpanchashika.
As in mathematics, so too in
astronomy, Aryabhata was an
outstanding scholar of the Gupta age.
His most original contribut ion was
howe'!:er, that the eclipses were not the
work of Rahu, as believed by some
astrologers, but caused by the shadow
of the earth falling on the moon,
therefore, asserting the movement of
earth on its own axis around the sun,
as was known in Vedic times.
Aryabhata was the first to utilize sign
functions in astronomy. He discovered
an accurate formula to measure the
decrease or increase in the duration of
two consecutive days.
207
ANCIENT INDIA ................... . ....................... . .............. . ...................................................... .
Medicine
Ayurveda, the name of Indian medical
sciences, literally means science of
longevity. Its origin dates back to Vedic
times. Over seven hundred hymns in
the Vedas particularly in Atharvaveda
refer to the topics connected with
Ayurveda. The great writer of this
period is Vagabhata, who ranks only
next to Charaka and Susruta. The two
famous works of the period are
Astanga-sangraha and the Astanga-
hirdaya-samhita a!3signed to two
different authors by the same name i.e.,
Vagabhata. There were also treatises on
the diseases of animals. The best known
is Hastyayurveda. It deals elaborately
with the diseases peculiar to elephants.
A similar treatise on the horse known
as Asvasastra was written by sage
Salihotra.
Metallurgy
Another science which developed along
with medicine is chemistry. Nagarjuna,
the great Mahayanist, is reputed to have
distinguished himself also in chemistry.
Besides medicine, chemistry must have
substantially helped in the development
of metallurgy. The Mehrauli iron pillar
remains a living monument that shows
the progress in metallurgy achieved
1500 years ago by Indians. This is 7.32
meters high with a diameter of 40 cm
at the base to 30 cm. at the top and
208
Fig. 19.13 Iron Pillar at Mehrauli
weigh about 6 tonnes. It has withstood
all the vagar ies of nature such as
rains, heat and cold for over all these
1500 years without rusting.
SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE FROM THE GUPTAS TO HARSHA ""'
Exercises
1. Explain the following:
bhukti, Vishaya, Adhisthanadhikarana, bhakti,. Nayanaras, Alvars,
Sresthi, Sarthavaha, Kulika, Nigama, Avatars.
2. Describe the administrative system during the Gupta period.
3. Describe the city administration during the Gupta period. In what aspect
did it differ from the administrative system of the Mauryan period?
4. Describe the literary trends of the period with special reference to works
complied during this period both in Tamil and Sanskrit.
5. Write about the Chinese travellers who came to India during this period.
6. Describe the developments in Buddhism and Jainism during this period.
7. Describe the evolution of Vaishnavism and Saivism.
8. Write about the economic conditions during this period with special
referenoe to trade and commerce.
9. Write about the development in the field of art, architecture and painting
during this period.
10. Describe the achievements in the field of science, mathematics and
metallurgy.
• Make a project on the art and architecture of the period.
• Read any literary work of the period.
• On an outline map of India show the important cities of the period.
• Visit the museums and collect pictures of different coins and
sculptures and identify them.
209
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.................................................................................... ;.................. INOlA AFTER HARSHA
THE period after the death of Harsha
in the mid seventh century A.D. and the
establishment of Delhi Sultanate in the
twelfth century A.D. covers a span of
600 years. These six centuries
witnessed some important events such
as-
(i) The rise of important kingdoms in
eastern, central and southern India
which were as important as. north
Indian kingdoms during this
period. Some of them were not only
the powerful kingdoms of the time,
but also acted as a bridge between
north and south.
(ii) The cultural traditions of these
kingdoms remained stable even
though they often fought amorig
themselves.
(iii) There remained a continuity in the
field of economy, social structure,
ideas and beliefs. This was perhaps
because the changes in these areas
take place more gradually than the
changes in political structure. The
close interaction among the various
regions of India led to the
crystallisation of common cultural
trends, seen in the literature,
education, and art and architecture
. of the period and are still visible
even after several ups and downs
in the succeeding centuries.
(iv) The spread of Muslim rule over the
major part of northern India at the
end of twelfth century.
Since the days of Maukharis,
Kanauj became the seat of power in
north India - a position which
Pataliputra (Patna) enjoyed before
and D e ~ h i was to enjoy afterwards.
Hiuen-Tsang described Kanauj as a
flourishing centre of Buddhism along
with Hinduism. Kanauj was then a well-
fortified city, extending about four miles
on the bank of the Ganges.
After the death of Harsha in
A.D. 647, Kanauj lost its status as the
capital city briefly. But in the beginning
of the eighth century A.D. Kanauj came
back as the centre of power with a very
powerful king, Yashovarman. He ruled
over a vast empire which included
almost the whole of northern India. His
victory over Bengal formed the subject
of the famous kavya Gaudavaho by
Vakpatiraja, a court poet. Yashovarman
was a famous king who sent an
embassy to China in A.D. 731. Famous
dramatist Bhavabhuti, the author of
Malati-Madhava, Uttara Rama-charita
and Mahavira-charita adorned his
court. Yashovarman ruled till about
A.D. 740. Nothing is known about the
successor ofYashovarman, though it is
known that four kings ruled Kanauj
between A.D. 740-810. Kanauj from
the sixth century A.D. till it finally fell
to Mohammad Ghori in A.D.1194
played an important role in history of
the north India and enjoyed a status of
not only a political centre but also a
cultural centre.
Gurjara Pratiharas
The early history of Gurjara Pratiharas
is shrouded in mystery. Some
historians believe that they came to
India from the central Asian region after
the Gupta period and settled in
Rajasthan. Gradually they gained
political importance. However, the
211
ANCIENT INDIA ................................... . ... . .............. . .................... .. ........... . ....................... .
bardic tradition of Rc..jasthan claims
that the Gurjara Pratiharas were born
out of a yajna done at Mount Abu.
Others born out of this yajna were
Chalukyas, Parmaras and Chahmanas.
It is for this reason that these four
. dynasties are also known as agnikulas
(fire-clans). It is further said that these
four dynasties of Rajputs were created
for the protection of the country from
external aggressions. This has been
taken by some scholars to suggest that
they were foreigners who were given
status in Indian society. The Pratiharas
claim that they were called Pratihara
(literary means door keeper) because
their ancestor Lakshmana served as a
door keeper to his brother Rama. The
geographical name of Gujarat is derived
from Gurjara.
The early history of the family is
preserved in the Gwalior inscription of
Bhoja, the seventh and the most famous
king of the dynasty. Nagabhatta I was
the real founder of the fame of family.
He defeated the muslim forces
from the Arabs. After him, Vatsaraja
(A.D. 775-800) followed an aggressive
imperial policy which brought him
into conflicts with Pala kings of
Bengal. Vatsaraja defeated Pala king
Dharmapala but unfortunately the
fruits of his victory were snatched away
from him by the Rashtrakuta king
Dhruva, who defeated Vatsaraja.
Dharamapala took advantage of the
reverses of Vatsaraja and installed his
own nominee Chakrayudba on the
throne of Kanauj. Nagabhatta II
(A.D.815), son of Vatsaraja made an
alliance with several other states
212
particularly with Andhra, Vidharbha
and Kalinga. He made extensive
preparation and fought against his
rivals. He first defeated Chakrayudha
and captured Kanauj. Then, he
defeated Dharamapala and fought with
Rashtrakuta king, Govinda III. It is also
believed that Nagabhatta defeated
Sultan Vega who was the son of the
governor of Sind under the Caliph-Al-
Mamun.
Nagabhatta II was succeeded by his
son Ramabhadra during whose
brief reign of three years, the Pratihara
suffered most owing to the
aggressive policy of the Pala king,
Devapala. Bhoja I, succeeded his father
Ramabhadra, about A.D. 836. Within
a few years of his accession, Bhoja I
succeeded in restoring the falling
fortunes of his dynasty. The death of
Devapala followed by the Rashtrakuta's
invasion of Bengal must have provided
a golden opportunity to the Pratihara
king. Fortune also favoured Bhoja I in
another The Rashtrakuta
king, Krishna II was involved in a life
and death struggle with the Eastern
Chalukyas. Bhoja I defeated Krishna II
and captured the region of Malwa and
Gujarat. After asserting triumph over
the two great rivals, Bhoja i had no
difficulty in establishing his sovereignity
over the Punjab, Avadh and other
territories of porth India and
consolidated his empire.
The name of Bhoja is famous in
many legends. He was a devotee of
Vishnu, and adopted the title of
Adivaraha, which has been inscribed
in some of his coins. He is also known
........... . ................................................................................................ INDIA AFTER HARSHA
by other names as 'Mihir', 'Prabhasa'
etc. An assessment of Bhoja as a
conqueror and administrator is given
by the Arab historians Sulaiman
around A.D. 851. He wrote that Bhoja
maintained numerous forces and no
other Indian king had such fine cavalry.
He has got riches and his camels and
horses are numerous. Exchanges are
carried on in his states with silver and
gold. There is no other country in India
more safe from robbers.
Bhoja I was succeeded by his son
Mahendrapala I about A.D. 885.
Mahendrapala I not only kept the vast
empire intact but even probably
extended his boundaries. The Pratihara
empire now stretched almost from the
Himalayas in the north to the Vindhyas
in the south and from Bengal in the
east to Gujarat in the west. He was
also known as 'Mahendrayudha', and
'Nirbhayanarendra'. He was a liberal
patron of learned men. His guru
Rajashekhara,occupies a distin-
guished place in the Indian literature.
His works include Karpuramanjari,
Bala-Ramayana, Bala Bharata,
Kavyamimansa, Bhuvana Kosha and
Haravilasa.
The Pratiharas dominated north
India for over two hundred years from
the eighth century to the tenth century
A.D. Al-Masudi, a native of Baghdad,
who visited India in A.D. 915-916 '
testified to the great powers and
prestige of the Pratihara rulers and the
vastness of their empire. He says that
empire of AI-Juzr (Gurjara) had
1,800,000 villages, the cities and rural
areas were about 2000 km. in length
and 2000 km. in breadth. The King's
army had four divisions, each consisting
of 7,00,000 to 9,00,000 men. There is
no doubt that these figures are a bit
exagerated but this shows that
Pratihara empire was fairly large and a
powerful one.
Between A.D. 915 and A.D. 918, the
Rashtrakuta king, Indra II again
attacked Kanauj leaving it totally
devastated. This weakened the
Pratihara empire. Another Rashtrakuta
ruler, Krishna III, invaded north India
in about A.D. 963 and defeated the
Pratihara rulers. This was followed by
the decline of Pratihara empire.
The Pratiharas were patrons of
learning and literature. The Sanskrit
poet Rajashekhar lived at the court of
Mahendrapala I. The Pratihara kings
were followers of Hinduism. They
embellished Kanauj with many fine
buildings and temples. It is interesting
to note from the epigraphic records that
the building of temples and the
educational institutions attached With
them, formed community projects, in
which the entire village community
participated. The upkeep ofthe temples
and educational institutions was the
concern of the entire community. For
this purpose they made contributions
both in cash and kind, irrespective of
their professions.
During this period, many Indian
scholars went along with embassies to
the court of the Caliph at Baghdad. We
do not know the names of the Indian
kings who sent these embassies. Several
Arab travellers and scholars also visited
India. This interaction between India
213
';. ANCIENT INDIA .................................................................................................................... .
and Arab led to the spread of Indian
culture, literature and science,
especially mathematics, algebra and
medicine to the Arab world from where
these were further transmitted to
Europe.
The Pratiharas were well known for
their hostility to the Arab rulers of
Sindh. Despite this, it seems that the
movement of scholars and trade
between India and west Asia remained
uninterrupted.
Palas
The history of Bengal from the death of
Harsha uP . to the ascendancy of the
Palas remains in obscure. At this time
West Bengal was known as Gauda and
East Bengal as Vanga. Bengal was
subject to internal disorder, which has
been termed as matsyanyaya (the rule
of strong devouring the weak). This lead
to a revolution in which Gopala was
elected king by the people to end this
matsyanyaya. The details of Gopala's
early career are not known. However,
he introduced peace in the kingdom
and laid the foundation for the great
future for his family known as the Pala
dynasty.
Gopala was succeeded by his son,
Dharmapala about A.D. 780. He was
an energetic personality, and found
himself in a position to undertake the
expansion of his empire. He defeated
Indrayudha, the king of Kanauj and
installed Chakrayudha to the throne
of Kanauj. Dharmapala held a grand
darbar at Kanauj which was attended
by several kings. But he could not
consolidate his position. Rashtrakuta
214
king, Dhruva could not tolerate the
imperial pretensions of Dharmapala,
and routed him in a battle. Meanwhile
the Pratihara power revived under
Nagabhatta II. Dhruva defeated
Dharmapala near Monghyr.
Dharamapala was succeeded by his
son Devapala who is rightly reckoned
as the most mighty Pala king.
Epigraphic records credit him with
extensive conquests. He conquered
Pragjotishpur (Assam) and Utkala
(Orissa). The Palas ruled over Bihar,
Bengal and parts of Orissa and Assam
with many vicissitudes of fortune for
over four centuries. Their power is
attested by the Arab merchant
Sulaiman. He calls the Pala kingdom
Ruhma (or Dharma), short for
Dharmapala, and says that the
Pala rulers were at war with their
neighbours - the Pratiharas and the
Rashtrakutas, but his troops were more
numerous than his adversaries. He tells
us that 'it was customary for the Pala
king to be accompanied by a force of
50,000 elephants'.
Besides the inscriptions and the
Arab travellers, detailed information
about the Palas is also provided to us
by the Tibetan chronicles. According to
Tibetan historians, Pala rulers were
great patrons of Buddhist learning and
religion. Dharmapala founded the
famous Buddhist monastery at
Vikramashila, which became second
only to Nalanda in fame. Its splendid
temples and monasteries bear eloquent
testimony to his liberality as well as to
that of other donors.
During Pala's time, the fame of
Nalanda University spread allover the
........................................ .. ... . ......... . .......................................... . .. . ... . .. INDIA AFTER HARSHA
world. During this time Nalanda had
more than 10,000 stud·ents and
teachers, coming not only from different
parts of India but also from central Asia,
China, South East Asia and Sri Lanka.
It was considered as one of the biggest
educational institution of its .time. The
University imparted education in
various branches of knowledge. To
meet the expenses of this huge
establishment, Dharmapala donated
the royal income from two hundred
surrounding villages. Devapala also
donated income from five villages.
Besides, the villagers, wealthy
merchants and other royals also helped
the University both in cash and kind.
Villagers donated food grains,
vegetables, and other provisions for the
use of inmates. The fame of Nalanda
University was such that the king of
Suvarnadvipa (modern Malaya
Peninsula, Java and Sumatra),
Maharaja Balaputradeva erected a
monastery in Nalanda and requested
Devapala to donate five villages for the
maintenance of that monastery.
The Pala kings patroni sed
Hinduism too. They gave donations for
learning and educational purposes.
Vinayakapala built one thousand
temples in honour of the Saiva deity.
They gave donations to brahmans to
settle in their country and run
gurukulas.
The Palas had close trade contacts
and cultural links with South East
Asia and China. The trade with South
East Asia and China was very profitable
and added greatly to the prosperity of
the Pala empire. The powerful Sailendra
dynasty which ruled over Malaya, Java,
Sumatra and neighbouring islands
sent many embassies to the Pala kings.
Rashtrakutas
When the Palas were ruling over eastern
India and the Pratiharas over the
north India, the Deccan was being ruled
by the Rashtrakutas. The term
means designated
officers in charge of territorial
divisions called Rashtras. The members
of family were officers of Rashtra under
the early Chalukyas of Badami.
Dantivarman or Dantidurga was the
founder of the dynasty with his capital
at Manyakhet or Malkhed near modem
Sholapur. Dantivarman was succeeded
by his uncle Krishna I about A.D. 758,
who extended his kingdom from
Maharashtra to Kamataka.
With the accession of Dhruva, about
A.D. 779, a new era began in the history
ofRashtrakutas. Like his predecessors
he defeated the Chalukyas of Vengi
and the Gangas of Mysore and opened
the struggle against the Pallavas. He
was the first Rashtrakuta ruler to
decisively intervene in the tripartite
struggle being waged for the supremacy
in north India and defeat both the
Pratihara king Vatsaraja and the Pala
king Dharmapala. After his successful
campaigns in the north, he added the
emblem of Ganga and Yamuna to his
imperial insignia.
Dhruva was succeeded by
Govinda III (A.D. 793-813) who also
made incursions into north India and
fought successfully against the Pala
king Dharmapala and Chakrayudha,
215
- ----------------
ANCIENT INDIA ..................................................................................................................... .
the ruler of Kanauj. He also shattered
the confederacy of the Ganga, Chera,
Pandya and Pallava rulers in south . .
Govind III was succeeded by his son
Amoghavarsha I (A.D. 814-878).
Amoghavarsha who ruled for 60 years,
is known better, not for his martial spirit
of his predecessor, but for his leanings
towards religion and literature. The
principles of Jainism appealed to him
more. He was a patron ofliterature and
patronised the men of letter'.
•
Amoghavarsha, himself wrote
Kavirajamarga, which is the earliest
Kannada work.on poetics. He was a
great builder and is said to have
built the capital city Manyakhet so as
to excel the city of Indra. Among
Amoghavarsha's successors, the two
great Rashtrakuta rulers were Indta III
(A.D. 915-927) and Krishna III (939-
965). Indra III defeated. the Pratihara
king Mahipala I and plundered his
capital Kanauj. Arab traveller
AI-Masudi calls the Rashtrakuta king
as the greatest king of India.
Krishna III was the last in a line of
brilliant rulers. He was engaged in a
struggle against the Paramaras of
Malwa and eastern Chalukya ofVengi.
He also launched a campaign against
the Chola ruler of Tanjore and his
armies reached Rameshwaram, where
he built a pillar of victory and a temple.
The ascendancy of the
Rashtrakutas in the Deccan constitutes
one of the most brilliant chapters in the
history of the Deccan. They ruled more
than three hundred years. Rashtrakuta
rulers not only patronised Saivism and
Vaishnavism but also protected
216
Jainism, Buddhism and Islam. They
permitted the Muslim merchants to
settle in their kingdom, build mosques
and preach their religion. Their tolerant
policies gave great impetus to trade and
commerce.
In tqe field of literature too ' they
equally patronised Sanskrit, Prakrit,
Apabhramsa, a forerunner of many
modern Indian languages and
Kannada. Their rock-cut cave temples
excavated at Ellora belonging to
Brahmanical Buddhist and Jain faiths
are the symbols of their religious
toleration and are one of the splendours
ofIndian arts. The Kailash temple built
by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I, is
an unrivalled and stupendous piece of
art. An entire hill side was cut off to the
extent of 160 feet by 280 feet, and was
carved into a magnificent monolithic
temple with a spacious hall and finely
carved pillars. The plinth of the temple
has been carved in such a way that it
appears as if the entire temple is resting
on the back of animals like lions,
elephants etc.
Tripartite Struggle
The above account makes it quite clear
that towards the close of the eighth
century A.D. there were three great
powers in India. The Gurjara Pratihara
in the north, the Palas in the east and
the Rasthrakutas in the Deccan
emerged as powerful dynasties almost
at the same time. The tripartite struggle
for the supremacy between the Palas,
the Gurjara Pratiharas and the
Rashtrakutas was the important event .
ofthese centuries.
......... . ....................................................................... . .. . .. .. .................. INDIA AFTER HARSHA
It is said that the main cause for this
battle was the desire to possess the city
of Kanauj which was then a symbol of
sovereignty. Besides, the inter-regional
warfare was also aimed to control the
intermediate fertile regions. The tilt of
the power among these three was
determined both by the internal
strength of the respective region and the
inability of the rulers to extend their
control beyond their respective regions
for a longer duration. Their military
equipment, administrative machinery
and the strategic concepts were all more
or less the same. The Arab travellers
also testify that these powers were equal
in strength. Due to this balance of
power there was a great deal of political
stability within the regions which
fostered the development of culture and
education.
As we have seen above, the first
encounter took place among the
Rashtrakuta king, Dhruva, the
Pratihara king, Vatsaraja and the Pala
Exercises
king, Dharmapala. In the first phase,
Rashtrakutas achieved a complete
triumph, but the death of Dhruva
proved to be a set back to Rashtrakutas.
In the second phase Pala king Devapala
(A.D. 821-860) was the most prominent
because his contemporary Pratihara
and Rashtrakuta kings were weak
rulers. But in the ninth century the
Pratihara kings Bhoja (A.D. 836-885)
and Mahendrapala (A.D. 885-910)
proved to be more powerful than their
contemporaries of the other two
dynasties. Towards the end of the ninth
century the Rashtrakutas gained in the
strength once again under their kings
Indra II and Krishna III whose power
was felt riot only in the north but also
in the south.
Around the end of the tenth century
A.D. the powers of Pratiharas, Pala
and Rashtrakutas declined almost
simultaneously. The end of these three
dynasties marked the end of the
glorious era of more than three hundred
years.
1. Describe the political condition of north India after the death of Harsha.
2. Who were the Gurjara Pratiharas? Discuss their contribution to Indian
culture.
3. What do you mean by the tripartite struggle? Discuss it in the context ·of
the Palas, Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas.
4. Discuss the history of the Rashtrakutas and their contribution to Indian
culture.
5. Discuss the history of the Palas and their contribution to Indian culture.
6. Write short notes on:
(i) Yashovarman of Kanauj
(ii) Mihira Bhoja
(iii) Amoghavarsha
(iv) Devapala
217
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.....•...... . ........ .. . . ... . ................. . ............ . .. . .......... .. .. .• ••. .. . ..• .. .. .... THE HISTORY OF KAMARUPA
THE modern state of Assam was called
Kamarupa and Pragjotish in ancient
times. The latter name was used for
the capital of Kamarupa also. There
was another kingdom called Davaka
in this region which has been
mentioned in the Allahabad inscription
of Samudragupta as the border state
along with Kamarupa. The kingdom of
Kamarupa at one time extended up to
northern and western Bengal, some
bordering lands of China as well as
Davaka. The region was ruled by a
single dynasty from the time of
Mahabharata up to the middle of the
seventh century till Bhaskaravarma.
The sources of history of this dynasty
are the Dubi and Nidhanapur copper
plates of Bhaskaravarma. Some other
sources include genealogical seals from
Nalanda and accounts of Banabhatta
and Hiuen-Tsang.
The dynasty claims its descent
from the Asura Naraka who, according
to the epics and the Puranas, was the
son of Vishnu (in his Varaha
incarnation) and the Earth. Therefore,
this dynasty is also called Bhauma (i. e.
the son of Bhumi). Naraka had a son,
Bhagadatta, who is said to have taken
part in the Mahabharata war. The
inscriptions of the dynasty claim that
king Bhagadatta and his successors
ruled for about 3,000 years in
Kamarupa and then came the king
Pushyavarma. From these sources we
have a list of thirteen kings starting from
Pushyavarma, a contemporary of
Samudragupta, as follows :
(i) Pushyavarma
(ii) Samudravarma
(iii) Balavarma
(iv) Kalyanavarma
(v) Ganapativarma
(vi) Mahendravarma
(vii) Narayanavarma
(viii) Bhutivarma
(ix) Chandramukhavarma
(x) Sthitavarma
(xi) Susthitavarma
(xii) Supratishthitavarma
(xiii) Bhaskaravarma
Among these the last king,
Bhaskaravarma was a contemporary of
Harshvardhana in the first half of the
seventh century. The eighth king
Bhutivarma was ruling in the middle
of the sixth century is known from his
own records. Thus the first king
Pushyavarma has approximately been
placed in about A.D. 350. He must have
acknowledged the supremacy of
Samudragupta.
The N alanda seal calls
Pushyavarma the lord of Pragjotish,
and gives the title of maharajadhiraja
to the first three kings. But historians
attach little significance to this
high sounding title because they
acknowledged the sovereignty of the
imperial Guptas. We do not know
much about the first six kings of
this dynasty. The seventh king
Narayanavarma or his predecessor
performed two horse sacrifices
which shows that he may have become
independent of the Gupta empire
in the first half of the sixth century.
The eighth king Bhutivarma or
Mahabhutivarma was a powerful king.
He flourished about the middle of the
219
ANCIENT INDIA ........... .. .................... . ........ . .. . . . ................... ... .. . ...... . ...................... . ..... : ....... .
sixth century A.D. Under him,
Kamarupa became a powerful
kingdom. It included the whole of the
Brahmaputra valley and Sylhet and
extended to the west as far as the
Karatoya river which continued to be
the traditional boundary of Kamarupa
for a long time.
We know nothing about his son
Chandramukhavarma but his
grandson Sthitavarma is said to have
performed a horse sacrifice. The next
king Susthitavarma's name occurs
in the Aphsada inscription of the
later Gupta King Adityasen whose
grandfather Mahasenagupta is said
to have defeated him on the banks
of river Lauhitya (Brahmaputra).
Mahasenagupta must have fought
this battle as an ally of the Maukharis,
who were the imperial power in north
India at that time. Some historians think
that this ally of Mahasenagupta was
Sasanka of Gauda and not a king of
Maukhari dynasty. But it is not clear
how a small kingdom in Rajasthan
became an ally and subsidiary ruler
of a king of distant Bengal. But
Sasanka may be identified with the
same Gauda king who defeated and
imprisoned Supratisthitavarma and
Bhaskaravarma soon after the death of
their father Susthitavarma. By that
time Supratishthitavarma had not
yet ascended the throne. However,
they managed to escape from the
prison of the Gauda king and
Supratishthitavarma ruled for a short
period. His brother, Bhaskaravarma,
succeeded him.
220
Bhaskaravarma
Bhaskaravarma was an ally of king
Harshavardhana. He is described
in Harshacharita of Banabhatta.
Bhaskaravarma sent his ambassador
Hamsavega with presents to have an
alliance with Harsha. This was a
diplomatic move on the part of the king
of Kamarupa who was earlier defeated
and imprisoned along with his elder
brother by the king of Gauda. On the
other hand the elder brother of
Harsha, Rajyavardhana, also was
killed treacherously by the same king
of Gauda, and Harsha had declared to
destroy them. Thus it was an alliance
between the two kings against their
common enemy. The narration of
Banabhatta has disturbed the
chronological sequence of the events
and therefore some confusion has
cropped up about the history of the
time. This alliance must have taken
place when .Harsha advanced against
the king of Gauda in his later career;
and not immediately after the
coronation of Harsha. As a result of this
alliance and with the help of Harsha,
Bhaskaravarma succeeded in
occupying a large portion of Bengal
from the kingdom of Sasanka.
Bhaskaravarma's influence over
the Buddhist monastery of Nalanda
is also attested by the account of
Hiuen-Tsang. He narrates that King
Bhaskaravarma sent a messenger to
the head of Nalanda monastery,
Silabhadra, to send the 'great pilgrim
fmm China' to him. But this request
was acceded to, only after a threat.
Hiuen-Tsang visited Kamarupa and
A
... . ..... . ............. . ..................... . ...................... . . .. ... . .......... . ..... THE HISTORY OF KAMARUPA ~
stayed there for about a month. Now
Harsha demanded from the king of
Kamarupa to send the Chinese
pilgrim to his court. This also could
materialise only after a threat to
Bhaskaravarma. The latter met Harsha
in person, along with Hiuen-Tsang at
Kajangala where the former was
camping. He also attended / the great
religious assembly at Kanauj and
Prayaga.
The story of Hiuen-Tsang shows
that Bhaskaravarma had control over
Exercises
north Bengal and also some influence
over Nalanda in Bihar. The dynasty
came to an end with the death of
Bhaskaravarma in the same way as it
happened with the kingdom of Harsha.
It is indicated by the evidence that the
kingdom was occupied by a Mlechchha
ruler named Salastambha. We know
the names of a few successors of
Salastambha but no details about
them. Some believe that he was a scion
of the family of Bhaskaravarma. But
there is nothing to corroborate it.
1. Write the chronology of Kamruupa kings.
2. Write about the sources of the history of Kamarupa.
3. Write about the Gauda king.
4. Write in detail the achievements of Bhaskaravarma and his relations
with Harshavardhana.
Collect material on the culture of Kamruupa.
221
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... .. ........ .... ........................................ , .. SOCIETY AND CULTURE IN THE POST HARSHA PERIOD
Language and Literature
SANSKRIT remained the main language,
and literature of various kinds
continued to be written in it. Pali and
Prakrit were used for writing the
Buddhist and Jain religious literature.
Vakapati's Gaudavaho, a biography of
Yashovarman of Kanauj, was the last
major work in the older tradition of
Prakrit. The last stage of Prakrit
languages is represented by the
Apabhramsha, which was considered
important on account of the fact that
the modern languages like Hindi,
Gujarati, Marathi and BangIa have all
evolved from it.
During this period, literature shows
considerable development. The
literature produced during this period
exercised a profound influence on the
traditions of the succeeding centuries
in their respective fields.
A number of kavyas with two fold
or even more significance constitutes a
special feature of this period. The
Ramacharita of Sandhyakara Nandi
written during the reign of the Pala
king, Mahipal, presents both the story
of Rama and the life of king Ramapala
of Bengal.
The Raghavaphandavija of
Dhananjaya Shrutokriti describes
the stories of the Ramayana and
the Mahabharata at the same time.
The marriage of Siva and Parvati;
and Krishna and Rukmini are
described in the Parvati-Rukminiya
of Vidyamadhava, the court poet
of the Chalukya king Somadeva.
Hemachandra is also credited with
having composed a work entitled
Saptasandhana (having seven
alternative interpretations). The
tendency of working out the intricate
patterns of double, triple or even more
meanings reflect ample leisure
combined with wealthand excessive
love of embellishment. The climax of
this style may be found in the
Shatarthakavya of Somaprabhacharya
in which every verse was meant
for being interpreted in a hundred ways.
A large number of Jaina narratives
dealing with the lives of Jain
teachers were composed. The most
famous are Adinathacharita by
Vardhamana, Shantinathacharita by
Devachandra, Prithvichandracharita
by Shantisuri, Parshvanathacharita
by Devabhadra, Kuarapalacharita and
Neminathacharita by Hemachandra
etc. The Sukumalachariu by Shrihara
and the Neminathacharita by
Haribhadra are wholly written in
Apabhramsa.
Many historical texts in the kavya
form were written during this period.
The most remarkable of them is the
Rajatarangini by Kalhana. The text is
unique as it is the only known
attempt at writing history in modern
sense. The Rajendra Karnapura of
Shambu is an eulogy of king
Harsha of Kashmir. The Prithviraja
Vijay of Jayanka, Dvayashraya
Mahakavya by Hemachandra,
Kirtikaumndi by Someshvara
and Vikramankadevacharita of
Bilhana, Navasahasankacharita of
Padmagupta and Kirti Kaumudi of
Somadeva belong to the same genre.
223
.. ANCIENT INDIA ......... . .......... . .... .. .... . ......... . ......... . ..... . .................. . ....... . ........................ .
A large number of treatises
were written on poetics. The most
important among such works are
Kavyamimamsa by Rajashekhara,
Dasharupa by Dhananjaya,
Saraswati Kanthabharana by Bhoja,
Kavyanushasana of Hemachandra
and Kavikanthabharana by
Kshemendra etc.
In the field of prose literature,
Brihatkathamanjari by Kshemendra,
Kathasaritasagara by Somadeva,
Kathakoshaprakarana by Jineshvara
Suri are famous. In these works prose
tended to be less contrived and
artificial. The themes were familiar
stories from traditional sources. These
stories are popular even to this day.
Drama of this period have a
tenderness and subdued dramatic
quality with a minimum of comic
effects. They managed to retain elements
of earlier plays. The famous dramas are
Lalitavigraharaja nataka by
Somadeva, the Harikeli nataka by
Visaladeva, Prasannaraghava by
J ayadeva, Karnasundari by Bilhana,
Abhidhana Chintamani, Deshi-
namamala, Anekarthasamgraha
and Nighantushesha written by
Hemachandra.
In the fields of astronomy
and mathematics, the famous
mathematician Bhaskaracharya
flourished in the twelfth century A.D.
His Siddhanta-Shiromani comprises
four parts-Lilavati, Vijaganita,
Grahaganita and Gola. The last
one deals with astronomy. A very
significant principle of Siddhanta
Shiromani is that of perpetual motion,
224
which was transmitted by Islam about
A.D. 1200 to Europe. This in course of
time led to the development of the
concept of power technology. King
Bhoja ofParamara dynasty had written
the Rajmariganka on astronomy.
In the field of medicine, in the eighth
century, Charaka, Sushruta and
Ashtangahridaya were rendered into
Tibetan and Arabic. Dridhabala of
Panchananda in Kashmir revised the·
text of Charaka-Samhita. Madhava
wrote several works on medicine. His
best known work is the Nidana or
Riguimshchana on Pathalogy translated
into Arabic under the guidance Harun-
al Rashid. His other works are Chikitsa
Kutamudgara and Yogavyakhya.
Vagabhata II's son Tisata wrote
Chikitsakalika or Yoga-mala and
Tisata's son Chandratha wrote
Yogaratnasamuchchhaya. Brinda of
Bengal wrote his Siddhayoga between
A.D. 975-1000.
Besides all these works of kavya,
prose, dramas and historical works
there are several commentaries on
the religious texts. Krityakalpataru
of Lakshmidhara, and Chaturvarga
Chintamani of Hemadri were compiled
during this period. Vijnaneshvara wrote
Mitakasara and a commentary on the
Yajnavalkyasmriti. Jimutavahana
wrote Dayabhaga (Law of inheritance),
Vyavaharamatrika and Kalaviveka.
Manuvritti by Govindaraja,
Smrityarthasara by Shridhara, the
commentary on the Yajnavalkyasmriti
by Apararka, Smritichandrika by
Devanna Bhatta are other outstanding
creations of this period. All these works
... . .. ,. . ........... . .. . .. . ..... .. ................ . ........ SOCIETY AND CULTURE IN THE POST HARSHA PERIOD
are commentaries on different smritis
and law-digests which indicate a
vigorous effort at regulating society and
various works on polity such as
Nitishastra by Mathara, Nitisara by
Kamandaka, the Nitivakyamrita of
Somadevasuri are important.
Society
From the seventh century A.D.
onwards, two trends were continuing
in society. One was the continuity of the
assimilation of foreign elements and
second was the segregation of jati
system. The four varnas still constituted
an umbrella beneath which jatis kept
emerging and finding their own inter-
jatirelationship which, though broadly
in keeping with the theoretical
structure, were nevertheless modified
by local requirements and expediency.
The law of the period accepted birth,
profession, and residence as the
deciding factor in the determination of
jati. As a result there were four original
varnas with severaljati and these were
further subdivided into numerous sub-
sections. For instance, the brahmans
came to be identified by their gotra,
ancestor, the branch of Vedic learning,
original home and village. Inscriptions
of the period also mention this
fact. The kshatriyas also multiplied as
a result of the assimilation of
foreigners and other local people. The
transformation of a specific profession
into jati and the increasing
phenomenon of hypergamous unions
between different jati led to the rise of
mixed jati. Jatis were also formed on
'the basis of religious sects such as
Lingayats, Virasaivas, Svetambaras
\
and Digambaras ejtc. The-lowest were
the antyajatis, of whom Chandalas are
the most important representatives. The
enumerations of the sub-divisions of
these antyajatis differ from one law
giver to another and from period to
period.
The traditional professions related
to four varnas were not scrupulously
adhered to during this period. This
tendency to deviate from the customary
profession was not new, it was
noticeable even in the earlier age.
The brahmans, for example did not
invariably confine their activity to
studying, teaching, worshipping and
the performance of priestly functions.
Atri speaks of kshatrya brahman, who .
lives by fighting, the vaisya brahman,
who lives by engaging himself in
agriculture and trade, the ' sudra
brahman who sells lac, salt, milk, ghee,
honey etc. Like-wise, kshatriyas,
vaisyas and sudras deviated from their
traditional professions and formed
several mixed castes.
Another important class that
emerged as ajatiduring this period was'
that of kayasthas, the s cribes of the
administration, responsible for writing
documents and maint1;lining records.
Though we start getting the reference ·
to kayasthas from the Mauryan period
itself, it appears that by the seventh
century they came to be regarded as
distinct jati.
The smritiauthorities of this period
followed the older marriage rules. The
literature also reflects the new ideas and
practices regarding remarriages. The
225
ANCIENT INDIA .. . .... . .... . ..... . .... . . . ................... . .. . .... . ... . .. .. .......... ... ................................ .
words like punarbhu and didhishu
meaning a remarried woman is
frequently mentioned in the literature.
-The marriages were often arranged by
parents or other guardians of the
parties and sometimes girls chose their
husbands. As regard the position of
women, the Commentaries on smriti
and digests of this period follow more
or less the rules laid down in early
smritis. The women's right to inherit
property was accepted by the
authorities. The widow was entitled to
succeed to the whole estate of her
issueless, deceased husband.
Economic Life
During the post Harsha period the
literary and inscriptional evidences
show the advanced state of agriculture,
trade and economy. Medhatithi
included a group of seventeen articles'
(including rice and barley) in
the category of grain (dhanya).
Abhidhanaratnamala mentions a large
variety of cereals and other food grains
with their synonyms. From
Abhidhanaratnamala we get the
scientific knowledge of agriculture. It
mentions that soils were classified
variously as fertile, barren, fallow,
desert, excellent as well as those green
with grass or abounding in needs, those
which were black or yellow, and those
which owed their fertility to rivers or
rains. It further mentions that different
kinds of fields were selected for different
classes of crops. Machines for crushing
sugarcanes are mentioned , in a
description of the winter season in
Upamitibhavaprapanchakatha.
226
Irrigation by the arahata (Persian wheel)
and by leather buckets are mentioned
in the inscriptions. This shows that the
so called Persian wheel was very much
present in India prior to the arrival of
Muslim rulers. Medhatithi mentioned
that the agriculturist were expected to
know among other things, what seed
was to be sown thickly and what
sparsely, what soil was fit for a
particular kind of seed and what soil
was not so fit, and what harvest was
. expected from a special variety of seed.
The early Arab writers refer to the
fertility of the soil and the rich
cultivation, both of -grains and fruits,
in India.
In the field of industry the oldest
one is that of textile. The progress
of Gupta period continued during
this period. The records of this
period mention a great variety and
qualities of textiles such as woolen and
hempen yarns, garments made of silk,
deer's hair, and sheep and goat's wool.
The professions of weavers, dyers and
the tailor are mentioned in
contemporary literature.
The working in the metals was
pursued with much success as in the
contemporary literature we find copper,
brass, iron, lead, tin, silver and gold.
Some centres of metal industry were
fa mous, such as Saurashtra was
famous for its bell industry while Vanga
was known for its tin industry etc. Lists
of jewels are preserved in various texts,
which mention no less than 33 kinds
of gems and analyse the good qualities
of diamond, emerald, ruby, pearls,
sapphire etc. Trade was flourishing
. ............ : .... . ........................................ . .. . SOCIETI AND CULTURE IN THE POST HAR:;>HA PERIOD -.
during this period as earlier. The Arab,
Chinese, Indian sources mehtion the
flow of trade between east and west via
India. As regard the list of Indian
exports, the Arab traveller Ibn
Khordadbah writing towards the end
of the ninth century, mentions Indian
exports consisting of diverse products
of aloe-wood, sandal wood, camphor
and camphor water, nutmeg, clove pink,
coconut, vegetable, textures of velvety
cotton, and other yariety, metals,
precious and semiprecious stones,
pearls, fisheries etc.
In the list of import items, horses
were the most important. The best
breed of horses were imported from
central and western Asia.
The prosperity of the coastal towns
of Gujarat, Malabar and Tamil attracted
foreign merchants to settle in India. The
ports along the west coast Qf India
referred to by Arab geographers were
Debal (in Indus delta) Cambay J'hana,
Sopara and Quilon. The trade with
South East Asia increased enormously
during this period. The Sailendra kings
established political, cultural and
economic relations with Indian kings.
The Arab travellers were attracted by
the wealth of Sailendra kings and give
descriptive details aboutthem.
The guilds and similar associations.
continued to play an important part as
in the previous centuries. Medhatithi
mentions both industrial and mercantile
guilds. These guilds consisted of people
following common profession such as
tradesmen, artisans, money lenders,
etc. Artisans worked both in towns and
villages. But concentration was greater
in the towns, where· professional
associations were recognised. In the
inscriptions of this period we have
evidence of, not only of different classes
of guilds, but also of their constitution
and functions. These gUilds collectively
made endowments for pious objects or
deposited them with the trust to provide
for such objects out of the accruing
interest. From the ' south Indian
insCriptions we have the evidence of the
working of two famous trading
corporations. The first is the
Manigramam whose history can be
traced from the end of the ninth century
down to the thirteenth century. Its
activity carried on in the coastal as well
as inland towns of the south India. The
second is the famous Nanadesa-
Tisaiyayirattu Ainnurruvar which was
destined to extend its activities to
Burma and Sumatra in the eleventh
and the twelfth centuries. It began its
carrier from the ninth century onwards.
Religion and Philosophy
Tbe fundamentaI features of religious
ideas and practiGe:::; which characterised
the previous period continued during
this period. But the relative importance
of the different religious sects
undergoes a great change because of
the reciprocal influence of different
religious sects upon one another. Both
Buddhism and Jainism developed
theistic tendencies on the analogy of
Saivism and Vaishnavism.
During this period, Buddhism
witnessed not only decadence of pure
Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism,
but also the appearance of a new phase
227
,ANCIENT INDIA H ••• • • •• • ••• • • : • •••••• • ••••• •• • • •• • •••••• • •••• • ••• • • • • •• • •• • •• •• • • •• • •• •• • • • •• • • • • • •• • • • • • ••••• •• •• • • • ••• ••• • •••
of the religious philosophy. Buddha's·
teachings, free from rituals, gradually
gave way in the early centuries of the
Christian era, to a popular form of the
religion with a new ethical and
devotional outlook in which Buddha
had begun to be worshipped as a god.
This worship now became more
elaborate with devotional songs,
accompanied by rites and ceremonies.
The influence of Tantric ideas on
Buddhism is evident in Vajrayana
Buddhism (the vehicle of thunderbolt).
The Taras or Saviouresses, spouses of
the male Bodhisattvas received a
veneration similar to that of sakti. The
association of Buddhism with magical
cults was a confusipg development,
since much of its original ethical
teaching was now further submerged
in ritual. The support of the Pala kings
sustained it in eastern India, and the
royal patronage kept it going in Orissa,
Kashmir, ·and parts of north-western
India. In south India, Kanchi .was a
great centre of Buddhism. The Chola
kings also gave donations to Buddhists.
It is said that Buddhism began to
decline because it did not get the royal
patronage and the coming ofIslam was
the final blow to it. The attacks on
monasteries and killing of monks
resulted in an exetdus of Buddhists from
eastern India.
T ~ e Jainism gained 'popularity
among the trading classes in north and
west India and the extensive royal
patronage in south India. In the
Oeccan, it was honoured by the
Gangas, Chalukyas and by Rastrakuta
rulers. During this' period many Jain
228-.
basadis (temples) and mahastambhas
(pillar) were set up in different parts. The
colossal image at Sravanabelgola was
set up during this time. The Jain
doctrines of the four gifts (learning,
food, medicine and shelter) helped to
make J ainism popular among the
people.
Tantricism is another sect which
became popular during this time.
Tantricism had originated in the
sixth century but became stronger from
the eighth century onwards. It was
strongest in north eastern India and
had close ties with Tibet, some of its
rituals came from the Tibetan
practices. It is said that Tantricism is
the simplification of the Vedic cults and
was open to all castes as well as. to
women. Tantric practice centred on
prayers, mystical formulae, magical
diagrams and symbols and the worship
of a particular deity. The mother image
was accorded great veneration, since life
was created in the mother's womb. In
this way it is also connected with Saka-
Sakti cult. In Tantricism guru had the
highest place because those desirous
of becoming members of a sect had to
be initiated by a guru. It is said that
Tantric interest in magic led to some
discoveries of a semi-scientific nature
owing to experiments. with chemicals
and metals in,particular.
Hinduism, in the forms of Saivism
and Vaishnavism now became popular.
The two characteristics of religious life
in the preceding period viz, toleration
and worship of images, not only
continued in full force but are even on
the increase because of P9pular
............................... ' ................................ SOCIETY AND CULTURE IN THE POST HARSHA PERIOD
demand {or a more personal religion
deitY. For this purpose, a multitude of
new' forms were introduced which
necessitated the building of shrines and
temples to house them.
In Vaishnavism, the incarnation of
Vishnu became more popular and
interest in the Puranas and epic
literature, particularly, through the
versions in regional languages,
provided the tradition in which
they incorporate the legends of the
incarnations. The most popular
incarnation was Krishna. Krishna
and Radha were worshipped as part
of a cult and their love was interpreted
as the longing and attachment
of the human soul for the universal.
soul.
In the south, Alvars represented
the emotional side of Tamilian
Vaishnavism and the Acharyas, who
were their successors, represented
the intellectual and philosophical sides
of Vaishnavism and made it popular.
Saivism attained a dominant
position in the society. The main
principles remained the same, though
there were local variations and
consequent doctrinal differences. There
prominence by Basava, the Prime
Minister of the Kalachuri king Bijjala.
Lingayats are followers of Saivaism.
They laid stress on love and self
surrender, truth and morality and
cleanliness. They allowed widow
remarriage.
The bhakti movement led by
Nayanars (Saiva saint) and Alvars
(Vaishnav saint) spread all over the
country. These saints went from place to
. place carrying their message oflove and
devotion . . They disregarded the
inequalities of caste. The path of bhakti
advocated by these saints was open to
all, irrespective of caste. This bhakti
movement renewed emphasis on the
Vedas and Vedic worship on the one
hand and powerful literary and
intellectual movement on the other hand.
is a form of Saivism, popularly known
as Kashmir Saivism which is a kind of
monism on non-dualism. It became '
popular in the ninth and tenth century
A.D. In the south, the saiva saints, the
Nayanars made it more popular.
Another popular movement which
spread in south India was of Lingayats
or Virasaivas, whose philosophy was
influenced both, by Sankara and
Ramanuja. This sect was raised into
'Fig. 22.1 Sun Temple in Rajasthan of
the time of Gurjara Pratihara
229
ANCIENT INDIA .................. . ......... ' ... . ...... . ........................................... . ....... ... ..... .. ..... . ...... .
Fig. 22.2 Statue of Vishnu Visvarupa
of the time of Gurjara Pratihara
One of the greatest intellectuals
and," philosophers of this period
was Sankara, also known as Adi
Sankaracharya. According to the
Shringeri matha tradition, Sankara
took birth in Kerala around A.D. 788.
His father, Shivaguru a Yajurvedin
. brahman, died when Sankara was
only three years old., At the age of eight,
he took to 'the life of an ascetic.
Sankara studied at Kasi and after
finishing his , studies he turned to
digvijaya. Sank¥a kept moving allover
the 'country for preaching his
philosophy and deQating with the
learned scholars.
The philosophy of Sankara is
known as Advaita;' meaning 'non-dual' .
He believed that absolute reality,
called Brahma is n ,on-dual.
Sankara wrote several works.
230
Fig. 22.3 Scene depicting Marriage
of Siva and Parvati of the time of
Gurjara Pratihara
,These are Brahmasutra-bhashya,
commentaries on the Upanishads,
commentaries on Bhagavad-Gita etc.
Thus, Sankara upheld the Vedas as the
fountaiphead of true, knowledge.
The greatest achievement of
Sankara is that he organised the ten
branches of Advaita school of Saivism,
known as Dashanamis. For the
purpose of unity and integrity, and
better interaction, he established
four mathas in four corners of the
country. These are Jyotirmatha at
Badrinath in the north, Sharadapitha
at Dvaravati (Dwaraka) in the west,
Govardhanamatha at Puri in the east
and Shringeriinatha in the south and
sent his four disciples to each one of
these. Each matha is _said to have a
gotra, presiding deities, both male and
female and a special formula as the
.......................................................... SOCIETY AND CULTURE IN THE POST HARSHA PERIOD "
symbol of philosophical quintessence
of pure monotheism. The ten orders in
which Sankara organised the ascetics
are known as - ' Giri (hills), Puri (city),
Bharati (learning), Vana (wood),
Aranya (forest), Parvata (mountain),
Sagara (ocean), Tirtha (temple),
Ashrama (hermitage) and Saraswati
(true knowledge). Sankara died at the
age of 32. He was an Acharya par
excellence who took the Hindu faith to
a new glory.
Another philosopher and
intellectual was Ramanuja. He was a
Tamil brahman born at Tirupati
around A.D. 1 017. Ramanuja disagreed
with Sankara that knowledge was the
primary means of salvation. He tried to .
assimilate Bhakti to the tradition of the
Vedas. He argued that the grace of God
was more important than knowledge
about him in order to attain salvation.
Thus, Ramanuja tried to build a bridge
between the bhakti and the knowledge
of Vedas.
Education
The system of education which had
developed gradually in the earlier
centuries continued during this period.
The later smiritis introduced a new
sacrament called vidyarambha
(commencement of education) and
aksharasvikriti or aksharabhyasa
training in the alphabet. During this
time we find various types of
edl'cational institutions. The foremost
art temples, which developed as social,
ed lcational and cultural entities
bes ides being a source of religious
inspiration for the people. Inscpptions
give us some idea of their diverl:l'e
functions such as banks, treasuries,
court, parks, fairs, exhibition sheds,
promoters of handicrafts, dance, music
and diverse cultural activity, centres of
learning and hospitals and in turn
provided employment to large number
of populations. Education was
imparted in the temple like earlier
periods. Students were either taught by
the temple priests as in the smaller
village temples or else attended the
college attached to the larger tempks.
Courses in the colleges were organised
in a systematic manner demanding
regular attendance and instructions.
Professional education continued to be
maintained through the training given
to apprentices in guilds and among the
groups of artisans. At a more popular
level, oral instruction, much simpler
than the Sanskrit learning of the
colleges was imparted by the saints and
elders. The various centres of education
provided a great impetus to discussions
on religion and philosophy. The
numerous mathas and other centres of
education in various parts of India
enabled ideas to flow freely and quickly
from one part of the country to another.
Higher education was not considered
complete till the person had visited the
various centres of learning in different
parts of the country and held
discussions with the scholars there.
The manner in which ideas could
be transmitted throughout the
country was important in upholding
and strengthening the cultural unity
of India.
231
ANCIENT INDIA ................................................................................... ......... ............... .
Education was also available in the
Jain and Buddhist monasteries at
Vikramsila, Oddantapura, Valabhi and
Nalanda, which were great centres of
higher learning. The inscriptions and
literary works of the period prove that
there existed, organised educational
institutions which were founded and
maintained by the people from the king
down to humble individuals.
Education was imparted free with
clothes, food and lodging. Inscriptions
of the period mention the dana of
various kind including land for the
purpose of vidya (learning). This
tradition of donation for the purpose of
education is still continuing in Indian
society. The ancient Indian education
system was thought to be unique by
foreign travellers because every village
had a school and every individual
' participated in its maintenance. As a
result, India had the highest literacy
rate in comparison to other countries
of the world till the time up to the
nineteenth century. This is accepted
even by British and other European
historians and educationists.
Art and Architecture
As regards the art and architecture, it
was undoubtedly a fruitful age as
would be apparent from the numerous
temples that are standing for the 1200
years. These temples are among the
most exquisite edifices of that era,
representing most of the styles of
archite,cture.
The famous temples of Orissa,
specially those of Bhubaneshwar are
superb specimens of the Nagar style or
north Indian style. Each temple consist
of vimana (towered shrine) and the
jagmohana (audience chamber) besides
the nata mandapa (dance chamber)
and bhC?ga mandapa (offering hall). The
best example of this type is the great
Lingaraja temple of Bhubaneshwar and
Sun temple of Konark.
Another place, where several
excellent nagar style temples still
stand, is Khajuraho in Bundelkhand.
Fig. 22.4 Paharpur Stupa (now in Bangladesh) of the time of Dharamapala
232
................................................................. SOCIETY AND CULTURE IN THE POST HARSHA PERIOD
Fig. 22.5 (a) Bodhisattavafrom
Nalanda, Pala Period
These temples built by the Chandelas,
are on raised plinth and known for their
carving and erotic sculptures.
Kandarya Mahadeva temple is one of
the finest example.
In Kashmir, the Sun temple called
the Martanda temple built by
Lalitaditya Muktapida around the
eighth century A.D, is the best example
of Kashmir style of architecture.
The Jains were also great builders
and their temples generally have the
octagonal dome and are decorated with
Fig. 22.5 (b) Avolokitesvara from
Nalanda, Pala Period
subjects drawn from Jain mythology.
The best specimens of their architecture,
are the famous temples of Dilwara (Mt.
Abu) and Satrunjaya (Palitana). These
temples are most remarkable for their
elegant carvings and rich design. The
Jain sculpture of Gommatesvara, (57
feet) the son of the first Jina
Rishabhanatha, at Sravanabelagola
(Hasan, Distt. Mysore) is one of the
largest free standing images in the
world. This granite statue on Indragiri
hill represents the immovable serenity
233
ANCIENT INDIA ............ . . . .......... . ...... . ... . ....... . ...... . ... . . . . . ...... ... .. ... ....................... . .............. .
of the one practicing the Kayotsarga
austerity, undisturbed by the serpents
about his feet, the ant hills rising to his
thighs, or the undergrowth that has
already reached his shoulders.
In the Deccan, the temples ofVatapi
(Badami) and Pattadakal (Bijapur
district) are stylistically different. These
temples stand on an elaborately
decorated base or plinth. Some good
examples are the Hoysalesvara temple
at Halebid, which though incomplete,
is unsurpassed by any Indian temple
in both its structural and its decorative
features. Besides free standing temples
in the south, temples are also hewn out
of solid rock. The Kailash temple at
Ellora, dedicated to Siva excavated
during the reign of Krishna I
of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, is
regarded as the architectural marvel
in the world.
In the south, Pallavas gave an
immense impetus to art, and the temple
at Dalavanur (Arcot district) Pallavaram,
Vall am (Chinglepeet district) as well
as the Rathas and shore temples
at Mamallapuram, Kailasanatha at
Kanchi stand today as noble
monuments of their artistic genius.
The Cholas carried on the
,architectural traditions of the
Pallavas and built several temples in
the south. The Dravidian temples
were marked by the square vimana,
mandapa, gopuram, halls with
Fig. 22.6 Kailash Temple at Ellora
234
........ . ................ . : ......... ; ........................ SOCIETY AND CULTURE IN THE POST HARSHA PERIOD A
profusely decorated columns,
conventional lions (yalis) for
ornamentation, the use of the bracket
and of compound columns etc. In the
later structures the central towers are
dwarfed by exquisitely carved
gopurams rising to a great height. The
.best example of this type reaching to
culmination is the Meenakshi temple of
Madurai. Most of the Hindu temples are
either devoted to Siva or Vishnu.
Apart from architecture and
sculpture, the art of painting was also
practiced. The older tradition of mural
painting continued to be used to
Exercises
1. Explain the following:
decorate the walls of temples and
palaces. Miniature paintings also began
during this time which become
popular later in the Mughal Period. The
Jain monks of western India and the
Buddhist in Nepal and eastern India,
Saiva and Vaishnav in the south,
began the illustration of their
manuscripts. They painted small
pictures on the palm -leaf showing the
scenes described in the text. At first the
pictures were simple but slowly they
began to put in more and more details
and colours, until each picture became
a fine painting in itself.
Kavyas, Punarbhu, Dhanya, Vajrayana, Bodhisattvas, Basadis, Advaita,
Matha, Vimana, Gopuram.
2. Describe the literary trends of the post Harsha period with reference to
some important works.
3. Write about the economic condition during this period with special
reference to trade and commerce.
4. Write about the following during the post Harsha period:
(i) Social condition
(ii) Religion and philosophy
(iii) Education
(iv) Art and Architecture
• Make a project on the art and architecture of the period.
• Make a project on India's relation with other countries.
.. Collect material on four mathas established by Sankara.
235
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. .. .. .. ... . .. ........... . ........................ .. .. . . . ...... CULTURAL INTERACTIONS WITH THE OUTSIDE WORLD
WE have seen in the earlier chapters that
India was in-contact with the outside
world, commercially, right from about
the middle of the third millennium B.C.
It was in touch with Mesopotamic
civilization from where the material
remains of Harappan civilization have
been found.
However, the most remarkable
aspect of this contact has been the
spread ofIndian culture and civilization
in various parts of the world, specially
central Asia, South East Asia, China,
Japan, Korea etc. What is most
remarkable of this spread is that it was
a spread not by means of conquests or
threat to life of an individual or society,
but by'means of voluntary acceptance
of cultural and spiritual values ofIndia.
No, other culture and civilization had
achieved its spread by means of non-
violence and cultural influence. '
Central Asia and China
From the second century B.C. onwards,
India maintained commercial contact
with China, central Asia, west Asia and
the Roman empire. The Indian land,
routes were connected with the silk
route that began from China and
covered almost the whole of Asia up to
the Caspian sea. The silk route served
,as a great channel for the transmission
, of cultures of the then known world.
The impact of Indian culture was
felt strongly in central Asia and China
via the silk route. Cultural exchanges
that took place India and the
countries of central Asia are visible from
the discoveries of ancient stup'as,
temples; monasteries, images and
paintings found in all these countries.
A large number of Sanskrit and
Buddhist texts were translated in to
different languages. Besides, chinese
travellers, notably Fa-Hien and Hiuen-
Tsang, who visited India respectively in
fifth and.seventh centuries A.D., have
thrown a flood of light on the history
and culture of the region. Turfan,
Khotan, Kuchi, Aqsu, Kashgar, Qara
Shahr (Agnidesa) were the great centres
of Buddhism and Indian culture. The
early Kushanas accepted Buddhism
and worked to spread it amongst the
nomadic hordes of central Asia.
Buddhism moulded and softened the
violent- ways of life of the central Asian
people and continued as a dominant
religious force for more than thousand
years. We also know that some of the
kings had adopted Hinduism.
The early contacts between China
' and India were established through
three trade routes - central Asia, Yunan
and Burma, and by sea via South East
Asia. The contacts on a regular basis
between India and ' China, began
around the second century B.C., With
the reign of the Kushanas especially of
Kanishka, Buddhism from India 'made
a great influence over China. Having
crossed the inhospitable tracts and
central Asian territories, the Buddhist
missionaries entered China from the
first century B.C. onwards. Here they
found a land different from central Asia.
The Chinese were a highly cultured
people. They listened to the thrilling
message of the Buddha with avidity.
The Buddhist philosophy appealed to
their intellectuals because China
237
.,
.. ANCIENT INDIA
A{8bien Sea
-._.-.-..........
. ~ .............
..........
.....
... -............ c1aneam?
_.-. __ ._.-.;
INDIAN OCEAN
INDIA'S CONTACTS
WITH WORLD
Fig. 23.1 -Map of India and South East Asia
already had a developed philosophical
school in Confucianism. Buddhism
served as a great unifying factor and
became an integral part of the Chinese
life imbibing Confucianism within it .
Among Indian scholars, who went
to China, the most notable is
Kumarajiva, who stayed for 12 years
(A.D. 401-412) and work for the spread
of Buddhism. Having accepted the new
religion, Buddhist scholars from China
were anxious to learn more and more
about it. Braving the hazards of a long
238
and perilous journey, they came to visit
the land of Buddha. They stayed in
India and collected Buddhist relics and
manuscripts related to Buddhism and
learnt about it staying at the various
educational centres.
Among the Chinese monks who
visited India, Fa-Hien seems to be the
first . He visited during the reign
of Chandragupta II. In A.D. 420, a
batch of monks under the leadership
of Fa-yong came to India. In the seventh
century A.D. Hiuen-Tsang and I-tsing
visited India. During the reign of
..... . .... . ........................ . ........... . ................. CULTURAL INTERACTIONS WITH THE OUTSIDE WORLD ,.;.
Harsha, China and . India also
exchanged embassies.
Indian scholars also visited China
between the fourth and sixth centuries.
The most noteworthy among them
were Buddhayasa, Gunabhadra,
Jinagupta, Jinanabhara, Paramartha,
Bodhidharma and Dharmagupta. They
made a great impact upon the Chinese
people. This two way traffic of scholars
and monks was responsible for
cultural contacts and exchange of ideas.
From China, Buddhism spread to
Korea, Japan, Mongolia and other
neighbouring countries, where it was
welcomed with great enthusiasm and
played a powerful role in the cultural
history of these countries.
Sri La:nka
From the days of the Ramayana, India
had links with Sri Lanka, which was
popularly known as Lanka in
Ramayana. The story of Sita's
abduction and then taken to Lanka is
well known to every Indian child,
though many scholars feel that the
Ramayana's Lanka may be a different
I
one. In ancient times Sri Lanka was also
known as Tamraparni.
During the Mauryan period,
Ashoka sent his son Mahendra and his
daughter Sanghamitra to spread
Buddhism in Sri Lanka. The famous
Bodhi tree of Sri Lanka planted by these
royal missionaries bore rich fruit later
on. Most of the people in Sri Lanka
embraced Buddhism. During the reign
of Samudragupta, king Meghavarma of
Sri Lanka sent an embassy to the king
with a request that he may be allowed
to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya for
the Buddhist pilgrims from Sri Lanka.
Buddhism played an important role in
shaping Sri Lankan culture. The
Dipavansa .and Mahavamsa are well
known Sri Lankan Buddhist sources.
Sri Lankan literature, painting, dance,
folklores, art and architecture etc., have
been greatly influenced by India.
Pallava king Narasimhavarman helped
Sri Lankan king Manavarma to secure
his throne. It also became the part of
Chola empire during the reign of
Rajaraja (c. A.D. 985-1014 ).
Mayanmar
Mayanmar (earlier known as Burma)
was also influenced by the Indian
culture. Hiuen-Tsang mentions about
several Hinduised kingdoms of this
region. It not only adopted Indian
religion but also its culture, language
etc. They developed their own Pali
language and translated both Buddhist
and Hindu scriptures in their version
ofPali. A large number of Buddhist and
Brahmanical temples of great size and
artistry were erected in Mayanmar.
South East Asia
The region of South East Asia has
always been rich in spices, minerals
and metals. Hence, in ancient times,
Indians called it Suvarnabhumi or
Suvarnadvipa - the land of gold.
Indians travelled to South East Asia
in search of trade and adventure
from quite early time as several
stories of Jatakas, Brihatakatha,
Kathasaritasagar and even foreign
sources like Peri plus of the Erythrean
Sea refer to the voyages of Indian
239
ANCIENT INDIA .... . .......... . .............. . , .... ' .................. . ... . ............................................... . ..... .
merchants to these countries. With Chola empire of south India. Rajendra
these travellers the message of Indian Chola conquered part of the Sailendra
religions and culture also spread there. empire - mainly the region of modern
Around the third and fourth centuries Indonesia. The Cholas could not keep
A.D. there developed powerful it under their control for long and
kingdoms and empires under kings soon the Sailendras succeeded in
with Indian names and most probably regaining their territories.
ofIndian descent. Here also most of the Bali is the only country where
dynasties and kings traced their origin Hindu culture flourished and survived,
to India. Today, while the entire Archipelago has
The famous kingdoms of Champa accepted Islam, Bali alone remains
(Annam) and Kambuja (Cambodia) faithful to Hindu culture and religion.
were ruled by the kings of Indian We have so far discussed the brief
origins. The rulers of Champa were history of kingdoms of Suvarnadvipa,
great warriors and successfully Perhaps no other region in the world
maintained their independence against has felt the impact of India's culture
their neighbours for more than a and religion as has the South East Asia.
thousand years till the Mongols overran The most important source of study of
Champa. the remains of this cultural intercourse
In Kambuja, Kaudinya dynasty and impact, are the Sanskrit
of Indian origin ruled from the first inscriptions, written in Indian script,
century A.D. The kings of Kambuja pure or slightly modified. They have
built an empire which at its height 'been found all over the region in Burma,
included almost whole of modern ' Siam, Malay Peninsula, Annam,
Vietnam and Malaya. We can Cambodia, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and
reconstruct the history of Kambuja Bali. A study of these inscriptions and
from numerous Sanskrit inscriptions other literature shows that the
and from literary works. Also we get a language, literature, religious, political
glimpse ofits former splendour from the and social institutions were greatly
magnificent temples, which are still to influenced by India.
be seen. The varna system which forms the
The famous Sailendra dynasty fundamental basis of the Hindu
which ruled over the vas t empire society was introduced in most of these
including Malaya, Java, Sumatra, areas. The divis.ion of society into
Borneo and Bali, traced its origin brahmans, kshatriyas, vaisyas and
to I n d i a ~ The Sailendra empire, sudraswereknown. Thesystemdidnqt
established in the eighth century, was attain the rigidity as in India. Thus,
a prosperous empire and continued up inter-marriage and inter-dinning was
to the thirteenth century A.D. In the widely prevalent. On the whole, the jati
eleventh century the Sailendra empire system, as it prevails today among the
entered into maritime struggle with the Balinese of Bali and Lombok, may be
240
................ . ................. . .............. . .......... . CULTURAL INTERACTIONS WITH THE OUTSIDE WORLD
regarded as typical of the original
RigVedic varna scheme, where the
society was divided on the basis of
profession and not on the basis of birth.
The ideals of marriage, details of the
ceremony and the family relations
generally resemble those of India.
The most popular form of
_ amusement was the shadow play called
Wayung (like puppet shows of India).
The themes of Wayung are usually
derived from the two Indian epics, the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata,
which are still very popular in the
countries of South East Asia, despite
the fact that most of the countries have
now adopted Islam.
The literature and inscriptions
written in Sanskrit and Pali shows that
the language was highly cultivated and
was used both in the court and the
society. They borrowed the
philosophical ideas, Vedic religion and
Puranic and epic myths and legends
along with all the prominent
Brahmanical and Buddhist divinities
and ideas associated with them. Indian
months and astronomical systems were
also adopted. The most important thing
is that they introduced the
geographical names associated with
India. We find names like Dvaravati,
Champa, Amaravati, Gandhara,
Videha, Ayuthia (Ayodhya), Kamboja,
Kalinga and river names like Gomati,
Ganga, 'Jamuna, Chandrabhaga etc.
They still call their hospitals, schools,
libraries and several other public places
by their original Sanskrit names.
Fig. 23.2 Angkorvat Temple of Cambodia
241
ANCIENT INDIA .. . .... . . . ..... . ... . .... . ....... . .. . ..... .. ... ... ............... . ....... . ......... . ....... . .................. .
Both Hinayana and Mahayana
forms of Buddhism, along with
Vaishnavism and Saivism with several
other minor sects ofBrahrnanism, were
prevalent among these people. The
images of Hindu gods and goddesses
have been found. The worship of Trinity
(i.e. Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesha) was
widely prevalent. However, the place of
honour seems to have been accorded
to Siva.
Buddhism also made a stronghold
in society. Some places became famous
centres of Buddhism. Chinese
chronicles also testify the dominance of
Buddhism in this region. I-tsing stayed
for seven years at Sri Vijaya for the
study of Buddhist texts. Another
interesting feature the large
number of ashramas, which were
established to impart knowledge on the
patterns of Indian temples, mathas,
viharas, ghatikas and agraharas
Fig. 23.3 Borobodur Stupa at Java
f 242
...
associated with Vaishnavism, Saivism
and Buddhism.

We get a glimpse of the former
splendour of art and architecture of
South East Asia from its magnificent
temples, stupas and sculptures. Large
number of images of gods and
goddesses belonging to Buddhism and
Brahmanism show the characteristic
features of Indian iconography and
artistic excellence.
Of the several most important
specimen of architecture are the
Angkorvat temple, Borobudur stupa,
Buddhist and Brahmanical temples
in Java and Mayanmar. These
masterpieces of architectural art
portray in stone the sublimity and
depths of India's cultural impact on
South East Asia.
Angkorvat temple near the city of
Angkor Thorn was dedicated to Vishnu.
This temple was built between A.D.
1112 to 1180. The walled enclosure
of the temple is 987x 1005 m. with a
moat surrounding it. The mo:;:tt has a
length of 4 km. The magnificent temple
itself is 66 x70 m. The central shikhara
rises about 70 m. above the ground
level. The stories of the Ramayana and
,the Mahabharata are narrated in relief
on the walls of the main temple and
several galleries and causeways which
run for several hundred metres.
The Sailendras were the followers of
Mahayana Buddhism. Their devotion
to their faith is reflected in numerous
structures, the most magnificent of
..................................................... .... ....... CULTURAL INTERACTIONS WITH THE OUTSIDE WORLD
which is the Borobudur stupa in Java.
This stupa, built in the eighth century
A.D. is famous for its terraced style of
architecture and ingenuity of its
sculptured walls. This noble building
consists of a series of nine successive
terraces and the whole structure is
crowned by a bell shaped stupa at the
centre of the top most terrace. Six lower
terraces are square in plan, while the
upper three are circular. The three
upper most terraces are encircled by a
ring of stupas, each containing an
image of Buddha. The total number of
such images of Buddha are 432. The
central stupa has the image of a Dhyani
Buddha, which is considered as the
. finest specimen of Indo-Javanese
sculpture.
Fig. 23.4 A Hindu Temple .in Java
.".-
-
Fig. 23.5 A Stone sculpture of Brahma
in the Wall of a Temple in Mayanmar
The Brahmanical temples in Java
may not have been as grand as the
stupa of Borobudur but the temples in
the valley of Prambonan are note-
worthy. Its complex consists of eight
main temples, three in each row and
two between them, enclosed by a wall.
Then there are three rows of minor
temples around the wall on eaeh side
making a total of 156 temples. Of the
three main temples in the western row
the central one is the biggest and the
most renowned, and contains an image
of Siva. One to the north has an image
243
- - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
. ~
ANCIENT INDIA ............................................................................................................... .
of Vishnu and that to the south an
image of Brahma. The temples' have a
series of 42 panels of relief-sculptures
depicting the story of the Ramayana
from the beginning up to the expedition
Lanka. In Mayanmar the finest temple,
is Anand at Pagan. It is built in the
centre of a courtyard which is about
175 m. square. The main temple is made
of brick. The garbha-griha has an
image of Buddha which is about 9.5
m. high. The temple is decorated with
the sculptured panels depicting various
stories of Buddha's life.
Exercises
1. Give an account of spread of Indian culture in South East Asia.
2. Discuss India's cultural contact with Sri Lanka.
3. Discuss the cultural influence of India on:
(i) Central Asia
(ii) China
(iii) Mayanmar
4. Discuss India's cultural relations with China.
S. Discuss the art and architecture of South East Asia.
244
• On a map of Asia locate the name of the countries where Indian
culture spread.
• Collect the picture of Hindu and Buddhist temples built in
South East Asian countries and make a collage.
• Take a group project to write an essay on the spread of Indian culture
on different parts of the world and write about the impact of it still
visible in these areas.
Agrahara
Agnikula
Ajivika
Amatya
Aranyakas
Artha
Arthashastra
Ashramasj
Ashrama
Ayukta
Bhagavata
Bhukti
Bodhisattva
Brahmachann
Brahmanas
GLOSSARY
Donation of land or taxes from a village by the king to the
learned brahman(s).
Certain Rajput clans who claim to have emerged from
Yajna Havana-Kunda.
A heterodox sect closer to J ainism which flourished at
the time of the Buddha.
Official designation for a high official used right from the
Mauryan Period. '
The Vedic texts, traditionally composed by hermits.
Prosperity and well-being, one of the four aims of life of a
Hindu.
The theory of polity; also the title of a treatise on the subject
by Kautilya, belonging to the Mauryan period.
The four stages of life; also a place where hermits
live.
Designation of an officer frequently used in the Mauryan
period.
A sect devoted to Vishnu.
An administrative unit of a kingdom, frequently referred
to in the Gupta period.
A person who attains nirvana by working for the welfare
of the world and voluntarily postpones release from
rebirth; also regarded as an incarnation of the Buddha,
prior to his own birth in the world.
Celibate studentship, the first of the four stages
(Ashramas) of life.
The Vedic texts dealing with rituals and sacrifice.
ANCIENT INDIA ................ . ... ... ....... . .. . .. ...... .... . ... ... .. ........ .. .......... .. . . ..... . .............. . ... . .. . .. . . . . .
Chaitya
Charvaka
Devadana
A sacred enclosure. The term is also used for a Buddhist
place of worship.
A religious sect following a materialist philosophy.
Donated revenue assigned to a temple.
Digambara A Jaina sect whose followers do not believe in keeping
even a small piece of cJoth on themselves.
Dharma Piety, Morality - a way of life.
Dharmasastras Texts on laws relating to society and religious observances
of the Hindus.
Doab The area between two rivers.
Dvija The twice-born; referring to the first birth which is the
physical birth and the second the initiation into
educational status.
Garbhagriha The sanctum sanctorum of the Hindu temple.
Gayatrimantra The verses of the RigVeda wherein the request has been
made to illuminate one's mind with knowledge.
Grama A village.
Hinayana One of the two major Buddhist sects.
Jati Family or a group of people defined by their profession.
Kalpa A day- of Brahma equivalent to 4,320 million earth years.
Kaliyuga The fourth and final age of the aeon.
Karma Action or deed, and also the theory of conditioning one's
future births by the deeds of the present or the previous
lives.
Kayastha A jati associated with revenue records, first found in the
. Mauryan period and frequently mentioned in the medieval
period.
Kharoshthi A script in which Ashokan inscription of Shahbazgari and
Manashera are written.
Kottom An administrative unit.
Kula The clan or extended family.
Kumaramatya An official designation of a high official.
Mahakshatrapa 'Great governor', a title taken by rulers, mainly by Saka
kings.
246
.. . . . . •.......... . ........................................•........ . ........ . .... . ..•...... : ....•• . .. .• ................... GLOSSARY
Maharajadhiraja 'Great king of kings', an imperial title.
Mandalam An administrative unit, frequently used in south India.
Matha A centre of education attached to a temple or religious
establishment.
Matsyanyaya A political theory where, in a state of anarchy, the strong
devour the weak.
Maya Illusion.
Moksha Release from the cycle of rebirth.
Nadu An administrative unit, frequently used in south India.
Nagara Style of temple architecture developed in central and
northern India.
Nirvana Release from the cycle of rebirth.
Nishaka The term used for a coin.
Pali A Sanskrit-based language in which the Buddhist
scriptures were recorded in Ceylon.
Pana A term used for coin
Pasupata A Saivite sect.
Puranas The Hindu text containing the history of various dynasties.
Purohita Chief priest.
Rajuka An official designation used in the Mauryan period.
Rashtra Country.
Sabha An assembly of a few select ones/elders first found in the
RigVeda.
Samiti A larger assembly.
Samkhya One of the six major schools of philosophy in ancient India.
Sati A virtuous woman; one who has immolated herself on
the funeral pyre of her husband.
Senapati Commander of the army.
Sangam The earliest phase of Tamil literature.
Satamana A silver coin which weighed about 180 grains.
Shikhara Tower surmounting a temple.
Shreni Guild, organisation of craftsmen and merchants.
247
~ .
- ANCIENT INDIA .. ; .... . .... ......... . .......... . .... . ... . .... . ... . .. . .......... . ..... . .... .. .......... . . . .. . .... . . . .. . . .. .. . .. . . .
Svetambara
Stupa
Tantne
Theravada
Upanishads
Varna
Vedanta
Vihara
Yavana
Yoga
Yuga
248
One of the two major Jaina sects, which follows the code
of wearing white clothes.
Domical structure containing relics of the Buddha.
A religious cult.
A Buddhist sect.
The philosophical texts included in Vedic literature.
Four-fold division of Hindu society.
One of the six major philosophical schools in ancient India.
Buddhist monastery.
Term used in Indian sources for the people of western
Asia, Greeks and Romans.
One of the six major schools of philosophy in ancient India.
Any of the four ages of the life of the world.
A. Ghosh
A.K. Narain
A.L. Basham (ed.)
B.B. Lal
B.N. Banerjee
B.N. Puri
Beni Prasad
Bhagwan Singh
Bridget and Raymond
Allchin
D.D. Kosambi
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~
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251