DESCRIPTION : Over SIXTY YEARS ago , In 1949 , Before the HISTORICAL
EVENT , For the first time in the INDEPENDENT STATE of ISRAEL , Of the FIRST
ELECTIONS for the CONSISTUENT ASSEMBLY ( Before the birth of the KNESSET
),Theofficial IDF - ZAHAL magazine"BAMACHANEH " (IN CAMP) has issued
a SPECIAL COMMEMORATIVE MAGAZINE- An ELECTIONS SUPPLEMENT , Especialy published
and distributed to the IDF - ZAHAL soldiers ( A special MILITARY EDITION ) with
INSTRUCTIONS to the ELECTIONS PROCEEDURE in the army camps and military posts ,
As well as the STATEMENT of the CHIEF OF STAFF at the time, Ya'akov Dori , And
the POLITICAL PLATFORMS of all the parties which were involved in the process.
An impressive HERZL IMAGE on the FRONT COVER. An
EXTREMELY RARE SC. ( HERZL IMAGE on
front ) . Around 9.5 x 13" .18 pp. Quite good condition..( Pls
look at scan for accurate AS IS images )Magazine will be sent inside a
protective envelope .
PAYMENTS : Payment method accepted : Paypal .SHIPPMENT : SHIPP worldwide via registered airmail free . Magazine will be sent inside a protective rigid envelope
. Will be sent within3-5 days after payment . Kindly note that duration of Int'l registered airmail is
around 14 days.
From WIKIPEDIA : Theodor Herzl (Hebrew: בנימין זאב הרצל‎ (Binyamin Ze'ev
Herzl)) (May 2, 1860–July 3, 1904) was an Austrian Jewish journalist who founded
modern political Zionism. Herzl was born in Pest (today the Eastern half of
Budapest, then a separate city) to a German-speaking family originally from
Zemun (now in Serbia but then in Hungary). When Theodor was 18 his family moved
to Vienna. There, he studied law, but he devoted himself almost exclusively to
journalism and literature, working as a correspondent for the Neue Freie Presse
in Paris, occasionally making special trips to London and Istanbul. Later, he
became literary editor of Neue Freie Presse,and wrote several comedies and
dramas for the Viennese stage. As a young man, Herzl was engaged in a
Burschenschaft association, which strove for German unity under the motto Ehre,
Freiheit, Vaterland ("Honor, Freedom, Fatherland"), and his early work did not
focus on Jewish life. His work was of the feuilleton order, descriptive rather
than political. In spite of his Jewish ethnicity, Herzl was an avowed atheist.As
Paris correspondent for Neue Freie Presse, Herzl followed the Dreyfus Affair, a
notorious anti-Semitic incident in France in which a French Jewish army captain
was falsely convicted of spying for Germany. He witnessed mass rallies in Paris
following the Dreyfus trial where many chanted "Death to the Jews!" Herzl came
to reject his early ideas regarding Jewish emancipation and assimilation, and to
believe that the Jews must remove themselves from Europe and create their own
state.In June, 1895, he wrote in his diary: "In Paris, as I have said, I
achieved a freer attitude toward anti-Semitism... Above all, I recognized the
emptiness and futility of trying to 'combat' anti-Semitism." In Der Judenstaat
he writes: "The Jewish question persists wherever Jews live in appreciable
numbers. Wherever it does not exist, it is brought in together with Jewish
immigrants. We are naturally drawn into those places where we are not
persecuted, and our appearance there gives rise to persecution. This is the
case, and will inevitably be so, everywhere, even in highly civilised
countries—see, for instance, France—so long as the Jewish question is not solved
on the political level. The unfortunate Jews are now carrying the seeds of
anti-Semitism into England; they have already introduced it into America."From
April, 1896, when the English translation of his Der Judenstaat (The State of
the Jews) appeared, Herzl became the leading spokesman for Zionism. Herzl
complemented his writing with practical work to promote Zionism on the
international stage. He visited Istanbul in April, 1896, and was hailed at
Sofia, Bulgaria, by a Jewish delegation. In London, the Maccabees group received
him coldly, but he was granted the mandate of leadership from the Zionists of
the East End of London. Within six months this mandate had been approved
throughout Zionist Jewry, and Herzl traveled constantly to draw attention to his
cause. His supporters, at first few in number, worked night and day, inspired by
Herzl's example. In June of 1896, he met for the first time with the Sultan of
Turkey, but the Sultan refused to cede Palestine to Zionists, saying, "if one
day the Islamic State falls apart then you can have Palestine for free, but as
long as I am alive I would rather have my flesh be cut up than cut out Palestine
from the Muslim land."In 1897, at considerable personal expense, he founded Die
Welt of Vienna and planned the First Zionist Congress in Basel. He was elected
president, (a position he held until his death in 1904), and in 1898 he began a
series of diplomatic initiatives intended to build support for a Jewish country.
He was received by the German emperor on several occasions, was again granted an
audience by the Ottoman emperor in Jerusalem, and attended The Hague Peace
Conference, enjoying a warm reception by many other statesmen. In 1902–03 Herzl
was invited to give evidence before the British Royal Commission on Alien
Immigration. The appearance brought him into close contact with members of the
British government, particularly with Joseph Chamberlain, then secretary of
state for the colonies, through whom he negotiated with the Egyptian government
for a charter for the settlement of the Jews in Al 'Arish, in the Sinai
Peninsula, adjoining southern Palestine. On the failure of that scheme, which
took him to Cairo, he received, through L. J. Greenberg, an offer (Aug., 1903)
on the part of the British government to facilitate a large Jewish settlement,
with autonomous government and under British suzerainty, in British East Africa.
At the same time, the Zionist movement being threatened by the Russian
government, he visited St. Petersburg and was received by Sergei Witte, then
finance minister, and Viacheslav Plehve, minister of the interior, the latter of
whom placed on record the attitude of his government toward the Zionist
movement. On that occasion Herzl submitted proposals for the amelioration of the
Jewish position in Russia. He published the Russian statement, and brought the
British offer, commonly known as the "Uganda Project," before the Sixth Zionist
Congress (Basel, August 1903), carrying the majority (295:178, 98 abstentions)
with him on the question of investigating this offer, after the Russian
delegation stormed out. In 1905 after investigation the Congress decided to
decline the British offer and firmly committed itself to a Jewish home land in
the historic Land of Israel.Herzl did not live to see the rejection of the
Uganda plan; he died in Edlach, Lower Austria in 1904 of heart failure at age
44. His will stipulated that he should have the poorest-class funeral without
speeches or flowers and he added, "I wish to be buried in the vault beside my
father, and to lie there till the Jewish people shall take my remains to
Palestine". In 1949 his remains were moved from Vienna to be reburied on Mount
Herzl in Jerusalem Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State, 1896) written in German,
was the book that announced the advent of Zionism to the world. It is a
pamphlet-length political program. His last literary work, Altneuland (in Eng.
The Old New Land), is devoted to Zionism. The author occupied his free time for
three years in writing what he believed might be accomplished by 1923. It is
less a novel, though the form is that of romance, than a serious forecasting of
what can be done when one generation shall have passed. The keynotes of the
story are the love for Zion, the insistence upon the fact that the changes in
life suggested are not utopian, but are to be brought about simply by grouping
all the best efforts and ideals of every race and nation; and each such effort
is quoted and referred to in such a manner as to show that Altneuland ("Old-New
land"), though blossoming through the skill of the Jew, will in reality be the
product of the benevolent efforts of all the members of the human family. Herzl
envisioned a Jewish state which combined both a modern Jewish culture with the
best of the European heritage. Thus a Palace of Peace would be built in
Jerusalem, arbitrating international disputes—but at the same time the Temple
would be rebuilt, but on modern principles. He did not envision the Jewish
inhabitants of the state being religious, but there is much respect for religion
in the public sphere. Many languages are spoken—Hebrew is not the main tongue.
Proponents of a Jewish cultural rebirth, such as Ahad Ha'am were critical of
Altneuland. In Altneuland Herzl did not foresee any conflict between Jews and
Arabs. The one Arab character in Altneuland, Reshid Bey, who is one of the
leaders of the "New Society", is very grateful to his Jewish neighbors for
improving the economic condition of Palestine and sees no cause for conflict.
All non-Jews have equal rights, and an attempt by a fanatical rabbi to
disenfranchise the non-Jewish citizens of their rights fails in the election
which is the center of the main political plot of the novel. Altneuland was
written primarily for the world, not for the Zionists. Herzl wanted to win over
non-Jewish opinion for Zionism. In his diary he wrote that land in Palestine was
to be gently expropriated from the Palestinian Arabs and they were to be worked
across the border "unbemerkt" (surreptitiously), e.g. by refusing them
employment. Herzl's draft of a charter for a Jewish-Ottoman Land Company (JOLC)
gave the JOLC the right to obtain land in Palestine by giving its owners
comparable land elsewhere in the Ottoman empire. According to Walid Khalidi this
indicates Herzl's "bland assumption of the transfer of the Palestinian to make
way for the immigrant colonist."The name of Tel Aviv is the title given to the
Hebrew translation of Altneuland by the translator, Nahum Sokolov. This name,
which comes from Ezekiel 3:15, means tell—an ancient mound formed when a town is
built on its own debris for thousands of years—of spring. The name was later
applied to the new town built outside of Jaffa, which went on to become the
second-largest city in Israel. Nearby is Herzlia, named in honor of Herzl.
Herzl's grandfathers, both of whom he knew, were more closely related to
traditional Judaism than his parents, yet two of his paternal grandfather's
brothers and his maternal grandmother's brother exemplify complete estrangement
and rejection of Judaism on the one hand, and utter loyalty and devotion to
Judaism and Eretz Israel. Herzl's paternal grandfather Simon Loeb Herzl,
reportedly attended the Sephardic Zionist Rabbi Judah Alkalai's synagogue in
Semlin, Serbia, and the two frequently visited. Grandfather Simon Loeb Herzl
"had his hands on" one of the first copies of Alkalay's 1857 work prescribing
the "return of the Jews to the Holy Land and renewed glory of Jerusalem."
Contemporary scholars conclude that Herzl's own implementation of modem Zionism
was undoubtedly influenced by that relationship. Herzl’s grandparents' graves in
Semlin can still be visited. Alkalai himself, was witness of rebirth of Serbia
from Otoman rule in early and mid 19th century and was inspired by Serbian
uprising and re-creation of Serbia. Jacob Herzl (1835-1902), Theodor's father,
was a highly successful businessman. Herzl's mother, Jeanette (n?e Diamant) was
a handsome and wise woman. She took pride in her son, but did not have a
successful relationship with her daughter-in-law. Herzl had one sister, Pauline,
a year older than he was, who died suddenly on February 7, 1878 of typhus.
Theodor lived with his family in a house next to the Doh?ny Street Synagogue
(formerly known as Tabakgasse Synagogue) located in Belv?ros, the inner city of
the historical old town of Pest, in the Eastern section of Budapest. The remains
of Herzl's parents and sister were re-buried on Mount Herzl in Jerusalem. In
1889 he married Julie Naschauer, daughter of a wealthy Jewish businessman in
Vienna. The marriage was unhappy, although three children were born to it. Herzl
had a strong attachment to his mother, who was unable to get along with his
wife. These difficulties were increased by the political activities of his later
years, in which his wife took little interest.All three children died
tragically. Pauline suffered from mental illness and drug addiction. She died in
1930 at the age of 40, apparently of a morphine overdose. Hans, a converted
Catholic, committed suicide (gunshot) the day of sister Pauline's funeral. He
was 39. In 2006 the remains of Pauline and Hans were moved from Bordeaux,
France, and placed alongside their father.,The youngest daughter, Trude
Margarethe, (officially Margarethe, 1893-1943) married Richard Neumann. He lost
his fortune in the economic depression. He was burdened by the steep costs of
hospitalizing Trude, who was mentally ill, and was finding it difficult to raise
the money required to send his son Stephan, 14, to a boarding school in London.
After spending many years in hospitals, Trude was taken by the Nazis to
Theresienstadt where she died. Her body was burned.Trude's son (Herzl's only
grandchild), Stephan Theodor Neumann (1918-1946) was sent to England, 1937-1938,
for his safety, as raoffer Austrian anti-Semitism grew. In England, he read
extensively about his grandfather. Stephan became an ardent Zionist. He was the
only Herzl to be a Zionist. Anglicizing his name to Stephen Norman, during WWII,
Norman enlisted in the British Army rising to the rank of Captain in the Royal
Artillery. In late 1945 and early 1946, he took the opportunity to visit the
British Mandate of Palestine "to see what my grandfather had started." He wrote
in his diary extensively about his trip. What impressed him the most was that
there was a "look of freedom" in the faces of the children, not like the sallow
look of those from the concentration camps of Europe. He wrote upon leaving
Palestine, "My visit to Palestine is over... It is said that to go away is to
die a little. And I know that when I went away from Erez Israel, I died a
little. But sure, then, to return is somehow to be reborn. And I will return."
Discharged in Britain he took a minor position with a British Economic and
Scientific mission in Washington, D.C. Autumn, 1946, he learned that his family
had been exterminated. He became deeply depressed over the fate of his family
and the seeming eternal and continuing suffering of the Jewish survivors of the
Holocaust languishing in European Displaced persons camp. Unable to endure the
suffering any further, he jumped from the Massachusetts Avenue Bridge in
Washington, D.C. to his death. Norman was buried by the Jewish Agency in
Washington, D.C. His tombstone reads simply, Stephen Theodore Norman, Captain
Royal Artillery British Army, Grandson of Theodore Herzl, April 21, 1918 -
November 26, 1946. Norman was the only member of Herzl's family to have been to
Palestine. He loved the land and the people. A major Zionist effort is underway
to return the last descendant and only Zionist in Herzl's family to be reburied
with his family on Mt. Herzl on December 5, 2007 ******
Elections for the Constituent Assembly were held in newly
independent Israel on 25 January 1949. Voter
turnout was 86.9%.[1]
Two days after its first meeting on 14 February 1949, legislators voted to
change the name of the body to the Knesset (Hebrew: כנסת,
translated as Assembly). It is known today as the First Knesset.
Historical background
During the establishment of the state of Israel in May 1948, Israel's
national institutions were established, which ruled the new state. These bodies
were not elected bodies in the pure sense, and their members originated from the
management of the Jewish agency
and from the management of the Jewish National
Council. During the Israeli
Declaration of Independence, the Declaration
of Independence stated that: "We declare that after the termination of the
British Mandate, from the 15 May 1948 and until elected authorities of the state
would be established in accordance with a constitution accepted by the Elected
Constituent Assembly not later than October 1, 1948 - the Provisional State
Council would act as the temporary State Council, and its executive
institution, the Provisional
government of Israel, would constitute the temporary Government of the
Jewish state, which would be named Israel." However, the elections were not held
before the designated date due to the War of
Independence, and were actually cancelled twice. The elections were
eventually held on 25 January 1949. Preparations for the elections These were the first
elections held in Israel, and as such they demanded special preparations. On 5
November 1948 the Provisional State
Council decided that the Constituent Assembly would consist of 120 members.
On 8 November 1948 a population census was held which was later used in part for
the preparations of the voters guide (the census was essential due to the rise
of new immigrants and because of the Arab inhabitants of the British Mandate
became refugees after the war). For the purpose of the census the entire country
was under curfew for seven hours, from five in the afternoon and until midnight.
Another issue was the issue of the Electoral System. Suggestions were made of
different Electoral Systems, but eventually it was decided to maintain the
relative electoral system which existed in the elections for the Assembly
of Representatives of the Jewish community in British
controlled Palestine, and that the Constituent Assembly elected would be the
one to determine the future electoral system in Israel. A thousand polling
stations were prepared across the country. According to census, the number of
eligible voters consisted of half a million people. Key issues of
which the election focused Eliezer Preminger left
Maki and re-established the Hebrew Communists
before joining Mapam Ari Jabotinsky and Hillel
Kook, both associated with the Bergson Group
in the United States, broke away from Herut; they were not recognised as a
separate party by the speaker. The
First Knesset First
government Main article: First government
of IsraelThe first government was formed by David Ben-Gurion, on 8
March, 1949. His Mapai party formed a coalition with the United Religious Front,
the Progressive Party, the Sephardim and Oriental Communities and the Democratic
List of Nazareth, and there were 12 ministers. Yosef Sprinzak of Mapai
was appointed as the speaker. The trend of political instability in Israel was
started when Ben-Gurion resigned on 15 October, 1950 over disagreements with the
United Religious Front on education in the new immigrant camps and the religious
education system, as well as demands that the Supply and Rationing Ministry be
closed and a businessman appointed as Minister for Trade and Industry. Second government Main article: Second
government of IsraelBen-Gurion formed a second government on 1 November,
1950 with the same coalition partners as previously, though there was a slight
reshuffle in his cabinet; David Remez moved from the
Transportation ministry to Education, replacing Zalman Shazar (who was
left out of the new cabinet), whilst Dov Yosef replaced Remez as
Minister of Transportation. Ya'akov Geri was
appointed Minister of Trade and Industry despite not being a Member of the
Knesset. There was also a new Deputy Minister in the Transportation ministry.
The door was opened for the elections
for the second knesset when the government resigned on 14 February, 1951
after the Knesset had rejected the Minister of Education and Culture's proposals
on the registration of schoolchildren. ******** Yom Ha'atzmaut (Hebrew: יום העצמאות‎ yom hā-‘aṣmā’ūṯ; Arabic: عيد الاستقلال‎) is the national independence day of Israel,
commemorating its declaration of independence in 1948.It falls on the 5th of the
Jewish month of Iyar, celebrating the declaration of the state of Israel by
David Ben-Gurion in Tel Aviv on May 14, 1948 (5 Iyar, 5708), and the end of the
British Mandate of Palestine.It is always preceded by Yom Hazikaron, the Israel
fallen soldiers Remembrance Day on the 4th of Iyar.An official ceremony is held
every year on Mount Herzl, Jerusalem on the evening of Yom Ha'atzmaut.
The ceremony includes a speech by the speaker of the Knesset (the Israeli
Parliament), a dramatic presentation, a ritual march of soldiers carrying the
Flag of Israel, forming elaborate structures (such as a Menorah, Magen David and
a number which represents the age of Israel) and the lighting of twelve torches
(one for each of the Tribes of Israel). Every year a dozen Israeli citizens, who
made a significant social contribution in a selected area, are invited to light
the torches.Other traditional events of Yom Ha'atzmaut:The International
Bible ContestIsrael Prize ceremonyYom Ha'atzmaut is celebrated on the
5th day of Iyar (ה' באייר) in the Hebrew calendar, the anniversary of the day in
which Israel independence was proclaimed, when David ben Gurion publicly read
the Proclamation of the establishment of the State of Israel. The corresponding
Gregorian date was May 14, 1948.Actually, the festival is celebrated on Tuesday,
Wednesday or Thursday on or near to the 5th of Iyar.If the 5th of Iyar comes out
on a Friday or Saturday, the celebrations are moved up to the preceding
Thursday.If the 5th of Iyar is on a Monday, the festival is postponed to
Tuesday.Gregorian dates for Yom Ha'atzmaut: May 8, 2008 (Thursday;
advanced two days to Iyar 3) April 29, 2009 (Wednesday) Yom Ha'atzma'ut observances The specific ritual
involved in observance of this day is a matter of development. The Chief
Rabbinate along with many other religious authorities have declared that Yom
Ha'atzmaut is one of the Jewish holidays in which Hallel should be said. The
Religious Zionist movement has created a liturgy for the holiday, which
sometimes includes the recitation of some psalms and the reading of a portion of
the Prophets (Haftarah) on the holiday morning. Some segments of the Religious
Zionist camp have promoted the inclusion of a version of Al Hanisim (for the
Miracles...) such as those under the guidance of Rav David Bar Hayim of Machon
Shilo.Other changes to the daily prayers include reciting Hallel, saying the
expanded Pesukei D'Zimrah of Shabbat (the same practice that is observed
almost universally on Hoshanah Rabbah), and/or blowing the Shofar. Rabbi Joseph
Soloveitchik, who according to some of his students, said Hallel on this day,
still referred to some of these practices as "acute Halachic mental
retardation." Most Hasidim and Haredim make no changes to the usual daily
prayers.Some anti-Zionist Jews display a black Flag and wear ashes and sackcloth
as a sign of mourning. Members of the Satmar, Toldos Aaron, Toldos Avraham
Yitzchak, Munkatch, and Vizhnitz-Monsey Chasidic sects fast to atone for what
they view as the sin of having created the State of Israel. The Conservative
Movement instituted the reading of a Torah portion for the day as well as the
inclusion of a version of Al Hanisim (for the Miracles...), which is commonly
recited on Hanukkah and Purim. Some places also read the haftarah Isaiah
10:32-12:6, which is also read on the last day of Pesach.The Reform Movement
suggests the inclusion of Ya'leh V'yavo. An addition to the Amidah that is also
included on Rosh Chodesh (the New Month), Shalosh Regalim (the Pilgrimage
Festivals), Rosh Hashanah, and Yom Kippur.Some Arab citizens of Israel celebrate
Yom Ha'atzmaut but others regard it as a tragic day in their history and call it
al-Nakba ("the catastrophe").Many Israelis celebrate the day with picnics and
barbecues (known in Israeli slang as a "mangal" - from the Arabic word منقل
meaning "stove"). On the eve of the holiday, people sing and dance in the
streets. Balconies are decorated with Israeli Flags, and small Flags are
attached to car windows. Some people leave the Flags up until after Jerusalem
Day. ****** The 1948 IsraeliWAR OF
INDEPENDENCE, known by the Israelis predominantly as War of Independence
(מלחמת העצמאות) and War of Liberation (מלחמת השחרור), was the first in a
series of wars fought between the newly declared State of Israel and its Arab
neighbors in the long-running Arab-Israeli conflict.The War commenced on the
termination of the Mandate on 15 May 1948 following a previous phase of war of
1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine, commenced in Arab rejection of the
1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine (UN General Assembly Resolution
181) that would have created an Arab state and a Jewish state. The War was
fought mostly on the territory of the British Mandate of Palestine, and for a
short time also on the Sinai Peninsula. While the 1948 war was concluded with
the 1949 Armistice Agreements it has not marked the end of the Arab-Israeli
conflict.Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, the Allied
Supreme Council met at the Villa Dechavan in San Remo, Italy, 18 April–26 1920
to settle the final terms of the peace treaty with Turkey. The decisions of the
conference mainly confirmed those of the First Conference of London (February
1920), and broadly reaffirmed the terms of the Anglo-French Sykes-Picot
Agreement of 16 May 1916 for the region's partition and the Balfour Declaration
of 2 November 1917. The San Remo Agreement stated that 'the mandatories chosen
by the Principal Allied Powers are: France for Syria and Great Britain for
Mesopotamia and Palestine.' The high contracting parties agreed further that the
territorial boundaries of these regions would be 'determined by the Principal
Allied Powers'.In the case of Palestine the borders were agreed between the
British and French in two separate conventions: the Franco-British Convention
of 23rdDecember 1920 on Certain Points Connected with the Mandates for Syria
and the Lebanon, Palestine and Mesopotamia and the Agreement Between the
British and the French Governments Respecting the Boundary Line Between Syria
and Palestine from the Mediterranean to El Hammé, 1923.During meetings in
Cairo and Jerusalem between Winston Churchill and Emir Abdullah in March 1921 it
was agreed that Abdullah would administer the territory of Transjordan
(initially for six months only) on behalf of the Palestine administration. In
the summer of 1921 Transjordan was included within the Mandate of Palestine, but
excluded from the provisions for a Jewish National Home.On 24 July 1922 the
League of Nations approved the terms of the British Mandate over Palestine and
Transjordan. On 16 September the League formally approved a memorandum from Lord
Balfour confirming the exemption of Transjordan from the clauses of the mandate
concerning the creation of a Jewish national home and from the mandate's
responsibility to facilitate Jewish immigration and land settlement.In
1922 the population of Palestine consisted of approximately 589,200 Muslims,
83,800 Jews, 71,500 Christians and 7,600 others (1922 census). However, this
area gradually saw a large influx of Jewish immigrants (most of whom were
fleeing the increasing persecution in Europe). This immigration and accompanying
call for a Jewish state in Palestine drew violent opposition from local Arabs,
in part because of Zionism's stated goal of a Jewish state, which many Arabs
believed would require the subjugation or removal of the existing non-Jewish
population.Under the leadership of Haj Amin al-Husayni, the Grand Mufti of
Jerusalem, the local Arabs rebelled against the British, and attacked the
growing Jewish population repeatedly. These sporadic attacks began with the
riots in Palestine of 1920 and Jaffa riots (or "Hurani Riots") of 1921. During
the 1929 Palestine riots ( Pogroms), 133 Jews were killed, 67 of them in Hebron,
and 355 wounded. By the time the British intervened 116 Arabs were also killed
in the fighting.The Great Arab Revolt (1936–1939) and
its aftermathIn the late 1920s and early 1930s several factions of Arab
society became impatient with the internecine divisions and ineffectiveness of
the Arab elite and engaged in grass-roots anti-British and anti-Zionist activism
organized by groups such as the Young Men's Muslim Association. There was also
support for the growth in influence of the radical nationalist Independence
Party (Hizb al-Istiqlal), Indian Congress Party. Most of these
initiatives were contained and defeated by notables in the pay of the Mandatory
Administration, particularly the mufti and his cousin Jamal al-Husayni.
The death of the preacher Shaykh Izz ad-Din al-Qassam at the hands of the
British police near Jenin in November 1935 generated widespread outrage and huge
crowds accompanied Qassam's body to his grave in Haifa. A few months later a
spontaneous Arab national general strike broke out. This lasted until October
1936. During the summer of that year thousands of Jewish-farmed acres and
orchards were destroyed, Jews were attacked and killed and some Jewish
communities, such as those in Beisan and Acre, fled to safer areas.In the wake
of the strike and the Peel Commission recommendation of partition of the country
into a small Jewish state and an Arab state to be attached to Jordan, an armed
uprising spread through the country. Over the next 18 months the British lost
control of Jerusalem, Nablus, and Hebron. During this period from 1936–1939,
known as the Great Arab Revolt or the "Great Uprising", British forces,
supported by 6,000 armed Jewish auxiliary police, suppressed the widespread
riots with overwhelming force. This resulted in the deaths of 5,000 Palestinian
Arabs and the wounding of 10,000. In total 10 percent of the adult male
population was killed, wounded, imprisoned, or exiled (see Khalidi, 2001). The
Jewish population had 400 killed; the British 200. In another significant
development during this time the British officer Charles Orde Wingate (who
supported a Zionist revival for religious reasons[) organized Special Night Squads composed of
British soldiers and Haganah mercenaries, which "scored significant successes
against the Arab rebels in the lower Galilee and in the Jezreel valley" by
conducting raids on Arab villages. The squads were rumored to have used
excessive and indiscriminate force, which has been cited by Israeli academic
Anita Shapira. The Haganah mobilized up to 20,000 policemen, field troops and
night squads; the latter included Yigal Allon and Moshe Dayan. Significantly,
from 1936 to 1945, whilst establishing collaborative security arrangements with
the Jewish Agency (see below for details), the British confiscated 13,200
firearms from Arabs and 521 weapons from Jews.In assessing the overall impact of
the revolt on subsequent events Rashid Khalidi argues that its negative effects
on Palestinian national leadership, social cohesion and military capabilities
contributed to the outcome of 1948 because "when the Palestinians faced their
most fateful challenge in 1947–49, they were still suffering from the British
repression of 1936–39, and were in effect without a unified leadership. Indeed,
it might be argued that they were virtually without any leadership at all".The
attacks on the Jewish population by Arabs had three lasting effects: First, they
led to the further development of Jewish underground militias, primarily the
Haganah ("The Defense"), which were to prove decisive in 1948. Secondly, the
attacks solidified general sentiment that the two communities could not be
reconciled, and the idea of partition was born. Thirdly, the British responded
to Arab opposition with the White Paper of 1939, which severely restricted
Jewish immigration. However, with the advent of World War II, even this reduced
immigration quota was not reached. The White Paper policy also radicalized
segments of the Jewish population, who after the war would no longer cooperate
with the British.The British Mandate administration and
training of local Arabs and JewsFrom 1936 onward the British government
facilitated the training, arming, recruitment and funding of a range of security
and intelligence forces in collaboration with the Jewish Agency. These included
the Guards (Notrim), which were divided into the 6,000 to
14,000-strong Jewish Supernumerary Police, the élite and highly mobile
6,000–8,000 strong Jewish Settlement Police and the Special Night Squads, the
forerunner of Britain's Special Air Service regiments. There was also an élite
strike force known as the FOSH, or Field Companies, with around 1,500
members, which were replaced by the larger HISH or Field Force in
1939.The SHAI, the intelligence and counter-espionage arm of the Haganah, was
the forebear of Mossad.The British had enlisted 6,000 Palestinian Arabs during
World War II and 1,700 Palestinian Arabs were recruited into the Trans-Jordanian
Frontier Force or T.J.F.F. . In addition the British supplied officers, such as
John Bagot Glubb Pasha for the Jordan's Arab Legion, and supplied the Egyptian
army with trucks, rifles and airplanes. The British army therefore was
intimately involved, ironically, in the training of both sides for the coming
conflict.World War IIOn 6 August 1940 Anthony
Eden, the British Secretary of State for War, informed Parliament that the
Cabinet had decided to recruit Arab and Jewish units as battalions of the Royal
East Kent Regiment (the "Buffs").At a luncheon with Chaim Weizmann on 3
September Winston Churchill approved the large-scale recruitment of Jewish
forces in Palestine and the training of their officers. A further 10,000 men (no
more than 3,000 from Palestine) were to be recruited to Jewish units in the
British Army for training in the United Kingdom.Faced with Field Marshal
Rommel's advance in Egypt, the British government decided on 15 April 1941 that
the 10,000 Jews dispersed in the single defense companies of the Buffs should be
prepared for war service at the battalion level and that another 10,000 should
also be mobilized along with 6,000 Supernumerary Police and 40,000 to 50,000
home guard. The plans were approved by Field Marshall John Dill. The Special
Operations Executive (SOE) in Cairo approved a Haganah proposal for guerrilla
activities in northern Palestine led by the Palmach arm of the Haganah, as part
of which Yitzhak Sadeh devised Plan North for an armed enclave in the Carmel
range from which the Yishuv could defend the region and from which they could
attack Nazi communications and supply lines, if necessary. British intelligence
also trained a small radio network under Moshe Dayan to act as spy cells in the
event of a German invasion.After much hesitation, on 3 July 1944 the British
government consented to the establishment of a Jewish Brigade with hand-picked
Jewish and also non-Jewish senior officers. On 20 September 1944 an official
communiqué by the War Office announced the formation of the Jewish Brigade Group
of the British Army. The Zionist Flag was officially approved as its standard.
It included more than 5,000 Jewish volunteers from Palestine organized into
three infantry battalions and several supporting units.As soon as the war ended
British policy reverted to that of the period immediately before the war. Arms
were confiscated and some Haganah members were arrested and tried, one notable
case being that of Eliahu Sacharoff, who received a sentence of seven years'
imprisonment for possession of two stolen firearms cartridges.UN Partition Plan On 29 November 1947 the United
Nations General Assembly approved a plan, UN General Assembly Resolution 181, to
resolve the Arab-Jewish conflict by partitioning Palestine into two states, one
Jewish and one Arab. Each state would comprise three major sections, linked by
extraterritorial crossroads; the Arab state would also have an enclave at Jaffa.
With about 32% of the population, the Jews would get 56% of the territory, an
area that then contained 499,000 Jews and 438,000 Palestinians, though this
included the inhospitable Negev Desert in the south. The Palestinians would get
42% of the land, which then had a population of 818,000 Palestinians and 10,000
Jews. In consideration of its religious significance, the Jerusalem area,
including Bethlehem, with 100,000 Jews and an equal number of Palestinians, was
to become a Corpus Separatum, to be administered by the UN.Although some Jews
criticized aspects of the plan, the resolution was welcomed by most of the
Jewish population. The Jewish leadership accepted the partition plan as "the
indispensable minimum," glad as they were with the international recognition,
but sorry that they didn't get more.Arguing that the partition plan was unfair
to the Arabs with regard to the population balance at that time, the
representatives of the Palestinian Arabs and the Arab League firmly opposed the
UN action and even rejected its authority to involve itself in the entire
matter. They upheld "that the rule of Palestine should revert to its
inhabitants, in accordance with the provisions of [...] the Charter of the
United Nations."According to Article 73b of the Charter, the UN should develop
self-government of the peoples in a territory under its administration.1947–1948 Civil War in mandatory PalestineIn the
immediate aftermath of the United Nations' approval of the Partition plan, the
explosions of joy amongst the Jewish community were counterbalanced by the
expression of discontent amongst the Arab community. Soon thereafter, violence
broke out and became more prevalent. Murders, reprisals, and counter-reprisals
came one after the other, killing dozens of victims on both sides in the
process.Summarizing the military assessments of the British, Jewish Agency and
the Arabs, historian Benny Morris writes, "all observers—Jewish, British,
Palestinian Arab, and external Arab—agreed on the eve of the war that the
Palestinians were incapable of beating the Zionists or of withstanding Zionist
assault. The Palestinians were simply too weak."During the period beginning in
December 1947 and ending in January 1948, it was estimated that nearly 1,000
people were killed and 2,000 people were injured. By the end of March, the
figure had risen to 2,000 dead and 4,000 wounded. These figures correspond to an
average of more than 100 deaths and 200 casualties per week; in a population of
2,000,000.From January onwards operations became more militaristic, with the
intervention into Palestine of a number of Arab Liberation Army regiments who
divided up around the different coastal towns and reinforced Galilee and
Samaria.Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni came from Egypt with several hundred men of the
Army of Holy War.Having recruited a few thousand volunteers, al-Husayni
organized the blockade of the 100,000 Jewish residents of Jerusalem. To counter
this, the Yishuv authorities tried to supply the city with convoys of up to 100
armoured vehicles, but the operation became more and more impractical and more
and more died in this process. By March, Al-Hussayni's tactic had paid off.
Almost the entirety of Haganah's armoured vehicles had been destroyed, the
blockade was in full operation, and hundreds of the Haganah members who tried to
bring supplies to the city were killed. The situation for those who dwelt in the
Jewish settlements in the highly-isolated Negev and northern Galilee was even
more critical.Since the Jewish population was under strict orders obliging them
to hold their dominions at all costs, the situation of insecurity across the
country affected the Arab population more visibly. Up to 100,000 Palestinians,
chiefly those from the upper classes, left the country to seek refuge abroad or
in Samaria.This situation caused the U.S. to retract their support for the
Partition plan, thus encouraging the Arab League to believe that the
Palestinians, reinforced by the Arab Liberation Army, could put an end to the
partition plan. The British, on the other hand, decided on 7 February 1948 to
support the annexation of the Arab part of Palestine by Jordan.Although a
certain level of doubt took hold amongst Yishuv supporters, their apparent
defeats were due more to their wait-and-see policy than to weakness. Ben-Gurion
reorganized the Haganah and made conscription obligatory. Every Jewish man and
woman in the country had to receive military training. Due to funds gathered by
Golda Meir from sympathizers in the United States, and assisted by Stalin's
support for the Zionist cause at the time, the Jewish representatives of
Palestine were able to sign very important armament contracts in the East. Other
Haganah agents retrieved stockpiles from World War II, which helped equip the
army further. Operation Balak allowed arms and other equipment to be transported
for the first time by the end of March.Ben-Gurion assigned Yigael Yadin the
responsibility to come up with a plan in preparation for the announced
intervention of the Arab states. The result of his analysis was Plan Dalet,
which was put in place from the start of April onwards. The adoption of Plan
Dalet marked the second stage of the war, in which Haganah passed from the
defensive to the offensive.The first operation, named Operation Nachshon,
consisted of lifting the blockade on Jerusalem. Fifteen hundred men from the
Haganah's Givati Brigade and the Palmach's Harel brigade went about freeing the
route to the city between 5 April and 20 April.The operation was successful, and
enough foodstuffs to last two months were shipped to Jerusalem and distributed
to the Jewish population. The success of the operation was added to by the death
of al-Hussayni in combat. During this time, and beyond the command of Haganah or
the framework of Plan Dalet, troops from Irgun and Lehi massacred more than 100
Arabs, mostly civilians, at Deir Yassin, a move that had an important impact on
the Palestinian population, and one that was criticised and lamented by all the
principal Jewish authorities of the day.At the same time, the first large-scale
operation of the Arab Liberation Army ended in a debacle, having been roundly
defeated at Mishmar Ha'emek and having lost their Druze allies through
defection.Within the framework for the expansion of Jewish territory foreseen by
Plan Dalet, the forces of Haganah, Palmach and Irgun intended to conquer mixed
zones. Whether ethnic cleansing was the intention, encouraged, or merely
accepted, Palestinian society was shaken. Tiberias, Haifa, Safed, Beisan, Jaffa
and Acre fell, resulting in the flight of more than 250,000 Palestinians.The
British had, at that time, essentially withdrawn their troops. The situation
pushed the leaders of the neighbouring Arab states to intervene, but their
preparation was not finalized, and they could not assemble forces that would be
able to turn the tide of the war. The majority of Palestinian hopes lay with the
Arab Legion of Jordan's monarch, King Abdullah I, but he had no intention of
creating a Palestinian-run state, instead hoping to annex as much of the
territory of the British Mandate of Palestine as he could. He was playing a
double-game, being just as much in contact with the Jewish authorities as with
the Arab League.In preparation for the offensive, Haganah successfully launched
Operations Yiftah and Ben Ami to secure the Jewish settlements of Galilee, and
Operation Kilshon, which created a united front around Jerusalem.Golda Meir and
Abdullah I met on 10 May to discuss the situation, but the meeting was
inconclusive and their former agreements were not confirmed. On 13 May, the Arab
Legion, backed by irregulars, attacked and took Kfar Etzion where 127 out of the
131 Jewish defenders were killed and the prisoners massacred.On 14 May 1948,
David Ben-Gurion declared the independence of the state of Israel, and the 1948
Palestine war entered its second phase, with the intervention of several Arab
states' armies the following day.Political
objectivesThe YishuvBenny Morris points
out Yishuv s aims evolved during the war.Initially, the aim was "simple and
modest": to survive the assaults of the Palestinian Arabs and the Arab states.
"The Zionist leaders deeply, genuinely, feared a Middle Eastern reenactment of
the Holocaust, which had just ended; the Arabs' public rhetoric reinforced these
fears". As the war progressed, the aim of expanding the Jewish state beyond the
UN partition borders appeared: first to incorporate clusters of isolated Jewish
settlements and later to add more territories to the state and give it
defensible borders. A third and further aim that emerged among the political and
military leaders after four or five months was to "reduce the size of Israel's
prospective large and hostile Arab minority, seen as a potential powerful fifth
column, by belligerency and expulsion."Morris has argued that although, by the
end of 1947, the Palestinians "had a healthy and demoralising respect for the
Yishuv's military power" they believed in decades or centuries "that the Jews,
like the medieval crusader kingdoms, would ultimately be overcome by the Arab
world".On the eve of the war the number of Arab troops likely to be committed to
the war was about 23,000 (10,000 Egyptians, 4,500 Jordanians, 3,000 Iraqis,
3,000 Syrians, 2,000 ALA volunteers, 1,000 Lebanese and some Saudi Arabians), in
addition to the irregular Palestinians already present. The Yishuv had 35,000
troops of the Haganah, 3,000 of Stern and Irgun and a few thousand armed
settlers.On 12 May David Ben-Gurion was told by his chief military advisers,
'who over-estimated the size of the Arab armies and the numbers and efficiency
of the troops who would be committed', that Israel's chances of winning a war
against the Arab states was only about even.Yishuv
forcesIn November 1947, the Haganah was an underground paramilitary force
that had existed as a highly organised, national force since the riots of
1920–21, and throughout the riots of 1929, and Great Uprising of 1936–39 It had
a mobile force, the HISH, which had 2,000 full time fighters (men and women) and
10,000 reservists (all aged between 18 and 25) and an elite unit, the Palmach
composed of 2,100 fighters and 1,000 reservists. The reservists trained 3–4 days
a month and went back to civilian life the rest of the time. These mobile forces
could rely on a garrison force, the HIM (Heil Mishmar, lit. Guard
Corps), composed of people aged over 25. The Yishuv's total strength was around
35,000 with 15,000 to 18,000 fighters and a garrison force of roughly 20,000 The
two clandestine groups Irgun and Lehi had 2,000–4,000 and 500–800 members,
respectively. There were also several thousand men and women who had served in
the British Army in World War II who did not serve in any of the underground
militias but would provide valuable military experience during the war. Walid
Khalidi says the Yishuv had the additional forces of the Jewish Settlement
Police, numbering some 12,000, the Gadna Youth Battalions, and the armed
settlers. Few of the units had been trained by December 1947.In 1946 Ben-Gurion
decided that the Yishuv would probably have to defend itself against both the
Palestinian Arabs and neighbouring Arab states and accordingly began a "massive,
covert arms acquisition campaign in the West". By September 1947 the Haganah had
"10,489 rifles, 702 light machine-guns, 2,666 submachine guns, 186 medium
machine-guns, 672 two-inch mortars and 92 three-inch (76 mm) mortars" and
acquired many more during the first few months of hostilities. The Yishuv also
had "a relatively advanced arms producing capacity", that between October 1947
and July 1948 "produced 3 million 9 mm bullets, 150,000 mills grenades, 16,000
submachine guns (Sten Guns) and 210 three-inch (76 mm) mortars". Initially, the
Haganah had no heavy machine guns, artillery, armoured vehicles, anti-tank or
anti-aircraft weapons, nor military aircraft or tanks.Sources disagree about the
amount of arms at the Yishuv's disposal at the end of the Mandate. According to
Karsh before the arrival of arms shipments from Czechoslovakia as part of
Operation Balak, there was roughly one weapon for every three fighters and even
the Palmach armed only two out of every three of its active members. According
to Collins and LaPierre, by April 1948 the Haganah had managed to accumulate
only about 20,000 rifles and Sten guns for the 35,000 soldiers who existed on
paper.According to Walid Khalidi "the arms at the disposal of these forces were
plentiful".1948 Arab-Israeli War First phase: 14 May 1948–11 June 1948 The British
mandate over Palestine was due to expire on 15 May, but Jewish Leadership led by
future Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, declared independence on 14 May. The
State of Israel declared itself as an independent nation, and was quickly
recognized by the United States, the Soviet Union, and many other countries.Over
the next few days, approximately 1,000 Lebanese, 5,000 Syrian, 5,000 Iraqi, and
10,000 Egyptian troops invaded the newly-established state. Four thousand
Jordanian troops invaded the Corpus separatum region encompassing Jerusalem and
its environs, as well as areas designated as part of the Arab state by the UN
partition plan. They were aided by corps of volunteers from Saudi Arabia, Libya
and Yemen.In an official cablegram from the Secretary-General of the League of
Arab States to the UN Secretary-General on 15 May 1948, the Arab states publicly
proclaimed their aim of creating a "United State of Palestine" in place of the
Jewish and Arab, two-state, UN Plan. They claimed the latter was invalid, as it
was opposed by Palestine's Arab majority, and maintained that the absence of
legal authority made it necessary to intervene to protect Arab lives and
property.Israel, the United States and the Soviets called the Arab states' entry
into Palestine illegal aggression, while UN Secretary-General Trygve Lie
characterized it as "the first armed aggression which the world had seen since
the end of the [Second World] War." China, meanwhile, broadly backed the Arab
claims. Both sides increased their manpower over the following months, but the
Israeli advantage grew steadily as a result of the progressive mobilization of
Israeli society and the influx of an average of 10,300 immigrants each month.On
26 May 1948, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) was officially established and the
Haganah, Palmach and Irgun were dissolved into the army of the new Jewish state.
As the war progressed, the IDF managed to field more troops than the Arab
forces. By July 1948, the IDF was fielding 63,000 troops; by early spring 1949,
115,000. The Arab armies had an estimated 40,000 troops in July 1948, rising to
55,000 in October 1948, and slightly more by the spring of 1949.All Jewish
aviation assets were placed under the control of the Sherut Avir (Air
Service, known as the SA) in November 1947 and flying operations began in the
following month from a small civil airport on the outskirts of Tel Aviv called
Sde Dov, with the first ground support operation (in an R.W.D. 13) taking place
on 17 December. The Galilee Squadron was formed at Yavne'el in March 1948 and
the Negev Squadron was formed at Nir-Am in April. By 10 May, when the SA
suffered its first combat loss, there were three flying units, an air staff,
maintenance facilities and logistics support. At the outbreak of the war on 15
May the SA became the Israeli Air Force, but, during the first few weeks of the
war, with its fleet of light planes it was no match for Arab forces flying T-6s,
Spitfires, C-47s and Avro Ansons and indeed the main Arab losses were the result
of RAF action in response to Egyptian raids on the British air base at Ramat
David near Haifa on 22 May during which 5 Egyptian Spitfires were shot down. It
was also during this time that the balance of air power began to swing in favor
of the Israeli Air Force following the purchase of 25 Avia S-199s from
Czechoslovakia, the first of which arrived in Israel on 20 May. This created the
ironic situation of the young Jewish state using derivatives of the Bf-109
designed in Nazi Germany to help counter the British-designed Spitfires flown by
Egypt. The first raid on an Arab capital followed on the night of 31 May/June 1
when three Israeli planes bombed Amman. By the fall of 1948, The IDF achieved
air superiority and had superiority in firepower and knowledgeable personnel,
many of whom had seen action in World War II.The first mission of the IDF was to
hold on against the Arab armies and stop them from destroying major Jewish
settlements, until reinforcements and weapons arrived.The heaviest fighting
would occur in Jerusalem and on the Jerusalem-Tel Aviv road, between Jordan's
Arab Legion and the Israeli forces. Abdullah ordered Glubb Pasha, the commander
of the Jordanian-led Arab Legion, to enter Jerusalem on 17 May, and heavy
house-to-house fighting occurred between 19 May and 28 May, with the Arab Legion
succeeding in expelling Israeli forces from the Arab quarters of Jerusalem as
well as the Jewish Quarter of the Old City. All the Jewish inhabitants of the
Old City were expelled by the Jordanians. Iraqi troops failed in attacks on
Jewish settlements (the most notable battle was on Mishmar HaEmek), and instead
took defensive positions around Jenin, Nablus, and Tulkarm.On 24 May 1948 IDF
forces at Latrun-consisting of the 7th Armoured Brigade (Israel) and the
Alexandroni Brigade-attacked the Arab Legion forces in Operation "Bin-Nun A" and
on 1 June 1948 the same IDF forces again attacked Latrun Arab Legion forces in
Operation "Bin-Nun B". Both attacks failed and both Brigades suffered heavy
casualties of a total of 139 killed.In the north, the Syrian army was blocked in
the kibbutz Degania, where the settlers managed to stop the Syrian armored
forces with only light weapons. One tank that was disabled by a Molotov cocktail
is still present at the kibbutz. Later, an artillery bombardment, made by
cannons jury-rigged from 19th century museum pieces, led to the withdrawal of
the Syrians from the kibbutz.During the following months, the Syrian army was
repelled, and so were the Palestinian irregulars and the ALA.In the south, an
Egyptian attack was able to penetrate the defenses of several Israeli kibbutzim,
but with heavy cost. This attack was stopped near Ashdod.The Israeli military
managed not only to maintain their military control of the Jewish territories,
but to expand their holdings.First truce (11 June 1948–8
July 1948 The UN declared a truce on 29 May which came into effect on 11
June and would last 28 days. The cease-fire was overseen by the UN mediator
Folke Bernadotte. An arms embargo was declared with the intention that neither
side would make any gains from the truce. At the end of the truce, Folke
Bernadotte presented a new partition plan that would give the Galilee to the
Jews and the Negev to the Arabs. Both sides rejected the plan. On 8 July, before
the expiration of the truce, Egyptian General Naguib renewed the war by
attacking the Negba position of Israel.Second phase (8
July 1948–18 July 1948)The ten days at the height of the summer between
the two truces were dominated by large scale Israeli offensives and a defensive
posture from the Arab side. Operation Dani was the most important Israeli
offensive, aimed at securing and enlarging the corridor between Jerusalem and
Tel Aviv by capturing the roadside cities Lydda (later renamed Lod) and Ramle.
Following their capture, the residents of Lydda and Ramle, some 50,000
Palestinians, left the city, in the largest single exodus of the war.In a second
planned stage of the operation the fortified positions of Latrun, overlooking
the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem highway, and the city of Ramallah, were also to be
captured but this part of the operation failed.The second plan was Operation
Dekel whose aim was to capture the lower Galilee including Nazareth. The third
plan, to which fewer resources were allocated, Operation Kedem was to secure the
Old City of Jerusalem.Operation DaniLydda (Lod
was mainly defended by the Jordan Army, but also local Palestinian militias and
the Arab Liberation Army were present. The city was attacked from the north via
Majdal al-Sadiq and al-Muzayri'a and from the east via Khulda, al-Qubab, Jimzu
and Danyal. Bombers were also used for the first time in the conflict to bombard
the city. On 11 July 1948 the IDF captured the city.The next day, 12 July 1948
Ramle also fell to the hands of Israel.15 July–July 16 an attack on Latrun took
place but did not manage to occupy the fort. A desperate second attempt occurred
(18 July) by units from the Yiftach Brigade equipped with armored vehicles,
including two Cromwell tanks, but that attack also failed. Despite the second
truce, which began on 18 July, the Israeli efforts to conquer Latrun continued
until 20 July.Operation DekelWhile Operation Dani
proceeded in the centre, Operation Dekel was carried out in the north. Nazareth
was captured on 16 July and when the second truce took effect at 19:00 18 July,
the whole lower Galilee from Haifa bay to the Sea of Galilee was captured by
Israel.Operation KedemOriginally the operation
was to be executed on 8 July, immediately after the first truce, by Irgun and
Lehi. However, it was delayed by David Shaltiel, possibly because he did not
trust their ability after their failure to capture Deir Yassin without Haganah
assistance.The Irgun forces that were commanded by Yehuda Lapidot (Nimrod) were
to break through at The New Gate, Lehi was to break through the wall stretching
from the New Gate to the Jaffa Gate and the Beit Hiron Battalion was to strike
from Mount Zion.The battle was planned to begin on the Sabbath, at 20:00 Friday
16 July a day before the Second Cease-fire of the Arab-Israeli war. The plan
went wrong from the beginning and was postponed first to 23:00 and then to
midnight. It was not until 02:30 that the battle actually began. The Irgunists
managed to break through at the New Gate but the other forces failed in their
missions. At 05:45 in the morning Shaltiel ordered a retreat and to cease the
hostilities.Second truce: 18 July 1948–15 October
194819:00 18 July, the second truce of the conflict went into effect
after intense diplomatic efforts by the UN.On 16 September, Folke Bernadotte
proposed a new partition for Palestine in which Jordan would annex Arab areas
including the Negev, al-Ramla, and Lydda. There would be a Jewish state in the
whole of Galilee, internationalization of Jerusalem, and return or compensation
for refugees. The plan was once again rejected by both sides. On the next day,
17 September, Bernadotte was assassinated by the Lehi and his deputy, American
Ralph Bunche, replaced him.Third phase (15 October
1948–20 July 1949)Israeli
operationsBetween 15 October and 20 July Israel launched a series of
military operations in order to drive out the Arab armies and secure the borders
of Israel.On 24 October, the IDF launched Operation Hiram and captured the
entire Upper Galilee, driving the ALA and Lebanese army back to Lebanon. It was
a complete success and at the end of the month, Israel had not only managed to
capture the whole Galilee but had also advanced 5miles (8.0km) into Lebanon to
the Litani River.On 15 October the IDF launched Operation Yoav in the northern
Negev. Its goal was to drive a wedge between the Egyptian forces along the coast
and the Beersheba-Hebron-Jerusalem road and ultimately to conquer the whole
Negev. Operation Yoav was headed by the Southern Front commander Yigal Allon.
The operation was a huge success as it shattered the Egyptian army ranks and
forced the Egyptian forces to retreat from the northern Negev, Beersheba and
Ashdod. On 22 October the Israeli Navy commandoes sank the Egyptian Flagship
Amir Faruk.On 22 December the IDF drove the remaining Egyptian forces out
of Israel, by launching Operation Horev (also called Operation Ayin). The goal
of the operation was to secure the entire Negev from Egyptian presence,
destroying the Egyptian threat on Israel's southern communities and forcing the
Egyptians into a cease-fire.The operation was a decisive Israeli victory, and
Israeli raids into the Nitzana and the Sinai peninsula forced the Egyptian army,
which was encircled in the Gaza Strip, to withdraw and accept cease-fire. On 7
January a truce was achieved. Israeli forces withdrew from Sinai and Gaza under
international pressure.On 5 March Operation Uvda was launched. On 10 March the
Israelis reached Umm Rashrash (where Eilat was built later) and conquered it
without a battle. The Negev Brigade and Golani Brigade took part in the
operation. They raised a hand-made Flag ("The Ink Flag") and claimed Umm
Rashrash for Israel.UN Resolution 194 In December
1948, the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 194 which declared (amongst
other things) that in the context of a general peace agreement "refugees wishing
to return to their homes and live in peace with their neighbors should be
permitted to do so" and that "compensation should be paid for the property of
those choosing not to return." The resolution also mandated the creation of the
United Nations Conciliation Commission. However, parts of the resolution were
never implemented, resulting in the Palestinian refugee crisis.***************
The Israeli Declaration of Independence
(Hebrew: הכרזת העצמאות‎,
Hakhrazat HaAtzma'ut or Hebrew: מגילת העצמאות‎ Megilat HaAtzma'ut), made on
14 May 1948 (5 Iyar, 5708), the day the British Mandate expired, was the
official announcement that the new Jewish state named the State of Israel had
been formally established in parts of what was known as the British Mandate for
Palestine and on land where, in antiquity, the Kingdoms of Israel, Judah and
Judea had once been.It has been called the start of the "Third Jewish
Commonwealth" by some observers. The "First Jewish Commonwealth" ended with the
destruction of Solomon's Temple in 586 BCE, the second with the destruction of
the Second Temple in 70 CE, and the crushing of Bar Kokhba's revolt by the Roman
Empire in the year 135.In Israel the event is celebrated annually with the
national holiday Yom Ha'atzmaut (Hebrew: יום העצמאות‎, lit. Independence Day), the
timing of which is based on the Hebrew calendar date of the declaration (5,
Iyar, 5708). Palestinias commemorate the event as Nakba Day (Arabic: يوم النكبة‎, Yawm al-nakba, lit.
Catastrophe Day) on 15 May every year.The General Assembly of the United
Nations had resolved that 'No discrimination of any kind shall be made between
the inhabitants on the ground of race, religion, language or sex.' and that a
declaration to that effect would be made to the United Nations by the
Provisional Government of each proposed State before independence. The General
Assembly resolution mandated that the stipulations contained in the Declaration
were to be non-derogable, they were to be 'recognized as fundamental laws of the
State and no law, regulation or official action shall conflict or interfere with
these stipulations, nor shall any law, regulation or official action prevail
over them.' The Declaration did promise that the State of Israel would ensure
complete equality of social and political rights to all its inhabitants
irrespective of religion, race or sex, and guaranteed freedom of religion,
conscience, language, education and culture. However, the Knesset maintains that
declaration is neither a law nor an ordinary legal document.The Supreme Court of
Israel has ruled that the guarantees were merely guiding principles, and that
the Declaration is not a constitutional law making a practical ruling on the
upholding or nullification of various ordinances and statutes. Whenever an
explicit statutory measure of the Knesset leaves no room for doubt, it is
honored even if inconsistent with the principles in the Declaration of
Independence.While the possibility of a Jewish homeland in Palestine had been a
goal of Zionist organisations since the late 19th century, it was not until 1917
and the Balfour declaration that the idea gained the official backing of a major
power. The declaration stated that the British government supported the creation
of a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine. In 1936 the Peel
Commission suggested partitioning Mandate Palestine into a Jewish state and an
Arab state, though it was rejected as unworkable by the government and was at
least partially to blame for the 1936-39 Arab revolt.In the face of increasing
violence, the British handed the issue over to the United Nations. The result
was Resolution 181, a partition plan to divide Palestine between Jews and Arabs.
The Jewish state was to receive around 56% of the land area of Mandate
Palestine, encompassing 82% of the Jewish population, though it would be
separated from Jerusalem, designated as an area to be administered by the UN.
The plan was accepted by most of the Jewish population, but rejected by much of
the Arab populace. On 29 November 1947, the plan was put to a vote in the United
Nations General Assembly The result was 33 to 13 in favour of the plan, with 10
abstentions. The Arab countries (all of which had opposed the plan) proposed to
query the International Court of Justice on the competence of the General
Assembly to partition a country against the wishes of the majority of its
inhabitants, but were again defeated. The division was to take effect on the
date of British withdrawal from the territory (15 May 1948), though the UK
refused to implement the plan, arguing it was unacceptable to both sides.
.********The Israel Defense Forces (IDF)
(Hebrew: צְבָא הַהֲגָנָה
לְיִשְׂרָאֵל‎, Tzva
HaHagana LeYisra'el (help·info), lit. Defense Army for Israel), commonly known in Israel
by the Hebrew acronym
Tzahal (צה"ל), are Israel's military forces,
comprising the ground forces, air force and navy.
It is the sole military wing of the Israeli security
forces, and has no civilian jurisdiction within Israel. The IDF is headed by
its Chief of General Staff, the
Ramatkal, subordinate to the Defense Minister
of Israel; the current Chief of Staff, since 2007, is Lieutenant General Gabi
Ashkenazi. At the order of Defense Minister David Ben-Gurion on May
26, 1948, the Israel Defense Forces were officially formed as a conscript
army out of the paramilitary group Haganah,
incorporating the militant groups Irgun and Lehi. It served as Israel's
armed forces in all the country's major military operations — including the 1948 Arab–Israeli
War, the 1956 Sinai War, the 1967 Six-Day
War, the War of Attrition, the
1973 Yom Kippur War, Operation Litani, the
1982 Lebanon War, Operation Defensive
Wall, the 2006 Lebanon War and Operation Cast Lead.
While originally the IDF was operational on three fronts—against Lebanon and Syria in the north, Jordan and Iraq in the east, and Egypt in the
south—after the 1979 Egyptian–Israeli
Peace Treaty, its activities have mainly been concentrated in southern Lebanon and
the Palestinian
Territories, including the First and the Second Intifada. The
Israel Defense Forces differs from most armed forces in the world in many ways,
including the conscription of women, and the structure, with close relations
between the ground forces, air force and navy. Since its founding, the IDF has
striven to be a unique army fitting Israel's specific requirements. In 1965, the
Israel Defense Forces was awarded the Israel Prize for its
contribution to education.[3]
The IDF uses several technologies developed in Israel, many of them made
specifically to match the IDF's needs, such as the Merkava main battle tank,
advanced Hi-Tech weapons systems, and the Galil and Tavor assault rifles.
The Uzi submachine gun
was used by the IDF until December 2003, ending a service that began in 1954.
The IDF also has close military
relations with the United States,[4]
including development cooperation, such as on the F-15I jet, THEL laser
defense system, and the Arrow missile defense
system. History Main articles: History
of the Israel Defense Forces and Military
operations conducted by the Israeli Defense ForcesThe IDF traces its roots
to Jewish paramilitary
organizations in the New Yishuv, starting with the Second
Aliyah. The first such organization was Bar-Giora, founded in
September 1907. It was converted to Hashomer in April 1909, which
operated until the British Mandate
of Palestine came into being in 1920. Hashomer was an elitist organization
with narrow scope, and was mainly created to protect against criminal gangs
seeking to steal property. During World War I the forerunners of the Haganah/IDF
were the Zion Mule Corps and the
Jewish Legion. After the
Arab riots against
Jews in April 1920, the Yishuv's leadership saw the need to create a nationwide
underground defense organization, and the Haganah was founded in June of
the same year. The Haganah became a full-scale defense force after the 1936–1939
Arab revolt in Palestine with an organized structure, consisting of three
main units—the Field Corps, Guard Corps and
the Palmach.
During World War II the successor to the Jewish Legion of World War I was the Jewish
Brigade. The IDF was founded following the establishment
of the State of Israel, after Defense Minister and Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion
published the order for its creation on May 26, 1948. The order called for the
establishment of the Israel Defense Forces, and the abolishment of all other
Jewish armed forces. Although Ben-Gurion had no legal authority to issue such an
order, the order was made legal by the cabinet on May
31.[5]
The two other Jewish underground organizations, Irgun and Lehi, agreed to join the
IDF if they would be able to form independent units and agreed not to make
independent arms purchases. This was the background for the dispute which led to
the Altalena Affair, when
following a confrontation regarding the weapons it brought resulted in a battle
between Irgun members the newly-created IDF. It ended when the ship was shelled.
Following the affair, all independent Irgun and Lehi units were either disbanded
or merged into the IDF. The Palmach, a strong lobby within the Haganah, also
joined the IDF with provisions, and Ben Gurion responded by disbanding its staff
in 1949, after which many senior Palmach officers retired, notably its first
commander, Yitzhak Sadeh. The new
army organized itself during the 1948 Arab–Israeli
War, when Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, Transjordan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Yemen declared war on
Israel. Twelve infantry and armored brigades
were created: Golani, Carmeli, Alexandroni, Kiryati, Givati, Etzioni,
the 7th and 8th armored
brigades, Oded, Harel, Yiftach and Negev.[6]
After the war, some of the brigades were converted to reserve units, and others
were disbanded. Directorates and corps were created from corps and services in
the Haganah, and this basic structure in the IDF still
exists today. Immediately after the 1948 war, the Israel Defense Forces
shifted to low intensity
conflict against Arab Palestinian
guerrillas. The 1956 Suez Crisis was the IDF's
first test of strength after 1949, and the new army proved itself by capturing
the Sinai Peninsula from
Egypt, which was later returned. In the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel captured
the Sinai Peninsula, West Bank and Golan
Heights from the surrounding Arab states, changing the balance of power in
the region as well as the role of the IDF. In the following years leading up to
the Yom Kippur War, the IDF
fought a war of attrition
against Egypt in the Sinai and a border war against the PLO in
Jordan, culminating in the Battle of Karameh. The
surprise of the Yom Kippur War and its aftermath completely changed the IDF's
procedures and approach to warfare. Organizational changes were made and more
time was dedicated to training for conventional warfare. However, in the
following years the army's role slowly shifted again to low-intensity conflict,
urban
warfare and counter-terrorism. It
was involved in the Lebanese Civil War,
initiating Operation Litani and
later the 1982 Lebanon War, where
the IDF ousted Palestinian guerilla organizations from Lebanon. Palestinian militancy
has been the main focus of the IDF ever since, especially during the First and Second Intifadas, Operation
Defensive Shield and the Gaza War, causing the IDF to
change many of its values and publish the IDF
Spirit. The Shia organization Hezbollah has
also been a growing threat, against which the IDF fought a full-scale war in 2006.
Etymology The name Israel Defense
Forces (Hebrew: צְבָא הַהֲגָנָה
לְיִשְׂרָאֵל‎, Tzva HaHagana LeYisra'el, literally "The
Defense Army for Israel") was ratified by the Israeli cabinet on May
26, 1948, the day that the order for the army's founding was published by David Ben-Gurion. The
main suggested alternative was Israeli Army/Army of Israel (Hebrew: צְבָא יִשְׂרָאֵל‎,
Tzva Yisra'el), while others included Jewish Army and Army of the
State. The name was chosen for two reasons: because it emphasized that army's
role was for defense only, and because it incorporated the name Haganah, the paramilitary
organization it was based on.[7]At
least three people claim to have coined the name. The Defense
Ministry CEO at the time, David
Izre'eli, wrote that he suggested it to Levi Eshkol, who forwarded
the suggestion to the cabinet. The Chief of
Staff Ya'akov Dori, while not
claiming to have personally coined the name, said that it was prevalent among
senior army personnel and therefore the only natural name. Ben-Gurion was the
third, quoted as saying "I gave the name. The name was 'Israel Defense Forces'".
Among the primary opponents of the name were Minister Haim-Moshe Shapira
and the Hatzohar party, both suggesting
the name Israeli Army.[7]Organization All branches of the IDF
are subordinate to a single General Staff.
The Chief of the
General Staff is the only serving officer having the rank of Lieutenant General
(Rav Aluf). He reports directly to the Defense
Minister and indirectly to the Prime Minister of
Israel and the cabinet. Chiefs of Staff are formally appointed by the
cabinet, based on the Defense Minister's recommendation, for three years, but
the government can vote to extend their service to four (and in rare occasions
even five) years. The current chief of staff is Gabi Ashkenazi. He
replaced Dan Halutz, who resigned from
the IDF following the 2006 Lebanon War.
******* The Israeli Declaration of Independence (Hebrew: הכרזת העצמאות‎, Hakhrazat
HaAtzma'ut or Hebrew: מגילת
העצמאות‎ Megilat HaAtzma'ut), made on 14 May 1948 (5
Iyar, 5708), the day the British Mandate expired, was the official announcement
that the new Jewish state named the State of Israel had been formally
established in parts of what was known as the British Mandate for Palestine and
on land where, in antiquity, the Kingdoms of Israel, Judah and Judea had once
been.It has been called the start of the "Third Jewish Commonwealth" by some
observers. The "First Jewish Commonwealth" ended with the destruction of
Solomon's Temple in 586 BCE, the second with the destruction of the Second
Temple in 70 CE, and the crushing of Bar Kokhba's revolt by the Roman Empire in
the year 135.In Israel the event is celebrated annually with the national
holiday Yom Ha'atzmaut (Hebrew: יום
העצמאות‎, lit. Independence Day), the timing of which is
based on the Hebrew calendar date of the declaration (5, Iyar, 5708).
Palestinias commemorate the event as Nakba Day (Arabic: يوم النكبة‎, Yawm al-nakba, lit. Catastrophe
Day) on 15 May every year.The General Assembly of the United Nations had
resolved that 'No discrimination of any kind shall be made between the
inhabitants on the ground of race, religion, language or sex.' and that a
declaration to that effect would be made to the United Nations by the
Provisional Government of each proposed State before independence. The General
Assembly resolution mandated that the stipulations contained in the Declaration
were to be non-derogable, they were to be 'recognized as fundamental laws of the
State and no law, regulation or official action shall conflict or interfere with
these stipulations, nor shall any law, regulation or official action prevail
over them.' The Declaration did promise that the State of Israel would ensure
complete equality of social and political rights to all its inhabitants
irrespective of religion, race or sex, and guaranteed freedom of religion,
conscience, language, education and culture. However, the Knesset maintains that
declaration is neither a law nor an ordinary legal document.The Supreme Court of
Israel has ruled that the guarantees were merely guiding principles, and that
the Declaration is not a constitutional law making a practical ruling on the
upholding or nullification of various ordinances and statutes. Whenever an
explicit statutory measure of the Knesset leaves no room for doubt, it is
honored even if inconsistent with the principles in the Declaration of
Independence.While the possibility of a Jewish homeland in Palestine had been a
goal of Zionist organisations since the late 19th century, it was not until 1917
and the Balfour declaration that the idea gained the official backing of a major
power. The declaration stated that the British government supported the creation
of a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine. In 1936 the Peel
Commission suggested partitioning Mandate Palestine into a Jewish state and an
Arab state, though it was rejected as unworkable by the government and was at
least partially to blame for the 1936-39 Arab revolt.In the face of increasing
violence, the British handed the issue over to the United Nations. The result
was Resolution 181, a partition plan to divide Palestine between Jews and Arabs.
The Jewish state was to receive around 56% of the land area of Mandate
Palestine, encompassing 82% of the Jewish population, though it would be
separated from Jerusalem, designated as an area to be administered by the UN.
The plan was accepted by most of the Jewish population, but rejected by much of
the Arab populace. On 29 November 1947, the plan was put to a vote in the United
Nations General Assembly The result was 33 to 13 in favour of the plan, with 10
abstentions. The Arab countries (all of which had opposed the plan) proposed to
query the International Court of Justice on the competence of the General
Assembly to partition a country against the wishes of the majority of its
inhabitants, but were again defeated. The division was to take effect on the
date of British withdrawal from the territory (15 May 1948), though the UK
refused to implement the plan, arguing it was unacceptable to both sides.