Korean shamanism, awso known as Shinism[note 1] (Hanguw 신교, Hanja 神敎; Shingyo or Shinkyo, "rewigion of de spirits/gods"),[1][2] or Shindo (Hanguw: 신토; Hanja: 神道, "way of de spirits/gods"),[3][4] is de cowwective term for de powydeistic and animisticednic rewigions of Korea which date back to prehistory,[5] and consist in de worship of gods (신 shin) and ancestors (조상 josang).[4] When referring specificawwy to de shamanic practice (Hanguw: 무속, Hanja: 巫俗; musog or musok), de term Muism (Hanguw:무교, Hanja: 巫敎; Mugyo or Mukyo, "rewigion of de mu (shamans)") is used.[6][7]

The generaw word for "shaman" in Korean wanguage is mu (Hanguw: 무, Hanja: 巫).[5] In contemporary terminowogy, dey are cawwed mudang (무당, 巫堂) if femawe or baksu if mawe, awdough oder terms are used wocawwy.[6][note 2] The Korean word mu is synonymous of de Chinese word wu 巫, which defines bof mawe and femawe shamans.[10] The rowe of de mudang is to act as intermediary between de spirits or gods and humanity in order to sowve hitches in de devewopment of wife, drough de practice of gut rituaws.[11]

Muism is rewated to Chinese Wuism,[14] Japanese Shinto, and to de Siberian, Mongowian, and Manchurian shamanic traditions.[14] According to some schowars, de Korean ancestraw king and water mountain god Dangun is rewated to de norf Asian sky god Tengri ("Heaven").[15][16] Hereditary shamans, who are typicaw of Souf Korea, are cawwed tangow (당골)[8] or tangur-ari, a word considered rewated to de Siberian word Tengri (gods or spirits).[17]Mudang are simiwar to Japanese miko and Ryukyuan yuta. Korean shamanism has infwuenced some Korean new rewigions, such as Cheondoism and Jeungsanism, and some Christian churches in Korea make use of practices rooted in shamanism.[18]

Besides "Shinism" and "Muism", oder terms used to define Korean shamanism incwude Goshindo (고신도, 古神道; "way of de ancestraw gods"), used in de context of de new rewigious movement of Daejongism,[19] and Pungwowdo (風月道, "way of brightness"), used by de Confucian schowar Choe Chiwon between de 9f and de 10f century.[20] Shamanic associations in modern Souf Korea use de terms Shindo or Mushindo (무신도 "shamanic way of de spirits") to define deir congregations or membership, and musogin ("peopwe who do shamanism") to define de shamans.[4]

The Korean word 무 mu is rewated to de Chinese term 巫 wu,[21] which defines shamans of eider sex, and wikewy awso to de Mongowic "Bo" and Tibetan "Bon". Awready in records from de Yi dynasty, mudang has a prevawent usage.[22]Mudang itsewf is expwained in rewation to Chinese characters, as originawwy referring to de "haww", 堂 tang, of a shaman, uh-hah-hah-hah.[22] A different etymowogy, however, expwains mudang as stemming directwy from de Siberian term for femawe shamans, utagan or utakan.[22]

Mudang is used mostwy, but not excwusivewy, for femawe shamans.[22] Mawe shamans are cawwed by a variety of names, incwuding sana mudang (witerawwy "mawe mudang") in de Seouw area, or baksu mudang, awso shortened baksu ("doctor", "heawer"), in de Pyongyang area.[22] According to some schowars, baksu is an ancient audentic designation of mawe shamans, and wocutions wike sana mudang or baksu mudang are recent coinages due to de prevawence of femawe shamans in recent centuries.[9]Baksu may be a Korean adaptation of terms woaned from Siberian wanguages, such as baksi, bawsi or bahsih.[6]

The deory of a indigenous or Siberian origin of Korean shamanic terminowogy is more reasonabwe dan deories which expwain such terminowogy as originating in Chinese,[6] given dat Chinese cuwture infwuenced Korea onwy at a rewativewy recent stage of Korean history.[6] Likewy, when Koreans adopted Chinese characters dey fiwtered deir previouswy oraw rewigious cuwture drough de sieve of Chinese cuwture.[6]

sessǔmu or tangow (당골),[8] peopwe who are shamans and have de right to perform rites by famiwy wineage;

kangshinmu, peopwe who become shamans drough an initiation ceremony. Hereditary shamans were historicawwy concentrated in de soudern part of de Korean peninsuwa, whiwe initiated shamans were found droughout de entire peninsuwa but were pecuwiar to de nordern hawf, de contiguous areas of China inhabited by Koreans, and de centraw regions awong de Han River.[24]

The work of de mu is based on de howistic modew, which takes into consideration, not onwy de whowe person, but de individuaw's interaction wif his environment, dus bof de inner and outer worwd. The souw is considered de source of wife breaf, and any physicaw iwwness is considered to be inextricabwy winked wif sickness of de souw. Iwwness of de mind has its cause in souw woss, intrusion or possession by mawevowent spirits. The gutrites practised by Korean shamans, have gone drough a number of changes since de Siwwa and Goryeo periods. Even during de Joseon dynasty, which estabwished Korean Confucianism as de state rewigion, shamanic rites persisted. In de past, such rites incwuded agricuwturaw rites, such as prayers for abundant harvest. Wif a shift away from agricuwture in modern Korea, agricuwturaw rites have wargewy been wost and modern-day shamans are more focused on de spirituaw issues of urban wife. But government promotions support de revivaw of ancient rites.

Peopwe who become shamans are bewieved to be "chosen" by gods or spirits drough a spirituaw experience known as shinbyeong ("divine or shaman iwwness"), a form of ecstasy, which entaiws de possession from a god and a "sewf-woss". This state is said to manifest in symptoms of physicaw pain and psychosis. Bewievers assert dat de physicaw and mentaw symptoms are not subject to medicaw treatment, but are heawed onwy when de possessed accepts a fuww communion wif de spirit.[24]

The iwwness is characterised by a woss of appetite, insomnia, visuaw and auditory hawwucinations. The possessed den undergoes de naerim-gut, a rituaw which serves bof to heaw de sickness and to formawwy estabwish de person as a shaman, uh-hah-hah-hah.[25]

Korean shamans awso experience shinmyeong ("divine wind"), which is de channewwing of a god, during which de shaman speaks propheticawwy.[26]Shinmyeong is awso experienced by entire communities during de gut howd by de shaman, and is a moment of energisation which rewieves from sociaw pressure, bof physicaw and mentaw.[27]

In aww de myds which figurativewy expwain de rowe of de shamans, it is impwied dat dey are a media, intermediaries, of gods, spirits or even demons.[28] They are not ordained institutionawwy, but receive ordination from supernaturaw beings demsewves.[28] Generawwy, dese myds expwain dat shamans, whom in de most recent history of Korea are regarded as bewonging to de wowest cwass of society (cheonmin 천민), have a forgotten deir divine or princewy nature,[29] often coming from a bwood wineage dat may be traced back to de earwy founders of civiwisation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[29] Furder features of dese myds are symbows of divine presence, such as de howy mountain and de howy tree,[30] and tragic or painfuw experiences.[31]

The bear is an animaw often present in such myds, wif parawwews in de mydowogies of Siberia.[32] In Korean shamanism de seven stars of de Big Dipper, and de associated divine infwuence, are considered fundamentaw for chiwdbearing.[33]

In a cowwection of myds, de origin of de shamans is winked to a moder goddess associated wif a mountain and presented as eider de moder or de spirituaw daughter of de "Heavenwy King". She has different names according to different regions and associated mountains: Sungmo ("Howy Moder"), Daemo ("Great Moder"), Jamo ("Benevowent Moder"), Sinmo ("Divine Moder"), Nogo ("Owden Maiden"), and oders.[34] In oder myds she is a mortaw princess who is water turned into a goddess.

These myds usuawwy teww of a man, Pobu Hwasang, who encountered de "Howy Moder [of de Heavenwy King]" on de top of a mountain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[35] The Howy Moder den became a human being and married de man who met her, giving birf to eight girws, de first mudang.[35] According to some schowars, dis myf was first ewaborated in de Siwwa period, when Buddhism and infwuences from China had awready penetrated de Korean peninsuwa.[36]

The myf of de princess is de most popuwar, and it differs from region to region, uh-hah-hah-hah.[37] In one of de versions, de princess is Ahwang Kongju of de Yao kingdom, wocated on de Asian mainwand.[37] The princess had a strong wink wif divinity, granting wewfare to her peopwe.[37] Her fader sent de princess among de peopwe, whom began to worship her for her heawing powers.[38] The first mudang were estabwished as her successors.[38] The princess is worshipped wif seasonaw offerings in Chungcheong.[38] The yewwow and red cwodes worn by de mudang are regarded as Ahwang Kongju's robes.[38]

In de norf of de Korean peninsuwa de princess is known as Chiw Kongju (de "Sevenf Princess"), sevenf amongst de daughters of de king.[38] The myf tewws dat she was rejected by her fader, who seawed her in a stone coffin and cast it into a pond, but she was rescued by a Dragon King sent by de Heavenwy King, and ascended to de western sky becoming de goddess of heawing waters.[38] Names of de goddess in oder wocaw traditions Pawi Kongju and Kongsim.[38] In de tradition of Jeju Iswand, where dere are more mawe baksu dan femawe mudang, de myf tewws of a prince as de ancestor of aww shamans.[39]

Dangun is traditionawwy considered to be de son of Hwanin, de "Heavenwy King", and founder of de Korean nation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[40] This myf is reputed to be owder dan dat of de moder goddess.[40] Myds simiwar to dat of Dangun are found in Ainu[32] and Siberian cuwtures.[14]

The myf starts wif prince Hwanung ("Heavenwy Prince"), son of Hwanin. The prince asked his fader to grant him governance over Korea.[41] Hwanin accepted, and Hwanung was sent to Earf bearing dree Heavenwy Seaws and accompanied by dree dousand fowwowers.[41] The prince arrived under de howy tree of sandawwood (Sintansu 신단수, 神檀樹)[42] on de howy mountain, where he founded his howy city.[41]

At de time of his reign, Ungnyeo or Ungnye (웅녀, 熊女)[42]—who was a she-bear—and a tiger were wiving in a cave near de howy city, praying earnestwy dat deir wish to become part of mankind might be fuwfiwwed.[41]Ungnyeo patientwy endured weariness and hunger, and after twenty-one days she was transformed into a beautifuw woman, whiwe de tiger ran away for it couwd not towerate de effort.[41] The woman Ungnyeo was overjoyed, and visiting de sandawwood city she prayed dat she might become de moder of a chiwd.[41]

Ungnye's wish was fuwfiwwed, so dat she became de qween and gave birf to a prince who was given de royaw name of Dangun, de "Sandawwood King".[41] Dangun reigned as de first human king of Korea, giving to his kingdom de name of Joseon, "Land of de Morning Cawm".[41]

Dangun was de first shaman, intermediary between mankind and Haneuwwim, to whom he worshipped and prayed on de behawf of his peopwe.[43] Later in de myf, Dangun becomes de Sansin, de "Mountain God" (metaphoricawwy of civiwising growf, prosperity).[44]

Worship of ancestors and gods represent a very important and integraw part of Korean fowk rewigion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[24]

The gut or kut are de rites performed by Korean shamans, invowving offerings a sacrifices to gods and ancestors.[45] They are characterised by rhydmic movements, songs, oracwes and prayers.[46] These rites are meant to create wewfare, promoting commitment between de spirits and mankind.[45] The major categories of rites are de naerim-gut, de dodang-gut and de ssitgim-gut.

Through song and dance, de shaman begs de gods to intervene in de fortune of men, uh-hah-hah-hah. The shaman wears a very cowourfuw costume and normawwy speaks in ecstasy. During a rite, de shaman changes his or her costume severaw times. Rituaws consist of various phases, cawwed gori.[47]

There are different types of gut, which vary from region to region, uh-hah-hah-hah.[24]

Purity of bof de body and de mind is a state dat is reqwired for taking part in rituaws.[48] Purification is considered necessary for an efficacious communion between wiving peopwe and ancestraw forms.[48] Before any gut is performed, de awtar is awways purified by fire and water, as part of de first gori of de rituaw itsewf.[48] The cowour white, extensivewy used in rituaws, is regarded as a symbow of purity.[48] The purification of de body is performed by burning white paper.[48]

The depiction of a mudang performing at a gut in de painting entitwed Munyeo sinmu (무녀신무, 巫女神舞), made by Shin Yunbok in de wate Joseon (1805).

Korean shamanism goes back to prehistoric times, pre-dating de introduction of Buddhism and Confucianism, and de infwuence of Taoism, in Korea.[14] It is simiwar to Chinese Wuism.[14] Vestiges of tempwes dedicated to gods and spirits have been found on tops and swopes of many mountains in de peninsuwa.[14]

Awdough many Koreans converted to Buddhism when it was introduced to de peninsuwa in de 4f century, and adopted as de state rewigion in Siwwa and Goryeo, it remained a minor rewigion compared to Korean shamanism.[49]

Since de 15f century, in de state of Joseon, dings changed wif de adoption of Neo-Confucianism as de state rewigion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[50] Non-Confucian rewigions were suppressed and Korean shamanism started to be regarded as a backward rewic of de past.[50] In de wate 19f and 20f century, a series of circumstances, namewy de infwuence of Christian missionaries and de disruption of society caused by modernisation, contributed to a furder weakening of Korean shamanism, uwtimatewy paving de way for a significant growf of Christianity.[51][49]

In de 1890s, when de Joseon dynasty was cowwapsing, Protestant missionaries gained significant infwuence drough de press, weading a demonisation of Korean traditionaw rewigion and even campaigns of viowent suppression of wocaw cuwts.[52] Protestant demonisation wouwd have had a wong-wasting infwuence on aww subseqwent movements which promoted a compwete ewimination of Korean shamanism.[52]

During de Japanese ruwe over Korea, de Japanese tried to incorporate Korean shamanism widin, or repwace it wif, State Shinto.[53][54] For a short period in de 1940s, however, after de defeat of de Japanese, Korean shamanism was identified as de pure Korean nationaw essence.[55]

In recent decades, Korean shamanism has experienced a resurgence in Souf Korea,[59] whiwe in Norf Korea, according to demographic anawyses, approximatewy 16% of de popuwation practises some form of traditionaw ednic rewigion or shamanism.[60]

Since de earwy 19f century, a number of movements of revitawisation or innovation of traditionaw Korean shamanism arose. They are characterised by an organised structure, a codified doctrine, and often a howy scripture. They may be grouped into dree major famiwies: ❶ de famiwy of Daejongism or Dangunism, ❷ de Donghak-originated movements (incwuding Cheondoism and Suunism), and ❸ de famiwy of Jeungsanism (incwuding Jeungsando, Daesun Jinrihoe, de now-extinct Bocheonism, and many oder sects).[61]

A shamanic shrine in Ansan, Souf Korea. On de weft window it shows a manja, which in Korea symbowises a shamanic faciwity.

Historicawwy, Korean shamanism and traditionaw rewigion rewied upon a system of ancestraw shrines, sadang (사당), simiwar to dose found in China and Japan, uh-hah-hah-hah. Larger tempwes are cawwed myo (witerawwy "tempwe") or gung (witerawwy "pawace"). Korean shamanic tempwes may be distinguished by deir use of taegeuk (태극) and manja (만자) symbowism, and some of dem have gates simiwar to Japanese Shinto torii.

Awmost aww traditionaw shrines were destroyed in de 19f and 20f century during Christian waves of persecution and de governments' campaigns for "modernisation".[citation needed] In recent years dere have been cases of reconstruction of shrines and resumption of rites in some viwwages.[62]

^Superscript H in "Shinism" and "Shindo" means dat de terms may be spewwed eider "Shinism" and "Shindo" or "Sinism" and "Sindo", wif no difference.

^Oder terms incwude tangow or tangur (당골; used in soudern Korea for hereditary shamans), and mansin (used in centraw Korea, de Seouw area, and nordern Korea).[8] The word mudang is mostwy associated, dough not excwusivewy, to femawe shamans due to deir prevawence in recent history. This prevawence of women has wed to de devewopment of new wocutions to refer to mawe shamans, incwuding sana mudang (witerawwy "mawe mudang") in de Seouw area or baksu mudang ("heawer mudang"), shortened baksu, in de Pyongyang area. It is reasonabwe to bewieve dat de word baksu is an ancient audentic designation for mawe shamans.[9]