number game, any of various puzzles and games that involve aspects of mathematics.

Mathematical recreations comprise puzzles and games that vary from naive amusements to sophisticated problems, some of which have never been solved. They may involve arithmetic, algebra, geometry, theory of numbers, graph theory, topology, matrices, group theory, combinatorics (dealing with problems of arrangements or designs), set theory, symbolic logic, or probability theory. Any attempt to classify this colourful assortment of material is at best arbitrary. Included in this article are the history and the main types of number games and mathematical recreations and the principles on which they are based. Details, including descriptions of puzzles, games, and recreations mentioned in the article, will be found in the references listed in the bibliography.

At times it becomes difficult to tell where pastime ends and serious mathematics begins. An innocent puzzle requiring the traverse of a path may lead to technicalities of graph theory; a simple problem of counting parts of a geometric figure may involve combinatorial theory; dissecting a polygon may involve transformation geometry and group theory; logical inference problems may involve matrices. A problem regarded in medieval times—or before electronic computers became commonplace—as very difficult may prove to be quite simple when attacked by the mathematical methods of today.

Mathematical recreations have a universal appeal. The urge to solve a puzzle is manifested alike by young and old, by the unsophisticated as well as the sophisticated. An outstanding English mathematician, G.H. Hardy, observed that professional puzzle makers, aware of this propensity, exploit it diligently, knowing full well that the general public gets an intellectual kick out of such activities.

The relevant literature has become extensive, particularly since the beginning of the 20th century. Some of it is repetitious, but surprisingly enough, successive generations have found the older chestnuts to be quite delightful, whether dressed in new clothes or not. Much newly created material is continually being added.

History

Early history

People have always taken delight in devising “problems” for the purpose of posing a challenge or providing intellectual pleasure. Thus, many mathematical recreations of early origin that have reappeared from time to time in new dress seem to have survived chiefly because they appeal to man’s sense of curiosity or mystery. A few survived from the ancient Greeks and Romans: little was known about them during the Dark Ages, but a strong interest in such problems arose during the Middle Ages, stimulated partly by the invention of printing, partly by enthusiastic writers of arithmetic texts, and partly by the rivalry and disputations among early algebraists and scholars. Such activities were most prominent on the Continent, particularly in Italy and Germany. Notable contributors included Rabbi ben Ezra (1140), Fibonacci (Leonardo of Pisa; 1202), Robert Recorde (1542), and Girolamo Cardano (1545).

Kinds of problems

The problems in general were of two kinds: those involving the manipulation of objects, and those requiring computation. The first required little or no mathematical skill, merely general intelligence and ingenuity, as for example, so-called decanting and difficult crossings problems. A typical example of the former is how to measure out one quart of a liquid if only an eight-, a five-, and a three-quart measure are available. Difficult crossings problems are exemplified by the dilemma of three couples trying to cross a stream in a boat that will hold only two persons, with each husband too jealous to leave his wife in the company of either of the other men. Many variants of both types of problems have appeared over the years.

Some examples

Problems involving computation also took on a variety of forms; some were as follows:

Finding a number

Think of a number, triple it, and take half the product; triple this and take half the result; then divide by 9. The quotient will be one-fourth the original number.

“God-Greet-You” problems

For example, in “God greet you, all you 30 companions,” someone says: “If there were as many of us again and half as many more, then there would be 30 of us.” How many were there?

How many grains of wheat are required in order to place one grain on the first square, 2 on the second, 4 on the third, and so on for the 64 squares?

The lion in the well

This is typical of many problems dealing with the time required to cover a certain distance at a constant rate while at the same time progress is hindered by a constant retrograde motion. There is a lion in a well whose depth is 50 palms. He climbs 1/7 of a palm daily and slips back 1/9 of a palm. In how many days will he get out of the well?

Courier problems

These are typified by the movements of bodies at given rates in which some position of these bodies is given and the time required for them to arrive at some other specified position is demanded.

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