Multiplication, the theory – by Thales’ theorem

The diagram can be simplified by using an acute triangle.

Thales’ theorem

Proof of Thales theorem :
If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle and it intersects the other two sides at two distinct points then it divides the two sides in the same ratio.
Given : In ∆ABC , DE || BC and intersects AB in D and AC in E.
Prove that : AD / DB = AE / EC
Construction : Join BC,CD and draw EF ┴ BA and DG ┴ CA.
Statements Reasons
1) EF ┴ BA 1) Construction
2) EF is the height of ∆ADE and ∆DBE 2) Definition of perpendicular
3)Area(ADE) = (AD.EF)/2 3)Area = (Base .height)/2
4)Area(DBE) =(DB.EF)/2 4) Area = (Base .height)/2
5)(Area(ADE))/(Area(DBE)) = AD/DB 5) Divide (3) by (4)
6) (Area(ADE))/(Area(DEC)) = AE/EC 6) Divide (3) by Area(DEC)
7) ∆DBE ~∆DEC 7) Both the ∆s are on the same base and
between the same || lines.
8) Area(∆DBE)=area(∆DEC) 8) So the two triangles have equal areas
9) AD/DB =AE/EC 9) From (5) and (6) and (7)

Not only this but also AD/AB = DE/BC

I borrowed this from http://www.ask-math.com/basic-proportionality-theorem.html

The row operation matrix inversion method is so neat and ingenious, and it has the same operations for all dimensions of matrix.

Here is a step by step approach, where firstly the dimension is chosen, then the first of the buttons is selected (Start). After which the buttons are selected in order. The states of the left and right matrices are displayed at each stage, and finally the identity matrix appears on the left, and the inverse of the original matrix appears on the right.

I was pondering the reality of negative numbers and after figuring out that a sequence of dots on a line can be extended in each of the two directions, and then arbitrarily selecting one dot as “the zero”. The line can be further labelled as 1, 2, 3, … to one side and -1, -2, -3, … on the other side.
(better to label the 1, 2, 3, … as +1, +2, +3, … and consider the lot as “signed numbers”)

Soon proceeding towards arithmetic I concluded that 7-3 is 4, and also 8-4 is 4, and therefore 13-9 is 4, and then 3-7 is -4, and -2-2 is -4. It was then observed that if a-b=c then a-y-(b-y) is also equal to c, regardless of the signs of the specific numbers involved.
This of course is stunningly obvious when looking at the signed difference of the first and the second number as an extended number line diagram.

The outcome of all this was an arithmetic for 0, 1, 2 modulo 3, and the signed difference x-y is a binary operation diff(x,y) with table:

…x … 0 1 2
y
0 0 1 2
1 2 0 1
2 1 2 0

Example: 1-2 is -1, which is 2 modulo 3

So a non abelian, non associative algebra with a not quite identity satisfies the conditions, where A=1, B=2 and C=0
—————————————————–
There are three objects and an operation called “doesn’t have a name”.
Two are similar, and the third is a bit different
They are paired to yield a single object as follows:

AA = BB = CC = C
AB = BC = CA = B
AC = CB = BA = A

Notice that BC and CB are different, so non-abelian.
Worse is that (AC)A = C and A(CA) = B are different, so non-associative.
And consequently A and B and C are different.
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Interestingly, and maybe separately, the minus sign behaves very differently from the plus sign:

a-(-b) is a+b, but there is no way of writing a-b using only addition.

1: Change them to equivalent fractions that will have equal
denominators. As the common denominator, choose the LCM of
the original denominators. Then the larger the numerator, the
larger the fraction.

2: Jun 26, 2011 – If b and d were same it was easy to find LCM
since if denominators are same, we just need to find LCM of
numerators, hence LCM of (a/b) and (c/b) would be LCM(a,c)/b.
So we have to first make denominators of both the fractions same.
Multiply numerator and denominator of first fraction by LCM
(b,d)/b.

3: The GCF and LCM are the underlying concepts for finding
equivalent fractions and adding and subtracting fractions, which
students will do later.

Now we can do fraction addition without LCM. It just needs the use of the distributive law, and the result shows the way in which the divisors combine.

What exactly are negative numbers?
A reference , from Wikipedia:
In A.D. 1759, Francis Maseres, an English mathematician, wrote that negative numbers “darken the very whole doctrines of the equations and make dark of the things which are in their nature excessively obvious and simple”.
He came to the conclusion that negative numbers were nonsensical.[25]

A minus times a minus is a plus
Two minuses make a plus
Dividing by a negative, especially a negative fraction !!!!
(10 – 2) x (7 – 3) = 10 x 7 – 2 x 7 + 10 x -3 + 2 x 3, really? How do we know?
Or we use “the area model”, or some hand waving with the number line.

It’s time for some clear thinking about this stuff.

Mathematically speaking, the only place that requires troublesome calculations with negative numbers is in algebra, either in evaluation or in rearrangement, but what about the real world ?
Where in the real world does one encounter negative x negative ?
I found two situations, in electricity and in mechanics:

1: “volts x amps = watts”, as it it popularly remembered really means “voltage drop x current flowing = power”
It is sensible to choose a measurement system (scale) for each of these so that a current flowing from a higher to a lower potential point is treated as positive, as is the voltage drop.

Part of simple circuit A———–[resistors etc in here]————–B
Choosing point A, at potential a, as the reference, and point B, at potential b, as the “other” point, then the potential drop from A to B is a – b
If b<a then a current flows from A to B, and its value is positive, just as a – b is positive
If b>a then a current flows from B to A, and its value is negative, just as a – b is negative

In each case the formula for power, voltage drop x current flowing = power, must yield an unsigned number, as negative power is a nonsense. Power is an “amount”.
So when dealing with reality minus times minus is plus (in this case nosign at all).

The mechanics example is about the formula “force times distance = work done”
You can fill in the details.

Now let’s do multiplication on the number line, or to be more precise, two number lines:
Draw two number lines, different directions, starting together at the zero. The scales do not have to be the same.
To multiply 2 by three (3 times 2):
1: Draw a line from the 1 on line A to the 2 on line B
2: Draw a line from the 3 on line A parallel to the first line.
3: It meets line B at the point 6
4: Done: 3 times 2 is 6
Number line A holds the multipliers, number line B holds the numbers being multiplied.

To multiply a negative number by a positive number we need a pair of signed number lines, crossing at their zero points.

So to multiply -2 by 3 (3 times -2) we do the same as above, but the number being multiplied is now -2, so 1 on line A is joined to -2 on line B

The diagram below is for -2 times 3. Wow, it ends in the same place.

Finally, and you can see where this is going, we do -2 times -3.

Join the 1 on line A to the -3 on line B, and then the parallel to this line passing through the -2 on line A:

and as hoped for, this line passes through the point 6 on the number line B.

Does this “prove” the general case? Only in the proverbial sense. The reason is that we do not have a proper definition of signed numbers. (There is one).

Incidentally, the numbering on the scales above is very poor. The positive numbers are NOT NOT NOT the same things as the unsigned numbers 1, 1.986, 234.5 etc

Each of them should have a + in front, but mathematicians are Lazy. More on this another day.

Problem for you: Show that (a-b)(c-d) = ac – bc – ad + bd without using anything to do with “negative numbers”

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References.
Wikipedia:
Reference direction for current
Since the current in a wire or component can flow in either direction, when a variable I is defined to represent
that current, the direction representing positive current must be specified, usually by an arrow on the circuit
schematic diagram. This is called the reference direction of current I. If the current flows in the opposite
direction, the variable I has a negative value.

Yahoo Answers: Reference direction for potential difference
Best Answer: Potential difference can be negative. It depends on which direction you measure the voltage – e.g.
which way round you connect a voltmeter. (if this is the best answer, I hate to think of what the worst answer is)
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