The most basic line of demarcation in the realm of Halacha is the one between the
permitted and the forbidden. Yet, in the realm of the permitted, we also find a further
line between the accepted and the ideal.

Within this context, it is essential that we not only ask which foods God permits but that
we also consider the diet that God prefers for us. The following arguments are submitted
in furtherance of my view that God's preference for people is vegetarianism. My hope is
that this presentation will start a respectful dialogue on this important issue.

Argument #1: People were originally vegetarian.

God's first dietary law was strictly vegetarian: "And God said: 'Behold I
have given you every herb yielding seed which is upon the face of the earth, and every
tree, in which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed - to you it shall be for food'"
(Genesis 1:29). That God's first intention was that people should be vegetarians was
stated by Jewish classical Biblical commentators, such as Rashi, Abraham Ibn Ezra,
Maimonides, and Nachmanides, and later scholars, such as Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch,
Moses Cassuto, and Nehama Leibowitz. [1] It is significant that after giving these dietary
laws, God saw everything that He had made and "behold, it was very good."
(Genesis 1:31).

Argument #2: G-d's allowance to eat meat was only a concession.

What about G-d's permission, given to Noach and his descendants, to eat meat?
According to Rabbi Abraham Isaac Hakohen Kook, first Chief Rabbi of pre-state Israel and
one of the outstanding Jewish thinkers of the twentieth century, this permission was only
a temporary concession to human weakness. He felt that God who is merciful to all of His
creatures would not institute an everlasting law which permits the killing of animals for
food. [2]

The Torah connects further the consumption of meat with uncontrolled lust (Deuteronomy
12:20), while vegetarian foods are looked on with favor:

For the Lord thy God bringeth thee into a good land, a land of brooks, of water, of
fountains and depths, springing forth in valleys and hills; a land of wheat and barley, of
vines and fig trees and pomegranates; a land of olive-trees and honey; a land wherein thou
shalt eat bread without scarceness; thou shalt not lack anything in it... And thou shalt
eat and be satisfied, and bless the Lord thy G-d for the good land which He hath given
thee. (Deuteronomy 8:7-10)

Rabbi Kook furthermore believed that the many laws and restrictions related to the
preparation and consumption of meat (the laws of kashrut) supported this outlook. To Rabbi
Kook, these regulations implied a reprimand and served as an elaborate apparatus designed
to keep alive a sense of reverence for life, with the aim of eventually leading people
away from their meat-eating habit. This idea is echoed by Torah commentator Solomon
Refrain Lunchitz, author of K'lee Yakar:

What was the necessity for the entire procedure of ritual slaughter? For the sake
of self discipline. It is far more appropriate for man not to eat meat; only if he has a
strong desire for meat does the Torah permit it, and even this only after the trouble and
inconvenience necessary to satisfy his desire. Perhaps because of the bother and annoyance
of the whole procedure, he will be restrained from such a strong and uncontrollable desire
for meat. [3]

This argument is further supported by the belief of Rav Kook and Rabbi Joseph Albo
that in the days of the Messiah, people will again be vegetarians. [4] They base
this on the prophecy of Isaiah:

And the wolf shall dwell with the lamb,.
And the lion shall eat straw like the ox,.
And none shall hurt nor destroy in all My holy mountain.
(Isaiah 11:6-9)

Argument #3: Manna was the preferred food in the desert.

According to Isaac Arama, author of "Akedat Yitzchak", God established
another non-meat diet, manna, when the Israelites left Egypt. [5] This would seem
to further indicate G-d's preference for this diet. Manna is clearly described in the
Torah as a vegetarian food, "like coriander seed" (Numbers 11:7). This diet
furthermore kept the Israelites in good health for 40 years in the desert.

We should also note that when the Jewish people cried for flesh, God only reluctantly
provided it (in the form of quails). A great plague subsequently broke out and many people
died. The place where this occurred was named, "The Graves of Lust", perhaps an
early warning of the negative health effects related to the consumption of meat.

These three primary arguments while presenting vegetarianism as an ideal still accept
the fact that Jews do have the choice to eat meat. The following secondary arguments,
outlining the effects of meat consumption on other mitzvah concerns, limit, I believe,
this choice in our age.

Argument #4: Vegetarianism provides a healthier diet.

Judaism regards the preservation of health as a religious command of the highest
importance. The Talmud teaches that Jews should be more particular about matters of health
and life than ritual matters. [6] If it could help save a life, one generally must (not
may) violate the Sabbath, eat non-kosher foods, and even eat on Yom Kippur. The only laws
that cannot be violated to preserve a life are those prohibiting murder, idolatry, and
sexual immorality. [7]

In view of these teachings, could God possibly want people to eat meat, when such
diets have been strongly linked to heart attacks, strokes, various types of cancer, and
other diseases? In this regard, it is interesting to note that Chapter 5 of Genesis tells
of the very long lives of people in the generations of the vegetarian period from Adam to
Noach.

Argument #5: Modern livestock agriculture is cruel to animals.

Judaism has many beautiful teachings concerning proper treatment of animals. Moses
and King David were chosen for leadership, and Rebecca was deemed suitable to be a wife
for Isaac, because they were kind to animals. Proverbs 12:10 teaches that The righteous
person considers the life of his beast." The psalmist states that, "The Lord is
good to all, and His tender mercies are over all His creatures" (Psalms 145:9).
Concern for animals is even expressed in the Ten Commandments. Many Biblical laws command
proper treatment of animals. Shechitah, Jewish ritual slaughter, insures that when animals
are slaughtered for food, it is done in the swiftest and most painless way possible. [8]

Obviously, the argument that we must be concerned for animals can be used to argue
directly against the killing of animals for meat. Yet, the very allowance of meat
challenges such an extension. The modern treatment of livestock in preparation for
slaughter, though, may be a further consideration. Animals are raised to ensure the
highest return on investment, without sufficient consideration for their personal benefit.
In view of the above stated arguments, would God favor the consumption of flesh when it
involves raising animals under cruel conditions in crowded cells, where they are denied
fresh air, exercise, and any fulfillment of their natural instincts?

Argument #6: Vegetarianism favors the environment.

Judaism teaches that the earth is the Lord's and that people are to be partners
and co-workers with God in protecting the environment. The Talmudic sages indicated great
concern about reducing pollution. [9] While God was able to say, "It is very
good" when the world was created, today the world faces many environmental threats.
Thus, could God favor meat-centered diets which involve extensive soil depletion and
erosion, air and water pollution related to the widespread production and use of
pesticides, fertilizer, and other chemicals, and the destruction of tropical rain forests
and other habitats?

Based on Deuteronomy 20:19, 20 which prohibits the destruction of fruit-bearing trees in
time of warfare, the Talmudic sages also prohibited the waste or unnecessary destruction
of all objects of potential benefit to people. Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch stated that
this prohibition (bal tashchit) is the first and most general call of G-d: We are to
"regard things as God's property and use them with a sense of responsibility for wise
human purposes. Destroy nothing! Waste nothing!" [10] He also stated that destruction
includes using more things (or things of greater value) than is necessary to obtain one's
aim.

Hence, could God favor flesh-centered diets which require up to 20 times more land, ten
times more energy and water, and far more pesticides, fertilizer, and other resources,
than vegetarian diets?

Argument #7: The non-economical use of resources to support meat consumption
yields many negative repercussions for humanity.

Helping the hungry is fundamental in Judaism. The Talmud states, "Providing
charity weighs as heavily as all the other commandments of the Torah combined" (Baba
Batra 9a). Farmers are to leave the gleanings of the harvest and the corners of the fields
for the poor. On Yom Kippur, the holiest day of the Jewish year, while fasting and praying
for a good year, Jews are told through the words of the Prophet Isaiah, that fasting and
prayers are not enough; they must work to end oppression and "share thy bread with
the hungry"(Isaiah 58:6-7)

Hence, could God possibly favor a diet that involves the feeding of over 70 percent of the
grain grown in the U.S. to animals destined for slaughter while 20 million people die
annually due to hunger and its effects? Could He support a diet that involves the
importing of beef (the U.S. is one of the world's leading importers) from countries where
people are starving, to satisfy the needs of fast-food restaurants? Using grain and
similar resources to directly feed human beings rather than in the preparation of meat
could greatly offset these negative effects.

While not a pacifist religion, Judaism mandates a special obligation to work for
peace. While many commandments require a certain time and/or place for their performance,
Jews are to constantly "seek peace and pursue it" (Psalms 34:15). According to
the Talmudic sages, God's name is peace, peace encompasses all blessings, and the first
words of the Messiah will be a message of peace. While the Israelites did go forth to
battle, they always yearned for the time when "nations shall beat their swords into
plowshares...and not learn war any more. (Micah 4:3,4)"

Since the sages taught that one of the roots of war is the lack of bread and other
resources [11], could God support the notion of a diet that involves the wasteful use of
land, water, energy, and other agricultural commodities, and thus perpetuates the
widespread hunger and poverty that frequently leads to instability and war?

The above arguments strongly indicate to me that vegetarianism is the diet most
consistent with Jewish values and God's preferences. I invite the reader to further
investigate these arguments and sources, including other explanations and understandings
that would defend meat consumption as acceptable within the ideal diet for Jews. I believe
that my position would still remain strong. I feel, however, that to complete my
arguments, some of the challenges to the assertion that the ideal diet for
Jews is vegetarianism should be addressed.

Counter-argument #1: Inconsistent with Judaism, vegetarianism elevates animals to
a level equal to or greater than that of people.

Response: Concern for animals and the refusal to treat them brutally and slaughter
them for food that is not necessary for proper nutrition and, indeed, is harmful to human
health, does not mean that vegetarians regard animals as being equal to people. Also, as
indicated, there are many reasons for being vegetarian other than animal rights, including
concern for human health, ecological threats, and the plight of hungry people.

Because humans are capable of imagination, rationality, empathy, compassion, and moral
choice, we should strive to end the unbelievably cruel conditions under which farm animals
are currently raised. This is an issue of sensitivity, not an assertion of egalitarianism
with the animal kingdom.

Counter-argument #2. Vegetarianism places greater priority on animal rights than
on the many problems related to human welfare.

Response: Vegetarian diets are not beneficial only to animals. They also improve
human health, help hungry people through better sharing of food and other resources, put
less stress on endangered ecosystems, conserve valuable resources, and reduce the
potential for war and violence. In view of the many global threats related to today`s
livestock agriculture, working to promote vegetarianism may be the most important action
that one can take for global survival.

Response: Jewish vegetarians are not placing so-called vegetarian values above
Torah principles. They are saying that basic Jewish teachings that mandate that we treat
animals with compassion, guard our health, share with hungry people, protect the
environment, conserve resources, and seek peace, point to vegetarianism as the ideal God
directed diet for Jews today. Rather than rejecting Torah values, Jewish vegetarians are
challenging the Jewish community to apply Judaism`s glorious teachings.

Counter-argument #4. Jews must eat meat on Shabbos and Yom Tov.

Response: According to the the Talmud (T. B. Pesachim 109a), since the destruction
of the Temple, Jews are not required to eat meat in order to rejoice in sacred occasions.
Recent scholarly articles by Rabbi Alfred Cohen [12] and Rabbi J. David Bleich [13]
conclude that Jews do not have to eat meat in order to celebrate the Sabbath
and Jewish festivals. The fact that several chief rabbis, including Shlomo Goren, late
Ashkenazic Chief Rabbi of Israel, and Sha'ar Yashuv Cohen, Ashkenazic Chief Rabbi of
Haifa, have been or are strict vegetarians reinforces this argument.

Counter-argument #5. The Torah mandates that we eat korban Pesach and other
korbanos (sacrifices).

Response: The great Jewish philosopher Maimonides believed that God permitted
sacrifices as a concession to the common mode of worship in Biblical times. [14] It was
felt that had Moses not instituted the sacrifices, his mission would have failed and
perhaps Judaism would have disappeared. The Jewish philosopher Abarbanel reinforced
Maimonides' position by citing a midrash that indicated that the Israelites had become
accustomed to sacrifices in Egypt [15], and thus God tolerated the sacrifices but
commanded that they be offered only in one central sanctuary in order to wean the Jews
from idolatrous practices.

Without the Temple, sacrifices are not required today. And, Rav Kook felt, based on
the prophecy of Isaiah, that there will only be sacrifices involving vegetarian foods
during the Messianic Period. There is a midrash that states: "in the Messianic era,
all sacrifices will cease, except thanksgiving offerings (which could be non-animal) which
will continue forever". [16]

Even if sacrifices will be restored at that time, as many other Jewish sages believed,
this should not prevent people from adopting a diet that has so many personal and societal
benefits today.

Counter-argument #6. Jews have historically had many problems with some animal
rights groups which have often opposed kosher shechita and advocated its abolishment.

Response: Jews should consider switching to vegetarianism not because of the views
of animal rights groups, whether they are hostile to Judaism or not, but because it is the
diet most consistent with Jewish values. It is the Torah, not animal rights groups, that
indicate how far the treatment of animals is from fundamental Jewish values. The powerful
Jewish teachings on proper treatment of animals was eloquently summarized by Samson
Raphael Hirsch:

Here you are faced with God's teaching, which obliges you not only to refrain from
inflicting unnecessary pain on any animal, but to help and, when you can, to lessen the
pain whenever you see an animal suffering, even through no fault of yours. [17]

It is essential that the Jewish community start to address the many moral issues
related to our diets. This is an issue of importance for Torah and for the future of our
endangered planet.

NOTES:

1. Commenting on Genesis 1:29 Rashi states: God did not permit Adam and Eve to kill a
creature and eat its flesh. Only every green herb shall they all eat together." The
Talmud T. B. Sanhedrin) states: Adam was not permitted meat for the purpose of
eating." Also see Nehama Leibowitz, Studies in Genesis , Jerusalem, World Zionist
Organization (3rd Edition), 1976, p. 77.

5. Rabbi Elijah J. Schochet, Animal Life in Jewish Tradition, New York, K'tav, 1984, p.
290. In his book, Masterplan - Judaism: Its Programs, Meanings, Goals (Jerusalem:
Jerusalem Academy Publications, 1991), Rabbi Aryeh Carmell, a contemporary Israeli Torah
educator, stated: "It seems doubtful from all that has been said whether the Torah
would sanction 'factory farming', which treats animals as machines, with apparent
insensitivity to their natural needs and instincts. This is a matter for decision by
halachic authorities." Rabbi Moshe Feinstein (d. 1985), the most influential Orthodox
authority in the United States for many years, indicated in 1982 that it is forbidden for
Jews to raise calves for veal under current intensive livestock agriculture conditions
since it violates the prohibition of tsa'ar ba'alei chayim (causing unnecessary pain to
animals). See Igrot Moshe, Even Haezer 4:92.