The station was built on a curve and could only accommodate five-car trains, which proved to be inefficient as subway ridership grew. Due to the infrastructural shortfalls, as well as its proximity to the nearby Brooklyn Bridge station, passenger service was discontinued on December 31, 1945, although the station is still used as a turning loop for the 6 and <6> trains.

The official start of construction took place on March 24, 1900, at the front steps of City Hall, at a ceremony officiated by then-Mayor Robert Van Wyck.[4] After construction was complete, this station was the chosen place for hanging commemorative plaques recognizing the achievement of building the entire New York City Subway system. A mezzanine area above the platform once had an ornamented oak ticket booth (which no longer exists).[5]

The subway opened to the public on October 27, 1904, after opening ceremonies the day before attended by Mayor George B. McClellan Jr..[6][7][1] More than 15,000 people were issued passes for the first series of rides from the platform. At precisely 2:35 p.m., the first subway train departed from City Hall station with Mayor McClellan at the controls. The event was so heavily attended that police Commissioner McAdoo said every policeman in the city was on duty all day and far into the night.[8] At the time of the opening, President A. E. Orr of the Rapid Transit Board requested that all New Yorkers join in the celebration by blowing whistles and ringing bells.[9] At street level, in the pavement in front of City Hall, a plaque can still be seen commemorating groundbreaking for the subway in 1900.[10]

At the time, the station was also called "City Hall Loop."[11] Unlike the rest of the subway line, the City Hall station had tall tile arches, brass fixtures, chandeliers, skylights, polychrome tile, and elegant curves that ran along the platform. It was lit by wrought iron chandeliers and the three skylights of cut amethyst glass[12] that allowed sunshine onto parts of the platform. During World War II, the skylights were blacked out with tar for safety.

In the years after the line's construction, increased subway ridership led to longer trains, and thus longer platforms, in the 1940s and early 1950s.[13] The City Hall station, built on a tight curve, would have been difficult to lengthen, and it was also quite close to the far busier Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall station. In addition, the new, longer trains had center doors in each car, which were an unsafe distance from the platform edge. Movable platform extensions were installed to fill the gap similar to the ones at the South Ferry, Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall (which no longer has gap fillers), Times Square, and 14th Street–Union Square stations, which had a similar problem.

City Hall, notwithstanding its architectural grandeur, was never an important station. In its final year of use, it served only 600 passengers per day[13] and was not open at nights (when trains continued to the loop station at South Ferry). The Brooklyn Bridge station, located a short walk away, at the opposite end of City Hall Park, was more popular, as it provided both local and express service, including trains to Brooklyn. The Brooklyn Bridge streetcar terminal and Park Row station on the BMT elevated lines were above for easy transfers.[13] Given the extensive renovations that would have been required to bring the station up to modern standards, the city decided to close it instead. The final day of service was December 31, 1945.[13][2][14]

On the surface, all that can be seen is a concrete slab inset with glass tiles, the skylights for the platform below. This patch of concrete is in the middle of a grove of dogwoods in front of City Hall, close to Broadway. However, for the 2004 Centennial Celebration, one of the street entrances was restored (and presently resembles a modern station entrance), and the station was opened for the duration of the celebration. Otherwise, the station is now used only as an emergency exit. As of 2006[update], tours of the station are once again being conducted,[15] by the staff of the Transit Museum.[16] However, at present, tours are only open to registered members of the museum and require advance payment and reservations.

The station can also be seen by passengers who stay on the 6 and <6> service as they travel around the loop to head back uptown. The loop track is classified as revenue track, and the announcement programs on the R142A subway cars, which were formerly used on the 6 and <6> service, announce at Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall: "This is the last downtown stop on this train. The next stop on this train will be Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall on the uptown platform." A further announcement follows, warning passengers to remain inside the car at all times.[17] The older R62As, which make up the entire 6 and <6> service's fleet as of 2018[update], use manual announcements.[18]

North of the City Hall station, the IRT Lexington Avenue Line carries four tracks. From west to east, these are the downtown local track, the downtown express track, the uptown express track, and the uptown local track.[23]

South of the Brooklyn Bridge station, there is a switch on the downtown local track, allowing trains to leave service and enter either of two storage tracks. Trains in service turn onto a balloon loop, continuing past the abandoned side platform on the west side of the loop, and re-appearing in the Brooklyn Bridge station on the uptown local track. The uptown and downtown express tracks pass over the loop, continuing south.[23]

Stations and line segments in italics are closed, demolished, or planned (temporary closures are marked with asterisks). Track connections to other lines' terminals are displayed in brackets. Struck through passenger track connections are closed or unused in regular service.

1.
City Hall (BMT Broadway Line)
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City Hall is a local station on the BMT Broadway Line of the New York City Subway in Tribeca and Civic Center, Manhattan. It is served by the R train at all times except late nights, the W train also serves this station on weekdays. There are two tracks and a wide island platform. The northbound track is located under City Hall Park, while the track is under the east side of Broadway. There is a tower at the north end, with a window that lets any waiting passengers observe Transit Authority goings-on. The platform tapers off toward the end, where the northbound and southbound portions join. The stations configuration, and the staircases to the sky above, is responsible for another distinguishing feature. This station was overhauled in the late 1970s, changing the stations structure and it replaced the original wall tiles, old signs, and incandescent lighting with more modern wall tiles, signs and fluorescent lights, as well as fixing staircases and platform edges. Before the new City Hall master tower was built, there was a provision at the end of the upper level for a diamond crossover which is now occupied by a relay room. The fare control area is located in the center of the platform, at the north end, two exits lead to the east side of Broadway at Warren Street, and at the south end, one exit leads to the east side of Broadway at Murray Street. Passengers enter from the adjacent to City Hall Park directly onto the wide island platform on the upper level. The City Hall station is a station, with an unused two-island platform. The staircase leads to the platform, the eastern platform was never finished. However, plans were changed before construction ended, as a result, the lower level of the station is unused, as are the stub-end center express tracks at Canal Street on its upper level. Another effect of change is that the southern end of the upper level station slopes downward. The lower level floor continues south of the station until it disappears under the low ceiling under the ramps carrying the upper level downgrade. The lower level was never used for service or even finished with tiles. Only the western platform was completed, the shorter eastern platform was never finished

2.
New York City Subway
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Opened in 1904, the New York City Subway is one of the worlds oldest public transit systems, one of the worlds most used metro systems, and the metro system with the most stations. It offers service 24 hours per day, every day of the year, the New York City Subway is the largest rapid transit system in the world by number of stations, with 472 stations in operation. Stations are located throughout the boroughs of Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, the Port Authority Trans-Hudson and the AirTrain JFK, in Manhattan and Queens respectively, accept the subways MetroCard but are not operated by the MTA and do not allow free transfers. Another mass transit service that is not operated by the MTA, the system is also one of the worlds longest. Overall, the system contains 236 miles of routes, translating into 665 miles of track. In 2015, the subway delivered over 1.76 billion rides, averaging approximately 5.7 million daily rides on weekdays and a combined 5.9 million rides each weekend. Of the systems 25 services,22 of them pass through Manhattan, the exceptions being the G train, the Franklin Avenue Shuttle, and the Rockaway Park Shuttle. Large portions of the subway outside Manhattan are elevated, on embankments, or in open cuts, in total, 40% of track is not underground despite the subway moniker. Many lines and stations have both express and local services and these lines have three or four tracks. Normally, the two are used for local trains, while the inner one or two are used for express trains. Stations served by express trains are typically major transfer points or destinations, alfred Ely Beach built the first demonstration for an underground transit system in New York City in 1869 and opened it in February 1870. The tunnel was never extended for political and financial reasons, although extensions had been planned to take the tunnel southward to The Battery, the Great Blizzard of 1888 helped demonstrate the benefits of an underground transportation system. A plan for the construction of the subway was approved in 1894, the first underground line of the subway opened on October 27,1904, almost 36 years after the opening of the first elevated line in New York City, which became the IRT Ninth Avenue Line. The fare was $0.05 and on the first day the trains carried over 150,000 passengers, the oldest structure still in use opened in 1885 as part of the BMT Lexington Avenue Line in Brooklyn and is now part of the BMT Jamaica Line. The oldest right-of-way, which is part of the BMT West End Line near Coney Island Creek, was in use in 1864 as a railroad called the Brooklyn, Bath. By the time the first subway opened, the lines had been consolidated into two privately owned systems, the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company and the Interborough Rapid Transit Company, the city built most of the lines and leased them to the companies. This required it to be run at cost, necessitating fares up to double the five-cent fare popular at the time, in 1940, the city bought the two private systems. Some elevated lines ceased service immediately while others closed soon after, integration was slow, but several connections were built between the IND and BMT, these now operate as one division called the B Division

3.
Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city

4.
Civic Center, Manhattan
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Civic Center is the area of lower Manhattan, New York City, that encompasses New York City Hall, One Police Plaza, the courthouses in Foley Square, and the surrounding area. Although government-related activities are predominant, other pursuits also occur within the district, including entertainment, industrial activity, residential dwellings, for example, there are Chinese restaurants near Civic Centers border with Chinatown, in addition to some museums and some residential buildings in the Civic Center area. The Jacob K. Javits Federal Building is located in the area and it includes the Federal Bureau of Investigation New York field office. Non-government buildings include the 387 feet 15 Park Row, an office,150 Nassau Street, a 21-story granite building, was once a publishers building, as were many in the area, but is now a residential building, as is 38 Park Row. The 76-story 8 Spruce Street is among the worlds tallest residential buildings, southbridge Towers, once Mitchell-Lama affordable housing, is now market-rate housing. Originally, the Lenape American Indians occupied the Civic Center area due to its rich pastoral fields and its proximity to the East River and Hudson River. There was a series of marshes in the area and a big pond in what is now Foley Square that the settlers called “The Collect” or “Collect Pond”. In fact, the area was so low lying that during the spring floods, then in 1609, Henry Hudson, an English explorer working for the Dutch, came and claimed the land for the Dutch. The colony there grew and farms began to expand, so the demand for workers increased, the Dutch West Indies Company decided to import slaves in 1625 to the new colony. The Civic Center was known as the commons and the first recorded building was a built by Jan de Wit. The next year, the colony was renamed New York and the seal was created the following year. Farms continued to grow and slavery expanded rapidly, the slaves built a burial ground in the north area of the Civic Center. The slaves would bury people at night though it was illegal. Because of the slaves’ sneaking out and racism, the Trinity Church banned African burial ceremonies in 1697 and this rule was then overturned in 1773. The city continued expanding and the government system became increasingly powerful, the local government decided to finance their first public works building through public funding. In 1735, the Almshouse was built as a center to house the ill and impoverished, a jail, a score later another jail was built called New Goal, which was a debtor prison. Soldier barracks were built on the border of the commons. During the pre-Revolutionary and Revolutionary eras, City Hall Park, in Lower Manhattan, was the site of many rallies, British soldiers chopped it down, and it was replaced five times

5.
Interborough Rapid Transit Company
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The IRT was purchased by the City in June 1940. The former IRT lines are now the A Division or IRT Division of the Subway, the first IRT subway ran between City Hall and 145th Street at Broadway, opening on October 27,1904. It opened following more than twenty years of debate on the merits of subways versus the existing elevated rail system. Founded on May 6,1902, by August Belmont, Jr. the IRTs mission was to operate New York Citys initial underground rapid transit system after Belmonts, mcDonalds Rapid Transit Construction Company was awarded the rights to build the railway line in 1900, outbidding Andrew Onderdonk. On April 1,1903, over a year before its first subway line opened, the Manhattan EL was the operator of four elevated railways in Manhattan with an extension into the Bronx. The IRT coordinated some services between what became its subway and elevated divisions, but all the lines of the former Manhattan EL have since been dismantled. In 1913, as a result of expansion in the city. The IRT ceased to function as a privately held company on June 12,1940, today, the IRT lines are operated as the A Division of the subway. The remaining lines are underground in Manhattan, except for a stretch across Harlem at 125th Street. Its Brooklyn lines are underground with a single elevated extension that reaches up to New Lots Avenue, the Flushing Line, its sole line in Queens, is entirely elevated except for a short portion approaching its East River tunnel and its terminal at Flushing–Main Street. The Flushing Line has had no connection to the rest of the IRT since 1942. It is connected to the BMT and the rest of the system via the BMT Astoria Line on the level of the Queensboro Plaza station. The Flushing Line became the responsibility of IRT, the Astoria Line had its platforms shaved back for exclusive BMT operation

6.
IRT Lexington Avenue Line
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The Lexington Avenue Line is one of the lines of the IRT division of the New York City Subway, stretching from Downtown Brooklyn or Lower Manhattan north to 125th Street in East Harlem. The portion in Lower and Midtown Manhattan was part of the citys first subway line, the line is served by the 456 <6> trains. Its average of 1.3 million daily riders is more than the total riderships of the systems of San Francisco, Chicago. Four stations along this line have been abandoned, when platforms were lengthened to fit ten cars, it was deemed most beneficial to close these stations and open new entrances for adjacent stations. The 18th Street station was abandoned because of the proximity to both 14th Street–Union Square and 23rd Street. In addition, the City Hall and Worth Street stations were very close to the Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall stations Brooklyn Bridge and Duane Street exits, respectively. Finally, South Ferry is within walking distance of Bowling Green, services that use the Lexington Avenue Line are colored apple green. The following services use part or all of the Lexington Avenue Line, north of the station is a merge with the tracks of the Joralemon Street Tunnel from Brooklyn, which become the express tracks. These run north under Broadway and Park Row to Centre Street, at the south end of Centre Street, directly under New York City Hall, is the City Hall Loop and its abandoned station, which was the southern terminus of the original IRT subway line. The loop is used to turn 6 and <6> service, the Lexington Avenue local tracks. From Brooklyn Bridge, the continues northward in a four-across track layout under Centre Street, Lafayette Street, Fourth Avenue. Just south of Grand Central, a single track connects the IRT 42nd Street Shuttle to the southbound local track. 125th Street returns to this layout, although here the upper level is used by all northbound trains. This is because Lexington Avenue is too narrow to have a four-across layout, construction started on the first IRT line in 1900. A1902 explosion during construction seriously damaged properties just above the line, the part of the line from City Hall to just south of 42nd Street was part of the original IRT line, opened on October 27,1904. A0.3 mile extension to Fulton Street opened at 12,01 a. m. on January 16,1905. Only the northbound platform opened at this time The next station, Wall Street, was opened on June 12,1905 as well as the southbound platform at Fulton Street. The first revenue train on the South Ferry extension left South Ferry at 11,59 p. m. on July 9,1905, the first train ran through the Joralemon Street Tunnel to Brooklyn about 12,45 a. m. on January 9,1908

7.
Side platform
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A side platform is a platform positioned to the side of a pair of tracks at a railway station, tram stop, or transitway. Dual side platform stations, one for direction of travel, is the basic station design used for double-track railway lines. Side platforms may result in a wider overall footprint for the station compared with a platform where a single width of platform can be shared by riders using either track. In some stations, the two platforms are connected by a footbridge running above and over the tracks. While a pair of platforms is often provided on a dual-track line. Where the station is close to a crossing the platforms may either be on the same side of the crossing road or alternatively may be staggered in one of two ways. With the near-side platforms configuration, each platform appears before the intersection, in some situations a single side platform can be served by multiple vehicles simultaneously with a scissors crossing provided to allow access mid-way along its length. Normally, the facilities of the station are located on the Up platform with the other platform accessed from a footbridge. However, in cases the stations main buildings are located on whichever side faces the town or village the station serves. Larger stations may have two platforms with several island platforms in between. Some are in a Spanish solution format, with two platforms and an island platform in between, serving two tracks

8.
Balloon loop
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A balloon loop, turning loop or reversing loop allows a rail vehicle or train to reverse direction without having to shunt or even stop. Balloon loops can be useful for passenger trains and unit freight trains such as coal trains, Balloon loops are common on tram or streetcar systems. Balloon loops were first introduced on metro and tram lines, Balloon loops enable higher line capacity and also allow the use of single-ended trams which have several advantages, including lower cost and more seating when doors are on one side only. However, double-ended trams also benefit from the capacity advantage of balloon loops, initially the Sydney system was operated by single-ended steam trams and then, from the 1890s, by double-ended electric trams. The Sydney system was possibly the first major example of a tramway system. European systems were converted to looped operation in the early twentieth century. Looped operation with single-ended trams was also used on many North American streetcar systems, on a balloon loop, the station is on the balloon loop, and the platform may be curved or straight. Penfield - now closed and removed Outer Harbor - now closed and removed Olympic Park, Sydney, Australia, Beech Forrest, Victoria, Australia, single platform station on Victorian narrow gauge railway. These trains discharge and take on passengers at Brooklyn Bridge – City Hall, South Ferry was a two-track subway loop station in New York City, with a sharply curved side platform for each track. After the latter station was damaged in Hurricane Sandy, the station was reopened temporarily to provide service to the ferry terminal until the repairs to the latter station are complete. Bowdoin Station on the MBTA Blue Line in Boston has an island platform inside a balloon loop. The boarding platform is long enough for four cars. World Trade Center station on the PATH subway system linking New York, dungeness, Romney, Hythe and Dymchurch Railway, Kent, England, single track, single platform for both boarding and alighting. This evens the wear on the train wheels, central station in Newcastle upon Tyne is on a loop, allowing trains from the South to arrive via the King Edward VII Bridge and return using the High Level Bridge. Peasholm on the North Bay Railway in Scarborough, North Yorkshire has a balloon loop. The loop is used to allow the locomotive to run round the train, the first Wembley Stadium station in London was on a balloon loop, but the present station of that name is not. Barmouth Ferry station on the Fairbourne Railway, blackpool Tramway has a balloon loop at each end of the system and at two intermediate points. Kennington station, also on the Northern line, has a loop to the south of the station to allow terminating southbound trains to reach the northbound platforms to form a return service

9.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate

10.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange

11.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year

12.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

13.
Heins & LaFarge
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Heins & LaFarge was a New York-based architectural firm composed of the Philadelphia-born architect George Lewis Heins and Christopher Grant LaFarge, the eldest son of the artist John La Farge. Heins & LaFarge provided the architecture and details for the Interborough Rapid Transit Company, the two young men met at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and trained together in the Boston offices of Henry Hobson Richardson. Heins married LaFarges aunt Aimée La Farge, who was two years older than her nephew. In 1886, they opened their office, Heins was the man on the site, LaFarge was the principal designer. In 1888, a competition for the Cathedral of St. The cornerstone was laid December 27,1892, but unexpectedly, Heins & LaFarge completed the east end and the crossing, temporarily roofed by Rafael Guastavino with a tiled dome. The Chapel of St. Columba was consecrated in 1911, the hired a new architect Ralph Adams Cram, whose nave and west front would be continued in French Gothic style. The fine stained glass may be from Tiffany studios, or may be by John La Farge, the architects father, in Washington DC, the church, now Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle, was begun in 1893, to designs of LaFarge. The interior is rich with frescoes and mosaics and inlaid marble floors in full American Renaissance manner, the first mass was celebrated on June 2,1895, and the completed church was dedicated in 1913. The firm designed other Catholic Churches, including the Church of the Blessed Sacrament, Providence, RI, La Farge has been called Americas leading church architect. He held that position until his death in 1907, while serving in that capacity his office designed the Flushing Armory, Geneva Armory, Gloversville Armory, Medina Armory, Main Street Armory in Rochester, Oneonta Armory and Oswego Armory. The central Administration Building, offering an arched passageway to the outdoor spaces, has complicated domed spaces formed of Guastavino tile. University commissions were also in their oeuvre, at Yale, their rusticated Richardsonian Romanesque design for a chapter building of St. Anthony Hall, also known as the Delta Psi fraternity, stood from 1894 to 1913. Their ornamental iron gates were re-used in the 1913 successor by Charles C, in 1903 Heins & LaFarge were commissioned to design the Municipal Building for Washington DC. The Italian quattrocento design features tall, paired campanili at the west end, the firm sent two young architects, W. Marbury Somervell and Joseph S. Coté, to oversee construction on the site, who went on to establish a thriving architectural practice in Seattle. The cornerstone ceremony took place on November 12,1905, the cathedral was completed in 1907 and solemnly dedicated on December 22,1907. The cathedral reopened on March 18,1917, but with a roof over the crossing. The central repositioning of the altar in response to reforms of the Second Vatican Council has finally brought it into the position envisaged by the architects

14.
Romanesque Revival architecture
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Romanesque Revival is a style of building employed beginning in the mid-19th century inspired by the 11th- and 12th-century Romanesque architecture. Unlike the historic Romanesque style, however, Romanesque Revival buildings tended to feature more simplified arches, an early variety of Romanesque Revival style known as Rundbogenstil was popular in German lands and in the German diaspora beginning in the 1830s. By far the most prominent and influential American architect working in a free Romanesque manner was Henry Hobson Richardson, in the United States, the style derived from examples set by him are termed Richardsonian Romanesque, of which not all are Romanesque Revival. In Scotland the style started to emerge with the Duke of Argyl’s castle at Inverary, started in 1744, and castles by Robert Adam at Culzean, Oxenfoord, Dalquharran and it was at this point that the Norman Revival became a recognisable architectural style. In 1817 Thomas Rickman published his An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture from the Conquest To the Reformation and it was now realised that ‘round-arch architecture’ was largely Romanesque in the British Isles and came to be described as Norman rather than Saxon. The start of an archaeologically correct Norman Revival can be recognised in the architecture of Thomas Hopper and his first attempt at this style was at Gosford Castle in Armagh in Ireland, but far more successful was his Penrhyn Castle near Bangor in North Wales. This was built for the Pennant family, between 1820 and 1837, however, the Norman Revival did catch on for church architecture. It was Thomas Penson, a Welsh architect, who would have been familiar with Hopper’s work at Penrhyn, Penson was influenced by French and Belgian Romanesque architecture, and particularly the earlier Romanesque phase of German Brick Gothic. At St David’s Newtown, 1843–47 and St Agatha’s Llanymynech,1845, he copies the tower of St. Salvators Cathedral, other examples of Romanesque revival by Penson are Christ Church, Welshpool, 1839–1844, and the porch to Langedwyn Church. He was an innovator in his use of Terracotta to produce decorative Romanesque mouldings, during the 19th century the architecture selected for Anglican churches depended on the churchmanship of particular congregations. Some of the examples of this Romanesque architecture is seen in Non-conformist or Dissenting churches. A good example of this is by the Lincoln architects Drury and Mortimer, after about 1870 this style of Church architecture in Britain disappears, but in the early 20th century, the style is succeeded by Byzantine Revival architecture. Two of Canadas provincial legislatures, the Ontario Legislative Building in Toronto, University College, one of seven colleges at the University of Toronto, is a chief example of the Romanesque Revival style. The building, designed by Frederic Cumberland and William G. Storm, was intended to be Gothic in style but was rejected by the governor general. Construction of the design began on 4 October 1856. The facade of University College has thick walls, incorporating layers of both stone and brick. The building possesses a number of round arches characteristic of the Roman Revival style, the arches are configured in arcades, most notably on the south side of the building. There is a deal of ornamentation on both the interior and exterior of University College

15.
Train station
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A train station, railway station, railroad station, or depot is a railway facility where trains regularly stop to load or unload passengers or freight. It generally consists of at least one platform and a station building providing such ancillary services as ticket sales. If a station is on a line, it often has a passing loop to facilitate traffic movements. The smallest stations are most often referred to as stops or, in parts of the world. Stations may be at level, underground, or elevated. Connections may be available to intersecting rail lines or other modes such as buses. In British usage, the station is commonly understood to mean a railway station unless otherwise qualified. In the United States, the most common term in contemporary usage is train station, Railway station and railroad station are less frequent. Outside North America, a depot is place where buses, trains, or other vehicles are housed and maintained and from which they are dispatched for service. The two-storey Mount Clare station in Baltimore, Maryland, which survives as a museum, first saw service as the terminus of the horse-drawn Baltimore. The oldest terminal station in the world was Crown Street railway station in Liverpool, built in 1830, as the first train on the Liverpool-Manchester line left Liverpool, the station is slightly older than the Manchester terminal at Liverpool Road. The station was the first to incorporate a train shed, the station was demolished in 1836 as the Liverpool terminal station moved to Lime Street railway station. Crown Street station was converted to a goods station terminal, the first stations had little in the way of buildings or amenities. The first stations in the modern sense were on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, manchesters Liverpool Road Station, the second oldest terminal station in the world, is preserved as part of the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester. It resembles a row of Georgian houses, dual-purpose stations can sometimes still be found today, though in many cases goods facilities are restricted to major stations. In rural and remote communities across Canada and the United States, such stations were known as flag stops or flag stations. Many stations date from the 19th century and reflect the architecture of the time. Countries where railways arrived later may still have such architecture, as later stations often imitated 19th-century styles, various forms of architecture have been used in the construction of stations, from those boasting grand, intricate, Baroque- or Gothic-style edifices, to plainer utilitarian or modernist styles

16.
Early history of the IRT subway
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The first regularly operated subway in New York City was built by the city and leased to the Interborough Rapid Transit Company for operation under Contracts 1 and 2 of the Dual Contracts. The system had four tracks between Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall and 96th Street, allowing for local and express service on that portion, a line through Lafayette Street to Union Square was considered, but at first a more costly route under lower Broadway was adopted. A legal battle with property owners along the route led to the courts denying permission to build through Broadway in 1896, the Elm Street route was chosen later that year, cutting west to Broadway via 42nd Street. The awkward alignment. along Forty-Second Street, as the commission put it, was necessitated by objections to using Broadway south of 34th Street, legal challenges were finally taken care of near the end of 1899. A contract, later known as Contract 1, was executed on February 21,1900, mcDonald and funded by August Belmont, for the construction of the subway and a 50-year operating lease from the opening of the line. Ground was broken at City Hall on March 24, operation of the subway began on October 27,1904, with the opening of all stations from City Hall to 145th Street on the West Side Branch. Service was extended to 157th Street on November 12,1904, the West Side Branch was extended northward to a temporary terminus of 221st Street and Broadway on March 12,1906. This extension was served by trains operating between 157th Street and 221st Street. Once the line was extended to 225th Street, the structure of the 221st Street was dismantled and was moved to 230th Street for a new temporary terminus, service was extended to the temporary terminus at 230th Street on January 27,1907. An extension of Contract 1 north to 242nd Street at Van Cortlandt Park was approved in 1906, when the line was extended to 242nd Street the temporary platforms at 230th Street were dismantled, and were rumored to be brought to 242 Street to serve as the stations side platforms. There were two stations on the line opened later, 191st Street and 207th Street. The 191st Street station did not open until January 14,1911 because the elevators, 207th Street was completed in 1906, but since it was located in a sparsely occupied area, the station was opened in 1907. The initial segment of the IRT White Plains Road Line opened on November 26,1904 between East 180th Street and Jackson Avenue, once the connection to the IRT Lenox Avenue Line opened on July 10,1905, trains from the newly opened IRT subway ran via the line. Elevated service via this connection was resumed on October 1,1907 when Second Avenue locals were extended to Freeman Street during rush hours. The line was extended to Fulton Street on January 16,1905, to Wall Street on June 12,1905. In order to complete Contract 2, the subway had to be extended under the East River to reach Brooklyn, on May 1,1908, the construction of Contract 2 was completed when the line was extended from Borough Hall to Atlantic Avenue near the Flatbush Avenue LIRR station. With the opening of the IRT to Brooklyn, ridership fell off on the BRTs elevated, express trains began at South Ferry in Manhattan or Atlantic Avenue in Brooklyn, while local trains typically began at South Ferry or City Hall, both in Manhattan. Local trains to the West Side Branch ran from City Hall during rush hours and continued south at other times, all three branches were served by express trains, no local trains used the East Side Branch to West Farms

17.
New York City Hall
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New York City Hall, the seat of New York City government, is located at the center of City Hall Park in the Civic Center area of Lower Manhattan, between Broadway, Park Row, and Chambers Street. Constructed from 1803 to 1812, New York City Hall is a National Historic Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, both its exterior and interior are designated New York City landmarks. New Amsterdams first City Hall was built by the Dutch in the 17th century near 73 Pearl Street, the citys second City Hall, built in 1700, stood on Wall and Nassau Streets. That building was renamed Federal Hall after New York became the first official capital of the United States after the Revolutionary War. Plans for building a new City Hall were discussed by the New York City Council as early as 1776, the Council chose a site at the old Common at the northern limits of the City, now City Hall Park. City Hall was originally an area for the first almhouse in 1653, in 1736, there was a financed almhouse for those who were fit to work, for the unfit, and those that were like criminals but were paupers. In 1802 the City held a competition for a new City Hall, mangin was also the architect of the landmark St. Patricks Old Cathedral on Mulberry Street. McComb, whose father had worked on the old City Hall, was a New Yorker and he would supervise the construction of the building, and designed the architectural detailing as well. Also, many architects were in favor of Greek Revival style and created Brooklyn City Hall, the cornerstone of the new City Hall was laid in 1803. Construction was delayed after the City Council objected that the design was too extravagant, labor disputes and an outbreak of yellow fever further slowed construction. The building was not dedicated until 1811, and opened officially in 1812, the Outer Room is adjacent to the traditional Mayors office, which is a small space on the northwest corner of the first floor. The Ceremonial Room is where the mayor would meet officials and hold small group meetings, there are 108 paintings from the late 18th century through the 20th. The New York Times declared it almost unrivaled as an ensemble, among the collection is John Trumbull’s 1805 portrait of Alexander Hamilton, the source of the face on the United States ten-dollar bill. There were significant efforts to restore the paintings in the 1920s and 1940s, in 2006 a new restoration campaign began for 47 paintings identified by the Art Commission as highest in priority. On July 23,2003 at 2,08 p. m, City Hall was the scene of a rare political assassination. Othniel Askew, a rival of City Councilman James E. Davis. Askew shot Davis twice, fatally wounding him, a police officer on the floor of the chamber then fatally shot Askew. Askew and Davis had entered the building together without passing through a metal detector, as a result of the security breach, then-Mayor Michael Bloomberg revised security policy to require that everyone entering the building pass through metal detectors without exception

18.
Guastavino tile
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Guastavino tile is the Tile Arch System patented in the United States in 1885 by Valencian architect and builder Rafael Guastavino. This is known as timbrel vaulting, because of supposed likeness to the skin of a timbrel or tambourine and it is also called Catalan vaulting and compression-only thin-tile vaulting. Guastavino tile is found in some of New York’s most prominent Beaux-Arts landmarks, the Guastavino terracotta tiles are standardized, less than an inch thick, and approximately 6 inches by 12 inches across. They are usually set in three courses with a sandwich of thin layers of Portland cement. Unlike heavier stone construction, these domes could be built without centering. Each tile was cantilevered out over the space, relying only on the quick drying cements developed by the company. Akoustolith, a sound absorbing tile, was one of several trade names used by Guastavino. Guastavino tile has both structural and aesthetic significance, structurally, the timbrel vault was based on traditional vernacular vaulting techniques already very familiar to Mediterranean architects, but not well known in America. Terracotta free-span timbrel vaults were far more economical and structurally resilient than the ancient Roman vaulting alternatives, Guastavino wrote extensively about his system of Cohesive Construction. As the name suggests, he believed that these timbrel vaults represented an innovation in structural engineering, the tile system provided solutions that were impossible with traditional masonry arches and vaults. In 2012, a group of students under supervision of MIT professor John Ochsendorf built a reproduction of a small Guastavino vault. The resulting structure was exhibited, as well as a time lapse video documenting the construction process, the exhibition then traveled to the National Building Museum in Washington DC, and an expanded version appeared at the Museum of the City of New York. In addition, Ochsendorf directs the Guastavino Project at MIT, which researches, the Guastavino company was headquartered in Woburn, Massachusetts, in a building of their own design which still stands. Guastavino vaulting, the art of structural tile, palacesForThePeople. com global database of Guastavino sites with photos. Created as a companion to an exhibition that traveled to three American museums, 2012-2014. Guastavino. net, documenting Guastavinos work in the Boston area and this page provides copies of writings and patents by the Guastavinos as well. Rafaelguastavino. com, documenting Guastavinos work in New York City CONSTRUCTION OF A VAULT, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

19.
Skylight
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Skylights are light transmitting fenestration forming all, or a portion of, the roof of a buildings space for daylighting purposes. Open skylights were used in Ancient Roman architecture, such as the oculus of the Pantheon, glazed closed skylights have been in use since the Industrial Revolution made advances in glass production manufacturing. Mass production units since the century have brought skylights to many uses. Uses include, daylighting elements used to allow direct and/or indirect sunlight, providing a visual connection to the outdoor environment to interior occupants. Sustainable building — passive solar heating, and with units, ventilation for passive cooling. Fixed unit skylight A fixed skylight consists of a perimeter frame supporting glazing infill. A fixed skylight is non-operable, meaning there is no ventilation, operable skylight An operable unit skylight uses a hinged sash attached to and supported by the frame. When within reach of the occupants, this type is called a roof window. Retractable skylight A retractable skylight rolls - on a set of tracks - off the frame, so that the interior of the facility is open to the outdoors. The terms retractable skylight and retractable roof are used interchangeably. Tubular daylight device Active daylighting uses a tubular daylight device—TDD and it is a roof-mounted fixed unit skylight element, condensing sunlight, distributed by a light conveying optic conduit to a light diffusing element. Being small in diameter, they can be used for daylighting smaller spaces such as hallways, TDDs harvest daylight through a roof-mounted dome with diameters ranging from about 10 inches for residential applications to 22 inches for commercial buildings. Made from acrylic or polycarbonate formulated to block ultraviolet rays, the dome captures, image, Skylight on the roof terrace of Liverpool Central Library. Skylights are widely used in designing daylighting for residential, public, increased daylighting can result in less electrical lighting use and smaller sized window glazing, saving energy, lowering costs, and reducing environmental impacts. Daylighting can cut lighting energy use in buildings by up to 80%. Modern transparent and/or translucent glazing can be utilized to avoid glare, aid in capturing sunlight at low angles, even on overcast days, toplighting from skylights is three to ten times more efficient than sidelighting. Many recent advances in glass and plastic infill systems have greatly benefited all skylight types. Contemporary skylights using glass infill typically use sealed insulating glass units made with two panes of glass and these types of products are NFRC-ratable for visible transmittance

20.
Chandelier
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A chandelier /ˌʃæn. dəlˈɪər/ is a decorative ceiling-mounted light fixture, a distinct type of pendant light. Chandeliers are often ornate, and normally use incandescent light bulbs, crystal chandeliers have more or less complex arrays of crystal prisms to illuminate a room with refracted light. Chandeliers are often located in hallways, living rooms, dining rooms, the word chandelier was first known in the English language in the 1736, borrowed from the Old French word chandelier, which comes from the Latin candelabrum. The earliest candle chandeliers were used by the wealthy in medieval times, from the 15th century, more complex forms of chandeliers, based on ring or crown designs, became popular decorative features in palaces and homes of nobility, clergy and merchants. Its high cost made the chandelier a symbol of luxury and status, by the early 18th century, ornate cast ormolu forms with long, curved arms and many candles were in the homes of many in the growing merchant class. Neoclassical motifs became a common element, mostly in cast metals. Chandeliers made in style also drew heavily on the aesthetic of ancient Greece and Rome, incorporating clean lines, classical proportions. During the 18th century glass chandeliers were produced by Bohemiens and Venetian glassmakers who were masters in the art of making chandeliers. Bohemian style was successful across Europe and its biggest draw was the chance to obtain spectacular light refraction due to facets. As a reaction to this new taste Italian glass factories in Murano created new kinds of light sources. Since Murano glass was not suitable for faceting, typical work realized at the time in countries where crystal was used. Typical features of a Murano chandelier are the intricate arabeques of leaves, flowers and fruits that would be enriched by coloured glass, made possible by the specific type of glass used in Murano. This glass they worked with was so unique, as it was glass and was a complete contrast to all different types of glass produced in the world at that time. An incredible amount of skill and time was required to precisely twist and this new type of chandelier was called ciocca literally bouquet of flowers, for the characteristic decorations of glazed polychrome flowers. One of the use of the huge Murano Chandeliers was the interior lighting of theatres. In the mid-19th century, as gas lighting caught on, branched ceiling fixtures called gasoliers were produced, by the 1890s, with the appearance of electric light, some chandeliers used both gas and electricity. As distribution of electricity widened, and supplies became dependable, electric-only chandeliers became standard, Another portmanteau word, electrolier, was formed for these, but nowadays they are most commonly called chandeliers. Some are fitted with bulbs shaped to imitate candle flames, for example those shown below in Epsom and Chatsworth, the worlds largest English Glass chandelier, is located in the Dolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul

21.
Rafael Guastavino
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Rafael Guastavino Moreno was a Spanish architect and builder. Guastavino tile is found in some of New Yorks most prominent Beaux-Arts landmarks and it is used in a huge number of architecturally important and famous buildings with vaulted spaces. Guastavino was not the architect for most of the projects. In 1881 he came to New York City from Barcelona, with his youngest son, in Spain he had been an accomplished architect trained in Barcelona and was a contemporary of Antoni Gaudi. Years later he was commissioned by the firm of McKim, Mead, and Whites Boston Public Library, which increased his reputation with every major architect on the East Coast. His published drawings of interior decoration of the Spanish Renaissance style caught the eye of an architect, after working on the estate, he decided to build his own retirement home in the mountains of Black Mountain, North Carolina in a 500-acre valley. His house, Rhododendron, had a vineyard, dairy, brick kiln and this property currently is owned by Christmount Assembly, the conference center for the Christian Church. He and his son developed twenty-four items that were awarded patents and their company, Guastavino Fireproof Construction Company, run by the father then by his son, was incorporated in 1889 and executed its final contract in 1962. Akoustolith was one of several names used by Guastavino. Literally hundreds of major building projects incorporate the distinctive Tile Arch System, in Chicago, the central nave vaulting of Rockefeller Chapel at the University of Chicago uses 100,000 Guastavino tiles. Bartolomews Episcopal Church, and in Washington, D. C. in the U. S. Supreme Court building and the National Museum of Natural History on the National Mall. Guastavino tiles form the domes of Philadelphias St. Francis de Sales Roman Catholic Church, and in Pittsburghs Union Station, in Nebraska, the tiles may be seen in the Nebraska State Capitol. In 1900, New York architects Heins & LaFarge hired Guastavino to help construct City Hall station, the showpiece for the IRT. Guastavino also installed the ceiling of the arcade of the Manhattan Municipal Building. Having experienced Ellis Island as an immigrant, in 1917 the younger Guastavino was commissioned to rebuild the ceiling of the Ellis Island Great Hall. The largest dome created by the Guastavino Company was over the crossing for the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine in Manhattan. This dome was intended to be a structure, to be replaced by a high central tower. In 2009 this temporary fix celebrated the 100th anniversary of its construction, in large part, Guastavino received this contract due to the much lower price he could quote because his system served as its own scaffolding

22.
6 (New York City Subway service)
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The 6 Lexington Avenue/Pelham Local and <6> Lexington Avenue Local/Pelham Express are two rapid transit services in the A Division of the New York City Subway. Their route emblems, or bullets, are colored apple green since they use the IRT Lexington Avenue Line in Manhattan. Local service is denoted by a 6 in a bullet, and express service is denoted by a <6> in a diamond-shaped bullet, on the R62A cars. Rollsigns on the R62A cars also feature LED signs around the logo to indicate local or express service to riders, a green circle for 6 local trains. 6 trains operate local at all times between Pelham Bay Park in the Bronx and Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall in Lower Manhattan, during weekdays in the peak direction, <6> Pelham Express trains replace 6 local ones north of Parkchester, and run express between that station and Third Avenue–138th Street. During this time,6 Pelham Local trains short turn at Parkchester, weekdays from 9,00 to 11,00 a. m. select Manhattan-bound <6> trains run local from Parkchester to Hunts Point Avenue while select Parkchester-bound 6 trains run express in that section. On October 27,1904, local and express service opened on the subway in Manhattan. From there, the service traveled west on 42nd Street on the route of the present 42nd Street Shuttle, the current H configuration—with separate services along Lexington Avenue and Broadway – Seventh Avenue—was introduced in 1917. Full Lexington Avenue local service from City Hall to 125th Street opened on July 17,1918, on August 1,1918, Third Avenue–138th Street opened with trains running between there and City Hall, making all stops. On January 17,1919 trains were extended from 138th Street to Hunts Point Avenue, on October 24,1920,6 service was extended again to Westchester Square. On December 20,1920,6 service was extended to Pelham Bay Park, from that point on, the current 6 service was formed. All trains ran local between Pelham Bay Park and Brooklyn Bridge, with trains terminating at the City Hall loop. Effective December 31,1945, City Hall station closed with the former Brooklyn Bridge station being the permanent southern terminal, however, the 6 train still uses the loop to get from the southbound to the northbound local track at Brooklyn Bridge-City Hall. On May 10,1946, late-night service was extended from 125th Street to its previous terminus at Brooklyn Bridge when late night service on the 4 was restored. This express service saved eight minutes between Third Avenue and East 177th Street, during this time,6 trains that ran local in the Bronx when express trains operated began to terminate at East 177 Street to make room for express trains to Pelham Bay Park. On September 22,1948,54 additional cars were placed in service on the 6 train, from December 15 to 22,1950, the weekday rush trains from Pelham Bay Park were extended to South Ferry. On June 23,1956, Saturday morning express service began operating local on the 6 train. From March 1,1960 to October 17,1965, the 4 and 6 trains also ran together in Manhattan late nights when late night express service on the 4 was discontinued for a time

23.
Robert Van Wyck
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Robert Anderson Van Wyck was the first mayor of New York City after the consolidation of the five boroughs into the City of Greater New York in 1898. Robert Anderson Van Wyck was the son of William Van Wyck and he was one of seven children, including a brother Augustus and a sister Lydia Maverick Van Wyck. He was a distant cousin of Charles Van Wyck, their ancestors were Theodorus Van Wyck. He studied at the Wilson Academy in North Carolina, and later graduated from Columbia University and his sister Lydia married Robert Hoke of North Carolina, a Confederate general during the American Civil War and businessman. Van Wyck began working in business, then studied law and became an attorney and he enjoyed a large practice for many years before entering politics. His business life depended on his social connections as well, Van Wyck was a member of the Holland Society, of which he became President. He belonged to many of the clubs of the city. For many years Van Wyck took an active interest in Democratic Party matters, attending conventions, state. Later, Van Wyck was elected Judge of the City Court of New York, Van Wyck resigned as justice to accept the Democratic Party nomination for Mayor of New York City. He was elected in 1897 by a large majority. He served as mayor of New York City between 1898 and 1901, as the first mayor to govern New York City after its five boroughs had been consolidated into a single city. As Mayor, he brought together the municipal corporations comprising the greater city, adjusting their finances. He directed construction of the Interborough Rapid Transit, the first subway in Manhattan, Van Wyck is generally regarded as a colorless mayor, selected by the leaders of Tammany Hall as a man who would do little to interfere with their running of the city. The New York World reported that the American Ice Company of Charles W. Morse planned to double the price of ice, in the era before refrigeration, this had potentially fatal effects, as ice was the only preservative available to keep food, milk, and medicines fresh. The high price would have put ice beyond reach of many of the citys poor – Tammanys main power base in the years of waves of immigration, American Ice was forced to reverse its decision due to the public outcry. Van Wycks political rivals forced an investigation into the issue, in addition, Van Wyck, whose salary as mayor was only $15,000, owned, and had apparently not paid for, $680,000 worth of American Ice stock. The Ice Trust Scandal destroyed Van Wycks political career and was reckoned to have cost Tammany the elections of 1901. Two years later, the New York Times characterized the Van Wyck administration as one mired in black ooze, governor Theodore Roosevelt initiated an investigation, which determined that Van Wyck had not been personally implicated in the Ice Trust Scandal

24.
Mezzanine
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A mezzanine is an intermediate floor in a building which is partly open to the double-height ceilinged floor below. Mezzanines may serve a variety of functions. Industrial mezzanines, such as used in warehouses, may be temporary or semi-permanent structures. A mezzanine is a floor in a building which is open to the floor below. It is placed halfway up the wall on a floor which has a ceiling at least twice as high as a floor with minimum height, a mezzanine does not count as one of the floors in a building, and generally does not count in determining maximum floorspace. The International Building Code permits a mezzanine to have as much as one-third of the space of the floor below. Local building codes may vary somewhat from this standard, a space may have more than one mezzanine, as long as the sum total of floor space of all the mezzanines is not greater than one-third the floor space of the complete floor below. Mezzanines help to make a high-ceilinged space feel more personal and less vast, mezzanines, however, may have lower-than-normal ceilings due to their location. The term mezzanine does not imply a function, as mezzanines can be used for an array of purposes. Mezzanines are commonly used in Modern architecture, which places an emphasis on light. In industrial settings, mezzanines may be installed in high-ceilinged spaces such as warehouses and these semi-permanent structures are usually free-standing, can be dismantled and relocated, and are sold commercially. Industrial mezzanine structures can be supported by steel columns and elements. Depending on the span and the run of the mezzanine, different materials may be used for the mezzanines deck, some industrial mezzanines may also include enclosed, paneled office space on their upper levels. Reports suggest that the amount of steel required can be reduced by up to 35%, an architect is sometimes hired to help determine whether the floor of the building can support a mezzanine, and to design the appropriate mezzanine. Structural Wood Design, A Practice-Oriented Approach, the Architects Studio Companion, Rules of Thumb for Preliminary Design. Coates, Michael, Brooker, Graeme, Stone, Sally, the Visual Dictionary of Interior Architecture and Design. Buildings for Industrial Storage and Distribution, the Mingqi Pottery Buildings of Han Dynasty China,206 BC-AD220, Architectural Representations and Represented Architecture. Structure of the Ordinary, Form and Control in the Built Environment, harris, Cyril M. Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture

25.
Platform gap filler
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Platform gap fillers are movable platform edge extensions at subway or train stations where the curvature of the platform creates a significant gap between the platform and subway or train car door. Some Japanese railway stations have platform gap fillers, called kadō steppu in Japanese, over 200 fillers are used in the Tokyo subway. When the IRT modified existing cars and ordered new cars with a middle door, gap fillers were needed because the middle door was not near the platform. After the City of New York bought the IRT in 1940, new car designs had the end away from the extreme ends of the carbody. IRT stations with gap fillers are, South Ferry, outer loop, the station closed on March 16,2009 and was replaced by a new station which does not require gap fillers. After the latter station was damaged by flooding during Hurricane Sandy, the 2009-era station will reopen when repairs are completed in 2017. Brooklyn Bridge – City Hall originally had gap fillers on the express tracks and these were deactivated when the station was extended northward. These gap fillers are still in place and can be seen just south of the current platforms, 14th Street – Union Square has gap fillers on both tracks on the downtown platform. There may have been gap fillers on the express platform. A new design of gap filler was installed in 2004 to provide access from the platform rather than requiring crews to stand at track level. Times Square has them on Shuttle tracks 1 and 3 and they are mounted under the platform rather than on it, so they are not ADA accessible. Platform gap fillers are used in the Mass Rapid Transit system of Singapore, namely the North South MRT Line and the East West MRT Line. Platform gap fillers are also planned for installation on trains on the North East MRT Line, platform gap Mind the gap Media related to Train station platform gap fillers at Wikimedia Commons

26.
Canal Street (New York City Subway)
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Canal Street is a New York City Subway station complex. It is located in the Manhattan neighborhoods of Chinatown and SoHo, and is shared by the BMT Broadway Line, the IRT Lexington Avenue Line, three of the four are perpendicular to Canal Street, crossing at Broadway, Lafayette Street and Centre Street. The Broadway-Manhattan Bridge Line platforms are directly underneath Canal Street itself, the Bridge Line platforms serve as transfer passageways between all other lines. After leaving Canal Street, the Manhattan Bridge Line makes a right onto Broadway. The complex was renovated between 1999 and 2004. The Broadway Main Line station was restored to its look with new mosaics featuring Chinese characters. The symbols on the red wall plaques mean money and luck, during the most recent renovation in the 1990s, the original mosaics were uncovered but then either removed or covered over again. One of the original tablets has been preserved at the New York Transit Museum, Canal Street on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line is a local station that has four tracks and two side platforms. This station, opened on October 27,1904, as part of the original subway, due to platform lengthening in the 1940s and 1950s, there are two distinct sections of this station. The original portion has tile-covered I-beams with small and large mosaics, the newer portion has 1950s green tile at the end of the platforms. There are also IND-type To Canal Street signs, non-original name tables and small C mosaics exist. Each platform has its own ADA-accessible elevator that leads to either corner of Canal. These elevators were installed when the complex was renovated in the late 1990s, the northbound platforms elevator leads to the northeastern corner of that intersection, while the southbound platforms elevator leads to the northwestern corner. Canal Street on the BMT Nassau Street Line has three tracks and two platforms, but only the western island platform is accessible to passengers. These stub-end tracks were last used in the mid-1990s when weekend J service ended here instead of Chambers Street, the former northbound local track is now used only for non-revenue moves, train storage and emergencies while the northbound express stub track was removed. The former northbound local track merges with the southbound express track south of the station. This station was completed at the end of 1909 and included a bridge over the proposed Canal Street subway to cross underneath, part of the Canal Street subway was built and is part of the Manhattan Bridge Line. Delayed by construction of the Chambers Street station, this part of the Nassau/Centre Street subway opened in August 1913

27.
Worth Street (IRT Lexington Avenue Line)
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Worth Street was a local station on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line of the New York City Subway. It is located at Lafayette Street and Worth Street, and has four tracks, Worth Street was one of the 28 original stations of the first subway line in Manhattan, opening on October 27,1904. At this time, Worth Street served local trains from the now-abandoned City Hall station to 145th Street at Broadway, like all the local stops, it was originally about 200 feet long to accommodate five-car trains. The first door of the first car and last door of the last car were left past the ends and were not opened. Because of overcrowding, the Public Service Commission ordered the local platforms extended a few yards into the manholes at the ends, that is, the space left for access to equipment closets. Completed in 1910, this gave just enough room for local trains with only a door of the first and last cars at the platform. The second platform lengthening was done in 1948 by the Board of Transportation on the side only that provided for the full length of a ten-car train. The work was done on the side to save costs. This side was chosen as it was the unloading side in the business district. On January 3,1957, the New York City Transit Authority announced that station would be closed within two years as part of a plan to improve the Brooklyn Bridge – City Hall station. As part of the project, the platforms at Brooklyn Bridge would be lengthened to accommodate ten-car trains, in order to achieve both of these goals, the platforms would be extended 250 to the north. The Worth Street station would be closed as it would only be 600 feet away from the platforms at Brooklyn Bridge, if the station were retained, service on the line would be slowed down, and no signal system could operate well in such a short distance. The project would cost $4,400,000 and was projected to take two years, the station was closed on September 1,1962 once the work at Brooklyn Bridge was completed. After the Worth Street stations closure, Brooklyn Bridge – City Hall was named Brooklyn Bridge – Worth Street on platform signs until 1995 and this station lies beneath the sidewalk on the west side of Foley Square. When the Federal Plaza Building was in the stages, it was found that, because of the existence of the station. As a result, the structure is set far back from the street, the buildings plaza and fountain lie directly above the station. The stations platforms are visible from the windows of trains between Canal Street and Brooklyn Bridge – City Hall. 18th Street 91st Street nycsubway. org – IRT East Side Line, Worth Street Abandoned Stations — Worth Street Forgotten NY — Original 28 - NYCs First 28 Subway Stations

28.
Fulton Street (New York City Subway)
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Fulton Street is a New York City Subway station complex in Lower Manhattan. It consists of four linked stations on the IND Eighth Avenue Line, the IRT Lexington Avenue Line, the BMT Nassau Street Line and the IRT Broadway – Seventh Avenue Line. The last three cross Fulton Street at Broadway, Nassau Street, and William Street respectively, the Eighth Avenue Line station is underneath Fulton Street, the station is the eighth busiest in the system, as of 2015, with 21,671,684 passengers. It links the Fulton Street subway station with the nearby Cortlandt Street station, the Fulton Center opened on November 10,2014. Fulton Street is a station on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line with two tracks and two side platforms and this station opened on January 16,1905 as part of a one-stop extension southbound from Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall. Only the northbound platform was in use when service started at this station, the southbound platform opened for service on June 12,1905, when the subway was extended one stop to the south at Wall Street. This marked the first time that the subway had been extended further downtown and towards Brooklyn, originally, only the southbound platform was ADA-accessible. In October 2012, a new entrance on Dey Street opened for the Dey Street underpass to Cortlandt Street, in November 2014, the northbound platform became accessible through an elevator to the underpass that connected to the southbound platform. Because the local tracks loop at the abandoned City Hall station to the north, the station, which is now a registered New York City Landmark, features a mosaic of the steamboat built by Robert Fulton. The southbound platform incorporates an ornate entrance to the building at 195 Broadway, which features fluted columns, engraved metal signs, ornate railings, and blacked out store windows. Despite being on the Lexington Avenue Line, the station lies underneath Broadway between Cortlandt and Fulton Streets, as the line takes its name from its Upper East Side trunk avenue. A number of exits to street level are available at Dey, John, Subway Ceramics, A History and Iconography. ISBN 978-0-9635486-1-0 Fulton Street on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line opened on August 1,1918 as part of an extension towards Brooklyn and it originally opened to a temporary terminus at Wall Street before the Clark Street Tunnel could open. Fulton Street station has a standard configuration of two tracks and one island platform. Brooklyn-bound trains use track K2 while uptown trains use track K3 and these designations come from track chaining which measures track distances and are not used in normal conversation. Based on this chaining, Fulton Street is about 19,700 ft from post zero at Broadway and this is slightly non-standard signage because it is a local station using express track numbers as these tracks become the express tracks on the main line, providing a reasonable explanation. The Marine Grill Murals, salvaged from the restaurant of the name in the Hotel McAlpin. The station has two mezzanines, separated at Fulton Street, the full-time entrance is to the south mezzanine, at the southeast corner of Fulton and William Streets

29.
Wall Street (IRT Lexington Avenue Line)
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Wall Street is a station on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line of the New York City Subway, located at the intersection of Broadway and Wall Street. It is served by the 4 train at all times and the 5 train at all times except late nights and this station opened on June 12,1905, as a one-stop extension of the original subway from Fulton Street. On January 6,1994, Automated Fare Collection turnstiles went into service at this station, Wall Street is an underground, two-tracked station, with two side platforms that are slightly offset from one another. The standard IRT name tablet mosaics are original as well as the fancy ceiling accents, on the southbound platform is a wooden token booth and ticket chopper, wooden restroom doors on each side. The walls on the platforms are clad in stone at the bottom, followed by white tiles, the name of the station in white letters and blue mosaics. The top part is decorated with tiles depicting vines or artistic depictions of a New Amsterdam stapled colonial house with the wall in front of it. The entrances are covered with curved metal roofs painted green, the metal is sculpted with patterns made to resemble wood or leaves. There is a crossunder about midway along the length of the platforms, and a lesser-used one at the north end. On the south end, between Rector Street and Exchange Place, there are two exits to either side of Broadway, with the exits on the east side. There are faux kiosks on the southbound side and this passageway also leads to the Chase Manhattan Plaza and the old Equitable Building. The stations have an exit to the eastern corner of Cedar. On the north end on the side only, there is an exit under the Trinity Building. It has an opulent gold-colored banner proclaiming SUBWAY ENTRANCE atop the entrance, the exit also has a Subway restaurant outside fare control. The original white tiles from the early 20th century were walled over with dark blue tiles in the 1970s. Similar remodeling work was done during that time with 51st Street station on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line, in 2006, a project to renovate/restore the station back to its original appearance began. As of May 2006, the blue tiles mentioned above had been removed, the condition of the original tiles were fair to poor to completely missing. All missing tiles were refitted based on original models, Subway Ceramics, A History and Iconography. ISBN 978-0-9635486-1-0 nycsubway. org – IRT East Side Line, Wall Street Wall Street - Rector Street entrance from Google Maps Street View Platforms from Google Maps Street View

30.
New York Transit Museum
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The main Museum is located in the decommissioned Court Street subway station in Downtown Brooklyn and Brooklyn Heights in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. There is a smaller satellite Museum Annex in Grand Central Terminal in the area of Manhattan. The museum is located in a subway station, which was originally called Court Street. The station has one island platform with two tracks. The tracks end at bumper blocks just beyond the west end of the platform, the station walls feature a tile band set in a course two tiles high, colored aquamarine with a cerulean blue border. Court Street was to be the terminal of the HH Fulton Street Local. Due to the proximity of other stations in the Downtown Brooklyn area, as well as the need to transfer to reach it, following the stations closure, most of the entrances to the street were sealed. While the station was closed to the public, non-revenue trains would run to and from the station. On March 15,1960, the New York City Transit Authority tested a new cleaning process on the walls of the Court Street station, meanwhile, the sealed but still-present station entrances became dumping grounds for garbage. The station was used a set for movies, three years after its closing in 1949, the station was used for the filming of the film Guilty Bystander. On November 26,1956, the station was used to film a scene of The FBI Story, to this day, the station and its connecting tunnels are still used for movie shoots. The 2009 The Taking of Pelham One Two Three, a remake of the 1974 movie, was filmed there. More recently, the Museum appeared in the Life on Mars episode The Simple Secret of the Note In Us All, the Museum remains open to requests to use the station for filming, as well as to host private events during hours the Museum is not normally open. The station was a two-track, one-island platformed station while in service, an ADA-accessible chair lift and elevator were added after the station was converted into a museum. On July 4,1976, the New York City Transit Exhibit was opened in the underground station as part of the United States Bicentennial celebration. Old subway cars which had preserved, as well as models. Plans were to keep the open until September 7 of that year. On weekends during its opening, museum nostalgia trains would run between 57th Street − Sixth Avenue and Rockaway Park, making an intermittent hour-long stop at the exhibit

31.
1998 United States embassy bombings
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The FBI also connected the attack to Azerbaijan, as 60 calls were placed via satellite phone by bin Laden to associates in the countrys capital Baku. Fazul Abdullah Mohammed and Abdullah Ahmed Abdullah were credited for being the masterminds behind the bombings, the following month, a communique was issued warning the United States that a response was being prepared to repay them for their interference. However, the 9/11 Commission Report claims that preparations began shortly after bin Laden issued his February 1998 fatwa and he also told his followers that the genocide in Rwanda had been planned inside the two American embassies. Wright concludes that bin Ladens actual goal was to lure the United States into Afghanistan, in May 1998, a villa in Nairobi was purchased by one of the bombers to enable a bomb to be built in the garage. Sheikh Ahmed Salim Swedan purchased a beige Toyota Dyna truck in Nairobi, six metal bars were used to form a cage on the back of the Atlas to accommodate the bomb. In June 1998, KK Mohamed rented House 213 in the Illala district of Dar es Salaam, a white Suzuki Samurai was used to haul bomb components hidden in rice sacks, to House 213. In both Nairobi and Dar es Salaam, Mohammed Odeh supervised construction of two large,2, 000-pound destructive devices. The Nairobi bomb was made of 400 to 500 cylinders of TNT, ammonium nitrate, aluminium powder, the explosives were packed into twenty specially designed wooden crates that were sealed and then placed in the bed of the trucks. Mushin Musa Matwalli Atwah ran a wire from the bomb to a set of batteries in the back of the truck cab and then to a detonator switch beneath the dashboard. The bombings were scheduled for August 7, the anniversary of the arrival of American troops in Saudi Arabia during the early stages of the Persian Gulf War. 213 people were killed in the Nairobi blast, while 11 were killed in Dar es Salaam, an estimated 4,000 in Nairobi were wounded, and another 85 in Dar es Salaam. Seismological readings analyzed after the bombs indicated energy of between 3 to 17 short tons of explosive material. S. Marine, Sergeant Jesse Aliganga, a Marine Security Guard at the Nairobi embassy, U. S. Army Sergeant Kenneth R. Hobson II was one of the 12 Americans killed in the attack. Al-Owhali threw a grenade at embassy guards before exiting the vehicle. As Bwaku radioed to Marine Post One for backup, the truck detonated, the explosion damaged the embassy building and collapsed the neighboring Ufundi Building where most victims were killed, mainly students and staff of a secretarial college housed here. The heat from the blast was channelled between the buildings towards Haile Selassie Avenue where a packed commuter bus was burned, windows were shattered in a radius of nearly 1⁄2 mile. Following the attacks, a group calling itself the Liberation Army for Holy Sites took credit for the bombings, American investigators believe the term was a cover used by Egyptian Islamic Jihad, who had actually perpetrated the bombing. The United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1189 condemning the attacks on the embassies, both embassies were heavily damaged and the Nairobi embassy had to be rebuilt

32.
Mayoralty of Rudy Giuliani
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Rudy Giuliani served as the 107th Mayor of New York City from January 1,1994 until December 31,2001. In Giulianis first term as mayor the New York City Police Department, under Giuliani appointee Commissioner Bill Bratton, adopted an aggressive enforcement and deterrence strategy based on James Q. At a forum three months into his term as mayor, Giuliani mentioned that freedom does not mean that people can do anything they want, be anything they can be. Freedom is about the willingness of every human being to cede to lawful authority a great deal of discretion about what you do. Giuliani also directed the New York City Police Department to aggressively pursue enterprises linked to organized crime, such as the Fulton Fish Market, by breaking mob control of solid waste removal, the city was able to save businesses over $600 million. In turn, the gathering of statistics on specific personnel aimed to increase accountability of both commanders and officers, critics of the system assert that it instead creates an incentive to underreport or otherwise manipulate crime data. The CompStat initiative won the 1996 Innovations in Government Award from the Kennedy School of Government, Bratton, not Giuliani, was featured on the cover of Time Magazine in 1996. Giuliani forced Bratton out of his position two years, in what was generally seen as a battle of two large egos in which Giuliani was unable to accept Brattons celebrity. Giuliani continued to highlight crime reduction and law enforcement as central missions of his mayoralty throughout both terms, however, concurrent with his achievements, a number of tragic cases of abuse of authority came to light, and numerous allegations of civil rights abuses were leveled against the NYPD. Giulianis own Deputy Mayor, Rudy Washington, alleged that he had been harassed by police on several occasions, more controversial still were several police shootings of unarmed suspects, and the scandals surrounding the sexual torture of Abner Louima and the killing of Amadou Diallo. While many New Yorkers accused Giuliani of racism during his terms, former mayor Ed Koch defended him as even-handedly harsh, Blacks, would say to me, Hes a racist. I said, Absolutely not, hes nasty to everybody, the amount of credit Giuliani deserves for the drop in the crime rate is disputed. He may have been the beneficiary of an already in progress. Crime rates in New York City started to drop in 1991 under previous mayor David Dinkins, the rates of most crimes, including all categories of violent crime, made consecutive declines during the last 36 months of Dinkinss four-year term, ending a 30-year upward spiral. A small but significant nationwide drop in crime also preceded Giulianis election, two likely contributing factors to this overall decline in crime were federal funding of an additional 7,000 police officers and an improvement in the national economy. But many experts believe changing demographics were the most significant cause, Some have pointed out that during this time, murders inside the home, which could not be prevented by more police officers, decreased at the same rate as murders outside the home. Also, since the index is based on the FBI crime index. According to some analyses, the rate in New York City fell even more in the 1990s and 2000s than nationwide and therefore credit should be given to a local dynamic

33.
Cornus
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Cornus is a genus of about 30–60 species of woody plants in the family Cornaceae, commonly known as dogwoods, which can generally be distinguished by their blossoms, berries, and distinctive bark. Most are deciduous trees or shrubs, but a few species are herbaceous perennial subshrubs. Several species have small heads of inconspicuous flowers surrounded by an involucre of large, typically white petal-like bracts, depending on botanical interpretation, the dogwoods are variously divided into one to nine genera or subgenera, a broadly inclusive genus Cornus is accepted here. The name dog-tree entered the English vocabulary before 1548, becoming dogwood by 1614, once the name dogwood was affixed to this kind of tree, it soon acquired a secondary name as the Hounds Tree, while the fruits came to be known as dogberries or houndberries. Another theory advances the view that dogwood was derived from the Old English dagwood, another, earlier name of the dogwood in English is the whipple-tree. Geoffrey Chaucer uses whippletree in The Canterbury Tales to refer to the dogwood, dogwoods have simple, untoothed leaves with the veins curving distinctively as they approach the leaf margins. Most dogwood species have leaves, while a few, such as Cornus alternifolia. The fruits of all species are drupes with one or two seeds, often brightly colorful. The drupes of species in the subgenera Cornus are edible, Cornus kousa and Cornus mas are sold commercially as edible fruit trees. The fruits of Cornus kousa have a sweet, tropical pudding like flavor in addition to hard pits, the fruits of Cornus mas are both tart and sweet when completely ripe. They have been eaten in Eastern Europe for centuries, both as food and medicine to fight colds and flus and they are very high in vitamin C. However, those of species in subgenus Swida are mildly toxic to people, ahenella, C. salicivorella, C. albiantennaella, C. cornella and C. cornivorella, with the latter three all feeding exclusively on Cornus. Dogwoods are widely planted horticulturally, and the wood of the larger-stemmed species is valued for certain specialized purposes. Cutting boards and other fine turnings can be made from fine grained. Over 32 different varieties of birds, including quail, feed on the red seeds. The Dogwood flower motif was adopted as British Columbias provincial flower in 1956, actually a flowering tree, the Pacific Dogwood is known for its white blooms, brilliant red berries and bright foliage in the fall. It stands about eight to ten metres high, and blossoms in April, except the hottest and driest areas. In contrast, in England the lack of sharp winters and hot summers makes Cornus florida very shy of flowering, other Cornus species are stoloniferous shrubs that grow naturally in wet habitats and along waterways

34.
Broadway (Manhattan)
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Broadway /ˈbrɔːdweɪ/ is a road in the U. S. state of New York. It is the oldest north–south main thoroughfare in New York City, dating to the first New Amsterdam settlement, the name Broadway is the English language literal translation of the Dutch name, Brede weg. Broadway is known widely as the heart of the American theatre industry, Broadway was originally the Wickquasgeck Trail, carved into the brush of Manhattan by its Native American inhabitants. Wickquasgeck means birch-bark country in the Algonquian language and this trail originally snaked through swamps and rocks along the length of Manhattan Island. Upon the arrival of the Dutch, the trail became the main road through the island from Nieuw Amsterdam at the southern tip. The Dutch explorer and entrepreneur David Pietersz. de Vries gives the first mention of it in his journal for the year 1642, the Dutch named the road Heerestraat. Although current street signs are simply labeled as Broadway, in a 1776 map of New York City, in the mid-eighteenth century, part of Broadway in what is now lower Manhattan was known as Great George Street. An 1897 City Map shows a segment of Broadway as Kingsbridge Road in the vicinity of what is now the George Washington Bridge. In the 18th century, Broadway ended at the town north of Wall Street, where traffic continued up the East Side of the island via Eastern Post Road. The western Bloomingdale Road would be widened and paved during the 19th century, on February 14,1899, the name Broadway was extended to the entire Broadway/Bloomingdale/Boulevard road. Broadway once was a street for its entire length. The present status, in which it runs one-way southbound south of Columbus Circle, on 6 June 1954, Seventh Avenue became southbound and Eighth Avenue became northbound south of Broadway. On 3 June 1962, Broadway became one-way south of Canal Street, with Trinity Place, northbound traffic on Broadway now needs to take Amsterdam Avenue to 73rd Street, make a sharp turn on the very narrow 73rd and then right turn on Broadway. Otherwise, and effectively, the traffic on Broadway has been diverted into Amsterdam Avenue. In August 2008, two lanes from 42nd to 35th Streets were taken out of service and converted to public plazas. Additionally, bike lanes were added on Broadway from 42nd Street down to Union Square, the city decided that the experiment was successful and decided to make the change permanent in February 2010. Additionally, portions of Broadway in the Madison Square and Union Square have been dramatically narrowed, Broadway runs the length of Manhattan Island, roughly parallel to the North River, from Bowling Green at the south to Inwood at the northern tip of the island. South of Columbus Circle, it is a southbound street

35.
R142A (New York City Subway car)
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The R142A, along with the R142, are the first and second part of the fourth generation of somewhat similar new technology cars for the A Division of the New York City Subway. These cars were built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries in Japan, along with the R142s, they replaced the Redbird trains, including the R26, R28, R29, R33, R33 WF, R36, and R36 WF. The R142As were built as fleet numbers #7211–7810, but only the cars from #7591–7810 are currently R142As, a total of 380 R142As were converted into R188s for the 7 and the remaining 220 cars remain unconverted. The 400 R142A cars of the order are numbered #7211–7610. Eighty cars, built under a contract as the R142S, were built by Kawasaki in 2003-04 to supplement the R142As. They are mechanically and physically identical to all other R142As, and are considered part of the R142A fleet, the first ten R142A cars, #7211–7220 were delivered on December 10,1999. Regular service began on the 6 on July 10,2000 after several months of testing, the cars maintained at the Jerome Yard run on the 4 while the cars maintained at the Westchester Yard run on the 6. Cars #7211–7590 have been retrofitted with CBTC for Flushing Line CBTC service and were converted to R188s, cars #7591-7810 are to remain unconverted. New Technology Train - A list of all NTT trains on the New York City Subway. R142 - a similar car built by Bombardier in Plattsburgh, New York and Barre, R142A Educated » Blog Archive » Subway Sounds, R-142A Car Status/Assignment

36.
R62A (New York City Subway car)
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The R62A is a New York City Subway car built between 1984 and 1987 by Bombardier in La Pocatiere, Quebec, with final assembly done in Auburn, New York and Barre, Vermont under a license from Kawasaki. The R62As replaced the R17s, R21s, and R22s, which were all retired by early 1988 and this leaves the 7 with the only R62As that operate as single cars, in order to make 11-car trains. Twenty cars are reserved to run in service on the 42nd Street Shuttle, by contrast, the cars on the 1 and 42nd Street Shuttle have never been equipped with local/express indicators. These lights remained as the R188s displaced the 7s R62As to the 6, following the successful delivery of the 325-car R62 order from Kawasaki Heavy Industries, the New York City Transit Authority put out a bid for an additional 825 cars. While Bombardier offered a price per car than Budd had. In addition, Budd proposed using unapproved and untested motors, and similarly untested technology that broke down on the R44. The first ten R62As, numbered 1651-1660, had their body shells built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries and were shipped to Bombardier for their use as samples during their production. They were placed in service on the 1 train on May 29,1985, in 1989,2256 collided with a revenue collection train at 103rd Street, this car was also repaired and eventually returned to service. On November 24,1996, a train of R62As on the 6 train derailed south of Hunts Point Avenue. Cars 1716 and 1909 were significantly damaged, while 1716 was rebuilt and returned to service,1909 was permanently retired due to damage to its body and frame, and scrapped in 2001. Initial replacement of the R62As is currently scheduled for 2026 through 2028, there are proposals for mid-life technological upgrades for the R62As, including LED destination signs and automated announcements, though it is unlikely that these improvements will be carried out. R62 - a similar model built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries Corp, evolution of New York City subways, An illustrated history of New York Citys transit cars, 1867-1997

37.
Architectural style
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An architectural style is characterized by the features that make a building or other structure notable or historically identifiable. A style may include such elements as form, method of construction, building materials, styles therefore emerge from the history of a society. They are documented in the subject of architectural history, at any time several styles may be fashionable, and when a style changes it usually does so gradually, as architects learn and adapt to new ideas. Styles often spread to places, so that the style at its source continues to develop in new ways while other countries follow with their own twist. A style may also spread through colonialism, either by foreign colonies learning from their home country, one example is the Spanish missions in California, brought by Spanish priests in the late 18th century and built in a unique style. After a style has gone out of fashion, revivals and re-interpretations may occur, for instance, classicism has been revived many times and found new life as neoclassicism. Each time it is revived, it is different, the Spanish mission style was revived 100 years later as the Mission Revival, and that soon evolved into the Spanish Colonial Revival. Vernacular architecture works slightly differently and is listed separately and it is the native method of construction used by local people, usually using labour-intensive methods and local materials, and usually for small structures such as rural cottages. It varies from region to region even within a country, as western society has developed, vernacular styles have mostly become outmoded due to new technology and to national building standards. Paul Jacobsthal and Josef Strzygowski are among the art historians who followed Riegl in proposing grand schemes tracing the transmission of elements of styles across great ranges in time and this type of art history is also known as formalism, or the study of forms or shapes in art. Terms originated to describe architectural periods were often applied to other areas of the visual arts, and then more widely still to music, literature. In architecture stylistic change often follows, and is possible by. While many architectural styles explore harmonious ideals, Mannerism wants to take style a step further and explores the aesthetics of hyperbole, Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial qualities. Mannerism favours compositional tension and instability rather than balance and clarity, the definition of Mannerism, and the phases within it, continues to be the subject of debate among art historians. An example of mannerist architecture is the Villa Farnese at Caprarola. in the country side outside of Rome. The proliferation of engravers during the 16th century spread Mannerist styles more quickly than any previous styles, a center of Mannerist design was Antwerp during its 16th-century boom. Through Antwerp, Renaissance and Mannerist styles were introduced in England, Germany. During the Mannerist Renaissance period, architects experimented with using architectural forms to emphasize solid, the Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms

38.
Travel + Leisure
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Travel + Leisure is a travel magazine based in New York City, New York. Published 12 times a year, it has 4.8 million readers and it is owned and published by Time Inc. Its main competitors are Condé Nast Traveler and National Geographic Traveler, initially published in 1937 as U. S. Camera and Travel, it later assumed the name Travel + Leisure in 1971. The predecessor titles focused on photography, but the name change signaled a shift toward travel coverage in general. The magazine specializes in leisure travel and often features articles written by novelists, poets, artists, designers and it is known for its travel photography and covers featuring models lounging in upscale environments. Its Worlds Best Awards, a reader survey rating destinations. Other annual features include the T+L500, a list of the worlds top 500 hotels, and Americas Favorite Cities, the magazines Web site publishes original Web content and destination guides. Travel + Leisure Magazine was purchased from American Express Publishing by Time Inc. on October 1,2013, the Official Travel + Leisure website The Official Travel + Leisure Southeast Asia website

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Ghost station
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Ghost stations is the usual English translation for the German word Geisterbahnhöfe. This term was used to describe certain stations on Berlins U-Bahn and S-Bahn metro networks that were closed during the period of Berlins division during the Cold War. Since then, the term has come to be used to any disused underground station actively passed through by passenger trains. In August 1961 the East German government built the Berlin Wall, as a result, the Berlin public transit network, which had formerly spanned both halves of the city, was also divided into two. Some U- and S-Bahn lines fell entirely into one half of the city or the other, other lines were divided between the two jurisdictions, with trains running only to the border and then turning back. The name Geisterbahnhof was soon applied to these dimly lit, heavily guarded stations by travelers from West Berlin. However, the term was never official, West Berlin subway maps of the period simply labelled these stations Bahnhöfe, East Berlin subway maps neither depicted the West Berlin lines nor the ghost stations. The situation was less than ideal. If a train on a West Berlin line broke down in East Berlin territory, then passengers had to wait for Eastern border police to appear and escort them out. The East German government occasionally hinted that it might block access to the tunnels at the border. However, this status quo persisted for the entire 28-year period of the division of Berlin. An alarm was triggered if anyone breached one of the barriers, as for the entrances, the signage was removed, walkways were walled up and stairways were sealed with concrete slabs. Police stations were built into the windowed platform service booths, from which the platform area could be monitored. A wide white line on the wall marked the location of the border. Later, gates were installed at stations that could be rolled into place at night while the guards were off-duty. Guard posts at other stations were staffed continuously, creating additional employment positions with the transport police, in the platform area, the guards always worked in pairs, and care was taken in their assignment to assure that there would be no personal ties between them. In addition, superior officers could conduct surprise inspections at any time, thus, other stations were secured by the border guards. Friedrichstraße station, though served by Western lines and located in East Berlin territory, was not a Geisterbahnhof, instead, it served as a transfer point between U6 and several S-Bahn lines

40.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946

41.
National Park Service
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It was created on August 25,1916, by Congress through the National Park Service Organic Act and is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior. As of 2014, the NPS employs 21,651 employees who oversee 417 units, the National Park Service celebrated its centennial in 2016. National parks and national monuments in the United States were originally individually managed under the auspices of the Department of the Interior, the movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather, as well as J. Horace McFarland. With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard, Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior and they wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of a National Park Service, Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS. On March 3,1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933, the act would allow the President to reorganize the executive branch of the United States government. It wasnt until later that summer when the new President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Roosevelt agreed and issued two Executive orders to make it happen. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the National Park Service, the demand for parks after the end of the World War II had left the parks overburdened with demands that could not be met. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, he began Mission 66, New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery, Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas. Since its inception in 1916, the National Park Service has managed each of the United States national parks, Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no government to manage it. Yosemite National Park began as a park, the land for the park was donated by the federal government to the state of California in 1864 for perpetual conservation. Yosemite was later returned to federal ownership, at first, each national park was managed independently, with varying degrees of success. In Yellowstone, the staff was replaced by the U. S. Army in 1886. Due to the irregularities in managing these national treasures, Stephen Mather petitioned the government to improve the situation. In response, Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane challenged him to lobby for creating a new agency, Mather was successful with the ratification of the National Park Service Organic Act in 1916. Later, the agency was given authority over other protected areas, the National Park System includes all properties managed by the National Park Service

A train station, railway station, railroad station, or depot (see below) is a railway facility or area where trains …

Opened in 2006, Berlin Hauptbahnhof is a large station at the crossing point of two major railways and features modern, abstract architecture. Berlin had a ring of terminus stations, similar to London and Paris, however they were gradually replaced with through stations from 1882 to 1952.

Broad Green station, Liverpool, shown in 1962, opened in 1830, is the oldest station site in the world still in use as a passenger station.

Opened in 1830 and reached through a tunnel, Liverpool's Crown Street railway station was the first ever railway terminus. The station was demolished after only six years, being replaced by Lime Street Station in the city centre. The tunnel still exists.

The Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT) was an urban transit holding company, based in Brooklyn, New York …

A 1914 map showing what was at the time the proposed expansion for the BRT. The only major differences from what was built is that a new 60th Street Tunnel was used rather than the Queensboro Bridge, the Manhattan-side Brooklyn Bridge connection was never built, and several lines ended up with fewer tracks than shown.

The first regularly operated subway in New York City was built by the city and leased to the Interborough Rapid Transit …

The original "H" system

Political cartoon critical of the service of the IRT in 1905. The IRT is labeled as the "Interborough Rattled Transit". Diedrich Knickerbocker, personification of New York City, stands on the platform.