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http://archive.org/details/annualreportofno1909nort
JMorth Carolina btate uura, 7
Raleigh ^
THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT Oo^
NORTH CAROLINA
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS
FOR THE
YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1909
INCLUDING SCIENTIFIC PAPERS AND BULLETINS.
Nos. 200. 201, 202, 203, 204
WEST RALEIGH, N. C.
RALEIGH
E. M. Uzzell & Co., State Printers and Binders
1911
N. C. COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS.
THE NORTH CAROLINA
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
UNDER THE CONTROL OF THE
TRUSTEES OF THE A. AND M. COLLEGE.
Governor W. W. Kitchin, ex officio Chairman, Raleigh.
M. B. Stickley Concord
T. T. Ballenger Tryon
N. B. Broughton Raleigh
O. L. Clark Clarkton
Everett Thompson. .Elizabeth City
R. H. Ricks Rocky Mount
O. Max Gardner Shelby
Locke Craig Asheville
C. W. Gold Raleigh
E. M. Koonce Jacksonville
T. W. .Blount Roper
D. A. Tompkins Charlotte
J. T. Ellington Smithfield
W. E. Daniel Weldon
W. H. Ragan High Point
W. B. Cooper Wilmington
STATION STAFF.
D. H. Hill, President of the College.
C. B. Williams Director and Agronomist
W. A. Withers Chemist
F. L. Stevens Vegetable Pathologist and Bacteriologist
J. S. Jeffrey Poultryman
F. C. Reimer Horticulturist
R. S. Curtis Animal Husbandman
John Michels Dairy Husbandman
R. I. Smith Entomologist
G. A. Roberts Veterinarian
J. G. Hall Assistant in Plant Diseases
W. C. Etheridge Assistant Agronomist
B. J. Ray Assistant Chemist
A. R. Russell Assistant in Field Experiments
P. L. Gainey Assistant Bacteriologist
L. R. Detjen Assistant Horticulturist
F. W. Sherwood Assistant Chemist
A. F. Bowen Bursar
C. P. Franklin Secretary and Stenographer
The Bulletins and Reports of this Station will be mailed free to any resi-dent
of the State upon request.
Visitors are at all times cordially invited to inspect the work of the Station,
the office of which is in the new Agricultural Building of the College.
Address all communications to
N. C. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
West Raleigh, N. C.
North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station,
Office of the Director.
West Raleigh, N. C., June 30, 1909.
To His Excellency, William W. Kitchen,
Governor of North Carolina.
Sir :—I have the honor to submit herewith the report of the opera-tions
of the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station of the
North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts for the
year ending June 30, 1909.
Trusting that this report will prove satisfactory to your Excellency,
I am, Yours very truly,
C. B. Williams,
Director.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Board of Trustees and Experiment Station Staff 2
Letter of Transmittal 3
Report of Director and Agronomist 7
Report of Chemist IT
Report of Biologist 20
Report of Poultryman 23
Report of Horticulturist 26
Report of Animal Husbandman 28
Report of Daily Husbandman 81
Report of Entomologist 32
Report of Veterinarian 34
Financial Statement 3G
Scientific Papers
:
Effects of Different Fertilizing Materials Upon the Maturity of Cotton. 37
Some Facts Concerning Those Characters of the Corn Plant Associ-ated
with Yield and Factors Which Influence Them 41
Variation of Fungi Due to Environment 47
Carnation Alternariose 72
Hypochnose of Pomaceous Fruits 76
A New Fig Anthracnose (Colletotrichose) 80
Harlequin Cabbage Bug (Murgantia histrionica) 00
Is yeocosmospora Tasinfecta (Atk.) Smith, the Perithecial Stage of
the Fusarium Which Causes Cowpea Wilt? 100
The Scuppernong As a Profitable Crop—Methods of Growing, Keeping,
and Wine-making Used At Its Place of Origin 117
II—Studies in Soil Bacteriology—Ammonification in Soils and in Solu-tions
1 10
III—Studies in Soil Bacteriology—Concerning Methods for Determina-tion
of Nitrifying and Ammonifying Powers of Soils 120
Press Bulletins
:
No. 1(3—Selecting Seed Corn for Larger Yields 145
No. 18—Apple Bitter Rot 147
No. 19—Suppression of Terrapin Bugs 118
No. 20—Spring Destruction of Terrapin Bugs 150
APPENDIX.
Bulletins :
No. 200—Feeding Fermented Cotton-seed Meal to Hogs.
No. 201—Scuppernong and Other Muscadine Crapes—Origin and Impor-tance.
No. 202—Manufacture and Marketing of Cottage Cheese, Skinnnilk-Butter-milk
and Ice-cream.
No. 203—Corn Weevils and Other Grain Insects.
No. 201—Some Factors Involved in Successful Corn Growing.
THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE
N. C. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1909.
BY THE DIRECTOR.
Generally, the work of the Station in all its branches has been in-creased
and actively carried forward by the various workers in a
fairly satisfactory manner. Below is given, briefly, something as to
the nature and scope of the work which is being conducted by the
several Divisions of the Station. This summary is made up from
the reports of the different workers and from the observations of the
Director.
DIVISION OF AGRONOMY.
The experimental work of this Division has progressed actively
along the same general lines as previously reported. Considerable
effort has been exerted in the determination of best fertilizer com-binations
and the most economical quantities of fertilizers to use per
acre, especially for cotton and corn. These experiments have shown
unmistakably that phosphoric acid is' the chief deficiency of our soils
here and that potash is the one less needed for maximum yields. The
field results have been confirmed by chemical analyses of the soil.
The fertilizer formulas used largely by the farmers in the Piedmont
section of the State for cotton are not the ones which, judging from
our results, afford the greatest profit per acre. The phosphoric acid
in them should, as a general thing, be increased, while the potash
might be decreased.
The variety tests this year embrace a study of 68 varieties of
corn; 42 of cotton; 23 of soy, adsuki and seta beans; 30 of cow-peas;
15 of wheat; 49 of oats, and 4 of clover. In addition to
this comparison of varieties with reference to yield, an intimate
study is, at the same time, being made of the characters of each
variety, with the hope of determining those which are correlated in
the different varieties with high yield and superior worth. Variety-distance
tests with G8 varieties of corn and 3 of cotton, each of widely
different characters, are being conducted to ascertain what distancing
of the different varieties produces the best results. From the field
seed-selection experiments with corn, cotton, wheat and oats, recently
S THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
started.^ much is expected in the way of improvement and practical
scientific information. In the variety test of oats an effort is being
made to determine those varieties which are best adapted for fall and
spring sowing. Marked differences have developed, not only in yield,
but also in earliness and consequent adaptation for different soils and
localities and for specific purposes. For sowing in combination with
crimson clover or Canada field peas, the earliness in maturity of
Burt, Kherson and Culberson varieties especially fits them for this
purpose, as they reach the haying stage at practically the same period
as do the clover and peas. The white-blooming crimson clover may
be used in mixtures with later maturing varieties, such as Red Rust-proof
or Appier, as it blooms ten to fourteen days later than the
regular crimson clover.
Investigations are being carried on with 68 varieties of corn to
determine the factors which operate in the production of suckers on
the corn plant and to ascertain the relation which their undisturbed
development bears to yield of grain and stover. As these investiga-tions
advance, many interesting and economic features present them-selves
which will shed much light upon the nature of the characters
of corn varieties when grown under widely varying conditions of
fertilization, distancing and season.
Top-dressing experiments with nitrate of soda and sulphate of am-monia
on oats and wheat are being conducted to determine their
actual and relative values for this purpose. A comparative study is
also being made of different carriers of phosphoric acid and nitrogen
for fertilization of cotton and corn.
Many combinations of legumes are being grown to ascertain their
relative value for hay and pasturage.
A systematic effort is being made to determine the effects upon
percentage of lint to seed, and length and tensile strength of the
staple of cotton by allowing the seed cotton to stand exposed for a
year to the average conditions prevailing on the farm. This Division
is especially fortunate in having under its control considerable land
which may be used in making direct application, on a considerable
scale, of the facts which are evolved from the carefully planned ex-periments
which are being conducted along different lines. By this
means it is felt that a broader conception of agronomical problems
in general and their practical solution is obtained.
DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY.
During the year the Chemical Division has sustained intimate co-operative
relations with the Biological Division in soil nitrification
and amnionification studies and with the Animal Husbandry and
Veterinary Divisions in cotton-seed meal toxicity investigations. The
preparation of the twenty-two fractions used in the cotton-seed meal
feeding experiments with hogs and guinea pigs has largely been per-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR. 9
formed by the workers of this Division. Much work has been done
in connection with these investigations in making chemical determina-tions
of the composition of various feeds, fractions of cotton-seed
meal employed in the experiments and of the urine secreted by ani-mals
fed on each of these. The Division has been materially
strengthened by the addition of an assistant, and, during the first
ten months of the year, 3,825 determinations on 1,414 samples have
been made. In the bacteriological soil survey of the State which is
being carried on this summer co-operatively by this and the Biological
Division, the examinations of the Bacteriologist for nitrifying and
ammonifying efficiency, nitrifying and ammonifying inoculating
power, nitrifying capacity, and bacterial count are being supple-mented
in each case by a careful chemical determination of the
amount of nitrates, nitrites, and ammonia present.
DIVISION OF BIOLOGY.
During the year the research work has been carried forward largely
along lines previously begun and reported on. In co-operation with
the National Bureau of Plant Industry, this Division in continuation
of its Plant Disease Survey of the State has conducted much cor-respondence
with farmers and public-school teachers in order to
determine definitely how widespread certain plant diseases are in
different localities and to ascertain the amount of damage to crops
and fruits they produce. New diseases of the apple, lettuce, clover,
tuberose, fig, carnation, privet, peanut and vetch occurring in the
State have been studied and the fungus causing each has been isolated,
identified, and described.
The experiments which are being conducted at Auburn on soil
badly infected with watermelon wilt will be continued in an effort to
secure strains of melons which possess desirable eating and shipping
qualities and which may be successfully grown upon soils affected with
this disease. The importance of this work cannot be too strongly
emphasized, as the melon industry is an important one and in many
localities is beginning to be menaced by the appearance and rapid
spread of this disease. Melons cannot, to a profitable extent, be
grown at present on a badly infected field, and unless wilt-resistant
varieties or strains are bred or found, the industry will be wiped
out in certain important infected areas of rapidly increasing size.
The tobacco-wilt experiments are this year continued at Creedmoor,
which is located in the light tobacco belt of Granville County. Eleven
strains of tobacco are being used in the work, and they were put out
on badly infected soil. Although there did not develop any marked
difference between the ability of the Sumatra, Turkish and Italian
types to withstand the wilt, yet the finer qualities of the Sumatras
has led to the crossing and use of two strains of this type with the
native bright tobacco of the infected section with the hope of securing
10 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
wilt-resistant strains of as nearly the same quality as possible as the
native bright tobacco. It is planned to devote during the present
season about one-fourth of the space allotted to this experiment to a
field-study of the resistance and quality of these crosses made last
year.
In the lettuce-drop investigations efforts have been directed prin-cipally
along the line of preventing the formation of sclerotia by the
fungus causing this trouble, as it seems to be the only means this
disease has of being carried over winter. Should any of the methods
devised prove effective against the formation of sclerotia, then the
eradication of the disease from infected lettuce-beds seems assured.
The soil bacteriology investigations which this Division is carrying
on in co-operation with the Chemical Division have been greatly
strengthened by further work and extension. Results secured have
brought out rather conclusively the importance of conducting tests
to determine the ammonifying and nitrifying powers of soils on the
soils themselves, rather than by the use of culture solutions in the
usual way, as there seems to be no definite relation whatever be-tween
the results on nitrification and ammonification secured on the
soil itself and the solution. Methods have been devised for de-termining
fairly accurately the nitrifying and ammonifying power
of soils, using the soil as a medium. In marked contrast to the
commonly accepted notion that all soils are well supplied with
nitrifying organisms, it has been found that 71 per cent of the local
soils which have undergone examination have shown very low
nitrifying power. The facts have led to the inauguration of a new
line of experiments which are designed to study the relative ac-ceptability
to plants of nitrate-nitrogen and ammoniacal nitrogen.
The experiments are being conducted under complete bacteriological
and chemical control. To supplement these, a systematic bacteriologi-cal
survey of the different soil types of the State has been started,
and on each soil determinations of its nitrifying and ammonifying
power will be made. Contrary to the accepted idea, results thus far
secured seem to indicate very strongly that the presence of organic
matter in the soil does not always exert an inhibiting influence upon
the activity of nitrifying organisms.
The ptomaine studies which were started last year have been tem-porarily
suspended, due to the absence of suitable material and be-cause
of pressure of other investigational work.
DIVISION OF POULTRY.
The operations of the Poultry Division have been to a large extent
carried on in the direction of testing various systems of feeding young
chicks, managing incubators and brooders and comparing different
feeds and combinations for the production of eggs and meat. From
the results secured in the cotton-seed meal feeding experiments it
REPORT OF DIRECTOR. 11
was demonstrated that this material may be fed without detriment to
the health of the poultry to the extent of one-fourth of a ration con-sisting
of cotton-seed meal and corn, when the stock is allowed range
on grass or other green crops. It will be noticed from results of sub-sequent
experiments that, although the ration containing cotton-seed
meal costs less than the ones containing meat and bone meal, yet the
latter ones, by inducing earlier development and laying, have pro-duced
the cheapest gains in weight and egg production. During the
summer it is planned to study the value of skim-milk as a substitute
for meat meal and cotton-seed meal.
In the pedigreed breeding experiments for egg production, work
has been continued along the same general lines as previously re-ported.
Some of the Barred Plymouth Kock hens used in this work
have made a good showing, as also have their pullets. Last year
Barred Plymouth pullet No. 7113 laid 143 eggs in seven months.
Several daughters of this hen are being used this year in furtherance
of the work and studies. The inbreeding work started last year is be-ing
continued, but results will not be expected before next season.
In the incubator experiments an effort is being made to determine
if it is advisable to artificially supply moisture to and use disin-fectants
in the incubators before each hatch comes off. In these com-parative
studies, eggs from the same hens are being used in order
to eliminate as far as possible the effects of differences in individu-ality.
Experiments with the fireless brooder have demonstrated that
they may be operated successfully, but that the chief drawback to
their use is the greater amount of attention which the chicks confined
in them require for the first few days.
DIVISION OF HORTICULTURE.
The attention of the Horticulturist has been confined chiefly to
preparation for and in a study of "double flower" and self-sterility of
blackberries and dewberries with the purpose of determining the
nature and cause of these abnormalities. The work was started last
year and is now fairly well under way. As 23 varieties of black-berries
and 14 varieties of dewberries are embraced in these investiga-tions,
it is planned also to make careful observations as to the relative
standing of these in reference to earliness and amount and character
of fruit. A study will be made at the same time of the influence of
many fertilizer carriers and combinations upon yield, "double flower"
and self-sterility of the various varieties under experimentation.
The careful microscopic study of the doubled flowers and accompany-ing
rosette growth of stems and leaves of the Wilson blackberry and
of the character of the flower-parts of the notably self-sterile Premo
dewberry, which is being conducted in the laboratory simultaneously
with the field work, will doubtless reveal much as to the nature and
cause of "double flower" and self-sterility.
12 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
Field experiments were begun this Spring with eight varieties of
dewberries to determine the ability of the several varieties to set fruit
without cross-pollination. These were undertaken by enclosing 500
flower clusters in paper bags before the flowers opened. Eesults thus
far secured by the Horticulturist seem to indicate that "double
flower" is intimately associated in some way with early dropping of
the old leaves during the previous year and to the premature develop-ment
of buds which would normally produce fruit the succeeding
year.
Some preliminary work with figs, Japanese plums, and muscadine
grapes has been gotten well under way during the year. A bulletin
on the Origin and Importance of the Scuppernong and Other Musca-dine
Grapes is now in press. This will be followed by study and
publication on other features of muscadine grape growing. It is a
notable fact that most of the leading varieties of muscadine grapes
have been originated in this State.
DIVISION OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY.
The Animal Husbandman has devoted considerable effort and time
in providing new equipment and in getting under way new lines of
experimentation. A major portion of his efforts has, however, been
given to a careful supervision of the investigations which are being
conducted jointly by the Animal Husbandry, Veterinary and Chem-ical
Divisions to determine the cause for the disastrous results which
frequently follow the feeding of cotton-seed meal to swine, and to
isolate, if possible, the toxic principle, if such it may be. Feeding
experiments which have been carried on by other experimenters with
cotton-seed meal up to the present have been of an empirical nature,
and have afforded information only with reference to the quantity
which may be fed, length of the feeding period and the symptoms
and post-mortem revelations produced by overfeeding. During the
year 28 pigs and 93 guinea pigs have been used in carrying on these
investigations. Out of the 23 fractions of cotton-seed meal that have
been fed, 7, having proven practically innocuous, have passed from
under further experimentation for the present. For comparison with
the results secured with feeding cotton-seed meal, linseed meal and
blood meal, as highly concentrated proteinaceous feeds, are being fed
with the same supplementary feeds and in the same proportions to
guinea pigs under control conditions. A series of experiments has
recently been started to determine the toxicity of cotton-seed meal
when fed in conjunction with corn and green clover leaves to guinea
pigs. From the results secured in feeding cotton-seed meal to horses
and mules, it is felt that as a supplement to ear corn, shelled corn
and corn-and-cob meal, this feed cannot generally be fed in larger
quantities than three-quarters to one pound per clay and have it eaten
clean. When fed in connection with dried brewers' grains or wheat
REPORT OF DIRECTOR. 13
bran one and one-half pounds were readily eaten. During the course
of the experiments it has been observed that horses eat the meal
more readily than do the mules.
Experiments are being conducted to determine the value of green
crops in general as pasturage for hogs and to further ascertain the
relative value of oats, rye, and rape, sown alone and in different com-*
binations. In these experiments cowpeas, peanuts, and sweet potatoes
have been used, allowing the hogs to run on them ad libitum after
the crops have reached almost maturity. By a system of rotation it
has been possible to have green crops practically the entire year for
the hogs to run on. The results thus far secured from this suc-cession
of crops have been quite encouraging. Grading experiments
have been started and are well under way with hogs. For this work
a pure-blooded Berkshire sire is being used.
During the year a Bulletin on Feeding Fermented Cotton-seed
Meal to Hogs has been prepared and issued, and two others are in
course of preparation.
Plans are being developed for this Division to feed experimentally
this fall a carload of high-grade mountain steers.
DIVISION OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY.
The Dairy Husbandman has, during the year, given much time
to working out the details of a commercial method of preparing cot-tage
cheese. A feeding experiment with eight dairy cows has been
conducted to determine the relative economy of feeding medium and
narrow nutritive rations for milk and cream production under North
Carolina conditions. The results of this experiment and of cottage
cheese work are now in Bulletin form ready for publication. During
the year Bulletins on Handling and Marketing of Milk and Cream
and Feeding Experiments with Cows and Calves have been prepared
and published.
DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY.
Much time of this' Division has been devoted to studies of the life-history
and habits of the cabbage webworm, harlequin cabbage bug
and plum curculio, and during the year two Press Bulletins giving
directions for combating the harlequin bug have been prepared by the
Entomologist and issued.
The fumigation experiments which have been carried on have
demonstrated rather strikingly the unreliability of carbon bisulphide
as a remedy against corn weevils in the average corn bin, especially
when used in the quantities generally recommended per thousand
cubic feet. Otherwise following the commonly given directions in
using this agent, but employing twenty times the quantity generally
recommended, it was found that it was not effective when used even in
14 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
this quantity in the Station barn as a destroyer of weevils. Sulphur
fumes were tried and were found satisfactory so far as killing the
weevil was concerned, but cannot be recommended for general use,
as the fumes materially reduce the germinating power of corn thus
treated. The plum and apple trees at the Poultry farm which be-came
badly infested with San Jose scale have almost been freed from
it by systematic spraying. The apple trees belonging to the Station
have also been kept quite free from the ravages of codling moth by
two sprayings, just before the trees bloom, with Bordeaux mixture
containing three pounds of arsenate of lead to fifty gallons of the
mixture.
An insect collection, representing all the beneficial and injurious
forms occurring in the State, with records of dates and places of
occurrence, is gradually being brought together.
DIVISION OF VETERINARY SCIENCE.
The time of this new Division has largely been taken up in aid-ing
in carrying forward the cotton-seed meal feeding investigations
which the Division is conducting jointly with the Animal Husbandry
and Chemical Divisions. The Veterinarian has made daily observa-tions
and kept records of the weight, temperature, pulsation and
respiration of a good many of the hogs and guinea pigs which are be-ing
employed to further the investigations. A study in many cases
is being made of the blood which is diseased by prolonged cotton-seed
meal feeding. All animals dying have been subjected to post-mortem
examination and all revelations as to internal derangement were care-fully
noted. In many instances diseased tissues were preserved for
subsequent microscopic examination and study.
In co-operation with the Biological Division, this Division has
done some work along the line of inoculating milk with dirt and
germs from different sources to determine if such milk after a suf-ficient
lapse of time would produce ptomaine poisoning when in-jections
of it were made into guinea pigs. Some work has been
carried on during the year to determine the value of a recently dis-covered
serum as an effective preventive against hog cholera and
to determine the relative worth of turpentine and thymol as vermi-fugal
agents for hogs infested with worms.
POLICY OF THE STATION.
It would appear that the Station can best subserve the purposes of
its creation by confining its efforts as largely as possible to investiga-tional
work along a few lines which have been carefully planned, with
a clear conception of the ends to be attained, by strong and specially
REPORT OF DIRECTOR. 15
equipped men of experience who are broad, painstaking, inventive,
resourceful and are not afraid to work and who can distinguish be-tween
truth and opinion and between fact and theory. To a large
extent, agricultural education, which is making such rapid progress
in these latter days, is largely limited in its development by the ad-vances
made by the Experiment Stations in supplying material of
a fundamental nature for teaching purposes. The Station, under
the provisions of the Adams Act, has resources for carrying on re-search
work of an original and fundamental nature in agriculture.
An effort is being made to have all work of an investigational
nature so planned and conducted that the results secured will not
only have scientific worth, but will also have direct economic value.
Although it has no direct bearing on investigations under way, some
attention has been devoted to an improvement in the appearance of
the grounds, buildings and general surroundings, because it is felt
that the manner in which the general operations of the Station are
conducted will be a potent factor in determining the local standing
and influence of the Station, if not more.
NEW BARN AND SILO.
During the year a new up-to-date gambrel-roof barn has been
finished. It is 100 feet long and 42 feet wide and has haymow space
for holding something like 150 tons of forage. It is ideally located,
well lighted and ventilated and is provided with roomy granaries,
with stalls and driveways and sliding doors at all openings. At the
east end of the building a large end haymow door is arranged with
flexible wire cable, pulleys and weights, and is made to slide in
guides on the exterior of the building. Hay trackage and carrier
run the full length of the barn.
At the west end of the barn a stave silo, of 130-ton capacity, is
conveniently located both for filling and feeding from. The design
and arrangements of the barn specially fit it for use in feeding beef
cattle.
BULLETINS.
Bulletins have been issued during the year as follows
No. 200
Feeding Fermented Cotton-seed Meal to Hogs, by R. S.
Curtis.
No. 201
Origin and Importance of the Scuppernong and Other
Muscadine Grapes, by F. C. Reimer.
No. 202
Manufacture and Marketing of Cottage Cheese, Skim-m
ilk-Buttermilk and Ice-cream, by John Michels.
No. 203
—
Corn Weevils and Other Grain Insects, by R. I. Smith.
No. 204
Some Factors Involved in Successful Corn Growing, by
C. B. Williams.
16 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
~No. 16 (Press Bulletin)
Selecting Seed Corn for Larger Yields,
by C. B. Williams.
No. 18 (Press Bulletin)—The Apple Bitter Rot, by P. L.
Stevens.
KSTo. 19 (Press Bulletin)
—
Suppression of Terrapin Bug, by R. L
Smith.
~No. 20 (Press Bulletin)
Spring Destruction of Terrapin Bugs,
by R. I. Smith.
The reports of the heads of the several Divisions, financial state-ment,
and scientific papers follow.
REPORT OF CHEMIST. 17
REPORT OF CHEMIST.
During the year ended June 30, the Chemical Division has been
engaged mainly in investigations relating to nitrogen metabolism in
soil and the toxicity of cotton-seed meal.
The investigation relating to soil bacteriology has been conducted
in co-operation with the Division of Bacteriology. The analytical
portion of that work has involved 5,606 determinations in 1,579
samples of soil and 526 solutions, as follows
Nitrogen as ammonia by magnesium oxide 1,030
Nitrogen as ammonia by sodium hydroxide 240
Nitrogen as nitrates colorimetrically 107
Nitrogen as nitrates Tiemann-Schulze 1,529
Nitrogen as nitrites Griess 1,446
Nitrogen as nitrites and nitrates, Dipbenylamine 1,190'
Nitrogen total by Kjeldahl 20
Nitrogen total by Kjeldahl and Nessler 44
5,606
Three articles have been prepared representing the results of this
work. The first was published in the report of the Station for
1908-09, and in the Centralblatt fuer Bali, XXIII, 355-373. The
second and third articles have been published by the same journal
and are submitted for publication with this report. An article on
the work was published in Science, March 26, 1909, and a report
of article three was made to the Xorth Carolina Academy of Science
at its May meeting. A fuller account of the work is shown in the
report of the Bacteriologist.
The investigation relating to the toxicity of cotton-seed meal has
been conducted in co-operation with the Animal Husbandry and
Veterinary Divisions. The analytical portion of this work has in-volved
60 determinations in 19 samples of cotton-seed meal, and
495 determinations in 129 samples of pig and guinea-pig urine, as
follows
Albumin 129
Nitrogen by Kjeldahl 13
Nitrogen by ureometer 95
Specific gravity .• .'
. . 129
Sugar 129
495
Ash : 3
Betain 1
Choline 1
Crude fiber 2
Extract by carbon tetrachloride 2
Extract by etber 4
Extracts by six other solvents 8
2
North Carolina State LibrAty
Raleigh
18 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
Moisture 5
Nitrogen 32
Pentosans 1
Raffinose 1
60
The feeds for the guinea pigs have been prepared mainly by the
Chemical Division and the work so far has been planned mainly by
the Division. Fractions of the meal obtained by the use of various
solvents have been fed to guinea pigs, and several of these feeds have
been found to be nontoxic. The toxic portions are still being frac-tioned
and fed.
The miscellaneous work of the Division has consisted of 72 deter-minations
in 41 samples. The samples were as follows
:
Boiler scale 1
Feeding stuffs 18
Fertilizing materials 8
Marls 6
Minerals 3
Soils 4
Urine 1
41
The 72 determinations in the 41 miscellaneous samples were as
follows
:
Calcium oxide 9
Carbon dioxide 8
Gold 1
Moisture 4
Nitrogen as ammonia by magnesium oxide 1
Nitrogen as nitrites 1
Nitrogen as nitrates 1
Nitrogen total 13
Phosphorus pentoxide 9
Potassium oxide 4
Sulphur dioxide 13
Acidity 3
Ether extract 4
Humus 1
72.
The grand total of work for the year was 6,233 determinations
in 2,294 samples.
During the past year the chief of the Division was elected vice
president of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, and,
in addition to the publications referred to, has published an article
in the Student Farmer, The Progressive Farmer, and the Neivs and
Observer upon the importance of the substitution of horse power for
human power in agriculture in North Carolina.
Dr. W. A. Syme was appointed State Oil Chemist, and has tendered
his resignation, to take effect May 1. I am glad to bear witness to
his ability, skill, high character and pleasant personality.
REPORT OF CHEMIST. 19
J. K. Plummer was added to the staff of the Division on August
15, and has proven a very rapid and satisfactory worker. He will
leave his work here on September 1 to accept a scholarship and pursue
post-graduate work at Cornell University. F. W. Sherwood was
added to the staff of the Division on May 1, and Hubert Hill has
assisted with the work from time to time.
The Division needs more commodious quarters, which I trust will
be provided in the new building.
I wish to express my appreciation of the faithful work by the
assistants in the Division and to thank you for your cordial co-opera-tion
and interest. yery respectfully,
W. A. Withers,
Chemist.
20 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
REPORT OF BIOLOGIST.
I hereby submit a report of the Division under my charge for the
fiscal year now closing.
The following completed articles represent experiments completed
and conclusions reached by work of this Division
:
Concerning Apple Diseases.
Hypochnose of Pomaceous Fruits.
Soil Bacteriology (in Co-operation with the Division of Chemistry).
II. Studies in Soil Bacteriology.
Ammonification in Soils and in Solutions.
Concerning the Existence of Non-nitrifying Soils.
Miscellaneous Plant Diseases.
A New Tig Anthrachnose, Colletotrichose.
Alternariose of the Carnation.
Variation' of Fungi Due to Environment.
An examination was made of three samples of corn meal received
from Wilmington, N. C, which were suspected of bearing a causal
relation to pellagra, several cases of which had occurred in that
vicinity recently, and a report was made concerning the more com-mon
species of fungi which were found therein.
One Press Bulletin, No. 18, Apple Bitter Rot, has been issued.
INCOMPLETE WORK.
In addition to the above work which may be regarded as completed,
much other new work is under way.
Apple Diseases.—Several interesting apple diseases, some of them
new, are still the subject of study.
Lettuce Experiments.—Work on lettuce sclerotiniose has been con-tinued,
following the suggestions indicated by our previous studies,
which showed that hibernation of the fungus seems to be limited to the
sclerotia. The lettuce bed was last year thoroughly infected with the
disease. Our efforts this year have been entirely directed to the
prevention of the formation of sclerotia, with the hope that within
a year or two we may be able to demonstrate the possibility of com-pletely
eradicating the disease from an infected bed. Also an un-described
lettuce disease of very great destructiveness has been
brought to our attention from Fayetteville and elsewhere. The
bacteria causing this disease has been isolated. Artificial infection
has been produced and we are now determining the identity of the
organism, its relationship and its characters.
Sclerotinia on Clover.—A very serious clover disease caused by
REPORT OF BIOLOGIST. 21
this fungus, close kin to that on the lettuce, has come to the laboratory.
The causal fungus has been isolated and successful inoculations
made.
Soil Bacteriology..—This work is being conducted jointly by the
Biological and the Chemical Divisions. At present two main- lines
are under investigation, as follows
1. Methods for the determination of Nitrification and Amnioni fie a-tion.
This work embraces a trial of the efficiency of various methods
to determine these factors.
2. Ammoniacal Nitrogen versus Nitrate Nitrogen. The fact that
many of our soils are deficient in nitrifying power has raised the
question whether nitrates are of great importance to plants or whether
ammoniacal nitrogen may not be fully as acceptable to plants as
nitrate nitrogen. To test this question, numerous experiments are
under way under full chemical and bacteriological control.
BACTERIOLOGICAL SOIL SURVEY.
Iii order to ascertain whether the deficiency in nitrifying power, so
marked in the neighborhood of Raleigh, is general throughout the
State, it is planned to receive numerous samples of typical soils from
all portions of the State and to determine their ammonifying and
nitrifying powers, employing the methods devised by us and which
are mentioned above.
In addition to the above major investigation, several other inter-esting
observations have been made. For example, a serious out-break
of the egg-plant wilt; the occurrence of a very serious maple-leaf
disease in Raleigh which seems to be due to a yeast ; the occur-rence
of a cotton-leaf spot due to a species of Phyllosticta, possibly
new; a very serious, widely spread, siueet-potato disease, possibly due
to Oospora, which seems always to be present; the occurrence of the
alga-like fungus Rliodochytrium, which seems to be everywhere on
ragweed, though never collected on this plant heretofore and col-lected
only once before in North America and only twice in the
world.
Other interesting diseases which have come under our observation
are a fig rust; a privet disease clue to fungus attack upon the roots,
resulting fatally to the plants ; a peanut Cercospora, which is quite
destructive; a vetch Colletotrichum, which seems to be new, and a
rot of tuberose bulbs, which caused the loss of about 200,000 bulbs
to one grower. This last disease has been found to be due to a species
of Penicillium.
MELON AND TOBACCO WILTS.
Work has been continued on the lines of preceding years, looking
to control of the melon and the tobacco wilts through the develop-ment
of resistant varieties.
22 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
PLANT-DISEASE SURVEY.
This work is carried on in co-operation with the National Bureau
of Plant Industry. Hundreds of letters have been sent to farmers
throughout the State, in order to ascertain the prevalence of certain
diseases of plants and to secure information concerning their dis-tribution.
The results of this work will be summarized and published
later.
Several identifications of seeds, weeds and fungi have been made
and a few bacteriological water examinations have been completed.
CORRESPONDENCE.
Xumerous inquiries concerning plant diseases and other botanical
questions have been received and answered. In all, several thousand
pieces of mail matter have been sent out by this Division.
During the year, J. C. Temple, assistant in Soil Bacteriology, a
most efficient worker, has resigned to assume charge of the Depart-ment
of Soil Bacteriology at the Georgia Experiment Station, and
has been succeeded by P. L. Gainey, who is doing able and con-scientious
work. Respectfully submitted,
P. L. Stjevens,
Biologist.
REPORT OF POULTRYMAN. 23
REPORT OF POULTRYMAN.
I beg to submit the following report of the work in the Poultry
Division for the year ending June 30
During the year experiments have been conducted in feeding for
profitable egg production, in breeding for increased egg yield, in
determining the advisability of supplying moisture in incubators and
of disinfecting incubators before each hatch. The studies in in- and
line-breeding have been continued.
FEEDING EXPERIMENTS.
Feeding work this year has been largely along the line of com-paring
cotton-seed meal and meat meal as sources of protein for laying
hens.
When this work was started during the summer of 1908 it was
not known what effect cotton-seed meal would have on the health
of the hens. All that was known was that for some of the larger
animals it is a valuable feed, while for others it cannot be fed ex-cept
in small quantities and for limited periods without detriment
to the health of the animals.
In order to test this, it was fed to several pens of fowls for three
months in quantities ranging from 10 to 20 per cent of the total
ration. ~No bad effects to the health of the fowls resulted from feed-ing
any of the rations.
On December 1st fourteen pens of fowls were used to continue this
work; five of these were fed rations which contained cotton-seed
meal ; and nine on rations containing meat meal.
The meat meal used was much richer in protein than is usually
found in products of this class, as analyses showed it to contain 86
per cent protein and 7 per cent fat. It was, however, deficient in ash
when compared with animal meal and beef scrap, which are com-monly
used in poultry feeding. These latter feeds contain more or
less bone, which supplies the ash.
It had been thought that part of the benefit resulting from the
feeding of protein from an animal source was due to the mineral
matter generally found in these products, and as this element was
lacking in the meat meal used, we added bone meal to some of the
rations containing both meat meal and cotton-seed meal. Although
these experiments have not been completed, it might be well to men-tion
some of the points that the results seem thus far to indicate
1. Fowls do not relish cotton-seed meal as well as meat meal,
and therefore do not eat freely of mash containing cotton-seed meal.
t2.
Pullets fed on a cotton-seed meal ration do not develop as
rapidly or start to lay as soon as those fed on a ration containing meat
meal.
24 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
3. Hens have clone better than pullets on rations containing cotton-seed
meal.
4. The addition of bone meal to a meat-meal ration reduced the
cost of egg production and increased the size of stock.
5. The addition of bone meal to cotton-seed meal ration did not
reduce the cost of production, due probably to the small amount of
cotton-seed meal mash eaten.
The results obtained even from the best rations show that if the
farmer is to secure the greatest profit from his hens he must take full
advantage of his ability to give his hens a good range on a green
crop from which they can obtain a large part of their food at very
small cost.
In order to determine if the farmer can profitably feed the more
concentrated and higher priced feeds, such as meat meal and beef
scrap, and, if so, in what proportion and at what time of the year, we
propose to put out several pens of fowls on free range, so that dif-ferent
rations can be tested under conditions similar to what the
farmer has.
BREEDING FOR INCREASED EGG PRODUCTION.
In this work the progress made has not been as great as had been
hoped for. The plan generally recommended for the improvement of
both animals and plants, of repeatedly selecting the best producers to
breed from, does not appear to give as good results in egg production
as in some other lines of work. In a great majority of cases it has
been found that the daughters of our best layers are among the poorest
layers. In three years' work along this line only one female has
been found which has shown any marked power to transmit good
laying qualities to her offspring. Neither this hen 'nor her daughters
have been the heaviest layers of the flock, but better average results
have been secured from this family than from any other.
From our experience it has been found that it is more necessary to
know the breeding quality of our hens than their capacity to make a
large yearly record, and that the best progress will be made by select-ing
individual proved breeders, and through the individual establish-ing
families, rather than by a continued selection of the heaviest lay-ers
of indiscriminate breeding.
INBREEDING.
The work in inbreeding, as outlined in last year's report, has been
continued. Five pullets from one of the best hens were selected from
last year's breeding. Two of these were mated with their own sire,
two with a cock of the same line of breeding, but not closely related,
and one with a cock of an entirely different line of breeding.
REPORT OF POULTRYMAN. 25
INCUBATION.
The work started last year in testing the value of supplying mois-ture
to the incubator and in disinfecting each incubator just before
putting in eggs has been continued.
Disinfecting the eggs with a 10 per cent solution of zenoleum has
also been tried. This solution was found to be too strong, as it in-jured
the hatching quality of the eggs.
The use of a sand tray in the bottom of the incubator to supply
moisture has given good results, the percentage of chicks which died
in the shell being materially reduced. Some incubator operators have
questioned the value of this method of supplying moisture in machines
when the ventilation is from the top downward. By the use of
hygrometers we found that the use of the sand tray raised the relative
humidity an average about 10 per cent above that of similar ma-chines
in the same room without the sand tray.
Added moisture and disinfection are now being used in the general
hatching work of the Station, and it is believed that the disinfection
can be extended to the brooder as well with good results.
BROODING.
Both the fireless and heated brooders have been used with good
results.
Good, strong, vigorous chickens can be raised in brooders without
artificial heat, but for the first week they need more attention than
do those reared in the heated brooder. Chicks do not learn to go back
into the fireless brooder as quickly as they do in the heated ones, and
if left to themselves are apt to stay outside and become chilled. On
account of this extra care there is not so -much saving in labor as some
claim, but there is a very great saving in the cost of equipment neces-sary
to raise the chicks in the fireless brooder, as any handyman can
make the necessary box in a few minutes.
GENERAL WORK.
The demand for improved stock for breeding purposes and eggs for
hatching continues to increase, this demand being about one-third
greater than during the previous year.
The increased price of poultry and eggs, together with the awaken-ing
of the farmers to the fact that it pays to keep good stock, are
largely responsible for this.
Along with this desire for better stock has come a demand for
information as to the care and management of poultry, which has
largely increased the correspondence of this Division.
Respectfully submitted,
J. S. Jeffrey,
Poultryman.
26 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1009.
REPORT OF HORTICULTURIST.
The following is a report of the work of the Horticulturist for the
year ending June 30 :
DOUBLE FLOWER OF BLACKBERRY AND OF DEWBERRY.
Work on double flower or rosette has consumed most of the time of
the Horticulturist during the year. A preliminary study of the
trouble was made during the summers of 1907 and of 1908. The
experimental work was started during the past spring.
Only a small amount of the double flower appeared in the Wilson
blackberry plat this spring; this was expected, as the trouble is
usually not very common until the plants are two or three years old.
Xo double flower has appeared in the Lucretia dewberry plat.
During the spring, observations were made on 23 varieties of
blackberries and on 14 varieties of dewberries. A careful study is
also being made of the structure of the double flowers, including the
rosette-like growth of the stems and leaves and also of the flowers
themselves. The double flower, so far as has been observed, never
produces any fruit. Many of the stamens are defective and the
ovules and druplets do not develop. This work will be extended and
continued during the coming year.
During June of the present season experiments were begun to
determine what effect spraying, pruning, and picking off the leaves
would have on the development of double flower.
SELF-STERILITY IN DEWBERRIES AND IN BLACKBERRIES.
The experimental part of this work was started this spring. About
500 flower clusters of different varieties of dewberries were covered
with paper bags to determine what varieties will set fruit without
cross-pollination. We are confining ourselves this year to the fol-lowing
eight varieties of dewberries : Austin, Chestnut, Cox, Manatee,
Premo, Rogers, San Jacinto, and White. Some interesting and very
decided results were obtained during the spring. This work will
be continued.
A careful study will be made of the character of the flowers of the
Premo dewberry, which seems to be notably self-sterile. This is to
determine what really is responsible for the self-sterility, whether
it is due to defective stamens or defective unfertile pollen or whether
the pollen matures at the wrong time.
The Horticulturist recently published a Bulletin on the Origin and
Importance of the Scuppernong and Other Muscadine Grapes. This
publication has aroused much interest in this subject.
REPORT OF HORTICULTURIST, 27
WORK WITH PLUMS.
Work was started during the spring to determine whether brown
rot can be controlled in Japanese plums by thinning the fruit and
spraying with the self-boiled lime-sulphur mixture.
Respectfully submitted,
F. C. Eeimer,
Horticulturist.
28 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
REPORT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDMAN.
I beg to submit the following report of the work carried on by
the Animal Husbandry Division for the year ending June 30
:
The experiment designed to determine the value of fermented
cotton-seed meal for hogs has been completed and the results have
been reported in Bulletin 200, Feeding Fermented Cotton-seed Meal
to Hogs. The experiment is summarized as follows
:
Corn alone proved to be an undesirable ration for growing hogs,
causing small gains and unthrift. This condition was more marked;
owing to the fact that the lot was closely penned, without pasture
;
yet the other lots, similarly confined, made relatively larger gains.
Fermented cotton-seed meal can be fed in small quantities for
limited periods with good results. The results indicate that seventy-five
to ninety days is the limit of satisfactory feeding. This would
depend, however, on the age and condition of the hogs, the supple-mentary
feeds, and the proportion of cotton-seed meal fed.
Lot 3, fed a combination of corn and cotton-seed meal, in the pro-portion
of four to one, made larger and cheaper gains for the first
ninety days than the lot similarly fed on corn and linseed meal. This
would seem to indicate that, when possible, cotton-seed meal should
be used, since it contains a larger percentage of protein and sells
for about one-fourth less per ton than linseed meal.
Farmers would, according to the results of this experiment, be safe
in feeding fermented cotton-seed meal to 75-pound shoats in quantities
ranging from one-sixth to one-fifth the total ration, by weight, for a
period of seventy-five to ninety days.
The feeding of the four lots of hogs during the first period was
more profitable when one part of cotton-seed meal was added to the
ration of four parts corn than when corn alone or corn and linseed
meal in combination were fed. In the case of linseed meal, however,
the greater cost of gain was due to the high price of the feed, and
not so much to its lack of efficiency in making gains. Barring this
one factor and the possible danger in feeding cotton-seed meal, the
two feeds, according to the results of this experiment, are approxi-mately
the same in feeding value when fed for the time stated.
With corn and cotton-seed meal each costing approximately $28
per ton, the results show clearly in favor of the combined corn and
cotton-seed meal ration, considering always the limitations given as
to the amount fed and length of feeding period. While Lots 2, 3
and 4 had a somewhat larger ration than Lot 1, the larger gains
during the first period were sufficient to considerably overbalance this
factor.
REPORT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDMAN. 29
The practical application of these results would not be to feed
under the conditions here described, but rather to feed the corn and
cotton-seed meal in connection with grazing crops, which can be pro-duced
so abundantly by North Carolina farmers.
When fed with judgment, cotton-seed meal can be made a valuable
adjunct to corn as a ration for hogs. It is the cheapest commercial
concentrate for the Southern farmer and hence should not be en-tirely
ignored in swine production.
An experiment to determine the value of cotton-seed meal as a
feed for horses and mules is in progress. In this it is designed to
determine the following:
1. The possibility of using cotton-seed meal as a supplementary
feed to corn for work horses and mules.
2. The amounts and conditions under which it could be most
satisfactorily fed.
3. The economy of the ration.
4. The effect on the health and condition of the animal.
The experiment was started April 6, 1908, and the meal has been
fed continuously to the present. The results secured indicate that
cotton-seed meal can be made a valuable adjunct to the ordinary ration
for horses and mules, when fed properly. From 1 to iy2 pounds
per animal per day have been fed with apparent satisfaction. The
meal is most satisfactorily fed, however, when thoroughly in-corporated
with corn and cob meal, bran, brewers' grain, or some
other feed of like consistency. It is not possible to feed the meal in
conjunction with ear-corn with satisfaction. To feed cotton-seed
meal satisfactorily the feed which forms the basis of the ration should
be of such a nature as to permit of the meal being mixed with it
thoroughly.
Close observations made on the work-stock, both in the barn and in
the field, have revealed no ajDparent harmful results. This experi-ment
will be continued to study other phases of the problem.
At the beginning of the year an investigation was started to deter-mine
the cause of the harmful effects noted when cotton-seed meal
is fed to hogs and to isolate the toxin, if such it is.
This work is being carried on jointly by the Animal Husbandry,
Veterinary and Chemical Divisions. Hogs and guinea pigs are be-ing
used in the work. The use of guinea pigs makes it possible to
use in the investigations various parts of cotton-seed meal prepared
chemically, which would not be feasible were large hogs used ex-clusively.
Although definite results cannot be given at this time,
the work is progressing satisfactorily. The work has gradually in-creased,
as new phases of the work developed.
Along with this work, grazing experiments with swine are being
conducted to determine the value of the many forage crops that grow
30 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
well in North Carolina. The principal crops used so far are cow-peas,
soy beans, crimson clover, sweet potatoes, peanuts, rape, Canada
field peas, oats, and rye.
During the year a comparatively large number of inquiries have
come to the Animal Husbandman regarding feeding, breeding, and
management of live stock.
On the Station farm a number of improvements have been made.
The equipment for carrying on the swine experiments is fairly com-plete.
Additional farrowing pens, colony houses, a dipping tank,
and pastures have been provided.
Respectfully submitted,
R. S. Cubtis,
Animal Husbandman.
REPORT OF DAIRY HUSBANDMAN. 31
REPORT OF DAIRY HUSBANDMAN.
The main work in this Division consisted of a study of the relative
economy of narrow and medium rations for cows under ^Torth Caro-lina
conditions. This work was prompted by the relative cheapness of
cotton-seed meal, which suggested the wisdom of feeding larger quan-tities
of this material than has hitherto been the custom. Cotton-seed
meal is very rich in protein, and rations containing a large amount
of it will have a very narrow nutritive ratio—much narrower than
is ordinarily recommended for cattle feeding.
The narrow ration fed consisted of five parts cotton-seed meal,
four parts wheat bran, three parts corn meal and 50 pounds of
corn silage. This ration had a nutritive ratio of 1 :4. The medium
ration was the same as the narrow, except that 2% pounds of cotton-seed
meal were replaced by 2% pounds of corn meal, giving this
ration a nutritive ratio of 1 : 5. 7.
The results of this experiment were strongly in favor of the nar-row
ration, but it was thought best to duplicate the experiment in
order to allow more positive conclusions to be drawn with reference to
the wisdom and practicability of feeding a narrow ration.
The duplicate of the above experiment is now in progress.
A Bulletin on the Manufacture and Marketing of Cottage Cheese,
Skimmilk-Buttermilk and Ice-cream was published during the year.
The facilities of the Dairy Division are excellent for the prosecu-tion
of effective Station work next year, and five new lines of in-vestigations
are already in progress.
Respectfully submitted,
John Michels,
Dairy Husbandman.
THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
REPORT OF ENTOMOLOGIST.
The following is a brief statement of the work of the Entomological
Division for the year ending June 30
:
An investigation of the life-history and habits of the harlequin
cabbage bug (terrapin bug), Murgantia histrionica, commenced in
April, 1908, and was continued throughout most of the year. (A
full account of this investigation, together with remedial suggestions,
will be found among the Scientific Papers in this Annual Report,
under the headings, "Suppression of Terrapin Bugs" and "Spring
Destruction of Terrapin Bugs.")
Some attention has been given to a study of the life-history of the
cabbage webworm, Hettula undalis.
The common little red-house ant, Monomorium pliaraonis, became
very abundant last August in the agricultural building, and an at-tempt
was made to eradicate them, or at least to devise some means
of preventing their presence in undesirable places. For nearly four
weeks this work was continued with partial success, by collecting
thousands of the ants on sweetened baits and by attempting to at-tract
them to poison mixtures. The sweetened baits served to trap
thousands of ants, but the poison baits were of little if any value.
It was demonstrated that ants may be kept off laboratory tables,
desks, shelves, etc., by the use of a saturated solution of bichloride of
mercury, one application being effective for several weeks, except for
an occasional stray individual. Any tape, made by soaking strips of
cotton cloth in the solution, may be tied around the legs of tables,
chairs, etc., and serves to repel the ants for a considerable time.
The corn weevil problem, mentioned in my last report, has been
conducted mainly along the line of fumigation. Some field observa-tions
have shown that corn may become infested as early as August,
while standing in the field. The fumigation experiments have shown
that the usually recommended remedy, carbon bisulphide, is not
effective under ordinary farm conditions.
The fumes of burning sulphur were tested in the spring of 1908
and again during the past winter. The results proved this to be
an effective remedy for killing corn weevils, but it was found to be
impractical because it affected the germinating power of the corn;
even a smaller amount of sulphur fumes than was necessary to kill
the weevils materially reduced the germination of the corn.
Some work was carried on during February with good results in
combating San Jose scale by means of the lime-sulphur wash. The
orchard in which the studies were made, as it was badly infested,
serves as a good "illustration of the benefit derived from thorough
spraying with this wash. The apple crop this season has been large
REPORT OF ENTOMOLOGIST. 33
and has been kept quite free from codling-moth worms, Carpocapsa
pomonella, by two sprayings just after the blooming period with a
mixture of 3 pounds of arsenate of lead in 50 gallons of Bordeaux
mixture, the latter being used to prevent leaf diseases.
Press Bulletins on Fall Destruction of Terrapin Bugs and Spring
Destruction of Terrapin Bugs, and a regular Bulletin on Corn
Weevils and Other Grain Insects have been prepared by the En-tomologist
during the year.
Respectfully submitted,
R. I. Smith,
Entomologist.
34 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1900.
REPORT OF VETERINARIAN.
I beg to submit a report of the work of the Veterinary Division
for the year ending June 30
:
The major part of the work has been given over to a study of the
toxic effects of cotton-seed meal when fed to swine and guinea pigs.
Both of these have been found to be quite susceptible to the ill effects
of such feeding.
Daily observations have been made on nearly all of the animals
fed, to determine, if possible, specific symptoms of the derange-ment
produced by cotton-seed meal. With a number of the swine
daily records were kept of weights, temperatures, pulsations and
respirations. At frequent intervals blood readings were made, esti-mating
amount of total solids, numbers of red and white corpuscles,
the per cent of hemoglobin and specific gravity.
Post-mortem examinations have been made of all animals which
died of cotton-seed meal feeding. In a number of instances weights
were taken of various organs to compare with total weight, also
portions of tissues were preserved for sectioning and for micro-scopical
examination.
During the first half of the year work was carried on with the
Bacteriological Division in an attempt to determine some of the
poisons and their causes developing in milk. Samples of milk
were inoculated with dirt and germs from various sources, and
after a lapse of sufficient time for abundant germ growth the infected
milk was injected into guinea pigs. Daily observations were taken,
and upon the death of pigs post-mortem examinations and attempts
to isolate germs from the blood were made.
During the year there were a large number of inquiries concern-ing
hog cholera, and at one of the larger winter resorts, where the
disease had just developed, we undertook to control its ravages by
the production and use of hog-cholera serum, as advised by the
National Bureau of Animal Industry. The owner had lost during
the previous year nearly all of his swine except a few which re-covered
from the disease, and these afforded material necessary
for preparation of the serum. The hogs were isolated as far as
possible to delay or prevent infection until the serum could be
produced, requiring some three weeks, according to the method
pursued. Nearly one-fourth of the 200 head were sick or dead by
this time, but after the injections of serum were made very few
others became sick. As a curative agent after the symptoms of
the disease developed it was found to be of little if any value, such
as other investigators have observed, but its effect in preventing
the trouble in those not infected was very marked. Some co-opera-
REPORT OF VETERINARIAN. 35
tive work with the State Department of Agriculture is being under-taken
to further prove the efficiency of this serum in preventing and
controlling hog cholera.
Internal parasites, being extremely common in pigs and shoats
reaching the local market, turpentine and thymol are being com-pared
as to their efficacy in freeing grossly infested shoats of worms.
A number of specimens have been received at the laboratory for
examination, both bacteriologically and pathologically.
A marked increase in the number of inquiries concerning dis-eases
in general has been noted.
Respectfully submitted,
G. A. Roberts,
Veterinarian,
THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
RECEIPTS AND EXPENSES.
North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station in Account with the
United States Appropriations, 1908-1909.
Dr.
To receipts from the Treasurer of the United States, as per appropriations for
the fiscal year ending June 30, 1909, under Acts of Congress, approved
March 2, 18S7, and March 16, 1906
:
Hatch Fund $15,000.00
Adams Fund 11,000.00
Cr. Hatch Fund. Adams Fund.
By Salaries $7,313.88 $8,272.76
Labor 2,203.45 1,181.09
Publications
Postage and stationery.
Freight and express
Heat, light, water and power
Chemical supplies
Seeds, plants and sundry supplies.
Fertilizers
Feeding stuffs
Library
Tools, implements and machinery.
Furniture and fixtures
Scientific apparatus
Live stock
Traveling expenses
Contingent expenses
Buildings and land
662.56
294.12
84.29
39.78
409.91
565.33 223.34
519.57
901.47
23.98 83.40
373.65
530.40
171.75
464.00 389.90
258.52
15.00
750.00 267.85
Total , $15,000.00 $11,000.00
We, the undersigned, duly appointed auditors of the corporation, do hereby
certify that we have examined the books and accounts of the North Carolina
Experiment Station for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1909; that we have
found the same well kept and classified as above, and that the receipts for the
year from the Treasurer of the United States are shown to have been $26,000,
and the corresponding disbursements $26,000 ; for all of which proper vouchers
are on file and have been by us examined and found correct, thus leaving
nothing.
And we further certify that the expenditures have been solely for the pur-poses
set forth in the Acts of Congress, approved March 2, 1887, and March
16, 1906. (Signed)
J. T. Ellington,
(Seal.) O. L. Clark,
T. T. Ballenger,
Auditors.
Attest : A. F. Bowen, Custodian.
FERTILIZING MATERIALS AND MATURITY OF COTTON. 37
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS.
EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT FERTILIZING MATERIALS UPON THE
MATURITY OF COTTON.
By C. B. WILLIAMS.
Iii fertilizer experiments which have been conducted at the North Carolina
Station farm on a poor soil of the cecil sandy-loam type, deficient in organic
matter, during the past five or six years, it has been observed frequently
that the same variety of cotton planted on the same kind of soil and worked
by identical methods matured differently on different plats, it being quite
marked in some cases. From results secured at the Red Springs, Edgecombe,
and Iredell Test Farms of the North Carolina State Department of Agricul-ture
during two years, the writer made the same observations. These data
and the deductions therefrom were published in September (1906) Bulletin
of that Department. As results have been secured from coarse sandy, fine
sandy loam, sandy-clay loam and tenacious clay soils for two to five years,
it will be noted that the observations made and results secured have em-braced
many years' data and have covered a wide range of soils located under
quite varying climatic conditions.
At the Station something like thirty tests have been conducted in which
fertilizing materials were combined in different proportions and used in dif-ferent
quantities per acre, and in all cases a hastening of maturity was ef-fected.
On the unfertilized plats in all tests during all the years it has been
found that in most cases the larger the yield the greater the combined per-centage
of seed cotton open at the first two pickings. At the end of the
second picking there was but little difference, relatively, between the per-centages
of seed cotton open on those plats which received different quantities
of fertilizer and different fertilizer combinations ; but on these there was
something like 50 per cent more open, as an average, than was on the plats
which received no fertilizer application, but which had otherwise been sub-jected
to the same treatment as the fertilizer plats. From the unfertilized
plats about 75 per cent of the cotton was picked at third and fourth pickings
;
while those receiving an application of commercial fertilizer only had about
60 per cent of the crop left to open at these pickings, except in the case of
the plat which received a mixture of 48 pounds of manure salt and 78 pounds
of dried blood per acre, which had, on an average, 68.6 per cent. As showing
the seasonal effect, especially of drouth, it will be found that by contrasting
the results secured during the years 1904 (with an excess of .91 inch of rain
during the months of August, September, October, and November) with those
of 1905 (which had 3.45 inches deficiency from the normal for the months
of August, September, October, and November, taken together, and 1.52 inches
below normal for the month of November), it was found that the average
percentage of total crop open on four unfertilized plats at the fourth picking
was much greater in 1905 than in 1904.
38 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
EFFECTS OF CARRIERS OF PHOSPHORIC ACID.
As carriers of phosphoric acid, acid phosphate, basic slag and finely ground
phosphate rock have been tested, and all have been found to hasten the
maturity of cotton, as shown by the percentage of seed cotton open at first
and second pickings. In fact, the hastening of the maturity was decidedly
more marked from phosphatic fertilizing materials than from carriers of
potash and nitrogen tried. Increasing the quantity of phosphoric acid derived
from acid phosphate with normal amounts of potash and nitrogen was at-tended
by a gradual increase in the percentage of total seed cotton open
at the first picking.
Acid Phosphate.—When 196 pounds of acid phosphate was added to an
application consisting of a mixture of 48 pounds of manure salt and 7S pounds
of dried blood, there was almost 13 percentage increase in seed cotton open
of total crop at the first picking and more than 7 percentage increase at the
end of the second picking. This application also gave 22 at the first picking
and 12 per cent at the end of second picking more of the total yield open than
was secured from the adjoining plat which had received no fertilizer treat-ment.
Basic Slag.—Basic slag was found to hasten maturity even more than acid
phosphate, as was shown by practically one-half of the cotton being open at
the first picking on the plat which received an application of this material
in connection with normal quantities (48 pounds of manure salt and 78
pounds of dried blood) of manure salt and dried blood. On the plat to which
phosphoric acid, in connection with normal application of potash and nitrogen,
was supplied from acid phosphate, it was found that about 12% per cent
less of total cotton opened at the first picking than did on the plat from
which the phosphoric acid in equal quantities was furnished from basic slag
under the same conditions. When this latter material was applied in the
drill in connection with a ton of stable manure per acre, the effects upon
hastening maturity were markedly reduced.
Phosphate Rock.—Where high-grade finely ground phosphate rock as a car-rier
of phosphoric acid was used at the rate of 274 pounds per acre (four
times normal phosphoric acid) in connection with a ton of stable manure, and
both were applied in the drill, it was noted that the percentage of total seed
cotton open at the first picking was about 35 per cent and at the end of the
second more than 20 per cent greater than on an unfertilized plat adjacent.
EFFECT OF CARRIERS OF NITROGEN.
Carriers of nitrogen used in fertilization, such as dried blood, nitrate of
soda, etc., have been found to hasten the maturity of cotton, but not anyways
near to the extent that carriers of phosphoric acid do. The effect of %the
common nitrogen carriers seems to be felt only at the first picking, as there
is no evidence from results secured that they affected the percentage of total
crop open at the second picking. When used with normal amounts of acid
phosphate and manure salt, increasing the amount of blood, as the carrier
of nitrogen, was attended by an increase in the percentage of total crop open
at the first picking, up to 200 to 300 pounds per acre of the blood.
Dried Blood and Nitrate of Soda.—When 78 pounds of high-grade dried
blood was added to normal quantities of acid phosphate (196 pounds) and
FERTILIZING MATERIALS AND MATURITY OF COTTON. 39
manure salt as a fertilizer application, the percentage of total crop open
at the first picking was increased 3.3 per cent. Where in normal applications
the amount of blood was reduced by one-half and an amount of nitrate of
soda, equivalent in content of nitrogen to the reduction, was used as a side
dressing and applied early in July, it was observed that the percentage of
total crop open at the first picking was greater, generally, than in those
cases where the whole of the normal application of nitrogen was derived from
dried blood. When one-fifth of the nitrogen was derived from nitrate of
soda and the remaining four-fifths came from dried blood, there was a rather
marked increase in the percentage of total crop open at the first picking.
When the nitrogen, in connection with normal quantities of potash and
phosphoric acid, was derived from blood, one-half of which was applied at
planting and the remainder reserved as a side dressing and applied early in
July, it was observed that a larger percentage of total crop opened at the
first picking than did where nitrate of soda was used as the carrier of nitrogen
and which was divided and applied in the same way.
Cotton Seed and Stable Manure.—With cotton seed as a carrier of nitrogen
and applied in the drill at planting, the effect upon maturity was about the
same as where dried blood was used, while in the case of stable manure there
was a material increase in the percentage of total crop open at the first
picking, but showed no difference at the second picking.
EFFECT OF CARRIERS OF POTASH.
Manure salt was the only potash-bearing salt used. It was found, when
used at the rate of 4S pounds per acre, to hasten the maturity of cotton but
slightly. To be sure, the -amount here used was quite small, and marked
results were not expected where so small a quantity of any fertilizer material
was used. Where one-half, twice, and thrice this quantity of manure salt was
used in connection with normal amounts of phosphoric acid and potash, it
was found that as the proportion of potash increased the percentage of total
crop open at the first picking gradually diminished, except for the year 1907,
August of which had about three inches less rainfall than normal.
EFFECTS OF LIME.
Slaked lime applied alone during the spring of 1903 and 1907 did not seem
to increase the maturity of cotton in any year, as shown by the percentages
open at the first and second pickings being about the same as for the un-fertilized
land ; but, when used in connection with a normal application of a
mixture of acid phosphate, manure salt, and dried blood, a marked hastening
in maturity was noted. At the first picking, on an average, the addition
of air-slaked lime at the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre every four years
to a normal application of a complete fertilizer, resulted in an increase of
more than 11 per cent of the total crop maturing than of the cotton planted
on the plat receiving a normal application alone.
EFFECT OF DIFFERENT QUANTITIES.
It has been observed for the types of soil studied that increasing the
amount of the application per acre of a fertilizer analyzing 7 per cent avail-able
phosphoric acid, 2y2 per cent nitrogen, and 2% per cent potash, from
40 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
200 to 800 or 1,200 pounds, that such an increase was accompanied generally
by an increase in the percentage of total seed cotton of whole crop open
at the first picking.
Prom the data used in preparing this paper, the following tentative deduc-tions
may be made relative to the influence of fertilizer upon the growth of
cotton
:
1. Fertilization with ordinary applications of commercial fertilizers hastens
maturity.
2. Sandy and sandy-loam soils, whether fertilized or unfertilized, yield larger
percentages of total cotton open at the first two pickings combined than do
red-clay soils.
3. Heavy phosphoric acid (NP3 K) fertilization on sandy and sandy-loam
soils and medium heavy (NP2 K) applications of phosphoric acid from basic
slag have produced the largest percentages of total seed cotton open at the
first picking.
4. Normal (NPK) fertilization yields on both sandy and red-clay soils
a larger percentage open at the first picking than high nitrogen (N3 PK) ap-plications.
5. High nitrogen (N3 PK) applications generally yielded on all types of soil
studied larger percentages of total yield open at the first picking than high
potash (NPK3 ) applications.
6. Air-slaked lime alone does not hasten maturity, but when used in con-nection
with commercial fertilizers it augments their influence in hastening
maturity, as shown by percentage of cotton open at first picking.
SOME FACTS CONCERNING CORN PLANT, YIELD, ETC. 41
SOME FACTS CONCERNING THOSE CHARACTERS OF THE CORN
PLANT ASSOCIATED WITH YIELD AND FACTORS
WHICH INFLUENCE THEM.
By C. B. WILLIAMS and W. C. ETHERIDGE.
With corn, as with other crops, yield is determined by environment and
by certain characteristics which the individual plants may possess. Without
a favorable climate, good soil, and thorough tillage, no strain of corn can
produce maximum yields any more than, with these supplied, can the greatest
yields be secured where seed bred and selected in the most intelligent man-ner
are not used. In consideration of these facts, it is deemed not inap-propriate
at this time to consider somewhat in detail some of those characters
of the corn plant which seem to be associated intimately with high yielding
capacity. The deductions made are largely from data secured with some sixty
to seventy varieties of corn, many of them grown each under four different
conditions—two of fertilization and two of distancing the hills in the rows.
I. CHARACTERS ASSOCIATED WITH YIELD.
Prolificacy in Ears.—As prolificacy is influenced by soil and climatic con-ditions,
increasing the yield of any variety is usually attended by an increase
in its prolificacy within narrow limits; and the larger the yield in grain of
a variety, the larger the percentage of ear of total plant, the heavier the
grain and the less pounds of ear-corn required to shell a bushel.
In variety tests on the Station farm during the past six years, as it has
been found to be a pretty general rule that those which have averaged the
largest yields of grain per acre were those possessing a decidedly strong
tendency to produce more than one ear per stalk, it would seem to be safe
to infer that the prolificacy of stalks in ears should be given prime con-sideration
in selecting seed corn. In the Station tests it has been found that
Sanders' Improved, a fairly prolific variety, has yielded as an average of five
years 6.8 bushels more of shelled corn per acre than Holt's Strawberry, a
good one-eared variety ; while Biggs' Seven-ear, another prolific variety, has
outyielded Holt's Strawberry 4.4 bushels as an average of three years' tests.
Ordinarily, for the better grade of improved farming lands, it is not felt that
it would be wise to select seed from stalks bearing more than two ears. It is
believed that the richer the land on which the corn is to be planted the greater
the prolificacy in ears that may be selected for with profit. On the poorer
grades of land it is suggested that, until its yielding capacity has been in-creased,
the best one-eared varieties be grown. Too great a prolificacy of
corn to be planted on poor land may be a positive detriment to yield. The
tendency of such seed will be to produce a large number of ears ; and as
the limited supply of available plant food contained in the soil will run quite
low towards the latter part of the growth of the plants, there will usually
be a large number of shoots and nubbins produced and very few ears ; while,
on the other hand, a one-eared variety might have given fairly good-size ears
42 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
under the conditions ; certainly it would in all probability have done better.
It might be stated in this connection that, where these conditions of soil ob-tain,
it is thought that time might be put to better advantage in growing on
it soil-improving crops, such as cowpeas and clover, and defer planting it to
corn until it has been considerably improved in producing capacity. It is
not felt that corn can be raised profitably on very poor land.
Percentage of Grain.—Although it is essential for any variety to possess the
characteristic of producing a high percentage of grain to ear for it to attain
its maximum yielding capacity, yet, as other factors, such as prolificacy, size
of ears, source of seed, etc., enter, the largest yields need not necessarily
be expected from those varieties possessing the highest percentage of grain.
As a matter of fact, the largest yields by varieties tested at the Station farm
during the past five years have been secured from those which produce a
medium percentage of grain ; but this is not because this is an unessential of
the highest possible yields, but rather seems to be due to the fact that
varieties possessing the highest percentages of grain have been bred and
selected largely for this quality alone, while other characteristics that might
have contributed to the yields were seemingly left out of consideration to a
large extent in the establishment of these varieties. Increasing the size of
the ear of any variety, it has been observed, is generally attended by an
increase in the percentage of grain to ear, although to some extent this is
modified by season.
The best yielding varieties have been found to bear ears which shell on
an average of 80 to S7 per cent grain. With the same variety there is a
seasonal variation of a fraction of a per cent to 2 to 4 per cent, or even more.
Size of Ears.—Large-eared varieties usually have a relatively low percentage
of grain to cob, and are, as a rule, less productive of shelled corn per stalk
than the more prolific varieties. Although, taking everything into considera-tion,
where corn is gathered by hand, as is done in many portions of the South,
it will usually be a little easier and slightly cheaper to. gather and handle
the same acreage of large-eared corn than of corn with smaller ears, when
the yield of shelled corn per acre for both are the same, yet, quite frequently,
from a financial standpoint, it will be better for the farmer to use seed
of a variety possessing a relatively small ear, because of the greatly in-creased
yield of grain per acre that would result from the use of such seed.
Within reasonable limits, it should not be so much the size of the ears
that should govern in the selection of a variety for seed purposes as the
persistency of the seed of the variety to withstand adverse conditions and to
produce large yields of shelled corn per stalk and hence per acre. However,
within the same variety it will usually be advisable to choose for seed those
ears, other characteristics being .equal, that are of the average or slightly above
the average in size for the variety.
The size of the ear of a variety is not determined solely by heredity, but
is greatly influenced by climate, season, soil fertilization, cultivation, etc.
;
for the more favorable these conditions are for the growth of the plants, the
larger and heavier will the ears and kernels produced be at maturity; and
the more unfavorable these conditions are, the smaller they will grow. In
other words, if seed of the same variety were planted during the same year
on both rich bottom and ordinary upland soils, it would be found at maturity,
SOME FACTS CONCERNING CORN PLANT, YIELD, ETC. 43
with a favorable season, that the corn grown in the bottom had not only pro-duced
a larger yield and greater number of ears per stalk, but had also borne
considerably larger ears, and it would generally be easy for one who is at all
familiar with ear types of different varieties to determine by general appear-ances
whether a given ear had been produced on rich land or not.
It will be better to use seed of a variety having medium small ears with
poorly shaped kernels in preference to one with large, well-shaped ears pos-sessing
well-formed kernels, if the former produces, under the same conditions
of season, soil, and cultivation, greatly increased yields over the latter, not-withstanding
the fact that it may be a little less expensive to house the latter,
because the net profit resulting from the former would be much greater.
By using a variety with a strongly fixed prepotency to high yield of shelled
corn per stalk—rthe great desideratum, after all—the size and shape of the
ear and its kernels may be materially improved within a few years, through
careful seed selection, with a resulting tendency to further increased yields
over the original stock. It should be borne in mind clearly, however, that by
developing larger and better-shaped ears and kernels of any variety, through
seed selection, persistently practiced through a number of years, that only
two of the many characters that contribute to high yields are improved.
Height of Ears and Stalks.—It has been found that the best yielding varieties
were those which possessed a medium to tall stalk and were those which
have their ears at a medium height. The varieties which had the lowest
stalks and ears were those seed of which have come from the corn-growing
States of the Northwest. The ears should be attached a little below the center
of the stalks. Varieties which make too large a growth of stalks are gener-ally
late in maturing and are therefore far more likely to be caught by
early frost in the fall than those that make a relatively small or medium
growth of stalk.
Date of Maturity.—As a general thing, those varieties which mature
earliest are the smallest yielders of both grain and stover, while those
producing most per acre are medium to late maturing. Other things being
equal, earliness in maturity of not only corn, but all other crops, is at
a sacrifice of yield, as earliness and high yield are antagonistic characters,
if a favorable growing season is afforded for the maturity of the later
maturing varieties. Usually, also, earliness is accompanied by a high per-centage
of ear to stover ; but this ratio is more or less influenced by season,
soil, fertilization, breeding and selection. It might be stated here that with
many crops, however, earliness is more essential than heavy yields ; especially
is this so with trucking crops, for if they do not reach maturity early in
the season the best prices are not obtained. Where for any reason the
season for growth is short, the best of the early varieties will give the
largest yields under the conditions, but the yield will be smaller generally
than would have been produced by the best of the medium and late maturing
varieties had the season been sufficiently long for their full development.
II. DIFFERENT DISTANCING OF HILLS IN EQUIDISTANT ROWS UNDER DIFFERENT
DEGREES OF FERTILIZATION.
Effect Upon Yield.—The optimum distancing for yield of corn, as with
other crops, is governed by variety, season, soil, fertilization, cultivation,
44 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
etc. For the same soil, the more favorable the season, fertilization, and
cultivation, the closer, within limits, the planting may be done with profit,
especially so with the prolific varieties. To illustrate specifically the effects
of fertilization under local conditions which embody principles of wide
application, it was found that as an average of the yields of 68 varieties,
planting at 20 inches in the row produced 3.8 bushels more shelled corn and
563 pounds of stover per acre on highly manured land than did spacing
the hills 30 inches in the row; while on the same land which did not re-ceive
but 300 pounds of commercial fertilizer per acre the yield of grain
and stover was practically identical at both distancing (20 and 30 inches)
and were but little more than one-half those obtained from the highly manured
plats of the same acreage. With the highly manured plats, 76.1 per cent
of the varieties yield most shelled corn per acre at 20-inch spacing of the
hills as against 30 inches, and those which did not follow this rule were all
of one-eared type. In the case of stover, 86.6 per cent of the varieties
yielded most where the stalks stood 20 inches in the row on the highly manured
plats. On the better manured plats, 85.1 per cent of the varieties yielded
a greater value of total products (grain and stover) at 20-inch spacing in
the rows. With varieties receiving an application of (cow) manure sup-plemented
by 300 pounds of commercial fertilizer, the value of total products
was $5.29 more per acre where the stalks were 20 inches than where they
were 30 inches; while on the same land which received only 300 pounds
of commercial fertilizer per acre the difference was, on an average, not
but 23 cents, which was in favor of 20-inch distancing in the rows. From
the above, therefore, it is observed that increasing the productivity of the
soil by a fairly liberal broadcast coating of (cow) manure and fertilizer
was accompanied by materially increased yields, over 30-inch spacing, by
thinning the stalks to 20 inches, while under ordinarily poor fertilization
there was practically no difference between a spacing of 20 and 30 inches
of the hills in the rows, which emphasizes the importance of closer planting
as the fertility of the land is increased.
Results in these experiments were secured from 68 varieties of corn grown
in 4-foot rows during 1908 on poor land of the Cecil sandy-loam type which
would not normally without fertilization yield more than 12 to 14 bushels per
acre. The land was treated in two sets in different degrees of fertilization.
On one set of plats, which will be termed the "highly manured" set, 16 tons
of a high-grade cow manure (the cows had been fed on cotton-seed meal and
wheat bran, and no bedding was in the manure), supplemented by an ap-plication
of 300 pounds per acre at planting of a fertilizer analyzing 7 per
cent available phosphoric acid, 3 per cent nitrogen, and 1% per cent potash
was used; while the other set received only 300 pounds of commercial
fertilizer per acre of the grade given above. This set in the discussion that
follows will be called the "poorly fertilized" one.
Effect Upon Size of Ears.—Under heavy manuring, stalks which were 30
inches in the row produced ears, on an average, which were .37 inch longer
and .12 inch greater in circumference than those grown on stalks standing
20 inches apart; while on the poorly fertilized plats the ears were .44 inch
longer and .16 inch greater in circumference at 30-inch than those grown at
20-inch spacing of the stalks. The average length and circumference of the
SOME FACTS CONCERNING CORN PLANT, YIELD, ETC. 45
ears on the more highly manured land were .99 and .46 inch respectively-greater
than where the 68 varieties were grown on the poorly fertilized plats.
On the highly manured land S4.6 and 68.2 per cent and on the poorly fertilized
plats 79.1 and 76.1 per cent of the varieties produced ears longer and
circumference of same greater respectively at a spacing of 30 inches. As an
average of all the varieties, it required 122 ears to shell a bushel from
hills thinned to 30 inches and 131 ears at 20 inches on the highly manured'
plats ; while for the poorly fertilized corn, it required 166 ears at 30-inch-grown
and 200 ears of that grown 20 inches in the row. On the poorly fertilized
plats it required an average of 56 ears more to shell a bushell of corn than
it did where the corn was produced on the better land. On the highly
manured plats 72.7 per cent of the varieties required a larger number of
ears to shell a bushel where the corn was grown 20 inches apart in the
rows ; while on the poorly fertilized plats S3.3 per cent of the varieties required
most at the same distancing. On the highly manured plats it will be observed
that a 20-inch distancing of the hills gave the largest yields, while stalks
spaced 30 inches produced the largest and longest ears. Both higher fertiliza-tion
and greater distancing between hills increased the length and circum-ference
of the ears of two-thirds to three-quarters of all the varieties under
experiment.
Effect Upon Height of Stalks and Ears.—On the highly manured plats the
height of the stalks and ears were 2.30 and 1.60 inches higher respectively
at a spacing of 20 inches between the stalks than at 30 inches ; while on
the poorly fertilized plats the stalks and their ears were 5.50 and 1.70 inches
higher above the ground respectively at 30 inches. The average height of
the stalks and ears under better manuring were 11.35 and 6.40 inches higher
respectively than those grown on the poorly fertilized plats. Of the stalks
and their ears of the 68 varieties, 67.2 and 6S.7 per cent at 30 inches, and
83.8 and 69.1 per cent at 20 inches, were highest on the heavily manured
and poorly fertilized plats respectively. It would seem, then, from these
data that in the presence of limited quantities of plant-food in the soil an
increase in the distance between stalks from 20 to 30 inches of corn planted
in 4-foot rows leads to the production of a taller growth of stalks and higher
attachment of ears above ground; while with the same soil fairly well sup-plied
with plant-food from (cow) manure and fertilizer for the immediate
needs of the plants an increase in the thickness of planting from 30 to
20 inches is attended by the growth of higher stalks and ears.
Effect Upon the Number of Ears and Amount of Shelled Com per Stall;.—
On the highly manured plats there were for all the varieties taken together
.11 more ear per stalk at 30 inches than at 20 inches spacing of the hills
in the row, and on the plats receiving only 300 pounds of commercial fertilizer
.10 more of an ear on an average at 30 than at 20 inches. Contributing to
these data 91.0 per cent of the varieties on the highly manured land and
86.8 per cent on the poorly fertilized plats produced most at the respective
favorable distancings. The average difference between the highly and poorly
fertilized plats was .15 more of an ear per stalk on the former than on the
latter. The corn under better fertilization produced 27 per cent more shelled
corn per bearing stalk at 30-inch distancing than at 20 inches ; while that
grown on land poorly fertilized, an increase of 41 per cent was secured in
4G THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
favor of the former distancing, which indicates that in the presence of limited
quantities of plant-food a slight increase in the amount of space per plant
is attended by a much greater increase in yield of grain per stalk than is
secured on land which is more highly manured. The highly manured plats,
as an average of both distancing, produced .148 pound shelled corn per bear-ing
stalk, or an increase of 68.4 per cent more shelled corn per bearing stalk
than was produced on the plats receiving 300 pounds of commercial fertilizer
alone. It will be observed that increasing the distance between the hills
and the fertility of the land were attended by a larger number of ears per
stalk and by a marked increase in the quantity of shelled corn per bearing
stalk.
Effect Upon Maturity and Stand.—The two distancing of hills studied did
not seem to affect differently to any great extent the growth of the plants
up to the tasseling and silking stages, yet the weight of evidence is that
closer spacing of the stalks retarded the maturity by about one day, on an
average. The corn on the highly manured plats tasseled and silked from
three to four days earlier than on those receiving an application of com-mercial
fertilizer alone. Better fertilization seems to lead to a more perfect
stand, as is evidenced by the varieties planted on the plats which received
an application of (cow) manure and 300 pounds of commercial fertilizer being
2.56 per cent better than that from seed of the same varieties planted in the
same manner on the same type of soil which received only an application
of commercial fertilizer.
Effect Upon the Production of Suckers.—On the more highly fertilized plats
9.48 per cent at 30 inches and 6.13 per cent of the stalks produced suckers at
20-inch spacing of hills in the row ; while on the poorly fertilized plats 6.15
per cent produced suckers at 30 inches and 2.87 per cent at 20 inches. Suckers,
therefore, are increased in number both by increasing the distance of the
hills apart and by the addition of more plant-food to the soil. It has also
been observed repeatedly that under the same conditions some varieties
produce many times more suckers than do others, hence the production of
these is a varietal characteristic which is influenced by fertilization, spacing
of plants and other environmental factors.
Effect Upon Barrenness.—By decreasing the distance between hills from
30 to 20 inches on the manured plats the percentage of barren stalks was
increased from 1.73 to 3.42 per cent, while on the poorly fertilized corn it
was raised from 5.26 to 10.73 per cent. It will be noticed from these data
that for both the sets the percentage of stalks barren was doubled by a
decrease in the distancing of the hills in the row by 10 inches, and that
the corn on the poorly fertilized plats was affected with more than three
times the percentage of barrenness that prevailed on the plats receiving (cow)
manure and commercial fertilizer. Therefore, barrenness seems to be de-creased
both by an increase in the distance between hills in the row and by
heavier and more favorable fertilization.
VARIATION OF FUNGI DUE TO ENVIRONMENT.
VARIATION OF FUNGI DUE TO ENVIRONMENT.1
By F. L. STEVENS and J. G. HALL.
The effects of environment, climatic condition, soil fertility, the presence
of unusual chemicals, the water relation and what not upon the form and
characters of seed plants are well known to the plant physiologist, and have
been the subjects of numerous studies. These factors are even utilized by the
practical man to bring about desired variation.
That fungi vary similarly will not be doubted by any who have had to do
with fungi in artificial cultures. The kind and degree of such variation, we
dare say, will be a surprise to any who have made special study of this sub-ject.
While our knowledge of the seed plants, owing to man's long acquaintance
with them, their larger size and comparative stability is considerable, yet
even with them the limiting of genera, species, varieties, etc., presents diffi-culty,
if we may judge from the rich literature upon phanerogamic taxonomy.
The fungi, because of their immense number of species, variety of forms,
minuteness, paucity of distinguishing characters, complexity of life-history
(mostly unknown) peculiar biologic host relations (almost entirely unknown),
and because of man's short acquaintance with them and their unknown but
apparently vast range of variability, present as yet baffling problems of rela-tionship
and classification.
The object of the present article is to call attention to the kind and degree
of environmental variation found in a few species of fungi that have been
studied by the authors during the past four or five years and in some instances
to analyze the causes of these variations to the end that the factor of envi-ronmental
variation may be more clearly recognized as a problem of narcologi-cal
taxonomy.
We shall consider these variations under the causes that produce them.
I. Density of Colonies.
Septoria petroselini Desm. var. apil Br. and Cav., from celery.
This fungus, when plated so that the spores lay thinly scattered, produced
colonies which were ultimately black, from 1 to 2 mm. in diameter, with
pycnidia of normal character; if plated so that the spores lay in large numbers
per square centimeter, it produced colonies which reached a size of only about
.5 mm. and became ultimately black, containing ordinary pycnidia, bearing
spores in the normal way. When plated so that there were still more spores
per square centimeter, the colonies never became black and no pycnidia were
produced ; but to the contrary, multitudes of spores were borne uncovered, in
clumps upon simple hypha?.
Septoria Pycopersici Speg., from tomato.
Spores from pure culture were plated in 4 per cent pea agar in various
dilutions.
xRead in part at the Baltimore meeting of the Botanical Society of America, December, 190S,
and published in the Botanical Gazette 48 (1909).
48 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
One plate developed 5 to 6 colonies per square millimeter and each colony
proceeded to normal pycnidial development. Another plate developed 21 to
23 colonies per square millimeter and all proceeded to form naked conidia
with no indication of pycnidia. Portions of these two plates are represented
X ^v
s #
\
Fig. 1.
—
Septoria Lycopersici Speg., showing for-mation
of normal pycnidia on portion of thinly sown
plate culture.
Fig. 2.
—
Septoria Lycopersici Speg., showing ab-sence
of pycnidia on thickly sown portion of plate
culture; magnification same as in Fig. 1.
by photomicrographs (Figs. 1 and 2). Drawings of the naked spores show-ing
the detail of their formation are given in Fig. 3. Occasionally plates with
as many as 30 colonies per square millimeter were found with both pycnidia
and naked spores.
Pycnidia not visible at the fifth day may be well formed by the sixth day
and extrude masses of pink spores
about the twenty-first day. Oc-casionally
pycnidia are well de-veloped
on the fourth day. When
naked spores develop they normally
appear a few days later than do
pycnidia, e. g., a plate thinly sown
on January 12, 1907, gave many
pycnidia on January 15, while a
thickly sown plate, under conditions
otherwise precisely parallel, did not
give naked spores until January 22.
This septoria forms a typical determinate colony, i. e., even with unlimited
room, it proceeds only to a certain size of development.
Septoria consimilis E. & M., from lettuce.
When sown thinly colonies reached a size of 2 to 3 mm. in diameter ; when
sown thickly they became no more than .2 mm. in diameter. There was no
interference with color development or formation of pycnidia by thick sowing
with this species.
VARIATION OF FUNGI DUE TO ENVIRONMENT. 49
With two of these septorias, thick plating, other conditions being the same,
so changed their character that not only would the species be considered as
different, but the fungus would be shifted from the Sphaeropsidales to the
ffyphomycetales (Hyplaesa of Saccardo).
A similar change of habit is well known in the genus Fusarium, which in
culture, crowded or not. often abandons acervulus formation, thus changing
its systematic position from the Tiiberculariaccae to the Mucedinaceae: The
genera Colletofriclium and Gloeosporum similarly abandon acervulus forma-tion
and thus suffer still greater taxonomic disturbance by moving from the
Melaitconialcs to the Hypliomyeetales.
Ascochyta cJirysanthemi Stevens, from chrysanthemum.
This fungus was plated January 12. 1907. Myriads of pycnidia were present
four days later ; thick plating caused no inhibition of pycnidial formation, no
naked spores and no constant effect upon the number of pycnidia produced.
Volutella fructi S. & H., from apple.
Fig. 4.—Volutella fructi S'. and H., showing colonies on thinly sown plate culture.
Thinly sown, the colonies were large, of indeterminate growth, showing dark
centers with pale borders I Fig. 4) ; thickly sown, growth was inhibited and
their characters lost. (Fig. 5.)
Spermoedia paspali Fries, from paspalum.
Spores of this fungus were sown January 19, 1907, in plates giving colony
densities of 90. .14. 30. 14 and 1 per scpiare mm.
At all of these densities germination was practically 100 per cent and
growth proceeded equally in all plates during the early stages. On February
4
50 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
11 it was noted that all colonies which came nearly in contact were sporing.
Growth then stopped. In the plates bearing only one spore per square mil-limeter
the colonies continued to enlarge slowly and to produce many spores
in the central portion, though remaining white, not attaining the usual yellow
color. Deep colonies appeared like the superficial, but bore no spores. On
Fig. 5.— VoJutella fructi S. and H., showing effect of thick sowing.
February 7 the colonies on thin plates (1 per square millimeter) had attained
a diameter of 1.5 mm. Some of those colonies transferred to tubes con-tinued
to enlarge, became tubercular, and developed a yellow center 3 or 1
mm. in diameter. The whole colony often reached 1 cm. in diameter. Sister
colonies left in the plate (1 per square millimeter) failed to so develop,
and it is evident that at even this density normal development is not attained.
The colony is indeterminate in growth and in plates its size is limited by
the presence of adjacent colonies.
SUMMARY REGARDING THE DENSITY FACTOR.
This factor produces different effects with the different species. It may in-hibit
pycnidial formation, resulting in naked spores ; it may cause failure to
develop color ; it may limit the size of the colony ; or it may be without effect.
There are many paired species of the imperfect fungi agreeing closely, ex-cept
in the presence or absence of one character. These pairs often occur
VARIATION OF FUNGI DUE TO ENVIRONMENT. 51
upon tbe same host, e. g., &&ptoria lycopersici Speg. and a Cylindrosporium
on tbe tomato, and CyUndrospari urn Chrysanthemi E. & D. and Septoria
Chrysanthemi Cav. on the cultivated chrysanthemum.1
Many other instances could be cited.
The lack of fixity of such a structure as even the pycnidum throws doubt
upon the validity of. such species as these and indicates the necessity of close
comparative study.
II. Density of Mycelium : Zone Formation.
The formation of concentric zones is by many fungi one of the most conspic-uous
characters shown in cultures. These zones may be due to any one of
many structural characters of the colony; to varying density of spore niass-
Fig. 6.
—
Ascochijta Chri/satithcmi Stevens; plate culture showing that the
formation of zones is not coincident with diurnal changes; ink marks show
growth for three consecutive days.
ing; pycnidia grouping, mycelial branching, color, etc. It is a frequent pre-nomenon
in nature in the fairy rings of the toad stools, the concentric mark-ings
of many loaf spots, fruit rots, etc. These effects have been attributed to
Woonixo, Diseases of cultivated chrvsanthemums, Malpighia 15 (1902), 329-341. E. S. R.
14,777.
iHALSTKi), Chrysanthemum leaf spot, American Florist, 10 (1894), No. 333, 263. E. S. R. 6,
311.
'Beach, Leaf spot of chrysanthemum, N. Y. State Sta. Rpt., 1892, 557-560.
'Halsted, Report of fungus disease of plants, X. J. Sta. Rpt., 1S91, 233-340.
•Sacc. Syll. Fung. 11, 542, Xos. 3497, 3 19S, 3757. Tuheuf and Smith, Diseases of Plants, 47S.
Year-Book U. S. Dept. Agr., 1906, 507. Geneva Sta. Rpt., 14, 529. X. J. Sta. Rpt., 1894, 361.
52 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
various causal agencies : to light relation,1 to nutrients,2 to agencies other than
light, probably food, and to resting periods and to mycelial crowding.3
Ascochyta chrysanthemi Stevens.
With the fungus in question the fact that the zones are not due to light or
temperature relations is apparent from the fact that they do not coincide with
the fluctuations of these two factors (Fig. 6). In the colony shown, which is
that of a plate culture kept at room temperature, there was daily change
from warm to cool, light to dark, yet the number of rings does not coin-cide
with the number of these changes ; moreover, zones were produced in
precisely the same way on plates kept constantly in the dark as in plates kept
all of the time in the light, and still the same on plates kept three days in
the dark and then three days in the light.
Microscopic examination shows that with this fungus the dark zone is due
to a larger number of mycelial filaments, the light zone to a smaller number
of threads, as is shown diagrammatic-ally in Fig. 7. It seems that with this
a b c
Fig. 7.—Diagram showing, at right, the zones (stippled) and diur-nal
marks; at left, theoretical expression of cause of zonation.
fungus the dense crowding of the filaments resulting from their repeated
branching inhibits growth either by the products of metabolism or exhaustion
of nutriment. There is then a period of quiescence, followed by onward
growth of a few scattered hyphae. As these outgrowing hyphse reach beyond
the inhibiting influence, they branch repeatedly until a new dense zone is
formed. This process is repeated indefinitely. The rapidity of succession of
zones is dependent solely upon the relation which rapidity of branching bears
to rapidity of increase in length. Slow lineal growth and much branching
gives many narrow zones ; rapid lineal growth with infrequent branching
causes broad zones.
Sclerotinia Libertiana Fckl., from lettuce.
Zonal sclerotial formation is exhibited by this fungus. (Fig. 8.) That
this phenomenon may be attributed to crowding of the mycelium is indicated
by the fact that adjacent colonies form more sclerotia at their points of con-tact.
(Fig. 9.)
^olz, "Ueber die Bedingungen der Entstehung der durch Sclerotinia fractigena erzeugten."
Schwarzfaule der Aepfel. Cent, f . Bak. II. Ab. 17, 175.
Hutchinson, "Ueber Form und Bau der Kalonieen niederer Pilze." Cent. f. Bak. II, Ab. 17,
602. Also
Hedgecock, Zonation in Artificial culture of Cephalothecium and other fungi. Ann. Rpt. 17,
Mo. Bot. Card., 1906.
2Milburn, Ueber Aenderungen der Farben bei Pilzen und Bakterien. Cent. f. Bak. Ab. II,
13, 257.
3Istvanffi, Etudes Microbiologiques et mvcologiques sur le rot gris de la vigne. Am. de
l'lnstitut Cent. Ampel. Roy. Hongrois, 1905, 183.
Fig. 8.
—
Sclerotinia Libertiana Fckl., showing zonal formation of sclerotia on corn meal culture.
it
P\*\ *•/>*
****** 5***"
3. 9.—Sclerotinia Libertiana Fckl., showing the formation of sclerotia in greater abundance
THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1009.
SUMMARY REGARDING DENSITY OF MYCELIUM.
Zone formation in Ascochyta Chrysanthemi is due to crowding of mycelium,
not to light or heat relation. A similar conclusion was reached by Istvanffi
(Istvanffi lc.) regarding the very striking zones shown by Hclerotinia. The
same causes may apply also with Daldinia concentrica and many other fungi
of similar structure.
III. Chemical Relations.
Chemical relations have been studied with eleven fungi, the fungus being
usually grown in agar with varying nutrients added. Occasionally other
media were used. A chemical base agar (cba) was made of the following
proportion
Water 1,000 grams.
Di-potassium phosphate 2.5 grams.
Calcium chloride 01 gram.
Magnesium sulphate .01 gram.
Sodium chloride 2.5 grams.
Potassium sulphate 2. grams.
Agar 15. grams.
To 100 cc. of this chemical base agar were added the following materials
singly or in varying combinations :
Ammonium lactate 5 gram.
Sodium asparaginate 25 gram.
Glucose .' 1. gram.
Starch 1. gram.
The tests were usually made in both plate and tube cultures.
Volutella fructi S. and EL, from apple.
This fungus, when sown thin, forms large indeterminate colonies, often with
numerous scattered tuber-cular
blotches (Fig. 10).
On pure agar and cba
the colonies were pale
mycelium hyaline ; black
tubercles very sparse.
On pea agar black tuber-cles
were much more abun-dant,
otherwise as on pure
agar.
On cba +sodium aspa-raginate
black tubercles
were still more numerous.
On cba+sodium a spa -
raginate+starch black tu-bercles
were more liumer- I
ous than in any of the
above, and the colony was
black (Fig. 11).
vOjnu rL-Uhcni^-lf_c«unuriluiinimi an»«in»na- Fig. 10.—Volutella fructi S. and H.; colony on pea agar showing tubercular blotches, some of them in concentric
raginate-(-glucose black tu- rings; mycelium nearly hyaline, due to lack of carbohy-bercles
were still more
numerous, so many as to be contiguous, and the whole colony was densely
black.
VARIATION OF FUNGI DUE TO ENVIRONMENT. 55
On gelatinized starch+Uschinsky's solution the mycelium was black, and
some digestion of the starch was observed.
On none of the above media were spores formed, but on sterilized apple
twigs spores were produced in abundance.
The differences here noted upon these different media are sufficient to alter
entirely the general appearance and to shift the fungus from the Tubercu-lariaciae-
Dematiae to the Tuberculariaciae-Mucedinae.
Coniothyrium Fuckelii Sacc, from apple.
This fungus when growing upon a medium rich in starch becomes black
in its peripheral layer. Glucose fails to produce the same result. The
mycelium hyaline when on pea agar, but tawny on apple agar.
Septoria petroselini var. apii, from celery.
This fungus fails to produce naked spores when sown thickly on celery
agar, though it does so under similar conditions when upon lettuce agar.
Colletotrichwm carica ,S. and H., from fig.
This fungus upon the different media used showed striking differences in
number or setae, varying from none to abundant ; number of spores varying
from few to many ; color, varying from pale to almost black.
On cba+growth was scant; acervuli small, setae absent.
On cba+ammonium lactate and cba+so-dium
asparaginate growth was about as in
cba, except that numerous black setae were
present.
On cba -fammonium lactate+starch the
acervuli were larger, more numerous, with
numerous large black setae.
On cba+sodium asparaginate-f glucose,
black setae were numerous.
On cba+sodium asparaginate+ammonium
lactate there were a few setae.
Epicoccus sp. indet, from apple agar in
Petri dishes.
This fungus on pure agar and cba was col-orless.
On cba+starch or cba+glueose there
was much richer mycelial development which,
moreover, took on a rich yellow color that in
spots turned to pink. Sometimes black spots
developed on the first of these media, but
not upon the second. This fungus shows
strikingly the differentiating value of starch
and glucose for fungus culture.
Upon apple agar still another character de-veloped,
a rich golden color of the abundant
tlnccose matted aerial hyphse. This reaction
is fully as striking as the familiar rose color
produced by a certain species of Fusarium.'
With this fungus we have absence of color
in agar and cba. but rich coloring of varying
hues in the presence of carbohydrates and upon apple agar.
Fig. 11.— Volutella [nidi S. and
H.; two black colonies upon cba +
sodium asparaginate + starch.
'Bessey, Ueber die Bedingungen der Farbbildung bei Fusarium, Inaug. Diss. Halle., 1904.
56 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT. 1SQ9.
Phyllosticta sp. indet, from apple agar in Petri dishes.
This fungus grew faster on agar than on cba, formed pycnidia sparsely on
agar and not at all on cba.
With sodium asparaginate added the mycelium becomes very dense, with
considerable aerial development, remains colorless and produces few pycnidia.
and these visible only with the two-third objective. The presence of glucose
led to exceedingly profuse pycnidial development, while on starch the growth
was as with cba+sodium asparaginate, showing again the ability to utilize
glucose, but not starch.
Alternaria sp. indet, from Lawson carnation.
This fungus, the cause of an apparently undescribed carnation disease which
will be the subject of a subsequent paper, was isolated during October, 1908.
There was striking difference in the color of the colony upon different media,
varying from merely hyaline to dense black. The size and color of the spores
was also so modified as to give much more than what is usually regarded as a
specific difference.
On pure agar, cba, cba+ammonium lactate, cba+sodium asparaginate, and
upon cba+ammonium lactate+sodium asparaginate, the mycelium was color-less
and the colony correspondingly colorless, while upon cba+sodium aspa-raginate+
starch and cba+sodium asparagiuate+glucose the mycelium was
very dark, more profuse, more freely branched, and the colony therefore of an
entirely different aspect.
Spore formation proceeded sparingly, though evenly and regularly, upon
pure agar, cba, cba+ammonium lactate, cba+sodium asparaginate, cba+
sodium asparaginate+ammonium lactate; but very abundantly upon cba+so-dium
asparaginate+starch and upon cba+sodium asparaginate +glucose.
Here the sodium asparaginate seems not to furnish the carbon in sufficiently
available form, though starch or glucose do so to nearly equal extent.
The size, color and septation of the spores were also greatly influenced by
the medium.
From carnation-agar plates the spores measured from 16 to 52 mu long by
6 to 13 mu thick, bearing from none to three longitudinal septa and from
3 to 7 transverse septa, while from the live carnation leaf the spores were
from 26 to 123 mu long by 10 to 20 mu thick, bearing from 1 to 9 or often
numerous longitudinal septa and from 3 to 15 transverse septa. It is seen
that the spores are approximately twice as long, twice as thick, of darker color
and with many more septa in each direction upon the natural medium than
upon the carnation agar, differences which would ordinarily be regarded as
clearly of specific rank.
Alternaria Brassicce (Berk.) Sacc, from collard.
This fungus made hyaline mycelium in cba and cba+sodium asparaginate;
black mycelium in cba+sodium asparaginate+glucose and in cba+sodium
asparaginate+ starch, starch producing by far the most pronounced effect.
Digestion of the starch grains, somewhat in advance of the tips of the on-coming
fungus threads, produced a clear zone surrounding each colony in the
starch-bearing plates.
VARIATION OF FUNGI DUE TO ENVIRONMENT. 57
Ascochijta Chrysantliemi Stevens.
This fungus was grown in the usual media with no significant effects, ex-cept
that the fungus did not digest the starch grains afforded in the medium.
A deposit of great thickness around mycelial threads was made in the case
of certain media and not in others, as has already been noted.1
In some instances culture at a high temperature occasioned this same
response.
SUMMARY OF CHEMICAL RELATIONS.
The most striking response to chemicals is in color, which so far as ob-served
was invariably heightened by the presence of chemicals bearing carbon
in available form, the form of available carbon varying for different fungi.
Some fungi, possessing ability to digest starch, can utilize this as a source,
while to others the carbon of starch is inaccessible. Special unknown chemi-cals
in apple add vivid colors to fungi otherwise hyaline. Some chemicals
also promote or inhibit spore formation. Some inhibit or promote growth of
setae, and some even alter the size, color and septation of spores. Milburn,
working under Klebs (Milburn, lc), has also noted pronounced effects of
chemicals upon the color of fungi. The difference in color effects produced
by different fungi under the same conditions and with the same fungus under
different conditions is also noted by Bessey.2
No correlation is noted between rapidity of lineal growth and nutritive
value of the medium. In many instances most rapid lineal growth occurred
in what was surely the poorest medium. Very poor media suffice in many
cases also for spore formation, while rich media often result in cessation of
spore formation.
Colletotrichum Lindemuthianiim, sometimes with setae, often without, has
long been of questionable generic position. The same is true of several other
species of this genus. Alternaria Brassicce and Macrosporium Brassicce
agree closely except as to presence or absence of catenulate spores.3
Variation of this kind is probably due to variation in chemical composition
of the supporting medium, e. g., change in sugar content as ripening proceeds,
acting in such way as to give the fungus the appearance of belonging to one
genus when upon the green sugar-free fruit, to another genus as the starch
gives place to sugar as the fruit ripens.
IV. Light Relation.
The absence of material effect of light upon lineal growth with these species
of fungi is shown in Table I.
^ot. Gaz., 44, 190?, 241.
2 Bessey, lc.
3 A. Brassicce Hyphae brevis conidia 60-80 x 14-18, septae 6-8.
M. Brassicce Hyphae obsoletis conidia 50-60 x 12-14, septae 5-11.
58 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
Table I.
—
Relation of Light to Growth.
Figures express growth in millimeters. The cultures marked "alternate"
were kept several clays in light and several days in dark ; L=iight, D=dark.
Inoculated December 8, 1908.
Condition of Light.
On Macrosporium On Phyllosticta On Ascochyta
Brassicse. sp. indet. Chrysanthemi.
Date of
Obsekvation.
In Alter- In Alter- In Alter-
In
Light.
nate In
In
Light.
nate In
In
Light.
nate In
Light
and
Dark-ness.
Light
and
Dark-ness.
Light
and
Dark-ness.
Dark. Dark. Dark.
December 9__ Germ Germ L Germ L 2 L
December 10__ 1 1 L 1 Germ Germ L Germ Germ 3 L 6
December 12. _ 6 6 L 6 4 4 L 4 4 12 L 12
December 13 _ _ 9 10 L 9 7 7 L 6 12 16 L 14
December 14 _ _ 13 12 D 11 10 10 D 7 15 20 D 18
December 15__ 16 15 D 15 13 13 D 10 17 25 D 22
December 16 _ _ 17 17 D 17 14 13 D 13 25 30 D 25
December 17 _ _ 23 23 L 21 16 16 L 16 33 37 L 31
December 18 _ _ 26 26 L 29 20 18 L 19 39 39 L 37
December 19__ 28 28 L 29 23 20 L 20 41 45 L 37
Ascochyta Chrysanthemi Stevens. The growth is more floccose in dark-ness.
Phyllosticta sp. indet. This fungus forms its pyenidia in beautiful con-centric
rings when in open room, i. e., alternate light and darkness, but in
continuous darkness they were irregularly scattered. Culture No. 35 made
concentric rings when in the light and failed to do so when moved to darkness.
Cultures kept in the open room lay down rudiments of pyenidia mainly during
the night, and it is probable that light exerts enough inhibiting influence on
pyenidial development to give a growth predominance during the day and a
fructifying predominance during the night.1
Alternaria Brassiere (Berk.) Sacc. With this fungus the end of each day's
growth, evening, marks the edge of a zone. The zone thus marked is intensi-fied
during the succeeding twenty-four hours by color changes. While zones
are formed to some extent in continued darkness, they are more pronounced
in the room condition.
SUMMARY OF LIGHT RELATION.
Light exerts little or no effect upon lineal growth with these fungi. It
appears to exert an inhibiting influence on pyenidial development and in some
instances is the cause of zonation in colonies.
V. Unknown Factors.
Ascochyta Chrysanthemi Stevens.
This fungus frequently exhibited differences in character along different
radii of the same colony, the conditions of medium, thickness of sowing,
humidity, etc., being apparently identical. Fig. 12 shows such a colony. Along
the radius a—a at b the colony bore pyenidia abundantly, and the mycelial
^edgecock, lc.
VARIATION OF FUNGI DUE TO ENVIRONMENT. 59
progeny of this strain extending to the periphery of the colony was rich in
pycnidia, while most other radii of the colony were sterile or nearly so.
Transfers were made from the point c (sterile) and d (pycnidial) to fresh
plates. The sterile mycelium produced a colony which through its early days
was sterile. As it aged it formed a few large pale pycnidia. The fertile
strain produced a fertile colony with very numerous .though small pycnidia.
Transfers made again from these two strains resulted in a complete reversal
of character, the fertile becoming sterile and the sterile becoming fertile. No
explanation of this suggests itself.
Fig. 12.
—
Ascochyta Chrymnthcmi Stevens, showing abundant pycnidia on radius
a-a, at point b, and paucity of pycnidia elsewhere.
When this fungus was plated from a suspension of spores two types of colony
developed corresponding to the two strains mentioned above. The first '"type
of few pycnidia" developed a copious aerial mycelium of a loose floccose nature,
extended regularly in all directions and was long devoid of pycnidia. When
the pycnidia did form they were few. large and superficial (Fig. 13). The
second "type of many pycnidia" had little or no aerial mycelium, all the
mycelium being either immersed or of strict growth; was roughly circular in
colony, not . regularly so as in first type, and small, irregular, mostly im-mersed
pycnidia were formed in myriads throughout the colony. (See Fig.
14.) These two types of colony appeared on the same plates which were in-
60 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
collated with spores from the same pycnidiuni, therefore developed in the
same nutrient condition, humidity, temperature, etc. Depth of planting is not
the cause of these differences, since flooding the plate with an extra tube
Fig. 13.—Ascochyta Chrvsanthenfi Stevens; portion of colony showing few pycnidia; cf.
Fig. 14.
Fig. 14.—Ascochyta Chrysanthemi Stevens; portion of colony showing many pycnidia;
cf. Fig. 13.
VARIATION OF FUNGI DUE TO ENVIRONMENT. 61
of agar after the agar first plated had set, did not change the proportion of
the two types. Nor did sowing in such way that the spores were at the
bottom rather than at the top of the agar change results. There was a
marked tendency of colonies of both types of the fungus to become more
productive of large pycnidia where two different colonies approach each other,
suggesting that there might be needed a co-operation of two diverse strains
in order to form a pycnidium ; that the strains of few pycnidia lacked the
requisite individuals, and that the strains of many pycnidia had more than
one individual to the colony. To test this, colonies were traced from the
earliest development, resulting in clear evidence that in some instances a colony
developed from a single spore was one with few pycnidia ; in other instances
a single spore produced a colony of many pycnidia.
Fig. 15.
—
Coniothyrium Fuckelii Sacc.; portions of two colonies showing cir-cles
of pycnidia near margins.
Coniothyrium Fuckelii Sacc, from apple.
In one instance this fungus, which rarely fruited, made pycnidia in almost
perfect circles near the margins of each colony on the plate. (See Fig. 15.)
These variations arc inexplicable and remind one of the mysterious change
from ascigerons to non-ascigerous condition so frequently met in life-history
work with the imperfect fungi.
Variability in Spore Measurement.
Since the b

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JMorth Carolina btate uura, 7
Raleigh ^
THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT Oo^
NORTH CAROLINA
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS
FOR THE
YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1909
INCLUDING SCIENTIFIC PAPERS AND BULLETINS.
Nos. 200. 201, 202, 203, 204
WEST RALEIGH, N. C.
RALEIGH
E. M. Uzzell & Co., State Printers and Binders
1911
N. C. COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS.
THE NORTH CAROLINA
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
UNDER THE CONTROL OF THE
TRUSTEES OF THE A. AND M. COLLEGE.
Governor W. W. Kitchin, ex officio Chairman, Raleigh.
M. B. Stickley Concord
T. T. Ballenger Tryon
N. B. Broughton Raleigh
O. L. Clark Clarkton
Everett Thompson. .Elizabeth City
R. H. Ricks Rocky Mount
O. Max Gardner Shelby
Locke Craig Asheville
C. W. Gold Raleigh
E. M. Koonce Jacksonville
T. W. .Blount Roper
D. A. Tompkins Charlotte
J. T. Ellington Smithfield
W. E. Daniel Weldon
W. H. Ragan High Point
W. B. Cooper Wilmington
STATION STAFF.
D. H. Hill, President of the College.
C. B. Williams Director and Agronomist
W. A. Withers Chemist
F. L. Stevens Vegetable Pathologist and Bacteriologist
J. S. Jeffrey Poultryman
F. C. Reimer Horticulturist
R. S. Curtis Animal Husbandman
John Michels Dairy Husbandman
R. I. Smith Entomologist
G. A. Roberts Veterinarian
J. G. Hall Assistant in Plant Diseases
W. C. Etheridge Assistant Agronomist
B. J. Ray Assistant Chemist
A. R. Russell Assistant in Field Experiments
P. L. Gainey Assistant Bacteriologist
L. R. Detjen Assistant Horticulturist
F. W. Sherwood Assistant Chemist
A. F. Bowen Bursar
C. P. Franklin Secretary and Stenographer
The Bulletins and Reports of this Station will be mailed free to any resi-dent
of the State upon request.
Visitors are at all times cordially invited to inspect the work of the Station,
the office of which is in the new Agricultural Building of the College.
Address all communications to
N. C. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,
West Raleigh, N. C.
North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station,
Office of the Director.
West Raleigh, N. C., June 30, 1909.
To His Excellency, William W. Kitchen,
Governor of North Carolina.
Sir :—I have the honor to submit herewith the report of the opera-tions
of the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station of the
North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts for the
year ending June 30, 1909.
Trusting that this report will prove satisfactory to your Excellency,
I am, Yours very truly,
C. B. Williams,
Director.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Board of Trustees and Experiment Station Staff 2
Letter of Transmittal 3
Report of Director and Agronomist 7
Report of Chemist IT
Report of Biologist 20
Report of Poultryman 23
Report of Horticulturist 26
Report of Animal Husbandman 28
Report of Daily Husbandman 81
Report of Entomologist 32
Report of Veterinarian 34
Financial Statement 3G
Scientific Papers
:
Effects of Different Fertilizing Materials Upon the Maturity of Cotton. 37
Some Facts Concerning Those Characters of the Corn Plant Associ-ated
with Yield and Factors Which Influence Them 41
Variation of Fungi Due to Environment 47
Carnation Alternariose 72
Hypochnose of Pomaceous Fruits 76
A New Fig Anthracnose (Colletotrichose) 80
Harlequin Cabbage Bug (Murgantia histrionica) 00
Is yeocosmospora Tasinfecta (Atk.) Smith, the Perithecial Stage of
the Fusarium Which Causes Cowpea Wilt? 100
The Scuppernong As a Profitable Crop—Methods of Growing, Keeping,
and Wine-making Used At Its Place of Origin 117
II—Studies in Soil Bacteriology—Ammonification in Soils and in Solu-tions
1 10
III—Studies in Soil Bacteriology—Concerning Methods for Determina-tion
of Nitrifying and Ammonifying Powers of Soils 120
Press Bulletins
:
No. 1(3—Selecting Seed Corn for Larger Yields 145
No. 18—Apple Bitter Rot 147
No. 19—Suppression of Terrapin Bugs 118
No. 20—Spring Destruction of Terrapin Bugs 150
APPENDIX.
Bulletins :
No. 200—Feeding Fermented Cotton-seed Meal to Hogs.
No. 201—Scuppernong and Other Muscadine Crapes—Origin and Impor-tance.
No. 202—Manufacture and Marketing of Cottage Cheese, Skinnnilk-Butter-milk
and Ice-cream.
No. 203—Corn Weevils and Other Grain Insects.
No. 201—Some Factors Involved in Successful Corn Growing.
THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE
N. C. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1909.
BY THE DIRECTOR.
Generally, the work of the Station in all its branches has been in-creased
and actively carried forward by the various workers in a
fairly satisfactory manner. Below is given, briefly, something as to
the nature and scope of the work which is being conducted by the
several Divisions of the Station. This summary is made up from
the reports of the different workers and from the observations of the
Director.
DIVISION OF AGRONOMY.
The experimental work of this Division has progressed actively
along the same general lines as previously reported. Considerable
effort has been exerted in the determination of best fertilizer com-binations
and the most economical quantities of fertilizers to use per
acre, especially for cotton and corn. These experiments have shown
unmistakably that phosphoric acid is' the chief deficiency of our soils
here and that potash is the one less needed for maximum yields. The
field results have been confirmed by chemical analyses of the soil.
The fertilizer formulas used largely by the farmers in the Piedmont
section of the State for cotton are not the ones which, judging from
our results, afford the greatest profit per acre. The phosphoric acid
in them should, as a general thing, be increased, while the potash
might be decreased.
The variety tests this year embrace a study of 68 varieties of
corn; 42 of cotton; 23 of soy, adsuki and seta beans; 30 of cow-peas;
15 of wheat; 49 of oats, and 4 of clover. In addition to
this comparison of varieties with reference to yield, an intimate
study is, at the same time, being made of the characters of each
variety, with the hope of determining those which are correlated in
the different varieties with high yield and superior worth. Variety-distance
tests with G8 varieties of corn and 3 of cotton, each of widely
different characters, are being conducted to ascertain what distancing
of the different varieties produces the best results. From the field
seed-selection experiments with corn, cotton, wheat and oats, recently
S THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
started.^ much is expected in the way of improvement and practical
scientific information. In the variety test of oats an effort is being
made to determine those varieties which are best adapted for fall and
spring sowing. Marked differences have developed, not only in yield,
but also in earliness and consequent adaptation for different soils and
localities and for specific purposes. For sowing in combination with
crimson clover or Canada field peas, the earliness in maturity of
Burt, Kherson and Culberson varieties especially fits them for this
purpose, as they reach the haying stage at practically the same period
as do the clover and peas. The white-blooming crimson clover may
be used in mixtures with later maturing varieties, such as Red Rust-proof
or Appier, as it blooms ten to fourteen days later than the
regular crimson clover.
Investigations are being carried on with 68 varieties of corn to
determine the factors which operate in the production of suckers on
the corn plant and to ascertain the relation which their undisturbed
development bears to yield of grain and stover. As these investiga-tions
advance, many interesting and economic features present them-selves
which will shed much light upon the nature of the characters
of corn varieties when grown under widely varying conditions of
fertilization, distancing and season.
Top-dressing experiments with nitrate of soda and sulphate of am-monia
on oats and wheat are being conducted to determine their
actual and relative values for this purpose. A comparative study is
also being made of different carriers of phosphoric acid and nitrogen
for fertilization of cotton and corn.
Many combinations of legumes are being grown to ascertain their
relative value for hay and pasturage.
A systematic effort is being made to determine the effects upon
percentage of lint to seed, and length and tensile strength of the
staple of cotton by allowing the seed cotton to stand exposed for a
year to the average conditions prevailing on the farm. This Division
is especially fortunate in having under its control considerable land
which may be used in making direct application, on a considerable
scale, of the facts which are evolved from the carefully planned ex-periments
which are being conducted along different lines. By this
means it is felt that a broader conception of agronomical problems
in general and their practical solution is obtained.
DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY.
During the year the Chemical Division has sustained intimate co-operative
relations with the Biological Division in soil nitrification
and amnionification studies and with the Animal Husbandry and
Veterinary Divisions in cotton-seed meal toxicity investigations. The
preparation of the twenty-two fractions used in the cotton-seed meal
feeding experiments with hogs and guinea pigs has largely been per-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR. 9
formed by the workers of this Division. Much work has been done
in connection with these investigations in making chemical determina-tions
of the composition of various feeds, fractions of cotton-seed
meal employed in the experiments and of the urine secreted by ani-mals
fed on each of these. The Division has been materially
strengthened by the addition of an assistant, and, during the first
ten months of the year, 3,825 determinations on 1,414 samples have
been made. In the bacteriological soil survey of the State which is
being carried on this summer co-operatively by this and the Biological
Division, the examinations of the Bacteriologist for nitrifying and
ammonifying efficiency, nitrifying and ammonifying inoculating
power, nitrifying capacity, and bacterial count are being supple-mented
in each case by a careful chemical determination of the
amount of nitrates, nitrites, and ammonia present.
DIVISION OF BIOLOGY.
During the year the research work has been carried forward largely
along lines previously begun and reported on. In co-operation with
the National Bureau of Plant Industry, this Division in continuation
of its Plant Disease Survey of the State has conducted much cor-respondence
with farmers and public-school teachers in order to
determine definitely how widespread certain plant diseases are in
different localities and to ascertain the amount of damage to crops
and fruits they produce. New diseases of the apple, lettuce, clover,
tuberose, fig, carnation, privet, peanut and vetch occurring in the
State have been studied and the fungus causing each has been isolated,
identified, and described.
The experiments which are being conducted at Auburn on soil
badly infected with watermelon wilt will be continued in an effort to
secure strains of melons which possess desirable eating and shipping
qualities and which may be successfully grown upon soils affected with
this disease. The importance of this work cannot be too strongly
emphasized, as the melon industry is an important one and in many
localities is beginning to be menaced by the appearance and rapid
spread of this disease. Melons cannot, to a profitable extent, be
grown at present on a badly infected field, and unless wilt-resistant
varieties or strains are bred or found, the industry will be wiped
out in certain important infected areas of rapidly increasing size.
The tobacco-wilt experiments are this year continued at Creedmoor,
which is located in the light tobacco belt of Granville County. Eleven
strains of tobacco are being used in the work, and they were put out
on badly infected soil. Although there did not develop any marked
difference between the ability of the Sumatra, Turkish and Italian
types to withstand the wilt, yet the finer qualities of the Sumatras
has led to the crossing and use of two strains of this type with the
native bright tobacco of the infected section with the hope of securing
10 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
wilt-resistant strains of as nearly the same quality as possible as the
native bright tobacco. It is planned to devote during the present
season about one-fourth of the space allotted to this experiment to a
field-study of the resistance and quality of these crosses made last
year.
In the lettuce-drop investigations efforts have been directed prin-cipally
along the line of preventing the formation of sclerotia by the
fungus causing this trouble, as it seems to be the only means this
disease has of being carried over winter. Should any of the methods
devised prove effective against the formation of sclerotia, then the
eradication of the disease from infected lettuce-beds seems assured.
The soil bacteriology investigations which this Division is carrying
on in co-operation with the Chemical Division have been greatly
strengthened by further work and extension. Results secured have
brought out rather conclusively the importance of conducting tests
to determine the ammonifying and nitrifying powers of soils on the
soils themselves, rather than by the use of culture solutions in the
usual way, as there seems to be no definite relation whatever be-tween
the results on nitrification and ammonification secured on the
soil itself and the solution. Methods have been devised for de-termining
fairly accurately the nitrifying and ammonifying power
of soils, using the soil as a medium. In marked contrast to the
commonly accepted notion that all soils are well supplied with
nitrifying organisms, it has been found that 71 per cent of the local
soils which have undergone examination have shown very low
nitrifying power. The facts have led to the inauguration of a new
line of experiments which are designed to study the relative ac-ceptability
to plants of nitrate-nitrogen and ammoniacal nitrogen.
The experiments are being conducted under complete bacteriological
and chemical control. To supplement these, a systematic bacteriologi-cal
survey of the different soil types of the State has been started,
and on each soil determinations of its nitrifying and ammonifying
power will be made. Contrary to the accepted idea, results thus far
secured seem to indicate very strongly that the presence of organic
matter in the soil does not always exert an inhibiting influence upon
the activity of nitrifying organisms.
The ptomaine studies which were started last year have been tem-porarily
suspended, due to the absence of suitable material and be-cause
of pressure of other investigational work.
DIVISION OF POULTRY.
The operations of the Poultry Division have been to a large extent
carried on in the direction of testing various systems of feeding young
chicks, managing incubators and brooders and comparing different
feeds and combinations for the production of eggs and meat. From
the results secured in the cotton-seed meal feeding experiments it
REPORT OF DIRECTOR. 11
was demonstrated that this material may be fed without detriment to
the health of the poultry to the extent of one-fourth of a ration con-sisting
of cotton-seed meal and corn, when the stock is allowed range
on grass or other green crops. It will be noticed from results of sub-sequent
experiments that, although the ration containing cotton-seed
meal costs less than the ones containing meat and bone meal, yet the
latter ones, by inducing earlier development and laying, have pro-duced
the cheapest gains in weight and egg production. During the
summer it is planned to study the value of skim-milk as a substitute
for meat meal and cotton-seed meal.
In the pedigreed breeding experiments for egg production, work
has been continued along the same general lines as previously re-ported.
Some of the Barred Plymouth Kock hens used in this work
have made a good showing, as also have their pullets. Last year
Barred Plymouth pullet No. 7113 laid 143 eggs in seven months.
Several daughters of this hen are being used this year in furtherance
of the work and studies. The inbreeding work started last year is be-ing
continued, but results will not be expected before next season.
In the incubator experiments an effort is being made to determine
if it is advisable to artificially supply moisture to and use disin-fectants
in the incubators before each hatch comes off. In these com-parative
studies, eggs from the same hens are being used in order
to eliminate as far as possible the effects of differences in individu-ality.
Experiments with the fireless brooder have demonstrated that
they may be operated successfully, but that the chief drawback to
their use is the greater amount of attention which the chicks confined
in them require for the first few days.
DIVISION OF HORTICULTURE.
The attention of the Horticulturist has been confined chiefly to
preparation for and in a study of "double flower" and self-sterility of
blackberries and dewberries with the purpose of determining the
nature and cause of these abnormalities. The work was started last
year and is now fairly well under way. As 23 varieties of black-berries
and 14 varieties of dewberries are embraced in these investiga-tions,
it is planned also to make careful observations as to the relative
standing of these in reference to earliness and amount and character
of fruit. A study will be made at the same time of the influence of
many fertilizer carriers and combinations upon yield, "double flower"
and self-sterility of the various varieties under experimentation.
The careful microscopic study of the doubled flowers and accompany-ing
rosette growth of stems and leaves of the Wilson blackberry and
of the character of the flower-parts of the notably self-sterile Premo
dewberry, which is being conducted in the laboratory simultaneously
with the field work, will doubtless reveal much as to the nature and
cause of "double flower" and self-sterility.
12 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
Field experiments were begun this Spring with eight varieties of
dewberries to determine the ability of the several varieties to set fruit
without cross-pollination. These were undertaken by enclosing 500
flower clusters in paper bags before the flowers opened. Eesults thus
far secured by the Horticulturist seem to indicate that "double
flower" is intimately associated in some way with early dropping of
the old leaves during the previous year and to the premature develop-ment
of buds which would normally produce fruit the succeeding
year.
Some preliminary work with figs, Japanese plums, and muscadine
grapes has been gotten well under way during the year. A bulletin
on the Origin and Importance of the Scuppernong and Other Musca-dine
Grapes is now in press. This will be followed by study and
publication on other features of muscadine grape growing. It is a
notable fact that most of the leading varieties of muscadine grapes
have been originated in this State.
DIVISION OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY.
The Animal Husbandman has devoted considerable effort and time
in providing new equipment and in getting under way new lines of
experimentation. A major portion of his efforts has, however, been
given to a careful supervision of the investigations which are being
conducted jointly by the Animal Husbandry, Veterinary and Chem-ical
Divisions to determine the cause for the disastrous results which
frequently follow the feeding of cotton-seed meal to swine, and to
isolate, if possible, the toxic principle, if such it may be. Feeding
experiments which have been carried on by other experimenters with
cotton-seed meal up to the present have been of an empirical nature,
and have afforded information only with reference to the quantity
which may be fed, length of the feeding period and the symptoms
and post-mortem revelations produced by overfeeding. During the
year 28 pigs and 93 guinea pigs have been used in carrying on these
investigations. Out of the 23 fractions of cotton-seed meal that have
been fed, 7, having proven practically innocuous, have passed from
under further experimentation for the present. For comparison with
the results secured with feeding cotton-seed meal, linseed meal and
blood meal, as highly concentrated proteinaceous feeds, are being fed
with the same supplementary feeds and in the same proportions to
guinea pigs under control conditions. A series of experiments has
recently been started to determine the toxicity of cotton-seed meal
when fed in conjunction with corn and green clover leaves to guinea
pigs. From the results secured in feeding cotton-seed meal to horses
and mules, it is felt that as a supplement to ear corn, shelled corn
and corn-and-cob meal, this feed cannot generally be fed in larger
quantities than three-quarters to one pound per clay and have it eaten
clean. When fed in connection with dried brewers' grains or wheat
REPORT OF DIRECTOR. 13
bran one and one-half pounds were readily eaten. During the course
of the experiments it has been observed that horses eat the meal
more readily than do the mules.
Experiments are being conducted to determine the value of green
crops in general as pasturage for hogs and to further ascertain the
relative value of oats, rye, and rape, sown alone and in different com-*
binations. In these experiments cowpeas, peanuts, and sweet potatoes
have been used, allowing the hogs to run on them ad libitum after
the crops have reached almost maturity. By a system of rotation it
has been possible to have green crops practically the entire year for
the hogs to run on. The results thus far secured from this suc-cession
of crops have been quite encouraging. Grading experiments
have been started and are well under way with hogs. For this work
a pure-blooded Berkshire sire is being used.
During the year a Bulletin on Feeding Fermented Cotton-seed
Meal to Hogs has been prepared and issued, and two others are in
course of preparation.
Plans are being developed for this Division to feed experimentally
this fall a carload of high-grade mountain steers.
DIVISION OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY.
The Dairy Husbandman has, during the year, given much time
to working out the details of a commercial method of preparing cot-tage
cheese. A feeding experiment with eight dairy cows has been
conducted to determine the relative economy of feeding medium and
narrow nutritive rations for milk and cream production under North
Carolina conditions. The results of this experiment and of cottage
cheese work are now in Bulletin form ready for publication. During
the year Bulletins on Handling and Marketing of Milk and Cream
and Feeding Experiments with Cows and Calves have been prepared
and published.
DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY.
Much time of this' Division has been devoted to studies of the life-history
and habits of the cabbage webworm, harlequin cabbage bug
and plum curculio, and during the year two Press Bulletins giving
directions for combating the harlequin bug have been prepared by the
Entomologist and issued.
The fumigation experiments which have been carried on have
demonstrated rather strikingly the unreliability of carbon bisulphide
as a remedy against corn weevils in the average corn bin, especially
when used in the quantities generally recommended per thousand
cubic feet. Otherwise following the commonly given directions in
using this agent, but employing twenty times the quantity generally
recommended, it was found that it was not effective when used even in
14 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
this quantity in the Station barn as a destroyer of weevils. Sulphur
fumes were tried and were found satisfactory so far as killing the
weevil was concerned, but cannot be recommended for general use,
as the fumes materially reduce the germinating power of corn thus
treated. The plum and apple trees at the Poultry farm which be-came
badly infested with San Jose scale have almost been freed from
it by systematic spraying. The apple trees belonging to the Station
have also been kept quite free from the ravages of codling moth by
two sprayings, just before the trees bloom, with Bordeaux mixture
containing three pounds of arsenate of lead to fifty gallons of the
mixture.
An insect collection, representing all the beneficial and injurious
forms occurring in the State, with records of dates and places of
occurrence, is gradually being brought together.
DIVISION OF VETERINARY SCIENCE.
The time of this new Division has largely been taken up in aid-ing
in carrying forward the cotton-seed meal feeding investigations
which the Division is conducting jointly with the Animal Husbandry
and Chemical Divisions. The Veterinarian has made daily observa-tions
and kept records of the weight, temperature, pulsation and
respiration of a good many of the hogs and guinea pigs which are be-ing
employed to further the investigations. A study in many cases
is being made of the blood which is diseased by prolonged cotton-seed
meal feeding. All animals dying have been subjected to post-mortem
examination and all revelations as to internal derangement were care-fully
noted. In many instances diseased tissues were preserved for
subsequent microscopic examination and study.
In co-operation with the Biological Division, this Division has
done some work along the line of inoculating milk with dirt and
germs from different sources to determine if such milk after a suf-ficient
lapse of time would produce ptomaine poisoning when in-jections
of it were made into guinea pigs. Some work has been
carried on during the year to determine the value of a recently dis-covered
serum as an effective preventive against hog cholera and
to determine the relative worth of turpentine and thymol as vermi-fugal
agents for hogs infested with worms.
POLICY OF THE STATION.
It would appear that the Station can best subserve the purposes of
its creation by confining its efforts as largely as possible to investiga-tional
work along a few lines which have been carefully planned, with
a clear conception of the ends to be attained, by strong and specially
REPORT OF DIRECTOR. 15
equipped men of experience who are broad, painstaking, inventive,
resourceful and are not afraid to work and who can distinguish be-tween
truth and opinion and between fact and theory. To a large
extent, agricultural education, which is making such rapid progress
in these latter days, is largely limited in its development by the ad-vances
made by the Experiment Stations in supplying material of
a fundamental nature for teaching purposes. The Station, under
the provisions of the Adams Act, has resources for carrying on re-search
work of an original and fundamental nature in agriculture.
An effort is being made to have all work of an investigational
nature so planned and conducted that the results secured will not
only have scientific worth, but will also have direct economic value.
Although it has no direct bearing on investigations under way, some
attention has been devoted to an improvement in the appearance of
the grounds, buildings and general surroundings, because it is felt
that the manner in which the general operations of the Station are
conducted will be a potent factor in determining the local standing
and influence of the Station, if not more.
NEW BARN AND SILO.
During the year a new up-to-date gambrel-roof barn has been
finished. It is 100 feet long and 42 feet wide and has haymow space
for holding something like 150 tons of forage. It is ideally located,
well lighted and ventilated and is provided with roomy granaries,
with stalls and driveways and sliding doors at all openings. At the
east end of the building a large end haymow door is arranged with
flexible wire cable, pulleys and weights, and is made to slide in
guides on the exterior of the building. Hay trackage and carrier
run the full length of the barn.
At the west end of the barn a stave silo, of 130-ton capacity, is
conveniently located both for filling and feeding from. The design
and arrangements of the barn specially fit it for use in feeding beef
cattle.
BULLETINS.
Bulletins have been issued during the year as follows
No. 200
Feeding Fermented Cotton-seed Meal to Hogs, by R. S.
Curtis.
No. 201
Origin and Importance of the Scuppernong and Other
Muscadine Grapes, by F. C. Reimer.
No. 202
Manufacture and Marketing of Cottage Cheese, Skim-m
ilk-Buttermilk and Ice-cream, by John Michels.
No. 203
—
Corn Weevils and Other Grain Insects, by R. I. Smith.
No. 204
Some Factors Involved in Successful Corn Growing, by
C. B. Williams.
16 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
~No. 16 (Press Bulletin)
Selecting Seed Corn for Larger Yields,
by C. B. Williams.
No. 18 (Press Bulletin)—The Apple Bitter Rot, by P. L.
Stevens.
KSTo. 19 (Press Bulletin)
—
Suppression of Terrapin Bug, by R. L
Smith.
~No. 20 (Press Bulletin)
Spring Destruction of Terrapin Bugs,
by R. I. Smith.
The reports of the heads of the several Divisions, financial state-ment,
and scientific papers follow.
REPORT OF CHEMIST. 17
REPORT OF CHEMIST.
During the year ended June 30, the Chemical Division has been
engaged mainly in investigations relating to nitrogen metabolism in
soil and the toxicity of cotton-seed meal.
The investigation relating to soil bacteriology has been conducted
in co-operation with the Division of Bacteriology. The analytical
portion of that work has involved 5,606 determinations in 1,579
samples of soil and 526 solutions, as follows
Nitrogen as ammonia by magnesium oxide 1,030
Nitrogen as ammonia by sodium hydroxide 240
Nitrogen as nitrates colorimetrically 107
Nitrogen as nitrates Tiemann-Schulze 1,529
Nitrogen as nitrites Griess 1,446
Nitrogen as nitrites and nitrates, Dipbenylamine 1,190'
Nitrogen total by Kjeldahl 20
Nitrogen total by Kjeldahl and Nessler 44
5,606
Three articles have been prepared representing the results of this
work. The first was published in the report of the Station for
1908-09, and in the Centralblatt fuer Bali, XXIII, 355-373. The
second and third articles have been published by the same journal
and are submitted for publication with this report. An article on
the work was published in Science, March 26, 1909, and a report
of article three was made to the Xorth Carolina Academy of Science
at its May meeting. A fuller account of the work is shown in the
report of the Bacteriologist.
The investigation relating to the toxicity of cotton-seed meal has
been conducted in co-operation with the Animal Husbandry and
Veterinary Divisions. The analytical portion of this work has in-volved
60 determinations in 19 samples of cotton-seed meal, and
495 determinations in 129 samples of pig and guinea-pig urine, as
follows
Albumin 129
Nitrogen by Kjeldahl 13
Nitrogen by ureometer 95
Specific gravity .• .'
. . 129
Sugar 129
495
Ash : 3
Betain 1
Choline 1
Crude fiber 2
Extract by carbon tetrachloride 2
Extract by etber 4
Extracts by six other solvents 8
2
North Carolina State LibrAty
Raleigh
18 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
Moisture 5
Nitrogen 32
Pentosans 1
Raffinose 1
60
The feeds for the guinea pigs have been prepared mainly by the
Chemical Division and the work so far has been planned mainly by
the Division. Fractions of the meal obtained by the use of various
solvents have been fed to guinea pigs, and several of these feeds have
been found to be nontoxic. The toxic portions are still being frac-tioned
and fed.
The miscellaneous work of the Division has consisted of 72 deter-minations
in 41 samples. The samples were as follows
:
Boiler scale 1
Feeding stuffs 18
Fertilizing materials 8
Marls 6
Minerals 3
Soils 4
Urine 1
41
The 72 determinations in the 41 miscellaneous samples were as
follows
:
Calcium oxide 9
Carbon dioxide 8
Gold 1
Moisture 4
Nitrogen as ammonia by magnesium oxide 1
Nitrogen as nitrites 1
Nitrogen as nitrates 1
Nitrogen total 13
Phosphorus pentoxide 9
Potassium oxide 4
Sulphur dioxide 13
Acidity 3
Ether extract 4
Humus 1
72.
The grand total of work for the year was 6,233 determinations
in 2,294 samples.
During the past year the chief of the Division was elected vice
president of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, and,
in addition to the publications referred to, has published an article
in the Student Farmer, The Progressive Farmer, and the Neivs and
Observer upon the importance of the substitution of horse power for
human power in agriculture in North Carolina.
Dr. W. A. Syme was appointed State Oil Chemist, and has tendered
his resignation, to take effect May 1. I am glad to bear witness to
his ability, skill, high character and pleasant personality.
REPORT OF CHEMIST. 19
J. K. Plummer was added to the staff of the Division on August
15, and has proven a very rapid and satisfactory worker. He will
leave his work here on September 1 to accept a scholarship and pursue
post-graduate work at Cornell University. F. W. Sherwood was
added to the staff of the Division on May 1, and Hubert Hill has
assisted with the work from time to time.
The Division needs more commodious quarters, which I trust will
be provided in the new building.
I wish to express my appreciation of the faithful work by the
assistants in the Division and to thank you for your cordial co-opera-tion
and interest. yery respectfully,
W. A. Withers,
Chemist.
20 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
REPORT OF BIOLOGIST.
I hereby submit a report of the Division under my charge for the
fiscal year now closing.
The following completed articles represent experiments completed
and conclusions reached by work of this Division
:
Concerning Apple Diseases.
Hypochnose of Pomaceous Fruits.
Soil Bacteriology (in Co-operation with the Division of Chemistry).
II. Studies in Soil Bacteriology.
Ammonification in Soils and in Solutions.
Concerning the Existence of Non-nitrifying Soils.
Miscellaneous Plant Diseases.
A New Tig Anthrachnose, Colletotrichose.
Alternariose of the Carnation.
Variation' of Fungi Due to Environment.
An examination was made of three samples of corn meal received
from Wilmington, N. C, which were suspected of bearing a causal
relation to pellagra, several cases of which had occurred in that
vicinity recently, and a report was made concerning the more com-mon
species of fungi which were found therein.
One Press Bulletin, No. 18, Apple Bitter Rot, has been issued.
INCOMPLETE WORK.
In addition to the above work which may be regarded as completed,
much other new work is under way.
Apple Diseases.—Several interesting apple diseases, some of them
new, are still the subject of study.
Lettuce Experiments.—Work on lettuce sclerotiniose has been con-tinued,
following the suggestions indicated by our previous studies,
which showed that hibernation of the fungus seems to be limited to the
sclerotia. The lettuce bed was last year thoroughly infected with the
disease. Our efforts this year have been entirely directed to the
prevention of the formation of sclerotia, with the hope that within
a year or two we may be able to demonstrate the possibility of com-pletely
eradicating the disease from an infected bed. Also an un-described
lettuce disease of very great destructiveness has been
brought to our attention from Fayetteville and elsewhere. The
bacteria causing this disease has been isolated. Artificial infection
has been produced and we are now determining the identity of the
organism, its relationship and its characters.
Sclerotinia on Clover.—A very serious clover disease caused by
REPORT OF BIOLOGIST. 21
this fungus, close kin to that on the lettuce, has come to the laboratory.
The causal fungus has been isolated and successful inoculations
made.
Soil Bacteriology..—This work is being conducted jointly by the
Biological and the Chemical Divisions. At present two main- lines
are under investigation, as follows
1. Methods for the determination of Nitrification and Amnioni fie a-tion.
This work embraces a trial of the efficiency of various methods
to determine these factors.
2. Ammoniacal Nitrogen versus Nitrate Nitrogen. The fact that
many of our soils are deficient in nitrifying power has raised the
question whether nitrates are of great importance to plants or whether
ammoniacal nitrogen may not be fully as acceptable to plants as
nitrate nitrogen. To test this question, numerous experiments are
under way under full chemical and bacteriological control.
BACTERIOLOGICAL SOIL SURVEY.
Iii order to ascertain whether the deficiency in nitrifying power, so
marked in the neighborhood of Raleigh, is general throughout the
State, it is planned to receive numerous samples of typical soils from
all portions of the State and to determine their ammonifying and
nitrifying powers, employing the methods devised by us and which
are mentioned above.
In addition to the above major investigation, several other inter-esting
observations have been made. For example, a serious out-break
of the egg-plant wilt; the occurrence of a very serious maple-leaf
disease in Raleigh which seems to be due to a yeast ; the occur-rence
of a cotton-leaf spot due to a species of Phyllosticta, possibly
new; a very serious, widely spread, siueet-potato disease, possibly due
to Oospora, which seems always to be present; the occurrence of the
alga-like fungus Rliodochytrium, which seems to be everywhere on
ragweed, though never collected on this plant heretofore and col-lected
only once before in North America and only twice in the
world.
Other interesting diseases which have come under our observation
are a fig rust; a privet disease clue to fungus attack upon the roots,
resulting fatally to the plants ; a peanut Cercospora, which is quite
destructive; a vetch Colletotrichum, which seems to be new, and a
rot of tuberose bulbs, which caused the loss of about 200,000 bulbs
to one grower. This last disease has been found to be due to a species
of Penicillium.
MELON AND TOBACCO WILTS.
Work has been continued on the lines of preceding years, looking
to control of the melon and the tobacco wilts through the develop-ment
of resistant varieties.
22 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
PLANT-DISEASE SURVEY.
This work is carried on in co-operation with the National Bureau
of Plant Industry. Hundreds of letters have been sent to farmers
throughout the State, in order to ascertain the prevalence of certain
diseases of plants and to secure information concerning their dis-tribution.
The results of this work will be summarized and published
later.
Several identifications of seeds, weeds and fungi have been made
and a few bacteriological water examinations have been completed.
CORRESPONDENCE.
Xumerous inquiries concerning plant diseases and other botanical
questions have been received and answered. In all, several thousand
pieces of mail matter have been sent out by this Division.
During the year, J. C. Temple, assistant in Soil Bacteriology, a
most efficient worker, has resigned to assume charge of the Depart-ment
of Soil Bacteriology at the Georgia Experiment Station, and
has been succeeded by P. L. Gainey, who is doing able and con-scientious
work. Respectfully submitted,
P. L. Stjevens,
Biologist.
REPORT OF POULTRYMAN. 23
REPORT OF POULTRYMAN.
I beg to submit the following report of the work in the Poultry
Division for the year ending June 30
During the year experiments have been conducted in feeding for
profitable egg production, in breeding for increased egg yield, in
determining the advisability of supplying moisture in incubators and
of disinfecting incubators before each hatch. The studies in in- and
line-breeding have been continued.
FEEDING EXPERIMENTS.
Feeding work this year has been largely along the line of com-paring
cotton-seed meal and meat meal as sources of protein for laying
hens.
When this work was started during the summer of 1908 it was
not known what effect cotton-seed meal would have on the health
of the hens. All that was known was that for some of the larger
animals it is a valuable feed, while for others it cannot be fed ex-cept
in small quantities and for limited periods without detriment
to the health of the animals.
In order to test this, it was fed to several pens of fowls for three
months in quantities ranging from 10 to 20 per cent of the total
ration. ~No bad effects to the health of the fowls resulted from feed-ing
any of the rations.
On December 1st fourteen pens of fowls were used to continue this
work; five of these were fed rations which contained cotton-seed
meal ; and nine on rations containing meat meal.
The meat meal used was much richer in protein than is usually
found in products of this class, as analyses showed it to contain 86
per cent protein and 7 per cent fat. It was, however, deficient in ash
when compared with animal meal and beef scrap, which are com-monly
used in poultry feeding. These latter feeds contain more or
less bone, which supplies the ash.
It had been thought that part of the benefit resulting from the
feeding of protein from an animal source was due to the mineral
matter generally found in these products, and as this element was
lacking in the meat meal used, we added bone meal to some of the
rations containing both meat meal and cotton-seed meal. Although
these experiments have not been completed, it might be well to men-tion
some of the points that the results seem thus far to indicate
1. Fowls do not relish cotton-seed meal as well as meat meal,
and therefore do not eat freely of mash containing cotton-seed meal.
t2.
Pullets fed on a cotton-seed meal ration do not develop as
rapidly or start to lay as soon as those fed on a ration containing meat
meal.
24 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
3. Hens have clone better than pullets on rations containing cotton-seed
meal.
4. The addition of bone meal to a meat-meal ration reduced the
cost of egg production and increased the size of stock.
5. The addition of bone meal to cotton-seed meal ration did not
reduce the cost of production, due probably to the small amount of
cotton-seed meal mash eaten.
The results obtained even from the best rations show that if the
farmer is to secure the greatest profit from his hens he must take full
advantage of his ability to give his hens a good range on a green
crop from which they can obtain a large part of their food at very
small cost.
In order to determine if the farmer can profitably feed the more
concentrated and higher priced feeds, such as meat meal and beef
scrap, and, if so, in what proportion and at what time of the year, we
propose to put out several pens of fowls on free range, so that dif-ferent
rations can be tested under conditions similar to what the
farmer has.
BREEDING FOR INCREASED EGG PRODUCTION.
In this work the progress made has not been as great as had been
hoped for. The plan generally recommended for the improvement of
both animals and plants, of repeatedly selecting the best producers to
breed from, does not appear to give as good results in egg production
as in some other lines of work. In a great majority of cases it has
been found that the daughters of our best layers are among the poorest
layers. In three years' work along this line only one female has
been found which has shown any marked power to transmit good
laying qualities to her offspring. Neither this hen 'nor her daughters
have been the heaviest layers of the flock, but better average results
have been secured from this family than from any other.
From our experience it has been found that it is more necessary to
know the breeding quality of our hens than their capacity to make a
large yearly record, and that the best progress will be made by select-ing
individual proved breeders, and through the individual establish-ing
families, rather than by a continued selection of the heaviest lay-ers
of indiscriminate breeding.
INBREEDING.
The work in inbreeding, as outlined in last year's report, has been
continued. Five pullets from one of the best hens were selected from
last year's breeding. Two of these were mated with their own sire,
two with a cock of the same line of breeding, but not closely related,
and one with a cock of an entirely different line of breeding.
REPORT OF POULTRYMAN. 25
INCUBATION.
The work started last year in testing the value of supplying mois-ture
to the incubator and in disinfecting each incubator just before
putting in eggs has been continued.
Disinfecting the eggs with a 10 per cent solution of zenoleum has
also been tried. This solution was found to be too strong, as it in-jured
the hatching quality of the eggs.
The use of a sand tray in the bottom of the incubator to supply
moisture has given good results, the percentage of chicks which died
in the shell being materially reduced. Some incubator operators have
questioned the value of this method of supplying moisture in machines
when the ventilation is from the top downward. By the use of
hygrometers we found that the use of the sand tray raised the relative
humidity an average about 10 per cent above that of similar ma-chines
in the same room without the sand tray.
Added moisture and disinfection are now being used in the general
hatching work of the Station, and it is believed that the disinfection
can be extended to the brooder as well with good results.
BROODING.
Both the fireless and heated brooders have been used with good
results.
Good, strong, vigorous chickens can be raised in brooders without
artificial heat, but for the first week they need more attention than
do those reared in the heated brooder. Chicks do not learn to go back
into the fireless brooder as quickly as they do in the heated ones, and
if left to themselves are apt to stay outside and become chilled. On
account of this extra care there is not so -much saving in labor as some
claim, but there is a very great saving in the cost of equipment neces-sary
to raise the chicks in the fireless brooder, as any handyman can
make the necessary box in a few minutes.
GENERAL WORK.
The demand for improved stock for breeding purposes and eggs for
hatching continues to increase, this demand being about one-third
greater than during the previous year.
The increased price of poultry and eggs, together with the awaken-ing
of the farmers to the fact that it pays to keep good stock, are
largely responsible for this.
Along with this desire for better stock has come a demand for
information as to the care and management of poultry, which has
largely increased the correspondence of this Division.
Respectfully submitted,
J. S. Jeffrey,
Poultryman.
26 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1009.
REPORT OF HORTICULTURIST.
The following is a report of the work of the Horticulturist for the
year ending June 30 :
DOUBLE FLOWER OF BLACKBERRY AND OF DEWBERRY.
Work on double flower or rosette has consumed most of the time of
the Horticulturist during the year. A preliminary study of the
trouble was made during the summers of 1907 and of 1908. The
experimental work was started during the past spring.
Only a small amount of the double flower appeared in the Wilson
blackberry plat this spring; this was expected, as the trouble is
usually not very common until the plants are two or three years old.
Xo double flower has appeared in the Lucretia dewberry plat.
During the spring, observations were made on 23 varieties of
blackberries and on 14 varieties of dewberries. A careful study is
also being made of the structure of the double flowers, including the
rosette-like growth of the stems and leaves and also of the flowers
themselves. The double flower, so far as has been observed, never
produces any fruit. Many of the stamens are defective and the
ovules and druplets do not develop. This work will be extended and
continued during the coming year.
During June of the present season experiments were begun to
determine what effect spraying, pruning, and picking off the leaves
would have on the development of double flower.
SELF-STERILITY IN DEWBERRIES AND IN BLACKBERRIES.
The experimental part of this work was started this spring. About
500 flower clusters of different varieties of dewberries were covered
with paper bags to determine what varieties will set fruit without
cross-pollination. We are confining ourselves this year to the fol-lowing
eight varieties of dewberries : Austin, Chestnut, Cox, Manatee,
Premo, Rogers, San Jacinto, and White. Some interesting and very
decided results were obtained during the spring. This work will
be continued.
A careful study will be made of the character of the flowers of the
Premo dewberry, which seems to be notably self-sterile. This is to
determine what really is responsible for the self-sterility, whether
it is due to defective stamens or defective unfertile pollen or whether
the pollen matures at the wrong time.
The Horticulturist recently published a Bulletin on the Origin and
Importance of the Scuppernong and Other Muscadine Grapes. This
publication has aroused much interest in this subject.
REPORT OF HORTICULTURIST, 27
WORK WITH PLUMS.
Work was started during the spring to determine whether brown
rot can be controlled in Japanese plums by thinning the fruit and
spraying with the self-boiled lime-sulphur mixture.
Respectfully submitted,
F. C. Eeimer,
Horticulturist.
28 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
REPORT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDMAN.
I beg to submit the following report of the work carried on by
the Animal Husbandry Division for the year ending June 30
:
The experiment designed to determine the value of fermented
cotton-seed meal for hogs has been completed and the results have
been reported in Bulletin 200, Feeding Fermented Cotton-seed Meal
to Hogs. The experiment is summarized as follows
:
Corn alone proved to be an undesirable ration for growing hogs,
causing small gains and unthrift. This condition was more marked;
owing to the fact that the lot was closely penned, without pasture
;
yet the other lots, similarly confined, made relatively larger gains.
Fermented cotton-seed meal can be fed in small quantities for
limited periods with good results. The results indicate that seventy-five
to ninety days is the limit of satisfactory feeding. This would
depend, however, on the age and condition of the hogs, the supple-mentary
feeds, and the proportion of cotton-seed meal fed.
Lot 3, fed a combination of corn and cotton-seed meal, in the pro-portion
of four to one, made larger and cheaper gains for the first
ninety days than the lot similarly fed on corn and linseed meal. This
would seem to indicate that, when possible, cotton-seed meal should
be used, since it contains a larger percentage of protein and sells
for about one-fourth less per ton than linseed meal.
Farmers would, according to the results of this experiment, be safe
in feeding fermented cotton-seed meal to 75-pound shoats in quantities
ranging from one-sixth to one-fifth the total ration, by weight, for a
period of seventy-five to ninety days.
The feeding of the four lots of hogs during the first period was
more profitable when one part of cotton-seed meal was added to the
ration of four parts corn than when corn alone or corn and linseed
meal in combination were fed. In the case of linseed meal, however,
the greater cost of gain was due to the high price of the feed, and
not so much to its lack of efficiency in making gains. Barring this
one factor and the possible danger in feeding cotton-seed meal, the
two feeds, according to the results of this experiment, are approxi-mately
the same in feeding value when fed for the time stated.
With corn and cotton-seed meal each costing approximately $28
per ton, the results show clearly in favor of the combined corn and
cotton-seed meal ration, considering always the limitations given as
to the amount fed and length of feeding period. While Lots 2, 3
and 4 had a somewhat larger ration than Lot 1, the larger gains
during the first period were sufficient to considerably overbalance this
factor.
REPORT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDMAN. 29
The practical application of these results would not be to feed
under the conditions here described, but rather to feed the corn and
cotton-seed meal in connection with grazing crops, which can be pro-duced
so abundantly by North Carolina farmers.
When fed with judgment, cotton-seed meal can be made a valuable
adjunct to corn as a ration for hogs. It is the cheapest commercial
concentrate for the Southern farmer and hence should not be en-tirely
ignored in swine production.
An experiment to determine the value of cotton-seed meal as a
feed for horses and mules is in progress. In this it is designed to
determine the following:
1. The possibility of using cotton-seed meal as a supplementary
feed to corn for work horses and mules.
2. The amounts and conditions under which it could be most
satisfactorily fed.
3. The economy of the ration.
4. The effect on the health and condition of the animal.
The experiment was started April 6, 1908, and the meal has been
fed continuously to the present. The results secured indicate that
cotton-seed meal can be made a valuable adjunct to the ordinary ration
for horses and mules, when fed properly. From 1 to iy2 pounds
per animal per day have been fed with apparent satisfaction. The
meal is most satisfactorily fed, however, when thoroughly in-corporated
with corn and cob meal, bran, brewers' grain, or some
other feed of like consistency. It is not possible to feed the meal in
conjunction with ear-corn with satisfaction. To feed cotton-seed
meal satisfactorily the feed which forms the basis of the ration should
be of such a nature as to permit of the meal being mixed with it
thoroughly.
Close observations made on the work-stock, both in the barn and in
the field, have revealed no ajDparent harmful results. This experi-ment
will be continued to study other phases of the problem.
At the beginning of the year an investigation was started to deter-mine
the cause of the harmful effects noted when cotton-seed meal
is fed to hogs and to isolate the toxin, if such it is.
This work is being carried on jointly by the Animal Husbandry,
Veterinary and Chemical Divisions. Hogs and guinea pigs are be-ing
used in the work. The use of guinea pigs makes it possible to
use in the investigations various parts of cotton-seed meal prepared
chemically, which would not be feasible were large hogs used ex-clusively.
Although definite results cannot be given at this time,
the work is progressing satisfactorily. The work has gradually in-creased,
as new phases of the work developed.
Along with this work, grazing experiments with swine are being
conducted to determine the value of the many forage crops that grow
30 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
well in North Carolina. The principal crops used so far are cow-peas,
soy beans, crimson clover, sweet potatoes, peanuts, rape, Canada
field peas, oats, and rye.
During the year a comparatively large number of inquiries have
come to the Animal Husbandman regarding feeding, breeding, and
management of live stock.
On the Station farm a number of improvements have been made.
The equipment for carrying on the swine experiments is fairly com-plete.
Additional farrowing pens, colony houses, a dipping tank,
and pastures have been provided.
Respectfully submitted,
R. S. Cubtis,
Animal Husbandman.
REPORT OF DAIRY HUSBANDMAN. 31
REPORT OF DAIRY HUSBANDMAN.
The main work in this Division consisted of a study of the relative
economy of narrow and medium rations for cows under ^Torth Caro-lina
conditions. This work was prompted by the relative cheapness of
cotton-seed meal, which suggested the wisdom of feeding larger quan-tities
of this material than has hitherto been the custom. Cotton-seed
meal is very rich in protein, and rations containing a large amount
of it will have a very narrow nutritive ratio—much narrower than
is ordinarily recommended for cattle feeding.
The narrow ration fed consisted of five parts cotton-seed meal,
four parts wheat bran, three parts corn meal and 50 pounds of
corn silage. This ration had a nutritive ratio of 1 :4. The medium
ration was the same as the narrow, except that 2% pounds of cotton-seed
meal were replaced by 2% pounds of corn meal, giving this
ration a nutritive ratio of 1 : 5. 7.
The results of this experiment were strongly in favor of the nar-row
ration, but it was thought best to duplicate the experiment in
order to allow more positive conclusions to be drawn with reference to
the wisdom and practicability of feeding a narrow ration.
The duplicate of the above experiment is now in progress.
A Bulletin on the Manufacture and Marketing of Cottage Cheese,
Skimmilk-Buttermilk and Ice-cream was published during the year.
The facilities of the Dairy Division are excellent for the prosecu-tion
of effective Station work next year, and five new lines of in-vestigations
are already in progress.
Respectfully submitted,
John Michels,
Dairy Husbandman.
THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
REPORT OF ENTOMOLOGIST.
The following is a brief statement of the work of the Entomological
Division for the year ending June 30
:
An investigation of the life-history and habits of the harlequin
cabbage bug (terrapin bug), Murgantia histrionica, commenced in
April, 1908, and was continued throughout most of the year. (A
full account of this investigation, together with remedial suggestions,
will be found among the Scientific Papers in this Annual Report,
under the headings, "Suppression of Terrapin Bugs" and "Spring
Destruction of Terrapin Bugs.")
Some attention has been given to a study of the life-history of the
cabbage webworm, Hettula undalis.
The common little red-house ant, Monomorium pliaraonis, became
very abundant last August in the agricultural building, and an at-tempt
was made to eradicate them, or at least to devise some means
of preventing their presence in undesirable places. For nearly four
weeks this work was continued with partial success, by collecting
thousands of the ants on sweetened baits and by attempting to at-tract
them to poison mixtures. The sweetened baits served to trap
thousands of ants, but the poison baits were of little if any value.
It was demonstrated that ants may be kept off laboratory tables,
desks, shelves, etc., by the use of a saturated solution of bichloride of
mercury, one application being effective for several weeks, except for
an occasional stray individual. Any tape, made by soaking strips of
cotton cloth in the solution, may be tied around the legs of tables,
chairs, etc., and serves to repel the ants for a considerable time.
The corn weevil problem, mentioned in my last report, has been
conducted mainly along the line of fumigation. Some field observa-tions
have shown that corn may become infested as early as August,
while standing in the field. The fumigation experiments have shown
that the usually recommended remedy, carbon bisulphide, is not
effective under ordinary farm conditions.
The fumes of burning sulphur were tested in the spring of 1908
and again during the past winter. The results proved this to be
an effective remedy for killing corn weevils, but it was found to be
impractical because it affected the germinating power of the corn;
even a smaller amount of sulphur fumes than was necessary to kill
the weevils materially reduced the germination of the corn.
Some work was carried on during February with good results in
combating San Jose scale by means of the lime-sulphur wash. The
orchard in which the studies were made, as it was badly infested,
serves as a good "illustration of the benefit derived from thorough
spraying with this wash. The apple crop this season has been large
REPORT OF ENTOMOLOGIST. 33
and has been kept quite free from codling-moth worms, Carpocapsa
pomonella, by two sprayings just after the blooming period with a
mixture of 3 pounds of arsenate of lead in 50 gallons of Bordeaux
mixture, the latter being used to prevent leaf diseases.
Press Bulletins on Fall Destruction of Terrapin Bugs and Spring
Destruction of Terrapin Bugs, and a regular Bulletin on Corn
Weevils and Other Grain Insects have been prepared by the En-tomologist
during the year.
Respectfully submitted,
R. I. Smith,
Entomologist.
34 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1900.
REPORT OF VETERINARIAN.
I beg to submit a report of the work of the Veterinary Division
for the year ending June 30
:
The major part of the work has been given over to a study of the
toxic effects of cotton-seed meal when fed to swine and guinea pigs.
Both of these have been found to be quite susceptible to the ill effects
of such feeding.
Daily observations have been made on nearly all of the animals
fed, to determine, if possible, specific symptoms of the derange-ment
produced by cotton-seed meal. With a number of the swine
daily records were kept of weights, temperatures, pulsations and
respirations. At frequent intervals blood readings were made, esti-mating
amount of total solids, numbers of red and white corpuscles,
the per cent of hemoglobin and specific gravity.
Post-mortem examinations have been made of all animals which
died of cotton-seed meal feeding. In a number of instances weights
were taken of various organs to compare with total weight, also
portions of tissues were preserved for sectioning and for micro-scopical
examination.
During the first half of the year work was carried on with the
Bacteriological Division in an attempt to determine some of the
poisons and their causes developing in milk. Samples of milk
were inoculated with dirt and germs from various sources, and
after a lapse of sufficient time for abundant germ growth the infected
milk was injected into guinea pigs. Daily observations were taken,
and upon the death of pigs post-mortem examinations and attempts
to isolate germs from the blood were made.
During the year there were a large number of inquiries concern-ing
hog cholera, and at one of the larger winter resorts, where the
disease had just developed, we undertook to control its ravages by
the production and use of hog-cholera serum, as advised by the
National Bureau of Animal Industry. The owner had lost during
the previous year nearly all of his swine except a few which re-covered
from the disease, and these afforded material necessary
for preparation of the serum. The hogs were isolated as far as
possible to delay or prevent infection until the serum could be
produced, requiring some three weeks, according to the method
pursued. Nearly one-fourth of the 200 head were sick or dead by
this time, but after the injections of serum were made very few
others became sick. As a curative agent after the symptoms of
the disease developed it was found to be of little if any value, such
as other investigators have observed, but its effect in preventing
the trouble in those not infected was very marked. Some co-opera-
REPORT OF VETERINARIAN. 35
tive work with the State Department of Agriculture is being under-taken
to further prove the efficiency of this serum in preventing and
controlling hog cholera.
Internal parasites, being extremely common in pigs and shoats
reaching the local market, turpentine and thymol are being com-pared
as to their efficacy in freeing grossly infested shoats of worms.
A number of specimens have been received at the laboratory for
examination, both bacteriologically and pathologically.
A marked increase in the number of inquiries concerning dis-eases
in general has been noted.
Respectfully submitted,
G. A. Roberts,
Veterinarian,
THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
RECEIPTS AND EXPENSES.
North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station in Account with the
United States Appropriations, 1908-1909.
Dr.
To receipts from the Treasurer of the United States, as per appropriations for
the fiscal year ending June 30, 1909, under Acts of Congress, approved
March 2, 18S7, and March 16, 1906
:
Hatch Fund $15,000.00
Adams Fund 11,000.00
Cr. Hatch Fund. Adams Fund.
By Salaries $7,313.88 $8,272.76
Labor 2,203.45 1,181.09
Publications
Postage and stationery.
Freight and express
Heat, light, water and power
Chemical supplies
Seeds, plants and sundry supplies.
Fertilizers
Feeding stuffs
Library
Tools, implements and machinery.
Furniture and fixtures
Scientific apparatus
Live stock
Traveling expenses
Contingent expenses
Buildings and land
662.56
294.12
84.29
39.78
409.91
565.33 223.34
519.57
901.47
23.98 83.40
373.65
530.40
171.75
464.00 389.90
258.52
15.00
750.00 267.85
Total , $15,000.00 $11,000.00
We, the undersigned, duly appointed auditors of the corporation, do hereby
certify that we have examined the books and accounts of the North Carolina
Experiment Station for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1909; that we have
found the same well kept and classified as above, and that the receipts for the
year from the Treasurer of the United States are shown to have been $26,000,
and the corresponding disbursements $26,000 ; for all of which proper vouchers
are on file and have been by us examined and found correct, thus leaving
nothing.
And we further certify that the expenditures have been solely for the pur-poses
set forth in the Acts of Congress, approved March 2, 1887, and March
16, 1906. (Signed)
J. T. Ellington,
(Seal.) O. L. Clark,
T. T. Ballenger,
Auditors.
Attest : A. F. Bowen, Custodian.
FERTILIZING MATERIALS AND MATURITY OF COTTON. 37
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS.
EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT FERTILIZING MATERIALS UPON THE
MATURITY OF COTTON.
By C. B. WILLIAMS.
Iii fertilizer experiments which have been conducted at the North Carolina
Station farm on a poor soil of the cecil sandy-loam type, deficient in organic
matter, during the past five or six years, it has been observed frequently
that the same variety of cotton planted on the same kind of soil and worked
by identical methods matured differently on different plats, it being quite
marked in some cases. From results secured at the Red Springs, Edgecombe,
and Iredell Test Farms of the North Carolina State Department of Agricul-ture
during two years, the writer made the same observations. These data
and the deductions therefrom were published in September (1906) Bulletin
of that Department. As results have been secured from coarse sandy, fine
sandy loam, sandy-clay loam and tenacious clay soils for two to five years,
it will be noted that the observations made and results secured have em-braced
many years' data and have covered a wide range of soils located under
quite varying climatic conditions.
At the Station something like thirty tests have been conducted in which
fertilizing materials were combined in different proportions and used in dif-ferent
quantities per acre, and in all cases a hastening of maturity was ef-fected.
On the unfertilized plats in all tests during all the years it has been
found that in most cases the larger the yield the greater the combined per-centage
of seed cotton open at the first two pickings. At the end of the
second picking there was but little difference, relatively, between the per-centages
of seed cotton open on those plats which received different quantities
of fertilizer and different fertilizer combinations ; but on these there was
something like 50 per cent more open, as an average, than was on the plats
which received no fertilizer application, but which had otherwise been sub-jected
to the same treatment as the fertilizer plats. From the unfertilized
plats about 75 per cent of the cotton was picked at third and fourth pickings
;
while those receiving an application of commercial fertilizer only had about
60 per cent of the crop left to open at these pickings, except in the case of
the plat which received a mixture of 48 pounds of manure salt and 78 pounds
of dried blood per acre, which had, on an average, 68.6 per cent. As showing
the seasonal effect, especially of drouth, it will be found that by contrasting
the results secured during the years 1904 (with an excess of .91 inch of rain
during the months of August, September, October, and November) with those
of 1905 (which had 3.45 inches deficiency from the normal for the months
of August, September, October, and November, taken together, and 1.52 inches
below normal for the month of November), it was found that the average
percentage of total crop open on four unfertilized plats at the fourth picking
was much greater in 1905 than in 1904.
38 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
EFFECTS OF CARRIERS OF PHOSPHORIC ACID.
As carriers of phosphoric acid, acid phosphate, basic slag and finely ground
phosphate rock have been tested, and all have been found to hasten the
maturity of cotton, as shown by the percentage of seed cotton open at first
and second pickings. In fact, the hastening of the maturity was decidedly
more marked from phosphatic fertilizing materials than from carriers of
potash and nitrogen tried. Increasing the quantity of phosphoric acid derived
from acid phosphate with normal amounts of potash and nitrogen was at-tended
by a gradual increase in the percentage of total seed cotton open
at the first picking.
Acid Phosphate.—When 196 pounds of acid phosphate was added to an
application consisting of a mixture of 48 pounds of manure salt and 7S pounds
of dried blood, there was almost 13 percentage increase in seed cotton open
of total crop at the first picking and more than 7 percentage increase at the
end of the second picking. This application also gave 22 at the first picking
and 12 per cent at the end of second picking more of the total yield open than
was secured from the adjoining plat which had received no fertilizer treat-ment.
Basic Slag.—Basic slag was found to hasten maturity even more than acid
phosphate, as was shown by practically one-half of the cotton being open at
the first picking on the plat which received an application of this material
in connection with normal quantities (48 pounds of manure salt and 78
pounds of dried blood) of manure salt and dried blood. On the plat to which
phosphoric acid, in connection with normal application of potash and nitrogen,
was supplied from acid phosphate, it was found that about 12% per cent
less of total cotton opened at the first picking than did on the plat from
which the phosphoric acid in equal quantities was furnished from basic slag
under the same conditions. When this latter material was applied in the
drill in connection with a ton of stable manure per acre, the effects upon
hastening maturity were markedly reduced.
Phosphate Rock.—Where high-grade finely ground phosphate rock as a car-rier
of phosphoric acid was used at the rate of 274 pounds per acre (four
times normal phosphoric acid) in connection with a ton of stable manure, and
both were applied in the drill, it was noted that the percentage of total seed
cotton open at the first picking was about 35 per cent and at the end of the
second more than 20 per cent greater than on an unfertilized plat adjacent.
EFFECT OF CARRIERS OF NITROGEN.
Carriers of nitrogen used in fertilization, such as dried blood, nitrate of
soda, etc., have been found to hasten the maturity of cotton, but not anyways
near to the extent that carriers of phosphoric acid do. The effect of %the
common nitrogen carriers seems to be felt only at the first picking, as there
is no evidence from results secured that they affected the percentage of total
crop open at the second picking. When used with normal amounts of acid
phosphate and manure salt, increasing the amount of blood, as the carrier
of nitrogen, was attended by an increase in the percentage of total crop open
at the first picking, up to 200 to 300 pounds per acre of the blood.
Dried Blood and Nitrate of Soda.—When 78 pounds of high-grade dried
blood was added to normal quantities of acid phosphate (196 pounds) and
FERTILIZING MATERIALS AND MATURITY OF COTTON. 39
manure salt as a fertilizer application, the percentage of total crop open
at the first picking was increased 3.3 per cent. Where in normal applications
the amount of blood was reduced by one-half and an amount of nitrate of
soda, equivalent in content of nitrogen to the reduction, was used as a side
dressing and applied early in July, it was observed that the percentage of
total crop open at the first picking was greater, generally, than in those
cases where the whole of the normal application of nitrogen was derived from
dried blood. When one-fifth of the nitrogen was derived from nitrate of
soda and the remaining four-fifths came from dried blood, there was a rather
marked increase in the percentage of total crop open at the first picking.
When the nitrogen, in connection with normal quantities of potash and
phosphoric acid, was derived from blood, one-half of which was applied at
planting and the remainder reserved as a side dressing and applied early in
July, it was observed that a larger percentage of total crop opened at the
first picking than did where nitrate of soda was used as the carrier of nitrogen
and which was divided and applied in the same way.
Cotton Seed and Stable Manure.—With cotton seed as a carrier of nitrogen
and applied in the drill at planting, the effect upon maturity was about the
same as where dried blood was used, while in the case of stable manure there
was a material increase in the percentage of total crop open at the first
picking, but showed no difference at the second picking.
EFFECT OF CARRIERS OF POTASH.
Manure salt was the only potash-bearing salt used. It was found, when
used at the rate of 4S pounds per acre, to hasten the maturity of cotton but
slightly. To be sure, the -amount here used was quite small, and marked
results were not expected where so small a quantity of any fertilizer material
was used. Where one-half, twice, and thrice this quantity of manure salt was
used in connection with normal amounts of phosphoric acid and potash, it
was found that as the proportion of potash increased the percentage of total
crop open at the first picking gradually diminished, except for the year 1907,
August of which had about three inches less rainfall than normal.
EFFECTS OF LIME.
Slaked lime applied alone during the spring of 1903 and 1907 did not seem
to increase the maturity of cotton in any year, as shown by the percentages
open at the first and second pickings being about the same as for the un-fertilized
land ; but, when used in connection with a normal application of a
mixture of acid phosphate, manure salt, and dried blood, a marked hastening
in maturity was noted. At the first picking, on an average, the addition
of air-slaked lime at the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre every four years
to a normal application of a complete fertilizer, resulted in an increase of
more than 11 per cent of the total crop maturing than of the cotton planted
on the plat receiving a normal application alone.
EFFECT OF DIFFERENT QUANTITIES.
It has been observed for the types of soil studied that increasing the
amount of the application per acre of a fertilizer analyzing 7 per cent avail-able
phosphoric acid, 2y2 per cent nitrogen, and 2% per cent potash, from
40 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
200 to 800 or 1,200 pounds, that such an increase was accompanied generally
by an increase in the percentage of total seed cotton of whole crop open
at the first picking.
Prom the data used in preparing this paper, the following tentative deduc-tions
may be made relative to the influence of fertilizer upon the growth of
cotton
:
1. Fertilization with ordinary applications of commercial fertilizers hastens
maturity.
2. Sandy and sandy-loam soils, whether fertilized or unfertilized, yield larger
percentages of total cotton open at the first two pickings combined than do
red-clay soils.
3. Heavy phosphoric acid (NP3 K) fertilization on sandy and sandy-loam
soils and medium heavy (NP2 K) applications of phosphoric acid from basic
slag have produced the largest percentages of total seed cotton open at the
first picking.
4. Normal (NPK) fertilization yields on both sandy and red-clay soils
a larger percentage open at the first picking than high nitrogen (N3 PK) ap-plications.
5. High nitrogen (N3 PK) applications generally yielded on all types of soil
studied larger percentages of total yield open at the first picking than high
potash (NPK3 ) applications.
6. Air-slaked lime alone does not hasten maturity, but when used in con-nection
with commercial fertilizers it augments their influence in hastening
maturity, as shown by percentage of cotton open at first picking.
SOME FACTS CONCERNING CORN PLANT, YIELD, ETC. 41
SOME FACTS CONCERNING THOSE CHARACTERS OF THE CORN
PLANT ASSOCIATED WITH YIELD AND FACTORS
WHICH INFLUENCE THEM.
By C. B. WILLIAMS and W. C. ETHERIDGE.
With corn, as with other crops, yield is determined by environment and
by certain characteristics which the individual plants may possess. Without
a favorable climate, good soil, and thorough tillage, no strain of corn can
produce maximum yields any more than, with these supplied, can the greatest
yields be secured where seed bred and selected in the most intelligent man-ner
are not used. In consideration of these facts, it is deemed not inap-propriate
at this time to consider somewhat in detail some of those characters
of the corn plant which seem to be associated intimately with high yielding
capacity. The deductions made are largely from data secured with some sixty
to seventy varieties of corn, many of them grown each under four different
conditions—two of fertilization and two of distancing the hills in the rows.
I. CHARACTERS ASSOCIATED WITH YIELD.
Prolificacy in Ears.—As prolificacy is influenced by soil and climatic con-ditions,
increasing the yield of any variety is usually attended by an increase
in its prolificacy within narrow limits; and the larger the yield in grain of
a variety, the larger the percentage of ear of total plant, the heavier the
grain and the less pounds of ear-corn required to shell a bushel.
In variety tests on the Station farm during the past six years, as it has
been found to be a pretty general rule that those which have averaged the
largest yields of grain per acre were those possessing a decidedly strong
tendency to produce more than one ear per stalk, it would seem to be safe
to infer that the prolificacy of stalks in ears should be given prime con-sideration
in selecting seed corn. In the Station tests it has been found that
Sanders' Improved, a fairly prolific variety, has yielded as an average of five
years 6.8 bushels more of shelled corn per acre than Holt's Strawberry, a
good one-eared variety ; while Biggs' Seven-ear, another prolific variety, has
outyielded Holt's Strawberry 4.4 bushels as an average of three years' tests.
Ordinarily, for the better grade of improved farming lands, it is not felt that
it would be wise to select seed from stalks bearing more than two ears. It is
believed that the richer the land on which the corn is to be planted the greater
the prolificacy in ears that may be selected for with profit. On the poorer
grades of land it is suggested that, until its yielding capacity has been in-creased,
the best one-eared varieties be grown. Too great a prolificacy of
corn to be planted on poor land may be a positive detriment to yield. The
tendency of such seed will be to produce a large number of ears ; and as
the limited supply of available plant food contained in the soil will run quite
low towards the latter part of the growth of the plants, there will usually
be a large number of shoots and nubbins produced and very few ears ; while,
on the other hand, a one-eared variety might have given fairly good-size ears
42 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
under the conditions ; certainly it would in all probability have done better.
It might be stated in this connection that, where these conditions of soil ob-tain,
it is thought that time might be put to better advantage in growing on
it soil-improving crops, such as cowpeas and clover, and defer planting it to
corn until it has been considerably improved in producing capacity. It is
not felt that corn can be raised profitably on very poor land.
Percentage of Grain.—Although it is essential for any variety to possess the
characteristic of producing a high percentage of grain to ear for it to attain
its maximum yielding capacity, yet, as other factors, such as prolificacy, size
of ears, source of seed, etc., enter, the largest yields need not necessarily
be expected from those varieties possessing the highest percentage of grain.
As a matter of fact, the largest yields by varieties tested at the Station farm
during the past five years have been secured from those which produce a
medium percentage of grain ; but this is not because this is an unessential of
the highest possible yields, but rather seems to be due to the fact that
varieties possessing the highest percentages of grain have been bred and
selected largely for this quality alone, while other characteristics that might
have contributed to the yields were seemingly left out of consideration to a
large extent in the establishment of these varieties. Increasing the size of
the ear of any variety, it has been observed, is generally attended by an
increase in the percentage of grain to ear, although to some extent this is
modified by season.
The best yielding varieties have been found to bear ears which shell on
an average of 80 to S7 per cent grain. With the same variety there is a
seasonal variation of a fraction of a per cent to 2 to 4 per cent, or even more.
Size of Ears.—Large-eared varieties usually have a relatively low percentage
of grain to cob, and are, as a rule, less productive of shelled corn per stalk
than the more prolific varieties. Although, taking everything into considera-tion,
where corn is gathered by hand, as is done in many portions of the South,
it will usually be a little easier and slightly cheaper to. gather and handle
the same acreage of large-eared corn than of corn with smaller ears, when
the yield of shelled corn per acre for both are the same, yet, quite frequently,
from a financial standpoint, it will be better for the farmer to use seed
of a variety possessing a relatively small ear, because of the greatly in-creased
yield of grain per acre that would result from the use of such seed.
Within reasonable limits, it should not be so much the size of the ears
that should govern in the selection of a variety for seed purposes as the
persistency of the seed of the variety to withstand adverse conditions and to
produce large yields of shelled corn per stalk and hence per acre. However,
within the same variety it will usually be advisable to choose for seed those
ears, other characteristics being .equal, that are of the average or slightly above
the average in size for the variety.
The size of the ear of a variety is not determined solely by heredity, but
is greatly influenced by climate, season, soil fertilization, cultivation, etc.
;
for the more favorable these conditions are for the growth of the plants, the
larger and heavier will the ears and kernels produced be at maturity; and
the more unfavorable these conditions are, the smaller they will grow. In
other words, if seed of the same variety were planted during the same year
on both rich bottom and ordinary upland soils, it would be found at maturity,
SOME FACTS CONCERNING CORN PLANT, YIELD, ETC. 43
with a favorable season, that the corn grown in the bottom had not only pro-duced
a larger yield and greater number of ears per stalk, but had also borne
considerably larger ears, and it would generally be easy for one who is at all
familiar with ear types of different varieties to determine by general appear-ances
whether a given ear had been produced on rich land or not.
It will be better to use seed of a variety having medium small ears with
poorly shaped kernels in preference to one with large, well-shaped ears pos-sessing
well-formed kernels, if the former produces, under the same conditions
of season, soil, and cultivation, greatly increased yields over the latter, not-withstanding
the fact that it may be a little less expensive to house the latter,
because the net profit resulting from the former would be much greater.
By using a variety with a strongly fixed prepotency to high yield of shelled
corn per stalk—rthe great desideratum, after all—the size and shape of the
ear and its kernels may be materially improved within a few years, through
careful seed selection, with a resulting tendency to further increased yields
over the original stock. It should be borne in mind clearly, however, that by
developing larger and better-shaped ears and kernels of any variety, through
seed selection, persistently practiced through a number of years, that only
two of the many characters that contribute to high yields are improved.
Height of Ears and Stalks.—It has been found that the best yielding varieties
were those which possessed a medium to tall stalk and were those which
have their ears at a medium height. The varieties which had the lowest
stalks and ears were those seed of which have come from the corn-growing
States of the Northwest. The ears should be attached a little below the center
of the stalks. Varieties which make too large a growth of stalks are gener-ally
late in maturing and are therefore far more likely to be caught by
early frost in the fall than those that make a relatively small or medium
growth of stalk.
Date of Maturity.—As a general thing, those varieties which mature
earliest are the smallest yielders of both grain and stover, while those
producing most per acre are medium to late maturing. Other things being
equal, earliness in maturity of not only corn, but all other crops, is at
a sacrifice of yield, as earliness and high yield are antagonistic characters,
if a favorable growing season is afforded for the maturity of the later
maturing varieties. Usually, also, earliness is accompanied by a high per-centage
of ear to stover ; but this ratio is more or less influenced by season,
soil, fertilization, breeding and selection. It might be stated here that with
many crops, however, earliness is more essential than heavy yields ; especially
is this so with trucking crops, for if they do not reach maturity early in
the season the best prices are not obtained. Where for any reason the
season for growth is short, the best of the early varieties will give the
largest yields under the conditions, but the yield will be smaller generally
than would have been produced by the best of the medium and late maturing
varieties had the season been sufficiently long for their full development.
II. DIFFERENT DISTANCING OF HILLS IN EQUIDISTANT ROWS UNDER DIFFERENT
DEGREES OF FERTILIZATION.
Effect Upon Yield.—The optimum distancing for yield of corn, as with
other crops, is governed by variety, season, soil, fertilization, cultivation,
44 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
etc. For the same soil, the more favorable the season, fertilization, and
cultivation, the closer, within limits, the planting may be done with profit,
especially so with the prolific varieties. To illustrate specifically the effects
of fertilization under local conditions which embody principles of wide
application, it was found that as an average of the yields of 68 varieties,
planting at 20 inches in the row produced 3.8 bushels more shelled corn and
563 pounds of stover per acre on highly manured land than did spacing
the hills 30 inches in the row; while on the same land which did not re-ceive
but 300 pounds of commercial fertilizer per acre the yield of grain
and stover was practically identical at both distancing (20 and 30 inches)
and were but little more than one-half those obtained from the highly manured
plats of the same acreage. With the highly manured plats, 76.1 per cent
of the varieties yield most shelled corn per acre at 20-inch spacing of the
hills as against 30 inches, and those which did not follow this rule were all
of one-eared type. In the case of stover, 86.6 per cent of the varieties
yielded most where the stalks stood 20 inches in the row on the highly manured
plats. On the better manured plats, 85.1 per cent of the varieties yielded
a greater value of total products (grain and stover) at 20-inch spacing in
the rows. With varieties receiving an application of (cow) manure sup-plemented
by 300 pounds of commercial fertilizer, the value of total products
was $5.29 more per acre where the stalks were 20 inches than where they
were 30 inches; while on the same land which received only 300 pounds
of commercial fertilizer per acre the difference was, on an average, not
but 23 cents, which was in favor of 20-inch distancing in the rows. From
the above, therefore, it is observed that increasing the productivity of the
soil by a fairly liberal broadcast coating of (cow) manure and fertilizer
was accompanied by materially increased yields, over 30-inch spacing, by
thinning the stalks to 20 inches, while under ordinarily poor fertilization
there was practically no difference between a spacing of 20 and 30 inches
of the hills in the rows, which emphasizes the importance of closer planting
as the fertility of the land is increased.
Results in these experiments were secured from 68 varieties of corn grown
in 4-foot rows during 1908 on poor land of the Cecil sandy-loam type which
would not normally without fertilization yield more than 12 to 14 bushels per
acre. The land was treated in two sets in different degrees of fertilization.
On one set of plats, which will be termed the "highly manured" set, 16 tons
of a high-grade cow manure (the cows had been fed on cotton-seed meal and
wheat bran, and no bedding was in the manure), supplemented by an ap-plication
of 300 pounds per acre at planting of a fertilizer analyzing 7 per
cent available phosphoric acid, 3 per cent nitrogen, and 1% per cent potash
was used; while the other set received only 300 pounds of commercial
fertilizer per acre of the grade given above. This set in the discussion that
follows will be called the "poorly fertilized" one.
Effect Upon Size of Ears.—Under heavy manuring, stalks which were 30
inches in the row produced ears, on an average, which were .37 inch longer
and .12 inch greater in circumference than those grown on stalks standing
20 inches apart; while on the poorly fertilized plats the ears were .44 inch
longer and .16 inch greater in circumference at 30-inch than those grown at
20-inch spacing of the stalks. The average length and circumference of the
SOME FACTS CONCERNING CORN PLANT, YIELD, ETC. 45
ears on the more highly manured land were .99 and .46 inch respectively-greater
than where the 68 varieties were grown on the poorly fertilized plats.
On the highly manured land S4.6 and 68.2 per cent and on the poorly fertilized
plats 79.1 and 76.1 per cent of the varieties produced ears longer and
circumference of same greater respectively at a spacing of 30 inches. As an
average of all the varieties, it required 122 ears to shell a bushel from
hills thinned to 30 inches and 131 ears at 20 inches on the highly manured'
plats ; while for the poorly fertilized corn, it required 166 ears at 30-inch-grown
and 200 ears of that grown 20 inches in the row. On the poorly fertilized
plats it required an average of 56 ears more to shell a bushell of corn than
it did where the corn was produced on the better land. On the highly
manured plats 72.7 per cent of the varieties required a larger number of
ears to shell a bushel where the corn was grown 20 inches apart in the
rows ; while on the poorly fertilized plats S3.3 per cent of the varieties required
most at the same distancing. On the highly manured plats it will be observed
that a 20-inch distancing of the hills gave the largest yields, while stalks
spaced 30 inches produced the largest and longest ears. Both higher fertiliza-tion
and greater distancing between hills increased the length and circum-ference
of the ears of two-thirds to three-quarters of all the varieties under
experiment.
Effect Upon Height of Stalks and Ears.—On the highly manured plats the
height of the stalks and ears were 2.30 and 1.60 inches higher respectively
at a spacing of 20 inches between the stalks than at 30 inches ; while on
the poorly fertilized plats the stalks and their ears were 5.50 and 1.70 inches
higher above the ground respectively at 30 inches. The average height of
the stalks and ears under better manuring were 11.35 and 6.40 inches higher
respectively than those grown on the poorly fertilized plats. Of the stalks
and their ears of the 68 varieties, 67.2 and 6S.7 per cent at 30 inches, and
83.8 and 69.1 per cent at 20 inches, were highest on the heavily manured
and poorly fertilized plats respectively. It would seem, then, from these
data that in the presence of limited quantities of plant-food in the soil an
increase in the distance between stalks from 20 to 30 inches of corn planted
in 4-foot rows leads to the production of a taller growth of stalks and higher
attachment of ears above ground; while with the same soil fairly well sup-plied
with plant-food from (cow) manure and fertilizer for the immediate
needs of the plants an increase in the thickness of planting from 30 to
20 inches is attended by the growth of higher stalks and ears.
Effect Upon the Number of Ears and Amount of Shelled Com per Stall;.—
On the highly manured plats there were for all the varieties taken together
.11 more ear per stalk at 30 inches than at 20 inches spacing of the hills
in the row, and on the plats receiving only 300 pounds of commercial fertilizer
.10 more of an ear on an average at 30 than at 20 inches. Contributing to
these data 91.0 per cent of the varieties on the highly manured land and
86.8 per cent on the poorly fertilized plats produced most at the respective
favorable distancings. The average difference between the highly and poorly
fertilized plats was .15 more of an ear per stalk on the former than on the
latter. The corn under better fertilization produced 27 per cent more shelled
corn per bearing stalk at 30-inch distancing than at 20 inches ; while that
grown on land poorly fertilized, an increase of 41 per cent was secured in
4G THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
favor of the former distancing, which indicates that in the presence of limited
quantities of plant-food a slight increase in the amount of space per plant
is attended by a much greater increase in yield of grain per stalk than is
secured on land which is more highly manured. The highly manured plats,
as an average of both distancing, produced .148 pound shelled corn per bear-ing
stalk, or an increase of 68.4 per cent more shelled corn per bearing stalk
than was produced on the plats receiving 300 pounds of commercial fertilizer
alone. It will be observed that increasing the distance between the hills
and the fertility of the land were attended by a larger number of ears per
stalk and by a marked increase in the quantity of shelled corn per bearing
stalk.
Effect Upon Maturity and Stand.—The two distancing of hills studied did
not seem to affect differently to any great extent the growth of the plants
up to the tasseling and silking stages, yet the weight of evidence is that
closer spacing of the stalks retarded the maturity by about one day, on an
average. The corn on the highly manured plats tasseled and silked from
three to four days earlier than on those receiving an application of com-mercial
fertilizer alone. Better fertilization seems to lead to a more perfect
stand, as is evidenced by the varieties planted on the plats which received
an application of (cow) manure and 300 pounds of commercial fertilizer being
2.56 per cent better than that from seed of the same varieties planted in the
same manner on the same type of soil which received only an application
of commercial fertilizer.
Effect Upon the Production of Suckers.—On the more highly fertilized plats
9.48 per cent at 30 inches and 6.13 per cent of the stalks produced suckers at
20-inch spacing of hills in the row ; while on the poorly fertilized plats 6.15
per cent produced suckers at 30 inches and 2.87 per cent at 20 inches. Suckers,
therefore, are increased in number both by increasing the distance of the
hills apart and by the addition of more plant-food to the soil. It has also
been observed repeatedly that under the same conditions some varieties
produce many times more suckers than do others, hence the production of
these is a varietal characteristic which is influenced by fertilization, spacing
of plants and other environmental factors.
Effect Upon Barrenness.—By decreasing the distance between hills from
30 to 20 inches on the manured plats the percentage of barren stalks was
increased from 1.73 to 3.42 per cent, while on the poorly fertilized corn it
was raised from 5.26 to 10.73 per cent. It will be noticed from these data
that for both the sets the percentage of stalks barren was doubled by a
decrease in the distancing of the hills in the row by 10 inches, and that
the corn on the poorly fertilized plats was affected with more than three
times the percentage of barrenness that prevailed on the plats receiving (cow)
manure and commercial fertilizer. Therefore, barrenness seems to be de-creased
both by an increase in the distance between hills in the row and by
heavier and more favorable fertilization.
VARIATION OF FUNGI DUE TO ENVIRONMENT.
VARIATION OF FUNGI DUE TO ENVIRONMENT.1
By F. L. STEVENS and J. G. HALL.
The effects of environment, climatic condition, soil fertility, the presence
of unusual chemicals, the water relation and what not upon the form and
characters of seed plants are well known to the plant physiologist, and have
been the subjects of numerous studies. These factors are even utilized by the
practical man to bring about desired variation.
That fungi vary similarly will not be doubted by any who have had to do
with fungi in artificial cultures. The kind and degree of such variation, we
dare say, will be a surprise to any who have made special study of this sub-ject.
While our knowledge of the seed plants, owing to man's long acquaintance
with them, their larger size and comparative stability is considerable, yet
even with them the limiting of genera, species, varieties, etc., presents diffi-culty,
if we may judge from the rich literature upon phanerogamic taxonomy.
The fungi, because of their immense number of species, variety of forms,
minuteness, paucity of distinguishing characters, complexity of life-history
(mostly unknown) peculiar biologic host relations (almost entirely unknown),
and because of man's short acquaintance with them and their unknown but
apparently vast range of variability, present as yet baffling problems of rela-tionship
and classification.
The object of the present article is to call attention to the kind and degree
of environmental variation found in a few species of fungi that have been
studied by the authors during the past four or five years and in some instances
to analyze the causes of these variations to the end that the factor of envi-ronmental
variation may be more clearly recognized as a problem of narcologi-cal
taxonomy.
We shall consider these variations under the causes that produce them.
I. Density of Colonies.
Septoria petroselini Desm. var. apil Br. and Cav., from celery.
This fungus, when plated so that the spores lay thinly scattered, produced
colonies which were ultimately black, from 1 to 2 mm. in diameter, with
pycnidia of normal character; if plated so that the spores lay in large numbers
per square centimeter, it produced colonies which reached a size of only about
.5 mm. and became ultimately black, containing ordinary pycnidia, bearing
spores in the normal way. When plated so that there were still more spores
per square centimeter, the colonies never became black and no pycnidia were
produced ; but to the contrary, multitudes of spores were borne uncovered, in
clumps upon simple hypha?.
Septoria Pycopersici Speg., from tomato.
Spores from pure culture were plated in 4 per cent pea agar in various
dilutions.
xRead in part at the Baltimore meeting of the Botanical Society of America, December, 190S,
and published in the Botanical Gazette 48 (1909).
48 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
One plate developed 5 to 6 colonies per square millimeter and each colony
proceeded to normal pycnidial development. Another plate developed 21 to
23 colonies per square millimeter and all proceeded to form naked conidia
with no indication of pycnidia. Portions of these two plates are represented
X ^v
s #
\
Fig. 1.
—
Septoria Lycopersici Speg., showing for-mation
of normal pycnidia on portion of thinly sown
plate culture.
Fig. 2.
—
Septoria Lycopersici Speg., showing ab-sence
of pycnidia on thickly sown portion of plate
culture; magnification same as in Fig. 1.
by photomicrographs (Figs. 1 and 2). Drawings of the naked spores show-ing
the detail of their formation are given in Fig. 3. Occasionally plates with
as many as 30 colonies per square millimeter were found with both pycnidia
and naked spores.
Pycnidia not visible at the fifth day may be well formed by the sixth day
and extrude masses of pink spores
about the twenty-first day. Oc-casionally
pycnidia are well de-veloped
on the fourth day. When
naked spores develop they normally
appear a few days later than do
pycnidia, e. g., a plate thinly sown
on January 12, 1907, gave many
pycnidia on January 15, while a
thickly sown plate, under conditions
otherwise precisely parallel, did not
give naked spores until January 22.
This septoria forms a typical determinate colony, i. e., even with unlimited
room, it proceeds only to a certain size of development.
Septoria consimilis E. & M., from lettuce.
When sown thinly colonies reached a size of 2 to 3 mm. in diameter ; when
sown thickly they became no more than .2 mm. in diameter. There was no
interference with color development or formation of pycnidia by thick sowing
with this species.
VARIATION OF FUNGI DUE TO ENVIRONMENT. 49
With two of these septorias, thick plating, other conditions being the same,
so changed their character that not only would the species be considered as
different, but the fungus would be shifted from the Sphaeropsidales to the
ffyphomycetales (Hyplaesa of Saccardo).
A similar change of habit is well known in the genus Fusarium, which in
culture, crowded or not. often abandons acervulus formation, thus changing
its systematic position from the Tiiberculariaccae to the Mucedinaceae: The
genera Colletofriclium and Gloeosporum similarly abandon acervulus forma-tion
and thus suffer still greater taxonomic disturbance by moving from the
Melaitconialcs to the Hypliomyeetales.
Ascochyta cJirysanthemi Stevens, from chrysanthemum.
This fungus was plated January 12. 1907. Myriads of pycnidia were present
four days later ; thick plating caused no inhibition of pycnidial formation, no
naked spores and no constant effect upon the number of pycnidia produced.
Volutella fructi S. & H., from apple.
Fig. 4.—Volutella fructi S'. and H., showing colonies on thinly sown plate culture.
Thinly sown, the colonies were large, of indeterminate growth, showing dark
centers with pale borders I Fig. 4) ; thickly sown, growth was inhibited and
their characters lost. (Fig. 5.)
Spermoedia paspali Fries, from paspalum.
Spores of this fungus were sown January 19, 1907, in plates giving colony
densities of 90. .14. 30. 14 and 1 per scpiare mm.
At all of these densities germination was practically 100 per cent and
growth proceeded equally in all plates during the early stages. On February
4
50 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
11 it was noted that all colonies which came nearly in contact were sporing.
Growth then stopped. In the plates bearing only one spore per square mil-limeter
the colonies continued to enlarge slowly and to produce many spores
in the central portion, though remaining white, not attaining the usual yellow
color. Deep colonies appeared like the superficial, but bore no spores. On
Fig. 5.— VoJutella fructi S. and H., showing effect of thick sowing.
February 7 the colonies on thin plates (1 per square millimeter) had attained
a diameter of 1.5 mm. Some of those colonies transferred to tubes con-tinued
to enlarge, became tubercular, and developed a yellow center 3 or 1
mm. in diameter. The whole colony often reached 1 cm. in diameter. Sister
colonies left in the plate (1 per square millimeter) failed to so develop,
and it is evident that at even this density normal development is not attained.
The colony is indeterminate in growth and in plates its size is limited by
the presence of adjacent colonies.
SUMMARY REGARDING THE DENSITY FACTOR.
This factor produces different effects with the different species. It may in-hibit
pycnidial formation, resulting in naked spores ; it may cause failure to
develop color ; it may limit the size of the colony ; or it may be without effect.
There are many paired species of the imperfect fungi agreeing closely, ex-cept
in the presence or absence of one character. These pairs often occur
VARIATION OF FUNGI DUE TO ENVIRONMENT. 51
upon tbe same host, e. g., &&ptoria lycopersici Speg. and a Cylindrosporium
on tbe tomato, and CyUndrospari urn Chrysanthemi E. & D. and Septoria
Chrysanthemi Cav. on the cultivated chrysanthemum.1
Many other instances could be cited.
The lack of fixity of such a structure as even the pycnidum throws doubt
upon the validity of. such species as these and indicates the necessity of close
comparative study.
II. Density of Mycelium : Zone Formation.
The formation of concentric zones is by many fungi one of the most conspic-uous
characters shown in cultures. These zones may be due to any one of
many structural characters of the colony; to varying density of spore niass-
Fig. 6.
—
Ascochijta Chri/satithcmi Stevens; plate culture showing that the
formation of zones is not coincident with diurnal changes; ink marks show
growth for three consecutive days.
ing; pycnidia grouping, mycelial branching, color, etc. It is a frequent pre-nomenon
in nature in the fairy rings of the toad stools, the concentric mark-ings
of many loaf spots, fruit rots, etc. These effects have been attributed to
Woonixo, Diseases of cultivated chrvsanthemums, Malpighia 15 (1902), 329-341. E. S. R.
14,777.
iHALSTKi), Chrysanthemum leaf spot, American Florist, 10 (1894), No. 333, 263. E. S. R. 6,
311.
'Beach, Leaf spot of chrysanthemum, N. Y. State Sta. Rpt., 1892, 557-560.
'Halsted, Report of fungus disease of plants, X. J. Sta. Rpt., 1S91, 233-340.
•Sacc. Syll. Fung. 11, 542, Xos. 3497, 3 19S, 3757. Tuheuf and Smith, Diseases of Plants, 47S.
Year-Book U. S. Dept. Agr., 1906, 507. Geneva Sta. Rpt., 14, 529. X. J. Sta. Rpt., 1894, 361.
52 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
various causal agencies : to light relation,1 to nutrients,2 to agencies other than
light, probably food, and to resting periods and to mycelial crowding.3
Ascochyta chrysanthemi Stevens.
With the fungus in question the fact that the zones are not due to light or
temperature relations is apparent from the fact that they do not coincide with
the fluctuations of these two factors (Fig. 6). In the colony shown, which is
that of a plate culture kept at room temperature, there was daily change
from warm to cool, light to dark, yet the number of rings does not coin-cide
with the number of these changes ; moreover, zones were produced in
precisely the same way on plates kept constantly in the dark as in plates kept
all of the time in the light, and still the same on plates kept three days in
the dark and then three days in the light.
Microscopic examination shows that with this fungus the dark zone is due
to a larger number of mycelial filaments, the light zone to a smaller number
of threads, as is shown diagrammatic-ally in Fig. 7. It seems that with this
a b c
Fig. 7.—Diagram showing, at right, the zones (stippled) and diur-nal
marks; at left, theoretical expression of cause of zonation.
fungus the dense crowding of the filaments resulting from their repeated
branching inhibits growth either by the products of metabolism or exhaustion
of nutriment. There is then a period of quiescence, followed by onward
growth of a few scattered hyphae. As these outgrowing hyphse reach beyond
the inhibiting influence, they branch repeatedly until a new dense zone is
formed. This process is repeated indefinitely. The rapidity of succession of
zones is dependent solely upon the relation which rapidity of branching bears
to rapidity of increase in length. Slow lineal growth and much branching
gives many narrow zones ; rapid lineal growth with infrequent branching
causes broad zones.
Sclerotinia Libertiana Fckl., from lettuce.
Zonal sclerotial formation is exhibited by this fungus. (Fig. 8.) That
this phenomenon may be attributed to crowding of the mycelium is indicated
by the fact that adjacent colonies form more sclerotia at their points of con-tact.
(Fig. 9.)
^olz, "Ueber die Bedingungen der Entstehung der durch Sclerotinia fractigena erzeugten."
Schwarzfaule der Aepfel. Cent, f . Bak. II. Ab. 17, 175.
Hutchinson, "Ueber Form und Bau der Kalonieen niederer Pilze." Cent. f. Bak. II, Ab. 17,
602. Also
Hedgecock, Zonation in Artificial culture of Cephalothecium and other fungi. Ann. Rpt. 17,
Mo. Bot. Card., 1906.
2Milburn, Ueber Aenderungen der Farben bei Pilzen und Bakterien. Cent. f. Bak. Ab. II,
13, 257.
3Istvanffi, Etudes Microbiologiques et mvcologiques sur le rot gris de la vigne. Am. de
l'lnstitut Cent. Ampel. Roy. Hongrois, 1905, 183.
Fig. 8.
—
Sclerotinia Libertiana Fckl., showing zonal formation of sclerotia on corn meal culture.
it
P\*\ *•/>*
****** 5***"
3. 9.—Sclerotinia Libertiana Fckl., showing the formation of sclerotia in greater abundance
THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1009.
SUMMARY REGARDING DENSITY OF MYCELIUM.
Zone formation in Ascochyta Chrysanthemi is due to crowding of mycelium,
not to light or heat relation. A similar conclusion was reached by Istvanffi
(Istvanffi lc.) regarding the very striking zones shown by Hclerotinia. The
same causes may apply also with Daldinia concentrica and many other fungi
of similar structure.
III. Chemical Relations.
Chemical relations have been studied with eleven fungi, the fungus being
usually grown in agar with varying nutrients added. Occasionally other
media were used. A chemical base agar (cba) was made of the following
proportion
Water 1,000 grams.
Di-potassium phosphate 2.5 grams.
Calcium chloride 01 gram.
Magnesium sulphate .01 gram.
Sodium chloride 2.5 grams.
Potassium sulphate 2. grams.
Agar 15. grams.
To 100 cc. of this chemical base agar were added the following materials
singly or in varying combinations :
Ammonium lactate 5 gram.
Sodium asparaginate 25 gram.
Glucose .' 1. gram.
Starch 1. gram.
The tests were usually made in both plate and tube cultures.
Volutella fructi S. and EL, from apple.
This fungus, when sown thin, forms large indeterminate colonies, often with
numerous scattered tuber-cular
blotches (Fig. 10).
On pure agar and cba
the colonies were pale
mycelium hyaline ; black
tubercles very sparse.
On pea agar black tuber-cles
were much more abun-dant,
otherwise as on pure
agar.
On cba +sodium aspa-raginate
black tubercles
were still more numerous.
On cba+sodium a spa -
raginate+starch black tu-bercles
were more liumer- I
ous than in any of the
above, and the colony was
black (Fig. 11).
vOjnu rL-Uhcni^-lf_c«unuriluiinimi an»«in»na- Fig. 10.—Volutella fructi S. and H.; colony on pea agar showing tubercular blotches, some of them in concentric
raginate-(-glucose black tu- rings; mycelium nearly hyaline, due to lack of carbohy-bercles
were still more
numerous, so many as to be contiguous, and the whole colony was densely
black.
VARIATION OF FUNGI DUE TO ENVIRONMENT. 55
On gelatinized starch+Uschinsky's solution the mycelium was black, and
some digestion of the starch was observed.
On none of the above media were spores formed, but on sterilized apple
twigs spores were produced in abundance.
The differences here noted upon these different media are sufficient to alter
entirely the general appearance and to shift the fungus from the Tubercu-lariaciae-
Dematiae to the Tuberculariaciae-Mucedinae.
Coniothyrium Fuckelii Sacc, from apple.
This fungus when growing upon a medium rich in starch becomes black
in its peripheral layer. Glucose fails to produce the same result. The
mycelium hyaline when on pea agar, but tawny on apple agar.
Septoria petroselini var. apii, from celery.
This fungus fails to produce naked spores when sown thickly on celery
agar, though it does so under similar conditions when upon lettuce agar.
Colletotrichwm carica ,S. and H., from fig.
This fungus upon the different media used showed striking differences in
number or setae, varying from none to abundant ; number of spores varying
from few to many ; color, varying from pale to almost black.
On cba+growth was scant; acervuli small, setae absent.
On cba+ammonium lactate and cba+so-dium
asparaginate growth was about as in
cba, except that numerous black setae were
present.
On cba -fammonium lactate+starch the
acervuli were larger, more numerous, with
numerous large black setae.
On cba+sodium asparaginate-f glucose,
black setae were numerous.
On cba+sodium asparaginate+ammonium
lactate there were a few setae.
Epicoccus sp. indet, from apple agar in
Petri dishes.
This fungus on pure agar and cba was col-orless.
On cba+starch or cba+glueose there
was much richer mycelial development which,
moreover, took on a rich yellow color that in
spots turned to pink. Sometimes black spots
developed on the first of these media, but
not upon the second. This fungus shows
strikingly the differentiating value of starch
and glucose for fungus culture.
Upon apple agar still another character de-veloped,
a rich golden color of the abundant
tlnccose matted aerial hyphse. This reaction
is fully as striking as the familiar rose color
produced by a certain species of Fusarium.'
With this fungus we have absence of color
in agar and cba. but rich coloring of varying
hues in the presence of carbohydrates and upon apple agar.
Fig. 11.— Volutella [nidi S. and
H.; two black colonies upon cba +
sodium asparaginate + starch.
'Bessey, Ueber die Bedingungen der Farbbildung bei Fusarium, Inaug. Diss. Halle., 1904.
56 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT. 1SQ9.
Phyllosticta sp. indet, from apple agar in Petri dishes.
This fungus grew faster on agar than on cba, formed pycnidia sparsely on
agar and not at all on cba.
With sodium asparaginate added the mycelium becomes very dense, with
considerable aerial development, remains colorless and produces few pycnidia.
and these visible only with the two-third objective. The presence of glucose
led to exceedingly profuse pycnidial development, while on starch the growth
was as with cba+sodium asparaginate, showing again the ability to utilize
glucose, but not starch.
Alternaria sp. indet, from Lawson carnation.
This fungus, the cause of an apparently undescribed carnation disease which
will be the subject of a subsequent paper, was isolated during October, 1908.
There was striking difference in the color of the colony upon different media,
varying from merely hyaline to dense black. The size and color of the spores
was also so modified as to give much more than what is usually regarded as a
specific difference.
On pure agar, cba, cba+ammonium lactate, cba+sodium asparaginate, and
upon cba+ammonium lactate+sodium asparaginate, the mycelium was color-less
and the colony correspondingly colorless, while upon cba+sodium aspa-raginate+
starch and cba+sodium asparagiuate+glucose the mycelium was
very dark, more profuse, more freely branched, and the colony therefore of an
entirely different aspect.
Spore formation proceeded sparingly, though evenly and regularly, upon
pure agar, cba, cba+ammonium lactate, cba+sodium asparaginate, cba+
sodium asparaginate+ammonium lactate; but very abundantly upon cba+so-dium
asparaginate+starch and upon cba+sodium asparaginate +glucose.
Here the sodium asparaginate seems not to furnish the carbon in sufficiently
available form, though starch or glucose do so to nearly equal extent.
The size, color and septation of the spores were also greatly influenced by
the medium.
From carnation-agar plates the spores measured from 16 to 52 mu long by
6 to 13 mu thick, bearing from none to three longitudinal septa and from
3 to 7 transverse septa, while from the live carnation leaf the spores were
from 26 to 123 mu long by 10 to 20 mu thick, bearing from 1 to 9 or often
numerous longitudinal septa and from 3 to 15 transverse septa. It is seen
that the spores are approximately twice as long, twice as thick, of darker color
and with many more septa in each direction upon the natural medium than
upon the carnation agar, differences which would ordinarily be regarded as
clearly of specific rank.
Alternaria Brassicce (Berk.) Sacc, from collard.
This fungus made hyaline mycelium in cba and cba+sodium asparaginate;
black mycelium in cba+sodium asparaginate+glucose and in cba+sodium
asparaginate+ starch, starch producing by far the most pronounced effect.
Digestion of the starch grains, somewhat in advance of the tips of the on-coming
fungus threads, produced a clear zone surrounding each colony in the
starch-bearing plates.
VARIATION OF FUNGI DUE TO ENVIRONMENT. 57
Ascochijta Chrysantliemi Stevens.
This fungus was grown in the usual media with no significant effects, ex-cept
that the fungus did not digest the starch grains afforded in the medium.
A deposit of great thickness around mycelial threads was made in the case
of certain media and not in others, as has already been noted.1
In some instances culture at a high temperature occasioned this same
response.
SUMMARY OF CHEMICAL RELATIONS.
The most striking response to chemicals is in color, which so far as ob-served
was invariably heightened by the presence of chemicals bearing carbon
in available form, the form of available carbon varying for different fungi.
Some fungi, possessing ability to digest starch, can utilize this as a source,
while to others the carbon of starch is inaccessible. Special unknown chemi-cals
in apple add vivid colors to fungi otherwise hyaline. Some chemicals
also promote or inhibit spore formation. Some inhibit or promote growth of
setae, and some even alter the size, color and septation of spores. Milburn,
working under Klebs (Milburn, lc), has also noted pronounced effects of
chemicals upon the color of fungi. The difference in color effects produced
by different fungi under the same conditions and with the same fungus under
different conditions is also noted by Bessey.2
No correlation is noted between rapidity of lineal growth and nutritive
value of the medium. In many instances most rapid lineal growth occurred
in what was surely the poorest medium. Very poor media suffice in many
cases also for spore formation, while rich media often result in cessation of
spore formation.
Colletotrichum Lindemuthianiim, sometimes with setae, often without, has
long been of questionable generic position. The same is true of several other
species of this genus. Alternaria Brassicce and Macrosporium Brassicce
agree closely except as to presence or absence of catenulate spores.3
Variation of this kind is probably due to variation in chemical composition
of the supporting medium, e. g., change in sugar content as ripening proceeds,
acting in such way as to give the fungus the appearance of belonging to one
genus when upon the green sugar-free fruit, to another genus as the starch
gives place to sugar as the fruit ripens.
IV. Light Relation.
The absence of material effect of light upon lineal growth with these species
of fungi is shown in Table I.
^ot. Gaz., 44, 190?, 241.
2 Bessey, lc.
3 A. Brassicce Hyphae brevis conidia 60-80 x 14-18, septae 6-8.
M. Brassicce Hyphae obsoletis conidia 50-60 x 12-14, septae 5-11.
58 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
Table I.
—
Relation of Light to Growth.
Figures express growth in millimeters. The cultures marked "alternate"
were kept several clays in light and several days in dark ; L=iight, D=dark.
Inoculated December 8, 1908.
Condition of Light.
On Macrosporium On Phyllosticta On Ascochyta
Brassicse. sp. indet. Chrysanthemi.
Date of
Obsekvation.
In Alter- In Alter- In Alter-
In
Light.
nate In
In
Light.
nate In
In
Light.
nate In
Light
and
Dark-ness.
Light
and
Dark-ness.
Light
and
Dark-ness.
Dark. Dark. Dark.
December 9__ Germ Germ L Germ L 2 L
December 10__ 1 1 L 1 Germ Germ L Germ Germ 3 L 6
December 12. _ 6 6 L 6 4 4 L 4 4 12 L 12
December 13 _ _ 9 10 L 9 7 7 L 6 12 16 L 14
December 14 _ _ 13 12 D 11 10 10 D 7 15 20 D 18
December 15__ 16 15 D 15 13 13 D 10 17 25 D 22
December 16 _ _ 17 17 D 17 14 13 D 13 25 30 D 25
December 17 _ _ 23 23 L 21 16 16 L 16 33 37 L 31
December 18 _ _ 26 26 L 29 20 18 L 19 39 39 L 37
December 19__ 28 28 L 29 23 20 L 20 41 45 L 37
Ascochyta Chrysanthemi Stevens. The growth is more floccose in dark-ness.
Phyllosticta sp. indet. This fungus forms its pyenidia in beautiful con-centric
rings when in open room, i. e., alternate light and darkness, but in
continuous darkness they were irregularly scattered. Culture No. 35 made
concentric rings when in the light and failed to do so when moved to darkness.
Cultures kept in the open room lay down rudiments of pyenidia mainly during
the night, and it is probable that light exerts enough inhibiting influence on
pyenidial development to give a growth predominance during the day and a
fructifying predominance during the night.1
Alternaria Brassiere (Berk.) Sacc. With this fungus the end of each day's
growth, evening, marks the edge of a zone. The zone thus marked is intensi-fied
during the succeeding twenty-four hours by color changes. While zones
are formed to some extent in continued darkness, they are more pronounced
in the room condition.
SUMMARY OF LIGHT RELATION.
Light exerts little or no effect upon lineal growth with these fungi. It
appears to exert an inhibiting influence on pyenidial development and in some
instances is the cause of zonation in colonies.
V. Unknown Factors.
Ascochyta Chrysanthemi Stevens.
This fungus frequently exhibited differences in character along different
radii of the same colony, the conditions of medium, thickness of sowing,
humidity, etc., being apparently identical. Fig. 12 shows such a colony. Along
the radius a—a at b the colony bore pyenidia abundantly, and the mycelial
^edgecock, lc.
VARIATION OF FUNGI DUE TO ENVIRONMENT. 59
progeny of this strain extending to the periphery of the colony was rich in
pycnidia, while most other radii of the colony were sterile or nearly so.
Transfers were made from the point c (sterile) and d (pycnidial) to fresh
plates. The sterile mycelium produced a colony which through its early days
was sterile. As it aged it formed a few large pale pycnidia. The fertile
strain produced a fertile colony with very numerous .though small pycnidia.
Transfers made again from these two strains resulted in a complete reversal
of character, the fertile becoming sterile and the sterile becoming fertile. No
explanation of this suggests itself.
Fig. 12.
—
Ascochyta Chrymnthcmi Stevens, showing abundant pycnidia on radius
a-a, at point b, and paucity of pycnidia elsewhere.
When this fungus was plated from a suspension of spores two types of colony
developed corresponding to the two strains mentioned above. The first '"type
of few pycnidia" developed a copious aerial mycelium of a loose floccose nature,
extended regularly in all directions and was long devoid of pycnidia. When
the pycnidia did form they were few. large and superficial (Fig. 13). The
second "type of many pycnidia" had little or no aerial mycelium, all the
mycelium being either immersed or of strict growth; was roughly circular in
colony, not . regularly so as in first type, and small, irregular, mostly im-mersed
pycnidia were formed in myriads throughout the colony. (See Fig.
14.) These two types of colony appeared on the same plates which were in-
60 THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1909.
collated with spores from the same pycnidiuni, therefore developed in the
same nutrient condition, humidity, temperature, etc. Depth of planting is not
the cause of these differences, since flooding the plate with an extra tube
Fig. 13.—Ascochyta Chrvsanthenfi Stevens; portion of colony showing few pycnidia; cf.
Fig. 14.
Fig. 14.—Ascochyta Chrysanthemi Stevens; portion of colony showing many pycnidia;
cf. Fig. 13.
VARIATION OF FUNGI DUE TO ENVIRONMENT. 61
of agar after the agar first plated had set, did not change the proportion of
the two types. Nor did sowing in such way that the spores were at the
bottom rather than at the top of the agar change results. There was a
marked tendency of colonies of both types of the fungus to become more
productive of large pycnidia where two different colonies approach each other,
suggesting that there might be needed a co-operation of two diverse strains
in order to form a pycnidium ; that the strains of few pycnidia lacked the
requisite individuals, and that the strains of many pycnidia had more than
one individual to the colony. To test this, colonies were traced from the
earliest development, resulting in clear evidence that in some instances a colony
developed from a single spore was one with few pycnidia ; in other instances
a single spore produced a colony of many pycnidia.
Fig. 15.
—
Coniothyrium Fuckelii Sacc.; portions of two colonies showing cir-cles
of pycnidia near margins.
Coniothyrium Fuckelii Sacc, from apple.
In one instance this fungus, which rarely fruited, made pycnidia in almost
perfect circles near the margins of each colony on the plate. (See Fig. 15.)
These variations arc inexplicable and remind one of the mysterious change
from ascigerons to non-ascigerous condition so frequently met in life-history
work with the imperfect fungi.
Variability in Spore Measurement.
Since the b