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Dynamical Masses in Luminous Infrared GalaxiesWe have studied the dynamics and masses of a sample of 10 nearbyluminous and ultraluminous infrared galaxies (LIRGs and ULIRGs,respectively) using 2.3 μm 12CO-absorption linespectroscopy and near-infrared H- and Ks-band imaging. Bycombining velocity dispersions derived from the spectroscopy, disk scalelengths obtained from the imaging, and a set of likely model densityprofiles, we calculate dynamical masses for each LIRG. For the majorityof the sample, it is difficult to reconcile our mass estimates with thelarge amounts of gas derived from millimeter observations and from astandard conversion between 12CO emission and H2mass. Our results imply that LIRGs do not have huge amounts of moleculargas (1010-1011 Msolar) at their centersand support previous indications that the standard conversion of12CO to H2 probably overestimates the gas massesand cannot be used in these environments. This in turn suggests muchmore modest levels of extinction in the near-infrared for LIRGs thanpreviously predicted (AV~10-20 vs. AV~100-1000).The lower gas mass estimates indicated by our observations imply thatthe star formation efficiency in these systems is very high and istriggered by cloud-cloud collisions, shocks, and winds rather than bygravitational instabilities in circumnuclear gas disks.Observations reported here were obtained at the MMT Observatory, a jointfacility of the University of Arizona and the Smithsonian Institution.

Magnetic Fields in Starburst Galaxies and the Origin of the FIR-Radio CorrelationWe estimate minimum energy magnetic fields (Bmin) for asample of galaxies with measured gas surface densities, spanning morethan four orders of magnitude in surface density, from normal spirals toluminous starbursts. We show that the ratio of the minimum energymagnetic pressure to the total pressure in the ISM decreasessubstantially with increasing surface density. For the ultraluminousinfrared galaxy Arp 220, this ratio is ~10-4. Therefore, ifthe minimum energy estimate is applicable, magnetic fields in starburstsare dynamically weak compared to gravity, in contrast to normalstar-forming spiral galaxies. We argue, however, that rapid cooling ofrelativistic electrons in starbursts invalidates the minimum energyestimate. We assess a number of independent constraints on the magneticfield strength in starburst galaxies. In particular, we argue that theexistence of the FIR-radio correlation implies that the synchrotroncooling timescale for cosmic-ray electrons is much shorter than theirescape time from the galactic disk; this in turn implies that the truemagnetic field in starbursts is significantly larger thanBmin. The strongest argument against such large fields isthat one might expect starbursts to have steep radio spectra indicativeof strong synchrotron cooling, which is not observed. However, we showthat ionization and bremsstrahlung losses can flatten the nonthermalspectra of starburst galaxies even in the presence of rapid cooling,providing much better agreement with observed spectra. We furtherdemonstrate that ionization and bremsstrahlung losses are likely to beimportant in shaping the radio spectra of most starbursts at GHzfrequencies, thereby preserving the linearity of the FIR-radiocorrelation. We thus conclude that magnetic fields in starbursts aresignificantly larger than Bmin. We highlight severalobservations that can test this conclusion.

The relation between mergers and AGN activity. Results from radio galaxy and luminous infrared galaxy studiesThere is morphological evidence that the activity in powerful radiogalaxies could be triggered by mergers and galaxy interactions. However,nothing is known about the timescales, order of events, and the type ofinteraction involved. It is not yet known whether there exists anevolutionary link between radio galaxies and other merger systems suchas very luminous and ultraluminous infrared galaxies (VLIRGs andULIRGs). Here, we report preliminary results obtained from the analysisof near-ultraviolet and optical spectroscopic observations of samples ofRadio Galaxies and VLIRGs-ULIRGs to investigate, through age-dating oftheir young stellar population, whether an evolutionary link existsbetween VLIRGs/ULIRGs-Radio Galaxies-normal elliptical galaxies. Theseresults will help to understand the genesis events that lead to theformation of radio jet and quasar activity, and they will allow us toplace radio galaxies in the context of hierarchical evolution models forthe population of giant elliptical galaxies.

UBVRI Light Curves of 44 Type Ia SupernovaeWe present UBVRI photometry of 44 Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) observedfrom 1997 to 2001 as part of a continuing monitoring campaign at theFred Lawrence Whipple Observatory of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center forAstrophysics. The data set comprises 2190 observations and is thelargest homogeneously observed and reduced sample of SNe Ia to date,nearly doubling the number of well-observed, nearby SNe Ia withpublished multicolor CCD light curves. The large sample of U-bandphotometry is a unique addition, with important connections to SNe Iaobserved at high redshift. The decline rate of SN Ia U-band light curvescorrelates well with the decline rate in other bands, as does the U-Bcolor at maximum light. However, the U-band peak magnitudes show anincreased dispersion relative to other bands even after accounting forextinction and decline rate, amounting to an additional ~40% intrinsicscatter compared to the B band.

A Survey of Merger Remnants. II. The Emerging Kinematic and Photometric CorrelationsThis paper is the second in a series exploring the properties of 51optically selected, single-nuclei merger remnants. Spectroscopic datahave been obtained for a subsample of 38 mergers and combined withpreviously obtained infrared photometry to test whether mergers exhibitthe same correlations as elliptical galaxies among parameters such asstellar luminosity and distribution, central stellar velocity dispersion(σ0), and metallicity. Paramount to the study is totest whether mergers lie on the fundamental plane. Measurements ofσ0 have been made using the Ca triplet absorption lineat 8500 Å for all 38 mergers in the subsample. Additionalmeasurements of σ0 were made for two of the mergers inthe subsample using the CO absorption line at 2.29 μm. The resultsindicate that mergers show a strong correlation among the parameters ofthe fundamental plane but fail to show a strong correlation betweenσ0 and metallicity (Mg2). In contrast toearlier studies, the σ0 values of the mergers areconsistent with objects that lie somewhere between intermediate-mass andluminous giant elliptical galaxies. However, the discrepancies withearlier studies appear to correlate with whether the Ca triplet or COabsorption lines are used to derive σ0, with the latteralmost always producing smaller values. Finally, the photometric andkinematic data are used to demonstrate for the first time that thecentral phase-space densities of mergers are equivalent to those inelliptical galaxies. This resolves a long-standing criticism of themerger hypothesis.Some of the data presented herein were obtained at the W. M. KeckObservatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among theCalifornia Institute of Technology, the University of California, andthe National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Observatory wasmade possible by the generous financial support of the W. M. KeckFoundation.

SINFONI adaptive optics integral field spectroscopy of the Circinus GalaxyAims.We investigate the star formation activity and the gas and stellardynamics on scales of a few parsecs in the nucleus of the CircinusGalaxy. Methods: .Using the adaptive optics near infrared integralfield spectrometer SINFONI on the VLT, we have obtained observations ofthe Circinus galaxy on scales of a few parsecs and at a spectralresolution of 70 km s-1 FWHM. The physical properties of thenucleus are analyzed by means of line and velocity maps extracted fromthe SINFONI datacube. Starburst models are constrained using theBrγ flux, stellar continuum (as traced via the CO absorptionbandheads longward of 2.3 μm), and radio continuum. Results:.The similarity of the morphologies of the H2 1-0 S(1) 2.12 μm andBrγ 2.17 μm lines to the stellar continuum and also theirkinematics, suggest a common origin in star formation. Within 8 pc ofthe AGN we find there has been a recent starburst in the last 100 Myr,which currently accounts for 1.4% of the galaxy's bolometric luminosity.The similarity of the spatial scales over which the stars and gas existindicates that this star formation is occuring within the torus; andcomparison of the gas column density through the torus to the maximumpossible optical depth to the stars implies the torus is a clumpymedium. The coronal lines show asymmetric profiles with a spatiallycompact narrow component and a spatially extended blue wing. Thesecharacteristics are consistent with some of the emission arising inclouds gravitationally bound to the AGN, and some outflowing incloudlets which have been eroded away from the bound clouds.

Infrared mergers and infrared quasi-stellar objects with galactic winds - III. Mrk 231: an exploding young quasi-stellar object with composite outflow/broad absorption lines (and multiple expanding superbubbles)We present a study of outflow (OF) and broad absorption line (BAL)systems in Mrk 231, and in similar infrared (IR) quasi-stellar objects(QSOs). This study is based mainly on one-dimensional andtwo-dimensional spectroscopy (obtained at La Palma/William HerschelTelescope, Hubble Space Telescope, International Ultraviolet Explorer,European Southern Observatory/New Technology Telescope, Kitt PeakNational Observatory, Apache Point Observatory and Complejo AstronomicoEl Leoncito observatories) plus Hubble Space Telescope images. For Mrk231, we report evidence that the extreme nuclear OF process has at leastthree main components on different scales, which are probably associatedwith: (i) the radio jet, at parsec scale; (ii) the extreme starburst atparsec and kiloparsec scale. This OF has generated at least fourconcentric expanding superbubbles and the BAL systems.Specifically, inside and very close to the nucleus the two-dimensionalspectra show the presence of an OF emission bump in the blendHα+[NII], with a peak at the same velocity of the main BAL-Isystem (VEjectionBAL-I~-4700 km s-1). This bumpwas more clearly detected in the area located at 0.6-1.5 arcsec(490-1220 pc), to the south-west of the nucleus core, showing a strongand broad peak. In addition, in the same direction [at position angle(PA) ~-120°, i.e. close to the PA of the small-scale radio jet] at1.7-2.5 arcsec, we also detected multiple narrow emission-linecomponents, with `greatly' enhanced [NII]/Hα ratio (very similarto the spectra of jets bow shocks). These results suggest that the BAL-Isystem is generated in OF clouds associated with the parsec-scale jet.The Hubble Space Telescope images show four (or possibly five) nuclearsuperbubbles or shells with radii r~ 2.9, 1.5, 1.0, 0.6 and 0.2 kpc. Forthese bubbles, the two-dimensional Hα velocity field map andtwo-dimensional spectra show the following. (i) At the border of themore extended bubble (S1), a clear expansion of the shell withblueshifted velocities (with circular shape and at a radius r~ 5.0arcsec). This bubble shows a rupture arc - to the south - suggestingthat the bubble is in the blowout phase. The axis of this rupture orejection (at PA ~ 00°) is coincident with the axis of theintermediate and large-scale structures detected at radio wavelengths.(ii) In addition, in the three more external bubbles (S1, S2, S3), thetwo-dimensional William Herschel Telescope spectra show multipleemission-line components with OF velocities, of S1, S2 and S3 =[-(650 - 420) +/- 30], [-500+/- 30] and [-230 +/- 30] km s-1. (iii) In the wholecircumnuclear region (1.8 < r < 5 arcsec), the [NII]/Hα and[SII]/Hα narrow emission-line ratios show high values (>0.8),which are consistent with low-ionization nuclear emission-line region/OFprocesses associated with fast velocity shocks. Therefore, we suggestthat these giant bubbles are associated with the large-scale nuclear OFcomponent, which is generated - at least in part - by the extremenuclear starburst: giant supernova/hypernova explosions.The variability of the short-lived BAL-III NaI D system was studied,covering almost all the period in which this system appeared (between~1984 and 2004). We have found that the BAL-III light curve is clearlyasymmetric with a steep increase, a clear maximum and an exponentialfall (similar to the shape of a supernova light curve). The origin ofthis BAL-III system is discussed, mainly in the framework of an extremeexplosive event, probably associated with giant supernova/hypernovaexplosions.Finally, the IR colour diagram and the ultraviolet BAL systems of IR +GW/OF + FeII QSOs are analysed. This study shows two new BAL IR QSOs andsuggests/confirms that these objects could be nearby young BAL QSOs,similar to those detected recently at z~ 6.0. We propose that the phaseof young QSOs is associated with accretion of a large amount of gas (bythe supermassive black hole) + extreme starbursts + extreme compositeOFs/BALs.

Outflows in Infrared-Luminous Starbursts at z < 0.5. II. Analysis and Discussion1,We have performed an absorption-line survey of outflowing gas in 78starburst-dominated, infrared-luminous galaxies. This is the largeststudy of superwinds at z~10-100 Msolar yr-1), luminosities, andmasses. This saturation is due to a lack of gas remaining in the wind'spath, a common neutral gas terminal velocity, and/or a decrease in theefficiency of thermalization of the supernovae energy. It means thatmass entrainment efficiency, rather than remaining constant, declines ingalaxies with SFR>10 Msolar yr-1 andMK~1. Thepowerful, ubiquitous winds we observe in these galaxies imply thatsuperwinds in massive galaxies at redshifts above unity play animportant role in the evolution of galaxies and the intergalacticmedium.Some of the observations reported here were obtained at the MMTObservatory, which is a joint facility of the Smithsonian Institutionand the University of Arizona.Some of the observations reported here were obtained at the Kitt PeakNational Observatory, National Optical Astronomy Observatory, which isoperated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy,Inc. (AURA), under cooperative agreement with the National ScienceFoundation.

Outflows in Infrared-Luminous Starbursts at z < 0.5. I. Sample, Na I D Spectra, and Profile Fitting1,We have conducted a spectroscopic survey of 78 starburstinginfrared-luminous galaxies at redshifts up to z=0.5. We usemoderate-resolution spectroscopy of the Na I D interstellar absorptionfeature to directly probe the neutral phase of outflowing gas in thesegalaxies. Over half of our sample are ultraluminous infrared galaxiesthat are classified as starbursts; the rest have infrared luminositiesin the range log(LIR/Lsolar)=10.2-12.0. The sampleselection, observations, and data reduction are described here. Theabsorption-line spectra of each galaxy are presented. We also discussthe theory behind absorption-line fitting in the case of a partiallycovered, blended absorption doublet observed at moderate-to-highresolution, a topic neglected in the literature. A detailed analysis ofthese data is presented in a companion paper.Some of the observations reported here were obtained at the MMTObservatory, a joint facility of the Smithsonian Institution and theUniversity of Arizona.Some of the observations reported here were obtained at the Kitt PeakNational Observatory, National Optical Astronomy Observatory, which isoperated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy,Inc. (AURA), under cooperative agreement with the National ScienceFoundation.

Reddening, Absorption, and Decline Rate Corrections for a Complete Sample of Type Ia Supernovae Leading to a Fully Corrected Hubble Diagram to v < 30,000 km s-1Photometric (BVI) and redshift data corrected for streaming motions arecompiled for 111 ``Branch-normal,'' four 1991T-like, seven 1991bg-like,and two unusual supernovae of Type Ia (SNe Ia). Color excessesE(B-V)host of normal SNe Ia, due to the absorption of thehost galaxy, are derived by three independent methods, giving excellentagreement leading to the intrinsic colors at maximum of(B-V)00=-0.024+/-0.010 and (V-I)00=-0.265+/-0.016if normalized to a common decline rate of Δm15=1.1. Thestrong correlation between redshift absolute magnitudes (based on anarbitrary Hubble constant of H0=60 km s-1Mpc-1), corrected only for the extrinsic Galactic absorption,and the derived E(B-V)host color excesses leads to thewell-determined yet abnormal absorption-to-reddening ratios ofRBVI=3.65+/-0.16, 2.65+/-0.15, and 1.35+/-0.21.Comparison with the canonical Galactic values of 4.1, 3.1, and 1.8forces the conclusion that the law of interstellar absorption in thepath length to the SN in the host galaxy is different from the localGalactic law, a result consistent with earlier conclusions by others.Improved correlations of the fully corrected absolute magnitudes (on thesame arbitrary Hubble constant zero point) with host galaxymorphological type, decline rate, and intrinsic color are derived. Werecover the result that SNe Ia in E/S0 galaxies are ~0.3 mag fainterthan in spiral galaxies for possible reasons discussed in the text. Thenew decline rate corrections to absolute magnitudes are smaller thanthose by some authors for reasons explained in the text. The fourspectroscopically peculiar 1991T-type SNe are significantly overluminousas compared to Branch-normal SNe Ia. The overluminosity of the seven1999aa-like SNe is less pronounced. The seven 1991bg types in the sampleconstitute a separate class of SNe Ia, averaging in B 2 mag fainter thanthe normal Ia. New Hubble diagrams in B, V, and I are derived out to~30,000 km s-1 using the fully corrected magnitudes andvelocities, corrected for streaming motions. Nine solutions for theintercept magnitudes in these diagrams show extreme stability at the0.02 mag level using various subsamples of the data for both low andhigh extinctions in the sample, proving the validity of the correctionsfor host galaxy absorption. We shall use the same precepts for fullycorrecting SN magnitudes for the luminosity recalibration of SNe Ia inthe forthcoming final review of our Hubble Space Telescope Cepheid-SNexperiment for the Hubble constant.

Mid-infrared luminosity as an indicator of the total infrared luminosity of galaxiesThe infrared (IR) emission plays a crucial role in understanding thestar formation in galaxies hidden by dust. We first examined fourestimators of the IR luminosity of galaxies, LFIR [CITE],LTIR [CITE], revised version of LTIR [CITE] (wedenote LTIR2), and LIR [CITE] by using theobserved SEDs of well-known galaxies. We found that LIRprovides excellent estimates of the total IR luminosity for a variety ofgalaxy SEDs. The performance of LTIR2 was also found to bevery good. Using LIR, we then statistically analyzed the IRASPSCz galaxy sample [CITE] and found useful formulae relating the MIRmonochromatic luminosities [ L(12 μm) and L(25 μm)] andLIR. For this purpose we constructed a subsample of 1420galaxies with all four IRAS band (12, 25, 60, and 100 μm) fluxdensities. We found linear relations between LIR and MIRluminosities, L(12 μm) and L(25 μm). The prediction error with a95% confidence level is a factor of 4-5. Hence, these formulae areuseful for the estimation of the total IR luminosity only from 12 μmor 25 μm observations. We further tried to make an“interpolation” formula for galaxies at 0

Infrared mergers and infrared quasi-stellar objects with galactic winds - II. NGC5514: two extranuclear starbursts with LINER properties and a supergiant bubble in the rupture phaseA study of the morphology, kinematics and ionization structure of theinfrared (IR) merger NGC5514 is presented. This study is based mainly onINTEGRAL two-dimensional (2D) spectroscopy (obtained at the 4.2-mWilliam Herschel Telescope, WHT), plus optical and near-IR images. Clearevidence of two extranuclear starbursts with young outflows (OFs) andlow-ionization nuclear emission region (LINER) activity are reported.One of these OFs has generated a supergiant bubble and the other isassociated with an extended complex of HII regions.In the galactic bubble it was found that: (i) the [SII], Hα,[NII], [OI] and [OIII] emission-line maps show a bubble with a distortedellipsoidal shape, with major and minor axes of ~6.5 kpc [13.6 arcsec;at position angle (PA) = 120°+/- 10°] and ~4.5 kpc (9.6 arcsec);(ii) these maps depict four main knots, a very strong one and threeothers more compact and located at the border; (iii) the centre of thebubble is located at ~4.1 kpc (8.5 arcsec) to the west of the mainnucleus; (iv) the WHT spectra show, in this area, two strong components:blue and red emission-line systems, probably associated with emissionfrom the near and far side of the external shell, for which the mean OFvelocities were measured as VOFblue= (-320 +/- 20)kms-1 and VOFred= (+265 +/- 25) kms-1(v) these two components depict LINER properties, probably associatedwith large-scale OF + shocks; (vi) at the east border, the kinematics ofthe ionized gas and the [SII] emission-line maps show an extendedejection of 4 kpc aligned with the PA of the major axis; (vii) threeother ejections were found, two of them perpendicular to the extendedone. Each ejection starts in one of the knots. These results suggestthat the bubble is in the rupture phase.For the complex of giant HII regions it was found that: (i) theHα, [NII] and [SII] emission-line maps show a compact strongemission area (peaking at ~810 pc ~1.7 arcsec, to the east of the secondnucleus) and faint extended emission with an elongated shape, and majorand minor axes of ~5.1 kpc (10.8 arcsec; at PA ~20°) and ~2.9 kpc(6.0 arcsec); (ii) inside this complex, the spectra show HII region andtransition LINER/HII characteristics; (iii) at the border of thisextended HII area the spectra have outflow components and LINERproperties.INTEGRAL 2D [NII], Hα, [SII] and [OIII] velocity fields (VFs) arepresented. These VF maps show results consistent with an expansion ofthe bubble, plus four ejections of ionized gas. The U, B, V, I, J, H andKS images show a pre-merger morphology, from which faintfilaments of emission emerge, centred on the bubble. The ionizationstructure and the physical conditions were analysed using the following2D emission-line ratio and width maps: [SII]/Hα, [NII]/Hα,[OI]/Hα, [OIII]/Hβ and FWHM-[NII]. In the region of thebubble, 100 per cent of the [NII]/Hα and [SII]/Hα ratiosshow very high values (>0.8) consistent with LINER processesassociated with high-velocity shocks. These new results support theprevious proposition that extreme nuclear and `extranuclear' starburstswith galactic winds + shocks play an important role in the evolution ofIR mergers/quasi-stellar objects.

Cold and warm dust along a merging galaxy sequenceWe investigate the cold and warm dust properties during galaxyinteractions using a merging galaxy sample ordered into a chronologicalsequence from pre- to post-mergers. Our sample comprises a total of 29merging systems selected to have far-infrared and submillimetreobservations. The submillimetre data are mainly culled from theliterature, while for five galaxies (NGC 3597, 3690, 6090, 6670 and7252) the submillimetre observations are presented here for the firsttime. We use the 100- to 850-μm flux density ratio,f100/f850, as a proxy for the mass fraction of thewarm and cold dust in these systems. We find evidence for an increase inf100/f850 along the merging sequence from early toadvanced mergers, and interpret this trend as an increase of the warmrelative to the cold dust mass. We argue that the two key parametersaffecting the f100/f850 flux ratio is the starformation rate and the dust content of individual systems relative tothe stars. Using a sophisticated model for the absorption andre-emission of the stellar ultraviolet radiation by dust, we show thatthese parameters can indeed explain both the increase and the observedscatter in f100/f850 along the merging galaxysequence. We also discuss our results under the hypothesis thatelliptical galaxies are formed via disc galaxy mergers.

The nearest extreme starburst: bubbles, young star clusters and outflow in the merger NGC 3256We have studied the extreme starburst in the infrared merger NGC 3256.We detect four galactic bubbles (using ESO New Technology Telescope andHubble Space Telescope WFPC2 Hα images). These shells would beassociated with previous supernova explosions.The first analysis of the spatial distribution of young star clustercandidates shows that more than 90 per cent of them are located in acomplex starburst structure, including some of the bubble walls, threenuclei and three blue asymmetrical spiral arms.We have made a kinematic study of the ionized gas in the core of themain optical nucleus, performed with HST STIS spectra. The shape of therotation curve and the emission-line profile can be explained by thepresence in the core of young star clusters with outflow. Anylow-luminosity active galactic nucleus associated with this core wouldhave a mass less than 107 Msolar. It is alsoprobable that the compact X-ray and radio emission of ULX(7)N - thesource coincident with the main optical nucleus - is the result of a fewrecent supernova remnants.

XMM-Newton observations of the merger-remnant galaxies NGC 3921 and 7252Using the high sensitivity of XMM-Newton, we have studied the X-rayemission of the two prototypical late-stage merger remnants, NGC 3921and 7252. In the case of NGC 7252, this is complemented by archivalChandra data. We investigate the nature of the discrete X-ray pointsource populations and the hot diffuse gas components in these twogalaxies, and compare them in the light of their different merger agesand histories.We detect three candidate ultraluminous X-ray point sources (ULXs) inNGC 3921 and at least six in NGC 7252, for which we have high spatialresolution Chandra data. These have luminosities ranging from ~1.4× 1039-1040 erg s-1 (forH0= 75 km s-1 Mpc-1). We expect theseULXs to be high-mass X-ray binaries, associated with the recent starformation in these two galaxies.Extended hot gas is observed in both galaxies. We have sufficient countsin the XMM-Newton data to fit two-component hot plasma models to theirX-ray spectra, and estimate the X-ray luminosities of the hot diffusegas components to be 2.75 × 1040 erg s-1 and2.09 × 1040 erg s-1 in NGC 3921 and 7252,respectively. These luminosities are low compared with the luminositiesobserved in typical mature elliptical galaxies (LX~1041-1042 erg s-1), into which thesemerger remnants are expected to evolve. We do not see evidence that theX-ray haloes of these galaxies are currently being regenerated to themasses and luminosities seen in typical elliptical galaxies. The mass ofatomic gas available to fall back into the main bodies of these galaxiesand shock-heat to X-ray temperatures is insufficient for this to be thesole halo regeneration mechanism. We conclude that halo regeneration ismost likely a long-term (>10 Gyr) process, occurring predominantlyvia mass loss from evolving stars, in a subsonic outflow stagecommencing ~2 Gyr after the merging event.

Principal component analysis of International Ultraviolet Explorer galaxy spectraWe analyse the UV spectral energy distribution of a sample of normalgalaxies listed in the International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) NewlyExtracted Spectra (INES) Guide No. 2 - Normal Galaxies using a principalcomponent analysis. The sample consists of the IUE short-wavelength (SW)spectra of the central regions of 118 galaxies, where the IUE apertureincluded more than 1 per cent of the galaxy size. The principalcomponents are associated with the main components observed in theultraviolet (UV) spectra of galaxies. The first component, accountingfor the largest source of diversity, may be associated with the UVcontinuum emission. The second component represents the UV contributionof an underlying evolved stellar population. The third component issensitive to the amount of activity in the central regions of galaxiesand measures the strength of star-formation events.In all the samples analysed here, the principal component representativeof star-forming activity accounts for a significant percentage of thevariance. The fractional contribution to the spectral energydistribution (SED) by the evolved stars and by the young population aresimilar.Projecting the SEDs on to their eigenspectra, we find that none of thecoefficients of the principal components can outline an internalcorrelation or can correlate with the optical morphological types. In asubsample of 43 galaxies, consisting of almost only compact and BCDgalaxies, the third principal component defines a sequence related tothe degree of starburst activity of the galaxy.

Infrared mergers and infrared quasi-stellar objects with galactic winds - I. NGC 2623: nuclear outflow in a proto-elliptical candidateWe present the first results of a study of the morphology, kinematicsand ionization structure of infrared (IR) mergers/quasi-stellar objects(QSOs) with galactic winds. This study is based mainly on INTEGRALtwo-dimensional (2D) fibre spectroscopy [obtained on the 4.2-m WilliamHerschel Telescope (WHT), La Palma] combined with high-resolution HubbleSpace Telescope (HST) observations.Clear evidence of outflow (OF) from the nucleus of the luminous infraredmerger NGC 2623 is reported. Specifically: (i) the INTEGRAL 2D Hα,[N II] and [S II] emission line maps depict a cone-shaped extendednebula that emerges from the nucleus, with an aperture angle θ=100°+/- 5° and reaching a distance of ~3.2 kpc from the nucleus;(ii) inside the nebula and in the central region, all the emission-lineWHT spectra show low velocity blue/OF components, with= (-405 +/- 35) km s-1 and (iii) in theOF nebula, the emission line ratios are consistent with ionization by adusty nuclear starburst plus shock heating. These results are consistentwith a galactic wind process powered mainly by a nuclear starburst.The INTEGRAL 2D Hα and [N II]λ6583 velocity field (VF) mapsfor the main body of NGC 2623 (16.4 × 12.3 arcsec2;~5.9 × 4.4 kpc2) show outflow motion in the nuclear andthe Hα+[N II] nebular regions superposed on a general circularmotion. This circular motion prevails inside r~ 1.5 kpc, and for largerradii we detected non-circular motions. In the central region, theaverage observed rotation curve was fitted with a model corresponding toa single-component Plummer spherical potential. After the subtraction ofthe Plummer and an axisymmetric polynomial model, the residues of the VFin both cases indicate ejection as the origin of the cone nebula. Thefitted Plummer model implies a total mass of MT= 1.5 ×1010 Msolar and a spherical distribution of matterin the central region.The high-resolution HST WFPC2 F555W (~V) and F814W (~I) broad-bandimages display a strongly obscured nucleus in the apex of a smallnuclear cone, an asymmetrical clumpy spiral arm located to the east ofthe nucleus, a ring plus an arc to the west and several large-scalefilaments of dust. A good r1/4-law fit to the HST WFPC2 Iband luminosity profile was found.In 85 per cent of the INTEGRAL 2D field we measure very high values(>1) of the [N II]λ6583/Hα and [S II]λ6717 +31/Hα ratios, suggesting that shocks are important on large scales(in almost all the main body). Furthermore, the 2D full width at halfmaximum FWHM-[N II] and VF residual maps show a good spatialcorrelation, suggesting that the OF shocks ionize the gas and broadenthe emission lines. However, close to the nucleus, the OF nebula showslow values of the [N II]λ6583/Hα ratio (in the range0.1-0.4), indicating that photoionization by a dusty nuclear starburstalso plays a significant role in the excitation of the nebula. Thecharacteristics of the nucleus of NGC 2623 could be associated with astarburst-related LINER.The properties found in IR mergers/QSOs with galactic winds mainlyunderline the importance of studying the possible link between IRmergers with starburst + galactic wind -> IR QSOs with compositenature + galactic wind, and elliptical galaxies.

HST Observations of the Toomre Sequence of Merging GalaxiesWe discuss our ongoing multi-instrument HST investigation of the nuclearregions of the 11 interacting and merging galaxies in the ToomreSequence. We are studying the nuclear kinematics using STIS (G750M)spectra, the nuclear stellar populations using STIS (G430L) spectra, andthe nuclear morphology using NICMOS and WFPC2 images. The results willprovide new insight into the physical processes that operate duringgalaxy interactions.

IR Mergers/QSOs with Galactic WindsWe report, as a part of a long-term study of IR mergers and IR QSOs,detailed spectroscopic evidences for outflow (OF) features in nearby IRmergers/QSOs (with low and extreme velocity OF, LVOF and EVOF,respectively). We found EVOF in IRAS 01003-2238, 11119+3257, 13218+0552,14394+5332, 15130-1958 and 15462-0450. The low velocity OF componentswere detected mainly in objects with starburst processes. Meanwhile theEVOF were found mainly in objects with obscured IR QSOs plus strongstarbursts. HST images of IR+BAL+Fe II QSOs show in practically all ofthese objects ``arc or shell" features probably associated to galacticwinds (GW) and/or merger processes. We present also new results of astudy of the morphology, kinematics and ionized structure of IRmergers/QSOs with GW. This new study is based mainly in INTEGRALtwo-dimensional (2D) fibre spectroscopy (obtained at La Palma 4.2 mtelescope).

Studies of Extragalactic Formaldehyde and Radio Recombination LinesWe present the most sensitive and extensive survey yet performed ofextragalactic H2CO 6 cm (4.829 GHz) emission/absorption.Sixty-two sources were observed with the C-band system of the AreciboTelescope to a 1 σ rms noise level of ~0.3 mJy. We report a newdetection of H2CO 6 cm absorption toward NGC 520 and theconfirmation of H2CO 6 cm absorption toward several sources.We report confirmation of H2CO 6 cm emission toward the OHmegamasers Arp 220, IC 860, and IRAS 15107+0724. At present these arethe only extragalactic H2CO 6 cm emitters independentlyconfirmed. A characterization of the properties of formaldehydeabsorbers and emitters based on infrared properties of the galaxies isdiscussed. We also conducted a simultaneous survey of the H110αhydrogen recombination line toward a sample of 53 objects. We report thedetection of H110α toward the giant extragalactic H II region NGC604 in M33.

A Deep K-Band Photometric Survey of Merger RemnantsWe present K-band photometry for 51 candidate merger remnants to assessthe viability of whether spiral-spiral mergers can produce bona fideelliptical galaxies. Using both the de Vaucouleurs r1/4 andSérsic r1/n fitting laws, it is found that the stellarcomponent in a majority of the galaxies in the sample has undergoneviolent relaxation. However, the sample shows evidence for incompletephase mixing. The analysis also indicates the presence of ``excesslight'' in the surface brightness profiles of nearly one-third of themerger remnants. Circumstantial evidence suggests that this is due tothe effects of a starburst induced by the dissipative collapse of thegas. The integrated light of the galaxies also shows that mergers canmake L* elliptical galaxies, in contrast to earlier infrared studies.The isophotal shapes and related structural parameters are alsodiscussed, including the fact that 70% of the sample show evidence fordisky isophotes. The data and results presented are part of a largerphotometric and spectroscopic campaign to thoroughly investigate a largesample of mergers in the local universe.

A Study of the Distribution of Star-forming Regions in Luminous Infrared Galaxies by Means of Hα Imaging ObservationsWe performed Hα imaging observations of 22 luminous infraredgalaxies to investigate how the distribution of star-forming regions inthese galaxies is related to galaxy interactions. Based on correlationdiagrams between Hα flux and continuum emission for individualgalaxies, a sequence for the distribution of star-forming regions wasfound: very compact (~100 pc) nuclear starbursts with almost nostar-forming activity in the outer regions (type 1), dominant nuclearstarbursts ~1 kpc in size with asignificant contribution from the outer regions (type 3), and extendedstarbursts with relatively faint nuclei (type 4). These classes ofstar-forming regions were found to be strongly related to globalstar-forming properties, such as star formation efficiency, far-infraredcolor, and dust extinction. There was a clear tendency for the objectswith more compact distributions of star-forming regions to show a higherstar formation efficiency and hotter far-infrared color. An appreciablefraction of the sample objects were dominated by extended starbursts(type 4), which is unexpected in the standard scenario ofinteraction-induced starburst galaxies. We also found that thedistribution of star-forming regions was weakly but clearly related togalaxy morphology: severely disturbed objects had a more concentrateddistribution of star-forming regions. This suggests that the propertiesof galaxy interactions, such as dynamical phase and orbital parameters,play a more important role than the internal properties of progenitorgalaxies, such as dynamical structure or gas mass fraction. We alsodiscuss the evolution of the distribution of star-forming regions ininteracting galaxies.

Kinematics of tidal tails in interacting galaxies: Tidal dwarf galaxies and projection effectsThe kinematics of tidal tails in colliding galaxies has been studied viaFabry-Pérot observations of the Hα emission. With theirlarge field of view and high spatial resolution, the Fabry-Pérotdata allow us to probe simultaneously, in 2D, two kinematical featuresof the tidal ionized gas: large-scale velocity gradients due tostreaming motions along the tails, and small-scale motions related tothe internal dynamics of giant HII regions within the tails. In severalinteracting systems, massive (109 Mȯ)condensations of HI, CO and stars are observed in the outer regions oftails. Whether they are genuine accumulations of matter or not is stilldebated. Indeed a part of the tidal tail may be aligned with theline-of-sight, and the associated projection effect may result inapparent accumulations of matter that does not exist in the 3D space.Using numerical simulations, we show that studying the large-scalekinematics of tails, it is possible to know whether these accumulationsof matter are the result of projection effects or not. We conclude thatseveral ones (Arp 105-South, Arp 242, NGC 7252, and NGC 5291-North) aregenuine accumulations of matter. We also study the small-scale motionsinside these regions: several small-scale velocity gradients areidentified with projected values as large as 50-100 km s-1accross the observed HII regions. In the case of NGC 5291-North, thespatial resolution of our observations is sufficient to detail thevelocity field; we show that this system is rotating andself-gravitating, and discuss its dark matter content. TheFabry-Pérot observations have thus enabled us to prove that some109 Mȯ condensations of matter are realstructures, and are kinematically decoupled from the rest of the tail.Such massive and self-gravitating objects are the progenitors of theso-called ``Tidal Dwarf Galaxies''.Based on observations collected at the European Southern Observatory, LaSilla, Chile and at the Canada-France-Hawaii Observatory, Hawaii, USA.Appendix is only available in electronic form athttp://www.edpsciences.org

Elusive active galactic nucleiA fraction of active galactic nuclei do not show the classicalSeyfert-type signatures in their optical spectra, i.e. they areoptically `elusive'. X-ray observations are an optimal tool to identifythis class of objects. We combine new Chandra observations with archivalX-ray data in order to obtain a first estimate of the fraction ofelusive active galactic nuclei (AGN) in local galaxies and to constraintheir nature. Our results suggest that elusive AGN have a local densitycomparable to or even higher than optically classified Seyfert nuclei.Most elusive AGN are heavily absorbed in the X-rays, with gas columndensities exceeding 1024 cm-2, suggesting thattheir peculiar nature is associated with obscuration. It is likely thatin elusive AGN the nuclear UV source is completely embedded and theionizing photons cannot escape, which prevents the formation of aclassical narrow-line region. Elusive AGN may contribute significantlyto the 30-keV bump of the X-ray background.

Dust-to-gas ratios in the starburst regions of luminous infrared galaxiesWe investigate the properties of dust and dust-to-gas ratios in variousstarburst regions of luminous infrared galaxies (LIGs). We refer to thesample of seven LIGs recently observed in the mid-infrared by Soifer etal. using the Keck Telescope with spatial resolution approaching thediffraction limit. These seven objects are among the closest LIGs andhave been classified as starburst galaxies from optical spectroscopy.Our goal consists in modelling the continuum spectral energydistribution of each galaxy, particularly in the infrared range. Modelsare further constrained by observed emission-line ratios in the opticalrange. Multicloud models consistently account for the coupled effects ofshock, photoionization by hot stars and diffuse secondary radiation fromthe shock-heated gas. Emission from clouds in the neighbourhood ofevolved starbursts and with high shock velocities (~500 kms-1) explains both the bremsstrahlung and reradiation fromdust in the mid-infrared. Clouds with lower velocity (100 kms-1), which correspond to younger starbursts, also contributeto both line and continuum spectra. Both low- and high-velocity cloudsare thus present in nearly all the sample galaxies. For all thegalaxies, an old stellar population is revealed by blackbody emission inthe optical/near-infrared range. Dust-to-gas ratios vary in differentregions of individual galaxies.

Cosmological Results from High-z SupernovaeThe High-z Supernova Search Team has discovered and observed eight newsupernovae in the redshift interval z=0.3-1.2. These independentobservations, analyzed by similar but distinct methods, confirm theresults of Riess and Perlmutter and coworkers that supernova luminositydistances imply an accelerating universe. More importantly, they extendthe redshift range of consistently observed Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia)to z~1, where the signature of cosmological effects has the oppositesign of some plausible systematic effects. Consequently, thesemeasurements not only provide another quantitative confirmation of theimportance of dark energy, but also constitute a powerful qualitativetest for the cosmological origin of cosmic acceleration. We find a ratefor SN Ia of(1.4+/-0.5)×10-4h3Mpc-3yr-1at a mean redshift of 0.5. We present distances and host extinctions for230 SN Ia. These place the following constraints on cosmologicalquantities: if the equation of state parameter of the dark energy isw=-1, then H0t0=0.96+/-0.04, andΩΛ-1.4ΩM=0.35+/-0.14. Includingthe constraint of a flat universe, we findΩM=0.28+/-0.05, independent of any large-scalestructure measurements. Adopting a prior based on the Two Degree Field(2dF) Redshift Survey constraint on ΩM and assuming aflat universe, we find that the equation of state parameter of the darkenergy lies in the range -1.48-1, we obtain w

A Minor-Merger Interpretation for NGC 1097's ``Jets''We have conducted a deep search for neutral hydrogen gas associated withthe faint optical ``jets'' of NGC 1097 using the Very Large Array.Measurable H I would have been expected if the jets were tidal in origingiven their moderately blue optical and near-infrared colors. The jetsare free of H I emission to a limiting surface density(ΣHI) of 0.06 Msolar pc-2 (3σ) over a 1102 km s-1 velocity range. We also rule outextended H I emission down to 0.02 Msolar pc-2 (3σ, ΔV=45 km s-1) within a 4' FWHM aperturecentered on the right-angle turn in jet R1. We have detected an H Isource [MHI=(5.1+/-1.0)×106Msolar] coincident with a small edge-on spiral or irregulargalaxy (NGC 1097B) 12' southwest of NGC 1097, situated between two jets.Two other ~106 Msolar H I point sources in thefield are considered marginal detections. Neither are associated withthe optical jets.The jets' radio-X-ray spectral energy distribution is most consistentwith starlight. However, from their morphology, optical/near-infraredcolors, and lack of H I, we argue that the jets are not tidal tailsdrawn out of NGC 1097's disk or stars stripped from the ellipticalcompanion NGC 1097A. We also reject in situ star formation in ancientradio jets as this requires essentially 100% conversion of gas intostars on large scales. Instead, we conclude that the jets represent thecaptured remains of a disrupted dwarf galaxy that passed through theinner few kiloparsecs of NGC 1097's disk.We present N-body simulations of such an encounter that reproduce theessential features of NGC 1097's jets: A long and narrow ``X''-shapedmorphology centered near the spiral's nucleus, right-angle bends, and nodiscernible dwarf galaxy remnant. A series of jetlike distributions areformed, with the earliest appearing ~1.4 Gyr after impact. Well-definedX shapes form only when the more massive galaxy has a strong diskcomponent. Ram-pressure stripping of the dwarf's interstellar mediumwould be expected to occur while passing through NGC 1097's disk,accounting for the jets' lack of H I and H II. The remnants' (B-V) colorwould still agree with observations even after ~3 Gyr of passiveevolution, provided the cannibalized dwarf was low-metallicity anddominated by young stars at impact.

A Hubble Space Telescope WFPC2 Investigation of the Nuclear Morphology in the Toomre Sequence of Merging GalaxiesWe report on the properties of nuclear regions in the Toomre sequence ofmerging galaxies, based on imaging data gathered with the Hubble SpaceTelescope WFPC2 camera. We have imaged the 11 systems in the proposedevolutionary merger sequence in the F555W and F814W broadband filters,and in Hα+[N II] narrowband filters. The broadband morphology ofthe nuclear regions varies from nonnucleated starburst clumps throughdust-covered nuclei to a nucleated morphology. There is no unambiguoustrend in the morphology with merger stage. The emission-line morphologyis extended beyond the nucleus in most cases, but centrally concentrated(within 1 kpc) emission-line gas can be seen in the four latest-stagemerger systems. We have quantified the intrinsic luminosity densitiesand colors within the inner 100 pc and 1 kpc of each identified nucleus.We find little evidence for a clear trend in nuclear properties alongthe merger sequence other than a suggestive rise in the nuclearluminosity density in the most evolved members of the sequence. The lackof clear trends in nuclear properties is likely due both to the effectsof obscuration and geometry, as well as the physical variety of galaxiesincluded in the Toomre sequence.Based on observations with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtainedat the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by theAssociation of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASAcontract NAS 5-26555. These observations are associated with proposal8669.