Newgate

Newgate was one of the historic seven gates of the London Wall around the City of London and one of the six which date back to Roman times. From it, a Roman road led west to Silchester, Hampshire.[2]:31 Excavations in 1875, 1903 and 1909 revealed the Roman structure and showed that it consisted of a double roadway between two square flanking guardroom towers.[2]:272–3[3]

From the 12th century, at least, the gate was used as a prison for debtors and felons.[4] This, the notorious Newgate Prison, was later extended to the south on the site of the modern Central Criminal Court on Old Bailey. The gate was demolished in 1767.[4]

Blue plaque on the site of Newgate

It was once thought that Newgate was "New" since it was built after the Roman period but archaeological evidence has shown that it was of Roman origin; it is therefore possible that the gate was so named when the Ludgate became less used due to the building of the fourth St Paul's Cathedral in the early medieval period.[5]

Newgate Street, today part of the A40 London to Fishguard route, is mostly located within the city wall, leading west from Cheapside to the site of the old gate, and then continuing onto Holborn Viaduct at the point where the Old Bailey thoroughfare joins to the south and Giltspur Street to the north. A notable discovery here was a Roman tile inscribed with a disgruntled comment that "Austalis has been going off on his own for 13 days".[2]:272

1.
Newgate, Chester
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Newgate is an arch bridge carrying the walkway of the city walls over Pepper Street in Chester, Cheshire, England. It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II listed building, the bridge was built in 1938 to relieve traffic congestion in the city, especially at Chester Cross. This involved making a new breach in the city walls, the bridge is constructed in red sandstone. It was designed by Sir Walter Tapper and his son, Michael, on each side of the bridge is a tower containing mock loops and surmounted by hipped roofs. Flights of steps on each side lead up to the towers, the structure is decorated with carved shields and Tudor roses. The historian Simon Ward expresses the opinion that its design conformed to the generally medieval feel of the walls, Grade II listed buildings in Chester

2.
London Wall
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It is now the name of a road in the City of London running along part of the course of the old wall between Wormwood Street and the Rotunda junction where St. Martins Le Grand meets Aldersgate Street. Until the later Middle Ages the wall defined the boundaries of the City of London, although the exact reason for the walls construction is unknown, the wall appears to have been built in the late 2nd or early 3rd century. This was around 80 years after the construction in 120AD of the fort, whose north. It continued to be developed until at least the end of the 4th century, reasons for its construction may have been connected to the invasion of northern Britain by Picts who overran Hadrians Wall in the 180s. After a struggle with his rival, Septimius Severus, Albinus was defeated in 197AD at the Battle of Lugdunum, the economic stimulus provided by the wall and Septimiuss subsequent campaigns in Scotland improved Londiniums financial prosperity in the early 3rd century. The walls gateways coincided with their alignment to the British network of Roman roads, the original gates, clockwise from Ludgate in the west to Aldgate, in the east were, Ludgate, Newgate, Cripplegate, Bishopsgate and Aldgate. Aldersgate, between Newgate and Cripplegate, was added around 350AD, the length and size of the wall made it one of the biggest construction projects in Roman Britain. The completed wall, which had gateways, towers and defensive ditches, was built from Kentish ragstone and it was 2 mi long enclosing an area of about 330 acres. It 2.5 m to 3 m wide and up to 6 m ) high, the ditch or fossa in front of the outer wall was 2 m deep and up to 5 m wide. There were at least 22 towers spaced about 64 m apart on the section of the wall. After Londinium was raided on several occasions by Saxon pirates in the late 3rd century, with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, Londinium ceased to be the capital of Britannia although Romano-British culture continued in the St Martin-in-the-Fields area until around 450. From around 500, an Anglo-Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic developed in the area slightly to the west of the old abandoned Roman city. But by about 680, London had revived sufficiently to become a major Saxon port, however, the upkeep of the wall was not maintained and London fell victim to two successful Viking assaults in 851 and 886 AD. Within the eastern and northern part of England with its boundary roughly stretching from London to Chester, in the same year, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that London was refounded by Alfred. Archaeological research shows that this abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life. This was part Alberts policy of building an in-depth defence of the Kingdom of Wessex against the Vikings as well as creating a strategy against the Vikings who controlled Mercia. The Burghal Hidage of Southwark was also was created on the southbank of the River Thames during this time, the city walls of London were repaired as the city slowly grew until about 950 when urban activity increased dramatically. A large Viking army that attacked the London burgh was defeated in 994, by the 11th century, London was beyond all comparison the largest town in England

3.
City of London
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The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, the City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London, however, the City of London is not a London borough. The City of London is widely referred to simply as the City and is colloquially known as the Square Mile. Both of these terms are often used as metonyms for the United Kingdoms trading and financial services industries. The name London is now used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 London boroughs and this wider usage of London is documented as far back as 1888, when the County of London was created. The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council and it is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, the current Lord Mayor, as of November 2016, is Andrew Parmley. The City is a business and financial centre. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the primary business centre. London came top in the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index, published in 2008, the insurance industry is focused around the eastern side of the City, around Lloyds building. A secondary financial district exists outside of the City, at Canary Wharf,2.5 miles to the east, the City has a resident population of about 7,000 but over 300,000 people commute to and work there, mainly in the financial services sector. It used to be held that Londinium was first established by merchants as a trading port on the tidal Thames in around 47 AD. However, this date is only supposition, many historians now believe London was founded some time before the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. They base this notion on evidence provided by both archaeology and Welsh literary legend, archaeologists have claimed that as much as half of the best British Iron Age art and metalwork discovered in Britain has been found in the London area. One of the most prominent examples is the famously horned Waterloo Helmet dredged from the Thames in the early 1860s and now exhibited at the British Museum. Also, according to an ancient Welsh legend, a king named Lud son of Heli substantially enlarged and improved a pre-existing settlement at London which afterwards came to be renamed after him, the same tradition relates how this Lud son of Heli was later buried at Ludgate

4.
Roman roads
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They provided efficient means for the overland movement of armies, officials, and civilians, and the inland carriage of official communications and trade goods. Roman roads were of several kinds, ranging from local roads to broad, long-distance highways built to connect cities, major towns. These major roads were often stone-paved and metaled, cambered for drainage and they were laid along accurately surveyed courses, and some were cut through hills, or conducted over rivers and ravines on bridgework. Sections could be supported over marshy ground on rafted or piled foundations, at the peak of Romes development, no fewer than 29 great military highways radiated from the capital, and the late Empires 113 provinces were interconnected by 372 great roads. The whole comprised more than 400,000 kilometres of roads, in Gaul alone, no less than 21,000 kilometres of roadways are said to have been improved, and in Britain at least 4,000 kilometres. The courses of many Roman roads survived for millennia, some are overlaid by modern roads, livy mentions some of the most familiar roads near Rome, and the milestones on them, at times long before the first paved road—the Appian Way. Unless these allusions are just simple anachronisms, the referred to were probably at the time little more than levelled earthen tracks. Thus, the Via Gabina is mentioned in about 500 BC, the Via Latina in about 490 BC, the Via Nomentana, in 449 BC, the Via Labicana in 421 BC, and the Via Salaria in 361 BC. There is hardly a district to which we expect a Roman official to be sent, on service either civil or military. They reach the Wall in Britain, run along the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates, and cover, as with a network, a road map of the empire reveals that it was generally laced with a dense network of prepared viae. Beyond its borders there were no paved roads, however, it can be supposed that footpaths, there were, for instance, some pre-Roman ancient trackways in Britain, such as the Ridgeway and the Icknield Way. For specific roads, see Roman road locations below, the Laws of the Twelve Tables, dated to about 450 BC, specified that a road shall be 8 Roman feet wide where straight and twice that width where curved. Actual practices varied from this standard, the Tables command Romans to build roads and give wayfarers the right to pass over private land where the road is in disrepair. Roman law defined the right to use a road as a servitus, the ius eundi established a claim to use an iter, or footpath, across private land, the ius agendi, an actus, or carriage track. A via combined both types of servitutes, provided it was of the width, which was determined by an arbiter. The default width was the latitudo legitima of 8 feet, Roman law and tradition forbade the use of vehicles in urban areas, except in certain cases. Married women and government officials on business could ride, the Lex Iulia Municipalis restricted commercial carts to night-time access in the city within the walls and within a mile outside the walls. Such roads led either to the sea, or to a town, or to a public river and these roads bear the names of their constructors

5.
Silchester
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Silchester is a village and civil parish about 5 miles north of Basingstoke in Hampshire. It is adjacent to the county boundary with Berkshire and about 9 miles south-west of Reading, the present village is centred on Silchester Common. It is about 1 mile west of the Church of England parish church and former manor house, Silchester is a civil parish with an elected parish council. The ward returns two councillors to the borough council, the 2011 census recorded a parish population of 921. There is a village link minibus service which serves Pamber Heath and it is necessary to pre-book this service by contacting Hampshire County Council. The Domesday Book of 1086 recorded that the Normans William De Ow and Ralph de Mortimer possessed Alestans, the book assessed Alestans manor at five hides and Mortimers at three hides. De Mortimers tenant was another Norman, Ralph Bluet, in 1204 he or a later Ralph Bluet gave a palfrey horse in exchange for a licence to enclose an area of land south-east of the former Roman town as a deer park. Today parts of the park pale survive and parts of the former park remain wooded. Forms of the toponym included Ciltestere and Cilcestre in the 13th century, Scilchestre in the 14th century and Sylkchester in the 18th century before it reached its current spelling. The Irish peer Murrough Boyle, 1st Viscount Blesington bought the manor in 1704 and it remained with his heirs until the death of William Stewart. In 1778 it was inherited jointly by Thomas Vesey, 1st Viscount de Vesci and Edward Pakenham, in 1806 Baron Longfords daughter The Hon. Catherine Pakenham married Arthur Wellesley, who in 1814 was created Duke of Wellington. In 1821 Catherines brother Thomas Pakenham, 2nd Earl of Longford was created Baron Silchester, in the first decade of the 20th century Arthur Wellesley, 4th Duke of Wellington still owned the manor of Silchester. The Church of England parish church of St Mary the Virgin is just within the walls of the former Roman town, the building may contain some re-used Roman materials. The building dates from the late 12th or early 13th century and it has a north and south aisle, each of two bays. There is no arch, and the chancel is longer than the nave. The wall of the aisle was rebuilt in about 1325–50. Two new windows were added to the church the 14th century, the church has a Perpendicular Gothic rood screen. The pulpit was made early in the 18th century but its tester is dated 1639, there is also a carved memorial cartouche to the Irish peer Viscount Ikerrin

6.
Newgate Prison
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Newgate Prison was a prison in London, at the corner of Newgate Street and Old Bailey just inside the City of London. It was originally located at the site of Newgate, a gate in the Roman London Wall, the gate/prison was rebuilt in the 12th century, and demolished in 1904. The prison was extended and rebuilt many times, and remained in use for over 700 years, in the early 12th century, Henry II instituted legal reforms that gave the Crown more control over the administration of justice. As part of his Assize of Clarendon of 1166, he required the construction of prisons, in 1188, Newgate was the first institution established to meet that purpose. The addition included new dungeons and adjacent buildings, which would remain unaltered for roughly two centuries, by the 15th century, however, Newgate was in need of repair. The building was collapsing and decaying, and many prisoners were dying from the quarters, overcrowding, rampant disease. Indeed, one year,22 prisoners died from gaol fever, the situation in Newgate was so dire that in 1419, city officials temporarily shut down the prison. Some Londoners bequeathed their estates to repair the prison, two decades later, the executors of Lord Mayor Dick Whittington were granted a license to renovate the prison in 1422. The gate and gaol were pulled down and rebuilt, there was a new central hall for meals, a new chapel, and the creation of additional chambers and basement cells with no light or ventilation. The prison housed male and female felons and debtors and separated the prisoners into wards by gender. By the mid-15th century, Newgate could accommodate roughly 300 prisoners, though the prisoners lived in separate quarters, they mixed freely with each other and visitors to the prison. There were three main wards—the Master’s side for those could afford to pay for their own food and accommodations, the Common side for those who were too poor, and a Press Yard for special prisoners. The king often used Newgate as a place for heretics, traitors. The prison was destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666, the work followed the designs of George Dance and was almost finished when it was stormed by a mob during the Gordon riots in June 1780. The building was gutted by fire, and the badly damaged. The cost of repairs was estimated at £30,000, dance’s new prison was finally completed in 1782. The new prison was constructed to a terrible design intended to discourage law-breaking. The building was laid out around a courtyard, and was divided into two sections, a Common area for poor prisoners and a State area for those able to afford more comfortable accommodation

7.
Old Bailey
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The Central Criminal Court of England and Wales, commonly known as the Old Bailey from the street on which it stands, is a court in London and one of a number of buildings housing the Crown Court. The Old Bailey has been housed in several structures near this location since the 16th century, the Crown Court sitting at the Central Criminal Court deals with major criminal cases from within Greater London and in exceptional cases, from other parts of England and Wales. Trials at the Old Bailey, as at other courts, are open to the public, however, the court originated as the sessions house of the Lord Mayor and Sheriffs of the City of London and of Middlesex. It was destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666 and rebuilt in 1674, with the court open to the weather to prevent the spread of disease. In 1734 it was refronted, enclosing the court and reducing the influence of spectators and it was rebuilt again in 1774 and a second courtroom was added in 1824. Over 100,000 criminal trials were carried out at the Old Bailey between 1674 and 1834, in 1834, it was renamed as the Central Criminal Court and its jurisdiction extended beyond that of London and Middlesex to the whole of the English jurisdiction for trials of major cases. The court was intended as the site where only criminals accused of crimes committed in the City. However, in 1856, there was public revulsion at the accusations against the doctor William Palmer that he was a poisoner and murderer and this led to fears that he could not receive a fair trial in his native Staffordshire. The Central Criminal Court Act 1856 was passed to enable his trial to be held at the Old Bailey, in the 19th century, the Old Bailey was a small court adjacent to Newgate gaol. Hangings were a spectacle in the street outside until May 1868. The condemned would be led along Dead Mans Walk between the prison and the court, and many were buried in the walk itself, large, riotous crowds would gather and pelt the condemned with rotten fruit and vegetables and stones. In 1807,28 people were crushed to death after a pie-sellers stall overturned, the present Old Bailey building dates from 1902 but it was officially opened on 27 February 1907. It was designed by E. W. Mountford and built on the site of the infamous Newgate gaol, above the main entrance is inscribed the admonition, Defend the Children of the Poor & Punish the Wrongdoer. King Edward VII opened the courthouse, on the dome above the court stands a bronze statue of Lady Justice, executed by the British sculptor F. W. Pomeroy. She holds a sword in her hand and the scales of justice in her left. During the Blitz of World War II, the Old Bailey was bombed and severely damaged, in 1952, the restored interior of the Grand Hall of the Central Criminal Court was once again open. The interior of the Great Hall is decorated with paintings commemorating the Blitz, running around the entire hall are a series of axioms, some of biblical reference. This part of the building houses the shorthand-writers offices

8.
Ludgate
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Ludgate was the westernmost gate in London Wall. The name survives in Ludgate Hill, a continuation of Fleet Street, Ludgate Circus. The Romans built a road along the bank of the River Thames westwards through the gate later called Lud Gate as part of the fortifications of London. Guarding the road from the west, it led to the Romans main burial mound in what is now Fleet Street, the gate stood just above a crossing of the Fleet River. It stood almost opposite what is now St Martins Church on what is now called Ludgate Hill, the site of the gate is marked by a plaque on the north side of Ludgate Hill, halfway between Ludgate Circus and St Pauls Cathedral. Anti-royalist forces rebuilt the gate during the First Barons War using materials recovered from the houses of opulent Jews. The rooms above the gate were used as a prison for petty offenders, the gate was one of three separate sites that bore the name Ludgate Prison. In 1378 it was decided that Newgate Prison would be used for serious criminals, by 1419 it became clear that prisoners were far too comfortable here, as they were more likely to want to stay than to pay their debts and leave. They were all transferred to Newgate prison for this reason, although that prison was so overcrowded and it had a flat lead roof for prisoners to exercise on, as well as a large walking place at ground level. The gate was rebuilt about 1450 by a man called Foster who at one time was lodged in the Debtors Prison over the gate and he eventually became Sir Stephen Foster, Lord Mayor of London. His widow, Agnes, renovated and extended Ludgate and the Debtors Prison, rebuilt by the City in 1586, a statue of King Lud and his two sons was placed on the east side, and one of Queen Elizabeth I on the west. These statues are now outside the church of St Dunstan-in-the-West, in Fleet Street and it was rebuilt again after being destroyed in the Great Fire. Like the other City gates it was demolished in 1760, the prisoners were moved to a section of the workhouse in Bishopsgate Street. Ludds Gate is mentioned in Bernard Cornwells novel Sword Song set during the reign of Alfred the Great, Ludgate is mentioned in Geoffrey of Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae, written around 1136. According to the work the name comes from the Welsh King Lud son of Heli whom he claims also gave his name to London. Ludgate appears in Walter de la Mares poem Up and Down, from Collected Poems 1901–1918, Vol. II, Songs of Childhood, City gate city wall Fortifications of London London Lud son of Heli Nuada

9.
A40 road
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The A40 is a major trunk road connecting London to Goodwick, Wales, and officially called The London to Fishguard Trunk Road in all legal documents and Acts. The road still begins and ends in the places, but a number of changes have been made to its route. The first change dates from 1935, between Ross-on-Wye and Abergavenny, the original route of the A40 was via Skenfrith, this road was renumbered the B4521. Subsequently, the A40 was rerouted within west London, Western Avenue dates from the 1930s, but was originally opened as the A403. After the Second World War, the A40 was rerouted along part of the A219, the old route was renumbered the A4020. For the A40 in London, see A40 road, in central London it is named High Holborn, then Oxford Street. At Marble Arch it joins the A5 Edgware Road as far as the Marylebone Flyover to become Westway, formerly classified A40 as an elevated motorway and it takes the A40 to meet Western Avenue. With two exceptions, Western Avenue forms a grade-separated motorway standard dual-carriageway between Paddington and the M40 motorway, which continues towards Oxford and Birmingham, the two at-grade intersections are Gypsy Corner and Savoy Circus, both of which are traffic light controlled. For the greater part, the road is six lanes wide, at Denham Roundabout, the six lane Western Avenue flows into the M40. The A40 branches off Denham roundabout and runs alongside the M40 as a dual carriageway, after the A413 branches off the A40 becomes single carriageway, still roughly following the route of the M40, passing through the towns of Beaconsfield and High Wycombe. Beyond Stokenchurch the road is much quieter, when meeting the B4009, east of Oxford the A40 becomes a busy dual carriageway again, carrying traffic from the M40 to Oxford and beyond. The route forms the eastern section of the Oxford ring road, crossing the A44, after the road passes under the A34, the A40 reverts to single carriageway for 10 miles. It then turns to dual carriageway again to form the Witney bypass, the dual carriageway then finishes at a roundabout. For the rest of Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire until Cheltenham, other than for a few short stretches and this section has the highest point of the entire A40 which is 250 m above sea level, located 5 km west of the A429 junction. Before Andoversford the A436 breaks off to the west to try to take away from descending into the centre of Cheltenham itself. The road travels through Cheltenham town centre along at least two parallel routes, afterwards it becomes dual carriageway out of Cheltenham and has a junction with the M5 motorway. The junction is a three-level stacked roundabout, where neither road is interrupted, in February 2015, the Witney Oxford Transport Group proposed the reopening of Yarnton railway station as an alternative to improvements to the A40 road proposed by Oxfordshire County Council. There is a case to reopen the railway given the severe traffic congestion on the roads to

10.
Cheapside
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Cheapside is a street in the City of London, the historic and modern financial centre of London, which forms part of the A40 London to Fishguard road. It links St. Martins Le Grand with Poultry, near its eastern end at Bank junction, where it becomes Poultry, is Mansion House, the Bank of England, and Bank station. To the west is St. Pauls Cathedral, St. Pauls tube station, in the Middle Ages, it was known as Westcheap, as opposed to Eastcheap, another street in the City, near London Bridge. The contemporary Cheapside is widely known as the location of a range of retail and food outlets and offices, as well as the Citys only major shopping centre, One New Change. Cheapside is a common English street name, meaning place, from Old English ceapan, to buy, whence also chapman. There was originally no connection to the meaning of cheap. There is also a Cheapside in Bridgetown, Barbados, Lexington, Kentucky, US, Greenfield, Massachusetts, US, Saint Helier, Jersey, Cheapside is the former site of one of the principal produce markets in London, cheap broadly meaning market in medieval English. Many of the streets feeding into the thoroughfare are named after the produce that was once sold in those areas of the market, including Honey Lane, Milk Street, Bread Street. In medieval times, the processional route from the Tower of London to the Palace of Westminster would include Cheapside. During state occasions such as the first entry of Margaret of France, into London in September 1299, during the reign of Edward III in the 14th century, tournaments were held in adjacent fields. No one died, but the King was greatly displeased, Meat was brought in to Cheapside from Smithfield market, just outside Newgate. Further down, on the right, was Goldsmiths Row, an area of commodity dealers, from the 14th century to the Great Fire, the eastern end of Cheapside was the location of the Great Conduit. Cheapside was the birthplace of John Milton, and Robert Herrick and it was for a long time one of the most important streets in London. It is also the site of the Bow Bells, the church of St. Mary-le-Bow, which has played a part in Londons Cockney heritage, geoffrey Chaucer grew up around Cheapside and there are a scattering of references to the thoroughfare and its environs throughout his work. The first chapter of Peter Ackroyds Brief Lives series on Chaucer also colourfully describes the street at that time, thomas Middletons play A Chaste Maid in Cheapside both satirises and celebrates the citizens of the neighbourhood during the Renaissance, when the street hosted the citys goldsmiths. William Wordsworth, in his 1797 poem The Reverie of Poor Susan, imagines a naturalistic Cheapside of past and that is capital, added her sister, and they both laughed heartily. If they had enough to fill all Cheapside, cried Bingley. But it must very materially lessen their chance of marrying men of any consideration in the world, charles Dickens, Jr. wrote in his 1879 book Dickenss Dictionary of London, Cheapside remains now what it was five centuries ago, the greatest thoroughfare in the City of London

11.
Holborn Viaduct
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Holborn Viaduct is a road bridge in London and the name of the street which crosses it. It links Holborn, via Holborn Circus, with Newgate Street, in the City of London financial district, passing over Farringdon Street, the viaduct spans the steep-sided Holborn Hill and the River Fleet valley at a length of 1,400 feet and 80 feet wide. City surveyor William Haywood was the architect and the engineer was Rowland Mason Ordish and it was opened by Queen Victoria at the same time as the inauguration of the other thoroughfares with a formal coach drive procession. The viaduct effected a more level approach on the crossing of this section of the Holborn/Fleet valley from east to west, across Farringdon Street. Holborn Viaduct railway station, opened in 1874, was at the end with a low-level through route towards Farringdon. In 1882 the viaduct became home to the worlds first coal-fired power station, the Edison Electric Light Station

12.
Giltspur Street
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It was formerly known as Knightsriders Street, from the knights riding at the tournaments in Smithfield. He was originally built into the front of a house called The Fortune of War which used to occupy this site and was pulled down in 1910. Also on Giltspur Street is a monument to the English essayist Charles Lamb, best known for his Essays of Elia, an inscription on the sculpture reads, Perhaps the most loved name in English literature who was a bluecoat boy here for 7 years. The street gave its name to the Giltspur Street Compter, a prison located on the street from 1791 to 1855. The nearest London Underground station is St. Pauls and the closest mainline railway stations are City Thameslink and Farringdon

13.
Christ Church Greyfriars
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Christ Church Greyfriars, also known as Christ Church Newgate Street, was a church in Newgate Street, opposite St Pauls Cathedral in the City of London. Established as a church in the thirteenth century, it became a parish church after the dissolution of the monastery. Following its destruction in the Great Fire of London of 1666, except for the tower, the church was largely destroyed by bombing during the Second World War. The ruins are now a public garden, Christ Church Greyfriars had its origins in the conventual church of a Franciscan monastery, the name Greyfriars being a reference to the grey habits worn by Franciscan monks. It was built partly at the expense of Marguerite of France and she was buried at the church, as was Isabella, widow of Edward II. The heart of Eleanor of Provence, wife of Henry III, was interred there. Richard Whittington, Lord Mayor of London founded a library in connection with the church in 1429, the monastery was dissolved in 1538 during the English Reformation. The building and fittings suffered heavy damage in this period, tombs disappeared, sold for their marble and other valuable materials, monuments were defaced. In 1546 Henry VIII gave the priory and its church, along with the churches of St Nicholas Shambles and St Ewin, Newgate Market, a new parish of Christ Church was created, incorporating those of St Nicholas and St Ewin, and part of that of St Sepulchre. The priory buildings later housed Christs Hospital school, founded by Edward VI, the medieval church was destroyed by the Great Fire of London in 1666. Reconstruction was assigned to Wren, who oversaw a decades long-programme that rebuilt St. Pauls Cathedral, there appears to have been some debate about the form the new Christ Church should take. A surviving unused design shows a structure larger than what was eventually built. The parish was united with that of St Leonard, Foster Lane, to save time and money, the foundations of the gothic church were partially reused. The new church and tower were completed in 1687, at a total cost of £11,778 9s. Smaller than the structure, the building measured 114 feet long and 81 feet wide, occupying only the eastern end of the site of the medieval church. The tower, rising from the west end of the church, had a simple round-arched main entranceway and, above, large carved pineapples, symbols of welcome, graced the four roof corners of the main church structure. Unique among the Wren churches, the east and west walls had buttresses, the interior was divided into nave and aisles by Corinthian columns, raised on tall plinths so that their bases were level with the gallery floors. The aisles had flat ceilings, while the nave had a shallow cross-vault, the north and south walls had large round-arched windows of clear glass, which allowed for a brightly lit interior

14.
Paternoster Square
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Paternoster Square is an urban development, owned by the Mitsubishi Estate Co. next to St Pauls Cathedral in the City of London. The area, which takes its name from Paternoster Row, centre of the London publishing trade, was devastated by bombardment in The Blitz during World War II. It is now the location of the London Stock Exchange which relocated there from Threadneedle Street in 2004 and it is also the location of investment banks such as Goldman Sachs, Merrill Lynch and Nomura Securities Co. and of fund manager Fidelity Investments. Pater noster is Latin for Our Father, the incipit of the Lords Prayer, the Square lies near the top of Ludgate Hill, the highest part of the City of London. The City of London was hit by one of the heaviest night raids of The Blitz on the night of 29 December 1940, buildings on Paternoster Row, housing the publishing companies Simpkins and Marshall, Hutchinsons, Blackwoods, and Longmans and Collins were destroyed. In 1956 the Corporation of London published Sir William Holfords proposals for redeveloping the precinct north of St Pauls Cathedral, the report was controversial, however, because it introduced a decisively modern note alongside the foremost work of Britains foremost 17th-century architect, Sir Christopher Wren. The new Paternoster Square soon became unpopular, and its grim presence immediately north of one of the capitals prime tourist attractions was seen as an embarrassment. Robert Finch, the Lord Mayor of London, wrote of it in The Guardian in 2004, in the late 1980s, as it became harder to fill leases on the site, there were proposals to redevelop the area. A competition was won in 1987 by Arup associates with a complicated postmodern plan and this was abandoned in 1990 in favour of John Simpsons classicising scheme, sponsored by a newspaper competition and championed by HRH The Prince of Wales. Dismissed by supporters of modern styles as pastiche, this plan too was abandoned. In 1996 a masterplan by Sir William Whitfield was adopted and put into action over the following years, by October 2003 the redeveloped Paternoster Square was complete, with buildings by Whitfields firm and several others. Among the main tenants was the newly relocated London Stock Exchange, the London Stock Exchange was the initial target for the protesters of Occupy London on October 15,2011. Attempts to occupy Paternoster Square were thwarted by police, police sealed off the entrance to Paternoster square. A High Court injunction had been granted against public access to the square, the main monument in the redeveloped square is the 75 ft tall Paternoster Square Column. It is a Corinthian column of Portland stone topped by a leaf covered flaming copper urn. The column was designed by the architects Whitfield Partners and also serves as a shaft for a service road that runs beneath the square. It is sometimes referred to as the pineapple, at the north end of the square is the bronze Paternoster by Dame Elisabeth Frink. The statue was commissioned for the previous Paternoster Square complex in 1975 and was replaced on a new following the redevelopment

15.
St Paul's Cathedral
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St Pauls Cathedral, London, is an Anglican cathedral, the seat of the Bishop of London and the mother church of the Diocese of London. It sits on Ludgate Hill at the highest point of the City of London and is a Grade 1 listed building and its dedication to Paul the Apostle dates back to the original church on this site, founded in AD604. The present church, dating from the late 17th century, was designed in the English Baroque style by Sir Christopher Wren and its construction, completed in Wrens lifetime, was part of a major rebuilding programme in the City after the Great Fire of London. The cathedral is one of the most famous and most recognisable sights of London and its dome, framed by the spires of Wrens City churches, dominated the skyline for 300 years. At 365 feet high, it was the tallest building in London from 1710 to 1967, the dome is among the highest in the world. St Pauls is the second-largest church building in area in the United Kingdom after Liverpool Cathedral, St Pauls Cathedral occupies a significant place in the national identity. It is the subject of much promotional material, as well as of images of the dome surrounded by the smoke. St Pauls Cathedral is a church with hourly prayer and daily services. The entry fee is £18 for adults, the location of Londiniums original cathedral is unknown. In 1995, however, a large and ornate 5th century building on Tower Hill was excavated, the Elizabethan antiquarian William Camden argued that a temple to the goddess Diana had stood during Roman times on the site occupied by the medieval St Pauls Cathedral. Wren reported that he had no trace of any such temple during the works to build the new cathedral after the Great Fire. Bede records that in AD604 St Augustine consecrated Mellitus as the first bishop to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the East Saxons and their king, Sæberht. Sæberhts uncle and overlord, Æthelberht, king of Kent, built a dedicated to St Paul in London. It is assumed, although unproven, that this first Anglo-Saxon cathedral stood on the site as the later medieval. On the death of Sæberht in about 616, his sons expelled Mellitus from London. The fate of the first cathedral building is unknown and this building, or a successor, was destroyed by fire in 962, but rebuilt in the same year. King Æthelred the Unready was buried in the cathedral on his death in 1016, the cathedral was burnt, with much of the city, in a fire in 1087, as recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The fourth St Pauls, generally referred to as Old St Pauls, was begun by the Normans after the 1087 fire, a further fire in 1136 disrupted the work, and the new cathedral was not consecrated until 1240

16.
Fortifications of London
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The fortifications of London are extensive and mostly well maintained, though many of the City of Londons fortifications and defences were dismantled in the 17th and 18th century. Many of those that remain are tourist attractions, most notably the Tower of London, Londons first defensive wall was built by the Romans around 200 AD. The London Wall remained in use as a fortification for over 1,000 years afterwards, defending London against raiding Saxons in 457. There were six main entrances through the wall into the City and these were, going clockwise from Ludgate in the west to Aldgate in the east, Ludgate, Newgate, Aldersgate, Cripplegate, Bishopsgate and Aldgate. A seventh, Moorgate, was added in Medieval times between Cripplegate and Bishopsgate, after the Norman conquest in 1066 the city fortifications were added to, as much to protect the Normans from the people of the City of London as to protect London from outside invaders. A third fortification, Montfichets Castle, was built to the north west by Gilbert de Monfichet, a native of Rouen, later in the medieval period the walls were redeveloped with the addition of crenellations, more gates and further bastions. They were often used as prisons, or used to display executed criminals to passers-by, beheaded traitors often had their head stuck on a spike on London Bridge, then their body quartered and spread among the gates. After the curfew, rung by the bells of St Mary le Bow and other churches at nine oclock, or dusk and they reopened at sunrise, or six oclock the next morning, whichever came later. Entry was forbidden during these times, and citizens inside the gates were required to remain in their homes. The gates were used as checkpoints, to check people entering the City. It is possible that the wall was maintained for the purpose of collecting taxes. The gates were repaired and rebuilt many times, most of the gates were demolished around 1760 due to traffic congestion. The positions of all the gates are now marked by a road with the same name, except for Cripplegate. Old London Bridge was itself fortified against attack, the Southwark end of the bridge was defended by the Great Stone Gate, which was probably completed along with the rest of the bridge in 1209 and was built on the third pier from the bank. In January 1437, the gatehouse collapsed into the Thames but was rebuilt from 1465 to 1466. A second line of defence was provided by a drawbridge which spanned the seventh and eighth piers. First mentioned in 1257, it was supported by a wooden tower at first. The Drawbridge Gate was demolished in 1577, although the Great Stone Gate was demolished and rebuilt in 1727, it had little military function and was demolished completely in 1760

17.
City gate
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A city gate is a gate which is, or was, set within a city wall. City gates were built to provide a point of controlled access to and departure from a walled city for people, vehicles, goods. The city gate was also used to display diverse kinds of public information such as announcements, tax and toll schedules, standards of local measures. City gates, in one form or another, can be found across the world in cities dating back to ancient times to around the 19th century. Many cities would close their gates after a certain curfew each night, for example a bigger one like Prague or a smaller one like Flensburg, in the north of Germany. With increased stability and freedom, many walled cities removed such fortifications as city gates, although many still survive, many surviving gates have been heavily restored, rebuilt or new ones created to add to the appearance of a city, such as Bab Bou Jalous in Fes. With increased levels of traffic, city gates have come under threat in the past for impeding the flow of traffic, ireland, St. Laurences Gate, 13th Century, in Drogheda, Co

18.
Defensive wall
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A defensive wall is a fortification used to protect a city, town or other settlement from potential aggressors. In ancient to modern times, they were used to enclose settlements, beyond their defensive utility, many walls also had important symbolic functions – representing the status and independence of the communities they embraced. Existing ancient walls are almost always masonry structures, although brick, depending on the topography of the area surrounding the city or the settlement the wall is intended to protect, elements of the terrain may be incorporated in order to make the wall more effective. Walls may only be crossed by entering the city gate and are often supplemented with towers. Simpler defensive walls of earth or stone, thrown up around hillforts, ringworks, early castles, from very early history to modern times, walls have been a near necessity for every city. Uruk in ancient Sumer is one of the worlds oldest known walled cities, before that, the city of Jericho in what is now the West Bank had a wall surrounding it as early as the 8th millennium BC. The Assyrians deployed large labour forces to build new palaces, temples, some settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization were also fortified. By about 3500 B. C. hundreds of small farming villages dotted the Indus floodplain, many of these settlements had fortifications and planned streets. Mundigak in present-day south-east Afghanistan has defensive walls and square bastions of sun dried bricks, babylon was one of the most famous cities of the ancient world, especially as a result of the building program of Nebuchadnezzar, who expanded the walls and built the Ishtar Gate. Exceptions were few — notably, ancient Sparta and ancient Rome did not have walls for a long time, initially, these fortifications were simple constructions of wood and earth, which were later replaced by mixed constructions of stones piled on top of each other without mortar. In Central Europe, the Celts built large fortified settlements which the Romans called oppida, the fortifications were continuously expanded and improved. In ancient Greece, large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece, in classical era Greece, the city of Athens built a long set of parallel stone walls called the Long Walls that reached their guarded seaport at Piraeus. Large tempered earth walls were built in ancient China since the Shang Dynasty, although stone walls were built in China during the Warring States, mass conversion to stone architecture did not begin in earnest until the Tang Dynasty. The large walls of Pingyao serve as one example, likewise, the famous walls of the Forbidden City in Beijing were established in the early 15th century by the Yongle Emperor. The Romans fortified their cities with massive, mortar-bound stone walls, the most famous of these are the largely extant Aurelian Walls of Rome and the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople, together with partial remains elsewhere. These are mostly city gates, like the Porta Nigra in Trier or Newport Arch in Lincoln, apart from these, the early Middle Ages also saw the creation of some towns built around castles. These cities were only protected by simple stone walls and more usually by a combination of both walls and ditches. From the 12th century AD hundreds of settlements of all sizes were founded all across Europe and these cities are easy to recognise due to their regular layout and large market spaces

19.
Wenceslaus Hollar
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Václav Hollar, was a Czech etcher from Kingdom of Bohemia, known in England as Wenceslaus or Wenceslas and in Germany as Wenzel Hollar. He was born in Prague, and died in London, being buried at St Margarets Church, after his family was ruined by the Sack of Prague in the Thirty Years War, the young Hollar, who had been destined for the law, determined to become an artist. In 1627 he was in Frankfurt where he was apprenticed to the renowned engraver Matthäus Merian, in 1630 he lived in Strasbourg, Mainz and Koblenz, where Hollar portrayed the towns, castles, and landscapes of the Middle Rhine Valley. In 1633 he moved to Cologne and it was in 1636 that he attracted the notice of the famous nobleman and art collector Thomas Howard, 21st Earl of Arundel, then on an embassy to the imperial court of Emperor Ferdinand II. Employed as a draftsman he travelled with Arundel to Vienna and Prague, in Cologne in 1635, Hollar published his first book. In 1637 he returned him to England where he remained in the Earls household for many years. In around 1650, probably at the request of Hendrik van der Borcht, he etched a commemorative print done after a design by Cornelius Schut in Arundels honour and dedicated to his widow, Aletheia. Arundel is seated in melancholy mode on his tomb in front of an obelisk, in 1745, George Vertue paid homage to their association in the vignette he published on page one of his Description of the Works of the Ingenious Delineator and Engraver Wenceslaus Hollar. It featured a bust of Arundel in front of a pyramid, symbolizing immortality, surrounded by illustrated books, during his first year in England he created View of Greenwich, later issued by Peter Stent, the print-seller. Nearly 3 feet long, he received thirty shillings for the plate, afterwards he fixed the price of his work at fourpence an hour, and measured his time by a sand-glass. On July 4,1641 Hollar married a servant of the Countess of Norfolk and her name was Tracy, they had two children. Lord Arundel left England in 1642, and Hollar passed into the service of the Duke of York and he continued to produce works prolifically throughout the English Civil War, but it adversely affected his income. Hollar took his setting, presumably symbolizing longer term values, directly from an engraving published in George Sandys Relation of a Journey begun An, Hollar joined the Royalist Regiment and was captured by parliamentary forces in 1645 during the siege of Basing House. After a short time he managed to escape, in Antwerp in 1646, he again met with the Earl of Arundel. In 1652 he returned to London, and lived for a time with Faithorne the engraver near Temple Bar, during the following years many books were published which he illustrated, Ogilbys Virgil and Homer, Stapyltons Juvenal, and Dugdales Warwickshire, St Pauls and Monasticon. His income fell as booksellers continued to decline his work, during this time he lost his young son, also reputed to have artistic ability, to the plague. He lived eight years after his return, still working for the booksellers and he died in extreme poverty, his last recorded words being a request to the bailiffs that they would not carry away the bed on which he was dying. Hollar is interred in St Margarets Church in Westminster and he was one of the best and most prolific artists of his time

20.
Nikolaus Pevsner
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Sir Nikolaus Bernhard Leon Pevsner CBE FBA was a German, later British scholar of history of art and, especially, of history of architecture. He is best known for his 46-volume series of county-by-county guides, The Buildings of England, the son of a Russian-Jewish fur haulier, Nikolaus Pevsner was born in Leipzig, Saxony. He attended the Thomas School and went on to art history at the Universities of Leipzig, Munich, Berlin. In 1923, he married Carola Kurlbaum, the daughter of distinguished Leipzig lawyer Alfred Kurlbaum and he worked as an assistant keeper at the Dresden Gallery. In 1928 he contributed the volume on Italian baroque painting to the Handbuch der Kunstwissenschaft and he taught at the University of Göttingen, offering a specialist course on English art and architecture. According to biographer Stephen Games, Pevsner welcomed many of the economic, however, due to Nazi race laws he was forced to resign his lectureship in 1933. Later that year he moved to England and his first post was an 18-month research fellowship at the University of Birmingham, found for him by friends in Birmingham and partly funded by the Academic Assistance Council. He was subsequently employed as a buyer of modern textiles, glass, since its first publication by Faber & Faber in 1936, it has gone through several editions and been translated into many languages. The English-language edition has also been renamed Pioneers of Modern Design, Pevsner was more German than the Germans to the extent that he supported Goebbels in his drive for pure non-decadent German art. He was reported as saying of the Nazis I want this movement to succeed, there is no alternative but chaos. There are things worse than Hitlerism, nonetheless he was included in the Nazi Black Book as hostile to the Hitler regime. In 1940, Pevsner was interned as an alien in Huyton. He was released three months on the intervention of, among others, Frank Pick, then Director-General of the Ministry of Information. He also completed for Penguin Books the Pelican paperback An Outline of European Architecture, Outline would eventually go into seven editions, be translated into 16 languages, and sell more than half a million copies. In 1942, Pevsner finally secured two regular positions, from 1936 onwards he had been a frequent contributor to the Architectural Review and from 1943 to 1945 he stood in as its acting editor while the regular editor J. M. Richards was on active service. Under the ARs influence, Pevsners approach to modern architecture became more complex and he was also closely involved with the Reviews proprietor, Hubert de Cronin Hastings, in evolving the magazines theories on Picturesque planning. In 1942, Pevsner was also appointed a lecturer at Birkbeck, University of London. He lectured at Cambridge for almost 30 years, having been Slade professor there for a six years from 1949 to 1955

21.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

22.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

23.
Temple Bar, London
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Temple Bar was the principal ceremonial entrance to the City of London on its western side from the City of Westminster. The road east of Temple Bar and within the City is Fleet Street, at Temple Bar the Corporation of the City of London formerly erected a barrier to regulate trade into the City. The 19th century Royal Courts of Justice are located next to it on its north side, to its south is the Temple Church and the Inner Temple and Middle Temple Inns of Court. Wrens arch was preserved and was re-erected in 2004 in the City, in the Middle Ages the authority of the City of London Corporation reached beyond the Citys ancient defensive walls in several places, known as the Liberties of London. To regulate trade into the City, barriers were erected on the major entrance routes wherever the true boundary was a distance from the nearest ancient gatehouse in the walls. Temple Bar was the most used of these, since traffic between the City of London and the Palace of Westminster passed through it and it was originally located where Fleet Street now meets The Strand, which was actually outside the London boundary wall. The historic ceremony of the monarch halting at Temple Bar and being met by the Lord Mayor has often featured in art and it is commented on in televised coverage of modern-day royal ceremonial processions. However the popular belief that the monarch requires the Lord Mayors permission to enter the City is incorrect, a bar is first mentioned in 1293 and was probably only a chain or bar between a row of posts. More substantial structures with arches followed, by 1351, a wooden archway had been built housing a small prison above it. The earliest known documentary and historical notice of Temple Bar is in 1327, in 1384 Richard II granted a licence for paving the Strand Street from Temple Bar to the Savoy, and collecting tolls to cover the expense. On 5 November 1422, the corpse of Henry V was borne to Westminster Abbey by the citizens and nobles. Anne Boleyn passed through the Bar on May 31,1534, on that occasion Temple Bar was new painted and repaired, and near it stood singing men and children—the Fleet Street conduit all the time running claret. In 1554 Thomas Wyatt led an uprising in opposition to Queen Mary Is proposed marriage to Philip II of Spain and this revolt persuaded the government to go through with the verdict against Lady Jane Grey. The notable Scottish bookseller Andrew Millar owned his first London shop at Temple Bar, taken over from the ownership of James McEuen in 1728, whom Millar had apprenticed to. Although it escaped damage by the Great Fire of London of 1666, the statues of Anne of Denmark, James l, Charles I, and Charles II, in niches in the upper floor were carved by John Bushnell. Rusticated, it is a structure consisting of one wide central arch for the road traffic. During the 18th century the heads of convicted traitors were frequently mounted on pikes and exhibited on the roof, the other seven principal gateways to London, had all been demolished by 1800, but Temple Bar remained despite its impediment to the ever-growing traffic. The upper-storey room was leased to the banking house of Child & Co for storage of records

24.
Holborn
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Holborn is a district in the West End, central London, forming part of the London Borough of Camden. The areas first mention is in a charter of Westminster Abbey, by King Edgar and this mentions the old wooden church of St Andrew. The name Holborn may be derived from the Middle English hol for hollow, and bourne, historical cartographer William Shepherd in his Plan of London about 1300 labels the Fleet as Hole Bourn where it passes to the east of St Andrews church. The exact course of the stream is uncertain, but according to Stow it started in one of the small springs near Holborn Bar. This is supported by a map of London and Westminster created during the reign of Henry VIII that clearly marks the street as Oldbourne, other historians, however, find the theory implausible, in view of the slope of the land. It was then outside the Citys jurisdiction and a part of Ossulstone Hundred in Middlesex, in the 12th century St Andrews was noted in local title deeds as lying on Holburnestrate—Holborn Street. The rest of the area below Bars was organised by the board of the parish of St Andrew. The Metropolitan Borough of Holborn was abolished in 1965 and its area now part of the London Borough of Camden. Holborn is also represented in the London Assembly as part of Barnet and Camden by Andrew Dismore, criminals from the Tower and Newgate passed up Holborn on their way to be hanged at Tyburn or St Giles. The theatre premièred the first full-length feature film in 1914, The World, the Flesh and the Devil, Charles Dickens took up residence in Furnivals Inn, on the site of Holborn Bars. Dickens put his character Pip, in Great Expectations, in residence at Barnards Inn opposite, staple Inn, notable as the promotional image for Old Holborn tobacco, is nearby. The three of these were Inns of Chancery, subsequently, the area diversified and become recognisable as the modern street. A plaque stands at number 120 commemorating Thomas Earnshaws invention of the Marine chronometer, at the corner of Hatton Garden was the old family department store of Gamages. Until 1992, the London Weather Centre was located in the street, the Prudential insurance company relocated in 2002. The Daily Mirror offices used to be directly opposite it, further east, in the gated avenue of Ely Place, is St Etheldredas Church, originally the chapel of the Bishop of Ely’s London palace. This ecclesiastical connection allowed the street to remain part of the county of Cambridgeshire until the mid-1930s and this meant that Ye Olde Mitre, a pub located in a court hidden behind the buildings of the Place and the Garden was subject to the Cambridgeshire Magistrates to grant its licence. St Etheldredas is the oldest church building used for Roman Catholic worship in London, however, this became so only after it ceased to be an Anglican chapel in the 19th century. Hatton Garden, the centre of the trade, was leased to a favourite of Queen Elizabeth I, Sir Christopher Hatton

25.
Aldersgate
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Aldersgate is a Ward of the City of London, named after a gate in the ancient London Wall around the City. The gate also gave its name to Aldersgate Street, which runs north from the site of the gate towards Clerkenwell. The name Aldersgate is first recorded around 1000 in the form Ealdredesgate, the gate, constructed by the Romans in the 2nd or 3rd centuries when London Wall was constructed, probably acquired its name in the late Saxon period. The ward of Aldersgate straddles the line of London Wall and the old gate and historically was divided into Within and Without divisions and it took in the liberty of St. Martins Le Grand when that was dis-established in the 16th century. However, since boundary changes in 2003, almost all of the ward is Without. In 1554 Aldersgate Street was the scene of a fraud where Elizabeth Crofts was smuggled into a wall to pretend to be a heavenly voice, reputedly 17,000 people came to listen to her give out anti-catholic propaganda. The old gate was taken down in 1617, and rebuilt in the year from a design by Gerard Christmas. The gate was damaged in the Great Fire of London in 1666 but was repaired and remained until 1761, the house of Sarah Sawyer, in Rose and Rainbow Court, formed one of the earliest Quaker meetings in London. In 1675, it became a meeting house, the Box Meeting, used mainly by Quaker women for poor relief. Aldersgate Street forms a section of the A1 route towards Edinburgh. It is located on the west side of the Barbican Estate and Barbican Centre, near St Bartholomews Hospital, northbound it continues into Goswell Road at the junction with Fann Street, southbound it continues into St. Martins Le Grand. Barbican tube station is located on Aldersgate Street and when it was opened in 1865 was named Aldersgate Street tube station, in 1910 it was renamed Aldersgate, then Aldersgate & Barbican in 1924, before finally being renamed Barbican in 1968. Originally Aldersgate Street only corresponded to the starting from the church of St Botolph without Aldersgate towards Long Lane. The portion of the road from Long Lane till Goswell Street was formerly named Pickax Street and this name may derive from Pickt Hatch, an area of brothels said to be in this part of London during the Elizabethan era. Pick Hatch is mentioned in The Merry Wives of Windsor and in The Alchemist, by the late eighteenth century the name Pickax was no more in use, and the road was fully incorporated into Aldersgate Street. 28 Aldersgate Street is the former location of a Moravian Church. On 24 May 1738, attending a meeting at the church, the following year, he broke with the Moravians and founded the Methodist Society of England. The yearly anniversary of his experience is celebrated by Methodists as Aldersgate Day, wesleys Chapel, in nearby City Road, remains a major focal point of the international Methodist movement

26.
Moorgate
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Moorgate was a postern in the London Wall originally built by the Romans. It was turned into a gate in the 15th century, though the gate was demolished in 1762, the name survives as a major street in the City of London. The street connects the City to the London Boroughs of Islington and Hackney, the name Moorgate derives from the surrounding area of Moorfields, which was one of the last pieces of open land in the City. Today this region is a centre, and is home to several investment banks. The street also showcases historic and contemporary office buildings, Moorgate station on the London Underground is remembered for the Moorgate tube crash of 1975. In the incident, a train terminating at the failed to stop and crashed into a brick wall. This resulted in systems being installed on the Underground which automatically stop trains at dead-ends, the earliest descriptions of Moorgate date from the early 15th century, where it was described as only a postern in the London city wall. Located between Bishopsgate and Cripplegate and leading to a known as Moorfields, it was not one of the larger or more important of the city gates. In 1415 an ordinance enacted that the old postern be demolished and it was replaced with a newer and larger structure located farther to the west, which included a wooden gate to be shut at night. This gate was enlarged again in 1472 and 1511, and then damaged in the Great Fire of London in 1666. Although the City gates had ceased to have any modern function apart from decoration, it was replaced along with Ludgate, Newgate, Little Moorgate was a gate opposite Little Winchester Street leading into Moorfields. It had been demolished by 1755, but gave its name to a street that was removed for the building of a railway. The Moorfields were one of the last pieces of land in the City of London. The fields were divided into three areas, the Moorfields proper, just inside the City boundaries, north of Bethlem Royal Hospital, much of Moorfields was developed in 1777 and turned into present day Finsbury Circus. Moorfields was the site of the first hydrogen balloon flight in England, Lunardi flew in a hydrogen balloon from the area of the Honourable Artillery Company near Moorfields. The ascent took place in front of 100,000 spectators as well as the then Prince of Wales, George, the envelope of the balloon was made of oiled silk, and had a diameter of 33 ft which resulted in a volume of 18,200 cubic feet. Due to the size of the balloon, it all of the previous evening. Lunardi first landed at Welham Green, Hertfordshire,13 miles north of London and it is located inside the EC2 postal district

27.
Bishopsgate
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Bishopsgate is one of the 25 wards of the City of London and also the name of a major road between Gracechurch Street and Norton Folgate in the northeast corner of Londons main financial district. Bishopsgate is named one of the original eight gates in the London Wall. The site of this gate is marked by a stone bishops mitre, fixed high upon a building located at Bishopsgates junction with Wormwood Street, by the gardens there. Although tens of thousands of people commute to and work in the ward, the ward is bounded by Worship Street to the north, where the edge of the City meets the boroughs of Islington and Hackney. It neighbours Portsoken ward and the borough of Tower Hamlets in the east, the western boundary is formed by Old Broad Street and Broad Street ward itself. Bishopsgate also bounds the wards of Aldgate, Coleman Street, Cornhill, Bishopsgate ward straddles the line of the Wall and the old gate and is often divided into Within and Without parts, with a deputy appointed for each part. Since the 1994 and 2003 boundary changes, almost all of the ward is Without, no changes to Bishopsgates ward boundaries occurred in the 2013 boundary changes. Originally Roman, the Bishops Gate was rebuilt by the Hansa merchants in 1471 in exchange for Steelyard privileges and its final form was erected in 1735 by the City authorities and demolished in 1760. This gate often displayed the heads of criminals on spikes, London Wall divided the ward and road into an intramural portion called Bishopsgate Within and an extramural portion called Bishopsgate Without. The Bishopsgate thoroughfare forms part of the A10 and the section to the north of the site of the original Gate is the start of Roman Ermine Street, the parish church for the area of Bishopsgate Without is St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate. This is located just to the north of the original Gate on the west side of the road, Bishopsgate was originally the location of many coaching inns which accommodated passengers setting out on the Old North Road. Others included the Dolphin, the Flower Pot, the Green Dragon, the Wrestlers, the Angel, the latter was a venue for the Queens Men theatrical troupe in the 16th century. The name of an inn called the Catherine Wheel is commemorated by Catherine Wheel Alley which leads off Bishopsgate to the east, in the 18th century this grand residence became a tavern called Sir Paul Pindars Head, another notable venue was the London Tavern. Also demolished was the old Crosby Hall, at one time the residence of Richard III, Bishopsgate is also the site of Dirty Dicks, the Bishopsgate Institute, and many offices and skyscrapers. Police had received a warning, but were still evacuating the area at the time of the explosion. The area had suffered damage from the Baltic Exchange bombing one year before. The street is home to the main London offices of major banks, including the Royal Bank of Scotland. Within the ward falls the Broadgate Estate, only electors who are Freemen of the City of London are eligible to stand

28.
Aldgate
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Aldgate was the eastern-most gateway through the London Wall leading from the City of London to Whitechapel and the East End of London. The road is situated 2.3 miles east north-east of Charing Cross, John Casss school, where a plaque records the former placement of London Wall, is sited on the north side of Aldgate. The etymology of the name Aldgate is disputed and it is first recorded in 1052 as Æst geat but had become Alegate by 1108. Writing in the 16th century, John Stow derived the name from Old Gate, however, Henry Harben, writing in 1918, contended that this was wrong and that documents show that the d is missing in documents written before 1486–7. Alternative meanings include Ale Gate in connection with a putative ale-house or All Gate meaning the gate was free to all, other possibilities canvassed by Harben include reference to a Saxon named Ealh, or reference to foreigners or oil or awl. It is thought that a gate at Aldgate spanned the road to Colchester in the Roman period, when London Wall was constructed. The gateway – which probably had two circular towers – stood at the corner of the modern Dukes Place, on the east side of the City, with a busy thoroughfare passing through it. It was rebuilt between 1108 and 1147, again in 1215, and reconstructed completely between 1607 and 1609 “in a more classical and less functional style”, like London’s other gates, Aldgate was “fortified with porticullises and chained” in 1377 due to concerns about potential attacks by the French. The gate was removed in 1761, it was temporarily re-erected at Bethnal Green. Aldgate did have defensive functions, and, between its early 13th and early 17th-century reconstructions, was breached on only two occasions. The first occurred during the Great Rising in the summer of 1381 when thousands of insurgents from surrounding region, assisted by sympathizers within and without, the second breach came in the summer of 1471 when troops led by the Bastard of Fauconberg forced open the gate. The Augustinians priory of Holy Trinity Aldgate was founded by Matilda, within Aldgate ward, a short distance to the north of the gate, Jews settled from 1181, until their expulsion in 1290 by King Edward I. The area became known as Old Jewry, Jews were welcomed back by Oliver Cromwell, and once again they settled in the area, founding Londons oldest synagogue at Bevis Marks in 1698. While he was an official, from 1374 until 1386, Geoffrey Chaucer occupied apartments above the gate. London’s aldermen had first conceived of renting unneeded space over the City gates earlier in the century, although keenly sought after due to their location, the rooms “were built for military occupancy and remained rough-hewn nonprivate”. Chaucer likely occupied the tower on the south end of the gate. A1585 sketch of Aldgate’s north tower reveals a room of approximately 16 by 14. The space would have been “cramped, cold, rudimentary in its sanitary arrangements, in about 1420 the Whitechapel Bell Foundry was founded in Aldgate, but it later moved to nearby Whitechapel

29.
Tower of London
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The Tower of London, officially Her Majestys Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic castle located on the north bank of the River Thames in central London. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the edge of the square mile of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest of England. The White Tower, which gives the castle its name, was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 and was a resented symbol of oppression. The castle was used as a prison from 1100 until 1952, a grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As a whole, the Tower is a complex of buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat. There were several phases of expansion, mainly under Kings Richard the Lionheart, Henry III, the general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site. The Tower of London has played a prominent role in English history and it was besieged several times, and controlling it has been important to controlling the country. The Tower has served variously as an armoury, a treasury, a menagerie, the home of the Royal Mint, a record office. From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II, in the absence of the monarch, the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle. This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period, in the late 15th century, the castle was the prison of the Princes in the Tower. Under the Tudors, the Tower became used less as a royal residence and this use has led to the phrase sent to the Tower. Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle, in the latter half of the 19th century, institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations, leaving many buildings empty. Anthony Salvin and John Taylor took the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance, in the First and Second World Wars, the Tower was again used as a prison and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage. After the Second World War, damage caused during the Blitz was repaired, today, the Tower of London is one of the countrys most popular tourist attractions. Under the ceremonial charge of the Constable of the Tower, it is cared for by the charity Historic Royal Palaces and is protected as a World Heritage Site. The Tower was orientated with its strongest and most impressive defences overlooking Saxon London and it would have visually dominated the surrounding area and stood out to traffic on the River Thames. The castle is made up of three wards, or enclosures, the innermost ward contains the White Tower and is the earliest phase of the castle

30.
River Thames
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The River Thames is a river that flows through southern England, most notably through London. At 215 miles, it is the longest river entirely in England and it also flows through Oxford, Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary, the Thames drains the whole of Greater London. Its tidal section, reaching up to Teddington Lock, includes most of its London stretch and has a rise, in Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60% smaller. Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs and its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands, in 2010, the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world – the $350,000 International Riverprize. The Thames, from Middle English Temese, is derived from the Brittonic Celtic name for the river, Tamesas, recorded in Latin as Tamesis and yielding modern Welsh Tafwys Thames. It has also suggested that it is not of Celtic origin. A place by the river, rather than the river itself, indirect evidence for the antiquity of the name Thames is provided by a Roman potsherd found at Oxford, bearing the inscription Tamesubugus fecit. It is believed that Tamesubugus name was derived from that of the river, tamese was referred to as a place, not a river in the Ravenna Cosmography. The rivers name has always pronounced with a simple t /t/, the Middle English spelling was typically Temese. A similar spelling from 1210, Tamisiam, is found in the Magna Carta, the Thames through Oxford is sometimes called the Isis. Ordnance Survey maps still label the Thames as River Thames or Isis down to Dorchester, richard Coates suggests that while the river was as a whole called the Thames, part of it, where it was too wide to ford, was called *lowonida. An alternative, and simpler proposal, is that London may also be a Germanic word, for merchant seamen, the Thames has long been just the London River. Londoners often refer to it simply as the river in such as south of the river. Thames Valley Police is a body that takes its name from the river. The marks of human activity, in cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain, are visible at various points along the river

31.
Billingsgate
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Billingsgate is one of the 25 Wards of the City of London. The modern Ward extends south to the Thames, west to Lovat Lane and Rood Lane, north to Fenchurch Street and Dunster Court, and east to Mark Lane and St Dunstans Hill. Billingsgates most ancient historical reference is as a gate to the city of Trinovantum. Until boundary changes in 2003, the Ward included Pudding Lane, Billingsgate Fish Market was formally established by an Act of Parliament in 1699 to be a free and open market for all sorts of fish whatsoever. Oranges, lemons, and Spanish onions were also landed there, alongside the main commodities, coal. In 1849, the market was moved off the streets into its own riverside building. In 1982, Billingsgate Fish Market was relocated to its present location close to Canary Wharf in east London, the original riverside market building was then refurbished to provide office accommodation and an entertainment venue. The raucous cries of the fish vendors gave rise to Billingsgate as a synonym for profanity or offensive language, within the Ward are the Customs House and the Watermens Hall, built in 1780 and the Citys only surviving Georgian Livery company hall. Centennium House in Lower Thames Street has Roman baths within its basement foundations, within the Ward remain two churches, St Mary-at-Hill and St Margaret Pattens, after the demolition of St George Botolph Lane in 1904. Billingsgate is one of the Citys 25 Wards returning an Alderman, lord Blackadder, the titular hero of Blackadder II, is said to have resided at Billingsgate, and in Thackerays Vanity Fair, Mr. Sedley has brought home the best turbot in Billingsgate

32.
London Bridge
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London Bridge refers to several historical bridges that have spanned the River Thames between the City of London and Southwark, in central London. The current crossing, which opened to traffic in 1973, is a box girder bridge built from concrete and this replaced a 19th-century stone-arched bridge, which in turn superseded a 600-year-old medieval structure. This was preceded by a succession of bridges, the first built by the Roman founders of London. The current bridge stands at the end of the Pool of London but is positioned 30 metres upstream from previous alignments. The traditional ends of the bridge were marked by St Magnus-the-Martyr on the northern bank. Until Putney Bridge opened in 1729, London Bridge was the only road-crossing of the Thames downstream of Kingston-upon-Thames and its importance has been the subject of popular culture throughout the ages such as in the nursery rhyme London Bridge Is Falling Down and its inclusion within art and literature. The modern bridge is owned and maintained by Bridge House Estates and it carries the A3 road, which is maintained by the Greater London Authority. The crossing also delineates an area along the bank of the River Thames. The abutments of modern London Bridge rest several metres above natural embankments of gravel, sand, between the embankments, the River Thames could have been crossed by ford when the tide was low, or ferry when it was high. There is archaeological evidence for scattered Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age settlement nearby, two ancient fords were in use a few miles upstream, beyond the rivers upper tidal reach. They were aligned with the course of Watling Street and led into the heartlands of the Catuvellauni, some time before Claudius conquest of AD43, power shifted to the Trinovantes, who held the region northeast of the Thames estuary from a capital at Camulodunum. Claudius imposed a major colonia on Camulodunum, and made it the city of the new Roman province of Britannia. The first London Bridge was built by the Roman military as part of their road-building programme, around AD55, the temporary bridge over the Thames was replaced by a permanent timber piled bridge, maintained and guarded by a small garrison. On the relatively high, dry ground at the end of the bridge, a small, opportunistic trading and shipping settlement took root. A smaller settlement developed at the end of the bridge. The bridge was destroyed along with the town in the Boudican revolt. Just downstream of the bridge were substantial quays and depots, convenient to seagoing trade between Britain and the rest of the Roman Empire, with the end of Roman rule in Britain in the early 5th century, Londinium was gradually abandoned and the bridge fell into disrepair. In the Saxon period, the became a boundary between the emergent, mutually hostile kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex

33.
Londinium
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Londinium was a settlement established on the current site of the City of London around AD43. Its bridge over the River Thames turned the city into a road nexus and major port, in the year 60 or 61, the rebellion of the Iceni under Boudica forced the garrison to abandon the settlement, which was then razed. Following the Icenis defeat at the Battle of Watling Street, the city was rebuilt as a planned Roman town, during the later decades of the 1st century, Londinium expanded rapidly, becoming Great Britains largest city. By the turn of the century, Londinium had grown to about 60,000 people, almost certainly replacing Camulodunum as the capital and by the 2nd century. Its forum and basilica were one of the largest structures north of the Alps, excavations have discovered evidence of a major fire that destroyed most of the city shortly thereafter, but the city was again rebuilt. By the second half of the 2nd century, Londinium appears to have shrunk in size and population. Although Londinium remained important for the rest of the Roman period, sometime between 190 and 225, the Romans built a defensive wall around the landward side of the city. Along with Hadrians Wall and the network, this wall was one of the largest construction projects carried out in Roman Britain. The London Wall survived for another 1,600 years and broadly defined the perimeter of the old City of London, the etymology of the name Londinium is unknown. Following Geoffrey of Monmouths pseudohistorical History of the Kings of Britain, it was derived from an eponymous founder named Lud. There is no such a figure ever existed. Instead, the Latin name was based on a native Brittonic placename reconstructed as *Londinion. Morphologically, this points to a structure of two suffixes, -in-jo-, however, the Roman Londinium was not the immediate source of English London, as i-mutation would have caused the name to have been Lyndon. The list of the 28 Cities of Britain included in the 9th-century History of the Britons precisely notes London in Old Welsh as Cair Lundem or Lundein, the site guarded the Romans bridgehead on the north bank of the Thames and a major road nexus. It centered on Cornhill and the River Walbrook, but expanded west to Ludgate Hill, the Roman city ultimately covered at least the area of the City of London, whose boundaries are largely defined by its former wall. Londiniums waterfront on the Thames ran from around Ludgate Hill in the west to the present site of the Tower in the east, the northern wall reached Bishopsgate and Cripplegate near the Museum of London, a course now marked by the street London Wall. Cemeteries and suburbs existed outside the city proper, a round temple has been located west of the city, although its dedication remains unclear. Substantial suburbs existed at St Martin-in-the-Fields in Westminster and around the end of the Thames bridge in Southwark

The city walls of Jaisalmer, India, also known as Jaisalmer Fort due to its size and complexity in comparison to other city walls. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is considered one of the largest and best preserved city walls, along with its Medieval Indian town, where many of the stone-carved buildings have not changed since the 12th century.

Legal Quays between Billingsgate Dock and the Tower of London in John Rocque's plan of 1746. Behind Legal Quays lays Thames Street, with its warehouses, sugar refineries and cooperages.

1757 Print by Louis Philippe Boitard, a view of the Legal Quays, between Billingsgate Dock and the Tower. Boitard's engraving, 'Imports from France', provides a satirical look at contemporary Londoners' passion for French luxury goods and manners. By deliberately exaggerating the number of both people and shipping, Boitard's work gives an authentic feel to work on Legal Quays: recording treadwheel cranes, beamscales, Customs’ Officers gauging barrels and porters handling cargo. Smuggling, theft and pilferage of cargoes were rife on both the busy open wharves and in the crowded warehouses.

Several bridges named London Bridge have spanned the River Thames between the City of London and Southwark, in central …

London Bridge in 2006

An engraving by Claes Visscher showing Old London Bridge in 1616, with what is now Southwark Cathedral in the foreground. The spiked heads of executed criminals can be seen above the Southwark gatehouse.