The 1922 British Mount Everest expedition was the first mountaineering expedition with the express aim of making the first ascent of Mount Everest. This was also the first expedition that attempted to climb Everest using bottled oxygen, the expedition would attempt to climb Everest from the northern side out of Tibet. At the time, Everest could not be attempted from the south out of Nepal as the country was closed to Western foreigners.

After two unsuccessful summit attempts the expedition ended on the third attempt when seven porters died as the result of a group-induced avalanche. Not only had the expedition failed to reach the summit but it also marked the first reported climbing deaths on Mount Everest, the expedition did however establish a new world record climbing height of 8,326 metres (27,320 ft) during their second summit attempt, which was subsequently exceeded in the 1924 expedition.

The attempted ascent was – notwithstanding other aims – an expression of the pioneering thinking that was common in the British Empire, as the British were unsuccessful as the first to reach the North and South Poles they tried to go to the so-called "third pole" – to "conquer" Mount Everest.

The surveying activities in 1921 allowed the creation of maps which were a pre-condition for the 1922 expedition. John Noel took on the role of official expedition photographer. He took with him three movie cameras, two panorama cameras, four sheet cameras, one stereo camera and five so called "vest pocket Kodaks". The last named were small cameras that were of light weight and size to be taken by the mountaineers to great heights, these cameras were intended to allow climbers to document a possible summit success. Additionally they had on their way a special "black tent" for photographic works. Thanks to Noel's efforts, many photographs and one movie chronicled the expedition.[2]

During the 1921 expedition they had seen that the best time for a summit bid would be April–May before the monsoon season, the expeditions in 1922 and 1924 were planned according to this knowledge.

This year of 1922 can also be seen as the starting year for the enduring question of "fair means" and controversies about the use of bottled oxygen for mountaineering purposes in the "death zone". Alexander Mitchell Kellas was one of the very first scientist who had pointed out the possible use of bottled oxygen for gaining great heights, at this point in time the available systems (derived from mining rescue systems) were in his opinion too heavy to be a help at great heights. Kellas was part of the Everest reconnaissance expedition in 1921 but died on the way to Mt. Everest, this expedition had taken bottled oxygen with them, but it was never used. Additionally, few paid much attention to Kellas' innovative ideas, possibly because his scientific work belonged strictly to the amateur tradition. More attention was paid to the pressure vessel experiments of Professor Georges Dreyer, who had studied high-altitude problems the Royal Air Force encountered in World War I. According to his experiments—which he did partly together with George Ingle Finch—survival at great heights could only be possible with the aid of additional oxygen.

As a consequence of this scientific work, the 1922 expedition planned to use bottled oxygen. One bottle contained ca. 240 litres of oxygen. Four bottles were fixed on a carrying frame which had to be carried by the mountaineer, with the additional elements there was a weight of ca. 14.5 kg., so every mountaineer at the beginning of a climbing day had to bear a very heavy additional load. Ten of these systems were part of the expedition equipment, as well as a mask over mouth and nose, a tube was held in the mouth. Dreyer also had proposed the flow of oxygen: at 7,000 m (22,970 ft) a flow rate of 2 litres of oxygen per minute, on the summit climb they should use 2.4 litres per minute.[3] The result was a usable time of two hours per bottle. So all the oxygen would be used up after a maximum of 8 hours of climbing. Nowadays, 3 or 4-litre bottles are filled with oxygen of 250 bar pressure. At a flow of 2 litres per minute a modern bottle can be used for about 6 hours.[4]

George Finch was responsible for this equipment during this expedition which also was related to his education as a chemist and to his knowledge of this very technique, he ordered daily training for his climber colleagues to become accustomed in the use of this equipment. The apparatuses were very often faulty, were of low robustness and were very heavy together with a low grade of oxygen filling. There was unhappiness about these bottles among the mountaineers; many intended to climb without use of these bottles.[2][3] The Tibetan and Nepalese porters nicknamed these oxygen bottles as "English air".

The journey to base camp primarily followed the route used in 1921. Starting in India, the expedition members gathered in Darjeeling at the end of March 1922, some participants had arrived one month earlier to organise and recruit porters. The journey started on 26 March for most participants. Crawford and Finch stayed a couple more days to organise transportation for the oxygen systems, these items had arrived too late in Kolkata when the main travel started in Darjeeling. This further organisation went well and further transportation of the bottles was without incident.

For the journey through Tibet they had a travel permit from the Dalai Lama, from Darjeeling the route went to Kalimpong, then Phari Dzong and further to Kampa Dzong which they reached on 11 April. Here the group rested for three days so that Finch and Crawford could catch up to the team with the oxygen bottles. Then they went to Shelkar Dzong, then north to the Rongbuk Monastery and to the spot where they wanted to erect base camp. To promote the process of acclimatisation the participants alternated their travelling methods between walking and horse riding, on 1 May, they reached the lower end of the Rongbuk Glacier, the site of base camp.[5]

For the British expeditions before World War II, Everest was only climbable from the north out of Tibet as the southern side in Nepal was closed to Western foreigners at the time. Mallory had discovered a "makeable" route in 1921 from the Lhakpa La to the north face of the mountain and further to the summit, this route begins at the Rongbuk Glacier, then leads through the rough valley of the eastern Rongbuk Glacier and then to the icy eastern slopes of the North Col. From there the exposed ridges of North Ridge and Northeast Ridge allow an access in direction of the summit pyramid. A severe climbing hindrance, at the time an unknown obstacle, was the so-called Second Step at 8,605 m (28,230 ft), one of three breaks in slope on the upper northeast ridge. This step is approximately 30 m high and has a slope of more than 70 degrees, with a final wall of nearly seven vertical metres. From there the ridge route leads to the summit, by lengthy but gentle slopes. (The first official successful climb on this route was the Chinese ascent of 1960.)[6] Alternatively the British checked a route via the north wall flanks of the mountain and to ascend by the later so called Norton Couloir to the Third Step and to the summit. (This route was used by Reinhold Messner on his first solo ascent in 1980.)

The two main routes of Mount Everest. The 1922 expedition tried ascents via the North Col – North Ridge Route (yellow)

The base camp area in the Rongbuk Valley as well as the upper east Rongbuk Glacier were known from the 1921 reconnaissance expedition but nobody had yet gone along the eastern Rongbuk Glacier valley. So on 5 May, Strutt, Longstaff, Morshead and Norton tried a first intensive reconnaissance of this valley, the Advanced Base Camp (ABC) was erected on the upper end of the glacier below icy slopes of the North Col at 6,400 m (21,000 ft). Between the base camp and the advanced base camp they erected two intermediate camps: camp I at 5,400 m (17,720 ft) and Camp II at 6,000 m (19,690 ft). The erection and the feeding of these camps was supported by local farmers who only could help for a short time as their own farms needed work.[5] Longstaff became exhausted in managing the organisation and transporting tasks and became so ill that he could not do any real mountaineering activities later on in the expedition.[2]

On 10 May Mallory and Somervell left base camp to erect Camp IV on the North Col, they arrived in Camp II only two and a half hours later. On 11 May they started to climb on the North Col,[5] this camp was at a height of 7000 m and was supported with food. The further plan was to do a first ascent trial by Mallory and Somervell without supplemental oxygen, then followed by a second climb by Finch and Norton with oxygen. However, these plans failed as a majority of the climbers became ill. So it was decided that the (more or less) healthy climbers Mallory, Somervell, Norton and Morshead should climb together.[2]

This first attempt was made by Mallory, Somervell, Norton and Morshead without oxygen, and was supported by nine porters, they started 19 May from Camp III. They climbed at 8:45 a.m. to the North Col. The day was nice and sunny according to Mallory, around 1 p.m. they erected the tents. The following day the climbers intended to carry only the minimum stuff: two of the smallest tents, two double sleeping bags, food for 36 hours, a gas cooking system and two thermos bottles for drinks, the porters were with three persons per tent and they were in good health at this point in time.

The following day, 20 May, Mallory was awake around 5:30 a.m. and inspired the group to start the day. The porters had slept badly the night before, as the tents provided inadequate air flow and let little oxygen into them. Only five of them intended to go up higher on the mountain, as there were also problems in preparing the food they started the further climb around 7 a.m. However, the weather worsened and the temperature fell dramatically. Above the North Col they climbed on unknown territory. Never before had any mountaineer climbed on the summit slopes of such a mountain, the porters had no warm clothing and shivered excessively. As the effort required to cut steps into the icy slopes was severe because of the hard ice surface they dropped their plan to erect a camp at 8,200 m (26,900 ft). They only went to 7600 m (which is common also for today) and erected a small camp which was named Camp V. Somervell and Morshead could erect their tent quite upright but Mallory and Norton had to use an uncomfortable slope some 50 metres away, the porters were sent down the mountain.

On 21 May the four mountaineers left their sleeping bags around 6:30 a.m. and were ready to go around 8 am. During preparation a rucksack with food fell down the mountain. Morshead, who had to fight the cold, was able to regain this rucksack but he was so exhausted from this action that he could not go higher, the climb of Mallory, Somervell and Norton was along the north ridge in direction of the upper northeast ridge. The circumstances were not ideal ones as a light snowfall began to cover the mountain. According to Mallory the snow ramps were not hard to climb. Shortly after 2 p.m. the mountaineers decided to turn around. They were 150 m below the ridge, the gained height was 8,225 m (26,985 ft) which was a world record in climbing. Around 4 p.m. they got back to Morshead in the last camp and climbed down with him. There was nearly an accident as all mountaineers except Mallory began to slip. However, Mallory was able to hold them by his rope and ice axe, they got back to Camp V in the dark and crossed a dangerous area of crevasses above the camp. On 22 May they started to climb down from North Col at 6 am.[5]

normal route, mainly the route tried in 1922, high camps ca. 7700 and 8300 m, nowadays the 8300 camp is a little to the west (marked with 2 triangles)

red line

Great Couloir or Norton Couloir

dark blue line

Hornbein Couloir

?

2nd step at 8605m, ca. 30m, class 5–9

a)

spot at ca. 8325m where George Finch went with bottled oxygen

The second climb was done by George Ingle Finch, Geoffrey Bruce and the Gurkha officer Tejbir with oxygen support, after Finch had regained his health he stated that no real mountaineer even of lesser ability was available, so searched for others fit enough to climb. Bruce and Tejbir seemed to be qualified next; in the days before the oxygen bottles had been transported to Camp III so that enough bottles were available on the upper slopes. The three mountaineers went to camp III on 20 May, checked the bottles and found them in a good state.

On 24 May they climbed to the North Col together with Noel. There Finch, Bruce and Tejbir began at 8 a.m. the following day to climb via the north ridge and on to the northeast ridge. The extreme wind was quite a hindrance the entire climb. Twelve porters transported the bottles and the other equipment; in doing this again it was evident that the use of oxygen was a great help. The three mountaineers could climb much faster than the porters despite their heavier loads, as the wind grew intense they erected camp at 7,460 m (24,480 ft). The following day 26 May the weather worsened and the group could climb no further.

They again climbed on 27 May, at this point the food was nearly exhausted as such a long lasting climb had not been planned. Nevertheless, they started at 6:30 a.m with the sun shining but climbing was hindered by a steadily increasing wind. Tejbir who had no suitable clothing against the wind grew slow and slower and broke down at 7,925 m (26,000 ft). Finch and Bruce sent him back to the camp and again climbed to the northeast ridge but they were no longer roped together, at 7,950 m (26,080 ft) Finch changed the route because of the severe wind conditions and they entered the north wall flank in the direction of the steep couloir later named "Norton Couloir". They made good progress horizontally but they gained no further elevation, at 8326 m Bruce had a problem with the oxygen system. Finch determined that Bruce was exhausted and so they turned back, during this climb the height record was broken again. At 4 p.m. the mountaineers got back to the Camp on the North Col, and 1½ hours later they were back at Camp III on the upper Eastern Rongbuk Glacier.[5]

In the medical opinion of Longstaff, they should not have made a third try, as all mountaineers were exhausted or ill. However, Somervell and Wakefield saw no big risks, and a third try was undertaken.

On 3 June Mallory, Somervell, Finch, Wakefield and Crawford started with 14 porters at base camp. Finch had to quit in Camp I, the others arrived in Camp III on 5 June and spent one day there. Mallory had been impressed by the power of Finch, who in the second attempt had climbed much higher in the direction of the summit and also was nearer to the summit in horizontal distance. Mallory now also wanted to use oxygen.[2]

On 7 June Mallory, Somervell and Crawford led the porters through the icy slopes of North Col, the 17 men were divided into four groups, each one roped together. The European mountaineers were in the first group and compacted the snow. Half way a piece of snow became loose. Mallory, Somervell and Crawford were partially buried under snow but managed to free themselves, the group behind them was hit by an avalanche of 30 m of heavy snow, and the other nine porters in two groups fell into a crevasse and were buried under huge masses of snow. Two porters were dug out of the snow, six other porters were dead, and one porter could not be retrieved dead or alive, this accident was the end of the climbing and marked the end of this expedition.[7] Mallory had made a mistake attempting to go straight up on the icy slopes of the glacier instead of trying lesser slopes in curves, as a result, the climbers triggered an avalanche.

On 2 August all the European expedition members were back in Darjeeling.[8]

After their journey back to England Mallory and Finch toured the country making presentations on the expedition, this tour had two goals. First, interested audiences would get information on the expedition and the results. Second, with the financial results of this journey another expedition should be financed. Mallory additionally made a three-month trip to the United States, during this travel Mallory was asked why he wanted to climb Mount Everest. His answer: "Because it is there" became a classic,[9] the intended 1923 expedition to Mount Everest was delayed by financial and organizational reasons. There was insufficient time to prepare another expedition the following year.

The movie which was recorded by Noel during this expedition was also published. Climbing Mount Everest was shown for ten weeks in Liverpool's Philharmonic Hall.[2]

1.
Mountaineering
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The term mountaineering describes the sport of mountain climbing, including ski mountaineering. Hiking in the mountains can also be a form of mountaineering when it involves scrambling, or short stretches of the more basic grades of rock climbing. All require experience, athletic ability, and technical knowledge to maintain safety, mountaineering is often called Alpinism, especially in European languages, which implies climbing with difficulty such high and often snow and ice-covered mountains as the Alps. A mountaineer with such great skill is called an Alpinist, historically, many cultures have harbored superstitions about mountains, which they often regarded as sacred due to their proximity with heaven, such as Mount Olympus for the Ancient Greeks. In 1492 Antoine de Ville, lord of Domjulien and Beaupré, was the first to ascend the Mont Aiguille, in France, with a team, using ladders. It appears to be the first recorded climb of any technical difficulty, in 1573 Francesco De Marchi and Francesco Di Domenico ascended Corno Grande, the highest peak in the Apennine Mountains. During the Enlightenment, as a product of the new spirit of curiosity for the natural world, in 1741 Richard Pococke and William Windham made a historic visit to Chamonix. By the early 19th century many of the peaks were reached, including the Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812. In 1808 Marie Paradis became the first female to climb Mont Blanc and this inaugurated what became known as the Golden age of alpinism, with the first mountaineering club - the Alpine Club - being founded in 1857. Well-known guides of the era include Christian Almer, Jakob Anderegg, Melchior Anderegg, J. J. Bennen, Michel Croz, in the early years of the golden age, scientific pursuits were intermixed with the sport, such as by the physicist John Tyndall. In the later years, it shifted to a more competitive orientation as pure sportsmen came to dominate the London-based Alpine Club and this ascent is generally regarded as marking the end of the mountaineering golden age. By this point the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with a body of professional guides, equipment, mountaineering in the Americas became popular in the 1800s. In North America, Pikes Peak in the Colorado Rockies was first climbed by Edwin James, though lower than Pikes Peak, the heavily glaciated Fremont Peak in Wyoming was thought to be the tallest mountain in the Rockies when it was first climbed by John C. Frémont and two others in 1842, pico de Orizaba, the tallest peak in Mexico and third tallest in North America, was first climbed by U. S. military personnel which included William F. Raynolds and a half dozen other climbers in 1848. Heavily glaciated and more technical climbs in North American were not achieved until the late 19th, in 1897 Mount Saint Elias on the Alaska-Yukon border was summitted by the Duke of the Abruzzi and party. But it was not until 1913 that Mount Mckinley, the tallest peak in North America was successfully climbed by Hudson Stuck, Mount Logan, the tallest peak in Canada was first summitted by a half dozen climbers in 1925 in an expedition that took more than two months. In 1879-1880 the exploration of the highest Andes in South America began when English mountaineer Edward Whymper climbed Chimborazo, the summit of Aconcagua was finally reached on January 14,1897 by Swiss mountaineer Matthias Zurbriggen during an expedition led by Edward FitzGerald that began in December 1896. The Andes of Bolivia were first explored by Sir William Martin Conway in 1898 and it took until the late 19th century for European explorers to penetrate Africa

2.
First ascent
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In climbing, a first ascent is the first successful, documented attainment of the top of a mountain, or the first to follow a particular climbing route. First ascents are notable because they entail genuine exploration, with risks, challenges. The person who performs the first ascent is called the first ascensionist, the details of the first ascents of even many prominent mountains are scanty or unknown, sometimes the only evidence of prior summiting is a cairn, artifacts, or inscriptions at the top. Today, first ascents are generally recorded and usually mentioned in guidebooks. Overwhelmingly, the idea of a first ascent is a one, especially in places such as Africa. There may be little or no evidence or documentation about the climbing activities of indigenous peoples living near the mountain. The term is used when referring to ascents made using a specific technique or taking a specific route, such as via the North Face. In rock climbing, some of the earlier first ascents, particularly for difficult routes, involved a mix of free, as a result, purist free climbers have developed the designation first free ascent to acknowledge ascents intentionally made more challenging by using equipment for protection only. Some other first ascents could be recorded for particular mountains or routes, one is the First Winter Ascent, which is, as the name easily suggests, the first ascent made during winter season. This is most important where the climate of winter is a factor in increasing the difficulty grade of the route, in the Northern Hemisphere conventional winter ascents are made between December 21 and March 21 and are not related to the conditions. Also in the Himalayan area, although Nepal and Chinas winter season permits start on December 1, another is the First Solo Ascent, which is the first ascent made by a single climber. This is most important on high-level rock climbing, when the climber has to provide his own security or even when climbing without any protection at all, another type of ascent, also known as FFA is the first female ascent. The term last ascent has been used to refer to an ascent of a mountain or face that has changed to such an extent – often because of rockfall – that the route no longer exists. It can also be used facetiously to refer to a climb that is so unpleasant or unaesthetic that no one would willingly repeat the first ascent partys ordeal. List of first ascents List of first ascents in the Alps List of first ascents in the Himalaya Glossary of climbing terms Alpinist Magazine – Peter Mortimers First Ascent, Issue 17

3.
Mount Everest
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Mount Everest, also known in Nepal as Sagarmāthā and in China as Chomolungma/珠穆朗玛峰, is Earths highest mountain. Its peak is 8,848 metres above sea level, Mount Everest is in the Mahalangur Range. The international border between China and Nepal runs across Everests summit point and its massif includes neighbouring peaks Lhotse,8,516 m, Nuptse,7,855 m, and Changtse,7,580 m. In 1856, the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India established the first published height of Everest, then known as Peak XV, at 8,840 m. The current official height of 8,848 m as recognised by China and Nepal was established by a 1955 Indian survey, in 2005, China remeasured the height of the mountain and got a result of 8844.43 m. An argument regarding the height between China and Nepal lasted five years from 2005 to 2010, China argued it should be measured by its rock height which is 8,844 m but Nepal said it should be measured by its snow height 8,848 m. In 2010, an agreement was reached by both sides that the height of Everest is 8,848 m and Nepal recognises Chinas claim that the rock height of Everest is 8,844 m. In 1865, Everest was given its official English name by the Royal Geographical Society upon a recommendation by Andrew Waugh, the British Surveyor General of India. As there appeared to be several different local names, Waugh chose to name the mountain after his predecessor in the post, Sir George Everest, Mount Everest attracts many climbers, some of them highly experienced mountaineers. There are two main climbing routes, one approaching the summit from the southeast in Nepal and the other from the north in Tibet, as of 2016 there are well over 200 corpses on the mountain, with some of them even serving as landmarks. The first recorded efforts to reach Everests summit were made by British mountaineers, with Nepal not allowing foreigners into the country at the time, the British made several attempts on the north ridge route from the Tibetan side. Tragedy struck on the descent from the North Col when seven porters were killed in an avalanche. They had been spotted high on the mountain that day but disappeared in the clouds, never to be seen again, Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary made the first official ascent of Everest in 1953 using the southeast ridge route. Tenzing had reached 8,595 m the previous year as a member of the 1952 Swiss expedition, the Chinese mountaineering team of Wang Fuzhou, Gonpo, and Qu Yinhua made the first reported ascent of the peak from the north ridge on 25 May 1960. In 1802, the British began the Great Trigonometric Survey of India to fix the locations, heights, starting in southern India, the survey teams moved northward using giant theodolites, each weighing 500 kg and requiring 12 men to carry, to measure heights as accurately as possible. They reached the Himalayan foothills by the 1830s, but Nepal was unwilling to allow the British to enter the country due to suspicions of political aggression, several requests by the surveyors to enter Nepal were turned down. The British were forced to continue their observations from Terai, a region south of Nepal which is parallel to the Himalayas, conditions in Terai were difficult because of torrential rains and malaria. Three survey officers died from malaria while two others had to retire because of failing health, nonetheless, in 1847, the British continued the survey and began detailed observations of the Himalayan peaks from observation stations up to 240 km distant

4.
Tibet
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Tibet is a region on the Tibetan Plateau in Asia, spanning about 2.4 million km2 and nearly a quarter of Chinas territory. Tibet is the highest region on Earth, with an elevation of 4,900 metres. The highest elevation in Tibet is Mount Everest, Earths highest mountain, the Tibetan Empire emerged in the 7th century, but with the fall of the empire the region soon divided into a variety of territories. The current borders of Tibet were generally established in the 18th century, following the Xinhai Revolution against the Qing dynasty in 1912, Qing soldiers were disarmed and escorted out of Tibet Area. The region subsequently declared its independence in 1913 without recognition by the subsequent Chinese Republican government, later, Lhasa took control of the western part of Xikang, China. There are tensions regarding Tibets political status and dissident groups that are active in exile and it is also said that Tibetan activists in Tibet have been arrested or tortured. The economy of Tibet is dominated by agriculture, though tourism has become a growing industry in recent decades. The dominant religion in Tibet is Tibetan Buddhism, in there is Bön, which is similar to Tibetan Buddhism. Tibetan Buddhism is an influence on the art, music. Tibetan architecture reflects Chinese and Indian influences, staple foods in Tibet are roasted barley, yak meat, and butter tea. The Tibetan name for their land, Bod བོད་, means Tibet or Tibetan Plateau, although it meant the central region around Lhasa. The Standard Tibetan pronunciation of Bod, is transcribed Bhö in Tournadre Phonetic Transcription, Bö in the THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription and Poi in Tibetan pinyin. Tibetan people, language, and culture, regardless of where they are from, are referred to as Zang although the geographical term Xīzàng is often limited to the Tibet Autonomous Region. The term Xīzàng was coined during the Qing dynasty in the reign of the Jiaqing Emperor through the addition of a prefix meaning west to Zang, the best-known medieval Chinese name for Tibet is Tubo. This name first appears in Chinese characters as 土番 in the 7th century, in the Middle Chinese spoken during that period, as reconstructed by William H. Baxter, 土番 was pronounced thux-phjon and 吐蕃 was pronounced thux-pjon. Other pre-modern Chinese names for Tibet include Wusiguo, Wusizang, Tubote, the English word Tibet or Thibet dates back to the 18th century. Historical linguists generally agree that Tibet names in European languages are loanwords from Semitic Ṭībat orTūbātt, itself deriving from Turkic Töbäd, literally, according to Matthew Kapstein, From the perspective of historical linguistics, Tibetan most closely resembles Burmese among the major languages of Asia. More controversial is the theory that the Tibeto-Burman family is part of a larger language family, called Sino-Tibetan

5.
George Mallory
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George Herbert Leigh Mallory was an English mountaineer who took part in the first three British expeditions to Mount Everest in the early 1920s. The pair were last seen when they were about 800 vertical feet from the summit, Mallorys ultimate fate was unknown for 75 years, until his body was discovered on 1 May 1999 by an expedition that had set out to search for the climbers remains. Whether Mallory and Irvine reached the summit before they died remains a subject of speculation, Mallory was born in Mobberley, Cheshire, the son of Herbert Leigh Mallory, a clergyman who changed his surname from Mallory to Leigh-Mallory in 1914. His mother was Annie Beridge, the daughter of a clergyman in Walton, George had two sisters and a younger brother, Trafford Leigh-Mallory, the World War II Royal Air Force commander. He was raised in 10-bedroom house on Hobcroft Lane in Mobberley, in 1896, Mallory attended Glengorse, a preparatory boarding school in Eastbourne on the south coast of England, having transferred from another preparatory school in West Kirby. At the age of 13, he won a scholarship to Winchester College. In his final year there, he was introduced to climbing and mountaineering by a master, R. L. G. Irving. In October 1905, Mallory entered Magdalene College, Cambridge, to study history, Mallory was a keen oarsman, rowing for his college while at Cambridge. In 1909 Lytton Strachey wrote of Mallory, Mon dieu. —George Mallory, after gaining his degree, Mallory stayed in Cambridge for a year writing an essay he later published as Boswell the Biographer. He lived briefly in France afterwards, in 1910, he began teaching at Charterhouse School, Godalming, Surrey, where he met the poet Robert Graves, then a pupil. In his autobiography, Goodbye to All That, Graves remembered Mallory fondly both for his encouragement of Graves interest in literature and poetry and his instruction in climbing, Graves recalled, He was wasted at Charterhouse. He tried to treat his class in a way, which puzzled and offended them. While at Charterhouse, Mallory met his wife, Ruth Turner, who lived in Godalming, George and Ruth had two daughters and a son, Frances Clare, Beridge Ruth, known as Berry, and John. After the war, Mallory returned to Charterhouse, resigning in 1921 in order to join the first Everest expedition, between expeditions, he attempted to make a living from writing and lecturing, with only partial success. In 1923, he took a job as lecturer with the Cambridge University Extramural Studies Department and he was given temporary leave so that he could join the 1924 Everest attempt. In 1910, in a party led by Irving, Mallory and an attempted to climb Mont Vélan in the Alps. In 1911, Mallory climbed Mont Blanc, as well as making the ascent of the Frontier ridge of Mont Maudit in a party again led by Irving. To which he responded, None but ourselves, by 1913, he had ascended Pillar Rock in the English Lake District, with no assistance, by what is now known as Mallorys Route—currently graded Hard Very Severe 5a

6.
1924 British Mount Everest expedition
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The 1924 British Mount Everest expedition was—after the 1922 British Mount Everest expedition—the second expedition with the goal of achieving the first ascent of Mount Everest. After two summit attempts in which Edward Norton set an altitude record, the mountaineers George Mallory. Their disappearance has given rise to the unanswered question of whether or not the pair successfully climbed to the summit. Mallorys body was found in 1999, but the resulting clues did not provide evidence as to whether the summit was reached. At the beginning of the 20th century, the British participated in contests to be the first to reach the North and South Poles, without success. A desire to restore national prestige led to scrutiny and discussion of the possibility of conquering the third pole – making the first ascent of the highest mountain on Earth. The southern side of the mountain, which is accessible from Nepal, going to the north side was politically complex, it required the persistent intervention of the British-Indian government with the Dalai Lama regime in Tibet to allow British expedition activities. A major handicap of all expeditions to the side of Mount Everest is the tight time window between the end of winter and the start of the monsoon rains. To travel from Darjeeling in northern India over Sikkim to Tibet, it was necessary to climb high, after this first step, a long journey followed through the valley of the Arun River to the Rongbuk valley near the north face of Mt. Everest. Horses, donkeys, yaks, and dozens of local porters provided transport, two expeditions preceded the 1924 effort. The first in 1921 was an expedition led by Harold Raeburn which described a potential route along the whole northeast ridge. Later George Mallory proposed a longer modified climb to the col, then along the north ridge to reach the northeast ridge. This approach seemed to be the “easiest” terrain to reach the top, after they had discovered access to the base of the north col via the East Rongbuk Glacier, the complete route was explored and appeared to be the superior option. Several attempts on Mallorys proposed route occurred during the 1922 expedition, after this expedition, insufficient time for preparation and a lack of financial means prevented an expedition in 1923. The Common Everest Committee had lost some 700 pounds in the bankruptcy of the Alliance Bank of Simla, so the third expedition was postponed until 1924. The Mount Everest Committee which they formed used military strategies with some military personnel, one important change was the role of the porters. The 1922 expedition recognized several of them were capable of gaining great heights, the changed climbing strategy which increased their involvement later culminated in an equal partnership of Tenzing Norgay for the first known ascent in 1953 together with Edmund Hillary. Like the 1922 expedition, the 1924 expedition also brought bottled oxygen to the mountain, the oxygen equipment had been improved during the two intervening years, but was still not very reliable

7.
Avalanche
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An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a sloping surface. Avalanches are typically triggered in a zone from a mechanical failure in the snowpack when the forces on the snow exceed its strength. After initiation, avalanches usually accelerate rapidly and grow in mass, if the avalanche moves fast enough some of the snow may mix with the air forming a powder snow avalanche, which is a type of gravity current. Slides of rocks or debris, behaving in a way to snow, are also referred to as avalanches. The remainder of this article refers to snow avalanches, the load on the snowpack may be only due to gravity, in which case failure may result either from weakening in the snowpack or increased load due to precipitation. Avalanches that occur in this way are known as spontaneous avalanches, Avalanches can also be triggered by other loads such as skiers, snowmobilers, animals or explosives. Seismic activity may trigger the failure in the snowpack and avalanches. A popular myth is that avalanches can be triggered by loud noise or shouting, Avalanches are not rare or random events and are endemic to any mountain range that accumulates a standing snowpack. Avalanches are most common during winter or spring but glacier movements may cause ice, there is no universally accepted classification of avalanches—different classifications are useful for different purposes. Avalanches can be described by their size, their potential, their initiation mechanism, their composition. Most avalanches occur spontaneously during storms under increased load due to snowfall, the second largest cause of natural avalanches is metamorphic changes in the snowpack such as melting due to solar radiation. Other natural causes include rain, earthquakes, rockfall and icefall, artificial triggers of avalanches include skiers, snowmobiles, and controlled explosive work. Avalanche initiation can start at a point with only an amount of snow moving initially. A snowpack will fail when the load exceeds the strength, the load is straightforward, it is the weight of the snow. However, the strength of the snowpack is much more difficult to determine and is extremely heterogenous and it varies in detail with properties of the snow grains, size, density, morphology, temperature, water content, and the properties of the bonds between the grains. These properties may all metamorphose in time according to the humidity, water vapour flux, temperature. The top of the snowpack is also influenced by incoming radiation. One of the aims of research is to develop and validate computer models that can describe the evolution of the seasonal snowpack over time

8.
Himalayan Mountaineering Institute
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The Himalayan Mountaineering Institute was established in Darjeeling, India on November 4,1954 to encourage mountaineering as an organized sport in India. The first ascent of Mount Everest in 1953 by Tenzing Norgay, with the impetus provided by the first prime minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, HMI was established in Darjeeling. Tenzing Norgay was the first director of training for HMI. HMI regularly conducts Adventure, Basic and Advanced Mountaineering courses and they are also highly subsidised to encourage mountaineering as a sport. Nehru Institute of Mountaineering Chennai Trekking Club Official website

9.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again

10.
North Pole
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The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is defined as the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earths axis of rotation meets its surface. The North Pole is the northernmost point on the Earth, lying diametrically opposite the South Pole and it defines geodetic latitude 90° North, as well as the direction of true north. At the North Pole all directions point south, all lines of longitude converge there, along tight latitude circles, counterclockwise is east and clockwise is west. The North Pole is at the center of the Northern Hemisphere, while the South Pole lies on a continental land mass, the North Pole is located in the middle of the Arctic Ocean amid waters that are almost permanently covered with constantly shifting sea ice. This makes it impractical to construct a permanent station at the North Pole, however, the Soviet Union, and later Russia, constructed a number of manned drifting stations on a generally annual basis since 1937, some of which have passed over or very close to the Pole. Since 2002, the Russians have also established a base, Barneo. This operates for a few weeks during early spring, studies in the 2000s predicted that the North Pole may become seasonally ice-free because of Arctic ice shrinkage, with timescales varying from 2016 to the late 21st century or later. The sea depth at the North Pole has been measured at 4,261 m by the Russian Mir submersible in 2007 and at 4,087 m by USS Nautilus in 1958. The nearest land is said to be Kaffeklubben Island, off the northern coast of Greenland about 700 km away. The nearest permanently inhabited place is Alert in the Qikiqtaaluk Region, Nunavut, Canada, around the beginning of the 20th century astronomers noticed a small apparent variation of latitude, as determined for a fixed point on Earth from the observation of stars. Part of this variation could be attributed to a wandering of the Pole across the Earths surface, the wandering has several periodic components and an irregular component. The component with a period of about 435 days is identified with the eight-month wandering predicted by Euler and is now called the Chandler wobble after its discoverer and it is desirable to tie the system of Earth coordinates to fixed landforms. Of course, given plate tectonics and isostasy, there is no system in all geographic features are fixed. Yet the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service and the International Astronomical Union have defined a framework called the International Terrestrial Reference System. As early as the 16th century, many eminent people correctly believed that the North Pole was in a sea and it was therefore hoped that passage could be found through ice floes at favorable times of the year. Several expeditions set out to find the way, generally with whaling ships, one of the earliest expeditions to set out with the explicit intention of reaching the North Pole was that of British naval officer William Edward Parry, who in 1827 reached latitude 82°45′ North. In 1871 the Polaris expedition, a US attempt on the Pole led by Charles Francis Hall, another British Royal Navy attempt on the pole, part of the British Arctic Expedition, by Commander Albert H. Markham reached a then-record 83°2026 North in May 1876 before turning back. An 1879–1881 expedition commanded by US naval officer George W. DeLong ended tragically when their ship, over half the crew, including DeLong, were lost

11.
South Pole
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The South Pole, also known as the Geographic South Pole or Terrestrial South Pole, is one of the two points where the Earths axis of rotation intersects its surface. It is the southernmost point on the surface of the Earth, situated on the continent of Antarctica, it is the site of the United States Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, which was established in 1956 and has been permanently staffed since that year. The Geographic South Pole should not be confused with the South Magnetic Pole, the South Pole is at the center of the Southern Hemisphere. For most purposes, the Geographic South Pole is defined as the point of the two points where the Earths axis of rotation intersects its surface. However, the Earths axis of rotation is actually subject to very small wobbles, the geographic coordinates of the South Pole are usually given simply as 90°S, since its longitude is geometrically undefined and irrelevant. When a longitude is desired, it may be given as 0°, at the South Pole, all directions face north. For this reason, directions at the Pole are given relative to grid north, along tight latitude circles, clockwise is east, and counterclockwise is west, opposite to the North Pole. The Geographic South Pole is located on the continent of Antarctica. It sits atop a featureless, barren, windswept and icy plateau at an altitude of 2,835 metres above sea level, and is located about 1,300 km from the nearest open sea at Bay of Whales. The ice is estimated to be about 2,700 metres thick at the Pole, the polar ice sheet is moving at a rate of roughly 10 metres per year in a direction between 37° and 40° west of grid north, down towards the Weddell Sea. Therefore, the position of the station and other artificial features relative to the geographic pole gradually shift over time. The Geographic South Pole is marked by a stake in the ice alongside a small sign, these are repositioned each year in a ceremony on New Years Day to compensate for the movement of the ice. The sign records the respective dates that Roald Amundsen and Robert F. Scott reached the Pole, followed by a quotation from each man. A new marker stake is designed and fabricated each year by staff at the site, the Ceremonial South Pole is an area set aside for photo opportunities at the South Pole Station. It is located around 180 metres from the Geographic South Pole, Amundsens Tent, The tent was erected by the Norwegian expedition led by Roald Amundsen on its arrival on 14 December 1911. It is currently buried beneath the snow and ice in the vicinity of the Pole and it has been designated a Historic Site or Monument, following a proposal by Norway to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. In 1820, several expeditions claimed to have been the first to have sighted Antarctica, with the very first being the Russian expedition led by Faddey Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev. The first landing was probably just over a year later when American Captain John Davis, the basic geography of the Antarctic coastline was not understood until the mid-to-late 19th century

12.
Cecil Rawling
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He published two books detailing his experiences and served in the British Army on the North-West Frontier of India and in France during the First World War. It was during this service that he was killed in action aged 47 during the Battle of Passchendaele. Born in February 1870 to Samuel Bartlett and Ada Bithe Rawling, Cecil Rawling was raised in Somerset, after leaving school, Rawling served in the local militia as an officer, subsequently accepting a commission into the Somerset Light Infantry in 1891. His unit was dispatched to India in 1897 and served on the North-West Frontier during the Tirah Campaign, during this period, Rawling took numerous hunting trips up into the Himalaya mountains. In 1902, he unofficially entered Tibet with a friend, Lieutenant A. J. G, hargreaves, and together they began an exploration of the region which would last another four years. During the diplomatic expedition and the campaign which followed it, Rawling surveyed over 40,000 square miles of Tibet in addition to his military duties. His team even explored the foothills of Everest and included parts of the mountain in his survey and it is said that had his seniors on the expedition not forbidden it, he would have become the first white man to attempt to climb the mountain from the north face. He was also the first person to identify the source of the river Brahmaputra after a lengthy. He wrote a book about his experiences in Tibet named The Great Plateau which was published in 1905, in 1909 he was attached to an expedition to Dutch New Guinea, now Papua in Indonesia. During the sea voyage, the leader was incapacitated and Rawling was called on to replace him. In New Guinea he explored many of the islands untouched jungles and had encounters with native tribes including the first Western encounter with the Tapiro pygmies. In much of the terrain his expedition covered, they were the first Europeans ever to reach these regions, the maps and reports from this expedition were the first from this area of New Guinea. His second book, The Land of the New Guinea Pygmies was released on his return to England in 1913. At the outbreak of the First World War, he was attached to the raised and recruited forces of Kitcheners Army. He was thus not deployed to France until Spring 1915, when he was placed in command of the 6th battalion of the Somerset Light Infantry as a lieutenant colonel. His unit fought in the stages of the Second Battle of Ypres. With the massive buildup of troops in the approach to the battle of the Somme he took command of the 62nd Brigade in the 21st Infantry Division, and retained this post throughout the battle. During the battles along the Somme he was engaged at Fricourt, Mametz Wood and Gueudecourt, in the battles of Albert, all of his units objectives were eventually captured but only at the cost of high casualties

13.
Royal Geographical Society
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The Royal Geographical Society is the UKs learned society and professional body for geography, founded in 1830 for the advancement of geographical sciences. Today, it is the centre for geographers and geographical learning. The Society has over 16,500 members and its work reaches millions of people each year through publications, research groups, the Geographical Society of London was founded in 1830 under the name Geographical Society of London as an institution to promote the advancement of geographical science. It later absorbed the older African Association, which had been founded by Sir Joseph Banks in 1788, as well as the Raleigh Club and the Palestine Association. Like many learned societies, it had started as a club in London. Founding members of the Society included Sir John Barrow, Sir John Franklin, under the patronage of King William IV it later became known as The Royal Geographical Society and was granted its Royal Charter under Queen Victoria in 1859. From 1830 –1840 the RGS met in the rooms of the Horticultural Society in Regent Street, London and from 1854 -1870 at 15 Whitehall Place, London. In 1870, the Society finally found a home when it moved to 1 Savile Row, London – an address that became associated with adventure. The Society also used a lecture theatre in Burlington Gardens, London which was lent to it by the Civil Service Commission, however, the arrangements were thought to be rather cramped and squalid. A new impetus was given to the Societys affairs in 1911, with the election of Earl Curzon, the premises in Savile Row were sold and the present site, Lowther Lodge in Kensington Gore, was purchased for £100,000 and opened for use in April 1913. In the same year the Societys ban on women was lifted, Lowther Lodge was built in 1874 for the Hon William Lowther by Norman Shaw, one of the most outstanding domestic architects of his day. Extensions to the east wing were added in 1929, and included the New Map Room, the extension was formally opened by HRH the Duke of York at the Centenary Celebrations on 21 October 1930. The history of the Society was closely allied for many of its years with colonial exploration in Africa, the Indian subcontinent, the polar regions. It has been a key associate and supporter of many explorers and expeditions, including those of Darwin, Livingstone, Stanley, Scott, Shackleton, Hunt. The early history of the Society is inter-linked with the history of British Geography, exploration, information, maps, charts and knowledge gathered on expeditions was sent to the RGS, making up its now unique geographical collections. The Society published its first journal in 1831 and from 1855, accounts of meetings, in 1893, this was replaced by The Geographical Journal which is still published today. With the advent of a systematic study of geography, the Institute of British Geographers was formed in 1933, by some academic Society fellows. Its activities included organising conferences, field trips, seminars and specialist research groups and publishing the journal, the RGS and IBG co-existed for 60 years until 1992 when a merger was discussed

14.
Alpine Club (UK)
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The Alpine Club was founded in London in 1857 and is the worlds first mountaineering club. It is UK mountaineerings acknowledged senior club, on 22 December 1857 a group of British mountaineers met at Ashleys Hotel in London. All were active in the Alps and instrumental in the development of alpine mountaineering during the age of alpinism. It was at this meeting that the Alpine Club, under the chairmanship of E. S. Kennedy, was born, John Ball was the first president and Kennedy, the first vice-president, succeeded him as president of the club from 1860 to 1863. It then moved its headquarters to the Metropole Hotel, for climbing, a rope was required which would be both strong and light so that lengths of it could be carried easily. A committee of the club tested samples from suppliers and prepared a specification, the official Alpine Club Rope was then made by John Buckingham of Bloomsbury. It was made from three strands of manila hemp, treated to be rot proof and marked with a red thread of worsted yarn. One hundred and fifty years later, the Alpine Club continues, and its members remain active in the Alps. For many years it had the characteristics of a London-based Gentlemens club, however, it still requires prospective members to be proposed and seconded by existing members. These higher technical standards were often to be found in such as the Alpine Climbing Group. The club has produced a suite of guidebooks which cover some of the more popular Alpine mountaineering regions and it also holds extensive book and photo libraries as well as an archive of historical artifacts which are regularly lent out to exhibitions. The clubs history has recently been documented by George Band in his book Summit,150 Years of the Alpine Club and its members activities are recounted annually in the clubs publication the Alpine Journal. As of 2009, the subscription costs between £39 and £60 per year, with a £27 rate for younger members. In 1895 the club moved to 23 Savile Row, and in June 1907, from 1937 to 1990 the club was based at 74, South Audley Street, in Mayfair, London. In 1936–1937 the surveying firm of Pilditch, Chadwick and Company had converted the ground floor of the building into premises for the club. The clubs library was at the back of the building, in what was once the picture gallery of Sir William Cuthbert Quilter. In 1990 the club sold its lease of 74, South Audley Street and briefly shared quarters with the Ski Club of Great Britain at 118, Eaton Square. In 1991 the Alpine Club acquired the freehold of a five-storey Victorian warehouse at 55, Charlotte Road, on the edge of the City of London, the clubs lecture room, bunk-house, library, and archives are all housed there

15.
John Baptist Lucius Noel
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John Baptist Lucius Noel was an English mountaineer and filmmaker best known for his film of the 1924 Mount Everest expedition. His father, Col. Edward Noel, was the son of the second earl of Gainsborough. Noels regiment spent summers near the Himalayas and in 1913 he travelled in disguise into Tibet in order to approach Mount Everest, after serving in Europe during the First World War, in 1919 he lectured about his travels near Everest to the Royal Geographical Society. Sir Francis Younghusband used the occasion to call for the ascent of Mount Everest in 1921, Noel eventually became a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. He joined the 1922 Everest expedition as its official photographer and filmmaker and produced a short film, in 1924, Noel formed a private company which paid for the photographic rights of that years Everest expedition. Noel reached the North Col and used a specially adapted camera to film the ascent of the peak, a note from George Mallory to Noel was the last contact with the lost explorer before his body was discovered in 1999. The disappearance of George Mallory and Andrew Irvine added drama to the film, The Epic of Everest, Noel lectured widely in North America and published a book about his adventures, Through Tibet to Everest. After the first ascent of Everest in 1953, Noel lectured once again about the mountain and his footage and photographs appeared widely in many films and he was also the author of two early books on handgun marksmanship. In his later years, Noel restored old houses and he died on 12 March 1989. Walt Unsworth, Everest How to Shoot with a Revolver, London, the Automatic Pistol, London, Forster Groom,1919. References are to Ray Riling, Guns and Shooting, a Bibliography, New York, John Noel Photographic Collection, including a biographical summary Internet Movie Database entry for Noel Noel, John Baptist Lucius in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography

16.
Movie camera
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The movie camera, film camera or cine-camera is a type of photographic camera which takes a rapid sequence of photographs on an image sensor or on a film. In contrast to a camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time. This is accomplished through an intermittent mechanism, the frames are later played back in a movie projector at a specific speed, called the frame rate. While viewing at a frame rate, a persons eyes. Since 2010s, film-based movie cameras have been replaced by digital movie cameras. An interesting forerunner to the camera was the machine invented by Francis Ronalds at the Kew Observatory in 1845. A photosensitive surface was drawn slowly past the diaphragm of the camera by a clockwork mechanism to enable continuous recording over a 12- or 24-hour period. Ronalds applied his cameras to trace the ongoing variations of scientific instruments, the very first patented film camera was the one devised by Wordsworth Donisthorpe in 1876. Another film camera was designed in England by Frenchman Louis Le Prince in 1888 and he built and patented an earlier 16 lens camera in 1887 at his workshop in Leeds. The first 8 lenses would be triggered in rapid succession by an electromagnetic shutter on the sensitive film, according to Adolphe Le Prince, who assisted his father at Leeds, Roundhay Garden was shot at 12 frame/s and Leeds Bridge at 20 frame/s. His camera still exists with the National Media Museum in Bradford and he shot the film on celluloid with 1¾ inch width. Another early pioneer was the British inventor William Friese-Greene and he began to experiment with the use of oiled paper as a medium for displaying motion pictures in 1885 and by 1887 he was experimenting with the use of celluloid. In 1889, Friese-Greene took out a patent for a chronophotographic camera and this was capable of taking up to ten photographs per second using perforated celluloid film. A report on the camera was published in the British Photographic News on February 28,1890 and he gave a public demonstration in 1890 of his device, but the low frame rate combined with the devices apparent unreliability made an unfavourable impression. William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, a Scottish inventor and employee of Thomas Edison, the camera was powered by an electric motor and was capable of shooting with the new sprocketed film. The Lumière Domitor camera was created by Charles Moisson, the mechanic at the Lumière works in Lyon in 1894. The camera used paper film of 35 millimeter width, but in 1895 the Lumière brothers shifted to celluloid film and this they covered with their own Etiquette-bleue emulsion, had it cut into strips and perforated. In 1894 the Polish inventor Kazimierz Prószyński constructed a projector and camera in one, due to the work of Le Prince, Friese-Greene, Edison and the Lumière brothers, the movie camera had become a practical reality by the mid 1890s

17.
Stereo camera
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A stereo camera is a type of camera with two or more lenses with a separate image sensor or film frame for each lens. This allows the camera to simulate human binocular vision, and therefore gives it the ability to capture three-dimensional images, Stereo cameras may be used for making stereoviews and 3D pictures for movies, or for range imaging. The distance between the lenses in a stereo camera is about the distance between ones eyes and is about 6.35 cm, though a longer base line produces more extreme 3-dimensionality. In the 1950s, stereo cameras gained some popularity with the Stereo Realist, 3D pictures following the theory behind stereo cameras can also be made more inexpensively by taking two pictures with the same camera, but moving the camera a few inches either left or right. If the image is edited so that each eye sees a different image and this method has problems with objects moving in the different views, though works well with still life. Stereo cameras are mounted in cars to detect the lanes width. Not all two-lens cameras are used for taking stereoscopic photos, a twin-lens reflex camera uses one lens to image to a focusing/composition screen and the other to capture the image on film. These are usually in a vertical configuration, examples include would be a vintage Rolleiflex or a modern twin lens like a Mamiya C330. There have been many types of cameras that take stereo images, Loreo 3D Lens in a Cap, an accessory device, which incorporates a pair of small closely spaced lens, and a simple mirror box as an attachment for many modern SLR digital cameras. The latest version has 25mm wider angle lenses, Loreo also makes currently, a cross-view 35mm film only, 3D CAMERA, which takes deeper stereo images, with a wider mirror system, sold with a folding print viewer included. Nimslo 3D – The first compact consumer level lenticular camera, designed to take 3D prints that are viewable without glasses or special technique, though it didnt catch on and was soon discontinued, it inspired many 3 and 4 lens clones marketed well into the 1990s. RBT – In the modern 3D world, a thousand dollar RBT camera was made in Germany by rebuilding two 35mm high end cameras into an integrated and unitized stereo camera. RBT announced the discontinuation of the cameras on January 1,2011, Fujifilm FinePix Real 3D W1, a digital stereo camera. Since 2014, computer vision developments and increasing embedded GPU computing power have opened up new applications for stereo cameras and these can be used to calculate a depth map through advanced image processing techniques. Mm Inlife-Handnet HDC-81010 mm Panasonic 3D Lumix H-FT012 lens,12 mm DXG-5D8 cam and the clones Medion 3D and Praktica DMMC-3D. 15 mm Ararat Macro Beam Splitter for smartphones,23 mm Loreo 3D Macro lens. 25 mm LG Optimus 3D, LG Optimus 3D MAX and the Cyclopital3D close-up macro adapter,28 mm Sharp Aquos SH80F and SHI12 and the Toshiba Camileo z100 camcorder. 30 mm Panasonic 3D1 camera, Camex 3D cam and LG IC330,32 mm HTC Evo 3D smartphone

18.
Monsoon
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Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase. The term is sometimes used for locally heavy but short-term rains. The major monsoon systems of the world consist of the West African and Asia-Australian monsoons, the inclusion of the North and South American monsoons with incomplete wind reversal has been debated. The south-west monsoon winds are called Nairutya Maarut in India, the English monsoon came from Portuguese monção, ultimately from Arabic mawsim and/or Hindi mausam, perhaps partly via early modern Dutch monsun. Strengthening of the Asian monsoon has been linked to the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau after the collision of the Indian sub-continent and Asia around 50 million years ago. Because of studies of records from the Arabian Sea and that of the wind-blown dust in the Loess Plateau of China, testing of this hypothesis awaits deep ocean sampling by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program. The monsoon has varied significantly in strength since this time, largely linked to climate change. A study of marine plankton suggested that the Indian Monsoon strengthened around 5 million years ago, then, during ice periods, the sea level fell and the Indonesian Seaway closed. When this happened, cold waters in the Pacific were impeded from flowing into the Indian Ocean and it is believed that the resulting increase in sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean increased the intensity of monsoons. Five episodes during the Quaternary at 2.22 Ma,1.83 Ma,0.68 Ma,0.45 Ma and 0.04 Ma were identified which showed a weakening of Leeuwin Current. The weakening of the LC would have an effect on the sea surface temperature field in the Indian Ocean, thus these five intervals could probably be those of considerable lowering of SST in the Indian Ocean and would have influenced Indian monsoon intensity. The impact of monsoon on the weather is different from place to place. In some places there is just a likelihood of having a more or less rain. In other places, quasi semi-deserts are turned into green grasslands where all sorts of plants. The Indian Monsoon turns large parts of India from a kind of semi-desert into green lands, see photos only taken 3 months apart in the Western Ghats. In places like this it is crucial for farmers to have the right timing for putting the seeds on the fields, Monsoons are large-scale sea breezes which occur when the temperature on land is significantly warmer or cooler than the temperature of the ocean. These temperature imbalances happen because oceans and land absorb heat in different ways, in contrast, dirt, sand, and rocks have lower heat capacities, and they can only transmit heat into the earth by conduction and not by convection. Therefore, bodies of water stay at an even temperature

19.
Effects of high altitude on humans
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The effects of high altitude on humans are considerable. The percentage oxygen saturation of hemoglobin determines the content of oxygen in blood, after the human body reaches around 2,100 m above sea level, the saturation of oxyhemoglobin begins to plummet. However, the body has both short-term and long-term adaptations to altitude that allow it to partially compensate for the lack of oxygen. Athletes use these adaptations to help their performance, there is a limit to the level of adaptation, mountaineers refer to the altitudes above 8,000 metres as the death zone, where it is generally believed that no human body can acclimatize. The human body can perform best at sea level, where the pressure is 101,325 Pa or 1013.25 millibars. The concentration of oxygen in air is 20. 9%. In healthy individuals, this saturates hemoglobin, the red pigment in red blood cells. Atmospheric pressure decreases exponentially with altitude while the O2 fraction remains constant to about 100 km, so pO2 decreases exponentially with altitude as well. It is about half of its value at 5,000 m, the altitude of the Everest Base Camp, and only a third at 8,848 m. When pO2 drops, the body responds with altitude acclimatization, the higher the altitude, the greater the risk. Research also indicates elevated risk of permanent brain damage in people climbing to extreme altitudes, expedition doctors commonly stock a supply of dexamethasone, or dex, to treat these conditions on site. Humans have survived for two years at 5,950 m, which is the highest recorded permanently tolerable altitude, at extreme altitudes, above 7,500 m, sleeping becomes very difficult, digesting food is near-impossible, and the risk of HAPE or HACE increases greatly. The death zone, in mountaineering, refers to altitudes above a point where the amount of oxygen is insufficient to sustain human life. This point is generally tagged as 8,000 m, many deaths in high-altitude mountaineering have been caused by the effects of the death zone, either directly or indirectly. In the death zone, the body cannot acclimatize. An extended stay in the zone without supplementary oxygen will result in deterioration of bodily functions, loss of consciousness, studies have shown that the approximately 140 million people who live at elevations above 2,500 metres have adapted to the lower oxygen levels. These adaptations are especially pronounced in people living in the Andes, compared with acclimatized newcomers, native Andean and Himalayan populations have better oxygenation at birth, enlarged lung volumes throughout life, and a higher capacity for exercise. Tibetans demonstrate an increase in cerebral blood flow, lower hemoglobin concentration

20.
Pressure vessel
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A pressure vessel is a container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure substantially different from the ambient pressure. The pressure differential is dangerous, and fatal accidents have occurred in the history of pressure vessel development, consequently, pressure vessel design, manufacture, and operation are regulated by engineering authorities backed by legislation. The preferred test is hydrostatic testing because its a much safer method of testing as it much less energy if fracture were to occur. Today vessels in the USA require BPVC stamping but the BPVC is not just a domestic code, there are, however, other official codes in some countries, Japan, Australia, Canada, Britain, and Europe have their own codes. Regardless of the nearly all recognize the inherent potential hazards of pressure vessels. Pressure vessels can theoretically be almost any shape, but shapes made of sections of spheres, cylinders, a common design is a cylinder with end caps called heads. Head shapes are frequently either hemispherical or dished, more complicated shapes have historically been much harder to analyze for safe operation and are usually far more difficult to construct. Theoretically, a pressure vessel has approximately twice the strength of a cylindrical pressure vessel with the same wall thickness. However, a shape is difficult to manufacture, and therefore more expensive. Smaller pressure vessels are assembled from a pipe and two covers, many pressure vessels are made of steel. To manufacture a cylindrical or spherical pressure vessel, rolled and possibly forged parts would have to be welded together, some mechanical properties of steel, achieved by rolling or forging, could be adversely affected by welding, unless special precautions are taken. In addition to adequate strength, current standards dictate the use of steel with a high impact resistance. In applications where carbon steel would suffer corrosion, special corrosion resistant material should also be used, some pressure vessels are made of composite materials, such as filament wound composite using carbon fibre held in place with a polymer. Due to the high tensile strength of carbon fibre these vessels can be very light. The composite material may be wound around a metal liner, forming a composite overwrapped pressure vessel, other very common materials include polymers such as PET in carbonated beverage containers and copper in plumbing. Pressure vessels may be lined with metals, ceramics, or polymers to prevent leaking. This liner may also carry a significant portion of the pressure load, Pressure Vessels may also be constructed from concrete or other materials which are weak in tension. Cabling, wrapped around the vessel or within the wall or the vessel itself, a leakproof steel thin membrane lines the internal wall of the vessel

21.
Georges Dreyer
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Georges Dreyer ForMemRS was a Danish pathologist. He was born in Shanghai, where his father was stationed as an officer with the Royal Danish Navy. In 1900 he earned his degree from the University of Copenhagen. In 1907 he became the first professor of pathology at Oxford University, a position he maintained until 1934, during World War I, Dreyer was a consultant to the British Royal Flying Corps. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in May 1921, Dreyer specialized in the fields of bacteriology and virology, performing extensive studies involving vaccines and immunization. He conducted investigations on variations of blood volume among different species, Dreyer is also credited with introducing a modification of the Widal test for diagnosis of typhoid and paratyphoid. He is remembered today for his work in physiology, that included experiments with oxygen in regards to aviation. During World War I, he developed a device that was capable of administering low oxygen mixtures to test the effects of hypoxia in aviators and he also developed a successful oxygen delivery system, and was responsible for installation of the first low-pressure chamber at a British learning institution. Pathology List of pathologists Georges Dreyer and an episode of respiratory physiology at Oxford

22.
Royal Air Force
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The Royal Air Force is the United Kingdoms aerial warfare force. Formed towards the end of the First World War on 1 April 1918, following victory over the Central Powers in 1918 the RAF emerged as, at the time, the largest air force in the world. The RAF describe its mission statement as, an agile, adaptable and capable Air Force that, person for person, is second to none, and that makes a decisive air power contribution in support of the UK Defence Mission. The mission statement is supported by the RAFs definition of air power, Air power is defined as the ability to project power from the air and space to influence the behaviour of people or the course of events. Today the Royal Air Force maintains a fleet of various types of aircraft. The majority of the RAFs rotary-wing aircraft form part of the tri-service Joint Helicopter Command in support of ground forces, most of the RAFs aircraft and personnel are based in the UK, with many others serving on operations or at long-established overseas bases. It was founded on 1 April 1918, with headquarters located in the former Hotel Cecil, during the First World War, by the amalgamation of the Royal Flying Corps, at that time it was the largest air force in the world. The RAFs naval aviation branch, the Fleet Air Arm, was founded in 1924, the RAF developed the doctrine of strategic bombing which led to the construction of long-range bombers and became its main bombing strategy in the Second World War. The RAF underwent rapid expansion prior to and during the Second World War, under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan of December 1939, the air forces of British Commonwealth countries trained and formed Article XV squadrons for service with RAF formations. Many individual personnel from countries, and exiles from occupied Europe. By the end of the war the Royal Canadian Air Force had contributed more than 30 squadrons to serve in RAF formations, additionally, the Royal Australian Air Force represented around nine percent of all RAF personnel who served in the European and Mediterranean theatres. In the Battle of Britain in 1940, the RAF defended the skies over Britain against the numerically superior German Luftwaffe, the largest RAF effort during the war was the strategic bombing campaign against Germany by Bomber Command. Following victory in the Second World War, the RAF underwent significant re-organisation, during the early stages of the Cold War, one of the first major operations undertaken by the Royal Air Force was in 1948 and the Berlin Airlift, codenamed Operation Plainfire. Before Britain developed its own nuclear weapons the RAF was provided with American nuclear weapons under Project E and these were initially armed with nuclear gravity bombs, later being equipped with the Blue Steel missile. Following the development of the Royal Navys Polaris submarines, the nuclear deterrent passed to the navys submarines on 30 June 1969. With the introduction of Polaris, the RAFs strategic nuclear role was reduced to a tactical one and this tactical role was continued by the V bombers into the 1980s and until 1998 by Tornado GR1s. For much of the Cold War the primary role of the RAF was the defence of Western Europe against potential attack by the Soviet Union, with many squadrons based in West Germany. With the decline of the British Empire, global operations were scaled back, despite this, the RAF fought in many battles in the Cold War period

23.
George Finch (chemist)
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George Ingle Finch MBE FRS was an Australian chemist and mountaineer. He was born in Australia but educated in German-speaking Switzerland and studied physical sciences at University of Geneva, during the First World War, he served with the Royal Army Ordnance Corps. He was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire in the 1918 New Year Honours for services in connection with the War in France, Egypt and Salonika. Finch fell out with the Everest Committee after 1922, but his work on oxygen. In the Alps, Finch was on the first ascent of the North Face Diagonal or Finch Route on the Dent dHérens, Finch was also a keen skier and was a founding members of the Alpine Ski Club in 1908. He was an advocate and supporter of the Alpine Club. Between 1936 and 1952 he held the position of Professor of Applied Physical Chemistry at Imperial College London and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1938. The result of his researches have been published in some 50 papers, Finch was awarded their Hughes Medal in 1944. He was president of the Physical Society from 1947 to 1949, Finch was first married to Alicia Betty Fisher, from London. By the time he returned from the front in 1917, she had given birth to son from a relationship with man, Wentworth Jock Campbell. That boy was the future Oscar-winning film actor Peter Finch and he separated the infant from his mother, and had his relatives raise him as his own son, even though he was not the biological father. Peter did not see his parents again until he returned to Britain and he remained close to his mother and met both George Finch and his biological father briefly. George divorced Betty when Peter was two years old, Betty and Jock Campbell married in 1922 and had a daughter, while George married Gladys May, a nurse, after making her pregnant with their son Bryan. George left her and the boy soon after the birth, but supported Bryan financially

24.
Bar (unit)
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The bar is a metric unit of pressure, but is not approved as part of the International System of Units. It is defined as equal to 100000 Pa, which is slightly less than the current average atmospheric pressure on Earth at sea level. The bar and the millibar were introduced by the Norwegian meteorologist Vilhelm Bjerknes, use of the bar is deprecated by some professional bodies in some fields. The International Astronomical Union also lists it under Non-SI units and symbols whose continued use is deprecated, as of 2004, the bar is legally recognized in countries of the European Union. Units derived from the bar include the megabar, kilobar, decibar, centibar, the notation bar, though deprecated by various bodies, represents gauge pressure, i. e. pressure in bars above ambient or atmospheric pressure. The bar is defined using the SI derived unit, pascal,1 bar ≡100000 Pa. Thus,1 bar is equal to,100 kPa 1×105 N/m21000000 Ba, notes,1 millibar =1 one-thousandth bar, or 1×10−3 bar 1 millibar =1 hectopascal. The word bar has its origin in the Greek word βάρος, the units official symbol is bar, the earlier symbol b is now deprecated and conflicts with the use of b denoting the unit barn, but it is still encountered, especially as mb to denote the millibar. Between 1793 and 1795, the bar was used for a unit of weight in an early version of the metric system. Atmospheric air pressure is given in millibars where standard sea level pressure is defined as 1013 mbar,101.3,1.013 bar. Despite the millibar not being an SI unit, meteorologists and weather reporters worldwide have long measured air pressure in millibars as the values are convenient, for example, the weather office of Environment Canada uses kilopascals and hectopascals on their weather maps. In contrast, Americans are familiar with the use of the millibar in US reports of hurricanes, in fresh water, there is an approximate numerical equivalence between the change in pressure in decibars and the change in depth from the water surface in metres. Specifically, an increase of 1 decibar occurs for every 1.019716 m increase in depth, in sea water with respect to the gravity variation, the latitude and the geopotential anomaly the pressure can be converted into meters depth according to an empirical formula. As a result, decibars are commonly used in oceanography, many engineers worldwide use the bar as a unit of pressure because, in much of their work, using pascals would involve using very large numbers. In the automotive field, turbocharger boost is often described in bars outside the USA), unicode has characters for mb and bar, but they exist only for compatibility with legacy Asian encodings and are not intended to be used in new documents. The kilobar, equivalent to 100 MPa, is used in geological systems. Bar and bara are sometimes used to indicate absolute pressures and bar and this usage is deprecated and fuller descriptions such as gauge pressure of 2 bar or 2 bar gauge are recommended.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL. Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI

25.
Charles Granville Bruce
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Brigadier-General The Honourable Charles Granville Bruce, CB, MVO was a Himalayan veteran and leader of the second and third British expeditions to Mount Everest in 1922 and 1924. Charles Granville Bruce was the youngest of the fourteen children of Henry Bruce, 1st Baron Aberdare and his father was born at Duffryn, Aberdare, attended Swansea Grammar School, and trained as a barrister. In the 1830s, coal was discovered beneath the familys land, Henry Bruce was stipendiary magistrate for Merthyr Tydfil,1847 to 1854, Liberal member of parliament for Merthyr Tydfil,1852 to 1869, and Home Secretary in Gladstones government,1868 to 1873. He was created first Baron Aberdare, of Duffryn, in 1873 and his mother was youngest daughter of General Sir William Francis Patrick Napier. Bruce was educated at Harrow and Repton and his early life alternated between the pompous formality of Queens Gate, London, the family home in Aberdare, and a Scottish estate. In Wales, his mentor was a farmer and inn-keeper. He taught the young Bruce how to hunt, find his way around the local hills, one of Bruce’s most notable achievements was running down a “rough crew” of local poachers. Half a century later he was proud to list their names in his memoirs, Bill the Butcher, Shoni Kick-O-Top, Billie Blaen Llechau, Bruce and the local game-keepers chased one poacher to the narrow alleyways and courts of Georgetown. The poacher was only caught when a furious husband found him snoring in his wife’s bed, the gang were duly punished, but gained revenge by returning to Bruce’s house and stealing all the weapons from his father’s gun-room. After leaving school, Bruce entered military college and he had huge physical strength, was an enthusiastic boxer and 300 yard runner, and in the 1880s represented England against France in an international running meeting. As a young lieutenant he was posted to Abbotabad, a British hill station in the Panjab, Bruce had an akhara dug near his residence, where he practised on most days. Both the British and the Rajahs wagered thousands of rupees on professional wrestling matches, in the 1910s, Bruce was patron of the wrestler Rahim Sulaniwala, who went on to become a renowned champion. Bruce took a special interest in his Gurkha soldiers and became fluent in Nepali and he introduced hill racing to his Gurkha regiment and in 1891 took his champion runner Pabir Thapa to Zermatt, in Switzerland, to learn ice-climbing. On the way there, the two stayed at Aberdare, where Thapa enjoyed “running down” poachers, despite his poor English, he was very popular with the locals. He disappeared for the last three days of his visit and was living it up with some coal miners in Tonypandy. Bruce went on to train the Gurkhas in mountain-warfare, in 1897 he equipped his troops on the Northern Frontier with shorts, and is widely credited with their introduction to the British Army. He spent ten climbing seasons in the European Alps and took part in three of the earliest climbing expeditions to the Himalaya. In 1892, with a troop of Gurkha soldiers he accompanied Conway in his exploration of the Baltoro region of the Karakorum, visiting Muztagh Tower, Broad Peak, in 1893 he was with Francis Younghusband on a mission to the Hindu Kush to bestow recognition on Nizam-uk-Mulk as Mehtar

26.
Edward Lisle Strutt
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Lieutenant-Colonel Edward Lisle Strutt, CBE, DSO was a British soldier and mountaineer, and President of the Alpine Club from 1935–38. After a distinguished career he defended classical mountaineering against what he saw as unhelpful trends in the sport for speed. Strutt was the son of Hon. Arthur Strutt and Alice Mary Elizabeth Philips de Lisle and his paternal grandfather was Edward Strutt, 1st Baron Belper. On 10 October 1905 he married Florence Nina, daughter of John Robert Hollond MP DL, of Wonham, educated at Beaumont College, Windsor, then at Christ Church, Oxford, and the University of Innsbruck, Strutt joined the 3rd Battalion of the Royal Scots. The battalion was embodied in late December 1899 and sent to South Africa for service during the Second Boer War, Strutt was appointed a Captain on 20 February 1900. He left Cape Town for the United Kingdom with most of the battalion in May 1902 and he later served in the First World War, gaining many decorations and attaining the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel in the Royal Scots. In 1920 Strutt was appointed Allied High Commissioner of the League of Nations in Danzig, Strutt had numerous mountainerring expeditions to Tyrol, Ötztal, the Stubai Alps and the Karwendel range. From 1892 the family employed Beatrice Tomasson as a governess, despite Tommason being fifteen years older than Strutt the family believed they were romantically involved. Tomasson became a member of the Austrian Alpine Club in 1893, Strutt was climbing leader and deputy to expedition leader C. G. Bruce on the 1922 British expedition to Mount Everest that included George Finch and George Mallory. Strutt proved to be an member of the party, being thought of as pompous. The expedition was called off when an avalanche killed seven Sherpa climbers, hankinson added, Its dominant figure was Colonel E. L. Strutt for many years the autocratic and outspoken editor of the Alpine Journal. His views were rigid and intolerant, the only decent and honourable way to climb was the way in which he had climbed as a young man. As editor, Strutt published a number of attacks on what he saw as the modern trends in mountaineering. The modesty of these parties have been excelled only by their skill – he had a different reaction to climbers using modern tactics in the Alps and he continued in this article from the 1935 Alpine Journal, But for the present-day German mountaineeer in the Alps, wonder replaces admiration. There is no lack of skill – on rocks at any rate – but judgement, in these pages it has been too frequently our task to relate some unjustifiable exploit and, in the same number, to record the inevitable disaster accruing to the perpetrator. While regretting the folly of it all, we mourn the loss of promising lives, the trend towards climbing the great peaks at great speed also disgusted Strutt. On hearing of an American who had hired a guide to him up and down the Matterhorn in five hours. He who first succeeds may rest assured that he has accomplished the most imbecile variant since mountaineering first began, S. Blakeney, The Alpine Journal and Its Editors III, 1927–52 STRUTT, Lt-Col Edward Lisle, in Whos Who 1948 Pugnacious Defender of Emperor Charles

27.
Imperial College London
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Imperial College London is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom. Its founder, Prince Albert, envisioned an area comprised of the Victoria and Albert Museum, Natural History Museum, Royal Albert Hall, the Imperial Institute was opened by his wife, Queen Victoria, who laid the foundation stone in 1888. Imperial College London was granted a charter in 1907. In the same year, the joined the University of London. The curriculum was expanded to include medicine after merging with several medical schools. In 2004, Queen Elizabeth II opened the Imperial College Business School, Imperial is organized through faculties for Science, Engineering, Medicine, and Business. The main campus is located in South Kensington, the universitys emphasis is on emerging technology and its practical application. Imperials contributions to society include the discovery of penicillin, the development of fibre optics, Imperial is consistently ranked among the top universities in the world. In 2017, it ranked 8th in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings, 9th in the QS World University Rankings, in 2015, Imperial was also ranked the most innovative university in Europe, and in 2017 as the 5th most international university in the world. Staff and alumni include 15 Nobel laureates,2 Fields Medalists,70 Fellows of the Royal Society,82 Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering, and 78 Fellows of the Academy of Medical Sciences. The Great Exhibition in 1851 was organised by Prince Albert, Henry Cole, Francis Fuller and other members of the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce. The Great Exhibition made a surplus of £186,000 used in creating an area in the South of Kensington encouraging culture and education for everyone. Its founder, Prince Albert, envisioned an area composed of the Victoria and Albert Museum, Natural History Museum, Royal Albert Hall. Several royal colleges and the Imperial Institute merged to form what is now Imperial College London, as a result of a movement earlier in the decade, many politicians donated funds to establish the college, including Benjamin Disraeli, William Gladstone and Robert Peel. It was also supported by Prince Albert, who persuaded August Wilhelm von Hofmann to be the first professor, William Henry Perkin studied and worked at the college under von Hofmann, but resigned his position after discovering the first synthetic dye, mauveine, in 1856. It is considered the highest honour given in the chemical industry. The Royal School of Mines was established by Sir Henry de la Beche in 1851, developing from the Museum of Economic Geology and he created a school which laid the foundations for the teaching of science in the country, and which has its legacy today at Imperial. The Royal College of Science was established in 1881, the main objective was to support the training of science teachers and to develop teaching in other science subjects alongside the Royal School of Mines earth sciences specialities

28.
Edward F. Norton
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Edward Felix Norton DSO MC was a British army officer and mountaineer. He attended Charterhouse School and the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich and he had been introduced to mountain climbing at the home in the Alps of his grandfather, Alfred Wills. His experience led to joining the British Mount Everest expeditions in 1922 and 1924 and his 8570m height was a world altitude record which stood for nearly 30 years, only being surpassed during the unsuccessful Swiss expedition of 1952. He served at Staff Colleges in India and England, and commanded the Royal Artillery, during 1940-41, he was acting governor and then Commander-in-Chief of Hong Kong. He retired in 1942 after a near fatal riding accident, British Mount Everest Expedition 1922 British Mount Everest Expedition 1924 T. G. Longstaff, ‘Norton, Edward Felix ’, rev. Audrey Salkeld, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press,2004

29.
Henry Morshead
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Henry Treise Morshead DSO, RE, FRGS was an English surveyor, explorer and mountaineer. His death was due to murder and the circumstances remain mysterious, born in 1882 and brought up at Hurlditch Court, near Tavistock near the Devon–Cornwall border, Henry Morshead was the eldest son of Reginald Morshead, a banker, and Ella Mary Morshead, née Sperling. At the Chatham Royal School of Military Engineering he had such a record that in 1904 he was posted to the Indian Army in the Royal Engineers Military Works Services at Agra. In 1906 he joined the Survey of India where, as was often the case, he retained his military status, apart from his service in the Great War he remained with the Survey until his death. Morshead was based at Dehradun, Uttarakhand, the scientific and exploration headquarters on the Survey of India and he became in charge of the Forest Map Office, then the Computing Office, then the Triangulation Surveying Party. He became knowledgeable in the history of Himalayan exploration, particularly in Tibet and he distinguished himself on several arduous winter Himalayan expeditions. He was tough, well able to live off the land in regions of great heat, Morshead was promoted to captain in 1912. On leave in 1916, he met Evelyn Widdicombe who was Secretary and her family had moved to Canada when Evie was a child where her father, Harry Templer Widdicombe, failed to make his fortune so her mother had returned to England with the children. Her mother had founded a residential club which flourished. Morshead married Evie in 1917 and they had four sons and a daughter, two of their sons were killed in World War II. North of Himalaya, the Yarlung Tsangpo River flows east through the Tibetan Plateau, until the 1880s it was unknown by which route it eventually reached the sea or even whether it debouched to the Pacific or Indian ocean. It seemed there must be a waterfall and, indeed. Bailey and Morshead explored from the south with Morshead surveying the entire route, by ascending the Dibang River they crossed the Himalayan watershed into Tibet to reach the Dihang River and ascending the Gorge. When they were at Lagung, just east of Namcha Barwa, after they had been imprisoned for several days they were released. They returned to India by turning back and passing through eastern Bhutan, the expedition covered 1,680 miles on foot and lasted from 16 May to 14 November 1913. In doing this they proved that the Dibang tributary of the Brahmaputra flows around rather than through the Himalayan mountains and they also proved conclusively that the Tsangpo–Dihang–Brahmaputra was a single river and for the first time established its accurate course. The highest waterfall they found was 30 feet and they considered there was unlikely to be a higher fall, for his work Morshead was awarded the Macgregor Medal by the United Service Institution of India. At the time the expedition was regarded as a feat of exploration

30.
Howard Somervell
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In 1924 he was awarded an Olympic Gold Medal by Pierre de Coubertin for his achievements in mountaineering. Somervell was born in Kendal, Westmorland, England to a family which owned a shoe-manufacturing business. He attended Rugby School, and at the age of eighteen joined the Fell and Rock Climbing Club, beginning an interest in climbing, art and mountaineering which would last a lifetime. After completing his schooling, he studied at Gonville & Caius College, Cambridge where he developed his strong Christian faith and he then began training as a surgeon at University College Hospital, eventually graduating in 1921 after his training had been interrupted by the First World War. He married Margaret Hope Simpson, daughter of Sir James Hope Simpson, with Margaret he had three sons, James, David, and Hugh. Between 1915 and 1918 Somervell served in France with the Royal Army Medical Corps and he was commissioned as a lieutenant with the West Lancashire Casualty Clearing Station on 17 May 1915, having previously been a member of the University of London Officer Training Corps. He was Mentioned in Despatches, but the horrors of the war had an effect on him. During the Battle of the Somme in 1916 he was one of four surgeons working in a tent, on short breaks from surgery, he spoke with some of the dying men, and noted that not one asked to be treated ahead of the others. The experience turned Somervell into a pacifist, a belief he continued to hold for the rest of his life and he relinquished his commission in 1921, by which time he held the rank of captain. Somervell was invited to join the 1922 British Everest expedition, during the expedition, he formed a close friendship with George Mallory, and the two famously read Shakespeare to one another in their tent at night. The following day, exhausted and suffering from frostbite, they reached a height of 8170 m before turning round and they had set a world altitude record, but such is the scale of Everest that they had not even reached the junction with the Northeast Ridge. Over the next few days a group of climbers, Geoffrey Bruce and George Finch, using oxygen. On 7 June, Somervell was part of a party of four British climbers leading fifteen Sherpas through waist-deep fresh snow on the slopes below the North Col, an avalanche occurred, killing seven Sherpas. With the expedition over, Somervell set out to see India and he was shocked by the poverty he saw, and in particular the poor medical facilities. At the main hospital of the south Travancore medical mission in Neyyoor he found a single surgeon struggling to cope with a queue of waiting patients. On his return to Britain, he abandoned his medical career. Most of his famous paintings today are from his travels in various part of India. Even though most of his time was in Kerala where many landmarks to his name still remain, Somervell returned to Everest with the 1924 expedition

31.
Captain (British Army and Royal Marines)
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See Captain for other versions of this army and marines rank. Captain is an officer rank of the British Army and Royal Marines. The rank is equivalent to a lieutenant in the Royal Navy, the rank of captain in the Royal Navy is considerably more senior and the two ranks should not be confused. In the 21st-century British Army, captains are appointed to be second-in-command of a company or equivalent sized unit of up to 120 soldiers. A rank of second captain existed in the Ordnance at the time of the Battle of Waterloo, from 1 April 1918 to 31 July 1919, the Royal Air Force maintained the junior officer rank of captain. RAF captains had a rank based on the two bands of a naval lieutenant with the addition of an eagle and crown above the bands. It was superseded by the rank of lieutenant on the following day. Badges of rank for captains were introduced on 30 January 1855 and were worn on shoulder epaulets, after the Crimean War a new rank system was introduced which contained the first complete rank insignia in British Army history. A captains rank insignia was worn on the collar and displayed a crown, the rank insignia were returned to the shoulder boards in 1880 for all officers in full dress, when the system of crowns and stars was reorganised. From this time, until 1902, a captain had just two stars, the 1902 change gave captains three stars, which continues to be used. In addition to the badges, officers ranks were also reflected in the amount. Based on equivalent naval ranks, captains had two rings of braid, in the case of Scottish regiments, the rings were around the top of the gauntlet-style cuff and the badges on the cuff itself. During World War I, some took to wearing similar jackets to the men, with the rank badges on the shoulder. This practice was frowned on outside the trenches but was given official sanction in 1917 as an alternative, being made permanent in 1920 when the cuff badges were abolished

32.
Geoffrey Bruce (Indian Army officer)
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Bruce, who had never before climbed a mountain, had been appointed as a transport officer, but chance led to him accompanying George Finch on the only summit attempt that used supplemental oxygen. Together they set a new mountaineering world record height of 8,300 metres, Geoffrey Bruce, born on 4 December 1896, was a son of Colonel Sir Gerald Bruce. Bruce married Marjorie Isabel Crump in 1932 and they had two daughters, wade Davis said Bruce was, in 1922, one of the finest athletes in the Indian Army. During the First World War, Bruce was second lieutenant in the Glamorgan Yeomanry serving in Egypt, as an officer of the British Indian Army, Bruce took part in the Third Anglo-Afghan War of 1919, and in 1921 he was awarded the Military Cross. He participated in the North-West Frontier Province operations between 1920 and 1923, and again between 1937 and 1938, Bruce was promoted to commander of the 2nd Battalion 6th Gurkha Rifles in 1937. He had a career during the Second World War, serving in Norway and France in 1940. From 1944 to 1946 he was Deputy Chief of General Staff of the British Indian Army and he was commandant of the Civil Defence Staff College from 1952 to 1956. This was the first expedition with the aim of reaching the summit of the worlds highest mountain. It had been intended that one of the assaults on the summit would be led by George Finch, Bruce was willing to cooperate, although this sort of artificial aid was regarded with scepticism or even disdain by many members of the party. Finch was taken ill and, by the time he recovered, all the lead climbers had set off higher up the mountain. The next day, Finch, Bruce, and Tejbir climbed higher up towards the North Shoulder, after being forced to stay in camp the next day, they at last set off again, but Tejbir, at the point of collapse, had to return to the tent. To keep slightly sheltered from the wind, they started to traverse the North Face. Suddenly the glass T-piece of Bruces oxygen set broke, but Finch was able to replace it while they shared Finchs oxygen, after that, Bruce was unable to go higher and so, within a half-mile of the summit, they turned back. Bruces feet were completely numb and Finch feared they might be lost to frostbite, douglas Freshfield later described the climb as one of the bravest mountaineering feats on record. Bruce wrote to Finch, I can never thank you enough for electing to take me with you on that climb, at the 1924 Winter Olympics, Bruce was one of the thirteen members of the expedition awarded an Olympic gold medal. The next Everest expedition, which place in 1924, was also led by General Charles Bruce. General Bruce was taken ill with malaria on the march in and had to be evacuated to India, during the march in, it had been decided to pair Bruce with Noel Odell to make the expeditions desired third attempt on the summit. Mallory launched an attempt on 8 June but this time he chose Sandy Irvine as climbing partner

33.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety

34.
Darjeeling
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Darjeeling is a town and a municipality in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is located in the Lesser Himalayas at an elevation of 6,700 ft and it is noted for its tea industry, the spectacular views of Kangchenjunga, the worlds third-highest mountain, and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Darjeeling is the headquarters of Darjeeling district which has an autonomous status within the state of West Bengal. It is also a popular tourist destination in India, the recorded history of the town starts from the early 19th century when the colonial administration under the British Raj set up a sanatorium and a military depot in the region. Subsequently, extensive tea plantations were established in the region and tea growers developed hybrids of black tea, the resultant distinctive Darjeeling tea is internationally recognised and ranks among the most popular black teas in the world. The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway connects the town with the plains and has some of the few steam locomotives still in service in India, Darjeeling has several British-style public schools, which attract pupils from India and neighbouring countries. The varied culture of the town reflects its diverse demographic milieu consisting of Nepali, Bengali, Sherpas, Lepcha, Darjeeling, alongside its neighbouring town of Kalimpong, was the centre of the Gorkhaland movement in the 1980s. The towns fragile ecology has been threatened by a demand for environmental resources, stemming from growing tourist traffic. The name Darjeeling comes from the Tibetan word dorje, meaning the thunderbolt sceptre of the Hindu deity Indra, and ling, the history of Darjeeling is intertwined with that of Sikkim, Nepal, British India and Bhutan. Until the early 19th century, the area around Darjeeling was controlled by the kingdom of Sikkim with settlement consisting of a few villages of Lepcha. The Chogyal of Sikkim had been engaged in warfare against the Gorkhas of Nepal. From 1780, the Gorkhas made several attempts to capture the region of Darjeeling. By the beginning of 19th century, they had overrun Sikkim as far eastward as the Teesta River and had conquered and annexed the Terai, in the meantime, the British were engaged in preventing the Gorkhas from over-running the whole of the northern frontier. The Anglo-Gorkha war broke out in 1814, which resulted in the defeat of the Gorkhas, according to the treaty, Nepal had to cede all those territories which the Gorkhas had annexed from the Chogyal of Sikkim to the British East India Company. The company negotiated a lease of the area west of the Mahananda River from the Chogyal of Sikkim in 1835, in 1849, the BEIC director Arthur Campbell and the explorer and botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker were imprisoned in the region by the Sikkim Chogyal. The BEIC sent a force to free them, continued friction between the BEIC and the Sikkim authorities resulted in the annexation of 640 square miles of territory by the British in 1850. In 1864, the Bhutanese rulers and the British signed the Treaty of Sinchula that ceded the passes leading through the hills and Kalimpong to the British. Further discord between Sikkim and the British resulted in a war, culminating in the signing of a treaty, by 1866, Darjeeling district had assumed its current shape and size, covering an area of 1,234 square miles

35.
Kolkata
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Kolkata /koʊlˈkɑːtɑː/ is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. In 2011, the city had a population of 4.5 million, while the population of the city and its suburbs was 14.1 million, making it the third-most populous metropolitan area in India. Recent estimates of Kolkata Metropolitan Areas economy have ranged from $60 to $150 billion making it third most-productive metropolitan area in India, after Mumbai, in the late 17th century, the three villages that predated Calcutta were ruled by the Nawab of Bengal under Mughal suzerainty. After the Nawab granted the East India Company a trading licence in 1690, Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah occupied Calcutta in 1756, and the East India Company retook it the following year. In 1793 the East India company was enough to abolish Nizamat. Calcutta was the centre for the Indian independence movement, it remains a hotbed of contemporary state politics, following Indian independence in 1947, Kolkata, which was once the centre of modern Indian education, science, culture, and politics, suffered several decades of economic stagnation. Many people from Kolkata—among them several Nobel laureates—have contributed to the arts, the sciences, Kolkata culture features idiosyncrasies that include distinctively close-knit neighbourhoods and freestyle intellectual exchanges. Though home to major cricketing venues and franchises, Kolkata differs from other Indian cities by giving importance to association football, there are several explanations about the etymology of this name, The term Kolikata is thought to be a variation of Kalikkhetrô, meaning Field of Kali. Similarly, it can be a variation of Kalikshetra, alternatively, the name may have been derived from the Bengali term kilkila, or flat area. The name may have its origin in the words khal meaning canal, followed by kaṭa, according to another theory, the area specialised in the production of quicklime or koli chun and coir or kata, hence, it was called Kolikata. The discovery and archaeological study of Chandraketugarh,35 kilometres north of Kolkata, Kolkatas recorded history began in 1690 with the arrival of the English East India Company, which was consolidating its trade business in Bengal. The area occupied by the city encompassed three villages, Kalikata, Gobindapur, and Sutanuti. Kalikata was a village, Sutanuti was a riverside weavers village. They were part of an estate belonging to the Mughal emperor and these rights were transferred to the East India Company in 1698. In 1712, the British completed the construction of Fort William, facing frequent skirmishes with French forces, the British began to upgrade their fortifications in 1756. The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud-Daulah, condemned the militarisation and his warning went unheeded, and the Nawab attacked, he captured Fort William which led to the killings of several East India company officials in the Black Hole of Calcutta. A force of Company soldiers and British troops led by Robert Clive recaptured the city the following year, declared a presidency city, Calcutta became the headquarters of the East India Company by 1772. In 1793, ruling power of the Nawabs were abolished and East India company took control of the city

36.
Dalai Lama
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The Dalai Lama /ˈdɑːlaɪ ˈlɑːmə/, /ˌdælaɪ ˈlɑːmə/ is a monk of the Gelug or Yellow Hat school of Tibetan Buddhism, the newest of the schools of Tibetan Buddhism founded by Je Tsongkhapa. The Dalai Lama title was created by Altan Khan in 1578, the 14th and current Dalai Lama is Tenzin Gyatso. The Dalai Lama has always been an important figure of the Gelug tradition, although finding dominance in Central Tibet, the Dalai Lama has been an important figure beyond sectarian boundaries. The Dalai Lama figure is important for many reasons, since the time of the Fifth Dalai Lama his personage has always been a symbol of unification of the state of Tibet, where he has represented Buddhist values and traditions. The Dalai Lama is considered to be the successor in a line of tulkus who are believed to be incarnations of Avalokiteśvara, the name is a combination of the Mongolic word dalai meaning ocean and the Tibetan word བླ་མ་ meaning guru, teacher, mentor. The Tibetan word lama corresponds to the better known Sanskrit word guru, special Features of the Gelug Tradition. This government also enjoyed the patronage and protection of firstly Mongol kings of the Khoshut and Dzungar Khanates and this is according to The Book of Kadam, the main text of the Kadampa school, to which the First Dalai Lama, Gendun Drup, first belonged. In fact, this text is said to have ‘laid the foundation’ for the Tibetans later identification of the Dalai Lamas as incarnations of Avalokiteśvara and it traces the legend of the bodhisattva’s incarnations as early Tibetan kings and emperors such as Songsten Gampo and later as Dromtönpa. This lineage has been extrapolated by Tibetans up to and including the Dalai Lamas, thus, according to such sources, an informal line of succession of the present Dalai Lamas as incarnations of Avalokiteśvara stretches back much further than Gendun Drub. First, Tsongkhapa established three great monasteries around Lhasa in the province of Ü before he died in 1419, the 1st Dalai Lama soon became Abbot of the greatest one, Drepung, and developed a large popular power base in Ü. He later extended this to cover Tsang, where he constructed a great monastery, Tashi Lhunpo. The 2nd studied there before returning to Lhasa, where he became Abbot of Drepung, having reactivated the 1sts large popular followings in Tsang and Ü, the 2nd then moved on to southern Tibet and gathered more followers there who helped him construct a new monastery, Chokorgyel. He also established the method by which later Dalai Lama incarnations would be discovered through visions at the oracle lake, the 3rd built on his predecessors fame by becoming Abbot of the two great monasteries of Drepung and Sera. Thus most of Mongolia was added to the Dalai Lamas sphere of influence, after being given the Mongolian name Dalai, he returned to Tibet to found the great monasteries of Lithang in Kham, eastern Tibet and Kumbum in Amdo, north-eastern Tibet. The 4th was then born in Mongolia as the grandson of Altan Khan. Finally, in fulfilment of Avalokiteśvaras master plan, the 5th in the succession used the vast popular power base of devoted followers built up by his four predecessors, overall, they have played a monumental role in Asian literary, philosophical and religious history. Gendun Drup was the name of the monk who came to be known as the First Dalai Lama. Tsongkhapa largely modelled his new, reformed Gelugpa school on the Kadampa tradition, therefore, although Gendun Drup grew to be a very important Gelugpa lama, after he died in 1474 there was no question of any search being made to identify his incarnation

37.
Kalimpong
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Kalimpong is a hill station in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is located at an elevation of 1,250 metres. The town is the headquarters of the Kalimpong district, the Indian Armys 27 Mountain Division is located on the outskirts of the town. Kalimpong is known for its institutions, many of which were established during the British colonial period. It used to be a gateway in the trade between Tibet and India before Chinas annexation of Tibet and the Sino-Indian War, Kalimpong and neighbouring Darjeeling were major centres calling for a separate Gorkhaland state in the 1980s, and more recently in 2010. Home to ethnic Nepalis, indigenous Lepchas, other groups and non-native migrants from other parts of India. The Buddhist monastery Zang Dhok Palri Phodang holds a number of rare Tibetan Buddhist scriptures, the Kalimpong Science Centre, established under the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council in 2008 is a recent addition to its many tourist attractions. The Science Centre, which provides for scientific awareness among the students of the town, the precise etymology of the name Kalimpong remains unclear. There are many theories on the origin of the name, one widely accepted theory claims that the name Kalimpong means Assembly of the Kings Ministers in Tibetan, derived from kalon and pong. It may be derived from the ridge where we play from Lepcha. People from the call the area Kalempung. Another possible derivation points to Kaulim, a plant found in abundance in the region. Until the mid-19th century, the area around Kalimpong was ruled in succession by the Sikkimese and Bhutanese kingdoms, under Sikkimese rule, the area was known as Dalingkot. In 1706, the king of Bhutan won this territory from the Sikkimese monarch, overlooking the Teesta Valley, Kalimpong is believed to have once been the forward position of the Bhutanese in the 18th century. The area was populated by the indigenous Lepcha community and migrant Bhutia. Later in 1780, the Gurkhas invaded and conquered Kalimpong, after the Anglo-Bhutan War in 1864, the Treaty of Sinchula was signed, in which Bhutanese held territory east of the Teesta River was ceded to the British East India Company. At that time, Kalimpong was a hamlet, with two or three families known to reside there. The first recorded mention of the town was a reference made that year by Ashley Eden

38.
Pagri
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Pagri or Phari is a town in Yadong County in the Tibet Autonomous Region, China, near the border with Bhutan. As of 2004 the town had a population of 2,121 and it is one of the highest towns in the world, being about 4,300 m above sea-level at the head of the Chumbi Valley. Thomas Manning, the first Englishman to reach Lhasa, visited Pagri from 21 September until 5 November 1811 and had this to say about his room in the town, Dirt, dirt, grease, smoke. Pagri was of military importance in the early 20th century when it was occupied by the British Tibet Expedition under Francis Younghusband in 1904. The Pagri Fortress was located here and was important for the government as it stood between Tibet and Bhutan, Pagri was a staging area en route to Gyantse and ultimately Lhasa. During the summer of 1912, the 13th Dalai Lama met Agvan Dorzhiev at Phari Dzong and then accompanied him to the Samding Monastery, thubten Ngodup, the current Nechung Oracle, was born in Phari in 1957. The houses are made of Tibetan traditional stone and wood. The Pagri Valley lies in a steppe zone on the south side, with an average annual temperature −0.2 °C. Annual precipitation is about 380 millimetres, snow and ice melt forming rich water resources, shrubs and meadows development, Pagri is rich in minerals, wild animals, plants, and tourism resources. It is also a centre but due to geographical location is prone to natural disasters. Summer flash floods, mudslides, winter avalanches, snowstorms, etc. are common, during the rainy season, water levels rise causing serious flooding, reducing soil quality and arable land every year, damaging the ecological environment and a threat to the inhabitants of Pagri. To the northeast of Pagri is Mount Jomolhari, owing to its extreme altitude, Pagri has an alpine climate that is too cold to permit the growth of trees, even though the altitude is still marginally too low for the formation of permafrost. The winter is severe in spite of the fact that no month has daytime maxima below 0 °C, snowfall, however, is rare because of the dryness. Summers, during which the majority of precipitation occurs, are cool even at their warmest and consistently damp. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh

39.
Khamber Jong
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Khamber Jong, also called Gamba, Kampa, or Khampa Dzong, is a Tibetan hamlet north of Sikkim. In June 1903, Colonel Francis Younghusband, serving as British commissioner to Tibet, led a diplomatic mission consisting of five officers, the objective of the mission was to meet Chinese and Tibetan representatives and discuss mutual non-aggression and trade agreements. After being kept waiting for five months before the Chinese and Tibetan representatives arrived, the abbot of Shigatse had been sent by the 9th Panchen Lama to meet the British diplomatic mission at Khampa Dzong. It was reported to be the capital of the district during the British Mount Everest Expedition 1922, traditional Tibetan carpet making is thought to have originated in Khampa Dzong

40.
Rongbuk Monastery
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Rongbuk monastery lies near the base of the north side of Mount Everest at 4,980 metres above sea level, at the end of the Dzakar Chu valley. Rongbuk is claimed to be the highest monastery in the world, the monastery was also regularly visited by the early expeditions to Mount Everest in the 1920s and 1930s after a five-week journey from Darjeeling in the Indian foothills of the Himalaya. Most past and current expeditions attempting to summit Mount Everest from the north, today, the monastery is accessible by road after a two- to three-hour drive from the Friendship Highway from either Shelkar or Old Tingri. In front of the Monastery, there is a large, round, Rongbuk Monastery was founded in 1902 by the Nyingmapa Lama Ngawang Tenzin Norbu in an area of meditation huts and caves that had been in use by communities of nuns since the 18th century. Hermitage meditation caves dot the walls all around the monastery complex and up. Mani stone walls, carved with sacred syllables and prayers, line the paths, the founding Rongbuk Lama, also known as Zatul Rinpoche, was much respected by the Tibetans. Even though the Rongbuk Lama viewed the early climbers as heretics, he gave them his protection and supplied them with meat and it was the Rongbuk Lama who gave Namgyal Wangdi the name Ngawang Tenzin Norbu, or Tenzing Norgay, as a young child. In previous times, the Monastery became very active with Buddhist teachings at certain times of the year and it was, and is, the destination of special Buddhist pilgrimages where annual ceremonies are held for spectators coming from as far away as Nepal and Mongolia. These ceremonies were shared with satellite monasteries across the Himalaya also founded by the Rongbuk Lama and these ceremonies continue to this day, notably at the Sherpa Monastery at Tengboche. Rongbuk Monastery was completely destroyed by the excesses of Chinas Cultural Revolution by 1974, the monasterys vast treasury of books and costumes, which had been taken for safekeeping to Tengboche, was lost in a 1989 fire. Since 1983 renovation work has been carried out and some of the new murals are reportedly excellent, adjacent to the monastery there is a basic guesthouse and small but cosy restaurant. In 2011, Rongbuk Monastery was ranked at the top of CNNs Great Places to be a Recluse

41.
Rongbuk Glacier
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The Rongbuk Glacier is located in the Himalaya of southern Tibet. Two large tributary glaciers, the East Rongbuk Glacier and the West Rongbuk Glacier and it flows north and forms the Rongbuk Valley north of Mount Everest. The famous Rongbuk Monastery is located at the end of the Rongbuk valley. Mount Everest is the source of the Rongbuk Glacier and East Rongbuk Glacier, the East Rongbuk glacier was first explored by Edward Oliver Wheeler in August 1921 on the same expedition. Wheelers exploration below the Lhakpa La pass led him on 3 August 1921 to realise that the East Rongbuk valley provided the key to a route to the summit of Everest. Climbing expeditions attempting the normal route from Tibet use this glacier to reach the Advanced Base Camp of Mount Everest at the end of the East Rongbuk Glacier. From there, climbing expeditions try to summit Everest by the North Col, since 2007, American mountaineer and film-maker David Breashears has been chronicling the rapid disappearance of the Rongbuk glacier due to global climate change. Breashears has retraced the steps of Mallorys 1921 expedition, revealing a significant loss of ice mass across the West, Main, in partnership with Asia Society and MediaStorm, Breashears GlacierWorks has made the photos available online. In 80 years, the Rongbuk has shrunk by more than 300 vertical feet across the entire glacier, retreat of glaciers since 1850 Rongbuk Monastery List of glaciers Charles Howard-Bury, George Herbert Leigh-Mallory. East Rongbuk Glacier, Mt. Qomolangma Expedition documents melting Himalayan glaciers Asia Societys On Thinner Ice Project--Photos from the Rongbuk

42.
Lhagba La
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Lhagba La or Lhakpa La is a 6, 849-metre col about 7 kilometres northeast of Mount Everest in the Tibet Autonomous Region. It was unknown to local inhabitants until it was discovered and named by the 1921 British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition when reconnoitring a route to climb the mountain, Lhagba La is the starting point of the Kada Glacier which descends eastwards along the valley towards Kada. The Kada River is a tributary of the Arun River, on the western side of the col is the East Rongbuk Glacier which flows north from Everest. Lhagba Pool,500 metres below and to 1 kilometre southwest, is reportedly the second highest lake in the world, expeditions attempting Everest via the North Col generally arrive up the East Rongbuk Glacier and so do not reach Lhagba La at all. However, when George Mallory and Guy Bullock were trying to reach the North Col, instead they approached from the east only to find the glacier did not extend to the North Col. The climbing team eventually had to cross the pass and descend some 460 metres to the East Rongbuk Glacier before ascending to the North Col and their discovery allowed the 1922 British Mount Everest expedition to take the more direct route from the north

43.
Three Steps
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The Three Steps are three prominent rocky steps on the northeast ridge of Mount Everest. They are located at altitudes of 8,564 metres,8,610 metres, the Second Step is especially significant both historically and in mountaineering terms. Any climber who wants to climb on the route from the north of the summit must negotiate these three stages. The First Step consists of boulders that pose a serious obstacle, even for experienced climbers. His fellow climbers who also perished on that day in 1996 are Tsewang Smanla. There are also other climbers who have died under that rock, namely David Sharp, the Second Step is the best known of the rocky steps. The steep section, at an altitude of 8,610 m, has a height of forty metres. The step was climbed for the first time in 1960 by Wang Fuzhou, Gongbu, the climbing difficulty of this spot was reduced in 1975 when a Chinese team affixed a ladder to the step that has been used since then by almost all climbers. The Third Step is easier to climb and its climbing height is about 10 metres, after which the summit snowfield is reached. The 1921 British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition was the first to attempt to climb Mount Everest and it was followed by further British expeditions in 1922,1924 and 1933. They had to make the ascent from the north, since Nepal was closed, the situation became reversed after the Chinese invasion of Tibet. Expeditions launched after that had to use the approach through Nepal. The technical difficulties, especially in climbing the Second Step, were still unknown, there is ongoing discussion – even today – as to whether the Second Step was ever surmounted by George Mallory and Andrew Irvine in 1924. It was surmounted in 1960 as part of the first ascent of Mount Everest via the north route, here, a shoulder stand was used to climb the last five metres. The step was first climbed unaided in 1985 by the Spaniard Òscar Cadiach and he assessed the final rock face as 5.7 to 5.8. Theo Fritsche, an Austrian, climbed the step in 2001 free solo on-sight, conrad Anker climbed the Second Step in 1999 and assessed the level of difficulty as 5.10. On this ascent Anker supported himself using the Chinese ladder, in 2007, Anker repeated the climb with Leo Houlding, this time, however, he first removed the ladder in order to climb the step unaided. Mount Everest – Kampf in eisigen Höhen, tatort Mount Everest, Der Fall Mallory – Neue Fakten und Hintergründe

The search for the 14th Dalai Lama took the High Lamas to Taktser in Amdo

Palden Lhamo, the female guardian spirit of the sacred lake, Lhamo La-tso, who promised Gendun Drup the 1st Dalai Lama in one of his visions that "she would protect the 'reincarnation' lineage of the Dalai Lamas"