According to Pacepa, in February 1960, Nikita Khrushchev authorized a covert operation to discredit the Vatican's moral authority in Western Europe with a campaign of disinformation due to its fervent anticommunism, Pope Pius XII being the prime target.[1][4][3] The motto of Seat 12 was "Dead men cannot defend themselves", since Pius died in 1958.[5] Pacepa states that General Ivan Agayants, chief of the KGB's disinformation department, created the outline for what was to become a play mischaracterizing the Pope as a Nazi sympathizer, The Deputy; that the purported research for the play consisted of forgeries;[6] that the research was done not by its claimed author Rolf Hochhuth, but by KGB agents; and that the play's producer, Erwin Piscator, founder of the Proletarian Theater in Berlin who had sought asylum in the USSR during the war, was a devout Communist who had long established ties with the USSR.[4][3][7]

Pacepa states that the KGB employed Romanian spies to feign that Romania was preparing to reestablish diplomatic relations with the Holy See.[5] Under this ruse, Pacepa states he obtained entry into Vatican archives from the Church's head of secret discussions with the Warsaw Pact, Monsignor Agostino Casaroli.[5] Three communist spies in the guise of priests over two years secreted materials out of the archives for copying and transfer to the KGB.[5] "In fact," Pacepa reported, "no incriminating material against the pontiff ever turned up."[5] According to Pacepa, General Ivan Agayants, head of Soviet disinformation, informed him while in Bucharest in 1963 that the disinformation campaign had "materialised into a powerful play attacking Pope Pius XII", Agrayants having authored the outline of The Deputy and overseen KGB's compilation of the "research" which incorporated documents Pacepa's agents had purloined from the Vatican.[5]

Writer and law professor Ronald Rychlak states that the American producer of Seat 12's play was also a communist; many of the press who lauded the play had deep connections to leftist or communist causes; a highly communist influenced periodical helped to guarantee The Deputy played on Broadway; and even early reviews had communist links.[8] Pacepa also relates that in 1974 Yuri Andropov admitted that had Soviets known in 1963 what they knew in 1974 (newly released information that Hitler was hostile to and plotted against Pius XII) they would never have gone after him.[4][3]

According to Rychlak, a declassified British intelligence memorandum, dated January 10, 1969, surmises that Hochhuth may have played a knowing role in spreading communist propaganda, rather than having been a dupe, saying he "might perhaps be an ‘intellectual agent', writing either on behalf of the East Germans or the Soviets" and the British agents declined to "discount the possibility of long-term efforts by the communists to foster Hochhuth's allegations until they become legend."[9] The memorandum continued: "whether Hochhuth is motivated only by the urge to write historical plays, to rehabilitate the Germans or is up to some more sinister game is difficult to determine at this stage. But the Russians are certainly reaping some of the benefit."[10]

Rychlak concludes that Hochhuth might not have been a knowing actor in the propaganda but was a "perfect candidate to be an unknowing dupe."[9] Rychlak writes "his ideology was not far removed from Marxism. He also admitted that he was, at least at times, anticlerical. He was particularly opposed to priestly celibacy."[9]

Referring to Pacepa's account, German historian Michael F. Feldkamp writes that "Pacepa's report is wholly credible. It fits like a missing piece in the puzzle of communist propaganda and disinformation aimed at discrediting the Catholic Church and its Pontiff."[11][12] English historian, Michael Burleigh, concurring with Feldkamp, states: "Soviet attempts to smear Pius had actually commenced as soon as the Red Army crossed into Catholic Poland", noting that the Soviets "hired a militantly anti-religious propagandist, Mikhail Markovich Sheinmann" – "Hochhuth's play ... drew heavily upon Sheinmann's lies and falsehoods."[2]

Pacepa's story has not been corroborated; the national German paper Frankfurter Allgemeine stated in 2007 that "Hochhuth did not require any KGB assistance for his one-sided presentation of history".[13]

1.
Disinformation
–
Disinformation is intentionally false or misleading information that is spread in a calculated way to deceive target audiences. The English word, which did not appear in dictionaries until the late-1980s, is a translation of the Russian дезинформация, Disinformation is different from misinformation, which is information that is unintentionally false. Misinformation can be used to define disinformation — where disinformation is misinformation that is purposefully and intentionally disseminated in order to deceive, the English word disinformation, which did not appear in dictionaries until the late-1980s, is a translation of the Russian дезинформация, transliterated as dezinformatsiya. Disinformation differs from misinformation, inaccuracies that stem from error, disinformation is deliberate falsehood promulgated by design, misinformation can be used to define disinformation — where disinformation is misinformation that is purposefully and intentionally disseminated. Front groups are a form of disinformation, as they fraudulently mislead as to their actual controllers, Disinformation tactics can lead to blowback, unintended negative problems due to the strategy, for example defamation lawsuits or damage to reputation. Disinformation is primarily prepared by government intelligence agencies, the GPU was the first organization in the Soviet Union to utilize the term disinformation for their intelligence tactics. From this point on, disinformation became a crucial tactic used in the Soviet political warfare called active measures, Active measures were a crucial part of Soviet intelligence strategy involving forgery as covert operation, subversion, and media manipulation. The term was used in 1939, related to a German Disinformation Service, the 1991 edition of The Merriam-Webster New Book of Word Histories defines disinformation as probably a translation of the Russian dezinformatsiya. Ion Mihai Pacepa, former official from the Romanian secret police, said the word was coined by Joseph Stalin. The Stalinist government then utilized disinformation tactics in both World War II and the Cold War, Soviet intelligence used the term maskirovka to refer to a combination of tactics including disinformation, simulation, camouflage, and concealment. The black propaganda division was reported to have formed in 1955 and was referred to as the Dezinformatsiya agency, former Central Intelligence Agency director William Colby explained how the Dezinformatsiya agency operated. Colby said that the Soviet disinformation bureau surreptitiously placed an article in a left-leaning newspaper. The fraudulent tale would make its way to a Communist periodical, before eventually being published by a Soviet newspaper, by this process a falsehood was globally proliferated as a legitimate piece of reporting. According to Oxford Dictionaries the English word disinformation as translated from the Russian disinformatsiya began to see use in the 1950s, the word disinformation saw increased usage in the 1960s and wider purveyance by the 1980s. Many disinformation games are designed only to manipulate the decision-making elite, bittman was deputy chief of the Disinformation Department of the Czechoslovak Intelligence Service, and testified before the United States Congress on his knowledge of disinformation in 1980. Disinformation may include distribution of forged documents, manuscripts, and photographs, or spreading dangerous rumours, a major disinformation effort in 1964, Operation Neptune, was designed by the Czechoslovak secret service, the StB, to defame West European politicians as former Nazi collaborators. The extent of Soviet disinformation came to light through defections of KGB officers and officers of allied Soviet bloc services from the late 1960s through the 1980s, disorder during the fall of the Soviet Union revealed archival and other documentary information to confirm what the defectors had revealed. Stanislav Levchenko and Ilya Dzerkvilov defected from the Soviet Union and by 1990 each had written books recounting their work in the KGB on disinformation operations

2.
Communist propaganda
–
Communist propaganda is the scientific, artistic, and social promotion of the ideology of communism, communist worldview and interests of the communist movement. Communist propaganda accordingly serves the purpose as all its predecessor propaganda. Within this context, the main counter-propaganda is bourgeois propaganda, or propaganda that promotes the rule of the capitalist class, Communist propaganda is defined as a scientifically based system of the dissemination of the communist ideology with the purpose of education, training and organizing of the masses. As a common trait of any propaganda and its analogue, advertising, Communist propagandas goals, the creation of the Soviet Union was presented as the most important turning event in human history, based on the Marxist theory of historical materialism. This theory identified means of production as chief determinants of the historical process and they led to the creation of social classes, and class struggle was the motor of history. The sociocultural evolution of societies had to progress inevitably from slavery, furthermore, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union became the protagonist of history, as a vanguard of the working class, according to development of this theory by Vladimir Lenin. Hence the unlimited powers of the Communist Party leaders were claimed to be as infallible and inevitable as the history itself and it also followed that a worldwide victory of communist countries is inevitable. Other classes with interests hostile to those of the class were subjected to repression. This primarily focused on capitalists, including anyone who derived their living from privately owning property or capital assets, among the peasants, this new class accumulated disproportionately large amounts of wealth through merchant trading and small capital practices. Under Joseph Stalin, the government began to crack down on the Kulaks, Kulaks who resisted the socialization of their assets, along with anyone who collaborated with or fought for them, were punished with imprisonment, deportation to Siberia, or even execution. Lev Kopelev, who was involved in actions against villagers deprived of food for collaborating with Kulaks explained his motivation, It was excruciating to see. And even worse to take part in it, and I persuaded myself, explained to myself. I must not give in to debilitating pity and we were performing our revolutionary duty. We were obtaining grain for our socialist Fatherland and our goal was the universal triumph of the Communism, and for the sake of that goal everything was permissible - to lie, to steal, to destroy hundreds of thousands and even millions of people. Everyone who stood in the way, the violence that characterized the forced collectivization of agriculture in the Soviet Union eventually ended at the end of the 1930s with the defeat of the Kulaks and their demise. While somewhat modified since the times of the détente, communist propaganda is centered around a number of polarized dichotomies, virtues of the communist world vs. g, bourgeois democracy vs. true democracy or peoples democracy. The latter term is seen in the countries of peoples democracy as applied to what are called communist states in the West. The enemy accepts his condemnation as just and converts to a supporter of the regime as a result of totalitarian propaganda, short Course was an obligatory explanation of Soviet ideology

3.
Cold War
–
The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare

4.
Holy See
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The Holy See, also referred to as the See of Rome, is the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome, the episcopal see of the Pope, and an independent sovereign entity. It serves as the point of reference for the Catholic Church everywhere. Today, it is responsible for the governance of all Catholics, organised in their Particular Churches, Patriarchates, as an independent sovereign entity, holding the Vatican City enclave in Rome as sovereign territory, it maintains diplomatic relations with other states. Diplomatically, the Holy See acts and speaks for the whole church and it is also recognised by other subjects of international law as a sovereign entity, headed by the Pope, with which diplomatic relations can be maintained. The creation of the Vatican City state was meant to ensure the diplomatic, in Greek, the adjective holy or sacred is constantly applied to all such sees as a matter of course. The word see comes from the Latin word sedes, meaning seat, while Saint Peters basilica in Vatican City is perhaps the church most associated with the Papacy, the actual cathedral of the Holy See is the church of Saint John Lateran within the city of Rome. The Pope governs the Catholic Church through the Roman Curia, the Secretariat of State, under the Cardinal Secretary of State, directs and coordinates the Curia. The incumbent, Archbishop Pietro Parolin, is the Sees equivalent of a prime minister, Archbishop Paul Gallagher, Secretary of the Section for Relations with States of the Secretariat of State, acts as the Holy Sees minister of foreign affairs. Parolin was named in his role by Pope Francis On 31 August 2013, mamberti was named in his role by Pope Benedict XVI in September 2006. The Secretariat of State is the body of the Curia that is situated within Vatican City. The others are in buildings in different parts of Rome that have rights similar to those of embassies. The Roman Rota handles normal judicial appeals, the most numerous being those that concern alleged nullity of marriage and it also oversees the work of other ecclesiastical tribunals at all levels. The most important of these is the Administration of the Patrimony of the Apostolic See, the Prefecture of the Papal Household is responsible for the organization of the papal household, audiences, and ceremonies. The Holy See does not dissolve upon a Popes death or resignation and it instead operates under a different set of laws sede vacante. The government of the See, and therefore of the Catholic Church, canon law prohibits the College and the Camerlengo from introducing any innovations or novelties in the government of the Church during this period. In 2001, the Holy See had a revenue of 422.098 billion Italian lire, the Guardian newspaper described Mennini and his role in the following manner. Paolo Mennini, who is in effect the popes merchant banker, Mennini heads a special unit inside the Vatican called the extraordinary division of APSA – Amministrazione del Patrimonio della Sede Apostolica – which handles the patrimony of the Holy See. The Holy See has been recognized, both in practice and in the writing of modern legal scholars, as a subject of public international law, with rights

5.
Anti-communism
–
Organized anti-communism developed in reaction to the rise of communism, especially after the 1917 October Revolution in Russia. It reached global dimensions during the Cold War, when the United States, anti-communism has been an element of movements of many different positions, including capitalist, liberal, socialist, anarchist, and fascist viewpoints. They accuse communists of causing several famines, such as the Russian Famine of 1921, some anti-communists see both communism and fascism as totalitarianism, seeing similarity between the actions of communist and fascist governments. Opponents argue that communist parties that have come to power have tended to be intolerant of political opposition. Communist states have also accused of creating a new ruling class, with powers. Examples of left-wing critics of Communist states and parties are Boris Souveraine, Bayard Rustin, Irving Howe, the American Federation of Labor has always been strongly anti-Communist. The more leftist CIO purged its Communists in 1947 and has been staunchly anti-Communist ever since, in Britain, the Labour Party strenuously resisted Communist efforts to infiltrate its ranks and take control of locals in the 1930s. Although some anarchists describe themselves as communists, all anarchists criticize authoritarian Communist parties and states and they argue that Marxist concepts such as dictatorship of the proletariat and state ownership of the means of production are anathema to anarchism. Some anarchists criticize communism from an individualist point of view, the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin debated with Karl Marx in the First International, arguing that the Marxist state is another form of oppression. He loathed the idea of a vanguard party ruling the masses from above, anarchists initially participated in, and rejoiced over, the 1917 revolution as an example of workers taking power for themselves. However, after the October revolution, it became evident that the Bolsheviks, what is needed is local construction by local forces … Russia has already become a Soviet Republic only in name. Many anarchists fought against Russian, Spanish and Greek Communists, many were killed by them, such as Lev Chernyi, Camillo Berneri, neither Marxs 10-point plan nor the rest of the manifesto say anything about who has the right to carry out the plan. Milton Friedman argued that the absence of economic activity makes it too easy for repressive political leaders to grant themselves coercive powers. Friedmans view was shared by Friedrich Hayek and John Maynard Keynes. Objectivists who follow Ayn Rand are strongly anti-Communist and this is demonstrated, they believe, by the comparative prosperity of free market and socialist economies. Objectivist Ayn Rand writes that communist leaders typically claim to work for the common good, many ex-communists have turned into anti-communists. Mikhail Gorbachev turned from a Communist into a social democrat, milovan Đilas, was a former Yugoslav Communist official, who became a prominent dissident and critic of Communism. Leszek Kołakowski was a Polish Communist who became a famous anti-communist, the God That Failed is a 1949 book which collects together six essays with the testimonies of a number of famous ex-Communists, who were writers and journalists

6.
Nikita Khrushchev
–
Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev was a politician who led the Soviet Union during part of the Cold War. He served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, Khrushchevs party colleagues removed him from power in 1964, replacing him with Leonid Brezhnev as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin as Premier. Khrushchev was born in the village of Kalinovka in 1894, close to the border between Russia and Ukraine. He was employed as a metalworker in his youth, and during the Russian Civil War was a political commissar, with the help of Lazar Kaganovich, he worked his way up the Soviet hierarchy. He supported Joseph Stalins purges, and approved thousands of arrests, in 1938, Stalin sent him to govern Ukraine, and he continued the purges there. During what was known in the Soviet Union as the Great Patriotic War, Khrushchev was again a commissar, Khrushchev was present at the bloody defense of Stalingrad, a fact he took great pride in throughout his life. After the war, he returned to Ukraine before being recalled to Moscow as one of Stalins close advisers, in the power struggle triggered by Stalins death in 1953, Khrushchev, after several years, emerged victorious. On 25 February 1956, at the 20th Party Congress, he delivered the Secret Speech, denouncing Stalins purges and his domestic policies, aimed at bettering the lives of ordinary citizens, were often ineffective, especially in agriculture. Hoping eventually to rely on missiles for defense, Khrushchev ordered major cuts in conventional forces. Despite the cuts, Khrushchevs rule saw the most tense years of the Cold War, flaws in Khrushchevs policies eroded his popularity and emboldened potential opponents, who quietly rose in strength and deposed the premier in October 1964. However, he did not suffer the fate of previous losers of Soviet power struggles, and was pensioned off with an apartment in Moscow. His lengthy memoirs were smuggled to the West and published in part in 1970, Khrushchev died in 1971 of heart disease. Khrushchev was born on 15 April 1894, in Kalinovka, a village in what is now Russias Kursk Oblast and his parents, Sergei Khrushchev and Ksenia Khrushcheva, were poor peasants of Russian origin, and had a daughter two years Nikitas junior, Irina. Sergei Khrushchev was employed in a number of positions in the Donbas area of far eastern Ukraine, working as a railwayman, as a miner, and laboring in a brick factory. Wages were much higher in the Donbas than in the Kursk region, Kalinovka was a peasant village, Khrushchevs teacher, Lydia Shevchenko, later stated that she had never seen a village as poor as Kalinovka had been. Nikita worked as a herdsboy from an early age and he was schooled for a total of four years, part in the village parochial school and part under Shevchenkos tutelage in Kalinovkas state school. She urged Nikita to seek education, but family finances did not permit this. In 1908, Sergei Khrushchev moved to the Donbas city of Yuzovka, fourteen-year-old Nikita followed later that year, while Ksenia Khrushcheva and her daughter came after

7.
Pope Pius XII
–
Pope Pius XII, born Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli, reigned as Pope from 2 March 1939 to his death in 1958. After the war Pius XII advocated peace and reconciliation, including lenient policies towards Axis, the Church experienced severe persecution and mass deportations of Catholic clergy in the Eastern Bloc. Pius XII was an opponent of Communism and of the Italian Communist Party. He explicitly invoked ex cathedra papal infallibility with the dogma of the Assumption of Mary in his 1950 Apostolic constitution Munificentissimus Deus and his magisterium includes almost 1,000 addresses and radio broadcasts. His forty-one encyclicals include Mystici corporis, the Church as the Body of Christ, Mediator Dei on liturgy reform and he eliminated the Italian majority in the College of Cardinals in 1946. In 1954, Pius XII began to suffer ill health. The embalming of his body was mishandled, with effects that were evident during the funeral and he was buried in the Vatican grottos and was succeeded by Pope John XXIII. In the process toward sainthood, his cause for canonization was opened on 18 November 1965 by Pope Paul VI during the session of the Second Vatican Council. He was made a Servant of God by Pope John Paul II in 1990, Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli was born on 2 March 1876 in Rome into a family of intense Catholic piety with a history of ties to the papacy. His parents were Filippo Pacelli and Virginia Pacelli, together with his brother Francesco and his two sisters, Giuseppina and Elisabetta, he grew up in the Parione district in the centre of Rome. Soon after the family had moved to Via Vetrina in 1880 he began school at the convent of the French Sisters of Divine Providence in the Piazza Fiammetta, the family worshipped at Chiesa Nuova. Eugenio and the children made their First Communion at this church. In 1886 too he was sent to the school of Professor Giuseppe Marchi. In 1891 Pacellis father sent Eugenio to the Liceo Ennio Quirino Visconti Institute, a school situated in what had been the Collegio Romano. He was also enrolled at the State University, La Sapienza where he studied modern languages, at the end of the first academic year however, in the summer of 1895, he dropped out of both the Capranica and the Gregorian University. According to his sister Elisabetta, the food at the Capranica was to blame, having received a special dispensation he continued his studies from home and so spent most of his seminary years as an external student. In 1899 he completed his education in Sacred Theology with a degree awarded on the basis of a short dissertation. Shortly after ordination he began studies in canon law at SantApollinaire

8.
The Deputy
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It has been translated into more than twenty languages. An English translation by Richard and Clara Winston of the text was published as The Deputy, A Play. A letter from Albert Schweitzer to Hochhuths German publisher serves as the foreword to the Grove edition, a film version titled Amen. was made by the Greek-born French filmmaker Costa-Gavras in 2002. The play was first performed at West Berlins “Freie Volksbühne” on February 20,1963 under the direction of Erwin Piscator, within the same year, the play was produced at additional theatres in West Germany, Sweden, Switzerland, Great Britain, Denmark, Finland and France. The play received its first English production in London by the Royal Shakespeare Company at the Aldwych Theatre in September 1963 and it was directed by Clifford Williams with Alan Webb/Eric Porter as Pius XII, Alec McCowen as Father Fontana, and Ian Richardson. The producer Herman Shumlin had offered to release any actors who were troubled by the surrounding the play. However, all of the remained with the production. The play ran for 316 performances, Herman Shumlin received the 1964 Tony Award as the “Best Producer ” for his Broadway production of The Deputy. To read the play as anti-Catholic is not to read it at all, the first production in East Germany took place on February 20,1966 at Greifswald Theatre. The Deputy has been produced in more than 80 cities worldwide since, in the English-speaking world, the play has since been revived by the Citizens Theatre, Glasgow in 1986 and at the Finborough Theatre, London, in August 2006. Rolf Hochhuth has referred to several models for the figures of his play. Among these persons are Pater Maximilian Kolbe who sacrificed himself for the Catholic family man Franciszek Gajowniczek. Prelate Bernhard Lichtenberg, the dome provost of St. Hedwig in Berlin was imprisoned because he included Jews in his prayers, Lichtenberg died on the transport to Dachau. Kurt Gerstein, an official at the Institute of Hygiene of the Waffen-SS, after the Second World War he produced the Gerstein Report that was used at the Nuremberg Trials. Father Riccardo Fontana, the priest protagonist, and Gerstein meet for the first time, a number of German aristocrats, industrialists, and government officials spend an evening in an underground bowling alley. Despite the commonplace setting the scene is macabre, conversations alternate between lighthearted pleasantries and equally dismissive discussions of the treatment of Jews. An icy Catholic industrialist—played by the actor as Pius—defends his use of slave labor. Act II repeatedly attempts to home the point that Hitler feared Pius more than any of his contemporaries

9.
Rolf Hochhuth
–
Rolf Hochhuth is a German author and playwright. Rolf Hochhuth is descended from an old-established Protestant Hessian burgess family, during World War II, he was a member of the Deutsches Jungvolk, a subdivision of the Hitler Youth. In 1948 he did an apprenticeship as a bookseller, between 1950 and 1955 he worked in bookshops in Marburg, Kassel and Munich. At the same time he attended university lectures as a guest student, between 1955 and 1963 he was a lector at a major West-German publishing house. Hochhuths plays include his 1963 drama Der Stellvertreter, ein christliches Trauerspiel, that caused controversy because of its criticism of Pope Pius XIIs role in World War II. The play was published in the UK in Robert David MacDonalds translation as The Representative. In 2007, Ion Mihai Pacepa, a former Romanian spymaster, a leading German newspaper opined that Hochhuth did not require any KGB assistance for his one-sided presentation of history. The unedited version of the play would have run some eight or nine hours, as a result, each production adapted the text in its own way. No audience saw it in its original form and it includes the true story of Kurt Gerstein. Gerstein, a devout Protestant and later a member of the SS, wrote a report about the gas chambers and, after the war. The play was first performed in Berlin on 20 February 1963 under the direction of Erwin Piscator and it received its first English production in London by the Royal Shakespeare Company at the Aldwych Theatre in 1963 in a translation by Robert David MacDonald. It was directed by Clifford Williams with Alan Webb or Eric Porter as Pius XII, Alec McCowen as Father Fontana, in the United Kingdom it has since been revived at the Citizens Theatre, Glasgow, in 1986, and at the Finborough Theatre, London, in 2006. An abridged version opened on Broadway on 26 February 1964 at the Brooks Atkinson Theatre, with Emlyn Williams as Pius XII, the play ran for 316 performances. The Deputy was made into a film Amen by Costa Gavras in 2002, unbeknownst to Hochhuth, the pilot of the plane was still alive and he won a libel case that seriously affected the London theater which staged the play. The play partially drew on the work of young British author David Irving, Irving and Hochhuth have been long-standing friends. At the time of the controversy in Britain, Irving was the figure who gave his unequivocal support for Hochhuths thesis. The play was produced shortly afterwards in the West End with John Colicos in the cast, the English translation was again by Robert David MacDonald. In the UK, the play was seen on tour in the early 1990s and was revived most recently at the Finborough Theatre, London, sommer 14 - A Dance of Death had its UK premiere in August 2014 at the Finborough Theatre in London

10.
Erwin Piscator
–
Erwin Friedrich Max Piscator was born on 17 December 1893 in the small Prussian village of Greifenstein-Ulm, son of Carl Piscator, a merchant, and his wife Antonia Laparose. His family was descended from Johannes Piscator, a Protestant theologian who produced an important translation of the Bible in 1600, the family moved to the university town Marburg in 1899 where Piscator attended the Gymnasium Philippinum. In the autumn of 1913, he attended a private Munich drama school and enrolled at University of Munich to study German, philosophy, Piscator also took Arthur Kutschers famous seminar in theatre history which Bertolt Brecht was also later to attend. He began his career in the autumn of 1914, in small unpaid roles at the Munich Court Theatre. In 1896, Karl Lautenschläger had installed one of the worlds first revolving stages at that theatre, during the First World War Piscator was drafted into the German army, serving in a front-line infantry unit as a Landsturm soldier from the spring of 1915. In summer 1917, having participated in the battles at Ypres Salient and been in hospital once, in November 1918, when the armistice was declared, Piscator gave a speech in Hasselt at the first meeting of a revolutionary Soldiers Council. As stage director at the Volksbühne, and later as managing director at his own theatre and his dramatic aims were utilitarian — to influence voters or clarify left-wing policies. He used mechanized sets, lectures, movies, and mechanical devices that appealed to his audiences, in 1926, his updated production of Friedrich Schillers The Robbers at the distinguished Preußisches Staatstheater in Berlin provoked widespread controversy. Piscator cut the text heavily and reinterpreted it as a vehicle for his political beliefs and he presented the protagonist Karl Moor as a substantially self-absorbed insurgent. As Karls foil, Piscator made the character of Spiegelberg, often presented as a sinister figure, Spiegelberg appeared as a Trotskyist intellectual, slightly reminiscent of Charlie Chaplin with his cane and bowler hat. As he died, the audience heard The Internationale sung, Piscator founded the influential Piscator-Bühne in Berlin in 1927. In 1928 he produced an adaptation of the unfinished episodic comic Czech novel The Good Soldier Schweik. The dramaturgical collective that produced this adaptation included Bertolt Brecht, Brecht later described it as a montage from the novel. In 1929 Piscator published his own work on the theory of theatre, as John Willett put it, throughout the pre-Hitler years Piscators commitment to the Russian Revolution was a decisive factor in all his work. With Hitlers rise to power in 1933, Piscators stay in the Soviet Union became exile, in July 1936, Piscator left the Soviet Union for France. In 1937, he married dancer Maria Ley in Paris, Bertolt Brecht was one of the groomsmen. When Piscator and Ley subsequently migrated to the United States in 1939, Piscator was invited by Alvin Johnson, Piscator returned to West Germany in 1951 due to McCarthy era political pressure. He was appointed manager and director of the Freie Volksbühne in West Berlin in 1962, until his death in 1966, Piscator was a major exponent of contemporary and documentary theatre

11.
Agostino Casaroli
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Agostino Casaroli was an Italian Catholic priest and diplomat for the Holy See, who became Cardinal Secretary of State. He was the most important figure behind the Vaticans efforts to deal with the persecution of the Church in the nations of the Soviet bloc after the Second Vatican Council, Cardinal Casaroli was portrayed by veteran character actor Ben Gazzara in the 2005 miniseries, Pope John Paul II. Casaroli was born in Castel San Giovanni to a family of humble roots and his father was a tailor in Piacenza. He was ordained to the priesthood on 27 May 1937 in Piacenza and he went to further studies in Rome from 1937–1939. After his ordination he served at the Secretariat of State from 1940 and he was named Privy Chamberlain of His Holiness on 4 January 1945. He served as chaplain of Villa Agnese from 1950 to 1998 and he was raised to the rank of Domestic prelate of His Holiness on 22 December 1954. He served as an assistant to Cardinal Adeodato Giovanni Piazza at the First General Conference of the Latin American Bishops in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1955. He was papal envoy to deliver the red biretta to José María Monreal, Archbishop of Seville and he served as a faculty member of the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy from 1958 to 1961. On 24 February 1961, he was appointed Undersecretary of the Sacred Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, in 1964, he represented the Holy See at the exchange of instruments in ratification of the modus vivendi with Tunisia, concerning the situation of the Catholic Church. He was a signatory of the agreement between the Holy See and Hungary in Budapest on 15 September 1964. He negotiated with the Communist Czechoslovak government over the appointment of František Tomášek as apostolic administrator sede plena of the archdiocese of Prague in February 1965 and he was appointed secretary of the Sacred Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs on 29 June 1967. During the period following Vatican II, Casaroli gained a reputation as a skilled diplomat who was able to negotiate with regimes hostile to the Church. He headed the CSCE conference in Finlandia Hall, Helsinki from 30 July to 1 August 1975, although not made a cardinal with his close associate Giovanni Benelli in 1977, Casaroli was made a Cardinal-Priest of Ss. XII Apostoli in John Paul IIs first consistory in 1979, although he was seen as less hardline than any other close associate of John Paul, Casarolis skillful diplomacy was seen by Wojtyła as an irreplaceable asset in the struggle against the Soviet Union. In 1985 he became Cardinal Bishop of the diocese of Porto-Santa-Rufina. He was Vice-Dean of the College of Cardinals from 1993 until his 1998 death of cardiorespiratory disease, in November 2010, Mehmet Ali Ağca alleged that Cardinal Casaroli had been the man behind the assassination attempt on John Paul II in 1981. Although his 2000 memoirs revealed a man hostile to Communism, his diplomatic skill made this hostility appear non-existent. According to John O. Koehler, the KGB and its organs, in Eastern Europe were well aware of Cardinal Casarolis real opinions

12.
Yuri Andropov
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Later in 1982, he became General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, a position he held until his death fifteen months later. Andropov was born in Nagutskaya, Stavropol Region, Russian Empire, Andropov was educated at the Rybinsk Water Transport Technical College and graduated in 1936. Both of his parents died early, leaving Yuri an orphan at the age of thirteen, as a teenager he worked as a loader, a telegraph clerk, and a sailor for the Volga steamship line. At 16, Yuri Andropov, then a member of the All-Union Leninist Young Communist League, was a worker in the town of Mozdok in the North Ossetian ASSR, during World War II, Andropov took part in partisan guerrilla activities in Finland. From 1944 onwards, he left Komsomol for Communist Party work, between 1946 and 1951, he studied at the university of Petrozavodsk. In 1947, he was elected Second Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Karelo-Finnish SSR, in 1951 Andropov was transferred, by the decision of the CPSU Central Committee, to its staff. He was appointed an inspector and then the head of a subdepartment of the Committee, in July 1954 he was appointed Soviet Ambassador to Hungary and held this position during the 1956 Hungarian Revolution. Andropov played a key role in crushing the Hungarian uprising and he convinced a reluctant Nikita Khrushchev that military intervention was necessary. He is known as ‘The Butcher of Budapest’ for his ruthless suppression of the Hungarian uprising, the Hungarian leaders were arrested and Imre Nagy and others executed. Andropov remained haunted for the rest of his life by the speed with which an apparently all-powerful Communist one-party state had begun to topple. In 1957 Andropov returned to Moscow from Budapest in order to head the Department for Liaison with Communist and Workers Parties in Socialist Countries, in 1961, he was elected full member of the CPSU Central Committee and was promoted to the Secretariat of the CPSU Central Committee in 1962. He gained additional powers in 1973, when he was promoted to member of the Politburo. During the Prague Spring events of 1968 in Czechoslovakia, Andropov was the proponent of the extreme measures. The KGB whipped up the fear that Czechoslovakia could fall victim to NATO aggression or to a coup, however his message was destroyed because it contradicted the conspiracy theory fabricated by Andropov. Andropov ordered a number of measures, collectively known as operation PROGRESS. After the assassination attempt against Brezhnev in January 1969, Andropov led the interrogation of the captured gunman, Ilyin was pronounced insane and sent to Kazan Psychiatric Hospital. On 3 July 1967, he made a proposal to establish for dealing with the opposition the KGBs Fifth Directorate. At the end of July, the directorate was established and entered in its files cases of all Soviet dissidents including Andrei Sakharov, the proposal by Andropov to use psychiatry for struggle against dissidents was implemented

13.
Alleged plot to kidnap Pope Pius XII
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Several authors have alleged that there was a plot to kidnap Pope Pius XII by the Nazis when they occupied Rome during World War II. SS General Karl Wolff stated that he had ordered on September 13,1943 to kidnap the Pope. SS General Karl Wolff claimed while testifying at the Nuremberg Trials that he had disobeyed an order from Hitler to kidnap the Pope and instead sneaked into the Vatican to warn the Pontiff. Wolff maintained that Hitler summoned Wolff to his office on September 13,1943, and it will be your duty not to discuss it with anyone before I give you permission to do so. I want you and your troops to occupy Vatican City as soon as possible, secure its files and art treasures, I do not want him to fall into the hands of the Allies or to be under their political pressure and influence. The Vatican is already a nest of spies and a center of anti-National Socialist propaganda, Wolffs reliability has been questioned by Holocaust historians. Holocaust denier David Irvings use of Wolff as a source was one of the issues in Irving v Penguin Books, the books documentation is modest, the short notes and index contain a great number of vague or inaccurate references. Moreover, it is difficult to believe the arguments of an author who so manifestly lacks the language abilities needed for his work, Kurzman seems to know Italian but no German, he misspells German names and uses almost no German-language sources. While Deaks review maintained that Kurzman unquestioningly believes Wolffs statements, Kurzman says the others he interviewed corroborate Wolffs account, lahousen and Colonel Wessel Freytag von Loringhoven were also present at this meeting. Amè apparently spread the news and the plot was dropped, the latter was later part of the July 20 plot to assassinate Hitler, along with Claus Graf Schenk von Stauffenberg. Rudolf Rahn, the German Plenipotentiary to the Italian Social Republic, Graham in the 1970s, which was published by Italian magazine 30 Giorni in 1991, stating that such a plot existed but that all documents relating to it had been destroyed or lost, Rahn died in 1975. John Cornwells Hitlers Pope subscribes to the existence of such a plot, the only source that Cornwells account cites is Teste manuscript, 822ff, in the keeping of the Jesuit Curia at the Borgo Santo Spirito in Rome. As with Wolffs own account, Cornwell casts Wolff as the hero, according to Cornwell, Wolff was able to persuade Hitler to drop the plan. All these statements are false and were declared as such in an official, also, Rabbi David Dalin wrote The Myth of Hitlers Pope. He calls the plot a most important and intriguing episode of World War II, yet, it has been barely mentioned in even the most comprehensive history books about the war. And what has been reported is treated as inconsequential rumor, Kurzman says that the plot was intended to ensure that Pius XII remained silent during the Roman razzia, which deported over a thousand Jews to Auschwitz. Kurzmans book has received attention from Catholic and other Christian news sources. Finally, Kurzman cites an interview with Peter Gumpel, the Vaticans advocate for canonization of Pius XII

14.
Marxism
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It originates from the mid-to-late 19th century works of German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As the contradiction becomes apparent to the proletariat through the alienation of labor, Marxism has since developed into different branches and schools of thought, and there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Marxism has been adopted by a number of academics and theorists working in various disciplines. Critics have taken issue with particular Marxist claims or accused Marxism as a whole of being inconsistent, refuted based on new information. The Marxian analysis begins with an analysis of the material conditions, the economic system and these social relations form a base and superstructure. As forces of production, most notably technology, improve, existing forms of social organization become inefficient, from forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social revolution and these inefficiencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society in the form of class struggle. Under the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between the minority who own the means of production, and the vast majority of the population who produce goods, the socialist system would succeed capitalism as humanitys mode of production through workers revolution. According to Marxism, especially arising from crisis theory, socialism is a historical necessity, in a socialist society private property, in the form of the means of production, would be replaced by co-operative ownership. A socialist economy would not base production on the creation of private profits, Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand. The historical materialist theory of history analyses the causes of societal development. All constituent features of a society are assumed to stem from economic activity, the base and superstructure metaphor portrays the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, The sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society and this relationship is reflexive, at first the base gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organization. As Friedrich Engels clarified, The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles, accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production. Primitive Communism, as in tribal societies. Slave Society, a development of tribal to city-state, aristocracy is born, feudalism, aristocrats are the ruling class, merchants evolve into capitalists. Capitalism, capitalists are the class, who create and employ the proletariat. According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, the content of Marxism was Marxs economic doctrine

15.
Anticlerical
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Anti-clericalism is opposition to religious authority, typically in social or political matters. Historical anti-clericalism has mainly opposed to the influence of Roman Catholicism. Anti-clericalism is related to secularism, which seeks to remove the church from all aspects of public and political life, anarchist and Communist movements are anti-religion and anti-clerical, but not all anti-clericals are irreligious or anti-religion. Some have opposed clergy on the basis of corruption, institutional issues and/or disagreements in religious interpretation. Anti-clericalism became extremely violent during the French Revolution because revolutionaries believed the church had played a role in the systems of oppression which led to it. Many clerics were killed, and French revolutionary governments tried to control priests by making them state employees, anti-clericalism appeared in Catholic Europe throughout the 19th Century, in various forms, and later in Canada, Cuba, and Latin America. Various rumblings can be seen erupting from time to time in the Islamic world, during a two year period known as the Reign of Terror, the episodes of anti-clericalism grew more violent than any in modern European history. The new revolutionary authorities suppressed the church, abolished the Catholic monarchy, nationalized church property, exiled 30,000 priests, there has been much scholarly debate over whether the movement was popularly motivated. In April and May of 1794, the government mandated the observance of a festival of the Cult of the Supreme Being. When anticlericalism became a goal of French revolutionaries, counter-revolutionaries seeking to restore tradition. Locals often resisted de-Christianisation by attacking revolutionary agents and hiding members of the clergy who were being hunted, eventually, Maximilien Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety were forced to denounce the campaign. On 12 July 1790 passed the law Civil Constitution of the Clergy that required all clerics to swear allegiance to it and, by extension, all but seven of the 160 bishops refused the oath, as did about half of the parish priests. Persecution of the clergy and of the faithful was the first trigger of the rebellion, nonjuring priests were exiled or imprisoned and women on their way to Mass were beaten in the streets. Religious orders were suppressed and Church property confiscated, when Pope Pius VI took sides against the revolution in the First Coalition, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Italy. French troops imprisoned the Pope in 1797, and he died six weeks of captivity. After a change of heart, Napoleon then re-established the Catholic Church in France with the signing of the Concordat of 1801, when Napoleonic armies entered a territory, monasteries were often sacked and church property secularized. A further phase of anti-clericalism occurred in the context of the French Third Republic, prior to the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State, the Catholic Church enjoyed preferential treatment from the French state. During the 19th century, public schools employed primarily priests as teachers, in 1881–1882 Jules Ferrys government passed the Jules Ferry laws, establishing free education and mandatory and lay education, giving the basis of French public education

16.
Michael F. Feldkamp
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Michael F. Feldkamp, is a German historian and journalist. During the academic year 1985-1986 he studied Church history at the Gregorian University in Rome and he concluded his studies with the German state examination in 1990. In 1986, and again in 1990-1991, he received fellowships from the German Historical Institute in Rome, the University of Bonn awarded him the Dr. phil. degree in 1992. From 1993 to 1995 he was on the staff of the archives of the German Bundestag, from 1996 to 1997 he worked in the Bonn antenna for the Institute for Contemporary History in Munich. In 2000 he was given a permanent civil service appointment in the administration of the Bundestag and he is best known outside Germany for his writings about the role of Pope Pius XII during the Third Reich. So he has critically analysed “Hitlers Pope“ by John Cornwell and A Moral Reckoning by Daniel Goldhagen, within Germany he has achieved recognition for his studies of the German “Basic Law” and the history of the Bundestag. In 2012, the German publisher Wolfram Weimer counted Feldkamp to the 800 most important representatives of modern Catholicism in Germany due to his scientific and journalistic commitment. 2009, Knight of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre 2011,2015, Honorary member of the Real Academia Sancti Ambrosii Martyris as well as delegate of this academy in Germany. Città del Vaticano 1993,1995 und 2008 ISBN 88-85042-22-8 - ISBN 88-85042-21-X - ISBN 88-85042-27-9 - ISBN 978-88-85042-51-3 Der Parlamentarische Rat 1948-1949, Akten und Protokolle, Vol.8,10,11 und 12, Boppard, bzw. Michael F. Feldkamp/Daniel Kosthorst, Die Akten zur Auswärtigen Politik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1949/50, september 1949 bis Dezember 1950, ed. im Auftrage des Auswärtigen Amts vom Institut für Zeitgeschichte, München 1997. Der Parlamentarische Rat 1948-1949, Göttingen 1998, Die Entstehung des Grundgesetzes für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1949, Stuttgart 1999. Die Beziehungen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland zum Heiligen Stuhl 1949-1966, aus den Vatikanakten des Auswärtigen Amts. Pius XII. und Deutschland, Göttingen 2000, Der Stellvertreter von Rolf Hochhuth in der Innen- und Außenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Mit einem Anhang ausgewählter Aktenstücke aus den Vatikanakten des Auswärtigen Amtes, in, Geschichte im Bistum Aachen – Beiheft 2, 2001/2002, edit by Geschichtsverein für das Bistum Aachen e. V. Leo Just, Briefe an Hermann Cardauns, Paul Fridolin Kehr, Aloys Schulte, Heinrich Finke, ed. Michael F. Feldkamp, Frankfurt am Main 2002. Regentenlisten und Stammtafeln zur Geschichte Europas, vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart, Stuttgart 2002, ISBN 3-15-017034-6 Goldhagens unwillige Kirche. Alte und neue Fälschungen über Kirche und Papst während der NS-Herrschaft, München 2003, ISBN 3-7892-8127-1 Michael F. Von Ebingen ins Kanzleramt, freiburg im Breisgau, Basel, Wien 2005, S. 149-199, Der Bundestagspräsident. Wahlperiode, München 2007 ISBN 978-3-7892-8201-0 La diplomazia pontificia, da Silvestro I a Giovanni Paolo II

17.
Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung
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The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, abbreviated FAZ, is a centre-right, liberal-conservative German newspaper, founded in 1949. It is published daily in Frankfurt am Main and its Sunday edition is the Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung. The F. A. Z. runs its own correspondent network and its editorial policy is not determined by a single editor, but cooperatively by five editors. It is the German newspaper with the widest circulation abroad, with its editors claiming to deliver the newspaper to 148 countries every day, the first edition of the F. A. Z. appeared on 1 November 1949, its founding editor was Erich Welter. Some editors had worked for the moderate Frankfurter Zeitung, which had been banned in 1943, however, in their first issue, the F. A. Z. Such an assumption misjudges our intentions, like everyone, we too are astonished at the high quality of that paper, …however, showing respect for an amazing achievement does not imply a desire to copy it. Until 30 September 1950 the F. A. Z. was printed in Mainz, traditionally, many of the headlines in the F. A. Z. were styled in orthodox blackletter format and no photographs appeared on the title page. Expanded aggressively, with customized sections for Berlin and Munich. A. Z, however, F. A. Z. group suffered a loss of 60.6 million euros in 2002. By 2004 the customized sections were scrapped, the English edition shrank to a tabloid published once a week. On 5 October 2007, the F. A. Z, altered their traditional layout to include color photographs on the front page and exclude blackletter typeface outside the nameplate. Currently, the F. A. Z. is produced using the Networked Interactive Content Access. For its characteristic comment headings, a digital Fraktur font was ordered, the Fraktur has since been abandoned, however, with the above-mentioned change of layout. After several changes had made to the new spelling, F. A. Z. Accepted it and started using it on 1 January 2007, promotes an image of making its readers think. The truth is stated to be sacred to the F. A. Z, so care is taken to clearly label news reports and comments as such. Its political orientation is centre right and liberal-conservative, occasionally providing a forum to commentators with different opinions, in particular, the Feuilleton and some sections of the Sunday edition cannot be said to be specifically conservative or liberal at all. In the 2013 elections the paper was among the supporters of the Christian Democrats, the F. A. Z. is one of several high-profile national newspapers in Germany and among them has the second largest circulation nationwide. It maintains the largest number of correspondents of any European newspaper

18.
Pope Pius XII and Judaism
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The relations between Pope Pius XII and Judaism have long been controversial, especially those questions that surround Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust. Other issues involve Piuss Jewish friendships and his attitude towards the new state of Israel, in 1926, Pacelli also encouraged Catholics in Germany to join the Committee Pro Palestina, which supported Jewish settlements in Palestine. An International Eucharistic Conference took place in Budapest in Hungary during 1938, Cardinal Pacelli used the opportunity to denounce the lugubrious array of the militant godless, shaking the clenched fist of anti-Christ. He added, Where now are Herod and Pilate, Nero and Diocletian, and Julian the Apostate, st. Ambrose replies, ‘The Christians who have been massacred have won the victory, the vanquished were their persecutors. We sing him hymns of our loyalty and our love and we act in this fashion, not out of bitterness, not out of a sense of superiority, not out of arrogance toward those whose lips curse him and whose hearts reject him even today. This claim is disputed by those who have access to the original and complete French text, Pius called Ribbentrop on March 11, repeatedly protesting against the treatment of Jews. In his 1940 encyclical Summi Pontificatus, Pius rejected anti-semitism, stating that in the Catholic Church there is neither Gentile nor Jew, historian Guido Knopp describes these comments of Pius as being incomprehensible at a time when Jerusalem was being murdered by the million. In revising his previous opinion Michael Phayer asserts that Pius did speak out against the holocaust in his 1942 Christmas message, the encyclical, Divino afflante Spiritu, published in September 1943 emphasized the role of the Bible. He encouraged Christian theologians to revisit original versions of the Bible in Greek, noting improvements in archaeology, the encyclical reversed Pope Leo XIIIs encyclical, which had only advocated going back to the original texts to resolve ambiguity in the Latin Vulgate. The encyclical demands a much better understanding of ancient Jewish history and it requires bishops throughout the Church to initiate biblical studies for lay people. The Pontiff also requests a reorientation of Catholic teaching and education, relying more on sacred scriptures in sermons. In multiplicibus curis is an encyclical of Pope Pius XII focusing on the war in Palestine. It was given at Castel Gandolfo, near Rome, October 24,1948, when war was declared, the Pope maintained the attitude of impartiality but also looked for possibilities for justice and peace in Palestine and for the respect and protection of the Holy Places. Pope Pius organized charities for the refugees and victims of the war, Pius also made a proposal for Jerusalem to become an international city, either under the United Nations or a related organization. The idea first appeared in the 1949 encyclical Redemptoris nostri cruciatus and it was later re-proposed during the papacies of John XXIII, Paul VI and John Paul II. In 1958, Dr. Guido Mendes wrote an article in the Jerusalem Post explaining how he had friends with Pope Pacelli since his youth. He said that the Pope had discussed Jewish theology and participated in a Sabbath with important members of the Roman Jewish community and they exchanged ideals and future prospects, with Pacelli later expressing enthusiasm for the new State of Israel. According to biographer Judith Cabaud, in 1944, while conducting a Yom Kippur service, shortly after the end of World War II, Rabbi Zolli and his second wife were received into the Roman Catholic Church

19.
Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust
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Pius employed diplomacy to aid the victims of the Nazis during the war and, through directing his Church to provide discreet aid to Jews and others, saved hundreds of thousands of lives. Pius maintained links to the German Resistance, and shared intelligence with the Allies, some post-war critics have accused Pius of either being overly cautious, or of not doing enough, or even of silence in the face of the Holocaust. Pius XII had served as a Vatican diplomat in Germany prior to the war, in this capacity he had been a critic of Nazism and helped draft the 1937 Mit brennender Sorge anti-Nazi encyclical. Pius intervened to attempt to block Nazi deportations of Jews in various countries from 1942–1944, upon his death in 1958, Pius was praised emphatically by the Israeli Foreign Minister, and other world leaders. But his insistence on Vatican neutrality and avoidance of naming the Nazis as the evildoers of the conflict became the foundation for contemporary, studies of the Vatican archives and international diplomatic correspondence continue. Two Popes served through the Nazi period, Pope Pius XI, the Holy See strongly criticized Nazism through the late 1920s and throughout the 1930s, with Cardinal Pacelli being a particularly outspoken critic. In 1933, Vatican signed a Concordat with Germany, hoping to protect the rights of Catholics under the Nazi government, the terms of the Treaty were not kept by Hitler. Pius XI offered three encyclicals against the tide of European totalitarianism, Non abbiamo bisogno, Mit brennender Sorge. Pius XI also challenged the extremist nationalism of the Action Francaise movement, with Europe on the brink of war, Pius XI died on 10 Feb 1939 and Pacelli was elected to succeed him as Pope Pius XII. The Nazi Government was the government not to send a representative to his coronation. Pius lobbied world leaders hard to avoid war and then pursued a policy of cautions diplomacy following the outbreak of the war, from around 1942, the Nazis had begun to implement their final solution—the industrial extermination of Europes Jews. As Vatican Secretary of State, Cardinal Pacelli, made some 55 protests against Nazi policies, Pacelli also assisted Pius XI draft the 1937 Mit brennender Sorge critique of Nazi ideology. Written partly in response to the Nuremberg Laws, the document did not refer to Hitler or the Nazis by name, but condemned racial theories and the mistreatment of people based on race. In 1938, Cardinal Pacelli publicly restated the words of Pius XI on the incompatibility of Christianity and antisemitism, anti-Semitism is inadmissible, spiritually we are all Semites. An International Eucharistic Conference took place in Budapest in Hungary during 1938, historians Ronald Rychlak and William Doino, Jr. deny that Cardinal Pacelli was referring to Jews because Time Magazine did not mention this in its report of the conference. He is referring to the New Testament in which it is Jews who are described as calling out Crucify him, wilensky further notes that Pacellis comments were stereotypical of the way Jews were once portrayed by the Church as Christ killers and deicides. Holocaust historian Paul OShea notes, There is no evidence that he objected to the anti-Jewish rants of Civilita Cattolica, the Pope or his Secretary of State gave the final fiat for the editorial content of the journal. There is no way that Cardinal Pacelli could not have known of the Judeophobia written in Civilta, the Nazi regime disapproved of Pacellis election as Pope

20.
Religion in the Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union was established by the Bolsheviks in 1922, in place of the Russian Empire. At the time of the 1917 Revolution, the Russian Orthodox Church was deeply integrated into the autocratic state and this was a significant factor that contributed to the Bolshevik attitude to religion and the steps they took to control it. Under the doctrine of atheism in the Soviet Union, there was a government-sponsored program of forced conversion to atheism conducted by Communists. In 1925 the government founded the League of Militant Atheists to intensify the persecution, science was counterposed to religious superstition in the media and in academic writing. The main religions of pre-revolutionary Russia persisted throughout the entire Soviet period, generally, this meant that believers were free to worship in private and in their respective religious buildings, but public displays of religion outside of such designated areas were prohibited. In addition, religious institutions were not allowed to express their views in any type of mass media, as the founder of the Soviet state, V. I. Lenin, put it, Religion is the opium of the people, marxist–Leninist atheism has consistently advocated the control, suppression, and elimination of religion. Christians belonged to various churches, Orthodox, Catholic, and Baptist, the majority of the Muslims in the Soviet Union were Sunni. Other religions, practiced by a number of believers, included Buddhism and Shamanism. Orthodox Christians constituted a majority of believers in the Soviet Union, in the late 1980s, three Orthodox churches claimed substantial memberships there, the Russian Orthodox Church, the Georgian Orthodox Church, and the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church. They were members of the confederation of Orthodox churches in the world. The first two functioned openly and were tolerated by the regime, but the Ukrainian AOC was not permitted to function openly. According to both Soviet and Western sources, in the late 1980s the Russian Orthodox Church had over 50 million believers, over 4,000 of these churches were located in the Ukrainian Republic. The distribution of the six monasteries and ten convents of the Russian Orthodox Church was equally disproportionate, only two of the monasteries were located in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. Another two were in Ukraine and there was one each in Belarus and Lithuania, seven convents were located in Ukraine and one each in Moldova, Estonia, and Latvia. The Georgian Orthodox Church, another member of Eastern Orthodoxy, was headed by a Georgian patriarch. In the late 1980s it had 15 bishops,180 priests,200 parishes, in 1811 the Georgian Orthodox Church was incorporated into the Russian Orthodox Church, but it regained its independence in 1917, after the fall of the Tsar. Nevertheless, the Russian Orthodox Church did not officially recognize its independence until 1943, the Ukrainian AOC separated from the Russian Orthodox Church in 1919, when the short-lived Ukrainian state adopted a decree declaring autocephaly from the Ukrainian Orthodox Church

21.
Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union
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Throughout the history of the Soviet Union, there were periods where Soviet authorities suppressed and persecuted various forms of Christianity to different extents depending on State interests. Soviet Marxist-Leninism policy consistently advocated the control, suppression, and ultimately, the elimination of religious beliefs, the state advocated the destruction of religion, and it officially pronounced religious beliefs to be superstitious and backward. In 1925 the government founded the League of Militant Atheists to intensify the persecution, the total number of Christian victims under the Soviet regime has been estimated to range between 12-20 million. The Soviet regime had a commitment to the complete annihilation of religious institutions. Militant meant an uncompromising attitude toward religion and the effort of winning the hearts, Militant atheism became central to the ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and a high priority policy of all Soviet leaders. Convinced atheists were considered to be politically astute and virtuous individuals. The state established atheism as the only scientific truth, Soviet authorities forbade the criticism of atheism and agnosticism until 1936 or of the states anti-religious policies, such criticism could lead to forced retirement. Soviet law never officially outlawed the holding of religious views, the persecution of religion took place officially through many legal measures designed to hamper religious activities, through a large volume of anti-religious propaganda, and through education. In practice the state sought to control religious bodies and to interfere with them. To this effect, the sought to control the activities of the leaders of the different religious communities. Religious believers always found themselves subject to propaganda and legislation that restricted religious practice. They frequently suffered restrictions within Soviet society, rarely, however, did the Soviet state officially ever subject them to arrest, imprisonment or death simply for holding beliefs. Instead, the methods of persecution represented a reaction to the perception of their resistance to the broader campaign against religion. The tactics varied over the years and became more moderate or more harsh at different times, among common tactics included confiscating church property, ridiculing religion, harassing believers, and propagating atheism in the schools. Actions toward particular religions, however, were determined by State interests, some actions against Orthodox priests and believers along with execution included torture, being sent to prison camps, labour camps or mental hospitals. Many Orthodox were also subjected to punishment or torture and mind control experimentation in order to force them to give up their religious convictions. During the first five years of Soviet power, the Bolsheviks executed 28 Russian Orthodox bishops, many others were imprisoned or exiled. In the Soviet Union, in addition to the closing and destruction of churches

22.
Ratlines (World War II aftermath)
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Ratlines were a system of escape routes for Nazis and other fascists fleeing Europe at the end of World War II. These escape routes mainly led toward havens in Latin America, particularly Argentina, Paraguay, Colombia, Brazil, Uruguay, Mexico, Guatemala, Chile, Ecuador and Bolivia, other destinations included Australia, Canada, and the Middle East. There were two routes, the first went from Germany to Spain, then Argentina, the second from Germany to Rome to Genoa. The two routes developed independently but eventually came together to collaborate, the origins of the first ratlines are connected to various developments in Vatican-Argentine relations before and during World War II. According to historian Michael Phayer, this was the innocent origin of what would become the Vatican ratline, Spain, not Rome, was the first center of ratline activity that facilitated the escape of Nazi fascists, although the exodus itself was planned within the Vatican. Charles Lescat, a French member of Action Française, and Pierre Daye, Lescat and Daye were the first to flee Europe with the help of Argentine cardinal Antonio Caggiano. By 1946, there were hundreds of war criminals in Spain, according to US Secretary of State James F. Byrnes, Vatican cooperation in turning over these asylum-seekers was negligible. According to Phayer, Pius XII preferred to see fascist war criminals on board ships sailing to the New World rather than seeing them rotting in POW camps in zonal Germany. After the end of the war in Italy, Hudal became active in ministering to German-speaking prisoners of war, in December 1944 the Vatican Secretariat of State received permission to appoint a representative to visit the German-speaking civil internees in Italy, a job assigned to Hudal. Some of these men were being held in internment camps, generally without identity papers. Other Nazis hid in Italy, and sought Hudal out as his role in assisting escapes became known on the Nazi grapevine. In his memoirs Hudal said of his actions I thank God that He to visit and comfort many victims in their prisons and concentration camps and to help them escape with false identity papers. He explained that in his eyes, The Allies War against Germany was not a crusade, used catchwords like democracy, race, religious liberty and Christianity as a bait for the masses. All these experiences were the reason why I felt duty bound after 1945 to devote my whole charitable work mainly to former National Socialists and Fascists, especially to so-called war criminals. According to Mark Aarons and John Loftus in their book Unholy Trinity and these Vatican papers were not full passports, and not in themselves enough to gain passage overseas. In theory the ICRC would perform background checks on passport applicants, serenys sources also revealed an active illicit trade in stolen and forged ICRC papers in Rome at this time. According to declassified US intelligence reports, Hudal was not the only priest helping Nazi escapees at this time. Gallov, who ran a Vatican-sponsored charity for Hungarian refugees, asked no questions and wrote a letter to his contact in the International Red Cross

23.
Jewish Ledger
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The Jewish Ledger is Connecticuts only weekly Jewish newspaper. The Hartford newspaper also has a monthly edition serving the western Massachusetts area and it was founded in April 1929 by Samuel Neusner and Rabbi Abraham Feldman. Berthold Gaster, whose father had survived the Dachau and Buchenwald concentration camps, lee Neusner was publisher from 1960 to 1966, when she sold it to Gaster and Shirley Bunis. In 1992, the paper was sold to NRG Connecticut Limited Partnership, as of 2015, the editor was Judie Jacobson. Jonathan S. Tobin, currently of The Jewish Exponent of Philadelphia, is an editor of the Jewish Ledger. Jewish Ledger website American Jewish Press Association Member Profile The Connecticut Jewish Ledger Obituary Database Jewish Ledger Facebook page

24.
Hartford, Connecticut
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Hartford is the capital of the U. S. state of Connecticut. It was the seat of Hartford County until Connecticut disbanded county government in 1960, as of the 2010 Census, Hartfords population was 124,775, making it Connecticuts third-largest city after the coastal cities of Bridgeport and New Haven. Census Bureau estimates since then have indicated Hartfords subsequent fall to fourth place statewide as a result of sustained growth in the coastal city of Stamford. Nicknamed the Insurance Capital of the World, Hartford houses many insurance company headquarters, founded in 1635, Hartford is among the oldest cities in the United States. In 1868, resident Mark Twain wrote, Of all the towns it has been my fortune to see this is the chief. Following the American Civil War, Hartford was the richest city in the United States for several decades, today, Hartford is one of the poorest cities in the nation with 3 out of every 10 families living below the poverty line. In sharp contrast, the Hartford metropolitan area is ranked 32nd of 318 metropolitan areas in total economic production, various tribes, all part of the loose Algonquin confederation, lived in or around present-day Hartford. The area was referred to as Suckiaug, meaning Black Fertile River-Enhanced Earth, the first Europeans known to have explored the area were the Dutch, under Adriaen Block, who sailed up the Connecticut in 1614. Dutch fur traders from New Amsterdam returned in 1623 with a mission to establish a trading post, the original site was located on the south bank of the Park River in the present-day Sheldon/Charter Oak neighborhood. This fort was called Fort Hoop, or the House of Hope, in 1633, Jacob Van Curler formally bought the land around Fort Hoop from the Pequot chief for a small sum. It was home to perhaps a couple families and a few dozen soldiers, the area today is known as Dutch Point, and the name of the Dutch fort, House of Hope, is reflected in the name of Huyshope Avenue. The fort was abandoned by 1654, but its neighborhood in Hartford is still known as Dutch Point, the Dutch outpost, and the tiny contingent of Dutch soldiers that were stationed there, did little to check the English migration. The Dutch soon realized they were vastly outnumbered, the House of Hope remained an outpost, but it was steadily swallowed up by waves of English settlers. The English began to arrive 1637, settling upstream from Fort Hoop near the present-day Downtown, the settlement was originally called Newtown, but was changed to Hartford in 1637 in honor of Stones hometown of Hertford, England. Hooker also created the town of Windsor. The etymology of Hartford is the ford where harts cross, the Seal of the City of Hartford features a male deer, which in full maturity was referred to by the medieval hunting term hart. The fledgling colony along the Connecticut River had issues with the authority by which it was to be governed because it was outside of the jurisdiction of the Massachusetts Bay Colonys charter. Historians suggest that Hookers conception of self-rule embodied in the Fundamental Orders went on to inspire the Connecticut Constitution, today, one of Connecticuts nicknames is the Constitution State

25.
News Weekly
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News Weekly is an Australian current affairs magazine, published by the National Civic Council, with its main headquarters in Balwyn, Victoria. It also has offices in Queensland, New South Wales, Western Australia, News Weekly was founded by B. A. Santamaria and first published in September 1943, under the name Freedom, it later changed its name to Australias national news-weekly. It changed its name to its current name in 1946–47, according to the Kempsey Library listing, News Weekly provides analysis of current cultural, social, political, educational, and economic trends in Australia, focusing on ethics. In 1955, it had a circulation of 30,000 copies, the magazines current editor is Peter Kelleher. Associated groups include the Thomas More Centre and the Australian Family Association

26.
National Review
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National Review is an American semi-monthly magazine focusing on news and commentary pieces on political, social, and cultural affairs. The magazine was founded by the author William F. Buckley Jr. in 1955 and it is currently edited by Rich Lowry. The online version, National Review Online, is edited by Charles C. W. Cooke and includes free content and they also wanted to marginalize what they saw as the antiwar, noninterventionistic views of the Old Right. In 1953 moderate Republican Dwight D. Louis Globe-Democrat, a few small-circulation conservative magazines, such as Human Events and The Freeman, preceded National Review in developing Cold War Conservatism in the 1950s. In 1953, Russell Kirk published The Conservative Mind, which sought to trace an intellectual bloodline from Edmund Burke to the Old Right in the early 1950s and this challenged the popular notion that no coherent conservative tradition existed in the United States. A young William F. Buckley Jr. was greatly influenced by Kirks concepts, Buckley, from a wealthy oil family, first tried to purchase Human Events, but was turned down. The statement of intentions read, Middle-of-the-Road, qua Middle of the Road, is politically, intellectually and we shall recommend policies for the simple reason that we consider them right, and we consider them right because they are based on principles we deem right. On November 19,1955, Buckley’s magazine began to take shape, Buckley assembled an eclectic group of writers, traditionalists, Catholic intellectuals, libertarians and ex-Communists. The group included, Russell Kirk, James Burnham, Frank Meyer, the former Time editor Whittaker Chambers, who had been a Communist spy in the 1930s, eventually became a senior editor. In the magazine’s founding statement Buckley wrote, Let’s Face it, Unlike Vienna, it seems possible that did National Review not exist. When James Burnham became one of the senior editors, he urged the adoption of a more pragmatic editorial position that would extend the influence of the magazine toward the political center. For it is the fact that nowadays there are no conservative or reactionary ideas in general circulation. The conservative impulse and the reactionary impulse do not, express themselves in ideas but only. In irritable mental gestures which seek to resemble ideas, there never was an age of conformity quite like this one, or a camaraderie quite like the Liberals’. National Review promoted Barry Goldwater heavily during the early 1960s, Buckley and others involved with the magazine took a major role in the Draft Goldwater movement in 1960 and the 1964 presidential campaign. National Review spread his vision of conservatism throughout the country, the early National Review faced occasional defections from both left and right. Garry Wills broke with N. R. and became a liberal commentator, Buckley’s brother-in-law, L. Brent Bozell Jr. who ghostwrote The Conscience of a Conservative for Barry Goldwater, left and started the short-lived traditionalist Catholic magazine, Triumph in 1966. Buckley and his editors used his magazine to define the boundaries of conservatism—and to exclude people or ideas or groups they considered unworthy of the conservative title, therefore, they attacked the John Birch Society, George Wallace, and anti-Semites

27.
The Australian
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The Australian is a broadsheet newspaper published in Australia from Monday to Saturday each week since 14 July 1964. The editor in chief is Paul Whittaker, the editor is John Lehmann and its chief rivals are the business-focused Australian Financial Review, and on weekends, The Saturday Paper. In May 2010, the newspaper launched the first Australian newspaper iPad app, the Australian is owned by News Corp Australia. News Corps Chairman and Founder is Rupert Murdoch, the Australian integrates content from overseas newspapers owned by News Corp Australias parent, News Corp, including The Wall Street Journal and The Times of London. Unlike other Murdoch newspapers, it was neither a tabloid nor an acquired publication, from its inception The Australian struggled for financial viability and ran at a loss for several decades. The Australians first editor was Maxwell Newton, though he would leave the paper within a year and was succeeded by Walter Kommer, during the 1975 election, campaigning against the Whitlam government by its owner led to the papers journalists striking over editorial direction. Editor-in-chief Chris Mitchell was appointed in 2002 and retired on 11 December 2015, Daily sections include National News followed by Worldwide News, Sport and Business News. Contained within each issue is a prominent op/ed section, including regular columnists, other regular sections include Technology, Media, Features, Legal Affairs, Aviation, Defence, Horse-Racing, The Arts, Health, Wealth and Higher Education. A Travel & Indulgence section is included on Saturdays, along with The Inquirer, Saturday lift-outs include Review, focusing on books, arts, film and television, and The Weekend Australian Magazine, the only national weekly glossy insert magazine. A glossy magazine, Wish, is published on the first Friday of the month, the Australian has long maintained a focus on issues relating to Aboriginal disadvantage. It also devotes attention to the technology, Defence and mining industries, as well as the science, economics. It has also published special reports into Australian energy policy. The Australian Literary Review was a supplement from September 2006 October 2011. The Australian has often criticised for being biased against recent Labor governments. In recent years, the paper was scathing of Labors decision to introduce a tax and other carbon emission reduction measures, using reporting. On the newspapers website, there was a section named Stimulus Watch, subtitled How your Billions Are Being Spent, along with the governments insulation stimulus policy, it contributed to perceptions of incompetence and general dissatisfaction with the governments performance. In 2011, Glenn Milne reported on the allegations against Prime Minister Julia Gillard concerning the AWU affair including a claim regarding Gillards living arrangements with Wilson. Gillard contacted the chief executive of The Australian, resulting in the story being removed, however, the story was ignored for a long time by other media outlets

28.
Surry Hills, New South Wales
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Surry Hills is an inner city, eastern suburb of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Surry Hills is immediately south-east of the Sydney central business district in the government area of the City of Sydney. Surry Hills is surrounded by the suburbs of Darlinghurst to the north, Chippendale and Haymarket to the west, Moore Park and Paddington to the east and Redfern to the south. It is bordered by Elizabeth Street and Chalmers Street to the west, Cleveland Street to the south, South Dowling Street to the east, Central is a locality in the north-west of the suburb around Central Station. Prince Alfred Park is located nearby, Strawberry Hills is a locality around Cleveland and Elizabeth Streets and Brickfield Hill to the east of that. The first land grants in Surry Hills were made in the 1790s, major Joseph Foveaux received 105 acres. His property was known as Surry Hills Farm, after the Surrey Hills in Surrey, Foveaux Street is named in his honour. Commissary John Palmer received 90 acres and he called the property George Farm and in 1800 Palmer also bought Foveauxs farm. In 1792, the boundaries of the Sydney Cove settlement were established between the head of Cockle Bay to the head of Woolloomooloo Bay, West of the boundary, which included present-day Surry Hills, was considered suitable for farming and was granted to military officers and free settlers. After Palmers political failures, his financial circumstances forced the first subdivision. Isaac Nichols bought Allotment 20, comprising over 6 acres, due to the hilly terrain, much of the suburb was considered remote and inhospitable. In the early years of the century the area around what is now Prince Alfred Park was undeveloped land known as the Government Paddocks or Cleveland Paddocks. A few villas were built in the suburb in the late 1820s, the suburb remained one of contrasts for much of the nineteenth century, with the homes of wealthy merchants mixed with that of the commercial and working classes. In 1820, Governor Macquarie ordered the consecration of the Devonshire Street Cemetery, a brick wall was erected before any interments took place to enclose its 4 acres. Within a four-year period the cemetery was expanded by the addition of 7 acres to its south, a road was formed along the southern boundary of the cemetery in the first half of the 1830s and was called Devonshire Street. The Devonshire Street Cemetery, where many of the settlers were buried, was later moved to build the Sydney railway terminus. Central railway station was opened on 4 August 1906, the area around Cleveland and Elizabeth streets was known as Strawberry Hills. Strawberry Hills post office was located at this intersection for many years, in 1833, the Nichols estate was subdivided and sold

29.
Forbes
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Forbes is an American business magazine. Published bi-weekly, it features articles on finance, industry, investing. Forbes also reports on related subjects such as technology, communications, science, politics and its headquarters is located in Jersey City, New Jersey. Primary competitors in the business magazine category include Fortune and Bloomberg Businessweek. The magazine is known for its lists and rankings, including its lists of the richest Americans. Another well-known list by the magazine is The Worlds Billionaires list, the motto of Forbes magazine is The Capitalist Tool. Its chairman and editor-in-chief is Steve Forbes, and its CEO is Mike Perlis, Forbes, a financial columnist for the Hearst papers, and his partner Walter Drey, the general manager of the Magazine of Wall Street, founded Forbes magazine on September 15,1917. Forbes provided the money and the name and Drey provided the publishing expertise, the original name of the magazine was Forbes, Devoted to Doers and Doings. Drey became vice-president of the B. C. Forbes Publishing Company, while B. C. Forbes became editor-in-chief, B. C. Forbes was assisted in his later years by his two eldest sons, Bruce Charles Forbes and Malcolm Stevenson Forbes. Bruce Forbes took over on his fathers death, and his strengths lay in streamlining operations, during his tenure, 1954–1964, the magazines circulation nearly doubled. On Malcolms death, his eldest son Malcolm Stevenson Steve Forbes Jr. became President and Chief Executive of Forbes, between 1961 and 1999 the magazine was edited by James Michaels. In 1993, under Michaels, Forbes was a finalist for the National Magazine Award. com, a 2009 New York Times report said,40 percent of the enterprise was sold. For a reported $300 million, setting the value of the enterprise at $750 million, according to Mark M. Edmiston of AdMedia Partners, Its probably not worth half of that now. The companys headquarters moved to the Newport section of downtown Jersey City. In November 2013, Forbes Media, which publishes Forbes magazine, was put up for sale and this was encouraged by Elevation Partners, of whom were minority shareholders. Sales documents prepared by Deutsche Bank revealed that the publishers 2012 EBITDA was $15 million, Forbes reportedly sought a price of $400 million. In July 2014, Forbes sold a majority of itself to Integrated Whale Media Investments, Steve Forbes and his magazines writers offer investment advice on the weekly Fox TV show Forbes on Fox and on Forbes On Radio. Other company groups include Forbes Conference Group, Forbes Investment Advisory Group, from the 2009 Times report, Steve Forbes recently returned from opening up a Forbes magazine in India, bringing the number of foreign editions to 10

30.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

31.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci

32.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states

33.
ANZUS
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It provides that an armed attack on any of the three parties would be dangerous to the others, and that each should act to meet the common threat. It set up a committee of ministers that can meet for consultation. The treaty was one of the series that the United States formed in the 1949–55 era as part of its response to the threat of communism during the Cold War. e. The treaty has lapsed between the United States and New Zealand, although it remains separately in force between both of those states and Australia, while ANZUS is commonly recognised to have split in 1984, the Australia–US alliance remains in full force. There are also regular civilian and military consultations between the two governments at lower levels, the AUSMIN meeting for 2011 took place in San Francisco in September. The 2012 AUSMIN meeting was in Perth, Western Australia in November, unlike the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, ANZUS has no integrated defence structure or dedicated forces. Nevertheless, Australia and the United States conduct a variety of joint activities, during the 2010s, New Zealand and the US resumed a close relationship, although it is unclear whether the revived partnership falls under the aegis of the 1951 trilateral treaty. The US prohibition on New Zealand ships making port at US bases was lifted after the 2012 exercise, in 1951, the United States was eager to normalise relations with Japan, particularly as the Korean War was raging a short distance from Japan. With the involvement of China and possibly the Soviet Union in Korea, however, the governments of Australia and New Zealand were extremely reluctant to finalise a peace treaty with Japan that would allow for Japanese rearmament. Both countries relented only when an Australian and New Zealand proposal for a security treaty was accepted by the United States. The resulting treaty was concluded at San Francisco on 1 September 1951, the treaty bound the signatories to recognise that an armed attack in the Pacific area on any of them would endanger the peace and safety of the others. It stated The Parties will consult together whenever in the opinion of any of them the territorial integrity, the three nations also pledged to maintain and develop individual and collective capabilities to resist attack. As part of the United Nations deployment, New Zealand and Australia had earlier fought alongside the United States in the Korean War and these troops were however officially engaged in reconstruction under UN Security Council Resolution 1483 and were non-combatant. In 1983, the Reagan Administration approached Australia with proposals for testing the new generation of American intercontinental ballistic missiles, American test ranges in the Pacific were insufficient for testing the new long-range missiles and the United States military wished to use the Tasman Sea as a target area. Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser of the Liberal Party had agreed to provide monitoring sites near Sydney for this purpose. However, in 1985, the newly elected Prime Minister Bob Hawke, of the Labor Party, withdrew Australia from the testing programme, sparking criticism from the Reagan Administration. Hawke had been pressured into doing so by the faction of the Labor Party. The Labor left-wing faction also strongly sympathized with the New Zealand Fourth Labour Governments anti-nuclear policy, despite these disagreements, the Hawke Labor Government still remained supportive of the ANZUS security treaty

34.
NATO
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved

35.
Non-Aligned Movement
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The Non-Aligned Movement is a group of states that are not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. As of 2012, the movement has 120 members, all five leaders were prominent advocates of a middle course for states in the developing world between the Western and Eastern Blocs during the Cold War. The phrase itself was first used to represent the doctrine by Indian diplomat V. K. Krishna Menon in 1953, the countries of the Non-Aligned Movement represent nearly two-thirds of the United Nations members and contain 55% of the world population. Membership is particularly concentrated in countries considered to be developing or part of the Third World, members have at times included the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Argentina, Zaire, Cyprus, and Malta. Although many of the Non-Aligned Movements members were quite closely aligned with one or another of the superpowers. Some members were involved in conflicts with other members. The movement fractured from its own internal contradictions when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979, although the Soviet allies supported the invasion, other members of the movement condemned it. Because the Non-Aligned Movement was formed as an attempt to thwart the Cold War, the successor states of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia have expressed little interest in membership, though Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina have observer status. In 2004, Malta and Cyprus ceased to be members and joined the European Union, belarus is the only member of the Movement in Europe. Azerbaijan and Fiji are the most recent entrants, joining in 2011, the applications of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Costa Rica were rejected in 1995 and 1998, respectively. The 16th NAM summit took place in Tehran, Iran, from 26 to 31 August 2012, according to Mehr News Agency, representatives from over 150 countries were scheduled to attend. Attendance at the highest level includes 27 presidents,2 kings, at the summit, Iran took over from Egypt as Chair of the Non-Aligned Movement for the period 2012 to 2015. The founding fathers of the Non-Aligned Movement were, Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Sukarno of Indonesia, Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, Gamal Abdul Nasser of Egypt and their actions were known as The Initiative of Five. The term non-alignment was established in 1953 at the United Nations, Nehru used the phrase in a 1954 speech in Colombo, Sri Lanka. In this speech, Nehru described the five pillars to be used as a guide for Sino-Indian relations called Panchsheel, the five principles were, Mutual respect for each others territorial integrity and sovereignty. The term non-aligned movement appears first in the conference in 1976. At the Lusaka Conference in September 1970, the member nations added as aims of the movement the peaceful resolution of disputes, another added aim was opposition to stationing of military bases in foreign countries. The movement stems from a not to be aligned within a geopolitical/military structure and therefore itself does not have a very strict organizational structure

36.
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
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The formal institution of SEATO was established on 19 February 1955 at a meeting of treaty partners in Bangkok, Thailand The organizations headquarters were also in Bangkok. SEATO was dissolved on 30 June 1977 after many members lost interest and these treaties and agreements were intended to create alliances that would contain communist powers. This policy was considered to have largely developed by American diplomat. The organization, headquartered in Bangkok, was created in 1955 at the first meeting of the Council of Ministers set up by the treaty, also present were committees for economics, security, and information. Unlike the NATO alliance, SEATO had no joint commands with standing forces. S. military intervention in the region during the Vietnam War, despite its name, SEATO mostly included countries located outside of the region but with an interest either in the region or the organization itself. They were Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, the United Kingdom, the Philippines and Thailand were the only Southeast Asian countries that actually participated in the organization. Both shared close ties with the United States, particularly the Philippines, Thailand became a member upon the discovery of the newly founded Thai Autonomous Region in Yunnan - apparently feeling threatened by potential Chinese communist subversion on its land. Other regional countries like Burma and Indonesia were far more minded with domestic internal stability rather than concern of communist threat, malaya also chose to not participate formally, though it was kept updated with key developments due to its close relationship with the United Kingdom. S. Cambodia, however rejected the protection in 1956, the majority of SEATO members were not located in Southeast Asia. To Australia and New Zealand, SEATO was seen as a more satisfying organization than ANZUS – a collective defense organization with the U. S. Great Britain and France joined partly due to having long maintained colonies in the region, Pakistan, however, was simply interested in joining over the appeal of potential support for its long struggle against India. Last but not least, the U. S. upon perceiving Southeast Asia to be a frontier for Cold War geopolitics saw the establishment of SEATO as essential to its Cold War containment policy. All in all, the membership reflected a mid-1950s combination of anti-communist Western nations, the United Kingdom, France and the United States, the latter of which joined after the U. S. Senate ratified the treaty by an 82–1 vote, represented the strongest Western powers. Canada also considered joining, but decided against it in order to concentrate on its NATO responsibilities, secretaries-General of SEATO, After its creation, SEATO quickly became insignificant militarily, as most of its member nations contributed very little to the alliance. While SEATO military forces held joint military training, they were never employed because of internal disagreements, SEATO was unable to intervene in conflicts in Laos because France and Britain rejected use of military action. As a result, the U. S. provided unilateral support for Laos after 1962, though sought by the U. S. involvement of SEATO in the Vietnam War was denied because of lack of British and French cooperation. Both the United States and Australia cited the alliance as justification for involvement in Vietnam, American membership in SEATO provided the United States with a rationale for a large-scale U. S. military intervention in Southeast Asia. Other countries, such as Great Britain and key nations in Asia, in 1962, as part of its commitment to SEATO, the Royal Australian Air Force deployed CAC Sabres of its No.79 Squadron to Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand

37.
Warsaw Pact
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The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, the regional economic organization for the communist states of Central and Eastern Europe. While the Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to NATO, instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis and in proxy wars. Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and its largest military engagement was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968, which, in part, resulted in Albania withdrawing from the pact less than a month later. The Pact began to unravel in its entirety with the spread of the Revolutions of 1989 through the Eastern Bloc, beginning with the Solidarity movement in Poland, East Germany and Poland withdrew from the Pact in 1990. On 25 February 1991, the Pact was declared at an end at a meeting of defence, the USSR itself was dissolved in December 1991, although most of the former Soviet republics formed the Collective Security Treaty Organization shortly thereafter. Throughout the following 20 years, the seven Warsaw Pact countries outside the USSR each joined NATO, in the Western Bloc, the Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance is often called the Warsaw Pact military alliance—abbreviated WAPA, Warpac, and WP. Therefore, although ostensibly an international collective security alliance, the USSR dominated the Warsaw Treaty armed forces, the strategy behind the formation of the Warsaw Pact was driven by the desire of the Soviet Union to dominate Central and Eastern Europe. The Soviets wanted to keep their part of Europe theirs and not let the Americans take it from them and this policy was driven by ideological and geostrategic reasons. Ideologically, the Soviet Union arrogated the right to define socialism and communism, geostrategic principles also drove the Soviet Union to prevent invasion of its territory by Western European powers. Before the creation of the Warsaw Pact, Czechoslovak leadership, fearful of a rearmed Germany, sought to create a security pact with East Germany and these states protested strongly against the re-militarization of West Germany. The Warsaw Pact was primarily put in place as a consequence of the rearming of West Germany inside NATO, Soviet leaders, like many European countries on both sides of the Iron Curtain, feared Germany being once again a military power and a direct threat. The terrible consequences of German militarism remained a fresh memory among the Soviets, previously, in March 1954, the USSR, fearing the restoration of German militarism in West Germany, requested admission to NATO. The Soviet request to join NATO arose in the aftermath of the Berlin Conference of January–February 1954. James Dunn, who met in Paris with Eden, Adenauer and Robert Schuman, affirmed that the object should be to avoid discussion with the Russians, according to John Gaddis there was little inclination in Western capitals to explore this offer from USSR. But Eden, Dulles and Bidault opposed the proposal, the Soviets then decided to make a new proposal to the governments of the USA, UK and France to accept the participation of the USA in the proposed General European Agreement. Again all proposals, including the request to join NATO, were rejected by the UK, US, emblematic was the position of British General Hastings Ismay, supporter of NATO expansion, who said that NATO must grow until the whole free world gets under one umbrella. He opposed the request to join NATO made by the USSR in 1954 saying that the Soviet request to join NATO is like an unrepentant burglar requesting to join the police force, in April 1954 Adenauer made his first visit to the USA meeting Nixon, Eisenhower and Dulles. Ratification of EDC was delaying but the US representatives made it clear to Adenauer that EDC would have to become a part of NATO, memories of the Nazi occupation were still strong, and the rearmament of Germany was feared by France too

38.
Cold War II
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Cold War II, also called the New Cold War, Second Cold War and Cold War 2. This is akin to the original Cold War that saw a confrontation between the Western Bloc led by the United States and the Eastern Bloc led by the Soviet Union. American political scientist Robert Legvold posits that the ″new Cold War began the moment we went over the cliff, kuchins in 2016, believe that the term is ″unsuited to the present conflict, ″ but the situation is arguably more dangerous than during the original Cold War. Past sources, such as academics Fred Halliday and David S. Painter used the terms to refer to the 1979–1985. Michael Klare, a RealClearPolitics writer and an academic, in June 2013 compared tensions between Russia and the West to the ongoing conflict between Saudi Arabia and Iran. The term Cold War II has therefore been described as a misnomer, tensions escalated in 2014 after Russias annexation of Crimea, and military intervention in Ukraine. Some observers − including Syrian President Bashar al-Assad − judged the Syrian Civil War to be a war between Russia and the US, and even a proto-world war. In January 2016, senior UK government officials were reported to have registered their growing fears that a new war was now unfolding in Europe. Right across the EU we are seeing alarming evidence of Russian efforts to unpick the fabric of European unity on a range of vital strategic issues. ”In an interview with TIME in December 2014. In April 2015, CNN reported that hackers had penetrated sensitive parts of the White House computers in recent months. It was said that the FBI, the Secret Service, and other U. S. intelligence agencies categorized the attacks among the most sophisticated attacks ever launched against U. S. government systems. ”Similarly, Igor Zevelev, CNN opined, Its not a new Cold War. Its not even a deep chill, meanwhile, the United States government accused the Russian government of interfering in the 2016 United States elections. The US intelligence community stated that Putin and the Russian Government developed a preference for President-elect Trump. Their assessment was made with high confidence, Russia said it had no involvement. Wikileaks founder Julian Assange said that Russia was not involved in the leaks, director of National Intelligence James R. President Barack Obama used the red line to directly contact Vladimir Putin. On December 29,2016, the U. S, in January 2017, a former government adviser Molly K. McKew said at Politico that the US would win the new Cold War if the War happens. Heer also criticized McKew for supporting the possibility, josh Keefe of International Business Times wrote that an increasing military presence in Eastern Europe led multiple US and Russian experts to fret about a new Cold War

39.
Morgenthau Plan
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The Morgenthau Plan, first proposed by United States Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau, Jr. This included the removal or destruction of all plants and equipment in the Ruhr. In 1947, JCS1067 was replaced by JCS1779, which aimed at restoring a stable, the text, and a facsimile image, can be viewed online. Roosevelt, respectively, reached agreement on a number of matters, including a plan for Germany, the memorandum drafted by Churchill provided for eliminating the warmaking industries in the Ruhr and the Saar. Looking forward to converting Germany into a primarily agricultural and pastoral in its character. However, it no longer included a plan to partition the country into several independent states and this memorandum is also referred to as the Morgenthau plan. A better policy would have the Germans fed three times a day with soup from Army soup kitchens so they remember that experience the rest of their lives. Morgenthau was the only Cabinet member invited to participate in the Quebec Conference during which the Plan was agreed to. Roosevelts motivations for agreeing to Morgenthaus proposal may be attributed to his desire to be on terms with Joseph Stalin. Most decidedly I belong to the school, for though I am not bloodthirsty. Secretary of State Hull was outraged by Morgenthaus inconceivable intrusion into foreign policy, Hull told Roosevelt that the plan would inspire last-ditch resistance and cost thousands of American lives. Hull was so upset over the plan that he suffered from insomnia and he later resigned for health reasons, though there were anecdotal reports that his resignation was brought about by the Morgenthau business. Churchill was not inclined to support the proposal, saying England would be chained to a dead body, Roosevelt reminded Churchill of Stalins comments at the Tehran Conference, and asked Are you going to let Germany produce modern metal furniture. The manufacture of furniture can be quickly turned in the manufacture of armament. The meeting broke up on Churchills disagreement but Roosevelt suggested that Morgenthau and White continue to discuss with Lord Cherwell, Lord Cherwell has been described as having an almost pathological hatred for Nazi Germany, and an almost medieval desire for revenge was a part of his character. Morgenthau is quoted as saying to his staff that I cant overemphasize how helpful Lord Cherwell was because he could advise how to handle Churchill, in any case, Cherwell was able to persuade Churchill to change his mind. Churchill later said that At first I was violently opposed to the idea, but the President and Mr. Morgenthau — from whom we had much to ask — were so insistent that in the end we agreed to consider it. Hulls comment on this was that this might suggest to some the quid pro quo with which the Secretary of the Treasury was able to get Mr. Churchills adherence to his plan for Germany

Hans Filbinger (centre) had to resign in 1978 as Minister-President of Baden-Württemberg after it became public via Hochhuth's novel A Love in Germany that he was responsible for death sentences as a Navy judge at the end of World War II

Rolf Hochhuth after a reading of his book McKinsey is Coming in Duisburg, 2005.

The Dekemvriana (Greek: Δεκεμβριανά, "December events") refers to a series of clashes fought during World War II in …

Image: 5th Scottish Parachute Battalion Athens 1944

18 October 1944; the crowd celebrates the Liberation and the coming of Papandreou Government.

Unarmed protesters of EAM lying dead or wounded on 3 December 1944 in front of the Greek Parliament, while others are running for their lives; moments after the first shootings that left at least 28 dead and signalled the beginning of the "Dekemvriana" events.

Pamphlet calling workers from different neighbours of Athens to fight against the Greek Government and its British support (17 December)