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1 Economic Quarterly Volume 99, Number 1 First Quarter 2013 Pages 1 23 Why Labor Force Participation (Usually) Increases when Unemployment Declines Andreas Hornstein During the Great Recession, the unemployment rate increased rapidly within two years from about 4 percent in 2007 to about 10 percent in Yet over the ensuing recovery, the unemployment rate has declined only gradually and, more than four years after the end of the recession, it now stands at about 7 percent. At the same time, the labor force participation rate has declined steadily over this time period and now stands at about 63 percent, a level comparable to the early 1980s. Many observers view the decline in the labor force participation rate as an indication that further declines in the unemployment rate will come only slowly. The expectation is that if the labor market improves, many participants who have left the labor market will return and contribute to the pool of unemployed, and many unemployed participants will no longer exit the labor force but continue to search for work. 1 Past business cycles have indeed been characterized by a negative correlation between the unemployment rate and the labor force participation (LFP) rate, that is, as the unemployment rate declines, the LFP rate increases. In this article we use observations on gross ows This is a revised version of an article previously titled The Cyclicality of the Labor Force Participation Rate. I would like to thank Marianna Kudlyak, John Muth, Felipe Schwartzman, and Alex Wolman for helpful comments. Any opinions expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily re ect those of the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond or the Federal Reserve System. 1 For example, see Daly et al. (2012), Hatzius (2012), Davidson (2013), or Tankersley (2013).

2 2 Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond Economic Quarterly between labor market states to provide a more detailed analysis of why the unemployment rate and the LFP rate are negatively correlated over the business cycle. For our analysis, the total potential workforce is decomposed into three groups: the employed (E), the unemployed (U), and the out-of-the-labor-force group, or inactive (I) for short. The LFP rate is the share of employed and unemployed in the potential workforce, and the unemployment rate is the share of the unemployed in the labor force. We think of labor market participants as transitioning between these three states. Figure 1 provides a stylized representation of these transitions. The arrows connecting the circles represent the gross ows between the three labor market states. For our analysis we look at a gross ow as the product of two terms: the total number of participants that could potentially make a transition and the rate at which the participants make the transition. For example, the total number of unemployed who become employed is the product of the number of unemployed and the probability at which an unemployed worker will become employed. The transition probabilities re ect the opportunities faced and choices made by labor market participants. For example, the probability of an unemployed worker becoming employed depends, among other things, on the number of available jobs (vacancies) and the search e ort while unemployed. Given the size of the potential workforce, the transition rates between labor market states determine the LFP rate and the unemployment rate. We have marked three groups among the transitions in Figure 1: EU, IU, and IE. The rst group involves transitions within the labor force, between employment and unemployment, and these transitions have been the focus of much recent research on the determination of the unemployment rate. 2 The working assumption of this research has been that, for an analysis of the unemployment rate, a xed LFP rate is a reasonable rst approximation. The second and third group involve transitions between the labor force and out-of-the-labor-force, that is, they potentially generate changes of the LFP rate. The second group, which involves transitions between inactivity and unemployment, is at the heart of the above mentioned concern that further reductions in the unemployment rate will come only slowly. This concern is based on the assumption that, as the labor market improves, unemployed workers become less likely to exit the labor force and inactive workers become more likely to join the labor force as unemployed; we call this the IU hypothesis. 2 For example, see Shimer (2012) and other research mentioned below.

3 A. Hornstein: Unemployment and Labor Force Participation 3 Figure 1 Labor Market State Transitions In this article we argue that observations on transition probabilities obtained from gross ow data are inconsistent with the IU hypothesis. In fact, the opposite is true: As the labor market improves, unemployed workers become more likely to exit the labor force and inactive workers become less likely to join the labor force as unemployed. This pattern for IU transitions would result in a positive correlation between the unemployment rate and the LFP rate. The observed negative correlation between unemployment and LFP must then result from patterns in the EU and IE group transition rates. We calculate the contributions of cylical variations in the transition rates for the three groups IU, IE, and EU and indeed nd that the variations in the IE and EU group transition rates generate a negative co-movement of the unemployment and LFP rates that dominates the positive co-movement generated by the IU group transition rates. This suggests that an increasing LFP rate is more the by-product of an improving labor market rather than a brake on the declining unemployment rate. This article is based on a line of research that accounts for changes in labor market ratios through changes in the rates at which labor market participants transition between labor market states. Early work in this literature mostly ignored variations in the LFP rate and focused on variations in transition rates between the two labor market states employment and unemployment for example, Elsby, Michaels, and

4 4 Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond Economic Quarterly Solon (2009), Fujita and Ramey (2009), and Shimer (2012). This work nds that variations in unemployment exit rates contribute relatively more to unemployment rate volatility than do variations in employment exit rates. Recently, a similar approach has been applied to a more general accounting framework that adds a third labor market state, out-of-the-labor-force, and allows for variations in the LFP rate, for example, Barnichon and Figura (2010) and Elsby, Hobijn, and Şahin (2013). 3 Our work is closest to Elsby, Hobijn, and Şahin (2013), but their main focus is on accounting for the relative contributions of transition rate volatility to unemployment rate volatility. 4 Nevertheless, they also point out that the cyclical behavior of measured transition rates between unemployment and inactivity is at odds with common preconceptions about that behavior, and they also note that the observed cyclical behavior of these transition rates would induce a positive correlation between the unemployment rate and the LFP rate. The article is organized as follows. Section 1 documents the negative correlation between the detrended unemployment rate and LFP rate for the total working age population, and men and women separately. Section 2 documents the co-movements between the unemployment rate and transition probabilities between labor market states. Section 3 demonstrates how variations in transition rates contribute to the co-movement of the unemployment rate and the LFP rate. In conclusion, Section 4 speculates on the implications of the recent unusual co-movement of unemployment and LFP in the recovery since UNEMPLOYMENT AND LFP The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) publishes monthly data on the labor market status of U.S. households that are based on the Current Population Survey (CPS). The CPS surveys about 60,000 households every month with about 110,000 household members, a representative sample of the U.S. working age population. Household respondents are asked if the household members are employed, and if 3 Shimer (2012) also develops tools for the analysis of a multi-state labor market model and studies the role of variations in the LFP rate, but the focus of the article is on the two-state model of the labor market. 4 An important part of Elsby, Hobijn, and Şahin (2013) is their analysis of a measurement issue for gross ows. Since gross ows are derived from survey samples, it is always possible that survey respondents are misclassi ed with respect to their labor market state. Past research has demonstrated that misclassi cation is a signi cant issue. Elsby, Hobijn, and Şahin (2013) argue that allowing for the possibility of misclassi cation does not substantially a ect the conclusions drawn from measured gross ows for the issue studied in this article.

5 A. Hornstein: Unemployment and Labor Force Participation 5 they are not employed, whether they want to work and are actively looking for work. The latter are considered to be unemployed, and employed and unemployed household members constitute the labor force. Household members that are not employed and that are not actively looking for work are considered to be not part of the labor force, or inactive for short. The unemployment rate is the share of unemployed workers in the labor force, and the LFP rate is the share of the labor force in the working age population. 5 The unemployment rate tends to be more volatile than the LFP rate in the short run, but changes in the LFP rate tend to be more persistent over the long run. Figure 2, panels A and B, display quarterly averages of monthly unemployment and LFP rates for the period from 1948 to The unemployment rate increases sharply in a recession, and then declines gradually during the recovery. Shaded areas in Figure 2 indicate periods when the unemployment rate is increasing, and these periods match periods of National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) recessions quite well. 6 Even though the average unemployment rate appears to be somewhat higher than usual in the 1970s, considering the magnitude of short-run uctuations in the unemployment rate, the average unemployment rate does not change much over subsamples of the period. The Great Recession stands apart by the magnitude of the increase of the unemployment rate and the rather slow decline of the unemployment rate from its peak. The LFP rate does not display much short-run volatility, rather it is dominated by long-run demographic trends. Starting in the mid- 1960s, the LFP rate increased gradually from values slightly below 60 percent to reach a peak of 67 percent in This slow but persistent increase of the LFP rate can be accounted for by the increasing LFP rate of women and early on by the baby boomer generation entering the labor force. Since 2000, the LFP rate has declined, rst gradually, then at an accelerated rate since the Great Recession and is now at about 63 percent. The gradual decline in the LFP rate can be attributed to the aging of the baby boomer generation and declining LFP rates for women and the young (less than 25 years of age). 7 In general, there is not much short-run volatility in the LFP rate, the recent accelerated 5 Households are asked about other features of their labor market status, but the questions about employment and active search for work when not employed are the main questions of interest for determining the unemployment rate and the LFP rate. For a detailed description of the survey and the methods used, see Bureau of Labor Statistics (2012). 6 The business cycle dates provided by the NBER are a widely accepted measure of the peaks and troughs of U.S. economic activity. 7 For example, see Aaronson et al. (2006).

6 6 Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond Economic Quarterly Figure 2 Unemployment and Labor Force Participation, 1948{2013 Notes: The unemployment and LFP rates displayed in panels A and B are quarterly averages of monthly values. Shaded (white) areas are periods when the unemployment rate is increasing (declining). The dashed lines are the trend calculated using a Baxter and King (1999) bandpass lter series with periodicity more than 12 years for the trend. Panel C displays the di erence between actual and trend values of the unemployment rate and the LFP rate. decline following the Great Recession being the exception. This accelerated decline in the LFP rate after the Great Recession shows up in the declining LFP rates of mature workers between 25 and 55 years of age, especially men, and also in declining participation rates of the young.

7 A. Hornstein: Unemployment and Labor Force Participation 7 Table 1 Cyclicality of Unemployment and Labor Force Participation Sample u l Corr(u(t),l(t + s) ) for s= Total 1952:Q1 2007:Q :Q1 1991:Q :Q1 2007:Q :Q1 2013:Q Men 1952:Q1 2007:Q :Q1 1991:Q :Q1 2007:Q :Q1 2013:Q Women 1952:Q1 2007:Q :Q1 1991:Q :Q1 2007:Q :Q1 2013:Q Notes: Standard deviations and cross-correlations of detrended unemployment, u, and labor force participation rate, l, for total, men, and women. The trend for each variable is calculated as a Baxter and King (1999) bandpass lter with periodicity more than 12 years for monthly data, from January 1948 to March Unemployment and LFP rate are in percent, and detrended values are the di erence between actual values and trend. Statistics are calculated for quarterly averages of monthly data for the indicated subsamples.

8 8 Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond Economic Quarterly The average unemployment rate in the 1960s, when the LFP rate was low, does not appear to be much di erent from the average unemployment rate in the 1990s when the LFP rate was high. In other words, the unemployment rate and the LFP rate do not appear to be correlated over the long run. Over the short run, the unemployment rate and the LFP rate are, however, negatively correlated, that is, the LFP rate increases as the unemployment rate declines. We de ne short-run movements of the unemployment rate and the LFP rate as deviations from trend, and we de ne the trend of a time series as a smooth line drawn through the actual time series. To be precise, we construct the trend using a bandpass lter that extracts movements with a periodicity of more than 12 years. 8 The dashed lines in Figure 2, panels A and B, display the trends for the unemployment rate and the LFP rate. 9 In panel C of Figure 2 we display the deviations from trend, that is, the di erence between the actual and trend values, for the LFP rate and the unemployment rate. Clearly, deviations from trend are more volatile for the unemployment rate than for the LFP rate. Furthermore, the LFP rate tends to be above trend whenever the unemployment rate is below trend and vice versa. In Table 1 we display the standard deviations and cross-correlations between the detrended unemployment rate and the LFP rate for the total working age population, and for men and women separately. The unemployment rate is about three times as volatile as the LFP rate, and the LFP rate increases as the unemployment rate declines, with the LFP rate lagging about half a year. 10 When we split the sample in the early 1990s, we can see that both the unemployment rate and the LFP rate are less volatile since the 1990s, but they remain negatively correlated. 11 Including the Great Recession and its 8 We use the method of Baxter and King (1999) to construct the trend. This is just one of several alternative methods to calculate trends. The results do not di er much if instead we use a Hodrick and Prescott (1997) lter, or a random walk bandpass lter as described in Christiano and Fitzgerald (2003). 9 At the beginning and end of the sample, our procedure delivers an ill-de ned measure of the trend. Essentially, the trend of a series is a symmetric moving average of the series. Thus, at the beginning and end of the sample, we do not have enough data points to calculate the trend. For these truncated periods we simply choose to truncate the moving average lter and reweigh the available data points. This procedure is arbitrary, and it implies that current data points receive much more weight in determining the trend, which explains the high trend value for the unemployment rate in For the statistical analysis below we therefore discard some observations at the beginning and end of sample, and start the sample in 1952:Q1 and end the sample in 2007:Q4. 10 We de ne the length of the lead/lag by the correlation that is largest in absolute value. 11 This is consistent with the period being part of the Great Moderation in the United States, which indicates an economy-wide decline in volatility starting in the mid- 1980s. We choose to split the sample in 1992 because in the next section we study how changes in labor market transition rates contribute to the co-movement of the

9 A. Hornstein: Unemployment and Labor Force Participation 9 aftermath signi cantly increases the measured volatility of the unemployment rate and LFP rate, but, again, it does not much a ect the measured negative correlation between the two variables. 12 Finally, the cyclical co-movement between unemployment and LFP is similar for men and women, but the unemployment rate is relatively more volatile for men, the LFP rate is relatively more volatile for women, and the LFP rate is lagging the unemployment rate more for men than for women. We now study if this negative correlation between the unemployment rate and the LFP rate can be accounted for by inactive workers becoming more likely to enter the labor force and unemployed workers becoming less likely to exit the labor force. 2. TRANSITIONS BETWEEN LABOR MARKET STATES The CPS household survey not only contains information on how many people are employed, unemployed, and inactive in any month, but it also contains information on how many people switch labor market states from one month to the next. We can use these gross ows between labor market states to calculate the probabilities that any one household member will, within a month, transition from one labor market state to a di erent state. This information can be used to see if, for example, variations in the transition rates between inactivity and unemployment are consistent with the usual interpretation of the negative co-movement of the unemployment rate and the LFP rate. Households are surveyed repeatedly in the CPS. In particular, the survey consists of a rotation sample, that is, once a household enters the sample it is surveyed for four consecutive months, then it leaves the sample for eight months, after which it reenters the sample and is once more surveyed for four consecutive months. Thus, in any month, for three-fourths of the household members in the sample, we potentially have observations on their current labor market state and their state in the previous month. We can use this information to calculate the gross ows between labor market states from one month to the unemployment rate and the LFP rate. We calculate transition rates from data on gross ows for the period after 1990, and again we discard some of the beginning and end of sample data on deviations from trend to minimize the problems arising from an illde ned trend. 12 Related to the discussion in footnote 9, we should note that if the unemployment rate continues to decline, then future measures of the trend unemployment rate that include these data points will indicate a lower trend unemployment rate than do our current measures. Thus, our current measure very likely understates the cyclical deviations from trend for the unemployment rate.

10 10 Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond Economic Quarterly next. The measurement of gross ows su ers from two problems, missing data points and misclassi ed data points. We will use data series for gross ows that have been adjusted for missing data but not for misclassi cation. 13 Data points are missing because the actual unit of observation in the CPS is not a particular household, but the household that is residing at a particular address. Thus, even for those addresses that have entered the sample in the previous month, we may not have observations on the previous month s labor market states for the members of the current resident household. This might happen for various reasons. The household could have a new member who did not live at the current address in the previous month, for example, a dependent returning to the family household after a longer absence. Alternatively, the household previously residing at the address moved away and a new household moved in. About 15 percent of the potential observations cannot be matched across months, and these observations are not missing at random (Abowd and Zellner 1985). One can use margin adjustment procedures to generate gross ow data consistent with unconditional marginal distributions, and these procedures take into account the possibility that observations are not missing at random. In the following, we use the BLS-provided margin adjusted research series on labor force status ows from the CPS. 14 Gross ows from one labor market state to another can be interpreted as the product of two terms: the total number of participants in the initial state and the probability that any one of these participants makes the transition from the initial state to another state. For example, more people might make the transition from unemployment to inactivity because there are more unemployed people, or because each unemployed worker is more likely to make the transition. In Figure 3 we display the transition probabilities between employment (E), unemployment (U), and inactivity (I) that are implied by the observed gross ows between labor market states for the period from 1990 to A panel labeled AB denotes the probability that a participant who is in labor market state A will transition to state B within a month. For example, the center panel in the bottom row, labeled IU, denotes the probability that a participant who is inactive in the current month will 13 The evidence for misclassi cation in the BLS, that is, that a participant is assigned the wrong labor market state in the survey, has been discussed for a long time, see, for example, Poterba and Summers (1986). There is currently no generally accepted procedure to adjust CPS data on labor market states for misclassi cation. Recently, Elsby, Hobijn, and Şahin (2013) and Feng and Hu (2013) have worked on possible corrections for misclassi cation. 14 The research series is available at ows.htm. Frazis et al. (2005) describe the BLS procedure used to construct the series.

11 A. Hornstein: Unemployment and Labor Force Participation 11 Figure 3 Transition Probabilities, 1990:Q2{2013:Q1 Notes: Panel AB denotes the probability of making the transition from labor market state A to labor market state B. The dashed lines are the trend calculated using a Baxter and King (1999) bandpass lter series with periodicity more than 12 years for the trend. The probabilities displayed are quarterly averages of monthly values. Shaded (white) areas are periods when the unemployment rate is increasing (declining). be unemployed in the next month. Regions that are (not) shaded denote periods when the unemployment rate increases (declines). The trend for each transition probability is calculated using the same bandpass lter as in the previous section, and it is displayed as a dashed line in Figure 3. In Table 2, we display the average transition probabilities, the standard deviations of the detrended transition probabilities, and their cross-correlations with the detrended unemployment rate for the total working age population, and for men and women separately. An increase in the unemployment rate is associated with more churning in the labor market: Employed workers are more likely to

12 12 Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond Economic Quarterly Table 2 Cyclicality of Transition Probabilities p ij ij Corr( u(t); p ij(t + s) ) for s= Total, u = 5:3, u = 0:76 EU UE IU UI IE EI Men, u = 5:4, u = 0:88 EU UE IU UI IE EI Women, u = 5:3; u = 0:63 EU UE IU UI IE EI Notes: The rst column lists the sample average for transition probabilities from labor market state i to j, p ij, with labor market states being employed (E), unemployed (U), and out-of-the-labor-force/inactive (I). The second column lists standard deviations of detrended transition probabilities, and the remaining columns list cross-correlations of detrended transition probabilities with the detrended unemployment rate. The trend for each variable is calculated as a Baxter and King (1999) bandpass lter with periodicity of more than 12 years for monthly data, from January 1990 to March Transition probabilities and the unemployment rate are in percent, and detrended values are the di erence between actual and trend values. Statistics are calculated for quarterly averages of monthly data for the sample 1992:Q1 to 2007:Q4. lose their jobs, and unemployed workers are less likely to return to work, with job loss ( nding) rates slightly leading (lagging) the unemployment rate; see the panels labeled EU and UE in Figure 3 and the corresponding correlations in Table Considering the magnitude and volatility of the job nding rate for unemployed workers, the transition rate UE, it is apparent that variations in this rate are a 15 In fact, when unemployment is high, gross ows between unemployment and employment are both high. Despite the lower probability of the unemployed nding employment, gross ows from unemployment to employment are high because there are more unemployed.

13 A. Hornstein: Unemployment and Labor Force Participation 13 major source of unemployment volatility. Looking at panels IU and UI, we can see that as the unemployment rate declines, it becomes more likely that an unemployed worker exits the labor force and less likely that an inactive worker joins the labor force as unemployed. This pattern is con rmed by the cross-correlations for the detrended rates in Table 2. Thus, the cyclical pattern of the transition rates between inactivity and unemployment is exactly the opposite of what the IU hypothesis proposes as an explanation of the negative correlation between the LFP rate and the unemployment rate. However, the transition probabilities between inactivity and employment do have a cyclical pattern that supports a negative co-movement between the unemployment rate and the LFP rate. As the unemployment rate increases it becomes less likely that people make the transition from inactivity to employment. It also becomes less likely that employed workers leave the labor force, but this probability is always quite low and it is not very volatile over the cycle. The cyclical properties of the transition probabilities for all three groups, EU, IU, and IE, are roughly the same for men and women. The only exception is that transition probabilities for women tend to be somewhat less volatile overall, and that men s transition probabilities from employment to inactivity appear to be acyclical. So far we have shown that the direct evidence on labor market transitions does not support the IU hypothesis of why the LFP rate increases as the unemployment rate declines. In particular, as the labor market improves and the unemployment rate declines, participants become less likely to make the transition from inactivity to unemployment and they become more likely to make the transition from unemployment to inactivity. So what accounts for the negative correlation of unemployment and the LFP rate? 3. SOURCES OF CO-MOVEMENT Recent research on labor markets using the stock- ow approach points to the importance of variations in the job nding rate and job loss rate for the determination of the unemployment rate. We now argue that variations in the job nding and job loss rates are also important for the cyclical co-movement between the unemployment and LFP rates. As a rst step, note that the exit rate from the labor force is an order of magnitude smaller for employed workers than it is for unemployed workers (see Table 2). This means that as the unemployment rate declines, the average exit rate from the labor force declines, and the LFP rate increases. Furthermore, as we have just seen, when the unemployment rate declines, more people join the labor force without

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March 2012 In this newsletter, we focus on the U.S. job market. The economic recovery post-2008 is often referred to as a "jobless recovery" given the persistently high unemployment rate. In this paper

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Quarterly Economics Briefing March June 2015 2016 Review of Current Conditions: The Economic Outlook and Its Impact on Workers Compensation The exhibits below are updated to reflect the current economic

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Understanding Changes In Aggregate Business Fixed Investment W hen BY AUBHIK KHAN economists talk about business fixed investment, they mean the expenditures by firms on equipment and structures. Business