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Sufism

Islamic mysticism, often referred to as the internalization and intensification
of Islamic faith and practice. Sufis strive to constantly be aware of
God's presence, stressing contemplation over action, spiritual
development over legalism, and cultivation of the soul over social interaction.
In contrast to the academic exercises of theology and jurisprudence, which
depend on reason, Sufism depends on emotion and imagination in the
divine-human relationship. Sufism is unrelated to the
Sunni/Shii split, schools of jurisprudence, social class, gender,
geography, or family connections. It is closely associated with both popular
religion and orthodox expressions of Islamic teachings. It has been both opposed
and supported by the state.

Sufi rituals typically consist of the
recitation of prayers, poems, and selections from the Quran, and
methodical repetitions of divine names (dhikr) or Quranic formulas, such as the
shahadah. In communal gatherings, Sufis perform dhikr aloud, often with musical
accompaniment. The specific structure and format of the daily devotional
exercises and activities were set by each order's founder as a
special spiritual path. The founder was the spiritual guide for all followers,
who swore a special oath of obedience to him as their shaykh (teacher). The
record of the transmission of the ritual was preserved in a formal chain of
spiritual descent (silsilah) extending back to the founder and then usually to
Muhammad
. Leadership was passed down either within a family line or on the basis of
spiritual seniority within the tariqah (order). The typical initiation rite
transmits a blessing (barakah) to the disciple, transforming his or her
soul.

Tariqahs had become major social organizations by the twelfth
century and enjoyed mass popularity by the fifteenth or sixteenth century.
Orders range in form from simple preservation of the tariqah as a set of
devotional exercises to vast interregional organizations with carefully defined
structures. Historically, Sufi orders have facilitated interregional
interaction, education, and travel, and have supported reform, spiritual
revival, and missionary activities. They have also provided organization and
support for movements resisting foreign rule throughout the Islamic
world.

Written expressions of Sufism include hagiographies, poetry, and
literature describing the stations (maqamat) of spiritual ascent on the path to
God and their accompanying psychological transformations. Sufis use terms such
as sukr (intoxication) and sahu (sobriety) to describe their
experiences. “Intoxicated” expressions of Sufism
predominate in Sufi poetry, expressing joy and ecstacy.
“Sober” Sufism offers methodical, specialized discussions
of ritual, behavior, morality, Quranic exegesis, and the nature of God and the
world. Intoxicated Sufism is popular among Muslims of all classes and
persuasions. Sober Sufism tends to appeal to intellectuals.

Some modern
observers have proclaimed the effective end of the Sufi orders, claiming that
mystical religious experience and modernity are incompatible. Politically minded
Muslims have made Sufism the scapegoat for Islam's alleged
backwardness in comparison with the West, claiming that Sufism, as the religion
of the common people, embodied superstition and un-Islamic elements
adopted from local cultures. Eradication of Sufism was believed necessary in
order for Islam to reclaim its birthright, including modern science and
technology. However, by the end of the twentieth century, it was clear that Sufi
orders remained a dynamic part of the religious life of the Islamic world and
were active in the expansion of Islam in both rural areas and modern societies
in the West and among the modernized intellectual elites within the Muslim
world. Sufi organizations provide social cohesion in an increasingly mobile
society, emphasizing communal activities such as dhikr. They have helped to
shape responses to the challenges to Muslim faith in the modern era by providing
organizational bases for activist reformist programs and modern-style
political parties. They have assisted in developing modernization programs and
providing a framework for Islamic communal identity in the face of official
efforts to suppress religion. Popular participation in Sufi gatherings and
support for various types of tariqahs remain high throughout the Muslim world.
Estimates of membership in Sufi orders in Egypt alone are in the millions, in
contrast to the hundreds or thousands in the more militant Islamic revivalist
organizations.