^a
The area of Poland, as given by the Central Statistical Office, is 312,679 km2
(120,726 sq mi), of which 311,888 km2
(120,421 sq mi) is land and 791 km2
(305 sq mi) is internal water surface area.[8]

b.

^b
The adoption of Christianity in Poland is seen by many Poles, regardless of their religious affiliation or lack thereof, as one of the most significant events in their country's history, as it was used to unify the tribes in the region.[9]

Etymology

The source of the name Poland[19]
and the ethnonyms
for the Poles[20]
include endonyms
(the way Polish people refer to themselves and their country) and exonyms (the way other peoples refer to the Poles and their country). Endonyms and most exonyms for Poles and Poland derive from the name of the West Slavic
tribe of the Polans
(Polanie).

The origin of the name
Polanie
itself is uncertain. It may derive from such Polish words as pole
(field).[21]
The early tribal inhabitants denominated it from the nature of the country. Lowlands and low hills predominate throughout the vast region from the Baltic
shores to the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains.
Inter Alpes Huniae et Oceanum est Polonia, sic dicta in eorum idiomate quasi Campania
is the description by Gervase of Tilbury
in his Otia imperialia
(Recreation for the emperor, 1211). In some languages the exonyms for Poland derive from another tribal name, Lechites
(Lechici).

History

Historians have postulated that throughout
Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The
ethnicity
and linguistic
affiliation of these groups have been hotly debated; the time and route of the original settlement of Slavic peoples
in these regions lacks written records and can only be defined as fragmented.[22]

The most famous archaeological find from
the prehistory and protohistory of Poland
is the Biskupin
fortified settlement (now reconstructed as an open air museum), dating from the Lusatian culture
of the early Iron Age, around 700 BC. The Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. Up until the creation of
Mieszko's
state and his subsequent conversion to Christianity in 966 AD, the main religion of Slavic tribes that inhabited the geographical area of present-day Poland was Slavic paganism. After the
Baptism of Poland
the new religion accepted by the Polish ruler was Catholicism. The transition to Christianity
was not a smooth and instantaneous process for the rest of the population as evident from the pagan reaction of the 1030s.[23]

In the middle of 13th-century the Silesian branch of the Piast dynasty (Henry I the Bearded
and Henry II the Pious, ruled 1238–1241) almost succeeded in uniting the Polish lands, but the
Mongols
devastated the country and won the Battle of Legnica
where Duke Henry II the Pious
died (1241). In 1320, after a number of earlier unsuccessful attempts by regional rulers at uniting the Polish dukedoms, Władysław I
consolidated his power, took the throne and became the first King of a reunified Poland. His son,
Casimir III
(reigned 1333–1370), has a reputation as one of the greatest Polish kings, and gained wide recognition for improving the country's infrastructure.[27][28]
Casimir also extended royal protection to Jews, and encouraged their immigration to Poland.[27][29]

The education of Polish society was a goal of rulers as early as the 12th century, and Polish nobility became one of the most educated groups in Europe.[30][31]
The library catalogue of the Cathedral Chapter of Kraków
dating back to 1110 shows that in the early 12th-century Polish intellectuals had access to European literature.

Casimir III realized that the nation needed a class of educated people, especially lawyers, who could codify the country's laws and administer the courts and offices. His efforts to found an institution of higher learning in Poland were finally rewarded when
Pope Urban V
granted him permission to open the University of Kraków.

The
Golden Liberty
of the nobles began to develop under Casimir's rule, when in return for their military support, the king made serious concessions to the aristocrats, finally establishing their status as superior to that of the townsmen, and aiding their rise to power. When Casimir died in 1370 he left no legitimate male heir and, considering his other male descendants either too young or unsuitable, was laid to rest as the last of the nation's Piast rulers.

Poland also became a magnet for migrants. Germans settled in the towns; the
Jewish
community began to settle and flourish in Poland during this era (see History of the Jews in Poland); the same applies in smaller number to
Armenians. The
Black Death
which afflicted most parts of Europe from 1347 to 1351 affected Poland less severely.[32][33]

Wawel, the seat of Polish kings.
Kraków
was the nation's capital from 1038 until the move to Warsaw
in 1596

Poland was developing as a
feudal
state, with a predominantly agricultural economy and an increasingly powerful landed nobility. The
Nihil novi
act adopted by the Polish Sejm
(parliament) in 1505, transferred most of the legislative power
from the monarch to the Sejm, an event which marked the beginning of the period known as "Golden Liberty", when the state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility.
Protestant Reformation
movements made deep inroads into Polish Christianity, which resulted in the establishment of policies promoting religious tolerance, unique in Europe at that time.[39]
This tolerance allowed the country to avoid most the religious turmoil that spread over Europe during the late Middle Ages.[39]
The European Renaissance
evoked in late Jagiellon Poland (kings Sigismund I the Old
and Sigismund II Augustus) a sense of urgency in the need to promote a
cultural awakening, and during this period Polish culture and the nation's economy flourished. In 1543 the Pole,
Nicolaus Copernicus, an astronomer from
Toruń, published his epochal works,
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
(On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), and thus became the first proponent of a predictive mathematical model confirming
heliocentric theory
which became the accepted basic model for the practice of modern astronomy. Another major figure associated with the era is classicist poet Jan Kochanowski.[40]

From the middle of the 17th century, the nobles' democracy, suffering from internal disorder, gradually declined, thus leaving the once powerful Commonwealth vulnerable to foreign intervention.

From 1648, the
CossackKhmelnytsky Uprising
engulfed the south and east eventually leaving Ukraine
divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming a dependency of the Tsardom of Russia. This was followed by the 'Deluge', a Swedish invasion, which marched through the Polish heartlands and damaged Poland's population, culture and infrastructure. Around four million of Poland's eleven million population died in famines and epidemics in this period.[43]

However, under
John III Sobieski
the Commonwealth's military prowess was re-established, and in 1683 Polish forces played a major part in relieving Vienna
of a Turkish
siege which was being conducted by Kara Mustafa
in hope of eventually marching his troops further into Europe to spread Islam.

Sobieski's reign marked the end of the nation's golden-era. Finding itself subjected to almost constant warfare and suffering enormous population losses as well as massive damage to its economy, the Commonwealth fell into decline. The government became ineffective as a result of large-scale internal conflicts (e.g.
Lubomirski's Rokosz
against John II Casimir
and rebellious confederations) and corrupted legislative processes. The nobility fell under the control of a handful of
magnats, and this, compounded with two relatively weak kings of the
SaxonWettin dynasty,
Augustus II
and Augustus III, as well as the rise of
Russia
and Prussia
after the Great Northern War
only served to worsen the Commonwealth's plight. Despite this The Commonwealth-Saxony personal union
gave rise to the emergence of the Commonwealth's first reform movement, and laid the foundations for the Polish Enlightenment.[44]

Stanisław August Poniatowski, the last King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania acceded to the throne in 1764, reigning until his abdication on 25 November 1795

During the later part of the 18th century, the Commonwealth made attempts to implement fundamental internal reforms; with the second half of the century bringing a much improved economy, significant population growth and far-reaching progress in the areas of education, intellectual life, art, and especially toward the end of the period, evolution of the social and political system. The most populous capital city of
Warsaw
replaced Gdańsk
(Danzig) as the leading centre of commerce, and the role of the more prosperous townsfolk increased.

The
royal election
of 1764 resulted in the elevation of Stanisław August Poniatowski, a refined and worldly aristocrat connected to a major
magnatefaction, to the monarchy. However, a one-time lover of Empress
Catherine II of Russia, the new king spent much of his reign torn between his desire to implement reforms necessary to save his nation, and his perceived necessity to remain in a relationship with his Russian sponsor. This led to the formation of the 1768
Bar Confederation, a
szlachta
rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king that fought to preserve Poland's independence and the szlachta's traditional privileges. Attempts at reform provoked the union's neighbours, and in 1772 the
First Partition of the Commonwealth
by Russia, Austria and Prussia took place; an act which the "Partition Sejm", under considerable duress, eventually "ratified"
fait accompli.[45]
Disregarding this loss, in 1773 the king established the Commission of National Education, the first government education authority in Europe.
Corporal punishment
of children was officially prohibited in 1783 as first in the world at all schools.[46]

The
Great Sejm
convened by Stanisław August in 1788 successfully adopted the 3 May Constitution, the first set of modern supreme national laws in Europe. However, this document, accused by detractors of harbouring revolutionary sympathies, generated strong opposition from the Commonwealth's nobles and conservatives as well as from Catherine II, who, determined to prevent the rebirth of a strong Commonwealth set about planning the final dismemberment of the Polish-Lithuanian state. Russia was aided in achieving its goal when the
Targowica Confederation, an organisation of Polish nobles, appealed to the Empress for help. In May 1792 Russian forces crossed the Commonwealth's frontier, thus beginning the
Polish-Russian War.

The defensive war fought by the Poles and Lithuanians ended prematurely when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated and joined the Targowica Confederation. The Confederation then took over the government. Russia and Prussia, fearing the mere existence of a Polish state, arranged for, and in 1793 executed, the
Second Partition of the Commonwealth, which left the country deprived of so much territory that it was practically incapable of independent existence. Eventually, in 1795, following the failed
Kościuszko Uprising, the Commonwealth was
partitioned one last time
by all three of its more powerful neighbours, and with this, effectively ceased to exist.[47]

Throughout the period of the partitions, political and cultural repression of the Polish nation led to the organisation of a number of uprisings against the authorities of the occupying Russian, Prussian and Austrian governments. Notable among these are the
November Uprising
of 1830 and January Uprising
of 1863, both of which were attempts to free Poland from the rule of tsarist Russia. The November uprising began on 29 November 1830 in Warsaw
when, led by Lieutenant Piotr Wysocki, young
non-commissioned officers
at the Imperial Russian Army'smilitary academy
in that city revolted. They were joined by large segments of Polish society, and together forced Warsaw's Russian garrison to withdraw north of the city.

Over the course of the next seven months, Polish forces successfully defeated the Russian armies of Field Marshal
Hans Karl von Diebitsch
and a number of other Russian commanders; however, finding themselves in a position unsupported by any other foreign powers, save distant France and the newborn United States, and with Prussia
and Austria
refusing to allow the import of military supplies through their territories, the Poles accepted that the uprising was doomed to failure. Upon the surrender of Warsaw to General Ivan Paskievich, many Polish troops, feeling they could not go on, withdrew into Germany and there laid down their arms. Poles would have to wait another 32 years for another opportunity to free their homeland.

When in January 1863 a new Polish uprising against Russian rule began, it did so as a spontaneous protest by young Poles against
conscription
into the Imperial Russian Army. However, the insurrectionists, despite being joined by high-ranking Polish-Lithuanian officers and numerous politicians were still severely outnumbered and lacking in foreign support. They were forced to resort to guerrilla warfare
tactics. They failed to win any major military victories. Afterwards no major uprising was witnessed in the Russian controlled Congress Poland
and Poles resorted instead to fostering economic and cultural self-improvement.

Despite the political unrest experienced during the partitions, Poland did benefit from large-scale industrialisation and modernisation programs, instituted by the occupying powers, which helped it develop into a more economically coherent and viable entity. This was particularly true in the Greater Poland, Pomerania and Warmia annexed by Prussia (later becoming a part of the
German Empire); an area which eventually, thanks largely to the
Greater Poland Uprising, was reconstituted as a part of the
Second Polish Republic
and became one of its most productive regions.

During this period, Poland successfully managed to fuse the territories of the three former partitioning powers into a cohesive nation state. Railways were restructured to direct traffic towards
Warsaw
instead of the former imperial capitals, a new network of national roads was gradually built up and a major seaport
was opened on the Baltic
Coast, so as to allow Polish exports and imports to bypass the politically charged Free City of Danzig.

The inter-war period heralded in a new era of Polish politics. Whilst Polish political activists had faced heavy censorship in the decades up until the
First World War, the country now found itself trying to establish a new political tradition. For this reason, many exiled Polish activists, such as
Ignacy Paderewski
(who would later become Prime Minister) returned home to help; a significant number of them then went on to take key positions in the newly formed political and governmental structures. Tragedy struck in 1922 when Gabriel Narutowicz, inaugural holder of the Presidency, was assassinated at the
Zachęta Gallery
in Warsaw by painter and right-wing nationalist Eligiusz Niewiadomski.[52]

The 1926
May Coup
of Józef Piłsudski
turned rule of the Second Polish Republic over to the Sanacja
movement. By the 1930s Poland had become increasingly authoritarian; a number of 'undesirable' political parties, such as the Polish Communists, had been banned and following Piłsudski's death, the regime, unable to appoint a new leader, began to show its inherent internal weaknesses and unwillingness to cooperate in any way with other political parties.

Grave of Polish fighter killed during the Warsaw Uprising. The battle lasted 63 days, and resulted in the deaths of 200,000 people.

In addition to the organised units of the 1st Army and the Forces in the Nazi-occupied Europe, the domestic underground resistance movement, the
Armia Krajowa, or
Home Army, fought to free Poland from German occupation and establish an independent Polish state. The
wartime resistance movement
in Poland was one of the three largest resistance movements of the entire war,[b]
and encompassed an unusually broad range of clandestine activities, which essentially functioned as an underground state
complete with degree-awarding universities
and a court system.[59]
The resistance was, however, largely loyal to the exiled government and generally resented the idea of a communist Poland; for this reason, in the summer of 1944 they initiated Operation Tempest, of which the
Warsaw Uprising
that begun on 1 August 1944 was the best know operation.[60][61]
The objective of the uprising was to drive the German occupiers from the city and help with the larger fight against Germany and the Axis powers, however secondary motives for the uprising sought to see Warsaw liberated before the Soviets could reach the capital, so as to underscore Polish
sovereignty
by empowering the Polish Underground State before the Soviet-backed Polish Committee of National Liberation
could assume control. However, a lack of available allied military aid and Stalin's reluctance to allow the 1st Army to help their fellow countrymen take the city, led to the uprising's failure and subsequent planned destruction of the city.

During the war, German forces under direct order from
Adolf Hitler
set up six major extermination camps, all of which operated in the heart of Poland. They included the notorious
Treblinka
and Auschwitz
killing grounds. This allowed the Germans to transport the condemned Jews
away from public eye in the Third Reich or across occupied Europe and – under the guise of resettlement – murder them in the General Government
and in brand new Warthegau
among other annexed areas. The Nazi crimes against the Polish nation claimed the lives of 2.7 to 2.9 million Polish Jews,[62]
and 2.77 million ethnic Poles,[63]
including Polish intelligentsia, doctors, lawyers, nobility, priests and numerous others. Since 3,5 million Jews lived in pre-war Poland, Jewish victims make up the largest percentage of all victims of the Nazis' extermination program. It is estimated that, of pre-war Poland's Jewry, approximately 90% were killed.[64]
Throughout the occupation, many members of the Armia Krajowa, supported by the
Polish government in exile, and millions of ordinary Poles – at great risk to themselves and their families –
engaged in rescuing Jews from the Nazi Germans. Grouped by nationality, Poles represent the largest number of people who rescued Jews during the Holocaust.[64][65]
To date, 6,394 Poles have been awarded the title of Righteous Among the Nations
by the State of Israel–more than any other nation.[65]
Some estimates put the number of Poles involved in rescue efforts at up to 3 million, and credit Poles with sheltering up to 450,000 Jews.[64]

Postwar communist Poland

At the insistence of
Joseph Stalin, the
Yalta Conference
sanctioned the formation of a new provisional pro-Communist coalition government in Moscow, which ignored the Polish government-in-exile
based in London; a move which angered many Poles who considered it a betrayal
by the Allies. In 1944, Stalin had made guarantees to Churchill
and Roosevelt
that he would maintain Poland's sovereignty and allow democratic elections to take place. However, upon achieving victory in 1945, the elections organized by the occupying Soviet authorities were falsified and were used to provide a veneer of 'legitimacy' for Soviet hegemony over Polish affairs. The Soviet Union instituted a new communist
government in Poland, analogous to much of the rest of the Eastern Bloc.
As elsewhere in Communist Europe
the Soviet occupation of Poland met with armed resistance
from the outset which continued into the fifties.

Despite widespread objections, the new Polish government accepted the Soviet annexation of the pre-war eastern regions of Poland[69]
(in particular the cities of Wilno
and Lwów) and agreed to the permanent garrisoning of
Red Army
units on Poland's territory. Military alignment within the Warsaw Pact
throughout the Cold War
came about as a direct result of this change in Poland's political culture and in the European scene came to characterise the full-fledged integration of Poland into the brotherhood of communist nations.

Present-day Poland

A
shock therapy
programme, initiated by Leszek Balcerowicz
in the early 1990s enabled the country to transform its socialist-style planned economy into a market economy. As with all other post-communist countries, Poland suffered temporary slumps in social and economic standards, but it became the first post-communist country to reach its pre-1989 GDP levels, which it achieved by 1995 largely thanks to its booming economy.[71][72]

Poland has been one of the most prominent voices of establishing a common
European Armed Forces, with Poland's
Premier
along with ChancellorAngela Merkel
and PresidentFrancois Hollande
(collectively also part of Weimar Triangle) taking steps to negotiate such a deal, in hope of drastically reducing dependence on
NATO
and increasing readiness.[74]
Poland has already built several commands of a common battle group with Hungary,
Czech Republic
and Slovakia, with a total of 12,000 troops ready for deployment. Poland is seeking to build more battle groups with
Lithuania
and Ukraine. These battle groups have vowed to serve under the European Union, and not NATO.[75]
Eurosceptics criticize such moves as further unnecessary integration and a new major step towards a federalized European Union under one government. Military integration is judged to be the most significant step after a monetary union.[citation needed]

On 10 April 2010, the President of the Republic of Poland,
Lech Kaczyński, along with 89 other high-ranking Polish officials
died in a plane crash
near Smolensk, Russia. The president's party were on their way to attend an annual service of commemoration for the victims of the
Katyń massacre
when the tragedy took place.

Rising above these lowlands is a geographical region comprising the four hilly districts of
moraines
and moraine-dammed lakes
formed during and after the Pleistocene ice age. These lake districts are the
Pomeranian
Lake District, the Greater Polish Lake District, the Kashubian
Lake District, and the Masurian Lake District. The Masurian Lake District is the largest of the four and covers much of north-eastern Poland. The lake districts form part of the Baltic Ridge, a series of moraine belts along the southern shore of the
Baltic Sea.

Poland has 70 mountains over 2,000 metres (6,600 feet) in elevation, all in the
Tatras. The Polish Tatras, which consist of the High Tatras and the Western Tatras, is the highest mountain group of Poland and of the entire Carpathian range. In the High Tatras lies Poland's highest point, the north-western
summit
of Rysy, 2,499 metres (8,199 ft) in elevation. At its foot lies the mountain lakes of
Czarny Staw pod Rysami
(Black Lake below Mount Rysy), and Morskie Oko
(the Marine Eye).[76]

The only
desert
located in Poland stretches over the Zagłębie Dąbrowskie
(the Coal Fields of Dąbrowa) region. It is called the
Błędów Desert, located in the
Silesian Voivodeship
in southern Poland. It has a total area of 32 square kilometres (12 sq mi). It is one of only five natural deserts in Europe. But also, it is the warmest desert that appears at this
latitude. Błędów Desert was created thousands of years ago by a
melting glacier. The specific geological structure has been of big importance. The average thickness of the sand layer is about 40 metres (131 ft), with a maximum of 70 metres (230 ft), which made the fast and deep
drainage
very easy.

The Baltic Sea activity in
Słowiński National Park
created sand dunes
which in the course of time separated the bay
from the sea. As waves and wind carry sand inland the dunes slowly move, at a speed of 3 to 10 metres (9.8 to 32.8 ft) meters per year. Some dunes are quite high – up to 30 metres (98 ft). The highest peak of the park – Rowokol (115 metres or 377 feet above sea level) — is also an excellent
observation point.

Waters

The longest rivers are the
Vistula
(Polish:
Wisła), 1,047 kilometres (651 mi) long; the
Oder
(Polish:
Odra) which forms part of Poland's western border, 854 kilometres (531 mi) long; its tributary, the
Warta, 808 kilometres (502 mi) long; and the
Bug, a tributary of the Vistula, 772 kilometres (480 mi) long. The Vistula and the Oder flow into the Baltic Sea, as do numerous smaller rivers in Pomerania.

The
Łyna
and the Angrapa
flow by way of the Pregolya
to the Baltic, and the Czarna Hańcza
flows into the Baltic through the Neman. While the great majority of Poland's rivers drain into the Baltic Sea, Poland's Beskids are the source of some of the upper tributaries of the
Orava, which flows via the
Váh
and the Danube
to the Black Sea. The eastern Beskids are also the source of some streams that drain through the
Dniester
to the Black Sea.

Poland's rivers have been used since early times for navigation. The
Vikings, for example, traveled up the Vistula and the Oder in their
longships. In the Middle Ages and in early modern times, when the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was the breadbasket of Europe;[77]
the shipment of grain and other agricultural products down the Vistula toward Gdańsk
and onward to other parts of Europe took on great importance.[77]

With almost ten thousand closed bodies of water covering more than 1 hectare (2.47 acres) each, Poland has one of the highest numbers of lakes in the world. In Europe, only
Finland
has a greater density of lakes.[78]
The largest lakes, covering more than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi), are Lake Śniardwy
and Lake Mamry
in Masuria, and
Lake Łebsko
and Lake Drawsko
in Pomerania.

In addition to the lake districts in the north (in Masuria, Pomerania,
Kashubia, Lubuskie, and
Greater Poland), there is also a large number of mountain lakes in the Tatras, of which the Morskie Oko is the largest in area. The lake with the greatest depth—of more than 100 metres (328 ft)—is
Lake Hańcza
in the Wigry Lake District, east of Masuria in Podlaskie Voivodeship.

Among the first lakes whose shores were settled are those in the Greater Polish Lake District. The
stilt house
settlement of Biskupin, occupied by more than one thousand residents, was founded before the 7th century BC by people of the
Lusatian culture.

Lakes have always played an important role in Polish history and continue to be of great importance to today's modern Polish society. The ancestors of today's Poles, the
Polanie, built their first fortresses on islands in these lakes. The legendary Prince
Popiel
ruled from Kruszwica
tower erected on the Lake Gopło.[79]
The first historically documented ruler of Poland, Duke Mieszko I, had his palace on an island in the Warta River in
Poznań. Nowadays the Polish lakes provide a location for the pursuit of water sports such as
yachting
and wind-surfing.

The Polish Baltic coast is approximately 528 kilometres (328 mi) long and extends from
Świnoujście
on the islands of Usedom
and Wolin
in the west to Krynica Morska
on the Vistula Spit
in the east. For the most part, Poland has a smooth coastline, which has been shaped by the continual movement of sand by currents and winds. This continual erosion
and deposition
has formed cliffs, dunes, and spits, many of which have migrated landwards to close off former lagoons, such as Łebsko Lake in Słowiński National Park.

Prior to the end of the
Second World War
and subsequent change in national borders, Poland had only a very small coastline; this was situated at the end of the 'Polish Corridor', the only internationally recognised Polish territory which afforded the country access to the sea. However, after World War II, the redrawing of Poland's borders and resulting 'shift' of the country's borders left it with an expanded coastline, thus allowing for far greater access to the sea than was ever previously possible. The significance of this event, and importance of it to Poland's future as a major industrialised nation, was alluded to by the 1945
Wedding to the Sea.

Land use

Poland is the fourth most forested country in Europe. Forests cover about 30.5% of Poland's land area based on international standards.[81]
Its overall percentage is still increasing. Forests of Poland
is managed by the national program of reforestation (KPZL), aiming at an increase of forest-cover to 33% in 2050. The richness of Polish forest (per SoEF 2011 statistics) is more than twice as high as European average (with Germany and France at the top), containing 2.304 billion cubic metres of trees.[81]
The largest forest complex in Poland is Lower Silesian Wilderness.

Since Poland's accession to the European Union in 2004, Polish agriculture has performed extremely well and the country has over two million private farms.[82][83]
It is the leading producer in Europe of potatoes and rye
(world's second largest in 1989),[50]
the world's largest producer of triticale,[84]
and one of the more important producers of barley, oats, sugar beets, flax, and fruits.[50]
It is the European Union's fourth largest supplier of pigmeat after Germany, Spain and France.[85]
The government continues debating further agricultural reform and pursuing the option of auctioning off large tracts of state-owned agricultural land.[50]

Biodiversity

Family of White Stork. Poland hosts the largest White Stork population.[86]

Poland is the most important breeding ground for a variety of European
migratory birds.[87]
Out of all of the migratory birds who come to Europe for the summer, one quarter of the global population of White Storks
(40,000 breeding pairs) live in Poland,[88]
particularly in the lake districts and the wetlands along the Biebrza, the
Narew, and the
Warta, which are part of nature reserves or national parks.

Climate

The average daytime summer temperature at sea level along the Baltic coast is 22 °C (71.6 °F).[89]Bay of Puck(Zatoka Pucka)

The climate is mostly
temperate
throughout the country. The climate is oceanic
in the north and west and becomes gradually warmer and continental
towards the south and east. Summers are generally warm, with average temperatures between 18 and 30 °C (64.4 and 86.0 °F) depending on a region. Winters are rather cold, with average temperatures around 3 °C (37.4 °F) in the northwest and −6 °C (21 °F) in the northeast. Precipitation
falls throughout the year, although, especially in the east; winter is drier than summer.[90]

The warmest region in Poland is
Lower Silesia
located in south-western Poland where temperatures in the summer average between 24 and 32 °C (75 and 90 °F) but can go as high as 34 to 39 °C (93.2 to 102.2 °F) on some days in the warmest month of July and August. The warmest cities in Poland are Tarnów, which is situated in
Lesser Poland
and Wrocław, which is located in Lower Silesian. The average temperatures in Wrocław are 20 °C (68 °F) in the summer and 0 °C (32.0 °F) in the winter, but
Tarnów
has the longest summer in all of Poland, which lasts for 115 days, from mid-May to mid-September. The coldest region of Poland is in the northeast in the Podlaskie Voivodeship
near the border of Belarus
and Lithuania. Usually the coldest city is
Suwałki. The climate is affected by cold fronts which come from
Scandinavia
and Siberia. The average temperature in the winter in Podlaskie ranges from −6 to −4 °C (21 to 25 °F).

With the exception of ethnic minority parties, only candidates of
political parties
receiving at least 5% of the total national vote can enter the Sejm. When sitting in joint session, members of the Sejm and Senat form the National Assembly
(the Zgromadzenie Narodowe). The National Assembly is formed on three occasions: when a new President takes the
oath of office; when an indictment against the President of the Republic is brought to the State Tribunal (Trybunał Stanu); and when a president's permanent incapacity to exercise his duties due to the state of his health is declared. To date only the first instance has occurred.

The new Constitution introduced political equality between
townspeople
and the nobility
(szlachta), and placed the
peasants
under the protection of the government. The Constitution abolished pernicious parliamentary institutions such as the liberum veto, which at one time had placed the
sejm
at the mercy of any deputy who might choose, or be bribed
by an interest or foreign power, to have rescinded all the legislation that had been passed by that sejm. The 3 May Constitution sought to supplant the existing anarchy fostered by some of the country's reactionarymagnates, with a more
egalitarian
and democratic constitutional monarchy. The adoption of
the constitution
was treated as a threat by Poland's neighbours.[92]
In response Prussia,
Austria
and Russia formed an anti-Polish alliance and over the next decade collaborated with one another to partition
their weaker neighbour and destroyed the Polish state. In the words of two of its co-authors, Ignacy Potocki
and Hugo Kołłątaj, the constitution represented "the last will and testament of the expiring Fatherland." Despite this, its text influenced many later
democratic movements
across the globe.[93]
In Poland, freedom of expression is guaranteed by the Article 25 (section I. The Republic) and Article 54 (section II. The Freedoms, Rights and Obligations of Persons and Citizens) of the Constitution of Poland.

Feminism in Poland
started in 1800s in the age of the foreign Partitions. Poland's precursor of feminism, Narcyza Żmichowska, founded a group of
Suffragettes
in 1842. Prior to the last Partition
in 1795, tax-paying females were allowed to take part in political life. Since 1918, following the return to independence, all women could vote. Poland was the 15th (12th sovereign) country to introduce universal women's suffrage. Nevertheless, there is a number of issues concerning women in modern-day Poland such as the abortion rights
(formally allowed only in special circumstances) and the "glass ceiling".[94][95]
Homosexuality in Poland was confirmed as legal in 1932. Poland recognises gender change.[96]
A transgender
Pole Anna Grodzka
has become a Member of Parliament (MP) in the 2011 parliamentary elections, and is the only transgender MP in the world presently,[97]
and one of the first ever in European history.[98]
Also in 2011, Robert Biedroń
was elected to the Sejm as its first openly gay member of parliament.[99]

A 2010 article in
Rzeczpospolita
reported that in a 2008 study three-quarters of Poles were against gay marriage or the adoption of children by gay couples in accordance with the Catholic teachings.[100]
The same study revealed that 66% of respondents were opposed to Pride parade
as the demonstration of a way of life, and 69% believed that gay people should not show their sexual orientation in public.[101]
Poland belongs to the group of 'Tier 1'[102]
countries in Trafficking in Persons Report. Trafficking women is 'illegal and rare' (top results worldwide).[103]

Poland's current constitution was adopted by the
National Assembly of Poland
on 2 April 1997, approved by a national referendum
on 25 May 1997, and came into effect on 17 October 1997. It guarantees a multi-party state, the freedoms of religion, speech and assembly, and specifically casts off many Communist ideals to create a 'free marketeconomic system'. It requires public officials to pursue ecologically sound public policy and acknowledges the inviolability of the home, the right to form trade unions, and to strike, whilst at the same time prohibiting the practices of forced medical experimentation,
torture
and corporal punishment.

Foreign relations

In recent years, Poland has extended its responsibilities and position in European and international affairs, supporting and establishing friendly relations with other European nations and a large number of 'developing' countries.

In 1994, Poland became an associate member of the European Union (EU) and its defensive arm, the
Western European Union
(WEU), having submitted preliminary documentation for full membership in 1996, it formally joined the European Union in May 2004, along with the other members of the Visegrád group. In 1996, Poland achieved full
OECD
membership, and at the 1997 Madrid Summit was invited to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
(NATO) in the first wave of policy enlargement
finally becoming a full member of NATO in March 1999.

As changes since the fall of Communism in 1989 have redrawn the map of central Europe, Poland has tried to forge strong and mutually beneficial relationships with its seven new neighbours, this has notably included signing 'friendship treaties' to replace links severed by the collapse of the
Warsaw Pact. The Poles have forged special relationships with
Lithuania
and particularly Ukraine,[104]
with whom they co-hosted the UEFA Euro 2012
football tournament, in an effort to firmly anchor these countries within the Western world and provide them with an alternative to aligning themselves with the Russian Federation
respectively. Despite many positive developments in the region, Poland has found itself in a position where it must seek to defend the rights of ethnic Poles living in the former Soviet Union; this is particularly true of
Belarus, where in 2005 the
Lukashenko
regime launched a campaign against the Polish ethnic minority.[105]

Administrative divisions

Poland's current
voivodeships
(provinces) are largely based on the country's historic regions, whereas those of the past two decades (to 1998) had been centred on and named for individual cities. The new units range in area from less than 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi) for Opole Voivodeship to more than 35,000 square kilometres (14,000 sq mi) for Masovian Voivodeship. Administrative authority at voivodeship level is shared between a government-appointed voivode
(governor), an elected regional assembly (sejmik) and an executive elected by that assembly.

The voivodeships are subdivided into
powiats
(often referred to in English as counties), and these are further divided into gminas
(also known as communes or municipalities). Major cities normally have the status of both gmina
and powiat. Poland has 16 voivodeships, 379 powiats (including 65 cities with
powiat
status), and 2,478 gminas.

The Polish army consists of 65,000 active personnel, whilst the navy and air force respectively employ 14,300 and 26,126 servicemen and women. The Polish Navy is one of the larger navies on the Baltic Sea and is mostly involved in Baltic operations such as search and rescue provision for the section of the Baltic under Polish command, as well as hydrographic measurements and research; however, the Polish Navy played a more international role as part of the
2003 invasion of Iraq, providing logistical support for the
United States Navy. The current position of the Polish Air Force is much the same; it has routinely taken part in
Baltic Air Policing
assignments, but otherwise, with the exception of a number of units serving in Afghanistan, has seen no active combat since the end of the Second World War. In 2003, the
F-16C
Block 52 was chosen as the new general multi-role fighter for the air force, the first deliveries taking place in November 2006; it is expected (2010) that the Polish Air Force will create three squadrons of F-16s, which will all be fully operational by 2012.

The most important mission of the armed forces is the defence of Polish territorial integrity and Polish interests abroad.[107]
Poland's national security goal is to further integrate with NATO
and European defence, economic, and political institutions through the modernisation and reorganisation of its military.[107]
The armed forces is being re-organised according to NATO standards, and as of 1 January 2010, the transition to an entirely contract-based military has been completed. During the previous period, men were obliged to undertake compulsory military service. In the final stage of validity of this type of military service (since 2007 until the amendment of the law on conscription in 2008) the duration of compulsory service amounted nine months.[108]

Polish military doctrine reflects the same defensive nature as that of its NATO partners. From 1953 to 2009 Poland was a large contributor to various United Nations peacekeeping missions.[107][109]
The Polish Armed Forces took part in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, deploying 2,500 soldiers in the south of that country and commanding the 17-nation
Multinational force in Iraq.

The military was temporarily, but severely, affected by the loss of many of its top commanders in the wake the
2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash
near Smolensk, Russia, which killed all 96 passengers and crew, including, among others, the Chief of the Polish Army's General Staff Franciszek Gągor
and Polish Air Force commanding general Andrzej Błasik. They were en route from Warsaw to attend an event to mark the 70th anniversary of the Katyn massacre, whose site is commemorated approximately 19 km (12 mi) west of
Smolensk.[110][111]

Law enforcement and emergency services

Poland has a highly developed system of law enforcement with a long history of effective policing by the
State Police Service. The structure of law enforcement agencies within Poland is a multi-tier one, with the State Police providing criminal-investigative services,
Municipal Police
serving to maintain public order and a number of other specialised agencies, such as the Polish Border Guard, acting to fulfil their assigned missions. In addition to these state services, private security companies are also common, although they possess no powers assigned to state agencies, such as, for example, the power to make an arrest or detain a suspect.

Since joining the
European Union
all of Poland's emergency services have been undergoing major restructuring and have, in the process, acquired large amounts of new equipment and staff.[112]
All emergency services personnel are now uniformed and can be easily recognised thanks to a number of innovative design features, such as reflective paint and printing, present throughout their service dress and vehicle liveries. In addition to this, in an effort to comply with EU standards and safety regulations, the police and other agencies have been steadily replacing and modernising their fleets of vehicles; this has left them with thousands of new automobiles, as well as many new aircraft, boats and helicopters.[113]

Economy

Poland's high-income economy[115]
is considered to be one of the healthiest of the post-Communist countries and is one of the fastest growing within the EU.[116]
Having a strong domestic market, low private debt, flexible currency, and not being dependent on a single export sector, Poland is the only European economy to have avoided the late-2000s recession.[117][118]
Since the fall of the communist government, Poland has pursued a policy
of liberalising
the economy. It is an example of the transition from a centrally planned
to a primarily market-based economy. In 2009 Poland had the highest GDP growth in the EU - 1.6%.[119][120][121]
The country's most successful exports include machinery, furniture, organic foods and meats,[122]
motor boats, light planes, hardwood products, casual clothing, shoes and cosmetics.[123]
Germany is by far the biggest importer of Poland's exports as of 2013.[114]

The
privatization
of small and medium state-owned companies and a liberal law on establishing new firms have allowed the development of the private sector. As a consequence, consumer rights
organizations have also appeared. Restructuring and privatisation of "sensitive sectors" such as coal, steel, rail transport and energy has been continuing since 1990. Between 2007 and 2010, the government plans to float twenty public companies on the Warsaw Stock Exchange, including parts of the coal industry. The biggest privatisations have been the sale of the national
telecoms
firm Telekomunikacja Polska
to France Télécom
in 2000, and an issue of 30% of the shares in Poland's largest bank, PKO Bank Polski, on the Polish stockmarket in 2004.

The Polish banking market is the largest in East Central and Eastern European region,[124]
with 32.3 branches per 100,000 adults.[125][126]
The banks are the largest and most developed sector of the country's financial markets. They are regulated by the
Polish Financial Supervision Authority. During the transformation to a market-oriented economy, the government privatized some of them, recapitalized the rest, and introduced legal reforms that made the sector competitive. This has attracted a significant number of strategic foreign investors (ICFI). Poland's banking sector has approximately 5 national banks, a network of nearly 600 cooperative banks and 18 branches of foreign-owned banks. In addition, foreign investors have controlling stakes in nearly 40 commercial banks, which make up 68% of the banking capital.[124]

Poland is part of the Schengen Area and the EU single market.

Poland has a large number of private farms in its agricultural sector, with the potential to become a leading producer of food in the European Union. The biggest money-makers abroad include smoked and fresh fish, fine chocolate, and dairy products, meats and specialty breads,[127]
with the exchange rate conducive to export growth.[128]
Food exports amounted to 62 billion zloty
in 2011, increasing by 17% from 2010.[129]
Structural reforms in health care, education, the pension system, and state administration have resulted in larger-than-expected fiscal pressures. Warsaw leads Central Europe in foreign investment.[130]
GDP growth had been strong and steady from 1993 to 2000 with only a short slowdown from 2001 to 2002.

The economy had growth of 3.7% annually in 2003, a rise from 1.4% annually in 2002. In 2004, GDP growth equaled 5.4%, in 2005 3.3% and in 2006 6.2%.[131]
According to Eurostat
data, Polish PPS GDP per capita stood at 67% of the EU average in 2012.[132]

In terms of the clarity, efficiency and neutrality of Poland's legal framework for multinational investors, a 2012 report by the World Economic Forum concluded that the on-going foreign business disputes may "have damaged Poland's reputation as an attractive location for
FDI" from other countries by creating the impression of "substandard reputation for maintaining an efficient and neutral framework to settle business disputes."[133]Ernst and Young's 2010 European attractiveness survey reported that Poland saw a 52% decrease in FDI foreign job creation and a 42% decrease in number of FDI projects since 2008.[134]

Average salaries in the enterprise sector in December 2010 were 3,848 PLN (1,012 euro or 1,374 US dollars)[135]
and growing sharply.[136]
Salaries vary between the regions: the median
wage in the capital city Warsaw was 4,603 PLN (1,177 euro or 1,680 US dollars) while in Kielce
it was 3,083 PLN (788 euro or 1125 US dollars). There is a wide distribution of salaries among the various districts of Poland. They range from 2,020 PLN (517 euro or 737 US dollars) in Kępno County, which is located in
Greater Poland Voivodeship
to 5,616 (1,436 euro or 2,050 US dollars) in Lubin County, which lies in
Lower Silesian Voivodeship.[137]

According to a
Credit Suisse
report, Poles are the second wealthiest (after Czechs) of the Central European peoples.[138][139][140][141][142]
Even though since World War II Poland is almost an ethnically homogeneous country, the number of foreign investors among immigrants is growing every year.[142][143]

Since the opening of the labor market in the
European Union, Poland experienced a
mass emigration
of over 2.3 million abroad, mainly due to higher wages offered abroad, and due to the raise in levels of unemployment
following the global Great Recession
of 2008.[144][145][146]
The out migration has increased the average wages for the workers who remained in Poland, in particular for those with intermediate level skills.[147]

Corporations

Poland is recognised as a regional economic power within East-Central Europe, with nearly 40 percent of the 500 biggest companies in the region (by revenues) as well as a
high globalisation rate.[148]
Poland was the only member of the EU to avoid the recession of the late 2000s, a testament to the Polish economy's stability.[117]
The country's most competitive firms are components of the WIG30
which is traded on the Warsaw Stock Exchange.

Poland is recognised as having an economy with development potential, overtaking the
Netherlands
in mid-2010 to become Europe's sixth largest economy.[150]Foreign Direct Investment
in Poland has remained steady ever since the country's re-democratisation following the Round Table Agreement
in 1989. Problems exist. It is believed that progress of privatization was uneven across sectors due to emergence of interest groups supporting government's push for the reforms based on feasibility
rather than efficiency, at the cost of Poland's remaining sectors in need of development and modernisation, such as the extractive industries.[151]

The list includes the largest companies by turnover in 2011, but does not include major banks or insurance companies:

Poland experienced an increase in the number of tourists after joining the European Union.[153]
Tourism in Poland contributes to the country's overall economy and makes up a relatively large proportion of the country's service market.[154]

Energy

The electricity generation sector in Poland is largely
fossil-fuel–based. Many power plants nationwide use Poland's position as a major European exporter of coal to their advantage by continuing to use coal as the primary raw material in production of their energy. In 2013 Poland scored 48 out of 129 states in the Energy Sustainability Index.[159]
The three largest Polish coal mining firms (Węglokoks,
Kompania Węglowa
and JSW) extract around 100 million tonnes of coal annually. All three of these companies are key constituents of the
Warsaw Stock Exchange's lead economic indexes.

Renewable forms of energy account for a small[quantify]
proportion of Poland's full energy generation capacity.[160]
However, the national government has set targets for the development of renewable energy sources in Poland which should see the portion of power produced by renewable resources climb to 7.5% by 2010 and 15% by 2020. This is to be achieved mainly through the construction of wind farms
and a number of hydroelectric
stations.

Poland is thought to have around 164,800,000,000 m³ of proven natural gas reserves and around 96,380,000 barrels of proven oil reserves. These reserves are exploited by energy supply companies such as
PKN Orlen
("the only Polish company listed in the Fortune Global 500"). However, the small amounts of fossil fuels naturally occurring in Poland is insufficient to satisfy the full energy consumption needs of the population. Therefore the country is a net importer of oil and natural gas.

Transport

Transport in Poland is provided by means of
rail,
road,
marine shipping
and air travel.
Positioned in Central Europe with an eastern and a part of northeastern border compromising the longest land border of the Schengen Area
with the rest of Northern
and Central Europe, Poland has long been, and remains a key country through which imports to the European Union and exports from it pass.

Since joining the EU in May 2004, Poland has invested large amounts of money into the modernisation of its transport networks. The country now has a developing expressways network composed of motorways such as the
A1,
A2,
A4,
A8,
A18
and express roads such as the S1,
S3,
S5,
S7,
S8. In addition to these newly built roads, many local and regional roads are being rebuilt as part of a national programme to rebuild all roads in Poland.[161]

Polish authorities maintain a program of improving operating speeds across the entire Polish rail network. Polish State Railways (PKP) are using new rolling stock, such as Siemens Taurus ES64U4 capable theoretically of speed equal 200 km/h (124 mph). As of December 2014 Poland began implementing
high–speed rail connecting major Polish cities. The Polish government has revealed that it intends to connect all major cities to a future high-speed rail network by 2020.[162]
PKP Pendolino ETR 610 new test train set the record for the fastest train in the history of Poland, reaching 293 kilometres per hour (182 mph) on 24 November 2013. Old top speed was 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph) since 1985. Most intercity rail operations in Poland are operated by PKP Intercity
whilst regional trains are run by a number of operators, the largest of which is Przewozy Regionalne.

14 December, 2014 Polish State Railways started passenger service trains PKP Pendolino ED250 operating 200 km/h speed on 80 km line Olszamowice-Zawiercie (part of railway line called CMK from Warsaw to Cracow). Currently its the line with highest railway speed in Poland. Poland its the first country from the 2004 enlargement of the European Union called
A10
countries which started passenger railway speed, scheduled traffic over 160 km/h (200 km/h).

According to a KPMG report[166]
80% of Poland's current investors are content with their choice and willing to reinvest. In 2006, Intel decided to double the number of employees in its research and development centre in Gdańsk.[165]

Communications

The share of the telecom sector in the GDP is 4.4% (end of 2000 figure), compared to 2.5% in 1996. The coverage increased from 78 users per 1,000 inhabitants in 1989 to 282 in 2000. The value of the telecommunication market is zl 38.2bn (2006), and it grew by 12.4% in 2007 PMR.[167]
The coverage mobile cellular is over 1000 users per 1000 people (2007). Telephones—mobile cellular: 38.7 million (Onet.pl & GUS Report, 2007), telephones—main lines in use: 12.5 million (Telecom Team Report, 2005).

With regard to internet access, the most popular
ADSL
services for home users in Poland are Neostrada
provided by TPSA, and Net24 provided by
Netia. Business users as well as some home users use Internet DSL TP also offered by TPSA. According to Eurostat, OECD and others, Internet access in Poland is amidst the most expensive in Europe. This is mostly caused by the lack of competitiveness. New operators, such as Dialog and GTS Energis are making their own provider lines and offer more attractive and cheaper service. The Polish Office of Electronical Communication is forcing the TPSA to rent 51% of their ADSL lines to other ISPs for 60% lower prices. This move will affect the prices of DSL in Poland. In 2012, the process of converting to
Digital terrestrial television
started, to be compatible with the rest of Europe.[citation needed]

The Main Post Office in Bydgoszcz

The public postal service in Poland is operated by
Poczta Polska
(the Polish Post). It was created on 18 October 1558, when King Zygmunt August
established a permanent postal route from Kraków
to Venice. The service was dissolved during the foreign partitions. After regaining independence in 1918, Poland saw the rapid development of the postal system as new services were introduced including
money transfers, payment of pensions, delivery of magazines, and
air mail. During
wars and national uprisings
communication was provided mainly through the military authorities. Many important events in the history of Poland involved the postal service, like the heroic defence of the Polish Post Office in Gdańsk
in 1939, and the participation of the Polish Scouts' Postal Service in the Warsaw Uprising. Nowadays the service is a modern state-owned company that provides a number of standard and express delivery as well as home-delivery services. Digital technologies are made available through the Internet platform
Envelo.[168][169]

Poland, with 38,544,513 inhabitants, has the eighth-largest population in Europe and the sixth-largest in the
European Union. It has a population density of 122 inhabitants per square kilometer (328 per square mile).

In recent years, Poland's population has decreased due to an increase in emigration and a sharp decline in the birth rate. Since Poland's accession to the European Union, a significant number of Poles have emigrated, primarily to the United Kingdom, Germany and Republic of Ireland in search of better work opportunities abroad.[173]

Polish minorities are still present in the neighboring countries of Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania, as well as in other countries (see
Poles
for population numbers). Altogether, the number of ethnic Poles living abroad is estimated to be around 20 million.[174]
The largest number of Poles outside of Poland
can be found in the United States.[175]

The
total fertility rate
(TFR) in Poland was estimated in 2013 at 1.32 children born/woman, which is below the replacement rate of 2.1.[176]

Religion

From its beginnings, Poland has contributed substantially to the development of religious freedom. Since the country adopted Christianity in 966, it was also welcoming to other religions through a series of laws:
Statute of Kalisz
(1264), Warsaw Confederation
(1573). However, the Polish king Władysław II Jagiełło
was pressed by the Catholic Church to issue the Edict of Wieluń
(1424), outlawing early Protestant Hussitism. Polish theological thought include theological movements, such as Calvinist
Polish Brethren
and a number of other Protestant groups, as well as atheists, such as ex-Jesuit philosopher Kazimierz Łyszczyński, one of the first atheist thinkers in Europe.

The Reception of the Jews in Poland in the Year 1096. Painting by
Jan Matejko

Until
World War II
Poland was a religiously diverse society, in which substantial Jewish,
Christian Orthodox,
Protestant
and Roman Catholic groups coexisted.[177]
In the Second Polish Republic, Roman Catholic was the dominant religion, declared by about 65% of the Polish citizens, followed by other Christian denominations, and about 3% of Judaism believers.[178]
As a result of the Holocaust
and the post–World War II flight and expulsion of German
and Ukrainian
populations, Poland has become overwhelmingly Roman Catholic. In 2007, 88.4% of the population belonged to the Catholic Church.[179]
Though rates of religious observance are lower, at 52%[180]
or 51% of the Polish Catholics,[181]
Poland remains one of the most devoutly religious countries in Europe.[182]

From 16 October 1978 until his death on 2 April 2005 Karol Józef Wojtyła (later Pope
John Paul II), a Polish native, reigned as
Supreme Pontiff
of the Roman Catholic Church. He has been the only Slavic
and Polish
Pope to date, and was the first non-Italian Pope since DutchPope Adrian VI
in 1522.[183]
Additionally he is credited with having played a significant role in hastening the downfall of communism in Poland and throughout Central and Eastern Europe; he is famously quoted as having, at the height of communism in 1979, told Poles "not be afraid", later praying: "Let your Spirit descend and change the image of the land... this land".[184][185]

Kraków's Tempel Synagogue
is one of the largest in Poland still functioning today.

Freedom of religion is now guaranteed by the 1989 statute of the Polish Constitution,[186]
enabling the emergence of additional denominations.[187]
The Concordat
between the Holy See
and Poland guarantees the teaching of religion in state[188]
schools. According to a 2007 survey, 72% of respondents were not opposed to religious instruction
in public schools; alternative courses in ethics are available only in one percent of the entire public educational system.[189]

Health

Poland's healthcare system is based on an all-inclusive insurance system. State subsidised healthcare is available to all Polish citizens who are covered by this general health insurance program. However, it is not compulsory to be treated in a state-run hospital as a number of private medical complexes do exist nationwide.[190]

All medical service providers and hospitals in Poland are subordinate to the
Polish Ministry of Health, which provides oversight and scrutiny of general medical practice as well as being responsible for the day-to-day administration of the healthcare system. In addition to these roles, the ministry is also tasked with the maintenance of standards of hygiene and patient-care.

Hospitals in Poland are organised according to the regional administrative structure, resultantly most towns have their own hospital
(Szpital Miejski). Larger and more specialised medical complexes tend only to be found in larger cities, with some even more specialised units located only in the capital,
Warsaw. However, all
voivodeships
have their own general hospital (most have more than one), all of which are obliged to have a trauma centre; these types of hospital, which are able to deal with almost all medical problems are called 'regional hospitals' (Szpital Wojewódzki). The last category of hospital in Poland is that of specialised medical centres, an example of which would be the
Skłodowska-Curie Institute of Oncology, Poland's leading, and most highly specialised centre for the research and treatment of cancer.

In 2012, the Polish health-care industry experienced a transformation. Hospitals were given priority for refurbishment where necessary.[191]
As a result of this process, many hospitals were updated with the latest medical equipment.

In 2013, the average
life expectancy
at birth was 76.45 years (72.53 years infant male/80.62 years infant female).[192]

Elementary and secondary

Education in Poland starts at the age of five or six (with the particular age chosen by the parents) for the '0' class (Kindergarten) and six or seven years in the 1st class of primary school (Polishszkoła podstawowa). It is compulsory that children participate in one year of formal education before entering the 1st class at no later than 7 years of age.
Corporal punishment
of children in shools
is officially prohibited since 1783 (before the partitions) and criminalised since 2010 (in schools as well as at home).[46]

Density of collegiate-level institutions of higher education

At the end of the 6th class when students are 13, students take a compulsory exam that will determine their acceptance and transition into a specific lower secondary school (gimnazjum, pronounced gheem-nah-sium) (Middle School/Junior High). They will attend this school for three years during classes 7, 8, and 9. Students then take another compulsory exam to determine the upper secondary level school they will attend. There are several alternatives, the most common being the three years in a
liceum
or four years in a technikum. Both end with a maturity examination (matura, quite similar to French
baccalauréat), and may be followed by several forms of upper education, leading to
licencjat
or inżynier (the Polish Bologna Process
first cycle qualification), magister
(second cycle qualification) and eventually doktor
(third cycle qualification).[197]

There are 18 fully accredited traditional universities in Poland. There are twenty technical universities, nine independent medical universities, five universities for the study of economics, nine agricultural academies, three pedagogical universities, a theological academy and three maritime service universities.

There are a number of higher educational institutions dedicated to the teaching of the arts. Amongst these are the seven higher state academies of music. There are a number of private educational institutions and four national military academies (two for the army and one each for the other branches of service).

Culture

The culture of Poland is closely connected with its intricate 1,000-year
history[200]
Its unique character developed as a result of its geography at the confluence of European cultures. With origins in the culture of the Proto-Slavs, over time Polish culture has been profoundly influenced by its interweaving ties with the
Germanic,
Latinate
and Byzantine
worlds as well as in continual dialog with the many other ethnic groups and minorities living in Poland.[201]
The people of Poland have traditionally been seen as hospitable to artists from abroad and eager to follow cultural and artistic trends popular in other countries. In the 19th and 20th centuries the Polish focus on cultural advancement often took precedence over political and economic activity. These factors have contributed to the versatile nature of Polish art, with all its complex nuances.[201]

Society

Pope John Paul II
is considered to have been a great promoter of Poland around the world

Poland has a long-standing tradition of tolerance towards minorities, as well as an absence of discrimination on the grounds of religion, nationality or race.[208]
Prior to World War II, ethnic minorities made up a significant proportion of the Polish population. Poland has maintained a high level of gender equality, an established
disability rights movement
and promotes peaceful equality.[citation needed]

Poland was the first country in the world to prohibit
corporal punishment
in all its forms.[46]
Poland has, throughout most of its long history, experienced only very limited immigration from abroad; this trend can be largely attributed to Poland's rejection of slavery and to a lack of overseas colonies as well as occupation of its territories during much of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Despite this, the country has for a long time been regarded as having a very tolerant society, which affords equal rights to all people no matter what their ethnic background.[citation needed]
This can be said to stem largely from the reign of King Casimir III the Great
and his acceptance for Poland's Jewish community, in a time when most of Europe recessed into
antisemitic
moods and actions. The history of Jews in Poland
exemplifies peaceful co-existence of a nation with a particular ethnic group.

In 2013, the
Polish parliament
rejected proposed legislation
for civil partnerships, which the majority of Polish society is against,[210]
but for the first time it gave an asylum to a gay person from Uganda on the basis of the sexual orientation.[211]
In a 2013 opinion poll conducted by CBOS, 60% of Poles were against homosexual civil partnerships, 72% were against