2. Pre-Production

2.1. Establishing project goals

As with any project, goals must be clearly identified and defined. This
is particularly crucial for digital panorama production, since all later
steps will be directed by what is accomplished in the data-acquistion
phase. For the purposes of this document, the final authority on the project
goals is the person or group commissioning the work, referred to here
as "commissioner."

The commissioner determines the primary subject of the project, the primary
audience and the overall intent of providing access to that subject and
related contextual information. The subject may be a cultural heritage
site, a built work of architecture, an art object, or some other kind
of significant physical space. The extent and scale of that space must
be delineated and then the coverage of the space determined. Since each
panorama is anchored at a single viewpoint, the selection of the viewpoint
(or sequence of viewpoints for multi-node panoramas) will determine the
portions of the space presented to the audience.

However, simple percent-of-coverage is not the only goal: the commissioner
should weigh intellectual, creative, physical, and professional aspects
of the access to the physical space to be provided by the panoramas. Often
there is much more happening in a space than simply the architecture.
Works of art in context, such as an altar or statuary, can be photographed
and generated into an object panorama (see section 5.1).
The intended perspective of the viewing audience should also be considered
and what, if any, contextual information will be required.

Lastly, consider how the final product will be used. This depends in
part on who will be using the work, but also on who will be generating
the data and creating the end-user presentation. Will it be projected
alongside conventional slides onto a screen during lectures, or will it
be used by students at home? Will it be distributed over the internet
to viewers with slow internet connnections or via school equipment that
is configured to specific settings? Will narration be required to provide
context and explanations? This type of planning will save many hours of
work later on.

A digital panorama project is a lengthy process and requires sharp and
sustained focus. Competing priorities and a lack of necessary skills have
led to mixed results for many ambitious technology projects undertaken
by large universities: it may be wise to outsource elements of the project
to third-party contractors that specialize in digital panoramas and web
design. Depending on resources and budget, hiring external contractors
may be the most cost-effective, efficient, and successful method for completing
the project.

2.2. Choosing the site

After the subject has been chosen it is important to evaluate practical
access issues. There are many factors to consider, the most important
of which is access. It may not be possible to actually carry out a photographic
campaign of the site. The choice of subject may seem easy but often a
site is physically inaccessible due to restoration work, unsafe conditions,
or legal and adminstrative restrictions. In these cases the commissioner
should re-evaluate the subject and chose an acceptable alternative. These
kinds of problems may not become obvious until the photographer actually
arrives at the site. For example, suppose that the commissioner wishes
to photograph a Greek temple, and the subject is the Temple of Athena
on the Acropolis in Athens. Everything seems fine until the photographer
flies to Greece and discovers that the temple is completely obscured by
scaffolding and cranes. A flexible commissioner might switch the focus
to Paestum instead. For both the photographer and commissioner, it is
helpful to have a local contact, whether a fixer, historian, or other
expert at the shoot if at all possible to avoid these types of unexpected
problems (see section 2.7, below).

2.3. Choosing site nodes

In an ideal shoot, there is unlimited time on location to capture panoramas,
and the photographer can record every nuance and a few extras that might
turn out to be interesting. Unfortunately, this happy circumstance rarely
occurs, forcing the commissioner and photographer to strike a balance
between time limits, access restrictions, and factors beyond the team's
control. Accordingly, plan the shoot as carefully as possible to maximize
everyone's efforts. This does not just mean shooting as many panoramas
as possible, but also choosing which ones will best illustrate a point
and bring the space to the viewer.

If possible, study existing floor plans and illustrations and consider
line-of-site from any given node to any other node, especially if they
will be linked together via hotspots in panoramas (e.g., a clickable doorway
that leads from one room to another), or to a particular feature that
might be highlighted. Start by working with a copy of a floorplan. Mark
all of the places you intend to shoot a node in order of importance. If
you start at the entrance to a building, you might logically move a little
way in and shoot another node, to create a virtual tour. Or, you might
be better off moving all the way to the other end of the building in order
to shoot it first. This choice will require more time between nodes, but
will capture more of the space in case something goes wrong. Trade-offs
like this should be expected and planned for, and the prioritized list
of nodes should reflect the diminishing importance of each one.

Be sure to consider natural and permanent light when planning the nodes.
Very few panographers attempt to light their scenes for a number of reasons
(see sections 2.8 and 4.6.1).
If the panorama represents a moment in time, the viewer would see various
lights and cables somewhere in the photograph. If the photographer shoots
still frames or multiple passes with a scanning camera, it may be possible
to shift artificial lights around so that equipment does not appear in
the final scene. However, there is a risk of the natural light changing
significantly during that time, and blending or combining images will
raise problems. Light reflects and interacts in both obvious and subtle
ways that may result in extensive post-production work. Time of day and
seasonal changes both affect lighting, and should be taken into consideration
with choosing and prioritizing nodes. When shooting a cathedral, for example,
it might be preferable to photograph a node on one side of the building
in the morning and a node on the opposite side in the afternoon, in order
to maximize light coming from each direction. Between those two critical
times, the photographer can shoot other nodes that rely less on the light's
direction. When shooting exteriors, it may be best to shoot when the sun
passes directly overhead or to wait until the sun is low, for the shadows
it will cast (but keep in mind that anything in the direction of the sun
will wash out). Plan for the sun's movements rather than reacting to them
at the shoot.

Consider also the ramifications of placing the camera in relation to
the sun or other bright lights. Practically speaking, best results maybe
be obtained by shooting in the shadow of a column, utility pole, or other
object. Bright lights will wash out a panorama and effectively blind viewers
for that portion of the panorama. Putting the camera in a shadow, however,
makes it possible to shoot into the light while also achieving a useful
result. In some cases, it avoids serious problems such as blooming and
lens flare (where a camera's pixels produce pure white informationless
data). If there is a choice between putting the camera in a shadow and
not, almost always choose the shadow. Aside from blocking the light, shooting
from within a shadow negates the problem of shifting light. Even a quickly
shot panorama can have tripod shadows between the first still image and
the last or the beginning and end of a scan. The sun may appear to move
slowly overhead, but shadows can shift significantly in a short period
of time and when the tripod shadows in different images fail to align
it results in extra work in post-production. Minimizing shifting shadows
is one good reason to shoot with the sun as high as possible.

Other practical and predictable factors include traffic (both foot and
vehicular); natural elements such as water, snow, rain clouds, dirt, or
mud; barriers; safety; permissions; copyright; background; and security.
Setting up to shoot a node where many people are walking by may be awkward,
particularly if people are not supposed to end up in the image. They may
bump the photographer or the equipment and if they are too prominent in
the panorama there may be problems with privacy. Similarly, shooting a
node near heavy traffic can be dangerous, especially when the photographer's
attention is directed at the camera. If you use a scanning camera that
feeds into a computer, the choice of nodes may be restricted by the immediate
terrain (the laptop should not be sitting in the mud). If ropes or gates
block access to particular areas, it might be possible to reach over or
through them and shoot from the other side without crossing the barricade.1
It is sometimes necessary to choose a location that is less than optimal
but better for the equipment and the photographer. Line of sight can play
prominently in spherical panoramas because viewers can look in every direction.
If node placements are chosen for optimal viewing in a particular direction,
it may compromise what the viewer sees when turning around. Sometimes
just a meter's difference will capture both the desired feature and eliminate
less desireable objects in the reverse view. The commissioner and photographer
should build in enough flexibility to allow for these kinds of small changes
on site.

Many places restrict who may access particular areas, but every effort
should be made to shoot panoramas in such places, for the simple reason
that they are not normally accessible. Shooting in restricted areas can
substantially enhance the subject matter for viewers who have no other
way of seeing that material.

The commissioner should also consider the artistic quality of each panorama.
Placing the tripod in the dead center of a room may show a balanced view
in all directions, but unless some particular feature lies directly overhead
or below, an off-center location may give a better result. Consider placing
the camera somewhere that will offer viewers both foreground and background
changes. Placing the camera in the center of the room will minimize features,
but placing it nearer to or further from items within the room will heighten
and sustain viewer interests.

Placing the camera directly above or beneath particular features will
also make the panorama more interesting. If possible, give them something
besides ceiling and sky when they look up, and provide them with more
than bare floor or dirt when they look down. If the photographer can shoot
a node directly on top of a small wall or beneath an overhang, for example,
it encourages the viewers to take full advantage of fully spherical panoramas
(since, in addition to spinning around, they can look up and down). People
like to see the entire context of a place and anything that enhances their
experience can only improve the result.

Once all of the shooting subjects are selected, consider the height of
your camera. For a given set of nodes, it makes sense to keep the camera
height the same through the panorama, so that viewers do not become confused
or disoriented. Placing the camera at about eye-level makes sense if the
panorama is to show an average person's viewpoint. Alternatively, it might
be better to reflect a child's viewpoint or to place the camera on a raised
platform or crane so as to get a clearer, straight-on view of the subject
matter. Whatever the choice, especially if it is not an intuitive location,
it should be explained in the accompanying documentation.

No amount of pre-shoot preparation will substitute for securing the cooperation
and expertise of those responsible for the site. Good communication will
ensure a smooth time in the field and secure access to restricted areas
or at special times (such as before public visiting hours begin). Likewise,
every detail of a shoot should be discussed and agreed upon by the commissioner
and photographer.

With all of the above in mind, then:

Prioritize node choices to achieve the goal

Choose both subjective and objective views where possible

Shoot everything possible while on site

Pick the best work for the final compilation

2.4. Environmental considerations/scheduling the shoot

Environmental considerations are not limited to the weather. Unique obstacles,
such as religious services, holidays, festivals, siesta periods, and local
customs, may interfere with a shooting schedule. It is important to research
local customs (including appropriate attire) before arriving at the shoot.
Some research with travel agencies, web sites, and local site liaisons
(see section 2.7, below) will save time and money.

As discussed above, predicting and tracking the light source on site
is critical. The sun and weather play a huge role in the success of a
shoot. Artificial light is not desireable for photographing a spherical
panorama, so most panoramic photographers use natural light available
at predicted times whenever possible. For example, when photographing
a cathedral, capture the eastern end (chevet or apse) in the morning,
the southern and northern transept mid-day, and the western façade
in the afternoon setting sun. The time of year also plays an important
role in dictating the quality of light. In the northern hemisphere the
summer solstice, June 21, provides the most light to work with. This is
usually the preferable time of year to shoot. There are exceptions to
this: certain buildings, such as Die
Wies in Bavaria, are better shot on a sunny day in the middle of winter,
when the light reflects off the snow and through the fenestration up into
the dome and vaults.

Though the standard procedure for photographing architecture with natural
light is to use sunny skies for the exterior and overcast skies for more
even lighting in the interior, a creative photographer will constantly
monitor weather and clouds to make the best of any weather situation.
Clouds can be used to the photographer's advantage, providing the softer
lighting often desired for interior shots, then parting to provide bright
sun for an exterior shot. Even rain can create interesting effects; details
of gargoyles spouting runoff water highlight the usefulness of otherwise
ornamental features. While day-to-day weather and local cloud movements
cannot be predicted in advance, normal weather conditions for the site
can be checked through resources such as The
Weather Channel, The
Weather Underground, and the Lonely
Planet guidebooks.

2.5. Equipment

Nearly any kind of still camera (digital or film) can be used to create
panoramas (see section 5.3 for discussion of video panorama). Note that
this equipment can be quite expensive, up to tens of thousands of dollars.
In most cases, the photographer will probably use his or her own equipment
on the shoot. However, it is in the commissioner's interest to know something
about the equipment used for this type of photography and to know something
about its limitations. The following discussion provides a guide to the
pros and cons of various digital camera designs, which fall into two broad
groups: single-shot systems (i.e., point and shoot SLR cameras), and those
that methodically scan the image (i.e., cameras equipped with a scanning
back). Generally, single-shot cameras (and accessories) produce pictures
that must be stitched together to produce a panorama, while scanning systems
produce panoramas that require less post-production processing.

When it comes to choosing your panorama tools, it is reasonable to buy
as much as you can afford but it is not always best to purchase the most
expensive equipment. It might be better to purchase two identical systems
in case of mechanical problems, accident, or theft. From time to time,
used digital scanning camera systems can be purchased in online auction
houses: such devices produce very high quality results, but the complexity
of their components leaves much that can go wrong. It may be better to
purchase two or even three sets of gear that produce good results rather
than one set that produces outstanding images. A digital scanning camera
system consists of a camera, lens, laptop computer (screen, logic board,
hard drive, disc drive), application software, operating system, cables,
computer battery, camera battery, adapters, and a tripod. That's at least
thirteen vulnerable points: the camera could be knocked over and its lens
destroyed, the laptop may freeze, etc., and it may be difficult or impossible
to fix equipment on site. Though these systems produce excellent results,
they can prove fragile. If your system will include specialized components,
you may not be able to purchase replacements from a camera shop down the
street, even in major metropolitan areas. If you can afford a redundant
system of this type and ensure its security in the field, by all means
do so.

For most educators and scholars, a mid-level DSLR (such as the Canon
30D or Nikon D70) will be sufficient and will achieve appropriate quality.
Generally, point-and-shoot digital cameras are undesirable because of
the difficulty in controlling exposure settings and attaching external
lenses. Many budgets that cannot encompass a high-end system can find
funds for a high-quality camera and an identical model purchased for back-up.
In terms of field use, this reduces risk to far fewer potential points
of failure and a shorter time for recovery. A local camera shop is much
more likely to be able to replace any of these components from stock or
a back-up unit might be express-shipped if necessary. The flexibility
offered by commonly used equipment is a big benefit. Alternatively, it
might be feasible to have two sets of gear operating in the field at all
times, with more than one person operating them, for faster coverage of
a site.

When choosing equipment, don't forget to account for time and money required
for software and post-production processing. Images collected by scanning
systems are more easily and quickly converted into panoramas, but the
required software may have to be purchased separately (especially for
second-hand equipment). Still-shot cameras have a wide range of available
image-stitching packages, but they may require much more pre- and post-production
time to generate top-quality panoramas. If you use a still-shot camera,
a precision panorama camera mount is an invaluable accessory. However,
don't try to save money by using a low-quality panorama head, since that
will lead to manual adjustment in the post-production stitching stage.
The image will "float" between frames in each set of images.
When pixels are misaligned, they must be corrected by hand in post-production
in order to create a good panorama. Each pair of images must be precisely
aligned, a time-consuming and exacting process. With high-precision panorama
heads, sets of images overlap each other exactly and can be immediately
batch-processed.

Image Capture Systems
There are several flavors of image capture systems can be used to create
panoramas, including:

Point-and-shoot

Digital SLR (DSLR)

Automatic scanning systems (35mm-equivalent, medium, and large format),
such as Panoscan
and BetterLight

Video cameras

Geared roll film cameras

Whatever system you end up with will require the same basic elements:a
camera, a lens, a tripod that allows for accurate rotation of the lens,
and a method of capturing images.2

When conventional film is used, the images must be transferred to digital
form in order to be viewed on a computer screen. The most common system
is a DSLR camera with a wide-angle lens mounted on a tripod with a special
panning head (Fig. 1-2).

Though the greatest resolution can be gained from a scanning large-format
system, the DSLR system is popular for several important reasons. It is
more affordable and there is much less equipment required in the field
at a shoot (and therefore less opportunity to break something). Compared
to working with a camcorder, there is much less post-processing work required
to stitch the image and the results are generally much better and of a
higher resolution. Redundant DSLR systems are more readily available than
scanning systems and roll-film cameras, and replacement parts are generally
available at camera shops throughout the industrialized world. And for
conventional photographers, learning how to create a panorama with a common
DSLR is a natural transition.

Digital cameras differ from film cameras in that they collect data about
the image by means of electronic devices rather than film. There are two
types of sensors that collect light data about the image, charge-coupled
devices (CCD) and complementary metal–oxide–semiconductors
(CMOS). Most digital cameras use CCDs, but there are subtle but relevant
differences between how these two types of sensors read and record data.
CMOS chips have a lower light sensitivity and are generally more susceptible
to noise, but use much less power and are therefore well-suited to smaller
cameras. CCDs, on the other hand, are more susceptible to becoming dusty,
requiring more frequent cleaning. A full discussion is outside the parameters
of this guide, but information can be found on several web sites.3

Building a scanning system
Tom Watson

Digital scanning backs have been in use for about ten
years. They are derived from satellite imaging systems. Because scanning
backs are scientific instruments that require a computer to run them,
they have been used mainly in art galleries, museums, libraries, universities
and offset printing companies where accurate color and precise detail
are necessary to record art works and text. However, they are becoming
more popular among architectural and landscape photographers migrating
from film to digital while using the view camera they already own. The
scanning back used with the Panowide adapter motorized tripod head is
optimal for producing panoramas of various dimensions and ratios including
360° cylindrical and spherical panoramas. Two early adopters of
digital scanning backs are Stephen
Johnson and Shelley
Lake. Pixel
Light and Richardson
Photography also use this technology.

The Better Light scanning back is engineered to slip
into the film slot of a view camera. A view camera allows independent
displacement of the lens plane and the film plane. To be sure, using
a view camera is slower and a more contemplative way of making images,
but it offers important advantages for image control. When creating
a single image, the photographer can apply front and back rise or fall,
swings, tilts and shifts to control focus, depth of field and parallel
line convergence (the Scheimpflug
principle). When creating a 360° panorama, the use of rise and
fall changes the horizon line. Using tilt can change the depth of field.
For flat stitch panoramas the rear shift movement is extremely useful.4

The look and feel of the scanning back are thoroughly
professional. The insert is a thin, torsionally rigid box within which
a precision step motor turns a gear drive that moves the Kodak trilinear
sensor across the scanner opening, 72 x 96mm in dimension. The inner
workings of the electronics are best described by this excerpt from
the Better Light web site:

The trilinear sensor is mounted in a ball bearing carriage
that glides on a precision track cut into the metal body frame, and
is accurately positioned by a matched polymer nut and stainless steel
drive screw directly coupled to a high-torque step motor with up to
6400 micro-steps per revolution, for outstanding smoothness at any motor
speed. This motor is driven by a dedicated microcontroller that also
controls the sensor’s exposure and timing, for crystal-accurate
synchronization of these important functions.

Within the image sensor, three rows of light-sensitive
photodiodes are each covered by a red, green, or blue color filter,
making the entire row sensitive to only one primary color. While Kodak’s
trilinear sensors use CCD (charge-coupled device) technology like many
other digital cameras, in these devices the CCD structures are “blind”
(not sensitive to light), and serve only as charge transport "conveyor
belts" to carry the individual pixel signals from the photodiodes
to an output amplifier for each row. Because there is no need to have
the three rows of photodiodes immediately adjacent to each other, a
wide CCD structure is positioned adjacent to each row of photodiodes,
with the necessary electrical couplings between them. The CCD structure
is wider than the photodiode structure so it can carry bigger charge
packets (more electrons), which improves dynamic range.

Because of this dual photodiode/CCD structure, these
sensors can be reading out three previous rows of color pixel information
via the CCD structures while the next three rows of color pixels are
being collected in the photodiodes. This allows continuous exposure
and readout of the sensor during a scan, without requiring any mechanical
shutter. Better Light scanning backs do not stop and start the scanning
mechanism to allow the data-collection system to "catch up"
– instead, the sensor is always moved smoothly and continuously
throughout each capture.

My system consists of a laptop computer, an external
80GB hard drive, a 4x5 view camera, a Better Light Scanning Back inserted
into the camera, a tripod with a panorama adapter motor, and a small
two-pound battery to power the scanning back (Fig. 3).
Cables connect the scanning back and the panowide adapter motor, so
as to coordinate the scan with the camera's rate of rotation. When I
have set up my equipment, I enter lens length, rotation, and exposure
values into the laptop and begin the scan. The Better Light software
first runs and displays a pre-scan, which is 12% of the full resolution.
Upon seeing the pre-scan, I can decide whether to change any settings
before running the full scan. This all is run from the laptop. Once
the full-resolution scan is recorded on the hard drive, I move it to
my laptop and view it in Photoshop to verify my choices are correct.
Voila! The panorama is 99% complete. Later in the day, I will make another
copy on a disc or external hard drive, but very little post-processing
will be required. The panorama is contained within a single image, so
there is no stitching or pixel manipulation needed. I sometimes scan
an image three times (once for the mid-values, once for the highlights,
and once for the shadows) and composite the three scans together.

The software is intuitive to anyone with photographic
experience. I was able to do my first pre-scan thirty minutes after
unpacking the unit. Every exposure is a timed event. One rectangular
full-resolution image, 6000 x 8000 pixels, 276 MB file in bright sunlight
takes 35 seconds. Scanning a 360° panorama takes about eight minutes.
Because of the time it takes to make a scan, you must plan ahead to
estimate what the exposure will be at the beginning and the end of your
scan and be aware of what might occur in the image area during that
time (e.g., people walking in front of the camera). One could also have
problems with bloom, which occurs when a point source of light produces
a thin line through the image. Usually this is very easily retouched.
All time exposures are also subject to motion artifact which appears
as tri-color lines (Fig. 4).

Figure 4. Filmore Glen. The time lapse in taking the panorama led
to the motion artifact in the waterfall. Click picture to see larger
version. Photo by Tom Watson.

Three attributes put scanning ahead of competing technology
as far as I am concerned. The scanning array writes columns of pixels
6,000 pixels tall by whatever has been programmed (I’ve done images
of 6,000 by 65,000). These columns are seamlessly integrated one to
another. You can watch the process during the pre-scan. Secondly, since
the file is written on a continuous arc, the final image has no stitching
artifacts (Fig. 5). With large, clear fields, such
as an open sky at twilight, a scanning back is my choice. Thirdly, while
stitching practitioners are making huge data bases of numerous images
and losing 20-30% of each file in overlaps, scanning panoramas use 100%
of the pixels recorded.

Figure 5. This continuous panorama has no motion artifact because the
image was captured at a line time of 1/240th of a second. This image
would be impossible to create using the segmented stitch technique.
Click picture to see larger version. Photo by Tom Watson.

An example panorama is shown in Fig. 6.
The shot was done with the equipment and techniques described in this
section..

Figure 6. A panorama of the Academical Village at the University of
Virginia in 2006. Click image to see the full panorama. Photo by Tom
Watson.

The cost for this technology is not trivial. Better
Light is the leading manufacturer of digital scanning backs. Their hardware
with Viewfinder software is priced from US$6,495 to $22,995. These prices
compare favorably with professional medium format instant capture systems.
View cameras are “an acquired taste” for many photographers.
I have always enjoyed using them and this 100-year-old camera design
is enjoying a resurgence. Newer cameras are made of carbon fiber, polyethylene
plastic and, of course, traditional wood. If you buy a view camera to
use with a scanning back, be certain that the bellows are made of a
composite rubber material instead of leather. Leather bellows leak IR
light which is not acceptable to scanning backs. View camera lenses
are, by and large, sharp, have excellent contrast and have large image
circles. The ability to move the image area around in the image plane
makes the view camera lens an architectural tool. The image circle is
often large enough to shift the camera back far right for one scan and
far left for another scan, then merge them in Photoshop for a perfect
flat stitch. The stitch overlap is only about 10% and the resulting
image is perfectly rectilinear (Fig. 7).

Figure 7. A rectilinear panorama. Click image to see the full panorama.
Photo by Tom Watson.

I carry to each job, a full view camera set and a special
view camera with a machined rigid bellows. This special view camera,
manufactured by SK
Grimes, speeds up the image making process and has an extremely
low wind profile.

The Better Light panorama adapter is the other big
cost item (about $4,000). It is a step motor-driven automated tripod
head. The step motor has zero gear lash which in practical terms means
the camera’s rotation will start, stop and return to a precise
pixel (Fig. 8-10, below). Images that are precisely
the same can be layered or rendered by high
dynamic range image software.

Figures 9-10, above. Better Light with the view camera shifted to the
left and right. The combination of left and right make a rectilinear
panorama image. Click pictures to see larger versions. Photos by Tom
Watson.

The Panoscan camera is another camera to be evaluated
for panorama imaging. The trilinear image sensor and viewfinder software
are supplied by Better Light. The camera engineering, original thinking
on panorama production and uses (law enforcement) are the effort of
Panoscan.

Other factors that should be considered before investing in a system:

Complexity: Any digital photographer working
at this level has become comfortable with complex systems, but that
is a factor with any panorama system. We all must carry the camera,
tripods, laptop, cords, batteries, external hard drives, etc. A scanning
camera kit contains more parts, but the image quality and the foreshortened
workflow benefits outweigh the extra bits of hardware.

Reliability: The Better Light scan back has been very reliable,
in my experience. In five years of ownership, I have never had to return
one for repair. The scanning insert is strongly built and protects the
CCD from dust and damage. The image sensor is easily cleaned at any
time dust is detected.

Workflow: With the camera mounted on the pano adapter and
the image plane plumb and level on the tripod, the scanning operator
can pre-scan an image in seconds, recompose the image by adjusting the
software settings, make exposure determinations, examine a histogram
for the entire image, and plan multiple scans. The panorama can be loaded
into Photoshop and examined for faults at very high resolution. The
image is contained on a hard drive (mine is 80GB), which should be backed
up for redundancy reasons.

Image Quality: DSLR cameras interpolate color. The Bayer
array chips (in DSLR cameras) record 50% green, 25% red and 25%
blue. The software then makes up the difference by interpolation. Scanning
backs, on the other hand, do not interpolate color. They record each
of the primary colors separately and equally; 100% green, 100% red and
100% blue. The image area of a scanning back is larger than any single
capture area; 6,000 x 8,000 pixels which at 48-bit yields a file of
276 MB. It is an important difference that can be demonstrated in side
by side comparisons. There is no green to magenta color shift across
the image as there is with Bayer array chips. This green to magenta
color shift must be corrected in the software.

Personal preferences: Photographing digital panoramas is closer,
in fact, to a science project than to more glamorous forms of photography.
However, there is enormous satisfaction spending each day in deep concentration
trying to master this difficult art. Although the equipment is expensive,
when you factor in the extra post-production time and the possibility
of leaving a site without the job being done, scanning is a viable cost
alternative when compared to other techniques, at least to this writer.
The image quality, expressed as an inkjet print or a 4-color offset
job, is the most compelling in the long history of photography.

Digital vs. Film: Cold weather is a big disadvantage to digital
photographers. The imaging chip is not supposed to be subjected to below
freezing temperatures. LCD displays begin to gray out when subjected
to cold, batteries loose power quickly and in general digital cameras
are not as hardy as film cameras. With film, the lubricant in the shutter
blades may slow the shutter closer so that over exposure becomes a problem.
In extreme cases, roll film becomes brittle and will break. All other
considerations favor digital production vs. film production, in my opinion.

How much data do we need to collect? The Better
Light workflow is done entirely in a TIF format. We hope that this is
a stable format that will be useful well into the future. For now, working
entirely in TIF and resampling for other uses into JPEG is our working
method. Our files are large enough to meet ever increasing computer
and internet speed capabilities. With programs like load-on-demand Zoomify,
one can view enormous files over the internet.

Why I do what I do

I am closing in on forty years as a professional photographer. I am
grateful that my family life and my career were and are so harmonious.
Intrinsically, I am the happiest I have ever been as a photographer
and these last five years I consider to be the high point of my career
for these reasons:

Freedom from the environment of chemical photography

Superior image quality of the digital file

Digital work flow

The profound pleasure of working with large 48-bit color files

Most readers to this guide will not have spent thousands of hours processing
color film (good for you!). Photographs without film grain and the longer
contrast scales of digital files are more beautiful. The digital workflow
supports Ansel Adams’ “previsualization concept,”
which loosely stated, says that as you set up your camera, you are envisioning
the final print. We have digital image tools that Mr. Adams never imagined,
but would wholeheartedly embrace. He was an artist and a technician.
Combining the 1860s' technology of the view camera and a large-format
digital back are the most powerful set of tools in the history of photography.
I am happy to be one of the practitioners.

Lenses
Anyone who spends time looking at a variety of panoramas will notice the
difference between those shot with an 8mm lens and those taken with a
15mm lens. A smaller lens has a greater field of view but objects will
appear to be further away and can have an apparent distortion on the edges
when a panorama changes view (although this can be adjusted in post-production).
Some viewers have strong aesthetic preferences for one or the other. There
are implications to lens size that may be relevant when choosing equipment.
The ability to zoom in on details in a panorama is greatly affected by
the lens. If the camera has a CCD chip one square centimeter in size,
for example, the amount of detail captured on with an 8mm lens will be
far less than with a 15mm lens, because the light captured from a much
greater field of view must necessarily fall on the same space that captures
more detail in a smaller field of view with a longer lens. This translates
directly into the effective zoom achievable in the final panorama. The
trade-off comes with the number of images needed to capture an entire
sphere: an 8mm lens might do it in four frames, whereas a 15mm lens might
need twenty. (The terms used here, smaller/shorter and larger/longer refer
simply to the number of the lens; the actual physical size of the lens
does not necessarily correlate).

Many photographers prefer to use a wide-angle rectilinear lens with
minimal distortion. Fish-eye lenses are also popular because fewer images
are required to capture the 360° field of view. However, there are
limited software applications that can stitch these images due to patent
issues. There are one-shot lenses that are capable of capturing the entire
360° in a single image, but these provide the least amount of resolution
and are incapable of capturing complete spherical views.

Tripod and Tripod Head
A panoramic tripod head is an important piece of equipment that is used
to position the lens at the point of rotation (see section 4.4).
Mounted on any normal, sturdy photography tripod, the head also allows
for even measuring of rotation angles, both horizontally and vertically.
Most are manually operated, but some (such as the Panoscan system) rotate
automatically. A good panoramic tripod head will allow for proper positioning
of the camera so as to avoid parallax. Parallax is the apparent displacement
or difference in apparent direction of an object as seen from two different
points not on a straight line with the object. In other words, it is the
apparent doubling of objects in an image, and is a problem that plagues
panoramic practitioners. It is essential to properly adjust the panoramic
tripod head so that as you rotate the camera, the point of rotation equals
the nodal point of the lens. When the head is not properly adjusted, even
by a few millimeters, parallax will occur. Refer to various “how-to”
websites such as PanoGuide
for tutorials on how to properly adjust your tripod head. Manfrotto,
Kaidan, and 360Precision
produce good quality panoramic heads.

Resolution Requirements
A common question asked is: How much data do I need to collect? It depends
in part on what you intend to do with it. Current library collection standards
for scanned film require 3000 pixels on the long axis, shot on 100-400
speed film. If the panorama is only going to be viewed on a typical computer
monitor, it should be at least 72 dpi. If it will be printed, it needs
to be at least 300 dpi (or whatever the printer specifies). It is advisable,
though, to collect data at as high a resolution as possible, so as to
have more options in post-production. The systems that provide the highest
resolution are the automatic scanning systems. The resulting files may
be very large, however, and may require an external hard drive for storage
in the field.

Traveling With Equipment
Last but not least, be sure to consider international shipping and customs
laws before you invest thousands of dollars. There are strict regulations
for shipping hi-tech equipment over international borders and there are
limitations to the amount and weight of luggage that can be carried onto
an airplane. Travelling is discussed in greater depth in a later chapter,
but in general do not attempt to travel with more equipment than the carrier
or country permit.

Balancing resolution and budget
Michael Gross

I’ve used many different systems, from video cameras to the latest
DSLR available. What you use depends on the purpose of the documentation.
If you are creating a documentation of a building that will be used
in the classroom and added to library collections then, in my opinion,
there’s really no such thing as overkill. With constant advancements
in digital camera technology and rapidly increasing resolution, I try
to use the camera with the most resolution possible that is within my
budget. This strategy not only provides beautiful images with an incredible
amount of information, it also increases the “shelf-life”
of my panoramas before they are deemed obsolete relative to current
expectations for resolution.

My current set-up (Fig. 11) includes
a Canon EOS 1Ds Mark II (16.7 megapixels) with a 14mm f2.8 Canon lens.
This camera/lens combination provides a good balance of very high resolution
with minimal shots required per panorama. This is mounted on a Manfrotto
303 sph tripod head on a Bogen tripod. This, while not quite as precise
as other tripod heads (such as the 360Precision), it is capable of taking
almost any camera setup and is very easy to calibrate, whereas each
360Precision is built specifically for one camera/lens combination and
cannot be adjusted for another setup. All of the equipment I use is
relatively easy to find in many countries around the world. If I experience
equipment malfunction in the field I will be able to use back-up gear
and keep working.

The Case for Stitching over Scanning

While it is possible to achieve ultra-high resolution
with a scanning system, it is also possible to create similarly high-resolution
results with a stitching system, although perhaps the most notable technique,
GigaPan, is currently
still in beta testing. In general, the cost of stitching equipment (DSLR
camera, wide-angle lens, panoramic tripod head, tripod legs) is much
less than scanning equipment. There is much more flexibility in terms
of suitable equipment and compatibility. There are fewer parts to the
system, therefore fewer weak points where the system could fail in the
field and cripple a shoot.

There is a notable difference in the time required
to shoot images intended for HDR or composite images. The photographer
must take at least three exposures (shadows, mid-tones, highlights).
With scanning, each 360° exposure takes eight minutes, which adds
up to at least twenty-four minutes for all three bracketed exposures.
That is long enough for the light to shift, people to move through and
around the subject, etc. Two panoramas might take about an hour to capture.
With stitching, the photographer can use automated exposure bracketing
for any given frame (or all frames), adding negligible additional time.
With a stitching setup, a photographer can capture one panorama in a
few minutes, allowing for many more panoramas in one hour. If time at
a shoot is limited and the goal of a shoot is to capture as many panoramas
as possible, it makes more sense to shoot more panoramas with a DSLR/stitching
setup, even if it means more time in post-production.

Proponents of scanning often point out that 20-30%
of each file is "lost" during the stitching process due to
overlap. However, the photographer has the freedom to use a longer lens,
thus permitting more frames per panorama, and increasing the overall
resolution of the panorama. And if "decent" resolution is
all a commissioner is after, then stitching may yet provide sufficient
results. I have been achieving 75 megapixels with my current DSLR/stitcher
setup.

2.5.1 Systems requiring stitching

In the early days of digital panorama creation (the mid-1990s), the usual
method was to use a 35mm film camera equipped with a wide-angle lens,
orient the camera in portrait mode, and take a dozen or so shots while
rotating the camera in roughly equal steps through a 360° circle.
With this technique, the camera should ideally be mounted on a tripod
and the camera’s position on the tripod should be offset so that
the axis of rotation passes through a point in the optical system (commonly
termed the "nodal point" and usually located somewhere through
the body of the lens), in order to avoid or at least reduce parallax.
Photographers used either homemade camera-mounting brackets or purchased
specially designed tripod heads from commercial suppliers.

In its essentials, this method is still being used although as digital
camera design and capability have improved, film has fallen out of favor;
today the overwhelming majority of stitched panoramas are derived from
born-digital images. Also, since the advent of cubic and spherical panoramas,
there is a need to shoot more than just a single row of pictures around
if the zenith and nadir of a scene are to be recorded.

A system for good-quality stitched output might consist of:

Camera
Preferably (but by no means necessarily) a
DSLR model. The main advantage of the DSLR design is the ability to use
interchangeable lenses.

Lens
A rectilinear wide angle typically in the range
of 14-24mm focal length (35mm equivalent) or a fish-eye (either circular
or full frame). Longer focal lengths can be used; they will yield higher
resolutions but require more pictures and a lengthier stitching time;
fish-eye lenses are widely used because a full scene can be captured with
a smaller number of shots.5

Tripod and panoramic tripod head
While some adventurous
workers in the field have made very successful hand-held panoramas, the
use of a tripod and panoramic head really is recommended.

2.5.2 Systems not requiring stitching

Stitching can be a vexing and time-consuming process. Errors such as
ghosting and mismatched features require often difficult digital retouching
and repair in an image-editing application. As part of the stitching process,
captured images almost always require remapping from their rectilinear
or fish-eye perspective to cylindrical or spherical projections, and image
quality can be somewhat degraded by this transformation. Shooting a series
of pictures takes time, and non-static features in the scene (clouds,
people, vehicles) move between exposures, resulting in ghosting, stitching
errors, and associated problems. These difficulties can be largely overcome
by non-stitching techniques, in which the camera captures a panoramic
scene in a single exposure. There are three basic approaches you can use:

Rotational cameras
There are different designs, some home-brewed, mostly commercially manufactured.
They come in both film and digital versions with varying image scales
or film formats. All have the ability to capture a panoramic scene in
a single exposure/rotation (and without resorting to a panoramic tripod
head). If the objective is to produce an interactive 360° panorama,
one stitch is required to join up the two ends so that the image wraps,
but this is a trivial matter requiring only an image editor. The main
disadvantage of these cameras is that they are expensive (particularly
the digital models) relative to the more modest equipment needs where
stitching is employed.

One-shot or single-shot systems
A relatively recent development has been the introduction of devices employing
parabolic mirrors, the reflection of which can be imaged with conventional
digital cameras. A single picture of the reflected scene can then be processed
with software to output a cylindrical image.6
Advantages: one shot; no stitching; capturing subject motion; ease of
use; can be used with wide variety of cameras. The main disadvantage is
that the panorama’s resolution can only be as good as that of a
single frame taken with the digital camera.

Scanning systems
Digital scanning backs, originally developed by the military for satellite
imagery, are similar to and provide equivalent resolution to medium- and
large-format film cameras. Instead of capturing a sequence of individual
shots like a digital single-lens reflex (DSLR), they scan the view and
create a single complete panoramic image on the spot. With newer systems,
the resolution is truly enormous, and the viewer can zoom in to incredible
detail. One major difference between panoramic scanners and DLSR setups
is that they require a computer be physically connected to the camera
in order to operate. This may increase set-up time and introduce another
level of complexity in the system. Another consideration is the large
file size, which not all computers can handle. While the files can be
downsampled to reduce size, they may actually provide far more data than
the project requires.

Film versus Digital Capture
Brian Donovan

In the early period of digital panorama creation, film
was the preferred option as digital cameras were in their infancy, and
relatively expensive. At the time of writing however, digital cameras
are by far the most frequently used for image capture. And with good
reason — an obvious disadvantage with film is that it has to be
digitized. This adds another step in the workflow and costs more in
both time and money (not to mention problems with dust, scratches, and
fingerprints). However, there is another side to this coin: color negative
film does offer one outstanding characteristic of particular interest
to the panoramic photographer, and that is its very high dynamic
range. Digital camera sensors (and traditional color transparency
film) have a more limited capability than negative film when it comes
to compressing the range of brightness in a subject in a single exposure.
This is especially pertinent for spherical panoramas, which might include
the sun in the zenith and deep shadow in the nadir. Photographers using
digital cameras have developed a number of strategies for dealing with
this problem, including compositing and, more recently, high dynamic
range imaging (HDRI) techniques; but these techniques are generally
not straightforward to implement. A color negative, it could be argued,
is in itself a ready-made high dynamic range image, and while obtaining
good scans from color negatives (especially of high-contrast subjects)
is not always the easiest of tasks, standard image-editing skills can
be used to tease out the desired detail in both highlight and shadow
areas (nor will the latter suffer from the noise often evident in digital
images).

At the time of writing, there is much discussion of
digital preservation strategies, and possible long-term problems with
archiving media such as CD and DVD-ROMs. If nothing else, film has certainly
proved itself to be a long-lived and compact data storage medium.

There is also that hard-to-define ‘look’
of film; the grain, the grittiness, that sets it apart from the digital
image with its own characteristics (lack of grain, color fringing, shadow
noise) all of which give it a recognizable appearance. This is a simple
matter of personal preference.

Finally, there is the advantage of being able to revisit
and rescan old negatives as better film scanners become available or
your scanning skills improve. Whatever the reason, a carefully stored
negative still has all that image information locked in its grain structure
awaiting reinterpretation. If we regard scanning as a variation on traditional
printing, just another way of making a final positive image, then a
familiar quotation from the great photographer (and master print-maker)
Ansel Adams seems pertinent:

The negative is comparable to the composer's score
and the print to its performance. Each performance differs in subtle
ways.7

It would not be so easy for the digital photographer
to reinterpret a set of JPEG files taken for a stitched panorama. Depending
on the original exposures, highlight and shadow details that were not
recorded or were clipped are irrecoverable, and other image qualities,
such as white balance, can only be modified by so much before the image
is adversely affected. Having said that, there is a sort of digital
equivalent to the color negative, and that is the RAW file format, a
high-bit-depth image8
that, to some extent at least, does embody some of the qualities of
the negative. But not all digital cameras offer RAW as an option, and,
because it generates large files, only a minority of photographers at
present routinely use it to create source files for their panoramas.

In the film vs. digital debate, it seems clear that
at the start of the twenty-first century digital has resoundingly won
the day, and for very many good reasons. And yet, and yet… for
those few diehards among us still using film, it may be just a little
while yet before the darkroom door is closed for the last time.

2.6. Travel preparations

Equipment
Traveling with photographic equipment can be quite challenging. There
are changeable restrictions on carry-on, checked baggage, and customs
for all forms of travel. It is generally not a good idea to check expensive
and delicate equipment into an airplane hold. Luggage is often mishandled
and thefts do occur. Whenever humanly possible, carry media, film, and
equipment by hand. The particular risks will vary depending on the destination
and type of travel.

Check with airlines a few weeks before departure so as to have sufficient
time to pack gear properly, and be aware of last-minute restrictions or
political events that may complicate your trip. Also check the Warsaw
convention, an international agreement that regulates liability of
international airlines for passengers and baggage. It limits an airlines
liability for lost or damaged equipment to a startlingly low number (around
US$25 per kilogram of cargo and US$500 for carried baggage). Warsaw was
amended in 1955 at the Hague and in 1999 at Montreal,
but the revised amounts are still small (approximately US$1500 for baggage
and US$25 per kilogram for cargo). Independently purchased travel insurance
may offer more coverage. Be sure to check that it covers property in transit,
not just at the destination.

Because baggage regulations are becoming more restrictive as of late,
it may be necessary to either check or ship luggage. ATA cargo cases (such
as Pelican ATA) can be custom-made and are probably the most reliable
option when carry-on is not an option. However, beware government import/export
restriction when moving hi-tech equipment. For example, shipping computers
and hi-tech equipment into Italy is notoriously difficult.

Using luggage Carnet forms sometimes facilitates the process. These are
essentially passports for gear: some countries require them when bringing
in professional equipment. The Carnet is an international customs document
to be presented at each port of entry. It is an itemized list of goods
or equipment upon which no duties, fees or taxes are to be collected because
the goods or equipment is to be reexported within twelve months. Think
of it as a passport for objects. There are yellow, green and white counter
foils for custom agents to sign and stamp upon entry and exit from each
country traveled through. Failure to obtain entry stamps and signatures
or exit stamps and signatures may result in a penalty of up to 40% of
the listed value at the next point of entry.

Carnets are issued by the Corporation
of International Business. They maintain an excellent website where
one can browse all the categories of interest and assess quickly how to
proceed, and a help line (1-800-282-2900). The application fee and the
bond posting for US$10,000 worth of equipment would cost approximately
US$300. When starting a journey from the US, be sure that US Customs has
done its job of checking serial numbers, signing and stamping the Carnet
before checking in with the airline. This will protect against eager US
tax collectors. Note, though, that many countries, such as those in the
Middle East, do not accept the Carnet. The CIB website has upbeat and
positive language, but it is a news event when another country became
Carnet-compliant.

Veteran travelers know that frustration abounds at ports of entry and
will have all paperwork in order. Another thing to keep in mind is to
always maintain a pleasant tone of voice, relaxed body language and gesture
towards the exit saying, "où sont les taxis?"

Film
The main concern for photographers travelling with film is the possibility
of fogging caused by airport security screening. The ideal strategy would
be to obtain film on site, and have it developed locally. But of course
this is not always practical and it may not be possible to obtain particular
types of film locally and/or find suitable processing labs.

Undeveloped film (whether exposed or unexposed9) should never be placed in checked baggage where it is
likely to be subject to high-intensity X-ray inspection but instead should
always be placed in carry-on baggage. However, even the radiation from
the lower-intensity scanners typically employed for carry-on baggage may
cause fogging of higher speed films (say ASA/ISO 800 or above) and of
slower films if exposed repeatedly through multiple passes through such
systems. There is considerable anecdotal evidence (at the time of writing)
that medium-speed films can withstand multiple passes through carry-on
inspection systems in North America and Europe with no noticeable effects.
Lead-lined bags will offer a level of protection in theory, but they will
also probably attract attention during the screening process, requiring
hand-inspection, or even higher-intensity X-ray examination. In the US
at least, it is possible to request that film (and camera equipment) be
hand-inspected at security checkpoints. Manual inspection policies in
other countries will vary.

Safety
Security and safety for both people and equipment is a constant consideration.
At the risk of pointing out the obvious, when faced with the choice of
losing equipment or risking injury remember that equipment can always
be replaced. Some tips to traveling safely:

Whenever possible, do not travel alone.

Always keep a low profile when moving about a city or in transportation
centers, such as airports and train stations. Keep equipment packed
and inconspicuous.

Be aware of your surroundings. Thieves may wait to steal equipment
or money after a shoot, so it is a good idea to take a cab directly
from the site back to the hotel and store all gear safely before going
out again.

For tips on traveling safely, refer to the Savvy
Traveler, The Washington PostTravel
section, and The New York TimesTravel
section. Since many national and regional newspapers are available
on the web, it may also be worthwhile to read the local news before making
travel plans (Newslink.org
has links to papers all over the world) and to consult the U.S.
State Department about travel considerations for the area.

Some regions of the world are simply too dangerous to visit. In these
cases it may be possible to hire local photographers. If necessary, it
may be possible to arrange a training session in a neutral country.

Insurance
Get proper travel health insurance and equipment insurance and be sure
to read the fine print: many policies do not cover equipment "in
transit" (while it is traveling on an airplane or being shipped).
And many policies that claim to cover equipment in transit in fact only
cover catastrophic events, such as floods and fires. In that case, if
boxes disappear or equipment breaks, tough luck. One of the best options
is to ship equipment with FedEx and to declare the value of the packages.
This is similar to insurance, but they will replace the equipment (rather
than issue a claim check). However, be aware that when the declared value
of the equipment will be used when calculating duties. Many film photographers
develop their negatives at a trusted local developer before returning
home in order to avoid problems with x-ray scanners at airports. The Large
Format Photography Forum has a section on Location
and Travel, including discussions on traveling with film. When entering
a country it is always a good idea to say that you are traveling as a
tourist, avoiding mention that you are traveling for work or study unless
you have work or student visas. Immigration customs, police, and other
border officials can be unpredictable in some countries. In some cases,
bribery is
necessary for the project to continue, though is not sanctioned by the
writers or distributors of this guide.10

In some cases, professional liability insurance may be required to protect
against damage caused by the photographer. Some locations may require
a minimum US$1 million in coverage.

Backing up data
Redundant copies of data are an excellent idea, but when traveling overseas
it is even better to maintain copies of data on multiple continents. One
option is to send back-up DVDs to a trusted recipient back home during
the trip. In that case, it is wise declare a value of US$1 for the data
so as to avoid hefty import/export tariffs and questions about conducting
work without a work permit.

2.7. Local site liaison (Mr. Fix-It/Fixer)

The local site liaison, a.k.a the Fixer or Mr. Fix-It, can be an invaluable
assistant. This is a local person who knows the proper procedures for
getting necessary permissions to shoot, is familiar with local customs,
and is familiar with the area. He (or she) can be especially helpful in
a country with a lot of red tape, such as Italy. A Mr. Fix-It can also
provide on-going services such as:

translator

driver / guide

information on local customs and food

help finding the best photo shop for film, development, and repair

intimate knowledge of the site and other sites that may not yet have
been considered

A good site liaison is generally a local scholar, photographer, filmmaker,
or local guide who lives in the area and is hired to deal with logistics
on a local level. Contact local academic institutions and post a request
for a local liaison to university list servers, or check with local guide
companies, travel guides, hotels, movie/film companies, cultural attachés,
embassies, state department recommendations, or local press contacts.
In some countries (Germany and England in particular) taxi drivers often
are very knowledgeable and can be hired as a guide for the day. Be sure
to negotiate compensation in advance. With the right local guidance, the
shoot will go smoothly and everyone will be happy.

Other preparations
Bring a letter of introduction from the commissioner, institution, or
university. The letter should be notarized and could even include certifications
by “apostille”
(a seal attesting that a notary is registered, which is accepted as the
recognition of other countries’ official documents under the 1961
Hague Convention). Business cards, as well as many copies of all your
documents, are also good introductions and proof of intent. The more documents
you can supply in support of the project the better. Contact the cultural
attaché of the countries you are visiting and ask for a letter
of support. Letters of support should be on official letterhead from the
head of the university or institution, as well as the commissioner, professor,
and project director. Photographers should have information showing their
professional credentials.

What to do when the local site liaison fails
Sometimes Mr. Fix-It fails, so have a back-up plan in the form of alternate
contacts or a strategy to deal with logistics on-site. Even with the best
of intentions, you will not always be the highest priority for the liaison
and his or her contacts, and there is always the risk of scam or sheer
incompetence. For best results, use a liaison with good credentials and
strong recommendations from friends or colleagues who live or work in
the area.

2.8. Site access and resources

Gaining access to a site can sometimes be as simple as providing a wish
list to the local site liaison. More likely, the commissioner and/or photographer
must do much of the legwork. Generally, the first step is to determine
who is in charge of a building and who is authorized to grant the appropriate
permissions. A good place to start is by calling the press office, if
there is one, since it often handles everything, including scheduling
the shoot. More obscure sites may not be so well-organized, in which case
some creative thinking is called for. In Italy, for example, there is
an entire bureaucracy for handling the rights of the cultural property
of the state, and each city its own bureaucracy. Unfortunately, these
organizations are generally not very efficient, so the key is to be persistent.
Authorities may not respond to paper or electronic correspondence so be
ready to phone or visit the office in person, perhaps several times.

When determining who controls a site, a great place to start searching
is the World Wide Web. A website for the site may have phone numbers or
the name of a foundation or group that supports the site. The following
are some examples of different types of sites and who controls them:

Religious Site (e.g. church, mosque, temple):
depends on who owns the building. Begin with the religious office. In
Italy, the building may be controlled by one of the various soprintendenze
(e.g. Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma; Soprintendenza Beni Ambientali
e Architettonici di Roma).

Public Space (e.g. square, street, park): Contact the city
film commission (in Italy, the Soprintendenza di Film) for permits.

Archaeological Site: If the site is an active dig, contact
the archaeologist or institution who is in conducting the research.
In Italy, try the Soprintendenza Archeologica for the city where the
site is located.

Museum: Press office for the museum.

Library: depends on who owns the library (university;
religious organization; city); sometimes libraries are owned by non-profit
organizations. Contact the director, if possible.

Private Company (e.g. bank): contact the public relations
office or the office manager for the company.

Government Building (e.g. City Hall): contact the building
management office or visit the tourism office.

School/University Campus: contact the public relations department
or the Office of the Architect.

Transportation Hub (e.g. airport terminal, train station):
contact the press department of the transportation authority, often
a division of city government or an independent public authority. Security
clearance is likely a requirement for photographers, particularly for
airport terminals, and may take an extended period of time to obtain.

Power
Power requirements are often tricky. Older buildings have a limited number
of power outlets, and they are often not conveniently located and are
not grounded. Old buildings tend to have old wiring that cannot handle
the high amp requirements of electronic equipment and lights especially
(remember, watts = volts x amps). America uses 110 volts, 60 Hz. In Europe
and other parts of the world, they use 220-240 volts, 50 Hz. Many power
adapters for battery chargers and computers are capable of handling both
systems, but check the label before relying on them. Different countries
use different shapes for their power outlets. Steve
Kropla's Help for World Travelers has information on international
electrical settings and telephone connections.

The easiest solution is to buy a travel kit with all possible adapters,
and bring as many as might be required. Remember that at any given time
on a shoot power might be needed to run a computer, charge camera batteries,
back up data to an external hard drive, and run lights.

Lighting
Unlike traditional architectural photographers, panoramic photographers
generally prefer to rely on natural lighting (see sections 2.3
and 4.6.1). Artificial lighting increases
the complexity of a shoot by an order of magnitude, and introduces problems
that would otherwise not exist. For example, a wall with a fresco must
maintain a certain temperature range and environment, and the use of bright,
hot lights might be prohibited. Also, site managers prefer to keep the
equipment used to a minimum so as to avoid interference with the normal
flow of visitors. One tripod is normally not a problem, but lighting equipment
can present quite an obstacle. Furthermore, in a 360° scan the equipment
will be visible.

Storage of Equipment and Cases
Keep equipment cases out of view of the shot whenever possible, for the
sake of both convenience and security. Be sure to find a secure place
to store the cases, such as an office, security desk, or the locked trunk
of a car.

Roads and Transportation to the Site
Many sites are located in cities with a plethora of transportation options.
In some cases, it will be easiest to drive to the site, but be aware that
parking can be an issue, especially if the site is in a crowded or insecure
area. Cabs are a good option but are not always reliable. Subways or trains
are often cheap and reliable, but require carrying all of the equipment
(up and down flights of narrow, steep, crowded stairs). Also keep in mind
that during peak hours the carriage may well be standing room only and
there may be a short window of time to maneuver through the crowd and
off the train (not an easy task with large, heavy cases).

Sites that are not located in major metropolitan areas present a different
set of problems. In Europe, the train system is wide-spread and generally
good, but there are still many places that are a long and expensive cab
rides from the closest train station. In this situation, it may make sense
to rent a car.

Translators and cultural liaisons
A local site liaison can be very useful in handling language and cultural
issues. This is discussed in depth in section 2.7.

To the Holy Mountain
Brian Donovan

A vivid example relating to permissions and site access was my 2001
visit to the Orthodox monastery of Hilandar at Mount Athos in Greece.
This was part of a research and educational project for the University
of Auckland’s School of Architecture, whose main focus was the
largely Byzantine art and architecture of this monastic complex, little
changed since the 14th century, with its origins in the 11th century.

The Athonite monasteries (there are about twenty of them) are located
on an otherwise uninhabited peninsula in the Chalkidiki region of north-eastern
Greece, and together they form a sort of autonomous territory, with its
own borders, customs procedures, and regulations. The job called for me
to travel to the Holy Mountain (as it is known) along with a lecturer
from the university. To be able to visit at all, we first had to obtain
an explicit invitation from the abbot of the monastery, then apply for
a special kind of visa (a diamonitirion) from the Athos Visitors
Office at Thessaloniki (the nearest Greek city, and usual starting-point
for visits to Athos). But not only that — there is one further condition
that must be met for admission to the territory: as a result of a medieval
edict still in force, only adult males may visit Athos. Women
and children are not only excluded from the monasteries, but from the
entire peninsula. Here then, was one of our several goals: to use interactive
panoramas to provide female students of art and architecture with the
‘next best thing’ to visiting the monastery. Moving images,
in the form of video or film — which might otherwise be regarded
as the next best thing to being there — are forbidden at Athos,
and the monks took some convincing that the QuickTime VR panoramas I would
produce, based as they are on still images, did not constitute movies.

Then there was the matter of physical access: this involved travel
by bus to a village at the edge of the territory, where final border
formalities and customs checks took place; then a ferry to a landing
place some way down the coast; and finally a truck ride over dirt roads
to Hilandar, nestled in a wooded valley and seemingly an awfully long
way from anywhere. A week spent living with the monks and photographically
documenting the surroundings followed. One further visit in 2003 allowed
completion of the work, as it was only on this second visit that we
were finally granted access to the monastery’s church (katholikon).
This reluctance by the monks to grant us full access to all parts of
the complex was entirely understandable — not only were we lay
outsiders, but we were not Orthodox (the great majority of visitors
to the Athos monasteries are Orthodox pilgrims).

Figure 12. Orthodox monastery of Hilandar at Mount Athos before and
during the 2004 fire. Photo by Brian Donovan.

This job had a poignant aftermath, when, in March 2004,
a devastating fire destroyed about sixty percent of the monastic complex
(Fig. 12). A massive restoration and rebuilding project
is underway, but it will just never be the same again. Although mine
are by no means the only photographs depicting Hilandar as it was before
the fire, they offer — with the relative objectivity that characterizes
most 360° panoramas — a unique record of this lost heritage.

2.9. Budget

There are three tiers of production systems — call them base, average,
and platinum — and the best choice depends on the balance between
requirements and resources. The commissioner should discuss the differences
in quality verses acceptable costs with the photographer well before the
shoot (see section 2.5 for information about equipment
options). It should also be clear what costs the commissioner will cover
and what costs the photographer will cover. For example, is the photographer
responsible for getting travel insurance and liability coverage for possible
damage to the site?

The commissioner's budget should include production, post-production
and long-term maintenance of the project. It will need to encompass the
following categories:

Equipment
This covers all the equipment for the shoot, such as: camera, remote switch,
flash media, lenses and filters, tripod head and legs, laptop computer,
stitching software and image editing software, flash media card reader,
travel cases and backpacks, power adapters, and external data storage.
Normally the photographer owns or has access to most of this equipment
and has to purchase only a few items specifically for the project, such
as stitching software and the panoramic tripod head. It may also be possible
to rent or borrow individual pieces of equipment. Universities may have
equipment loan pools or an art department that will loan equipment for
special projects.

Fees/Licenses
Besides visa fees for entering some countries, there may be fees for use
of a site. Many sites waive fees for educational use of site photographs,
many charge a reduced or full fee. This can range from just a few dollars
to hundreds of dollars (the average is between US$100 - $300), but in
rare cases the fees can range in the thousands. If the photographer is
hired as a contractor, then he or she will also be paid an honorarium.
The local site liaison will also negotiate a fee, generally a daily rate
(see section 2.7). Extra liability insurance for the
photographer or the commissioner may also be required, depending on the
site and subject. There may also be access fees for entering the site
or for using the site at night or when it is closed to the public. Finally,
it may be necessary to pay officials on-site for travel permits, equipment
use, etc.

If legal consultants are required to write up releases and licensing
agreements, their fees should be included in this category.

If the project is being funded by federal or non-profit grant agencies
or administered by a university or institution, be sure that these costs
are covered in the proposed budget and that the institute grant administration
procedures will allow the costs to be paid with grant monies.

Post-Production
Unless the project is being run by a university department that can provide
post-production facilities and labor, post-production costs will include
purchase or use or hardware (computers), software, and labor involved
in turning the source images into the final product.

Maintenance of Archive
This often-overlooked item involves the long-term maintenance of the archive.
As network infrastructures, operating systems, and viewing platforms and
software change, the archive must be adaptable in order to remain accessible
and useful. As of this writing, there is no open-source software for viewing
digital panoramas. It is unwise to assume that commercial software manufacturers
will continue to distribute and provide support for current versions of
viewing software forever. It is not enough to store work in a secure and
stable environement: it will require further investments of time and effort
to remain accessible to future users.

Notes:

1. This was done in one location in Rome; a locked metal gate prevented
access to a small room, however the bars were wide enough apart that it
was possible to set up a tripod and digital scanning camera within the
locked area while leaving the controlling laptop on the outside. The entire
unit was disassembled outside the gate, then reassembled inside, with
cables running out to the controlling computer. The effort resulted in
scanning the inside room, which otherwise would not have been visible
if the panorama was made outside the locked gate. [back]

8. Many digital cameras can also save
high-bit-depth images in formats like TIFF. This also allows for more
extensive image manipulation in subsequent editing (as compared with 8-bit
formats such as JPEG) but is not as versatile as RAW. [back]

9. Film that has been developed will of course
be unaffected by X-ray inspection. [back]