MalcolmX (/ˈmælkəmˈɛks/; May19, 1925–February21, 1965), born Malcolm Little and later also known as el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz[upper-alpha 1] (Arabic:الحاجّ مالك الشباز‎‎), was an African-AmericanMuslim minister and human rights activist. To his admirers he was a courageous advocate for the rights of blacks, a man who indicted white America in the harshest terms for its crimes against black Americans; detractors accused him of preaching racism and violence. He has been called one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history.

MalcolmX was effectively orphaned early in life. His father was killed when he was six and his mother was placed in a mental hospital when he was thirteen, after which he lived in a series of foster homes. In 1946, at age 20, he went to prison for larceny and breaking and entering. While in prison, MalcolmX became a member of the Nation of Islam, and after his parole in 1952, quickly rose to become one of the organization's most influential leaders. He served as the public face of the controversial group for a dozen years. In his autobiography, MalcolmX wrote proudly of some of the social achievements the Nation made while he was a member, particularly its free drug rehabilitation program. The Nation promoted black supremacy, advocated the separation of black and white Americans, and rejected the civil rights movement for its emphasis on integration.

By March 1964, MalcolmX had grown disillusioned with the Nation of Islam and its leader Elijah Muhammad. Expressing many regrets about his time with them, which he had come to regard as largely wasted, he embraced Sunni Islam. After a period of travel in Africa and the Middle East, which included completing the Hajj, he repudiated the Nation of Islam, disavowed racism and founded Muslim Mosque, Inc. and the Organization of Afro-American Unity. He continued to emphasize Pan-Africanism, black self-determination, and black self-defense.

In February 1965, he was assassinated by three members of the Nation of Islam.

Early years

1930 United States Census return listing the Little family (lines 59ff.)

When Little was six, his father died in what was officially ruled a streetcar accident, though his mother Louise believed Earl had been murdered by the Black Legion. Rumors that white racists were responsible for his father's death were widely circulated, and were very disturbing to Malcolm X as a child. As an adult, he expressed conflicting beliefs on the question.[9] After a dispute with creditors, Louise received a life insurance benefit
(nominally $1,000—​​about $16,000 in 2015 dollars[upper-alpha 2]) in payments of $18 per month;[10] the issuer of another, larger policy refused to pay, claiming her husband Earl had committed suicide.[11] To make ends meet Louise rented out part of her garden, and her sons hunted game.[12]

In 1937 a man Louise had been dating—​​marriage had seemed a possibility—​​vanished from her life when she became pregnant with his child.[13] In late 1938 she had a nervous breakdown and was committed to Kalamazoo State Hospital. The children were separated and sent to foster homes. Malcolm and his siblings secured her release 24 years later.[14][15]

Malcolm Little excelled in junior high school but dropped out after a white teacher told him that practicing law, his aspiration at the time, was "no realistic goal for a nigger".[16] Later MalcolmX recalled feeling that the white world offered no place for a career-oriented black man, regardless of talent.[16]

From age 14 to 21, Little held a variety of jobs while living with his half-sister Ella Little-Collins in Roxbury, a largely African-American neighborhood of Boston.[17][18]

After a short time in Flint, Michigan, he moved to New York City's Harlem neighborhood in 1943, where he engaged in drug dealing, gambling, racketeering, robbery, and pimping.[19]
According to recent biographies, he also occasionally had sex with other men, usually for money.[20][21] His daughter, Ilyasah Shabazz, and Ta-Nehisi Coates questioned the accuracy of these accounts.[22][23]
Malcolm X was referred to as "Detroit Red" because of the reddish hair he inherited from his Scots maternal grandfather.[24][25]

Little was declared "mentally disqualified for military service" after he told draft board officials he wanted to be sent down south to "organize them nigger soldiers … steal us some guns, and kill us [some] crackers".[26][27][28]

In late 1945, Little returned to Boston, where he and four accomplices committed a series of burglaries targeting wealthy white families.[29] In 1946, he was arrested while picking up a stolen watch he had left at a shop for repairs,[30] and in February began serving an eight-to-ten-year sentence at Charlestown State Prison for larceny and breaking and entering.[31]

Nation of Islam period

Prison

"Between Mr. Muhammad's teachings, my cor­re­spond­ence, my vis­i­tors... and my reading of books, months passed without my even thinking about being impris­oned. In fact, up to then, I had never been so truly free in my life.

When Little was in prison, he met fellow convict John Bembry,[33] a self-educated man he would later describe as "the first man I had ever seen command total respect … with words".[34] Under Bembry's influence, Little developed a voracious appetite for reading.[35]

At this time, several of his siblings wrote to him about the Nation of Islam, a relatively new religious movement preaching black self-reliance and, ultimately, the return of the African diaspora to Africa, where they would be free from white American and European domination.[36] He showed scant interest at first, but after his brother Reginald wrote in 1948, "Malcolm, don't eat any more pork and don't smoke any more cigarettes. I'll show you how to get out of prison",[37] he quit smoking and began to refuse pork.[38] After a visit in which Reginald described the group's teachings, including the belief that white people are devils, Little concluded that every relationship he'd had with whites had been tainted by dishonesty, injustice, greed, and hatred.[39] Little, whose hostility to religion had earned him the prison nickname "Satan",[40] became receptive to the message of the Nation of Islam.[41]

In late 1948, Little wrote to Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of Islam. Muhammad advised him to renounce his past, humbly bow in prayer to Allah, and promise never to engage in destructive behavior again.[42] Though he later recalled the inner struggle he had before bending his knees to pray,[43] Little soon became a member of the Nation of Islam,[42]
maintaining a regular correspondence with Muhammad.[44]

In 1950, the FBI opened a file on Little after he wrote a letter from prison to President Truman expressing opposition to the Korean War and declaring himself a Communist.[45] That year, Little also began signing his name "MalcolmX".[46] He explained in his autobiography that the Muslim's "X" symbolized the true African family name that he could never know. "For me, my 'X' replaced the white slavemaster name of 'Little' which some blue-eyed devil named Little had imposed upon my paternal forebears."[47]

After his parole in August 1952,[48] MalcolmX visited Elijah Muhammad in Chicago.[49] In June 1953 he was named assistant minister of the Nation's Temple Number One in Detroit.[50][upper-alpha 3] Later that year he established Boston's Temple Number11;[52] in March 1954, he expanded Temple Number12 in Philadelphia;[53] and two months later he was selected to lead Temple Number7 in Harlem,[54] where he rapidly expanded its membership.[55]

In 1953, the FBI began surveillance of him, turning its attention from MalcolmX's possible communist associations to his rapid ascent in the Nation of Islam.[56]

During 1955, MalcolmX continued his successful recruitment of members on behalf of the Nation of Islam. He established temples in Springfield, Massachusetts (Number13); Hartford, Connecticut (Number14); and Atlanta, Georgia (Number15). Hundreds of African Americans were joining the Nation of Islam every month.[57]

Beside his skill as a speaker, MalcolmX had an impressive physical presence. He stood 6feet 3inches (1.91m) tall and weighed about 180 pounds (82kg).[58] One writer described him as "powerfully built",[59] and another as "mesmerizingly handsome … and always spotlessly well-groomed".[58]

Marriage and family

In 1955, Betty Sanders met MalcolmX after one of his lectures, then again at a dinner party; soon she was regularly attending his lectures. In 1956 she joined the Nation of Islam, changing her name to BettyX.[60] One-on-one dates were contrary to the Nation's teachings, so the couple courted at social events with dozens or hundreds of others, and MalcolmX made a point of inviting her on the frequent group visits he led to New York City's museums and libraries.[61]

Hinton Johnson incident

The American public first became aware of MalcolmX in 1957, after Hinton Johnson,[upper-alpha 5]
a Nation of Islam member, was beaten by two New York City police officers.[74][75]

On April26, Johnson and two other passersby—​​also Nation of Islam members—​​saw the officers beating an African-American man with nightsticks.[74] When they attempted to intervene, shouting, "You're not in Alabama...this is New York!"[75] one of the officers turned on Johnson, beating him so severely that he suffered brain contusions and subdural hemorrhaging. All four African-American men were arrested.[74]

Alerted by a witness, MalcolmX and a small group of Muslims went to the police station and demanded to see Johnson.[74] Police initially denied that any Muslims were being held, but when the crowd grew to about five hundred, they allowed MalcolmX to speak with Johnson.[76] Afterward, MalcolmX insisted on arranging for an ambulance to take Johnson to Harlem Hospital.[77]

Johnson's injuries were treated and by the time he was returned to the police station, some four thousand people had gathered outside.[76] Inside the station, MalcolmX and an attorney were making bail arrangements for two of the Muslims. Johnson was not bailed, and police said he could not go back to the hospital until his arraignment the following day.[77] Considering the situation to be at an impasse, MalcolmX stepped outside the station house and gave a hand signal to the crowd. Nation members silently left, after which the rest of the crowd also dispersed.[77] One police officer told the New York Amsterdam News: "No one man should have that much power."[77][78] Within a month the New York City Police Department arranged to keep MalcolmX under surveillance; it also made inquiries with authorities in other cities in which he had lived, and prisons in which he had served time.[79] A grand jury declined to indict the officers who beat Johnson. In October, MalcolmX sent an angry telegram to the police commissioner. Soon the police department assigned undercover officers to infiltrate the Nation of Islam.[80]

Increasing prominence

By the late 1950s, MalcolmX was using a new name, Malcolm Shabazz or Malik el-Shabazz, although he was still widely referred to as MalcolmX.[81] His comments on issues and events were being widely reported in print, on radio, and on television,[82] and he was featured in a 1959 New York City television broadcast about the Nation of Islam, The Hate That Hate Produced.[82]

Many whites and some blacks were alarmed by MalcolmX and the statements he made during this period. He and the Nation of Islam were described as hatemongers, black supremacists, racists, violence-seekers, segregationists, and a threat to improved race relations. He was accused of being antisemitic.[89] One of the goals of the civil rights movement was to end disenfranchisement of African Americans, but the Nation of Islam forbade its members from participating in voting and other aspects of the political process.[90] Civil rights organizations denounced him and the Nation as irresponsible extremists whose views did not represent African Americans.[91][92][93]

MalcolmX was equally critical of the civil rights movement.[94] He labeled Martin Luther King Jr. a "chump" and other civil rights leaders "stooges" of the white establishment.[95][upper-alpha 6] He called the 1963 March on Washington "the farce on Washington",[96] and said he did not know why so many black people were excited about a demonstration "run by whites in front of a statue of a president who has been dead for a hundred years and who didn't like us when he was alive".[97]

While the civil rights movement fought against racial segregation, MalcolmX advocated the complete separation of African Americans from whites. He proposed that African Americans should return to Africa and that, in the interim, a separate country for black people in America should be created.[98][99] He rejected the civil rights movement's strategy of nonviolence, expressing the opinion that black people should defend and advance themselves "by any means necessary".[100] His speeches had a powerful effect on his audiences, who were generally African Americans in northern and western cities. Many of them—​​tired of being told to wait for freedom, justice, equality and respect[101]—​​felt that he articulated their complaints better than did the civil rights movement.[102][103]

Effect on Nation membership

MalcolmX is widely regarded as the second most influential leader of the Nation of Islam after Elijah Muhammad.[104] He was largely credited with the group's dramatic increase in membership between the early 1950s and early 1960s (from 500 to 25,000 by one estimate;[upper-alpha 7] from 1,200 to 50,000 or 75,000 by another).[105][upper-alpha 8]

He inspired the boxer Cassius Clay (later known as Muhammad Ali) to join the Nation,[106] and they soon formed a relationship which Clay's cornerman Ferdie Pacheco later described as "like very close brothers".[107] When MalcolmX left the Nation of Islam and converted to Sunni Islam, he tried to convince Clay to join him, but Clay declined and refused to speak to him again. When Ali left the group in 1975 and became a Sunni Muslim,[108] he wrote, "[t]urning my back on Malcolm was one of the mistakes that I regret most in my life."[109]

MalcolmX mentored and guided LouisX (later known as Louis Farrakhan), who eventually became the leader of the Nation of Islam.[110] MalcolmX also served as a mentor and confidant to Elijah Muhammad's son, Wallace D. Muhammad; the son told Malcolm X about his skepticism toward his father's "unorthodox approach" to Islam.[111] Wallace Muhammad was excommunicated from the Nation of Islam several times, although he was eventually readmitted.[112]

Disillusionment and departure

During 1962 and 1963, events caused MalcolmX to reassess his relationship with the Nation of Islam, and particularly its leader, Elijah Muhammad.

NOI lack of response to LAPD violence

In late 1961, there were violent confrontations between NOI members and police in South Central Los Angeles, and numerous Muslims were arrested. They were acquitted, but tensions had been raised. Just after midnight on April27, 1962, LAPD officers raided Temple Number 27, randomly beating NOI members. Seven Muslims were shot; one, Ronald Stokes, a Korean War veteran, was shot fatally after surrendering to police. A number of Muslims were indicted after the event, but no charges were made against the police. To MalcolmX, the desecration and violence demanded action, and he used what Farrakhan later called his "gangsterlike past" to rally the more hardened of the New York members to go to Los Angeles for direct action against the police. He also spoke of the NOI starting to work with civil rights organizations, local black politicians, and religious groups. Elijah Muhammad did not support him in any of these initiatives, claiming the other organizations would turn to NOI in time, and saying "…you don't go to war over a provocation." MalcolmX was stunned by this response. LouisX saw this as an important turning point in the deteriorating relationship between MalcolmX and Muhammad.[113]

Sexual misbehavior by Elijah Muhammad

Rumors were circulating that Muhammad was conducting extramarital affairs with young Nation secretaries—​​which would constitute a serious violation of Nation teachings. After first discounting the rumors, MalcolmX came to believe them after he spoke with Muhammad's son Wallace and with the women making the accusations. Muhammad confirmed the rumors in 1963, attempting to justify his behavior by referring to precedents set by Biblical prophets.[114]

NOI response to his remarks on Kennedy assassination

On December1, 1963, when asked for a comment about the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, MalcolmX said that it was a case of "chickens coming home to roost". He added that "chickens coming home to roost never did make me sad; they've always made me glad."[115]The New York Times wrote, "in further criticism of Mr. Kennedy, the Muslim leader cited the murders of Patrice Lumumba, Congo leader, of Medgar Evers, civil rights leader, and of the Negro girls bombed earlier this year in a Birmingham church. These, he said, were instances of other 'chickens coming home to roost'."[115] The remarks prompted a widespread public outcry. The Nation of Islam, which had sent a message of condolence to the Kennedy family and ordered its ministers not to comment on the assassination, publicly censured their former shining star.[116] MalcolmX retained his post and rank as minister, but was prohibited from public speaking for 90 days.[117]

Media coverage of him, rather than Muhammad

Malcolm X before a 1964 press conference

MalcolmX had by now become a media favorite, and some Nation members believed he was a threat to Muhammad's leadership. Publishers had shown interest in MalcolmX's autobiography, and when Louis Lomax wrote his 1963 book about the Nation, When the Word Is Given, he used a photograph of MalcolmX on the cover. He also reproduced five of his speeches, but featured only one of Muhammad's—​​all of which greatly upset Muhammad and made him envious.[118]

Departure from NOI

On March8, 1964, MalcolmX publicly announced his break from the Nation of Islam. He was still a Muslim, he said, but felt that the Nation had "gone as far as it can" because of its rigid teachings. He said he was planning to organize a black nationalist organization to "heighten the political consciousness" of African Americans. He also expressed a desire to work with other civil rights leaders, saying that Elijah Muhammad had prevented him from doing so in the past.[119]

In the weeks after he left the Nation of Islam, several Sunni Muslims encouraged MalcolmX to learn about their faith. He soon converted to the Sunni faith.[128][129]

Pilgrimage to Mecca

In April 1964, with financial help from his half-sister Ella Little-Collins, MalcolmX flew to Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, as the start of his Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca obligatory for every Muslim who is able to do so. He was delayed in Jeddah when his U.S. citizenship and inability to speak Arabic caused his status as a Muslim to be questioned.[130][131] He had received Abdul Rahman Hassan Azzam's book The Eternal Message of Muhammad with his visa approval, and he contacted the author. Azzam's son arranged for his release and lent him his personal hotel suite. The next morning MalcolmX learned that Prince Faisal had designated him as a state guest.[132] Several days later, after completing the Hajj rituals, MalcolmX had an audience with the prince.[133]

MalcolmX later said that seeing Muslims of "all colors, from blue-eyed blonds to black-skinned Africans," interacting as equals led him to see Islam as a means by which racial problems could be overcome.[134]

Traveling abroad

Africa

Malcolm X, after his 1964 pilgrimage to Mecca

MalcolmX had already visited the United Arab Republic (a short-lived political union between Egypt and Syria), Sudan, Nigeria, and Ghana in 1959 to make arrangements for a tour of Africa by Elijah Muhammad.[135] After his journey to Mecca in 1964, he visited Africa a second time. He returned to the United States in late May[136] and flew to Africa again in July.[137] During these visits he met officials, gave interviews, and spoke on radio and television in Egypt, Ethiopia, Tanganyika, Nigeria, Ghana, Guinea, Sudan, Senegal, Liberia, Algeria, and Morocco.[138] In Cairo, he attended the second meeting of the Organization of African Unity as a representative of the Organization of Afro-American Unity.[139] By the end of this third visit, he had met with essentially all of Africa's prominent leaders;[140]Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, and Ahmed Ben Bella of Algeria had all invited MalcolmX to serve in their governments.[140] After he spoke at the University of Ibadan, the Nigerian Muslim Students Association bestowed on him the honorary Yoruba name Omowale ("the son who has come home").[141] He later called this his most treasured honor.[142]

France and United Kingdom

On November23, 1964, on his way home from Africa, MalcolmX stopped in Paris, where he spoke in the Salle de la Mutualité.[143][144] A week later, on November30, MalcolmX flew to the United Kingdom, and on December3 took part in a debate at the Oxford Union Society. The motion was taken from a statement made earlier that year by U.S. presidential candidateBarry Goldwater: "Extremism in the Defense of Liberty is No Vice; Moderation in the Pursuit of Justice is No Virtue".[145] MalcolmX argued for the affirmative, and interest in the debate was so high that it was televised nationally by the BBC.[146][147]

On February5, 1965, MalcolmX flew to Britain again,[148] and on February8 he addressed the first meeting of the Council of African Organizations in London.[149] The next day he tried to return to France, but was refused entry.[150]

Return to United States

After returning to the U.S., MalcolmX addressed a wide variety of audiences. He spoke regularly at meetings held by Muslim Mosque, Inc., and the Organization of Afro-American Unity, and was one of the most sought-after speakers on college campuses.[153] One of his top aides later wrote that he "welcomed every opportunity to speak to college students."[154] He also addressed public meetings of the Socialist Workers Party, speaking at their Militant Labor Forum.[155] He was interviewed on the subjects of segregation and the Nation of Islam by Robert Penn Warren for Warren's 1965 book Who Speaks for the Negro?[156]

Death threats and intimidation from Nation of Islam

Throughout 1964, as his conflict with the Nation of Islam intensified, MalcolmX was repeatedly threatened.

In February, a leader of Temple Number Seven ordered the bombing of MalcolmX's car.[157] In March, Muhammad told Boston minister LouisX (later known as Louis Farrakhan) that "hypocrites like Malcolm should have their heads cut off";[158] the April10 edition of Muhammad Speaks featured a cartoon depicting MalcolmX's bouncing, severed head.[159][160]

On June8, FBI surveillance recorded a telephone call in which Betty Shabazz was told that her husband was "as good as dead."[161] Four days later, an FBI informant received a tip that "MalcolmX is going to be bumped off."[162] (That same month the Nation sued to reclaim MalcolmX's residence in East Elmhurst, Queens, New York. His family was ordered to vacate[163] but on February14, 1965—​​the night before a hearing on postponing the eviction—​​the house was destroyed by fire.)[164]

On July9 Muhammad aide John Ali (suspected of being an undercover FBI agent)[165] referred to MalcolmX by saying, "Anyone who opposes the Honorable Elijah Muhammad puts their life in jeopardy."[166] In the December4 issue of Muhammad Speaks, LouisX wrote that "such a man as Malcolm is worthy of death."[167]

The September 1964 issue of Ebony dramatized MalcolmX's defiance of these threats by publishing a photograph of him holding a rifle while peering out a window.[28][168]

On February19, 1965, MalcolmX told interviewer Gordon Parks that the Nation of Islam was actively trying to kill him. On February21, 1965, he was preparing to address the Organization of Afro-American Unity in Manhattan's Audubon Ballroom when someone in the 400-person audience yelled,
"Nigger! Get your hand outta my pocket!"[170][171][172]
As MalcolmX and his bodyguards tried to quell the disturbance,[upper-alpha 10] a man rushed forward and shot him once in the chest with a sawed-off shotgun[173][174] and two other men charged the stage firing semi-automatic handguns.[171] MalcolmX was pronounced dead at 3:30pm, shortly after arriving at Columbia Presbyterian Hospital.[172] The autopsy identified 21 gunshot wounds to the chest, left shoulder, arms and legs, including ten buckshot wounds from the initial shotgun blast.[175]

One gunman, Nation of Islam member Talmadge Hayer (also known as Thomas Hagan), was beaten by the crowd before police arrived.[176][177] Witnesses identified the other gunmen as Nation members Norman 3X Butler and Thomas 15X Johnson.[178] All three were convicted of murder in March 1966 and sentenced to life in prison.[179][180]
At trial Hayer confessed, but refused to identify the other assailants except to assert that they were not Butler and Johnson.[181]
In 1977 and 1978, he signed affidavits reasserting Butler's and Johnson's innocence, naming four other Nation members as participants in the murder or its planning.[182][183] These affidavits did not result in the case being reopened.

The Audubon Ballroom stage after the murder. Circles on backdrop mark bullet holes.

Butler, today known as Muhammad Abdul Aziz, was paroled in 1985 and became the head of the Nation's Harlem mosque in 1998; he maintains his innocence.[184] In prison Johnson, who changed his name to Khalil Islam, rejected the Nation's teachings and converted to Sunni Islam. Released in 1987, he maintained his innocence until his death in August 2009.[185][186] Hayer, today known as Mujahid Halim,[187] was paroled in 2010.[188]

A CNN Special Report, Witnessed: The Assassination of MalcolmX, was broadcast on February17, 2015. It featured interviews with several people who worked with him, including A. Peter Bailey and Earl Grant, as well as the daughter of MalcolmX, Ilyasah Shabazz.[189][190][191]

Funeral

The public viewing, February23–26 at Unity Funeral Home in Harlem, was attended by some 14,000 to 30,000 mourners.[192]
For the funeral on February27, loudspeakers were set up for the overflow crowd outside Harlem's thousand-seat Faith Temple of the Church of God in Christ,[193][194] and a local television station carried the service live.[195]

There are those who will consider it their duty, as friends of the Negro people, to tell us to revile him, to flee, even from the presence of his memory, to save ourselves by writing him out of the history of our turbulent times. Many will ask what Harlem finds to honor in this stormy, controversial and bold young captain—​​and we will smile. Many will say turn away—​​away from this man, for he is not a man but a demon, a monster, a subverter and an enemy of the black man—​​and we will smile. They will say that he is of hate—​​a fanatic, a racist—​​who can only bring evil to the cause for which you struggle! And we will answer and say to them: Did you ever talk to Brother Malcolm? Did you ever touch him, or have him smile at you? Did you ever really listen to him? Did he ever do a mean thing? Was he ever himself associated with violence or any public disturbance? For if you did you would know him. And if you knew him you would know why we must honor him... And, in honoring him, we honor the best in ourselves.[197]

Actor and activist Ruby Dee and Juanita Poitier (wife of Sidney Poitier) established the Committee of Concerned Mothers to raise money for a home for his family and for his children's educations.[199]

Reactions

Reactions to MalcolmX's assassination were varied. In a telegram to Betty Shabazz, Martin Luther King Jr. expressed his sadness at "the shocking and tragic assassination of your husband."[200] He said,

While we did not always see eye to eye on methods to solve the race problem, I always had a deep affection for Malcolm and felt that he had a great ability to put his finger on the existence and root of the problem. He was an eloquent spokesman for his point of view and no one can honestly doubt that Malcolm had a great concern for the problems that we face as a race.[200]

Elijah Muhammad told the annual Savior's Day convention on February26, "MalcolmX got just what he preached", but denied any involvement with the murder.[201] "We didn't want to kill Malcolm and didn't try to kill him", Muhammad said. "We know such ignorant, foolish teachings would bring him to his own end."[202]

Writer James Baldwin, who had been a friend of MalcolmX's, was in London when he heard the news of the assassination. He responded with indignation towards the reporters interviewing him, shouting, "You did it! It is because of you—the men that created this white supremacy—that this man is dead. You are not guilty, but you did it.... Your mills, your cities, your rape of a continent started all this."[203]

The New York Post wrote that "even his sharpest critics recognized his brilliance—​​often wild, unpredictable and eccentric, but nevertheless possessing promise that must now remain unrealized."[204]The New York Times wrote that MalcolmX was "an extraordinary and twisted man" who "turn[ed] many true gifts to evil purpose" and that his life was "strangely and pitifully wasted".[205]Time called him "an unashamed demagogue" whose "creed was violence."[206]

Outside of the U.S., and particularly in Africa, the press was sympathetic.[207] The Daily Times of Nigeria wrote that MalcolmX "will have a place in the palace of martyrs."[208] The Ghanaian Times likened him to John Brown and Patrice Lumumba, and counted him among "a host of Africans and Americans who were martyred in freedom's cause".[209] The Guangming Daily, published in Beijing, stated that "Malcolm was murdered because he fought for freedom and equal rights";[210] in Cuba, El Mundo described the assassination as "another racist crime to eradicate by violence the struggle against discrimination".[207]

Allegations of conspiracy

Within days, the question of who bore responsibility for the assassination was being publicly debated. On February23, James Farmer, the leader of the Congress of Racial Equality, announced at a news conference that local drug dealers, and not the Nation of Islam, were to blame.[211] Others accused the NYPD, the FBI, or the CIA, citing the lack of police protection, the ease with which the assassins entered the Audubon Ballroom, and the failure of the police to preserve the crime scene.[212][213]

In the 1970s, the public learned about COINTELPRO and other secret FBI programs established to infiltrate and disrupt civil rights organizations during the 1950s and 1960s.[214] John Ali, national secretary of the Nation of Islam, was believed to have been an FBI undercover agent.[165] MalcolmX had confided to a reporter that Ali exacerbated tensions between him and Elijah Muhammad, and that he considered Ali his "archenemy" within the Nation of Islam leadership.[165] Ali had a meeting with Talmadge Hayer, one of the men convicted of killing MalcolmX, the night before the assassination.[215]

The Shabazz family are among those who have accused Louis Farrakhan of involvement in MalcolmX's assassination.[216][217][218][219][220] In a 1993 speech Farrakhan seemed to acknowledge the possibility that the Nation of Islam was responsible:

Was Malcolm your traitor or ours? And if we dealt with him like a nation deals with a traitor, what the hell business is it of yours? A nation has to be able to deal with traitors and cutthroats and turncoats.[221][222]

In a 60 Minutes interview that aired during May 2000, Farrakhan stated that some things he said may have led to the assassination of MalcolmX. "I may have been complicit in words that I spoke", he said. "I acknowledge that and regret that any word that I have said caused the loss of life of a human being."[223] A few days later Farrakhan denied that he "ordered the assassination" of MalcolmX, although he again acknowledged that he "created the atmosphere that ultimately led to MalcolmX's assassination."[224]

No consensus has been reached on who was responsible for the assassination.[225] In August 2014, an online petition was started using the White House online petition mechanism to call on the government to release without alteration any files they still held relating to the murder of Malcolm X.[226] The petition failed to attract enough signatures to mandate a White House response.

Philosophy

Except for his autobiography, MalcolmX left no published writings. His philosophy is known almost entirely from the many speeches and interviews he gave from 1952 until his death.[227] Many of those speeches, especially from the last year of his life, were recorded and have been published.[228]

While he was a member of the Nation of Islam, MalcolmX taught its beliefs, and his statements often began with the phrase "The Honorable Elijah Muhammad teaches us that..."[230] It is virtually impossible now to discern whether MalcolmX's personal beliefs at the time diverged from the teachings of the Nation of Islam.[231][upper-alpha 11] After he left the Nation in 1964, he compared himself to a ventriloquist's dummy who could only say what Elijah Muhammad told him to say.[230][upper-alpha 12]

MalcolmX taught that black people were the original people of the world,[86] and that white people were a race of devils who were created by an evil scientist named Yakub.[87] The Nation of Islam believed that black people were superior to white people, and that the demise of the white race was imminent.[88] When questioned concerning his statements that white people were devils, MalcolmX said: "history proves the white man is a devil."[232] "Anybody who rapes, and plunders, and enslaves, and steals, and drops hell bombs on people... anybody who does these things is nothing but a devil."[233]

MalcolmX said that Islam was the "true religion of black mankind" and that Christianity was "the white man's religion" that had been imposed upon African Americans by their slave-masters.[234] He said that the Nation of Islam followed Islam as it was practiced around the world, but the Nation's teachings varied from those of other Muslims because they were adapted to the "uniquely pitiful" condition of black people in America.[235] He taught that Wallace Fard Muhammad, the founder of the Nation, was Allah incarnate,[236] and that Elijah Muhammad was his Messenger, or Prophet.[upper-alpha 13]

While the civil rights movement fought against racial segregation, MalcolmX advocated the complete separation of blacks from whites. The Nation of Islam proposed the establishment of a separate country for African Americans in the southern[98] or southwestern United States[237] as an interim measure until African Americans could return to Africa.[99] MalcolmX suggested the United States government owed reparations to black people for the unpaid labor of their ancestors.[238] He also rejected the civil rights movement's strategy of nonviolence, advocating instead that black people should defend themselves.[100]

Independent views

I did many things as a [Black] Muslim that I'm sorry for now... Well, I guess a man's entitled to make a fool of himself if he's ready to pay the cost. It cost me 12 years.

After leaving the Nation of Islam, MalcolmX announced his willingness to work with leaders of the civil rights movement,[119] though he advocated some changes to their policies. He felt that calling the movement a struggle for civil rights would keep the issue within the United States, while changing the focus to human rights would make it an international concern. The movement could then bring its complaints before the United Nations, where MalcolmX said the emerging nations of the world would add their support.[240]

MalcolmX argued that if the U.S. government was unwilling or unable to protect black people, black people should protect themselves. He said that he and the other members of the Organization of Afro-American Unity were determined to defend themselves from aggressors, and to secure freedom, justice and equality "by whatever means necessary".[241]

Malcolm X at a 1964 press conference

MalcolmX stressed the global perspective he gained from his international travels. He emphasized the "direct connection" between the domestic struggle of African Americans for equal rights with the independence struggles of Third World nations.[242] He said that African Americans were wrong when they thought of themselves as a minority; globally, black people were the majority.[243]

In his speeches at the Militant Labor Forum, which was sponsored by the Socialist Workers Party, MalcolmX criticized capitalism.[155] After one such speech, when he was asked what political and economic system he wanted, he said he did not know, but that it was no coincidence the newly independent countries in the Third World were turning toward socialism.[244] When a reporter asked him what he thought about socialism, MalcolmX asked whether it was good for black people. When the reporter told him it seemed to be, MalcolmX told him, "Then I'm for it."[244][245]

Although he no longer called for the separation of black people from white people, MalcolmX continued to advocate black nationalism, which he defined as self-determination for the African-American community.[246] In the last months of his life, however, MalcolmX began to reconsider his support for black nationalism after meeting northern African revolutionaries who, to all appearances, were white.[247]

After his Hajj, MalcolmX articulated a view of white people and racism that represented a deep change from the philosophy he had supported as a minister of the Nation of Islam. In a famous letter from Mecca, he wrote that his experiences with white people during his pilgrimage convinced him to "rearrange" his thinking about race and "toss aside some of [his] previous conclusions".[248] In a conversation with Gordon Parks, two days before his assassination, Malcolm said:

[L]istening to leaders like Nasser, Ben Bella, and Nkrumah awakened me to the dangers of racism. I realized racism isn't just a black and white problem. It's brought bloodbaths to about every nation on earth at one time or another.

Brother, remember the time that white college girl came into the restaurant—​​the one who wanted to help the [Black] Muslims and the whites get together—​​and I told her there wasn't a ghost of a chance and she went away crying? Well, I've lived to regret that incident. In many parts of the African continent I saw white students helping black people. Something like this kills a lot of argument. I did many things as a [Black] Muslim that I'm sorry for now. I was a zombie then—​​like all [Black] Muslims—​​I was hypnotized, pointed in a certain direction and told to march. Well, I guess a man's entitled to make a fool of himself if he's ready to pay the cost. It cost me 12 years.

That was a bad scene, brother. The sickness and madness of those days—​​I'm glad to be free of them.[239]

Up until one week before his death, MalcolmX continued to publicly advocate that black people should achieve advancement "by any means necessary".

Legacy

Mural on Philadelphia row houses

MalcolmX has been described as one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history.[249][250][251] He is credited with raising the self-esteem of black Americans and reconnecting them with their African heritage.[252] He is largely responsible for the spread of Islam in the black community in the United States.[253][254][255] Many African Americans, especially those who lived in cities in the Northern and Western United States, felt that MalcolmX articulated their complaints concerning inequality better than did the mainstream civil rights movement.[102][103] One biographer says that by giving expression to their frustration, MalcolmX "made clear the price that white America would have to pay if it did not accede to black America's legitimate demands."[256]

During the late 1980s and early 1990s, there was a resurgence of interest in his life among young people. Hip-hop groups such as Public Enemy adopted MalcolmX as an icon,[262] and his image was displayed in hundreds of thousands of homes, offices, and schools,[263] as well as on T-shirts and jackets.[264] This wave peaked in 1992 with the release of the film MalcolmX,[265] an adaptation of The Autobiography of MalcolmX.

In 1998 Time named The Autobiography of MalcolmX one of the ten most influential nonfiction books of the 20th century.[266]

Memorials and tributes

Portrait of MalcolmX by Robert Templeton, from the collection Lest We Forget: Images of the Black Civil Rights Movement

The house that once stood at 3448 Pinkney Street in North Omaha, Nebraska, was the first home of Malcolm Little with his birth family. The house was torn down in 1965 by new owners who did not know of its connection with MalcolmX.[281] The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984 and is now identified by a historic marker.[282][283] In 1987 the site was added to the Nebraska register of historic sites and marked with a state plaque.[284]

In Lansing, Michigan, where Malcolm Little spent his early, formative years, a Michigan Historical Marker was erected in 1975 to mark his homesite.[285] The city is also home to El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz Academy, a public charter school with an Afrocentric focus. The school is located in the building where Little attended elementary school.[286]

Malcolm X Boulevard in New York City

In cities around the world, MalcolmX's birthday (May19) is commemorated as Malcolm X Day. The first known celebration of MalcolmX Day took place in Washington, D.C., in 1971.[287] The city of Berkeley, California, has recognized MalcolmX's birthday as a citywide holiday since 1979.[288]

Many cities have renamed streets after MalcolmX. In 1987, New York mayor Ed Koch proclaimed Lenox Avenue in Harlem to be MalcolmX Boulevard.[289] The name of Reid Avenue in Brooklyn, New York, was changed to MalcolmX Boulevard in 1985.[290][291] In 1997, Oakland Avenue in Dallas, Texas, was renamed MalcolmX Boulevard.[292] Main Street in Lansing, Michigan, was renamed MalcolmX Street in 2010.[293]

↑ Nation of Islam Temples were numbered according to the order in which they were established.[51]

↑ Attallah Shabazz has said she was not named after Attila, rather her name is Arabic for "the gift of God".[65][66][67]

↑ Some sources, including The Autobiography of MalcolmX, give the name Johnson Hinton, but Benjamin Karim (one of MalcolmX's top aides) and former Newsweek editor and MalcolmX biographer Peter Goldman both give the name Hinton Johnson.[72][73]

↑ King expressed mixed feelings toward MalcolmX. "He is very articulate... but I totally disagree with many of his political and philosophical views... I don't want to seem to sound self-righteous, … or that I think I have the only truth, the only way. Maybe he does have some of the answer... I have often wished that he would talk less of violence, because violence is not going to solve our problem. And in his litany of articulating the despair of the Negro without offering any positive, creative alternative, I feel that Malcolm has done himself and our people a great disservice... [U]rging Negroes to arm themselves and prepare to engage in violence, as he has done, can reap nothing but grief." Haley, Alex (January 1965). "The Playboy Interview: Martin Luther King". Playboy. Retrieved April 17, 2016.

↑ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp.15–16. "Estimates of the Black Muslim membership vary from a quarter of a million down to fifty thousand. Available evidence indicates that about one hundred thousand Negroes have joined the movement at one time or another, but few objective observers believe that the Black Muslims can muster more than twenty or twenty-five thousand active temple people."

↑ Clegg, p.115. "The common response of MalcolmX to questions about numbers—​​'Those who know aren't saying, and those who say don't know'—​​was typical of the attitude of the leadership."

↑ "There was no time for substantive discussions between the two. They were photographed greeting each other warmly, smiling and shaking hands."[124]

↑ In his Epilogue to The Autobiography of MalcolmX, Haley wrote that MalcolmX said, "Hold it! Hold it! Don't get excited. Let's cool it, brothers." (p. 499.) According to a transcript of an audio recording, Malcolm's only words were, "Hold it!", repeated ten times. (DeCaro, p.274.)

↑ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p.91. "'I'll be honest with you,' MalcolmX said to me. 'Everybody is talking about differences between the Messenger and me. It is absolutely impossible for us to differ.'"

↑ On a radio program in December 1964, MalcolmX said "all of my former statements were prefaced by 'the Honorable Elijah Muhammad teaches thus and so.' They weren't my statements, they were his statements, and I was repeating them." (MalcolmX, Last Speeches, p.104.)

↑ MalcolmX told Lewis Lomax that "The Messenger is the Prophet of Allah." (Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p.80.) On another occasion, he said "We never refer to the Honorable Elijah Muhammad as a prophet." (MalcolmX, Last Speeches, p.46.)

↑ Barboza, pp.205–206. "People have to understand the autobiography was written at a time when indeed African Americans were likening themselves to warriors to underscore our revolutionary fervor. And Attallah was close to Attila the Hun, the warrior. But I'm named Attallah, which in Arabic means 'Gift of God.' I've never been Attila."

Lomax, Louis E. (1963). When the Word Is Given: A Report on Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X, and the Black Muslim World. Cleveland: World Publishing. OCLC1071204.

Malcolm X; with the assistance of Alex Haley (1992) [1965]. The Autobiography of Malcolm X. New York: One World. ISBN978-0-345-37671-8.Citations in this article refer to this edition, of the many that have been published.