The human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) US12 gene family is a group of 10 predicted seven-transmembrane domain proteins that have some features in common with G-protein-coupled receptors. Little is known of their patterns of expression, localization, or functional interactions. Here, we studied the intracellular localization of three US12 family members, US14, US17, and US18, with respect to various intracellular markers and the cytoplasmic virion assembly compartment (AC). The three proteins have distinct patterns of expression, which include associations with the AC. US14 is often distributed in a uniform granular manner throughout the cytoplasm, concentrating in the AC in some cells. US17 is expressed in a segmented manner, with its N-terminal domain localizing to the periphery of what we show here to be the AC and the C-terminal domain localizing to nuclei and the cytoplasm [Das, S., Skomorovska-Prokvolit, Y., Wang, F. Z., Pellett, P.E., 2006. Infection-dependent nuclear localization of US17, a member of the US12 family of human cytomegalovirus-encoded seven-transmembrane proteins. J. Virol. 80, 1191-1203]. Here, we show that the C-terminal domain is present at the center of the AC, in close association with markers of early endosomes; the N-terminal staining corresponds to an area stained by markers for the Golgi and trans-Golgi. US18 is distributed throughout the cytoplasm, concentrating in the AC at later stages of infection; it is localized more to the periphery of the AC than are US14 and US17C, in association with markers of the trans-Golgi. Although not detected in virions, their structures and localization in various zones within the AC suggest possible roles for these proteins in the process of virion maturation and egress.

The majority of therapeutics target membraneproteins, accessible on the surface of cells, to alter cellular signaling. Cells use membraneproteins to transduce signals into cells, transport ions and molecules, bind cells to a surface or substrate, and catalyze reactions. Newly devised technologies allow us to drug conventionally "undruggable" regions of membraneproteins, enabling modulation of protein-protein, protein-lipid, and protein-nucleic acid interactions. In this review, we survey the state of the art of high-throughput screening and rational design in drug discovery, and we evaluate the advances in biological understanding and technological capacity that will drive pharmacotherapy forward against unorthodox membraneprotein targets. PMID:26863923

Integral membraneproteins comprise approximately 30% of the sequenced genomes, and there is an immediate need for their high-resolution structural information. Currently, the most reliable approach to obtain these structures is X-ray crystallography. However, obtaining crystals of membraneproteins that diffract to high resolution appears to be quite challenging, and remains a major obstacle in structural determination. This brief review summarizes a variety of methodologies for use in crystallizing these membraneproteins. Hopefully, by introducing the available methods, techniques, and providing a general understanding of membraneproteins, a rational decision can be made about now to crystallize these complex materials.

The molecular dynamics (MD) simulation of membraneproteins requires the setup of an accurate representation of lipid bilayers. This chapter describes the setup of a lipid bilayer system from scratch using generally available tools, starting with a definition of the lipid molecule POPE, generation of a lipid bilayer, energy minimization, MD simulation, and data analysis. The data analysis includes the calculation of area and volume per lipid, deuterium order parameters, self-diffusion constant, and the electron density profile. PMID:25330959

The majority of therapeutics target membraneproteins, accessible on the surface of cells, to alter cellular signaling. Cells use membraneproteins to transduce signals into cells, transport ions and molecules, bind the cell to a surface or substrate, and catalyze reactions. Newly devised technologies allow us to drug conventionally “undruggable” regions of membraneproteins, enabling modulation of protein–protein, protein–lipid, and protein–nucleic acid interactions. In this review, we survey the state of the art in high-throughput screening and rational design in drug discovery, and we evaluate the advances in biological understanding and technological capacity that will drive pharmacotherapy forward against unorthodox membraneprotein targets. PMID:26863923

In reviewing the structures of membraneproteins determined up to the end of 2009, we present in words and pictures the most informative examples from each family. We group the structures together according to their function and architecture to provide an overview of the major principles and variations on the most common themes. The first structures, determined 20 years ago, were those of naturally abundant proteins with limited conformational variability, and each membraneprotein structure determined was a major landmark. With the advent of complete genome sequences and efficient expression systems, there has been an explosion in the rate of membraneprotein structure determination, with many classes represented. New structures are published every month and more than 150 unique membraneprotein structures have been determined. This review analyses the reasons for this success, discusses the challenges that still lie ahead, and presents a concise summary of the key achievements with illustrated examples selected from each class. PMID:20667175

Adhesion in the context of mechanical attachment, signaling, and movement in cellular dynamics is mediated by the kinetic interactions between membrane-embedded proteins in an aqueous environment. Here, we present a minimal theoretical framework for the dynamics of membrane adhesion that accounts for the kinetics of protein binding, the elastic deformation of the membrane, and the hydrodynamics of squeeze flow in the membrane gap. We analyze the resulting equations using scaling estimates to characterize the spatiotemporal features of the adhesive patterning and corroborate them using numerical simulations. In addition to characterizing aspects of cellular dynamics, our results might also be applicable to a range of phenomena in physical chemistry and materials science where flow, deformation, and kinetics are coupled to each other in slender geometries.

We survey computational approaches that tackle membraneprotein structure and function prediction. While describing the main ideas that have led to the development of the most relevant and novel methods, we also discuss pitfalls, provide practical hints and highlight the challenges that remain. The methods covered include: sequence alignment, motif search, functional residue identification, transmembrane segment and protein topology predictions, homology and ab initio modeling. Overall, predictions of functional and structural features of membraneproteins are improving, although progress is hampered by the limited amount of high-resolution experimental information available. While predictions of transmembrane segments and protein topology rank among the most accurate methods in computational biology, more attention and effort will be required in the future to ameliorate database search, homology and ab initio modeling. PMID:17367718

From endosomes and synaptic vesicles to the cristae of the mitochondria and the annulus of the nuclear pore, highly curved membranes are fundamental to the structure and physiology of living cells. The established view is that specific families of proteins are able to bend membranes by binding to them. For example, inherently curved proteins are thought to impose their structure on the membrane surface, while membrane-binding proteins with hydrophobic motifs are thought to insert into the membrane like wedges, driving curvature. However, computational models have recently revealed that these mechanisms would require specialized membrane-bending proteins to occupy nearly 100% of a curved membrane surface, an improbable physiological situation given the immense density and diversity of membrane-bound proteins, and the low expression levels of these specialized proteins within curved regions of the membrane. How then does curvature arise within the complex and crowded environment of cellular membranes? Our recent work using proteins involved in clathrin-mediated endocytosis, as well as engineered protein-lipid interactions, has suggested a new hypothesis - that lateral pressure generated by collisions between membrane-bound proteins can drive membrane bending. Specifically, by correlating membrane bending with quantitative optical measurements of protein density on synthetic membrane surfaces and simple physical models of collisions among membrane-bound proteins, we have demonstrated that protein-protein steric interactions can drive membrane curvature. These findings suggest that a simple imbalance in the concentration of membrane-bound proteins across a membrane surface can drive a membrane to bend, providing an efficient mechanism by which essentially any protein can contribute to shaping membranes.

A1 adenosine receptors (A1Rs) are G protein-coupled heptaspanning receptors that interact at the outer face of the plasma membrane with cell surface ecto-adenosine deaminase (ecto-ADA). By affinity chromatography the heat shock cognate protein hsc73 was identified as a cytosolic component able to interact with the third intracellular loop of the receptor. As demonstrated by surface plasmon resonance, purified A1Rs interact specifically with hsc73 with a dissociation constant in the nanomolar range (0.5 ± 0.1 nM). The interaction between hsc73 and A1R led to a marked reduction in the binding of the ligands and prevented activation of G proteins, as deduced from 35S-labeled guanosine-5′-O-(3-thio)triphosphate binding assays. Interestingly this effect was stronger than that exerted by guanine nucleotide analogs, which uncouple receptors from G proteins, and was completely prevented by ADA. As assessed by immunoprecipitation a high percentage of A1Rs in cell lysates are coupled to hsc73. A relatively high level of colocalization between A1R and hsc73 was detected in DDT1MF-2 cells by means of confocal microscopy, and no similar results were obtained for other G protein-coupled receptors. Colocalization between hsc73 and A1R was detected in specific regions of rat cerebellum and in the body of cortical neurons but not in dendrites or synapses. Remarkably, agonist-induced receptor internalization leads to the endocytosis of A1Rs by two qualitatively different vesicle types, one in which A1R and hsc73 colocalize and another in which hsc73 is absent. These results open the interesting possibility that signaling via G protein-coupled receptors may be regulated by heat shock proteins. PMID:10866672

Membraneproteins are essential in the exchange processes of cells. In spite of great breakthrough in soluble proteins studies, membraneproteins structures, functions and interactions are still a challenge because of the difficulties related to their hydrophobic properties. Most of the experiments are performed with detergent-solubilized membraneproteins. However widely used micellar systems are far from the biological two-dimensions membrane. The development of new biomimetic membrane systems is fundamental to tackle this issue. We present an original approach that combines the Fluorescence Recovery After fringe Pattern Photobleaching technique and the use of a versatile sponge phase that makes it possible to extract crucial informations about interactions between membraneproteins embedded in the bilayers of a sponge phase. The clear advantage lies in the ability to adjust at will the spacing between two adjacent bilayers. When the membranes are far apart, the only possible interactions occur laterally between proteins embedded within the same bilayer, whereas when membranes get closer to each other, interactions between proteins embedded in facing membranes may occur as well. After validating our approach on the streptavidin-biotinylated peptide complex, we study the interactions between two membraneproteins, MexA and OprM, from a Pseudomonas aeruginosa efflux pump. The mode of interaction, the size of the protein complex and its potential stoichiometry are determined. In particular, we demonstrate that: MexA is effectively embedded in the bilayer; MexA and OprM do not interact laterally but can form a complex if they are embedded in opposite bilayers; the population of bound proteins is at its maximum for bilayers separated by a distance of about 200 Å, which is the periplasmic thickness of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We also show that the MexA-OprM association is enhanced when the position and orientation of the protein is restricted by the bilayers. We

In this study, the details of proteins causing membrane fouling in membrane bioreactors (MBRs) treating real municipal wastewater were investigated. Two separate pilot-scale MBRs were continuously operated under significantly different operating conditions; one MBR was a submerged type whereas the other was a side-stream type. The submerged and side-stream MBRs were operated for 20 and 10 days, respectively. At the end of continuous operation, the foulants were extracted from the fouled membranes. The proteins contained in the extracted foulants were enriched by using the combination of crude concentration with an ultrafiltration membrane and trichloroacetic acid precipitation, and then separated by two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (2D-PAGE). The N-terminal amino acid sequencing analysis of the proteins which formed intensive spots on the 2D-PAGE gels allowed us to partially identify one protein (OmpA family protein originated from genus Brevundimonas or Riemerella anatipestifer) from the foulant obtained from the submerged MBR, and two proteins (OprD and OprF originated from genus Pseudomonas) from that obtained from the side-stream MBR. Despite the significant difference in operating conditions of the two MBRs, all proteins identified in this study belong to β-barrel protein. These findings strongly suggest the importance of β-barrel proteins in developing membrane fouling in MBRs. PMID:26360742

Despite the rapid and enormous progress in biotechnologies, the biochemical analysis of membraneproteins is still a difficult task. The presence of the large hydrophobic region buried in the lipid bilayer membrane (transmembrane domain) makes it difficult to analyze membraneproteins in standard assays developed for water-soluble proteins. To handle membraneproteins, the lipid bilayer membrane may be used as a platform to sustain their functionalities. Relatively slow progress in developing micro total analysis systems (μTAS) for membraneprotein analysis directly reflects the difficulty of handling lipid membranes, which is a common problem in bulk measurement technologies. Nonetheless, researchers are continuing to develop efficient and sensitive analytical microsystems for the study of membraneproteins. Here, we review the latest developments, which enable detection of events caused by membraneproteins, such as ion channel current, membrane transport, and receptor/ligand interaction, by utilizing microfabricated structures. High-throughput and highly sensitive detection systems for membraneproteins are now becoming a realistic goal. Although most of these systems are still in the early stages of development, we believe this field will become one of the most important applications of μTAS for pharmaceutical and clinical screenings as well as for basic biochemical research. PMID:18335213

Membrane-bound transport in cells requires generating membrane curvature. In addition, transport is selective, in order to establish spatial gradients of membrane components in the cell. The mechanisms underlying cell membrane shaping by proteins and the influence of curvature on membrane composition are active areas of study in cell biophysics. In vitro approaches using Giant Unilamellar Vesicles (GUVs) are a useful tool to identify the physical mechanisms that drive sorting of membrane components and membrane shape change by proteins. I will present recent work on the curvature sensing and generation of IRSp53, a protein belonging to the BAR family, whose members, sharing a banana-shaped backbone, are involved in endocytosis. Pulling membrane tubes with 10-100 nm radii from GUVs containing encapsulated IRSp53 have, unexpectedly, revealed a non-monotonic dependence of the protein concentration on the tube as a function of curvature. Experiments also show that bound proteins alter the tube mechanics and that protein phase separation along the tube occurs at low tensions. I will present accompanying theoretical work that can explain these findings based on the competition between the protein's intrinsic curvature and the effective rigidity of a membrane-protein patch.

Nanodiscs are soluble nanoscale phospholipid bilayers which can self-assemble integral membraneproteins for biophysical, enzymatic or structural investigations. This means for rendering membraneproteins soluble at the single molecule level offers advantages over liposomes or detergent micelles in terms of size, stability, ability to add genetically modifiable features to the Nanodisc structure and ready access to both sides of the phospholipid bilayer domain. Thus the Nanodisc system provides a novel platform for understanding membraneprotein function. We provide an overview of the Nanodisc approach and document through several examples many of the applications to the study of the structure and function of integral membraneproteins. PMID:19836392

Membraneproteins play a central role in many cellular and physiological processes. It is estimated that integral membraneproteins make up about 20-30% of the proteome (Krogh et al., 2001b; Stevens and Arkin, 2000; von Heijne, 1999). They are essential mediators of material and information transfer across cell membranes. Their functions include active and passive transport of molecules into and out of cells and organelles; transduction of energy among various forms (light, electrical, and chemical energy); as well as reception and transduction of chemical and electrical signals across membranes (Avdonin, 2005; Bockaert et al., 2002; Pahl, 1999; Rehling et al., 2004; Stack et al., 1995). Identifying these transmembrane (TM) proteins and deciphering their molecular mechanisms, then, is of great importance, particularly as applied to biomedicine. Membraneproteins are the targets of a large number of pharmacologically and toxicologically active substances, and are directly involved in their uptake, metabolism, and clearance (Bettler et al., 1998; Cohen, 2002; Heusser and Jardieu, 1997; Tibes et al., 2005; Xu et al., 2005). Despite the importance of membraneproteins, the knowledge of their high-resolution structures and mechanisms of action has lagged far behind in comparison to that of water-soluble proteins: less than 1% of all three-dimensional structures deposited in the Protein Data Bank are of membraneproteins. This unfortunate disparity stems from difficulties in overexpression and the crystallization of membraneproteins (Grisshammer and Tate, 1995; Michel, 1991).

Understanding the dynamics of the membraneprotein rhodopsin will have broad implications for other membraneproteins and cellular signaling processes. Rhodopsin (Rho) is a light activated G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR). When activated by ligands, GPCRs bind and activate G-proteins residing within the cell and begin a signaling cascade that results in the cell's response to external stimuli. More than 50% of all current drugs are targeted toward G-proteins. Rho is the prototypical member of the class A GPCR superfamily. Understanding the activation of Rho and its interaction with its Gprotein can therefore lead to a wider understanding of the mechanisms of GPCR activation and G-protein activation. Understanding the dark to light transition of Rho is fully analogous to the general ligand binding and activation problem for GPCRs. This transition is dependent on the lipid environment. The effect of lipids on membraneprotein activity in general has had little attention, but evidence is beginning to show a significant role for lipids in membraneprotein activity. Using the LAMMPS program and simulation methods benchmarked under the IBIG program, we perform a variety of allatom molecular dynamics simulations of membraneproteins.

The interactions of peripheral proteins with membrane surfaces are critical to many biological processes, including signaling, recognition, membrane trafficking, cell division and cell structure. On a molecular level, peripheral membraneproteins can modulate lipid composition, membrane dynamics and protein-protein interactions. Biochemical and biophysical studies have shown that these interactions are in fact highly complex, dominated by several different types of interactions, and have an interdependent effect on both the protein and membrane. Here we examine three major mechanisms underlying the interactions between peripheral membraneproteins and membranes: electrostatic interactions, hydrophobic interactions, and fatty acid modification of proteins. While experimental approaches continue to provide critical insights into specific interaction mechanisms, emerging bioinformatics resources and tools contribute to a systems-level picture of protein-lipid interactions. Through these recent advances, we begin to understand the pivotal role of protein-lipid interactions underlying complex biological functions at membrane interfaces.

The interactions of peripheral proteins with membrane surfaces are critical to many biological processes, including signaling, recognition, membrane trafficking, cell division and cell structure. On a molecular level, peripheral membraneproteins can modulate lipid composition, membrane dynamics and protein-protein interactions. Biochemical and biophysical studies have shown that these interactions are in fact highly complex, dominated by several different types of interactions, and have an interdependent effect on both the protein and membrane. Here we examine three major mechanisms underlying the interactions between peripheral membraneproteins and membranes: electrostatic interactions, hydrophobic interactions, and fatty acid modification of proteins. While experimental approachesmore » continue to provide critical insights into specific interaction mechanisms, emerging bioinformatics resources and tools contribute to a systems-level picture of protein-lipid interactions. Through these recent advances, we begin to understand the pivotal role of protein-lipid interactions underlying complex biological functions at membrane interfaces.« less

Proteins interacting with membranes can result in substantial membrane deformations and curvatures. This effect is known in its broadest terms as membrane remodeling. This review article will survey current multiscale simulation methodologies that have been employed to examine protein-mediated membrane remodeling. PMID:19922811

The number of membraneprotein structures in the Protein Data Bank is becoming significant and growing. Here, the transmembrane domain structures of the helical membraneproteins are evaluated to assess the influences of the membrane mimetic environments. Toward this goal, many of the biophysical properties of membranes are discussed and contrasted with those of the membrane mimetics commonly used for structure determination. Although the mimetic environments can perturb the protein structures to an extent that potentially gives rise to misinterpretation of functional mechanisms, there are also many structures that have a native-like appearance. From this assessment, an initial set of guidelines is proposed for distinguishing native-like from nonnative-like membraneprotein structures. With experimental techniques for validation and computational methods for refinement and quality assessment and enhancement, there are good prospects for achieving native-like structures for these very important proteins. PMID:23451886

The determination of membraneprotein (MP) structures has always trailed that of soluble proteins due to difficulties in their overexpression, reconstitution into membrane mimetics, and subsequent structure determination. The percentage of MP structures in the protein databank (PDB) has been at a constant 1-2% for the last decade. In contrast, over half of all drugs target MPs, only highlighting how little we understand about drug-specific effects in the human body. To reduce this gap, researchers have attempted to predict structural features of MPs even before the first structure was experimentally elucidated. In this review, we present current computational methods to predict MP structure, starting with secondary structure prediction, prediction of trans-membrane spans, and topology. Even though these methods generate reliable predictions, challenges such as predicting kinks or precise beginnings and ends of secondary structure elements are still waiting to be addressed. We describe recent developments in the prediction of 3D structures of both α-helical MPs as well as β-barrels using comparative modeling techniques, de novo methods, and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The increase of MP structures has (1) facilitated comparative modeling due to availability of more and better templates, and (2) improved the statistics for knowledge-based scoring functions. Moreover, de novo methods have benefitted from the use of correlated mutations as restraints. Finally, we outline current advances that will likely shape the field in the forthcoming decade. PMID:25355688

The function of any given biological membrane is determined largely by the specific set of integral membraneproteins embedded in it, and the peripheral membraneproteins attached to the membrane surface. The activity of these proteins, in turn, can be modulated by the phospholipid composition of the membrane. The reconstitution of membraneproteins into a model membrane allows investigation of individual features and activities of a given cell membrane component. However, the activity of membraneproteins is often difficult to sustain following reconstitution, since the composition of the model phospholipid bilayer differs from that of the native cell membrane. This review will discuss the reconstitution of membraneprotein activities in four different types of model membrane—monolayers, supported lipid bilayers, liposomes and nanodiscs, comparing their advantages in membraneprotein reconstitution. Variation in the surrounding model environments for these four different types of membrane layer can affect the three-dimensional structure of reconstituted proteins and may possibly lead to loss of the proteins activity. We also discuss examples where the same membraneproteins have been successfully reconstituted into two or more model membrane systems with comparison of the observed activity in each system. Understanding of the behavioral changes for proteins in model membrane systems after membrane reconstitution is often a prerequisite to protein research. It is essential to find better solutions for retaining membraneprotein activities for measurement and characterization in vitro. PMID:23344058

The invention provides an in vitro method for producing proteins, membraneproteins, membrane-associated proteins, and soluble proteins that interact with membrane-associated proteins for assembly into an oligomeric complex or that require association with a membrane for proper folding. The method comprises, supplying intracytoplasmic membranes from organisms; modifying protein composition of intracytoplasmic membranes from organism by modifying DNA to delete genes encoding functions of the organism not associated with the formation of the intracytoplasmic membranes; generating appropriate DNA or RNA templates that encode the target protein; and mixing the intracytoplasmic membranes with the template and a transcription/translation-competent cellular extract to cause simultaneous production of the membraneproteins and encapsulation of the membraneproteins within the intracytoplasmic membranes.

Membraneproteins play crucial roles in cellular processes and are often important pharmacological drug targets. The hydrophobic properties of these proteins make full structural and functional characterization challenging because of the need to use detergents or other solubilizing agents when extracting them from their native lipid membranes. To aid membraneprotein research, new methodologies are required to allow these proteins to be expressed and purified cheaply, easily, in high yield and to provide water soluble proteins for subsequent study. This mini review focuses on the relatively new area of water soluble membraneproteins and in particular two innovative approaches: the redesign of membraneproteins to yield water soluble variants and how adding solubilizing fusion proteins can help to overcome these challenges. This review also looks at naturally occurring membraneproteins, which are able to exist as stable, functional, water soluble assemblies with no alteration to their native sequence. PMID:27284043

Membraneproteins play crucial roles in cellular processes and are often important pharmacological drug targets. The hydrophobic properties of these proteins make full structural and functional characterization challenging because of the need to use detergents or other solubilizing agents when extracting them from their native lipid membranes. To aid membraneprotein research, new methodologies are required to allow these proteins to be expressed and purified cheaply, easily, in high yield and to provide water soluble proteins for subsequent study. This mini review focuses on the relatively new area of water soluble membraneproteins and in particular two innovative approaches: the redesign of membraneproteins to yield water soluble variants and how adding solubilizing fusion proteins can help to overcome these challenges. This review also looks at naturally occurring membraneproteins, which are able to exist as stable, functional, water soluble assemblies with no alteration to their native sequence. PMID:27284043

Endocytosis is a ubiquitous eukaryotic membrane budding, vesiculation, and internalization process fulfilling numerous roles including compensation of membrane area increase after bursts of exocytosis. The mechanism of the coupling between these two processes to enable homeostasis is not well understood. Recently, an ultrafast endocytosis (UFE) pathway was revealed with a speed significantly exceeding classical clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME). Membrane tension reduction is a potential mechanism by which endocytosis can be rapidly activated at remote sites. Here we provide experimental evidence for a mechanism whereby membrane tension reduction initiates membrane budding and tubulation mediated by endocytic proteins such as endophilin A1. We find that shape instabilities occur at well-defined membrane tensions and surface densities of endophilin. From our data, we obtain a membrane shape stability diagram that shows remarkable consistency with a quantitative model. This model applies to all laterally diffusive curvature coupling proteins and therefore a wide range of endocytic proteins. PMID:25569184

Endocytosis is a ubiquitous eukaryotic membrane budding, vesiculation and internalization process fulfilling numerous roles including compensation of membrane area increase after bursts of exocytosis. The mechanism of the coupling between these two processes to enable homeostasis is not well understood. Recently, an ultrafast endocytosis (UFE) pathway was revealed with a speed significantly exceeding classical clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME). Membrane tension reduction is a potential mechanism by which endocytosis can be rapidly activated at remote sites. Here, we provide experimental evidence for a mechanism whereby membrane tension reduction initiates membrane budding and tubulation mediated by endocytic proteins, such as endophilin A1. We find that shape instabilities occur at well-defined membrane tensions and surface densities of endophilin. From our data, we obtain a membrane shape stability diagram that shows remarkable consistency with a quantitative model. This model applies to all laterally diffusive curvature-coupling proteins and therefore a wide range of endocytic proteins. PMID:25569184

Endocytosis is a ubiquitous eukaryotic membrane budding, vesiculation and internalization process fulfilling numerous roles including compensation of membrane area increase after bursts of exocytosis. The mechanism of the coupling between these two processes to enable homeostasis is not well understood. Recently, an ultrafast endocytosis (UFE) pathway was revealed with a speed significantly exceeding classical clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME). Membrane tension reduction is a potential mechanism by which endocytosis can be rapidly activated at remote sites. Here, we provide experimental evidence for a mechanism whereby membrane tension reduction initiates membrane budding and tubulation mediated by endocytic proteins, such as endophilin A1. We find that shape instabilities occur at well-defined membrane tensions and surface densities of endophilin. From our data, we obtain a membrane shape stability diagram that shows remarkable consistency with a quantitative model. This model applies to all laterally diffusive curvature-coupling proteins and therefore a wide range of endocytic proteins.

Adsorption of proteins onto membranes can alter the local membrane curvature. This phenomenon has been observed in biological processes such as endocytosis, tubulation, and vesiculation. However, it is not clear how the local surface properties of the membrane, such as membrane tension, change in response to protein adsorption. In this article, we show that the partial differential equations arising from classical elastic model of lipid membranes, which account for simultaneous changes in shape and membrane tension due to protein adsorption in a local region, cannot be solved for nonaxisymmetric geometries using straightforward numerical techniques; instead, a viscous-elastic formulation is necessary to fully describe the system. Therefore, we develop a viscous-elastic model for inhomogeneous membranes of the Helfrich type. Using the newly available viscous-elastic model, we find that the lipids flow to accommodate changes in membrane curvature during protein adsorption. We show that, at the end of protein adsorption process, the system sustains a residual local tension to balance the difference between the actual mean curvature and the imposed spontaneous curvature. We also show that this change in membrane tension can have a functional impact such as altered response to pulling forces in the presence of proteins. PMID:25099814

Solid state NMR spectroscopy has evolved rapidly in recent years into an excellent tool for the characterization of membraneproteins and their complexes. In the past few years it has also become clear that the structure of membraneproteins, especially helical membraneproteins is determined, in part, by the membrane environment. Therefore, the modeling of this environment by a liquid crystalline lipid bilayer for solid state NMR has generated a unique tool for the characterization of native conformational states, local and global dynamics, and high resolution structure for these proteins. Protein-protein interactions can also benefit from this solid state NMR capability to characterize membraneproteins in a native-like environment. These complexes take the form of oligomeric structures and hetero-protein interactions both with water soluble proteins and other membraneproteins. PMID:24034903

Solid state NMR spectroscopy has evolved rapidly in recent years into an excellent tool for the characterization of membraneproteins and their complexes. In the past few years it has also become clear that the structure of membraneproteins, especially helical membraneproteins is determined, in part, by the membrane environment. Therefore, the modeling of this environment by a liquid crystalline lipid bilayer for solid state NMR has generated a unique tool for the characterization of native conformational states, local and global dynamics, and high-resolution structure for these proteins. Protein-protein interactions can also benefit from this solid state NMR capability to characterize membraneproteins in a native-like environment. These complexes take the form of oligomeric structures and hetero-protein interactions both with water-soluble proteins and other membraneproteins. PMID:24034903

This review examines advances in the functionalization of microporous membranes for protein purification and the development of protease-containing membranes for controlled protein digestion prior to mass spectrometry analysis. Recent studies confirm that membranes are superior to bead-based columns for rapid protein capture, presumably because convective mass transport in membrane pores rapidly brings proteins to binding sites. Modification of porous membranes with functional polymeric films or TiO2 nanoparticles yields materials that selectively capture species ranging from phosphopeptides to His-tagged proteins, and protein-binding capacities often exceed those of commercial beads. Thin membranes also provide a convenient framework for creating enzyme-containing reactors that afford control over residence times. With millisecond residence times, reactors with immobilized proteases limit protein digestion to increase sequence coverage in mass spectrometry analysis and facilitate elucidation of protein structures. This review emphasizes the advantages of membrane-based techniques and concludes with some challenges for their practical application.

Membraneproteins represent one of the most important targets for pharmaceutical companies. Unfortunately, technical limitations have long been a major hindrance in our understanding of the function and structure of such proteins. Recent years have seen the refinement of classical approaches and the emergence of new technologies that have resulted in a significant step forward in the field of membraneprotein research. This review summarizes some of the current techniques used for studying membraneproteins, with overall advantages and drawbacks for each method. PMID:27284055

The plasma membrane (PM) and endocytic protein quality control (QC) in conjunction with the endosomal sorting machinery either repairs or targets conformationally damaged membraneproteins for lysosomal/vacuolar degradation. Here, we provide an overview of emerging aspects of the underlying mechanisms of PM QC that fulfill a critical role in preserving cellular protein homeostasis in health and diseases. PMID:24985330

Crystal dehydration has been successfully implemented to facilitate the structural solution of a number of soluble and membraneprotein structures over the years. This chapter will present the currently available tools to undertake controlled crystal dehydration, focusing on some successful membraneprotein cases. Also discussed here will be some practical considerations regarding membraneprotein crystals and the relationship between different techniques in order to help researchers to select the most suitable technique for their projects. PMID:27553236

Membraneproteins, including G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), constitute the most important drug targets. The increasing number of targets requires new structural information, which has proven tremendously challenging due to the difficulties in growing diffraction-quality crystals. Recent developments of serial femtosecond crystallography at X-ray free electron lasers combined with the use of membrane-mimetic gel-like matrix of lipidic cubic phase (LCP-SFX) for crystal growth and delivery hold significant promise to accelerate structural studies of membraneproteins. This chapter describes the development and current status of the LCP-SFX technology and elaborates its future role in structural biology of membraneproteins. PMID:27553241

Enveloped animal viruses fuse their membrane with a host cell membrane, thus delivering the virus genetic material into the cytoplasm and initiating infection. This critical membrane fusion reaction is mediated by a virus transmembrane protein known as the fusion protein, which inserts its hydrophobic fusion peptide into the cell membrane and refolds to drive the fusion reaction. This review describes recent advances in our understanding of the structure and function of the class II fusion proteins of the alphaviruses and flaviviruses. Inhibition of the fusion protein refolding reaction confirms its importance in fusion and suggests new antiviral strategies for these medically important viruses.

Membraneproteins regulate many cellular processes including signaling cascades, ion transport, membrane fusion, and cell-to-cell communications. Understanding the architecture and conformational fluctuations of these proteins is critical to understanding their regulation and functions. Fluorescence methods including intensity mapping, fluorescence resonance energy transfer, and photo-induced electron transfer, allow for targeted measurements of domains within membraneproteins. These methods can reveal how a protein is structured and how it transitions between different conformational states. Here, I will review recent work done using fluorescence to map the structures of membraneproteins, focusing on how each of these methods can be applied to understanding the dynamic nature of individual membraneproteins and protein complexes. PMID:22445227

Integral membraneproteins of the cell surface and most intracellular compartments of eukaryotic cells are assembled at the endoplasmic reticulum. Two highly conserved and parallel pathways mediate membraneprotein targeting to and insertion into this organelle. The classical cotranslational pathway, utilized by most membraneproteins, involves targeting by the signal recognition particle followed by insertion via the Sec61 translocon. A more specialized posttranslational pathway, employed by many tail-anchored membraneproteins, is composed of entirely different factors centered around a cytosolic ATPase termed TRC40 or Get3. Both of these pathways overcome the same biophysical challenges of ferrying hydrophobic cargo through an aqueous milieu, selectively delivering it to one among several intracellular membranes and asymmetrically integrating its transmembrane domain(s) into the lipid bilayer. Here, we review the conceptual and mechanistic themes underlying these core membraneprotein insertion pathways, the complexities that challenge our understanding, and future directions to over-come these obstacles. PMID:21801011

Summary Most of the 231 unique membraneprotein structures (as of 3/2010) are of bacterial membraneproteins (MPs) expressed in bacteria, or eukaryotic MPs from natural sources. However eukaryotic membraneproteins, especially those with more than three membrane crossings rarely succumb to any suitable expression in bacterial cells. They typically require expression in eukaryotic cells that can provide appropriate endoplasmic reticulum, chaperones, targeting and post-translational processing. In evidence, only ~20 eukaryotic MP structures have resulted from heterologous expression. This is required for a general approach to target particular human or pathogen membraneproteins of importance to human health. The first of these appeared in 2005. Our review addresses the special issues that pertain to the expression of eukaryotic and human membraneproteins, and recent advances in the tool kit for crystallization and structure determination. PMID:20739007

Circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy is a well-established technique for studying the secondary structures, dynamics, folding pathways, and interactions of soluble proteins, and is complementary to the high resolution but generally static structures produced by X-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy, and cryo electron microscopy. CD spectroscopy has special relevance for the study of membraneproteins, which are difficult to crystallise and largely ignored in structural genomics projects. However, the requirement for membraneproteins to be embedded in amphipathic environments such as membranes, lipid vesicles, detergent micelles, bicelles, oriented bilayers, or nanodiscs, in order for them to be soluble or dispersed in solution whilst maintaining their structure and function, necessitates the use of different experimental and analytical approaches than those employed for soluble proteins. This review discusses specialised methods for collecting and analysing membraneprotein CD data, highlighting where protocols for soluble and membraneproteins diverge. PMID:27347568

Anionic phospholipids are critical constituents of the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane, ensuring appropriate membrane topology of transmembrane proteins. Additionally, in eukaryotes, the negatively charged phosphoinositides serve as key signals not only through their hydrolysis products but also through direct control of transmembrane protein function. Direct phosphoinositide control of the activity of ion channels and transporters has been the most convincing case of the critical importance of phospholipid-protein interactions in the functional control of membraneproteins. Furthermore, second messengers, such as [Ca2+]i, or posttranslational modifications, such as phosphorylation, can directly or allosterically fine-tune phospholipid-protein interactions and modulate activity. Recent advances in structure determination of membraneproteins have allowed investigators to obtain complexes of ion channels with phosphoinositides and to use computational and experimental approaches to probe the dynamic mechanisms by which lipid-protein interactions control active and inactive protein states. PMID:25293526

Cellular membranes are typically decorated with a plethora of embedded and adsorbed macromolecules, e.g. proteins, that participate in numerous vital processes. With typical surface densities of 30,000 proteins per μm(2) cellular membranes are indeed crowded places that leave only few nanometers of private space for individual proteins. Here, we review recent advances in our understanding of protein crowding in membrane systems. We first give a brief overview on state-of-the-art approaches in experiment and simulation that are frequently used to study crowded membranes. After that, we review how crowding can affect diffusive transport of proteins and lipids in membrane systems. Next, we discuss lipid and protein sorting in crowded membrane systems, including effects like protein cluster formation, phase segregation, and lipid droplet formation. Subsequently, we highlight recent progress in uncovering crowding-induced conformational changes of membranes, e.g. membrane budding and vesicle formation. Finally, we give a short outlook on potential future developments in the field of crowded membrane systems. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Biosimulations edited by Ilpo Vattulainen and Tomasz Róg. PMID:26724385

We describe a new type of synthetic amphiphile that is intended to support biochemical characterization of intrinsic membraneproteins. Members of this new family displayed favorable behavior with four of five membraneproteins tested, and these amphiphiles formed relatively small micelles. PMID:21049926

Different salvation properties of water and membranes mediate a host of biologically important processes, such as folding, insertion into a lipid bilayer, associations and functions of membraneproteins. These processes will be discussed in several examples involving synthetic and natural peptides. In particular, a mechanism by which a helical peptide becomes inserted into a model membrane will be described. Further, the molecular mechanism of recognition and association of protein helical segments in membranes will be discussed. These processes are crucial for proper functioning of a cell. A membrane-spanning domain of glycophorin A, which exists as a helical dimer, serves as the model system. For this system, the free energy of dissociation of the helices is being determined for both the wild type and a mutant, in which dimerization is disrupted.

Proteins are biological molecules which catalyse all essential reactions of cells. The knowledge on the structure of these molecular machines is necessary for the understanding of their function. Many diseases are caused by defects of membraneproteins. In order to develop new medical therapies the construction principle of the proteins must be known. The main difficulty in the determination of the structure of these membraneprotein complexes is the crystallisation. Membraneproteins are normally not soluble in water and have therefore to be solubilised from the membranes by use of detergents. The whole protein-detergent micelle must be crystallised to maintain the functional integrity of the protein complexes. These difficulties are the reasons for the fact that crystals of membraneproteins are difficult to grow and most of them are badly ordered, being not appropriate for X-ray structure analysis. The crystallisation of proteins under microgravity leads to the growth of better-ordered crystals by reduction of nucleation rate and the undisturbed growth of the hovering seeds by the absence of sedimentation and convection. The successful crystallistation of a membraneprotein under microgravity has been performed during the space shuttle missions USML2 and STS95 in the Space Shuttle with Photosystem I as model protein. Photosystem I is a large membraneprotein complex which catalyses one of the first and fundamental steps in oxygen photosynthesis. The crystals of Photosystem I, grown under microgravity were twenty times larger than all Photosystem I crystals which have been grown on earth. They were the basis for the determination of an improved X-ray structure of Photo- system I. These experiments opened the way for the structure enlightenment of more membraneproteins on the basis of microgravity experiments. On board of the International Space Station ideal conditions for the crystallisation of proteins under zero gravity are existing.

The interferon-inducible transmembrane (IFITM) protein family represents a new class of cellular restriction factors that block early stages of viral replication; the underlying mechanism is currently not known. Here we provide evidence that IFITM proteins restrict membrane fusion induced by representatives of all three classes of viral membrane fusion proteins. IFITM1 profoundly suppressed syncytia formation and cell-cell fusion induced by almost all viral fusion proteins examined; IFITM2 and IFITM3 also strongly inhibited their fusion, with efficiency somewhat dependent on cell types. Furthermore, treatment of cells with IFN also markedly inhibited viral membrane fusion and entry. By using the Jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus envelope and influenza A virus hemagglutinin as models for study, we showed that IFITM-mediated restriction on membrane fusion is not at the steps of receptor- and/or low pH-mediated triggering; instead, the creation of hemifusion was essentially blocked by IFITMs. Chlorpromazine (CPZ), a chemical known to promote the transition from hemifusion to full fusion, was unable to rescue the IFITM-mediated restriction on fusion. In contrast, oleic acid (OA), a lipid analog that generates negative spontaneous curvature and thereby promotes hemifusion, virtually overcame the restriction. To explore the possible effect of IFITM proteins on membrane molecular order and fluidity, we performed fluorescence labeling with Laurdan, in conjunction with two-photon laser scanning and fluorescence-lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM). We observed that the generalized polarizations (GPs) and fluorescence lifetimes of cell membranes expressing IFITM proteins were greatly enhanced, indicating higher molecularly ordered and less fluidized membranes. Collectively, our data demonstrated that IFITM proteins suppress viral membrane fusion before the creation of hemifusion, and suggested that they may do so by reducing membrane fluidity and conferring a positive spontaneous

We demonstrate the crystallization of a membraneprotein using femtosecond laser irradiation. This method, which we call the laser irradiated growth technique (LIGHT), is useful for producing AcrB crystals in a solution of low supersaturation range. LIGHT is characterized by reduced nucleation times. This feature is important for crystallizing membraneproteins because of their labile properties when solubilized as protein-detergent micelles. Using LIGHT, high-quality crystals of a membrane transporter protein, AcrB, were obtained. The resulting crystals were found to be of sufficiently high resolution for X-ray diffraction. The results reported here indicate that LIGHT is a powerful tool for membraneprotein crystallization, as well as for the growth of soluble proteins.

Transmembrane proteins allow cells to extensively communicate with the external world in a very accurate and specific way. They form principal nodes in several signaling pathways and attract large interest in therapeutic intervention, as the majority pharmaceutical compounds target membraneproteins. Thus, according to the current genome annotation methods, a detailed structural/functional characterization at the protein level of each of the elements codified in the genome is also required. The extreme difficulty in obtaining high-resolution three-dimensional structures, calls for computational approaches. Here we review to which extent the efforts made in the last few years, combining the structural characterization of membraneproteins with protein bioinformatics techniques, could help describing membraneproteins at a genome-wide scale. In particular we analyze the use of comparative modeling techniques as a way of overcoming the lack of high-resolution three-dimensional structures in the human membrane proteome. PMID:24403851

We describe the adaptation of the Rosetta de novo structure prediction method for prediction of helical transmembrane protein structures. The membrane environment is modeled by embedding the protein chain into a model membrane represented by parallel planes defining hydrophobic, interface, and polar membrane layers for each energy evaluation. The optimal embedding is determined by maximizing the exposure of surface hydrophobic residues within the membrane and minimizing hydrophobic exposure outside of the membrane. Protein conformations are built up using the Rosetta fragment assembly method and evaluated using a new membrane-specific version of the Rosetta low-resolution energy function in which residue–residue and residue–environment interactions are functions of the membrane layer in addition to amino acid identity, distance, and density. We find that lower energy and more native-like structures are achieved by sequential addition of helices to a growing chain, which may mimic some aspects of helical protein biogenesis after translocation, rather than folding the whole chain simultaneously as in the Rosetta soluble protein prediction method. In tests on 12 membraneproteins for which the structure is known, between 51 and 145 residues were predicted with root-mean-square deviation <4Å from the native structure. PMID:16372357

Cell surface receptors are integral membraneproteins that receive external stimuli, and transmit signals across plasma membranes. In the conventional view of receptor activation, ligand binding to the extracellular side of the receptor induces conformational changes, which convert the structure of the receptor into an active conformation. However, recent NMR studies of cell surface membraneproteins have revealed that their structures are more dynamic than previously envisioned, and they fluctuate between multiple conformations in an equilibrium on various timescales. In addition, NMR analyses, along with biochemical and cell biological experiments indicated that such dynamical properties are critical for the proper functions of the receptors. In this review, we will describe several NMR studies that revealed direct linkage between the structural dynamics and the functions of the cell surface membraneproteins, such as G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), ion channels, membrane transporters, and cell adhesion molecules.

Membraneproteins are a class of nanoscopic entities that control the matter, energy, and information transport across cellular boundaries. Electrostatic interactions are shown to direct the rapid co-assembly of proteorhodopsin (PR) and lipids into long-range crystalline arrays. The roles of inherent charge variations on lipid membranes and PR variants with different compositions are examined by tuning recombinant PR variants with different extramembrane domain sizes and charged amino acid substitutions, lipid membrane compositions, and lipid-to-PR stoichiometric ratios. Rational control of this predominantly electrostatic assembly for PR crystallization is demonstrated, and the same principles should be applicable to the assembly and crystallization of other integral membraneproteins.

It is poorly understood how membraneproteins destined for the inner nuclear membrane pass the crowded environment of the Nuclear Pore Complex (NPC). For the Saccharomyces cerevisiae proteins Src1/Heh1 and Heh2, a transport mechanism was proposed where the transmembrane domains diffuse through the membrane while the extralumenal domains encoding a nuclear localization signal (NLS) and intrinsically disordered linker (L) are accompanied by transport factors and travel through the NPC. Here, we validate the proposed mechanism and explore and discuss alternative interpretations of the data. First, to disprove an interpretation where the membraneproteins become membrane embedded only after nuclear import, we present biochemical and localization data to support that the previously used, as well as newly designed reporter proteins are membrane-embedded irrespective of the presence of the sorting signals, the specific transmembrane domain (multipass or tail anchored), independent of GET, and also under conditions that the proteins are trapped in the NPC. Second, using the recently established size limit for passive diffusion of membraneproteins in yeast, and using an improved assay, we confirm active import of polytopic membraneprotein with extralumenal soluble domains larger than those that can pass by diffusion on similar timescales. This reinforces that NLS-L dependent active transport is distinct from passive diffusion. Thirdly, we revisit the proposed route through the center of the NPC and conclude that the previously used trapping assay is, unfortunately, poorly suited to address the route through the NPC, and the route thus remains unresolved. Apart from the uncertainty about the route through the NPC, the data confirm active, transport factor dependent, nuclear transport of membrane-embedded mono- and polytopic membraneproteins in baker’s yeast. PMID:26473931

It is poorly understood how membraneproteins destined for the inner nuclear membrane pass the crowded environment of the Nuclear Pore Complex (NPC). For the Saccharomyces cerevisiae proteins Src1/Heh1 and Heh2, a transport mechanism was proposed where the transmembrane domains diffuse through the membrane while the extralumenal domains encoding a nuclear localization signal (NLS) and intrinsically disordered linker (L) are accompanied by transport factors and travel through the NPC. Here, we validate the proposed mechanism and explore and discuss alternative interpretations of the data. First, to disprove an interpretation where the membraneproteins become membrane embedded only after nuclear import, we present biochemical and localization data to support that the previously used, as well as newly designed reporter proteins are membrane-embedded irrespective of the presence of the sorting signals, the specific transmembrane domain (multipass or tail anchored), independent of GET, and also under conditions that the proteins are trapped in the NPC. Second, using the recently established size limit for passive diffusion of membraneproteins in yeast, and using an improved assay, we confirm active import of polytopic membraneprotein with extralumenal soluble domains larger than those that can pass by diffusion on similar timescales. This reinforces that NLS-L dependent active transport is distinct from passive diffusion. Thirdly, we revisit the proposed route through the center of the NPC and conclude that the previously used trapping assay is, unfortunately, poorly suited to address the route through the NPC, and the route thus remains unresolved. Apart from the uncertainty about the route through the NPC, the data confirm active, transport factor dependent, nuclear transport of membrane-embedded mono- and polytopic membraneproteins in baker's yeast. PMID:26473931

Evidence that membraneproteins respond conformationally and functionally to their environment is gaining pace. Structural models, by necessity, have been characterized in preparations where the protein has been removed from its native environment. Different structural methods have used various membrane mimetics that have recently included lipid bilayers as a more native-like environment. Structural tools applied to lipid bilayer-embedded integral proteins are informing us about important generic characteristics of how membraneproteins respond to the lipid environment as compared with their response to other non-lipid environments. Here, we review the current status of the field, with specific reference to observations of some well-studied α-helical membraneproteins, as a starting point to aid the development of possible generic principals for model refinement. PMID:23996195

Many functions of the plasma membrane depend critically on its structure and dynamics. Observation of anomalous diffusion in vivo and in vitro using fluorescence microscopy and single particle tracking has advanced our concept of the membrane from a homogeneous fluid bilayer with freely diffusing proteins to a highly organized crowded and clustered mosaic of lipids and proteins. Unfortunately, anomalous diffusion could not be related to local molecular details given the lack of direct and unlabeled molecular observation capabilities. Here, we use high-speed atomic force microscopy and a novel analysis methodology to analyze the pore forming protein lysenin in a highly crowded environment and document coexistence of several diffusion regimes within one membrane. We show the formation of local glassy phases, where proteins are trapped in neighbor-formed cages for time scales up to 10 s, which had not been previously experimentally reported for biological membranes. Furthermore, around solid-like patches and immobile molecules a slower glass phase is detected leading to protein trapping and creating a perimeter of decreased membrane diffusion. PMID:26859708

The Gram-positive bacterium Lactococcus lactis has many properties that are ideal for the overproduction of membraneproteins in a functional form. Growth of lactococci is rapid, proceeds to high cell densities, and does not require aeration, which facilitates large-scale fermentation. The available promoter systems are strong and tightly regulated, allowing expression of toxic gene products in a controlled manner. Expressed membraneproteins are targeted exclusively to the cytoplasmic membrane, allowing the use of ionophores, ligands, and inhibitors to study activity of the membraneprotein in whole cells. Constructed plasmids are stable and expression levels are highly reproducible. The relatively small genome size of the organism causes little redundancy, which facilitates complementation studies and allows for easier purification. The produced membraneproteins are often stable, as the organism has limited proteolytic capability, and they are readily solubilized from the membrane with mild detergents. Lactococci are multiple amino acid auxotrophs, allowing the incorporation of labels, such as selenomethionine. Among the few disadvantages are the low transformation frequency, AT-rich codon usage, and resistance to lysis by mechanical means, but these problems can be overcome fairly easily. We will describe in detail the protocols used to express membraneproteins in L. lactis, from cloning of the target gene to the isolation of membrane vesicles for the determination of expression levels. PMID:25857778

The limited therapeutic arsenal and the increase in reports of fungal resistance to multiple antifungal agents have made fungal infections a major therapeutic challenge. The polyene antibiotics are the only group of antifungal antibiotics that directly target the plasma membrane via a specific interaction with the main fungal sterol, ergosterol, often resulting in membrane permeabilization. In contrast to other polyene antibiotics that form pores in the membrane, the mode of action of natamycin has remained obscure but is not related to membrane permeabilization. Here, we demonstrate that natamycin inhibits growth of yeasts and fungi via the immediate inhibition of amino acid and glucose transport across the plasma membrane. This is attributable to ergosterol-specific and reversible inhibition of membrane transport proteins. It is proposed that ergosterol-dependent inhibition of membraneproteins is a general mode of action of all the polyene antibiotics, of which some have been shown additionally to permeabilize the plasma membrane. Our results imply that sterol-protein interactions are fundamentally important for protein function even for those proteins that are not known to reside in sterol-rich domains. PMID:22733749

The limited therapeutic arsenal and the increase in reports of fungal resistance to multiple antifungal agents have made fungal infections a major therapeutic challenge. The polyene antibiotics are the only group of antifungal antibiotics that directly target the plasma membrane via a specific interaction with the main fungal sterol, ergosterol, often resulting in membrane permeabilization. In contrast to other polyene antibiotics that form pores in the membrane, the mode of action of natamycin has remained obscure but is not related to membrane permeabilization. Here, we demonstrate that natamycin inhibits growth of yeasts and fungi via the immediate inhibition of amino acid and glucose transport across the plasma membrane. This is attributable to ergosterol-specific and reversible inhibition of membrane transport proteins. It is proposed that ergosterol-dependent inhibition of membraneproteins is a general mode of action of all the polyene antibiotics, of which some have been shown additionally to permeabilize the plasma membrane. Our results imply that sterol-protein interactions are fundamentally important for protein function even for those proteins that are not known to reside in sterol-rich domains. PMID:22733749

The native environment for a membraneprotein is a phospholipid bilayer. Because the protein is immobilized on NMR timescales by the interactions within a bilayer membrane, solid-state NMR methods are essential to obtain high-resolution spectra. Approaches have been developed for both unoriented and oriented samples, however, they all rest on the foundation of the most fundamental aspects solid-state NMR, and the chemical shift and homo- and hetero-nuclear dipole-dipole interactions. Solid-state NMR has advanced sufficiently to enable the structures of membraneproteins to be determined under near-native conditions in phospholipid bilayers. PMID:25681966

Membraneproteins are very important in controlling bioenergetics, functional activity, and initializing signal pathways in a wide variety of complicated biological systems. They also represent approximately 50% of the potential drug targets. EPR spectroscopy is a very popular and powerful biophysical tool that is used to study the structural and dynamic properties of membraneproteins. In this article, a basic overview of the most commonly used EPR techniques and examples of recent applications to answer pertinent structural and dynamic related questions on membraneprotein systems will be presented. PMID:26855825

Biomolecular simulation derived properties of LPS membranes that impact the structural and internal dynamics of transmembrane proteins are shown to exhibit good agreement with available experimental data within the time scale simulated, chosen force field and simulation conditions. The molecular model used offers an accurate representation of the LPS layer, including the high asymmetry and low fluidity characteristics of outer membranes. This contribution describes the data intensive analysis of the large molecular time trajectories generated for these systems using massively parallel computing resources.

The use of styrene maleic acid lipid particles (SMALPs) for the purification of membraneproteins (MPs) is a rapidly developing technology. The amphiphilic copolymer of styrene and maleic acid (SMA) disrupts biological membranes and can extract membraneproteins in nanodiscs of approximately 10 nm diameter. These discs contain SMA, protein and membrane lipids. There is evidence that MPs in SMALPs retain their native structures and functions, in some cases with enhanced thermal stability. In addition, the method is compatible with biological buffers and a wide variety of biophysical and structural analysis techniques. The use of SMALPs to solubilize and stabilize MPs offers a new approach in our attempts to understand, and influence, the structure and function of MPs and biological membranes. In this review, we critically assess progress with this method, address some of the associated technical challenges, and discuss opportunities for exploiting SMA and SMALPs to expand our understanding of MP biology. PMID:27528746

Rationale Cardiac membrane excitability is tightly regulated by an integrated network of membrane-associated ion channels, transporters, receptors, and signaling molecules. Membraneprotein dynamics in health and disease are maintained by a complex ensemble of intracellular targeting, scaffolding, recycling, and degradation pathways. Surprisingly, despite decades of research linking dysfunction in membraneprotein trafficking with human cardiovascular disease, essentially nothing is known regarding the molecular identity or function of these intracellular targeting pathways in excitable cardiomyocytes. Objective We sought to discover novel pathways for membraneprotein targeting in primary cardiomyocytes. Methods and Results We report the initial characterization of a large family of membrane trafficking proteins in human heart. We employed a tissue-wide screen for novel ankyrin-associated trafficking proteins and identified four members of a unique Eps15 homology (EH) domain-containing protein family (EHD1, EHD2, EHD3, EHD4) that serve critical roles in endosome-based membraneprotein targeting in other cell types. We show that EHD1-4 directly associate with ankyrin, provide the first information on the expression and localization of these molecules in primary cardiomyocytes, and demonstrate that EHD1-4 are co-expressed with ankyrin-B in the myocyte perinuclear region. Notably, the expression of multiple EHD proteins is increased in animal models lacking ankyrin-B, and EHD3-deficient cardiomyocytes display aberrant ankyrin-B localization and selective loss of Na/Ca exchanger expression and function. Finally, we report significant modulation of EHD expression following myocardial infarction, suggesting that these proteins may play a key role in regulating membrane excitability in normal and diseased heart. Conclusions Our findings identify and characterize a new class of cardiac trafficking proteins, define the first group of proteins associated with the ankyrin

Detergents play a significant role in structural and functional characterisation of integral membraneproteins (IMPs). IMPs reside in the biological membranes and exhibit a great variation in their structural and physical properties. For in vitro biophysical studies, structural and functional analyses, IMPs need to be extracted from the membrane lipid bilayer environment in which they are found and purified to homogeneity while maintaining a folded and functionally active state. Detergents are capable of successfully solubilising and extracting the IMPs from the membrane bilayers. A number of detergents with varying structure and physicochemical properties are commercially available and can be applied for this purpose. Nevertheless, it is important to choose a detergent that is not only able to extract the membraneprotein but also provide an optimal environment while retaining the correct structural and physical properties of the protein molecule. Choosing the best detergent for this task can be made possible by understanding the physical and chemical properties of the different detergents and their interaction with the IMPs. In addition, understanding the mechanism of membrane solubilisation and protein extraction along with crystallisation requirements, if crystallographic studies are going to be undertaken, can help in choosing the best detergent for the purpose. This chapter aims to present the fundamental properties of detergents and highlight information relevant to IMP crystallisation. The first section of the chapter reviews the physicochemical properties of detergents and parameters essential for predicting their behaviour in solution. The second section covers the interaction of detergents with the biologic membranes and proteins followed by their role in membraneprotein crystallisation. The last section will briefly cover the types of detergent and their properties focusing on custom designed detergents for membraneprotein studies. PMID:27553232

Mass spectrometry of intact soluble protein complexes has emerged as a powerful technique to study the stoichiometry, structure-function and dynamics of protein assemblies. Recent developments have extended this technique to the study of membraneprotein complexes where it has already revealed subunit stoichiometries and specific phospholipid interactions. Here, we describe a protocol for mass spectrometry of membraneprotein complexes. The protocol begins with preparation of the membraneprotein complex enabling not only the direct assessment of stoichiometry, delipidation, and quality of the target complex, but also evaluation of the purification strategy. A detailed list of compatible non-ionic detergents is included, along with a protocol for screening detergents to find an optimal one for mass spectrometry, biochemical and structural studies. This protocol also covers the preparation of lipids for protein-lipid binding studies and includes detailed settings for a Q-ToF mass spectrometer after introduction of complexes from gold-coated nanoflow capillaries. PMID:23471109

Membraneproteins are localized within a lipid bilayer; in order to purify them for functional and structural studies the first step must involve solubilizing or extracting the protein from these lipids. To date this has been achieved using detergents which disrupt the bilayer and bind to the protein in the transmembrane region. However finding conditions for optimal extraction, without destabilizing protein structure, is time consuming and expensive. Here we present a recently-developed method using a styrene-maleic acid (SMA) co-polymer instead of detergents. The SMA co-polymer extracts membraneproteins in a small disc of lipid bilayer which can be used for affinity chromatography purification, thus enabling the purification of membraneproteins while maintaining their native lipid bilayer environment. PMID:27485341

Structure elucidation of large membraneprotein complexes still comprises a considerable challenge yet is a key factor in drug development and disease combat. Femtosecond nanocrystallography is an emerging technique with which structural information of membraneproteins is obtained without the need to grow large crystals, thus overcoming the experimental riddle faced in traditional crystallography methods. Here, we demonstrate for the first time a microfluidic device capable of sorting membraneprotein crystals based on size using dielectrophoresis. We demonstrate the excellent sorting power of this new approach with numerical simulations of selected sub-micrometer beads in excellent agreement with experimental observations. Crystals from batch crystallization broths of the huge membraneprotein complex photosystem I were sorted without further treatment, resulting in a high degree of monodispersity and crystallinity in the ~ 100 nm size range. Microfluidic integration, continuous sorting, and nanometer-sized crystal fractions make this method ideal for direct coupling to femtosecond nanocrystallography. PMID:24004002

Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have become a highly important technique to consider lipid membrane systems, and quite often they provide considerable added value to laboratory experiments. Rapid development of both software and hardware has enabled the increase of time and size scales reachable by MD simulations to match those attainable by several accurate experimental techniques. However, until recently, the quality and maturity of software tools available for building membrane models for simulations as well as analyzing the results of these simulations have seriously lagged behind. Here, we discuss the recent developments of such tools from the end-users' point of view. In particular, we review the software that can be employed to build lipid bilayers and other related structures with or without embedded membraneproteins to be employed in MD simulations. Additionally, we provide a brief critical insight into force fields and MD packages commonly used for membrane and membraneprotein simulations. Finally, we list analysis tools that can be used to study the properties of membrane and membraneprotein systems. In all these points we comment on the respective compatibility of the covered tools. We also share our opinion on the current state of the available software. We briefly discuss the most commonly employed tools and platforms on which new software can be built. We conclude the review by providing a few ideas and guidelines on how the development of tools can be further boosted to catch up with the rapid pace at which the field of membrane simulation progresses. This includes improving the compatibility between software tools and promoting the openness of the codes on which these applications rely. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Biosimulations edited by Ilpo Vattulainen and Tomasz Róg. PMID:26947184

Membraneproteins are essential for the flow of signals, nutrients and energy between cells and between compartments of the cell. Their mechanisms can only be fully understood once the precise structures, dynamics and interactions involved are defined at atomic resolution. Through advances in solution and solid state NMR spectroscopy, this information is now available, as demonstrated by recent studies of stable peripheral and transmembrane proteins. Here we highlight recent cases of G-protein coupled receptors, outer membraneproteins, such as VDAC, phosphoinositide sensors, such as the FAPP-1 pleckstrin homology domain, and enzymes including the metalloproteinase MMP-12. The studies highlighted have resulted in the determination of the 3D structures, dynamical properties and interaction surfaces for membrane-associated proteins using advanced isotope labelling strategies, solubilisation systems and NMR experiments designed for very high field magnets. Solid state NMR offers further insights into the structure and multimeric assembly of membraneproteins in lipid bilayers, as well as into interactions with ligands and targets. Remaining challenges for wider application of NMR to membrane structural biology include the need for overexpression and purification systems for the production of isotope-labelled proteins with fragile folds, and the availability of only a few expensive perdeuterated detergents.Step changes that may transform the field include polymers, such as styrene maleic acid, which obviate the need for detergent altogether, and allow direct high yield purification from cells or membranes. Broader demand for NMR may be facilitated by MODA software, which instantly predicts membrane interactive residues that can subsequently be validated by NMR. In addition, recent developments in dynamic nuclear polarization NMR instrumentation offer a remarkable sensitivity enhancement from low molarity samples and cell surfaces. These advances illustrate the current

Although certain membraneproteins are functional as monomeric polypeptides, others must assemble into oligomers to carry out their biological roles. High-resolution membraneprotein structures provide a valuable resource for examining the sequence features that facilitate-or preclude-assembly of membraneprotein monomers into multimeric structures. Here we have utilized a data set of 28 high-resolution alpha-helical membraneprotein structures comprising 32 nonredundant polypeptides to address this issue. The lipid-exposed surfaces of membraneproteins that have reached their fully assembled and functional biological units have been compared with those of the individual subunits that build quaternary structures. Though the overall amino acid composition of each set of surfaces is similar, a key distinction-the distribution of small-xxx-small motifs-delineates subunits from membraneproteins that have reached a functioning oligomeric state. Quaternary structure formation may therefore be dictated by small-xxx-small motifs that are not satisfied by intrachain contacts. PMID:17729275

Western blotting (protein blotting/electroblotting) is the gold standard in the analysis of complex protein mixtures. Electroblotting drives protein molecules from a polyacrylamide (or less commonly, of an agarose) gel to the surface of a binding membrane, thereby facilitating an increased availability of the sites with affinity for both general and specific protein reagents. The analysis of these complex protein mixtures is achieved by the detection of specific protein bands on a membrane, which in turn is made possible by the visualization of protein bands either by chemical staining or by reaction with an antibody of a conjugated ligand. Chemical methods employ staining with organic dyes, metal chelates, autoradiography, fluorescent dyes, complexing with silver, or prelabeling with fluorophores. All of these methods have differing sensitivities and quantitative determinations vary significantly. This review will describe the various protein staining methods applied to membranes after western blotting. "Detection" precedes and is a prerequisite to obtaining qualitative and quantitative data on the proteins in a sample, as much as to comparing the protein composition of different samples. "Detection" is often synonymous to staining, i.e., the reversible or irreversible binding by the proteins of a colored organic or inorganic chemical. PMID:26139252

Nanodiscs are self-assembled discoidal phospholipid bilayers surrounded and stabilized by membrane scaffold proteins (MSP), that have become a powerful and promising tool for the study of membraneproteins. Even though their reconstitution is highly regulated by the type of MSP and phospholipid input, a biophysical characterization leading to the determination of the stoichiometry of MSP, lipid and membraneprotein is essential. This is important for biological studies, as the oligomeric state of membraneproteins often correlates with their functional activity. Typically combinations of several methods are applied using, for example, modified samples that incorporate fluorescent labels, along with procedures that result in nanodisc disassembly and lipid dissolution. To obtain a comprehensive understanding of the native properties of nanodiscs, modification-free analysis methods are required. In this work we provide a strategy, using a combination of dynamic light scattering and analytical ultracentrifugation, for the biophysical characterization of unmodified nanodiscs. In this manner we characterize the nanodisc preparation in terms of its overall polydispersity and characterize the hydrodynamically resolved nanodisc of interest in terms of its sedimentation coefficient, Stokes’ radius and overall protein and lipid stoichiometry. Functional and biological applications are also discussed for the study of the membraneprotein embedded in nanodiscs under defined experimental conditions. PMID:23219517

Assembly of highly curved membrane structures is essential to cellular physiology. The prevailing view has been that proteins with curvature-promoting structural motifs, such as wedge-like amphipathic helices and crescent-shaped BAR domains, are required for bending membranes. Here we report that intrinsically disordered domains of the endocytic adaptor proteins, Epsin1 and AP180 are highly potent drivers of membrane curvature. This result is unexpected since intrinsically disordered domains lack a well-defined three-dimensional structure. However, in vitro measurements of membrane curvature and protein diffusivity demonstrate that the large hydrodynamic radii of these domains generate steric pressure that drives membrane bending. When disordered adaptor domains are expressed as transmembrane cargo in mammalian cells, they are excluded from clathrin-coated pits. We propose that a balance of steric pressure on the two surfaces of the membrane drives this exclusion. These results provide quantitative evidence for the influence of steric pressure on the content and assembly of curved cellular membrane structures. PMID:26204806

Assembly of highly curved membrane structures is essential to cellular physiology. The prevailing view has been that proteins with curvature-promoting structural motifs, such as wedge-like amphipathic helices and crescent-shaped BAR domains, are required for bending membranes. Here we report that intrinsically disordered domains of the endocytic adaptor proteins, Epsin1 and AP180 are highly potent drivers of membrane curvature. This result is unexpected since intrinsically disordered domains lack a well-defined three-dimensional structure. However, in vitro measurements of membrane curvature and protein diffusivity demonstrate that the large hydrodynamic radii of these domains generate steric pressure that drives membrane bending. When disordered adaptor domains are expressed as transmembrane cargo in mammalian cells, they are excluded from clathrin-coated pits. We propose that a balance of steric pressure on the two surfaces of the membrane drives this exclusion. These results provide quantitative evidence for the influence of steric pressure on the content and assembly of curved cellular membrane structures.

SUMMARY Accumulating structural studies of viral fusion glycoproteins have revealed unanticipated structural relationships between unrelated virus families and allowed the grouping of these membrane fusogens into three distinct classes. Here we review the newly identified group of class III viral fusion proteins, whose members include fusion proteins from rhabdoviruses, herpesviruses and baculoviruses. While clearly related in structure, the class III viral fusion proteins exhibit distinct structural features in their architectures as well as in their membrane-interacting fusion loops, which are likely related to their virus-specific differences in cellular entry. Further study of the similarities and differences in the class III viral fusion glycoproteins may provide greater insights into protein:membrane interactions that are key to promoting efficient bilayer fusion during virus entry. PMID:19356922

Red blood cells, milk fat droplets, or liposomes all have interfaces consisting of lipid membranes. These particles show significant shape deformations as a result of flow. Here we show that these shape deformations can induce adsorption of proteins to the membrane. Red blood cell deformability is an important factor in several diseases involving obstructions of the microcirculatory system, and deformation induced protein adsorption will alter the rigidity of their membranes. Deformation induced protein transfer will also affect adsorption of cells onto implant surfaces, and the performance of liposome based controlled release systems. Quantitative models describing this phenomenon in biomaterials do not exist. Using a simple quantitative model, we provide new insight in this phenomenon. We present data that show convincingly that for cells or droplets with diameters upwards of a few micrometers, shape deformations induce adsorption of proteins at their interface even at moderate flow rates.

Polytopic α-helical membraneproteins cannot spontaneously insert into lipid bilayers without assistance from polytopic α-helical membraneproteins that already reside in the membrane. This raises the question of how these proteins evolved. Our current knowledge of the insertion of α-helices into natural and model membranes is reviewed with the goal of gaining insight into the evolution of membraneproteins. Topics include: translocon-dependent membraneprotein insertion, antibiotic peptides and proteins, in vitro insertion of membraneproteins, chaperone-mediated insertion of transmembrane helices, and C-terminal tail-anchored (TA) proteins. Analysis of the E. coli genome reveals several predicted C-terminal TA proteins that may be descendents of proteins involved in pre-cellular membraneprotein insertion. Mechanisms of pre-translocon polytopic α-helical membraneprotein insertion are discussed. PMID:20039094

Separation of small proteins by charge with a solid-state porous membrane requires control over the protein's movement. Semiconductor membrane has this ability due to the electrically tunable electric potential profile inside the nanopore. In this work we investigate the possibility to separate the solution of two similar sized proteins by charge. As an example, we consider two small globular proteins abundant in humans: insulin (negatively charged) and ubiquitin (neutral). We find that the localized electric field inside the pore either attracts or repels the charged protein to or from the pore wall which affects the delay time before a successful translocation of the protein through the nanopore. However, the motion of the uncharged ubiquitin is unaffected. The difference in the delay time (and hence the separation) can be further increased by the application of the electrolyte bias which induces an electroosmotic flow in the pore. NSF DMR and CBET Grant No. 1352218.

X-ray crystallography remains the most robust method to determine protein structure at the atomic level. However, the bottlenecks of protein expression and purification often discourage further study. In this chapter, we address the most common problems encountered at these stages. Based on our experiences in expressing and purifying antimicrobial efflux proteins, we explain how a pure and homogenous protein sample can be successfully crystallized by the vapor diffusion method. We present our current protocols and methodologies for this technique. Case studies show step-by-step how we have overcome problems related to expression and diffraction, eventually producing high quality membraneprotein crystals for structural determinations. It is our hope that a rational approach can be made of the often anecdotal process of membraneprotein crystallization. PMID:25950974

The motional averaging of powder pattern line shapes is one of the most fundamental aspects of sold-state NMR. Since membraneproteins in liquid crystalline phospholipid bilayers undergo fast rotational diffusion, all of the signals reflect the angles of the principal axes of their dipole–dipole and chemical shift tensors with respect to the axis defined by the bilayer normal. The frequency span and sign of the axially symmetric powder patterns that result from motional averaging about a common axis provide sufficient structural restraints for the calculation of the three-dimensional structure of a membraneprotein in a phospholipid bilayer environment. The method is referred to as rotationally aligned (RA) solid-state NMR and demonstrated with results on full-length, unmodified membraneproteins with one, two, and seven trans-membrane helices. RA solid-state NMR is complementary to other solid-state NMR methods, in particular oriented sample (OS) solid-state NMR of stationary, aligned samples. Structural distortions of membraneproteins from the truncations of terminal residues and other sequence modifications, and the use of detergent micelles instead of phospholipid bilayers have also been demonstrated. Thus, it is highly advantageous to determine the structures of unmodified membraneproteins in liquid crystalline phospholipid bilayers under physiological conditions. RA solid-state NMR provides a general method for obtaining accurate and precise structures of membraneproteins under near-native conditions. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: NMR Spectroscopy for Atomistic Views of Biomembranes and Cell Surfaces. PMID:24747039

As we appreciate the importance of stabilising membraneproteins, the barriers towards their structure determination are being broken down. This change in mindset comes hand-in-hand with more effort placed on developing methods focused at screening for membraneproteins which are naturally stable in detergent solution or improving those that are not so. In practice, however, it is not easy to decide the best strategy to monitor and improve detergent stability, requiring a decision-making process that can be even more difficult for those new to the field. In this review we outline the importance of membraneprotein stability with discussions of the stabilisation strategies applied in context with the use of crystallisation scaffolds and the different types of crystallisation methods themselves. Where possible we also highlight areas that we think could push this field forward with emerging technologies, such as X-ray free electron lasers (X-feL), which could have a big impact on the membraneprotein structural biology community. We hope this review will serve as a useful guide for those striving to solve structures of both pro- and eukaryotic membraneproteins. PMID:23291355

Membraneproteins can deform the lipid bilayer in which they are embedded. If the bilayer is treated as an elastic medium, then these deformations will generate elastic interactions between the proteins. The interaction between a single pair is repulsive. However, for three or more proteins, we show that there are nonpairwise forces whose magnitude is similar to the pairwise forces. When there are five or more proteins, we show that the nonpairwise forces permit the existence of stable protein aggregates, despite their pairwise repulsions. PMID:9788923

The so-called "hub proteins" are those proteins in a protein-protein interaction network system that have remarkably higher interaction relations (or degrees) than the others. Therefore, the information of hub proteins can provide very useful insights for selecting or prioritizing targets during drug development. In this paper, by combining the multi-agent-based method with the graphical spectrum analysis and immune-genetic algorithm, a novel simulator for identifying the hub proteins from membraneprotein interaction networks is proposed. As a demonstration of using the simulator, two hub membraneproteins, YPL227C and YIL147C, were identified from a complicated network system consisting of 1500 membraneproteins. Meanwhile, along with the two identified hub proteins, their molecular functions, biological processes, and cellular components were also revealed. It is anticipated that the hub-protein-simulator may become a very useful tool for system biology and drug development, particularly in deciphering unknown protein functions, determining protein complexes, and in identifying the key targets from a complicated disease system. PMID:20507268

We have developed a novel approach to modeling the transmembrane spanning helical bundles of integral membraneproteins using only a sparse set of distance constraints, such as those derived from MS3-D, dipolar-EPR and FRET experiments. Algorithms have been written for searching the conformational space of membraneprotein folds matching the set of distance constraints, which provides initial structures for local conformational searches. Local conformation search is achieved by optimizing these candidates against a custom penalty function that incorporates both measures derived from statistical analysis of solved membraneprotein structures and distance constraints obtained from experiments. This results in refined helical bundles to which the interhelical loops and amino acid side-chains are added. Using a set of only 27 distance constraints extracted from the literature, our methods successfully recover the structure of dark-adapted rhodopsin to within 3.2 {angstrom} of the crystal structure.

The intricate structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells depends on the ability to target proteins to specific cellular locations. In most cases, we have a poor understanding of the underlying mechanisms. A typical example is the assembly of bacterial chemoreceptors at cell poles. Here we show that the classical chemoreceptor TlpA of Bacillus subtilis does not localize according to the consensus stochastic nucleation mechanism but accumulates at strongly curved membrane areas generated during cell division. This preference was confirmed by accumulation at non-septal curved membranes. Localization appears to be an intrinsic property of the protein complex and does not rely on chemoreceptor clustering, as was previously shown for Escherichia coli. By constructing specific amino-acid substitutions, we demonstrate that the preference for strongly curved membranes arises from the curved shape of chemoreceptor trimer of dimers. These findings demonstrate that the intrinsic shape of transmembrane proteins can determine their cellular localization.

The intricate structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells depends on the ability to target proteins to specific cellular locations. In most cases, we have a poor understanding of the underlying mechanisms. A typical example is the assembly of bacterial chemoreceptors at cell poles. Here we show that the classical chemoreceptor TlpA of Bacillus subtilis does not localize according to the consensus stochastic nucleation mechanism but accumulates at strongly curved membrane areas generated during cell division. This preference was confirmed by accumulation at non-septal curved membranes. Localization appears to be an intrinsic property of the protein complex and does not rely on chemoreceptor clustering, as was previously shown for Escherichia coli. By constructing specific amino-acid substitutions, we demonstrate that the preference for strongly curved membranes arises from the curved shape of chemoreceptor trimer of dimers. These findings demonstrate that the intrinsic shape of transmembrane proteins can determine their cellular localization. PMID:26522943

Protein filtration is important in many fields of science and technology such as medicine, biology, chemistry, and engineering. Recently, protein separation and filtering with nanoporous membranes has attracted interest due to the possibility of fast separation and high throughput volume. This, however, requires understanding of the protein's dynamics inside and in the vicinity of the nanopore. In this work, we utilize a Brownian dynamics approach to study the motion of the model protein insulin in the membrane-electrolyte electrostatic potential. We compare the results of the atomic model of the protein with the results of a coarse-grained and a single-bead model, and find that the coarse-grained representation of protein strikes the best balance between the accuracy of the results and the computational effort required. Contrary to common belief, we find that to adequately describe the protein, a single-bead model cannot be utilized without a significant effort to tabulate the simulation parameters. Similar to results for nanoparticle dynamics, our findings also indicate that the electric field and the electro-osmotic flow due to the applied membrane and electrolyte biases affect the capture and translocation of the biomolecule by either attracting or repelling it to or from the nanopore. Our computational model can also be applied to other types of proteins and separation conditions. PMID:27044064

Membranes obtained from whole-cell lysates of Methylococcus capsulatus (Bath) were separated by Triton X-100 extraction. The resulting insoluble fraction was enriched in outer membranes as assessed by electron microscopy and by the content of beta-hydroxy palmitic acid and particulate methane monooxygenase. Major proteins with molecular masses of approximately 27, 40, 46, 59, and 66 kDa were detected by SDS-PAGE of the Triton-X-100-insoluble membranes. MopA, MopB, MopC, MopD, and MopE (Methylococcus outer membraneprotein) are proposed to designate these proteins. Several of the Mop proteins exhibited heat-modifiable properties in SDS-PAGE and were influenced by the presence of 2-mercaptoethanol in the sample buffer. The 46- and 59-kDa bands migrated as a single high-molecular-mass 95-kDa oligomer under mild denaturing conditions. When reconstituted into black lipid membranes, this oligomer was shown to serve as a channel with an estimated single-channel conductance of 1.4 nS in 1 M KCl. PMID:9238104

Biological membranes define the structural and functional boundaries in living cells and their organelles. The integrity of the cell depends on its ability to separate inside from outside and yet at the same time allow massive transport of matter in and out the cell. Nature has elegantly met this challenge by developing membranes in the form of lipid bilayers in which specialized transport proteins are incorporated. This raises the question: is it possible to mimic biological membranes and create a membrane based sensor and/or separation device? In the development of a biomimetic sensor/separation technology, a unique class of membrane transport proteins is especially interesting-the major intrinsic proteins (MIPs). Generally, MIPs conduct water molecules and selected solutes in and out of the cell while preventing the passage of other solutes, a property critical for the conservation of the cells internal pH and salt concentration. Also known as water channels or aquaporins they are highly efficient membrane pore proteins some of which are capable of transporting water at very high rates up to 10(9) molecules per second. Some MIPs transport other small, uncharged solutes, such as glycerol and other permeants such as carbon dioxide, nitric oxide, ammonia, hydrogen peroxide and the metalloids antimonite, arsenite, silicic and boric acid depending on the effective restriction mechanism of the protein. The flux properties of MIPs thus lead to the question ifMIPs can be used in separation devices or as sensor devices based on, e.g., the selective permeation of metalloids. In principle a MIP based membrane sensor/separation device requires the supporting biomimetic matrix to be virtually impermeable to anything but water or the solute in question. In practice, however, a biomimetic support matrix will generally have finite permeabilities to both electrolytes and non-electrolytes. The feasibility of a biomimetic MIP device thus depends on the relative transport

Serum and membraneproteins are two of the most attractive targets for proteomic analysis. Previous membraneprotein studies tend to focus on tissue sample, while membraneprotein studies in serum are still limited. In this study, an analysis of membraneproteins in normal human serum was carried out. Nano-liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (NanoLC-ESI-MS/MS) and bioinformatics tools were used to identify membraneproteins. Two hundred and seventeen membraneproteins were detected in the human serum, of which 129 membraneproteins have at least one transmembrane domain (TMD). Further characterizations of identified membraneproteins including their subcellular distributions, molecular weights, post translational modifications, transmembrane domains and average of hydrophobicity, were also implemented. Our results showed the potential of membraneproteins in serum for diagnosis and treatment of diseases. PMID:25288886

Membraneproteins are typically expressed in heterologous systems with a view to in vitro characterization. A critical step in the preparation of membraneproteins after expression in any system is the solubilization of the protein in aqueous solution, typically using detergents and lipids, to obtain the protein in a form suitable for purification, structural or functional analysis. This process is particularly difficult as the objective is to prepare the protein in an unnatural environment, a protein detergent complex, separating it from its natural lipid partners while causing the minimum destabilization or modification of the structure. Although the process is difficult, and relatively hard to master, an increasing number of membraneproteins have been successfully isolated after expression in a wide variety of systems. In this chapter we give a general protocol for preparing protein detergent complexes that is aimed at guiding the reader through the different critical steps. In the second part of the chapter we illustrate how to analyze the composition of protein detergent complexes; this analysis is important as it has been found that compositional variation often causes irreproducible results. PMID:27485340

A two-dimensional version of the generalized Smoluchowski equation is used to analyze the time (or distance) dependent self diffusion of interacting membraneproteins in concentrated membrane systems. This equation provides a well established starting point for descriptions of the diffusion of particles that interact through both direct and hydrodynamic forces; in this initial work only the effects of direct interactions are explicitly considered. Data describing diffusion in the presence of hard-core repulsions, soft repulsions, and soft repulsions with weak attractions are presented. The effect that interactions have on the self-diffusion coefficient of a real protein molecule from mouse liver gap junctions is also calculated. The results indicate that self diffusion is always inhibited by direct interactions; this observation is interpreted in terms of the caging that will exist at finite protein concentration. It is also noted that, over small distance scales, the diffusion coefficient is determined entirely by the very strong Brownian forces; therefore, as a function of displacement the self-diffusion coefficient decays (rapidly) from its value at infinite dilution to its steady-state interaction-averaged value. The steady-state self-diffusion coefficient describes motion over distance scales that range from approximately 10 nm to cellular dimensions and is the quantity measured in fluorescence recovery after photobleaching experiments. The short-ranged behavior of the diffusion coefficient is important on the interparticle-distance scale and may therefore influence the rate at which nearest-neighbor collisional processes take place. The hard-disk theoretical results presented here are in excellent agreement with lattice Monte-Carlo results obtained by other workers. The concentration dependence of experimentally measured diffusion coefficients of antibody-hapten complexes bound to the membrane surface is consistent with that predicted by the theory. The

Summary There has been exponential growth in the number of membraneprotein structures determined. Nevertheless, these structures are usually resolved in the absence of their lipid environment. Coarse-grained molecular dynamics (CGMD) simulations enable insertion of membraneproteins into explicit models of lipid bilayers. We have automated the CGMD methodology, enabling membraneprotein structures to be identified upon their release into the PDB and embedded into a membrane. The simulations are analyzed for protein-lipid interactions, identifying lipid binding sites, and revealing local bilayer deformations plus molecular access pathways within the membrane. The coarse-grained models of membraneprotein/bilayer complexes are transformed to atomistic resolution for further analysis and simulation. Using this automated simulation pipeline, we have analyzed a number of recently determined membraneprotein structures to predict their locations within a membrane, their lipid/protein interactions, and the functional implications of an enhanced understanding of the local membrane environment of each protein. PMID:26073602

Lipid membranes regulate the flow of nutrients and communication signaling between cells and protect the sub-cellular structures. Recent attempts to fabricate artificial systems using nanostructures that mimic the physiological properties of natural lipid bilayer membranes (LBM) fused with transmembrane proteins have helped demonstrate the importance of temperature, pH, ionic strength, adsorption behavior, conformational reorientation and surface density in cellular membranes which all affect the incorporation of proteins on solid surfaces. Much of this work is performed on artificial templates made of polymer sponges or porous materials based on alumina, mica, and porous silicon (PSi) surfaces. For example, porous silicon materials have high biocompatibility, biodegradability, and photoluminescence, which allow them to be used both as a support structure for lipid bilayers or a template to measure the electrochemical functionality of living cells grown over the surface as in vivo. The variety of these media, coupled with the complex physiological conditions present in living systems, warrant a summary and prospectus detailing which artificial systems provide the most promise for different biological conditions. This study summarizes the use of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) data on artificial biological membranes that are closely matched with previously published biological systems using both black lipid membrane and patch clamp techniques. PMID:24185908

Cell membranes become highly curved during membrane trafficking, cytokinesis, infection, immune response or cell motion. Bin/amphiphysin/Rvs (BAR) domain proteins with their intrinsically curved and anisotropic shape are involved in many of these processes, but with a large spectrum of modes of action. In vitro experiments and multiscale computer simulations have contributed in identifying a minimal set of physical parameters, namely protein density on the membrane, membrane tension, and membrane shape, that control how bound BAR domain proteins behave on the membrane. In this review, we summarize the multifaceted coupling of BAR proteins to membrane mechanics and propose a simple phase diagram that recapitulates the effects of these parameters. PMID:26519988

The original ‘lipid raft’ hypothesis proposed that lipid-platforms/rafts form in the exoplasmic plasmalemmal leaflet by tight clustering of sphingolipids and cholesterol. Their physical state, presumably similar to liquid-ordered phases in model membranes, would confer detergent resistance to rafts and enriched proteins therein. Based on this concept, detergent resistant membranes (DRMs) from solubilized cells were considered to reflect pre-existing ‘lipid rafts’ in live cells. To date, more than 200 proteins were found in DRMs including also members of the SNARE superfamily, which are small membraneproteins involved in intracellular fusion steps. Their raft association indicates that they are not uniformly distributed, and, indeed, microscopic studies revealed that SNAREs concentrate in submicrometre-sized, cholesterol-dependent clusters at which vesicles fuse. However, the idea that SNARE clusters are ‘lipid rafts’ was challenged, as they do not colocalize with raft markers, and SNAREs are excluded from liquid-ordered phases in model membranes. Independent from this disagreement, in recent years the solubilization criterion has been criticized for several reasons, calling for a more exact definition of rafts. At a recent consensus on a revised raft model, the term ‘lipid rafts’ was replaced by ‘membrane rafts’ that were defined as ‘small (10–200 nm), heterogeneous, highly dynamic, sterol- and sphingolipid-enriched domains that compartmentalize cellular processes’. As a result, after dismissing the terms ‘detergent resistant’ and ‘liquid-ordered’, it now appears that SNARE clusters are bona fide ‘membrane rafts’. PMID:17478530

During the past year, electron crystallography of membraneproteins has provided structural insights into the mechanism of several different transporters and into their interactions with lipid molecules within the bilayer. From a technical perspective there have been important advances in high-throughput screening of crystallization trials and in automated imaging of membrane crystals with the electron microscope. There have also been key developments in software, and in molecular replacement and phase extension methods designed to facilitate the process of structure determination. PMID:22572457

Protein filtration is important in many fields of science and technology such as medicine, biology, chemistry, and engineering. Recently, protein separation and filtering with nanoporous membranes has attracted interest due to the possibility of fast separation and high throughput volume. This, however, requires understanding of the protein’s dynamics inside and in the vicinity of the nanopore. In this work, we utilize a Brownian dynamics approach to study the motion of the model protein insulin in the membrane–electrolyte electrostatic potential. We compare the results of the atomic model of the protein with the results of a coarse-grained and a single-bead model, and find that the coarse-grained representation of protein strikes the best balance between the accuracy of the results and the computational effort required. Contrary to common belief, we find that to adequately describe the protein, a single-bead model cannot be utilized without a significant effort to tabulate the simulation parameters. Similar to results for nanoparticle dynamics, our findings also indicate that the electric field and the electro-osmotic flow due to the applied membrane and electrolyte biases affect the capture and translocation of the biomolecule by either attracting or repelling it to or from the nanopore. Our computational model can also be applied to other types of proteins and separation conditions.

Ecto-protein kinases phosphorylate extracellular membraneproteins and exhibit similarities to casein kinases and protein kinases A and C. However, the identification of their protein substrates still remains a challenge because a clear separation from intracellular phosphoproteins is difficult. Here, we describe a straightforward method for the identification of extracellularly phosphorylated membraneproteins in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and K562 cells which used the protease bromelain to selectively remove ectoproteins from intact cells and combined this with the subsequent analysis using IMAC and LC-MS/MS. A "false-positive" strategy in which cells without protease treatment served as controls was applied. Using this approach we identified novel phosphorylation sites on five ectophosphoproteins (NOTCH1, otopetrin 1, regulator of G-protein signalling 13 (RGS13), protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor type D isoform 3 (PTPRD), usherin isoform B (USH2A)). Use of bromelain appears to be a reliable technique for the further identification of phosphorylated surface-exposed peptides when extracellular adenosine-5'-triphosphate is elevated during purinergic signalling. PMID:26152529

The Golgi-associated four-phosphate adaptor protein 2 (FAPP2) has been shown to possess transfer activity for glucosylceramide both in vitro and in cells. We have previously shown that FAPP2 is involved in apical transport from the Golgi complex in epithelial MDCK cells. In this paper we assign an unknown activity for the protein as well as providing structural insight into protein assembly and a low-resolution envelope structure. By applying analytical ultracentrifugation and small-angle x-ray scattering, we show that FAPP2 is a dimeric protein in solution, having a curved shape 30 nm in length. The purified FAPP2 protein has the capability to form tubules from membrane sheets in vitro. This activity is dependent on the phosphoinositide-binding activity of the PH domain of FAPP2. These data suggest that FAPP2 functions directly in the formation of apical carriers in the trans-Golgi network. PMID:19940249

A reproducible, and sample independent means of predictably obtaining large, well-ordered crystals has proven elusive in macromolecular crystallography. In the structure determination pipeline, crystallisation often proves to be a rate-limiting step, and the process of obtaining even small or badly ordered crystals can prove time-consuming and laborious. This is particularly true in the field of membraneprotein crystallography and this is reflected in the limited number of unique membraneprotein structures deposited in the protein data bank (less than 650 by June 2016 - http://blanco.biomol.uci.edu/mpstruc ). Over recent years the requirement for, and time and cost associated with obtaining, large crystals has been partially alleviated through the development of beamline instrumentation allowing data collection, and structure solution, from ever-smaller crystals. Advances in several areas have led to a step change in what might be considered achievable during a synchrotron trip over the last decade. This chapter will briefly review the current status of the field, the tools available to ease data collection and processing, and give some examples of exploitation of these for membraneprotein microfocus macromolecular crystallography. PMID:27553238

Pathogenic spirochetes are the causative agents of several important diseases including syphilis, Lyme disease, leptospirosis, swine dysentery, periodontal disease and some forms of relapsing fever. Spirochetal bacteria possess two membranes and the proteins present in the outer membrane are at the site of interaction with host tissue and the immune system. This review describes the current knowledge in the field of spirochetal outer membraneprotein (OMP) biology. What is known concerning biogenesis and structure of OMPs, with particular regard to the atypical signal peptide cleavage sites observed amongst the spirochetes, is discussed. We examine the functions that have been determined for several spirochetal OMPs including those that have been demonstrated to function as adhesins, porins or to have roles in complement resistance. A detailed description of the role of spirochetal OMPs in immunity, including those that stimulate protective immunity or that are involved in antigenic variation, is given. A final section is included which covers experimental considerations in spirochetal outer membrane biology. This section covers contentious issues concerning cellular localization of putative OMPs, including determination of surface exposure. A more detailed knowledge of spirochetal OMP biology will hopefully lead to the design of new vaccines and a better understanding of spirochetal pathogenesis. PMID:15449605

Serial femtosecond crystallography (SFX) at X-ray free-electron lasers (XFELs) is a powerful method to determine high-resolution structures of pharmaceutically relevant membraneproteins. Recently, the technology has been adapted to carry out serial millisecond crystallography (SMX) at synchrotron sources, where beamtime is more abundant. In an injector-based approach, crystals grown in lipidic cubic phase (LCP) or embedded in viscous medium are delivered directly into the unattenuated beam of a microfocus beamline. Pilot experiments show the application of microjet-based SMX for solving the structure of a membraneprotein and compatibility of the method with de novo phasing. Planned synchrotron upgrades, faster detectors and software developments will go hand-in-hand with developments at free-electron lasers to provide a powerful methodology for solving structures from microcrystals at room temperature, ligand screening or crystal optimization for time-resolved studies with minimal or no radiation damage. PMID:27553240

The final step in the exocytotic process is the docking and fusion of membrane-bound secretory vesicles at the cell plasma membrane. This docking and fusion is brought about by several participating vesicle membrane, plasma membrane and soluble cytosolic proteins. A clear understanding of the interactions between these participating proteins giving rise to vesicle docking and fusion is essential. In this study, the binding force profiles between synaptic vesicle membrane and plasma membraneproteins have been examined for the first time using the atomic force microscope. Binding force contributions of a synaptic vesicle membraneprotein VAMP1, and the plasma membraneproteins SNAP-25 and syntaxin, are also implicated from these studies. Our study suggests that these three proteins are the major, if not the only contributors to the interactive binding force that exist between the two membranes. PMID:10452835

The fundamental physical principles of the lateral organization of trans-membraneproteins and peptides as well as peripheral membraneproteins and enzymes are considered from the point of view of the lipid-bilayer membrane, its structure, dynamics, and cooperative phenomena. Based on a variety of theoretical considerations and model calculations, the nature of lipid-protein interactions is considered both for a single protein and an assembly of proteins that can lead to aggregation and protein crystallization in the plane of the membrane. Phenomena discussed include lipid sorting and selectivity at protein surfaces, protein-lipid phase equilibria, lipid-mediated protein-protein interactions, wetting and capillary condensation as means of protein organization, mechanisms of two-dimensional protein crystallization, as well as non-equilibrium organization of active proteins in membranes. The theoretical findings are compared with a variety of experimental data. PMID:9804966

Proteins containing a Bin/Amphiphysin/Rvs (BAR) domain regulate membrane curvature in the cell. Recent simulations have revealed that BAR proteins assemble into linear aggregates, strongly affecting membrane curvature and its in-plane stress profile. Here, we explore the opposite question: do mechanical properties of the membrane impact protein association? By using coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations, we show that increased surface tension significantly impacts the dynamics of protein assembly. While tensionless membranes promote a rapid formation of long-living linear aggregates of N-BAR proteins, increase in tension alters the geometry of protein association. At high tension, protein interactions are strongly inhibited. Increasing surface density of proteins leads to a wider range of protein association geometries, promoting the formation of meshes, which can be broken apart with membrane tension. Our work indicates that surface tension may play a key role in recruiting proteins to membrane-remodelling sites in the cell. PMID:26008710

A detailed protocol for crystallizing membraneproteins that makes use of lipidic mesophases is described. This has variously been referred to as the lipid cubic phase or in meso method. The method has been shown to be quite general in that it has been used to solve X-ray crystallographic structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic proteins, proteins that are monomeric, homo- and hetero-multimeric, chromophore-containing and chromophore-free, and α-helical and β-barrel proteins. Its most recent successes are the human engineered β2-adrenergic and adenosine A2A G protein-coupled receptors. Protocols are provided for preparing and characterizing the lipidic mesophase, for reconstituting the protein into the monoolein-based mesophase, for functional assay of the protein in the mesophase, and for setting up crystallizations in manual mode. Methods for harvesting micro-crystals are also described. The time required to prepare the protein-loaded mesophase and to set up a crystallization plate manually is about one hour. PMID:19390528

Nramp (natural resistance-associated macrophage protein) is a newly identified family of integral membraneproteins whose biochemical function is unknown. We report on the identification of Nramp homologs from the fly Drosophila melanogaster, the plant Oryza sativa, and the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Optimal alignment of protein sequences required insertion of very few gaps and revealed remarkable sequence identity of 28% (yeast), 40% (plant), and 55% (fly) with the mammalian proteins (46%, 58%, and 73% similarity), as well as a common predicted transmembrane topology. This family is defined by a highly conserved hydrophobic core encoding 10 transmembrane segments. Other features of this hydrophobic core include several invariant charged residues, helical periodicity of sequence conservation suggesting conserved and nonconserved faces for several transmembrane helices, a consensus transport signature on the intracytoplasmic face of the membrane, and structural determinants previously described in ion channels. These characteristics suggest that the Nramp polypeptides form part of a group of transporters or channels that act on as yet unidentified substrates. Images Fig. 1 PMID:7479731

Membraneproteins (MPs) are insoluble in aqueous media as a result of incompatibility between the hydrophilic property of the solvent molecules and the hydrophobic nature of MP surfaces, normally associated with lipid membranes. Amphipathic compounds are necessary for extraction of these macromolecules from the native membranes and their maintenance in solution. The amphipathic agents surround the hydrophobic segments of MPs, thus serving as a membrane mimetic system. Of the available amphipathic agents, detergents are most widely used for MP manipulation. However, MPs encapsulated by conventional detergent micelles have a tendency to undergo structural degradation, hampering MP advance, and necessitating the development of novel detergents with enhanced efficacy for MP study. In this chapter, we will introduce both conventional and novel classes of detergents and discuss about the chemical structures, design principles, and efficacies of these compounds for MP solubilization and stabilization. The behaviors of those agents toward MP crystallization will be a primary topic in our discussion. This discussion highlights the common features of popular conventional/novel detergents essential for successful MP structural study. The conclusions reached by this discussion would not only enable MP scientists to rationally select a set of detergent candidates among a large number of detergents but also provide detergent inventors with useful guidelines in designing novel amphipathic systems. PMID:25950960

Structure and function of many transmembrane proteins are affected by their environment. In this respect, reconstitution of a membraneprotein into a biomimetic polymer membrane can alter its function. To overcome this problem we used membranes formed by poly(1,4-isoprene-block-ethylene oxide) block copolymers blended with 1,2-diphytanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine. By reconstituting the outer membraneprotein OmpF from Escherichia coli into these membranes, we demonstrate functionality of this protein in biomimetic lipopolymer membranes, independent of the molecular weight of the block copolymers. At low voltages, the channel conductance of OmpF in 1 M KCl was around 2.3 nS. In line with these experiments, integration of OmpF was also revealed by impedance spectroscopy. Our results indicate that blending synthetic polymer membranes with phospholipids allows for the reconstitution of transmembrane proteins under preservation of protein function, independent of the membrane thickness. PMID:27547605

Summary Structure and function of many transmembrane proteins are affected by their environment. In this respect, reconstitution of a membraneprotein into a biomimetic polymer membrane can alter its function. To overcome this problem we used membranes formed by poly(1,4-isoprene-block-ethylene oxide) block copolymers blended with 1,2-diphytanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine. By reconstituting the outer membraneprotein OmpF from Escherichia coli into these membranes, we demonstrate functionality of this protein in biomimetic lipopolymer membranes, independent of the molecular weight of the block copolymers. At low voltages, the channel conductance of OmpF in 1 M KCl was around 2.3 nS. In line with these experiments, integration of OmpF was also revealed by impedance spectroscopy. Our results indicate that blending synthetic polymer membranes with phospholipids allows for the reconstitution of transmembrane proteins under preservation of protein function, independent of the membrane thickness. PMID:27547605

Membranes are flexible barriers that surround the cell and its compartments. To execute vital functions such as locomotion or receptor turnover, cells need to control the shapes of their membranes. In part, this control is achieved through membrane-bending proteins, such as the bin/amphiphysin/rvs domain (BAR) proteins. Many open questions remain about the mechanisms by which membrane-bending proteins function. Addressing this shortfall, recent structures of BAR protein:membrane complexes support existing mechanistic models, but also produced novel insights into how BAR-domain proteins sense, stabilize and generate curvature. Here we review these recent findings, focusing on how BAR proteins interact with the membrane, and how the resulting scaffold structures might aid the recruitment of other proteins to the sites where membranes are bent. PMID:23058040

The clustering of proteins and lipids in distinct microdomains is emerging as an important principle for the spatial patterning of biological membranes. Such domain formation can be the result of hydrophobic and ionic interactions with membrane lipids as well as of specific protein-protein interactions. Here using plasma membrane-resident SNARE proteins as model, we show that hydrophobic mismatch between the length of transmembrane domains (TMDs) and the thickness of the lipid membrane suffices to induce clustering of proteins. Even when the TMDs differ in length by only a single residue, hydrophobic mismatch can segregate structurally closely homologous membraneproteins in distinct membrane domains. Domain formation is further fine-tuned by interactions with polyanionic phosphoinositides and homo and heterotypic protein interactions. Our findings demonstrate that hydrophobic mismatch contributes to the structural organization of membranes.

Lipid bilayers are delicate structures that are easily disrupted by a variety of amphipathic molecules. Yet the viability of a cell requires the continued assembly of large amphipathic proteins within its membranes without damage. The need to minimize bilayer disruption may account for a number of fundamental features of membraneprotein assembly. These include the use of redundant sequence information to establish the topologies and folded structures of membraneproteins, and the existence of efficient mechanisms to rid cells of misassembled proteins. Most missense mutations that inactivate a membraneprotein probably do so by altering the folding of the membrane-inserted structure rather than by rearranging the topology or by changing key residues involved directly in function. Such misfolded membraneproteins may be toxic to cells if they escape cellular safeguards. This toxicity may underlie some human degenerative diseases due to mutant membraneproteins. PMID:8825471

A limiting factor in membraneprotein research is the ability to solubilize and stabilize such proteins. Detergents are used most often for solubilizing membraneproteins, but they are associated with protein instability and poor compatibility with structural and biophysical studies. Here we present a saposin-lipoprotein nanoparticle system, Salipro, which allows for the reconstitution of membraneproteins in a lipid environment that is stabilized by a scaffold of saposin proteins. We demonstrate the applicability of the method on two purified membraneprotein complexes as well as by the direct solubilization and nanoparticle incorporation of a viral membraneprotein complex from the virus membrane. Our approach facilitated high-resolution structural studies of the bacterial peptide transporter PeptTSo2 by single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and allowed us to stabilize the HIV envelope glycoprotein in a functional state. PMID:26950744

Proteomic analysis of membraneproteins is promising in identification of novel candidates as drug targets and/or disease biomarkers. Despite notable technological developments, obstacles related to extraction and solubilization of membraneproteins are frequently encountered. A critical discussion of the different preparative methods of membraneproteins is offered in relation to downstream proteomic applications, mainly gel-based analyses and mass spectrometry. Unknown proteins are often identified by high-throughput profiling of membraneproteins. In search for novel membraneproteins, analysis of protein sequences using computational tools is performed to predict for the presence of transmembrane domains. Here, we also present these bioinformatic tools with the human proteome as a case study. Along with technological innovations, advancements in the areas of sample preparation and computational prediction of membraneproteins will lead to exciting discoveries.

Membrane curvature has developed into a forefront of membrane biophysics. Numerous proteins involved in membrane curvature sensing and membrane curvature generation have recently been discovered, including proteins containing the crescent-shaped BAR domain as membrane binding and shaping module. Accordingly, the structure determination of these proteins and their multimeric complexes is increasingly well-understood. Substantially less understood, however, are thermodynamic and kinetic aspects and the detailed mechanisms of how these proteins interact with membranes in a curvature-dependent manner. New experimental approaches need to be combined with established techniques to be able to fill in these missing details. Here we use model membrane systems in combination with a variety of biophysical techniques to characterize mechanistic aspects of BAR domain protein function. This includes a characterization of membrane curvature sensing and membrane generation. We also establish kinetic and thermodynamic aspects of BAR protein dimerization in solution, and investigate kinetic aspects of membrane binding. We present two new approaches to investigate membrane shape instabilities and demonstrate that membrane shape instabilities can be controlled by protein binding and lateral membrane tension. This work is supported through NIH grant GM-097552 and NSF grant CBET-1053857.

Membraneproteins regulate vital cellular processes, including signaling, ion transport, and vesicular trafficking. Obtaining experimental access to their structures, conformational fluctuations, orientations, locations, and hydration in membrane environments, as well as the lipid membrane properties, is critical to understanding their functions. Dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) of frozen solids can dramatically boost the sensitivity of current solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance tools to enhance access to membraneprotein structures in native membrane environments. Overhauser DNP in the solution state can map out the local and site-specific hydration dynamics landscape of membraneproteins and lipid membranes, critically complementing the structural and dynamics information obtained by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. Here, we provide an overview of how DNP methods in solids and solutions can significantly increase our understanding of membraneprotein structures, dynamics, functions, and hydration in complex biological membrane environments. PMID:23331309

Membraneproteins regulate vital cellular processes, including signaling, ion transport, and vesicular trafficking. Obtaining experimental access to their structures, conformational fluctuations, orientations, locations, and hydration in membrane environments, as well as the lipid membrane properties, is critical to understanding their functions. Dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) of frozen solids can dramatically boost the sensitivity of current solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance tools to enhance access to membraneprotein structures in native membrane environments. Overhauser DNP in the solution state can map out the local and site-specific hydration dynamics landscape of membraneproteins and lipid membranes, critically complementing the structural and dynamics information obtained by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. Here, we provide an overview of how DNP methods in solids and solutions can significantly increase our understanding of membraneprotein structures, dynamics, functions, and hydration in complex biological membrane environments.

Membraneproteins are abundant, critically important biomolecules that conduct essential functions in all cells and are the targets of a significant number of therapeutic drugs. However, the analysis of their expression, modification, protein–protein interactions, and structure by mass spectrometry has lagged behind similar studies of soluble proteins. Here we review the limitations to analysis of integral membrane and membrane-associated proteins and highlight advances in sample preparation and mass spectrometry methods that have led to the successful analysis of this protein class. Advances in the analysis of membraneprotein posttranslational modification, protein–protein interaction, protein structure, and tissue distributions by imaging mass spectrometry are discussed. Furthermore, we focus our discussion on the application of mass spectrometry for the analysis of aquaporins as a prototypical integral membraneprotein and how advances in analytical methods have revealed new biological insights into the structure and function of this family of proteins. PMID:23394619

The clustering of proteins and lipids in distinct microdomains is emerging as an important principle for the spatial patterning of biological membranes. Such domain formation can be the result of hydrophobic and ionic interactions with membrane lipids as well as of specific protein–protein interactions. Here using plasma membrane-resident SNARE proteins as model, we show that hydrophobic mismatch between the length of transmembrane domains (TMDs) and the thickness of the lipid membrane suffices to induce clustering of proteins. Even when the TMDs differ in length by only a single residue, hydrophobic mismatch can segregate structurally closely homologous membraneproteins in distinct membrane domains. Domain formation is further fine-tuned by interactions with polyanionic phosphoinositides and homo and heterotypic protein interactions. Our findings demonstrate that hydrophobic mismatch contributes to the structural organization of membranes. PMID:25635869

The most expedient unit of the human body is its cell. Encapsulated within the cell are many infinitesimal entities and molecules which are protected by a cell membrane. The proteins that are associated with this lipid based bilayer cell membrane are known as membraneproteins and are considered to play a significant role. These membraneproteins exhibit their effect in cellular activities inside and outside of the cell. According to the scientists in pharmaceutical organizations, these membraneproteins perform key task in drug interactions. In this study, a technique is presented that is based on various computationally intelligent methods used for the prediction of membraneprotein without the experimental use of mass spectrometry. Statistical moments were used to extract features and furthermore a Multilayer Neural Network was trained using backpropagation for the prediction of membraneproteins. Results show that the proposed technique performs better than existing methodologies. PMID:26966690

The most expedient unit of the human body is its cell. Encapsulated within the cell are many infinitesimal entities and molecules which are protected by a cell membrane. The proteins that are associated with this lipid based bilayer cell membrane are known as membraneproteins and are considered to play a significant role. These membraneproteins exhibit their effect in cellular activities inside and outside of the cell. According to the scientists in pharmaceutical organizations, these membraneproteins perform key task in drug interactions. In this study, a technique is presented that is based on various computationally intelligent methods used for the prediction of membraneprotein without the experimental use of mass spectrometry. Statistical moments were used to extract features and furthermore a Multilayer Neural Network was trained using backpropagation for the prediction of membraneproteins. Results show that the proposed technique performs better than existing methodologies. PMID:26966690

Mitochondria import more than 1,000 different proteins from the cytosol. The proteins are synthesized as precursors on cytosolic ribosomes and are translocated by protein transport machineries of the mitochondrial membranes. Five main pathways for protein import into mitochondria have been identified. Most pathways use the translocase of the outer mitochondrial membrane (TOM) as the entry gate into mitochondria. Depending on specific signals contained in the precursors, the proteins are subsequently transferred to different intramitochondrial translocases. In this article, we discuss the connection between protein import and mitochondrial membrane architecture. Mitochondria possess two membranes. It is a long-standing question how contact sites between outer and inner membranes are formed and which role the contact sites play in the translocation of precursor proteins. A major translocation contact site is formed between the TOM complex and the presequence translocase of the inner membrane (TIM23 complex), promoting transfer of presequence-carrying preproteins to the mitochondrial inner membrane and matrix. Recent findings led to the identification of contact sites that involve the mitochondrial contact site and cristae organizing system (MICOS) of the inner membrane. MICOS plays a dual role. It is crucial for maintaining the inner membrane cristae architecture and forms contacts sites to the outer membrane that promote translocation of precursor proteins into the intermembrane space and outer membrane of mitochondria. The view is emerging that the mitochondrial protein translocases do not function as independent units, but are embedded in a network of interactions with machineries that control mitochondrial activity and architecture. PMID:25514890

A fundamental objective in membrane biology is to understand and predict how a protein sequence folds and orients in a lipid bilayer. Establishing the principles governing membraneprotein folding is central to understanding the molecular basis for membraneproteins that display multiple topologies, the intrinsic dynamic organization of membraneproteins, and membraneprotein conformational disorders resulting in disease. We previously established that lactose permease of Escherichia coli displays a mixture of topological conformations and undergoes postassembly bidirectional changes in orientation within the lipid bilayer triggered by a change in membrane phosphatidylethanolamine content, both in vivo and in vitro. However, the physiological implications and mechanism of dynamic structural reorganization of membraneproteins due to changes in lipid environment are limited by the lack of approaches addressing the kinetic parameters of transmembrane protein flipping. In this study, real-time fluorescence spectroscopy was used to determine the rates of protein flipping in the lipid bilayer in both directions and transbilayer flipping of lipids triggered by a change in proteoliposome lipid composition. Our results provide, for the first time to our knowledge, a dynamic picture of these events and demonstrate that membraneprotein topological rearrangements in response to lipid modulations occur rapidly following a threshold change in proteoliposome lipid composition. Protein flipping was not accompanied by extensive lipid-dependent unfolding of transmembrane domains. Establishment of lipid bilayer asymmetry was not required but may accelerate the rate of protein flipping. Membraneprotein flipping was found to accelerate the rate of transbilayer flipping of lipids. PMID:26512118

We study the interplay between the crystallization of proteins tethered to membranes and separation within the membranes of giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) composed of DOPC, sphingomyelin (SM), and cholesterol. These model membranes phase separate into coexisting liquid domains below a miscibility transition temperature. This phase separation captures some aspects of the formation of lipid rafts in cell membranes and demonstrates the influence of membrane composition on raft formation. Real cell membranes have a much more complicated structure. There are additional physical constraints present in cell membranes, such as their attachment to the cytoskeleton and the presence of membrane bound proteins. The self-association of membraneproteins can influence the membrane phase behavior. We begin to investigate these effects on model tethered protein- loaded membranes by incorporating a small amount of biotin-X- DPPE into our GUVs. The biotinylated lipid partitions into a cholesterol-poor phase; thus, streptavidin binds preferentially to one of the membrane phases. As streptavidin assembles to form crystalline domains, it restricts the membrane mobility. We examine the effect of this protein association on lipid phase separation, as well as the effect of the lipid phase separation on the crystallization of the tethered proteins.

We review the current state of membraneprotein structure determination using solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Multidimensional magic-angle-spinning correlation NMR combined with oriented-sample experiments has made it possible to measure a full panel of structural constraints of membraneproteins directly in lipid bilayers. These constraints include torsion angles, interatomic distances, oligomeric structure, protein dynamics, ligand structure and dynamics, and protein orientation and depth of insertion in the lipid bilayer. Using solid-state NMR, researchers have studied potassium channels, proton channels, Ca2+ pumps, G protein-coupled receptors, bacterial outer membraneproteins, and viral fusion proteins to elucidate their mechanisms of action. Many of these membraneproteins have also been investigated in detergent micelles using solution NMR. Comparison of the solid-state and solution NMR structures provides important insights into the effects of the solubilizing environment on membraneprotein structure and dynamics.

Many biological membranes consist of 50% or more (by weight) membraneproteins, which constitute approximately one-third of all proteins expressed in biological organisms. Helical membraneproteins function as receptors, enzymes, and transporters, among other unique cellular roles. Additionally, most drugs have membraneproteins as their receptors, notably the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors with seven transmembrane helices. Determining the structures of membraneproteins is a daunting task because of the effects of the membrane environment; specifically, it has been difficult to combine biologically compatible environments with the requirements for the established methods of structure determination. There is strong motivation to determine the structures in their native phospholipid bilayer environment so that perturbations from nonnatural lipids and phases do not have to be taken into account. At present, the only method that can work with proteins in liquid crystalline phospholipid bilayers is solid-state NMR spectroscopy.

Cells have developed an incredible machinery to facilitate the insertion of membraneproteins into the membrane. While we have a fairly good understanding of the mechanism and determinants of membrane integration, more data is needed to understand the insertion of membraneproteins with more complex insertion and folding pathways. This review will focus on marginally hydrophobic transmembrane helices and their influence on membraneprotein folding. These weakly hydrophobic transmembrane segments are by themselves not recognized by the translocon and therefore rely on local sequence context for membrane integration. How can such segments reside within the membrane? We will discuss this in the light of features found in the protein itself as well as the environment it resides in. Several characteristics in proteins have been described to influence the insertion of marginally hydrophobic helices. Additionally, the influence of biological membranes is significant. To begin with, the actual cost for having polar groups within the membrane may not be as high as expected; the presence of proteins in the membrane as well as characteristics of some amino acids may enable a transmembrane helix to harbor a charged residue. The lipid environment has also been shown to directly influence the topology as well as membrane boundaries of transmembrane helices—implying a dynamic relationship between membraneproteins and their environment. PMID:25970811

CONSPECTUS As a semi-permeable barrier that controls the flux of biomolecules in and out the cell, the plasma membrane is critical in cell function and survival. Many proteins interact with the plasma membrane and modulate its physiology. Within this large landscape of membrane-active molecules, researchers have focused significant attention on two specific classes of peptides, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) because of their unique properties. In this account, we describe our efforts over the last decade to build and understand synthetic mimics of antimicrobial peptides (SMAMPs). These endeavors represent one specific example of a much larger effort to understand how synthetic molecules interact with and manipulate the plasma membrane. Using both defined molecular weight oligomers and easier to produce, but heterogeneous, polymers, it has been possible to generate scaffolds with biological potency superior to the natural analogs. In one case, a compound has progressed through a phase II clinical trial for pan)staph infections. Modern biophysical assays highlighted the interplay between the synthetic scaffold and lipid composition leading to negative Gaussian curvature, a requirement for both pore formation and endosomal escape. The complexity of this interplay between lipids, bilayer components, and the scaffolds remains to be better resolved, but significant new insight has been provided. It is worthwhile to consider the various aspects of permeation and how these are related to ‘pore formation.’ More recently, our efforts have expanded toward protein transduction domains, or cell penetrating peptide, mimics. The combination of unique molecular scaffolds and guanidinium) rich side chains has produced an array of polymers with robust transduction (and delivery) activity. Being a new area, the fundamental interactions between these new scaffolds and the plasma membrane are just beginning to be understood. Negative Gaussian

Membraneproteins are key targets for pharmacological intervention because they are vital for cellular function. Here, we analyze recent progress made in the understanding of the structure and function of membraneproteins with a focus on rhodopsin and development of atomic force microscopy techniques to study biological membranes. Membraneproteins are compartmentalized to carry out extra- and intracellular processes. Biological membranes are densely populated with membraneproteins that occupy approximately 50% of their volume. In most cases membranes contain lipid rafts, protein patches, or paracrystalline formations that lack the higher-order symmetry that would allow them to be characterized by diffraction methods. Despite many technical difficulties, several crystal structures of membraneproteins that illustrate their internal structural organization have been determined. Moreover, high-resolution atomic force microscopy, near-field scanning optical microscopy, and other lower resolution techniques have been used to investigate these structures. Single-molecule force spectroscopy tracks interactions that stabilize membraneproteins and those that switch their functional state; this spectroscopy can be applied to locate a ligand-binding site. Recent development of this technique also reveals the energy landscape of a membraneprotein, defining its folding, reaction pathways, and kinetics. Future development and application of novel approaches during the coming years should provide even greater insights to the understanding of biological membrane organization and function. PMID:18321962

Using analytical calculations and computer simulations, we consider both the lateral diffusion of a membraneprotein and the fluctuation spectrum of the membrane in which the protein is embedded. The membraneprotein interacts with the membrane shape through its spontaneous curvature and bending rigidity. The lateral motion of the protein may be viewed as diffusion in an effective potential, hence, the effective mobility is always reduced compared to the case of free diffusion. Using a rigorous path-integral approach, we derive an analytical expression for the effective diffusion coefficient for small ratios of temperature and bending rigidity, which is the biologically relevant limit. Simulations show very good quantitative agreement with our analytical result. The analysis of the correlation functions contributing to the diffusion coefficient shows that the correlations between the stochastic force of the protein and the response in the membrane shape are responsible for the reduction. Our quantitative analysis of the membrane height correlation spectrum shows an influence of the protein-membrane interaction causing a distinctly altered wave-vector dependence compared to a free membrane. Furthermore, the time correlations exhibit the two relevant time scales of the system: that of membrane fluctuations and that of lateral protein diffusion with the latter typically much longer than the former. We argue that the analysis of the long-time decay of membrane height correlations can thus provide a new means to determine the effective diffusion coefficient of proteins in the membrane.

An integrated system was developed for directly processing living cells into peptides of membraneproteins. Living cells were directly injected into the system and cracked in a capillary column by ultrasonic treatment. Owing to hydrophilicity for broken pieces of the cell membrane, the obtained membranes were retained in a well-designed bi-filter. While cytoplasm proteins were eluted from the bi-filter, the membranes were dissolved and protein released by flushing 4 % SDS buffer through the bi-filter. The membraneproteins were subsequently transferred into a micro-reactor and covalently bound in the reactor for purification and digestion. As the system greatly simplified the whole pretreatment processes and minimized both sample loss and contamination, it could be used to analyze the membrane proteome samples of thousand-cell-scales with acceptable reliability and stability. We totally identified 1348 proteins from 5000 HepG2 cells, 615 of which were annotated as membraneproteins. In contrast, with conventional method, only 233 membraneproteins were identified. It is adequately demonstrated that the integrated system shows promising practicability for the membrane proteome analysis of small amount of cells. Graphical Abstract The legend of online abstract figure is (a) schematic illustration of membraneproteins extraction, purification and digestion from living cells; (b) diagrammatic sketch of the automatic integrated membrane proteome analysis system. PMID:26922343

The cell membrane is "stuffed" with proteins, whose transmembrane (TM) helical domains spontaneously associate to form functionally active complexes. For a number of membrane receptors, a modulation of TM domains' oligomerization has been shown to contribute to the development of severe pathological states, thus calling for detailed studies of the atomistic aspects of the process. Despite considerable progress achieved so far, several crucial questions still remain: How do the helices recognize each other in the membrane? What is the driving force of their association? Here, we assess the dimerization free energy of TM helices along with a careful consideration of the interplay between the structure and dynamics of protein and lipids using atomistic molecular dynamics simulations in the hydrated lipid bilayer for three different model systems - TM fragments of glycophorin A, polyalanine and polyleucine peptides. We observe that the membrane driven association of TM helices exhibits a prominent entropic character, which depends on the peptide sequence. Thus, a single TM peptide of a given composition induces strong and characteristic perturbations in the hydrophobic core of the bilayer, which may facilitate the initial "communication" between TM helices even at the distances of 20-30 Å. Upon tight helix-helix association, the immobilized lipids accommodate near the peripheral surfaces of the dimer, thus disturbing the packing of the surrounding. The dimerization free energy of the modeled peptides corresponds to the strength of their interactions with lipids inside the membrane being the lowest for glycophorin A and similarly higher for both homopolymers. We propose that the ability to accommodate lipid tails determines the dimerization strength of TM peptides and that the lipid matrix directly governs their association. PMID:26575933

Membraneproteins play crucial roles in signaling and as anchors for cell surface display. Proper secretion of a membraneprotein can be evaluated by its susceptibility to digestion by an extracellular protease, but this requires a crucial control to confirm membrane integrity during digestion. This protocol describes how to use this approach to determine how efficiently a protein is secreted to the outer surface of Gram-negative bacteria. Its success relies upon careful selection of an appropriate intracellular reporter protein that will remain undigested if the membrane barrier remains intact, but is rapidly digested when cells are lysed prior to evaluation. Reporter proteins that are resistant to proteases (e.g. maltose-binding protein) do not return accurate results; in contrast, proteins that are more readily digested (e.g. SurA) serve as more sensitive reporters of membrane integrity, yielding more accurate measurements of membraneprotein localization. Similar considerations apply when evaluating membraneprotein localization in other contexts, including eukaryotic cells and organelle membranes. Evaluating membraneprotein localization using this approach requires only standard biochemistry laboratory equipment for cell lysis, gel electrophoresis and western blotting. After expression of the protein of interest, this procedure can be completed in 4 h. PMID:26584447

A simulation method for the dynamics of inhomogeneous lipid bilayer membranes is presented. The membrane is treated using stochastic Saffman-Delbrück hydrodynamics, coupled to a phase-field description of lipid composition and discrete membraneproteins. Multiple applications are considered to validate and parameterize the model. The dynamics of membrane composition fluctuations above the critical point and phase separation dynamics below the critical point are studied in some detail, including the effects of adding proteins to the mixture.

We demonstrate that dynamic nuclear polarization of membraneproteins in lipid bilayers may be achieved using a novel polarizing agent: pairs of spin labels covalently bound to a protein of interest interacting at an intermolecular interaction surface. For gramicidin A, nitroxide tags attached to the N-terminal intermolecular interface region become proximal only when bimolecular channels forms in the membrane. We obtained signal enhancements of sixfold for the dimeric protein. The enhancement effect was comparable to that of a doubly tagged sample of gramicidin C, with intramolecular spin pairs. This approach could be a powerful and selective means for signal enhancement in membraneproteins, and for recognizing intermolecular interfaces. PMID:25828256

A protocol is described using lipid mutants and thiol-specific chemical reagents to study lipid-dependent and host-specific membraneprotein topogenesis by the substituted-cysteine accessibility method as applied to transmembrane domains (SCAM). SCAM is adapted to follow changes in membraneprotein topology as a function of changes in membrane lipid composition. The strategy described can be adapted to any membrane system. PMID:20419405

Many biological membranes consist of 50% or more (by weight) membraneproteins, which constitute approximately one-third of all proteins expressed in biological organisms. Helical membraneproteins function as receptors, enzymes, and transporters, among other unique cellular roles. Additionally, most drugs have membraneproteins as their receptors, notably the superfamily of G protein–coupled receptors with seven transmembrane helices. Determining the structures of membraneproteins is a daunting task because of the effects of the membrane environment; specifically, it has been difficult to combine biologically compatible environments with the requirements for the established methods of structure determination. There is strong motivation to determine the structures in their native phospholipid bilayer environment so that perturbations from nonnatural lipids and phases do not have to be taken into account. At present, the only method that can work with proteins in liquid crystalline phospholipid bilayers is solid-state NMR spectroscopy. PMID:23577669

Specialized proteins serve as scaffolds sculpting strongly curved membranes of intracellular organelles. Effective membrane shaping requires segregation of these proteins into domains and is, therefore, critically dependent on the protein-protein interaction. Interactions mediated by membrane elastic deformations have been extensively analyzed within approximations of large inter-protein distances, small extents of the protein-mediated membrane bending and small deviations of the protein shapes from isotropic spherical segments. At the same time, important classes of the realistic membrane-shaping proteins have strongly elongated shapes with large and highly anisotropic curvature. Here we investigated, computationally, the membrane mediated interaction between proteins or protein oligomers representing membrane scaffolds with strongly anisotropic curvature, and addressed, quantitatively, a specific case of the scaffold geometrical parameters characterizing BAR domains, which are crucial for membrane shaping in endocytosis. In addition to the previously analyzed contributions to the interaction, we considered a repulsive force stemming from the entropy of the scaffold orientation. We computed this interaction to be of the same order of magnitude as the well-known attractive force related to the entropy of membrane undulations. We demonstrated the scaffold shape anisotropy to cause a mutual aligning of the scaffolds and to generate a strong attractive interaction bringing the scaffolds close to each other to equilibrium distances much smaller than the scaffold size. We computed the energy of interaction between scaffolds of a realistic geometry to constitute tens of kBT, which guarantees a robust segregation of the scaffolds into domains. PMID:25710602

Membraneproteins are of outstanding importance in biology, drug discovery and vaccination. A common limiting factor in research and applications involving membraneproteins is the ability to solubilize and stabilize membraneproteins. Although detergents represent the major means for solubilizing membraneproteins, they are often associated with protein instability and poor applicability in structural and biophysical studies. Here, we present a novel lipoprotein nanoparticle system that allows for the reconstitution of membraneproteins into a lipid environment that is stabilized by a scaffold of Saposin proteins. We showcase the applicability of the method on two purified membraneprotein complexes as well as the direct solubilization and nanoparticle-incorporation of a viral membraneprotein complex from the virus membrane. We also demonstrate that this lipid nanoparticle methodology facilitates high-resolution structural studies of membraneproteins in a lipid environment by single-particle electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM) and allows for the stabilization of the HIV-envelope glycoprotein in a functional state. PMID:26950744

Organelles are surrounded by membranes with a distinct lipid and protein composition. While it is well established that lipids affect protein functioning and vice versa, it has been only recently suggested that elevated membraneprotein concentrations may affect the shape and organization of membranes. We therefore analyzed the effects of high chloroplast envelope protein concentrations on membrane structures using an in vivo approach with protoplasts. Transient expression of outer envelope proteins or protein domains such as CHUP1-TM–GFP, outer envelope protein of 7 kDa–GFP, or outer envelope protein of 24 kDa–GFP at high levels led to the formation of punctate, circular, and tubular membrane protrusions. Expression of inner membraneproteins such as translocase of inner chloroplast membrane 20, isoform II (Tic20-II)–GFP led to membrane protrusions including invaginations. Using increasing amounts of DNA for transfection, we could show that the frequency, size, and intensity of these protrusions increased with protein concentration. The membrane deformations were absent after cycloheximide treatment. Co-expression of CHUP1-TM–Cherry and Tic20-II–GFP led to membrane protrusions of various shapes and sizes including some stromule-like structures, for which several functions have been proposed. Interestingly, some structures seemed to contain both proteins, while others seem to contain one protein exclusively, indicating that outer and inner envelope dynamics might be regulated independently. While it was more difficult to investigate the effects of high expression levels of membraneproteins on mitochondrial membrane shapes using confocal imaging, it was striking that the expression of the outer membraneprotein Tom20 led to more elongate mitochondria. We discuss that the effect of protein concentrations on membrane structure is possibly caused by an imbalance in the lipid to protein ratio and may be involved in a signaling pathway regulating membrane

Membraneproteins are critical functional molecules in the human body, constituting more than 30% of open reading frames in the human genome. Unfortunately, a myriad of difficulties in overexpression and reconstitution into membrane mimetics severely limit our ability to determine their structures. Computational tools are therefore instrumental to membraneprotein structure prediction, consequently increasing our understanding of membraneprotein function and their role in disease. Here, we describe a general framework facilitating membraneprotein modeling and design that combines the scientific principles for membraneprotein modeling with the flexible software architecture of Rosetta3. This new framework, called RosettaMP, provides a general membrane representation that interfaces with scoring, conformational sampling, and mutation routines that can be easily combined to create new protocols. To demonstrate the capabilities of this implementation, we developed four proof-of-concept applications for (1) prediction of free energy changes upon mutation; (2) high-resolution structural refinement; (3) protein-protein docking; and (4) assembly of symmetric protein complexes, all in the membrane environment. Preliminary data show that these algorithms can produce meaningful scores and structures. The data also suggest needed improvements to both sampling routines and score functions. Importantly, the applications collectively demonstrate the potential of combining the flexible nature of RosettaMP with the power of Rosetta algorithms to facilitate membraneprotein modeling and design. PMID:26325167

Membraneproteins are critical functional molecules in the human body, constituting more than 30% of open reading frames in the human genome. Unfortunately, a myriad of difficulties in overexpression and reconstitution into membrane mimetics severely limit our ability to determine their structures. Computational tools are therefore instrumental to membraneprotein structure prediction, consequently increasing our understanding of membraneprotein function and their role in disease. Here, we describe a general framework facilitating membraneprotein modeling and design that combines the scientific principles for membraneprotein modeling with the flexible software architecture of Rosetta3. This new framework, called RosettaMP, provides a general membrane representation that interfaces with scoring, conformational sampling, and mutation routines that can be easily combined to create new protocols. To demonstrate the capabilities of this implementation, we developed four proof-of-concept applications for (1) prediction of free energy changes upon mutation; (2) high-resolution structural refinement; (3) protein-protein docking; and (4) assembly of symmetric protein complexes, all in the membrane environment. Preliminary data show that these algorithms can produce meaningful scores and structures. The data also suggest needed improvements to both sampling routines and score functions. Importantly, the applications collectively demonstrate the potential of combining the flexible nature of RosettaMP with the power of Rosetta algorithms to facilitate membraneprotein modeling and design. PMID:26325167

Rhomboids constitute a conserved protein superfamily that specifically binds membraneproteins and directs them into various different cellular pathways ranging from regulated secretion to endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated degradation (ERAD). Rhomboid proteases are known to release protein domains from membranes by a cut in their membrane anchor, whereas an emerging new class of rhomboid-family proteins lacks key catalytic residues and is not proteolytically active. Recent work has shown that these rhomboid pseudoproteases, including iRhoms and derlins, bind membraneproteins to regulate their fate, but the underlying molecular mechanism is not known. This review summarizes recent advances in the molecular understanding of rhomboid-family proteins and discusses common principles in how they recognize and bind proteins in the plane of the membrane. PMID:23369641

Multipass membraneproteins perform critical signal transduction and transport across membranes. How transmembrane helix (TMH) sequences encode the topology and conformational flexibility regulating these functions remains poorly understood. Here we describe a comprehensive analysis of the sequence-structure relationships at multiple interacting TMHs from all membraneproteins with structures in the Protein Data Bank (PDB). We found that membraneproteins can be deconstructed in interacting TMH trimer units, which mostly fold into six distinct structural classes of topologies and conformations. Each class is enriched in recurrent sequence motifs from functionally unrelated proteins, revealing unforeseen consensus and evolutionary conserved networks of stabilizing interhelical contacts. Interacting TMHs' topology and local protein conformational flexibility were remarkably well predicted in a blinded fashion from the identified binding-hotspot motifs. Our results reveal universal sequence-structure principles governing the complex anatomy and plasticity of multipass membraneproteins that may guide de novo structure prediction, design, and studies of folding and dynamics. PMID:26780406

Cysteine string proteins (csps) are highly conserved constituents of vertebrate and invertebrate secretory organelles. Biochemical and immunoprecipitation experiments implied that vertebrate csps were integral membraneproteins that were tethered to the outer leaflet of secretory vesicles via the fatty acyl residues of their extensively acylated cysteine string. Independently, work of others suggested that Drosophila csps were peripheral membraneproteins that were anchored to membranes by a mechanism that was independent of the cysteine string and its fatty acyl residues. We extended these investigation and found first that sodium carbonate treatment partially stripped both csps and the integral membraneprotein, synaptotagmin, from Drosophila membranes. Concomitantly, carbonate released fatty acids into the medium, arguing that it has a mild, solubilizing effect on these membranes. Second, we observed that Drosophila csps behaved like integral membraneproteins in Triton X-114 partitioning experiments. Third, we found that when membrane-bound csps were deacylated, they remained membrane bound. Moreover, it appeared that hydrophobic interactions were necessary for this persistent membrane association of csps. Thus, neither reducing conditions, urea, nor chaotropic agents displaced deacylated csps from membranes. Only detergents were effective in solubilizing deacylated csps. Finally, by virtue of the inaccessibility of deacylated csps to thiol alkylation by the membrane-impermeant alkylating reagent, iodoacetic acid, we inferred that it was the cysteine string domain that mediated the membrane association of deacylated csps. Thus, we conclude that under physiological conditions csps are integral membraneproteins of secretory organelles, and that the cysteine string domain plays a vital role in the membrane association of these proteins. PMID:9771899

Extraction of membraneproteins from biological membranes is usually accomplished with the help of detergents. This unit describes the use of detergents to solubilize and purify membraneproteins. The chemical and physical properties of the different classes of detergents typically used with biological samples are discussed. A separate section addresses the compatibility of detergents with applications downstream of the membraneprotein purification process, such as optical spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, protein crystallography, biomolecular NMR, or electron microscopy. A brief summary of alternative membraneprotein solubilizing and stabilizing systems is also included. Protocols in this unit include the isolation and solubilization of biological membranes and phase separation; support protocols for detergent removal, detergent exchange, and the determination of critical micelle concentration using different methods are also included. PMID:27038269

Hydrophobic thickness mismatch between integral membraneproteins and the surrounding lipid bilayer can produce lipid bilayer thickness deformations. Experiment and theory have shown that protein-induced lipid bilayer thickness deformations can yield energetically favorable bilayer-mediated interactions between integral membraneproteins, and large-scale organization of integral membraneproteins into protein clusters in cell membranes. Within the continuum elasticity theory of membranes, the energy cost of protein-induced bilayer thickness deformations can be captured by considering compression and expansion of the bilayer hydrophobic core, membrane tension, and bilayer bending, resulting in biharmonic equilibrium equations describing the shape of lipid bilayers for a given set of bilayer-protein boundary conditions. Here we develop a combined analytic and numerical methodology for the solution of the equilibrium elastic equations associated with protein-induced lipid bilayer deformations. Our methodology allows accurate prediction of thickness-mediated protein interactions for arbitrary protein symmetries at arbitrary protein separations and relative orientations. We provide exact analytic solutions for cylindrical integral membraneproteins with constant and varying hydrophobic thickness, and develop perturbative analytic solutions for noncylindrical protein shapes. We complement these analytic solutions, and assess their accuracy, by developing both finite element and finite difference numerical solution schemes. We provide error estimates of our numerical solution schemes and systematically assess their convergence properties. Taken together, the work presented here puts into place an analytic and numerical framework which allows calculation of bilayer-mediated elastic interactions between integral membraneproteins for the complicated protein shapes suggested by structural biology and at the small protein separations most relevant for the crowded membrane

Hydrophobic thickness mismatch between integral membraneproteins and the surrounding lipid bilayer can produce lipid bilayer thickness deformations. Experiment and theory have shown that protein-induced lipid bilayer thickness deformations can yield energetically favorable bilayer-mediated interactions between integral membraneproteins, and large-scale organization of integral membraneproteins into protein clusters in cell membranes. Within the continuum elasticity theory of membranes, the energy cost of protein-induced bilayer thickness deformations can be captured by considering compression and expansion of the bilayer hydrophobic core, membrane tension, and bilayer bending, resulting in biharmonic equilibrium equations describing the shape of lipid bilayers for a given set of bilayer-protein boundary conditions. Here we develop a combined analytic and numerical methodology for the solution of the equilibrium elastic equations associated with protein-induced lipid bilayer deformations. Our methodology allows accurate prediction of thickness-mediated protein interactions for arbitrary protein symmetries at arbitrary protein separations and relative orientations. We provide exact analytic solutions for cylindrical integral membraneproteins with constant and varying hydrophobic thickness, and develop perturbative analytic solutions for noncylindrical protein shapes. We complement these analytic solutions, and assess their accuracy, by developing both finite element and finite difference numerical solution schemes. We provide error estimates of our numerical solution schemes and systematically assess their convergence properties. Taken together, the work presented here puts into place an analytic and numerical framework which allows calculation of bilayer-mediated elastic interactions between integral membraneproteins for the complicated protein shapes suggested by structural biology and at the small protein separations most relevant for the crowded membrane

Well-characterized membraneprotein detergent complexes (PDC) that are pure, homogenous and stable with minimized excess detergent micelles are essential for functional assays and crystallization studies. Procedural steps to measure the mass, size, shape, homogeneity and molecular composition of PDCs and their host detergent micelle using size exclusion chromatography (SEC) with a Viscotek tetra detector array (TDA; absorbance, refractive index, light scattering and viscosity detectors) are presented. The value of starting with a quality PDC sample, the precision and accuracy of the results, and the use of a digital bench top refractometer are emphasized. An alternate and simplified purification and characterization approach using SEC with dual absorbance and refractive index detectors to optimize detergent and lipid concentration while measuring the PDC homogeneity are also described. Applications relative to purification and characterization goals are illustrated as well. PMID:25081744

A suite of reagents has been developed for three-dimensional crystallization of integral membranes present in solution as protein-detergent complexes (PDCs). The compositions of these reagents have been determined in part by proximity to the phase boundaries (lower consolute boundaries) of the detergents present in the PDCs. The acquisition of some of the requisite phase-boundary data and the preliminary design of several of the detergent- specific screens was supported by a NASA contract. At the time of expiration of the contract, a partial set of preliminary screens had been developed. This work has since been extended under non-NASA sponsorship, leading to near completion of a set of 20 to 30 different and unique detergent- specific 96-condition screens.

Structural analysis by NMR of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) has proven to be extremely challenging. To reduce the number of peaks in the NMR spectra by segmentally labeling a GPCR, we have developed a Guided Reconstitution method that includes the use of charged residues and Cys activation to drive heterodimeric disulfide bond formation. Three different cysteine-activating reagents: 5-5'-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) [DTNB], 2,2'-dithiobis(5-nitropyridine) [DTNP], and 4,4'-dipyridyl disulfide [4-PDS] were analyzed to determine their efficiency in heterodimer formation at different pHs. Short peptides representing the N-terminal (NT) and C-terminal (CT) regions of the first extracellular loop (EL1) of Ste2p, the Saccharomyces cerevisiae alpha-factor mating receptor, were activated using these reagents and the efficiencies of activation and rates of heterodimerization were analyzed. Activation of NT peptides with DTNP and 4-PDS resulted in about 60% yield, but heterodimerization was rapid and nearly quantitative. Double transmembrane domain protein fragments were biosynthesized and used in Guided Reconstitution reactions. A 102-residue fragment, 2TM-tail [Ste2p(G31-I120C)], was heterodimerized with CT-EL1-tail(DTNP) at pH 4.6 with a yield of ∼75%. A 132-residue fragment, 2TMlong-tail [Ste2p(M1-I120C)], was expressed in both unlabeled and (15)N-labeled forms and used with a peptide comprising the third transmembrane domain, to generate a 180-residue segmentally labeled 3TM protein that was found to be segmentally labeled using [(15)N,(1)H]-HSQC analysis. Our data indicate that the Guided Reconstitution method would be applicable to the segmental labeling of a membraneprotein with 3 transmembrane domains and may prove useful in the preparation of an intact reconstituted GPCR for use in biophysical analysis and structure determination. PMID:23897574

Integral membraneproteins in eukaryotes are central to various cellular processes and key targets in structural biology, biotechnology and drug development. However, the number of available structures for eukaryotic membraneprotein belies their physiological importance. Recently, the number of available eukaryotic membraneprotein structures has been steadily increasing due to the development of novel strategies in construct design, expression and structure determination. Here, we examine the major expression systems exploited for eukaryotic membraneproteins. Additionally we strive to tabulate and describe the recent expression strategies in eukaryotic membraneprotein structural biology. We find that a majority of targets have been expressed in advanced host systems and modified from their wild-type form with distinct focus on conformation and thermostabilisation. However, strategies for native protein purification should also be considered where possible, particularly in light of the recent advances in single particle cryo electron microscopy. PMID:27362979

We use coarse grained molecular dynamics simulations to investigate diffusion properties of sheared lipid membranes with embedded transmembrane proteins. In membranes without proteins, we find normal in-plane diffusion of lipids in all flow conditions. Protein embedded membranes behave quite differently: by imposing a simple shear flow and sliding the monolayers of the membrane over each other, the motion of protein clusters becomes strongly superdiffusive in the shear direction. In such a circumstance, the subdiffusion regime is predominant perpendicular to the flow. We show that superdiffusion is a result of accelerated chaotic motions of protein-lipid complexes within the membrane voids, which are generated by hydrophobic mismatch or the transport of lipids by proteins. PMID:24125292

Membrane interfaces formed at cell-cell junctions are associated with characteristic patterns of membraneproteins whose organization is critical for intracellular signalling. To isolate the role of membraneprotein size in pattern formation, we reconstituted model membrane interfaces in vitro using giant unilamellar vesicles decorated with synthetic binding and non-binding proteins. We show that size differences between membraneproteins can drastically alter their organization at membrane interfaces, with as little as a ~5 nm increase in non-binding protein size driving its exclusion from the interface. Combining in vitro measurements with Monte Carlo simulations, we find that non-binding protein exclusion is also influenced by lateral crowding, binding protein affinity, and thermally driven membrane height fluctuations that transiently limit access to the interface. This sensitive and highly effective means of physically segregating proteins has implications for cell-cell contacts such as T-cell immunological synapses (for example, CD45 exclusion) and epithelial cell junctions (for example, E-cadherin enrichment), as well as for protein sorting at intracellular contact points between membrane-bound organelles.

It is an exciting period in membraneprotein structural biology with a number of medically important protein structures determined at a rapid pace. However, two major hurdles still remain in the structural biology of membraneproteins. One is the inability to obtain large amounts of protein for crystallization and the other is the failure to get well-diffracting crystals. With single particle electron cryomicroscopy, both these problems can be overcome and high-resolution structures of membraneproteins and other labile protein complexes can be obtained with very little protein and without the need for crystals. In this review, I highlight recent advances in electron microscopy, detectors and software, which have allowed determination of medium to high-resolution structures of membraneproteins and complexes that have been difficult to study by other structural biological techniques. PMID:26435463

FhuA and FecA are two examples of energy-coupled outer membrane import proteins of gram-negative bacteria. FhuA transports iron complexed by the siderophore ferrichrome and serves as a receptor for phages, a toxic bacterial peptide, and a toxic protein. FecA transports diferric dicitrate and regulates transcription of an operon encoding five ferric citrate (Fec) transport genes. Properties of FhuA mutants selected according to the FhuA crystal structure are described. FhuA mutants in the TonB box, the hatch, and the beta-barrel are rather robust. TonB box mutants in FhuA FecA, FepA, Cir, and BtuB are compared; some mutations are suppressed by mutations in TonB. Mutant studies have not revealed a ferrichrome diffusion pathway, and tolerance to mutations in the region linking the TonB box to the hatch does not disclose a mechanism for how energy transfer from the cytoplasmic membrane to FhuA changes the conformation of FhuA such that bound substrates are released, the pore is opened, and substrates enter the periplasm, or how surface loops change their conformation such that TonB-dependent phages bind irreversibly and release their DNA into the cells. The FhuA and FecA crystal structures do not disclose the mechanism of these proteins, but they provide important information for specific functional studies. FecA is also a regulatory protein that transduces a signal from the cell surface into the cytoplasm. The interacting subdomains of the proteins in the FecA --> FecR --> FecI --> RNA polymerase signal transduction pathway resulting in fecABCDE transcription have been determined. Energy-coupled transporters transport not only iron and vitamin B12, but also other substrates of very low abundance such as sugars across the outer membrane; transcription regulation of the transport genes may occur similarly to that of the Fec transport genes. PMID:17370038

Membraneprotein interactions with lipids are crucial for their native biological behavior, yet traditional characterization methods are often carried out on purified protein in the absence of lipids. We present a simple method to transfer membraneproteins expressed in mammalian cells to an assay-friendly, cushioned, supported lipid bilayer platform using cell blebs as an intermediate. Cell blebs, expressing either GPI-linked yellow fluorescent proteins or neon-green fused transmembrane P2X2 receptors, were induced to rupture on glass surfaces using PEGylated lipid vesicles, which resulted in planar supported membranes with over 50% mobility for multipass transmembrane proteins and over 90% for GPI-linked proteins. Fluorescent proteins were tracked, and their diffusion in supported bilayers characterized, using single molecule tracking and moment scaling spectrum (MSS) analysis. Diffusion was characterized for individual proteins as either free or confined, revealing details of the local lipid membrane heterogeneity surrounding the protein. A particularly useful result of our bilayer formation process is the protein orientation in the supported planar bilayer. For both the GPI-linked and transmembrane proteins used here, an enzymatic assay revealed that protein orientation in the planar bilayer results in the extracellular domains facing toward the bulk, and that the dominant mode of bleb rupture is via the "parachute" mechanism. Mobility, orientation, and preservation of the native lipid environment of the proteins using cell blebs offers advantages over proteoliposome reconstitution or disrupted cell membrane preparations, which necessarily result in significant scrambling of protein orientation and typically immobilized membraneproteins in SLBs. The bleb-based bilayer platform presented here is an important step toward integrating membrane proteomic studies on chip, especially for future studies aimed at understanding fundamental effects of lipid interactions

Assembly of an infectious retroviral particle relies on multimerization of the Gag polyprotein at the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane. The three domains of Gag common to all retroviruses – MA, CA, and NC – provide the signals for membrane binding, assembly, and viral RNA packaging, respectively. These signals do not function independently of one another. For example, Gag multimerization enhances membrane binding and is more efficient when NC is interacting with RNA. MA binding to the plasma membrane is governed by several principles, including electrostatics, recognition of specific lipid head groups, hydrophobic interactions, and membrane order. HIV-1 uses many of these principles while Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) appears to use fewer. This review describes the principles that govern Gag interactions with membranes, focusing on RSV and HIV-1 Gag. The review also defines lipid and membrane behavior, and discusses the complexities in determining how lipid and membrane behavior impact Gag membrane binding. PMID:24808894

Single molecule techniques promise novel information about the properties and behavior of individual particles, thus enabling access to molecular heterogeneities in biological systems. Their recent developments to accommodate membrane studies have significantly deepened the understanding of membraneproteins. In this short review, we will describe the basics of the three most common single-molecule techniques used on membraneproteins: fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, single particle tracking, and atomic force microscopy. We will discuss the most relevant findings made during the recent years and their contribution to the membraneprotein field. PMID:17497147

The ease of use, robustness, cost-effectiveness, and posttranslational machinery make baculovirus expression system a popular choice for production of eukaryotic membraneproteins. This system can be readily adapted for high-throughput operations. This chapter outlines the techniques and procedures for cloning, transfection, small-scale production, and purification of membraneprotein samples in a high-throughput manner. PMID:27485337

De novo protein structure prediction plays an important role in studies of helical membraneproteins as well as structure-based drug design efforts. Developing an accurate scoring function for protein structure discrimination and validation remains a current challenge. Network approaches based on overall network patterns of residue packing have proven useful in soluble protein structure discrimination. It is thus of interest to apply similar approaches to the studies of residue packing in membraneproteins. In this work, we first carried out such analysis on a set of diverse, non-redundant and high-resolution membraneprotein structures. Next, we applied the same approach to three test sets. The first set includes nine structures of membraneproteins with the resolution worse than 2.5 A; the other two sets include a total of 101 G-protein coupled receptor models, constructed using either de novo or homology modeling techniques. Results of analyses indicate the two criteria derived from studying high-resolution membraneprotein structures are good indicators of a high-quality native fold and the approach is very effective for discriminating native membraneprotein folds from less-native ones. These findings should be of help for the investigation of the fundamental problem of membraneprotein structure prediction. PMID:18178566

A wide spectrum of intracellular processes is dependent on the ability of cells to dynamically regulate membrane shape. Membrane bending by proteins is necessary for the generation of intracellular transport carriers and for the maintenance of otherwise intrinsically unstable regions of high membrane curvature in cell organelles. Understanding the mechanisms by which proteins curve membranes is therefore of primary importance. Here we suggest, for the first time to our knowledge, a quantitative mechanism of lipid membrane bending by hydrophobic or amphipathic rodlike inclusions which simulate amphipathic α-helices—structures shown to sculpt membranes. Considering the lipid monolayer matrix as an anisotropic elastic material, we compute the intramembrane stresses and strains generated by the embedded inclusions, determine the resulting membrane shapes, and the accumulated elastic energy. We characterize the ability of an inclusion to bend membranes by an effective spontaneous curvature, and show that shallow rodlike inclusions are more effective in membrane shaping than are lipids having a high propensity for curvature. Our computations provide experimentally testable predictions on the protein amounts needed to generate intracellular membrane shapes for various insertion depths and membrane thicknesses. We also predict that the ability of N-BAR domains to produce membrane tubules in vivo can be ascribed solely to insertion of their amphipathic helices. PMID:18515373

There are numerous experimental approaches to identify the interaction networks of soluble proteins, but strategies for the identification of membraneprotein interactomes remain limited. We discuss in detail the logic of an experimental design that led us to identify the interactome of a membraneprotein of complex membrane topology, the calcium activated chloride channel Anoctamin 1/Tmem16a (Ano1). We used covalent chemical stabilizers of protein-protein interactions combined with magnetic bead immuno-affinity chromatography, quantitative SILAC mass-spectrometry and in silico network construction. This strategy led us to define a putative Ano1 interactome from which we selected key components for functional testing. We propose a combination of procedures to narrow down candidate proteins interacting with a membraneprotein of interest for further functional studies. PMID:23676845

Membraneprotein complexes are commonly introduced to the mass spectrometer solubilized in detergent micelles. The collisional activation used to remove the detergent, however, often causes protein unfolding and dissociation. As in the case for soluble proteins, electrospray in the positive ion mode is most commonly used for the study of membraneproteins. Here we show several distinct advantages of employing the negative ion mode. Negative polarity can yield lower average charge states for membraneproteins solubilized in saccharide detergents, with enhanced peak resolution and reduced adduct formation. Most importantly, we demonstrate that negative ion mode electrospray ionization (ESI) minimizes subunit dissociation in the gas phase, allowing access to biologically relevant oligomeric states. Together, these properties mean that intact membraneprotein ions can be generated in a greater range of solubilizing detergents. The formation of negative ions, therefore, greatly expands the possibilities of using mass spectrometry on this intractable class of protein.

Membraneprotein complexes are commonly introduced to the mass spectrometer solubilized in detergent micelles. The collisional activation used to remove the detergent, however, often causes protein unfolding and dissociation. As in the case for soluble proteins, electrospray in the positive ion mode is most commonly used for the study of membraneproteins. Here we show several distinct advantages of employing the negative ion mode. Negative polarity can yield lower average charge states for membraneproteins solubilized in saccharide detergents, with enhanced peak resolution and reduced adduct formation. Most importantly, we demonstrate that negative ion mode electrospray ionization (ESI) minimizes subunit dissociation in the gas phase, allowing access to biologically relevant oligomeric states. Together, these properties mean that intact membraneprotein ions can be generated in a greater range of solubilizing detergents. The formation of negative ions, therefore, greatly expands the possibilities of using mass spectrometry on this intractable class of protein. Graphical Abstract ᅟ. PMID:27106602

Membraneprotein complexes are commonly introduced to the mass spectrometer solubilized in detergent micelles. The collisional activation used to remove the detergent, however, often causes protein unfolding and dissociation. As in the case for soluble proteins, electrospray in the positive ion mode is most commonly used for the study of membraneproteins. Here we show several distinct advantages of employing the negative ion mode. Negative polarity can yield lower average charge states for membraneproteins solubilized in saccharide detergents, with enhanced peak resolution and reduced adduct formation. Most importantly, we demonstrate that negative ion mode electrospray ionization (ESI) minimizes subunit dissociation in the gas phase, allowing access to biologically relevant oligomeric states. Together, these properties mean that intact membraneprotein ions can be generated in a greater range of solubilizing detergents. The formation of negative ions, therefore, greatly expands the possibilities of using mass spectrometry on this intractable class of protein.

Membrane composition fluctuations are deduced from the deuterium NMR relaxation data of S. L. Veatch et al. [Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104, 17650 (2007)]. A theoretical model for these fluctuations is used to determine the parameters of a correlation function. A fluctuation-response relation is then derived to infer the response of a lipid bilayer membrane to perturbations, such as the presence of a protein. The energy of the correlated response is shown to decrease as a bilayer miscibility critical point is approached from higher temperatures. Near the critical temperature the low energy of the composition response facilitates the lipid solvation of membraneproteins and minimizes lipid-mediated nonspecific protein-protein interactions. This facilitated lipid solvation of membraneproteins may be the basis of reports that at the growth temperature, the lipids of animal cell membranes have compositions such that they are within ˜10° of a miscibility critical point.

Membraneproteins constitute >30% of the proteins in an average cell, and yet the number of currently known structures of unique membraneproteins is <300. To develop new concepts for membraneprotein structure determination, we have explored the serial nanocrystallography method, in which fully hydrated protein nanocrystals are delivered to an x-ray beam within a liquid jet at room temperature. As a model system, we have collected x-ray powder diffraction data from the integral membraneprotein Photosystem I, which consists of 36 subunits and 381 cofactors. Data were collected from crystals ranging in size from 100 nm to 2 μm. The results demonstrate that there are membraneprotein crystals that contain <100 unit cells (200 total molecules) and that 3D crystals of membraneproteins, which contain <200 molecules, may be suitable for structural investigation. Serial nanocrystallography overcomes the problem of x-ray damage, which is currently one of the major limitations for x-ray structure determination of small crystals. By combining serial nanocrystallography with x-ray free-electron laser sources in the future, it may be possible to produce molecular-resolution electron-density maps using membraneprotein crystals that contain only a few hundred or thousand unit cells. PMID:21190672

The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm. The inner nuclear membrane (INM) functions in essential nuclear processes including chromatin organization and regulation of gene expression1. The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and is the site of membraneprotein synthesis. Protein homeostasis in this compartment is ensured by ER-associated protein degradation (ERAD) pathways that in yeast involve the integral membrane E3 ubiquitin ligases Hrd1 and Doa10 operating with the E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes Ubc6 and Ubc72,3. However, little is known regarding protein quality control at the INM. Here we describe a protein degradation pathway at the INM mediated by the Asi complex consisting of the RING domain proteins Asi1 and Asi34. We report that the As complex functions together with the ubiquitin conjugating enzymes Ubc6andUbc7to degrade soluble and integral membraneproteins. Genetic evidence suggest that the Asi ubiquitin ligase defines a pathway distinct from but complementary to ERAD. Using unbiased screening with a novel genome-wide yeast library based on a tandem fluorescent protein timer (tFT)5, we identify more than 50 substrates of the Asi, Hrd1 and Doa10 E3 ubiquity ligases. We show that the Asi ubiquitin ligase is involved in degradation of mislocalised integral membraneproteins, thus acting to maintain and safeguard the identity of the INM. PMID:25519137

Attempts to express eukaryotic multi-spanning membraneproteins at high-levels have been generally unsuccessful. In order to investigate the cause of this limitation and gain insight into the rate limiting processes involved, we have analyzed the effect of translation levels on the expression of several human membraneproteins in Escherichia coli (E. coli). These results demonstrate that excessive translation initiation rates of membraneproteins cause a block in protein synthesis and ultimately prevent the high-level accumulation of these proteins. Moderate translation rates allow coupling of peptide synthesis and membrane targeting, resulting in a significant increase in protein expression and accumulation over time. The current study evaluates four membraneproteins, CD20 (4-transmembrane (TM) helixes), the G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs, 7-TMs) RA1c and EG-VEGFR1, and Patched 1 (12-TMs), and demonstrates the critical role of translation initiation rates in the targeting, insertion and folding of integral membraneproteins in the E. coli membrane. PMID:22563408

Mitochondria contain two membranes, the outer membrane and the inner membrane with folded cristae. The mitochondrial inner membrane organizing system (MINOS) is a large protein complex required for maintaining inner membrane architecture. MINOS interacts with both preprotein transport machineries of the outer membrane, the translocase of the outer membrane (TOM) and the sorting and assembly machinery (SAM). It is unknown, however, whether MINOS plays a role in the biogenesis of outer membraneproteins. We have dissected the interaction of MINOS with TOM and SAM and report that MINOS binds to both translocases independently. MINOS binds to the SAM complex via the conserved polypeptide transport–associated domain of Sam50. Mitochondria lacking mitofilin, the large core subunit of MINOS, are impaired in the biogenesis of β-barrel proteins of the outer membrane, whereas mutant mitochondria lacking any of the other five MINOS subunits import β-barrel proteins in a manner similar to wild-type mitochondria. We show that mitofilin is required at an early stage of β-barrel biogenesis that includes the initial translocation through the TOM complex. We conclude that MINOS interacts with TOM and SAM independently and that the core subunit mitofilin is involved in biogenesis of outer membrane β-barrel proteins. PMID:22918945

Membraneprotein conformational changes, folding, and stability may all involve elastic deformation of the bilayer. Non-specific properties of the bilayer play a significant role in modulating protein conformational energetics. A flexible-surface model (FSM) describes the balance of curvature and hydrophobic forces in lipid-protein interactions. The FSM describes elastic coupling of membrane lipids to integral membraneproteins. Curvature and hydrophobic matching to the lipid bilayer entails a stress field that explains membraneprotein stability. Rhodopsin provides an important example, where solid-state NMR and FTIR spectroscopy characterize the energy landscape of the dynamically activated receptor. Time-resolved UV-visible and FTIR spectroscopic studies show how membrane lipids affect the metarhodopsin equilibrium due to non-specific material properties. Influences of bilayer thickness, nonlamellar-forming lipids, detergents, and osmotic stress on rhodopsin function are all explained by the new biomembrane model. By contrast, the older fluid-mosaic model fails to account for such effects on membraneprotein activity. According to the FSM proteins are regulated by membrane lipids whose spontaneous curvature most closely matches the activated state within the lipid membrane.

The presence of possible lipid-binding regions in the cytoplasmic or extracellular loops of membraneproteins with an emphasis on protein translocation membraneproteins was investigated in this study using bioinformatics. Recent developments in approaches recognizing lipid-binding regions in proteins were found to be promising. In this study a total bioinformatics approach specialized in identifying lipid-binding helical regions in proteins was explored. Two features of the protein translocation membraneproteins, the position of the transmembrane regions and the identification of additional lipid-binding regions, were analyzed. A number of well-studied protein translocation membraneprotein structures were checked in order to demonstrate the predictive value of the bioinformatics approach. Furthermore, the results demonstrated that lipid-binding regions in the cytoplasmic and extracellular loops in protein translocation membraneproteins can be predicted, and it is proposed that the interaction of these regions with phospholipids is important for proper functioning during protein translocation. PMID:22961045

Structure-based drug design for membraneproteins is far behind that for soluble proteins due to difficulty in crystallographic structure determination, despite the fact that about 60% of FDA-approved drugs target membraneproteins located at the cell surface. Stable homologs for a membraneprotein of interest, such as prokaryotic neurotransmitter transporter homolog LeuT, might enable cooperative analyses by crystallography and functional assays, provide useful information for functional mechanisms, and thus serve as important probes for drug design based on mechanisms as well as structures.

Protein structure prediction is a cornerstone of bioinformatics research. Membraneproteins require their own prediction methods due to their intrinsically different composition. A variety of tools exist for topology prediction of membraneproteins, many of them available on the Internet. The server described in this paper, BPROMPT (Bayesian PRediction Of MembraneProtein Topology), uses a Bayesian Belief Network to combine the results of other prediction methods, providing a more accurate consensus prediction. Topology predictions with accuracies of 70% for prokaryotes and 53% for eukaryotes were achieved. BPROMPT can be accessed at http://www.jenner.ac.uk/BPROMPT. PMID:12824397

Proteins of the 4.1 family are characteristic of eumetazoan organisms. Invertebrates contain single 4.1 genes and the Drosophila model suggests that 4.1 is essential for animal life. Vertebrates have four paralogues, known as 4.1R, 4.1N, 4.1G and 4.1B, which are additionally duplicated in the ray-finned fish. Protein 4.1R was the first to be discovered: it is a major mammalian erythrocyte cytoskeletal protein, essential to the mechanochemical properties of red cell membranes because it promotes the interaction between spectrin and actin in the membrane cytoskeleton. 4.1R also binds certain phospholipids and is required for the stable cell surface accumulation of a number of erythrocyte transmembrane proteins that span multiple functional classes; these include cell adhesion molecules, transporters and a chemokine receptor. The vertebrate 4.1 proteins are expressed in most tissues, and they are required for the correct cell surface accumulation of a very wide variety of membraneproteins including G-Protein coupled receptors, voltage-gated and ligand-gated channels, as well as the classes identified in erythrocytes. Indeed, such large numbers of protein interactions have been mapped for mammalian 4.1 proteins, most especially 4.1R, that it appears that they can act as hubs for membraneprotein organization. The range of critical interactions of 4.1 proteins is reflected in disease relationships that include hereditary anaemias, tumour suppression, control of heartbeat and nervous system function. The 4.1 proteins are defined by their domain structure: apart from the spectrin/actin-binding domain they have FERM and FERM-adjacent domains and a unique C-terminal domain. Both the FERM and C-terminal domains can bind transmembrane proteins, thus they have the potential to be cross-linkers for membraneproteins. The activity of the FERM domain is subject to multiple modes of regulation via binding of regulatory ligands, phosphorylation of the FERM associated domain and

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest family of membrane-bound receptors and constitute about 50% of all known drug targets. They offer great potential for membraneprotein nanotechnologies. We report here a charge-interaction-directed reconstitution mechanism that induces spontaneous insertion of bovine rhodopsin, the eukaryotic GPCR, into both lipid- and polymer-based artificial membranes. We reveal a new allosteric mode of rhodopsin activation incurred by the non-biological membranes: the cationic membrane drives a transition from the inactive MI to the activated MII state in the absence of high [H(+)] or negative spontaneous curvature. We attribute this activation to the attractive charge interaction between the membrane surface and the deprotonated Glu134 residue of the rhodopsin-conserved ERY sequence motif that helps break the cytoplasmic "ionic lock". This study unveils a novel design concept of non-biological membranes to reconstitute and harness GPCR functions in synthetic systems. PMID:26633591

Membraneproteins account for a third of the eukaryotic proteome, but are greatly under-represented in the Protein Data Bank. Unfortunately, recent technological advances in X-ray crystallography and EM cannot account for the poor solubility and stability of membraneprotein samples. A limitation of conventional detergent-based methods is that detergent molecules destabilize membraneproteins, leading to their aggregation. The use of orthologues, mutants and fusion tags has helped improve protein stability, but at the expense of not working with the sequence of interest. Novel detergents such as glucose neopentyl glycol (GNG), maltose neopentyl glycol (MNG) and calixarene-based detergents can improve protein stability without compromising their solubilizing properties. Styrene maleic acid lipid particles (SMALPs) focus on retaining the native lipid bilayer of a membraneprotein during purification and biophysical analysis. Overcoming bottlenecks in the membraneprotein structural biology pipeline, primarily by maintaining protein stability, will facilitate the elucidation of many more membraneprotein structures in the near future. PMID:27284049

Large-scale protein overexpression phenotype screens provide an important complement to the more common gene knockout screens. Here, we have targeted the so far poorly understood Saccharomyces cerevisiae membrane proteome and report growth phenotypes for a strain collection overexpressing 600 C-terminally tagged integral membraneproteins grown both under normal and three different stress conditions. Although overexpression of most membraneproteins reduce the growth rate in synthetic defined medium, we identify a large number of proteins that, when overexpressed, confer specific resistance to various stress conditions. Our data suggest that regulation of glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor biosynthesis and the Na+/K+ homeostasis system constitute major downstream targets of the yeast PKA/RAS pathway and point to a possible connection between the early secretory pathway and the cells' response to oxidative stress. We also have quantified the expression levels for >550 membraneproteins, facilitating the choice of well expressing proteins for future functional and structural studies. caffeine | paraquat | salt tolerance | yeast

Mycoplasma membraneproteins influence cell shape, cell division, motility and adhesion to host cells, and are thought to be integrally involved in the pathogenesis of mycoplasmoses. Many of the membraneproteins predicted from mycoplasma genome sequences remain hypothetical, as their presence in cellular protein preparations is yet to be established experimentally. Recent genome sequences of several strains of Mycoplasma bovis have provided further insight into the potential role of the membraneproteins of this pathogen in colonisation and infection. This review highlights recent advances in knowledge about the influence of M. bovis membraneproteins on the pathogenesis of infection with this species and identifies future research directions for enhancing our understanding of the role of these proteins. PMID:23810376

Constituents of the glycosomal membrane from Leishmania mexicana should play a critical role in the coordination of metabolic processes occurring in the cytosol and those compartmentalized within glycosomes. We have made an inventory of glycosomal membrane-associated proteins using approaches specific for enriching both integral and peripheral membraneproteins. Surprisingly, 70% of the proteins were recovered in the hydrophobic fraction of membranes solubilized with Triton X-114, while 20% were present in the soluble fraction obtained upon treatment with Na2CO3. 14 major polypeptides, ranging in molecular weight from 65 to 16 kDa, were found to be associated with the membrane, nine of them behaving as integral membraneproteins. Assessment of their topology in the membrane indicated that the polypeptides of 56, 50, 46 and 32 kDa have no domains exposed to the cytosol. The 50 kDa protein is the most abundant one of the glycosomal membrane, where it is peripherically located at the matrix face. The major phospholipids of glycosomal membranes are phosphatidyl-ethanolamine, phosphatidyl-choline and phosphatidyl-serine, with smaller proportions of sphingomyelin and phosphatidyl-inositol. The sterols found were of 5-dehydroepisterol, ergosta-5,7,24(24(1))-trien-3β-ol, and also their precursors, consistent with the notion that these organelles are involved in de novo biosynthesis of sterols in trypanosomatids. PMID:25499533

Membraneproteins are key components of the plasma membrane and are responsible for control of chemical ionic gradients, metabolite and nutrient transfer, and signal transduction between the interior of cells and the external environment. Of the genes in the human genome, 30% code for membraneproteins (Krogh et al. J. Mol. Biol.2001, 305, 567). Furthermore, many FDA-approved drugs target such proteins (Overington et al. Nat. Rev. Drug Discovery 2006, 5, 993). However, the structure-function relationships of these are notably sparse because of difficulties in their purification and handling outside of their membranous environment. Methods that permit the manipulation of membrane components while they are still in the membrane would find widespread application in separation, purification, and eventual structure-function determination of these species (Poo et al. Nature 1977, 265, 602). Here we show that asymmetrically patterned supported lipid bilayers in combination with AC electric fields can lead to efficient manipulation of charged components. We demonstrate the concentration and trapping of such components through the use of a "nested trap" and show that this method is capable of yielding an approximately 30-fold increase in the average protein concentration. Upon removal of the field, the material remains trapped for several hours as a result of topographically restricted diffusion. Our results indicate that this method can be used for concentrating and trapping charged membrane components while they are still within their membranous environment. We anticipate that our approach could find widespread application in the manipulation and study of membraneproteins. PMID:21476549

Numerous approaches have been taken to study protein interactions, such as tagged protein complex isolation followed by mass spectrometry, yeast two-hybrid methods, fluorescence resonance energy transfer, surface plasmon resonance, site-directed mutagenesis, and crystallography. Membraneprotein interactions pose significant challenges due to the need to solubilize membranes without disrupting protein-protein interactions. Traditionally, analysis of isolated protein complexes by high-resolution 2D gel electrophoresis has been the main method used to obtain an overall picture of proteome constituents and interactions. However, this method is time consuming, labor intensive, detects only abundant proteins and is not suitable for the coverage required to elucidate large interaction networks. In this review, we discuss the application of various methods to elucidate interactions involving membraneproteins. These techniques include methods for the direct isolation of single complexes or interactors as well as methods for characterization of entire subcellular and cellular interactomes.

We have isolated and purified outer membrane vesicles (OMV) from Borrelia burgdorferi strain B31 based on methods developed for isolation of Treponema pallidum OMV. Purified OMV exhibited distinct porin activities with conductances of 0.6 and 12.6 nano-Siemen and had no detectable beta-NADH oxidase activity indicating their outer membrane origin and their lack of inner membrane contamination, respectively. Hydrophobic proteins were identified by phase partitioning with Triton X-114. Most of these hydrophobic membraneproteins were not acylated, suggesting that they are outer membrane-spanning proteins. Identification of palmitate-labeled lipoproteins revealed that several were enriched in the OMV, several were enriched in the protoplasmic cylinder inner membrane fraction, and others were found exclusively associated with the inner membrane. The protein composition of OMV changed significantly with successive in vitro cultivation of strain B31. Using antiserum with specificity for virulent strain B31, we identified OMV antigens on the surface of the spirochete and identified proteins whose presence in OMV could be correlated with virulence and protective immunity in the rabbit Lyme disease model. These virulent strain associated outer membrane-spanning proteins may provide new insight into the pathogenesis of Lyme disease. Images PMID:7593626

Membraneproteins mediate functions that are essential to all cells. These functions include transport of ions, nutrients and waste products across cell walls, capture of energy and its transduction into the form usable in chemical reactions, transmission of environmental signals to the interior of the cell, cellular growth and cell volume regulation. In the absence of membraneproteins, ancestors of cell (protocells), would have had only very limited capabilities to communicate with their environment. Thus, it is not surprising that membraneproteins are quite common even in simplest prokaryotic cells. Considering that contemporary membrane channels are large and complex, both structurally and functionally, a question arises how their presumably much simpler ancestors could have emerged, perform functions and diversify in early protobiological evolution. Remarkably, despite their overall complexity, structural motifs in membraneproteins are quite simple, with a-helices being most common. This suggests that these proteins might have evolved from simple building blocks. To explain how these blocks could have organized into functional structures, we performed large-scale, accurate computer simulations of folding peptides at a water-membrane interface, their insertion into the membrane, self-assembly into higher-order structures and function. The results of these simulations, combined with analysis of structural and functional experimental data led to the first integrated view of the origin and early evolution of membraneproteins.

Antibodies are essential for structural determinations and functional studies of membraneproteins, but antibody generation is limited by the availability of properly-folded and purified antigen. We describe the first application of genetic immunization to a structurally diverse set of membraneproteins to show that immunization of mice with DNA alone produced antibodies against 71% (n = 17) of the bacterial and viral targets. Antibody production correlated with prior reports of target immunogenicity in host organisms, underscoring the efficiency of this DNA-gold micronanoplex approach. To generate each antigen for antibody characterization, we also developed a simple in vitro membraneprotein expression and capture method. Antibody specificity was demonstrated upon identifying, for the first time, membrane-directed heterologous expression of the native sequences of the FopA and FTT1525 virulence determinants from the select agent Francisella tularensis SCHU S4. These approaches will accelerate future structural and functional investigations of therapeutically-relevant membraneproteins. PMID:26908053

MALDI tissue profiling and imaging have become valuable tools for rapid, direct analysis of tissues to investigate spatial distributions of proteins, potentially leading to an enhanced understanding of the molecular basis of disease. Sample preparation methods developed to date for these techniques produce protein expression profiles from predominantly hydrophilic, soluble proteins. The ability to obtain information about the spatial distribution of integral membraneproteins is critical to more fully understand their role in physiological processes, including transport, adhesion, and signaling. In this communication, a sample preparation method for direct tissue profiling of integral membraneproteins is presented. Spatially resolved profiles for the abundant lens membraneproteins aquaporin 0 (AQP0) and MP20, and the retinal membraneprotein opsin, were obtained using this method. MALDI tissue profiling results were validated by analysis of dissected tissue prepared by traditional membraneprotein processing methods. Furthermore, direct tissue profiling of lens membraneproteins revealed aged related post-translational modifications, as well as a novel modification that had not been detected using conventional tissue homogenization methods. PMID:18396059

We demonstrate that dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) of membraneproteins in lipid bilayers may be achieved using a novel polarizing agent: pairs of spin labels covalently bound to a protein of interest interacting at an intermolecular interaction surface. For gramicidin A, nitroxide tags attached to the N-terminal intermolecular interface region become proximal only when bimolecular channels forms in the membrane. We obtained signal enhancements of 6-fold for the dimeric protein. The enhancement affect was comparable to that of a doubly tagged sample of gramicidin C, with intramolecular spin pairs. This approach could be a powerful and selective means for signal enhancement in membraneproteins, and for recognizing intermolecular interfaces. PMID:25828256

Recent experimental evidences strongly point to the role of proteins and other membrane binding macromolecules in reshaping biological membranes, at length scales of the molecule and the structure enclosed by the membrane. In this work, we investigate the interplay between the membrane curvature induced at the molecular scale, mainly due to peripheral membraneproteins, and the resulting membrane morphologies, of varying complexity, observed at the mesoscale. The biological membrane, in our approach, is represented by a dynamically triangulated surface while the proteins are modeled as curvature fields on the membrane, which can either be isotropic or anisotropic. Thermal undulations in the membrane and cooperativity in the curvature field, due to the stabilization of a nematic phase, drives the membrane into conformations that resembles those in experiments in vivo and vitro. The stability of these structures are examined by two approaches to compute the free energy of the system: (i) Widom insertion technique to compute excess chemical potentials and (ii) thermodynamic integration using the Kirkwood coupling parameter to compute absolute free energies. Building on these methods, we propose a hybrid scheeme that couples both the approaches for computing free energies.

The first crystal structures of recombinant mammalian membraneproteins were solved in 2005 using protein that had been produced in yeast cells. One of these, the rabbit Ca(2+)-ATPase SERCA1a, was synthesized in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. All host systems have their specific advantages and disadvantages, but yeast has remained a consistently popular choice in the eukaryotic membraneprotein field because it is quick, easy and cheap to culture, whilst being able to post-translationally process eukaryotic membraneproteins. Very recent structures of recombinant membraneproteins produced in S. cerevisiae include those of the Arabidopsis thaliana NRT1.1 nitrate transporter and the fungal plant pathogen lipid scramblase, TMEM16. This chapter provides an overview of the methodological approaches underpinning these successes. PMID:27485327

In this work membraneproteins from lysosomes were studied in order to gain more information on the biogenesis and intracellular sorting of this class of membraneproteins. Membraneproteins were isolated from a purified population of lysosomes. These proteins were then examined for various co- and post-translational modifications which could serve as potential intracellular sorting signals. Biochemical analysis using marker enzymatic activities detected no plasma membrane, Golgi, endoplasmic reticulum, peroxisomes, mitochondria, or cytosol. Analysis after incorporation of ({sup 3}H)thymidine or ({sup 3}H)uridine detected no nuclei or ribosomes. A fraction containing integral membraneproteins was obtained from the dense lysosomes by extraction with Triton X-114. Twenty-three polypeptides which incorporated both ({sup 35}S)methionine and ({sup 3}H)leucine were detected by SDS PAGE in this membrane fraction, and ranged in molecular weight from 30-130 kDa. After incorporation by cells of various radioactive metabolic precursors, the membrane fraction from dense lysosomes was examined and was found to be enriched in mannose, galactose, fucose, palmitate, myristate, and sulfate, but was depleted in phosphate. The membrane fraction from dense lysosomes was then analyzed by SDS PAGE to determine the apparent molecular weights of modified polypepties.

All molecular interactions that are relevant to cellular and molecular structures are electrical in nature but manifest in a rich variety of forms that each has its own range and influences on the net effect of how molecular species interact. This article outlines how electrical interactions between the protein and lipid membrane components underlie many of the activities of membrane function. Particular emphasis is placed on spatially localised behaviour in membranes involving modulation of protein activity and microdomain structure. The interactions between membrane lipids and membraneproteins together with their role within cell biology represent an enormous body of work. Broad conclusions are not easy given the complexities of the various systems and even consensus with model membrane systems containing two or three lipid types is difficult. By defining two types of broad lipid-protein interaction, respectively Type I as specific and Type II as more non-specific and focussing on the electrical interactions mostly in the extra-membrane regions it is possible to assemble broad rules or a consensus of the dominant features of the interplay between these two fundamentally important classes of membrane component. This article is part of a special issue entitled: Lipid-protein interactions. PMID:25817548

The outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria is predominantly populated by β-Barrel proteins and lipid anchored proteins that serve a variety of biological functions. The proper folding and assembly of these proteins is essential for bacterial viability and often plays a critical role in virulence and pathogenesis. The β-barrel assembly machinery (Bam) complex is responsible for the proper assembly of β-barrels into the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, whereas the localization of lipoproteins (Lol) system is required for proper targeting of lipoproteins to the outer membrane. PMID:26621472

Recent work has identified three distinct classes of viral membrane fusion proteins based on structural criteria. In addition, there are at least four distinct mechanisms by which viral fusion proteins can be triggered to undergo fusion-inducing conformational changes. Viral fusion proteins also contain different types of fusion peptides and vary in their reliance on accessory proteins. These differing features combine to yield a rich diversity of fusion proteins. Yet despite this staggering diversity, all characterized viral fusion proteins convert from a fusion-competent state (dimers or trimers, depending on the class) to a membrane-embedded homotrimeric prehairpin, and then to a trimer-of-hairpins that brings the fusion peptide, attached to the target membrane, and the transmembrane domain, attached to the viral membrane, into close proximity thereby facilitating the union of viral and target membranes. During these conformational conversions, the fusion proteins induce membranes to progress through stages of close apposition, hemifusion, and then the formation of small, and finally large, fusion pores. Clearly, highly divergent proteins have converged on the same overall strategy to mediate fusion, an essential step in the life cycle of every enveloped virus. PMID:18568847

Which properties of the membrane environment are essential for the folding and oligomerization of transmembrane proteins? Because the lipids that surround membraneproteins in situ spontaneously organize into bilayers, it may seem intuitive that interactions with the bilayer provide both hydrophobic and topological constraints that help the protein to achieve a stable and functional three-dimensional structure. However, one may wonder whether folding is actually driven by the membrane environment or whether the folded state just reflects an adaptation of integral proteins to the medium in which they function. Also, apart from the overall transmembrane orientation, might the asymmetry inherent in biosynthesis processes cause proteins to fold to out-of-equilibrium, metastable topologies? Which of the features of a bilayer are essential for membraneprotein folding, and which are not? To which extent do translocons dictate transmembrane topologies? Recent data show that many membraneproteins fold and oligomerize very efficiently in media that bear little similarity to a membrane, casting doubt on the essentiality of many bilayer constraints. In the following discussion, we argue that some of the features of bilayers may contribute to protein folding, stability and regulation, but they are not required for the basic three-dimensional structure to be achieved. This idea, if correct, would imply that evolution has steered membraneproteins toward an accommodation to biosynthetic pathways and a good fit into their environment, but that their folding is not driven by the latter or dictated by insertion apparatuses. In other words, the three-dimensional structure of membraneproteins is essentially determined by intramolecular interactions and not by bilayer constraints and insertion pathways. Implications are discussed. PMID:26649989

We have developed a web-server, TMBETA-NET for discriminating outer membraneproteins and predicting their membrane spanning beta-strand segments. The amino acid compositions of globular and outer membraneproteins have been systematically analyzed and a statistical method has been proposed for discriminating outer membraneproteins. The prediction of membrane spanning segments is mainly based on feed forward neural network and refined with beta-strand length. Our program takes the amino acid sequence as input and displays the type of the protein along with membrane-spanning beta-strand segments as a stretch of highlighted amino acid residues. Further, the probability of residues to be in transmembrane beta-strand has been provided with a coloring scheme. We observed that outer membraneproteins were discriminated with an accuracy of 89% and their membrane spanning beta-strand segments at an accuracy of 73% just from amino acid sequence information. The prediction server is available at http://psfs.cbrc.jp/tmbeta-net/. PMID:15980447

Cellular membranes undergo continuous remodeling. Exocytosis and endocytosis, mitochondrial fusion and fission, entry of enveloped viruses into host cellsand release of the newly assembled virions, cell-to-cell fusion and cell division, and budding and fusion of transport carriers all proceed via topologically similar, but oppositely ordered, membrane rearrangements. The biophysical similarities and differences between membrane fusion and fission become more evident if we disregard the accompanying biological processes and consider only remodeling of the lipid bilayer. The forces that determine the bilayer propensity to undergo fusion or fission come from proteins and inmost cases from membrane-bound proteins. In this review, we consider the mechanistic principles underlying the fusion and fission reactions and discuss the current hypotheses on how specific proteins act in the two types of membrane remodeling. PMID:20638285

Assembly and budding of influenza virus proceeds in the viral budozone, a domain in the plasma membrane with characteristics of cholesterol/sphingolipid-rich membrane rafts. The viral transmembrane glycoproteins hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) are intrinsically targeted to these domains, while M2 is seemingly targeted to the edge of the budozone. Virus assembly is orchestrated by the matrix protein M1, binding to all viral components and the membrane. Budding progresses by protein- and lipid-mediated membrane bending and particle scission probably mediated by M2. Here, we summarize the experimental evidence for this model with emphasis on the raft-targeting features of HA, NA, and M2 and review the functional importance of raft domains for viral protein transport, assembly and budding, environmental stability, and membrane fusion. PMID:22312341

Integration of solid-state biosensors and lipid bilayer membranes is important for membraneprotein research and drug discovery. In these sensors, it is critical that the solid-state sensing material does not have adverse effects on the conformation or functionality of membrane-bound molecules. In this work, pore-spanning lipid membranes are formed over an array of periodic nanopores in free-standing gold films for surface plasmon resonance (SPR) kinetic binding assays. The ability to perform kinetic assays with a transmembrane protein is demonstrated with α-hemolysin (α-HL). The incorporation of α-HL into the membrane followed by specific antibody binding (anti-α-HL) red-shifts the plasmon resonance of the gold nanopore array, which is optically monitored in real time. Subsequent fluorescence imaging reveals that the antibodies primarily bind in nanopore regions, indicating that α-HL incorporation preferentially occurs into areas of pore-spanning lipid membranes. PMID:21218136

Experiments have revealed that membraneproteins can form two-dimensional clusters with regular translational and orientational protein arrangements, which may allow cells to modulate protein function. However, the physical mechanisms yielding supramolecular organization and collective function of membraneproteins remain largely unknown. Here we show that bilayer-mediated elastic interactions between membraneproteins can yield regular and distinctive lattice architectures of protein clusters, and may provide a link between lattice architecture and lattice function. Using the mechanosensitive channel of large conductance (MscL) as a model system, we obtain relations between the shape of MscL and the supramolecular architecture of MscL lattices. We predict that the tetrameric and pentameric MscL symmetries observed in previous structural studies yield distinct lattice architectures of MscL clusters and that, in turn, these distinct MscL lattice architectures yield distinct lattice activation barriers. Our results suggest general physical mechanisms linking protein symmetry, the lattice architecture of membraneprotein clusters, and the collective function of membraneprotein lattices. PMID:26771082

Solid-state NMR spectroscopy (ssNMR) has made significant progress towards the study of membraneproteins in their native cellular membranes. However, reduced spectroscopic sensitivity and high background signal levels can complicate these experiments. Here, we describe a method for ssNMR to specifically label a single protein by repressing endogenous protein expression with rifampicin. Our results demonstrate that treatment of E. coli with rifampicin during induction of recombinant membraneprotein expression reduces background signals for different expression levels and improves sensitivity in cellular membrane samples. Further, the method reduces the amount of time and resources needed to produce membraneprotein samples, enabling new strategies for studying challenging membraneproteins by ssNMR. PMID:25956570

Enterococcus faecalis is a significant nosocomial pathogen, which is able to survive in diverse environments and resist killing with antimicrobial therapies. The expression of cell membraneproteins play an important role in how bacteria respond to environmental stress. As such, the capacity to identify and study membraneprotein expression is critical to our understanding of how specific proteins influence bacterial survival. Here, we describe a combined approach to identify membraneproteins of E. faecalis ATCC V583 using membranes fractionated by either 1D SDS/PAGE or membrane shaving, coupled with LC-ESI mass spectrometry. We identified 222 membrane-associated proteins, which represent approximately 24% of the predicted membrane-associated proteome: 170 were isolated using 1D SDS/PAGE and 68 with membrane shaving, with 36 proteins being common to both the techniques. Of the proteins identified by membrane shaving, 97% were membrane-associated with the majority being integral membraneproteins (89%). Most of the proteins identified with known physiology are involved with transportation across the membrane. The combined 1D SDS/PAGE and membrane shaving approach has produced the greatest number of membraneproteins identified from E. faecalis to date. These protocols will aid future researchers investigating changes in the membrane proteome of E. faecalis by improving our understanding of how E. faecalis adapts and responds to its environment. PMID:27419061

One major obstacle to membraneprotein structure determination is the selection of a detergent micelle that mimics the native lipid bilayer. Currently, detergents are selected by exhaustive screening because the effects of protein-detergent interactions on protein structure are poorly understood. In this study, the structure and dynamics of an integral membraneprotein in different detergents is investigated by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). The results suggest that matching of the micelle dimensions to the protein's hydrophobic surface avoids exchange processes that reduce the completeness of the NMR observations. Based on these dimensions, several mixed micelles were designed that improved the completeness of NMR observations. These findings provide a basis for the rational design of mixed micelles that may advance membraneprotein structure determination by NMR.

We have used genetic methods to investigate the role of the different domains of a bacterial cytoplasmic membraneprotein, MalF, in determining its topology. This was done by analyzing the effects of MalF topology of deleting various domains of the protein using MalF-alkaline phosphatase fusion proteins. Our results show that the cytoplasmic domains of the protein are the pre-eminent topogenic signals. These domains contain information that determines their cytoplasmic location and, thus, the orientation of the membrane spanning segments surrounding them. Periplasmic domains do not appear to have equivalent information specifying their location and membrane spanning segments do not contain information defining their orientation in the membrane. The strength of cytoplasmic domains as topogenic signals varies, correlated with the density of positively charged amino acids within them. Images PMID:1915262

Our view of the lateral organization of lipids and proteins in the plasma membrane has evolved substantially in the last few decades. It is widely accepted that many, if not all, plasma membraneproteins and lipids are organized in specific domains. These domains vary widely in size, composition, and stability, and they represent platforms governing diverse cell functions. The presynaptic plasma membrane is a well-studied example of a membrane which undergoes rearrangements, especially during exo- and endocytosis. Many proteins and lipids involved in presynaptic function are known, and major efforts have been made to understand their spatial organization and dynamics. Here, we focus on the mechanisms underlying the organization of SNAREs, the key proteins of the fusion machinery, in distinct domains, and we discuss the functional significance of these clusters. PMID:25852575

Recently developed molecular and genetic approaches have enabled the identification and functional characterization of novel genes encoding ion channels, ion carriers, and water channels of the plant plasma membrane.

Membraneproteins have always presented technical challenges for structural studies because of their requirement for a lipid environment. Multiple approaches exist including X-ray crystallography and electron microscopy that can give significant insights into their structure and function. However, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is unique in that it offers the possibility of determining the structures of unmodified membraneproteins in their native environment of phospholipid bilayers under physiological conditions. Furthermore, NMR enables the characterization of the structure and dynamics of backbone and side chain sites of the proteins alone and in complexes with both small molecules and other biopolymers. The learning curve has been steep for the field as most initial studies were performed under non-native environments using modified proteins until ultimately progress in both techniques and instrumentation led to the possibility of examining unmodified membraneproteins in phospholipid bilayers under physiological conditions. This review aims to provide an overview of the development and application of NMR to membraneproteins. It highlights some of the most significant structural milestones that have been reached by NMR spectroscopy of membraneproteins; especially those accomplished with the proteins in phospholipid bilayer environments where they function. PMID:25032938

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite that is an important human and animal pathogen. Experimental information on T. gondii membraneproteins is limited, and the majority of gene predictions with predicted transmembrane motifs are of unknown function. A systematic analysis of the membrane proteome of T. gondii is important not only for understanding this parasite's invasion mechanism(s), but also for the discovery of potential drug targets and new preventative and therapeutic strategies. Here we report a comprehensive analysis of the membrane proteome of T. gondii, employing three proteomics strategies: one-dimensional gel liquid chromatography-tandem MS analysis (one-dimensional gel electrophoresis LC-MS/MS), biotin labeling in conjunction with one-dimensional gel LC-MS/MS analysis, and a novel strategy that combines three-layer “sandwich” gel electrophoresis with multidimensional protein identification technology. A total of 2241 T. gondii proteins with at least one predicted transmembrane segment were identified and grouped into 841 sequentially nonredundant protein clusters, which account for 21.8% of the predicted transmembrane protein clusters in the T. gondii genome. A large portion (42%) of the identified T. gondii membraneproteins are hypothetical proteins. Furthermore, many of the membraneproteins validated by mass spectrometry are unique to T. gondii or to the Apicomplexa, providing a set of gene predictions ripe for experimental investigation, and potentially suitable targets for the development of therapeutic strategies. PMID:20935347

This work proposes a novel approach for protein purification from solution using mixed matrix membranes (MMMs) comprising of hydroxyapatite (HAP) inside polyether sulfone (PES) matrix. The influence of HAP particle loading on membrane morphology is studied. The MMMs are further characterized concerning permeability and adsorption capacity. The MMMs show purification of protein via both diffusion as well as adsorption, and show the potential of using MMMs for improvements in protein purification techniques. The bovine serum albumin (BSA) was used as a model protein. The properties and structures of MMMs prepared by immersion phase separation process were characterized by pure water flux, BSA adsorption and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

A wide variety of phytochemicals are consumed for their perceived health benefits. Many of these phytochemicals have been found to alter numerous cell functions, but the mechanisms underlying their biological activity tend to be poorly understood. Phenolic phytochemicals are particularly promiscuous modifiers of membraneprotein function, suggesting that some of their actions may be due to a common, membrane bilayer-mediated mechanism. To test whether bilayer perturbation may underlie this diversity of actions, we examined five bioactive phenols reported to have medicinal value: capsaicin from chili peppers, curcumin from turmeric, EGCG from green tea, genistein from soybeans, and resveratrol from grapes. We find that each of these widely consumed phytochemicals alters lipid bilayer properties and the function of diverse membraneproteins. Molecular dynamics simulations show that these phytochemicals modify bilayer properties by localizing to the bilayer/solution interface. Bilayer-modifying propensity was verified using a gramicidin-based assay, and indiscriminate modulation of membraneprotein function was demonstrated using four proteins: membrane-anchored metalloproteases, mechanosensitive ion channels, and voltage-dependent potassium and sodium channels. Each protein exhibited similar responses to multiple phytochemicals, consistent with a common, bilayer-mediated mechanism. Our results suggest that many effects of amphiphilic phytochemicals are due to cell membrane perturbations, rather than specific protein binding. PMID:24901212

Eukaryotic--especially human--membraneprotein overproduction remains a major challenge in biochemistry. Heterologously overproduced and purified proteins provide a starting point for further biochemical, biophysical and structural studies, and the lack of sufficient quantities of functional membraneproteins is frequently a bottleneck hindering this. Here, we report exceptionally high production levels of a correctly folded and crystallisable recombinant human integral membraneprotein in its active form; human aquaporin 1 (hAQP1) has been heterologously produced in the membranes of the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris. After solubilisation and a two step purification procedure, at least 90 mg hAQP1 per liter of culture is obtained. Water channel activity of this purified hAQP1 was verified by reconstitution into proteoliposomes and performing stopped-flow vesicle shrinkage measurements. Mass spectrometry confirmed the identity of hAQP1 in crude membrane preparations, and also from purified protein reconstituted into proteoliposomes. Furthermore, crystallisation screens yielded diffraction quality crystals of untagged recombinant hAQP1. This study illustrates the power of the yeast P. pastoris as a host to produce exceptionally high yields of a functionally active, human integral membraneprotein for subsequent functional and structural characterization. PMID:17869538

A wide variety of phytochemicals are consumed for their perceived health benefits. Many of these phytochemicals have been found to alter numerous cell functions, but the mechanisms underlying their biological activity tend to be poorly understood. Phenolic phytochemicals are particularly promiscuous modifiers of membraneprotein function, suggesting that some of their actions may be due to a common, membrane bilayer-mediated mechanism. To test whether bilayer perturbation may underlie this diversity of actions, we examined five bioactive phenols reported to have medicinal value: capsaicin from chili peppers, curcumin from turmeric, EGCG from green tea, genistein from soybeans, and resveratrol from grapes. We find that each of these widely consumed phytochemicals alters lipid bilayer properties and the function of diverse membraneproteins. Molecular dynamics simulations show that these phytochemicals modify bilayer properties by localizing to the bilayer/solution interface. Bilayer-modifying propensity was verified using a gramicidin-based assay, and indiscriminate modulation of membraneprotein function was demonstrated using four proteins: membrane-anchored metalloproteases, mechanosensitive ion channels, and voltage-dependent potassium and sodium channels. Each protein exhibited similar responses to multiple phytochemicals, consistent with a common, bilayer-mediated mechanism. Our results suggest that many effects of amphiphilic phytochemicals are due to cell membrane perturbations, rather than specific protein binding. PMID:24901212

This study presents a fluorescence-based assay that allows for direct measurement of protein binding to the plasma membrane inside living cells. An axial scan through the cell generates a fluorescence intensity profile that is analyzed to determine the membrane-bound and cytoplasmic concentrations of a peripheral membraneprotein labeled by the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP). The membrane binding curve is constructed by mapping those concentrations for a population of cells with a wide range of protein expression levels, and a fit of the binding curve determines the number of binding sites and the dissociation coefficient. We experimentally verified the technique, using myosin-1C-EGFP as a model system and fit its binding curve. Furthermore, we studied the protein-lipid interactions of the membrane binding domains from lactadherin and phospholipase C-δ1 to evaluate the feasibility of using competition binding experiments to identify specific lipid-protein interactions in living cells. Finally, we applied the technique to determine the lipid specificity, the number of binding sites, and the dissociation coefficient of membrane binding for the Gag matrix domain of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1, which provides insight into early assembly steps of the retrovirus. PMID:26039166

Protein degradation is a fundamentally important process that allows cells to recognize and remove damaged protein species and to regulate protein abundance according to functional need. A fundamental challenge is to understand how membraneproteins are recognized and removed from cellular organelles. While most of our understanding of this mechanism comes from studies on p97/Cdc48-mediated protein dislocation along the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated degradation (ERAD) pathway, recent studies have revealed intramembrane proteolysis to be an additional mechanism that can extract transmembrane segments. Here, we review these two principles in membraneprotein degradation and discuss how intramembrane proteolysis, which introduces an irreversible step in protein dislocation, is used to drive regulated protein turnover. PMID:26410407

A general strategy for the expression of bacterial membrane transport and receptor genes in Escherichia coli is described. Expression is amplified so that the encoded proteins comprise 5-35% of E. coli inner membraneprotein. Depending upon their topology, proteins are produced with RGSH6 or a Strep tag at the C-terminus. These enable purification in mg quantities for crystallization and NMR studies. Examples of one nutrient uptake and one multidrug extrusion protein from Helicobacter pylori are described. This strategy is successful for membraneproteins from H. pylori, E. coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Microbacterium liquefaciens, Brucella abortus, Brucella melitensis, Campylobacter jejuni, Neisseria meningitides, Streptomyces coelicolor and Rhodobacter sphaeroides. PMID:16042616

Formation of rafts and other domains in cell membranes is considered as wetting of proteins by lipids. The membrane is modeled as a continuous elastic medium. Thermodynamic functions of the lipid films that wet proteins are calculated using a mean-field theory of liquid crystals as adapted to biomembranes. This approach yields the conditions necessary for a macroscopic wetting film to form; its thickness could also be determined. It is shown that films of macroscopic thicknesses form around large (tens nanometers in diameter) lipid-protein aggregates; only thin adsorption films form around single proteins or small complexes. The means by which wetting films can facilitate the merger of these aggregates is considered. It is shown that a wetting film prevents a protein from leaving an aggregate. Using experimentally derived values of elastic moduli and spontaneous curvatures as well as height mismatch between aggregates and bulk membrane, we obtained numerical results, which can be compared with the experimental data. PMID:18643096

The Bcl-2 family comprises pro-apoptotic proteins, capable of permeabilizing the mitochondrial membrane, and anti-apoptotic members interacting in an antagonistic fashion to regulate programmed cell death (apoptosis). They offer potential therapeutic targets to re-engage cellular suicide in tumor cells but the extensive network of implicated protein-protein interactions has impeded full understanding of the decision pathway. We show, using synchrotron x-ray diffraction, that pro-apoptotic proteins interact with mitochondrial-like model membranes to generate saddle-splay (negative Gaussian) curvature topologically required for pore formation, while anti-apoptotic proteins can deactivate curvature generation by molecules drastically different from Bcl-2 family members and offer evidence for membrane-curvature mediated interactions general enough to affect very disparate systems.

Membraneproteins in general have a significantly higher Trp content than do soluble proteins. This is especially true for the M and L subunits of the photosynthetic reaction center from purple bacteria. The Trp residues are located mostly in the segments that connect the transmembrane helices. Further, they are concentrated at the periplasmic side of the complex. Within the protein subunits, many form hydrogen bonds with carbonyl oxygens of the main chain, thereby stabilizing the protein. On the surface of the molecule, they are correctly positioned to form hydrogen bonds with the lipid head groups while their hydrophobic rings are immersed in the lipid part of the bilayer. We suggest that Trp residues are involved in the translocation of protein through the membrane and that following translocation, Trp residues serve as anchors on the periplasmic side of the membrane.

The biogenesis, folding, and structure of α-helical membraneproteins (MPs) are important to understand because they underlie virtually all physiological processes in cells including key metabolic pathways, such as the respiratory chain and the photosystems, and the transport of solutes and signals across membranes. Nearly all MPs require translocons—often referred to as protein-conducting channels—for proper insertion into their target membrane. Remarkable progress toward understanding the structure and functioning of translocons has been made during the past decade. Here we review and assess this progress critically. All available evidence indicates that MPs are equilibrium structures that achieve their final structural states by folding along thermodynamically controlled pathways. The main challenge for cells is the targeting and membrane insertion of highly hydrophobic amino acid sequences. Targeting and insertion are managed in cells principally by interactions between ribosomes and membrane-embedded translocons. Our review examines the biophysical and biological boundaries of membraneprotein insertion and the folding of polytopic membraneproteins in vivo. A theme of the review is the under-appreciated role of basic thermodynamic principles in MP folding and assembly. Thermodynamics not only dictates the final folded structure, it is the driving force for the evolution of the ribosome-translocon system of assembly. We conclude the review with a perspective suggesting a new view of translocon-guided MP insertion. PMID:25277655

We study the energy landscapes for membraneprotein oligomerization using the Associative memory, Water mediated, Structure and Energy Model with an implicit membrane potential (AWSEM-membrane), a coarse-grained molecular dynamics model previously optimized under the assumption that the energy landscapes for folding α-helical membraneprotein monomers are funneled once their native topology within the membrane is established. In this study we show that the AWSEM-membrane force field is able to sample near native binding interfaces of several oligomeric systems. By predicting candidate structures using simulated annealing, we further show that degeneracies in predicting structures of membraneprotein monomers are generally resolved in the folding of the higher order assemblies as is the case in the assemblies of both nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and V-type Na+-ATPase dimers. The physics of the phenomenon resembles domain swapping, which is consistent with the landscape following the principle of minimal frustration. We revisit also the classic Khorana study of the reconstitution of bacteriorhodopsin from its fragments, which is the close analogue of the early Anfinsen experiment on globular proteins. Here, we show the retinal cofactor likely plays a major role in selecting the final functional assembly.

SUMMARY The electrostatic properties of membraneproteins often reveal many of their key biophysical characteristics, such as ion channel selectivity and the stability of charged membrane-spanning segments. The Poisson-Boltzmann (PB) equation is the gold standard for calculating protein electrostatics, and the software APBSmem enables the solution of the PB equation in the presence of a membrane. Here, we describe significant advances to APBSmem including: full automation of system setup, per-residue energy decomposition, incorporation of PDB2PQR, calculation of membrane induced pKa shifts, calculation of non-polar energies, and command-line scripting for large scale calculations. We highlight these new features with calculations carried out on a number of membraneproteins, including the recently solved structure of the ion channel TRPV1 and a large survey of 1,614 membraneproteins of known structure. This survey provides a comprehensive list of residues with large electrostatic penalties for being embedded in the membrane potentially revealing interesting functional information. PMID:26118532

In addition to being the major site of cerebrospinal fluid formation, the choroid plexus epithelium emerges as an important source of polypeptides in the brain. Physiologically regulated release of some polypeptides synthesized by the choroid plexus has been shown. The molecular mechanisms underlying this polypeptide secretion have not been characterized, however. In the present study, synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa and vesicle-associated membraneprotein, two membrane fusion proteins playing a critical role in exocytosis in neurons and endocrine cells, were found to be expressed in the choroid plexus epithelium. It was also shown that in choroidal epithelium, synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa and vesicle-associated membraneprotein stably interact. Two members of the vesicle-associated membraneprotein family, vesicle-associated membraneprotein-1 and vesicle-associated membraneprotein-2, were expressed in the rat choroid plexus at the messenger RNA and protein level. However, their newly discovered isoforms, vesicle-associated membraneprotein-1b and vesicle-associated membraneprotein-2b, produced by alternative RNA splicing, were not detected in choroidal tissue. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated that vesicle-associated membraneprotein is confined to the cytoplasm of choroidal epithelium, whereas synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa is associated with plasma membranes, albeit with a varied cellular distribution among species studied. Specifically, in the rat choroid plexus, synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa was localized to the basolateral membrane domain of choroidal epithelium and was expressed in small groups of cells. In comparison, in ovine and human choroidal tissues, apical staining for synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa was found in the majority of epithelial cells. These species-related differences in cellular synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa distribution suggested that the synaptosome-associated protein of

Molecular dynamics simulations have become a popular and powerful technique to study lipids and membraneproteins. We present some general questions and issues that should be considered prior to embarking on molecular dynamics simulation studies of membraneproteins and review common simulation methods. We suggest a practical approach to setting up and running simulations of membraneproteins, and introduce two new (related) methods to embed a protein in a lipid bilayer. Both methods rely on placing lipids and the protein(s) on a widely spaced grid and then 'shrinking' the grid until the bilayer with the protein has the desired density, with lipids neatly packed around the protein. When starting from a grid based on a single lipid structure, or several potentially different lipid structures (method 1), the bilayer will start well-packed but requires more equilibration. When starting from a pre-equilibrated bilayer, either pure or mixed, most of the structure of the bilayer stays intact, reducing equilibration time (method 2). The main advantages of these methods are that they minimize equilibration time and can be almost completely automated, nearly eliminating one time consuming step in MD simulations of membraneproteins. PMID:17367719

Background Polytopic membraneproteins can be related to each other on the basis of the number of transmembrane helices and sequence similarities. Building on the Pfam classification of protein domain families, and using transmembrane-helix prediction and sequence-similarity searching, we identified a total of 526 well-characterized membraneprotein families in 26 recently sequenced genomes. To this we added a clustering of a number of predicted but unclassified membraneproteins, resulting in a total of 637 membraneprotein families. Results Analysis of the occurrence and composition of these families revealed several interesting trends. The number of assigned membraneprotein domains has an approximately linear relationship to the total number of open reading frames (ORFs) in 26 genomes studied. Caenorhabditis elegans is an apparent outlier, because of its high representation of seven-span transmembrane (7-TM) chemoreceptor families. In all genomes, including that of C. elegans, the number of distinct membraneprotein families has a logarithmic relation to the number of ORFs. Glycine, proline, and tyrosine locations tend to be conserved in transmembrane regions within families, whereas isoleucine, valine, and methionine locations are relatively mutable. Analysis of motifs in putative transmembrane helices reveals that GxxxG and GxxxxxxG (which can be written GG4 and GG7, respectively; see Materials and methods) are among the most prevalent. This was noted in earlier studies; we now find these motifs are particularly well conserved in families, however, especially those corresponding to transporters, symporters, and channels. Conclusions We carried out a genome-wide analysis on patterns of the classified polytopic membraneprotein families and analyzed the distribution of conserved amino acids and motifs in the transmembrane helix regions in these families. PMID:12372142

We investigated how mitochondrial membraneproteins remain soluble in the cytosol until their delivery to mitochondria or degradation at the proteasome. We show that Ubiquilin family proteins bind transmembrane domains in the cytosol to prevent aggregation and temporarily allow opportunities for membrane targeting. Over time, Ubiquilins recruit an E3 ligase to ubiquitinate bound clients. The attached ubiquitin engages Ubiquilin's UBA domain, normally bound to an intramolecular UBL domain, and stabilizes the Ubiquilin-client complex. This conformational change precludes additional chances at membrane targeting for the client, while simultaneously freeing Ubiquilin's UBL domain for targeting to the proteasome. Loss of Ubiquilins by genetic ablation or sequestration in polyglutamine aggregates leads to accumulation of non-inserted mitochondrial membraneprotein precursors. These findings define Ubiquilins as a family of chaperones for cytosolically exposed transmembrane domains and explain how they use ubiquitin to triage clients for degradation via coordinated intra- and intermolecular interactions. PMID:27345149

The structural dynamics governing collective motions in oligomeric membraneproteins play key roles in vital biomolecular processes at cellular membranes. In this study, we present a structural refinement approach that combines solid-state NMR experiments and molecular simulations to accurately describe concerted conformational transitions identifying the overall structural, dynamical, and topological states of oligomeric membraneproteins. The accuracy of the structural ensembles generated with this method is shown to reach the statistical error limit, and is further demonstrated by correctly reproducing orthogonal NMR data. We demonstrate the accuracy of this approach by characterising the pentameric state of phospholamban, a key player in the regulation of calcium uptake in the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and by probing its dynamical activation upon phosphorylation. Our results underline the importance of using an ensemble approach to characterise the conformational transitions that are often responsible for the biological function of oligomeric membraneprotein states. PMID:26975211

Crowding of asymmetrically-distributed membraneproteins has been recently recognized as an important factor in remodeling of biological membranes, for example during transport vesicle formation. In this paper, we theoretically analyze the effect of protein crowding on membrane bending and examine its dependence on protein size, shape, transmembrane asymmetry and lateral confinement. We consider three scenarios of protein lateral organization, which are highly relevant for cellular membranes in general: freely diffusing membraneproteins without lateral confinement, the presence of a diffusion barrier and interactions with a vesicular coat. We show that protein crowding affects vesicle formation even if the proteins are distributed symmetrically across the membrane and that this effect depends significantly on lateral confinement. The largest crowding effect is predicted for the proteins that are confined to the forming vesicle by a diffusion barrier. We calculate the bending properties of a crowded membrane and find that its spontaneous curvature depends primarily on the degree of transmembrane asymmetry, and its effective bending modulus on the type of lateral confinement. Using the example of COPII vesicle formation from the endoplasmic reticulum, we analyze the energetic cost of vesicle formation. The results provide a novel insight into the effects of lateral and transmembrane organization of membraneproteins, and can guide data interpretation and future experimental approaches. PMID:26969088

To gain insight into adaptations of proteins to their membranes, intrinsic hydrophobic thicknesses, distributions of different chemical groups and profiles of hydrogen-bonding capacities (α and β) and the dipolarity/polarizability parameter (π*) were calculated for lipid-facing surfaces of 460 integral α-helical, β-barrel and peripheral proteins from eight types of biomembranes. For comparison, polarity profiles were also calculated for ten artificial lipid bilayers that have been previously studied by neutron and X-ray scattering. Estimated hydrophobic thicknesses are 30-31 Å for proteins from endoplasmic reticulum, thylakoid, and various bacterial plasma membranes, but differ for proteins from outer bacterial, inner mitochondrial and eukaryotic plasma membranes (23.9, 28.6 and 33.5 Å, respectively). Protein and lipid polarity parameters abruptly change in the lipid carbonyl zone that matches the calculated hydrophobic boundaries. Maxima of positively charged protein groups correspond to the location of lipid phosphates at 20-22 Å distances from the membrane center. Locations of Tyr atoms coincide with hydrophobic boundaries, while distributions maxima of Trp rings are shifted by 3-4 Å toward the membrane center. Distributions of Trp atoms indicate the presence of two 5-8 Å-wide midpolar regions with intermediate π* values within the hydrocarbon core, whose size and symmetry depend on the lipid composition of membrane leaflets. Midpolar regions are especially asymmetric in outer bacterial membranes and cell membranes of mesophilic but not hyperthermophilic archaebacteria, indicating the larger width of the central nonpolar region in the later case. In artificial lipid bilayers, midpolar regions are observed up to the level of acyl chain double bonds. PMID:23811361

Since messenger RNAs without a stop codon (nonstop mRNAs) for organelle-targeted proteins and their translation products (nonstop proteins) generate clogged translocon channels as well as stalled ribosomes, cells have mechanisms to degrade nonstop mRNAs and nonstop proteins and to clear the translocons (e.g. the Sec61 complex) by release of nonstop proteins into the organellar lumen. Here we followed the fate of nonstop endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membraneproteins with different membrane topologies in yeast to evaluate the importance of the Ltn1-dependent cytosolic degradation and the Dom34-dependent release of the nonstop membraneproteins. Ltn1-dependent degradation differed for membraneproteins with different topologies and its failure did not affect ER protein import or cell growth. On the other hand, failure in the Dom34-dependent release of the nascent polypeptide from the ribosome led to the block of the Sec61 channel and resultant inhibition of other protein import into the ER caused cell growth defects. Therefore, the nascent chain release from the translation apparatus is more instrumental in clearance of the clogged ER translocon channel and thus maintenance of normal cellular functions. PMID:27481473

Since messenger RNAs without a stop codon (nonstop mRNAs) for organelle-targeted proteins and their translation products (nonstop proteins) generate clogged translocon channels as well as stalled ribosomes, cells have mechanisms to degrade nonstop mRNAs and nonstop proteins and to clear the translocons (e.g. the Sec61 complex) by release of nonstop proteins into the organellar lumen. Here we followed the fate of nonstop endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membraneproteins with different membrane topologies in yeast to evaluate the importance of the Ltn1-dependent cytosolic degradation and the Dom34-dependent release of the nonstop membraneproteins. Ltn1-dependent degradation differed for membraneproteins with different topologies and its failure did not affect ER protein import or cell growth. On the other hand, failure in the Dom34-dependent release of the nascent polypeptide from the ribosome led to the block of the Sec61 channel and resultant inhibition of other protein import into the ER caused cell growth defects. Therefore, the nascent chain release from the translation apparatus is more instrumental in clearance of the clogged ER translocon channel and thus maintenance of normal cellular functions. PMID:27481473

The functional organization of prokaryotic cell membranes, which is essential for many cellular processes, has been challenging to analyze due to the small size and nonflat geometry of bacterial cells. Here, we use single-molecule fluorescence microscopy and three-dimensional quantitative analyses in live Escherichia coli to demonstrate that its cytoplasmic membrane contains microdomains with distinct physical properties. We show that the stability of these microdomains depends on the integrity of the MreB cytoskeletal network underneath the membrane. We explore how the interplay between cytoskeleton and membrane affects trans-membraneprotein (TMP) diffusion and reveal that the mobility of the TMPs tested is subdiffusive, most likely caused by confinement of TMP mobility by the submembranous MreB network. Our findings demonstrate that the dynamic architecture of prokaryotic cell membranes is controlled by the MreB cytoskeleton and regulates the mobility of TMPs. PMID:26958890

Transmembrane proteins are embedded in cellular membranes of varied lipid composition and geometrical curvature. Here, we studied for the first time the allosteric effect of geometrical membrane curvature on transmembrane protein structure and function. We used single-channel optical analysis of the prototypic transmembrane β-barrel α-hemolysin (α-HL) reconstituted on immobilized single small unilamellar liposomes of different diameter and therefore curvature. Our data demonstrate that physiologically abundant geometrical membrane curvatures can enforce a dramatic allosteric regulation (1000-fold inhibition) of α-HL permeability. High membrane curvatures (1/diameter ∼1/40 nm−1) compressed the effective pore diameter of α-HL from 14.2 ± 0.8 Å to 11.4 ± 0.6 Å. This reduction in effective pore area (∼40%) when combined with the area compressibility of α-HL revealed an effective membrane tension of ∼50 mN/m and a curvature-imposed protein deformation energy of ∼7 kBT. Such substantial energies have been shown to conformationally activate, or unfold, β-barrel and α-helical transmembrane proteins, suggesting that membrane curvature could likely regulate allosterically the structure and function of transmembrane proteins in general. PMID:24411252

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a ubiquitous environmental Gram-negative bacterium with high metabolic versatility and an exceptional ability to adapt to a wide range of ecological environments, including soil, marches, coastal habitats, plant and animal tissues. Gram-negative microbes are characterized by the asymmetric lipopolysaccharide outer membrane, the study of which is important for a number of applications. The adhesion to mineral surfaces plays a central role in characterizing their contribution to the fate of contaminants in complex environmental systems by effecting microbial transport through soils, respiration redox chemistry, and ion mobility. Another important application stems from the fact that it is also a major opportunistic human pathogen that can result in life-threatening infections in many immunocompromised patients, such as lung infections in children with cystic fibrosis, bacteraemia in burn victims, urinary-tract infections in catheterized patients, hospital-acquired pneumonia in patients on respirators, infections in cancer patients receiving chemotherapy, and keratitis and corneal ulcers in users of extended-wear soft contact lenses. The inherent resistance against antibiotics which has been linked with the specific interactions in the outer membrane of P. aeruginosa makes these infections difficult to treat. Developments in simulation methodologies as well as computer hardware have enabled the molecular simulation of biological systems of increasing size and with increasing accuracy, providing detail that is difficult or impossible to obtain experimentally. Computer simulation studies contribute to our understanding of the behavior of proteins, protein-protein and protein-DNA complexes. In recent years, a number of research groups have made significant progress in applying these methods to the study of biological membranes. However, these applications have been focused exclusively on lipid bilayer membranes and on membraneproteins in lipid

The basic principles of the design of direct multiparticle models and the results of multiparticle computer simulation of electron transfer by mobile protein carriers in the photosynthetic membrane of a chloroplast thylakoid are presented. The reactions of complex formation of the protein plastocyanin with the protein cytochrome f and the pigment-protein complex of photosystem I, as well as of the protein ferredoxin with the protein FNR and photosystem 1 are considered. The role of diffusion and electrostatic interactions is discussed, and the effect of the shape of the reaction volume and ionic strength on the rate of electron transport are discussed. PMID:22117434

The actin cytoskeleton plays a significant role in changes of cell shape and motility, and interactions between the actin filaments and the cell membrane are crucial for a variety of cellular processes. Several adaptor proteins, including talin, maintain the cytoskeleton-membrane linkage by binding to integral membraneproteins and to the cytoskeleton. Layilin, a recently characterized transmembrane protein with homology to C-type lectins, is a membrane-binding site for talin in peripheral ruffles of spreading cells. To facilitate studies of layilin's function, we have generated a layilin-Fc fusion protein comprising the extracellular part of layilin joined to human immunoglobulin G heavy chain and used this chimera to identify layilin ligands. Here, we demonstrate that layilin-Fc fusion protein binds to hyaluronan immobilized to Sepharose. Microtiter plate-binding assays, coprecipitation experiments, and staining of sections predigested with different glycosaminoglycan-degrading enzymes and cell adhesion assays all revealed that layilin binds specifically to hyaluronan but not to other tested glycosaminoglycans. Layilin's ability to bind hyaluronan, a ubiquitous extracellular matrix component, reveals an interesting parallel between layilin and CD44, because both can bind to cytoskeleton-membrane linker proteins through their cytoplasmic domains and to hyaluronan through their extracellular domains. This parallelism suggests a role for layilin in cell adhesion and motility. PMID:11294894

Over the past 50years there has been considerable progress in our understanding of biomolecular interactions at an atomic level. This in turn has allowed molecular simulation methods employing full atomistic modelling at ever larger scales to develop. However, some challenging areas still remain where there is either a lack of atomic resolution structures or where the simulation system is inherently complex. An area where both challenges are present is that of membranes containing membraneproteins. In this review we analyse a new practical approach to membraneprotein study that offers a potential new route to high resolution structures and the possibility to simplify simulations. These new approaches collectively recognise that preservation of the interaction between the membraneprotein and the lipid bilayer is often essential to maintain structure and function. The new methods preserve these interactions by producing nano-scale disc shaped particles that include bilayer and the chosen protein. Currently two approaches lead in this area: the MSP system that relies on peptides to stabilise the discs, and SMALPs where an amphipathic styrene maleic acid copolymer is used. Both methods greatly enable protein production and hence have the potential to accelerate atomic resolution structure determination as well as providing a simplified format for simulations of membraneprotein dynamics. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Biosimulations edited by Ilpo Vattulainen and Tomasz Róg. PMID:26946242

Protein components of the membranous foamy tissue collected from the swimbladder of Coryphaenoides acrolepis, a continental slope/deep sea grenadier fish, were partially fractionated and characterized by procedures used successfully for erythrocyte membraneproteins. Methods involving pH and ionic strength adjustment in the presence of EDTA and beta-mercaptoethanol resulted in some protein fractionation but no distinct separation or isolation of membraneproteins. Gel filtration by Sephadex G-100 and Sepharose 2B in the presence of dodecyl sulfate partially fractionated protein species between 18,000 and 150,000 molecular weight (as confirmed by dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis). Low molecular weight proteins were resolvable into a few diffuse and streaky bands by dodecyl sulfate and chloral hydrate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, the former giving superior reso-ution. A major fraction of large molecular weight protein (greater than or equal to 40 X 10(6)) was not resolved by any method. A possible explanation for these unusual findings is that decompression due to rapid ascent of the fish from deep ocean caused irreversible alteration of swimbladder membraneproteins. PMID:504363

The preservation of urinary proteins on a membrane plays a vital role in biomarker research, and the efficient elution of proteins preserved on nitrocellulose membrane (NC membrane) determines the application of this method. During the heating elution procedure, we raised the temperature to reduce the intense vortexing time, and kept gentle rotating while precipitation to prevent nitrocellulose reformation. We also used SDS-PAGE and LC-MS/MS to analyze the urinary proteins prepared by heating elution procedure, intense vortexing elution procedure and acetone precipitation method. There was no degradation of proteins prepared by heating elution procedure. Compared with proteins prepared by heating elution method and acetone precipitation method, the overlapping rates of the proteins was almost the same (92.6% versus 96.8%) and the ratios of CV values (< 20%) of the proteins were both high (85.2% and 94.4%). The heating elution procedure achieved good technical reproducibility, and was much simpler and more efficient than the previous one. It can facilitate the application of the preservation of urinary proteins on membrane. PMID:26955716

A critical factor in the successful isolation of new antibodies by phage display is the presentation of a correctly folded antigen. While this is relatively simple for soluble proteins which can be purified and immobilized onto a plastic surface, membraneproteins offer significant challenges for antibody discovery. Whole cell panning allows presentation of the membraneprotein in its native conformation, but is complicated by a low target antigen density, high background of irrelevant antigens and non-specific binding of phage particles to cell surfaces. The method described here uses transient transfection of alternating host cell lines and stringent washing steps to address each of these limitations. The successful isolation of antibodies from a naive scFv library is described for three membrane bound proteins; human CD83, canine CD117 and bat CD11b. PMID:27189586

Atomistic details of beta-amyloid (Aβ ) protein unfolding and lipid interaction kinetics mediated by the neuronal membrane surface are important for developing new therapeutic strategies to prevent and cure Alzheimer's disease. Using all-atom MD simulations, we explored the early unfolding and insertion kinetics of 40 and 42 residue long Aβ in binary lipid mixtures with and without cholesterol that mimic the cholesterol-depleted and cholesterol-enriched lipid nanodomains of neurons. The protein conformational transition kinetics was evaluated from the secondary structure profile versus simulation time plot. The extent of membrane disruption was examined by the calculated order parameters of lipid acyl chains and cholesterol fused rings as well as the density profiles of water and lipid headgroups at defined regions across the lipid bilayer from our simulations. Our results revealed that both the cholesterol content and the length of the protein affect the protein-insertion and membrane stability in our model lipid bilayer systems.

A critical factor in the successful isolation of new antibodies by phage display is the presentation of a correctly folded antigen. While this is relatively simple for soluble proteins which can be purified and immobilized onto a plastic surface, membraneproteins offer significant challenges for antibody discovery. Whole cell panning allows presentation of the membraneprotein in its native conformation, but is complicated by a low target antigen density, high background of irrelevant antigens and non-specific binding of phage particles to cell surfaces. The method described here uses transient transfection of alternating host cell lines and stringent washing steps to address each of these limitations. The successful isolation of antibodies from a naive scFv library is described for three membrane bound proteins; human CD83, canine CD117 and bat CD11b. PMID:27189586

Several proteins are associated with, or are integral components of, the lipid bilayer that forms the delineating membrane of neuronal synaptic vesicles. To characterize these molecules, we used a polyclonal antiserum raised against purified cholinergic synaptic vesicles from Torpedo to screen a cDNA expression library constructed from mRNA of the electromotor nucleus. One clone encodes VAMP-1 (vesicle-associated membraneprotein 1), a nervous-system-specific protein of 120 amino acids whose primary sequence can be divided into three domains: a proline-rich amino terminus, a highly charged internal region, and a hydrophobic carboxyl-terminal domain that is predicted to comprise a membrane anchor. Tryptic digestion of intact and lysed vesicles suggests that the protein faces the cytoplasm, where it may play a role in packaging, transport, or release of neurotransmitters. PMID:3380805

Pressure-driven filtration by porous membranes is widely used in the production of drinking water from ground and surface water. Permeation theory predicts that filtration rate is proportional to the pressure difference across the filtration membrane and inversely proportional to the thickness of the membrane. However, these membranes need to be able to withstand high water fluxes and pressures, which means that the active separation layers in commercial filtration systems typically have a thickness of a few tens to several hundreds of nanometres. Filtration performance might be improved by the use of ultrathin porous silicon membranes or carbon nanotubes immobilized in silicon nitride or polymer films, but these structures are difficult to fabricate. Here, we report a new type of filtration membrane made of crosslinked proteins that are mechanically robust and contain channels with diameters of less than 2.2 nm. We find that a 60-nm-thick membrane can concentrate aqueous dyes from fluxes up to 9,000 l h(-1) m(-2) bar(-1), which is approximately 1,000 times higher than the fluxes that can be withstood by commercial filtration membranes with similar rejection properties. Based on these results and molecular dynamics simulations, we propose that protein-surrounded channels with effective lengths of less than 5.8 nm can separate dye molecules while allowing the ultrafast permeation of water at applied pressures of less than 1 bar. PMID:19498395

The human genome encodes about 285 proteins that contain at least one annotated pleckstrin homology (PH) domain. As the first phosphoinositide binding module domain to be discovered, the PH domain recruits diverse protein architectures to cellular membranes. PH domains constitute one of the largest protein superfamilies, and have diverged to regulate many different signaling proteins and modules such as Dbl homology (DH) and Tec homology (TH) domains. The ligands of approximately 70 PH domains have been validated by binding assays and complexed structures, allowing meaningful extrapolation across the entire superfamily. Here the Membrane Optimal Docking Area (MODA) program is used at a genome-wide level to identify all membrane docking PH structures and map their lipid-binding determinants. In addition to the linear sequence motifs which are employed for phosphoinositide recognition, the three dimensional structural features that allow peripheral membrane domains to approach and insert into the bilayer are pinpointed and can be predicted ab initio. The analysis shows that conserved structural surfaces distinguish which PH domains associate with membrane from those that do not. Moreover, the results indicate that lipid-binding PH domains can be classified into different functional subgroups based on the type of membrane insertion elements they project towards the bilayer. PMID:26512702

The human genome encodes about 285 proteins that contain at least one annotated pleckstrin homology (PH) domain. As the first phosphoinositide binding module domain to be discovered, the PH domain recruits diverse protein architectures to cellular membranes. PH domains constitute one of the largest protein superfamilies, and have diverged to regulate many different signaling proteins and modules such as Dbl homology (DH) and Tec homology (TH) domains. The ligands of approximately 70 PH domains have been validated by binding assays and complexed structures, allowing meaningful extrapolation across the entire superfamily. Here the Membrane Optimal Docking Area (MODA) program is used at a genome-wide level to identify all membrane docking PH structures and map their lipid-binding determinants. In addition to the linear sequence motifs which are employed for phosphoinositide recognition, the three dimensional structural features that allow peripheral membrane domains to approach and insert into the bilayer are pinpointed and can be predicted ab initio. The analysis shows that conserved structural surfaces distinguish which PH domains associate with membrane from those that do not. Moreover, the results indicate that lipid-binding PH domains can be classified into different functional subgroups based on the type of membrane insertion elements they project towards the bilayer. PMID:26512702

The outer membrane of Spirochaeta aurantia was isolated after cells were extracted with sodium lauryl sarcosinate and was subsequently purified by differential centrifugation and KBr isopycnic gradient centrifugation. The purified outer membrane was obtained in the form of carotenoid-containing vesicles. Four protein species with apparent molecular weights of 26,000 (26K), 36.5K, 41K, and 48.5K were readily observed as components of the vesicles. The 36.5K protein was the major polypeptide and constituted approximately 90% of the outer membraneprotein observed on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gels. Under mild denaturing conditions the 36.5K major protein exhibited an apparent molecular weight of approximately 90,000. This, together with the results of protein cross-linking studies, indicates that the 36.5K polypeptide has an oligomeric conformation in the native state. Reconstitution of solubilized S. aurantia outer membrane into lipid bilayer membranes revealed the presence of a porin, presumably the 36.5K protein, with an estimated channel diameter of 2.3 nm based on the measured single channel conductance of 7.7 nS in 1 M KCl. Images PMID:3025168

Cell-surface multiprotein complexes are synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), where they undergo cotranslational membrane integration and assembly. The quality control mechanisms that oversee these processes remain poorly understood. We show that less hydrophobic transmembrane (TM) regions derived from several single-pass TM proteins can enter the ER lumen completely. Once mislocalized, they are recognized by the Hsp70 chaperone BiP. In a detailed analysis for one of these proteins, the αβT cell receptor (αβTCR), we show that unassembled ER-lumenal subunits are rapidly degraded, whereas specific subunit interactions en route to the native receptor promote membrane integration of the less hydrophobic TM segments, thereby stabilizing the protein. For the TCR α chain, both complete ER import and subunit assembly depend on the same pivotal residue in its TM region. Thus, membrane integration linked to protein assembly allows cellular quality control of membraneproteins and connects the lumenal ER chaperone machinery to membraneprotein biogenesis. PMID:23932713

Like several other large, multimeric bacterial outer membraneproteins (OMPs), the assembly of the Klebsiella oxytoca OMP PulD does not rely on the universally conserved β-barrel assembly machinery (BAM) that catalyses outer membrane insertion. The only other factor known to interact with PulD prior to or during outer membrane targeting and assembly is the cognate chaperone PulS. Here, in vitro translation-transcription coupled PulD folding demonstrated that PulS does not act during the membrane insertion of PulD, and engineered in vivo site-specific cross-linking between PulD and PulS showed that PulS binding does not prevent membrane insertion. In vitro folding kinetics revealed that PulD is atypical compared to BAM-dependent OMPs by inserting more rapidly into membranes containing E. coli phospholipids than into membranes containing lecithin. PulD folding was fast in diC14:0-phosphatidylethanolamine liposomes but not diC14:0-phosphatidylglycerol liposomes, and in diC18:1-phosphatidylcholine liposomes but not in diC14:1-phosphatidylcholine liposomes. These results suggest that PulD efficiently exploits the membrane composition to complete final steps in insertion and explain how PulD can assemble independently of any protein-assembly machinery. Lipid-assisted assembly in this manner might apply to other large OMPs whose assembly is BAM-independent. PMID:26463896

Cell free protein synthesis (CFPS) has emerged as a promising methodology for protein expression. While polypeptide production is very reliable and efficient using CFPS, the correct cotranslational folding of membraneproteins during CFPS is still a challenge. In this contribution, we describe a two-step protocol in which the integral membraneprotein is initially expressed by CFPS as a precipitate followed by an in vitro folding procedure using lipid vesicles for converting the protein precipitate to the correctly folded protein. We demonstrate the feasibility of using this approach for the K(+) channels KcsA and MVP and the amino acid transporter LeuT. We determine the crystal structure of the KcsA channel obtained by CFPS and in vitro folding to show the structural similarity to the cellular expressed KcsA channel and to establish the feasibility of using this two-step approach for membraneprotein production for structural studies. Our studies show that the correct folding of these membraneproteins with complex topologies can take place in vitro without the involvement of the cellular machinery for membraneprotein biogenesis. This indicates that the folding instructions for these complex membraneproteins are contained entirely within the protein sequence. PMID:27384110

Integral membraneproteins comprise ∼25% of the human proteome. Yet, our understanding of their molecular physiology is still in its infancy. This can be attributed to two factors: the experimental challenges that arise from the difficult chemical nature of membraneproteins, and the unclear relationship between their activity and their native environment. New approaches are therefore required to address these challenges. Recent developments in mass spectrometry have shown that it is possible to study membraneproteins in a solvent-free environment and provide detailed insights into complex interactions, ligand binding and folding processes. Interestingly, not only detergent micelles but also lipid bilayer nanodiscs or bicelles can serve as a means for the gentle desolvation of membraneproteins in the gas phase. In this manner, as well as by direct addition of lipids, it is possible to study the effects of different membrane components on the structure and function of the protein components allowing us to add functional data to the least accessible part of the proteome. PMID:25630257

Integral membraneproteins comprise ∼25% of the human proteome. Yet, our understanding of their molecular physiology is still in its infancy. This can be attributed to two factors: the experimental challenges that arise from the difficult chemical nature of membraneproteins, and the unclear relationship between their activity and their native environment. New approaches are therefore required to address these challenges. Recent developments in mass spectrometry have shown that it is possible to study membraneproteins in a solvent-free environment and provide detailed insights into complex interactions, ligand binding and folding processes. Interestingly, not only detergent micelles but also lipid bilayer nanodiscs or bicelles can serve as a means for the gentle desolvation of membraneproteins in the gas phase. In this manner, as well as by direct addition of lipids, it is possible to study the effects of different membrane components on the structure and function of the protein components allowing us to add functional data to the least accessible part of the proteome. PMID:25630257

The POTE gene family is composed of 13 paralogs and likely evolved by duplications and remodeling of the human genome. One common property of POTE proteins is their localization on the inner aspect of the plasma membrane. To determine the structural elements required for membrane localization, we expressed mutants of different POTEs in 293T cells as EGFP fusion proteins. We also tested their palmitoylation by a biotin-switch assay. Our data indicate that the membrane localizations of different POTEs are mediated by similar 3-4 short cysteine rich repeats (CRRs) near the amino-terminuses and that palmitoylation on paired cysteine residues in each CRR motif is responsible for the localization. Multiple palmitoylation in the small CRRs can result in the strong association of whole POTEs with plasma membrane.

3H-Lysergic acid diethylamide (3H-LSD) is irreversibly incorporated into bovine caudate membranes during ultraviolet light illumination. The incorporated radioligand apparently forms a covalent bond with a subpopulation of the membraneproteins. Although the photolabeling pattern differs significantly from the Coomassie blue staining pattern on SDS gels, the photolabeling is apparently not specific for LSD binding sites associated with neurotransmitter receptors. 3H-LSD photolabeling can occur during prolonged exposure of membrane samples to room lighting and thus may introduce artifacts into receptor binding assays. PMID:7087658

We present a method for “inverse coarse graining,” rebuilding a higher resolution model from a lower resolution one, in order to rebuild protein coats for remodeled membranes of complex topology. The specific case of membrane remodeling by N-BAR domain containing proteins is considered here, although the overall method is general and thus applicable to other membrane remodeling phenomena. Our approach begins with a previously developed, discretized mesoscopic continuum membrane model (EM2) which has been shown to capture the reticulated membrane topologies often observed for N-BAR/liposome systems by electron microscopy (EM). The information in the EM2 model — directions of the local curvatures and a low resolution sample of the membrane surface — is then used to construct a coarse-grained (CG) system with one site per lipid and 26 sites per protein. We demonstrate the approach on pieces of EM2 structures with three different topologies that have been observed by EM: A tubule, a “Y” junction, and a torus. We show that the approach leads to structures that are stable under subsequent constant temperature CG simulation, and end by considering the future application of the methodology as a hybrid approach that combines experimental information with computer modeling. PMID:21503332

Plasma membrane proteome analysis is of significance for screening candidate biomarkers and drug targets. However, due to their low abundance and lack of specific groups that can enable their capture, the plasma membraneproteins (PMPs) are under-represented. On the basis of the fact that PMPs are embedded in or anchored to the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane and the glycan moieties of proteins and lipids located on the plasma membrane are exposed outside of the cell surface, we proposed a strategy to capture PMPs, termed as glycan moieties-directed PMPs enrichment (GMDPE). With the glycan moieties exposed outside of the cells as bait to ensure the selectivity and the phospholipid bilayer as raft to provide the sensitivity, we applied this strategy into the plasma membrane proteome analysis of HeLa cells, and in total, 772 PMPs were identified, increased by 4.5 times compared to those identified by the reported cell surface biotinylation method. Notably, among them, 86 CD antigens and 16 ion channel proteins were confidently identified. All these results demonstrated that our proposed approach has great potential in the large scale plasma membrane proteome profiling. PMID:27088673

The architecture of cells, with various membrane-bound compartments and with the protein synthesizing machinery confined to one location, dictates that many proteins have to be transported through one or more membranes during their biogenesis. A lot of progress has been made on the identification of protein translocation machineries and their sorting signals in various organelles and organisms. Biochemical characterization has revealed the functions of several individual protein components. Interestingly, lipid components were also found to be essential for the correct functioning of these translocases. This led to the idea that there is a very intimate relationship between the lipid and protein components that enables them to fulfil their intriguing task of transporting large biopolymers through a lipid bilayer without leaking their contents. In this review we focus on the Sec translocases in the endoplasmic reticulum and the bacterial inner membrane. We also highlight the interactions of lipids and proteins during the process of translocation and integrate this into a model that enables us to understand the role of membrane lipid composition in translocase function. PMID:10769162

Detergents are essential tools for membraneprotein manipulation. Micelles formed by detergent molecules have the ability to encapsulate the hydrophobic domains of membraneproteins. The resulting protein-detergent complexes (PDCs) are compatible with the polar environments of aqueous media, making structural and functional analysis feasible. Although a number of novel agents have been developed to overcome the limitations of conventional detergents, most have traditional head groups such as glucoside or maltoside. In this study, we introduce a class of amphiphiles, the PSA/Es with a novel highly branched pentasaccharide hydrophilic group. The PSA/Es conferred markedly increased stability to a diverse range of membraneproteins compared to conventional detergents, indicating a positive role for the new hydrophilic group in maintaining the native protein integrity. In addition, PDCs formed by PSA/Es were smaller and more suitable for electron microscopic analysis than those formed by DDM, indicating that the new agents have significant potential for the structure-function studies of membraneproteins. PMID:26966956

Intrinsic membraneproteins represent a large fraction of the proteins produced by living organisms and perform many crucial functions. Structural and functional characterization of membraneproteins generally requires that they be extracted from the native lipid bilayer and solubilized with a small synthetic amphiphile, for example, a detergent. We describe the development of a small molecule with a distinctive amphiphilic architecture, a "tripod amphiphile," that solubilizes both bacteriorhodopsin (BR) and bovine rhodopsin (Rho). The polar portion of this amphiphile contains an amide and an amine-oxide; small variations in this polar segment are found to have profound effects on protein solubilization properties. The optimal tripod amphiphile extracts both BR and Rho from the native membrane environments and maintains each protein in a monomeric native-like form for several weeks after delipidation. Tripod amphiphiles are designed to display greater conformational rigidity than conventional detergents, with the long-range goal of promoting membraneprotein crystallization. The results reported here represent an important step toward that ultimate goal. PMID:11206073

Incubation of a highly purified fraction derived from rat liver Golgi apparatus with (gamma-TSP)ATP results in phosphorylation of several endogenous phosphoproteins. One phosphoprotein with an apparent Mr of 48,300 is radiolabeled to an apparent extent at least 5-fold higher than any other phosphoprotein as part of either the Golgi apparatus or highly purified rat liver fractions derived from the rough endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, plasma membrane, coated vesicles, cytosol, and total homogenate. Approximately 70% of the 48.3-kDa phosphoprotein appears to be a specific extrinsic Golgi membraneprotein with the phosphorylated amino acid being threonine. The protein kinase which phosphorylates the 48.3-kDa protein is an intrinsic Golgi membraneprotein and is dependent on MgS , independent of CaS , calmodulin, and cAMP, and is inhibited by N-ethylmaleimide. Preliminary evidence suggests that there are also intrinsic membraneprotein kinases in the Golgi apparatus which are dependent on CaS and cAMP. The physiological role of the above phosphoproteins and protein kinases is not known.

The detection and alignment of locally conserved regions (motifs) in multiple sequences can provide insight into protein structure, function, and evolution. A new Gibbs sampling algorithm is described that detects motif-encoding regions in sequences and optimally partitions them into distinct motif models; this is illustrated using a set of immunoglobulin fold proteins. When applied to sequences sharing a single motif, the sampler can be used to classify motif regions into related submodels, as is illustrated using helix-turn-helix DNA-binding proteins. Other statistically based procedures are described for searching a database for sequences matching motifs found by the sampler. When applied to a set of 32 very distantly related bacterial integral outer membraneproteins, the sampler revealed that they share a subtle, repetitive motif. Although BLAST (Altschul SF et al., 1990, J Mol Biol 215:403-410) fails to detect significant pairwise similarity between any of the sequences, the repeats present in these outer membraneproteins, taken as a whole, are highly significant (based on a generally applicable statistical test for motifs described here). Analysis of bacterial porins with known trimeric beta-barrel structure and related proteins reveals a similar repetitive motif corresponding to alternating membrane-spanning beta-strands. These beta-strands occur on the membrane interface (as opposed to the trimeric interface) of the beta-barrel. The broad conservation and structural location of these repeats suggests that they play important functional roles. PMID:8520488

The in-plane diffusivelike motion of membrane bound proteins on the surface of cells is considered. We suggest, on the basis of theoretical arguments and simulation, that thermally excited undulations of the lipid bilayer may serve as a mechanism for proteins to hop between adjacent regions on the cell surface separated by barriers composed of internal cellular structure (e.g., the cytoskeleton). We specifically investigate the mobility of band 3 dimer on the surface of red blood cells where the spectrin cytoskeletal meshwork defines a series of "corrals" on the cell surface known to hinder protein motion. Previous models of this system have postulated that the cytoskeleton must deform to allow passage of membrane bound proteins out of these corral regions and have ignored fluctuations of the bilayer. Our model provides a complementary mechanism and we posit that the mobility of real proteins in real cells is likely the result of several mechanisms acting in parallel. PMID:12547768

Structural analysis of native or recombinant membrane transport proteins has been hampered by the lack of effective methodologies to purify sufficient quantities of active protein. We addressed this problem by expressing a polyhistidine tagged construct of the cardiac sodium-calcium exchanger (NCX1) in Trichoplusia ni larvae (caterpillars) from which membrane vesicles were prepared. Larvae vesicles containing recombinant NCX1-his protein supported NCX1 transport activity that was mechanistically not different from activity in native cardiac sarcolemmal vesicles although the specific activity was reduced. SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis demonstrated the presence of both the 120 and 70 kDa forms of the NCX1 protein. Larvae vesicle proteins were solubilized in sodium cholate detergent and fractionated on a chelated Ni(2+) affinity chromatography column. After extensive washing, eluted fractions were mixed with soybean phospholipids and reconstituted. The resulting proteoliposomes contained NCX1 activity suggesting the protein retained native conformation. SDS-PAGE revealed two major bands at 120 and 70 kDa. Purification of large amounts of active NCX1 via this methodology should facilitate biophysical analysis of the protein. The larva expression system has broad-based application for membraneproteins where expression and purification of quantities required for physical analyses is problematic. PMID:11741710

The cell wall of mycobacteria includes an unusual outer membrane of extremely low permeability. While Escherichia coli uses more than 60 proteins to functionalize its outer membrane, only two mycobacterial outer membraneproteins (OMPs) are known. The porin MspA of Mycobacterium smegmatis provided the proof of principle that integral mycobacterial OMPs share the beta-barrel structure, the absence of hydrophobic alpha-helices and the presence of a signal peptide with OMPs of gram-negative bacteria. These properties were exploited in a multi-step bioinformatic approach to predict OMPs of M. tuberculosis. A secondary structure analysis was performed for 587 proteins of M. tuberculosis predicted to be exported. Scores were calculated for the beta-strand content and the amphiphilicity of the beta-strands. Reference OMPs of gram-negative bacteria defined threshold values for these parameters that were met by 144 proteins of unknown function of M. tuberculosis. Two of them were verified as OMPs by a novel two-step experimental approach. Rv1698 and Rv1973 were detected only in the total membrane fraction of M. bovis BCG in Western blot experiments, while proteinase K digestion of whole cells showed the surface accessibility of these proteins. These findings established that Rv1698 and Rv1973 are indeed localized in the outer membrane and tripled the number of known OMPs of M. tuberculosis. Significantly, these results provide evidence for the usefulness of the bioinformatic approach to predict mycobacterial OMPs and indicate that M. tuberculosis likely has many OMPs with beta-barrel structure. Our findings pave the way to identify the set of proteins which functionalize the outer membrane of M. tuberculosis. PMID:18439872

This symposium summary, sponsored by the ASPET, was held at Experimental Biology 2015 on March 29, 2015, in Boston, Massachusetts. The symposium focused on: 1) the interactions of cytochrome P450s (P450s) with their redox partners; and 2) the role of the lipid membrane in their orientation and stabilization. Two presentations discussed the interactions of P450s with NADPH-P450 reductase (CPR) and cytochrome b5. First, solution nuclear magnetic resonance was used to compare the protein interactions that facilitated either the hydroxylase or lyase activities of CYP17A1. The lyase interaction was stimulated by the presence of b5 and 17α-hydroxypregnenolone, whereas the hydroxylase reaction was predominant in the absence of b5. The role of b5 was also shown in vivo by selective hepatic knockout of b5 from mice expressing CYP3A4 and CYP2D6; the lack of b5 caused a decrease in the clearance of several substrates. The role of the membrane on P450 orientation was examined using computational methods, showing that the proximal region of the P450 molecule faced the aqueous phase. The distal region, containing the substrate-access channel, was associated with the membrane. The interaction of NADPH-P450 reductase (CPR) with the membrane was also described, showing the ability of CPR to "helicopter" above the membrane. Finally, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) was shown to be heterogeneous, having ordered membrane regions containing cholesterol and more disordered regions. Interestingly, two closely related P450s, CYP1A1 and CYP1A2, resided in different regions of the ER. The structural characteristics of their localization were examined. These studies emphasize the importance of P450 protein organization to their function. PMID:26851242

The chlamydial inclusion membrane is extensively modified by the insertion of type III secreted effector proteins. These inclusion membraneproteins (Incs) are exposed to the cytosol and share a common structural feature of a long, bi-lobed hydrophobic domain but little or no primary amino acid sequence similarity. Based upon secondary structural predictions, over 50 putative inclusion membraneproteins have been identified in Chlamydia trachomatis. Only a limited number of biological functions have been defined and these are not shared between chlamydial species. Here we have ectopically expressed several C. trachomatis Incs in HeLa cells and find that they induce the formation of morphologically distinct membranous vesicular compartments. Formation of these vesicles requires the bi-lobed hydrophobic domain as a minimum. No markers for various cellular organelles were observed in association with these vesicles. Lipid probes were incorporated by the Inc-induced vesicles although the lipids incorporated were dependent upon the specific Inc expressed. Co-expression of Inc pairs indicated that some colocalized in the same vesicle, others partially overlapped, and others did not associate at all. Overall, it appears that Incs may have an intrinsic ability to induce membrane formation and that individual Incs can induce membranous structures with unique properties. PMID:23696825

The cellular membrane constitutes the first element that encounters a wide variety of molecular species to which a cell might be exposed. Hosting a large number of structurally and functionally diverse proteins associated with this key metabolic compartment, the membrane not only directly controls the traffic of various molecules in and out of the cell, it also participates in such diverse and important processes as signal transduction and chemical processing of incoming molecular species. In this article, we present a number of cases where details of interaction of small molecular species such as drugs with the membrane, which are often experimentally inaccessible, have been studied using advanced molecular simulation techniques. We have selected systems in which partitioning of the small molecule with the membrane constitutes a key step for its final biological function, often binding to and interacting with a protein associated with the membrane. These examples demonstrate that membrane partitioning is not only important for the overall distribution of drugs and other small molecules into different compartments of the body, it may also play a key role in determining the efficiency and the mode of interaction of the drug with its target protein. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Biosimulations edited by Ilpo Vattulainen and Tomasz Róg. PMID:27163493

Unlike water soluble proteins, the structures of helical transmembrane proteins depend on a very complex environment. These proteins sit in the midst of dramatic electrical and chemical gradients and are often subject to variations in the lateral pressure profile, order parameters, dielectric constant, and other properties. Solid state NMR is a collection of tools that can characterize high resolution membraneprotein structure in this environment. Indeed, prior work has shown that this complex environment significantly influences transmembrane protein structure. Therefore, it is important to characterize such structures under conditions that closely resemble its native environment. Researchers have used two approaches to gain protein structural restraints via solid state NMR spectroscopy. The more traditional approach uses magic angle sample spinning to generate isotropic chemical shifts, much like solution NMR. As with solution NMR, researchers can analyze the backbone chemical shifts to obtain torsional restraints. They can also examine nuclear spin interactions between nearby atoms to obtain distances between atomic sites. Unfortunately, for membraneproteins in lipid preparations, the spectral resolution is not adequate to obtain complete resonance assignments. Researchers have developed another approach for gaining structural restraints from membraneproteins: the use of uniformly oriented lipid bilayers, which provides a method for obtaining high resolution orientational restraints. When the bilayers are aligned with respect to the magnetic field of the NMR spectrometer, researchers can obtain orientational restraints in which atomic sites in the protein are restrained relative to the alignment axis. However, this approach does not allow researchers to determine the relative packing between helices. By combining the two approaches, we can take advantage of the information acquired from each technique to minimize the challenges and maximize the quality of the

The intrinsic membraneprotein bacteriorhodopsin has been crystallized by salt precipitation after solubilization by octyl glucoside. Two different crystal forms were obtained, depending on the nature of the salt used and the pH. Needles formed in the presence of sodium phosphate and in ammonium sulfate solutions above pH 4.8. Cubes appeared in sodium citrate solutions or ammonium sulfate. Unlike the cubic crystals, the birefringent needles showed strong linear dichroism, which allowed determination of the orientation of the chromophore's transition moment. The procedure described here may be of general use in crystallographic studies of membraneproteins.

This paper reviews various enhanced conformational sampling methods and explicit/implicit solvent/membrane models, as well as their recent applications to the exploration of the structure and dynamics of membranes and membraneproteins. Molecular dynamics simulations have become an essential tool to investigate biological problems, and their success relies on proper molecular models together with efficient conformational sampling methods. The implicit representation of solvent/membrane environments is reasonable approximation to the explicit all-atom models, considering the balance between computational cost and simulation accuracy. Implicit models can be easily combined with replica-exchange molecular dynamics methods to explore a wider conformational space of a protein. Other molecular models and enhanced conformational sampling methods are also briefly discussed. As application examples, we introduce recent simulation studies of glycophorin A, phospholamban, amyloid precursor protein, and mixed lipid bilayers and discuss the accuracy and efficiency of each simulation model and method. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: MembraneProteins edited by J.C. Gumbart and Sergei Noskov. PMID:26766517

Legionella pneumophila and related species were examined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis for outer membraneproteins. Of the 10 species examined, 9 contained a 24-kilodalton (kDa) major outer membraneprotein (MOMP) that was resolvable only when outer membrane material was heated in the presence of 2-mercaptoethanol. Labeling studies with [35S]cysteine indicated that the protein contained cysteine, and disulfide cross-linking of the unreduced complex was demonstrated by labeling with iodoacetamide. The unreduced outer membrane preparation contained peptidoglycan, and after treatment with lysozyme to remove peptidoglycan, a protein complex of 95 kDa was observed by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in the absence of 2-mercaptoethanol. Reduction of the 95-kDa complex yielded 24-kDa monomers, suggesting that the 95-kDa complex was composed of four subunits. The 24-kDa MOMP from L. pneumophila was purified, and antibody produced to this protein cross-reacted with all species of Legionella as determined from an immunoblot of a sodium dodecyl sulfate gel. Only serogroup 1 strains of L. bozemanii lacked the 24-kDa MOMP and showed no cross-reactivity. These results suggest that the 24-kDa MOMP common to most species of Legionella contains a genus-specific epitope. Images PMID:3980079

A novel method for purifying membraneproteins is presented. The approach makes use of engineered micelles composed of a nonionic detergent, β-octylglucoside, and a hydrophobic metal chelator, bathophenanthroline. Via the chelators, the micelles are specifically conjugated, i.e., tethered, in the presence of Fe(2+) ions, thereby forming micellar aggregates which provide the environment for separation of lipid-soluble membraneproteins from water-soluble proteins. The micellar aggregates (here imaged by cryo-transmission electron microscopy) successfully purify the light driven proton pump, bacteriorhodopsin (bR), from E. coli lysate. Purification takes place within 15 min and can be performed both at room temperature and at 4 °C. More than 94% of the water-soluble macromolecules in the lysate are excluded, with recovery yields of the membraneprotein ranging between 74% and 85%. Since this approach does not require precipitants, high concentrations of detergent to induce micellar aggregates, high temperature, or changes in pH, it is suggested that it may be applied to the purification of a wide variety of membraneproteins. PMID:23758098

Tethered bilayer lipid membranes (tBLMs) are self-assembled biomimetic structures in which the membrane is separated from a solid substrate by a nm-thick hydrated submembrane space. These model systems are being used in binding studies of peripheral proteins and exotoxins. Here we aim at their application for the reconstitution of water-insoluble integral membraneproteins. As an alternative to fusion of preformed proteoliposomes we study the direct reconstitution of such proteins for applications in biosensing and pharmaceutical screening. For reconstitution, highly insulating tBLMs (R˜10^5-10^6 φ) were temporarily incubated with a detergent to screen for conditions that keep the detergent-saturated membranestable and ready to incorporate detergent-solubilized proteins. We assess the electrical characteristics, i.e. specific resistance and capacitance, by means of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) under timed incubation with decylmaltoside and dodecylmaltoside detergents in a regime around their critical micelle concentration, 1.8 mM and 0.17 mM respectively and demonstrate the restoration of the tBLM upon detergent removal. Thereby a range of concentration and incubation times was identified, that represents optimal conditions for the subsequent membraneprotein reconstitution.

Increased osmotic stability and decreased survivability of erythrocytes caused by Cu deficiency suggest that low copper status may lead to modification in the organization of erythrocyte membraneproteins. Accordingly Cu deficiency was produced in rats by feeding a diet containing < 1 ppm Cu. The effects of low copper status on erythrocyte membraneproteins were assessed by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacylamide electrophoresis. A 170,000 dalton protein (170K) amounted to 2.68 +/- 0.11% of the total membraneprotein in erythrocytes from copper-deficient rats (n = 25) and 1.42 +/- 0.10% in erythrocytes from rats fed adequate Cu. When erythrocyte membranes from copper-deficient rats were extracted with 0.5% (v/v) Triton X-100, 170K remained associated with the cytoskeletal proteins, spectrin and actin. Thus, copper deficiency can alter the composition of the erythrocyte cytoskeleton. Furthermore, hematocrit levels in copper-deficient rats were negatively correlated to the amount of 170K suggesting that alteration of the erythrocyte cytoskeleton may be a factor that contributes to the anemia associated with copper deficiency.

Carotenoid pigments play numerous important physiological functions in human organism. Very special is a role of lutein and zeaxanthin in the retina of an eye and in particular in its central part, the macula lutea. In the retina, carotenoids can be directly present in the lipid phase of the membranes or remain bound to the protein-pigment complexes. In this work we address a problem of binding of carotenoids to proteins and possible role of such structures in pigment transport to lipid membranes. Interaction of three carotenoids, beta-carotene, lutein and zeaxanthin with two proteins: bovine serum albumin and glutathione S-transferase (GST) was investigated with application of molecular spectroscopy techniques: UV-Vis absorption, circular dichroism and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Interaction of pigment-protein complexes with model lipid bilayers formed with egg yolk phosphatidylcholine was investigated with application of FTIR, Raman imaging of liposomes and electrophysiological technique, in the planar lipid bilayer models. The results show that in all the cases of protein and pigment studied, carotenoids bind to protein and that the complexes formed can interact with membranes. This means that protein-carotenoid complexes are capable of playing physiological role in pigment transport to biomembranes. PMID:26361975

The excellent nutritional and functional properties of liquid egg white (LEW), which is essentially a viscous fat-free protein solution, are exploited in many food preparations. Thermal pasteurization (at 56.6oC for 3.5 min. minimum) is currently used by industry to eliminate the microflora in LEW ...

Experimental biology has contributed to answer questions about the morphology of a system and how molecules organize themselves to maintain a healthy functional cell. Single-molecule techniques, optical and magnetic experiments, and fluorescence microscopy have come a long way to probe structural and dynamical information at multiple scales. However, some details are simply too small or the processes are too short-lived to detect by experiments. Computational biology provides a bridge to understand experimental results at the molecular level, makes predictions that have not been seen in vivo, and motivates new fields of research. This review focuses on the advances on peripheral membraneproteins (PMPs) studies; what is known about their interaction with membranes, their role in cell biology, and some limitations that both experiment and computation still have to overcome to gain better structural and functional understanding of these PMPs. As many recent reviews have acknowledged, interdisciplinary efforts between experiment and computation are needed in order to have useful models that lead future directions in the study of PMPs. We present new results of a case study on a PMP that behaves as an intricate machine controlling lipid homeostasis between cellular organelles, Osh4 in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Molecular dynamics simulations were run to examine the interaction between the protein and membrane models that reflect the lipid diversity of the endoplasmic reticulum and trans-Golgi membranes. Our study is consistent with experimental data showing several residues that interact to smaller or larger extent with the bilayer upon stable binding (~200 ns into the trajectory). We identified PHE239 as a key residue stabilizing the protein-membrane interaction along with two other binding regions, the ALPS-like motif and the β6-β7 loops in the mouth region of the protein. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: MembraneProteins edited by J

Protein translocation into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) constitutes the first step of protein secretion. ER protein import is essential in all eukaryotic cells and is particularly critical in fast-growing tumour cells. Thus, the process can serve as target both for potential cancer drugs and for bacterial virulence factors. Inhibitors of protein transport across the ER membrane range from broad-spectrum to highly substrate-specific and can interfere with virtually any stage of this multistep process, and even with transport of endocytosed antigens into the cytosol for cross-presentation. PMID:26122014

Functional overexpression of polytopic membraneproteins, particularly when in a foreign host, is often a challenging task. Factors that negatively affect such processes are poorly understood. Using the mammalian membraneprotein vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKORc1) as a reporter, we describe a genetic selection approach allowing the isolation of Escherichia coli mutants capable of functionally expressing this blood-coagulation enzyme. The isolated mutants map to components of membraneprotein assembly and quality control proteins YidC and HslV. We show that changes in the VKORc1 sequence and in the YidC hydrophilic groove along with the inactivation of HslV promote VKORc1 activity and dramatically increase its expression level. We hypothesize that such changes correct for mismatches in the membrane topogenic signals between E. coli and eukaryotic cells guiding proper membrane integration. Furthermore, the obtained mutants allow the study of VKORc1 reaction mechanisms, inhibition by warfarin, and the high-throughput screening for potential anticoagulants. PMID:26598701

Membranes of peripheral endoplasmic reticulum form intricate morphologies consisting of tubules and sheets as basic elements. The physical mechanism of endoplasmic-reticulum shaping has been suggested to originate from the elastic behavior of the sheet edges formed by linear arrays of oligomeric protein scaffolds. The heart of this mechanism, lying in the relationships between the structure of the protein scaffolds and the effective intrinsic shapes and elastic properties of the sheets' edges, has remained hypothetical. Here we provide a detailed computational analysis of these issues. By minimizing the elastic energy of membrane bending, we determine the effects of a rowlike array of semicircular arclike membrane scaffolds on generation of a membrane fold, which shapes the entire membrane surface into a flat double-membrane sheet. We show, quantitatively, that the sheet's edge line tends to adopt a positive or negative curvature depending on the scaffold's geometrical parameters. We compute the effective elastic properties of the sheet edge and analyze the dependence of the equilibrium distance between the scaffolds along the edge line on the scaffold geometry. PMID:26244738

It has until recently been unclear whether outer membraneproteins (OMPs) of Gram-negative bacteria are organized or distributed randomly. Studies now suggest promiscuous protein–protein interactions (PPIs) between β-barrel OMPs in Escherichia coli govern their local and global dynamics, engender spatiotemporal patterning of the outer membrane into micro-domains and are the basis of β-barrel protein turnover. We contextualize these latest advances, speculate on areas of bacterial cell biology that might be influenced by the organization of OMPs into supramolecular assemblies, and highlight the new questions and controversies this revised view of the bacterial outer membrane raises. PMID:26629934

Pore-forming proteins (PFPs) interact with lipid bilayers to compromise membrane integrity. Many PFPs function by inserting a ring of oligomerized subunits into the bilayer to form a protein-lined hydrophilic channel. However, mounting evidence suggests that PFPs can also generate 'proteolipidic' pores by contributing to the fusion of inner and outer bilayer leaflets to form a toroidal structure. We discuss here toroidal pore formation by peptides including melittin, protegrin, and Alzheimer's Aβ1-41, as well as by PFPs from several evolutionarily unrelated families: the colicin/Bcl-2 grouping including the pro-apoptotic protein Bax, actinoporins derived from sea anemones, and the membrane attack complex-perforin/cholesterol dependent cytolysin (MACPF/CDC) set of proteins. We also explore how the structure and biological role of toroidal pores might be investigated further. PMID:25440714

Several techniques have been employed to detect proteins on membranes. These include the use of quantum dot luminescent labels, oxyblot immunochemical detection, polymer immunocomplexes, "coupled" probing approach, in situ renaturation of proteins for detecting enzyme activities in crude or purified preparations, immunochromatographic assay, western-phosphatase assay, and use of Congo red dye (a cosmetic color named Alta), Pro-Q Emerald 488 dye, or amine-reactive dye in combination with alkaline phosphatase- and horseradish peroxidase-antibody conjugates for the simultaneous trichromatic fluorescence detection of proteins. Several methods have been used to improve the detection of proteins on membranes, including glutaraldehyde treatment of nitrocellulose blots, elimination of keratin artifacts in immunoblots probed with polyclonal antibodies, and washing of immunoblots with excessive water and manipulation of Tween-20 in wash buffer. These methods are briefly reviewed in this chapter. PMID:26139283

The lateral mobility of fluorescein-labeled membrane glycoproteins was measured in whole unlysed erythrocytes and erythrocyte ghosts by the technique of ``fluorescence redistribution after fusion.'' Measurements were made on polyethylene glycol-fused cell pairs in which only one member of the couplet was initially fluorescently labeled. Diffusion coefficients were estimated from the rate of fluorescence redistribution determined from successive scans with a focused laser beam across individual fused pairs. This technique allows for the analysis of diffusion within cell membranes without the possible damaging photochemical events caused by photobleaching. It was found that lateral mobility of erythrocyte proteins can be increased by the addition of polyphosphates (i.e., ATP and 2,3-diphosphoglycerate) and decreased by the addition of organic polyamines (i.e., neomycin and spermine). This control is exerted by these molecules only when they contact the cytoplasmic side of the membrane and is not dependent upon high-energy phosphates. Microviscosity experiments employing diphenylhexatriene demonstrated no changes in membrane lipid state as a function of these reagents. Our results, in conjunction with data on the physical interactions of cytoskeletal proteins, suggest that the diffusion effector molecules alter the lateral mobility of erythrocyte membraneproteins through modifications of interactions in the shell, which is composed of spectrin, actin, and component 4.1.

The influence of attractive protein-protein interactions on the organization of photosynthetic proteins within the thylakoid membrane was investigated. Protein-protein interactions were simulated using Monte Carlo techniques and the influence of different interaction energies was examined. It was found that weak interactions led to protein clusters whereas strong interactions led to ramified chains. An optimum curve for the relationship between interaction energy and the number of contact sites emerged. With increasing particle densities the effect decreased. In a mixture of interacting and noninteracting particles the distance between the noninteracting particles was increased and there seemed to be much more free space around them. In thylakoids, this could lead to a more homogeneous distribution of the noninteracting but rate-limiting cytochrome bf complexes. Due to the increased free space between cytochrome bf, obstruction of binding sites--occurring unavoidably in a random distribution--may be drastically reduced. Furthermore, protein-protein interactions in thylakoids may lead to a decrease in plastoquinone diffusion. PMID:15665125

Background Membraneproteins are the targets of 50% of drugs, although they only represent 1% of total cellular proteins. The first major bottleneck on the route to their functional and structural characterisation is their overexpression; and simply choosing the right system can involve many months of trial and error. This work is intended as a guide to where to start when faced with heterologous expression of a membraneprotein. Methodology/Principal Findings The expression of 20 membraneproteins, both peripheral and integral, in three prokaryotic (E. coli, L. lactis, R. sphaeroides) and three eukaryotic (A. thaliana, N. benthamiana, Sf9 insect cells) hosts was tested. The proteins tested were of various origins (bacteria, plants and mammals), functions (transporters, receptors, enzymes) and topologies (between 0 and 13 transmembrane segments). The Gateway system was used to clone all 20 genes into appropriate vectors for the hosts to be tested. Culture conditions were optimised for each host, and specific strategies were tested, such as the use of Mistic fusions in E. coli. 17 of the 20 proteins were produced at adequate yields for functional and, in some cases, structural studies. We have formulated general recommendations to assist with choosing an appropriate system based on our observations of protein behaviour in the different hosts. Conclusions/Significance Most of the methods presented here can be quite easily implemented in other laboratories. The results highlight certain factors that should be considered when selecting an expression host. The decision aide provided should help both newcomers and old-hands to select the best system for their favourite membraneprotein. PMID:22216205

Mitochondria are of bacterial ancestry and have to import most of their proteins from the cytosol. This process is mediated by Tom40, an essential protein that forms the protein-translocating pore in the outer mitochondrial membrane. Tom40 is conserved in virtually all eukaryotes, but its evolutionary origin is unclear because bacterial orthologues have not been identified so far. Recently, it was shown that the parasitic protozoon Trypanosoma brucei lacks a conventional Tom40 and instead employs the archaic translocase of the outer mitochondrial membrane (ATOM), a protein that shows similarities to both eukaryotic Tom40 and bacterial protein translocases of the Omp85 family. Here we present electrophysiological single channel data showing that ATOM forms a hydrophilic pore of large conductance and high open probability. Moreover, ATOM channels exhibit a preference for the passage of cationic molecules consistent with the idea that it may translocate unfolded proteins targeted by positively charged N-terminal presequences. This is further supported by the fact that the addition of a presequence peptide induces transient pore closure. An in-depth comparison of these single channel properties with those of other protein translocases reveals that ATOM closely resembles bacterial-type protein export channels rather than eukaryotic Tom40. Our results support the idea that ATOM represents an evolutionary intermediate between a bacterial Omp85-like protein export machinery and the conventional Tom40 that is found in mitochondria of other eukaryotes. PMID:22778261

At the moment, many models on T cell signaling rely on results obtained via rather indirect methodologies, which makes direct comparison and conclusions to the in vivo situation difficult. Recently, a variety of new imaging methods were developed, which have the potential to directly shed light onto the mysteries of protein association at the T cell membrane. While the new modalities are extremely promising, for a broad readership it may be difficult to judge the results, since technological shortcomings are not always obvious. In this review article, we put key questions on the mechanism of protein interactions in the T cell plasma membrane into relation with techniques that allow to address such questions. We discuss applicability of the techniques, their strengths and weaknesses. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Nanoscale membrane organisation and signalling. PMID:25300585

The generalized Stokes-Einstein equation is used, together with the two-dimensional pressure equation, to analyze mutual diffusion in concentrated membrane systems. These equations can be used to investigate the role that both direct and hydrodynamic interactions play in determining diffusive behavior. Here only direct interactions are explicitly incorporated into the theory at high densities; however, both direct and hydrodynamic interactions are analyzed for some dilute solutions. We look at diffusion in the presence of weak attractions, soft repulsions, and hard-core repulsions. It is found that, at low densities, attractions retard mutual diffusion while repulsions enhance it. Mechanistically, attractions tend to tether particles together and oppose the dissipation of gradients or fluctuations in concentration, while repulsions provide a driving force that pushes particles apart. At higher concentrations, changes in the structure of the fluid enhance mutual diffusion even in the presence of attractions. It is shown that the theoretical description of postelectrophoresis relaxation and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy experiments must be modified if interacting systems are studied. The effects of interactions on mutual diffusion coefficients have probably already been seen in postelectrophoresis relaxation experiments. PMID:2775829

Membraneproteins play vital roles in the life of the cell and are important therapeutic targets. Producing them in large quantities, pure and fully functional is a major challenge. Many promising projects end when intractable aggregates or precipitates form. Here we show how such unfolded aggregates can be solubilized and the solution mixed with lipid to spontaneously self-assemble a bicontinuous cubic mesophase into the bilayer of which the protein, in a confined, chaperonin-like environment, reconstitutes with 100% efficiency. The test protein, diacylglycerol kinase, reconstituted in the bilayer of the mesophase, was then crystallized in situ by the in meso or lipid cubic phase method providing an X-ray structure to a resolution of 2.55 Å. This highly efficient, inexpensive, simple and rapid approach should find application wherever properly folded, membrane reconstituted and functional proteins are required where the starting material is a denatured aggregate. PMID:25055873

Vacuole membraneprotein 1 (Vmp1) is a putative transmembrane protein that has been associated with different functions including autophagy, cell adhesion, and membrane traffic. Highly similar proteins are present in lower eukaryotes and plants although a homologue is absent in the fungi lineage. We have recently described the first loss-of-function mutation for a Vmp1 homologue in a model system, Dictyostelium discoideum. Our results give a more comprehensive view of the intricate roles played by this new gene. Dictyostelium Vmp1 is an endoplasmic reticulum-resident protein. Cells deficient in Vmp1 display pleiotropic defects in the context of the secretory pathway such as organelle biogenesis, the endocytic pathway, and protein secretion. The biogenesis of the contractile vacuole, an organelle necessary to survive under hypoosmotic conditions, is compromised as well as the structure of the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. Transmission electron microscopy also shows abnormal accumulation of aberrant double-membrane vesicles, suggesting a defect in autophagosome biogenesis or maturation. The expression of a mammalian Vmp1 in the Dictyostelium mutant complements the phenotype suggesting a functional conservation during evolution. We are taking the first steps in understanding the function of this fascinating protein and recent studies have brought us more questions than answers about its basic function and its role in human pathology. PMID:18641456

The pathogenic spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi contains a set of integral membraneproteins which were selectively extracted into the detergent phase upon solubilization of intact B. burgdorferi with the nonionic detergent Triton X-114. Virtually all of these hydrophobic proteins were recognized by antibodies in pooled sera from patients with chronic Lyme arthritis, demonstrating that proteins partitioning into the detergent phase of Triton X-114 encompass the major B. burgdorferi immunogens. Furthermore, most of these immunogenic proteins, including the previously characterized OspA and OspB membrane antigens, could be biosynthetically labeled when B. burgdorferi was incubated in vitro with [3H]palmitate. The OspA and OspB antigens were radioimmunoprecipitated from [3H]palmitate-labeled detergent-phase proteins with monoclonal antibodies, and [3H]palmitate was recovered unaltered from these proteins after sequential alkaline and acid hydrolyses. The combined results provide formal confirmation that the major B. burgdorferi immunogens extracted by Triton X-114 are lipoproteins. The demonstration that B. burgdorferi integral membrane antigens are lipoproteins may explain the basis of their immunogenicity and may help to improve our understanding of the surface topology of B. burgdorferi. PMID:2318538

Helical membraneprotein structures are influenced by their native environment. Therefore the characterization of their structure in an environment that models as closely as possible their native environment is critical for achieving not only structural but functional understanding of these proteins. Solid state NMR spectroscopy in liquid crystalline lipid bilayers provides an excellent tool for such characterizations. Two classes of restraints can be obtained - absolute restraints that constrain the structure to a laboratory frame of reference when using uniformly oriented samples (approximately 1° of mosaic spread) and relative restraints that restrain one part of the structure with respect to another part such as torsional and distance restraints. Here, I will discuss unique restraints derived from uniformly oriented samples and the characterization of initial structures utilizing both restraint types, followed by restrained molecular dynamics refinement in the same lipid bilayer environment as that used for the experimental restraint collection. Protein examples will be taken from Influenza virus and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. When available comparisons of structures to those obtained using different membrane mimetic environments will be shown and the causes for structural distortions explained based on an understanding of membrane biophysics and its sophisticated influence on membraneproteins.

The aim of this project was to identify the best method for the enrichment of plasma membrane (PM) proteins for proteomics experiments. Following tryptic digestion and extended liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry acquisitions, data were processed using MaxQuant and Gene Ontology (GO) terms used to determine protein subcellular localization. The following techniques were examined for the total number and percentage purity of PM proteins identified: (a) whole cell lysate (total number, 84–112; percentage purity, 9–13%); (b) crude membrane preparation (104–111; 17–20%); (c) biotinylation of surface proteins with N-hydroxysulfosuccinimydyl-S,S-biotin and streptavidin pulldown (78–115; 27–31%); (d) biotinylation of surface glycoproteins with biocytin hydrazide and streptavidin pulldown (41–54; 59–85%); or (e) biotinylation of surface glycoproteins with amino-oxy-biotin (which labels the sialylated fraction of PM glycoproteins) and streptavidin pulldown (120; 65%). A two- to threefold increase in the overall number of proteins identified was achieved by using stop and go extraction tip (StageTip)-based anion exchange (SAX) fractionation. Combining technique (e) with SAX fractionation increased the number of proteins identified to 281 (54%). Analysis of GO terms describing these proteins identified a large subset of proteins integral to the membrane with no subcellular assignment. These are likely to be of PM location and bring the total PM protein identifications to 364 (68%). This study suggests that selective biotinylation of the cell surface using amino-oxy-biotin in combination with SAX fractionation is a useful method for identification of sialylated PM proteins. PMID:20808639

Probe-based or mixed solvent molecular dynamics simulation is a useful approach for the identification and characterization of druggable sites in drug targets. However, thus far the method has been applied only to soluble proteins. A major reason for this is the potential effect of the probe molecules on membrane structure. We have developed a technique to overcome this limitation that entails modification of force field parameters to reduce a few pairwise non-bonded interactions between selected atoms of the probe molecules and bilayer lipids. We used the resulting technique, termed pMD-membrane, to identify allosteric ligand binding sites on the G12D and G13D oncogenic mutants of the K-Ras protein bound to a negatively charged lipid bilayer. In addition, we show that differences in probe occupancy can be used to quantify changes in the accessibility of druggable sites due to conformational changes induced by membrane binding or mutation. PMID:26506102

An artificial bilayer lipid membrane system is presented, featuring the oriented encapsulation of membraneproteins in a functionally active form. Nickel nitrilo-triacetic acid-functionalized silica nanoparticles, of a diameter of around 25 nm, are used to attach the proteins via a genetically engineered histidine tag in a uniform orientation. Subsequently, the proteins are reconstituted within a phospholipid bilayer, formed around the particles by in situ dialysis to form so-called proteo-lipobeads (PLBs). With a final size of about 50 nm, the PLBs can be employed for UV/vis spectroscopy studies, particularly of multiredox center proteins, because the effects of light scattering are negligible. As a proof of concept, we use cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) from P. denitrificans with the his tag genetically engineered to subunit I. In this orientation, the P side of CcO is directed to the outside and hence electron transfer can be initiated by reduced cytochrome c (cc). UV/vis measurements are used in order to determine the occupancy by CcO molecules encapsulated in the lipid bilayer as well as the kinetics of electron transfer between CcO and cc. The kinetic data are analyzed in terms of the Michaelis-Menten kinetics showing that the turnover rate of CcO is significantly decreased compared to that of solubilized protein, whereas the binding characteristics are improved. The data demonstrate the suitability of PLBs for functional cell-free bioassays of membraneproteins. PMID:25670233

Many proteins that have a primary function as a cytoplasmic protein are known to have the ability to moonlight on the surface of nearly all organisms. An example is the glycolytic enzyme enolase, which can be found on the surface of many types of cells from bacteria to human. Surface enolase is not enzymatic because it is monomeric and oligomerization is required for glycolytic activity. It can bind various molecules and activate plasminogen. Enolase lacks a signal peptide and the mechanism by which it attaches to the surface is unknown. We found that treatment of whole cells of the murine pathogen Mycoplasma pulmonis with phospholipase D released enolase and other common moonlighting proteins. Glycostaining suggested that the released proteins were glycosylated. Cytoplasmic and membrane-bound enolase was isolated by immunoprecipitation. No post-translational modification was detected on cytoplasmic enolase, but membrane enolase was associated with lipid, phosphate and rhamnose. Treatment with phospholipase released the lipid and phosphate from enolase but not the rhamnose. The site of rhamnosylation was identified as a glutamine residue near the C-terminus of the protein. Rhamnose has been found in all species of mycoplasma examined but its function was previously unknown. Mycoplasmas are small bacteria with have no peptidoglycan, and rhamnose in these organisms is also not associated with polysaccharide. We suggest that rhamnose has a central role in anchoring proteins to the membrane by linkage to phospholipid, which may be a general mechanism for the membrane association of moonlighting proteins in mycoplasmas and perhaps other bacteria. PMID:27603308

Integral membrane transport proteins homologous to those found in the Transporter Classification Database (TCDB; www.tcdb.org) were identified and bioinformatically characterized by transporter class, family, and substrate specificity in three ciliates, Paramecium tetraurelia (Para), Tetrahymena thermophila (Tetra), and Ichthyophthirius multifiliis (Ich). In these three organisms, 1,326 of 39,600 proteins (3.4%), 1,017 of 24,800 proteins (4.2%), and 504 out of 8,100 proteins (6.2%) integral membrane transport proteins were identified, respectively. Thus, an inverse relationship was observed between the % transporters identified and the number of total proteins per genome reported. This surprising observation provides insight into the evolutionary process, giving rise to genome reduction following whole genome duplication (as in the case of Para) or during pathogenic association with a host organism (Ich). Of these transport proteins in Para and Tetra, about 41% were channels (more than any other type of organism studied), 31% were secondary carriers (fewer than most eukaryotes) and 26% were primary active transporters, mostly ATP-hydrolysis driven (more than most other eukaryotes). In Ich, the number of channels was selectively reduced by 66%, relative to Para and Tetra. Para has four times more inorganic anion transporters than Tetra, and Ich has nonselectively lost most of these. Tetra and Ich preferentially transport sugars and monocarboxylates while Para prefers di- and tricarboxylates. These observations serve to characterize the transport proteins of these related ciliates, providing insight into their nutrition and metabolism. PMID:25099884

Membraneproteins are very important for all living cells, being involved in respiration, photosynthesis, cellular uptake and signal transduction, amongst other vital functions. However, less than 300 unique membraneprotein structures have been determined to date, often due to difficulties associated with the growth of sufficiently large and well-ordered crystals. This work has been focused on showing the first proof of concept for using membraneprotein nanocrystals and microcrystals for high-resolution structure determination. Upon determining that crystals of the membraneprotein Photosystem I, which is the largest and most complex membraneprotein crystallized to date, exist with only a hundred unit cells with sizes of less than 200 nm on an edge, work was done to develop a technique that could exploit the growth of the Photosystem I nanocrystals and microcrystals. Femtosecond X-ray protein nanocrystallography was developed for use at the first high-energy X-ray free electron laser, the LCLS at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, in which a liquid jet brought fully-hydrated Photosystem I nanocrystals into the interaction region of the pulsed X-ray source. Diffraction patterns were recorded from millions of individual PSI nanocrystals and data from thousands of different, randomly oriented crystallites were integrated using Monte Carlo integration of the peak intensities. The short pulses (~ 70 fs) provided by the LCLS allowed the possibility to collect the diffraction data before the onset of radiation damage, exploiting the diffract-before-destroy principle. During the initial experiments at the AMO beamline using 6.9-Å wavelength, Bragg peaks were recorded to 8.5-Å resolution, and an electron-density map was determined that did not show any effects of X-ray-induced radiation damage [Chapman H.N., et al. Femtosecond X-ray protein nanocrystallography, Nature 470 (2011) 73–81]. Many additional techniques still need to be developed to explore the

The production of recombinant membraneproteins for structural and functional studies remains technically challenging due to low levels of expression and the inherent instability of many membraneproteins once solubilized in detergents. A protocol is described that combines ligation independent cloning of membraneproteins as GFP fusions with expression in Escherichia coli detected by GFP fluorescence. This enables the construction and expression screening of multiple membraneprotein/variants to identify candidates suitable for further investment of time and effort. The GFP reporter is used in a primary screen of expression by visualizing GFP fluorescence following SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Membraneproteins that show both a high expression level with minimum degradation as indicated by the absence of free GFP, are selected for a secondary screen. These constructs are scaled and a total membrane fraction prepared and solubilized in four different detergents. Following ultracentrifugation to remove detergent-insoluble material, lysates are analyzed by fluorescence detection size exclusion chromatography (FSEC). Monitoring the size exclusion profile by GFP fluorescence provides information about the mono-dispersity and integrity of the membraneproteins in different detergents. Protein: detergent combinations that elute with a symmetrical peak with little or no free GFP and minimum aggregation are candidates for subsequent purification. Using the above methodology, the heterologous expression in E. coli of SED (shape, elongation, division, and sporulation) proteins from 47 different species of bacteria was analyzed. These proteins typically have ten transmembrane domains and are essential for cell division. The results show that the production of the SEDs orthologues in E. coli was highly variable with respect to the expression levels and integrity of the GFP fusion proteins. The experiment identified a subset for further investigation. PMID

Co-translational protein targeting by the Signal Recognition Particle (SRP) is an essential cellular pathway that couples the synthesis of nascent proteins to their proper cellular localization. The bacterial SRP, which contains the minimal ribonucleoprotein core of this universally conserved targeting machine, has served as a paradigm for understanding the molecular basis of protein localization in all cells. In this review, we highlight recent biochemical and structural insights into the molecular mechanisms by which fundamental challenges faced by protein targeting machineries are met in the SRP pathway. Collectively, these studies elucidate how an essential SRP RNA and two regulatory GTPases in the SRP and SRP receptor (SR) enable this targeting machinery to recognize, sense and respond to its biological effectors, i.e. the cargo protein, the target membrane and the translocation machinery, thus driving efficient and faithful co-translational protein targeting. PMID:24513458

Egg shells are poultry industry byproducts with potential for use in various biological and agricultural applications. We have been interested in the membranes underlying the calcareous shell as a feed supplement, which showed potential to improve immunity and performance of post hatch poultry. Therefore, to determine their protein and peptide profiles, we extracted the egg shell membranes (ESM) from fresh unfertilized eggs with methanol and guanidine hydrochloride (GdHCl) to obtain soluble proteins for analysis by mass spectrometry. The methanol extract was subjected to matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI), electrospray ionization (ESI), high-performance reverse phase liquid chromatographic separation (HPLC), and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) to determine its peptide and protein profiles. The GdHCl extract was subjected to ESI-HPLC-MS/MS following trypsin digestion of reduced/alkylated proteins. Nine proteins from the methanol extract and >275 proteins from the GdHCl extract were tentatively identified. The results suggested the presence of several abundant proteins from egg whites, such as ovoalbumin, ovotransferrin, and lysozyme as well as many others associated with antimicrobial, biomechanical, cytoskeletal organizational, cell signaling, and enzyme activities. Collagens, keratin, agrin, and laminin were some of the structural proteins present in the ESM. The methanol-soluble fraction contained several clusterin peptides and defensins, particularly, two isoforms of gallin. The ratios of the two isoforms of gallin differed between the membranes obtained from brown and white eggs. The high abundance of several antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and other bioactive proteins in the ESM along with its potential to entrap various microbes and antigens may make it a suitable vehicle for oral immunization of post hatch poultry and improve their disease resistance. PMID:26485361

Functional proteomics of plant membraneproteins is an important approach to understand the comprehensive architecture of each metabolic pathway in plants. One bottleneck in the characterization of membraneproteins is the difficulty in producing sufficient quantities of functional protein for analysis. Here, we describe three methods for membraneprotein production utilizing a wheat germ cell-free protein expression system. Owing to the open nature of cell-free synthesis reaction, protein synthesis can be modified with components necessary to produce functional protein. In this way we have developed modifications to a wheat germ cell-free system for the production of functional membraneproteins. Supplementation of liposomes or detergents allows the synthesis of functional integral membraneproteins. Furthermore, supplementation of myristic acid enables synthesis of N-myristylated peripheral membraneproteins. These modified cell-free synthesis methods facilitate the preparation and subsequent functional analyses of a wide variety of membraneproteins. PMID:24136528

An important aspect of the function of the membrane-associated cytoskeleton has been suggested to be to trap and retain selected transmembrane proteins at points on the cell surface specified by cell adhesion molecules. In the process, cell adhesion molecules are cross-linked to each other, and so junctional complexes are strengthened. In this short review, we will discuss recent advances in understanding the role of this "accumulation machine" in postsynaptic structures. Function in the brain depends on correct ordering of synaptic intercellular junctions, and in particular the recruitment of receptors and other apparatus of the signalling system to postsynaptic membranes. Spectrin has long been known to be a component of postsynaptic densities, and recent advances in molecular cloning indicate that beta spectrins at PSDs are all "long" C-terminal isoforms characterised by pleckstrin homology domains. Isoforms of protein 4.1 are also present at synapses. All four 4.1 proteins are represented in PSD preparations, but it is 4.1R that is most enriched in PSDs. 4.1R binds to several proteins enriched in PSDs, including the characteristic PSD intermediate filament, alpha-internexin. Both 4.1 and spectrin interact with ionotropic glutamate receptors (AMPA and NMDA receptors, respectively): 4.1 stabilises AMPA receptors on the cell surface. By linking these receptors to the cytoskeletal and cell adhesion molecules that specify glutamatergic synapses, the membraneprotein accumulation machine is suggested to direct the formation of postsynaptic signalling complexes. PMID:11598642

The assembly of β-barrel proteins into membranes is a fundamental process that is essential in Gram-negative bacteria, mitochondria and plastids. Our understanding of the mechanism of β-barrel assembly is progressing from studies carried out in Escherichia coli and Neisseria meningitidis. Comparative sequence analysis suggests that while many components mediating β-barrel protein assembly are conserved in all groups of bacteria with outer membranes, some components are notably absent. The Alphaproteobacteria in particular seem prone to gene loss and show the presence or absence of specific components mediating the assembly of β-barrels: some components of the pathway appear to be missing from whole groups of bacteria (e.g. Skp, YfgL and NlpB), other proteins are conserved but are missing characteristic domains (e.g. SurA). This comparative analysis is also revealing important structural signatures that are vague unless multiple members from a protein family are considered as a group (e.g. tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) motifs in YfiO, β-propeller signatures in YfgL). Given that the process of the β-barrel assembly is conserved, analysis of outer membrane biogenesis in Alphaproteobacteria, the bacterial group that gave rise to mitochondria, also promises insight into the assembly of β-barrel proteins in eukaryotes. PMID:18759741

The poly(vinyl pyrrolidone)-covered hydrophilic surface of hollow-fiber membranes (fiber membrane, hereafter) for hemodialysis was mechanically probed using modified tips on an atomic force microscope (AFM) with covalent crosslinkers and several types of serum protein. The retraction part of many of the force extension (F-E) curves obtained with AFM tips coated with serum albumin had a long and smooth extension up to 200-300 nm indicating forced elongation of poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) chains. When fibrinogen-coated tips were used, long extension F-E curves up to 500 nm with multiple peaks were obtained in addition to smooth curves most likely reflecting the unfolding of fibrinogen molecules. The results indicated that individual polymer chains had a significant affinity toward serum proteins. The adhesion frequency of tips coated with serum proteins was lower on the poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) surface than on the uncoated hydrophobic polysulfone surface.

Three major outer membraneproteins from Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 were purified and tested for their ability to stimulate resting murine lymphocytes to proliferate. It was demonstrated that picomole amounts of all three proteins were mitogenic for both intact and T-lymphocyte-depleted populations of spleen cells from C3H/HeJ mice. In contrast, they had no activity against either mature or immature thymocytes. Since the strain of mice used is unable to respond to lipopolysaccharide, we condlude that the three proteins are B-cell mitogens. Images Fig. 2 PMID:6769818

The detergent micelles surrounding membraneprotein molecules in single crystals can be investigated using neutron crystallography combined with H{sub 2}O/D{sub 2}O contrast variation. If the protein structure is known then the contrast variation method allows phases to be determined at a contrast where the detergent dominates the scattering. The application of various constraints allows the resulting scattering length density map to be realistically modeled. The method has been applied to two different forms of the membraneprotein porin. In one case both hydrogenated and partially deuterated protein were used, allowing the head group and tail to be distinguished.

We report a mass spectrometry-based strategy for quantitative analysis of cell surface membrane proteome changes. The strategy includes enrichment of surface membraneproteins using a membrane-impermeable chemical probe followed by stable isotope 18O labeling and LC-MS analysis. We applied this strategy for enriching membraneproteins expressed by Shewanella oneidensis MR-1, a gram-negative bacterium with known metal-reduction capability via extracellular electron transfer between outer membraneproteins and environmental electron receptors. LC/MS/MS analysis resulted in the identification of about 79% membraneproteins among all proteins identified from the enriched sample. To illustrate the quantification of membrane proteome changes, enriched membraneprotein samples from wild-type and mutant cells (generated from deletion of a type II secretion protein, GspD) were further labeled with 16O and 18O at the peptide level prior to LC-MS analysis. A chemical-probe-labeled pure protein has also been used as an internal standard for normalization purpose. The quantitative data revealed reduced abundances of many outer membraneproteins such as OmcA and MtrC in ΔgspD mutant cells, which agreed well with previously published studies.

We report a mass spectrometry-based strategy for quantitative analysis of cell surface membrane proteome changes. The strategy includes enrichment of surface membraneproteins using a membrane-impermeable chemical probe followed by stable isotope 18O labeling and LC-MS analysis. We applied this strategy for enriching membraneproteins expressed by Shewanella oneidensis MR-1, a gram-negative bacterium with known metal-reduction capability via extracellular electron transfer between outer membraneproteins and extracellular electron receptors. LC/MS/MS analysis resulted in the identification of about 400 proteins with 79% of them being predicted to be membrane localized. Quantitative aspects of the membrane enrichment were shown by peptide level 16O and 18O labeling of proteins from wild-type and mutant cells (generated from deletion of a type II secretion protein, GspD) prior to LC-MS analysis. Using a chemical probe labeled pure protein as an internal standard for normalization, the quantitative data revealed reduced abundances in ΔgspD mutant cells of many outer membraneproteins including the outer membrane c-cype cytochromes OmcA and MtrC, in agreement with previously investigation demonstrating that these proteins are substrates of the type II secretion system. PMID:20380418

Membraneproteins mediate processes that are fundamental for the flourishing of biological cells. Membrane-embedded transporters move ions and larger solutes across membranes, receptors mediate communication between the cell and its environment and membrane-embedded enzymes catalyze chemical reactions. Understanding these mechanisms of action requires knowledge of how the proteins couple to their fluid, hydrated lipid membrane environment. We present here current studies in computational and experimental membraneprotein biophysics, and show how they address outstanding challenges in understanding the complex environmental effects on the structure, function and dynamics of membraneproteins. PMID:26063070

Critical interactions between Bcl-2 family proteins permeabilize the outer mitochondrial membrane, a common decision point early in the intrinsic apoptotic pathway that irreversibly commits the cell to death. However, a unified picture integrating the essential non-passive role of lipid membranes with the contested dynamics of Bcl-2 regulation remains unresolved. Correlating results between synchrotron x-ray diffraction and microscopy in cell-free assays, we report activation of pro-apoptotic Bax induces strong pure negative Gaussian membrane curvature topologically necessary for pore formation and membrane remodeling events. Strikingly, Bcl-xL suppresses not only Bax-induced pore formation, but also membrane remodeling by disparate systems including cell penetrating, antimicrobial or viral fusion peptides, and bacterial toxin, none of which have BH3 allosteric domains to mediate direct binding. We propose a parallel mode of Bcl-2 pore regulation in which Bax and Bcl-xL induce antagonistic and mutually interacting Gaussian membrane curvatures. The universal nature of curvature-mediated interactions allows synergy with direct binding mechanisms, and potentially accounts for the Bcl-2 family modulation of mitochondrial fission/fusion dynamics.

Membraneproteins are difficult to study for numerous reasons. The surface of membraneproteins is relatively hydrophobic and sometimes very unstable, additionally requiring detergents for their extraction from the membrane. This leads to challenges at all levels, including expression, solubilization, purification, identification of associated proteins, and the identification of post-translational modifications. However, recent advances in immunoprecipitation technology allow to isolate membraneproteins efficiently, facilitating the study of protein-protein interactions, the identification of novel associated proteins, and to identify post-translational modifications, such as phosphorylation. Here, we describe an optimized immunoprecipitation protocol for plant plasma membrane receptor-like kinases. PMID:26577786

The physiological properties of biological soft matter are the product of collective interactions, which span many time and length scales. Recent computational modeling efforts have helped illuminate experiments that characterize the ways in which proteins modulate membrane physics. Linking these models across time and length scales in a multiscale model explains how atomistic information propagates to larger scales. This paper reviews continuum modeling and coarse-grained molecular dynamics methods, which connect atomistic simulations and single-molecule experiments with the observed microscopic or mesoscale properties of soft-matter systems essential to our understanding of cells, particularly those involved in sculpting and remodeling cell membranes. PMID:26613047

Methods were developed for high yield covalent attachment of peptides and proteins to isothiocyanate and arylamine-derivatized poly(vinylidene difluoride) membranes for solid-phase sequence analysis. Solutions of protein or peptide were dried onto 8-mm membrane disks such that the functional groups on the surface and the polypeptide were brought into close proximity. In the case of the isothiocyanate membrane, reaction between polypeptide amino groups and the surface isothiocyanate moieties was promoted by application of aqueous N-methylmorpholine. Attachment of proteins and peptides to the arylamine surface was achieved by application of water-soluble carbodiimide in a pH 5.0 buffer. Edman degradation of covalently bound polypeptides was accomplished with initial and repetitive sequence yields ranging from 33 to 75% and 88.5 to 98.5%, respectively. The yields were independent of the sample load (20 pmol to greater than 1 nmol) for either surface. Significant loss of material was not observed when attachment residues were encountered during sequence runs. Application of bovine beta-lactoglobulin A chain, staphylococcus protein A, or the peptide melittin to the isothiocyanate membrane allowed for extended N-terminal sequence identification (35 residues from 20 pmol of beta-lactoglobulin). A number of synthetic and naturally occurring peptides were sequenced to the C-terminal residue following attachment to the arylamine surface. In one example, 10 micrograms of bovine alpha-casein was digested with staphylococcal protease V8 and the peptides were separated by reverse-phase chromatography. Peptide fractions were then directly applied to arylamine membrane disks for covalent sequence analysis. From as little as 2 pmol of initial signal it was possible to determine substantial sequence information (greater than 10 residues).

Methods were developed for high yield covalent attachment of peptides and proteins to isothiocyanate and arylamine-derivatized poly(vinylidene difluoride) membranes for solid-phase sequence analysis. Solutions of protein or peptide were dried onto 8-mm membrane disks such that the functional groups on the surface and the polypeptide were brought into close proximity. In the case of the isothiocyanate membrane, reaction between polypeptide amino groups and the surface isothiocyanate moieties was promoted by application of aqueous N-methylmorpholine. Attachment of proteins and peptides to the arylamine surface was achieved by application of water-soluble carbodiimide in a pH 5.0 buffer. Edman degradation of covalently bound polypeptides was accomplished with initial and repetitive sequence yields ranging from 33 to 75% and 88.5 to 98.5%, respectively. The yields were independent of the sample load (20 pmol to greater than 1 nmol) for either surface. Significant loss of material was not observed when attachment residues were encountered during sequence runs. Application of bovine beta-lactoglobulin A chain, staphylococcus protein A, or the peptide melittin to the isothiocyanate membrane allowed for extended N-terminal sequence identification (35 residues from 20 pmol of beta-lactoglobulin). A number of synthetic and naturally occurring peptides were sequenced to the C-terminal residue following attachment to the arylamine surface. In one example, 10 micrograms of bovine alpha-casein was digested with staphylococcal protease V8 and the peptides were separated by reverse-phase chromatography. Peptide fractions were then directly applied to arylamine membrane disks for covalent sequence analysis. From as little as 2 pmol of initial signal it was possible to determine substantial sequence information (greater than 10 residues). PMID:1867375

Biological membranes in eukaryotes contain a large variety of proteins and lipids often distributed in domains in plasma membrane and endomembranes. Molecular mechanisms responsible for the transport and the organization of these membrane domains along the secretory pathway still remain elusive. Here we show that vesicular SNARE TI-VAMP/VAMP7 plays a major role in membrane domains composition and transport. We found that the transport of exogenous and endogenous GPI-anchored proteins was altered in fibroblasts isolated from VAMP7-knockout mice. Furthermore, disassembly and reformation of the Golgi apparatus induced by Brefeldin A treatment and washout were impaired in VAMP7-depleted cells, suggesting that loss of VAMP7 expression alters biochemical properties and dynamics of the Golgi apparatus. In addition, lipid profiles from these knockout cells indicated a defect in glycosphingolipids homeostasis. We conclude that VAMP7 is required for effective transport of GPI–anchored proteins to cell surface and that VAMP7-dependent transport contributes to both sphingolipids and Golgi homeostasis. PMID:26196023

Cells must regulate the abundance and activity of numerous nutrient transporters in different organelle membranes to achieve nutrient homeostasis. As the recycling center and major storage organelle, lysosomes are essential for maintaining nutrient homeostasis. However, very little is known about mechanisms that govern the regulation of its membraneproteins. In this study, we demonstrated that changes of Zn2+ levels trigger the downregulation of vacuolar Zn2+ transporters. Low Zn2+ levels cause the degradation of the influx transporter Cot1, whereas high Zn2+ levels trigger the degradation of the efflux channel Zrt3. The degradation process depends on the vacuole membrane recycling and degradation pathway. Unexpectedly, we identified a RING domain–containing E3 ligase Tul1 and its interacting proteins in the Dsc complex that are important for the ubiquitination of Cot1 and partial ubiquitination of Zrt3. Our study demonstrated that the Dsc complex can function at the vacuole to regulate the composition and lifetime of vacuolar membraneproteins. PMID:26527740

Membraneproteins mediate cell-cell interactions and adhesion, the transfer of ions and metabolites, and the transmission of signals from the extracellular environment to the cell interior. The extracellular domains of most cell membraneproteins are glycosylated, often at multiple sites. There is a growing awareness that glycosylation impacts the structure, interaction, and function of membraneproteins. The application of glycoproteomics and glycomics methods to membraneproteins has great potential. However, challenges also arise from the unique physical properties of membraneproteins. Successful analytical workflows must be developed and disseminated to advance functional glycoproteomics and glycomics studies of membraneproteins. This review explores the opportunities and challenges related to glycomic and glycoproteomic analysis of membraneproteins, including discussion of sample preparation, enrichment, and MS/MS analyses, with a focus on recent successful workflows for analysis of N- and O-linked glycosylation of mammalian membraneproteins. PMID:26872045

Membraneproteins mediate a variety of cellular responses to extracellular signals. Although membraneproteins are studied intensively for their values as disease biomarkers and therapeutic targets, in situ investigation of the binding kinetics of membraneproteins with their ligands has been a challenge. Traditional approaches isolate membraneproteins and then study them ex situ, which does not reflect accurately their native structures and functions. We present a label-free plasmonic microscopy method to map the local binding kinetics of membraneproteins in their native environment. This analytical method can perform simultaneous plasmonic and fluorescence imaging, and thus make it possible to combine the strengths of both label-based and label-free techniques in one system. Using this method, we determined the distribution of membraneproteins on the surface of single cells and the local binding kinetic constants of different membraneproteins. Furthermore, we studied the polarization of the membraneproteins on the cell surface during chemotaxis.

It has been hypothesized that nonspecific reversible binding of cytoskeletal proteins to lipids in cells may guide their binding to integral membrane anchor proteins. In a model system, we measured desorption rates k(off) (off-rates) of the erythrocyte cytoskeletal proteins spectrin and protein 4.1 labeled with carboxyfluorescein (CF), at two different compositions of planar phospholipid membranes (supported on glass), using the total internal reflection/fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (TIR/FRAP) technique. The lipid membranes consisted of either pure phosphatidylcholine (PC) or a 3:1 mixture of PC with phosphatidylserine (PS). In general, the off-rates were not single exponentials and were fit to a combination of fast, slow, and irreversible fractions, reported both separately and as a weighted average. By a variation of TIR/FRAP, we also measured equilibrium affinities (the ratio of surface-bound to bulk protein concentration) and thereby calculated on-rates, k(on). The average off-rate of CF-4.1 from PC/PS (approximately 0.008/s) is much slower than that from pure PC (approximately 1.7/s). Despite the consequent increase in equilibrium affinity at PC/PS, the on-rate at PC/PS is also substantially decreased (by a factor of 40) relative to that at pure PC. The simultaneous presence of (unlabeled) spectrin tends to substantially decrease the on-rate (and the affinity) of CF-4.1 at both membrane types. Similar experiments for CF-spectrin alone showed much less sensitivity to membrane type and generally faster off-rates than those exhibited by CF-4.1. However, when mixed with (unlabeled) 4.1, both the on-rate and off-rate of CF-spectrin decreased drastically at PC/PS (but not PC), leading to a somewhat increased affinity. Clearly, changes in affinity often involve countervailing changes in both on-rates and off-rates. In many of these studies, the effect of varying ionic strength and bulk concentrations was examined; it appears that the binding is an

Lipids play important roles in cellular dysfunction leading to disease. Although a major role for phospholipids is in defining the membrane permeability barrier, phospholipids play a central role in a diverse range of cellular processes and therefore are important factors in cellular dysfunction and disease. This review is focused on the role of phospholipids in normal assembly and organization of the membraneproteins, multimeric protein complexes, and higher order supercomplexes. Since lipids have no catalytic activity, it is difficult to determine their function at the molecular level. Lipid function has generally been defined by affects on protein function or cellular processes. Molecular details derived from genetic, biochemical, and structural approaches are presented for involvement of phosphatidylethanolamine and cardiolipin in protein organization. Experimental evidence is presented that changes in phosphatidylethanolamine levels results in misfolding and topological misorientation of membraneproteins leading to dysfunctional proteins. Examples are presented for diseases in which proper protein folding or topological organization is not attained due to either demonstrated or proposed involvement of a lipid. Similar changes in cardiolipin levels affects the structure and function of individual components of the mitochondrial electron transport chain and their organization into supercomplexes resulting in reduced mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation efficiency and apoptosis. Diseases in which mitochondrial dysfunction has been linked to reduced cardiolipin levels are described. Therefore, understanding the principles governing lipid-dependent assembly and organization of membraneproteins and protein complexes will be useful in developing novel therapeutic approaches for disorders in which lipids play an important role. PMID:18751913

Most mitochondrial proteins are synthesized in the cytosol as precursor proteins and are imported into mitochondria. The targeting signals for mitochondria are encoded in the presequences or in the mature parts of the precursor proteins, and are decoded by the receptor sites in the translocator complex in the mitochondrial outer membrane. The recently determined NMR structure of the general import receptor Tom20 in a complex with a presequence peptide reveals that, although the amphiphilicity and positive charges of the presequence is essential for the import ability of the presequence, Tom20 recognizes only the amphiphilicity, but not the positive charges. This leads to a new model that different features associated with the mitochondrial targeting sequence of the precursor protein can be recognized by the mitochondrial protein import system in different steps during the import. PMID:12191763

The origin and early evolution of membraneproteins, and in particular ion channels, are considered from the point of view that the transmembrane segments of membraneproteins are structurally quite simple and do not require specific sequences to fold. We argue that the transport of solute species, especially ions, required an early evolution of efficient transport mechanisms, and that the emergence of simple ion channels was protobiologically plausible. We also argue that, despite their simple structure, such channels could possess properties that, at the first sight, appear to require markedly larger complexity. These properties can be subtly modulated by local modifications to the sequence rather than global changes in molecular architecture. In order to address the evolution and development of ion channels, we focus on identifying those protein domains that are commonly associated with ion channel proteins and are conserved throughout the three main domains of life (Eukarya, Prokarya, and Archaea). We discuss the potassium-sodium-calcium superfamily of voltage-gated ion channels, mechanosensitive channels, porins, and ABC-transporters and argue that these families of membrane channels have sufficiently universal architectures that they can readily adapt to the diverse functional demands arising during evolution.

The effects of several Ca2+-binding proteins (calmodulin, prothrombin, and synexin) on the kinetics of Ca2+-induced membrane fusion were examined. Membrane fusion was assayed by following the mixing of aqueous contents of phospholipid vesicles. Calmodulin inhibited slightly the fusion of phospholipid vesicles. Bovine prothrombin and its proteolytic fragment 1 had a strong inhibitory effect on fusion. Depending on the phospholipid composition, synexin could either facilitate or inhibit Ca2+-induced fusion of vesicles. The effects of synexin were Ca2+ specific. 10 microM Ca2+ was sufficient to induce fusion of vesicles composed of phosphatidic acid/phosphatidylethanolamine (1:3) in the presence of synexin and 1 mM Mg2+. We propose that synexin may be involved in intracellular membrane fusion events mediated by Ca2+, such as exocytosis, and discuss possible mechanisms facilitating fusion. PMID:6459804

The membraneprotein palmitoylated (MPP) family belongs to the membrane-associated guanylate kinase (MAGUK) family. MPP1 interacts with the protein 4.1 family member, 4.1R, as a membrane skeletal protein complex in erythrocytes. We previously described the interaction of another MPP family, MPP6, with 4.1G in the mouse peripheral nervous system. In the present study, the immunolocalization of MPP6 in the mouse small intestine was examined and compared with that of E-cadherin, zonula occludens (ZO)-1, and 4.1B, which we previously investigated in intestinal epithelial cells. The immunolocalization of MPP6 was also assessed in the small intestines of 4.1B-deficient (-/-) mice. In the small intestine, Western blotting revealed that the molecular weight of MPP6 was approximately 55-kDa, and MPP6 was immunostained under the cell membranes in the basolateral portions of almost all epithelial cells from the crypts to the villi. The immunostaining pattern of MPP6 in epithelial cells was similar to that of E-cadherin, but differed from that of ZO-1. In intestinal epithelial cells, the immunostained area of MPP6 was slightly different from that of 4.1B, which was restricted to the intestinal villi. The immunolocalization of MPP6 in small intestinal epithelial cells was similar between 4.1B(-/-) mice and 4.1B(+/+) mice. In the immunoprecipitation study, another MAGUK family protein, calcium/calmodulin-dependent serine protein kinase (CASK), was shown to molecularly interact with MPP6. Thus, we herein showed the immunolocalization and interaction proteins of MPP6 in the mouse small intestine, and also that 4.1B in epithelial cells was not essential for the sorting of MPP6. PMID:26496923

Very little is known about the folding of proteins within biological membranes. A "two-stage" model has been proposed on thermodynamic grounds for the folding of alpha helical, integral membraneproteins, the first stage of which involves formation of transmembrane alpha helices that are proposed to behave as autonomous folding domains. Here, we investigate alpha helix formation in bacteriorhodopsin and present a time-resolved circular dichroism study of the slow in vitro folding of this protein. We show that, although some of the protein's alpha helices form early, a significant part of the protein's secondary structure appears to form late in the folding process. Over 30 amino acids, equivalent to at least one of bacteriorhodopsin's seven transmembrane segments, slowly fold from disordered structures to alpha helices with an apparent rate constant of about 0.012 s-1 at pH 6 or 0.0077 s-1 at pH 8. This is a rate-limiting step in protein folding, which is dependent on the pH and the composition of the lipid bilayer. PMID:8993333

The aim of this study was to systemically analyze the proteins that adsorbed on the surface of hemodialysis membrane. The Fresenius F6 reused polysulfone dialyzers were selected as the research objects. The methodology we used encompassed the digestion of protein in rinsed solution and the separation of peptide mixture in virtue of RP-HPLC followed by ESI-MS/MS identification in orde to get their adsorption behavior, species and characteristics. The results illustrated that, after being rinsed by reverse osmosis (RO) water, 179 species of the protein adsorbed on the hemodialysis membrane, most of which were acidulous and middle or small weight protein molecules. The data from counting the numbers of peptides showed there were 5 species of high-abundant proteins (the contents being above 5% each), namely Ficolin-2 precursor, Complement C3 precursor (Fragment), Mannan-binding lectin serine protease 1 isoform 2 precursor, Complement-activating component of Ra-reactive factor precursor, and Mannan-binding lectin serine protease 1 isoform 3. These proteins are in close relationship with human immune system; moreover, they are of great significance to the clinical mechanism for cleaning reuse hemodialyzers and to the development of new hemodialysis materials. PMID:19334557

Vero cells are highly susceptible to many viruses in humans and animals, and its membraneproteins (MPs) are responsible for virus entry. In our study, the MP proteome of the Vero cells was investigated using a shotgun LC-MS/MS approach. Six hundred twenty-seven proteins, including a total of 1839 peptides, were identified in MP samples of the Vero cells. In 627 proteins, 307 proteins (48.96%) were annotated in terms of biological process of gene ontology (GO) categories; 356 proteins (56.78%) were annotated in terms of molecular function of GO categories; 414 proteins (66.03%) were annotated in terms of cellular components of GO categories. Of 627 identified proteins, seventeen proteins had been revealed to be virus receptor proteins. The resulting protein lists and highlighted proteins may provide valuable information to increase understanding of virus infection of Vero cells. PMID:24286161

Membraneprotein insertion in the lipid bilayer is determining for their activity and is governed by various factors such as specific sequence motifs or key amino-acids. A detailed fluorescence study of such factors is exemplified with PMP1, a small (38 residues) single-membrane span protein that regulates the plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase in yeast and specifically interacts with phosphatidylserines. Such interactions may stabilize raft domains that have been shown to contain H(+)-ATPase. Previous NMR studies of various fragments have focused on the critical role of interfacial residues in the PMP1 structure and intermolecular interactions. The C-terminal domain contains a terminal Phe (F38), a single Trp (W28) and a single Tyr (Y25) that may act together to anchor the protein in the membrane. In order to describe the location and dynamics of W28 and the influence of Y25 on protein insertion within membrane, we carried out a detailed steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence study of the synthetic G13-F38 fragment and its Tyr-less mutant, Y25L in various membrane mimetic systems. Detergent micelles are conveniently used for this purpose. We used dodecylphosphocholine (DPC) in order to compare with and complement previous NMR results. In addition, dodecylmaltoside (DM) was used so that we could apply our recently described new quenching method by two brominated analogs of DM (de Foresta et al. 2002, Eur. Biophys. J. 31:185-97). In both systems, and in the presence and absence of Y25, W28 was shown to be located below but close to the polar headgroup region, as shown by its maximum emission wavelengths (lambda(max)), curves for the quenching of Trp by the brominated analogs of DM and bimolecular constants for quenching (k(q)) by acrylamide. Results were interpreted by comparison with calibration data obtained with fluorescent model peptides. Time-resolved anisotropy measurements were consistent with PMP1 fragment immobilization within peptide-detergent complexes. We

Most proteins have uneven distributions in the plasma membrane. Broadly speaking, this may be caused by mechanisms specific to each protein, or may be a consequence of a general pattern that affects the distribution of all membraneproteins. The latter hypothesis has been difficult to test in the past. Here, we introduce several approaches based on click chemistry, through which we study the distribution of membraneproteins in living cells, as well as in membrane sheets. We found that the plasma membraneproteins form multi-protein assemblies that are long lived (minutes), and in which protein diffusion is restricted. The formation of the assemblies is dependent on cholesterol. They are separated and anchored by the actin cytoskeleton. Specific proteins are preferentially located in different regions of the assemblies, from their cores to their edges. We conclude that the assemblies constitute a basic mesoscale feature of the membrane, which affects the patterning of most membraneproteins, and possibly also their activity. PMID:25060237

Tags are widely used to monitor a protein's expression level, interactions, protein trafficking, and localization. Membraneproteins are often tagged in their extracellular domains to allow discrimination between protein in the plasma membrane from that in internal pools. Multipass membraneproteins offer special challenges for inserting a tag since the extracellular regions are often composed of small loops and thus inserting an epitope tag risks perturbing the structure, function, or location of the membraneprotein. We have developed a novel tagging system called snorkel where a transmembrane domain followed by a tag is appended to the cytoplasmic C-terminus of the membraneprotein. In this way the tag is displayed extracellularly, but structurally separate from the membraneprotein. We have tested the snorkel tag system on a diverse panel of membraneproteins including GPCRs and ion channels and demonstrated that it reliably allows for monitoring of the surface expression. PMID:24023844

Most proteins have uneven distributions in the plasma membrane. Broadly speaking, this may be caused by mechanisms specific to each protein, or may be a consequence of a general pattern that affects the distribution of all membraneproteins. The latter hypothesis has been difficult to test in the past. Here, we introduce several approaches based on click chemistry, through which we study the distribution of membraneproteins in living cells, as well as in membrane sheets. We found that the plasma membraneproteins form multi-protein assemblies that are long lived (minutes), and in which protein diffusion is restricted. The formation of the assemblies is dependent on cholesterol. They are separated and anchored by the actin cytoskeleton. Specific proteins are preferentially located in different regions of the assemblies, from their cores to their edges. We conclude that the assemblies constitute a basic mesoscale feature of the membrane, which affects the patterning of most membraneproteins, and possibly also their activity.

Membraneproteins are generally unstable in detergents. Therefore, biochemical and biophysical studies of membraneproteins in lipidic environments provides a near native-like environment suitable for membraneproteins. However, manipulation of proteins embedded in lipid bilayer has remained difficult. Methods such as nanodiscs and lipid cubic phase have been developed for easy manipulation of membraneproteins and have yielded significant insights into membraneproteins. Traditionally functional reconstitution of receptors in nanodiscs has been studied with radioligands. We present a simple and faster method for studying the functionality of reconstituted membraneproteins for routine characterization of protein batches after initial optimization of suitable conditions using radioligands. The benefits of the method are • Faster and generic method to assess functional reconstitution of membraneproteins. • Adaptable in high throughput format (≥96 well format). • Stability measurement in near-native lipid environment and lipid dependent melting temperatures. PMID:27054097

Alpha helical membraneproteins are the targets for many pharmaceutical drugs and play important roles in physiology and disease processes. In recent years, substantial progress has been made in determining their atomic structure using X-ray crystallography. However, a major bottleneck still remains; the identification of conditions that give crystals that are suitable for structure determination. Over the past 10 years we have been analysing the crystallisation conditions reported for alpha helical membraneproteins with the aim to facilitate a rational approach to the design and implementation of successful crystallisation screens. The result has been the development of MemGold, MemGold2 and the additive screen MemAdvantage. The associated analysis, summarised and updated in this chapter, has revealed a number of surprisingly successfully strategies for crystallisation and detergent selection. PMID:27553235

Methods to characterize the irregular but non-random planar distribution of proteins in biological membranes were investigated. The distribution of the proteins constituting the intramembranous particles (IMP) in human erythrocyte membranes was used as an example. The distribution of IMPs was deliberately altered by experimental means. For real space analyses, the IMP positions in freeze fracture micrograph S were determined by an automatic procedure described. Radial distribution and autocorrelation analysis revealed quantitative differences between experimental groups. These methods are more sensitive than the corresponding optical diffraction or Fourier-Bessel analyses of the same IMP distribution data, due to the inability of the diffraction methods to separate contrast and distribution effects. A method to identify IMPs on a non-uniform background is described. PMID:3999133

Short antimicrobial peptides rich in arginine (R) and tryptophan (W) interact with membranes. To learn how this interaction leads to bacterial death, we characterized the effects of the minimal pharmacophore RWRWRW-NH2. A ruthenium-substituted derivative of this peptide localized to the membrane in vivo, and the peptide also integrated readily into mixed phospholipid bilayers that resemble Gram-positive membranes. Proteome and Western blot analyses showed that integration of the peptide caused delocalization of peripheral membraneproteins essential for respiration and cell-wall biosynthesis, limiting cellular energy and undermining cell-wall integrity. This delocalization phenomenon also was observed with the cyclic peptide gramicidin S, indicating the generality of the mechanism. Exogenous glutamate increases tolerance to the peptide, indicating that osmotic destabilization also contributes to antibacterial efficacy. Bacillus subtilis responds to peptide stress by releasing osmoprotective amino acids, in part via mechanosensitive channels. This response is triggered by membrane-targeting bacteriolytic peptides of different structural classes as well as by hypoosmotic conditions. PMID:24706874

The involvement of Schizosaccharomyces pombe prm1+ in cell fusion during mating and its relationship with other genes required for this process have been addressed. S. pombe prm1Δ mutant exhibits an almost complete blockade in cell fusion and an abnormal distribution of the plasma membrane and cell wall in the area of cell–cell interaction. The distribution of cellular envelopes is similar to that described for mutants devoid of the Fig1-related claudin-like Dni proteins; however, prm1+ and the dni+ genes act in different subpathways. Time-lapse analyses show that in the wild-type S. pombe strain, the distribution of phosphatidylserine in the cytoplasmic leaflet of the plasma membrane undergoes some modification before an opening is observed in the cross wall at the cell–cell contact region. In the prm1Δ mutant, this membrane modification does not take place, and the cross wall between the mating partners is not extensively degraded; plasma membrane forms invaginations and fingers that sometimes collapse/retract and that are sometimes strengthened by the synthesis of cell-wall material. Neither prm1Δ nor prm1Δ dniΔ zygotes lyse after cell–cell contact in medium containing and lacking calcium. Response to drugs that inhibit lipid synthesis or interfere with lipids is different in wild-type, prm1Δ, and dni1Δ strains, suggesting that membrane structure/organization/dynamics is different in all these strains and that Prm1p and the Dni proteins exert some functions required to guarantee correct membrane organization that are critical for cell fusion. PMID:24514900

The involvement of Schizosaccharomyces pombe prm1(+) in cell fusion during mating and its relationship with other genes required for this process have been addressed. S. pombe prm1Δ mutant exhibits an almost complete blockade in cell fusion and an abnormal distribution of the plasma membrane and cell wall in the area of cell-cell interaction. The distribution of cellular envelopes is similar to that described for mutants devoid of the Fig1-related claudin-like Dni proteins; however, prm1(+) and the dni(+) genes act in different subpathways. Time-lapse analyses show that in the wild-type S. pombe strain, the distribution of phosphatidylserine in the cytoplasmic leaflet of the plasma membrane undergoes some modification before an opening is observed in the cross wall at the cell-cell contact region. In the prm1Δ mutant, this membrane modification does not take place, and the cross wall between the mating partners is not extensively degraded; plasma membrane forms invaginations and fingers that sometimes collapse/retract and that are sometimes strengthened by the synthesis of cell-wall material. Neither prm1Δ nor prm1Δ dniΔ zygotes lyse after cell-cell contact in medium containing and lacking calcium. Response to drugs that inhibit lipid synthesis or interfere with lipids is different in wild-type, prm1Δ, and dni1Δ strains, suggesting that membrane structure/organization/dynamics is different in all these strains and that Prm1p and the Dni proteins exert some functions required to guarantee correct membrane organization that are critical for cell fusion. PMID:24514900

Background The Gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis is an important producer of high quality industrial enzymes and a few eukaryotic proteins. Most of these proteins are secreted into the growth medium, but successful examples of cytoplasmic protein production are also known. Therefore, one may anticipate that the high protein production potential of B. subtilis can be exploited for protein complexes and membraneproteins to facilitate their functional and structural analysis. The high quality of proteins produced with B. subtilis results from the action of cellular quality control systems that efficiently remove misfolded or incompletely synthesized proteins. Paradoxically, cellular quality control systems also represent bottlenecks for the production of various heterologous proteins at significant concentrations. Conclusion While inactivation of quality control systems has the potential to improve protein production yields, this could be achieved at the expense of product quality. Mechanisms underlying degradation of secretory proteins are nowadays well understood and often controllable. It will therefore be a major challenge for future research to identify and modulate quality control systems of B. subtilis that limit the production of high quality protein complexes and membraneproteins, and to enhance those systems that facilitate assembly of these proteins. PMID:18394159

Nonlinear optical methods such as second harmonic generation (SHG) and two-photon excited UV fluorescence (TPE-UVF) imaging are promising approaches to address bottlenecks in the membraneprotein structure determination pipeline. The general principles of SHG and TPE-UVF are discussed here along with instrument design considerations. Comparisons to conventional methods in high throughput crystallization condition screening and crystal quality assessment prior to X-ray diffraction are also discussed. PMID:27553237

A central tenet of signal transduction in eukaryotic cells is that extra-cellular ligands activate specific cell surface receptors, which orchestrate downstream responses. This ‘’protein-centric” view is increasingly challenged by evidence for the involvement of specialized membrane domains in signal transduction. Here, we propose that membrane perturbation may serve as an alternative mechanism to activate a conserved cell-death program in cancer cells. This view emerges from the extraordinary manner in which HAMLET (Human Alpha-lactalbumin Made LEthal to Tumor cells) kills a wide range of tumor cells in vitro and demonstrates therapeutic efficacy and selectivity in cancer models and clinical studies. Wemore » identify a ‘’receptor independent” transformation of vesicular motifs in model membranes, which is paralleled by gross remodeling of tumor cell membranes. Furthermore, we find that HAMLET accumulates within these de novo membrane conformations and define membrane blebs as cellular compartments for direct interactions of HAMLET with essential target proteins such as the Ras family of GTPases. In conclusion, we demonstrate lower sensitivity of healthy cell membranes to HAMLET challenge. These features suggest that HAMLET-induced curvature-dependent membrane conformations serve as surrogate receptors for initiating signal transduction cascades, ultimately leading to cell death.« less

A central tenet of signal transduction in eukaryotic cells is that extra-cellular ligands activate specific cell surface receptors, which orchestrate downstream responses. This ‘’protein-centric” view is increasingly challenged by evidence for the involvement of specialized membrane domains in signal transduction. Here, we propose that membrane perturbation may serve as an alternative mechanism to activate a conserved cell-death program in cancer cells. This view emerges from the extraordinary manner in which HAMLET (Human Alpha-lactalbumin Made LEthal to Tumor cells) kills a wide range of tumor cells in vitro and demonstrates therapeutic efficacy and selectivity in cancer models and clinical studies. We identify a ‘’receptor independent” transformation of vesicular motifs in model membranes, which is paralleled by gross remodeling of tumor cell membranes. Furthermore, we find that HAMLET accumulates within these de novo membrane conformations and define membrane blebs as cellular compartments for direct interactions of HAMLET with essential target proteins such as the Ras family of GTPases. Finally, we demonstrate lower sensitivity of healthy cell membranes to HAMLET challenge. These features suggest that HAMLET-induced curvature-dependent membrane conformations serve as surrogate receptors for initiating signal transduction cascades, ultimately leading to cell death. PMID:26561036

A central tenet of signal transduction in eukaryotic cells is that extra-cellular ligands activate specific cell surface receptors, which orchestrate downstream responses. This ‘’protein-centric” view is increasingly challenged by evidence for the involvement of specialized membrane domains in signal transduction. Here, we propose that membrane perturbation may serve as an alternative mechanism to activate a conserved cell-death program in cancer cells. This view emerges from the extraordinary manner in which HAMLET (Human Alpha-lactalbumin Made LEthal to Tumor cells) kills a wide range of tumor cells in vitro and demonstrates therapeutic efficacy and selectivity in cancer models and clinical studies. We identify a ‘’receptor independent” transformation of vesicular motifs in model membranes, which is paralleled by gross remodeling of tumor cell membranes. Furthermore, we find that HAMLET accumulates within these de novo membrane conformations and define membrane blebs as cellular compartments for direct interactions of HAMLET with essential target proteins such as the Ras family of GTPases. In conclusion, we demonstrate lower sensitivity of healthy cell membranes to HAMLET challenge. These features suggest that HAMLET-induced curvature-dependent membrane conformations serve as surrogate receptors for initiating signal transduction cascades, ultimately leading to cell death.

A central tenet of signal transduction in eukaryotic cells is that extra-cellular ligands activate specific cell surface receptors, which orchestrate downstream responses. This ''protein-centric" view is increasingly challenged by evidence for the involvement of specialized membrane domains in signal transduction. Here, we propose that membrane perturbation may serve as an alternative mechanism to activate a conserved cell-death program in cancer cells. This view emerges from the extraordinary manner in which HAMLET (Human Alpha-lactalbumin Made LEthal to Tumor cells) kills a wide range of tumor cells in vitro and demonstrates therapeutic efficacy and selectivity in cancer models and clinical studies. We identify a ''receptor independent" transformation of vesicular motifs in model membranes, which is paralleled by gross remodeling of tumor cell membranes. Furthermore, we find that HAMLET accumulates within these de novo membrane conformations and define membrane blebs as cellular compartments for direct interactions of HAMLET with essential target proteins such as the Ras family of GTPases. Finally, we demonstrate lower sensitivity of healthy cell membranes to HAMLET challenge. These features suggest that HAMLET-induced curvature-dependent membrane conformations serve as surrogate receptors for initiating signal transduction cascades, ultimately leading to cell death. PMID:26561036

Abstract Numerous membrane-transport proteins are major drug targets, and therefore a key ingredient in pharmaceutical development is the availability of reliable, efficient tools for membrane transport characterization and inhibition. Here, we present the use of evanescent-wave sensing for screening of membrane-protein-mediated transport across lipid bilayer membranes. This method is based on a direct recording of the temporal variations in the refractive index that occur upon a transfer-dependent change in the solute concentration inside liposomes associated to a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) active sensor surface. The applicability of the method is demonstrated by a functional study of the aquaglyceroporin PfAQP from the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Assays of the temperature dependence of facilitated diffusion of sugar alcohols on a single set of PfAQP-reconstituted liposomes reveal that the activation energies for facilitated diffusion of xylitol and sorbitol are the same as that previously measured for glycerol transport in the aquaglyceroporin of Escherichia coli (5 kcal/mole). These findings indicate that the aquaglyceroporin selectivity filter does not discriminate sugar alcohols based on their length, and that the extra energy cost of dehydration of larger sugar alcohols, upon entering the pore, is compensated for by additional hydrogen-bond interactions within the aquaglyceroporin pore. PMID:20655840

We extended thermal proteome profiling to detect transmembrane protein-small molecule interactions in cultured human cells. When we assessed the effects of detergents on ATP-binding profiles, we observed shifts in denaturation temperature for ATP-binding transmembrane proteins. We also observed cellular thermal shifts in pervanadate-induced T cell-receptor signaling, delineating the membrane target CD45 and components of the downstream pathway, and with drugs affecting the transmembrane transporters ATP1A1 and MDR1. PMID:26524241

The default lipid for the bulk of the crystallogenesis studies performed to date using the cubic mesophase method is monoolein. There is no good reason, however, why this 18-carbon, cis-monounsaturated monoacylglycerol should be the preferred lipid for all target membraneproteins. The latter come from an array of biomembrane types with varying properties that include hydrophobic thickness, intrinsic curvature, lateral pressure profile, lipid and protein makeup, and compositional asymmetry. Thus, it seems reasonable that screening for crystallizability based on the identity of the lipid creating the hosting mesophase would be worthwhile. For this, monoacylglycerols with differing acyl chain characteristics, such as length and olefinic bond position, must be available. A lipid synthesis and purification program is in place in the author's laboratory to serve this need. In the current study with the outer membrane sugar transporter, OprB, we demonstrate the utility of host lipid screening as a means for generating diffraction-quality crystals. Host lipid screening is likely to prove a generally useful strategy for mesophase-based crystallization of membraneproteins.

His-tag technology was applied for biosensing purposes involving multi-redox center proteins (MRPs). An overview is presented on various surfaces ranging from flat to spherical and modified with linker molecules with nitrile-tri-acetic acid (NTA) terminal groups to bind his-tagged proteins in a strict orientation. The bound proteins are submitted to in situ dialysis in the presence of lipid micelles to form a so-called protein-tethered bilayer lipid membrane (ptBLM). MRPs, such as the cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) from R. sphaeroides and P. denitrificans, as well as photosynthetic reactions centers (RCs) from R. sphaeroides, were thus investigated. Electrochemical and surface-sensitive optical techniques, such as surface plasmon resonance, surface plasmon-enhanced fluorescence, surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy (SEIRAS) and surface-enhanced resonance Raman spectroscopy (SERRS), were employed in the case of the ptBLM structure on flat surfaces. Spherical particles ranging from µm size agarose gel beads to nm size nanoparticles modified in a similar fashion were called proteo-lipobeads (PLBs). The particles were investigated by laser-scanning confocal fluorescence microscopy (LSM) and UV/Vis spectroscopy. Electron and proton transfer through the proteins were demonstrated to take place, which was strongly affected by the membrane potential. MRPs can thus be used for biosensing purposes under quasi-physiological conditions. PMID:26950120

His-tag technology was applied for biosensing purposes involving multi-redox center proteins (MRPs). An overview is presented on various surfaces ranging from flat to spherical and modified with linker molecules with nitrile-tri-acetic acid (NTA) terminal groups to bind his-tagged proteins in a strict orientation. The bound proteins are submitted to in situ dialysis in the presence of lipid micelles to form a so-called protein-tethered bilayer lipid membrane (ptBLM). MRPs, such as the cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) from R. sphaeroides and P. denitrificans, as well as photosynthetic reactions centers (RCs) from R. sphaeroides, were thus investigated. Electrochemical and surface-sensitive optical techniques, such as surface plasmon resonance, surface plasmon-enhanced fluorescence, surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy (SEIRAS) and surface-enhanced resonance Raman spectroscopy (SERRS), were employed in the case of the ptBLM structure on flat surfaces. Spherical particles ranging from µm size agarose gel beads to nm size nanoparticles modified in a similar fashion were called proteo-lipobeads (PLBs). The particles were investigated by laser-scanning confocal fluorescence microscopy (LSM) and UV/Vis spectroscopy. Electron and proton transfer through the proteins were demonstrated to take place, which was strongly affected by the membrane potential. MRPs can thus be used for biosensing purposes under quasi-physiological conditions. PMID:26950120

Regulation of Cl conductance by protein kinase A action, cell-free measurements of Cl transport and membraneprotein phosphorylation were carried out in apical endocytic vesicles from rabbit kidney proximal tubule. Cl transport was measured by a stopped-flow quenching assay in endosomes labeled in vivo with the fluorescent Cl indicator 6-methoxy-N-(3-sulfopropyl)quinolinium. Phosphorylation was studied in a purified endosomal preparation by SDS-PAGE and autoradiography of membraneproteins labeled by ({gamma}-{sup 32}P)ATP. These results suggest that, in a cell-free system, protein kinase A increases Cl conductance in endosomes from kidney proximal tubule by a phosphorylation mechanism. The labeled protein has a size similar to that of the 64-kDa putative kidney Cl channel reported by Landry et al. but is much smaller than the {approximately}170-kDa cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulatory protein.

A lattice model has been developed to study the effects of intrinsic membraneproteins upon the thermodynamic properties of a lipid bilayer membrane. We assume that only nearest-neighbor van der Waals and steric interactions are important and that the polar group interactions can be represented by effective pressure—area terms. Phase diagrams, the temperature T0, which locates the gel—fluid melting, the transition enthalpy, and correlations were calculated by mean field and cluster approximations. Average lipid chain areas and chain areas when the lipid is in a given protein environment were obtained. Proteins that have a “smooth” homogeneous surface (“cholesterol-like”) and those that have inhomogeneous surfaces or that bind lipids specifically were considered. We find that T0 can vary depending upon the interactions and that another peak can appear upon the shoulder of the main peak which reflects the melting of a eutectic mixture. The transition enthalpy decreases generally, as was found before, but when a second peak appears departures from this behavior reflect aspects of the eutectic mixture. We find that proteins have significant nonzero probabilities for being adjacent to one another so that no unbroken “annulus” of lipid necessarily exists around a protein. If T0 does not increase much, or decreases, with increasing c, then lipids adjacent to a protein cannot all be all-trans on the time scale (10-7 sec) of our system. Around a protein the lipid correlation depth is about one lipid layer, and this increases with c. Possible consequences of ignoring changes in polar group interactions due to clustering of proteins are discussed. PMID:286996

Integral membraneproteins are amphipathic molecules crucial for all cellular life. The structural study of these macromolecules starts with protein extraction from the native membranes, followed by purification and crystallisation. Detergents are essential tools for these processes, but detergent-solubilised membraneproteins often denature and aggregate, resulting in loss of both structure and function. In this study, a novel class of agents, designated mannitol-based amphiphiles (MNAs), were prepared and characterised for their ability to solubilise and stabilise membraneproteins. Some of MNAs conferred enhanced stability to four membraneproteins including a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), the β2 adrenergic receptor (β2 AR), compared to both n-dodecyl-d-maltoside (DDM) and the other MNAs. These agents were also better than DDM for electron microscopy analysis of the β2 AR. The ease of preparation together with the enhanced membraneprotein stabilisation efficacy demonstrates the value of these agents for future membraneprotein research. PMID:27072057

Summary We show that amino acid co-variation in proteins, extracted from the evolutionary sequence record, can be used to fold transmembrane proteins. We use this technique to predict previously unknown, 3D structures for 11 transmembrane proteins (with up to 14 helices) from their sequences alone. The prediction method (EVfold_membrane), applies a maximum entropy approach to infer evolutionary co-variation in pairs of sequence positions within a protein family and then generates all-atom models with the derived pairwise distance constraints. We benchmark the approach with blinded, de novo computation of known transmembrane protein structures from 23 families, demonstrating unprecedented accuracy of the method for large transmembrane proteins. We show how the method can predict oligomerization, functional sites, and conformational changes in transmembrane proteins. With the rapid rise in large-scale sequencing, more accurate and more comprehensive information on evolutionary constraints can be decoded from genetic variation, greatly expanding the repertoire of transmembrane proteins amenable to modelling by this method. PMID:22579045

Orientations of proteins in the membranes are crucial to their function and stability. Unfortunately the exact positions of these proteins in the lipid bilayer are mostly undetermined. Here, the spatial orientation of membraneproteins within the lipid membrane was evaluated using a Poisson-Boltzmann solvent continuum approach to calculate the electrostatic free energy of the protein solvation at various orientations in an implicit bilayer. The solvation energy was obtained by computing the difference in electrostatic energies of the protein in water and in lipid/water environments, treating each as an implicit solvent model. The optimal position of transmembrane proteins (TMP) in a lipid bilayer is identified by the minimum in the "downhill" pathway of the solvation energy landscape. The energy landscape pattern was considerably conserved in various TMP classes. Evaluation of the position of 1060 membraneproteins from the orientations of proteins in membranes (OPM) database revealed that most of the polytopic and β-barrel proteins were in good agreement with those of the OPM database. The study provides a useful scheme for estimating the membrane solvation energy made by lipid-exposed amino acids in membraneproteins. In addition, our results tested with the bacterial potassium channel model demonstrated the potential usefulness of the approach in assessing the quality of membraneprotein models. The present approach should be applicable for constructing transmembrane proteins-lipid configuration suitable for membraneprotein simulations and will have utility for the structural modeling of membraneproteins. PMID:25912455

For cells to function properly, membraneproteins must be able to diffuse within biological membranes. The functions of these membraneproteins depend on their position and also on protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions. However, so far, it has not been possible to study simultaneously the structure and dynamics of biological membranes. Here, we show that the motion of unlabelled membraneproteins can be characterized using high-speed atomic force microscopy. We find that the molecules of outer membraneprotein F (OmpF) are widely distributed in the membrane as a result of diffusion-limited aggregation, and while the overall protein motion scales roughly with the local density of proteins in the membrane, individual protein molecules can also diffuse freely or become trapped by protein-protein interactions. Using these measurements, and the results of molecular dynamics simulations, we determine an interaction potential map and an interaction pathway for a membraneprotein, which should provide new insights into the connection between the structures of individual proteins and the structures and dynamics of supramolecular membranes.

For cells to function properly, membraneproteins must be able to diffuse within biological membranes. The functions of these membraneproteins depend on their position and also on protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions. However, so far, it has not been possible to study simultaneously the structure and dynamics of biological membranes. Here, we show that the motion of unlabelled membraneproteins can be characterized using high-speed atomic force microscopy. We find that the molecules of outer membraneprotein F (OmpF) are widely distributed in the membrane as a result of diffusion-limited aggregation, and while the overall protein motion scales roughly with the local density of proteins in the membrane, individual protein molecules can also diffuse freely or become trapped by protein-protein interactions. Using these measurements, and the results of molecular dynamics simulations, we determine an interaction potential map and an interaction pathway for a membraneprotein, which should provide new insights into the connection between the structures of individual proteins and the structures and dynamics of supramolecular membranes. PMID:22772862

Peroxins are proteins required for peroxisome assembly and are encoded by the PEX genes. Functional complementation of the oleic acid–nonutilizing strain mut1-1 of the yeast Yarrowia lipolytica has identified the novel gene, PEX24. PEX24 encodes Pex24p, a protein of 550 amino acids (61,100 Da). Pex24p is an integral membraneprotein of peroxisomes that exhibits high sequence homology to two hypothetical proteins encoded by the open reading frames YHR150W and YDR479C of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome. Pex24p is detectable in wild-type cells grown in glucose-containing medium, and its levels are significantly increased by incubation of cells in oleic acid–containing medium, the metabolism of which requires intact peroxisomes. pex24 mutants are compromised in the targeting of both matrix and membraneproteins to peroxisomes. Although pex24 mutants fail to assemble functional peroxisomes, they do harbor membrane structures that contain subsets of peroxisomal proteins. PMID:12181338

A way to control the average pore size in cross-linked polyacrylamide-based membranes is by altering the ratio of cross-linker to acylamide monomer. Larger pore sizes are prepared with a minimum amount of cross-linker, resulting in membranes that are mechanically weak and have short lifetimes. The aim of this study was to prepare cross-linked polyacrylamide membranes with large pore sizes and with good mechanical integrity. The methodology was to carry out the polymerization in a template, formed from the self-aggregation of surfactant. Two surfactant templates were used, and their pore size was examined with proteins of different sizes. The surfactants chosen for this study were sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS, ionic surfactant) and TERIC BL8 (nonionic surfactant), both of which have very different aggregation properties. The data showed that at 10% and greater of TERIC BL8, a very different and open gel structure is formed, in which the pore size was significantly increased. SDS seemed to have little effect on the pore size. The data suggests that the gel structures for both surfactants up to 4% (w/v) are similar and micellular, because SDS is known to favor a micelle structure. Above 4% (w/v), TERIC BL8 then goes through a change in its lyotropic phase, thus, producing membranes of a large pore size. In conclusion, the pore size and gel structure of polyacrylamide hydrogel membranes can be significantly increased using TERIC BL8 (nonionic) surfactant. This allows large-pore-size membranes with a high cross-link density and consequently high mechanical strength to be prepared for the separation of large biomolecules. PMID:15360267

Reconstitution of membraneproteins in artificial membrane systems creates a platform for exploring their potential for pharmacological or biotechnological applications. Previously, we demonstrated amphiphilic block copolymers as promising building blocks for artificial membranes with long-term stability and tailorable structural parameters. However, the insertion of membraneproteins has not previously been realized in a large-area, stable, and solid-supported artificial membrane. Here, we show the first, preliminary model of a channel membraneprotein that is functionally incorporated in a completely artificial polymer, tethered, solid-supported bilayer membrane (TSSBM). Unprecedented ionic transport characteristics that differ from previous results on protein insertion into planar, free-standing membranes, are identified. Our findings mark a change in understanding protein insertion and ion flow within natural channel proteins when inserted in an artificial TSSBM, thus holding great potential for numerous applications such as drug screening, trace analyzing, and biosensing. PMID:23846807

Often, membrane/protein systems are studied and/or utilized on solid supports. The underlying substrate in solid supported lipid bilayer assemblies causes large perturbations to the membrane, but the nature of these effects are not well understood. To gain an understanding, these effects were studied on two fronts: the effect upon the membrane by itself, and then the effects upon a membrane/protein system. First, all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of DLPC, DMPC, POPC, and DEPC on a hydroxylated nanocrystalline alpha-quartz (011) slab revealed a pronounced thinning effect in the lipid bilayers. It was shown that this thinning effect proceeded by one of two mechanisms: the first through a curling of the terminal methyl groups at the interface of the opposing leaflets, and the second through increased interdigitation of the alkyl chains. Also, with the introduction of the solid support, marked asymmetries in a number of structural properties were reported. These asymmetries included (a) the surface area per lipid, (b) the electron densities of the polar head groups, (c) the radial distributions of the choline groups, and (d) the average orientation of water surrounding the membranes. Next, the free energy perturbation method was used to begin calculating the change in free energy (DeltaGbinding) from a Gramicidin monomer to its dimeric state, which were simulated via MD of supported DLPC, DMPC, and DEPC bilayers. The most notable effect was an asymmetry of the calculated free energies relative to the bilayer side closest to the solid support. In all three systems, there was a large difference in free energy between the Gramicidin monomers that were close to the support and the monomers further from the support.

We proposed to apply a chemical cross-linking, mass spectrometry and modeling method called MS3D to the structure determination of the rhodopsin-transducin membraneprotein complex (RTC). Herein we describe experimental progress made to adapt the MS3D approach for characterizing membraneprotein systems, and computational progress in experimental design, data analysis and protein structure modeling. Over the past three years, we have developed tailored experimental methods for all steps in the MS3D method for rhodopsin, including protein purification, a functional assay, cross-linking, proteolysis and mass spectrometry. In support of the experimental effort. we have out a data analysis pipeline in place that automatically selects the monoisotopic peaks in a mass spectrometric spectrum, assigns them and stores the results in a database. Theoretical calculations using 24 experimentally-derived distance constraints have resulted in a backbone-level model of the activated form of rhodopsin, which is a critical first step towards building a model of the RTC. Cross-linked rhodopsin-transducin complexes have been isolated via gel electrophoresis and further mass spectrometric characterization of the cross-links is underway.

The free energy and enthalpy of protein incorporation into membranes are calculated with special emphasis on the hitherto neglected effects of immobilization of protein and perturbation of lipid order in the membrane. The free energy change is found to be determined by the hydrophobic effect as the driving force for incorporation and the protein immobilization effect which leads to a considerable reduction of the free energy gained from the hydrophobic effect. For incorporation of a hydrophobic, bilayer-spanning alpha-helix, the free energy change obtained is of the order of -15 kcal/mol (1 cal = 4.184 J) in agreement with experimental results. The lipid perturbation effect yields only a small contribution to the free energy change due to an energy/entropy compensation inherent in lipid order. This effect dominates the enthalpy change, giving rise to values on the order of 100 kcal/mol with a pronounced temperature dependence around the lipid phase transition as observed experimentally. The kinetics of protein incorporation are even more strongly affected by the lipid perturbation effect, leading to an abrupt decrease of the rate of incorporation below the lipid phase transition. PMID:6574506

We have previously identified two auxin-binding polypeptides in plasma membrane (PM) preparations from zucchini (Cucurbita pepo L.) (Hicks et al. 1989, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86, 4948-4952). These polypeptides have molecular weights of 40 kDa and 42 kDa and label specifically with the photoaffinity auxin analog 5-N3-7-3H-IAA (azido-IAA). Azido-IAA permits both the covalent and radioactive tagging of auxin-binding proteins and has allowed us to characterize further the 40-kDa and 42-kDa polypeptides, including the nature of their attachment to the PM, their relationship to each other, and their potential function. The azido-IAA-labeled polypeptides remain in the pelleted membrane fraction following high-salt and detergent washes, which indicates a tight and possibly integral association with the PM. Two-dimensional electrophoresis of partially purified azido-IAA-labeled protein demonstrates that, in addition to the major isoforms of the 40-kDa and 42-kDa polypeptides, which possess isoelectric points (pIs) of 8.2 and 7.2, respectively, several less abundant isoforms that display unique pIs are apparent at both molecular masses. Tryptic and chymotryptic digestion of the auxin-binding proteins indicates that the 40-kDa and 42-kDa polypeptides are closely related or are modifications of the same polypeptide. Phase extraction with the nonionic detergent Triton X-114 results in partitioning of the azido-IAA-labeled polypeptides into the aqueous (hydrophilic) phase. This apparently paradoxical behavior is also exhibited by certain integral membraneproteins that aggregate to form channels. The results of gel filtration indicate that the auxin-binding proteins do indeed aggregate strongly and that the polypeptides associate to form a dimer or multimeric complex in vivo. These characteristics are consistent with the hypothesis that the 40-kDa and 42-kDa polypeptides are subunits of a multimeric integral membraneprotein which has an auxin-binding site, and which may

The distribution and morphology of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in mammalian cells depend on both dynamic and static interactions of ER membraneproteins with microtubules (MTs). Cytoskeleton-linking membraneprotein (CLIMP)-63 is exclusively localized in sheet-like ER membranes, typical structures of the rough ER, and plays a pivotal role in the static interaction with MTs. Our previous study showed that the 42-kDa ER-residing form of syntaxin 5 (Syn5L) regulates ER structure through the interactions with both CLIMP-63 and MTs. Here, we extend our previous study and show that the valosin-containing protein/p97-interacting membraneprotein (VIMP)/SelS is also a member of the family of proteins that shape the ER by interacting with MTs. Depletion of VIMP causes the spreading of the ER to the cell periphery and affects an MT-dependent process on the ER. Although VIMP can interact with CLIMP-63 and Syn5L, it does not interact with MT-binding ER proteins (such as Reep1) that shape the tubular smooth ER, suggesting that different sets of MT-binding ER proteins are used to organize different ER subdomains. PMID:25008318

The excitable ciliary membrane of Paramecium regulates the direction of the ciliary beat, and thereby the swimming behavior of this organism. One approach to the problem of identifying the molecular components of the excitable membrane is to use antibodies as probes of function. We produced rabbit antisera against isolated ciliary membranes and against partially purified immobilization antigens derived from three serotypes (A, B, and H), and used these antisera as reagents to explore the role of specific membraneproteins in the immobilization reaction and in behavior. The immobilization characteristics and serotype cross-reactivities of the antisera were examined. We identified the antigens recognized by these sera using immunodiffusion and immunoprecipitation with 35S-labeled ciliary membranes. The major antigen recognized in homologous combinations of antigen-antiserum is the immobilization antigen (i-antigen), approximately 250,000 mol wt. Several secondary antigens, including a family of polypeptides of 42,000-45,000 mol wt, are common to the membranes of serotypes A, B, and H, and antibodies against these secondary antigens can apparently immobilize cells. This characterization of antiserum specificity has provided the basis for our studies on the effects of the antibodies on electrophysiological properties of cells and electron microscopic localization studies, which are reported in the accompanying paper. We have also used these antibodies to study the mechanism of cell immobilization by antibodies against the i-antigen. Monovalent fragments (Fab) against purified i-antigens bound to, but did not immobilize, living cells. Subsequent addition of goat anti-Fab antibodies caused immediate immobilization, presumably by cross-linking Fab fragments already bound to the surface. We conclude that antigen-antibody interaction per se is not sufficient for immobilization, and that antibody bivalency, which allows antigen cross-linking, is essential. PMID:6415066

Membraneprotein is an important composition of cell membrane. Given a membraneprotein sequence, how can we identify its type(s) is very important because the type keeps a close correlation with its functions. According to previous studies, membraneprotein can be divided into the following eight types: single-pass type I, single-pass type II, single-pass type III, single-pass type IV, multipass, lipid-anchor, GPI-anchor, peripheral membraneprotein. With the avalanche of newly found protein sequences in the post-genomic age, it is urgent to develop an automatic and effective computational method to rapid and reliable prediction of the types of membraneproteins. At present, most of the existing methods were based on the assumption that one membraneprotein only belongs to one type. Actually, a membraneprotein may simultaneously exist at two or more different functional types. In this study, a new method by hybridizing the pseudo amino acid composition with multi-label algorithm called LIFT (multi-label learning with label-specific features) was proposed to predict the functional types both singleplex and multiplex animal membraneproteins. Experimental result on a stringent benchmark dataset of membraneproteins by jackknife test show that the absolute-true obtained was 0.6342, indicating that our approach is quite promising. It may become a useful high-through tool, or at least play a complementary role to the existing predictors in identifying functional types of membraneproteins. PMID:25107302

Peripheral membraneproteins are structurally diverse proteins that are involved in fundamental cellular processes. Their activity of these proteins is frequently modulated through their interaction with cellular membranes, and as a result techniques to study the interfacial interaction between peripheral proteins and the membrane are in high demand. Due to the fluid nature of the membrane and the reversibility of protein-membrane interactions, the experimental study of these systems remains a challenging task. Molecular dynamics simulations offer a suitable approach to study protein-lipid interactions; however, the slow dynamics of the lipids often prevents sufficient sampling of specific membrane-protein interactions in atomistic simulations. To increase lipid dynamics while preserving the atomistic detail of protein-lipid interactions, in the highly mobile membrane-mimetic (HMMM) model the membrane core is replaced by an organic solvent, while short-tailed lipids provide a nearly complete representation of natural lipids at the organic solvent/water interface. Here, we present a brief introduction and a summary of recent applications of the HMMM to study different membraneproteins, complementing the experimental characterization of the presented systems, and we offer a perspective of future applications of the HMMM to study other classes of membraneproteins. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Membraneproteins edited by J.C. Gumbart and Sergei Noskov. PMID:26940626

Cell membranes represent the “front line” of cellular defense and the interface between a cell and its environment. To determine the range of proteins and protein complexes that are present in the cell membranes of a target organism, we have utilized a “tagless” process for the system-wide isolation and identification of native membraneprotein complexes. As an initial subject for study, we have chosen the Gram-negative sulfate-reducing bacterium Desulfovibrio vulgaris. With this tagless methodology, we have identified about two-thirds of the outer membrane- associated proteins anticipated. Approximately three-fourths of these appear to form homomeric complexes. Statistical and machine-learning methods used to analyze data compiled over multiple experiments revealed networks of additional protein–protein interactions providing insight into heteromeric contacts made between proteins across this region of the cell. Taken together, these results establish a D. vulgaris outer membraneprotein data set that will be essential for the detection and characterization of environment-driven changes in the outer membrane proteome and in the modeling of stress response pathways. The workflow utilized here should be effective for the global characterization of membraneprotein complexes in a wide range of organisms. PMID:23098413

Previous research has shown that glycolytic enzymes (GEs) exist as multienzyme complexes on the inner surface of human erythrocyte membranes. Because GE binding sites have been mapped to sequences on the membraneprotein, band 3, that are not conserved in other mammalian homologs, the question arose whether GEs can organize into complexes on other mammalian erythrocyte membranes. To address this, murine erythrocytes were stained with antibodies to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, aldolase, phosphofructokinase, lactate dehydrogenase, and pyruvate kinase and analyzed by confocal microscopy. GEs were found to localize to the membrane in oxygenated erythrocytes but redistributed to the cytoplasm upon deoxygenation, as seen in human erythrocytes. To identify membraneproteins involved in GE assembly, erythrocytes from mice lacking each of the major erythrocyte membraneproteins were examined for GE localization. GEs from band 3 knockout mice were not membrane associated but distributed throughout the cytoplasm, regardless of erythrocyte oxygenation state. In contrast, erythrocytes from mice lacking α-spectrin, ankyrin, protein 4.2, protein 4.1, β-adducin, or dematin headpiece exhibited GEs bound to the membrane. These data suggest that oxygenation-dependent assembly of GEs on the membrane could be a general phenomenon of mammalian erythrocytes and that stability of these interactions depends primarily on band 3. PMID:18698006

Helical reconstruction represents a convenient and powerful approach for structure determination of macromolecules that assemble into helical arrays. In the case of membraneproteins, formation of tubular crystals with helical symmetry represents an attractive alternative, especially when their small size precludes the use of single-particle analysis. An essential first step for helical reconstruction is to characterize the helical symmetry. This process is often daunting, due to the complexity of helical diffraction and to the low signal-to-noise ratio in images of individual assemblies. Furthermore, the large diameters of the tubular crystals produced by membraneproteins exacerbates the innate ambiguities that, if not resolved, will produce incorrect structures. In this report, we describe a set of tools that can be used to eliminate ambiguities and to validate the choice of symmetry. The first approach increases the signal-to-noise ratio along layer lines by incoherently summing data from multiple helical assemblies, thus producing several candidate indexing schemes. The second approach compares the layer lines from images with those from synthetic models built with the various candidate schemes. The third approach uses unit cell dimensions measured from collapsed tubes to distinguish between these candidate schemes. These approaches are illustrated with tubular crystals from a boron transporter from yeast, Bor1p, and a β-barrel channel from the outer membrane of E. coli, OmpF. PMID:27255388

A key point when it comes to heterologous expression of eukaryotic membraneproteins (EMPs) is the choice of the best-suited expression platform. The yeast Pichia pastoris has proven to be a very versatile system showing promising results in a growing number of cases. Indeed, its particular methylotrophic characteristics combined to the very simple handling of a eukaryotic microorganism that possesses the majority of mammalian-like machineries make it a very competitive expression system for various complex proteins, in amounts compatible with functional and structural studies. This chapter describes a set of robust methodologies routinely used for the successful expression of a variety of EMPs, going from yeast transformation with the recombinant plasmid to the analysis of the quality and quantity of the proteins produced. PMID:27485335

Lipid bilayers forming biological membranes are known to behave as viscous two-dimensional fluids on submicrometer scales; usually they contain a large number of active protein inclusions. Recently, it was shown [A. S. Mikhailov and R. Kapral, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 112, E3639 (2015)PNASA60027-842410.1073/pnas.1506825112] that such active proteins should induce nonthermal fluctuating lipid flows leading to diffusion enhancement and chemotaxislike drift for passive inclusions in biomembranes. Here, a detailed analytical and numerical investigation of such effects is performed. The attention is focused on the situations when proteins are concentrated within lipid rafts. We demonstrate that passive particles tend to become attracted by active rafts and are accumulated inside them. PMID:27627343

Secretory and membraneproteins are translocated across and inserted into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane via translocon channels. To investigate the effect of the negatively-charged phospholipid phosphatidylserine on the translocation of nascent polypeptide chains through the translocon, we used the phosphatidylserine-binding protein lactadherin C2-domain. Lactadherin inhibited targeting of nascent chain to the translocon by signal sequence and the initiation of translocation. Moreover, lactadherin inhibited the movement of the translocating polypeptide chain regardless of the presence or absence of positively-charged residues. Phosphatidylserine might be critically involved in translocon function, but it is not a major determinant for translocation arrest of positively-charged residues. PMID:23583395

Cellular membrane deformation and the associated redistribution of membrane-bound proteins are important aspects of membrane function. Current model membrane approaches for studying curvature sensing are limited to positive curvatures, and often require complex and delicate experimental setups. To overcome these challenges, we fabricated a wavy substrate imposing a range of curvatures onto an adhering lipid bilayer membrane. We examined the curvature sorting of several peripheral proteins binding to the wavy membrane and observed them to partition into distinct regions of curvature. Furthermore, single molecule imaging experiments suggested that curvature sensing of proteins on low-curvature substrates requires cooperative interactions. PMID:22881196

Drug transporters are membraneproteins present in various tissues such as the lymphocytes, intestine, liver, kidney, testis, placenta, and central nervous system. These transporters play a significant role in drug absorption and distribution to organic systems, particularly if the organs are protected by blood-organ barriers, such as the blood-brain barrier or the maternal-fetal barrier. In contrast to neurotransmitters and receptor-coupled transporters or other modes of interneuronal transmission, drug transporters are not directly involved in specific neuronal functions, but provide global protection to the central nervous system. The lack of capillary fenestration, the low pinocytic activity, and the tight junctions between brain capillary and choroid plexus endothelial cells represent further gatekeepers limiting the entrance of endogenous and exogenous compounds into the central nervous system. Drug transport is a result of the concerted action of efflux and influx pumps (transporters) located both in the basolateral and apical membranes of brain capillary and choroid plexus endothelial cells. By regulating efflux and influx of endogenous or exogenous substances, the blood-brain barrier and, to a lesser extent, the blood-cerebrospinal barrier in the ventricles, represents the main interface between the central nervous system and the blood, ie, the rest of the body. As drug distribution to organs is dependent on the affinity of a substrate for a specific transport system, membrane transporter proteins are increasingly recognized as a key determinant of drug disposition. Many drug transporters are members of the adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily or the solute-linked carrier (SLC) class. The multidrug resistance protein MDR1 (ABCB1), also called P-glycoprotein, the multidrug resistance-associated proteins MRP1 (ABCC1) and MRP2 (ABCC2), and the breast cancer-resistance protein BCRP (ABCG2) are ATP-dependent efflux

The adhesion of proteins to the surface and pores of ultrafiltration membrane is one of the most important causes of membrane fouling, consequently lead to deterioration of membrane performance. In the present study, a polyacrylonitrile (PAN)-based zwitterionic ultrafiltration membrane was developed to improve its anti-protein-fouling capacity. 3-Dimethylaminopropylamine was first grafted onto the hydrolyzed PAN membrane by activation. Subsequently, carboxylic zwitterions were produced on the membrane surface by quaternization with 3-bromopropionic acid. The zwitterionic membranes were rigorously characterized in terms of chemical composition, morphology, and surface properties indicating that the zwitterion could successfully be bonded onto the PAN membrane without having significant effects on the membrane morphology. The anti-protein-fouling properties of the membrane were tested using static protein adsorption and dynamic-filtration experiments. The experimental results show that, although the hydrophilicity of the zwitterionic membrane decreased, the flux recovery rate of the zwitterion-grafted membrane was much higher than that of the hydrolyzed PAN membrane. Therefore, the formation of zwitterionic hydration layer may effectively prevent the adsorption interaction between protein and membrane surface, which is beneficial for the improvement of the anti-protein-fouling capacity.

Membrane-associated events during peroxisomal protein import processes play an essential role in peroxisome functionality. Many details of these processes are not known due to missing spatial resolution of technologies capable of investigating peroxisomes directly in the cell. Here, we present the use of super-resolution optical stimulated emission depletion microscopy to investigate with sub-60-nm resolution the heterogeneous spatial organization of the peroxisomal proteins PEX5, PEX14, and PEX11 around actively importing peroxisomes, showing distinct differences between these peroxins. Moreover, imported protein sterol carrier protein 2 (SCP2) occupies only a subregion of larger peroxisomes, highlighting the heterogeneous distribution of proteins even within the peroxisome. Finally, our data reveal subpopulations of peroxisomes showing only weak colocalization between PEX14 and PEX5 or PEX11 but at the same time a clear compartmentalized organization. This compartmentalization, which was less evident in cases of strong colocalization, indicates dynamic protein reorganization linked to changes occurring in the peroxisomes. Through the use of multicolor stimulated emission depletion microscopy, we have been able to characterize peroxisomes and their constituents to a yet unseen level of detail while maintaining a highly statistical approach, paving the way for equally complex biological studies in the future. PMID:27311714

Membrane-associated events during peroxisomal protein import processes play an essential role in peroxisome functionality. Many details of these processes are not known due to missing spatial resolution of technologies capable of investigating peroxisomes directly in the cell. Here, we present the use of super-resolution optical stimulated emission depletion microscopy to investigate with sub-60-nm resolution the heterogeneous spatial organization of the peroxisomal proteins PEX5, PEX14, and PEX11 around actively importing peroxisomes, showing distinct differences between these peroxins. Moreover, imported protein sterol carrier protein 2 (SCP2) occupies only a subregion of larger peroxisomes, highlighting the heterogeneous distribution of proteins even within the peroxisome. Finally, our data reveal subpopulations of peroxisomes showing only weak colocalization between PEX14 and PEX5 or PEX11 but at the same time a clear compartmentalized organization. This compartmentalization, which was less evident in cases of strong colocalization, indicates dynamic protein reorganization linked to changes occurring in the peroxisomes. Through the use of multicolor stimulated emission depletion microscopy, we have been able to characterize peroxisomes and their constituents to a yet unseen level of detail while maintaining a highly statistical approach, paving the way for equally complex biological studies in the future. PMID:27311714

ABSTRACT The protein nephrocystin-4 (NPHP4) is widespread in ciliated organisms, and defects in NPHP4 cause nephronophthisis and blindness in humans. To learn more about the function of NPHP4, we have studied it in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. NPHP4 is stably incorporated into the distal part of the flagellar transition zone, close to the membrane and distal to CEP290, another transition zone protein. Therefore, these two proteins, which are incorporated into the transition zone independently of each other, define different domains of the transition zone. An nphp4-null mutant forms flagella with nearly normal length, ultrastructure and intraflagellar transport. When fractions from isolated wild-type and nphp4 flagella were compared, few differences were observed between the axonemes, but the amounts of certain membraneproteins were greatly reduced in the mutant flagella, and cellular housekeeping proteins >50 kDa were no longer excluded from mutant flagella. Therefore, NPHP4 functions at the transition zone as an essential part of a barrier that regulates both membrane and soluble protein composition of flagella. The phenotypic consequences of NPHP4 mutations in humans likely follow from protein mislocalization due to defects in the transition zone barrier. PMID:25150219

The mechanism of ion channel opening is one of the most fascinating problems in membrane biology. Based on phenomenological studies, early researchers suggested that the elementary process of ion channel opening may be the intramembrane charge movement or the orientation of dipolar proteins in the channel. In spite of the far reaching significance of these hypotheses, it has not been possible to formulate a comprehensive molecular theory for the mechanism of channel opening. This is because of the lack of the detailed knowledge on the structure of channel proteins. In recent years, however, the research on the structure of channel proteins made marked advances and, at present, we are beginning to have sufficient information on the structure of some of the channel proteins, e.g. potassium-channel protein and beta-subunits. With these new information, we are now ready to have another look at the old hypothesis, in particular, the dipole moment of channel proteins being the voltage sensor for the opening and closing of ion channels. In this paper, the dipole moments of potassium channel protein and beta-subunit, are calculated using X-ray diffraction data. A large dipole moment was found for beta-subunits while the dipole moment of K-channel protein was found to be considerably smaller than that of beta-subunits. These calculations were conducted as a preliminary study of the comprehensive research on the dipolar structure of channel proteins in excitable membranes, above all, sodium channel proteins. PMID:11804731

Most biological functions are carried out in supramolecular assemblies. As a result of their slow reorientation in solution, these assemblies have been resistant to the widely employed solution NMR approaches. The development of solid-state NMR to first of all overcome the correlation time problem and then obtain informative high-resolution spectra of proteins in supramolecular assemblies, such as virus particles and membranes, is described here. High resolution solid-state NMR is deeply intertwined with the history of NMR, and the seminal paper was published in 1948. Although the general principles were understood by the end of the 1950s, it has taken more than fifty years for instrumentation and experimental methods to become equal to the technical problems presented by the biological assemblies of greatest interest. It is now possible to obtain atomic resolution structures of viral coat proteins in virus particles and membraneproteins in phospholipid bilayers by oriented sample solid-state NMR methods. The development of this aspect of the field of solid-state NMR is summarized in this review article. PMID:26069880

Three specimen preparation techniques for electron microscopy were used to investigate the incorporation of the ATPase polypeptide chains in the membranes of fragmented sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) obtained from rabbit skeletal muscle. Observations were made of both normal vesicles and vesicles exposed to trypsin, which is known to cleave the ATPase protein and to alter the ultrastructure of the vesicles in predictable ways. Freeze-fracture replicas reveal the typical 90-A particles on the concave (PF) faces with a density of 5,730 +/- 520/mum2. On the other hand both negatively stained and deeply etched preparations display outer projections, which are absent on trypsin-incubated vesicles. The etched specimens afford for the first time top views of the vesicles in the absence of any stain. These views reveal outer projections on the PS surface with a density of 21,000 +/- 3,900/mum2, a value nearly approximating the density of the ATPase polypeptide chains (106,000 mol wt) calculated on the basis of protein and membrane area determinations. On the other hand, this value is three to four times higher than that found for the density of the 90-A particles on the concave fracture faces. Since both outer projections and 90-A particles are identified with the ATPase protein, it is suggested that the ATPase polypeptide chains are amphiphilic molecules, with polar ends protruding individually as outer projections on the surface of the vesicles, and hydrophobic ends appearing as 90-A particles on the concave fracture faces. The discrepancy between the densities of the outer projections and the 90-A particles may be attributed either to variable penetration of the polypeptide chains into the membrane bilayer, or to formation of oligomers containing three or four hydrophobic ends and appearing as single 90-A particles. Each ATPase chain forms a complex with 20-30 phospholipid molecules. The remaining phospholipids (approximately 70% of the total SR phospholipids) account for

Cholesterol to phospholipid ratio is used as a representation for membrane fluidity, and predictor of cryopreservation success but results are not consistent across species and ignore the impact of membraneproteins. Therefore, this research explored the modulation of membrane fluidity and protein ...

The N-terminal domain of outer membraneprotein OprF of Pseudomonas aeruginosa forms a membrane spanning eight-stranded anti-parallel β-barrel domain that folds into a membrane channel with low conductance. The structure of this protein has been modeled after the crystal structure of the homologous protein OmpA of Escherichia coli. A number of molecular dynamics simulations have been carried out for the homology modeled structure of OprF in an explicit molecular model for the rough lipopolysaccharide (LPS) outer membrane of P. aeruginosa. The structural stability of the outer membrane model as a result of the strong electrostatic interactions compared to simple lipid bilayers is restricting both the conformational flexibility and the lateral diffusion of the porin in the membrane. Constricting side-chain interactions within the pore are similar to those found in reported simulations of the protein in a solvated lipid bilayer membrane. Because of the strong interactions between the loop regions of OprF and functional groups in the saccharide core of the LPS, the entrance to the channel from the extracellular space is widened compared to the lipid bilayer simulations in which the loops are extruding in the solvent. The specific electrostatic signature of the LPS membrane, which results in a net intrinsic dipole across the membrane, is found to be altered by the presence of OprF, resulting in a small electrically positive patch at the position of the channel.

Studying protein diffusion informs us about how proteins interact with their environment. Work on protein diffusion over the last several decades has illustrated the complex nature of biological lipid bilayers. The plasma membrane contains an array of membrane-spanning proteins or proteins with peripheral membrane associations. Maintenance of plasma membrane microstructure can be via physical features that provide intrinsic ordering such as lipid microdomains, or from membrane-associated structures such as the cytoskeleton. Recent evidence indicates, that in the case of plant cells, the cell wall seems to be a major player in maintaining plasma membrane microstructure. This interconnection / interaction between cell-wall and plasma membraneproteins most likely plays an important role in signal transduction, cell growth, and cell physiological responses to the environment. PMID:24381579

Latent membraneprotein 1 (LMP1) of Epstein Barr virus (EBV) is important for maintaining proliferation of EBV-infected B cells. LMP1, unlike its cellular counterpart, CD40, signals without a ligand and is largely internal to the plasma membrane. In order to understand how LMP1 initiates its ligand-independent signaling, we focused on a leucine heptad in LMP1's first membrane-spanning domain that was shown to be necessary for LMP1's signaling through NF-κB. LZ1EBV, a recombinant EBV genetically altered to express LZ1, a derivative of LMP1 in which a leucine heptad was replaced with alanines, transformed B cells with 56% of wild-type (wt) EBV's efficiency, demonstrating the importance of this heptad. To elucidate the mechanism by which this domain contributes to the functions of LMP1, the properties of the wt and LZ1 were compared in transfected cells. LZ1 failed to home to lipid rafts as efficiently as did wt LMP1. The distribution of tagged derivatives of LZ1 also differed from that of wt LMP1 in transfected cells. LZ1's defect in homing to lipid rafts and altered trafficking likely underlie the defect in transformation of LZ1EBV. While the third and fourth membrane-spanning domains of LMP1 foster its trafficking to the Golgi, the leucine heptad within the first membrane-spanning domain contributes to its trafficking, particularly to internal rafts. B cells that are successfully transformed by LZ1EBV have the same average number of viral genomes and the same fraction of cells with capped LZ1 at the cell surface but express 50% more of the LZ1 allele than wt infected cells. PMID:17581993

Cell-free extracts from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus furiosus were separated into membrane and cytoplasmic fractions and each was analyzed by 2D-gel electrophoresis. A total of 66 proteins were identified, 32 in the membrane fraction and 34 in the cytoplasmic fraction. Six prediction programs were used to predict the subcellular locations of these proteins. Three were based on signal-peptides (SignalP, TargetP, and SOSUISignal) and three on transmembrane-spanning a-helices (TSEG, SOSUI, and PRED-TMR2). A consensus of the six programs predicted that 23 of the 32 proteins (72%) from the membrane fraction should be in the membrane and that all of the proteins from the cytoplasmic fraction should be in the cytoplasm. Two membrane-associated proteins predicted to be cytoplasmic by the programs are also predicted to consist primarily of transmembrane-spanning {beta}-sheets using porin protein models, suggesting that they are, in fact, membrane components. An ATPase subunit homolog found in the membrane fraction, although predicted to be cytoplasmic, is most likely complexed with other ATPase subunits in the membrane fraction. An additional three proteins predicted to be cytoplasmic but found in the membrane fraction, may be cytoplasmic contaminants. These include a chaperone homolog that may have attached to denatured membraneproteins during cell fractionation. Omitting these three proteins would boost the membrane-protein predictability of the models to near 80%. A consensus prediction using all six programs for all 2242 ORFs in the P. furiosus genome estimates that 24% of the ORF products are found in the membrane. However, this is likely to be a minimum value due to the programs' inability to recognize certain membrane-related proteins, such as subunits associated with membrane complexes and porin-type proteins.

The mechanosensitive channel of large conductance (MscL) belongs to a family of transmembrane channel proteins in bacteria and functions as a safety valve that relieves the turgor pressure produced by osmotic downshock. MscL gating can be triggered solely by stretching of the membrane. This work reports an effort to understand this mechanotransduction by means of molecular dynamics (MD) simulation on the MscL of mycobacterium tuberculosis embedded in a palmitoyloleoylphosphatidylethanolamine membrane. Equilibrium MD under zero membrane tension produced a more compact protein structure, as measured by its radii of gyration, compared to the crystal structure, in agreement with previous experimental findings. Even under a large applied tension up to 1000 dyn/cm, the MscL lateral dimension largely remained unchanged after up to 20 ns of simulation. A nonequilibrium MD simulation of 3% membrane expansion showed a significant increase in membrane rigidity upon MscL inclusion, which can contribute to efficient mechanotransduction. Direct observation of channel opening was possible only when an explicit lateral bias force was applied to each of the five subunits of MscL in the radially outward direction. Using this force, open structures with a large pore of radius 10 Å could be obtained. The channel opening takes place in a stepwise manner and concurrently with the water chain formation across the channel, which occurs without direct involvement of protein hydrophilic residues. The N-terminal S1 helices stabilize the open structure, and the membrane asymmetry (different lipid density on the two leaflets of membrane) promotes channel opening. PMID:18212020

Monolayers prepared from myelin conserve all the compositional complexity of the natural membrane when spread at the air-water interface. They show a complex pressure-dependent surface pattern that, on compression, changes from the coexistence of two liquid phases to a viscous fractal phase embedded in a liquid phase. We dissected the role of major myelin protein components, myelin basic protein (MBP), and Folch-Lees proteolipid protein (PLP) as crucial factors determining the structural dynamics of the interface. By analyzing mixtures of a single protein with the myelin lipids we found that MBP and PLP have different surface pressure-dependent behaviors. MBP stabilizes the segregation of two liquid phases at low pressures and becomes excluded from the film under compression, remaining adjacent to the interface. PLP, on the contrary, organizes a fractal-like pattern at all surface pressures when included in a monolayer of the protein-free myelin lipids but it remains mixed in the MBP-induced liquid phase. The resultant surface topography and dynamics is regulated by combined near to equilibrium and out-of-equilibrium effects. PLP appears to act as a surface skeleton for the whole components whereas MBP couples the structuring to surface pressure-dependent extrusion and adsorption processes. PMID:17905850

The chloroplast houses various metabolic processes essential for plant viability. This organelle originated from an ancestral cyanobacterium via endosymbiosis and maintains the three membranes of its progenitor. Among them, the outer envelope membrane functions mainly in communication with cytoplasmic components while the inner envelope membrane houses selective transport of various metabolites and the biosynthesis of several compounds, including membrane lipids. These two envelope membranes also play essential roles in import of nuclear-encoded proteins and in organelle division. The third membrane, the internal membrane system known as the thylakoid, houses photosynthetic electron transport and chemiosmotic phosphorylation. The inner envelope and thylakoid membranes share similar lipid composition. Specific targeting pathways determine their defined proteomes and, thus, their distinct functions. Nonetheless, several proteins have been shown to exist in both the envelope and thylakoid membranes. These proteins include those that play roles in protein transport, tetrapyrrole biosynthesis, membrane dynamics, or transport of nucleotides or inorganic phosphate. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge about proteins localized to both the envelope and thylakoid membranes in the chloroplast, discussing their roles in each membrane and potential mechanisms of their dual localization. Addressing the unanswered questions about these dual-localized proteins should help advance our understanding of chloroplast development, protein transport, and metabolic regulation. PMID:26944623

Most of the previous content of this book has focused on obtaining the structures of membraneproteins. In this chapter we explore how those structures can be further used in two key ways. The first is their use in structure based drug design (SBDD) and the second is how they can be used to extend our understanding of their functional activity via the use of molecular dynamics. Both aspects now heavily rely on computations. This area is vast, and alas, too large to consider in depth in a single book chapter. Thus where appropriate we have referred the reader to recent reviews for deeper assessment of the field. We discuss progress via the use of examples from two main drug target areas; G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) and ion channels. We end with a discussion of some of the main challenges in the area. PMID:27553242

Because of the growing potential of nanoparticles in biological and medical applications, tuning and directing their properties toward a high compatibility with the aqueous biological milieu is of remarkable relevance. Moreover, the capability to combine nanocrystals (NCs) with biomolecules, such as proteins, offers great opportunities to design hybrid systems for both nanobiotechnology and biomedical technology. Here we report on the application of the micelle-to-vesicle transition (MVT) method for incorporation of hydrophobic, red-emitting CdSe@ZnS NCs into the bilayer of liposomes. This method enabled the construction of a novel hybrid proteo-NC-liposome containing, as model membraneprotein, the photosynthetic reaction center (RC) of Rhodobacter sphaeroides. Electron microscopy confirmed the insertion of NCs within the lipid bilayer without significantly altering the structure of the unilamellar vesicles. The resulting aqueous NC-liposome suspensions showed low turbidity and kept unaltered the wavelengths of absorbance and emission peaks of the native NCs. A relative NC fluorescence quantum yield up to 8% was preserved after their incorporation in liposomes. Interestingly, in proteo-NC-liposomes, RC is not denatured by Cd-based NCs, retaining its structural and functional integrity as shown by absorption spectra and flash-induced charge recombination kinetics. The outlined strategy can be extended in principle to any suitably sized hydrophobic NC with similar surface chemistry and to any integral protein complex. Furthermore, the proposed approach could be used in nanomedicine for the realization of theranostic systems and provides new, interesting perspectives for understanding the interactions between integral membraneproteins and nanoparticles, i.e., in nanotoxicology studies. PMID:24460372

Zymogen granules of the exocrine pancreas are the secretory organelles responsible for the regulated secretion of digestive enzymes. Several proteins are associated with or are integral components of the lipid bilayer that forms the zymogen granule membrane. These proteins likely represent important components in the regulated secretion of digestive enzymes. VAMPs (vesicle-associated membraneproteins)/synaptobrevins are a family of 18-kDa integral membraneproteins originally characterized in synaptic vesicles. Polyclonal antisera raised against either a VAMP/glutathione S-transferase (GST) fusion protein or rat brain synaptic vesicles, detected an 18-kDa immunoreactive protein in zymogen granule membranes that co-migrates electrophorectically with rat brain synaptic vesicle VAMP. Rat brain synaptic vesicle VAMP was detected by both antisera. Botulinum-B toxin treatment of zymogen granule membranes did not result in cleavage of zymogen granule membrane VAMP, indicating that exocrine pancreatic VAMP is either VAMP1 or a novel VAMP-isoform. Immunofluorescent studies demonstrated that exocrine pancreatic VAMP localized with GP2, a zymogen granule membraneprotein, to the apical region of pancreatic acinar cells. No significant labeling was observed in basolateral regions of pancreatic acinar cells. These results establish the presence of a VAMP protein in the zymogen granule of the rat pancreas and suggest that VAMPs have a role in exocrine secretion. PMID:8106518

Exposed plasma membraneproteins were labeled with {sup 125}I before and after incubation of boar sperm under capacitating conditions. Labeled protein profiles were compared to the ability of the sperm to penetrate zona-free hamster ova. Quantitatively, the labeled sperm membraneproteins were primarily low Mr prior to capacitation. The majority of the labeled seminal plasma protein was also low Mr. After capacitation, two new proteins (64,000 Mr and 78,000 Mr) were labeled. Sperm did not exhibit these exposed membraneproteins when incubated under noncapacitating conditions. Appearance of these proteins was not correlated to the percentage of acrosome-reacted sperm. Although the 64,000 Mr protein was not consistently observed, the relative labeling of the 78,000 Mr protein was highly correlated with the ability of sperm to fuse with zona-free hamster ova. The 78,000 Mr protein may be a sperm protein involved in fusion with the egg plasma membrane.

The outer membraneprotein LipL21, LipL32, LipL41 and Loa22 of Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni were previously revealed by immunoproteomic analysis, using sera from acute phase infection in a guinea pig. The full-length DNA of each protein was then cloned from the same serovar and expressed in pRSET vector. The obtained molecular weight (MW) of recombinant proteins rLipL21, rLipL32 and rLoa22 were slightly higher than the MW predicted from nucleotide sequences of each inserted gene, while only the N-terminal half of rLipL41 was obtained. Mice antiserum raised against each purified recombinant protein could react with the whole cell lysate of leptospiral serovars, implying that leptospiral native proteins shared a common epitope with recombinant protein. Serodiagnosis using recombinant protein antigen based on indirect ELISA procedure was developed in this study. The optimization of the ELISA components lead to determination of optical density (OD) from a single serum-dilution of 1:1000 in the leptospirosis patients group and normal healthy control group. The cut off OD values for both IgG and IgM class were investigated, and based on this fixed dilution only the IgG class could be used for differential diagnosis of patients and normal individuals. Compared with the MAT assay, ELISA assay utilizing both rLipL32 and rLoa22 as antigen, gave high accuracy and could thus be useful as a confirmative serology test. PMID:21353274

Outer membraneprotein (OMP) biogenesis is critical to bacterial physiology because the cellular envelope is vital to bacterial pathogenesis and antibiotic resistance. The process of OMP biogenesis has been studied in vivo, and each of its components has been studied in isolation in vitro. This work integrates parameters and observations from both in vivo and in vitro experiments into a holistic computational model termed "Outer MembraneProtein Biogenesis Model" (OMPBioM). We use OMPBioM to assess OMP biogenesis mathematically in a global manner. Using deterministic and stochastic methods, we are able to simulate OMP biogenesis under varying genetic conditions, each of which successfully replicates experimental observations. We observe that OMPs have a prolonged lifetime in the periplasm where an unfolded OMP makes, on average, hundreds of short-lived interactions with chaperones before folding into its native state. We find that some periplasmic chaperones function primarily as quality-control factors; this function complements the folding catalysis function of other chaperones. Additionally, the effective rate for the β-barrel assembly machinery complex necessary for physiological folding was found to be higher than has currently been observed in vitro. Overall, we find a finely tuned balance between thermodynamic and kinetic parameters maximizes OMP folding flux and minimizes aggregation and unnecessary degradation. In sum, OMPBioM provides a global view of OMP biogenesis that yields unique insights into this essential pathway. PMID:27482090

Rotationally resonant magnetization exchange, a new nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) technique for measuring internuclear distances between like spins in solids, was used to determine the distance between the C-8 and C-18 carbons of retinal in two model compounds and in the membraneprotein bacteriorhodopsin. Magnetization transfer between inequivalent spins with an isotropic shift separation, δ, is driven by magic angle spinning at a speed ω_r that matches the rotational resonance condition δ = nω_r, where n is a small integer. The distances measured in this way for both the 6-s-cis- and 6-s-trans-retinoic acid model compounds agreed well with crystallographically known distances. In bacteriorhodopsin the exchange trajectory between C-8 and C-18 was in good agreement with the internuclear distance for a 6-s-trans configuration [4.2 angstroms (overset{circ}{mathrm A})] and inconsistent with that for a 6-s-cis configuration (3.1 overset{circ}{mathrm A}). The results illustrate that rotational resonance can be used for structural studies in membraneproteins and in other situations where diffraction and solution NMR techniques yield limited information.

The authors describe the isolation and cloning of two integral membraneprotein antigens of Plasmodium falciparum. The antigens were isolated by Triton X-114 temperature-dependent phase separation, electrophoretically transferred to nitrocellulose, and used to affinity-purify monospecific human antibodies. These antibodies were used to isolate the corresponding cDNA clones from a phage {lambda}gt11-Amp3 cDNA expression library. Clone Ag512 corresponds to a M{sub r} 55,000 merozoite rhoptry antigen, and clone Ag513 corresponds to a M{sub r} 45,000 merozoite surface antigen. Both proteins can be biosynthetically labeled with ({sup 3}H)glucosamine and ({sup 3}H)myristic acid, suggesting that they may be anchored in membranes via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol moiety. Similarities in the C-terminal sequences of the M{sub r} 45,000 merozoite surface antigen and the Trypanosoma brucei variant surface glycoproteins provides further evidence that this antigen has a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor.

A great variety of compounds are formed during lipid peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids of membrane phospholipids. Among them, bioactive aldehydes, such as 4-hydroxyalkenals, malondialdehyde (MDA) and acrolein, have received particular attention since they have been considered as toxic messengers that can propagate and amplify oxidative injury. In the 4-hydroxyalkenal class, 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE) is the most intensively studied aldehyde, in relation not only to its toxic function, but also to its physiological role. Indeed, HNE can be found at low concentrations in human tissues and plasma and participates in the control of biological processes, such as signal transduction, cell proliferation, and differentiation. Moreover, at low doses, HNE exerts an anti-cancer effect, by inhibiting cell proliferation, angiogenesis, cell adhesion and by inducing differentiation and/or apoptosis in various tumor cell lines. It is very likely that a substantial fraction of the effects observed in cellular responses, induced by HNE and related aldehydes, be mediated by their interaction with proteins, resulting in the formation of covalent adducts or in the modulation of their expression and/or activity. In this review we focus on membraneproteins affected by lipid peroxidation-derived aldehydes, under physiological and pathological conditions. PMID:24027536

Membraneproteins are involved in numerous vital biological processes. To understand membraneprotein functionality, accurate structural information is required. Usually, structure determination and dynamics of membraneproteins are studied in micelles using either solution state NMR or X-ray crystallography. Even though invaluable information has been obtained by this approach, micelles are known to be far from ideal mimics of biological membranes often causing the loss or decrease of membraneprotein activity. Recently, nanodiscs, which are composed of a lipid bilayer surrounded by apolipoproteins, have been introduced as a more physiological alternative than micelles for NMR investigations on membraneproteins. Here, we show that membraneprotein bond orientations in nanodiscs can be obtained by measuring residual dipolar couplings (RDCs) with the outer membraneprotein OmpX embedded in nanodiscs using Pf1 phage as an alignment medium. The presented collection of membraneprotein RDCs in nanodiscs represents an important step toward more comprehensive structural and dynamical NMR-based investigations of membraneproteins in a natural bilayer environment. PMID:24752984

As a consequence of their poor solubility during isoelectric focusing, integral membraneproteins are generally absent from two-dimensional gel proteome maps. In order to analyze the yeast plasma membrane proteome, a plasma membrane purification protocol was optimized in order to reduce contaminating membranes and cytosolic proteins. Specifically, the new fractionation scheme largely depleted the plasma membrane fraction of cytosolic proteins by deoxycholate stripping and ribosomal proteins by sucrose gradient flotation. The plasma membrane complement was resolved by two-dimensional electrophoresis using the cationic detergent cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide in the first, and sodium dodecyl sulfate in the second dimension, and fifty spots were identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectometry. In spite of the presence of still contaminating ribosomal proteins, major proteins corresponded to known plasma membrane residents, the ABC transporters Pdr5p and Snq2p, the P-type H(+)-ATPase Pma1p, the glucose transporter Hxt7p, the seven transmembrane-span Mrh1p, the low affinity Fe(++) transporter Fet4p, the twelve-span Ptr2p, and the plasma membrane anchored casein kinase Yck2p. The four transmembrane-span proteins Sur7p and Nce102p were also present in the isolated plasma membranes, as well as the unknown protein Ygr266wp that probably contains a single transmembrane span. Thus, combining subcellular fractionation with adapted two-dimensional electrophoresis resulted in the identification of intrinsic plasma membraneproteins. PMID:12469340

We demonstrated recently that a fraction of the matrix (M) protein of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) binds tightly to cellular membranes in vivo when expressed in the absence of other VSV proteins. This membrane-associated M protein was functional in binding purified VSV nucleocapsids in vitro. Here we show that the membrane-associated M protein is largely associated with a membrane fraction having the density of plasma membranes, indicating membrane specificity in the binding. In addition, we analyzed truncated forms of M protein to identify regions responsible for membrane association and nucleocapsid binding. Truncated M protein lacking the amino-terminal basic domain still associated with cellular membranes, although not as tightly as wild-type M protein, and could not bind nucleocapsids. In contrast, deletion of the carboxy-terminal 14 amino acids did not disrupt stable membrane association or nucleocapsid interaction. These results suggest that the amino terminus of M protein either interacts directly with membranes and nucleocapsids or stabilizes a conformation that is required for M protein to mediate both of these interactions. Images PMID:8254754

The crystal structures of four membraneproteins, from bacteria or a unicellular alga, have been solved with samples produced by cell-free protein synthesis. In this study, for mammalian membraneprotein production, we established the precipitating and soluble membrane fragment methods: membraneproteins are synthesized with the Escherichia coli cell-free system in the presence of large and small membrane fragments, respectively, and are simultaneously integrated into the lipid environments. We applied the precipitating membrane fragment method to produce various mammalian membraneproteins, including human claudins, glucosylceramide synthase, and the γ-secretase subunits. These proteins were produced at levels of about 0.1-1.0 mg per ml cell-free reaction under the initial conditions, and were obtained as precipitates by ultracentrifugation. Larger amounts of membraneproteins were produced by the soluble membrane fragment method, collected in the ultracentrifugation supernatants, and purified directly by column chromatography. For several proteins, the conditions of the membrane fragment methods were further optimized, such as by the addition of specific lipids/detergents. The functional and structural integrities of the purified proteins were confirmed by analyses of their ligand binding activities, size-exclusion chromatography profiles, and/or thermal stabilities. We successfully obtained high-quality crystals of the complex of human claudin-4 with an enterotoxin. PMID:27465719

The crystal structures of four membraneproteins, from bacteria or a unicellular alga, have been solved with samples produced by cell-free protein synthesis. In this study, for mammalian membraneprotein production, we established the precipitating and soluble membrane fragment methods: membraneproteins are synthesized with the Escherichia coli cell-free system in the presence of large and small membrane fragments, respectively, and are simultaneously integrated into the lipid environments. We applied the precipitating membrane fragment method to produce various mammalian membraneproteins, including human claudins, glucosylceramide synthase, and the γ-secretase subunits. These proteins were produced at levels of about 0.1–1.0 mg per ml cell-free reaction under the initial conditions, and were obtained as precipitates by ultracentrifugation. Larger amounts of membraneproteins were produced by the soluble membrane fragment method, collected in the ultracentrifugation supernatants, and purified directly by column chromatography. For several proteins, the conditions of the membrane fragment methods were further optimized, such as by the addition of specific lipids/detergents. The functional and structural integrities of the purified proteins were confirmed by analyses of their ligand binding activities, size-exclusion chromatography profiles, and/or thermal stabilities. We successfully obtained high-quality crystals of the complex of human claudin-4 with an enterotoxin. PMID:27465719

Supported hybrid nano C60-lipid membrane based on cysteamine monolayer was made on gold electrode. Hemoglobin (Hb) could be immobilized in the membrane firmly because the membrane can supply a biological environment for Hb. The electrochemical behavior of Hb in the membrane was investigated by cyclic voltammetry. As a good electron mediator, C60 could make the electron transfer of the protein in hybrid C60-lipid membrane more accessible. PMID:27427649

Solid-state NMR has emerged as an important tool for structural biology and chemistry, capable of solving atomic-resolution structures for proteins in membrane-bound and aggregated states. Proton detection methods have been recently realized under fast magic-angle spinning conditions, providing large sensitivity enhancements for efficient examination of uniformly labeled proteins. The first and often most challenging step of protein structure determination by NMR is the site-specific resonance assignment. Here we demonstrate resonance assignments based on high-sensitivity proton-detected three-dimensional experiments for samples of different physical states, including a fully-protonated small protein (GB1, 6 kDa), a deuterated microcrystalline protein (DsbA, 21 kDa), a membraneprotein (DsbB, 20 kDa) prepared in a lipid environment, and the extended core of a fibrillar protein (α-synuclein, 14 kDa). In our implementation of these experiments, including CONH, CO(CA)NH, CANH, CA(CO)NH, CBCANH, and CBCA(CO)NH, dipolar-based polarization transfer methods have been chosen for optimal efficiency for relatively high protonation levels (full protonation or 100 % amide proton), fast magic-angle spinning conditions (40 kHz) and moderate proton decoupling power levels. Each H–N pair correlates exclusively to either intra- or inter-residue carbons, but not both, to maximize spectral resolution. Experiment time can be reduced by at least a factor of 10 by using proton detection in comparison to carbon detection. These high-sensitivity experiments are especially important for membraneproteins, which often have rather low expression yield. Proton-detection based experiments are expected to play an important role in accelerating protein structure elucidation by solid-state NMR with the improved sensitivity and resolution. PMID:22986689

Statistical experimental design was employed to optimize the preparation conditions of polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF) membranes. Three variables considered were polymer concentration, dissolving temperature, and casting thickness, whereby the response variable was membrane-protein binding. The optimum preparation for the PVDF membrane was a polymer concentration of 16.55 wt%, a dissolving temperature of 27.5°C, and a casting thickness of 450 µm. The statistical model exhibits a deviation between the predicted and actual responses of less than 5%. Further characterization of the formed PVDF membrane showed that the morphology of the membrane was in line with the membrane-protein binding performance. PMID:27088961

Tim23 mediates protein translocation into mitochondria. Although inserted into the inner membrane, the dynamic association of its intermembrane space (IMS) domain with the outer membrane promotes protein import. However, little is known about the molecular basis of this interaction. Here, we demonstrate that the IMS domain of Tim23 tightly associates with both inner and outer mitochondrial membrane-like membranes through a hydrophobic anchor at its N terminus. The structure of membrane-bound Tim23IMS is highly dynamic, allowing recognition of both the incoming presequence and other translocase components at the translocation contact. Cardiolipin enhances Tim23 membrane attachment, suggesting that cardiolipin can influence preprotein import. PMID:25349212

Crystals of the complex formed between the bacterial membraneprotein OmpC and the antibacterial protein lactoferrin suitable for high-resolution structure determination have been obtained. The crystals belong to the hexagonal space group P6, with unit-cell parameters a = b = 116.3, c = 152.4 Å. Crystals of the complex formed between the outer membraneprotein OmpC from Escherichia coli and the eukaryotic antibacterial protein lactoferrin from Camelus dromedarius (camel) have been obtained using a detergent environment. Initial data processing suggests that the crystals belong to the hexagonal space group P6, with unit-cell parameters a = b = 116.3, c = 152.4 Å, α = β = 90, γ = 120°. This indicated a Matthews coefficient (V{sub M}) of 3.3 Å{sup 3} Da{sup −1}, corresponding to a possible molecular complex involving four molecules of lactoferrin and two porin trimers in the unit cell (4832 amino acids; 533.8 kDa) with 63% solvent content. A complete set of diffraction data was collected to 3 Å resolution at 100 K. Structure determination by molecular replacement is in progress. Structural study of this first surface-exposed membrane-protein complex with an antibacterial protein will provide insights into the mechanism of action of OmpC as well as lactoferrin.

Early embryonic development features rapid nuclear DNA replication cycles, but lacks mtDNA replication. To meet the high-energy demands of embryogenesis, mature oocytes are furnished with vast amounts of mitochondria and mtDNA However, the cellular machinery driving massive mtDNA replication in ovaries remains unknown. Here, we describe a Drosophila AKAP protein, MDI that recruits a translation stimulator, La-related protein (Larp), to the mitochondrial outer membrane in ovaries. The MDI-Larp complex promotes the synthesis of a subset of nuclear-encoded mitochondrial proteins by cytosolic ribosomes on the mitochondrial surface. MDI-Larp's targets include mtDNA replication factors, mitochondrial ribosomal proteins, and electron-transport chain subunits. Lack of MDI abolishes mtDNA replication in ovaries, which leads to mtDNA deficiency in mature eggs. Targeting Larp to the mitochondrial outer membrane independently of MDI restores local protein synthesis and rescues the phenotypes of mdi mutant flies. Our work suggests that a selective translational boost by the MDI-Larp complex on the outer mitochondrial membrane might be essential for mtDNA replication and mitochondrial biogenesis during oogenesis. PMID:27053724

Pore-forming proteins and peptides act on their targeted lipid bilayer membranes to increase permeability. This approach to the modulation of biological function is relevant to a great number of living processes, including; infection, parasitism, immunity, apoptosis, development and neurodegeneration. While some pore-forming proteins/peptides assemble into rings of subunits to generate discrete, well-defined pore-forming structures, an increasing number is recognised to form pores via mechanisms which co-opt membrane lipids themselves. Among these, membrane attack complex-perforin/cholesterol-dependent cytolysin (MACPF/CDC) family proteins, Bax/colicin family proteins and actinoporins are especially prominent and among the mechanisms believed to apply are the formation of non-lamellar (semi-toroidal or toroidal) lipidic structures. In this review I focus on the ways in which lipids contribute to pore formation and contrast this with the ways in which lipids are co-opted also in membrane fusion and fission events. A variety of mechanisms for pore formation that involve lipids exists, but they consistently result in stable hybrid proteolipidic structures. These structures are stabilised by mechanisms in which pore-forming proteins modify the innate capacity of lipid membranes to respond to their environment, changing shape and/or phase and binding individual lipid molecules directly. In contrast, and despite the diversity in fusion protein types, mechanisms for membrane fusion are rather similar to each other, mapping out a pathway from pairs of separated compartments to fully confluent fused membranes. Fusion proteins generate metastable structures along the way which, like long-lived proteolipidic pore-forming complexes, rely on the basic physical properties of lipid bilayers. Membrane fission involves similar intermediates, in the reverse order. I conclude by considering the possibility that at least some pore-forming and fusion proteins are evolutionarily related

Previous studies have shown that the scrapie agent is highly membrane-associated. We examined the protein composition of gradient fractions enriched for large membrane vesicles prepared from scrapie-infected and uninfected hamster brain using various methods to extract membraneproteins. We also examined proteins in detergent-extracted membrane vesicles fractionated on CsCl gradients. No qualitative differences in protein composition were seen comparing scrapie-infected and uninfected samples by one-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Extraction of proteins from membrane vesicles by phenol, pyridine, perchloric acid or lithium diiodosalicylate also failed to reveal any unique proteins in scrapie-infected hamster brain. Attempts to solubilize hydrophobic proteins (proteolipids) from CsCl gradient fractions into organic solvents were unsuccessful. These findings indicate that any hydrophobic protein associated with the scrapie agent is not a proteolipid, and that the ability of solvents to reduce scrapie infectivity is not a result of extraction of a proteolipid. PMID:3920349

In multicellular organisms, proteins of the extracellular matrix (ECM) play structural and functional roles in essentially all organs, so understanding ECM protein organization in health and disease remains an important goal. Here, we used sub-diffraction resolution stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM) to resolve the in situ molecular organization of proteins within the kidney glomerular basement membrane (GBM), an essential mediator of glomerular ultrafiltration. Using multichannel STORM and STORM-electron microscopy correlation, we constructed a molecular reference frame that revealed a laminar organization of ECM proteins within the GBM. Separate analyses of domains near the N- and C-termini of agrin, laminin, and collagen IV in mouse and human GBM revealed a highly oriented macromolecular organization. Our analysis also revealed disruptions in this GBM architecture in a mouse model of Alport syndrome. These results provide the first nanoscopic glimpse into the organization of a complex ECM. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01149.001 PMID:24137544

Despite recent technological advances in heterologous expression, stabilization and crystallization of membraneproteins (MPs), their structural studies remain difficult and require new transformative approaches. During the past two years, crystallization in lipidic cubic phase (LCP) has started gaining a widespread acceptance, owing to the spectacular success in high-resolution structure determination of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and to the introduction of commercial instrumentation, tools and protocols. The recent appearance of X-ray free-electron lasers (XFELs) has enabled structure determination from substantially smaller crystals than previously possible with minimal effects of radiation damage, offering new exciting opportunities in structural biology. The unique properties of LCP material have been exploited to develop special protocols and devices that have established a new method of serial femtosecond crystallography of MPs in LCP (LCP-SFX). In this method, microcrystals are generated in LCP and streamed continuously inside the same media across the intersection with a pulsed XFEL beam at a flow rate that can be adjusted to minimize sample consumption. Pioneering studies that yielded the first room temperature GPCR structures, using a few hundred micrograms of purified protein, validate the LCP-SFX approach and make it attractive for structure determination of difficult-to-crystallize MPs and their complexes with interacting partners. Together with the potential of femtosecond data acquisition to interrogate unstable intermediate functional states of MPs, LCP-SFX holds promise to advance our understanding of this biomedically important class of proteins. PMID:24914147

Dephosphorylation of the 25 and 27 kDa light-harvesting Chl a/b proteins (LHCII) of the thylakoid membranes is catalyzed by a phosphatase which differs from previously reported thylakoid-bound phosphatases in having an alkaline pH optimum (9.0) and a requirement for Mg/sup 2 +/ ions. Dephosphorylation of the 8.3 kDa psb H gene product requires a Mg/sup 2 +/ ion concentration more than 200 fold higher than that for dephosphorylation of LHC II. The 8.3 kDa and 27 kDa proteins appear to be phosphorylated by two distinct kinases, which differ in substrate specificity and sensitivity to inhibitors. The plastoquinone antagonist 2,5-dibromo-3-methyl-6-isopropyl-benzoquinone (DBMIB) inhibits phosphorylation of the 27 kDa LHC II much more readily than phosphorylation of the 8.3 kDa protein. A similar pattern of inhibition is seen for two synthetic oligopeptides (MRKSATTKKAVC and ATQTLESSSRC) which are analogs of the phosphorylation sites of the two proteins. Possible modes of action of DBMIB are discussed. 45 refs., 7 figs., 3 tabs.

Earlier work demonstrated that a water-soluble four-helix bundle protein designed with a cavity in its nonpolar core is capable of binding the volatile anesthetic halothane with near-physiological affinity (0.7 mM Kd). To create a more relevant, model membraneprotein receptor for studying the physicochemical specificity of anesthetic binding, we have synthesized a new protein that builds on the anesthetic-binding, hydrophilic four-helix bundle and incorporates a hydrophobic domain capable of ion-channel activity, resulting in an amphiphilic four-helix bundle that forms stable monolayers at the air/water interface. The affinity of the cavity within the core of the bundle for volatile anesthetic binding is decreased by a factor of 4–3.1 mM Kd as compared to its water-soluble counterpart. Nevertheless, the absence of the cavity within the otherwise identical amphiphilic peptide significantly decreases its affinity for halothane similar to its water-soluble counterpart. Specular x-ray reflectivity shows that the amphiphilic protein orients vectorially in Langmuir monolayers at higher surface pressure with its long axis perpendicular to the interface, and that it possesses a length consistent with its design. This provides a successful starting template for probing the nature of the anesthetic-peptide interaction, as well as a potential model system in structure/function correlation for understanding the anesthetic binding mechanism. PMID:15465862

Mutations in genes encoding components of the sarcolemmal dystrophin-glycoprotein complex (DGC) are responsible for a large number of muscular dystrophies. As such, molecular dissection of the DGC is expected to both reveal pathological mechanisms, and provides a biological framework for validating new DGC components. Establishment of the molecular composition of plasma-membraneprotein complexes has been hampered by a lack of suitable biochemical approaches. Here we present an analytical workflow based upon the principles of protein correlation profiling that has enabled us to model the molecular composition of the DGC in mouse skeletal muscle. We also report our analysis of protein complexes in mice harboring mutations in DGC components. Bioinformatic analyses suggested that cell-adhesion pathways were under the transcriptional control of NFκB in DGC mutant mice, which is a finding that is supported by previous studies that showed NFκB-regulated pathways underlie the pathophysiology of DGC-related muscular dystrophies. Moreover, the bioinformatic analyses suggested that inflammatory and compensatory mechanisms were activated in skeletal muscle of DGC mutant mice. Additionally, this proteomic study provides a molecular framework to refine our understanding of the DGC, identification of protein biomarkers of neuromuscular disease, and pharmacological interrogation of the DGC in adult skeletal muscle https://www.mda.org/disease/congenital-muscular-dystrophy/research. PMID:27099343

Bacteriorhodopsin protein (bR)-based systems are one of the simplest known biological energy converters. The robust chemical, thermal and electrochemical properties of bR have made it an attractive material for photoelectric devices. This study demonstrates the photoelectric response of a dry bR layer deposited on a nitrocellulose membrane with indium tin oxide (ITO) electrodes. Light-induced electrical current as well as potential and impedance changes of dried bR film were recorded as the function of illumination. We have also tested bR in solution and found that the electrical properties are strongly dependent on light intensity changing locally proton concentration and thus pH of the solution. Experimental data support the assumption that bR protein on a positively charged nitrocellulose membrane (PNM) can be used as highly sensitive photo- and pH detector. Here the bR layer facilitates proton translocation and acts as an ultrafast optoelectric signal transducer. It is therefore useful in applications related to bioelectronics, biosensors, bio-optics devices and current carrying junction devices. PMID:23271605

In a survey of the bilayer-spanning regions of integral membraneproteins, membrane-buried proline residues were found in nearly all transport proteins examined, whereas membrane-buried regions of nontransport proteins were largely devoid of intramembranous proline residues. When amino acids from the complete sequences of representative sets of transport and nontransport membraneproteins were analyzed for the distribution of proline residues between aqueous vs. membranous domains, proline was shown to be selectively excluded from membranous domains of the nontransport proteins, in accord with expectation from energetic and structural considerations. In contrast, proline residues in transport proteins were evenly distributed between aqueous and membranous domains, consistent with the notion that functional membrane-buried proline residues are selectively included in transport proteins. As cis peptide bonds involving proline arise in proteins and have been implicated in protein dynamic processes, the cis-trans isomerization of an Xaa-Pro peptide bond (Xaa = unspecified amino acid) buried within the membrane--and the resulting redirection of the protein chain--is proposed to provide the reversible conformational change requisite for the regulation (opening/closing) of a transport channel. Parallel to this function, the relatively negative character of the carbonyl groups of Xaa-Pro peptide bonds may promote their participation as intramembranous liganding sites for positive species in proton/cation transport processes. PMID:3456574

Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans is an important pathogen in the etiology of human periodontal and systemic diseases. Inactivation of the gene coding for the inner membraneprotein, morphogenesis protein C (MorC), results is pleotropic effects pertaining to the membrane structure and function of this bacterium. The role of this protein in membrane biogenesis is unknown. To begin to understand the role of this conserved protein, stable isotope dimethyl labeling in conjunction with mass spectrometry was used to quantitatively analyze differences in the membrane proteomes of the isogenic mutant and wild-type strain. A total of 613 proteins were quantified and 601 of these proteins were found to be equal in abundance between the two strains. The remaining 12 proteins were found in lesser (10) or greater (2) abundance in the membrane preparation of the mutant strain compared with the wild-type strain. The 12 proteins were ascribed functions associated with protein quality control systems, oxidative stress responses, and protein secretion. The potential relationship between these proteins and the phenotypes of the morC mutant strain is discussed. PMID:25684173

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is divided into rough and smooth domains (RER and SER). The two domains share most proteins, but RER is enriched in some membraneproteins by an unknown mechanism. We studied RER protein targeting by expressing fluorescent protein fusions to ER membraneproteins in Caenorhabditis elegans. In several cell types RER and general ER proteins colocalized, but in neurons RER proteins were concentrated in the cell body, whereas general ER proteins were also found in neurites. Surprisingly RER membraneproteins diffused rapidly within the cell body, indicating they are not localized by immobilization. Ribosomes were also concentrated in the cell body, suggesting they may be in part responsible for targeting RER membraneproteins. PMID:12006669

The interaction of macrophage-membraneproteins and histoplasmin, a crude antigen of the pathogenic fungus Histoplasma capsulatum, was studied using murine peritoneal macrophages. Membraneproteins were purified via membrane attachment to polycationic beads and solubilized in Tris–HCl/SDS/DTT/glycerol for protein extraction; afterwards they were adsorbed or not with H. capsulatum yeast or lectin binding-enriched by affinity chromatography. Membraneproteins and histoplasmin interactions were detected by ELISA and immunoblotting assays using anti-H. capsulatum human or mouse serum and biotinylated goat anti-human or anti-mouse IgG/streptavidin-peroxidase system to reveal the interaction. Results indicate that macrophage-membraneproteins and histoplasmin components interact in a dose-dependent reaction, and adsorption of macrophage-membraneproteins by yeast cells induces a critical decrease in the interaction. Macrophage-membrane glycoproteins with terminal d-galactosyl residues, purified by chromatography with Abrus precatorius lectin, bound to histoplasmin; and two bands of 68 kD and 180 kD of transferred membraneprotein samples interacted with histoplasmin components, as revealed by immunoblot assays. Specificity for β-galactoside residues on the macrophage-membrane was confirmed by galactose inhibition of the interaction between macrophage-membraneproteins and histoplasmin components, in competitive ELISA using sugars, as well as by enzymatic cleavage of the galactoside residues. PMID:9737672

Fused or giant vesicles, planar lipid bilayers, a droplet membrane system, and planar-supported membranes have been developed to incorporate membraneproteins for the electrical and biophysical analysis of such proteins or the bilayer properties. However, it remains difficult to incorporate membraneproteins, including ion channels, into reconstituted membrane systems that allow easy control of operational dimensions, incorporation orientation of the membraneproteins, and lipid composition of membranes. Here, using a newly developed chemical engineering procedure, we report on a bead-supported unilamellar membrane (bSUM) system that allows good control over membrane dimension, protein orientation, and lipid composition. Our new system uses specific ligands to facilitate the unidirectional incorporation of membraneproteins into lipid bilayers. Cryo–electron microscopic imaging demonstrates the unilamellar nature of the bSUMs. Electrical recordings from voltage-gated ion channels in bSUMs of varying diameters demonstrate the versatility of the new system. Using KvAP as a model system, we show that compared with other in vitro membrane systems, the bSUMs have the following advantages: (a) a major fraction of channels are orientated in a controlled way; (b) the channels mediate the formation of the lipid bilayer; (c) there is one and only one bilayer membrane on each bead; (d) the lipid composition can be controlled and the bSUM size is also under experimental control over a range of 0.2–20 µm; (e) the channel activity can be recorded by patch clamp using a planar electrode; and (f) the voltage-clamp speed (0.2–0.5 ms) of the bSUM on a planar electrode is fast, making it suitable to study ion channels with fast gating kinetics. Our observations suggest that the chemically engineered bSUMs afford a novel platform for studying lipid–protein interactions in membranes of varying lipid composition and may be useful for other applications, such as targeted

Identifying membraneproteins and their multi-functional types is an indispensable yet challenging topic in proteomics and bioinformatics. In this article, we provide data that are used for training and testing Mem-ADSVM (Wan et al., 2016. "Mem-ADSVM: a two-layer multi-label predictor for identifying multi-functional types of membraneproteins" [1]), a two-layer multi-label predictor for predicting multi-functional types of membraneproteins. PMID:27294176

The computational design of α-helical membraneproteins is still in its infancy but has made important progress. De novo design has produced stable, specific and active minimalistic oligomeric systems. Computational re-engineering can improve stability and modulate the function of natural membraneproteins. Currently, the major hurdle for the field is not computational, but the experimental characterization of the designs. The emergence of new structural methods for membraneproteins will accelerate progress PMID:27273630

Osmolytes are naturally occurring molecules used by a wide variety of organisms to stabilize proteins under extreme conditions of temperature, salinity, hydrostatic pressure, denaturant concentration, and desiccation. The effects of the osmolyte trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) as well as the influence of detergent head group and acyl chain length on the stability of the Escherichia coli integral membraneprotein glycerol facilitator (GF) tetramer to thermal and chemical denaturation by sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) are reported. TMAO promotes the association of the normally tetrameric α-helical protein into higher order oligomers in dodecyl-maltoside (DDM), but not in tetradecyl-maltoside (TDM), lyso-lauroylphosphatidyl choline (LLPC), or lyso-myristoylphosphatidyl choline (LMPC), as determined by dynamic light scattering (DLS); an octameric complex is particularly stable as indicated by SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. TMAO increases the heat stability of the GF tetramer an average of 10 °C in the 4 detergents and also protects the protein from denaturation by SDS. However, it did not promote re-association to the tetramer when added to SDS-dissociated protein. TMAO also promotes the formation of rod-like detergent micelles, and DLS was found to be useful for monitoring the structure of the protein and the redistribution of detergent during thermal dissociation of the protein. The protein is more thermally stable in detergents with the phosphatidylcholine head group (LLPC and LMPC) than in the maltoside detergents. The implications of the results for osmolyte mechanism, membraneprotein stability, and protein-protein interactions are discussed. PMID:25387032

Pathogenic viruses are a primary threat to our national security and to the health and economy of our world. Effective defense strategies to combat viral infection and spread require the development of understanding of the mechanisms that these pathogens use to invade the host cell. We present in this report results of our research into viral particle recognition and fusion to cell membranes and the role that protein affinity and confinement in lipid domains plays in membrane curvature in cellular fusion and fission events. Herein, we describe 1) the assembly of the G attachment protein of Nipah virus using point mutation studies to define its role in viral particle fusion to the cell membrane, 2) how lateral pressure of membrane bound proteins induce curvature in model membrane systems, and 3) the role of membrane curvature in the selective partitioning of molecular receptors and specific affinity of associated proteins.

Membraneproteins play key roles in biology. Determination of their structure in a membrane environment, however, is highly challenging. To address this challenge, we developed an approach that couples hydrogen/deuterium exchange of membraneproteins to rapid unfolding and detection by solution-state NMR spectroscopy. We show that the method allows analysis of the solvent protection of single residues in liposome-embedded proteins such as the 349-residue Tom40, the major protein translocation pore in the outer mitochondrial membrane, which has resisted structural analysis for many years. PMID:25375235

In kinetoplastid protists, several metabolic pathways, including glycolysis and purine salvage, are located in glycosomes, which are microbodies that are evolutionarily related to peroxisomes. With the exception of some potential transporters for fatty acids, and one member of the mitochondrial carrier protein family, proteins that transport metabolites across the glycosomal membrane have yet to be identified. We show here that the phosphatidylcholine species composition of Trypanosoma brucei glycosomal membranes resembles that of other cellular membranes, which means that glycosomal membranes are expected to be impermeable to small hydrophilic molecules unless transport is facilitated by specialized membraneproteins. Further, we identified 464 proteins in a glycosomal membrane preparation from Leishmania tarentolae. The proteins included approximately 40 glycosomal matrix proteins, and homologues of peroxisomal membraneproteins - PEX11, GIM5A and GIM5B; PXMP4, PEX2 and PEX16 - as well as the transporters GAT1 and GAT3. There were 27 other proteins that could not be unambiguously assigned to other compartments, and that had predicted trans-membrane domains. However, no clear candidates for transport of the major substrates and intermediates of energy metabolism were found. We suggest that, instead, these metabolites are transported via pores formed by the known glycosomal membraneproteins. PMID:24358884

A medium throughput approach is used to rapidly identify membraneproteins from a eukaryotic organism that are most amenable to expression in amounts and quality adequate to support structure determination. The goal was to expand knowledge of new membraneprotein structures based on proteome-wide coverage. In the first phase membraneproteins from the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae were selected for homologous expression in S. cerevisiae, a system that can be adapted to expression of membraneproteins from other eukaryotes. We performed medium-scale expression and solubilization tests on 351 rationally selected membraneproteins from the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. These targets are inclusive of all annotated and unannotated membraneprotein families within the organism’s membrane proteome. 272 targets were expressed and of these 234 solubilized in the detergent n-dodecyl-β-D-maltopyranoside. Furthermore, we report the identity of a subset of targets that were purified to homogeneity to facilitate structure determinations. The extensibility of this approach is demonstrated with the expression of ten human integral membraneproteins from the solute carrier superfamily (SLC). This discovery-oriented pipeline provides an efficient way to select proteins from particular membraneprotein classes, families, or organisms that may be more suited to structure analysis than others. PMID:19061901

We provide an overview of lipid-dependent polytopic membraneprotein folding and topogenesis. Lipid dependence of this process was determined by employing Escherichia coli cells in which specific lipids can be eliminated, substituted, tightly titrated or controlled temporally during membraneprotein synthesis and assembly. The secondary transport protein lactose permease (LacY) was used to establish general principles underlying the molecular basis of lipid-dependent effects on protein domain folding, protein transmembrane domain (TM) orientation, and function. These principles were then extended to several other secondary transport proteins of E. coli. The methods used to follow proper conformational organization of protein domains and the topological organization of protein TMs in whole cells and membranes are described. The proper folding of an extramembrane domain of LacY that is crucial for energy dependent uphill transport function depends on specific lipids acting as non-protein molecular chaperones. Correct TM topogenesis is dependent on charge interactions between the cytoplasmic surface of membraneproteins and a proper balance of the membrane surface net charge defined by the lipid head groups. Short-range interactions between the nascent protein chain and the translocon are necessary but not sufficient for establishment of final topology. After release from the translocon short-range interactions between lipid head groups and the nascent protein chain, partitioning of protein hydrophobic domains into the membrane bilayer, and long–range interactions within the protein thermodynamically drive final membraneprotein organization. Given the diversity of membrane lipid compositions throughout nature, it is tempting to speculate that during the course of evolution the physical and chemical properties of proteins and lipids have co-evolved in the context of the lipid environment of membrane systems in which both are mutually depend on each other for

Most cellular organelles contain lipid bilayer membranes. The earliest characterization of cellular organelles was performed by electron microscopy observation of such membranes. However, the precise mechanisms for shaping the membrane in particular subcellular organelles is poorly understood. Classically, the overall cellular shape, i.e. the shape of the plasma membrane, was thought to be governed by the reorganization of cytoskeletal components such as actin and microtubules. The plasma membrane contains various submicron structures such as clathrin-coated pits, caveolae, filopodia and lamellipodia. These subcellular structures are either invaginations or protrusions and are associated with the cytoskeleton. Therefore, it could be hypothesized that there are membrane-binding proteins that cooperates with cytoskeleton in shaping of plasma membrane organelles. Proteins with the Bin-Amphiphysin-Rvs (BAR) domain connect a variety of membrane shapes to actin filaments. The BAR domains themselves bend the membranes by their rigidity and then mold the membranes into tubules through their assembly as spiral polymers, which are thought to be involved in the various submicron structures. Membrane tubulation by polymeric assembly of the BAR domains is supposed to be regulated by binding proteins, binding lipids and the mechanical properties of the membrane. This review gives an overview of BAR protein assembly, describes the significance of the assembly and discusses how to study the assembly in the context of membrane and cellular morphology. The technical problems encountered in microscopic observation of BAR domain assembly are also discussed. PMID:26884618

Myelin is a multilayered proteolipid membrane structure surrounding selected axons in the vertebrate nervous system, which allows the rapid saltatory conduction of nerve impulses. Deficits in myelin formation and maintenance may lead to chronic neurological disease. P2 is an abundant myelin protein from peripheral nerves, binding between two apposing lipid bilayers. We studied the dynamics of the human myelin protein P2 and its mutated P38G variant in hydrated powders using elastic incoherent neutron scattering. The local harmonic vibrations at low temperatures were very similar for both samples, but the mutant protein had increased flexibility and softness close to physiological temperatures. The results indicate that a drastic mutation of proline to glycine at a functional site can affect protein dynamics, and in the case of P2, they may explain functional differences between the two proteins.

We discuss recent progresses in computational studies of membraneproteins based on physical models with parameters derived from bioinformatics analysis. We describe computational identification of membraneproteins and prediction of their topology from sequence, discovery of sequence and spatial motifs, and implications of these discoveries. The detection of evolutionary signal for understanding the substitution pattern of residues in the TM segments and for sequence alignment are also discussed. We further discuss empirical potential functions for energetics of inserting residues in the TM domain, for interactions between TM helices or strands, and their applications in predicting lipid-facing surfaces of the TM domain. Recent progresses in structure predictions of membraneproteins are also reviewed, with further discussions on calculation of ensemble properties such as melting temperature based on simplified state space model. Additional topics include prediction of oligomerization state of membraneproteins, identification of the interfaces for protein-protein interactions, and design of membraneproteins. PMID:22051023

Structural evidence has accumulated suggesting that fusion and/or translocation factors are involved in plastid membrane biogenesis. To test this hypothesis, we have developed an in vitro system in which the extent of fusion and/or translocation is monitored by the conversion of the xanthophyll epoxide (antheraxanthin) into the red ketocarotenoid (capsanthin). Only chromoplast membrane vesicles from red pepper fruits (Capsicum annuum) contain the required enzyme. Vesicles prepared from the mutant yellow cultivar are devoid of this enzyme and accumulate antheraxanthin. The fusion and/or translocation activity is characterized by complementation due to the synthesis of capsanthin and the parallel decrease of antheraxanthin when the two types of vesicles are incubated together in the presence of plastid stroma. We show that the extent of conversion is dependent upon an ATP-requiring protein that is sensitive to N-ethylmaleimide. Further purification and immunological analysis have revealed that the active factor, designated plastid fusion and/or translocation factor (Pftf), resides in a protein of 72 kDa. cDNA cloning revealed that mature Pftf has significant homology to yeast and animal (NSF) or bacterial (Ftsh) proteins involved in vesicle fusion or membraneprotein translocation. Images Fig. 1 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 PMID:7777561

ABSTRACT Latent membraneprotein 1 (LMP1) of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) induces constitutive signaling in EBV-infected cells to ensure the survival of the latently infected cells. LMP1 is localized to lipid raft domains to induce signaling. In the present study, a genome-wide screen based on bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) was performed to identify LMP1-binding proteins. Several actin cytoskeleton-associated proteins were identified in the screen. Overexpression of these proteins affected LMP1-induced signaling. BiFC between the identified proteins and LMP1 was localized to lipid raft domains and was dependent on LMP1-induced signaling. Proximity biotinylation assays with LMP1 induced biotinylation of the actin-associated proteins, which were shifted in molecular mass. Together, the findings of this study suggest that the association of LMP1 with lipid rafts is mediated at least in part through interactions with the actin cytoskeleton. IMPORTANCE LMP1 signaling requires oligomerization, lipid raft partitioning, and binding to cellular adaptors. The current study utilized a genome-wide screen to identify several actin-associated proteins as candidate LMP1-binding proteins. The interaction between LMP1 and these proteins was localized to lipid rafts and dependent on LMP1 signaling. This suggests that the association of LMP1 with lipid rafts is mediated through interactions with actin-associated proteins. PMID:25948738

Motivation: Membraneproteins (MPs) are important drug targets but knowledge of their exact structure is limited to relatively few examples. Existing homology-based structure prediction methods are designed for globular, water-soluble proteins. However, we are now beginning to have enough MP structures to justify the development of a homology-based approach specifically for them. Results: We present a MP-specific homology-based coordinate generation method, MEDELLER, which is optimized to build highly reliable core models. The method outperforms the popular structure prediction programme Modeller on MPs. The comparison of the two methods was performed on 616 target–template pairs of MPs, which were classified into four test sets by their sequence identity. Across all targets, MEDELLER gave an average backbone root mean square deviation (RMSD) of 2.62 Å versus 3.16 Å for Modeller. On our ‘easy’ test set, MEDELLER achieves an average accuracy of 0.93 Å backbone RMSD versus 1.56 Å for Modeller. Availability and Implementation: http://medeller.info; Implemented in Python, Bash and Perl CGI for use on Linux systems; Supplementary data are available at http://www.stats.ox.ac.uk/proteins/resources. Contact: kelm@stats.ox.ac.uk Supplementary information: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online. PMID:20926421

Gram-negative bacteria inhabit a broad range of ecological niches. For Escherichia coli, this includes river water as well as humans and animals where it can be both a commensal and a pathogen1–3. Intricate regulatory mechanisms ensure bacteria have the right complement of β-barrel outer membraneproteins (OMPs) to enable adaptation to a particular habitat4,5. Yet no mechanism is known for replacing OMPs in the outer membrane (OM), a biological enigma further confounded by the lack of an energy source and the high stability6 and abundance of OMPs5. Here, we uncover the process underpinning OMP turnover in E. coli and show it to be passive and binary in nature wherein old OMPs are displaced to the poles of growing cells as new OMPs take their place. Using fluorescent colicins as OMP-specific probes, in combination with ensemble and single-molecule fluorescence microscopy in vivo and in vitro, as well as molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, we established the mechanism for binary OMP partitioning. OMPs clustered to form islands of ~0.5 μm diameter where their diffusion was restricted by promiscuous interactions with other OMPs. OMP islands were distributed throughout the cell and contained the Bam complex, which catalyses the insertion of OMPs in the OM7,8. However, OMP biogenesis occurred as a gradient that was highest at mid-cell but largely absent at cell poles. The cumulative effect is to push old OMP islands towards the poles of growing cells, leading to a binary distribution when cells divide. Hence the OM of a Gram-negative bacterium is a spatially and temporally organised structure and this organisation lies at the heart of how OMPs are turned over in the membrane. PMID:26061769

A large number of modular domains that exhibit specific lipid binding properties are present in many membraneproteins involved in trafficking and signal transduction. These domains are present in either eukaryotic peripheral membrane or transmembrane proteins and are responsible for the non-covalent interactions of these proteins with membrane lipids. Here we report a profile Hidden Markov Model based method capable of detecting Membrane Binding Proteins (MBPs) from information encoded in their amino acid sequence, called MBPpred. The method identifies MBPs that contain one or more of the Membrane Binding Domains (MBDs) that have been described to date, and further classifies these proteins based on their position in respect to the membrane, either as peripheral or transmembrane. MBPpred is available online at http://bioinformatics.biol.uoa.gr/MBPpred. This method was applied in selected eukaryotic proteomes, in order to examine the characteristics they exhibit in various eukaryotic kingdoms and phyla. PMID:27048983

The plasma membrane of the mature guinea pig sperm is segregated into at least four domains of different composition. Previous studies have shown that some proteins localized within these domains are free to diffuse laterally, suggesting that barriers to protein diffusion are responsible for maintaining the nonuniform distribution of at least some surface proteins in mature sperm. The different membrane domains appear sequentially during sperm morphogenesis in the testis and during later passage through the epididymis. To determine when diffusion barriers become functional during sperm development, we examined the diffusion of two proteins that are expressed on the cell surface of developing spermatids and become segregated to different plasma membrane domains during the course of spermiogenesis. Both proteins exhibited rapid lateral diffusion throughout spermiogenesis, even after they become localized to specific regions of the surface membrane. These results suggest that barriers to membrane diffusion form concomitantly with membrane domains during spermiogenesis. Images FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2 PMID:9199813

Currently, most proteomic studies rely on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to detect and identify constituent peptides of enzymatically digested proteins obtained from various organisms and cell types. However, sample preparation methods for isolating membraneproteins typically involve the use of detergents, chaotropes, or reducing reagents that often interfere with electrospray ionization (ESI). To increase the identification of integral membraneproteins by LC-ESI-MS/MS, a sample preparation method combining carbonate extraction and surfactant-free organics solvent-assisted solubilization and proteolysis was developed and used to target the membrane subproteome of Deinococcus radiodurans. Out of 503 proteins identified, 135 were recognized as hydrophobic based on their positive grand average of hydropathicity values that covers 15% of the theoretical hydrophobic proteome. Using the PSORT algorithm, 268 identified proteins were recognized as integral membraneproteins covering 21% and 43% of the predicted integral cytoplasmic and outer membraneproteins, respectively. Of the integral cytoplasmic membraneproteins containing four or more predicted transmembrane domains (TMDs), 65% were identified by detecting at least one peptide spanning a TMD using LC-MS/MS. The extensive identification of highly hydrophobic proteins containing multiple TMDs confirms the efficacy of the described sample preparation protocol to isolate and solubilize integral membraneproteins and validates the method for large-scale analysis of bacterial membrane subproteomes using LC-ESI-MS/MS.

Eukaryotic organelles can interact with each other through stable junctions where the two membranes are kept in close apposition. The junction that connects the endoplasmic reticulum to the plasma membrane (ER-PM junction) is unique in providing a direct communication link between the ER and the PM. In a recently discovered signaling process, STIM (stromal-interacting molecule) proteins sense a drop in ER Ca2+ levels and directly activate Orai PM Ca2+ channels across the junction space. In an inverse process, a voltage-gated PM Ca2+ channel can directly open ER ryanodine-receptor Ca2+ channels in striated-muscle cells. Although ER-PM junctions were first described 50 years ago, their broad importance in Ca2+ signaling, as well as in the regulation of cholesterol and phosphatidylinositol lipid transfer, has only recently been realized. Here, we discuss research from different fields to provide a broad perspective on the structures and unique roles of ER-PM junctions in controlling signaling and metabolic processes. PMID:21548779

The thermodynamics of insertion of a protein in a membrane depends on the fine interplay between backbone and side-chain contributions interacting with the lipid environment. Using computer simulations, we probe how different descriptions of the backbone glycyl unit affect the thermodynamics of insertion of individual residues, dipeptides, and entire transmembrane helices. Due to the lack of reference data, we first introduce an efficient methodology to estimate atomistic potential of mean force (PMF) curves from a series of representative and uncorrelated coarse-grained (CG) snapshots. We find strong discrepancies between two CG models, Martini and PLUM, against reference atomistic PMFs and experiments. Atomistic simulations suggest a weak free energy of insertion between water and a POPC membrane for the glycyl unit, in overall agreement with experimental results despite severe assumptions in our calculations. We show that refining the backbone contribution in PLUM significantly improves the PMF of insertion of the WALP16 transmembrane peptide. An improper balance between the glycyl backbone and the attached side chain will lead to energetic artifacts, rationalizing Martini's overstabilization of WALP's adsorbed interfacial state. It illustrates difficulties associated with free-energy-based parametrizations of single-residue models, as the relevant free energy of partitioning used for force-field parametrization does not arise from the entire residue but rather the solvent-accessible chemical groups. PMID:27138459

The biogenesis of Escherichia coli inner membraneproteins (IMPs) is assisted by targeting and insertion factors such as the signal recognition particle (SRP), the Sec-translocon and YidC with translocation of (large) periplasmic domains energized by SecA and the proton motive force (pmf). The use of these factors and forces is probably primarily determined by specific structural features of an IMP. To analyze these features we have engineered a set of model IMPs based on endogenous E. coli IMPs known to follow distinct targeting and insertion pathways. The modified model IMPs were analyzed for altered routing using an in vivo protease mapping approach. The data suggest a facultative use of different combinations of factors.

This is the final report of a three-year, Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) project at the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL). The goal of this project was to apply neutron reflectometry and atomic force microscopy to the study of lipid membranes containing proteins. Standard sample preparation techniques were used to produce thin films of these materials appropriate for these techniques. However, these films were not stable, and a new sample preparation technique was required. Toward this goal, the authors have developed a new capability to produce large, freely suspended films of lipid multi-bilayers appropriate for these studies. This system includes a controlled temperature/humidity oven in which the films 5-cm x 5-cm are remotely drawn. The first neutron scattering experiments were then performed using this oven.

The AP-3 adaptor complex targets selected transmembrane proteins to lysosomes and lysosome-related organelles. We reconstituted its preferred interaction with liposomes containing the ADP ribosylation factor (ARF)-1 guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase), specific cargo tails, and phosphatidylinositol-3 phosphate, and then we performed a proteomic screen to identify new proteins supporting its sorting function. We identified ≈30 proteins belonging to three networks regulating either AP-3 coat assembly or septin polymerization or Rab7-dependent lysosomal transport. RNA interference shows that, among these proteins, the ARF-1 exchange factor brefeldin A-inhibited exchange factor 1, the ARF-1 GTPase-activating protein 1, the Cdc42-interacting Cdc42 effector protein 4, an effector of septin-polymerizing GTPases, and the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase IIIC3 are key components regulating the targeting of lysosomal membraneproteins to lysosomes in vivo. This analysis reveals that these proteins, together with AP-3, play an essential role in protein sorting at early endosomes, thereby regulating the integrity of these organelles. PMID:18287518

Eukaryotic cells are defined by extensive intracellular compartmentalization, which requires dynamic membrane remodeling. FER/Cip4 homology-Bin/amphiphysin/Rvs (F-BAR) domain family proteins form crescent-shaped dimers, which can bend membranes into buds and tubules of defined geometry and lipid composition. However, these proteins exhibit an unexplained wide diversity of membrane-deforming activities in vitro and functions in vivo. We find that the F-BAR domain of the neuronal protein Nervous Wreck (Nwk) has a novel higher-order structure and membrane-deforming activity that distinguishes it from previously described F-BAR proteins. The Nwk F-BAR domain assembles into zigzags, creating ridges and periodic scallops on membranes in vitro. This activity depends on structural determinants at the tips of the F-BAR dimer and on electrostatic interactions of the membrane with the F-BAR concave surface. In cells, Nwk-induced scallops can be extended by cytoskeletal forces to produce protrusions at the plasma membrane. Our results define a new F-BAR membrane-deforming activity and illustrate a molecular mechanism by which positively curved F-BAR domains can produce a variety of membrane curvatures. These findings expand the repertoire of F-BAR domain mediated membrane deformation and suggest that unique modes of higher-order assembly can define how these proteins sculpt the membrane. PMID:23761074

SUMMARY The β-barrels found in the outer membranes of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms constitute an important functional class of proteins. Here we present solid-state NMR spectra of the bacterial outer membraneprotein OmpX in oriented lipid bilayer membranes. We show that OmpX is folded in both glass-supported oriented lipid bilayers and in lipid bicelles that can be magnetically oriented with the membrane plane parallel or perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field. The presence of resolved peaks in these spectra demonstrates that OmpX undergoes rotational diffusion around an axis perpendicular to the membrane surface. A tightly hydrogen-bonded domain of OmpX resists exchange with D2O for days and is assigned to the transmembrane β-barrel, while peaks at isotropic resonance frequencies that disappear rapidly in D2O are assigned to the extracellular and periplasmic loops. The two-dimensional 1H/15N separated local field spectra of OmpX have several resolved peaks, and agree well with the spectra calculated from the crystal structure of OmpX rotated with the barrel axis nearly parallel (5° tilt) to the direction of the magnetic field. The data indicate that it will be possible to obtain site-specific resonance assignments and to determine the structure, tilt, and rotation of OmpX in membranes using the solid-state NMR methods that are currently being applied to α-helical membraneproteins. PMID:17916325

It is notoriously difficult to grow membraneprotein crystals and solve membraneprotein structures. Improved detection and screening of membraneprotein crystals are needed. We have shown here that second-order nonlinear optical imaging of chiral crystals based on second harmonic generation can provide sensitive and selective detection of two-dimensional protein crystalline arrays with sufficiently low background to enable crystal detection within the membranes of live cells. The method was validated using bacteriorhodopsin crystals generated in live Halobacterium halobium bacteria and confirmed by electron microscopy from the isolated crystals. Additional studies of alphavirus glycoproteins indicated the presence of localized crystalline domains associated with virus budding from mammalian cells. These results suggest that in vivo crystallization may provide a means for expediting membraneprotein structure determination for proteins exhibiting propensities for two-dimensional crystal formation. PMID:21190673

The interrogation of intact integral membraneproteins has long been a challenge for biological mass spectrometry. Here, we demonstrate the application of Top Down mass spectrometry to whole membraneproteins below 60 kDa with up to 8 transmembrane helices. Analysis of enriched mitochondrial membrane preparations from human cells yielded identification of 83 integral membraneproteins, along with 163 membrane-associated or soluble proteins, with a median q value of 3 × 10−10. An analysis of matching fragment ions demonstrated that significantly more fragment ions were found within transmembrane domains than would be expected based upon the observed protein sequence. Forty-six proteins from the complexes of oxidative phosphorylation were identified which exemplifies the increasing ability of Top Down Proteomics to provide extensive coverage in a biological network. PMID:23305238

The production of recombinant integral membraneproteins for structural and functional studies remains technically challenging due to their relatively low levels of expression. To address this problem, screening strategies have been developed to identify the optimal membrane sequence and expression host for protein production. A common approach is to genetically fuse the membraneprotein to a fluorescent reporter, typically Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) enabling expression levels, localization and detergent solubilisation to be assessed. Initially developed for screening the heterologous expression of bacterial membraneproteins in Escherichia coli, the method has been extended to eukaryotic hosts, including insect and mammalian cells. Overall, GFP-based expression screening has made a major impact on the number of membraneprotein structures that have been determined in the last few years. PMID:27553231

Membraneproteins present major challenges for structural biology. In particular, the production of suitable crystals for high-resolution structural determination continues to be a significant roadblock for developing an atomic-level understanding of these vital cellular systems. The use of detergents for extracting membraneproteins from the native membrane for either crystallization or reconstitution into model lipid membranes for further study is assumed to leave the protein with the proper fold with a belt of detergent encompassing the membrane-spanning segments of the structure. Small-angle X-ray scattering was used to probe the detergent-associated solution conformations of three membraneproteins, namely bacteriorhodopsin (BR), the Ste2p G-protein coupled receptor from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and the Escherichia coli porin OmpF. The results demonstrate that, contrary to the traditional model of a detergent-associated membraneprotein, the helical proteins BR and Ste2p are not in the expected, compact conformation and associated with detergent micelles, while the ?-barrel OmpF is indeed embedded in a disk-like micelle in a properly folded state. The comparison provided by the BR and Ste2p, both members of the 7TM family of helical membraneproteins, further suggests that the interhelical interactions between the transmembrane helices of the two proteins differ, such that BR, like other rhodopsins, can properly refold to crystallize, while Ste2p continues to prove resistant to crystallization from an initially detergent-associated state.

SPP (signal peptide peptidase) is an aspartyl intramembrane cleaving protease, which processes a subset of signal peptides, and is linked to the quality control of ER (endoplasmic reticulum) membraneproteins. We analysed SPP interactions with signal peptides and other membraneproteins by co-immunoprecipitation assays. We found that SPP interacts specifically and tightly with a large range of newly synthesized membraneproteins, including signal peptides, preproteins and misfolded membraneproteins, but not with all co-expressed type II membraneproteins. Signal peptides are trapped by the catalytically inactive SPP mutant SPPD/A. Preproteins and misfolded membraneproteins interact with both SPP and the SPPD/A mutant, and are not substrates for SPP-mediated intramembrane proteolysis. Proteins interacting with SPP are found in distinct complexes of different sizes. A signal peptide is mainly trapped in a 200 kDa SPP complex, whereas a preprotein is predominantly found in a 600 kDa SPP complex. A misfolded membraneprotein is detected in 200, 400 and 600 kDa SPP complexes. We conclude that SPP not only processes signal peptides, but also collects preproteins and misfolded membraneproteins that are destined for disposal. PMID:20196774

Together with the classical technics of biochemical analysis, immunological methods have led to differentiate, characterize the main red-cell membraneproteins and to better understand their organization. Immunological methods were particularly involved in the study of: 1) the membrane skeletal proteins, specially spectrin which localization in the membrane, structure and functions have been specified; 2) the principal integral proteins, glycophorin and protein band 3, the transmembrane orientation of which has been corroborated by topographic immunological mapping of their cytoplasmic domain; 3) the anchor chain protein, linking the membrane skeleton to the transmembrane proteins. These methods could further help to a better understanding of the membrane structure. Two kinds of work can be considered using monoclonal antibodies provided by the hybridoma method: 1) the purification by immunoabdsorbent technics, of quantitatively minor membrane