IFIS Dictionary of Food Science and Technology

“When comparing this dictionary, there is very little competition at all… a very useful resource in the industrial, profession-al and supporting research areas, as well as for non-food scientists who have supervisory and management responsibility in a food area.” –Food & Beverage Reporter, Nov/Dec 2009“I would thoroughly recommend this book to food scientists and technologists throughout the universities, research establishments and food and pharmaceutical companies. Librarians in all such establishments should ensure that they have copies on their shelves.” –International Journal of Dairy Technology, November 2009“A must-own.” –Food Industry News, August 2009IFIS has been producing quality comprehensive information for the world’s food science, food technology and nutrition community since its foundation in 1968 and, through its production of FSTA – Food Science and Technology Abstracts, has earned a worldwide reputation for excellence.Distilled from the extensive data held and maintained by IFIS, the dictionary is easy to use and has been rigorously edited and cross-referenced. Now in an extensively revised and updated second edition, this landmark publication features:8,612 entries including 763 new entries and over 1,500 revised entriesReflects current usage in the scientific literatureIncludes local names, synonyms and Latin names, as appropriateExtensive cross-referencingScientific editing from the team at IFIS

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DICTIONARY OF
FOOD SCIENCE
AND TECHNOLOGY
Second Edition
Compiled and edited by the
International Food Information Service
A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication
C International Food Information Service (IFIS Publishing) 2005
Second edition published 2009
C International Food Information Service (IFIS Publishing) 2009
FSTA – Food Science and Technology Abstracts® and Food Science Central® are registered trade marks within Europe and the USA.
IFIS Publishing, Lane End House, Shinﬁeld Road, Shinﬁeld, Reading RG2 9BB, UK
Telephone +44 118 988 3895, email iﬁs@iﬁs.org, or visit www.foodsciencecentral.com
ISBN 978-0-86014-186-0 (IFIS Publishing e-Book)
Disclaimer
The information contained herein, including any expression of opinion and any projection or forecast, has been obtained from or is
based upon sources believed by us to be reliable, but is not guaranteed as to accuracy or completeness. The information is supplied
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not imply that they are not protected by relevant regulations.
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sought.
ISBN: 9781405187404
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Dictionary of food science and technology / compiled and edited by the
International Food Information Service. – 2nd ed.
p. ; cm.
ISBN 978-1-4051-8740-4 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Food industry and trade–Dictionaries.
[DNLM: 1. Food Technology–Dictionary–English. TP 368.2 D554 2009]
TP368.2.D58 2009
664.003–dc22
Typeset by IFIS Publishing
Printed in Singapore
1
2009
2008053562
I. International Food Information Service.
PREFACE AND GUIDE TO
DICTIONARY USAGE
The ﬁrst edition of the Dictionary of Food Science and Technology was published in 2005
to complement the 2004 edition of the companion Thesaurus to the bibliographic database
FSTA – Food Science and Technology Abstracts® . Since that time, not only has the Thesaurus
been updated several times online and in print1 , but the passing of time has also meant that
many of the terms appearing in the ﬁrst edition of the Dictionary have become outdated; new
terms have also become apparent. In this second edition of the Dictionary, 763 completely new
terms have been deﬁned for the ﬁrst time, and all 7,849 existing terms from the ﬁrst edition
have been checked for accuracy, resulting in over 1,500 term deﬁnitions being rewritten. This
second edition of the Dictionary contains 8,612 terms in total.
In keeping with the ﬁrst edition, the second edition contains a large number of deﬁnitions
covering food commodities of every description and also many deﬁnitions of terms which are
speciﬁc to food science and technology (for example, covering sensory analysis, consumer research, food composition, catering and food safety). It is further augmented with deﬁnitions of
terms from cognate disciplines (including biochemistry, biotechnology, chemistry, economics,
engineering, microbiology, packaging, physics and public health). Whenever appropriate, local
names, synonyms and Latin names also appear. New additions to this edition include over 140
nutrition and health-related terms, reﬂecting recent increases in the importance and emphasis
placed on nutrition and health by the food industry, academia and the general public. Coverage
of these topics in FSTA has also increased in recent years. Similarly, terms relevant to pet foods
and pet nutrition appear for the ﬁrst time, since their appearance in the FSTA database from
2006 onwards.
The Dictionary has been designed to be comprehensive, clear and easy to use. Alphabetical
order in the Dictionary is determined on a letter by letter basis (not word by word) as follows:
Acetates
Acetic acid
Acetic acid bacteria
Acetic fermentation
Acetobacter.
Characters such as numbers, hyphens, primes, subscripts and superscripts are ignored when
ordering terms, as are small capitals, hyphenated modiﬁers and alphabetic Greek characters.
For example, N -Acetylglucosamine, -Amino acids, and 2-Aminobutane all appear under the
letter A. Similarly, ␣-Carotene and ␤-Carotene both appear under the letter C. The Greek
alphabet is given at Appendix A.
1
FSTA Thesaurus, eighth edition, IFIS Publishing 2007; ISBN 978-0-86014-171-6
xi
Preface and Guide to Dictionary Usage
xii
Terms in the Dictionary are shown in bold typeface. Cross-references within deﬁnitions to
other terms appearing in the Dictionary are also shown in bold. For example,
Ale Historically, a beer type made without hops; in modern usage, a range of
British-style beers, commonly brewed with top-fermenting brewers yeasts
Thus, the entry for ale given above shows that the Dictionary also contains deﬁnitions for the
terms beer, hops and brewers yeasts. Similarly, the entry for bacteriocins
Bacteriocins Peptides produced by speciﬁc bacteria that possess antibacterial activity. Both puriﬁed bacteriocins and bacteriocin-producing bacteria
are used in the food industry, applications including inhibition of the growth of
pathogens and spoilage organisms
indicates that the Dictionary also has deﬁnitions for the terms peptides, bacteria, antibacterial
activity, pathogens and spoilage.
The deﬁnitions in the Dictionary have been compiled and edited by specialist scientiﬁc
staff at IFIS Publishing who also produce FSTA and the companion Thesaurus. IFIS is an
acronym for the International Food Information Service which was founded in 1968. The IFIS
mission is to provide information products and services, commission research and provide
education in information science for the international food science, food technology and
nutrition community. IFIS Publishing is a not-for-proﬁt organization (Charity No. 1068176)
and a company limited by guarantee (Company No. 3507902).
The Dictionary has been compiled to appeal to a wide range of readers. It is hoped that this
resource will be a valuable tool for people of all levels working in the ﬁelds of food science,
food technology and nutrition, as well as students of these subjects and their teachers, and
anyone who has a general interest in the issues facing the international food sector.
We would be pleased to hear from readers of the Dictionary who may wish to comment
on this edition or suggest candidate terms for future editions. Correspondence concerning the
Dictionary should be addressed to the Head of Publishing, IFIS Publishing, Lane End House,
Shinﬁeld Road, Shinﬁeld, Reading RG2 9BB, UK; e-mail: iﬁs@iﬁs.org.
CONTENTS
Foreword
ix
Preface and Guide to Dictionary Usage
xi
The Dictionary
1
Appendix A Greek Alphabet
465
Appendix B Scientiﬁc Societies and Organisations in the Food Sciences
467
Appendix C Web Resources in the Food Sciences
471
vii
A
AAS Abbreviation for atomic absorption spectroscopy.
Abalones Marine gastropod molluscs belonging to
the family Haliotidae, which contains around 70 species; widely distributed, but found mainly in the Western Pacific (Japan and Australia), and also off California and Southern Africa. Only the adductor muscle is
edible, having a mild sweet flavour; this muscle is
normally tenderized to soften the naturally tough, rubbery texture. Marketed in a variety of forms, including
powdered, brined and canned products.
Abate Alternative term for the pesticide temephos.
Abattoirs Types of slaughterhouses where animals
are slaughtered for meat and offal. Abattoirs usually
include lairage (a holding area for live animals), a
slaughtering line and cold stores. Facilities for processing of by-products (blood, intestines, skins, fat, bristle,
unusable waste products), and treatment of waste water
and air are often included.
Abondance cheese French semi-hard mountain
cheese made from milk of cows of the breeds Abondance, Montbeliard and Tarine. Characterized by a
strong aroma and a complex flavour. The crust and a
grey layer beneath are removed before consumption.
Abreh Alternative term for abrey.
Abrey Sudanese, non-alcoholic, fermented beverages made from sorghum.
Abscisic acid Plant growth regulator, important in
ripening of fruits and cereals.
Absidia Genus of fungi of the class Zygomycetes.
Occur as saprotrophs on decaying vegetable matter,
grains, soil or dung, and meat, or as parasites or
pathogens of plants or animals. Some species may
be used in the production of chitosan (e.g. Absidia
coerulea, A. glauca and A. atrospora). Other applications include the production of enzymes for use in
the food industry (e.g. Į-galactosidases).
Absinthe
Spirits flavoured with aniseed and
wormwood. Widely believed to exhibit neurotoxicity as a result of thujone derived from wormwood.
The spirit was prohibited in many countries early in the
20th century. However, legal manufacture and sale of
the beverage have become more widespread since the
1990s.
Absorbents Materials or substances that are capable
of absorption. Uses of absorbents include incorporation within food packaging (to absorb oxygen as a
preservation technique, to control humidity, and to
manage aroma and flavour problems in packaged
foods) and for purification of foods and beverages,
such as drinking water and liquid foods.
Absorption Process involving molecules of one substance being taken directly into another substance. Absorption may be either a physical or a chemical process, physical absorption involving such factors as solubility and vapour-pressure relationships, and chemical
absorption involving chemical reactions between the
absorbed substance and the absorbing medium. Absorption includes such processes as the passage of nutrients and other substances from the gastrointestinal tract into the blood and lymph, and also the uptake of water, fats and other substances into foods.
Acacia Plants of the genus Acacia (family Fabaceae),
mostly tropical shrubs and trees. Acacia seeds are used
as foods, and shoots may be used in soups, curries,
omelettes and stir fries. Acacia honey has a mild flowery flavour. Several species of Acacia yield gums, such
as gum acacia which is also known as gum arabic.
Acai Small, dark purple fruits from the palms Euterpe oleraceae. The pulps and juices may be used in
beverages, as well as in functional foods. Rich in
dietary fibre and fatty acids, and have strong antioxidative activity.
Acanthamoeba
Genus of free-living amoebae
which occur in soil and fresh water. Some species
may be opportunistic pathogens.
Acaricides Pesticides used to control mites and
ticks (family Acaridae), many of which are responsible
for animal diseases and spoilage of stored crops.
Examples include amitraz, bromopropylate, coumaphos and fluvalinate. Residues in foods may represent a health hazard to consumers.
ACC Abbreviation for the plant growth regulator, 1aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid.
Acceptability The degree to which the quality of a
food is regarded as satisfactory.
Acceptable daily intake A safety level for substances used as food additives. Usually calculated as
Acceptance
1/100th of the maximum dose of the substance that
causes no adverse effects in appropriate test organisms.
Abbreviated to ADI.
Acceptance The willingness to regard the quality of a
food as satisfactory.
ACE inhibitors Enzyme inhibitors which inhibit
activity of peptidyl-dipeptidase A, EC 3.4.15.1,
also known as angiotensin converting enzyme or ACE.
Inhibition of this enzyme in vivo leads to reduced
vasoconstriction, thus ACE inhibitors exhibit antihypertensive activity and are components of some
functional foods.
Acephate One of a number of systemic organophosphorus insecticides used to control a wide
range of chewing and sucking insects (e.g. aphids,
sawflies and leafhoppers) in fruits and vegetables.
Classified by WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO III).
Acerola Alternative term for Barbados cherries.
Acesulfame K One of the non-nutritive artificial
sweeteners (trade name Sunett). A white crystalline powder, approx. 200 times sweeter than sucrose.
Often blended with other sweeteners to give a more
sugar-like taste and to mask aftertaste. Stable under
heat, and moderately acid or basic conditions. Used in
foods and beverages since 1983 and approved by >100
countries worldwide. Used in beverages, dairy products, preserves, bakery products, confectionery, salad dressings and breakfast cereals.
Acetaldehyde Aldehyde, synonym ethanal. One of
the common flavour compounds in many foods and
beverages. May cause taints in some foods. Toxic
at excessive concentrations.
Acetals Group of diethers which occur as natural flavour compounds in foods such as fruits and
herbs, and alcoholic beverages. May be used in
flavourings.
Acetan Anionic, xanthan-like exopolysaccharides formed by Acetobacter xylinum. Of potential
use in thickeners or gelling agents.
Acetates Salts or esters of acetic acid. Flavour
compounds in many foods and beverages. May be
used as preservatives.
Acetic acid Member of the short chain fatty acids
group, which occurs in a range of foods and beverages. May be one of the flavour compounds, or
cause taints, depending on food or beverage type and
the concentration at which it is present. Acetic acid is
the main constituent of vinegar. It may be used for
preservation or flavouring of foods.
Acetic acid bacteria Any aerobic, rod-shaped Gram
negative bacteria, e.g. Acetobacter spp. and Gluconobacter spp., capable of oxidizing ethanol to
acetic acid. Occur on the surface of fruits, vegeta-
2
Acetophenone
bles and flowers, and in soil. Used industrially in the
manufacture of vinegar. May cause spoilage of
beer and wines.
Acetic fermentation The process by which acetic
acid bacteria such as Acetobacter and Gluconobacter spp. metabolize an alcoholic substrate to form
acetic acid, the main constituent of vinegar. Alcoholic substrates can be obtained from a variety of
sources, such as fruits, vegetables and grain.
Acetobacter Genus of Gram negative, strictly aerobic, rod-shaped acetic acid bacteria of the family
Acetobacteraceae, that are capable of oxidizing ethanol to acetic acid. Occur on fruits and flowers. May
be responsible for spoilage of beer and wines.
Acetobacter aceti and A. pasteurianus are used in
commercial production of vinegar.
Acetoin Flavour compound found commonly in dairy
products and wines. Synonyms include 3hydroxy-2-butanone and acetylmethylcarbinol.
Į-Acetolactate Molecular formula, C5H8O4; synonym, 2-acetoxypropanoic acid. Precursor of the flavour compounds diacetyl and acetoin which are
valuable in dairy products but which cause off flavour in sake and beer.
Acetolactate decarboxylases EC 4.1.1.5. Decarboxylases used to reduce maturation times in
winemaking by converting acetolactate to acetoin,
and in brewing to reduce levels of diacetyl, a cause
of taints in beer. Also used to analyse diacetyl and
acetoin concentrations in beer. Diacetyl produces a desirable aroma in dairy products, and development
of lactic acid bacteria with reduced levels of these
enzymes has been attempted.
Acetolactate synthases EC 2.2.1.6. Transferases
which catalyse the conversion of pyruvic acid to Įacetolactate in the presence of its cofactor, thiamine
diphosphate. These enzymes can also catalyse formation of 2-ethyl-2-hydroxy-3-oxobutanoate from pyruvate and 2-oxobutanoate. Involved in synthesis of
amino acids (valine, isoleucine and leucine) and
flavour compounds, including acetoin and diacetyl.
Acetomonas Former name for the genus Gluconobacter.
Acetone Smallest of the ketones, synonym propanone. Widely used as a solvent in food analyses,
particularly for lipids and related compounds. Produced along with butanol and ethanol as a microbial
fermentation product from unconventional feedstocks including food processing wastes.
Acetophenone Aromatic ketone and one of the flavour compounds in honeys and a variety of other
foods and beverages. A precursor for phenylethanol.
Acetylacetone
Acetylacetone Ketone which occurs in the flavour
compounds of foods and beverages, including beer,
coffee and fermented dairy products. Also
widely used as an analytical reagent, e.g. in the determination of formaldehyde. Synonym is pentanedione.
Acetylation Introduction of acetyl groups into a compound or substance. Usually achieved by reaction with
acetic anhydride, acetic acid or an acetate such as
vinyl acetate. Sometimes used to protect hydroxyl
groups during organic syntheses. Such modification is
also used to alter the physicochemical properties,
functional properties or nutritional quality of substances such as starch, proteins and carbohydrates.
Acetylcholinesterases
EC 3.1.1.7. Esterases
which convert the neurotransmitter acetylcholine to
choline and acetates. Act on a variety of other acetic esters and also possess transacetylase activity. Inhibition of these enzymes can be a marker for neurotoxicity. Some acetylcholinesterase inhibitors are
used medically, e.g. to treat Alzheimer's disease,
and some are used as pesticides. These enzymes can
be used analytically to detect pesticide residues in
foods and beverages. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitory
activity has been found in essential oils and plant
foods. Also known as cholinesterases.
N-Acetyl-L-cysteine One of the antioxidant compounds used as food additives, e.g. to minimise
browning and off flavour formation in fruit juices,
other fruit products and vegetable products, and
to inhibit haemagglutinins in legume meal. Also
used to inhibit formation of biofilms on food contact
surfaces. Commercially available as a food supplement
claiming to provide detoxification effects and benefits
to the immune system.
Acetylene Hydrocarbon which acts as a plant growth
regulator and can be used to control ripening of
fruits.
N-Acetylglucosamine Derivative of the amino sugar
glucosamine in which the amino group is acetylated.
Component of cell walls and chitin.
Acetylglucosaminidases
Comprise
Į-Nacetylglucosaminidases (EC 3.2.1.50), which hydrolyse terminal non-reducing N-acetyl-D-glucosamine
residues in N-acetyl-Į-D-glucosaminides, and mannosyl-glycoprotein endo-ȕ-N-acetylglucosamidases (EC
3.2.1.96), which catalyse endo-hydrolysis of the N,Ncdiacetylchitobiosyl unit in high-mannose glycopeptides
and glycoproteins containing the [Man(GlcNAc)2]Asn
structure; one N-acetyl-D-glucosamine residue remains
attached to the protein, while the rest of the oligosaccharide is released intact. These glycosidases are
involved in chitin degradation applications, and con-
3
Acidophilin
tribute to antibacterial activity in egg shell
membranes and to autolysis due to autolysins in
some bacteria.
ȕ-N-acetylhexosaminidases EC 3.2.1.52. Glycosidases which catalyse the hydrolysis of terminal
non-reducing N-acetyl-D-hexosamine residues in Nacetyl-ȕ-D-hexosaminides. Substrates include Nacetylglucosides and N-acetylgalactosides. Involved in
degradation of polysaccharides including chitin.
N-Acetyllactosamine synthases Alternative term
for lactose synthases.
Acetylmethylcarbinol
Flavour compound found
commonly in dairy products and wines. Synonym
of acetoin.
N-Acetylneuraminic acid One of the organic acids, synonym sialic acid. A nitrogen-containing
sugar derivative with a carbonyl functional group
found ubiquitously in complex carbohydrates.
Acetyltransferases Acyltransferases which are
members of the class EC 2.3.1 and catalyse transfer of
acetyl groups, usually from acetyl-coenzyme A.
Acha Species of cereal crop, Digitaria exilis, indigenous to West and North Africa and grown for its grain.
Achromobacter
Genus of strictly aerobic, rodshaped, non spore forming Gram negative bacteria
of the family Alcaligenaceae. Occur in soil and water.
Some species produce pigments and enzymes of
industrial importance.
Acid casein Casein produced by acid precipitation
from milk at its isoelectric point, pH 4.7. Acidification
can be achieved by direct addition of an acid or
through the action of lactic acid bacteria.
Acid curd cheese A cheese produced by microbial
ripening of quarg, ripening proceeding from the outside of the cheese. Cultures used include bacteria,
fungi and yeasts, the selection depending on the type
of cheese being made.
Acidification Process by which the pH of a substance
is decreased to below 7 making it acidic.
Acidity The degree to which a substance or solution is
acidic, being dependent upon the concentration of hydrogen ions. Level of acidity is expressed using pH.
Acidocins Bacteriocins produced by Lactobacillus acidophilus.
Acidolysis Esterification reactions of acids with
esters. Used to produce structured lipids (e.g. acidolysis of tristearin with long chain fatty acids) or
to modify the lipid composition of fats and oils (e.g.
acidolysis of seal blubber oils with lauric acid and
interesterification of butterfat with CLA). Catalysed by lipases or chemical catalysts.
Acidophilin Fermented milk prepared by fermentation of milk with a mixture of lactic acid bacteria,
Acidophilus milk
including Lactobacillus acidophilus, and kefir
grains.
Acidophilus milk Fermented milk produced by
fermentation of milk with Lactobacillus acidophilus.
Consumption of acidophilus milk has beneficial effects
on the intestine.
Acidophilus pastes Cultured milk products
made using curd resulting from milk acidification
with Lactobacillus acidophilus.
Acid phosphatases EC 3.1.3.2. Hydrolases with
wide specificity which catalyse hydrolysis of orthophosphoric monoesters into an alcohol and orthphosphate. Also catalyse transphosphorylation. Widely distributed in nature, and therefore found in a range of
foods. Involved in acidity regulation in fruits, and in
flavour development, e.g. in cheese. Also used as a
marker of thermal processing in meat. Produced
by microbial fermentation for commercial applications.
Acid rain Rain which has low pH caused by formation
of acids due to interaction of industrial gas emissions
with water. Studies with simulated acid rain have
shown adverse effects on yield and quality of exposed
crops, especially fruits such as apples, pears and
peaches. Fruit marketability and composition were
affected.
Acids Chemical compounds which release hydrogen
ions when dissolved in water, or whose H can be replaced by metal atoms or basic radicals, or which react
with bases to form salts and water. Include both organic acids and inorganic acids. Inorganic acids
may be used in food processing or cleaning of equipment. Organic acids of many types are constituents of
a wide range of foods, both as natural constituents and
as processing aids. Important types of organic acids in
foods include fatty acids, amino acids and carboxylic acids.
Į-Acids The main bitter compounds of hops resins, used to impart a bitter taste to beer. Converted to
the more soluble and more bitter iso-Į-acids during
boiling of worts. Also known as humulones.
ȕ-Acids Low-solubility resin constituents in hops
which have little bittering capacity in beer. Also
known as lupulones.
Acids resistance Ability of organisms to withstand
acidic conditions. Important for survival of microorganisms in acid environments such as the gastrointestinal tract and during fermentation of foods.
Acidulants Organic acids used in foods to control
pH and fulfil a variety of functions. Applications include preservation of meat products, flavour enhancement, prevention of discoloration in sliced
fruits, and prevention of development of rancidity in
4
Acremonium
oils and fats. Commonly used acidulants in the food
industry include citric acid, acetic acid, propionic
acid and lactic acid.
Acid values The level of free fatty acids present in
lipids. The acid value, also known as the acid number,
is determined by measuring the amount of KOH in
milligrammes that neutralizes 1 g of the lipid. Acid
values of fresh edible fats tend to be low and increase
with storage as the glycerides present in the lipids
break down to generate free fatty acids.
Acid whey Whey produced by acid coagulation of
milk during cheesemaking.
Acinetobacter Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped, psychrotrophic Gram negative bacteria of the family
Moraxellaceae. Occur in soil, water and raw milk, and
on the surfaces of chilled meat and fish. Some species may be used in production of lipases (e.g. Acinetobacter radioresistens and A. calcoaceticus).
Ackee Common name for Blighia sapida, also known
as akee. This fruit was introduced to the West Indies
from West Africa and is particularly popular in Jamaica. Fruits are pear shaped and can be consumed
raw, cooked, or in canned or frozen forms. Unripe
ackee contains hypoglycine A, a toxic amino acid,
which can cause the potentially fatal Jamaican vomiting sickness. Levels of hypoglycine A rapidly diminish
at maturity, but damaged or fallen fruit should not be
consumed.
Aconitic acid One of the organic acids found in
sugar cane. Used in flavourings and acidulants
for the food industry and also in the manufacture of
emulsifying agents, plastics and detergents.
Acorns Nuts obtained from the oak tree (Quercus
spp.). Widely available, and used as a source of food
by some populations, particularly in times of need. Can
be pounded into meal for use in baked goods or used
as coffee substitutes. Acorns are high in starch
and are used in Korea to produce an edible starch gel
known as mook. They also represent a source of edible oils.
Acoustics Study of the physical properties of sound;
also refers to techniques based on transmission, generation or reception of sound. Acoustic devices have
been used to detect insects infestation of grain.
Acoustics has also been employed in examining the
structure of materials, e.g. pasta, and as the basis of
non-destructive methods to determine the texture of
foods, such as fruits, cheese and bakery products.
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
Epidemic disease commonly abbreviated to AIDS.
Acremonium Genus of fungi of the phylum Ascomycota. May be used in biotechnology for the pro-
Acrocomia
duction of cellulases (e.g. Acremonium cellulolyticus
and A. alcalophilum).
Acrocomia Genus of palms, including Acrocomia
mexicana, which has edible fruits, and is used as a
source of palm oils (oil of coyal) and in manufacture
of palm wines. Also includes A. sclerocarpa, which
has edible fruits that are used as a source of coconutlike oils.
Acrolein Aldehyde, synonym propenal. Formed by
microbial fermentation from the precursor 3hydroxypropionaldehyde. Causes bitter, acrid off
odour or off flavour problems in spirits and cider.
Also occurs in overheated fats. Precursor for
acrylamide.
Acrylamide
Synonym 2-propenamide (C3H5NO).
Member of the amides which is a neurotoxin and exhibits carcinogenicity in animal models. Formed
in foods during thermal processing as a product of
the Maillard reaction between asparagine and reactive carbonyl compounds, e.g. in reducing
sugars. Forms gels of polyacrylamides on polymerization under specified conditions which are used
for PAGE.
Acrylonitrile Monomer used in manufacture of a
range of plastics used in packaging materials or
other food contact applications. Acrylonitrile residues
may migrate out of plastics items and cause contamination of foods.
F-actin Filamentous actins, formed by longitudinal
polymerization of G-actin (globular actin) monomers. Two strands of F-actin coil spirally around one
another to form the superhelix, which is characteristic
of actin myofilaments within myofibrils.
Actinidains EC 3.4.22.14. Cysteine endopeptidases
(proteinases) found in kiwifruit (Chinese gooseberries) with specificity similar to that of papain. One of
the major allergens in these fruits. Produced in microbial fermentations as recombinant enzymes for
commercial uses, which include tenderization of
meat. Also known as actinidins.
Actinidins Alternative term for actinidains.
Actinomucor Genus of fungi of the family Mucoraceae. Occur as saprotrophs on decaying vegetable
matter, soil or dung, or as parasites or pathogens
of plants or animals. Actinomucor elegans and A. taiwanensis are used in production of East Asian speciality foods, such as sufu and meitauza.
Actinomyces Genus of facultatively anaerobic Gram
positive bacteria of the family Actinomycetaceae.
Occur as the normal flora of the mouth and throat or as
pathogens in humans and cattle. Actinomyces pyogenes is the cause of summer mastitis in cattle, and
can therefore contaminate their milk.
5
Activation energy
Actinomycetales Order of aerobic Gram positive
bacteria. Occur in soil, composts and aquatic habitats. Most species are free-living and saprophytic, but
some form symbiotic associations and others are
pathogenic to man, other animals, and plants.
Actinomycetes Obsolete name for Actinobacteria, a
class of aerobic Gram positive bacteria which occur in soil and water. Some species are used in the
production of enzymes (e.g. lipases and cellulolytic enzymes). This class also includes some
plant and animal pathogens.
Actinoplanes Genus of Gram positive, aerobic bacteria of the family Actinoplanaceae. Occur in soil,
plant litter and aquatic habitats. Actinoplanes missouriensis may be used in production of enzymes
(e.g. glucose isomerases and xylose isomerases).
Actinospectacin Alternative term for the antibiotic
spectinomycin.
Actins A family of multifunctional intracellular proteins, best known as a myofibrillar component of striated muscle fibres. They constitute about 13% of muscle proteins and are the major components of the Iband or thin filament of the sarcomere. Actins contain
high levels of the amino acid proline. Imino-groups
within proline contribute to the folding of actin molecules and result in formation of G-actin (globular actin). G-actin, a spherical molecule approximately 5.5
nm in diameter, constitutes the monomeric form of actin. In the presence of potassium chloride and ATP, Gactin polymerizes into long fibres of F-actin. Most vertebrate genomes contain numerous actin genes with
high sequence homology in protein coding regions, but
considerable variability in intron size and number. This
genetic diversity can be utilized for livestock speciation and meat authenticity tests. Determination of
actin content has been proposed as a means of calculating the meat content of meat products.
Activated C Alternative term for activated carbon.
Activated carbon Amorphous forms of elemental
carbon, particularly charcoal, which have been
treated, e.g. by acid or heat, to improve their powers of
absorption. Used for a variety of food and industrial
applications, including drinking water purification, decoloration of sugar solutions and sorption of residues
of pesticides from wines.
Activation energy Minimum energy required for a
chemical reaction to proceed; the difference in energy
between that of the reactants and that at the transition
state of the reaction. Activation energy determines the
way in which the rate of a reaction varies with temperature.
Active packaging
Active packaging Packaging materials which
have functions additional to their basic barrier action.
Used for packaging a wide range of foods and beverages. Types of active packaging include: packs
which adsorb ethylene to control ripening of fruits;
packs which regulate moisture levels; packs which
contain oxygen scavengers; packs which contain
CO2 scavengers or generators; packs which release or
absorb flavours or aromas; antimicrobial packaging
(e.g. packs which release ethanol to control the growth
of fungi); packs with special microwave heating properties; and packaging with monitoring systems
(time/temp. exposure indicators or temp. control).
Active sites Locations on the surface of catalysts at
which reactions occur. On enzymes, substrates are
bound at the active sites, the shape of the site being
important for strong and specific binding to occur.
Actomyosin A complex of the two major muscle
proteins, actins and myosin. Actomyosin is
formed during muscle contraction with simultaneous
hydrolysis of ATP to ADP. Within myofibrils during
contraction, each myosin head region on a thick myofilament attaches to a G-actin molecule within a thin
myofilament. This interaction leads to formation of
crossbridges between actin and myosin, and to formation of the actomyosin complex. Formation of actomyosin results in rigidity and lack of extensibility in muscles. In the presence of ATP, as in living animals, the
actomyosin complex dissociates rapidly; however, post
mortem, actomyosin is the dominant form of myofibrillar protein and it plays a major role in the development of rigor mortis. During post mortem storage,
tenderness of meat is affected by modification of
the actin-myosin interaction. Thermal denaturation of
actomyosin occurs at temp. between 30 and 50qC.
Acylamidases Alternative term for amidases.
Acylases Alternative term for amidases and aminoacylases.
Acylation Introduction of acyl groups into a compound or substance. Usually achieved by reaction with
an acyl halide or carboxylic acid anhydride. Such
modification is used to alter the physicochemical
properties, functional properties or nutritional
quality of substances such as starch, proteins and
sugars.
Acylglycerols Systematic name for fatty acid esters of glycerol, such as monoacylglycerols,
diacylglycerols and triacylglycerols. Major components of natural fats and oils (particularly as triacylglycerols); also used as emulsifiers. Synonym for
glycerides.
Acyltransferases EC 2.3. Enzymes which catalyse
transfer of acyl groups from a donor molecule to an
6
S-Adenosyl-l-methionine
acceptor molecule. Includes transferases involved in
transfer of amino-acyl groups (EC 2.3.2.-), acyl groups
other than amino-acyl groups (EC 2.3.1.-), and acyl
groups that are converted to alkyl groups on transfer
(EC 2.3.3.-). Involved in a variety of metabolic pathways, including lipids and sterols.
Additives Ingredients added in low quantities to foods
during processing for one or more specific purposes.
These include prevention of chemical and microbial
spoilage, enhancement of flavour or colour, improvement of nutritional values or as an aid to
processing. The most common types of additives include preservatives, colorants, sweeteners, flavourings, emulsifiers, thickeners and stabilizers.
Adenine Purine, synonym 6-aminopurine. Component
base of nucleic acids, nucleosides and nucleotides.
Adenosine Nucleoside of adenine and ribose, synonym adenine riboside. Constituent of nucleotides
and nucleic acids.
Adenosine diphosphate Phosphorylated adenoside
derivative, and breakdown product of the nucleotide
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Level may be used
as an indicator of freshness in foods such as meat
and fish. Usually abbreviated to ADP.
Adenosine monophosphate Nucleotide formed by
breakdown of nucleic acids, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) or adenosine diphosphate (ADP).
Level may be used as an indicator of freshness in
foods such as meat and fish. Commonly abbreviated to
AMP.
Adenosinetriphosphatases Alternative term for
ATPases.
Adenosine triphosphate Nucleotide which is important in energy metabolism. Ratios of adenosine
triphosphate to its decomposition products may be
used as indicators of freshness in foods such as
meat and fish. Levels may also be used as an indicator of microbial counts in foods. Commonly abbreviated to ATP.
S-Adenosyl-L-methionine One of the coenzymes
involved in methyl group transfer. Plays an important
role in several human metabolic pathways. Even
though it is synthesized in the liver, relatively low levels are found in individuals suffering from coronary
heart diseases, Alzheimer's disease, liver cirrhosis and depression. This has lead to its use as a food
supplement and its potential application as an ingredient of functional foods. Not widely available in the
diet. Produced during fermentation of various microorganisms, including Bifidobacterium bifidum and
Kluyveromyces lactis.
Adenoviruses
Adenoviruses
Double stranded DNA-containing
viruses of the genus Mastadenovirus and family
Adenoviridae which can infect mammals and birds.
Infection of humans, which can occur via ingestion of
faecally contaminated water or shellfish, can cause
gastroenteritis.
Adherence Binding of microorganisms specifically or non-specifically to a substratum or to other
cells. May be mediated by specialized microbial components or structures (e.g. adhesins and prostheca).
Adherence to a particular host tissue is a preliminary
stage in pathogenesis for many pathogens.
Adhesins Bacterial cell surface appendages or extracellular macromolecular components that facilitate
adherence of a cell to a surface or to other cells. Important in the colonization of mucous membranes, e.g.
the intestinal mucous membranes by enteropathogenic
Escherichia coli. Also facilitate adherence of bacteria to surfaces such as glass, ceramics and synthetics.
Adhesion Attachment and sticking together of one or
more substance. Adhesives may be used to promote
adhesion, e.g. in packaging materials. Sometimes
used to refer to adherence of microorganisms to a
substratum or other cells. This may be mediated by
specialized microbial components or structures such as
adhesins or prostheca. This type of adhesion is important for the action of the microorganism, e.g. a preliminary step in pathogenesis of pathogens.
Adhesives Substances used to stick items together.
Most adhesives form a bond by filling in the minute
pits and fissures normally present even in very smooth
surfaces. Effectiveness of an adhesive depends on several factors, including resistance to slippage and
shrinkage, malleability, cohesive strength, and surface
tension, which determines how far the adhesive penetrates the tiny depressions in the bonding surfaces.
Adhumulone Į-Acids fraction of the bitter compounds of hops.
ADI Abbreviation for acceptable daily intake.
Adipic acid Synonym for hexanedioic acid. Used in
acidulants, antimicrobial preservatives or starchmodifying agents. Adipic acid esters are used as
plasticizers in plastics.
Adipocytes Cells found in adipose tissues. These
cells are specialized for the synthesis and storage of fat
(lipid) globules. The fats are usually stored in the
form of triglycerides and serve as a source of energy. Also known as fat cells.
Adipogenesis The formation of adipose tissues.
Also called lipogenesis.
Adiponectin One of the hormones produced and
secreted by adipocytes. Regulates metabolism of
lipids and glucose.
7
Adsorption
Adipose tissues Connective tissues which function as an energy reserve and insulation layer composed of cells (adipocytes) which synthesize and
store large lipid globules.
Adjunct cultures Non-starter cultures used in addition to starters, mainly in cheesemaking, to produce a specific benefit, e.g. smoother texture, improved flavour or accelerated ripening of cheese.
In production of yoghurt, adjunct cultures have been
used to manufacture products with increased levels of
nutrients such as folates.
Adjuvants Ingredients added to a mixture to improve
the effectiveness of the primary ingredient. For example colour adjuvants are used to enhance food colour.
Adlay Alternative term for Jobs tears.
ADP Abbreviation for adenosine diphosphate.
ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylases
Alternative
term for glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferases.
ȕ-Adrenergic agonists Group of non-hormonal
growth promoters. Used to enhance growth rates
and improve feed efficiency and lean meat content of
animals; also used in veterinary medicine as bronchodilatory and tocolytic agents. In general, rapidly
excreted from the body; non-authorized use during
withdrawal period has resulted in cases of human food
poisoning. Banned for use as growth-promoting
agents in farm animals in many countries, including
European Union member states and the USA. Commonly used examples are clenbuterol and ractopamine.
Adsorbents Substances that are capable of adsorption. Used widely in the food and biotechnology industries. Uses include removal of unwanted materials
in foods and beverages that affect either food safety or
food quality. Examples include removal of proteins
from white wines, pathogens from drinking water sources, radioelements from foods, oxidation
products from frying oils allowing oil recovery and
reuse, and bitter compounds from fruit juices.
Other applications include: for isolation of compounds
with potential use in foods; in the immobilization of
enzymes; as agents in analytical techniques such
as gas analysis and chromatography; and for removal of unwanted aroma and flavour in packaged
foods.
Adsorption Adhesion of the molecules of liquids,
gases and dissolved substances to the surfaces of solids, in contrast to absorption, in which the molecules
actually enter the medium. Adsorption is employed in
hydrogenation of oils, in gas analysis, and in
chromatography.
Adulteration
Adulteration Addition of substances to foods, or substitution of food ingredients with inferior substances,
with the intent of lowering the quality and costs of
producing the food and defrauding the purchaser, e.g.
addition of starch to spices, and of water to milk
or beer.
Adzuki beans Common name for seeds produced by
Vigna angularis, also known as azuki beans. Small red
beans with a mild, sweet flavour, which are widely
cultivated in Japan and China. Traditionally consumed
boiled, ground into meal or used to make sweet bean
pastes known as ann or an. Seeds may also be germinated to produce bean sprouts.
Aerated confectionery Confectionery produced
with incorporation of air as an ingredient. Use of air
adds bulk to the product without increasing its weight,
improving product texture and flavour. Aeration of
confectionery results in a range of products with densities ranging from 0.2 to 1.0 g/cm3. Such products include chews, mallows, honeycomb and meringues.
Aeration Introduction of air into a product to enhance
texture, mouthfeel, rheology and visual appeal.
The following methods are used to aerate foods: fermentation; whipping or shaking of low-medium
viscosity liquids; mixing of doughs or high viscosity
pastes, in which air bubbles are entrapped as surfaces
come together; steam generation during slow to moderate cooking, baking or frying; entrapment of air
between sheeted layers, as in pastries and croissants, or between pulled strands, as in pulled taffy
and candy; frying in very hot oils, such that internal
steam rapidly forms, causing the product to puff; use
of chemical raising agents such as baking powders or sodium bicarbonate; rapid dry heating of
small or thin products to induce blistering or slight
puffing; gas injection (e.g. air, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and nitrous oxide); expansion extrusion;
pressure beating (dissolution of air or gas under pressure in a syrup, fat mixture or chocolate); puffing, in
which products such as breakfast cereals containing
superheated moisture are subjected to a sudden release
of pressure; and vacuum expansion, followed by rapid
cooling to set the expanded products.
Aerobacter Obsolete genus of Gram negative, rodshaped bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae,
the species of which have now been reclassified into
the genera Enterobacter and Klebsiella.
Aerobes Organisms that require atmospheric oxygen
to live. Often refers to aerobic bacteria or other microorganisms. Facultative anaerobes are aerobes
that can also grow under anaerobic conditions.
Aerococcus Genus of Gram positive, coccoid lactic
acid bacteria of the family Aerococcaceae. Aerococcus viridans has been isolated from a variety of foods,
8
Aflatoxin B2
particularly fish and fermented foods, and may also
be used in the production of lactate 2monooxygenases.
Aerolysins Cytolytic toxins secreted by Aeromonas hydrophila. Form channels in cell lipid bilayers,
leading to destruction of the membrane permeability
barrier and osmotic lysis.
Aeromonas Genus of facultatively anaerobic, rodshaped Gram negative bacteria of the Aeromonadaceae family. Occur in salt and fresh water, sewage
and soil. Aeromonas hydrophila, frequently found in
fish and shellfish and occasionally in red meat and
poultry meat, may cause septicaemia, meningitis and
gastroenteritis in humans.
Aerosol packs Containers for pressurized liquids,
which are released in the form of a spray or foam when
a valve is pressed. Aerosol propellants, usually liquefied gases, are used in the packs. Used as dispensers
for a variety of foods.
Aerosols Substances, including foods, stored under
pressure in a container (for example in aerosol cans)
containing a propellant and released as a fine spray or
froth. Also, in a chemical sense, suspensions of submicroscopic particles dispersed in air or gas.
Afalon Alternative term for the herbicide linuron.
Affination The first stage in processing of raw sugar,
in which the layer of mother liquor surrounding the
crystals is softened and removed. Raw sugar is mixed
with a warm, concentrated syrup of slightly higher purity than the syrup layer so that it will not dissolve the
crystals. The resulting magma is centrifuged to separate the crystals from the syrup, thus removing the
greater part of the impurities from the input sugar and
leaving the crystals ready for dissolving before further
treatment. The liquor which results from dissolving the
washed crystals still contains some colour, fine particles, gums and resins, and other non-sugars.
Affinity chromatography Chromatography technique in which an immobilized ligand is used to retain
an analyte that is later eluted under conditions where
the binding affinity is reduced. The ligand, which may
be a substance such as an enzyme, hormone or antigen,
is bound to a matrix such as silica.
Aflatoxicosis Mycotoxicosis caused by ingestion
of aflatoxins in contaminated foods or feeds.
Aflatoxin B1 Potent hepatotoxic, hepatocarcinogenic,
mutagenic and teratogenic mycotoxins produced by
Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. Formed during
growth on a wide range of crops, including peanuts,
corn and other cereals, and oilseeds. Metabolized
to aflatoxin M1 and aflatoxin Q1.
Aflatoxin B2 Moderately potent hepatotoxic, hepatocarcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic mycotoxins
Aflatoxin B3
produced by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus.
Dihydroxy derivatives of aflatoxin B1. Formed during growth on the same commodities as aflatoxin B1
(including peanuts, corn and other cereals, and
oilseeds), but in smaller amounts. Metabolized to
aflatoxin M2, and excreted in milk in this form.
Aflatoxin B3 Toxic mycotoxins produced by older
cultures of Aspergillus parasiticus and A. flavus. Alternative name for parasiticol.
Aflatoxin D1 Carboxylated product of aflatoxin B1,
produced by the reaction between aflatoxin B1 and
heated ammonium hydroxide. Possesses lower toxicity than aflatoxin B1.
Aflatoxin G1 Potent carcinogenic and genotoxic mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus parasiticus.
Formed during growth on a wide range of crops, including peanuts, corn and other cereals, and oilseeds. Possess toxicity and structure similar to those
of aflatoxin B1.
Aflatoxin G2 Mildly carcinogenic and genotoxic mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus parasiticus. Occur in a wide range of foods, including nuts, seeds,
beans, spices and fruits. Dihydroxy derivative of
aflatoxin G1, with lower toxicity.
Aflatoxin M1 The toxic, 4-hydroxy derivative of aflatoxin B1, found in the livers, kidneys, blood, faeces,
urine and milk of mammals that have consumed aflatoxin B1 contaminated feeds or foods. Subsequently
occurs in dairy products, particularly cheese, and
human milk. Produced in small quantities by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, and can occur in
corn, nuts and soybeans. Associated with liver
damage and cancer. Possesses lower toxicity than
aflatoxin B1. Aflatoxin M1 can be degraded by UV radiation.
Aflatoxin M2 The toxic, 4-dihydroxy derivative of
aflatoxin B2, found in the livers, kidneys, blood,
faeces, urine and milk of mammals that have consumed aflatoxin B2 contaminated feeds or foods. Also
occurs in human milk. Aflatoxin M2 is considerably
less toxic than aflatoxin M1. Produced in small quantities by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus.
Aflatoxin P1 Demethylated and hydroxylated product
of aflatoxin B1, and the principal urinary metabolic
product found in animals. Considerably less toxic than
aflatoxin B1.
Aflatoxin Q1 The 3-hydroxy derivative and major metabolite of aflatoxin B1 in humans, rats and primates.
Considerably less toxic than aflatoxin B1.
Aflatoxins Mycotoxins produced by certain strains
of Aspergillus, most notably A. flavus and A. parasiticus. Formed during growth of these fungi on commodities such as cereals (e.g. corn), nuts (e.g.
9
African yam beans
peanuts) and oilseeds (e.g. soybeans). Contamination can take place both pre- and postharvest.
Host crops are particularly susceptible to infection
following prolonged exposure to high humidities or
damage during drought conditions. Once ingested,
aflatoxins are metabolized by the liver to a reactive intermediate, aflatoxin M1. Hepatotoxic and hepatocarcinogenic in humans and animals, and can result in
aflatoxicosis.
African breadfruit seeds Kernels of fruits produced by the tree Treculia africana. Eaten roasted as
nuts or ground into meal which is used to fortify
foods or to prepare porridges.
African locust beans Seeds produced by Parkia
filicoidea or P. biglobosa. Not eaten raw, but fermented to produce food flavourings or protein-rich
iru or dawadawa. The yellowish pulp surrounding
the seeds can also be eaten, either raw or as an ingredient in soups, stews and beverages.
African mangoes Common name for the African tree
species, Irvingia gabonensis. Also known as bush
mango or wild mango. Fruits resemble cultivated
mangoes, but they are botanically unrelated. Pulp of
the fruit is eaten fresh or used for the preparation of
products such as juices and jams. African mango
seeds, also known as dika nuts, have a variety of
food uses.
African mango seeds Seeds from the tropical
African tree Irvingia gabonensis which are rich in fats
and are used in Africa to make dika bread as well as a
type of butter. Alternative term for dika nuts.
African nutmeg Seeds of the African tree, Monodora
myristica. Used as spices in Nigeria and other parts
of Africa.
African oil beans Edible oilseeds of the leguminous tree Pentaclethra macrophylla, native to tropical
Africa. Cooked seeds are fermented to produce ugba.
African spider herb Common name for Cleome
gynandra, also known as cat's whiskers. The plant
grows wild in most tropical countries, and is mainly
consumed as a leafy vegetable. Leaves are a rich
source vitamin A, vitamin C and minerals such as
calcium and iron. Leaves also contain glucosinolates and phenols, which can impart astringency.
African yam beans
Beans produced by
Sphenostylis stenocarpa. Popular grain legume of West
Africa and other areas of tropical Africa. Beans have a
distinctive flavour and are high in starch and moderately high in proteins. Prolonged cooking time is recommended to inactivate antinutritional factors present in the beans. The plant also produces edible tubers.
Aftertaste
Aftertaste A flavour, often unpleasant, that lingers in
the mouth after a food has been swallowed.
Afuega'l Pitu cheese
Unpasteurized Spanish
cheese usually made mainly from cow milk. Fresh
red chillies are added to the cheese and more are
rubbed into the rind as the cheese is allowed to mature,
giving the rind a buff to deep orange colour. The rind
also has a dusting of white mould.
Agar Extract obtained from various species of red
seaweeds belonging to Eucheuma, Gelidium and
Graciliria genera. Contains agarose and agaropectin
polysaccharides. Sets following dissolution in
warm water to form agar gels, which are widely used
as thickeners and stabilizers in the food industry.
Additionally used in gelling agents to prepare culture media for bacteriological plate counts. Also
known as agar-agar.
Agar-agar Alternative term for agar.
Agarases Enzymes, often produced by marine bacteria, including Į-agarases (EC 3.2.1.158) and ȕagarases (EC 3.2.1.81). Į-Agarases are derived from
organisms such as Thalassomonas spp., and catalyse
endohydrolysis of 1,3-Į-L-galactosidic linkages in
agarose, forming agarotetraose as the major product.
ȕ-Agarases cleave the 1,4-ȕ-D-galactosidic linkages in
agarose in a random manner, forming the tetramer as
the predominant product. Polysaccharides formed
have potential for use in foods. Both enzymes are also
able to hydrolyse porphyran.
Agar gels Gels formed by dissolving agar in water.
Widely used as thickeners and stabilizers, e.g. in
ice cream, soups, jellies, sauces, glazes and
meat products.
Agaricus Genus which includes some edible fungi,
such as the widely cultivated common mushroom,
Agaricus bisporus, which is sold commercially in flat,
cup or button forms. Other edible species include the
wild mushrooms A. campestris (field mushroom)
and A. arvensis (horse mushroom).
Agaritine Genotoxic substance present in raw mushrooms.
Agarose Purified gelling fraction of agar, a complex
polysaccharide produced by algae of the class Rhodophyceae. Agarose is a neutral, linear polymer composed of alternating ȕ-D-galactopyranose and 3,6anhydro-Į-L-galactose sugars. Used as a matrix in
gel electrophoresis for the separation of large
molecules such as DNA, as well as in purification of
fermentation products such as enzymes.
Agastache A genus of herbs to which several species belong, most of which are native to North America. The leaves may be used as flavourings or to prepare herb tea. Agastache rugosa (Korean mint) has a
10
Agmatine
minty flavour and aroma, whilst A. foeniculum (anise hyssop) tastes like liquorice.
Agave Plants of the genus Agave, the flowers, leaves,
stalks and sap of which are used as a source of food or
beverages. Starch in buds is converted into sugar
causing a sweet nectar to be exuded from the flowers.
Sap is used to make a refreshing beverage or can be
boiled to make sugar syrups. Fermentation of the
sap produces vinegar or the alcoholic beverage
pulque. Fermented sap from A. tequilana is distilled
to make tequila.
Ageing Process in which properties change over time.
Ageing includes the intentional storage of foods and
beverages to induce desirable changes in sensory
properties, such as for wines and cheese (also referred to as ripening). The term is also used to denote
the artificial hastening of this process, such as treatment of flour with ammonium persulfate to produce a
more resilient dough.
Agglomerates Masses or collections of particles or
items.
Agglomeration The process by which particles or
items are collected together and formed into a mass.
Agglutination The clumping together of cells, such as
bacteria, due to cross-linking by proteins such as antibodies. Agglutination is utilized in immunological techniques for detecting bacteria in foods. In
food processing, however, agglutination of starters,
such as those used in the manufacture of dairy products including certain cheese varieties, can have detrimental consequences for the process outcome.
Agglutination tests Immunological techniques
in which antigens on the surface of particulate material, such as bacteria, or inorganic particles, such as
latex, are precipitated with antibodies. Antibodies
react with the antigens causing the cells to clump together and form visible aggregates or agglutinates.
Applications include detection of Escherichia coli
O157:H7.
Agglutinins Substances, such as antibodies and
lectins found in plant seeds, which cause agglutination of cells to form clumps.
Aggregation The process for forming a whole by
combining several different elements or items.
Agitation The process of stirring, shaking or disturbing briskly, particularly applied to a liquid.
Aglycones The part of a glycosides molecule which
is not a sugar residue, e.g. the anthocyanidins component of anthocyanins.
Agmatine One of the biogenic amines, which occurs in a wide range of foods, including fish, cheese
and alcoholic beverages. Concentrations in foods
may increase with increasing storage time.
Agricultural produce
Agricultural produce Collective name for crops and
other commodities obtained as a result of agriculture
and used for provision of food, fibre or other materials.
Examples include fruits, cereals, cotton and livestock.
Used in a similar way to the term agricultural products.
Agricultural products Term used in a similar way to
agricultural produce. Collective name for crops
and other commodities obtained as a result of agriculture and used for provision of food, fibre or other materials. Examples include fruits, cereals, cotton and
livestock.
Agrobacterium Genus of Gram negative, aerobic,
rod-shaped bacteria of the family Rhizobiaceae. Occur in soil. Typically plant pathogens that form galls or
tumours on roots or stems. Agrobacterium rhizogenes
causes hairy root, A. rubi causes cane gall and A. tumefaciens causes crown gall.
Agrocybe Genus including edible fungi such as
Agrocybe cylindracea, a mushroom with similar characteristics to matsutake (Tricholoma matsutake), A.
aegerita and A. parasitica.
AIDS Common abbreviation for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, an epidemic disease caused by infection with human immunodeficiency viruses
(HIV) and spread through direct contact with body fluids. The HIV retroviruses cause immune system failure. HIV can be transmitted from infected mothers to
infants through breast feeding.
Aiele fruits Olive-like fruits produced by the aiele
tree (Canarium schweinfurthii) which are widely consumed in West African countries. Pulp and kernel are
rich in oleic acid and palmitic acid. Oils produced
from the fruits show similarities to olive oils. Also
known as African black olives, mbeu or black fruit.
Air cooling A process for reducing the temperature
of foods or other items by increasing the flow of air
over them using fans or other devices. The air used
must be lower in temperature than the item to be
cooled.
Air drying Removal of moisture or liquid from a substance using air, or to preserve an item by evaporation.
Airflow properties Characteristics of the flow of air
through, or across the surface of, a substance or piece
of equipment. Airflow properties are utilized in designing ovens and driers and in determining the most
appropriate ways of storing large quantities of foods
such as fruits, vegetables, cereals and carcasses in order to minimize spoilage.
Airline meals Meals provided for consumption during aircraft travel, designed to be served and consumed
in a limited amount of space. Menu items are prepared
and packaged at a central location either by the cater-
11
Albacore
ing branch of the airline company or a contracted
foods service operator. Chilled or frozen items are
then reheated in special ovens during the flight.
Air quality Measure of the condition of the air, especially with respect to the requirements for specific environments. In food processing and packaging facilities, air quality is important for food safety and shelf
life, and health of personnel. Special filtration systems
are used to remove airborne hazards such as microorganisms, insects and dust from the atmosphere.
Air speed Velocity of air, of particular importance
during food processing operations such as air drying
and air cooling. In a more general context, it also refers to the speed of a body (e.g. aircraft, missile) relative to the air through which it is moving.
Ajowan Common name for the umbelliferous plant,
Trachyspermum ammi (syn. Carum copticum). Cultivated in parts of Egypt and Asia for its pungent, aromatic seeds, typically used in flavourings for Indian foods. Related to caraway and cumin, but has a
strong flavour of thyme. Also used as a source of
thymol.
Akamu Cereal products produced by boiling the
starchy extract from fermented corn, millet or sorghum until complete gelatinization occurs.
Akara Deep fried pastes made from cowpeas, seasoned and flavoured with chopped capsicums, onions and salt. Popular foods in West Africa, where
they are consumed as snack foods, side dishes or
fast foods. Steamed cowpea paste is known as
moinmoin.
Alachlor Selective systemic chloroacetanilide herbicide used pre-emergence to control annual grasses and
broad-leaved weeds among various vegetables, nuts
and corn. Classified by WHO as slightly hazardous
(WHO III).
Alanine One of the non-essential amino acids. Occurs in most food proteins.
Alar Alternative term for the plant growth regulator
daminozide.
Alaska pollack Commercially important marine
fish species (Theragra chalcogramma) belonging to
the cod family (Gadidae); widely distributed in the Pacific Ocean. Flesh has a moderate to low fat content
and a mild, slightly sweet flavour. Normally marketed
in frozen form and processed into fillets, blocks and
surimi, but also sold fresh or as a cured product. Also
known as walleye pollack.
Albacore Marine fish species (Thunnus alalunga)
belonging to the tuna family which is widely distributed in tropical and temperate waters. Flesh is lighter
in colour and has a milder flavour than that from
other tuna species. Widely considered to be the best
Albendazole
tuna species for canning, but is also marketed fresh,
smoked and frozen.
Albendazole Anthelmintic widely used in sheep and
cattle for treating roundworms and flukes. Along with
its various metabolites, is normally depleted rapidly
from edible tissues and milk.
Albumen Alternative term for egg whites.
Albumins Proteins which are soluble in water or
dilute salt solutions and coagulable by heat. Albumins
occurring in foods include conalbumin, lactalbumins and ovalbumins.
Alcaligenes Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped Gram
negative bacteria of the family Alcaligenaceae. Occur in the intestinal tracts of vertebrates, soil, water,
milk, and as part of the normal skin flora. May cause
ropiness in milk and cheese. Some strains are also
used in biotechnology for the industrial production
of enzymes.
Alcohol Common name for ethanol, especially in the
context of alcoholic beverages.
Alcohol dehydrogenases Group of enzymes catalysing the oxidation of alcohols. Alcohol dehydrogenases (EC 1.1.1.1) catalyse the oxidation of alcohols
to aldehydes or ketones with concomitant reduction of NAD+. Also known as aldehyde reductases,
these enzymes act on primary and secondary alcohols,
and also on hemi-acetals. Catalyse the final step of alcoholic fermentation. Alcohol dehydrogenases
(NADP+), EC 1.1.1.2, catalyse the oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes with concomitant reduction of
NADP+. Some members act only on primary alcohols,
while others also act on secondary alcohols. Alcohol
dehydrogenases (NAD(P)+), EC 1.1.1.71, catalyse the
oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes with concomitant
reduction of NAD(P)+. Reduce aliphatic aldehydes of
carbon chain length 2-14, with greatest activity on C4,
C6 and C8 aldehydes. Also known as retinal reductases,
since they can reduce retinal to retinol. Alcohol dehydrogenases (acceptor), EC 1.1.99.8, catalyse the oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes in the presence
of an acceptor.
Alcohol free beverages Beverages of types normally containing ethanol, which have been formulated or processed to be free from ethanol.
Alcoholic beverages Beverages containing a significant concentration of ethanol. Major types include
beer, wines, spirits, liqueurs and rice wines.
Alcoholic fermentation Process by which certain
microorganisms (mainly yeasts) metabolize sugars anaerobically to produce alcohols. In this process,
glucose is converted to pyruvic acid, which is decarboxylated to acetaldehyde. The acetaldehyde is
subsequently reduced to ethanol. A wide variety of
12
Alcohols
substrates can be used to produce alcoholic beverages, e.g. grain for production of beer, and grapes
and other fruits for production of wines. However,
the constituent sugars must be released from these
substrates prior to fermentation. Fermentation can be
carried out by endogenous yeasts or by addition of
starters. The most common yeasts used in the manufacture of alcoholic beverages are Saccharomyces
cerevisiae and S. carlsbergensis. Synonymous with
ethanolic fermentation.
Alcoholic soft drinks Beverages with flavour and
other properties typical of soft drinks (e.g. fruit flavoured beverages), but with addition of a significant
concentration of alcohol, usually approx. 5%. Commonly known as alcopops or flavoured alcoholic
drinks. Introduced during the 1990s, the first product
was alcoholic lemonade. A new wave of second generation products has revitalized the market recently.
Concern exists that underage drinkers find these products appealing and easy to drink.
Alcohol O-acetyltransferases EC 2.3.1.84. Members of the acyltransferases which catalyse formation of acetyl esters from acetyl-CoA and short-chain
aliphatic alcohols, such as methanol and ethanol.
Involved in formation of volatile ester aroma compounds e.g. isoamyl acetate in fruits and also alcoholic beverages produced as a result of alcoholic fermentation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae
which expresses these enzymes.
Alcohol oxidases EC 1.1.3.13. Flavoprotein oxidases which catalyse conversion of primary alcohols in the presence of O2 to aldehydes and hydrogen peroxide. Act on lower primary alcohols and
unsaturated higher alcohols, but not branched chain or
secondary alcohols. Uses include in biosensors and
assays for determination of primary alcohols. Term
also used generally to describe any of the enzymes
which oxidize alcohols, including long-chain alcohol
oxidases (EC 1.1.3.20) and secondary-alcohol oxidases
(EC 1.1.3.18).
Alcohol reduced beer Beer in which the ethanol
content has been reduced.
Alcohol reduced beverages Beverages in which
the ethanol content has been reduced.
Alcohol reduced wines Wines in which the ethanol content has been reduced.
Alcohols Alkyl or aromatic compounds containing a hydroxyl (OH) group. Classes of alcohols important in the context of foods include aliphatic alcohols,
e.g. methanol, ethanol and higher alcohols, polyols, glycols, aromatic alcohols, terpene alcohols and
sterols.
Alcoholysis
Alcoholysis Esterification reactions involving esters and alcohols. Includes the breakdown of
triglycerides to form monoglycerides, and reactions with methanol (methanolysis) and glycerol
(glycerolysis). Catalysed by lipases or chemical
catalysts. Can be used to improve the health promoting properties of fats (e.g. glycerolysis of tuna oils
to generate monoacylglycerols rich in PUFA). Can
also be used to produce fatty acid esters for application as preservatives or emulsifiers.
Al compounds Alternative term for aluminium
compounds.
Aldehyde dehydrogenases Include members of
subclass EC 1.2. Dehydrogenases which catalyse
oxidation of aldehydes to the corresponding acids. In
most cases, the acceptor is NAD+ or NADP+. Used in
techniques to determine aldehyde levels in foods and
beverages.
Aldehyde reductases EC 1.1.1.21. Enzymes with
wide specificity, catalysing the conversion of alditols
and NAD(P)+ to the corresponding aldoses and
NAD(P)H. Can be used to convert xylose to xylitol,
useful as a food sweetener.
Aldehydes Carbonyl compounds containing the
CHO radical. Many are important for flavour or off
flavour in foods and beverages. Aldehydes formed by
oxidation of fatty acids are important causes of flavour deterioration of lipid-rich foods.
Aldicarb Systemic insecticide, acaricide and nematocide used for control of chewing and sucking insects
(especially aphids, whitefly, leaf miners and soildwelling insects) in a wide range of fruit and vegetable
crops. Classified by WHO as extremely hazardous
(WHO Ia).
Alditols General term for polyols, sugar alcohols
produced by reduction of sugars on an aldehyde
group. Examples of alditols include D-sorbitol, Dmannitol and xylitol.
Aldolases
Alternative term for fructosebisphosphate aldolases.
Aldose 1-epimerases EC 5.1.3.3. Convert Į-Dglucose to ȕ-D-glucose but also act on L-arabinose, Dxylose, D-galactose, maltose and lactose. Have been
used extensively as components of biosensors for
analysis of sugars. Also known as mutarotases and
aldose mutarotases.
Aldrin Cyclodiene organochlorine insecticide that has
been used to control root worms, beetles and termites
in soils around fruits and vegetables. Oxidized in
insects to form the active compound dieldrin, a potent neurotoxin. Subject to the Stockholm Convention
on Persistent Organic Pollutants and has been banned
for use on crops in most countries.
13
Algicides
Ale Historically, a beer type made without hops; in
modern usage, a range of British-style beers, commonly brewed with top-fermenting brewers yeasts.
Aleurone Layer of cells found under the bran coat
and outside the endosperm of cereal grains. Rich in
cereal proteins and minerals as well as containing
non-digestible carbohydrates and phytic acid.
Alewife Marine fish species (Alosa pseudoharengus)
belonging to the herring family (Clupeidae); occurs in
marine and estuarine waters along the Atlantic coast of
North America. Marketed in fresh, dried/salted,
smoked and frozen form; popularly consumed as a
fried product.
Alexandrium Genus of dinoflagellates responsible
for outbreaks of paralytic shellfish poisoning.
Common species include Alexandrium catenella, A.
minutum and A. tamarense.
Alfalfa Common name for the leguminous plant, Medicago sativa, also known as lucerne, generally grown
as a fodder plant, although young leaves and alfalfa
sprouts can be used as a vegetable, e.g. in Chinese
cooking.
Alfalfa seeds Seeds produced by alfalfa (Medicago
sativa) which are germinated to make alfalfa sprouts
for human consumption. Sprouts are generally eaten
raw in sandwiches and salads.
Alfalfa sprouts Crisp sprouts obtained by germination of alfalfa seeds. Popular in salads and
sandwiches.
Al foils Abbreviation for aluminium foils.
Algae A heterogeneous group of unicellular and multicellular eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms which
most occur in aquatic habitats. Includes both microalgae and macroscopic forms (e.g. seaweeds). Certain algae are harvested for commercial production of
thickeners (e.g. agar, alginates, carrageenans)
or proteins (e.g. single cell proteins). They are also
a source of pigments and may be cultured to generate
Ȧ-3 fatty acids. Some algae produce toxins that accumulate in fish and shellfish, and may cause food
poisoning in humans via consumption of these foods.
Algal oils Oils derived from single cell organisms,
such as Spirulina platensis. Also known as single cell
oils. Claimed to represent a cleaner and more concentrated source of Ȧ-3 fatty acids, particularly docosahexaenoic acid, than fish oils. Used as ingredients of functional foods. Possess antiinflammatory activity.
Algicides Chemicals used to control growth of algae
in water bodies or water containers. Examples include
bethoxazin, dichlone, quinoclamine and simazine.
Alginate gels
Alginate gels Gels derived from alginates. Calcium alginate gels are commonly used for immobilization of biocatalysts.
Alginate lyases Alternative term for poly(ȕ-Dmannuronate) lyases.
Alginates Any of several derivatives of alginic acid
(e.g. sodium, calcium or potassium salts or propylene
glycol alginate). Used as stabilizers, thickeners
and gelling agents in foods.
Alginic acid
Polysaccharide (polymer of Dmannuronic acid) obtained from brown algae such as
Macrocystis pyrifera or Laminaria. Possesses significant hydrocolloidal properties making it suitable
for thickening, emulsifying and stabilizing applications. Authorized for use in foods in various forms, including as sodium, calcium and potassium alginates.
Alicyclobacillus Genus of aerobic or facultatively
anaerobic, rod-shaped, spore-forming Gram positive
bacteria. Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris and A. acidocaldarius may cause spoilage of fruit juices.
Alimentary pastes Alternative term for pasta.
Aliphatic compounds All organic compounds
which do not possess an aromatic (Kekule ring) structure. Includes many types of hydrocarbons including acyclic, cyclic, saturated and unsaturated compounds.
Alitame One of the high intensity, dipeptide artificial
sweeteners (trade name Aclame), formed from Laspartic acid, D-alanine and a novel amine. Has good
water solubility, no aftertaste, does not contain
phenylalanine, and sweetness is approximately 2000
times that of sucrose at typical usage levels. Offers
good stability at elevated temperatures and over a
broad pH range, and has good shelf life. Alitame is
permitted for use at a max. level of 40-300 mg/kg in a
wide range of foods and beverages, such as bakery
products, dairy products, frozen desserts,
chewing gums, hot and cold beverages, beverage
mixes and tabletop sweeteners.
Alkalies Bases which are soluble in water and include
the strongly basic hydroxides of sodium, potassium or
ammonium. Neutralize, or are neutralized by, acids.
Solutions have a pH higher than 7. Alkalies are used in
the food industry during processing (e.g. peeling of
potatoes) or in cleaning applications. Alternative
spelling is alkalis.
Alkaline phosphatases EC 3.1.3.1. Catalyse formation of orthophosphate and an alcohol from an orthophosphoric monoester, and also catalyse transphosphorylation. Enzymes with wide specificity. Uses include analysis of tannins in grapes and red wines,
detection of the adequacy of pasteurization of milk
14
Allantoin
and dairy products, and detection of phosphates
in drinking water.
Alkalinity The degree to which a substance is alkaline.
Level of alkalinity is expressed using pH.
Alkalization Process by which the pH of a substance
is increased to above 7 making it alkaline.
Alkaloids Organic nitrogenous bases. Many have
pharmacological activity. Some foods contain toxic
alkaloids, e.g. solanine in potatoes. Some alkaloids are desirable food constituents, e.g. the purine
alkaloids caffeine and theobromine in tea, coffee,
chocolate and cocoa.
Alkanes Saturated hydrocarbons of the methane
series, including methane, ethane, propane and butane.
Alkenes Acyclic hydrocarbons having the general
formula CnH2n and a single C to C double bond. Present in many foods, frequently in the volatile compounds fraction. Ethylene (C2H4) is particularly important in ripening of fruits. Synonymous with olefins.
Alkylcyclobutanones
Ketones produced from
triglycerides by radiolysis that are thus used as a
marker for irradiation of foods containing fats, e.g.
meat, eggs and dairy products. Potential carcinogens, their presence has raised concerns about
the safety of irradiated foods.
Alkylphenols Alkyl substituted phenols with oestrogenic activity classed as endocrine disrupters. Present as environmental contaminants. May
be produced via biodegradation of alkylphenol
polyethoxylates which are widely used non-ionic surfactants (e.g. nonylphenol and octylphenol), or from
degradation of antioxidants used in packaging
(e.g. 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol). Some, e.g. cresols and
ethylphenols, may be formed from conjugated alkylphenols in milk and act as flavour compounds in
cheese.
Alkylresorcinols Phenols with antifungal activity
found in rye and other cereals, cashew nut shells and
some bacteria and algae. Similar in structure to
commercially used antioxidants such as BHA and
BHT. Like other resorcinolic lipids, display biological
properties and have been reported also to have antitumour activity, antimicrobial activity and antiparasitic activity.
Allantoin Member of the imidazoles class of heterocyclic organic nitrogen compounds having the
chemical formula C4H6N4O3. Product of the metabolism of purines, excreted in urine and milk. Has
therapeutic uses for treating wounds and ulcers. Can be
utilized as a nitrogen source by microorganisms and
some legumes, including soybean plants.
Alleles
Alleles Alternative forms of genes or DNA sequences that occupy the same position (locus) on either
of two homologous chromosomes in a diploid organism. If both chromosomes have the same allele,
then the organism is homozygous for this allele. If the
allele is different, the organism is heterozygous for this
particular allele.
Allergenicity The ability of substances to act as allergens.
Allergens Antigens that are capable of inducing an
allergic reaction when they come in contact with specific tissues of susceptible individuals. Allergens may
induce formation of reaginic antibodies. Common
food allergens include proteins from shellfish,
nuts, eggs, fish and milk.
Allergies Hypersensitivity states induced by the body
in reaction to foreign antigens that are harmless to
other individuals in similar doses. Allergic reactions
are of four basic types and can be immediate or delayed in their onset. Type I reactions, which involve
release of histamine from mast cells by immunoglobulin E, can be induced by many food allergens often resulting in respiratory and dermatological symptoms.
Severe type I reactions include anaphylaxis. Most
foods have been demonstrated to produce allergic reactions in certain individuals, however, common causes
of food allergy in adults include shellfish, nuts and
eggs. In children, the pattern of food allergy differs
from that in adults, with allergies to eggs, milk, peanuts and fruits being common. In contrast to adults,
children can outgrow allergies, especially to milk and
soy infant formulas.
Allicin One of the organic sulfur compounds
occurring in onions and other Allium spp. vegetables. Important flavour compounds fraction with
antibacterial properties.
Alligator meat Meat from alligators. Most of the
meat from alligator carcasses is in the tail; however,
jaw meat is favoured because of its very low content of
fats and eating quality. Usually, alligator meat is
trimmed heavily of fat because the fat has an unpleasant flavour. Each carcass includes both light and dark
meat. In comparison with free-range alligator farming,
indoor farming may be associated with an increased
prevalence of salmonellae. Due to biomagnification,
alligators living in polluted areas can accumulate
substantial concentrations of heavy metals.
Alligator pears Alternative term for avocados.
Alligators Large semi-aquatic predatory reptiles in the
genus Alligator of the family Alligatoridae. There are
two species, namely the American alligator (A. mississippiensis) and the Chinese alligator (A. sinensis).
15
Almond oils
They are hunted or farmed (free-range or indoor production systems) for alligator meat and skins.
Alliin One of the organic sulfur compounds contributing to the flavour compounds fraction in garlic and Allium spp. vegetables.
Alliinases Alternative term for alliin lyases.
Alliin lyases EC 4.4.1.4. Also known as alliinases,
these lyases are found in onions and garlic, where
they are responsible for formation of the characteristic
flavour. They also catalyse formation of allicin,
thought to have a number of health benefits. Have been
used to determine alliin contents in garlic extracts.
Allium Genus of low-growing perennial plants, that
includes cultivated vegetables such as onions,
leeks, shallots and garlic, and many wild edible
species. Noted for their distinctive flavour and pungency, due to the presence of organic sulfur compounds such as alliin. These compounds are also associated with the therapeutic properties noted for garlic
and other Allium spp.
Allspice Spice obtained from the dried fruits of the
tropical tree Pimenta officinalis (syn. P. dioica). Flavour resembles a blend of cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, ginger and pepper. Used in flavourings for
meat products and bakery products. Also known
as pimento or Jamaican pepper.
Allura Red General-purpose, water-soluble artificial
colorant. Also known as FDC red 40. Used to impart
a reddish-yellow colour to foods such as desserts,
confectionery and cereal products.
S-Allylcysteine Sulfur containing amino acid which
is one of the major organic sulfur compounds in
garlic. Responsible in part for some of the health
benefits of garlic, including hypolipaemic activity,
anticarcinogenicity and radical scavenging activity.
Allyl isothiocyanate Naturally occurring volatile
organic sulfur compounds found in Brassica
vegetables and some other plants, such as cassava.
Largely responsible for the pungency of foods such
as mustard and horseradish. Possess antimicrobial
properties and are used in food preservatives and as
antifermentative agents in winemaking. Like other
isothiocyanates, display goitrogenic properties.
Allyl sulfides Organic sulfur compounds found
in garlic, onions and leeks. Also flavour compounds. Demonstrate anticarcinogenicity, antitumour activity and antioxidative activity. Include diallyl disulfide.
Almond oils Oils rich in oleic acid and low in cholesterol derived mainly from the seeds of bitter almonds (Prunus dulcis). Used in cooking and in
foods as well as in the cosmetics industry.
Almonds
Almonds One of the most widely grown type of nuts.
Produced on the tree Prunus dulcis (syn. P. amygdalus,
Amygdalus communis). Sweet almonds (P. dulcis
var. dulcis) are grown for their edible nuts which are
important ingredients in many confectionery products, such as marzipan, macaroons and sugar almonds. Bitter varieties (P. dulcis. var. amara) are
cultivated for their almond oils, which are used as
flavourings.
Aloe Plants of the genus Aloe (family Lilaceae), such
as Aloe vera. Used in the manufacture of foods, beverages, and pharmaceutical and cosmetic products due to
their characteristic flavour, aroma and biological
activity (attributed mainly to the presence of aloins).
Aloin Bitter tasting compound which is a major component of aloe leaves. An anthroquinone which on its
own is used as a laxative but which also displays antifungal activity and analgesic effects.
Alpacas Long-necked, sheep-like, domesticated animals of the family Camelidae that are native to South
America. Alpacas (Vicugna pacos) are larger than the
wild vicuna, but smaller than the other camelids, and
are bred mainly for their fibre. Alpaca meat is edible,
and is rich in proteins and low in cholesterol.
Alternan Glucans fraction derived from fungi of the
genus Alternaria. Has potential for use in thickeners or stabilizers for foods.
Alternansucrases EC 2.4.1.140. Glycosyltransferases that transfer Į-D-glucosyl residues to the nonreducing terminal residues of Į-D-glucans, producing
glucans with alternating Į-1,6- and Į-1,3- linkages.
Enzyme from Leuconostoc mesenteroides produces
alternan, a glucan with potential applications in food
additives.
Alternaria Genus of fungi belonging to the Pleosporaceae family. Occur in soil and vegetable matter.
Many species are pathogenic to plants. Alternaria solani may cause early blights of potatoes and tomatoes. Some species (e.g. A. alternata, A. citri, A. solani and A. tenuis) may produce mycotoxins, including alternariol and alternariol monomethyl ether, on
foods such as rice, fruits and vegetables.
Alternariol One of the mycotoxins produced by
Alternaria spp. These fungi are present in soils and
on plants and hence as contaminants of plant
foods, e.g. cereals, oilseeds, fruits and vegetables, and products produced from them, including
beverages. Causes cytotoxicity and carcinogenicity.
Alteromonas Genus of aerobic, rod-shaped, Gram
negative bacteria occurring in coastal and marine
habitats. Some species may cause spoilage of fish
and other sea foods.
16
Alzheimer's disease
Alum Double salts of aluminium sulfate combined
with sulfates from monovalent metals. Used as coagulants for purification of water, including drinking water. Also used in the coagulation stages of
tofu manufacture and as an adjuvant in immunizations.
Aluminium Light metal, chemical symbol Al, which
may be used in food packs or food processing equipment. Occurs in the trace elements fraction in the
diet; there is no known nutritional requirement. There
is concern that excessive intake may be toxic, and dietary aluminium has been implicated as a causative factor in Alzheimer's disease.
Aluminium compounds Chemical compounds of
aluminium. May be food constituents, additives or
contaminants. There is concern about possible adverse health effects of high intakes of aluminium compounds via foods or beverages.
Aluminium foils Aluminium packaging materials
which are used to decorate, protect and preserve foods,
providing a barrier to external factors, such as light,
oxygen and water vapour. Food applications include:
foil containers and lids; metallized films; and wrappings. Also used in laminated packaging to enhance
the barrier properties and rigidity of other packaging materials such as plastics and paper. There is
very little migration of aluminium from aluminium
foil containers into food. Environmental considerations
include the importance of recycling and the use of
aluminium foil laminates to fuel incineration processes.
Aluminium phosphide Synonym for phostoxin.
Used in fumigants for stored grain, as it releases the
toxic gas phosphine.
Alveograms Records of air pressure inside bubbles
formed by inflating pieces of dough until rupture, a
test performed on alveographs.
Alveographs Apparatus used to analyse the physical
properties of dough and the baking properties of
wheat. A piece of dough is inflated using air until it
forms a bubble and bursts. Traces of the pressure inside the bubble (alveograms) are used to indicate
dough strength, stability and distensibility.
Alzheimer's disease One of several brain disorders
that are classified as neurodegenerative diseases.
It is a progressive, irreversible disease that gradually
impairs cognitive performance, ultimately destroying a person's memory and ability to learn, reason,
make judgments, communicate and carry out daily activities. It is the most common form of dementia
among older people. Maintaining good nutrition may
delay the progression of disease.
Amadori compounds
Amadori compounds Intermediates of the Maillard
reaction occurring between amino groups and reducing sugars. Amadori compounds are produced
by rearrangement of nitrogen-containing carbohydrate
ring structures and their fate is dependent on the conditions present in the reaction medium. Acid hydrolysis
of these compounds can result in unsaturated ring systems that have a characteristic flavour and aroma,
which under less acidic conditions may polymerize to
form an insoluble dark-coloured material.
Amala Traditional Nigerian paste-like product made
by reconstituting yam meal in boiling water. Sometimes fortified with legume meal, e.g. cowpea meal
or soy meal, to improve the protein content and nutritional quality. Typically, amala is dark brown in colour and is eaten with soups.
Amanita Genus of soft, fleshy fungi, which includes
both edible and highly poisonous species. Edible species include Amanita rubescens, which should not be
eaten raw, and A. caesarea. Care should be taken in the
identification of these mushrooms as many cases of
poisoning have occurred due to unintentional ingestion
of related, lethal species, such as A. phalloides (death
cap mushroom).
Amanitins Class of amatoxins. Also known as amanitoxins or amantines.
Amaranth Red food colorants which are stable to
light. Made from small, pigmented flowers of plants of
the genus Amaranthus.
Amaranth flour Amaranth grain that is milled for
food use.
Amaranth grain Seeds from plants of the genus
Amaranthus, which are high in starch, proteins,
lysine and minerals. Also known as grain amaranth.
Amaranth starch Starch extracted from amaranth
grain. Most commonly utilized in parts of South
America, Africa and Asia where amaranth is cultivated
as a food crop.
Amaranthus Genus of dicotyledenous plants of the
family Amaranthaceae. Certain species of Amaranthus
are grown for amaranth grain or grain amaranth,
which is high in starch, proteins, lysine and minerals. Other species are grown for their spinach-like
leaves, which are good sources of protein, vitamin C,
minerals and ȕ-carotene.
Amasi Traditional Zimbabwean fermented milk
resembling thick curd. Fermentation is performed
at ambient temperature and naturally fermented cream
may be added to improve viscosity. Often eaten with
stiff corn porridges.
Amatoxins Powerful mycotoxins produced by several species of mushrooms of the genus Amanita
(e.g. Amanita phalloides (Death Cap), A. virosa (De-
17
Amine oxidases
stroying Angel) and A. verna (Fool's Mushroom)). Ingestion results in abdominal pain, persistent vomiting
and watery diarrhoea, usually followed by death due to
organ failure.
Ambaritsa Raw dry sausages, traditionally made in
Bulgaria. They are prepared primarily from pork, but
include smaller amounts of beef. Moisture content
should be <33% (by wt.).
Amberjack Alternative term for yellowtail.
Ambient storage Storage in surrounding atmospheric conditions. Ambient temperature is often interchangeable with room temperature. Various packaging and preservation approaches have been employed to enable foods to be stored safely and without
significant quality deterioration under ambient conditions.
American groundnuts Common name for seeds
produced by Apios Americana, a legume native to
North America, which also produces small edible tubers. The tubers can be dried and ground into a powder which is added to flour or used in sweeteners
and thickeners.
American lobsters Lobsters of the species Homarus americanus. Found in the north Atlantic Ocean.
Also known as Atlantic lobsters or true lobsters.
Ames test Technique used to assess the mutagenicity of chemicals. Samples are incubated in medium
containing liver homogenate and derivatives formed
are mixed with a mutant strain of Salmonella Typhimurium that lacks autotrophic properties towards
histidine. These properties are restored by metabolic
derivatives formed in the sample during incubation in
the presence of liver enzymes.
Amidases EC 3.5.1.4. Convert monocarboxylic acid
amides to monocarboxylates and ammonia. Have
been used for production of D-alanine from DLalaninamide.
Amidation Addition of amide groups or amino acids to molecules to improve their functional properties or physicochemical properties. For example, amidation of pectins for use as food additives,
modification of fatty acids with diethanolamine
forming diethanolamides for use as emulsifiers, removal of the electrically charged free carboxy terminals of synthetic peptides to make them more like
natural peptides, and amidation of lactoferrin and ȕlactoglobulin to improve their antimicrobial activity.
Amides Organic nitrogen compounds containing
the CO.NH2 radical which are common constituents of
foods. Include capsaicin and urea.
Amine oxidases Two enzymes: EC 1.4.3.4 (flavincontaining), also known as monoamine oxidases and
18
Amines
tyramine oxidases; and EC 1.4.3.6 (copper-containing),
also known as diamine oxidases. The former act on
primary, and usually secondary and tertiary, amines
to form aldehydes, while the latter act on primary
monoamines, diamines and histamine. Several bacteria are able to degrade biogenic amines through
production of diamine oxidases and these enzymes
have been used in biosensors for determination of
biogenic amines in foods.
Aminotransferases
tural isomers (Į, ȕ, Ȗ, İ) and has the chemical formula C4H9NO2. Ȗ-Aminobutyric acid, commonly abbreviated to GABA, is a non-protein amino acid and
inhibitory neurotransmitter with antihypertensive
activity. GABA is produced from L-glutamic acid
in a reaction catalysed by glutamate decarboxylases, and is found naturally in foods, including soybeans and cereals. Certain strains of lactic acid
bacteria and yeasts produce GABA, and thus can be
used to enrich fermented foods.
Amines Organic nitrogen compounds derived
from NH3 by substitution of organic radicals for the H
atoms. Depending on whether 1, 2 or 3 H atoms are
replaced, they are classed as primary, secondary or tertiary amines. Include a wide range of compounds important for flavour and aroma of foods. Amines are
formed during breakdown of proteins and contribute to
the characteristic odour of spoiled foods such as fish.
Biogenic amines such as histamine may be toxic.
1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate oxidases
EC 1.14.17.4. Accepted name now aminocyclopropanecarboxylate oxidases, but commonly referred to as
ACC oxidases. These oxidases catalyse the final step
in ethylene biosynthesis in higher plants, converting
1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC)
to ethylene, and are involved in ripening of fruits.
Amino acid oxidases Oxidases which catalyse the
oxidative deamination of amino acids in the presence of water and O2 to form oxo-acids. Includes EC
1.4.3.2 (L-amino-acid oxidase) and EC 1.4.3.3 (Damino-acid oxidase) which act on L- and D-amino acids, respectively. Involved in metabolism of amino
acids. Uses include in bioconversions of D- to Lamino acids, in biosensors, including those for detection of amino acids, and for production of keto acids
such as Į-ketoglutaric acid.
1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid Plant
growth regulator important in ripening of fruits. Often abbreviated to ACC.
Amino acids Organic acids characterized by possession of one or more COOH and NH2 groups. Amino
acids are the main constituents of proteins. 10 amino
acids (arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine,
methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and
valine) are essential nutrients in the human diet.
D-Amino
acids Amino acid enantiomers with a
specific configuration around a chosen chiral element,
usually the Į-carbon atom. These amino acids have
the opposite configuration to L-amino acids. Many Damino acids are naturally occurring in microorganisms, plants and animals, and some are of especial interest for the synthesis of novel sweeteners.
Aminoacylases EC 3.5.1.14. Hydrolyse N-acyl-Lamino acids, releasing the corresponding L-amino acids. Can be used for purification of L-amino acids from
racemic mixtures of the corresponding N-acyl-DLamino acids. Can also be used for acylation of amino
acids in organic solvents.
Aminobenzoic acid Aromatic acid used in antimicrobial preservatives for use in foods.
2-Aminobutane
butylamine.
Alternative term for (RS)-sec-
Aminobutyric acid Member of the organic acids,
this organic nitrogen compound encompasses 4 struc-
1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthases
EC 4.4.1.14. Catalyse the rate-limiting step in ethylene biosynthesis in higher plants which leads to ripening of fruits.
Aminoethanol Synonym for ethanolamine. Amine
which in pure form exists as a colourless, combustible,
hygroscopic liquid with an aroma of ammonia. A
member of the biogenic amines group, which occurs in various foods, including wines and cheese.
Aminoethoxyvinylglycine Plant growth regulator
which acts by blocking ethylene synthesis through
inhibition
of
1-aminocyclopropane-1carboxylate synthases.
Amino N Nitrogen which is present in foods and other
substances in the form of amino (NH2) groups.
Į-Amino N Index of the amino acid N content of
foods, beverages or their raw materials and intermediate materials. Used, for example, in brewing.
Aminopeptidases
EC 3.4.11. Exo-acting proteinases that hydrolyse peptide bonds and remove
amino acids one at a time from the chains of proteins, working from the amino terminus. Used for reducing the bitterness of protein hydrolysates,
and important in flavour development in dairy
products and meat.
Amino sugars General term for sugars substituted
with an amino group at the carbon-2 position. Examples of amino sugars include galactosamine, glucosamine and furosine, an important indicator of
Maillard reaction in dairy products.
Aminotransferases Alternative term for transaminases, EC 2.6.1.-.
Amitraz
Amitraz Non-systemic formamidine acaricide and
insecticide used for control of mites, scale insects,
whitefly and aphids on various fruits and vegetables. Also employed in veterinary applications. Classified by WHO as slightly hazardous (WHO III).
Amla Fruits of the sub-tropical deciduous tree Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (syn. Phyllanthus emblica),
also known as aonla or Indian gooseberry. Fruits are
usually processed into products such as pickles, fruit
juices and syrups, as the raw fruits are highly acidic
and astringent. Amla are a rich source of vitamin C
and also contain tannins, alkaloids, auxins and
minerals. Reported to have hypocholesterolaemic and
antioxidative activity and are widely used in traditional Indian medicine.
Ammonia Gas, chemical formula NH3, which is
formed on breakdown of nitrogen-containing compounds such as proteins, peptides and amino acids. Has a characteristic pungent odour and is toxic at
high concentrations in air. May be used in refrigerants for freezing or cooling systems.
Ammonium compounds Group of compounds containing the NH4 radical. In the context of foods, important members include betaine, inorganic ammonium
salts (e.g. ammonium bicarbonate used as a leavening agent and ammonium salts used as nutrients for
yeasts) and quaternary ammonium compounds
used as disinfectants.
Amnesic shellfish poisoning Disease resulting
from ingestion of shellfish (commonly mussels)
containing the neurotoxin domoic acid (produced by
certain toxigenic marine diatoms). Symptoms include
abdominal cramps, vomiting, disorientation and memory loss.
Amoebae Common name for a number of species of
unicellular, usually microscopic, organisms of the order Amoebida and the class Sarcodina. Occur in fresh
and salt water, moist soil, and as parasites in humans
and animals. Characterized by ability to alter their
shape, generally by the extrusion of one or more pseudopodia.
Amoebiasis Specifically refers to an infection of the
intestine, liver or other sites with Entamoeba histolytica, a pathogenic amoeba, acquired by ingesting
contaminated water or foods. In general, may be any
infection caused by any amoebic parasite. Characterized by severe bloody diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever, vomiting and ulceration of the colon. Also known
as amoebic dysentery.
Amoxicillin Penicillin antibiotic used against a wide
variety of bacterial infections in farm animals. Becomes widely distributed in animal tissues following
administration, but is rapidly eliminated; typically un-
19
Į-Amylases
detectable in livers and kidneys of animals 5 days
after withdrawal.
Amoxycillin Alternative spelling for amoxicillin.
AMP
Abbreviation for adenosine monophosphate.
Amperometry Technique based on measurement of
current resulting from oxidation or reduction of an
electroactive species. A constant potential is maintained at a working electrode or on an array of electrodes with respect to a reference electrode. The current is correlated with the content of the electroactive
species.
Ampicillin Broad-spectrum semisynthetic penicillin
antibiotic used in the treatment of several diseases in
cattle, swine, sheep and poultry. Rapidly excreted,
primarily in unchanged form in the urine; relatively
small amounts are excreted in milk.
Amycolatopsis Genus of aerobic Gram positive
bacteria, type species Amycolatopsis orientalis, of the
family Pseudonocardiaceae. Isolated from soil, vegetable matter and clinical specimens. Some species produce antibiotics or biotechnologically significant
enzymes. One strain has been used in biotransformations to produce vanillin from ferulic acid.
Amygdalin Glycosides fraction present in bitter
almonds which is hydrolysed by water to yield hydrocyanic acid and benzaldehyde.
Amyl alcohol Synonym for pentanol. One of the
higher alcohols, comprising five carbon atoms and a
single alcohol group. Of importance in the flavour
compounds fraction of alcoholic beverages.
Forms part of the toxic fusel oils fraction of spirits.
Used as a solvent and as a substrate for production of
the flavouring amyl acetate.
Amylases Enzymes that hydrolyse the Į-1,4 glycosidic linkages in both amyloses and amylopectins.
Act on starch, glycogen, and related polysaccharides and oligosaccharides. Specific types are Įamylases and ȕ-amylases.
Į-Amylases EC 3.2.1.1. Glycosidases which catalyse endohydrolysis of 1,4-Į-D-glucosidic linkages in
polysaccharides containing three or more 1,4-Įlinked D-glucose units. Act on starch, glycogen,
and related polysaccharides and oligosaccharides in
a random manner; reducing groups are liberated in the
Į configuration. Present in a wide range of foods, including cereals, fruits and vegetables, and in microorganisms used in food fermentations such as
Saccharomyces and Lactobacillus spp. Isolated
Į-amylases can be used to convert sta