1. Parkinson's disease, "James Parkinson", "Jean-Martin Charcot"A)http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Parkinson's+disease , Parkinson's disease (also known as Parkinson's, Parkinson disease, or PD) is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that impairs motor skills, cognitive processes, and other functions. The most obvious symptoms are motor-related, including tremor, rigidity, slowness of movement, and postural instability. Among non-motor symptoms are autonomic dysfunction and sensory and sleep difficulties. Cognitive and neurobehavioral problems, including dementia, are common in the advanced stages of the disease. PD usually appears around the age of 60, although there are young-onset cases.

PD is also called "primary parkinsonism" or "idiopathic PD" (meaning having no known cause), although some cases have a genetic origin. Many risk and protective factors have been investigated, showing an increased risk of PD in those exposed to pesticides; and a reduced risk in smokers. Symptoms result from insufficient formation and action of dopamine produced in the dopaminergic neurons of the midbrain (specifically the substantia nigra). Pathologically the disease is characterized by the accumulation of alpha-synuclein protein forming inclusions called Lewy bodies. Such pathology can only be demonstrated at autopsy so diagnosis is mainly clinical (based on symptoms). Some tests such as neuroimaging techniques can also aid in diagnosis.

Current treatments are effective at managing the early motor symptoms of the disease, through the use of levodopa, dopamine agonists and MAO-B inhibitors. As the disease advances, however, the continued use of medications leads to a second stage in which the patient develops motor complications called dyskinesias. Medications to treat other symptoms of PD also exist. Diet and some forms of rehabilitation have shown some effectiveness at mitigating symptoms, and surgery and deep brain stimulation may be used to reduce motor symptoms in the most extreme cases.

The disease is named after English surgeon James Parkinson, who gave the first detailed description of it in "An Essay on the Shaking Palsy" (1817). PD is a costly disease to society. Several major organizations promote research and improvement of quality of life of those with the disease and their families. Research directions include a search of new animal models of the disease, and investigations of the potential usefulness of gene therapy, stem cells transplants and neuroprotective agents. Advocacy actions include April 11, birthday of James Parkinson, as the world's Parkinson's disease day, and the use of a red tulip as the symbol of the disease. People with PD who have greatly affected public awareness include Michael J. Fox and Muhammad Ali.

>> He is most famous for his 1817 work, An Essay on the Shaking Palsy, in which he was the first to describe "paralysis agitans", a condition that would later be renamed Parkinson's disease by Jean-Martin Charcot.

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Nobel+prize , Any of the six international prizes awarded annually by the Nobel Foundation for outstanding achievements in the fields of physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, and economics and for the promotion of world peace.

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Dynamite , Word History: The same man who gave us dynamite gave us the Nobel Peace Prize, an irony that was surely not lost on the pacifistic Alfred Nobel himself. It is perhaps less well known that Nobel also contributed the word dynamite. Coined in Swedish in the form dynamit, the word was taken from Greek dunamis, "power," and the Swedish suffix -it, which corresponds to the English suffix -ite used in various scientific fields. Greek dunamis also gave us words such as dynamic and dynamo and itself probably goes back to the verb dunasthai, "to be able," from which comes English dynasty.

Trinitrotoluene (famously known and abbreviated as TNT), or more specifically, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, is a chemical compound with the formula C6H2(NO2)3CH3. This yellow-colored solid is sometimes used as a reagent in

chemical synthesis, but it is best known as a useful explosive material with convenient handling properties. The explosive yield of TNT is considered to be the standard measure of strength of bombs and other explosives. In chemistry, TNT is used to generate charge transfer salts.

a physical property may be "quantized," referred to as "the hypothesis of quantization"[1]. This means that the magnitude can take on only certain discrete numerical values, rather than any value, at least within a range. There is a related term of quantum number. An example of an entity that is quantized is the energy transfer of elementary particles of matter (called fermions) and of photons and other bosons.

A photon is a single quantum of light, and is referred to as a "light quantum". The energy of an electron bound to an atom (at rest) is said to be quantized, which results in the stability of atoms, and of matter in general.

photon (l/P + ight/T)/Ch light

electron (l/T + ight/P)/Ch light

atom ([ŋ= y=]/P + electron/GC/S/abT)/Ch electron

As incorporated into the theory of quantum mechanics, this is regarded by physicists as part of the fundamental framework for understanding and describing nature at the infinitesimal level.

"quantum mechanics" (m/GC/S/abT + echanics/C1)/Ch mechanics

Normally quanta are considered to be discrete packets with energy stored in them. Planck considered these quanta to be particles that can change their form (meaning that they can be absorbed and released). This phenomenon can be observed in the case of black body radiation, when it is being heated and cooled.

Etymology and discoveryThe word "quantum" comes from the Latin "quantus," for "how much." "Quanta" meaning short for "quanta of electricity" was used in a 1902 article on the photoelectric effect by Philipp Lenard, who credited Helmholtz for using the word in the area of electricity. However, the word quantum in general was well known before 1900 [2]. It was often used by physicians (and still is). Both Helmholtz and Mayer were physicians as well as physicists. Helmholtz used quantum with reference to heat in his article [3] on Mayer's work, and indeed, the word quantum can be found in the formulation of the first law of thermodynamics by Mayer in his letter [4] dated 24.7.1841. Max Planck used "quanta" to mean "quanta of matter and electricity" (electrons) [5], gas, and heat.[6] In 1905, in response to Planck's work and the experimental work of Lenard, who explained his results by using the term "quanta of electricity", Albert Einstein suggested that radiation existed in spatially localized packets which he called "quanta of light" ("Lichtquanta").[7]

* quantum >> quantus /mGC/abE >> Latin /mGC/abE/Ch

** quantus /mGC/abE/Ch >> "how much"

quanta (q/P + uantum/GC/S/abT)/Ch quantum

* quanta >> "quanta of electricity" /mGC/abE/Ch/+cp

thermodynamics ([ŋ= y=]/T + energy/C1)/Ch energy

* thermodynamics >> "first law of thermodynamics" /mGC/abE/+bp

radiation (l/T + ight/P)/Ch light

The concept of quantization of radiation was discovered in 1900 by Max Planck, who had been trying to understand the emission of radiation from heated objects, known as black body radiation. By assuming that energy can only be absorbed or released in tiny, differential, discrete packets he called "bundles" or "energy elements,"[8], Planck accounted for the fact that certain objects change colour when heated.[9] On December 14, 1900, Planck reported his revolutionary findings to the German Physical Society and introduced the idea of quantization for the first time as a part of his research on black body radiation.[10] As a result of his experiments, Planck deduced the numerical value of h, known as the Planck constant, and could also report a more precise value for the Avogadro-Loschmidt number, the number of real molecules in a mole and the unit of electrical charge, to the German Physical Society. After his theory was validated, Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918 for his discovery.

different from traditional computers based on transistors. The basic principle behind quantum computation is that quantum properties can be used to represent data and perform operations on these data.[1] A theoretical model is the quantum Turing machine, also known as the universal quantum computer.

Although quantum computing is still in its infancy, experiments have been carried out in which quantum computational operations were executed on a very small number of qubits (quantum bit). Both practical and theoretical research continues, and many national government and military funding agencies support quantum computing research to develop quantum computers for both civilian and national security purposes, such as cryptanalysis.[2]

qubit (b/GC/S/abT + it/C2)/Ch bit

* qubit >> "quantum bit" /mGC/abE/Ch/+bp

If large-scale quantum computers can be built, they will be able to solve certain problems much faster than any current classical computers (for example Shor's algorithm). Quantum computers do not allow the computation of functions that are not theoretically computable by classical computers[citation needed], i.e. they do not alter the Church–Turing thesis. The gain is only in efficiency.

It is today rarely considered a subfield in its own right, as it has been absorbed by other fields: solid state physics regularly takes quantum mechanics into account, and is usually concerned with electrons. Specific application to electronics is researched within semiconductor physics.

The term was mainly used between the 1950s and the 1970s. Today, the research output of this field is mainly used in quantum optics, especially for the part of it that draws not from atomic physics but from solid-state physics.

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Laser , A Closer Look A laser emits a thin, intense beam of nearly monochromatic visible or infrared light that can travel long distances without diffusing. Most light beams consist of many waves traveling in roughly the same direction, but the phases and polarizations of each individual wave (or photon) are randomly distributed. In laser light, the waves are all precisely in step, or in phase, with each other, and have the same polarization. Such light is called coherent. All of the photons that make up a laser beam are in the same quantum state. Lasers produce coherent light

through a process called stimulated emission. The laser contains a chamber in which atoms of a medium such as a synthetic ruby rod or a gas are excited, bringing their electrons into higher orbits with higher energy states. When one of these electrons jumps down to a lower energy state (which can happen spontaneously), it gives off its extra energy as a photon with a specific frequency. But this photon, upon encountering another atom with an excited electron, will stimulate that electron to jump down as well, emitting another photon with the same frequency as the first

and in phase with it. This effect cascades through the chamber, constantly stimulating other atoms to emit yet more coherent photons. Mirrors at both ends of the chamber cause the light to bounce back and forth in the chamber, sweeping across the entire medium. If a sufficient number of atoms in the medium are maintained by some external energy source in the higher energy state --- a condition called population inversion --- then emission is continuously stimulated, and a stream of coherent photons develops. One of the mirrors is partially transparent, allowing the laser beam to exit from that end of the chamber.

as an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.[1][2] The emitted laser light is notable for its high degree of spatial and temporal coherence, unattainable using other technologies.