1.
1678 in England
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Events from the year 1678 in the Kingdom of England. 6 September – Titus Oates first presents sworn allegations of the Popish Plot, on 28 September before the Privy Council he makes allegations against numerous Jesuits and Catholic nobles. Oates applies the term Tory to those who disbelieve his allegations,17 October – magistrate Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey is found murdered in Primrose Hill, London. Titus Oates claims it as a proof of his allegations,25 October – five Catholic peers accused of involvement in the Popish Plot are arrested at the instance of the House of Commons and committed to the Tower of London. 3 December – the Test Act provides that members of both the House of Lords and House of Commons must swear an oath before taking office. Second Burying in Woollen Act, more rigidly enforced,18 February – John Bunyans The Pilgrims Progress. John Drydens play All for Love

2.
1677 in England
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Events from the year 1677 in the Kingdom of England. Monarch – Charles II16 February – politicians the Earl of Shaftesbury, Duke of Buckingham, Lord Wharton and the Earl of Salisbury are arrested and sent to the Tower of London. February – Nathaniel Lees blank verse tragedy The Rival Queens, or the Death of Alexander the Great, is performed at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane,16 April – Parliament passes the Statute of Frauds. 4 November – William of Orange marries Princess Mary of York at St Jamess Palace,30 December – William Sancroft nominated by the King as Archbishop of Canterbury. The Baptist Confession of Faith is first published in London, the Monument to the Great Fire of London, designed by Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke is completed. Chapel of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, designed by Wren, elias Ashmole gifts the collection that begins the Ashmolean Museum to the University of Oxford. Charles II of England makes Henry Purcell court musician, the John Roan School is established in Greenwich, London. Fabian Stedman publishes Tintinnalogia, or, the Art of Ringing

3.
1676 in England
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Events from the year 1676 in the Kingdom of England. Monarch – Charles II18 February – Isaac Newton observes to Robert Hooke that If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants,2 March – first performance of George Ethereges play The Man of Mode. 26 May – fire in Southwark destroys 625 houses, september to November – major influenza epidemic, the first to be recorded as such. 11 December – first performance of William Wycherleys play The Plain Dealer, construction begins on Trinity College Library in Cambridge, designed by Sir Christopher Wren. The Royal Greenwich Observatory in London, designed by Wren, is completed, consecration of the first Greek Orthodox church in England, at Hog Lane, London. The first fossilised bone of what is now known to be a dinosaur is discovered by Robert Plot, the femur of a Megalosaurus from a limestone quarry at Cornwell near Chipping Norton

4.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years

5.
1680 in England
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Events from the year 1680 in the Kingdom of England. Monarch – Charles II21 October – Charles IIs fourth parliament assembles, the term Whig comes to be used for those in favour of the Exclusion Bill and Tory for those who oppose it. 4 November – a second Exclusion Bill is proposed to exclude the Catholic James,15 November – the Exclusion Bill is defeated in the House of Lords. 7 December – William Howard, 1st Viscount Stafford, is condemned to death by perjured evidence in the House of Lords for conspiracy in the supposed Popish Plot, uundated First fire insurance office established, the Phoenix. Trinity House erects a lighthouse on St Agnes, Isles of Scilly

6.
1681 in England
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Events from the year 1681 in the Kingdom of England. Monarch – Charles II18 January – Exclusion Bill Parliament dissolved,4 March – William Penn receives a royal charter to establish a sectarian colony in the Americas. 21 March–28 March – the Oxford Parliament meets and debates the Exclusion Bill, the Bill is rejected by the House of Lords. Catholic intriguer Edward Fitzharris is executed on the same day,2 July – Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury charged with treason, and imprisoned in the Tower of London, but subsequently acquitted. 31 August – Protestant activist Stephen College, convicted of treason, is hanged, drawn,22 December – King Charles II issues a warrant for the building of the Royal Hospital Chelsea for wounded and retired soldiers. John Drydens political satire Absalom and Achitophel, nahum Tates play The History of King Lear, adapted from Shakespeares King Lear with a happy ending

7.
1682 in England
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Events from the year 1682 in the Kingdom of England. Monarch – Charles II11 March – work begins on construction of the Royal Hospital Chelsea for old soldiers in London,25 August – following the Bideford witch trial, three women become the last known to be hanged for witchcraft in England, at Exeter. September – Halleys Comet makes an appearance, and is observed by Edmond Halley himself,20 September – The Duke of Monmouth is arrested in Stafford for riotous behaviour. 19 November – fire at Wapping makes 1,500 homeless,20 November – Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury flees to Holland, after being accused of planning a coup against King Charles II

8.
Kingdom of England
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In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united by Æthelstan, became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway. The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown, from the accession of James I in 1603, the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland. Under the Stuarts, the kingdom plunged into war, which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament and this concept became legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its state the United Kingdom. On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707, the Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn, originally names of the Angles. They called their land Engla land, meaning land of the English, by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia, from an original Anglia vetus, the name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period. The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra, the Old French, by the 14th century, England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain. The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was Rex Anglorum, Canute the Great, a Dane, was the first king to call himself King of England. In the Norman period Rex Anglorum remained standard, with use of Rex Anglie. The Empress Matilda styled herself Domina Anglorum, from the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of Rex or Regina Anglie. In 1604 James VI and I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, the English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707. The kingdom of England emerged from the unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex. The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general, the English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 CE. During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda, the decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful. It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825, the kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore, in 886, Alfred the Great retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that all of the English people not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred, asser added that Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly

9.
Charles II of England
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Charles II was king of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was king of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, Charles IIs father, Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim, after 1660, all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649. Charless English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code, designed to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England, Charles acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the treaty of Dover. Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oatess revelations of a supposed Popish Plot sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charless brother, the crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-exclusion Tory parties. Charles sided with the Tories, and, following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683, Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed, Charless wife, Catherine of Braganza, bore no live children, but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James, Charles II was born in St Jamess Palace on 29 May 1630. His parents were Charles I and Henrietta Maria, Charles was their second son and child. Their first son was born about a year before Charles but died within a day, England, Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. At birth, Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay, at or around his eighth birthday, he was designated Prince of Wales, though he was never formally invested. During the 1640s, when Charles was still young, his father fought Parliamentary, by spring 1646, his father was losing the war, and Charles left England due to fears for his safety. Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646, at The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with Lucy Walter, who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married

10.
Parliament of England
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The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England. Over the centuries, the English Parliament progressively limited the power of the English monarchy which arguably culminated in the English Civil War, the Act of Union 1707 merged the English Parliament with the Parliament of Scotland to form the Parliament of Great Britain. When the Parliament of Ireland was abolished in 1801, its members were merged into what was now called the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Under a monarchical system of government, monarchs usually must consult, early kings of England had no standing army or police, and so depended on the support of powerful subjects. The monarchy had agents in every part of the country, however, under the feudal system that evolved in England following the Norman Conquest of 1066, the laws of the Crown could not have been upheld without the support of the nobility and the clergy. The former had economic and military bases of their own through major ownership of land. The Church was virtually a law unto itself in this period as it had its own system of law courts. In order to seek consultation and consent from the nobility and the clergy on major decisions. A typical Great Council would consist of archbishops, bishops, abbots, barons and earls, when this system of consultation and consent broke down, it often became impossible for government to function effectively. The most prominent instances of prior to the reign of Henry III are the disagreements between Thomas Becket and Henry II and between King John and the barons. Becket, who served as Archbishop of Canterbury between 1162 and 1170, was murdered following a long running dispute with Henry II over the jurisdiction of the Church. John, who was king from 1199 to 1216, aroused such hostility from many leading noblemen that they forced him to agree to Magna Carta in 1215, johns refusal to adhere to this charter led to civil war. The Great Council evolved into the Parliament of England, the term itself came into use during the early 13th century, deriving from the Latin and French words for discussion and speaking. The word first appears in documents in the 1230s. As a result of the work by historians G. O. Sayles and H. G. Richardson, during the 13th and 14th centuries, the kings began to call Knights of the Shire to meet when the monarch saw it as necessary. A notable example of this was in 1254 when sheriffs of counties were instructed to send Knights of the Shire to parliament to advise the king on finance, initially, parliaments were mostly summoned when the king needed to raise money through taxes. Following the Magna Carta this became a convention and this was due in no small part to the fact that King John died in 1216 and was succeeded by his young son Henry III. Leading peers and clergy governed on Henrys behalf until he came of age, among other things, they made sure that Magna Carta would be reaffirmed by the young king

11.
Cavalier Parliament
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The Cavalier Parliament of England lasted from 8 May 1661 until 24 January 1679. It was the longest English Parliament, enduring for nearly 18 years of the reign of Charles II of England. Like its predecessor, the Convention Parliament, it was overwhelmingly Royalist and is known as the Pensioner Parliament for the many pensions it granted to adherents of the King. The first session of the Cavalier Parliament opened on May 8,1661, among the first orders of business was the confirmation of the acts of the previous years irregular Convention of 1660 as legitimate. Parliament immediately ordered the burning of the Solemn League and Covenant by a common hangman. It also repealed the 1642 Bishops Exclusion Act, thereby allowing Church of England bishops to resume their temporal positions, other notable pieces of first session legislation include the Militia Act placing the armed forces unambiguously under the kings authority, and the Sedition Act. It also continued proceedings against the regicides of Charles I, later that same year, Parliament passed the Corporation Act, the first of a series of acts known as the Clarendon Code, to cement the episcopal Anglican church as the official church of England. The Clarendon code is given as the following four acts. The Quaker Act 1662, specifically targeting Quakers, can also be cited as part of the new religious code. In January 1661, the Fifth Monarchists, anticipating the arrival of Jesus Christ to claim the throne, led a succession of revolts under the command of Vavasor Powell and Thomas Venner. To silence radical agitators and pamphleteers, Parliament passed the Licensing of the Press Act 1662, on the economic legislation, the Cavalier parliament had a notable Mercantilist bent. It repealed old domestic restrictions on linen manufacturing, the importation of Irish cattle into Britain was forbidden, giving English beef producers a protected home market. To encourage the inflow of gold and silver from abroad and into circulation, the Coinage Act 1666 abolished seignorage, the prior Convention of 1660 had promised King Charles II a generous annual revenue of £1.2 million, secured on customs duties and excise taxes. It was up to Cavalier parliament to ensure that the promise was kept, but in the first few years, the revenue fell short of the promised amount, and parliament had to look for new ways to make up for it. Parliament was responsible for the introduction of the hearth tax, with its unpopular. Another problem also emerged at this time, the rise in the number of paupers. It was feared they would migrate en masse to the better-off parishes, in 1664, the Cavalier parliament amended the old Triennial Act so that it was now only suggested that the king summon a parliamentary session at least once every three years. In 1665, parliament met in Oxford to escape the Great Plague of London, Mercantilist agitation had prompted parliament to support the Second Anglo-Dutch War in 1665

12.
Habeas Corpus Parliament
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It is named after the Habeas Corpus Act, which it enacted in May,1679. The Habeas Corpus Parliament sat for two sessions, the first session sat from March 6,1679 to March 13,1679, the second session from March 15,1679 to May 26,1679. It was dissolved while in recess on 12 July 1679, the parliament succeeded the long Cavalier Parliament of 1661–1678/79, which the King had dissolved. On Thursday,6 March, the Parliament first met, as the Exclusion of the Popish Lords from their Seats in Parliament, the Execution of several Men, both upon the score of the Plot, and the Murder of Sir Edmundbury Godfrey. I must needs put you in mind how necessary it will be to have a good Strength at Sea, next Summer, the rest I leave to the Lord Chancellor. He also denounced anew the Earl of Danby, Parliament resumed the pursuit of Danbys impeachment, showing even more anger against him than its predecessor. As the parliaments name implies, its most notable achievement was the passage of the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, on 15 May 1679, Shaftesburys supporters in the Commons introduced the Exclusion Bill, which had the specific aim of disbarring the Duke of York from the throne. Following the battle, Lauderdale was replaced in Scotland by the Duke of York, list of Parliaments of England English general election,1679

13.
Impeachment
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Impeachment is the process by which a legislative body formally levels charges against a high official of Government. Impeachment does not necessarily mean removal from office, it is only a statement of charges, akin to an indictment in criminal law. Once an individual is impeached, he or she must then face the possibility of conviction via legislative vote, in the United States, for example, impeachment at the Federal level is reserved for those who may have committed high crimes and misdemeanors. Several Federal officials, including two Presidents and several judges, have been impeached over the course of US history, US President Richard Nixon resigned before Watergate scandal impeachment proceedings could begin. The federal procedure in the United States involves a vote for impeachment in the House of Representatives on a document known as the Article of Impeachment, each separate grounds will be a separate Article. House members who support the impeachment then appoint managers who will act like prosecutors in the preparation for the Senate hearing, the defendant has the right to legal counsel, the right to cross-examine all witnesses and to testify in his or her defense. The senators must also take an oath or affirmation that they perform their duties honestly. The hearing cannot be conducted without a 50% plus one quorum, after the hearing the deliberations are held in private. Removal requires a majority of the Senate. Impeachment has its origins in English law but fell out of use in the 18th century and it exists under constitutional law in many nations around the world, including Brazil, the Republic of Ireland, Philippines, Russia, South Korea and the United States. The word impeachment derives from Latin root impedicare expressing the idea of becoming caught or entrapped, and has analogues in the modern French verb empêcher, medieval popular etymology also associated it with derivations from the Latin impetere. Impeachment was first used in the British political system, specifically, the process was first used by the English Good Parliament against Baron Latimer in the second half of the 14th century. In private organizations, a motion to impeach can be used to prefer charges, the Austrian Federal President can be impeached by the Federal Assembly before the Constitutional Court. The constitution also provides for the recall of the president by a referendum, neither of these courses has ever been taken. This is likely because while the President is vested with considerable powers on paper, he acts as a ceremonial figurehead in practice. The President of the Federative Republic of Brazil, state governors and municipal mayors may be impeached by the Chamber of Deputies, upon conviction, the officeholder has his political rights revoked for eight years--which has the effect of barring him from running for any office. On December 30,1992, Fernando Collor de Mello, the 32nd President of Brazil, the Senate nonetheless voted to convict Collor and bar him from holding any office for eight years, due to evidence of bribery and misappropriation. On April 17,2016, the Brazilian Chamber of Deputies approved the opening of the impeachment case against the president, Dilma Rousseff, the case was later revised by the Federal Senate which, on May 12, approved the suspension of the President

14.
Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds
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He was commonly known as Lord Danby and Marquess of Carmarthen when he was a prominent political figure, served in a variety of offices under Kings Charles II and William III of England. Thomas Osborne was born in 1632, thomass father was a staunch Royalist who served as Vice President of the Council of the North. Their father, a parent, is said never to have fully recovered from the loss. Osborne was introduced to life and to court by his neighbour in Yorkshire, George Villiers. In 1661 he was appointed High Sheriff of Yorkshire and was then elected MP for York in 1665 and he made the first step in his future rise by joining Buckingham in his attack on the Earl of Clarendon in 1667. In 1668 he was appointed joint Treasurer of the Navy with Sir Thomas Lyttelton and he succeeded Sir William Coventry as commissioner for the state treasury in 1669, and in 1673 was appointed a commissioner for the admiralty. He was created Viscount Osborne in the Scottish peerage on 2 February 1673, and he was appointed the same year lord-lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire, and in 1677 received the Garter. Danby was a statesman of very different calibre from the leaders of the Cabal Ministry, Buckingham and his principal aim was no doubt the maintenance and increase of his own influence and party, but his ambition corresponded with definite political views. A member of the old Cavalier party, a friend and correspondent of Lauderdale, he desired to strengthen the executive. At the same time he was a partisan of the established church. He is often credited with inventing Parliamentary management, the first conscious effort to convert a mass of country backbenchers into an organised Government lobby. In 1673 he opposed Charles IIs Royal Declaration of Indulgence, supported the Test Act, the king opposed and also doubted the wisdom and practicability of this thorough policy of repression. Danby therefore ordered a return from every diocese of the numbers of dissenters, in December 1676 he issued a proclamation for the suppression of coffee-houses because of the defamation of His Majestys Government which took place in them, but this was soon withdrawn. In foreign affairs Danby showed a stronger grasp of essentials and he desired to increase English trade, credit and power abroad. He was an enemy both to Roman influence and to French ascendancy. He terminated the war with the Dutch Republic in 1674, though not a member of the Cabal ministry, and in spite of his own denial, Danby must, it would seem, have known of these relations after becoming Lord Treasurer. Simultaneously Danby guided through parliament a bill for raising money for a war against France, a league was concluded with the Dutch Republic, and troops were actually sent there. That Danby, in spite of these transactions, remained in intention faithful to the national interests

15.
Privy Council Ministry
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Sir William Temple, Englands foremost diplomat and greatly respected both at home and abroad, was recalled at the beginning of 1679 and became the Kings closest advisor. Temple believed the King should not exercise absolute power but was uncomfortable with the increasing prominence of Parliament. He sought to create a less divisive body that could carry popular support without trying to dictate to the King. He proposed that the King should no longer be advised by any one individual or by a committee of the Privy Council. The King would give full consideration to the opinions of the Council, however, Charles took against the scheme when Temple insisted on the inclusion of Viscount Halifax, whom he disliked personally. He agreed but insisted, to Temples alarm, that the Earl of Shaftesbury and this sabotaged Temples Council, ensuring irreconcilable division. The new Council met on 21 April, the four worked well together, but the full Council was sharply divided. Shaftesbury now effectively led the opposition from within the government itself, in the face of the Exclusion Bill, the King prorogued and then dissolved Parliament without the Councils approval. Temple withdrew from participation, leaving Halifax, Essex and Sunderland to exercise power as a Triumvirate. When the King fell ill and his brothers return from the Dutch Republic caused alarm in the country, Temple expressed his concerns to the Triumvirate, but was no longer taken seriously. Elections for the new Parliament returned another opposition majority, and the King prorogued it before it met, Shaftesbury was discharged from office and other leading critics of the government resigned. Temples experiment ended with the rise of Laurence Hyde, a supporter of the King

16.
Exclusion Crisis
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The Exclusion Crisis ran from 1679 through 1681 in the reign of King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland. The Exclusion Bill sought to exclude the Kings brother and heir presumptive, James, Duke of York, the Tories were opposed to this exclusion while the Country Party, who were soon to be called the Whigs, supported it. In 1673, when he refused to take the oath prescribed by the new Test Act and his secretary, Edward Colman, had been named by Titus Oates during the Popish Plot as a conspirator to subvert the kingdom. Formerly the crown of Spain, and now France, supports this root of popery amongst us, but lay popery flat and it is a mere chimera, or notion, without popery. On 15 May 1679, the supporters of Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, a fringe group there began to support the claim to the throne of Charless illegitimate – but Protestant – son, the Duke of Monmouth. As it seemed likely that the bill would pass in the House of Commons, successive Parliaments attempted to pass such a bill, and were likewise dissolved. Shaftesburys party, beginning to be known as the Whigs, involved the country in a mass movement. Every November, on the anniversary of Elizabeth Is accession, they organised huge processions in London in which the Pope was burnt in effigy. The Kings supporters were able to muster their own propaganda in the form of memories of the regime of the Commonwealth government of Oliver Cromwell. Despite two failed attempts to reestablish Parliament and pass the bill, the King succeeded in labelling the Whigs as subversives and as closet nonconformists. By 1681, in the course of the Exclusion Bill Parliament, the movement had died down. Religion in the United Kingdom British monarchy Popery

17.
Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury
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A founder of the Whig party, he is also remembered as the patron of John Locke. Anthony Ashley Cooper was born in 1621 and had lost both of his parents by the age of eight and he was brought up by Edward Tooker and other guardians named in his fathers will, before attending Exeter College, Oxford, and Lincolns Inn. During the English Civil War, Cooper initially fought as a Royalist and he also opposed the religious extremism of the Fifth Monarchists during Barebones Parliament. As a member of the Council of State, Cooper opposed the New Model Armys attempts to rule the following the downfall of Richard Cromwell. Shortly before his coronation, Charles created Cooper Lord Ashley, so when the Cavalier Parliament assembled in 1661 he moved from the House of Commons to the House of Lords and he served as Chancellor of the Exchequer, 1661–1672. After the fall of Clarendon, Ashley was one of the members of the so-called Cabal Ministry and he was created Earl of Shaftesbury in 1672. During this period, John Locke entered Ashleys household, by 1673, Ashley was worried that the heir to the throne, James, Duke of York, was secretly a Roman Catholic. After the Cabal Ministry ended, Shaftesbury became a leader of the opposition to the policies pursued by Thomas Osborne, Danby favoured strict interpretation of the penal laws, enforcing mandatory membership of the Church of England. Shaftesbury, who sympathised with the Protestant Nonconformists, briefly agreed to work with the Duke of York, the Whig party was born during the Exclusion Crisis, and Shaftesbury was one of the partys most prominent leaders. In 1681, during the Tory reaction following the failure of the Exclusion Bill, Shaftesbury was arrested for high treason, in 1682, after the Tories had gained the ability to pack London juries with their supporters, Shaftesbury, fearing a second prosecution, fled the country. Upon arriving in Amsterdam, he fell ill, and soon died and he was born on 22 July 1621, at the home of his maternal grandfather Sir Anthony Ashley in Wimborne St Giles, Dorset. He was named Anthony Ashley Cooper because of a promise the couple had made to Sir Anthony. Coopers father was created a baronet in 1622, and he represented Poole in the parliaments of 1625 and 1628, supporting the attack on Richard Neile, Sir Anthony Ashley insisted that a man with Puritan leanings, Aaron Guerdon, be chosen as Coopers first tutor. In 1629, his father remarried, this time to the widowed Mary Moryson, one of the daughters of wealthy London textile merchant Baptist Hicks, through his stepmother, Cooper thus gained an important political connection in the form of her grandson, the future 1st Earl of Essex. Coopers father died in 1630, leaving Cooper a wealthy orphan, upon his fathers death, he inherited his fathers baronetcy and was now Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper. Coopers father had held his lands in knight-service, so Coopers inheritance now came under the authority of the Court of Wards, Cooper was sent to live with his fathers trustee Sir Daniel Norton in Southwick, Hampshire. Norton had joined in Sir John Coopers denunciation of Arminianism in the 1628–29 parliament, Sir Daniel died in 1636, and Cooper was sent to live with his fathers other trustee, Edward Tooker, at Maddington, near Salisbury. Here his tutor was a man with an MA from Oriel College, while there he fomented a minor riot and left without taking a degree

18.
House of Commons of England
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In 1801, with the union of Great Britain and Ireland, that house was in turn replaced by the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. The Parliament of England developed from the Magnum Concilium that advised the English monarch in medieval times and this royal council, meeting for short periods, included ecclesiastics, noblemen, as well as representatives of the counties. The chief duty of the council was to approve taxes proposed by the Crown, in many cases, however, the council demanded the redress of the peoples grievances before proceeding to vote on taxation. The first parliament to invite representatives of the towns was Montforts Parliament in 1265. At the Model Parliament of 1295, representatives of the boroughs were admitted, thus, it became settled practice that each county send two knights of the shire, and that each borough send two burgesses. Any show of independence by burgesses would thus be likely to lead to the exclusion of their towns from Parliament, the knights of the shire were in a better position, although less powerful than their noble and clerical counterparts in what was still a unicameral Parliament. They formed what became known as the House of Commons, while the clergy, although they remained subordinate to both the Crown and the Lords, the Commons did act with increasing boldness. The Commons even proceeded to some of the Kings ministers. Mare was soon released after the death of King Edward III, during the reign of the next monarch, Richard II, the Commons once again began to impeach errant ministers of the Crown. They began to insist that they could control both taxation and public expenditures, despite such gains in authority, however, the Commons still remained much less powerful than the Lords and the Crown. The influence of the Crown was increased by the wars of the late fifteenth century. Both houses of Parliament held little power during the years. The domination of the monarch grew further under the House of Tudor in the sixteenth century and this trend, however, was somewhat reversed when the House of Stuart came to the English throne in 1603. The first two Stuart monarchs, James I and Charles I, provoked conflicts with the Commons over issues such as taxation, religion, and royal powers. The differences between Charles I and Parliament were great, and resulted in the English Civil War, in which the forces of Parliament were victorious. In December 1648 the House of Commons was purged by the New Model Army, prides Purge was the only military coup in English history. Subsequently, King Charles I was beheaded and the Upper House was abolished, in 1653, when leading figures in this Parliament began to disagree with the army, it was dissolved by Oliver Cromwell. However, the monarchy and the House of Lords were both restored with the Commons in 1660, the influence of the Crown had been decreased, and was further diminished after James II was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the Bill of Rights 1689 was enacted

19.
James II of England
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James II and VII was King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII, from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. He was the last Roman Catholic monarch of England, Scotland and Ireland, the second surviving son of Charles I, he ascended the throne upon the death of his brother, Charles II. Members of Britains Protestant political elite increasingly suspected him of being pro-French and pro-Catholic and he was replaced by his eldest, Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange. James made one attempt to recover his crowns from William. After the defeat of the Jacobite forces by the Williamites at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690 and he lived out the rest of his life as a pretender at a court sponsored by his cousin and ally, King Louis XIV. James, the surviving son of King Charles I and his wife. Later that same year, he was baptised by William Laud and he was educated by private tutors, along with his brother, the future King Charles II, and the two sons of the Duke of Buckingham, George and Francis Villiers. At the age of three, James was appointed Lord High Admiral, the position was honorary, but would become a substantive office after the Restoration. He was designated Duke of York at birth, invested with the Order of the Garter in 1642, as the Kings disputes with the English Parliament grew into the English Civil War, James stayed in Oxford, a Royalist stronghold. When the city surrendered after the siege of Oxford in 1646, in 1648, he escaped from the Palace, aided by Joseph Bampfield, and from there he went to The Hague in disguise. When Charles I was executed by the rebels in 1649, monarchists proclaimed Jamess older brother as Charles II of England, Charles II was recognised as king by the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of Ireland, and was crowned King of Scotland at Scone in 1651. Although he was proclaimed King in Jersey, Charles was unable to secure the crown of England and consequently fled to France, like his brother, James sought refuge in France, serving in the French army under Turenne against the Fronde, and later against their Spanish allies. In the French army James had his first true experience of battle where, according to one observer, he ventures himself, in the meantime, Charles was attempting to reclaim his throne, but France, although hosting the exiles, had allied itself with Oliver Cromwell. In 1656, Charles turned instead to Spain – an enemy of France – for support, in consequence, James was expelled from France and forced to leave Turennes army. James quarrelled with his brother over the choice of Spain over France. In 1659, the French and Spanish made peace, James, doubtful of his brothers chances of regaining the throne, considered taking a Spanish offer to be an admiral in their navy. Ultimately, he declined the position, by the year the situation in England had changed. After Richard Cromwells resignation as Lord Protector in 1659 and the subsequent collapse of the Commonwealth in 1660, although James was the heir presumptive, it seemed unlikely that he would inherit the Crown, as Charles was still a young man capable of fathering children

20.
Succession to the British throne
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Succession to the British throne is determined by descent, gender, legitimacy, and religion. Under common law, the crown is inherited by an individuals children, Protestant descendants of those excluded for being Catholics are eligible to succeed. Queen Elizabeth II is the present sovereign and her heir apparent is her eldest son, Charles, next in line after him is Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, the Prince of Waless elder son. Third in line is Prince George of Cambridge, the son of the Duke of Cambridge, followed by his sister, fifth in line is Prince Harry, the younger son of the Prince of Wales. Sixth in line is Prince Andrew, Duke of York, the Queens second-eldest son, the first four individuals in the line of succession who are twenty-one years or older, and the sovereigns consort, may be appointed Counsellors of State. Counsellors of State perform some of the duties in the United Kingdom while he or she is out of the country or temporarily incapacitated. Otherwise, individuals in the line of succession need not have specific legal or official roles, the United Kingdom is one of the 16 Commonwealth realms. Each of those countries has the person as monarch and the same order of succession. After the necessary legislation had been enacted in accordance with each realms constitution, no official, complete version of the line of succession is currently maintained. The exact number, in remoter collateral lines, of the persons who would be eligible is uncertain, in 2001 genealogist William Addams Reitwiesner compiled a list of 4,973 living descendants of the Electress Sophia in order of succession, but disregarding Roman Catholic status. When updated in January 2011, the number was more than five thousand, the annotated list below covers the first part of this line of succession, being limited to descendants of the sons of George V. Persons named in italics are unnumbered either because they are deceased or because sources report them to be excluded from the succession. The order of the first sixteen numbered in the list is given on the website of the British Monarchy, other list numbers and exclusions are explained by annotations. Notes and sources, XC Excluded as Roman Catholics and this exclusion is not affected by changes subsequent to the Perth Agreement. MC These people were excluded through marriage to a Roman Catholic and this exclusion was repealed on 26 March 2015, restoring them to the line of succession, when the Perth Agreement came into effect. B listed by the website of the British Monarchy, Succession. Originally in both countries, there were no fixed rules governing succession to the throne, the individual could have relied on inheritance, statute, election, nomination, conquest or prescription. It was often unclear which of these bases should take precedence, often, the outcome depended not on the strength of the claims

21.
Habeas Corpus Act 1679
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The Habeas Corpus Act 1679 is an Act of Parliament in England during the reign of King Charles II. The Act is often described as the origin of the writ of habeas corpus. But the writ of habeas corpus had existed in various forms in England for at least five centuries before and is thought to have originated in the 12th Century Assize of Clarendon. The Act of 1679 followed an earlier Habeas Corpus Act of 1640, though amended, it remains on the statute book to this day. The act laid out certain temporal and geographical conditions under which prisoners had to be brought before the courts, jailors were forbidden to move prisoners from one prison to another or out of the country to evade the writ. In case of disobedience jailers would be punished with severe fines which had to be paid to the prisoner. The Act came about because the Earl of Shaftesbury encouraged his friends in the Commons to introduce the Bill where it passed and was sent up to the House of Lords. The Bill went back and forth between the two Houses, and then the Lords voted on whether to set up a conference on the Bill, if this motion was defeated the Bill would stay in the Commons and therefore have no chance of being passed. Each side—those voting for and against—appointed a teller who stood on each side of the door through which those Lords who had voted aye re-entered the House. One teller would count them aloud whilst the other teller listened, shaftesburys faction had voted for the motion, so they went out and re-entered the House. The King arrived shortly thereafter and gave Royal Assent before proroguing Parliament, the Act is now stored in the Parliamentary Archives

22.
Battle of Bothwell Bridge
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The Battle of Bothwell Bridge, or Bothwell Brig, took place on 22 June 1679. It was fought between government troops and militant Presbyterian Covenanters, and signalled the end of their brief rebellion, the battle took place at the bridge over the River Clyde in Hamilton, South Lanarkshire near Bothwell in Lanarkshire, Scotland. The battlefield has been included in the Inventory of Historic Battlefields in Scotland, following the Restoration of King Charles II, the Presbyterians in Scotland were increasingly persecuted for their beliefs, and a small armed rising had been put down in 1666. These were often broken up by squads of government dragoons, including those led by John Graham of Claverhouse. On 1 June 1679, Claverhouse had encountered such a gathering near Loudoun Hill, but his troops were routed by armed Covenanters at the Battle of Drumclog, following this initial success the Covenanters spent the next few weeks building their strength, as did the government. Charles son James, Duke of Monmouth was sent north to command. The Covenanters had established their camp on the bank of the Clyde. The rebels numbered around 6000 men, but were poorly disciplined and they had few competent commanders, being nominally led by Robert Hamilton of Preston, although his rigid stance against the Indulged ministers only encouraged division. The government army numbered around 5000 regular troops and militia, and was commanded by Monmouth, supported by Claverhouse, the battle centred on the narrow bridge across the Clyde, the passage of which Monmouth was required to force in order to come at the Covenanters. Hackston led the defence of the bridge and had initial success in the initial skirmishes at the bridge itself. But his men lacked artillery and ammunition, and were forced to withdraw after around an hour, once Monmouths men were across the bridge, the Covenanters were quickly routed. Many fled into the parks of nearby Hamilton Palace, seat of Duchess Anne, who was sympathetic to the Presbyterian cause, the numbers of covenanters who were killed varies widely with estimates ranging from 7 -700 according to the Scottish Battles Gazetteer. The prisoners were taken to Edinburgh and held on land beside Greyfriars Kirkyard, many remained there for several months, until the last of them were transported to the colonies in November. A core of hard-line rebels remained in arms, and became known as the Cameronians after Richard Cameron their leader, Cameron was killed in a skirmish at Airds Moss the next year, but his followers were eventually pardoned on the accession of King William III in 1689. The battle is an event in Sir Walter Scotts 1816 novel. Scott fictionalises the battle and the leading up to it, introducing real people who were not actually present, such as General Tam Dalyell. However, his description of the flow of the battle is considered accurate, in 1903, on the 224th anniversary of the battle, a monument was dedicated on the site. This stands beside Bothwell Bridge, which was rebuilt in the 19th century

23.
James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth
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James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, 1st Duke of Buccleuch, KG, PC was an English nobleman. Originally called James Crofts or James Fitzroy, he was born in Rotterdam in the Netherlands and he served in the Second Anglo-Dutch War and commanded English troops taking part in the Third Anglo-Dutch War before commanding the Anglo-Dutch brigade fighting in the Franco-Dutch War. In 1685 he led the unsuccessful Monmouth Rebellion, an attempt to depose his uncle, the rebellion failed, and Monmouth was beheaded for treason on 15 July 1685. Born in Rotterdam in the Netherlands, to Lucy Walter, and her lover, Charles II, when the child grew to manhood, contemporaries observed that he bore a strong resemblance to Sidney. The unfounded voices had probably originated from the Duke of York, brother of King Charles II and he had a younger sister Mary Crofts, who may also have been a daughter of Charles although Theobald Taaffe, 1st Earl of Carlingford is considered another potential father. Mary married the Irishman William Sarsfield and was a sister-in-law of the Jacobite general Patrick Sarsfield, as an illegitimate son, James was not eligible to succeed to the English or Scottish thrones, though there were rumours that Charles and Lucy did marry secretly. Monmouth later himself always claimed his parents were married and that he possessed their marriage lines, Charles, as King, later testified in writing to his Council that he had never been married to anyone except his queen, Catherine of Braganza. In March 1658, young James was kidnapped by one of the Kings men, sent to Paris and he briefly attended a school in Familly. On 20 April 1663, he was married to the heiress Anne Scott, James took his wifes surname upon marriage. The day after his marriage, the couple were made Duke and Duchess of Buccleuch, Earl and Countess of Dalkeith, in 1665, at the age of 16, Monmouth served in the English fleet under his uncle the Duke of York in the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In June 1666, he returned to England to become captain of a troop of cavalry, on 16 September 1668 he was made colonel of the His Majestys Own Troop of Horse Guards. He acquired Moor Park in Hertfordshire in April 1670, at the outbreak of the Third Anglo-Dutch War in 1672, a brigade of 6,000 English and Scottish troops was sent to serve as part of the French army, with Monmouth as its commander. He became Lord Lieutenant of the East Riding of Yorkshire and Governor of Kingston-upon-Hull in April 1673, in the campaign of 1673 and in particular at the Siege of Maastricht in June 1673, Monmouth gained a considerable reputation as one of Britains finest soldiers. He was reported to be replacing Marshal Schomberg as commander of Englands Zealand Expedition, in March 1677 he also became Lord Lieutenant of Staffordshire. Monmouth may have come to believe that his parents had been married. As his popularity with the masses increased Monmouth was obliged to go into exile in the Dutch United Provinces in September 1679. On King Charles IIs death in February 1685 Monmouth led the Monmouth Rebellion, Monmouth declared himself King at various places along the route including Axminster, Chard, Ilminster and Taunton. On 8 July 1685 Monmouth was captured and arrested near Ringwood in Hampshire, the events surrounding his capture are recorded in detail in Taits Edinburgh Magazine

24.
John Graham, 1st Viscount Dundee
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John Graham of Claverhouse, 1st Viscount Dundee, known as the 7th Laird of Claverhouse until raised to the viscountcy in 1688, was a Scottish soldier and nobleman, a Tory and an Episcopalian. Claverhouse was responsible for policing south-west Scotland during and after the religious unrest, after his death, Presbyterian historians dubbed him Bluidy Clavers. Contemporary evidence for the fairness of this soubriquet in the Covenanting tradition is mixed, tales of the Covenanters and Covenanter monuments hold Claverhouse directly responsible for the deaths of adherents of that movement. However, Claverhouses own letters frequently recommended lenient treatment of Covenanters, later, as a general in the Scottish army, Claverhouse remained loyal to King James VII of Scotland after the Revolution of 1688. He rallied those Highland clans loyal to the Jacobite cause and, although he lost his life in the battle and this first Jacobite rising was unsuccessful, but Claverhouse became a Jacobite hero, acquiring his second soubriquet Bonnie Dundee. The Graham family was descended from King Robert III, through his second daughter Princess Mary, John Graham was born of a junior branch of the family that had acquired the estate of Claverhouse near Dundee. He was the son of Sir William Graham and Lady Madeline Carnegie. He had a brother, David, and two sisters. Both John and David were educated at the University of St Andrews, William Graham died in around 1652, and the brothers became the responsibility of their uncles and other relatives. In 1660 they were listed as burgesses of Dundee, probably at the instigation of their paternal uncle George Graham, John Graham inherited the Claverhouse estate when he came of age in the summer of 1669. The Claverhouse properties included a house in Glen Ogilvie in the Sidlaw Hills to the north of Dundee, Claypotts Castle, in 1669 Grahams maternal uncle, David Carnegie, Lord Lour, secured him an appointment as a Commissioner of Excise and Justice of the Peace for Angus. He began his career in 1672, as a junior Lieutenant in Sir William Lockharts Scots Regiment. This regiment was under the command of the Duke of Monmouth, in the service of the French King, by 1674, Graham was a Cornet in William of Oranges guards. It has been conjectured that, as a reward for his actions, two years later, following an unsuccessful siege of Maastricht, Graham resigned his commission and returned to Scotland. William wrote a letter to James, Duke of York, who was both his uncle and father-in-law, recommending John Graham as a soldier, in December 1678, the regular clergy complained when Graham told them he had no orders to apprehend anyone for past misdemeanors. They consisted of four battalions of foot, and all armed with fusils and pitchforks. Due to the difficult terrain Claverhouses dragoons were initially unable to advance on the Covenanters, perceiving that some of the government forces were struggling in the wet ground before their position the Covenanter force launched an attack which made rapid progess. Claverhouse and his troopers had to beat a hasty retreat from the Battle of Drumclog

25.
Covenanter
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The Covenanters were a Scottish Presbyterian movement that played an important part in the history of Scotland, and to a lesser extent that of England and Ireland, during the 17th century. Presbyterian denominations tracing their history to the Covenanters and often incorporating the name continue the ideas and traditions in Scotland and internationally. They derived their name from the word covenant meaning a band, legal document or agreement, there were two important covenants in Scottish history, the National Covenant and the Solemn League and Covenant. Based on the Scots Confession of Faith of 1560, this document denounced the Pope, in 1637, Scotland was in a state of turmoil. King Charles I and William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, met with a reverse in their efforts to impose a new liturgy on the Scots. Fearing further measures on the part of the King, it occurred to Archibald Johnston to revive the Negative Confession of 1581 in a suited to the times. Together with the cooperation of Alexander Henderson, this National Covenant was finalized in early 1638, the Covenant was adopted and signed by a large gathering in the kirkyard of Greyfriars Kirk in Edinburgh, on 28 February 1638, after which copies were sent throughout the country for signing. The subscribers engaged by oath to maintain religion in the form that it existed in 1580 and it did not specifically reject episcopacy but in effect undermined it. The year 1638 marked an apex of events for the Covenanters, confrontations occurred in several parts of Scotland, such as the one with the Bishops of Aberdeen by a high level assembly of Covenanters staging their operations from Muchalls Castle. The General Assembly of 1638 was composed of ardent Covenanters, and in 1640 the Covenant was adopted by the Scottish parliament, before this date, the Covenanters were usually referred to as Supplicants, but from about this time the former designation began to prevail. The Covenanters raised an army to resist Charles Is religious reforms, the crisis that this caused to the Stuart monarchy helped bring about the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, which included the English Civil War, the Scottish Civil War and Irish Confederate Wars. For the following ten years of war in Britain, the Covenanters were the de facto government of Scotland. In 1642, they sent an army to Ulster in Ireland to protect the Scottish settlers there from the Irish Catholic rebels who had attacked them in the Irish Rebellion of 1641. The Scottish army remained in Ireland until the end of the civil wars, a further Covenanter military intervention began in 1643. Following considerable debate, a document called the Solemn League and Covenant was drawn up and it did not explicitly mention Presbyterianism and included some ambiguous formulations that left the door open to Independency. It was subscribed to by many in both kingdoms and also in Ireland, and was approved by the English Parliament, and with slight modifications by the Westminster Assembly of Divines. This agreement meant that the Covenanters sent another army south to England to fight on the Parliamentarian side in the First English Civil War, the Scottish armies in England were instrumental in bringing about the victory of the English Parliament over the King. In turn, this sparked the outbreak of war in Scotland in 1644–47

26.
Exclusion Bill Parliament
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The Exclusion Bill Parliament was a Parliament of England during the reign of Charles II of England, named after the long saga of the Exclusion Bill. Summoned on 24 July 1679, but prorogued by the king so that it did not assemble until 21 October 1680, succeeding the long Cavalier Parliament and the short-lived Habeas Corpus Parliament of March to July 1679, this was the third parliament of the Kings reign. Its character was influenced by the aftermath of the Popish Plot crisis. A fringe group began to support the claim of Charless illegitimate son, as it seemed likely that the bill would pass, Charles exercised his Royal prerogative to dissolve Parliament. A new parliament was summoned on 24 July 1679, and elections to the new House of Commons were held on dates in the weeks which followed. With parliament expected to meet in October 1679, King Charles prorogued the parliament until 26 January 1680, Shaftesbury was anxious that the king might be intending not to meet this new parliament, so he launched a petitioning campaign to pressure the king to do so. He also wrote to the Duke of Monmouth, advising him to return from exile, however, instead of meeting parliament Charles further prorogued it and recalled his brother the Duke of York from Scotland. With this, Shaftesbury urged his friends on the Privy Council to resign, roger North noted that The frolic went all over England, and the addresses of the Abhorrers from around the country formed a counterblast to those of the Petitioners. Shaftesburys party sought to establish a movement to keep alive the fears raised by the Popish Plot. The Kings supporters mustered their own propaganda in the form of memoirs of the Commonwealth government of Oliver Cromwell, the King labelled the Whigs as subversives and nonconformists, and by early 1681 Shaftesburys mass movement had died down. On 24 March 1680, Shaftesbury told the Privy Council he had received news that the Roman Catholics of Ireland were about to launch a rebellion, backed by the French. Several Privy Councillors, including Henry Coventry, thought Shaftesbury was making this story up to public opinion. This ultimately resulted in the execution of Oliver Plunkett, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Armagh, before the grand jury could act, it was dismissed for interfering in matters of state. The next week, Shaftesbury again tried to indict the Duke of York, Parliament finally met on 21 October 1680, when the Commons elected for the first time William Williams as Speaker. He became the first Speaker of the House of Commons from Wales, on October 23, Shaftesbury in the House of Lords called for a committee to be set up to investigate the Popish Plot. The next parliament was the Oxford Parliament of 1681, list of Parliaments of England English general election,1679

27.
Bristol
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Bristol is a city and county in South West England with a population of 449,300 in 2016. The district has the 10th largest population in England, while the Bristol metropolitan area is the 12th largest in the United Kingdom, the city borders North Somerset and South Gloucestershire, with the cities of Bath and Gloucester to the south-east and north-east, respectively. Iron Age hill forts and Roman villas were built near the confluence of the rivers Frome and Avon, Bristol received a royal charter in 1155 and was historically divided between Gloucestershire and Somerset until 1373, when it became a county of itself. From the 13th to the 18th century, Bristol was among the top three English cities after London in tax receipts, Bristol was surpassed by the rapid rise of Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham in the Industrial Revolution. Bristol was a place for early voyages of exploration to the New World. On a ship out of Bristol in 1497 John Cabot, a Venetian, in 1499 William Weston, a Bristol merchant, was the first Englishman to lead an exploration to North America. At the height of the Bristol slave trade, from 1700 to 1807, the Port of Bristol has since moved from Bristol Harbour in the city centre to the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth and Royal Portbury Dock. Bristols modern economy is built on the media, electronics and aerospace industries. The city has the largest circulating community currency in the U. K. - the Bristol pound, which is pegged to the Pound sterling. It is connected to London and other major UK cities by road, rail, sea and air by the M5 and M4, Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway mainline rail stations, and Bristol Airport. The Sunday Times named it as the best city in Britain in which to live in 2014 and 2017, the most ancient recorded name for Bristol is the archaic Welsh Caer Odor, which is consistent with modern understanding that early Bristol developed between the River Frome and Avon Gorge. It is most commonly stated that the Saxon name Bricstow was a calque of the existing Celtic name, with Bric a literal translation of Odor. Alternative etymologies are supported with the numerous variations in Medieval documents with Samuel Seyer enumerating 47 alternative forms. The Old English form Brycgstow is commonly used to derive the meaning place at the bridge, utilizing another form, Brastuile, Rev. Dr. Shaw derived the name from the Celtic words bras, or braos and tuile. The poet Thomas Chatterton popularised a derivation from Brictricstow linking the town to Brictric and it appears that the form Bricstow prevailed until 1204, and the Bristolian L is what eventually changed the name to Bristol. Iron Age hill forts near the city are at Leigh Woods and Clifton Down, on the side of the Avon Gorge, a Roman settlement, Abona, existed at what is now Sea Mills, another was at the present-day Inns Court. Isolated Roman villas and small forts and settlements were scattered throughout the area. Bristol was founded by 1000, by about 1020, it was a centre with a mint producing silver pennies bearing its name

28.
Baptists
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Other tenets of Baptist churches include soul competency, salvation through faith alone, Scripture alone as the rule of faith and practice, and the autonomy of the local congregation. Baptists recognize two ministerial offices, elders and deacons, Baptist churches are widely considered to be Protestant churches, though some Baptists disavow this identity. Historians trace the earliest church labeled Baptist back to 1609 in Amsterdam, in accordance with his reading of the New Testament, he rejected baptism of infants and instituted baptism only of believing adults. Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christs atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only to the elect. Thomas Helwys formulated a distinctively Baptist request that the church and the state be kept separate in matters of law, Helwys died in prison as a consequence of the religious persecution of English dissenters under King James I. In 1638, Roger Williams established the first Baptist congregation in the North American colonies, in the mid-18th century, the First Great Awakening contributed to Baptist growth in both New England and the South. Baptist missionaries have spread their church to every continent, the largest Baptist denomination is the Southern Baptist Convention, with the membership of associated churches totaling more than 15 million. Modern Baptist churches trace their history to the English Separatist movement in the century after the rise of the original Protestant denominations and this view of Baptist origins has the most historical support and is the most widely accepted. Adherents to this position consider the influence of Anabaptists upon early Baptists to be minimal and it was a time of considerable political and religious turmoil. Both individuals and churches were willing to give up their theological roots if they became convinced that a more biblical truth had been discovered, during the Protestant Reformation, the Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church. There were some Christians who were not content with the achievements of the mainstream Protestant Reformation, there also were Christians who were disappointed that the Church of England had not made corrections of what some considered to be errors and abuses. Of those most critical of the Churchs direction, some chose to stay and they became known as Puritans and are described by Gourley as cousins of the English Separatists. Others decided they must leave the Church because of their dissatisfaction, historians trace the earliest Baptist church back to 1609 in Amsterdam, with John Smyth as its pastor. Three years earlier, while a Fellow of Christs College, Cambridge, reared in the Church of England, he became Puritan, English Separatist, and then a Baptist Separatist, and ended his days working with the Mennonites. He began meeting in England with 60–70 English Separatists, in the face of great danger, Smyth and his lay supporter, Thomas Helwys, together with those they led, broke with the other English exiles because Smyth and Helwys were convinced they should be baptized as believers. In 1609 Smyth first baptized himself and then baptized the others, in 1609, while still there, Smyth wrote a tract titled The Character of the Beast, or The False Constitution of the Church. In it he expressed two propositions, first, infants are not to be baptized, and second, Antichristians converted are to be admitted into the true Church by baptism. Hence, his conviction was that a church should consist only of regenerate believers who have been baptized on a personal confession of faith

29.
Bagnio
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A bagnio was a term for a bath or bath-house. The term was used to refer to the prison for hostages in Constantinople, which was near the bath-house, and thereafter all the slave prisons in the Ottoman Empire. The hostages of the pirates slept in the prisons at night, leaving during the day to work as laborers, galley slaves, the communication between master and slave and between slaves of different origins was made in Lingua Franca, a Mediterranean pidgin language with Romance and Arabic vocabulary. The Slaves Prison in Valletta, Malta, which was both a prison and a place where Muslim slaves slept at night, was commonly known as the bagnio or bagno. The last one in European France, the Bagne de Toulon, was closed in 1873, the French penal colony on Devils Island in French Guiana, which was not shut down until 1953, was also called a bagne, and features in the famous bestseller Papillon. El trato de Argel, Los baños de Argel, El gallardo español and La gran sultana were four comedies by Miguel de Cervantes about the life of the galley slaves, Cervantes himself had been imprisoned in Algiers. His novel Don Quixote also features a subplot with the story of a caitiff, in The Day of the Locust by Nathanael West, Claude Estees wife, Alice, says Nothing like a good bagnio to set a fellow up. Frequent mention of a bagnio is made in A Maggot by John Fowles, set in 1736, in Fowles novel, the term denotes a brothel, specifically the one run by Mistress Claiborne. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chambers, Ephraim. Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, james and John Knapton, et al

30.
Benedict Calvert, 4th Baron Baltimore
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Benedict Leonard Calvert, 4th Baron Baltimore was an English nobleman and politician. He was the son of Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore by Jane Lowe. Benedict Calvert would make attempts to have his familys title to Maryland restored by renouncing Roman Catholicism. In February 1715 Benedict became the 4th Baron Baltimore upon the death of his father, however, before the King could rule on the petition, Baltimore died aged 36, outliving his father by just two months. Shortly afterwards the King restored the title to Maryland to Calverts young son Charles Calvert, Benedict Leonard Calvert served as Governor of Maryland on behalf of his father from 1684 to 1688. Since he was just 5 years old at the time, this appointment was an honorary one, with the real work of governorship being carried out by his deputy. Like his father, Benedict Leonard Calverts Catholicism would cause him political difficulties, unfortunately, Salisburys timing could not have been worse. The King was soon overthrown by the Glorious Revolution of October to December 1688, Benedict Calverts name was entered at Grays Inn in 1690, but again his religion proved an impediment to his career. And he went into exile in St Germain, France, where he would remain for 10 years, Charlotte Fitzroy was the illegitimate daughter of King Charles II. The couple had seven children, all of whom were raised in the Catholic faith, but the union was not a one. In 1711 Calvert petitioned for a divorce from his wife on the grounds of her adultery, but the petition was unsuccessful. Benedict Calvert correctly calculated that the impediment to the restoration of his familys title to Maryland was the question of religion. Accordingly, he converted to Anglicanism in 1713, gambling that this move would win back his familys lost fortune in the New World, such a bold move would however come at a cost. For Calvert, the benefits associated with his new religion came quickly. He was elected to the House of Commons as Member of Parliament for Harwich from 1714 to 1715, though he was not listed in any division lists, and was not an active member. On 1 August 1714 Queen Anne died, leaving the Calverts with a new king, on 2 February 1715 Calvert reaffirmed his devotion to the Anglican faith and proclaimed his loyalty to the new Protestant king George I. However, before the King could rule on the petition, Baltimore himself died, shortly afterwards, on 15 May 1715, the King restored the title to Maryland to Benedict Leonards son, the fifteen-year-old 5th Baron Baltimore. Calvert married Charlotte Lee, daughter of the 1st Earl of Lichfield and his wife and he and his wife had seven children

31.
Thomas Chubb
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Thomas Chubb was an English lay Deist writer, born near Salisbury. Chubb regarded Christ as a teacher, but held reason to be sovereign in matters of religion, questioned religions morality. He had no learning, but was well up in the controversies of the time. Chubb wrote The True Gospel of Jesus Christ, Asserted, wherein he stated that one must distinguish between the teaching of Jesus and that of the Apostles who wrote the Gospels. He published tracts, one of which, The Previous Question with regard to Religion, went through four editions and they were collected in a quarto volume in 1730, and attracted wider notice. Chubb was encouraged to write further tracts, a disciple of Samuel Clarke, he gradually diverged from Arianism into a modified deism. In 1731 he published a Discourse concerning Reason, … reason is, or else that it ought to be, some ‘reflections’ upon ‘moral and positive duty’ were added, suggested by Clarkes Exposition of the Catechism. The whole argument showed an increasing scepticism, and the argument about Abraham led to some controversy and he returned to the question in 1735 in some ‘Observations’ on Thomas Rundles nomination to the see of Gloucester, Rundle having been accused of disbelieving the story. Three tracts are added in continuation of the former discussion, in 1738 Chubb published ‘The True Gospel of Jesus Christ asserted, ’ which provoked various attacks, including one from Ebenezer Hewlett. It was followed by ‘The True Gospel of Jesus vindicated, ’ and ‘An Enquiry into the Ground and Foundation of Religion, in 1740 appeared an ‘Enquiry into the Ground and Foundation of Religion, ’ including a controversy with Henry Stebbing. The last work Chubb published himself was ‘Four Dissertations’, in which he attacks some passages in the Old Testament with a freedom which gave wide offence, joseph Waligore has argued in his 2012 article The Piety of the English Deists that Chubb discussed prayer more than any other deist. Chubbs longest writing on the subject was a 30-page pamphlet An Enquiry Concerning Prayer, in it, Chubb began by insisting that prayer was a duty God required of us so that we can achieve a closer relationship with him. The purpose of prayer was to render someone “a suitable and proper object of God’s special care and love. For as prayer is an address or application of a dependent being to his supreme governour, and original benefactor. ”Chubb said we should pray often and “it is when we forget God, when God is not in all our thoughts, that we do amiss, then our minds and lives are corrupted and defiled. ”He also discussed whom we should pray to. First he said we should not pray to dead human souls, then he discussed whether we should pray to angels or not. Unlike Morgan – who thought we should pray to both God and angels – Chubb thought we probably should not pray to angels. He said even though they are “ministering spirits, ” we cannot be sure they hear our prayers and he finally spent ten pages wondering whether we should pray to Jesus or just to God the Father. He concluded that we should pray to God the Father “in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ. ”Chubb was sure that God heard all our petitionary prayers, but he did not think God answered all of them in the way we wanted him to

32.
George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle
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George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle, KG was an English soldier, politician and a key figure in effecting the Restoration of the Monarchy to King Charles II in 1660. Having assaulted the Under Sheriff of the county in revenge for a wrong done to his father, becoming a soldier, he served as a volunteer in the 1626 expedition to Cadiz, and the next year fought well at the siege of the Île de Ré. In 1629 Monck went to the Netherlands, then a theatre of warfare and he fought bravely at the 1637 Siege of Breda, always first in the breach of his men. In 1638 he surrendered his commission in consequence of a quarrel with the authorities of Dordrecht. He was appointed to the lieutenant-colonelcy of the Earl of Newports regiment, during the operations on the Scottish border in the Bishops Wars he showed his skill and coolness in the dispositions by which he saved the English artillery at the Battle of Newburn. At the outbreak of the Irish rebellion Monck was appointed as colonel of Sidneys Regiment under the command of James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde. All the qualities for which he was noted through life — his talent for making himself indispensable, his imperturbable temper, the governorship of Dublin stood vacant, and Lord Leicester recommended Monck. Charles I overruled the appointment in favour of Lord Cavan, the Duke of Ormonde viewed him with suspicion as one of two officers who refused to take the oath to support the Royalist cause in England and sent him under guard to Bristol. Taken prisoner by the Parliamentary Northern Association Army under Lord Fairfax at the Battle of Nantwich in January 1644, during his imprisonment he wrote Observations on Military and Political Affairs. Moncks experience in Ireland led to his release and he was made major general in the army sent by Parliament against Irish rebels. Making a distinction between fighting the Irish and taking arms against the king, he accepted the offer and swore loyalty to the Parliamentary cause. He made little headway against the Irish led by Owen Roe ONeill, the convention was a military expedient to deal with a military necessity. Most of Moncks army went over to the Royalist cause, placing themselves under the command of Hugh Montgomery, although Parliament disavowed the terms of the truce, no blame was attached to Moncks recognition of military necessity. He next fought at Oliver Cromwells side in Scotland at the 1650 Battle of Dunbar, made commander-in-chief in Scotland by Cromwell, Monck completed the subjugation of the country. During this subjugation he lost control of his men with the resulting manslaughter, the streets of the town were reputed to run red with blood for days and Monck eventually was sickened by the barbarity when he saw the corpse of a suckling mother with her baby still feeding. In February 1652 Monck left Scotland to recover his health at Bath. On his return to shore Monck married Anne Radford, in 1653 he was nominated one of the representatives for Devon in Barebones Parliament. He returned to Scotland, methodically beating down a Royalist insurrection in the Highlands, at Cromwells request, Monck remained in Scotland as governor

33.
William Ireland (Jesuit)
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Blessed William Ireland was an English Jesuit from Lincolnshire. He was executed during the reign of King Charles II for participating in the alleged but fabricated Popish Plot against the King and he is a Catholic martyr, and was beatified in 1929. Ireland was the eldest son of William Ireland of Crofton Hall, Yorkshire, by Barbara and he had several sisters, to whom he remained close, and who worked tirelessly to prove his innocence during the Plot. Ireland was educated at the English College, St. Omer, admitted to the Society of Jesus at Watten,1655, professed,1673, in 1677, Ireland was sent on the English Mission and appointed procurator of the province. On the night of 28 September 1678, he was arrested by constables led by Titus Oates, together with Thomas Pickering, Ireland and Grove were said to have planned on 19 August, in the rooms of the Jesuit William Harcourt, to assassinate King Charles II at Newmarket. Oates and William Bedloe swore that Grove was to have £1500 for the job, the sworn testimony of Oates and Bedloe impressed the jury, and Chief Justice William Scroggs summed up against Ireland. Despite Irelands impressive alibi, which was later to gravely embarrass the Crown, after being confined in Newgate Prison, Ireland was sentenced to death on 17 December. Ireland wrote a journal in Newgate, which accounted for every day of his absence from London between 3 August and 14 September. However a servant girl called Sarah Paine swore that she saw Ireland in Fetter Lane on 20 August, on the other hand, Oatess false evidence against Ireland was later considered to be of such importance as to form a separate indictment at his trial for perjury in 1685. This unusual step may reflect the strongly expressed private view of King Charles II that Ireland was innocent, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Ireland, William. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles

34.
James Sharp (bishop)
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James Sharp was a Scottish minister, and later Archbishop of St Andrews. James Sharp was born at Banff Castle on 4 May 1613 to William and Isabel Lesley Sharp and he graduated from Kings College in Aberdeen with a M. A. in 1637. T. F. Henderson mentions that he may have been expelled from the college in 1638 for refusing to take the covenant oath. He then went to Oxford but returned due to illness, Sharp resigned his professorship to accept an appointment to a parish in Crail, where some parishioners considered him a Presbyterian minister holding Episcopalian principles. This group had split into two factions, the Resolutioners and the Protesters, who differed over how much power should be given to the King in the ordering of church affairs. In 1651 Sharp was captured by Parliamentarian forces and imprisoned in the Tower of London until June 1652 when he was permitted to return to Scotland, in 1657 he was sent to London to represent the interests of the Resolutioners. In 1659, Sharp was approached by George Monck who was planning the restoration of the monarchy, after meeting with Monck at Coldstream, Sharp returned to Edinburgh to consult with the leaders of the kirk. In January 1660 he was sent to London with five other ministers of Edinburgh to represent the views of the Resolutioners. In May, Monck sent him to Breda to brief Charles II regarding both church and state in Scotland and his loyalties shifted from Presbyterianism to Anglicanism. In December 1661, he was appointed Archbishop of St Andrews, in Covenanter literature he is portrayed as the arch-enemy. When the celebrated covenanter John Blackadder preached to a crowd at Kinkell, near St. Andrews. The provost said he could not do so, since the militia had joined the worshipers, in 1668 James Mitchell, a veteran of Rullion Green, failed in his attempt to assassinate the archbishop as his coach passed through Blackfriars Wynd in Edinburgh. When he was finally caught five years later, he confessed and, Mitchell became a Presbyterian folk hero and Sharp became even less popular. After intercepting the coach and shooting the postillion, the nine assassins inflicted multiple fatal sword wounds on Sharp in full view of his daughter. One of the group, James Russell, gave an account of the encounter in which he related that he had said to Sharp that he, in popular Scottish history Sharp is pictured as a turncoat in league with the Devil. Sharp was given a funeral and buried beneath an imposing black. However, when the tomb was opened in 1849 it was found to be empty and it has been alleged that the body was removed when the tomb was raided in 1725. Five Covenanters captured at Bothwell Bridge were hanged on 25 December 1679 for refusing to divulge information to identify the perpetrators

35.
William Chamberlayne (poet)
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William Chamberlayne was an English poet. Nothing is known of his history except that he practised as a physician at Shaftesbury in Dorset, robert Southey speaks of him as a poet to whom I am indebted for many hours of delight. Pharonnida was reprinted by S. W. Singer in 1820, the poem is loose in construction but contains some passages of great beauty. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Chamberlayne. A Forgotten Poet, William Chamberlayne and Pharonnida

36.
John Kemble (martyr)
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Saint John Kemble was an English Roman Catholic martyr. He was one of the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales, John Kemble was born at Rhydicar Farm, St Weonards, Herefordshire, in 1599, the son of John and Anne Kemble. They were a prominent local recusant Catholic family, which included four other priests, John Kemble was ordained at Douai College, on 23 February 1625. He returned to England on 4 June 1625 as a missionary in Monmouthshire and Herefordshire, in normal times, despite harsh anti-Catholic laws, the extent of persecution depended upon the sympathies of local landowners. From 1622 there was even a Jesuit College at Cwm, Llanrothal, near Welsh Newton, which survived until 1678, though its existence was widely known, upon Father Kembles returned to Monmouthshire he served more than 50 years as an itinerant priest, winning admirers even among Protestants. Little is known of his caring for his flock during these fifty three years. The condition of Catholics had eased but priests still needed to perform their ministry discreetly, based at Pembridge Castle, the home of his nephew, Captain Richard Kemble, he had seemed immune from prosecution. The uneasy tolerance within which Father Kemble had operated was shattered by the Popish Plot of 1678, titus Oates was a perjurer who concocted a plot in which the Anglican Charles II would be assassinated and his Catholic brother installed as king in his place. When Oates story was examined in detail the whole fraud was exposed, anti-Catholic politicians made cynical use of this plot to implicate English Catholics, particularly priests. A Monmouthshire man, William Bedloe, laid false information against the leading Catholics of the area, among the many Catholics caught up in the frenzy was Father John Kemble. Father David Lewis was apprehended at St. Michaels Church, Llantarnam, Father Kemble was staying at Pembridge Castle, near Welsh Newton, when he was arrested on 7 December 1678. He was warned about the impending arrest but declined to leave his flock, saying, According to the course of nature, I have and it will be an advantage to suffer for my religion and, therefore, I will not abscond. He was arrested by a Captain John Scudamore of Kentchurch and it is a comment on the tortuous values of the age that Scudamores own wife and children were parishioners of Father Kemble. Kemble was kept in Hereford Gaol until the Spring Assizes of 1679, in April 1679 Father Kemble, now 80, was ordered to be taken to London to be interviewed about the plot. As the elderly priest had difficulty riding a horse, he was strapped like a pack to his horse on the way there and he was found to have had no connection with the alleged plot but found guilty of the treasonous crime of being a Catholic priest. He was sentenced to be hanged, drawn and quartered and he was returned to Hereford for the sentence to be carried out, and allowed to walk most of the way back. The Herefordshire sayings, Kemble pipe and Kemble cup, refer to a pipe or cup. Before his death Father Kemble addressed the crowd, pointing out that no association with the plot had been charged to him

37.
John Mayow
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John Mayow FRS was a chemist, physician, and physiologist who is remembered today for conducting early research into respiration and the nature of air. Mayow worked in a field that is called pneumatic chemistry. There has been controversy over both the location and year of Mayows birth, with both Cornwall and London claimed, along with birth years from 1641 to 1645. Proctors extensive research led him to conclude that Mayow was born in 1641 near Morval in Cornwall, a year later Mayow became a scholar at Oxford, and in 1660 he was elected to a fellowship at All Souls. He graduated in law, but made medicine his profession, and became noted for his practice therein, especially in the summer time, in 1678, on the proposal of Robert Hooke, Mayow was appointed a fellow of the Royal Society. The following year, after a marriage which was not altogether to Mayows content, he died in London and was buried in the Church of St Paul, Covent Garden. The contents of this work, which was several times republished and translated into Dutch, German and French, show him to have been an investigator much in advance of his time. Accepting as proved by Boyles experiments that air is necessary for combustion, Mayow showed that fire is supported not by the air as a whole but by a more active, however, if there was no candle present the animal lived twice as long. He concluded that this constituent of the air is necessary for life. Mayow perceived the part spiritus nitro-aereus plays in combustion and in increasing the weight of the calces of metals as compared with metals themselves and he even vaguely conceived of expiration as an excretory process. Using bell-jars over water Mayow showed that the substance that we today call oxygen constitutes about a fifth part of the air. Parts of Mayows work seems to agree with modern ideas regarding air, Mayow noted, as had others before him, that some materials gain weight on strong heating. Antoine Lavoisier and others interpreted this gain in terms of a reaction with a gaseous material in the air. See Holmyard and others for critiques of Mayows work and comparisons to modern chemical thought, fellow of the Royal Society This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Mayow, John. The life and work of John Mayow, some early appraisals of the work of John Mayow. Boehm W. Sudhoffs Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin und der Naturwissenschaften, sternbach GL, Varon J. Resuscitation Great. Journal of the Royal Institution of Cornwall, dr. John Mayow, The Harveian Oration for 1899. Medico-physical Works, Being a translation of Tractatus Quinque Medico-physici, – The above originally was published in 1674

38.
Thomas Hobbes
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Thomas Hobbes, in some older texts Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury, was an English philosopher who is considered one of the founders of modern political philosophy. Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book Leviathan, which established the social theory that has served as the foundation for most later Western political philosophy. Thomas Hobbes was born at Westport, now part of Malmesbury in Wiltshire, England, born prematurely when his mother heard of the coming invasion of the Spanish Armada, Hobbes later reported that my mother gave birth to twins, myself and fear. His childhood is almost completely unknown, and his mothers name is unknown and his father, Thomas Sr. was the vicar of Charlton and Westport. Thomas Hobbes, the younger, had a brother Edmund, about two years older, and a sister, Thomas Sr. was involved in a fight with the local clergy outside his church, forcing him to leave London and abandon the family. The family was left in the care of Thomas Sr. s older brother, Francis, Hobbes was a good pupil, and around 1603 he went up to Magdalen Hall, the predecessor college to Hertford College, Oxford. The principal John Wilkinson was a Puritan, and he had influence on Hobbes. At university, Hobbes appears to have followed his own curriculum and he did not complete his B. A. Hobbes became a companion to the younger William and they both took part in a grand tour of Europe in 1610. Hobbes was exposed to European scientific and critical methods during the tour and it has been argued that three of the discourses in the 1620 publication known as Horea Subsecivae, Observations and Discourses, also represent the work of Hobbes from this period. Although he associated with figures like Ben Jonson and briefly worked as Francis Bacons amanuensis. His employer Cavendish, then the Earl of Devonshire, died of the plague in June 1628, the widowed countess dismissed Hobbes but he soon found work, again as a tutor, this time to Gervase Clifton, the son of Sir Gervase Clifton, 1st Baronet. This task, chiefly spent in Paris, ended in 1631 when he found work with the Cavendish family, tutoring William. Over the next seven years, as well as tutoring, he expanded his own knowledge of philosophy and he visited Florence in 1636 and was later a regular debater in philosophic groups in Paris, held together by Marin Mersenne. Hobbess first area of study was an interest in the doctrine of motion. Despite his interest in this phenomenon, he disdained experimental work as in physics and he went on to conceive the system of thought to the elaboration of which he would devote his life. He then singled out Man from the realm of Nature and plants, finally he considered, in his crowning treatise, how Men were moved to enter into society, and argued how this must be regulated if Men were not to fall back into brutishness and misery. Thus he proposed to unite the separate phenomena of Body, Man, Hobbes came home, in 1637, to a country riven with discontent which disrupted him from the orderly execution of his philosophic plan. However, by the end of the Short Parliament in 1640, he had written a treatise called The Elements of Law, Natural

The Gate of Lincoln's Inn. Cooper attended Lincoln's Inn, beginning in 1638, to receive an education in the laws of England. Throughout his political career, Cooper posed as a defender of the rule of law, at various points in his career breaking with both Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658) and Charles II (1630–1685) when he perceived they were subverting the rule of law and introducing arbitrary government.

Engraving showing "A Solemn Mock Procession of the Pope" held in London on 17 November 1680. The Whigs arranged to have effigies of the Pope, cardinals, friars, and nuns paraded through the streets of London and then burned in a large bonfire.

The Earl of Shaftesbury, the leader of the Whigs who introduced the Exclusion Bill in the House of Commons on 15 May 1679.