(1) Some statistics to show the growth of the black consumer market in
the USA, and some of the preferences for sporting goods in particular
(2) A quick defence of symbolic interactionism, not very well
developed, and arguing that human beings need to communicate with each
other through various shared symbols
(3) A good detailed analysis of some Nike adverts showing how well they
are able to address some of the symbols shared with the black sporting
audience, and noting how the main aim of the advert appears to be
communication, with only a very soft sell
(4) Some general implications for sports policy makers in terms of how
they should communicate if they want more black people to participate.

The account is somewhat uncritical, although it does raise the
possibility that Nike adverts might actually be aimed at exploiting
customers. No analysis is offered of how this might work in practice.
Black sporting culture is also treated rather uncritically as if it
existed as some spontaneous cultural creation of black people -- there
is a reasonable argument to say that the good correspondence between
the world of black sporting culture and the world of Nike adverts is
that the latter have a strong influence on the former in the first
place. Finally, none of the difficulties and problems of using
commercial modes of address for marketing policy issues are discussed:
policy makers can borrow from advertising only to some extent, but they
do not wish to actually sell goods which people might not actually
want?

What remains to be done then is a bit of cherry-picking:

Effective communication depends on getting right 'the elements, the
channels or media, the content of the message, the icons and symbols
used to convey the message, values portrayed in the message' (266).
Advertising also contains important non-verbal cues as well, including
visuals. Meaning is defined as reactions to these stimuli [not a very
symbolic interactionist view here -- what happened to critical
interpretation?]. Good adverts try to build bridges by using 'verbal
and pictorial symbols with overtones of meaning that are not directly
related to the product' (268), and the brand itself can be used
to refer directly to the product. Nevertheless, television advertising
in particular has run into difficulty from consumers who are willing to
zap or scan -- hence the need to motivate viewers to watch, and to
develop communication strategies.

Black spending power is increasing considerably in the USA, faster than
the national average. The black consumer market also places much
significance on sports, and sport seem to generate more personal
involvement, for both black men and black women. Basketball in
particular 'was more salient to and had a more symbolic meaning
to the black culture than to whites' (270). Black people also watch
more TV, and tend to prefer black-owned radio stations and magazines.
They also seem to be 'more affected by advertising' (270). The
most popular televised sports for black people are
'track-and-field, boxing, and basketball', and basketball is the most
popular overall, when print media are included (270).

Communication effectiveness in advertisements seems to turn on 'core
symbols... prescriptions... whether communication is problematic...
[because of multiple meanings] ... code... conversation... and
community' (271). This provides a link with symbolic
interactionism [a rather slender one in fact], which in turn
helps us to focus on important aspect of the self, including
'self-image, self-esteem and personal and social identity' (272).
Advertisers should take these aspects into account, and researchers
should too, when considering the connection between advertising and
black audiences.

The Nike adverts chosen were ones referring to basketball. Meanings
contained in the advertisements were analysed via five different
commercials and 'random issues of black magazines' (273).
Three 'independent African American researchers' did the coding,
examining the 'premise of the message, the
grammar/packaging/contextualisation of the message, and the overall
style of presentation and delivery of the message as suggested by
symbolic interactionism' (273). The intentions of the advertiser were
examined as well as the 'speculative effects on black consumers
as the receivers of the communication' (273). [Proper symbolic
interactionist work would have gone to see how these meanings were
actually negotiated among the consumers themselves?].

The commercials are then described, pages 273 - 9. [From what I
can see, they seem to feature black people, including famous basketball
players, in slices of life in the black community -- sitting in barber
shops, hanging around, and laughing and joking and the like. The Nike
logo seems to be the main way in which the brand is introduced. The
print media contain inspiring scripts about personal achievement
despite adversity, ending with the famous exhortation to just do it.]

None of the adverts offered hard sell product endorsement, but focused
instead on the culture of the participants. The theme of each one was
conveyed through 'human interaction, experience and emotion'
(281) [all of it scripted?]. Consumers were invited to self reference
and to be involved in the interaction. A series of ideas were depicted
rather than a tight narrative, 'fostering a contagion effect of
communication which fostered interaction among the viewers and readers'
(281). The collective community of black consumers was effectively
referred to via naturalistic representations. This developed emotional
links to capture attention and prevent zapping and scanning. The
intention was to let the product become culturally salient as
well: 'The swoosh, therefore, may be an external stimulus that
represents the total packaging of the Nike experience and evokes a
positive feeling... within black consumers' (282). [I still think
this is done as well and with more critical punch in Goldman and
Papson]. The actual conversational patterns were designed to relate to
typical experiences, and included 'slang, jive talking with their
codes and with their jargon' (280). Black music was playing in the
background, and other cultural activities alluded to.

Advertising effectiveness can be measured both in terms of economic
returns, increases of sales and the like, or in more social terms,
which is what has been attempted here. The analysis is admitted to be
'subjective' and permitting only a 'cursory evaluation of Nike's
attempt/ability to communicate with black consumers' (282). Further,
there is no guarantee that consumers will respond in a favourable
manner, but other researchers are cited. Nevertheless the adverts do
successfully bridge into the world of black consumer culture, allowing
black consumers to 'relate, refer, establish, and maintain
positive identities through the symbols used and the images created'
(283). Nike has also attempted to hire more black workers, and invest
in black youth and black communities. Even negative publicity seems to
have increased the popularity of the company among black consumers.

Sports policy makers have used similar techniques, in basketball and
baseball, in American football and in soccer -- black people have been
given prominence in advertisements, for example. Advertising in this
niche way may be effective in an American society that values different
identities. Of course, 'care must be taken to convey messages
that are not exploitative, but instead that promote the establishment
of long-term positive relationships with consumers' (284) [this
is exploitative!]. Certainly, cultural insensitivity should be avoided.
Sports organisations should borrow these priorities, and in this
respect, Nike seems to be leading the way.