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Introduction

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Distilled spirits, more simply known as liquor, reflect the customs, tastes, and even agriculture of many lands and peoples. Despite great variations in the natural fruits and grains used for raw material and in production techniques, the liquors of the world are all based on the discovery of distillation more than 2,000 years ago.

The modern liquor industry is a large and worldwide business that makes many types of liquor. Some of the most widely known include whiskeys, such as Scotch, Irish, Bourbon, and Canadian; vodka; rum; brandy; gin; and tequila. Liqueurs, or cordials, are available in a great variety of flavors. Each starts with a basic liquor base to which sugar and various flavors and colors may be added.

Classification

The growth of international trade has made a great variety of distilled spirits available in most nations, but localized production techniques and taste preferences persist. Label information and other government requirements vary considerably from nation to nation. The following definitions of basic liquor types are based in part on the United States Code of Federal Regulation—Labeling and Advertising of Distilled Spirits. Alcohol concentration requirements are stated in United States proof, which equals twice the percentage by volume of alcohol in a product when measured at 60° F (16° C). Thus 80 proof equals 40 percent alcohol by volume.

Neutral Spirits

Known simply as alcohol, neutral spirits can be made from any fermentable material but must be 190 or more proof. This results in virtually pure alcohol. Usually used as a blending agent in other products, neutral spirits may be diluted with water, bottled, and sold directly as long as a minimum strength of 80 proof is maintained.

Vodka

Vodka is neutral spirits distilled or treated with charcoal or other materials after distilling to make it free of distinctive color, aroma, taste, or character. Although vodka can be made from potatoes or other material, most is now made from grain, particularly corn. Vodka originated in Russia in the 14th century. The word itself means “little water.” Unlike American and English vodkas, some Russian and Polish vodkas are flavored with a variety of herbs, grasses, leaves, spices, and seeds. Popular vodka drinks include the screwdriver, bloody Mary, and vodka martini.

Whiskey

Whiskey is a broad class of products distilled from grain at lower alcohol concentrations than vodka or neutral spirits. Most whiskeys are aged for a time, usually two to 12 years, in oak barrels that add further taste and color to the product. To be sold in the United States as whiskey, the product must be bottled at a strength of at least 80 proof. The following are popular types of whiskey:

Bourbon is made from a mixture of grains, including at least 51 percent corn, and aged at not more than 125 proof in new oak barrels whose insides have been charred by flame. Bourbon is a product unique to the United States.

Rye, wheat, malt, and rye malt whiskeys are produced in a manner similar to bourbon. The grain used must be at least 51 percent of the type for which the liquor is named.

Corn whiskey must be made from at least 80 percent corn. Only used or uncharred oak barrels may be used if it is aged in wood.

Light whiskey is a new type permitted since 1968. Generally used as a blending agent with other whiskeys, light whiskey is distilled at a higher alcohol concentration than bourbon and other whiskeys. This results in a lower concentration of flavor components, thus the description light.

Blended whiskey contains at least 20 percent straight whiskey such as corn or rye along with other whiskeys or neutral spirits.

Scotch whiskey is defined in United States regulations as “a distinctive product of Scotland, manufactured in Scotland in compliance with the laws of the United Kingdom. . . .” In fact, most Scotch sold is a blend of two different types of whiskey produced in Scotland: malt whiskey produced entirely from malted barley and grain whiskey produced in a manner similar to American light whiskey.

Irish whiskey is similarly defined in the United States as a distinctive product of Ireland made in compliance with its laws. Irish distillers make their product from a mixture of barley and other grains and do not expose the grains to peat smoke as do Scottish distillers. Irish whiskey at a standard 86 proof strength is aged at least four years.

Canadian whiskey is recognized by the United States as a distinctive product of Canada made in conformance with Canadian laws. Canadian whiskey must be aged at least three years, but in the United States the age must be shown on the label if it is less than four years old. Canadian distillers use a variety of grain combinations.

Gin

First produced in Holland in the 17th century, gin derived its name from the French word for juniper berries, jenievre. Gin is basically grain neutral spirits flavored with juniper berries. It may be aged to give it extra smoothness and color, but in the United States distillers may not mention age on the label.

Brandy

A broad class of spirits products distilled from fruit rather than grain, brandy was probably the first liquor to be made in Western society. Most brandy is still made from grape wine and must be aged at least two years. Cognac is grape brandy distilled in the Cognac region of France.

Rum

Rum is distilled from sugarcane or sugar by-products, most often blackstrap molasses. Caramel may be added to darken the color.

Tequila

A distinctive product of Mexico, tequila is distilled primarily from a cactuslike plant known as Agave Tequilana Weberi. Most tequila is sold unaged.

Cordials and Liqueurs

Many varieties of cordials and liqueurs can be produced by combining any basic liquor with one or more natural flavorings such as cream, juices, plants, or seeds. Some of the earliest cordials were made in European monasteries during the Middle Ages. Chartreuse is still made in France by the religious order that developed it in 1605. All cordials contain at least 2.5 percent sugar by weight. Proofs vary considerably. If a product is named after a specific liquor type, such as rum or Scotch liqueur, it must be at least 60 proof and contain no other type of liquor than that mentioned in the name.

Local Specialties

Many other types of liquor are made according to local tradition in various regions of the world. Some of these include:

Ouzo is produced in Greece in a manner similar to gin and is a liquor heavily flavored with aniseed.

Shochu is made in Japan primarily from sweet potatoes, rice or other grains, and molasses.

Aquavit is popular in much of northern Europe. It is made from an alcohol base flavored with caraway.

Schnapps is made in Germany and is a high-proof grain-based spirits resembling whiskey or vodka.

The Industry

How Liquor Is Made

Despite its many variations, all liquor manufacturing is based on two simple processes: fermentation and distillation. Fermentation is the action of yeast on sugars, converting them to alcohol along with carbon dioxide and heat. Distillation boils the alcohol, along with other components, out of the mash, or fermenting mixture, then condenses them back in liquid form by cooling. The resulting liquor then may be subjected to further processing for purity or flavor enhancement, including aging in oak barrels. The liquor is then generally mixed with controlled amounts of water before bottling. Since most liquor contains more water than alcohol, the quality of the water is of major concern. Some liquors are filtered through charcoal or other filtering materials to improve their purity and smoothness. After distillation the grain residue is sold as livestock feed.

How Liquor Is Sold

Throughout its long history, liquor—along with beer and wine—has been a focus of controversy. Alcohol and its effects have been a part of social and religious customs in most cultures. For thousands of years it has been used both as a medicine to heal and as an anesthetic to ease pain. Alcohol has generated billions of dollars for governments, which discovered long ago that profits can be made from taxing its sale. In the United States, taxes levied by federal, state, and local governments account for almost half of the price of a typical bottle of liquor. Alcohol has negative aspects as well, however. When taken to excess, it can lead to violence and other uncontrolled behavior, accidents, alcoholism, and serious medical problems. In an attempt to reduce alcohol abuse, most governments regulate its distribution and sale. Taxes are imposed both to raise revenue and in some cases to discourage consumption. Age limits for purchase are imposed, on the premise that immature persons are less able to exercise moderation and are especially vulnerable to the harmful effects of overindulgence (seealcoholism).

Prohibition of liquor has been tried without much success in a few nations, including the United States from 1920 to 1933. Governments also try to prevent irresponsible drinking by strictly regulating who may manufacture or sell alcohol and how they conduct their businesses. In some parts of the United States and in certain other nations, the government operates retail liquor stores.

While state and local governments in the United States have a great deal of authority in regulating the types of retail outlets, hours of sale, minimum age, and other matters, the liquor industry is also closely regulated by the federal government’s Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms. This agency controls production, labeling, advertising, and the relationships between producers, wholesalers, and retailers. The bureau also seeks to protect consumers against products that may be impure, mislabeled, or otherwise irregular.

Liquor Preferences

Drinking preferences vary around the world. While Russians prefer their vodka chilled and without ice, Americans who drink vodka usually prefer to mix it with orange or tomato juice and to add ice. An American may draw odd stares in Britain and elsewhere when asking for Scotch and soda “on the rocks,” meaning with ice. The Mexicans have a custom of sucking a lime and licking some salt before each shot of tequila.

Consumption

No reliable statistics exist for worldwide liquor production and consumption. The great variations in alcohol concentrations of various liquors make it difficult to determine the amount of alcohol consumed. According to the Industry of Distilled Drinks, a survey of 45 nations shows that despite its higher concentration of alcohol only about one fourth of the alcohol consumed is in the form of liquor. Beer and wine are the first and second greatest sources of alcohol. The United States ranks 22nd in total alcohol consumed per capita—about 2 gallons (7.5 liters) per year, slightly below the 45-nation average. For alcohol consumed from liquor, the United States ranks 11th with 0.64 gallon (2.4 liters), somewhat higher than the average 0.53 gallon (2.0 liters).

The five nations that registered the greatest per capita consumption of alcohol in liquor in 1991 were Germany, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia (prior to its breakup), and Bulgaria. The five nations with the lowest consumption were Turkey, Argentina, Italy, Mexico, and Portugal.

Producers

The largest producers of liquor are the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Japan. Apart from Russia, much of each country’s production is exported.

History

Historical records that mention the use of beer and wine date back some 5,000 years. The distillation of liquor began about 2,000 years ago. Most types of liquor known today were developed between the 12th and 19th centuries. Modern glass packaging and brand names began to emerge around the middle of the 19th century.

Early methods for testing the strength of liquor involved mixing a sample with an equal amount of gunpowder. If the mixture burned with a steady blue flame, it was considered proved—the origin of today’s term proof. Later, when more sophisticated measurement techniques were available, it was shown that proved liquor was actually about 50 percent alcohol, or 100 proof.

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