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1 Dependency Treebank Annotation and Null Elements: An Experiment with VIT Rodolfo Delmonte Abstract State of the art parsers are currently trained on converted versions of Penn Treebank into dependency representations, which however don t include null elements. This is done to facilitate structural learning and prevents the probabilistic engine to postulate the existence of deprecated null elements everywhere, see [19]. However it is a fact that in this way the semantics of the representation used and produced is inconsistent and will reduce dramatically its usefulness in real life applications, like Q/A and other semantically driven fields, by hampering the mapping of a complete logical form. What systems have come up with are quasi -logical forms or partial logical forms mapped directly from the surface representation in dependency structure. We show the most common problems derived from the conversion and then describe an algorithm that we have implemented to apply to our converted Italian Treebank, that can be used on any CoNLL-like treebank or representation to produce an almost complete semantically consistent dependency treebank. Keywords Dependency representations Treebanks 1 Introduction In this chapter I shall present a symbolic rule-based algorithm that takes as input CoNLL-style dependency-based representations and populates them with all lexically unexpressed and implicit linguistic elements, excluding elliptical material. I have been working with two languages, Italian and English, but I assume that the algorithm can be applied to any language provided a sub-categorization computational lexicon it could also be based on FrameNet, VerbNet, PropBank, WordNet is available for the language. The algorithm also computes best semantic roles to associate to arguments and adjuncts, and provides antecedents for all types of controlled R. Delmonte (B) Department of Language and Cultural Studies, Department of Computer Science, Ca Foscari University of Venice, Venezia, Italy Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 R. Basili et al. (eds.), Harmonization and Development of Resources and Tools for Italian Natural Language Processing within the PARLI Project, Studies in Computational Intelligence 589, DOI / _2 25

2 26 R. Delmonte empty subjects. It also makes use of a pronominal anaphora resolution algorithm, which however only gives a preference antecedent that requires manual checking. We tested the algorithm on a fragment of VIT, the Venice Italian Treebank, which contains 500 sentences and 15,000 tokens and we ended up with an addition of over 600 new items fully co-indexed. Providing unexpressed and implicit linguistic items is a paramount process to enable semantic predicate argument representations to be produced automatically. This is not only an essential step for a complete linguistic resource such as a treebank, but also for any follow up, be it machine learning for grammar induction or for application oriented scenarios, which require as for instance Question Answering fully implemented predicate-argument structures. Missing implicit or unexpressed linguistic elements can be of three types: unexpressed SUBJects of untensed clauses (including infinitivals, participials, gerundives be they computable as arguments or as adjuncts of a given predicate); unexpressed SUBJects of tensed clauses, this being highly language specific, whereas Italian freely allows to leave unexpressed the subject of tensed clause, English will only allow it in imperatives and coordinate clauses; traces, or empty linguistic items in what are called long distance dependency constructions, like relative clauses and interrogative clauses. For every new added empty linguistic item, the algorithm looks for the antecedent on which the item will be dependent this can be local for most of the cases, but it can also be external to the sentence where the empty item has been added. In the latter case, the antecedent can be definite and fully referential, or it can be indefinite or better generic, thus non referential. This may apply to impersonal pronouns and to untensed clauses with generic reference, which I will revise below. In the case of Italian, SUBJects of tensed classed will search for the antecedent in a previous stretch of discourse with an anaphoric binding algorithm which is not the topic of this paper, but see [18]. We have been referring to CoNLL style column representation used in the CoNLL shared tasks series of conferences, which are a conversion of Penn Treebank [27] portions by means of Lund s University tool. In fact, the conversion contains many mistakes, which badly ruin the semantic import of the output. In this section we shall comment on some examples before presenting our algorithm. In the following section we will be showing treatment also in other treebanks besides PT and VIT: we will refer to TUT, by the University of Turin [26] ( ISST TANL by ILC-CNR and the University of Pisa [32], AnCORA by the University of Barcelona [28], and the Portuguese Treebank, made available at CoNLL-X by Afonso et al. [1], that we call CPT.

3 Dependency Treebank Annotation 27 2 Ne in Relative Clauses We can foresee three types of syntactic control for relative and interrogative clauses: Direct Control: whenever the pronoun or surface complementizer are bound to a core argument, a subject, an object, an indirect object or an oblique, and the dependency is with the verb of the governed clause; Indirect Control: whenever the pronoun or surface complementizer constitutes a modifier or specifier of a complement of the verb of the relative clause, for instance with predicative complements in copulative clauses, and the dependency is with the complement and not with the verb; Double Control: or Pied Piping, whenever the pronoun usually contained in a nominal or prepositional constituent, modifies a local nominal head. In turn, the whole structure modifies a complement of the relative clause. So two dependencies should be annotated: first the one of the relative pronoun with a local nominal head, and then the ensuing dependency with some complement in the relative clause structure. In the following sections we will be talking about these different types of dependencies and show how treebanks have annotated them. 2.1 Che as Beginner of a Relative Clause In shallow or surface dependency treebank, relative pronouns are only visible if lexically expressed. So the case of implicit relative pronoun signaled by che complementizer does not exist but it does in all deep dependency treebanks as we will show below. What is usually done is the transformation of che itself into a relative pronoun like chi, cui or quale and others. We will discuss other cases below. However, even though this is what all shallow treebanks do, the treatment of che is not uniform. We look at first into ISST-TANL: (1) produrre individui che sanno fare cose che essi non potranno mai nemmeno immaginare

4 28 R. Delmonte As it can be easily noticed, che is only treated as functional dependent on the verb of Relative Clause. As functional dependent it shouldn t be associated to any semantic function: on the contrary it is marked as SUBJect of the verb pervadere and conservare. These verbs are then linked as dependents to the head noun governing the relative pronoun. The pronoun in this case coincides with che, thus introducing a specialization for verb relations in addition to linking to other verbs, or to subordinating/coordinating conjunctions. TUT treatment is identical to ISST-TANL: (2) Nelle società di Tirana che hanno truffato c è In this example, the prepositional phrase headed by nelle is linked to the main verb essere in 15, and the noun società governing the relative clause is linked to nelle ; truffare the verb of the relative clause is linked to società, but the information as to what grammatical function this head noun plays in the relative clause is indicated in the che. The recovery of grammatical relations for truffare and the same will apply to previous cases of ISST TANL will go through a process of restructuring of the argument subject società with che that works as functional head but does not have any explicit link with it. This is different from what happens in VIT: (3) emergere di una crescente concorrenza che si è progressivamente spostata 13 emergere emergere n(noun) sn num=s gen=m 12 pobj com 14 di di pd(preposition_di) spd - 13 mod nil 15 una uno art(article) sn num=s gen=f 17 sn ind 16 crescente crescente ag(adjective) sa num=s per=fm 17 mod nil 17 concorrenza concorrenza n(noun) sn num=s gen=f 14 pobj com 18 che che rel(relative) f2-17 subj-theme_aff nil 19 si si clit(clitic_pronoun) ibar per=3 gen=m num=sp 22 ibar acc 20 è essere ause(auxiliary_essere_tensed) ibar punt 22 ibar aux 21 progressivamente progressivamente avv(adverb) ibar [] 22 adjv mn 22 spostata spostare vppin(verb_intrans_past_participle) ibar punt 18 ibar refl_in/posit In this case we see that che is bound to its noun head concorrenza, which has a certain role in the sentence to which it belongs, headed by emergere through preposition di ; then che is the intermediary between the head noun and verb of the relative spostare which is linked to it. The role of che is played, in the case of

5 Dependency Treebank Annotation 29 a deep representation, by the empty category. This prevents che itself to carry the information of both grammatical function and semantic role, as happens in previous treebanks. Here below is what the Portuguese treebank has for relatives, where we see that the head noun of the relative is linked and has roles in the main clause, the relative pronoun carried the roles it has in the relative clause and is linked to its verb, the verb of the relative clause is linked to the head noun: (4) milhões que o Ministério_do_Planeamento_e_Administração_do_Território já gasta This is identical to what AnCORA, the Catalan treebank has done. (5) el treball que es desplaça Now, the difference in treatment is clear and can be summarized below. We have come up with two different approaches to the problem of treating che / que / that relative pronoun which by the way is identical to what happens with che complementizer of sentential complements: linked to the governing Noun head (VIT) the governed verb of the relative clause linked to che linked to the governed verb in the relative clause (all other treebanks) the governed verb being an auxiliary if present (TUT, PTB) the governed verb being the lexical semantic verb (all other treebanks) In the following section we will propose a treatment of relative pronouns, which is based on surface dependency structure but introduces the concept of chain. To substantiate our proposal we now show the output of deep treebanks, like the one proposed by PARC XEROX and organized on the basis of LFG theoretical framework. This treebank is based on the same set of newspaper articles from Wall Street Journal of PTB and in particular it contains all articles belonging to section 23. We will indicate only relevant dependency nodes to highlight differences from previous treebanks.

6 30 R. Delmonte (6) But not much money was spent on the shows\, either\, a situation that encouraged cheap-to-make talk and game shows\, while discouraging expensive-to-produce dramas. That is treated as complementizer and is linked to PRO relative. PRO is marked with NOMINATIVE and is linked to encourage, the verb of the relative. Situation is linked to encourage, and is linked to PRO. This is partially coincident with what VIT has done and partially with TUT and ISST TANL. In the deep treebank, it is the implicit pronoun PRO, which plays the role of intermediary between the complementizer that and the verb of the relative. The relative clause as a whole is then linked as dependent to the head noun situation. From a computational point of view, a chain allows more easily a recovery of all relations needed in case of further processing of dependency structures for semantic purposes. The chain goes from the relative pronoun to its noun head binder, however all relevant information is already encoded in the ADJUNCT additional entry, where the relative pronoun has already undergone head substitution with its binder antecedent. The index carried by the null pron_rel is the same as that of the verb of the relative, in this way partly resembling the linking of the verb to relative head noun. The complementizer can in this case simply be done away with in the semantics, as would happen with the case of sentential complements, being a functional head with no semantic content. If we look at PTB original constituency structure, we see that relative pronouns are embedded in the NP of the head noun they depend on; then the relative pronoun and its preposition if existent, and following head noun in the case of whose, are all included in a SBAR structure, that is the relative clause, that they are beginners of. Finally, the index associated to the relative pronoun is then landed in a position around the verb of the relative clause, either just before or after in case of argument relation, or after the expressed arguments in case of adjunct relation as shown below: (7) three levels on which to treat the subject

7 Dependency Treebank Annotation 31 (8) I don t know what to do In some cases as the following one, the trace lands deeper below, inside an infinitival, complement of the main verb of the relative clause: (9) The following prompts allow you to specify how you want the printed output to look Penn Treebank also signals with traces passive constructions so that in case of a passive relative clause the number of traces is doubled. There are no principled reasons for not using a chain-like description of the relative clause structure, from what is contained in this annotation. If embedding is used to detect dependency, then the relative pronoun should always be dependent on the head noun it is governed by. The presence of the trace in the following clause should then be used to make the verb of the relative clause dependent on the relative pronoun. Romance languages have a much wider inventory of relative pronouns than German ones, in particular Italian has certainly the most extended one, and we will discuss them in the section below. 2.2 Lexical Relative Pronouns Lexical pronouns have a different status from che complementizer at least in as far as they would contain internally enough information to an independent semantic specification. In fact, relative pronouns can also be subdivided by the traditional categorization of analytic ( il quale, etc.) versus synthetic ( che, cui ) pronouns: this subdivision, however, is irrelevant to the discussion about dependency

8 32 R. Delmonte structure. We will look into cui and quale preceded or not by preposition. From the structures below, we see that the same technique is being used for linking relative pronouns and their prepositions: dependency links are established as before, between the verb of the relative clause which is made dependent upon the nominal head of the relative pronoun; then the preposition is made dependent on the verb of the relative clause, and the relative pronoun on the preposition. In all the examples below, recovering the binder and noun antecedent of the relative pronoun requires at least a search in two steps as will be explained below. We will start by looking at excerpts from TUT deep: (10) nei luoghi abituali in cui di TV si parla Pied Piping Relative Pronouns In this section we present relative pronouns headed by a preposition which in turn are embedded in another prepositional phrase that is then governed by the nominal head of the relative: (11) è il coronamento del dialogo di cui oggi si vedono i risultati This seems the only case in which a trace is inserted to allow for the genitive di cui to be linked appropriately as complement of risultati. However here again in

9 Dependency Treebank Annotation 33 order to get the antecedent of cui, which is the nominal head dialogo, one has to search the verb. (12) lo studente di Ancona scomparso e del cui caso si era occupata Recovering the antecedent in this case requires climbing the coordinate structure, then from the reduced relative scomparso finding the nominal head studente. However this seems to be identical to the previous example where risultati was lacking its complement: caso perhaps should have been followed by a trace that identified its complement clearly, in this way the genitive would have been made explicit. The same remarks can be made if we look at ISST TANL, where the relation intervening between the relative oblique pronoun and its nominal head binder is not available and must be recovered indirectly from the verb: (13) Forma in cui si presenta in natura Lexical Relative Pronouns in Other Treebanks ISST TANL and TUT encode relations in the same way in which PTB and other treebanks do, as shown below:

10 34 R. Delmonte (14) and should honor local convictions about which tasks most need doing In all these examples, the preposition is linked to the verb of the relative clause, which is linked to the preposition, and the verb of the relative is in turn linked to the head noun of the relative pronoun. To show the difference intervening between which and whose that is somewhat comparable to cui we will now present some examples with the genitive relative pronoun whose that is always accompanied by at least a noun or a noun with modifiers which resembles in some way the sequence (ART) cui, but without preceding articles. (15) Sony, whose innovative premium-priced products are (16) Kollmorgen, whose agreement to be acquired for $25 a share by Vernitron collapsed As can be noticed, whose requires a totally different treatment from which : it is linked to the head noun it modifies it specifies its semantic content and this noun

11 Dependency Treebank Annotation 35 is then linked to the verb of the relative clause. The verb of the relative is then linked to the head noun but this noun does not modify the verb, in fact it does not have any relation with it being a modifier of one of the arguments of the relative clause. I indicate here below in brackets the position of whose and of its lexical substitute: innovative products [of Sony] are/sony [whose] innovative products are agreement [of Kollmorgen] collapsed/kollmorgen [whose] agreement collapsed For this reason, I don t see why the verb of the relative should be linked to the head noun of the relative pronoun, rather than directly to the relative pronoun, and the latter in turn linked to the head noun. In the case of which, the relations are different: relative pronoun, which is governed by the preposition, which is heading an adjunct or argument of the verb of the relative itself. Very much the same would happen with simple relative pronouns, which are arguments of the verb of the relative. So eventually, the treatment of whose / cui seems inadequate in particular in view of its mapping onto a semantic predicate-argument structure. To see in more depth the ways in which the mapping of oblique/genitive relative pronouns may take place we look into PARC 700 relevant portions to check how the LFG has decided to encode it. We look at few different examples and we see that the treatment is definitely organized on the basis of the presence of a NULL element, pro. What is important to stress here is the fact that whose expresses a possessive genitive relation with its local head that it modifies, and that this relation is represented by an abstract pro linked to whose and from there in a chain with the head noun, and then linked to the verb of the relative: respect, sing, be, determine, keep. (17) But Mr. Davis, whose views are widely respected by money managers, says he expects no 1987-style crash. adjunct(mr. Davis 1, respect 18) adjunct(respect 18, widely 24) adjunct_type(respect 18, relative) obl_ag(respect 18, manager 19) pron_rel(respect 18, pro 22) subj(respect 18, view 20) topic_rel(respect 18, view 20) mod(manager 19, money 28) pcase(manager 19, by) poss(view 20, pro 22) pron_form(pro 22, whose) pron_type(pro 22, relative) (18) One of Italy s favorite shows, Fantastico, a tepid variety show, is so popular that viewers clamored to buy a chocolate product, Cacao Fantastico, whose praises were sung each week by dancing showgirls even though the product didn t exist.

12 36 R. Delmonte adjunct_type(cacao Fantastico 61, parenthetical) poss(praise 62, pro 64) pron_form(pro 64, whose) pron_rel(sing 54, pro 64) pron_type(pro 64, relative) subj(sing 54, praise 62) obl_ag(sing 54, showgirl 43) adjunct_type(sing 54, relative) topic_rel(sing 54, praise 62) adjunct(product 92, Cacao Fantastico 61) For these reasons, the role of cui in particular has been given a lot of attention in the deep version of VIT, that we comment here below. 2.3 Cui in VIT There at least four different typologies of structure accompanying cui oblique relative pronoun, that we have found in VIT: 1. argument/adjunct of relative verb it directly modifies the main verb of the relative clause 2. adjunct modifier of argument of relative verb 3. it modifies an argument of the verb of relative clause 4. adjunct modifier of a noun 5. adjunct modifier of the internal nominal head All of the following examples show the variety of cases in which cui can act as an adjunct but also as an argument with different semantic roles: Argument/Adjunct of Relative Verb All of the following examples show the variety of cases in which CUI can act as an adjunct but also as an argument with different semantic roles: (19) dell ambiente socio-economico in cui sono inserite 38 dell di partd(preposition_di_plus_article) spd num=s per=fm 49 mod det 38.1 l il art sn num=s per=fm 49 det def 39 ambiente ambiente n(noun) sn num=s gen=m 38 pobj com 40 socio_economico socio_economico ag(adjective) sa num=s 39 mod nil 41 in in p(preposition) sp - 39 adj nil 42 cui cui relob(relative_oblique) sn [] 41 binder rel_obl 43 sono essere ause(auxiliary_essere_tensed) ibar punt 44 ibar aux 44 inserite inserire vppt(verb_trans_past_participle) ibar punt 39 ibar refl_in/ into_hole

18 42 R. Delmonte And this is the output of Stanford parser: What is missing, then here, is the information that the house belongs to John, and theroleofwhose is left unexplained. 2.5 Questions Questions are hard to parse for statistical parsers, given their sparsity in available treebanks. ISST TANL, as TUT does, encodes the relation intervening between the interrogative pronoun and the verb of the relative directly by linking it to the verb. (32) Perché avete ucciso altri albanesi?

19 Dependency Treebank Annotation 43 (33) Vediamo cosa si può fare. The following case is very interesting: we have a purpose infinitival clause governed by vedere which has as complement an indirect interrogative clause headed by a pronoun which has an anaphoric link with an antecedent ( banche ) that is placed in the main clause. This is correctly marked with a trace, as if it were a syntactically governed relation. (34) Il privato cittadino che fa il giro delle banche per vedere in quale guadagnerebbe In the following sentence the SUBJect relation is reverted and the predicative complement is positionally rather than semantically determined: the interrogative pronoun that precedes the main verb for structural constraints is wrongly computed as SUBJ of the predication. The noun phrase i politici which should be the legitimate SUB- Ject is computed as a predication. This is a case of subject inversion, which is very common in Italian, and not only in this language very difficult to detect in general. (35) Chi sono i politici In another portion of TUT we see that the relations are correctly annotated:

20 44 R. Delmonte (36) Qual è il pericolo di contrarre l infezione nel corso di un rapporto occasionale. And now we will look into VIT: (37) Cosa risponde loro? 0 Cosa cosa int(interrogative_pronoun) fint num=s 3 fint int 1 risponde rispondere vt(verb_trans_tensed) cl(main) punt - ibar trans/dir_speech 1.10 pro pro pro(little_pro) sn num=s per=3 ant=sent_00195/10 s_impl-agente nil 1.11 rel_pro cosa rel_pro(relative_pronoun) bindee num=s gen=m ant=0 obj-info com 2 loro egli pron(pronoun) sn num=p per=fm 1 iobj pers 3?? puntint(punctuation_non_declarative) fint nil 1 fint puntint If we look at CPT and ADT we can see that their treatment interrogative clauses is identical to ISST-TANL and TUT, in that the interrogative pronoun is directly linked to the following verb, and in case it is headed by a preposition, it is linked to the preposition which in turn is linked to the following verb. 3 Creation of Null Elements We mapped constituency-based VIT onto dependency structure and came up with a structure lacking all NEs see [17]. Eventually VIT looked very similar to the output of current state-of-the-art statistical treebank parsers trained on PTB. So we imagined that we could create a script or algorithm to try and produce all null elements and try to coindex them automatically, in line with what other researchers have done for Chinese, for example which has similar problems left-dislocation and unexpressed subject, in particular, in addition Italian has also right dislocation and clitics see also [25]. We selected 500 complex sentences from VIT, with average sentence length of 30 tokens, total tokens 15,000. However, before starting work on the algorithm, we realized soon that some ambiguity had to be solved manually or else our automatic procedure would never be able to come to a reasonable solution see [29, 31]. I am referring to a manual classification of si (pro)clitic which is a cause

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