Effects of race and ethnicity on the probability of R01 award for applications and applicants. (A) Within-race comparisons of applications and applicants with or without previous NIH F or T training program participation using the U.S. citizen and permanent resident sample. (B) The effect of race/ethnicity on R01 award probability for applications and applicants with previous NIH F or T training program participation compared with white participants. ‡, P < .001; **, P < .01; *, P < .05.