Carbohydrates

This essay Carbohydrates has a total of 1569 words and 11 pages.
Carbohydrates

INTRODUCTION

form or
structure of a molecule plays a significant role in the function of that
molecule. Since we
are interested in the function of molecules. it helps to study their
structure. One of the
major classes of organic compounds found in cells are carbohydrates. These
carbohydrate
are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1 respectively
with a general
formula of X(CH2O)n. When the carbohydrates consists of one unit of sugar,
X=1, it is
called monosaccharide. If it consists of 2 units, X=2, the carbohydrate is
called
disaccharide. Carbohydrates made up of more than two units, X>2, are called
polysaccharides. Carbohydrates can also be branched or unbranched depending
on the
type of linkage. Those with alpha 1:4 linkages are linear or unbranched,
while those with
alpha 1:6 linkages are branched. Carbohydrates are necessary biomolecules
because they
play a role in energy metabolism as a source of potential chemical energy,
also they are
important building blocks for other biomolecules.
The word carbohydrate is very general, so in order to understand these
molecules
more precisely, we need to be able to identify more specific classifications.
Our
experiments try to accomplish this using three common bioassay tests. The
first, the
Benedict test, will test various compound for reducing sugars. All
six-carbon hexose
sugars are reducing carbohydrates, as are most disaccharide. Sucrose is the
exception.
Most polsaccharides are not reducing. Secondly, we have the Barfoed test
which is
designed to test for monosaccharides. The third and final Iodine test is used
to test for
polysaccharides that are either branched or unbranched. By combining these
tests we
were able to make accurate predictions about the carbohydrate contents of a
given sample.
Now, let\'s take a closer look at how these bioassays do work. The Benedict
and
the Barfoed tests are based on the reaction of cupric ions with aldehyde or
ketone groups.
In the presence of a reactive group, the blue cupric ions are reduced to red
cuprous ions.
The Benedict test is a basic solution and upon heating turns green, yellow,
orange or brick
red which indicates a positive reaction. The final color is dependent on the
number of
reactive sites available; green indicates few sites, yellow more, and red
denotes many sites.
The Barfoed solution is acidic and only free aldehyde or ketone groups of
monosaccharides can reduce the blue ions to red ions. The color change to
red will occur
immediately. The lack of a change indicates only that the solution is not a
monosaccharide. The iodine test is used for polysaccharides. Iodine
combines with any
existing alpha helices. The more coiled the sample the darker the iodine
will turn. The
color change can range from deep black-blue with a sample of many coils to a
rust red
violet with fewer coils and more branchings. When there are no coils, there
is no color
change. Mono and disaccharides give negative results.
In summary, this lab attempts to investigate several different samples by
means of
series of tests, and based on the combined results of all three tests we can
attempt to
understand the carbohydrate composition of unknown samples. We hope to be
able to
predict the results of three bioassays for an unknown solution if given its
saccharide type
and reducing property. We should also be able to predict the saccharide type
and reducing
capability of an unknown solution if given the results of the three
bioassays.
MATERIALS AND METHODS*
Like any other experiment, this experiment needs some specific materials
including, beaker, graduated cylinder, hot plate, 11 test tubes, test tube
holder, wax pencil,
liquid soap, and test tube brush. Also, we used the Barfoed reagent,
Benedict reagent,
and iodine reagent.
Our eleven samples were distilled water (control), glucose, fructose,
maltose,
lactose, sucrose, glycogen, starch, potato soup, and dilute honey.
First, we marked our test tubes with the wax pencil to keep track on the
subtances,
then we place the eleven samples in the corresponding tubes. The first test
that we
performed was Benedict, followed by Barfoed, ending with iodine test. When
needed the
samples were heated and our results were immediately recorded in the
following tables. In
all three cases distilled water was used as a control.
*The details of the materials and the methods can be obtained from the lab
manual:
Experiments in Biology,

Read essay without registering

Donate an essay now and get the full essay emailed you. Upload File
Acceptable files: .txt, .doc, .docx, .rtfEmail Address

Topics Related to Carbohydrates

Essays Related to Carbohydrates

The Cheese We EatThe Cheese We Eat The Cheese We Eat Cheese sticks, cheese lasagna, cheesecake, cheese and broccoli, cheeseburger, cheese quiche, cheese omelet, goat cheese, cheddar cheese, Swiss cheese, blue cheese, parmesan cheese, ... the list goes on and on. However, despite the abundance of cheese in the food we eat it often goes unnoticed. Cheese is an under rated food that deserves more recognition than it gets. Cheese is a food that has been around for years, it is very abundant, and above all, cheese

Dietary Guidelines for North Americans and SuggestDietary Guidelines for North Americans and Suggestions for Food Choices In today\'s society nearly everyone follows some kind of dietary guidelines. Whether it is in the goal of losing weight, gaining weight or just simply to maintain it, people are jumping onto the dietary band-wagon. A diet is basically to take food according to rule, a mode of living in reference to nourishment. There are various types of diets that one can follow; a high or low calorie diet, low fat diets, diets modified in

Diverrsity of PlantsDiverrsity of Plants Plants evolved more than 430 million years ago from multicellular green algae. By 300 million years ago, trees had evolved and formed forests, within which the diversification of vertebrates, insects, and fungi occurred. Roughly 266,000 species of plants are now living. The two major groups of plants are the bryophytes and the vascular plants; the latter group consists of nine divisions that have living members. Bryophytes and ferns require free water so that sperm can swim

Bone DiseasesBone Diseases Bone diseases most directly influence the ability to walk or to move any part of the body--hands, limbs, neck, and spine. They are related to joint disorders--ARTHRITIS, COLLAGEN DISEASE, DISLOCATION of joints, and RHEUMATISM. The medical specialty pertaining to bone disorders is ORTHOPEDICS. Fractures are the most common bone disorders. They can occur as the result of an accident or be secondary to metabolic diseases. Fractures are life-threatening to aged people having the metabo

NutritionNutrition “You are what you eat”, goes a famous saying. If that’s truly the case, then a lot of Americans would appear to be unhealthy, chemically treated, commercially raised slabs of animal flesh. While that is not a particularly pleasant thought, it is nonetheless a description of the typical American omnivore who survives on the consumption of big macs and greasy french fries. It’s true, and what have the average Americans done about this problem? Asked for seconds and tell themselves that t

PlantsPlants The four kinds of plants Plants are the link of the evolutionary chain that helped start life as we know it. Some 700 million years ago we had their first ancestors, algae, developed in the seas, 265 million years after that the first simple stalked plants we found outside the seas now but along their coasts and along streams (Starr, C. Taggart, R. pp.153). Through out the years plants have evolved to the ones we know today and can differentiate them by the following categories: Nonvascul

BoronBoron Boron is in group 13 (or IIIa) of the periodic table. The pure element was first prepared in 1808 by the French chemists Joseph Gay-Lussac and Baron Louis Thénard, and independently by the British chemist Sir Humphry Davy. It is a trace element needed for plant growth, but can be deadly if used in excess. Research suggests that it is also nutritionally important for bone health in humans and other vertebrates. Pure boron is a powder. Boron melts at about 2180° C, boils at about 3650° C, an

DIETDIET Because the human diet is typically diverse, human beings are classified as omnivores rather than as herbivores (plant eaters) or carnivores (meat eaters). Certain groups of people do derive most of their food from animal sources--for example, the traditional Inuits of the Arctic region and the Masai of Africa--while other people practice vegetarianism. By far the majority of humankind, however, eats a wide range of foods of both animal and vegetable origin. Prehistoric humans were hunters

AlcoholismAlcoholism Alcoholism, chronic and usually progressive illness involving the excessive inappropriate ingestion of ethyl alcohol, whether in the form of familiar alcoholic beverages or as a constituent of other substances. Alcoholism is thought to arise from a combination of a wide range of physiological, psychological, social, and genetic factors. It is characterized by an emotional and often physical dependence on alcohol, and it frequently leads to brain damage or early death. Some 10 percent

Treatments of AlcoholismTreatments of Alcoholism Treatments of Alcoholism University of ??? TREATMENTS OF ALCOHOLISM Alcoholism can destroy the life of an alcoholic and devastate the alcoholic\'s family. But it also has overwhelming consequences for society. Consider these statistics from the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence: *In 1988, alcoholism and problems related to it cost the United States an estimated $85.8 billion in mortality and reduced productivity; *Fetal alcohol syndrome, caused by a woma

VegetarianismVegetarianism 10/9/96 Vegetarianism The time that we are now living in has been termed by many as the information age. This title has been given to the current era because people can retrieve, send, and process knowledge faster and more efficiently than ever before. From our new period has come technological advancements which have both caused and been an effect of the growing pool of information available to the world. Communities more fully understand and are changing the way they affect the e

American Home Products: A Pharmaceutical EmpireAmerican Home Products: A Pharmaceutical Empire History of American Home Products American Home Products Corporation (AHP) was founded in 1926 and has a history of continuous acquisitions of smaller companies that made proprietary medicines. In 1931, AHP purchased John Wyeth Brother, Inc. from Harvard University. Another important acquisition was that of Canada’s Ayerst Laboratories in 1943. Ayerst was a large pharmaceutical company that had introduced Premarin, the world’s first conjugated estr

Robinson CrusoeRobinson Crusoe Robinson was a young man of 18 and had a dream to be a sailor. He asked his father for permission. His father thought that he should stay home and take over the family business or study law. Robinson asked his father again to let him have just one sail. His father disapproved once more. One afternoon a shipped sailed in from the harbor. The captain of the ship was one of Crusoe’s friend’s, father. The captain invited Crusoe on a voyage to the English coast and he couldn’t resist.

Population And FoodPopulation And Food The United Nations projects that the global population, currently at 6 billion, will peak at about 10 billion in the next century and then stabilize or even decline. (popindex.Princeton.edu) A question immediately following the statement, can the Earth feed that many people? It is understood that even if food crops increase sufficiently, other renewable resources, including many fisheries and forests, are already under pressure. Our food production doubled from 1961 to 1994,

Beta CaroteneBeta Carotene Beta-carotene is a member of the carotenoid family and has over 500 relatives. Carotenoids are yellow-to-red pigments found in all green plant tissues and in some species of algae. So far 21 different carotenoids have been found in human blood. The most abundant ones are alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, lutein, lycopene, cryptoxanthin and zeaxanthin. A molecule of alpha-carotene, beta- carotene, or cryptoxanthin can be split into two molecules of vitamin A in the body but the convers

Inflammatory Bowel Disease/ Crohn's DiseaseInflammatory Bowel Disease/ Crohn\'s Disease Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a group of chronic disorders that cause inflammation or ulceration in the small and large intestines. Most often IBD is classified as ulcerative colitis or Crohn\'s disease but may be referred to as colitis, enteritis, ileitis, and proctitis. Ulcerative colitis causes ulceration and inflammation of the inner lining of a couple of really bad places, while Crohn\'s disease is an inflammation that extends into the deep

Food ProcessingFood Processing Throughout the history of mankind science has searched into the realms of the unknown. Along with it bringing new discoveries, allowing for our lives to become healthier, more efficient, safer, and at the same time, possibly more dangerous. Among the forces driving scientists into these many experiments, is the desire to preserve the one fuel that keeps our lives going; FOOD. As early as the beginning of the 19th century, major breakthroughs in food preservation had begun. Soldie

Nutrition in Mountain BikingNutrition in Mountain Biking I. Waterworld 1. Muscles produce 30-100 times more heat while riding 2. Water doesn\'t supply calories, minerals, or vitamins A. But it is used for almost every body function B. 55-65% of body weight is water 3. When losing a quart of fluid heart beats 8 more times a minute 4. Before a long ride start hyperhydrating 1 day in advance 5. Do drinking strategies during your training II. Rehydrate 1. Drink alot after a ride 2. Sports drinks replenish the best 3. Eat alot

Anabolic SteroidsAnabolic Steroids Anabolic steroids are synthetic coumpounds formulated to be like the male sex hormone testosterone. Many athletes use anabolic steroids male and female alike, such as body builders , weightlifters, baseball players, football players, swimmers, and runners. They do so because they mistakenly believe that they will gain strength and size. In a male testosterone is released by the leydig cells in the testes. The testosterone has two main functions androgenic and anabolic. Androgen

Birth DefectsBirth Defects No one is immune to birth defects, yet not everyone is equally susceptible. Birth defects are not merely a medical problem. They have profound effects on the social and psychological well being of their family and friends. In the normal course of fetal development, cells migrate to their appropriate destination so that organs and limbs form where they should. Usually, the genes perform flawlessly, but mistakes can and do occur. Some of the most common birth defects results from the

Genetic Diversity In AgricultureGenetic Diversity In Agriculture Genetic variation is the raw material for the plant breeder, who must often select from primitive and wild plants, including wild species, in search of new genes. The appearance of new diseases, new pests, or new virulent forms of disease causing organisms makes it imperative that the plant be preserved, because it offers a potential for the presence of disease resistant genes not present in cultivated varieties. Also, there are demands for new characters-- for e

Genetic EngineeringGenetic Engineering Bioengineering, or genetic engineering is an altering of genes in a particular species for a particular outcome. It involves taking genes from their normal location in one organism and either transferring them elsewhere or putting them back into the original organism in different combinations. Most biomolecules exist in low concentrations and as complex, mixed populations which it is not possible to work efficiently. This problem was solved in 1970 using a bug, Escherichia co

Iron Absorption from the Whole Diet: Comparison ofIron Absorption from the Whole Diet: Comparison of the Effect of Two Different Distributions of Daily Calcium Intake Todd Bowen Human Biology Today December 5, 1996 Hypothesis - If a woman distributes her daily intake of calcium by having less of it in her lunch and dinner meals and more in her breakfast and evening meals, then this would reduce the inhibitory effects calcium has on heme iron and nonheme iron absorption. Background Information - This experiment is one of many that addresses calc

Twinning in CattleTwinning in Cattle Mac Winslow Dr. Farin ANS 220 3 December 1996 Due to the continual fluctuation of the cattle market cattle producers have been searching for ways to improve their production and increase their profits any way possible. For years genetic engineers have been working hard on improving economic efficiency in cattle. It is their hope that through genetic research they can improve the yield and the income of cattle producers around the world. Research has shown that twinning is one

Human Variations in High Altitude PopulationsHuman Variations in High Altitude Populations Jessyca Caumo 26 november 1996 Thesis:The purpose of this paper is to describe the high altitude stresses and the general adaptations made by the Tibetan population in the Himalayas and the Quechua in the Andes. I Introduction II Background A Quechua People B Tibetan People III General Adaptations A Physical 1 Growth 2 Development 3 Core temperature 4 Extremity temperature B Non- Physical 1 Clothing 2 Houses 3 Schedule V Conclusion “Some ten to twent

Hypotheses of the Effects of Wolf PredationHypotheses of the Effects of Wolf Predation John Feldersnatch December 1st, 1995 Abstract: This paper discusses four hypotheses to explain the effects of wolf predation on prey populations of large ungulates. The four proposed hypotheses examined are the predation limiting hypothesis, the predation regulating hypothesis, the predator pit hypothesis, and the stable limit cycle hypothesis. There is much research literature that discusses how these hypotheses can be used to interpret various data s

BiotechnologyBiotechnology Biotechnology: Its application in agriculture Introduction: Persuade public to become aware of the changes Persuade audience to think about where they stand on this very important issue and take action according to your decision. Labeling and careful regulation of genetically manufactured foods v Persuade the American Public to think about the following changes that are being made in Agriculture as a society wish should discuss the issue. v Control genetic technology, Persuade publ

Birth DefectsBirth Defects Birth defects, or congenital malformations, are the faulty formation of structures or body parts present at birth. Sporadic, hereditary, or acquired defects may be immediately observed or may become manifest later in life; they may be visible on the body surface or present internally. Birth defects may be life threatening and require surgical correction, or they may interfere with function or appearance. It is estimated that about 3% of all children are born with major defects; min

BlindnessBlindness The term blindness implies total or partial loss of vision involving both eyes. The exact level of vision defined as blindness, however, varies in different countries because of differing legal or social requirements. In the United States, blindness is defined as unimprovable vision of 20/200 (6/60) or worse. This means that an individual is generally considered blind who, even with the use of ordinary eyeglasses, can see no better at 20 ft (6 m) than a person with normal vision can se

CancerCancer I chose to do my report on cancer because it is a subject I want to learn about and because it can probably fit 5 pages. My bibliography is on the ending of the report, my teacher helped me with it because I didnt know how to do it. Cancer is the name for tumors that are malignant. Malignant tumors do not respond to body mechanisms that limit growing. Malignant tumors show a not normal cell structure the same functional specialized cells. Also cancer cells growing in laboratory tissue cul

On any given day in the United States... 10,657 baFAS On any given day in the United States... 10,657 babies are born. (US Census Bureau). Twenty of these babies are born with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Twenty may seem as though it is not a lot, but when you compare it to the fact that this number is more than HIV positive, Muscular Dystrophy, Spina Bifida and Down Syndrome combine it creates a whole new parameter. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome is a direct result of a woman’s competed disregard for the fetus. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS, hereinafter), is

Fluids and HydrationFluids and Hydration How important are fluids? Fluid replacement is probably the most important nutritional concern for athletes. Approximately 60% of your body weight is water. As you exercise, fluid is lost through your skin as sweat and through your lungs when you breathe. If this fluid is not replaced at regular intervals during exercise, you can become dehydrated. When you are dehydrated, you have a smaller volume of blood circulating through your body. Consequently, the amount of blood you

Genetic Modified FoodGenetic Modified Food Genetic modification of organisms in general is a biotechnological process that forces genes to behave according to certain characteristics. Changing characteristics of organisms is based on changing their DNA (tech deoxyribonucleic acid; the acid which carries genetic information in a cell). It is being used for modifying genes in plants, animals or micro-organisms. It is being also used especially with food in order to improve the nutritious quality, make less use of chem

Human TrainingHuman Training Human Training: Building a Strong and Healthy Body There are a lot of Americans in this world who are looking for a way to look and feel strong and healthy. The problem is that not everyone knows how to get started and keep up the process of building a strong, healthy body. The use of proper nutrition and supplementation with high intensity training and a good amount of rest will be effective in building a strong and healthy looking body. Anyone can train with weights, but trainin

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASESLab SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES INTRODUCTION According to the Websters’ dictionary, a sexually transmitted disease, or commonly termed STD, can be defined as any of various diseases transmitted by direct sexual contacted that include classic venereal diseases (as syphilis, gonorrhea, and chancroid) and other diseases (as hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, giordiasis, and AIDS) that are often or sometimes contracted by other sexual means (Internet 3). This lab report will be dealing with three specific

Vegetarianism - To Meat Or Not To MeatVegetarianism - To Meat Or Not To Meat As children, one of the first things we learn is to recognize the friendly barnyard animals. We easily can spot the furry cow with the gentle eyes, the feathery chickens who run wildly about, and the pink pigs that roll in the mud. We may also sing about that nice farmer, Old McDonald, and all of his nice animals. The truth is that Old McDonald with a straw hat has been replaced by a business man in the hard hat. Ninety-five percent of the meat we eat does

Wilsons DiseaseWilsons Disease http://www.wilsonsdisease.org/ Wilson\'s Disease is a genetic disorder that is fatal unless detected and treated before serious illness develops from copper poisoning. Wilson\'s Disease affects one in thirty thousand people world wide. The genetic defect causes excessive copper accumulation. Small amounts of copper are essential as vitamins. Copper is present in most foods, and most people get much more than they need. Healthy people excrete copper they don\'t need, but Wilson\'s

Mark Overman On CreatineMark Overman On Creatine Mark Overman on Creatine By. Mark D. Overman Creatine is one of the primary things an athlete will do to put supplements into their body. These supplements range from protein shakes to illegal anabolic steroids. Some sports supplements are incredibly safe and effective, yet others work for a while and then fizzle out, while others still work well but do more damage than good in the long run. In the past athletes had to turn to such things as anabolic steroids or blood do

Eating DisordersEating Disorders An eating disorder is a way of using food to work out emotional problems. These illnesses develop because of emotional and/or psychological problems. Eating disorders are the way some people deal with stress. In today’s society, teenagers are pressured into thinking that bring thin is the same thing as being happy. Chemical balances in the brain that may also result in depression, obsessive compulsive disorders, and bi-polar disorders may also cause some eating disorders. Other

What is borderline personality disorderWhat is borderline personality disorder Borderline personality disorder is defined in the DSM IV, a manual used by psychiatrists to diagnose all mental disorders, as an AXIS II disorder which has symptoms of impulsively and emotional dysregulation (Livesley 146). A person with BPD have feelings of abandonment and emptiness, and have frantic efforts to avoid abandonment, going to extremes to keep someone from leaving (Burger 300). He or she is emotionally unstable and forms intense but unstable i

Investing in the FutureInvesting in the Future Tobin Lichti Psych 101 Jon Drummond TU 11:05 Welfare and school reform are two of the most widely discussed issues in politics today. Many people are calling for reduction or elimination welfare programs as well as programs that provide breakfast and lunch at schools. They argue that people should be able to provide for themselves and their children with minimal government assistance, and spending other people\'s tax dollars to assist the less fortunate only makes the pro

VegetarianismVegetarianism You are what you eat , goes a famous saying. And if that is truly the case, then a lot of Americans would appear to be unhealthy, chemically treated, commercially raised slabs of animal flesh. And while that is not a particularly pleasant thought, it is nonetheless an description of the typical American omnivore who survives on the consumption of Big Macs and steak fajitas. But there are individuals who do not follow this American norm and have altered their diets so that they do n

An overview of breastfeedingAn overview of breastfeeding AN OVERVIEW OF BREASTFEEDING BREASTFEEDING Breastfeeding is widely believed to be the most beneficial method of feeding for the health and well being of most infants. It is the natural next step in the continuum of pregnancy. Though breastfeeding is natural, technique is a learned skill. As with any skill, the keys to successful breastfeeding are knowledge, practice and patience. It is important to get started correctly and know well in advance how to identify and av

AneroxiaAneroxia All over the world there are teen girls suffering from anorexia. Anorexia is a common problem with young teen girls. Anorexia is like a disease that takes time to recover from. It causes many problems for teens physically and emotionally. Teens become anorexic because they want to stay young and thin [ Jones, Derek p.34]. Many anorectics start their starvation with a very rigid diet and then become obsessed with losing weight [ Claypool, Jane p.56]. .Their health becomes so damaged and

Create A SocietyCreate A Society Life On Planet Fuji My name is Christi. I was born February 17, 1999. And I know I have been separated from my immediate family and selected to begin a new society on planet Fuji. I, along with four other children, was chosen to develop our new society into something livable. Our goal is a peaceful cohesive environment. I realize the opportunity I have to continue humanity is greater than mourning any losses; however, I will never forget the life I left behind. I have already sh

Signs of StressSigns of Stress Forty-three percent of all adults suffer adverse health effects from stress; 75 to 90 percent of all physician office visits are for stress-related ailments and complaints; stress is linked to the six leading causes of death--heart disease, cancer, lung ailments, accidents, cirrhosis of the liver, and suicide. (Miller, 1993, p.12) Stress plays havoc with our health, our productivity, our pocketbooks, and our lives, but it is necessary, even desirable. (Oxford, 1998, p.29) In rese

Animal ExperimentationAnimal Experimentation Introduction Animal experimentation has been a part of biomedical and behavioral research for several millennia; experiments with animals were conducted in Greece over 2,000 years ago. Many advances in medicine and in the understanding of how organisms function have been the direct result of animal experimentation. Concern over the welfare of laboratory animals is also not new, as reflected in the activities of various animal welfare and antivivisectionist groups dating ba

FluorideFluoride Fluoride is a mineral that occurs naturally in almost all foods and water supplies. The fluoride ion comes from the element fluorine. Fluorine, the 13th most abundant element in the earth\'s crust, is never encountered in its free state in nature. It exists only in combination with other elements as a fluoride compound. Fluoride is effective in preventing and reversing the early signs of tooth decay. Researchers have shown that there are several ways through which fluoride achieves its

World HungerWorld Hunger *** Warning: the following is a look at World hunger which some people may disagree with, if you would look at non-partisan look at World hunger then keep reading *** Hunger is an issue which many people think lies little importance. Im going to give you a look at World Hunger as a Picture of Poverty, how it affects Third World Nations, and How World Hunger is a disease that is plaguing our society. Food is more than a trade commodity, pleaded Sir John Boydorr in 1946. It is an e