Following two years of service during World War II in the U.S. Navy, Newell received a bachelor’s degree in physics in 1949 from Stanford University in California. In 1950, after spending a year studying mathematics at Princeton University, Newell joined the RAND Corporation in Santa Monica, Calif. At RAND he applied mathematical techniques from operations research and game theory to the study of administrative organizations and worked with the U.S. Air Force to simulate an early-warning radar monitoring station with its crew. In 1952 Newell’s work at RAND led to the creation of the Systems Research Laboratory and the beginning of his long-term association with Simon, a RAND consultant in the area of organizational analysis. Simon and Newell soon discussed how computers could be used to examine human problem-solving techniques, and by 1955 Newell’s enthusiasm for the subject had convinced RAND to support him while he studied under Simon at the Carnegie Institute of Technology (now Carnegie Mellon University) in Pittsburgh. In 1957 Newell earned the institute’s first AI-based doctoral degree.

In 1956 Newell and Simon, together with another RAND colleague, Clifford Shaw, unveiled one of the first AI programs, the Logic Theorist. Funded primarily by the air force and run on Johnniac (a computer named for John von Neumann, one of the inventors of the digital computer), the Logic Theorist was capable of solving general logic problems, such as those found in the Principia Mathematica (1910–13) of mathematician-philosophers Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead. They also invented the Information Processing Language (IPL) for programming this and other AI programs. Their next project was the General Problem Solver (GPS), which first ran in 1957. Given a problem, GPS would repeatedly apply heuristic techniques (modifiable “rules of thumb”) and then perform a “means-ends” analysis after each step to verify whether it was closer to the desired solution.

In 1961 Newell left RAND to join the faculty at Carnegie, where he participated in the creation of one of the country’s first computer science departments. Newell’s main research area lay in understanding how humans think, and he dedicated his research to building systems that would solve concrete, real-world problems. In 1972, together with Simon, Newell asserted that the essence of human cognition is the recursive generation of thoughts from goals to subgoals until a solution is finally reached. During the 1980s Newell began work (unfinished) on applying this concept to another, more sophisticated, general problem-solving program that he named Soar.

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Other cognitive psychologists have studied human intelligence by constructing computer models of human cognition. Two leaders in this field were the American computer scientists Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon. In the late 1950s and early ’60s, they worked with computer expert Cliff Shaw to construct a computer model of human problem solving. Called the General Problem Solver, it could find...

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In the 1970s computer modeling of the mind was dominated by the rule-based approach of Newell and Simon, which continued to be widely influential in later decades, particularly through the work of the Canadian-born psychologist John R. Anderson. According to this view, thinking consists of the application of inference rules of the form “IF…THEN…” to complex symbols...