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Introduction

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Humans incessantly explore, experiment, create, and examine the world. The active process by which physical, biological, and social phenomena are studied is known as science. Individuals involved in science, called scientists, often spend their entire lives in pursuit of answers to probing questions. This ongoing process often leads to new areas of scientific inquiry.

Although many areas of scientific inquiry are interrelated, specific scientific disciplines, or divisions, have been established. The sciences can be broadly divided into two main areas: the natural sciences and the social sciences. The natural sciences comprise the physical sciences, Earth and space sciences, and life sciences; the social sciences encompass disciplines that deal with social and cultural aspects of human behavior, such as economics, sociology, and psychology.

Some scientists are driven by little more than the desire to learn. They may study to gain knowledge for its own sake. These scientists are engaged in basic, or pure, science. Their projects may or may not have any relevance to everyday life. Scientists working in applied science, on the other hand, usually have a specific goal in mind. This goal may involve a product, process, business, or other human need. An applied scientist often uses information recently gathered by other scientists as well as the cumulative knowledge of the pure sciences.

The Significance of Science in Society

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Science plays a major role in society, and even nonscientists can appreciate scientific progress. Because of science, human understanding of the past, present, and future is constantly in a state of flux. For instance, decades ago the notion of identifying the entire genetic code of an organism would have seemed an impossible feat. Today it is a mark of scientific progress. Because scientific inquiry never ceases to exist, events once dismissed as material for science fiction, such as medical therapy based on an individual’s genetic makeup, now seem inevitable.

Science technology can be found in nearly all aspects of everyday life. For instance, if electricity had never been discovered, electric appliances, heaters, and lights would not exist. Electronic components found in radios, television sets, laptop computers, and cellular telephones are now smaller and more reliable than before. Advances in electronics are responsible for what is called the digital age. Through computer technology, information can be processed and communicated globally in seconds.

At one time, computers were extremely expensive. They were rarely found outside of laboratories and large businesses. Since their manufacture is now economical, computers and computer-based devices have become very common. Computers are used not only in offices for all kinds of essential business functions and in schools and universities for study and research; they are also used in the home for communication, entertainment, and many other purposes. Many people carry portable computer-based cellular telephones. Computers help operate many processes and systems crucial to modern life, including electric power grids, communication networks, financial markets, and air-traffic control facilities. (See alsomicroprocessor.)

In physics, the discovery and control of nuclear energy has had a tremendous effect on international relations and on the economies of many countries—in terms of the production of nuclear weapons as well as the use of nuclear energy for generating electricity for homes, businesses, and factories. Physicists once thought of the atom as the elementary building block of matter. Using particle accelerators, they later determined that the nuclei of atoms themselves are composed of many types of elementary particles that are held together by strong, short-range forces. (See alsoatomic particles.)

Physicists also have invented sophisticated lasers that produce concentrated beams of light. Lasers are used in medicine, industry, communications, navigation, and in the military. Scientists working in the area of physical chemistry have produced materials called superconductors, which theoretically can carry an electric current forever without electric power input. The first known superconductors operated only at very cold temperatures, but new classes of superconducting materials have been discovered that operate at warmer though still very cold temperatures. Superconductors are used in a variety of applications that require powerful electromagnets, including particle accelerators, imaging devices, and laboratory equipment (seecryogenics).

The battle against disease and illness has also gained much from science. Safer surgical procedures are now in use, including those for organ transplantation and coronary bypass surgery. Many procedures have been improved because of the development of specialized medical instruments. Some instruments enable physicians to see inside the body without making a single incision. Others can carry out essential bodily functions, such as pumping blood or breathing. Medical research has led to the development of vaccinations and pharmaceutical drugs to prevent or treat many life-threatening diseases and disorders. A new focus of research is to seek a better understanding of stem cells for potential medical applications.

Some scientific and technological advances have the potential to alter the environment significantly. The release of certain synthetic chemical compounds into the air can cause undesirable atmospheric changes, such as the destruction of the ozone layer. Damage to the ozone layer would allow increased amounts of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun to penetrate the atmosphere and cause a large increase in the rate of skin cancer. The burning of fossil fuels releases into the atmosphere large amounts of carbon dioxide, which has the effect of trapping the Sun’s heat—the greenhouse effect. With an ongoing increase in the global average temperature of the atmosphere, it is feared that climates in many regions of the world will change and that ice sheets in the Arctic and Antarctic will melt. The melting ice would lead to a higher sea level and cause flooding in coastal areas. In order to gain further information about these potentially dangerous developments, scientists monitor the ozone layer and atmospheric carbon dioxide, and they study the complex interaction of solar radiation, the atmosphere, and Earth’s surface. (See alsoglobal warming.)

Another mark of scientific advancement is the improved understanding of the world’s limited supply of petroleum. Concern about the world’s future energy needs have resulted in the study of alternative energy resources, which include solar energy, nuclear energy, wind energy, wave energy, and energy from Earth’s own internal heat.

The Scientific Method

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Scientifically minded people generally believe in cause-and-effect relationships. They feel there is a perfectly natural explanation for most things. For example, there is a reason why milk sours and why some leaves turn red in the fall, while others turn yellow. Changes such as these, which are easily observed, are known as phenomena. Some common phenomena are not completely understood. Still others cannot be explained at all at this time. The belief that effects have causes plays a significant part in scientific inquiry. The cause of AIDS, for example, was once unknown. Nevertheless, scientists firmly believed that a cause existed. Once they discovered that AIDS was caused by a virus, scientists could search for a remedy such as a vaccine. If everyone believed that a disease just happened without a natural cause, no progress would be made in learning to control it.

Scientists spend tremendous amounts of time making observations and gathering information, or data. They may work individually or as part of a team to learn what they can about a specific problem or an unexplained phenomenon. Problems or questions of interest for investigation have a variety of sources. Sometimes they arise from curiosity following a chance observation. Awareness may also result from reading, from earlier laboratory experiments, from discussions with colleagues, from practical problems to be solved, or simply from thinking. Sometimes new information or discoveries require verifying previous investigations.

The formal model for a scientific investigation consists of a series of steps called the scientific method. According to this model, a scientist first identifies a question that can be investigated and then tries to learn as much as possible about it. Frequently this involves studying books and journals that contain information about the question, a procedure known as searching the literature. The scientist thinks of a possible answer or explanation (called a hypothesis) to the question under study and then designs an experiment to test the hypothesis. The results of the experiment are compared to the expected results, which will either suggest that the hypothesis is accurate or that it needs to be revised. Once the hypothesis is revised and retested as necessary, the scientist reports the results, and the hypothesis may gain the acceptance of other scientists.

Although scientific reports are often presented in terms of the scientific method, the way in which scientific inquiries proceed in practice is not fixed, and they may follow a variety of unexpected paths. Science is a process of discovery that involves testing ideas and communicating with others. It may yield knowledge, provide solutions to problems, or inform public policy. Testing ideas involves interpreting gathered data and observations. Sometimes experiments do not produce usable results but lead to new avenues of investigation.

Testing hypotheses is an important way for scientists to gather data to develop, support, or challenge scientific theories. A scientific theory is an explanation of an observation or a natural phenomenon and is based on and supported by a large body of evidence. Most scientific theories have been so well tested that they are generally accepted with confidence and are unlikely to be further tested. For example, the heliocentric theory explains that Earth revolves around the Sun. Although it was greatly challenged when first proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus, this theory is well supported by evidence and unlikely to be challenged today. However, some theories, though widely accepted—such as the theory of evolution by natural selection—are occasionally challenged through new hypotheses and subsequent testing.

Philosophy of Science

Humans have always been curious about their surroundings. One of the most fundamental quests is the explanation of human origin and destiny. Perhaps this is where natural philosophy begins—in the search for the relationship between humans and the universe. All societies have tried to explain the origin of humans and their role in nature. These questions have been addressed by philosophers, religious scholars, and scientists alike.

Religion has had a tremendous influence on the discoveries and opinions of the scientific community. The Italian natural philosopher Galileo Galilei, for example, had tremendous difficulty convincing the Roman Catholic Church of the truth of his astronomical findings. His idea of a Sun-centered (heliocentric) solar system contradicted the Earth-centered (geocentric) model accepted by the church. He was put on trial for sharing his observations, and he spent parts of his life under close supervision because of his ideas. Another historic controversy centers on the age of Earth. Many religious traditions set Earth’s age at about 6,000 years. However, scientists believe Earth is much older—about 4.5 billion years old. In both examples science and religion have differed in the way they gather information about the world.

Throughout modern history, science and religion have often been portrayed as irreconcilable opponents, continually locked in a struggle over the meaning of truth. Scientists themselves are often characterized as fundamentally antireligious or atheistic. In 1916, a survey of 1,000 scientists and mathematicians in which they were questioned regarding their religious beliefs, revealed that roughly 40 percent of respondents believed in a God who communicated to humankind and to whom it was possible to pray “in expectation of receiving an answer.” Forty-five percent of the respondents stated that they did not believe in God as defined in the survey, and 15 percent answered that they were either agnostic or did not have a definite opinion on the question. In 1997, the same survey was conducted again, and the results nearly mirrored those of 81 years earlier. The only large variation in the 1997 results came from those who respondents who did not believe in a God as defined by the questionnaire—three percent more scientists felt this way in 1997. In both surveys, approximately 400 of the scientists who received the questionnaires in both studies did not respond. The results of the survey seemed to debunk the general caricatures of scientific intolerance for religion.

Like philosophy, science emphasizes the use of logic. In fact, science can be viewed as a scrutinizing system of logic. It seeks to answer questions by observing phenomena. As scientists try to solve a problem, they may use a model based on a logical, plausible connection of events. Like a hypothesis, the model is then tested by making predictions based on the model. If the predictions are proven wrong, then the model is revised. If the model survives the tests, the model becomes the system of logic that describes the theory. Theoretical models of this nature have been used to study economics, the structure of the atom, the universe, evolution, and even the origin of life.

Unlike philosophy, science emphasizes the repeatability of results. This means that a given set of circumstances should always produce the same result. Scientific theories are not accepted by the scientific community until the theory has been validated. One way to validate a theory is to have scientists in other laboratories duplicate the experiment or the calculations. Using another set of materials and methods, these scientists may repeat the experiment and check the accuracy of the previous report. This long and careful process will confirm that the original result was not merely a fluke occurrence, a misinterpretation of events, or an error in procedure.

By having several scientists investigate a situation, the most accurate description of cause and effect can be determined. Many of the most basic questions in science can be phrased in the form: “How does. . . ?”, “Why does. . . ?”, and “What determines. . . ?”. These are all attempts to establish cause and effect. A difficulty arises when many factors, or variables, affect the system at one time. A variable is something that has different values under different conditions. In one type of laboratory test all the variables but one are controlled. The uncontrolled variable is known as the experimental variable, and the others are the control variables. This method of testing is called controlled experimentation.

Fire—One of the Earliest Discoveries

Science was unknown for thousands of years before the dawn of recorded history. Nevertheless many significant discoveries and inventions were made during this prescience time. One of these discoveries was that fire could be harnessed and put to work.

While some animals have an instinctive fear of fire, humans somehow discovered that fire could be controlled and kept in one place. No one knows exactly when this discovery was first made. However, archaeologists have found that during the Ice Age humans used fire for cooking and to keep warm. Today this very same source of heat is used to produce steam for turbines.

Early Hunting Methods and Agriculture

Early humans also used fire to help hunt and kill animals for food. One method used, called the fire drive, enabled a few people to kill several animals without a great deal of work. First, animals had to be found grazing near a cliff during the summer when grass was dry. Then, when the wind was blowing in the right direction, a few hunters set fire to the dry grass with torches. The flames drove the animals over the cliff. By using fire in this way, early hunters had more to eat after a small amount of work than they would have had after a full week of hunting with a spear or club.

For a long time humans roamed across the land hunting wild animals for food. Eventually, doglike creatures were noticed to have an instinctive ability to detect game even when the hunters could not see it. These creatures often followed the hunters, and they were gradually trained to find game for the hunters to kill. Then dog and hunter would share the spoils of the hunt. In time humans realized that other wild animals could also be domesticated and kept for human use. They also found that they did not have to travel great distances to gather edible plants. Plants could be grown where they were needed. Soon humans began to raise crops.

Other Early Discoveries

Primitive methods of tanning leather and weaving were discovered by about 5000 bc. Humans also learned how to make clay pots in which to store things. Perhaps the accidental exposure of such a pot to a fire resulted in the first pottery. These clay pots could not be used for cooking, however, because clay, whether burned or not, is a poor conductor of heat. Instead, round stones were put in an open fire. When they were red hot, they were scooped up with a wooden or clay ladle and dumped into a pot of water. The stones would then heat the water and cook the food. This ancient method of cooking was still used in some areas until the beginning of the 20th century.

Another early invention was the wheel. The inspiration for the wheel may have come from using logs as rollers to move heavy objects. Whatever the origin, the wheel was readily adapted to a variety of uses. Placed horizontally, a wheel was an aid in making pottery, though its greatest value was its use on primitive carts for carrying heavy loads. Waterwheels were devised as tools for lifting water, and windmills became power sources.

One of the first metals put to use by early humans was copper. Like gold and silver, this metal is sometimes found in nature in pure form. Since it is so malleable, it can also be hammered into various shapes without first being heated. The discovery of how to heat ore and smelt metals was probably made by accident. A mixture of tin and copper yields bronze, which came to be widely used. (See alsometallurgy.)

Having learned that ores could be smelted, humans probably tried the process on many different substances. Often the work was wasted, but occasionally the result was useful. Glass was possibly discovered in this way.

Soon after the smelting of metals became common, metal money was probably invented. Pieces of money with a fixed value made trade and commerce possible. Copper was used for the least valuable pieces, silver for the more valuable coins, and gold for the most valuable.

The Beginning of Writing

Writing began in Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt several thousand years before the start of the Common Era. Picture writing was probably the first method of setting down what people saw, heard, or felt. This was called pictographic writing. It was many centuries before any kind of alphabet was developed.

By the time writing began, all the above-mentioned discoveries and many more had been made. Their use, however, was not scientific. The tanner, for example, did not really know what happened chemically to a piece of animal skin that he converted into useful leather. His knowledge of the tanner’s art had simply been learned from his elders. He knew what to do but not why he did it. Glassmakers and those who smelted metals had no knowledge of the chemistry involved in the processes they used. This was true of artisans of all kinds. They were highly skilled at their crafts, but they had no idea of the scientific principles involved.

Writing made possible the beginning of science. It enabled humans to record what one generation of people had learned and to pass it on to the people of the next generation. There were no formalized sciences such as geography, zoology, or botany then. The ancients, however, did describe and list the names of places, animals, and plants.

The Beginnings of Science in Greece

The first sciences in the modern sense were those connected with mathematics. They were begun in Mesopotamia and in ancient Egypt and were passed on to ancient Greece.

The Greek philosopher Archimedes was a great mathematician and an important early writer on the science of mechanics. Mathematics and mechanics were put to practical use during the Golden Age of Greece, beginning about 600 bc. The knowledge of geometry was applied widely in Greek architecture. The knowledge of physics was used in building as well as in war. The lever made it possible to move huge stones for building. With the catapult soldiers were able to hurl heavy spears or large rocks at enemy fortifications.

Another science that the ancient Greeks developed was astronomy. They could foretell to the day when a given planet would be visible and even where it would appear in the heavens. This kind of science was what would be known today as the “astronomy of position.”

Theoretical science began when the Greeks started to ask serious questions about the world around them. They wanted to know what things were made of and where they came from. They wished not only to make and build things but to know how and why things were as they were. Asking these questions and getting the first answers—many of which were later proved wrong—laid the foundations of Western science. The Greeks passed their theories on to the Romans and the other people of Western Europe. For many centuries European science was based for the most part on the early theories of the Greeks.

The Roman Empire

The ancient Romans widened the range of practical science. Their road-building feats were not equaled until modern times. They made the first road maps, with distances between stations along their roads carefully measured in paces. They built great aqueducts to carry water over long distances.

The Dark Ages and the Middle Ages

The period from the end of the Roman Empire to about ad 800 is often called the Dark Ages. There was not much progress made in Europe during this period. The foundations were laid, however, for important advances that were to follow in the later Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

The stirrup was probably invented during the Dark Ages. Water wheels also made their first appearance then. They were used as sources of power in small rivers and in sea inlets, where they were run by tidal currents. The water wheel led to the windmill, which was introduced about 1100. The magnetic compass was also invented about this time.

Papermaking and Firearms

By the 13th century papermaking spread throughout Europe. Paper was a Chinese invention. It had been adopted by the Persians and then by the Arabs, who brought the art to Europe.

Powder (not gunpowder, because guns were not yet known) and fireworks rockets were introduced into Europe in the 1200s. They had been invented in China some years earlier.

The earliest mention of firearms is in a Dutch chronicle dated 1313. It states that firearms were invented in Germany. The first picture of a primitive cannon can be found in an English manuscript dated 1326. (See alsoexplosive.)

Gutenberg’s Contribution

In the 15th century Johannes Gutenberg developed a practical method of printing. The Chinese had invented movable type in the 11th century but made little use of it. Gutenberg’s printing method started a new era in the growth of science.

Before Gutenberg, a student might spend a whole year copying a book by hand. After Gutenberg, books were printed much more quickly. They were also available in large enough quantities for universities to expand their libraries for the increased use of both faculty and students.

It was due mainly to the existence of the printed book that the great scientists of the 16th century could work systematically. Books made both old and new knowledge readily available. Anybody who truly wanted to learn could now do so because books could be easily circulated from person to person.

In spite of the rather large number of books that were written and printed in the 16th century, most of the sciences remained in their earliest stage. This earliest stage is the collection of everything that is known in a certain field, then reviewing that material or commenting on it. It does not include an explanation of why things are the way they are.

Andreas Vesalius, for example, did pioneer work in anatomy. He named every bone, muscle, and most of the blood vessels in the body. He did not know, however, how the human body functioned. Zoologist Conrad Gesner listed all known animals, but he had no idea of the relationships of the various animals to one another. Georgius Agricola (Georg Bauer) wrote about the mining of metals and the processing of ores, but he knew nothing about chemistry. Gunnery master Leonhart Fronsperger wrote a book on guns and shooting, but he knew nothing of ballistics.

The Breakthrough in Astronomy

In 1543 a historic book on astronomy was published. It was Concerning the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres, by Nicolaus Copernicus. For centuries the science of astronomy had been based on the Ptolemaic theory that Earth was the center of the universe and motionless. The problem was to explain how the other planets and heavenly bodies moved.

At first it was thought that they simply moved in circular orbits around Earth. Calculations based on this view, however, did not agree with actual observations. Then it was thought that the other planets traveled in small circular orbits. These in turn were believed to move along larger orbits around Earth. With this theory, however, it could not be proved that Earth was the center of the universe.

In his historic book Copernicus said that Earth should be regarded as one of the planets which revolved around the Sun. He also stated that Earth rotated on an axis. Copernicus, however, still clung to the ideas of planets traveling in small circular orbits which moved along larger orbits. Although it was revolutionary, Copernicus’ theory did not offer an adequate explanation of the movement of the planets. This explanation came more than a half century later.

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

Johannes Kepler spent years trying to work out the orbit of the planet Mars by means of a small circle (epicycle) moving along a larger one around the Sun. No matter how he tried, it did not work. After six years of study he came to realize that the movement of Mars could be understood. To do this one had to assume that the planet moved along an elliptical (oval) orbit at a speed which varied according to the planet’s distance from the Sun.

With this new hypothesis, all of Kepler’s observations made sense. He then wrote down the following first two laws of planetary motion: (1) The path of every planet in motion around the Sun forms an ellipse, with the Sun at one focus. (2) The speed of a planet in its orbit varies so that a line joining it with the Sun sweeps over equal areas in equal times. The second law means that a planet moves faster when close to the Sun and more slowly when it is farther away. Later Kepler also set down a third law of planetary motion. It deals with the relationship between the distance of a planet from the Sun and the time a planet takes to complete one orbit.

Galileo’s Work with the Telescope

While Kepler was working out his laws of planetary motion, Galileo Galilei proved that Copernicus was right in stating that Earth moved on its axis. He did this using a telescope.

Galileo had heard that Hans Lippershey, a Dutch maker of eyeglasses, had invented a tube which made distant things look near. Although Galileo knew very little about this primitive telescope, he made one himself. Using it, he discovered that the planet Jupiter had moons (satellites). He also saw that the planet Venus passed through phases as does Earth’s Moon. This indicated that Venus moved around the Sun inside Earth’s orbit. He saw too that the Milky Way was made up of countless distant stars. Galileo’s observations led him to conclude that Copernicus had been right in at least part of his theories regarding astronomy.

Newton’s Discoveries

Kepler had been able to show how a planet moves. Later in the 17th century Sir Isaac Newton showed why it travels the way it does. Kepler wondered where the force to move a planet came from. Having found that the motion of the planet was faster near the Sun, he had speculated that the driving force might come from the Sun. Newton showed that there was such a force and that its strength was inversely proportional to the square of a planet’s distance from the Sun. In his book Principia, which appeared in 1687, Newton set forth three basic laws of motion and described the gravitational attraction between bodies. The laws of motion and gravitational attraction apply not only to the Sun and the planets but also to the motion of satellites in orbit and the flight of a rocket in the vacuum of space.

Electricity

While Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton were establishing astronomy as a science, material for other sciences was still just being accumulated. For example, Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg, Germany, invented a primitive way of making electricity. He took an ordinary grindstone and substituted a ball of sulfur for the stone. With one hand he cranked the ball. With the other he rubbed it. The friction created static electricity. Wax and amber balls were also used. Newton improved upon this method by substituting a glass ball for one of sulfur.

In 1729 Stephen Gray in England discovered that electricity could be conducted through metal rods. At this point the knowledge of electricity stopped growing because of some mistaken ideas about it.

The substances which could be used to produce electricity—sulfur, glass, wax, and amber—were called “electrics.” They could be used to produce electricity, but they would not conduct it. The metal conductors which Gray had discovered would conduct electricity, but they could not produce it.

It was now reasoned that a substance had to be an “electric” or a “conductor.” The proper distinction, of course, would have been “insulators” and “conductors,” and a conductor could be used to produce electricity if it was insulated.

Mathematics

Two very important mathematical developments took place during the 17th century. In 1614 John Napier invented logarithms. It had been possible to do long multiplication and division problems before the invention of logarithms. With logarithms, up to 90 percent of the time required for a given calculation could be saved.

Near the end of the 17th century, Newton in England and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in Germany were key figures in the development of calculus. Logarithms were mostly timesavers. Calculus is an important tool in solving a variety of complex problems commonly encountered in scientific fields.

The Steam Engine

The 18th century saw the development of a practical device as important and far-reaching in its results as had been the invention of movable type. This was the steam engine, a device as interesting for physics as it was useful for industry.

In order to understand the importance of the steam engine, it is necessary to understand an engineering term. The term is “firm power,” which means simply power when and where it is wanted. A large windmill can be quite powerful, but it provides force only if a wind happens to be blowing. A water wheel comes closer to supplying firm power, but there is little choice in its location.

The steam engine provided firm power. It could be built anywhere. The only problem might be the transportation of fuel to make it run.

Early Steam Engines

The earliest known form of steam engine was the machine built by Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century ad. This device was called an aeolipile, and it worked on the same principle as a lawn sprinkler, using steam rather than water (seejet propulsion). In 1629 Giovanni Branca invented the steam turbine. It worked by blowing a jet of steam against a kind of modified water wheel. Neither of these machines was powerful enough to do any useful work.

The first useful steam engine was invented by Thomas Savery in 1698. It was known as a pumping engine because it had been invented for the specific purpose of pumping water from mine shafts. In this engine the hose, which was to suck up the water, led into a large container that had just been filled with steam. Then the steam valve was closed and a stream of cold water was run onto the metal container. The steam inside condensed. This produced a partial vacuum, and water was sucked into the container. The water was then drained from it.

In 1705 Thomas Newcomen produced an “atmospheric engine,” which had a piston connected to a large crossbeam. Steam was put into the cylinder to raise the piston. Next cold water was sprayed into the cylinder, condensing the steam. The pressure of the atmosphere then forced the piston down. The piston, in turn, pulled down one end of the beam. The other end of the beam moved up at the same time. The crossbeam was used to drive a pump.

About 1760 James Watt of Scotland was asked to repair one of these atmospheric engines. He decided that cooling the cylinder after each stroke of the piston resulted in a waste of fuel. He tried to make the steam do the work directly without any cooling of the cylinder. His efforts resulted in the creation of an improved version of the engine in 1765.

The Biological Sciences

Much of the progress in the biological sciences during the 18th century was due to the work of the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus. Linnaeus had observed that some plants were quite similar while others were not. He established ways and means of fixing and describing plant similarities. Gradually he constructed a botanical system of classification in which he grouped like species into a genus, genera into orders, and orders into classes.

Linnaeus constructed a similar system for animals. After Linnaeus a zoological catalogue was no longer merely a drawer of index cards with animals’ names on them. There was now a zoological system. Students could see which animals were grouped together and how closely they were related. (See alsoanimal; botany; living things; plant; zoology.)

Chemistry

Important advances in the study of chemistry were made in the late 18th century. It is often said that chemistry grew out of alchemy. The alchemists had very special goals. They wanted to find something called the philosophers’ stone or the elixir of life. With the help of these substances they hoped to make gold from base metals and to cure all human ills. While the alchemists worked hard, it is unlikely that their efforts led to even a single great discovery.

Chemistry primarily grew out of the needs of smelters, metalworkers, tanners, dyers, and glassmakers. In the course of their work, new elements such as cobalt and nickel were discovered. Then, in the late 1700s, another element, oxygen, was discovered by Joseph Priestley and by Carl Wilhelm Scheele.

The Phlogiston Theory

For many years before the discovery of oxygen the growth of chemistry had been held back by a false theory regarding burning (combustion). Johann Becher and Georg Ernst Stahl tried to explain combustion by the phlogiston theory. According to this theory anything that could be burned contained an “essence” called phlogiston. When the substance burned, the phlogiston escaped into the air.

It had been observed that a substance would not burn long in a closed container. Becher and Stahl thought that combustion stopped because the air in the closed container had become so saturated with phlogiston that it could not absorb any more of it. Today, of course, it is known that a substance burning in a closed container will stop burning when it uses up all the oxygen.

When oxygen was discovered, it was found that combustible substances burned much better in it than they did in air. It was then mistakenly assumed that oxygen had to be a gas completely devoid of phlogiston so that it could absorb whatever was released from the burning substance. The newly discovered oxygen was thus called “dephlogisticated air.”

Lavoisier’s Contribution

When a metal is heated in air, an oxide is normally produced. The chemists of the 18th century called the oxide of a metal its calx. They reasoned that calx and the phlogiston together equaled the metal. The problem, however, was that the metal weighed less than its calx. The scientists of that period then further reasoned that since a substance became lighter by the addition of phlogiston, the phlogiston must therefore have a negative weight.

Thinking along this line became more and more confused. Finally the great French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier proved, in 1783, that the metals were elements. He also showed that their so-called calxes (oxides) were the result of a combination of the metal and oxygen. At last freed from its self-made errors, chemistry progressed at a surprising rate.

Electric Current

Just before the end of the 18th century electric current was discovered. In 1780 an Italian named Luigi Galvani noticed that the legs of freshly killed frogs sometimes jerked when they touched metal. He thought this was caused by a kind of “animal electricity.” Another Italian, Count Alessandro Volta, believed chemistry was involved. In 1800 Volta proved his theory when he built a primitive electric battery. This was called a voltaic cell. (See alsoelectricity; physics.)

By the end of the 18th century the foundations for most of today’s sciences had thus been laid. In chemistry it was known what substances were the elements and what other substances were the compounds. In physics the distinction between static electricity and electric (galvanic) current had been established. Astronomy had a firm foundation of theory.

19th-Century Growth of Science

Great scientific progress was made in the 19th century. This progress resulted from the application of what was already known plus new discoveries of a basic nature. The steam engine in time became powerful enough to be used in ships and locomotives. The voltaic cell and the long-known fact that thin metal rods would conduct electricity were developed into the electric telegraph. (See alsorailroad; ship and shipping.)

In 1817 Swedish chemist Baron Jöns Jakob Berzelius realized that a substance he had thought to be tellurium was something else. He named his new substance selenium. Later it was discovered that when selenium was in the light it would conduct an electric current. It would not, however, conduct a current in the dark.

One form of the early telephone developed from this property of selenium. It also resulted in experiments which finally led to “talking pictures,” the transmission of pictures by wire, television, and the photoelectric cell, or electric eye. (See alsomotion pictures; photoelectric device.)

In the mid-1800s Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, made a significant discovery in biology. He found patterns of inheritance between parent plants and their offspring, and he proposed that certain plant characteristics could be inherited. This was the beginning of the study of genetics.

In the 16th century Conrad Gesner collected all the information about animals available at that time. Later, Carolus Linnaeus compiled this information into a system that showed relationships among living things. Based on observations and descriptions of plants and animals, many of which were sent to him from the Americas, he categorized life into groups. The most closely related group, known as species, consisted of organisms that are capable of reproducing to form viable, healthy offspring in nature. Based on structure and appearance, living things are now classified according to their kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.

Scientists then began wondering why species, though similar, still had slight variations. Naturalists such as Charles Darwin and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck sought to explain the seemingly perfect relationship between animals’ habitat and their biological adaptations. Darwin developed his theory of organic evolution to explain these relationships. He published several books describing his travels and observations. One of the most famous was the On the Origin of Species.

In 1868 the Russian chemist Dmitry Mendeleyev published The Principles of Chemistry. It contained what is now known as the periodic table, a chart in which the chemical elements are arranged in order of increasing weight. Mendeleyev’s table was so accurate that he was able to point out gaps where undiscovered elements would belong on the table. (See alsochemistry.)

In the 1870s the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell developed a theory about electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation includes radio waves, microwaves, visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma rays. Maxwell suggested that these forms of radiation all travel through space in wavelike patterns at the speed of light. In 1887 Heinrich Hertz developed a way of producing and receiving radio waves.

Perhaps one of the most significant scientific discoveries, in terms of its social influences, occurred in 1896. The French scientist Henri Becquerel left a uranium compound in a desk drawer. The drawer happened to contain a package of unused photographic plates. Later, when these plates were removed from their lightproof wrappers, Becquerel found them to be fogged. The only unusual thing near them had been the uranium compound. It was evident that the presence of the uranium had “exposed” the plates. This simple observation brought about another revolution in science. The fogging of the plates showed that they had been subjected to radiation.

The discovery of this type of radiation, which is produced by radioactivity, was followed by the discovery of the radioactive elements polonium and radium by Marie Curie and Pierre Curie (seeCurie family). Two units of radioactivity measurement were named the Becquerel and the Curie. Radioactivity is now known to involve forces within the nuclei of atoms.

20th-Century Advances in Physics

Physicists originally thought that the amount of energy in the universe was constant. Energy was neither created nor destroyed; it was merely transformed. Similarly, the amount of matter was thought to be constant. A piece of iron could be ground into fine dust. The dust could be combined with oxygen to form iron oxides, but this was thought to be a change in form and shape, not a change in quantity.

It was Albert Einstein who proposed that perhaps it was not the amount of energy that was constant, nor the amount of matter, but the amount of the two combined that remained constant. In other words, if one really succeeded in the difficult process of destroying matter, then energy would be the result. If one succeeded in condensing energy, then matter would be the result. These concepts are fundamental to the study of nuclear energy, called nuclear physics. (See alsoatomic particles; relativity.)

In 1934 the physicist Enrico Fermi accidentally split the nucleus of an atom when he bombarded uranium with neutrons. In 1939 the German scientists Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, and Fritz Strassmann repeated some of Fermi’s work and reported that nuclear fission had taken place. Three years later Fermi and his associates discovered that a nuclear chain reaction could be self-sustained. These discoveries led to the first nuclear weapons and reactors. In the decades following World War II many uses were found for nuclear reactors, from nuclear-powered ships and submarines to nuclear power plants for generating electricity for public use. As powerful as the fission bomb (the atomic bomb) was, some scientists began to develop an even more deadly weapon—a nuclear fusion bomb (the hydrogen bomb), first tested in 1952.

In 1900 German physicist Max Planck proposed that electromagnetic energy was emitted in small units, called quanta. This became known as the quantum theory. Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect in 1905 established the quantum theory of light. Many other scientists studied the structure of matter. It was through his study of the deflection of nuclear particles as they passed through gold foil that Ernest Rutherford came to postulate a theory that the greatest mass of the atom was concentrated in a positively charged nucleus, around which the electrons revolved. Niels Bohr later developed a more complete theory of the structure of the atom and verified the quantum theory. The German Werner Heisenberg contributed to the understanding of subatomic particles. In 1927 he stated that it was impossible to measure simultaneously both the position and the momentum (mass times velocity) of a subatomic body. This became known as the uncertainty principle. (See alsophysics; quantum mechanics.)

Discoveries in Genetics

Biologists continued to advance the genetics principles proposed by Mendel as they explored cell metabolism and reproduction. In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick discovered that the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecule is in the shape of a double helix. DNA contains the master code of instructions for protein synthesis in the cell. Later research revealed the complex process by which the DNA code is read and used by the cell to assemble amino acids into proteins by means of RNA (ribonucleic acid).

Scientists learned how to move a gene from one species and insert it into the DNA of another species, where it is replicated with the host DNA. This technique, a form of genetic engineering, made it possible to use bacteria to produce some types of human hormones, such as insulin and growth hormone. Genetic engineering has been applied in agriculture, medicine, and other fields. Genetically modified crops are widely grown in the United States and in other countries. One example is a type of genetically modified corn (maize) that contains a gene that produce a natural insecticide. DNA research has allowed scientists to map chromosomes and isolate the causes of some genetic anomalies. The first human trials of gene therapy began in 1990. In 2003 researchers completed the Human Genome Project, an international effort that determined the sequences of almost all the genetic content of the human body, which is known as the human genome.

The Turn Toward Outer Space

Many other scientific developments occurred in astronomy, the Earth sciences, and medicine. In the 1920s some scientists began to propose that the universe was formed as a result of a violent explosion from a state of extremely high temperature and density. As evidence was discovered to support this so-called big bang theory, it eventually came to be accepted by the scientific community. The exploration of outer space began in 1957, first with unmanned space vehicles. Several countries subsequently launched unmanned satellites and probes that were sent through the solar system. Using space-based telescopes, free of atmospheric disturbances, scientists were able to see fainter and more-distant astronomical objects than before. Probes sent to the Moon and the planets have given scientists a better understanding of the nature and origins of those bodies.

Manned flights began in 1961. On July 20, 1969, astronauts from the United States were the first to set foot on the Moon. In the 1970s the United States developed the first reusable manned space vehicle, the space shuttle. At the end of the 20th century the United States, Russia, Japan, Canada, and the European Space Agency cooperated to build the International Space Station in orbit around Earth. The first resident crew arrived at the station in 2000.

Wegener’s Continental Drift Theory

In 1912 the German geologist and meteorologist Alfred Wegener proposed that the continents were once all one land mass, which he called Pangaea. For many years his continental drift theory was dismissed as highly speculative. Eventually evidence was accumulated in support of the theory, partly through the study of the phenomenon known as magnetic reversal. (Studies in the 1960s indicated that Earth’s magnetic field repeatedly changes polarity at intervals of 100 thousand to 50 million years.) The continental drift theory led to the concept of plate tectonics, which holds that Earth’s outer layers are divided into moving plates and explains the existence of volcanoes and earthquakes. In 1935 the American seismologist Charles Richter devised the Richter scale for measuring the intensity of earthquakes. (See alsoEarth; geology.)

Modern Medicine

Many 20th-century medical developments were attributed to the invention of specialized devices. Shortly after the discovery of X-rays, physicians began to examine bone fractures with X-ray machines. In 1912 U.S. chemist John Jacob Abel produced the first useful artificial kidney for use in the laboratory. It was to be followed by many other devices used to assist or replace bodily functions, including the ear drum, hip, heart valve, and artificial heart. The first dependable heart-lung machine was built in 1955. In 1967 Christiaan Barnard, a South African physician, performed the first successful heart transplant on a human. The heart recipient survived for 18 days. Important advances in the early 21st century included the development of prosthetic-limb technology, such as nerve biosensors to control movement.

Artificial-insemination experiments were performed as early as 1780. In 1901 the Russian biologist Ilya Ivanovich Ivanov began artificial insemination of horses. The techniques were eventually used on humans, usually with couples having difficulty in conceiving children. In 1978 the first “test tube” baby was born in England as a result of in vitro fertilization of an egg cell and the implantation of the embryo in the mother’s uterus. (See alsomedicine; pregnancy and birth; surgery.)

Medical researchers had some success in the production of artificial blood, which may eventually eliminate the threat of contracting diseases transmitted during blood transfusions. In the early 2000s a high-tech bandage was introduced that promoted blood clotting and quickly stopped uncontrolled bleeding from a wound.

Information Technology

Many scientific advances would never have been made without the use of computers. Thus, the invention of electronic computers was among the most-significant achievements of the 20th century. The first electronic digital computers were built in the 1940s. The reduction in size and increase in speed of computers were spurred by the invention of the transistor in the late 1940s and the integrated circuit in the late 1950s. The first personal computers became widely available after the introduction of random-access memory chips and microprocessors in the early 1970s. Soon a larger variety of computer programs were developed as commercial products. The Internet, whose origins date to the 1960s, had very limited use by the general public until the development of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s. In the early 21st century handheld computer devices with access to the World Wide Web were developed and were soon incorporated with cellular telephones.

One advanced area of computer research is the field of artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence has many potential applications in robotics, communications, and other fields.

Scientific Communication

Scientists frequently cooperate with other scientists in their research. Cooperative efforts may involve scientists from many different countries. Another way in which scientists share their research is by attending local, national, or international conferences. Conferences are periodic meetings in which scientists formally or informally present their research and opinions. Conferences provide scientists with immediate feedback on their work. Many historic scientific breakthroughs have been presented to the scientific community at such conferences. Consequently, many scientists attend conferences to follow scientific developments and share methods, results, and ideas with other researchers. In addition to attending conferences, many scientists regularly correspond with one another. Some of these letters have become historic documents.

Researchers may also write formal papers describing their experimental procedures, hypotheses, results, and conclusions. These papers may be submitted to a science academy or association for publication. Such organizations help to foster support and communication among scientists. Even if the paper is not selected for publication, it serves as a written documentation of the work and enables other scientists to replicate or evaluate the experiment.

Nearly every scientific advancement made today is published in some form of scientific literature. Some journals are devoted to an entire field, such as biology, while others focus on research in a highly specialized area, such as cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises). A journal may be interdisciplinary, or it may concentrate on a specific theme such as environmental conservation.

Funding and Awards

Scientific research can be extremely expensive, especially when it involves the use of costly equipment. Scientific research may be funded by governments, industries, foundations, or universities. In the United States, the federal government sponsors many projects in the area of national defense and space exploration. In 1950 Congress passed an act that established the National Science Foundation. The purpose of this independent federal agency is to develop a national science policy and to support basic scientific research and education. Other foundations, such as the National Heart Association and the American Cancer Society, are devoted to research concerning human health.

Scientific research also is supported by the private sector. Industries frequently employ scientists, especially those who work in the applied sciences. These scientists are involved in the development of industrial or commercial processes and products. Colleges and universities support scientific research by offering professorships. As professors, scientists usually divide their time between their individual research and teaching. In this way, their students have the opportunity to observe the scientific process firsthand. Universities may specialize in various fields, and they are frequently judged on the basis of the accomplishments of their professors and scientists. Scientists who publish, therefore, bring prestige to their college or university.

Scientists are often awarded for their contribution to science. Perhaps the most well-known award is the Nobel Prize, a yearly recognition of the leaders within the fields of physics, chemistry, physiology (or medicine), literature, and peace. The award was established by Alfred Nobel, a Swedish chemist and the inventor of dynamite. In 1968 an economics prize was added. The winners of the Nobel Prize receive money, a gold medal, and a diploma. The award honors the most significant and outstanding achievements in each field. In keeping with Nobel’s will, the Royal Swedish Academy considers persons of any nationality as eligible for the award.

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