1.
History of Brazil
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The history of Brazil starts with indigenous people in Brazil. Europeans arrived in Brazil at the opening of the 16th century, the first European to colonize Brazil was Pedro Álvares Cabral on April 22,1500 under the sponsorship of the Kingdom of Portugal. From the 16th to the early 19th century, Brazil was a colony, the countrys borders were only finalized in the early 20th century. On September 7,1822, the country declared its independence from Portugal, a military coup in 1889 established the First Brazilian Republic. The country has seen a dictatorship during Vargas Era and a period of rule under Brazilian military government. When Portuguese explorers arrived in Brazil, the region was inhabited by hundreds of different types of Jiquabu tribes, the dating of the origins of the first inhabitants, who were called Indians by the Portuguese, is still a matter of dispute among archaeologists. For this reason, very little is known about the history of Brazil before 1500, archaeological remains indicate a complex pattern of regional cultural developments, internal migrations, and occasional large state-like federations. At the time of European discovery, the territory of current day Brazil had as many as 2,000 tribes, the indigenous peoples were traditionally mostly semi-nomadic tribes who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agriculture. When the Portuguese arrived in 1500, the Natives were living mainly on the coast, initially, the Europeans saw the natives as noble savages, and Europeans began having children with the Native people right away. Tribal warfare, cannibalism and the pursuit of brazilwood for its treasured red dye convinced the Portuguese that they should Christianize the natives. But the Portuguese, like the Spanish in their South American possessions, had brought diseases with them. Measles, smallpox, tuberculosis, gonorrhea, and influenza killed tens of thousands of indigenous people, the diseases spread quickly along the indigenous trade routes, and whole tribes were likely annihilated without ever coming in direct contact with Europeans. There are so many theories regarding who was the first European to set foot on the now called Brazil. In April 1500, Brazil was claimed for Portugal on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral, the Portuguese encountered stone-using natives divided into several tribes, many of whom shared the same Tupi–Guarani language family, and fought among themselves. Until 1529 Portugal had very little interest in Brazil mainly due to the profits gained through commerce with India, China. The system was a failure - only four lots were successfully occupied Pernambuco, São Vicente, Captaincy of Ilhéus, the captaincies gradually reverted to the Crown and became provinces and eventually states of the country. At first, settlers tried to enslave the natives as labor to work the fields, the initial exploration of Brazils interior was largely due to para-military adventurers, the bandeirantes, who entered the jungle in search of gold and Native slaves. However colonists were unable to sustainably enslave Natives, and Portuguese land owners soon turned to import millions of slaves from Africa, mortality rates for slaves in sugar and gold enterprises were dramatic, and there were often not enough females or proper conditions to replenish the slave population indigenously

2.
Luzia Woman
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Luzia Woman is the name for an Upper Paleolithic period skeleton of a Paleo-Indian woman who was found in a cave in Brazil. Some archaeologists believe the woman may have been part of the first wave of immigrants to South America. Nicknamed Luzia, the 11, 500-year-old skeleton was found in Lapa Vermelha, Brazil, Luzia was originally discovered in 1975 in a rock shelter by a joint French-Brazilian expedition that was working not far from Belo Horizonte, Brazil. The skull, which was separated from the rest of the skeleton but was in good condition, was buried under more than forty feet of mineral deposits. There were no human remains at the site. New dating of the bones announced in 2013 confirmed that at an age of 10,030 ±60 14C yr BP, Luzia is one of the most ancient American human skeletons ever discovered. Forensics have determined that Luzia died in her early 20s, although flint tools were found nearby, hers are the only human remains in Vermelha Cave. Her facial features include a narrow, oval cranium, projecting face and pronounced chin, strikingly dissimilar to most Native Americans, anthropologists have variously described Luzias features as resembling those of Negroids, Indigenous Australians, Melanesians and the Negritos of Southeast Asia. Walter Neves, an anthropologist at the University of São Paulo, richard Neave of Manchester University, who undertook a forensic facial reconstruction of Luzia described it as negroid. The oldest confirmed date for an archaeosite in the Americas is 18,500 and 14,500 cal BP. for the Monte Verde site in southern Chile. A comparison in 2005 of the Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais specimens, with modern Aimoré people of the region, also showed strong affinities. Luzia stood just under five feet tall—about one-third of her skeleton has been recovered and her remains seem to indicate that she died either in an accident or as the result of an animal attack. She was a member of a group of hunter-gatherers

3.
Indigenous peoples in Brazil
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Unlike Christopher Columbus, who thought he had reached the East Indies, the Portuguese, most notably Vasco da Gama, had already reached India via the Indian Ocean route when they reached Brazil. At the time of European contact, some of the people were traditionally mostly semi-nomadic tribes who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering. The indigenous population was killed by European diseases, declining from a pre-Columbian high of millions to some 300,000. However, the number could be higher if the urban indigenous populations are counted in all the Brazilian cities today. A somewhat dated linguistic survey found 188 living indigenous languages with 155,000 total speakers, on January 18,2007, FUNAI reported that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition Brazil has now surpassed New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted people, in the last IBGE census,817,000 Brazilians classified themselves as indigenous. Questions about the settlement of the Americas has produced a number of hypothetical models. The origins of indigenous people are still a matter of dispute among archaeologists. A migrant wave would have some time after initial entry to reach present-day Brazil. An analysis of Amerindian Y-chromosome DNA indicates specific clustering of much of the South American population, according to an autosomal genetic study from 2012, Native Americans descend of at least three main migrant waves from East Asia. Most of it is traced back to an ancestral population. However, those who speak Inuit languages from the Arctic inherited almost half of their ancestry from a second East Asian migrant wave, and those who speak Na-dene, on the other hand, inherited a tenth of their ancestry from a third migrant wave. The initial settling of the Americas was followed by a rapid expansion southwards, by the coast, with gene flow later. One exception to this are the Chibcha speakers, whose ancestry comes from both North and South America, linguistic studies have backed up genetic studies, with ancient patterns having been found between the languages spoken in Siberia and those spoken in the Americas. Two 2015 autosomal DNA genetic studies confirmed the Siberian origins of the Natives of the Americas, however an ancient signal of shared ancestry with the Natives of Australia and Melanesia was detected among the Natives of the Amazon region. The migration coming out of Siberia would have happened 23000 years ago, following a rapid movement throughout the Americas, limited gene flow in South America resulted in a marked phylogeographic structure of populations, which persisted through time. All of the ancient mitochondrial lineages detected in this study were absent from modern data sets, to investigate this further, we applied a novel principal components multiple logistic regression test to Bayesian serial coalescent simulations. The analysis supported a scenario in which European colonization caused a loss of pre-Columbian lineages

4.
Marajoara culture
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The Marajoara or Marajó culture was a pre-Columbian era society that flourished on Marajó island at the mouth of the Amazon River. In a survey, Charles C. Mann suggests the culture appeared to flourish between 800 AD and 1400 AD, based on archeological studies, researchers have documented that there was human activity at these sites as early as 1000 BCE. The culture seems to have persisted into the colonial era, archeologists have found sophisticated pottery in their excavations on the island. These pieces are large, and elaborately painted and incised with representations of plants and these provided the first evidence that a complex society had existed on Marajó. The extent, level of complexity, and resource interactions of the Marajoara culture have been disputed, working in the 1950s in some of her earliest research, American Betty Meggers suggested that the society migrated from the Andes and settled on the island. Many researchers believed that the Andes were populated by Paleoindian migrants from North America who gradually moved south after being hunters on the plains, in the 1980s, another American archeologist, Anna Curtenius Roosevelt, led excavations and geophysical surveys of the mound Teso dos Bichos. She concluded that the society constructed the mounds originated on the island itself. The pre-Columbian culture of Marajó may have developed social stratification and supported a population as large as 100,000 people, thus, the large Marajoara mounds or tesos are not entirely manmade. Rather, the took advantage of the natural, preexisting elevated surfaces. This interpretation suggests less cumulative labor investment in the construction of the mounds, the earliest phase of human activity on Marajo Island is known as the Ananatuba phase. Plant remains on Marajo Island show a pattern that relied heavily on small seed crops, as well as small fish. Many of the seed remains have not yet been identified, though they seem to be herbaceous. Trees such as the acai and tucuma palms also provided important supplements in the Marajo diet, since small fish make up the majority of biomass fauna and there are relatively few terrestrial animals, it follows that pre-historic peoples focused on the abundant populations of small fish. The method for catching fish was likely similar to present-day techniques. This method of harvesting is not as useful in the rainy season as it is during the dry months when fish are trapped in receding streams or ponds. The agricultural technology at Marajo is limited to, primarily, stone axes that were introduced in the Marajoara Phase, other stone artifacts include griddles found at Teso Dos Bichos during Roosevelt’s excavations, although these are very rare. Their rarity is another marker of the absence of root crops from the diet at Marajo, earthen mounds, unlike lithic artifacts, are abundant. They were used for purposes as well as for habitation

5.
Colonial Brazil
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Slaves, especially those brought from Africa, provided most of the working force of the Brazilian export economy after a brief period of Indian slavery to cut brazilwood. The boom and bust economic cycles were linked to export products, gold and diamonds were discovered and mined in southern Brazil through the end of the colonial era. Brazilian cities were largely port cities and the administrative capital was moved several times in response to the rise. Unlike Spanish America that fragmented in many republics, Brazil remained as an administrative unit with a monarch. Like Spanish America with European Spanish, Brazil had linguistic integrity of Portuguese, both Spanish America and Brazil were Roman Catholic. The Portuguese identified brazilwood as a red dye and an exploitable product. Its maritime exploration then proceeded down the coast of West Africa and they sought the sources of gold, ivory, and African slaves that were high value goods of the African trade. The Portuguese set up fortified trading factories, whereby permanent, fairly small commercial settlements anchored trade in a region, the initial costs of setting up these commercial posts was borne by private investors, who in turn received hereditary titles and commercial advantages. From the Portuguese crowns point of view, its realm was expanded with relatively little cost to itself, the most decisive of these treaties was the Treaty of Tordesillas, signed in 1494, that created the Tordesillas Meridian, dividing the world between those two kingdoms. All land discovered or to be discovered east of that meridian was to be the property of Portugal, the Tordesillas Meridian divided South America into two parts, leaving a large chunk of land to be exploited by the Spaniards. The Treaty of Tordesillas was arguably the most decisive event in all Brazilian history, the present extent of Brazils coastline is almost exactly that defined by the treaty of Madrid, which was approved in 1750. On April 22,1500, during the reign of King Manuel I, although it is debated whether previous Portuguese explorers had already been in Brazil, this date is widely and politically accepted as the day of the discovery of Brazil by Europeans. Álvares Cabral was leading a fleet of 13 ships and more than 1000 men following Vasco da Gamas way to India. The place where Álvares Cabral arrived is now known as Porto Seguro, after the voyage of Álvares Cabral, the Portuguese concentrated their efforts on the lucrative possessions in Africa and India and showed little interest in Brazil. Between 1500 and 1530, relatively few Portuguese expeditions came to the new land to chart the coast, in Europe, this wood was used to produce a valuable dye to give color to luxury textiles. Over time, the Portuguese realized that some European countries, especially France, were also sending excursions to the land to extract brazilwood. Worried about foreign incursions and hoping to find riches, the Portuguese crown decided to send large missions to take possession of the land. In 1530, an expedition led by Martim Afonso de Sousa arrived in Brazil to patrol the entire coast, ban the French, at first, Brazil was set up as fifteen private, hereditary captaincies

6.
2nd Portuguese India Armada (Cabral, 1500)
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The Second Portuguese India Armada was assembled in 1500 on the order of King Manuel I of Portugal and placed under the command of Pedro Álvares Cabral. Cabrals armada famously discovered Brazil for the Portuguese crown along the way, by and large, the 2nd Armadas diplomatic mission to India failed, and provoked the opening of hostilities between the Kingdom of Portugal and the feudal city-state of Calicut, ruled by Zamorins. Nonetheless, it managed to establish a factory in the nearby Kingdom of Cochin, the first India Armada, commanded by Vasco da Gama, arrived in Portugal in the summer of 1499, in a rather sorry shape. Battles, disease and storms had taken their toll—half of his ships, nonetheless, Gama had opened up the sea route to India via the Cape of Good Hope and secured good relations with the African city-state of Malindi, a critical staging post along the way. On the orders of King Manuel I of Portugal, arrangements began to assemble a Second Armada in Cascais. Many details of the composition of the fleet are missing, only three ship names are known, and there is some conflict among the sources on the naming of the captains. The following list of ships should not be regarded as authoritative, neither of the two eyewitnesses—the Anonymous Portuguese pilot and Pêro Vaz de Caminha—give a list of captains. The Second Armada would be headed by the Portuguese nobleman Pedro Álvares Cabral, Cabral had no notable naval or military experience, his appointment as capitão-mor of the armada being largely a political one. The exiled Castillian nobleman Sancho de Tovar was designated vice-admiral and successor should anything befall Cabral, veteran pilot Pedro Escobar was given the overall technical command of the expedition. Other veterans of the first armada include captain Nicolau Coelho, pilot Pêro de Alenquer and clerks Afonso Lopes, going as captains were the famed navigator Bartolomeu Dias and his brother Diogo Dias. Most of the ships were either carracks or caravels and at least one was a supply ship, although details on names. At least two ships, Cabrals flagship and Tovars El Rei, were said to be around 240t, ten ships were destined for Calicut, while two ships were destined for Sofala and one was destined to be scuttled and burnt along the way. At least two ships were owned and outfitted. The remainder belonged to the Portuguese crown, accompanying the expedition as translator was Gaspar da Gama as well as four Hindu hostages from Zamorins kingdom taken by da Gama in 1498 during negotiations. Also aboard is the ambassador of the Sultan of Malindi, who had come with Gama, other passengers on the expedition included Aires Correia, designated factor for Calicut, his secretary Pêro Vaz de Caminha, Sofala factor Afonso Furtado and clerk Martinho Neto. Accompanying the trip was the physician and amateur astronomer, Master João Faras. One chronicler suggests that the knight Duarte Pacheco Pereira was also aboard, the fleet carried some twenty Portuguese degredados, who could fulfill their sentences by being abandoned along the shores of various places and exploring inland on the crowns behalf. The priority was to secure a treaty with Zamorins Calicut, the principal commercial entrepôt of the Kerala spice trade and dominant feudal city-state on the Malabar coast of India

7.
Treaty of Tordesillas
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This line of demarcation was about halfway between the Cape Verde islands and the islands entered by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage, named in the treaty as Cipangu and Antilia. The lands to the east would belong to Portugal and the lands to the west to Castile, the treaty was signed by Spain,2 July 1494 and by Portugal,5 September 1494. Originals of both treaties are kept at the Archivo General de Indias in Spain and at the Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo in Portugal. This treaty would be observed fairly well by Spain and Portugal, despite considerable ignorance as to the geography of the New World, however and those countries generally ignored the treaty, particularly those that became Protestant after the Protestant Reformation. The Treaty of Tordesillas was intended to solve the dispute that had been created following the return of Christopher Columbus and his crew, on his way back to Spain he first reached Lisbon, in Portugal. There he asked for another meeting with King John II to show him the newly discovered lands, also, the Portuguese King stated that he was already making arrangements for a fleet to depart shortly and take possession of the new lands. After reading the letter the Catholic Monarchs knew they did not have any power in the Atlantic to match the Portuguese. The bull did not mention Portugal or its lands, so Portugal could not claim newly discovered lands even if they were east of the line. The Portuguese King John II was not pleased with that arrangement, feeling that it gave him far too little land—it prevented him from possessing India, by 1493 Portuguese explorers had reached the southern tip of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope. The Portuguese were unlikely to go to war over the islands encountered by Columbus, the treaty effectively countered the bulls of Alexander VI but was subsequently sanctioned by Pope Julius II by means of the bull Ea quae pro bono pacis of 24 January 1506. Even though the treaty was negotiated without consulting the Pope, a few sources call the line the Papal Line of Demarcation. Very little of the divided area had actually been seen by Europeans. Castile gained lands including most of the Americas, which in 1494 had little proven wealth, the easternmost part of current Brazil was granted to Portugal when in 1500 Pedro Álvares Cabral landed there while he was en route to India. Some historians contend that the Portuguese already knew of the South American bulge that makes up most of Brazil before this time, the line was not strictly enforced—the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. However, the Catholic Monarchs attempted to stop the Portuguese advance in Asia, by claiming the meridian line ran around the world, Portugal pushed back, seeking another papal pronouncement that limited the line of demarcation to the Atlantic. This was given by Pope Leo X, who was friendly toward Portugal and its discoveries, for a period between 1580 and 1640, the treaty was rendered meaningless, as the Spanish King was also King of Portugal. It was superseded by the 1750 Treaty of Madrid which granted Portugal control of the lands it occupied in South America, however, the latter treaty was immediately repudiated by the Catholic Monarch. The First Treaty of San Ildefonso settled the problem, with Spain acquiring territories east of the Uruguay River, the Treaty of Tordesillas only specified the line of demarcation in leagues from the Cape Verde Islands

8.
Captaincies of Brazil
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Each was granted to a single donee, a Portuguese nobleman who was given the title captain General. Except for two, São Vicente and Pernambuco, they were administrative and economic failures and they were effectively subsumed by the Governorates General and the States of Brazil and Maranhão starting in 1549, and the last of the privately granted captaincies reverted to the Crown in 1754. Their final boundaries in the half of the eighteenth century became the basis of the provinces of Brazil. The captaincies were drawn as parallel to the equator, commencing at the Atlantic coast. They were established by King John III of Portugal in 1534, within a system of royal patronage and nepotism, five of the captaincies were given to two cousins of finance minister António de Ataíde, Martim Afonso de Sousa and his brother Pero Lopes. An additional captaincy was issued to Pero de Gois, captain of Afonsos 1530 expedition, the remaining captaincies were granted to a trusted mixture of military men and court bureaucrats. So actual heights varied, as shown in the map at right, initially fifteen, they were granted to twelve donees. They were the following, All but four captaincies failed, due to resources of the donees. Four donees failed to take possession of their lands, and four more succumbed to Indians. Only four captaincies survived past 1549, São Vicente, Pernambuco, Ilhéus, in 1549, in order to solve the governance problem of his South American colonies, King John III of Portugal established the Governorate General of Brazil. The governorate united the fifteen colonies into a colony. Thereafter, the Governorates split and merged, shuffling captaincies among them and their powers then reverted to the Crown, and the donatary captaincies became Crown Captaincies with royal officials in place of the former grantees. The history of the captaincies is one of constant subordination, annexation and division, at least fifteen donatary captaincies were granted through the middle of the 18th century, carved out of royal captaincies. New royal captaincies were carved out of existing ones. Some complications result from captaincies being merged and recreated with the same name, at least a few of the later captaincies were islands or capes of negligible size. Dates are of independent captaincies, in cases, new captaincies were created as administrative divisions or subcaptaincies of existing ones before becoming fully independent. The Captaincy of São Vicente, called São Paulo after the city of São Paulo became its capital in 1681, in 1621, these became the basis for the southeastern State of Brazil. In 1815, the State of Brazil was elevated to a kingdom and all existing provinces and Crown captaincies became provinces of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, thirteen modern states have names of their predecessor captaincies, and several cities

9.
Bandeirantes
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The Bandeirantes were 17th-century Portuguese settlers in Brazil and fortune hunters. This group mostly hailed from the São Paulo region, which was known as the Captaincy of São Vicente until 1709, the São Paulo settlement served as the home base for the most famous bandeirantes. Most bandeirantes were descendants of first- and second-generation Portuguese who settled in São Paulo, though they originally aimed to capture and force Indigenous Americans into slavery, the bandeirantes later began to focus their expeditions on finding gold, silver, and diamond mines. As they ventured into unmapped regions in search of profit and adventure, the main focus of the bandeirantes earlier missions was to enslave native populations. They carried this out by disguising themselves as Jesuits, often singing mass to lure the natives out of their settlements, however, they usually relied on surprise attacks. If luring the natives with promises did not work, the bandeirantes would surround the settlements and set them alight, forcing inhabitants out into the open. At a time when imported African slaves sold from $100–$500 the bandeirantes were able to large numbers of native slaves at a huge profit due to their relatively inexpensive price. The first bandeira took place in 1628 and was organized by Antônio Raposo Tavares and this bandeira raided 21 Jesuit villages in the upper Paraná Valley, ultimately capturing about 2,500 natives. A bandeira tactic was to set native tribes against each other in order to weaken them, and then to enslave both sides. In 1628, Tavares led a bandeira, composed of 2,000 allied Indians,900 mamelucos and this expedition alone was responsible for the destruction of most of the Jesuit missions of Spanish Guayrá and the enslavement of over 60,000 indigenous people. The expedition travelled to Andean Quito, part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru, of the 1,200 men who left São Paulo, only 60 reached their final destination in Belém. In addition to capturing natives as slaves, bandeiras also helped to extend the power of Portugal by expanding its control over the Brazilian interior. Along with the exploration and settlement of territory the bandeiras also discovered mineral wealth for the Portuguese. In the 1660s, the Portuguese government offered rewards to those who discovered gold, so the bandeirantes, driven by greed, ventured into the depths of Brazil not only to enslave natives, but also to find mines and receive government rewards. As the number of natives diminished, the bandeirantes began to more intensely on finding minerals. The bandeirantes were responsible for the discovery of mineral wealth, and along with the missionaries, for the enlargement of central. This mineral wealth made Portugal wealthy during the 18th century, Taunay, Afonso de E. Relatos Sertanistas, Ed. São Paulo University * Taunay, Afonso de E. História das Bandeiras Paulistas, melhoramentos Franco, Francisco de Assis Carvalho, Dicionário de Bandeirantes e Sertanistas do Brasil, Ed

10.
Slavery in Brazil
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Slavery in Brazil began long before the first Portuguese settlement was established in 1532, as members of one tribe would enslave captured members of another. The importation of African slaves began midway through the 16th century, during the Atlantic slave trade era, Brazil imported more African slaves than any other country. An estimated 4.9 million slaves from Africa came to Brazil during the period from 1501 to 1866, until the early 1850s, most enslaved Africans who arrived on Brazilian shores were forced to embark at West Central African ports, especially in Luanda. Today, with the exception of Nigeria, the largest population of people of African descent is in Brazil, Slave labor was the driving force behind the growth of the sugar economy in Brazil, and sugar was the primary export of the colony from 1600–1650. Gold and diamond deposits were discovered in Brazil in 1690, which sparked an increase in the importation of African slaves to power this newly profitable market, transportation systems were developed for the mining infrastructure, and population boomed from immigrants seeking to take part in gold and diamond mining. Demand for African slaves did not wane after the decline of the industry in the second half of the 18th century. Cattle ranching and foodstuff production proliferated after the growth, both of which relied heavily on slave labor. 1.7 million slaves were imported to Brazil from Africa from 1700 to 1800, Brazil was the last country in the Western world to abolish slavery. By the time it was abolished, in 1888, a four million slaves had been imported from Africa to Brazil. Slaves exported from Africa during this period of the Portuguese slave trade primarily came from Mauritania. Scholars estimate that as many as 156,000 slaves were exported from 1441 to 1521 to Iberia, the trade made the shift from Europe to the Americas as a primary destination for slaves around 1518. Prior to this time, slaves were required to pass through Portugal to be taxed before making their way to the Americas, the Portuguese first traveled to Brazil in 1500 under the expedition of Pedro Álvares Cabral, though the first Portuguese settlement was not established until 1532. Long before Europeans came to Brazil and began colonization, indigenous groups such as the Papanases, the Guaianases, the captured lived and worked with their new communities as trophies to the tribe’s martial prowess. Some enslaved would eventually escape but could never re-attain their previous status in their own tribe because of the social stigma against slavery. During their time in the new tribe, enslaved indigenous would even marry as a sign of acceptance, for the enslaved of cannibalistic tribes, execution for devouring purposes could happen at any moment. While other tribes did not consume flesh, their enslaved were still put to work, imprisoned, used as hostages. The colonization effort proved to be a difficult undertaking on such a vast continent and these indigenous enslaving expeditions were known as bandeiras. These expeditions were composed of Bandeirantes, adventurers who penetrated steadily westward in their search for Indian slaves

11.
France Antarctique
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France Antarctique was a French colony south of the Equator, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which existed between 1555 and 1567, and had control over the coast from Rio de Janeiro to Cabo Frio. The colony quickly became a haven for the Huguenots, and was destroyed by the Portuguese in 1567. Europeans first arrived in Brazil in April 1500, when a fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral on behalf of the Portuguese crown arrived in present-day Porto Seguro, except for Salvador and São Vicente, however, the territory still remained largely unexplored half a century later. His travels were succeeded by that of Binot Paulmier de Gonneville in 1504 onboard LEspoir, Gonneville affirmed that when he visited Brazil, French traders from Saint-Malo and Dieppe had already been trading there for several years. France continued to trade with Brazil, especially loading Brazilwood, for its use as a red dyes for textiles. In 1550, in the entry for Henry II of France, at Rouen, about fifty men depicted naked Indians. The fort was named in honor of Gaspard de Coligny, an admiral who supported the expedition, Villegaignon secured his position by making an alliance with the Tamoio and Tupinambá Indians of the region, who were fighting the Portuguese. Unchallenged by the Portuguese, who took little notice of his landing. He sent one of his ships, the Grande Roberge, to Honfleur, entrusted with letters to King Henry II, Gaspard de Coligny and according to some accounts, the Protestant leader John Calvin. They were joined by 14 Calvinists from Geneva, led by Philippe de Corguilleray, including theologians Pierre Richier, the relief fleet was composed of, The Petite Roberge, with 80 soldiers and sailors was led by Vice Admiral Sieur De Bois le Comte. The Grande Roberge, with about 120 on board, captained by Sieur de Sainte-Marie dit lEspine, the Rosée, with about 90 people, led by Captain Rosée. Doctrinal disputes arose between Villegagnon and the Calvinists, especially in relation to the Eucharist, and in October 1557 the Calvinists were banished from Coligny island as a result. In 1560 Mem de Sá, the new Governor-General of Brazil, Admiral Villegaignon had returned to France in 1558, disgusted with the religious tension that existed between French Protestants and Catholics, who had come also with the second group. Estácio de Sá founded the city of Rio de Janeiro on March 1,1565, colignys and Villegaignons dream had lasted a mere 12 years. Largely in response to the two attempts of France to conquer territory in Brazil, between 1612 and 1615, the Portuguese crown decided to expand its efforts in Brazil. In the 17th century, France again briefly established a colony in Brazil with the establishment of France Equinoxiale, investors in this venture doubled their money, and Duguay-Trouin earned a promotion to Lieutenant général de la Marine. André Thevet, Les singularités de la France antartique,1558, French in Brazil, Saint-Alexis, France Antarctique and Sao Luis de Maranhao

12.
Equinoctial France
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All of these settlements were in violation of the papal bull of 1493, which divided the New World between Spain and Portugal. This division was defined more exactly by the Treaty of Tordesillas. Carrying 500 colonists, it arrived in the Northern coast of what is today the Brazilian state of Maranhão, de la Ravardière had discovered the region in 1604 but the death of the king postponed his plans to start its colonization. The colonists soon founded a village, which was named Saint-Louis and this later became São Luís in Portuguese, the only Brazilian state capital founded by France. On 8 September, Capuchin friars prayed the first mass, an important difference in relation to France Antarctique is that this new colony was not motivated by escape from religious persecutions to Protestants. The colony did not last long, thus, it repeated the disaster spelt for the colonists of France Antarctique, in 1567. A few years later, in 1620, Portuguese and Brazilian colonists arrived in number and São Luís started to develop, with an economy based mostly in sugar cane and slavery. French traders and colonists tried again to settle a France Équinoxiale further North, in what is today French Guiana, twice a Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale was founded, in 1643 and 1645, but both foundered as a result of misfortune and mismanagement. It was only after 1674, when the colony came under the control of the French crown and a competent Governor took office. To this day, French Guiana is a department of France, History of French Guiana History of Brazil Antarctic France French colonisation of the Americas List of French possessions and colonies

13.
Palmares (quilombo)
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Palmares, or Quilombo dos Palmares, was a fugitive community of escaped slaves and others in colonial Brazil that developed from 1605 until its suppression in 1694. It was located in what is today the Brazilian state of Alagoas, the modern tradition has been to call the settlement the Quilombo of Palmares. Quilombos were settlements mainly of survivors and free-born enslaved African people, the Quilombos came into existence when Africans began arriving in Brazil in the mid-1530s and grew significantly as slavery expanded. No contemporary document calls Palmares a quilombo, instead the term mocambo is used, Palmares was home to not only escaped enslaved Africans, but also to mulattos, caboclos, Indians and poor whites, especially Portuguese soldiers trying to escape forced military service. One estimate places the population of Palmares in the 1690s at around 20,000 inhabitants, stuart Schwartz places the number at roughly 11,000, noting that it was, regardless, undoubtedly the largest fugitive community to have existed in Brazil. These inhabitants developed a society and government that derived from a range of Central African sociopolitical models and this government was confederate in nature, and was led by an elected chief who allocated landholdings, appointed officials, and resided in a type of fortification called Macoco. Six Portuguese expeditions tried to conquer Palmares between 1680 and 1686, but failed, as early as 1602, Portuguese settlers complained to the government that their captives were running away into this inaccessible region and building mocambos, or small communities. However, the Portuguese were unable to dislodge these communities, which were small and scattered. In 1630 the Dutch West India Company sent a fleet to conquer Pernambuco, in the context of the Dutch-Portuguese War, although they captured and held the city of Recife, they were unable to conquer the rest of the province. As a result, there was a constant low-intensity war between Dutch and Portuguese settlers, during this time thousands of enslaved people escaped and went to the Palmares. Although initially the Dutch considered making an alliance with Palmares against the Portuguese, consequently, the Dutch leader John Maurice of Nassau decided to send expeditions against Palmares. These expeditions also collected intelligence about them, and it is from these accounts that we learn about the organization of Palmares in their time, by the 1640s, many of the mocambos had consolidated into larger entities ruled by kings. Dutch descriptions by Kaspar Barlei and Johan Nieuhoff spoke of two larger consolidated entities, Great Palmares and Little Palmares, in each of these units there was a large central town that was fortified and held 5, 000-6,000 people. The surrounding hills and valleys were filled with many more mocambos of 50 to 100 people. A description of the visit of Johan Blaer to one of the larger mocambos in 1645 revealed that there were 220 buildings in the community, a church, four smithies, and a council house. Churches were common in Palmares partly because Angolans were frequently Christianized, either from the Portuguese colony or from the Kingdom of Kongo, others had been converted to Christianity while enslaved. According to the Dutch, they used a person who knew something of the church as a priest. After 1654 the Dutch were expelled, and the Portuguese began organizing expeditions against the mocambos of Palmares, in the post-Iberian Union period, the kingdoms of Palmares grew and became even more consolidated

14.
Dutch Brazil
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Dutch Brazil, also known as New Holland, was the northern portion of the Portuguese colony of Brazil, ruled by the Dutch during the Dutch colonization of the Americas between 1630 and 1654. The main cities of the Nieuw Nederland were the capital Mauritsstad, Frederikstadt, Nieuw Amsterdam, Saint Louis, São Cristóvão, Fortaleza, Sirinhaém, from 1630 onward, the Dutch Republic conquered almost half of Brazils area at the time, with their capital in Recife. The Dutch West India Company set up their headquarters in Recife, the governor, Johan Maurits, invited artists and scientists to the colony to help promote Brazil and increase immigration. However, the tide turned against the Dutch when the Portuguese won a significant victory at the Second Battle of Guararapes in 1649, on 26 January 1654, the Dutch surrendered and signed the capitulation, but only as a provisory pact. By May 1654, the Dutch demanded that the Dutch Republic was to be given New Holland back, on 6 August 1661, New Holland was formally ceded to Portugal through the Treaty of The Hague. While of only transitional importance for the Dutch, this period was of importance in the History of Brazil. The Low Countries had long been part of the Spanish Empire, however, in 1568 the Eighty Years War broke out, a consequence of the war was Dutch raiding of Spanish lands, colonies, and ships. In 1594 Phillip II, who was king both of Spain and of Portugal, gave permission for Dutch ships bound for Brazil to sail together once a year in a fleet of twenty ships. As part of the truce, the Dutch also agreed to delay the creation of a West India Company, by the end of the truce, the Dutch had vastly expanded its trade networks, and gained over half of the carrying trade between Brazil and Europe. There were 29 sugar refineries in the Northern Netherlands by 1622, in 1621, the twelve-year peace treaty expired and the Dutch West India Company was immediately created. The Dutch–Portuguese War resumed, and through the new company, the Dutch now started to interfere with the Spanish, the expedition consisted of 26 ships and 3,300 men. They arrived there on May 8,1624, on which Portuguese Governor Diogo Tristão de Mendonça Furtado surrendered to the Dutch. However, by April 30,1625, the Portuguese recaptured the city, with the help of a combined Spanish and Portuguese force, the city was to then play a critical role as a base of the Portuguese struggle against the Dutch for the control of Brazil. In 1628, the seizure of a Spanish silver convoy by Piet Heyn in Matanzas Bay provided the Dutch WIC the funds for another attempt to conquer Brazil at Pernambuco. In the summer of 1629, the Dutch coveted a newfound interest in obtaining the Brazilian state of Pernambuco, the largest and richest sugar-producing area in the world. The Dutch fleet of 65 ships was led by Hendrick Corneliszoon Loncq, the WIC gained control of Olinda by February 16,1630, and Recife and António Vaz by March 3. Matias de Albuquerque, the Portuguese governor, led a strong Portuguese resistance which hindered the Dutch from developing their forts on the lands which they had captured. By 1631, the Dutch left Olinda and tried to control of the Fort of Cabedello on Paraíba, the Rio Grande, Rio Formoso

15.
Jesuit reduction
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A Jesuit reduction was a type of settlement for indigenous people in South America created by the Jesuit Order during the 17th and 18th centuries. The strategy of the Spanish Empire was to gather native populations into centers called Indian reductions, in order to Christianize, tax, the Jesuit interpretation of this strategy was implemented primarily in an area that corresponds to modern-day Paraguay amongst the Tupi-Guarani peoples. Later reductions were extended into areas now part of Argentina, Brazil, to understand the impetus behind these Jesuit efforts, one must take into account the widespread Catholic belief about baptism, current at that time. It would be centuries before the Catholic church would reconsider its glum appraisal of the chances of salvation for those not baptized into the Church, from this came the heroic efforts of missionaries to the detriment of native cultures, which few today could countenance. Jesuit reductions were different from the reductions in other regions because the people were expected to convert to Christianity. Under the leadership of both the Jesuits and native caciques, the reductions achieved a degree of autonomy within the Spanish colonial empire. With the use of Indian labour, the reductions became economically successful, when their existence was threatened by the incursions of Bandeirante slave traders, Indian militia were created that fought effectively against the colonists. In the 16th century, priests of different religious orders set out to evangelize the Americas, legally, under colonial rule, Indians were classified as minors, in effect children, to be protected and guided to salvation by European missionaries. The Jesuit reductions originated in the seventeenth century when Bishop Lizarraga asked for missionaries for Paraguay. In 1609, acting under instructions from Phillip III, the Spanish governor of Asunción made a deal with the Jesuit Provincial of Paraguay. The Jesuits agreed to set up hamlets at strategic points along the Paraná river, the Jesuits were to enjoy a tax holiday for ten years which extended longer. This mission strategy continued for 150 years until the Jesuits were expelled in 1767, fundamentally the purpose, as far as the government was concerned, was to safeguard the frontier with the reductions where Indians were introduced to European culture. In 1609 three Jesuits began the first mission in San Ignacio Guazú, in the next 25 years,15 missions were founded in the province of Guayrá. But since some of these were within the Portuguese area they were subjected to frequent destructive raids by Bandeirantes of São Paulo to enslave the Indians. In 1631 most of the reductions moved west into Uruguay which was under Spanish jurisdiction, the missions also secured the Spanish Crowns permission, and some arms, to raise militias of Indians to defend the reductions against raids. The bandeirantes followed the reductions into Spanish territory and in 1641 the Indian militia stopped them at Mbororé, the militias could number as many as 4,000 troops and their cavalry was especially effective, wearing European-style uniforms and carrying bows and arrows as well as muskets. What came to be known as the War of the Reductions ended when a force of 3,000 combined Spanish and Portuguese troops crushed the revolt in 1756. The reductions came to be considered a threat by the authorities and were caught up in the growing attack on the Jesuits in Europe for unrelated reasons

16.
War of the Emboabas
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The War of the Emboabas, was a war waged in the early 18th century between two generations of Portuguese settlers in the viceroyalty of Brazil - then the Captaincy of São Vicente. Their goal was to capture new Indian slaves, recapture runaway slaves and their search was rewarded in a then inaccessible area just north of their original Capitania that was to become Minas dos Matos Gerais. The problem was that the mines, while rich, were in a vast area they couldnt effectively settle, the Bandeirantes, or simply Paulistas, tried to assert rights of precedence but were defeated. São Sebastião became the city of the viceroyalty and later of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil. As soon as news of the discovery of gold spread thousands of people moved to the area, the term is derived from the tupi mbóaba which literally means hairy leg. Originally the term referred to birds with feathered legs and as, unlike the pioneers, regulation of the distribution of mines between Emboabas and Paulistas. Regulation of collection of the quinto do ouro tax, breakup on 3 November 1709 of the Province of São Vicente into São Paulo e Minas de Ouro and Rio de Janeiro, ruled directly by the Crown. End of the wars in the areas with the crown assuming the administrative control of the region. The defeat of Paulistas caused some of them to move west where, years later, they would discover new gold deposits in the current states of Mato Grosso do Sul, Mato Grosso and Goiás. The production of gold after the war increased so that Minas Gerais became the richest region of Brazil between 1740 and 1760, leme, Pedro Taques de Almeida Paes, Nobiliarquia Paulistana Histórica e Genealógica, Ed. Taunay, Afonso de E. Relatos Sertanistas, Ed, São Paulo University Taunay, Afonso de E. História das Bandeiras Paulistas, Ed. Melhoramentos Franco, Francisco de Assis Carvalho, Dicionário de Bandeirantes e Sertanistas do Brasil, São Paulo University, São Paulo, Ed Itatiaia, Belo Horizonte Mello, José Soares de. São Paulo, Governo do estado de São Paulo,1942, O índio na história do Brasil. O retrato do rei São Paulo, Companhia das Letras,1991

17.
Mascate War
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The Mascate War, also known as the War of the Peddlers, was a conflict fought between two rival mercantile groups in colonial Brazil from Oct.1710 to Aug.1711. On one side were landowners and sugar mill owners concentrated in Olinda, on the other were Portuguese traders in Recife, pejoratively called peddlers. It ended with a siege of Recife by planter militas. The installation of a new governor by the crown favoring the peddlers resulted in razing, a lack of capital to invest in crops, equipment and manpower, combined with the declining price of sugar due to competition from European powers investments in the West Indies, caused a crisis. In an effort to resolve this, the planters of Olinda began to borrow money from traders in the settlement of Recife. At that time, Portuguese traders living in Recife agreed to lend money to the planters in Olinda, aware of Recifes economic importance, merchants asked king of Portugal that the settlement be elevated to town status. In February 1709, shortly after receiving the Royal Charter which declared it a town, merchants erected the town hall, Recife was formally separated from Olinda, the seat of the Captaincy. Economically dependent on Portuguese merchants, the landowners did not accept the Pernambuco political-administrative emancipation of Recife, the emancipation of Recife was seen as an aggravating the situation of local landowners before the bourgeoisie Portuguese, which by this mechanism put them at the level of political equality. As the separation between the two cities was being implemented in 1710, the lords of Olinda revolted, with mill owner Bernardo Vieira de Melo among their leaders, no condition to resist, the wealthiest merchants of Recife fled to avoid being captured. This, in turn, in order to ensure their safety, he withdrew to Bahia, the crown appointed a new governor Félix José de Mendonça. The peddlers fought back in 1712, invading Olinda and causing fires and destroying villages, the new governor and the intervention of troops sent from Bahia ended the war. The commercial bourgeoisie was supported by the metropolis, and Recife maintained its autonomy, the city intervened in the region in 1711, arresting the leaders of the rebellion. Finally after much struggling, which included the intervention of colonial authorities, with the victory of the merchants, the war reaffirmed the dominance of merchant capital on the colonial production

18.
Brazilian Gold Rush
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The Brazilian Gold Rush was a gold rush that started in the 18th century, in the then Portuguese colony of Brazil. The rush opened up the major gold-producing area of Ouro Preto, the rush began when bandeirantes discovered large gold deposits in the mountains of Minas Gerais. The bandeirantes were adventurers who organized themselves into groups to explore the interior of Brazil. Many bandeirantes were of mixed indigenous and European background who adopted the ways of the natives, while the bandeirantes searched for indigenous captives, they also searched for mineral wealth, which led to the gold being discovered. More than 400,000 Portuguese and half a million African slaves came to the region to mine. Many people abandoned the plantations and towns in the northeast coast to go to the gold region. By 1725, half the population of Brazil was living in southeastern Brazil, officially,850 tons of gold were sent to Portugal in the XVIII century. Other gold circulated illegally, and still other gold remained in the colony to adorn churches, in the 18th century, Ouro Preto became for a time the most populous city in the New World, with an estimated population of 80,000 in 1750. At that time, the population of New York was half that number, Minas Gerais was the gold mining center of Brazil. Slave labor was used for the workforce. The discovery of gold in the area caused an influx of European immigrants. They set up numerous bureaucracies, often with conflicting duties and jurisdictions, the officials generally proved unequal to the task of controlling this highly lucrative industry. In 1830, the St. John del Rey Mining Company, controlled by the British, the British brought in modern management techniques and engineering expertise. Located in Nova Lima, the mine produced ore for 125 years, erário Mineral, author Luís Gomes Ferreira Brazilian Gold Gold mining in Brazil Chilean silver rush Tierra del Fuego Gold Rush

19.
Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil
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The transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil refers to the escape of the Queen Maria I of Portugal, Braganza royal family and its court of nearly 15,000 people from Lisbon on November 29,1807. The Braganza royal family departed for the Portuguese colony of Brazil just days before Napoleonic forces invaded Lisbon on December 1, the Portuguese crown remained in Brazil from 1808 until the Liberal Revolution of 1820 led to the return of John VI of Portugal on April 26,1821. The prince regent of Portugal at the time, John VI, had governed the country on behalf of Maria I of Portugal since 1799. Anticipating the invasion of Napoleons army, John VI ordered the transfer of the Portuguese royal court to Brazil before he could be deposed. On December 5, almost halfway between Lisbon and Madeira, Sidney Smith, along with Britains envoy to Lisbon, Lord Strangford, returned to Europe with part of the British flotilla. Graham Moore, a British sailor and career officer in the Royal Navy, continued escorting the Portuguese royal family to Brazil with the ships Marlborough, London, Bedford, on January 22,1808, John and his court arrived in Salvador, Brazil. There, Prince John signed a law opening commerce between Brazil and friendly nations such as the United Kingdom and this new law, however, broke the colonial pact that had permitted Brazil to maintain direct commercial relations with Portugal only. Coutinhos secret negotiations paved the way for Prince Johns law to come to fruition in 1808, on March 7,1808, the court arrived in Rio de Janeiro. On December 16,1815, John created the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, Brazilian representatives were elected to the Portuguese Constitutional Courts. In 1816, with the death of Queen Maria, Prince John became king of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, after several delays, the ceremony of his acclamation took place in Rio de Janeiro in 1818. In Rio de Janeiro, he established a powder factory, a botanical garden, an art academy. All these measures advanced Brazils independence from Portugal, owing to the absence of the king and the economic independence of Brazil, Portugal entered a severe political crisis that obliged John VI and the royal family to return to Portugal in 1821. The heir of John VI, Pedro I, remained in Brazil, the Portuguese Cortes demanded that Brazil return to its former status as a colony and the return of the heir to Portugal. Prince Pedro, influenced by the Rio de Janeiro Municipal Senate, Brazil declared its independence on 7 September 1822, forming the Empire of Brazil, ending 322 years of colonial dominance of Portugal over Brazil. Pedro was crowned the first emperor in Rio de Janeiro on 12 October 1822, the Portuguese court’s tenure in Rio de Janeiro created the conditions which led to Brazil’s independence. With the court’s arrival, Rio de Janeiro saw an increase in its population. This, coupled with increases in trade and subsequent immigration, transformed the city into an economic center in the New World. In 1815, this resulted in Brazil being declared a co-kingdom with Portugal and this was in part because its burgeoning independent identity had had an effect on Pedro, King John’s oldest son and first emperor of Brazil

20.
Pernambucan revolt
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The movement was led by Domingos José Martins, with the support of Antônio Carlos de Andrada e Silva and Frei Caneca. Although a republic was declared, there were no measures adopted to abolish slavery, the Consulate General of the United States in Recife, American’s oldest diplomatic post in the Southern Hemisphere, publicly supported the Pernambucan revolutionaries. This revolution is also notable for being one of the first attempts to establish an independent government in Brazil, however, the northern Brazilians were generally separated from the monarch and the benefits thereof, but, at the same time, had the responsibility to support him. Another group not content with the politics of the monarch, John VI of Portugal, were formed by military officials of Brazilian descent, because of this, the level of taxes steadily rose, but the colony was forced to maintain the expenditures of the military campaigns. For the governors and functionaries of serious capitanias, the same thing led the to Lisboa or to Rio. In Recife, the capital of Pernambuco, and in the ports of the region, the desire for independence. The general sentiment was described as the Portuguese of New Lisbon exploit, liberal ideas that entered Brazil by way with foreign travelers, books by foreign publications, and other sources incited the sentiment of revolt into the Pernambucans. In the peak of the revolt, one finds that the strongest Pernambucan patriots marked their identity in several methods – including drinking aguardente instead of wine, alvears plans were never carried out because of the defeat of the revolution. The governor of Pernambuco, Caetano Pinto de Mirando Montenegro, had knowledge of the plans of the revolutionaries. These revolutionaries anticipated the danger to the movement, which began after the Pernambucan capitan, José de Barros Lima, the revolutionaries organized a provisional government – with the leader aiming to extend the movement to other capitanias and obtain recognition from other nations. The revolt extended to Ceará, Paraíba and to Rio Grande do Norte, the revolution, soon after, was dismantled. Before the fall of the movement, the revolutionaries sought out the support of the United States, Argentina and England, the corpses of the condemned were later mutilated by having their hands and heads cut off. Other corpses were dragged by their heads to a burial ground, the general layout of the flag used by the revolutionaries still endures today, as the flag of the Brazilian state of Pernambuco. The first flag was formed from the requirement for a flag to replace the Portuguese flag that had hauled down from the Recife fort after the provisional government took control of the city. The government originally considered hoisting the French tricolor, but instead appointed a committee under the chairmanship of Father João Ribeiro Pessoa to develop a design, the flags were produced by the tailor José Barbosa, who was also a captain in the militia. The first flag was blessed by the dean of the Recife cathedral on 21 March 1817. In 1917, the flag became the official banner of the current state. According to its description, the flags features signify the following

21.
Portuguese conquest of French Guiana
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The Portuguese conquest of French Guiana was an 1809 military operation against Cayenne, capital of the South American colony of French Guiana, in the scope of the Napoleonic Wars. The operation was performed by an expeditionary force that included Portuguese. Instead, appeals were made to the Portuguese government, which had driven out of Portugal the year before during the Peninsula War and was resident in Brazil. In exchange for providing troops and transports for the operation, the Portuguese were promised Guiana as an expansion of their holdings in Brazil for the duration of the conflict, the British contribution was small, consisting solely of the minor warship HMS Confiance. Confiance however had a highly effective crew and a captain in James Lucas Yeo. The French defenders were weakened by years of Royal Navy blockade and could only muster 400 regular infantry and 800 unreliable militia, as a result, resistance was inconsistent and despite Cayennes strong fortifications, the territory fell within a week. It is considered to be the baptism of fire of the Brazilian Marine Corps, during the Napoleonic Wars, French colonial territories in the Caribbean were a drain on both the French and British navies. However, the maintenance and support of these bases was a significant task for the French Navy and it had suffered a series of defeats during the war that left it blockaded in its own harbours and unable to put to sea without attack from British squadrons waiting off the coast. Some of these messages were intercepted by the patrolling Royal Navy, smith had secured the assistance of a Portuguese squadron, consisting of two armed brigs, Voador and Vingança, an unarmed brig, Infante Dom Pedro, and the unarmed cutter Leão. This force carried at least 550 regular Portuguese soldiers, supplemented by sailors and marines on board the ships, Yeo, who was to retain overall command of the operation, joined the Portuguese force off Belém in early December 1808. On 15 December he attacked the coastal districts of Oyapok and Appruage, the town of Cayenne is situated on an island in the mouth of the Cayenne and Mahury Rivers. In 1809, its approaches were protected by a series of forts and gun batteries, the surf was strong and all five canoes were wrecked on the beach, but there were no casualties. Yeo detached a Portuguese force under Major Joaquim Manuel Pinto against the Dégras de Cannes battery while he advanced on Fort Diamant with a force of seamen, both positions were rapidly carried, the British suffering seven men wounded to French losses of six killed and four wounded. Four cannons were seized, as were 90 French soldiers, both fortifications were then garrisoned with soldiers from the squadron. With the capture of the Mahury forts, the French in Cayenne risked being cut off from external help, in response, Governor Victor Hugues mustered most of the 600 troops available to him and marched on the Allied positions. Consolidating his forces at Dégras de Cannes, Yeo demolished Fort Diamant and sent scouts down river, the latter fort had been constructed to defend the approaches to Hugues residence, which was situated on the canal. Yeo immediately ordered the Portuguese cutters Leão and Vingança into the river to attack the forts, Yeo himself led the attack on the Trio fort while a Portuguese party attacked the fort on the canal. Both positions were captured and their 50 strong garrisons driven off, as Yeo secured his position from attack from the river, Hugues arrived at Dégras de Cannes

22.
Portuguese conquest of the Banda Oriental
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The four-year armed-conflict resulted in the annexation of the Banda Oriental into the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves as the Brazilian province of Cisplatina. In 1680 the Kingdom of Portugal founded the Colonia del Sacramento, since then several clashes occur and precarious agreements between the Portuguese and Spanish in the Banda Oriental and the Misiones. Elio rejected the offer at first, but the course of events from the 1810 May Revolution in Buenos Aires allowed the Portuguese. Those times were 1811 and 1816, the Portuguese invasion of 1811, was the result of a request by then viceroy of Río de la Plata, Francisco Javier de Elio, in support of the Spanish authorities against artiguist revolutionaries. The revolution had infiltrated in the Banda Oriental after the Cry of Asencio, José Rondeau and José Artigas commanded the troops that, after the Battle of Las Piedras, besieged Montevideo on May 21,1811. Elio, despite being besieged and in difficulty, managed to block with a royalist naval fleet the port of Buenos Aires. A month later, in July, was dispatched from Rio de Janeiro to the south an army of 4,000 men under General Diego de Souza. The artiguists rejected the deal, which left them helpless against the enemy, much water had flowed under the bridges and other winds blowing in Europe and America. Convert Brazil to the center of decision and permanent seat of the kingdom, the presence of the Portuguese government in America has substantially changed the geopolitical vision of its leaders. This idea was considered by the king, particularly after the death of his mother, Queen Maria, which occurred in March 1816. The Prince Regent finally ascended the throne under the name of John VI, the flamboyant monarch gave his decidedly biased American policy. Brazil seemed to assure the Braganza a first order global destination, from that moment the expansionist policy was accentuated and the idea of an Empire of Brazil was encouraged and supported. Such a policy did not coincide with the plans of Britain, which was opposed by the British minister Lord Strangford, the dispute culminated when the king himself called to London, in April 1815, to replace the diplomat, which was accepted almost immediately. These circumstances did not alter the old dependency of Portugal, and then of Imperial Brazil, but the relative emancipation of John VI regarding the British power had hitherto closely monitored allowed Portuguese politics execute his old plan to invade and annex the Banda Oriental. Also, Spanish and American emigrants who sought refuge in Brazil persuaded the Portuguese and Brazilian King John VI, anti-artiguists orientals also made an important effort in this regard. Particular importance was Nicolas Herrera, former secretary of the government of Alvear deposed in 1815, soon those responsible for Portuguese-Brazilian politics appreciated the knowledge of the lawyer in respect to geography and political reality of the province to annex. Certainly it was not convenient to Portugal that the annexation of the Banda Oriental resulted in a difficult war, the commissioner returned to Buenos Aires a letter of assurance that would not pass the Portuguese adventure in the Oriental Province, obtained in conversation with Nicolas Herrera. Then Pueyrredón sent some weapons and war supplies to Artigas, issued a loan of 200,000 pesos for military spending and war, a committee responsible for organizing the potential conflict

23.
Independence of Brazil
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It is celebrated on September 7, the anniversary of the September 7,1822 date regent Prince Dom Pedro declared Brazils independence from Portugal. Formal recognition came with a treaty signed by both Brazil and Portugal in late 1825, the land now called Brazil was claimed by Portugal in April 1500, on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral. The Portuguese encountered Indigenous nations divided into tribes, most of whom shared the same Tupi-Guaraní language Black Mountains family. Though the first settlement was founded in 1532, colonization was started in 1534. This arrangement proved problematic, however, and in 1549 the king assigned a Governor-General to administer the entire colony, the Portuguese assimilated some of the native tribes while others slowly disappeared in long wars or by European diseases to which they had no immunity. By the mid-16th century, sugar had become Brazils most important export due to the international demand for sugar. To profit from the situation, by 1700, over 963,000 African slaves had been brought across the Atlantic to work in Brazil, more Africans were brought to Brazil up until that date than to all the other places in the Americas combined. Through wars against the French, the Portuguese slowly expanded their territory to the southeast, taking Rio de Janeiro in 1567 and they sent military expeditions to the Amazon rainforest and conquered English and Dutch strongholds, founding villages and forts from 1669. In 1680 they reached the far south and founded Sacramento on the bank of the Rio de la Plata, from all over Brazil, as well as from Portugal, thousands of immigrants came to the mines. The Spanish tried to prevent Portuguese expansion into the territory belonged to them according to the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas. During the invasion of Portugal, the Portuguese royal family fled to Brazil and this had the side effect of creating within Brazil many of the institutions required to exist as an independent state, most importantly, it freed Brazil to trade with other nations at will. In 1820 the Constitutionalist Revolution erupted in Portugal, the movement initiated by the liberal constitutionalists resulted in the meeting of the Cortes, that would have to create the kingdoms first constitution. The king left for Europe on April 26, while Dom Pedro remained in Brazil governing it with the aid of the ministers of the Kingdom and Foreign Affairs, of War, of Navy and of Finance. The Portuguese military officers headquartered in Brazil were completely sympathetic to the constitutionalist movement in Portugal, the main leader of the Portuguese officers, General Jorge Avilez, forced the prince to dismiss and banish from the country the ministers of Kingdom and Finance. Both were loyal allies of Pedro, who had become a pawn in the hands of the military, the humiliation suffered by the prince, who swore he would never yield to the pressure of the military again, would have a decisive influence on his abdication ten years later. Meanwhile, on September 30,1821, the Cortes approved a decree that subordinated the governments of the Brazilian provinces directly to Portugal, Prince Pedro became for all purposes only the governor of the Rio de Janeiro Province. Other decrees that came after ordered his return to Europe and also extinguished the judicial courts created by João VI in 1808, dissatisfaction over the Cortes measures among most residents in Brazil rose to a point that it soon became publicly known. Two groups that opposed the Cortes actions to undermine the Brazilian sovereignty appeared, Liberals led by Joaquim Gonçalves Ledo

24.
Ipiranga Brook
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Its name derives from the Tupi words, Y, which means water or river, and Piranga, which means red. It is also mentioned in the national anthem. On September 2,1822, a decree with Lisbons demands arrived in Rio de Janeiro, Princess Maria Leopoldina, acting as Princess Regent, met with the Council of Ministers and decided to send her husband a letter advising him to proclaim Brazils independence. The letter reached Prince Pedro on September 7,1822 and that same day, in a famous scene at the shore of the Ipiranga Brook, he declared the countrys independence, ending 322 years of colonial dominance of Portugal over Brazil. List of rivers of São Paulo Independence Day 1822 Independence or Death Brazilian Ministry of Transport

25.
War of Independence of Brazil
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It lasted from February 1822, when the first skirmishes took place, to March 1824, when the last Portuguese garrison of Montevideo surrendered to Commander Sinian Kersey. The war was fought on land and sea and involved both regular forces and civilian militia, there is a shortage of reliable casualty data. Casualty estimates are based on reports of battles and historical data. The population of Colonial Brazil at the turn of the 19th century was 3.4 million, 60% of them were free men, mostly of Portuguese descent. At that time slaves were not counted as free people and it is difficult to say how many Reinóis lived in Brazil in 1822, since all inhabitants were subjects of Portugal. The majority of the population lived near the Atlantic ocean, mainly in the provinces of Pernambuco, Bahia and these three regions dominated economic and political life of the colony. The Pernambuco region thrived by producing sugar, a crop of value at the time. The southern Bahia region produced sugar, cotton, tobacco and molasses and it was the most densely populated and richest region. Further south was Rio de Janeiro, which controlled the gold, the Portuguese army in Brazil consisted of professional troops and militiamen. All officers were appointed by the Court of Lisbon, in 1817, a Republican revolt broke out in Pernambuco. As a result,2,000 soldiers of Auxiliary Division were sent to Brazil, with the arrival of the troops, native officers in Brazil were not given many responsibilities. At the start of the war there were about 10,000 Portuguese soldiers, about 3,000 soldiers were later besieged in Montevideo. A similar number of soldiers occupied Salvador and the rest of the troops were scattered throughout the Brazil, during the late 1821 and early 1822 the inhabitants of Brazil took sides in the political upheavals that took place in Rio de Janeiro and Lisbon. Fights between Portuguese soldiers and local militias broke out in the streets of the cities in 1822 and quickly spread inland. There was a split in the Luso-Brazilian Army which was garrisoned in the Cisplatina province, Portuguese regiments retreated to Montevideo and were surrounded by Brazilians, led by Baron de Laguna. Remote and sparsely populated provinces of Pará and Maranhão declared loyalty to Portugal. Pernambuco was in favor of independence, but in Bahia there was no consensus among the population, supporters of Brazilian Independence created and enlarged the Brazilian Army and the Brazilian Navy by forced enlistment of citizens, foreign immigrants and mercenaries. They enlisted Brazilian slaves into militias and also freed slaves in order to enlist them in the army, by 1823, the Brazilian Army had grown, replacing its early losses in terms of both personnel and supplies

26.
Empire of Brazil
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The Empire of Brazil was a 19th-century state that broadly comprised the territories which form modern Brazil and Uruguay. Its government was a parliamentary constitutional monarchy under the rule of Emperors Dom Pedro I. João VI later returned to Portugal, leaving his eldest son and heir, Pedro, to rule the Kingdom of Brazil as regent. On 7 September 1822, Pedro declared the independence of Brazil and, after waging a war against his fathers kingdom, was acclaimed on 12 October as Pedro I. The new country was huge but sparsely populated and ethnically diverse, the empires bicameral parliament was elected under comparatively democratic methods for the era, as were the provincial and local legislatures. This led to an ideological conflict between Pedro I and a sizable parliamentary faction over the role of the monarch in the government. The unsuccessful Cisplatine War against the neighboring United Provinces of the Río de la Plata in 1828 led to the secession of the province of Cisplatina. In 1826, despite his role in Brazilian independence, he became the king of Portugal, two years later, she was usurped by Pedro Is younger brother Miguel. Unable to deal with both Brazilian and Portuguese affairs, Pedro I abdicated his Brazilian throne on 7 April 1831, Pedro Is successor in Brazil was his five-year-old son, Pedro II. As the latter was still a minor, a regency was created. The power vacuum resulting from the absence of a monarch as the ultimate arbiter in political disputes led to regional civil wars between local factions. Brazil was victorious in three international conflicts under Pedro IIs rule, and the Empire prevailed in other international disputes. With prosperity and economic development came an influx of European immigration, including Protestants and Jews, slavery, which had initially been widespread, was restricted by successive legislation until its final abolition in 1888. Brazilian visual arts, literature and theater developed during time of progress. Although heavily influenced by European styles that ranged from Neoclassicism to Romanticism, the next in line to the throne was his daughter Isabel, but neither Pedro II nor the ruling classes considered a female monarch acceptable. Lacking any viable heir, the Empires political leaders saw no reason to defend the monarchy, the territory which would come to be known as Brazil was claimed by Portugal on 22 April 1500, when the navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral landed on its coast. Permanent settlement followed in 1532, and for the next 300 years the Portuguese slowly expanded westwards until they had reached all of the borders of modern Brazil. In 1808, the army of French Emperor Napoleon I invaded Portugal, forcing the Portuguese royal family—the House of Braganza and they re-established themselves in the Brazilian city of Rio de Janeiro, which became the unofficial seat of the Portuguese Empire

27.
Pedro I of Brazil
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Dom Pedro I, nicknamed the Liberator, was the founder and first ruler of the Empire of Brazil. As King Dom Pedro IV, he reigned briefly over Portugal, born in Lisbon, Pedro I was the fourth child of King Dom João VI of Portugal and Queen Carlota Joaquina, and thus a member of the House of Braganza. When their country was invaded by French troops in 1807, he and his family fled to Portugals largest and wealthiest colony, Brazil. The outbreak of the Liberal Revolution of 1820 in Lisbon compelled Pedro Is father to return to Portugal in April 1821 and he had to deal with threats from revolutionaries and insubordination by Portuguese troops, all of which he subdued. The Portuguese governments threat to revoke the autonomy that Brazil had enjoyed since 1808 was met with widespread discontent in Brazil. Pedro I chose the Brazilian side and declared Brazils independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822, on 12 October, he was acclaimed Brazilian emperor and by March 1824 had defeated all armies loyal to Portugal. A few months later, Pedro I crushed the short-lived Confederation of the Equator, in March 1826, Pedro I briefly became king of Portugal before abdicating in favor of his eldest daughter, Dona Maria II. The situation worsened in 1828 when the war in the south resulted in Brazils loss of Cisplatina, during the same year in Lisbon, Maria IIs throne was usurped by Prince Dom Miguel, Pedro Is younger brother. The Emperors concurrent and scandalous affair with a female courtier tarnished his reputation. Other difficulties arose in the Brazilian parliament, where a struggle over whether the government would be chosen by the monarch or by the legislature dominated political debates from 1826 to 1831. Unable to deal with problems in both Brazil and Portugal simultaneously, on 7 April 1831 Pedro I abdicated in favor of his son Dom Pedro II, Pedro I invaded Portugal at the head of an army in July 1832. Pedro I died of tuberculosis on 24 September 1834, just a few months after he, Pedro was born at 08,00 on 12 October 1798 in the Queluz Royal Palace near Lisbon, Portugal. He was named after St. Peter of Alcantara, and his name was Pedro de Alcântara Francisco António João Carlos Xavier de Paula Miguel Rafael Joaquim José Gonzaga Pascoal Cipriano Serafim. He was referred to using the honorific Dom from birth and his mother, Doña Carlota Joaquina, was the daughter of King Don Carlos IV of Spain. Pedros parents had an unhappy marriage, Carlota Joaquina was an ambitious woman, who always sought to advance Spains interests, even to the detriment of Portugals. Reputedly unfaithful to her husband, she went as far as to plot his overthrow in league with dissatisfied Portuguese nobles, as the second eldest son, Pedro became his fathers heir apparent and Prince of Beira upon the death of his elder brother Francisco António in 1801. Prince Dom João had been acting as regent on behalf of his mother, Queen Maria I, by 1802, Pedros parents were estranged, João lived in the Mafra National Palace and Carlota Joaquina in Ramalhão Palace. Pedro and his siblings resided in the Queluz Palace with their grandmother Maria I, far from their parents, in late November 1807, when Pedro was nine, the royal family escaped from Portugal as an invading French army sent by Napoleon approached Lisbon

28.
History of the Constitution of Brazil
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During its independent political history, Brazil has had seven constitutions. The most recent was ratified on October 5,1988, in 1823, the Emperor Pedro I started the political process of writing a Constitution. The elaboration of the first Constitution of Brazil was quite difficult, two major facts increased the troubles, Large numbers of recent immigrants from Portugal, who wanted to keep their privileges or who were still loyal to the metropolitan government. These were found both among the parts of the population, as businessmen controlling Brazils international trade. The majority of the population was composed of slaves, prompting the whites to fear being massacred in the event of a rebellion caused by a failing state. The first circumstance meant that strong support of the crown prince Pedro I by the Brazilian landowners. As each side had very distinct and different objectives none could prevail, there were extra problems involved, the Constitutional Assembly had been elected to decide the applicability of Portuguese laws in Brazil, not to draft a new constitution. As a result, some of the Portuguese deputies refused to part in it. On the other hand, some of the Brazilian deputies, the ones, had been persecuted. The emperor wanted to remain an absolute monarch, protect the interests of the Portuguese businessmen and this constitution established the Brazilian Empire as a Unitary state. It also excluded slaves from the Brazilian citizenship, by extending it to all people born in the Brazilian territory, on November 15,1889, the emperor Pedro II was deposed, Brazilian monarchy abolished and the 1824 Constitution was put out of effect. No provisional constitution was used while a one was being written. The writing process began in 1889, by a group of jurists and politicians, the main traits of the constitution were, Federalism, the provinces were turned into states whose indissoluble union was taken as forming the Body Politic of the Brazilian Federation. Governors were to be elected by vote and a fixed term of office. Separation of the State and Churches, male universal suffrage and basic individual rights for all citizens. The Senate was reorganized as the Upper House of the Legislative branch, formed of representatives of the directly elected. In 1930, after severe political problemas, the President Washington Luís was overthrown by a coup détat, the 1891 Constitution was put down and the Provisional President Getúlio Vargas ruled as a de facto personal dictator, but the state landed elites struggled to prevent this from continuing. In 1932, in São Paulo, the Constitutionalist Revolution demanded a Constitution, as a result, a Constitutional Assembly was elected and the constitution was promulgated on July 16,1934, four years after a coup détat had overthrown the Old Republic

29.
1834 Additional Act
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The Additional Act was an amendment to the Brazilian Constitution of 1824, passed on August 12,1834. The amendment enhanced the autonomy of the provinces

30.
Confederation of the Equator
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The Confederation of the Equator was a short-lived rebellion that occurred in the northeastern region of Brazil after that nations struggle for independence from Portugal. The secessionist movement was led by wealthy landowners who opposed early reforms by the nations first leader, the fight occurred in Pernambuco, Ceará and Paraíba. The dissolution of the Brazilian Constituent Assembly in 1823 was well received in Pernambuco, the two greatest liberal leaders in the province, Manuel de Carvalho Pais de Andrade and Joaquim do Amor Divino Rabelo e Caneca supported it and blamed the Bonifacians for the act. Both, as well as other coreligionists, were republicans who participated in the revolt of 1817 and had been pardoned and they had accepted the monarchy for believing that at least there would be more autonomy for the provinces. The promulgation of the Constitution in 1824, with its highly centralized regime, Pernambuco was divided between two political factions, a monarchist, led by Francisco Paes Barreto and another republican one, led by Manuel de Carvalho Pais de Andrade. The province was governed by Paes Barreto, who was appointed President by Pedro I, on December 13,1823, Paes Barreto resigned under the pressure of the Liberals that illegally elected in his place Paes de Andrade. Neither Pedro I nor the Government were informed of the election and requested the return of Paes Barreto to the office, the warships Niterói and Piranga led by the British Captain John Taylor were sent to Recife to compel the Liberals to obey the law without success. The Liberals vehemently refused to bring back Paes Barreto and boasted, Frei Caneca, José da Natividade Saldanha and João Soares Lisboa were the intellectuals behind the rebellion and desired to preserve the interests of the gentry that they represented. Although Recife had clearly rebelled, Pedro I tried to prevent a conflict that he considered unnecessary and appointed a new president the province, José Carlos Mayrink da Silva Ferrão. Mayrink was natural of the province of Minas Gerais, but was related to the Liberals, however, the Liberals did not accept Mayrink, which made him return to Rio de Janeiro. The rumors of a great Portuguese naval attack compelled John Taylor to leave Recife, on July 2,1824, only one day after the departure of Taylor, Manuel Paes de Andrade made use of the chance and announced the independence of Pernambuco. Paes de Andrade sent invitations to the provinces of the north and northeast Brazil so that they could join Pernambuco. In thesis, the new republican State would be formed by the provinces of Grand Pará, Maranhão, Piauí, Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Alagoas, Sergipe, Paraíba, Pernambuco and Bahia. However, none of them adhered the secessionist revolt, with the exception of a few villages in southern Ceará and in Paraíba. However, in Ceará the situation became serious with the deposition of the President Pedro José da Costa Barros. The other cities and villages of the refused to accept the act. Alencar Araripe left to the countryside where he tried to defeat the legalist troops, while he was absent the capital of the province, Fortaleza, reaffirmed its loyalty to the Empire. In Pernambuco, Paes de Andrade could only count with Olinda, the confederate leader prepared his troops for the inevitable attack from the central Government and recruited by force even children and old men

31.
Cisplatine War
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In the same context, the Portuguese Empire, then hosted in Rio de Janeiro, took measures to solidify its hold on Rio Grande do Sul and to annex the region of the former Eastern Jesuit Missions. From 1814 on, the Eastern Province joined forces with the provinces of Santa Fe and Entre Rios in a confederation called the Federal League. After a series of incidents in territory claimed by the Portuguese Empire. Artigas was finally defeated by the Luso-Brazilian troops in 1820 at the Battle of Tacuarembó, the Portuguese Empire then formally annexed the Eastern Bank, under the name Cisplatina, with support from local elites. With the annexation, the Portuguese Empire now enjoyed strategic access to Río de la Plata and control of the main port. After Brazilian independence, in 1822, Cisplatina became part of the Empire of Brazil and it sent delegates to the 1823 Constitutional Convention and, under the 1824 Constitution, enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy, more so than other provinces of the Empire. Rebels led by Fructuoso Rivera and Juan Antonio Lavalleja carried on resistance against Brazilian rule, in response, Brazil declared war on the United Provinces. Brazilian Emperor Pedro I ordered his fleet to block the River Plate, the Argentina fleet moved south, first to Ensenada and then to distant Carmen de Patagones on the Atlantic Ocean. The Brazilian fleet attempted to take Carmen de Patagones in 1827 and thus tighten its blockade over Argentina, on land, the Argentine army crossed the River Plate and established its headquarters near the Uruguayan town of Durazno. General Carlos María de Alvear invaded Brazilian territory and a series of skirmishes followed, Pedro I of Brazil planned a counteroffensive by late 1826, and managed to gather a small army mainly composed of Southern Brazil voluntaries and European mercenaries. The Brazilian counteroffensive was eventually stopped at the inconclusive Battle of Ituzaingó, while Brazilian troops were prevented from marching on to Buenos Aires, Argentine troops no longer managed to operate in Brazilian territory. Ituzaingó was the battle of some magnitude in the whole war. A series of clashes ensued, including the Battle of Sarandí. Scarcity of volunteers severely hampered Brazilian response, and by 1828 the war effort had become extremely burdensome and that year, Rivera reconquered the territory of the former Eastern Jesuit Missions. There was also increasing pressure in Brazil to end the war. All of this motivated the interest on both sides for a peaceful solution, in Brazil, the loss of Cisplatina added to growing discontent with Emperor Pedro I. Although it was far from the reason, it was a factor that led to his abdication in 1831. Although the war was not a war of independence, as none of the belligerents fought to establish an independent nation, the Thirty-Three Orientals are acknowledged as national heroes, who freed Uruguay from Brazilian presence

32.
Irish and German Mercenary Soldiers' revolt
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The Irish and German revolt in Brazil was a revolt of German and Irish people in 1828 during the Cisplatine War of 1825–1828. The immigrants, who were recruited in their homelands to come to Brazil, in the revolt, the Irish and Germans took control of large parts of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Citizens of the town and troops from French and British warships suppressed the revolt, the Cisplatine War between Brazil and Argentina over Cisplatina, was not going well for either side. An Argentine land victory on the plains of Cisplatina was offset by Brazils effective Rio de la Plata naval blockade, Dom Pedro I, the Brazilian emperor, sent Colonel William Cotter back to Cotters native Ireland to recruit Irish mercenary soldiers. Cotter arrived in early January 1827, no mention was made to the Irish of their being recruited as mercenaries, instead it was suggested that they would be needed to join a militia in Brazil but that this would not interfere with their farming endeavors. Advertisements were run in newspapers, and notices were posted on numerous church doors, mainly in County Cork. The Colonel promised free passage, free land –50 acres for each family, six shillings per day, No mention of the war against the Argentinians was ever made. Almost 3,000 mostly poor and illiterate people quickly volunteered to make the long, some sold what little they owned to buy farm implements for their new life in Brazil. Most apparently did not realize that they had recruited to fight as mercenaries. 2,700 people actually showed up on sailing day, the first ship sailed for Rio de Janeiro in August 1827, and the rest of the fleet soon followed. Once ashore in Rio de Janeiro, the Irish were assigned to several barracks buildings and they complained of poor food, and of no replacement clothing for the sea voyage rags that had largely rotted off of them. Some of the Irish simply refused to join the Brazilian Army, several hundred of these holdouts and their families were finally sent, in March 1828, to provincial Taperoá, Bahia to farm. Those who did join the Brazilian Army were subject to drilling under unpopular officers offset by endless hours of idleness, relief, and trouble, were readily available to all the mercenaries at the local grog shops in the form of a cheap yet powerful rum, called cachaça. Rio de Janeiros black slaves and the Irish did not get along, taunts of white slaves when the Irish first landed escalated into individual fights, then large scale brawls, and finally, into murders by roving bands on both sides in the dark streets. Unrest among both the Irish and the German mercenaries due to treatment, non-payment of wages, general misery. The similarly recruited German mercenary soldiers started the Great Mercenary Revolt on 9 June 1828, word of the German revolt quickly reached the Irish, and about 200 Irish joined. Irish sources state that the homes of a few hated officers were looted and burned by marauding bands, Brazilian sources record that whole blocks of downtown Rio de Janeiro were razed. By the second day, it was realised that the available Brazilian troops in Rio de Janeiro were insufficient to quell the armed, black slaves, who needed no coaxing, and other citizens, were given arms and sent against the mercenaries

33.
April Revolt (Pernambuco)
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The April Revolt, or Abrilada in Brazils history was an episode in 1832 in the then province of Pernambuco, which fits into the Regency Period, in the context of Cabanagem. Pedro I of Brazil and his return to Europe where he played a role in the Portuguese Civil War, the movement in Pernambuco. The movement emerged among the major Portuguese merchants of Recife, who controlled the trade of the city and province, gathered around the Masonic Lodge Column of the Throne and Altar. On April 14,1832, promoted the rise of a battalion in Recife, under the leadership of Lt. Col. José Francisco Martins. On the 15th, clashes started in the streets that continued for nearly a week, the main leaders, however, managed to escape and were to join their allies in the interior. Within the province, unrest led to the War of Cabanos or Cabanada, revolution that gripped much of Pernambuco and they were led by Lt. Col. Dominic Lawrence Torres Galindo, Vicente Ferreira de Paula, Caetano Alves and others. Students of law of Olinda attended a convocation and strengthened government forces and he began his attacks on the sugar mills to free the slaves. For a short time he had the support of the villages of Jacuípe, Fulniôs of Águas Belas, Palmeira dos Índios, Garanhuns. The fight continued even after the death of D, pedro I, on September 24,1834. The loyalist forces under the command of Colonel Joaquim José Luis de Souza, same in number more than 6,000 men, thus, faced with this impasse, the colonel turned to mediation by the then Bishop of Pernambuco, D. João da Purificação Marques Perdigão. This then went to the interior of the Province, to meet with Vincente de Paula, head of the rebels and persuaded him to make peace, which was signed in November 1835. War of the Peddlers 1710 to 1711 Conspiracy of Suassuna 18011817 Revolution 1817 Confederation of the Equator 1824 Cabanada 1832 to 1835 Praieira Revolution 1848 to 1850

34.
Cabanagem
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The Cabanagem was a social revolt that occurred in the then-state of Grão-Pará, Empire of Brazil. Among the causes for this revolt were the poverty of the Paraense people. The name Cabanagem refers to the type of hut used by the poorest people living next to streams, principally mestizos, freed slaves and it is estimated that from 30 to 40% of the population of Grão-Pará, estimated at 100,000 people, died. In 1833 the Province had 119,877 inhabitants, being 32,751 Amerindians and 29,977 black slaves, the White minority was 15,000, over half of them Portuguese. The revolt had a racial background. During the independence, Grão-Pará mobilized itself to expel reactionary forces which tried to reintegrate Brazil into the Portuguese Empire, until 1822 Grão-Pará had been a separate viceroyalty from Brazil, reporting herself directly to Portugal, after Brazilian independence Grão-Pará decided to join Brazil. In the independence struggle, which dragged on for years, the canon and journalist João Batista Gonçalves Campos, the Vinagre brothers. Several lodges of fugitive slaves formed, and there were frequent military rebellions, once the fight for independence ended and a provincial government named by Brazilian Emperor was installed, the local leaders were marginalized from power. The indignation of the poor grew, and in 1833 already there was talk of converting Brazil into a federation, the provincial president, Bernardo Lobo de Souza, unleashed a repressive political wave, in an attempt to contain the separatists. The climax was reached in 1834, when Batista Campos published a letter from the Bishop of Pará, Romualdo de Sousa Coelho, for not having permission from the provincial government, Campos was persecuted, and sought refuge on the fazenda of his friend Clemente Malcher. Meeting the Vinagre brothers and the India-rubber collector and journalist Eduardo Angelim they joined a contingent of rebels on Malchers plantation, before being attacked by government forces, they abandoned the plantation. Nevertheless, on November 3, troops managed to kill Manuel Vinagre, Batista Campos died on the last day of the year, apparently because of an infection caused by a cut he suffered while shaving. On the night of January 6,1835 the rebels attacked and conquered the city of Belém, assassinating the president Sousa Lobo and the Army Commander, and acquiring a large quantity of munitions. On January 7, Clement Malcher was released and was chosen as president of the province, the break happened when Malcher ordered Angelim taken. Troops on both sides entered the conflict, and the side of Francisco Vinagre was victorious, Clemente Malcher was assassinated, and his body was dragged through the streets of Belém. Now in the presidency and the Army Command of the Province, if it were not for the intervention of his brother Antônio, he would have yielded the government to imperial control, in the person of marshall Manuel Jorge Rodrigues in July 1835. Due to this weakness and the resurgence of a squadron commanded by the English admiral Taylor, reorganizing their forces, they again attacked Belém on August 14. After nine days of battle, and suffering the death of Antônio Vinagre, for ten months, the elite were alarmed by the rebel control over the province of Grão-Pará

35.
Ragamuffin War
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The Ragamuffin War was a Republican uprising that began in southern Brazil, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul in 1835. The rebels, led by generals Bento Gonçalves da Silva and Antônio de Sousa Neto with the support of the Italian fighter Giuseppe Garibaldi and it is considered the longest and second bloodiest of the failed wars of secession in the Brazilian Empire, after the Cabanagem Revolt. The uprising is believed to have due to the difference between the economy of Rio Grande do Sul and the rest of the country. Unlike the other states, the economy focused in the internal market rather than exporting commodities. In 1835, Antônio Rodrigues Fernandes Braga was nominated president of Rio Grande do Sul and at first his appointment pleased the liberal farmers, in his first day in the office, he accused many farmers of being separatists. On 20 September 1835, General Bento Gonçalves captured the capital, Porto Alegre, the state president fled to the city of Rio Grande,200 km to the south. In Porto Alegre, the rebels, also known as ragamuffins after the fringed leather worn by the gauchos, elected Marciano Pereira Ribeiro their new president. Responding to the situation and further upsetting the rebels, the Brazilian regent, Diogo Feijó, appointed a new state president, who was forced to take office in exile in Rio Grande. Pushing to consolidate their power, Antônio de Souza Netto declared the independence of the Riograndense or Piratini Republic on 11 September 1836, however, Gonçalves was arrested and jailed by imperial forces until he escaped in 1837, returning to the province and bringing the revolution to a head. Nonetheless, Porto Alegre was recaptured by the empire and the rebels never managed to regain it, the Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the rebels in 1836. With his help, the revolution spread north through Santa Catarina, one of the main cities of Santa Catarina, Laguna, was taken by the rebels but fell back into imperial hands after four months. It was in this struggle that Garibaldi gained his first military experience, the rebels refused an offer of amnesty in 1840, although it was clear that they had no chances of winning. In 1842, they issued a constitution as a last attempt to maintain power. The same year saw General Lima e Silva take command of Imperial forces in the area, and try to negotiate a settlement. On 1 March 1845, the negotiations led by Lima e Silva. The treaty offered the rebels an amnesty, full incorporation into the imperial army. All the debts of the Riograndense Republic were paid off by the Empire, as a goodwill gesture, the rebels chose Lima e Silva as the next provincial president. List of wars involving Brazil Revolutions of Brazil A review of Farroupilha Week in modern RS state The Farroupilha War

36.
Balaiada
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The Balaiada was a social revolt that occurred between 1838 and 1841 in the interior of the province of Maranhão, Brazil. During the imperial period, the Maranhão region, which exported cotton, in addition, the cattle industry consumed a large part of the workforce in this region. These factors explain the involvement of the slave and poorly paid workers in the movement. A political power arose in the heart of the elite class. Contesting the detention of his brother, Gomes, with the support of a contingent of the National Guard, invaded the municipal jail and freed him, Balaios e Bem-te-vis, a guerrilha sertaneja. Rio de Janeiro, Imprensa Nacional,1942, a Balaiada 1839, depoimento de um dos heróis do cerco de Caxias sobre a Revolução dos Balaios. ISBN 85-267-0869-4 Maria Januária Villela Santos, a Balaiada e a insurreição de escravos no Maranhão. This article is based on a translation of the article from the Portuguese Wikipedia

37.
Pedro II of Brazil
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Dom Pedro II, nicknamed the Magnanimous, was the second and last ruler of the Empire of Brazil, reigning for over 58 years. Born in Rio de Janeiro, he was the child of Emperor Dom Pedro I of Brazil and Empress Dona Maria Leopoldina. His fathers abrupt abdication and departure to Europe in 1831 left a five-year-old Pedro II as Emperor and led to a grim and lonely childhood, obliged to spend his time studying in preparation for rule, he knew only brief moments of happiness and encountered few friends of his age. Inheriting an Empire on the verge of disintegration, Pedro II turned Portuguese-speaking Brazil into a power in the international arena. Brazil was also victorious in three international conflicts under his rule, as well as prevailing in other international disputes. Pedro II steadfastly pushed through the abolition of slavery despite opposition from powerful political, a savant in his own right, the Emperor established a reputation as a vigorous sponsor of learning, culture and the sciences. Pedro II had become weary of emperorship and despaired over the future prospects. He did not allow his ouster to be opposed and did not support any attempt to restore the monarchy and he spent the last two years of his life in exile in Europe, living alone on very little money. The men who had exiled him soon began to see in him a model for the Brazilian republic, a few decades after his death, his reputation was restored and his remains were returned to Brazil with celebrations nationwide. Historians have regarded the Emperor in a positive light and several have ranked him as the greatest Brazilian. Pedro was born at 02,30 on 2 December 1825 in the Palace of São Cristóvão, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Named after St. Peter of Alcantara, his name in full was Pedro de Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier de Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga. Through his father, Emperor Dom Pedro I, he was a member of the Brazilian branch of the House of Braganza and was referred to using the honorific Dom from birth and he was the grandson of Portuguese King Dom João VI and nephew of Dom Miguel I. His mother was the Archduchess Maria Leopoldina of Austria, daughter of Franz II, through his mother, Pedro was a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte and first cousin of Emperors Napoleon II of France, Franz Joseph I of Austria-Hungary and Don Maximiliano I of Mexico. The only legitimate child of Pedro I to survive infancy. Empress Maria Leopoldina died on 11 December 1826, a few days after a stillbirth, Two and a half years later, his father married Amélie of Leuchtenberg. Prince Pedro developed a relationship with her, whom he came to regard as his mother. He and Amélie immediately departed for Europe, leaving behind the Prince Imperial, upon leaving the country, Emperor Pedro I selected three people to take charge of his son and remaining daughters

38.
Platine War
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The Platine War was fought between the Argentine Confederation and an alliance consisting of the Empire of Brazil, Uruguay and the Argentine provinces of Entre Ríos and Corrientes. The war was part of a long-running interest disputes between Argentina and Brazil for influence over Uruguay and Paraguay, and hegemony over the Platine region, the conflict took place in Uruguay, on the Río de la Plata, and northeastern Argentina. Uruguays internal troubles, including the long-running Uruguayan Civil War, La Guerra Grande, were heavily influential factors leading to the Platine War, in 1850, the Platine region was politically unstable. Meanwhile, Uruguay struggled with its own civil war started after getting independent from the Brazilian Empire in 1828 after conclusion of Cisplatine War. Rosas backed the Uruguayan Blanco party in conflict, and further desired to extend Argentine borders to areas formerly occupied by the Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. This meant asserting control over Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia and this threatened Brazilian interests and sovereignty since the old Spanish Viceroyalty had also included territories which had long been incorporated into Brazilian province of Rio Grande do Sul. Brazil actively pursued ways to eliminate the threat from Rosas, in 1851, it allied with the Argentine breakaway provinces of Corrientes and Entre Rios, and the anti-Rosas Colorado party in Uruguay. Brazil next secured the flank by signing defensive alliances with Paraguay. Faced with an alliance against his regime, Rosas declared war on Brazil. Allied forces first advanced into Uruguayan territory, defeating the Rosas supporters from the Blanco party led by Manuel Oribe. Afterwards, the Allied army was divided, with the main arm advancing by land to engage Rosass main defenses, the Platine War ended in 1852 with the Allied victory at the Battle of Caseros, for some time establishing Brazilian hegemony over much of South America. The war ushered a period of economic and political stability in the Empire of Brazil, with Rosas gone, Argentina began a political process which would result in a more unified state. However, the end of the Platine war did not completely resolve issues within the Platine region, turmoil continued in subsequent years, with internal disputes among political factions in Uruguay, a long civil war in Argentina, and an emergent Paraguay asserting its claims. Two more major international wars followed during the two decades, sparked by territorial ambitions and conflicts over influence. Don Juan Manuel de Rosas became governor of Buenos Aires after the period of anarchy following the end of the Cisplatine War in 1828. In theory, Rosas only held as much power as governors of the other Argentine provinces, during his 20-year government, the country witnessed the resurgence of armed conflicts between the Unitarians and the Federalists. Rosas desired to recreate the former Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata and he aimed to build a powerful, republican state with Argentina placed at the center. The defunct Viceroyalty had shattered into several separate nations following the Argentine War of Independence at the beginning of the 19th century, Rosas first had to gather allies across the region who shared his vision

39.
Uruguayan War
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The Uruguayan War was fought between Uruguays governing Blanco Party and an alliance consisting of the Empire of Brazil and the Uruguayan Colorado Party, covertly supported by Argentina. Since its independence, Uruguay had been ravaged by intermittent struggles between the Colorado and Blanco factions, each attempting to seize and maintain power in turn. The Colorado leader Venancio Flores launched the Liberating Crusade in 1863, an aimed at toppling Bernardo Berro. Flores was aided by Argentina, whose president Bartolomé Mitre provided him with supplies, Argentine volunteers, the Fusionism movement collapsed as the Colorados abandoned the coalition to join Flores ranks. The Uruguayan civil war escalated, developing into a crisis of international scope that destabilized the entire region. Even before the Colorado rebellion, the Blancos within Fusionism had sought an alliance with Paraguayan dictator Francisco Solano López, Berros now purely Blanco government also received support from Argentine Federalists, who opposed Mitre and his Unitarians. The situation deteriorated as the Empire of Brazil was drawn into the conflict, almost one fifth of the Uruguayan population were considered Brazilian. Some joined Flores rebellion, spurred by discontent with Blanco government policies that they regarded as harmful to their interests, Brazil eventually decided to intervene in the Uruguayan affair to reestablish the security of its southern frontiers and its regional ascendancy. In April 1864, Brazil sent Minister Plenipotentiary José Antônio Saraiva to negotiate with Atanasio Aguirre, Saraiva made an initial attempt to settle the dispute between Blancos and Colorados. Faced with Aguirres intransigence regarding Flores demands, the Brazilian diplomat abandoned the effort, on 10 August 1864, after a Brazilian ultimatum was refused, Saraiva declared that Brazils military would begin exacting reprisals. Brazil declined to acknowledge a formal state of war, and for most of its duration, in a combined offensive against Blanco strongholds, the Brazilian–Colorado troops advanced through Uruguayan territory, taking one town after another. Eventually the Blancos were left isolated in Montevideo, the national capital, faced with certain defeat, the Blanco government capitulated on 20 February 1865. The Oriental Republic of Uruguay in South America had been, since its independence in 1828 and they were not political parties in the modern sense, but factions that engaged in internecine rebellion whenever the other dominated the government. The nation was divided into Colorado and Blanco camps. These partisan groups formed in the 1830s and arose out of patron–client relationships fostered by local caudillos in the cities, rather than a unity based upon common nationalistic sentiments, each had differing aims and loyalties informed by their respective, insular political frameworks. Uruguay had a low population density and a weak government. The civil wars between the two factions were brutal, harsh tactics produced ever-increasing alienation between the groups, and included seizure of land, confiscation of livestock and executions. The antagonism caused by atrocities, along with family loyalties and political ties, the feuding blocs impeded development of a broadly supported central national administration

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Paraguayan War
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With an estimated 400,000 deaths, the war was the deadliest and bloodiest in Latin Americas history. According to some estimates, Paraguays pre-war population of 525,000 was reduced to 221,000, the war began in late 1864, as a result of a conflict between Paraguay and Brazil caused by the Uruguayan War. Argentina and Uruguay entered the war against Paraguay in 1865, the war ended with the total defeat of Paraguay. The guerrilla war lasted 14 months until President Francisco Solano López was killed in action by Brazilian forces in the Battle of Cerro Corá on March 1,1870, Argentine and Brazilian troops occupied Paraguay until 1876. Estimates of total Paraguayan losses range from 21,000 to 200,000 people and it took decades for Paraguay to recover from the chaos and demographic losses. There are several theories regarding the origins of the war, before the war Paraguay had experienced rapid economic and military growth. A strong military was developed because Paraguays larger neighbors Argentina and Brazil had territorial claims against it, Paraguay had recurring boundary disputes and tariff issues with Argentina and Brazil for many years during the rule of Carlos Antonio López. Since Brazil and Argentina had become independent, their struggle for hegemony in the Río de la Plata profoundly marked the diplomatic, Brazil was the first country to recognize the independence of Paraguay in 1844. At this time Argentina still considered it a break-away province, as no roads linked the inland province of Mato Grosso to Rio de Janeiro, Brazilian ships needed to travel through Paraguayan territory, going up the Paraguay River to arrive at Cuiabá. However, Brazil had difficulty obtaining permission from the government in Asunción to freely use the Paraguay River for its shipping needs and this last intervention would lead to the Paraguayan War. Flores wanted to overthrow the Blanco Party government of President Bernardo Berro, Paraguayan President López sent a note on 6 September 1863 to the Argentine government asking for an explanation, but Buenos Aires denied any involvement in Uruguay. From that moment, mandatory service was introduced in Paraguay and in February 1864. Uruguayan President Atanasio Aguirre from the Blanco Party rejected the Brazilian demands, presented his own demands, Brazilian soldiers on the northern borders of Uruguay started to provide help to Flores troops, harassed Uruguayan officers, while the Imperial Fleet pressed hard on Montevideo. During the months of June–August,1864 a Cooperation Treaty was signed between Brazil and Argentina at Buenos Aires, for assistance in the Plate Basin Crisis. Brazilian Minister Saraiva on August 4,1864, sent an ultimatum to the Uruguayan government, either comply with the Brazilian demands, or the Brazilian army would retaliate. Despite the Paraguayan notes and ultimatums, on October 12,1864 Brazilian troops under the command of Gen. João Propício Mena Barreto invaded Uruguay thus marking the beginning of the hostilities. On 12 November 1864, the Paraguayan ship Tacuarí captured the Brazilian ship Marquês de Olinda, news of the wars end was brought by Pereira Pinto and met with joy in Rio de Janeiro. Brazilian Emperor Dom Pedro II found himself waylaid by a crowd of thousands in the streets amid acclamations, but public opinion quickly changed for the worse when newspapers began running stories painting the convention of 20 February as harmful to Brazilian interests, for which the cabinet was blamed