Woman suffrage parade of 1913

The woman suffrage parade of 1913, officially the Woman Suffrage Procession, was the first suffragist parade in Washington, D.C. Organized by the suffragist Alice Paul for the National American Woman Suffrage Association, thousands of suffragists marched down Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C., on Monday, March 3, 1913. The event was scheduled on the day before President Woodrow Wilson's inauguration to "march in a spirit of protest against the present political organization of society, from which women are excluded," as the official program stated.

Contents

American suffragists Alice Paul and Lucy Burns spearheaded a drive to adopt a national strategy for women's suffrage in the National American Woman Suffrage Association. Both women had been influenced by the militant tactics used by the British suffrage movement and recognized that the women from the six states that had full suffrage at the time comprised a powerful voting bloc, they submitted a proposal to Anna Howard Shaw and the NAWSA leadership at their annual convention in 1912. The leadership was not interested in changing the state-by-state strategy and rejected the idea of holding a campaign that would hold the Democratic Party responsible. Paul and Burns appealed to prominent reformer Jane Addams, who interceded on their behalf.[3]

The women persuaded NAWSA to endorse an immense suffrage parade in Washington, D.C., to coincide with newly-elected President Woodrow Wilson's inauguration the following March. Paul and Burns were appointed chair and vice-chair of NAWSA's Congressional Committee,[4] they recruited Crystal Eastman, Mary Ritter Beard, and Dora Lewis to the Committee and organized volunteers, planned for, and raised funds in preparation of the parade with little help from the NAWSA.[5] Affiliates of NAWSA from various states organized groups to march and activities leading up to the march, such as the Suffrage Hikes.[6]

Plans for the march were threatened when black suffragists announced they intended to participate, which lead white southern suffragists to threaten to boycott the event.[7] One solution discussed was segregating the black suffragists in a separate section to mollify white southern delegates.[8]

The parade itself was led by labor lawyer Inez Milholland, dressed dramatically in white and mounted on a white horse,[9] and included nine bands,[10] five mounted brigades, 26 floats, and close to 8,000 marchers,[11] including many notables such as Helen Keller, who was scheduled to speak at Constitution Hall after the march. Individuals came from European nations, Canada, India, Australia, New Zealand and many other countries around the world to support the movement. Most of the women marched in groups determined by their occupation or under their respective banners. Jeannette Rankin, from Montana, marched under her state's sign; she returned to Washington four years later as a U.S. Representative.[12]

Suffrage march line

After a good beginning, the marchers encountered crowds, mostly male, on the street that should have been cleared for the parade, they were jeered and harassed while attempting to squeeze by the scoffing crowds, and the police, said to be of little help, sometimes even participated in the harassment. The Massachusetts and the Pennsylvania national guards stepped in. Eventually, boys from the Maryland Agricultural College created a human barrier protecting the women from the angry crowd and helping them progress forward to their destination,[13] over 200 people were treated for injuries at local hospitals.[14] Still, most of the marchers finished the parade and viewed an allegorical tableau presented near the Treasury Building,[1] the pageant was written by dramatist Hazel MacKaye and directed by Glenna Smith Tinnin.[12]

Considerable debate exists about the segregation of black woman suffragists in the parade. A contemporaneous newspaper account indicated that Alice Paul objected to participation of "Negro" suffragists, but Anna Howard Shaw insisted that they to be allowed to participate;[15] in a 1974 oral history interview, Alice Paul recalled the "hurdle" of Mary Church Terrell planning to bring a delegation from the National Association of Colored Women.[16]

The mistreatment of the marchers by the crowd and the police caused a great furor. Alice Paul shaped the public response after the parade, portraying the incident as symbolic of systemic government mistreatment of women, stemming from their lack of a voice and political influence through the vote, she claimed the incident showed that the government's role in women's lives had broken down, and that it was incapable of even providing women with physical safety.

Journalist Nellie Bly, who had participated in the march, headlined her article "Suffragists are Men's Superiors". Senate hearings, held by a subcommittee of the Committee on the District of Columbia, started on March 6, only three days after the march, and lasted until March 17, with the result that the District's superintendent of police was replaced.[19] NAWSA praised the parade and Paul's work on it, saying "the whole movement in the country has been wonderfully furthered by the series of important events which have taken place in Washington, beginning with the great parade the day before the inauguration of the president".[1]

The Woman Suffrage Procession plays a significant role in the 2004 film Iron Jawed Angels, which chronicles the strategies of Alice Paul, Lucy Burns, and the National Woman's Party as they lobby and demonstrate for the passage of the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which would assure voting rights for all American women.[20]

1.
Woman's Journal
–
Womans Journal was an American womens rights periodical published from 1870-1931. It was founded in 1870 in Boston, Massachusetts, by Lucy Stone, in 1917 it was purchased by Carrie Chapman Catts Leslie Woman Suffrage Commission and merged with The Woman Voter and National Suffrage News to become known as The Woman Citizen. Publication of Woman Citizen slowed from weekly, to bi-weekly, to monthly, in 1927, it was renamed The Womans Journal. It ceased publication in June 1931, Womans Journal was founded in 1870 in Boston, Massachusetts, by Lucy Stone and her husband Henry Browne Blackwell as a weekly newspaper. The new paper incorporated Mary A. Livermores The Agitator, as well as a lesser known periodical called the Womans Advocate, the first issue was published on January 8, on the two-year anniversary of the first issue of Susan B. Stone and Blackwell served as editors, with assistance from Livermore, julia Ward Howe edited from 1872-1879. The daughter of Stone and Blackwell, Alice Stone Blackwell, began editing in 1883, contributors included Antoinette Brown Blackwell, Mary Johnston, Stephen S. Wise, Zona Gale, Florence Kelley, Witter Bynner, Ben B. Lindsey, Louisa May Alcott and Caroline Bartlett Crane, william Lloyd Garrison was a frequent contributor. Around 1887, headquarters were located in Boston on Park Street, Womans Journal refused to carry advertisements for tobacco, liquor, or drugs. In 1910, Womans Journal absorbed Progress, the organ of the National American Woman Suffrage Association. Until 1912, it served in capacity, at which point it was renamed Womans Journal. By 1915, circulation had reached 27,634, up from 2,328 in 1909, the editor-in-chief of The Woman Citizen was Rose Young, Alice Stone Blackwell was a contributing editor. Every U. S. Congress member was given a subscription to the journal. It covered issues such as labor in addition to womens suffrage. After women won the right to vote, the focus shifted to political education for women. To that end, the journal courted middle-class female readers and it editorialized in support of the Maternity and Infancy Act of 1921, which was the first major legislation to be passed after the full enfranchisement of women. Publication of Woman Citizen slowed from weekly, to bi-weekly, to monthly, in 1927, it was renamed The Womans Journal. It ceased publication in June 1931

2.
Alice Paul
–
Alice Paul was an American suffragist, feminist, and womens rights activist, and one of the main leaders and strategists of the 1910s campaign for the Nineteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution which prohibits sex discrimination in the right to vote, after 1920, Paul spent a half century as leader of the National Womans Party, which fought for her Equal Rights Amendment to secure constitutional equality for women. She won a degree of success with the inclusion of women as a group protected against discrimination by the Civil Rights Act of 1964. She insisted that her National Womans Party focus on the status of all women. Alice Paul was born on January 11,1885, at Paulsdale in Mount Laurel Township and she was the eldest of four children of William Mickle Paul I and Tacie Paul, and a descendant of William Penn, the Quaker founder of Pennsylvania. Her siblings were Willam, Helen, and Parry, the Quakers believed that all people, including women, were equal in the sight of God. Alice first learned about womens suffrage from her mother, a member of the National American Woman Suffrage Association, Paul attended Moorestown Friends School, where she graduated at the top of her class. In 1901, Paul went to Swarthmore College, an institution co-founded by her grandfather, while attending Swarthmore, Paul served as a member on the Executive Board of Student Government, one experience which may have sparked her eventual excitement for political activism. Alice graduated from Swarthmore College with a degree in Biology in 1905. You couldnt change the situation by social work, Paul then earned her M. A. from the University of Pennsylvania in 1907, after completing coursework in political science, sociology and economics. She continued her studies at the Woodbrooke Quaker Study Centre in Birmingham, England and she first heard Christabel Pankhurst speak at Birmingham. When she later moved to London to work, she joined the militant suffrage group the Womens Social and Political Union led by Christabel and her mother and she was arrested repeatedly during suffrage demonstrations and served three jail terms. After returning from England in 1910, Paul continued her studies at the University of Pennsylvania, Paul later received her law degree from the Washington College of Law at American University in 1922, after the suffrage fight was over. In 1927, she earned an LL. M, and in 1928, Alice Paul had an active social life until she moved to Washington in late 1912. She enjoyed close relationships with women and befriended, sometimes dated, Paul did not preserve private correspondence for the most part, so few details are available. Once Paul devoted herself to winning the vote for women, she placed the suffrage effort first in her life, nevertheless, Elsie Hill and Dora Kelly Lewis, two women she met early in her work for NAWSA, remained close to her all their lives. She knew William Parker, a scholar she met at the University of Pennsylvania, for several years, the more thorough discussion of Pauls familial relations and friendships is found in J. D. Zahnisers biography. After a conversion experience seeing Christabel Pankhurst speak at the University of Birmingham and she first became involved by selling a Suffragette magazine on street corners

3.
National American Woman Suffrage Association
–
The National American Woman Suffrage Association was formed on February 18,1890 to work for womens suffrage in the United States. It was created by the merger of two existing organizations, the National Woman Suffrage Association and the American Woman Suffrage Association. Its membership, which was about seven thousand at the time it was formed and it played a pivotal role in the passing of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which in 1920 guaranteed womens right to vote. Anthony, a leader in the suffrage movement, was the dominant figure in the newly formed NAWSA. Anna Howard Shaws term in office, which began in 1904, saw growth in the organizations membership. After the Senate decisively rejected the proposed suffrage amendment to the U. S. Constitution in 1887, the movement had concentrated most of its efforts on state suffrage campaigns. In 1910 Alice Paul joined the NAWSA and played a role in reviving interest in the national amendment. After continuing conflicts with the NAWSA leadership over tactics, Paul created a rival organization, when Catt again became president in 1915, the NAWSA adopted her plan to centralize the organization and work toward the suffrage amendment as its primary goal. This was done despite opposition from members who believed that a federal amendment would erode states rights. It won additional sympathy for the cause by actively cooperating with the war effort during World War I. On February 14,1920, several months prior to the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, the NAWSA transformed itself into the League of Women Voters, the demand for womens suffrage in the United States was controversial even among womens rights activists in the early days of the movement. In 1848, a resolution in favor of right to vote was approved only after vigorous debate at the Seneca Falls Convention. By the time of the National Womens Rights Conventions in the 1850s, the situation had changed, three leaders of the womens movement during this period, Lucy Stone, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, played prominent roles in the creation of the NAWSA many years later, the AERA essentially collapsed in 1869, partly because of disagreement over the proposed Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which would enfranchise African American men. Leaders of the movement were dismayed that it would not also enfranchise women. Stanton and Anthony opposed its ratification unless it was accompanied by another amendment that would enfranchise women and she believed that its ratification would spur politicians to support a similar amendment for women. She said that though the right to vote was more important for women than for black men

4.
Pennsylvania Avenue
–
Pennsylvania Avenue is a street in Washington, D. C. that connects the White House and the United States Capitol. Called Americas Main Street, it is the location of official parades and processions, moreover, Pennsylvania Avenue is an important commuter route and is part of the National Highway System. The avenue runs for a total of 5.8 miles inside Washington and it continues within the city for 3.5 miles, from the southeast corner of the Capitol grounds through the Capitol Hill neighborhood, and over the Anacostia River on the John Philip Sousa Bridge. At this point, as a highway, it becomes Southern Maryland Boulevard. At one point in the century, Pennsylvania Avenue was designated DC4. Northwest of the White House, Pennsylvania Avenue runs for 1.4 miles to its end at M Street NW in Georgetown, from 1862 to 1962, streetcars ran the length of the avenue from Georgetown to the Anacostia River. Although Pennsylvania Avenue extends six miles within Washington, D. C. the expanse between the White House and the Capitol constitutes the heart of the nation. Washington called this stretch most magnificent & most convenient, and it has served the country well, laid out by Pierre Charles LEnfant, Pennsylvania Avenue was one of the earliest streets constructed in the Federal City. The first reference to the street as Pennsylvania Avenue comes in a 1791 letter from Thomas Jefferson, one theory is that the street was named for Pennsylvania as consolation for moving the capital from Philadelphia. Both Jefferson and George Washington considered the avenue an important feature of the new capital, after inspecting LEnfants plan, President Washington referred to the thoroughfare as a Grand Avenue. Jefferson concurred, and while the avenue was little more than a wide dirt road ridiculed as The Great Serbonian Bog. At one time Pennsylvania Avenue provided an unobstructed view between the White House and the Capitol, the construction of an expansion to the Treasury Building blocked this view, and supposedly President Andrew Jackson did this on purpose. In November 2012, as part of preparations for the inauguration of Barack Obama. On September 30,1965, portions of the avenue and surrounding area were designated the Pennsylvania Avenue National Historic Site, the National Park Service administers this area which includes the United States Navy Memorial, Old Post Office Tower, and Pershing Park. Congress created the Pennsylvania Avenue Development Corporation on October 27,1972 to rehabilitate the street between the Capitol and the White House, an area seen as blighted. In 2010, the District of Columbia designated Pennsylvania Avenue from the terminus of John Philip Sousa Bridge to the Maryland state line to be a D. C. The city spent $430 million to beautify the street and improve the roadway, ever since an impromptu procession formed around Jeffersons second inauguration, every United States president except Ronald Reagan has paraded down the Avenue after taking the oath of office. From William Henry Harrison to Gerald Ford, the funeral corteges of seven of the eight presidents who died in office, franklin Roosevelt was the only president who died in office whose cortege did not follow this route

5.
Woodrow Wilson
–
Thomas Woodrow Wilson was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921. Born in Staunton, Virginia, he spent his years in Augusta, Georgia and Columbia. In 1910, he was the New Jersey Democratic Partys gubernatorial candidate and was elected the 34th Governor of New Jersey, while in office, Wilson reintroduced the spoken State of the Union, which had been out of use since 1801. Leading the Congress that was now in Democratic hands, he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933. The Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, through passage of the Adamson Act that imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads, he averted a railroad strike and an ensuing economic crisis. Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality, Wilson faced former New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes in the presidential election of 1916. By a narrow margin, he became the first Democrat since Andrew Jackson elected to two consecutive terms, Wilsons second term was dominated by American entry into World War I. In April 1917, when Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and sent the Zimmermann Telegram, the United States conducted military operations alongside the Allies, although without a formal alliance. During the war, Wilson focused on diplomacy and financial considerations, leaving military strategy to the generals, loaning billions of dollars to Britain, France, and other Allies, the United States aided their finance of the war effort. On the home front, he raised taxes, borrowing billions of dollars through the publics purchase of Liberty Bonds. In his 1915 State of the Union Address, Wilson asked Congress for what became the Espionage Act of 1917, the crackdown was intensified by his Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to include expulsion of non-citizen radicals during the First Red Scare of 1919–1920. Wilson staffed his government with Southern Democrats who implemented racial segregation at the Treasury, Navy and he gave department heads greater autonomy in their management. Following his return from Europe, Wilson embarked on a tour in 1919 to campaign for the treaty. The treaty was met with concern by Senate Republicans, and Wilson rejected a compromise effort led by Henry Cabot Lodge. Due to his stroke, Wilson secluded himself in the White House, disability having diminished his power, forming a strategy for re-election, Wilson deadlocked the 1920 Democratic National Convention, but his bid for a third-term nomination was overlooked. Wilson was a devoted Presbyterian and Georgist, and he infused his views of morality into his domestic and he appointed several well known radically progressive single taxers to prominent positions in his administration. His ideology of internationalism is now referred to as Wilsonian, an activist foreign policy calling on the nation to promote global democracy and he was the third of four children of Joseph Ruggles Wilson and Jessie Janet Woodrow. Wilsons paternal grandparents immigrated to the United States from Strabane, County Tyrone, Ireland and his mother was born in Carlisle, England, the daughter of Rev. Dr. Thomas Woodrow from Paisley, Scotland, and Marion Williamson from Glasgow

6.
Women's suffrage
–
Womens suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Limited voting rights were gained by women in Finland, Iceland, Sweden and some Australian colonies, National and international organizations formed to coordinate efforts to gain voting rights, especially the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, and also worked for equal civil rights for women. In 1881, the Isle of Man gave women who owned property the right to vote, in 1893, the British colony of New Zealand, granted women the right to vote. The colony of South Australia, did the same in 1894 and women were able to vote in the next election, South Australia also permitted women to stand for election alongside men. In 1899 Western Australia enacted full womens suffrage, enabling women to vote in the referendum of 31 July 1900. In 1902 women in the four colonies also acquired the right to vote. Discriminatory restrictions against Aboriginal people, including women, voting in elections, were not completely removed until 1962. Norway followed, granting full womens suffrage in 1913, most independent countries enacted womens suffrage in the interwar era, including Canada in 1917, Britain in 1918 and the United States in 1920. If women could work in factories, it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the polling booth. But the vote was more than simply a reward for war work. Late adopters in Europe included Spain in 1931, France in 1944, Italy in 1946, Greece in 1952, Switzerland in 1971, the United States gave women equal voting rights in all states with the Nineteenth Amendment ratified in 1920. Canada and a few Latin American nations passed womens suffrage before World War II while the vast majority of Latin American nations established womens suffrage in the 1940s, the last Latin American country to give women the right to vote was Paraguay in 1961. In December 2015, women were first allowed to vote in Saudi Arabia, extended political campaigns by women and their supporters have generally been necessary to gain legislation or constitutional amendments for womens suffrage. In many countries, limited suffrage for women was granted before universal suffrage for men, for instance, in ancient Athens, often cited as the birthplace of democracy, only adult, male citizens who owned land were permitted to vote. Through subsequent centuries, Europe was generally ruled by monarchs, though forms of parliament arose at different times. Their Protestant successors enjoyed the same privilege almost into modern times and they make decisions there like the men, and it is they who even delegated the first ambassadors to discuss peace. The Iroquois, like many First Nations peoples in North America, had a kinship system. Property and descent were passed through the female line, Women elders voted on hereditary male chiefs and could depose them

7.
United States ten-dollar bill
–
The United States ten-dollar bill is a current denomination of U. S. currency. The obverse of the features the portrait of Alexander Hamilton. The reverse features the U. S. Treasury Building, all $10 bills issued today are Federal Reserve Notes. As of December 2013, the life of a $10 bill is 4.5 years, or about 54 months. Ten-dollar bills are delivered by Federal Reserve Banks in yellow straps, the source of the portrait on the $10 bill is John Trumbull’s 1805 painting of Hamilton that belongs to the portrait collection of New York City Hall. The $10 bill is unique in that it is the denomination in circulation in which the portrait faces to the left. It also features one of two non-presidents on currently issued U. S. bills, the other being Benjamin Franklin on the $100 bill. Hamilton is one of four people featured on U. S. paper currency who were not born in the continental United States or British America. The others were Albert Gallatin, Switzerland, George Meade, Spain, in 2015, the Treasury Secretary announced that the obverse portrait of Hamilton would be replaced by the portrait of an as yet undecided woman, starting in 2020. However, due to the popularity of Hamilton, a hit Broadway musical based on Hamiltons life, in 2016 this decision was reversed. 1861, The first $10 bill was issued as a Demand Note with a portrait of Abraham Lincoln on the left side of the obverse. 1862, The first $10 United States Note was issued with a design similar to the 1861 Demand Note. The Roman numeral X may represent the origin of the slang term sawbuck to mean a $10 bill. 1863, Interest Bearing Notes, featuring a portrait of Salmon P. Chase, the notes could also be spent for exactly $10. 1864, Compound Interest Treasury Notes, with a design similar to the 1863 Interest Bearing Note, were issued that grew in face value 6% compounded semi-annually. It is unknown if the note could actually be spent for $10 plus interest and this note is nicknamed a jackass note because the eagle on the front looks like a donkey when the note is turned upside down. The back of the featured a vignette of U. S. gold coins. 1875, The 1869 United States Note was revised, the blue and green tinting that was present on the obverse was removed and the design on the reverse was completely changed

8.
Lucy Burns
–
Lucy Burns was an American suffragist and womens rights advocate. She was a passionate activist in the United States and in the United Kingdom, Burns was a close friend of Alice Paul, and together they ultimately formed the National Womans Party. Burns was born in New York to an Irish Catholic family and she was extremely beautiful, and lewd men always treated her disrespectfully. She was a student and first attended Packer Collegiate Institute, or what was originally known as the Brooklyn Female Academy. Burns also met one of her role models, Laura Wylie. Wylie was one of the first women to go to Yale University Graduate School, Burns also attended Columbia University, Vassar College, and Yale University before becoming an English teacher. Burns taught at Erasmus High School in Brooklyn for two years, while Burns enjoyed the educational field, she generally found the experience to be frustrating and wanted to continue her own studies. In 1906, at age twenty-seven, she moved to Germany to resume her studies in language, in Germany, Burns studied at the Universities of Bonn and Berlin from 1906 to 1909. Burns later moved to the United Kingdom, where she enrolled at Oxford University to study English, Burns was fortunate enough to have a very extensive educational background because her father, Edwards Burns, supported her and financed her international education. Burnss first major experiences with activism were with the Pankhursts in the United Kingdom from 1909 to 1912, while attending graduate school in Germany, Lucy Burns traveled briefly to England where she met Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters Christabel and Sylvia. Burns was employed by the Womens Social and Political Union as an organizer from 1910 to 1912. While working with the Pankhursts in the United Kingdom, Lucy Burns became increasingly passionate about activism, one of her first major contributions was organizing a parade in Edinburgh as part of the campaign in Scotland in 1909. While Burns is not a widely known speaker from the womans movement, she did make a variety of speeches in marketplaces. Her activism resulted in court appearances and reports of disorderly conduct in the newspapers. While working with the WSPU, Lucy Burns met Alice Paul at a London police station, both women had been arrested for demonstrating, and Alice Paul introduced herself when she noticed that Lucy Burns was wearing an American flag pin on her lapel. The women discussed their experiences in the United Kingdom and the American womens movement. Burns and Paul bonded over their frustration with the inactivity and ineffective leadership of the American suffrage movement by Anna Howard Shaw and their similar passions and fearlessness in the face of opposition made them quickly become good friends. Both women were passionate about activism, and the feminist struggle for equality in the UK inspired Burns, Suffrage historian Eleanor Clift compares the partnership of Paul and Burns to that of Susan B

9.
Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom
–
Womens suffrage in the United Kingdom was a movement to give women the right to vote. It finally succeeded through two laws in 1918 and 1928 and it became a national movement in the Victorian era. Women were not explicitly banned from voting in Great Britain until the 1832 Reform Act, as well as in England, womens suffrage movements in Wales and other parts of the United Kingdom gained momentum. The movements shifted sentiments in favour of woman suffrage by 1906 and it was at this point that the militant campaign began with the formation of the Womens Social and Political Union. Violence by the militant suffragettes discredited the cause in the view of many, the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 led to a suspension of all politics, including the militant suffragette campaigns. In 1918, a government passed the Representation of the People Act 1918, enfranchising all men. In 1928, the Conservative government passed the Representation of the People Act giving the vote to all women over the age of 21 on equal terms with men. Until the 1832 Great Reform Act specified male persons, a few women had been able to vote in elections through property ownership. In local government elections, single women ratepayers received the right to vote in the Municipal Franchise Act 1869 and this right was confirmed in the Local Government Act 1894 and extended to include some married women. By 1900, more than 1 million single women were registered to vote in local government elections in England, both before and after the 1832 Reform Act there were some who advocated that women should have the right to vote in parliamentary elections. After the enactment of the Reform Act enactment the MP Henry Hunt argued that any woman who was single, one such wealthy woman, Mary Smith, was used in this speech as an example. The Chartist Movement, which began in the late 1830s, has also suggested to have included supporters of female suffrage. Although there were female Chartists, they largely worked toward universal male suffrage, at this time most women did not have aspirations to gain the vote. There is a book from 1843 which clearly shows thirty womens names among those who voted. These women were playing a role in the election. On the roll, the wealthiest female elector was Grace Brown, due to the high rates that she paid, Grace Brown was entitled to four votes. Lilly Maxwell made a vote in Britain in 1867 after the Great Reform Act of 1832. Maxwell, an owner, met the property qualifications that otherwise would have made her eligible to vote had she been male

10.
Anna Howard Shaw
–
Anna Howard Shaw was a leader of the womens suffrage movement in the United States. She was also a physician and one of the first ordained female Methodist ministers in the United States, Shaw was born in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, United Kingdom in 1847. When she was four, she and her family emigrated to the United States and settled in Lawrence, Massachusetts. When Shaw was twelve years old, her father took up claim of three hundred and sixty acres of land in the wilderness of northern Michigan and sent mother and five young children to live there alone. ”Here the family faced the dangers of living on the frontier. Shaw became very active during this period, helping her siblings refurbish their home and supporting her mother in her time of shock and despair. While her invalid mother was overburdened with household chores, her father in Lawrence could freely dedicate much time to the Abolition cause, the familys misfortunes grew worse over the years. During the Civil War, her sister Eleanor died giving birth, when Shaw was fifteen, she became a school teacher and, after her older brothers and father joined the war effort, she used her earnings to help support her family. Yet with every month of effort, the gulf between income and expenses grew wider. ”As Shaw matured, her drive to attend college became firmer, after the Civil War, she abandoned her teaching job and moved in with her married sister Mary in Big Rapids, Michigan. While she would have preferred the more work of digging ditches, she was forced to pick up the dreaded needle. Her preaching career began when she was inspired by Reverend Marianna Thompson who was the first person who supported her pursuit of an education, thanks to Thompsons help, Shaw entered Big Rapids High School where the preceptress, Lucy Foot, recognized Shaws talents and drive. At the age of twenty-four, Shaw was invited by Dr. Peck, a man looking to ordain a woman in the Methodist ministry, to give her first sermon. Shaw hesitated at first because her previous experience had been “as a little girl preaching alone in the forest. to a congregation of listening trees. ”With encouragement from Lucy Foot, Dr. Peck. Despite such continual opposition and isolation from so many, Anna chose to keep on preaching and she was “deeply moved” by Mary A. Livermore, a prominent lecturer who came to Big Rapids. Ms. Livermore gave her the advice, “if you want to preach, go on and preach…No matter what people say, don’t let them stop you. ”In 1873, Shaw entered Albion College. Since her family frowned upon her career path, they refused to provide any financial support. At that point, Shaw had been a preacher for three years and earned her wages by giving lectures on temperance. After Albion College, Shaw attended Boston University School of Theology in 1876 and she was the only woman in her class of forty-two men, and she always felt the abysmal conviction that was not really wanted there. This attitude was furthered by her difficulty supporting herself financially, additionally, she had trouble finding employment

11.
Jane Addams
–
She co-founded, with Ellen Gates Starr, the first settlement house in the United States, Chicagos Hull House that would later become known as one of the most famous settlement houses in America. In an era when presidents such as Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson identified themselves as reformers and social activists and she helped America address and focus on issues that were of concern to mothers, such as the needs of children, local public health, and world peace. Thus, these were matters of which women would have more knowledge than men and she said that if women were to be responsible for cleaning up their communities and making them better places to live, they needed to be able to vote to do so effectively. Addams became a model for middle-class women who volunteered to uplift their communities. She is increasingly being recognized as a member of the American pragmatist school of philosophy, in 1889 she co-founded Hull House, and in 1920 she was a co-founder for the ACLU. In 1931 she became the first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, three of her siblings died in infancy, and another died at age 16, leaving only four by the time Addams was age eight. Her mother, Sarah Addams, died when Jane was two years old, Addams spent her childhood playing outdoors, reading indoors, and attending Sunday school. When she was four she contracted tuberculosis of the spine, known as Pottss disease and this made it complicated as a child to function with the other children, considering she had a limp and could not run as well. As a child, she thought she was ugly and later remembered wanting not to embarrass her father, Addams adored her father when she was a child, as she made clear in the stories of her memoir, Twenty Years at Hull House. John Huy Addams was a businessman with large timber, cattle, and agricultural holdings, flour and timber mills. He was the president of The Second National Bank of Freeport and he remarried in 1868, when Jane was eight years old. His second wife was Anna Hostetter Haldeman, the widow of a miller in Freeport, John Addams was a founding member of the Illinois Republican Party, served as an Illinois State Senator, and supported his friend Abraham Lincoln in his candidacies, for senator and the presidency. John Addams kept a letter from Lincoln in his desk, in her teens, Addams had big dreams—to do something useful in the world. Long interested in the poor from her reading of Dickens and inspired by her mothers kindness to the Cedarville poor, she decided to become a doctor so that she could live and it was a vague idea, nurtured by literary fiction. Addamss father encouraged her to higher education but close to home. She was eager to attend the new college for women, Smith College in Massachusetts, after graduating from Rockford in 1881, with a collegiate certificate and membership in Phi Beta Kappa, she still hoped to attend Smith to earn a proper B. A. That summer, her father died unexpectedly from a case of appendicitis. That fall, Addams, her sister Alice, Alices husband Harry, Harry was already trained in medicine and did further studies at the University of Pennsylvania

12.
Crystal Eastman
–
Crystal Catherine Eastman was an American lawyer, antimilitarist, feminist, socialist, and journalist. In 2000 she was inducted into the National Womens Hall of Fame in Seneca Falls, Crystal Eastman was born in Marlborough, Massachusetts, on June 25,1881, the third of four children. In 1883 their parents, Samuel Elijah Eastman and Annis Bertha Ford, moved the family to Canandaigua, New York, the following year their older brother died at age seven. In 1889, their mother one of the first women ordained as a Protestant minister in America when she became a minister of the Congregational Church. Her father was also a Congregational minister, and the two served as pastors at the church of Thomas K. Beecher near Elmira and this part of New York was in the so-called Burnt Over District. During the antebellum period, some were inspired by religious ideals to support such progressive social causes as abolitionism, Crystal and her brother Max Eastman were influenced by this progressive tradition. Their parents were friendly with the writer Mark Twain, from this association young Crystal also became acquainted with him. She was the sister of the socialist activist Max Eastman, with whom she was close throughout her life. The two lived together for years on 11th Street in Greenwich Village among other radical activists. The group, including Ida Rauh, Inez Milholland, Floyd Dell, Eastman graduated from Vassar College in 1903 and received an M. A. in sociology from Columbia University in 1904. Gaining her law degree from New York University Law School, she graduated second in the class of 1907, social work pioneer and journal editor Paul Kellogg offered Eastman her first job, investigating labor conditions for The Pittsburgh Survey sponsored by the Russell Sage Foundation. Her report, Work Accidents and the Law, became a classic and resulted in the first workers compensation law and she continued to campaign for occupational safety and health while working as an investigating attorney for the U. S. Commission on Industrial Relations during Woodrow Wilsons presidency and she was at one time called the most dangerous woman in America, due to her free-love idealism and outspoken nature. During a brief marriage to Wallace J. Benedict which ended in divorce, Eastman moved to Milwaukee, when she returned east in 1913, she joined Alice Paul, Lucy Burns, and others in founding the militant Congressional Union, which became the National Womans Party. After the passage of the 19th Amendment gave women the vote in 1920, Eastman, Paul, one of the few socialists to endorse the ERA, she warned that protective legislation for women would mean only discrimination against women. Eastman claimed that one could assess the importance of the ERA by the intensity of the opposition to it, during World War I, Eastman was one of the founders of the Womans Peace Party, soon joined by Jane Addams, Lillian D. Wald, and others. She served as president of the New York branch, renamed the Womens International League for Peace and Freedom in 1921, it remains the oldest extant womens peace organization. The NCLB grew into the American Civil Liberties Union, with Baldwin at the head, Eastman is credited as a founding member of the ACLU, but her role as founder of the NCLB may have been largely ignored by posterity due to her personal differences with Baldwin

13.
Mary Ritter Beard
–
She wrote several books on womens role in history including On Understanding Women, America Through Womens Eyes and Woman As Force In History, A Study in Traditions and Realities. In addition, she collaborated with her husband, eminent historian Charles Austin Beard on several distinguished works, most notably The Rise of American Civilization. Mary Ritter Beard was born on August 5,1876 in Indianapolis, Indiana, the fourth of seven children, born to Quaker parents, Eli grew up on a farm close to Indianapolis, Indiana. He went back to Greencastle to marry Narcissa in 1863 before returning to the army where he served for the remainder of the war, back at Asbury following his service he completed his bachelors degree and entered into law practice in Indianapolis. His eyes weak from exposure during the war, Eli relied on Narcissa to read to him to him complete his studies at Asbury. Beard attended public schools in Indianapolis and graduated as valedictorian of her Indianapolis High School class before enrolling at DePauw University, as would all the Ritter children and she was a member of Kappa Alpha Theta and president of her class. He taught German as more than a language, incorporating culture, literature and it was at DePauw where she met and started a relationship with her future husband, Charles Austin Beard. He returned in late 1899 for Mary, they were wed in March 1900 and she accompanied him to England a month later and they settled first in Oxford and later in Manchester where their first child, Miriam, was born in 1901. Deciding they wanted to raise Miriam in the United States, they moved to New York City in 1902 where they enrolled as graduate students at Columbia University. While Mary eventually discontinued her studies in Sociology, Charles finished his PhD, became a lecturer and their son William was born in 1907. Beard became involved in the movement through her activism in labor organizations such as the Womens Trade Union League where she hoped to improve the conditions under which women labored. She came to believe that suffrage would hasten governmental regulation of economic conditions which would improve the lives of the working class. In addition to WTUL, Beard worked for the Equality League of Self-Supporting Women, as an important contributor to the CU, Beard helped plan strategy, organized and participated in demonstrations, lectured, wrote articles, and testified before Congress on multiple occasions. Mary and Charles Beard published a number of books together, for which their contemporaries often overlooked Mary’s contributions, the first book appeared in 1914 and was a high school textbook called American Citizenship. In 1915 Mary published the first of six books that she would publish alone, Woman’s Work in Municipalities. ”To spread the research on women’s history Beard was doing, she used multiple venues including pamphlets, radio shows, articles, speeches, and books. Her 1946 work Woman as Force in History was Beard’s most influential publication, with the successful passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U. S. She emphasized that women were different from men but that did not make their contributions of any less value and she attempted to educate women about their history through her writing and when she felt she wasn’t reaching her audience she changed tactics. With the help of peace activist and feminist Rosika Schwimmer

14.
Suffrage Hikes
–
The Suffrage Hikes of 1912 to 1914 brought attention to the issue of womens suffrage. Rosalie Gardiner Jones organized the first one left from Manhattan to Albany. The second hike was from New York City to Washington, D. C. and covered 230 miles in 17 days. The major participants of the hikes, and the ones who covered the distance, were reporter Emma Bugbee, Ida Craft, Elisabeth Freeman, and Rosalie Gardiner Jones. It began on Monday morning at 9,40 am, December 16,1912, and left from the 242nd street subway station in Manhattan, about 200, including the newspaper correspondents, started to walk north. The march continued for thirteen days, through sun and rain and snow covering a distance of 170 miles, the first 5 pilgrims walked into Albany at 4,00 pm, December 28,1912

15.
Inez Milholland
–
Inez Milholland Boissevain was a suffragist, labor lawyer, World War I correspondent, and public speaker who greatly influenced the womens movement in America. She was active in the National Womans Party and a key participant in the 1913 Woman Suffrage Procession, born and raised in Brooklyn, New York, Inez Milholland grew up in a wealthy family. She was the eldest daughter of John Elmer and Jean Milholland and had one sister, Vida and her father was a New York Tribune reporter and editorial writer who eventually headed a pneumatic tubes business that afforded his family a privileged life in both New York and London. Milholland spent summers on her familys land in Lewis, New York and her father supported many reforms, among them world peace, civil rights, and women suffrage. Her mother exposed her children to cultural and intellectual stimulation, Inez Milholland received her early education at the Comstock School in New York and Kensington High School in London. After finishing school, she decided to attend Vassar but when the college wouldnt accept her graduation certificate she attended Willard School for Girls in Berlin, during her attendance at Vassar College she was once suspended for organizing a womens rights meeting. The president of Vassar had forbidden suffrage meetings, but Milholland and others held regular classes on the issue, along with large protests, as a student she was known as an active radical. She started the movement at Vassar, enrolled two-thirds of the students. With the radical group she had gathered about her, she attended socialist meetings in Poughkeepsie which were under the ban of the faculty. An athletic young woman, she was the captain of the hockey team, Milholland was also involved in student productions, the Current Topics Club, the German Club, and the debating team. After graduating from Vassar in 1909, she tried for admission at Yale University, Harvard University, and Cambridge University with the purpose of studying law, but was denied due to gender. Milholland was finally matriculated at the New York University School of Law and she was not only interested in prison reform, but also sought world peace and worked for equality for African Americans. Milholland was a member of the NAACP, the Womens Trade Union League, the Equality League of Self Supporting Women in New York, the National Child Labor Committee, and Englands Fabian Society. She was also involved in the National American Woman Suffrage Association and she became a leader and a popular speaker on the campaign circuit of the NWP, working closely with Alice Paul and Lucy Burns. Milholland was later admitted to the bar and joined the New York law firm of Osborne, Lamb, in one of her first assignments, she had to investigate conditions at Sing Sing prison. At the time female contact with male prisoners was frowned upon, additionally, she wanted to see what it felt like to be an inmate, so she had herself handcuffed to one. Milholland stepped into her first suffrage parade on May 7,1911 and she held a sign that read, Forward, out of error, /Leave behind the night, /Forward through the darkness, /Forward into light. Milholland quickly became the face of the suffrage movement

16.
Helen Keller
–
Helen Adams Keller was an American author, political activist, and lecturer. She was the first deaf-blind person to earn a bachelor of arts degree and her birthplace in West Tuscumbia, Alabama, is now a museum and sponsors an annual Helen Keller Day. A prolific author, Keller was well-traveled and outspoken in her convictions, a member of the Socialist Party of America and the Industrial Workers of the World, she campaigned for womens suffrage, labor rights, socialism, antimilitarism, and other similar causes. She was inducted into the Alabama Womens Hall of Fame in 1971 and was one of twelve inaugural inductees to the Alabama Writers Hall of Fame on June 8,2015. Helen proved to the world that people could all learn to communicate. She also taught that people are capable of doing things that hearing people can do. She is one of the most famous people in history. Helen Adams Keller was born on June 27,1880, in Tuscumbia and her family lived on a homestead, Ivy Green, that Helens grandfather had built decades earlier. She had two siblings, Mildred Campbell and Phillip Brooks Keller, and two older half-brothers from her fathers prior marriage, James and William Simpson Keller. Her father, Arthur H. Keller, spent many years as an editor for the Tuscumbia North Alabamian and her paternal grandmother was the second cousin of Robert E. Lee. Her mother, Kate Adams, was the daughter of Charles W. Adams, though originally from Massachusetts, Charles Adams also fought for the Confederate Army during the American Civil War, earning the rank of colonel. Her paternal lineage was traced to Casper Keller, a native of Switzerland, one of Helens Swiss ancestors was the first teacher for the deaf in Zurich. Keller reflected on this coincidence in her first autobiography, stating there is no king who has not had a slave among his ancestors. Helen Keller was born with the ability to see and hear, at 19 months old, she contracted an illness described by doctors as an acute congestion of the stomach and the brain, which might have been scarlet fever or meningitis. The illness left her deaf and blind. Even though blind and deaf, Helen Keller had passed through many obstacles and she learned how to tell which person was walking by from the vibrations their footsteps would make. The sex and age of the person could be identified by how strong, julian Chisolm, an eye, ear, nose, and throat specialist in Baltimore, for advice. Chisholm referred the Kellers to Alexander Graham Bell, who was working with children at the time

17.
Constitution Hall
–
DAR Constitution Hall is a concert hall located in Washington, D. C. It was built in 1929 by the Daughters of the American Revolution to house its annual convention when membership delegations outgrew Memorial Continental Hall, later, the two buildings were connected by a third structure housing the DAR Museum, administrative offices, and genealogical library. DAR Constitution Hall is still owned and operated by the National Society of Daughters of the American Revolution and it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1985. The hall seats 3,702, with 2,208 in the tiers and 1,234 on the orchestra level, additionally,52 boxes separate the orchestra from the tiers, including one Presidential box. The Hall is a Neoclassical style structure, faced with Alabama limestone and this auditorium is unusual with its U-shaped balcony, necessary to provide the enormous amount of seating required by the program while retaining practical sight distances. The auditorium holds a three-manual,40 rank Skinner pipe organ, the Hall is used for concerts, school commencements, conferences, corporate meetings, televised events and other performances. The Hall hosted the 1939 premiere of Mr, some of the earliest mainstream country music concerts were also held there, organized by Connie B. The free Air Force Band Sunday concerts, featuring famous guest artists, are popular, in 1939, the DAR denied African-American singer Marian Anderson the opportunity to sing at the Hall causing first lady Eleanor Roosevelt to resign her membership in protest. Every U. S. president since Calvin Coolidge has attended at least one event at the theater, list of concert halls DAR Constitution Hall DAR Constitution Hall on Google Street View

18.
Jeannette Rankin
–
Jeannette Pickering Rankin was an American politician and womens rights advocate, and the first woman to hold national office in the United States. She was elected to the U. S. House of Representatives by the state of Montana in 1916, each of Rankins Congressional terms coincided with initiation of U. S. military intervention in each of the two world wars. She championed the causes of equality and civil rights throughout a career that spanned more than six decades. She was the eldest of six children, including five girls and one brother, Wellington, who would become the states attorney general, and later, an associate justice of the Montana Supreme Court. As an adolescent, Rankin cleaned, sewed, and helped care for her siblings, in addition to sharing in the outdoor work. She helped maintain the machinery, and once single-handedly built a wooden sidewalk for a building owned by her father so that it could be rented. Rankin graduated from school in 1898, and from the University of Montana in 1902 with a Bachelor of Science degree in biology. With no clear career ambitions, she first tried dressmaking in Missoula, and then furniture design in Boston and she also turned down several marriage proposals. At the age of 28, Rankin moved to San Francisco to take a job in social work, confident that she had found her calling, she enrolled in the New York School of Philanthropy in New York City from 1908 to 1909. She then moved to Spokane, Washington where, after serving as a social worker, she attended the University of Washington. She helped organize the New York Womens Suffrage Party and worked as a lobbyist for the National American Woman Suffrage Association, in November 1910, Washington voters approved an amendment to their state constitution permanently enfranchising women, the fifth state in the Union to do so. In February 1911, Rankin became the first woman to speak before the Montana legislature, in November 1914, Montana passed a similar amendment granting women unrestricted voting rights. Rankin later compared her work in the suffrage movement to the pacifist foreign policy that defined her congressional career. She believed, with many suffragists of the period, that the corruption and dysfunction of the United States government was a result of a lack of feminine participation, as she said at a disarmament conference in the interwar period, The peace problem is a womans problem. The campaign involved traveling long distances to reach the states widely scattered population, Rankin rallied support at train stations, street corners, potluck suppers on ranches, and remote one-room schoolhouses. She was elected on November 7, by over 7,500 votes, shortly after her term began, Congress was called into an extraordinary April session in response to Germanys declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare on all Atlantic shipping. On April 2,1917, President Woodrow Wilson, addressing a joint session, after intense debate, the war resolution came to a vote in the House at 3 oclock in the morning on April 7, Rankin cast one of fifty votes in opposition. I wish to stand for my country, she said, but I cannot vote for war, years later, she would add, I felt the first time the first woman had a chance to say no to war, she should say it

19.
University of Maryland, College Park
–
Founded in 1856, the university is the flagship institution of the University System of Maryland. It is a member of the Association of American Universities and competes in athletics as a member of the Big Ten Conference, the University of Marylands proximity to the nations capital has resulted in research partnerships with the Federal government. The operating budget of the University of Maryland during the 2009 fiscal year was projected to be approximately $1.531 billion, for the same fiscal year, the University of Maryland received a total of $518 million in research funding, surpassing its 2008 mark by $118 million. As of December 12,2012, the universitys Great Expectations campaign had exceeded $1 billion in private donations, on March 6,1856, the forerunner of todays University of Maryland was chartered as the Maryland Agricultural College. Two years later, Charles Benedict Calvert, a future U. S. Congressman, Calvert founded the school later that year. On October 5,1859, the first 34 students entered the Maryland Agricultural College, the school became a land grant college in February 1864. During the Civil War, Confederate soldiers under Brigadier General Bradley Tyler Johnson moved past the college on July 12,1864 as part of Jubal Earlys raid on Washington, D. C. By the end of the war, financial problems forced the administrators to sell off 200 acres of land, for the next two years the campus was used as a boys preparatory school. Following the Civil War, in February 1866 the Maryland legislature assumed half ownership of the school, the college thus became in part a state institution. By October 1867, the school reopened with 11 students, in the next six years, enrollment grew and the schools debt was paid off. In 1873, Samuel Jones, a former Confederate Major General, twenty years later, the federally funded Agricultural Experiment Station was established there. Morrill Hall was built the following year, on November 29,1912, a fire destroyed the barracks where the students were housed, all the schools records, and most of the academic buildings, leaving only Morrill Hall untouched. There were no injuries or fatalities, and all but two returned to the university and insisted on classes continuing. Students were housed by families in neighboring towns until housing could be rebuilt, a large brick and concrete compass inlaid in the ground designates the former center of campus as it existed in 1912. The state took control of the school in 1916, and the institution was renamed Maryland State College and that year, the first female students enrolled at the school. On April 9,1920, the became part of the existing University of Maryland, replacing St. Johns College. In the same year, the school on the College Park campus awarded its first PhD degrees. In 1925 the university was accredited by the Association of American Universities, by the time the first black students enrolled at the university in 1951, enrollment had grown to nearly 10,000 students—4,000 of whom were women

20.
Tableau vivant
–
Tableau vivant, French for living picture, is a style of artistic presentation, often shortened to simply tableau. It most often describes a group of costumed actors, carefully posed. In the theatrical context, the actors/models do not speak or move throughout the duration of the display, the approach thus marries the art forms of the stage with those of the more static visual arts, and it has thus been of interest to modern photographers. Occasionally, a Mass was punctuated with short dramatic scenes and painting-like tableaux and they were a major feature of festivities for royal weddings, coronations and royal entries into cities. Often the actors imitated statues of painting, much in the manner of street entertainers, but in larger groups. The Realism movement, with more naturalistic depictions, did not begin until the mid-19th century, before radio, film and television, tableaux vivants were popular forms of entertainment, even in frontier towns. Before the age of reproduction of images, the tableau was sometimes used to recreate artworks on stage. They thus influenced the form taken by later Victorian and Edwardian era magic lantern shows, Tableaux vivants were often performed as the basis for school Nativity plays in England during the Victorian period, the custom is still practiced at Loughborough High School. Several tableaux are performed each year at the carol service. Theatrical censorship in Britain and the United States forbade actresses to move when nude or semi-nude on stage, in the early 1900s, German dancer Olga Desmond appeared in Schönheitsabende in which she posed nude in living pictures, imitating classical works of art. In the nineteenth century, tableaux vivants took such titles as Nymphs Bathing and Diana the Huntress and were to be found at such places as the Hall of Rome in Great Windmill Street, other venues were the Coal Hole in the Strand and the Cyder Cellar in Maiden Lane. Nude and semi-nude poses plastiques were also a frequent feature of variety shows in the US, first on Broadway in New York City, the Ziegfeld Follies featured such tableaux from 1917. The Windmill Theatre in London featured nude poses plastiques on stage, it was the first, Tableaux vivants were often included in fairground sideshows. Such shows had largely died out by the 1970s, Tableaux remain a major attraction at the annual Pageant of the Masters in Laguna Beach, California. The initial translation of this text substitutes the English word picture for the French word tableau, however Michael Fried retains the French term when referring to Chevriers essay, because according to Fried, there is no direct translation into English for tableau in this sense. It lacks the connotations of constructedness, of being the product of an act that the French word carries. Other texts and Clement Greenbergs theory of medium specificity also cover this topic, the key characteristics of the contemporary photographic tableau according to Chevrier are, firstly, They are designed and produced for the wall. But size has another function, it distances the viewer from the object and this confrontational experience, Fried notes, is actually quite a large break from the conventional reception of photography, which up to that point was often consumed in books or magazines

21.
Glenna Smith Tinnin
–
Glenna Smith Tinnin was the first chairman of the District of Columbia Equal Franchise League. The Equal Franchise League was founded in 1914 as The Woman Suffrage Council, early in her career Tinnin was an instructor in oratory at various institutes in the upper Midwest. She was a director and playwright, and served as chairman of the pageant committee of the American Federation of Arts. She was born in Illinois on February 27,1877, in 1897 she graduated from the Columbia School of Oratory in Chicago. By 1905 she was married to David Solomon Tinnin of North Carolina, in 1910 they were living in Washington and she died on March 24,1945 in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts

22.
National Association of Colored Women's Clubs
–
From 1896 to 1904 it was known as the National Association of Colored Women. It adopted the motto Lifting as we climb, to demonstrate to an ignorant and suspicious world that our aims, when incorporated in 1904, NACW became known as the National Association of Colored Womens Clubs. “In 1895 an obscure man in an obscure Missouri town sent a letter broad-cast over this country and England, reflecting upon the character, so utterly false were the vile statement, that the women were aroused as never before and when Mrs. Josephine St. The National Federation of Colored Women’s Club was the result of that meeting and this joint session was attended by some of the most notable women of our Race, among whom were Harriet Tubman. Francis E. W. Harper, poet and writer, Victoria E. Matthews, founder of the White Rose Mission of New York, Josephine S. Yates, teacher and writer, an others. Wells Barnett and Elizabeth Lindsay Davis were the delegates from Illinois. ”Historian,1933 The National Association of Colored Women was established in Washington and this first of what would later become biennial convention meetings of the association was held at the Nineteenth Street Baptist Church. These organizations and later others across the country merged to form the National Association of Colored Women, the organization helped all African-American women by working on issues of civil rights and injustice, such as women’s suffrage, lynching, and Jim Crow laws. Founders of the NACWC included Harriet Tubman, Margaret Murray Washington, Frances E. W. Harper, Ida Bell Wells-Barnett and its two leading members were Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin and Mary Church Terrell. Their original intention was to furnish evidence of the moral, mental and material made by people of color through the efforts of our women. During the next ten years, the NACWC became involved in campaigns in favor of suffrage and against lynching. They also led efforts to education, and care for both children and the elderly. By 1918, when the United States entered the First World War, both women were educated and had economically successful parents. Born on August 31,1842, in Boston, Josephine St. Pierre was the daughter of John St. Pierre and her parents supported her going to school in Salem for its integrated schools, rather than attend segregated ones in Boston. At the age of 16, she married George Lewis Ruffin, among their early activities was recruiting black soldiers for the Union Army during the Civil War. After her husband died in 1886, Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin used part of her estate to fund Woman’s Era and she was a vice-president of the National Association of Colored Women. In 1910 Ruffin enlarged her social activism by helping form the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Mary Church Terrell was the daughter of Robert Church, Sr. a former slave and reputed son of a white master. Church, Sr. built a business and became one of the wealthiest black men in the South and he was able to send Mary to Oberlin College, where she earned both bachelors and masters degrees. Years later Mary Church Terrell spoke at the Berlin International Congress of Women, giving her speech in fluent German and French and she was the only black woman at the conference

23.
Delta Sigma Theta
–
Delta Sigma Theta is a not-for profit Greek-lettered sorority of college-educated women dedicated to public service with an emphasis on programs that target the African American community. DST was founded on January 13,1913, by 22 collegiate women at Howard University in Washington, membership is open to any woman who meets the requirements, regardless of religion, race, or nationality. Women may join through undergraduate chapters at a college or university, the current 25th national president is Dr. Paulette Camille Walker. The first public act of Delta Sigma Theta was the Womens Suffrage March in Washington D. C. on March 3,1913, today, it is the largest African-American Greek-lettered organization. Since its founding, DST has been at the forefront of creating programming to improve political, education, in addition to establishing independent programming, the sorority consistently collaborates with community organizations and corporations to further its programming goals. The new initiates wanted to establish an organization, enlarge the scope of the sororitys activities. They felt Alpha Kappa Alpha was solely a derivative of the Beta Chapter of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity with no individual meaning and were not Greek distinctive letters. They also wanted to change the symbols, change the sorority colors, in 1912, these 22 undergraduates voted to change the organizations name to Delta Sigma Theta. This new name was to reflect the desire to change the direction of the group. The 22 undergraduate Alpha Chapter students sought to move towards social activism and greater public service, according to Delta Sigma Thetas historian Paula Giddings, the 22 young women were concerned that since Alpha Kappa Alpha was not incorporated, there was no legal entity. Since there was no charter, there was no authority to other chapters. The 22 declined and unanimously voted to reorganize, even prior to Delta Sigma Theta being approved by the Howard University administration, thus Delta Sigma Theta was founded on January 13,1913, by the 22 students. On January 20,1930, the organizations Grand Chapter was nationally incorporated, Delta Sigma Theta was one of the key African American organizations to participate in the Womens Suffrage March on March 3,1913. Immediately following the founding, Delta Sigma Theta members quickly mobilized to build and develop infrastructure, one of the first orders of business was to have an oath, which was written by Mary Church Terrell in 1914. In the early years, individual chapters would implement various programs to meet the needs of their local communities, the 1920s began a decade of significant development within Delta Sigma Theta. The organization began to develop uniformity in programming and communication between the chapters of the sorority, in 1920, May Week was inaugurated and the Official Publication of the Sorority was established as The Delta. Also in 1920, Omega Chapter was established to recognize deceased Sorors, Alexander was voted first Honorary Grand President of Delta Sigma Theta. The Official Delta Sigma Theta Hymn, written by Florence Cole Talbert, regions were established in 1925, and the Jabberwock was established as the scholarship fundraiser

24.
Howard University
–
Howard University is a federally chartered, private, coeducational, nonsectarian, historically black university in Washington, D. C. It is classified by the Carnegie Foundation as a university with high research activity and is accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education. From its outset it has been nonsectarian and open to people of both genders and all races, Howard is classified as a Tier 1 national university and ranks second among HBCUs by U. S. News & World Report. Howard is the only HBCU ranked in the top 75 on the 2015 Bloomberg Businessweek college rankings, the Princeton Review ranked the school of business #1 in opportunities for minority students and in the top five for most competitive students. The National Law Journal ranked the law school among the top 25 in the nation for placing graduates at the best law firms, Howard has produced four Rhodes Scholars between 1986 and 2017. Between 1998 and 2009, Howard University produced a Marshall Scholar, in 2011, the Huffington Post named Howard the second best-dressed college in the nation. Howard is the most comprehensive HBCU in the nation and produces the most black doctorate recipients of any university, within a few weeks, the project expanded to include a provision for establishing a university. Within two years, the University consisted of the Colleges of Liberal Arts and Medicine, the new institution was named for General Oliver Otis Howard, a Civil War hero, who was both the founder of the University and, at the time, Commissioner of the Freedmens Bureau. Howard later served as President of the university from 1869–74, U. S. Congress chartered Howard on March 2,1867, and much of its early funding came from endowment, private benefaction, and tuition. An annual congressional appropriation administered by the U. S. Department of Education funds Howard University, many improvements were made on campus. Howard Hall was renovated and made a dormitory for women, J. Stanley Durkee, Howards last white president, was appointed in 1918. The Great Depression years of the 1930s brought hardship to campus, despite appeals from Eleanor Roosevelt, Howard saw its budget cut below Hoover administration levels during the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Howard University has played an important role in American history and the Civil Rights Movement on a number of occasions, alain Locke, Chair of the Department of Philosophy and first African American Rhodes Scholar, authored The New Negro, which helped to usher in the Harlem Renaissance. Ralph Bunche, the first Nobel Peace Prize winner of African descent, beginning in 1942, Howard University students pioneered the stool-sitting technique, which was to play a prominent role in the later civil rights movement. By January,1943, students had begun to organize regular sit-ins and pickets at cigar stores and cafeterias around Washington and these protests continued until the administration asked the students to stop in the Fall of 1944. Historian Rayford Logan served as chair of the Department of History, E. Franklin Frazier served as chair of the Department of Sociology. Sterling Allen Brown served as chair of the Department of English, at the time, the Voting Rights bill was still pending in the House of Representatives. In 1975 the historic Freedmans Hospital closed after 112 years of use as Howard University College of Medicines primary teaching hospital, Howard University Hospital opened that same year and continues to be used as Howard University College of Medicines primary teaching hospital with service to the surrounding community

25.
NAACP
–
Du Bois, Mary White Ovington and Moorfield Storey. Its mission in the 21st century is to ensure the political, educational, social and their national initiatives included political lobbying, publicity efforts, and litigation strategies developed by their legal team. The group enlarged its mission in the late 20th century by considering issues such as police misconduct, the status of foreign refugees. Its name, retained in accordance with tradition, uses the common term colored people. The NAACP bestows annual awards to people of color in two categories, Image Awards are for achievement in the arts and entertainment, and Spingarn Medals are for outstanding achievement of any kind and its headquarters is in Baltimore, Maryland. The NAACP is headquartered in Baltimore, with regional offices in New York, Michigan, Georgia, Maryland, Texas, Colorado. Each regional office is responsible for coordinating the efforts of state conferences in that region, local, youth, and college chapters organize activities for individual members. In the U. S. the NAACP is administered by a 64-member board, julian Bond, Civil Rights Movement activist and former Georgia State Senator, was chairman until replaced in February 2010 by health-care administrator Roslyn Brock. For decades in the first half of the 20th century, the organization was led by its executive secretary. James Weldon Johnson and Walter F. White, who served in that role successively from 1920 to 1958, were more widely known as NAACP leaders than were presidents during those years. Departments within the NAACP govern areas of action, local chapters are supported by the Branch and Field Services department and the Youth and College department. The Legal department focuses on cases of broad application to minorities, such as systematic discrimination in employment, government. The Washington, D. C. bureau is responsible for lobbying the U. S. government, the goal of the Health Division is to advance health care for minorities through public policy initiatives and education. As of 2007, the NAACP had approximately 425,000 paying and non-paying members, the NAACPs non-current records are housed at the Library of Congress, which has served as the organizations official repository since 1964. The records held there comprise approximately five million items spanning the NAACPs history from the time of its founding until 2003, in 1905, a group of thirty-two prominent African-American leaders met to discuss the challenges facing people of color and possible strategies and solutions. They were particularly concerned by the Southern states disenfranchisement of blacks starting with Mississippis passage of a new constitution in 1890, through 1908, southern legislatures dominated by white Democrats ratified new constitutions and laws creating barriers to voter registration and more complex election rules. In practice, this caused the exclusion of most blacks and many whites from the political system in southern states. Black voter registration and turnout dropped markedly in the South as a result of such legislation, men who had been voting for thirty years in the South were told they did not qualify to register

26.
Ida B. Wells
–
Ida Bell Wells-Barnett, more commonly known as Ida B. Wells, was an African-American journalist, newspaper editor, suffragist, sociologist, feminist, Georgist, and she was one of the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in 1909. Born in Holly Springs, Mississippi, Wells lost her parents and she went to work and, with her grandmother, kept the rest of the family intact. She moved with some of her siblings to Memphis, Tennessee and she was active in womens rights and the womens suffrage movement, establishing several notable womens organizations. Wells was a skilled and persuasive rhetorician and traveled internationally on lecture tours and her parents James Wells and Elizabeth Lizzie Wells, were both enslaved by Spires Bolling, an architect. She was one of eight children, the family resided at Bollings house, now named the Bolling-Gatewood House, where Lizzie Wells was a cook. Idas father was a master at carpentry, after the Civil War and emancipation and he was very interested in politics and became a member of the Loyal League. He attended Shaw University in Holly Springs, but he dropped out to help his family and he also attended public speeches and campaigned for local black candidates but never ran for office himself. A religious woman, Elizabeth Wells was very strict with her children, both of Idas parents were active in the Republican Party during Reconstruction. Ida attended Shaw like her father, but she was expelled for rebellious behavior after confronting the college president, while visiting her grandmother in the Mississippi Valley in 1878, Ida, then aged 16, received word that Holly Springs had suffered a yellow fever epidemic. Both of her parents and her infant brother died during that event, Wells would find a number of men who served as father figures later in her life, particularly Alfred Froman, Theodore W. Lott, and Josiah T. Settle. Following the funerals of her parents and brother, friends and relatives decided that the six remaining Wells children should be split up, to keep her younger siblings together as a family, she found work as a teacher in a black elementary school. Her paternal grandmother, Peggy Wells, along with friends and relatives, stayed with her siblings. Without this help, she would have not been able to keep her siblings together, Wells resented that in the segregated school system, white teachers were paid $80 a month and she was paid only $30 a month. This discrimination made her interested in the politics of race. In 1883, Wells took three of her siblings to Memphis, Tennessee, to live with her aunt and to be closer to other family members. She also learned that she could earn higher wages there as a teacher than in Mississippi, soon after moving, she was hired in Woodstock for the Shelby County school system. During her summer vacations she attended summer sessions at Fisk University and she held strong political opinions and provoked many people with her views on womens rights

27.
Historical Society of Washington, D.C.
–
The Historical Society of Washington, D. C. is an educational foundation and museum dedicated to preserving and displaying the history of Washington, D. C. The society provides lectures, exhibits, classes, community events, in addition, the societys Kiplinger Research Library houses a collection of books, maps, photographs, and other materials relevant to the history of the city. Located in the center of Mount Vernon Square in Washington, the society occupies a Beaux-Arts building funded by Andrew Carnegie in 1902, the former library building is open to the public from Monday through Sunday 10am to 5pm. Visitors are welcome to current exhibits and use the societys library. The organization had as its goal collecting the scattered and rapidly disappearing records of events and individuals prominent in the history of the city and District. The main role of the early Society was to serve as a forum for members to present historical research and it was also a collecting organization, amassing library and manuscript collections. By 1899 the new organization had 108 members, all but 13 of whom were men, although African Americans constituted one-third of the then-racially segregated citys population, the membership of the Columbia Historical Society was all white. Membership dues went largely to support the publication of the Records and these hard-bound volumes appeared every year until 1922, and thereafter every two or three years. The growing collections began to present difficulties almost immediately, for more than 50 years, the Society used rented and donated rooms to house its offices and library. Volunteers served as librarians and curators, in the late 1940s, a bill to finance reassembly of Francis Scott Keys home and give it to the Society passed Congress, but President Harry Truman vetoed it for budgetary reasons. A professional appointed in 1947 promulgated a policy and created the first catalog. In 1954, the District of Columbia Public Library, which had been storing the Societys collections, the Societys Board of Trustees appealed to the membership for a home. In 1955, Amelia Keyser Heurich, widow of prominent Washington brewer Christian Heurich, donated the familys four-story mansion) near Dupont Circle, the Society took possession of the mansion during the following year when Mrs. Heurich died. The Society hired its first director in 1959, although the office of the Board of Trustees president, Ulysses S. Grant III, for many years the house chairman lived on the third floor and rented offices in the building to other historical and patriotic organizations. Space was available for a library in the mansion, which housed the book, manuscript, photograph, in 1975, a real estate transaction produced a significant endowment, which was used to hire the first full-time, professional historian as executive director, Perry Fisher. Fisher used the renewed interest in the nations past stimulated by the U. S, bicentennial to increase the Societys services to the general public as well as its membership. The programs and reach of the Society continued to expand, in 1989 the Society announced its new name, The Historical Society of Washington, D. C. The Society announced the change with the first issue of Washington History

28.
Nellie Bly
–
Elizabeth Cochran Seaman, known by her pen name Nellie Bly, was an American journalist. She was a pioneer in her field, and launched a new kind of investigative journalism, at birth she was named Elizabeth Jane Cochran. She was born in Cochrans Mills, today part of the Pittsburgh suburb of Burrell Township, Armstrong County and her father, Michael Cochran, was a laborer and mill worker who married Mary Jane. His father had immigrated from County Londonderry, Ireland in the 1790s, Cochran taught his young children a cogent lesson about the virtues of hard work and determination, buying the local mill and most of the land surrounding his family farmhouse. As a young girl Elizabeth often was called Pinky because she so frequently wore that color, as she became a teenager she wanted to portray herself as more sophisticated, and so dropped the nickname and changed her surname to Cochrane. She attended boarding school for one term, but was forced to drop out due to lack of funds, in 1880 Cochrane and her family moved to Pittsburgh. An aggressively misogynistic column entitled What Girls Are Good For in the Pittsburgh Dispatch prompted her to write a rebuttal to the editor under the pseudonym Lonely Orphan Girl. The editor, George Madden, was impressed with her passion, when Cochrane introduced herself to the editor, he offered her the opportunity to write a piece for the newspaper, again under the pseudonym Lonely Orphan Girl. After her first article for the Dispatch, entitled The Girl Puzzle, Madden was impressed again, Women who were newspaper writers at that time customarily used pen names. The editor chose Nellie Bly, adopted from the character in the popular song Nelly Bly by Stephen Foster. Cochrane originally intended that her pseudonym be Nelly Bly, but her editor wrote Nellie by mistake, dissatisfied with these duties, she took the initiative and traveled to Mexico to serve as a foreign correspondent. Still only 21, she spent nearly half a year reporting the lives and customs of the Mexican people, in one report, she protested the imprisonment of a local journalist for criticizing the Mexican government, then a dictatorship under Porfirio Díaz. When Mexican authorities learned of Blys report, they threatened her with arrest, safely home, she denounced Díaz as a tyrannical czar suppressing the Mexican people and controlling the press. Burdened again with theater and arts reporting, Bly left the Pittsburgh Dispatch in 1887 for New York City, after a night of practicing deranged expressions in front of a mirror, she checked into a boardinghouse. She refused to go to bed, telling the boarders that she was afraid of them and they soon decided that she was crazy, and the next morning summoned the police. Taken to a courtroom, she pretended to have amnesia, the judge concluded she had been drugged. Several doctors then examined her, all declared her insane, positively demented, said one, I consider it a hopeless case. She needs to be put where someone will take care of her, the head of the insane pavilion at Bellevue Hospital pronounced her undoubtedly insane

29.
Iron Jawed Angels
–
Iron Jawed Angels is a 2004 American historical drama film directed by Katja von Garnier. The film stars Hilary Swank as suffragist leader Alice Paul, Frances OConnor as activist Lucy Burns, Julia Ormond as Inez Milholland and it received critical acclaim after the film premiered at the 2004 Sundance Film Festival. The film was released in the United States on February 15,2004, the pair present a plan to the National American Womans Suffrage Association to push directly in Washington for womens rights to vote nationally. They see that their ideas were too forceful for the established leaders, particularly Carrie Chapman Catt. They start by organizing the 1913 Woman Suffrage Procession on the eve of President Woodrow Wilsons inauguration, in a fictional scene, Paul tries to explain to Ida B. After disagreements over fundraising, Paul and Burns are pushed out of the NAWSA, Alice Paul briefly explores a romantic relationship with Ben Weissman. Further conflicts within the movement are portrayed as NAWSA leaders criticize NWP tactics, such as protesting against Wilson, relations between the American government and the NWP protesters also intensify, as many women are captured by the police their actions, charged with obstructing traffic. The arrested women are sent to the Occoquan Workhouse for 60-day terms, despite abusive and terrorizing treatment, Paul and other women undertake a hunger strike, during which paid guards force-feed them milk and raw eggs. The suffragists are blocked from seeing visitors or lawyers, until U. S, senator Tom Leighton visits his wife Emily, one of the imprisoned women. News of their treatment leaks to the media after she passes a letter to him during the visit. Paul, Burns and the women are released. Further pressure is put on Wilson as the NAWSA joins in the NWP call for an amendment to the Constitution. Finally he accedes to the pressure, rather than be called out in the press for fighting for democracy in Europe while denying its benefits to half of the U. S. population. During the amendments ratification, Harry T. Burn, a member of the Tennessee legislature, receives a telegram from his mother at the last minute and changes his vote for the amendment to pass. The film derives its title from Massachusetts Representative Joseph Walsh, who in 1917 opposed the creation of a committee to deal with womens suffrage. Walsh thought the creation of a committee would be yielding to the nagging of iron-jawed angels and referred to the Silent Sentinels as bewildered, deluded creatures with short skirts and short hair. Alas, theres no such luck in this talky, melodramatic overview of the dawn of equal rights for women in America, only when the anachronisms finally subside in the films final third is the moving core is allowed to shine. Suffragette Official website Iron Jawed Angels at the Internet Movie Database

30.
National Woman's Party
–
The National Womans Party broke from the much larger National American Woman Suffrage Association, which was focused on attempting to gain womens suffrage at the state level. The National Womans Party prioritized the passage of a constitutional amendment ensuring womens suffrage throughout the United States, Pauls strategy was to use publicity to hold the party in power, the Democratic Party and President Woodrow Wilson, responsible for the status of woman suffrage. Starting in January 1917, NWP members known as Silent Sentinels continued their quest for equality by protesting outside the White House. Members of the NWP argued it was hypocritical for the United States to fight a war for democracy in Europe while denying its benefits to half of the US population. Similar arguments were being made in Europe, where most of the nations of Europe had enfranchised some women or would soon. The NWP pickets were controversial as they continued during war time, many NWP activists were later arrested on the charge of obstructing traffic, and many went on hunger strikes in prison to protest their unlawful detention. Abusive treatment of the protesters, who believed themselves to be political prisoners, angered some Americans and they were eventually released and their arrests were later declared unconstitutional. In the meantime, NAWSA helped pass the 1917 referendum in New York State in favor of suffrage, in early 1918, Wilson came out in favor of the amendment, and it passed the House, but failed in the Senate despite another round of protests and arrests. After the NWP helped replace anti-suffrage senators in the 1918 elections, the Nineteenth amendment was ratified by enough states by 1920, thus giving many women the right to vote. Many African American women in the Jim Crow south remained disenfranchised after the ratification of this amendment, today, the National Womans Party exists as a 501c3 educational organization. After their experience with militant suffrage work in Great Britain, Alice Paul, the two women originally were appointed to the Congressional Committee of the National American Woman Suffrage Association. In March 1913, the two organized a parade of 5, 000–8,000 women in Washington, D. C. on the day before Woodrow Wilsons inauguration. The Congressional Union began publishing a newspaper, The Suffragist. Paul and Burns were frustrated with the Nationals slower approach of focusing on individual state referendums, Alice Paul had also chafed under the leadership of Carrie Chapman Catt, as she had very different ideas of how to go about suffrage work, and a different attitude towards militancy. Catt disapproved of the strategies, inspired by the British Suffragettes, Paul. The split was confirmed by a difference of opinion on the Shafroth-Palmer Amendment. This amendment was spearheaded by Alice Pauls replacement as chair of the Nationals Congressional Committee, shafroth–Palmer was to be a constitutional amendment that would require any state with more than 8 percent signing an initiative petition to hold a state referendum on suffrage. This would have kept the law-making out of hands, a proposition more attractive to the South

31.
United States Department of the Treasury
–
The Department of the Treasury is an executive department and the treasury of the United States federal government. It was established by an Act of Congress in 1789 to manage government revenue, the Department is administered by the Secretary of the Treasury, who is a member of the Cabinet. On February 13,2017, the Senate confirmed Steven Mnuchin as Secretary of the Treasury, the first Secretary of the Treasury was Alexander Hamilton, who was sworn into office on September 11,1789. Hamilton was asked by President George Washington to serve after first having asked Robert Morris, Hamilton almost single-handedly worked out the nations early financial system, and for several years was a major presence in Washingtons administration as well. His portrait is on the obverse of the U. S. ten-dollar bill while the Treasury Department building is shown on the reverse. Besides the Secretary, one of the best-known Treasury officials is the Treasurer of the United States whose signature, along with the Treasury Secretarys, the Treasury prints and mints all paper currency and coins in circulation through the Bureau of Engraving and Printing and the United States Mint. The Department also collects all federal taxes through the Internal Revenue Service, the Congress had no power to levy and collect taxes, nor was there a tangible basis for securing funds from foreign investors or governments. The delegates resolved to issue paper money in the form of bills of credit, the Congress stipulated that each of the colonies contribute to the Continental governments funds. With the signing of the Declaration of Independence on July 4,1776, despite the infusion of foreign and domestic loans to pay for a war of independence, the United Colonies were unable to establish a well-organized agency for financial administration. Michael Hillegas was first called Treasurer of the United States on May 14,1777, the Treasury Office was reorganized three times between 1778 and 1781. The $241.5 million of paper Continental Dollars devalued rapidly, by May 1781, the dollar collapsed at a rate of from 500 to 1000 to 1 against hard currency. Protests against the worthless money swept the colonies and angry Americans coined the expression not worth a Continental, Robert Morris was designated Superintendent of Finance in 1781 and restored stability to the nations finances. Morris, a colonial merchant, was nicknamed the Financier because of his reputation for procuring funds or goods on a moments notice. His staff included a Comptroller, a Treasurer, a Register, and auditors, who managed the finances through 1784. The Treasury Board of three Commissioners continued to oversee the finances of the confederation of former colonies until September 1789, the First Congress of the United States was called to convene in New York on March 4,1789, marking the beginning of government under the Constitution. Alexander Hamilton took the oath of office as the first Secretary of the Treasury on September 11,1789, Hamilton had served as George Washingtons aide-de-camp during the Revolution, and was of great importance in the ratification of the Constitution. Because of his financial and managerial acumen, Hamilton was a choice for solving the problem of the new nations heavy war debt. Hamiltons first official act was to submit a report to Congress in which he laid the foundation for the financial health

32.
Lucretia Mott
–
Lucretia Mott was an American Quaker, abolitionist, a womens rights activist, and a social reformer. She had formed the idea of reforming the position of women in society when she was amongst the women excluded from the World Anti-Slavery Convention in 1840, in 1848 she was invited by Jane Hunt to a meeting that led to the first meeting about womens rights. Mott helped write the Declaration of Sentiments during the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention and her speaking abilities made her an important abolitionist, feminist, and reformer. When slavery was outlawed in 1865, she advocated giving Black Americans the right to vote and she remained a central figure in the abolition and suffrage movement until her death in 1880. As a Quaker preacher, Mott spoke from the light within. Lucretia Coffin was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts, the second child Anna Folger, through her mother, she was a descendent of Peter Folger and Mary Morrell Folger. Her cousin was Founding Father Benjamin Franklin, while other Folger relatives were Tories and she was sent at the age of 13 to the Nine Partners School, located in Dutchess County, New York, which was run by the Society of Friends. There she became a teacher after graduation and her interest in womens rights began when she discovered that male teachers at the school were significantly more than female staff. After her family moved to Philadelphia, she and James Mott, another teacher at Nine Partners, like many Quakers, Mott considered slavery to be evil. Inspired in part by minister Elias Hicks, she and other Quakers refused to use cloth, cane sugar. In 1821, Mott became a Quaker minister, with her husbands support, she traveled extensively as a minister, and her sermons emphasized the Quaker inward light, or the presence of the Divine within every individual. Her sermons also included her free produce and anti-slavery sentiments, in 1833, her husband helped found the American Anti-Slavery Society. By then a minister and abolitionist, Lucretia Mott was the only woman to speak at the organizational meeting in Philadelphia. She tested the language of the societys Constitution and bolstered support when many delegates were precarious, days after the conclusion of the convention, at the urging of other delegates, Mott and other white and black women founded the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society. Integrated from its founding, the organization opposed both slavery and racism, and developed ties to Philadelphias Black community. Mott herself often preached at Black parishes, around this time, Motts sister-in-law, Abigail Lydia Mott, and brother-in-law, Lindley Murray Moore, were helping to found the Rochester Anti-Slavery Society. Amidst social persecution by abolition opponents and pain from dyspepsia, Mott continued her work for the abolitionist cause and she managed their household budget to extend hospitality to guests, including fugitive slaves, and donated to charities. Mott was praised for her ability to maintain her household while contributing to the cause, in the words of one editor, She is proof that it is possible for a woman to widen her sphere without deserting it

33.
Sojourner Truth
–
Sojourner Truth was an African-American abolitionist and womens rights activist. Truth was born into slavery in Swartekill, Ulster County, New York, after going to court to recover her son, in 1828 she became the first black woman to win such a case against a white man. She gave herself the name Sojourner Truth in 1843 after she became convinced that God had called her to leave the city and her best-known speech was delivered extemporaneously, in 1851, at the Ohio Womens Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio. The speech became known during the Civil War by the title Aint I a Woman. A variation of the original speech re-written by someone using a stereotypical Southern dialect, whereas Sojourner Truth was from New York. During the Civil War, Truth helped recruit troops for the Union Army, after the war. In 2014, Truth was included in Smithsonian magazines list of the 100 Most Significant Americans of All Time, Truth was one of the ten or twelve children born to James and Elizabeth Baumfree. Charles Hardenbergh inherited his fathers estate and continued to enslave people as a part of that estates property, when Charles Hardenbergh died in 1806, nine-year-old Truth, was sold at an auction with a flock of sheep for $100 to John Neely, near Kingston, New York. Until that time, Truth spoke only Dutch and she later described Neely as cruel and harsh, relating how he beat her daily and once even with a bundle of rods. Neely sold her in 1808, for $105, to Martinus Schryver of Port Ewen, a tavern keeper, Schryver sold her in 1810 to John Dumont of West Park, New York. Around 1815, Truth met and fell in love with a slave named Robert from a neighboring farm, roberts owner forbade their relationship, he did not want the people he enslaved to have children with people he was not enslaving, because he would not own the children. One day Robert sneaked over to see Truth, when Catton and his son found him, they savagely beat Robert until Dumont finally intervened, and Truth never saw Robert again. He later died some years later, perhaps as a result of the injuries, Truth eventually married an older slave named Thomas. She bore five children, James, her firstborn, who died in childhood, Diana, fathered by either Robert or John Dumont, and Peter, Elizabeth, and Sophia, all born after she and Thomas united. The state of New York began, in 1799, to legislate the abolition of slavery, Dumont had promised to grant Truth her freedom a year before the state emancipation, if she would do well and be faithful. However, he changed his mind, claiming an injury had made her less productive. She was infuriated but continued working, spinning 100 pounds of wool, late in 1826, Truth escaped to freedom with her infant daughter, Sophia. She had to leave her children behind because they were not legally freed in the emancipation order until they had served as bound servants into their twenties

34.
Susan B. Anthony
–
Susan Brownell Anthony was an American social reformer and womens rights activist who played a pivotal role in the womens suffrage movement. Born into a Quaker family committed to equality, she collected anti-slavery petitions at the age of 17. In 1856, she became the New York state agent for the American Anti-Slavery Society, in 1851, she met Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who became her lifelong friend and co-worker in social reform activities, primarily in the field of womens rights. In 1852, they founded the New York Womens State Temperance Society after Anthony was prevented from speaking at a temperance conference because she was female, in 1866, they initiated the American Equal Rights Association, which campaigned for equal rights for both women and African Americans. In 1868, they began publishing a womens rights newspaper called The Revolution, in 1869, they founded the National Woman Suffrage Association as part of a split in the womens movement. In 1876, Anthony and Stanton began working with Matilda Joslyn Gage on what eventually grew into the six-volume History of Woman Suffrage, the interests of Anthony and Stanton diverged somewhat in later years, but the two remained close friends. In 1872, Anthony was arrested for voting in her hometown of Rochester, New York, although she refused to pay the fine, the authorities declined to take further action. In 1878, Anthony and Stanton arranged for Congress to be presented with an amendment giving women the right to vote, popularly known as the Anthony Amendment and introduced by Sen. Aaron A. Sargent, it became the Nineteenth Amendment to the U. S. Anthony traveled extensively in support of suffrage, giving as many as 75 to 100 speeches per year. She worked internationally for womens rights, playing a key role in creating the International Council of Women and she also helped to bring about the Worlds Congress of Representative Women at the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. When she first began campaigning for rights, Anthony was harshly ridiculed and accused of trying to destroy the institution of marriage. Public perception of her changed radically during her lifetime, however and her 80th birthday was celebrated in the White House at the invitation of President William McKinley. She became the first actual woman to be depicted on U. S. coinage when her portrait appeared on the 1979 dollar coin. Susan Brownell Anthony was born on February 15,1820, to Daniel Anthony and Lucy Read in Adams, Massachusetts and her family shared a passion for social reform. Her brothers Daniel and Merritt moved to Kansas to support the movement there. Merritt fought with John Brown against pro-slavery forces during the Bleeding Kansas crisis, Daniel eventually owned a newspaper and became mayor of Leavenworth. Anthonys sister Mary, with whom she shared a home in years, became a public school principal in Rochester. Anthonys father was an abolitionist and a temperance advocate, a Quaker, he had a difficult relationship with his traditionalist congregation, which rebuked him for marrying a non-Quaker and then disowned him for allowing a dance school to operate in his home

35.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
–
Elizabeth Cady Stanton was an American suffragist, social activist, abolitionist, and leading figure of the early womens rights movement. Stanton was president of the National Woman Suffrage Association from 1892 until 1900, before Stanton narrowed her political focus almost exclusively to womens rights, she was an active abolitionist with her husband Henry Brewster Stanton and cousin Gerrit Smith. Unlike many of those involved in the womens movement, Stanton addressed various issues pertaining to women beyond voting rights. Her concerns included womens parental and custody rights, property rights, employment and income rights, divorce, the health of the family. She was also a supporter of the 19th-century temperance movement. After the American Civil War, Stantons commitment to female suffrage caused a schism in the womens rights movement when she, Anthony, declined to support passage of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution. She opposed giving added legal protection and voting rights to African American men while women, black, Stanton died in 1902, having written both The Womans Bible and her autobiography Eighty Years and More, and many other articles and pamphlets about female suffrage and womens rights. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, the eighth of 11 children, was born in Johnstown, New York, to Daniel Cady, five of her siblings died in early childhood or infancy. A sixth sibling, her older brother Eleazar, died at age 20 just before his graduation from Union College in Schenectady, only Elizabeth Cady and four sisters lived well into adulthood and old age. Later in life, Elizabeth named her two daughters after two of her sisters, Margaret and Harriot, judge Cady introduced his daughter to the law and, together with her brother-in-law, Edward Bayard, planted the early seeds that grew into her legal and social activism. Even as a girl, she enjoyed reading her fathers law books. It was this exposure to law that, in part, caused Stanton to realize how disproportionately the law favored men over women. Her realization that women had virtually no property, income, employment, or even custody rights over their own children. Stantons mother, Margaret Livingston Cady, a descendant of early Dutch settlers, was the daughter of Colonel James Livingston, Margaret Cady, an unusually tall woman for her time, had a commanding presence, and Stanton routinely described her mother as queenly. While Stantons daughter, Harriot Stanton Blatch, remembers her grandmother as being fun, affectionate, Bayard, a Union College classmate of Eleazar Cadys and son of James A. Bayard, Sr. a U. S. Senator from Wilmington, Delaware was, at the time of his engagement and marriage to Tryphena and he was instrumental in nurturing Stantons growing understanding of the explicit and implicit gender hierarchies within the legal system. Slavery did not end in New York State until July 4,1827, peter Teabout, a slave in the Cady household who was later freed in Johnstown, took care of Stanton and her sister Margaret. While she makes no mention of Teabouts position as a slave in her familys household, he is remembered with fondness by Stanton in her memoir

36.
Silent Sentinels
–
The Silent Sentinels were a group of women in favor of womens suffrage organized by Alice Paul and the National Womans Party. They protested in front of the White House during Woodrow Wilsons presidency starting on January 10,1917. The women protested for six days a week until June 4,1919 when the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was passed both by the House of Representatives and the Senate, the name Silent Sentinels was given to the women because of their silent protesting. Using silence as a form of protest was a new principled, strategic, the Suffragist was the National Womans Party weekly newsletter. The Suffragist acted as a voice for the Silent Sentinels throughout their vigil and it covered the Sentinels progress and included interviews with protesters, reports on President Woodrow Wilsons reaction, and political essays. Although The Suffragist was intended for circulation, its subscription peaked at just over 20,000 issues in 1917. Further, most copies went to party members, advertisers, branch headquarters, and NWP organizers, the following are examples of banners held by the women, Mr. President, what will you do for woman suffrage. Mr. President, how long must women wait for liberty and we shall fight for the things which we have always carried nearest our hearts—for democracy, for the right of those who submit to authority to have a voice in their own governments. Democracy Should Begin at Home The time has come to conquer or submit, for us there can be, kaiser Wilson, have you forgotten your sympathy with the poor Germans because they were not self-governed. 20,000,000 American women are not self-governed, take the beam out of your own eye. Mr. President, you say liberty is the demand of the human spirit. Mr. President, you say we are interested in the United States, politically speaking, in nothing, the Sentinels all wore purple, white, and gold sashes which are the NWPs colors. Their banners were usually colored this way. At first President Wilson was not very responsive to the womens protest, at points he even seemed amused with it by tipping his hat and smiling. It was said that at one point Wilson even invited them in for coffee, as the Sentinels continued to protest, the issue became bigger and Wilsons opinion began to change. Beginning in June 1917 the protesters started getting arrested for obstructing traffic, on June 25,12 women were arrested, including Mabel Vernon and Annie Arniel from Delaware, again on charges of obstructing traffic. They were sentenced to three days in jail or to pay a $10 fine, on July 14,16 women, including Florence Bayard Hilles, Alison Turnbull Hopkins, and Elizabeth Selden Rogers were arrested and sentenced to 60 days in jail or to pay a $25 fine. When the women arrived at the Occoquan Workhouse they were asked to give up everything except for their clothing and they were then taken to a showering station where they were ordered to strip naked and bathe

37.
Timeline of women's suffrage
–
Womens suffrage – the right of women to vote – has been achieved at various times in countries throughout the world. In many nations, womens suffrage was granted before universal suffrage, some countries granted it to both sexes at the same time. This timeline lists years when womens suffrage was enacted, some countries are listed more than once as the right was extended to more women according to age, land ownership, etc. In many cases, the first voting took place in a subsequent year, in Sweden, conditional womens suffrage was granted during the age of liberty between 1718 and 1772. It was the country in the world and the first in Europe to give women the right to vote. The worlds first female members of parliament were elected in Finland the following year, in Europe, the last jurisdiction to grant women the right to vote was the Swiss canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden, in 1991. Women in Switzerland obtained the right to vote at federal level in 1971, in Saudi Arabia women were first allowed to vote in December 2015 in the municipal elections. For other womens rights, see Timeline of womens legal rights, the Supreme Court annulled the provision for women. Norfolk Island Australian colony of South Australia, limited to property-owning white women for local elections, Sweden, limited to local elections with votes graded after taxation, universal franchise achieved in 1919, which went into effect at the 1921 elections. The Grand Duchy of Finland, limited to taxpaying women in the countryside for municipal elections, Australian colony of Victoria, women were unintentionally enfranchised by the Electoral Act, and proceeded to vote in the following years elections. The Act was amended in 1865 to correct the error, Kingdom of Bohemia, limited to taxpaying women and women in learned professions who were allowed to vote by proxy and made eligible for election to the legislative body in 1864. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, limited to women ratepayers for local elections under the Municipal Franchise Act. United States-incorporated Territory of Wyoming, full suffrage for women, united States-incorporated Utah Territory, repealed by the Edmunds-Tucker Act in 1887. May 10,1872, New York City, Equal Rights Party nominates Victoria C, woodhull as their candidate for US-President. United States - Proposed Constitutional Amendment to extend suffrage and the right to office to women. The municipality of Franceville in the New Hebrides New Zealand, colorado Australian colony of South Australia, universal suffrage, extending the franchise to all women, the first colony in Australia to do so. In 1895, South Australian women became the first in the world to be allowed to stand for election, united Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Local Government Act confirms single women’s right to vote in local elections and extends this franchise to some married women. By 1900, over 1 million women were registered for local government elections in England, idaho Australian colony of Western Australia South Australia Western Australia Australia New South Wales Tasmania Australia Latvia Queensland Grand Duchy of Finland

38.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

39.
Paulsdale
–
Paulsdale was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1991. The Paul family purchased 173 acres and the 1840 farmhouse around 1883, during the 1950s, Paulsdale was divided into two parcels,167 acres of farmland and the remaining 6 acres which included the house and farm buildings. Both parcels were sold in the 1950s, the larger became a housing development, the smaller was a private residence until it was purchased by the Alice Paul Institute in 1990. The house has been restored to the condition when Alice Paul lived there and it now serves as a house museum and a home for the Institute. The purpose of the institution is to make sure Alice Pauls legacy doesnt die out by enhancing the knowledge of future generations on the topic of human rights, barbara Haney Irvine, who led the campaign to purchase Paulsdale through the Alice Paul Institute

40.
Women's Social and Political Union
–
The Womens Social and Political Union was the leading militant organisation campaigning for Womens suffrage in the United Kingdom, 1903–1917. Its membership and policies were tightly controlled by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters Christabel and it was best known for hunger strikes, for breaking windows in prominent buildings, and for night-time arson of unoccupied houses and churches. The founders decided to form an organisation, which would campaign for social reforms. They would also campaign for an extension of suffrage, believing that this was central to sexual equality. To illustrate their more militant stance, they adopted the slogan Deeds, by 1913, the WSPU appointed the fiercely militant feminist Nora Dacre Fox as General Secretary. Dacre Fox operated as a highly effective propagandist delivering rousing speeches at the WSPU weekly meetings, in 1905, the group convinced the Member of Parliament Bamford Slack to introduce a womens suffrage bill, which was ultimately talked out, but the publicity spurred rapid expansion of the group. This translated into abandoning their initial commitment to also supporting social reforms. In 1906, the group began a series of demonstrations and lobbies of Parliament, leading to the arrest and imprisonment of growing numbers of their members. The Prime Minister agreed with their argument but was obliged to do nothing at all about it and so urged the women to go on pestering and to exercise the virtue of patience. Some of the women Campbell-Bannerman advised to be patient had been working for womens rights for as many as fifty years and his thoughtless words infuriated the protesters and by those foolish words the militant movement became irrevocably established, and the stage of revolt began. Commenting on the phenomenon, Charles Hands, writing in the Daily Mail, in 1907 the organisation held the first of several of their Womens Parliaments. The Labour Party then voted to support universal suffrage and this split them from the WSPU, which had always accepted the property qualifications which already applied to womens participation in local elections. Under Christabels direction, the group began to more explicitly organise exclusively among middle class women and this led a small group of prominent members to leave and form the Womens Freedom League. Immediately following the WSPU/WFL split, in autumn 1907, Frederick and Emmeline Pethick Lawrence founded the WSPUs own newspaper, the Pethick Lawrences, who were part of the leadership of the WSPU until 1912, edited the newspaper and supported it financially in the early years. In 1908 the WSPU adopted purple, white, and green as its official colours, June 1908 saw the first major public use of these colours when the WSPU held a 300, 000-strong Womens Sunday rally in Hyde Park. In February 1907 the WSPU founded the Womans Press, which oversaw publishing and propaganda for the organisation, the womans Press in London and WSPU chains throughout the UK operated stores selling WSPU products. Until January 1911, the WSPUs official anthem was The Womens Marseillaise, in that month the anthem was changed to The March of the Women, newly composed by Ethel Smyth with words by Cicely Hamilton. The government later passed the Prisoners Act 1913, which allowed the release of suffragettes who were close to due to malnourishment

41.
Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage
–
The Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage was an American organization formed in 1913 led by Alice Paul and Lucy Burns to campaign for a constitutional amendment guaranteeing womens suffrage. It was inspired by the United Kingdoms suffragette movement, which Paul and their continuous campaigning drew attention from congressmen, and in 1914 they were successful in forcing the amendment onto the floor for the first time in decades. Alice Paul created the Congressional Union after joining the National American Woman Suffrage Association, the CU was initiated to assist the NAWSA Congressional Committee and its officers were part of that committee. The CU shared the goal with NAWSA, to gain an amendment to the United States Constitution giving all women the right to vote. In the beginning, the CU worked within NAWSA to strengthen the declining Congressional Committee, in March 1913, after realizing the amount of work to be done, the CU became in charge of their own operations and funding but still remained affiliated with NAWSA. In the fall of 1913, Carrie Chapman Catt of NAWSA accused the CU of insubordination and financial irregularities, the strategies of the two organizations were conflicting and NAWSAs leadership felt threatened. In December 1913, the National American Woman Suffrage Association selected a new Congressional Committee, the Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage appealed to young women with a new approach in the fight for womens suffrage, inspired by the British suffragettes. Alice Paul believed women should not have to beg for their rights, Paul introduced some of the militant methods used by the Womens Social and Political Union in Britain to the CU and its members. These included direct actions, organizing demonstrations, and the daily picketing of the White House. The CU had 4,500 members and had raised more than $50,000 in funds by 1914, over time, the efforts of hundreds of members led to their arrest and sometimes imprisonment. The Congressional Unions headquarters were located on F Street in Washington and they started womens suffrage schools to spread awareness about their cause and held multiple meetings each day. The CU was never organized by states or districts, but there were different branches of the organization in a number of states, the Washington headquarters was central to their work but they were also a mobile organization. The CU published a newspaper called The Suffragist, featuring articles by prominent members including Alice Paul, Lucy Burns, the newspaper employed Nina Allender as its main cartoonist, and also published cartoons by artists such as Cornelia Barns, Boardman Robinson and Marietta Andrews. The Congressional Union actively campaigned for an amendment guaranteeing universal woman suffrage. Following the methods used by suffragettes in Britain, the CU fully blamed the majority party for failure to advance the Federal Suffrage Amendment, the majority party at the time was the Democratic Party, and Democrat Woodrow Wilson was president. Members traveled west and campaigned against Democrats in hopes of impeding their reelection and they even campaigned against Democrats who approved womens suffrage, despite criticism from the National American Woman Suffrage Association. They traveled through the west by train while using a number of tactics to increase their visibility and their campaign resulted in the defeat of 20 democrats who supported suffrage, much to the dismay of NAWSA. The Congressional Union created the National Womans Party at a meeting in Chicago in 1916, the party included members of the Congressional Union, and Alice Paul was in charge

42.
Night of Terror (event)
–
The Night of Terror occurred on November 14,1917 at the Occoquan Workhouse in Virginia. H. These women were members of the National Womans Party, an organization led by Alice Paul. In 1917 the Silent Sentinels became the first organization to picket the White House and they held banners denouncing President Woodrow Wilson and burned copies of his speeches, because they considered him to be an enemy of the women’s rights movement. The unrelenting suffragists, who began protesting in January when Wilson took office, were prompted by the chief of police to stop picketing, the women did not stop, and arrests for obstructing traffic began in June. The women were imprisoned in the Occoquan Workhouse, after three days the women were released and they went back to the White House to continue protesting. By November arrests began again, and on November 14, superintendent of the workhouse and this brutal greeting is known as the Night of Terror, but it was not the only time the women were mistreated during their imprisonment. Many women went on a strike, sparked by the co-founder of the NWP. These women were placed in confinement and subject to force-feeding. After about two weeks, a hearing for charges against the women suffragists took place. The decision of the hearing declared that one of the 218 suffragists had been illegally arrested, illegally convicted. The Night of Terror was not addressed in the hearing, the women who were illegally imprisoned and tortured for picketing were aiming to promote women’s rights, and they were backed by the National Woman’s Party. However, when the Nineteenth Amendment for womens rights was passed in 1920, founded by Alice Paul and Lucy Burns in 1913, the National Woman’s Party fought for womens suffrage. It was originally called the Congressional Union for Woman’s Suffrage, until 1916 when it developed a new name, the party broke off from a larger one, the National Woman Suffrage Association, which was mainly in Washington. The NWP broke off from NAWSA because they wanted the woman suffrage work to be focused on the level, rather than only the state. They opposed President Wilson, all Democrats, as well as World War I, the NWP was an aggressive party, with goals of direct action and confrontation to send their message, rather than more the passive tactics that had been practiced in the past. The NWP conducted marches, acts of disobedience, and they became the first group to picket the White House. The National Woman’s Party began picketing and protesting at the White House in January, NWP members and supporters, young and old, were in front of the White House gates holding banners denouncing President Wilson and the Democratic Party, as well as burning copies of Wilsons speeches. They opposed Wilson because he was perceived to be an enemy of the Women’s Rights Movement, the motives of these suffragists was to promote women’s rights, their main focus being their right to vote

Portrait of an unknown New Zealand suffragette, Charles Hemus Studio Auckland, c. 1880. The sitter wears a white camellia and has cut off her hair, both symbolic of support for advancing women's rights.

The Silent Sentinels were a group of women in favor of women's suffrage organized by Alice Paul and the National …

Silent Sentinels picketing the White House.

A Sentinel with a banner

Florence Bayard Hilles, chairman of the Delaware Branch of the NWP and member of the national executive committee, was arrested picketing the White House July 13, 1917, sentenced to 60 days in Occoquan Workhouse. She was pardoned by President Wilson after serving 3 days of her term.