1.
1822 in Scotland
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Events from the year 1822 in Scotland. July – the Royal Association of Contributors to the National Monument of Scotland is incorporated,31 July – last public whipping in Edinburgh. 15–29 August – visit of King George IV to Scotland, largely arranged by Sir Walter Scott, cartland Bridge is completed to the design of Thomas Telford, crossing 123 feet above the Mouse Water near Lanark. The Highland Show is first staged, the façade of Register House in Princes Street, Edinburgh, is completed to the design of Robert Reid. The Assembly Rooms, Aberdeen, designed by Archibald Simpson, are built,9 February – Francis Cadell, explorer in Australasia 13 February – James B. Beck, U. S. October – English actor Edmund Kean acquires an estate on the Isle of Bute, henry Raeburn is knighted and appointed royal limner, he is present in Edinburgh for the royal visit. Sir Walter Scotts novels The Pirate and The Fortunes of Nigel are published anonymously, lorenzo Bartolinis marble sculpture The Campbell Sisters dancing a Waltz is completed for the subjects uncle, George Campbell, 6th Duke of Argyll

2.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses

3.
History of Scotland
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The History of Scotland is known to have begun by the end of the last glacial period, roughly 10,000 years ago. Prehistoric Scotland entered the Neolithic Era about 4000 BC, the Bronze Age about 2000 BC, and the Iron Age around 700 BC. Scotlands recorded history began with the arrival of the Roman Empire in the 1st century, North of this was Caledonia, whose people were known in Latin as Picti, the painted ones. Constant risings forced Romes legions back, Hadrians Wall attempted to seal off the Roman south, the latter was swiftly abandoned and the former overrun, most spectacularly during the Great Conspiracy of the 360s. As Rome finally withdrew from Britain, Gaelic raiders called the Scoti began colonizing Western Scotland, according to 9th- and 10th-century sources, the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata was founded on the west coast of Scotland in the 6th century. In the following century, the Irish missionary Columba founded a monastery on Iona and introduced the previously pagan Scoti, towards the end of the 8th century, the Viking invasions began. Successive defeats by the Norse forced the Picts and Gaels to cease their hostility to each other and to unite in the 9th century. The Kingdom of Scotland was united under the descendants of Kenneth MacAlpin and his descendants, known to modern historians as the House of Alpin, fought among each other during frequent disputed successions. England, under Edward I, would take advantage of the succession in Scotland to launch a series of conquests into Scotland. The resulting Wars of Scottish Independence were fought in the late 13th and early 14th centuries as Scotland passed back, Scotlands ultimate victory in the Wars of Independence under David II confirmed Scotland as a fully independent and sovereign kingdom. When David II died without issue, his nephew Robert II established the House of Stewart, ruling until 1714, Queen Anne was the last Stuart monarch. Since 1714, the succession of the British monarchs of the houses of Hanover and Saxe-Coburg and Gotha has been due to their descent from James VI, during the Scottish Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution, Scotland became one of the commercial, intellectual and industrial powerhouses of Europe. Later, its decline following the Second World War was particularly acute. In recent decades Scotland has enjoyed something of a cultural and economic renaissance, fuelled in part by a resurgent financial services sector and the proceeds of North Sea oil and gas. Since the 1950s, nationalism has become a political topic, with serious debates on Scottish independence. People lived in Scotland for at least 8,500 years before Britains recorded history, glaciers then scoured their way across most of Britain, and only after the ice retreated did Scotland again become habitable, around 9600 BC. Mesolithic hunter-gatherer encampments formed the first known settlements, and archaeologists have dated an encampment near Biggar to around 8500 BC, numerous other sites found around Scotland build up a picture of highly mobile boat-using people making tools from bone, stone and antlers. The oldest house for which there is evidence in Britain is the structure of wooden posts found at South Queensferry near the Firth of Forth, dating from the Mesolithic period

4.
1827 in Ireland
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Events from the year 1827 in Ireland. 19–25 April - Public theological debates in Dublin between Revs, R. T. P. Pope and Thomas Maguire. 6 September–October - Ordnance Survey staff survey a Lough Foyle baseline for their survey of Ireland,24 September - Catherine McAuley opens an institution for destitute women and orphans and a school for the poor in Dublin. The British Army establishes barracks at Beggars Bush, clonmel and Multyfarnham Friaries are re-established. Amhlaoibh Ó Súilleabháin begins his diary, later published as Cín Lae Amhlaoibh, sydney, Lady Morgan, publishes her romantic novel with political overtones, The OBriens and the OFlahertys, in London. January - Bernard Diamond, soldier, recipient of the Victoria Cross for gallantry in 1857 at Bolandshahr,5 February - Peter Lalor, leader of the Eureka Stockade rebellion in Australia. 27 April - Mary Ward, scientist,5 May - Thomas Francis Hendricken, first Bishop of Providence, Rhode Island. 29 May - Timothy Daniel Sullivan, journalist, politician and poet,3 September - John Drew, actor in the United States. 10 December - Eugene OKeefe, businessman and philanthropist in Canada, John Lucas, soldier, recipient of the Victoria Cross for gallantry in 1861 in New Zealand. 14 November - Thomas Addis Emmet, lawyer and politician, member of United Irishmen

5.
1827
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As of the start of 1827, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. January 5 – The first regatta in Australia is held, taking place on Tasmania on the River Derwent at Hobart. January 15 – Furman University, founded in 1826, begins its first classes with 10 students, as the Furman Academy and Theological Institution, located at Edgefield, South Carolina. By the end of 2016, it would have 2,800 students at its campus in Greenville. February 20 – Battle of Ituzaingo, A force of the Brazilian Imperial Army meets Argentine–Uruguayan troops in combat, february 28 – The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad is incorporated, becoming the first railroad in United States offering commercial transportation of both people and freight. March 7 – Brazilian marines sail up the Rio Negro and attack the naval base of Carmen de Patagones, Argentina. March 7 – Shrigley Abduction, Ellen Turner, an heiress in Cheshire, England, is abducted by Edward Gibbon Wakefield. March 16 – Freedoms Journal, the first African-American owned and published newspaper in the United States, is founded in New York City by John Russwurm, march 26 – German composer Ludwig van Beethoven dies in Vienna after a prolonged illness. April 7–April 8 – Battle of Monte Santiago, A squadron of the Brazilian Imperial Navy defeats Argentine vessels in a naval engagement. April 10 – UK, George Canning succeeds Lord Liverpool as British Prime Minister, april 24 – Greek War of Independence – Battle of Phaleron, Ottoman troops defeat the Greek rebels. April 26–May 24 – The Royal Netherlands Navys British-built paddle steamer Curaçao makes the first Transatlantic Crossing by steam, april 29 – The Fly Whisk Incident in Ottoman Algeria, Hussein Dey slaps the French consul Pierre Deval on the face, eventually leading to Invasion of Algiers in 1830. May 21 – The Maryland Democratic Party is founded by supporters of Andrew Jackson in Baltimore, may 25 – Romanian inventor Petrache Poenaru receives a French patent for the invention of the first fountain pen with a replaceable ink cartridge. In 1829, the two begin a partnership and Daguerre will perfect Niépces photographic process to reproduce images more quickly. June 7 – Greek defenders in Athens surrender to Egyptian forces under the command of General Rashid Pasha, july 6 – Greek War of Independence, The Treaty of London between France, Britain, and Russia, demands that the Turks agree to an armistice in Greece. July 14 – The Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu is founded in the Kingdom of Hawaii, august 31 – UK, Frederick John Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich, becomes Prime Minister of the UK, following the death of George Canning. September 4 – Finland, The Great Fire of Turku destroys 3/4 of the city, with many human casualties. September 20 – Petition for a grant for 215 acres on the north bank of Rio Grande just across from Paso del Norte is approved, first residence is built on what is present day El Paso. October 1 – Russo-Persian War, 1826-1828, The Russians under Ivan Paskevich storm Yerevan, october 20 – Greek War of Independence – Battle of Navarino, British, French, and Russian naval forces destroy the Turko-Egyptian fleet in Greece

6.
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
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The monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom, its dependencies and its overseas territories. The monarchs title is King or Queen, the current monarch and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, ascended the throne on the death of her father, King George VI, on 6 February 1952. The monarch and his or her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic, as the monarchy is constitutional, the monarch is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister. The monarch is, by tradition, commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces, from 1603, when the Scottish monarch King James VI inherited the English throne as James I, both the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign. From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England, the Act of Settlement 1701 excluded Roman Catholics, or those who married Catholics, from succession to the English throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain, and in 1801, the British monarch became nominal head of the vast British Empire, which covered a quarter of the worlds surface at its greatest extent in 1921. After the Second World War, the vast majority of British colonies and territories became independent, George VI and his successor, Elizabeth II, adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its independent member states. The United Kingdom and fifteen other Commonwealth monarchies that share the person as their monarch are called Commonwealth realms. In the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom, the Monarch is the Head of State, oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen and her lawful successors. God Save the Queen is the British national anthem, and the monarch appears on postage stamps, coins, the Monarch takes little direct part in Government. Executive power is exercised by Her Majestys Government, which comprises Ministers, primarily the Prime Minister and the Cabinet and they have the direction of the Armed Forces of the Crown, the Civil Service and other Crown Servants such as the Diplomatic and Secret Services. Judicial power is vested in the Judiciary, who by constitution, the Church of England, of which the Monarch is the head, has its own legislative, judicial and executive structures. Powers independent of government are legally granted to public bodies by statute or Statutory Instrument such as an Order in Council. The Sovereigns role as a monarch is largely limited to non-partisan functions. This role has been recognised since the 19th century, the constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the dignified part rather than the efficient part of government. Whenever necessary, the Monarch is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister, the Prime Minister takes office by attending the Monarch in private audience, and after kissing hands that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument. Since 1945, there have only been two hung parliaments, the first followed the February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition. Although Wilsons Labour Party did not have a majority, they were the largest party, the second followed the May 2010 general election, in which the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats agreed to form the first coalition government since World War II

7.
George IV of the United Kingdom
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George IV was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of Hanover following the death of his father, George III, on 29 January 1820, until his own death ten years later. From 1811 until his accession, he served as Prince Regent during his fathers mental illness. George IV led an extravagant lifestyle that contributed to the fashions of the Regency era and he was a patron of new forms of leisure, style and taste. He commissioned John Nash to build the Royal Pavilion in Brighton and remodel Buckingham Palace and he even forbade Caroline to attend his coronation and asked the government to introduce the unpopular Pains and Penalties Bill in a desperate, unsuccessful attempt to divorce her. For most of Georges regency and reign, Lord Liverpool controlled the government as Prime Minister and his ministers found his behaviour selfish, unreliable and irresponsible. At all times he was much under the influence of favourites, taxpayers were angry at his wasteful spending at a time when Britons were fighting in the Napoleonic Wars. He did not provide leadership in time of crisis, nor act as a role model for his people. Liverpools government presided over Britains ultimate victory, negotiated the peace settlement, after Liverpools retirement, George was forced to accept Catholic emancipation despite opposing it. His only child, Princess Charlotte, died before him in 1817 and so he was succeeded by his younger brother, George was born at St Jamess Palace, London, on 12 August 1762, the first child of King George III of the United Kingdom and Queen Charlotte. As the eldest son of a British sovereign, he automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay at birth, he was created Prince of Wales, on 18 September of the same year, he was baptised by Thomas Secker, Archbishop of Canterbury. His godparents were the Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, the Duke of Cumberland, George was a talented student, and quickly learned to speak French, German and Italian, in addition to his native English. He was a witty conversationalist, drunk or sober, and showed good, the Prince of Wales turned 21 in 1783, and obtained a grant of £60,000 from Parliament and an annual income of £50,000 from his father. It was far too little for his needs – the stables alone cost £31,000 a year and he then established his residence in Carlton House, where he lived a profligate life. Animosity developed between the prince and his father, who desired more frugal behaviour on the part of the heir apparent, the King, a political conservative, was also alienated by the princes adherence to Charles James Fox and other radically inclined politicians. Soon after he reached the age of 21, the prince became infatuated with Maria Fitzherbert and she was a commoner, six years his elder, twice widowed, and a Roman Catholic. Despite her complete unsuitability, the prince was determined to marry her, nevertheless, the couple went through a marriage ceremony on 15 December 1785 at her house in Park Street, Mayfair. Legally the union was void, as the Kings consent was not granted, however, Fitzherbert believed that she was the princes canonical and true wife, holding the law of the Church to be superior to the law of the State. For political reasons, the union remained secret and Fitzherbert promised not to reveal it, the prince was plunged into debt by his exorbitant lifestyle

8.
Lord Advocate
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He or she is the chief public prosecutor for Scotland and all prosecutions on indictment are conducted by the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service, nominally in the Lord Advocates name. The officeholder is one of the Great Officers of State of Scotland, the current Lord Advocate is The Rt Hon. James Wolffe, QC. The office of Advocate to the monarch is an ancient one, the first recognised Lord Advocate was Sir John Ross of Montgrenan, recorded in 1483 as serving King James III. Her Majestys Government is now advised on Scots law by the Advocate General for Scotland, the Lord Advocate is not head of the Faculty of Advocates, that position is held by the Dean of the Faculty of Advocates. Until devolution in 1999, all Lord Advocates were, by convention, members of the United Kingdom government, since devolution, the Lord Advocate has been an automatically ex officio member of the Scottish Government. From 1999 until 2007, the Lord Advocate attended the weekly Scottish Cabinet meetings, however, after the 2007 election, the new First Minister Alex Salmond decided that Lord Advocate would no longer attend the Scottish Cabinet, stating he wished to de-politicise the post. Until devolution, all Lord Advocates were, by convention, members of either the House of Commons or the House of Lords to allow them to speak for the Government and those who were not already members of either house received a life peerage on appointment. Appointments as Senators of the College of Justice were formerly made on the nomination of the Lord Advocate, every Lord Advocate between 1842 and 1967 was later appointed to the bench, either on demitting office or at a later date. Many Lord Advocates in fact nominated themselves for appointment as Lord President of the Court of Session or as Lord Justice Clerk, the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service is headed by the Lord Advocate and the Solicitor General for Scotland, and is the public prosecution service in Scotland. It also carries out functions which are equivalent to the coroner in common law jurisdictions. Incorporated within the Crown Office is the Legal Secretariat to the Lord Advocate, the Crown Agent is the principal legal advisor to the Lord Advocate on prosecution matters. He or she acts as Chief Executive for the Department. At trials in the High Court in Edinburgh, they attend as instructing solicitor and they are assisted by other senior legal, managerial and administrative staff. Whilst the Lord Advocate and Solicitor General continue as public prosecutors the principle of separation of powers seems compromised, the potential for a conflict of interest always exists. Resolution of these circumstances would entail an amendment of the contained within the Scotland Act 1998. The judges of Scotlands highest court came to share this view and they noted various ways in which the Lord Advocates roles had caused problems for the judicial system, including the ability to challenge. Virtually any act of a prosecutor has led to a plethora of disputed issues, with delays to the holding of trials and to the hearing. While not specifically favouring any of the three, they noted that the proposal was radical enough to generate considerable controversy

9.
Sir William Rae, 3rd Baronet
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Sir William Rae, 3rd Baronet, was a Scottish politician and lawyer, a son of Sir David Rae, Lord Eskgrove. He served as Lord Advocate from 1819 to 1830 and from 1834 to 1835 and he was made a Privy Councillor on 19 July 1830. He is buried with his father and mother on the south-west corner of St. Michaels church in Inveresk, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Sir William Rae

10.
Solicitor General for Scotland
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Her Majestys Solicitor General for Scotland is one of the Law Officers of the Crown, and the deputy of the Lord Advocate, whose duty is to advise the Crown and the Scottish Government on Scots Law. They are also responsible for the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service which together constitute the Criminal Prosecution Service in Scotland, until 1999, when the Scottish Parliament and Scottish Executive were created, the Lord Advocate and the Solicitor General for Scotland advised Her Majestys Government. Since their transfer to the Scottish Government, the British Government has been advised on Scots Law by the Advocate General for Scotland, until 1764, the office was at times held jointly. Solicitor General on the Scottish Government website

11.
Lord President of the Court of Session
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The Lord President of the Court of Session is the most senior judge in Scotland, the head of the judiciary, and the presiding judge of the College of Justice and the Court of Session. The Lord President is also the Lord Justice General of Scotland and the head of the High Court of Justiciary, the Lord President has authority over any court established under Scots law, except for the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The office of Lord Justice General is derived from the justiciars who were appointed from at least the twelfth century, from around 1567 onwards it was held heritably by the Earl of Argyll until the heritability was resigned to the Crown in 1607. The current Lord President of the Court of Session is Lord Carloway, in Scotland the Official Oath is taken before the Lord President of the Court of Session. The Lord President is paid according to Salary Group 1.1 of the Judicial Salaries Scale, argadus, Captain of Argyll, in the reign of Ethodius Comes Dunetus, in the reign of King William the Lion. 1372, Sir William Douglas, 1st Earl of Douglas, Justiciary South of the Forth, Court of Session List of Senators of the College of Justice List of Leading Scottish Legal Cases

12.
Charles Hope, Lord Granton
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Rt Hon Lord Charles Hope FRSE was a Scottish politician and judge. After studying law at Edinburgh University he was admitted an advocate on 11 December 1784, in 1788 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. His proposers were Allan Maconochie, Lord Meadowbank, James Gregory, though not conspicuous as a lawyer he was an accomplished public speaker, and in this capacity made himself useful at the Tory political meetings. On 5 June 1792 he became sheriff of Orkney, and in June 1801 was appointed lord advocate in the Addington administration in the room of Robert Dundas of Arniston. Shortly afterwards he was presented with the freedom of the city of Edinburgh, together with a piece of plate, for his assistance to the magistrates in obtaining a poors bill for the city. On 12 November 1811, he succeeded Robert Blair, Lord Avontoun as lord president of the court of session, being succeeded as lord justice clerk by David Boyle, Lord Boyle. In 1820, he presided at the commission for the trial of high treason at Glasgow. On 29 July 1823, Hope was appointed, together with his eldest son John, on the commission of inquiry into the forms of process and the course of appeals in Scotland. Upon the death of James Graham, 3rd Duke of Montrose, in December 1836, Hope became lord justice general, by virtue of 11 Geo. 18, by which it was enacted that after the termination of the present existing interest that office should devolve upon, Hope retired from the bench in the autumn of 1841, and was succeeded as lord president by David Boyle. He died at his home,12 Moray Place, in Edinburghs west end, on 30 October 1851, in his eighty-ninth year, and was buried in the mausoleum at Hopetoun House on 4 November. Hope was a man of imposing presence, with a magnificent voice, which, according to Lord Cockburn, was surpassed by that of the great Mrs. Siddons alone, and a wonderful gift of declamation. Though a violent political partisan, and greatly wanting in tact and judgment, his integrity, candour, kindness and his charges to juries were singularly persuasive and impressive. When the volunteer movement began, owing to the French war and he was afterwards appointed lieutenant-colonel of the corps, and performed the duties of that office with enthusiasm for several years, until the regiment was disbanded for the second time in 1814. Hopes famous regimental orders of 18 October 1803, containing most curious and his youngest daughter Ann Wilhelmina was married to Hercules Robertson, Lord Benholme. His wife died at Edinburgh on 22 January 1834, aged 62, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Barker, George Fisher Russell. London, Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 312–313

13.
Lord Justice General
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The Lord President of the Court of Session is the most senior judge in Scotland, the head of the judiciary, and the presiding judge of the College of Justice and the Court of Session. The Lord President is also the Lord Justice General of Scotland and the head of the High Court of Justiciary, the Lord President has authority over any court established under Scots law, except for the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The office of Lord Justice General is derived from the justiciars who were appointed from at least the twelfth century, from around 1567 onwards it was held heritably by the Earl of Argyll until the heritability was resigned to the Crown in 1607. The current Lord President of the Court of Session is Lord Carloway, in Scotland the Official Oath is taken before the Lord President of the Court of Session. The Lord President is paid according to Salary Group 1.1 of the Judicial Salaries Scale, argadus, Captain of Argyll, in the reign of Ethodius Comes Dunetus, in the reign of King William the Lion. 1372, Sir William Douglas, 1st Earl of Douglas, Justiciary South of the Forth, Court of Session List of Senators of the College of Justice List of Leading Scottish Legal Cases

14.
David Boyle, Lord Boyle
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David Boyle, Lord Boyle FRSE was a Scottish judge. Boyle was born near Irvine, the son of the Hon Reverend Patrick Boyle of Shewalton, son of John Boyle and his mother was Elizabeth Dunlop, daughter of Prof Alexander Dunlop. He was educated in Law, first at St Andrews University and he became an advocate in 1793. He was Member of Parliament for Ayrshire from 1807 to 1811, in 1811, he was appointed a Senator of the College of Justice, with the judicial title Lord Boyle. He was Lord Justice Clerk from 1811 to 1841 and he became a Privy Counsellor in 1820 and Lord Justice General from 1841 to 1852. From 1815 to 1817 he served as Rector of Glasgow University, in 1833 his address was listed as 28 Charlotte Square a highly prestigious address then and still, at the west end of Edinburghs New Town. Boyle married firstly, in 1804, Elizabeth Montgomery, daughter of Alexander Montgomery and they had several children, including Patrick Boyle, father of David Boyle, 7th Earl of Glasgow, and Alexander Boyle, a vice-admiral in the Royal Navy. Boyle married secondly, in 1827, Catherine Campbell Smythe, daughter of David Smythe, there were children from this marriage as well, including George David Boyle, who became Dean of Salisbury. Boyle died on 30 January 1853, aged 80 and his second wife died in December 1880. His daughter, Helen, married Charles Dalrymple Fergusson, Baronet of Kilkerran, David Boyle inherited the family estate of Shewalton near Irvine, and was buried at Dundonald, South Ayrshire. Highland Society Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Grant, Arthur Henry, london, Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 109–110. Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by David Boyle thepeerage. com Rt

15.
Dunbar
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Dunbar is a town in East Lothian on the southeast coast of Scotland, approximately 28 miles east of Edinburgh and 28 miles from the English border north of Berwick-upon-Tweed. Dunbar is a royal burgh and gave its name to an ecclesiastical. Until the 1960s the population of the town was more than 3,500. The town is thriving with the most recent population published for the town at 6,940, there are very well regarded primary and secondary schools in town. The town is served by Dunbar railway station with links to Edinburgh. Dunbar is home to the Dunbar Lifeboat Station, the second oldest RNLI station in Scotland, Dunbar is the birthplace of the explorer, naturalist and influential conservationist John Muir. The house in which Muir was born is located on the High Street, there is also a commemorative statue beside the town clock, and John Muir Country Park is located to the northwest of the town. The eastern section of the John Muir Way coastal path starts from the harbour, each year on the last full weekend in September, Dunbar holds a weekend-long traditional music festival sponsored by various local companies. In its present form, the name Dunbar is derived from its Gaelic equivalent and that itself is probably a Gaelicisation of the Cumbric form din-bar, with the same meaning. This form seems to be attested as Dynbaer the seventh-century Vita Sancti Wilfredi, to the north of the present High Street an area of open ground called Castle Park preserves almost exactly the hidden perimeter of an iron age promontory fort. The influential Northumbrian monk and scholar St. Cuthbert, born around 630, was probably from around Dunbar. While still a boy, and employed as a shepherd, one night he had a vision of the soul of Aidan being carried to heaven by angels and thereupon went to the monastery of Old Melrose and it was then a kings vill and prison to Bishop Wilfrid. As a royal holding of the kings of Northumbria, the economy centred on the collecting of food renders and the administration of the northern portion of that kingdom. It was the base of a royal official, a reeve. Danish and Norse attacks on southern Northumbria caused its power to falter, Dunbar was burnt by Kenneth MacAlpin in the 9th century. Scottish control was consolidated in the century and when Lothian was ceded to Malcolm II after the battle of Carham in 1018. Malcolm needed to fill a vacuum on his south-eastern flank. The grant included Dunbar and, it can be deduced, a swath of East Lothian

16.
Propeller
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A propeller is a type of fan that transmits power by converting rotational motion into thrust. A pressure difference is produced between the forward and rear surfaces of the blade, and a fluid is accelerated behind the blade. Their disadvantages are higher mechanical complexity and higher cost, the principle employed in using a screw propeller is used in sculling. It is part of the skill of propelling a Venetian gondola but was used in a less refined way in parts of Europe. For example, propelling a canoe with a paddle using a pitch stroke or side slipping a canoe with a scull involves a similar technique. In China, sculling, called lu, was used by the 3rd century AD. In sculling, a blade is moved through an arc. The innovation introduced with the propeller was the extension of that arc through more than 360° by attaching the blade to a rotating shaft. Propellers can have a blade, but in practice there are nearly always more than one so as to balance the forces involved. The origin of the screw propeller starts with Archimedes, who used a screw to lift water for irrigation and bailing boats and it was probably an application of spiral movement in space to a hollow segmented water-wheel used for irrigation by Egyptians for centuries. Leonardo da Vinci adopted the principle to drive his theoretical helicopter, in 1784, J. P. Paucton proposed a gyrocopter-like aircraft using similar screws for both lift and propulsion. At about the time, James Watt proposed using screws to propel boats. This was not his own invention, though, Toogood and Hays had patented it a century earlier, by 1827, Czech-Austrian inventor Josef Ressel had invented a screw propeller which had multiple blades fastened around a conical base. He had tested his propeller in February 1826 on a ship that was manually driven. He was successful in using his bronze screw propeller on an adapted steamboat and his ship Civetta with 48 gross register tons, reached a speed of about six knots. This was the first ship successfully driven by an Archimedes screw-type propeller, after a new steam engine had an accident his experiments were banned by the Austro-Hungarian police as dangerous. Josef Ressel was at the time a forestry inspector for the Austrian Empire, but before this he received an Austro-Hungarian patent for his propeller. This new method of propulsion was an improvement over the paddlewheel as it was not so affected by either ship motions or changes in draft as the burned coal

17.
George IV Bridge
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George IV Bridge is an elevated street in Edinburgh, Scotland, and is home to a number of the citys important public buildings. Measuring 300 metres in length, the bridge was constructed between 1829 and 1832 as part of the Improvement Act of 1827, named after King George IV, it was designed by architect Thomas Hamilton to connect the South Side district of Edinburgh to the New Town. Two of Edinburgh Old Towns traditional streets, Old Bank Close, at the north end of the street, where it joins the Royal Mile, sits Lothian Chambers on the east side. This building was used by the Scottish Parliament before being cleared to make way for a new development including the Hotel Missoni. Further south on the street lie the National Library of Scotland and the Edinburgh Central Library, the former Martyrs Free Church has been converted to a pub. On Bristo Place is located the former Edinburgh Congregational Church which later become the Forest Café

18.
Burke and Hare murders
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The Burke and Hare murders were a series of 16 murders committed over a period of about ten months in 1828 in Edinburgh, Scotland. The killings were undertaken by William Burke and William Hare, who sold the corpses to Doctor Robert Knox for dissection at his anatomy lectures. Edinburgh was a leading European centre of study in the early 19th century. Scottish law required that corpses used for medical research should only come from those who had died in prison, suicide victims, or from foundlings, the shortage of corpses led to an increase in grave robbing by what were known as resurrection men. Measures to ensure graves were left undisturbed exacerbated the shortage, when a lodger in Hares house died, he turned to his friend Burke for advice and they decided to sell the body to Knox. They received what was, for them, the sum of £7 10s. A little over two months later, when Hare was concerned that a lodger suffering from fever would deter others from staying in the house, he and Burke murdered her, the men continued their murder spree, probably with the knowledge of their wives. Burke and Hares actions were uncovered after other lodgers discovered their last victim, Margaret Docherty, a forensic examination of Dochertys body indicated she had probably been suffocated, but it could not be proven. Although the police suspected the men of other murders, there was no evidence on which they could take action, an offer was put to Hare granting immunity from prosecution if he turned kings evidence. He provided the details of Dochertys murder and confessed to all 16 deaths, formal charges were made against Burke, at the subsequent trial Burke was found guilty of one murder and sentenced to death. The case against his wife was found not proven—a Scottish legal verdict to acquit an individual, Burke was hanged shortly afterwards, his corpse was dissected and his skeleton displayed at the Anatomical Museum of Edinburgh Medical School where, as of 2017, it remains. The murders raised public awareness of the need for bodies for medical research, the events have made appearances in literature, and been portrayed on screen, either in heavily fictionalised accounts or as the inspiration for fictional works. Because of their efforts, Edinburgh became one of the leading European centres of study, alongside Leiden in the Netherlands. The teaching of anatomy—crucial in the study of surgery—required a sufficient supply of cadavers, Scottish law determined that suitable corpses on which to undertake the dissections were those who died in prison, suicide victims, and the bodies of foundlings and orphans. The situation was confused by the legal position, disturbing a grave was a criminal offence, as was the taking of property from the deceased. Stealing the body was not an offence, as it did not legally belong to anyone, the price per corpse changed depending on the season. By the 1820s the residents of Edinburgh had taken to the streets to protest at the increase in grave robbing, other families used a mortsafe, an iron cage that surrounded the coffin. Knox was an anatomist who had qualified as a doctor in 1814, after contracting smallpox as a child, he was blind in one eye and badly disfigured

19.
Dissection
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Dissection, is the dismembering of the body of a deceased animal or plant to study its anatomical structure. Autopsy is used in pathology and forensic medicine to determine the cause of death in humans and it is carried out by or demonstrated to biology and anatomy students in high school and medical school. Less advanced courses typically focus on subjects, such as small formaldehyde-preserved animals. Consequently, dissection is typically conducted in a morgue or in an anatomy lab, dissection has been used for centuries to explore anatomy. Objections to the use of cadavers have led to the use of alternatives including virtual dissection of computer models, plant and animal bodies are dissected to analyze the structure and function of its components. Dissection is practised by students in courses of biology, botany, zoology, and veterinary science, in medical schools, students dissect human cadavers to learn anatomy. Dissection is used to help to determine the cause of death in autopsy and is an part of forensic medicine. A key principle in the dissection of human cadavers is the prevention of disease to the dissector. Specimens are dissected in morgues or anatomy labs, when provided, they are evaluated for use as a fresh or prepared specimen. A fresh specimen may be dissected within some days, retaining the characteristics of a living specimen, a prepared specimen may be preserved in solutions such as formalin and pre-dissected by an experienced anatomist, sometimes with the help of a diener. This preparation is sometimes called prosection, most dissection involves the careful isolation and removal of individual organs, called the Virchow technique. An alterative more cumbersome technique involves the removal of the organ body. This technique allows a body to be sent to a director without waiting for the sometimes time-consuming dissection of individual organs. Dissection of individual organs involves accessing the area in which the organ is situated, for example, when removing the heart, connects such as the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava are separated. If pathological connections exist, such as a fibrous pericardium, then this may be deliberately dissected along with the organ, Human dissections were carried out by the Greek physicians Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Chios in the early part of the third century BC. During this period, the first exploration into full human anatomy was performed rather than a base knowledge gained from problem-solution delving, before and after this time investigators appeared to largely limit themselves to animals. While there was a taboo within the Greek culture concerning human dissection. For a time, Roman law forbade dissection and autopsy of the human body, Galen, for example, dissected the Barbary macaque and other primates, assuming their anatomy was basically the same as that of humans

20.
Robert Knox
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Robert Knox, FRSE FRCSE MWS was a Scottish anatomist, zoologist, ethnologist and doctor. He was the most popular lecturer on anatomy in Britain, where he introduced the theory of transcendental anatomy, difficulty in obtaining cadavers for dissection after the passage of the Anatomy Act and disagreements with professional colleagues ruined his career, and a move to London did not improve matters. His later pessimistic view of humanity contrasted sharply with his attachment to the ideas of Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. Knox devoted the latter part of his life to theorising on evolution and his work on the latter was controversial, and was used to justify the view, shared widely by his contemporaries, that Anglo-Saxons are an innately superior people. This harmed his legacy, and overshadowed his contributions to evolutionary theory, Robert Knox was born in 1793 in Edinburghs North Richmond Street, the eighth child of Mary and Robert Knox, a teacher of mathematics and natural philosophy at Heriots Hospital in Edinburgh. As an infant, he contracted smallpox, which destroyed his left eye and he was educated at the High School, where he was remembered as a bully who thrashed his contemporaries mentally and corporeally. He won the Lord Provosts gold medal in his final year, in 1810, he joined medical classes in Edinburgh. He soon became interested in transcendentalism and the work of Xavier Bichat and he was twice president of the Royal Physical Society, an undergraduate club to which he presented papers on hydrophobia and nosology. The final recorded event of his university years was his just failing the anatomy examination, Knox joined the extramural Anatomy class of the famous John Barclay. Barclay was an anatomist of the highest distinction, and perhaps the greatest anatomical teacher in Britain at that time, redoubling his efforts, Knox passed very competently the second time around. Knox graduated Adiya from Edinburgh University in 1814, with a Latin thesis on the effects of narcotics which was published the following year. Knox joined the army and was commissioned Hospital Assistant on 24 June 1815 and his army work at the Brussels military hospital impressed upon him the need for a comprehensive training in anatomy if surgery were to be successful. Knox was highly intelligent, critical and irritable, after a further trip to Belgium he was placed in charge of Hilsea hospital near Portsmouth, where he experimented with non-mercurial cures for syphilis. In April 1817, he joined the 72nd Highlanders and sailed with them immediately to South Africa, there were few army surgeons in the Cape Colony but Knox found the people healthy and his duties were light. He enjoyed riding, shooting and the beauty of the landscape with which he felt in spiritual harmony—an early expression of his world view. Knox developed a keen interest in observing racial types, and disapproved of what he saw as the Boers contempt for the indigenous peoples. However, after an abortive Xhosa rebellion against the forces, he was involved in a retaliatory raid commanded by Andries Stockenström. Relations with Stockenström were marred when Knox accused O. G, Stockenström, Andries brother, of theft, a charge apparently prompted by ill feeling between British and Boer officers

21.
Loretto School
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Loretto School, founded in 1827, is an independent boarding and day school for boys and girls aged 0 to 18. The campus occupies 85 acres in Musselburgh, East Lothian, the school was founded by the Reverend Thomas Langhorne in 1827. Langhorne came from Crosby Ravensworth in Westmorland and he named the school for Loretto House, his then home, which was itself named for a medieval chapel dedicated to Our Lady of Loreto which had formerly stood on the site of the school. The school was taken over by his son, also Thomas Langhorne. The last link with the Langhorne family was Thomas son John, who was a master at Loretto from 1890 to 1897, Loretto was later under the headmastership of Dr Hely Hutchinson Almond from 1862 to 1903. The school originally accepted only boys, but in 1981 girls joined the sixth form and in 1995 the third form, in 2001 the film director Don Boyd published an article in The Observer detailing his systematic sexual abuse by a teacher in the school. The revelation led to allegations about the teacher from other former pupils. The teacher, then 79 years old, was charged, although the school is not the oldest independent school in Scotland, it claims to be the oldest Scottish boarding school. Lorettos campus includes Pinkie House as well as a 300-seat theatre and 600 seat Chapel, the school is made up of three parts – the Nursery for children aged 0–5, the Junior School for children aged 5 –12 and the Senior School for those aged 12 and over. Pupils attend as boarders, flexi-boarders and day pupils and are all attached to a specific house, houses include Schoolhouse, Seton house, Holm house, Balcarres house, Eleanora Almond house, Pinkie and Hope house. The Loretto Golf Academy, established in 2002, offers golf to over 250 pupils using the links courses

22.
Musselburgh
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Musselburgh is the largest settlement in East Lothian, Scotland, on the coast of the Firth of Forth,6 miles east of Edinburgh city centre. The population of Musselburgh is 21,900, the name Musselburgh is Old English in origin, with mussel referring to the shellfish, and burgh derived from the Old English for town. Musselburgh was first settled by the Romans in the years following their invasion of Scotland in AD80 and they built a fort a little inland from the mouth of the River Esk, at Inveresk. They bridged the Esk downstream from the fort, and thus established the line of the eastern approach to Scotlands capital for most of the next 2,000 years. The bridge built by the Romans outlasted them by many centuries and it was rebuilt on the original Roman foundations some time before 1300, and in 1597 it was rebuilt again, this time with a third arch added on the east side of the river. The Old Bridge is also known as the Roman Bridge and remains in use today by pedestrians, to its north is the New Bridge, designed by John Rennie the Elder and built in 1806. This in turn was considerably widened in 1925, the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh was fought south of Musselburgh. The town motto Honestas dates back to 1332, when the Regent of Scotland, Randolph, Earl of Moray and his successor offered to reward the people for their loyalty but they declined, saying they were only doing their duty. The new regent, the Earl of Mar, was impressed and said they were a set of honest men, before 1975, Musselburgh was part of Midlothian, not East Lothian. It became part of the East Lothian District following the Local Government Act 1973, schools include Loretto School, a private boarding school, and Musselburgh Grammar School, the local large comprehensive that is one of the oldest grammar schools in the country, dating from 1608. Some students attend St. Davids R. C, Primary schools include, Campie Primary School, Musselburgh Burgh Primary School, Stoneyhill Primary School, Pinkie St Peters Primary School, Loretto RC Primary School and Loretto Nippers. Early learning locations include The Burgh, Stoneyhill, Loretto RC, there are also several private nurseries for preschool-aged children. Edinburghs Queen Margaret University relocated all its schools from Edinburgh to Musselburgh as of 2007 and her Majesty The Queen officially opened the QMU campus in July 2008. Musselburgh is served by two railway stations, Musselburgh railway station is in the west of the town, adjacent to Queen Margaret University and has regular Abellio ScotRail services from Edinburgh Waverley to North Berwick. It is a new station, having opened in 1988. The other station serving the town is Wallyford railway station to the east of the town in the village of Wallyford, the towns original station was close to the town centre at the end of a short branch from Newhailes Junction. Passenger services from there ceased in 1964, and the closed to all traffic in the early-1970s. The former railway line is now a road bypassing the Fisherrow area of the town, the A199 goes through the High Street to Edinburgh in the west and to Dunbar to the east

23.
Boddam, Aberdeenshire
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Boddam is a coastal village in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. It is 29 miles north of Aberdeen and 3 miles south of Peterhead, sea cliffs rise to 200 feet, south of the village, a coastal path leads along these to the Bullers of Buchan. In that same vicinity of the Laeca Burn watershed is the point dappui of historic battles between invading Danes and indigenous Picts. Boddam Castle was built in the late 16th century by the Ludquharn branch of the Keith family, whose other strongholds in the area are at Inverugie Castle and Ravenscraig Castle, sir William Keith, Lieutenant Governor of Pennsylvania and Delaware, was born here in 1669. 12 boats were employed during the months in the cod. Harbour widening followed in 1878, and by 1881 there were 200 drifters based at Boddam, over time, many vessels had been run aground in poor weather and in 1819 petitions were sent to the Northern Lighthouse Board to erect a lighthouse in the vicinity. As Engineer to the board, Robert Stevenson decided upon the present location, the construction being completed in 1825. The red band was painted in 1907 to help passing ships determine their location and for years a foghorn was installed. The lighthouse is 118 ft high, flashing a light every 5 seconds which with the current lamp is visible for 28 nautical miles. At the time, prior to the creation of British Railways in 1948, adjacent to the north side of the village is Peterhead power station on which construction commenced in May 1973, being brought into operation in 1980. Originally intended as a station, it was later converted to burn gas or oil and is currently powered by the entire gas supply of the Miller Field. Sea bass may be caught in the vicinity of the water outlets. Today, Boddam serves largely as a settlement for Aberdeen and Peterhead although an involvement in the fishing industry still continues on a small scale. Despite Boddam and Stirling Village possessing three hotels or inns, tourism in the area is at a low level, the remains of Boddam Castle lie in a ruinous state, although Earls Lodge which had previously been gutted in a fire was repaired as a private home in 2006. Information boards for the castle have recently been erected and Clan Keith reunions from America have been invited to visit whilst in the area. The village has yet retained public facilities such a Post Office, two Hotels and an Inn, a Library, Fish and Chip Shop, local shop, two Car Garages, a Public Hall and a local Primary School. An innovative carbon capture scheme at the station which had previously been shelved was brought back onto the agenda in late 2007 with the hope of new jobs for the local populace. A traditional song relates how a monkey was the survivor from a local shipwreck

24.
Robert Stevenson (civil engineer)
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Robert Stevenson FRSE, FGS, FRAS, FSA Scot, MWS, MInstCE was a Scottish civil engineer and famed designer and builder of lighthouses. One of his finest achievements was the construction of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, Stevenson was born in Glasgow, his father was Alan Stevenson, a partner in a West India trading house in the city. As a result, Stevenson was educated as an infant at a charity school and his mother intended Robert for the ministry and to this end sent him to the school of a famous linguist of the day, Mr. Macintyre. Stevenson served as Smiths assistant, and was so successful that, at age 19, study was interleaved with work - his next project was lighthouses on Orkney. He made use of months to attend lectures in philosophy, mathematics, chemistry and natural history, as well as moral philosophy, logic. He did not take a degree, however, having a poor knowledge of Latin, the most important work of Stevensons life is the Bell Rock Lighthouse, a scheme long in the gestation and then long and extremely hazardous in the construction. This structure was based upon the design of the earlier Eddystone Lighthouse by John Smeaton, samuel Smiles, the popular engineering author of the time, published an account taken from Rennie, which assisted in establishing his claim. History, and the Northern Lighthouse Board, give credit to Stevenson. Stevensons work on the Bell Rock and elsewhere provided a fund of anecdotes of the danger in which he placed himself, for this last innovation he was awarded a gold medal by King William I of the Netherlands. The period after Waterloo and the end of the wars was a time of much improvement of the fabric of the country. Projects included roads, bridges, harbours, canals and railways and he designed and oversaw the construction of the Hutcheson Bridge in Glasgow, and the Regent Bridge and approaches from the East to Edinburgh. He projected a number of canals and railways which were not built and he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1815. He devised and tested the hypothesis that freshwater and saltwater at river mouths exist as separate and he contributed to the Encyclopædia Britannica and the Edinburgh Encyclopædia, and published in a number of the scientific journals of the day. In 1799, Robert married Jean Smith, Thomas Smiths eldest daughter by his first wife, a number of their children died young including three who died of childhood diseases early in 1808 during the construction of Bell Rock. Three of Stevenson’s sons became engineers, David, Alan, roberts surviving children also include Joseph, who emigrated to Victoria, Australia in 1832, and Jane, who assisted in writing and illustrating an account of the Bell Rock Lighthouse construction. Robert Louis Stevenson was his grandson, via Thomas, and Katharine de Mattos was his granddaughter, Stevenson died on 12 July 1850 in Edinburgh. He is buried in the Stevenson family plot in New Calton Cemetery, Stevenson College, Edinburgh was founded in 1970, and was named after Robert Stevenson. For at least some of his life Robert Stevenson lived at 1 Baxters Place, Edinburgh, bella Bathurst wrote a biographical account of the professional accomplishments of Stevenson and his sons in The Lighthouse Stevensons

25.
Ballantine's
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Ballantines is a range of blended Scotch whiskies produced by Pernod Ricard in Dumbarton, Scotland. The Ballantines flavour is dependent on 50 single malts, four single grains and in particular the fingerprint malts from Miltonduff, the brand has won many accolades and awards for its products. The worlds second highest selling Scotch whisky, it has historically strong in Southern Europe. The heritage of Ballantines Scotch whisky can be traced back to 1827, in 1865 George delegated the stores operation to his eldest son, Archibald, while he opened a larger establishment in Glasgow. Here he concentrated on the wine and spirit trade, catering to clients which included the Hindu Royal Family and he also began to create his own blends. These inspired additional demand, drawing second son, George junior, trading as George Ballantine and Son Ltd, the firm added a bonded warehouse and began to export their Scotch. George senior retired in 1881, George junior taking over, business thrived under George junior, and the family sold out profitably to the firm of Barclay and McKinlay in 1919. Building on the reputation and goodwill of the Ballantines name, the new owners focused on developing it as a brand for their blended whiskys. The same year the company received the Grant of Heraldic Arms featured on their bottles, strong distribution and the popularity of Scotch whisky in the mid-1980s were key influencers in growth. Ballantines was named the number one brand in Europe and the third largest in the world in 1986 with the oldest product Ballantines Finest, in Korea, Ballantines is the clear number one in the super-premium category with its ever-popular Ballantines 17 in addition to 21 and 30. In 1988, the Company became part of the beverage conglomerate Allied Domecq. In 2002 the large Dumbarton Grain distillery was mothballed, with production shifting to the Strathclyde Grain distillery in the Gorbals of Glasgow, in 2005 Ballantines was acquired by Pernod Ricard. Ballantines still maintain a large bonded warehouse complex in Dumbarton East and a bottling plant to the North of the town

26.
Patrick Bell
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Rev Patrick Bell was a Church of Scotland minister and inventor. Born in the parish of Auchterhouse in Angus, Scotland, into a farming family. He was Carmyllie parish minister from 1843 until his death, Bell invented the reaping machine while working on his fathers farm. His interest in mechanics led him to work on a horse powered mechanical reaper for speeding up the harvest, in 1828 his machine was used with success on his fathers farm and others in the district. This reaping machine used a revolving 12 vane reel to pull the crop over the cutting knife, a canvas conveyor moved the grain and stalks to the side in a windrow. This machine was pushed by livestock and ran on 2 wheels, Bell never sought a patent for his reaping machine. Being a man of God, he believed his invention should benefit all mankind, therefore he never made any financial gain from its success throughout the world. On May 3,1831, a patent was issued in the United States to William Manning for the reaper of essentially the same design, on December 31,1833, a similar cutter patent was issued to Obed Hussey. A vibrating cutter was patented by Cyrus McCormick on June 21,1834, McCormick with his brothers mass-produced the machines and developed what became the International Harvester Company

27.
Reaping machine
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A reaper is a farm implement or person that reaps crops at harvest, when they are ripe. Usually the crop involved is a cereal grass, all mechanical reapers cut the grass, most also gather it, either by windrowing it or picking it up. Hay is harvested somewhat differently from grain, in modern haymaking, the machine cuts the grass is called a hay mower or, if integrated with a conditioner. As a manual task, cutting of grain and hay may be called reaping, involving scythes, sickles, and cradles. Today reapers and grain binders have been replaced by combines in commercial farming. Reaping is usually distinguished from mowing, which uses similar implements, the stiffer, dryer straw of the cereal plants and the greener grasses for hay usually demand different blades on the machines. The reaped grain stalks are gathered into sheaves, tied with string or with a twist of straw, several sheaves are then leant against each other with the ears off the ground to dry out, forming a stook. After drying, the sheaves are gathered from the field and stacked, being placed with the ears inwards, then covered with thatch or a tarpaulin, in the British Isles a rick of sheaves is traditionally called a corn rick, to distinguish it from a hay rick. Ricks are made in an area inaccessible to livestock, called a rick-yard or stack-yard, the corn-rick is later broken down and the sheaves threshed to separate the grain from the straw. Collecting spilt grain from the field after reaping is called gleaning, hand reaping is now rarely done in industrialized countries, but is still the normal method where machines are unavailable or where access for them is limited. The more or less skeletal figure of a reaper with a scythe – known as the Grim Reaper – is a personification of death in many Western traditions. In this metaphor, death harvests the living, like a farmer harvests the crops, a mechanical reaper or reaping machine is a mechanical, semi-automated device that harvests crops. Mechanical reapers and their descendant machines have been an important part of mechanised agriculture and it is believed that either Romans or the Belgae Gallics before them, invented a simple mechanical reaper that cut the ears without the straw and was pushed by oxen. This device was forgotten in the Dark Ages, during which period reapers reverted to using scythes and sickles to gather crops. Thomas Dobbs of Birmingham invents a machine in 1814, which consists of a circular saw or sickle. Patrick Bell of Scotland created a reaper that used a revolving reel, cutting knife and this machine was used around his county and some may have been exported, but the device was never patented. One of Bells reaping machines is preserved in the National Museum of Rural Life in Scotland, the 19th century saw several inventors in the United States claim innovation in mechanical reapers. The various designs competed with each other, and were the subject of several lawsuits. Obed Hussey in Ohio patented a reaper in 1833, the Hussey Reaper, made in Baltimore, Maryland, Husseys design was a major improvement in reaping efficiency

28.
Spa
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A spa is a location where mineral-rich spring water is used to give medicinal baths. Spa towns or spa resorts offer various health treatments, which are also known as balneotherapy. The belief in the powers of mineral waters goes back to prehistoric times. Such practices have been worldwide, but are especially widespread in Europe. Day spas are also popular, and offer various personal care treatments. The word spa itself denotes fountain, some experts also suggest that the word spa originated from the name of the Belgian town named Spa where a curative natural spring was discovered in the 14th century. Since medieval times, illnesses caused by iron deficiency were treated by drinking chalybeate spring water and it is commonly claimed, in a commercial context, that the word is an acronym of various Latin phrases such as Salus Per Aquam or Sanitas Per Aquam meaning health through water. Spa therapies have existed since the times when taking bath with water was considered as a popular means to treat illnesses. The practice of traveling to hot or cold springs in hopes of effecting a cure of some ailment dates back to pre-historic times, archaeological investigations near hot springs in France and Czech Republic revealed Bronze Age weapons and offerings. In Great Britain, ancient legend credited early Celtic kings with the discovery of the hot springs in Bath, many people around the world believed that bathing in a particular spring, well, or river resulted in physical and spiritual purification. Forms of ritual purification existed among the Native Americans, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, today, ritual purification through water can be found in the religious ceremonies of Jews, Muslims, Christians, Buddhists, and Hindus. These ceremonies reflect the ancient belief in the healing and purifying properties of water, complex bathing rituals were also practiced in ancient Egypt, in pre-historic cities of the Indus Valley, and in Aegean civilizations. Most often these ancient people did little building construction around the water, some of the earliest descriptions of western bathing practices came from Greece. The Greeks began bathing regimens that formed the foundation for modern spa procedures and these Aegean people utilized small bathtubs, wash basins, and foot baths for personal cleanliness. The earliest such findings are the baths in the complex at Knossos, Crete. They established public baths and showers within their gymnasium complexes for relaxation, Greek mythology specified that certain natural springs or tidal pools were blessed by the gods to cure disease. Around these sacred pools, Greeks established bathing facilities for those desiring healing, supplicants left offerings to the gods for healing at these sites and bathed themselves in hopes of a cure. The Spartans developed a primitive vapor bath, at Serangeum, an early Greek balneum, bathing chambers were cut into the hillside from which the hot springs issued

29.
Moffat
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Moffat is a former burgh in Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland, lying on the River Annan, with a population of around 2,500. It was a centre of the trade and a spa town. The Moffat House Hotel, located at the end of the High Street, was designed by John Adam. The nearby Star Hotel, a mere 20 ft wide, was listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the narrowest hotel in the world, Moffat won the Britain in Bloom contest in 1996. Moffat is the home to Moffat toffee, the town is held to be the ancestral seat of Clan Moffat. The Devils Beef Tub near Moffat was used by the members of Clan Moffat, from 1633 Moffat began to grow from a small village into a popular spa town. The sulphurous and saline waters of Moffat Spa were believed to have healing properties, specifically curative for skin conditions, gout, rheumatism, in 1730 these were complemented by the addition of iron springs. During the Victorian era the high demand led to the water being piped down from the well to a tank in Tank Wood, luxurious hotels sprang up to accommodate the increasing numbers of tourists. One such hotel opened during Moffats heyday in 1878, Moffats Hydropathic hotel was destroyed in a fire in 1921, the old well was refurbished in the mid 1990s, and is still accessible by vehicle and foot. The water smells very strongly of sulphur, with deposits on the walls, at the grand reopening of the well, people visiting it were encouraged to drink a glass of it. The well can be reached by following Haywood Road and climbing up Tank Wood, an alternative is to drive or walk up Well Road, and eventually, one will reach the Well Cottage and the car park for the well. As stated, when the water was first piped into town for the baths, it was pumped uphill to a tank in the appropriately named Tank Wood, larchhill Well was a chalybeate well located on Old Well Road near Wellwoodhead Cottage. The well is no longer visible, Moffat was a notable market in the wool trade, and this is commemorated with a statue of a ram by William Brodie in the towns marketplace. The ram was presented to the town by William Colvin, a local businessman, the rams ears are missing, as they have been since it was first presented. Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding, commander of RAF Fighter Command during the Battle of Britain, was born at St Ninians School, the former school is now sheltered housing for RAF veterans. There is a memorial to Dowding in Station Park and it is in a local red sandstone with a bronze memorial tablet on the wall and RAF crest badges on the flanking wings. The architect and designer was D. Bruce Walker and the sculptor Scott Sutherland RSA, D. E. Stevenson author and cousin to Robert Louis Stevenson. William Carruthers, botanist, was born in Moffat, as was the mathematical biologist James D. Murray

30.
Sandford Fleming
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Sir Sandford Fleming, KCMG was a Scottish Canadian engineer and inventor. Born and raised in Scotland, he emigrated to colonial Canada at the age of 18, in 1827, Fleming was born in Kirkcaldy, Fife, Scotland to Andrew and Elizabeth Fleming. At the age of 14 he was apprenticed as a surveyor and in 1845, at the age of 18, he emigrated with his older brother David to colonial Canada. Their route took them through many cities of the Canadian colonies, Quebec City, Montreal and he qualified as a surveyor in Canada in 1849. In 1849 he created the Royal Canadian Institute with several friends, although initially intended as a professional institute for surveyors and engineers it became a more general scientific society. In 1851 he designed the Threepenny Beaver, the first Canadian postage stamp, throughout this time he was fully employed as a surveyor, mostly for the Grand Trunk Railway. Fleming served in the 10th Battalion Volunteer Rifles of Canada and was appointed to the rank of captain on January 1,1862 and he retired from the militia in 1865. As soon as he arrived in Peterborough, Ontario in 1845, Fleming became friendly with the family of his wife, the Halls. However, it was not until an accident almost ten years later that the young people’s love for each other was revealed. A year after this incident, in January 1855, Sandford married Ann Jane Hall and they were to have nine children of whom two died young. The oldest son, Frank Andrew, accompanied Fleming in his great Western expedition of 1872, the Fleming and Hall families saw each other often. Starting as assistant engineer in 1852, Fleming replaced Cumberland in 1855 but was in turn ousted by him in 1862, in 1863 he became the chief government surveyor of Nova Scotia charged with the construction of a line from Truro to Pictou. In 1862 he placed before the government a plan for a railway connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In 1867 he was appointed engineer-in-chief of the Intercolonial Railway which became a federal project and his insistence on building the bridges of iron and stone instead of wood was controversial at the time, but was soon vindicated by their resistance to fire. By 1871, the strategy of a connection was being used to bring British Columbia into federation. One of his companions, George Monro Grant wrote an account of the trip, which became a best-seller. By 1880, with 600 miles completed, a change of government brought a desire for a company to own the whole project and Fleming was dismissed by Sir Charles Tupper. It was the hardest blow of Flemings life, though he obtained a promise of monopoly, later revoked, on his next project, nevertheless, in 1884 he became a director of the Canadian Pacific Railway and was present as the last spike was driven

31.
Engineer
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Engineers design materials, structures, and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety, and cost. The word engineer is derived from the Latin words ingeniare and ingenium, the work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgement and the ability to supervise the technical, he/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice, much of an engineers time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure and they also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects, Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines, numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation engineering and materials engineering include ceramic, metallurgical, mechanical engineering cuts across just about every discipline since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as vehicles, or in one type of technology. Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time, that is, research suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers’ work, technical work, social work, computer-based work, information behaviours. Amongst other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study found that engineers spend 62. 92% of their time engaged in work,40. 37% in social work. The time engineers spend engaged in activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies, typically engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. When developing a product, engineers work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers, a mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators

A propeller is a type of fan that transmits power by converting rotational motion into thrust. A pressure difference is …

Propeller on a modern mid-sized merchant vessel. The propeller rotates clockwise to propel the ship forward when viewed from astern (right of picture); the person in the picture has his hand on the blade's trailing edge.

Smith's original 1836 patent for a screw propeller of two full turns. He would later revise the patent, reducing the length to one turn.

A replica of SS Great Britain's first propeller was created for this museum ship. The real propeller was replaced with a four-bladed model in 1845. The SS Great Britain was initially designed to have paddles but the design was modified after screw propellers were proven to be more effective and efficient.

Liberal poster c.1905-10, Clockwise from the left: Joseph Chamberlain abandons his commitment to old age pensions; Chancellor Austen Chamberlain threatens duties on consumer items which had been removed by Gladstone (in the picture on the wall); Chinese indentured labour in South Africa; John Bull contemplates his vote; Joseph Chamberlain and Arthur Balfour (who favoured retaliatory tariffs) wearing top hats

George IV Bridge is an elevated street in Edinburgh, Scotland, and is home to a number of the city's important public …

George IV Bridge, looking north towards the Royal Mile and, beyond, the coppered-dome of the headquarters of the Bank of Scotland. The junction with Chambers Street is to the right and the crowd on the left surround the statue of Greyfriars Bobby