Tribute, Trade, and Smuggling: An Introduction

Transcripción

1 Tribute, Trade, and Smuggling: An Introduction On November we organized an international workshop at Ghent University, Belgium, entitled Tribute, Trade, and Smuggling: Commercial, Scientific, and Human Interaction in the Middle Period and Early Modern World. Our aim was to focus particularly on wide and active networks of unofficial, private or illegal commercial exchange activities and knowledge transfer, including the trafficking of people as well as human interaction that took place behind the official curtain of tribute and trade. Simultaneously, we intended to compare examples from Asia with those from other parts of the world. So, when the idea to produce this book began, it was clear that we would not simply publish a workshop proceeding but to select papers and ask other scholars to contribute to this volume to give it its final shape. Officially, relations between a so-called empire like China and her neighbouring countries not infrequently were designated as tribute relations. Much of the commercial and scientific intercourse that was going on not only in Asia but in the middle period and early modern world in general, however, followed illegal or private paths and channels. Commodities, products, knowledge or human beings entered or left a country without the explicit permission or approval of a government or an official institution. Accordingly, this volume is divided into the sections commercial, scientific and human interaction. The emphasis of this volume definitely lies on East Asia and almost each contribution at least relates to this macro-region. But we hope that the few examples from other parts of the world may provide a comparative perspective showing that these clandestine networks were active world-wide and heavily influenced international and supra-regional exchange relations and interaction. The first contribution, by Oláh Csaba, investigates the role of brokers in Ming 明 -period ( ) Sino-Japanese trade, focussing on the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. During the Ming period foreign trade in China was restricted. Foreigners were only allowed to trade with the assistance of official brokers at the Chinese border, in the Maritime Trade Office (shibo si 市 舶 司 ) or in the Official Guesthouse, the Huitong guan 會 同 館 in Beijing 北 京. There basically existed two types of foreign trade, official and private. Official trade meant that foreign products were selected and purchased by officials after an examination of their quality; during the so-called private trade foreigners had the right to sell the rest of their products with the help of private brokers or merchants. Official brokers took part in both transactions and possessed two important duties: First, they had to estimate the quality and value of foreign products before official trade could start and, second, they had to assist the foreigners during private trade exchange. They acted as mediators between foreigners and Chinese private brokers, and merchants.

2 2 In the Chinese sources, however, we can find very little information on the concrete transactions during the trade and on the activities of brokers, therefore many details of this process are still not clear. That is why this article aims to examine the role of Chinese brokers in the trade with Japanese embassies and the process of the transactions during the trade by using Japanese records of the Nyūminki 入 明 記 -corpus. This corpus, which is unfortunately almost totally neglected in the Western scholarship, contains accounts and documents concerning trade activities written by Japanese embassies during their stay in China between the fifteenth to sixteenth centuries. The analysis of these accounts and documents compared with the information from Chinese sources on trade can help us to better understand not only the mechanism of Sino-Japanese trade but also the system of foreign trade in general during the Ming Period. In this article, Oláh Csaba consequently first focuses on the regular course of private trade transactions with brokers and merchants based on credit sale and credit purchase. Then he examines some accounts of problems during trade activities and difficulties with brokers. Accounts of these incidents are very useful for understanding how foreign trade should have been taking place at that time. The role of brokers during the selection process of Japanese products will also be considered as part of the official trade. In contrast to this first chapter Igawa Kenji 伊 川 健 二 concentrates on the smuggling trade in sixteenth-century East Asia. The many sources and scholarly investigations about Wokou (Jap. Wakō) 倭 寇 (mostly although not always correctly translated as pirates in English) notwithstanding, previous research has hardly considered this ordinary topic. Some of them gathered information about Wakō trade, the information, however, is not complete and a thorough analysis has rarely been done. His paper develops new perspectives for exploring the history of Wakō in the sixteenth century. During a period when Ming China pursued her maritime trade prohibition policy (haijin 海 禁 ), various sea lanes between Southeast Asia and Japan were being established. In many cases, Chinese islands provided smugglers and so-called pirates with bases and relay stations. These relay stations did not appear accidentally. It was not easy to keep continuous connections between East Asian countries and the outside world in the first half of the sixteenth century. For instance, sending envoys, Portugal failed in her official negotiations with China. This was a natural result from the Chinese perspective. In this context, the reasons why the continuous sea lanes between Southeast and East Asia were possible should be discussed more thoroughly. It is, for example, surprising that some bases on Chinese islands were established under combat operation against Wakō. In Japan, there was no regulation to control piracy or smuggling. Among seventeen cases of foreign ships in the first half of the sixteenth-century Japan, no ship was rejected because of any kind of regulations. Portuguese sources report on the strict reaction of the Chosŏn dynasty against Wakō, and the Ryūkyūs had sometimes repelled or intended to repel Wakō. At the same time, some Southeast Asian regions provided smugglers with bases to maintain their networks. Especially the role of Pattani is remarkable in this context. Some sources prove that it was a base of Wakō linked to the Chinese continent and other regions. The Philippines were included in Chinese merchant s network already before Spanish colonization, and after their colonization, their role as relay point was gradually built up. Applying a macro-regional, global perspective, Igawa Kenji explores the conditions under which supra-

3 Introduction and historical context 3 regional sea lanes in the East and Southeast Asian waters gradually developed before the socalled shuinsen 朱 印 船 or red seal ship-system officially appeared at the beginning of the seventeenth century. In the following chapter on the pacification of Sino-Japanese piracy between 1575 and 1620, a period which coincides with an exponential growth in the circulation of silver through the South China Seas and the opening of the route of the Manila Galleon, Manel Ollé examines the consolidation of the maritime route of the Portuguese to Japan and the Fujian context of the legalization of this trade. In this context, he also treats the disruptive effects of Corsair activities against Iberian interests in East Asia, which were undertaken by the Dutch of the VOC who favourized the formation of coalitions in Fujian that dedicated themselves to commerce, smuggling and and piracy. These activities were directly linked with increasing migration in the colonial cities of Asia (Manila, Macao, Batavia, Fort Zeelandia) as well as rebellions and conflicts in these diasporic communities. In the first expansive decades during the second third of the seventeenth century these mercantile maritime coalitions were led by persons from border regions who were at the same time cosmopolitan and rooted in their coastal communities Chinese diasporic communities in contact with the Europeans from Asia and played a commercial and diplomatic intermediary role in these communities. This broad perspective gets its concrete picture in the study of the cases of Lin Feng 林 風 (Limahon), Li Dan 李 旦, Zheng Zhilong 鄭 芝 龍 and Zheng Chengong (Coxinga) 鄭 成 功. Robert Antony investigates the interrelation of war, trade and piracy in the Gulf of Tonkin in the early modern era, roughly from 1550 to During that time, the Tonkin Gulf region between southwestern China and northeastern Vietnam experienced unrelenting internecine wars, rebellions, and border conflicts, which created an environment conducive to the development of widespread piracy and clandestine trade. In fact, piracy was an inherent feature of the gulf s political, economic, and social fabric, and a significant factor in its political, economic, and social development. Pirates astutely maneuvered in the contested spaces between polities, using to their own advantage the rivalries and wars, to build up their own economic structures. As a result, the early modern Tonkin Gulf supported a sophisticated and highly integrated trading system that linked intraregional with trans-regional trade, coastal ports with inland markets, and licit with illicit trade. Given the chaotic, uncertain conditions of those times, war, trade, smuggling, and piracy became ever more indistinguishable and inseparable from one another. With Michael Limberger s contribution we shift to the European end and the Atlantic North Sea, thus, to the other side of the globe. He investigates sixteenth-century Antwerp, which was the major commercial and financial centre of the North Sea area. Due to its favorable location, the city was a staple market for colonial goods and commodities from the Low Countries as well as a major money market. However, the international character of the Antwerp market made it dependent of the developments of international commerce and finance and political change. Due to the political circumstances of the Dutch Revolt, the Golden Age of Antwerp came to a sudden end in the late sixteenth century. During the decades, and in fact the centuries that followed, Antwerp struggled in vain to maintain its position as a trade centre and to re-

4 4 establish its former economic situation. The new staple market of the North Sea was Amsterdam, the main port and economic centre of the Dutch Republic, which established a highly successful commercial system of its own. This chapter analyzes the different ways in which the Eighty Years war of the Dutch Revolt affected the commercial activity in Antwerp, from the first signs of religious and social unrest, to the immediate effects of warfare, the impact of the so-called closure of the river Scheldt by the Dutch, war tariffs and the different political relations after the war. At the same time, the efforts of the city government to maintain the economic position of the city and to re-establish the commercial activity of its port during and after the war will be shown. The following chapter by Mariano Bonialian applies the Braudelian concept of world economy to the colonial period Pacific Ocean, comprising the time between the late sixteenth until the middle of the seventeenth century. He treats the Pacific as a maritime space that, through its movement of people, goods and metals, fulfilled an outstanding role in world economy during the early modern period. The contribution offers the principal analytical and general variables that, according to the historian Fernand Braudel ( ), define a socio-historical space as a world economy. After this theoretical introduction the geography of the Pacific is presented, with its boundaries and borders, as well as the particular geopolitical and strategic position it has reached in relation to the global and imperial horizon to which it belongs. The second part of this chapter examines the key elements that give this world economy its dynamics: the movements of silver, commodities and people. Subsequently, the central point or corridor, which serves as its concentrical pole, the heart of the world economy, is identified as well as its zonal hierarchies, regions or cities located in intermediary or marginal spaces of the macro-region. Mariano Bonialian also pays attention to the cycles of domination, through which every world economy passes in her historical process; this means, when did which social or economic group dominate the Pacific, especially at the moment when it really established itself as a real spatial unity. After describing the characteristics of internal life of this Pacific world economy, he analyses the effects of gravitation and conditioning which the Pacific Ocean helped to generate on other macro-regions in the world, among others the world economies of China and the European Atlantic region. Finally, he proposes the reasons why, at a particular moment, the Pacific disintegrates as an independent spatial with its specific integration, explaining them by the specific logics of a world economy. The second part of this volume focuses on scientific interaction in the region, both official and unofficial. Our examples concentrate on the fields of medicine, distillation, and ceramics production. The Indian Ocean has since early times been a conduit of trade in many commodities. During the Mongol period, this trade intensified due to the existence of a Mongol state in Iran, the principal ally of Mongol China in its struggles in Central Asia. Paul David Buell looks at one commodity involved in the trade during Mongol times, and earlier, that comprised of various medicinals. Used as the most important and comprehensive sources to document the trade are two Ming dynasty documents with a great deal of foreign material in them, the fragmentary encyclopaedia of Arabic medicine in Chinese, the Huihui yaofang 回 回 藥 方, Muslim Medicinal

5 Introduction and historical context 5 Recipes, and the great compendium Bencao gangmu 本 草 綱 目, Materia Medica, Arranged According to Drug Descriptions and Technical Aspects, of Ancient distillation knowledge was created in Asia before this era and evolved there over time. In this chapter Ana Valenzuela examines mezcal production in Mexico that has obvious connections with Asiatic stills and traditional knowledge in distillation. Asiatic stills technologies were adapted in Mexico and adopted by different cultures in diversified ecosystems. Today various ethnic groups and small producers are still using East Asian stills. For the Mexican national liquor mezcal still the same ancient technologies for alcohol distillation found widely on mainland Eurasia is used. But Asiatic still variations remain to be investigated, especially in Pacific Coastal Mexico. This is why we introduce here an overview of this old technology, using ethnographical and ethnobiological approaches in order to examine this almost unknown knowledge from both sides of the Pacific. In this form a variety of Asiatic distillation apparatuses survive in Asia and America sometimes in the context of an illegal national liquor technology. In the present study, we explore some of this apparatus in Mexico, as it exists in Mexico s western area mezcal production, investigating earlier references where appropriate to such technology in Asia and Africa along with travellers descriptions and illustrations. Named Filipino, the Asian distillation technology that has influenced traditional mezcal production presumably came to Mexico in the seventeenth century. Coming along with it was the culture connected with the distillation of coconut wine. It was applied to mezcal or cooked agave and then distilled into a high alcohol concentration distillate. A comparison between East Asian stills surviving in Mexico s mezcal tradition and others in the world are here summarized in an overview. Many national types of liquor have been connected with what is considered an illegal alcohol production and have been made into a health concern. Such a view creates barriers to the registration of traditional techniques and to research. Based upon exploratory sampling in Jalisco (western Mexico) East Asian stills of the Chinese-type were found currently functioning. Mongolian-type East Asian stills have been discovered there also, based on pictures and descriptions from other authors working in western native cultures such as those of the Wirarikas (Huichol) and Cora. Principles associated with East Asian stills are still maintained in Mexican mezcal taverns, but materials do change according to environment and purpose. Mathieu Torck focuses on the Yizong jinjian 醫 宗 金 鑑 (The complete survey of medical knowledge or Medical iconography of the golden mirror; 1742), an imperial compendium of medical knowledge written by Wu Qian 吳 謙 ( ), which gained a considerable reputation as teaching material and classic reference work in Qing 清 China ( ). Besides, as a standard of medical orthodoxy, Wu Qian s medical handbook also acquired a renown, which spread across China s borders. Less than two decades after its publication, it was exported to Japan and about half a century later there is evidence of the practical application of it by Japanese military physicians who relied on an exceptional chapter in Yizong jinjian for the purpose of accurate diagnosis: the first ever elaborate description of the vitamin deficiency disease scurvy in a Chinese medical text. The present paper attempts to investigate the ascent of Yizong jinjian into an internationally

6 6 recognized classic against the background of medical exchanges between China and Japan in the eighteenth en nineteenth centuries. It aims to shed light on the motivations that underlie the Yizong jinjian s becoming an item on demand in Japan as well as on the material process of book exports in the given time frame. The scurvy chapter will feature as a case-study to illustrate the authoritative character of the compendium that may have contributed to its currency among physicians in Japan. In my own contribution I introduce some other examples portraying the vivid exchange of medicinal knowledge and specialists in the triangle of China, Japan and the Ryūkyūs. Japan and the Ryūkyūs both should a great interest in Chinese medicine and pharmaceutics including medicinal drugs, texts and prescriptions. Chinese specialists were attracted and hired, Japanese and Ryūkyūan students and specialists went to China to study. As no official relations existed between China and Japan during the time period investigated here, Ryūkyū took over a special intermediary role. The Satsuma 薩 摩 ruling clan family Shimazu 島 津, in particular Shimazu Shigehide 島 津 重 豪 ( ) may be cited as example. He was very much interested in medicinal plants and the Bencao-tradition in general, founded schools of medicine, mathematics, and astronomy, and had a dictionary on birds compiled. Of particular interest was the Chinese bencao-literature. In this context, this chapter focuses on the Shitsumon honzō (Zhiwen bencao) 質 問 本 草 (Questions and explanations about materia medica) of 1837), a work initiated originally on his order. In the compilation process numerous Chinese specialists were contacted and interrogated. In the last part I introduce a few examples of Ryūkyūans who came or intentionally went to Fuzhou in China to be treated medically, namely in the so-called Liuqiu guan 琉 球 館 (Jap. Ryūkyūkan), a guesthouse that was especially established for lodging foreigners in Fuzhou. Barbara Seyock introduces Korean potters in Hizen 肥 前 Province, Japan. The technology of firing fine stoneware and porcelain, she explains, reached Japan comparatively late, but once kaolin had been discovered on Japanese territory in the early seventeenth century porcelain kilns mushroomed around Arita 有 田 Town in Kyūshū, characterizing the area as the cradle of porcelain manufacturing in Japan. The success of Arita porcelain in Japan and elsewhere is unthinkable without the contributions of Korean potters, as has been generally recognized. But still, a lot of questions remain regarding the intentions and mechanisms underlying these developments. With reference to archaeological finds, Korean potters must have been living and working in the area decades before blue-and-white porcelain production started, a scenario that puts a new complexion on the implementation of Korean pottery workmanship among Japanese firing traditions. In this context, the analyses of Karatsu 唐 津 ware types and their distribution adds much to identifying the influence of Korean pottery tradition on major shifts in international ceramic trade and the changing structures of local kilns in Japan. It is a commonplace in global history that pre-modern cross-cultural traders adapted quickly to the challenges of communication by developing working languages or linguae francae. However, we have no reliable knowledge on how communication challenges were met in more complex linguist interaction, for example in the administration of a multi-ethic settlements or diplomatic exchange. The chapter by Birgit Tremml-Werner investigates post 1571-Manila, as one of the

7 Introduction and historical context 7 major port cities in seventeenth-century Southeast Asia that serves as a genuine example for a multi-linguistic environment thanks to flourishing trans-pacific and South China Sea trade. Global players and local actors alike were in need of finding ways to negotiate beyond familiar cultures and languages. A survey of Manila linguists, their origins and specific qualifications helps to extensively sketch the impact of language on the connected histories of China Sea region. The various levels of language use and communication problems in light of complementary and competitive interests for hegemony and trade monopolies in the South China Sea certainly shaped the nature of Spanish, the Chinese and the Japanese in the first half of the seventeenth century, a period when language came to play a crucial role in the imperial design of the Castilians and the East Asians likewise. Looking at experiences of individual actors who served as linguists in this period shall furthermore debunk the two misleading narratives of constant misunderstanding and smooth appropriation respectively. Wim De Winter offers a critical perspective on practices of intercultural gift-giving and their role in maintaining social relations in seventeenth-century Japan, focusing on the coastal town of Hirado 平 户 as a microcosm of cultural interaction. Through an analysis of fragments from English travel diaries kept during a ten-year period, it reveals how aspects of gift-giving, trade and smuggling intertwined in the creation of identities on an empirical level, in a context of interaction between Europeans, Chinese and Japanese communities. Taking an anthropological perspective towards Chinese-English interaction, it points towards a certain ambiguity of exchange consisting of opposing tendencies and blurred categories, as relations of loyalty or friendship and fraudulent behaviour co-existed within established Japanese customs of giving. This opens possibilities for a critique, revealing blurred conceptual borders, challenging common historical identities and their explanations, and urging us to re-conceptualize such exchanges as processual dynamics, while remaining focused on concrete examples demonstrating the opposing tendencies and motivations of exchange on a local scale in the maritime environment of seventeenth-century Hirado. The following contributions investigate aspects of human interaction and the dynamic movements of persons between East and Southeast Asia, especially the Philippines, the Indian Ocean and Mexico, via maritime routes crossing the Pacific. Paulina Machuca highlights a fermented beverage called tubâ, whereas Melba Falck and Héctor Palacios explore the movements and the history of Japanese merchants in Guadalajara. If studies on the Manila Galleon have focused basically on commercial aspects covering the Acapulco-Manila sea route, there is also another aspect that has hardly begun to be investigated: human interaction as a result of socio-cultural interchanges between the American and the Asiatic world. The Manila Galleon, also known as the Nao (não) of China, left profound traces in some ports of the Mexican Pacific where it used to stop frequently in order to unload contraband items such as it happened in the port of Salagua, the actual Manzanillo, Colima (México). Through the beaches of Colima numerous Asian people entered into New Spain as Chinese indios, who established themselves on welfare palm farms in order to work as vinters, that means, producing beverages of Philippine origin: the tubâ (fermented) and

8 8 cocos wine (distilled), both on the basis of the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.), a plant which also reached New Spain from Southeast Asia towards These two beverages experienced a great demand in New Spain s society due to the fact that they were mainly consumed in zones of miners. This subchapter examines, from an ethnohistorical focus, human interaction between Filipinos, Mestizos and American Indios starting from the production of a beverage called tubâ. Particular emphasis is put on the way this drink of Philippine origin incorporated itself into the daily life of Indians and Mestizos in Colima and its hinterlands, where the material culture that was disposable there (in contrast to the Philippines) was used to continue and innovate means of producing tubâ. In this interaction process it is possible to analyze the interchange of techniques and traditional scientific knowledge, and how in this transition process from one culture to another the techniques were modified according to necessities and experiences of the recipient culture. Today, tubâ is considered the traditional beverage in some places in the Philippines and in Colima (Mexico). But although it has a common origin, it is a drink that is consumed in very different ways in both countries. For her analysis Paulina Machuca relies on archival documents, colonial chronicles and ethnographic work, which she has carried out in the Philippines between April and May The discovery of the return route of the Nao from Manila to Acapulco by Andrés Urdaneta in 1565 constituted the beginning of an intense relation between Asia and New Spain. From that time onwards, the Manila Galleon continued to sail across the Pacific from Acapulco to Manila en back for approximately 250 years. The Nao transported a great variety of merchandise, ceramics from China and Japan, Chinese silks, Moluccan spices, whose destination did not end in New Spain but, following a really global route, continued to be transported to Europe. From New Spain the highly demanded silver and the Mexican pesos circulated in the Philippines and in China. But the Nao transported not only commodites, as Melba Falck and Héctor Palacios show, the movement of people from different origins was also very dynamical. Peninsular spanish, Crioles, indigenous people, Filipinos, Chinese and Japanese travelled frequently on the Manila Galleon. In the seventeenth century one encounters in New Spain an important afflux of Asiatic people, many of whom, without doubt, arrived on the Nao while others came on board of ships proceeding directly from Japan. So, for example, in the case of the voyage of Rodrigo de Vivero in 1609 or the mission Hasekura 支 倉 that left from Sendai 仙 台 in One should therefore not be astonished that in seventeenth-century Guadalajara there were four Japanese, two of whom, Luis de Encío and Juan de Páez, came to be very important personalities in the contemporary society. Luis de Encío, a merchant, and Juan de Páez, an administrator of the goods of the Cathedral, are an inseparable part of the hisory of seventeenth-century Guadalajara. This chapter introduces the history of these notable Japanese. In our last contribution by Torsten Feys we move forward in time and highlight a different aspect of human migration and movement. Adam Mckeown and Aristide Zolberg convincingly argued that most basic principles of border control and techniques for identifying personal status were developed from the 1880s to

9 Introduction and historical context s through the exclusions of Asians from white settlers nations. By the 1930s these spread globally and became the foundation of national sovereignty and migration control. Simultaneously illegal migration networks developed around these. For Asian migration from the Pacific to the US the research on the implementation of racial barriers and circumvention thereof, is much more advanced than migrations from Europe. For the latter scholars generally consider the quota acts of the 1920s as the starting point of racial restrictions of Europeans and illegal entries from the Atlantic. Scholars generally overlook the fact that existing US immigration laws were being used to impose racial barriers on the less desirable eastern and southern European migrants well before WWI. For these less desirable migrants alternative illegal migration routes developed. For example laws were more strictly imposed on Syrians arriving through Marseilles via Le Havre or Rotterdam at New York, which resulted in higher deportation figures. Therefore an alternate route developed bringing them through Marseilles and Saint-Nazaire to Vera Cruz. From there a network allowed them to reach and cross the American border illegally, using similar strategies and routes as those inaugurated by Asian migrants well before the turn of the century and still in use today. The same applies to the Canadian border, which was used as a backdoor by Asian as well as European immigrants. Researchers have generally treated Asian migrants crossing the Pacific and Europeans crossing the Atlantic separately. This paper compares both systems by taking a closer look at the legal barriers imposed on both flows and the rise of illegal networks circumventing them. By doing so the paper investigates if the implicit claim that racial barriers for the exclusion of Asians transferred globally by looking at the differences and similarities of American exclusion laws on the Atlantic and the Pacific between 1875 and The classical top-down perspective from the state will be used to compare the laws on paper. This will be complemented by recent studies using the individual case files of detained and deported immigrants giving a bottom-up view on the implementation of the laws. This paper will also reflect on the a third much-neglected meso-level in this story, the role of shipping companies. As during this period government authorities did not dispose yet of a bureaucratic apparatus to impose immigration laws, it transferred this responsibility as much as possible to the shipping companies bringing the migrants in. Therefore this meso-level connecting the migrant with the state reveals a refreshing insight on how the racial barriers were implemented. Also it put the shipping companies in a privileged position to circumvent these. This will shed new light on the interplay between the rise of immigrant restriction and illegal migration. This book will be published as volume 12 of the series East Asian Maritime History (EAMH), perhaps as the first volume of this series that really reaches also far beyond the macro-region of East Asia. Focussing on commercial, scientific, and human interaction, this means, on important aspects of what we might term global history, we hope this book may provide another small contribution to the history of interaction in the pre-modern world. In this context, this volume also constitutes part of the MCRI (Major Collaborative Research Initiative) project sponsored by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada; research has been carried out in close cooperation with the Indian Ocean World Centre (IOWC) of McGill University and I profited greatly from my position as guest professor and research director at this institute.

10 10 I would like to express my gratitude particularly to Freddy Mortier, the former dean of the Faculty of Arts and Humanities and actual vice-rector of Ghent University, for his support and endorsement of this project. I would also like to thank the rector of the University of Salzburg who supported the publication of this volume with EUR 2,000. Last but not least I wish to thank all those who assisted me during the preparation and editing process of this book. My thanks go especially to Paul D. Buell and Manel Ollé who, as native speakers, read through the English and Spanish texts respectively. We all owe a great deal to Paul Buell who already at an early stage of the production of this book agreed to do the index. And of course we all have to thank our colleagues with whom we shared fruitful and stimulating scholarly discussions in the last years. Übersee, January 2014 AS ( 蕭 婷 )

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