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Neighboring families exchanged surplus grain and meat and bartered their farm products for the services of local millers, weavers, and blacksmiths. Most peasants yearned to be yeomen, to own enough land to support their family in comfort, but relatively few achieved that goal. For European peasants, as for Native Americans, the rhythm of life followed the seasons. The agricultural year began in late March, when the ground thawed and dried and the villagers began the exhausting work of spring plowing and then planting wheat, rye, and oats.

However, the European epidemic diseases introduced by de Soto’s expedition in the 1540s killed thousands of Indians and destroyed their traditional institutions. The survivors of the various chiefdoms intermarried and settled in smaller, less powerful agricultural communities. In these Muskogean-speaking societies — and among the Algonquian-speaking and Iroquoian peoples who lived to the north and east — farming became the work of women. While the men hunted and ﬁshed, the women used ﬂint hoes and raised corn, squash, and beans.

Moreover, around 1350, a vicious plague from the subcontinent of India — the Black Death — had killed one-third of Europe’s population. Peoples in other regions had stronger economies and governments. China and India together accounted for more than half of world manufacturing output and had the potential to seize control of world commerce. Indian and Arab merchants already controlled most of Europe’s trade with southern Asia. And between 1411 and 1422, large Chinese ﬂeets militarily subdued competitors as they traded around the Indian Ocean and along the eastern coast of Africa.