11 Fat City (95% coverage)In December, to the delight of many __________ and the ______ of many doughnut lovers, the New York City Board of Health voted to ban artificial trans fats from restaurants, school cafeterias, pushcarts, and almost every other food-service establishment it oversees, which includes most everything except hospitals. Trans fats don’t occur naturally in the things people like but feel guilty eating, or at least not at high levels (there are small proportions in the fat in meat and dairy products). But artificial ones are plentiful in commercial foods, because they are easy to use, cheaper than natural fats, and keep practically forever. Trans fats are made by pumping _______ gas into liquid fats usually in the presence of _____ so that they will remain solid at room temperature, like butter and ___; and they have the same wonderful properties in pie crusts, cookies, and cakes. Crisco, still _____ for solid shortening made by partial ___________ (of cottonseed oil), soon became the “______” choice for pie crust and fried chicken, making pastry almost as flaky and skin almost as crisp as ___ does.

12 Fat City (95% coverage)In December, to the delight of many cardiologists and the dismay of many doughnut lovers, the New York City Board of Health voted to ban artificial trans fats from restaurants, school cafeterias, pushcarts, and almost every other food-service establishment it oversees, which includes most everything except hospitals. Trans fats don’t occur naturally in the things people like but feel guilty eating, or at least not at high levels (there are small proportions in the fat in meat and dairy products). But artificial ones are plentiful in commercial foods, because they are easy to use, cheaper than natural fats, and keep practically forever. Trans fats are made by pumping hydrogen gas into liquid fats usually in the presence of nickel so that they will remain solid at room temperature, like butter and lard; and they have the same wonderful properties in pie crusts, cookies, and cakes. Crisco, still generic for solid shortening made by partial hydrogenation (of cottonseed oil), soon became the “sanitary” choice for pie crust and fried chicken, making pastry almost as flaky and skin almost as crisp as lard does.

13 The Truth About Beauty (98% coverage)Cosmetics makers have always sold “hope in a jar” – creams and ______ that promise youth, beauty, sex appeal, and even love for the women who use them. Over the last few years, the marketers at Dove have added some new-and-improved __________. They’re now promising self-esteem and cultural transformation. Dove’s “Campaign for Real Beauty,” declares a press release, is “a global effort that is intended to serve as a starting point for societal change and act as a ______ for widening the definition and discussion of beauty.” Along with its thigh-firming creams, self-tanners, and hair conditioners, Dove is peddling the crowd-pleasing notions that beauty is a media creation, that recognizing plural forms of beauty is the same as declaring every woman beautiful, and that self-esteem means ignoring imperfections.

14 The Truth About Beauty (98% coverage)Cosmetics makers have always sold “hope in a jar” – creams and potions that promise youth, beauty, sex appeal, and even love for the women who use them. Over the last few years, the marketers at Dove have added some new-and-improved enticements. They’re now promising self-esteem and cultural transformation. Dove’s “Campaign for Real Beauty,” declares a press release, is “a global effort that is intended to serve as a starting point for societal change and act as a catalyst for widening the definition and discussion of beauty.” Along with its thigh-firming creams, self-tanners, and hair conditioners, Dove is peddling the crowd-pleasing notions that beauty is a media creation, that recognizing plural forms of beauty is the same as declaring every woman beautiful, and that self-esteem means ignoring imperfections.

19 English Vocabulary Size of Foreign Learners (Laufer, 2000)Vocabulary Hours ofSize InstructionJapan EFL University 2,000-2, ,200China English majors ,000 1,800-2,400Indonesia EFL University ,Oman EFL University , ,350+Israel High school graduates , ,500France High school ,Greece Age 15, high school ,Germany Age 15, high school ,

20 How to Address Such Large Amounts of Vocabulary?Why not teach just the most ‘content-ful’ words?Technical VocabularyESP vocabularyAcademic Support Vocabularye.g. Academic Word List (Coxhead, 2000)2020

21 Developing LSP Word Lists“Technical vocabulary ‘is dependent for a full appreciation of its meaning on the meaning of the other terms in the cluster of which it is a member.’”(Godman and Payne, 1981: 37,in Coxhead and Nation, 2001)

24 A Complete Medical TextChronic wounds represent a different kind of challenge for wound healing. These wounds do not usually involve a large surface area, but they have a high incidence in the general population and thus have enormous medical and economic impacts. The most common chronic wounds include pressure ulcers and leg ulcers. In the United States alone, these wounds are estimated to affect more than 2 million people with total clinical treatment costs as high as $1 billion annually. Pressure ulcers, characterized by tissue ischemia and necrosis, are common among patients in long-term care settings, but patients hospitalized for short-term care settings are also at risk if mobility is impaired. Leg ulcers can have a variety of etiologies. Venous ulcers are the most common, often resulting from dysfunction of valves in veins of the lower leg that normally prevent the backflow of venous blood. Venous congestion leads to leakage of blood and macromolecules into the dermis, which can act as physical barriers to diffusion of oxygen and nutrients from the

25 Need Foundation VocabularySo academic and technical word lists are useful, but cannot replace the need for learners to have a solid foundation of high- and mid-frequency vocabulary in place

26 How to Address Such Large Amounts of Vocabulary?These are clearly large numbers of word families to learnLong-term goalMost teachers do not have the time, expertise, or opportunity to organize large amounts of vocabulary over a period of timeMost will rely on textbooks to provide the principled selection and instruction of vocabulary

27 How to Address Such Large Amounts of Vocabulary?A single textbook cannot do the job (even a vocabulary textbook)So are textbook series up to the task?2727

37 Chilean Case Study ConclusionsTextbooks do not match Ministry goalsNo obvious approach to vocabulary selection or recyclingMinistry gives size goals, not specific word listsPublishers given no guidance as to what words to useDifferent publishers do not liaise with each other to build coherent program3737

39 What Does It Mean to Know A Word?Form Spoken formWritten formWord partsMeaning Form and meaningConcept and referentsAssociationsUse Grammatical functionsCollocationsConstraints on use(register, frequency…)(Nation, 2001: 27)39

40 Lexical Organization“Vocabulary size is not a feature of individual words: rather it is a characteristic of the test taker’s entire vocabulary.”(Meara and Wolter, 2004: 87)Size is a feature of the overall lexicon4040

41 Lexical OrganizationNature of the Lexicon must be connected with vocabulary knowledgeBetter connected and more highly organized lexicons should relate to more vocabulary knowledge4141

42 Automaticity Should also lead to faster speed of access and useFluency4242

43 How to Facilitate this Complex Learning for Large Numbers of Words?Incidental LearningExplicit Intentional Learning4343

44 Incidental LearningMany practitioners believe that all necessary vocabulary can be learned incidentally simply by being exposed to, and by using, language4444

47 Problem: Incidental learning is limited by amount of exposureIt takes at least 8-10 reading exposures to develop an initial form-meaning link and more for meaning recall knowledge (even more for listening)Other word knowledge types (e.g. collocation, register, derivative forms) will likely take many more exposuresMost L2 learners do not read enough to ensure this number of repetitions (Cobb, 2007)SO incidental learning is useful, but not sufficient4747

48 Intentional learningVirtually all research shows that intentional learning with an explicit focus on the target linguistic features results in learning that isStrongerMore durableMore consistent among learnersProductive mastery seems to come mainly from productive engagement4848

49 Is Knowledge of the Form-Meaning Link Enough?Learning a word might require more than just learning its meaning and formFor receptive use, perhaps a meaning-recall level of mastery might sufficeSee/hear word form and retrieve/recall meaningAll of the other ‘contextual’ word knowledge aspects are already in the discourse/text4949

50 Various Kinds of ‘Word Knowledge’ are Learned DifferentlyBut for productive use, learners have a concept in their head, but must produce the appropriate lexical formThis requires most (all?) of the ‘contextual’ kinds of word knowledgeThese contextual aspects (e.g. collocation, connotation, register constraints) are more difficult to teach, and probably require large amounts of exposure to acquire incidentally5050

52 Different Types of Exposure and LearningIncidental LearningGet exposure to a wide variety of wordsA way to get more recyclingProvides context for learning ‘contextual’ types of word knowledgeIncidental learning is useful, but the uptake is slow and inconsistent5252

53 Different Types of Exposure and LearningIntentional and incidental learning are complementaryThey add different things to vocabulary knowledgeThey need to be combined in any principled vocabulary program5353

54 Formulaic LanguageAll of my discussion up until now discusses single words, lemmas, or familiesThere is a large amount of lexical patterning in languageFormulaic language needs to be brought into the discussion of vocabulary use, acquisition, and pedagogy5454

55 What is Formulaic Language?Recurrent multi-word lexical items that have a single meaning or function (Schmitt, 2010)It is a umbrella cover term for a number of formulaic categoriesIdiomsCollocationsPhrasal verbsLexical bundlesLexical phrasesPhrasal expressionsetc

56 Learner Use of Formulaic LanguageLearners don’t use many idiomsLearners do use many high-frequency collocations (nice day)Learners don’t use many lower-frequency but tightly-bound collocations (preconceived notions)

57 Learner Use of Formulaic LanguageBut learners often do not use the collocations that they know very appropriatelyInappropriate collocations is a leading problem in learner languageLearners often use words with their correct meanings, but do not understand the correct context of use (collocation, register, frequency)

58 Learner Use of Formulaic LanguageLearners consistently overestimate their comprehension of reading texts that contain formulaic sequences that they either fail to identify or misunderstand, even at high levels of proficiency(Martinez and Murphy, 2011)

60 Pedagogical ImplicationsMeunier review (ARAL, 2012)If formulaic sequences are so important:They need to be included in teaching syllabuses and materialsWe can’t assume they will just be learned from exposureThey need to incorporated into language tests to a greater extent

61 Pedagogical ImplicationsBut what formulaic sequences?In order to incorporate formulaic sequences into their teaching and testing, most practitioners need a list of formulaic sequences to addressBut what criteria to use?

62 Formulaic Framework (Martinez, 2013)Infrequent Frequenttake credit take issue take time take place,556(per 100 million – BNC)Transparent Opaquetake credit take time take issue take place

63 Formulaic Framework take time (2) take place (1) Transparent OpaqueFrequenttake time (2) take place (1)Transparent Opaquetake credit (4) take issue (3)Infrequent

64 Formulaic Framework take time (2) TAKE PLACE (1) Transparent OpaqueFrequenttake time (2) TAKE PLACE (1)Transparent Opaquetake credit (4) take issue (3)Infrequent

66 PHRASE List LEAD TO (CAUSE) 13,555 (1st 1,000 frequency level)Excessive smoking can lead to heart disease.HAVE GOT TO (must) 12,270 (2nd 1,000 frequency level)You have got to try this salad.BY THE TIME (when) 3,607 (3rd 1,000 frequency level)By the time dinner started there were none left.