[This selection is from one of the most important and
detailed early accounts about the Mongols and their customs, written by the
Franciscan monk William of Rubruck, who traveled to Mongolia as emissary of
French King Louis IX in 1253-1255. The text here is the translation by W. W.
Rockhill, The Journey of William of Rubruck to the Eastern Parts of the
World, 1253-1255, as Narrated by Himself (London: Hakluyt Society, 1900),
pp. 58-70. I have altered the order of the original, placing first his
description of food and second his description of some of the ceremonials and
amusements.--DW]

Of their food and victuals you must know that they eat all
their dead animals without distinction, and with such flocks and herds it cannot
be but that many animals die. Nevertheless, in summer, so long as lasts their
cosmos [=comos=koumiss], that is to say mare's milk, they
care not for any other food. So then if it happens that an ox or a horse dies,
they dry its flesh by cutting it into narrow strips and hanging it in the sun
and the wind, where at once and without salt it becomes dry without any evil
smell. With the intestines of horses they make sausages better than pork ones,
and they eat them fresh. The rest of the flesh they keep for winter. With the
hides of oxen they make big jars, which they dry in admirable fashion in the
smoke. With the hind part of the hide of horses they make most beautiful shoes.
With the flesh of a single sheep they give to eat to 50 men or 100; for they cut
it up very fine in a platter with salt and water, for they make no other sauce;
and then with the point of a knife or a fork which they make for the purpose,
like that which we use to eat coddled pears or apples, they give to each of the
bystanders a mouthful or two according to the number of the guests. Prior to
this, before the flesh of the sheep is served, the master takes what pleases
him; and furthermore if he gives to anyone a special piece, it is the custom
that he who receives it shall eat it himself, and he may not give it to another;
but if he cannot eat it all he carries it off with him, or gives it to his
servant if he be present, who keeps it; otherwise he puts it away in his
captargac, which is a square bag which they carry to put such things in,
in which they store away bones when they have not time to gnaw them well, so
that they can gnaw them later and that nothing of the food be lost.

This cosmos, which is mare's milk, is made in this wise.
They stretch a long rope on the ground fixed to two stakes stuck in the ground,
and to this rope they tie toward the third hour the colts of the mares they want
to milk. Then the mothers stand near their foal, and allow themselves to be
quietly milked; and if one be too wild, then a man takes the colt and brings it
to her, allowing it to suck a little; then he takes it away and the milker takes
its place. When they have got together a great quantity of milk, which is as
sweet as cow's as long as it is fresh, they pour it into a big skin or bottle,
and they set to churning it with a stick prepared for that purpose, and which is
as big as a man's head at its lower extremity and hollowed out; and when they
have beaten it sharply it begins to boil up like new wine and to sour or
ferment, and they continue to churn it until they have extracted the butter.
Then they taste it, and when it is mildly pungent, they drink it. It is pungent
on the tongue like rapé wine when drunk, and when a man has finished drinking,
it leaves a taste of milk of almonds on the tongue, and it makes the inner man
most joyful and also intoxicates weak heads, and greatly provokes urine. They
also make caracosmos, that is "black cosmos,"for the use
of the great lords. It is for the following reason that mare's milk curdles not.
It is a fact that (the milk) of no animal will curdle in the stomach of whose
fetus is not found curdled milk. In the stomach of mares' colts it is not found,
so the milk of mares curdles not. They churn then the milk until all the thicker
parts go straight to the bottom, like the dregs of wine, and the pure part
remains on top, and it is like whey or white must. The dregs are very white, and
they are given to the slaves, and they provokes much to sleep. This clear
(liquor) the lords drink, and it is assuredly a most agreeable drink and most
efficacious. Baatu has 30 men around his camp at a day's distance, each of whom
sends him every day such milk of a hundred mares, that is to say every day the
milk of three thousand mares, exclusive of the other white milk which they carry
to others. As in Syria the peasants give a third of their produce, so it is
these (Tartars) must bring to the ordu [camp] of their lords the milk of
every third day. As to cow's milk they first extract the butter, then they boil
it down perfectly dry, after which they put it away in sheep paunches which they
keep for that purpose; and they put no salt in the butter, for on account of the
great boiling down it spoils not. And they keep this for the winter. What
remains of the milk after the butter they let sour as much as can be, and they
boil it, and it curdles in boiling, and the curd they dry in the sun, and it
becomes as hard as iron slag, and they put it away in bags for the winter. In
winter time, when milk fails them, they put this sour curd, which they call
gruit [qurut] in a skin and pour water on it, and churn it vigorously
till it dissolves in the water, which is made sour by it, and this water they
drink instead of milk.They are most careful not to drink pure
water.

The great lords have villages in the south, from which millet
and flour are brought to them for the winter. The poor procure (these things) by
trading sheep and pelts. The slaves fill their bellies with dirty water, and
with this they are content. They catch also rats, of which many kinds abound
here. Rats with long tails they eat not, but give them to their birds.They eat
mice and all kinds of rats which have short tails. There are also many marmots,
which are called sogur, and which congregate in one hole in winter, 20 or
30 together, and sleep for six months; these they catch in great numbers. There
are also conies,with a long tail like a cat's, and on the end of the
tail they have black and white hairs. They have also many other kinds of small
animals good to eat, which they know very well how to distinguish. I saw no deer
there. I saw few hares, many gazelles. Wild asses I saw in great numbers, and
these are like mules. I saw also another kind of animal which is called
arcali [=the Ovis Poli or Marco Polo sheep], which has quite the
body of a sheep, and horns bent like a ram's, but of such size that I could
hardly lift the two horns with one hand, and they make of these horns big cups.
They have hawks and peregrine falconsin great numbers, which they
all carry on their right hand. And they always put a little thong around the
hawk's neck, which hangs down to the middle of its breast, by which, when they
cast it at its prey, they pull down with the left hand the head and breast of
the hawk, so that it be not struck by the wind and carried upward. So it is that
they procure a large part of their food by the chase....

------------

...And over the head of the master is always an image of felt,
like a doll or statuette, which they call the brother of the master; another
similar one is above the head of the mistress, which they call the brother of
the mistress, and they are attached to the wall; and higher up between the two
of them is a little lank one (macilenta), who is, as it were the guardian
of the whole dwelling. The mistress places in her house on her right side, in a
conspicuous place at the foot of her couch, a goat-skin full of wool or other
stuff, and beside it a very little statuette looking in the direction of the
attendants and women. Beside the entry on the women's side is yet another image,
with a cow's tit for the women, who milk the cows; for it is part of the duty of
the women to milk the cows. On the other side of the entry, toward the men, is
another statue with a mare's tit for the men who milk the mares.

And when they have come together to drink, they first sprinkle
with liquor this image which is over the master's head, then the other images in
order. Then an attendant goes out of the dwelling with a cup and liquor, and
sprinkles three times to the south, each time bending the knee, and that to do
reverence to the fire; then to the east, and that to do reverence to the air;
then to the west to do reverence to the water; to the north they sprinkle for
the dead. When the master takes the cup in hand and is about to drink, he first
pours a portion on the ground. If he were to drink seated on a horse, he first
before he drinks pours a little on the neck or the mane of the horse. Then when
the attendant has spnnkled toward the four quarters of the world he goes back
into the house, where two attendants are ready with two cups and platters to
carry drink to the master and the wife seated near him upon the couch. And when
he hath several wives, she with whom he hath slept that night sits beside him in
the day, and it becometh all the others to come to her dwelling that day to
drink, and court is held there that day, and the gifts which are brought that
day are placed in the treasury of that lady. A bench with a skin of milk, or
some other drink, and with cups, stands in the entry.

In winter they make a capital drink of rice, of millet, and of
honey; it is clear as wine: and wine is carried to them from remote parts. In
summer they care only for cosmos. There is always cosmos near the
house, before the entry door, and beside it stands a guitar-player with his
guitar. Lutes and vielles such as we have I did not see there, but many other
instruments which are unknown among us. And when the master begins to drink,
then one of the attendants cries with a loud voice, "Ha!" and the guitarist
strikes his guitar, and when they have a great feast they all clap their hands,
and also dance about to the sound of the guitar, the men before the master, the
women before the mistress. And when the master has drunken, then the attendant
cries as before, and the guitarist stops. Then they drink all around, and
sometimes they do drink right shamefully and gluttonly. And when they want to
challenge anyone to drink, they take hold of him by the ears, and pull so as to
distend his throat, and they clap and dance before him. Likewise, when they want
to make a great feasting and jollity with someone, one takes a full cup, and two
others are on his right and left, and thus these three come singing and dancing
towards him who is to take the cup, and they sing and dance before him; and when
he holds out his hand to take the cup, they quickly draw it back, and then again
they come back as before, and so they elude him three or four times by drawing
away the cup, till he hath become well excited and is in good appetite, and then
they give him the cup, and while he drinks they sing and clap their hands and
strike with their feet.