Hong Kong’s Return To China , At midnight on June 30/July 1, 1997, the crown colony of Hong Kong (seeMap ) officially reverted to Chinese sovereignty, ending 156 years of British rule. After a formal handover ceremony on July 1, the colony became the Hong Kong special administrative region (HKSAR) of the People’s Republic of China. The ceremony culminated a 13-year transition that had been initiated by the Sino-British Joint Declaration on the Question of Hong Kong, signed by the heads of the two governments in December 1984. The agreement stipulated that under Chinese rule the HKSAR would enjoy a high degree of autonomy, except in matters of foreign relations and defense, and that the social and economic systems as well as the lifestyle in Hong Kong would remain unchanged for 50 years after 1997. Many observers, however, expressed considerable skepticism about China’s pledge to abide by the "one country, two systems" plan outlined in the agreement. They feared that China would drastically curtail the rights and freedoms of Hong Kong residents.

Great Britain had acquired Hong Kong Island from China in 1842, when the Treaty of Nanking was signed at the end of the first Opium War (1839-42). Unsatisfied with incomplete control of the harbour, the British forced China to cede Kowloon Peninsula south of what is now Boundary Street and Stonecutters Island less than 20 years later, after the second Opium War (1856-60). By the Convention of 1898, the New Territories together with 235 islands were leased to Britain for 99 years from July 1, 1898. After the communists took power in China in 1949, Hong Kong became a sanctuary for hundreds of thousands of refugees fleeing communist rule. In the following decades the Chinese government insisted that the treaties giving Britain sovereignty over Hong Kong were invalid.

Although in 1984 Britain and China agreed on the terms of the handover of Hong Kong, Sino-British cooperation during the transition period deteriorated after the appointment in 1992 of Chris Patten as Hong Kong’s last colonial governor. Sharply breaking with past practice, Patten initiated a series of political reforms designed to give the people of Hong Kong a greater voice in government via democratic elections to the Legislative Council (LegCo). China’s crackdown on the student-led democracy movement in 1989 fed anxiety in Hong Kong regarding the handover and led to the political awakening of a previously quiescent population. Beijing made efforts to stonewall Patten’s reforms, which it condemned as a betrayal of London’s earlier promises to manage the transition as an exercise in which Hong Kong had no voice of its own. When Hong Kong’s Democratic Party, led by barrister Martin Lee, routed pro-Beijing politicians in the 1995 LegCo elections, Beijing denounced Patten and began a series of strong measures aimed at reestablishing its influence. On March 24, 1996, China’s 150-member Preparatory Committee, which had been created to oversee the handover, voted to dissolve LegCo and install a provisional legislature after Hong Kong returned to Chinese sovereignty. In December 1996 a China-backed special election committee selected the 60 members of the provisional body, just days after it had overwhelmingly elected 59-year-old shipping magnate Tung Chee-hwa (seeBIOGRAPHIES) the first chief executive of the HKSAR. Tung, whose tottering corporate empire had been salvaged by a large infusion of government-supplied capital in the 1980s, soon signaled his intention to roll back Patten’s reforms, announcing in April 1997 proposals to restrict political groups and public protests after the handover. In essence, what Lee called the "Singaporization" of Hong Kong--i.e., the imposition of authoritarian control--had begun even before the Union Jack was lowered in the colony for the last time.

Pomp and pageantry marked the formal handover ceremony. In attendance were numerous dignitaries from around the world, including Pres. Jiang Zemin and Premier Li Peng of China, British Prime Minister Tony Blair, Prince Charles, and U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright (seeBIOGRAPHIES). Prince Charles, who gave a short speech in which he congratulated the colony on its political, economic, and social successes, told the people of Hong Kong, "We shall not forget you, and we shall watch with the closest interest as you embark on this new era of your remarkable history." President Jiang, the first mainland Chinese head of state to visit Hong Kong since 1842, reassured residents that China would carry out the "one country, two systems" plan of local autonomy, which had been contrived principally by Chinese paramount leader Deng Xiaoping. Deng had passed away on February 19, just four and a half months before the handover he had hoped to witness. (SeeOBITUARIES.) On the morning of the handover, several thousand specially trained troops of the Chinese People’s Liberation Army were deployed in Hong Kong as garrison forces symbolizing the reassertion of China’s sovereignty. Chinese authorities did not attempt to suppress several rallies outside the LegCo building on June 30-July 1, even when Lee addressed thousands of demonstrators from a balcony after LegCo had officially been dissolved. The protests proceeded peacefully.

Tung, in his first speech as chief executive, skirted the issues of political rights and democracy, choosing to espouse "traditional Chinese values." He also dwelled on mundane but important issues such as housing and education, vowing to increase the rate of home ownership in Hong Kong to 70% in the next 10 years and to provide better training for teachers. Tung counted on enhanced social programs, including government payments to the elderly poor, and continuing prosperity to marginalize political opposition to his new administration. Most citizens of Hong Kong, of whom 95% were ethnic Chinese, appeared ready to give him the benefit of the doubt, at least for the time being. Tung and the provisional legislature prepared for the first posthandover legislative elections in mid-1998 by reworking the rules of the political game. On July 8 it was announced that only 20 of the 60 legislative seats would be filled via a system of proportional representation. The remaining 40 seats would be chosen by electoral colleges and an election committee, as they were in the period prior to the implementation of Patten’s reforms. This change virtually ensured the dominance of Hong Kong’s business and professional elite, most of whose members valued stability--which they identified with their own power--over democratic representation. In the first months after the handover, Hong Kong was indeed stable. The outlook for the free exercise of political and civil rights in Hong Kong was clouded, however. Members of the Democratic Party protested that the new electoral system was created to minimize their influence, and Lee predicted that the Democrats would win no more than 10 of the 20 directly elected seats.

President Jiang hailed the "return of Hong Kong to the motherland" as a great historical event that presaged Taiwan’s eventual reunification with mainland China. Both Taiwan’s ruling Kuomintang and its main opposition, the Democratic Progressive Party, vigorously rejected Jiang’s assertion and vowed to resist Beijing’s attempts to exert pressure on the island nation. In late June Taiwan conducted live-fire military exercises, which were intended as a signal to China that Taiwan would resist any attempts at reunification. On June 28 approximately 70,000 people in Taiwan attended a "Say No to China" antireunification rally. Although the Taiwanese government encouraged China to protect freedom in Hong Kong, it made it clear that Taiwan would not be absorbed in a similar manner.

The United States, rather than Great Britain, was the principal Western power interested in holding China to its pledge of respecting Hong Kong’s political and economic autonomy. Both U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton and Secretary of State Albright informed Beijing that its behaviour with respect to Hong Kong would be considered a touchstone in Sino-American relations, and U.S. congressional leaders reinforced this message. Chinese leaders, meanwhile, severely restricted the access of their own citizens to Hong Kong, whose per capita gross domestic product of more than $24,000 was roughly 40 times that of China and whose habits of free expression and political participation were not ones that Beijing wished its own citizens to emulate.