President of the Third
Council. In his penultimate birth he was a Brahmā, called Tissa, and
consented to be born in the world of men at the urgent request of
the arahants who held the Second Council, in order to prevent the
downfall of the Buddha's religion. He was born in the home of the
brahmin Moggali of Pātaliputta. Siggava and Candavajji had been
entrusted with the task of converting him. From the time of Tissa's
birth, therefore, for seven years, Siggava went daily to the house
of Moggali, but not even one word of welcome did he receive. In the
eighth year someone said to him, "Go further on." As he went out he
met Moggali, and, on being asked whether he had received anything at
his house, he said he had. Moggali inquired at home and the next day
charged Siggava with lying. But hearing Siggava's explanation, he
was greatly pleased and thereafter constantly offered Siggava
hospitality at his house. One day, young Tissa, who was thoroughly
proficient in the Vedas, was much annoyed at finding Siggava
occupying his seat and spoke to him harshly. But Siggava started to
talk to him and asked him a question from the Cittayamaka. Tissa
could not answer it, and, in order to learn the Buddha's teachings,
he entered the Order under Siggava, becoming a sotāpanna soon after.
Siggava instructed him in the Vinaya and Candavajji in the Sutta and
Abhidhamma Pitakas. In due course he attained arahantship and became
the acknowledged leader of the monks at Pātaliputta (Mhv.v.95ff.,
131ff.; Dpv.v.55ff.; Sp.i.35 41).

At the festival of dedication of the Asokārāma and the other
vihāras built by Asoka, Moggaliputta Tissa informed Asoka, in answer
to a question, that one becomes a kinsman of the Buddha's religion
only by letting one's son or daughter enter the Order. Acting on
this suggestion, Asoka had both his children ordained. Moggaliputta
acted as Mahinda's upajjhāya (Mhv.v.191ff.; Sp.i.50f). Later,
because of the great gains which accrued to the monks through
Asoka's patronage of the Buddha's religion, the Order became corrupt,
and Moggaliputta committed the monks to the charge of Mahinda, and,
for seven years, lived in solitary retreat on the Ahogangā pabbata.
From there Asoka sent for him to solve his doubts as to what measure
of sin belonged to him owing to the murder of the monks by his
minister. But Moggaliputta would not come until persuaded that his
services were needed to befriend the religion. He traveled by boat
to Pātaliputta, and was met at the landing place by the king who
helped him out by supporting him on his arm.

According to Sp.i.58, the king had a dream on the preceding night
which the soothsayers interpreted to mean that a great ascetic
(samananāga) would touch his right hand. As the Thera touched the
king's hand the attendants were about to kill him, for to do this
was a crime punishable by death. The king, however, restrained them.
The Thera took the king's hand as a sign that he accepted him as
pupil.

The king, having led him to Rativaddhana Park, begged him to
perform a miracle. This the Thera consented to do and made the earth
quake in a single region. To convince the king that the murder of
the monks involved no guilt for himself, the Thera preached to him
the Tittira Jātaka. Within a week, with the aid of two yakkhas, the
king had all the monks gathered together and held an assembly at the
Asokārāma. In the presence of Moggaliputta, Asoka questioned the
monks on their various doctrines, and all those holding heretical
views were expelled from the Order, Moggaliputta decreeing that the
Vibhajjavāda alone contained the teaching of the Buddha. Later, in
association with one thousand arahants, Moggaliputta held the Third
Council at Asokārāma, with himself as President, and compiled the
Kathāvatthuppakarana, in refutation of false views. This was in the
seventeenth year of Asoka's reign and Moggaliputta was seventy two
years old (Mhv.v.231 81; Dpv.vii.16ff., 39ff.; Sp.i.57ff). At the
conclusion of the Council in nine months, Moggaliputta made
arrangements, in the month of Kattika, for monks to go to the
countries adjacent to India for the propagation of the religion (For
a list of these, see Mhv.xii.1ff.; Dpv.viii.1ff.; Sp.i.63ff). Later,
when the request came from Ceylon for a branch of the Bodhi tree,
Asoka consulted the Elder as to how this could be carried out, and
Moggaliputta told him of the five resolves made by the Buddha on his
death bed (Mhv.xviii.21ff).

The Dīpavamsa says (Dpv. 68ff., 82, 94, 96, 100f. 107f.; also
vii.23ff ) that Moggaliputta Tissa's ordination was in the second
year of Candagutta's reign, when Siggava was sixty four years old.
Candagutta reigned for twenty four years, and was followed by
Bindusāra, who reigned for thirty seven years, and he was succeeded
by Asoka. In the sixth year of Asoka's reign, Moggaliputta was
sixty-six years old, and it was then that he ordained Mahinda. He
was eighty years old at the time of his death and had been leader of
the Order for sixty eight years. He died in the twenty sixth year of
Asoka's reign."

"Kārtika (Hindi: कातिकkātik or कार्तिकkārtik, Bangla: কার্ত্তিক Kārtik), is a month of the
Hindu and Bengali calendars. In India's national civil calendar,
Kaartika is the eighth month of the year, beginning on 23 October
and ending on 21 November. In the Bikram Sambat in use in Nepal,
Kartik is the seventh month, beginning on 18 October and lasting
until 15 November.

In lunar religious calendars, Kaartik may begin
on either the new moon or the full moon around the same time of year,
and is usually the eighth month of the year. However, in Gujarat,
the year begins on Divali, so Kaartik is the first month of the year
for Gujaratis.

In solar religious calendars, Kaartik begins with the Sun's entry
into Libra, and is usually the seventh month of the year."

Son of Asoka and brother of Sanghamittā. He was
fourteen at the time of the coronation of his father and was
ordained at the age of twenty, his preceptor being Moggaliputtatissa.
The ordination was performed by Mahādeva, while Majjhantika recited
the kammavācā. Mahinda became an arahant on the day of his
ordination (Mhv.v.204ff.; Dpv.v.24 f ; Sp.i.51). He spent three
years in study of the Doctrine under his preceptor, and, later, when
the latter retired to Ahogangā, he left his one thousand disciples
for seven years under the care of Mahinda (Mhv.v.233; Sp.i.52). When
the Third Council was held, Mahinda had been for twelve years a monk
and was charged with the mission of converting Ceylon. But he
delayed for six months, until Devānampiyatissa became king. He then
went to Dakkhināgiri and from there to his birthplace, Vedisagiri,
staying in Vedisagiri vihāra and visiting his mother, the queen Devī.
Still one more month he tarried, teaching the Doctrine to Bhanduka,
and then, on the full moon day of Jettha, at the request of Sakka,
he went, in company with

Itthiya,

Uttiya,

Sambala,

Bhaddasāla,

Sumanasāmanera and

Bhanduka,

to Ceylon, where he converted
Devānampiyatissa by preaching to him the Cūlahatthipadopama Sutta.
Later, on the same day, he preached the Samacitta Sutta. The next
day, at the request of the king, he visited Anurādhapura, travelling
through the air and alighting on the site of the (later)
Pathamacetiya. After a meal at the palace he preached the Petavatthu,
the Vimānavatthu and the Sacca Samyutta, and Anulā and her five
hundred companions became sotāpannas. Later, in the elephant stables,
he preached the Devadūta Sutta to the assembled people, and, in the
evening, the Bālapandita Sutta, in Nandanavana. The night he spent
in Mahāmeghavana, and on the next day the king gave the park to
Mahinda, on behalf of the Order.

Mahinda pointed out to the king various spots
destined to be connected with the growth of the sāsana in Ceylon,
offering flowers at the same, and at the site of the (later) Mahā
Thūpa, he described the visits of the Four Buddhas of this kappa to
Ceylon. On the fourth day he preached the Anamatagga Sutta in
Nandanavana and helped the king in defining the boundaries of what
later became the Mahāvihāra. On the fifth day he preached the
Khajjanīya Sutta, on the sixth the Gomayapindī sutta, and on the
seventh the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta.

The pāsāda first built for the residence of
Mahinda was called Kālapāsāda parivena. Other buildings associated
with him were the Sunhātaparivena, the Dīghacanka parivena, the
Phalagga parivena, the Therāpassaya parivena, the Marugana-parivena,
and the Dīghasandasenāpati-parivena.

Twenty six days Mahinda stayed in
Mahāmeghavana, and on the thirteenth day of the bright half of
āsālha, after having preached the Mahāppamāda Sutta, he went to
Missakapabbata, to spend the vassa. The king had sixty eight rock
cells built in the mountain and gave them to the theras on the full
moon day. On the same day Mahinda ordained sixty two monks, who
attained arahantship, at Tumbarumālaka. After the full moon day of
Kattika, at the conclusion of the pavārana ceremony, Mahinda held a
consultation with Devānampiyatissa and sent Sumanasāmanera to
Pātaliputta to bring the relics of the Buddha from Dhammāsoka and
other relics from Sakka. These relics were brought and placed on the
Missakapabbata, which from then onwards was called Cetiyegiri. The
collar bone from among the relics was deposited in the Thūpārāma
(q.v.), which was built for the purpose. It was at Mahinda's
suggestion that Devānampiyatissa sent an embassy headed by
Mahāarittha to Asoka, with a request that Sanghamittā should come to
Ceylon with a branch of the Bodhi tree. The request was granted, and
Sanghamittā arrived in Ceylon with the branch. Devānampiyatissa,
during the later part of his reign, acting on the advice of Mahinda,
built numerous vihāras, each one yojana from the other; among them
were Issarasamanaka and Vessagiri.

Mahinda is said to have taught the
Commentaries to the Tipitaka in the Singhalese language, after
translating them from the Pāli (Cv.xxxvii.228ff).

The Samantapāsādikā (pp. 102ff ) mentions a
recital held by Mahinda under the presidency of Mahāarittha.

Mahinda continued to live for the first eight
years of the reign of Uttiya, who succeeded Devānampiyatissa. Then,
at the age of sixty, he died on the eighth day of the bright half of
Assayuja, in Cetiyagiri, where he was spending the rainy season. His
body was brought in procession, with every splendor and honour, to
the Mahāvihāra and placed in the Pañhambamālaka, where homage was
paid to it for a whole week. It was then burnt on a pyre of fragrant
wood on the east of the Therānambandhamālaka, to the left of the
site of the Mahā Thūpa. A cetiya was erected on that spot over half
the remains, the other half being distributed in thūpas built on
Cetiyagiri and elsewhere. The place of cremation was called
Isibhūmangana, and there for many centuries were cremated the
remains of holy men who lived within a distance of three yojanas.(
For details of Mahinda see Mhv.xiii. xx; Dpv.vii.57f., xii., xiii.,
iv.: xv.; Sp.i.61, 69ff., 79ff., 83ff., 90ff., 103, etc.)

Later, King Sirimeghavanip had a life size
image of Mahinda made of gold; this he took to the Ambatthalacetiya.
For eight days a festival was held in its honour; on the ninth day
the image was taken from Ambatthala, carried by the king himself at
the head of a large and splendid procession, and placed for three
days in Sotthiyākara vihāra. On the twelfth day it was taken with
all splendours to Anurādhapura, to the Mahāvihāra, where it was left
for three months in the courtyard of the Bodhi tree. From there it
was removed to the inner city and deposited in a magnificent image
house to the south east of the palace. An endowment was set up for
the annual performance of ceremonies in honour of the image, and
this custom was continued for many centuries. The image was brought
from the inner town to the (Mahā)vihāra on the pavārana day, and
every year an offering was made on the thirteenth day
(Cv.xxxvii.66ff).

Dhātusena had the image brought to the place
where Mahinda's body was cremated and there held a great festival
(Cv.xxxviii.58), while Aggabodhi I. set up the image on the banks of
the tank called Mahindatata, and ensured that the special task of
carrying the image to the dyke of the tank was the task of the
Taracchas. Cv.xlii.30."

One of the monks who accompanied Mahinda on his
visit to Ceylon (Mhv.xii.7; Dpv.xii.12; Sp.i.71; Mbv.116; DhsA.32).

King Sirimeghavanna had an image of Itthiya
made and placed beside that of Mahinda and his companions in the
vihāra which he built in the south-eastern corner of his palace. He
inaugurated a year's festival in honour of these images
(Cv.xxxvii.vv.87ff) (v.l. Ittiya, Iddhiya)."

One of the theras who accompanied Mahinda on his
mission to Ceylon (Mhv.xii.8; Dpv.xii.12; Sp.i.70; Mbv.116). King
Sirimeghavanna had an image of Uttiya made and placed in the image
house which he built at the south-eastern corner of his palace.
Cv.xxxvii.87."

The 'disciple' of an Upajjhāya (preceptor). He may be a Sāmanera or
a Bhikkhu living with him for training. He known as Saddhivihārika,
He receives preaching in the Dhamma and training in the Vinaya and
other monastic rules necessary for the monk-life. (Mv. p. 48). It is,
therefore, essential that anyone seeking admission into the Buddhist
Order should first look out for an Upajjhāya. He should approach an
'able' and 'competent' monk; and after saluting he should request
him to become his Upajjhaya. He should utter three times thus : "Upajjhāyo
me bhante hohi", i. e. "Venerable Sir, be my 'preceptor'. And if he
expresses his consent, he should be deemed as his Upajjhāya.

The Buddha has enjoined that a Saddhivihārika must live under the
guardianship of an Upajjhāya. (Ibid, p, 43). The relation between
the Saddhivihārika and Upajjhāya is like that of a son and father.
It is laid down by the Buddha that the Saddhivihārika must treat his
Upajjhāya as his father. (Upajjhāyo, Bhikkhave, saddhivihārikamhi
puttacittaṃ upaṭṭhapessati, saddhivihāriko upajjhāyamhi pitucittaṃ
upaṭṭhapessati.—Ibid, p, 43).

The Saddhivihārika is expected to do all
kinds of services to his Upajjhāya. For instance, he should provide
him with the tooth-stick, water, Yāgu, arrange his robes, alms-bowl,
seat, chair etc., wash his clothes, accompany with him if he wishes
so, keep himself always behind when walking, etc. When the Upajjhāya
falls sick, the Saddhivihārika should attend upon him till he is
recovered. In case the Upajjhāya develops 'antipathy' towards the
Dhamma, the Saddhivihārika must make every effort to dispel it, or
arrange a Dhammakathā (religious discourse) for the purpose. If the
Upajjhāya happens to commit any 'grievous offence' or the Sangha is
meeting to pronounce an ordeal against him, it is the duty of the
Saddhivihārika to make every possible endeavour to prevail upon his
Upajjhāya to appear before the Sangha for the 'expiation' of the 'offence'.

It is expected that the Saddhivihārika will take the permission from
his Upajjhāya in almost all the matters. For instance, without
permission, he can neither give nor take the bowl or robe from
others; he should not shave nor get himself shaved by others; he
should not do any service to others; he should not go behind any
other monk for his alms (pacchāsamana); nor should he take any monk
to go behind him (pacchāsamano ādātabbo); he should not bring meals
for others nor cause others to bring alms for himself, He should not
go into a village or to the funeral ground or to a journey without
the permission of his Upajjhāya, (See Upajjhāyavattakathā, Ibid. pp.
42-47; Co. pp. 328-332; Cf. SP. Vol. Ill, pp. 1025-1031).

In case a Saddhivihārika does not behave properly, he is liable to
be 'expelled' by the Upjjhāya (Panāmanā). (Mv. pp. 51-52). If he
commits any wrong, he should beg pardon; otherwise he commits the
offence of Dukkata. (Ibid. p. 52).

In case the Upajjhāya is 'lost' and he still needs 'guardianship',
he should find out an 'able' and 'competent' monk and take him up as
his 'Ācariya' in place of bis Upajjhāya. In the following
circumstances an Upajjhāya is regarded as 'lost': If the Upajjhāya
goes away somewhere; or disrobes; or chages his religion; or is dead;
or the Saddhivihārika is 'expelled' by his Upajjhāya. (Mo. p. 67)."

A district in Northern India, the modern Kashmir.
In the Pali texts it is always mentioned with Gandhāra and probably
once formed part of that kingdom. (See also PHAI., p.93. The Jātakas
mention the countries separately as comprising two kingdoms ruled by
a single king, e.g., J.iii.364, 378). At the end of the Third
Council, Moggaliputta sent the thera Majjhantika to propagate the
religion in Kasmīra-Gandhāra. Majjhantika quelled the power of the
Nāga-king Aravāla (q.v.), who was a menace to the inhabitants, and
converted him to the faith, while the yakkha Pandaka and his wife
Hāritā, with their five hundred sons, became sotāpannas. The thera
preached the āsīvisūpama Sutta to the assembled multitude and won
eighty thousand converts, while one hundred thousand persons entered
the Order. We are told that from that time onwards the yellow robe
was held in great esteem in Kasmīra. (Mhv.xii.3,
9 ff;
Dpv.viii.4; Sp.i.64ff; see also Beal, op. cit., i.134, n.39). There
was evidently a large community of monks at Kasmīra, till long after
the coming of Majjhantika, for we are told that two hundred and
eighty thousand monks, led by Uttinna, came from Kasmīra to
Anurādhapura on the occasion of the foundation ceremony of the Mahā
Thupa (Mhv.xxix.37).

In Hiouien Thsang's time Kasmīra seems to
have been an independent kingdom whose king was given to
serpent-worship while his queen was a follower of the Buddha. Near
the capital was a stūpa which enshrined a tooth of the Buddha. This
tooth was soon after taken away by Harsavardhana of Kanoj.
(CAGI.104ff; Beal, i.116f, etc.)

is the northernmost region of the Indian
subcontinent. The term Kashmir was historically described as the
valley just to the south of the westernmost end of the Himalayan
mountain range. Currently, Kashmir refers to a much larger area
which includes the regions of Kashmir valley, Jammu and Ladakh. The
main "Valley of Kashmir" is a low-lying fertile region surrounded by
magnificent mountains and fed by many rivers. It is renowned for its
natural beauty and quaint lifestyle.

Kashmir is derived from the Sanskrit
"Kashyapa" + "Mira", which means the mountain range of sage
Kashyapa. Srinagar [श्रीनगर], the ancient capital, lies alongside
Dal Lake and is famous for its canals and houseboats. Srinagar (alt.
1,600 m. or 5,200 ft.) acted as a favoured summer capital for many
foreign conquerors who found the heat of the Northern Indian plains
in the summer season to be oppressive. Just outside the city are the
beautiful Shalimar, Nishat, and Chashmashahi gardens created by
Mughal emperors.

The region is currently divided between three
countries: Pakistan controls the northwest portion (Northern Areas
and Azad Kashmir [آزاد کشمیر]), India controls the central and
southern portion (Jammu and Kashmir [Kashmiri: جۄم تٕہ کٔشِیر ज्वम
त॒ कॅशीर, Urdu:جموں و کشمیر, Hindi:जम्मू और कश्मीर]) and Ladakh, and
the People's Republic of China controls the northeastern portion
(Aksai Chin [阿克赛钦]and the Trans-Karakoram Tract). India controls
majority of the Siachen Glacier (higher peaks), whereas Pakistan
controls the lower peaks. Though these regions are in practice
administered by their respective claimants, India has never formally
recognized the accession of the areas claimed by Pakistan and China.
India claims that these areas, including the area ceded to China by
Pakistan in the Trans-Karakoram Tract in 1963, are a part of its
territory, while Pakistan claims the region, excluding Aksai Chin
and Trans-Karakoram Tract. Both countries view the entire Kashmir
region as disputed territory, and do not consider each other's claim
to be valid. An option favoured by many Kashmiris is independence,
but both India and Pakistan oppose this for various reasons. Kashmir
is considered one of the world's most dangerous territorial disputes
due to the nuclear weapons capabilities of India and Pakistan. The
two countries have fought two wars over the territory: the first
Kashmir war in 1947 and the second Kashmir war in 1965. More
recently, in 1999, there was a limited border conflict (also
referred to by some as the third Kashmir war) in the
Kargil area of
India-controlled Kashmir."

Literally Kashmir means "land desiccated from
water" (Sanskrit:
Ka = water, shimeera = desiccate). According to Hindu
mythology, Sage Kashyapa drained the erstwhile lake to produce the
land. The earliest recorded history of Kashmir as an area begins
with Ashoka Maurya who is often credited with founding the city of
Srinagar as part of vast expanding empire. Kashmir was once a
Buddhist seat of learning, perhaps with the Sarvāstivādan school
dominating. East and Central Asian Buddhist monks are recorded as
visiting the kingdom.

During his youth in the late fourth century,
the famous Kuchanese [屈支 屈茨; 龜玆; 丘玆,] monk Kumārajīva [鳩摩羅], whose
father was born in to an Indian noble family, studied Dīrghāgama and
Madhyāgama in Kashmir under Bandhudatta, later becoming a prolific
translator who helped take Buddhism to China. His mother Jīva is
thought to have retired to Kashmir.

Vimalākṣa, a Sarvāstivādan Buddhist monk,
travelled from Kashmir to Kucha and there instructed Kumārajīva in
the Vinayapiṭaka.

Islam and Hinduism

Kashmir has known both conquerors and despots and also peaceful
rulers. Some of the Kashmiri rulers like Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin were
tolerant to all religions in a way comparable to Akbar [جلال الدین
محمد اکبر]. Muslims and Hindus of Kashmir lived in relative harmony
and friendliness since the 13th century when Islam first became the
majority religion in Kashmir. The Sufi-Islamic way of life that
ordinary Muslims followed in Kashmir complemented the rishi
tradition of Kashmiri Pandits leading to a syncretic culture where
Hindus and Muslims revered the same local saints and prayed at the
same shrines.

There were also several Muslim rulers in
Kashmir who were intolerant to other religions. Sultãn Sikandar
Butshikan of Kashmir (AD 1389-1413) is often considered as the worst
of these. Historians have recorded many of his atrocities. The
Tarikh-i-Firishta records that Sikandar persecuted the Hindus and
issued orders proscribing the residence of any other than Muslims in
Kashmir. He also ordered to break all "golden and silver images".
The Tarikh-i-Firishta further states: "Many of the bramins, rather
than abandon their religion or their country, poisoned themselves;
some emigrated from their native homes, while a few escaped the evil
of banishment by becoming Mahomedans. After the emigration of the
bramins, Sikundur ordered all the temples in Kashmeer to be thrown
down" (...) "Having broken all the images in Kashmeer, he acquired
the title of the Iconoclast, ‘Destroyer of Idols’." (Muhammad Qãsim
Hindû Shãh Firishta : Tãrîkh-i-Firishta, translated by John Briggs
under the title History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India,
first published in 1829, New Delhi Reprint 1981)

The Histories

The
metrical chronicle of the kings of Kashmir, called Rajatarangini,
was pronounced by Professor H. II. Wilson to be the only Sanskrit
composition yet discovered to which the title of history can with
any propriety be applied. It first became known to the Muslims when,
on Akbar's invasion of Kashmir in 1588, a copy was presented to the
emperor. A translation into Persian was made by his order, and a
summary of its contents, from this Persian translation, is given by
Abul Fazl [ابو الفضل] in the
Ain-i-Akbari. The Rajatarangini, the first of a series of
four Sanskrit histories, was written about the middle of the 12th
century by P. Kalhana. His work, in six books, makes use of earlier
writings now lost. Commencing with traditional history of very early
times, it comes down to the reign of Sangrama Deva, 1006; the second
work, by Jonaraja, continues the history from where Kalhanas left
off, and, entering the Muslim period, gives an account of the reigns
down to that of Zain-ul-ab-ad-din, 1412. P. Srivara carried on the
record to the accession of Fah Shah in 1486. And the fourth work,
called Rajavalipataka, by Prajnia Bhatta, completes the
history to the time of the incorporation of Kashmir in the dominions
of the Mogul emperor Akbar, 1588.

In the Rajatarangini it is stated that
the valley of Kashmir was formerly a lake, and that it was drained
by the great rishi or sage, Kashyapa, son of Marichi, son of Brahma,
by cutting the gap in the hills at Baramulla (Varaha-mula).
When Kashmir had been drained, he brought in the Brahmans to occupy
it. This is still the local tradition, and in the existing physical
condition of the country we may see some ground for the story which
has taken this form. The name of Kashyapa is by history and
tradition connected with the draining of the lake, and the chief
town or collection of dwellings in the valley was called
Kashyapa-pura name which has been plausibly identified with the
Kao-1r6.nupos of Hecataeus (apud Stephen of Byzantium) and
Kaspatyros of Herodotus [Ἡρόδοτος]
(3.102, 4.44). Kashmir is the country meant also by Ptolemy's
Kao-ir,~pta.

The Raj

Until 1846
Kashmir was a part of the Sikh Empire. The British defeated the
Sikhs and sold Kashmir to Gulab Singh for Rs. 7.5 million. During
the 19th century rule, Kashmir was a popular tourist destination due
to its climate. Formerly only 200 passes a year were issued by the
government, but now no restriction is placed on visitors. European
sportsmen and travellers, in addition to residents of India,
traveled there freely. The railway to Rawalpindi [راولپنڈی], and a
road thence to Srinagar made access to the valley easier. When the
temperature in Srinagar rises at the beginning of June, the
residents would migrate to Gulmarg, which was a fashionable
hillstation during British rule. This great influx of visitors
resulted in a corresponding diminution of game for the sportsmen.
Special game preservation rules have been introduced, and nullahs
are let out for stated periods with a restriction on the number of
head to be shot.

1947

Jammu and
Kashmir, was a principality lying between the two new independent
nations: Republic of India and Islamic Republic of Pakistan [اسلامی
جمہوریۂ پاکستان] which were formed due to the partition of
the former British India colony in August 1947. A total of 565
princely states formed 40% of India's land area and held more than
100 million people. Each prince had to decide which of the two new
nations to join: Hindu-majority India or Muslim-majority Pakistan
(which then also included East Pakistan, now Bangladesh). The ruler
of Jammu and Kashmir, Maharaja Hari Singh, could not decide which
country to join and in addition, he nursed fond hopes of remaining
the princely ruler of Kashmir, as an independent nation. He was
Hindu, while his subjects were predominantly Muslim. To avoid the
decision, he signed a "standstill" agreement with Pakistan, which
ensured continuity of trade, travel, communication, and similar
services between the two. India did not sign a similar agreement.

After Indian forces gained control over two
other princely states, Hyderabad and Junagadh, Indian postal
services began listing Kashmir as Indian territory, causing alarm in
Pakistan. In October 1947, Pashtuns [Persian: پختون; Urdu: پشتون ]
from Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province invaded Kashmir in
support of a rebellion agaist the Maharaja which had erupted in the
restive Poonch district. The invasion caused widespread looting in
the state. Troubled by the increasing deterioration in law and order
situation, and by earlier raids, culminating in the invasion of the
tribesmen, followed later by Pakistani rangers, Maharaja Hari Singh,
requested armed assistance and assylum from India. India refused to
send its troops unless Kashmir officially joined the Union of India.
The incumbent Governor-General, Lord Mountbatten also favoured
Kashmir's accession to the Republic of India, to which the Maharaja
never agreed. "The Instrument of Accession
was signed by the Hari Singh on October 26, 1947 extending India's
jurisdiction over external affairs, defence and communications," is
the claim made by India. But, British historian, Alastair Lamb, has
a different story to tell. In his book, Kashmir: a disputed legacy,
he claims that: "The fact that accession must have actually followed
intervention presented the Indian bureaucracy at the time with some
problems. Whatever produced almost at once, would have to show the
desired sequence of events. Thus there was made public on 28 October
the text of a pair of letters, one from the Maharaja to Mountbatten
bearing the date 26 October and the other from Mountbatten to the
Maharaja with the date 27 October. Both were almost certainly
drafted by V.P. Menon; and we have no direct evidence as to when the
Maharaja's letter was actually signed (if, indeed, it ever was), but
we can be sure that it was not on 26 October." He goes on to write:
"Be that as it may, the Maharaja's letter dated 26 October 1947
gives us absolutely no clue as to what the 'Instrument of Accession'
actually looked like".

He further says that: "This was a document
which derived from the Indian Independence Act-1947, and the
Government of India Act-1935. It was, in fact, a printed form with
spaces left for the name of State, the signature of the Ruler, and
the day of the month of August 1947. There was also space for the
Governor-General's acceptance, again with a blank for the day of the
month of August 1947. It was a singularly unsuitable document for
the rather special circumstances in the State of Jammu & Kashmir in
October 1947. It related specifically to the British Indian Empire
prior to the Transfer of Power on 15 August 1947 and not to the
transfer of sovereignty by what was now an independent polity. It
contained no provision either for a plebiscite or for the delegation
of powers…..It is interesting that in the document reproduced as
Pt.I, No. 29 in the Indian 1948-White Paper all the spaces are left
blank. This is not a representation of the document signed by the
Maharaja, mere an example of the kind of document he might have
signed. One may well wonder why the Government of India, had it
indeed been in possession of a properly signed Instrument, did not
publish it as such in 1948-White Paper, it would certainly have been
the documentary jewel in India's Kashmiri crown."

The next day, Indian troops were airlifted
into Srinagar. The Pakistani government immediately contested the
accession, suggesting that it was fraudulent, that the Maharaja
acted under duress, and that he had no right to sign an agreement
with India when the standstill agreement with Pakistan was still in
force. Furthermore, pro-Indian Kashmiri politicians such as Sheikh
Abdullah denounced the Instrument of Accession as a document signed
by an illegitimate monarch.

India's presence thus had to be a temporary
one. This is clear from the then Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru's
[जवाहरलाल नेहरू] letter to Pakistan's Prime Minister as late as 10th
of November 1953: "Our objective is to give freedom to the people of
Kashmir to decide their future in a peaceful way so as to create no
upset. Therefore, I suggested that the plebiscite should be for the
State as a whole and the detailed result of the plebiscite would
then be the major factor for the decision to be taken. The detailed
result will give us a fairly clear indication of the wishes of the
people not only in the state as whole but in different areas".

The 1996-report Jurists Judgment on Human
Rights Violations in Kashmir released by Geneva-based International
Commission of Jurists is also worth-attention. It says: "The right
of self-determination to which the people of Jammu and Kashmir
became entitled as part of the process of partition has neither been
exercised nor abandoned and thus remains exercisable today."

14th August 1947 to 27th October, Kashmir was
in effect an independent state. Aggression came from both India and
Pakistan, and this behaviour has remained the hallmark of both the
countries as far as their relation with Kashmir and Kashmiris is
concerned.

See also: Indo-Pakistani War of
1947, The Accession of the Princely States

Post-1947

In 1949,
the Indian government obliged Hari Singh to leave Jammu and Kashmir,
and yield the government to Sheikh Abdullah, the leader of a popular
political party, the National Conference Party. Since then, a bitter
enmity has been developed between India and Pakistan and three wars
have taken place between them over Kashmir. The growing dispute over
Kashmir also lead to the rise of terrorism in the state. The year
1989 saw the intensification of conflict in Jammu and Kashmir as
Mujahadeens [مجاهدي] from
Afghanistan slowly infiltrated the region following the end of the
Soviet-Afghan War the same year. However, what started as
essentially an indigenous popular uprising in Indian-administered
Kashmir, has undergone drastic changes in the last decade."

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Kashmir was a major center of Buddhism.
Buddhism was an important part of the classical Kashmiri culture, as
is reflected in the Nilamata Purana and the Kalhana's Rajatarangini.

In Kalhana's time, and before that, there was
no apparently no distinction between "Hindus" and Buddhists in
Kashmir. Kalhana himself used Buddhist terms and expressions as a
Buddhist would.

Nilamata Purana was the text of the
worshippers of Nila Naga, the Naga worship was common in Kashmir. It
mentions the prevalence of Buddhist worship as a common practice in
Kashmir.

709-710a. O Brahman, the god Visnu, the lord of the world,
shall be (born as) the preceptor of the world, Buddha by name,
at the time when the Pusya is joined with the moon, in the month
of Vaisaksha, in twenty eighth Kali Age.
710b-12. Listen from as to how his worship should be performed
in the bright-half, from that period onwards, in uture. The
image of Buddha should be bathed (with water renderd holy) with
all medicinal herbs, all jewels and all scents, in accordance
with the sayings of the Sakyas. The dwellings of the Sakyas
(i.e. Viharas) should be whitewashed with care.
713. Here and there, the Caityas - the abodes of the god -
should be provided with paintings. The festival, swarming with
the actors and the dancers, should be celebrated.
714. The Sakyas should be honoured with Civara (the dress of a
Buddhist mendicant ), food and books. All this should be done
till the advent of Magha.
715. O twice-born, eatable offerings should be made for three
days. Worship with flowers, clothes etc. and charity for the
poor (should continue for three days).

Kalhana's Rajatarangini mentions that a
monumental metallic image of Buddha once stood in Srinagar, which
was eventually destroyed by Sikandar Butshikan. A significant number
of beautifully crafted Buddhist bronzes have survived.

In Kashmir valley, a Buddhist Bhikshu was
present in Baramula in 13th century. The Kashmiri Pandits still
worship the triratna symbol."

One of the sixteen Mahājanapadas (countries)
(A.i.213; iv.252, etc.; in the Niddesa and Mahāvastu lists Gandhāra
is omitted and others substituted). Its capital was Takkasilā,
famous for its university; its king in the time of the Buddha was
Pukkusāti. There was friendly intercourse between him and Bimbisāra
of Magadha. Merchants and visitors from one country to another were
lodged and fed at the expense of the country's king, and no tariffs
were levied on their merchandise. There was constant exchange of
goods and valuables, and on one occasion Bimbisāra, wishing to send
his friend a gift of particular value, dispatched to him a letter
containing news of the appearance in the world of the Buddha, the
Dhamma and the Sangha. When Pukkusāti read the letter he decided to
become a follower of the Buddha, and ordained himself as a monk;
then, leaving his kingdom, he travelled all the way to Sāvatthi to
see the Buddha (MA.ii.979ff). This conversion of Gandhāra's' king,
however, does not seem to have had the effect of converting the rest
of its people to the Buddha's faith. The memory of Pukkusāti was
evidently soon forgotten, for we find Moggaliputta Tissa, at the
conclusion of the Third Council, sending the Thera Majjhantika to
convert Gandhāra (Mhv.xii.3ff).

According to Buddhaghosa's account,
Pukkusāti's kingdom was over one hundred leagues in extent
(MA.ii.988), and the distance from Takkasilā to Sāvatthi was one
hundred and ninety-two leagues (MA.ii.987; from Benares it was one
hundred and twenty leagues, vīsamyo-janasata; J.i.395; ii.47). There
was evidently a well-known caravan route linking the two countries,
although Gandhāra was regarded as a paccantima janapada. (MA.ii.982;
there was also constant trade between Gandhāra and Videha,
J.iii.365ff. It would appear from the Mahā Niddesa i.154 that
Takkasilā was a regular centre of trade).

At the time of Majjhantika's visit, the
people of Gandhāra were being harassed by the Nāga-king Aravāla, and
the chronicles contain details of his conversion by the monk. The
Nāga-king, together with his retinue, the yakkha Pandaka and his
wife Hāritā, became devout followers of the Buddha. Majjhantika
preached the āsīvisūpama Sutta, and many thousands joined the Order.
(Mhv.xii.9ff; Smp.i.64f; Dpv.viii.4).

Gandhāra appears to have included Kasmīra,
the two countries being always mentioned together as
Kasmīra-Gandhāra. They occupied the sites of the modern districts of
Peshawar and Rawalpindi in the northern Punjab (PHAI. p.93). In the
time of Asoka the country formed part of his empire, and is
mentioned as such in Rock Edict V. Before that it was subject to the
Achaemenid kings. Gandhāra was always famous for its red woollen
shawls (kambala) (SNA.ii.487; J.vi.501).

Another king of Takkasilā besides Pukkusāti
is mentioned - namely, Naggaji, who was a contemporary of Nimi, king
of Videha. (J.iii.377; cf. Ait. Brāhmana vii.34; Sat. Brāhmana
viii.1, 4, 10; see also Gandhārarājā).

One of the eye teeth of the Buddha was
deposited in Gandhāra (Bu.xxviii.6; D.ii.167)."

"Gandhāra (also Ghandara,
Ghandahra,
Chandahara, and Persian Gandara) is the name of an
ancient Mahajanapada in eastern Afghanistan and north-west province
of Pakistan. Gandhara was located mainly on northern side of Kabul
River. In the east, it extended beyond Indus River and included
within its boundaries parts of the valley of Kashmir (Political
History of Ancient India, 1996, p 151).

Kingdom of Gandhara lasted from 6th Century BC
to 11th Century AD. It attained its height from 1st century to 5th
Century AD under Buddhist Kushan Kings. After it was conquered by
Mahmood of Ghazni in 1021 AD, the name Gandhara disappeared. During
Muslim period the area was administered from Lahore or from Kabul.
During Mughals time area was part of Kabul province

Geography

The
Gandharas were settled since the Vedic times on the banks of Kabul
River (river Kubha or Kabol) up to its mouth into Indus.The region
is known as Peshawar Valley. Later the Gandhras crossed the Indus
and included parts of north-west Punjab of Pakistan. Gandhara was
located on the grand northern high road
(Uttarapatha) and was a centre of international commercial
activities. It was an important channel of communication with
ancient Iran and Central Asia.

The boundaries of Gandhara varied throughout
the history. Sometime Peshawar valley and Taxila collectively
referred as Gandhara. Sometime Swat valley was also included.
However, heart of Gandhara was always Peshawar valley. The kingdom
was ruled from capitals at Pushkalavati (Charsadda), Taxila,
Purushapura (Peshawar) and in its final days from Udabhandapura
(Hund) on the Indus.

Ancient Gandhara

Pre Historic Period

In Gandhara the evidence of existence of
Stone Age men were found at Sanghao near Mardan. Discovered by Dani,
stone tools and burnt bones dated 70,000 near were found near caves.
Caves itself were occupied around 15,000 years ago.

Till to date no evidence of Harappan Culture
of Indus Valley Civilization has been found in Gandhara. The Aryans
moved in to Gandhara and rest of North Western Pakistan around
1500BC.

The region shows an influx of southern Central
Asian culture in the Bronze Age with the Gandhara grave culture,
likely corresponding to immigration of Indo-Aryan speakers and the
nucleus of Vedic civilization. This culture survived till 600 BC.
Its evidnce has been discovered in the Hilly regions of Swat and
Dir, and even at Taxila.

The name of
the Gandharis is attested from the Rigveda (RV 1.120.1). The
Gandharis, along with the Mujavantas, Angas and the Magadhas, are
also mentioned in the Atharvaveda (AV 5.22.14), but apparently as a
despised people. Gandharas are included in the Uttarapatha division
of Puranic and Buddhistic traditions. Aitareya Brahmana refers to
king Naganajit of Gandhara who was contemporary of Shah Janaka of
Videha.

Gandharas and their king figure prominently as
strong allies of the Kurus against the Pandavas in Mahabharata war.
The Gandharas were a furious people, well trained in the art of war.
According to Puranic traditions, this Janapada was founded by
Gandhara, son of Aruddha, a descendent of Yayati. The princes of
this country are said to have come from the line of Druhyu who was a
famous king of Rigvedic period. The river Indus watered the lands of
Gandhara. According to Vayu Purana (II.36.107), the Gandharas were
destroyed by Pramiti aka Kalika, at the end of Kalyuga.

The Gandhara kingdom sometimes also included Kashmira (Jataka No
406). Hecataeus of Miletus (549-468) refers to Kaspapyros (Kasyapura
i.e. Kashmira) as Gandaric city. According to
Gandhara Jataka, at one time, Gandhara formed a part of the kingdom
of Kashmir. Jataka also gives another name Chandahara for
Gandhara. Buddhist texts like Anguttara Nikaya refer to sixteen
great nations (solas Mahajanapadas) which flourished in Indian
sub-continent during Buddha's time, only two of which viz. the
Gandhara and the Kamboja were located in the Uttarapatha or the
north-western division.

Gandhāra is also thought to be the location of
the mystical Lake Dhanakosha, birthplace of Padmasambhava, founder
of Tibetan Buddhism. The bKa' brgyud (Kagyu) [བཀའབརྒྱུད་] sect of
Tibetan Buddhism identifies the lake with Andan Dheri stupa, located
near the tiny village of Uchh near Chakdara in the lower Swat
Valley. A spring was said to flow from the base of the stupa to form
the lake. Archaeologists have found the stupa but no spring or lake
can be identified.

The primary cities
of Gandhara were Purushpura (now Peshawar [پیشاور]), Takshashila
(Prakrit Taxila [ٹپکسل]) and Pushklavati. Last two cities are said
to have been named after Taksa and Pushkara, the two sons of
Bharata, a prince of Ayodhya [अयोध्या].

Pushkalavati & Prayag

Pushkalavati remained capital of Gandhara from
6th Century BC to 2nd century AD, when capital moved to Peshawar. An
important Buddhist shrine kept city as center of pilgrimage until
7th century AD. Pushkalavati had some significant for earlier Aryans.
This city in Peshawar Valley is situated at the confluence of Swat
and Kabul rivers. Three different branches of River Kabul meet there.
That specific place is still called Prang and considered sacred. The
local people still bring their dead for burial. Aryans found similar
geographical characteristics at the confluence of Ganga and Yamuna
and founded sacred city by the name of Prayag [heute: इलाहाबाद;
الاهاباد] near Benares [वाराणसी]. This is one of the ancient pilgrim
centres of India.

City of Taxila

By
the time of Buddha, beside Benares, Taxila became renowned center of
learning where scholars from all over the world came to seek higher
education. In Jataka stories this city was always mentioned as
center of learning. Panini, the Indian genius of grammar and
Kautiliya, the Indian Machiavelli were the products of Taxila
University. Later in 2nd Century AD, Charaka, Kanishka’s court
doctor and the great master of Indian medical science studied there.

Persian rule

Cyrus
the Great (558-530 BCE) [Κῦρος
; کوروش] built first universal empire of the world stretching
from Greece to the Indus River. Both Gandhara and Kamboja soon fell
a prey to the Achaemenian [هخامنشیان] Dynasty of Persia during the
reign of Cyrus the Great or in the first year of Darius I. [داریوش ,
Δαρεῖος] The Gandhara and Kamboja had constituted the seventh
satrapys(upper Indus) of the Achaemenid Empire.

When Achamenian took control of this kingdom,
Pushkra-sakti a contemporary of king Bimbisara of Magadha was the
king of Gandhara. He was in power struggle against kingdoms of
Avanti and Pandavas.

The inscription on Darius’ (521-486 BC) tomb
at Naqsh-i-Rustam near Persepolis recorded GADARA (Gandhara) along
with HINDUSH (West Punjab) in the list of satrapies. The Greek
historian Herodotus (490-420 ? BC) in his book The Histories
gave list of twenty provinces of Persian Empire. He reported
Gandhara as Paktuike
(3:93) and in another passage identified this territory with
Peshawar Valley (4:44). The word Paktuike is interesting
since present inhabitants of Gandhara are known as Pakhtun.

Under Persian rule system of centralized
administration and bureaucratic system introduced to the region.
Influenced by the Persians and access to Western Asians
civilization, the great scholars like Panini and Kautaliya born in
this cosmopolitan environment. Kharosti alphabet derived from
Aramaic (official language of Achaemenians) alphabet developed here
and remained national script of Gandhara until third century AD.

By about 380 BC Persian hold weakened. Many
small kingdoms sprang in Gandhara. Around 327 BC Alexander the Great
invaded Gandhara and Indian Satrapies of Persian Empire. His stay in
this area was merely less than a year. This did not have any
immediate administrative or cultural effect. The expeditions of
Alexander were recorded by Arrian (around 175 AD) in Anabasis
and other chroniclers many centuries after the event. The names of
places and personalities described in these chronicles are difficult
to identify.

The companions of Alexander the Great [Μέγας
Αλέξανδρος] did not record the names of Kamboja and Gandhara and
rather located a dozen small political units in their territories.
Alexander conqured most of these political units of the former
Gandhara and Kamboja Mahajanapadas.

According to Greek chroniclers, at the time of
Alexander's invasion, hyparchs Kubhesha, Hastin (Astes) and Ambhi (Omphes)
were ruling lower Kabul [کابل] valley, Puskalavati (modern
Charasadda) and Taxila respectively, while Ashvajit (chief of
Aspasios or Ashvayanas) and Assakenos (chief of Assakenois or
Ashvakayanas) (both being sub-units of the Kambojas) were ruling
upper Kabul valley and Mazaga (Mashkavati) respectively.

Gandhara under the Mauryas

Chandergupta, the founder of Mauryan dynasty
was living in Taxila when Alexander captured this city. Here he met
Kautilya, who remained his chief adviser throughout his career.
Gandhara was won back from the Greeks by Chandragupta Maurya. Having
defeated Seleucus Nicator [Σέλευκος Νικάτωρ] (Alexander's successor
in Asia) in 305 BCE, the Mauryan Emperor extended his domains up to
and including Southern Afghanistan. Using this Gandhara as his base
Chandergupta led a rebellion against Magadha Empire and ascended to
the throne at Pataliputra in 321 BC. He was the first ruler of
Mauryan dynasty.

Mauryan inherited and incorporated many
Iranian traditions of Achaemenid Empire, which later, became the
basis of Kautaliya’s book on statecraft. With the completion of the
Empire's Grand Trunk Road, the region presumably prospered as a
center of trade. Gandhara remained a part of the Mauryan Empire for
close to a century and a half.

Ashoka, the grandson of Chandergupta was the
one of the greatest rulers the world has ever known. Like his
grandfather, Ashoka also started his career from Gandhara as a
governor. Later he became Buddhist and promoted this religion in his
empire. He built many stupas in Gandhara, Mauryan control over
northern frontagers including the Yonas, Kambojas and the Gandharas
is attested from the Rock Edicts left by Ashoka, who shows special
solicitude for these frontier highlanders. His successors, however,
failed to cast such imperial shadows throughout the sub-continent.

It is also held by some scholars that the
Gandharas and the Kambojas were one peope. Based on time and space
contiguity, this view does not seem to be wide off the mark.

Gandhara under Graeco Bactrians, Sakas and
Indo-Parthinas

Standing Buddha, Gandhara (1st-2nd century). Tokyo National Museum.

The decline of the Empire left the sub-continent
open to Greco-Bactrian expansion. Southern Afghanistan was absorbed
by Demetrius of Bactria in 180 BCE. Round about 185BC, Demetrius,
King of Bactria invaded and conquered Gandhara and the Punjab. Later,
wars between different groups of Greek settlers of Bactria, resulted
independence of Gandhara from Bactria. Menander was the most famous
king. He ruled from Taxila and later from Sagala (Sialkot). He
rebuilt Taxila (Sirkup) and Pushkalavati. He became Buddhist and
remembered in Buddhists records due to his discussions with a great
Buddhist philosopher in the book Milinda-panha.

Around the time of Menander’s death in 140 BC,
Kushans overran Bactria and ended Greek rule there. At the same
time, Sakas, diverted by their Parthian cousins from Iran moved into
Gandhara and other parts of present Pakistan and West India. The
most famous king of Sakas was Maves who established himself in
Gandhara. The entry of Sakas in about 97 BC was an important event.
The Pashtu (or Pakhtu) now spoken in North Western Pakistan and
Afghanistan is said to based on Saka’s language.

By 90 BC Parthians took control of east Iran
and around 50 BC put an end to last remnants of Greek rule in
Afghanistan. By 7AD a Parthian dynasty succeeded to took control of
Gandhara. It was Parthians, the destroyers of Greek rule who brought
Greek artistic traditions to Gandhara. It was from this time (50BC –
75AD) that we see development of Gandhara School of Art. During this
period Thomas the Apostle visited India, encountered the
Indo-Parthian king Gondophares.

The Golden Age of Kushans Rule

The Parthian dynasty fell about 75 AD to another
horde from Central Asia. Kushans, a Turkish type people known as
Yueh-Chih [月氏] in China moved from Central Asia to Bacteria, where
they stayed for a century. Around 75 AD, one of the tribe Kushan
under the leadership of Kujula Kadphises gained control of Gandhara
and other part of present Pakistan.

Kushan period is considered the Golden Period
of Gandhara. Peshawar Valley and Taxila are littered with ruins of
stupas and monasteries of this period. Gandhara art flourished and
produced some of the best pieces of sculpture of all time. Many
monuments were created to commemorate the Jataka tales.

Gandhara civilization peaked during great
Kushan king Kanishka (128-151-AD). This was the golden period of
Gandhara. Cities of Taxila at Sirsukh, and Peshawar were built.
Peshawar became the capital of great empire stretching from Bengal
to Central Asia. Kanishka was a great patron of the faith and
Buddhism spread to Central Asia and Far East over the Pamir where
his empire met Han Empire of China.

Kanishka Empire was known as Kingdom of
Gandhara and under his leadership it became the center of
civilization. The Buddhist art spread outward from Gandhara to other
parts of Asia. He greatly encouraged Buddhism. Before Kanishka
Buddha was not represented in human form. In Gandhara Mahayana
Buddhism flourished and Buddha was represented in human form and
given a status of a deity.

Kanishka created big monuments of Arts. He
builds a great tower to a height of 400 feet at Peshawar. This tower
was reported by Fa-Hien [法顯], Sun-Yun and Hsuan-Tsang [玄奘]. This
structure was destroyed and builds many times and remained in semi
ruins when finally destroyed by Mahmood [محمود غزنوی] in 11th
century. Under him Gandhara became a holy land of Buddhism and
attracted Chinese pilgrimage to visit Gandhara to see monuments
associated with many Jataka tales.

After Kanishka, empire started losing
territories in the east. In west it came under Sassanian (who took
power from Parthians in Iran) suzerainty and became their vassals
and ruled from 241-450AD. Under these Kushan chiefs new Buddhists
stupas continued to appear and old ones were enlarged. Huge statues
of the Buddha were erected in monasteries and carved into the
hillsides.

Gandhara after Huns Invasion

Huns captured Gandhara around 450 AD, and did
not adopt Buddhism. During their rule, Hinduism revived and
Gandharan Civilization declined. Sassanians aided by Turks destroyed
the Huns' power base in Central Asia and Gandhara once again came
under Persian suzerainty in 568 AD. When the Sassanians were
defeated by Muslim Arabs in 644 AD, Gandhara along with Kabul was
ruled by Buddhist Turks.

The travel records of many Chinese Buddhists
pilgrims record that Gandhara was going through a transformation
during these centuries. Buddhism was declining and Hinduism was
rising. Fa-Hien [法顯] travelled around 400 AD, when Prakrit was the
language of the people and Buddhism was flourishing. 100 years
later, when Sung-Yun visited in 520 AD, a different picture is
described: the area had been destroyed by Huns and was ruled by
Lae-Lih who did not practice law of Buddha. Hiun-Tsang visited
around 644 and found Buddhism on the wane and Hinduism in the
ascendant. Gandhara was ruled by a king from Kabul, who respected
Buddha law, but Taxila was in ruins and Buddhist monasteries were
deserted. Instead, Hindu temples were numerous and Hinduism was
popular.

Gandhara under Turkshahi & Hindushahi

After the fall of Sassanian Empire to Arabs in
644 AD Afghanistan and Gandhara came under pressure from Muslims.
But they failed to extend their empire to Gandhara. Gandhara was
first ruled from Kabul and then from Udabhandapura (Hind).

In 665 AD Kabul was put under siege by Arabs,
but they never tried to cross Hindu Kush. Arabs never fully subdued
Kabul and Gandhara was ruled from there by Turkshahi for next 200
years. Sometime in 9th century Hindushahi replaced Turkshahi. The
date of Hindushahi takeover from Turkshahi (Also recorded as
Kabulshahi) is not certain. Based on various Muslim records the
estimated date is 870 AD.

According to Al-Biruni (973-1048 AD)
[ابوریحان بیرونی], Kallar a Brahmin minister of Turkshahi founded
Hindushahi dynasty in 843 AD. The dynasty ruled from Kabul, later
moved capital to Udabhandapura. They build great temples all over
their kingdoms. Some of these buildings are still in good conditions
in the Salt Range of the Punjab.

End of Gandhara

Jayapala was the last great king of this dynasty. His empire
extended from west of Kabul to the River Sutlej [ਸਤਲੁਜ,
ستلج]. However, timing of this
expansion of Gandhara kingdom coincided with the rising of a
powerful Muslim force of Mahmood in Kabul valley. He was defeated by
Mahmood of Ghazni. After his defeat, proud king Jayapala committed
suicide. Son of Jaypala Anandpala moved his capital near Nandana in
Salt Range. In 1021 AD the last king of this dynasty Trilocanpala
assassinated by his own troops. Name of Gandhara was forgotten for
ever.

Kandahar [قندهار] in Afghanistan was probably
named after Gandhara. According to H.W. Bellow, emigrant from
Gandhara in fifth century AD brought this name to modern Kandahar.
Fa-Hien reported Buddha’s alms-bowl in Peshawar Valley when he
visited around 400 AD. (Chapter-XII) In 1872 Bellow saw this huge
begging bowl 7 feet in diameter preserved in the shrine of Sultan
Wais outside Kandhar, which was probably brought there by refuge
Buddhists monks. When Caroe wrote his book in 1958 (Caroe,
pp170-171), this relic was reported to be at Kabul Museum Present
status of this bowl is not known due to the war in Afghanistan since
last couple of decades.

Discovery of Gandhara

By the time Gandhara absorbed in to Mahmood of
Ghazni Empire, Buddhist buildings were already in ruins and Gandhara
Art had been forgetton. After Al-Biruni, Kashmiri writer Kahana
wrote his book Rajatarangini in 1148AD. He recorded events
about Gandhara, its last royal dynasty and capital
Udabhandapura. The history and art of the Gandhara remained
unknown to the inhabitants of the area and rest of the world until
19th century.

In 19th Century AD, British soldiers and
administrators started taking interest in the ancient history of the
Indian Subcontinent. In 1830’s coins of post Ashoka period were
discovered and in the same period Chinese travelogues were
translated. Charles Masson, James Prinsep and Cunningham deciphered
Kharosthi script in 1838.

Chinese records provided locations and site
plans of Buddhists shrines. Along with discovery of coins, these
records provided necessary clues to piece togather the history of
Gandhara.

In 1848 Cunningham found Gandhara sculptures
in north of Peshawar. He also identified the site of Taxila in
1860’s. From than on large number of Buddha statues started to
discover in Peshawar valley.

Marshal performed excavation of Taxila from
1912 to 1934. He discovered Greek, Parthian, and Kushan cities and
large number of stupas and monastries. These discovery helped to
finalize the chronology of history of Gandhara and its art.

After 1947 Ahmed Hassan Dani and Archelogy
Department of Peshawar University made number of discoveries in the
Peshawra and Swat Vallies. Excavation on many site of Gandhara
Civilzation are being done by the reserchesrs from many universitis
around the world.

Language

The
Gandharan Buddhist texts are both the earliest Buddhist texts and
the earliest Indian manuscripts ever discovered. Most are composed
on birch bark and were found in labeled clay pots. Panini has
mentioned both Vedic form Gandhari as well as the later form
Gandhari in his Ashtadhyayi.

Gandhara's language, Gāndhārī, was a
collection of related Prakrit or "Middle Indo-Aryan" dialects.
Gāndhārī was written right-to-left in the Kharoṣṭhī script, which
was ultimately adapted from the Aramaic alphabet. At the time of its
adoption, Gandhāra was controlled by the Achaemenid dynasty of the
Persian empire, which used a similar script to write the related
Iranian languages of the Empire. This alphabet also sets Gāndhārī
apart as a unique set of dialects of the Middle Indo-Aryan period;
Semitic scripts were not used to write Indian languages again until
the arrival of Islam and subsequent adoption of the Persian-style
Arabic alphabet for New Indo-Aryan languages like Urdu, Punjabi,
Sindhi and Kashmiri. Kharosthi script died out about the 4th
century, though Hindko and Kohistani, descendants of these distinct
regional dialects are still spoken today.

Gandhara was a predominantly Indo-Aryan
country. Most of the present inhabitants of Gandhara are Pakhtu
(Pashtu ) speakers. Pakhtu is an Iranian language of Sakas. During
8th and 10th Pakhtun (Also called Afghans) started to move to Kabul
valley. Pakhtuns origin is not clear. They were probably originated
in the area now known as Kandhar. Turkshahi and Hindushahi first
tried to stop their movement but later allowed to settle them in
Lamghan to resist the Arabs expansion. From 13th century Afghan
tribes started moving in to Peshawar valley and by 15th century
became dominant ethnic group.

Gandharan proselytism

The Kushan Lokaksema (Ch: 支谶, Zhi Chan), first translator of a
Mahayana sutra into Chinese.

Gandharan Buddhist missionaries were active,
with other monks from Central Asia, from the 2nd century CE in the
Chinese capital of Loyang [洛阳], and particularly distinguished
themselves by their translation work. They promoted both Theravada
and Mahayana scriptures.

Lokakṣema [支谶], a Kushan and the first
to translate Mahayana scriptures into Chinese (167-186).

Zhi Yao [支曜](c. 185), a Kushan monk,
second generation of translators after Lokaksema.

Dharmarakṣa [竺法护] (265-313), a Kushan
whose family had lived for generations at Dunhuang [敦煌].

Jnanagupta 闍那崛多 or 志德 (561-592), a monk
and tranlator from Gandhara.

Shikshananda (652-710), a monk and translator from Udyana,
Gandhara.

Prajna [般若三藏] (c. 810).
A monk and translator from Kabul, who educated the Japanese
Kukai [空海] in Sanskrit texts.

See also: Silk Road transmission of
Buddhism

Gandharan art

Gandhāra is noted for the distinctive Gandhāra style of Buddhist
art, a consequence of merger of Greek, Syrian, Persian and Indian
art traditions. The development of this form of art started in
Parthian Period(50BC – 75AD). Gandhāran style flourished and
achieved its peak during the Kushan period from 1st Century to 5th
Century. It declined and suffered destruction after invasion of the
White Huns [厌哒 or 嚈噠] in the 5th century.

See also: Greco-Buddhist art

Timeline

c.2300-c.1700 BCE Indus Valley
civilization

c.1700-c.520 BCE No records

c.520-c.400 BCE Persian Empire

c.329-c.316 BCE Occupied by Alexander
the Great and Macedonian generals

c.316-c.180 BCE Controlled by the Maurya
dynasty, founded by Chandragupta. Converted to Buddhism under
King Asoka (273-232 BCE)

c.185-c.97 BCE Under control of the
Indo-Greek Kingdom, with some incursions of the Indo-Scythians
from around 100 BCE.

Beal, Samuel. 1911. The Life of
Hiuen-Tsiang by the Shaman Hwui Li, with an Introduction
containing an account of the Works of I-Tsing. Trans. by
Samuel Beal. London. 1911. Reprint: Munshiram Manoharlal, New
Delhi. 1973.

Hill, John E. 2003. "Annotated
Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to
the Hou Hanshu." 2nd Edition.[1]

Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of
the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third
Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE.
Draft annotated English translation.

Legge, James. Trans. and ed. 1886. A
Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms: being an account by the Chinese
monk Fâ-hsien of his travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 399-414)
in search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline. Reprint: Dover
Publications, New York. 1965.

He had been in the habit of destroying the crops
of the people by causing hail-storms. When Majjhantika Thera was sent by
Moggaliputtatissa's Council to convert Kasmīra-Gandhāra, the Thera went
to Aravāladaha and standing in the air above it showed himself to the
Nāgas. Hearing of this the nāga king came out and tried to frighten the
Elder with various terrors. When all his attempts had failed he
acknowledged defeat and the Thera preached to him. He and his 84,000
followers were established in the Refuge and the Five Precepts (v.l.
āravāla). Sp.i.65; Mhv.xii.9-20."

An arahant. He recited the kammavācā (or
ecclesiastical act) at the ordination of Mahinda, on whom he later
conferred the upasampadā ordination (Mhv.v.207; Sp.i.51;
Dpv.vii.24). Later, at the conclusion of the Third Council,
Majjhantika went as preacher to Kasmīra Gandhāra. There, by his
great iddhi powers, he overcame the Nāga king Aravāla and converted
him to the Faith, while Pandaka and his wife Hāritā and their five
hundred sons became sotāpannas. Majjhantika preached the āsīvisopama
Sutta to the assembled concourse and later ordained one hundred
thousand persons (Mhv.xii.3, 9ff.; Sp.i.64ff.; Dpv.viii.4; Mbv.113;
for the Tibetan version see Rockhill, op. cit., 167ff.). The sermon
preached by Majjhantika is referred to in the Scholiast to the
Sarabhanga Jātaka (J.v.142).

This same Elder is referred to elsewhere as
an example of one who practised pariyatti appicchatā (SNA.ii.494;
DA.iii.1061, but at AA.i.263 he is called Majjhantika Tissa). He was
the leader of the assembly of monks (sanghathera). On the day of the
dedication of Asoka’s vihāra, the Thera was a khīnāsava and was
present, but his begging bowl and robe were hardly worth a farthing.
People, seeing him there, asked him to make way; but he sank into
the earth, rising to receive the alms given to the leader of the
monks, knowing that he alone was fit to accept it. The story is
given at AA.i.43; MA.i.350."

A class of semi-divine beings who inhabit the
Cātummahārājika-realm and are the lowest among the devas (D.ii.212).
They are generally classed together with the Asuras and the Nāgas (E.g.,
A.iv.200, 204, 207). Beings are born among them as a result of
having practised the lowest form of sīla (D.ii.212, 271).

It is a disgrace for a monk to be born in the
Gandhabba-world (D.ii.221, 251, 273f). The Gandhabbas are regarded
as the heavenly musicians, and Pañcasikha, Suriyavaccasā and her
father Timbarū are among their number (D.ii.264).

They wait on such devas as Sakka, and the
males among them form the masculine counterpart of the accharā, the
nymphs. Their king is Dhatarattha, ruler of the eastern quarter
(D.ii.257). Other chieftains are also mentioned (D.ii.258): Panāda,
Opamañña, Sakka's charioteer Mātalī, Cittasena, Nala and Janesabha.

The Gandhabbas are sometimes described as
vihangamā (going through the air) (A.ii.39; AA.ii.506). In the
ātānātiya Sutta (D.iii.203, 204) the Gandhabbas are mentioned among
those likely to trouble monks and nuns in their meditations in
solitude. The Buddha says that beings are born among the
Gandhabakāyikā devā because they wish to be so; they are described
as dwelling in the fragrance o:f root-wood, of bark and sap, and in
that of flowers and scents (S.iii.250f).

It is often stated that the Gandhabbas
preside over conception; this is due to an erroneous translation of
the word gandhabba in passages (E.g., M.i.157, 265f) dealing with
the circumstances necessary for conception (mātāpitaro ca
sannipatitā honti, mātā ca utunī hoti, gandhabbo ca paccupatthito
hoti).

The Commentaries (E.g., MA.i.481f ) explain
that here gandhabba means tatrūpakasatta - tasmim okāse nibbattanako
satto - meaning a being fit and ready to be born to the parents
concerned. The Tīkā says that the word stands for gantabba.

"Bhikkhus, suppose there were four vipers of fierce
heat and deadly venom. Then a man would come along wanting to live, not
wanting to die, desiring happiness and averse to suffering. They would
tell him: 'Good man, these four vipers are of fierce heat and deadly
venom. [173] From time to time they must be lifted up; from time to time
they must be bathed; from time to time they must be fed; from time to
time they must be laid to rest. But if one or another of these vipers
ever becomes angry with you, then, good man, you will meet death or
deadly suffering. Do whatever has to be done, good man!'

"Then, bhikkhus, afraid of the four vipers of fierce
heat and deadly venom, that man would flee in one direction or another. They
would tell him: 'Good man, five murderous enemies are pursuing you, thinking,
"Wherever we see him, we will take his life right on the spot." Do whatever
has to be done, good man!'

"Then, bhikkhus, afraid of the four vipers of fierce
heat and deadly venom, and of the five murderous enemies, that man would
flee in one direction or another. They would tell him: 'Good man, a sixth
murderer, an intimate companion,175 is pursuing you with drawn sword,
thinking, "Wherever I see him I will cut off his head right on the spot." Do
whatever has to be done, good man!'

"Then, bhikkhus, afraid of the four vipers of fierce
heat and deadly venom, and of the five murderous enemies, and of the sixth
murderer, the intimate companion with drawn sword, that man would flee in
one direction or another. He would see an empty village. Whatever house he
enters is void, deserted, empty. Whatever pot he takes hold of is void,
hollow, empty. They would tell him: 'Good man, just now village-attacking
dacoits will raid176 this empty village. Do whatever has to be done, good
man!' [174]

Then, bhikkhus, afraid of the four vipers of fierce
heat and deadly venom, and of the five murderous enemies, and of the sixth
murderer—the intimate companion with drawn sword— and of the
village-attacking dacoits, that man would flee in one direction or another.
He would see a great expanse of water whose near shore was dangerous and
fearful, and whose further shore was safe and free from danger, but there
would be no ferryboat or bridge for crossing over from the near shore to the
far shore.

"Then the man would think: "There is this great expanse
of water whose near shore is dangerous and fearful, and whose further shore
is safe and free from danger, but there is no ferryboat or bridge for
crossing over. Let me collect grass, twigs, branches, and foliage, and bind
them together into a raft, so that by means of that raft, making an effort
with my hands and feet, I can get safely across to the far shore.'

"Then the man would collect grass, twigs, branches, and
foliage, and bind them together into a raft, so that by means of that raft,
making an effort with his hands and feet, he would get safely across to the
far shore. Crossed over, gone beyond, the brahmin stands on high ground.

"I have made up this simile, bhikkhus, in order to
convey a meaning. This is the meaning here: "The four vipers of fierce heat
and deadly venom': this is a designation for the four great elements—the
earth element, the water element, the heat element, the air element.

"The five murderous enemies': this is a designation for
the five aggregates subject to clinging; that is, the material form
aggregate subject to clinging, the feeling aggregate subject to clinging,
the perception aggregate subject to clinging, the volitional formations
aggregate subject to clinging, the consciousness aggregate subject to
clinging.180
"The sixth murderer, the intimate companion with drawn sword': this is a
designation for delight and lust.181
"The empty village': this is a designation for the six internal sense bases.
If, bhikkhus, a wise, competent, intelligent person examines them by way of
the eye, they appear to be void, hollow, [175] empty. If he examines them by
way of the ear ... by way of the mind, they appear to be void, hollow, empty.

"'Village-attacking dacoits': this is a designation for
the six external sense bases. The eye, bhikkhus, is attacked by agreeable
and disagreeable forms. The ear ... The nose ... The tongue ... The body ...
The mind is attacked by agreeable and disagreeable mental phenomena.

"The great expanse of water': this is a designation for
the four floods: the flood of sensuality, the flood of existence, the flood
of views, and the flood of ignorance.

"The near shore, which is dangerous and fearful': this
is a designation for identity.

"The further shore, which is safe and free from danger':
this is a designation for Nibbana.

"'The raft': this is a designation for the Noble
Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right concentration.

"'Making effort with hands and feet': this is a
designation for the arousing of energy.

"'Crossed over, gone beyond, the brahmin stands on high
ground': this is a designation for the arahant."

"Madhyāntika thought, " My master ordered me to introduce the
doctrine into Kashmir, (for) the Blessed One has predicted that
there would be a bhikṣu called Madhyāntika who, having conquered the
malicious nāga Hulunta in Kashmir, would introduce the doctrine. I
will accomplish the purpose of the teacher." So the venerable
Madhyāntika went to the Kashmir country and sat down cross-legged.
Then he thought, " To conquer the nāgas of Kashmir, if I can but
trouble them, I will be able to subdue them." So he composed his
mind in deep meditation, and the Kashmir country trembled in six
ways. The nāgas were troubled, they panted violently, and having
caused rain to fall in torrents, they tried to injure the sthavira,
but he remained deep in the perfect composure of the profound
meditation ot mercy; so these nāgas were not able to move even the
hem of his garment. Then these nāgas rained down arrows, but the
sthavira made them reach the ground as beautiful flowers, ulvas,
padmas, kumudas, and white lilies. The nāgas commenced to throw at
him a string of thunderbolts' and of great arrows, a continuous
stream of swords and axes; but as they all fell on the sthavira in a
rain of blue lotus flowers, they said, "As one sees those summits of
a glacier remain unchanged though struck by the rays of the sun,
those summits of mountains on which all is harmless, so the
drenching rain fell as a shower of various flowers, and the rain of
arrows falling from the sky has become garlands of flowers !"

As he (Madhyāntika) was in the state of perfect composure of the
profound meditation of mercy, the fire (of the thunderbolts) did not
burn his body, nor did the weapons or poison harm it; so the nāgas
were astonished. Then the nāgas went nigh unto the sthavira and
spake to him, saying, "Venerable one, what would you?" The
sthavira
said, " Give me this place." " A stone is not much of an offering!"
the nāgas replied." The Blessed One has predicted," the
sthavira
rejoined, "that this place would be mine. This Kaśmīra country,
being a good place for meditation, henceforth it is mine."

The nāgas said, " Did the Blessed One say so ?"

" He did," answered the sthavira.

" Sthavira," said the nagns, " how much (land) shall be offered (to
you) ?"

" As much as I cover when seated cross-legged."

" So be it, Venerable One," the nāgas replied.

Then the sthavira sat down cross-legged (f. 689"), and (down to) the
lower ends of the nine valleys (all the land) was covered by (him)
sitting cross-legged.

The nāgas asked him, " Sthavira, how many followers have you ?"

The sthavira thought, " How many bhikṣus shall I get together ? I
will have the five hundred arhats (who were converted with me)." So
he said, " Five hundred arhats."

" So be it," the nāgas said; " but if a single arhat out of the
number is wanting, then we will take back the Kashmir country."

Madhyāntika said to the nāgas of Kashmir, " Notwithstanding, there
must be people who give when there are persons who (live on what
they) receive, so I must introduce householders (here);" and to this
the nāgas gave their consent.

Abb.: Safran (Crocus sativus)
[Bildquelle: Wikipedia]

When the sthavira had made by himself villages, towns, and
provinces, he settled large numbers of people (in them), but they
said to him, " Sthavira, how can we develop our prosperity ?" Then
the sthavira took the people with him to the Gandhamādana (slios-kyis
vgad-ldan) mountain and said, " Pull up saffron!" (f. 689''). Then
the nāgas of Movint Gandhamādana were angered, but the
sthavira
having subdued them, they asked, " How long will the doctriue of the
Blessed One endure ?" "A thousand years," answered the
sthavira.
Then thay made him this promise, "As long as the teaching of the
Blessed One endures, so long will we allow you (to take saffron
plant from here)." So when the sthavira had planted the saffron in
Kashmir, he blessed it (and it prospered).

Abb.: Getrocknete Safranfäden
[Bildquelle. Wikipedia]

When the sthavira Madhyāntika had introduced the doctrine of the
Blessed One into Kashmir, he spread it abroad, and having gladdened
the hearts of the charitable and virtuous, and having shown
different miracles, he passed away as water when thrown on fire.
After that his body had been burnt with the best of sandal-wood,
aloe-wood, and other kinds of wood, it was placed in a caitya which
was built (for that purpose)."

[Quelle: The Life of the Buddha and the early history of his
order : derived from Tibetan works in the Bkah-hgyur and
Bstan-hgyur followed by notices on the early history of Tibet and
Khoten / translated by W. [William] Woodville Rockhill <1854 -
1914>. -- London : K. Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1907. --
XII, 273 S. ; 22 cm.. -- S. 167 - 170.]

"Mahādeva Thera. He conferred the
pabbajā ordination on Mahinda (Mhv.v.206; Dpv.vii.25). After the
Third Council he went as apostle to Mahisamandala, where he preached
the Devadūta Sutta, converting forty thousand people and conferring
ordination on forty thousand more. Mhv.xii.3, 29; Dpv.viii.5;
Sp.i.66."

"The Kingdom of Mysore [ಮೈಸೂರು] was a
kingdom of southern India, which was founded about AD 1400 by the
Wodeyar dynasty, who ruled the state until the independence of India
in 1947, when the kingdom was merged with the Union of India.

Early history

The kingdom originated as a small state based
in the city of Mysore, and was established by two brothers, Vijaya
and Krisha Wodeyar. It remained a kingdom tributary to the
Vijayanagara empire until the collapse of the latter in the second
half of the 16th century. In common with every other feudatory of
that Empire, Mysore, under the Wodeyar dynasty, then assumed the
trappings of independence. It was in the reign of Raja Wodeyar and
his successor, the celebrated Kantheerava, in the mid-1600's, that
the kingdom really asserted its independence, and expanded to
include most of the southern part of modern-day Karnataka [ಕನಾ೯ಟಕ],
as also parts of neighbouring states.

The Arasus of Kalale

After Chamaraja Wodeyar VI, the failure of the
direct male line not only necessitated the adoption of an heir, but
also precipitated a minority. The Arasus (feudal barons) of Kalale
came to hold sway over the affairs of the Kingdom of Mysore, and the
position of "Dalavoy" or supreme commander of the Royal army, became
effectively hereditary to that family. The situation was compounded
by extensive intermarriage between the royal family of Mysore and
that of the Arasus of Kalale. The influence of the family is
regarded as having been benign, given the continuance of the
legitimate dynasty, as also the similarity and alliance between the
two families. This influence continued even into the 20th century;
HH Maharani Kempa Nanjammani Vani Vilasa Sannidhana Avaru, regent of
Mysore (1894-1902) and mother of HH Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV,
hailed from this family.

Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan

During this period, Hyder Ali, who joined the
army as a foot soldier, came to prominence. By many accounts, he
enjoyed the confidence of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, and hence
essayed a meteoric rise in the affairs of the Kingdom. During the
minority of Maharaja Nanjaraja Wodeyar, Hyder Ali rose to become the
de facto ruler of the state, retaining the Wodeyars as nominal
rulers. His son Tipu Sultan dispensed with this charade and assumed
full royal powers. Tipu Sultan prosecuted a brilliant military
career; his rule contributed a golden chapter to the history of
India. Both Hyder and Tipu brought in many technological
innovations, modernizing the Mysorean army and expanding Mysore's
foreign trade. They also aligned themselves by and large with the
French, whose French East India Company [Compagnie des Indes
Orientales] was politically very active in southern India at the
time. By the end of the eighteenth century, the Mysore Kingdom found
itself in a series of four wars with the British East India Company,
which was then expanding its control in India. In 1799 Tipu Sultan
was finally defeated by the British in the fourth Mysore War, led by
Arthur Wellesley, the future 1st Duke of Wellington. The British,
who purported to wage that war in support of the legitimate dynasty,
reinstated the Wodeyars on the throne in the person of the
5-year-old Krishnaraja Wodeyar III.

The British Period

After the final defeat of Tipu Sultan, the British annexed a large
part of Mysore state, the remainder becoming a princely state in
British India. The 5 year old Krishnaraja Wodeyar III ascended the
throne under the regency of his adoptive grandmother, HH Maharani
Lakshmi Ammani Avaru, relict of HH Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III.
Diwan Purnaiya was appointed diwan or first minister.

The capital was moved to Bangalore [ಬೆಂಗಳೂರು]
in 1830. Charging the Wodeyars with financial mismanagement, the
British took direct control of Mysore in 1831 and retained it for
half a century. This act manifests the greed for land that
characterised the British East India Company in the run up to the
indian rebellion of 1857, and is of a piece with its annexation, in
the same period, of other princely states like Thanjavur, Satara,
Sind, Avadh and Jhansi. The Maharaja chose to argue his case in
British courts, and a favourable verdict resulted in the Rendition
of 1881, which restored the Wodeyar dynasty to the throne. Mysore
again took its place as one of the three highest-ranking princely
states in India. For the next seventy years, Mysore enjoyed the
reputation of being a model state.

A New Era

India became independent on 15 August 1947,
and a new republican order was established. All the princely states
were merged with the Union of India, and provinces were later
reorganised on the basis of language. Inevitably, the kingdom of
Mysore lost its distinct identity. HH Maharaja Jayachamaraja
Wodeyar, signed the Instrument of Accession on 9 August, 1947 and
the state acceded to the Dominion of India. With the merger of
Mysore with the Union of India, the reign of the Wodeyars came to an
end. The kingdom initially became a separate state within the Union
of India and in 1956 Kannada-speaking areas belonging until then to
the neighbouring provinces of Madras, Bombay and Hyderabad were
merged with Mysore to create a Kannada-speaking state that retained
the former name. The name of the state was changed to Karnataka in
1973.

Inscriptions

Kannada inscriptions deciphered and recorded from the rule of Mysore
kings can be found at the web site provided by
Archeological Survey of India
http://inscriptions.whatisindia.com (vol. 9,17 & 18)"

He was sent to the Vanavāsa country to
convert it at the end of the Third Council. Floating in the air amid
the people, he preached the Anamatagga Samyutta. Sixty thousand
people embraced the new religion and thirty seven thousand joined
the Order, five hundred vihāras being founded. Mhv.xii.4, 31ff.;
Dpv.viii.7; Sp.i.63, 66."

A district, probably Northern Kanara, in South
India. After the Third Council, Rakkhita Thera was sent there to
convert the people, and he preached the Anamatagga Samyutta poised
in mid air. It is said that sixty thousand persons embraced the
faith, thirty seven thousand joined the Order, while fifty vihāras
were established in the country.

Mhv.xii.4, 30f.; Sp.i.63 66; Dpv.viii.6. The
Vanavāsī are mentioned in the Mahābhārata (6. 366) and the Harivamsa
(5232) as a people of S. India. The Sās (p.12) also mentions a
county called Vanavāsī, which, however, is the country round Prome
in Lower Burma."

"The Kanara or Canara region
(called Kannada in Karnataka) comprises three districts of Karnataka
[ಕನಾ೯ಟಕ] - North Kanara (Uttara Kannada) whose administrative
headquarters is Karwar, Udupi, and South Kanara (Dakshina Kannada),
whose administrative headquarters is Mangalore [ಮಂಗಳೂರು]. Kanara is
bounded on the east by the Western Ghats and on the west by the
Arabian Sea. The coastal strip between the Western Ghats and the
sea, including Kanara and the state of Goa and coastal Maharashtra
to the north, is known as the Konkan coast, while the coast of
Kerala is known as the Malabar coast. Kanara is also known as the
Karavali coast."

is one of the four southern states of India.
The modern state of Karnataka came into existence with the passage
of the States Reorganisation Act (1956), with the
incorporation of districts under the dominion of Bombay, Hyderabad,
Madras state and Coorg within the existing state of Mysore State.
Karnataka's capital, Bangalore [ಬೆಂಗಳೂರು],
is the only city in the state with a population of more than 6
million. Other major cities include Mysore [ಮೈಸೂರು], Mangalore
[ಮಂಗಳೂರು], Hubli-Dharwad, Davanagere [ದಾವಐಗೆರೆ], Bellary and
Belgaum. Kannada is the official language of the state. Karnataka is
the 8th largest Indian state by area and 9th largest by population.

Neolithic habitation and celts dating back to
the 2nd century BCE were first discovered in Karnataka in 1872.
Megalithic structures and burial grounds were discovered in 1862 in
the regions of Kodagu and Moorey Betta hills. By the third century
BCE, most of Karnataka was part of the Mauryan Empire, ruled by
Emperor Ashoka. In the first millennium CE, Karnataka was ruled by a
series of Jain/Vaishnavite/Hindu Dynasties such as the Kadambas, the
Ganga Dynasty and the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas. The Kannada Empire
was expanded and consolidated by the Hoysala Empire and further by
the Vijayanagara Empire, before the Mughal Conquest in the 18th
century. The rule of the state changed hands from the Wodeyars to
Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan before being incorporated into the
British Raj, at the turn of the 19th century. Karnataka lies in the
Deccan Plateau and borders with Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu and Kerala. The state has a long standing border dispute with
Maharashtra over the status of the district of Belgaum, and a
dispute with Tamil Nadu over the release of water from the Kaveri
River that flows through both states. A large proportion of
Karnataka's economy, India's fifth largest, is agrarian. Bangalore,
the third-most populous city in India, accounts for 35 percent of
India's software exports, and is also a major base for public sector
manufacturing industries. Karnataka is the only exporter of
sandalwood in India. Bangalore also has the most amount of tourism
of the region. The Kolar Gold Fields (KGF) was once the only
producer of gold in the country. The gold mines in KGF are now
closed.

Origin of Name

Several etymologies have been suggested for the name Karnataka. One
accepted derivative comes from the Kannada words
karu and nādu meaning elevated land. During the
British Raj, the words Carnatic or Karnatak were used
to desribe the region of southern India in general. Another
etymological derivative of the name comes from lear
or black — a reference to the black cotton soil of the
region. The use of the term is of considerable antiquity, mentioned
as far back as the fifth century CE, by the astrologer Varaha
Mihira. Historically, the names Karnatak or Carnatic
have been misapplied to refer to the regions below the Western Ghats
(Coorg and Kerala) as well as regions in present day Andhra Pradesh
(Telingana). Mysore state was renamed Karnataka in 1973.

History

Evidence of
Neolithic habitation of areas in modern Karnataka and celts dating
back to the 2nd century BCE were first discovered in 1872. There are
reports that a polished stone axe was discovered at Lingsugur in the
Raichur district; however the authenticity of these reports remains
unverifiable. Megalithic structures and burial grounds were
discovered in 1862 in the regions of Kodagu and Moorey Betta hills,
while Neolithic sites were discovered in north Karnataka. Scholarly
hypothesis postulates of contacts between the Indus Valley city of
Harappa in 3000 BCE, citing the discovery of gold found in the
Harappan sites that was imported from mines in Karnataka. In the
third century BCE, most of Karnataka was part of the Mauryan Empire,
ruled by Emperor Ashoka. Rock edicts of Ashoka, written in Prakrit,
were discovered in Chirtradurga and Raichur. In the 4th century BCE,
a local dynasty called Satavahana came to power and its rule lasted
nearly 3 centuries. The disintegration of the Satavahana dynasty led
to the ascent of the Banavasi Kadambas(325-540 CE) in north
Karnataka, and the Ganga Dynasty (325-550 CE) in the south of the
region. These were the first kingdoms to give official status to
Kannada language as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription of 450
A.D., attributed to King Kakusthavarma of the Kadamba dynasty. Also,
recent discovery of 5th century A.D. copper coin in Banavasi,
ancient capital of the Kadambas, with Kannada script inscription on
it, further proves the usage of Kannada at an official level.

They continued their rule as fiduciaries of
larger empires such as the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas for another
six hundred years, during which time Kannada literature and a new
style of architecture called the vesara style was born and
evolved. Eclectic Chalukyan style temples in Pattadakal, Aihole,
Badami, Ellora and Gadag were conceived during this time. Nripa Kama
established the Hoysala Empire at the turn of the millennium. Art
and architecture flourished in the region during the time that
resulted in the construction of temples and sculptures in Halebid
and Belur. The expansion of the Hoysala Empire brought parts of
modern Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu under their rule. In the 14th
century the Vijayanagar Empire was established by Harihara and Bukka
Raya, sons of the last Hoysala King Veera Ballala III, with its
capital at Hampi. The Vijayanagara Kings fostered traditions and
encouraged arts, religion and literature in Sanskrit, Kannada and
Telugu. The Bahmani sultans of Gulbarga and the Adil Shahi sultans
of Bijapur ruled over the region after the defeat and disintegration
of the Vijayanagara Empire in battle. The Bahamani rules encouraged
Urdu and Persian literature and Islamic architecture. The Gol Gumbaz
was constructed during this time. With the defeat of the Bahmani
sultans, the entire region came into the dominion of the Mughal
Empire.

The Wodeyars of Mysore, former vassals of the
Vijayanagara Empire, leased the state from the Mughal king Aurangzeb
in the 15th century. With the death of Krishnaraja Wodeyar II,
Haider Ali, the Commander-in-Chief of the Mysore Army, assumed
control over the region, until the rule of the kingdom was passed to
Tipu Sultan, after Haider Ali's death. In attempting to contain
European expansion in South India, Tipu Sultan, known as the
Tiger of Mysore fought four significant Anglo-Mysore Wars, the
last of which resulted in his death and the incorporation of Mysore
into the British Raj. After Indian independence, the Wodeyar
Maharaja acceded to India. In 1950, Mysore became an Indian state,
and the former Maharaja became its rajpramukh, or governor,
until 1975. The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 provided
for parts of Coorg, Madras, Hyderabad, and Bombay states to be
incorporated into the state of Mysore. Mysore state was renamed
Karnataka in 1973.

Geography

Karnataka
is situated in the Deccan Plateau and is bordered by the Arabian Sea
to the west, Goa to the northwest, Maharashtra to the north, Andhra
Pradesh to the east, Tamil Nadu to the east and southeast, and
Kerala to the southwest. It is situated at the angle where the
Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats of South India converge into the
Nilgiri Hills.

The state has three principal physical zones;

The coastal strip, between the Western
Ghats and the Arabian Sea, which is lowland, with moderate to
high rainfall levels. This strip is around 320 km in length and
48-64 km wide.

The Western Ghats, a mountain range
inland from the Arabian Sea, rising to about 900m average
height, and with moderate to high rainfall levels.

The Deccan Plateau, comprising the main
inland region of the state, which is drier and verging on the
semi-arid. The humidity in these plains or maidans never exceeds
50 percent.

Karnataka has one of the highest average
elevations of Indian states at 1,500 feet. The highest recorded
temperature was 45.6 C (114.08 F) at Raichur on May 23, 1928. The
lowest recorded temperature was 2.8 C (37.04 F) at Bidar on December
16, 1918.

Language

Language
was the so called basis for the formation of the Indian states after
independence and the present day Karnataka was formed by unifying
minority Kannada speaking regions from the many districts of
erstwhile Madras State (present day Tamil Nadu), erstwhile Bombay
presidency (present day Maharashtra) and the erstwhile princely
state of Hyderabad (present day Andhra Pradesh) to the former
Kingdom of Mysore, known as the Mysore State (post independence)
around the years 1950-1957. In 1973, the Mysore State was officially
christened as Karnataka. There are a total of 27 districts. The
languages of Karnataka are Kannada, Urdu, Kodava Takk, Tulu and
Sankethi. Kannada is the official language of the state. Other
languages also spoken by linguistic minorities are Marathi, Konkani,
Tamil, Telugu, Hindi and Malayalam."

At Savatthi.
There the Blessed One said: "From an inconstruable beginning comes
transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings
hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating &
wandering on. What do you think, monks: Which is greater, the tears
you have shed while transmigrating & wandering this long, long time
-- crying & weeping from being joined with what is displeasing,
being separated from what is pleasing -- or the water in the four
great oceans?"

"As we understand the Dhamma taught to us by the Blessed
One, this is the greater: the tears we have shed while transmigrating &
wandering this long, long time -- crying & weeping from being joined with what
is displeasing, being separated from what is pleasing -- not the water in the
four great oceans."

"Excellent, monks. Excellent. It is excellent that you
thus understand the Dhamma taught by me.

"This is the greater: the tears you have shed while
transmigrating & wandering this long, long time -- crying & weeping from being
joined with what is displeasing, being separated from what is pleasing -- not
the water in the four great oceans.

"Long have you (repeatedly) experienced the death of a
mother. The tears you have shed over the death of a mother while transmigrating
& wandering this long, long time -- crying & weeping from being joined with what
is displeasing, being separated from what is pleasing -- are greater than the
water in the four great oceans.

"Long have you (repeatedly) experienced the death of a
father...the death of a brother...the death of a sister...the death of a
son...the death of a daughter...loss with regard to relatives...loss with regard
to wealth...loss with regard to disease. The tears you have shed over loss with
regard to disease while transmigrating & wandering this long, long time --
crying & weeping from being joined with what is displeasing, being separated
from what is pleasing -- are greater than the water in the four great oceans.

"Why is that? From an inconstruable beginning comes
transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings hindered by
ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating & wandering on. Long have
you thus experienced stress, experienced pain, experienced loss, swelling the
cemeteries -- enough to become disenchanted with all fabricated things, enough
to become dispassionate, enough to be released."

At Savatthi.
There the Blessed One said: "From an inconstruable beginning comes
transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings
hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating &
wandering on. Just as a stick thrown up in the air lands sometimes
on its base, sometimes on its side, sometimes on its tip; in the
same way, beings hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving,
transmigrating & wandering on, sometimes go from this world to
another world, sometimes come from another world to this.

"Why is that? From an inconstruable beginning comes
transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings hindered by
ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating & wandering on. Long have
you thus experienced stress, experienced pain, experienced loss, swelling the
cemeteries -- enough to become disenchanted with all fabricated things, enough
to become dispassionate, enough to be released."

At Savatthi.
There the Blessed One said: "From an inconstruable beginning comes
transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings
hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating &
wandering on. When you see someone who has fallen on hard times,
overwhelmed with hard times, you should conclude: 'We, too, have
experienced just this sort of thing in the course of that long, long
time.'

"Why is that? From an inconstruable beginning comes
transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings hindered by
ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating & wandering on. Long have
you thus experienced stress, experienced pain, experienced loss, swelling the
cemeteries -- enough to become disenchanted with all fabricated things, enough
to become dispassionate, enough to be released."

At Savatthi.
There the Blessed One said: "From an inconstruable beginning comes
transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings
hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating &
wandering on. When you see someone who is happy & well-provided in
life, you should conclude: 'We, too, have experienced just this sort
of thing in the course of that long, long time.'

"Why is that? From an inconstruable beginning comes
transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings hindered by
ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating & wandering on. Long have
you thus experienced stress, experienced pain, experienced loss, swelling the
cemeteries -- enough to become disenchanted with all fabricated things, enough
to become dispassionate, enough to be released."

At Savatthi. There the Blessed One said:
"From an inconstruable beginning comes transmigration. A beginning
point is not evident, though beings hindered by ignorance and
fettered by craving are transmigrating & wandering on. A being who
has not been your mother at one time in the past is not easy to
find...A being who has not been your father...your brother...your
sister...your son...your daughter at one time in the past is not
easy to find.

"Why is that? From an inconstruable beginning comes
transmigration. A beginning point is not evident, though beings hindered by
ignorance and fettered by craving are transmigrating & wandering on. Long have
you thus experienced stress, experienced pain, experienced loss, swelling the
cemeteries -- enough to become disenchanted with all fabricated things, enough
to become dispassionate, enough to be released."

He was sent to Aparantaka at the conclusion
of Moggaliputtapissa's Council (Mhv.xii.4).' There he preached the
Aggikkhandhopama Sutta and converted thirty seven thousand beings.
Mhv.xii.34f.; Dpv.viii.7; Sp.i.67."

One of the countries to which Asoka sent
missionaries after the Third Council. The leader of the mission was
Yonaka Dhammarakkhitta (Mhv.xii.5; Dpv.viii.7). He preached to the
people the Aggikkhandopamā Sutta and 37,000 people embraced the new
faith, a thousand men and even more women entering the Order
(Mhv.xii.34-6; Sp.i.67).

The country comprises the territory of
Northern Gujarat, Kāthiāwar, Kachch and Sindh. Fleet J.R.A.S. 1910,
p.427; Bhandarkar in his Early History of Dekkan puts it in North
Konkan (p.23); see also Burgess: Arch. Reports ii.131.

According to Hsouien Thsang, the country
seems to comprise Sindh, Western Rājaputāna, Cutch, Gujarat and a
portion of the adjoining coast on the lower bank of the Narmadā.
Cunningham Anct. Geog. of India, notes, p.690; and Law: Early
Geography 56ff.

Probably Buddhism was known in Aparanta
during the time of the Buddha himself. Dutt: Early Hist. of Bsm.
p.190; Dvy., pp.45ff; but the reference is to Sunāparanta.

It is said that when Mandhātā brought all the
four continents under his sway people from the three other
continents came over to Jambudīpa and lived there. When the king
died they found themselves unable to get back, and begged his
minister to allow them to start settlements in Jambudīpa itself. He
agreed, and the settlement of those who had come from Aparagoyāna
was for that reason called Aparanta (DA.ii.482; MA.i.184)
(Aparantaka)."

"Gujarat (Gujarati:
ગુજરાત, Hindi:
गुजरात,
Gujarāt, IPA
[guɟra:t];
also spelled Gujrat and sometimes Gujarath). Guzarat
is a Western phonetic corruption, and is not considered an official
term. Gujarat contains many of the former Princely states of India,
and is the second-most industrialized state in the Republic of India
after Maharashtra. Gujarat borders Pakistan, and the states of
Rajasthan to the north-east, Madhya Pradesh to the east, Maharashtra
and the Union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli to the south. The
international border with Pakistan is to the north-west. The Arabian
Sea makes up the state's western coast. Its capital is Gandhinagar,
a planned city which is close to Ahmedabad [અમદાવાદ], the former
state capital and the current commercial center of Gujarat.

History

Gujarat Civilization begins as the Indus Valley
Civilization

Situated on the western coast of India, the name
of the state is derived from Gujjarātta (Gurjar Rāshtra),
which means the land of the Gujjars or Khazars. It is believed that
a tribe of Gujjars migrated to India around the 5th century. The
history of Gujarat, however, began much earlier. Settlements of the
Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization,
have been found in the area now known as Gujarat.
Gujarat's coastal cities, chiefly Bharuch, served as ports and
trading centres for the Maurya and Gupta empires. After the collapse
of the Gupta empire in the 6th century, Gujarat flourished as an
independent Hindu kingdom. The Maitraka dynasty, descended from a
Gupta general, ruled from the 6th to the 8th centuries from their
capital at Vallabhi, although they were ruled briefly by Harsha
during the 7th century. The Arab rulers of Sind sacked Vallabhi in
770, bringing the Maitraka dynasty to an end. A branch of the
Pratihara clan ruled Gujarat after the eighth century. In 775 the
first Parsi (Zoroastrian) refugees arrived in Gujarat from Iran.

960 AD to 1292 AD

The Solanki clan of Rajputs ruled Gujarat from c. 960 to 1243.
Gujarat was a major center of Indian Ocean trade, and their capital
at Anhilwara (Patan) was one of the largest cities in India, with a
population estimated at 100,000 in the year 1000. In 1026, the
famous Somnath temple in Gujarat was destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni
[محمود غزنوی]. After 1243, the Solkanis lost control of Gujarat to
their feudatories, of whom the Vaghela chiefs of Dholka came to
dominate Gujarat. In 1292 the Vaghelas became tributaries of the
Yadava dynasty of Devagiri in the Deccan.

1297 AD to ~1850 AD

In 1297 to 1298 Ala ud din Khilji [علاء الدین
خلجی], Sultan of Delhi, destroyed Anhilwara and incorporated Gujarat
into the Delhi Sultanate. After Timur's [تیمور] sacking of Delhi at
the end of the 14th century weakened the Sultanate, Gujarat's Muslim
governor Zafar Khan Muzaffar asserted his independence, and his son,
Sultan Ahmed Shah (ruled 1411 to 1442), established Ahmedabad as the
capital. Cambay eclipsed Bharuch as Gujarat's most important trade
port. The Sultanate of Gujarat remained independent until 1576, when
the Mughal emperor Akbar [جلال الدین محمد اکب] conquered it and
annexed it to the Mughal Empire. It remained a province of the
Mughal empire until the Marathas conquered eastern and central
Gujarat in the 18th century; Western Gujarat (Kathiawar and Kutch)
were divided among numerous local rulers.

1614 to 1947

Portugal was the first European power to arrive in Gujarat,
acquiring several enclaves along the Gujarati coast, including Daman
and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The British East India Company
established a factory in Surat [સુરત] in 1614, which formed their
first base in India, but it was eclipsed by Bombay [मुंबई] after the
British acquired it from Portugal in 1668. The Company wrested
control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas during the Second
Anglo-Maratha War. Many local rulers, notably the Maratha Gaekwads
of Baroda (Vadodara), made a separate peace with the British, and
acknowledged British sovereignty in return for retaining local
self-rule. Gujarat was placed under the political authority of
Bombay Presidency, with the exception of Baroda state, which had a
direct relationship with the Governor-General of India. From 1818 to
1947, most of present-day Gujarat, including Kathiawar, Kutch, and
northern and eastern Gujarat were divided into dozens of princely
states, but several districts in central and southern Gujarat,
namely Ahmedabad, Broach (Bharuch), Kaira, Panch Mahals, and Surat,
were ruled directly by British officials.

Indian Independence Movement

The people of Gujarat were the most enthusiastic
participants in India's struggle for freedom. Leaders like Mahatma
Gandhi [મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી], Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel [સરદાર
વલ્લભભાઈ પટેલ], Morarji Desai [मोरारजी देसाई], K.M. Munshi,
Narhari Parikh, Mahadev Desai, Mohanlal Pandya and Ravi Shankar Vyas
all hailed from Gujarat. In addition, Mohammed Ali Jinnah [محمد على
جناح], Pakistan's first Governor-General, spoke Gujarati as his
mother tongue and his father was from what later became Gujarat.
Gujarat was also the site of some of the most popular revolts,
including the Satyagrahas in Kheda, Bardoli, Borsad and the
Salt Satyagraha.

Province Consolidation and Division after 1947

After India's independence in 1947, 217 princely
states of Kathiawar and Saurashtra, including the former kingdom of
Junagadh, were grouped together to form the province of Saurashtra,
with its capitol at Rajkot. On November 1, 1956, Saurashtra was
merged into Bombay State. The modern state of Gujarat was created on
May 1, 1960, out of the northern, predominantly Gujarati-speaking
portion of Bombay State. The southern, predominantly
Marathi-speaking portion became the state of Maharashtra
[महाराष्ट्र].

Post Independence

After Indian independence and the partition of India in 1947, the
new Indian government grouped the former princely states of Gujarat
into three larger units; Saurashtra, which included the former
princely states on the Kathiawar peninsula, Kutch, and Bombay state,
which included the former British districts of Bombay Presidency
together with most of Baroda state and the other former princely
states of eastern Gujarat. In 1956, Bombay state was enlarged to
include Kutch, Saurashtra, and parts of Hyderabad state and Madhya
Pradesh in central India. The new state had a mostly
Gujarati-speaking north and a Marathi-speaking south. Agitation by
Marathi nationalists for their own state led to the split of Bombay
state on linguistic lines; on 1 May 1960, it became the new states
of Gujarat and Maharashtra. The first capital of Gujarat was
Ahmedabad; the capital was moved to Gandhinagar in 1970.

In Gujarat a few new towns have been
established since Indian independence in 1947. Most of these are
more like settlements established near existing urban centres.
Gandhidham, Sardarnagar and Kubernagar are three rehabilitation
towns more like refugee settlements than self-sufficient towns. The
last two now form part of the city of Ahmedabad. Ankleswar and
Mithapur were two of the earlier industrial towns established in
Gujarat. A complex of three small townships for the oil refinery,
the Fertilizer Factory and Petro-chemicals plant also came up near
Vadodara. Kandla is the only new port town established in the state.

2001 Gujarat Earthquake

Gujarat was hit with a devastating earthquake on
January 26, 2001 at 9:00, which claimed a staggering 20,000 lives,
injured another 200,000 people and severely affected the lives of 40
million of the population. The economic and financial loss to
Gujarat and India is being felt even after almost half a decade.

2002 Gujarat Riots

The term 2002 Gujarat violence refers to the riots which were
triggered on February 27, 2002 by a vicious attack on a passenger
train, the Sabarmati Express, passing through the town of Godhra.
The train was forcibly stopped and attacked at Signal Falia near
Godhra Junction. Ladies Coach S6 bore the brunt of mob attack. In
the midst of attack, Coach S6 caught fire killing 59 passangers,
most of whom were women and children.

Many train passengers were Hindu activists
and pilgrims called Kar Sevaks returning from a disputed religious
site located in holy city of Ayodhya. The train was allegedly set to
fire by Muslim extremists. Hindu sympathisers often cite this as the
primary provocation or the "first use" of violence. However, Muslim
sympathisers allege that hindus riding the train were shouting
hindu-religious slogans. As a result, Muslims attacked the train.

Two years after the incident Railway Minister
Lalu Prasad Yadav appointed Justice Banerjee to investigate the
cause of fire. On the eve of election in Railway Minister's Native
State Bihar, Justice Banerjee submitted an interim report concluding
that the fire and attack are two separate events. It claimed, very
controversially, that the fire was likely started from within the
train, and not by a mob gathered outside the train This interim
report and Bin Laden Clones were used in Bihar Election to attract
Muslim votes. The Interim Report's credibilty is in serious
doubt due to timing of it's release and subsequent use in election
campaigning

Geography

Geography of Gujarat. Courtesy: NASA Earth Observatory

Gujarat is the westernmost state of India. It
is bounded by the Arabian Sea to the west and southwest, and
Pakistan to the north. The state of Rajasthan is to the northeast,
Madhya Pradesh to the east, and Maharashtra and the union territory
of Dadra and Nagar Haveli to the south and southeast of Gujarat.

Climate & Natural Features

The relief is low in the most parts of the state
and involves diverse climate conditions. Though mostly dry, it is
desertic in the north-west, and wet in the southern districts due to
heavy monsoon season. With the construction of Sardar Sarovar on
Narmada River, a result of the largest dam in India, irrigation
facilities have improved immensely, with water being provided to the
most dry areas of Kutch and Saurashtra through a 550 km long canal,
an engineering marvel. With the Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of
Cambay, Gujarat has about 1600 km of coastline, which is the longest
coastline of all Indian states.

Rivers

The major
rivers flowing through the state include the Narmada, Sabarmati, and
Mahi in central and northern Gujarat; Mithi, Khari, and Bhogavo in
Saurashtra; Tapi, Purna, Ambika, Auranga and Damanganga in the
southern part of the state.

National Parks

Gujarat is home to four National Parks, including Gir Forest
National Park, near Junagadh, Blackbuck National Park in Bhavnagar
District, Vansda National Park in Navsari District, and Marine
National Park on the Gulf of Kutch in Jamnagar District. The last
remaining Asian lions, famous for their dark black manes, live in
the area surrounding Girnar. In addition to these, there are twenty
one Wildlife sanctuaries.

Major Cities

The
major cities in Gujarat are Ahmedabad [અમદાવાદ], Vadodara (Baroda),
Surat [સુરત], Rajkot and Jamnagar. Ahmedabad, the commercial capital
of the state, is the sixth largest city of India. Other important
cities include Nadiad, Anand and Ankleshwar in central Gujarat,
Bharuch, Navsari, Vapi, and Valsad in the south; and Bhuj, and
Dwarka in Saurastra in the west."

An arahant. He lived at Asokārāma. Once,
Tissa, brother of Asoka, saw him seated at the foot of a tree
meditating, fanned by a Nāga with a sāla branch. Tissa was later
ordained by him. Mhv.v.161, 167; ThigA.i.505; but see Sp.i.561,
according to which it was Yonaka Mahādhammarakhita who ordained
Tissa; also SA.iii.125.

After the Third Council he was sent as
messenger of Buddhism to Mahārattha. There he preached the
Mahānārada Kassapa Jātaka, and eighty four thousand people were
converted, thirteen thousand joining the Order. Mhv.xii.5, 37;
Dpv.viii.8; Sp.i.67. "

"Maharashtra (Devanagari: महाराष्ट्र,
literally: Great Nation) is India's third largest state in
terms of area and second largest in terms of population after Uttar
Pradesh [उत्तर प्रदेश, اتر پردیش]. It is bordered by the states of
Gujarat [ગુજરાત], Madhya Pradesh [मध्य
प्रदेश], Chhattisgarh [छत्तीसगढ़], Andhra Pradesh [ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్],
Karnataka [ಕನಾ೯ಟಕ], Goa [गोआ] and the Union territory of Dadra and
Nagar Haveli. The Arabian Sea makes up the state's western coast.
Mumbai (Bombay) [मुंबई], India's largest city, is the capital of
Maharashtra.

Maharashtra was known as
"Rashtra" in the Rig Veda, "Rashtrik" in Ashoka's inscriptions, and
"Maha rashtra" afterwards, as attested by Huein-Tsang and other
travellers. The name appears to have been derived from "Maharashtri"
in an old form of Prakrit, an ancient Indian language.

However, there are other theories put forward
by different schools of thought. One possible derivation is believed
to be the corruption of the term "Maha Kantara", which means
"Great Forest". Both these theories did not carry much weight, as
can be seen from the name of Maharashtra.

History

Not much is
known about Maharashtra's early history, and its recorded history
dates back to the 3rd century BC, with the use the Maharastri
language, a Prakrit corruption of Sanskrit. Later, Maharashtra
became a part of the Magadha empire, ruled by the Buddhist emperor
Ashoka. The port town of Sopara, just north of present day Mumbai,
was the centre of ancient India's commerce, with links to Eastern
Africa, Mesopotamia, Aden [عدن] and Cochin [കൊച്ചി]. With the
disintegration of the Mauryan Empire, Maharashtra came under the
rule of the Satavahanas between 230 BC and AD 225.

During the reign of the Vakatakas (AD
250–525), Vidarbha, the eastern region of Maharashtra, come under
their rule. During this period, development of arts, religion and
technology flourished. By the 6th century, Maharashtra came under
the reign of the Chalukyas. Later, in 753, the region was governed
by Rashtrakutas, an empire that spread over most of peninsula India.
In 973, the Chalukayas expelled the Rashtrakutas, and ruled parts of
Maharashtra until 1189 when the region came under the hands of the
Yadavas of Deogiri [heute: دولت‌آب.]

Maharashtra came under Islamic influence for
the first time after the Delhi Sultanate rulers Ala-ud-din Khalji
[علاء الدین خلجی], and later Muhammad bin Tughluq [محمد بن تغلق]
appropriated parts of the Deccan in the 13th century. After the
collapse of the Tughlaqs [سلطنت تغلق] in 1347, the Bahmani Sultanate
took over, governing the region for the next 150 years. By the 16th
century, central Maharashtra was ruled by numerous autonomous
Islamic kingdoms that owed allegiance to the Mughals [دولتِ مغل],
while coastal region was annexed by the Portuguese, in their quest
to seize control of the spice trade.

By the early 17th century the Maratha Empire
began to take root. The Marathas, native to western Maharashtra,
were led by Chhatrapati Raje Shivaji Bhosle [छत्रपती शिवाजीराजे
भोसले], who was crowned king in 1674.

Shivaji's son and successor, Sambhaji Bhonsle
[धम॑वीर संभ‌‌‌ाजी राजे] was captured and executed by Aurangzeb
[اورنگ‌زی], the Mughal in the late 1680s. The Mughals forced
Sambhaji's younger brother, Rajaram Bhonsle to flee into the
Tamil-speaking countryside. He repaired to the great fortress of
Jinji (sometimes anglicised to Ginjee) to barely recover in the
early 18th century, in somewhat changed circumstances.

Rajaram had a nephew called Shahu Bhonsle who
aspired to the Bhonsle throne. In 1714, Shahu's brahmin Peshwa
(chief minister) Balaji Vishwanath, helped him seize the Maratha
throne in 1708, with some acrimony from Rajaram's widow, Tara Bai.

In the following four decades, the Brahmin
Peshwas virtually took over central authority in the Maratha state,
reducing Shivaji's Bhonsle dynasty to figureheads. After defeatingh
the Mughals, the Peshwas became the dominant rulers of India.

The Peshwas, Balaji Vishwanath and his son,
Baji Rao I, bureaucratized the Maratha state. They systematized the
practice of tribute gathering from Mughal territories, under the
heads of sardesmukhi and chauth (the two terms corresponding to the
proportion of revenue collected). They also consolidated
Mughal-derived methods of assessment and collection of land revenue
and other taxes. Much of the revenue terminology used in Peshwa
documents derives from Persian, suggesting a far greater continuity
between Mughal and Maratha revenue practice than may be politically
palatable in the present day.

The years under Peshwa rule, saw the
development of sophisticated networks of trade, banking, and
finance; the rise of substantial banking houses based at Pune, with
branches extending into Gujarat, the Ganges Valley, and the south;
and an expansion of the agricultural frontier.

At the same time, Balaji Vishwanath
cultivated the maritime Angre clan, which controlled a fleet of
vessels based in Kolaba and other centres of the west coast. These
ships posed a threat not only to the new English settlement of
Bombay, but to the Portuguese at Goa, Bassein, and Daman.

On the other hand, there also emerged a far
larger domain of activity away from the original heartland of the
Marathas, which was either subjected to raiding or given over to
subordinate chiefs as fiefs. Gwalior was given to Scindia, Indore to
Holkar, Baroda to Gaekwad and Dhar to Pawar.

Under the control of the astute
Brahmin-Peshwas, the Maratha Empire reached its zenith, encompassing
almost the entire Deccan, central India and extending until Attock
[اٹ] in modern day Pakistan [اسلامی
جمہوریۂ پاکستان] and until Bangladesh [গনপ্রজাতন্ত্রী
বাংলাদেশ].

After suffering a heavy defeat to the Afghan
chieftain Ahmad Shah Abdali [احمد شاہ ابدالی], in the Third Battle
of Panipat in 1761, the Maratha Confederacy broke into regional
kingdoms.

Post-Panipat, the Peshwa's ex-generals looked
after the little kingdoms they had been given. Pune continued to be
ruled by what was left of the Peshwa family.

Branches of the Bhonsle family itself,
relocated to Kolhapur and Nagpur, while the main line remained in
the Deccan heartland, at Satara. The Kolhapur Bhonsles derived from
Rajaram and his wife, Tara Bai, who had refused in 1708 to accept
Shahu's rule and who negotiated with some Mughal court factions in a
bid to undermine Shahu. The Kolhapur Bhonsles remained in control of
miniscule territory into the early 19th century, when they allied
themselves with the British against the peshwas in the Anglo-Maratha
wars.

With the arrival and subsequent involvement
of the British East India Company in Indian politics, the Marathas
and the British fought the three Anglo-Maratha wars between 1777 and
1818, culminating in the annexation of Peshwa-ruled territory in
Maharashtra in 1819, which heralded the end of the Maratha empire.

The British governed the region as part of
the Bombay Presidency, which spanned an area from Karachi [Urdu:
كراچى, Sindhi: ڪراچي] in Pakistan to most of the northern Deccan. A
number of the Maratha states persisted as princely states, retaining
local autonomy in return for acknowledging British sovereignty. The
largest princely states in the territory of present-day Maharashtra
were Nagpur, Satara and Kolhapur; Satara was annexed to Bombay
Presidency in 1848, and Nagpur was annexed in 1853 to become Nagpur
Province, later part of the Central Provinces. Berar, which had been
part of the Nizam of Hyderabad's kingdom, was occupied by the
British in 1853 and annexed to the Central Provinces in 1903. The
British rule was marked by social reforms, an improvement in
infrastructure as well revolts due to their discriminatory policies.
At the beginning of the 20th century, A non-violent struggle started
by Lokamanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak and later led by Mahatma Gandhi
[મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી] began to take shape. In 1942, the Quit India
Movement was called by Gandhi which was marked by a non-violent
civil disobedience movement and strikes.

After India's independence in 1947, the
princely states were integrated into the Indian Union, and the
Deccan States including Kolhapur were integrated into Bombay State,
which was created from the former Bombay Presidency in 1950. In
1956, the States Reorganisation Act reorganized the Indian states
along linguistic lines, and Bombay State was enlarged by the
addition the predominantly Marathi-speaking regions of Marathwada
(Aurangabad Division) from erstwhile Hyderabad state and Vidarbha
region (Amravati and Nagpur divisions) from Madhya Pradesh (formerly
the Central Provinces and Berar). On May 1, 1960, Maharashtra came
into existence when Bombay State was split into the new linguistic
states of Maharashtra and Gujarat. Favourable economic policies in
the 1970s led to Maharashtra becoming India's leading industrial
state.

However, regions within Maharashtra show wide
disparity in development. Apart from Mumbai, western Maharashtra is
the most advanced. It also dominates the politics and bureaucracy of
the state. This has led to resentment among backward regions like
Vidarbha, Marathwada, and Konkan. There is a movement in Vidarbha
now to separate from Maharashtra and become a separate state largely
owing to lack of development and perceived sense of injustice."

"Angati, king of Mithilā, in Videha, is a
good ruler. One full-moon night he consults his ministers as to how
they shall amuse themselves. Alāta suggests new conquests; Sunāma
suggests that they shall seek pleasure in dance, song and music; but
Vijaya recommends that they shall visit some samana or brahmin.
Angati falls in with the views of Vijaya, and in great state goes to
Guna of the Kassapa-gotta, an ascetic who lives in the park near the
city.

Guna preaches to him that there is no fruit,
good or evil, in the moral life ; there is no other world than this,
no strength, no courage ; all beings are predestined and follow
their course like the ship her stern. Alāta approves of the views of
Guna; he remembers how, in his past life, he was a wicked councillor
called Pingala ; from there he was born in the family of a general,
and now he is a minister. A slave, Bījaka, who is present, can
remember his past life and says he was once Bhavasetthi in Sāketa,
virtuous and generous, but he is now the son of a prostitute. Even
now he gives away half his food to any in need, but see how
destitute he is!

Angati is convinced that Guna's doctrine is
correct, and resolves to find delight only in pleasure. He gives
orders that he shall not be disturbed in his palace; Candaka, his
minister, is deputed to look after the kingdom. Fourteen days pass
in this manner. Then the king's only child, his beloved daughter
Rujā, comes to him arrayed in splendour, attended by her maidens,
and asks for one thousand to be given the next day to mendicants.
Angati protests; he will deny his daughter no pleasure or luxury,
but has learnt too much to approve of her squandering money an
charity or wasting her energy in keeping the fasts.

Rujā is at first amazed, then tells her
father that his councillors are fools, they have not taken reckoning
of the whole of their past, but remember only one birth or two; they
cannot therefore judge. She herself remembers several births; in one
she was a smith in Rājagaha and committed adultery, but that sin
remained hidden, like fire covered with ashes, and she was born as a
rich merchant's only son in Kosambī. There she engaged in good
works, but, because of previous deeds, she was born after death in
the Roruva-niraya and then as a castrated goat in Bhennākata. In her
next birth she was a monkey, and then an ox among the Dasannas; then
a hermaphrodite among the Vajjians, and later a nymph in Tāvatimsa.
Once more her good deeds have come round, and hereafter she will be
born only among gods and men. Seven births hence she will be a male
god in Tāvatimsa, and even now the god Jāva is gathering a garland
for her.

All night she preaches in this way to her
father, but he remains unconvinced. The Bodhisatta is a Brahmā,
named Nārada Kassapa, and, surveying the world, sees Rujā and Angati
engaged in conversation. He therefore appears in the guise of an
ascetic, and Angati goes out to greet and consult him. The ascetic
praises goodness, charity, and generosity, and speaks of other
worlds. Angati laughs, and asks for a loan which, he says, he will
repay twice over in the next world, as the ascetic seems so
convinced that there is one. Nārada tells him of the horrors of the
hell in which Angati will be reborn unless he mends his ways, and
mentions to him the names of former kings who attained to happiness
through good lives. The king at last sees his error and determines
to choose new friends. Nārada Kassapa reveals his identity and
leaves in all majesty.

The story was related in reference to the
conversion of Uruvela Kassapa. He came, after his conversion, with
the Buddha to Latthivana, and the people wondered if he had really
become a follower of the Buddha. He dispelled their doubts by
describing the folly of the sacrifices which he had earlier
practised, and, laying his head an the Buddha's feet, did obeisance.
Then he rose seven times into the air, and, after having worshipped
the Buddha, sat an one side. The people marvelled at the Buddha's
powers of conversion, which, the Buddha said, were not surprising
since he possessed them already as a Bodhisatta.

Angati is identified with Uruvela Kassapa,
Alāta with Devadatta, Sunāma with Bhaddiya, Vijaya with Sāriputta,
Bīaka with Moggallāna, Guna with the Licchavi Sunakkhatta, and Rujā
with Ânanda."

He went after the Third Council to the Yona
country, and there preached the Kālakārama Sutta. One hundred and
seventy thousand people adopted the Buddha's faith and ten thousand
entered the Order. Mhv.xii.5, 39; Dpv.viii.9; Sp.i.64, 67."

A country and its people. The name is probably
the Pāli equivalent for Ionians, the Baktrian Greeks. The Yonas are
mentioned with the Kambojas in Rock Edicts v. and xii of Asoka, as a
subject people, forming a frontier district of his empire. The
country was converted by the Thera Mahārakkhita, who was sent there
after the Third Council (Mhv.xii.5; Dpv.viii.9; Sp.i.67).

In the time of Milinda the capital of the
Yona country was Sāgala (Mil.1). It is said (Mhv.xxix.39) that at
the Foundation Ceremony of the Mahā Thūpa, thirty thousand monks,
under Yona Mahādhammarakkhita, came from Alasandā in the Yona
country. Alasandā was evidently the headquarters of the Buddhist
monks at that time. Alasandā is generally identified (See, e.g.,
Geiger, Mhv. Trs. 194, n.3) with the Alexandria founded by the
Macedonian king (Alexander) in the country of the Paropanisadae near
Kābul.

In the Assalāyana Sutta (M.ii.149), Yona and
Kamboja are mentioned as places in which there were only two classes
of people, masters and slaves, and the master could become a slave
or vice versa. The Commentary (MA.ii.784) explains this by saying
that supposing a brahmin goes there and dies, his children might
consort with slaves, in which case their children would be slaves.
In later times, the name Yavanā or Yonā seems to have included all
westerners living in India and especially those of Arabian origin
(Cv.Trs.ii.87, n.1). Yonaka, statues, holding lamps, were among the
decorations used by the Sākiyans of Kapilavatthu (MA.ii.575). The
language of the Yavanas is classed with the Milakkhabhāsā (E.g.,
DA.i.276; VibhA.388).

The Anguttara Commentary (AA.i.51) records
that from the time of Kassapa Buddha the Yonakas went about clad in
white robes, because of the memory of the religion which was once
prevalent there."

""Yona" (also sometimes "Yonaka")
is a Pali word used in ancient India to designate ancient Greek
people. Its equivalent in Sanskrit is the word "Yavana".
"Yona" and "Yavana" are both transliterations of the Greek word for
"Ionians" (Homer
Iāones, older *Iāwones), who were probably the first
Greeks to be known in the East.

Old
World usage

This usage was shared by many of the
countries east of Greece, from the Mediterranean to India and China:

Egyptians used the word j-w-n(-n)-’

Assyrians used the word Iawanu

Persians used the word Yauna or
Yavanu

In Biblical writings, the word was
Yāwān

In Arabic and Turkish it is Yunan

The Han Chinese used the term "Great
Yuan" (Ta-Yuan [大宛]) to designate what were probably the
descendants of Alexander the Great in the region of Ferghana,
centered on his city of Alexandria Eschate [Ἀλεξανδρία Ἒσχατη]
(Hou Han Shu, Late Han History).

Indian references

In Indian sources, the usage of the words "Yona", "Yauna", "Yonaka",
"Yavana" or "Javana" etc appears repeatedly, and particularly in
relation to the Greek kingdoms which neighboured or sometimes
occupied the Indian sub-continent over a period of several centuries
from the 4th century BCE to the 1st century CE, such as the Seleucid
Empire, the Greco-Bactrian kingdom and the Indo-Greek kingdom.

Even long before Alexander's invasion, the
Greek settlements had existed in eastern parts of Achaemenid empire,
north-west of India, as neighbors to the Iranian Kambojas. The
references to the Yonas in the early Buddhist texts may be related
with the same.

Role in Buddhism

Edicts of Ashoka (250 BCE)

Some of the better known examples are those
of the Edicts of Ashoka (c. 250 BCE), in which the Buddhist emperor
Ashoka refers to the Greek populations under his rule. Rock Edicts V
and XIII mention the Yonas (or the Greeks) along with the Kambojas
and Gandharas as a subject people forming a frontier region of his
empire and attest that he sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the
West as far as the Mediterranean, faultlessly naming them one by
one. In the Gandhari original of Rock XIII, the Greek kings to the
West are associated unambiguously with the term "Yona": Antiochus is
referred as "Amtiyoko nama Yona-raja" (lit. "The Greek king
by the name of Antiochus"), beyond whom live the four other kings:
"param ca tena Atiyokena cature 4 rajani Turamaye nama Amtikini nama
Maka nama Alikasudaro nama" (lit. "And beyond Antiochus, four
kings by the name of Ptolemy, the name of Antigonos, the name of
Magas, the name Alexander"
[1])

Dīpavaṃsa and Sāsanavaṃsa

Other Buddhist texts such as the Dīpavaṃsa and
the Sāsanavaṃsa reveal that after the Third Buddhist Council, the
elder (thera) Mahārakkhita was sent to the Yona country and he
preached Dharma among the Yonas and the Kambojas, and that at the
same time the Yona elder (thera) Dharmarakṣita was sent to the
country of Aparantaka in western India also. Ashoka's Rock Edict
XIII also pairs the Yonas with the Kambojas (Yonakambojesu)
and conveys that the Brāhmaṇas and Śramaṇas are found everywhere in
his empire except in the lands of the Yonas and the Kambojas.

Milindapanha

Another example is that of the Milinda Panha (Chap.I), where
"Yonaka" is used to refer to the great Indo-Greek king Menander
(160–135 BCE), and to the guard of "500 hundred Greeks" that
constantly accompanies him.

Invasion of India

The Vanaparava of Mahabharata contains verses in the form of
prophecy complaining that "......Mlechha (barbaric) kings of the
Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlikas etc shall rule the earth (i.e
India) un-rightously in Kaliyuga..." (MBH 3/188/34-36). This
reference apparently alludes to chaotic political scenario following
the collapse of Mauryan and Sunga dynasties in northern India and
its subsequent occupation by foreign hordes of the Yavanas,
Kambojas, Saka and Pahlavas etc.

There are important references to the warring
Mleccha
hordes of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Pahlavas etc in the Bala
Kanda of the Valmiki Ramayana also (1.54.21-23; 1.55.2-3).

tair āsīt saṃvṛtā bhūmiḥ
Śakair Yavanamiśritaiḥ || 1.54-21 ||

tais te Yavana-Kambojā barbarāś
cākulīkṛtāḥ || 1-54-23 ||

tasyā huṃkārato jātāḥ Kambojā
ravisannibhāḥ |

ūdhasaś cātha saṃbhūtaḥ barbarāḥ
śāstrapaṇayah || 1-55-2 ||

yonideśāc ca Yavanāḥ Śakṛddeśāc Chakāḥ
smṛtāḥ |

Romakūpeṣu Mlecchāś ca Hārītāh
saKirātakāḥ || 1-55-3 ||

Foremost Indologists like Dr H. C.
Raychadhury clearly see in these verses the glimpses of the
struggles of the Hindus with the mixed invading hordes of the
barbaric Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, Kambojas etc from north-west. The
time frame for these struggles is second century BCE downwards. Dr
Raychadhury fixes the date of the present version of the Valmiki
Ramayana around/after second century CE (Political History of
Ancient India, 1996, p 3-4).

The other Indian records describe the 180 BCE
Yavana
attacks on Saketa, Panchala, Mathura and Pataliputra, probably
against the Sunga empire, and possibly in defense of Buddhism. The
main mentions of the invasion are those by Patanjali around 150 BCE,
and of the Yuga Purana, which, like the Mahabharata, also describes
Indian historical events in the form of a prophecy:

"After having conquered Saketa, the
country of the Panchala and the Mathuras, the Yavanas, wicked
and valliant, will reach Kusumadhvaja (Pataliputra)."
(Gargi-Samhita, Yuga Purana chapter).

The Anushasanaparava of Mahabharata
affirms that the country of Mathura, the heartland of India, was
under the joint military control of the Yavanas and the Kambojas
(12/102/5).

tathā YavanaKambojā
Mathurām abhitaś ca ye

ete niyuddhakuśalā
dākṣiṇātyāsicarmiṇaḥ.

From the references noted above, it appears
certain that the
Yavana invasion of Majjhimadesa (Mid India) was jointly
carried out by the Yavanas and the Kambojas. The Greek Yavavas were
apparently a minority foreigners in India and naturally may have
obtained, in this invasion, the military support of their good
neighbors, the warlike Kambojas. The evidence from the Mathura Lion
Capital inscriptions of Saka great Satrap (Mahakshatrapa) Rajuvula
also lends strong credibility to this view.

The Mid India invasion was followed by
almost two centuries of Yavana rule which in the light of evidence
presented above, appears to have been a joint Yavana-Kamboja rule.

Scientific abilities

Several references in Indian literature praise
the scientific abilities of the Yavanas or the Greeks.

The Mahabharata compliments them as "the
all-knowing Yavanas" (sarvajnaa yavanaa).

sarvajñā Yavanā rājañ śūrāś caiva
viśeṣataḥ |

mlecchāḥ svasamjñāniyatā nānukta itaro
janaḥ ||80||

— (Mahabharata VIII.30.80).

i.e. "The Yavanas, O king, are
all-knowing; the Suras are particularly so. The mlecchas are wedded
to the creations of their own fancy."

The "Brihat-Samhita" of the mathematician
Varahamihira says: "The Greeks, though impure, must be honored
since they were trained in sciences and therein, excelled
others....." . e.g:

Mlecchā hi Yavanās tesu samyak śāstram
idam sthitam

ṛṣivat te 'pi pūjyante kiṃ punar
daivavid dvijaḥ

- (Brhatsamhita 2.32)

Yet another Indian text, (Gargi-Samhita),
also similarly compliments the Yavanas saying: "The Yavanas are
barbarians yet the science of astronomy originated with them and for
this they must be reverenced like Gods" (Gargi-Samhita).

Other references

On
the 110 BCE Heliodorus pillar in Vidisha in Central India, the
Indo-Greek king Antialcidas, who had sent an ambassador to the court
of the Sunga king Bhagabhadra, was also qualified as "Yona".

The Mahavamsa also attests Yona settlement in
Anuradhapura in ancient Sri Lanka, probably contributing to trade
between East and West.

Buddhist texts like Sumangala Vilasini class
the language of the Yavanas with the Milakkhabhasa i.e impure
language.

The Yonas and other northwestern invaders in
Indian literature

The Yavanas or Yonas are frequently found listed
with the Kambojas, Sakas, Pahlavas and other northwestern tribes in
numerous ancient Indian texts.

The Mahabharata groups the Yavanas with the
Kambojas and the Chinas and calls them "Mlechchas" (Barbarians). In
the Shanti Parava section, the Yavanas are grouped with the
Kambojas, Kiratas, Sakas, and the Pahlavas etc and are spoken of as
living the life of Dasyus (slaves). In another chapter of the same
Parava, the Yaunas, Kambojas, Gandharas etc are spoken of as equal
to the "Svapakas" and the "Grddhras".

Udyogaparava of Mahabharata (5/19/21-23) says
that the composite army of the Kambojas, Yavanas and Sakas had
participated in the Mahabharata war under the supreme command of
Kamboja king Sudakshina. The epic numerously applauds this composite
army as being very fierce and wrathful.

Balakanda of Ramayana also groups the Yavanas
with the Kambojas, Sakas, Pahlavas etc and refers to them as the
military allies of sage Vishistha against Vedic king Vishwamitra
(55/2-3). The Kishkindha Kanda of Ramayana locates the Sakas,
Kambojas, Yavanas and Paradas in the extreme north-west beyond the
Himavat (i.e. Hindukush) (43/12).

The Buddhist drama Mudrarakshas by
Visakhadatta as well as the Jaina works Parisishtaparvan refer to
Chandragupta's alliance with Himalayan king Parvatka. This Himalayan
alliance gave Chandragupta a powerful composite army made up of the
frontier martial tribes of the Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Parasikas,
Bahlikas etc (See: Mudrarakshas, II) which he utilised to defeat the
Greek successors of Alexander the Great and the Nanda rulers of
Magadha, and thus establishing his Mauryan Empire in northern India.

Manusmriti (X/43-44) lists the Yavanas with
the Kambojas, Sakas, Pahlavas, Paradas etc and regards them as
degraded Kshatriyas (members of the warrior cast). Anushasanaparava
of Mahabharata (13/33/23) also views the Yavanas, Kambojas, Shakas
etc in the same light. Patanjali's Mahabhasya (II.4.10) regards the
Yavanas and Sakas as anirvasita (pure) Shudras. Gautama-Dharmasutra
(IV.21) regards the Yavanas or Greeks as having sprung from Shudra
females and Kshatriya males.

The Assalayana Sutta of Majjhima Nikaya
attests that in Yona and Kamboja nations, there were only two
classes of people...Aryas and Dasas...the masters and slaves, and
that the Arya could become Dasa and vice versa. The Vishnu Purana
also indicates that the "chatur-varna" or four class social system
was absent in the lands of Kiratas in the East and the Yavanas and
Kambojas etc in the West.

Numerous Puranic literature groups the
Yavanas with the Sakas, Kambojas, Pahlavas and Paradas and refers to
the peculiar hair styles of these people which were different from
those of the Hindus. Ganapatha on Panini attests that it was a
practice among the Yavanas and the Kambojas to wear short-cropped
hair (Kamboja-mundah Yavana-mundah).

Vartika of Katayana informs us that the kings
of the Shakas and the Yavanas, like those of the Kambojas, may also
be addressed by their respective tribal names.

Brihat-Katha-Manjari of Kshmendra
(10/1/285-86) informs us that king Vikramaditya had unburdened the
sacred earth of the Barbarians like the Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas,
Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas etc by annihilating these sinners
completely.

The Brahmanda Purana (Upodghata-pada, 16-17)
refers to the horses born in Yavana country.

The Mahaniddesa (pp 155, 415) speaks of Yona
and Parama Yona, probably referring to Arachosia as the Yona and
Bactria as the Parama Yona.

Later meanings

The
terms "Yona", "Yonaka" or "Yavana" later took on a wider meaning of
Mlechchas/Barbarians and a designation to all foreign tribes or the
westerners visiting India (Padama Purana, Srshtikanda, 47.69-75).

Contemporary usage

The word Yona, or one of its derivatives, is still used by some
languages to designate contemporary Greece, such as in Arabic
(يونان), in Hebrew (יוון), in Turkish ("Yunanistan"), or the Malay
and Indonesian languages ("Yunani").

An Arahant. He went, after the Third Council, as
preacher to the Himālaya country (Mhv.xii.6), accompanied by four
others:

Kassapagotta,

Durabhissara,

Sahadeva, and

Mūlakadeva.

Dpv.viii.10; MT. (317) has Dundu-bhissara
for Durabhissara; Mbv. (115) agrees with MT., but has Sahassadeva;
Sp. (i.68) gives their names as Kassapagotta, Alokadeva,
Dundubhissara, and Sahadeva.

Majjhima preached the Dhammacakkappavattana
Sutta and eighty crores of persons became sotāpannas. The five
Elders, separately, converted five kingdoms, and each of them
ordained one hundred thousand persons. Mhv.xii.41ff."

The name given to the Himālaya. It is one of
the seven mountain ranges surrounding Gandhamādana (SNA.i.66).

It is three hundred thousand leagues in
extent (SNA.i.224), with eighty four thousand peaks its highest peak
being five hundred yojanas (SNA.ii.443) In Himavā, are seven great
lakes, each fifty leagues in length, breadth and depth - Anotatta,
Kannamunda, Rathakāra, Chaddanta, Kunāla, Mandākinī and
Sīhappapātaka; these lakes are never heated by the sun (A.iv.101;
SNA.ii.407; cf. AA.ii.759). From Himavā flow five hundred rivers.
SNA.ii.437; but according to Mil.114, only ten of these are to be
reckoned, the others flowing only intermittently. These ten are:
Gangā, Yamunā, Aciravatī, Sarabhū, Mahī, Sindhu, Sarassatī,
Vettavatī, Vītamsā and Candabhāgā.

In numerous Jātakas Himavā is mentioned as
the place to which ascetics retire when they leave household life.
It is full of woodlands and groves, suitable for hermits (E.g.,
SA.i.265). In Himavā is a peak named Mahāpapāta where Pacceka
Buddhas die (SNA.i.129). Nāgas go to Himavā to give birth to their
young (SA.iii.120; cf. S.v.63). The mountain is often used in
similes; it is then referred to as pabbatarājā (E.g., S.ii.137;
v.464; A.iii.311; M.iii.166, etc.). Sīvalī Thera once went there
from Sāvatthi with five hundred others. The journey took them eight
days. (Details are given at ThagA.ii.138; PSA.252).

The country round Himavā was converted by
Majjhima Thera (Mhv.xii.41). He was accompanied by four others:
Kassapagotta, Mūladeva (Alakadeva), Sahadeva and Dundubhissara
(Dpv.viii.10; MT.317). Majjhima preached the Damma-cakka-ppavattana
Sutta and eighty crores attained salvation. These five Theras
converted five kingdoms and each ordained one hundred thousand
persons (Mhv.xii.42f).

Devas brought for Asoka's use, from the
Himālaya, twigs of the nāgalatā to clean his teeth, healthful
fruits, myrobalan, teminalia and mango fruit (Mhv.v.25f), while, for
the foundation of the Mahā Thūpa, sāmaneras with iddhi-power brought
sweet scented marumba (Mhv.xxix.9).

The Kunāla Jātaka (q.v.) was preached in the
region of Himavā. The Buddha took the Sākyan princes there and
showed them the various features, including many mountain peaks,
such as: Manipabbata, Hingulapabbata, Añjanapabbata, Sānupabbata,
and Phalikapabbata (J.v.415).

On fast days the gods assemble in Himavā and
hold discourses. Sp.iv.759."

"The Himalaya is a mountain range in
Asia, separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau.
By extension, it is also the name of the massive mountain system
which includes the Himalaya proper, the Karakoram, the Hindu Kush,
and a host of minor ranges extending from the Pamir Knot. The name
is from Sanskrit
himālaya, a tatpurusha compound meaning "the abode of snow"
(from
hima "snow", and
ālaya "abode"; see also Himavat).

Abb.: Perspective view of the Himalaya and Mount Everest as seen from space
looking south-south-east from over the Tibetan Plateau.

Together, the Himalaya mountain system is the
planet's highest and home to all fourteen of the world's highest
peaks: the Eight-thousanders, including Mount Everest. To comprehend
the enormous scale of Himalaya peaks, consider that Aconcagua, in
the Andes, at 6,962 m, is the highest peak outside the Himalaya,
while the Himalaya system has over 100 separate mountains exceeding
7,200 m.

The Himalaya stretches across five nations,
Bhutan [འབྲུག་ཡུལ], China [中國], India, Nepal [नेपाल], and
Pakistan [پاکستان]. It is the source of three of the world's major
river systems, the Indus Basin, the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin and the
Yangtze Basin. An estimated 750 million up people live in the
watershed area of the Himalayan rivers, which also includes
Bangladesh [বাংলাদেশ].

Geography

The Himalaya
(pronounced with a long "a": Himaalaya) range runs for about 2,400
km, from Nanga Parbat in the west to Namche Barwa in the east. The
width varies between 250-300 km. The Himalayan range comprises three
parallel ranges, arranged by elevation and geological age.

Abb.: Composite satellite image of the Himalayan range. The Tibetan
Plateau is near the centre and the Taklamakan plain is visible as
the lighter area near the top.

The youngest of the three is called the
Sub-Himalayan range
(Siwalik hills in India) and has an elevation of about 1,200
m. This range is made up of erosion material from the rising
Himalaya. Running parallel to this is the Lower Himalayan range,
which has an elevation between 2,000–5,000 m. A number of Indian
hill stations such as Shimla, Nainital and Darjeeling [দার্জিলিং]
are located here. The northernmost range is called the Higher
Himalaya and is also the oldest of the three. It has an
elevation of more than 6,000 m and contains a large number of the
world's highest peaks including the three highest, Mount Everest, K2
and Kanchenjunga.

The Pakistani states of Baltistan [بلتستان], and
the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir [Kashmiri: جۄم تٕہ کٔشِیر
ज्वम त॒ कॅशीर, Urdu:جموں و کشمیر, Hindi:जम्मू और कश्मीर)], Himachal
Pradesh [िहमाचल प्रदेश], Uttaranchal [उत्तरांचल], Sikkim and
Arunachal Pradesh [अरुणाचल प्रदेश] lie mostly in the Himalaya. The
southern part of the Tibet Autonomous Region [བོད་རང་སྐྱོང་ལྗོངས་;
西藏自治区] of China also lies on the Himalaya.

Ecology

The flora and fauna of the Himalaya varies
with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from
tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice and snow at
the highest elevations. The amount of yearly rainfall increases from
west to east along the front of the range. This diversity of
climate, altitude, rainfall and soil conditions generates a variety
of distinct plant and animal communities, or ecoregions.

Lowland forests

On
the Indo-Gangetic plain at the base of the mountains, an alluvial
plain drained by the Indus and Ganges-Brahmaputra river systems,
vegetation varies from west to east with rainfall. The xeric
Northwestern thorn scrub forests occupy the plains of Pakistan and
the Indian Punjab [ਪੰਜਾਬ].
Further east lie the Upper Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests
of Uttar Pradesh [उत्तर प्रदेश] and Lower Gangetic plains moist
deciduous forests of Bihar [बिहार] and West Bengal [পশ্চিম বঙ].
These are monsoon forests, with drought-deciduous trees that lose
their leaves during the dry season. The moister Brahmaputra Valley
semi-evergreen forests occupy the plains of Assam [অসম].

The Terai belt

Above the alluvial plain lies the Terai belt, a seasonally marshy
zone of sand and clay soils. The Terai has higher rainfall than the
plains, and the downward-rushing rivers of the Himalaya slow down
and spread out in the flatter Terai zone, depositing fertile silt
during the monsoon season and receding in the dry season. The Terai
has a high water table, and the central part of the Terai belt is
occupied by the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands, a mosaic of
grasslands, savannas, deciduous and evergreen forests that includes
some of the world's tallest grasslands. The grasslands of the Terai
belt are home to the Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis).

The Bhabhar belt

Above the Terai belt is an upland zone known as the Bhabhar, with
porous and rocky soils, made up of debris washed down from the
higher ranges. The Bhabhar and the lower Siwalik ranges have a
subtropical climate. The Himalayan subtropical pine forests occupy
the western end of the subtropical belt, with forests dominated by
Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii). The central part of the range
is home to the Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests, dominated by
sal (Shorea robusta).

Montane forests

At
the middle elevations of the range, the subtropical forests yield to
a belt of temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, with the Western
Himalayan broadleaf forests at the western end of the range, and the
Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
Above the broadleaf forests are the Western and Eastern Himalayan
subalpine conifer forests.

Alpine shrub and grasslands

Above the tree line are the Northwestern,
Western, and Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows, which yield
to tundra in the higher Himalayan range. The alpine meadows are the
summer habitat of the endangered Snow Leopard (Uncia uncia).
The highest reaches of the range are above the permanent snow line.

Origins and growth

Abb.: The 6,000 km plus journey of the India landmass (Indian Plate)
before its collision with Asia (Eurasian Plate) about 40 to 50
million years ago.

Main article: Geology of the Himalaya

The Himalaya are among the youngest mountain
ranges on the planet. According to the modern theory of plate
tectonics, their formation is a result of a continental collision or
orogeny along the convergent boundary between the Indo-Australian
Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The collision began in the Upper
Cretaceous period about 70 million years ago, when the north-moving
Indo-Australian Plate, moving at about 15 cm/year, collided with the
Eurasian Plate. By about 50 million years ago this fast moving
Indo-Australian plate had completely closed the Tethys Ocean, whose
existence has been determined by sedimentary rocks settled on the
ocean floor and the volcanoes that fringed its edges. Since these
sediments were light, they crumpled into mountain ranges rather than
sinking to the floor. The Indo-Australian plate continues to be
driven horizontally below the Tibetan plateau, which forces the
plateau to move upwards. The Arakan Yoma highlands in Myanmar and
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal were also
formed as a result of this collision.

The Indo-Australian plate is still moving at
67mm/year, and over the next 10 million years it will travel about
1,500 km into Asia. About 2 cm/year of the India-Asia convergence is
absorbed by thrusting along the Himalaya southern front. This leads
to the Himalaya rising by about 5 mm/year, making them geologically
active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also
makes this region seismically active, leading to earthquakes from
time to time.

Glaciers and river systems

The
Himalayan range encompasses a very large number of glaciers, notable
among which is the Siachen Glacier, the largest in the world outside
the polar region. Some of the other more famous glaciers include the
Gangotri and Yamunotri (Uttaranchal), Nubra, Biafo and Baltoro
(Karakoram region), Zemu (Sikkim) and Khumbu glaciers (Mount Everest
region).

The higher regions of the Himalaya are
snowbound throughout the year in spite of their proximity to the
tropics, and they form the sources for several large perennial
rivers, most of which combine into two large river systems:

The western rivers combine into the Indus
Basin, of which the Indus River is the largest. The Indus
begins in Tibet at the confluence of Sengge and Gar rivers and
flows southwest through Pakistan to the Arabian Sea. It is fed
by the Jhelum [Punjabi:
ਜੇਹਲਮ, Urdu:
دریائے جہلم], the Chenab [Punjabi:
ਚਨਾਬ, Urdu:
چناب], the Ravi [Punjabi:
ਰਾਵੀ, Urdu: راوی],
the Beas [ਬਿਆਸ)], and the
Sutlej [Punjabi: ਸਤਲੁਜ,
Urdu: ستل] rivers, among
others.

Most of the other
Himalayan rivers drain the
Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin. Its two main rivers are the Ganges
[गंगा] and the Brahmaputra [Assamese: ব্ৰহ্মপুত্ৰ , Bangla:
ব্রহ্মপুত্র ]. The Ganga originates as the Bhagirathi from the
Gangotri glacier and flows southeast through the plains of
northern India, fed by the Alaknanda and the Yamuna among other
tributaries. The Brahmaputra originates as the Tsangpo in
western Tibet, and flows east through Tibet and west through the
plains of Assam. The Ganga and the Brahmaputra meet in
Bangladesh, and drain into the Bay of Bengal through the world's
largest river delta.

The eastern-most Himalayan rivers feed the
Ayeyarwady River, which originates in eastern Tibet and flows south
through Myanmar to drain into the Andaman Sea.

The Salween, Mekong, the Yangtze [扬子江] and
the Huang He [黄河] (Yellow River) all originate from parts of the
Tibetan plateau that are geologically distinct from the Himalaya
mountains, and are therefore not considered true Himalayan rivers.
Some geologists refer to all the rivers collectively as the
circum-Himalayan rivers .

In recent years scientists have monitored a
notable increase in the rate of glacier retreat across the region as
a result of global climate change. Although the effect of this won't
be known for many years it potentially could mean disaster for the
hundreds of thousands of people that rely on the glaciers to feed
the rivers of northern India during the dry seasons.

Lakes

The Himalaya region is dotted with hundreds of
lakes. Most lakes are found at altitudes of less than 5,000 m, with
the size of the lakes diminishing with altitude. The largest lake is
the Pangong t'so, which is spread across the border between
India and Tibet. It is situated at an altitude of 4,600 m, and is 8
km wide and nearly 134 km long. A notable high (but not the highest)
lake is the Gurudogmar in North Sikkim at an altitude of 5,148 m
(16,890 feet) (altitude source: SRTM). Other major lakes include the
Tsongmo lake, near the Indo-China border in Sikkim.

The mountain lakes are known to geographers as tarns if they
are caused by glacial activity. Tarns are found mostly in the upper
reaches of the Himalaya, above 5,500 metres. For more information
about these, see here.

Impact on climate

The Himalaya
has a profound effect on the climate of the Indian subcontinent and
the Tibetan plateau. It prevents frigid, dry Arctic winds from
blowing south into the subcontinent, which keeps South Asia much
warmer than corresponding temperate regions in the other continents.
It also forms a barrier for the monsoon winds, keeping them from
traveling northwards, and causing heavy rainfall in the Terai
region. The Himalaya are also believed to play an important part in
the formation of Central Asian deserts such as the Taklamakan and
Gobi [Mongolian Говь, Chinese 戈壁] deserts.

Due to the mountain ranges, the western
disturbances which appear from Iran during winter are prevented from
travelling any further, resulting in snow in Kashmir and rainfall
for parts of Punjab and northern India. Despite being a barrier to
the cold northernly winter winds, the Brahmaputra valley receives
part of the frigid winds, thus lowering the temperature in the
northeast Indian states and Bangladesh. These winds also cause the
North East monsoon during this season for these parts.

Mountain passes

The rugged terrain of the Himalaya makes few
routes through the mountains possible. Some of these routes include:

Gangtok in Sikkim to Lhasa [ལྷ་ས] in
Tibet, via the Nathula Pass and Jelepla Passes (offshoots of the
ancient Silk Route).

Bhadgaon in Nepal to Nyalam in Tibet.

Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh, India.

The road from Srinagar in Kashmir via Leh to Tibet. This pass is
now less used because of regional troubles.

Impact on politics and culture

The Himalaya, due to its large size and expanse, has been a natural
barrier to the movement of people for a long time. In particular,
this has prevented intermingling of people from the Indian
subcontinent with people from China and Mongolia, causing
significantly different languages and customs between these regions.
The Himalaya has also hindered trade routes and prevented military
expeditions across its expanse. For instance, Genghis Khan could not
expand his empire south of the Himalaya into the subcontinent.

Himal

Himal is Nepalese for
"range" and is used to name the various regions of the Himalaya. In
Nepal, these are as follows:

Annapurna Himal

Ganesh Himal

Khumbu Himal

Langtang Himal

Manang Himal

Rolwaling Himal

Notable peaks

Peak Name

Other names and meaning

Elevation (m)

Elevation (ft)

Notes

Everest

Sagarmatha [सगरमाथा] -"Forehead of
the Sky",
Chomolangma or Qomolangma -"Mother of the Universe"

8,848

29,028

World's highest mountain. First
climbed 1953.

K2

Chogo Gangri
[乔戈里峰]

8,611

28,251

World's 2nd highest. First climber
1954.

Kanchenjunga

Kangchen Dzö-nga

8,586

28,169

World's 3rd highest. Tallest peak in
India. First climbed 1955.

Lhotse

-

8,501

27,939

World's 4th highest. First climbed
1956.

Makalu

-

8,462

27,765

World's 5th highest. First climbed
1955.

Cho Oyu

Mt. Zhuoaoyou

8,201

26,906

World's 6th highest. First climbed
1954.

Dhaulagiri

White Mountain

8,167

26,764

World's 7th highest. First climbed
1960.

Manaslu

Kutang - "Mountain of the Spirit"

8,163

26,758

World's 8th highest. First climbed
1956.

Nanga Parbat

Nangaparbat Peak or Diamir

8,125

26,658

World's 9th highest. First climbed
1953.

Annapurna

"Goddess of the Harvests"

8,091

26,545

World's 10th highest. First climbed
1950.

Gasherbrum I

Hidden Peak (Khumbu Gangri) or K5

8,068

26,470

World's 11th highest. First climbed
1958.

Broad Peak

K3 (Phalchen Gangri)

8,047

26,400

World's 12th highest. First climbed
1957.

Gasherbrum II

K4

8,035

26,360

World's 13th highest. First climbed
1956.

Shishapangma

"Crest above the grassy plains"
Gosainthan -Sanskrit for "place of the saint",

8,027

26,289

First climbed 1964.

Gyachung Gangri

-

7,922

26,089

First climbed 1964.

Nanda Devi

"Bliss-Giving Goddess"

7,817

25,645

First climbed 1936.

Kabru

-

7,338

24,258

Never climbed

Bumo Gangri

"Unmarried Daughter"

7,161

23,494

Popular climbing peak. First climbed
1962.

Religion and mythology

Several places in the Himalaya are of religious
significance in Hinduism and Buddhism. In Hinduism, the Himalaya
have also been personified as the god Himavat, the father of
Shiva's consort, Parvati.

Haridwar, the place where the river
Ganges enters the plains.

Badrinath, a temple dedicated to Vishnu.

Kedarnath, where one of the 12
Jyothirlingas is located.

Deoprayag, where the Alaknanda and
Bhagirathi merge to form the Ganges.

Rishikesh, has a temple of Lakshmana.

Mount Kailash [कैलाश पर्वत, 冈仁波齐峰], a
6,718 m high peak which is considered to be the abode of the
Hindu god Shiva and is also venerated by Buddhists. Lake
Manasarowar lies at the base of Mount Kailash, and is the source
of the Brahmaputra.

Amarnath, has a natural Shiva linga of
ice which forms for a few weeks each year. Thousands of people
visit this cave during these few weeks.

The Vaishno Devi is a popular shrine
among Durga devotees.

A number of Tibetan Buddhist sites are
situated in the Himalaya, including the residence of the Dalai
Lama.

The Yeti is one of the most famous
creatures in cryptozoology. It is a large primate-like creature
that is supposed to live in the Himalaya. Most mainstream
scientists and experts consider current evidence of the Yeti's
existence unpersuasive, and the result of hoaxes, legend or
misidentification of mundane creatures.

Shambhala is a mystical city in Buddhism
with various legends associated with it. While some legends
consider it to be a real city where secret Buddhist doctrines
are being preserved, other legends believe that the city does
not physically exist and can only be reached in the mental
realm.

Sri Hemkunt Sahib - Sikh Gurudwara where
Guru Gobind Singh [ਗੁਰੂ ਗੋਬਿੰਦ
ਸਿੰਘ] was meditating and sent to Earth to help humanity.

The Himalaya in fiction

Shangri-La is a fictional utopia
situated somewhere in the Himalaya, based on the legendary
Shambhala. It is described in the novel Lost Horizon,
written by the British writer James Hilton in 1933.

Tintin in Tibet is one of the series of classic comic-strip
albums, written and illustrated by Belgian writer and
illustrator Hergé, featuring the young reporter Tintin
investigating a plane crash in the Gosain Than massif in the
Himalaya. (1960 )

The Hollywood
movie Vertical Limit (2000), is set in the K2 peak of the
Himalaya."

"17.
And the Blessed One thus addressed the five Bhikkhus2:
'There are two extrernes, O Bhikkhus, which he who has given up the
world, ought to avoid. What are these two extremes? A life given to
pleasures, devoted to pleasures and lusts: this is degrading, sensual,
vulgar, ignoble, and profitless; and a life given to mortifications:
this is painful, ignoble, and profitless. By avoiding these two
extrernes, O Bhikkhus, the Tathâgata has gained the knowledge of the
Middle Path which leads to insight, which leads to wisdom, which
conduces to calm, to knowledge, to the Sambodhi, to Nirvâna.

18. 'Which, O
Bhikkhus, is this Middle Path the knowledge of which the Tathâgata has
gained, which leads to insight, which leads to wisdom, which conduces to
calm, to knowledge, to the Sambodhi, to Nirvâna? It is the holy
eightfold Path, namely, Right Belief, Right Aspiration, Right Speech,
Right Conduct, Right Means of Livelihood, Right Endeavour, Right
Mernory, Right Meditation. This, O Bhikkhus, is the Middle Path the
knowledge of which the Tathâgata has gained, which leads to insight,
which leads to wisdom, which conduces to calm, to knowledge, to the
Sambodhi, to Nirvâna.

19. 'This, O
Bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth of Suffering: Birth is suffering; decay is
suffering; illness is suffering; death is suffering. Presence of objects
we hate, is suffering; Separation from objects we love, is suffering;
not to obtain what we desire, is suffering. Briefly, the fivefold
clinging to existence is suffering.

20. 'This, O
Bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth of the Cause of suffering: Thirst, that
leads to re-birth, accornpanied by pleasure and lust, finding its
delight here and there. (This thirst is threefold), namely, thirst for
pleasure, thirst for existence, thirst for prosperity.

21. 'This, O
Bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth of the Cessation of suffering: (It ceases
with) the complete cessation of this thirst,--a cessation which consists
in the absence of every passion,--with the abandoning of this thirst,
with the doing away with it, with the deliverance from it, with the
destruction of desire.

22. 'This, O
Bhikkhus, is the Noble Truth of the Path which leads to the cessation of
suffering: that holy eightfold Path, that is to say, Right Belief, Right
Aspiration, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Means of Livelihood,
Right Endeavour, Right Memory, Right Meditation.

23. '"This is the
Noble Truth of Suffering;"--thus, O Bhikkhus, of this doctrine, which
formerly had not been heard of, have I obtained insight, knowledge,
understanding, wisdom, intuition. "This Noble Truth of Suffering must be
understood," thus, O Bhikkhus, of this doctrine, . . . . (&c., down to
intuition). "This Noble Truth of Suffering I have understood," thus, O
Bhikkhus, of this doctrine, . . . . (&c.,down to intuition).

24. '"This is the
Noble Truth of the Cause of suffering," thus, O Bhikkhus, (&c.) "This
Noble Truth of the Cause of suffering must be abandoned has been
abandoned by me," thus, O Bhikkhus, (&c.)

25. '"This is the
Noble Truth of the Cessation of suffering," thus, O Bhikkhus, (&c.)
"This Noble Truth of the Cessation of suffering must be seen face to
face . . . . has been seen by me face to face," thus, O Bhikkhus, (&c.)

26. '"This is the
Noble Truth of the Path which leads to the cessation of suffering,"
thus, O Bhikkhus, (&c.) "This Noble Truth of the Path which leads to the
cessation of suffering, must be realised has been realised by me," thus,
O Bhikkhus, (&c.)

27. 'As long, O
Bhikkhus, as I did not possess with perfect purity this true knowledge
and insight into these four Noble Truths, with its three modifications
and its twelve constituent parts; so long, O Bhikkhus, I knew that I had
not yet obtained the highest, absolute Sambodhi in the world of men and
gods, in Mâra's and Brahma's world, among all beings, Samanas and
Brâhmanas, gods and men.

28. 'But since I
possessed, O Bhikkhus, with perfect purity this true knowledge and
insight into these four Noble Truths, with its three modifications and
its twelve constituent parts, then I knew, O Bhikkhus, that I had
obtained the highest, universal Sambodhi in the world of men and gods, .
. . . (&c., as in § 27).

29. 'And this
knowledge and insight arose in my mind: "The emancipation of my mind
cannot be lost; this is my last birth; hence I shall not be born
again!"'

Thus the Blessed One spoke. The five Bhikkhus
were delighted, and they rejoiced at the words of the Blessed One. And
when this exposition was propounded, the venerable Kondañña
obtained the pure and spotless Eye of the Truth (that is to say, the
following knowledge): 'Whatsoever is subject to the condition of
origination, is subject also to the condition of cessation.'

30. And as the
Blessed One had founded the Kingdom of Truth (by propounding the four
Noble Truths), the earth-inhabiting devas shouted: 'Truly the Blessed
One has founded at Benares, in the deer park Isipatana, the highest
kingdom of Truth, which may be opposed neither by a Samana nor by
a Brâhmana, neither by a deva, nor by Mâra, nor by Brahma, nor by
any being in the world.'

Hearing the shout of the earth-inhabiting
devas, the kâtumahârâgika devas (gods belonging to the
world of the four divine mahârâgas) shouted, . . . . (&c., as
above). Hearing the shout of the kâtumahârâgika devas, the
tâvatimsa devas1,
the yâma devas, the tusita devas, the nimmânarati devas, the
paranimmitavasavatti devas, the brahmakâyika devas shouted: 'Truly the
Blessed One, . . . .' (&c., as above).

31. Thus in that
moment, in that instant, in that second the shout reached the Brahma
world; and this whole system of ten thousand worlds quaked, was shaken,
and trembled; and an infinite, mighty light was seen through the world,
which surpassed the light that can be produced by the divine power of
the devas.

And the Blessed One pronounced this solemn
utterance: 'Truly Kondañña has perceived it ("aññâsi"),
truly Kondañña has perceived it!' Hence the venerable Kondañña
received the name Aññâtakondañña (Kondañña
who has perceived the doctrine).

32. And the
venerable Aññâtakondañña, having seen the Truth,
having mastered the Truth, having understood the Truth, having
penetrated the Truth, having overcome uncertainty, having dispelled all
doubts, having gained full knowledge, dependent on nobody else for
knowledge of the doctrine of the Teacher, thus spoke to the Blessed One:
'Lord, let me receive the pabbaggâ and upasampadâ ordinations
from the Blessed One.'

'Come, O Bhikkhu,' said the Blessed One, 'well
taught is the doctrine; lead a holy life for the sake of the complete
extinction of suffering.' Thus this venerable person received the
upasampadâ ordination."

An arahant. He, with Sona, was sent by Asoka, at
the conclusion of the Third Council, to convert Suvannabhūmi. They
overcame the female demon and her followers, who had, been in the
habit of coming out of the sea to eat the king's sons, and they then
recited the Brahmajāla Sutta. Sixty thousand people became converts,
five hundred noblemen became monks and fifteen hundred women of good
family were ordained as nuns.

Thenceforth all princes born in the royal
household were called Sonuttara. Mhv.iv.6; 44-54; Sp.i.68f; Mbv.115;
The Dipavamsa speaks of Sonuttara as one person (viii.10)."

A country. At the end of the Third Council, the
theras Sona and Uttara visited this country in order to convert it
to Buddhism. At that time a female deity of the sea was in the habit
of eating every heir born to the king. The arrival of the theras
coincided with the birth of a prince. At first the people thought
that the monks were the friends of the demon, but later the monks,
being told the story, drove away the demon by their iddhi power and
erected a bulwark round the country by reciting the Brahmajāla
Sutta. Sixty thousand people embraced the new faith, while three
thousand five hundred young men and fifteen hundred girls of noble
family entered the Order. Thenceforth all princes born into the
royal family were called Sonuttara (Mhv.xii.6, 44f.; Dpv.viii.12;
Sp.i.64).

There seems to have been regular trade
between Bharukaccha and Suvannabhūmi (See, e.g., J.iii.188), and
also between the latter and Benares (Molini), (J.iv.15), Mithilā
(J.vi.34), Sāvatthi (PvA.47), and Pātaliputta (PvA.271).

The distance between Ceylon and Suvannabhūmi
was seven hundred leagues, and, with a favourable wind, could be
covered in seven days and nights (AA.i.265).

Suvannabhūmi is generally identified with
Lower Burma, probably the Pagan and Moulmein districts. It probably
included the coast from Rangoon to Singapore. The chief place in
Suvannabhūmi was Sudhammanagara - i.e., Thaton - at the mouth
of the Sittaung River (See Sās. Introd., p.4, and n.3).

Fleet suggests (J.R.A.S.1910, p.428),
however, that it might be the district in Bengal called by Hiouen
Thsang "Ka-lo-na-su-fa-la-na" (Karnasuvarna), or else the country
along the river Son in Central India, a tributary of the Ganges, on
the right bank of the river which is also called Hiranyavāha. The
probability is that there were two Places of the same name, one
originally in India itself and the other in Further India. cf.
Sunāparanta."

"The Son River of central India is
the largest of the Ganges' southern tributaries. The Son originates
in Chhattisgarh [छत्तीसगढ़] state, just east of the headwaters of
the Narmada River, and flows north-northwest through Madhya Pradesh
state before turning sharply eastward when it encounters the
southwest-northeast-running Kaimur Range. The Son parallels the
Kaimur Range, flowing east-northeast through Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
states to join the Ganges just above Patna. Geologically, the lower
valley of the Son is an extension of the Narmada Valley, and the
Kaimur Range an extension of the Vindhya Range. Its length is 784
kilometres (487 miles). Its chief tributaries are the Rihand and the
Koel. The Son has a steep gradient (35-55 cm per km) with quick run-off and
ephemeral regimes, becoming a roaring river with the rain-waters in
the catchment area but turning quickly into a fordable stream. The
Son, being wide and shallow, leaves disconnected pools of water in
the remaining part of the year. The channel of the Son is very wide
(about 5km at Dehri) but the floodplain is narrow, only 3 to 5 km
wide. The river has been notorious for its changing courses in the
past, as it traceable from several old beds on its east, but has
been tamed squarely with the anicut at Dehri, and now more so with
the
Indrapuri Barrage, a few km upstream."

"Mon State [မ္ဝန္‌ပ္ရည္‌နယ္‌]
is an administrative division of Myanmar [

ပ္ရည္‌ထောင္‌စုမ္ရန္‌မာနိုင္‌ငံတော္‌

]. It is sandwiched between
Kayin State [ကရင္‌‌ပ္ရည္‌နယ္‌]
on the east, the Andaman Sea on the west, Bago Division [ပဲခူးတုိင္‌း]
on the north and Tanintharyi Division [တနင္သာရိတုိင္‌း]
on the south.It has a short border with Thailand's Kanchanaburi
Province [กาญจนบุรี] at its south-eastern tip. The land area is
12,155 sq. km. Mon State includes many small islands along its 566
km of coastline.

Its capital is
Mawlamyine, formerly Moulmein.

Demographics

Although there are no modern figures on the population of
Mon State, it is estimated that the population is around
8,466,000. The majority are Mon. However, there is a large number of
ethnic Bamar, as well as members of the Kayin,and Pa-O ethnic
groups. Many are isolated and many do not understand or speak
Burmese. The majority of people are Buddhist.

Economy

Mon State
has a cultivated area of nearly 4.5 million acres (18,000 km²),
mostly under rice. The major secondary crop is rubber. Orchards and
rubber many kind of plantations are found in the mountainous
areas. Coastal fishing and production of dried fish, fish sauce and
agar-agar are important enterprises. Forests cover around half of
the land, and timber production is one of the major contributors to
the economy. Minerals include salt, antimony, and granite. Industry
includes paper, sugar, rubber tires.

Natural resources such as forest products,
and onshore and offshore mineral resources, are exploited only by
top Myanmar military leaders and foreign companies. At the present
time one of the biggest foreign investments into Myanmar is for the
exploitation of natural gas reserves in Mon State.

Sites of interest

Kyaiktiyo Pagoda (or) kyaik-isi-yo
pagoda - A famous religious site with a steeple built on a rock
covered with gold leaf, precariously balanced on the site of a
cliff. Legend says that Buddha's hair was placed inside the
pagoda, and its power keeps the rock from falling.

Thaton - the former capital of an
ancient Mon kingdom, much earlier than Bagan.

Thanbyuzayat War Memorial - connected
with the Bridge on the River Kwai.

History

The Mon
were one of the earliest ethnic groups to occupy Burma, moving into
the area possibly as early as 1500 BC. The first recorded Mon
kingdom, Suwarnabhumi, was centered on Thaton in 300 BC. The Mon
converted to Theravada Buddhism around 200 BC. The Mon prospered
until around 1000 AD when they came under pressure from new ethnic
groups arriving from the north. Successive waves of Burmese and Thai
groups slowly eroded the Mon kingdoms, and the last independent Mon
kingdom fell to the Burmese in 1757.

Lower Burma, including what is now Mon State,
was conquered by Great Britain in 1824 after the Second
Anglo-Burmese War. The Mon assisted the British in the war, in
return for promises of their own leadership after the defeat of
Burma. Hundreds of thousands of Mons who had migrated into Siam
returned to their homeland when it came under British rule. However,
British promises to restore the Mon Kingdom were never fulfilled.
During colonial times, Moulmein had a substantial Anglo-Burmese
population; an area of the city was known as 'Little England' due to
the large Anglo-Burmese community, however nowadays this has
dwindled to all but a handful of families as most have left for the
UK or Australia.

In 1947, the Mon sought self-determination
from the yet unformed Union of Burma; however Burmese Prime Minister
U Nu refused, saying that no separate national rights for the Mon
should be contemplated. The Burmese army moved into areas claimed by
the Mon nationalists and imposed rule by force which resulted in a
civil war. Mon separatists formed the Mon Peoples Front, which was
later superseded by the New Mon State Party (NMSP) in 1962. Since
1949, the eastern hills of the state (as well as portions of
Thaninthaya Division) have been under control of the NMSP, and its
military arm, the Mon National Liberation Front (MNLF). In addition
to fighting the central government, the MNLF has also fought the
Karen over control of lucrative border crossings into Thailand.

In 1974, partially to assuage Mon separatist
demands, the theoretically autonomous Mon State, was created out of
portions of Thaninthayi Division, Bago Division, and Ayeyarwady
Division. Resistance continued until 1995, when NMSP and SLORC
agreed a cease-fire and in 1996, the Mon Unity League was founded.
SLORC troops continued to operate in defiance of the agreement. The
human rights situation in Mon State has not improved. International
organizations have repeatedly accused the Myanmar government for
massive human rights violations in Mon State, including forced
labor, arbitrary detention, population transfer, property
confiscation, rape, etc."

The Ramayana describes them as being created
from Brahma's foot; elsewhere, they are descended from Pulastya, or
from Khasa, or from Nirriti and Nirrita. Many Rakshasa were
particularly wicked humans in previous incarnations. Rakshasas are
notorious for disturbing sacrifices, desecrating graves, harassing
priests, possessing human beings, and so on. Their fingernails are
poisonous, and they feed on human flesh and spoiled food. They are
shapechangers and magicians, and often appear in the forms of
humans, dogs, and large birds. Hanuman, during a visit to the
rakshasas' home in Lanka, observed that the demons could come in any
form imaginable.

The great ten-headed
demon Ravana, enemy of Rama, was king of the rakshasas. His younger
brother Vibhishana was a rare good-hearted rakshasa; he was exiled
by his brother the king, who was displeased by his behavior.
Vibhishana later became an ally of Rama and a ruler in Lanka. Other
notable rakshasas include the guardian god Nairitya, who is
associated with the southwest direction.

A female rakshasa is called a Rakshasi,
and a female rakshasa in human form is a manushya-rakshasi.

The term has an etymology in common with the
term rakṣa, meaning 'defender'.

Usage in the West

The term
rakshasa has been used in western literature and culture. The
following are some examples.

In Lord of Light

In
Roger Zelazny's book Lord of Light the Rakshasa, there spelled
"Rakasha", are a type of extraterrestrial beings consisting of
"stable fields of energy".

The Rakasha were supposedly once material
beings, but long ago used unspecified technology to move their atman
into energy fields. This gave them the immortality, but "born of
matter they do ever lust after the flesh" (p. 32). Although it might
seem rather foolish of the Rakasha to use highly advanced technology
to abandon bodies and then find that they preferred having flesh
after all, they have the power to sometimes possess human bodies.
Since a mortal who inhabits a body dies with it, unless he transfers
his atman into an unused body, while a Rakasha can survive the
destruction of it's resident body, the Rakasha's choice does give
them advantages that not making it would have lacked.

Their natural shape is that of a glowing
flame, although they can briefly take nearly any shape they choose
to. In their normal shape they are capable of flying, seeing in all
directions and surviving most attacks by material weapons (although
some compounds can repel them). When inhabiting a human body, they
lose the power to fly for unlimited distances and (presumably, as
they never do so) to change shape, but gain the ability to enjoy
alcohol, good food and sex.

They seem more amoral than intentionally
evil, normally lacking consciences. One of their preferred pastimes
is gambling, and gambling debts are the only promises that they can
be relied upon to keep. Gambling with Rakasha can lead either to
death or great power, as the Rakasha can give powerful gifts but
have little desire for other material things than the body of their
fellow gambler.

The Rakasha seem to have no clear hierarchy,
although they are led by a very old and powerful Rakasha called
Taraka. They also control several kinds of lesser energy beings, the
only kind explicitly named being the "fire elementals" (note that
these resemble mobile thunderbolts more than classical, western fire
elementals).

In Dungeons & Dragons

In the role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons,
the Rakshasa are a type of evil beings from the lawful evil parts of
the Outer Planes. They are powerful sorcerers and, although they
disdain physical fighting as ignoble, can be dangerous in close
combat as well. Two subtypes of Rakshasa, differing from the common
Rakshasa exist: Ak'chazar Rakshasa and Naztharune Rakshasa.

Their natural shapes are relatively humanoid
although they are clearly not human, as they have the heads of
beasts -- usually tigers, but sometimes apes, crocodiles, mantises,
or other creatures. Their hands also look disturbing to most humans,
as their palms are where the back of the hands would be in humans.
The Rakshasa are capable of hiding their disturbing appearance at
any time, as they can choose any humanoid form at will.

Rakshasa are solitary beings, although they
do occasionally cooperate with each other. Since Rakshasa are
ambitious beings, as well as being solitary, sorcerous
shapeshifters, they typically hold leading positions in whatever
undertaking they are involved in. They are therefore typical boss
monsters.

The Ak'chazar have the heads of white tigers and
are skinnier than common Rakshasa. They are unusually powerful
spellcasters, even for Rakshasa, and specialize in necromantic
magic. To use their necromantic powers to their full potential the
Ak'chazar often use graveyards or old battlefields as their
headquarters. When working on one of their dark schemes the
Ak'chazar often let their undead do the physical work while they
stay behind the scenes themselves.

The Naztharune have the heads of black tigers
and are covered in black fur. They have few magical powers but
compensate by being strong fighters, specializing in assassination.
They lack most Rakshasa's need to be the leader of any organisation
that they are part of, often working for other Rakshasa.

Rakshasa do not have a significant presence
in most campaign settings -- they may be present in the setting, but
lack a great deal of influence. In the Eberron campaign setting,
however, rakshasa were once a major world power, but were defeated
and forced into withdrawal from active participation in world events
by the couatls.

In other fiction

Although not particularly common in Western fiction, the short-lived
1974 television series Kolchak: The Night Stalker
(which influenced The X-Files) has an episode (Horror in
the Heights) featuring a Rakshasa which is vulnerable to blessed
crossbow bolts.

In the manga Fist of the North Star,
the character Shachi is referred to as "Rakshasa, the
Asura-devouring beast".

In the Exile and Avernum series
of games, Rakshasas are magic-casting tiger lookalikes; they're one
of the more particularly nasty adversaries in the later stages of
the game.

In the video game Freespace 2 the
Rakshasa is a class of enemy Shivan cruiser.

In the Fantasy novel Song in the Silence, by
Elizabeth Kerner, the demons are referred to as rakshasa by their
dragon enemies.

In the Children of the Lamp novels by P.B.
Kerr, the elder djinn of the Marid tribe is named Mr. Rakshasas.

In the Gold Digger comic series, the
character Genn is a member of the Rakshasa race, which is a
genderless race of shapeshifters who feed off of the ethereal energy
of other beings for sustenance.

The Palladium RPG has Rakshasas as a race of
Demons, but here, it is spelled "Raksasha".

Was referenced in the Outer Limits episode,
"Under the Bed" an episode about child stealing myths(boogeymen).
Also mentioned were Babba Yaga, Norse Trolls, Jinn, and the American
Boogeyman.

A group of rakshasas makes a brief appearance
in Neil Gaiman's novel American Gods.

In the MMORPG Tantra Online, Rakshasa is a
character class resembling a female assassin.

In the game Final Fantasy I (packaged with
Final Fantasy II and released as "Final Fantasy Anthology" by
SquareSoft for Playstation), there is a Tiger-headed creature called
a Rakshasa which is a tough spellcaster. In the original Final
Fantasy for the Nintendo Entertainment System, this was shortened to
Mancat due to the constraints of the 8-bit machine."

The first sutta of the Dīgha Nikāya. It was preached
to the paribbājaka Suppiya and his disciple Brahmadatta. It first
explains the sīlā, or moral precepts, in three successive sections
cūla (concise), majjhima (medium), and mahā (elaborate) and
then proceeds to set out in sixty two divisions various speculations and
theories regarding the "soul" (D.i.46). Other names for it are
Atthajāla, Dhammajāla, Ditthijāla, and Sangāmavijaya. At the end of the
discourse the ten world systems trembled (D.i.46). It is said that once
when Pinndapātiya Thera recited this sutta at the Kalyāniya vihāra, his
mind concentrated on the Buddha, the earth trembled; the same phenomenon
occurred when the Dīghabhānaka Theras recited it at the Ambahtthikā, to
the east of the Lohapāsāda (DA.i.131).

The Brahmajāla was the first sutta preached in
Suvannabhūmi, when Sona and Uttara visited it as missionaries
(Mhv.xii.51).

The Sutta is often quoted, sometimes even in the
Canon. E.g., S.iv. 286, 287."

"Chapter XII. Here again M. and EM. agree
very closely. EM. adds a line here and there (e.g. 3ed, 23 cd, 24cd,
26ab, 51-2) to the M. account and alters the wording in one or two
passages (e.g. 12-14) to make the meaning clearer. EM. adds (7) that
all the missions consisted of a leader and four others. MT. gives
(317.21) the names of the four monks (Kassapagotta, Mūlakadeva,
Dundubhissara and Sahadeva (Cf. Dpv. viii. 10 and Sp. I. 68, MBv,
115) who accompanied Majjhima to the Himālayan region. Neither M.
nor EM. has these names."