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Agro Climatic Conditions in India

Agriculture is closely dependent on the endowment of natural resources and environmental conditions of soil and climate. India is a land of many climates and varieties of soils, affording scope for much diversity in agriculture. It is therefore meaningful to understand the physiographic and agro climatic conditions of India and the various other factors that largely determine the cropping patterns in different regions of the country. Such understanding shall go a long way in optimizing farm production by selectively adopting appropriate cropping patterns and agronomic practices to suit the region. It is also important to gain perceptive knowledge and a pulse feel of the market drivers that promote diversification based on demand and changing dietary regimes of the society. This note is an attempt to put together information on the above aspects.

The climatic, edaphic ( determined by soil) and socio-economic diversity of the Indian crop-production scene is dotted with many cropping patterns. With a geographic area of 328.76 million hectares, stretching between 8oN and 36oN latitude and between 68oE and 98oE longitude, its altitude varying from the mean sea-level to the highest mountain ranges of the world, India presents a range and diversity of climate, flora and fauna, with a few parallels in the world. The country presents a paradox of containing in it the station with the highest mean annual rainfall in the world (Cherrapunji in Assam ) and also dry, semi-desert area in Rajasthan. The variability of rainfall is most important in all the states, but especially where rainfall is low. In parts of Rajasthan and the Deccan , the variability is more than 100 per cent of the mean. Years of drought account for a frequent a history of crop failures, whereas the years of flood also cause very considerable loss of agricultural production. Temperatures also vary greatly, both geographically and seasonally. Northern and central parts of India in January have temperature comparable with those in Europe in July, though with a greater daily range, but in these places in the pre-monsoon months the maximum temperatures of over 40oC are reached over a large area. Frost may occur in winter in the plains, as far south as a line drawn through Madhya Pradesh and may be heavy in Kashmir and areas north of Punjab .

Socio-economically, the peasantry ranges from the relatively affluent farmers in Punjab, Western UP etc who operate with a high input intensity in agriculture to the subsistent farmers of eastern and central India . They even today, sometimes practice shifting cultivation. Between these two extremes, various intensities of cultivation are practised. The outstanding fact on the socio-economic is the smallness of holdings, the average farm-size in most areas being lower than that is in most tropical countries. Crops production, therefore, presents such an enormous diversity owing to differences in latitude, altitude and variability of rainfall and edaphic diversity.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS General India is a land of many rivers and mountains. Its geographical area of about 328 M.ha is criss crossed by a large number of small and big rivers, some of them figuring amongst the mighty rivers of the world. The rivers and mountains have great significance in the history of Indian cultural development, religious and spiritual life. A major part (72%) of India ’s population of 1027 millions (2001 census) is rural and agriculturally oriented for whom the rivers, land and climate are the source of their prosperity.

PhysiographyThe classification of the country based on the physiography is one attempt that will help us to understand the division based on the physical characteristics. Physiographically, India may be divided into seven well defined regions. These are: The Northern Mountains , comprising the mighty Himalayan ranges;

II. The Great Plains, traversed by the Indus and Ganga Brahmaputra river systems. As much as one third of this lies in the arid zone of western Rajasthan. The remaining area is mostly fertile plains;

III. The Central Highlands , consisting of a wide belt of hills running east-west starting from Aravalli ranges in the west and terminating in a steep escarpment in the east. The area lies between the Great Plains and the Deccan Plateau; IV. The Peninsular Plateaus comprising the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats , North Deccan Plateau, South Deccan Plateau and Eastern Plateau; V. The East Coast, a belt of land of about 100- 130 km wide, bordering the Bay of Bengal land lying to the east of the Eastern Ghats ; VI. The West Coast, a narrow belt of land of about 10- 25 km wide, bordering the Arabian Sea and lying to the west of the Western Ghats, and VII. The islands, comprising the coral islands of Lakshadeep in Arabian Sea and Andaman and Nicobar Islands of the Bay of Bengal . ClimateThe presence of the great mountain mass formed by the Himalayas and its spurs on the North and of the ocean on the South are the two major influences operating on the climate of India . The first poses an impenetrable barrier to the influence of cold winds from central Asia , and gives the sub-continent the elements of tropical type of climate. The second, which is the source of cool moisture-laden winds reaching India , gives it the elements of the oceanic type of climate.

India has a very great diversity and variety of climate and an even greater variety of weather conditions. The climate ranges from continental to oceanic, from extremes of heat to extremes of cold, from extreme aridity and negligible rainfall to excessive humidity and torrential rainfall. It is, therefore, necessary to avoid any generalization as to the prevalence of any particular kind of climate, not only over the country as a whole but over major areas in it. The climatic condition influences to a great extent the water resources utilisation of the country.

RainfallRainfall in India is dependent in differing degrees on the South-West and North-East monsoons, on shallow cyclonic depressions and disturbances and on violent local storms which form regions where cool humid winds the sea meet hot dry winds from the land and occasionally reach cyclonic dimension. Most of the rainfall in India takes place under the influence of South West monsoon between June to September except in Tamil Nadu where it is under the influence of North-East monsoon during October and November. The rainfall in India shows great variations, unequal seasonal distribution, still more unequal geographical distribution and the frequent departures from the normal. It generally exceeds 1000 mm in areas to the East of Longitude 78 degree E. It extends to 2500 mm along almost the entire West Coast and Western Ghats and over most of Assam and Sub-Himalayan West Bengal. On the West of the line joining Porbandar to Delhi and thence to Ferozpur the rainfall diminishes rapidly from 500 mm to less than 150 mm in the extreme west. The Peninsular has large areas of rainfall less than 600 mm with pockets of even 500 mm . TemperatureThe variations in temperature are also marked over the Indian sub-continent. During the winter seasons from November to February, due to the effect of continental winds over most of the country, the temperature decreases from South to North. The mean maximum temperature during the coldest months of December and January varies from 29 degree centigrade in some part of the peninsula to about 18 degree centigrade in the North, whereas the mean minimum varies from about 24 degree centigrade in the extreme South to below 5 degree centigrade in the North. From March to May is usually a period of continuous and rapid rise of temperature. The highest temperature occurs in North India , particularly in the desert regions of the North-West where the maximum may exceed 48 degree centigrade. With the advent of South West Monsoon in June, there is a rapid fall in the maximum temperature in the central portions of the country. The temperature is almost uniform over the area covering two thirds of the country which gets good rain. In August, there is a marked fall in temperature when the monsoon retreat from North Indian in September. In North-West India , in the month of November, the mean maximum temperature is below 38 degree centigrade and the mean minimum below 10 degree centigrade. In the extreme North, temperature drops below freezing point.EvaporationEvaporation rates closely follow the climatic seasons, and reach their peak in the summer moths of April and May and the central areas of the country display the highest evaporation rates during this period. With the onset of monsoon, there is a marked fall in the rate of evaporation. The annual potential evaporation ranges between 150 to 250 cm over most parts of the country. Monthly potential evaporation over the Peninsula increases from 15 cm in December to 40 cm in May. In the North-East, it varies from 6 cm in December to 20 cm in May. It rises to 40 cm in June in West Rajasthan . After the onset of monsoon potential evaporation decreases generally all over the country.

Rivers

India is blessed with many rivers. As many as 12 of them are classified as major rivers whose total catchment area is 252.8 million hectare (M.ha). Of the major rivers, the Ganga - Brahmaputra Meghana system is the biggest with catchment area of about 110 M .ha which is more than 43 percent of the catchment area of all the major rivers in the country. The other major rivers with catchment area more than 10 M .ha are Indus ( 32.1 M .ha.), Guava ( 31.3 M .ha.), Krishna , ( 25.9 M .ha.) and Maharani ( 14.2 M .ha). The catchment area of medium rivers is about 25 M .ha and Subernarekha with 1.9 M .ha. catchment area is the largest river among the medium rivers in the country.

Water Bodies

Inland Water resources of the country are classified as rivers and canals; reservoirs; tanks & ponds; beels, oxbow lakes, derelict water; and brackish water. Other than rivers and canals, total water bodies cover all area of about 7 M .ha. Of the rivers and canals, Uttar Pradesh occupies the First place with the total length of rivers and canals as 31.2 thousand km, which is about 17 percent of the total length of rivers and canals in the country. Other states following Uttar Pradesh are Jammu & Kashmir and Madhya Pradesh. Among the remaining forms of the inland water resources, tanks and ponds have maximum area ( 2.9 M .ha.) followed by reservoirs ( 2.1 M .ha.).

Most of the area under tanks and ponds lies in Southern States of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. These states along with West Bengal , Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, account for 62 percent of total area under tanks and ponds in the country. As far as reservoirs are concerned, major states like Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra , Orissa, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh account for larger portion of area under reservoirs. More than 77 percent of area under beels, oxbow, lakes and derelict water lies in the states of Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Assam . Orissa ranks first as regards the total area of brackish water and is followed by Gujarat, Kerala and West Bengal . The total area of inland water resources is, thus, unevenly distributed over the country with five states namely Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka and West Bengal accounting for more than half of the country's inland water bodies.

Surface Water Resources

The annual precipitation including snowfall, which is the main source of the water in the country is estimated to be of the order of 4000 cu.km. The Country has been divided into 35 meteorological sub-division based on rainfall s. The Resources potential of the country, which occurs as natural run off in the rivers is about 1869 cu.km. as per the basin wise latest estimates of Central Water Commission, considering both surface and ground water as one system. Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna system is the major contributor to total water resources potential of the country. Its share is about 60 percent in total water resources potential of the various rivers. Based on 199l census, the per capita availability of water works out to 220 cubic metre cu.m.). Due to various constraints of topography, uneven distribution of resource over space and time, it has been estimated that only about 1122 cu.km. of total potential of 1869 cu.km. can be put to beneficial use, 690 cu. km. being due to surface water resources. Again about 40 percent of uitlisable surface water resources are presently in Ganga-Brhamputra-Meghna system. In majority of river basins, present utilisation is significantly high and is in the range of 50 percent to 95 percent of utilisable surface resources. But in the rivers such as Narmada and Mahanadi percentage utilisation is quite low. The corresponding values for these basins are 23 percent and 34 percent respectively.

The distribution of water resources potential in the country shows that as against the national per capita annual availability of water as 2208 cu. m . the average availability in Brahmaputra and Barak is as high as 16589 cu m. while it is as low as 360 cu.m. in Sabarmati basin. Brahmaputra and Barak basin with 7.3 percent of geographical area and 4.2 percent of population of the country has 31 percent of the annual water resources. Per capita annual availability for rest of the country excluding Brahmaputra and Barak basin works out to about 1583 cu.m. Any situation of availability of less than 1000 cu. m . per capita is considered by international agencies as scarcity conditions. Cauvery, Pennar, Sabarmati, East flowing rivers and West flowing rivers are some of the basins which fall into this category.

Agro-climatic Zones

The Planning Commission after examining the earlier studies at the regionalisation of the agricultural economy has recommended that agricultural planning be done on the basis of agro climatic regions. For resource development, the country has been broadly divided into fifteen agricultural regions based on agro climatic features, particularly soil type, climate including temperature and rainfall and its variation and water resources availability as under:

I. Western Himalayan division

II. Eastern Himalayan division

III. Lower Gangetic plain region

IV. Middle Gangetic plain region

V. Upper Gangetic plain region

VI. Trans-Gangetic plain region

VII. Eastern plateau and hill region

VIII. Central plateau and hill region

IX. Western plateau and hill region

X. Southern plateau and hill region

XI. East coast plain and hill region

XII. West coast plain and hill region

XIII. Gujarat plain and hill region

XIV. Western plain and hill region

XV. Island region.

AGRO -ECOLOGICAL REGIONS OF INDIA

Another classification that is relevant in understanding the cropping patterns and agricultural practices of the country is that based on the ecological features of different regions. This classification also takes into account the period for which crops can be grown naturally in the region. The classification is given below:

While the agro climatic zones as described above have been used for macro planning, another attempt to closely look at cropping patterns with emerging changes in the cropping patterns was made based on three decisive parameters, viz. Net Sown Area (NSA), Land Available for Cultivation (LAC) and Net Irrigated Area (NIA) in the region[1]. The various state regions were delineated into different Typologies by taking into consideration the above parameters. It may be appreciated that the develop0ment strategies for agriculture shall depend on availability of land resources of varying types which is indicated by the LAC, the status of water and or moisture availability which in turn points to the potential productivity and growth as indicated by the NIA and the existing level of cultivation which is the NSA.

Various typologies emerge on examination of above parameters. The details of the classification based on the typologies of resource use by state regions is given in table below:

Typology Region

Type

State Regions

A

Mountainous

All Regions of Assam and Other Eastern States, Himachal Pradesh, and Western U.P Hills ( Uttranchal).

North and South Coastal Andhra, Telangana, Bihar Plains, North Gujarat, Plains of Haryana, and Punjab, North Rajasthan, Coastal, Delta, Kanyakumari and Central Plains of Tamilnadu, NW U.P. Plains, Barind and Rarh Plains and Alluvial Plains of W. Bengal

E

Plains – Arid/

Semi Arid

Rayalaseema and Southern Telangana, South and Middle Gujarat, and Saurashtra, Northern and Central Plains of Karnataka, Chhatisgadh (MP), Central Plains of Maharashtra, Southern and Northern Arid Rajasthan Dharmapuri-Salem of Tamil Nadu, Eastern, Central and Western UPPlains and Coastal Plains of W. Bengal,

F

Coastal

Coastal Andhra, Kerala, Orissa and Delta of Tamil Nadu

Analysis of Typologies. These typologies and issues related with development of these regions are as follows.

Typology A

Mountainous covering Himalayan states in the Western and Eastern plains. High altitudes and slopes, large forests areas, perennial rivers leading to floods, soil erosion, silting up of down stream rivers. Inadequate roads and communication infrastructure and Jhum cultivation resulting in soil erosion are characteristics of this typology. Paddy dominated crop System.

Main issues are use of land according to slopes, soil erosion control, forest protection, and infrastructure building.

Typology B Hilly covering central, Southern and Eastern regions with high rainfall (> 1000 mm ), severe runoff, different quality forests and cereals based cropping due to shallow to medium soils. Under developed infrastructure of roads and markets.

Arresting of runoff, water harvesting, soil conservation, fodder and livestock development and logistic support for marketing are the main issues of growth.

Typology C Plateaus covering plateau and hills regions of Bihar , MP ( Vindhya, Satpura and Malwa), Orissa north, and hills of Rajasthan, normally having high rainfall with hill mounds and valleys interspersed with rivers and nallahs having surface runoff. Tanks form significant source of irrigation. Coarse cereals and pulses dominate cropping. Infrastructure for supplies and logistics is poor.

Main issues are control of runoff erosion, strengthening of tank irrigation, wasteland development covering fruits, fodder and fuel, and improvement of communication support.

Typology D

Plains-Irrigated represents the most important crop production area. Irrigation by Gangetic network and peninsular rivers in the South supplemented with tube-wells and shallow wells to fertile alluvial soils giving rise to extensive cultivation of paddy and wheat as well as high value crops like sugarcane are the main features. The infrastructure of marketing and transport is well developed and urbanization is higher (urban population 22%) compared to other types. Productivity levels of crops is quite high.

Reclamation of problem soils, water management through conjunctive use of canal and ground water, are the major issues.

Typology EPlains-Arid/semi-arid covers areas of Central AP, Saurashtra and middle and north Gujarat, North and Central Karnataka, Central plains of Maharashtra, Southern and North arid Rajasthan, UP plains and Dharmapuri -Salem of Tamil Nadu having rainfall around 800 mm . Low land productivity and poor soil fertility giving rise to low value cereals based cropping are characteristics of the regions of this type.

The major development issues are lack of long-term investment is land and water resources, horticulture, livestock and fodder.

Typology F Coastal represents regions of East and West Coasts covering coastal AP,

Kerala, Orissa and delta of Tamilnadu usually having high irrigation. Rice and horticultural crops dominate along with large fishery activity.

Development of infrastructure for fish processing, packaging and export, and distribution of fish seed and training of personnel in production and management of brackish water aquaculture are the prime issues of development.

Strategies

Development of state regions varies in their context of location specific problems and with resource base of the regions. Other activities of crops, livestock, forests,

fodder, horticulture, and fishery are compliments to or dependent on the pace of resource development, particularly, if land and water problems of land use and management, across the typologies do differ with the complexion of resource endowment and the con-committal investment needs. One has to list the strategies and involvement pattern, evaluate with reference to short and long tern prospects of and their development linkages, and prioritize the strategies. This would be task of regional planning bodies under the auspices of Panchayat Raj Institutions. Note, however, they are bound to be necessarily fine tuned in consonance with the problem focus and decision environs. The strategies could be broadly classified as follows:

1. Land development and management is basically meant to alter the land characteristics in order to render resource utilization productive, viable and sustainable. The component strategies include development of wastelands, reclamation of problem soils such as usar, diara. khar. chaur. saline, alkaline and sodic soils, management of farming along slopes in hilly regions and soil conservation. One has to refer to these strategies on the regional context.

2. Water resource development and management handles issues of water resource development as a productive infrastructure in terms of river dams. tanks and tube-wells for which large investment is necessary, management is related to on-farm and in system water management effecting maximum efficiency in water distribution and delivery duly recognizing the need for maximum conservation and fair degree of equity. This could be a complement to the strategy.

3. Integrated watershed development mainly for the rainfed lands in medium to high rainfall regions. The components are soil conservation, water harvesting, designing suitable farming systems of integrated crop, livestock, horticulture and forestry activities. They vary in their importance with the needs of resources of regions. Infrastructural development for long-term investment, employment and income during the gestation period and assets structure are prerequisites for sustainable development. The degree of integration and its pattern depends much on policy intervention and participatory development.

4. Crops and crop development is based primarily on crop research and improvement through genetic engineering and biotechnology besides the traditional approaches in plant breeding and crop selection responsive to various stresses of moisture, biotics and environment. There is another dimension of crop choice and substitution to suit the resource pattern for optimum crop mix, choice of high value crops of horticulture and floriculture, the growing export needs of trade, and with focus on productivity and environment.

5. Horticultural development involves large investment in horticultural crops of export importance such as fruits and spices, flowers and orchids, high value vegetables, coffee and tea plantations in new areas of developed land resources. There are issues of crop complementarity, and substitution under irrigated cropping systems, crop introduction, establishment and management in rainfed areas and watersheds. Plant improvement, biotechnology and nursery management, large waiting periods, financing development are the areas of focus for R & D and information support as well.

6. Livestock development becomes significant in relation to income elastic demand for livestock products such as dairy, poultry and meat and domestic market has huge potentials. The pattern of livestock development depends upon crops and the complementarities with fodder availability and development, and in scope for trade. The components are determined on the basis of land and water resources and the pattern of their utilization. Management focus warrants for R & D on animal breeding, animal nutrition and feeding, and animal health care, and institutional support for effective introduction and organization of activities.

7. Fisheries development is confined to inland fisheries- both freshwater and brackish water aquaculture, in the state regions. Marine fisheries are excluded by choice in our concern for development. The vast stretches of water bodies spread over riverine and coastal areas provide opportunities. Reclamation of derelict water bodies along river courses and tanks improvement offer scope for development of inland fisheries. There are certain environmental and social issues emerging which must be addressed. Establishment of hatcheries, distribution of seeds and information about fishery management, production and marketing and technology transmission are the operational issues for detailed study and policy formulation.

8. Farming system is a composite intervention package of all strategies discussed so far. Its uniqueness for special emphasis lies in its distinctive focus on optimization of the land use and water resource, with respect to income or employment or both. A high level management orientation and institutional support is involved. There are two variations in the approach, One is based on an activity which is the major around which complementary activities are specified. Paddy based farming system of paddy crops, ducks and fishes, and dairy based farming system of cows, fodder, feed grains and vegetables, are some of the examples. Another is resource based and depending upon demand and prices for products, supply responds in a mix of crop and non-crop activities, with no constraints on activity mix, It manifests in as a long run solution of growth and development of the regions. There can be options for farming systems choice for decisions in response to preference functions of farm family households, Intensive R&D is required.

9. Forest development has three dimensions of protecting and qualitative upgradation of existing forests; establishment of new forest cover to widen the base of forestry of regions; and introduction of forest components as silvipasture or agro and/or social forests. Regional needs would determine the components of forest development strategies.

10. Infrastructure development could be grouped under three categories which are (i) commodity improvement and value addition such as processing, packaging and storage, (ii) supportive road and communication services, and (iii) facilitating information and inputs delivery system, including finance and trade. Infrastructure supports all the nine strategies specified above in varying.

The analysis of the strategies for agricultural development based on the typology of the State Regions has special significance from the point of view of financial commitments and the inter departmental cooperation that is required at the State and district levels. This understanding, therefore has special significance for the banking community as well as other development functionaries.

Agriculture is closely dependent on the endowment of natural resources and environmental conditions of soil and climate. India is a land of many climates and varieties of soils, affording scope for much diversity in agriculture. It is therefore meaningful to understand the physiographic and agro climatic conditions of India and the various other factors that largely determine the cropping patterns in different regions of the country. Such understanding shall go a long way in optimizing farm production by selectively adopting appropriate cropping patterns and agronomic practices to suit the region. It is also important to gain perceptive knowledge and a pulse feel of the market drivers that promote diversification based on demand and changing dietary regimes of the society. This note is an attempt to put together information on the above aspects.

The climatic, edaphic ( determined by soil) and socio-economic diversity of the Indian crop-production scene is dotted with many cropping patterns. With a geographic area of 328.76 million hectares, stretching between 8oN and 36oN latitude and between 68oE and 98oE longitude, its altitude varying from the mean sea-level to the highest mountain ranges of the world, India presents a range and diversity of climate, flora and fauna, with a few parallels in the world. The country presents a paradox of containing in it the station with the highest mean annual rainfall in the world (Cherrapunji in Assam ) and also dry, semi-desert area in Rajasthan. The variability of rainfall is most important in all the states, but especially where rainfall is low. In parts of Rajasthan and the Deccan , the variability is more than 100 per cent of the mean. Years of drought account for a frequent a history of crop failures, whereas the years of flood also cause very considerable loss of agricultural production. Temperatures also vary greatly, both geographically and seasonally. Northern and central parts of India in January have temperature comparable with those in Europe in July, though with a greater daily range, but in these places in the pre-monsoon months the maximum temperatures of over 40oC are reached over a large area. Frost may occur in winter in the plains, as far south as a line drawn through Madhya Pradesh and may be heavy in Kashmir and areas north of Punjab .

Socio-economically, the peasantry ranges from the relatively affluent farmers in Punjab, Western UP etc who operate with a high input intensity in agriculture to the subsistent farmers of eastern and central India . They even today, sometimes practice shifting cultivation. Between these two extremes, various intensities of cultivation are practised. The outstanding fact on the socio-economic is the smallness of holdings, the average farm-size in most areas being lower than that is in most tropical countries. Crops production, therefore, presents such an enormous diversity owing to differences in latitude, altitude and variability of rainfall and edaphic diversity.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS General India is a land of many rivers and mountains. Its geographical area of about 328 M.ha is criss crossed by a large number of small and big rivers, some of them figuring amongst the mighty rivers of the world. The rivers and mountains have great significance in the history of Indian cultural development, religious and spiritual life. A major part (72%) of India ’s population of 1027 millions (2001 census) is rural and agriculturally oriented for whom the rivers, land and climate are the source of their prosperity.

PhysiographyThe classification of the country based on the physiography is one attempt that will help us to understand the division based on the physical characteristics. Physiographically, India may be divided into seven well defined regions. These are: The Northern Mountains , comprising the mighty Himalayan ranges;

II. The Great Plains, traversed by the Indus and Ganga Brahmaputra river systems. As much as one third of this lies in the arid zone of western Rajasthan. The remaining area is mostly fertile plains;

III. The Central Highlands , consisting of a wide belt of hills running east-west starting from Aravalli ranges in the west and terminating in a steep escarpment in the east. The area lies between the Great Plains and the Deccan Plateau; IV. The Peninsular Plateaus comprising the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats , North Deccan Plateau, South Deccan Plateau and Eastern Plateau; V. The East Coast, a belt of land of about 100- 130 km wide, bordering the Bay of Bengal land lying to the east of the Eastern Ghats ; VI. The West Coast, a narrow belt of land of about 10- 25 km wide, bordering the Arabian Sea and lying to the west of the Western Ghats, and VII. The islands, comprising the coral islands of Lakshadeep in Arabian Sea and Andaman and Nicobar Islands of the Bay of Bengal . ClimateThe presence of the great mountain mass formed by the Himalayas and its spurs on the North and of the ocean on the South are the two major influences operating on the climate of India . The first poses an impenetrable barrier to the influence of cold winds from central Asia , and gives the sub-continent the elements of tropical type of climate. The second, which is the source of cool moisture-laden winds reaching India , gives it the elements of the oceanic type of climate.

India has a very great diversity and variety of climate and an even greater variety of weather conditions. The climate ranges from continental to oceanic, from extremes of heat to extremes of cold, from extreme aridity and negligible rainfall to excessive humidity and torrential rainfall. It is, therefore, necessary to avoid any generalization as to the prevalence of any particular kind of climate, not only over the country as a whole but over major areas in it. The climatic condition influences to a great extent the water resources utilisation of the country.

RainfallRainfall in India is dependent in differing degrees on the South-West and North-East monsoons, on shallow cyclonic depressions and disturbances and on violent local storms which form regions where cool humid winds the sea meet hot dry winds from the land and occasionally reach cyclonic dimension. Most of the rainfall in India takes place under the influence of South West monsoon between June to September except in Tamil Nadu where it is under the influence of North-East monsoon during October and November. The rainfall in India shows great variations, unequal seasonal distribution, still more unequal geographical distribution and the frequent departures from the normal. It generally exceeds 1000 mm in areas to the East of Longitude 78 degree E. It extends to 2500 mm along almost the entire West Coast and Western Ghats and over most of Assam and Sub-Himalayan West Bengal. On the West of the line joining Porbandar to Delhi and thence to Ferozpur the rainfall diminishes rapidly from 500 mm to less than 150 mm in the extreme west. The Peninsular has large areas of rainfall less than 600 mm with pockets of even 500 mm . TemperatureThe variations in temperature are also marked over the Indian sub-continent. During the winter seasons from November to February, due to the effect of continental winds over most of the country, the temperature decreases from South to North. The mean maximum temperature during the coldest months of December and January varies from 29 degree centigrade in some part of the peninsula to about 18 degree centigrade in the North, whereas the mean minimum varies from about 24 degree centigrade in the extreme South to below 5 degree centigrade in the North. From March to May is usually a period of continuous and rapid rise of temperature. The highest temperature occurs in North India , particularly in the desert regions of the North-West where the maximum may exceed 48 degree centigrade. With the advent of South West Monsoon in June, there is a rapid fall in the maximum temperature in the central portions of the country. The temperature is almost uniform over the area covering two thirds of the country which gets good rain. In August, there is a marked fall in temperature when the monsoon retreat from North Indian in September. In North-West India , in the month of November, the mean maximum temperature is below 38 degree centigrade and the mean minimum below 10 degree centigrade. In the extreme North, temperature drops below freezing point.EvaporationEvaporation rates closely follow the climatic seasons, and reach their peak in the summer moths of April and May and the central areas of the country display the highest evaporation rates during this period. With the onset of monsoon, there is a marked fall in the rate of evaporation. The annual potential evaporation ranges between 150 to 250 cm over most parts of the country. Monthly potential evaporation over the Peninsula increases from 15 cm in December to 40 cm in May. In the North-East, it varies from 6 cm in December to 20 cm in May. It rises to 40 cm in June in West Rajasthan . After the onset of monsoon potential evaporation decreases generally all over the country.

Rivers

India is blessed with many rivers. As many as 12 of them are classified as major rivers whose total catchment area is 252.8 million hectare (M.ha). Of the major rivers, the Ganga - Brahmaputra Meghana system is the biggest with catchment area of about 110 M .ha which is more than 43 percent of the catchment area of all the major rivers in the country. The other major rivers with catchment area more than 10 M .ha are Indus ( 32.1 M .ha.), Guava ( 31.3 M .ha.), Krishna , ( 25.9 M .ha.) and Maharani ( 14.2 M .ha). The catchment area of medium rivers is about 25 M .ha and Subernarekha with 1.9 M .ha. catchment area is the largest river among the medium rivers in the country.

Water Bodies

Inland Water resources of the country are classified as rivers and canals; reservoirs; tanks & ponds; beels, oxbow lakes, derelict water; and brackish water. Other than rivers and canals, total water bodies cover all area of about 7 M .ha. Of the rivers and canals, Uttar Pradesh occupies the First place with the total length of rivers and canals as 31.2 thousand km, which is about 17 percent of the total length of rivers and canals in the country. Other states following Uttar Pradesh are Jammu & Kashmir and Madhya Pradesh. Among the remaining forms of the inland water resources, tanks and ponds have maximum area ( 2.9 M .ha.) followed by reservoirs ( 2.1 M .ha.).

Most of the area under tanks and ponds lies in Southern States of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. These states along with West Bengal , Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, account for 62 percent of total area under tanks and ponds in the country. As far as reservoirs are concerned, major states like Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra , Orissa, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh account for larger portion of area under reservoirs. More than 77 percent of area under beels, oxbow, lakes and derelict water lies in the states of Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Assam . Orissa ranks first as regards the total area of brackish water and is followed by Gujarat, Kerala and West Bengal . The total area of inland water resources is, thus, unevenly distributed over the country with five states namely Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka and West Bengal accounting for more than half of the country's inland water bodies.

Surface Water Resources

The annual precipitation including snowfall, which is the main source of the water in the country is estimated to be of the order of 4000 cu.km. The Country has been divided into 35 meteorological sub-division based on rainfall s. The Resources potential of the country, which occurs as natural run off in the rivers is about 1869 cu.km. as per the basin wise latest estimates of Central Water Commission, considering both surface and ground water as one system. Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna system is the major contributor to total water resources potential of the country. Its share is about 60 percent in total water resources potential of the various rivers. Based on 199l census, the per capita availability of water works out to 220 cubic metre cu.m.). Due to various constraints of topography, uneven distribution of resource over space and time, it has been estimated that only about 1122 cu.km. of total potential of 1869 cu.km. can be put to beneficial use, 690 cu. km. being due to surface water resources. Again about 40 percent of uitlisable surface water resources are presently in Ganga-Brhamputra-Meghna system. In majority of river basins, present utilisation is significantly high and is in the range of 50 percent to 95 percent of utilisable surface resources. But in the rivers such as Narmada and Mahanadi percentage utilisation is quite low. The corresponding values for these basins are 23 percent and 34 percent respectively.

The distribution of water resources potential in the country shows that as against the national per capita annual availability of water as 2208 cu. m . the average availability in Brahmaputra and Barak is as high as 16589 cu m. while it is as low as 360 cu.m. in Sabarmati basin. Brahmaputra and Barak basin with 7.3 percent of geographical area and 4.2 percent of population of the country has 31 percent of the annual water resources. Per capita annual availability for rest of the country excluding Brahmaputra and Barak basin works out to about 1583 cu.m. Any situation of availability of less than 1000 cu. m . per capita is considered by international agencies as scarcity conditions. Cauvery, Pennar, Sabarmati, East flowing rivers and West flowing rivers are some of the basins which fall into this category.

Agro-climatic Zones

The Planning Commission after examining the earlier studies at the regionalisation of the agricultural economy has recommended that agricultural planning be done on the basis of agro climatic regions. For resource development, the country has been broadly divided into fifteen agricultural regions based on agro climatic features, particularly soil type, climate including temperature and rainfall and its variation and water resources availability as under:

I. Western Himalayan division

II. Eastern Himalayan division

III. Lower Gangetic plain region

IV. Middle Gangetic plain region

V. Upper Gangetic plain region

VI. Trans-Gangetic plain region

VII. Eastern plateau and hill region

VIII. Central plateau and hill region

IX. Western plateau and hill region

X. Southern plateau and hill region

XI. East coast plain and hill region

XII. West coast plain and hill region

XIII. Gujarat plain and hill region

XIV. Western plain and hill region

XV. Island region.

AGRO -ECOLOGICAL REGIONS OF INDIA

Another classification that is relevant in understanding the cropping patterns and agricultural practices of the country is that based on the ecological features of different regions. This classification also takes into account the period for which crops can be grown naturally in the region. The classification is given below:

While the agro climatic zones as described above have been used for macro planning, another attempt to closely look at cropping patterns with emerging changes in the cropping patterns was made based on three decisive parameters, viz. Net Sown Area (NSA), Land Available for Cultivation (LAC) and Net Irrigated Area (NIA) in the region[1]. The various state regions were delineated into different Typologies by taking into consideration the above parameters. It may be appreciated that the develop0ment strategies for agriculture shall depend on availability of land resources of varying types which is indicated by the LAC, the status of water and or moisture availability which in turn points to the potential productivity and growth as indicated by the NIA and the existing level of cultivation which is the NSA.

Various typologies emerge on examination of above parameters. The details of the classification based on the typologies of resource use by state regions is given in table below:

Typology Region

Type

State Regions

A

Mountainous

All Regions of Assam and Other Eastern States, Himachal Pradesh, and Western U.P Hills ( Uttranchal).

North and South Coastal Andhra, Telangana, Bihar Plains, North Gujarat, Plains of Haryana, and Punjab, North Rajasthan, Coastal, Delta, Kanyakumari and Central Plains of Tamilnadu, NW U.P. Plains, Barind and Rarh Plains and Alluvial Plains of W. Bengal

E

Plains – Arid/

Semi Arid

Rayalaseema and Southern Telangana, South and Middle Gujarat, and Saurashtra, Northern and Central Plains of Karnataka, Chhatisgadh (MP), Central Plains of Maharashtra, Southern and Northern Arid Rajasthan Dharmapuri-Salem of Tamil Nadu, Eastern, Central and Western UPPlains and Coastal Plains of W. Bengal,

F

Coastal

Coastal Andhra, Kerala, Orissa and Delta of Tamil Nadu

Analysis of Typologies. These typologies and issues related with development of these regions are as follows.

Typology A

Mountainous covering Himalayan states in the Western and Eastern plains. High altitudes and slopes, large forests areas, perennial rivers leading to floods, soil erosion, silting up of down stream rivers. Inadequate roads and communication infrastructure and Jhum cultivation resulting in soil erosion are characteristics of this typology. Paddy dominated crop System.

Main issues are use of land according to slopes, soil erosion control, forest protection, and infrastructure building.

Typology B Hilly covering central, Southern and Eastern regions with high rainfall (> 1000 mm ), severe runoff, different quality forests and cereals based cropping due to shallow to medium soils. Under developed infrastructure of roads and markets.

Arresting of runoff, water harvesting, soil conservation, fodder and livestock development and logistic support for marketing are the main issues of growth.

Typology C Plateaus covering plateau and hills regions of Bihar , MP ( Vindhya, Satpura and Malwa), Orissa north, and hills of Rajasthan, normally having high rainfall with hill mounds and valleys interspersed with rivers and nallahs having surface runoff. Tanks form significant source of irrigation. Coarse cereals and pulses dominate cropping. Infrastructure for supplies and logistics is poor.

Main issues are control of runoff erosion, strengthening of tank irrigation, wasteland development covering fruits, fodder and fuel, and improvement of communication support.

Typology D

Plains-Irrigated represents the most important crop production area. Irrigation by Gangetic network and peninsular rivers in the South supplemented with tube-wells and shallow wells to fertile alluvial soils giving rise to extensive cultivation of paddy and wheat as well as high value crops like sugarcane are the main features. The infrastructure of marketing and transport is well developed and urbanization is higher (urban population 22%) compared to other types. Productivity levels of crops is quite high.

Reclamation of problem soils, water management through conjunctive use of canal and ground water, are the major issues.

Typology EPlains-Arid/semi-arid covers areas of Central AP, Saurashtra and middle and north Gujarat, North and Central Karnataka, Central plains of Maharashtra, Southern and North arid Rajasthan, UP plains and Dharmapuri -Salem of Tamil Nadu having rainfall around 800 mm . Low land productivity and poor soil fertility giving rise to low value cereals based cropping are characteristics of the regions of this type.

The major development issues are lack of long-term investment is land and water resources, horticulture, livestock and fodder.

Typology F Coastal represents regions of East and West Coasts covering coastal AP,

Kerala, Orissa and delta of Tamilnadu usually having high irrigation. Rice and horticultural crops dominate along with large fishery activity.

Development of infrastructure for fish processing, packaging and export, and distribution of fish seed and training of personnel in production and management of brackish water aquaculture are the prime issues of development.

Strategies

Development of state regions varies in their context of location specific problems and with resource base of the regions. Other activities of crops, livestock, forests,

fodder, horticulture, and fishery are compliments to or dependent on the pace of resource development, particularly, if land and water problems of land use and management, across the typologies do differ with the complexion of resource endowment and the con-committal investment needs. One has to list the strategies and involvement pattern, evaluate with reference to short and long tern prospects of and their development linkages, and prioritize the strategies. This would be task of regional planning bodies under the auspices of Panchayat Raj Institutions. Note, however, they are bound to be necessarily fine tuned in consonance with the problem focus and decision environs. The strategies could be broadly classified as follows:

1. Land development and management is basically meant to alter the land characteristics in order to render resource utilization productive, viable and sustainable. The component strategies include development of wastelands, reclamation of problem soils such as usar, diara. khar. chaur. saline, alkaline and sodic soils, management of farming along slopes in hilly regions and soil conservation. One has to refer to these strategies on the regional context.

2. Water resource development and management handles issues of water resource development as a productive infrastructure in terms of river dams. tanks and tube-wells for which large investment is necessary, management is related to on-farm and in system water management effecting maximum efficiency in water distribution and delivery duly recognizing the need for maximum conservation and fair degree of equity. This could be a complement to the strategy.

3. Integrated watershed development mainly for the rainfed lands in medium to high rainfall regions. The components are soil conservation, water harvesting, designing suitable farming systems of integrated crop, livestock, horticulture and forestry activities. They vary in their importance with the needs of resources of regions. Infrastructural development for long-term investment, employment and income during the gestation period and assets structure are prerequisites for sustainable development. The degree of integration and its pattern depends much on policy intervention and participatory development.

4. Crops and crop development is based primarily on crop research and improvement through genetic engineering and biotechnology besides the traditional approaches in plant breeding and crop selection responsive to various stresses of moisture, biotics and environment. There is another dimension of crop choice and substitution to suit the resource pattern for optimum crop mix, choice of high value crops of horticulture and floriculture, the growing export needs of trade, and with focus on productivity and environment.

5. Horticultural development involves large investment in horticultural crops of export importance such as fruits and spices, flowers and orchids, high value vegetables, coffee and tea plantations in new areas of developed land resources. There are issues of crop complementarity, and substitution under irrigated cropping systems, crop introduction, establishment and management in rainfed areas and watersheds. Plant improvement, biotechnology and nursery management, large waiting periods, financing development are the areas of focus for R & D and information support as well.

6. Livestock development becomes significant in relation to income elastic demand for livestock products such as dairy, poultry and meat and domestic market has huge potentials. The pattern of livestock development depends upon crops and the complementarities with fodder availability and development, and in scope for trade. The components are determined on the basis of land and water resources and the pattern of their utilization. Management focus warrants for R & D on animal breeding, animal nutrition and feeding, and animal health care, and institutional support for effective introduction and organization of activities.

7. Fisheries development is confined to inland fisheries- both freshwater and brackish water aquaculture, in the state regions. Marine fisheries are excluded by choice in our concern for development. The vast stretches of water bodies spread over riverine and coastal areas provide opportunities. Reclamation of derelict water bodies along river courses and tanks improvement offer scope for development of inland fisheries. There are certain environmental and social issues emerging which must be addressed. Establishment of hatcheries, distribution of seeds and information about fishery management, production and marketing and technology transmission are the operational issues for detailed study and policy formulation.

8. Farming system is a composite intervention package of all strategies discussed so far. Its uniqueness for special emphasis lies in its distinctive focus on optimization of the land use and water resource, with respect to income or employment or both. A high level management orientation and institutional support is involved. There are two variations in the approach, One is based on an activity which is the major around which complementary activities are specified. Paddy based farming system of paddy crops, ducks and fishes, and dairy based farming system of cows, fodder, feed grains and vegetables, are some of the examples. Another is resource based and depending upon demand and prices for products, supply responds in a mix of crop and non-crop activities, with no constraints on activity mix, It manifests in as a long run solution of growth and development of the regions. There can be options for farming systems choice for decisions in response to preference functions of farm family households, Intensive R&D is required.

9. Forest development has three dimensions of protecting and qualitative upgradation of existing forests; establishment of new forest cover to widen the base of forestry of regions; and introduction of forest components as silvipasture or agro and/or social forests. Regional needs would determine the components of forest development strategies.

10. Infrastructure development could be grouped under three categories which are (i) commodity improvement and value addition such as processing, packaging and storage, (ii) supportive road and communication services, and (iii) facilitating information and inputs delivery system, including finance and trade. Infrastructure supports all the nine strategies specified above in varying.

The analysis of the strategies for agricultural development based on the typology of the State Regions has special significance from the point of view of financial commitments and the inter departmental cooperation that is required at the State and district levels. This understanding, therefore has special significance for the banking community as well as other development functionaries.