Climate

Biogas from trash is helping to drive Rio de Janeiro towards its C40 Cities initiative goals. That means the city has pledged to slash emissions by 20 percent of its 2004 volume by 2020. But that won’t be the end of the matter. C40 Cities say they aim to be carbon neutral by 2050 and that will mean producing no more greenhouse gas than they are able to offset.

Emissions Nearly to Zero by 2050

Early on, Rio de Janeiro pinpointed a little-recognized but major source of greenhouse gas as an area where it could get significant results quickly – trash.

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Organic Waste an Important Source of Greenhouse Gas

Cities produce a great deal of organic waste, and in landfills, this waste decomposes under anaerobic conditions, producing methane gas. As a greenhouse gas, methane is 28 times more harmful than carbon dioxide, making it an important source of city emissions and a major contributor to climate change.

Rio de Janeiro transports its domestic and industrial organic waste to a treatment plant 60 kilometers outside the city where organic waste’s potential to produce methane is put to good use. The plant receives 10,000 tons of waste daily, collects biogas from the waste, purifies it and sells it to the state gas company or to industries.

However, the plant is not the only waste management initiative to reduce city greenhouse gas production. The city reports two thirds of its reduced emissions as being attributable to good waste management practices.

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Cities are known to be responsible for around 75 percent of the world’s CO2 emissions and are also the greediest consumers of energy. By collecting biogas, cities can either use it directly as a source of energy or use it to generate clean electricity. But there is no panacea. Other projects employed by cities to reduce emissions include planting trees and improving public transport networks.

Rio hasn’t lacked emissions-reducing strategies, but the city has faced hurdles and may fall short of its 2020 goal despite its best efforts. Recent economic setbacks stemming mainly from low oil prices and corruption have delayed projects such as the construction of a second waste treatment plant, and the city is struggling to find bidders for tenders. Recently, a project for the replacement of streetlight globes with energy efficient LEDs fell flat after no companies entered tenders.

National Issues and An Unfavorable Political Climate May Negate Rio’s Efforts

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Apart from an economic climate that delays investment in projects, observers are concerned that Brazil’s government is no longer committed to mitigating climate change. On, the contrary, the country’s president has promised to open more protected rainforest areas for mining and agriculture, a controversial move that would accelerate global climate change.

Rio Struggling to Reach C40 Target

With most of the green-house gases we produce coming from cities, they have a vital role to play in shaping a sustainable future for the planet. However, despite its remarkable progress in emissions reduction, particularly through waste management, it seems likely that Rio will fall short of its 2020 target. City managers say they hope to maintain an 18 percent reduction in emissions, but will only be able to do so if the situation remains unchanged during the coming year.

Design Guidelines Needed: Theory and Practice Meet

For decades, we’ve known that urban environments modify climate. The “heat island” effect caused by hard surfaces boosts city temperatures, and with global warming adding its contribution to heat woes, urban heat stress becomes a very real phenomenon.

Just as we see climate responsive buildings that can save energy on lighting, heating and cooling through clever design that works with the surrounding environment, so urban landscape architecture should be climate responsive. To achieve this, says Wieke Klemm, a researcher at Wageningen University in the Netherlands, landscape architects need situational knowledge of the specific location and its unique characteristics as well as general knowledge spanning a wide range of topics including methods to influence microclimate, promote biodiversity, and facilitate recreation.

What is Urban Green Infrastructure?

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Klemm sees Urban Green Infrastructure as embracing the entire network of green spaces in urban environments. They include public and private gardens, street trees, and parks, and together, they provide ecosystem services to urbanized areas. The vision would be to design and manage these spaces so that they regulate city microclimates resulting in greater comfort and reduced thermal stress.

The Cooling Effect of Urban Greenery

Urban greenery has two broad impacts on thermal comfort. On an objective level, it reduces ambient temperatures and the physical stress associated with radiated light and heat. You could be up to 1.7° C cooler in a cluster of trees or under a tree with a large canopy.

Rather than using precise targets as decision-making tools for
heat-mitigating design proposals, I recommend using thermo-spatial
knowledge to design thermally comfortable outdoor places

Wiebke Klemm

When under smaller trees, the temperature isn’t lower, but you have the comfort of shade and reduced glare so you feel cooler. Meanwhile, the shaded and vegetated surfaces don’t absorb as much heat and won’t have as much heat to give off later on.

There’s definitely a subjective effect. It’s possible that we all perceive thermal comfort differently, but our behavior is certainly influenced by urban greenery and its microclimate-regulating effects. The simplest example is moving into the shade of a tree on a hot day.

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But most people don’t consciously gravitate to urban parks to get cooler. They enjoy the recreational, aesthetic, and psychological benefits of green spaces too. Nevertheless, Klemm points to research that shows a preference for green spaces with shade and water features.

Design Guidelines Needed: Theory and Practice Meet

For landscape architects and urban planners to obtain the best combination of benefits from urban green infrastructure, design guidelines are needed.

Klemm sees the development of these guidelines as consisting of a process in which real-life contexts are used to evaluate urban green infrastructure impacts on microclimate. This information feeds into evidence-based design guidelines which can be implemented in practice, evaluated, and further refined.

Green Infrastructure Guidelines: Using What we Know

By compiling accepted knowledge and information, Klemm and her research team formulated a simple set of design guidelines for urban green infrastructure. The guidelines covered cities as a whole, parks, and streets. A team of landscape architects and a team of Master’s Degree students were each supplied with the guidelines, and their responses were recorded.

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In general, both groups saw the importance of considering microclimate in landscape design – not only in determining site conditions, but in altering them for greater comfort.

However, landscape architecture professionals expressed concern about implementing the guidelines for use at city and street level while approving the guidelines generated for use at park level. Participants felt that the city level guidelines, which include expanding green spaces to form interconnected corridors, were self-evident, but could be difficult to implement.

Naturally, thermal adaptation isn’t just about keeping cool. The guidelines for parks recommends a diversity of shaded, half-shaded and sunny areas with multiple potential functions and park benches allowing park visitors to choose how much sun they want to get.

At street level, tree selection and placement play a vital role. Deciduous trees allow sun through in the winter, and the researchers recommend species with wide canopies for streets subject to high sun exposure. But thermal perception also matters, and the guide suggests using greenery at different heights or levels to improve it – a measure that may be difficult to implement on many existing urban streets.

Where to From Here?

According to Klemm, climate responsive green infrastructure design isn’t getting the attention it should. She argues that global warming may soon make it a priority, even in mild climates like that of the Netherlands.

Microclimate enjoys some attention as a design consideration, but improved consciousness could lead to more focused implementation of the design guidelines, a greater volume of scientific evidence, and a refined set of green infrastructure guidelines for the cities of tomorrow.

Tracking pollution in San Fransisco with California's own satellite in the near future?

California governor Jerry Brown waited for the closing remarks at the Global Climate Action Summit in San Francisco to announce that his state plans to launch its own satellite to track pollutants which cause climate change and pinpoint where they originate.

Tracking Pollution in Urban Regions With California’s Own Satellite In The Near Future?

In a statement in defiance of the US President Donald Trump and federal government’s stance against the concept of climate change, the governor said California would be launching “its own damn satellite” to help governments, businessmen and landowners pinpoint, and then hopefully reduce, the emissions which were contributing to climate change, at their source.

It’s not the first time Brown has made this statement. It’s a repeat of one he made to scientists at the American Geophysical Union’s meeting at the same San Francisco venue two years ago. He was also responding then to the threat of satellite and other climate monitoring programme cuts by the federal government. And this was before Trump took office.

“With science still under attack and the climate threat growing, we’re launching our own damn satellite,” said Governor Brown. “This groundbreaking initiative will help governments, businesses and landowners pinpoint – and stop – destructive emissions with unprecedented precision, on a scale that’s never been done before.”

Satellite Planned as Part of Current Strategy

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However, this time it is being made in the context of developments underway in the state towards achieving it. The satellite project forms part of a multi-levelled strategy already underway in California. This is touted to have the potential to cut back the impact of global emissions annually by the equivalent of that produced by 1,000 million tonnes of carbon dioxide, or by 200 million of the vehicles that take to the road every year.

According to Brown, the satellite’s major purpose will be to fill in the biggest gap in the data currently available to governments, businesses and other parties interested in climate change globally. What is still missing in the available information is the exact source of the climate pollutants, and especially the so-called super pollutants which have the greatest heat-trapping ability, but which don’t remain in the atmosphere as long as other greenhouse gases.

“The time has never been more urgent or your work never more important,” said Governor Brown in that 2016 speech at the American Geophysical Union’s annual fall meeting. “We’ve got the scientists, we’ve got the universities, we have the national labs and we have the political clout and sophistication for the battle – and we will persevere. Have no doubt about that.”

Pinpointing The Sources of Emissions

The new satellite will therefore be designed with the precision to pinpoint the sources of these emissions exactly, so that they can be identified, and action taken to lessen the destructive emissions at their source.

“This new initiative is a critical part of Governor Brown’s bold commitment to harness leading edge technology in the fight against climate change,” said EDF President Fred Krupp. “These satellite technologies are part of a new era of environmental innovation that is supercharging our ability to solve problems. They won’t cut emissions by themselves, but they will make invisible pollution visible and generate the transparent, actionable, data we need to protect our health, our environment and our economies.”

Working with the State of California and the California Air Resource’s Board, on developing and launching the new earth-watching satellite will be Planet Labs, an earth imaging company based in San Francisco. This facility has already notched up 150 such satellite launches since it was started by a group of former NASA scientists eight years ago.

Data for Public Release

Data collected by the new satellite will be made available to the public via the planned Climate Data Partnership common platform. Once established, this platform will correlate data reporting from it and other satellites that collect similar climate-related data. Various other bodies will be involved, including the Environmental Defence Fund (EDF) which introduced its climate change project MethaneSAT earlier this year, and plans to launch its own satellite in 2021 to track methane emissions.

Brown believes that the satellite will not only lead to greater precision in emissions monitoring, and therefore better decision-making, but it will also ensure that the State of California is able to continue gathering data independently.

Tackling The Adverse Effects of Extreme Climatic Conditions - Ideas That Turn the San Francisco Bay Area into a Vibrant and Resilient Community

San Francisco is known for many things, chief among them being a popular tourist destination. Structures and monuments that include the Golden Gate Bridge and the Fisherman’s Warf are just two of the many that are frequented by tourists and natives alike. Then, of course, there are more natural attractions like the rolling hills, the summers and many beaches. It’s not all fun and games in San Francisco though.

The US city has borne witness and been a victim of countless tragedies and natural disasters. The fires and Great 1906 Earthquake and the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake are perhaps some of the worst. People have reacted to all this though. Each disaster has only been an incentive to push forth new mediums that ensure the safety of lives and property in the event these disasters should break again.

CLICK TO ENLARGE (MVRDV and HASSELL+)

Large International Team Contributes to a Resilient Waterfront of the San Francisco Bay Area

HASSELL is at the forefront of this. Along with 10 international, multi-disciplinary partners that include MVRDV, Lotus Water, Deltares, Goudapel and 6 more, HASSELL has revealed a design strategy that is intended to act as a buffer against harsh and extreme climatic changes in the San Francisco Bay Area. The team has an idea that turns San Francisco waterfront communities into mediums that cater to and satisfy various needs of the people and communities as a whole. For one, these waterfront communities can be more than just public, recreational centers; but also emergency centers.

Everything HASSEL and the other contributors aspire to achieve is part of the Resilient By Design initiative, which is intended to see the birth of better and more efficient means of tackling the adverse effects of extreme climatic conditions. The team drew inspiration from the disasters of prior decades, primarily the 1906 earthquake of San Francisco.

HASSELL expects its design strategy to be flawless, which is why assistance was sought from a number of sources: Competent design firms, public officials, experts and even the locals all contributed in one way or another, either by assisting with the research involved in the strategy or by providing necessary and valuable information where required. Digital platforms have made this easier because it is another faster way for the people to make their voices heard on what facilities and structures they require the most. Feedback is as necessary as it is important.

Needed facilities for the San Francisco Bay Area - CLICK TO ENLARGE (MVRDV and HASSELL+)

The research concluded with findings that reveal faults in South San Francisco and possible design solutions for San Mateo County. More than that, the findings also made possible the creation of a network of public spaces that connect people and manage water. This network is intended to connect waterfront communities together and at the same time manage water in such events like floods.

Element Overview for the Resilient San Francisco Bay Area

Element overview for the resilient San Francisco Bay area - CLICK TO ENLARGE (MVRDV and HASSELL+)

Disaster elements - CLICK TO ENLARGE (MVRDV and HASSELL+)

Connectors - CLICK TO ENLARGE (MVRDV and HASSELL+)

By creating high streets, broad green spaces and creeks, more channels for the runoff and passage of water are opened, which is necessary, considering the congested nature of all waterfronts’ transport infrastructure. Along the same vein, the waterfront communities can serve as temporary shelters in the aftermath of disasters. Conversely, and during more civil times, these San Francisco waterfronts can double as celebration centers.

There has been a projection that by the year 2100, there will be a 66-inch rise in sea level of the San Francisco Bay area, which altogether makes the community-based solutions developed by HASSEL imperative. Rise in sea level is just one of the many compounding issues waterfront communities face. Tidal waves, severe storms, tsunamis, flooding, and earthquakes all pose great threats to life and property. It is needed to adapt to the impacts of climate change soon enough.

South San Francisco - CLICK TO ENLARGE (MVRDV and HASSELL+)

CLICK TO ENLARGE (MVRDV and HASSELL+)

HASSEL has initiated a plan that is targeted towards a single goal: the continuation and sustenance of lives and property. These waterfronts are to be transformed into public places that serve a multitude of purposes, all of them making possible more efficient means of surviving adverse climatic conditions.

According to a today published study from Texas Trees Foundation, Dallas County currently occupies the second position of the most rapidly warming US cities. The fastest heating city is Phoenix, Arizona. A sad record but a welcome opportunity to point out a widespread problem: Urban heat.

101°F as Average Temperature in Some Areas in Dallas for Five Months

The 2017 Dallas Urban Heat Island Study provides results of a year-long investigation of air temperature impacts at the district level. The resulting figures are alarming. Five full months, the average temperature in some areas in Dallas is 101°F – the lowest still 80°F. Allegedly, high temperatures in US cities cause more deaths every year than all other natural disasters combined.

“Heat-related deaths peaked at 52 in 2011 in Dallas County”

The study states, “Cities do not cause heat waves – they amplify them. Human activities on climate at the city/regional scale, accounting for both land surface changes and emissions of greenhouses gases, may be twice as great as the impacts of greenhouse gases alone.”

Especially Most Rapidly Warming US Cities Should Fight the Plague of Urban Heat

Apart from any rankings, it is not pointless to call attention to the harmful consequences of the urban heat island effect. Especially very densely populated cities with very high land prices tend to get more compact in the center. For personal economic reasons alone, an investor prefers to use every square meter to build high-rises with expensive offices instead of a green front yard. The city administration can combat de-greening with, for example, public green spaces – as in the case of the city-owned Central Park in New York.

Several Options Are Available to Reduce Urban Heat

The fight against urban sprawl, which is meaningful for different reasons, can in certain respects be a further negative impact on the inner city if it results in denser centers and the further sealing of green surfaces. Green space, in whatever form, improves the quality of life in inner cities as it reduces the risk of the urban heat island effect. Consequently, the risk of urban sprawl can be reduced as people are less willing to move to the surrounding suburbs. If there is only limited space for large-scale parks in the city, at least green roof legislations as in San Francisco or reflecting material surfaces should be considered more closely as possible measures. Liuzhou Forest City in China, for example, is taking an unusual step to combat harmful urban climate without sacrificing a compact development by planting trees and bushes on nearly each floor. The city literally consists of green buildings. In the end, there are even more than these three options to cool down the most rapidly warming US cities.

Childhood Asthma Rates at All-Time High in Dallas

Texas Trees’ chief executive officer, Janette Monear, says: “Our foundation is focused on making spaces cooler, greener and cleaner, and data has long affirmed that trees are vital to achieve this laudable and critical goal. The study we have released today is a wake-up call for all of us who call Dallas and North Texas home: We must act now to mitigate the urban heat island effect for the sake of our health, the economy and viability of our community. North Texas is seeing unprecedented growth, and with growth comes new buildings, roads and parking lots. It’s imperative that we come together to balance the grey with the green to ensure North Texas is a desirable place to live and work.”

Dallas County

“With a dual perspective from my seat as Chairman of the Board for Children’s Health System of Texas, and as the leader of a Fortune 500 company headquartered in North Texas, the economic impact of the rising temperatures in Dallas has never been more at risk. We know from our partnership with Texas Trees Foundation and data from the Urban Heat Island study that health is directly impacted when temperatures increase and air quality declines. Childhood asthma rates are at an all-time high, with nearly 10 percent of all Dallas children suffering from asthma. We care about the health and well-being of our associates, which is why Alliance Data funded this study and why we’re committed to standing with Texas Trees Foundation to make a difference.” points out Ed Heffernan, President and Chief Executive Officer of Alliance Data. The study was conducted by Georgia Institute of Technology, School of City and author of ‘The City and the Coming Climate’.