CNES (French Space Agency) continuously drives the development of detectors for Space based Astronomy. Several promising infrared HgCdTe technologies are being developed at CEA and Sofradir. This paper gives a status on these developments as well as an overview of the associated roadmap.

We report on the present and future detector development activities for the European Space Agency Science Programme. The development of European technology in that field is a key mission enabler for the program, which requires TRL6 (ISO scale) by end of the definition phase, so called "mission adoption". This is particularly true for Astronomy and fundamental physics type missions. Current activities are in particular targeting large format and p-channel CCD, NIR and MWIR, LWIR wavelength ranges as well as related ASIC controller. For the longer term future mission plan (so called M4, M5 and L2 missions, M3 being PLATO and L1 JUICE), the extreme ends of the spectrum will be addressed. An overview of the detector status for the Earth Observation program is given in appendix, as most of the technologies are directly applicable to some extent to science missions, in particular for Planetary missions. The specific validation activities in place in the future mission preparation office in support to the space science program will be eventually briefly detailed.

ESO has a very active on-going detector development program to not only meet the needs of the current crop of instruments for the VLT, but is also actively involved in gathering requirements and developing detectors for the challenging instruments being proposed and in design for the E-ELT. This paper provides an overall summary of the detector requirements of the various E-ELT instruments and the many interesting detector developments ESO is involved in to meet these needs. Most of these instruments and detector developments are described in more detail in other papers at this conference.

The radiation environment at L2 is of great importance to the science instruments of Gaia. Especially the non-ionising damage to the CCDs and the resulting increase in charge transfer inefficiency will ultimately limit the achievable science performance. With its launch in December 2013 for a nominal mission of 5 years Gaia is continuously collecting invaluable information of radiation effects on the 106 CCDs in the FPA from the analysis of the science data and dedicated calibration procedures. The paper shows first results and discusses the detected irradiation background with respect to predictions and reviews operational implications for the mission.

JUICE, the Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer, is a European Space Agency L-class mission destined for the Jovian system. Due for launch in 2022, it will begin a science phase after its transit to Jupiter that will include detailed investigations of three of the Galilean moons: Ganymede, Callisto and Europa. JUICE will carry payloads to characterise the Jovian environments, divided into in situ, geophysical and remote sensing packages. A key instrument in the remote sensing package is JANUS, an optical camera operating over a wavelength range of 350 nm to 1064 nm. JANUS will be used to study the external layers of Jupiter’s atmosphere, the ring system and the planetary bodies. To achieve the science goals, resolutions of better than 5 m per pixel are required for the highest resolution observations during the 200 km altitude orbit of Ganymede, whilst the system is operated with a signal to noise ratio of better than 100. Jupiter’s magnetic field is a dominant object in the solar system, trapping electrons and other charged particles leading to the radiation environment around Jupiter being very hostile, especially in the regions closest to Jupiter in the Ganymede orbit. The radiation tolerance of the focal plane detector in JANUS is therefore a major concern and radiation testing is vital to confirm its expected performance after irradiation will meet requirements set by the science goals. JANUS will be using a detector from e2v technologies plc, the CMOS Imaging Sensor 115 (CIS115), which is a device manufactured using 0.18 μm Imaging CMOS Process with a 2000 by 1504 pixel array each 7 μm square. The pixels have a 4T pinned photodiode pixel architecture, and the array is read out through four differential analogue outputs. This paper describes the preliminary characterisation of the CIS115, and results obtained with the CIS107 precursor sensor.

Charge-Coupled Devices are the detector of choice for the focal planes of many optical and X-ray space telescopes. In recent years, EM-CCDs, SCDs and CMOS sensors have been used, or baselined, for missions in which the detection of X-ray and visible photons are key to the science goals of the mission. When placed in orbit, silicon-based detectors will suffer radiation damage as a consequence of the harsh space radiation environment, creating traps in the silicon. The radiation-induced traps will capture and release signal electrons, effectively “smearing” the image. Without correction, this smearing of the image would have major consequences on the science goals of the missions. Fitting to observed results, through careful planning of observation strategies while the radiation dose received remains low in the early stages of the mission, has previously been used to correct against the radiation damage effects. As the science goals becoming increasingly demanding, however, the correction algorithms require greater accuracy and a more physical approach is required, removing the effects of the radiation damage by modelling the trap capture and release mechanisms to a high level of detail. The drive for increasingly accurate trap parameters has led to the development of new methods of characterisation of traps in the silicon, measuring the trap properties and their effects to the single-trap level in situ. Here, we summarise the latest developments in trap characterisation techniques for n-channel and p-channel devices.

The science objectives of space missions using CCDs to carry out accurate astronomical measurements are put at risk by the radiation-induced increase in charge transfer inefficiency (CTI) that results from trapping sites in the CCD silicon lattice. A variety of techniques are used to obtain CTI values and derive trap parameters, however they often differ in results. To identify and understand these differences, we take advantage of an on-going comprehensive characterisation of an irradiated Euclid prototype CCD including the following techniques: X-ray, trap pumping, flat field extended pixel edge response and first pixel response. We proceed to a comparative analysis of the obtained results.

The CCD282 is a large low-light level (L3 - Electron multiplying CCD) imaging sensor developed by e2v technologies for the University of Montreal. The intended use is for photon counting and very low light level imaging. The device will be used on the 3DNTT instrument which is a scanning Fabry-Perot interferometer. There is also the intention to place a device on a 10m class telescope for scanning Fabry-Perot application. This sensor is the largest electron multiplying CCD device produced to date with a 4k×4k backside illuminated frame transfer architecture. The sensor uses 8 parallel EM (Electron Multiplying) amplified outputs to maximize throughput. This paper present the first results and performance measurements of this device, and especially of the clock induced charge (CIC) which is one order of magnitude lower than previous devices thanks to a specific design optimized for photon counting operation.

EMCCDs are capable of MHz pixel rate whilst maintaining sub-electron readout noise. Tens of frames per second are common place for large and medium EMCCD formats (1k×1k, 512×512), while smaller formats can reach hundreds and even thousand of frames per second. For applications where speed is a key factor, overclocked EMCCD were used at or beyond the manufacturer’s specifications. Very few data were published on the impacts of high speed clocking of EMCCDs, either vertically or horizontally. This paper presents characterization results of EMCCDs clocked at high speed.

We present the progress of characterization of a low-noise, photon counting Electron Multiplying Charged Coupled Device (EMCCD) operating in optical wavelengths and demonstrate possible solutions to the problems of Clock-Induced Charge (CIC) and other trapped charge through sub-bandgap illumination. Such a detector will be vital to the feasibility of future space-based direct imaging and spectroscopy missions for exoplanet characterization, and is scheduled to y on-board the AFTA-WFIRST mission. The 512×512 EMCCD is an e2v detector housed and clocked by a Nüvü Cameras controller. Through a multiplication gain register, this detector produces as many as 5000 electrons for a single, incident-photon-induced photoelectron produced in the detector, enabling single photon counting operation with read noise and dark current orders of magnitude below that of standard CCDs. With the extremely high contrasts (Earth-to-Sun flux ratio is ~ 10-10) and extremely faint targets (an Earth analog would measure 28th - 30th magnitude or fainter), a photon-counting EMCCD is absolutely necessary to measure the signatures of habitability on an Earth-like exoplanet within the timescale of a mission's lifetime, and we discuss the concept of operations for an EMCCD making such measurements.

Astronomical imaging is always limited by the detection system signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). EMCCD cameras offer many advantages for low light applications, such as sub-electron read-out noise, and low dark current with appropriate cooling. High frame rate achieved with these devices is often employed for the enhancement of SNR by acquiring and stacking multiple short exposures instead of one long exposure. EMCCDs are also suitable for applications requiring very long exposures, even when only a few photons are detected per hour. During long exposure acquisitions with a conventional CCD, slower pixel rates are usually employed to reduce the read-out noise, which dominates the CCD noise budget. For EMCCD cameras, this approach may not result in the lowest possible total noise and the effect of increasing the total exposure time may not yield the highest possible SNR for a given total integration time. In this paper, we present and discuss the experimental results obtained with an EMCCD camera that has been optimized for taking long exposures (from several seconds to several hours) of low light-level targets. These results helped to ascertain an EMCCD camera best operating parameters for long exposure astronomical imaging.

The Off-plane Grating Rocket Experiment (OGRE) is a sub-orbital rocket payload designed to advance the development of several emerging technologies for use on space missions. The payload consists of a high resolution soft X-ray spectrometer based around an optic made from precision cut and ground, single crystal silicon mirrors, a module of off-plane gratings and a camera array based around Electron Multiplying CCD (EM-CCD) technology. This paper gives an overview of OGRE with emphasis on the detector array; specifically this paper will address the reasons that EM-CCDs are the detector of choice and the advantages and disadvantages that this technology offers.

Several post-processing methods were proposed to overcome the excess noise factor induced by EMCCD multiplication register. Each method has a unique effect on SNR. However, since SNR does not account for photometric accuracy, it cannot be reliably used to directly compare the performance of these algorithms. A normalized quadratic error that accounts for both SNR and accuracy is proposed as an alternative figure of merit. This approach provides a quantitative and rigorous comparison. Using both experimental and simulated frames in the faint-flux range, it is used to compare the existing EMCCD post-processing methods.

X-rays frames offer a lot of information about CCD. 55Fe sources are traditionally being used for CCD gain and charge transfer efficiency (CTE) measurements. The pixel size of modern scientific CCDs is getting smaller. The charge diffusion causes the charge spread among neighboring pixels especially in thick fully depleted sensors. This enables measurement of the charge diffusion using 55Fe X-rays. On the other hand, the usual CTE char- acterization method based on single pixel X-ray events becomes statistically deficient. A new way of measuring CTE using shape and amplitude analysis of X-ray clusters is presented and discussed. This method requires high statistical samples. Advances in test automation and express analysis technique allows for acquiring such statistical samples in a short period of time. The details of our measurement procedure are presented. The lateral diffusion measured using e2v CCD250 is presented and implications for X-ray cluster size and expected cluster shape are discussed. The CTE analysis using total X-ray cluster amplitude is presented. This analysis can reveal CTE problems for certain conditions. The statistical analysis of average X-ray cluster shape is presented. Characteristics X-rays can be used for the whole system absolute calibration. We demonstrate how spectral features of 55Fe and 241Am rad. sources are used for system linearity measurements.

pnCCDs are a special type of charge coupled device (CCD) which were originally developed for applications in X-ray astronomy. At X-ray Free Electron Lasers (XFEL) pnCCDs are used as imaging X-ray spectrometers due to their outstanding characteristics like high readout speed, high and homogenous quantum efficiency, low readout noise, radiation hardness and a high pixel charge handling capacity. With pnCCDs it is possible to separate one photon from no photon and two photons as well as being able to measure up to up to 104 photons per pixel per frame. However, extremely high photon intensities can result in pixel saturation and charge spilling into neighboring pixels. Because of this charge blooming effect, spatial information is reduced. Due to the deep understanding of the internal potential distribution we can enhance the pixel full well capacity even more and improve the quality of the image. This paper describes the influence of the operation voltages and space charge distribution of the pnCCD on the electric potential profile by using 2D numerical device simulations. Experimental results with signal injection from an optical laser confirm the simulation models.

The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) in collaboration with SRI/Sarnoff is developing monolithic CMOS detectors optimized for x-ray astronomy. The goal of this multi-year program is to produce CMOS x-ray imaging spectrometers that are Fano noise limited over the 0.1-10keV energy band while incorporating the many benefits of CMOS technology. These benefits include: low power consumption, radiation “hardness”, high levels of integration, and very high read rates. Small format test devices from a previous wafer fabrication run (2011-2012) have recently been back-thinned and tested for response below 1keV. These devices perform as expected in regards to dark current, read noise, spectral response and Quantum Efficiency (QE). We demonstrate that running these devices at rates ~> 1Mpix/second eliminates the need for cooling as shot noise from any dark current is greatly mitigated. The test devices were fabricated on 15μm, high resistivity custom (~30kΩ-cm) epitaxial silicon and have a 16 by 192 pixel format. They incorporate 16μm pitch, 6 Transistor Pinned Photo Diode (6TPPD) pixels which have ~40μV/electron sensitivity and a highly parallel analog CDS signal chain. Newer, improved, lower noise detectors have just been fabricated (October 2013). These new detectors are fabricated on 9μm epitaxial silicon and have a 1k by 1k format. They incorporate similar 16μm pitch, 6TPPD pixels but have ~ 50% higher sensitivity and much (3×) lower read noise. These new detectors have undergone preliminary testing for functionality in Front Illuminated (FI) form and are presently being prepared for back thinning and packaging. Monolithic CMOS devices such as these, would be ideal candidate detectors for the focal planes of Solar, planetary and other space-borne x-ray astronomy missions. The high through-put, low noise and excellent low energy response, provide high dynamic range and good time resolution; bright, time varying x-ray features could be temporally and spectrally resolved without saturation. We present details of our camera design and device performance with particular emphasis on those aspects of interest to single photon counting x-ray astronomy. These features include read noise, x-ray spectral response and quantum efficiency. Funding for this work has been provided in large part by NASA Grant NNX09AE86G and a grant from the Betty and Gordon Moore Foundation.

The James Webb Space Telescope Fine Guidance Sensor makes use of three 2048×2048 five micron cutoff H2RG HgCdTe detectors from Teledyne Imaging Systems. The FGS consists of two Guider channels and a Near-InfraRed Imager and Slitless Spectrograph (NIRISS) channel. We report here on detailed tests results from the Guider channels originating in both instrument level performance testing and from recent Guider performance testing with the FGS integrated into JWST’s Integrated Science Instrument Module (ISIM). A key performance parameter is the noise equivalent angle (NEA) or centroiding precision. The JWST requirement flowed down to the Guiders is a NEA of 4 milli-arcseonds, equivalent to approximately 1/20th of a detector pixel. This performance has been achieved in the testing to date. We have noted a systematic asymmetry in the NEA depending on whether the NEA in the row or column direction is considered. This asymmetry depends on guide star brightness and reaches its maximum, where the row NEA is 15% to 20% larger than the column NEA, at the dim end of the Guide star brightness range. We evaluate the detector level characteristics of spatially correlated noise and asymmetric inter-pixel capacitance (IPC) as potential sources of this NEA asymmetry. Modelling is used to estimate the impact on NEA of these potential contributors. These model results are then compared to the Guider test results obtained to date in an effort to isolate the cause of this effect. While asymmetric IPC can induce asymmetric NEA, the required magnitude of IPC is far greater than observed in these detectors. Thus, spatially correlated noise was found to be the most likely cause of the asymmetric NEA.

We present recent development in the technology of silicon sensors for astronomical applications. Novel CCD and CMOS sensors have been designed for low noise and high sensitivity astronomical use. High resistivity sensors allow thicker silicon for higher red sensitivity in several types of new CCD. The capability to manufacture large sets of CCDs to form large focal planes has allowed several very large mosaics to be built for astronomy with increasing formats on the ground and in space. In addition to supplying sensors we discuss increasing capacity and interest in the commercial supply of integrated “camera” systems.

The UKATC has undertaken to test and evaluate new infrared detectors being developed at Selex ES Ltd, Southampton in the UK for astronomy and space applications. Current programmes include: the evaluation of large format (1280×1024), near-infrared detectors for astronomy, the characterisation of shortwave infrared detectors (up to 2.5μm) for satellite-based earth observation, long wavelength (8 to 11μm) and very long wavelength (10 to 14.5μm cut-off) devices for cosmos applications. Future programmes include the evaluation of large format, avalanche photodiode arrays for photon-level sensing and high speed applications. Custom test facilities are being setup in order to drive and characterise the detectors at the ATC under conditions representative of the applications. In this paper the test facilities will be described along with the associated challenges to evaluate the performance of these detectors. The paper also includes an overview of the Selex ES detectors, including the ROICs and the MOVPE HgCdTe arrays, and will present the latest results from the characterisation program.

CCDs continue to be the detector of choice for high resolution and high performance space applications. One perceived drawback is their susceptibility to radiation damage, in particular the formation of trap sites leading to a decrease in charge transfer efficiency. To that end, ESA has started a programme to investigate a new generation of devices based upon p-channel technology. The expectation is that once mature, p-channel devices may offer a significant increase in tolerance to proton radiation over traditional n-type buried channel CCDs. Early studies of e2v devices to assess the radiation hardness of p-channel devices were limited by the quality of devices available, however more recently, good quality p-channel CCD204s have been manufactured and studied. A more detailed evaluation of p-channel CCDs is now underway to realise the full potential of the technology for use in future high radiation environment space missions. A key aspect is the development of a cryogenic test rig that will allow for the first time a direct comparison of the radiation damage effects when the irradiation is performed both traditionally unbiased at room temperature and cryogenically with the device operational. Subsequent characterisations will also be performed on the cryogenic device after periods of storage at room temperature to investigate the potential annealing effects upon the lattice damage. Here we describe and present early results from an extensive programme of testing which will address all key performance parameters for p-channel CCDs, such as full electro-optical characterisation, assessment of radiation hardness and investigation of trap species.

The success of the next generation of instruments for ELT class telescopes will depend upon improving the image quality by exploiting sophisticated Adaptive Optics (AO) systems. One of the critical components of the AO systems for the E-ELT has been identified as the optical Laser/Natural Guide Star WFS detector. The combination of large format, 1760×1680 pixels to finely sample the wavefront and the spot elongation of laser guide stars, fast frame rate of 700 frames per second (fps), low read noise (< 3e-), and high QE (> 90%) makes the development of this device extremely challenging. Design studies concluded that a highly integrated Backside Illuminated CMOS Imager built on High Resistivity silicon as the most likely technology to succeed. Two generations of the CMOS Imager are being developed: a) the already designed and manufactured NGSD (Natural Guide Star Detector), a quarter-sized pioneering device of 880×840 pixels capable of meeting first light needs of the E-ELT; b) the LGSD (Laser Guide Star Detector), the larger full size device. The detailed design is presented including the approach of using massive parallelism (70,400 ADCs) to achieve the low read noise at high pixel rates of ~3 Gpixel/s and the 88 channel LVDS 220Mbps serial interface to get the data off-chip. To enable read noise closer to the goal of 1e- to be achieved, a split wafer run has allowed the NGSD to be manufactured in the more speculative, but much lower read noise, Ultra Low Threshold Transistors in the unit cell. The NGSD has come out of production, it has been thinned to 12μm, backside processed and packaged in a custom 370pin Ceramic PGA (Pin Grid Array). First results of tests performed both at e2v and ESO are presented.

The focal plane array of the Euclid VIS instrument comprises 36 large area, back-illuminated, red-enhanced CCD detectors (designated CCD 273). These CCDs were specified by the Euclid VIS instrument team in close collaboration with ESA and e2v technologies. Prototypes were fabricated and tested through an ESA pre-development activity and the contract to qualify and manufacture flight CCDs is now underway. This paper describes the CCD requirements, the design (and design drivers) for the CCD and package, the current status of the CCD production programme and a summary of key performance measurements.

We describe the infrastructure being developed to align and characterize the detectors for the Subaru Measure- ment of Images and Redshifts (SuMIRe) Prime Focus Spectrograph (PFS). PFS will employ four three-channel spectrographs with an operating wavelength range of 3800 °A to 12600 °A. Each spectrograph will be comprised of two visible channels and one near infrared (NIR) channel, where each channel will use a separate Schmidt camera to image the captured spectra onto their respective detectors. In the visible channels, Hamamatsu 2k × 4k CCDs will be mounted in pairs to create a single 4k × 4k detector, while the NIR channel will use a single Teledyne 4k × 4k H4RG HgCdTe device. The fast f/1.1 optics of the Schmidt cameras will give a shallow depth of focus necessitating an optimization of the focal plane array flatness. The minimum departure from flatness of the focal plane array for the visible channels is set the by the CCD flatness, typically 10 μm peak-to-valley. We will adjust the coplanarity for a pair of CCDs such that the flatness of the array is consistent with the flatness of the detectors themselves. To achieve this we will use an optical non-contact measurement system to measure surface flatness and coplanarity at both ambient and operating temperatures, and use shims to adjust the coplanarity of the CCDs. We will characterize the performance of the detectors for PFS consistent with the scientific goals for the project. To this end we will measure the gain, linearity, full well, quantum efficiency (QE), charge diffusion, charge transfer inefficiency (CTI), and noise properties of these devices. We also desire to better understand the non-linearity of the photon transfer curve for the CCDs, and the charge persistence/reciprocity problems of the HgCdTe devices. To enable the metrology and characterization of these detectors we are building two test cryostats nearly identical in design. The first test cryostat will primarily be used for the coplanarity measurements and sub- pixel illumination testing, and the second will be dedicated to performance characterization requiring at field illumination. In this paper we will describe the design of the test cryostats. We will also describe the system we have built for measuring focal plane array flatness, and examine the precision and error with which it operates. Finally we will detail the methods by which we plan to characterize the performance of the detectors for PFS, and provide preliminary results.

We present preliminary characterization of the Speedster-EXD, a new event driven hybrid CMOS detector (HCD) developed in collaboration with Penn State University and Teledyne Imaging Systems. HCDs have advantages over CCDs including lower susceptibility to radiation damage, lower power consumption, and faster read-out time to avoid pile-up. They are deeply depleted and able to detect x-rays down to approximately 0.1 keV. The Speedster-EXD has additional in-pixel features compared to previously published HCDs including: (1) an in-pixel comparator that enables read out of only the pixels with signal from an x-ray event, (2) four different gain modes to optimize either full well capacity or energy resolution, (3) in-pixel CDS subtraction to reduce read noise, and (4) a low-noise, high-gain CTIA amplifier to eliminate interpixel capacitance crosstalk. When using the comparator feature, the user can set a comparator threshold and only pixels above the threshold will be read out. This feature can be run in two modes including single pixel readout in which only pixels above the threshold are read out and 3x3 readout where a 3×3 region centered on the central pixel of the X-ray event is read out. The comparator feature of the Speedster-EXD increases the detector array effective frame rate by orders of magnitude. The new features of the Speedster-EXD hybrid CMOS x-ray detector are particularly relevant to future high throughput x-ray missions requiring large-format silicon imagers.

At DTU Space we have developed a high resolution three dimensional (3D) position sensitive CZT detector for high energy astronomy. The design of the 3D CZT detector is based on the CZT Drift Strip detector principle. The position determination perpendicular to the anode strips is performed using a novel interpolating technique based on the drift strip signals. The position determination in the detector depth direction, is made using the DOI technique based the detector cathode and anode signals. The position determination along the anode strips is made with the help of 10 cathode strips orthogonal to the anode strips. The position resolutions are at low energies dominated by the electronic noise and improve therefore with increased signal to noise ratio as the energy increases. The achievable position resolution at higher energies will however be dominated by the extended spatial distribution of the photon produced ionization charge. The main sources of noise contribution of the drift signals are the leakage current between the strips and the strip capacitance. For the leakage current, we used a metallization process that reduces the leakage current by means of a high resistive thin layer between the drift strip electrodes and CZT detector material. This method was applied to all the proto type detectors and was a very effective method to reduce the surface leakage current between the strips. The proto type detector was recently investigated at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Grenoble which provided a fine 50 × 50 μm2 collimated X-ray beam covering an energy band up to 600 keV. The Beam positions are resolved very well with a ~ 0.2 mm position resolution (FWHM ) at 400 keV in all directions.

Caliste-SO is a hybrid detector integrating in a volume of 12 × 14 × 18 mm3 a 1 mm-thick CdTe pixel detector, a frontend IDeF-X HD ASIC and passive parts to perform high resolution spectroscopy in the 4-200 keV energy range with high count rate capability (104-105 photons/s/cm2). The detector hybridization concept was designed by CEA and 3DPlus to realize CdTe cameras for space astronomy missions with various pixel patterns. For the STIX instrument onboard the Solar Orbiter mission, the imaging system is made by 32 collimators that sample the visibilities of the spatial Fourier transform and doesn’t require fine pitch pixels. The Al-Schottky CdTe detectors produced by Acrorad are then patterned and tested by the Paul Scherrer Institute to produce 12 pixels surrounded by a guard ring within 1 cm2. Electrical and spectroscopic performance tests of the Caliste-SO samples are performed in France at key manufacturing steps, before sending the samples to the principal investigator to mount them in the Detector Electronics Module of STIX in front of each collimator. Four samples were produced in 2013 to be part of the STIX engineering model. Best pixels show an energy resolution of 0.7 keV FWHM at 6 keV (1 keV resolution requirement for STIX) and a low-level detection threshold below 3 keV (4 keV requirement for STIX). The paper describes the design and the production of Caliste-SO and focuses on main performance tests performed so far to characterize the spectrometer unit.

Si Hybrid CMOS detectors (HCDs) are sensitive to X-rays between approximately 0.2 – 20 keV. HCDs can provide superior performance to traditional CCDs in multiple areas: faster read out time, windowed read out mode, less susceptible to radiation & micrometeoroid damage, and lower power consumption. X-ray detectors designed for use in astronomical observatories must have an optical blocking filter to prevent the detectors from being saturated by optical light. We have previously reported on the successful deposition of an Al optical blocking layer directly onto the surface of HCDs. These blocking filters were deposited with multiple thicknesses from 180 – 1000 Å and successfully block optical light at all thicknesses, with minimal impact expected on quantum efficiency at the energies of interest for these detectors. The thin Al layer is not expected to impact quantum efficiency at the energies of interest for these detectors. We report energy dependent soft X-ray quantum efficiency measurements for multiple HCDs with different optical blocking filter thicknesses.

Quantum Efficiency (QE) is one of the most important parameters when either evaluating or using an imaging sensor for scientific applications. For back illuminated CCD and CMOS imagers, QE is determined by temperature, antireflection (AR) coatings, backside charging mechanisms, and silicon thickness. The accurate and precise measurement of QE requires careful consideration of illumination, temperature, calibration standards, optics, electronic equipment and components, and scattered light. QE is also closely related to the reflectance from the sensor surface. We present in this paper a study of the QE and reflectance from a variety of sensors used for astronomical imaging. Particular attention is given to precise calibration, temperature effects, models vs. measurements, and measurement techniques. We discuss all these issues and how they relate to the measurement and actual performance of sensors with different areas, thicknesses, and AR coatings.

Euclid is the ESA mission to map the geometry of the dark universe. It uses weak gravitational lensing, which requires the accurate measurement of galaxy shapes over a large area in the sky. Radiation damage in the 36 Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) composing the Euclid visible imager focal plane has already been identified as a major contributor to the weak-lensing error budget; radiation-induced charge transfer inefficiency (CTI) distorts the galaxy images and introduces a bias in the galaxy shape measurement. We designed a laboratory experiment to project Euclid-like sky images onto an irradiated Euclid CCD. In this way – and for the first time – we are able to directly assess the effect of CTI on the Euclid weak-lensing measurement free of modelling uncertainties. We present here the experiment concept, setup, and first results. The results of such an experiment provide test data critical to refine models, design and test the Euclid data processing CTI mitigation scheme, and further optimize the Euclid CCD operation.

We describe a camera beam simulator for the LSST which is capable of illuminating a 60mm field at f/1.2 with realistic astronomical scenes, enabling studies of CCD astrometric and photometric performance. The goal is to fully simulate LSST observing, in order to characterize charge transport and other features in the thick fully-depleted CCDs and to probe low level systematics under realistic conditions. The automated system simulates the centrally obscured LSST beam and sky scenes, including the spectral shape of the night sky. The doubly telecentric design uses a nearly unit magnification design consisting of a spherical mirror, three BK7 lenses, and one beam-splitter window. To achieve the relatively large field the beam-splitter window is used twice. The motivation for this LSST beam test facility was driven by the need to fully characterize a new generation of thick fully-depleted CCDs, and assess their suitability for the broad range of science which is planned for LSST. Due to the fast beam illumination and the thick silicon design [each pixel is 10 microns wide and over 100 microns deep] at long wavelengths there can be effects of photon transport and charge transport in the high purity silicon. The focal surface covers a field more than sufficient for a 40×40mm LSST CCD. Delivered optical quality meets design goals, with 50% energy within a 5 micron circle. The tests of CCD performance are briefly described.

ESA’s astronomy missions make wide use of CCDs as their main photon detectors. Depending on the scientific goals of the mission, different aspects the CCD’s performance may be critical for the achievement of these goals. The Payload Technology Verification section of ESA’s Future Missions Preparation Office has a task to provide support on issues related to payload performance. For that purpose we operate a versatile CCD test bench. We present test results on CCDs for missions that are currently under study (PLATO) or under development (EUCLID, CHEOPS).

Bad pixels are generally treated as a loss of useable area and then excluded from averaged performance metrics. The definition and detection of “bad pixels” or “cosmetic defects” are seldom discussed, perhaps because they are considered self-evident or of minor consequence for any scientific grade detector, however the ramifications can be more serious than generally appreciated. While the definition of pixel performance is generally understood, the classification of pixels as useable is highly application-specific, as are the consequences of ignoring or interpolating over such pixels. CMOS sensors (including NIR detectors) exhibit less compact distributions of pixel properties than CCDs. The extended tails in these distributions result in a steeper increase in bad pixel counts as performance thresholds are tightened which comes as a surprise to many users. To illustrate how some applications are much more sensitive to bad pixels than others, we present a bad pixel mapping exercise for the Teledyne H2RG used as the NIR tip-tilt sensor in the Keck-1 Adaptive Optics system. We use this example to illustrate the wide range of metrics by which a pixel might be judged inadequate. These include pixel bump bond connectivity, vignetting, addressing faults in the mux, severe sensitivity deficiency of some pixels, non linearity, poor signal linearity, low full well, poor mean-variance linearity, excessive noise and high dark current. Some pixels appear bad by multiple metrics. We also discuss the importance of distinguishing true performance outliers from measurement errors. We note how the complexity of these issues has ramifications for sensor procurement and acceptance testing strategies.

The LSST Camera science sensor array will incorporate 189 large format Charge Coupled Device (CCD) image sensors.
Each CCD will include over 16 million pixels and will be divided into 16 equally sized segments and each segment will
be read through a separate output amplifier.
The science goals of the project require CCD sensors with state of the art performance in many aspects. The broad
survey wavelength coverage requires fully depleted, 100 micrometer thick, high resistivity, bulk silicon as the imager
substrate. Image quality requirements place strict limits on the image degradation that may be caused by sensor effects:
optical, electronic, and mechanical.
In this paper we discuss the design of the prototype sensors, the hardware and software that has been used to perform
electro-optic testing of the sensors, and a selection of the results of the testing to date. The architectural features that lead
to internal electrostatic fields, the various effects on charge collection and transport that are caused by them, including
charge diffusion and redistribution, effects on delivered PSF, and potential impacts on delivered science data quality are
addressed.

We report the performance of Selex ES' SAPHIRA APD arrays from both laboratory characterization and telescope deployment. The arrays are produced using the MOVPE production method, allowing for solid state engineering and thus produce superior performance to similar liquid phase epitaxy efforts. With an avalanche gain slightly over 50 and read noise of ~9e-, the detectors are easily capable of single-frame sub-electron read noise, and the 32 output readout and flexible windowing allow an excellent readout speed. Gain-corrected dark current/glow is found to be 10-20 e-/s at low bias, and drops below basline at high avalanche gains. The detectors were also tested on-sky at both IRTF on Maunakea and the 1.5-m telescope at Palomar Observatory, demonstrating that the SAPHIRA is an ideal device for both tip-tilt NGS guiding and infrared lucky imaging, in the latter providing diffraction-limited resolution for the 3-meter IRTF without the benefit of adaptive optics correction.

Pixellated monolithic silicon detectors operated in a photon-counting regime are useful in spectroscopic imaging applications. Since a high energy incident photon may produce many excess free carriers upon absorption, both energy and spatial information can be recovered by resolving each interaction event. The performance of these devices in terms of both the energy and spatial resolution is in large part determined by the amount of diffusion which occurs during the collection of the charge cloud by the pixels. Past efforts to predict the X-ray performance of imaging sensors have used either analytical solutions to the diffusion equation or simplified monte carlo electron transport models. These methods are computationally attractive and highly useful but may be complemented using more physically detailed models based on TCAD simulations of the devices. Here we present initial results from a model which employs a full transient numerical solution of the classical semiconductor equations to model charge collection in device pixels under stimulation from initially Gaussian photogenerated charge clouds, using commercial TCAD software. Realistic device geometries and doping are included. By mapping the pixel response to different initial interaction positions and charge cloud sizes, the charge splitting behaviour of the model sensor under various illuminations and operating conditions is investigated. Experimental validation of the model is presented from an e2v CCD30-11 device under varying substrate bias, illuminated using an Fe-55 source.

We present the readout noise reduction methods and the 1/f noise response of an 2K × 2K HgCdTe detector similar to the detectors that will be used in the Near Infrared Spectrometer Photometer - one of the instruments of the future ESA mission named Euclid. Various algorithms of common modes subtraction are defined and compared. We show that the readout noise can be lowered by 60% using properly the references provided within the array. A predictive model of the 1/f noise with a given frequency power spectrum is defined and compared to data taken in a wide range of sampling frequencies. In view of this model the definition of ad-hoc readout noises for different sampling can be avoided.

We report on the development status of the readout ASIC for an onboard X-ray CCD camera. The quick low- noise readout is essential for the pile-up free imaging spectroscopy with the future highly sensitive telescope. The dedicated ASIC for ASTRO-H/SXI has sufficient noise performance only at the slow pixel rate of 68 kHz. Then we have been developing the upgraded ASIC with the fourth-order ΔΣ modulators. Upgrading the order of the modulator enables us to oversample the CCD signals less times so that we. The digitized pulse height is a serial bit stream that is decrypted with a decimation filter. The weighting coefficient of the filter is optimized to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio by a simulation. We present the performances such as the input equivalent noise (IEN), gain, effective signal range. The digitized pulse height data are successfully obtained in the first functional test up to 625 kHz. IEN is almost the same as that obtained with the chip for ASTRO-H/SXI. The residuals from the gain function is about 0.1%, which is better than that of the conventional ASIC by a factor of two. Assuming that the gain of the CCD is the same as that for ASTRO-H, the effective range is 30 keV in the case of the maximum gain. By changing the gain it can manage the signal charges of 100 ke-. These results will be fed back to the optimization of the pulse height decrypting filter.

NectarCAM is a camera designed for the medium-sized telescopes of the Cherenkov Telescope Array (CTA) covering the central energy range 100 GeV to 30 TeV. It has a modular design based on the NECTAr chip, at the heart of which is a GHz sampling Switched Capacitor Array and 12-bit Analog to Digital converter. The camera will be equipped with 265 7-photomultiplier modules, covering a field of view of 7 to 8 degrees. Each module includes the photomultiplier bases, High Voltage supply, pre-amplifier, trigger, readout and Thernet transceiver. Events recorded last between a few nanoseconds and tens of nanoseconds. A flexible trigger scheme allows to read out very long events. NectarCAM can sustain a data rate of 10 kHz. The camera concept, the design and tests of the various subcomponents and results of thermal and electrical prototypes are presented. The design includes the mechanical structure, the cooling of electronics, read-out, clock distribution, slow control, data-acquisition, trigger, monitoring and services. A 133-pixel prototype with full scale mechanics, cooling, data acquisition and slow control will be built at the end of 2014.

In this work we describe efforts to reduce the read noise in fully depleted, scientific charge-coupled devices (CCDs). The read noise is proportional to the total capacitance at the floating-diffusion node. Reductions in the capacitance at the floating diffusion are accomplished by implementing a direct contact between the output transistor, polysilicon-gate electrode and the floating diffusion. We have previously reported promising results for this technology that were measured on small-format CCDs with 4-channel readout where each channel had a different output transistor geometry. In this work we present the results of the use of this technology on 12 and 16-channel, large-format CCDs in order to determine the reproducibility of the process. The contact size for this work is two microns by two microns, and projection lithography was used to print the contacts. We have also utilized selective wafer-stepper lithography to generate contacts that are one micron on a side. We also describe efforts in the device design of the output transistor to further reduce the noise.

Originally designed for night-vision equipment, InGaAs detectors are beginning to achieve background-limited performance in broadband imaging from the ground. The lower cost of these detectors can enable multi-band instruments, arrays of small telescopes, and large focal planes that would be uneconomical with high-performance HgCdTe detectors. We developed a camera to operate the FLIR AP1121 sensor using deep thermoelectric cooling and up-the-ramp sampling to minimize noise. We measured a dark current of 163 e- s-1 pix-1, a read noise of 87 e- up-the-ramp, and a well depth of 80k e-. Laboratory photometric testing achieved a stability of 230 ppm hr-1/2, which would be required for detecting exoplanet transits. InGaAs detectors are also applicable to other branches of near-infrared time-domain astronomy, ranging from brown dwarf weather to gravitational wave follow-up.

The Payload Technology Validation Section (Future mission preparation Office) at ESTEC is in charge of specific mission oriented validation activities, for science and robotic exploration missions, aiming at reducing development risks in the implementation phase. These activities take place during the early mission phases or during the implementation itself. In this framework, a test set up to characterize the quantum efficiency of near infrared detectors has been developed. The first detector to be tested will an HAWAII-2RG detector with a 2.5μm cut off, it will be used as commissioning device in preparation to the tests of prototypes European detectors developed under ESA funding. The capability to compare on the same setup detectors from different manufacturers will be a unique asset for the future mission preparation office. This publication presents the performances of the quantum efficiency test bench to prepare measurements on the HAWAII-2RG detector. A SOFRADIR Saturn detector has been used as a preliminary test vehicle for the bench. A test set up with a lamp, chopper, monochromator, pinhole and off axis mirrors allows to create a spot of 1mm diameter between 700nm and 2.5μm.The shape of the beam has been measured to match the rms voltage read by the Merlin Lock –in amplifier and the amplitude of the incoming signal. The reference detectors have been inter-calibrated with an uncertainty up to 3 %. For the measurement with HAWAII-2RG detector, the existing cryostat [1] has been modified to adapt cold black baffling, a cold filter wheel and a sapphire window. An statistic uncertainty of ±2.6% on the quantum efficiency on the detector under test measurement is expected.

ESO has already published data from a preliminary laboratory analysis on the new mid-IR detector, AQUARIUS, at the previous SPIE conference of 2012, held in Amsterdam2. This data analysis indicated that this new mid-IR Si:As IBC detector, from Raytheon Vision Systems, was an excellent astronomical detector when compared to previous generations of this detector type, specifically in terms of stability, read noise and cosmetic quality. Since that time, the detector has been deployed into the VISIR1 instrument at the VLT, with very mixed performance results, especially when used with the telescope secondary mirror, to chop between two areas of sky to do background subtraction and at the same time when many frames are co-added to improve the signal to noise performance. This is the typical mode of operation for a mid-IR instrument on a ground based telescope. Preliminary astronomical data analysis indicated that the new detector was a factor of two to three times less sensitive in terms of its signal to noise per unit time performance when directly compared to the old DRS detector that AQUARIUS was designed to replace. To determine the reason for this loss of sensitivity, the instrument was removed from the telescope and not offered to the ESO user community. A detector testing campaign was then initiated in our laboratory to determine the reasons for this loss of sensitivity, assuming that it was an issue with the new detector itself. This paper reports on our latest laboratory measurements to determine the reasons for this loss of sensitivity. We specifically report on indirect measurements made to measure the quantum efficiency of the detector, which can be difficult to measure directly. We also report on a little known source of noise, called Excess Low Frequency Noise (ELFN). Detailed analysis and testing has confirmed that this ELFN is the reason for the loss of instrument sensitivity. This has been proven by a re-commissioning phase at the telescope with the instrument and the detector. A new set of observing parameters and observational regime have been developed to help to mitigate the ELFN. We outline a possible explanation for the source of the EFLN, learnt from a literature search and discussion with the manufacturer.

The pocket pumping technique is used to detect small electron trap sites. These traps, if present, degrade CCD charge transfer efficiency. To reveal traps in the active area, a CCD is illuminated with a flat field and, before image is read out, accumulated charges are moved back and forth number of times in parallel direction. As charges are moved over a trap, an electron is removed from the original pocket and re-emitted in the following pocket. As process repeats one pocket gets depleted and the neighboring pocket gets excess of charges. As a result a dipole" signal appears on the otherwise at background level. The amplitude of the dipole signal depends on the trap pumping efficiency. This paper is focused on trap identification technique and particularly on new methods developed for this purpose. The sensor with bad segments was deliberately chosen for algorithms development and to demonstrate sensitivity and power of new methods in uncovering sensor defects.

SWIMS (Simultaneous-color Wide-field Infrared Multi-object Spectrograph) is one of the first-generation instru- ments for the University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory 6.5-m telescope which is now under construction in northern Chile. This instrument incorporates 4 (and maximum 8 in future) HgCdTe HAWAII-2RG detectors, from which images are acquired by SIDECAR ASICs. Characterization and validation of performances of these detectors are carried out using a test dewar at 80K using liquid nitrogen. Bias voltages such as reset level and substrate level and reference voltages are optimized to minimize readout noise with keeping output levels within proper range for ADC inputs. ADU-electron conversion gain gc is measured by photon-transfer method, incorporating IPC (Inter-Pixel Capacitance) correction. IPC coefficient is measured to be about 1.4%, which result in overestimation of gc by about 13%. After this correction, gc is measured to be about 2:4 e-=ADU with normal preamplifier gain setting in the ASICs. Correlated double sampling (CDS) readout noise is about 16 e- rms, and is reduced to about 4 e- rms by Multi Fowler sampling. The noise is different by 30% at most between channels of the ASIC. We also separate noise sources into those come from detector pixels, from a at cable between the detector and the ASIC, and from preamps and from ADCs, and found that the detector pixels are the major sources of readout noise. Fitting of linearity curve is also obtained. The next step is to study the effects of driving multiple detectors to the performances and to install the detectors into SWIMS.

This paper presents the development of the ESO prototype detector controller for the Adaptive Optics imager in the EELT which is based on the e2v Natural Guide Star Detector (NGSD) and Laser Guide Star Detector (LGSD). NGSD is a 880×840 pixel CMOS array organized as 44×42 sub-apertures of 20×20 pixel each. NGSD is exactly 1/4 of the LGSD and therefore it is considered a scaled down demonstrator for the LGSD. The detector controller requirements present important challenges in the design of the electronics due to the low-power, low-noise and high parallel data rate of the detectors involved. The general architecture of the controller along with the front-end electronics to drive and read-out the detector are described here. This electronics is based on Xilinx Virtex-7 FPGAs.

The next generation of astronomical photocathode / microchannel plate based UV photon counting detectors will overcome existing count rate limitations by replacing the anode arrays and external cabled electronics with anode arrays integrated into imaging Read Out Integrated Circuits (ROICs). We have fabricated a High Event Rate ROIC (HEROIC) consisting of a 32 by 32 array of 55 μm square pixels on a 60 μm pitch. The pixel sensitivity (threshold) has been designed to be globally programmable between 1 × 103 and 1 × 106 electrons. To achieve the sensitivity of 1 × 103 electrons, parasitic capacitances had to be minimized and this was achieved by fabricating the ROIC in a 65 nm CMOS process. The ROIC has been designed to support pixel counts up to 4096 events per integration period at rates up to 1 MHz per pixel. Integration time periods can be controlled via an external signal with a time resolution of less than 1 microsecond enabling temporally resolved imaging and spectroscopy of astronomical sources. An electrical injection port is provided to verify functionality and performance of each ROIC prior to vacuum integration with a photocathode and microchannel plate amplifier. Test results on the first ROICs using the electrical injection port demonstrate sensitivities between 3 × 103 and 4 × 105 electrons are achieved. A number of fixes are identified for a re-spin of this ROIC.

Focal Plane Arrays (FPA) are key items for modern astronomical observations in the near infrared wavelength, but it is very expensive and not easy to get them. Less expensive NIR FPAs with reasonable performance are very important to spread NIR observation extensively. FPA640×512 manufactured by Chunghwa Leading Photonics Tech is a 640×512 InGaAs detector covering the 0.9-1.7 μm wavelength. Since this array is significantly cheaper than the commonly used NIR FPAs in the astronomical observation, it is possible to be a good choice for particular projects which do not need many pixels, if FPA640×512 has acceptable performance for the purpose. We have evaluated one test grade array of FPA640×512 both in the room and low temperature environment. In order to evaluate the characteristics of this FPA in the low temperature environment, we cooled it down by the mechanical refrigerator and confirmed that it works at 100 K. We have found that the dark current reduces exponentially as the FPA temperature decreases, but it hits the bottom at~1000 e−/sec bellow 200 K with the default setting. We are trying to reduce the dark current by optimizing the bias voltage and the current to the MUX circuit. The latest experiments have shown the possibility that the dark current decreases to~200 e−/sec. This value is still higher than that of NIR FPAs used in the scientific observation, but it may be applicable for the particular purpose, for example, FPAs for slit viewer in spectrometers, wave front sensor, and so on.

We present two lines of ASICs dedicated to the control and readout of CCD sensors. The CABAC (Clocks And Biases ASIC for CCDs) provides all required bias voltages and clocks. The ASPIC (Analog Signal Processing Integrated Circuit) processes 8 CCD output channels: amplification, Correlated Double Sampling, conversion to differential signal. Both chips are highly configurable in order to fulfill a wide range of astronomical CCD readout needs, from fast readout of wide-field imaging arrays to slower speeds and higher gains for spectroscopy. Their sizes and temperature ranges allow to integrate them in-cryostat, close to the sensors, and they offer diagnostic capabilities to assist the integration. In addition to extensive stand-alone tests, these chips are integrated in the LSST REB (Raft Electronics Board), and have been tested driving the E2V prototype CCD for the LSST focal plane.

We characterize at pixel level a NIR H2RG detector read with SIDECAR ASIC, similar to the detectors used in Euclid's Near IR Spectrometer Photometer (NISP). We derive the full covariance matrix formulae, extending the results from previous publications, and compare them to data and simulations for NISP baseline operating modes. The nonlinear response of the detector is measured and high precision maps are derived for in-flight or on-ground correction. High precision maps of the conversion gain are also determined using the Photon Transfer Curve technique.

The Cherenkov Telescope Array (CTA) is a worldwide new generation project aimed at realizing an array of a hundred ground based gamma-ray telescopes. ASTRI (Astrofisica con Specchi a Tecnologia Replicante Italiana) is the Italian project whose primary target is the development of an end-to-end prototype, named ASTRI SST-2M, of the CTA small size class of telescopes devoted to investigation of the highest energy region, from 1 to 100 TeV. Next target is the implementation of an ASTRI/CTA mini-array based on seven identical telescopes. Silicon Photo-Multipliers (SiPMs) are the semiconductor photosensor devices designated to constitute the camera detection system at the focal plane of the ASTRI telescopes. SiPM photosensors are suitable for the detection of the Cherenkov flashes, since they are very fast and sensitive to the light in the 300-700nm wavelength spectrum. Their drawbacks compared to the traditional photomultiplier tubes are high dark count rates, after-pulsing and optical cross-talk contributions, and intrinsic gains strongly dependent on temperature. Nonetheless, for a single pixel, the dark count rate is well below the Night Sky Background, the effects of cross-talk and afterpulses are typically lower than 20%, and the gain can be kept stable against temperature variations by means of adequate bias voltage compensation strategies. This work presents and discusses some experimental results from a large set of measurements performed on the SiPM sensors to be used for the ASTRI SST-2M prototype camera and on recently developed detectors demonstrating outstanding performance for the future evolution of the project in the ASTRI/CTA mini-array.

In vacuum UV band, especially in the domain around 100nm wavelength, MCP dominates the detector realm, such as the FUSE telescope (the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer), the working band of which is 90.5-119.5nm. In this paper, it is introduced our work of an attempt to build a CCD system with e2v’s enhanced no-coating device as the detector to test two vacuum UV band spectrographs, of which one works at 102-170nm band and another at 160-320nm. And the working band testing result of the CCD system is showed and the potential possibility to use CCD to detect far UV image is discussed.

We have developed a new method to correct dark current at relatively high temperatures for Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) images when dark frames cannot be obtained on the telescope. For images taken with the Antarctic Survey Telescopes (AST3) in 2012, due to the low cooling efficiency, the median CCD temperature was -46°C, resulting in a high dark current level of about 3e−/pix/sec, even comparable to the sky brightness (10e−/pix/sec). If not corrected, the nonuniformity of the dark current could even overweight the photon noise of the sky background. However, dark frames could not be obtained during the observing season because the camera was operated in frame-transfer mode without a shutter, and the telescope was unattended in winter. Here we present an alternative, but simple and effective method to derive the dark current frame from the scientific images. Then we can scale this dark frame to the temperature at which the scientific images were taken, and apply the dark frame corrections to the scientific images. We have applied this method to the AST3 data, and demonstrated that it can reduce the noise to a level roughly as low as the photon noise of the sky brightness, solving the high noise problem and improving the photometric precision. This method will also be helpful for other projects that suffer from similar issues.

The photon transfer curve (PTC, variance vs. signal level) is a commonly used and effective tool in characterizing CCD performance. It is theoretically linear in the range where photon shot noise dominates, and its slope is utilized to derive the gain of the CCD. However, recent researches on different CCDs have revealed that the variance progressively drops at high signal levels, while the linearity shown by signal versus exposure time is still excellent and unaffected. On the other hand, bright stars are found to exhibit fatter point spread function (PSF). Both nonlinear PTC and the brighter-fatter effect are regarded as the result of spreading of charges between pixels, an interaction progress increasing with signal level. In this work we investigate the nonlinear PTC based on the images with a STA1600FT CCD camera, whose PTC starts to become nonlinear at about 1/3 full well. To explain the phenomenon, we present a model to characterize the charge-sharing PSF. This signal-dependent PSF can be derived from flat-field frames, and allow us to quantify the effects on photometry and measured shape of stars. This effect is essentially critical for projects requiring accurate photometry and shape parameters.

Stirling micro coolers, such as the K508 from Ricor, are useful components of scientific instruments when there is a need to remove modest amounts of heat (~1/2W) at liquid nitrogren temperatures with an input power of less than 10W. The action of the cooler can, however, couple noise into sensitive detectors through a variety of mechanisms such as electromagnetic interference, mechanical vibration, and small temperature fluctuations. We report on successful noise-mitigation strategies for our application, an InSb diode for detecting light at 2.4 microns. The largest benefit was obtained by sychronizing the integration times with the position of the piston in the micro cooler. The piston position was determined using a hall-effect rotor position sensor in the driving motor.

We describe the measurement of detailed and precise Pixel Response Functions (PRFs) of a fully depleted CCD. Measurements were performed under different physical conditions, such as different wavelength light sources or CCD operating temperatures. We determined the relations between these physical conditions and the forms of the PRF. We employ two types of PRFs: one is the model PRF (mPRF) that can represent the shape of a PRF with one characteristic parameter and the other is the simulated PRF (sPRF) that is the resultant PRF from simulating physical phenomena. By using measured, model, and simulated PRFs, we determined the relations between operational parameters and the PRFs. Using the obtained relations, we can now estimate a PRF under conditions that will be encountered during the course of Nano-JASMINE observations. These estimated PRFs will be utilized in the analysis of the Nano-JASMINE data.

IGRINS (Immersion GRating INfrared Spectrometer) is a high resolution wide-band infrared spectrograph developed by the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI) and the University of Texas at Austin (UT). This spectrograph has H-band and K-band science cameras and a slit viewing camera, all three of which use Teledyne's λc~2.5μm 2k×2k HgCdTe HAWAII-2RG CMOS detectors. The two spectrograph cameras employ science grade detectors, while the slit viewing camera includes an engineering grade detector. Teledyne's cryogenic SIDECAR ASIC boards and JADE2 USB interface cards were installed to control those detectors. We performed experiments to characterize and optimize the detector systems in the IGRINS cryostat. We present measurements and optimization of noise, dark current, and referencelevel stability obtained under dark conditions. We also discuss well depth, linearity and conversion gain measurements obtained using an external light source.

This paper is devoted to the presentation of a new technique of characterization of the Intra-Pixel Sensitivity Variations (IPSVs) of astronomical detectors. The IPSV is the spatial variation of the sensitivity within a pixel and it was demonstrated that this variation can contribute to the instrument global error. Then IPSV has not to be neglected especially in the case of under-sampled instruments for high quality imaging and accurate photometry. The common approaches to measure the IPSV consist in determining the pixel response function (PRF) by scanning an optical probe through the detector. These approaches require high-aperture optics, high precision mechanical devices and are time consuming. The original approach we will present in this paper consists in projecting high-resolution periodic patterns onto the whole sensor without classic optics but using the self-imaging property (the Talbot effect) of a Continuously Self Imaging Grating (CSIG) illuminated by a plane wave. This paper describes the test bench and its design rules. The methodology of the measurement is also presented. Two measurement procedures are available: global and local. In the global procedure, the mean PRF corresponding to the whole Focal Plane Array (FPA) or a sub-area of the FPA is evaluated. The results obtained applying this procedure on e2v CCD 204 are presented and discussed in detail. In the local procedure, a CSIG is moved in front of each pixel and a pixel PRF is reconstructed by resolving the inverse problem. The local procedure is presented and validated by simulations.

We report the non-uniformity of quantum efficiency (QE) and concentric ring patterns on the images of the CCDs used in Hyper Suprime-Cam (HSC) mounted on Subaru Telescope. The non-uniformity of QE is seen as gradient patterns along the direction of the vertical resistor especially in images obtained with the g, r, and i-band filters. This is explained by non-uniformity of QE on the CCDs caused by non-uniformity of thickness of the anti-reflective coating. We confirmed this phenomena by using laboratory QE data; with the g-band filter, QE increases 1.5 % from the horizontal resistor side to vertical resistor while it decreases with the i-band filter. The concentric ring pattern is seen on uniformly illuminated images. This is caused by inhomogeneous of impurity in high resistivity silicon wafer. The fluctuation is ±0.3 % of the signal levels with the g, r, i, z, and Y-band filters.

The article describes the near infrared readout and controller ASIC (NIRCA) developed by Integrated Detector Electronics AS (IDEAS). The project aims at future astronomical science and Earth observation missions, where the ASIC will be used with image sensors based on mercury cadmium telluride (HgCdTe, or MCT). NIRCA is designed to operate from cryogenic temperatures (77 K) to higher than room temperature (328 K) and in a high radiation environment (LET > 60 MeVcm2/mg). The ASIC connects to the readout integrated circuit (ROIC) and delivers fully digitized data via serial digital output. The ASIC contains an analogue front-end (AFE) with 4 analogue-to-digital converters (ADCs) and programmable gain amplifiers with offset adjustment. The ADCs have a differential input swing of ±2 V, 12-bit resolution, and a maximum sample rate of 3 MSps. The ASIC contains a programmable sequencer (microcontroller) to generate up to 40 digital signals for the ROIC and to control the analogue front-end and DACs on the chip. The ASIC has two power supply voltage regulators that provide the ROIC with 1.8 V and 3.3 V, and programmable 10-bit DACs to generate 16 independent reference and bias voltages from 0.3 V to 3 V. In addition NIRCA allows one to read 8 external digital signals, and monitor external and internal analogue signals including onchip temperature. NIRCA can be programmed and controlled via SPI interface for all internal functions and allows data forwarding from and to the ROIC SPI interface.

We have constructed a stacked detector system operating in the X-ray range from 0.5 keV to 250 keV that consists of a Si-based 64×64 DePFET-Matrix in front of a CdTe hybrid detector called Caliste-64. The setup is operated under laboratory conditions that approximate the expected environment of a space-borne observatory. The DePFET detector is an active pixel matrix that provides high count-rate capabilities with a near Fanolimited spectral resolution at energies up to 15 keV. The Caliste-64 hard X-ray camera consists of a 1mm thick CdTe crystal combined with very compact integrated readout electronics, constituting a high performance spectro-imager with event-triggered time-tagging capability in the energy range between 2 keV and 200 keV. In this combined geometry the DePFET detector works as the Low Energy Detector (LED) while the Caliste-64 - as the High Energy Detector (HED) - detects predominantly the high energetic photons that have passed the LED. In addition to the individual optimization of both detectors, we use the setup to test and optimize the performance of the combined detector system. Side-effects like X-ray fluorescence photons, electrical crosstalk, and mutual heating have negative impacts on the data quality and will be investigated. Besides the primary application as a combined imaging detector system with high sensitivity across a broad energy range, additional applications become feasible. Via the analysis of coincident events in both detectors we can estimate the capabilities of the setup to be used as a Compton camera and as an X-ray polarimeter - both desirable functionalities for use in the lab as well as for future X-ray missions.

The Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) will be launched and attached to the Japanese module of the International Space Station (ISS). Its aim is to observe UV photon tracks produced by ultra-high energy cosmic rays developing in the atmosphere and producing extensive air showers. The key element of the instrument is a very wide-field, very fast, large-lense telescope that can detect extreme energy particles with energy above 1019 eV. The Atmospheric Monitoring System (AMS), comprising, among others, the Infrared Camera (IRCAM), which is the Spanish contribution, plays a fundamental role in the understanding of the atmospheric conditions in the Field of View (FoV) of the telescope. It is used to detect the temperature of clouds and to obtain the cloud coverage and cloud top altitude during the observation period of the JEM-EUSO main instrument. SENER is responsible for the preliminary design of the Front End Electronics (FEE) of the Infrared Camera, based on an uncooled microbolometer, and the manufacturing and verification of the prototype model. This paper describes the flight design drivers and key factors to achieve the target features, namely, detector biasing with electrical noise better than 100μV from 1Hz to 10MHz, temperature control of the microbolometer, from 10°C to 40°C with stability better than 10mK over 4.8hours, low noise high bandwidth amplifier adaptation of the microbolometer output to differential input before analog to digital conversion, housekeeping generation, microbolometer control, and image accumulation for noise reduction. It also shows the modifications implemented in the FEE prototype design to perform a trade-off of different technologies, such as the convenience of using linear or switched regulation for the temperature control, the possibility to check the camera performances when both microbolometer and analog electronics are moved further away from the power and digital electronics, and the addition of switching regulators to demonstrate the design is immune to the electrical noise the switching converters introduce. Finally, the results obtained during the verification phase are presented: FEE limitations, verification results, including FEE noise for each channel and its equivalent NETD and microbolometer temperature stability achieved, technologies trade-off, lessons learnt, and design improvement to implement in future project phases.

The latest CCD science detectors have reached a size of 100 mm on its side. For delicate experiments, one needs to minimize or eliminate uncalibratable errors introduced by the instrument. This is especially critical in the case of any mechanical or electronic variations in large detectors caused by an unanticipated thermal behavior of the device, when operated at cryogenic temperatures. G-CLEF (GMT-Consortium Large Earth Finder) is an optical band echelle spectrograph that has been selected as the first light instrument for the Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT). As part of the Preliminary Design, we have developed a Finite Difference Model (FDM) that can predict the temperature profile of the CCD mounting plate. We present the model and the results we have obtained. This model is an important design tool for the optimization of the position for cold straps and heaters, when requirements such as temperature equalization or stability are considered.

The SIDECAR ASIC is a fully integrated system-on-a-chip focal plane array controller that offers low power and low noise, small size and low weight. It has been widely used to operate different image sensors for ground-based and flightbased astronomy applications. A key mechanism to operating analog detectors is the SIDECAR ASIC's high level of programmability. This paper gives an overview of the SIDECAR ASIC architecture, including its optimized microcontroller featuring a customized instruction set. It describes the firmware components, including timing generation, biasing, commanding, housekeeping and synchronization of multiple detectors. The firmware development tools including compiler and supporting development environment and hardware setup are presented. The firmware capability for ground-based HxRG applications and for flight-based applications like the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), the repair of the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS), and others are also discussed.

A water Cherenkov detector uses the emission of Cherenkov radiation for detecting the trace of secondary particles generated by extensive air shower cascades traversing a purified water tank. These are used for the detection of high energy gamma-rays. A fundamental component of the detectors consists of the photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) used for detection of the Cherenkov radiation that is produced by very high energy particles moving faster than the speed of of light in the medium. INAOE, being one of the leading institutions of HAWC, decided to develop a system to characterize the PMTs that includes measurement of dark current, linear response region determination, response to a photoelectron and hence the gain. This characterization is indispensable when several PMTs operate in an array of water Cherenkov detectors. The system was further developed to simultaneously acquire data of several phototubes, allowing also to measure coincidences. Additionally, the VME scalers modules will be used to monitor up to 32 phototubes. This system has been used to characterize the PMTs of the LAGO experiment and can be used in the future for any type of PMT system.

Some modern CCD designs provide a dummy readout amplifier that is designed to be operated with the same clock and bias signals as the true amplifier in order to provide a measurement of clock induced and other common-mode noise signals in the true amplifier readout. In general the dummy output signal is subtracted electronically from the true output signal in a differential input preamplifier before digitization. Here we report on an alternative approach where both signals are digitized and the subtraction done in software. We present the results of testing this method of operation using the ARC SDSU generation III CCD controllers and an e2v CCD231 device and find it works well, allowing a noise figure of ~ 2:2 electrons to be reached in the presence of significantly higher (~ 6 electrons) pickup noise. In addition we test the effectiveness of using unused (but still genuine) readout amplifiers on the detector to provide a pseudo-dummy output, which we also find effective in cancelling common mode noise. This provides the option of implementing noise reduction on CCDs that are not equipped with dummy outputs at the expense of overall readout speed.

We have investigated the response of 10 micron cutoff HgCdTe 1024 × 1024 pixel arrays, grown by Teledyne Imaging Sensors (TIS) on CdZnTe substrates, to ionizing radiation in the form of galactic cosmic ray secondaries near sea level, primarily muons, and natural radiation. The arrays are optimized for use in space observatories, such as the proposed NEOCam mission, so response to ubiquitous cosmic rays is crucially important. We analyzed 2000 6-second integration samples, for each pixel in each array, to characterize their response to ionizing radiation. Muons and other ionizing radiation leave 'footprints' in the data, visible as a sudden 'jump' in signal in the time series, which affects a cluster of pixels simultaneously. We investigated 4 key properties of these radiation hits: the number of pixels affected in each cluster, the charge generated by the event, the detector noise directly after the hit, and the responsivity of the pixel before and after each hit. The responsivity (plus dark current), given by the slope of the time series, was unaffected by the radiation hits. Likewise the correlated-double-sampling read noise was unaffected by the hits. The total charge generated was in reasonable agreement with that expected from 2-4 GeV muon hits. 8-12 pixels were typically affected by single hits, irrespective of the thickness of the CdZnTe substrate (800, 48 and zero microns). This cluster size was significantly larger than that observed in a 2.5 micron cutoff array from TIS, but similar to that shown by a 5 micron cutoff device from TIS tested for response to energetic protons for the JWST mission.

The Cosmological Advanced Survey Telescope for Optical and UV Research (CASTOR) is a proposed Canadian Space Agency (CSA) mission that would provide panoramic, high-resolution imaging of 1/8th of the sky in the UV/optical (150-550 nm) spectral region. This small-satellite class mission would provide high angular resolution ultra-deep imaging in three broad filters to supplement data from planned international dark energy missions (Euclid, WFIRST) as well as from the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST). One of the leading technical risks on this mission is the UV sensitivity required to approach 26th magnitude in the near UV band. We are planning to characterize a selected candidate technology down to 150 nm. We will review the main scientific and technical drivers for the mission and show how they constrain the available detector options. We will compare the sensitivity and general applicability of CCD, EMCCD, hybridized and monolithic CMOS FPA options.

We have repeated some of our previous measurements of the intra-pixel response of the infrared detector arrays for the Fine Guidance Sensor (FGS) instrument on the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). This set of tests was performed on a 5 micron cutoff substrate-removed HAWAII-1RG from the new batch of devices produced for JWST. The measurements were done at wavelengths from 650 nm to 1550 nm. The results from these tests indicate that there are no significant differences in the intra-pixel response between the older JWST devices and the new ones. Modeling suggests that the primary contributor to the response profile is diffusion in the bulk detector material.

The following paper details the design for the CCD readout electronics for the Subaru Telescope Prime Focus Spectrograph (PFS). PFS is designed to gather spectra from 2394 objects simultaneously, covering wavelengths that extend from 380 nm to 1260 nm. The spectrograph is comprised of four identical spectrograph modules, each collecting roughly 600 spectra. The spectrograph modules provide simultaneous wavelength coverage over the entire band through the use of three separate optical channels: blue, red, and near infrared (NIR). A camera in each channel images the multi-object spectra onto a 4k × 4k, 15 μm pixel, detector format. The two visible cameras use a pair of Hamamatsu 2k × 4k CCDs with readout provided by custom electronics, while the NIR camera uses a single Teledyne HgCdTe 4k × 4k detector and Teledyne’s ASIC Sidecar to read the device. The CCD readout system is a custom design comprised of three electrical subsystems – the Back End Electronics (BEE), the Front End Electronics (FEE), and a Pre-amplifier. The BEE is an off-the-shelf PC104 computer, with an auxiliary Xilinx FPGA module. The computer serves as the main interface to the Subaru messaging hub and controls other peripheral devices associated with the camera, while the FPGA is used to generate the necessary clocks and transfer image data from the CCDs. The FEE board sets clock biases, substrate bias, and CDS offsets. It also monitors bias voltages, offset voltages, power rail voltage, substrate voltage and CCD temperature. The board translates LVDS clock signals to biased clocks and returns digitized analog data via LVDS. Monitoring and control messages are sent from the BEE to the FEE using a standard serial interface. The Pre-amplifier board resides behind the detectors and acts as an interface to the two Hamamatsu CCDs. The Pre-amplifier passes clocks and biases to the CCDs, and analog CCD data is buffered and amplified prior to being returned to the FEE. In this paper we describe the detailed design of the PFS CCD readout electronics and discuss current status of the design, preliminary performance, and proposed enhancements.

We describe progress in the development and demonstration of Teledyne’s new high resolution large format FPA for astronomy, the H4RG-10 IR. The H4RG-10 is the latest in Teledyne’s H×RG line of sensors, in a 4096×4096 format using 10 micron pixels. It is offered as a hybrid sensor using either a silicon p-i-n detector array (HyViSI) or a HgCdTe photodiode array with standard infrared cutoff wavelength of 1.75μm, 2.5μm, or 5.3μm (with custom cutoff wavelengths also available). The HgCdTe sensor arrays are fully substrate removed to provide high quantum efficiency, response to visible wavelengths, and minimize cosmic ray and fringing mitigation. Packaging using either CE6 or SiC bases is available. Teledyne is currently fabricating H4RG-10 SWIR FPAs for NASA’s WFIRST space telescope instrument. Initial array performance has been tested and will be presented. Key results include the demonstration of low dark current (array mean dark current of <0.01e-/s/pixel at 100K), low noise (<10 e-/CDS read noise), and high array operability (>99% pixels). The paper discusses the sensor configuration and features, the performance achieved to date including QE, dark current, noise maps and histograms, and the remaining challenges.

We report the testing result of e2v CIS 107 CMOS sensor for temperature from 300K to 170K. The CIS 107 sensor is a prototype device with 10 different variations of pixel designs. The sensor has 1500 × 2000, 7 μm pixels with 4 outputs. Each variation covers 1500 × 200 pixels. These are 4T pixels with high resistivity epitaxial silicon and back thinned to 11μm. At room temperature, the several variants of pixels show peak QE higher than 90%, readout noise around 5e- and dark current around 50e-/s/pix. The full well is about 15000 e- due to the limitation of the transfer gate capacitor. The CIS 107 device was further characterized at different device temperatures from 170K to 300K. The readout noise decreases and the full well increases as the device is operated at lower temperature.

A very high precision Image Stabilization System has been designed for the Solar Orbiter mission. The different components that have been designed are the Correlation Tracking Camera (CTC), Tip-Tilt controller (TTC) and the system control in order to achieve the specified requirements. For the CTC, in order to achieve the required resolution of 12 bits and reduced power consumption, we used an external ADC. For the TTC, a special focus has been dedicated to a 55 V linear regulator in a QUASI-LDO configuration and a Tip-Tilt driver in a transconductance amplifier architecture. Results show that the full system reaches an attenuation of 1/10th of a pixel at 10Hz. The TTC provides a high voltage span, enough slew-rate and the needed stability levels.

Cosmic Ray (CR) variation measurements have been extensively conducted using different type of detectors sensing different components of CR and at different locations around the world. We have constructed and, operated a single channel muon detector in the central part of Saudi Arabia. The main goal of this detector is to record the intensity of cosmic rays on different time scales and investigate their correlations with environment parameters. This detector is expected to fill the gap between neutron monitors and muon telescopes that exist around the world. In this paper, the technical aspects of this detector will be briefly discussed. Calibration procedures conducted to characterize and improve its performance will be detailed. These include the effect of the detector geometry and the internal surface coating.

A rotatable muon detection telescope with two layers of scintillators was designed and constructed at the physics detector laboratory at KACST, Saudi Arabia. The objective of this system is to study the zenith angle dependence of high energy cosmic ray muons. The system has the flexibility to rotate in all directions to cover the zenith angle from 0- 900 for muon distribution studies, as well as the azimuth angle from 0-3590 to observe the geomagnetic field effects on it. In this paper, the designing and the construction works as well as the calibration procedures for the detection system will be given. Some of the preliminarily results and some of the future experiments and possible modifications will be outlined.

NASA’s Physics of the Cosmos (PCOS) and Cosmic Origins (COR) Program Offices, established in 2011, reside at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC). The offices serve as the implementation arm for the Astrophysics Division at NASA Headquarters. We present an overview of the programs’ technology development activities and technology investment portfolio, funded by NASA’s Strategic Astrophysics Technology (SAT) program. We currently fund 19 technology advancements to enable future PCOS and COR missions to help answer the questions “How did our universe begin and evolve?” and “How did galaxies, stars, and planets come to be?” We discuss the process for addressing community-provided technology gaps and Technology Management Board (TMB)-vetted prioritization and investment recommendations that inform the SAT program. The process improves the transparency and relevance of our technology investments, provides the community a voice in the process, and promotes targeted external technology investments by defining needs and identifying customers. The programs’ goal is to promote and support technology development needed to enable missions envisioned by the National Research Council’s (NRC) “New Worlds, New Horizons in Astronomy and Astrophysics” (NWNH) Decadal Survey report [1] and the Astrophysics Implementation Plan (AIP) [2]. These include technology development for dark energy, gravitational waves, X-ray and inflation probe science, and a 4m-class UV/optical telescope to conduct imaging and spectroscopy studies, as a post-Hubble observatory with significantly improved sensitivity and capability.

Various high performance IR detectors are today available on the market from QWIPs to narrow gap semiconductor photodiodes, which exhibit various spectral features. In the astrophysics community, the knowledge of the detector spectral shape is of first importance. This quantity (spectral QE or response) is usually measured by means of a monochromator followed by an integrating sphere and compared to a calibrated reference detector. This approach is usually very efficient in the visible range, where all optical elements are very well known, particularly the reference detector. This setup is also widely used in the near IR (up to 3μm) but as the wavelength increases, it becomes less efficient. For instance, the internal emittance of integrating spheres in the IR, and the bad knowledge of reference detectors for longer wavelengths tend to degrade the measurement reliability. Another approach may therefore be considered, using a Fourier transform IR spectrometer (FTIR). In this case, as opposed to the monochromator, the tested detector is not in low flux condition, the incident light containing a mix of different wavelengths. Therefore, the reference detector has to be to be sensitive (and known) in the whole spectral band of interest, because it will sense all those wavelengths at the same time. A popular detector used in this case is a Deuterated Triglycine Sulfate thermal detector (DTGS). Being a pyro detetector, the spectral response of such a detector is very flat, mainly limited by its window. However, the response of such a detector is very slow, highly depending on the temporal frequency of the input signal. Moreover, being a differential detector, it doesn’t work in DC. In commercial FTIR spectrometers, the source luminance is usually continuously modulated by the moving interferometer, and the result is that the interferogram mixes optical spectral information (optical path difference) and temporal variations (temporal frequency) so that the temporal transfert function of the DTGS has to be qualified and taken into account. The usual way is to measure it directly by means of an optical shopper and a locking amplifier for different shopping frequencies. We present here an alternative method to estimate this DTGS transfer function, based on the fact that a FTIR continuous scan interfergram contains the different spectral frequencies of interest. Such a calibration method doesn’t need a specific setup as it can be performed in standard configuration, playing only with spectrometer parameters. It allows for the precise estimation of detector spectral shapes. However, this measurement is not absolute and the peak response needs therefore to be estimated using a calibrated black body cavity. The method, its results and limits is presented and discussed for a set of different DTGS cells.