GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, VOL. 39, L06801, doi:10.1029/2012GL051000, 2012
Evidence linking Arctic amplification to extreme weather
in mid-latitudes
Jennifer A. Francis1 and Stephen J. Vavrus2
Received 17 January 2012; revised 20 February 2012; accepted 21 February 2012; published 17 March 2012.
[1] Arctic amplification (AA) – the observed enhanced
warming in high northern latitudes relative to the northern
hemisphere – is evident in lower-tropospheric temperatures
and in 1000-to-500 hPa thicknesses. Daily fields of 500 hPa
heights from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction Reanalysis are analyzed over N. America and the
N. Atlantic to assess changes in north-south (Rossby) wave
characteristics associated with AA and the relaxation of poleward thickness gradients. Two effects are identified that
each contribute to a slower eastward progression of Rossby
waves in the upper-level flow: 1) weakened zonal winds,
and 2) increased wave amplitude. These effects are particularly evident in autumn and winter consistent with sea-ice
loss, but are also apparent in summer, possibly related to
earlier snow melt on high-latitude land. Slower progression
of upper-level waves would cause associated weather patterns in mid-latitudes to be more persistent, which may lead
to an increased probability of extreme weather events that
result from prolonged conditions, such as drought, flooding,
cold spells, and heat waves. Citation: Francis, J. A., and S. J.
Vavrus (2012), Evidence linking Arctic amplification to extreme
weather in mid-latitudes, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L06801,
doi:10.1029/2012GL051000.
1. Introduction
[2] During the past few decades the Arctic has warmed
approximately twice as rapidly as has the entire northern
hemisphere [Screen and Simmonds, 2010; Serreze et al.,
2009], a phenomenon called Arctic Amplification (AA).
The widespread warming resulted from a combination of
increased greenhouse gases and positive feedbacks involving
sea ice, snow, water vapor, and clouds [Stroeve et al., 2012].
The area of summer sea ice lost since the 1980s would cover
over 40% of the contiguous United States. As autumn freezeup begins, the extra solar energy absorbed during summer in
these vast new expanses of open water is released to the
atmosphere as heat, thus raising the question of not whether
the large-scale atmospheric circulation will be affected, but
how? While global climate models project that the frequency
and intensity of many types of extreme weather will increase
as greenhouse gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere [Meehl et al., 2007], this analysis presents evidence
suggesting that enhanced Arctic warming is one of the
causes.
1
Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University, New
Brunswick, New Jersey, USA.
2
Center for Climatic Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison,
Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
This paper is not subject to U.S. copyright.
Published in 2012 by the American Geophysical Union.
[3] Exploration of the atmospheric response to Arctic
change has been an active area of research during the past
decade. Both observational and modeling studies have
identified a variety of large-scale changes in the atmospheric
circulation associated with sea-ice loss and earlier snow
melt, which in turn affect precipitation, seasonal temperatures, storm tracks, and surface winds in mid-latitudes [e.g.,
Budikova, 2009; Honda et al., 2009; Francis et al., 2009;
Overland and Wang, 2010; Petoukhov and Semenov, 2010;
Deser et al., 2010; Alexander et al., 2010; Jaiser et al.,
2012; Blüthgen et al., 2012]. While it is understood that
greenhouse-gas-induced tropospheric warming will cause an
increase in atmospheric water content that is expected to fuel
stronger storms and flooding [Meehl et al., 2007], individual
extreme weather events typically have a dynamical origin.
Many of these events result from persistent weather patterns,
which are typically associated with blocking and highamplitude waves in the upper-level flow. Examples include
the 2010 European and Russian heat waves, the 1993
Mississippi River floods, and freezing conditions in Florida
during winter 2010–11. This study focuses on evidence
linking AA with an increased tendency for a slower progression of Rossby waves in 500-hPa height fields that favor
the types of extreme weather caused by persistent weather
conditions, such as drought, flooding, heat waves, and cold
spells in the northern hemisphere mid-latitudes.
2. Analysis and Results
[4] How does Arctic Amplification promote higher amplitude and slower moving waves? To address this question,
output from the National Center for Environmental Prediction
(NCEP)/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR)
Reanalysis (NRA) data set [Kalnay et al., 1996] is used to
assess changes in the atmosphere related to enhanced Arctic
warming, and to investigate the effects of high-latitude
change on mid-latitude patterns in 500 hPa heights. While
direct comparisons of reanalysis to observations is problematic owing to a lack of independent measurements, Archer
and Caldeira [2008] found that the upper-level circulation
in the NRA is very similar to that of the European Centre
for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) Reanalysis
(ERA-40), and Bromwich et al. [2007] found excellent
agreement between surface pressure fields from these reanalyses in the Arctic after 1979, when assimilation of satellite
data began. To reduce the possibility of spurious variability
owing to differing data sources assimilated by the reanalysis,
only fields from the post-satellite era are used.
[5] Following summers during recent decades with diminished Arctic sea ice, large fluxes of heat and moisture enter
the lower atmosphere during fall and winter, which together with enhanced poleward fluxes of latent heat [Alexeev
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Figure 1. Seasonal anomalies in 1000-500 hPa thicknesses (m) north of 40 N during 2000–2010 relative to 1970–1999:
(a) autumn (OND), (b) winter (JFM), (c) spring (AMJ), and (d) summer (JAS). White asterisks indicate significance with
p < 0.05. Data are from the NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis.
et al., 2005], contribute to AA. This warming is clearly
observable during autumn in near-surface air temperature
anomalies in proximity to the areas of ice loss [Serreze et al.,
2009]. The integrated lower-tropospheric warming is apparent
in widespread anomalies in the vertical thickness of the layer
between 1000 and 500 hPa, illustrated in Figure 1 for each
season during 2000 to 2010 relative to the previous 30 years.
During fall (Oct.–Dec.) statistically significant anomalies are
apparent over much of the Arctic region, and during winter
(Jan.–Mar.) a strong anomaly persists in the N. Atlantic and
west of Greenland, along with positive areas at lower latitudes
over Russia and the N. Pacific. Strong positive values during
summer (Jun.–Sep.) occur mainly over high-latitude land
areas, consistent with warmer, drier soils resulting from earlier
snow melt [Brown et al., 2010]. Significant anomalies are
absent in spring during recent years because heating that
results from a reduced summer ice cover has dissipated and
because high-latitude soils have not yet dried following snow
melt.
[6] The differential warming of the Arctic relative to midlatitudes is the key linking AA with patterns favoring persistent weather conditions in mid-latitudes. Two separate
effects on upper-level characteristics are anticipated: weaker
poleward thickness gradients cause slower zonal winds, and
enhanced high-latitude warming causes 500 hPa heights to
rise more than in mid-latitudes, which elongates the peaks of
ridges northward and increases wave amplitude. Both of
these effects should slow eastward wave progression. Wave
features in 500 hPa fields are analyzed from 1979 through
2010. The study focuses on the mid-latitudes of N. America
and the N. Atlantic (140 W to 0 , Figure 2a), north of which
the ice-loss has been substantial and atmospheric heating has
been statistically significant (Figure 1). Fields of 500 hPa
heights are selected for this analysis because they are constrained by observations from numerous radiosondes and
satellite retrievals, they are relatively free from surface
effects, and they capture upper-level wave patterns.
[7] Evidence supporting the first effect – zonal wind
reduction – was identified in a previous study by Francis
et al. [2009], who found that poleward thickness gradients
were weaker over the N. Atlantic and N. Pacific in summers
with less sea ice than normal, and that the weakening persisted well into the following spring. This tendency is also
clearly evident over the present study region, as shown in
the time series of 1000-500 hPa thickness differences between
a high-latitude region (80–60 N) and low-latitude region
(50–30 N) for each season (Figure 3, left). Since the late
1980s when rapid ice loss and enhanced warming began,
poleward thickness differences have decreased in all seasons,
especially during fall and winter (10% with > 95% confidence in fall trend).
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Figure 2. Region of study: 140 W to 0 . (a) Asterisks illustrate an example of a selected range of 500 hPa heights used in
the analysis. (b) Schematic of ridge elongation (dashed vs. solid) in upper-level heights caused by enhanced warming in Arctic
relative to mid-latitudes. Higher amplitude waves progress eastward more slowly, as indicated by arrows.
[8] The strength of the poleward thickness gradient determines the speed of upper-level zonal winds. As the gradient
has decreased with a warming Arctic, the upper-level zonal
winds during fall have also weakened since 1979 (Figure 3,
right), with a total reduction of about 14% (>95% confidence).
Winter winds are more variable but exhibit a steady decline
since the early 1990s. When zonal wind speed decreases, the
large-scale Rossby waves progress more slowly from west
to east, and weaker flow is also associated with higher wave
amplitudes [Palmén and Newton, 1969]. Slower progression
of upper-level waves causes more persistent weather conditions that can increase the likelihood of certain types of
extreme weather, such as drought, prolonged precipitation,
cold spells, and heat waves. Previous studies support this
idea: weaker zonal-mean, upper-level wind is associated with
increased atmospheric blocking events in the northern
hemisphere [Barriopedro and Garcia-Herrera, 2006] as well
as with cold-air outbreaks in the western U.S. and Europe
[Thompson and Wallace, 2001; Vavrus et al., 2006].
[9] The second effect – ridge elongation – is also expected
in response to larger increases in 500-hPa heights at high
latitudes than at mid-latitudes. This effectively stretches the
peaks of ridges northward, as illustrated schematically in
Figure 2b, and further augments the wave amplitude. Higher
amplitude waves also tend to progress more slowly. Evidence of this mechanism is investigated by selecting a narrow
range of 500 hPa heights for each season that captures the
daily wave pattern in the height field. The following ranges
were used for fall: 5600 m 50 m, winter: 5400 m 50 m,
and summer: 5700 m 50 m. The example in Figure 2a
illustrates an “isoheight” represented by the selected gridpoints over the study region on a typical day, which are then
analyzed to reveal changes in 500 hPa patterns over time.
[10] First row of Figures 4a–4c presents time series of the
seasonally averaged maximum latitude of daily isoheights
(corresponding to peaks of ridges) for fall, winter, and
summer. Spring is not shown because high-latitude thickness
anomalies are not statistically different from mean conditions.
The steady northward progression of ridge peaks supports
the hypothesis that AA is contributing to ridge elongation;
confidence in these trends exceeds 99%. The fall plot also
presents the time series of September sea ice extent (reversed
scale, Spearman’s correlation = 0.71) derived from passive
microwave satellite information (obtained from the National
Snow and Ice Data Center, http://nsidc.org/data/docs/noaa/
g02135_seaice_index/ [Fetterer et al., 2002]). The winter
Figure 3. (left) Time series of seasonal 1000–500 hPa thickness differences between 80–60 N and 50–30 N over the study
region (140 W to 0 ). (right) Seasonal zonal mean winds at 500 hPa between 60–40 N over the study region. Seasons are
labeled. Data obtained from the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis, http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd.
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Figure 4. First row shows time series of maximum latitude of ridge peaks during (a) fall, (b) winter, and (c) summer from
1979 to 2010. A running 5-year box-car smoother was applied. The dotted line in fall is the time series of September-mean
sea ice area (reversed axis, 106 km2); in winter the JFM Arctic Oscillation Index, and in summer the northern hemisphere
snow cover for May (reversed axis, 107 km2). Second row is trends in the number of gridpoints that are located north of
50 N (60 N for winter) vs. longitude for each season. Red asterisks indicate significance at a 90% confidence level, the
zero line is dashed blue. Third row is the same as the second row, but for wave amplitude (deg./decade). Fourth row
(Hovmöller diagrams) presents time/longitude variations in the numbers of gridpoints located north of 50 N (60 N winter)
with 500 hPa heights in the ranges of 5600, 5400, and 5700 m (50 m) for each season, respectively. See text for details.
Arctic Oscillation index [Thompson and Wallace, 2001]
appears in the winter panel, with a correlation of 0.65.
Along with the summer panel is plotted the time series for
the northern hemisphere snow cover for May (obtained from
the Rutgers University Global Snow Lab, http://climate.
rutgers.edu/snowcover [Ghatak et al., 2010]). The two curves
are strongly correlated with r = 0.88, suggesting the
northward elongation of ridge peaks may be a response to
enhanced warming over high-latitude land owing to earlier
snow melt and warming soil [Jaeger and Seneviratne, 2011].
[11] Could this poleward shift be explained by the
observed migration of the entire height field, rather than only
the ridge peaks, in response to increasing greenhouse gases,
as reported by Seidel and Randel [2007]? The analysis presented in the fourth row of Figures 4a–4c sheds light on
this question. Hovmöllor diagrams present time/longitude
contours that illustrate the preferred locations and time evolution of the number of gridpoints in each selected 500 hPa
isopleth that are located north of 50 N (i.e., peaks of
ridges) during autumn and summer, and north of 60 N during winter. Related to these Hovmöllors is the second row
of Figure 4, which displays trends in the number of these
gridpoints, indicating which longitudes have experienced a
change in ridging over the past three decades. Finally, the
third row of plots presents the corresponding trends in wave
amplitude, calculated as the difference between the maximum
and minimum latitude of the isopleths along each longitude
for each season and year. This difference calculation also
helps mitigate any systematic bias in the reanalysis height
field. While the significance of the trends in ridge points or
wave amplitude at any one longitude often falls short of a
90% confidence level (marked with red asterisks), the probability is near zero (p < 10 5) that the population of positive
trends in ridging and amplitudes for all longitudes can be
random.
[12] The Hovmöllor diagrams exhibit the clear geographic
preferences of ridge axes during each season. In fall they
tend to align over western N. America and the eastern
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N. Atlantic. Trends in ridge gridpoints (second row) are
positive across the region, with largest values over the entire
N. Atlantic. Corresponding trends in wave amplitude (third
row) are also positive at most longitudes, with the largest
increases in the central U.S. and central N. Atlantic. These
tendencies favor warmer, more persistent conditions along
the N. American east coast and in the N. Atlantic, and may
have contributed to the dramatic increase in maximum temperature extremes in those areas during fall, as shown in the
Climate Extreme Index (available from NOAA’s National
Climate Data Center, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/extremes/
cei/ [Gleason et al., 2008]).
[13] During winter the preferred longitudinal positioning
of ridges is similar to those in autumn, and ridging trends are
again positive at most longitudes. While wave amplitude
trends are less uniform, significant increases appear particularly over the Rocky Mountains, which is consistent
with more persistent patterns that may have contributed to
reduced mountain snowpacks in recent decades [Mote,
2006]. The Hovmöllor plot for summer shows that ridging
occurs predominantly over central and western N. America,
but the largest increases in ridge gridpoints (second row)
have occurred over the eastern N. Atlantic. Trends in wave
amplitude are positive nearly everywhere, particularly from
the east coast of N. America across the N. Atlantic. Increased
ridging and higher wave amplitudes over the Atlantic may
have contributed to unprecedented surface melt in Greenland
during recent years [Tedesco et al., 2011] as well as to recent
heat-waves in western Europe [Jaeger and Seneviratne,
2011].
3. Conclusions
[14] In summary, the observational analysis presented in
this study provides evidence supporting two hypothesized
mechanisms by which Arctic amplification – enhanced Arctic
warming relative to that in mid-latitudes – may cause more
persistent weather patterns in mid-latitudes that can lead to
extreme weather. One effect is a reduced poleward gradient
in 1000-500 hPa thicknesses, which weakens the zonal
upper-level flow. According to Rossby wave theory, a
weaker flow slows the eastward wave progression and tends
to follow a higher amplitude trajectory, resulting in slower
moving circulation systems. More prolonged weather conditions enhance the probability for extreme weather due to
drought, flooding, cold spells, and heat waves. The second
effect is a northward elongation of ridge peaks in 500 hPa
waves, which amplifies the flow trajectory and further
exacerbates the increased probability of slow-moving
weather patterns. While Arctic amplification during autumn
and winter is largely driven by sea-ice loss and the subsequent transfer of additional energy from the ocean into the
high-latitude atmosphere, the increasing tendency for highamplitude patterns in summer is consistent with enhanced
warming over high-latitude land caused by earlier snow melt
and drying of the soil. Enhanced 500-hPa ridging observed
over the eastern N. Atlantic is consistent with more persistent
high surface pressure over western Europe. This effect has
been implicated as contributing to record heat waves in Europe
during recent summers [Jaeger and Seneviratne, 2011].
[15] Can the persistent weather conditions associated with
recent severe events such as the snowy winters of 2009/2010
and 2010/2011 in the eastern U.S. and Europe, the historic
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drought and heat-wave in Texas during summer 2011, or
record-breaking rains in the northeast U.S. of summer 2011
be attributed to enhanced high-latitude warming? Particular
causes are difficult to implicate, but these sorts of occurrences are consistent with the analysis and mechanism presented in this study. As the Arctic sea-ice cover continues to
disappear and the snow cover melts ever earlier over vast
regions of Eurasia and North America [Brown et al., 2010],
it is expected that large-scale circulation patterns throughout
the northern hemisphere will become increasingly influenced
by Arctic Amplification. Gradual warming of the globe may
not be noticed by most, but everyone – either directly or
indirectly – will be affected to some degree by changes in the
frequency and intensity of extreme weather events as greenhouse gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere. Further research will elucidate the types, locations, timing, and
character of the weather changes, which will provide valuable guidance to decision-makers in vulnerable regions.
[16] Acknowledgments. The Editor and the authors thank the two
anonymous reviewers for their assistance in evaluating this paper.
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J. A. Francis, Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University,
71 Dudley Rd., New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA. ([email protected])
S. J. Vavrus, Center for Climatic Research, University of WisconsinMadison, 1225 West Dayton St., Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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