Optical disc packaging is the packaging that accompanies CDs, DVDs, and other formats of optical media. Most packaging is rigid or semi-rigid and designed to protect the media from scratches and other types of exposure damage.

A jewel CD case is a compact disc case that has been used since the compact disc was first released in 1982, it is a three-piece plastic case, measuring 142 by 125 by 10 millimetres (5.59 in × 4.92 in × 0.39 in), a volume of 177.5 cubic centimetres (10.83 cu in), which usually contains a compact disc along with the liner notes and a back card. Two opposing transparent halves are hinged together to form the casing, the back half holding a media tray that grips the disc by its hole. All three parts are made of injection-moulded polystyrene.[1]

The front lid contains two, four, or six tabs to keep any liner notes in place, the liner notes typically will be a 120 by 120 millimetres (4.7 in × 4.7 in) booklet, or a single 242 by 120 millimetres (9.5 in × 4.7 in) leaf folded in half. In addition, there is usually a back card, 150 by 118 millimetres (5.9 in × 4.6 in), underneath the media tray and visible through the clear back, often listing the track names, studio, copyright data and other information. The back card is folded into a flattened "U" shape, with the sides being visible along the ends (often referred to as the spine) of the case, the ends usually have the name of the release and the artist, and often label or catalogue information printed on them, and are designed to be visible when the case is stored vertically, 'book-style', on shelves.

The back media tray snaps into the back cover, and is responsible for securing the disk, the center is a circular hub of teeth which grip the disc by its hole. This effectively suspends the disk in the middle of the container, preventing the recording surface from being scratched,[1] the media tray was originally constructed of a flexible black polystyrene, but many newer trays use a more fragile transparent polystyrene. This allows the reverse of the back card, which is usually used for additional artwork, to be visible, this format did not become common until the mid-1990s.

The jewel case is the standard case used by majority of manufacturers and it is the most common type of case found in record and movie stores. Jewel cases are occasionally used for DVDs, but generally not for those that contain major film releases. Blank Blu-ray Disc media is also most commonly sold in standard-width jewel cases.

According to Philips, the name "jewel case" reflects either the generally high quality of the case design compared to initial attempts, or its appearance. According to one publication,[1] initial attempts at packaging CDs were unsatisfactory. When the new design, by Peter Doodson, was found to be "virtually perfect" it was dubbed the "jewel case".[1] Another publication[2] quotes Doodson describing that he "specified polished ribs as they pick up the light and shine" and states that the resulting appearance led to the name.

Endurance: The CD jewel case has a tight and firm grip of the CD because of the tray's "teeth" or "lock". Because of this, even if the CD jewel case is turned upside-down, left, or right, the CD is held in place. Flimsier cases may cause the CD to become loose, or even fall out. Also, since the jewel case is made of plastic, it is sturdier compared to cardboard, paper, or foams. When pressure is applied to the CD jewel case, the case will break first before the CD. If the case is made of thin cardboard, there is a greater chance that the CD would break or get damaged because the weight is directed onto it.

Storage: The type of material of the CD jewel case allows storage of CDs for decades without ruining the CDs. The same is not as true with other cases, since paper can stick to the CDs due to air, humidity, and other factors, the CD jewel case may also be preferred because it offers orderliness on a shelf. Since the CD jewel case has existed for decades, there are many CD shelves, racks, and other products in the market that are made for CD jewel cases.

Room for accessories: The CD jewel case is designed to carry a booklet, as well as to have panel inserts. These may be used to display album artwork, lyrics, photos, thank-yous, messages, biography, etc.

Cost-effectiveness: Because the CD jewel case is the standard, most-commonly used CD case, it is much cheaper. The price of the CD jewel case usually ranges from $0.75 to $0.95. That is a few cents cheaper than digipaks and other CD wallets. However, if large quantities of cases are needed, the price difference may be hundreds or thousands of dollars.

There are a number of shortcomings with the jewel case, the case is hinged on two brittle plastic arms, which often break if the case receives shock or stress due to being dropped. The teeth of the hub holding the disc are also prone to failure by snapping. There is a problem with the tabs ("half-moons") which hold the liner notes in place; sometimes, especially with larger booklets, the tabs grip the booklet too tightly, leading to tearing. When replacing the booklet, it can get snagged and crumple or rip, as noted above, some CD releases have only two tabs, which allows the booklet to be more easily removed and replaced (with the disadvantage of the booklet sometimes falling out if held the wrong way). Replacement jewel cases can be purchased, to replace those that have broken plastic arms or hub teeth.

Double disc albums can either be packaged in standard-thickness jewel cases with hinged media trays which can be lifted to reveal the second disc (trays hinged on the left are known as "Smart Tray" format; those hinged on the right are known as "Brilliant Box" format) or in a "double jewel case", sometimes called a multi-CD jewel case, "fatbox" or "Bookbox", which is slightly larger than two normal jewel cases stacked on top of each other, and can hold 2 to 6 CDs. Double jewel cases do not fit in some CD racks; however, some racks have a few extra wide slots specifically to accommodate them.

The intended successor to the original jewel case, which were gaining ground, is the "Super Jewel Box", a more advanced design which offers (amongst other improvements) a greatly strengthened hinge area. Unfortunately, the super jewel box cannot be used as a direct replacement for the older jewel case design as its card insert for the back is slightly different in size. However, in many other ways it is an attractive concept and some CD manufacturers (for example the high-end company Linn) are supplying them, the depth of the disc tray is also greater, allowing for two discs to be placed on top of each other. The super jewel box was developed by Philips[1] and other CD-format developers, originally in a larger format as a DVD case, and then in smaller formats as CD cases.

In the standard CD height, the super jewel box is the conventional case for Super Audio CD (SACD);[1] a taller form, midway between CD and DVD-Video size, is the conventional case for DVD-Audio, and as of mid-2006, the case format for all albums released by the Universal Music Group in Europe.[3]

Many alternatives to the standard jewel case may also be found, including larger DVD-style cases with a more book-like shape, it is not uncommon to find CDs housed in custom cases, tins and boxes of varying shapes and sizes. Slipcases and other envelope-type designs are also used.

Some DualDiscs are packaged in jewel cases of a somewhat different design from the CD version; the inside edge is rounded instead of flat, and the physical position of the disc is moved slightly toward the spine to make room for a latch mechanism. The overall dimensions of a DualDisc case are roughly the same as a standard CD case. However, the hinge mechanism is smaller and cannot be dismantled as easily as on a standard jewel case.

Smaller jewel cases are used for 8 cm CD and DVD media; similar cases without the hub are used for MiniDisc and (magnetic) Zip disk media.

Additionally, games for the Sega CD, and Sega Saturn, as well as games released early in the original PlayStation's life cycle, were released in larger jewel cases that were around the size of VHS keep cases; because the larger thickness of these cases put the CDs inside at greater risk of being knocked out accidentally, large foam bricks were placed on top of the discs when packaged to hold them in place.

Slimline jewel cases first gained popularity as cases for CD singles sold in Japan and Europe, and have become a common space-saving packaging for burned CDs, the cases used for CD Singles sold in Japan and Europe are 7 mm thick, with a "J-card" type inlay, showing cover art through the front of the case, and also through both the spine and part of the back of the case. The CD itself is usually inserted "upside-down" in the case, so that the artwork on the disc itself shows through the transparent back of the case.

Most slim jewel cases sold for burned CDs use the measure 142 by 125 by 5 millimetres (5.59 in × 4.92 in × 0.20 in), which is roughly half the thickness of a standard CD jewel case, allowing twice as many CDs to be stored in the same space, and will generally fit two to a slot in a standard CD rack. They generally do not have room for a full package insert booklet, only a slip of paper for a track listing or cover art, showing only through the front of the case. Unlike the standard jewel cases, slimline cases are made of two pieces rather than three and do not have a place for a back label. However, with this design the "spine" is narrower, making the discs more difficult to identify when stored on edge on a shelf.

The bulk of slimline cases are made with translucent or transparent polystyrene, and are available in multiple colors. A stronger alternative is made from semi-opaque, semi-flexible polypropylene which is strong enough to protect the disc, but flexible enough not to break easily. Also, the hinge mechanism is inverted compared to the standard-width case, with the pivot arms being attached to the lower part of the case rather than the clear cover side.

In the U.S. and Canada, the jewel box of a music CD was originally packaged for retail sale in a large cardboard box called a longbox in order to fit in store fixtures designed for vinyl records, offer larger space for display of artwork and marketing blurbs, and deter shoplifting. This box also enabled censorship if the store deemed a particular album cover potentially offensive to the public, this packaging was much-criticized as environmentally wasteful, and was eventually dropped by most retailers in the mid-1990s, though major record companies continued to ship CDs to wholesale clubs, such as Costco and Sam's, in longboxes into the 21st century. Longboxes were not used outside North America.

Around 1994, the top wrap-around label sticker began to appear on most CDs, to make it easier to read what each CD was from the top without having to flip through them to see the front cover, these stickers were usually nothing more than informational labels and rarely would have any use in the marketing of the album. The wrap-around sticker also provided an extra seal, possibly as another theft deterrent.

A chiefly Japanese packaging is the addition of an obi strip, a strip of paper wound around the side of the case to show details such as the price, artist, etc.

The simplest, least expensive package is a paper envelope. More expensive versions add a transparent window to the envelope allowing the disc label to be seen, the envelope can also be made out of spunbonded polyethylene (trade-named Tyvek). This is both more durable and less abrasive than paper. However, such packaging is rare for commercial releases due to its relative lack of protection compared with other designs, and is primarily limited to promotional and demo discs.

It is also often used in software packages, where the box is labeled promotionally, but the disc comes in a paper sleeve (to cut costs).

The Q Pack was developed by the Queens Group Inc. in the mid-1990s as an alternative to regular CD jewel cases. (The Queens Group was purchased by Shorewood Packaging, who are part of International Paper). The Q Pack does not have a snap-in tray like a regular jewel case, it is characterized by the corrugated raised area where the top hinges to the back. Since Q Pack cases are not transparent, generally cover art is applied as a decal to the cover. Decals can also be applied to the inside front, on the tray underneath the hub and the back cover. A slot for an insert booklet is found inside the front cover as on typical jewel cases.

The term "digipak" refers to a particular type of CD case, which essentially consists of a plastic CD tray glued inside a folding cardboard cover. Though it once referred specifically to the patented digipak packaging, the term has since become a genericized trademark generally used in reference to any cardboard-based CD package, despite being made of paper, they were once considered an environmentally more friendly alternative to jewel boxes. However, they remain less common than jewel cases due to higher manufacturing costs and lower resistance to wear (particularly shopwear).

A taller form has been used for some DVD movie releases; it is essentially identical to the CD package, though with raised top and bottom sections to keep the disc from sliding out if it comes disengaged from the hub.

JakeBox is a 100% paperboard packaging concept designed in Sweden for CD, DVD and Blu-Ray discs, featuring a patented pop up "claw", the claw releases the CD when the cover is opened and locks it again by closing the cover. This innovative design not only creates an eye-catching way to opening and presenting the disc, making it easily accessible, but properly protects the CD once closed.[4][5]

The Discbox Slider (also called DBS) is a disc packaging concept in 100% carton board, found both in CD and DVD sized packaging formats, the DBS is comparable with plastic jewel or Amaray cases when it comes to size but holds more of the features of the LP style cases in terms of light weight and printability. The DBS case opens up from the side by moving the slider part (on which the disc is resting) from the sleeve, the Discbox Slider is 100% recyclable. Many covermount CDs released in British magazine Mixmag used to be packaged in Discbox slider,[citation needed] after replacing a standard jewel box, although the discbox slider itself was replaced by a simple cardboard sleeve.

The Compac Plus is a disc packaging which is similar in style to a digipak. However, it consists of two plastic CD trays which "clip" together like a normal slipcase, the packaging was introduced in the early 1990s. It was originally a brand which had their own logo, and was used by bands such as Blur, but as years progressed, many other artists started to use their own version of the packaging, the packaging is also known as Compact Plus.

A recent trend in CD packaging has been packaging CDs in sleeves comparable to LPs. Many of these albums come from Japan. However, a few European and American albums are given LP-style packaging, such as Morrissey's live album Live at Earls Court, The Who's compilation Then and Now, and R.E.M.'s 2-disc version of their greatest hit package, In Time. A similar packaging type was also used for Phish's 1995 live release A Live One, with the CDs inserted into interior slots perpendicular to the spine rather than the ends. The Beatles' White Album 30th Anniversary re-release was released as essentially a scaled down version of the original release, including card wallets housing the CDs, which in turn slot into the LP-style folder. Unlike the original release, the album was also provided with a plastic protective cover for the package. While some new albums are given the treatment, many of these albums were older albums that were released back when records were still the predominant medium. A more recent use of this style of CD packaging was featured on the Beatles' "Capitol Albums" series.

CD copies of Sleater-Kinney's 2005 album The Woods have been issued in gatefold-LP style outer cases, and also have the CD encased in a paper sleeve as if it were a vinyl record.

The downside to this format is that unless the disc is given a protective sleeve of some sort, the disc can be easily scratched each time it is taken out for play. A more serious issue can also be that if the glue that keeps the sleeve that holds the CD closed on the side closest to the spine (on gatefold covers) weakens, it can get onto the CD, rendering it unplayable.

Even more recently, CD manufacturers have encased standard CD jewel cases in a cardboard slipcover, to give the appearance of LPs and allow more space for cover art. Vitalic's album OK Cowboy is one example of this style of packaging.

The latest development is MINTpack, 100% green carton based packaging developed for Universal Music now used by all Majors; latest release The Classic Collection from The Cure or Stevie Wonder

A keep case is the most common type of DVD packaging and was created by Amaray, it is taller and thicker than a Jewel case, and is made of much softer, less brittle plastic (polypropylene rather than polystyrene), so it does not break as easily. They usually hold one or two discs, but are capable of holding up to six discs. Slimmer keep cases, so called "Slim-paks" or "Thinpaks" typically used for DVD box sets consisting of the thin keep cases stored in a paperboard box, the thin cases are half as thick and can generally only hold one disc as a result, but there are newer slim cases that have central disc holding teeth on both sides. The teeth are made in such a way that when the case is closed, they go between the gaps in between the teeth on the other side.

A standard DVD case is a single-piece plastic case with two creases, which folds around and snaps closed, it measures 135 mm × 190 mm × 14 mm (5.3 in × 7.48 in × 0.55 in). It is wrapped on the outside by a thin piece of transparent plastic which can hold a paper label, the label measures 284 mm × 184 mm (10.8 in × 7.25 in).

Some DVD releases have a cardboard outer sleeve around the shrinkwrap.

Beginning in 2007, prerecorded Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD titles ship in packages similar to but slightly smaller (18.5 mm shorter and 1 mm thinner: 135 mm × 171.5 mm × 13 mm.)[6] than a standard DVD keep case, generally with the format prominently displayed in a horizontal stripe across the top of the case (red for HD DVD and PlayStation 3 Greatest Hits Games, blue for Blu-ray, and clear for regular PlayStation 3 games). Green cases of this variety were introduced to be used for titles released for the Xbox One gaming system, though with the space intended for placing the disc oddly being on the left side of the inner case, while most other keep cases have it on the right.

A snap case is a design for both CD and DVD packaging, and is made in the standard sizes for both, each is made of a single-piece plastic tray and closure, which snaps over the right edge of the front flap. The printed flap is made of thin paperboard which wraps around the left edge and across the back of the tray, to which it is glued, it has largely been replaced with the DVD keep case and CD jewel case due to its flimsy design. Warner Brothers and New Line Cinema were the only major film studios to release DVDs in this format.

Soft cases, also known as Earth cases or Green cases, are soft-shell cases made from recycled optical discs. They are considerably more pliable than other style cases given that they are made from various mixes of plastics, they are sold by various companies as replacements for disc owners who are environmentally friendly and can be differentiated from other cases by their opaque appearance. The softness of the cases leads them to break less, though the safety of the enclosed disc may be somewhat sacrificed since the case can be bent end-to-end easily.

In 2006 Universal Music introduced the first completely paper-recyclable CD case, titled Eco Pack. Not only is the sleeve printed on recycled card, but the tray is also made an innovative International Paper product branded PaperFoam.[7] Universal used this packaging for issues in its 20th Century Masters - The Millennium Collection series after 2006.

Many gold CDs, including those from Mobile Fidelity, are packaged in lift-lock cases, a special type of case where the CD is lifted out of the case automatically and a latch unlocked when opened, the advantage of this design is that only the edges of the disc are handled when removing it from the case, and the disc is never subjected to any bending force while removing it. From the outside, they appear almost identical to a standard jewel case, they have the same dimensions as a standard jewel case, and use standard booklets and back cards.

Blank CD and DVD media are often sold in bulk packages called spindles or, less formally, cake boxes. This type of packaging consists of a round, clear plastic cup that mates bayonet-style to a base with a central post that holds a stack of discs; dummy discs made of clear polycarbonate with no recording surface are often packed on the ends of the stack to avoid scratches from contact with the hard plastic of the packages. Such packages have been designed to hold anywhere from ten up to 100 discs, and offer the user multiple options for packaging the finalized disc.

TDK and Memorex have begun selling some of their blank media in what they refer to as "Snap n' Save" cases, essentially polyethylene cases designed to hold up to ten discs in a package.

Finally, some bulk packages of blank media forgo a permanent container completely, instead using a simple blister pack for small numbers of media, or bundling large numbers of discs in shrink wrap to reduce waste.

Retail stores have several strategies to deter shoplifting of CDs and DVDs, some used CD and DVD stores keep the actual discs behind the counter, in plastic sleeves. The CD and DVD cases on the shelves for the customers are empty, since the album cover art is still on the CD and the movie poster and information is still on the DVD case, the customers can still browse through the CDs and DVDs to make their selections. Some stores selling new CD stores use longboxes, which are larger cardboard boxes that increase the size of the package, to deter theft. Libraries that have CDs and DVDs for loan may put magnetic strips on the discs, which will sound an alarm if a patron tries to leave the library without having taken out the item(s) (library staff "turn off" the anti-theft feature when the patron signs out the discs), some stores selling new CDs or DVDs will keep particularly valuable or high-priced items in a locked display case or locked cage. Pawnshops may put Blu-ray discs in a locked glass case, as they are higher-priced than DVDs and are thus a more attractive target for theft.

Record stores and consumer electronics stores sell albums or books that contain numerous soft plastic sleeves, which can be used to store CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs, video game discs, and other discs. Some of the small books or albums can hold 12 discs, some of the large albums or books can hold over 90 discs. The owner can either keep the original packaging (cases, booklets, etc.) or discard them.

CD changer cartridges have been repurposed for more passive uses over the years, such as being a more rugged alternative to flimsy jewel cases, and that sometimes one changer cartridge can hold as many as 6 discs. Even though the outer casing is rugged, the slip-trays can be flimsy on their own, their original purpose was often for audio CDs, but some have even put homemade DVD videos in these cases.

This section is in a list format that may be better presented using prose.You can help by converting this section to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available.(February 2015)

An unusual type of case has been marketed as empty cases for CDs that do not have cases. It is a plastic case with an open right side so the optical disc can be slipped in, the disc should sit into a black jagged plastic 'U' that appears on the left of the case than can be moved to push the CD out using a black button in the top left of the case.

The 2009 CD release of Public Image Ltd.'s Metal Box album, has packaging that replicas the original 1979 vinyl case. The album comes in a round metal box with a lid and the PiL logo engraved in (concave); in the box are the 3CDs and respective CD safety slips and foam, as well as a little booklet.

A special edition case for the 1994 The Flintstones movie soundtrack was in the shape of a stone clam that could be opened to reveal the DVD inside.

The Simpsons Moviesoundtrack had a deluxe packaging version available, which contained a donut-shaped case that held the DVD. This donut case was inside a thick white box.

Most versions of the Nine Inch Nails album Broken were released in digipak in which another panel was placed over the CD so that the consumer could fold it down to reveal the disc.

Some keep cases, such as the special edition of Total Recall are externally lined with aluminum. Total Recall was also released in a disc sized foam lined can about 3/4 inch thick.

The original release of the Pet Shop Boys 1993 album Very was packaged in an orange jewel case with raised bumps (sometimes unofficially described as the Lego case), designed by Daniel Weil of Pentagram in London. The bonus CD, Very Relentless was similarly unique, with the two CDs housed in card sleeves (Very in orange and Relentless in pink) with both of these housed in a translucent rubber case with raised bumps.

Another uniquely designed CD case was for a CD released in the UK called "The Apple EP", which contained four tracks, each performed by artists signed to Apple Records. The case, which was made of three pieces of cardboard, was shaped like an apple, and was held together by a plastic rivet, this allowed each of the three pieces to fan out and rotate. The CD itself was housed in the centre of the second piece of cardboard.

The limited edition of Brotherhood by The Chemical Brothers came in a cardboard box of a similar size to a jewel case but slightly taller and thinner. The box can be opened from the right to reveal both CDs packaged in cardboard cases, along with the booklet and a postcard.

The deluxe edition of Hotel, the 2005 album by Moby, is a digipack made out of a much smoother material than normal. It is packaged in a slipcase of a much harder thicker material than a typical cardboard one.

The Tri-Slim CD Jewel Case is another one-of-a-kind type of case. This case employs a standard size double CD jewel case and a precision card, the card is slipped into the front side of the case (where the booklet normally goes) and holds the 3rd disc in place. Many feel the Tri-Slim CD Jewel Case is preferable triple slim case to the traditional type because it does not obstruct the rear trayliner card.

One-piece polyethylene cases of various shapes are sometimes used for disc storage, though these tend to lack space for labels and booklets and are not commonly used for commercial releases.

Progressive Death metal band Opeth released the Special Edition for their 2008 album Watershed in a Jewel Case-sized packaging which looks like and opens up like a letter. They also released limited editions of Morningrise, Orchid and My Arms Your Hearse in a CD-sized aluminum tin with embossed Opeth logo on the lid, and the CD was sitting on a thin foam disk and was packaged with an Opeth logo sticker, the track listing was stuck to the bottom of the tin.

The CD case for the limited edition of the 1995 techno compilation CD Dance Opera 4 consisted of two pieces of acrylic plastic that screwed into one another holding the three discs (two audio discs and one disc with the contents printed on either side).[13]

Another version of the keep case, used for Meet the Robinsons and other titles, includes two lifts on the right side of the package.

Early Lego PC games, starting with Lego Island, featured standard jewel cases with a spine formed with raised lego studs which can connect with other lego pieces. These have since been phased out and replaced with keep cases.

Mike Patton's trip hop band Peeping Tom released their debut CD with unique packaging. As a tab on the right was pulled, the CD popped out of the left side, while the image a woman through a keyhole changed to that of an eye, while, on the righthand, images and credits were displayed, the CD release for Patton's score to the 2011 film The Solitude of Prime Numbers was released in green, textured paper packaging that, when unfolded, was shaped like a leaf.

Album Sleepoholic of Polish rapper and composer L.U.C, released in 2013, was distributed in purple package imitating a pillow, pertaining to oneiric atmosphere of the album.

Optical disc
–
The encoding material sits atop a thicker substrate which makes up the bulk of the disc and forms a dust defocusing layer. The encoding pattern follows a continuous, spiral path covering the disc surface. Most optical discs exhibit a characteristic iridescence as a result of the diffraction grating formed by its grooves and this side of the disc co

Packaging
–
Packaging is the technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of designing, evaluating, Packaging can be described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, warehousing, logistics, sale, and end use. Packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports,

3.
1914 magazine advertisement for cookware with instructions for home canning.

4.
Packing folding cartons of salt.

DVD
–
DVD is a digital optical disc storage format invented and developed by Philips, Sony, Toshiba, and Panasonic in 1995. The medium can store any kind of data and is widely used for software. DVDs offer higher capacity than compact discs while having the same dimensions. Pre-recorded DVDs are mass-produced using molding machines that physically stamp

Compact disc
–
Compact disc is a digital optical disc data storage format released in 1982 and co-developed by Philips and Sony. The format was developed to store and play only sound recordings but was later adapted for storage of data. The first commercially available Audio CD player, the Sony CDP-101, was released October 1982 in Japan, standard CDs have a diam

1.
The pits in a CD are 500 nm wide, between 830 nm and 3,000 nm long and 150 nm deep

Plastic
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Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and can be molded into solid objects. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high mass, but they often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, due to their relativel

Transparency (optics)
–
In the field of optics, transparency is the physical property of allowing light to pass through the material without being scattered. On a macroscopic scale, the photons can be said to follow Snells Law, in other words, a translucent medium allows the transport of light while a transparent medium not only allows the transport of light but allows fo

2.
Translucency of a material being used to highlight the structure of a photographic subject

3.
Meiningen Catholic Church, 20th century glass

4.
A laser beam bouncing down an acrylic rod, illustrating the total internal reflection of light in a multimode optical fiber

Polystyrene
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Polystyrene /ˌpɒliˈstaɪriːn/ is a synthetic aromatic polymer made from the monomer styrene. Polystyrene can be solid or foamed, general-purpose polystyrene is clear, hard, and rather brittle. It is an inexpensive resin per unit weight and it is a rather poor barrier to oxygen and water vapor and has a relatively low melting point. Polystyrene is on

Studio
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A studio is an artists or workers workroom, or the catchall term for an artist and their employees who work within that studio. The term is used for the workroom of dancers, often specified to dance studio. The word studio is derived from the Italian, studio, from Latin, studium, from studere, the French term for studio, atelier, in addition to des

2.
Artist Jane Frank in her studio, 1960s or 1970s. The studio of a contemporary mixed media artist can be quite a messy affair.

3.
Student using a laptop in an instructional studio.

Copyright
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Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights for its use and distribution. This is usually only for a limited time, the exclusive rights are not absolute but limited by limitations and exceptions to copyright law, including fair use. A major limitation on copyright is that c

3.
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply stealing newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.

4.
A copyright certificate for proof of the Fermat theorem, issued by the State Department of Intellectual Property of Ukraine.

Blu-ray Disc
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Blu-ray or Blu-ray Disc is a digital optical disc data storage format. It was designed to supersede the DVD format, in that it is capable of storing high-definition, the plastic disc is 120 mm in diameter and 1.2 mm thick, the same size as DVDs and CDs. Conventional Blu-ray Disc discs contain 25 GB per layer, with dual layer discs being the standar

Philips
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Koninklijke Philips N. V. is a Dutch technology company headquartered in Amsterdam with primary divisions focused in the areas of electronics, healthcare and lighting. It was founded in Eindhoven in 1891, by Gerard Philips and it is one of the largest electronics companies in the world and employs around 105,000 people across more than 60 countries

4.
The Philips Light Tower in Eindhoven, originally a light bulb factory and later the company headquarters

Digipak
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Digipak is a patented style of optical disc packaging, and is a registered trademark of AGI-Shorewood, an Atlas Holdings LLC company. Digipaks typically consist of a gatefold paperboard or card stock outer binding, digipak-style cases grew in popularity among record labels and recording artists in the early 2000s. Digipak-style packaging is used fo

1.
A 6-panel right-tray clear gloss UV digipak

2.
Digipak with recycled tray made from sugarcane

Linn (HiFi)
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Linn Products is an engineering company that manufactures hi-fi and audio equipment. Founded by Ivor Tiefenbrun in Glasgow, Scotland in 1973, the company is best known as the manufacturer of the iconic Linn Sondek LP12 turntable, from 2007 Linn was one of the first audio manufacturers to introduce digital music streaming using the home network and

1.
The LP12 working with a Linn Ekos tonearm

2.
Linn Products Limited

3.
Kiko - Linn's first consumer lifestyle streaming hi-fi system

4.
The LP12 working with a Linn Ekos tonearm and Linn Klyde cartridge

CD case
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Optical disc packaging is the packaging that accompanies CDs, DVDs, and other formats of optical media. Most packaging is rigid or semi-rigid and designed to protect the media from scratches, a jewel CD case is a compact disc case that has been used since the compact disc was first released in 1982. It is a plastic case, measuring 142 by 125 by 10

1.
Stacks of compact disc cases

2.
A jewel CD case

3.
A "black side" Slim Case

4.
Paper sleeve

Super Audio CD
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Super Audio CD is a read-only optical disc for audio storage, introduced in 1999. It was developed jointly by Sony and Philips Electronics, and intended to be the successor to their Compact Disc format, having made little impact in the consumer audio market, by 2007, SACD was deemed to be a failure by the press. A small market for SACD has remained

1.
Super Audio CD

DVD-Audio
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DVD-Audio is a digital format for delivering high-fidelity audio content on a DVD. DVD-Audio uses most of the storage on the disc for high-quality audio and is not intended to be a delivery format. DVD-Audio has much higher quality than video DVDs containing concert films or music videos. The first discs entered the marketplace in 2000, DVD-Audio o

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DVD-Audio

Slipcases

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Books and slipcases

DualDisc
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It featured an audio layer intended to be compatible with CD players on one side and a standard DVD layer on the other. In this respect it was similar to, but distinct from, DualDiscs first appeared in the United States in March 2004 as part of a marketing test conducted by the same five record companies who developed the product. The test involved

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How a DualDisc works

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This article is about the audio/video optical disc. For the Yu-Gi-Oh! accessory, see Duel Disk.

MiniDisc
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MiniDisc is a magneto-optical disc-based data storage format offering a capacity of 74 minutes and, later,80 minutes, of digitized audio or 1 gigabyte of Hi-MD data. Sony brand audio players were on the market from September 1992 until March 2013, MiniDisc was announced by Sony in September 1992 and released that November of that year for sale in J

Zip disk
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The Zip drive is a medium-to-high-capacity removable floppy disk storage system that was introduced by Iomega in late 1994. Originally, Zip disks launched with capacities of 100 MB, but later increased this to first 250 MB. The format became the most popular of the products which filled a niche in the late 1990s portable storage market. However, it

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External ZIP-100 drive (uses the parallel port)

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Iomega ZIP-100 drive logo

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An internal Zip drive installed in a computer

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An internal Zip drive outside of a computer

Sega CD
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The add-on was released on December 12,1991 in Japan, October 15,1992 in North America, and 1993 in Europe. The Sega CD lets the user play CD-based games and adds extra functionality, such as a faster central processing unit. It can also play audio CDs and CD+G discs, seeking to create an add-on device for the Genesis, Sega developed the unit to re

Sega Saturn
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The Saturn has a dual-CPU architecture and eight processors. Its games are in CD-ROM format, and its library contains several arcade ports as well as original titles. Development of the Saturn began in 1992, the same year Segas groundbreaking 3D Model 1 arcade hardware debuted. The Saturn was initially successful in Japan, but failed to sell in num

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A first model Japanese Sega Saturn unit

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A screenshot of Chris Senn and Ofer Alon's version of Sonic X-treme. The game's cancellation, and the lack of a fully 3D Sonic the Hedgehog platformer, is considered a significant factor in the Saturn's commercial failure.

PlayStation (console)
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The PlayStation is a home video game console developed and marketed by Sony Computer Entertainment. The console was released on 3 December 1994 in Japan,9 September 1995 in North America,29 September 1995 in Europe, the console was the first of the PlayStation lineup of home video game consoles. It primarily competed with the Nintendo 64 and the Se

CD single
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This article is about the 12cm single. Not to be confused with 8cm single, the standard in the Red Book for the term CD single. A CD single is a single in the form of a standard size compact disc. It is not to be confused with the Mini CD single, the format was introduced in the mid-1980s but did not gain its place in the market until the early 199

J-card
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A j-card is the paper card inserted in the plastic storage case of most pre-recorded audio cassette releases, as well as cassettes of bootleg or copied concerts of the jam band scene. The j-card usually contains an image of the cover, a track listing, credits. The j-card gets its name from being folded into the shape of the letter J to fit inside t

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Shell and back of J-card for a Soviet (Russian) 45-minute cassette tape.

Polypropylene
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An addition polymer made from the monomer propylene, it is rugged and unusually resistant to many chemical solvents, bases and acids. Polypropylene has a relatively low energy surface that means that many common glues will not form adequate joints. Joining of polypropylene is often done using welding processes, in 2013, the global market for polypr

4.
Polypropylene items for laboratory use, blue and orange closures are not made of polypropylene.

Longbox
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A longbox is a form of exterior paperboard packaging for musical compact discs in widespread use in the 1980s and early 1990s in North America. Longboxes were 12 tall, and capable of containing two separate discs when necessary. Most longboxes were full color, with details about the disc on the back. There were generic white longboxes with windows

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Various longboxes from the late 1980s and early 1990s.

Shoplifting
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Shoplifting is a popular term used for the unnoticed theft of goods from an open retail establishment. Shoplifting typically involves a person concealing a store item on their person, in pockets or under clothes, with clothing, shoplifters may put on items from the store and leave the store wearing the clothes. The terms shoplifting and shoplifter

Costco
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As of 2016, Costco was the worlds no.1 retailer of choice and prime beef, organic foods, rotisserie chicken, and wine. Costcos worldwide headquarters are in Issaquah, Washington, but the company opened its first warehouse in nearby Seattle in 1983, through mergers, Costcos overall corporate history dates back to 1976, when its former competitor Pri

Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referr

Obi strip
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An obi is a strip of paper looped around a book or other product. This extends the term obi used for Japanese clothing, it is written with the same kanji and it is also referred to as a tasuki, or more narrowly as obigami. Many books in Japan are supplied with an obi, which is added outside any dust jacket. However, a book in a slipcase may have an

Envelope
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An envelope is a common packaging item, usually made of thin flat material. It is designed to contain an object, such as a letter or card. Traditional envelopes are made from sheets of cut to one of three shapes, a rhombus, a short-arm cross, or a kite. These shapes allow for the creation of the structure by folding the sheet sides around a central

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Front of an envelope mailed in the U.S. in 1906, with a postage stamp and address

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A Japanese funeral envelope used for offering condolence money. The white and black cords represent death. Similar-looking envelopes with red and silver cords are used for weddings.

4.
Red envelopes are an example of paper envelopes. They are used for monetary gifts.

Tyvek
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Tyvek /taɪˈvɛk/ is a brand of flashspun high-density polyethylene fibers, a synthetic material, the name is a registered trademark of DuPont. It is often used as housewrap, a synthetic material used to protect buildings during construction. The material is strong, it is difficult to tear. Water vapor can pass through Tyvek, but liquid water cannot,

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Tyvek house wrap

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Tyvek USPS Express Mail envelope

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Tyvek coveralls

International Paper
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The International Paper Company is an American pulp and paper company, the largest such company in the world. It has approximately 65,000 employees, and it is headquartered in Memphis, the company was incorporated January 31,1898, upon the merger of 18 pulp and paper mills in the northeastern United States. Its founders and first two presidents wer

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One of the 18 original founding mills of International Paper c. 1908, built in 1888 as the Otis Falls Pulp & Paper Company in Chisholm, Maine.

Genericized trademark
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A trademark is said to become genericized when it begins as a distinctive product identifier but changes in meaning to become generic. Thermos, Kleenex, Dumpster and Realtor are examples of trademarks that have become genericized in the US, genericization or loss of secondary meaning may be either among the general population or among just a subpop

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A sign in a supermarket using " Jell-O " generically, rather than "gelatin dessert".

Environmentally more friendly
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Companies use these ambiguous terms to promote goods and services, sometimes with additional, more specific certifications, such as ecolabels. Their overuse can be referred to as greenwashing, products located in members of the European Union can use the EUs Eco-label pending the EUs approval. EMAS is another EU label that signifies whether an orga

Amaray case
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A keep case or poly-box is a type of packaging, most commonly used with DVDs. Besides DVD-Video films, keep cases are common with most video games since the PlayStation 2 as well as PC titles. The first products to be released in cases were VHS tapes. Cartridges and cards for the Sega Master System platform were the first video games to be packaged

Covermount
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Covermount is the name given to storage media or other products packaged as part of a magazine or newspaper. The name comes from the method of packaging, the media or product is placed in a transparent plastic sleeve and mounted on the cover of the magazine with adhesive tape or glue. Audio recordings were distributed in the UK by the use of coverm

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Demo CDs

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full versions

Mixmag
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Mixmag is a British electronic dance and clubbing magazine, published in London, England. Launched in 1982, the magazine covers events, and reviews music. The first issue was printed on 1 February 1983 as a 16-page black-and-white magazine published by Disco Mix Club, the first cover featured American music group Shalamar. When house music began in

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August 2009 cover of Mixmag

Blur (band)
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Blur are an English rock band, formed in London in 1988. The group consists of singer/keyboardist Damon Albarn, guitarist/singer Graham Coxon, bassist Alex James and their debut album Leisure incorporated the sounds of Madchester and shoegazing. Following a stylistic change influenced by English guitar pop groups such as the Kinks, in the process,

Morrissey
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Steven Patrick Morrissey, professionally known as Morrissey, is an English singer, songwriter and author. He rose to prominence as the singer of the indie rock band The Smiths. Since then, Morrissey has had a career, making the top ten of the UK Singles Chart on ten occasions. Born in Davyhulme, Lancashire, to a working-class Irish migrant family,

Live at Earls Court
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Live at Earls Court is a live album by Morrissey. Its sleeve notes state that it was recorded live at Earls Court in London on the 18 December 2004 in front of 17,183 people, all tracks written by Morrissey and Alain Whyte except as noted. In the United Kingdom, the reached number 11 in the Top 40. In Europe the single preceded the album, whereas i

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Live at Earls Court

The Who
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The Who are an English rock band that formed in 1964. Their classic line-up consisted of lead singer Roger Daltrey, guitarist and singer Pete Townshend, bass guitarist John Entwistle, and drummer Keith Moon. They are considered one of the most influential bands of the 20th century, selling over 100 million records worldwide and holding a reputation

R.E.M.
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R. E. M. was an American rock band from Athens, Georgia, that was formed in 1980 by drummer Bill Berry, lead guitarist Peter Buck, bassist/backing vocalist Mike Mills, and lead vocalist Michael Stipe. Released its first single—Radio Free Europe—in 1981 on the independent record label Hib-Tone, the single was followed by the Chronic Town EP in 1982,

4.
Scott Litt produced a string of R.E.M.'s breakthrough albums in the 1980s and 1990s.

Phish
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Phish is an American rock band that was founded at the University of Vermont in 1983. They resumed touring from December 31,2002 until August 15,2004 and they reunited in March 2009 for a series of three consecutive concerts played in the Hampton Coliseum in Hampton, Virginia, and have since resumed performing regularly. Phishs music blends element

The Beatles
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The Beatles were an English rock band, formed in Liverpool in 1960. With members John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, the Beatles built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over a three-year period from 1960, with Stuart Sutcliffe initially serving as bass player. The core of Lennon, McCartney and Harriso

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McCartney, Harrison, Swedish pop singer Lill-Babs and Lennon on the set of the Swedish television show Drop-In, 30 October 1963

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The Beatles arrive at John F. Kennedy International Airport, 7 February 1964

The Beatles (album)
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The Beatles, also known as the White Album, is the ninth studio album by English rock group the Beatles, released on 22 November 1968. A double album, its plain white sleeve has no graphics or text other than the name embossed. The albums songs range in style from British blues and ska to tracks influenced by Chuck Berry, most of the songs on the a

1.
The original vinyl copies released in 1968 had the band's name embossed on a white background. These pressings were also numbered. Design by Richard Hamilton.

4.
The new relationship between John Lennon and Yoko Ono caused tension in the studio with the other Beatles.

Vinyl record
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The groove usually starts near the periphery and ends near the center of the disc. The phonograph disc record was the medium used for music reproduction until late in the 20th century. It had co-existed with the cylinder from the late 1880s. Records retained the largest market share even when new formats such as compact cassette were mass-marketed,

Sleater-Kinney
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Sleater-Kinney is an American rock band that formed in Olympia, Washington, in 1994. The bands lineup features Corin Tucker, Carrie Brownstein, and Janet Weiss, Sleater-Kinney is a key part of the riot grrrl and indie rock scenes in the Pacific Northwest. The band is known for its feminist and left-leaning politics. The band released 7 studio album

2.
The opening scene in Fight Club that represents a brain's neural network in which the thought processes are initiated by the narrator's fear impulse. The network was mapped using an L-system and drawn out by a medical illustrator.

1.
Optical disc
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The encoding material sits atop a thicker substrate which makes up the bulk of the disc and forms a dust defocusing layer. The encoding pattern follows a continuous, spiral path covering the disc surface. Most optical discs exhibit a characteristic iridescence as a result of the diffraction grating formed by its grooves and this side of the disc contains the actual data and is typically coated with a transparent material, usually lacquer. The reverse side of a disc usually has a printed label, sometimes made of paper. Optical discs are usually between 7.6 and 30 cm in diameter, with 12 cm being the most common size, a typical disc is about 1.2 mm thick, while the track pitch ranges from 1.6 µm to 320 nm. An optical disc is designed to support one of three recording types, read-only, recordable, or re-recordable, write-once optical discs commonly have an organic dye recording layer between the substrate and the reflective layer. Rewritable discs typically contain an alloy recording layer composed of a phase change material, most often AgInSbTe, an alloy of silver, indium, antimony, Optical discs are most commonly used for storing music, video, or data and programs for personal computers. The Optical Storage Technology Association promotes standardized optical storage formats, although optical discs are more durable than earlier audio-visual and data storage formats, they are susceptible to environmental and daily-use damage. Libraries and archives enact optical media preservation procedures to ensure continued usability in the optical disc drive or corresponding disc player. For computer data backup and physical data transfer, optical discs such as CDs and DVDs are gradually being replaced with faster, smaller solid-state devices and this trend is expected to continue as USB flash drives continue to increase in capacity and drop in price. Additionally, music purchased or shared over the Internet has significantly reduced the number of audio CDs sold annually. The first recorded use of an optical disc was in the 1884 when Alexander Graham Bell, Chichester Bell. An early optical disc system existed in 1935, named Lichttonorgel, an early analog optical disc used for video recording was invented by David Paul Gregg in 1958 and patented in the US in 1961 and 1969. This form of optical disc was an early form of the DVD. It is of special interest that U. S, patent 4,893,297, filed 1989, issued 1990, generated royalty income for Pioneer Corporations DVA until 2007 —then encompassing the CD, DVD, and Blu-ray systems. In the early 1960s, the Music Corporation of America bought Greggs patents and his company, american inventor James T. Russell has been credited with inventing the first system to record a digital signal on an optical transparent foil which is lit from behind by a high-power halogen lamp. Russells patent application was first filed in 1966 and he was granted a patent in 1970, following litigation, Sony and Philips licensed Russells patents in the 1980s. Both Greggs and Russells disc are floppy media read in transparent mode, in the Netherlands in 1969, Philips Research physicist, Pieter Kramer invented an optical videodisc in reflective mode with a protective layer read by a focused laser beam U. S

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Packaging
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Packaging is the technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of designing, evaluating, Packaging can be described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, warehousing, logistics, sale, and end use. Packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, in many countries it is fully integrated into government, business, institutional, industrial, and personal use. Package labeling or labelling is any written, electronic, or graphic communication on the package or on a separate but associated label. The first packages used the materials available at the time, baskets of reeds, wineskins, wooden boxes, pottery vases, ceramic amphorae, wooden barrels, woven bags. Processed materials were used to form packages as they were developed, for example, early glass, the study of old packages is an important aspect of archaeology. The use of tinplate for packaging dates back to the 18th century, by 1697, John Hanbury had a rolling mill at Pontypool for making Pontypoole Plates. The method pioneered there of rolling iron plates by means of cylinders enabled more uniform black plates to be produced than was possible with the practice of hammering. Tinplate boxes first began to be sold from ports in the Bristol Channel in 1725, the tinplate was shipped from Newport, Monmouthshire. By 1805,80,000 boxes were made and 50,000 exported, tobacconists in London began packaging snuff in metal-plated canisters from the 1760s onwards. With the discovery of the importance of airtight containers for food preservation by French inventor Nicholas Appert, after receiving the patent, Durand did not himself follow up with canning food. By 1813, they were producing the first canned goods for the Royal Navy, the progressive improvement in canning stimulated the 1855 invention of the can opener. In 1858, another lever-type opener of a complex shape was patented in the United States by Ezra Warner of Waterbury. Set-up boxes were first used in the 16th century and modern folding cartons date back to 1839, the first corrugated box was produced commercially in 1817 in England. Corrugated paper received a British patent in 1856 and was used as a liner for tall hats, scottish-born Robert Gair invented the pre-cut paperboard box in 1890—flat pieces manufactured in bulk that folded into boxes. Gair discovered that by cutting and creasing in one operation he could make prefabricated paperboard boxes, commercial paper bags were first manufactured in Bristol, England, in 1844, and the American Francis Wolle patented a machine for automated bag-making in 1852. Packaging advancements in the early 20th century included Bakelite closures on bottles, transparent cellophane overwraps and these innovations increased processing efficiency and improved food safety. As additional materials such as aluminum and several types of plastic were developed, they were incorporated into packages to improve performance, in 1952, Michigan State University became the first university in the world to offer a degree in Packaging Engineering

3.
DVD
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DVD is a digital optical disc storage format invented and developed by Philips, Sony, Toshiba, and Panasonic in 1995. The medium can store any kind of data and is widely used for software. DVDs offer higher capacity than compact discs while having the same dimensions. Pre-recorded DVDs are mass-produced using molding machines that physically stamp data onto the DVD, such discs are a form of DVD-ROM because data can only be read and not written or erased. Blank recordable DVD discs can be recorded using a DVD recorder. Rewritable DVDs can be recorded and erased many times, DVDs containing other types of information may be referred to as DVD data discs. The OED also states that in 1995, The companies said the name of the format will simply be DVD. Toshiba had been using the name ‘digital video disk’, but that was switched to ‘digital versatile disk’ after computer companies complained that it left out their applications, Digital versatile disc is the explanation provided in a DVD Forum Primer from 2000 and in the DVD Forums mission statement. There were several formats developed for recording video on optical discs before the DVD, Optical recording technology was invented by David Paul Gregg and James Russell in 1958 and first patented in 1961. A consumer optical disc data format known as LaserDisc was developed in the United States and it used much larger discs than the later formats. CD Video used analog video encoding on optical discs matching the established standard 120 mm size of audio CDs, Video CD became one of the first formats for distributing digitally encoded films in this format, in 1993. In the same year, two new optical disc formats were being developed. By the time of the launches for both formats in January 1995, the MMCD nomenclature had been dropped, and Philips and Sony were referring to their format as Digital Video Disc. Representatives from the SD camp asked IBM for advice on the system to use for their disc. Alan E. Bell, a researcher from IBMs Almaden Research Center, got that request and this group was referred to as the Technical Working Group, or TWG. On August 14,1995, an ad hoc group formed from five computer companies issued a release stating that they would only accept a single format. The TWG voted to both formats unless the two camps agreed on a single, converged standard. They recruited Lou Gerstner, president of IBM, to pressure the executives of the warring factions, as a result, the DVD specification provided a storage capacity of 4.7 GB for a single-layered, single-sided disc and 8.5 GB for a dual-layered, single-sided disc

4.
Compact disc
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Compact disc is a digital optical disc data storage format released in 1982 and co-developed by Philips and Sony. The format was developed to store and play only sound recordings but was later adapted for storage of data. The first commercially available Audio CD player, the Sony CDP-101, was released October 1982 in Japan, standard CDs have a diameter of 120 millimetres and can hold up to about 80 minutes of uncompressed audio or about 700 MiB of data. The Mini CD has various diameters ranging from 60 to 80 millimetres, they are used for CD singles, storing up to 24 minutes of audio. At the time of the introduction in 1982, a CD could store much more data than a personal computer hard drive. By 2010, hard drives commonly offered as much space as a thousand CDs. In 2004, worldwide sales of audio CDs, CD-ROMs and CD-Rs reached about 30 billion discs, by 2007,200 billion CDs had been sold worldwide. In 2014, revenues from digital music services matched those from physical format sales for the first time. American inventor James T. Russell has been credited with inventing the first system to record information on an optical transparent foil that is lit from behind by a high-power halogen lamp. Russells patent application was first filed in 1966, and he was granted a patent in 1970, following litigation, Sony and Philips licensed Russells patents in the 1980s. The compact disc is an evolution of LaserDisc technology, where a laser beam is used that enables the high information density required for high-quality digital audio signals. Prototypes were developed by Philips and Sony independently in the late 1970s, although originally dismissed by Philips Research management as a trivial pursuit, the CD became the primary focus for Philips as the LaserDisc format struggled. In 1979, Sony and Philips set up a joint task force of engineers to design a new audio disc. After a year of experimentation and discussion, the Red Book CD-DA standard was published in 1980, after their commercial release in 1982, compact discs and their players were extremely popular. Despite costing up to $1,000, over 400,000 CD players were sold in the United States between 1983 and 1984, by 1988 CD sales in the United States surpassed those of vinyl LPs, and by 1992 CD sales surpassed those of prerecorded music cassette tapes. The success of the disc has been credited to the cooperation between Philips and Sony, who came together to agree upon and develop compatible hardware. The unified design of the disc allowed consumers to purchase any disc or player from any company. In 1974, L. However, due to the performance of the analog format

Compact disc
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The pits in a CD are 500 nm wide, between 830 nm and 3,000 nm long and 150 nm deep
Compact disc
Compact disc
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700 MiB CD-R next to a mechanical pencil

5.
Plastic
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Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and can be molded into solid objects. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high mass, but they often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood, stone, horn and bone, leather, paper, metal, glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses. In developed countries, about a third of plastic is used in packaging, other uses include automobiles, furniture, and toys. In the developing world, the ratios may be different - for example, the worlds first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland who coined the term plastics. Toward the end of the century, one approach to this problem was met with wide efforts toward recycling, the word plastic is derived from the Greek πλαστικός meaning capable of being shaped or molded, from πλαστός meaning molded. The common word plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic, used for insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminated products, thermally insulation foams. Problems include the probability of moldings naturally being dark colors, One of the most expensive commercial polymers. It forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints when suspended in water with the use of other agents, polytetrafluoroethylene – Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumbers tape and water slides. It is more known as Teflon. Urea-formaldehyde – One of the aminoplasts and used as an alternative to phenolics. Used as an adhesive and electrical switch housings. Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, in 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines. Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages, materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk-proteins with lye. In the 1800s, as industrial chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution, the development of plastics also accelerated with Charles Goodyears discovery of vulcanization to thermoset materials derived from natural rubber. Parkesine is considered the first man-made plastic, the plastic material was patented by Alexander Parkes, In Birmingham, UK in 1856. It was unveiled at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London, parkesine won a bronze medal at the 1862 Worlds fair in London

Plastic
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Household items made of various types of plastic
Plastic
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A chair made with a polypropylene seat
Plastic
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Plastic (LDPE) bowl, by GEECO, Made in England, c1950.
Plastic
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Molded plastic food replicas on display outside a restaurant in Japan

6.
Transparency (optics)
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In the field of optics, transparency is the physical property of allowing light to pass through the material without being scattered. On a macroscopic scale, the photons can be said to follow Snells Law, in other words, a translucent medium allows the transport of light while a transparent medium not only allows the transport of light but allows for image formation. The opposite property of translucency is opacity, transparent materials appear clear, with the overall appearance of one color, or any combination leading up to a brilliant spectrum of every color. When light encounters a material, it can interact with it in different ways. These interactions depend on the wavelength of the light and the nature of the material, photons interact with an object by some combination of reflection, absorption and transmission. Some materials, such as glass and clean water, transmit much of the light that falls on them and reflect little of it. Many liquids and aqueous solutions are highly transparent, absence of structural defects and molecular structure of most liquids are mostly responsible for excellent optical transmission. Materials which do not transmit light are called opaque, many such substances have a chemical composition which includes what are referred to as absorption centers. Many substances are selective in their absorption of light frequencies. They absorb certain portions of the spectrum while reflecting others. The frequencies of the spectrum which are not absorbed are either reflected or transmitted for our physical observation and this is what gives rise to color. The attenuation of light of all frequencies and wavelengths is due to the mechanisms of absorption. Transparency can provide almost perfect camouflage for animals able to achieve it and this is easier in dimly-lit or turbid seawater than in good illumination. Many marine animals such as jellyfish are highly transparent, at the atomic or molecular level, physical absorption in the infrared portion of the spectrum depends on the frequencies of atomic or molecular vibrations or chemical bonds, and on selection rules. Nitrogen and oxygen are not greenhouse gases because there is no absorption because there is no molecular dipole moment. With regard to the scattering of light, the most critical factor is the scale of any or all of these structural features relative to the wavelength of the light being scattered. Primary material considerations include, Crystalline structure, whether or not the atoms or molecules exhibit the long-range order evidenced in crystalline solids, glassy structure, scattering centers include fluctuations in density or composition. Microstructure, scattering centers include internal surfaces such as boundaries, crystallographic defects

Transparency (optics)
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Dichroic filters are created using optically transparent materials.
Transparency (optics)
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Translucency of a material being used to highlight the structure of a photographic subject
Transparency (optics)
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Meiningen Catholic Church, 20th century glass
Transparency (optics)
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A laser beam bouncing down an acrylic rod, illustrating the total internal reflection of light in a multimode optical fiber

7.
Polystyrene
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Polystyrene /ˌpɒliˈstaɪriːn/ is a synthetic aromatic polymer made from the monomer styrene. Polystyrene can be solid or foamed, general-purpose polystyrene is clear, hard, and rather brittle. It is an inexpensive resin per unit weight and it is a rather poor barrier to oxygen and water vapor and has a relatively low melting point. Polystyrene is one of the most widely used plastics, the scale of its production being several million tonnes per year, Polystyrene can be naturally transparent, but can be colored with colorants. Uses include protective packaging, containers, lids, bottles, trays, tumblers, as a thermoplastic polymer, polystyrene is in a solid state at room temperature but flows if heated above about 100 °C, its glass transition temperature. It becomes rigid again when cooled and this temperature behavior is exploited for extrusion and also for molding and vacuum forming, since it can be cast into molds with fine detail. Polystyrene is very slow to biodegrade and is therefore a focus of controversy among environmentalists, Polystyrene was discovered in 1839 by Eduard Simon, an apothecary from Berlin. From storax, the resin of the American sweetgum tree Liquidambar styraciflua, he distilled an oily substance, several days later, Simon found that the styrol had thickened into a jelly he dubbed styrol oxide because he presumed an oxidation. By 1845 Jamaican-born chemist John Buddle Blyth and German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann showed that the transformation of styrol took place in the absence of oxygen. They called the product metastyrol, analysis showed that it was identical to Simons Styroloxyd. In 1866 Marcelin Berthelot correctly identified the formation of metastyrol/Styroloxyd from styrol as a polymerization process, about 80 years later it was realized that heating of styrol starts a chain reaction that produces macromolecules, following the thesis of German organic chemist Hermann Staudinger. This eventually led to the substance receiving its present name, polystyrene, the company I. G. Farben began manufacturing polystyrene in Ludwigshafen, about 1931, hoping it would be a suitable replacement for die-cast zinc in many applications. Success was achieved when they developed a reactor vessel that extruded polystyrene through a tube and cutter. In 1941, Dow Chemical invented a Styrofoam process, before 1949, the chemical engineer Fritz Stastny developed pre-expanded PS beads by incorporating aliphatic hydrocarbons, such as pentane. These beads are the raw material for moulding parts or extruding sheets, BASF and Stastny applied for a patent that was issued in 1949. The moulding process was demonstrated at the Kunststoff Messe 1952 in Düsseldorf, the crystal structure of isotactic polystyrene was reported by Giulio Natta. In 1954, the Koppers Company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, developed expanded polystyrene foam under the trade name Dylite, in 1960, Dart Container, the largest manufacturer of foam cups, shipped their first order. In 1988, the first U. S. ban of general polystyrene foam was enacted in Berkeley, in chemical terms, polystyrene is a long chain hydrocarbon wherein alternating carbon centers are attached to phenyl groups

8.
Studio
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A studio is an artists or workers workroom, or the catchall term for an artist and their employees who work within that studio. The term is used for the workroom of dancers, often specified to dance studio. The word studio is derived from the Italian, studio, from Latin, studium, from studere, the French term for studio, atelier, in addition to designating an artists studio is used to characterize the studio of a fashion designer. Atelier also has the connotation of being the home of an alchemist or wizard, the studio of a successful artist, especially from the 15th to the 19th centuries, characterized all the assistants, thus the designation of paintings as from the workshop of. An art studio is called an atelier, especially in earlier eras. In contemporary, English language use, atelier can also refer to the Atelier Method, the above-mentioned method calls upon that zeal for study to play a significant role in the production which occurs in a studio space. A studio is more or less artful to the degree that the artist who occupies it is committed to the education in his or her formal discipline. A versatile and creative mind will embrace the opportunity of such practice to innovate and experiment, thus the method raises and maintains an art studio space above the level of a mere production facility or workshop. Safety is or may be a concern in studios, with some painting materials required to be handled, stored, or used properly to prevent poisoning, chemical burns, or fire. Media related to atelier at Wikimedia Commons In educational studios, students learn to develop related to design. In specific, educational studios are studio settings where large numbers of students learn to draft, educational studios are colloquially referred to as studio by students, who are known for staying up late hours into the night doing projects and socializing. The studio environment is characterized by 2 types in education, The workspace where students do usually visually-centered work in an open environment and this time and space is beyond that of instructional time and faculty guidance is not available. It allows for students to each other, help each other. A type of class that takes the above-mentioned workshop space, and it differentiates itself based on a topic of instruction, isolated space, instructor led/included, and an added focus of directed criticism. A great take on this type of studio classroom is described by Carleton University. Studio pottery is made by an individual working on his own in his studio. Production studios are those studios which act as centres for the production in any of the arts, in radio and television production studio is the place where programs and radio commercial and television advertising are recorded for further emission. Animation studios, like movie studios, may be production facilities, animation studios are a fast rising entity and they include established firms such as Walt Disney, as well as new upstarts such as Pixar

9.
Copyright
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Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights for its use and distribution. This is usually only for a limited time, the exclusive rights are not absolute but limited by limitations and exceptions to copyright law, including fair use. A major limitation on copyright is that copyright protects only the expression of ideas. Copyright is a form of property, applicable to certain forms of creative work. Some, but not all jurisdictions require fixing copyrighted works in a tangible form and it is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders. These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, copyrights are considered territorial rights, which means that they do not extend beyond the territory of a specific jurisdiction. While many aspects of copyright laws have been standardized through international copyright agreements. Typically, the duration of a copyright spans the authors life plus 50 to 100 years, some countries require certain copyright formalities to establishing copyright, but most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions. Most jurisdictions recognize copyright limitations, allowing fair exceptions to the exclusivity of copyright. Copyright came about with the invention of the press and with wider literacy. As a legal concept, its origins in Britain were from a reaction to printers monopolies at the beginning of the 18th century, Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, however, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se. Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the rights for a fixed period. The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist and it began, Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing. Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors. to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families

Copyright
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The Statute of Anne came into force in 1710.
Copyright
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The Copyright Act of 1790 in the Columbian Centinel.
Copyright
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The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply stealing newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.
Copyright
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A copyright certificate for proof of the Fermat theorem, issued by the State Department of Intellectual Property of Ukraine.

10.
Blu-ray Disc
–
Blu-ray or Blu-ray Disc is a digital optical disc data storage format. It was designed to supersede the DVD format, in that it is capable of storing high-definition, the plastic disc is 120 mm in diameter and 1.2 mm thick, the same size as DVDs and CDs. Conventional Blu-ray Disc discs contain 25 GB per layer, with dual layer discs being the standard for feature-length video discs. Triple-layer discs and quadruple layers are available for BD-XL re-writer drives, the name Blu-ray refers to the blue laser used to read the disc, which allows information to be stored at a greater density than is possible with the longer-wavelength red laser used for DVDs. The main application of Blu-ray is as a medium for video material such as films and physical distribution of video games for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4. Besides the hardware specifications, Blu-ray is associated with a set of multimedia formats, high-definition video may be stored on Blu-ray discs with up to 2160p resolution, at up to 60 frames per second. DVD discs had been limited to a resolution of 480p or 576p. The BD format was developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association, a group representing makers of consumer electronics, computer hardware, Sony unveiled the first Blu-ray disc prototypes in October 2000, and the first prototype player was released in April 2003 in Japan. Afterwards, it continued to be developed until its release in June 2006. During the high definition disc format war, Blu-ray Disc competed with the HD DVD format. Toshiba, the company that supported HD DVD, conceded in February 2008. According to Media Research, high-definition software sales in the US were slower in the first two years than DVD software sales, Blu-ray faces competition from video on demand and the continued sale of DVDs. As of January 2016, 44% of U. S. broadband households had a Blu-ray player, the information density of the DVD format was limited by the wavelength of the laser diodes used. Following protracted development, blue laser diodes operating at 405 nanometers became available on a production basis, Sony started two projects in collaboration with Philips applying the new diodes, UDO, and DVR Blue, a format of rewritable discs that would eventually become Blu-ray Disc. The core technologies of the formats are similar, the first DVR Blue prototypes were unveiled at the CEATEC exhibition in October 2000 by Sony. A trademark for the Blue Disc logo was filed February 9,2001, on February 19,2002, the project was officially announced as Blu-ray Disc, and Blu-ray Disc Founders was founded by the nine initial members. The first consumer device arrived in stores on April 10,2003, the Sony BDZ-S77, but there was no standard for prerecorded video, and no movies were released for this player. On October 4,2004, the name Blu-ray Disc Founders was officially changed to the Blu-ray Disc Association, the Blu-ray Disc physical specifications were completed in 2004

11.
Philips
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Koninklijke Philips N. V. is a Dutch technology company headquartered in Amsterdam with primary divisions focused in the areas of electronics, healthcare and lighting. It was founded in Eindhoven in 1891, by Gerard Philips and it is one of the largest electronics companies in the world and employs around 105,000 people across more than 60 countries. Philips is organized into three divisions, Philips Consumer Lifestyle, Philips Healthcare and Philips Lighting. As of 2012, Philips was the largest manufacturer of lighting in the world measured by applicable revenues, Philips said it would seek damages for breach of contract in the US$200-million sale. In April 2016, the International Court of Arbitration ruled in favour of Philips, Philips has a primary listing on the Euronext Amsterdam stock exchange and is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index. It has a listing on the New York Stock Exchange. The Philips Company was founded in 1891, by Gerard Philips and this first factory has been adapted and is used as a museum. In 1895, after a difficult first few years and near bankruptcy, though he had earned a degree in engineering, Anton started work as a sales representative, soon, however, he began to contribute many important business ideas. After Gerard and Anton Philips changed their business by founding the Philips corporation. In the 1920s, the company started to other products. In 1939, they introduced their electric razor, the Philishave, the Chapel is a radio with built-in loudspeaker, which was designed during the early 1930s. On 11 March 1927, Philips went on the air with shortwave radio station PCJJ which was joined in 1929 by sister station PHOHI, PHOHI broadcast in Dutch to the Dutch East Indies while PCJJ broadcast in English, Spanish and German to the rest of the world. The international program on Sundays commenced in 1928, with host Eddie Startz hosting the Happy Station show, broadcasts from the Netherlands were interrupted by the German invasion in May 1940. The Germans commandeered the transmitters in Huizen to use for pro-Nazi broadcasts, some originating from Germany, Philips Radio was absorbed shortly after liberation when its two shortwave stations were nationalised in 1947 and renamed Radio Netherlands Worldwide, the Dutch International Service. Some PCJ programs, such as Happy Station, continued on the new station, by the late 1940s, the Type 10 was ready to be handed over to Philips subsidiary Johan de Witt in Dordrecht to be produced and incorporated into a generator set as originally planned. The result, rated at 180/200 W electrical output from a bore, approximately 150 of these sets were eventually produced. However, they filed a number of patents and amassed a wealth of information. The first Philips shaver was introduced in the 1930s, and was simply called “The Philishave”, in the USA, it was called the “Norelco”, which remains a part of their product line today

12.
Digipak
–
Digipak is a patented style of optical disc packaging, and is a registered trademark of AGI-Shorewood, an Atlas Holdings LLC company. Digipaks typically consist of a gatefold paperboard or card stock outer binding, digipak-style cases grew in popularity among record labels and recording artists in the early 2000s. Digipak-style packaging is used for CD singles or special editions of CD albums. Such packaging is less resistant to abrasion than jewel cases, so it tends to show signs of relatively quickly. Although less vulnerable to cracking than a case, the disc tray inside the package remains rather brittle and is prone to cracking if the package is crushed. The disc tray can become detached if handled or stored improperly, another one goes one step further by totally eliminating the plastic tray and replacing it with a paper tray made from sugarcane and egg carton. Many printers use recycled or sustainable material for the board stock, IMPAC Group, Inc. originally owned the Digipak trademark. That company was acquired by MeadWestvaco in 2000 and folded into its AGI Media division, following this acquisition, the Digipak name and designs were licensed to manufacturers around the world. MWV sold AGI Media to Atlas Holdings in 2010, in 2012, Atlas purchased Shorewood Packaging from International Paper and merged the two companies to create AGI-Shorewood. Optical disc packaging Digipak Gallery from a digipak manufacturer Digipak equipment manufacturer

13.
Linn (HiFi)
–
Linn Products is an engineering company that manufactures hi-fi and audio equipment. Founded by Ivor Tiefenbrun in Glasgow, Scotland in 1973, the company is best known as the manufacturer of the iconic Linn Sondek LP12 turntable, from 2007 Linn was one of the first audio manufacturers to introduce digital music streaming using the home network and internet. Linn Records was the first to sell DRM-free 24-bit Studio Master quality tracks downloaded over the internet and this network approach was extended in 2013 with the introduction of the Linn Exakt technology to retain the 24-bit lossless signal in the digital domain to the active crossover. In late 2014 Linn announced the integration of TIDAL’s lossless music streaming service into Linn DS digital players enabling access to over 25 million audio tracks at CD-quality over the Internet. Originally based in the suburb of Linn, south Glasgow. Linn was founded by Ivor Tiefenbrun to produce the Sondek LP12 turntable, the companys logo is the simple geometric representation of a stylus tip on a record surface. Hamish Robertson designed the Ariston RD11 in 1971 with Castle Precision Engineering Ltd machining many of the parts, Robertson left Ariston, which had been taken over by Dunlop Westayr Ltd and reorganised as Ariston Audio Ltd. In February 1973 Linn Products Ltd. was formed to sell turntables made by Castle Precision Engineering, there were claims, and even patent litigation at the time, that the first Linn Sondek LP12 was a carbon copy of the RD11, and many parts interchangeable. Ultimately, the patent was awarded successfully to Linn, the companys philosophy is as controversial as its founder, who is known for his believing in only two ways of doing things – the Linn way and the wrong way. As such, and because Linn supposedly design their products within the context of an all-Linn system, the Sondek LP12 is a suspended sub-chassis turntable with a single-point platter bearing. From its introduction in 1973, there have not been any changes to the turntable design. However, the LP12s sound quality has improved through retrofittable upgrade kits. The successive upgrades consist mostly of refinements in materials used and improved manufacturing tolerances, in 2011, some thirty years after the birth of the compact disc, sales of the LP12 and accessories still accounted for 10 percent of the companys turnover. In 1975, Linn patented its isobaric loading principle, and launched the Linn Isobarik loudspeaker, initially Linn manufactured the LP12 itself, but not any other components such as tonearms and cartridges. This gap was filled with a complementary range from, amongst others, Supex cartridges, Grace and Sumiko tonearms. Linns first CD player, the Karik, was released in 1993 –11 years after the CD format itself, the Sondek CD12, pioneered by Alan Clark, was launched in 1997. In 2005 it was discontinued when Philips ended production of the laser around which the player was designed, on 20 November 2009, Linn said it would stop making CD players to focus on digital streaming products instead. In May 2006, Linn announced that founder Ivor Tiefenbrun would relinquish the position of Linns managing director in favour of FD and company secretary Peter Murphy, an 8-year veteran of the firm

14.
CD case
–
Optical disc packaging is the packaging that accompanies CDs, DVDs, and other formats of optical media. Most packaging is rigid or semi-rigid and designed to protect the media from scratches, a jewel CD case is a compact disc case that has been used since the compact disc was first released in 1982. It is a plastic case, measuring 142 by 125 by 10 millimetres, a volume of 177.5 cubic centimetres, which usually contains a compact disc along with the liner notes. Two opposing transparent halves are hinged together to form the casing, all three parts are made of injection-moulded polystyrene. The front lid contains two, four, or six tabs to keep any liner notes in place, the liner notes typically will be a 120 by 120 millimetres booklet, or a single 242 by 120 millimetres leaf folded in half. The back card is folded into a flattened U shape, with the sides being visible along the ends of the case, the back media tray snaps into the back cover, and is responsible for securing the disk. The center is a hub of teeth which grip the disc by its hole. This effectively suspends the disk in the middle of the container, the media tray was originally constructed of a flexible black polystyrene, but many newer trays use a more fragile transparent polystyrene. This allows the reverse of the card, which is usually used for additional artwork. This format did not become common until the mid-1990s, the jewel case is the standard case used by majority of manufacturers and it is the most common type of case found in record and movie stores. Jewel cases are used for DVDs, but generally not for those that contain major film releases. Blank Blu-ray Disc media is also most commonly sold in jewel cases. According to Philips, the jewel case reflects either the generally high quality of the case design compared to initial attempts. According to one publication, initial attempts at packaging CDs were unsatisfactory, when the new design, by Peter Doodson, was found to be virtually perfect it was dubbed the jewel case. Another publication quotes Doodson describing that he specified polished ribs as they pick up the light and shine, endurance, The CD jewel case has a tight and firm grip of the CD because of the trays teeth or lock. Because of this, even if the CD jewel case is turned upside-down, left, or right, flimsier cases may cause the CD to become loose, or even fall out. Also, since the case is made of plastic, it is sturdier compared to cardboard, paper. When pressure is applied to the CD jewel case, the case will break first before the CD, if the case is made of thin cardboard, there is a greater chance that the CD would break or get damaged because the weight is directed onto it

15.
Super Audio CD
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Super Audio CD is a read-only optical disc for audio storage, introduced in 1999. It was developed jointly by Sony and Philips Electronics, and intended to be the successor to their Compact Disc format, having made little impact in the consumer audio market, by 2007, SACD was deemed to be a failure by the press. A small market for SACD has remained, serving the audiophile community, the Super Audio CD format was introduced in 1999. Royal Philips and Crest Digital partnered in May 2002 to develop and install the first SACD hybrid disc production line in the USA, SACD did not achieve the same level of growth that Compact discs enjoyed in the 1980s, and was not accepted by the mainstream market. By October 2009, record companies had published more than 6,000 SACD releases, jazz and popular music albums, mainly remastered previous releases, were the next two most numerous genres represented. Many popular artists have released some or all of their catalog on SACD. Pink Floyds album The Dark Side of the Moon sold over 800,000 copies by June 2004 in its SACD Surround Sound edition, the Whos rock opera Tommy, and Roxy Musics Avalon, were released on SACD to take advantage of the formats multi-channel capability. All three albums were remixed in 5.1 surround, and released as hybrid SACDs with a mix on the standard CD layer. Some popular artists have released new recordings on SACD, sales figures for Stings Sacred Love album reached number one on SACD sales charts in four European countries in June 2004. Between 2007 and 2008, Genesis re-released all of their studio albums across three box sets, each album in these sets contains the original album on SACD in both stereo and 5.1 mixes. The US & Canada versions do not use SACD but CD instead, by August 2009443 labels had released one or more SACDs. Instead of depending on major label support, some orchestras and artists have released SACDs on their own, many of the SACD discs that were released from 2000-2005 are now out of print and are available only on the used market. By 2009, the record companies were no longer regularly releasing discs in the format. SACD is a disc of identical physical dimensions as a compact disc. There are three types of disc, Hybrid, Hybrid SACDs are encoded with a 4.7 GB DSD layer, single-layer, A DVD-5 encoded with one 4.7 GB DSD layer. Dual-layer, A DVD-9 encoded with two DSD layers, totaling 8.5 GB, and no PCM layer, dual-layer SACDs can store nearly twice as much data as a single-layer SACD. Unlike hybrid discs, both single- and dual-layer SACDs are incompatible with conventional CD players and cannot be played on them, a stereo SACD recording has an uncompressed rate of 5.6 Mbit/s, four times the rate for Red Book CD stereo audio. Other technical parameters are as follows, Commercial releases commonly included both surround sound and stereo mixes on the SACD layer, some reissues however, retained the mixes of earlier multi-channel formats

Super Audio CD
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Super Audio CD

16.
DVD-Audio
–
DVD-Audio is a digital format for delivering high-fidelity audio content on a DVD. DVD-Audio uses most of the storage on the disc for high-quality audio and is not intended to be a delivery format. DVD-Audio has much higher quality than video DVDs containing concert films or music videos. The first discs entered the marketplace in 2000, DVD-Audio offers many possible configurations of audio channels, ranging from single-channel mono to 5. 1-channel surround sound, at various sampling frequencies and sample rates. Audio on a DVD-Audio disc can be stored in different bit depth/sampling rate/channel combinations. For instance, a DVD-Audio disc may contain a 96 kHz/24-bit 5. 1-channel audio track as well as a 192 kHz/24-bit stereo audio track, also, the channels of a track can be split into two groups stored at different resolutions. For example, the front speakers could be 96/24, while the surrounds are 48/20, Audio is stored on the disc in Linear PCM format, which is either uncompressed or losslessly compressed with MLP. The maximum permissible total bit rate is 9.6 Megabits per second, channel/resolution combinations that would exceed this need to be compressed. In uncompressed modes, it is possible to get up to 96/16 or 48/24 in 5.1, to store 5.1 tracks in 88. 2/20,88. 2/24, 96/20 or 96/24 MLP encoding is mandatory. If no native stereo audio exists on the disc, the DVD-Audio player may be able to downmix the 5. 1-channel audio to two-channel stereo audio if the listener does not have a surround sound setup. Downmixing can only be done to two-channel stereo, not to other configurations, with the introduction of the DVD-Audio format, some kind of backward compatibility with existing DVD-Video players was desired, although not required. To address this, most DVD-Audio discs also contain DVD-Video compatible data to play the standard DVD-Video Dolby Digital 5. 1-channel audio track on the disc. Many DVD-Video players also offer the option to create a Dolby MP matrix-encoded soundtrack for older surround sound systems lacking Dolby Digital or DTS decoding, some discs also include a native Dolby Digital 2.0 stereo, and even a DTS 96/245. 1-channel, audio track. Since the DVD-Audio format is a member of the DVD family, a disc can have multiple layers. A common configuration is a single-sided DVD with content in both the DVD-Video and DVD-Audio directories, the high-resolution, Packed PCM audio encoded using MLP is only playable by DVD players containing DVD-Audio decoding capability. DVD-Video content, which can include LPCM, Dolby or DTS material, other disc configurations may consist of double layer DVDs or two-sided discs. Some labels have released two-sided DVD titles that contain DVD-Audio content on one side and DVD-Video content on the other, unofficial playback of DVD-Audio on a PC is possible through freeware audio player foobar2000 for Windows using an open source plug-in extension called DVDADecoder. VLC media player has DVD-Audio support Cyberlinks PowerDVD Version 8 provides a method of playing DVD-Audio discs

DVD-Audio
–
DVD-Audio

17.
DualDisc
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It featured an audio layer intended to be compatible with CD players on one side and a standard DVD layer on the other. In this respect it was similar to, but distinct from, DualDiscs first appeared in the United States in March 2004 as part of a marketing test conducted by the same five record companies who developed the product. The test involved 13 titles being released to a number of retailers in the Boston, Massachusetts. The test marketing was seen as a success after 82% of respondents to a said that DualDiscs met or exceeded their expectations. In addition, 90% of respondents said that they would recommend DualDisc to a friend, however, sales plummeted over the next three years, particularly in competition with rival formats like SACD and DVD-A discs. DualDisc titles received a mass rollout to retailers throughout the United States in February 2005, the recording industry had nearly 200 DualDisc titles available by the end of 2005 and over 2,000,000 units had been sold by the middle of that year. DualDiscs were based on double-sided DVD technology such as DVD-10, DVD-14, DVDplus, though conceptually similar, used a thicker CD layer and thus is more likely to get stuck in a slot-loading player, DualDisc took the other course by thinning the CD layer. As a result, the reading the CD side might get a blurry picture of the data on the disc — the equivalent of a human reading a book with glasses of the wrong strength. Engineers tried to get around this by making the pits in the CD layer larger than on a conventional CD, the audio side of this disc does not conform to CD specifications and therefore not all DVD and CD players will play the audio side of this disc. The DVD side of a DualDisc completely conformed to the specifications set forth by the DVD Forum, some titles such as Devils & Dust by Bruce Springsteen and Straight Outta Lynwood by Weird Al Yankovic have been released in the United States on DualDisc only. In the US, the cost of a DualDisc at retail versus that of a conventional CD varied depending on the title but, on average, There were also other factors which go into the additional costs such as production, marketing etc. What one finds on the DVD side of a DualDisc title will vary, common content includes, The entire reprinted album in higher-quality stereophonic and/or surround sound. Documentaries Music videos The artists discography A link to the artists website There are sometimes film-and-soundtrack DualDiscs, the CD side of a DualDisc contained standard 16-bit LPCM audio sampled at 44.1 kHz. On the DVD side, most record companies provided the music in both high-resolution, 24-bit DVD-Audio and lower-resolution, 16-bit Dolby Digital sound. The sound was compatible with any DVD player, however, it does not provide the higher fidelity and resolution of 24-bit, in addition, several SonyBMG titles whose regular editions include copy protection programs did not feature the software on the DualDisc versions. The biggest competition to DualDisc was the hybrid Super Audio CD, which was developed by Sony and Philips Electronics, DualDiscs and hybrid SACDs were competing solutions to the problem of providing higher-resolution audio on a disc that can still be played on conventional CD players. Hybrid SACDs claim a higher compatibility rate with conventional CD players than DualDisc, however, a SACD or SACD-capable DVD player is required to take advantage of the enhanced SACD layer. With a DualDisc, consumers could use their existing DVD player to hear surround mixes, in 2005, it was estimated that 75% of households in the United States have at least one DVD player

DualDisc
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How a DualDisc works
DualDisc
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This article is about the audio/video optical disc. For the Yu-Gi-Oh! accessory, see Duel Disk.

18.
MiniDisc
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MiniDisc is a magneto-optical disc-based data storage format offering a capacity of 74 minutes and, later,80 minutes, of digitized audio or 1 gigabyte of Hi-MD data. Sony brand audio players were on the market from September 1992 until March 2013, MiniDisc was announced by Sony in September 1992 and released that November of that year for sale in Japan and in December in Europe, Canada, the USA and other countries. MiniDiscs were very popular outside of the USA, Sony has ceased development of MD devices, with the last of the players sold by March 2013. It took, however, almost 10 years before their idea was commercialized, Sony had originally intended Digital Audio Tape to be the dominant home digital audio recording format, replacing the analog cassette. Due to technical delays, DAT was not launched until 1989, by the time Sony came up with MiniDisc in late 1992, Philips had introduced a competing system, DCC. This created marketing confusion very similar to the Betamax versus VHS battle of the late 1970s, Sony attempted to license MD technology to other manufacturers, with JVC, Sharp, Pioneer, Panasonic and others all producing their own MD systems. However, non-Sony machines were not widely available in North America, despite having a loyal customer base largely of musicians and audio enthusiasts, MiniDisc met with only limited success. It was relatively popular in Japan during the 1990s but did not enjoy comparable sales in other world markets, since then, recordable CDs, flash memory and HDD and solid-state-based digital audio players such as iPods have become increasingly popular as playback devices. The initial low uptake of MiniDisc was attributed to the number of pre-recorded albums available on MD as relatively few record labels embraced the format. The initial high cost of equipment and blank media was also a factor, mains-powered hi-fi MiniDisc player/recorders never got into the lower price ranges, and most consumers had to connect a portable machine to the hi-fi in order to record. This inconvenience contrasted with the common use of cassette decks as a standard part of an ordinary hi-fi set-up. The biggest competition for MiniDisc came from the emergence of MP3 players, with the Diamond Rio player in 1998 and the Apple iPod, the mass market began to eschew physical media in favor of file-based systems. This allowed the MiniDisc to better compete with HD recorders and MP3 players, on 7 July 2011, Sony announced that it would no longer ship MiniDisc Walkman products as of September 2011, effectively killing the format. On 1 February 2013, Sony issued a release on the Nikkei stock exchange that it will cease shipment of MD devices. However, it would continue to sell blank discs and offer repair services, MD Data, a version for storing computer data, was announced by Sony in 1993 but never gained significant ground. Its media were incompatible with standard audio MiniDiscs, which has been cited as one of the reasons behind the formats failure. MD Data could not write to audio-MDs, only the more expensive data blanks. In 1997, MD-Data2 blanks were introduced, which held 650 MB of data and they were only implemented in Sonys short-lived MD-based camcorder as well as a small number of multi-track recorders, Sonys MDM-X4, Tascams 564, and Yamahas MD-8, MD-4, & MD4S

19.
Zip disk
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The Zip drive is a medium-to-high-capacity removable floppy disk storage system that was introduced by Iomega in late 1994. Originally, Zip disks launched with capacities of 100 MB, but later increased this to first 250 MB. The format became the most popular of the products which filled a niche in the late 1990s portable storage market. However, it was never enough to replace the 3. 5-inch floppy disk. Later versions of the disc matched the capacity available on rewritable CDs, Zip drives fell out of favor for mass portable storage during the early 2000s. The Zip brand later covered internal and external CD writers known as Zip-650 or Zip-CD, in the Zip drive, the heads fly in a manner similar to a hard disk drive, without the use of the Bernoulli effect. The linear actuator uses the voice coil actuation technology related to hard disk drives. The Zip disk uses smaller media, and a simplified design that reduced its overall cost. This resulted in a disk that had all of the 3.5 floppys convenience. However, Zip disk housings were much thicker than those of floppy disks, typical desktop hard disk drives from mid-to-late 1990s revolved at 5400 rpm and had transfer rates from 3 MB/s to 10 MB/s or more, and average seek times from 20 ms to 14 ms or less. The rivalry was over before the dawn of the USB era, Zip drives are available in multiple interfaces including, IDE True ATA ATAPI USB1.1 USB2.0 IEEE1284 with Printer passthrough IEEE1394 SCSI Plus. Early Zip 100 drives used an AIC7110 SCSI controller and later parallel drives used what was known as Iomega MatchMaker, the drives are identified by the operating system as IMG VP0 and IMG VP1 respectively. Early external SCSI-based Zip drives often came with an included SCSI adapter known as Zip Zoom, the Zip Zoom is a rebadged ISA Adaptec SCSI host controller. Also, originally sold separately was a PCMCIA-to-SCSI adapter for laptop compatibility, interface availability, Driver support, MS-DOS Microsoft Windows family Some Linux / BSD etc. Oracle Solaris 8,9,10,11 IBM OS/2 Macintosh System 6. x,7. 1–7.5, higher-capacity Zip disks must be used in a drive with at least the same capacity ability. Higher-capacity drives can read lower-capacity media, the 250 MB drive writes much more slowly to 100 MB disks than the 100 MB drive, and the Iomega software is unable to perform a long format on a 100 MB disk. The 750 MB drive cannot write to 100 MB disks but can read existing disks, Zip drives initially sold well after their introduction in 1994, owing to their low price and high capacity. The drive was initially sold for just under US$200 with one cartridge included, included Iomega internal Zip drives with their machines

20.
Sega CD
–
The add-on was released on December 12,1991 in Japan, October 15,1992 in North America, and 1993 in Europe. The Sega CD lets the user play CD-based games and adds extra functionality, such as a faster central processing unit. It can also play audio CDs and CD+G discs, seeking to create an add-on device for the Genesis, Sega developed the unit to read compact discs as its storage medium. The main benefit of CD technology was greater storage capacity, which allowed for games to be nearly 320 times larger than their Genesis cartridge counterparts. This benefit manifested in the form of motion video games like the controversial Night Trap. Sega Enterprises in Japan partnered with JVC to design the add-on, Sega of America assembled parts from various dummy units to obtain a working prototype. While the add-on became known for several well-received games such as Sonic the Hedgehog CD and Lunar, Eternal Blue, its library contained a large number of Genesis ports. The Sega CD was redesigned a number of times, including once by Sega,2.24 million Sega CD units were sold by March 1996, after which the system was officially discontinued as Sega shifted its focus to the Sega Saturn. Released in 1988, the Genesis was Segas entry into the generation of video game consoles. By the early 1990s, compact discs were making significant headway as a medium for music. NEC had been the first to use compact disc technology in a game console with their PC Engine CD-ROM² System add-on in October 1988 in Japan. That same year, Nintendo announced a partnership with Sony to develop its own CD-ROM peripheral for the Super NES, commodore International released their CD-based CDTV multimedia system centered in early 1991, while long-in-waiting CD-i from Philips finally arrived towards the end of that year. The Sega CD was originally intended to equal the capabilities of the TurboGrafx-CD, but with twice as much random-access memory, however, two changes made later in development contributed to the final units higher than expected price. Because the Genesis Motorola 68000 CPU was too slow to handle the Sega CDs new graphical capabilities and this proved to be one of the greatest technical challenges during development since the Genesis access speed was initially too slow to run programs effectively. The cost of the device was now estimated at $370, Sega partnered with JVC, which had been working with Warner New Media to develop a CD player under the CD+G standard, to develop the Sega CD. Up until the middle of 1991, Sega of America had been kept largely uninformed of the details of the project, without a functioning unit to test. According to former Sega of America executive producer Michael Latham, When you work at a company, there are things that go well. They didnt want to send us working Sega CD units and they wanted to send us dummies and not send us the working CD units until the last minute because they were concerned about what we would do with it and if it would leak out

21.
Sega Saturn
–
The Saturn has a dual-CPU architecture and eight processors. Its games are in CD-ROM format, and its library contains several arcade ports as well as original titles. Development of the Saturn began in 1992, the same year Segas groundbreaking 3D Model 1 arcade hardware debuted. The Saturn was initially successful in Japan, but failed to sell in numbers in the United States after its surprise May 1995 launch. After the debut of the Nintendo 64 in late 1996, the Saturn rapidly lost market share in the U. S. where it was discontinued in 1998, having sold 9.26 million units worldwide, the Saturn is considered a commercial failure. The failure of Segas development teams to release a game in the Sonic the Hedgehog series, although the Saturn is remembered for several well-regarded games, including Nights into Dreams. The Panzer Dragoon series, and the Virtua Fighter series, its reputation is mixed due to its hardware design. Segas management has been criticized for its decision-making during the systems development, released in 1988, the Genesis was Segas entry into the fourth generation of video game consoles. In mid-1990, Sega CEO Hayao Nakayama hired Tom Kalinske as president, however, the release of a CD-based add-on for the Genesis, the Sega CD, had been commercially disappointing. Sega also experienced success with arcade games, in 1992 and 1993, the companys new Sega Model 1 arcade system board showcased Sega AM2s Virtua Racing and Virtua Fighter, which played a crucial role in popularizing 3D polygonal graphics. The Model 1 was a system board, and bringing home releases of its games to the Genesis required more than its hardware could handle. Several alternatives helped to bring Segas newest arcade games to the console, such as the Sega Virtua Processor chip used for Virtua Racing, development of the Saturn was supervised by Hideki Sato, Segas director and deputy general manager of research and development. According to Sega project manager Hideki Okamura, the Saturn project started over two years before the system was showcased at the Tokyo Toy Show in June 1994, the name Saturn was initially the systems codename during development in Japan, but was eventually chosen as the official product name. In 1993, Sega and Japanese electronics company Hitachi formed a joint venture to develop a new CPU for the Saturn, the Saturn was ultimately designed around a dual-SH2 configuration. According to Kazuhiro Hamada, Segas section chief for Saturn development during the systems conception, the chip has a calculation system similar to a DSP, but we realized that a single CPU would not be enough to calculate a 3D world. According to Kalinske, Sega of America fought against the architecture of Saturn for quite some time, seeking an alternative graphics chip for the Saturn, Kalinske attempted to broker a deal with Silicon Graphics, but Sega of Japan rejected the proposal. Silicon Graphics subsequently collaborated with Nintendo on the Nintendo 64, publicly, Kalinske defended the Saturns design, Our people feel that they need the multiprocessing to be able to bring to the home what were doing next year in the arcades. In 1993, Sega restructured its internal studios in preparation for the Saturns launch, New teams, such as Panzer Dragoon developer Team Andromeda, were formed during this time

Sega Saturn
–
A first model Japanese Sega Saturn unit
Sega Saturn
Sega Saturn
–
A screenshot of Chris Senn and Ofer Alon's version of Sonic X-treme. The game's cancellation, and the lack of a fully 3D Sonic the Hedgehog platformer, is considered a significant factor in the Saturn's commercial failure.
Sega Saturn
–
Hitachi SH-2

22.
PlayStation (console)
–
The PlayStation is a home video game console developed and marketed by Sony Computer Entertainment. The console was released on 3 December 1994 in Japan,9 September 1995 in North America,29 September 1995 in Europe, the console was the first of the PlayStation lineup of home video game consoles. It primarily competed with the Nintendo 64 and the Sega Saturn as part of the generation of video game consoles. The PlayStation is the first computer entertainment platform to ship 100 million units, in 2000, a redesigned, slim version called the PSone was released, replacing the original grey console and named appropriately to avoid confusion with its successor, the PlayStation 2. In 1999, Sony announced the successor to the PlayStation, the PlayStation 2, which is compatible with the PlayStations DualShock controller and games. The last PSone units were sold in winter 2004 before it was discontinued in March 2005. The inception of what would become the released PlayStation dates back to 1986 with a joint venture between Nintendo and Sony, Nintendo approached Sony to develop a CD-ROM add-on, tentatively titled the Play Station or SNES-CD. A contract was signed, and work began, Kutaragi was nearly fired by Sony because he was originally working with Nintendo on the side without Sonys knowledge. It was then-CEO, Norio Ohga, who recognized the potential in Kutaragis chip, Ohga kept Kutaragi on at Sony, and it was not until Nintendo cancelled the project that Sony decided to develop its own console. This was also to be the used in SNES-CDs, giving a large degree of control to Sony despite Nintendos leading position in the video gaming market. The product, dubbed the Play Station was to be announced at the May 1991 Consumer Electronics Show, yamauchi decided that the contract was totally unacceptable and he secretly cancelled all plans for the joint Nintendo-Sony SNES CD attachment. After the collapse of the project, Sony briefly considered allying itself with Sega to produce a stand-alone console. The Sega CEO at the time, Tom Kalinske, took the proposal to Segas Board of Directors in Tokyo, Kalinske, in a 2013 interview recalled them saying that’s a stupid idea, Sony doesnt know how to make hardware. They don’t know how to make software either, why would we want to do this. The federal judge presiding over the case denied the injunction and, in October 1991, however, it is theorized that only 200 or so of these machines were ever produced. However, Sony decided in early 1993 to begin reworking the Play Station concept to target a new generation of hardware and software. As part of process the SNES cartridge port was dropped. Early advertising prior to the launch in North America referenced PSX

PlayStation (console)
–
Top: PlayStation logo, original model with DualShock controller. Bottom: the smaller redesigned PSone.
PlayStation (console)
–
PlayStation
PlayStation (console)
PlayStation (console)
–
An original PlayStation Controller. This model was later replaced by the Dual Analog in 1997, and then the DualShock in 1997/1998.

23.
CD single
–
This article is about the 12cm single. Not to be confused with 8cm single, the standard in the Red Book for the term CD single. A CD single is a single in the form of a standard size compact disc. It is not to be confused with the Mini CD single, the format was introduced in the mid-1980s but did not gain its place in the market until the early 1990s. With the rise in digital downloads in the early 2010s, sales of CD singles have decreased, commercially released CD singles can vary in length from two songs up to six songs like an EP. Some contain multiple mixes of one or more songs, in the tradition of 12 vinyl singles, depending on the nation, there may be limits on the number of songs and total length for sales to count in singles charts. Containing four tracks, it had a limited print run. CD singles were first made eligible for the UK Singles Chart in 1987, the Mini CD single format was originally created for use for singles in the late 1980s, but met with limited success, particularly in the US. The smaller CDs were more successful in Japan and have become more common in Europe. By 1989, the CD3 was in decline in the US and it was common in the 1990s for US record companies to release both a two-track CD and a multi-track maxi CD. In the UK, record companies would also release two CDs but, usually, these consisted of three tracks or more each. Pressure from record labels made singles charts in some countries become song charts, allowing album cuts to chart based only on airplay, without a single ever being released. At the end of the 1990s, the CD was the single format in the UK, but in the US. In Australia, the Herald Sun reported the CD single is set to become extinct, while CD singles no longer maintain their own section of the store, copies are still distributed but placed with the artists albums. That is predominantly the case for popular Australian artists such as Jessica Mauboy, Kylie Minogue and, most recently, Delta Goodrem, the ARIA Singles Chart are now predominantly compiled from legal downloads, and ARIA also stopped compiling their physical singles sales chart. On a Mission by Gabriella Cilmi was the last CD single to be stocked in Kmart, Target and Big W, sanity Entertainment, having resisted the decline for longer than the other major outlets, has also ceased selling CD singles. In Greece and Cyprus, the term CD single is used to describe a play in which there may be anywhere from three to six different tracks. These releases charted on the Greek Singles Chart with songs released as singles, in September 2003, there was talk of ringtones for mobile phones outstripping CD singles sales for the year 2004

24.
J-card
–
A j-card is the paper card inserted in the plastic storage case of most pre-recorded audio cassette releases, as well as cassettes of bootleg or copied concerts of the jam band scene. The j-card usually contains an image of the cover, a track listing, credits. The j-card gets its name from being folded into the shape of the letter J to fit inside the cassettes case, today, custom made CD-R covers are often called J-cards. J-card-style covers were used in CD covers in the 1990s for single cases and are used today. Obi Compact audio cassette The Legendary Web J-Card Polygizmo

J-card
–
Shell and back of J-card for a Soviet (Russian) 45-minute cassette tape.

25.
Polypropylene
–
An addition polymer made from the monomer propylene, it is rugged and unusually resistant to many chemical solvents, bases and acids. Polypropylene has a relatively low energy surface that means that many common glues will not form adequate joints. Joining of polypropylene is often done using welding processes, in 2013, the global market for polypropylene was about 55 million tonnes. Polypropylene is the worlds second-most widely produced synthetic plastic, after polyethylene, Polypropylene is in many aspects similar to polyethylene, especially in solution behaviour and electrical properties. The additionally present methyl group improves mechanical properties and thermal resistance, the properties of polypropylene depend on the molecular weight and molecular weight distribution, crystallinity, type and proportion of comonomer and the isotacticity. In isotactic polypropylene, for example, the CH3 groups are oriented on one side of the carbon backbone and this creates a greater degree of crystallinity and results in a stiffer material that is more resistant to creep than both atactic polypropylene and polyethylene. The density of PP is between 0.895 and 0.92 g/cm³, therefore, PP is the commodity plastic with the lowest density. With lower density, moldings parts with lower weight and more parts of a mass of plastic can be produced. Unlike polyethylene, crystalline and amorphous regions differ only slightly in their density, however, the density of polyethylene can significantly change with fillers. The Youngs modulus of PP is between 1300 and 1800 N/mm², Polypropylene is normally tough and flexible, especially when copolymerized with ethylene. This allows polypropylene to be used as a plastic, competing with materials such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. Polypropylene has good resistance to fatigue, the melting point of polypropylene occurs at a range, so a melting point is determined by finding the highest temperature of a differential scanning calorimetry chart. Perfectly isotactic PP has a point of 171 °C. Commercial isotactic PP has a point that ranges from 160 to 166 °C, depending on atactic material. Syndiotactic PP with a crystallinity of 30% has a point of 130 °C. Below 0 °C, PP becomes brittle, the thermal expansion of polypropylene is very large, but somewhat less than that of polyethylene. Polypropylene is at room temperature resistant to fats and almost all organic solvents, non-oxidizing acids and bases can be stored in containers made of PP. At elevated temperature, PP can be dissolved in nonpolarity solvents such as xylene, due to the tertiary carbon atom PP is chemically less resistant than PE

Polypropylene
–
Polypropylene lid of a Tic Tacs box, with a living hinge and the resin identification code under its flap
Polypropylene
Polypropylene
–
A polypropylene chair
Polypropylene
–
Polypropylene items for laboratory use, blue and orange closures are not made of polypropylene.

26.
Longbox
–
A longbox is a form of exterior paperboard packaging for musical compact discs in widespread use in the 1980s and early 1990s in North America. Longboxes were 12 tall, and capable of containing two separate discs when necessary. Most longboxes were full color, with details about the disc on the back. There were generic white longboxes with windows that would display the compact disc cover, placing the jewelcase within a cardboard enclosure made for a larger and more cumbersome package that would be more difficult to shoplift from retailers. Longboxes began to fade from popularity as the CDs themselves became more colorful, longboxes were also considered environmentally wasteful and were expensive to produce. In North America, the drive to eliminate longboxes took hold in Canada first, environmental concerns of unnecessary cardboard waste from artists and consumers alike created controversy over continued use of longboxes. The satirical band Spinal Taps 1992 studio album Break Like the Wind was sold in an extra-long box, some merchants resisted this disapproval of the packaging, as longboxes theoretically made it harder for shoplifters to hide the items as well as avoiding friction with retailers. Several proposals for new types of packaging that served the display-size of the longbox, eventually, as LP-sized sales racks were phased out, these frames were reduced to a size only slightly larger than the disc boxes themselves. Longbox packaging was phased out officially as of April 1,1993 due to the controversy, aside from the occasional box-set or vanity CD packaging, longbox packaging is largely obsolete. However, longboxes are still used by warehouse clubs such as Costco for both CD and DVD packaging, though the boxes are typically generic and not produced by the media distributors. Most original longboxes were discarded upon purchase, and they have become desirable amongst music collectors. A compact disc is worth more if it is accompanied by its original longbox

Longbox
–
Various longboxes from the late 1980s and early 1990s.

27.
Shoplifting
–
Shoplifting is a popular term used for the unnoticed theft of goods from an open retail establishment. Shoplifting typically involves a person concealing a store item on their person, in pockets or under clothes, with clothing, shoplifters may put on items from the store and leave the store wearing the clothes. The terms shoplifting and shoplifter are not usually defined in law, the crime of shoplifting generally falls under the legal classification of larceny. Shoplifting is distinct from burglary, robbery or armed robbery, shoplifters range from amateurs acting on impulse to career criminals who habitually engage in shoplifting as a form of income. Career criminals may use several individuals to shoplift, with some participants distracting store employees while another participant steals items, amateurs typically steal products for personal use, while career criminals generally steal items to resell them in the underground economy. Other forms of shoplifting include swapping price labels of different items, commonly shoplifted items are those with a high price in proportion to their size, such as disposable razor blades, vitamins, alcoholic beverages and cigarettes. Retailers have reported that 0. 6% of their inventory is lost to shoplifting, some stores have security guards at the exit, who search backpacks and bags and check receipts. Stores also combat shoplifting by training employees how to detect potential shoplifters, Shoplifting is the act of knowingly taking goods from an establishment in which they are displayed for sale, without paying for them. Shoplifting usually involves concealing items on the person or an accomplice, however, shoplifting can also include price switching, refund fraud, wardrobing and grazing. Price switching is now an almost extinct form of shoplifting for two reasons, the labels will split apart if you try to remove them, and virtually all retail cashiers now scan items at the register, rather than relying on price stickers. Retailers report that shoplifting has a significant effect on their bottom line, in several countries, criminal flash mobs primarily of teenagers and young adults enter stores with the intention of stealing merchandise by distracting staff. However, there are people and groups who make their living from shoplifting, generally, criminal theft involves taking possession of property illegally. In self-service shops, customers are allowed by the property owner to take possession of the property by holding or moving it. This leaves areas of ambiguity that could criminalize some people for simple mistakes, for this reason penalties for shoplifting are often lower than those for general theft. Few jurisdictions have specific shoplifting legislation with which to differentiate it from other forms of theft, most retailers are aware of the serious consequences of making a false arrest, and will only attempt to apprehend a person if their guilt is beyond a reasonable doubt. Depending on local laws, arrests made by other than law enforcement officers may also be illegal. The first documented shoplifting started to place in 16th-century London. By the early 19th century, shoplifting was believed to be primarily a female activity, in the 1960s, shoplifting began to be redefined again, this time as a political act

28.
Costco
–
As of 2016, Costco was the worlds no.1 retailer of choice and prime beef, organic foods, rotisserie chicken, and wine. Costcos worldwide headquarters are in Issaquah, Washington, but the company opened its first warehouse in nearby Seattle in 1983, through mergers, Costcos overall corporate history dates back to 1976, when its former competitor Price Club was founded in San Diego, California. As of 9 February 2017, Costco had a total of 727 warehouses, spread throughout the United States, Canada, Mexico, United Kingdom, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Australia, and Spain. Costco is known for offering low-price, limited-selection retail treasure hunts with expensive luxury goods next to cheap bulk goods, Costco opened its first warehouse in Seattle, Washington, on September 15,1983, by James Sinegal and Jeffrey H. Brotman. In 1993, Costco and Price Club agreed to merge operations themselves after Price declined an offer from Sam Walton and Walmart to merge Price Club with their warehouse store chain, Sams Club. Costcos business model and size were similar to those of Price Club, the combined company took the name PriceCostco, and memberships became universal, meaning that a Price Club member could use their membership to shop at Costco and vice versa. PriceCostco boasted 206 locations generating $16 billion in annual sales, in 1997, the company changed its name to Costco Wholesale Corporation and all remaining Price Club locations were rebranded as Costco. In 2014, Costco was the third largest retailer in the United States and that year Costco announced plans to open an online store in China using Alibaba Group. Costco today In the United States, Costcos main competitors operating membership warehouses are Sams Club, Costco employs about 174,000 full and part-time employees. In 2016, Costco had 85 million members, Costco was the first company to grow from zero to $3 billion in sales in under six years. For the fiscal year ending on August 31,2012, the companys sales totaled $97.062 billion, Costco is 18th on the 2015 Fortune 500. The ACSI named Costco number one in the specialty retail store industry with a score of 84 in 2014. As of December 2013, Costcos board of directors is chaired by co-founder Jeffrey H. Brotman, Costco focuses on selling products at low prices, often at very high volume. These goods are usually bulk-packaged and marketed primarily to families and businesses. Furthermore, Costco does not carry multiple brands or varieties where the item is essentially the same except when it has a brand to sell. This results in a volume of sales from a vendor, allowing further reductions in price. A typical Costco warehouse carries only 3,700 distinct products, if Costco management feels the wholesale price of a product is too high, they will refuse to stock the product. For example, on November 16,2009, Costco announced that it would stop selling Coca-Cola products because the soft-drink maker refused to lower its wholesale prices, Costco resumed selling Coca-Cola products on December 14,2009

29.
Japan
–
Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon

30.
Obi strip
–
An obi is a strip of paper looped around a book or other product. This extends the term obi used for Japanese clothing, it is written with the same kanji and it is also referred to as a tasuki, or more narrowly as obigami. Many books in Japan are supplied with an obi, which is added outside any dust jacket. However, a book in a slipcase may have an obi around the slipcase, in English, the term belly-band is sometimes used instead. The term is used for a strip that is looped over one side or folded over the top of LP albums released in Japan. Obi are unique to Japan and are used to provide the title of the product, track listings, price, catalog number and it is used by the consumer to determine what is included in the album or book, and the store can use the information for ordering. Obi are sometimes used on boxes for collectible toys and figures, products with an obi have become popular with some collectors, as products with the obi intact can fetch premium prices, and are collectible items in their own right. A used/second hand record or CD with an still intact obi may be more than the same with the obi missing

Obi strip

31.
Envelope
–
An envelope is a common packaging item, usually made of thin flat material. It is designed to contain an object, such as a letter or card. Traditional envelopes are made from sheets of cut to one of three shapes, a rhombus, a short-arm cross, or a kite. These shapes allow for the creation of the structure by folding the sheet sides around a central rectangular area. In this manner, an enclosure is formed with an arrangement of four flaps on the reverse side. Although in principle the flaps can be held in place by securing the topmost flap at a single point and they are most commonly used for enclosing and sending mail through a prepaid-postage postal system. Window envelopes have a cut in the front side that allows the paper within to be seen. They are generally arranged so that the address printed on the letter is visible. The window is covered with a transparent or translucent film to protect the letter inside, as was first designed by Americus F. Callahan in 1901. In some cases, shortages of materials or the need to economize resulted in envelopes that had no film covering the window, one innovative process, invented in Europe about 1905, involved using hot oil to saturate the area of the envelope where the address would appear. The treated area became sufficiently translucent for the address to be readable, as of 2009 there is no international standard for window envelopes, but some countries, including Germany and the United Kingdom, have national standards. An aerogram is related to a lettersheet, both being designed to have writing on the inside to minimize the weight, if desired, a separate letter could be enclosed with postage remaining at one penny provided the combined weight did not exceed half an ounce. This was a legacy of the system of calculating postage. During the U. S. Civil War those in the Confederate States Army occasionally used envelopes made from wallpaper, due to financial hardship. A return envelope is a pre-addressed, smaller envelope included as the contents of an envelope and can be used for courtesy reply mail, metered reply mail. Some envelopes are designed to be reused as the return envelope, the direct mail industry makes extensive use of return envelopes as a response mechanism. Up until 1840, all envelopes were handmade, each being individually cut to the appropriate shape out of a rectangular sheet. In 1845 Edwin Hill and Warren de la Rue obtained a patent for a machine that not only cut out the envelope shapes

Envelope
–
Front of an envelope mailed in the U.S. in 1906, with a postage stamp and address
Envelope
–
A Japanese funeral envelope used for offering condolence money. The white and black cords represent death. Similar-looking envelopes with red and silver cords are used for weddings.
Envelope
–
Tablet and its sealed envelope: employment contract. Girsu, Sumer, circa 2037 BCE. Terra cotta. Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon.
Envelope
–
Red envelopes are an example of paper envelopes. They are used for monetary gifts.

32.
Tyvek
–
Tyvek /taɪˈvɛk/ is a brand of flashspun high-density polyethylene fibers, a synthetic material, the name is a registered trademark of DuPont. It is often used as housewrap, a synthetic material used to protect buildings during construction. The material is strong, it is difficult to tear. Water vapor can pass through Tyvek, but liquid water cannot, all of these properties make Tyvek useful in a variety of applications. Tyvek is a nonwoven product consisting of spunbond olefin fiber and it was first discovered in 1955 by DuPont researcher Jim White who saw polyethylene fluff coming out of a pipe in a DuPont experimental lab. It was trademarked in 1965 and was first introduced for purposes in April 1967. According to DuPonts website, the fibers are 0. 5–10 µm, the nondirectional fibers are first spun and then bonded together by heat and pressure, without binders. Tyvek is manufactured at the Spruance plant in Richmond, Virginia, among Tyveks properties are, Light weight Class A flammability rating. Dielectric bonding can be effective in some circumstances, as is ultrasonic sealing, Tyvek is used by the United States Postal Service for some of its Priority Mail and Express Mail envelopes. FedEx also uses it for some of its document envelopes, new Zealand used it for its drivers licenses from 1986 to 1999. Costa Rica, the Isle of Man, and Haiti have made banknotes from it and these banknotes are no longer in circulation and have become collectors items. They are also used for some light HAZMAT applications, such as asbestos and radiation work, tychem is a sub-brand of Tyvek rated for a higher level of liquid protection, especially from chemicals. DuPont makes Tyvek clothing in different styles from laboratory coats and aprons to complete head-to-toe coveralls with hoods, the latter was notably used by the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force as emergency limited CBRN gear during the Fukushima nuclear incident. In 1976, fashion house Fiorucci made an entire collection out of Tyvek, more recently fashion retailer and manufacturer American Apparel has included white Tyvek shorts as part of its range. Rock band Devo is known for wearing large, two-piece Tyvek suits with black elastic belts, in 1979, Devo appeared with Tyvek leisure suits and shirts made specifically for the band, with the bands own designs and images. In 2005, Dynomighty Design introduced a Tyvek wallet made from a sheet of Tyvek. The ultralight backpacking community has begun to use Tyvek for the construction of extremely light yet durable backpacks, in 2012, The Open Company released a foldable city map made of one of the stiffer variants of Tyvek. Increasingly, reused Tyvek material is being used by home crafters, protective sleeves for Compact Discs and DVDs, tote bags, and origami wallets also use Tyvek-containing materials

33.
International Paper
–
The International Paper Company is an American pulp and paper company, the largest such company in the world. It has approximately 65,000 employees, and it is headquartered in Memphis, the company was incorporated January 31,1898, upon the merger of 18 pulp and paper mills in the northeastern United States. Its founders and first two presidents were William Augustus Russell, who died suddenly in January 1899, and Hugh J. Chisholm, the newly formed company supplied 60 percent of all newsprint in the country. The Hudson River Mill in Corinth, New York, where the Sacandaga River joins the Hudson River, was a pioneer in the development of the modern paper industry in the late 19th century. The first wood-based paper mill in New York, it was built by Albrecht Pagenstecher in 1869, after World War II, Hudson River Mill workers developed and perfected the production of coated papers for the company. Shifting economic forces resulted in the closure in November 2002. The historic mill was slated for demolition in 2011, given the nature of their products, paper plants are highly flammable. Therefore, International Paper Company frequently used asbestos insulation in its walls and floors, roof, as a result, many former employees of International Paper are being diagnosed with mesothelioma. In 1987, the paper mill workers went on strike at a number of its U. S. plants. In 1996, it purchased Federal Paper Board, in 1999, the company purchased Union Camp Corporation, and in 2000 Champion International Paper. Additionally, it shares in the Chilean company Copec. Paper Mills Rajahmundry, which is now an International Paper company, is one of the biggest integrated paper, the company produces writing, printing, and copier papers and paper boards for foreign and domestic markets. APPMs production facilities are two mills in Rajahmundry and Kadiam with a production capacity of 240,000 TPA. International Paper owns a majority interest in APPM, and the shares are publicly traded on the Bombay. In 2012, International Paper, through the merger of its wholly owned subsidiary Metal Acquisition Inc. with and into Temple-Inland, Temple-Inland then became a wholly owned subsidiary of International Paper. At the time of sale, Temple-Inlands corrugated packaging operation consisted of 7 mills and 59 converting facilities as well as the products operation. The coated paper business were sold to Apollo Management and now operate as Verso Paper, the kraft paper business was sold to Kapstone Paper and Packaging and operates as Kapstone Kraft Paper. The beverage packaging business, now called Evergreen Packaging, was purchased by Carter Holt Harvey, the company sold its wood products division to West Fraser Timber, based in Vancouver, British Columbia

International Paper
–
One of the 18 original founding mills of International Paper c. 1908, built in 1888 as the Otis Falls Pulp & Paper Company in Chisholm, Maine.
International Paper
–
One of the old mills in the former " mill town " of Berlin, New Hampshire, owned by the International Paper, c. 1912.
International Paper
–
Pulp and converting paper mill, located in Georgetown, South Carolina.
International Paper
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Factory in Kwidzyn, Poland, at night

34.
Genericized trademark
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A trademark is said to become genericized when it begins as a distinctive product identifier but changes in meaning to become generic. Thermos, Kleenex, Dumpster and Realtor are examples of trademarks that have become genericized in the US, genericization or loss of secondary meaning may be either among the general population or among just a subpopulation, for example, people who work in a particular industry. Most often, genericization occurs because of advertising that fails to provide an alternative generic name or that uses the trademark in similar fashion to generic terms. The pharmaceutical industry affords some protection from genericization of trade due to the modern practice of assigning a nonproprietary name for a drug based upon chemical structure. For example, even when Lipitor was new, its nonproprietary name, examples of genericization before the modern system of generic drugs include aspirin, introduced to the market in 1897, and heroin, introduced in 1898, both were originally trademarks of Bayer AG. U. S. court rulings in 1918 and 1921 found the term to be genericized, stating the companys failure to reinforce the brands connection with their product as the reason. Bayers involvement in the Great Phenol Plot during World War I, a different sense of the word genericized in the pharmaceutical industry refers to products whose patent protection has expired. For example, Lipitor was genericized in the U. S. when the first competing generic version was approved by the FDA in November 2011, in this same context, the term genericization refers to the process of a brand drug losing market exclusivity to generics. Trademark erosion, or genericide, is a case of antonomasia related to trademarks. It happens when a trademark becomes so common that it starts being used as a common name, nintendo is an example of a brand that successfully fought trademark erosion, having managed to replace excessive use of its name by the then-neologism game console. A more contemporary example is the use of the word iPad to describe all personal computers in tablet form. If the mark does not perform this function and it is no longer possible to legally enforce rights in relation to the mark. In many legal systems a generic mark forms part of the public domain, nevertheless, there exists the possibility of a trademark becoming a revocable generic term in German trademark law. The process by which trademark rights are diminished or lost as a result of use in the marketplace is known as genericization. One risk factor that may lead to genericization is the use of a trademark as a verb, plural or possessive, however, in highly inflected languages, a tradename may have to carry case endings in usage, for example in Finnish Microsoftin and Facebookista. Generic use of a trademark presents an inherent risk to the enforcement of trademark rights. Such a term is called a generic descriptor, and is used immediately after the trademark to provide a description of the product or service. For example, Kleenex tissues or Velcro brand fasteners for Velcro brand name hook-and-loop fasteners, another common practice among trademark owners is to follow their trademark with the word brand to help define the word as a trademark

Genericized trademark
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A sign in a supermarket using " Jell-O " generically, rather than "gelatin dessert".

35.
Environmentally more friendly
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Companies use these ambiguous terms to promote goods and services, sometimes with additional, more specific certifications, such as ecolabels. Their overuse can be referred to as greenwashing, products located in members of the European Union can use the EUs Eco-label pending the EUs approval. EMAS is another EU label that signifies whether an organization management is green as opposed to the product, germany also uses the Blue Angel, based on Germanys standard. In the United States, environmental marketing claims require caution, ambiguous titles such as environmentally friendly can be confusing without a specific definition, some regulators are providing guidance. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has deemed some ecolabels misleading in determining whether a product is truly green, in Canada, one label is that of the Environmental Choice Program. Created in 1988, only approved by the program are allowed to display the label. The Energy Rating Label is a Type III label that provides information on energy service per unit of energy consumption and it was first created in 1986, but negotiations led to a redesign in 2000. The environmentally friendly trends are marketed with a different color association, using the blue for clean air and clean water. Japanese and Korean built hybrid vehicles use the blue instead of green all throughout the vehicle. Energy Star is a program with a goal of increasing energy efficiency. Energy Star has different sections for different nations or areas, including the United States, the program, which was founded in the United States, also exists in Canada, Japan, New Zealand, and Taiwan

36.
Amaray case
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A keep case or poly-box is a type of packaging, most commonly used with DVDs. Besides DVD-Video films, keep cases are common with most video games since the PlayStation 2 as well as PC titles. The first products to be released in cases were VHS tapes. Cartridges and cards for the Sega Master System platform were the first video games to be packaged in any kind of keep case, the vast majority of Sega Genesis games would come in a plastic keep case, but were later packaged in pressboard boxes, as a cost-cutting measure. Before the standard, commonly used DVD case was invented, early CD-ROM based video games such as Sega CD and early PlayStation titles and these have been reputed to break very easily. Since the PlayStation 2, most major console-based video game software is packaged in some sort of case, including Nintendo DS cartridge titles. The cases are made of soft, clear or colored, polypropylene plastic with a transparent polyethylene outer jacket, a variety of colors are produced, including black, white, red and clear. On the inside are sets of clips that may hold a booklet or additional sheets of paper with extra information, the DVD is held into place with a small protrusion which fits into the hole in the DVD. For console games like the PlayStation 2 and Nintendo GameCube, an extra protrusion is available for storing memory cards, as a result, a DVD hub is weaker than a CDs, and may be damaged if stored in a case which is designed for CDs only. This can be a problem during shipping, the center Pluck-Hubs are designed to keep a disc in place while shipping, but can be too tight for normal home use. Because of this, the disc can be damaged upon removal due to excess warping, however, the edges of the center hub can be permanently bent in slightly to allow for a looser fit. Discs are then able to slip out easily, ideal for the home shelf, the height and width of a keep case are fixed at 190mm and 135mm, respectively. The thickness may vary to accommodate more discs or to require less shelf space, for a typical single-disc case it is 15mm. A keep case, thus, approximates the Video Software Dealers Association recommendation that a single-disc DVD-Video package have the height as a VHS tape. The printed paper sleeve for a standard DVD case can be printed on a standard A4 sheet of paper which, after cropping, can be slipped into the outer jacket. The paper room on the front and back panels of the case is 129. 5mm × 183mm and this gives 273mm × 183mm as resulting maximum overall dimensions for the printout. Booklet inserts or leaflet material, when folded closed, should measure to a maximum of 120mm × 180mm, similar, though not identical, packaging is used for commercial Blu-ray Disc titles and was used for HD DVD titles. However, the dimensions of the cases are different, about 19 mm shorter

37.
Covermount
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Covermount is the name given to storage media or other products packaged as part of a magazine or newspaper. The name comes from the method of packaging, the media or product is placed in a transparent plastic sleeve and mounted on the cover of the magazine with adhesive tape or glue. Audio recordings were distributed in the UK by the use of covermounts in the 1960s by the satirical magazine Private Eye though the term covermount was not in usage at that time. The Private Eye recordings were pressed onto 7 floppy vinyl and mounted on to the front of the magazine, the weekly pop music paper NME issued audio recordings of rock music on similar 7 flexi-discs as covermounts in the 1970s. The covermount practice continued with computer magazines in the era of home computers. In the United Kingdom computer hobbyist magazines began distributing tapes and later floppy disks with their publications and these disks included demo and shareware versions of games, applications, computer drivers, operating systems, computer wallpapers and other content. One of the first covermount games to be added as a covermount was the 1984 The Thompson Twins Adventure, most magazines backed up by large publishers like Linux Format included a covermount CD or DVD with a Linux distribution and other Open Source applications. In November 2015, The MagPi magazine brought the full circle and attached a free Raspberry Pi Zero on the cover. In other places, such as Finland, covermounts on computer magazines never caught on, instead, popular Finnish magazines such as MikroBitti offered subscribers access to an exclusive BBS via modem, and later via the World Wide Web. Adding audiovisual media as a covermount has started with music magazines adding covermounts in the form of sampler for promotional uses, the cassette was in the end replaced by the compact disc. Apart from magazines also newspapers have discovered the covermount and started to add compact discs to their publications, magazines are also including non-storage media like toys, games, stationery sets, make up, cross stitch kits and whatever the publisher believes will help the sales of their titles. In the United Kingdom, many television-related partware magazines have been launched in recent years, american musician Prince is known for offering studio albums free with various newspaper publications. His 2007 album Planet Earth was the first to be given this treatment, in the United Kingdom and his new album 20Ten was released in 2010, in Belgium, under the same circumstances, with the same happening for the album with other publications across Europe. Pop rock band McFly too released a covermount album, which was Radio, other artists known to release covermount albums are UB40, Peter Gabriel, Calvin Harris and Soulwax. The initial purpose of covermount discs was to distribute demo versions of video games, cDs became the most common storage media, but in the past several years, demos have grown from mere 50MB files to 500MB or larger. This discourages magazines from distributing most of the demos, unless the magazine has an exclusive distribution agreement or the title is highly anticipated. While in 1997 a CD could carry over 15 demos, in 2005 the typical CD had 5 or fewer and this led some magazines to insert a second CD, or to use DVD media instead. Covermounts came late to the world of game console publications

Covermount
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Demo CDs
Covermount
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full versions

38.
Mixmag
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Mixmag is a British electronic dance and clubbing magazine, published in London, England. Launched in 1982, the magazine covers events, and reviews music. The first issue was printed on 1 February 1983 as a 16-page black-and-white magazine published by Disco Mix Club, the first cover featured American music group Shalamar. When house music began in the 1980s editor and DJ Dave Seaman turned the magazine from a newsletter for DJs to a magazine covering all dance music, Mixmag, in association with its original publishing company, DMC Publishing, released a series of CDs under the Mixmag Live heading. The magazine, which reached a circulation of up to 70,000 copies during the height of the popularity of house, was later sold to EMAP Ltd. in the mid-1990s. After a dip in sales in 2003, it was bought by Development Hell. In 2007, Nick DeCosemo became editor, in 2001, the magazine teamed up with Virgin Records to release a double album titled B. g Tunes. In 2012, the The Guardian collaborated with Mixmag on a survey of British drug taking habits, official website Mixmag discography at Discogs Geoghegan, Kev. Mixmag Celebrates 25 Years of Clubbing

Mixmag
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August 2009 cover of Mixmag

39.
Blur (band)
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Blur are an English rock band, formed in London in 1988. The group consists of singer/keyboardist Damon Albarn, guitarist/singer Graham Coxon, bassist Alex James and their debut album Leisure incorporated the sounds of Madchester and shoegazing. Following a stylistic change influenced by English guitar pop groups such as the Kinks, in the process, the band helped establish the Britpop genre and achieved mass popularity in the UK, aided by a chart battle with rivals Oasis in 1995 dubbed the Battle of Britpop. In recording their follow-up, Blur, the band underwent another reinvention, the bands third UK number one album, Blur included the Song 2 single, which brought them mainstream success in the US. Their next album,13 saw the band experimenting with electronic and gospel music. In May 2002, Coxon left Blur during the recording of their seventh album Think Tank, containing electronic sounds and more minimal guitar work, the album was marked by Albarns growing interest in hip hop and African music. After a 2003 tour without Coxon, Blur did no work or touring as a band. Blur reunited, with Coxon back in the fold, for a series of concerts in 2009, in the following years they released several singles and retrospective compilations, and toured internationally. In 2012, the received a Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music. Their first major release in years, The Magic Whip. Childhood friends Damon Albarn and Graham Coxon met Alex James when they began studying at Londons Goldsmiths College in 1988, Albarn was in a group named Circus, who were joined by drummer Dave Rowntree that October. Circus requested the services of Coxon after the departure of their guitarist and that December, Circus fired two members and James joined as the groups bassist. This new group named themselves Seymour in December 1988, inspired by J. D. Salingers Seymour, the group performed live for the first time in summer 1989. In November, Food Records A&R representative Andy Ross attended a Seymour performance that convinced him to court the group for his label, the only concern held by Ross and Food was that they disliked the bands name. Food drew up a list of alternatives, from which the decided on Blur. Food Records finally signed the newly christened band in March 1990, from March to July 1990, Blur toured Britain, opening for the Cramps, and testing out new songs. In October 1990, after their tour was over, Blur released the Shes So High single, the band had trouble creating a follow-up single, but they made progress when paired with producer Stephen Street. The resulting single release, Theres No Other Way, became a hit, as a result of the singles success, Blur became pop stars and were accepted into a clique of bands who frequented the Syndrome club in London dubbed The Scene That Celebrates Itself

40.
Morrissey
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Steven Patrick Morrissey, professionally known as Morrissey, is an English singer, songwriter and author. He rose to prominence as the singer of the indie rock band The Smiths. Since then, Morrissey has had a career, making the top ten of the UK Singles Chart on ten occasions. Born in Davyhulme, Lancashire, to a working-class Irish migrant family, as a child he developed a love of literature, kitchen sink realism and popular music. Involved in Manchesters punk rock scene during the late 1970s, he fronted The Nosebleeds, beginning a career in music journalism, he authored a number of books on music and film in the early 1980s. With Johnny Marr he established The Smiths in 1982, soon attracting national recognition for their debut album. Personal differences between Morrissey and Marr resulted in The Smiths separation in 1987, in 1988, Morrissey launched his solo career with the album Viva Hate. This and its follow-up albums – Bona Drag, Kill Uncle, Your Arsenal, in the mid-to-late 1990s, his subsequent albums, Southpaw Grammar and Maladjusted, also charted but were less well received. After a hiatus between 1998 and 2003, Morrissey released a comeback album, You Are the Quarry. Relocating to Italy, ensuing years saw the release of albums Ringleader of the Tormentors, Years of Refusal, in 2013 Morrissey released his autobiography, followed by his first novel in 2015. Highly influential, Morrissey is widely credited as being a figure in the emergence of indie rock. He has been acclaimed as one of the greatest lyricists in British history, in a 2006 poll held by the BBCs Culture Show, Morrissey was voted the second greatest living British icon. Steven Patrick Morrissey was born on 22 May 1959, at Park Hospital, Davyhulme and his parents – Elizabeth and Peter Morrissey – were working-class Irish Catholics. They had emigrated to Manchester from Dublin with his sibling, elder sister Jacqueline. They had given him the forename of Steven after the American actor Steve Cochran and his earliest home was a council house at 17 Harper Street in the Hulme area of inner Manchester. He also became aware of the sentiment in British society against Irish migrants to Britain. In 1970 the family relocated to another house at 384 Kings Road. Following an early education at St. Wilfreds Primary School, Morrissey failed his 11-plus exam, and proceeded to St. Marys Technical Modern School and he excelled at athletics, although he was an unpopular loner at the school

41.
Live at Earls Court
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Live at Earls Court is a live album by Morrissey. Its sleeve notes state that it was recorded live at Earls Court in London on the 18 December 2004 in front of 17,183 people, all tracks written by Morrissey and Alain Whyte except as noted. In the United Kingdom, the reached number 11 in the Top 40. In Europe the single preceded the album, whereas in the United States the roles were reversed

Live at Earls Court
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Live at Earls Court

42.
The Who
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The Who are an English rock band that formed in 1964. Their classic line-up consisted of lead singer Roger Daltrey, guitarist and singer Pete Townshend, bass guitarist John Entwistle, and drummer Keith Moon. They are considered one of the most influential bands of the 20th century, selling over 100 million records worldwide and holding a reputation for their live shows. The Who developed from a group, the Detours, and established themselves as part of the pop art and mod movements, featuring auto-destructive art by destroying guitars. Their first single as the Who, I Cant Explain, reached the UK top ten, followed by a string of singles including My Generation, Substitute and Happy Jack. In 1967, they performed at the Monterey Pop Festival and released the US top ten single I Can See for Miles, the groups fourth album, 1969s rock opera Tommy, included the single Pinball Wizard and was a critical and commercial success. Live appearances at Woodstock and the Isle of Wight Festival, along with the live album Live at Leeds, with their success came increased pressure on lead songwriter and visionary Townshend, and the follow-up to Tommy, Lifehouse, was abandoned. Songs from the project made up 1971s Whos Next, which included the hit Wont Get Fooled Again, the group released the album Quadrophenia in 1973 as a celebration of their mod roots, and oversaw the film adaptation of Tommy in 1975. They continued to tour to large audiences before semi-retiring from live performances at the end of 1976, the release of Who Are You in 1978 was overshadowed by the death of Moon shortly after. Kenney Jones replaced Moon and the group resumed activity, releasing a film adaptation of Quadrophenia, after Townshend became weary of touring, the group split in 1982. The Who occasionally re-formed for live appearances such as Live Aid in 1985, a 25th anniversary tour in 1989 and they resumed regular touring in 1999, with drummer Zak Starkey. After Entwistles death in 2002, plans for a new album were delayed, Townshend and Daltrey continued as the Who, releasing Endless Wire in 2006, and continued to play live regularly. They are cited as an influence by rock, punk rock and mod bands. The founding members of the Who, Roger Daltrey, Pete Townshend and John Entwistle, grew up in Acton, London and went to Acton County Grammar School. Townshend and Entwistle became friends in their year of Acton County. Both were interested in rock, and Townshend particularly admired Cliff Richards début single, Entwistle moved to guitar, but struggled with it due to his large fingers, and moved to bass on hearing the guitar work of Duane Eddy. He was unable to afford a bass and built one at home, after Acton County, Townshend attended Ealing Art College, a move he later described as profoundly influential on the course of the Who. Daltrey, who was in the year above, had moved to Acton from Shepherds Bush and he had trouble fitting in at the school, and discovered gangs and rock and roll

43.
R.E.M.
–
R. E. M. was an American rock band from Athens, Georgia, that was formed in 1980 by drummer Bill Berry, lead guitarist Peter Buck, bassist/backing vocalist Mike Mills, and lead vocalist Michael Stipe. Released its first single—Radio Free Europe—in 1981 on the independent record label Hib-Tone, the single was followed by the Chronic Town EP in 1982, the bands first release on I. R. S. Following years of success, R. E. M. Achieved a mainstream hit in 1987 with the single The One I Love, the group signed to Warner Bros. Records in 1988, and began to espouse political and environmental concerns while playing large arenas worldwide. By the early 1990s, when alternative rock began to experience mainstream success, R. E. M. was viewed by subsequent acts such as Nirvana. The band then released its two most commercially successful albums, Out of Time and Automatic for the People, which veered from the established sound. R. E. M. s 1994 release, Monster, was a return to a more rock-oriented sound, the band began its first tour in six years to support the album, the tour was marred by medical emergencies suffered by three of the band members. Re-signed with Warner Bros. for a reported US$80 million, at the time the most expensive recording contract in history and its 1996 release, New Adventures in Hi-Fi, though critically acclaimed, fared worse commercially than expected. The following year, Bill Berry left the band, while Stipe, Buck, in 2007, the band was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, in their first year of eligibility. Disbanded amicably in September 2011, announcing the split on its website, in January 1980, Michael Stipe met Peter Buck in Wuxtry Records, the Athens record store where Buck worked. The pair discovered that they shared similar tastes in music, particularly in rock and protopunk artists like Patti Smith, Television. Stipe said, It turns out that I was buying all the records that was saving for himself, Stipe and Buck soon met fellow University of Georgia students Mike Mills and Bill Berry, who had played music together since high school and lived together in Georgia. The quartet agreed to collaborate on songs, Stipe later commented that there was never any grand plan behind any of it. Their still-unnamed band spent a few months rehearsing and played its first show on April 5,1980, at a friends birthday party held in a converted Episcopal church in Athens. After considering names like Twisted Kites, Cans of Piss, and Negro Wives, the band members eventually dropped out of school to focus on their developing group. They found a manager in Jefferson Holt, a store clerk who was so impressed by an R. E. M. performance in his hometown of Chapel Hill, North Carolina. R. E. M. s success was almost immediate in Athens and surrounding areas, the band drew progressively larger crowds for shows, over the next year and a half, R. E. M. Toured throughout the Southern United States, touring was arduous because a touring circuit for alternative rock bands did not then exist

R.E.M.
–
R.E.M. in concert in Padova, Italy, in July 2003. From left to right: Mike Mills, Michael Stipe, touring drummer Bill Rieflin, and Peter Buck
R.E.M.
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Record producer Mitch Easter (far left) was important in defining the band's sound, producing all of their material until 1984
R.E.M.
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Michael Stipe (left) and Peter Buck (right) on stage in Ghent, Belgium, during R.E.M.'s 1985 tour.
R.E.M.
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Scott Litt produced a string of R.E.M.'s breakthrough albums in the 1980s and 1990s.

44.
Phish
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Phish is an American rock band that was founded at the University of Vermont in 1983. They resumed touring from December 31,2002 until August 15,2004 and they reunited in March 2009 for a series of three consecutive concerts played in the Hampton Coliseum in Hampton, Virginia, and have since resumed performing regularly. Phishs music blends elements of a variety of genres, including funk, progressive rock, psychedelic rock, folk, country, jazz, blues, bluegrass. Rolling Stone stated that the band helped to. spawn a new wave of bands oriented around group improvisation, Phish was formed at the University of Vermont in 1983 by guitarists Trey Anastasio and Jeff Holdsworth, bassist Mike Gordon, and drummer Jon Fishman. For their first gig, at Harris-Millis Cafeteria at the University of Vermont on December 2,1983, the band was joined by percussionist Marc Daubert in the fall of 1984, a time during which they promoted themselves as playing Grateful Dead songs. Holdsworth left the group after graduating in 1986, solidifying the lineup of Trey, Page, Mike. Following a prank at UVM with his friend and former bandmate Steve Pollak—also known as The Dude of Life—Anastasio decided to leave the college, with the encouragement of McConnell, Anastasio and Fishman relocated in mid-1986 to Goddard College, a small school in the hills of Plainfield, Vermont. Phish distributed at least six different experimental self-titled cassettes during this era, the older version was officially released under the title Phish in August 1998. Pollock and Wright were musical collaborators, experimenting with multi-track cassette records to be broadcast on local radio. Phish adopted a number of Nancys songs into their own set, including Halleys Comet, I Didnt Know, and Dear Mrs. Reagan, the latter song being written by Nancy and Pollock. Jarnow argues that despite an eventual falling out between the members of Phish and Nancy, Nancy and his music was influential to Phishs early style. Pollock continued to collaborate with Phish over the years, designing some of their most iconic concert posters, the bands actions demonstrate an identity with their hometown of Burlington, Vermont. By 1985, the group had encountered Burlington luthier Paul Languedoc, in October 1986, he began working as their sound engineer. Since then, Languedoc has built exclusively for the two, and his designs and traditional wood choices have given Phish a unique instrumental identity, also during the late 1980s, Phish played regularly at Nectars restaurant and bar in Burlington. In 1992 the album A Picture of Nectar, named as a tribute to the owner, as his senior project, Anastasio penned The Man Who Stepped into Yesterday, a nine-song concept album that would become Phishs second studio experiment. Recorded between 1987 and 1988, it was submitted in July of that year, accompanied by a written thesis, elements of the story—known as Gamehendge—grew to include an additional eight songs. The band performed the suite in concert on five different occasions, in 1988,1991,1993, beginning in the spring of 1988, members of the band began practicing in earnest, sometimes locking themselves in a room and jamming for hours on end. One such jam took place at Anastasios apartment, with a second at Paul Languedocs house in August 1989, the product of one of these jam sessions was included in the bands first mass-released recording, a double album called Junta, later that year

45.
The Beatles
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The Beatles were an English rock band, formed in Liverpool in 1960. With members John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, the Beatles built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over a three-year period from 1960, with Stuart Sutcliffe initially serving as bass player. The core of Lennon, McCartney and Harrison went through a succession of drummers, including Pete Best, before asking Starr to join them. They acquired the nickname the Fab Four as Beatlemania grew in Britain the next year, from 1965 onwards, the Beatles produced increasingly innovative recordings, including the albums Rubber Soul, Revolver, Sgt. Peppers Lonely Hearts Club Band, The Beatles and Abbey Road, after their break-up in 1970, they each enjoyed successful musical careers of varying lengths. McCartney and Starr, the members, remain musically active. Lennon was shot and killed in December 1980, and Harrison died of cancer in November 2001. The Beatles are the band in history, with estimated sales of over 600 million records worldwide. They have had more number-one albums on the British charts and sold more singles in the UK than any other act, according to the RIAA, the Beatles are also the best-selling music artists in the United States, with 178 million certified units. In 2008, the group topped Billboard magazines list of the all-time most successful Hot 100 artists, as of 2016 and they have received ten Grammy Awards, an Academy Award for Best Original Song Score and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards. The group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988 and they were also collectively included in Time magazines compilation of the twentieth centurys 100 most influential people. In March 1957, John Lennon, then aged sixteen, formed a group with several friends from Quarry Bank school. They briefly called themselves the Blackjacks, before changing their name to the Quarrymen after discovering that a local group was already using the other name. Fifteen-year-old Paul McCartney joined as a rhythm guitarist shortly after he, in February 1958, McCartney invited his friend George Harrison to watch the band. The fourteen-year-old auditioned for Lennon, impressing him with his playing, after a month of Harrisons persistence, they enlisted him as their lead guitarist. By January 1959, Lennons Quarry Bank friends had left the group, the three guitarists, billing themselves at least three times as Johnny and the Moondogs, were playing rock and roll whenever they could find a drummer. They used the name until May, when they became the Silver Beetles, before undertaking a tour of Scotland as the backing group for pop singer. By early July, they had changed their name to the Silver Beatles, allan Williams, the Beatles unofficial manager, arranged a residency for them in Hamburg, but lacking a full-time drummer they auditioned and hired Pete Best in mid-August 1960

The Beatles
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The "Fab Four" Beatles lineup in 1964 Top: Lennon, McCartney Bottom: Harrison, Starr
The Beatles
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Abbey Road Studios main entrance
The Beatles
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McCartney, Harrison, Swedish pop singer Lill-Babs and Lennon on the set of the Swedish television show Drop-In, 30 October 1963
The Beatles
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The Beatles arrive at John F. Kennedy International Airport, 7 February 1964

46.
The Beatles (album)
–
The Beatles, also known as the White Album, is the ninth studio album by English rock group the Beatles, released on 22 November 1968. A double album, its plain white sleeve has no graphics or text other than the name embossed. The albums songs range in style from British blues and ska to tracks influenced by Chuck Berry, most of the songs on the album were written during March and April 1968 at a Transcendental Meditation course in Rishikesh, India. The group returned to EMI Studios in May to commence recording sessions lasted through to October. During these sessions, arguments broke out among the Beatles, another divisive element was caused by the constant presence of John Lennons new partner, Yoko Ono, whose attendance at the sessions broke with the Beatles policy regarding wives and girlfriends. After a series of problems, including producer George Martin taking a leave of absence and engineer Geoff Emerick quitting. The same tensions continued throughout the year, leading to the eventual break-up of the Beatles in April 1970. On release, The Beatles received favourable reviews from the majority of music critics, other commentators found its satirical songs unimportant and apolitical amid the turbulent political and social climate of 1968. The band and Martin have since debated whether the group should have released an album instead. Nonetheless, The Beatles reached number one on the charts in both the United Kingdom and the United States and has since been viewed by critics as one of the greatest albums of all time. By 1968, the Beatles had achieved commercial and critical success, peppers Lonely Hearts Club Band, was number one in the UK the previous year and charted for 27 weeks, selling 250,000 copies in the first week after release. Time magazine had written in 1967 that Sgt, the band received a negative critical response for the film Magical Mystery Tour, but fan response was nevertheless positive. Most of the songs for The Beatles were written during a Transcendental Meditation course with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in Rishikesh, India, between February and April 1968. The retreat involved long periods of meditation, conceived by the band as a respite from all worldly endeavours – a chance, in John Lennons words. Both Lennon and Paul McCartney quickly re-engaged themselves in songwriting, often meeting clandestinely in the afternoons in each others rooms to review their new work, regardless of what I was supposed to be doing, Lennon would later recall, I did write some of my best songs there. Author Ian MacDonald said Sgt Pepper was shaped by LSD, but the Beatles took no drugs with them to India aside from marijuana, and their clear minds helped the group with their songwriting. The stay in Rishikesh proved especially fruitful for George Harrison as a songwriter, the Beatles left Rishikesh before the end of the course. Ringo Starr was the first to leave, as he could not stomach the food, McCartney departed in mid-March, while Harrison and Lennon were more interested in Indian religion and remained until April

The Beatles (album)
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The original vinyl copies released in 1968 had the band's name embossed on a white background. These pressings were also numbered. Design by Richard Hamilton.
The Beatles (album)
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The songs that appear on The Beatles were demoed at George Harrison 's home, Kinfauns, in May 1968.
The Beatles (album)
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The album was largely recorded at Abbey Road Studios.
The Beatles (album)
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The new relationship between John Lennon and Yoko Ono caused tension in the studio with the other Beatles.

47.
Vinyl record
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The groove usually starts near the periphery and ends near the center of the disc. The phonograph disc record was the medium used for music reproduction until late in the 20th century. It had co-existed with the cylinder from the late 1880s. Records retained the largest market share even when new formats such as compact cassette were mass-marketed, by the late 1980s, digital media, in the form of the compact disc, had gained a larger market share, and the vinyl record left the mainstream in 1991. The phonograph record has made a resurgence in the early 21st century –9.2 million records were sold in the U. S. in 2014. Likewise, in the UK sales have increased five-fold from 2009 to 2014, as of 2017,48 record pressing facilities remain worldwide,18 in the United States and 30 in other countries. The increased popularity of vinyl has led to the investment in new, only two producers of lacquers remains, Apollo Masters in California, USA, and MDC in Japan. Vinyl records may be scratched or warped if stored incorrectly but if they are not exposed to heat or broken. The large cover are valued by collectors and artists for the space given for visual expression, in the 2000s, these tracings were first scanned by audio engineers and digitally converted into audible sound. Phonautograms of singing and speech made by Scott in 1860 were played back as sound for the first time in 2008, along with a tuning fork tone and unintelligible snippets recorded as early as 1857, these are the earliest known recordings of sound. In 1877, Thomas Edison invented the phonograph, unlike the phonautograph, it was capable of both recording and reproducing sound. Despite the similarity of name, there is no evidence that Edisons phonograph was based on Scotts phonautograph. Edison first tried recording sound on a paper tape, with the idea of creating a telephone repeater analogous to the telegraph repeater he had been working on. The tinfoil was wrapped around a metal cylinder and a sound-vibrated stylus indented the tinfoil while the cylinder was rotated. The recording could be played back immediately, Edison also invented variations of the phonograph that used tape and disc formats. A decade later, Edison developed a greatly improved phonograph that used a wax cylinder instead of a foil sheet. This proved to be both a better-sounding and far more useful and durable device, the wax phonograph cylinder created the recorded sound market at the end of the 1880s and dominated it through the early years of the 20th century. Berliners earliest discs, first marketed in 1889, but only in Europe, were 12.5 cm in diameter, both the records and the machine were adequate only for use as a toy or curiosity, due to the limited sound quality

Vinyl record
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Edison wax cylinder phonograph c. 1899
Vinyl record
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Emil Berliner with disc record gramophone
Vinyl record
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Hungarian Pathé record, 90 to 100 rpm
Vinyl record
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A multinational product: a duet sung in Italian, recorded in the U.S. in 1906 by the Victor Talking Machine Company, manufactured c. 1908 in Hanover, Germany for The Gramophone Company, Victor's affiliate in England

48.
Sleater-Kinney
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Sleater-Kinney is an American rock band that formed in Olympia, Washington, in 1994. The bands lineup features Corin Tucker, Carrie Brownstein, and Janet Weiss, Sleater-Kinney is a key part of the riot grrrl and indie rock scenes in the Pacific Northwest. The band is known for its feminist and left-leaning politics. The band released 7 studio albums between 1994 and 2005, Sleater-Kinney, Call the Doctor, Dig Me Out, The Hot Rock, All Hands on the Bad One, One Beat and they went on hiatus in 2006 and devoted themselves to solo projects. They reunited in 2014 and released No Cities to Love on January 20,2015, critics Greil Marcus and Robert Christgau have each praised Sleater-Kinney as one of the essential rock groups of the early 2000s. Marcus named Sleater-Kinney Americas best rock band in 2001, tom Breihan of Stereogum called them the greatest rock band of the past two decades in 2015. Sleater-Kinney was formed in early 1994 in Olympia, Washington, by Corin Tucker, the groups name is derived from Sleater Kinney Road, in Lacey, Washington, where signs for Interstate 5 exit number 108 announce its existence. One of the early practice spaces was near Sleater Kinney Road. Tucker was formerly in the riot grrrl band Heavens to Betsy. They often played at together and formed Sleater-Kinney as a side-project from their respective bands. When Heavens to Betsy and Excuse 17 disbanded, Sleater-Kinney became their primary focus, Janet Weiss of Quasi is the bands longest lasting and current drummer, though Sleater-Kinney has had other drummers, including Lora Macfarlane, Misty Farrell, and Toni Gogin. Upon Tuckers graduation from The Evergreen State College, she and then-girlfriend Brownstein took a trip to Australia in early 1994 and their last day there, they stayed up all night recording what would become their self-titled debut album. It was released the following spring and they followed this with Call the Doctor and Dig Me Out, and became critical darlings as a result. From Dig Me Out onwards, the drummer was Janet Weiss. Their next few albums pushed the band towards mainstream listeners, culminating in 2002s One Beat, the Woods was released in 2005, and was a departure from the sound of their previous albums. In its place, The Woods featured a denser, heavily distorted sound that drew on classic rock as its inspiration, in 2006 they helped to curate an edition of the British All Tomorrows Parties festival. On June 27,2006, the band announced an indefinite hiatus, sleater-Kinneys last major public show at this time was at the 2006 Lollapalooza music festival. The bands last appearance prior to the hiatus was at the Crystal Ballroom in Portland, No explanation for the hiatus was given