Monday, December 9, 2013

In the last post we discussed the careful effort employed by
Octavian to rid himself of rivals and take control of the Roman Republic. Now
we move on to the building of the Principate, which was significantly more
difficult. Many revolutionaries, throughout history, have attested to the
difficulty of ruling once the battle is over. Indeed, the skillset is much
different between tearing down and ruling. In Octavian’s case, he had to
maintain the veneer of the Republic while building an authoritarian state. The
fact that he was successful puts him near the top of the list of great
politicians of all time.

Octavian had the savvy to build a political system that
could operate successfully, the temperament to rule fairly, and strength of
will to fight off threats which could have weakened or destroyed Rome. Sadly,
as so often happens in human society, the attributes of a great ruler don’t
often get carried forward to his successors. But that’s another story for later.

Remembering the intolerance of the ruling class for the
flaunting of naked power, Octavian sought to disguise his rule under accepted Republican
traditions. For the first eight years after Actium (31-23 B.C.), he served as
consul using that office as a constitutional basis for power, but half way
through that period, he returned control of the state to the Senate and people
of Rome -- a brilliant political move which
gave the appearance of restoring the ancestral system. At the same time, he was
given authority to rule certain provinces, through governors, and the rest of
the Roman territory was put under the authority of proconsuls nominated by the
Senate. In both cases, the provincial authorities were professional
administrators under tight control of Rome rather than greedy political
climbers looking to line their pockets.

Still, Octavian made sure to influence the appointment of those
governors and see that “new men” were mixed in with the patricians so that the
ancient families would not be able to gain too much influence. He reduced the
size of the Senate to 600 and enlarged its powers to include some judicial
responsibility. Moreover he transformed the Senate from a political body to an
administrative body to assist with the management of the new government.

Once these changes were put in place, Octavian renamed
himself “Augustus” to strengthen his myth and avoid any name or title that
would imply a quest for authoritarian power. The association of his new name with
the word augurium went to the heart
of Roman tradition.

During these years the Roman Empire continued to expand both
in the east and west. Galatia was developed in Asia Minor and western north Africa
became a client kingdom. In 23 B.C, Augustus visited Gaul and was helping to direct
a campaign in Spain when his weak constitution failed him, he fell ill, and
nearly died. Now believing he had to reorganize the governmental structure
further, Augustus resigned from his consular posts. But he retained authority
over his provinces and had himself granted imperium
maius, which placed him above all provincial governors. Augustus was also
designated as tribune of the people that same year.

Both of these titles carried authority without office –
novel in the history of Roman governance. During the teens B.C, we see Augustus establishing a civil
service for the first time in Roman history. The beneficiaries of this
expansion of government were the knights who occupied the position of a middle
class – professionals who were willing to do work patricians saw as beneath
them but more educated and capable than the plebs. As Max Weber has told us,
bureaucracy is a dangerous thing; too structured to be efficient and
fundamentally wasteful. Still, bureaucracies are stabilizing forces in society
that operate separately from the politics around them. Augustus’ bureaucracy would
manage the business of Rome for hundreds of years.

Augustus’ careful building of the principate had taken about
fifteen years to accomplish and the end result was stability in Rome. Still,
the difficult problem of succession remained. Augustus had created such a
unique title and span of authority that there was no other single person who
could fill his position. No one had the qualifications. And on a practical
level, he had extreme difficulty lining up an heir. The first candidate,
Marcellus, husband of Augustus’ daughter Julia, died in 23 B.C. Nero Drusus,
son of Livia, who was probably preferred over his brother Tiberius, died in
Germania in 9 B.C. Then after Julia married Agrippa and they had two sons Gaius
and Lucius, those boys were seen as successors. But by extraordinary chance,
Gaius died in 4 B.C. and Lucius two years later. Now there was no question that
Tiberius remained the sole successor so Augustus threw up his hands, adopted him,
and made him heir.

Tiberius would succeed Augustus upon the latter’s death in
14 A.D. and fail to carry out his legacy. He was a sullen personality who would
not get on with the Senate and so his years were marked by regression of the
Roman political system and a steady march to tyranny. Tiberius indifference to
governing coupled with the ruthless methods of his associate Sejanus undid much
of what Augustus had accomplished. Should we be surprised?

Sunday, December 1, 2013

The great sociologist Max Weber asserted that political
leadership can only achieve legitimacy through one of three forms: traditional,
charismatic, and rational-legal. In this post we will discuss how Octavian,
through guile and political skill, leveraged himself forward using these forms
to his advantage. The history of Octavian anticipates Weber and demonstrates a
classic example of political calculation.

For Weber, tradition refers to the hereditary
transfer of authority from one generation to the next, as in the royal houses
of Europe. These leaders are not given legitimacy for any personal characteristics
they may have, but only through rights held by their family. The opposite form
is the charismatic leader who obtains legitimacy based on personal
characteristics he possesses that appeal to people and make them want him as a
leader. One would certainly consider Alexander the Great a charismatic leader,
but in his case and all others charismatic legitimacy is delicate and fleeting
because it ends with the death of the individual. The third form, called rational-legal
refers to legitimacy obtained through a procedure that is legally sanctioned.
Elections are the most obvious example of this form because they require the
public to obey leaders who have been chosen in a legally sanctified way.

Prior to the assassination of Caesar, Octavian had little
going for him other than ambition. He was a member of the famous Julii family,
making him a patrician by birth and almost guaranteeing a successful career in
politics, but what else would he accomplish?

The day Octavian landed at Brundisium and learned about the inheritance
of Caesar’s fortune, his life changed forever. Ambition was put into action so
quickly one suspects a master plan behind it. Octavian immediately changed his
name to C. Iulius Caesar Octavianus, creating a family connection to the deceased
charismatic leader. His new name, with Caesar contained in it, forged a legal
connection which could not be disputed.

At this point, we introduce a chronology documenting the
moves Octavian made in his effort to take control of the Roman world. I believe
that seeing these in a list helps to frame the stratagem and the extent of his
efforts.

April, 44 B.C. Octavian was rebuffed in his attempts to
obtain Caesar’s legacy from Antony, so he used family assets to pay off
Caesar’s legacies. These efforts marked him as a decisive and honest leader who
could be trusted.

Late spring, 44 B.C. Octavian launched a PR campaign to
Caesar’s veterans without any legal authority to do so, raised a considerable
army, and even won over two of Antony’s legions. Octavian knew that military
power was needed to create political power and of course, his rivals had armies
he had to offset with his own. He must have exhibited an impressive force of
will to win over the army because the link with Caesar could only have carried
him so far.

Summer- Fall, 44 B.C. Octavian allowed to Senate to view him
as preferable to Antony who they disliked. Cicero, in particular, lauded
Octavian as a champion of the Republic.

April, 43 B.C. Octavian accompanied the consuls Pansa and
Hirtius in their pursuit of Antony, who they defeated at Mutina and Bolonia,
but both consuls were killed in battle and Octavian was left as the sole
commander of the consular army. He was denied a nomination as consul and
threatened to march on Rome if not given the title. The Senate relented and
elected him consul suffectus along with Quintus Pedius, a relative who had
given his Caesarian inheritance to Octavian.

October, 43 B.C. Octavian agreed to a Second Triumvirate in
order to define the contractual obligations between himself and his rivals and
to legitimize his position as one of the three most powerful men in Rome.

October-December, 43 B.C. During the time Octavian was
meeting with his fellow triumvirs, Pedius pushed two new laws through the
assembly. The first confirmed the adoption of Octavian by Caesar and the use of
his name. The second law made outlaws of Caesar’s murderers. Octavian’s
strategy was addition and subtraction: raise himself and lower the enemy.
Antony was already disliked by the Senate and now the assassins were placed on
the enemies list.

November- December, 43 B.C. Octavian participated in the
proscription put together by the triumvirs that gained additional wealth for
each and disposed of many enemies. Whatever one thinks of Octavian’s moral
character, he cannot be excused for the excesses perpetrated there.

January 1, 42 B.C. Julius Caesar was declared a god by the
Senate, making Octavian, his adopted son, the son of a god. This precedent
created a political-religious link from Octavian to all of Roman history. No
traditional legitimacy could have been stronger.

Summer-Fall, 42 B.C. Octavian accompanied Antony in the
pursuit of Cassius and Brutus to further legitimize his reputation as a
military leader and avenger of the murderers of Caesar. Lepidus, who was left to
manage Rome, was now seen as inferior.

Spring, 41 B.C. Following the victory at Philippi, a contract
was signed between the triumvirs which re-divided the provinces. Lepidus was
denied any territory.

40 B.C, Octavian had his sister, Octavia, marry Antony,
whose wife had just died. That marital link would serve as a temporary
insurance policy to prevent any actions by Antony against him.

Winter, 39-38 B.C, Octavian attacked the rebellious Sextus
Pompeius at sea and lost half his ships. Now realizing his shortcomings as a
military commander, Octavian Named Agrippa as his senior commander.

36 B.C. After the Sicilian campaign and Lepidus’ defiance,
Octavian forced his former partner into retirement, removing an obstacle on the
path to control of Rome. Now only Antony stood in the way.

33 B.C. Antony took up with Cleopatra and became dependent
on her fortune, Octavian started a campaign to discredit his former colleague.
He painted Antony as a demoralized man under the thumb of the Egyptian queen.
Then in 32 B.C, when the consuls tried to censure Octavian, the young man
unleashed a vicious attack on Antony causing both consuls and three hundred
senators to leave Rome and join Antony.

32 B.C. Octavian had Antony’s will retrieved from the Vestal
Virgins and read aloud in public. It proclaimed that Caesarian, Caesar’s son
with Cleopatra as legitimate, provided for Antony’s sons with Cleopatra, and
called for Antony to be buried with her. This news was offensive to most Romans
who now viewed Antony as weak.

31 B.C. Octavian declared war on Antony and defeated him at
the battle of Actium.

The steps outlined above were methodically carried out over a
thirteen year period. When it began, Octavian was nineteen years old. When it
ended, he was thirty-two.

How did this behavior anticipate Weber?

First and foremost, Octavian built a bridge to tradition by
adopting Caesar’s name and certifying himself as Caesar’s adopted son. When
Caesar became deified, Octavian became the son of a god.

He used charisma where appropriate, most notably his
approach to the army of Caesar immediately after their hero was murdered. He
used their emotions, his standing as the son of Caesar, and personal charisma
to win them over to his side. Octavian also knew the public would respond to strength
and he strove to exhibit his personal strength in ways that would influence public
opinion throughout this period.

Octavian consistently utilized rational-legal forms by adhering
to the traditional structure of the Republic – utilizing the Senate to
introduce bills and nominate magistrates and the assembly to pass the bills and
elect government officials.

Octavian must be considered as one of the greatest political
leaders of all time and it’s not surprising that he was able to rule the
imperial state for some forty years. How he skillfully transitioned Rome from
the Republic to the Principate is another story – one we will take up in the
next article.