The surname Purswani is derived from the name of their ancestor Pursumal, son of Nebhraj Jethmal Bhambrai; the family can be traced back seven generations.[citation needed] The Purswani family falls under the Bhambrai Bradri Nukh Dandi Proll.[citation needed] The words “Dandi Proll” are derived from Dandakaranya.[citation needed]

From Vedic times till 710 AD, all residents of Sindh were Hindus and Sindh was ruled by the Hindus.[3] In the year 711, Hujjaj Bin Yusif, the UmayyadGovernor of Iraq (appointed by Khalifa Walid) sent the Arab forces under Muhammad Bin Qasim to conquer Sindh, in the process of freeing the kidnapped women whose abduction allegation were cast on Bawarij. The first town he attacked was Debal, and upon the orders of Al-Hajjaj he looted its residents or priests and destroyed its temple . He then settled a garrison of four thousand colonists in one quarter of Debal, building a mosque over the remains of the original temple.

From Debal, Muhammad Bin Qasim attacked Nayrun Kot (present day Hyderabad) and the locals, equipped mostly with farming implements, surrendered. King Nayrun was dethroned. The army of Muhammad Bin Qasim looted the trade goods and took over the Hindu worship sites atop the Ganjo Takker ridge, building mosques to replace them. The Nayrun Kot was destroyed. After that, he captured Sadusan (Sehwan). Again, the main temples were razed and mosques were built to replace them, often using their components; additionally one-fifth of the booty including slaves was dispatched to Hajjaj and the Caliph. At Ar-rur (Nawabshah), he defeated Raja Dahir's forces and the eastern [Jats] in the battle. About 6000 Sindhi warriors were put to death. Dahir's wife Ladi committed suttee to escape from the hands of the Muslims. Aror was the capital of Sindh which was ruled by Raja Dahir. Muhammad bin Qasim won over Raja Dahir and took control of Sindh. His conquest for the Umayyads brought Sindh into the orbit of the Muslim world.

From Qasim on, extracting jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) was a political and religious duty exacted "with vigour and punctuality, and frequently with insult. The native population had to feed every Muslim traveller for three days and nights and had to submit too many other humiliations which are mentioned by Muslim historians." The period of Qasim's rule has been called by U.T. Thakkur "the darkest period in Sindh history", with the records speaking of massive forced conversions, temple destruction, massacres and genocides.[4]

KhudabadiSonara and some other Hindu Sindhis who refused to convert to Islam yet remained in Sindh were heavily oppressed. According to Sindhi legend, the Sonaras gathered at temple of the goddess Durga for three days and nights continuously without eating food and drinking water. On fourth day, a miracle occurred: all the men present felt janau (sacred thread) on their bodies and they realised the blessings of Durga Mata. Thereafter, these Khudabadi Sonara became known as Janjogal (janau-wearing) Sonara. These Hindus continued to fight the naibs of the Khalifa and in due course of time they managed to recover a large part of Sindh and ruled over that.[5]

In 962 AD, an earthquake struck Sindh, altering the course of the Indus.[6] The ancestors of the families of Bhambrai Bradri shifted their homes from Aror to Bhambore (Bhambore is famously known as Bhambra among Khudabadi Sindhi Swarankar Community). During the ensuing prolonged period of lasting peace after 711 AD when, the families of Bhambrai Bradri as a part of Sindhi Lohana/Khudabadi Sonara could not be supported by the armies and could not find any work as warriors, they turned to peacetime occupations and became cloth merchants as the means of their livelihood in Bhambore.[citation needed]

About the 10th century Bhambore was the capital of a chief Bhambo Raja and was named Bhambore after him. Bhambore was the ruins of the ancient port city of Debal, located near modern Karachi at the base of the Indus River, approximately 60 km between Dhabeji and Gharo. Its population was mainly Hindus with a Buddhist minority. It is largely known for the ruins of a castle destroyed by Muhammad bin Qasim during the invasion of Sindh. According to modern archaeologists Debal was founded in the 1st century AD, and soon became the most important trading city in Sindh. The city was home to thousands of Sindhi Sailors including the Bawarij (a Muslim Sindhi community). Ibn Hawqal mentions the dry arid land surrounding the city that supported little agriculture, he mentions how efficiently the inhabitants of the city maintained fishing vessels and trade.[7]

Bhambore was the trading link between Arab and South Asian nations of its times. It was most important fort because of trade communication and security. According to Berzin, Umayyad interest in the region stemmed from their desire to control the trade route down the Indus River valley to the seaports of Sindh, an important link in the ancient Silk Road. At that time, Sindh was the wild frontier region ruled by Raja Dahir who also wanted to control the Western Indian Ocean. Muslim sources insist that it was these persistent activities along increasingly important Indian trade routes by Debal pirates (Bawarij) and others which forced the Arabs to subjugate the area, in order to control the seaports and maritime routes of which Sindh was the nucleus, as well as, the overland passage. In 711 AD Muhammad Bin Qasim entered Sindh by first assaulting and capturing Debal Fort, presently known as Bhambore.

Debal and the Manora Island were visited by Ottoman Admiral Sevdi Ali Reis and mentioned in his book Mirát ul Memalik in 1554. In 1568, Debal was attacked by the Portuguese Admiral Fernao Mendes Pinto in an attempt to capture or destroy the Ottoman vessels anchored there. Fernao Mendes Pinto also claims that Sindhi sailors joined the Ottoman admiral Kurtoglu Hizir Reis on his voyage to Aceh. Debal was also visited by the British travel writers such as Thomas Postans and Eliot, who is noted for his vivid account on the city of Thatta.

Members of Bhambrai Bradri (the ancestors of Purswani family) also left Bhambore and settled in Lakhpat around 1200 AD and continued with their occupation as cloth merchants. This is said to be due to the invasions of Mahmoud Ghaznavi.

The Sammas, a Rajput tribes, which was ruling Kutch, gained control of Thatta in the southern Sindh from the Soomras around 1351, and expanded their territory northward to Bhakkar and beyond. Around that time, the Khudabadi Sonara Community started returning to their home towns (Bhambore, Tando & Nayrun Kot etc.), and some of them settled on a "empty land" on the banks of Sindhu River near Dadu, in Sindh. Members of Khudabadi Sonara Community developed the empty land and called it "Khud-Abad" Later, due to Muslim domination, the Khud-Abad was renamed as Khudabad, a Muslim name. Families of Bhambrai Bradri (the ancestors of Purswani Family) returned to their home town Bhambore around 1400 AD. They are called Bhambrai Bradri because they lived in Bhambore for many centuries (before migration to Lakhpat around 1200 AD and after returning from Lakhpat). Bhambore was later abandoned due to a change in the river's course. Evidence of earthquakes and regional invaders is also cited as an explanation for the population's movement away from the area and the crumbling of the castle. The former river delta is now a creek. And later, they shifted to Khudabad around 1700 AD. They changed their business from cloth merchants to jewelry and goldsmith business while living in Khudabad.[8] Khudabadi Sonara invented Khudabadi Script for Sindhi Language around 1750 AD while living in Khudabad. It is called Khudabadi Script because it was invented in Khudabad. It was later known as Vaniki, Hatvaniki and Hatkai. Mian Noor Mohammad Kalhoro, who became the ruler of Sindh (1720–1755), then, chose Khudabad as his capital. The Khudabad was capital of Sindh between 1720 and 1783.

After the defeat of Kalhoras (Mian Abdul Nabi Kalhora), and extensive flooding of the River Sindh, Mir Fateh Ali Khan (Talpur) left his capital Khudabad and made Hyderabad his capital in 1789. Great celebrations were held in 1792 to mark his formal entry in Hyderabad fort. He made the Pako Qilo his residence, which was spread over thirty-six acres, and he held his courts there. The change of capital induced a large number of the population of Khudabad to migrate to Hyderabad, the new seat of royalty. The families of Bhambrai Bradri along with the other families of the Sonara community, Amils and Bhaibands, who had lived and worked in Khudabad, shifted to Hyderabad with the rulers, They retained the term Khudabadi in the names of their communities as an identifier of their origin and called themselves "Khudabadi Sonaras", "Khudabadi Amils" and "Khudabadi Bhaibands".

The Bhambrai Bradri lived in Gidwani Ghitti in Hyderabad.[9] At that time, the head of Bhambrai Bradri was Paripyomal Bhambrai, also known as "Bhai Sitaldas Bhambrai". He had a son, Jethmal Bhambrai, who was born around 1789 in Khudabad before they moved to Hyderabad.[10]

Jethmal Bhambrai had friendly relations with Diwan Tarachand Sagharani, then Mukhi of AmilPanchayat in Hyderabad. The Battle of Miani ended on 24 March 1843, where the last Talpur rulers, Mir Mohammad Naseers Khan Talpur of Hyderabad and Mir Sher Muhammad Talpur of Mirpur lost to the British General Sir Charles James Napier and the cities of Hyderabad and Mirpur came into the hands of the British East India Company. Mukhi Tarachand Sagharani and other residents of Hyderabad feared reprisal and apprehended lootings from the hands of the British forces. Sagharani, along with Mukhi Chandumal of the Khudabadi Sonara, Jethmal Bhambrai (the ancestor of Purswani Family), and three other elders of Hyderabad City met Napier and pleaded with him to confine his forces to barracks and not to allow them to enter the city. The residents of Hyderabad undertook to provide them with food and other rations that the British forces needed and deliver it to them in their camp. Sir Charles conceded to their request, and the British forces remained outside the city. The residents of Hyderabad provided the rations and Amil Panchayat footed the bill.

Later, Sir Charles Napier met Mukhi Tarachand Sagharani and others in his camp at Gidu Bunder and thanked them for their farsightedness, and for the food that they had supplied. This information was disclosed to Diwan Bherumal Meharchand Advani by Mukhi Mangharam Gurdinomal and was on records in the India Office, London. Diwan Bherumal Meharchand Advani further writes that it was learnt from records maintained by Pinda Badaldas Bulchand of Sindhi DharamshalaHaridwar, that wife of Amil Mukhi Tarachand Sagharani expired in the year 1835 and Mukhi Assanand along with Jethmal Bhambrai served as kandi (pallbearer), for his wife, carrying her ashes for performing the last rites at Haridwar. At that time Kumbh Mela was in progress.[11]

Jethmal Bhambrai had two sons, naming Nebhraj (born around 1814 AD) and Aainomal. Nebhraj had four sons naming Pursumal, Motoomal, Hassrajmal and Assandas whereas, Aainomal had one son naming Mangatram. Respected Mangatram had two sons naming Gunomal and Udhanmal. The surname of whole family was Jethmalani. Around the year 1910, the descendants of Pursumal changed their surname to Purswani, those of Motoomal changed to Motwani, those of Hassrajmal changed to Hasrajani, those of Gunomal changed to Ganvani and those of Udhanmal changed to Udhani. Assandas had a daughter named chupi but no son as such there was no further extension of the family of Assandas. All these groups have been maintaining their respective surnames since then. At the same time, all the families have also retained “Bhambrai” as the name of their Bradri, signifying that their ancestors had lived in Bhambore many centuries ago.

Pursumal had four sons (Lalchand, Narumal, Jeumal, Fatumal and Bhojraj). In the year 1910, there were further splits in families; the descendants of Purswani family such as Lalchand, Narumal, Fatumal separated whereas Jeumal and Bhojraj remained together (the wives of Jeumal and Bhojraj were sisters). By this time,the members of Motwani family and Hasrajani family moved out from the joint residence in Gidwani Ghitti but the members of Purswani family continued to occupy the ancestor´s residence in Gidhwani Ghitti. Most of the male members of these families continued with their ancestor’s occupation (goldsmithing) in Hyderabad, but before Partition of Sub-continent at least one person from each home of the family was working overseas. The members of one or two families went for higher education. Some of them became medical practitioners and teachers whereas some went into government services but most of them now, have gone back to their original occupation as Textile Merchants equipped with modern technology.[12] In the past, some members of Purswani Family were practicing Bhakti Yoga and some were involved in community work whereas, some took part in Indian Freedom Movement and Indian National Army.[13]

1.
Jaipur
–
Jaipur is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Rajasthan in Northern India. It was founded on 18 November 1726 by Maharaja Jai Singh II, as of 2011, the city has a population of 3.1 million, making it the tenth most populous city in the country. Jaipur is also known as the Pink City of India, Jaipur is located 260 km from the Indian capital New Delhi. Jaipur forms a part of the west Golden Triangle tourist circuit along with Agra, Jaipur is a popular tourist destination in India and serves as a gateway to other tourist destinations in Rajasthan such as Jodhpur, Jaisalmer Udaipur. and Mount Abu. The city of Jaipur was founded in 1726 by Jai Singh II and he planned to shift his capital from Amer,11 km from Jaipur to accommodate the growing population and increasing scarcity of water. Jai Singh consulted several books on architecture and architects while planning the layout of Jaipur, under the architectural guidance of Vidyadhar Bhattacharya, Jaipur was planned based on the principles of Vastu shastra and Shilpa Shastra. The construction of the city began in 1726 and took four years to complete the major roads, the city was divided into nine blocks, two of which contained the state buildings and palaces, with the remaining seven allotted to the public. Huge ramparts were built, pierced by seven fortified gates, during the rule of Sawai Ram Singh, the city was painted pink to welcome the Prince of Wales, later Edward VII, in 1876. Many of the avenues remained painted in pink, giving Jaipur a distinctive appearance, in the 19th century, the city grew rapidly and by 1900 it had a population of 160,000. The wide boulevards were paved and its industries were the working of metals and marble. The city had three colleges, including a Sanskrit college and a school opened during the reign of the Maharaja Ram Singh II. Temperatures remain relatively high during summer from April to early July having average daily temperatures of around 30 °C, during the monsoon there are frequent, heavy rains and thunderstorms, but flooding is not common. The winter months of November to February are mild and pleasant, with temperatures ranging from 10–15 °C and with little or no humidity. The city was planned according to Indian Vastu shastra by Vidyadhar Bhattacharya in 1727, there are three gates facing east, west, and north. The eastern gate is called Suraj pol, the gate is called Chand pol. The city is unusual among pre-modern Indian cities in the regularity of its streets, the urban quarters are further divided by networks of gridded streets. Five quarters wrap around the east, south, and west sides of a central palace quarter, the Palace quarter encloses the Hawa Mahal palace complex, formal gardens, and a small lake. Nahargarh Fort, which was the residence of the King Sawai Jai Singh II, according to provisional report of 2011 census, Jaipur city had a population of 3,073,350

2.
India
–
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety

3.
Lohana
–
The Lohana, also referred to as Luvana and Luhana, are an Indian caste, traditionally largely occupied as merchants. The Lohanas are divided into three cultural groups as a result of centuries apart in different regions. Thus there are significant differences between the culture, language, professions and societies of Sindhi Lohanas, Kutchi Lohanas, although considered to be Vaishya in the Hindu ritual ranking system known as varna, the Lohanas favour a mythical origin as members of the Kshatriya varna. In the 7th century, there was a Buddhist ruler named Agham Lohana ruled a part of Sindh and was Governor of Brahmanabad, Agham Lohana is referred to in Chach Nama and the city of Agham Kot is said to be named after him. Even the sea around was known as Lohana Darya, Chach of Alor killed Agham Lohana in battle of Brahmanand and married his widow and also married his niece to Aghams son Sirhind. Further, Chach is said to have restrictions of Lohana and Jat tribes from wearing headgear. It also says that their name derives from the city of Lohargadh in Multan, Pir Sadardin converted many of them to the Shia Ismaili Nizari sect of Islam in 14th Century AD. As Lohanas were worshipers of Shakti, in order to convert them Ismaili missionaries made certain modifications in their doctrines to convert them and they are known as Khojas or Khawaja. In 1422, Jam Rai Dan was tribal leader in Sindh during the Samma Dynasty, he was converted to Islam by Sayad Eusuf-ud-Din, at that time a person named Mankeji was head of eighty-four nukhs of Lohanas, who was in favor in court of that Samma king. He was persuaded by ruler and the Qadri to convert to Islam, however, not all Lohanas were ready to convert from Hinduism. But 700 Lohana families comprising some 6178 persons converted to Islam at the hands of one in Thatta Sindh and these are now known as Memons. It was around this time, that Uderolal who is revered as Jhulelal or Dariyalal and Zinda Pir who was born in to Ratanchand Thakkur and Devki and he took upon the mantle of Lohana and Hindu leadershi. Today Uderolal is revered as Jhulelal, the saint of Sindhis and also considered to be as Pir and revered as Jinda Pir, as such. Bhaibands, Bhaibandhs are Lohanas, who are involved in trade. Later following Idi Amins expulsion of South Asians in 1972, most of them moved to the United Kingdom, and to an extent to United States. Nanji Kalidas Mehta - industrialist and philanthropist, founder of the Mehta Group of Industries. Muljibhai Madhvani - industrialist and philanthropist

4.
Luvana
–
The Lohana, also referred to as Luvana and Luhana, are an Indian caste, traditionally largely occupied as merchants. The Lohanas are divided into three cultural groups as a result of centuries apart in different regions. Thus there are significant differences between the culture, language, professions and societies of Sindhi Lohanas, Kutchi Lohanas, although considered to be Vaishya in the Hindu ritual ranking system known as varna, the Lohanas favour a mythical origin as members of the Kshatriya varna. In the 7th century, there was a Buddhist ruler named Agham Lohana ruled a part of Sindh and was Governor of Brahmanabad, Agham Lohana is referred to in Chach Nama and the city of Agham Kot is said to be named after him. Even the sea around was known as Lohana Darya, Chach of Alor killed Agham Lohana in battle of Brahmanand and married his widow and also married his niece to Aghams son Sirhind. Further, Chach is said to have restrictions of Lohana and Jat tribes from wearing headgear. It also says that their name derives from the city of Lohargadh in Multan, Pir Sadardin converted many of them to the Shia Ismaili Nizari sect of Islam in 14th Century AD. As Lohanas were worshipers of Shakti, in order to convert them Ismaili missionaries made certain modifications in their doctrines to convert them and they are known as Khojas or Khawaja. In 1422, Jam Rai Dan was tribal leader in Sindh during the Samma Dynasty, he was converted to Islam by Sayad Eusuf-ud-Din, at that time a person named Mankeji was head of eighty-four nukhs of Lohanas, who was in favor in court of that Samma king. He was persuaded by ruler and the Qadri to convert to Islam, however, not all Lohanas were ready to convert from Hinduism. But 700 Lohana families comprising some 6178 persons converted to Islam at the hands of one in Thatta Sindh and these are now known as Memons. It was around this time, that Uderolal who is revered as Jhulelal or Dariyalal and Zinda Pir who was born in to Ratanchand Thakkur and Devki and he took upon the mantle of Lohana and Hindu leadershi. Today Uderolal is revered as Jhulelal, the saint of Sindhis and also considered to be as Pir and revered as Jinda Pir, as such. Bhaibands, Bhaibandhs are Lohanas, who are involved in trade. Later following Idi Amins expulsion of South Asians in 1972, most of them moved to the United Kingdom, and to an extent to United States. Nanji Kalidas Mehta - industrialist and philanthropist, founder of the Mehta Group of Industries. Muljibhai Madhvani - industrialist and philanthropist

5.
Lahore
–
Lahore is the capital city of the Pakistani province of Punjab. It is the second most populous city in Pakistan and the 32nd most populous city in the world, the city is located in the north-eastern end of Pakistans Punjab province, near the border with the Indian state of Punjab. Lahore is ranked as a world city, and is one of Pakistans wealthiest cities with an estimated GDP of $58.14 billion as of 2014. Lahore is the cultural centre of the Punjab region, and is the largest Punjabi city in the world. The city has a history, and was once under the rule of the Hindu Shahis, Ghaznavids, Ghurids. Lahore reached the height of its splendour under the Mughal Empire, the city was captured by the forces of Persian Safavid Emperor Nader Shah during his invasion of the Mughal Empire. The city was contested between different powers before it became capital of the Sikh Empire, and then the capital of the Punjab under British rule. Following the independence of Pakistan in 1947, Lahore became the capital of Pakistans Punjab province, Lahore is one of Pakistans most liberal, and cosmopolitan cities. It exerts a strong influence over Pakistan. Lahore is a centre for Pakistans publishing industry, and remains the foremost centre of Pakistans literary scene. The city is also a centre of education in Pakistan. Lahore is also home to Pakistans film industry, Lollywood, and is a centre of Qawwali music. The city is much of Pakistans tourist industry, with major attractions including the old Walled City. Lahore is also home to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of Lahore Fort, the etymology of Lahore is uncertain, but according to legend the city was once known as Lavapura, in honour of Prince Lava of the Hindu epic poem, the Ramayana. Lahore Fort also contains a vacant Lava temple, dedicated to the founder of the city. Lahore was called by different names throughout history, to date there is no conclusive evidence as to when it was founded. Lahore is described as a Hindu principality in the Rajput accounts, keneksen, the founder of Suryavansha, is believed to have migrated out from the city. The Solanki tribe, belonging to Amukhara Pattan, which included the Bhatti Rajputs of Jaisalmer, Lahore appears as the capital of the Punjab for the first time under Anandapala – the Hindu Shahi king who is referred to as the ruler of –after leaving the earlier capital of Waihind

6.
Aror
–
Aror or Alor or Arorkot is the medieval name of the city of Rohri. In ancient India, Aror once served as the capital of Sindh, Aror is the ancestral town of the Arora caste. According to the Bhavishya Purana, Parshuram attacked the Kshatriyas but eventually met one who refused to oppose the Brahmins and this caused Parshuram to gain respect for him and as a result Parshuram asked this Kshatriya to settle in Sind, in Arorkot. This Kshatriyas descendants were named after the place, arab historians used the words Al-rur, Al-ruhr and Al Ror to describe Aror. The basic meaning being The Ror as Al is simply the English word The in Arabic, Aror was the ancient capital of Sindh, originally ruled by the Ror Dynasty, which was followed by Rai Dynasty and then the Brahman Dynasty. Modern Rohri is now situated close to Sukkur, Sindh, in 711, Aror was captured by the army of Muslim general Muhammad bin Qasim. In 962 it was hit by an earthquake that changed the course of the Indus River

7.
Sukkur
–
Sukkur, formerly Aror and Bakhar, is the 12th largest city of Pakistan and third largest city of the province of Sindh. It is situated on the west bank of Indus River and is the headquarters of Sukkur Division, the word Sakhar means superior in Sindhi, and the spelling of the citys name in Sindhi suggests this is the origin of the name. Modern Sukkur was built by the British general Sir Charles Napier in the 1840s, the city of Sukkur is the capital of Sukkur Division and also Divisional and district headquarters. Tehsils and contains many Union council, Sukkur is noteworthy in Sindh and Pakistan generally for its comparative tolerance towards religious and ethnic minorities. The city has its own Culture, the city is a multiethnic mix of Sindhis, Punjabis, Brahuis, Balochis and Pakhtuns. Some of the Bandhani, Memons, Marwari, and Punjabis did however settle here before partition, both Brahuis, Balochis speak Sindhi language as their mother tongue. Sindhis are native to the area and speak various dialects, including Utradi, Lari, Lasi, Thari, a large number of Punjabis were attracted to the city after the Indus treaty settlement and settled around downtown and Chowk Ghantaghar in the central part of the city. The district of Sukkur covers an area of 5,165 square kilometres, geographically it is spanned from 27°05 to 28°02 north latitudes and from 68°47 to 69°43 east longitudes. The city of Sukkur is located at an altitude of 220 feet from sea level, having terrestrial coordinates 68°52 east and it is also the narrowest point of the lower Indus course. Sukkur district shares its border with Shikarpur and the recently constituted Kashmore districts. Ghotki is located on the side while Khairpur on the south. The border with India lies further east, Sukkur is also connected by road and by air with all major cities of Pakistan. The climate of Sukkur is characterised by hot and hazy summer with dry. Throughout the whole year wind speed is low and sunshine is abundant as the district exhibits a desert climate, summer is very hot as the temperature can reach 50 °C. Dry heat is experienced starting April to early June until the Monsoon season starts to arrive, monsoons in the city of Sukkur are not very wet, but extremely high dew point couple up with very hot temperature makes the temperatures extremely uncomfortable. Dew point over 30 °C and heat index in excess of 65 °C are recorded on some days, monsoons recede by September, but it is not until late October that the short lived autumn season is experienced. The average annual rainfall of the city is a scanty, however, winter is mild and cool. Night temperatures rarely fall below freezing while day time temperatures are rather warm and it is one of the few districts of Sindh to experience foggy conditions similar to that of north and central Punjab

8.
Sindh (Pakistan)
–
Sindh /sɪnd/ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan, in the southeast of the country. Historically home to the Sindhi people, it is locally known as the Mehran. It was formerly known as Sind until 1956, Sindh is the third largest province of Pakistan by area, and second largest province by population after Punjab. Sindh is bordered by Balochistan province to the west, and Punjab province to the north, Sindh also borders the Indian states of Gujarat and Rajasthan to the east, and Arabian Sea to the south. Sindhs climate is noted for hot summers and mild winters, the provincial capital of Sindh is Pakistans largest city and financial hub, Karachi. Sindh has Pakistans second largest economy with Karachi being its capital hosts the headquarters of several multinational banks. Sindh is home to a portion of Pakistans industrial sector. The remainder of Sindh has an agriculture based economy, and produces fruit, food consumer items, Sindh is also the centre of Pakistans pharmaceutical industry. Sindh is known for its culture which is strongly influenced by Sufism. Several important Sufi shrines are located throughout the province which attract millions of annual devotees, Sindh also has Pakistans highest percentage of Hindu residents. Karachi and other centres of Sindh have seen ethnic tensions between the native Sindhis and the Muhajirs boil over into violence on several occasions. Sindh is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites - the Historical Monuments at Makli, and the Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro, the word Sindh is derived from the Sanskrit language and is adapted from the Sanskrit term Sindhu which literally means river hence a reference to Indus River. Spelling of its name as Sind was discontinued in 1988 by an amendment passed in Sindh Assembly. The Greeks who conquered Sindh in 325 BC under the command of Alexander the Great rendered it as Indós, the ancient Iranians referred to everything east of the river Indus as hind from the word Sindh. When the British arrived in the 17th century in India, then ruled by the Maratha Empire, they applied the Greek version of the name Sindh to all of South Asia, calling it India. The name of Pakistan is actually an acronym in which the letter s is derived from the first letter in Sindh, Sindhs first known village settlements date as far back as 7000 BCE. Permanent settlements at Mehrgarh, currently in Balochistan, to the west expanded into Sindh and this culture blossomed over several millennia and gave rise to the Indus Valley Civilization around 3000 BCE. The primitive village communities in Balochistan were still struggling against a difficult highland environment and this was one of the most developed urban civilizations of the ancient world

9.
Sindhu River
–
The Indus River, also called Sindhū or Abāsīn, is a major south-flowing river in South Asia. The total length of the river is 3,180 km which makes it one of the longest rivers in Asia and it is the longest river and national river of Pakistan. The river has a drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 km2. Its estimated annual flow stands at around 207 km3, making it the twenty-first largest river in the world in terms of annual flow, the Zanskar is its left bank tributary in Ladakh. In the plains, its left tributary is the Chenab which itself has four major tributaries, namely, the Jhelum, the Ravi, the Beas. Its principal right tributaries are the Shyok, the Gilgit, the Kabul, the Gomal. Beginning in a spring and fed with glaciers and rivers in the Himalayas. The Indus forms the delta of present-day Pakistan mentioned in the Vedic Rigveda as Sapta Sindhu, the river has been a source of wonder since the Classical Period, with King Darius of Persia sending his Greek subject Scylax of Caryanda to explore the river as early as 510 BC. In Pali, Síndhu means river, stream and refers to the Indus River in particular, the word Indus is the romanised form of the ancient Greek word Indós, borrowed from the old Persian word Hinduš which is in turn borrowed from the Sanskrit word Sindhu. Megastheness book Indica derives its name from the rivers Greek name, Indós, the ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indói, literally meaning the people of the Indus. The country of India and the Pakistani province of Sindh owe their names to the river, Rigveda also describes several mythical rivers, including one named Sindhu. The Rigvedic Sindhu is thought to be the present-day Indus river and is attested 176 times in its text –95 times in the plural, more often used in the generic meaning. In the Rigveda, notably in the hymns, the meaning of the word is narrowed to refer to the Indus river in particular. The Rigvedic hymns apply a feminine gender to all the rivers mentioned therein, Sindhu is seen as a strong warrior amongst other rivers which are seen as goddesses and compared to cows and mares yielding milk and butter. The Indus River provides key resources for Pakistans economy – especially the breadbasket of Punjab province, which accounts for most of the nations agricultural production. The word Punjab means land of five rivers and the five rivers are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, the Indus also supports many heavy industries and provides the main supply of potable water in Pakistan. The ultimate source of the Indus is in Tibet, the river begins at the confluence of the Sengge Zangbo and Gar Tsangpo rivers that drain the Nganglong Kangri, the Indus then flows northwest through Ladakh and Baltistan into Gilgit, just south of the Karakoram range. The Shyok, Shigar and Gilgit rivers carry glacial waters into the main river and it gradually bends to the south, coming out of the hills between Peshawar and Rawalpindi

10.
Sindh
–
Sindh /sɪnd/ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan, in the southeast of the country. Historically home to the Sindhi people, it is locally known as the Mehran. It was formerly known as Sind until 1956, Sindh is the third largest province of Pakistan by area, and second largest province by population after Punjab. Sindh is bordered by Balochistan province to the west, and Punjab province to the north, Sindh also borders the Indian states of Gujarat and Rajasthan to the east, and Arabian Sea to the south. Sindhs climate is noted for hot summers and mild winters, the provincial capital of Sindh is Pakistans largest city and financial hub, Karachi. Sindh has Pakistans second largest economy with Karachi being its capital hosts the headquarters of several multinational banks. Sindh is home to a portion of Pakistans industrial sector. The remainder of Sindh has an agriculture based economy, and produces fruit, food consumer items, Sindh is also the centre of Pakistans pharmaceutical industry. Sindh is known for its culture which is strongly influenced by Sufism. Several important Sufi shrines are located throughout the province which attract millions of annual devotees, Sindh also has Pakistans highest percentage of Hindu residents. Karachi and other centres of Sindh have seen ethnic tensions between the native Sindhis and the Muhajirs boil over into violence on several occasions. Sindh is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites - the Historical Monuments at Makli, and the Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro, the word Sindh is derived from the Sanskrit language and is adapted from the Sanskrit term Sindhu which literally means river hence a reference to Indus River. Spelling of its name as Sind was discontinued in 1988 by an amendment passed in Sindh Assembly. The Greeks who conquered Sindh in 325 BC under the command of Alexander the Great rendered it as Indós, the ancient Iranians referred to everything east of the river Indus as hind from the word Sindh. When the British arrived in the 17th century in India, then ruled by the Maratha Empire, they applied the Greek version of the name Sindh to all of South Asia, calling it India. The name of Pakistan is actually an acronym in which the letter s is derived from the first letter in Sindh, Sindhs first known village settlements date as far back as 7000 BCE. Permanent settlements at Mehrgarh, currently in Balochistan, to the west expanded into Sindh and this culture blossomed over several millennia and gave rise to the Indus Valley Civilization around 3000 BCE. The primitive village communities in Balochistan were still struggling against a difficult highland environment and this was one of the most developed urban civilizations of the ancient world

11.
Hindus
–
Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion

12.
Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf
–
Al-Hajjaj was born in ca.661 in the city of Taif in the Hijaz, in modern-day Saudi Arabia. His ancestry was not particularly distinguished, he came of a poor family and his mother, al-Faria, had married, and been divorced by, al-Mughira ibn Shuba, appointed governor of Kufa by the first Umayyad caliph, Muawiya. As a boy, al-Hajjaj acquired the nickname Kulayb, with which he was derisively referred to. His early life is obscure, except for his having been a schoolmaster in his home town—another source of derision to his enemies and he participated in the Second Fitna, fighting in the battles of Harra near Medina and of al-Rabadha, but apparently without particular distinction. His first public post, as governor of Tabala in the Tihama region, was also unremarkable, soon after Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan assumed the throne, al-Hajjaj left his home town and went to the capital, Damascus, where he entered the security force of the Caliph. As a result, the Caliph entrusted him with command of the armys rear-guard, in late 691 he set out from Kufa at the head of 2,000 Syrian troops. Ibn al-Zubayr however rejected the Umayyad offers, and al-Hajjaj, after receiving reinforcements, the Umayyad troops bombarded the city with catapults from Mount Abu Qubays, not letting up even during the hajj, even the Kaaba was not spared, despite the presence of the assembled pilgrims. When a sudden thunderstorm broke out, which his soldiers interpreted as wrath, he was able to rally them. As a reward, Abd al-Malik gave al-Hajjaj the governorship of the Hijaz, Yemen, Al-Hajjaj was able to restore peace in the Hijaz, but his severity occasioned the frequent personal intervention of the Caliph. In early 694, Caliph Abd al-Malik sent al-Hajjaj to govern Iraq and this involved combining the governorships of Kufa and Basra, which had not been done since the days of Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan twenty years earlier. e. Persia, Khurasan and the eastern provinces of the Caliphate. In addition, the post was of particular political sensitivity due to the history of Kharijism and political dissent in Iraq. This discontent was driven by various tribal, economic, and political factors, the population of Kufa contained people from almost all Arab tribes, but also many of those undesired elsewhere, such as the vanquished of the Ridda wars. Al-Hajjajs purview originally excluded Khurasan and Sistan, but in 697/8 he received these two provinces as well, expanding his rule over the eastern half of the Caliphate. Al-Hajjaj was, in the words of A. Dietrich, the most loyal servant that a dynasty could wish for and this close relationship is further evidenced by the many surviving letters exchanged between the two men. Al-Hajjajs relationship with Abd al-Malik was much different than with the successor, al-Walid. If his meddling in the succession had secured him the favour of al-Walid, Sulayman furthermore had championed the cause of Yazid ibn al-Muhallab, whom al-Hajjaj had imprisoned. The possibility of Sulaymans accession so frightened al-Hajjaj that he wished not to outlive al-Walid, arriving at Kufa, al-Hajjaj gave an inaugural sermon at the local mosque that has become famous and is often cited as an example of Arab eloquence

13.
Umayyad
–
The Umayyad Caliphate, also spelled Omayyad, was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. This caliphate was centred on the Umayyad dynasty, hailing from Mecca, Syria remained the Umayyads main power base thereafter, and Damascus was their capital. The Umayyads continued the Muslim conquests, incorporating the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 11,100,000 km2 and 62 million people, the Umayyad Caliphate was secular by nature. At the time, the Umayyad taxation and administrative practice were perceived as unjust by some Muslims, Muhammad had stated explicitly during his lifetime that Abrahamic religious groups, should be allowed to practice their own religion, provided that they paid the jizya taxation. The welfare state of both the Muslim and the poor started by Umar ibn al Khattab had also continued, financed by the zakat tax levied only on Muslims. Muawiyas wife Maysum was also a Christian, the relations between the Muslims and the Christians in the state were stable in this time. Prominent positions were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served in Byzantine governments, the employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious assimilation that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, as in Syria. This policy also boosted Muawiyas popularity and solidified Syria as his power base, the rivalries between the Arab tribes had caused unrest in the provinces outside Syria, most notably in the Second Muslim Civil War of AD 680–692 and the Berber Revolt of 740–743. During the Second Civil War, leadership of the Umayyad clan shifted from the Sufyanid branch of the family to the Marwanid branch. A branch of the family fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the Caliphate of Córdoba, according to tradition, the Umayyad family and Muhammad both descended from a common ancestor, Abd Manaf ibn Qusai, and they originally came from the city of Mecca. Muhammad descended from Abd Manāf via his son Hashim, while the Umayyads descended from Abd Manaf via a different son, Abd-Shams, the two families are therefore considered to be different clans of the same tribe. However Muslim Shia historians suspect that Umayya was a son of Abd Shams so he was not a blood relative of Abd Manaf ibn Qusai. Umayya was later discarded from the noble family, Sunni historians disagree with this and view Shia claims as nothing more than outright polemics due to their hostility to the Umayyad family in general. While the Umayyads and the Hashimites may have had bitterness between the two clans before Muhammad, the rivalry turned into a case of tribal animosity after the Battle of Badr. The battle saw three top leaders of the Umayyad clan killed by Hashimites in a three-on-three melee and this fueled the opposition of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, the grandson of Umayya, to Muhammad and to Islam. Abu Sufyan sought to exterminate the adherents of the new religion by waging another battle with Muslims based in Medina only a year after the Battle of Badr and he did this to avenge the defeat at Badr. The Battle of Uhud is generally believed by scholars to be the first defeat for the Muslims, as they had incurred greater losses than the Meccans

14.
Al-Walid I
–
Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik or Al-Walid I was an Umayyad Caliph who ruled from 705 until his death in 715. His reign saw the greatest expansion of the Caliphate, as successful campaigns were undertaken in Transoxiana in Central Asia, Sind, Hispania in far western Europe and he was born to Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan and his wife who was from the central Arabian region of Najd. Al-Walid was born in 668 and died in 715, Walid continued the expansion of the Islamic empire that was sparked by his father and was an effective ruler. His father Abd al-Malik had taken the oath of allegiance for Walid during his lifetime, as such the succession of Walid was not contested. His reign was marked by a number of conquests in both the east and west with historians considering his reign as the apex of Islamic power, Walid was married to his first cousin Umm Banin bint Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan. Walid was succeeded by his brother Sulayman and was buried in Bab al-Saghir cemetery in Damascus and his grave is still present to this date. Walid continued his fathers policies of expanding Islamic power through conquests, in 711, Muslim armies crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and began to conquer the Iberian Peninsula using North African Berber troops. By 716, the Visigoths of Iberia had been defeated and Iberia was under Muslim control, in the east, Islamic armies made it as far as the Indus River in 712. Under Walid, the Caliphate stretched from the Iberian Peninsula to India, Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf continued to play a crucial role in the organization and selection of military commanders in the East, serving as effectively the viceroy there. Walid paid great attention to the development and expansion of a well-organized military and he built the strongest navy of the Umayyad era which was a key element in Caliphates expansion into Iberia. Like his father, Walid continued to allow Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf free rein, musa ibn Nusayr and his retainer Tariq ibn Ziyad conquered Al-Andalus, whilst Mohammad Bin Qasim Conquered Sindh. Hajjaj was responsible for picking the generals who led the eastern campaigns. Others, such as Walids brother Maslamah, advanced against the Byzantines, muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari describes how Qutayba ibn Muslim, Khurasans governor, led forces extending the Caliphate to the east. Qutayba conquered Samarkand, advanced into Farghana and sent envoys to China, al-Tabari records how Hajjaj tortured Yazid ibn al-Muhallab. Yazid escaped and made his way to Walids brother Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik who granted him refuge, Hajjaj pressed Walid about this and Walid commanded Sulayman to send him Yazid in chains. Sulayman had his own son approach Walid chained to Yazid and spoke in favour of Yazids safety, Walid accepted this and told Hajjaj to desist. Walid began the first major building projects of Islam, the history of Islamic architecture can be said to have begun in earnest with Walid. Around 701, al-Walid ordered the building of Al-Aqsa Mosque, opposite his fathers Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount, Walid repaired and refurbished Masjid al Nabawi in Medina

15.
Muhammad Bin Qasim
–
‘Imād ad-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Qāsim ath-Thaqafī was an Umayyad general who conquered the Sindh and Multan regions along the Indus River for the Umayyad Caliphate. He was born and raised in the city of Taif, Qasims conquest of Sindh and southern-most parts of Multan enabled further Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. A member of the Thaqif tribe of the Taif region, Muhammad bin Qasims father was Qasim bin Yusuf, Umayyad governor Al-Hajjaj Ibn Yusuf Al-Thaqafi, Muhammad bin Qasims paternal uncle, was instrumental in teaching Muhammad bin Qasim about warfare and governance. Muhammad bin Qasim married his cousin Zubaidah, Al-Hajjajs daughter, shortly before going to Sindh, due to his close relationship with Al-Hajjaj, Bin Qasim was executed after the accession of Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. According to Berzin, Umayyad interest in the region occurred because of attacks from Sindh Raja Dahir on ships of Muslims and they had earlier unsuccessfully sought to gain control of the route, via the Khyber Pass, from the Kabul Shahi of Gandhara. But by taking Sindh, Gandharas southern neighbour, they were able to open a front against Gandhara. According to Wink, Umayyad interest in the region was galvanized by the operation of the Meds, at the time, Sindh was the wild frontier region of al-Hind, inhabited mostly by semi-nomadic tribes whose activities disturbed much of the Western Indian Ocean. Also cited as a reason for this campaign was the policy of providing refuge to Sassanids fleeing the Arab advance and these Arabs were imprisoned later on by the Governor Deebal Partaab Raye. A letter written by an Arab girl who escaped from the prison of Partab Raye asked Hajjaj Bin Yusuf for help, when Hajjaj asked Dahir for the release of prisoners and compensation, the latter refused on the ground that he had no control over those. Al-Hajjaj sent Muhammad Bin Qasim for action against the Sindh in 711, Muhammad bin Qasims expedition was actually the third attempt, the first two having failed due to stiffer-than-expected opposition as well as heat, exhaustion. Hajjaj had put more care and planning into this campaign than the first campaign under Badil bin Tuhfa, the army which departed from Shiraz in 710 CE under Muhammad bin Qasim was 6,000 Syrian cavalry and detachments of mawali from Iraq. The army that eventually captured Sindh would later be swelled by the Gurjars, from Debal the Arab army then marched north taking towns such as Nerun and Sadusan peacefully. Often using their components, additionally one-fifth of the booty including slaves were dispatched to Hajjaj, the conquest of these towns was accomplished easily, however, Raja Dahirs armies being prepared on the other side of the Indus were yet to be fought. In preparation to meet them, Muhammad bin Qasim moved back to Nerun to resupply, camped on the east bank of the Indus, Qasim sent emissaries and bargained with the river Jats and boatmen. Upon securing the aid of Mokah Basayah, the King of the island of Bet, Muhammad bin Qasim crossed over the river where he was joined by the forces of the Thakore of Bhatta, at Ar-rur he was met by Dahirs forces and the eastern Jats in battle. Dahir died in the battle, his forces were defeated and a triumphant Muhammad bin Qasim took control of Sindh, soon the capitals of the other provinces, Brahmanabad, Alor and Multan, were captured alongside other in-between towns with only light Muslim casualties. Usually after a siege of a few weeks or months the Arabs gained a city through the intervention of heads of houses with whom subsequent treaties. After battles all fighting men were executed and their wives and children enslaved in considerable numbers, the general populace was encouraged to carry on with their trades and taxes and tributes settled

16.
Debal
–
Debal was an ancient port located near modern Karachi, Pakistan. It is adjacent to the nearby Manora Island and was administered by Mansura, in Arabic history books, most notably in the early eighth century accounts of the arrival of Islam in the Indian Sub-continent, it was documented as Daybul. One view is that the name was derived from Devalaya, meaning an abode of God in Sanskrit, according to modern archaeologists, Debal was founded in the 1st century CE, and soon became the most important trading city in Sindh. The port city was home to thousands of Sindhi sailors including the Bawarij, ibn Hawqal, a 10th-century writer, geographer and chronicler, mentions huts of the city and the dry arid land surrounding the city that supported little agriculture. He mentions how efficiently the inhabitants of the city maintained fishing vessels, the Abbasids were the first to build large stone structures including a city wall and a citadel. Debal and the Manora Island were visited by Ottoman Admiral Seydi Ali Reis, in 1568 Debal was attacked by the Portuguese Admiral Fernão Mendes Pinto in an attempt to capture or destroy the Ottoman vessels anchored there. Fernão Mendes Pinto also claims that Sindhi sailors joined the Ottoman Admiral Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis on his voyage to Aceh, Debal was also visited by the British travel writers such as Thomas Postans and John Elliott. According to Eliot, who is noted for his account on the city of Thatta, parts of city of Karachi. Kulanch Kulachi Kolachi jo Goth Krokola Karachi Mai Kolachi Kolachi Keti Bandar Malcolm Robert Haig, the Indus Delta Country, A Memoir, Chiefly on Its Ancient Geography and History. K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. p.42

17.
Hyderabad, Sindh
–
Hyderabad is a city located in the Sindh province of Pakistan. Hyderabad is the 4th largest city in Pakistan and the 2nd largest in the province of Sindh and it is located in south-east of the country. In AD711, Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh, Raja Dahir was a Hindu king who ruled over a Buddhist majority and that Chach of Alor and his kin were regarded as usurpers of the earlier Buddhist Rai Dynasty. The forces of Muhammad bin Qasim defeated Raja Dahir, Hyderabad is a city built on three hillocks cascading over each other. Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro of the Kalhora Dynasty founded the city in 1768 over the ruins of Neroon Kot, a formal concept for the city was laid out by his son, Sarfraz Khan in 1782. When the foundations were laid, the city obtained the nickname Heart of the Mehran as the ruler Mian Ghulam Shah himself was said to have fallen in love with the city. In 1768 he ordered a fort to be built on one of the three hills of Hyderabad to house and defend his people, the fort was built using fire-baked bricks, on account of which it was named Pacco Qillo meaning the strong fort. The City has a history of Sufism, in the 18th Century Syeds from Multan migrated and settled at Tando Jahania making it a sacred place for Muslims. These Syeds came here from Uch Sharif via Jahanian and these were the descendants of Jahaniyan Jahangasht a noted Sufi saint. The city is a multi-ethnic and has a mix of Sindhi, Urdu speaking Muhajirs, Brahuis, Punjabis, Pashtuns, Memons, the independence of Pakistan in 1947 saw the influx of Muslim Urdu-speaking Muhajirs from India fleeing from anti-Muslim pogroms. Mahjirs mainly live in Latifabad and Sindhi mainly live in Qasimabad areas, a large influx of Punjabis were attracted to Hyderabad after the Indus treaty settlement. Most Punjabis and Pakhtuns are distinct and separately living near the railway station, the city therefore has cosmopolitan atmosphere with multiethnic and multicultural communities. Hindus account for the largest religious minority forming 5% of the population of the city. While Christians account for 1% of the population, Hyderabad is the seat of a Diocese of the Church of Pakistan and has five churches. Two of Pakistans largest highways, the Indus Highway and the National Highway join at Hyderabad, several towns surrounding the city include Kotri at 6.7 kilometres, Jamshoro at 8.1 kilometres, Hattri at 5.0 kilometres and Husri at 7.5 kilometres. Hyderabad has a hot climate, with warm conditions year-round. The period from mid-April to late June is the hottest of the year, during this time, winds that blow usually bring along clouds of dust, and people prefer staying indoors in the daytime, while the breeze that flows at night is more pleasant. Winters are warm, with highs around 25 °C, though lows can drop below 10 °C at night

18.
Sehwan
–
Sehwan is a historic city located in Jamshoro District of Sindh province in Pakistan. Sehwan stands on the west bank of the Indus,80 miles north-west of Hyderabad, due to the popularity of the sufi dargah in the town, the terms Sehwan and Qalandar are often used interchangeably in Pakistani daily conversation. It is possible that the name Sehwan originates from Siwistan or Seevistan and it was conquered by Muhammad bin Qasim in 711, and two centuries later by Mahmud of Ghazni. An abortive attempt was made by the Mughal emperor Humayun to capture it on his way to Umarkot, before this, it was the capital of the Thatta Kingdom under Juni Bek. The city is known for its Sufi patron saint Lal Shahbaz Qalandar who lived there in the 13th century, Lal Shahbaz was a Sufi saint who is buried in Sehwan Sharif. It is a truly syncretic place, where Hindus and Muslims are equally welcome, Sehwan was once a major centre for Shaivism, and the hereditary guardian of the tomb is still a Hindu. It is told there was a Shiva lingam right there in the shrine until the 1970s. Some Hindus are said to consider Lal Shahbaz an incarnation of a fourth century Sanskrit poet turned Shaivaite ascetic, others call him Jhule Lal, all these Hindu legends and beliefs have come together with the faith of the Muslims to create a truly extraordinary place. The Shrine of Lal Shahbaz Qalandar attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors every year, another famous place is the inverted city, which may be the Debal Bandar of Raja Dahir. Manchar Lake, the largest freshwater lake in Pakistan, is a distance from Sehwan Sharif. On the 16th of February 2017, a suicide bomber triggered an explosion at the Shrine of Lal Shahbaz Qalandar, killing at least 83 people, the attack occurred during a praying session. The bombing took place at an 800 year old Shrine

19.
Looting
–
The term is also used in a broader sense to describe egregious instances of theft and embezzlement, such as the plundering of private or public assets by governments. The proceeds of all these activities can be described as booty, loot, plunder, spoils, looting by a victorious army during war has been common practice throughout recorded history. For foot soldiers, it was viewed as a way to supplement their meagre income and was part of the celebration of victory. To rob them of their wealth, in other pre-modern societies, objects made of precious metals were the preferred target of war looting, largely because of their easy portability. In many cases looting was an opportunity to obtain treasures that otherwise would not have been obtainable, since the 18th century, works of art have increasingly become a popular target. In the 1930s and even more so during World War II, Nazi Germany engaged in large scale and organized looting of art, looting, combined with poor military discipline, has occasionally been an armys downfall. In other cases, for example the Wahhabi sack of Karbala, not all looters in wartime are conquerors, the looting of Vistula Land by its retreating defenders in 1915 was among the factors sapping the loyalty of Poland in World War I. Local civilians can also take advantage of a breakdown of order to loot public and private property, the novel War and Peace describes widespread looting by Moscows citizens before Napoleons troops enter the town, and looting by French troops elsewhere. Looting can also refer to antiquities formerly removed from countries by outsiders, other examples include the obelisks of Pharaoh Amenhotep II, in the, Pharaoh Ptolemy IX. In the aftermath of the Second World War Soviet forces systematically plundered the Soviet occupation zone of Germany and they sent valuable industrial equipment, infrastructure and whole factories to the Soviet Union. Especially during natural disasters, some find themselves forced to take what is not theirs in order to survive. How to respond to this, and where the line between unnecessary looting and necessary scavenging lies, is often a dilemma for governments, in other cases, looting may be tolerated or even encouraged by governments for political or other reasons. The Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949 explicitly prohibits the looting of property during wartime. The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 obliges military forces not only to avoid destruction of enemy property, theoretically, to prevent such looting, unclaimed property is moved to the custody of the Custodian of Enemy Property, to be handled until the return to its owner. Around the same time of the Hyksos invasion and occupation of Egypt, in Genesis 15,14, the despoliation is an act of justifiable vengeance upon the oppressors of Israel. Yet in Exodus, God uses the plagues as an act of mercy to bring a knowledge of himself to Israel, Pharaoh, the Egyptians, and to the ends of the earth. See Hyksos Iconoclasm and Genesis 13,2 and Genesis 15,14 and Exodus 12,36 Following the death of Valentinian III in 455, in 870 AD, the Byzantine city of Melite was captured by the Aghlabids under Sawāda Ibn Muḥammad. The city was destroyed, its churches looted and its population massacred, marble from the citys churches was used to build the castle of Sousse

20.
Suttee
–
Sati or suttee is an obsolete Hindu funeral custom where a widow immolates herself on her husbands pyre or commits suicide in another fashion shortly after her husbands death. Mention of the practice can be dated back to the 4th century BC, under British rule, the practice was initially tolerated. In the province of Bengal, Sati was attended by a government official, which states Ahmed, not only seemed to accord an official sanction. Between 1815 and 1818, the number of Sati in Bengal province doubled from 378 to 839, under sustained campaigning against Sati by Christian missionaries such as William Carey and Brahmin Hindu reformer such as Ram Mohan Roy, the provincial government banned Sati in 1829. This was followed up by similar laws by the authorities in the states of India in the ensuing decades. In Nepal, sati was banned in 1920, the Indian Sati Prevention Act from 1988 further criminalised any type of aiding, abetting, and glorifying of sati. Sati is derived from the name of the goddess Sati, who self-immolated because she was unable to bear her father Dakshas humiliation to her husband Shiva, the term sati was originally interpreted as chaste woman. Sati appears in Hindi and Sanskrit texts, where it is synonymous with good wife, Sati designates therefore originally the woman, rather than the rite, the rite itself having technical names such as sahagamana or sahamarana. Anvarohana is occasionally met, as well as satidaha as terms to designate the process, satipratha is also, on occasion, used as a term signifying the custom of burning widows alive. Two other terms related to sati are sativrata and satimata, sativrata, an uncommon and seldom used term, denotes the woman who makes a vow, vrat, to protect her husband while he is alive and then die with her husband. Satimata denotes a venerated widow who committed sati, the Indian Commission of Sati Act,1987 Part I, Section 2 defines sati as the act or rite itself. Few reliable records exist of the practice before the time of the Gupta empire, after about this time, instances of sati began to be marked by inscribed memorial stones. According to Axel Michaels, the first clear proof of the practice is from Nepal in 464 AD, in India, the earliest of these memorial stones are found in Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, the largest collections date from several centuries later and are found in Rajasthan. Those who declined to die were disgraced, in 317 BC Eumenes cosmopolitan army defeated that of Antigonus in the Battle of Paraitakene. Among the fallen was one Ceteus, the commander of Eumenes Indian soldiers, Diodorus writes that Ceteus had been followed on campaign by his two wives, at his funeral the two wives competed for the honour of joining their husband on the pyre. After the older wife was found to be pregnant, Eumenes generals ruled in favour of the younger and she was led to the pyre crowned in garlands to the hymns of her kinsfolk. The whole army then marched three times around the pyre before it was lit, according to Diodorus the practice of sati started because Indians married for love, unlike the Greeks who favoured marriages arranged by the parents. When inevitably many of these marriages turned sour, the woman would often poison the husband and find a new lover

21.
Muslims
–
A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco

22.
Jizya
–
Jizya or jizyah is a per capita yearly tax historically levied by Islamic states on certain non-Muslim subjects—dhimmis—permanently residing in Muslim lands under Islamic law. Dhimmis who chose to join military service were exempted from payment, Jizya is mentioned by the Quran and hadiths. The application of jizya varied in the course of Islamic history, together with kharāj, a term that was sometimes used interchangeably with jizya, taxes levied on non-Muslim subjects were among the main sources of revenues collected by some Islamic polities. Jizya rate was usually an annual amount depending on the financial capability of the payer. Sources comparing taxes levied on Muslims and jizya differ as to their relative burden depending on time, place, specific taxes under consideration, and other factors. The tax is no longer imposed by states in the Islamic world, although there are reported cases of organizations such as the Pakistani Taliban. The late Islamic scholar Abul Ala Maududi, of Pakistan, said that Jizya should be re-imposed on non-Muslims in a Muslim nation, however, most Muslims generally reject the dhimma system, which encompasses jizya, as inappropriate for the age of nation-states and democracies. Commentators disagree on the definition and derivation of the jizya, Shakirs English translations of the Quran render jizya as tax, while Pickthal. Yusuf Ali prefers to transliterate the term as jizyah, Yusuf Ali considered the root meaning of jizya to be compensation, whereas Muhammad Asad considered it to be satisfaction. And he writes about jizya, A tax that is levied on Dhimmis, michael G. Morony states that the emergence of protected status and the definition of jizya as the poll tax on non-Muslim subjects appears to have been achieved only by the early eighth century. This came as a result of growing suspicions about the loyalty of the population during the second civil war. Jane Dammen McAuliffe states that jizya, in early Islamic texts, was an annual tribute expected from non-Muslims, arthur Stanley Tritton states that both jizya in west, and kharaj in the east Arabia meant tribute. It was also called Jawali in Jerusalem, shemesh says that Abu Yusuf, Abu Ubayd, Qudama, Khatib and Yahya used the terms Jizya, Kharaj, Ushr and Tasq as synonyms. In a treaty made by Khalid with some towns in the neighborhood of Hirah, he writes, If we protect you, then jizya is due to us, in our agreement you stipulated that we protect you, but we are unable to do so. Therefore, we now return to you what we have taken from you, similarly, during the time of the Crusades, Saladin returned the jizya to the Christians of Syria when he was compelled to retract from it. The orientalist Thomas Walker Arnold writes that even Muslims were made to pay a tax if they were exempted from military service, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani states that there is a consensus amongst Islamic jurists that jizya is in exchange for military service. In the case of war, jizya is seen as an option to end hostilities, in this sense, jizya is seen as a means by which to legalize the cessation of war and military conflict with non-Muslims. The second rationale offered by Islamic scholars for the imposition of Jizya tax on non-Muslims is that it was a substitute to the requirement of zakat tax from Muslims

23.
Massacres
–
A massacre is a specific incident which involves the killing of people, although not necessarily a crime against humanity. Further origins are dubious, though may be related to Latin macellum provisions store, robert Melsons basic working definition, reads, by massacre we shall mean the intentional killing by political actors of a significant number of relatively defenseless people. The motives for massacre need not be rational in order for the killings to be intentional, Mass killings can be carried out for various reasons, including a response to false rumors. Should be distinguished from criminal or pathological mass killings, as political bodies we of course include the state and its agencies, but also nonstate actors. Equally important is that massacres are not carried out by individuals, the use of superior, even overwhelming force. Levene excludes legal, or even some quasi-legal, mass executions and he also points out that it is. most often. When the act is outside the normal bounds of the society witnessing it. List of events named massacres Disaster Ethnic cleansing Genocide Killing spree Mass murder Pogrom Tragedy Tragedy War crime

24.
Genocides
–
Genocide is intentional action to destroy a people in whole or in part. The hybrid word genocide is a combination of the Greek word génos, the United Nations Genocide Convention, which was established in 1948, defines genocide as acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group. The term genocide was coined in a 1943 book responding to mass murder of populations in the 20th century, in 1943, Raphael Lemkin created the term genocide in his book Axis Rule in Occupied Europe. The book describes the implementation of Nazi policies in occupied Europe, the term described the systematic destruction of a nation or people, and the word was quickly adopted by many in the international community. The word genocide is the combination of the Greek prefix geno-, Lemkin defined genocide as follows, Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation, except when accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. The preamble to the 1948 Genocide Convention notes that instances of genocide have taken place throughout history. Lemkins lifelong interest in the murder of populations in the 20th century was initially in response to the killing of Armenians in 1915. He dedicated his life to mobilizing the international community, to together to prevent the occurrence of such events. In a 1949 interview, Lemkin said I became interested in genocide because it happened so many times and it happened to the Armenians, then after the Armenians, Hitler took action. In 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Prevention, the CPPCG was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 9 December 1948 and came into effect on 12 January 1951. The USSR argued that the Conventions definition should follow the etymology of the term, and may have feared greater international scrutiny of its own Great Purge. Other nations feared that including political groups in the definition would invite international intervention in domestic politics. ”The conventions purpose and scope was later described by the United Nations Security Council as follows, In 2007 the European Court of Human Rights, noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. In the same judgement the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts judgements, in the case of Onesphore Rwabukombe the German Supreme Court adhered to its previous judgement and didnt follow the narrow interpretation of the ICTY and the ICJ. The phrase in whole or in part has been subject to discussion by scholars of international humanitarian law. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 ICTY8 that Genocide had been committed. The aim of the Genocide Convention is to prevent the destruction of entire human groups. The Appeals Chamber goes into details of other cases and the opinions of respected commentators on the Genocide Convention to explain how they came to this conclusion. The judges continue in paragraph 12, The determination of when the part is substantial enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations

25.
Sindhis
–
Not to be confused with the Sindi people. Sindhis are an Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic group who speak the Sindhi language and are native to the Sindh province of Pakistan, Sindhi culture is highly influenced by Sufi doctrines and principles. Some of the cultural icons are Raja Dahir, Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai, Lal Shahbaz Qalandar, Jhulelal, Sachal Sarmast. After the partition of India in 1947, most Sindhi Hindus and Sindhi Sikhs migrated to India, according to the 1998 census of Pakistan, Hindus constituted about 8% of the total population of Sindh province. Most of them live in areas such as Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukkur. Hyderabad is the largest centre of Sindhi Hindus in Pakistan with 100, the original inhabitants of ancient Sindh were believed to be aboriginal tribes speaking languages of the Indus Valley Civilization around 3300 BC. Moen-jo-Daro is the symbol of Indus Valley Civilization in World, the Indo-Aryans are believed to have founded the Vedic civilization that existed between the Sarasvati River and Ganges river around 1500 BC. This civilization helped shape subsequent cultures in South Asia, because of its location at one of the more western edges of South Asia, Sindh was one of the earliest regions to be influenced by Islam after 632 AD. Before this period, it was heavily Hindu, and Buddhist, after 632 AD, it was part of the Islamic empires of the Abbasids and Umayyids. Habbari, Soomra, Samma, Arghun dynasties ruled Sindh, the region received its name, Sindh, from the River Sindhu. The people living in the region are referred to as Sindhi, the terms Hindi and Hindu are derived from the word Sindh and Sindhu, as the ancient Persians pronounced s as h. India is also known as Hindustan and these tribes belong to the same blood line. Among other Sindhi Rajputs are the Bhachos, Bhuttos, Bhattis, Bhanbhro, Mahendros, Buriros, Lakha, Sahetas, Lohanas, Mohano, Dahars, Indhar, Chachar, Dhareja, Rathores, Dakhan, Langah, etc. The Sindhi-Sipahi of Rajasthan and the Sandhai Muslims of Gujarat are communities of Sindhi Rajputs settled in India, closely related to the Sindhi Rajputs are the Jats of Sindh, who are found mainly in the Indus delta region. However, tribes are of importance in Sindh as compared to in Punjab. Identity in Sindh is mostly based on a common ethnicity, with Sindh’s stable prosperity and its strategic geographical position, it was subject to successive conquests by foreign empires. In 712 A. D. Sindh was incorporated into the Caliphate, the Islamic Empire, Muslim Sindhis tend to follow the Sunni Hanafi fiqh with a substantial minority being Shia Ithna ashariyah. Sufism has left an impact on Sindhi Muslims and this is visible through the numerous Sufi shrines which dot the landscape of Sindh

26.
Durga
–
Durga, also known as Devi, Shakti and by numerous other names, is a principal and popular form of Hindu goddess. She is the goddess, whose mythology centers around combating evils and demonic forces that threaten peace, prosperity. She is the form of the protective mother goddess, willing to unleash her anger against wrong. Durga is depicted in the Hindu pantheon as a woman riding a lion or tiger, with many arms each carrying a weapon. She appears in Indian texts as the wife of god Shiva and she is a central deity in Shaktism tradition of Hinduism, where she is equated with the concept of ultimate reality called Brahman. Estimated to have been composed between 400-600 CE, this text is considered by Shakta Hindus to be as important scripture as the Bhagavad Gita. She has a significant following all over India and in Nepal, particularly in its states such as West Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand, Assam. Durga is revered after spring and autumn harvests, specially during the festival of Navaratri, the word Durga literally means impassable, inaccessible, invincible, unassailable. It is related to the word Durg which means fortress, something difficult to access, according to Monier Monier-Williams, Durga is derived from the roots dur and gam. According to Alain Daniélou, Durga means beyond reach. The word Durga, and related terms appear in the Vedic literature, such as in the Rigveda hymns 4.28,5.34,8.27,8.47,8.93 and 10.127, and in sections 10.1 and 12.4 of the Atharvaveda. A deity named Durgi appears in section 10.1.7 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka, while the Vedic literature uses the word Durga, the description therein lacks the legendary details about her that is found in later Hindu literature. The word is found in ancient post-Vedic Sanskrit texts such as in section 2.451 of the Mahabharata. These usages are in different contexts, for example, Durg is the name of an Asura who had become invincible to gods, and Durga is the goddess who intervenes and slays him. Durga and its derivatives are found in sections 4.1.99 and 6.3.63 of the Ashtadhyayi by Pāṇini, the ancient Sanskrit grammarian, and in the commentary of Nirukta by Yaska. Durga as a goddess was likely well established by the time the classic Hindu text called Devi Mahatmya was composed. There are many epithets for Durga in Shaktism and nine appellations, Skandamata, Kushmanda, Shailaputri, Kaalratri, Brahmacharini, Kaliputri, Chandraghanta and Siddhidatri. A list of 108 names that are used to describe her is very popularly in use by eastern Hindus and is called Ashtottara Shatanamavali of Goddess Durga

27.
Naib
–
Nawab or nawaab is an honorific title ratified and bestowed by the reigning Mughal emperor to semi-autonomous Muslim rulers of princely states in South Asia. Nawab usually refers to males, the equivalent is begum or nawab begum. The primary duty of a nawab was to uphold the sovereignty of the Mughal emperor along with the administration of a certain province, in some cases, these titles were also accompanied by jagir grants, either in cash revenues and allowances or land-holdings. During the British Raj, some of the chiefs or Sardars of large or important tribes were given the title. The term nawab was originally used for the subahdar or viceroy of a subah or region of the Mughal empire. It is a Hindustani term, used in Urdu, Hindi, Bengali and many other North-Indian languages, borrowed via Persian from the Arabic, being the plural of naib. In some areas, especially Bengal, the term is pronounced nobab and this later variation has also entered English and other foreign languages. The term nawbab is often used to refer to any Muslim ruler in north or south India while the term nizam is preferred for a senior official—it literally means governor of region. The Nizam of Hyderabad had several nawabs under him, Nawabs of Cuddapah, Sira, Rajahmundry, Kurnool, Chicacole, Nizam was his personal title, awarded by the Mughal Government and based on the term Nazim as meaning senior officer. Nazim is still used for a collector in many parts of India. The term nawab is still technically imprecise, as the title was awarded to Hindus and Sikhs, as well. With the decline of empire, the title, and the powers that went with it. Other former rulers bearing the title, such as the nawabs of Bengal, some princes became Nawab by promotion, e. g. the ruler of Palanpur was diwan until 1910, then nawab sahib. Other nawabs were promoted are restyled to another style, or to and back. The style for a queen is begum. Most of the dynasties were male primogenitures, although several ruling Begums of Bhopal were a notable exception. Before the incorporation of the Subcontinent into the British Empire, nawabs ruled the kingdoms of Awadh, Bengal, Arcot and Bhopal. The title nawab was also awarded as a distinction by the paramount power, similarly to a British peerage, to persons

28.
Indus
–
The Indus River, also called Sindhū or Abāsīn, is a major south-flowing river in South Asia. The total length of the river is 3,180 km which makes it one of the longest rivers in Asia and it is the longest river and national river of Pakistan. The river has a drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 km2. Its estimated annual flow stands at around 207 km3, making it the twenty-first largest river in the world in terms of annual flow, the Zanskar is its left bank tributary in Ladakh. In the plains, its left tributary is the Chenab which itself has four major tributaries, namely, the Jhelum, the Ravi, the Beas. Its principal right tributaries are the Shyok, the Gilgit, the Kabul, the Gomal. Beginning in a spring and fed with glaciers and rivers in the Himalayas. The Indus forms the delta of present-day Pakistan mentioned in the Vedic Rigveda as Sapta Sindhu, the river has been a source of wonder since the Classical Period, with King Darius of Persia sending his Greek subject Scylax of Caryanda to explore the river as early as 510 BC. In Pali, Síndhu means river, stream and refers to the Indus River in particular, the word Indus is the romanised form of the ancient Greek word Indós, borrowed from the old Persian word Hinduš which is in turn borrowed from the Sanskrit word Sindhu. Megastheness book Indica derives its name from the rivers Greek name, Indós, the ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indói, literally meaning the people of the Indus. The country of India and the Pakistani province of Sindh owe their names to the river, Rigveda also describes several mythical rivers, including one named Sindhu. The Rigvedic Sindhu is thought to be the present-day Indus river and is attested 176 times in its text –95 times in the plural, more often used in the generic meaning. In the Rigveda, notably in the hymns, the meaning of the word is narrowed to refer to the Indus river in particular. The Rigvedic hymns apply a feminine gender to all the rivers mentioned therein, Sindhu is seen as a strong warrior amongst other rivers which are seen as goddesses and compared to cows and mares yielding milk and butter. The Indus River provides key resources for Pakistans economy – especially the breadbasket of Punjab province, which accounts for most of the nations agricultural production. The word Punjab means land of five rivers and the five rivers are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, the Indus also supports many heavy industries and provides the main supply of potable water in Pakistan. The ultimate source of the Indus is in Tibet, the river begins at the confluence of the Sengge Zangbo and Gar Tsangpo rivers that drain the Nganglong Kangri, the Indus then flows northwest through Ladakh and Baltistan into Gilgit, just south of the Karakoram range. The Shyok, Shigar and Gilgit rivers carry glacial waters into the main river and it gradually bends to the south, coming out of the hills between Peshawar and Rawalpindi

29.
Bhambore
–
Banbhore or Bhambore, is an ancient city dating to the 1st century BC located in Sindh, Pakistan. The city ruins lie on the N-5 National Highway, east of Karachi and it dates back to the Scytho-Parthian era and was later controlled by Muslims from 8th to 13th century after which it was abandoned. Remains of one of the earliest known mosques in the region dating back to 727 AD are still preserved in the city, in 2004, Department of Archaeology and Museums Pakistan submitted the site for UNESCO World Heritage Sites. On 23 April 2014, Sindh government announced to make a new division with the name Banbhore Division to highlight importance of site. Banbhore is situated on the bank of Gharo creek, about 65 km east of Karachi in the Thatta District of Sindh. The city ruins are located on the N-5 National Highway between Dhabeji and Gharo, the city of Banbhore dates from the 1st century BC to the 13th century AD. Archaeological records reveal remnants of three distinct periods on the site, Scytho-Parthian, Hindu-Buddhist, and early Islamic, the city was gradually deserted after the 13th century due to change in the course of the Indus. However, this identification has not yet confirmed, though numerous research. Preliminary excavations in the area were first done by Ramesh Chandra Majumdar in 1928, pakistani archaeologist Dr F. A. Khan conducted extensive studies and excavations in the site from 1958 to 1965. In March 2012, the Culture Department of Government of Sindh organised the first International Conference on Banbhore, Banbhore may also have been known as Barbari or Barbaricon through the centuries but it has not yet been proven that these historical cities are the same. Archaeological findings show that the city consisted of an area surrounded by a stone. The citadel was divided into eastern and western sections by a stone wall in the center. The remains of the mosque were discovered in 1960, remains of houses, streets, and other buildings have been found both within and outside the citadel. Contemporary stone buildings from the three periods are also uncovered in the area including a stone building with semi-circular shape, a Shiva temple from the Hindu period. Three gateways to the citadel were also uncovered during excavations, Banbhore was a medieval port city deriving its wealth from imported ceramic and metal goods, an industrial sector, and trade. The city was located at the mouth of the Indus, linking it with rest of the Scytho-Parthian empire. Archaeological findings show a half-submerged anchorage structure with stone foundation. However, the port was abandoned when the Indus river shifted its position, the Port of Banbhore was submitted for induction in World Heritage Sites by the Department of Archaeology and Museums of Pakistan in January 2004

30.
Karachi
–
Karachi is the capital of Sindh, and is the largest and most populous city in Pakistan, as well as the 7th largest in the world and the worlds second most populous city proper. Ranked as a world city, the city is Pakistans premier industrial and financial centre. Karachi is also Pakistans most cosmopolitan city, though the Karachi region has been inhabited for millennia, the city was founded as a village named Kolachi that was established as a fortified settlement in 1729. By the time of the Partition of British India, the city was the largest in Sindh with a population of 400,000. Immediately following the independence of Pakistan, the population increased dramatically with the arrival of hundreds of thousands of Muslim refugees from India. The city experienced economic growth following independence, attracting migrants from throughout Pakistan. Karachi is now Pakistans premier industrial and financial centre, the city has a formal economy estimated to be worth $113 billion as of 2014. Karachi collects over a third of Pakistans tax revenue, and generates approximately 20% of Pakistans GDP, approximately 30% of Pakistani industrial output is from Karachi, while Karachis ports handle approximately 95% of Pakistans foreign trade. Approximately 90% of the corporations operating in Pakistan are headquartered in Karachi. Up to 70% of Karachis workforce is employed in the informal economy, Karachi is one of Pakistans most secular and socially liberal cities. It is also the most linguistically, ethnically, and religiously diverse city in Pakistan, Karachi is considered to be one of the worlds fastest growing cities, and has communities representing almost every ethnic group in Pakistan. Karachi is also home to over 2 million Bangladeshi migrants,1 million Afghans, the citys murder rate in 2015 had decreased by 75% compared to 2013, and kidnappings decreased by 90%, with the improved security environment triggering sharp increases in real-estate prices. Karachi was reputedly founded in 1729 as the settlement of Kolachi, the new settlement is said to have been named in honour of Mai Kolachi, whose son is said to have slayed a man-eating crocodile in the village after his elder brothers had already been killed by it. The citys inhabitants are referred to by the demonym Karachiite in English, the earliest inhabitants of the Karachi region are believed to have been hunter-gatherers, with ancient flint tools discovered at several sites. The Karachi region is believed to have known to the ancient Greeks. The region may be the site of Krokola, where Alexander the Great once camped to prepare a fleet for Babylonia, in 711 C. E. Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Sindh and Indus Valley. The Karachi region is believed to have known to the Arabs as Debal. Under Mirza Ghazi Beg the Mughal administrator of Sindh, development of coastal Sindh, under his rule, fortifications in the region acted as a bulwark against Portuguese incursions into Sindh

31.
Indus River
–
The Indus River, also called Sindhū or Abāsīn, is a major south-flowing river in South Asia. The total length of the river is 3,180 km which makes it one of the longest rivers in Asia and it is the longest river and national river of Pakistan. The river has a drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 km2. Its estimated annual flow stands at around 207 km3, making it the twenty-first largest river in the world in terms of annual flow, the Zanskar is its left bank tributary in Ladakh. In the plains, its left tributary is the Chenab which itself has four major tributaries, namely, the Jhelum, the Ravi, the Beas. Its principal right tributaries are the Shyok, the Gilgit, the Kabul, the Gomal. Beginning in a spring and fed with glaciers and rivers in the Himalayas. The Indus forms the delta of present-day Pakistan mentioned in the Vedic Rigveda as Sapta Sindhu, the river has been a source of wonder since the Classical Period, with King Darius of Persia sending his Greek subject Scylax of Caryanda to explore the river as early as 510 BC. In Pali, Síndhu means river, stream and refers to the Indus River in particular, the word Indus is the romanised form of the ancient Greek word Indós, borrowed from the old Persian word Hinduš which is in turn borrowed from the Sanskrit word Sindhu. Megastheness book Indica derives its name from the rivers Greek name, Indós, the ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indói, literally meaning the people of the Indus. The country of India and the Pakistani province of Sindh owe their names to the river, Rigveda also describes several mythical rivers, including one named Sindhu. The Rigvedic Sindhu is thought to be the present-day Indus river and is attested 176 times in its text –95 times in the plural, more often used in the generic meaning. In the Rigveda, notably in the hymns, the meaning of the word is narrowed to refer to the Indus river in particular. The Rigvedic hymns apply a feminine gender to all the rivers mentioned therein, Sindhu is seen as a strong warrior amongst other rivers which are seen as goddesses and compared to cows and mares yielding milk and butter. The Indus River provides key resources for Pakistans economy – especially the breadbasket of Punjab province, which accounts for most of the nations agricultural production. The word Punjab means land of five rivers and the five rivers are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, the Indus also supports many heavy industries and provides the main supply of potable water in Pakistan. The ultimate source of the Indus is in Tibet, the river begins at the confluence of the Sengge Zangbo and Gar Tsangpo rivers that drain the Nganglong Kangri, the Indus then flows northwest through Ladakh and Baltistan into Gilgit, just south of the Karakoram range. The Shyok, Shigar and Gilgit rivers carry glacial waters into the main river and it gradually bends to the south, coming out of the hills between Peshawar and Rawalpindi

32.
Muhammad bin Qasim
–
‘Imād ad-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Qāsim ath-Thaqafī was an Umayyad general who conquered the Sindh and Multan regions along the Indus River for the Umayyad Caliphate. He was born and raised in the city of Taif, Qasims conquest of Sindh and southern-most parts of Multan enabled further Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. A member of the Thaqif tribe of the Taif region, Muhammad bin Qasims father was Qasim bin Yusuf, Umayyad governor Al-Hajjaj Ibn Yusuf Al-Thaqafi, Muhammad bin Qasims paternal uncle, was instrumental in teaching Muhammad bin Qasim about warfare and governance. Muhammad bin Qasim married his cousin Zubaidah, Al-Hajjajs daughter, shortly before going to Sindh, due to his close relationship with Al-Hajjaj, Bin Qasim was executed after the accession of Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. According to Berzin, Umayyad interest in the region occurred because of attacks from Sindh Raja Dahir on ships of Muslims and they had earlier unsuccessfully sought to gain control of the route, via the Khyber Pass, from the Kabul Shahi of Gandhara. But by taking Sindh, Gandharas southern neighbour, they were able to open a front against Gandhara. According to Wink, Umayyad interest in the region was galvanized by the operation of the Meds, at the time, Sindh was the wild frontier region of al-Hind, inhabited mostly by semi-nomadic tribes whose activities disturbed much of the Western Indian Ocean. Also cited as a reason for this campaign was the policy of providing refuge to Sassanids fleeing the Arab advance and these Arabs were imprisoned later on by the Governor Deebal Partaab Raye. A letter written by an Arab girl who escaped from the prison of Partab Raye asked Hajjaj Bin Yusuf for help, when Hajjaj asked Dahir for the release of prisoners and compensation, the latter refused on the ground that he had no control over those. Al-Hajjaj sent Muhammad Bin Qasim for action against the Sindh in 711, Muhammad bin Qasims expedition was actually the third attempt, the first two having failed due to stiffer-than-expected opposition as well as heat, exhaustion. Hajjaj had put more care and planning into this campaign than the first campaign under Badil bin Tuhfa, the army which departed from Shiraz in 710 CE under Muhammad bin Qasim was 6,000 Syrian cavalry and detachments of mawali from Iraq. The army that eventually captured Sindh would later be swelled by the Gurjars, from Debal the Arab army then marched north taking towns such as Nerun and Sadusan peacefully. Often using their components, additionally one-fifth of the booty including slaves were dispatched to Hajjaj, the conquest of these towns was accomplished easily, however, Raja Dahirs armies being prepared on the other side of the Indus were yet to be fought. In preparation to meet them, Muhammad bin Qasim moved back to Nerun to resupply, camped on the east bank of the Indus, Qasim sent emissaries and bargained with the river Jats and boatmen. Upon securing the aid of Mokah Basayah, the King of the island of Bet, Muhammad bin Qasim crossed over the river where he was joined by the forces of the Thakore of Bhatta, at Ar-rur he was met by Dahirs forces and the eastern Jats in battle. Dahir died in the battle, his forces were defeated and a triumphant Muhammad bin Qasim took control of Sindh, soon the capitals of the other provinces, Brahmanabad, Alor and Multan, were captured alongside other in-between towns with only light Muslim casualties. Usually after a siege of a few weeks or months the Arabs gained a city through the intervention of heads of houses with whom subsequent treaties. After battles all fighting men were executed and their wives and children enslaved in considerable numbers, the general populace was encouraged to carry on with their trades and taxes and tributes settled

33.
Ibn Hawqal
–
Muḥammad Abū’l-Qāsim Ibn Ḥawqal was a 10th-century Muslim Arab writer, geographer, and chronicler. His famous work, written in 977, is called Ṣūrat al-’Arḍ, the date of his death is not precisely known. On the basis of his writings, he died after 368 H /978 C. E, what little is known of his life is extrapolated from his book, which was a revision and extension of the Masālik ul-Mamālik of Istakhri. That itself was an edition of the Ṣuwar al-aqālīm of Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi. Ibn Hawqal was clearly more than an editor, he was a traveler who spent much of his writing about the areas. He spent the last 30 years of his traveling to remote parts of Asia. One of his travels brought him 20° south of the equator along the East African coast, one of the things he noticed was that there were large numbers of people living in areas that the Greeks, working from logic rather than experience, said must be uninhabitable. His descriptions were, at the time, considered to be accurate, Ṣūrat al-’Arḍ included a detailed description of Muslim-held Spain and particularly Sicily. Ibn Hawqal recorded that the area of Fraxinet was richly cultivated by its Muslim inhabitants, in doing this he frequently exaggerates, he depicts the Christian population of Palermo as being uncivilised and barbaric. He also mentions the Lands of the Romans, the used by the Muslim world -and the Byzantines themselves- to describe the Byzantine Empire. He also mentions and published a map of Sindh, he mentions the geography and culture of Sindh. Ibn Hauqals work was published by M. J. de Goeie, an anonymous epitome of the book was written in 1233. Muslim scholars List of Shia Muslims James, Preston Everett, all Possible Worlds, A History of Geography. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Vernet, J. Ibn Ḥawqal Abūl-Qāsim Muḥammad, encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-western cultures

34.
Silk Road
–
While the term is of modern coinage, the Silk Road derives its name from the lucrative trade in silk carried out along its length, beginning during the Han dynasty. The Han dynasty expanded Central Asian sections of the routes around 114 BCE, largely through missions and explorations of the Chinese imperial envoy. The Chinese took great interest in the safety of their trade products, though silk was certainly the major trade item exported from China, many other goods were traded, as well as religions, syncretic philosophies, and various technologies. Diseases, most notably plague, also spread along the Silk Routes, in addition to economic trade, the Silk Road was a route for cultural trade among the civilizations along its network. The main traders during antiquity included the Chinese, Arabs, Turkmens, Indians, Persians, Somalis, Greeks, Syrians, Romans, Georgians, Armenians, Bactrians, in June 2014, UNESCO designated the Changan-Tianshan corridor of the Silk Road as a World Heritage Site. The Silk Road derives its name from the lucrative Eurasian silk and horse trade, the German terms Seidenstraße and Seidenstraßen were coined by Ferdinand von Richthofen, who made seven expeditions to China from 1868 to 1872. The term Silk Route is also used, although the term was coined in the 19th century, it did not gain widespread acceptance in academia or popularity among the public until the 20th century. The first book entitled The Silk Road was by Swedish geographer Sven Hedin in 1938, the fall of the Soviet Union and Iron Curtain in 1989 led to a surge of public and academic interest in Silk Road sites and studies in the former Soviet republics of Central Asia. Use of the term Silk Road is not without its detractors and he notes that traditional authors discussing East-West trade such as Marco Polo and Edward Gibbon never labelled any route as a silk one in particular. From the 2nd millennium BCE, nephrite jade was being traded from mines in the region of Yarkand, some remnants of what was probably Chinese silk dating from 1070 BCE have been found in Ancient Egypt. The Great Oasis cities of Central Asia played a role in the effective functioning of the Silk Road trade. This style is reflected in the rectangular belt plaques made of gold and bronze, with other versions in jade. The tomb of a Scythian prince near Stuttgart, Germany, dated to the 6th century BCE, was excavated and found to have not only Greek bronzes but also Chinese silks. Scythians accompanied the Assyrian Esarhaddon on his invasion of Egypt, soghdian Scythian merchants played a vital role in later periods in the development of the Silk Road. By the time of Herodotus, the Royal Road of the Persian Empire ran some 2,857 km from the city of Susa on the Karun to the port of Smyrna on the Aegean Sea. It was maintained and protected by the Achaemenid Empire and had postal stations, by having fresh horses and riders ready at each relay, royal couriers could carry messages the entire distance in nine days, while normal travellers took about three months. The next major step in the development of the Silk Road was the expansion of the Greek empire of Alexander the Great into Central Asia and this later became a major staging point on the northern Silk Route. They continued to expand eastward, especially during the reign of Euthydemus, there are indications that he may have led expeditions as far as Kashgar in Chinese Turkestan, leading to the first known contacts between [China and the West around 200 BCE

35.
Manora Island
–
Manora or Manoro is a small peninsula located just south of the Port of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. Manora is connected to the mainland by a 12 kilometer long causeway called the Sandspit, Manora and neighboring islands form a protective barrier between Karachi harbor to the north and the Arabian Sea to the south. The western bay of the harbor contains endangered mangrove forests which border the Sandspit, to the east is Karachi Bay and the beach towns of Kiamari and Clifton. The peninsula is located at 24°48′00″N 66°58′00″E, there are several ethnic groups including Muhajirs, Punjabis, Sindhis, Christians, Kashmiris, Seraikis, Pakhtuns, Balochis, Memons, Bohras and Ismailis. The harbour is spacious, circular, deep, and calm and they called it, in the natives language, The Ladies Pool, since a lady was the first sovereign of this district. When they had got safe through the rocks, they met great waves, and the sea running strong, the entire passage was of some seventy stades. On the beach were many trees, and the island was wholly covered with shady forest. About dawn, they sailed outside the island, by a narrow and turbulent passage, and when they had sailed some hundred and twenty stades they anchored in the mouth of the river Arabis. There was a large harbour by its mouth, but there was no drinking water. However, after penetrating forty stades inland they found a water-hole, by the harbour was a high island, desert, and round it one could get oysters and all kinds of fish. Up to this the country of the Arabeans extends, they are the last Indians settled in this direction, from here on the territory, the Manora Island and was visited by Ottoman admiral Seydi Ali Reis and mentioned in his book Mirât ül Memâlik in 1554. According to the British historian Eliot, parts of city of Karachi, the island was the site of a small fort constructed in the eighteenth century when the port of Karachi traded with Oman and Bahrain. The Kalmati Baloch tribe was settled in Karachi and they raised an army to defend the port from the British invasion, the Kalmati forces were defeated when the Manora Fort was stormed by the British in 1839 because of the strategic location of Karachi. Although the fort is now buried beneath the base, the lighthouse is a visible reminder of the British presence having been built in 1889 to assist vessels approaching Karachi harbor. The island of Manora has served for more than 50 years as the base of the Pakistan Navy. The island has been governed as a military cantonment despite being located so close to Karachi, the opening of the new Jinnah Naval Base at Ormara,250 kilometers away, has meant that approximately half of the naval vessels have moved away from Manora. At the southeastern end of Manora island is the tallest lighthouse with a range of 26 nautical miles Manora Light House in Pakistan, the island lies approximately 15–20 minutes by boat ride from mainland Karachi but there are no good hotels available for an overnight stay. For this and other reasons, the Government of Pakistan has been considering developing the island into a tourist destination, pakistans Ministry of Ports and Shipping signed a memorandum of understanding in 2006 with Dubai World and M/s Limitless + Dubai Islamic Bank for the redevelopment of Manora Island

36.
Portuguese people
–
Portuguese people are an ethnic group indigenous to the country of Portugal, in the west of the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. Their language is Portuguese, and their predominant religion is Christianity, Portuguese people were a key factor to the Age of Exploration, discovering several lands unknown to the Europeans in the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania, helping to pave the way for Globalization. There are around 10 million native Portuguese in Portugal, out of a population of 10.34 million. A small minority of about 15,000 speak the Mirandese language, in the municipalities of Miranda do Douro, Vimioso, all of the speakers are bilingual with Portuguese. An even smaller minority of no more than 2,000 people speak Barranquenho, some people from the former colonies have been migrating to Portugal since the 1900s. More recently, a number of Slavs, especially Ukrainians, Moldovans, Romanians and Russians. There is also a Chinese minority, in addition, there is a small minority Gypsies of about 40,000 people, Muslims about 34,000 people and an even smaller minority of Jews of about 5,000 people. Between 1886 and 1966, Portugal lost to more than any West European country except Ireland. From the middle of the 19th century to the late 1950s, about 40 million Brazilians have relatively recent Portuguese background, due to massive immigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. About 1.2 million Brazilian citizens are native Portuguese, significant verified Portuguese minorities exist in several countries. Portuguese Sephardic Jews are also in Israel, the Netherlands, the United States, France, Venezuela, Brazil, in Brazil many of the colonists were also originally Sephardic Jews, who, converted, were known as New Christians. In the United States, there are Portuguese communities in New Jersey, the New England states, in the Pacific, Hawaii has a sizable Portuguese element that goes back 150 years, Australia and New Zealand also have Portuguese communities. Canada, particularly Ontario, Quebec and British Columbia, has developed a significant Portuguese community since 1940, argentina and Uruguay had Portuguese immigration in the early 20th century. So has Chile where an estimated 50,000 descendants live, an estimated 800,000 Portuguese returned to Portugal as the countrys African possessions gained independence in 1975, after the Carnation Revolution, while others moved to Brazil and South Africa. Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Equatorial Guinea, in 1989 some 4,000,000 Portuguese were living abroad, mainly in France, Germany, Brazil, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Canada, Venezuela, and the United States. Portuguese constitute 13% of the population of Luxembourg, in areas such as Thetford and the crown dependencies of Jersey and Guernsey, the Portuguese form the largest ethnic minority groups at 30% of the population, 20% and 3% respectively. The British capital London is home to the largest number of Portuguese people in the UK, with the majority being found in the boroughs of Kensington and Chelsea, Lambeth and Westminster. The Portuguese diaspora communities still are very attached to their language, their culture and their national dishes, in colonial times, over 700,000 Portuguese settled in Brazil, and most of them went there during the gold rush of the 18th century

37.
Thatta
–
Thatta (Sindhi, ٺٽو‎, is a city and capital of Thatta District. It will be capital of the announced Banbhore Division and it is a historic town of 220,000 inhabitants in the Sindh province of Pakistan, near Lake Keenjhar, the largest freshwater lake in the country. Thattas major monument, the necropolis at Makli Hill, is listed among the World Heritage Sites, the Shah Jahan Mosque, Thatta is mentioned separately on the tentative list since 1993. Located 100 km east of the capital of Sindh, Karachi. Thatta may be the site of ancient Patala, the port on the Indus in the time of Alexander the Great. The site of Patala has been subject to much debate, ahmad Hasan Dani, director of the Taxila Institute of Asian Civilisations, Islamabad, concluded, “There has been a vain attempt to identify the city of Patala. The geographer Strabo recorded that, “The Indus falls into the sea by two mouths, encompassing the country of Patalênê, which resembles the Delta in Egypt”. In the late second century BC Agatharchides of Cnidus recorded merchants from Patala, or as he called it, “Potana”, the city, formerly commanding the delta of the Indus, was the capital of Lower Sindh from the 14th century onwards. Some suggested the name derived from the word Thab implying closeness of population, while others find its origin in the common word Thatta, the city was destroyed by Mirza Jani Beg in the 16th century. During the Samma dynasty, Thatta was the capital of Sindh for 95 years, between 1592 and 1739, it was governed in the name of the Mughal emperors of Delhi. In 1739, however, following the Battle of Karnal, the province was ceded to Nadir Shah of Persia, between 1652 and 1660, the Dutch East India Company had a small tradingpost in Thatta. This competed with the English one, which was established in 1635, a second British factory was set up during the Kalhora period, in 1758, which lasted until 1775. In the early 19th century Thatta had declined to a population of about 18,000, to the Arabs it was known as Dibal and the remnants of the brick wall from the Mirza Isa Tarkhan period were visible at that time. On 23 April 2014, the Peoples Party government announced to form Sindhs sixth division Banbhore Division with Thatta as capital and these sources reveal that this formation is made to improve governance in Thatta. Climate of Thatta, The average annual rainfall is 210mm, The average annual temperature in Thatta is 26.8 °C. Monthly rainfall, January, 5mm, February, 8mm, March 5mm, April, 3mm, May, 5mm, June, 17mm, July, 98mm, August, 50mm, September, 15mm, October, 1mm, November, 2mm, December 3mm

38.
Lakhpat
–
Lakhpat is a sparsely populated town and sub-district in Kachchh district in the Indian state of Gujarat located at the mouth of Kori Creek. The town is enclosed by 7km long 18th-century fort walls, the town is named after Rao Lakha who ruled in Sindh about the middle of the thirteenth century. Historically it has very important trading post connecting Gujarat to Sindh. The waters of Sindhu river used to flow into Lakhpat and further onto Desalpar Gunthli, within historic times Lakhpat has had only one very short period of prosperity. Rice used to be cultivated and Lakhpat used to give an annual revenue of 800,000 Koris just from rice and it is also said that Lakhpat used to generate an income of 100,000 Koris everyday from maritime activities. Fateh Muhammad, about the close of the century, enlarged and rebuilt its wall. Though he thought it one of the supports of his power. A few years later, the commandant of the fort, Mohim Miyan, drove out the agents of Hansraj, in 1818 Lakhpat had 15,000 people and yielded a yearly revenue of £6000. After the earthquake of 1819 a natural dam known as the Allahbund was formed, Indus river changed its course of flow, thus Lakhpat lost its importance as a port. By 1820, the reduced to 6000 inhabitants, consisting chiefly of mercantile speculators from other countries and families of Hindus driven from Sindh. The walls were in repair, but the houses were ruined. In 1851 all trade had left the town, and it has since remained poverty-stricken, the population reduced to 2500 by 1880. Today it is sparsely populated ghost town, a city of ruins of buildings, the population was 463 in 87 households 2001 which increased to 566 in 108 households in 2011. The fort rebuilt and expanded in 1801 by Fateh Muhammad is a polygon, defended by round towers. The 7 km long walls are of considerable height but not thick, Pir Ghaus Muhammad, a Sufi saint and Syyed of Lakhpat, half-Muslim and half- Hindu in his customs, who was believed to have supernatural power. Dying in 1855, his brother Bava Mia or Sa Saheb, from contributions made by Gosh Muhammads followers, inside, the floor is paved with white and black marble, and the grave is covered with a white marble canopy. On the walls are passages from the Quran, the water tank opposite the tomb is believed to have healing characteristics for skin diseases. Lakhpat Gurudwara Sahib is a Gurudwara, a place of worship for the Sikhs and it is believed that Guru Nanak on his way to Mecca for Haj stayed over here

Jaipur
–
Jaipur is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Rajasthan in Northern India. It was founded on 18 November 1726 by Maharaja Jai Singh II, as of 2011, the city has a population of 3.1 million, making it the tenth most populous city in the country. Jaipur is also known as the Pink City of India, Jaipur is located 260 km from the Indian

India
–
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to

1.
Flag

2.
The granite tower of Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by Raja Raja Chola I.

3.
Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595

Lohana
–
The Lohana, also referred to as Luvana and Luhana, are an Indian caste, traditionally largely occupied as merchants. The Lohanas are divided into three cultural groups as a result of centuries apart in different regions. Thus there are significant differences between the culture, language, professions and societies of Sindhi Lohanas, Kutchi Lohanas

1.
Lohana women in western India (c. 1855-1862).

Luvana
–
The Lohana, also referred to as Luvana and Luhana, are an Indian caste, traditionally largely occupied as merchants. The Lohanas are divided into three cultural groups as a result of centuries apart in different regions. Thus there are significant differences between the culture, language, professions and societies of Sindhi Lohanas, Kutchi Lohanas

1.
Lohana women in western India (c. 1855-1862).

Lahore
–
Lahore is the capital city of the Pakistani province of Punjab. It is the second most populous city in Pakistan and the 32nd most populous city in the world, the city is located in the north-eastern end of Pakistans Punjab province, near the border with the Indian state of Punjab. Lahore is ranked as a world city, and is one of Pakistans wealthiest

2.
Badshahi Mosque was commissioned by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1671.

3.
Lahore Fort.

4.
View of Badshahi Mosque from the Lahore Fort

Aror
–
Aror or Alor or Arorkot is the medieval name of the city of Rohri. In ancient India, Aror once served as the capital of Sindh, Aror is the ancestral town of the Arora caste. According to the Bhavishya Purana, Parshuram attacked the Kshatriyas but eventually met one who refused to oppose the Brahmins and this caused Parshuram to gain respect for him

1.
A historic image of Aror

Sukkur
–
Sukkur, formerly Aror and Bakhar, is the 12th largest city of Pakistan and third largest city of the province of Sindh. It is situated on the west bank of Indus River and is the headquarters of Sukkur Division, the word Sakhar means superior in Sindhi, and the spelling of the citys name in Sindhi suggests this is the origin of the name. Modern Sukk

1.
Bridges in Sukkur

2.
A Satellite Image of River Indus near Sukkur by NASA

3.
Sukkur on the west bank of the River Indus (1860s)

4.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2013)

Sindh (Pakistan)
–
Sindh /sɪnd/ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan, in the southeast of the country. Historically home to the Sindhi people, it is locally known as the Mehran. It was formerly known as Sind until 1956, Sindh is the third largest province of Pakistan by area, and second largest province by population after Punjab. Sindh is bordered by Balochistan

1.
The Priest King from Mohenjo-daro, more than 4000 years old, in the National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi

2.
Flag

3.
Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan.

4.
A manuscript written during the Abbasid Era.

Sindhu River
–
The Indus River, also called Sindhū or Abāsīn, is a major south-flowing river in South Asia. The total length of the river is 3,180 km which makes it one of the longest rivers in Asia and it is the longest river and national river of Pakistan. The river has a drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 km2. Its estimated annual flow stands at around 207 km3,

1.
Satellite image of the Indus River basin in Pakistan, and China.

2.
River Indus in Kharmang District, Pakistan.

3.
Babur crossing the Indus River.

4.
The Indus River near Leh, Ladakh, India

Sindh
–
Sindh /sɪnd/ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan, in the southeast of the country. Historically home to the Sindhi people, it is locally known as the Mehran. It was formerly known as Sind until 1956, Sindh is the third largest province of Pakistan by area, and second largest province by population after Punjab. Sindh is bordered by Balochistan

1.
The Priest King from Mohenjo-daro, more than 4000 years old, in the National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi

2.
Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan.

3.
A manuscript written during the Abbasid Era.

4.
The Samma period is known for pioneering of Sindhi folklore and literature.

Hindus
–
Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer t

1.
A Hindu wedding ritual in India.

2.
Hindu culture in Bali, Indonesia. The Krishna-Arjuna sculpture inspired by the Bhagavad Gita in Denpasar (top), and Hindu dancers in traditional dress.

4.
Hindus at Har Ki Pauri, Haridwar near river Ganges in Uttarakhand state of India.

Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf
–
Al-Hajjaj was born in ca.661 in the city of Taif in the Hijaz, in modern-day Saudi Arabia. His ancestry was not particularly distinguished, he came of a poor family and his mother, al-Faria, had married, and been divorced by, al-Mughira ibn Shuba, appointed governor of Kufa by the first Umayyad caliph, Muawiya. As a boy, al-Hajjaj acquired the nick

1.
Seal of al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf

2.
For other persons named al-Hajjaj, see Hajjaj.

3.
Silver dirham following Sassanid motives, struck in the name of al-Hajjaj

Umayyad
–
The Umayyad Caliphate, also spelled Omayyad, was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. This caliphate was centred on the Umayyad dynasty, hailing from Mecca, Syria remained the Umayyads main power base thereafter, and Damascus was their capital. The Umayyads continued the Muslim conquests, incorporating th

1.
Umayyad Caliphate in 750

2.
Flag

3.
History of Afghanistan

Al-Walid I
–
Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik or Al-Walid I was an Umayyad Caliph who ruled from 705 until his death in 715. His reign saw the greatest expansion of the Caliphate, as successful campaigns were undertaken in Transoxiana in Central Asia, Sind, Hispania in far western Europe and he was born to Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan and his wife who was from the central

1.
Coins of Al-Walid I, found in Sistan

2.
Khirbat ul Minya

3.
Umayyad Mosque built by Walid

Muhammad Bin Qasim
–
‘Imād ad-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Qāsim ath-Thaqafī was an Umayyad general who conquered the Sindh and Multan regions along the Indus River for the Umayyad Caliphate. He was born and raised in the city of Taif, Qasims conquest of Sindh and southern-most parts of Multan enabled further Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. A member of the Thaqif trib

1.
Muhammad ibn Qasim leading his troops in battle

Debal
–
Debal was an ancient port located near modern Karachi, Pakistan. It is adjacent to the nearby Manora Island and was administered by Mansura, in Arabic history books, most notably in the early eighth century accounts of the arrival of Islam in the Indian Sub-continent, it was documented as Daybul. One view is that the name was derived from Devalaya,

Hyderabad, Sindh
–
Hyderabad is a city located in the Sindh province of Pakistan. Hyderabad is the 4th largest city in Pakistan and the 2nd largest in the province of Sindh and it is located in south-east of the country. In AD711, Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh, Raja Dahir was a Hindu king who ruled over a Buddhist majority and that Chach of Alor and

1.
Clock Tower in Shaahi Bazaar, Hyderabad

3.
A rare photograph of Hyderabad from the late 1800s. The triangular structures on the rooftops are wind catchers, funnelling the cool breeze into the homes below, called a moug.

4.
A Sindhi woman on the banks of the River Indus in the outskirts of Hyderabad

Sehwan
–
Sehwan is a historic city located in Jamshoro District of Sindh province in Pakistan. Sehwan stands on the west bank of the Indus,80 miles north-west of Hyderabad, due to the popularity of the sufi dargah in the town, the terms Sehwan and Qalandar are often used interchangeably in Pakistani daily conversation. It is possible that the name Sehwan or

1.
The tomb of Lal Shahbaz Qalandar at Sehwan Sharif, Sindh, Pakistan

Looting
–
The term is also used in a broader sense to describe egregious instances of theft and embezzlement, such as the plundering of private or public assets by governments. The proceeds of all these activities can be described as booty, loot, plunder, spoils, looting by a victorious army during war has been common practice throughout recorded history. Fo

1.
The plundering of the Frankfurter Judengasse, 22 August 1614

2.
Looters attempting to enter a cycle shop in North London during the 2011 England riots

3.
The sacking and looting of Mechelen by the Spanish troops led by the Duke of Alba, 2 October 1572

4.
FAFN soldier has been caught by French Foreign Legion troops.

Suttee
–
Sati or suttee is an obsolete Hindu funeral custom where a widow immolates herself on her husbands pyre or commits suicide in another fashion shortly after her husbands death. Mention of the practice can be dated back to the 4th century BC, under British rule, the practice was initially tolerated. In the province of Bengal, Sati was attended by a g

3.
A Hindu widow burning herself with the corpse of her husband, 1820s.

4.
Suttee, by James Atkinson 1831

Muslims
–
A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims

Jizya
–
Jizya or jizyah is a per capita yearly tax historically levied by Islamic states on certain non-Muslim subjects—dhimmis—permanently residing in Muslim lands under Islamic law. Dhimmis who chose to join military service were exempted from payment, Jizya is mentioned by the Quran and hadiths. The application of jizya varied in the course of Islamic h

1.
A jizya document from 17th century Ottoman Empire.

2.
Devşirme was a form of human jizya (blood tax), collected from non-Muslim subjects of the Ottoman Empire. It was chiefly the annual practice by which the Ottoman Empire sent its military to force collect 20% of sons and abduct young non-Muslim boys as a tax, then convert them to Islam and require them to serve as soldiers in Ottoman military. The blood jizya practice was deeply resented by non-Muslims.

Massacres
–
A massacre is a specific incident which involves the killing of people, although not necessarily a crime against humanity. Further origins are dubious, though may be related to Latin macellum provisions store, robert Melsons basic working definition, reads, by massacre we shall mean the intentional killing by political actors of a significant numbe

1.
The Chios Massacre refers to a famous incident during the Greek War of Independence in 1822.

2.
Twenty-six republicans were assassinated by fascists that belonged to Franco's Nationalists at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, between August and September of 1936. This mass grave is placed at the small town named as Estépar, in Northern Spain. The excavation occurred in July–August of 2014.

3.
The El Mozote massacre, El Salvador 1981

Genocides
–
Genocide is intentional action to destroy a people in whole or in part. The hybrid word genocide is a combination of the Greek word génos, the United Nations Genocide Convention, which was established in 1948, defines genocide as acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group. The term ge

1.
Buchenwald concentration camp was not an extermination camp, though it was responsible for a vast number of deaths

4.
The cemetery at the Srebrenica-Potočari Memorial and Cemetery to Genocide Victims

Sindhis
–
Not to be confused with the Sindi people. Sindhis are an Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic group who speak the Sindhi language and are native to the Sindh province of Pakistan, Sindhi culture is highly influenced by Sufi doctrines and principles. Some of the cultural icons are Raja Dahir, Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai, Lal Shahbaz Qalandar, Jhulelal, Sachal Sa

1.
Vintage group photo of Indian Sindhi people

2.
"The Priest King Wearing Sindhi Ajruk", c. 2500 BC, in the National Museum of Pakistan.

3.
Abida Parveen is a Pakistani singer of Sindhi descent and one of the foremost exponents of Sufi music.

Durga
–
Durga, also known as Devi, Shakti and by numerous other names, is a principal and popular form of Hindu goddess. She is the goddess, whose mythology centers around combating evils and demonic forces that threaten peace, prosperity. She is the form of the protective mother goddess, willing to unleash her anger against wrong. Durga is depicted in the

1.
Durgā

2.
Durga on a lion

3.
Durga idol in Hiranandani Gardens.

4.
A traditional Durga idol at a pandal in Kolkata.

Naib
–
Nawab or nawaab is an honorific title ratified and bestowed by the reigning Mughal emperor to semi-autonomous Muslim rulers of princely states in South Asia. Nawab usually refers to males, the equivalent is begum or nawab begum. The primary duty of a nawab was to uphold the sovereignty of the Mughal emperor along with the administration of a certai

1.
Royal and noble ranks in Iran, Turkey, Caucasus, India, Pakistan and Afghanistan

2.
Robert Clive, meeting with Nawab Mir Jafar after Battle of Plassey, by Francis Hayman.

Indus
–
The Indus River, also called Sindhū or Abāsīn, is a major south-flowing river in South Asia. The total length of the river is 3,180 km which makes it one of the longest rivers in Asia and it is the longest river and national river of Pakistan. The river has a drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 km2. Its estimated annual flow stands at around 207 km3,

1.
Satellite image of the Indus River basin in Pakistan, and China.

2.
River Indus in Kharmang District, Pakistan.

3.
Babur crossing the Indus River.

4.
The Indus River near Leh, Ladakh, India

Bhambore
–
Banbhore or Bhambore, is an ancient city dating to the 1st century BC located in Sindh, Pakistan. The city ruins lie on the N-5 National Highway, east of Karachi and it dates back to the Scytho-Parthian era and was later controlled by Muslims from 8th to 13th century after which it was abandoned. Remains of one of the earliest known mosques in the

1.
Floor of the Banbhore mosque dating back 727 AD

Karachi
–
Karachi is the capital of Sindh, and is the largest and most populous city in Pakistan, as well as the 7th largest in the world and the worlds second most populous city proper. Ranked as a world city, the city is Pakistans premier industrial and financial centre. Karachi is also Pakistans most cosmopolitan city, though the Karachi region has been i

Indus River
–
The Indus River, also called Sindhū or Abāsīn, is a major south-flowing river in South Asia. The total length of the river is 3,180 km which makes it one of the longest rivers in Asia and it is the longest river and national river of Pakistan. The river has a drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 km2. Its estimated annual flow stands at around 207 km3,

1.
Satellite image of the Indus River basin in Pakistan, and China.

2.
River Indus in Kharmang District, Pakistan.

3.
Babur crossing the Indus River.

4.
The Indus River near Leh, Ladakh, India

Muhammad bin Qasim
–
‘Imād ad-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Qāsim ath-Thaqafī was an Umayyad general who conquered the Sindh and Multan regions along the Indus River for the Umayyad Caliphate. He was born and raised in the city of Taif, Qasims conquest of Sindh and southern-most parts of Multan enabled further Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent. A member of the Thaqif trib

1.
Muhammad ibn Qasim leading his troops in battle

Ibn Hawqal
–
Muḥammad Abū’l-Qāsim Ibn Ḥawqal was a 10th-century Muslim Arab writer, geographer, and chronicler. His famous work, written in 977, is called Ṣūrat al-’Arḍ, the date of his death is not precisely known. On the basis of his writings, he died after 368 H /978 C. E, what little is known of his life is extrapolated from his book, which was a revision a

1.
10th century map of the World by Ibn Hawqal.

2.
10th century map of the Caspian sea by Ibn Hawqal

Silk Road
–
While the term is of modern coinage, the Silk Road derives its name from the lucrative trade in silk carried out along its length, beginning during the Han dynasty. The Han dynasty expanded Central Asian sections of the routes around 114 BCE, largely through missions and explorations of the Chinese imperial envoy. The Chinese took great interest in

4.
Chinese jade and steatite plaques, in the Scythian -style animal art of the steppes. 4th–3rd century BCE. British Museum.

Manora Island
–
Manora or Manoro is a small peninsula located just south of the Port of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. Manora is connected to the mainland by a 12 kilometer long causeway called the Sandspit, Manora and neighboring islands form a protective barrier between Karachi harbor to the north and the Arabian Sea to the south. The western bay of the harbor contai

1.
Manora beach

2.
Manora

3.
A couple of abandoned ships at Manora Island

4.
Manora Beach

Portuguese people
–
Portuguese people are an ethnic group indigenous to the country of Portugal, in the west of the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. Their language is Portuguese, and their predominant religion is Christianity, Portuguese people were a key factor to the Age of Exploration, discovering several lands unknown to the Europeans in the Americas, Afr

1.
Portuguese men playing Fado

2.
Distribution of R1a (purple) and R1b (red). See also this map for distribution in Europe.

3.
Sign and frame about Portuguese immigration inside one subway station in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

4.
Passport of an immigrant from the Braga District to Brazil

Thatta
–
Thatta (Sindhi, ٺٽو‎, is a city and capital of Thatta District. It will be capital of the announced Banbhore Division and it is a historic town of 220,000 inhabitants in the Sindh province of Pakistan, near Lake Keenjhar, the largest freshwater lake in the country. Thattas major monument, the necropolis at Makli Hill, is listed among the World Heri

1.
A tomb at Makli Hills necropolis built in 1559

2.
Tombs at the Makli Hills necropolis

Lakhpat
–
Lakhpat is a sparsely populated town and sub-district in Kachchh district in the Indian state of Gujarat located at the mouth of Kori Creek. The town is enclosed by 7km long 18th-century fort walls, the town is named after Rao Lakha who ruled in Sindh about the middle of the thirteenth century. Historically it has very important trading post connec

1.
Ferdowsi reads the poem, the Shahnameh, to Mahmud of Ghazni by painter Vardges Sureniants

2.
Sultan Mahmud and his forces attacking the fortress of Zaranj

3.
Mahmud of Ghazni last success in India against Jats

4.
A Painting of the tomb of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, in 1839–40, with Sandalwood Doors long believed to be plundered from Somnath, which he destroyed in ca 1024, later found to be replicas of the original.

1.
The western or park end of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office 's building in 1866. It was then occupied by the Foreign and India Offices, while the Home and Colonial Offices occupied the Whitehall end.

1.
The British Indian Empire, from the 1909 edition of The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Areas directly governed by the British are shaded pink; the princely states under British suzerainty are in yellow.