3 Published in Association with Science & Education Foundation. Any paper submitted to the Journal of International Scientific Publications: Educational Alternatives - should NOT be under consideration for publication at another journal. All submitted papers must also represent original work, and should fully reference and describe all prior work on the same subject and compare the submitted paper to that work. All research articles in this journal have undergone rigorous peer review, based on initial editor screening and anonymized refereeing by at least two referees. Recommending the articles for publishing, the reviewers confirm that in their opinion the submitted article contains important or new scientific results. The authors of the articles bear the responsibility for their content. When quoting the articles their author and edition should be mentioned. It is not allowed the edition of the scientific articles to be copied, multiplied and distributed with the purpose of trade without the permission of the editor. 3

4 LEXICAL VARIETY OF THE CHILDREN IN PRE-SCHOOL AGE AND THEIR DISCOURSIVE SKILLS IN PICTURE STORIES Gergana K. Gabrovska South-West University Neofit Rilski, Ivan Mihaylov str., 66, Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria Abstract Pre-school age is a sensitive period for mastering the command of the language functions. Due to the forms of monolog coherent speech, as a supreme language ability, the child reveals not just it s mental potential, but it`s experience as a linguistic personality, including the wealth of the language, because this is the optimum age for enrichment of the vocabulary. The following report presents a research for the variety of the language, which was used in the monolog speech of children in the period from 5 to 6 years of age, nurtured and brought up in the conditions of a modern kindergarten. The analyzed data is based on 25 individual picture stories based on different subjects, emphasizing on various aspects of the children s lives. The results were analyzed by comparative method, according to the degree of innovation and the independency of the display of the subject line. Key words: discoursive skills, cohered speech, development, analysis, story The uninterrupted searching for answers is a typical feature of the intensive personal development in the period from 3 to 7 years of age. In addition to apprehend these answers firstly it is necessary to acquire the forms of the native language. As the work of learning the language is getting more intensive, such as formulating language flair and acquaintance of the verbal speech, the easier it will be to examine reality and the aspiration for knowledge will be stronger. This means that all bases for complete intellectual development will be secured. The external environment has a special influence over the growth and development of the child it can accelerate it and on the other hand to hold it up. Moreover, in the external environment things such as bad abilities, dialectal forms, prime phraseology and lexis, incorrect word order are easy to adopt. Later on, when the child is already in primary school, this is a bigger problem, because there is already language and self-control. That is why the purposeful language education in the period from 3 to 7 years of age in the conditions of the kindergarten helps for the accelerated correct and versatile development of children speech. Basic aim of the education of native language in the kindergarten is to form correct verbal speech and to create an ability of verbal communication with others using the literary language. One of the main tasks of the speech development is to establish and to stimulate a coherent speech. Also, this is the first form of communication between the child and the adult. The development of the cohered speech is a leading part among the other tasks of the language learning. This advancement is accomplish gradually, starting with the simple forms and going to the complex one and it is directly connected with the child s activities becoming more complex and it s communicative forms with the others as well. The alert study of that task brings us to the monolog speech and its tight connection with the thinking. The language potential of the children is developing exactly by its forms Story and Storytelling (in accordance with the Methodology of language education in Bulgaria). The Story itself is the supreme language skill of the children in preschool age. To tell a story, the child has to choose itself the whole content and to present in appropriate language form. To achieve this task the child needs 4

5 enough language material and abilities of grammatically correct speech. Therefore with the use of the forms of the cohered speech, the child shows its mental potential and also its experience as a language personality including the variety of the language that it possesses because this is the ultimate age for enrichment of its vocabulary. What is the actual status of the children s speech development, according to the examine aspects it is hard to say without an appropriate research to be done. As I mentioned before the cohered speech is developing by Story and Story telling, that is why for achieving the goals of the research I classified for most appropriate the research method Picture Story (see pic. 1). The picture as a visual instrument stimulates the dominant visual-figurative way of thinking in preschool age. The problematic situation which the illustrated moment shows, suppose that the imagination has to create a story about what happened before and why is it that basket in the girl`s hand. Using this method with the same visual instrument for all children, a statement is provoked, which is different by its lexical fragments and grammatical structure. On first place we have to determine the reference frame: Problem the problem for the speech development of children from preschool age in the conditions of intensive changeable external environment; Aim to receive accurate results, presenting the actual state of the lexical variety of the children in preschool age and analyzing the qualities of the children speech, expressed in a creative Story; Object speech development of children in preschool period; Subject lexical aspect of the speech development, conditions for enrichment of the vocabulary capacity Research tasks - creating a picture in advance for the mood in the testing group of children - make a record of every individual story - analysis of the results Methods observation, interview, story based on visual aids The research was made in March, 2012, III group, Kindergarten No. 6, Dupnitsa, Kyustendil, Bulgaria A brain attack was made with variety of questions, based on which the children had to create their own stories: Look at the picture! Who is that girl? Where is she now? Where is she going? Where is she coming from? What might happen to her? When? Who helped her? Who helped the girl to get home? 5

6 Tasks: All the children in the group to think about it and to make a short story when and where this event happened, what is the girl`s name. In addition to think about an appropriate title of the story as well. The title has to be related to the story directly! The following picture was present to the children: Picture 1 The picture itself cannot provoke imagination it is very difficult to be assimilated as a detached base for event, which didn`t happened in a tale. Initial reaction is closely connected with the fairy-tales, which the children had perceived since early age. Each child makes analogy with already known literary image and adds elements from its personal experience or from its actual interests. Even the assign of secondary questions doesn t help, the situation is more like cross-examination and the children do not feel comfortable. It is difficult to transform such a dialog into a story. Although at the group lecture with all children, there were some points, on which the kids had to think about, in the moment of individual creation of a story, it seems like they just forgot it. Normally story telling in kindergarten is more like description of a picture, but in this case it was difficult for them to make even a list of the objects on the picture. In the end of the lecture, there was an individual conversation with every child in the group. Each story was record and carefully analyzed after that. There are 25 recorded and analyzed stories. To get a better idea about the lexical variety, it was necessary to make an analysis by using the given formula. I used the formula TTR ( Token Ratio): TTR = p/q 100, where "q" is the number of all used words in child`s story and "" is the number of the different words. The results was allocated in four categories until 45%, 45% - 55%, 55% - 75% and over 75%, you can see the summary of the results in diagram 1: 6

7 Diagram Frequency ,00% 55,00% 45,00% More Bin Frequency Bin Frequency Bin Frequency 45,00% 4 75,00% 11 55,00% 9 55,00% 9 75,00% 11 45,00% 4 More 1 More 1 The most frequent results are in section 45%-55% and 55%-75%, as in the second one (until 75%) actually there is biggest number of children. These are very surprising results, especially when we are talking about children until 7 years of age. Percentages from this rank are challengeable even for students. Detailed analysis gives a clear idea about the character of the lexical variety. Well known and loved fairy-tales are in the base of the plot in most of the stories, where also can be seen lots of repetition of words, reproducing phrases and compilation of moments of two stories or even parts of fairy-tales. Additionally that is the way we can get an idea about children`s abilities for retelling, not for creating stories. The analysis shows the lexical variety of the author of the tale. That is why all the stories were separate into two groups independent and compiled from other stories. In next diagram (diagram 2) you can see the results of this separation, based on comparative method. Diagram % % 80.00% 60.00% 40.00% 20.00% 0.00% independent with story character The blue line presents the results of the children who used fairy-tales for a basis of their stories and the red line presents the independent stories of the children. You can see clearly that the first one is with abundant lexical variety. According to each story, we can define three subject lines, which are interweave in most of the stories, precisely: Fairy-tales, Personal Experience, Present and Future. Looking at the picture, the first analogy is with heroes from favorite tales. Fairy-tales have developing 7

8 significance for children s imagination and emotions. The kids gave preferences to the images of Cinderella, Red Riding Hood, Masha and the bear. It is not an obligation to make a connection with a tale if the child says the name of a main character. Different children used some scenes or acts but normally they choose these parts, where the good triumphs over the evil. Not every tale provokes a desire for reproducing it through a game, drawing or like in our case a story. Normally the children want to reproduce those tales which are easy to understand for them and where there is a simple explanation about figures, their activities, steps and the relation between them. The proven fact, that from all tales, the children chose only that three, indicate that these are the most known tales from the children. In most of the stories there are even phrases from fairy-tales. This learning by heart has a psychological explanation. Regarding to the tales, the children are conservative. If they like some literary work, they want to hear it every time with the same words, in the same order, in the same way. They feel pleasure to recognize these words, to learn it by heart in their original order and to feel the same motions which they felt the first time they heard the story surprise, fear, recompense. The children need security and order, the world does not have to leave suddenly and in a rude way the rails, on which the child had stabilized it. Personal experience is other main part of children stories. The aspects of labour and ecological education can be seen in the qualities, which the kids gave to the girl from the picture. Depending on the individual existence, each story has something personal, something which represents the personality of the child birthday party, story about dinosaurs, grandma who is knitting pants and a vest, also a grandma who is making a biscuit cake. Present and Future. This line is directly connected with the previous one that is why there is some resemblance with it. It is remarkable that in each story there is the word flower (used in different forms). March is that special time of the year, when in the kindergartens have special preparation for the Spring Celebration. Daily repeating on thematically rimes, songs and dances gives a reflection on the children way of thinking and vocabulary. Asking questions normally has to help for the creation of a story, but this case the children answer with just one or two words, directly connected with the picture or revealing elementary cause and effect connections. Subject of the research is the lexical aspect of the speech development and that is why I emphasized on the independent stories. In the course of the analysis it a table was made, which unites all the used words and forms by every child. It gives a visual picture for variety of the speech. Thoroughly the children are using nouns and verbs, after them (according use criterion) are different prepositions, conjunctions and particles. There is serious use of a different form of the words. There is one more typical occurrence, using diminutives - girlie, housie. There is one more psychological event the use of superlatives (most powerful, the biggest). The meaning for the child is totally different than the meaning for the adult. If a child use a superlative, it`s because it want to say that the person, animal or thing is unique, great and majestic. It`s not just a parallel like the adults do. That`s how the children demonstrate their admiration to someone s superiority. Presented picture suppose equal start for creative work to all children, depending on their personal potential. In next diagram (diagram 3) are presented the results of counting of all words in every simple story. 8

9 Diagram words - total sum It is easy to see the clearly expressed peak, but the quantity is not proportional to the lexical variety. In the next diagram (diagram 4) are synthesized the results of counting the all different words in every individual story. The expressed peak from previous diagram can be seen here also, but when compare it we can see that the lexical variety is not very big. That can be seen well in diagram 5, where diagrams 3 and 4 are compared. As you can see from the above, the number of different words deserved to the experience of the children, assimilated fairy-tales and the external environment where the children grown up and developed. Maybe in some future research, I can go deeper with questions so to establish different facts from the life and adjustments of the children, especially because in the period until 7 years, the connection with the family is very strong (that also can be seen in situations where the children set up the girl from the picture). The dissimilarity is obvious. Furthermore, looking at the diagram, you can see the exceptional moment where Maria is the only one with 100% result! That means that every single word that she used was different. Additionally this is hardly achievable even for an adult with rich personal experience. A precise look on her short story reveals the mystery she does not create a story, she is just answering the given questions, and likewise her answers contain only one or two words. Most of the children feel embarrassed with free telling and with the separation from familiar plots already well-known from the fairy-tales. It is difficult job to define the origin of the arisen difficulties. The fact that the picture could not provoke the imagination for free flight, pose some questions about selection of visual didactical materials in the time of language learning. What is more at one of my discussion with the teacher of the group, she frankly mentioned that the children have problems with story telling. Therefore this is a good reason for more volumetric and deeper research about characteristics of the children speech 9

10 what is the reason for the poor lexical variety that is also one of the questions which I am going to research in my dissertation. Diagram 4 different words Therefore to make easy to see the difference between the used words total sum and sum of different words, the previous 2 diagrams are compared here, in diagram 5. Diagram confrontation 10

11 One of the main reasons for the observe phenomenon is the introduction of a compulsory education system for children at age of 5, where the educative content is focused on the preparation for learning to read and write. Thus this preparation is predominantly happening with children writing in notebooks allocated on tables. This eases the teacher s job and they preferred this approach of working but in that case they allocate educational content from the school system to lower age group which has not even going to school yet. As a result the following problem occurs- work on the verbal speech is decreased to a minimum. In addition are affected the cohered speech and the lexical resource, grammar and the speech in the daily communications. This conclusion imposes further research into the problem and gives a new meaning to the goals of the speech development in pre-school period. Actually this fact is directly connected with the application of the communication-operative approach in the studies of native language and ignorance of the wrong practice of teaching how to read and write which has to be the school institution priority. REFERENCE 1., M. (2001): //, 2.,. (1999):,., 3., (1994):,., 4.,.,,. (1970):, 5. Rodari, G. (1981): Grammar of the fantasy 11

12 A PIONNER IN THE CRITICAL PEDAGOGICAL APPROACH: SMAL HAKKI TONGUÇ ( ) Firdevs Gümüolu Mimar Sinan Fine Art University, Faculty of Science and Letter, Department of Sociology, Bomonti, stanbul Abstract In this research I am going to discuss smail Hakk Tonguç s approach to education in villages in Turkey from 1936 to Tonguç was born in Bulgaria, Silistre in He was one of the earliest founders of The Village Institute in Turkey. At the time Turkey had 40 thousand villages without schools and already 96 percent of the people were illiterate. According to Tonguç, villager children would become the future generation of leaders who would go on to modernise. His approach was learning through work. The teacher should be raised in the same environment as the students. Very soon, this new types of school was founded all around the country. The students who were chosen in the villages. Education has meet the villagers needs. At the same time they had courses in math, science, arts ext. Tonguç wanted to break the silence of oppression. The utopia became reality in 15 years: 20 thousand villagers became teachers and paramedics. In this presentation I am going to talk about the effects of Tonguç s educational approach in Turkey. Key words: Village Institute, Critical Pedagogy, Education Modernisation 1.INTRODUCTION Education became an important part of the modernization process of the Ottoman Empire beginning with the 19 th century. Mahmut the II made young boys primary schools (sbyan mektebi) mandatory (Bagöz 1999, 23; Koçer 1992, 35). This was the first attempt at spreading education in the Ottoman Empire. Another first was allowing girls to enter these schools. In 1860, engineering schools and medical schools were established in addition to Technical Schools to provide for the needs of the military schools. The modernization in Education was seen as a way to revive the weakening economic and military power of the Empire. However, these attempts were limited and no great reform in Education was achieved. These educational privileges remained available to a small minority. Poor children, who formed the majority, were left with no choice other than the primary schools and the Madrasah. The education in the Madrasah s were according to the Sheria Laws and were resistant to any kind of change until 1908 (Bagöz 1999, 35). During the first half of the 19 th century these efforts aimed at changing society through education. These changes could not be considered as thoroughly radical unless revised by the system. The idea of the modernization of education remained limited to the thoughts of the emperor, the viziers and the ministers (Bagöz 1999). With the declaration of the II. Constitutional Monarchy in 1908, it was announced that elementary education would be free and there would be an elementary school in every neighbourhood. With the application of these procedures the number of students quadrupled in some 12

13 cities. The educators were worried that there weren t enough schools that would have to trained teachers. In 1914, brahim Mahir Efendi, proposed that they would have to wait for 300 years to train enough educators that would support the new education law, in his speech he gave in the parliament (Bagöz 1999, 42) At the same time, educating the youth to deliver a more productive generation was a problem many educators stressed upon (Tonguç 1938, Koçer 1992) In 1919, the Ottomon Empire started to decline following the invasion of Istanbul and Anatolia by Western countries. This also made the long lasting educational system to fall apart. Soon after local resistance groups, fighting for independence were formed all around Anatolia (Tanör 1992). While the war of Independence continued a new government was formed in Ankara on the 23 rd of April The new parliament regarded education a priority and formed the Ministry of Education in A Teacher s Congress was held in Ankara on July 15, 1921 with the aim of coming up with immediate solutions to the educational problems. The congress was unable to put forward any immediate solutions. Even decades after the economic and social conditions of the country remained undeveloped. Access to free education became a constitutional right. Coeducation at all levels began to be implemented. This was a significant steps towards positive discrimination for women. However in % of the villages in Turkey still had no school. The literacy rate was very low and in 1928 only 6% of the population was literate. This meant that 94% of the population had no access to any kind of education. The majority of the population earned their living by agriculture and animal husbandry, under primitive conditions. For the last years the plough had remained the major agricultural technology (Kray 1999, 117) making living conditions quite hard. Villages suffered from hunger and poverty. Industrial production was almost non-existent. All industrial products were imported. Finding nails and pipes for constructing buildings that had been burned down by the enemy and had not been repaired was difficult. There were not enough roads between villages and cities. Transportation was by donkeys, horses and humans. Horses and carriages were used in the more developed regions (Güvenç 1997, 13). Another important problem in the villages was the fact that people were abused and exploited by feudal powers. The villagers had a vey dependent relationship with feudality (Tökin 1934, 177) In addition epidemics were an important public health issue. To summarize, the authorities at the time were in search of solutions to the problems mentioned above. Education was defined as a priority. In 1928, the Latin alphabet replaced the Arabic alphabet, which was very hard to learn. Immediately after, public schools were opened all around the country. People were taught social studies in addition to learning to read and write. Both men and women, ranging from age 7 to age 70 showed great interest in these public schools. At the same time the quantity and quality of primary schools were improved. Firstly, the quantity and quality of the Rural Teacher s Schools were improved. However in 1935 the education problem had still not been satisfactorily solved. After much debate, it was decided in 1936 to educate the young villagers who had served as sergeants in the army. The aim in doing so was to enable these young men to become teachers in their own villages. These young teachers were going to teach in their natural habitat. It was decided that in the event of these teachers becoming a success, women would also be trained as teachers. One of the founders of the idea was smail Hakk Tonguç. Thereafter Tonguç s Reviving the Rural project was put to life. The aim of Tonguç s project was to implement an educational model that would be used to build a rational and productive rural society. Tonguç considered the old school with its methods of route learning to be far from understanding the needs of society. The old school was compromised of teachers who knew and subject who were taught. Tonguç considered schools to be an important part of rural life. Teachers and students alike produced, consumed, learned and had fun together. He believed that schools should become more than just institutions that educated intellectuals and handed out diplomas, by becoming schools of life and 13

14 work. Therefore, he aimed to revive the villages through children who were familiar with rural life and understanding. 17,000 teachers graduated from schools based on Tonguç s principles until Many of these people went on to become scientists, artist, writers and politicians who left their marks on the intellectual world of Turkey. 2. EDUCATION AS A PRACTICE TO FREEDOM: THE PRAXIS CONCEPT OF TONGUÇ The pedagogical approach of smail Hakk Tonguç is similar to the praxis concept of Paolo Friere put forth in his 1969 publication of The Pedagogy of the Oppressed. An important figure of critical pedagogy, Friere s pedagogical thought is reflective of his understanding of social realism. Friere observed poverty in Latin America. In 1969 Friere wrote the following Human life is compromised of action and thought. This is called praxis, the reforming of the world. And praxis needs a concept that will illuminate itself. Human life is concept and praxis, thought and action Human life can not be reduced to theory or activism. (Friere 1991, 96) In 1938 smail Hakk Tonguç, about 30 years before Friere, put forth a similar critical perspective. Tonguç s life was dedicated to the modernization of the medieval and poor villages in Turkey. His thoughts were not based solely on what he had read in books. He, himself was the son of a rural family living in Silistre in the beginning of the 1900s. He came to Istanbul during the Balkan war to study and become a teacher. Tonguç was familiar with both life in the poor villages of Bulgaria, which was under the reign of the Ottoman Empire and life in Anatolia. On the other hand he was also familiar with the educational and societal problems in the western world. In 1918 he was sent to Germany for further training. During this visit he became familiar with Georg M. Kerschensteir and John Dewey s school of knowledge vs school of work argument. Tonguç realized that the debate was very close to his own ideas. While in Germany Tonguç witnessed the leftist uprising in Berlin and Munich. However, his stay in Germany had to be cut short. During his first year as a student Tonguç received the news that his country had been invaded. He returned to Istanbul on May 19, 1919 with other students in Germany. He was assigned to Eskiehir as an Arts and Crafts teacher. One day during one of his classes an English Officer entered the classroom and said something to Tonguç, which Tonguç did not understand. The officer whipped Tonguç, upon which his students wanted to retaliate with equal force. Tonguç quietened the class and said Sit down. Observe the state we are in. Unless we can install the characteristics needed to make us a strong nation we deserve to be whipped (Tonguç 1970, 79) Tonguç s life, which we have briefly described above, reflects elements of the political and social context of the time. As a teacher who had witnessed poverty during the Balkan Wars, the First World War, and the invasion of Anatolia, he clearly understood the importance of Turkey s modernization and empowerment. Consequently, he was constantly looking for possible solutions. Tonguç an educator, who knew the living conditions of Turkey very well, become a researcher during the 1930s. His conceptualization of education can be explained by the unity of thought and action; that is praxis. 3. TONGUÇ S CONCEPTUALIZATION OF EDUCATION: Education in the Villages and Revival of the Village were published in 1938 and 1939 respectively. Tonguç constructed extensive research before writing the books. He researched 61 cities, 305 provinces and 9159 villages (Tonguç 1938, 682). He travelled from the East of the country to the West, from the North to the South, to better understand the social structure and formulate solutions 14

15 towards the educational problem. He consulted with other teachers. He believed it was absolutely necessary to become familiar with village life and the villagers. A correct diagnosis was necessary before treatment was possible. According to Tonguç the most important problems of the Turkish rural community stemmed from the fact that they had been exploited for centuries, and were surrounded by a social structure that was based on poverty, ignorance and superstition. The most prominent exit from this situation could be achieved by educating the rural children. This required familiarization with the needs of rural communities. Tonguç said It is not possible to foresee the future of education in rural communities unless one knows the present situation (Tonguç 1938, s. VIII). According to Tonguç, a child growing up in the villages was much more than what had been written about him/her in books. Unless we get to know them from within, it can not be possible to redirect them to where we want them to be. Some people say that the principles that apply to other children can be applied to children in the villages. Those who have taken part in rural research think differently (Altunya 2009, 59) According to Tonguç it is not possible to understand rural reality from a distance. Unless we can shed our blood into the reality of rural life, unless we can live and die in these 40,000 villages we can not understand the secrets of rural communities. To be able to understand and hear the villagers we need to feel their breath against our skin. It is necessary to drink the water they drinks, eat the wheat rice they eat, do the chores they do and burn the dung they burn (Tonguç 1938, 43). According to Tonguç during the reign of the Ottoman Empire, the ruling class and the intellectuals had become alienated from the poor villagers. Tonguç developed a stand against this societal reality and said First of all let us try to get to know the truth about villages. Lets try to find out everything there is to learn, bravely, truth fully and without falling prey to the games of demagogues (Tonguç 1938, 46) His understanding of education called for heroes in every area of life. These heroes had to come from the villages themselves (Tonguç 1938, 44). Tonguç talked of a village issue, however this issue was not one of development but one of understanding revival. The rural community should be educated so that no force can exploit them ruthlessly, treat the villagers as slaves or as animals that work for free. The village issue is basically as described above including the educational problem (Tonguç 1938, 94) According to Tonguç, positive sciences are what created the Western Civilization. Civilization created a new human typology who tried to conquer nature by ration (Tonguç 1938, 544). The same principle was applicable to Turkey. For our country to grow, a new rational model of humanity needed to be developed. A new model of humanity would create a new understanding of schools and schooling. Reviving villages must begin with creating a new type of person who will join forces with us in this war. Reviving villages requires more than traditional primary schooling. If that were enough, schools opened by Hafiz Osman, Sari Hodga, Molla Hasan and Kerim Efendi would have solved the problem many times by now Schools that purely provided information were not enough. According to him schools that purely provide information are based upon route learning and are useless. (Tonguç 1938, 547) The framework of Tonguç s educational approach was as follows: A methodological approach to the revival of villages, which formed the majority of the population yet were faced with epidemics, lack of electricity and roads, poverty and limited resources. This required a system different from the classical approach to education. What was it that was required? First of all to know the village and villagers. Recognizing their weaknesses and strengths. Secondly, using an insider, someone from the village as an agent of change instead of an outsider from the city. Thirdly this person should have empathy and should feel a connection between his own fate and that of the village. Fourthly, the agent of change should be the one people turn to for solving problems and should lead an exemplary life. Fifthly, he 15

16 should show the villagers that their medieval beliefs are wrong and should lead them to a more scientific approach. Sixthly and lastly as the teacher of the village, he should set an example about how to be a good citizen. Paolo Friere says that a banking model of education is what alienates humans from themselves (Friere 1991). This educational model forces people to desert a questioning mind. The Banking model of education destroys creative thinking. The problem defining model of education on the other hand, decodes reality. Friere considers education as a practice to freedom. The banking model of education advocates the submersion of the conscious, whereas the problem defining model of education encourages the conscious to actively criticize reality (Friere 1991, 53). In 1939 Tonguç expressed a thought parallel to Friere s ideas by saying Those who educate the young generation by handing them a diploma and encouraging them to become parasites of the state, need to consider the negative effects of these institutional formations that create semi intellectuals (Tonguç 1939, 31). What Tonguç means by institutions of formation are schools that destroy creativity, teach submissiveness and discourage a sceptical mind. This model of education derives its ideology from tradition (Tonguç 1939, 543). A school in which the teachers do all the talking and the students all the listening, a school in which the teachers give out orders and the students obey the orders, and a school in which the students are not encouraged to be autonomous is an old school (Friere 1991, 47). 4. THE APPLICATION OF TONGUÇ S PEDAGOGY: THE VILLAGE EDUCATORS, THE VILLAGE INSTITUTES As we mentioned in earlier chapters, before starting the practice of Village Educators Courses, he observed 9156 villages. During this time he was the primary schools head of council. He requested detailed reports on the situations of villages that he was unable to visit. These reports clearly showed the educational problems of the nation as well as pointing out to the well-rounded teachers in villages. (Later we see that some of these teachers worked at the Village Educators Courses and Village Institutes. Gümüolu 2011, 77) With the help of Saffet Arkan, the Ministry of Education, Tonguç s reports about the situation in the rural areas was accepted in the parliament, on This was the first step towards the opening of Village Educators Courses. The first item of the Village Village Educators Courses Law states as follows: Special teachers will be recruited to serve the smaller villages, which don t have a population large enough to require regular teachers (Tonguç 1938, 2000). With the recruitment of these instructors, primary schools with three classes were opened in rural areas that did not have regular schools. Children without the chance of a proper education could at least go to school for three years. It was recorded that many students took advantage of these three-year schools and continued their education in neighbouring areas (Gümüolu 2011, 123). The Village Village Educators Courses were an initial step towards the Village Institutes, which would be opened in The village teachers were educated according to the principle of on the job training. The courses lasted for six to eight months. On completion the teachers did a four-month internship. During the pilot study in 1936 the students learned about the use and repair of agricultural tools, the artificial reproduction of horses and cows, seed collecting and harvesting the crops These were all examples of on the job training. Group learning was used instead of in the class learning. Emphasis was placed upon observation, experimentation, and application (Uyar 2000, 106) These courses served the purpose of meeting the urgent need for new teachers in the country. Teachers who were to serve in the villages were given basic training about the potential problems they might 16

17 encounter. Other goals of these courses included increasing production in villages and overcoming health issues. The student teachers were thought reading, writing, arithmetic s and social sciences. A connection between the fate of the village and the fate of the state and country was emphasized. The teachers were required to help organize the construction of the school, observe and note the agricultural needs of the village and contribute to the plantation of new trees. Point to possible locations for orchards Observes the amount of rain during seasons Sets an example by building high standard hives and hen houses (Anonymous 1937, 8-10) Students who were chosen to be trained as teachers would be selected from among young people with the following qualities: High intelligence, entrepreneurism, strong willpower, open worldview and intuition, quick mind, strong physical health, common sense, bravery, good communication skills, sympathy, strategic thinking, planning and leadership (Ertem 1939, 69). In addition a rural teacher would need to be as calm and cautious as a diplomat and be able to handle conflict (Ertem 1937, 258). These teachers would also be required to have basic first aid training, be familiar with basic agricultural techniques and be able to teach these to the villagers as well as help them become more environmentally conscious. At the same time these teachers would need to battle tradition and superstition. Society is the foundation of the state. If the foundation is weak, the building will be weak too (Ertem 1937, 261). One way of strengthening the state-society foundation was through educating the villagers and enabling the village children to become equal citizens. Patriotism begins with becoming deeply interested in one s closest environment. Therefore, village children need to become familiar with their own habitat and be trained as individuals who will always strive towards the harmony and well being of their home villages (Anonymous 1939,1). According to Tonguç s conceptualization of education, by being forced to live under inhuman conditions, the villagers had been deprived of their right to free speech. Revival of the villages had to begin with the children. These children would become citizens of the future. Therefore, they should be addressed as little citizens. Village children are the little citizens of the Turkish Republic. The administrators and teachers need to always remember this and raise them to be adults with the strength to fulfil their duties (Anonymous 1939, 2). The teachers were encouraged to allow the students as much free speech as possible and to teach them to speak well. It is not fair to always call on the best students and ask them to step up to the blackboard. One should call on the good and poor students, equally so they can get used to speaking up and to learning If there is a calendar in the classroom take turns in asking the students to rip a page each day. (Third grade manual for Village Teacher, 1941, 3-5) The approach mentioned above was about to become more than a theoretical model. As Tonguç frequently mentioned, theory that was not practiced should be avoided. Children should be educated about their legal rights as well as their duties. Children were taught about their rights during the Village Primary School Programme. They also had applied classes in which they learned to organize and write formal petitions. The literacy rate was so low that, even writing letters to relatives who lived outside the village was a serious problem. The teachers helped overcome this problem too. As a result the success of the Village Educators Courses led to the formation of institutions that would be known as The Village Institutes. 5. THE VILLAGE INSTITUTES The Village Institutes legislation was passed on April 17, institutes were opened around the country in accordance with economic, geographical and societal need until Each institute was 17

18 named after its geographical location. Education in the Institutes was organized around Tonguç s principles. The Clavuz Village Institute, in the Northeastern Anatolia Region specialized in husbandry and agriculture. The Black Sea Region Institute in Trabzon specialized in fishing, The Eagan Region Institutes specialized in growing olive trees and storing and marketing olives. Each Institute served as a centre of development for its region. Another outstanding approach was the focus on training students to become productive. Each student had to learn a craft in addition to the academic curriculum. These included carpentry, metal smith, textile, poultry raising etc. At the same time students were taught mathematics, physics, chemistry, literature, sociology, pedagogy and foreign languages. Unlike classical schools, students learned on the job. For example students grew their own crop, drank the milk from the cows they raised and ate the honey from the hives they cared for. They learned how to build an electrical power plant during physics class and produced electricity for villages that lacked power. Students took turns being in charge of dorms, kitchens, stables and equipment. They were responsible for making sure the dorms remained clean and tidy. The kitchen head was responsible for hygiene and the equal distribution of meals. The teachers on call and the president of students supported the process. The student in charge of the equipment would loan the equipment to other students and then have them return it to him at the end of the day. The Student President was represent the student body and would attend the teacher s meetings, freely expressing the thoughts and needs of the study body. The student president were chosen by election. The administrators and the student council would have joint meetings that would be open to the whole school. The joint decisions would then be implemented by the institute. (Kucur 1997, 77-81) The applied part of the curriculum took part outside the classroom. In addition, each student was required to learn to play at least one musical instrument such as the violin, piano or mandolin. Required reading included at least 20 books from the Turkish and western classics. It was hoped that by bringing the teacher closer to the student and the administrator closer to the employee, the alienation that was typical to classical schools could be avoided. Weekend meetings of constructive criticism would be held every Saturday. Students, teachers and graduates would be able to attend these meetings. The week would be reviewed and stories of success would be highlighted. (Özsoy 1997, 64) Students would feel free to criticize the administrators and teachers during these meetings. The meetings would end with fun activities and student performances. Tonguç forbade all violence in these schools and strongly advised teachers against the use of corporal punishment.... Teachers at the Institutes should never give up when met by obstacles. They should be able to deal with all kinds of harsh social and natural events always remaining calm and composed. Slapping and beating of any kind are primitive acts that need to be avoided. The new generation of teachers never allow this to happen. They should always abide by the law. They should train their students to be courageous and to participate in activities such as driving, animal care, riding, night watch, repairing, giving conferences, attending competitions from a young age. Students should be kind and compassionate, willing to share their last slice of bread if necessary. A graduate of the institute should help those in need. A teacher who lacks empathy towards the old, the ill, the poor, the depressed can never fulfil his duty. Students at the institutes should take good care of their personal hygiene. Being civilized requires doing so. Students are inspected four times a year to check that they are in accordance with the principles mentioned above. Some children are prone to giving up when faced with obstacles. This leads to despair and loss of confidence. Teachers at the Institute should carefully watch such children, 18

19 observing and supporting them closely. Each completed task is a masterpiece. Students at the Institutes should be encouraged to be creative starting from an early age. An unproductive person is a week, incompetent, cowardly, and lazy individual... A person who is unable to create and produce is destined to be dependent (Tonguç 1997, 71-74). 6. CONCLUSION A new educational model was implemented in Turkey beginning with the second half of 1930 s while Europe was still at war. The educational problem what had not been able to be solved since the Ottoman Empire was given priority by the young Republic. The teachers available were far from meeting the needs of the country. They were strangers to the villages and village life. By 1936 there was a shortage of thousands of teachers. Tonguç, who was assigned as the Primary Schools General Director, closely observed and analyzed the needs and requirement of rural education. He realized the need for a tailor made approach to education in the rural community. Pilot training courses for teachers to serve in rural areas were founded. These courses which turned out to be a great success are described in detail in Tonguç s book The Revival of Villages. The Village Institutes were planned as institutions that would provide free education to both girls and boys. Education would take place not only in buildings but in every area of village life. This was an unusual approach. Girls and boys would be trained to become the modern faces of their villages. Tonguç s model argued for the right to free speech, as well as creative thinking. He described old schools and route learning as being institutions that were far from real life. Such schools easily became places that are dangerous and hated (Tonguç 1978, 183). These old schools described by Tonguç are very similar to what Friere described as the banking educational model of the 1960 s. The Village Institutes were envisioned as an educational model that would improve and change the primitive living conditions ad feudal relationships that had existed for thousands of the years in villages in which the majority of the population lived. The aim was to end feudality and replace it with citizenship. It was believed that social and economical changes would follow. The Village Institutes and Village Educators Courses transformed Tonguç s utopia into reality. The graduates became instruments of enlightenment and helped educate millions of young people. Many graduates went on to become prominent names in the fields of literature, art, science and politics and active members of civil organizations. These changes began to be met with resistance around The land owners and leading powers were not happy with the new situation. With the advent of multiple political parties, the instruments of power in rural communities began to express discomfort about the schools and their applications. In addition they began to complain that they could not find servants and herdsmen any longer. This was the beginning of the end of the Village Institutes. The rural children s right to qualified education was taken away. The content of the educational programs was revised. The new generations to follow would be strangers to the needs of the country. They would be unproductive and submissive. The leading powers closed down the Village Institutes in 1954, which were later brought to the world s attention as exemplary models of education by the UNESCO in REFERENCES 1. Altunya, Niyazi (2009), Köy Enstitüleri Sistemine Toplu Bir Bak, KAVEG, stanbul 19

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