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Harpers Ferry During the Civil War

Harpers Ferry, in what is now
West Virginia, lies at the confluence of the Potomac and Shenandoah rivers and serves as the gateway
to the Shenandoah Valley.
Before and during the American Civil
War (1861–1865), this small, isolated town was an economically thriving
community with great strategic importance because of its location along the
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, and its firearms
industry—including the United States Arsenal and Armory and Hall's Rifle Works. In
1859, Harpers Ferry emerged onto the national stage when the radical abolitionist
John Brown and a small band of
followers raided the armory in an attempt to ignite a slave insurrection. The town
also became an object of intense military interest immediately after Virginia's
secession in April 1861, during the Shenandoah Valley
Campaign of 1862, the Maryland Campaign of 1862, and the Valley Campaign of
1864. MORE...

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John Brown's Raid

Following the bloody encounters in Kansas in the mid-1850s, John Brown—a radical
abolitionist who had been fighting against pro-slavery forces in Kansas—decided on
a plan to end slavery. Brown came up with the idea to capture Harpers Ferry, its
store of firearms, and spark a slave insurrection throughout the South that would
lead to the collapse of slavery. Brown came to Harpers Ferry on July 3, 1859, to
begin preparations for his abolitionist crusade. On the night of October 16, 1859,
Brown and twenty-one raiders invaded the town, and seized the United States
Arsenal and Armory and Hall's Rifle Works. Ironically the first casualty of
Brown's raid was Heyward Shepherd—a free black from Winchester, Virginia, who
worked as a baggage handler on the railroad. After Brown captured Harpers Ferry,
the town's citizens, supported by area militia, cornered Brown and his men in a
small fire engine house. Finally, on October 18, a contingent of United States
Marines under the command of Colonel Robert E. Lee captured Brown. He stood trial and was executed on
December 2, 1859. To many, Brown's raid signaled the Civil War's imminence. "The
war began not at Sumter," wrote future Confederate cavalry officer Turner Ashby,
"but at Harper's Ferry."

Secession Crisis

Even though Brown's raid foreshadowed armed conflict, residents of Harpers Ferry
and the nation hoped to avoid war as states grappled with the secession issue
following the election of Abraham
Lincoln as U.S. president in November 1860. Like most Shenandoah Valley
communities, Harpers Ferry urged loyalty to the Union during Virginia's long
debate over secession. Following the attack on Fort Sumter (April 12–13, 1861),
former Virginia governor Henry
Wise, believing that the secession convention in Richmond would vote to leave the
Union on April 17, 1861, urged Governor John Letcher to capture Harpers Ferry and its large
store of firearms for the Confederacy. After the convention did in fact vote for
secession, Alfred Barbour—superintendent of the armory and a Confederate
sympathizer—informed the arsenal's employees and garrison that it would be handed
over to Virginia's forces.

Destruction and Military Occupation

In an effort to prevent Confederates from
seizing arsenal equipment, including 15,000 muskets, 1st Lieutenant Roger Jones
set fire to the arsenal buildings and then fled north to Carlisle, Pennsylvania.
In the meantime, Virginia militia under the command of Major General Kenton Harper
occupied the town, and when Colonel Thomas J. Jackson arrived on April 27 to organize the
militia into army regiments, he salvaged what he could from the arsenal ruins,
including 300 machines and 57,000 tools and rifle stocks, and shipped them to
Richmond. He also set about fortifying the town, regarding it as strategically
significant. When Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston took command of Harpers Ferry on
May 24, however, he viewed the site as indefensible—surrounded by the Blue Ridge
Mountains, it would be easy prey to an artillery siege—and moved his command south
to Winchester on June 14, 1861.

One month later, Union troops under General Robert Patterson occupied Harpers
Ferry, marking the first of many times the town would change hands. Union soldiers
found the setting to be impressive. "The scenery around Harper's Ferry is
majestically Grand," wrote Colonel John White Geary, "and such as bears an
Almighty impress[ion]."

Union troops remained in control of Harpers Ferry until August 22, 1861, when
Confederate cavalry under Captain Turner Ashby occupied the town. Over the next
six months, Harpers Ferry changed control four times, but by late in February 1862
Union forces under General Nathaniel P. Banks occupied the town and made it the base of his
operations in the Shenandoah Valley. Less than a year after the war's beginning,
Harpers Ferry already bore the scars of war. "It is really, or rather was, a town
of some note," wrote an officer of the 10th Maine, in late March 1862, "but the
ruin, absolute devastation now in its place is beyond anything I ever dreamed or
saw or heard tell of."

As part of the Shenandoah Valley Campaign
of 1862, Stonewall Jackson's forces attacked Harpers Ferry on May 30, but Union
general Rufus Saxton mounted a successful defense. (In 1893, he would be awarded
the Congressional Medal of Honor for his actions that day.) Three months later,
Harpers Ferry was again of critical strategic importance. Robert E. Lee was
commencing his first invasion of the North and wanted to secure his supply lines
from the Shenandoah Valley and cover a possible line of retreat behind the Blue
Ridge. In a risky move, he divided his army, sending part of it with Jackson to
take the town, which the general did on September 15, 1862, defeating the
approximately 14,000 Union troops garrisoned there under Colonel Dixon Miles.
Jackson, however, was then forced to race to Maryland for the Battle of Antietam
on September 17, which ended with Lee's retreat back into Virginia. A week later,
Union troops were back in control of Harpers Ferry.

For nearly the next year, Harpers Ferry remained firmly in Union hands. Not until
July 1, 1863, did the remnants of General Robert H. Milroy's command, defeated
during the Second Battle of
Winchester in mid-June, withdraw when pressed by Confederate cavalry.
Confederate success was short-lived as Union soldiers regained control eight days
later. By this time, Harpers Ferry was no longer in Confederate territory; West
Virginia was admitted to the Union as a state on June 20, 1863. Union troops only
momentarily lost control of the town on July 4, 1864, when Confederates, under
General Jubal A. Early, forced
them to withdraw. After Early withdrew four days later, Union troops took control
and would not relinquish Harpers Ferry for the remainder of the war. By August
1864, Harpers Ferry had become the gathering point for Union general Philip H. Sheridan's newly
created Middle Military Division and the base of operations for his splendid
campaign that finally wrested the Shenandoah Valley from Confederate control.

The Cost of War

Even amid the natural beauty that Thomas Jefferson once stated was "worth a voyage
across the Atlantic" to observe, Harpers Ferry stood as a testament to the
destructiveness of war. The site of one major battle in the autumn of 1862, it had
changed hands twelve times. "The town itself lies in ruins … all about the town
are rubbish, and filth, and stench," observed a visitor to Harpers Ferry in 1866.
Still, the citizenry rebuilt it in the immediate postwar years, although, sadly,
their hard work was undone by a flood in 1870. After the waters receded, some
wondered whether John Brown had cursed the place that had brought about his demise
and foreshadowed the Civil War.

Time Line

July 3, 1859
- Abolitionist John Brown arrives in Harpers Ferry.

October 16–18, 1859
- John Brown and twenty-one raiders attack Harpers Ferry and capture the United States Arsenal there in an attempt to start a slave rebellion. Five men are killed (four white and one black). Ninety United States Marines, under the command of Colonel Robert E. Lee, capture Brown, who is wounded in the struggle.

October 17, 1859
- A contingent of ninety United States Marines, under the command of Colonel Robert E. Lee, arrives in Harpers Ferry at 11 p.m. to put an end to John Brown's raid.

October 18, 1859
- United States Marines, under Lieutenant Israel Greene, break through the door to "John Brown's Fort" and capture Brown and his raiders. Brown is wounded in the struggle.

December 2, 1859
- After a gripping trial held in Charles Town in which John Brown is found guilty of conspiracy, of inciting servile insurrection, and of treason against the state, he is hanged.

April 17, 1861
- Delegates at the Virginia Convention in Richmond pass an Ordinance of Secession by a vote of 88 to 55. Thirty-two of the "no" votes come from trans-Allegheny delegates, who are more firmly Unionist than representatives from other parts of the state.

April 18, 1861
- Lieutenant Roger Jones burns the arsenal buildings at Harpers Ferry and moves his command north to Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Later that day, Virginia militia, under Major General Kenton Harper, occupy Harpers Ferry.

June 14, 1861
- Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston moves his
command from Harpers Ferry to Winchester, regarding the latter as the more strategically significant town.

July 17, 1861
- Union general Robert Patterson occupies Harpers
Ferry. The town is contested by both armies for the remainder of the year.

February 24, 1862
- Union forces under General Nathaniel P. Banks occupy Harpers Ferry. The town will become Banks's base of operations in the Shenandoah Valley.

May 30, 1862
- Union general Rufus Saxton defeats a Confederate attack from troops under Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson. In 1893 Saxton is awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor for this defense of Harpers Ferry.

September 15, 1862
- Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson captures the Union garrison at Harpers Ferry. Robert E. Lee calls off the Confederate retreat and moves to concentrate his forces on Antietam Creek near Sharpsburg, Maryland.

July 1, 1863
- Remnants of Union general Robert H. Milroy's command
are driven from Harpers Ferry by troops from the 12th Virginia Cavalry.

July 4, 1864
- Confederate forces under General Jubal A. Early attack and capture Harpers Ferry.

August 6, 1864
- Union general Philip H. Sheridan takes command of the newly created Middle Military Division. Harpers Ferry becomes the base of operations for Sheridan's campaign against Confederate general Jubal A. Early in the Shenandoah Valley.