Just one hundred years ago, at the ancient Buddhist cave temples
of Mogao in the remote desert of northwest China, a Daoist monk
named Wang Yuanlu made an astonishing discovery.

Abbot Wang, as he is often called, had taken up residence as the
self-appointed guardian of Mogao—the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas—close to the oasis town of Dunhuang, which centuries before had
been the gateway from China to the western regions along the Silk
Road. Until Wang took over the site, it seems to have been largely
abandoned since the early Ming dynasty (1368-1644), a time when
China had drawn in upon itself as the self-sufficient "Middle Kingdom."
During the centuries of abandonment, Mogao, while undoubtedly used
as a local religious center, was essentially forgotten. Windblown
sands smothered the grottoes, and decay overtook the wooden temple
facades built on the cliff face into which the caves were cut.

What Abbot Wang found by chance was a hidden library in Cave 17,
sealed at the beginning of the 11th century. In it were tens of
thousands of documents written in Sanskrit, Tibetan, Tangut, and
other languages besides Chinese; silk banners; scrolls; and, most
significantly, the Diamond Sutra, a Buddhist devotional text and
the earliest known printed book, dated from the colophon to 868.
There were also calendars, regional records, contracts for sale
of land, and, famously, a model letter of apology to one's host
for having imbibed too freely. In short, an extraordinary record
of the early medieval Chinese world.

The abbot knew nothing of this detail, nor was his main concern
the documents, though he recognized them as a trove of great value.
His passion was for the cave temples, or grottoes, that honeycombed
the face of the mile-long cliff—some five hundred of them extant,
constructed over a period of a thousand years, from the 4th century
to the 14th century. The fabulous paintings that covered every inch
of the walls and ceilings and the exquisitely modeled and polychrome
clay sculpture within the temples—these were the subject of his
veneration.

The Peerless Caves

The ruins of the earthen fort and military
granary at Yumenguan—known as the Jade Gate—some 90
kilometers to the west of Dunhuang, site of the Mogao grottoes. Photo:
Francesca Piqué.

While Abbot Wang's interest in the grottoes was solely religious,
the world has come to see the significance of Mogao as extending
beyond the spiritual. Its designation as a World Heritage site in
1987 recognized how remarkably the wealth of heritage at Mogao captures
the pageant of Chinese life and customs spanning a millennium.

There are many fascinating stories to tell about Dunhuang and Mogao,
"The Peerless Caves." One is the story of Buddhism's spread into
China and eventually into Korea and Japan. It was through this tiny
oasis portal at the confluence of the two arms of the Silk Road,
which skirt the fearful Takla Makan Desert on the north and south,
that Buddhism was introduced from India in the first century. Another
story is the plunder of the archive of Cave 17, the removal of many
of its contents to museums around the world, and how this dispersal
led to a flourishing international discipline of Dunhuang studies.
Third, there is the study of a thousand years of Chinese Buddhism
from the Mogao wall paintings and wall inscriptions, which reveal
life in China at all levels of society. The cave art richly documents
the costume, dance, and music of eight dynasties of Chinese history,
as well as agriculture and daily existence in a remote outpost of
the empire. Here are portraits of the nobles who commissioned the
caves, along with their wives and retinues, named in inscriptions
on the walls.

Wang Yuanlu, the Daoist monk who, a hundred
years ago, discovered tens of thousands of ancient documents
that had been sealed in Cave 17 of the Mogao grottoes at the
beginning of the 11th century. Photo: Sir Aurel Stein. Courtesy
the Oriental and India Office, The British Library.

Then there is the two-thousand-year history of Mogao and Dunhuang.
Dunhuang was founded in 111 B.C.E. as a commandery, the last outpost
of newly unified Han China. As elsewhere in China, Dunhuang's history
is one of conquest by fierce neighbors—in this case, the Northern
Wei and the Tibetans—and reconquest by the ethnic Chinese. The
history of the north of China is one of turmoil and flux, as nomads
and migrants from the mountains and steppe swept down upon the agriculturalists.
This conflict led to the construction of the first Great Wall, started
by the unifier of China, Qin Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of the
Qin dynasty (221-206 B.C.E.), a task that continued intermittently
over the centuries and was greatly extended during the Ming dynasty.
Remnants of the wall and watchtowers, built of earth during the
Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.), can still be seen west of Dunhuang
at Yumenguan, the so-called Jade Gate through which passed annual
tributes of precious jade from present-day Xinjiang. Here in the
desert lie neatly stacked piles of reeds, ready as they have been
for 20 centuries to be lit as signal fires on the approach of the
enemy.

From the middle of the 20th century, there is the story of the
1943 establishment of the Dunhuang Academy as the organization responsible
for Mogao, as well as its trials and vicissitudes through the Cultural
Revolution until today. Under remarkable directors and able staff,
it has developed into an intellectual and cultural establishment
of the first rank. For the last decade, the Getty Conservation Institute
has collaborated with this unique institution, working with the
academy to preserve the art of Mogao through research, training,
and conservation.

A pile of some of the ancient manuscripts discovered
at the turn of the century in Cave 17 of the Mogao grottoes.
Photo: Sir Aurel Stein.Courtesy the Oriental and India Office,
The British Library.

The Mogao grottoes, once a site almost unknown to all but a few
specialists, is now a mecca for scholars and tourists from around
the world.

Dunhuang Scholarship

Though Marco Polo would have passed through Dunhuang, the first
recorded European visit of Mogao in modern times was in 1879 by
the geographer and explorer Lajos Lóczy, a member of a Hungarian
expedition. He subsequently mentioned it to a friend, Aurel Stein,
a Hungarian-born British subject who was later knighted for his
Central Asia explorations and for the archaeological collections
(now in Britain and India) that he amassed. Having heard of the
hidden library, Stein arrived at Mogao in 1907. Abbot Wang was no
match against the determined blandishments of Stein, who removed
thousands of scrolls on his first forays. In 1913 he returned, and
obtained further hundreds of items. In his classic account of exploration
in Central Asia, Stein wrote that when he first entered Cave 17,
"the sight of the small room disclosed was one to make my eyes open
wide. Heaped up in layers, but without perfect order, there appeared
in the dim light of the priest's little lamp a solid mass of manuscript
bundles rising to a height of nearly ten feet, and filling, as subsequent
measurement showed, close on 500 cubic feet. The area left clear
within the room was just sufficient for two people to stand in."

Stein was followed rapidly by others from France, Germany, Russia,
and Japan. The American Langdon Warner, the last of the raiders,
arrived on the scene in the 1920s, by which time authorities had
given orders for the removal of the remaining manuscripts to Beijing.
By this time, too, nationalism and even hostility to foreign archaeologists
had grown strong in China, and the government, though weak, forbade
removal of artifacts from sites in China. Nonetheless, Warner did
get to Mogao and Dunhuang, and Dunhuang Academy staff today may
show visitors a small area of wall painting in one of the caves
which they say was in the process of being lifted by Warner when
he was stopped from doing so.

A view of a portion of the facade of the Mogao
grottoes. In the background is the nine-story pagoda
enclosing Cave 96.
Photo: Leslie Rainer.

A consequence of the diaspora of the Cave 17 library holdings is
the rise of a vibrant field of international scholarship. For example,
the International Dunhuang Project at the British Library actively
publishes material on the Stein collection. The St. Petersburg branch
of the Institute of Oriental Studies at the Russian Academy of Sciences
is organizing a conference, "Preservation of Dunhuang and Central
Asian Collections," in St. Petersburg in September of this year.
Next year the Dunhuang Academy will celebrate the discovery of the
Cave 17 library with an international conference at the site. Wang's
mud-brick temple in front of the grottoes, where he was suborned
by Stein into parting with the treasures of the library, is being
reconstructed for the event by the Dunhuang Academy, even though
there is ambivalence about the monk himself. On the one hand, he
is the discoverer; on the other hand, he sold out—and for a pittance
at that.

Today China bitterly resents the loss of the Cave 17 library, mainly
to Western institutions. To a significant degree, Chinese scholars
have been hampered by lack of access to the material, and consequently,
a great deal of research on the documents has been done elsewhere.
Still, the wall paintings and sculpture at Mogao remain remarkably
well preserved, due in part to the extremely dry climate and the
remoteness from arenas of warfare. Most damage has been the result
of human activity—primarily, it seems, in the first half of the
20th century. The opening of the region to modern road traffic and
the lack of site staff and protection before 1943 meant that casual
visitors could (and did) deface paintings and mutilate or loot clay
sculpture. Also, around 1920, Russian émigrés fleeing
the aftermath of the revolution spent a winter in some of the grottoes,
and soot from their cooking and heating fires completely blackened
paintings.

In 1980, Mogao was opened to tourism, which grew from a trickle
to a torrent by the late 1990s. The expansion of Dunhuang airport
allows jets to fly daily from Beijing, Xian, and Lanzhou through
most of the year. Only in winter, due to the intense cold, is tourism
slow. Tourism has transformed Dunhuang from a dusty provincial town
of a few thousand inhabitants in the 1940s and 1950s, to a bustling
city of street markets and new hotels funded by capital from Hong
Kong and elsewhere. This influx has caused the Dunhuang Academy
concern about the impact of too many visitors on the art. Mogao
remains one of the best-managed sites in China, and the academy
is striving to keep abreast of developments in conservation, site
presentation, and management through collaborations with the GCI
and other organizations, such as the Tokyo National Research Institute
for Cultural Properties. To address one of these issues, the academy
erected an exhibition hall on site with 10 full-scale, hand-painted
copies of the most popular caves. Since the caves are not artificially
lit and visitors must examine the wall paintings by flashlight,
the copies are an alternative or complement to the experience of
visiting the caves.

There is a long-standing tradition of copying the wall paintings,
and the replication section is one of several large departments
of the Dunhuang Academy (others include conservation, archives,
visitor management, and art-historical research). Recently retired
academy director Duan Wenjie, who came to Mogao as an art student
in the late 1940s, has written, "I was in charge of the Mogao grottoes
for nearly half a century and dedicated my life to copying work.
I am deeply convinced that this work is a science unto itself. Copies
painted by me and by artists devoting themselves to Dunhuang art
have been exhibited at Lanzhou, Xian, Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin,
Shenyang, Hefei, and Taiwan, as well as India, Myanmar, Poland,
Czechoslovakia, France, and Japan. . . . In the course of my copying
work in the remote desert, I probed into the aesthetics and history
of Dunhuang art. Thus, my theoretical research was built on a solid
foundation. Dunhuang art will definitively play a positive role
in the development of Chinese art and culture and that of the world
as well."

The GCI at Mogao

The documentation team at work in Cave 85,
recording the condition of the wall paintings. Photo: Leslie
Rainer.

This year marks the 10th anniversary of the Getty Conservation
Institute's work at Dunhuang. At the beginning of 1989, an agreement
was made between the Getty Trust and the State Bureau of Cultural
Relics (now the State Administration for Cultural Heritage, known
as SACH). The agreement was deferred for one year after the events
at Tiananmen Square in 1989, but planning continued. The first five
years of GCI work focused on site stabilization, research on the
environmental causes of deterioration, monitoring, and training.
This phase culminated in an international conference at Mogao in
October 1993, "Conservation of Ancient Sites along the Silk Road,"
which also commemorated the 50th anniversary of the Dunhuang Academy.
Its purpose was to bring together site managers from the East and
the West to exchange experience and knowledge (see Conservation,
vol. 9, no. 1). Subsequently, the GCI and SACH formally evaluated
the work done using independent experts from the United States and
Europe, together with a team from China. Overall, their report was
very positive; encouraged by this, the GCI has followed up with
further collaboration.

The current work focuses on understanding in detail the problems
of the deterioration of the wall paintings, the introduction of
new materials and methods for the conservation of wall paintings,
and research and training. Cave 85, a large Tang dynasty cave on
ground level, has been chosen as the exemplar. The work plan follows
the methodology of the developing China Principles, a collaboration
of the GCI with SACH and the Australian Heritage Commission (see
Conservation, vol. 13, no.
1). During the June 1999 campaign at Mogao, the two projects
converged at the site. The draft China Principles for conservation
and management of sites were further refined during this work in
the context of conservation and site management at the macrolevel
of Mogao. At the same time, the wall paintings team completed the
condition recording and assessment following the same methodology,
but at the microlevel at Cave 85.

The academy has assembled a large team to work in an integrated
fashion with GCI staff, consultants, and partners. From the GCI
side, the wall paintings group, led by Francesca Piqué, is
completing the condition recording, while Shin Maekawa, who heads
the environmental group, is studying the effects of moisture and
humidity on the floor and bedrock of the cave. Michael Schilling's
analytical team is studying binding media in the wall paintings,
identifying pigments, and analyzing clays and the composition of
the substrate and their response to humidity changes. As previously,
between the two GCI campaigns per annum, in the spring and the fall,
the Chinese staff at Mogao continues with data collection and processing.

A portion of the wall paintings in Cave
85, depicting a variety of scenes from everyday life during
the late Tang dynasty. Photo: Francesca Piqué. (bottom) A painting of Zhai Farong of the Dunhuang
region, the principal donor for Cave 85. The portrait is located
at the entrance to the cave. Photo: Sun Hong Cai.

To expand the training opportunities inherent in the project, the
Dunhuang Academy has invited site managers from other sites along
the Silk Road to participate in the collaboration. Currently, staff
from the Xinjiang sites of Kizil and Jiaohe and from Lanzhou are
team members. The team is further strengthened by Zheng Jun, a Courtauld-trained
wall paintings conservator who is on staff at the Chinese National
Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Property (CNIP) in Beijing.
He, with two Dunhuang Academy staff members (Wang Xudong and Su
Bomin), spent one month at the GCI in July 1999 for advanced training
in analysis and digital documentation. Further training at the GCI
is planned for academy environmental team members next year.

During the years of collaboration between the GCI and the Dunhuang
Academy, productive professional and personal relationships have
developed. The current director, archaeologist Fan Jinshi, has been
at Mogao since 1963. She has dedicated her life to the site, and
her unstinting support of the partnership with the GCI provides
a constant source of guidance. A core member in the China Principles
project, which has worked at other large World Heritage sites such
as Chengde (the Qing dynasty summer resort) and Qufu (Confucius's
birthplace), Director Fan has stated, "the joint Dunhuang Academy-Getty
Conservation Institute work in Cave 85 is integral with the approach
to the conservation of this large site of Mogao. Management according
to principles that preserve the site's cultural values is now ever
more important, as China develops and the pressures of tourism increase.
We must succeed in our duty to keep intact the historical record
and the sublime beauty of Mogao."

A detail of the Tang dynasty paintings in Cave
85, depicting musicians with their instruments. These musical
instruments have been recreated for performances at the Dunhuang
Academy today.Photo: Neville Agnew.

Neville Agnew is group director of Information & Communications
at the GCI.

Feature Sidebar

Wall Paintings Conservation at Mogao

by Francesca Piqué, Shin Maekawa, and Michael Schilling

Since October 1997, the GCI has been working with the Dunhuang
Academy on a wall paintings conservation project at the Mogao grottoes.
The objective is to identify and address urgent conservation problems
affecting the wall paintings, while following the methodology for
the conservation and management of cultural heritage sites being
developed for China in a collaborative
project between China's State Administration for Cultural Heritage,
the GCI, and the Australian Heritage Commission. This methodology
encompasses a statement of the cultural significance of the cave,
condition documentation of the paintings, scientific investigations
of environment and materials, and development of treatment strategies.

Cave 85, a large late-Tang dynasty cave, was selected as a model
case study. The cave, with 16 large illustrated sutras in the main
chamber, was completed in 866 for the Zhai family of the region.

The project's interdisciplinary team is composed of conservators,
scientists, engineers, art historians, technical photographers,
and draftspersons. The Dunhuang Academy brings to the collaboration
long and extensive experience with the preservation of the wall
paintings at Mogao, while the GCI's contribution includes expertise
in project management and conservation science.

The rock temples of the Mogao grottoes were literally carved into
a cliff face of soft conglomerate rock. The temple walls were plastered
over with a mixture of clay and plant fiber, and the paintings were
executed as line drawings in black ink on a layer of fine plaster
covering the clay, then filled in with bright mineral colors.

For centuries the paintings have suffered deterioration of various
kinds, from flaking and peeling of the paint layer to progressive
loss of adhesion between the rock conglomerate and the clay-based
plasters. The latter problem has resulted in the delamination of
the painted plasters from their support—a problem common to other
sites near Dunhuang and on the ancient Silk Road. Large areas of
the paintings have been lost, as the delamination finally leads
to the collapse and fall of the painted plaster. Since 1943 the
Dunhuang Academy has addressed this problem by anchoring the plaster
to the rock conglomerate with iron bolts and, more recently, by
using liquefied earth-based grouts.

A detail of a painting in Cave 85 of Buddha
and bodhisattvas.
Photo: Sun Hong Cai.

However, the deterioration mechanisms have never been studied rigorously,
in a way that would lead to the development of conservation and
maintenance solutions. The conservation problems may be related
to environmental conditions at the site, as well as to the original
painting materials and techniques. While these problems may never
be completely eliminated, understanding the causes and processes—in particular the role of water and soluble salts—is the basis
for developing measures to reduce the rate of deterioration and
ameliorate the situation.

Another conservation problem being addressed is the evaluation
of methods for soot removal from the delicate and water-sensitive
paintings. Traditional poulticing, as well as more sophisticated
gel and laser cleaning techniques, will be tested.

This project is structured in phases—assessment, planning, testing,
and implementation. The project team members work in small groups
(conservation, documentation, analytical studies, and environmental
monitoring) on specific parts of each phase; they are nearing completion
of the assessment phase. The paintings' composition (pigments, binder,
and stratigraphy), their current state of preservation, and the
climatic environment inside and surrounding the cave, as well as
the site's complex history, are being examined in order to reconstruct
and determine the processes and causes of damage. In this phase,
several analytical and environmental studies—such as the thorough
examination and detailed recording of the wall paintings' condition
and the monitoring of moisture movements in the conglomerate substrate—are being carried out. The design of the conservation plan will
be developed jointly with Dunhuang Academy staff, who will undertake
most of the actual interventions, once the project has been completed
in 2002.

Francesca Piqué, project specialist, Shin Maekawa, senior
scientist, and Michael Schilling, associate scientist, are members
of the GCI's team working on the Mogao project.

A cross section of Cave 85 at the Mogao
grottoes, where the GCI and the Dunhuang Academy are collaborating
on a wall paintings conservation project. Nearly all of the
350 square meters of wall surface within the cave are covered
with wall paintings.