The territory, located in southern Central Europe[19][Note 2] at the crossroads of main European cultural and trade routes,[24][25] is mainly mountainous[26] with mainly continental climate,[27] with the exception of the Slovene Littoral that has the sub-Mediterranean climate and the north-western area that has the Alpine climate.[28] Additionally, Dinaric Alps and the Pannonian Plain meet on the territory of Slovenia. The country, marked by a significant biological diversity,[29][30] is one of the most water-rich in Europe,[31] with a dense river network, a rich aquifer system, and significant karstic underground watercourses.[32] Over half of the territory is covered by forest.[33] The human settlement of Slovenia is dispersed and uneven.[34]

Historically, the current territory of Slovenia was part of many different state formations, including the OECD, a global association of high-income developed countries.[47]

Contents

History1

Prehistory to Slavic settlement1.1

Prehistory1.1.1

Ancient Romans1.1.2

Slavic settlement1.1.3

The Middle Ages to the early modern period1.2

Between the 18th century and the end of World War I1.3

World War I1.4

Kingdom of Yugoslavia1.5

Fascist Italianization of Littoral and resistance1.5.1

Slovenia during and after World War II1.6

The socialist period1.7

Slovenian Spring, democracy and independence1.8

Slovenian disillusionment with socio-economic elites1.9

Governance2

Judiciary2.1

Military2.2

Administrative divisions and traditional regions2.3

Municipalities2.3.1

Administrative districts2.3.2

Traditional regions and identities2.3.3

Statistical regions2.3.4

Geography3

Geology3.1

Natural regions3.2

Climate3.3

Waters3.4

Biodiversity4

Economy5

Economic growth5.1

National debt5.2

Services and industry5.3

Energy5.4

Tourism5.5

Transport5.6

Demographics6

Urbanisation6.1

Languages6.2

Slovene6.2.1

Languages of the minorities and other languages6.2.2

Hungarian and Italian6.2.2.1

Romani6.2.2.2

German6.2.2.3

Other Slavic languages and Albanian6.2.2.4

Foreign languages6.2.2.5

Religion6.3

Immigration6.4

Education7

Culture8

Comedy8.1

Cuisine8.2

Dance8.3

Folk dance8.3.1

Festivals, book fairs, and other events8.4

Film8.5

Authors and book reviews8.6

Music8.7

Classical music, opera, and film music8.7.1

Folk music8.7.2

Slovenska popevka8.7.3

Popular music8.7.4

Theatre8.8

Visual arts, architecture and design8.9

Architecture8.9.1

Comics and animation8.9.2

Conceptual art8.9.3

Design8.9.4

Sculpture8.9.5

Graphics8.9.6

Illustration8.9.7

Painting8.9.8

Photography8.9.9

Sports9

See also10

Notes11

References12

Further reading13

External links14

Government14.1

Travel14.2

News14.3

History

Prehistory to Slavic settlement

Prehistory

Present-day Slovenia was long inhabited in prehistoric times, and there is evidence of human habitation from around 250,000 years ago. A pierced cave bear bone, dating from 43100 ± 700 BP, found in 1995 in Divje Babe cave near Cerkno, is possibly the oldest musical instrument discovered in the world.[48] In 1920s and 1930s, artifacts belonging to the Cro-Magnon such as pierced bones, bone points, and needle have been found by archaeologist Srečko Brodar in Potok Cave.[49][50]

Ancient Romans

When the Ancient Romans conquered the area, they established the provinces of Pannonia, and Noricum and present-day western Slovenia was included directly under Roman Italia as part of the X region Venetia et Histria. The Romans established posts at Emona (Ljubljana), Poetovio (Ptuj), and Celeia (Celje); and constructed trade and military roads that ran across Slovene territory from Italy to Pannonia. In the 5th and 6th centuries, the area was subject to invasions by the Huns and Germanic tribes during their incursions into Italy. A part of the inner state was protected with a defensive line of towers and walls called Claustra Alpium Iuliarum.

Slavic settlement

The Slavic tribes migrated to the Alpine area after the westward departure of the Lombards (the last Germanic tribe) in 568, and with aid from Avars established a Slavic settlement in the Eastern Alps. From 623 to 624 or possibly 626 onwards, King Samo united the Alpine, Western, and Northern Slavs against the nomadic Eurasian Avars and established what is referred to as Samo's Kingdom. After its disintegration following Samo's death in 658 or 659, the ancestors of Slovenes located in present-day Carinthia formed the independent duchy of Carantania.[54] Other parts of present-day Slovenia were again ruled by Avars before Charlemagne's victory over them in 803.

The Middle Ages to the early modern period

In the mid-8th century, Carantania became a vassal duchy under the rule of the Bavarians, who began spreading Christianity. Three decades later, the Carantanians were incorporated, together with the Bavarians, into the Carolingian Empire. During the same period Carniola, too, came under the Franks, and was Christianised from Aquileia. Following the anti-Frankish rebellion of Ljudevit Posavski at the beginning of the 9th century, the Franks removed the Carantanian princes, replacing them with their own border dukes. Consequently, the Frankish feudal system reached the Slovene territory.

In the late Middle Ages, the historic provinces of Carniola, Styria, Carinthia, Gorizia, Trieste, and Istria developed from the border regions and were incorporated into the medieval German state. The consolidation and formation of these historical lands took place in a long period between the 11th and 14th centuries, and were led by a number of important feudal families, such as the Dukes of Spannheim, the Counts of Gorizia, the Counts of Celje, and, finally, the House of Habsburg. In a parallel process, an intensive German colonisation significantly diminished the extent of Slovene-speaking areas. By the 15th century, the Slovene ethnic territory was reduced to its present size.[55]

In the 14th century, most of the territory of Slovenia was taken over by the Habsburgs. The counts of Celje, a feudal family from this area who in 1436 acquired the title of state princes, were their powerful competitors for some time. This large dynasty, important at a European political level, had its seat in Slovene territory but died out in 1456. Its numerous large estates subsequently became the property of the Habsburgs, who retained control of the area right up until the beginning of the 20th century.

At the end of the Middle Ages, the Slovene Lands suffered a serious economic and demographic setback because of the Turkish raids. In 1515, a peasant revolt spread across nearly the whole Slovene territory. In 1572 and 1573 the Croatian-Slovenian peasant revolt wrought havoc throughout the wider region. Such uprisings, which often met with bloody defeats, continued throughout the 17th century.[55]

Due to limited opportunities, between 1880-1910 there was extensive emigration, and around 300,000 Slovenes (i.e. 1 in 6) emigrated to other countries,[57] mostly to the US, but also to South America, Germany, Egypt, and to larger cities in Austria-Hungary, especially Zagreb and Vienna. Despite this, the Slovene population increased significantly.[57] Literacy was exceptionally high, at 80-90%.[57]

World War I

World War I brought heavy casualties for the Slovenes, particularly the twelve Battles of the Isonzo, which took place in present-day Slovenia's western border area. Hundreds of thousands of Slovene conscripts were drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army, and over 30,000 of them died. Hundreds of thousands of Slovenes from Gorizia and Gradisca were resettled in refugee camps in Italy and Austria. While the refugees in Austria received decent treatment, the Slovene refugees in Italian camps were treated as state enemies, and several thousand died of malnutrition and diseases between 1915 and 1918.[58] Entire areas of the Slovene Littoral were destroyed.

On 1 December 1918 the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs merged with Serbia, becoming part of the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes; in 1929 it was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The main territory of Slovenia, being the most industrialized and westernized compared to other less developed parts of Yugoslavia, became the main center of industrial production: Compared to Serbia, for example, Slovenian industrial production was four times greater; and it was 22 times greater than in Macedonia. The interwar period brought further industrialization in Slovenia, with rapid economic growth in the 1920s, followed by a relatively successful economic adjustment to the 1929 economic crisis and Great Depression.

After all Slovene minority organizations in Italy had been suppressed, the TIGR was formed in 1927 in order to fight the Fascist regime. After 1930, TIGR opted for targeted attacks on infrastructure and high-ranking military, militia and police personnel and established an agreement of co-operation with the Communist Party of Italy, and a wide intelligence network that included contacts with Yugoslav and British intelligence services.[62][63]

Slovenia during and after World War II

During WWII, Nazi Germany and Hungary annexed northern areas (brown and dark green areas, respectively), while Fascist Italy annexed the vertically hashed black area (solid black western part being annexed by Italy already with the Treaty of Rapallo). Some villages were occupied by the Independent State of Croatia. After 1943, Germany took over the Italian occupational area, as well.

Slovenia was the only present-day European nation that was trisected and completely annexed into neighboring Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Hungary during WW II.[64]

The Nazis had a plan of ethnic cleansing of northern Slovenia,[65] with the exception of north-eastern part that was annexed by Hungary, and they resettled or chased away the Slovene civilian population to the puppet states of Nedić's Serbia (7,500) and NDH (10,000) and to Germany. Because Hitler opposed having the ethnic German Gottscheers in the Italian annexation zone, they were moved out of it.[66] Out of total 46,000 Slovenes who were expelled to Germany, including children who were separated from their families and sent to German families to be raised as Germans,[67] about 32,000[68] Slovenes from the area were transported to Saxony in order to make space for the relocated 10,500 Gottscheers, while 30,000 to 40,000 Slovenians were drafted to German army and sent to Eastern front. In schools, the expelled Slovene teachers were replaced by Austrian teachers who taught only in German.[64]

Some Slovenes collaborated with the Axis powers, with the German-sponsored Slovene Home Guard having 21,000 members at the peak of its power. More than 30,000 Partisans died fighting Axis forces and their collaborators. Approximately 8% of Slovenes died during WWII in the Slovene territories.

In 1945, Yugoslavia liberated itself and shortly thereafter became a nominally federal Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Slovenia joined the federation as a socialist republic; its own Communist Party was formed in 1937. After the withdrawal of the Axis forces, the vast majority of the relocated Gottscheers were deported or fled to Austria and Germany. An indeterminate number of Italians and anti-Communist Yugoslavs were killed in the foibe massacres.

After the failure of forced collectivisation that was attempted from 1949–53, a policy of gradual economic liberalisation, known as workers self-management, was introduced under the advice and supervision of the Slovene Edvard Kardelj, the main theorist of the Titoist path to socialism. After the 1950s, Slovenia enjoyed relatively broad autonomy within the federation. In 1956, Josip Broz Tito, together with other leaders, founded the Non-Aligned Movement. Particularly in the 1950s, Slovenia's economy developed rapidly and was strongly industrialised. With further economic decentralisation of Yugoslavia in 1965-66, Slovenia's domestic product was 2.5 times the average of Yugoslav republics, which strengthened national confidence among the Slovenes. After the death of Tito in 1980, the economic and political situation in Yugoslavia became very strained.[55] Political disputes around economic measures were echoed in the public sentiment, as many Slovenians felt they were being economically exploited, having to sustain an expensive and inefficient federal administration.

Slovenian Spring, democracy and independence

In 1987 a group of intellectuals demanded Slovene independence in the 57th edition of the magazine Nova revija. Demands for democratisation and more Slovenian independence were sparked off. A mass democratic movement, coordinated by the Committee for the Defense of Human Rights, pushed the Communists in the direction of democratic reforms.

In September 1989, numerous constitutional amendments were passed to introduce parliamentary democracy to Slovenia.[77][78] The same year Action North united both the opposition and democratized communist establishment in Slovenia as the first defense action against attacks by Slobodan Milošević's supporters, leading to Slovenian independence.[79][80] On 7 March 1990, the Slovenian Assembly changed the official name of the state to the "Republic of Slovenia".[81][82] In April 1990, the first democratic election in Slovenia took place, and the united opposition movement DEMOS led by Jože Pučnik emerged victorious.

Slovenian forces attacking a Yugoslav army tank during the Ten-Day War, 1991.

These revolutionary events in Slovenia pre-dated by almost one year the Revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe, but went largely unnoticed by international observers. On 23 December 1990, more than 88% of the electorate voted for a sovereign and independent Slovenia.[83][84] On 25 June 1991, Slovenia became independent[5] through the passage of appropriate legal documents.[85] On 27 June in the early morning, the Yugoslav People's Army dispatched its forces to prevent further measures for the establishment of a new country, which led to the Ten-Day War.[86][87] On 7 July, the Brijuni Agreement was signed, implementing a truce and a three-month halt of the enforcement of Slovenia's independence.[88] In the end of the month, the last soldiers of the Yugoslav Army left Slovenia.

Slovenia joined the European Union on 1 May 2004. Slovenia has one Commissioner in the European Commission, and seven Slovene parliamentarians were elected to the European Parliament at elections on 13 June 2004. In 2004 Slovenia also joined NATO. Slovenia subsequently succeeded in meeting the Maastricht criteria and joined the Eurozone (the first transition country to do so) on 1 January 2007. It was the first post-Communist country to hold the Presidency of the Council of the European Union, for the first six months of 2008. On 21 July 2010, it became a member of the OECD.

The executive and administrative authority in Slovenia is held by the Government of Slovenia (Vlada Republike Slovenije),[90] headed by the Prime Minister and the council of ministers or cabinet, who are elected by the National Assembly (Državni zbor Republike Slovenije). The legislative authority is held by the bicameralParliament of Slovenia, characterised by an asymmetric duality.[95] The bulk of power is concentrated in the National Assembly, which consists of ninety members. Of those, 88 are elected by all the citizens in a system of proportional representation, whereas two are elected by the registered members of the autochthonous Hungarian and Italian minorities. Election takes place every four years. The National Council (Državni svet Republike Slovenije), consisting of forty members, appointed to represent social, economic, professional and local interest groups, has a limited advisory and control power.[95]

The 1992-2004 period was marked by the rule of the Liberal Democracy of Slovenia, which was responsible for gradual transition from the Titoistic economy to the capitalist market economy. It later attracted much criticism by neo-liberal economists, who demanded a less gradual approach. The party's president Janez Drnovšek, who served as prime minister between 1992 and 2002, was one of the most influential Slovenian politicians of the 1990s,[96] alongside President Milan Kučan (who served between 1990 and 2002).[97][98]

The 2005-2008 period was characterized by over-enthusiasm after joining the EU. During the first term of Janez Janša's government, for the first time after independence, the Slovenian banks saw their loan-deposit ratios veering out of control. There was over-borrowing from foreign banks and then over-crediting of customers, including local tycoons.

After the onset of the financial crisis of 2007-2010 and European sovereign-debt crisis, the left-wing coalition that replaced Janša's government in the 2008 elections, had to face the consequences of the 2005-2008 over-borrowing. Attempts to implement reforms that would help economic recovery were met by student protesters, led by a student who later became a member of Janez Janša's SDS, and by the trade unions. The proposed reforms were postponed in a referendum. The left-wing government was ousted with a vote of no confidence. Janez Janša attributed the boom of spending and overborrowing to the period of left-wing government; he proposed harsh austerity reforms which he had previously helped postpone.

Judiciary

Judicial powers in Slovenia are executed by judges, who are elected by the National Assembly. Judicial power in Slovenia is implemented by courts with general responsibilities and specialised courts that deal with matters relating to specific legal areas. The State Prosecutor is an independent state authority responsible for prosecuting cases brought against those suspected of committing criminal offences. The Constitutional Court, composed of nine judges elected for nine-year terms, decides on the conformity of laws with the Constitution; all laws and regulations must also conform with the general principles of international law and with ratified international agreements.[55]

Administrative divisions and traditional regions

Municipalities

Officially, Slovenia is subdivided into 211 municipalities (eleven of which have the status of urban municipalities). The municipalities are the only bodies of local autonomy in Slovenia. Each municipality is headed by a mayor (župan), elected every four years by popular vote, and a municipal council (občinski svet). In the majority of municipalities, the municipal council is elected through the system of proportional representation; only a few smaller municipalities use the plurality voting system. In the urban municipalities, the municipal councils are called town (or city) councils.[103] Every municipality also has a Head of the Municipal Administration (načelnik občinske uprave), appointed by the mayor, who is responsible for the functioning of the local administration.[103]

Administrative districts

There is no official intermediate unit between the municipalities and the Republic of Slovenia. The 62 administrative districts, officially called "Administrative Units" (upravne enote), are only territorial sub-units of government administration and are named after their capital. They are headed by a Head of the Unit (načelnik upravne enote), appointed by the Minister of Public Administration.

Traditional regions and identities

Traditional regions were based on the former Habsburgcrown lands that included Carniola, Carinthia, Styria, and the Littoral. Stronger than with either the Carniola as a whole, or with Slovenia as the state, Slovenes historically tend to identify themselves with the traditional regions of Slovene Littoral, Prekmurje, and even traditional (sub)regions, such as Upper, Lower and, to a lesser extent, Inner Carniola.[104]

The capital city Ljubljana was historically the administrative center of Carniola and belonged to Lower Carniola, except for the Šentvid district, which was in Upper Carniola where the border between the German occupation zone and Province of Ljubljana also was during WWII.[105]

Statistical regions

The 12 statistical regions have no administrative function and are subdivided into two macroregions for the purpose of the Regional policy of the European Union.[106] These two macroregions are:

Four major European geographic regions meet in Slovenia: the Alps, the Dinarides, the Pannonian Plain, and the Mediterranean. Although on the shore of the Adriatic Sea near the Mediterranean Sea, most of Slovenia is in the Black Seadrainage basin. The Alps—including the Julian Alps, the Kamnik-Savinja Alps and the Karavanke chain, as well as the Pohorje massif—dominate Northern Slovenia along its long border with Austria. Slovenia's Adriatic coastline stretches approximately 47 km (29 mi)[110] from Italy to Croatia.

The term "above sea level.

Over half of the country (10,124 km2 or 3,909 sq mi) is covered by forests. This makes Slovenia the third most forested country in Europe, after Finland and Sweden. The areas are covered mostly by beech, fir-beech and beech-oak forests and have a relatively high production capacity.[111] Remnants of primeval forests are still to be found, the largest in the Kočevje area. Grassland covers 5,593 km2 (2,159 sq mi) and fields and gardens (954 km2 or 368 sq mi). There are 363 km2 (140 sq mi) of orchards and 216 km2 (83 sq mi) of vineyards.

Geology

Slovenia is in a rather active seismic zone because of its position on the small Adriatic Plate, which is squeezed between the Eurasian Plate to the north and the African Plate to the south and rotates counter-clockwise.[112] Thus the country is at the junction of three important geotectonic units: the Alps to the north, the Dinaric Alps to the south and the Pannonian Basin to the east.[112] Scientists have been able to identify 60 destructive earthquakes in the past. Additionally, a network of seismic stations is active throughout the country.[112] Many parts of Slovenia have a carbonate ground, and an extensive subterranean system has developed.

Natural regions

The first regionalisations of Slovenia were made by geographers Anton Melik (1935–1936) and Svetozar Ilešič (1968). The newer regionalisation by Ivan Gams divided Slovenia in the following macroregions:[113]

According to a newer natural geographic regionalisation, the country consists of four macroregions. These are the Alpine, the Mediterranean, the Dinaric, and the Pannonian landscapes. Macroregions are defined according to major relief units (the Alps, the Pannonian plain, the Dinaric mountains) and climate types (submediterranean, temperate continental, mountain climate).[114] These are often quite interwoven.

Protected areas of Slovenia include national parks, regional parks, and nature parks, the largest of which is Triglav National Park. There are 286 Natura 2000 designated protected areas, which comprise 36% of the country's land area, the largest percentage among European Union states.[115] Additionally, according to Yale University's Environmental Performance Index, Slovenia is considered a "strong performer" in environmental protection efforts.[116]

Climate

Different types of clouds in the Julian Alps (northwestern Slovenia), as seen from the top of Mangart in September 2007.

Slovenia is located in temperate latitudes. The climate is also influenced by the variety of relief, and the influence of the Alps and the Adriatic Sea. In the Northeast, the continental climate type with greatest difference between winter and summer temperatures prevails. In the coastal region, there is sub-Mediterranean climate. The effect of the sea on the temperature rates is visible also up the Soča valley, while a severe Alpine climate is present in the high mountain regions. There is a strong interaction between these three climatic systems across most of the country.[117][118]

Precipitation varies across the country as well, with over 3,500 mm (138 in) in some Western regions and dropping down to 800 mm (31 in) in Prekmurje. Snow is quite frequent in winter and the record snow cover in Ljubljana was recorded in 1952 at 146 cm (57 in).

Compared to Western Europe, Slovenia is not very windy, because it lies in the slipstream of the Alps. The average wind speeds are lower than in the plains of the nearby countries. Due to the rugged terrain, local vertical winds with daily periods are present. Besides these, there are three winds of particular regional importance: the bora, the jugo, and the foehn. The jugo and the bora are characteristic of the Littoral. Whereas jugo is humid and warm, bora is usually cold and gusty. The foehn is typical of the Alpine regions in the north of Slovenia. Generally present in Slovenia are the northeast wind, the southeast wind and the north wind.[119]

Waters

The territory of Slovenia mainly (16,423 square kilometers or 6,341 square miles, i.e. 81%) belongs to the Black Sea basin, and a smaller part (16,423 square kilometers or 6,341 square miles, i.e. 19%) belongs to the Adriatic Sea basin. These two parts are divided into smaller units in regard to their central rivers, the Mura River basin, the Drava River basin, the Sava River basin with Kolpa River basin, and the basin of the Adriatic rivers.[120]

Slovenia is distinguished by an exceptionally wide variety of habitats,[30] due to the contact of geological units and biogeographical regions, but also due to human influences. Around 12.5% of the territory is protected with different protection categories, and 35.5% within the Natura 2000 ecological network.[122] Despite this, because of pollution and environmental degradation, diversity has been in decline.

Animals

The country contains 24,000 animal species, accounting for 1% of the world's organisms despite its small size (0.004% of the Earth's surface area).[123] These include marmots, Alpine ibex, and chamois. There are numerous deer, roe deer, boar, and hares.[124] The edible dormouse is often found in the Slovenian beech forests. Trapping these animals is a long tradition and is a part of the Slovenian national identity.[125]

There are thirteen domestic animals native to Slovenia,[131] of eight species (hen, pig, dog, horse, sheep, goat, honey bee, and cattle).[132] Among these are the Karst Shepherd,[133] the Carniolan honeybee, and the Lipizzan horse.[132] They have been preserved ex situ and in situ.[134] The marble trout or marmorata (Salmo marmoratus) is an indigenous Slovenian fish.[135] Extensive breeding programmes have been introduced to repopulate the marble trout into lakes and streams invaded by non-indigenous species of trout. Slovenia is also home to the wels catfish.

Fungi

More than 2400 fungal species have been recorded from Slovenia[136] and, since that figure does not include lichen-forming fungi, the total number of Slovenian fungi already known is undoubtedly much higher. Doubtless many more also remain to be discovered.

Plants

Slovenia is the third most forested country in Europe, with 58.5% of the territory covered by forests.[137] The forests are an important natural resource, but logging is kept to a minimum, as Slovenians also value their forests for the preservation of natural diversity, for enriching the soil and cleansing the water and air, for the social and economic benefits of recreation and tourism, and for the natural beauty they give to the Slovenian landscape. In the interior of the country are typical Central European forests, predominantly oak and beech. In the mountains, spruce, fir, and pine are more common. Pine trees also grow on the Kras plateau, although only one third of the region is now covered by pine forest. The lime/linden tree, also common in Slovenian forests, is a national symbol. The tree line is at 1,700 to 1,800 meters (or 5,575 to 5,900 ft).[138]

^ abcŠkrk, Mirjam (1999). "Recognition of States and Its (Non-)Implication on State Succession: The Case of Successor States to the Former Yugoslavia". In Mrak, Mojmir. Succession of States. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 5.

^ abcHlad, Branka. Skoberne, Peter, ed. (2001). "Characteristics of Biological and Landscape Diversity in Slovenia". Biological and Landscape Diversity in Slovenia: An Overview. Ljubljana: Environmental Agency of the Republic of Slovenia, Ministry of the Environment and Spatial Planning. p. 13.

^"World Water Day 2011". Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia. 18 March 2011.

^"Country Introduction". European state of the environment 2010 - contributions from Slovenia. Environmental Agency of the Republic of Slovenia, Ministry of the Environment and Spatial Planning. Retrieved 8 March 2012.

^Lahovnik, Matej (January–February 2011). "Corporate Strategies In The Post-Transition Economy: The Case Of Slovenian Companies". The Journal of Applied Business Research27 (1): 61–68.

^Banutai, Andreja (2011). ]Analysis of the Economic Diplomacy Model of the Republic of Slovenia [Analiza modela gospodarske diplomacije Republike Slovenije (in Slovene, with a summary in Slovene and English). Ljubljana: Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana. p. 5.

^Alexander Gasser (March 2003). "World's Oldest Wheel Found in Slovenia". Government Communication Office of the Republic of Slovenia. Retrieved 19 August 2010.

^"Application for the Title of the European Capital of Culture 2012". City Municipality of Maribor. 2008.

^Štih, Peter. ]At the Junction of the Worlds: Slovene History from the Prehistoric Cultures to the End of the 18th Century [Na stičišču svetov: slovenska zgodovina od prazgodovinskih kultur do konca 18. stoletja (in Slovenian). Modrijan Publishing House. p. 33.

^Zajc, Drago (2004). ]The Development of Parliamentarism: The Functions of Modern Parliaments [Razvoj parlamentarizma: funkcije sodobnih parlamentov (in Slovenian). Publishing House of the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana. p. 109.

^"Osamosvojitveni akti Republike Slovenije" [Independence Acts of the Republic of Slovenia] (in Slovenian). Office for Legislation, Government of the Republic of Slovenia. Retrieved 27 December 2011.

^"Historical Circumstances in Which "The Rally of Truth" in Ljubljana Was Prevented". Journal of Criminal Justice and Security. Retrieved 4 July 2012.

^Perko, Franc, ed. (2008). "Habitats of wild game in Slovenia, guidelines and conditions for the preservation and protection of wild game and their habitats, and provision of coexistence with humans". Resolution on National Forest Programme. Federation of Forest Associations of Slovenia. Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food, Slovenia. pp. 87–104.

^ abc"Situation per mode of transport". Study on Strategic Evaluation on Transport Investment Priorities under Structural and Cohesion funds for the Programming Period 2007-2013. ECORYS Nederland BV. August 2006.

^ ab"Executive Summary". Analysis of the infrastructure network in Slovenia and report on SWOT analysis. Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Maribor. Port of Koper. April 2011.

^"Resolucija o nacionalnem programu razvoja pomorstva Republike Slovenije" [Resolution on the National Programme for the Development of Maritime Transport in the. Republic of Slovenia] (in Slovenian). Ministry of Transport, Republic of Slovenia. 3 November 2010.

References

^As defined by the Act Regulating the Coat-of-Arms, Flag and Anthem of the Republic of Slovenia and the Flag of the Slovene Nation ("Zakon o grbu, zastavi in himni Republike Slovenije ter o slovenski narodni zastavi") from 1994 and published on the web page of the National Assembly of Slovenia.[1][2] The question whether the entire Zdravljica or only its seventh stanza constitutes the Slovenian national anthem, remains unresolved. Whereas the Constitution of Slovenia determines the title of the poem, the act about the anthem specifically determines its seventh stanza. It has been argued that the act contradicts the constitution and that the question should be resolved by the Slovenian Constitutional Court.[3]

Sports

In 1841, Janez Puhar (1814–1864) invented a process for photography on glass, recognized on 17 June 1852 in Paris by the Académie Nationale Agricole, Manufacturière et Commerciale.[272]Gojmir Anton Kos was a notable realist painter and photographer between First World War and WW II.

Design

A number of conceptual visual art groups formed, including OHO, Group 69, and IRWIN. Nowadays, the Slovene visual arts are diverse, based on tradition, reflect the influence of neighboring nations and are intertwinned with modern European movements.[269]

Architecture

Slovenia's visual arts, architecture, and design are shaped by a number of architects, designers, painters, sculptors, photographers, graphics artists, as well as comics, illustration and conceptual artists. The most prestigious institutions exhibiting works of Slovene visual artists are the National Gallery of Slovenia and the Museum of Modern Art.

Theatre

Slovenia has also produced two renowned DJs: DJ Umek and Valentino Kanzyani. Specialising in a frantic brand of party techno and tech-house, the pair co-founded the label Recycled Loops as well as having releases on labels such as Novamute, Primate, Intec and Bassethound Records.

Popular music

Slovenska popevka

Many musicians followed Avsenik's steps, one of the most famous being Lojze Slak.

From 1952 on, the Slavko Avsenik's band began to appear in broadcasts, movies, and concerts all over the West Germany, inventing the original "Oberkrainer" country sound that has became the primary vehicle of ethnic musical expression not only in Slovenia, but also in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and in the Benelux, spawning hundreds of Alpine orchestras in the process. The band produced nearly 1000 original compositions, an integral part of the Slovenian-style polka legacy. Avsenik's most popular instrumental composition is the polka that is titled "Na Golici" (in Slovene), or "Trompetenecho" (in German), and "Trumpet Echoes" (in English). Oberkrainer music, which the Avsenik Ensemble popularized, is always a strong candidate for country (folk) music awards in Slovenia and Austria.

Harmony singing is a deep rooted tradition in Slovenia, and is at least three-part singing (four voices), while in some regions even up to eight-part singing (nine voices). Slovenian folk songs, thus, usually resounds soft and harmonious, and are very seldom in minor. Traditional Slovenian folk music is performed on Styrian harmonica (the oldest type of accordion), fiddle, clarinet, zithers, flute, and by brass bands of alpine type. In eastern Slovenia, fiddle and cimbalon bands are called velike goslarije.

Film

The most notable music festival of Slovene music was historically the Slovenska popevka festival. Between 1981 and 2000 the Novi Rock festival was notable for bringing rock music across Iron curtain from the West to the Slovenian and then Yugoslav audience. In Titoist Yugoslavia, Jazz festival Ljubljana right after the World War II begun the long tradition of Jazz festivals in Slovenia.[252]

Slovenian cuisine is a mixture of the Central European cuisine (especially Austrian and Hungarian), the Mediterranean cuisine and the Balkan cuisine. Historically, Slovenian cuisine was divided into town, farmhouse, cottage, castle, parsonage and monastic cuisine. Due to the variety of Slovenian cultural and natural landscapes, there are more than 40 distinct regional cuisines.

Comedy

The Sower (1907), produced by the impressionist painter and musician Ivan Grohar, became a metaphor for the Slovenes[246][247] and was a reflection of the transition from a rural to an urban culture.[248]

After completing elementary school, nearly all children (more than 98%) go on to secondary education, either vocational, technical or general secondary programmes (gimnazija). The latter concludes with matura, the final exam that allows the graduates to enter a university. 84% of secondary school graduates go on to tertiary education.[238]

Secondary

Responsibility for education oversight at primary and secondary level in Slovenia lies with the Ministry of Education and Sports. After non-compulsory pre-school education, children enter the nine-year primary school at the age of six.[239] Primary school is divided into three periods, each of three years. In the academic year 2006–2007 there were 166,000 pupils enrolled in elementary education and more than 13,225 teachers, giving a ratio of one teacher per 12 pupils and 20 pupils per class.[238]

Primary

Slovenia's education ranks as the 12th best in the world and 4th best in the European Union, being significantly higher than the OECD average, according to the Programme for International Student Assessment.[236] Among people age 25 to 64, 12% have attended higher education, whilst on average Slovenes have 9.6 years of formal education. According to an OECD report, 83% of adults ages 25–64 have earned the equivalent of a high school degree, well above the OECD average of 74%; among 25- to 34-year-olds, the rate is 93%.[237] According to the 1991 census there is 99.6% literacy in Slovenia. Lifelong learning is also increasing.[238]

Education

Around 12% of the inhabitants of Slovenia were born abroad.[232] According to data from 2008, there were around 100,000 non-EU citizens living in Slovenia, or around 5% of the overall population of the country.[233] The highest number came from Bosnia-Herzegovina, followed by immigrants from Serbia, Macedonia, Croatia and Kosovo. The number of people migrating to Slovenia has been steadily rising from 1995;[234] and has been increasing rapidly in recent years. Since Slovenia joined the EU in 2004, the yearly inflow of immigrants has doubled by 2006 and tripled by 2009.[235] In 2007, Slovenia was one of the countries with the fastest growth of net migration rate in the European Union.[234]

In the 2002, around 10% of Slovenes declared themselves as atheists, another 10% professed no specific denomination, and around 16% decided not to answer the question about their religious affiliation. According to the Eurobarometer Poll 2010,[231] 32% of Slovenian citizens responded that "they believe there is a god", whereas 36% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 26% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force".

According to the 2002 census, Islam is the second largest religious denomination with around 2.4% of the population. Most Slovenian Muslims came from Bosnia.[230] The third largest denomination, with around 2.2% of the population, is Orthodox Christianity, with most adherents belonging to the Serbian Orthodox Church while a minority belongs to the Macedonian and other Orthodox churches.

Besides these two Christian denominations, a small Jewish community has also been historically present. Despite the losses suffered during the Holocaust, Judaism still numbers a few hundred adherents, mostly living in Ljubljana, site of the sole remaining active synagogue in the country.[229]

Despite a relatively small number of Protestants (less than 1% in 2002), the Protestant legacy is historically significant given that the Slovene standard language and Slovene literature were established by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. Today, a significant Lutheran minority lives in the easternmost region of Prekmurje, where they represent around a fifth of the population and are headed by a bishop with the seat in Murska Sobota.[228]

Before World War II, 97% of the population declared itself Catholic (Roman Rite), around 2.5% as Lutheran, and around 0.5% of residents identified themselves as members of other denominations.[211] Catholicism was an important feature of both social and political life in pre-Communist Slovenia. After 1945, the country underwent a process of gradual but steady secularization. After a decade of severe persecution of religions, the Communist regime adopted a policy of relative tolerance towards the churches, but limited their social functioning. After 1990, the Catholic Church regained some of its former influence, but Slovenia remains a largely secularized society. According to the 2002 census, 57.8% of the population is Catholic. As elsewhere in Europe, affiliation with Catholicism is dropping: In 1991, 71.6% were self-declared Catholics which means a drop of more than 1% annually.[226] The vast majority of Slovenian Catholics belong to the Latin Rite. A small number of Greek Catholics live in the White Carniola region.[227]

Basilica of the Virgin Mary in Brezje, also known as the Slovenian National Shrine, is the most visited Catholic pilgrimage site in Slovenia

Religion

A reported 42% of Slovenes could speak German, which was one of the highest percentages outside German-speaking countries.[224] Italian is widely spoken on the Slovenian Coast and in some other areas of the Slovene Littoral. Around 15% of Slovenians can speak Italian, which is (according to the Eurobarometer pool) the third highest percentage in the European Union, after Italy and Malta.[225]

Regarding the knowledge of foreign languages, Slovenia is ranked among the top European countries. The most taught foreign languages are English, German, Italian, French and Spanish. As of 2007, 92% of the population between the age of 25 and 64 spoke at least one foreign language and around 71.8% of them spoke at least two foreign languages, which was the highest percentage in the European Union.[223] According to the Eurobarometer survey, as of 2005 the majority of Slovenes could speak Croatian (61%) and English (56%).[224]:21

Foreign languages

A significant number of people in Slovenia speak a variant of Serbo-Croatian (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, or Montenegrin) as their native language. These are mostly immigrants who moved to Slovenia from other former Yugoslav republics from the 1960s to the late 1980s, and their descendants. In 2002, 0.4% of the Slovenian population declared themselves to be native speakers of Albanian and 0.2% native speakers of Macedonian.[211]Czech, which used to be the fourth-largest minority language in Slovenia prior to World War II (after German, Hungarian, and Serbo-Croatian), is now the native language of a few hundred residents of Slovenia.[211]

Other Slavic languages and Albanian

German, which used to be the largest minority language in Slovenia prior to World War II (around 4% of the population in 1921), is now the native language of only around 0.08% of the population, the majority of whom are more than 60 years old.[211]Gottscheerish or Granish, the traditional German dialect of Gottschee County, is now facing extinction.[222]

German

Romani,[220] spoken in 2002 as the native language by 0.2% of people, is a legally protected language in Slovenia. These people mainly belong to the geographically dispersed and marginalized Roma community.[221]

Romani

Hungarian and Italian, spoken by the respective minorities, enjoy the status of official languages in the ethnically mixed regions along the Hungarian and Italian borders, to the extent that even the passports issued in those areas are bilingual. In 2002, around 0.2% of the Slovenian population spoke Italian and around 0.4% spoke Hungarian as their native language. Hungarian is co-official with Slovene in 30 settlements in 5 municipalities (whereof 3 are officially bilingual). Italian is co-official with Slovene in 25 settlements in 4 municipalities (all of them are officially bilingual).

Hungarian and Italian

Bilingual Slovene-Italian edition of the Slovenian passport

Languages of the minorities and other languages

Slovene is sometimes characterized as the most diverse Slavic language in terms of dialects,[213] with different degrees of mutual intelligibility. Accounts of the number of dialects range from as few as seven[214][215][216] dialects, often considered dialect groups or dialect bases that are further subdivided into as many as 50 dialects.[217] Other sources characterize the number of dialects as nine[218] or eight.[219]

The official language in Slovenia is Slovene, which is a member of the South Slavic language group. In 2002, Slovene was the native language of around 88% of Slovenia's population according to the census, with more than 92% of the Slovenian population speaking it in their home environment.[210][211] This places Slovenia among the most homogeneous countries in the EU in terms of the share of speakers of predominant mother tongue.[212]

Slovene

Languages

Largest towns of SloveniaStatistical Office: Largest settlements by population (1 January 2013)

Overall, there are eleven urban municipalities in Slovenia.
[209][208] The only large town is the capital, Ljubljana. Other, medium-sized towns include Maribor, Celje, and Kranj.[207]
Depending on definition, between 65% and 79% of people live in urban areas.

Urbanisation

In 2009, the suicide rate in Slovenia was 22 per 100,000 persons per year, which places Slovenia among the highest ranked European countries in this regard.[205] Nonetheless, from 2000 until 2010, the rate has decreased by about 30%. The differences between regions and the genders are pronounced.[206]

Slovenia is among the European countries with the most pronounced ageing of population, ascribable to a low birth rate and increasing life expectancy.[199] Almost all Slovenian inhabitants older than 64 are retired, with no significant difference between the genders.[200] The working-age group is diminishing in spite of immigration.[201] The proposal to raise the retirement age from the current 57 for women and 58 for men was rejected in a referendum in 2011.[156] In addition, the difference among the genders regarding life expectancy is still significant.[200] The total fertility rate (TFR) in 2014 was estimated at 1.33 children born/woman, which is lower than the replacement rate of 2.1.[202] The majority of children are born to unmarried women (in 2013, 58% of all births were outside marriage).[203] In 2014, life expectancy was 77.83 years (74.21 years male, and 81.69 years female).[204]

According to the 2002 census, Slovenia's main ethnic group are the Slovenes (83%), however their share in the total population is continuously decreasing due to their relatively low fertility rate. At least 13% (2002) of the population were immigrants from other parts of Former Yugoslavia and their descendants.[192] They have settled mainly in cities and suburbanised areas.[193] Relatively small but protected by the Constitution of Slovenia are the Hungarian and the Italian ethnic minority.[194][195][196] A special position is held by the autochthonous and geographically dispersed Roma ethnic community.[197][198]

Demographics

The air transport in Slovenia is quite low,[178] but has significantly grown since 1991.[188] Of the three international airports in Slovenia, Ljubljana Jože Pučnik Airport in central Slovenia is the busiest,[188] with connections to many major European destinations.[189] The Maribor Edvard Rusjan Airport is located in the eastern part of the country and the Portorož Airport in the western part.[188] The state-owned Adria Airways is the largest Slovenian airline.[188] Since 2003, several new carriers have entered the market, mainly low-cost airlines.[173] The only Slovenian military airport is the Cerklje ob Krki Air Base in the southwestern part of the country.[190] There are also 12 public airports in Slovenia.[188]

The major Slovenian port is the Port of Koper. It is the largest Northern Adriatic port in terms of container transport,[181] with almost 590,000 TEUs annually[182] and lines to all major world ports.[183][184] It is much closer to destinations east of the Suez than the ports of Northern Europe.[183] In addition, the maritime passenger traffic mostly takes place in Koper.[185] Two smaller ports used for the international passenger transport as well as cargo transport are located in Izola and Piran. Passenger transport mainly takes place with Italy and Croatia.[186]Splošna plovba,[187] the only Slovenian shipping company, transports freight and is active only in foreign ports.[185]

The existing Slovenian rails are out-of-date and can't compete with the motorway network.[176] The maintenance and modernisation of the Slovenian railway network has been neglected due to the lack of financial assets.[177] Due to the out-of-date infrastructure, the share of the railway freight transport has been in decline in Slovenia.[178] The railway passenger transport has been recovering after a large drop in the 1990s.[179] The Pan-European railway corridors V and X, and several other major European rail lines intersect in Slovenia.[177] All international transit trains in Slovenia drive through the Ljubljana Railway Hub.[180]

The road freight and passenger transport constitutes the largest part of transport in Slovenia at 80%.[171] Personal cars are much more popular than public road passenger transport, which has significantly declined.[171][172] Slovenia has a very high highway and motorway density compared to the European Union average.[173] The highway system, the construction of which was speeded up after 1994,[174] has slowly but steadily transformed Slovenia into a large conurbation.[175] Other state roads have been rapidly deteriorating due to neglect and the overall increase in traffic.[173]

The location at the junction of major geographic units and the area being traversed by major rivers have been the reasons for the intersection of the main transport routes in Slovenia. Their course was established already in the Antiquity. A particular geographic advantage in recent times has been the location of the intersection of the Pan-European transport corridorsV (the fastest link between the North Adriatic, and Central and Eastern Europe) and X (linking Central Europe with the Balkans) in the country. This gives it a special position in the European social, economic and cultural integration and restructuring.[170]

Important parts of tourism in Slovenia include congress and gambling tourism. Slovenia is the country with the highest percentage of casinos per 1,000 inhabitants in the European Union.[167]Perla in Nova Gorica is the largest casino in the region.[168]

Slovenia offers tourists a wide variety of natural and cultural amenities. Different forms of tourism have developed. The tourist gravitational area is considerably large, however the tourist market is small. There has been no large-scale tourism and no acute environmental pressures.[159]

Tourism

Renewable energy in Slovenia: at the end of 2011 at least 87 MWp of photovoltaic modules were installed and 22 MW of biogas powerplants. There is a plan and obligation that at least 500 MW of wind power will be installed by 2020. Solar hot water heating is gaining popularity in Slovenia.

Current investments: new 600 MW block of Šoštanj thermal power plant is in construction and will be finished by 2014. New 39.5 MW HE Krško hydro power plant was finished in 2013. By 2018, 41.5 MW HE Brežice and 30.5 MW HE Mokrice hydro power plants will be built on Sava river. Construction of ten hydropower plants on the Sava River with a cumulative capacity of 338 MW is planned to be finished by 2030. A large pumped-storage hydro power plant Kozjak on the Drava River is in the planning stage.

High level of openness makes Slovenia extremely sensitive to economic conditions in its main trading partners and changes in its international price competitiveness.[155] The main industries are motor vehicles, electric and electronic equipment, machinery, pharmaceuticals, and fuels.[43][43] An increasing burden for the Slovenian economy has been its rapidly ageing population.[156]

The level of foreign direct investment (FDI) per capita in Slovenia is one of the lowest in the EU,[43] and the labor productivity and the competitiveness of the Slovenian economy is still significantly below the EU average.[152][153] Taxes are relatively high, the labor market is seen by business interests as being inflexible, and industries are losing sales to China, India, and elsewhere.[154]

Almost two-thirds of people are employed in services, and over one-third in industry and construction.[151] Slovenia benefits from a well-educated workforce, well-developed infrastructure, and its location at the crossroads of major trade routes.[43]

Services and industry

Slovenia's total national debt at the end of September 2011 amounted to 15,884 million euros or 44.4% of GDP.[147] In August 2012, the three main ratings agencies have all downgraded Slovenian sovereign debt. An increase in 2013 estimates about Slovenia allegedly being in need of a bailout was attributed by Finland’s Europe Minister Alexander Stubb to "financial sharks" who would like to capitalize on it by creating self-fulfilling prophecies[148] and Die Welt ranked Slovenia among the three least vulnerable European countries topped only by Germany and Estonia.[149][150]

National debt

In August 2012 the year-on-year contraction is still 0.8%, however, growth by 0.2% was recorded in the first quarter (in relation to the quarter before, after data was adjusted according to season and working days).[144] Year-on-year contraction has been attributed to the fall in domestic consumption, and the slowdown in export growth. The decrease in domestic consumption has been attributed to the fiscal austerity, to the freeze on budget expenditure in the final months of last year,[145] to the failure of the efforts to implement economic reforms, to inappropriate financing, and to the decrease in exports.[146]

In 2004-2006, the economy grew on average by nearly 5% a year in Slovenia; in 2007, it expanded by almost 7%. The growth surge was fuelled by debt, particularly among firms, and especially in construction. After the financial crisis of 2007-2010 and European sovereign-debt crisis, the price for a boom that veered out of control is now being paid.[142] The construction industry was severely hit in 2010 and 2011.[143] Already in 2009 the Slovenian GDP per capita shrunk by 8%, which was the biggest fall in the European Union after the Baltic countries and Finland.

Economic growth

[140][43]

This article was sourced from Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. World Heritage Encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers, Open Access Publishing, and in compliance with The Fair Access to Science and Technology Research Act (FASTR), Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., Public Library of Science, The Encyclopedia of Life, Open Book Publishers (OBP), PubMed, U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, and USA.gov, which sources content from all federal, state, local, tribal, and territorial government publication portals (.gov, .mil, .edu). Funding for USA.gov and content contributors is made possible from the U.S. Congress, E-Government Act of 2002.

Crowd sourced content that is contributed to World Heritage Encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles.

By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. World Heritage Encyclopedia™ is a registered trademark of the World Public Library Association, a non-profit organization.