1. SUMMARY
Description of travel by Otto Kessler, Associate Director ONR-EUR and by Dr. Wolfgang-M. Boerner, Professor at University of Illinois at Chicago and Distinguished Senior US Navy Scientist, to 14 Russian R&D institutes in 6 cities. These institutes are performing research relevant to polarimetric and interferometric surveillance and sensing theory, metrology and technology. Discussion covered broad capabilities and research specific to applications in area surveillance, target characterization, propagation, and environmental monitoring of surface and atmospheric surroundings.

The perspective derived from these visits is that there is widespread capability for good research in radar and radiometry in pursuit of remote sensing. The techniques encompass combinations of moderately high resolution, synthesized apertures, polarimetry, and multispectral or multifrequency measurements.

A robust research capability is also present in measurement of propagation effects employing radio occultation and direct path measurements. More general atmospheric probing to measure standard meteorological parameters as well as detection of turbulence, pollutants, and other anomalies is being pursued with diverse techniques, spanning the electromagnetic spectrum: radio occultation, radiometric, and laser techniques. Other observations regarding the general science and technology environment are also included.

2. DISCUSSION
A visit to Russia was made for the purpose of exploring research opportunities and capabilities in remote sensing using interferometric and polarimetric techniques. Application to radar was of primary concern although potential use in infrared and radiometric applications was also considered. This report describes visits to institutions in six Russian cities; Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Tomsk, Novosibirsk, Irkutsk, Ulan Ude.
Section 3 provides the details of discussions and findings at each location. Section 4 provides overall assessment and related impressions. Details of the travel itinerary will be provided in a separate newsletter and homepage posting. It should be observed that travel within Russia was performed with relative efficiency, only because of the intervention and support of our hosts at each location. Their concern for our well-being and their efforts on our behalf were quite essential and most appreciated. Routine tourism is not yet a fact of Russian life.

Two categories of institutions were visited: Universities, with both educational and research functions; and Laboratories with research and equipment design roles under the Soviet regime. All of these institutes are part of or connected with the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS). While that association lends a measure of credibility to the S&T capability of the organization it should not be interpreted as implying the kind of direction or coordination that might have existed in the past. The general characteristic of all these institutes is that as organizations they are struggling to redefine their identity and their role in the post-Soviet S&T marketplace; some are clearly succeeding to a greater extent than others. Similarly, individual researchers are attempting to redefine their roles, opportunities and modes of operation; some more aggressively than others. There is a kind of grass roots process of rationalization underway. In this environment ‘new’ research is difficult to find. That which is being done is jealously guarded. Questions normally asked in Western environments to uncover recent significant developments, must be rephrased to be relevant in the context of the Russian experience. Comments in the West which might elicit positive discussion, becomes intimidating. It becomes necessary to recognize ‘capability’ for new research, and within the bounds of policy and budget, to preserve and nurture relevant parts of the scientific community.

3. SITE VISITS
The itinerary included visits to numbers of institutes within each of six cities. What follows will be a summary description of each institute along with references to points of contact and available papers.

3.1 MOSCOW REGION
3.1.1 Institute of Radio Engineering and Electronics
The Institute of Radio Engineering and Electronics (IREE) of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS) was founded in 1953. It is situated in the building of the former Physical Faculty of Moscow State University at Mokhovaya Street near the Kremlin. In 1955 a second facility was established in the city of Fryazino, 40 km from the center of Moscow and since then two additional branches have been added in Saratov and in Ul'yanovsk.
The total staff of IREE (including laboratories, special design bureau and services) consists of 2500 employees. The scientific staff numbers 900 including 120 Drs. Sci. and 410 Ph.Ds. The main objectives of IREE are fundamental research in radio science, physical and quantum electronics, radio engineering, and computer science. The Institute pursues applied development through its special design bureau with new space sensor / instruments, optical fiber networks, and millimeter wave systems and instruments.
Primary interaction was with the Remote Sensing Department. Past work has involved radar (side-looking and synthetic aperture at wavelengths of 3 & 10cm) and radiometric (0.3 to 30cm) measurements of sea ice, sea surface, and atmospheric inhomogeneities. Current work extends to IR and optical regimes and includes measurement and modeling of passive polarimetric responses to the earth’s surface and atmosphere, including rain.
As an organization aggressively trying to develop new opportunities it is appropriate to list titles of some recent new proposals:

3.1.2 Institute of Radio Engineering and Electronics, Fryazino
The Fryazino section of the Institute of Radio Engineering and Electronics of the Russian Academy of Sciences (FIRE RAS) together with the Special Design Bureau was founded in 1955. It is situated in the city of Fryazino about 40 km from Moscow. The total staff of FIRE is about 1000, including approximately 400 researchers and engineers working in 60 laboratories of the Institute. The Fryazino section of IREE includes the special design branch, the development of special instrumentation such as PRIRODA and CPSSI (described below) and laboratories of the Remote Sensing Department.

This institute has been aggressive in the new funding environment, and has formed an employee owned and operated private company which has retained close ties with FIRE. The company - Geoinformatics - in concert with FIRE has developed models of radiometric responses of natural objects, and algorithms for associated data processing. The resulting methods and software, employ multispectral microwave radiometers to measure geophysical parameters of soils and waters. Both the sensors and supporting analytical capability are being marketed commercially. Related activity includes application of remote sensing methods to ecological problems such as water and soil pollution, climate forecasting, fire risk determination, and environmental monitoring.

FIRE has initiated a modest program for processing and analysis of satellite based polarimetric SAR data. Both SIR-C and ERS-2 data are made available to them. Objectives of the work (following similar efforts elsewhere) are to explore the extent to which polarization properties can provide characterization of cultivated areas.

Two major areas of FIRE focus are PRIRODA and CPSSI. PRIRODA is one of the Earth remote sensing projects currently being pursued in various countries. The PRIRODA project is aimed at the development of observation and interpretation technology using spaceborne sensors and data. The PRIRODA program employs a special module which was launched and joined to the MIR orbital station in April 1996.
Despite current difficulties with MIR, it is still hoped that scientific experiments will be carried out.

PRIRODA instrumentation is designed to enable observation of the same segment of the Earth surface using both active and passive sounding in microwave and optical bands. This allows multisensor data analysis as well as the correction (atmospheric, surface, etc.) required for comparative evaluation of geophysical parameters. Resulting improvements in space measurement accuracy and the reliability of data interpretation are expected. A complete description of the PRIRODA Science Plan (1996) in electronic form is available upon request. [See contact information under Feedback, Section 5.]

CPSSI - Center of Processing and Storing the Space Information is a scientific data archive designed to store raw satellite sensor data: SAR and MW radiometer data, optical and IR data, retrieved geophysical parameters, and ground truth and correlative data.
The objective of CPSSI developments is to establish an archive and information system that will enable open access to remote sensing data, descriptive information (metadata), and image browsing via public communication networks. The intent is to include inventories of remote sensing experiments, online interactive access, image browsing, and ordering functions. Current information is available at http://www.ire.rssi.ru/rem_s/rem_s.htm

One area of particular scientific interest and considerable expertise within FIRE is that of radio occultation studies. Prof. Oleg Izosimovich Yakovlev leads this area with the flair of a classic professor. Measurements have been made on geostationary satellite links to perform sounding of the Earth’s atmosphere. On the basis of many years of research, and what he perceives as coarse and poorly understood measurements to date, Prof. Yakovlev has outlined an experiment which would utilize four frequencies in decimeter and centimeter bands. Such observations in cm band are believed to be unique. The resulting analysis would provide experimental verification of the theoretical basis for a multifrequency radio occultation system which would enable global monitoring of the terrestrial atmosphere and ionosphere. Anticipated results include measurements of the vertical profile of density, pressure, temperature and ionospheric electron density. The ultimate goal is to develop an improved means for monitoring atmospheric dynamics, climate change, and space weather. There has been some interest in Prof. Yakovlev’s approach expressed at JPL. Contacts and supporting papers are available.

General: Facilities and equipment are in good condition, particularly processing equipment; microwave facilities are aging but well-maintained. The equipment associated with CPSSI is new, having been recently acquired with NASA support.

"Attenuation and scintillation of radio waves in the Earth’s atmosphere from radio occultation experiments on satellite-to-satellite links"
O.I. Yakovlev, S. Matyugov and Vilkov;
Radio Science. Vol. 30. No. 3 May-June 1995

"Frequency Shift, Time Delay, and Refraction of Radio Waves in Eclipse Experiments along Satellite-to-Satellite Path"
Yakovlev, Vilkov, Zakharov, Kucheryavenkova, Kucheryavenkov, and Matyugov.
Journal of Communications Technology and Electronics 40(12) 1995

"Reflection of Radar Waves by the Ocean Surface for Bistatic Radar Using Two Satellites"
Rubashkin, Pavel’yev, Yakolev, Kucheryavenkov, Sidorenko, and Zakharov.
Journal of Communications Technology and Electronics 38 (9) 1993

3.1.3 Space Research Institute
The Space Research Institute (SRI) of RAS is located southwest of Moscow. SRI contains two Remote Sensing groups - Ocean Surface, and Atmospheric Observations.
The Ocean Surface Group is focused on understanding of ocean surface dynamics using microwave radiometers, scatterometers and radars. The group performs research into physical processes of gravity and capillary wave structure, modulation of turbulent effects by sea surface, surface manifestations of internal waves and currents. They have built instruments for measurement of ocean wave parameters and conducted experiments on sea surface perturbation due to rain. Data on instrumentation and results have been promised.

The Atmospheric Observations Group is concerned with nonlinear effects and turbulent processes in the atmosphere. This group has done extensive research on non-linear and turbulent processes including Brewster angle effects and multi-path propagation, electromagnetic indicators of large scale vortices, and nonlinear hydrodynamic effects.

Of particular interest is research being performed on hydro-physical models for patterns of internal waves on SAR images. A robust program of research addresses: wind waves breaking; clustering of breaking waves; drop-spray cloud modeling; polarimetric characteristics of various types of internal wave patterns; polarimetric characteristics of ship wake patterns; turbulent spiral suppression of short sea waves; wave breaking excitation zones; micro-structure of ship ‘mustaches’. Also of note is SAR related image analysis and development of spatio-temporal models related to patterns of oil pollution on the sea surface: evolution of large-scale oil spreads (ruptures of pipelines) and meso-scale oil spills (tank's slicks); polarimetric characteristics of oil patterns under the influence of various hydro-meteorological situations.

SRI appears to have good external contacts, including interaction with APL, Johns Hopkins Univ. Lab facilities appear well equipped but dated and underutilized. Instrumentation is old - mid eighties, possibly earlier. The library has not been unable to gain new acquisitions for 5 years.

3.1.4 VEGA-M Scientific and Production Corporation
VEGA-M is a commercial offshoot of the Moscow Scientific Research Institute of Instrument Engineering. Its major product appears to be marketing of a flying laboratory containing sensors designed by the institute. Of interest is IMARC, a four band, polarimetric synthetic aperture radar, installed on a Tu-134A and being marketed for commercial use in remote sensing. Examples of suggested use include geology, agriculture, forestry, and oceanography. Analysis / interpretation support is offered as part of the package.

The radar is fully polarimetric in all bands; significant parameters are:

Wavelength:

3.9

23

68

254

cm

Resolution:

4.- 6.

8. - 10.

10 - 15

15 - 25

m

PRF:

Variable=8 * V(m/s)

Antenna -

Azimuth:

18

24

24

40

degrees

Gain:

30

15

15

10

db

Swath width:

24km max.

Flight Altitude

500 - 5000m

Flight Speed:

500 - 600 km/h

The radar is fully instrumented with digital output, processing and recording.

3.1.5 Moscow State Technical University of Civil Aviation (MSTUCA)
Primarily a teaching institution currently, but in the past home to some of the leading Russian developments in polarimetric theory. Separate discussion will be provided in the context of WIPSS activity.
Current research work is centered on processing of SIR-C data in coordination with IREE Fryazino.
Thesis work includes:

Basis manipulation of polarimetric data;

Evaluation of polarization optimality using theory of optimal resolution;

3.2 ST.-PETERSBURG:
3.2.1 Academy of Civil Aviation
The St.-Petersburg Academy of Civil Aviation (ACA) is the largest research and educational establishment dealing with civil aviation in Russia. There are six departments dealing with aspects of air transport and airborne electronic systems and extensive laboratory facilities, about one-third of which are dedicated to research. The educational program addresses avionics, flight training, transport safety, along with aspects of management, marketing and legal issues. Current staff numbers about 1000, with about 4000 students. ACA also houses a small but growing museum of Russian aviation artifacts. The collection includes model planes, photos, historical documents, and other items showing progress in aviation technology.

In addition to its research and education programs the ACA is host to the Russian Academy of Transport. The Academy of Transport addresses air, rail, road, and sea transportation science and technology; it includes about 600 members across Russia plus 100 foreign representatives. The ACA evolved from its civil role prior to World War II to military research during the war, and then to space related development in the post war years. More recently it has returned its focus to civil issues.

Current areas of interest include radar, navigation, communications, and radioelectronics. To complement its research activities ACA has spun-off two commercial operations ("RADAR MMS" and "AIR") to market technology and system products. RADAR MMS is focused on airborne radar for both military and civilian applications. AIR has targeted the commercial multi-media market.

Highlights of the S&T work at ACA are outlined below.

Ecological monitoring performed with an IL-20 aircraft, configured with a 3 band radar (3m., 2cm, 8mm) and an IR sensor (undefined). Limited system details were provided - SAR, polarimetric, and radiometric modes are available, but spatial resolution is modest (5m. at best). Commercial use of the system along with expert analysis and interpretation is marketed through RADAR MMS. The system has been used for geological surveys, agricultural monitoring, topographical mapping, and detection of oil or other contaminants on water surfaces.

Novel antenna designs including one for seeker applications having wideband characteristics (5 octaves) in a lens or low profile configuration, and a mm-wave electronic scanning design for precision location in a landing approach system.

Active radar seeker, manufactured with very modern components including a flat plate corporate feed, fully gimbaled antenna - all packaged for installation on any user defined platform. The radar is designed for sea target detection. Features include target selection functions, measurement of range, velocity, angular position and task scheduling. Limited details are available.

3.2.2 St. Petersburg Electrotechnical University,
St. Petersburg Electrotechnical University is one of the oldest Russian institutions providing higher education and research in electrical engineering and related fields of electronics, telecommunications, and computers. They have grown an expertise in use of multi-band radars for monitoring of coastal environments.

A multiband multifunctional radar complex has been developed and placed in the Gulf of Finland. The multifunctional radar complex is made up of radars in centimeter and decimeter bands, along with a data acquisition and processing system which allows remote monitoring. The system is employed to predict meteorological and hydrological phenomena, as well as technologically induced emergency situations (i.e. oil spills, chemical pollutants), which may be dangerous for human life and activities. The use of multiband radar is considered advantageous in affording variable resolution and a large over-the-horizon scanned water surface area. The combination makes it possible to perform accurate measurements and to give advance warning of prospective danger to protect both people and facilities in coastal and off-shore areas.

Water surface condition is derived from a theory of short and ultra-short wave scattering over the rough sea. The estimated hydrophysical and meteorological parameters which are monitored using the multiband radar complex include:

direction and strength of wind near the water surface;

direction and average height of the sea wave;

velocity of surface currents;

estimate of direction of long wave ripple propagation;

estimate of ice conditions.

The results and implementation of theoretical and experimental research have been published and are available.

3.2.3 St. Petersburg State Academy of Aerospace Instrumentation
A brief visit was made to the St. Petersburg State Academy of Aerospace Instrumentation (SPSAAI), which offers a technical education in aviation related instrumentation, computer systems, radioengineering and control systems. SPSAAI has developed an expertise in acousto-optical components, materials characterization, and related optical information processing techniques. They appear well connected with peers in the US having hosted an SPIE (Int’l Society for Optical Engineering) conference on Optical Information Processing in 1996 and participated in other symposia and IEEE groups. The extent of external support for their research program was not made clear however.

"Science of hydrophysics, marine hydroacoustical and seismoacoustical information systems, underwater surveillance systems in the ocean, in the economic near-coast zones for controlling activity underwater and above - water objects on the shelf and outside shelf, ecological monitoring, providing security, specialist training on acoustic and non-acoustic fields."
He is the author of more than 160 scientific papers, inventions, and patents.
He served as Professor and Head of the Hydroacoustics Department at the St. Petersburg Naval Academy until 1994. He is now Chair of the Seismoacoustic Section of the Hydrophysical Science Council of St. Petersburg’s Science Center and is active in a variety of societies.
He is a prime example of a large class of excellent Russian scientists, seeking new opportunities to apply their skills.

3.3 TOMSK, SIBERIA
Tomsk is a city of approximately 500,000 people located in Western Siberia. It is both an industrial city and an educational center. Industry benefits from its position on the Tom River, and access to vast cedar forests as well as oil, gas, and other natural resources. With the opening of the Siberian University in 1888 it lays claim to being the oldest educational and research center in the Siberian part of Russia. There are now five establishments of higher education in the city, along with approximately 50 research institutions. A listing, along with brief summary description, of 14 of the more prominent science institutes can be found on our home page under the heading: Tomsk, Western Siberia, Russia: Educational and Research Institutions.

3.3.1 Tomsk State University of Control Systems and Radioelectronics
Tomsk State University of Control Systems and Radioelectronics (TUCSR) (prior to 1997 known as an ‘Academy’) was established in 1962 as a spin-off from the Tomsk Polytechnical University, to provide specialized education in electronics related fields. It is now recognized as one of the leading institutions of higher education in Russia. Engineering education is carried out in 5 full-time Departments: radioelectronics and radiotechnical systems; computer science; electronic engineering and computer systems; automatics and control; home radioelectronics and video engineering. The staff consists of about 430 faculty, including more than 50 Professors, Doctors of Sciences, and almost 250 Assistant Professors, Candidates of Sciences. Included among these are 18 Academicians and Corresponding Members of Russian Academies, and 7 Honored Men of Science and Engineering of the Russian Federation. The main TUCSR building is in downtown Tomsk with other facilities for experimentation and limited manufacturing located nearby on the shores of the Tom River.

Of particular interest is experimental development related to polarimetric radar performed under the leadership of V. N. Tatarinov. The association with Prof. Tatarinov was one of the reasons for conducting the WIPSS Workshop in Tomsk in September of 1997. One of the products of this experimental research was a helicopter borne radar which exploits unique properties of circularly polarized signals to discriminate between simple manmade targets and homogeneous clutter (i.e. ship target in sea clutter).

Also of interest is theoretical development and experimental investigation of the tropospheric signals’ structure. This work is performed under the leadership of Prof. G. S. Sharygin. Research addresses characterization of propagation conditions, at wavelengths from 3cm to approximately 3m, over ocean and land surfaces with a focus on prediction of communications and radar (particularly OTH radar) performance. TUCSR has operated measurement facilities in the Tomsk area as well as in the Sakhalin Island region for almost 30 years. Based on a large history of measurements a ‘Pacific Radio-Meteorological Atlas’ has been developed which characterizes propagation in both surface and elevated ducts with statistical models, time-space structure, frequency spectrum and correlation, and depolarization and pulse distortion.

General: A diverse range of facilities - at both laboratory and field sites. Much of the equipment is aging but well-maintained; there is a concerted attempt to retain research capabilities but the extent of support is doubted.

POCs
Tomsk State University of Control Systems and Radioelectronics (TUCSR)
40, Lenin Avenue
634050 Tomsk, Western Siberia, Russia

3.3.2 Institute of Atmospheric Optics
Institute of Atmospheric Optics (IAO) was established in 1969 under the Siberian division of the RAS to explore optical properties of the atmosphere. Its founding director was Academician Vladimir. E. Zuev, recently replaced by his son Victor V.. Zuev. IAO has developed an excellent reputation for the quality of its fundamental research and for its unique measurement instrumentation. Included in the latter are lidars for atmospheric sounding, lasers for air and ship navigation, super-high resolution laser spectrometers, and laser gas analyzers.

There are five divisions of IAO:

Optical Diagnostics of the Environment: techniques for laser sounding of the atmosphere to measure physical components including parameters of temperature, pressure, humidity, and various gas components such as ozone, aerosols, and chemical pollutants.

Wave Propagation and Sounding of Random Media: studies of nonlinear turbulent effects, measurements of high power laser beam energy distribution.

Optical Sensing of the Atmosphere: use of laser autodyne techniques for atmospheric probing enabling measurement of Stokes parameters for full polarization characterization of objects (particles). Studies on crystal cloud characterization are a current focus.

Coherent and Nonlinear Optical Diagnostics - determination of atmospheric structure using adaptive and applied optics. Developments include deformable mirrors, multi-segment mirrors, and mirror correction models. Some work in his area has been conducted for EOARD.

3.4 NOVOSIBIRSK, SIBERIA
Novosibirsk is the largest industrial and scientific center in Siberian Russia. Its role as a science center was cast in the mid-fifties with the building of its Akademgorodok in a forested area about 25 Km from central Novosibirsk near the Ob River. This city of science was established by Prof. Mikhail A. Lauretyev as an enclave to achieve both scientific and social progress. The area now contains 22 science institutes plus the Novosibirsk State University, and houses approximately 50,000 scientists and technical staff.

3.4.1 Institute of Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Geophysics
The Institute of Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Geophysics (ICMMG) was known as the Computing Center prior to September 1997. ICMMG was founded in 1964 and is an institute of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (SB RAS), Novosibirsk. ICMMG is engaged in research on computational and applied mathematics in such areas as the modeling of processes in the atmosphere and ocean, environmental protection problems, methods of mathematical modeling in geophysics, geophysical informatics, simulation of informatics systems, telecommunication systems, and software for supercomputers.

ICMMG consists of 11 Departments which are subdivided into more than 30 laboratories and groups. The Institute employs about 400 personnel including 195 scientists. A robust program of fundamental and applied research is performed in the following areas:

Computational mathematics

Mathematical modeling of oceanic, atmospheric physics and environment

Mathematical problems of geophysics

Applied geophysics and geophysical informatics

Image processing

Informatics system simulation

Telecommunication systems

Supercomputer software

Particular strengths are the development of sources and mathematical models applicable to seismology and seismic prospecting, and numerical methods for solving combined direct and inverse problems in physics applied to earth, ocean and atmospheric environments.
Key laboratory activities are as follows:

Seismic vibrators - Development of powerful seismic vibrators capable of global scale excitation for geophysical analysis of land and sea bottoms. Current hydro resonant vibrators can produce 100 tons impact with controlled periodicity. Plans are to build a super vibrator with capacity for 10,000 tons. This is expected to enable global tomography with the accuracy of seismic prospecting.

Mathematical problems of seismology: construction of multidisciplinary mathematical models describing formation, propagation and interaction of basic geophysical fields of different physical nature and their anomalies in earthquake prone zones. This work includes solution of direct and inverse problems in geophysical fields to identify complex (multidisciplinary) earthquake precursors. Application software packages have been developed for calculating 3D seismic and electromagnetic fields in complex subsurface media.

Mathematical modeling of oceanic, atmospheric physics, and environment: investigation of hydrophysical processes in atmosphere and ocean on the basis of models of global and regional atmospheric circulation coupled with the models of oceanic boundary layer, land and vegetation; developed a numerical circulation models of the world’s oceans and its parts with detailing for shelf zones.

Informatic system simulation: mathematical and computer modeling; simulation methodology; analytical and numerical methods of queuing theory; interval and probabilistic uncertainty models; statistical simulation support; development of algorithms and reliable software for the problems of mathematical programming.

Image processing: processing and computational tomography; new concepts for processing of imagery which includes algorithms for detection and analysis of "regular" elements in digital imagery (i.e. linear and circular structures).

Telecommunication system: modeling of communication systems and networks; interactive solutions of optimization problems using graphs and networks (i.e. city electrical communication network was synthesized and optimized to satisfy different demand conditions).

3.5 IRKUTSK, SIBERIA
3.5.1 Limnological Institute
The Limnological Institute of SB RAS was founded in 1925 to perform studies of the Lake Baikal ecosystem. Currently about 340 persons are employed at the Institute, with about half performing scientific work. Facilities and equipment were in the best condition of all those visited. The research program is structured to deal with the Lake Baikal ecosystem and includes hydrophysical, chemical, microbiology, molecular biology activities. Innovative instrumentation and methodologies have been developed to understand and assess the lake environment. The Institute provides the focus for the Baikal International Center for Ecological Research (BICER). This foundation was established in 1990 with support from 18 nations including the US. While not in the mainstream of naval research there may be interest in analysis and techniques applicable to hydro-physical and chemical properties of the lake, and in research using the lake environment as a reference for measuring global climate change.

3.5.2 Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics
Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) was established in 1961 as the successor to Siberia’s oldest magnetic observatory (1886). Major research interests are solar physics and solar-terrestrial relationships, research on the magnetosphere and the Earth’s magnetic field, and study of the Earth’s atmosphere and ionosphere and radio wave propagation. A significant part of the research is directed toward predicting the influence of variable components of solar energy on satellite sensors, communications, and navigation. ISTP is also exploring mechanisms for generating energy and mass fluxes and transferring them from the sun to the Earth. The Institute operates a number of unique experimental facilities: Siberian solar radio telescope, large solar vacuum telescope, incoherent scatter radar, solar coronograph, cosmic ray spectrograph, and others. In addition, ISTP is pursuing ionospheric studies using distributed terrestrial antennas and GPS signals, and the use of infrasonics measured with high sensitivity to detect atmospheric changes and measure weather effects.

3.6 ULAN-UDE, SIBERIA
Ulan-Ude is the cultural center of the Republic of Buryatia. The city was founded in 1666 as a winter quarters for the Cossacks; it lies to the east of Lake Baikal, 200 km from Irkutsk. The principal industries include food processing, tanning, woodworking, and the manufacture of glass, bricks, and railroad equipment. The area is famous for the largest deposits of zinc, lead, gold, tungsten, and asbestos in Russia. The city is home to the Buryat Research Centre (BRC) of RAS SB which in addition to the Buryat Institute of Natural Sciences, includes Institutes of Social Sciences, Biology, Environmental Management, and Geology.

3.6.1 Buryat Institute of Natural Sciences
The Buryat Institute of Natural Sciences (BINS) of the SB RAS was established in 1966. The research program is broadly scoped and includes:

In the area of pulse diagnostics, BINS has developed an integrated system based on knowledge based technology for collection and analysis of communications signals to derive atmospheric properties. Interestingly, some of these techniques have been applied to perform human medical diagnosis using techniques of Tibetan Medicine which bases diagnoses on the bodies’ pulse characteristics. In conjunction with the Buryatia Institute of Biology which has a department of Tibetan Medicine, BINS is testing its expert system for automated health diagnostics. For readers of Russian a text on techniques of Tibetan Medicine is available.

As a result of its EM propagation studies, BINS has developed an extensive historical data base and model of radio meteorology over the former Soviet Union territories. The model covers wavelengths from 3cm - 30cm and includes polarimetric effects. The Institute has also conducted VLF and ELF propagation studies to map portions of terrestrial surfaces (in Europe, Asia, Australia and Antarctica) and to characterize properties of various media which make up the Earth’s crust.

General: Well maintained facilities, aging lab equipment, a very aggressive attitude toward collaboration. As an encouragement to scientific investment, the Buryat Republic has a program to provide matching funds for all foreign support.

4. ASSESSMENT / IMPRESSIONS
These institutions are clearly struggling with cutbacks in staffing, shortfalls in salary payments, lack of research funding, and an inability to maintain basic infrastructure needs. Moreover, in many cases, the underlying motivation and research direction appears to be lacking - military requirements are no longer defined or funded, and the transition to a market environment that would define and fund new work has not yet taken place. Such cultural change does not come about rapidly. It does not come about at all without internal recognition of the need and the will to make it happen. Clearly the seeds for change are in place, although understanding of requisite infrastructure and processes does not seem to be widespread. Positive evidence for change can be found in the many individual efforts and institutionally sponsored spin-offs. As noted previously, these can be characterized as grass roots efforts, not the result of enlightened policy or long term visionary direction.

The perspective derived from these visits is that there is widespread capability for good research in radar and radiometry in pursuit of remote sensing. The application areas, broadly stated, are characterization of the surface of land, sea, and ice for purposes of environmental monitoring and measurement of ecological and meteorological effects. The techniques encompass combinations of moderately high resolution, synthesized apertures, polarimetry, and multispectral or multifrequency measurements. Employment of these technologies for surveillance or targeting purposes was discussed but, with a few exceptions, no results or papers were offered. Use of interferometric or wideband techniques was not suggested, and does not appear to be within their research scope.
A robust research capability directed at propagation effects is also in evidence. Radio occultation and direct path measurements were most frequently discussed for characterization of microwave propagation. More general atmospheric probing is the focus of research at a majority of the institutes visited, with diverse techniques, spanning the electromagnetic spectrum: radio occultation, radiometric, and laser techniques were most frequently mentioned. Applications included measurement of standard meteorological parameters as well as detection of turbulence, pollutants, aerosols, and other anomalies. Singular institutions with unique capabilities in seismology and limnology were quite impressive for the apparent quality and depth of their research program. Interestingly these institutes seemed to be among the best supported.
It should be noted that while the quality of the scientists observed is quite high, current practice often lags (i.e. recent involvement, particularly in experimentation is often lacking), this is believed to be a consequence of funding difficulties.
The following observations of the research environment are offered without further comment.
General observations:

funding is severely constrained - internal resources are limited, external support is low.

facilities and equipment are aging - most equipment dates to the mid-80’s, only limited maintenance can be afforded.

library contents are dated - very few newer texts, journal subscriptions have lapsed.

infrastructure is not maintained - even basic amenities, lights and bathroom hygiene, are ignored.

rationalization: redundant capabilities abound - even in areas where multiple institutions have overlapping capabilities there appears to be little disposition to consolidate.

integration: only one of the organizations visited volunteered a broad view about coordinating institutional capabilities across boundaries of geography and functions to improve competitive posture and overall technical strength.

privatization: many examples exist of commercial spin-offs from institutes in the form of small companies or aggressive individual efforts - these are small now but may have significant future potential.

external connections: variable; good networking with US and European counterparts in some cases, but weak in others - actual collaboration appears to be short term in the best of cases.

Scientific exchanges - create opportunities for young Russian researchers to study abroad, and where feasible for others to study in Russia.

Outside support - in addition to meeting an obvious need for funds, provides badly needed credibility for improved internal standing. The science community in Russia is badly battered, perceived as responsible for unfulfilled soviet era promises.

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