https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29775401ExcerptsThis
Special Issue presents the papers reporting further development of
ideas delivered and discussed in the special session ‘Electromagnetic
fields in biology and medicine’ during the joint conference of the 7th
European Medical and Biological Engineering Conference (EMBEC7) and the
17th Nordic-Baltic Conference on Biomedical Engineering and Medical
Physics (NBC17), held in Tampere, Finland, June 2017. The focus on the
state-of-the-art presentations on non-thermal mechanism(s) and
biological responses to electromagnetic field (EMF) exposure has been
underlined in the call for papers of the EMF special session. Three
sub-sessions provided an international forum for presenting and
discussing the latest developments in EMF biological and health effects
as well as EMF applications in medicine....

Based
on the results of scientific investigations, the International Agency
for Research on Cancer has classified extremely low-frequency magnetic
field as a possible human carcinogen in 2001 (IARC 2002 IARC. 2002.
International Agency for Research on Cancer. 2002. Non-ionizing
radiation, part 1: static and extremely low-frequency (ELF) electric and
magnetic fields. Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to
humans, No 80. Geneva: WHO Press. [Google Scholar]) and radiofrequency
EMF in 2011 (IARC 2013 IARC. 2013. International Agency for Research on
Cancer. 2013. Non-ionizing radiation, part II: Radiofrequency
electromagnetic fields. Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic
risks to humans, No 102. Geneva: WHO Press. [Google Scholar]). Recently,
the US National Toxicology Program Carcinogenesis Studies of Cell Phone
Radiofrequency Radiation has published the results indicating increased
cancer risk in rats (NTP 2018 NTP. 2018. NTP Technical report on the
toxicology and carcinogenesis studies in Hsd:Sprague Dawley SD rats
exposed to whole-body radio frequency radiation at a frequency (900 MHz)
and modulations (GSM and CDMA) used by cell phones

...
the findings reported in several studies in humans and animals
(cellular stress, increase in free radicals, changes in DNA, functional
changes in the reproductive system, alterations in the brain
bioelectrical activity, learning and memory deficits etc.) at the levels
of exposure below the thermal limits as well as several epidemiologic
studies suggest the occurrence of EMF biological effects and the
possibility of health effect at the levels of EMF exposure less than the
set by the ICNIRP reference levels....

...
the Parliamentary Assembly Council of Europe in its Resolution 1815
from 2011 recommends ‘reconsider the scientific basis for the present
electromagnetic fields exposure standards set by the International
Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation Protection, which have serious
limitations and apply “as low as reasonably achievable” (ALARA)
principles, covering both thermal effects and the athermic or biological
effects of electromagnetic emissions or radiation’ (Parliamentary
Assembly 2011 Parliamentary Assembly. 2011. Council of Europe,
Resolution 1815. The potential dangers of electromagnetic fields and
their effect on the environment.
http://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref-XML2HTML-en.asp?fileid=17994
[Google Scholar]). However, only few European countries and cities have
followed the recommendation....

The main topics selected for
the Special Issue cover some of important aspects of the area: physical
and biological mechanisms of radiofrequency radiation effects by
Hinrikus et al. and Herrala et al.; response to microwave radiation in
physiological systems by Selmanoui et al. and Bachmann et al.;
reproductive effects of intermediate frequency magnetic field by Khan et
al.; low-frequency magnetic field effect on immune response by
Wyszkowska et al. Special attention has been paid to medical
applications of EMF including safety problems for implants in two papers
by Zradzinski et al.; connectivity between surface and deep bioelectric
fields in brain by Jäntti et al.; and practical use of EMF for toxicity
assessment of biological suspensions by Muñoz et al....

The ongoing discussions about 5G technology are
based on a presumption that, due to very thin skin-layer, the EMF
effect occurs only in human skin. However, in the case of real living
systems, the processes in different tissues are interconnected.
Therefore, excited by EMF skin structures are physiologically connected
to deeper systems in body and the affected space can be much deeper....

Threshold of low-level EMF effects

All experimental studies published in the Special Issue have been performed at the EMF levels lower than the reference levels for general public set by the ICNIRP. An only exception is the SAR value of 6 W/kg used as the higher level of exposure in the study by Herrala et al.

The ICNIRP Guidelines are based on thermal interaction mechanism for the RF EMF effects. Therefore, the rise of temperature inside tissue is the only criterion for the possibility of an EMF effect. The specific absorption rate (SAR) is a relevant parameter to describe the intensity of exposure in the case of thermal mechanism. The SAR value, corresponding to the fixed level of induced by EMF increase of temperature, can be considered as the threshold of the EMF effect induced by the thermal interaction mechanism.

In the case of non-thermal interaction mechanisms, the absorbed energy has no more direct linear relationship with the effect. Therefore, SAR becomes irrelevant as a parameter describing the threshold of the EMF effects. Parallel to SAR, the ICNIRP has set the reference levels for electric and magnetic fields strengths and EMF power spectral density, more relevant in the case of nom-thermal interaction mechanisms. Do the reference levels for EM field strengths set by ICNIRP determine the threshold of the non-thermal mechanism of EMF effects?

Rotations of dipolar molecules and radical pairs are known to be evident at the EMF strengths much less than the thermal threshold. The dielectric constant is assumed being constant, therefore, no threshold for dielectric polarization of a medium is expected at low-level exposure. The rotation of dipolar molecules can occur at very weak EMF. Radical pairs are known being sensitive to very weak magnetic fields, for example in birds. In the case of the rotation of dipolar molecules or radical pairs, the physical restrictions determining the minimal field strengths sufficient for the rotation are still unknown.

The threshold of the non-thermal mechanisms of EMF effects needs further theoretical and experimental investigations keeping in mind that the additional affecting factors can influence the threshold of low-level EMF. The oscillating nature of several biological structures, first of all, heart cells and neurons, makes possible parametric excitation of biological oscillations even by very weak periodic external EMF. The impact of parametric excitation depends not only on the strength of periodic force but rather more on the duration of excitation. Chaotic nature of biological systems creates a possibility that a very small initial change in a parameter of the system can cause remarkable alterations of the ongoing processes and finally results in a significant change in the status of the system. Due to diversity of living systems, the sensitivity to low-level EMF is expected to be different for individuals.

PURPOSE:This topic review aims to explain the
mechanism of low-level microwave (MW) radiation effect based on
published research results. The review presents the analysis of
theoretical and experimental results comprising underlying physics and
derived biological-physiological consequences supported by experimental
data.

CONCLUSIONS: The rotation of dipolar molecules causes
polarization of dielectric medium and restructuring of hydrogen bonds
between these molecules. The weakened hydrogen bonds decrease viscosity
and enhance diffusion at constant temperature. All steps of proposed
model have no critical frequency restrictions at MW frequencies and have
been confirmed by electromagnetic field (EMF) theory and/or published
experimental results. The synchronous cumulative impact of coherent MW
electric field makes possible the field-induced effect despite the field
strengths are much weaker than intermolecular fields. The rotation of
dipolar molecules results in restructuring hydrogen bonds between the
molecules despite the energy of MW radiation is much less than the
energy of bonding. The cumulative impact of coherent MW field in a
medium has been convincingly confirmed by the measurable dielectric
permittivity of the medium. The described mechanism of MW field-induced
effect confirms that the nature of the effect differs from the thermal
effect and that the exposure by MW radiation can create the specific
consequences in biology and materials not characteristic for
conventional heating.

CONCLUSIONS:
Exposure to GSM modulated RF radiation at levels up to 6.0 W/kg did not
induce or enhance genomic instability in rat primary astrocytes. Lack
of genotoxicity from RF radiation alone was convincingly shown in
multiple experiments. Co-genotoxicity of RF radiation and genotoxic
chemicals was not consistently supported by the results.

METHODS: To trigger onset and offset effects in
EEG, repetitive MWR stimuli were used. Four 30-channel EEG recordings on
a single subject were performed, each about one month apart. The
subject was exposed to 450 MHz MWR modulated at 40 Hz at the 1 g peak
spatial average specific absorption rate of 0.3 W/kg. During a
recording, 40 cycles of 30 s on-off MWR exposure were used. The
artifact-free responses to 126 MWR-ON stimuli and 134 MWR-OFF stimuli
were averaged over stimuli and channels.

RESULTS: Regarding EEG
signals locked to MWR-OFF stimulus, the enhanced signal level at alpha
frequency band and about twice higher signal to noise ratio at 200 to
440 ms after the stimulus have been detected. No remarkable response in
EEG signals locked to MWR-ON stimulus.

CONCLUSIONS: The detection
of offset effect confirms that there should be an imprint generated by
MWR in brain. The results of this preliminary study provide evidence for
the detection of MWR-induced ERP in EEG signal and encourage further
research in this direction.

PURPOSE: We investigated the feasibility of a
large-scale epidemiological study on reproductive effects of
intermediate frequency (IF) magnetic field (MF) exposure among cashiers
working near electronic article surveillance (EAS) systems.

MATERIALS
AND METHODS: The study cohort included 4157 women who had worked as
cashiers in supermarkets with EAS devices (considered as exposed) or
grocery stores without EAS devices (considered as unexposed) between
2008 and 2015. 536 births and 38 miscarriages occurred among these women
during the study period, based on information from nationwide health
registries. Measurements were also performed to characterize the MF
exposure of cashiers.

RESULTS: Cashiers were found to be exposed
to 8.2 MHz MFs only when passing by the gates at short distance. Static
fields of about 0.1 mT were observed at cashier's seat. Extremely low
frequency MFs were higher at stores without EAS devices. No differences
on the risk of miscarriage, reduced birth weight or preterm birth were
observed between cashiers in different store types.

CONCLUSIONS:
Any further studies should attempt to include study subjects working
near EAS systems that produce stronger IF MFs at kHz frequencies.
Exposure to ELF MFs should be assessed as a possible confounding factor.

PURPOSE: Epidemiological data suggest that there
is a link between exposure to extremely low-frequency magnetic fields
(ELF-MFs), immune response, and the occurrence of neurodegenerative
diseases. The exact nature of this phenomenon remains speculative and
requires detailed laboratory investigation. In the present study, we
evaluate changes in plasma concentration of pro-inflammatory and
regulatory cytokines as well as alternations of the hematological
parameters in rats exposed to an ELF-MF.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:
Male Wistar rats were repeatedly exposed for either 1 h/day for 7 days,
or continuously for 24 h, to a sinusoidal ELF-MF (50 Hz, 7 mT). Control
groups were sham exposed for either 1 h/day for 7 days, or continuously
for 24 h, respectively. The levels of cytokines: interleukin (IL)-1β,
IL-2, IL-6, and IL-10 in plasma obtained from blood samples were
determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The changes
in blood parameters were determined using an automatic hematology
analyzer in whole blood samples immediately after collection.

RESULTS:
We found that a single continuous (lasting 24 h) exposure provoked a
significant increase of the plasma IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-2 levels, and
caused an elevation in blood parameters, such as white blood cells,
lymphocytes, hemoglobin, and hematocrit levels. In contrast, however,
repetitive exposure of rats to an ELF-MF for 1 h/day for 7 days did not
lead to any changes in plasma levels of cytokines and hematological
counts.

CONCLUSIONS: Based on these data we conclude that
exposure duration (dose-response) plays a significant role in the immune
response, specifically at the cellular level. While single 24 h-lasting
exposure provoked changes that indicate an immune alarm stimulation,
under the conditions which are typical for therapeutic use of ELF-MFs
(repeated short daily exposure) the immune potentially harmful response
has not been observed.

PURPOSE: In this work, the inter-person variability
of hazards caused by a low frequency magnetic field exposure (of various
polarization and homogeneity near to the magneto therapy applicator) to
users of bone anchored hearing aid (BAHA) hearing implants were
investigated with respect to various head structures.

MATERIAL
AND METHODS: The effects of exposure were evaluated by numerical
simulations of the electric field (Ein) induced in head phantoms
(regular or with implant model). Phantoms mimic head dimensions and
thicknesses of layers of skin, fat, skull bones, and brain.

RESULTS:The
values of Ein obtained in the phantom of the BAHA user's head were
several times (up to 4.5) higher than in a regular person. The highest
differences in Ein values were found in the skin and fat tissues - up to
80% in phantoms of various structures (statistically significant
differences related to various tissues thicknesses, not-significant with
relation to phantom dimensions - Kruskal-Wallis test with Bonferroni
correction, p < .017) and up to 3 times with magnetic field spatial
distribution (statistically significant with different polarization).

CONCLUSIONS:The
results support the need to assess the electromagnetic fields hazards
to individual implant user exposed to the magnetic field at a level
approaching the exposure limits set by international guidelines.

PURPOSE:
The aim was to model the effects of exposure to a low or intermediate
frequency electromagnetic field (LIF-EMF), characterized by the electric
field induced in the body, in order to evaluate how the type of insulin
needle and the way it is injected influences the exposed user of a
wearable insulin pump.

MATERIAL AND METHODS: Numerical models of
exposure scenarios (sources of LIF-EMF, with a dominant magnetic
component: 50Hz-1MHz; the insulin needle type; the way it is injected
and insulin pump user) were worked out. The influence of the insulin
needle on the user's safety (the ratio of the induced electric field in
tissues surrounding the needle and tissues of a person without an
injection, both exposed identically) were calculated.

RESULTS.
The effects of LIF-EMF exposure in insulin pump users were found to be
up to approximately 7-times higher, varying with statistically
significance (p < .05) with the material of the needle, the way it is
injected and the polarization of the affecting magnetic field.

CONCLUSIONS:
When steel insulin needles is used, the assessment of user's EMF
exposure should be carried out using magnetic field limits at least
5-times lower than given in general international requirements.

PURPOSE: Anesthesiologists have increasingly
started to use EEG-based indexes to estimate the level and type of
unconsciousness. However, the physiology and biophysics are poorly
understood in anesthesiological literature.

METHODS: EEG was
recorded from electrodes on the surface of head, including scalp, as
well as DBS (deep brain stimulation) electrodes implanted deep in the
brain. Mathematical modeling with a realistic head model was performed
to create illustrative images of the sensitivity of electrode montages.

RESULTS:
EEG pattern of anesthesia, burst-suppression, is recordable outside of
scalp area as well in the depth of brain because the EEG current loops
produce recordable voltage gradients in the whole head. The typical
electrodes used in anesthesia monitoring are most sensitive to basal
surface of frontal lobes as well as frontal and mesial parts of temporal
lobes.

CONCLUSIONS: EEG currents create closed-loops, which flow
from the surface of the cortex and then return to the inside of the
hemispheres. In the case of widespread synchronous activity like
physiological sleep or anesthesia, the currents recorded with surface
and depth electrodes return through the base of brain and skull.

PURPOSE: This article studies the variation
of the electromagnetic parameters of a suspension of zebrafish (Danio
rerio) embryos to assess its potential applications to toxicological and
biomedical research areas.

MATERIALS AND METHODS: For this
purpose, the dielectric impedance spectroscopy technique is applied to a
modified coaxial line enclosing the biological suspension to be
characterized in the frequency range from 100 kHz to 100 MHz. The
electrical parameters of the suspension under test were obtained by
fitting the impedance spectra to the resulted from the simulation of the
test fixture using finite elements (FE).

RESULTS: Variation of
the complex permittivity of the suspensions makes possible to identify
viable and non-viable embryos after a toxic exposure, as well as
different stages during the blastula period of embryonic development of
the zebrafish.

CONCLUSIONS: The approach presented here,
combining experimental and simulation techniques, may provide a basis
for a non-invasive method to assess toxicity in any biological
suspension.