Léonard Gaultier, or, as he sometimes signs himself, Galter, a French engraver, was born at Mainz about 1561, and died in Paris in 1641.[1] His style of work resembles that of Wierix and Crispyn van de Passe, his prints are executed entirely with the graver, with great precision, but in a stiff, formal manner. He must have been very laborious, as the Abbé de Marolles possessed upwards of eight hundred prints by him, many of which were after his own designs, they consist of portraits, and various subjects, of which the following are the most worthy of notice. They are sometimes signed with his name, and sometimes with a cipher GL.

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Bryan, Michael (1886). "Gaultier, Leonard". In Graves, Robert Edmund. Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers (A–K). I (3rd ed.). London: George Bell & Sons. p. 565.

1.
Engraving
–
Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard, usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it. Wood engraving is a form of printing and is not covered in this article. Engraving was an important method of producing images on paper in artistic printmaking, in mapmaking. Other terms often used for printed engravings are copper engraving, copper-plate engraving or line engraving, hand engraving is a term sometimes used for engraving objects other than printing plates, to inscribe or decorate jewellery, firearms, trophies, knives and other fine metal goods. Traditional engravings in printmaking are also engraved, using just the same techniques to make the lines in the plate. Each graver is different and has its own use, engravers use a hardened steel tool called a burin, or graver, to cut the design into the surface, most traditionally a copper plate. Modern professional engravers can engrave with a resolution of up to 40 lines per mm in high grade work creating game scenes, dies used in mass production of molded parts are sometimes hand engraved to add special touches or certain information such as part numbers. In addition to engraving, there are engraving machines that require less human finesse and are not directly controlled by hand. They are usually used for lettering, using a pantographic system, there are versions for the insides of rings and also the outsides of larger pieces. Such machines are used for inscriptions on rings, lockets. Gravers come in a variety of shapes and sizes that yield different line types, the burin produces a unique and recognizable quality of line that is characterized by its steady, deliberate appearance and clean edges. The angle tint tool has a curved tip that is commonly used in printmaking. Florentine liners are flat-bottomed tools with multiple lines incised into them, ring gravers are made with particular shapes that are used by jewelry engravers in order to cut inscriptions inside rings. Flat gravers are used for work on letters, as well as wriggle cuts on most musical instrument engraving work, remove background. Knife gravers are for line engraving and very deep cuts, round gravers, and flat gravers with a radius, are commonly used on silver to create bright cuts, as well as other hard-to-cut metals such as nickel and steel. Square or V-point gravers are typically square or elongated diamond-shaped and used for cutting straight lines, V-point can be anywhere from 60 to 130 degrees, depending on purpose and effect. These gravers have very small cutting points, other tools such as mezzotint rockers, roulets and burnishers are used for texturing effects. Burnishing tools can also be used for stone setting techniques

2.
Mainz
–
Mainz is the capital and largest city of the state of Rhineland-Palatinate in Germany. It was the capital of the Electorate of Mainz at the time of the Holy Roman Empire. The city is famous as the home of the invention of the printing press. Until the twentieth century, Mainz was usually referred to in English by its French name, Mainz is located on the 50th latitude, on the west bank of the river Rhine, opposite the confluence of the Main with the Rhine. The population in the early 2012 was 200,957, an additional 18,619 people maintain a primary residence elsewhere but have a home in Mainz. The city is part of the Rhein Metro area comprising 5.8 million people, Mainz can easily be reached from Frankfurt International Airport in 25 minutes by commuter railway. Mainzs history and economy are closely tied to its proximity to the Rhine river historically handling much of the regions waterborne cargo, todays huge container port hub allowing trimodal transport is located on the North Side of the town. The river also provides another positive effect, moderating Mainzs climate, after the last ice age, sand dunes were deposited in the Rhine valley at what was to become the western edge of the city. The Mainz Sand Dunes area is now a reserve with a unique landscape. When the Mainz legion camp was founded in 13/12 BC, the buildings near the Rhine River, historical sources and archaeological findings both prove the importance of the military and civilian Mogontiacum as a port city on the Rhine. The Roman stronghold or castrum Mogontiacum, the precursor to Mainz, was founded by the Roman general Drusus perhaps as early as 13/12 BC. As related by Suetonius the existence of Mogontiacum is well established by four years later, although the city is situated opposite the mouth of the Main river, the name of Mainz is not from Main, the similarity being perhaps due to diachronic analogy. Main is from Latin Menus, the name the Romans used for the river, linguistic analysis of the many forms that the name Mainz has taken on make it clear that it is a simplification of Mogontiacum. The name appears to be Celtic and ultimately it is, however, it had also become Roman and was selected by them with a special significance. Mogontiacum was an important military town throughout Roman times, probably due to its position at the confluence of the Main. The town of Mogontiacum grew up between the fort and the river, the castrum was the base of Legio XIIII Gemina and XVI Gallica, XXII Primigenia, IIII Macedonica, I Adiutrix, XXI Rapax, and XIIII Gemina, among others. Mainz was also a base of a Roman river fleet, the Classis Germanica, remains of Roman troop ships and a patrol boat from the late 4th century were discovered in 1982/86 and may now be viewed in the Museum für Antike Schifffahrt. A temple dedicated to Isis Panthea and Magna Mater was discovered in 2000 and is open to the public

3.
Wierix family
–
They were active in Antwerp and Brussels. The first generation of engravers consisted of the three sons of the painter and cabinet maker Anton Wierix I, Johannes Wierix Wierix, Hieronymus Wierix. Anton IIs son, Anton III Wierix, completes the engraver members of the family, all were highly productive, with 2,333 prints catalogued between them, the largest number by Johannes. The Wierix family members were known for their attention to detail, Johannes and Hieronymus appear to have begun training together, and although Hieronymus was the younger by four years he was able to keep pace with his brother. Even for that period they were precocious, with very fine copies of other prints dated from the age of 12 in Hieronymuss case and their copies of engravings by Albrecht Dürer from this period are still valued by collectors. Who their master was is unknown – it was unlikely to be their father, Johannes and Hieronymus first worked producing book illustrations for the large publishing concern of Christopher Plantin in Antwerp. Hieronymus was first paid by Plantin in 1570, and they joined the Antwerp artists Guild of Saint Luke in 1572/3. Johannes probably trained Anton II, and Hieronymus, Anton III, the brothers often worked together, but Johannes moved to Delft from 1577–79, probably as a result of the Sack of Antwerp in 1576, also known as the Spanish Fury. The brothers were recorded as Lutherans in 1585, but as they later did a large amount of work for the Jesuits, however the productivity and quality of their work gives a rather different picture. The father of Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten was another pupil of Hieronymus, Johannes pupils included Hendrik Hondius I. After Anton II died relatively young in 1604, Hieronymus took over his plates, Anton IIIs death at an even younger age brought an end to the family business, although at least one of the brothers many daughters married an engraver. Johannes did more work for Plantin than Hieronymus, amounting to over 120 plates by 1576, most of their work was based on compositions by another artist, whether a painting, drawing or print. In ambitious original compositions, the brothers could not match the work of their contemporary Hendrik Goltzius and other Dutch engravers and he had asked the literary Jesuit Jerome Nadal to prepare the text, and 154 drawings had been produced by various artists, mostly Italian. Plantin had agreed to publish the work, but with the disruption of the Spanish Fury of 1576, had not done so by his death, after attempting to find engravers elsewhere, the Jesuits, in the person of Fr Ferdinand Ximenez, took the brothers on. The prints were published in a separate volume from the text in 1593. They were intended as models of faithful depictions of the incidents of the Gospels, the apparent setting of most interior scenes in a wealthy Antwerp merchants house does not contribute to the desired effect in modern eyes. Further work for the Jesuits followed, Hieronymus in particular came to specialize in small religious scenes. Some of Johannes drawings were made to be engraved, but others were sold as finished objects, the British Museum has 44, including 19 illustrating the Book of Genesis, and a large composition of Diana surprised by Actaeon

4.
Van de Passe family
–
Most of their engravings were portraits, book title-pages, and the like, with relatively few grander narrative subjects. As with the dynasties, their style is very similar. Many of the family could produce their own designs, and have left drawings, by 1585 he was a member of the artists Guild of Saint Luke, and doing work for Christopher Plantin. Much of this was work engraving the paintings of Maerten de Vos, the disruptions of the Dutch Revolt scattered these artists across Northern Europe, de Passe was an Anabaptist, which made his position especially difficult. He first moved to Aachen, until Protestants were also expelled from there and he started his own engraving and publishing business in Cologne in 1589, but again was forced to leave in 1611. He set up in business in Utrecht, by about 1612, where he created engravings for the English and other markets, and his works include a famous rendition of the English Gunpowder Plotters, although it is not known what basis he had for the likenesses. The familys prints are not rare and are represented in most print rooms. Four of Crispijn Is children were notable engravers for the family business. His eldest son, Simon de Passe worked in England from about 1616 before moving to Copenhagen as royal engraver and designer of medals in 1624 and he is best remembered for his early London print of Pocahontas. Willem de Passe, the least productive of the siblings, took over from his brother in England, probably working in France. He joined the Huguenot church in Threadneedle Street in 1624, Magdalena van de Passe was, like her siblings, born in Cologne and died in Utrecht. She specialized in landscapes until her marriage to the minor artist Frederick van Bevervoorden in 1634, after which she essentially stopped engraving, the business presumably involved shipping drawings, engraved printing plates, and printed copies around Europe between the various cities involved. After the three deaths in 1637-38 only Crispijn II in the Netherlands and Simon in Denmark remained, Crispijn III was a more minor figure who died in 1678. Hortus Floridus, mostly by Crispijn II, sixty-five portraits of English notables, by various members of the family Hind Arthur M. A History of Engraving and Etching, Houghton Mifflin Co,1923, reprinted Dover Publications,1963 ISBN 0-486-20954-7 Getty Foundation, Union List of Artists Names online Mayor, Hyatt A. Prints and People, Metropolitan Museum of Art/Princeton,1971, ISBN 0-691-00326-2 British Library online database has 1838 items by or after the family Spamula feature Another biography

6.
Henry IV of France
–
Henry IV, also known by the epithet Good King Henry, was King of Navarre from 1572 to 1610 and King of France from 1589 to 1610. He was the first French monarch of the House of Bourbon, baptised as a Catholic but raised in the Protestant faith by his mother Jeanne dAlbret, Queen of Navarre, he inherited the throne of Navarre in 1572 on the death of his mother. As a Huguenot, Henry was involved in the French Wars of Religion, barely escaping assassination in the St. Bartholomews Day massacre, and later led Protestant forces against the royal army. Henry, as Head of the House of Bourbon, was a direct descendant of Louis IX of France. Upon the death of his brother-in-law and distant cousin Henry III of France in 1589 and he initially kept the Protestant faith and had to fight against the Catholic League, which denied that he could wear Frances crown as a Protestant. To obtain mastery over his kingdom, after four years of stalemate, as a pragmatic politician, he displayed an unusual religious tolerance for the era. Notably, he promulgated the Edict of Nantes, which guaranteed religious liberties to Protestants and he was assassinated in 1610 by François Ravaillac, a fanatical Catholic, and was succeeded by his son Louis XIII. Considered a usurper by some Catholics and a traitor by some Protestants, an unpopular king immediately after his accession, Henrys popularity greatly improved after his death, in light of repeated victories over his enemies and his conversion to Catholicism. The Good King Henry was remembered for his geniality and his concern about the welfare of his subjects. He was celebrated in the popular song Vive le roi Henri, Henry was born in Pau, the capital of the joint Kingdom of Navarre with the sovereign principality of Béarn. His parents were Queen Joan III of Navarre and her consort, Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme, although baptised as a Roman Catholic, Henry was raised as a Protestant by his mother, who had declared Calvinism the religion of Navarre. As a teenager, Henry joined the Huguenot forces in the French Wars of Religion, on 9 June 1572, upon his mothers death, he became King of Navarre. At Queen Joans death, it was arranged for Henry to marry Margaret of Valois, daughter of Henry II, the wedding took place in Paris on 18 August 1572 on the parvis of Notre Dame Cathedral. On 24 August, the Saint Bartholomews Day Massacre began in Paris, several thousand Protestants who had come to Paris for Henrys wedding were killed, as well as thousands more throughout the country in the days that followed. Henry narrowly escaped death thanks to the help of his wife and he was made to live at the court of France, but he escaped in early 1576. On 5 February of that year, he formally abjured Catholicism at Tours and he named his 16-year-old sister, Catherine de Bourbon, regent of Béarn. Catherine held the regency for nearly thirty years, Henry became heir presumptive to the French throne in 1584 upon the death of Francis, Duke of Anjou, brother and heir to the Catholic Henry III, who had succeeded Charles IX in 1574. Because Henry of Navarre was the senior agnatic descendant of King Louis IX, King Henry III had no choice

7.
Henri, Duke of Montpensier
–
Henri de Bourbon, Duke of Montpensier, was Dauphin of Auvergne, Duke of Montpensier, Sovereign Prince of the Dombes and Lord of Châtellerault. Henri was born at Mézières, the son of François de Bourbon, Duke of Montpensier, on 15 May 1597, Henri married Henriette Catherine, daughter of Henri de Joyeuse and Catherine de Nogaret. They had one child, Marie de Bourbon, Duchess of Montpensier, married Gaston, familysearch. org Accessed July 22,2007 Kingdom of France portal

8.
Jacques Amyot
–
Jacques Amyot, French Renaissance writer and translator, was born of poor parents, at Melun. Amyot found his way to the University of Paris, where he supported himself by serving some of the richer students and he was nineteen when he became M. A. at Paris, and later he graduated doctor of civil law at Bourges. Through Jacques Colure, abbot of St. Ambrose in Bourges, by the secretary he was recommended to Margaret of France, Duchess of Berry, and through her influence was made professor of Greek and Latin at Bourges. Here he translated the Æthiopica of Heliodorus, for which he was rewarded by Francis I with the abbey of Bellozane and he was thus enabled to go to Italy to study the Vatican text of Plutarch, on the translation of whose Lives he had been some time engaged. On the way he turned aside on a mission to the Council of Trent and he was a devout and conscientious churchman, and had the courage to stand by his principles. It is said that he advised the chaplain of Henry III to refuse absolution to the king after the murder of the Guise princes and he was, nevertheless, suspected of approving the crime. His house was plundered, and he was compelled to leave Auxerre for some time and he died bequeathing, it is said,1200 crowns to the hospital at Orléans for the twelve deniers he received there when poor and naked on his way to Paris. He translated seven books of Diodorus Siculus, the Daphnis et Chloë of Longus and his vigorous and idiomatic version of Plutarch, Vies des hommes illustres, was translated into English by Sir Thomas North, and supplied Shakespeare with materials for his Roman plays. But I am grateful to him especially for his wisdom in choosing so valuable a work and it was indeed to Plutarch that Amyot devoted his attention. The version of Diodorus he did not publish, although the manuscript had been discovered by him, Amyot took great pains to find and interpret correctly the best authorities, but the interest of his books today lies in the style. His translation reads like an original work, the personal method of Plutarch appealed to a generation addicted to memoirs and incapable of any general theory of history. Amyots book, therefore, obtained an immense popularity, and exercised influence over successive generations of French writers. References Sources Edition of the works of Amyot from the firm of Didot Auguste de Belignieres and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Amyot, Jacques. Works by or about Jacques Amyot at Internet Archive

9.
Philippe de Mornay
–
Philippe de Mornay, seigneur du Plessis Marly, usually known as Du-Plessis-Mornay or Mornay Du Plessis, was a French Protestant writer and member of the anti-monarchist Monarchomaques. He was born in Buhy, now situated in Val-dOise and his mother had leanings toward Protestantism, but his father tried to counteract her influence by sending him to the Collège de Lisieux at Paris. On his fathers death in 1559, however, the formally adopted the reformed faith. Mornay studied law and jurisprudence at the University of Heidelberg in 1565 and the following year Hebrew and German at the University of Padua. During the French Wars of Religion in 1567, he joined the army of Louis I de Bourbon, prince de Condé and he escaped the St. Bartholomews Day Massacre by the aid of a Catholic friend, taking refuge in England. Returning to France towards the end of 1573, he participated during the two years with various success in the campaigns of the future Henry IV of France, then only King of Navarre. He was taken prisoner by the Duke of Guise on 10 October 1575 was but ransomed for a sum, which was paid by Charlotte Arbaleste. Mornay was gradually recognized as Henrys right-hand man, representing him in England from 1577 to 1578 and again in 1580, and in the Low Countries 1581-1582. He was present at the siege of Dieppe, fought at Ivry, both he and his wife befriended English Protestants like Francis Walsingham, Mary Sidney, and her brother Philip Sydney. His last years were saddened by the loss of his son in 1605 and that of his devoted wife in 1606. He was chosen a deputy in 1618 to represent the French Protestants at the Synod of Dort and he was prohibited from attending by Louis XIII but contributed materially to its deliberations by written communications. Jacques Davy Du Perron, bishop of Évreux, accused Mornay of misquoting at least 500, decision was awarded to Du Perron on nine points presented, when the disputation was interrupted by the illness of Mornay. The Duke of Sully reported that Mornay had defended himself so poorly that he made some laugh, made others angry, Mornay was also instrumental in the drafting of the Edict of Nantes which established political rights and some religious freedom for the Huguenots. He is also consider the most likely—candidate for being author of the Vindiciae contra tyrannos. E. Stahelin, Der Übertritt K. Heinrichs IV. von Frankreich zur katholischen Kirche, Weiss, Article Du Plessis-Mornay by T. Schott in Haucks Realencyklopädie Article by Grube in Kirchenlexikon. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Works by Philippe de Mornay at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Philippe de Mornay at Internet Archive

10.
Charles de Gontaut, duc de Biron
–
Charles de Gontaut, duc de Biron was a French soldier whose military achievements were accompanied by plotting to dismember France and set himself up as ruler of an independent Burgundy. He was the son of Armand de Gontaut, baron de Biron and his efforts won him the name “Thunderbolt of France”. Henry IV made him admiral of France in 1592, and marshal in 1594, as governor of Burgundy in 1595, he took the towns of Beaune, Autun, Auxonne and Dijon, and distinguished himself at the battle of Fontaine-Française. In 1596 he was sent to fight the Spaniards in Flanders, Picardy, Artois, after the peace of Vervins, he discharged a mission at Brussels in 1598. Notwithstanding these intrigues, he directed the expedition sent against the duke of Savoy and he fulfilled diplomatic missions for Henry in Switzerland and England, the latter mission being to announce the marriage of Henry to Maria de Medici. While engaged in duties, he was accused and convicted in his absence of high treason by the French Parlement. He was induced to come to Paris, where he was apprehended and he was the inspiration behind the character Berowne in William Shakespeares Loves Labours Lost, which was written during his lifetime. After his death, his fate was dramatised by George Chapman in The Conspiracy and Tragedy of Charles. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Biron, Armand de Gontaut, Baron de, thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. Biron, Charles de Gontault, Duke de

11.
Raphael
–
Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino, known as Raphael, was an Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance. His work is admired for its clarity of form, ease of composition, together with Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, he forms the traditional trinity of great masters of that period. Raphael was enormously productive, running a large workshop and, despite his death at 37. Many of his works are found in the Vatican Palace, where the frescoed Raphael Rooms were the central, the best known work is The School of Athens in the Vatican Stanza della Segnatura. After his early years in Rome much of his work was executed by his workshop from his drawings and he was extremely influential in his lifetime, though outside Rome his work was mostly known from his collaborative printmaking. Raphael was born in the small but artistically significant central Italian city of Urbino in the Marche region and his poem to Federico shows him as keen to show awareness of the most advanced North Italian painters, and Early Netherlandish artists as well. In the very court of Urbino he was probably more integrated into the central circle of the ruling family than most court painters. Under them, the court continued as a centre for literary culture, growing up in the circle of this small court gave Raphael the excellent manners and social skills stressed by Vasari. Castiglione moved to Urbino in 1504, when Raphael was no longer based there but frequently visited, Raphael mixed easily in the highest circles throughout his life, one of the factors that tended to give a misleading impression of effortlessness to his career. He did not receive a humanistic education however, it is unclear how easily he read Latin. His mother Màgia died in 1491 when Raphael was eight, followed on August 1,1494 by his father, Raphael was thus orphaned at eleven, his formal guardian became his only paternal uncle Bartolomeo, a priest, who subsequently engaged in litigation with his stepmother. He probably continued to live with his stepmother when not staying as an apprentice with a master and he had already shown talent, according to Vasari, who says that Raphael had been a great help to his father. A self-portrait drawing from his teenage years shows his precocity and his fathers workshop continued and, probably together with his stepmother, Raphael evidently played a part in managing it from a very early age. In Urbino, he came into contact with the works of Paolo Uccello, previously the court painter, and Luca Signorelli, according to Vasari, his father placed him in the workshop of the Umbrian master Pietro Perugino as an apprentice despite the tears of his mother. The evidence of an apprenticeship comes only from Vasari and another source, an alternative theory is that he received at least some training from Timoteo Viti, who acted as court painter in Urbino from 1495. An excess of resin in the varnish often causes cracking of areas of paint in the works of both masters, the Perugino workshop was active in both Perugia and Florence, perhaps maintaining two permanent branches. Raphael is described as a master, that is to say fully trained and his first documented work was the Baronci altarpiece for the church of Saint Nicholas of Tolentino in Città di Castello, a town halfway between Perugia and Urbino. Evangelista da Pian di Meleto, who had worked for his father, was named in the commission

12.
Jean Cousin the Elder
–
Jean Cousin was a French painter, sculptor, etcher, engraver, and geometrician. He is known as Jean Cousin the Elder to distinguish him from his son Jean Cousin the Younger, Cousin was born at Soucy, near Sens, and began his career in his native town with the study of glass-painting under Jean Hympe and Grassot. At the same time, he studied mathematics and published a book on the subject. He also wrote on geometry in his student days, in 1530 Cousin finished the windows for Sens Cathedral, the subject chosen being the Legend of St. Eutropius. He also painted the windows of many of the noble châteaux in, in Paris Cousin continued his career as a glass-painter, and created his best-known work, the windows of the Sainte-Chapelle in Vincennes. He subsequently devoted himself to painting in oil, and has claimed as the first Frenchman to use that new medium. Pictures attributed to him, all of much merit, are found in several of the large European collections, but, excepting The Last Judgment, none is known to be authentic. For a long time this work lay neglected in the sacristy of the church of the Minims, Vincennes, until it was rescued by a priest and it is said to be the first French picture to be engraved. He was also an illustrator of books, making designs for woodcuts. The Bible, published in 1596 by Le Clerc, and the Metamorphoses and Epistles of Ovid contain his most noted work as an illustrator, Cousin etched and engraved many plates after the manner of Parmigianino, to whom the invention of etching has been ascribed. He also created sculptures, including, it is thought, the mausoleum of Admiral Philippe de Chabot, in addition to his early writings on mathematics, he published, in 1560, a treatise on perspective, and, in 1571, a work on portrait-painting. During his life Cousin enjoyed the favour of and worked for four kings of France, Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX, paul, among his woodcuts, the Entrée de Henry II et Catherine de Médicis à Rouen. He died at Sens, but the date of his death is uncertain and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed. Cites, FIRMIN-DIDOT, Etude sur Jean Cousin, PATTISON, The Worlds Painters since Leonardo The Last Judgement, with citation in French

13.
Martino Rota
–
Martino Rota, also Martin Rota and Martin Rota Kolunić was an artist, now mainly known for his printmaking, from Dalmatia. Martino Rota was born in about the year 1520 in Sebenico, little is known of Rotas early life or where he trained as an engraver, but most of his documented career was spent working in Venice, Rome, and Vienna. In about 1540, Rota appears in Rome, working as an engraver in the style of Marcantonio. He also produced several maps and views of Venice and other cities, perhaps with Titians recommendation, he moved to the Imperial court in Vienna, where he arrived by 1568, and by 1573 he was established as the court portrait engraver. He served the Habsburgs in Vienna during the reigns of Maximilian II and Rudolph II, Rudolf moved the Habsburg capital from Vienna to Prague in 1583, where Rota died the same year. Rota has been described as one of the most significant graphic artists of the half of the 16th century. Chiefly an engraver of portraits, which he painted, his drafting of the human figure is very correct. He engraved plates entirely with the graving tool, Rota showed Durerian naturalism and a Venetian feeling for material. Like many printmakers of the period, he combined etching and engraving on the same plates and he added to the fame of Sebenico and of his compatriot Antun Vrančić, called Antonius Verantius. The art collector George Cumberland wrote in 1827 that Rotas portrait of the Emperor Ferdinand I, pictured, other portraits he engraved include the Emperors Maximilian II and Rudolf II and King Henry IV of France. His masterpiece is considered to be an engraving after Michelangelos The Last Judgment, Rota was active until his death in 1583, leaving a small number of plates incomplete, which were completed by his pupil Anselmus de Boodt. Rota usually signed his plates with his name, sometimes adding the names Sebenico and Venice, but he used a monogram consisting of a capital M. The monogram is illustrated in Stefano Ticozzis monumental Dizionario of 1830–1833

14.
Michelangelo
–
Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet of the High Renaissance who exerted an unparalleled influence on the development of Western art. Considered to be the greatest living artist during his lifetime, he has since described as one of the greatest artists of all time. A number of Michelangelos works of painting, sculpture, and architecture rank among the most famous in existence and he sculpted two of his best-known works, the Pietà and David, before the age of thirty. As an architect, Michelangelo pioneered the Mannerist style at the Laurentian Library, at the age of 74, he succeeded Antonio da Sangallo the Younger as the architect of St. Peters Basilica. Michelangelo transformed the plan so that the end was finished to his design, as was the dome, with some modification. Michelangelo was unique as the first Western artist whose biography was published while he was alive, in his lifetime he was often called Il Divino. One of the qualities most admired by his contemporaries was his terribilità, the attempts by subsequent artists to imitate Michelangelos impassioned and highly personal style resulted in Mannerism, the next major movement in Western art after the High Renaissance. Michelangelo was born on 6 March 1475 in Caprese near Arezzo, at the time of Michelangelos birth, his father was the Judicial administrator of the small town of Caprese and local administrator of Chiusi. Michelangelos mother was Francesca di Neri del Miniato di Siena, the Buonarrotis claimed to descend from the Countess Mathilde of Canossa, this claim remains unproven, but Michelangelo himself believed it. Several months after Michelangelos birth, the returned to Florence. There Michelangelo gained his love for marble, as Giorgio Vasari quotes him, If there is good in me. Along with the milk of my nurse I received the knack of handling chisel and hammer, as a young boy, Michelangelo was sent to Florence to study grammar under the Humanist Francesco da Urbino. The young artist, however, showed no interest in his schooling, preferring to copy paintings from churches, the city of Florence was at that time the greatest centre of the arts and learning in Italy. Art was sponsored by the Signoria, by the merchant guilds and by patrons such as the Medici. The Renaissance, a renewal of Classical scholarship and the arts, had its first flowering in Florence, the sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti had laboured for fifty years to create the bronze doors of the Baptistry, which Michelangelo was to describe as The Gates of Paradise. The exterior niches of the Church of Orsanmichele contained a gallery of works by the most acclaimed sculptors of Florence – Donatello, Ghiberti, Andrea del Verrocchio, and Nanni di Banco. The interiors of the churches were covered with frescos, begun by Giotto. During Michelangelos childhood, a team of painters had been called from Florence to the Vatican, among them was Domenico Ghirlandaio, a master in fresco painting, perspective, figure drawing, and portraiture who had the largest workshop in Florence at that period

15.
Public domain
–
The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival

16.
Michael Bryan (art historian)
–
Michael Bryan was an English art historian, art dealer and connoisseur. He was involved in the purchase and resale of the great French Orleans Collection of art, selling it on to a British syndicate, Bryan was born in Newcastle upon Tyne, Northumberland, and educated at the Royal Grammar School under Dr. Moyce. In June 1784, he married Juliana Talbot, the sister of Charles Talbot, the 15th Earl of Shrewsbury, Bryan moved back to London in 1790 establishing himself as an authority and dealer in Fine Art. In 1793 or 1794, he went to the continent in search of fine pictures. Among other places he visited Holland, and remained there until an order arrived from the French government to stop all English citizens then resident there and he was, amongst many others, detained at Rotterdam. It was here that he met Jean-Joseph de Laborde who, in 1798, Bryan, in effect, became a middleman for the purchase, and contacted the Duke of Bridgewater, who authorised him to open negotiations. The collection was displayed in Bryans private art gallery in Pall Mall, London, in 1801 Bryan obtained, through the Duke of Bridgewater, the kings permission to visit Paris in order to purchase art from the cabinet of Monsieur Robit to bring back to England. Among other fine pictures, he returned with two by the baroque Spanish artist Murillo - The infant Christ as the Good Shepherd, in 1804 Bryan retired from the art world, and settled at his brothers home in Yorkshire, where he remained until 1811. In 1812 Bryan again visited London, and commenced writing his magnum opus - the Biographical and Critical Dictionary of Painters and Engravers in 2 volumes, the first part appeared in May 1813, and concluded in 1816. He owned a gallery in Londons Savile Row, which became a gathering place for artists. In 1818 he became involved with some speculative art purchases which proved a failure, on 14 February 1821, Bryan suffered a severe paralytic stroke, dying at Portman Square, London on 21 March of the same year. Bryans dictionary of painters and engravers ( London, Cambridge, New York and Bombay Edition of 1903 -1905, Volume 11903 Volume 2 Volume 3 Volume 4 Volume 51905 Bryan, Bryans dictionary of painters and engravers revised and enlarged by George C

17.
Virtual International Authority File
–
The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records

18.
Netherlands Institute for Art History
–
The Netherlands Institute for Art History or RKD is located in The Hague and is home to the largest art history center in the world. The center specializes in documentation, archives, and books on Western art from the late Middle Ages until modern times, all of this is open to the public, and much of it has been digitized and is available on their website. The main goal of the bureau is to collect, categorize, via the available databases, the visitor can gain insight into archival evidence on the lives of many artists of past centuries. The library owns approximately 450,000 titles, of which ca.150,000 are auction catalogs, there are ca.3,000 magazines, of which 600 are currently running subscriptions. Though most of the text is in Dutch, the record format includes a link to library entries and images of known works. The RKD also manages the Dutch version of the Art and Architecture Thesaurus, the original version is an initiative of the Getty Research Institute in Los Angeles, California. Their bequest formed the basis for both the art collection and the library, which is now housed in the Koninklijke Bibliotheek. Though not all of the holdings have been digitised, much of its metadata is accessible online. The website itself is available in both a Dutch and an English user interface, in the artist database RKDartists, each artist is assigned a record number. To reference an artist page directly, use the code listed at the bottom of the record, usually of the form, https, for example, the artist record number for Salvador Dalí is 19752, so his RKD artist page can be referenced. In the images database RKDimages, each artwork is assigned a record number, to reference an artwork page directly, use the code listed at the bottom of the record, usually of the form, https, //rkd. nl/en/explore/images/ followed by the artworks record number. For example, the record number for The Night Watch is 3063. The Art and Architecture Thesaurus also assigns a record for each term, rather, they are used in the databases and the databases can be searched for terms. For example, the painting called The Night Watch is a militia painting, the thesaurus is a set of general terms, but the RKD also contains a database for an alternate form of describing artworks, that today is mostly filled with biblical references. To see all images that depict Miriams dance, the associated iconclass code 71E1232 can be used as a search term. Official website Direct link to the databases The Dutch version of the Art and Architecture Thesaurus