25 Soft tissue vibrations within one soft tissue compartment Katherine ASoft tissue vibrations within one soft tissue compartment Katherine A. Boyer and Benno M. NiggThe concept of muscle tuning suggests that vibrations of the soft tissue compartments of the leg initiated by impacts are minimized by muscular activity prior to heel-strike of heel–toe running.It also provides initial evidence to support the idea that vibration control through muscle tuning may be achieved through changes in energy dissipating properties within the soft tissue compartment.

26 Sports shoes: the shocking truth 5 November 2001Sports shoes are not designed to help the average punter and may do more harm than good, says an Australian podiatrist. Speaking at the Australian Conference of Science and Medicine in Sport last week, Simon Bartold from the University of South Australia said it was a myth that shoes with softer midsoles provide better cushioning. "To a large degree shoe design doesn't make a lot of difference", said Mr Bartold, a research fellow within the School of Health Sciences.

27 "The perfect model we should be working on already exists — the foot"The perfect model we should be working on already exists — the foot. In fact, shoes with harder midsoles are preferable", he said. The midsole is the part inside the shoe under the foot. Anything placed between the foot and the surface it is hitting interferes with normal proprioreceptive feedback, the conversation going from the foot to the brain, Mr Bartold explained. "So you completely alter the way in which you run, the efficiency and the function with which you run.

29 The research now is looking at enhancing the foot rather than trying to control it or contain it." This is not new research. The information that harder midsoles attenuate shock better than soft soles has been public since "We've known about it for a long, long time," said Mr Bartold. The problem, he says, is that many sports shoe manufacturers have spent considerable amounts of money marketing certain products and are unwilling to change their marketing focus. "What you are dealing with is a very unusual crossover between hard-core science and a commercial product, and it's an unholy marriage

30 ." Biomechanics, the science behind sports shoe manufacture, is a very active area of research both inside and outside manufacturers' laboratories. "So there is a lot of lie detection going on," Mr Bartold said. But don't give up on sports shoes yet. "There is a widespread acknowledgement now that things have to change," said Mr Bartold, who in addition to his work at the university, advises a sports shoe company. Research that was done on shoes for an athlete for the Olympic Games last year showed he could increase his time by between 0.5 per cent and 3 per cent. "If you can change it by that margin with an athlete of that calibre, you can guarantee a gold medal," said Mr Bartold.

33 And while footwear as an ergonomic aid is not necessary for the average weekend jogger, the wrong shoe, regardless of cost, can potentially cause injury. "Eventually these ideas get down to the level that is used by Joe Average." In the future, Mr Bartold believes we will see radically different running shoes on shop shelves, with considerably less bulk and flexibility where the foot flexes. "I think we need to recognise that the foot is a terrific piece of engineering."

34 For the first time, active outdoor athletes were able to experience the freedom and joy of going barefoot with the protection and sure-footed grip of a Vibram sole. Their response exceeded our wildest expectations.Some customers told us they felt more connected to the earth and more in tune with their bodies. Others discovered an increased sense of balance and greater agility. And many reported health benefits like improved posture and less back pain. All were generous with their praise and their ideas, often suggesting new and creative uses for FiveFingers.

35 THE SCIENCE OF MOTION Newton Running shoes were designed by runners for runners to mimic the advantages of barefoot running. Whether training or racing, Newton Active Membrane Technology™ provides greater shock absorption, greater energy return while promoting the natural and more efficient forefoot strike of barefoot running.

36 Joseph Froncioni, orthopedic surgeon August 22, 2006 ATHLETIC FOOTWEAR AND RUNNING INJURIESDuring barefoot running, the ball of the foot strikes the ground first and immediately starts sending signals to the spinal cord and brain about the magnitude of impact and shear, getting most of its clues about this from the skin contact with the surface irregularities of the ground. Take away this contact by adding a cushioned substance and you immediately fool the system into underestimating the impact. Add a raised heel and the shod runner is forced to land on it. Strap the cushioning on tightly with the aid of a sophisticated lacing system and you block out shear as well, throwing the shock-absorption system even further into the dark.

37 The system responds by landing harder in an attempt to compress the cushion and 'feel' the ground. The weight is then transferred to the outside edge of the foot, completely by-passing the skin of the arch. The heel then touches down and the weight is transferred to the ball again with final push-off through the toes. While the weight is being transferred, the arch carries out its function as the suspension system of the foot and flattens under the active control of the intrinsic muscles. The ankle, knee and hip joints flex to absorb impact in response to information flowing in from the foot.

39 The cushioned midsole of the modern running shoe robs the system of important sensory information necessary for ankle, knee and hip response to impact. The arch support (or orthotic) in modern running shoes not only prevents the arch suspension system from absorbing energy by preventing flattening but eventually leads to intrinsic muscle atrophy and complete loss of active muscular control of the arch leaving only the inelastic plantar fascia as a checkrein to flattening. The barefoot runner's 'foot position awareness sense' which relies heavily on sensory input from the sole of the foot minimizes his risk of sustaining an ankle sprain on uneven ground.

40 the first sub-four-minuteSir Roger Bannisterwhen he ranthe first sub-four-minutemile in 1954

43 IMPACT FORCES DURING LOCOMOTION (e.g., at heel strike) Modification of soft tissue vibrations in the leg by muscular activity JAMES M. WAKELING AND BENNO M. NIGG Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4 Received 8 May 2000; accepted in final form 14 August 2000IMPACT FORCES DURING LOCOMOTION (e.g., at heel strike)should be expected to produce vibrations in the soft tissues of the body.However, observations suggest thatimpact-related vibrations are minimal in the muscularsoft tissues of the lower extremities during running.Prolonged exposure to vibrations can have detrimentaleffects on the soft tissues, including reductions in motorunit firing rates and muscle contraction force (2),decreases in nerve conduction velocity, and reducedperipheral circulation and/or attenuated sensory perception(7, 11).Thus it has been speculated that the body may use strategies to minimize soft tissue vibrations during locomotion (22).

44 The role of impact forces and foot pronation: a new paradigm.Nigg BM. Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, The University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada.The role of impact forces and foot pronation: a new paradigm.Muscle tuning might affect fatigue, comfort, work, and performance. Experimental evidence suggests that the concept of "aligning the skeleton" with shoes, inserts, and orthotics should be reconsidered. They produce only small, not systematic. and subject-specific changes of foot and leg movement. A new paradigm for movement control for the lower extremities proposes that forces acting on the foot during the stance phase act as an input signal producing a muscle reaction. The cost function used in this adaptation process is to maintain a preferred joint movement path for a given movement task. If an intervention counteracts the preferred movement path, muscle activity must be increased. An optimal shoe, insert, or orthotic reduces muscle activity. Thus, shoes, inserts, and orthotics affect general muscle activity and, therefore, fatigue, comfort, work, and performance.

45 Biomechanigg Research Inc. (BRI)is a consulting company in the area of biomechanics of movement, physical activity and mobility. Its customers include many of the world leading companies in sporting goods. The expertise available through BRI includes knowledge in product development and testing for shoes, orthotics/inserts, sport surfaces and many other products relevant for physical activity and everyday life. The president and CEO of the company is Dr. Benno M. Nigg. He has a doctorate in natural sciences (Physics) from the ETH Zurich (Switzerland). From 1976 to 1981 he was the Director of the Biomechanics Laboratory of the ETH Zurich. In 1981, he was appointed Professor of Biomechanics in the Faculties of Kinesiology, Engineering and Medicine at the University of Calgary. He founded and directs the world famous Human Performance Laboratory (HPL), which currently has more than 100 co-workers. Recently, the research activities of the HPL have been assessed by independent external reviewers as “…. the best in the world in Clinical Biomechanical Research” and “… gold standard of scientific work in this field...”. Dr. Nigg’s research and consulting activities concentrate on load of the lower extremities during human locomotion. He has developed new paradigms for impact loading and for orthotic development, stressing the importance of muscles in control and protection. He had a major influence in the development of sport shoes and many functional features have been developed in his research centre. He is author of more than 275 scientific publications and the recipient of many awards (e.g. Olympic Order, Alberta Science and Technology Award) and elected member of three Scientific Academies. Dr. Nigg has an honorary doctoral degree from the University of Salzburg (Austria).

47 Sport surfaces3MArtificial turfBalsamTrack and field Johnston sports arch.RunningMartinTrack and fieldMondoTrack and field indoorOmnisportArtificial turfPorplasticBiomechanigg Research Inc. (BRI)

48 Expensive Trainers or Cheap Running Trainers?Expensive trainers may not be better for runners than cheaper ones. Cheap and moderately priced running shoes provided as much support as those at the higher end of the market, researchers said. The research by University of Dundee was to asked participants to test three pairs of trainers from three manufacturers. The cheapest shoes (or running shoes) were priced at £40 to £45, with the moderate range costing from £60 to £65. The three most expensive trainers were priced between £70 and £75.

49 Plantar Pressure MeasurementPlantar pressure - the force produced by the impact of the sole hitting the ground running which can lead to injuries - was recorded electronically in eight areas of the sole when gymnasium users (or gyms users) were on a treadmill.Overall, the study found no major differences among the shoes in terms of cushioning shoes impact and comfort, irrespective of Brand trainers, Brand name trainers, Puma trainers, Adidas trainers, Converse trainers, Cheap designer trainers or price.And some cases the plantar pressure was lower in the cheap to moderately priced trainers.The research found that neither pressure nor comfort are related to the cost of the trainers or cheap running shoes.It appears to be the perception of the customer that if you pay more on expensive trainers you are going to get a better product. The study has showed that is not the case. Costly expensive trainers is the same as cheap running shoes.

50 adidas The Ground Control System™All cushioning systems provide shock reduction, better pressure distribution, and improved impact protection. However, it is the first time that a cushioning system addresses specifically horizontal cushioning - meaning the forces that are caused by the movement from the front to the back and to the side during a foot strike. Research has shown that conventional cushioning systems cannot separate these two forces, which means that the critical horizontal loads to the body are not addressed by a conventional midsole system.

51 adidas The Ground Control System™The fractions of a second during a normal foot strike are simply too short for a conventional cushioning system to best react to all the forces. However what about horizontal forces causing stresses on the runner's body? Eighty percent of all runners land with a force in the heel area that equals a multiple of their body weight. The horizontal forces occurring in this area are equivalent to up to 0.5 times their body weight.Independent research showed that the adidas Ground Control System™ reduces the rate of pronation by an average of 15% and the critical forces on the knees by a significant 30% on average. This is even more remarkable considering that the reduction of critical knee loads and pronation rate can prevent overuse injuries.

53 The running shoes used by Britain's Sir Roger Bannister when he ran the first sub-four-minute mile in 1954 lie on the grass at Pembroke College, Oxford, during celebrations for the 50th anniversary of the event on Thursday. Sir Roger was a 25-year-old Oxford University medical student when he recorded a time of 3:59:40 seconds for the mile on May 6, — Reuters