This chapter describes and discusses the first part of the reign of Amenhotep IV, down to his change of name to Akhenaten. This highlights the evolution of the way in which the king was depicted, and ...
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This chapter describes and discusses the first part of the reign of Amenhotep IV, down to his change of name to Akhenaten. This highlights the evolution of the way in which the king was depicted, and how the god Aten moved from being merely a particular manifestation of Re-Horakhty to being a deity, with a unique mode of representation and universal dominion. In doing so, the king's building projects at Karnak are described and discussed, along with other memorials of this phase of the reign. There is also a treatment of the king's foreign policy, based on the Amarna Letters, and of his family relationships, before concluding with the first phase of the foundation of the new capital city at Tell el-Amarna (Akhet-Aten).Less

The Road to Tell El-Amarna

Aidan Dodson

Published in print: 2014-06-15

This chapter describes and discusses the first part of the reign of Amenhotep IV, down to his change of name to Akhenaten. This highlights the evolution of the way in which the king was depicted, and how the god Aten moved from being merely a particular manifestation of Re-Horakhty to being a deity, with a unique mode of representation and universal dominion. In doing so, the king's building projects at Karnak are described and discussed, along with other memorials of this phase of the reign. There is also a treatment of the king's foreign policy, based on the Amarna Letters, and of his family relationships, before concluding with the first phase of the foundation of the new capital city at Tell el-Amarna (Akhet-Aten).

This chapter describes and discusses the middle part of the reign of Akhenaten, from the move to Amarna to the international celebration (‘durbar’) held in Year 12. In doing so, it considers the ...
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This chapter describes and discusses the middle part of the reign of Akhenaten, from the move to Amarna to the international celebration (‘durbar’) held in Year 12. In doing so, it considers the layout of the city and how this related to its conception and employment, as well as the necropoleis that formed a fundamental part of it. It also discusses the further evolution of the Aten-cult, quoting the Great Hymn to the Aten and considering the relationship of the Aten to other deities. In particular, it is argued that the iconoclastic antipathy shown towards Amun was not so much a manifestation of a generalised hatred for other gods (most deities’ names and images remained untouched), but for Amun's claim to dominion as ‘King of the Gods’ – a universal dominion that was now reserved for the Aten. The king's family and officials are also discussed, together with his wider building projects and foreign policy, again based on the evidence of the Amarna Letters. There is also a consideration of the further evolution of the period's artistic style.Less

The Horizon of the Aten

Aidan Dodson

Published in print: 2014-06-15

This chapter describes and discusses the middle part of the reign of Akhenaten, from the move to Amarna to the international celebration (‘durbar’) held in Year 12. In doing so, it considers the layout of the city and how this related to its conception and employment, as well as the necropoleis that formed a fundamental part of it. It also discusses the further evolution of the Aten-cult, quoting the Great Hymn to the Aten and considering the relationship of the Aten to other deities. In particular, it is argued that the iconoclastic antipathy shown towards Amun was not so much a manifestation of a generalised hatred for other gods (most deities’ names and images remained untouched), but for Amun's claim to dominion as ‘King of the Gods’ – a universal dominion that was now reserved for the Aten. The king's family and officials are also discussed, together with his wider building projects and foreign policy, again based on the evidence of the Amarna Letters. There is also a consideration of the further evolution of the period's artistic style.

This chapter analyzes the communication strategies of New Kingdom Egypt in its holdings in the Levant (Syro-Palestine) during the 14th century BC, taking its departure from the vassal rulers’ ...
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This chapter analyzes the communication strategies of New Kingdom Egypt in its holdings in the Levant (Syro-Palestine) during the 14th century BC, taking its departure from the vassal rulers’ correspondence of the so-called Amarna Letters.Less

Egyptian State Correspondence of the New Kingdom : The Letters of the Levantine Client Kings in the Amarna Correspondence and Contemporary Evidence

Jana Mynářová

Published in print: 2014-02-14

This chapter analyzes the communication strategies of New Kingdom Egypt in its holdings in the Levant (Syro-Palestine) during the 14th century BC, taking its departure from the vassal rulers’ correspondence of the so-called Amarna Letters.

North Saqqara is, for many reasons, a special place. It was special to the ancient Egyptians as the necropolis in which some of the most important figures in Egyptian history were buried, ranging ...
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North Saqqara is, for many reasons, a special place. It was special to the ancient Egyptians as the necropolis in which some of the most important figures in Egyptian history were buried, ranging from officials and kings of the Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom to high officials of the Amarna Period and beyond. The Sacred Animal Necropolis at Saqqara is also special. North Saqqara is, however, important for another reason. It is the location of the first pyramid, that of King Djoser of the Third Dynasty (2649–2575 bc), but still more importantly, from the viewpoint of this chapter, it is the location of the burial place of the pyramid's architect, Imhotep. Although his tomb remains undiscovered, the search for it is intimately bound up with the discovery and study of parts of the Sacred Animal Necropolis.Less

The Sacred Animal Necropolis at North Saqqara: The Cults and Their Catacombs

Paul T. Nicholson

Published in print: 2005-04-01

North Saqqara is, for many reasons, a special place. It was special to the ancient Egyptians as the necropolis in which some of the most important figures in Egyptian history were buried, ranging from officials and kings of the Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom to high officials of the Amarna Period and beyond. The Sacred Animal Necropolis at Saqqara is also special. North Saqqara is, however, important for another reason. It is the location of the first pyramid, that of King Djoser of the Third Dynasty (2649–2575 bc), but still more importantly, from the viewpoint of this chapter, it is the location of the burial place of the pyramid's architect, Imhotep. Although his tomb remains undiscovered, the search for it is intimately bound up with the discovery and study of parts of the Sacred Animal Necropolis.

Even before the first colossus was unearthed in 1925, the public was aware of the unusual artistic achievements of this period. The colossi were not identically conceived. Apart from the obvious ...
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Even before the first colossus was unearthed in 1925, the public was aware of the unusual artistic achievements of this period. The colossi were not identically conceived. Apart from the obvious differences in headgear there are subtle distinctions in the treatment of the face. Different issues about colossus such as colossal statues that are presented in this chapter lead to the exception of the battered images of the king flanking his boundary stelae at Amarna. Moreover, the point of view is of significance for an understanding of the artistic concepts behind the colossi.Less

Aesthetics

Manniche Lise

Published in print: 2010-05-01

Even before the first colossus was unearthed in 1925, the public was aware of the unusual artistic achievements of this period. The colossi were not identically conceived. Apart from the obvious differences in headgear there are subtle distinctions in the treatment of the face. Different issues about colossus such as colossal statues that are presented in this chapter lead to the exception of the battered images of the king flanking his boundary stelae at Amarna. Moreover, the point of view is of significance for an understanding of the artistic concepts behind the colossi.

In the 1998 writing of Marc Gabolde, Karnak colossi are described as the most “unrealistic” example of the art of the Amarna period and there are reasons which are stated in this chapter. Also, the ...
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In the 1998 writing of Marc Gabolde, Karnak colossi are described as the most “unrealistic” example of the art of the Amarna period and there are reasons which are stated in this chapter. Also, the problem in identifying a pathological condition due to lack of comparison is stated in this chapter. In connection with this, the members of the medical profession have found the case of Akhenaten irresistible and have often been quoted by Egyptologists. Problems in medicine history and the analysis of their case have been one of the main focuses in this chapter. Different interpretations and representations of mummies that helped in giving clearer identity to a medical history are presented as well. These different studies started because of the suspected abnormalities of Tutankhamun.Less

Pathology

Manniche Lise

Published in print: 2010-05-01

In the 1998 writing of Marc Gabolde, Karnak colossi are described as the most “unrealistic” example of the art of the Amarna period and there are reasons which are stated in this chapter. Also, the problem in identifying a pathological condition due to lack of comparison is stated in this chapter. In connection with this, the members of the medical profession have found the case of Akhenaten irresistible and have often been quoted by Egyptologists. Problems in medicine history and the analysis of their case have been one of the main focuses in this chapter. Different interpretations and representations of mummies that helped in giving clearer identity to a medical history are presented as well. These different studies started because of the suspected abnormalities of Tutankhamun.

The construction of tombs for the nobility of Akhenaten's court began soon after the Amarna was occupied, but a sheer amount of work was required in building these tombs. As a result, the tombs are ...
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The construction of tombs for the nobility of Akhenaten's court began soon after the Amarna was occupied, but a sheer amount of work was required in building these tombs. As a result, the tombs are more or less unfinished. Versions of Aten-name are found in their decoration which highlights the monuments, although the order of construction is not clear. However, two tombs, Huya and Meryre II, stand out having a specifically dated relief, which bulk their decoration after Year 12. A version of Meryre II had been carved on the right hand wall of the principal hall tomb-chapel but half of the tomb was still undecorated. The sculptor used the standard pattern in most unfinished tombs in Amarna to decorate the walls on either side of the entrance. This tomb is where Meryre II intended his mummy ultimately to lie.Less

The Waning Sun

Aidan Dodson

Published in print: 2009-11-15

The construction of tombs for the nobility of Akhenaten's court began soon after the Amarna was occupied, but a sheer amount of work was required in building these tombs. As a result, the tombs are more or less unfinished. Versions of Aten-name are found in their decoration which highlights the monuments, although the order of construction is not clear. However, two tombs, Huya and Meryre II, stand out having a specifically dated relief, which bulk their decoration after Year 12. A version of Meryre II had been carved on the right hand wall of the principal hall tomb-chapel but half of the tomb was still undecorated. The sculptor used the standard pattern in most unfinished tombs in Amarna to decorate the walls on either side of the entrance. This tomb is where Meryre II intended his mummy ultimately to lie.

Ay is one of the prominent figures of the late Eighteenth Dynasty. He appears in the records of Akhenaten's reign. His tomb at Amarna gives him the title Fan Bearer on the Right Hand of the King, but ...
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Ay is one of the prominent figures of the late Eighteenth Dynasty. He appears in the records of Akhenaten's reign. His tomb at Amarna gives him the title Fan Bearer on the Right Hand of the King, but the most widely used in his titles is the God's Father and this title makes him unique at the courts of Akhenaten and Tutankhamun. At Amarna he seems to have been known simply as The God's Father par excellence based on the three ostraca that refer to orders being given by this so-titled individual. This title is not just a contraction of the priestly title of “God's Father of [GOD],” but rather a version of a title that goes back to the Old Kingdom. One bearer of this title was Tutankhamuns's tutor, Sennedjem.Less

God's Father to God

Aidan Dodson

Published in print: 2009-11-15

Ay is one of the prominent figures of the late Eighteenth Dynasty. He appears in the records of Akhenaten's reign. His tomb at Amarna gives him the title Fan Bearer on the Right Hand of the King, but the most widely used in his titles is the God's Father and this title makes him unique at the courts of Akhenaten and Tutankhamun. At Amarna he seems to have been known simply as The God's Father par excellence based on the three ostraca that refer to orders being given by this so-titled individual. This title is not just a contraction of the priestly title of “God's Father of [GOD],” but rather a version of a title that goes back to the Old Kingdom. One bearer of this title was Tutankhamuns's tutor, Sennedjem.

The latter part of the fifteenth century BC saw Egypt's political power reach its zenith, with an empire that stretched from beyond the Euphrates in the north to much of what is now Sudan in the ...
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The latter part of the fifteenth century BC saw Egypt's political power reach its zenith, with an empire that stretched from beyond the Euphrates in the north to much of what is now Sudan in the south. The wealth that flowed into Egypt allowed its kings to commission some of the most stupendous temples of all time, some of the greatest dedicated to Amun-Re, King of the Gods. Yet a century later these temples lay derelict, the god's images, names, and titles all erased in an orgy of iconoclasm by Akhenaten, the devotee of a single sun-god. This book traces the history of Egypt from the death of the great warrior-king Thutmose III to the high point of Akhenaten's reign, when the known world brought gifts to his newly-built capital city of Amarna, in particular looking at the way in which the cult of the sun became increasingly important to even ‘orthodox’ kings, culminating in the transformation of Akhenaten's father, Amenhotep III, into a solar deity in his own right.Less

Amarna Sunrise : Egypt from Golden Age to Age of Heresy

Aidan Dodson

Published in print: 2014-06-15

The latter part of the fifteenth century BC saw Egypt's political power reach its zenith, with an empire that stretched from beyond the Euphrates in the north to much of what is now Sudan in the south. The wealth that flowed into Egypt allowed its kings to commission some of the most stupendous temples of all time, some of the greatest dedicated to Amun-Re, King of the Gods. Yet a century later these temples lay derelict, the god's images, names, and titles all erased in an orgy of iconoclasm by Akhenaten, the devotee of a single sun-god. This book traces the history of Egypt from the death of the great warrior-king Thutmose III to the high point of Akhenaten's reign, when the known world brought gifts to his newly-built capital city of Amarna, in particular looking at the way in which the cult of the sun became increasingly important to even ‘orthodox’ kings, culminating in the transformation of Akhenaten's father, Amenhotep III, into a solar deity in his own right.

This chapter deals with the reign of Amenhotep III, covering his family relationships, government, monuments and foreign relations. This includes discussions of the ramifications of the family of his ...
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This chapter deals with the reign of Amenhotep III, covering his family relationships, government, monuments and foreign relations. This includes discussions of the ramifications of the family of his Akhmim-based in-laws and the identities of the holders of the key sacerdotal and secular offices during the reign. There are also discussions of the reign's religious developments, in particular the implications of the innovations brought about at the time of the king's First Jubilee regarding the king's divinity and how this related to subsequent events. It also discusses the question of whether Amenhotep III and his successor Amenhotep IV ever ruled together; it concludes that they did not, although the latter had been formally nominated as crown prince in Year 30, following the death of the first heir, Thutmose B. The discussion of foreign affairs draws principally on the evidence of the Amarna Letters, together with the ‘Aegean’ statue base at Kom el-Hetan.Less

Gold is as Dust …

Aidan Dodson

Published in print: 2014-06-15

This chapter deals with the reign of Amenhotep III, covering his family relationships, government, monuments and foreign relations. This includes discussions of the ramifications of the family of his Akhmim-based in-laws and the identities of the holders of the key sacerdotal and secular offices during the reign. There are also discussions of the reign's religious developments, in particular the implications of the innovations brought about at the time of the king's First Jubilee regarding the king's divinity and how this related to subsequent events. It also discusses the question of whether Amenhotep III and his successor Amenhotep IV ever ruled together; it concludes that they did not, although the latter had been formally nominated as crown prince in Year 30, following the death of the first heir, Thutmose B. The discussion of foreign affairs draws principally on the evidence of the Amarna Letters, together with the ‘Aegean’ statue base at Kom el-Hetan.

In Middle Egypt, the ancient site of Amarna was the capital city of the heretic pharaoh Akhenaten, the devotee of a single sun-god, and his chief consort, Nefertiti. Occupied for just sixteen or so ...
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In Middle Egypt, the ancient site of Amarna was the capital city of the heretic pharaoh Akhenaten, the devotee of a single sun-god, and his chief consort, Nefertiti. Occupied for just sixteen or so years in the fourteenth century BC, the city lay largely abandoned and forgotten until excavations over the last hundred years brought it back into prominence. Discovered at the beginning of the eighteenth century, Amarna did not initially excite much interest among archaeologists. In the last 1920s and early 1930s the key figure in excavations in Amarna was the great and highly eccentric Englishman John Devitt Stringfellow Pendlebury. The Amarna era ended as suddenly as it had begun, and under very obscure circumstances.Less

Amarna: City of the Heretic

Miroslav Verner

Published in print: 2013-06-03

In Middle Egypt, the ancient site of Amarna was the capital city of the heretic pharaoh Akhenaten, the devotee of a single sun-god, and his chief consort, Nefertiti. Occupied for just sixteen or so years in the fourteenth century BC, the city lay largely abandoned and forgotten until excavations over the last hundred years brought it back into prominence. Discovered at the beginning of the eighteenth century, Amarna did not initially excite much interest among archaeologists. In the last 1920s and early 1930s the key figure in excavations in Amarna was the great and highly eccentric Englishman John Devitt Stringfellow Pendlebury. The Amarna era ended as suddenly as it had begun, and under very obscure circumstances.

This chapter explores the origins of Hebrew and the early history of writing in Canaan. The invention of the alphabet is now dated back to the beginning of the second millennium BCE by the discovery ...
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This chapter explores the origins of Hebrew and the early history of writing in Canaan. The invention of the alphabet is now dated back to the beginning of the second millennium BCE by the discovery of the Wadi el-Hol inscriptions in Egypt. These inscriptions also solidify the close connection between Egyptian writing and administration and the invention of the alphabet. A later alphabetic cuneiform writing system is invented in Ugarit in the middle of the second millennium. The Amarna Letters, written in a Canaano-Akkadian dialect with the cuneiform writing system, are another precursor to Hebrew that points to the role of Egypt in the development and spread of writing and writing systems in ancient Canaan.Less

The Origins of Hebrew: In Search of the Holy Tongue

William M. Schniedewind

Published in print: 2013-12-10

This chapter explores the origins of Hebrew and the early history of writing in Canaan. The invention of the alphabet is now dated back to the beginning of the second millennium BCE by the discovery of the Wadi el-Hol inscriptions in Egypt. These inscriptions also solidify the close connection between Egyptian writing and administration and the invention of the alphabet. A later alphabetic cuneiform writing system is invented in Ugarit in the middle of the second millennium. The Amarna Letters, written in a Canaano-Akkadian dialect with the cuneiform writing system, are another precursor to Hebrew that points to the role of Egypt in the development and spread of writing and writing systems in ancient Canaan.

As Hittite kings communicated with their vassals, they routinely recounted the history of their relationship between the two kingdoms. Strikingly, the record reveals that each communication brought ...
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As Hittite kings communicated with their vassals, they routinely recounted the history of their relationship between the two kingdoms. Strikingly, the record reveals that each communication brought with it a redrafted version of that history which was often at odds with the history recounted in the earlier communications. Most significantly, as Hittite monarchs redrafted earlier histories, these past versions were not erased from the record—rather, even as the Hittite kings redrafted their historical accounts in accord with the needs of the moment, both they and their vassals would read these accounts while retaining and recalling the earlier, conflicting versions of events. A series of pioneering studies of the El-Amarna letters from the field of international relations sheds light on why the Hittite kings composed such conflicting histories and how, in turn, these were read and interpreted by their vassals.Less

Divergent Histories between Original and Renewal Treaties in Hittite Diplomatic Literature

Joshua A. Berman

Published in print: 2017-08-31

As Hittite kings communicated with their vassals, they routinely recounted the history of their relationship between the two kingdoms. Strikingly, the record reveals that each communication brought with it a redrafted version of that history which was often at odds with the history recounted in the earlier communications. Most significantly, as Hittite monarchs redrafted earlier histories, these past versions were not erased from the record—rather, even as the Hittite kings redrafted their historical accounts in accord with the needs of the moment, both they and their vassals would read these accounts while retaining and recalling the earlier, conflicting versions of events. A series of pioneering studies of the El-Amarna letters from the field of international relations sheds light on why the Hittite kings composed such conflicting histories and how, in turn, these were read and interpreted by their vassals.

Akhenaten is one of the most intriguing rulers of ancient Egypt, and one of the most fascinating individuals from the ancient world. His odd appearance in representations that he commissioned and his ...
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Akhenaten is one of the most intriguing rulers of ancient Egypt, and one of the most fascinating individuals from the ancient world. His odd appearance in representations that he commissioned and his preoccupation with worshiping the sun-disc, or Aten, have stimulated a vast amount of academic discussion and controversy for more than a century. The focus of this book is on Akhenaten’s religion and how it developed. Here, too, opinions vary. Was he a crazy fundamentalist, a zealous ideologue, a true believer, or did politics and power motivate his actions? The main questions addressed here include: How did Akhenaten’s religion develop? What prompted his program of persecution against Amun who had been the imperial god of Egypt in the centuries prior to Akhenaten’s? What was the significance of the temples built at Karnak Temple (the domain of Amun), and what role did they play? Why did the king abandon the imperial city of Thebes and build a new capital at Amarna? Was he a monotheist? If so, what if any influence did his religion have on the origin of Israel’s religion? These probing questions will be addressed by a careful reading of texts of Akhenaten and by examining his artistic representations.Less

Akhenaten and the Origins of Monotheism

James K. Hoffmeier

Published in print: 2015-02-13

Akhenaten is one of the most intriguing rulers of ancient Egypt, and one of the most fascinating individuals from the ancient world. His odd appearance in representations that he commissioned and his preoccupation with worshiping the sun-disc, or Aten, have stimulated a vast amount of academic discussion and controversy for more than a century. The focus of this book is on Akhenaten’s religion and how it developed. Here, too, opinions vary. Was he a crazy fundamentalist, a zealous ideologue, a true believer, or did politics and power motivate his actions? The main questions addressed here include: How did Akhenaten’s religion develop? What prompted his program of persecution against Amun who had been the imperial god of Egypt in the centuries prior to Akhenaten’s? What was the significance of the temples built at Karnak Temple (the domain of Amun), and what role did they play? Why did the king abandon the imperial city of Thebes and build a new capital at Amarna? Was he a monotheist? If so, what if any influence did his religion have on the origin of Israel’s religion? These probing questions will be addressed by a careful reading of texts of Akhenaten and by examining his artistic representations.

This critical chapter examines the development of Atenism, seeking an explanation for what prompted this revolution. Taking a clue from the name of the temple, Gem-Pa-Aten (used of a temple at Amarna ...
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This critical chapter examines the development of Atenism, seeking an explanation for what prompted this revolution. Taking a clue from the name of the temple, Gem-Pa-Aten (used of a temple at Amarna and in Nubia), and means something like “the Aten is found,” it is suggested that this name refers to an original theophany that motivated the religious changes that followed. Other texts hint that he experienced a theophany and by revelation was urged to build a new capital, which occurred at Tell el-Amarna and was named Akhet-Aten. The boundary stelae around Akhet-Aten suggest that Aten discovered this sacred spot for the king, just as previously Aten was discovered by the king.Less

Finding Aten and Founding Akhet-Aten

James K. Hoffmeier

Published in print: 2015-02-13

This critical chapter examines the development of Atenism, seeking an explanation for what prompted this revolution. Taking a clue from the name of the temple, Gem-Pa-Aten (used of a temple at Amarna and in Nubia), and means something like “the Aten is found,” it is suggested that this name refers to an original theophany that motivated the religious changes that followed. Other texts hint that he experienced a theophany and by revelation was urged to build a new capital, which occurred at Tell el-Amarna and was named Akhet-Aten. The boundary stelae around Akhet-Aten suggest that Aten discovered this sacred spot for the king, just as previously Aten was discovered by the king.

This chapter argues that Akhenaten’s religion was monotheistic, defined as the exclusive worship of one deity and the rejection of or the denial of the existence of others. This understanding is ...
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This chapter argues that Akhenaten’s religion was monotheistic, defined as the exclusive worship of one deity and the rejection of or the denial of the existence of others. This understanding is demonstrated by the iconoclasm directed against images and writings and titles of the former chief deity, Amun, and other deities. After the move to Amarna, a final change to the didactic name occurred in which all vestiges of other gods were removed, specifically, Ra-Harakhty and Shu. During the final decade of his reign, even traditional solar images were banished, and only the sun-disc and its rays, along with Aten’s name, remain in the iconography at Amarna. This combination of factors, it is argued, points to a monotheistic faith.Less

Is Atenism Monotheism?

James K. Hoffmeier

Published in print: 2015-02-13

This chapter argues that Akhenaten’s religion was monotheistic, defined as the exclusive worship of one deity and the rejection of or the denial of the existence of others. This understanding is demonstrated by the iconoclasm directed against images and writings and titles of the former chief deity, Amun, and other deities. After the move to Amarna, a final change to the didactic name occurred in which all vestiges of other gods were removed, specifically, Ra-Harakhty and Shu. During the final decade of his reign, even traditional solar images were banished, and only the sun-disc and its rays, along with Aten’s name, remain in the iconography at Amarna. This combination of factors, it is argued, points to a monotheistic faith.

This chapter presents evidence that demonstrates, in a manner similar to Moriah detailed in the previous chapter, that the city of Shalem was relocated in a two-step redactional process. First, ...
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This chapter presents evidence that demonstrates, in a manner similar to Moriah detailed in the previous chapter, that the city of Shalem was relocated in a two-step redactional process. First, Shalem was moved from being “a city of Shechem” (Gen. 33:18) to being located in an unknown region. In Jer. 41:5, a reference to Shalem was replaced outright with a reference to Shiloh so as to obscure its mention, but not before the LXX preserved the original reference to Shalem. Later, Shalem was associated explicitly with Jerusalem, using texts from the Second Temple period like Jubilees, the Genesis Apocryphon, and the works of Josephus. The location of the Valley of Shaveh was also relocated from the Dead Sea to Jerusalem to correspond to the relocation of Shalem to Jerusalem.Less

From Shalem to Jerusalem : Sectarian Relocation via Redaction

Robert R. Cargill

Published in print: 2019-09-26

This chapter presents evidence that demonstrates, in a manner similar to Moriah detailed in the previous chapter, that the city of Shalem was relocated in a two-step redactional process. First, Shalem was moved from being “a city of Shechem” (Gen. 33:18) to being located in an unknown region. In Jer. 41:5, a reference to Shalem was replaced outright with a reference to Shiloh so as to obscure its mention, but not before the LXX preserved the original reference to Shalem. Later, Shalem was associated explicitly with Jerusalem, using texts from the Second Temple period like Jubilees, the Genesis Apocryphon, and the works of Josephus. The location of the Valley of Shaveh was also relocated from the Dead Sea to Jerusalem to correspond to the relocation of Shalem to Jerusalem.

This chapter examines the Sumerian and Akkadian evidence for the myth of Adapa. First, it demonstrates that the myth underwent revision in Akkadian, with the addition of a new prologue and epilogue ...
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This chapter examines the Sumerian and Akkadian evidence for the myth of Adapa. First, it demonstrates that the myth underwent revision in Akkadian, with the addition of a new prologue and epilogue that recast it in terms of wisdom and immortality. These themes, both present in the Neo-Assyrian evidence, do not belong to the older version that was found at Amarna. Second, it compares the Akkadian tradition with the Sumerian version of Adapa from Tell Haddad. Unlike the Akkadian versions, the Sumerian version includes a lengthy cosmological introduction that situates the Adapa plotline in the wider context of humanity’s origins. In this case, it appears that a master scribe omitted the long Sumerian introduction so as to heighten the focus on Adapa, perhaps when the myth was reimagined in Akkadian. This chapter demonstrates that the major shifts in perspective were accomplished through revision through introduction, whether by omission or addition.Less

A Second Wind : Revision through Introduction in Adapa

Sara J. Milstein

Published in print: 2016-11-03

This chapter examines the Sumerian and Akkadian evidence for the myth of Adapa. First, it demonstrates that the myth underwent revision in Akkadian, with the addition of a new prologue and epilogue that recast it in terms of wisdom and immortality. These themes, both present in the Neo-Assyrian evidence, do not belong to the older version that was found at Amarna. Second, it compares the Akkadian tradition with the Sumerian version of Adapa from Tell Haddad. Unlike the Akkadian versions, the Sumerian version includes a lengthy cosmological introduction that situates the Adapa plotline in the wider context of humanity’s origins. In this case, it appears that a master scribe omitted the long Sumerian introduction so as to heighten the focus on Adapa, perhaps when the myth was reimagined in Akkadian. This chapter demonstrates that the major shifts in perspective were accomplished through revision through introduction, whether by omission or addition.

This chapter first sketches out the history of scholarship on scribal education. The chapter summarizes new archaeological discoveries that point to the overlap between the Late Bronze Age cuneiform ...
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This chapter first sketches out the history of scholarship on scribal education. The chapter summarizes new archaeological discoveries that point to the overlap between the Late Bronze Age cuneiform scribal culture and the emergence of early alphabetic writing in Canaan/Israel. This overlap provides a vector of transmission from cuneiform to early alphabetic education. Tangible evidence of this vector of transmission is found in cuneiform school texts dating to the Late Bronze Age, which is the only time such school texts are known in the southern Levant. Thus, scribal training in cuneiform overlaps the emergence of the alphabet in the southern Levant. Parallels of the borrowing from cuneiform and development of alphabetic school curriculum can also be adduced from the Ugaritic alphabetic tradition.Less

The Emergence of Scribal Education in Ancient Israel

William M. Schniedewind

Published in print: 2019-11-28

This chapter first sketches out the history of scholarship on scribal education. The chapter summarizes new archaeological discoveries that point to the overlap between the Late Bronze Age cuneiform scribal culture and the emergence of early alphabetic writing in Canaan/Israel. This overlap provides a vector of transmission from cuneiform to early alphabetic education. Tangible evidence of this vector of transmission is found in cuneiform school texts dating to the Late Bronze Age, which is the only time such school texts are known in the southern Levant. Thus, scribal training in cuneiform overlaps the emergence of the alphabet in the southern Levant. Parallels of the borrowing from cuneiform and development of alphabetic school curriculum can also be adduced from the Ugaritic alphabetic tradition.

This chapter is divided into two parts. The first part investigates the role and status of Osiris, and conceptions of the afterlife more generally, during the Amarna Period. It emerges that the ...
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This chapter is divided into two parts. The first part investigates the role and status of Osiris, and conceptions of the afterlife more generally, during the Amarna Period. It emerges that the evidence for continued belief in the Osirian hereafter during this time is more abundant than one might have expected. The second part scrutinizes the theory of the ‘solar-Osirian unity’ which some Egyptologists think is reflected in the underworld guides of the New Kingdom. It explores how the relationship between Osiris and the sun god attested in New Kingdom sources like these and the Book of the Dead affected the relationship between Osiris and the deceased.Less

Re Resting in Osiris, Osiris Resting in Re: Osiris, Sun God, and the Deceased in the New Kingdom

Mark Smith

Published in print: 2017-02-23

This chapter is divided into two parts. The first part investigates the role and status of Osiris, and conceptions of the afterlife more generally, during the Amarna Period. It emerges that the evidence for continued belief in the Osirian hereafter during this time is more abundant than one might have expected. The second part scrutinizes the theory of the ‘solar-Osirian unity’ which some Egyptologists think is reflected in the underworld guides of the New Kingdom. It explores how the relationship between Osiris and the sun god attested in New Kingdom sources like these and the Book of the Dead affected the relationship between Osiris and the deceased.