The Indian sewf-ruwe movement was a mass-based movement dat encompassed various sections of society. It awso underwent a process of constant ideowogicaw evowution, uh-hah-hah-hah.[1] Awdough de basic ideowogy of de movement was anti-cowoniaw, it was supported by a vision of independent capitawist economic devewopment coupwed wif a secuwar, democratic, repubwican, and civiw-wibertarian powiticaw structure.[2] After de 1930s, de movement took on a strong sociawist orientation, owing to de infwuence of Bhagat Singh's demand of Purn Swaraj (Compwete Sewf-Ruwe).[1] The work of dese various movements wed uwtimatewy to de Indian Independence Act 1947, which ended de suzerainty in India and de creation of Pakistan. India remained a Dominion of de Crown untiw 26 January 1950, when de Constitution of India came into force, estabwishing de Repubwic of India; Pakistan was a dominion untiw 1956, when it adopted its first repubwican constitution. In 1971, East Pakistan decwared independence as de Peopwe's Repubwic of Bangwadesh.

After de defeat of Tipu Suwtan, most of Souf India was now eider under de company's direct ruwe, or under its indirect powiticaw controw

European traders first reached Indian shores wif de arrivaw of de Portuguese expworer Vasco da Gama in 1498 at de port of Cawicut, in search of de wucrative spice trade. Just over a century water, de Dutch and Engwish estabwished trading outposts on de subcontinent, wif de first Engwish trading post set up at Surat in 1613.[3] Over de course of de seventeenf and earwy eighteenf centuries, de British[4] defeated de Portuguese and Dutch miwitariwy, but remained in confwict wif de French, who had by den sought to estabwish demsewves in de subcontinent. The decwine of de Mughaw Empire in de first hawf of de eighteenf century provided de British wif de opportunity to estabwish a firm foodowd in Indian powitics.[5] After de Battwe of Pwassey in 1757, during which de East India Company's Indian army under Robert Cwive defeated Siraj ud-Dauwah, de Nawab of Bengaw, de Company estabwished itsewf as a major pwayer in Indian affairs, and soon afterwards gained administrative rights over de regions of Bengaw, Bihar and Midnapur part of Orissa, fowwowing de Battwe of Buxar in 1764.[6] After de defeat of Tipu Suwtan, most of Souf India came eider under de Company's direct ruwe, or under its indirect powiticaw controw as part a princewy state in a subsidiary awwiance. The Company subseqwentwy gained controw of regions ruwed by de Marada Empire, after defeating dem in a series of wars. The Punjab was annexed in 1849, after de defeat of de Sikh armies in de First (1845–1846) and Second (1848–49) Angwo-Sikh Wars.

Engwish was made de medium of instruction in India's schoows in 1835, and many Indians increasingwy diswiked British ruwe.

Puwi Thevar was one of de opponents of de British ruwe in India. He was in confwict wif de Nawab of Arcot who was supported by de British. His prominent expwoits were his confrontations wif Marudhanayagam, who water rebewwed against de British in de wate 1750s and earwy 1760s. Newkatumsevaw de present Tirunewvewi Dist of Tamiw Nadu state of India was de headqwarters of Puwi Thevan, uh-hah-hah-hah.

Kerawa Varma Pazhassi Raja was one of de earwiest freedom fighters in India. He was de prince regent of de princewy state of Kottiyur or Cotiote in Norf Mawabar, near Kannur, India between 1774 and 1805. He fought a guerriwwa war wif tribaw peopwe from Wynad supporting him. He was caught by de British and his fort was razed to de ground.

Rani Vewu Nachiyar (1730–1796), was a qween of Indian Sivaganga from 1760 to 1790. She was de first qween to fight against de British in India. Rani Nachiyar was trained in war match weapons usage, martiaw arts wike Vawari, Siwambam (fighting using stick), horse riding and archery. She was a schowar in many wanguages and she had proficiency wif wanguages wike French, Engwish and Urdu. When her husband, Muduvaduganadaperiya Udaiyadevar, was kiwwed by British sowdiers and de son of de Nawab of Arcot, she was drawn into battwe. She formed an army and sought an awwiance wif Gopawa Nayaker and Hyder Awi wif de aim of attacking de British, whom she did successfuwwy fight in 1780. When Rani Vewu Nachiyar found de pwace where de British stored deir ammunition, she arranged a suicide attack: a faidfuw fowwower, Kuyiwi, doused hersewf in oiw, set hersewf awight and wawked into de storehouse. Rani Vewu Nachiyar formed a woman's army named "udaiyaaw" in honour of her adopted daughter, Udaiyaaw, who died detonating a British arsenaw. Rani Nachiyar was one of de few ruwers who regained her kingdom, and ruwed it for ten more years.[7][8]

In September 1804, de King of Khordha, Kawinga was deprived of de traditionaw rights of Jagannaf Tempwe which was a serious shock to de King and de peopwe of Odisha. Conseqwentwy, in October 1804 a group of armed Paiks attacked de British at Pipiwi. This event awarmed de British force. Jayee Rajguru, de chief of Army of Kawinga reqwested aww de kings of de state to join hands for a common cause against de British.[14] Rajguru was kiwwed on 6 December 1806.[15] After Rajguru's deaf, Bakshi Jagabandhu commanded an armed rebewwion against de East India Company's ruwe in Odisha which is known as Paik Rebewwion.[16][17][17][18]

The Indian rebewwion of 1857 was a warge-scawe rebewwion in de nordern and centraw India against de British East India Company's ruwe. It was suppressed and de British government took controw of de company. The conditions of service in de company's army and cantonments increasingwy came into confwict wif de rewigious bewiefs and prejudices of de sepoys.[19] The predominance of members from de upper castes in de army, perceived woss of caste due to overseas travew, and rumours of secret designs of de government to convert dem to Christianity wed to deep discontent among de sepoys.[20] The sepoys were awso disiwwusioned by deir wow sawaries and de raciaw discrimination practised by British officers in matters of promotion and priviweges.[20] The indifference of de British towards weading native Indian ruwers such as de Mughaws and ex-Peshwas and de annexation of Oudh were powiticaw factors triggering dissent amongst Indians. The Marqwess of Dawhousie's powicy of annexation, de doctrine of wapse (or escheat) appwied by de British, and de projected removaw of de descendants of de Great Mughaw from deir ancestraw pawace at Red Fort to de Qutb Minaar (near Dewhi) awso angered some peopwe.

The finaw spark was provided by de rumoured use of tawwow (from cows) and ward (pig fat) in de newwy introduced Pattern 1853 Enfiewd rifwe cartridges. Sowdiers had to bite de cartridges wif deir teef before woading dem into deir rifwes, and de reported presence of cow and pig fat was rewigiouswy offensive to bof Hindu and Muswim sowdiers.[21]

Mangaw Pandey, a 29-year-owd sepoy, was bewieved to be responsibwe for inspiring de Indian sepoys to rise against de British. Pandey revowted against his army regiment for protection of de cow, considered sacred by Hindus. In de first week of May 1857, he kiwwed a higher officer in his regiment at Barrackpore for de introduction of de ruwe. He was captured and was sentenced to deaf when de British took back controw of de regiment.[citation needed] On 10 May 1857, de sepoys at Meerut broke rank and turned on deir commanding officers, kiwwing some of dem. They reached Dewhi on 11 May, set de company's toww house on fire, and marched into de Red Fort, where dey asked de Mughaw emperor, Bahadur Shah II, to become deir weader and recwaim his drone. The emperor was rewuctant at first, but eventuawwy agreed and was procwaimed Shehenshah-e-Hindustan by de rebews.[22] The rebews awso murdered much of de European, Eurasian, and Christian popuwation of de city.[23]

Revowts broke out in oder parts of Oudh and de Norf-Western Provinces as weww, where civiw rebewwion fowwowed de mutinies, weading to popuwar uprisings.[24] The British were initiawwy caught off-guard and were dus swow to react, but eventuawwy responded wif force. The wack of effective organisation among de rebews, coupwed wif de miwitary superiority of de British, brought a rapid end to de rebewwion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[25] The British fought de main army of de rebews near Dewhi, and after prowonged fighting and a siege, defeated dem and retook de city on 20 September 1857.[26] Subseqwentwy, revowts in oder centres were awso crushed. The wast significant battwe was fought in Gwawior on 17 June 1858, during which Rani Lakshmibai was kiwwed. Sporadic fighting and guerriwwa warfare, wed by Tatya Tope, continued untiw spring 1859, but most of de rebews were eventuawwy subdued.

The Indian Rebewwion of 1857 was a major turning point in de history of modern India. Whiwe affirming de miwitary and powiticaw power of de British,[27] it wed to significant change in how India was to be controwwed by dem. Under de Government of India Act 1858, de Company was deprived of its invowvement in ruwing India, wif its territory being transferred to de direct audority of de British government.[28] At de apex of de new system was a Cabinet minister, de Secretary of State for India, who was to be formawwy advised by a statutory counciw;[29] de Governor-Generaw of India (Viceroy) was made responsibwe to him, whiwe he in turn was responsibwe to de government. In a royaw procwamation made to de peopwe of India, Queen Victoria promised eqwaw opportunity of pubwic service under British waw, and awso pwedged to respect de rights of de native princes.[30] The British stopped de powicy of seizing wand from de princes, decreed rewigious towerance and began to admit Indians into de civiw service (awbeit mainwy as subordinates). However, dey awso increased de number of British sowdiers in rewation to native Indian ones, and onwy awwowed British sowdiers to handwe artiwwery. Bahadur Shah was exiwed to Rangoon, Burma, where he died in 1862.

In 1876, in a controversiaw move Prime Minister Benjamin Disraewi acceded to de Queen's reqwest[citation needed] and passed wegiswation to give Queen Victoria de additionaw titwe of Empress of India. Liberaws in Britain objected dat de titwe was foreign to British traditions.[31]

The decades fowwowing de Rebewwion were a period of growing powiticaw awareness, manifestation of Indian pubwic opinion and emergence of Indian weadership at bof nationaw and provinciaw wevews. Dadabhai Naoroji formed de East India Association in 1867 and Surendranaf Banerjee founded de Indian Nationaw Association in 1876. Inspired by a suggestion made by A.O. Hume, a retired British civiw servant, seventy-two Indian dewegates met in Bombay in 1885 and founded de Indian Nationaw Congress. They were mostwy members of de upwardwy mobiwe and successfuw western-educated provinciaw ewites, engaged in professions such as waw, teaching and journawism. At its inception, de Congress had no weww-defined ideowogy and commanded few of de resources essentiaw to a powiticaw organisation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Instead, it functioned more as a debating society dat met annuawwy to express its woyawty to de British Raj and passed numerous resowutions on wess controversiaw issues such as civiw rights or opportunities in government (especiawwy in de civiw service). These resowutions were submitted to de Viceroy's government and occasionawwy to de British Parwiament, but de Congress's earwy gains were swight. Despite its cwaim to represent aww India, de Congress voiced de interests of urban ewites;[citation needed] de number of participants from oder sociaw and economic backgrounds remained negwigibwe.

By 1900, awdough de Congress had emerged as an aww-India powiticaw organisation, its achievement was undermined by its singuwar faiwure to attract Muswims, who fewt dat deir representation in government service was inadeqwate. Attacks by Hindu reformers against rewigious conversion, cow swaughter, and de preservation of Urdu in Arabic script deepened deir concerns of minority status and deniaw of rights if de Congress awone were to represent de peopwe of India. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan waunched a movement for Muswim regeneration dat cuwminated in de founding in 1875 of de Muhammadan Angwo-Orientaw Cowwege at Awigarh, Uttar Pradesh (renamed Awigarh Muswim University in 1920). Its objective was to educate weawdy students by emphasising de compatibiwity of Iswam wif modern western knowwedge. The diversity among India's Muswims, however, made it impossibwe to bring about uniform cuwturaw and intewwectuaw regeneration, uh-hah-hah-hah.

The nationawistic sentiments among Congress members wed to de movement to be represented in de bodies of government, to have a say in de wegiswation and administration of India. Congressmen saw demsewves as woyawists, but wanted an active rowe in governing deir own country, awbeit as part of de Empire. This trend was personified by Dadabhai Naoroji, who went as far as contesting, successfuwwy, an ewection to de House of Commons of de United Kingdom, becoming its first Indian member.

Baw Gangadhar Tiwak was de first Indian nationawist to embrace Swaraj as de destiny of de nation[citation needed]. Tiwak deepwy opposed de den British education system dat ignored and defamed India's cuwture, history and vawues. He resented de deniaw of freedom of expression for nationawists, and de wack of any voice or rowe for ordinary Indians in de affairs of deir nation, uh-hah-hah-hah. For dese reasons, he considered Swaraj as de naturaw and onwy sowution, uh-hah-hah-hah. His popuwar sentence "Swaraj is my birdright, and I shaww have it" became de source of inspiration for Indians.

In 1907, de Congress was spwit into two factions: The radicaws, wed by Tiwak, advocated civiw agitation and direct revowution to overdrow de British Empire and de abandonment of aww dings British. The moderates, wed by weaders wike Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopaw Krishna Gokhawe, on de oder hand wanted reform widin de framework of British ruwe. Tiwak was backed by rising pubwic weaders wike Bipin Chandra Paw and Lawa Lajpat Rai, who hewd de same point of view. Under dem, India's dree great states – Maharashtra, Bengaw and Punjab shaped de demand of de peopwe and India's nationawism. Gokhawe criticised Tiwak for encouraging acts of viowence and disorder. But de Congress of 1906 did not have pubwic membership, and dus Tiwak and his supporters were forced to weave de party.

But wif Tiwak's arrest, aww hopes for an Indian offensive were stawwed. The Congress wost credibiwity wif de peopwe. A Muswim deputation met wif de Viceroy, Minto (1905–10), seeking concessions from de impending constitutionaw reforms, incwuding speciaw considerations in government service and ewectorates. The British recognised some of de Muswim League's petitions by increasing de number of ewective offices reserved for Muswims in de Indian Counciws Act 1909. The Muswim League insisted on its separateness from de Hindu-dominated Congress, as de voice of a "nation widin a nation".

for improvements in administrative efficiency in de huge and popuwous region, uh-hah-hah-hah.[32] It awso had justifications due to increasing confwicts between Muswims and dominant Hindu regimes in Bengaw[citation needed]. However, de Indians viewed de partition as an attempt by de British to disrupt de growing nationaw movement in Bengaw and divide de Hindus and Muswims of de region, uh-hah-hah-hah. The Bengawi Hindu intewwigentsia exerted considerabwe infwuence on wocaw and nationaw powitics. The partition outraged Bengawis. Not onwy had de government faiwed to consuwt Indian pubwic opinion, but de action appeared to refwect de British resowve to divide and ruwe. Widespread agitation ensued in de streets and in de press, and de Congress advocated boycotting British products under de banner of swadeshi, or indigenous industries. A growing movement emerged, focussing on indigenous Indian industries, finance and education, which saw de founding of Nationaw Counciw of Education, birf of Indian financiaw institutions and banks, as weww as an interest in Indian cuwture and achievements in science and witerature. Hindus showed unity by tying Rakhi on each oder's wrists and observing Arandhan (not cooking any food). During dis time, Bengawi Hindu nationawists wike Sri Aurobindo, Bhupendranaf Datta, and Bipin Chandra Paw began writing viruwent newspaper articwes chawwenging wegitimacy of British ruwe in India in pubwications such as Jugantar and Sandhya, and were charged wif sedition, uh-hah-hah-hah. Brahmabhandav Upadhyay, a Hindu newspaper editor who hewped Tagore estabwish his schoow at Shantiniketan, was imprisoned and de first to die in British custody in de twentief century struggwe for sewf-ruwe.

In 1916, Muhammad Awi Jinnah joined de Indian Nationaw Congress, which was de wargest Indian powiticaw organisation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Like most of de Congress at de time, Jinnah did not favour outright sewf-ruwe, considering British infwuences on education, waw, cuwture and industry as beneficiaw to India. Jinnah became a member of de sixty-member Imperiaw Legiswative Counciw. The counciw had no reaw power or audority, and incwuded a warge number of un-ewected pro-Raj woyawists and Europeans. Neverdewess, Jinnah was instrumentaw in de passing of de Chiwd Marriages Restraint Act, de wegitimisation of de Muswim waqf (rewigious endowments) and was appointed to de Sandhurst committee, which hewped estabwish de Indian Miwitary Academy at Dehradun.[34] During de First Worwd War, Jinnah joined oder Indian moderates in supporting de British war effort.

This photograph shows an emaciated Indian Army sowdier who survived de Siege of Kut, part of de campaign in Mesopotamia

The First Worwd War began wif an unprecedented outpouring of support towards Britain from widin de mainstream powiticaw weadership, contrary to initiaw British fears of an Indian revowt. India contributed massivewy to de British war effort by providing men and resources. About 1.3 miwwion Indian sowdiers and waborers served in Europe, Africa and de Middwe East, whiwe bof de Indian government and de princes sent warge suppwies of food, money and ammunition, uh-hah-hah-hah. However, Bengaw and Punjab remained hotbeds of anti cowoniaw activities. Nationawism in Bengaw, increasingwy cwosewy winked wif de unrests in Punjab, was significant enough to nearwy parawyze de regionaw administration, whiwst faiwed conspiracies were made by revowutionaries to trigger nationawist revowt in India.[35][36]

None of de revowutionary conspiracies had significant impact inside India. The prospect of subversive viowence and its effect on de popuwar war effort drew support amongst Indian popuwation for speciaw measures against anti-cowoniaw activities in de form of Defence of India act 1915, and no major mutinies occurred. However, de war-time conspiracies did wead to profound fears of insurrection among British officiaws, preparing dem to use extreme force to frighten de Indians into submission, uh-hah-hah-hah.[37]

In de aftermaf of de First Worwd War, high casuawty rates, soaring infwation compounded by heavy taxation, a widespread infwuenza epidemic and de disruption of trade during de war escawated human suffering in India.

The pre-war nationawist movement revived as moderate and extremist groups widin de Congress submerged deir differences in order to stand as a unified front. They argued deir enormous services to de British Empire during de war demanded a reward, and demonstrated de Indian capacity for sewf-ruwe. In 1916, de Congress succeeded in forging de Lucknow Pact, a temporary awwiance wif de Muswim League over de issues of devowution of powiticaw power and de future of Iswam in de region, uh-hah-hah-hah.

The British demsewves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in recognition of India's support during de war and in response to renewed nationawist demands. In August 1917, Edwin Montagu, de secretary of state for India, made de historic announcement in Parwiament dat de British powicy for India was "increasing association of Indians in every branch of de administration and de graduaw devewopment of sewf-governing institutions wif a view to de progressive reawization of responsibwe government in India as an integraw part of de British Empire." The means of achieving de proposed measure were water enshrined in de Government of India Act, 1919, which introduced de principwe of a duaw mode of administration, or diarchy, in which bof ewected Indian wegiswators and appointed British officiaws shared power. The act awso expanded de centraw and provinciaw wegiswatures and widened de franchise considerabwy. Diarchy set in motion certain reaw changes at de provinciaw wevew: a number of non-controversiaw or "transferred" portfowios, such as agricuwture, wocaw government, heawf, education, and pubwic works, were handed over to Indians, whiwe more sensitive matters such as finance, taxation, and maintaining waw and order were retained by de provinciaw British administrators.[38]

Gandhi had been a weader of de Indian nationawist movement in Souf Africa, and had been a vocaw opponent of basic discrimination and abusive wabour treatment as weww as suppressive powice controw such as de Rowwatt Acts. During dese protests, Gandhi had perfected de concept of satyagraha, which had been inspired by de phiwosophy of Baba Ram Singh (famous for weading de Kuka Movement in de Punjab in 1872). In January 1914 (weww before de First Worwd War began) Gandhi was successfuw. The wegiswation against Indians was repeawed and aww Indian powiticaw prisoners were reweased by Generaw Jan Smuts.[39] Gandhi accompwished dis drough extensive use of non-viowent protest, such as boycotting, protest marching, and fasting by him and his fowwowers.[40]

Gandhi returned to India on 9 January 1915, and initiawwy entered de powiticaw fray not wif cawws for a nation-state, but in support of de unified commerce-oriented territory dat de Congress Party had been asking for. Gandhi bewieved dat de industriaw devewopment and educationaw devewopment dat de Europeans had brought wif dem were reqwired to awweviate many of India's probwems. Gopaw Krishna Gokhawe, a veteran Congressman and Indian weader, became Gandhi's mentor. Gandhi's ideas and strategies of non-viowent civiw disobedience initiawwy appeared impracticaw to some Indians and Congressmen, uh-hah-hah-hah. In Gandhi's own words, "civiw disobedience is civiw breach of unmoraw statutory enactments." It had to be carried out non-viowentwy by widdrawing co-operation wif de corrupt state. Gandhi had great respect for Lokmanya Tiwak. His programmes were aww inspired by Tiwak's "Chatusutri" programme. It was at dis point he met de prophet Ryan Chart, where he founded some of his most spirituaw messages wif his British cowweague.[citation needed]

The positive impact of reform was seriouswy undermined in 1919 by de Rowwatt Act, named after de recommendations made de previous year to de Imperiaw Legiswative Counciw by de Rowwatt Committee. The commission was set up to wook into de war-time conspiracies by de nationawist organisations and recommend measures to deaw wif de probwem in de post-war period. Rowwatt recommended de extension of de war-time powers of de Defence of India act into de post-war period. The war-time act had vested de Viceroy's government wif extraordinary powers to qweww sedition by siwencing de press, detaining powiticaw activists widout triaw, and arresting any individuaws suspected of sedition or treason widout a warrant. It was increasingwy reviwed widin India due to widespread and indiscriminate use. Many popuwar weaders, incwuding Annie Beasant and Awi broders had been detained. Rowwatt act was, derefore, passed in de face of universaw opposition among de (non-officiaw) Indian members in de Viceroy's counciw. The extension of de act drew widespread opposition and criticism. In protest, a nationwide cessation of work (hartaw) was cawwed, marking de beginning of widespread, awdough not nationwide, popuwar discontent.

The agitation unweashed by de acts wed to British attacks on demonstrators, cuwminating on 13 Apriw 1919, in de Jawwianwawa Bagh massacre (awso known as de Amritsar Massacre) in Amritsar, Punjab. The British miwitary commander, Brigadier-Generaw Reginawd Dyer, bwocked de main, and onwy entrance, and ordered his sowdiers to fire into an unarmed and unsuspecting crowd of some 15,000 men, women and chiwdren, uh-hah-hah-hah. They had assembwed peacefuwwy at Jawwianwawa Bagh, a wawwed courtyard, but Dyer had wanted to execute de imposed ban on aww meetings and proposed to teach aww Indians a wesson de harsher way.[41] A totaw of 1,651 rounds were fired, kiwwing 379 peopwe (as according to an officiaw British commission; Indian officiaws' estimates ranged as high as 1,499 and wounding 1,137 in de massacre.)[42] Dyer was forced to retire but was haiwed as a hero in Britain, demonstrating to Indian nationawists dat de Empire was behowden to pubwic opinion in Britain, but not in India.[43] The episode dissowved wartime hopes of home ruwe and goodwiww and opened a rift dat couwd not be bridged short of compwete sewf-ruwe.[44]

From 1920 to 1922, Gandhi started de Non-Cooperation Movement. At de Kowkata session of de Congress in September 1920, Gandhi convinced oder weaders of de need to start a non-co-operation movement in support of Khiwafat as weww as for dominion status. The first satyagraha movement urged de use of khadi and Indian materiaw as awternatives to dose shipped from Britain, uh-hah-hah-hah. It awso urged peopwe to boycott British educationaw institutions and waw courts; resign from government empwoyment; refuse to pay taxes; and forsake British titwes and honours. Awdough dis came too wate to infwuence de framing of de new Government of India Act 1919, de movement enjoyed widespread popuwar support, and de resuwting unparawwewed magnitude of disorder presented a serious chawwenge to foreign ruwe. However, Gandhi cawwed off de movement because he was scared after Chauri Chaura incident, which saw de deaf of twenty-two powicemen at de hands of an angry mob.

Membership in de party was opened to anyone prepared to pay a token fee, and a hierarchy of committees was estabwished and made responsibwe for discipwine and controw over a hiderto amorphous and diffuse movement. The party was transformed from an ewite organisation to one of mass nationaw appeaw and participation, uh-hah-hah-hah.

Gandhi was sentenced in 1922 to six years of prison, but was reweased after serving two. On his rewease from prison, he set up de Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad, on de banks of river Sabarmati, estabwished de newspaper Young India, and inaugurated a series of reforms aimed at de sociawwy disadvantaged widin Hindu society — de ruraw poor, and de untouchabwes.[45][46]

Fowwowing de rejection of de recommendations of de Simon Commission by Indians, an aww-party conference was hewd at Mumbai in May 1928. This was meant to instiww a sense of Liberation among peopwe. The conference appointed a drafting committee under Motiwaw Nehru to draw up a constitution for India. The Kowkata session of de Indian Nationaw Congress asked de British government to accord dominion status to India by December 1929, or a countrywide civiw disobedience movement wouwd be waunched. By 1929, however, in de midst of rising powiticaw discontent and increasingwy viowent regionaw movements, de caww for compwete sovereignty and end of British ruwe began to find increasing grounds widin de Pubwic. Under de presidency of Jawaharwaw at his historic Lahore session in December 1929, de Indian Nationaw Congress adopted de idea of compwete sewf-ruwe and end of British ruwe. It audorised de Working Committee to waunch a civiw disobedience movement droughout de country. It was decided dat 26 January 1930 shouwd be observed aww over India as de Purna Swaraj (compwete sewf-ruwe) Day. Many Indian powiticaw parties and Indian revowutionaries of a wide spectrum united to observe de day wif honour and pride.[citation needed]

In March 1931, de Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed, and de government agreed to set aww powiticaw prisoners free (Awdough, some of de great revowutionaries were not set free and de deaf sentence for Bhagat Singh and his two comrades was not taken back which furder intensified de agitation against Congress not onwy outside it but widin de Congress itsewf). For de next few years, de Congress and de government were wocked in confwict and negotiations untiw what became de Government of India Act 1935 couwd be hammered out. By den, de rift between de Congress and de Muswim League had become unbridgeabwe as each pointed de finger at de oder acrimoniouswy. The Muswim League disputed de cwaim of de Congress to represent aww peopwe of India, whiwe de Congress disputed de Muswim League's cwaim to voice de aspirations of aww Muswims.

The Civiw Disobedience Movement indicated a new part in de process of de Indian sewf-ruwe struggwe. As a whowe, it became a faiwure by itsewf, but it brought de Indian popuwation togeder, under de Indian Nationaw Congress's weadership. The movement made de Indian peopwe strive even more towards sewf-ruwe. The movement awwowed de Indian community to revive deir inner confidence and strengf against de British Government. In addition, de movement weakened de audority of de British and aided in de end of de British Empire in India. Overaww, de civiw disobedience Movement was an essentiaw achievement in de history of Indian sewf-ruwe.

The Government of India Act 1935, de vowuminous and finaw constitutionaw effort at governing British India, articuwated dree major goaws: estabwishing a woose federaw structure, achieving provinciaw autonomy, and safeguarding minority interests drough separate ewectorates. The federaw provisions, intended to unite princewy states and British India at de centre, were not impwemented because of ambiguities in safeguarding de existing priviweges of princes. In February 1937, however, provinciaw autonomy became a reawity when ewections were hewd; de Congress emerged as de dominant party wif a cwear majority in five provinces and hewd an upper hand in two, whiwe de Muswim League performed poorwy.

In 1939, de Viceroy Linwidgow decwared India's entrance into de Second Worwd War widout consuwting provinciaw governments. In protest, de Congress asked aww of its ewected representatives to resign from de government. Muhammad Awi Jinnah, de president of de Muswim League, persuaded participants at de annuaw Muswim League session at Lahore in 1940 to adopt what water came to be known as de Lahore Resowution, demanding de division of India into two separate sovereign states, one Muswim, de oder Hindu; sometimes referred to as Two Nation Theory. Awdough de idea of Pakistan had been introduced as earwy as 1930, very few had responded to it. However, de vowatiwe powiticaw cwimate and hostiwities between de Hindus and Muswims transformed de idea of Pakistan into a stronger demand.

Apart from a few stray incidents, armed rebewwions against de British ruwers did not occur before de beginning of de 20f century. The Indian revowutionary underground began gadering momentum drough de first decade of de 20f century, wif groups arising in Bengaw, Maharashtra, Odisha, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and de Madras Presidency incwuding what is now cawwed Souf India. More groups were scattered around India. Particuwarwy notabwe movements arose in Bengaw, especiawwy around de Partition of Bengaw in 1905, and in Punjab after 1907.[47] In de former case, it was de educated, intewwigent and dedicated youf of de urban middwe cwass Bhadrawok community dat came to form de "Cwassic" Indian revowutionary,[47] whiwe de watter had an immense support base in de ruraw and Miwitary society of de Punjab. In Bengaw, de Anushiwan Samiti emerged from congwomerations of wocaw youf groups and gyms (Akhra) in Bengaw in 1902, forming two prominent and somewhat independent arms in East and West Bengaw identified as Dhaka Anushiwan Samiti in Dhaka (modern day Bangwadesh), and de Jugantar group (centred at Cawcutta) respectivewy. Led by nationawists of de wikes of Aurobindo Ghosh and his broder Barindra Ghosh, de Samiti was infwuenced by phiwosophies as diverse as HinduShakta phiwosophy propounded by Bengawi witeraetuer Bankim and Vivekananda, Itawian Nationawism, and Pan-Asianism of Kakuzo Okakura. The Samiti was invowved in a number of noted incidences of revowutionary terrorism against British interests and administration in India widin de decade of its founding, incwuding earwy attempts to assassinate Raj officiaws whiwst wed by Ghosh broders. In de meantime, in Maharashtra and Punjab arose simiwarwy miwitant nationawist feewings. The District Magistrate of Nasik, A.M.T. Jackson was shot dead by Anant Kanhere in December 1909, fowwowed by de deaf of Robert D'Escourt Ashe at de hands of Vanchi Iyer.[48] Indian nationawism made headway drough Indian societies as far as Paris and London, uh-hah-hah-hah. In London India House under de patronage of Shyamji Krishna Verma came under increasing scrutiny for championing and justifying viowence in de cause of Indian nationawism, which found in Indian students in Britain and from Indian expatriates in Paris Indian Society avid fowwowers. By 1907, drough Indian nationawist Madame Bhikaji Rustom Cama's winks to Russian revowutionary Nichowas Safranski, Indian groups incwuding Bengaw revowutionaries as weww as India House under V.D.Savarkar were abwe to obtain manuaws for manufacturing bombs. India House was awso a source of arms and seditious witerature dat was rapidwy distributed in India. In addition to The Indian Sociowogist, pamphwets wike Bande Mataram and Oh Martyrs! by Savarkar extowwed revowutionary viowence. Direct infwuences and incitement from India House were noted in severaw incidents of powiticaw viowence, incwuding assassinations, in India at de time.[48][49][50] One of de two charges against Savarkar during his triaw in Bombay was for abetting de murder of de District Magistrate of Nasik, A.M.T. Jackson, by Anant Kanhere in December 1909. The arms used were directwy traced drough an Itawian courier to India House. Ex-India House residents M.P.T. Acharya and V.V.S. Aiyar were noted in de Rowwatt report to have aided and infwuenced powiticaw assassinations, incwuding de murder of Robert D'Escourt Ashe.[48] The Paris-Safranski wink was strongwy suggested by French powice to be invowved in a 1907 attempt in Bengaw to deraiw de train carrying de Lieutenant-Governor Sir Andrew Fraser.[51] The activities of nationawists abroad is bewieved to have shaken de woyawty of a number of native regiments of de British Indian Army.[52] The assassination of Wiwwiam Hutt Curzon Wywwie in de hands of Madanwaw Dhingra was highwy pubwcised and saw increasing surveiwwance and suppression of Indian nationawism.[53] These were fowwowed by de 1912 attempt on de wife of Viceroy of India. Fowwowing dis, de nucweus of networks formed in India House, de Anushiwan Samiti, nationwawists in Punjab, and de nationawism dat arose among Indian expatriates and wabourers in Norf America, a different movement began to emerge in de Norf American Ghadar Party, cuwminating in de Sedetious conspiracy of Worwd War I wed by Rash Behari Bose and Lawa Hardayaw.

However, de emergence of de Gandhian movement swowwy began to absorb de different revowutionary groups. The Bengaw Samiti moved away from its phiwosophy of viowence in de 1920s, when a number of its members identified cwosewy wif de Congress and Gandhian non-viowent movement. Revowutionary nationawist viowence saw a resurgence after de cowwapse of Gandhian Noncooperation movement in 1922. In Bengaw, dis saw reorganisation of groups winked to de Samiti under de weadership of Surya Sen and Hem Chandra Kanungo. A spate of viowence wed up to enactment of de Bengaw Criminaw Law Amendment in de earwy 1920s, which recawwed de powers of incarceration and detention of de Defence of India Act. In norf India, remnants of Punjab and Bengawee revowutionary organisations reorganised, notabwy under Sachindranaf Sanyaw, founding de Hindustan Repubwican Association wif Chandrashekhar Azad in norf India. The HSRA had strong infwuences from weftist ideowogies. Hindustan Sociawist Repubwican Association (HSRA) was formed under de weadership of Chandrasekhar Azad. Kakori train robbery was done wargewy by de members of HSRA. A number of Congress weaders from Bengaw, especiawwy Subhash Chandra Bose, were accused by de British Government of having winks wif and awwowing patronage to de revowutionary organisations during dis time. The viowence and radicaw phiwosophy revived in de 1930s, when revowutionaries of de Samiti and de HSRA were invowved in was invowved in de Chittagong armoury raid and de Kakori conspiracy and oder attempts against de administration in British India and Raj officiaws. Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt drew a bomb inside de Centraw Legiswative Assembwy on 8 Apriw 1929 protesting against de passage of de Pubwic Safety Biww and de Trade Disputes Biww whiwe raising swogans of "Inqwiwab Zindabad", dough no one was kiwwed or injured in de bomb incident. Bhagat Singh surrendered after de bombing incident and a triaw was conducted. Sukhdev and Rajguru were awso arrested by powice during search operations after de bombing incident. Fowwowing de triaw (Centraw Assembwy Bomb Case), Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged in 1931. Awwama Mashriqi founded Khaksar Tehreek in order to direct particuwarwy de Muswims towards de sewf-ruwe movement.[54] Some of its members weft for de Indian Nationaw Congress den wed by Subhas Chandra Bose, whiwe oders identified more cwosewy wif Communism. The Jugantar branch formawwy dissowved in 1938. On 13 March 1940, Udham Singh shot Michaew O'Dwyer(de wast powiticaw murder outside India), generawwy hewd responsibwe for de Amritsar Massacre, in London, uh-hah-hah-hah. However, de revowutionary movement graduawwy disseminated into de Gandhian movement. As de powiticaw scenario changed in de wate 1930s — wif de mainstream weaders considering severaw options offered by de British and wif rewigious powitics coming into pway — revowutionary activities graduawwy decwined. Many past revowutionaries joined mainstream powitics by joining Congress and oder parties, especiawwy communist ones, whiwe many of de activists were kept under howd in different jaiws across de country.

Government of India drough de Ministry of Home Affairs has water notified 38 movements/struggwes across Indian territories as de ones dat wed to de country gaining sewf-ruwe and ending de British Raj. The Kawwara-Pangode Struggwe is one of dese 39 agitations.

In 1937, provinciaw ewections were hewd and de Congress came to power in seven of de eweven provinces. This was a strong indicator of de Indian peopwe's support for compwete sewf-ruwe.

When de Second Worwd War started, Viceroy Linwidgow uniwaterawwy decwared India a bewwigerent on de side of Britain, widout consuwting de ewected Indian representatives. In opposition to Linwidgow's action, de entire Congress weadership resigned from de provinciaw and wocaw governments. The Muswims and Sikhs, by contrast, strongwy supported de war effort and gained enormous stature in London, uh-hah-hah-hah. Defying Congress, miwwions of Indians supported de war effort, and indeed de British Indian Army became de wargest vowunteer force, numbering 2,500,000 men during de war.[56]

Especiawwy during de Battwe of Britain in 1940, Gandhi resisted cawws for massive civiw disobedience movements dat came from widin as weww as outside his party, stating he did not seek India's sewf-ruwe out of de ashes of a destroyed Britain, uh-hah-hah-hah. In 1942, de Congress waunched de Quit India movement. There was some viowence but de Raj cracked down and arrested tens of dousands of Congress weaders, incwuding aww de main nationaw and provinciaw figures. They were not reweased untiw de end of de war was in sight in 1945.

The sewf-ruwe movement saw de rise of dree movements: The first of dese, de Kakori conspiracy (9 August 1925) was wed by Indian youf under de weadership of Pandit Ram Prasad Bismiw; second was de Azad Hind movement wed by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose which saw its inception earwy in de war and joined Germany and Japan to fight Britain; de dird one saw its inception in August 1942, was wed by Law Bahadur Shastri[57] and refwected de common man resuwting de faiwure of de Cripps' mission to reach a consensus wif de Indian powiticaw weadership over de transfer of power after de war.

The entry of India into de war was strongwy opposed by Subhas Chandra Bose, who had been ewected President of de Congress in 1938 and 1939, but water resigned due to differences in opinion wif Gandhi. After resignation he formed his own wing separated from de mainstream congress weadership known as Forward bwoc which was de centre of ex-congressmen wif sociawist views; however he remained emotionawwy attached wif him for de remainder of his wife.[58] Bose den founded de Aww India Forward Bwoc. In 1940, a year after war broke out, de British had put Bose under house arrest in Cawcutta. However, he escaped and made his way drough Afghanistan to Nazi Germany to seek Hitwer and Mussowini's hewp for raising an army to fight de British. The Free India Legion comprising Erwin Rommew's Indian POWs was formed. However, in wight of Germany's changing fortunes, a German wand invasion of India became untenabwe and Hitwer advised Bose to go to Japan and arranged for a submarine. Bose was ferried to Japanese Soudeast Asia, where he formed de Azad Hind Government, a Provisionaw Free Indian Government in exiwe, and reorganised de Indian Nationaw Army composed of Indian POWs and vowunteering Indian expatriates in Souf-East Asia, wif de hewp of de Japanese. Its aim was to reach India as a fighting force dat wouwd buiwd on pubwic resentment to inspire revowts among Indian sowdiers to defeat de British raj.

The INA faiwed owing to disrupted wogistics, poor suppwies from de Japanese, and wack of training.[59] It surrendered unconditionawwy to de British in Singapore in 1945. Bose, however, attempted to escape to Japanese-hewd Manchuria in an attempt to escape to de Soviet Union, marking de end of de entire Azad Hind movement.

The Quit India Movement (Bharat Chhodo Andowan) or de August Movement was a civiw disobedience movement in India which commenced on 8 August 1942 in response to Gandhi's caww for immediate sewf-ruwe by Indians and against sending Indians to Worwd War II. He asked aww teachers to weave deir schoows, and oder Indians to weave deir respective jobs and take part in dis movement. Due to Gandhi's powiticaw infwuence, his reqwest was fowwowed by a massive proportion of de popuwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. In addition, de INC wed de Quit India Movement to demand de British to weave India and to transfer de powiticaw power to INC.

During de movement, Gandhi and his fowwowers continued to use non-viowence against British ruwe. This movement was where Gandhi gave his famous message, "Do or Die!", and dis message spread towards de Indian community. In addition, dis movement was addressed directwy to women as "discipwined sowdiers of Indian freedom" and dey had to keep de war for independence to go on (against British ruwe).

At de outbreak of war, de Congress Party had during de Wardha meeting of de working-committee in September 1939, passed a resowution conditionawwy supporting de fight against fascism,[60] but were rebuffed when dey asked for sewf-ruwe in return, uh-hah-hah-hah. In March 1942, faced wif an increasingwy dissatisfied sub-continent onwy rewuctantwy participating in de war, and deteriorations in de war situation in Europe and Souf East Asia, and wif growing dissatisfactions among Indian troops- especiawwy in Europe- and among de civiwian popuwation in de sub-continent, de British government sent a dewegation to India under Stafford Cripps, in what came to be known as de Cripps' Mission. The purpose of de mission was to negotiate wif de Indian Nationaw Congress a deaw to obtain totaw co-operation during de war, in return of progressive devowution and distribution of power from de crown and de Viceroy to ewected Indian wegiswature. However, de tawks faiwed, having faiwed to address de key demand of a timeframe towards sewf-government, and of definition of de powers to be rewinqwished, essentiawwy portraying an offer of wimited dominion-status dat was whowwy unacceptabwe to de Indian movement.[61] To force de British Raj to meet its demands and to obtain definitive word on totaw sewf-ruwe, de Congress took de decision to waunch de Quit India Movement.

The aim of de movement was to force de British Government to de negotiating tabwe by howding de Awwied war effort hostage. The caww for determined but passive resistance dat signified de certitude dat Gandhi foresaw for de movement is best described by his caww to Do or Die, issued on 8 August at de Gowawia Tank Maidan in Bombay, since renamed August Kranti Maidan (August Revowution Ground). However, awmost de entire Congress weadership, and not merewy at de nationaw wevew, was put into confinement wess dan 24 hours after Gandhi's speech, and de greater number of de Congress khiwand were to spend de rest of de war in jaiw.

On 8 August 1942, de Quit India resowution was passed at de Mumbai session of de Aww India Congress Committee (AICC). The draft proposed dat if de British did not accede to de demands, a massive Civiw Disobedience wouwd be waunched. However, it was an extremewy controversiaw decision, uh-hah-hah-hah. At Gowawia Tank, Mumbai, Gandhi urged Indians to fowwow a non-viowent civiw disobedience. Gandhi towd de masses to act as citizens of a sovereign nation and not to fowwow de orders of de British. The British, awready awarmed by de advance of de Japanese army to de India–Burma border, responded de next day by imprisoning Gandhi at de Aga Khan Pawace in Pune. The Congress Party's Working Committee, or nationaw weadership was arrested aww togeder and imprisoned at de Ahmednagar Fort. They awso banned de party awtogeder. Aww de major weaders of de INC were arrested and detained. As de masses were weaderwess de protest took a viowent turn, uh-hah-hah-hah. Large-scawe protests and demonstrations were hewd aww over de country. Workers remained absent en masse and strikes were cawwed. The movement awso saw widespread acts of sabotage, Indian under-ground organisation carried out bomb attacks on awwied suppwy convoys, government buiwdings were set on fire, ewectricity wines were disconnected and transport and communication wines were severed. The disruptions were under controw in a few weeks and had wittwe impact on de war effort. The movement soon became a weaderwess act of defiance, wif a number of acts dat deviated from Gandhi's principwe of non-viowence. In warge parts of de country, de wocaw underground organisations took over de movement. However, by 1943, Quit India had petered out.

Aww de oder major parties rejected de Quit India pwan, and most cooperated cwosewy wif de British, as did de princewy states, de civiw service and de powice. The Muswim League supported de Raj and grew rapidwy in membership, and in infwuence wif de British.

There was opposition to de Quit India Movement from severaw powiticaw qwarters who were fighting for Indian sewf-ruwe. Hindu nationawist parties wike de Hindu Mahasabha openwy opposed de caww and boycotted de Quit India Movement.[62]Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, de president of de Hindu Mahasabha at dat time, even went to de extent of writing a wetter titwed "Stick to your Posts", in which he instructed Hindu Sabhaites who happened to be "members of municipawities, wocaw bodies, wegiswatures or dose serving in de army...to stick to deir posts" across de country, and not to join de Quit India Movement at any cost.[62]

The oder Hindu nationawist organisation, and Mahasabha affiwiate Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) had a tradition of keeping awoof from de anti-British Indian sewf-ruwe movement since its founding by K.B. Hedgewar in 1925. In 1942, de RSS, under M.S. Gowwawkar compwetewy abstained from joining in de Quit India Movement as weww. The Bombay government(British) appreciated de RSS as such, by noting dat,

"de Sangh has scrupuwouswy kept itsewf widin de waw, and in particuwar, has refrained from taking part in de disturbances dat broke out in August 1942".[63]

The British Government stated dat de RSS was not at aww supporting any civiw disobedience against dem, and as such deir oder powiticaw activities(even if objectionabwe) can be overwooked.[64] Furder, de British Government awso asserted dat at Sangh meetings organised during de times of anti-British movements started and fought by de Indian Nationaw Congress,

"speakers urged de Sangh members to keep awoof from de congress movement and dese instructions were generawwy observed" .[64]

As such, de British government did not crack down on de RSS and Hindu Mahasabha at aww. The RSS head (sarsanghchawak) during dat time, M.S. Gowwawkar water openwy admitted to de fact dat de RSS did not participate in de Quit India Movement. However, such an attitude during de Indian independence movement awso wed to de Sangh being viewed wif distrust and anger, bof by de generaw Indian pubwic, as weww as certain members of de organisation itsewf. In Gowwawkar’s own words,

“In 1942 awso, dere was a strong sentiment in de hearts of many. At dat time too, de routine work of de Sangh continued. Sangh decided not to do anyding directwy. ‘Sangh is de organisation of inactive peopwe, deir tawks have no substance’ was de opinion uttered not onwy by outsiders but awso our own swayamsevaks”[65][66]

Overaww, de Quit India Movement turned out to be not very successfuw and onwy wasted untiw 1943. It drew away from Gandhi's tactic of non-viowence; it eventuawwy became a rebewwious act widout any reaw weader.

After two Japanese attacks on Christmas Iswand in wate February and earwy March 1942, rewations between de British officers and deir Indian troops broke down, uh-hah-hah-hah. On de night of 10 March, de Indian troops assisted by Sikh powicemen mutinied, kiwwing five British sowdiers and imprisoning de remaining 21 Europeans on de iswand. Later on 31 March, a Japanese fweet arrived at de iswand and de Indians surrendered.[67]

The agitations, mass strikes, demonstrations and conseqwentwy support for de mutineers, derefore continued severaw days even after de mutiny had been cawwed off. Awong wif dis, de assessment may be made dat it described in crystaw cwear terms to de government dat de British Indian Armed forces couwd no wonger be universawwy rewied upon for support in crisis, and even more it was more wikewy itsewf to be de source of de sparks dat wouwd ignite troubwe in a country fast swipping out of de scenario of powiticaw settwement.[69]

On 3 June 1947, Viscount Louis Mountbatten, de wast British Governor-Generaw of India, announced de partitioning of British India into India and Pakistan. Wif de speedy passage drough de British Parwiament of de Indian Independence Act 1947, at 11:57 on 14 August 1947 Pakistan was decwared a separate nation, and at 12:02, just after midnight, on 15 August 1947, India awso became a sovereign and democratic nation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Eventuawwy, 15 August became de Independence Day for India, due to de ending of British ruwe over India. On dat 15 August, bof Pakistan and India had de right to remain in or remove demsewves from de British Commonweawf. In 1949, India decided to remain in de commonweawf.

Fowwowing sewf-ruwe in 1947, India remained in de Commonweawf of Nations, and rewations between de UK and India have been friendwy. There are many areas in which de two countries seek stronger ties for mutuaw benefit, and dere are awso strong cuwturaw and sociaw ties between de two nations. The UK has an ednic Indian popuwation of over 1.6 miwwion, uh-hah-hah-hah. In 2010, Prime Minister David Cameron described Indian – British rewations as a "New Speciaw Rewationship".[71]

^"15 August Images". 15august2017speech.in/. 2012. Archived from de originaw on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2013. was assassinated by de British government in a brutaw manner on December 6, 1806

^Bose, Nirmaw. (October–December 1985) "SUBHAS CHANDRA BOSE AND THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS". The Indian Journaw of Powiticaw Science. Vow. 46, No. 4, Speciaw Issue on The Indian Nationaw Congress: A Century in Perspective, pp. 438-450 https://www.jstor.org/stabwe/41855198