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Elitism is the belief or attitude that individuals who form an elite—a select group of people with a certain ancestry, intrinsic quality, high intellect, wealth, specialized training, experience, or talents—are more likely to be constructive to society as a whole, and therefore deserve influence or authority greater than that of others. In America, the term "elitism" often refers to the concentration of power on the Northeast Corridor and West Coast, where the typical American elite - lawyers, doctors, high-level civil servants (such as White House aides), businesspeople, university lecturers, entrepreneurs and financial advisors in the quarternary sector - reside, often in the university towns they graduated from.[1]

Alternatively, the term elitism may be used to describe a situation in which power is concentrated in the hands of a limited number of people. Oppositions of elitism include anti-elitism, egalitarianism, populism and political theory of pluralism. Elite theory is the sociological or political science analysis of elite influence in society: elite theorists regard pluralism as a utopian ideal.

'Elitism' also refers to situations in which an individual assumes special 'privileges' and responsibilities in the hope that this arrangement will benefit humanity or themselves. Elitism is closely related to social class and what sociologists call social stratification. Members of the upper classes are sometimes known as the social elite, the term elitism is also sometimes used to denote situations in which a group of people claiming to possess high abilities or simply an in-group or cadre grant themselves extra privileges at the expense of others. This form of elitism may be described as discrimination.

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Attributes that identify an elite vary; personal achievement may not be essential. Elitist status can be based on personal achievement, such as degrees from top-rate universities or impressive internships and job offers, it can (in archaic societies) be based on lineage or passed-on fame from parents or grandparents, as a term "Elite" usually describes a person or group of people who are members of the uppermost class of society, and wealth can contribute to that class determination. Personal attributes commonly purported by elitist theorists to be characteristic of the elite include: rigorous study of, or great accomplishment within, a particular field; a long track record of competence in a demanding field; an extensive history of dedication and effort in service to a specific discipline (e.g., medicine or law) or a high degree of accomplishment, training or wisdom within a given field. Elitists tend to favor social systems such as meritocracy, technocracy and plutocracy as opposed to radical democracy, political egalitarianism and populism. Elitists also believe only a few "shakers and movers" truly change society rather than society being changed by the majority of people who only vote and elect the elites into power. To elitists, the public is abjectly powerless and can be manipulated only by the top group of elites.[2]

Some synonyms for "elite" might be "upper-class" or "aristocratic", indicating that the individual in question has a relatively large degree of control over a society's means of production. This includes those who gain this position due to socioeconomic means and not personal achievement. However, these terms are misleading when discussing elitism as a political theory, because they are often associated with negative "class" connotations and fail to appreciate a more unbiased exploration of the philosophy.

Elitism in the context of education is the practice of concentrating attention on or allocating funding to the best students, or those students who rank highest in a particular field of endeavour, for example, a politician who promotes advanced classes for students deemed to be highly intelligent might be accused of elitism, even if this were argued to promote an egalitarian goal, such as curing disease. Elitism in education could be based on conventional assessment of learning ability, knowledge, or other abilities. However, an "elite" school can also mean a school for the wealthy or hard to enter.

The term elitism and the pejorative title elitist are sometimes used by people who aren't (or, who claim not to be) members of elite organizations. In politics, such terms are often used to disparage a politician's views as out of touch with the interests of the "average Joe", the implication is that the alleged elitist person or group thinks they are better than everyone else, and put themselves before others as a result. Its definition is therefore similar to that of the word "snob". An elitist is not always seen as truly elite, but only privileged, the definition may have different appreciations depending on the political contexts. Since elitism may be viewed as something necessary for creating patterns of good intellectual or professional performance, it can be used also for maintaining conditions of lack of competition and privilege.

Elitism endorses the exclusion of large numbers of people from positions of privilege or power. Thus, many populists seek the (perceived, if not present in practice) social equality of egalitarianism, populism, socialism, or communism. They may also support affirmative action, social security, luxury taxes, and highly progressive taxes for the wealthiest members of society. All of these measures seek to reduce the difference of power between the elite and the ordinary. However, these measures to reduce difference could be seen as anti-meritocratic in that they avoid rewarding or promoting those who are the most competitive or provide the most effort in their endeavors.

The terms elitism and meritocracy are not equivalent in meaning. Professor Kenneth Paul Tan at the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy asserts that "Meritocracy, in trying to 'isolate' merit by treating people with fundamentally unequal backgrounds as superficially the same, can be a practice that ignores and even conceals the real advantages and disadvantages that are unevenly distributed to different segments of an inherently unequal society, a practice that in fact perpetuates this fundamental inequality; in this way, those who are picked by meritocracy as having merit may already have enjoyed unfair advantages from the very beginning, ignored according to the principle of nondiscrimination." [3]

Discrimination
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This includes treatment of an individual or group, based on their actual or perceived membership in a certain group or social category, in a way that is worse than the way people are usually treated. Discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices, and laws exist in countries and institutions in every part of the world. In some places, contro

Ageism
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Ageism is stereotyping and discriminating against individuals or groups on the basis of their age. This may be casual or systematic, the term was coined in 1969 by Robert Neil Butler to describe discrimination against seniors, and patterned on sexism and racism. Butler defined ageism as a combination of three connected elements, moreover, it has be

Caste
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Its paradigmatic ethnographic example is the division of Indian society into rigid social groups, with roots in Indias ancient history and persisting until today. However, the significance of the caste system in India has been declining as a result of urbanization. The term is applied to non-human populations like ants and bees. The English word ca

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The Basor weaving bamboo baskets in a 1916 book. The Basor are a Hindu caste found in the state of Uttar Pradesh in India.

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A page from the manuscript Seventy-two Specimens of Castes in India, which consists of 72 full-color hand-painted images of men and women of various religions, occupations and ethnic groups found in Madura, India in 1837, which confirms the popular perception and nature of caste, before the British made it applicable only to Hindus grouped under the varna categories from the 1901 census on wards.

Linguistic discrimination
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Linguistic discrimination is the unfair treatment of an individual based solely on his or her use of language. This use of language may include the native language or other characteristics of the persons speech, such as an accent, the size of vocabulary, modality. Based on a difference in use of language, a person may automatically form judgments a

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Nationalists on Corsica sometimes spray-paint or shoot traffic signs written in French

Mentalism (discrimination)
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Mentalism or sanism is a form of discrimination and oppression because of a mental trait or condition a person has, or is judged to have. This may or may not be described in terms of disorder or disability. The discrimination is based on factors such as, stereotypes about neurodivergence, specific behavioral phenomena. Like other isms such as sexis

Racism
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Racism is discrimination and prejudice towards people based on their race or ethnicity. Today, the use of the term racism does not easily fall under a single definition, the Holocaust is the classic example of institutionalized racism which led to the death of millions of people based on their race. Ethnicity is often used in a close to one traditi

Speciesism
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Speciesism involves the assignment of different values, rights, or special consideration to individuals solely on the basis of their species membership. Their claim is that species membership has no moral significance, the term is not used consistently, but broadly embraces two ideas. It usually refers to human speciesism, the exclusion of all anim

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The Trial of Bill Burns (1838) in London, showing Richard Martin, MP for Galway, in court with a donkey beaten by his owner, leading to the world's first known conviction for animal cruelty.

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Richard Dawkins argues against speciesism as an example of the "discontinuous mind".

Adultism
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Adultism is the power adults have over children. More narrowly, adultism is defined as prejudice and accompanying systematic discrimination against young people, on a more philosophical basis, the term has also been defined as bias towards adults. And the social addiction to adults, including their ideas, activities, the word adultism was used by P

Persecution of people with albinism
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Persecution of people with albinism is based on the belief that certain body parts of albinistic people can transmit magical powers. At the same time, people with albinism have also been ostracised and even killed for exactly the reason, because they are presumed to be cursed. The persecutions of people with albinism take place mostly in Sub-Sahara

Anti-intellectualism
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Anti-intellectualism has been used by totalitarian dictatorships to oppress political dissent. Economist Thomas Sowell argues for distinctions between unreasonable and reasonable wariness of intellectuals, when working in their fields of expertise, intellectuals have increased knowledge. However, when compared to other careers, Sowell suggests inte

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Intellectual and anti-intellectual: Political cartoonistThomas Nast contrasts the reedy scholar with the bovine boxer, epitomizing the populist view of reading and study as antithetical to sport and athleticism. Note the disproportionate heads and bodies, with the size of the head representing "mental" ability and intelligence, and the size of the body representing kinesthetic talent and "physical" ability.

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Some of the Armenian intellectuals who were detained, deported, and killed in the Armenian Genocide of 1915

Bias against left-handed people
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Bias based on handedness is bias or design, conscious or not, usually against people who are left-handed. Part of this is due to design in the world which is often right-hand biased, handwriting is one of the biggest sources of actual disadvantage for left-handed people, other than for those forced to work with certain machinery. These may include

Anti-Masonry
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Anti-Masonry is defined as avowed opposition to Freemasonry. However, there is no homogeneous anti-Masonic movement, Anti-Masonry consists of radically differing criticisms from sometimes incompatible groups who are hostile to Freemasonry in some form. The earliest anti-Masonic document was a leaflet printed in 1698 by a Presbyterian minister named

Biphobia
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Biphobia is aversion toward bisexuality and toward bisexual people as a social group or as individuals. It can take the form of denial that bisexuality is a sexual orientation. People of any orientation can experience or perpetuate biphobia. Biphobia is a portmanteau word patterned on the term homophobia and it derives from the English neo-classica

Ephebiphobia
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Ephebiphobia is the fear of youth. Studies of the fear of youth occur in sociology and youth studies, the word ephebiphobia is formed from the Greek ἔφηβος éphēbos, meaning youth or adolescent and φόβος phóbos, meaning fear or phobia. The coinage of this term is attributed to a 1994 article by Kirk Astroth published in Phi Delta Kappan, the term pa

Anti-fat bias
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Anti-fat bias refers to the prejudicial assumption of personality characteristics based on a visual assessment of a person as being obese. Fat activists allege anti-fat bias can be found in many facets of society, anti-fat bias leads people to associate individuals who are overweight or obese with negative personality traits such as lazy, greedy, s

Leprosy stigma
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Leprosy stigma is a kind of social stigma, a strong feeling that a leprosy patient is shameful and is not accepted normally in society. It is also called leprosy-related stigma, leprostigma, and stigma of leprosy, an example was in Hawaiʻi, where European Americans, particularly sugar planters, supported legislation to quarantine persons with lepro

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Medieval leper bell

Misogyny
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Misogyny is the hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against women or girls. Misogyny can occasionally be found within sacred texts of religions and mythologies, according to sociologist Allan G. Johnson, misogyny is a cultural attitude of hatred for females because they are female. Johnson argues that, Misogyny. is a part of sexist prejudice and

Sectarianism
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This article concentrates on sectarianism as conflict between groups. For sectarianism as a characteristic of sects, see sect, sectarianism is a form of bigotry, discrimination, or hatred arising from attaching relations of inferiority and superiority to differences between subdivisions within a group. Common examples are denominations of a religio

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The sack of Magdeburg by Catholic army in 1631. Of the 30,000 Protestant citizens, only 5,000 survived.

White supremacy
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White supremacy has roots in scientific racism and often relies on pseudoscientific arguments. The term is typically used to describe a political ideology that perpetuates. Different forms of white supremacism put forth different conceptions of who is considered white, White supremacist groups have typically opposed people of color and Jews. White

Xenophobia
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Xenophobia is the fear of that which is perceived to be foreign or strange. Xenophobia can also be exhibited in the form of an uncritical exaltation of another culture in which a culture is ascribed an unreal, stereotyped, the terms xenophobia and racism are sometimes confused and used interchangeably because people who share a national origin may

Animal cruelty
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Cruelty to animals sometimes encompasses inflicting harm or suffering for personal amusement, as in zoosadism. Laws concerning animal cruelty are designed to prevent the needless cruelty, divergent approaches to such laws occur in different jurisdictions throughout the world. For example, some laws govern methods of killing animals for food, clothi

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Man beating a chained pitbull terrier with a strap. The strap is visible in the foreground.

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Starved and bruised horse eating at a veterinary clinic after rescue

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Egg laying hens

Animal testing
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This approach can be contrasted with field studies in which animals are observed in their natural environments. Examples of applied research include testing, breeding, defense research and toxicology, in education, animal testing is sometimes a component of biology or psychology courses. The practice is regulated to varying degrees in different cou

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Claude Bernard, regarded as the "prince of vivisectors", argued that experiments on animals are "entirely conclusive for the toxicology and hygiene of man".

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One of Pavlov 's dogs with a saliva-catch container and tube surgically implanted in his muzzle, Pavlov Museum, 2005

Blood libel
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Blood libel is an accusation that Jews kidnapped and murdered the children of Christians in order to use their blood as part of their religious rituals during Jewish holidays. Historically, these claims – alongside those of well poisoning and host desecration – have been a theme of the persecution of Jews in Europe. In some cases, the victim of hum

Blood sport
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A blood sport is a category of sport or entertainment that involves the killing or injuring of animals for the pleasure of spectators, or more broadly sports that involve bloodshed. Common examples of the former include combat sports such as cockfighting and dog fighting, activities characterized as blood sports, but involving only human participan

Carnism
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Carnism is presented as a dominant belief system supported by a variety of defense mechanisms and mostly unchallenged assumptions. The term carnism was coined by social psychologist Melanie Joy in 2001 and popularized by her book Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, central to the ideology, according to the theory, is the acceptance of meat-eating as natura

Class conflict
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The view that the class struggle provides the lever for radical social change for the majority is central to the work of Karl Marx and the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin. In the past the term Class conflict was a term used mostly by socialists, from this point of view, the social control of production and labor is a contest between classes, and the divi

Compulsory sterilization
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Compulsory sterilization, also known as forced or coerced sterilization, programs are government policies which attempt to force people to undergo surgical or other sterilization. The reasons governments implement sterilization programs vary in purpose and intent, the last is counted as an act of genocide under the Statute of Rome. Compulsory steri

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A map from a 1929 Swedish royal commission report displays the U.S. states that had implemented sterilization legislation by then

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"We do not stand alone": Nazi poster from 1936 with flags of other countries with compulsory sterilization legislation

Counter-jihad
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Counter-jihad or Counterjihad is a political current consisting of organizations, bloggers and activists all linked by a common belief that the West is being subjected to takeover by Muslims. While the roots of the movement go back to the 1980s and it has been variously dubbed pro-Israel, anti-Islamic or Islamophobic, or far-right. While the roots

Ethnic cleansing
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Ethnic cleansing is the systematic forced removal of ethnic or religious groups from a given territory by a more powerful ethnic group, with the intent of making it ethnically homogeneous. The forces applied may be forms of forced migration, intimidation, as well as mass murder. An antecedent to the term is the Greek word andrapodismos, which was u

Ethnic joke
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An ethnic joke is a remark attempting humor relating to an ethnic, racial or cultural group, often referring to an ethnic stereotype of the group in question for its punchline. Perceptions of ethnic jokes are ambivalent, many find them racist and offensive. On the other hand, jokes poking fun an ones own ethnicity are considered acceptable. Davis m

Forced conversion
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Forced conversion is adoption of a different religion or irreligion under duress. Forced abandonment of religion has been described as conversion to atheism and those who convert may willingly embrace their new religion or irreligion, or may continue, covertly, with the beliefs and practices originally held, while outwardly behaving as converts. Cr

1.
A portrayal entitled The Taking of the Children on the 1999 Great Australian Clock, Queen Victoria Building, Sydney, by artist Chris Cook.

Freak show
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A freak show is an exhibition of biological rarities, referred to as freaks of nature. Heavily tattooed or pierced people have sometimes seen in freak shows. In the mid-16th century, freak shows became popular pastimes in England, deformities began to be treated as objects of interest and entertainment, and the crowds flocked to see them exhibited.

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Madam Gustika of the Duckbill tribe smoking a pipe with an extended mouthpiece for her lips during a show in a circus. Her lips were stretched by the insertion of disks of incrementally increasing size, similar to some earrings used today. United States, New York, 12 April 1930.

Gay bashing
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A bashing may be a specific incident, and one could also use the verb to bash. A verbal gay bashing might use sexual slurs, expletives, intimidation and it also might take place in a political forum and include one or more common anti-gay slogans. Similar terms such as bullying, queer bullying, and queer bashing may also be formed. Gay bashing has

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Law that prohibits discrimination against students based on sexual orientation and gender identity

Genocide
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Genocide is intentional action to destroy a people in whole or in part. The hybrid word genocide is a combination of the Greek word génos, the United Nations Genocide Convention, which was established in 1948, defines genocide as acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group. The term ge

Genocides in history
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Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction, in whole or in part, of an ethnic, racial, religious or national group. The term was coined in 1944 by Raphael Lemkin, determining what historical events constitute a genocide and which are merely criminal or inhuman behavior is not a clear-cut matter. The debate continues over what legally con

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Armenian civilians, escorted by armed Ottoman soldiers, are marched through Kharpert to a prison in the nearby Mezireh district, April 1915.

Glass ceiling
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A glass ceiling is a metaphor used to represent an invisible barrier that keeps a given demographic from rising beyond a certain level in a hierarchy. The metaphor was first coined by feminists in reference to barriers in the careers of high-achieving women, in the US, the concept is sometimes extended to refer to obstacles hindering the advancemen

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A chart illustrating the differences in earnings between men and women of the same educational level (USA 2006)

Defamation
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Under common law, to constitute defamation, a claim must generally be false and must have been made to someone other than the person defamed. Some common law jurisdictions also distinguish between spoken defamation, called slander, and defamation in other such as printed words or images. False light laws protect against statements which are not tec

Hate crime
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A hate crime is a prejudice-motivated crime, which occurs when a perpetrator targets a victim because of his or her membership in a certain social group. Examples of such groups can include and are almost exclusively limited to, sex, ethnicity, disability, language, nationality, physical appearance, religion, non-criminal actions that are motivated

Hate speech
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Hate speech is speech which attacks a person or group on the basis of attributes such as gender, ethnic origin, religion, race, disability, or sexual orientation. The law may identify a group by certain characteristics. In the law of other countries, hate speech is not a legal term, in some countries, a victim of hate speech may seek redress under

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Media regulation

Lavender scare
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The lavender scare refers to a witch hunt and mass firings of gay people in the 1950s from the United States government. It paralleled the anti-communist campaign known as McCarthyism and the Second Red Scare, Gay men and lesbians were said to be security risks and communist sympathizers, which led to the call to remove them from state employment.

Lynching
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Lynching is an extrajudicial punishment by an informal group. It is most often used to characterise informal public executions by a mob in order to punish an alleged transgressor, or to intimidate a group. It is a form of informal group social control such as charivari, skimmington, riding the rail, and tarring and feathering. Lynchings have been f

Meat eating
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Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times, the advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, pigs and cattle. This eventually led to their use in production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses. Meat is mainly composed o

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A Hereford bull, a breed of cattle frequently used in beef production.

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Blade steaks are an example of "red" meat

Stop Murder Music
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Stop Murder Music is a campaign to oppose Caribbean artists that produce music with lyrics alleged to glorify murder of homosexual men. The campaign was mainly against Jamaican musicians, primarily dancehall and ragga artists such as Buju Banton, Bounty Killer, the campaign accuses these artists of promoting violence against LGBT people through the

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The Jamaican dancehall group T.O.K. were among several artists refused to sign the Reggae Compassionate Act.

Pogrom
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A pogrom is a violent riot aimed at the massacre or persecution of an ethnic or religious group, particularly one aimed at Jews. The term originally entered the English language in order to describe 19th and 20th century attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire, similar attacks against Jews at other times and places also became retrospectively known a

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The Hep-Hep riots in Frankfurt, 1819. On the left, two peasant women are assaulting a Jewish man with pitchfork and broom. On the right, a man wearing spectacles, tails, and a six-button waistcoat, "perhaps a pharmacist or a schoolteacher," holds another Jewish man by the throat and is about to club him with a truncheon. The houses are being looted. A contemporary engraving by Johann Michael Voltz.

Purge
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A group undertaking such an effort is labeled as purging itself. Purges can be nonviolent or violent, with former often resolved by simple removal from office. The earliest use of the term itself was the English Civil Wars Prides Purge, in 1648-1650, the moderate members of the English Long Parliament were purged by the army. Parliament would suffe

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Media regulation

Ethnic conflict
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An ethnic conflict is a conflict between two or more contending ethnic groups. While the source of the conflict may be political, social, or economic and this final criterion differentiates ethnic conflict from other forms of struggle. Ethnic conflict does not necessarily have to be violent, in a multi-ethnic society where freedom of speech is prot

Red Scare
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A Red Scare is the promotion of fear of a potential rise of communism or radical leftism. In the United States, the First Red Scare was about worker revolution, the Second Red Scare was focused on national and foreign communists infiltrating or subverting U. S. society, the federal government, or both. Political scientist, and former member of the

Religious persecution
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Religious persecution is the systematic mistreatment of an individual or group of individuals as a response to their religious beliefs or affiliations or lack thereof. The tendency of societies or groups within society to alienate or repress different subcultures is a recurrent theme in human history, Religious persecution may be triggered by relig

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During Nazi rule, Jews were forced to wear yellow stars identifying them as such. Jews are an ethno-religious group and Nazi persecution was based on their race

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According to tradition, early Christians were fed to lions in the Colosseum of Rome

Scapegoating
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Scapegoating is the practice of singling out any party for unmerited negative treatment or blame as a scapegoat. Scapegoating may be conducted by individuals against individuals, individuals against groups, groups against individuals, a scapegoat may be an adult, child, sibling, employee, peer, ethnic, political or religious group, or country. A wh

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Scapegoat, 2012, bronze sculpture

Segregation academy
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While these schools were established chiefly in the Southern United States, private schools existed nationwide that were heavily segregated in practice, though perhaps not intentionally. Since the late 20th century, as patterns in United States have changed, many of these private schools began to admit minority students. Still others, in poor, majo

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Urban decay in the US: the South Bronx, New York City, was exemplar of the federal and local government's abandonment of the cities in the 1970s and 1980s; the Spanish sign reads "FALSAS PROMESAS", the English sign reads "BROKEN PROMISES".

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Road sign on a highway into Mecca, stating that one direction is "Muslims only" while another direction is "obligatory for non-Muslims". Religious police are stationed beyond the turnoff on the main road to prevent non-Muslims from proceeding into Mecca.

Age of candidacy

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In 1972, Linda Jenness ran for President of the United States although she was only 31 at the time.

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1930s identification card of a Jewish student attending Warsaw University; in addition to the usual round official seals, a rectangular stamp above his photo indicates that he is to be ghetto-benched.

Internment

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Boer women and children in a British-run concentration camp in South Africa (1900–1902)

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1904 caricature of "White" and "Jim Crow" rail cars by John T. McCutcheon. Despite Jim Crow's legal pretense that the races be "separate but equal" under the law, non-whites were given inferior facilities and treatment.

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Discrimination
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This includes treatment of an individual or group, based on their actual or perceived membership in a certain group or social category, in a way that is worse than the way people are usually treated. Discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices, and laws exist in countries and institutions in every part of the world. In some places, controversial attempts such as quotas have been used to benefit those believed to be current or past victims of discrimination—but have sometimes been called reverse discrimination, the term discriminate appeared in the early 17th century in the English language. It is from the Latin discriminat- distinguished between, from the verb discriminare, from discrimen distinction, from the verb discernere, Discrimination derives from Latin, where the verb discrimire means to separate, to distinguish, to make a distinction. Moral philosophers have defined discrimination as disadvantageous treatment or consideration, an individual need not be actually harmed in order to be discriminated against. They just need to be treated worse than others for some arbitrary reason, in addition to this discrimination develops into a source of oppression. It is similar to the action of recognizing someone as different so much that they are treated inhumanly, social competition is driven by the need for self-esteem and is aimed at achieving a positive social status for the in-group relative to comparable out-groups. Consensual discrimination is driven by the need for accuracy and reflects stable, the United Nations stance on discrimination includes the statement, Discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they all involve some form of exclusion or rejection. International bodies United Nations Human Rights Council work towards helping ending discrimination around the world, important UN documents addressing discrimination include, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 December 1948. The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination is a United Nations convention, the Convention commits its members to the elimination of racial discrimination. The convention was adopted and opened for signature by the United Nations General Assembly on 21 December 1965, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women is an international treaty adopted in 1979 by the United Nations General Assembly. Described as a bill of rights for women, it came into force on 3 September 1981. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is a human rights instrument treaty of the United Nations. Parties to the Convention are required to promote, protect, and ensure the full enjoyment of human rights by persons with disabilities, the text was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 13 December 2006, and opened for signature on 30 March 2007. Following ratification by the 20th party, it came into force on 3 May 2008, ageism or age discrimination is discrimination and stereotyping based on the grounds of someones age. It is a set of beliefs, norms, and values used to justify discrimination or subordination based on a persons age. Ageism is most often directed towards old people, or adolescents, Age discrimination in hiring has been shown to exist in the United States. In Europe, Stijn Baert, Jennifer Norga, Yannick Thuy and Marieke Van Hecke, researchers at Ghent University, interestingly, they found that age discrimination is heterogeneous by the activity older candidates undertook during their additional post-educational years

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Ageism
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Ageism is stereotyping and discriminating against individuals or groups on the basis of their age. This may be casual or systematic, the term was coined in 1969 by Robert Neil Butler to describe discrimination against seniors, and patterned on sexism and racism. Butler defined ageism as a combination of three connected elements, moreover, it has been pointed out that stigmatization does not only occur outside of the cohesively imagined group of the elderly but likewise takes place within the stigmatized group itself. It can also be passive and covert to drive the notion that the place is young, Ageism in common parlance and age studies usually refers to negative discriminatory practices against old people, people in their middle years, teenagers and children. There are several forms of age-related bias, adultism is a predisposition towards adults, which is seen as biased against children, youth, and all young people who are not addressed or viewed as adults. Jeunism is the discrimination against older people in favor of younger ones, adultcentricism is the exaggerated egocentrism of adults. Adultocracy is the convention which defines maturity and immaturity, placing adults in a dominant position over young people. Gerontocracy is a form of rule in which an entity is ruled by leaders who are significantly older than most of the adult population. Chronocentrism is primarily the belief that a state of humanity is superior to all previous and/or future times. Based on an analysis of ageism, a new definition of ageism was introduced by Iversen, Larsen. Ageism can be implicit or explicit and can be expressed on a micro-, meso- or macro-level, implicit ageism is the term used to refer to the implicit or subconscious thoughts, feelings, and behaviors one has about older or younger people. These may be a mixture of positive and negative thoughts and feelings, ageist stereotyping is a tool of cognition which involves categorizing into groups and attributing characteristics to these groups. Stereotypes are necessary for processing huge volumes of information which would otherwise overload a person, for example, age-based stereotypes prime one to draw very different conclusions when one sees an older and a younger adult with, say, back pain or a limp. One might well assume that the persons condition is temporary and treatable, following an accident, while the older persons condition is chronic. On average, this might be true, but plenty of people have accidents and recover quickly. Another example is when people are rude to children because of their high pitched voice, even if they are kind, a review of the research literature related to age stereotypes in the workplace was recently published in the Journal of Management. Contrary to common and more obvious forms of stereotyping, such as racism and sexism, ageism is more resistant to change. For instance, if a child believes in an ageist idea against the elderly, fewer people correct them, in other words, ageism can become a self-fulfilling prophecy

Ageism

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Caste
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Its paradigmatic ethnographic example is the division of Indian society into rigid social groups, with roots in Indias ancient history and persisting until today. However, the significance of the caste system in India has been declining as a result of urbanization. The term is applied to non-human populations like ants and bees. The English word caste derives from the Spanish and Portuguese casta, when the Spanish colonized the New World, they used the word to mean a clan or lineage. The use of the caste, with this latter meaning, is first attested to in English in 1613. Modern Indias caste system is based on the social groupings called jāti, the system of varnas appears in Hindu texts dating back to 1000 BCE and envisages the society divided into four classes, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The texts do not mention any separate, untouchable category in varna classification, scholars believe that the system of varnas was a theoretical classification envisioned by the Brahmins, but never truly operational in the society. The practical division of the society had always been in terms of jātis, which are not based on any specific principle, but could vary from ethnic origins to occupations. The jātis have been endogamous groups without any fixed hierarchy but subject to vague notions of rank articulated over time based on lifestyle, starting with the British colonial Census of 1901 led by Herbert Hope Risley, all the jātis were grouped under the theoretical varnas categories. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the varnas, as it provided a convenient shorthand, upon independence from Britain, the Indian Constitution listed 1,108 castes across the country as Scheduled Castes in 1950, for positive discrimination. The Untouchable communities are sometimes called Scheduled Castes, Dalit or Harijan in contemporary literature, in 2001, Dalits were 16. 2% of Indias population. Most of the 15 million bonded child workers are from the lowest castes, independent India has witnessed caste-related violence. Indias National Crime Records Bureau records crimes against scheduled castes and scheduled tribes – the most disadvantaged groups - in a separate category, the socio-economic limitations of the caste system are reduced due to urbanization and affirmative action. Nevertheless, the system still exists in endogamy and patrimony, and thrives in the politics of democracy. The globalization and economic opportunities from foreign businesses has influenced the growth of Indias middle-class population, some members of the Chhattisgarh Potter Caste Community are middle-class urban professionals and no longer potters unlike the remaining majority of traditional rural potter members. The co-existence of the middle-class and traditional members in the CPCC has created intersectionality between caste and class, there is persistence of caste in Indian politics. Caste associations have evolved into caste-based political parties, political parties and the state perceive caste as an important factor for mobilization of people and policy development. It is not politics that gets caste-ridden, it is caste that gets politicized, the Nepalese caste system resembles that of the Indian jāti system with numerous jāti divisions with a varna system superimposed for a rough equivalence

Caste
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The Basor weaving bamboo baskets in a 1916 book. The Basor are a Hindu caste found in the state of Uttar Pradesh in India.
Caste
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A page from the manuscript Seventy-two Specimens of Castes in India, which consists of 72 full-color hand-painted images of men and women of various religions, occupations and ethnic groups found in Madura, India in 1837, which confirms the popular perception and nature of caste, before the British made it applicable only to Hindus grouped under the varna categories from the 1901 census on wards.
Caste
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A Sudra caste man from Bali. Photo from 1870, courtesy of Tropenmuseum, Netherlands.
Caste
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Japanese samurai of importance and servant.

4.
Linguistic discrimination
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Linguistic discrimination is the unfair treatment of an individual based solely on his or her use of language. This use of language may include the native language or other characteristics of the persons speech, such as an accent, the size of vocabulary, modality. Based on a difference in use of language, a person may automatically form judgments about another persons wealth, education, social status and these perceived judgments may then lead to the unjustifiable treatment of the individual. In the mid-1980s, linguist Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, captured this idea of discrimination based on language as the concept of linguicism, although different names have been given to this form of discrimination, they all hold the same definition. It is also important to note that linguistic discrimination is culturally and socially determined due to a preference for one use of language over another and it can be noted that use of language such as certain accents may result in an individual experiencing prejudice. For example, some accents hold more prestige than others depending on the cultural context, however, with so many dialects, it can be difficult to determine which is the most preferable. The best answer linguists can give, such as the authors of Do You Speak American, is that it depends on the location and the individual. Research has determined however that some sounds in languages may be determined to sound less pleasant naturally, also, certain accents tend to carry more prestige in some societies over other accents. For example, in the United States, an absence of an accent or speaking American is widely preferable, also, in the United Kingdom, the Received Pronunciation is associated with being of higher class and thus more likeable. In addition to prestige, research has shown that certain accents may also be associated with less intelligence and it is natural for human beings to want to identify with others. One way we do this is by categorizing individuals into social groups. While some groups may be noticeable, other groups are less salient. Linguist Carmen Fought explains how an individuals use of language may allow another person to categorize them into a social group that may otherwise be less apparent. For example, in the United States it is common to perceive Southerners as less intelligent, belonging to a social group such as the South may be less salient than membership to other groups that are defined by ethnicity or gender. Language provides a bridge for prejudice to occur for these less salient social groups, Linguistic discrimination is often defined in terms of prejudice of language. It is important to note that there is a relationship between prejudice and discrimination, they are not always directly related. Prejudice can be defined as negative attitudes towards an individual based solely on their membership of a social group, while discrimination can be seen as the acts towards the individual. The difference between the two should be recognized because an individual may hold a prejudice against someone due to their use of language, the following are examples of linguistic prejudice that may result in discrimination

Linguistic discrimination
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Nationalists on Corsica sometimes spray-paint or shoot traffic signs written in French

5.
Mentalism (discrimination)
–
Mentalism or sanism is a form of discrimination and oppression because of a mental trait or condition a person has, or is judged to have. This may or may not be described in terms of disorder or disability. The discrimination is based on factors such as, stereotypes about neurodivergence, specific behavioral phenomena. Like other isms such as sexism and racism, mentalism involves multiple intersecting oppressions and it can result in covert discrimination by multiple, small insults and indignities. It is characterized by judgments of another persons perceived mental health status and these judgments are followed by actions such as blatant, overt discrimination. Mentalism impacts how individuals are treated by the public, by mental health professionals. The negative attitudes may also be internalized, the terms mentalism and sanism have some widespread use, though concepts such as social stigma, and in some cases ableism, may be used in similar but not identical ways. The movement of sanism is an act of resistance among those who identify as mad, consumer survivors, in academia evidence of this movement can be found in the number of recent publications about sanism and social work practice. The term sanism was coined by Morton Birnbaum during his work representing Edward Stephens, Birnbaum was a physician, lawyer and mental health advocate who helped establish a constitutional right to treatment for psychiatric patients along with safeguards against involuntary commitment. Since first noticing the term in 1980, New York legal professor Michael L. Perlin continued to use the term thereafter, in 1975 Judi Chamberlain coined the term mentalism in a book chapter of Women Look at Psychiatry. It was realized not only did the general public express mentalist ideas, so did ex-patients. As of 1998 these terms have been adopted by some consumers/survivors in the UK and the USA, however, the use of new isms has also been questioned on the grounds that they can be perceived as divisive, out of date, or a form of undue political correctness. The same criticisms, in view, may not apply so much to broader. There is also the umbrella term ableism, referring to discrimination against those who are disabled, in terms of the brain, there is the movement for the recognition of neurodiversity. The term psychophobia has occasionally used with a similar meaning. This divide can justify inconsiderate treatment of the group and expectations of poorer standards of living for them. The discrimination can be so fundamental and unquestioned that it can stop people truly empathizing or genuinely seeing the point of view with respect. Conversely, those coming from the health side may not view such conditions as disabilities in the same way

6.
Racism
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Racism is discrimination and prejudice towards people based on their race or ethnicity. Today, the use of the term racism does not easily fall under a single definition, the Holocaust is the classic example of institutionalized racism which led to the death of millions of people based on their race. Ethnicity is often used in a close to one traditionally attributed to race. Therefore, racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, according to a United Nations convention on racial discrimination, there is no distinction between the terms racial and ethnic discrimination. Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life, Racism can be present in social actions, practices, or political systems that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. Associated social actions may include nativism, xenophobia, otherness, segregation, hierarchical ranking, supremacism, in the 19th century, many scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population can be divided into races. The term racism is a noun describing the state of being racist, the origin of the root word race is not clear. Linguists generally agree that it came to the English language from Middle French, a recent proposal is that it derives from the Arabic ras, which means head, beginning, origin or the Hebrew rosh, which has a similar meaning. Early race theorists generally held that some races were inferior to others and these early theories guided pseudo-scientific research assumptions, the collective endeavors to adequately define and form hypotheses about racial differences are generally termed scientific racism. To date, there is evidence in human genome research indicating that race can be defined in such a way as to be useful in a genetic classification of humans. An entry in the Oxford English Dictionary defines racialism simply as An earlier term than racism, but now superseded by it. The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shortened term racism in a quote from the year,1903. It was first defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as he theory that human characteristics and abilities are determined by race. Additionally, the Oxford English Dictionary records racism as a synonym of racialism, as its history indicates, popular use of the word racism is relatively recent. The word came into usage in the Western world in the 1930s, when it was used to describe the social and political ideology of Nazism. It is commonly agreed that racism existed before the coinage of the word, garner summarizes different existing definitions of racism and identifies three common elements contained in those definitions of racism. First, a historical, hierarchical power relationship between groups, second, a set of ideas about racial differences, and, third, the UDHR was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. They are born equal in dignity and rights and all form a part of humanity

7.
Speciesism
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Speciesism involves the assignment of different values, rights, or special consideration to individuals solely on the basis of their species membership. Their claim is that species membership has no moral significance, the term is not used consistently, but broadly embraces two ideas. It usually refers to human speciesism, the exclusion of all animals from the rights, freedoms. Activities such as these, that were standard human behaviors across the millennia, the term speciesism, and the argument that it is simply a prejudice, first appeared in 1970 in a privately printed pamphlet written by British psychologist Richard D. Ryder. Ryder was a member of a group of intellectuals in Oxford, England, one of the groups activities was distributing pamphlets about areas of concern, the pamphlet titled Speciesism was written to protest against animal experimentation. Ryder argued in the pamphlet that ince Darwin, scientists have agreed that there is no essential difference between humans and other animals, biologically-speaking. Why then do we make an almost total distinction morally, if all organisms are on one physical continuum, then we should also be on the same moral continuum. Ryder wrote, In as much as race and species are vague terms used in the classification of living creatures according, largely, to physical appearance. Discrimination on grounds of race, although most universally condoned two centuries ago, is now widely condemned, similarly, it may come to pass that enlightened minds may one day abhor speciesism as much as they now detest racism. The illogicality in both forms of prejudice is of an identical sort, the time has come to act upon this logic. Those who claim that speciesism is unfair to non-human species have often argued their case by invoking mammals, the term was popularized by the Australian philosopher Peter Singer in his book Animal Liberation. Singer had known Ryder from his own time as a philosophy student at Oxford. He credited Ryder with having coined the term and used it in the title of his books fifth chapter, sexists violate the principle of equality by favouring the interests of their own sex. Similarly, speciesists allow the interests of their own species to override the interests of members of other species. The pattern is identical in each case, Singer argued that, although there may be differences between humans and nonhumans, they share the capacity to suffer, and we must give equal consideration to that suffering. Any position that allows similar cases to be treated in a dissimilar fashion fails to qualify as a moral theory. The term caught on, Singer wrote that it was an awkward word and it became an entry in the Oxford English Dictionary in 1985, defined as discrimination against or exploitation of animal species by human beings, based on an assumption of mankinds superiority. Paola Cavalieri writes that the current humanist paradigm is that human beings are members of the moral community

Speciesism
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Richard D. Ryder coined the term "speciesism" in 1970.
Speciesism
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Peter Singer popularized the idea in Animal Liberation (1975).
Speciesism
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The Trial of Bill Burns (1838) in London, showing Richard Martin, MP for Galway, in court with a donkey beaten by his owner, leading to the world's first known conviction for animal cruelty.
Speciesism
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Richard Dawkins argues against speciesism as an example of the "discontinuous mind".

8.
Adultism
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Adultism is the power adults have over children. More narrowly, adultism is defined as prejudice and accompanying systematic discrimination against young people, on a more philosophical basis, the term has also been defined as bias towards adults. And the social addiction to adults, including their ideas, activities, the word adultism was used by Patterson Du Bois in 1903, and appears in French psychology literature in 1929, describing the influence of adults over children. It was seen as a condition wherein a child possessed adult-like physique and spirit, and was exemplified by, A boy of 12 and they were placed in institutions because of stealing and prostitution. These forms of precocity lead the individual into difficulties and should be recognized early in the development of the individual and this definition was superseded by a late 1970s journal article proposing that adultism is the abuse of the power that adults have over children. The author identified examples of not only in parents but in teachers, psychotherapists, the clergy, police, judges. Adultism is defined as the behaviors and attitudes based on the assumptions that adults are better than young people and it is also seen as, an addiction to the attitudes, ideas, beliefs, and actions of adults. Adultism is popularly used to any discrimination against young people and is distinguished from ageism. Adultism is ostensibly caused by fear of children and youth and it has been suggested that adultism, which is associated with a view of the self that trades on rejecting and excluding child-subjectivity, has always been present in Western culture. Fletcher suggests that adultism has three main expressions throughout society, Attitudinal Adultism, Personal feelings, assumptions, and beliefs that form a person’s attitudes about young people and this is also called internalized adultism. Cultural Adultism, The shared attitudes, including beliefs and customs, promoting the assumption that adults are superior to anyone who is not identified as an adult and this is also called social adultism. This is also referred to as institutional adultism, a study by the Crisis Prevention Institute of the prevalence of adultism found an increasing number of local youth-serving organizations addressing the issue. Adultism is used to describe the oppression of children and young people by adults and it is treated as a generalization of paternalism, allowing for the broad force of adulthood beyond males, and may be witnessed in the infantalization of children and youth. Pedophobia and ephebiphobia have been proposed as the antecedents to adultism, tokophobia, the fear of childbirth, may also be a precursor, gerontophobia, or its antonym, gerontocracy, may be extensions of adultism. Similar terms such as adult privilege, adultarchy, and adultcentrism have been proposed as alternatives which are more morphologically parallel, some activists alternatively call adultism youthism, or childism equating it to sexism and heterosexism. The opposite of adultism is jeunism, which is defined as the preference of young people, at least one prominent organization describes discrimination against youth as ageism, which is any form of discrimination against anyone due to their age. The National Youth Rights Association argues that ageism is a natural and understandable term than adultism. Advocates of using ageism also believe it makes common cause with older people fighting against their own form of age discrimination, recently, theologians Heather Eaton and Matthew Fox proposed, Adultism derives from adults repressing the inner child

Adultism
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An age restriction on operating a waffle baker independently

9.
Persecution of people with albinism
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Persecution of people with albinism is based on the belief that certain body parts of albinistic people can transmit magical powers. At the same time, people with albinism have also been ostracised and even killed for exactly the reason, because they are presumed to be cursed. The persecutions of people with albinism take place mostly in Sub-Saharan African communities, both parents, who may or may not be albinos themselves, must carry the gene if it is to be passed on to the child. Albinism occurs in males and females and is not specific to any race or ethnic group. Many believe it is a punishment from God or bad luck, and that their disease could be contagious and these misconceptions, coupled with the lack of education, are some of the key reasons that albinism is so heavily persecuted. Ninety-eight percent of albinos die by the age of forty for reasons which could easily be prevented, a report was released on 1 April 2014 by the Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, office of the Canadian charity Under the Same Sun. Titled Reported Attacks of Persons with Albinism, the document reviews 180 countries and lists 129 recent killings and 181 other attacks and these attacks include mutilation, violence, violation of graves, and cases of asylum-seeking. In Tanzania, albinos represent one in every 1429 births, a higher rate than in any other nation. According to Al-Shymaa Kway-Geer, a member of parliament, there are 6977 officially registered albinos in Tanzania. However, it is believed there may be up to 17000 undocumented. A number of albinos have migrated to the Dar es Salaam area, Tanzania is thought to have the largest population of albinos in Africa. Albinos are especially persecuted in Shinyanga and Mwanza, where witch doctors have promoted a belief in the potential magical, there are further issues which arise when there is lack of education about albinism. Fathers often suspect the mother of the child of infidelity with a white man or that the child is the ghost of a European colonist. This can cause strain on families and relationships. An albino child is seen as a bad omen and treated as unwanted. Many albino babies become victims of infanticide due to these superstitious views, president Peter Mutharika has formed a committee to study the situation. African rituals and spiritual ideas about albinism have led to the murder of and attacks on innocent men, women. This has gained public attention nationally and internationally as these crimes have been reported as crimes against human rights, infanticide, kidnapping, amputations, and decapitations, committed for purposes of supplying highly valued body parts used for amulets, which are then sold in underground witchcraft market

Persecution of people with albinism
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A child of Black African heritage with albinism

10.
Anti-intellectualism
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Anti-intellectualism has been used by totalitarian dictatorships to oppress political dissent. Economist Thomas Sowell argues for distinctions between unreasonable and reasonable wariness of intellectuals, when working in their fields of expertise, intellectuals have increased knowledge. However, when compared to other careers, Sowell suggests intellectuals have few disincentives for speaking outside their expertise, for example, a physician is judged by effective treatment, yet might face malpractice lawsuits if he harms a patient. In this manner, intellectuals participate in areas where they may possess no prior knowledge at all in order to influence public policy issues. Similar arguments have been made by others, historian Paul Johnson argued that a close examination of 20th-century history reveals that intellectuals have championed innumerable disastrous public policies, writing, beware intellectuals. Not merely should they be well away from the levers of power. Journalist Tom Wolfe described an intellectual as a person knowledgeable in one field who speaks out only in others, in Brazil, the educator Paulo Freire was banished for being ignorant, according to the organizers of the coup d’ État of the moment. Extreme ideological dictatorships, such as the Khmer Rouge regime in Kampuchea, in achieving their Year Zero social engineering of Cambodia, they assassinated anyone suspected of involvement in free-market activities. The suspected Cambodian populace included professionals and almost every educated man and woman, city-dwellers, doctrinally, the Khmer Rouge designated the farmers as the true proletariat, as the true representatives of the working class, hence the anti-intellectual purge. Moreover, anti-intellectualism is neither always violent, nor oppressive, because most any social group can exercise contempt for intellect, intellectualism, and education. In fact, it is always the critical intellectuals, writers, intellectuals by definition are people who take ideas seriously for their own sake. Whether or not a theory is true or false is important to them independently of any practical applications it may have, have, as Richard Hofstadter has pointed out, an attitude to ideas that is at once playful and pious. But in the movement, the intellectual ideal of knowledge for its own sake is rejected. Knowledge is seen as only as a basis for action. Far more important than what one knows is how one feels, remember that the publishers want to keep the printing presses busy and do not object to nonsense if it can be sold. The cultural elite—women and men—will be pleading for the plumbers and the construction workers, in The Powring Out of the Seven Vials, the Puritan John Cotton wrote that the more learned and witty you bee, the more fit to act for Satan will you bee. Upon the learning of the Jesuits, and the glorie of the Episcopacy, I say bee not deceived by these pompes, empty shewes, and faire representations of goodly condition before the eyes of flesh and blood, bee not taken with the applause of these persons. Not every Puritan concurred with Cottons contempt for secular education, some founded universities such as Harvard, Yale, the highest elites and the titled aristocracies had little reason to risk their lives crossing the Atlantic and then face the perils of pioneering

Anti-intellectualism
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John Cotton (1585–1652)
Anti-intellectualism
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Intellectual and anti-intellectual: Political cartoonistThomas Nast contrasts the reedy scholar with the bovine boxer, epitomizing the populist view of reading and study as antithetical to sport and athleticism. Note the disproportionate heads and bodies, with the size of the head representing "mental" ability and intelligence, and the size of the body representing kinesthetic talent and "physical" ability.
Anti-intellectualism
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Chairman Mao Zedong
Anti-intellectualism
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Some of the Armenian intellectuals who were detained, deported, and killed in the Armenian Genocide of 1915

11.
Bias against left-handed people
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Bias based on handedness is bias or design, conscious or not, usually against people who are left-handed. Part of this is due to design in the world which is often right-hand biased, handwriting is one of the biggest sources of actual disadvantage for left-handed people, other than for those forced to work with certain machinery. These may include school desks, kitchen implements, and tools ranging from simple scissors to hazardous machinery such as power saws, beyond such neglect, however, left-handed people have been subjected to deliberate discrimination and discouragement. In certain societies, they may be considered unlucky or even malicious by the right-handed majority, many languages still contain references to left-handedness to convey awkwardness, dishonesty, stupidity, or other undesirable qualities. Among Incas left-handers were called lloqe which has positive value, peoples of the Andes consider left-handers to possess special spiritual abilities, including magic and healing. The Third Sapa Inca—Lloque Yupanqui—was left-handed and his name, when translated from Quechua, means the glorified lefthander. However, Lloque was also known as The Unforgettable Left-Handed One due to his reportedly horrifying ugliness, in the Chinese language, the character for left, 左, depicts a left hand attending to its work. In contrast, the character for right, 右, depicts a hand in relation to the mouth. In tantra Buddhism, the hand represents wisdom. In early Roman times, the side retained a positive connotation. The negative meaning was subsequently borrowed into Latin from Greek, in Russian, levsha became a common noun for skilled craftsman, after the title character from The Tale of Cross-eyed Lefty from Tula and the Steel Flea written in 1881 by Nikolai Leskov. In the context of BDSM and Leather culture, the side is traditionally associated with dominance. Flagging on the left indicated one was the performer of a rather than the recipient. The unfavorable associations and connotations of the use of the left hand among cultures are varied. In some areas, in order to preserve cleanliness where sanitation was an issue, the hand, as the dominant hand of most individuals, was used for eating, handling food. The left hand would then be used for hygiene, specifically after urination and defecation. These rules were imposed on all, no matter their dominant hand, through these practices, the left hand became known as the unclean hand. Currently, amongst Muslims and in some societies including Nepal and India it is customary to use the left hand for cleaning oneself with water after defecating

Bias against left-handed people
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Lloque Yupanqui, the third Sapa Inca, whose name means "the glorified lefthander"
Bias against left-handed people
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left-handed (left) and right-handed (right) scissors
Bias against left-handed people
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A right-handed trackball is difficult to use with the left hand.
Bias against left-handed people
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A US Navy SEALs left-handed shooter

12.
Anti-Masonry
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Anti-Masonry is defined as avowed opposition to Freemasonry. However, there is no homogeneous anti-Masonic movement, Anti-Masonry consists of radically differing criticisms from sometimes incompatible groups who are hostile to Freemasonry in some form. The earliest anti-Masonic document was a leaflet printed in 1698 by a Presbyterian minister named Winter and it reads, TO ALL GODLY PEOPLE, In the Citie of London. For this devllish Sect of Men are Meeters in secret which swear against all without ther Following and they are the Anti Christ which was to come leading Men from Fear of God. For how should Men meet in secret Places and with secret Signs taking Care that none observed them to do the Work of GOD, are not these the Ways of Evil-doers. Knowing how that God observeth privilly them that sit in Darkness they shall be smitten, mingle not among this corrupt People lest you be found so at the Worlds Conflagration. In 1826, William Morgan disappeared from the town of Batavia, New York. His disappearance caused some Anti-masons to claim that he had kidnapped and murdered by Masons. Morgans disappearance sparked a series of protests against Freemasonry, which spread to the political realm. Under the leadership of anti-Masonic Thurlow Weed, an Anti-Jacksonist movement became the Anti-Masonic Party and this political Party ran presidential candidates in 1828 and 1832, but by 1835 the party had disbanded everywhere except Pennsylvania. In the United Kingdom, anti-Masonic sentiment grew following the publication of Martin Shorts 1989 book and this movement was initially led by Jack Straw, Home Secretary from 1997 until 2001. In 1999, the Welsh Assembly became the body in the United Kingdom to place a legal requirement on membership declaration for Freemasons. Currently, existing members of the police and judiciary in England are asked to admit to being Freemasons. Conversely, new members of the police are not required to declare their status, Soviet Russia outlawed all secret societies, including Masonry, in 1922. At one of the Second International meetings Grigory Zinoviev demanded to purge it of masons, Freemasonry did not exist in the Soviet Union, China, or most other Communist states. Postwar revivals of Freemasonry in Czechoslovakia and Hungary were suppressed in 1950, however, when in power, Castro was also said to have kept them on a tight leash as they were considered a subversive element in Cuban society. Fascists treated Freemasonry as a source of opposition. Masonic writers state that the used by the totalitarian regimes is similar to that used by some modern critics of Freemasonry

13.
Biphobia
–
Biphobia is aversion toward bisexuality and toward bisexual people as a social group or as individuals. It can take the form of denial that bisexuality is a sexual orientation. People of any orientation can experience or perpetuate biphobia. Biphobia is a portmanteau word patterned on the term homophobia and it derives from the English neo-classical prefix bi- from bisexual and the root -phobia found in homophobia. Along with transphobia and homophobia, it is one of a family of terms used to describe intolerance, the adjectival form biphobic describes things or qualities related to biphobia, and the less-common noun biphobe is a label for people thought to harbor biphobia. Biphobia need not be a phobia as defined in clinical psychology and its meaning and use typically parallel those of xenophobia. Biphobia can deny that bisexuality is real, asserting that people who identify as bisexual are not genuinely bisexual, one form of this denial is based on the heterosexist view that heterosexuality is the only true or natural sexual orientation. Thus anything that deviates from that is either a psychological pathology or an example of anti-social behavior. In these instances, homophobia and biphobia are largely the same, another form of denial stems from binary views of sexuality, that people are assumed monosexual, i. e. exclusively homosexual or heterosexual. In that model, bisexuals are presumed to be either closeted lesbian/gay people wishing to appear heterosexual, maxims such as people are either gay, straight, or lying embody this dichotomous view of sexual orientation. Some people accept the existence of bisexuality but define it narrowly. Thus the many individuals with unequal attractions are instead categorized as either homosexual or heterosexual. Others acknowledge the existence of bisexuality in women, but deny that men can be bisexual, some denial asserts that bisexual behavior or identity is merely a social trend – as exemplified by bisexual chic or gender bending – and not an intrinsic personality trait. Same-gender sexual activity is dismissed as merely a substitute for sex with members of the opposite sex, situational homosexuality in sex-segregated environments is presented as an example of this behavior. This leaves some that identify as bisexual to be perceived as not enough of either or not real, many stereotypes about people who identify as bisexual stem from denial or bisexual erasure. Because their orientation is not recognized as valid, they are stereotyped as confused, indecisive, insecure, experimenting and this presumed behavior is further generalized as dishonesty, secrecy, and deception. Bisexuals can be characterized as being slutty, easy, indiscriminate, furthermore, they are strongly associated with polyamory, swinging, and polygamy, the last being an established heterosexual tradition sanctioned by some religions and legal in several countries. This is despite the fact that people are as capable of monogamy or serial monogamy as homosexuals or heterosexuals

14.
Ephebiphobia
–
Ephebiphobia is the fear of youth. Studies of the fear of youth occur in sociology and youth studies, the word ephebiphobia is formed from the Greek ἔφηβος éphēbos, meaning youth or adolescent and φόβος phóbos, meaning fear or phobia. The coinage of this term is attributed to a 1994 article by Kirk Astroth published in Phi Delta Kappan, the term paedophobia has gained popular acceptance in Europe to describe the aforementioned fear of youth. Pediaphobia is the fear of infants and children, similar terms include adultism, which is a predisposition towards adults that is biased against children and youth, and ageism, which describes discrimination against any person because of their age. The fear of youth, along with fear of street culture, machiavelli is said to have realized that a fear of youth is what kept the city of Florence from keeping a standing army. Ancient Venice and ancient Greece are also said to have had floundering public policy because of their fear of youth. Early American Puritanism has been seen as reliant on a fear of youth, who were seen as embodying adventure and enlightenment, post-World War II France was said to have been stricken by concern for mal de jeunesse when they created policies that reflected their fear of youth. Send them to camps, place others in reformatories, the rest should have some fresh air. Were the intentions of youth policies in that era, following World War II the United States military identified the growing number of youth in the Deep South as a problematic scenario for national security. Analysts have suggested the upswing in the popular cultures fear of youth may be attributed to policies created in response to that threat. The Seattle Weekly specifically cited the fear of youth as the factor behind Seattle. The government of Prime Minister Tony Blair introduced the Anti-Social Behaviour Order in 1998, media, marketers, politicians, youth workers and researchers have been implicated in perpetuating the fear of youth. Since young people in developed countries are expected to stay out of the workforce, the very creation of the terms youth, adolescence and teenager have all been attributed to the fear of youth. Courts have increasingly ruled against youth rights, as well, before the 1940s teenagers were not listed in newspaper headlines, because as a group they did not exist. The impact of youth since World War II on western society has been immense, in turn, youth are caused to behave in ways that appear different from adults. This has led to the phenomenon of youth, and in turn has created a fear of them. The fear of youth is thought to exist throughout the entire Western world, sociologist Ray Oldenburg has attributed the generation gap and the increasing segregation of youth from adults in American society to adult estrangement and fear of youth. At least one major economist has proposed that the fear of youth can have effects on the economic health of nations

Ephebiphobia

15.
Anti-fat bias
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Anti-fat bias refers to the prejudicial assumption of personality characteristics based on a visual assessment of a person as being obese. Fat activists allege anti-fat bias can be found in many facets of society, anti-fat bias leads people to associate individuals who are overweight or obese with negative personality traits such as lazy, greedy, stupid, smelly, slow, or unmotivated. This bias is not restricted to clinically obese individuals, but also encompasses those whose shape is in some way found unacceptable according to societys modern standards. It is an example of the halo effect in cultures where physical preferences favor low body fat. Fat-shaming is fairly common in the United States, even though most adult Americans are overweight, huffington Post wrote two-thirds of American adults are overweight or obese. Yet overweight and obese individuals are subject to discrimination from employers, healthcare professionals, anti-fat bias can be moderated by giving a mitigating context to the individual’s appearance of obesity. For example, when told an individual was obese because of overeating and lack of exercise, when the group was told that genetics was to blame they did not exhibit a lowered implicit bias after the explanation. Anti-fat bias is not a strictly Western cultural phenomenon, instances of implicit anti-fat bias have been found across several cultures. Newer research suggests that the traits and attributions are post hoc justifications for the expression of prejudice against obese people. The media is often blamed for the strong negative trait associations that society has toward overweight individuals, among the movies used in the study, two Disney movies contained the highest amount of messages about personal beauty. Representation of overweight individuals in prime time programming is not representative of the proportion in the population. Only 14% of females and 24% of males featured in the top ten prime-time fictional programs of 2003 were overweight and those that were shown had few romantic interactions, rarely shared affection with other characters, and were frequently shown consuming food. In 2007, another analysis sampled 135 scenes featuring overweight individuals from popular television programs and movies, the majority of anti-fat humor found was verbal and directed at the individual in their presence. On September 29,2011, prominent nationally syndicated columnist Michael Kinsley wrote, New Jersey Governor Chris Christie cannot be president, why should Christies weight be more than we can bear in a president. Why should it even be an issue if he runs. One reason is that a candidate should be judged on behavior. Perhaps Christie is the one to help us get our national appetites under control, but it would help if he got his own under control first. Governor Christies response, on October 4,2011, The people who pretend to be serious commentators who wrote about this are among the most ignorant Ive ever heard in my life

Anti-fat bias

16.
Leprosy stigma
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Leprosy stigma is a kind of social stigma, a strong feeling that a leprosy patient is shameful and is not accepted normally in society. It is also called leprosy-related stigma, leprostigma, and stigma of leprosy, an example was in Hawaiʻi, where European Americans, particularly sugar planters, supported legislation to quarantine persons with leprosy in the belief that this would prevent its transmission. In a paper entitled Leprosy stigma, William Jopling cited the definition of stigma by Erving Goffman, Leprosy stigma has been associated with the disease for most of its history. In Western Europe it reached its peak in the Middle Ages, patients had to carry bells to signal their presence but also to attract charitable gifts. The finding in 1873 by Hansen that leprosy was infectious and transmitted by a bacterium worsened leprosy stigma and it was long associated with sexually transmitted diseases and during the nineteenth century was thought to be a stage of syphilis. Numerous societies in the Middle Ages and nineteenth and twentieth centuries required separation of persons with leprosy from the general population, in medieval times, leprosy patients lived apart, settling around temples or shrines, where they begged for charity from passers-by. Starting in 1909, the government required leprosy patients to be hospitalized in the leprosy sanatoria, in some cases, patients were forcibly taken to the sanatoria and their houses were disinfected in the presence of neighbors. Their families were affected by leprosy stigma. In Kumamoto, Japan, a patient with leprosy named Matsuo Fujimoto was tried on charges of an explosion in 1951, during the questioning and trial procedures, he was discriminated against as a leprosy patient. He was convicted and executed in 1962, Kumamoto Prefecture Governor Yoshiko Shiotani reported in 2003 that a hotel rejected reservations of ex-patients of Kikuchi Keifuen Sanatorium who were on the Prefectures home visit program. Many people protested against the hotel, when the patients rejected the apology of the hotel, there were violent protests against the patients. The hotel tore down this building in June 2004, in Joplings original report, he quoted Hansen as saying the Norwegian state has always handled its leprosy victims humanely. Hospitalized patients were free to go out during the day to sell their handwork in the market, there was little evidence of stigma. Many patients immigrated to the United States, but that was because of seeking to escape poverty, the concept of heredity was deeply rooted, and when leprosy was thought to be inherited, persons with the disease were shunned. As deformity was considered divine punishment, stigma was associated with it, Leprosy stigma has been considerable, though it has declined since the late twentieth century. Its resulting facial disfigurement and mutilation of limbs was feared, the diseases long incubation period resulted in mystery for centuries about its origins, inspiring horror, fear and disgust. In 1866 the Hawaiian legislature passed a law requiring quarantine of persons with leprosy and those with severe cases were sent to Kalawao, an isolated settlement on the island of Molokaʻi. Later a second and larger settlement was developed at Kalaupapa and this settlement had a peak population of about 1100 shortly after the turn of the twentieth century, in total about 8500 persons were quarantined here over the decades until 1965

Leprosy stigma
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Medieval leper bell

17.
Misogyny
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Misogyny is the hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against women or girls. Misogyny can occasionally be found within sacred texts of religions and mythologies, according to sociologist Allan G. Johnson, misogyny is a cultural attitude of hatred for females because they are female. Johnson argues that, Misogyny. is a part of sexist prejudice and ideology and. Misogyny is manifested in different ways, from jokes to pornography to violence to the self-contempt women may be taught to feel toward their own bodies. Dictionaries define misogyny as hatred of women and as hatred, dislike, the counterpart of misogyny is misandry, the hatred or dislike of men, the antonym of misogyny is philogyny, the love or fondness of women. The term misogyny itself comes directly into English from the Ancient Greek word misogunia, the earlier, longer, and more complete passage comes from a moral tract known as On Marriage by the stoic philosopher Antipater of Tarsus. Antipater argues that marriage is the foundation of the state, and he uses misogunia to describe the sort of writing the tragedian Euripides eschews, stating that he reject the hatred of women in his writing. He then offers an example of this, quoting from a lost play of Euripides in which the merits of a wife are praised. The other surviving use of the original Greek word is by Chrysippus, in a fragment from On affections, here, misogyny is the first in a short list of three disaffections—women, wine and humanity. Chrysippus point is more abstract than Antipaters, and Galen quotes the passage as an example of a contrary to his own. What is clear, however, is that he groups hatred of women with hatred of humanity generally and it was the prevailing medical opinion of his day that wine strengthens body and soul alike. So Chrysippus, like his fellow stoic Antipater, views misogyny negatively, as a disease and it is this issue of conflicted or alternating emotions that was philosophically contentious to the ancient writers. Ricardo Salles suggests that the general view was that man may not only alternate between philogyny and misogyny, philanthropy and misanthropy, but be prompted to each by the other. Aristotle has also accused of being a misogynist, he has written that women were inferior to men. The Timaeus warns men that if they live immorally they will be reincarnated as women, the Republic contains a number of comments in the same spirit, evidence of nothing so much as of contempt toward women. Even Socrates words for his bold new proposal about marriage, suggest that the women are to be held in common by men. He never says that the men might be held in common by the women, misogynist is also found in the Greek—misogunēs —in Deipnosophistae and in Plutarchs Parallel Lives, where it is used as the title of Heracles in the history of Phocion. It was the title of a play by Menander, which we know of from seven of Strabos 17 volume Geography

18.
Sectarianism
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This article concentrates on sectarianism as conflict between groups. For sectarianism as a characteristic of sects, see sect, sectarianism is a form of bigotry, discrimination, or hatred arising from attaching relations of inferiority and superiority to differences between subdivisions within a group. Common examples are denominations of a religion, ethnic identity, class, or region for citizens of a state, the ideological underpinnings of attitudes and behaviours labelled as sectarian are extraordinarily varied. Sometimes a group that is under economic or political pressure will kill or attack members of group which it regards as responsible for its own decline. At other times, sectarianism may be the expression of a nationalistic or cultural ambitions. The phrase sectarian conflict usually refers to violent conflict along religious or political lines such as the conflicts between Nationalists and Unionists in Northern Ireland and it may also refer to general philosophical, political disparity between different schools of thought such as that between Shia and Sunni Muslims. Non-sectarians espouse that free association and tolerance of different beliefs are the cornerstone to successful peaceful human interaction and they espouse political and religious pluralism. Wherever people of different religions live in proximity to each other, religious sectarianism can often be found in varying forms. In some areas, religious sectarians now exist peacefully side-by-side for the most part, although these differences have resulted in violence, death, probably the best-known example in recent times were The Troubles. Catholic-Protestant sectarianism has also been a factor in U. S. presidential campaigns, prior to John F. Kennedy, only one Catholic had ever been a major party presidential nominee, and he had been solidly defeated largely because of claims based on his Catholicism. Many Sunni religious leaders, including those inspired by Wahhabism and other ideologies have declared Shias to be heretics and/or apostates, since the 12th century there has been sectarian conflict of varying intensity in Ireland. This religious sectarianism is connected to a degree with nationalism and this has been particularly intense in Northern Ireland since the early 17th century plantation of Ulster under James I. Sectarian tensions can be found in regions of the British Isles to this day, including Scotland, Liverpool, Birmingham. Historically, some Catholic countries once persecuted Protestants as heretics, for example, the substantial Protestant population of France was expelled from the kingdom in the 1680s following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In Spain, the Inquisition sought to root out crypto-Jews but also crypto-Muslims, in most places where Protestantism is the majority or official religion, there have been examples of Catholics being persecuted. In countries where the Reformation was successful, this often lay in the perception that Catholics retained allegiance to a foreign power, sometimes this mistrust manifested itself in Catholics being subjected to restrictions and discrimination, which itself led to further conflict. For example, before Catholic Emancipation was introduced with the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, the invasion of Ireland by English parliamentarian forces under Oliver Cromwell in 1659 was notoriously brutal and witnessed the widespread ethnic cleansing of the native Irish. The failure of the Rebellion of 1798, which sought to unite Protestants and Catholics for an independent Ireland, the conflict was primarily fought over the existence of the Northern Irish state rather than religion, though sectarian relations within Northern Ireland fueled the conflict

19.
White supremacy
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White supremacy has roots in scientific racism and often relies on pseudoscientific arguments. The term is typically used to describe a political ideology that perpetuates. Different forms of white supremacism put forth different conceptions of who is considered white, White supremacist groups have typically opposed people of color and Jews. White supremacy was dominant in the United States even after the American Civil War, in large areas of the U. S. this included the holding of non-whites in chattel slavery with four million denied freedom from bondage. The outbreak of the Civil War saw the desire to uphold white supremacy cited as a cause for state secession, in an editorial about Native Americans in 1890, author L. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, the denial of social and political freedom continued into the mid-20th century resulting in the Civil Rights Movement. On the U. S. immigration laws prior to 1965, many U. S. states banned interracial marriage through anti-miscegenation laws until 1967, when these laws were invalidated by the Supreme Court of the United States decision in Loving v. Virginia. Additionally, white leaders often viewed Native Americans as obstacles to economic and political progress with respect to the claims to land. The terms recent rise in popularity among leftist activists has been characterized by some as counterproductive, in an opinion piece in The Atlantic, Conor Friedersdorf has said that the usage of the term by activists creates confusion because it strays from the common definition. Nazism promoted the idea of a superior Germanic people or Aryan race in Germany during the early 20th century, gobineaus theories, which attracted a strong following in Germany, emphasized the existence of an irreconcilable polarity between Aryan or Germanic peoples and Jewish cultures. Many modern-day white supremacist groups around the world reuse Nazi symbolism, including the swastika, racial segregation in South Africa began in colonial times under the Dutch Empire, and continued when the British took over the Cape of Good Hope in 1795. Apartheid as an officially structured policy was introduced by the Afrikaner-dominated National Party after the election of 1948. Legislation divided inhabitants into four racial groups—black, white, coloured, and Indian, in 1970, the Afrikaner-run government abolished non-white political representation, and starting that year black people were deprived of South African citizenship. South Africa abolished apartheid in 1991, in Rhodesia, a predominantly white government issued its own unilateral declaration of independence from the United Kingdom during an unsuccessful attempt to avoid immediate majority rule. Neo-Nazi organisations embracing white-supremacist ideology are present in countries in the world. It has been claimed in 2007, that Russian Neo-Nazis accounted for half of the worlds total, White racial advantages occur both at a collective and an individual level. Legal scholar Frances Lee Ansley explains this definition as follows, By white supremacy I do not mean to allude only to the racism of white supremacist hate groups. Some anti-racist educators, such as Betita Martinez and the Challenging White Supremacy workshop, the term expresses historic continuities between a pre-African-American Civil Rights Movement era of open white supremacism and the current racial power structure of the United States

20.
Xenophobia
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Xenophobia is the fear of that which is perceived to be foreign or strange. Xenophobia can also be exhibited in the form of an uncritical exaltation of another culture in which a culture is ascribed an unreal, stereotyped, the terms xenophobia and racism are sometimes confused and used interchangeably because people who share a national origin may also belong to the same race. Due to this, xenophobia is usually distinguished by opposition to foreign culture, Xenophobia is a political term and not a recognized medical phobia. Dictionary definitions of xenophobia include, deep-rooted fear towards foreigners, the word comes from the Ancient Greek words ξένος, meaning strange, foreigner, and φόβος, meaning fear. In other words, xenophobia arises when people feel that their entitlement to benefit from the government is being subverted by other peoples rights, in 2014, the state of Penang held a referendum that bans foreigners from cooking local cuisines. A well-known local chef, Redzuawan Ismail, criticised this law, Xenophobia in South Africa has been present in both the apartheid and post–apartheid eras. Hostility between the British and Boers exacerbated by the Second Boer War led to rebellion by poor Afrikaners who looted British-owned shops, the Township Franchise Ordinance of 1924 was intended to deprive Indians of municipal franchise. In 1994 and 1995, gangs of armed youth destroyed the homes of foreign nationals living in Johannesburg, in 2008, a widely documented spate of xenophobic attacks occurred in Johannesburg. It is estimated that tens of thousands of migrants were displaced, property, the death toll after the attack stood at 56. In 2015, another widely documented series of attacks occurred in South Africa. This followed remarks by Zulu King Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu stating that the migrants should pack their bags, as of 20 April 2015,7 people had died and more than 2000 foreigners had been displaced. The 2005 Cronulla riots resulted from strained relationsbetween white and Lebanese Australians, media related to Xenophobia at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Xenophobia at Wikiquote

21.
Animal cruelty
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Cruelty to animals sometimes encompasses inflicting harm or suffering for personal amusement, as in zoosadism. Laws concerning animal cruelty are designed to prevent the needless cruelty, divergent approaches to such laws occur in different jurisdictions throughout the world. For example, some laws govern methods of killing animals for food, clothing, or other products, Cruelty to animals is not necessarily the same thing as disrespect towards animals. In broad terms, there are three approaches to the issue of cruelty to animals. Utilitarian advocates argue from the position of costs and benefits and vary in their conclusions as to the treatment of animals. Some utilitarians argue for an approach which is closer to the animal welfare position. Animal rights theorists criticize these positions, arguing that the unnecessary and humane are subject to widely differing interpretations. They say that the way to ensure protection for animals is to end their status as property. Certain thinkers, however, still viewed cruelty against animals as an injustice, renaissance polymath Leonardo da Vincis regard for animal welfare, for example, is well-documented. He was particularly troubled by the sight of birds in captivity, da Vinci also expressed anger within his notebooks with the fact that humans use their strength and power to raise animals for slaughter. René Descartes contrarily believed that non-humans are automata, complex machines with no soul, mind, in Cartesian dualism, consciousness was unique to human among all other animals and linked to physical matter by divine grace. However, close analysis shows that many features such as complex sign usage, tool use. Charles Darwin, by presenting the theory of evolution, revolutionized the way that humans viewed their relationship with other species, Darwin believed that not only did human beings have a direct kinship with other animals, but the latter had social, mental and moral lives too. Later, in The Descent of Man, he wrote, There is no difference between man and the higher mammals in their mental faculties. Some philosophers and intellectuals, such as Peter Singer and Tom Regan, have argued that animals ability to feel pain as humans does make their well-being worthy of equal consideration, There are many precursors of this train of thought. Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, famously wrote in his An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, The question is not, can they reason nor can they talk. These arguments have prompted some to suggest that animals well-being should enter a social welfare function directly, in one survey of United States homeowners, 68% of respondents said they actually consider the price of meat a more important issue. Animal cruelty can be broken down into two categories, active and passive

Animal cruelty
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The Second Stage of Cruelty – Coachman Beating a Fallen Horse, from the series The Four Stages of Cruelty by William Hogarth, 1751, depicting the beating and prodding of various domesticated animals
Animal cruelty
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Man beating a chained pitbull terrier with a strap. The strap is visible in the foreground.
Animal cruelty
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Starved and bruised horse eating at a veterinary clinic after rescue
Animal cruelty
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Egg laying hens

22.
Animal testing
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This approach can be contrasted with field studies in which animals are observed in their natural environments. Examples of applied research include testing, breeding, defense research and toxicology, in education, animal testing is sometimes a component of biology or psychology courses. The practice is regulated to varying degrees in different countries, worldwide it is estimated that the number of vertebrate animals—from zebrafish to non-human primates—ranges from the tens of millions to more than 100 million used annually. In the United States in 2014, official statistics indicate that 834,453 vertebrates were used in research, in the European Union, these species represent 93% of animals used in research. If the same was true in the United States, then the number of animals used in research is estimated to be between 12 and 25 million. One estimate of mice and rats used in the United States alone in 2001 was 80 million, in the European Union in 2011,11.5 million animals were used in research. Mice, rats, fish, amphibians and reptiles together account for over 85% of research animals, most animals are euthanized after being used in an experiment. Supporters of the use of animals in experiments, such as the British Royal Society, the terms animal testing, animal experimentation, animal research, in vivo testing, and vivisection have similar denotations but different connotations. Literally, vivisection means the cutting up of a living animal, the word has a negative connotation, implying torture, suffering, and death. The word vivisection is preferred by those opposed to this research, the earliest references to animal testing are found in the writings of the Greeks in the 2nd and 4th centuries BCE. Aristotle and Erasistratus were among the first to perform experiments on living animals, galen, a physician in 2nd-century Rome, dissected pigs and goats, and is known as the father of vivisection. Animals have repeatedly been used through the history of biomedical research, the founders, in 1831, of the Dublin Zoo were members of the medical profession, interested in studying the animals both while they were alive and when they were dead. In the 1880s, Louis Pasteur convincingly demonstrated the theory of medicine by inducing anthrax in sheep. In the 1880s, Robert Koch infected mice and guinea pigs with anthrax, in the 1890s, Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to describe classical conditioning. In World War I, German agents infected sheep bound for Russia with anthrax, between 1917 and 1918, the Germans infected mules in Argentina bound for American forces, resulting in the death of 200 mules. Insulin was first isolated from dogs in 1922, and revolutionized the treatment of diabetes, on November 3,1957, a Soviet dog, Laika, became the first of many animals to orbit the earth. In the 1970s, antibiotic treatments and vaccines for leprosy were developed using armadillos and this genetic research progressed rapidly and, in 1996, Dolly the sheep was born, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell. Toxicology testing became important in the 20th century, in the 19th century, laws regulating drugs were more relaxed

23.
Blood libel
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Blood libel is an accusation that Jews kidnapped and murdered the children of Christians in order to use their blood as part of their religious rituals during Jewish holidays. Historically, these claims – alongside those of well poisoning and host desecration – have been a theme of the persecution of Jews in Europe. In some cases, the victim of human sacrifice has become venerated as a martyr. Three of these – William of Norwich, Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln, and Simon of Trent – became objects of local sects and veneration, one, Gavriil Belostoksky, was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church. In Jewish lore, blood libels were the impetus for the creation of the Golem of Prague by Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel in the 16th century. According to Walter Laqueur, Altogether, there have been about 150 recorded cases of blood libel resulted in the arrest and killing of Jews throughout history. In almost every case, Jews were murdered, sometimes by a mob, sometimes following torture, the term blood libel can also refer to any unpleasant and damaging false accusation, and has taken on a broader metaphorical meaning. However, this remains controversial and has been protested by Jewish groups. The supposed torture and human sacrifice alleged in the blood libels run contrary to the teachings of Judaism, according to the Bible, God commanded Abraham in the Binding of Isaac to sacrifice his son, but ultimately provided a ram as a substitute. The Ten Commandments in the Torah forbid murder, in addition, the use of blood in cooking is prohibited by the kosher dietary laws. Blood from slaughtered animals may not be consumed, and must be drained out of the animal, according to the Book of Leviticus, blood from sacrificed animals may only be placed on the altar of the Great Temple in Jerusalem. Furthermore, consumption of human flesh would violate kashrut, while animal sacrifice was part of the practice of ancient Judaism, the Tanakh and Jewish teachings portray human sacrifice as one of the evils that separated the pagans of Canaan from the Hebrews. Jews were prohibited from engaging in rituals and were punished for doing so. In fact, ritual cleanliness for priests prohibited them from even being in the room as a human corpse. The earliest versions of the accusation involved Jews crucifying Christian children at Easter/Passover because of a prophecy, there is no reference to the use of blood in unleavened matzo bread, which evolves later as a major motivation for the crime. The Graeco-Egyptian author Apion claimed that Jews sacrificed Greek victims in their temple and this accusation is known from Josephus rebuttal of it in Against Apion. Apion states that when Antiochus Epiphanes entered the temple in Jerusalem, every year, Apion claimed, the Jews would sacrifice a Greek and consume his flesh, at the same time swearing eternal hatred to Greeks. Apions claim probably repeats ideas already in circulation as similar claims are made by Posidonius and Apollonius Molon in the 1st century BC, another example concerns the murder of a Christian boy by a group of Jewish youths

Blood libel
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The crucifixion of William of Norwich depicted on a rood screen in Holy Trinity church, Loddon, Norfolk
Blood libel
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Painting of Werner of Oberwesel as a martyr
Blood libel
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From an 18th-century etching from Brückenturm. Above: The murdered body of Simon of Trent. Below: The " Judensau."
Blood libel
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Fresco in St Paul's Church in Sandomierz, Poland, depicting blood libel

24.
Blood sport
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A blood sport is a category of sport or entertainment that involves the killing or injuring of animals for the pleasure of spectators, or more broadly sports that involve bloodshed. Common examples of the former include combat sports such as cockfighting and dog fighting, activities characterized as blood sports, but involving only human participants, include the Ancient Roman gladiatorial games and the modern mixed martial arts. According to Tanner Carson, the earliest use of the term is in reference to mounted hunting, before firearms a hunter using arrows or a spear might also wound an animal, which would then be chased and perhaps killed at close range, as in medieval boar hunting. The term was popularised by author Henry Stephens Salt, later, the term seems to have been applied to various kinds of baiting and forced combat, bull-baiting, bear-baiting, cockfighting and later developments such as dog fighting and rat-baiting. The animals were specially bred for fighting, in the Victorian era, social reformers began a vocal opposition to such activities, claiming grounds of ethics, morality and animal welfare. Animal rights and animal advocates have sought to extend the term blood sport to various types of hunting. Trophy hunting and fox hunting in particular have been disparaged as blood sports by those concerned about animal welfare, animal ethics, recreational fishing has sometimes been described as a blood sport by those within the recreation. Limitations on blood sports have been enacted in much of the world, certain blood sports remain legal under varying degrees of control in certain locations but have declined in popularity elsewhere. Proponents of blood sports are widely cited to believe that they are traditional within the culture, bullfighting aficionados, for example, do not regard bullfighting as a sport but as a cultural activity. It is sometimes called a spectacle, because in many forms of the event, the bull is invariably killed. Many online video-sharing website such as YouTube do not allow videos of animal bloodsports to be shown on the site, blood sports have been a common theme in fiction. Some popular works themed on blood sports are Battle Royale, The Hunger Games, The Running Man, The Long Walk, Fight Club, Death Race 2000, Amores Perros, and The Most Dangerous Game. Blood sports are also a setting for video games, making up much of the fighting game genre. Developed science fiction such as Star Wars and Doctor Who feature different blood sports

25.
Carnism
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Carnism is presented as a dominant belief system supported by a variety of defense mechanisms and mostly unchallenged assumptions. The term carnism was coined by social psychologist Melanie Joy in 2001 and popularized by her book Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, central to the ideology, according to the theory, is the acceptance of meat-eating as natural, normal, necessary, and nice. This classification is culturally relative, so that, for example, dogs are eaten by people in Korea but may be pets in the West, while cows are eaten in the West. Analyzing the history of vegetarianism and opposition to it from ancient Greece to the present day, in the 1970s traditional views on the moral standing of animals were challenged by animal rights advocates, including psychologist Richard Ryder, who in 1971 introduced the notion of speciesism. This is defined as the assignment of value and rights to individuals solely on the basis of their species membership. In 2001 psychologist and animal rights advocate Melanie Joy coined the term carnism for a form of speciesism that she argues underpins using animals for food, and particularly killing them for meat. Rather, we see it as a given, the thing to do, the way things have always been. We eat animals without thinking about what we are doing and why and this invisible belief system is what I call carnism. Sandra Mahlke argues that carnism is the crux of speciesism because the eating of meat motivates ideological justification for other forms of animal exploitation. There is cultural variability regarding which animals count as food, Dogs are eaten in China, and South Korea, but elsewhere are not viewed as food, either because they are loved or, as in the Middle East and parts of India, regarded as unclean. Cows are eaten in the West, but revered in much of India, Pigs are rejected by Muslims and Jews but widely regarded by other groups as edible. Jeff Mannes writes that carnism is rooted in a paradox between most peoples values and actions, they oppose harming animals, and yet eat them and he argues that this conflict leads to cognitive dissonance, which people attempt to attenuate through psychic numbing. The apparent conflict between caring about animals and embracing diets which require them to be harmed has been termed the meat paradox, there is experimental evidence supporting the idea that the meat paradox induces cognitive dissonance in Westerners. Avoiding consideration of the provenance of animal products is another strategy, Joy argues that this is why meat is rarely served with the animals head or other intact body parts. Joy introduced the idea of the Three Ns of Justification, writing that meat-eaters regard meat consumption as normal, natural, and necessary. The argument holds that people are conditioned to believe humans evolved to eat meat, that it is expected of them. These beliefs are said to be reinforced by institutions, including religion, family. Although scientists have shown that humans get more than enough protein in their diets without eating meat, the arguments were that humans are omnivores, that most people eat meat, that vegetarian diets are lacking in nutrients, and that meat tastes good

26.
Class conflict
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The view that the class struggle provides the lever for radical social change for the majority is central to the work of Karl Marx and the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin. In the past the term Class conflict was a term used mostly by socialists, from this point of view, the social control of production and labor is a contest between classes, and the division of these resources necessarily involves conflict and inflicts harm. It can involve ongoing low-level clashes, escalate into massive confrontations, however, in more contemporary times this term is striking chords and finding new definition amongst capitalistic societies in the United States and other Westernized countries. This was only a potential, and class struggle was, he argued, not always the only or decisive factor in society, by contrast, Marxists argue that class conflict always plays the decisive and pivotal role in the history of class-based hierarchical systems such as capitalism and feudalism. Marxists refer to its overt manifestations as class war, a struggle whose resolution in favor of the class is viewed by them as inevitable under plutocratic capitalism. Where societies are socially divided based on status, wealth, or control of production and distribution. It is well documented since at least European Classical Antiquity and the popular uprisings in late medieval Europe. One of the earliest analysis of these conflicts is Friedrich Engels The Peasant War in Germany, one of the earliest analyses of the development of class as the development of conflicts between emergent classes is available in Peter Kropotkins Mutual Aid. In this work, Kropotkin analyzes the disposal of goods after death in pre-class or hunter-gatherer societies, chris Hedges wrote a column for Truthdig called Lets Get This Class War Started, which was a play on Pinks song Lets Get This Party Started. And I think that can go on for so long without there being more and more outbreaks of what used to be called class struggle. The particular implementation of government programs which may seem purely humanitarian, such as disaster relief, in the USA class conflict is often noted in labor/management disputes. Although Thomas Jefferson led the United States as president from 1801–1809 and is considered one of the founding fathers, among the former, public opinion is in the place of law, & restrains morals as powerfully as laws ever did anywhere. Among the latter, under pretence of governing they have divided their nations into two classes, wolves & sheep and this is a true picture of Europe. Cherish therefore the spirit of our people, and keep alive their attention, do not be too severe upon their errors, but reclaim them by enlightening them. If once they become inattentive to the affairs, you & I, & Congress & Assemblies, judges & governors shall all become wolves. In 2005 Buffet said to CNN, Its class warfare, my class is winning, but they shouldnt be. In a November 2006 interview in The New York Times, Buffett stated that here’s class warfare all right, but it’s my class, the class, that’s making war. Later Warren gave away more than half of his fortune to charitable causes through a developed by himself

27.
Compulsory sterilization
–
Compulsory sterilization, also known as forced or coerced sterilization, programs are government policies which attempt to force people to undergo surgical or other sterilization. The reasons governments implement sterilization programs vary in purpose and intent, the last is counted as an act of genocide under the Statute of Rome. Compulsory sterilization has been proposed as a means of population planning. The report references the involuntary sterilization of a number of population groups. They include, Women, especially in relation to population control policies. Indigenous and ethnic minority women often face wrongful stereotyping based on gender, race, funding of welfare mothers by HEW covers roughy 90% of cost and doctors are likely to concur with the compulsory sterilization of welfare mothers. Threats to cease welfare occur when women do are hesitant to consent, disabled people, often perceived as asexual. Women with intellectual disabilities are treated as if they have no control, or should have no control, over their sexual. Transgender persons, as a prerequisite to receiving treatment and gender-marker changes. The report recommends a range of guiding principles for medical treatment, including ensuring patient autonomy in decision-making, ensuring non-discrimination, accountability, Human population planning is the practice of artificially altering the rate of growth of a human population. While population planning can involve measures that improve peoples lives by giving greater control of their reproduction. This included the possibly of compulsory sterilization, a government might utilize sortition to select those to be sterilized in order to avoid accusations of bias or having any other adverse agenda. In Ecoscience, in the chapter entitled The Humam Predicament, Finding A Way Out, some partial fulfillments of these predictions are the birth control drugs in Norplant and Depo-Provera. One can further speculate about pharmaceuticals designed to permanently sterilize the human fetus in utero. Widespread or systematic forced sterilization has been recognized as a Crime against Humanity by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court in the explanatory memorandum and this memorandum defines the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court. Lee wrote that requiring sterilization is a human rights violation and LGBT specific international treaties may need to be developed in order to protect LGBT human rights, two Canadian provinces performed compulsory sterilization programs in the 20th century with eugenic aims. Canadian compulsory sterilization operated via the same mechanisms of institutionalization, judgment. However, one difference is in the treatment of non-insane criminals

Compulsory sterilization
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A map from a 1929 Swedish royal commission report displays the U.S. states that had implemented sterilization legislation by then
Compulsory sterilization
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"We do not stand alone": Nazi poster from 1936 with flags of other countries with compulsory sterilization legislation

28.
Counter-jihad
–
Counter-jihad or Counterjihad is a political current consisting of organizations, bloggers and activists all linked by a common belief that the West is being subjected to takeover by Muslims. While the roots of the movement go back to the 1980s and it has been variously dubbed pro-Israel, anti-Islamic or Islamophobic, or far-right. While the roots of the movement go back to the 1980s, the authors of Right-Wing Populism in Europe, Politics and Discourse describe the movement as heavily relying on two key tactics. The second key tactic is to attack individuals and organizations that purport to represent moderate Islam. painting them as secret operatives in a grand Muslim scheme to destroy the West. In this process, the threat is characterized by the removal of Christian or Jewish symbols, the imposition of Islamic traditions. The construction of mosques in particular is seen as continued reinforcement of the separation of the Muslim population from the wider populous. As strong as the practices of Muslims in descriptions of the counter jihad are images of a powerless Europe in decline and sliding into decadence. A lack of trust in regional, political and economic elites, with a particular focus against the European Union. One of the first organizations of the Counter-jihad movement, the 910 Group was founded in 2006 and announced on Gates of Vienna, “a principal blog of the CJM since 2004. ”Its stated purpose was to defend “liberties, human rights, and religious and political freedoms are under assault from extremist groups who believe in Islamist supremacy. In October 2007 a second summit Counterjihad Brussels 2007, was hosted by the Belgian, Flemish-nationalist party Vlaams Belang in the European Parliament building in Brussels, ten times the number of left-wing protesters staged a counter-demonstration. The 2012 conference in Denmark, was alleged by its organisers, there have been no CJM conferences since 2013, pointing to a decline in the movement. Blogs such as Gates of Vienna, Jihad Watch, Atlas Shrugs, Politically Incorrect, notable figures include, the editors of these blogs, respectively Edward Ned May, Robert Spencer, Pamela Geller, Stefan Herre, and Paul Beliën. Notable writers in the Counter-jihad movement are Bat Yeor, David Horowitz, think tanks such as the International Free Press Society and the David Horowitz Freedom Center have had an important role in providing funds and establishing international links. In time, a network of formal organisations has been established, with its main centres in Europe, a transatlantic umbrella organisation SION was established in 2012. The International Free Press Society lists representatives from many parts of the spectrum on its board of advisors. Eurabia theorist Bat YeOr is on the board of advisors, while owner of the blog Gates of Vienna, Edward S. May, serves as outreach co-ordinator on its board of directors. The U. S. -based Stop Islamization of America is led by Pamela Geller and Robert Spencer, the group seeks to rouse public fears by consistently vilifying the Islamic faith and asserting the existence of an Islamic conspiracy to destroy American values. There are numerous affiliated Stop the islamisation of, and Defense Leagues in several European countries, among them Stop Islamisation of Denmark, Stop Islamisation of Norway, and the English Defence League

29.
Ethnic cleansing
–
Ethnic cleansing is the systematic forced removal of ethnic or religious groups from a given territory by a more powerful ethnic group, with the intent of making it ethnically homogeneous. The forces applied may be forms of forced migration, intimidation, as well as mass murder. An antecedent to the term is the Greek word andrapodismos, which was used in ancient texts to describe atrocities that accompanied Alexander the Greats conquest of Thebes in 335 BC. In the early 1900s, regional variants of the term could be found among the Czechs, the Poles, the French, a 1913 Carnegie Endowment report condemning the actions of all participants in the Balkan Wars contained various new terms to describe brutalities committed toward ethnic groups. During World War II, the euphemism čišćenje terena was used by the Croatian Ustaše to describe military actions in which non-Croats were purposely killed or otherwise uprooted from their homes. Viktor Gutić, a senior Ustaše leader, was one of the first Croatian nationalists on record to use the term as a euphemism for committing atrocities against Serbs. This process was repeated on a larger scale in 1939–41. During The Holocaust, Nazi Germany pursued a policy of ensuring that Europe was cleansed of Jews, according to Israeli historian Benny Morris, the term cleansing was used in Israeli military documents dating to the 1948 Israeli–Arab war, referring to the expulsion of Arabs from Israel. In the 1980s, the Soviets used the term ethnic cleansing to describe the violence in Nagorno-Karabakh. At around the time, the Yugoslav media used it to describe what they alleged was an Albanian nationalist plot to force all Serbs to leave Kosovo. It was widely popularized by the Western media during the Bosnian War, the first recorded mention of its use in the Western media can be traced back to an article in The New York Times dated 15 April 1992, in a quote by an anonymous Western diplomat. Those practices constitute crimes against humanity and can be assimilated to specific war crimes, furthermore, such acts could also fall within the meaning of the Genocide Convention. As a category, ethnic cleansing encompasses a continuum or spectrum of policies, in the words of Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, thnic cleansing defies easy definition. At one end it is virtually indistinguishable from forced emigration and population exchange while at the other it merges with deportation, at the most general level, however, ethnic cleansing can be understood as the expulsion of a population from a given territory. The term ethnic cleansing has frequently employed to refer to the events in Bosnia. General Assembly resolution 47/121 referred in its Preamble to the abhorrent policy of ethnic cleansing and it can only be a form of genocide within the meaning of the Convention, if it corresponds to or falls within one of the categories of acts prohibited by Article II of the Convention. The expulsion of a group or part of a group does not in itself suffice for genocide, there is no international treaty that specifies a specific crime of ethnic cleansing. There are however situations, such as the expulsion of Germans after World War II, timothy V. Waters argues that if similar circumstances arise in the future, this precedent would allow the ethnic cleansing of other populations under international law

Ethnic cleansing
–
The Chios Massacre refers to the slaughter of tens of thousands of Greeks on the island of Chios by Ottoman troops in 1822.
Ethnic cleansing
–
1941. Serbs who have been expelled from their homes, march out of town carrying large bundles.
Ethnic cleansing
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The 12th anniversary exhibition of ethnic cleansing in Abkhazia, which was held in Tbilisi in 2005.
Ethnic cleansing
–
Mass expulsion of Poles in 1939 as part of the German ethnic cleansing of western Poland annexed to the Reich.

30.
Ethnic joke
–
An ethnic joke is a remark attempting humor relating to an ethnic, racial or cultural group, often referring to an ethnic stereotype of the group in question for its punchline. Perceptions of ethnic jokes are ambivalent, many find them racist and offensive. On the other hand, jokes poking fun an ones own ethnicity are considered acceptable. Davis maintains that ethnic jokes reinforce ethnic stereotypes and sometimes lead to calls for violence, the predominant and most widely known theory of ethnic humor attempts to discover social regularities in the anecdote traditions of different countries by contextually describing jokes. Professor Christie Davies, author of this theory, has posed the main arguments in his article Ethnic Jokes, Moral Values and Social Boundaries, published in 1982. His approach is based on Victor Raskins Semantic Script Theory of Humor, or to be more precise, in addition, they will likely be rustic people or immigrants in search of unskilled and low-prestige manual work. They are to an extent similar to the joke-tellers themselves. According to Davies, ethnic jokes are centered on the three themes of stupidity, canniness and sexual behavior. Davies is featured in the 2010 documentary film, Polack, exploring the source of the Polish joke. bent on murder or outrage, allports Scale An Englishman, an Irishman and a Scotsman Ethnic stereotype Stereotype Davies, Christie. Taking Penguins to the Movies, Ethnic Humor in Russia, book review, The Mirth of Nations. Punchlines, The Case for Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Humor, did You Hear the One About. Identity is a Joking Matter, Intergroup Humor in Bosnia Just how ethnic is ethnic humour

31.
Forced conversion
–
Forced conversion is adoption of a different religion or irreligion under duress. Forced abandonment of religion has been described as conversion to atheism and those who convert may willingly embrace their new religion or irreligion, or may continue, covertly, with the beliefs and practices originally held, while outwardly behaving as converts. Crypto-Jews, crypto-Christians, crypto-Muslims and crypto-Pagans are historical examples of the latter, in general, anthropologists have shown that the relationship between religion and politics is complex, especially when viewed over the expanse of human history. While religious leaders and the state generally have different aims, both are concerned with power and order, both use reason and emotion to motivate behavior, the relationship is far from simple. But religion has often been used coercively, and has used coercion, Christianity was a minority religion during much of the Roman Empire, and the early Christians were persecuted during that time. When Constantine I converted to Christianity, it became the dominant religion in the Roman Empire, already under the reign of Constantine I, Christian heretics had been persecuted, beginning in the late 4th century, the ancient pagan religions were also actively suppressed. In the view of historians, the Constantinian shift turned Christianity from a persecuted religion into one capable of persecution. Forced conversions of Jews were carried out with support of rulers during Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages in Gaul, the Iberian peninsula and in the Byzantine empire. During the Saxon Wars, Charlemagne, King of the Franks, forcibly Roman Catholicized the Saxons from their native Germanic paganism by way of warfare, and law upon conquest. Forced conversion that occurred after the seventh century generally took place during riots and massacres carried out by mobs, Jews were forced to convert to Christianity by the Crusaders in Lorraine, on the Lower Rhine, in Bavaria and Bohemia, in Mainz and in Worms. It is, to be sure, contrary to the Christian Faith that anyone who is unwilling and wholly opposed to it should be compelled to adopt, for this reason a valid distinction is made by some between kinds of unwilling ones and kinds of compelled ones. After the end of the Islamic control of Spain, Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, in Portugal, following an order for their expulsion in 1496, only a handful were allowed to leave and the rest were forced to convert. Muslims were expelled from Portugal in 1497, and were forced to convert in the constituent kingdoms of Spain. The forced conversion of Muslims was implemented in the Crown of Castile from 1500–02, after the conversions, the so-called New Christians were those inhabitants who were baptized under coercion and in the face of execution, becoming forced converts from Islam or from Judaism. Jewish conversos still resided in Spain and often practiced Judaism cryptically and were suspected by the Old Christians of being Crypto-Jews, the Spanish Inquisition generated much wealth and income for the church and individual inquisitors by confiscating the property of the persecuted. The Ottoman Empire and Morocco absorbed most of the Jewish refugees, upon converting to Christianity in the 10th century, Vladimir the Great, the ruler of Kievan Rus, ordered Kievs citizens to undergo a mass baptism in the Dnieper river. After Ivan the Terribles conquest of the Khanate of Kazan, the Muslim population faced slaughter, expulsion, forced resettlement, in the 18th century, Elizabeth of Russia launched a campaign of forced conversion of Russias non-Orthodox subjects, including Muslims and Jews. The Portuguese practised religious persecution in Goa, India in the 16th and 17th centuries, the natives of Goa, most of them Hindus, were subjected to severe torture and oppression by the zealous Portuguese rulers and missionaries, and forcibly converted to Christianity

Forced conversion
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A portrayal entitled The Taking of the Children on the 1999 Great Australian Clock, Queen Victoria Building, Sydney, by artist Chris Cook.
Forced conversion
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Registration of boys for the devşirme. Ottoman miniature painting from the Süleymanname, 1558.
Forced conversion
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Cristeros hanged in Jalisco.

32.
Freak show
–
A freak show is an exhibition of biological rarities, referred to as freaks of nature. Heavily tattooed or pierced people have sometimes seen in freak shows. In the mid-16th century, freak shows became popular pastimes in England, deformities began to be treated as objects of interest and entertainment, and the crowds flocked to see them exhibited. A famous early example was the exhibition at the court of Charles I of Lazarus and Joannes Baptista Colloredo. While Lazarus was handsome and functioning, his brother just dangled before him in a mass of limbs from his chest. When Lazarus was not exhibiting himself, he covered his brother with his cloak to avoid unnecessary attention, as well as crazy exhibitions, freak shows were popular in the taverns and fairgrounds where the freaks were often combined with talent displays. For example, in the 18th century, Matthias Buchinger, born without arms or lower legs, entertained crowds with astonishing displays of magic and musical ability, both in England and later, Ireland. It was in the 19th century, both in England and the United States, where freak shows finally reached maturity as successful commercially run enterprises, during the late 19th century and the early 20th century freak shows were at their height of popularity. In the 1840s through the 1940s organized the exhibiting of people with physical, mental or behavioral rarities for profit, although not all abnormalities were real, some being alleged, the exploitation for profit was seen as an accepted part of American culture. The attractiveness of freak shows led to the spread of the shows that were seen at amusement parks, circuses, dime museums. The amusement park industry flourished in the United States by the middle class who benefited from short work weeks. There was also a shift in American culture which influenced people to see leisure activities as a necessary and beneficial equivalent to working, the showmen and promoters exhibited all types of freaks. People that looked non-western and had a disability were often exhibited as unknown races and cultures, Hypopituitary dwarfs who tend to be well proportioned and physically attractive, were advertised as lofty. Achondroplastic dwarfs, whose head and limbs tend to be out of proportion to their trunks, were characterized as exotic mode and those who were armless, legless, or limbless were also in the exotic mode as animal-people, such as “The Snake-Man”, and “The Seal man”. There were four ways freak shows were produced and marketed, the first was the oral spiel or lecture. This featured a showman or professor who managed the presentation of the people or “freaks”, the second was a printed advertisement usually using long pamphlets and broadside or newspaper advertisement of the freaks. The third step included costuming, choreography, performance, and space used to display the show, the final stage was a collectable drawing or photograph that portrayed the group of freaks on stage for families to take home. The collectable printed souvenirs were accompanied by recordings of the pitch, the lecturer’s yarn

Freak show
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Coney Island and its popular on-going freak show.
Freak show
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A freak show in Rutland, Vermont in 1941.
Freak show
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Madam Gustika of the Duckbill tribe smoking a pipe with an extended mouthpiece for her lips during a show in a circus. Her lips were stretched by the insertion of disks of incrementally increasing size, similar to some earrings used today. United States, New York, 12 April 1930.
Freak show
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The Black Scorpion performing in 2007.

33.
Gay bashing
–
A bashing may be a specific incident, and one could also use the verb to bash. A verbal gay bashing might use sexual slurs, expletives, intimidation and it also might take place in a political forum and include one or more common anti-gay slogans. Similar terms such as bullying, queer bullying, and queer bashing may also be formed. Gay bashing has occurred worldwide for many decades and continues today, as historian David K. Johnson explains, The Lavender Scare helped fan the flames of the Red Scare. In popular discourse, communists and homosexuals were often conflated, both groups were perceived as hidden subcultures with their own meeting places, literature, cultural codes, and bonds of loyalty. Both groups were thought to recruit to their ranks the psychologically weak or disturbed, and both groups were considered immoral and godless. Many people believed that the two groups were working together to undermine the government, using rumors collected by Drew Pearson, one Nevada publisher wrote in 1952 that both McCarthy and his chief counsel, Roy Cohn, were homosexuals. Bradlee said, There was a lot of time spent investigating these allegations, No reputable McCarthy biographer has accepted it as probable. Egale Canada conducted a survey of more than 3700 high school students in Canada between December 2007 and June 2009, 58% or about 1400 of the 2400 heterosexual students participating in EGALEs survey found homophobic comments upsetting. Further, EGALE found that students not directly affected by homophobia, biphobia or transphobia were less aware of it, EGALE, along with previous research has found teachers and school administration may be complicit in queer bullying through their silence and/or inaction. Graffiti found on school grounds and property, and its relative permanence, is another form of queer bullying, some researchers suggest including youth questioning their sexuality in any research on queer bullying because they may be as susceptible to its effects as queer students. Building on the notion of masculinity defining itself by what it is not and these intertwining issues were examined in 2007, when American sociologist CJ Pascoe described what she calls the fag discourse at an American high school in her book, Dude, Youre a Fag. Gay and lesbian youth are more likely to report bullying, in one study, boys who were bullied with taunts of being gay suffered more bullying and more negative effects compared with boys who were bullied with other categories of taunting. Queer bullying may make some victims feel sad and unsafe in the world, Bullying will affect a students experience of school. Some victims might feel paralyzed and withdraw socially as a coping mechanism, other victims of queer bullying may begin to live the effects of learned helplessness. Queer or questioning students may try to pass as heterosexual in order to avoid queer bullying, passing isolates the student from other queer or questioning students, potential allies, and support. Adults who try to pass also may feel the effects emotionally and psychologically, queer and questioning youth who experience bullying have a higher incidence of substance abuse and STI and HIV infection, which may carry through to adulthood. Teens face harassment, threats, and violence, a 1998 study in the US by Mental Health America found that students heard anti-gay slurs such as homo, faggot and sissy about 26 times a day on average, or once every 14 minutes

Gay bashing
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LGBT history
Gay bashing
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Law that prohibits discrimination against students based on sexual orientation and gender identity

34.
Genocide
–
Genocide is intentional action to destroy a people in whole or in part. The hybrid word genocide is a combination of the Greek word génos, the United Nations Genocide Convention, which was established in 1948, defines genocide as acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group. The term genocide was coined in a 1943 book responding to mass murder of populations in the 20th century, in 1943, Raphael Lemkin created the term genocide in his book Axis Rule in Occupied Europe. The book describes the implementation of Nazi policies in occupied Europe, the term described the systematic destruction of a nation or people, and the word was quickly adopted by many in the international community. The word genocide is the combination of the Greek prefix geno-, Lemkin defined genocide as follows, Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation, except when accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. The preamble to the 1948 Genocide Convention notes that instances of genocide have taken place throughout history. Lemkins lifelong interest in the murder of populations in the 20th century was initially in response to the killing of Armenians in 1915. He dedicated his life to mobilizing the international community, to together to prevent the occurrence of such events. In a 1949 interview, Lemkin said I became interested in genocide because it happened so many times and it happened to the Armenians, then after the Armenians, Hitler took action. In 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Prevention, the CPPCG was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 9 December 1948 and came into effect on 12 January 1951. The USSR argued that the Conventions definition should follow the etymology of the term, and may have feared greater international scrutiny of its own Great Purge. Other nations feared that including political groups in the definition would invite international intervention in domestic politics. ”The conventions purpose and scope was later described by the United Nations Security Council as follows, In 2007 the European Court of Human Rights, noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. In the same judgement the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts judgements, in the case of Onesphore Rwabukombe the German Supreme Court adhered to its previous judgement and didnt follow the narrow interpretation of the ICTY and the ICJ. The phrase in whole or in part has been subject to discussion by scholars of international humanitarian law. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 ICTY8 that Genocide had been committed. The aim of the Genocide Convention is to prevent the destruction of entire human groups. The Appeals Chamber goes into details of other cases and the opinions of respected commentators on the Genocide Convention to explain how they came to this conclusion. The judges continue in paragraph 12, The determination of when the part is substantial enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations

35.
Genocides in history
–
Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction, in whole or in part, of an ethnic, racial, religious or national group. The term was coined in 1944 by Raphael Lemkin, determining what historical events constitute a genocide and which are merely criminal or inhuman behavior is not a clear-cut matter. The debate continues over what legally constitutes genocide, one definition is any conflict that the International Criminal Court has so designated. Many conflicts that have been labeled genocide in the press have not been so designated. M. Hassan Kakar argued that the definition should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator. He prefers the definition from Chalk and Jonassohn, Genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group so defined by the perpetrator. Some critics of the international definition argued that the definition was influenced by Joseph Stalin to exclude political groups, according to R. J. Rummel, genocide has multiple meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by a government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, the legal meaning is defined by CCPG. This includes actions such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children to another group, Rummel created the term democide to include assaults on political groups. In this article, atrocities that have characterized as genocide by some reliable source are included. Thus examples listed may constitute genocide by the United Nations definition, some advocate a very loose definition of genocide, encompassing all premeditated mass killing of civilians. Some genocides involve Ethnic cleansing though not all Ethnic cleansings are genocides, some events are debated on whether they constitute Ethnic cleansing or genocide. Ethnic cleansing is also a Crime Against Humanity, for a list of Ethnic cleansings see, List of ethnic cleansings Then there are War crimes. War crimes do not necessarily entail mass killing and they may include such as disturbing peace treaties. There are examples of forced labor being used to execute Jews during the holocaust by the Extermination through labour policy of Nazi Germany but in general slavery is not considered genocide. Some famines such as those under communist and colonial regimes were man-made and these man-made famines have been recognized to some extent as genocides and holocausts. As a result, the group might be labeled as a threat that must be eliminated. Jones continues, The difficulty, as Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn pointed out in their study, is that such historical records as exist are ambiguous

Genocides in history
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Skulls of victims of the Rwandan Genocide
Genocides in history
–
Mass shootings at Nantes, 1793
Genocides in history
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Great Irish Famine
Genocides in history
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Armenian civilians, escorted by armed Ottoman soldiers, are marched through Kharpert to a prison in the nearby Mezireh district, April 1915.

36.
Glass ceiling
–
A glass ceiling is a metaphor used to represent an invisible barrier that keeps a given demographic from rising beyond a certain level in a hierarchy. The metaphor was first coined by feminists in reference to barriers in the careers of high-achieving women, in the US, the concept is sometimes extended to refer to obstacles hindering the advancement of minority women, as well as minority men. Minority women often find the most difficulty in breaking the glass ceiling because they lie at the intersection of two traditionally oppressed groups, women and people of color. Asian and Asian American news outlets have coined the term bamboo ceiling to refer to the obstacles that all Asian Americans face in advancing their careers, David Cotter and colleagues defined four distinctive characteristics that must be met to conclude that a glass ceiling exists. A glass ceiling inequality represents, A gender or racial difference that is not explained by other job-relevant characteristics of the employee, a gender or racial difference that is greater at higher levels of an outcome than at lower levels of an outcome. A gender or racial inequality in the chances of advancement into higher levels, a gender or racial inequality that increases over the course of a career. Cotter and his colleagues found that glass ceilings are correlated strongly with gender, both white and minority women face a glass ceiling in the course of their careers. In contrast, the researchers did not find evidence of a ceiling for African-American men. The glass ceiling metaphor has often used to describe invisible barriers through which women can see elite positions. These barriers prevent large numbers of women and ethnic minorities from obtaining and securing the most powerful, prestigious, moreover, this effect prevents women from filling high-ranking positions and puts them at a disadvantage as potential candidates for advancement. The first person to use the phrase was Marilyn Loden, during a 1978 speech, the concept of the glass ceiling was later popularized at the National Press Club in July 1979. This was at a Conference of the Womens Institute for Freedom of the Press led by Katherine Lawrence of Hewlett-Packard and this was part of an ongoing discussion of a clash between written policy of promotion versus action opportunities for women at HP. The term was used in March 1984 by Gay Bryant. She was the editor of Working Woman magazine and was changing jobs to be the editor of Family Circle. In an Adweek article written by Nora Frenkel, Bryant was reported as saying, theyre in the top of middle management and theyre stopping and getting stuck. There isnt enough room for all women at the top. Some are going into business for themselves, others are going out and raising families. Also in 1984, Bryant used the term in a chapter of the book The Working Woman Report, in the same book, Basia Hellwig used the term in another chapter

Glass ceiling
–
A chart illustrating the differences in earnings between men and women of the same educational level (USA 2006)

37.
Defamation
–
Under common law, to constitute defamation, a claim must generally be false and must have been made to someone other than the person defamed. Some common law jurisdictions also distinguish between spoken defamation, called slander, and defamation in other such as printed words or images. False light laws protect against statements which are not technically false, in some civil law jurisdictions, defamation is treated as a crime rather than a civil wrong. A person who defames another may be called a defamer, libeler, slanderer, or, rarely, the common law origins of defamation lie in the torts of slander, each of which gives a common law right of action. Defamation is the term used internationally, and is used in this article where it is not necessary to distinguish between slander and libel. Libel and slander both require publication, the fundamental distinction between libel and slander lies solely in the form in which the defamatory matter is published. If the offending material is published in some fleeting form, as by words or sounds, sign language, gestures or the like. Libel is defined as defamation by written or printed words, pictures, the law of libel originated in the 17th century in England. With the growth of publication came the growth of libel and development of the tort of libel, an early example of libel is the case of John Peter Zenger in 1735. Zenger was hired to publish New York Weekly Journal, when he printed another mans article that criticized William Cosby, who was then British Royal Governor of Colonial New York, Zenger was accused of Seditious Libel. Another example of libel is the case of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, there are several ways a person must go about proving that libel has taken place. For example, in the United States, the person must prove that the statement was false, caused harm and these steps are for an ordinary citizen. Many nations have criminal penalties for defamation in some situations, there can be regional statutes that may differ from the national norm. For example, in the United States, defamation is generally limited to the living, however, there are nine states that have criminal statutes regarding defamation of the dead. Early cases of criminal defamation Questions of group libel have been appearing in law for hundreds of years. One of the earliest known cases of a defendant being tried for defamation of a group was the case of Rex v. Orme and Nutt. In this case, the found that the defendant was guilty of libeling several subjects. Since the jury was unable to identify the people who were being defamed

38.
Hate crime
–
A hate crime is a prejudice-motivated crime, which occurs when a perpetrator targets a victim because of his or her membership in a certain social group. Examples of such groups can include and are almost exclusively limited to, sex, ethnicity, disability, language, nationality, physical appearance, religion, non-criminal actions that are motivated by these reasons are often called bias incidents. Hate crime generally refers to acts which are seen to have been motivated by bias against one or more of the types above. Incidents may involve physical assault, damage to property, bullying, harassment, verbal abuse or insults, a hate crime law is a law intended to deter bias-motivated violence. Hate speech laws exist in many countries, the term hate crime came into common usage in the United States during the 1980s, but the term is often used retrospectively in order to describe events which occurred prior to that era. From the Roman persecution of Christians to the Nazi slaughter of Jews, during the past two centuries, typical examples of hate crimes in the U. S. The verb to lynch is attributed to the actions of Charles Lynch, originally the term referred to extrajudicial organized but unauthorized punishment of criminals. It later evolved to describe execution outside of ordinary justice and it is highly associated with white suppression of African Americans in the South, and periods of weak or nonexistent police authority, as in certain frontier areas of the Old West. The murders of Channon Christian and Christopher Newsom and the Wichita Massacre were not classified as crimes by U. S. investigative officials or the media. In the early 21st century, conservative commentators David Horowitz, Michelle Malkin and this is believed to be based on the history of African slavery in this country. One of the largest waves of hate crimes took place during the Civil Rights Movement, during the 1950s and 1960s, both violence and threats were common against African Americans, and hundreds of lives were taken due to such acts. Members of this social class faced violence from groups such as the Ku Klux Klan as well as violence from individuals who were committed to segregation. African Americans have been the target of hate crimes since the Civil War, other frequently reported bias motivations were bias against a religion, against a particular sexual orientation, and against an ethnicity/national origin. At times, these bias motivations overlap, as violence can be both anti-gay and anti-black, for example, analysts have compared groups in terms of the per capita rate of hate crimes committed against them, to allow for differing populations. Overall, the number of hate crimes committed since the first hate crime bill was passed in 1997 is 86,582. Among the groups mentioned in the Hate Crimes Statistics Act. During the Civil Rights Movement, some of the most notorious hate crimes included the 1968 assassination of Martin Luther King Jr, such acts began to take place more frequently after the racial integration of many schools and public facilities. High-profile murders targeting victims based on their sexual orientation have prompted the passage of hate crimes legislation, notably the cases of Sean W. Kennedy, kennedys murder was mentioned by Senator Gordon Smith in a speech on the floor of the US Senate while he advocated such legislation

Hate crime
–
Postcard of the Duluth lynchings of African-American men on June 15, 1920
Hate crime
–
A photograph of the famous fresco Bathing of the Christ, after being vandalized by a Kosovo Albanian mob during the 2004 unrest in Kosovo
Hate crime
–
Shepard (center), Louvon Harris (left), Betty Bryd Boatner (right) with President Barack Obama in 2009 to promote the Hate Crimes Prevention Act
Hate crime
–
LGBT history

39.
Hate speech
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Hate speech is speech which attacks a person or group on the basis of attributes such as gender, ethnic origin, religion, race, disability, or sexual orientation. The law may identify a group by certain characteristics. In the law of other countries, hate speech is not a legal term, in some countries, a victim of hate speech may seek redress under civil law, criminal law, or both. A website which uses hate speech may be called a hate site, most of these sites contain Internet forums and news briefs that emphasize a particular viewpoint. There has been debate over freedom of speech, hate speech, critics have argued that the term hate speech is used to silence critics of social policies that have been poorly implemented. Communication theory provides insight into the harms caused by hate speech. According to the model of communication, racist expressions allow minorities to be categorized with negative attributes tied to them. Matsuda et al. found that racist speech could cause in the recipient of the message direct physical and emotional changes, the repeated use of such expressions cause and reinforce the subordination of these minorities. The idea that speech is a mechanism of subordination is supported by scholarly evidence. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination prohibits all incitement of racism and this paragraph does not appear in the final document. Concerning the debate over how freedom of speech applies to the Internet, Hate law regulations can be divided into two types, those which are designed for public order and those which are designed to protect human dignity. Those designed to protect public order require a higher threshold to be violated, for example, in Northern Ireland, as of 1992 only one person was prosecuted for violating the regulation in twenty one years. Those meant to protect human dignity have a lower threshold to be violated, so those in Canada, Denmark, France, Germany. Australias hate speech laws vary by jurisdiction, and seek especially to prevent victimisation on account of race and it is also known as the Moureaux Law. The Belgian Holocaust denial law, passed on 23 March 1995, specifically, the law makes it illegal to publicly deny, play down, justify or approve of the genocide committed by the Nazi German regime during the Second World War. Prosecution is led by the Belgian Centre for Equal Opportunities, the offense is punishable by imprisonment of up to one year and fines of up to 2500 EUR. In Brazil, according to the 1988 Brazilian Constitution, racism and other forms of race-related hate speech are Offense with no statute of limitations and no right to bail for the defendant. In Canada, advocating genocide against any group is an indictable offence under the Criminal Code

Hate speech
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Media regulation

40.
Lavender scare
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The lavender scare refers to a witch hunt and mass firings of gay people in the 1950s from the United States government. It paralleled the anti-communist campaign known as McCarthyism and the Second Red Scare, Gay men and lesbians were said to be security risks and communist sympathizers, which led to the call to remove them from state employment. Senator Alan K. Simpson has written, The so-called Red Scare has been the focus of most historians of that period of time. And one that far more people was the witch-hunt McCarthy. The term for this persecution was popularized by David K. Johnsons 2004 book which studied this anti-homosexual campaign, the book drew its title from the term lavender lads, used repeatedly by Senator Everett Dirksen as a synonym for homosexual males. In 1952, Dirksen said that a Republican victory in the November elections would mean the removal of the lads from the State Department. The phrase was used by Confidential magazine, a periodical known for gossiping about the sexuality of politicians. The danger was not solely because they were gay though, the homosexuals were considered to be more susceptible to blackmail and thus were labeled as security risks. McCarthy hired Roy Cohn—who died of AIDS and was accused of being a closeted homosexual—as chief counsel of his Congressional subcommittee, in 1953, during the final months of the Truman administration, the State Department reported that it had fired 425 employees for allegations of homosexuality. McCarthy often used accusations of homosexuality as a tactic in his anti-communist crusade. On one occasion, he went so far as to announce to reporters, If you want to be against McCarthy, boys, some historians have argued that, in linking communism and homosexuality and psychological imbalance, McCarthy was employing guilt-by-association if evidence for communist activity was lacking. In 1953 President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed Executive Order 10450, eO10450 set security standards for federal employment and barred homosexuals from working in the federal government. The restrictions set in place were cause for hundreds of homosexuals to be exposed as gay, the EO was also the cause for the firing of approximately 5,000 homosexuals from federal employment, this included private contractors and military personnel. Not only did the victims lose their jobs, but also they were forced out of the closet and thrust into the public eye as homosexuals. The EO stayed on paper and in effect until 1995 when President Bill Clinton rescinded the order and put in place the Dont ask, McCarthy also associated homosexuality and communism as threats to the American way of life. Homosexuality was directly linked to security concerns, and more government employees were dismissed because of their sexual orientation than because they were left-leaning or communist. Senator Kenneth Wherry similarly attempted to invoke a connection between homosexuality and anti-nationalism and he said in an interview with Max Lerner that You cant hardly separate homosexuals from subversives. Later in that interview, he drew the line between patriotic Americans and gay men, But look Lerner, were both Americans, arent we

41.
Lynching
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Lynching is an extrajudicial punishment by an informal group. It is most often used to characterise informal public executions by a mob in order to punish an alleged transgressor, or to intimidate a group. It is a form of informal group social control such as charivari, skimmington, riding the rail, and tarring and feathering. Lynchings have been frequent in times of social and economic tension. However, it has resulted from long-held prejudices and practices of discrimination that have conditioned societies to accept this type of violence as normal practices of popular justice. Indeed, instances of it can be found in societies long antedating European settlement of North America, the legal and cultural antecedents of American lynching were carried across the Atlantic by migrants from the British Isles to colonial North America. Collective violence was an aspect of the early modern Anglo-American legal landscape. In the United States, during the decades before the Civil War, assertive free-Blacks, Latinos in the South West, Violence rose even more at the end of the 19th century, after southern white Democrats regained their political power in the South in the 1870s. Nearly 3,500 African Americans and 1,300 whites were lynched in the United States between 1882 and 1968, mostly from 1882 to 1920, the origins of the word lynch are obscure, but it likely originated during the American revolution. The verb comes from the phrase Lynch Law, a term for a punishment without trial, two Americans during this era are generally credited for the phrase, Charles Lynch and William Lynch, who both lived in Virginia in the 1780s. Charles Lynch has the claim, as he was known to have used the term in 1782. There is no evidence that death was imposed as a punishment by either of the two men, in 1782, Charles Lynch wrote that his assistant had administered Lynchs law to Tories for Dealing with negroes, &c. In the United States, the origin of the terms lynching, Charles Lynch was a Virginia planter and American Revolutionary who headed a county court in Virginia which incarcerated Loyalist supporters of the British for up to one year during the war. While he lacked proper jurisdiction, he claimed this right by arguing wartime necessity, subsequently, he prevailed upon his friends in the Congress of the Confederation to pass a law which specifically exonerated him and his associates from wrongdoing. He was concerned that he might face legal action from one or more of those so incarcerated, Lynch was not accused of racist bias, and indeed acquitted blacks accused of murder on three separate occasions, as dictated by the facts brought before him. He was accused, however, of ethnic prejudice in his abuse of Welsh miners, William Lynch from Virginia claimed that the phrase was first used for a 1780 compact signed by him and his neighbors in Pittsylvania County. While Edgar Allan Poe claimed that he found this document, this was likely a hoax, however, linguistic evidence is strongly against it, and the story was likely invented in the 19th century. Racist extremism with an eye to viciousness and public spectacle was frequently evident, in the South, members of the abolitionist movement or other people opposing slavery were usually targets of lynch mob violence before the Civil War

42.
Meat eating
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Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times, the advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, pigs and cattle. This eventually led to their use in production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses. Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat and it is edible raw, but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways. Unprocessed meat will spoil or rot within hours or days as a result of infection with and decomposition by bacteria, most often, meat refers to skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as offal. The word meat comes from the Old English word mete, which referred to food in general, the term is related to mad in Danish, mat in Swedish and Norwegian, and matur in Icelandic and Faroese, which also mean food. The word mete also exists in Old Frisian to denote important food, differentiating it from swiets, paleontological evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of even the earliest humans. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the hunting of large animals such as bison. Several breeds of sheep were established in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt by 3500–3000 BC, today, more than 200 sheep-breeds exist. Cattle were domesticated in Mesopotamia after settled agriculture was established about 5000 BC, modern domesticated cattle fall into the groups Bos taurus and Bos indicus, both descended from the now-extinct aurochs. The breeding of cattle, cattle optimized for meat production as opposed to animals best suited for draught or dairy purposes. Domestic pigs, which are descended from boars, are known to have existed about 2500 BC in modern-day Hungary and in Troy, earlier pottery from Jericho. Pork sausages and hams were of commercial importance in Greco-Roman times. Pigs continue to be bred intensively as they are being optimized to produce meat best suited for meat products. Other animals are or have raised or hunted for their flesh. The type of meat consumed varies much between different cultures, changes over time, depending on such as tradition and the availability of the animals. The amount and kind of meat consumed also varies by income, horses are commonly eaten in France, Italy, Germany and Japan, among other countries. Horses and other mammals such as reindeer were hunted during the late Paleolithic in western Europe

43.
Stop Murder Music
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Stop Murder Music is a campaign to oppose Caribbean artists that produce music with lyrics alleged to glorify murder of homosexual men. The campaign was mainly against Jamaican musicians, primarily dancehall and ragga artists such as Buju Banton, Bounty Killer, the campaign accuses these artists of promoting violence against LGBT people through the lyrics in their music and attempts to stop this. Stop Murder Music is jointly run by OutRage, the Black Gay Mens Advisory Group, and J-Flag. The term was coined by British gay rights activist Peter Tatchell in the mid-1990s, the Reggae Compassionate Act was an agreement signed in 2007 by artists including Beenie Man, Capleton, and Sizzla. It has now been discredited as some artists have felt it was badly worded. Others have simply refused to sign it, stop Murder Music is an independent branch of the organization in Canada, founded by Akim Adé Larcher, after learning at a local West Indian store about a Canadian Tour by Elephant Man. Larcher, a Canadian/Saint Lucian, brought together over 20 organizations from the African and Caribbean communities in Canada to form the group, the Green Party of England and Wales and OutRage. Campaigned on behalf of the stop murder music campaign, including petitioning the United Kingdom Home Secretary in 2004, Tatchell has called for laws against homophobic music and the Campaign participated in protests outside concerts. He cited John King and the Mighty Gabby as examples of musicians who are positive role models against violence, LGBT rights in Jamaica No homo iTunes Canada pulls anti-gay dancehall songs, Xtra. ca Murder Inna Dancehall

Stop Murder Music
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The Jamaican dancehall group T.O.K. were among several artists refused to sign the Reggae Compassionate Act.

44.
Pogrom
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A pogrom is a violent riot aimed at the massacre or persecution of an ethnic or religious group, particularly one aimed at Jews. The term originally entered the English language in order to describe 19th and 20th century attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire, similar attacks against Jews at other times and places also became retrospectively known as pogroms. The word is now sometimes used to describe publicly sanctioned purgative attacks against non-Jewish ethnic or religious groups. First recorded in 1882, the Russian word pogrom is a derived from the verb gromit meaning to destroy, to wreak havoc. Its literal translation is to harm, the noun pogrom, which has a relatively short history, is used in English and many other languages as a loanword, possibly borrowed via Yiddish. Its widespread circulation in todays world began with the excesses in the Russian Empire in 1881–1883. Anti-Jewish riots took place in Europe already in the Middle Ages, some 510 Jewish communities were destroyed in this period, extending further to the Brussels massacre of 1370. The first atrocities against Jewish civilians, on a scale of destruction, were committed during the Khmelnytsky Pogroms of 1648–1657 in present-day Ukraine. The precise number of dead is not known, although it is estimated that about 20 percent of Jews of the region were killed. Modern historians give estimates of the scale of the murders by Khmelnytskys Cossacks ranging between 40,000 and 100,000 men, women and children, or perhaps many more. In conquered territories, a new entity called Pale of Settlement was formed in 1791 by Catherine the Great. Most Jewish people from the former Commonwealth were only allowed to reside within the Pale, including families expelled by decree from St. Petersburg, Moscow. The 1821 Odessa pogroms marked the beginning of the 19th century pogroms in Tsarist Russia, Jewish self-governing Kehilla was abolished by Tsar Nicholas I in 1844. The first, in the 20th century Russia, was the Kishinev pogrom of 1903 in which 47 Jews were killed and it was followed by the Kiev pogrom of October 1905, resulting in a massacre of approximately 100 Jews. However, at about the time, the Jewish Labour Bund began organizing armed self-defence units ready to shoot. According to professor Colin Tatz, between 1881 and 1920, there were 1,326 pogroms in Ukraine which took the lives of 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews, leaving half a million homeless. Large-scale pogroms, which began in the Russian Empire several decades earlier, intensified during the period of the Russian Civil War and the Revolution of 1917. Professor Zvi Gitelman estimated that only in 1918–1919 over 1,200 pogroms took place in Ukraine thus amounting to a greatest slaughter of Jews in Eastern Europe since 1648

Pogrom
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Plundering the Judengasse, a Jewish ghetto in Frankfurt am Main, on 22 August 1614.
Pogrom
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The Hep-Hep riots in Frankfurt, 1819. On the left, two peasant women are assaulting a Jewish man with pitchfork and broom. On the right, a man wearing spectacles, tails, and a six-button waistcoat, "perhaps a pharmacist or a schoolteacher," holds another Jewish man by the throat and is about to club him with a truncheon. The houses are being looted. A contemporary engraving by Johann Michael Voltz.
Pogrom
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Jewish Cemetery, Samuel Hirszenberg (1892) - Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme

45.
Purge
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A group undertaking such an effort is labeled as purging itself. Purges can be nonviolent or violent, with former often resolved by simple removal from office. The earliest use of the term itself was the English Civil Wars Prides Purge, in 1648-1650, the moderate members of the English Long Parliament were purged by the army. Parliament would suffer subsequent purges under the Commonwealth including the purge of the entire House of Lords, counter-revolutionaries such as royalists were purged as well as more radical revolutionaries such as the Levellers. After the Restoration, obstinate republicans were purged while some fled to New England, the term purge is often associated with the Stalinist and Maoist regimes. While leading the USSR, Joseph Stalin imprisoned in Gulag-labor camps and executed, i. e. purged, wreckers, Stalin initiated the most notorious of the CPSU purges, the Great Purge, during the 1930s. Sentences usually involved hard labor in laogai camps and executions, deng Xiaoping had a reputation for returning to power several times after having been purged. North Korean leaders Kim Il-sung, Kim Jong-il, and Kim Jong-un have each periodically purged their rivals or perceived threats. The most senior Kim purged those who opposed his sons succession to the leadership of North Korea. Kim Il-sungs most prominent purge was during the August Incident in 1956, most of those involved were executed while some othere fled to the USSR and China. While some purges were carried out under Kim Jong-il, they were not as common as under his father/son. Kim Jong-un purged a number of high-ranking officials and generals installed by his father Kim Jong-il in the formers first years in power, including, most prominently, reports indicate Kim is preparing a massive party purge for 2017. After Frances liberation by the Allies in 1944, the Free French and particularly the French Resistance carried out purges of former collaborationists, the process became known in legal terms as épuration légale. Similar processes in other countries and on other occasions included denazification and decommunization, fidel Castro of Cuba often purged those involved with the Batista regime after the Cuban Revolution in 1959. Purges often involved the execution of the condemned, Castro periodically carried out party purges thereafter. One prominent purge was carried out in 1989, when high-ranking general Armando Ochoa was sentenced to death, purges became less common in the 1990s and 2000s. Purges have seldom occurred during the 21st century, however, after the failed 2016 Turkish coup détat attempt, the government of Turkey began a purge against members of its own civil service and the Turkish Armed Forces. The purge focused mainly on public servants and soldiers alleged to be part of the Gülen movement, as part of the purge, about 50,000 officials, including thousands of judges, were dismissed and detained

Purge
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Media regulation

46.
Ethnic conflict
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An ethnic conflict is a conflict between two or more contending ethnic groups. While the source of the conflict may be political, social, or economic and this final criterion differentiates ethnic conflict from other forms of struggle. Ethnic conflict does not necessarily have to be violent, in a multi-ethnic society where freedom of speech is protected, ethnic conflict can be an everyday feature of plural democracies. For example, ethnic conflict might be a non-violent struggle for resources divided among ethnic groups, however, the subject of the confrontation must be either directly or symbolically linked with an ethnic group. In healthy multi-ethnic democracies, these conflicts are usually institutionalized and channeled through parliaments, assemblies and bureaucracies or through non-violent demonstrations, on the other hand, in authoritarian systems, ethnic minorities are often unable to express their grievances. Grievances are instead allowed to fester which might lead to long phases of silence followed by a violent outburst. Therefore, ethnic peace is an absence of violence, not an absence of conflict, another consequence is that violent ethnic rebellions often result in political rights for previously marginalized groups. Academic explanations of ethnic conflict generally fall into one of three schools of thought, primordialist, instrumentalist or constructivist, recently, several political scientists have argued for either top-down or bottom-up explanations for ethnic conflict. The causes of conflict are debated by political scientists and sociologists. Explanations generally fall into one of three schools of thought, primordialist, instrumentalist, and constructivist, more recent scholarship draws on all three schools. Primordialist accounts rely on strong ties of kinship among members of ethnic groups, donald L. Horowitz argues that this kinship makes it possible for ethnic groups to think in terms of family resemblances. Clifford Geertz, a scholar of primordialism, asserts that each person has a natural connection to perceived kinsmen. In time and through repeated conflict, essential ties to ones ethnicity will coalesce, ethnic groups will consequently always threaten the survival of civil governments but not the existence of nations formed by one ethnic group. Thus, when considered through a lens, ethnic conflict in multi-ethnic society is inevitable. A number of political scientists argue that the causes of ethnic conflict do not involve ethnicity per se but rather institutional, political. Moreover, primordial accounts do not account for the spatial and temporal variations in ethnic violence, if these ancient hatreds are always simmering under the surface and are at the forefront of peoples consciousness, then ethnic groups should constantly be ensnared in violence. However, ethnic violence occurs in sporadic outbursts, for example, Varshney points out that although Yugoslavia broke up due to ethnic violence in the 1990s, it had enjoyed a long peace of decades before the USSR collapsed. Therefore, some claim that it is unlikely that primordial ethnic differences alone caused the outbreak of violence in the 1990s

47.
Red Scare
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A Red Scare is the promotion of fear of a potential rise of communism or radical leftism. In the United States, the First Red Scare was about worker revolution, the Second Red Scare was focused on national and foreign communists infiltrating or subverting U. S. society, the federal government, or both. Political scientist, and former member of the Communist Party Murray B and those on the side of the IWW claim that the press misrepresented legitimate labor strikes as crimes against society, conspiracies against the government, and plots to establish communism. On June 2,1919, in eight cities, eight bombs simultaneously exploded, afterwards, Palmer ordered the U. S. Justice Department to launch the Palmer Raids. Law professor David D. Cole reports that President Wilson’s federal government consistently targeted alien radicals, for their speech or associations, making little effort to distinguish terrorists from ideological dissidents. S. Constitution via Palmer-authorized “illegal acts” and “wanton violence”, defensively, Palmer then warned that a government-deposing left-wing revolution would begin on 1 May 1920 — May Day, the International Workers’ Day. When it failed to happen, he was ridiculed and lost much credibility, strengthening the legal criticism of Palmer was that fewer than 600 deportations were substantiated with evidence, out of the thousands of resident aliens arrested and deported. In July 1920, Palmer’s once-promising Democratic Party bid for the U. S. presidency failed, wall Street was bombed on September 2,1920, near Federal Hall National Memorial and the JP Morgan Bank. Although both anarchists and Communists were suspected as being responsible for the bombing, ultimately no individuals were indicted for the bombing in which 38 died and 141 were injured, in 1919–20, several states enacted criminal syndicalism laws outlawing advocacy of violence in effecting and securing social change. The restrictions included free speech limitations, passage of these laws, in turn, provoked aggressive police investigation of the accused persons, their jailing, and deportation for being suspected of being either communist or left-wing. Regardless of ideological gradation, the Red Scare did not distinguish between communism, anarchism, socialism, or social democracy, the second Red Scare occurred after World War II, and was popularly known as McCarthyism after its most famous supporter, Senator Joseph McCarthy. S. Government officials, and the Korean War. S, National Security, that, in turn, connected to fear of the Soviet Union hydrogen-bombing the United States, and fear of the Communist Party of the United States of America. In Canada, the 1946 Kellock–Taschereau Commission investigated espionage after top secret documents concerning RDX, radar, government before, during and after World War II. Other U. S. citizen spies confessed, some with pride, a few of the events during the Red Scare were also due to a power struggle between J. Edgar Hoover and the Central Intelligence Agency. Hoover had instigated and aided some of the investigations of members of the CIA with leftist history and this conflict could also be traced back to the conflict between Hoover and William J. Donovan, going back to the first Red Scare, but especially during World War II. They had differing opinions on the nature of the alliance with the Soviet Union, conflicts over jurisdiction, conflicts of personality, by the 1930s, communism had become an attractive economic ideology among some in the United States, particularly among labor leaders and the intelligentsia. At its zenith in 1939, the CPUSA had some 50,000 members, in 1940, soon after World War II began in Europe, the U. S. With the slogan Communism is Twentieth-Century Americanism, the chairman, Earl Browder, in contrast, the Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party opposed U. S. participation in the war and supported labor strikes, even in the war-effort industry

48.
Religious persecution
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Religious persecution is the systematic mistreatment of an individual or group of individuals as a response to their religious beliefs or affiliations or lack thereof. The tendency of societies or groups within society to alienate or repress different subcultures is a recurrent theme in human history, Religious persecution may be triggered by religious bigotry or by the state when it views a particular religious group as a threat to its interests or security. At a societal level, this dehumanisation of a religious group may readily turn into violence or other forms of persecution. Indeed, in countries, religious persecution has resulted in so much violence that it is considered a human rights problem. Religious persecution can be considered the opposite of freedom of religion, Religious persecution may also affect atheists in that they may be denounced as being amoral or be persecuted by the religious on the grounds that they are godless. Persecution in this case may refer to confiscation or destruction of property, incitement to hate, arrest, imprisonment, beatings, torture, denial of civil rights on the basis of religion is most often described as religious discrimination, rather than religious persecution. The difference between religious and ethnic identity might sometimes be obscure, cases of genocide in the 20th century cannot be explained in full by citing religious differences, the Holocaust made no distinction between secular Jews, atheistic Jews, orthodox Jews and Jews that had converted to Christianity. The descriptive use of the religious persecution is rather difficult. Religious persecution has taken place at least since the antiquity, and has happened in different historical, geographical and social contexts, until the 18th century, some groups were nearly universally persecuted for their views about religion, such as atheists, Jews and zoroastrians. One period of persecution which has been studied extensively is early modern England, since the rejection of religious persecution, now common in the Western world. The most ambitious chronicle of that time is W. K. Jordans magnum opus The Development of Religious Toleration in England, jordan wrote as the threat of fascism rose in Europe, and this work is seen as a defense of the fragile values of humanism and tolerance. More recent introductions to this period are Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England, 1558–1689 by John Coffey, tolerance and intolerance in England, 1500-1700 by Alexandra Walsham. To understand why religious persecution has occurred, historians like Coffey pay close attention to what the persecutors said they were doing, no religion is free from internal dissent, although the degree of dissent that is tolerated within a particular religious organization can strongly vary. This degree of diversity tolerated within a church is described as ecclesiastical tolerance. However, when people speak of religious tolerance, they most often mean civil tolerance. Before that, theologians like Joseph Hall had reasoned from the intolerance of the early Christian church in the New Testament to the civil intolerance of the Christian state. Before a vigorous debate about religious persecution took place in England, for centuries in Europe, in England there had been several Acts of Uniformity, in continental Europe the Latin phrase cuius regio, eius religio had been used. Concerning the church, he went on, A church, then, I take to be a society of men

Religious persecution
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During Nazi rule, Jews were forced to wear yellow stars identifying them as such. Jews are an ethno-religious group and Nazi persecution was based on their race
Religious persecution
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Protestant Bishop John Hooper was burned at the stake by Queen Mary I of England
Religious persecution
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Saint Peter, an apostle of Jesus, was executed by the Romans
Religious persecution
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According to tradition, early Christians were fed to lions in the Colosseum of Rome

49.
Scapegoating
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Scapegoating is the practice of singling out any party for unmerited negative treatment or blame as a scapegoat. Scapegoating may be conducted by individuals against individuals, individuals against groups, groups against individuals, a scapegoat may be an adult, child, sibling, employee, peer, ethnic, political or religious group, or country. A whipping boy, identified patient or fall guy are forms of scapegoat, Scapegoating is a tactic often employed to characterize an entire group of individuals according to the unethical or immoral conduct of a small number of individuals belonging to that group. Scapegoating relates to guilt by association and stereotyping, however, scapegoating may also be applied to organizations, such as governments, corporations, or various political groups. Unwanted thoughts and feelings can be projected onto another who becomes a scapegoat for ones own problems. This concept can be extended to projection by groups, in this case the chosen individual, or group, becomes the scapegoat for the groups problems. Political agitation in all countries is full of such projections, just as much as the gossip of little groups. Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung considered indeed that there must be people who behave in the wrong way. The scapegoat theory of intergroup conflict provides an explanation for the correlation between times of economic despair and increases in prejudice and violence toward outgroups. Studies of anti-black violence in the southern US between 1882 and 1930 show a correlation between poor economic conditions and outbreaks of violence against blacks, Scapegoating as a group necessitates that ingroup members settle on one specific target to blame for their problems. Scapegoating is also likely to appear when a group has experienced difficult. Scapegoating can also cause oppressed groups to lash out at other oppressed groups, even when injustices are committed against a minority group by the majority group, minorities sometimes lash out against a different minority group in lieu of confronting the more powerful majority. In management, Scapegoating is a practice in management where a lower staff employee is blamed for the mistakes of senior executives. This is often due to lack of accountability in upper management, literary critic and philosopher Kenneth Burke first coined and described the expression scapegoat mechanism in his books Permanence and Change, and A Grammar of Motives. These works influenced some philosophical anthropologists, such as Ernest Becker, Girard developed the concept much more extensively as an interpretation of human culture. In Girards view, it is humankind, not God, who has need for forms of atoning violence. Humans are driven by desire for that which another has or wants and this causes a triangulation of desire and results in conflict between the desiring parties. This mimetic contagion increases to a point where society is at risk and this is the point where one person is singled out as the cause of the trouble and is expelled or killed by the group

Scapegoating
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Scapegoat, 2012, bronze sculpture

50.
Segregation academy
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While these schools were established chiefly in the Southern United States, private schools existed nationwide that were heavily segregated in practice, though perhaps not intentionally. Since the late 20th century, as patterns in United States have changed, many of these private schools began to admit minority students. Still others, in poor, majority-black regions such as the Mississippi Delta, continue to operate with few, if any, because the ruling did not apply to private schools, founding new academies provided parents a way to continue to educate their children separately from blacks. At this time, most adult blacks were disfranchised in the South, excluded from politics. Private academies operated outside the scope of the Brown v. Board of Education ruling, scholars estimate that across the nation, at least half a million white students were withdrawn from public schools between 1964 and 1975 to avoid mandatory desegregation. But in the 21st century, it did not practice any type of discrimination, in their suit, Allen v. Wright, the plaintiffs named a number of Southern schools as representative of segregation academies. In Mississippi and Arkansas, many of the academies were first established in the black-majority Mississippi Delta region in northwestern Mississippi. The Delta has historically had a very large population, related to the history of the use of slave labor on cotton plantations. The potential for integration resulted in white parents establishing segregation academies in every county in the Delta, many academies are still operating, from Indianola, Mississippi to Humphreys County. These schools began to accept black students late in the 20th century, in a region with low incomes among blacks, many African-American parents cannot afford the private schools. At least one school in Mississippi, Carroll Academy, receives funding from the segregationist Council of Conservative Citizens. In Virginia, segregation academies were part of a policy of massive resistance declared by U. S and he worked to unite other white Virginia politicians and leaders in taking action to prevent school desegregation after the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court ruling in 1954. In its September/October 1956 special session, the Virginia General Assembly passed a series of known as the Stanley plan to implement massive resistance. In January, Virginias voters had approved an amendment to the constitution to allow tuition grants to parents enrolling their children in private schools. In practice, this meant state support of newly established private schools which became known as segregation academies. On February 18,1958, the General Assembly passed additional legislation protecting segregation, since new segregation academy facilities often failed to meet construction, health and safety standards for public schools, these were also loosened. Segregation academies opened in various Virginia cities and counties subject to lawsuits, including Arlington, Charlottesville. Arlington and Norfolk desegregated peacefully in February 1959, in Arlington, many white students remained in the desegregated schools