Formerly, (people) were concerned with scholarly
writ­ings and (official) records. These were copied, bound, and
corrected with the help of a transmission technique 204and with accuracy. The reason for this was the
importance of the (ruling) dynasty and the existence of the things that
depend on sedentary culture. All that has disappeared at the present
time as the result of the disappearance of the dynasties and the
decrease of civilization. In Islam it had formerly reached tremendous
proportions in the 'Iraq and in Spain. All of it depends on
civilization, on the extent of the (ruling) dynasties, and on the demand
existing in (the dynasties) 205for it. Thus,
scholarly works and writings were (formerly) numerous. People were
desirous of transmitting them everywhere and at any time. They were
copied and bound. The craft of book producers, thus, made its
appearance. (They are the craftsmen) concerned with copying, correcting,
and binding books, and with all the other matters pertaining to books
and writings. The craft of book production was restricted to cities of a
large civilization.

Originally, copies of scholarly works, government
correspondence, letters of enfeoffment, and diplomas
206were written on parchment especially
prepared from animal skins by craftsmen, because there was great
prosperity at the beginning of Islam and the works that were written
were few, as we shall mention. 207In
addition, government documents and diplomas were few in number.
Therefore, (the early Muslims) restricted themselves to writing on
parchment. This was an expression of respect for what was to be written
down, and of desire that it should be correct and accurate. The
production of books and writings then developed greatly. Government
documents and diplomas increased in number. There was not enough
parchment for all that. Therefore, al­Fadl b. Yahya
208suggested the manufacture of paper. Thus,
paper was used for government documents and diplomas. Afterwards, people
used paper in sheets for government and scholarly writings, and the
manufacture of (paper) reached a considerable degree of excellence.

The concern of scholars and the interest of government
people then concentrated on accuracy in scholarly writings and the
establishment of their correctness with the help of a chain of
transmitters leading back to their writers and au­thors, because that is
the most important element in establishing a correct and accurate
(text). Statements are thus led back to those who made them, and
decisions (in legal questions, fatwa) are led back to the persons who
decided in accordance with them and were able to pronounce them by means
of independent judgment. Wherever the correctness of a text is not
established by a chain of transmitters going back to the person who
wrote that particular text, the statement or decision in question cannot
properly be ascribed to its (alleged author). This has been the
procedure of scholars and experts in (all matters of religious
knowledge) in all times, races, and regions, so much so that the
usefulness of the craft connected with the transmission of traditions
came to be restricted to this aspect (of the process of transmission).
The main fruit of (the craft concerned with the transmission of
traditions) is the knowledge of which traditions are "sound," which are
"good," which "go back in an uninterrupted chain of transmitters to the
Prophet" (musnad),which have a chain of transmitters that
"skips the first transmitter on the authority of Muhammad" (mursal),which have a chain that "stops with one of the men of the second
generation" (magtu),and which have
a chain that "stops with one of the men around Muhammad" (mawquf),in order to be able to distinguish (such
traditions) from spurious ones 209This is no
longer (a subject of investigation). The cream of it has been churned in
the principal collections (of traditions) that have found general
acceptance by all Muslims. It would, thus, be a superfluous activity to
attempt (to investigate the matter anew). Therefore, the only remaining
result to be gained from the process of transmission and occupation with
it is that it can serve to establish a correct text of the principal
collections of traditions and other books on jurisprudence used for
legal decisions,210
as well as for other writings and scholarly works. (It also serves) to
establish uninterrupted connection with their respective authors, so
that transmission on their authority or ascription to them is sound.
Both in the East and in Spain, this method has been the tried and true
path. We find that the copies made in (former) times in those regions
are the most exact, well done, and correct. People everywhere at this
time possess old copies attesting to the perfection previously reached
in this respect. The inhabitants of the various regions have handed them
down (and preserved) them to the present, and they do not like to part
with them.

At the present time, this method has altogether
disappeared in the Maghrib and among Maghribis, because the craft of
writing, accuracy, and the transmission technique were cut off there as
the result of the destruction of the civilization of (the Maghrib) and
its basic 211desert attitude. The principal collections and writings
were copied in Bedouin script. They were copied by Berber students in
such a bad handwriting and with so much corruption and so many clerical
errors that they cannot be understood. They remain incomprehensible to
those who examine them critically. Only very rarely are they of any use.

Furthermore, this (situation) has caused disintegration
in the field of legal decisions (fatwa).Most statements ascribed to the school authorities are
not (orally) transmittedbut are taken from the writings as they are found there.
This has also affected the attempts of some religious leaders to write
books. They know little of the technical side of (authorship) and lack
the crafts necessary for realizing the purposes of (authorship). Some
slight remnant of this institution has remained in Spain. It is about to
disappear. (Religious) scholarship has almost completely stopped in the
Maghrib.

We now hear that the craft of transmission (technique)
still exists in the East. The sciences and crafts are in demand there,
as we shall mention later on,
213and, therefore, those who
want to, find it easy to establish the correct text of writings.
However, the script for good copying surviving there is that of the
non-Arabs, and found in their manuscripts.

The copying (of
books) has deteriorated in Egypt as it has in the Maghrib, and even more
so. "God has the power to execute His commands."