BIT 1984 Volume 3 Issue 1

The need for software which tolerates errors in user input is discussed and
a particular piece of software is described which accepts inadequacies and
extreme abbreviations in keywords stored in easily prepared dictionary files.
Though its previous application has been in the recognition of user-defined
commands, evaluation shows that it can be easily adapted to other more general
applications, provided that the hardware and software environment of the
installation is compatible.

The BLEND experimental programme on electronic communication and 'electronic
journals' is based on the computer teleconferencing software suite NOTEPAD.
Although this allowed several levels of communication, it was found necessary
to enhance the facilities to aid users in their tasks, authors in editing and
sending manuscripts to the host computers, to aid readers in skipping round a
journal paper and to make the interaction more simple and consistent. This
paper describes the process, rationale and extent of these enhancements.
Although the changes made are modest (by the standards feasible in computer
systems designs), they have made a considerable differences to the ease of use
and amount of use.

OAM is a functionally oriented office analysis methodology which provides
guidance in preparing an office study, collecting information from office
staff, and organizing and presenting the results. It is well suited to
semi-structured offices and provides the appropriate level of detail for making
decisions regarding the design and justification of a computerized office
information system. An evaluation of OAM by several using organizations shows
it to be an efficient, effective, teachable methodology. OAM was perceived by
users to improve significantly the functionality of office information systems
implemented after an OAM study by comparison with task oriented study
methodologies.

Videotext Technology: An Overview with Special Reference to Transaction
Processing as an Interactive Service or Everything You Never Wanted to Know
About Text on TV and Were Terrified that Someone Would Tell You

This paper presents a comprehensive overview of videotex technology with
specific reference to transaction processing. Transaction processing is taken
to include: banking, shopping, ticket booking and the downline loading of
software. The overview characterizes the interactive transaction services
offered by videotext systems. First, the hardware aspects of delivery of the
information are considered including broadcast delivery and telephone and cable
network delivery. Second, the software aspects of the construction of the
information are discussed, including character and graphics (picture)
generation. Last, the interactive services offered on videotext systems are
reviewed, including transaction modes, dialogue types, task elements and user
classification. Conclusions are drawn with respect to the suitability of
videotext systems for different modes of transaction processing.

Text-to-speech systems have attracted a lot of research and development
during the last decade. Recently, this work has resulted in relatively
inexpensive products with decent speech quality. Text-to-speech systems offer
an alternative to presenting text information on screens or paper. The
telephone could hence be used as a computer terminal. Very little information
is at present available on human factors in the use of these new devices. In
this paper we will discuss the use of a multilingual text-to-speech system in
various applications related to telecommunications.

One of the major problems that affects a person's ability to make effective
use of an interactive program is the level at which its manipulation affects
the intellectual process necessary to solve his current problem. For example,
in a computer-aided circuit design system, the user often has to spend so much
time manipulating the system or thinking about how he will manipulate the
system next, that he is unable to direct his full attention to the actual
design of his circuit.
Without the use of the computer, the mundane numerical calculations that
need to be performed in order to do the design, interfere with the engineering
design process. By assisting with these mundane calculations and thus enabling
the engineer to consider many more possible designs, the engineer should be
able to fully concentrate on the design goals. Instead, however, he must
sacrifice some of his mental effort to manipulating the system.
Programs which are developed to assist the user in doing highly innovative
tasks (Benest and Fidler 1981) must be designed so that they provide an 'aura'
that enables the user to realize almost subconsciously what is expected of him.
Such a system would therefore be simple and straightforward to learn, simple
and straightforward to use, promote confidence and exhibit an unhurried work
environment. These laudable aims have been investigated during the development
of the passive filter design program FIDES, which serves to provide a graphical
demonstration of the man-machine interface techniques discussed in this paper.

All novice programmers find that their initial programs are rejected by the
compiler in a flurry of incomprehensible error messages. Some messages are
even hostile (e.g. fatal error in pass zero) and leave the novice sadder and
certainly no wiser. The quality of error messages is usually the loser when
the compiler writer attempts to balance conflicting design constraints such as
size, speed, quality of target code and utility of use by competent
programmers.
We believe that novices' programs should be passed through a series of
checkers which are designed to trap and comment on the particular kinds of
errors made by them. Such systems may have to make several passes through the
program, even to provide an apposite comment on a syntactic error. For logic
checking such systems will need access to a description (in some form) of what
the novice's program is supposed to do. Only when a novice's program passes
through all the checkers successfully should it be submitted to the standard
compiler.
This paper surveys existing attempts to build 'intelligent' compilers which
are considerate of novices' difficulties. It then describes our own progress
towards the construction of program checkers for use by undergraduates learning
Pascal.

The CONNECT interactive dialogue system is briefly described and the
path-algebra technique explained. Its relevance to interactive dialogue design
is illustrated by a number of examples. The analysis and usefulness of
multilayered networks is briefly explained and a possible extension to step
retracing is outlined.

Usability is presented as a concept which can limit the degree to which a
user can realize the potential utility of a computer system. A field study is
presented to illustrate the manner in which usability problems inhibit usage.
The study examined a banking system which provided staff with 36 ways of
extracting information from a customer's account. The usage log shows that
four 'codes' accounted for 75% of usage and many 'codes', although designed
specifically for known banking tasks, were virtually unused. An investigation
was undertaken in 15 branches to identify what happened when staff were
confronted by tasks for which unused facilities had been designed. The results
showed that staff were able to use a small set of well-known facilities for
most purposes, albeit inefficiently and sometimes ineffectively. The strategy
adopted was to avoid searching unknown facilities except as a last resort.
From this and other field studies a framework is presented to summarize the
variables affecting the usability of a system. It portrays the user making a
series of implicit cost-benefit assessments as he undertakes tasks, attempting
to minimize search effort 'costs' rather than trying to optimise 'benefits'.
The paper ends by examining the methodological implications of this framework.
It is suggested that many of the variables which influence usability are
excluded from normal experimental paradigms with the result that usability
issues are often not evident in the results of experimental studies. It is
advocated that more attention be paid to realistic simulation studies and to
field experiments in order to submit the concept of usability to thorough
scientific scrutiny.

Automatic speech recognition technology has been around for well over a
decade. Despite its availability there has been little significant demand from
end users. This paper examines where we are in speech-recognition technology
and discusses its relevance to building effective man-machine interfaces.
Major factors characterizing applications benefiting from the technology are
discussed.

Techniques of speech synthesis potentially suitable for machine voice output
were demonstrated in research laboratories 20 years ago (see, for example,
Holmes et al. 1964), but have so far been restricted in application by the
difficulty of generating acceptable speech with a sufficiently flexible
vocabulary. JSRU's current laboratory system produces highly intelligible
speech from an unlimited English vocabulary. The technique of speech synthesis
by rule enables synthetic speech to be generated from conventionally spelled
English text, with provision for using modified spelling or phonetic symbols
for the small proportion of words that would otherwise be pronounced
incorrectly.
Recent advances in electronic technology have made it feasible to implement
the most advanced systems for flexible speech synthesis in low-cost equipment.
In addition to research towards improving the speech quality, JSRU is shortly
expecting to demonstrate synthesis by rule in a self-contained voice output
peripheral based on inexpensive microprocessor and signal processing integrated
circuits. This paper considers some of the operational constraints which must
be placed on the use of such a device if speech synthesis is to take place as a
general-purpose machine-man communication medium.

Speech has a number of advantages as a medium of communication with
computers, and its use could, in principle, convert every telephone into a
low-cost remote terminal. But man-machine vocal interaction gives rise to
several problems that make this a fertile area for human-factors research.
This paper attempts to set these issues within a telecommunications context,
and provides a review of some of our experimental studies in the area. Three
main aspects are considered; the perception of machine-generated speech (both
concatenated, stored-waveform and truly synthetic) and the problems inherent in
auditory information presentation, the user difficulties associated with
automatic speech recognition, and the design of voice-based interactive
information services.

BIT 1984 Volume 3 Issue 3

Two models of proof-reading tasks are explored by varying the procedures for
annotating a text. One model assumes that the processes of detecting errors,
recording annotations and resuming proof-reading are sets of serial processes.
The other model assumes that annotation processes may overlap with reading the
text. Performance when proof-reading a vertically displayed text (as on a CRT)
and recording the errors on a separate sheet was compared with reading a
horizontal text (as on a desk top) and recording annotations in the margins.
The data supported the serial model and showed that variations in annotation
procedures can yield differences in proof-reading speed of comparable magnitude
to those found in an earlier study where CRT and printout displays were
contrasted and the differences were attributed to legibility factors. The
implications of these findings and this model of proof-reading are related to
the wider issues of using electronic texts.

The User Interface to Computer-Based Information Systems: A Survey of
Current Software Design Practice

From a survey of 201 people concerned with information-system design,
estimates for 83 systems indicate that on average 30-35 per cent of operational
software is devoted to the user-system interface (USI). In the design of USI
software, survey responses indicate that improvements are needed in
requirements definition, design documentation and design guidelines.

This paper develops, describes and critiques an integrated, theoretical
model which provides a framework for studying and planning
performance-improvement programs for users working with the capabilities of
multifunctional workstations. The performance-improvement block interaction
model focuses on three facets of performance improvement: (i) individual and
group substitution and augmentation skills, (ii) man-computer interface design,
and (iii) organizational philosophy. The variables depicted in the model are
derived largely from two existing models and a previous empirical study which
are also described in the paper. These variables will interact with the above
three facets to determine the extent of multifunctional-workstation
utilization. One variable, the concept of user augmentation skills, is unique
to the performance-improvement block interaction model. Thus, one section of
the paper explains augmentation skills and the relationship of these skills to
multifunctional-workstation utilization.

Office Planning and Design: The Impact of Organizational Change Due to
Advanced Information Technology

The paper reports a recent study of the impact of information technology
(I.T.) on the planning and design of office building. Advanced I.T. is
associated with changes to organizational structure which in turn affect space
planning requirements. Recent research is reviewed to indicate trends in
organizational change. Then the implications for planning and design are
discussed. Conclusions are drawn for the future layout and design of office
buildings suitable for organizations with advanced I.T.

Computer Power to the People: Computer Resource Centres or Home Terminals?
Two Scenarios

Computer power will become widely available in industrialized societies by
the end of the 1980s. Hardware costs are still falling. High-level languages,
tools, and software packages make the equipment easier to use. National
mainframe computers or separate microcomputers in homes, shops, and offices
offer personal computing and networking to a rapidly growing number of
citizens. But how should the new resources be utilized? What kind of society
do we want to build? How will work, family life, and societal services and
obligations be organized in the late 1980s? One strategy is to deliver
computer power and computer services through home terminals so that many people
can handle their affairs, and maybe even work, from home. Another is to
encourage computer resource centres in suburbs, towns and villages and to
develop a more collective pattern of computer use. The paper spells out these
two approaches and discusses their respective advantages and disadvantages, and
the mechanisms at work in Sweden favouring the one or the other development.

An Approach to IKBS Development Based on a Review of "Conceptual Structures:
Information Processing in Mind and Machine" by J. F. Sowa

A critical commentary is offered on the nature and development of IKBSs.
The commentary was prompted by a review of Sowa's book which is also presented.
The book is used to introduce many of the relevant issues. Sowa concentrates
on the architecture of IKBSs, however, this commentary argues that the social
and psychological impact of these systems will increasingly be determined by
IKBSs' abilities and functions. Furthermore, a distinction is made between an
IKBS itself and its interface with the human user.

The growth and some characteristics of information technology (IT) are
outlined, and the importance of ergonomics in the design of IT systems is
illustrated. Some immediate questions for the next 7 years are discussed,
including research gaps and needs, the development of design procedures, a
suggested ergonomics framework and some industrial design aspects. Longer-term
questions discussed are the passing of paper, the reduction of writing, the
victory of voice and the wired society. Finally, some of the important broader
issues are mentioned and the need for collaborative synergy by ergonomists,
computer professionals, architects and industrial designers is emphasized.

This paper examines the role of ergonomics in product and systems design.
Market requirements as well as legislation have increased the use of ergonomics
in design. This has increased the demands upon both ergonomists and designers.
The ergonomist must learn to participate in the product development team. In
return the design team must find the time and resources necessary for the
inclusion of ergonomics in the development programme. This paper discusses the
different roles played by the ergonomist in each stage of product and systems
design. The need to give designers, engineers and management a fundamental
education in ergonomics is highlighted as is the need for the ergonomist to
consider the financial consequences of his work.

Standards Related to the Design of VDT Workstations and Their Environment

The European Computer Manufacturers Association (ECMA) has traditionally
dealt with technical standards for interfaces between technical devices. In
ergonomics the interface is between a device and a human being. This is a new
task for ECMA and as consequence it was decided to start with recommendations
only.
Two radically different approaches could be envisioned: the jury method and
the measurement method. Although the first holds several merits ECMA chose the
latter method.
The resulting report treats the human characteristics that are of relevance
for the task at a VDU workstation, the suitable environment, as well as the
equipment itself, i.e. the VDU and its keyboard.
The committee that produced the report is now preparing a standard for VDUs
from it.

In future, as well as visual human-computer interfaces, acoustic interfaces
will get more and more important. However, the visual channel will be the more
important channel due to its capacity. Therefore, it is necessary not only to
optimize the display with regard to performance and time, but also to
acceptance and subjective workload. On the one hand the single character
(luminance, geometry, shape, colour) and on the other hand the arrangement of
characters (distance of characters, image distortions, structure of text)
should be adapted to human psychophysiological abilities. Moreover, the
influence of the environment (lighting) and time-dependent phenomena (flicker,
jitter) should be taken into consideration. Good ergonomists should imply the
use of all possibilities which the flexible new technology offers for
workplaces, including sensory or muscularly handicapped people.

With the introduction of VDTs many office employees became part of a
man-machine system with close physical binding to the workstation. Constrained
postures associated with muscle fatigue and sometimes with impairments
involving joints or tendons can occur.
Field studies revealed a certain incidence of physical discomfort in the
neck-shoulder-arm-hand area. These troubles may also occur in other strenuous
office jobs. An increased incidence of physical discomfort and medical
findings is observed when keyboard levels are too low, when forearm and wrists
cannot rest on an adequate support and when the design of the keyboard itself
is too high.
A study of preferred settings and postures at adjustable VDT workstations
under practical conditions revealed the need for relatively wide ranges of
adjustable dimensions. The operators prefer postures similar to those of car
drivers: they lean backwards with upper arms kept higher than expected and
slightly opened elbow angles. Recommendations are drawn from these studies for
the proper design of VDT workstations concerning the ranges of adjustability,
the leg room and the chair.

The introduction of VDT workstations into everyday office situations
necessitates the design of interactive dialogues for non-specialized operators.
These dialogues must be developed by a detailed analysis of the operators' work
and concerted understanding between operators, ergonomists and computer
specialists. The result will be improved tasks and adapted software.

The office is a major target for the suppliers of computer systems but it is
rather more than the 'paperwork factory' of the advertisements. Various items
of 'new' technology promise all manner of benefits from electronic filing to
video conferencing. However, many of the components of the advanced office
system are similar to the displays, keyboards, printers, black boxes and wiring
of traditional computing and bring with them the same ergonomic problems for
the users when they interact with the office environment. Solving these
problems involves taking a systems approach to the office. A key concept is
the system life cycle and in this paper eight ergonomics inputs relevant to the
different stages of office-system design are identified.

Office electronics is driving the change in the modern office, but is
neither the solution nor the source of office problems. Office change will
continue at an increasing rate and office planning must start with a holistic
consideration of the four basic office elements and their interaction if it is
to be successful. These elements are: technology/computers,
facilities/furniture, work/job function and social/people issues.
Increasing office technology will result in more computers and other
hardware directly in the workstation. Paper growth will continue and
communication technology will increase in importance and sophistication.
Buildings will be less able to support the increasing demands for automation
in many ways, including lighting, wiring, cabling, heating, cooling and
privacy. Furniture will assume more of these functions to save building
renovation costs. Furniture systems must retain maximum flexibility to adapt
to these changing needs. Automated information systems will allow
decentralization of the office. Total office ergonomics will become
increasingly important.
Job functions will change with automation. The work force will require
fewer clerical and more 'knowledge' workers. Jobs must be redesigned to
account for boredom and to make better use of a worker's potential.
Workers will need to rehumanize the workplace in the face of increasing high
technology. Management needs to view workers as a valued investment, which
will lead to improved relations. Unless worker health and safety concerns are
adequately addressed, increased union and legislative involvement is likely as
the white-collar work force grows.
The rapid office changes we now see offer great opportunities to increase
worker effectiveness, but several conditions must be met. (1) Senior
management must be active in developing office automation plans because of the
potential huge costs and benefits. (2) Human resources specialists must be
involved in the planning process to ensure that proper orientation and training
are given and to gain maximum advantage from office changes. The impact of the
changes on corporate culture must be integrated into the planning process. (3)
Financial resources must be committed to update office systems. (4) A holistic
consideration of the four basic elements of the office is critical to the
successful anticipation of future needs. (5) Change is continual and the
office plan must be updated. (6) A team of specialists must assist senior
management in developing, implementing and updating the plan.

This paper describes the results of an ergonomic survey on interactive
graphics workstations for computer-aided design (CAD). A work-sampling study
was carried out to characterize the use of keyboard, digitizer tablet and video
display. Subjective impressions of CAD software, CAD hardware and health
aspects were collected by means of a questionnaire. Working methods and
working postures were recorded on videotape. The two most important
differences in comparison with other office terminals are: (i) dynamic working
methods result in an absence of constrained postures in CAD operators and allow
full-body exercise; (ii) CAD operators spend more time (46-68 per cent of
working hours) viewing the video display than the average office terminal
operator. Some ergonomic recommendations have been deduced for the
construction of CAD terminals, as well as for the ergonomic improvement of
existing workstations.

Prevalence of Data Operators' Musculoskeletal Symptoms During the Workday
and Workweek

The aim of this report, which is part of a study on the factors of mental
load in office work, was to determine whether 30 data operators'
musculoskeletal symptoms varied during the workday and workweek. An ergonomic
survey was also carried out to find measures to improve the workstations and to
motivate the operators to recognize problem areas. The results showed that all
musculoskeletal symptoms increased during the workday, but symptoms in the neck
and shoulders most of all. There were no differences in the prevalences of
symptoms between the beginning and the end of the workweek. In response to the
questions on mental-load factors, operators described their work as not
mentally demanding but as very pressing at times. They felt they received
insufficient feedback and that their work was not appreciated by the work
organization. These results led to the following recommendations: job
rotation; increased feedback; more instruction on how to adjust the worksite.
Exercises for relaxation and the improvement of muscle awareness were also
recommended.

A pilot study is described which investigates the feasibility of using
spinal electromyography as a means of discriminating between the effects of
various office-chair designs on spinal muscle activity. The results support
the view that the use of a back rest reduces spinal muscle activity but also
suggest that when working (typing), the technique adopted by the worker has a
greater effect on muscle activity than the design of the chair. Simple
electromyographic studies may not be sufficiently sensitive to discriminate
between the effects of individual chairs on spinal health, but it is suggested
that ergonomic consideration may be more important than individual design
concepts of office chairs.

What is to be expected from the office chair of the future? One thing is
certain: office seating is taking on increasingly dynamic dimensions. Office
work today is based on a multitude of activities requiring frequent changes in
position, and added to this are flexible organizational forms -- technically
complex office systems are often used by a number of people. Thus, the working
chair has become a prime target for an ergonomic approach in the office
environment.

Improving VDT Workplaces in Offices by Use of a Physiologically Optimized
Screen with Black Symbols on a Light Background: Basic Considerations

A physiologically optimized bright screen with dark characters has been
developed in an effort to eliminate the visual problems and design restrictions
which are commonly found in conventional VDTs, as described in numerous
publications. It is designed to give a near optimum of visual acuity. Its
character sharpness is significantly better than equivalent bright characters
on dark backgrounds. By choosing an appropriate black character matrix, screen
characters may be made to highly resemble carbon typed characters on a white
piece of paper.
Inherent problems of the 50-60 Hz dark-background screen -- blackness of the
background, inappropriate adaptation level, gross level differences between
screen and document, sensitivity to specular and diffuse reflections -- have
been eliminated by a light-background VDT, which is flicker- and jitter-free
and which uses correctly designed optics.
The experimental unit tolerates source luminances up to 2000 cd/m² and
vertical illumination levels up to 6000 lx without essential degradation of
readability. Consequently, a considerable degree of freedom in designing a VDT
workroom is gained: optimum office illumination without restrictions imposed by
inappropriate VDUs is possible even in situations where, in one workroom, work
which needs high-level illumination and VDT work exist side by side.

Limits of Visual Perception in the Technology of Visual Display Terminals

The limits of visual perception in present VDT technology for man-machine
communication are considered. Essentially, these limits concern the reading of
the displayed information and follow from the prevailing display conditions as
to (i) luminous contrast, (ii) character shape, (iii) text layout and (iv) text
colour. The effect of these conditions on legibility is quantitatively
described from research results, and practical suggestions are given for
improving display legibility, through changes in contrast polarity, character
shape, layout and the way colour is used. Finally, a plea is made for
including experts in visual ergonomics in the teams developing new display
devices in the future.

The Burroughs ET 1100 ergonomic workstation is a general purpose data
communications system composed of a display unit and a cable-connected
keyboard. It is intended for use in full-time work or continuous-use
situations, therefore every effort was made to take ergonomic considerations
into account. This paper describes the design process, the limitations
provided to the design staff and the resulting product which was released in
April 1983. A number of interacting variables needed to be balanced to ensure
that one feature had not been optimized to the detriment of another. In
addition to the manufacturers interest in the product it was important that it
be installed properly, therefore additional measures were taken to educate
users and managers about desirable environmental characteristics.

Contribution of Ergonomics to the Design of Antireflection Devices in the
Development of VDU Workplaces

The design of the early Olivetti VDU workplaces used the micromesh filter as
an antireflection device. New ergonomic problems related to the use of the
VDUs have forced the designers to adopt the etching treatment on new VDUs and
to supply them with the micromesh filter only in cases of particularly highly
lit environments. Afterwards, in order to give the operator the opportunity of
using the preferred colour of the character, the designers set up coloured
plastic filters, which also show good antireflection effectiveness. In this
case, the choice of correct colours and the determination of the best
compromise between antireflection effectiveness and character sharpness are the
contribution of ergonomics to the design of the filters. In this paper the
different antireflection devices and their ergonomic evaluation are presented
and discussed.

The first truly 'ergonomic' keyboard for modern VDUs was shown to the public
in April 1983 in Zurich. This split keyboard was the result of a research
programme carried out by the Department of Hygiene and Work Physiology, ETH,
Zurich. The ergonomic factors of the keyboard were convincing to the press,
computer manufacturers and users. The steps from models of this keyboard to
the final product and related problems of industrial design and engineering are
explained. This will help in understanding the distinctive time lags between
the results of scientific research and the availability of a product in the
market-place.

Within the next few years, most airlines worldwide will be adopting
sophisticated self-service automated systems to enable staff to cope with the
predicted increase in airline travel. NCR's new Skylink terminal, designed by
Douglas Kelley Associates (DKA), London, is a highly flexible self-service
passenger system that can handle flight inquiries, make reservations through
the airline's central computer, electronically debit payment for tickets and
print and issue tickets. It can also function as a check-in and boarding
terminal, providing passes and baggage tags.
This case study paper outlines the many unique factors pertinent to
self-service sales terminals. It will then plot the development work
undertaken by DKA in conjunction with the NCR Corporation in achieving
practical results applicable for installations worldwide. Particular attention
will be devoted to the airline ticketing and check-in terminals emphasizing the
vital importance for ergonomic considerations to be integrated into the
engineering and appearance design activities from the beginning. Physical
factors of ergonomic concern are carefully illustrated together with the more
abstract psychological aspects of anxiety and privacy.
The customer interface by means of VDU screen expression is also discussed
and specially programmed computer graphics dialogues shown to illustrate its
importance. Other aspects of environmental installation, queueing practices,
media replenishment, etc., are included.
A future overview of such systems is explained showing its adaptation to
hotel checking-in, car rental control as well as to variations of ticketing,
from travel agents to executive offices of the future.

Behavioural Data in the Design of Ergonomic Computer Terminals and
Workstations -- A Case Study

Manufacturers of office automation equipment, in their design of ergonomic
computer terminals and office furniture, are encountering needed design data
which is sometimes weak, absent, erroneous or inapplicable to the office-worker
situation under consideration. In some instances, office automation
manufacturers simply follow standards. In others, manufacturers make
assumptions as to the best design, and in others, design decisions were based
on testing results and conclusions.
The paper reviews the ergonomic tools and features incorporated into the
design of one office automation manufacturer's terminals and workstations. The
short fall of applicable design data relevant to comfort versus extremes of
motion in biomechanics, to keyboard home row height and slope angle to viewing
distance, as well as to reverse video and surface colour are presented, along
with the design resolution of these parameters. Further, certain aspects of
posture recently published are discussed.

The aim of this study was to establish an optimal keyboard and data space
arrangement for data-entry operators using a VDT. The location of the keyboard
and data was investigated in two ways:

(1) An experimental model with a straight-line arrangement of operator,
keyboard, data to be entered and screen. Entry data in that model were
located between the keyboard and the screen, on a special inclined
support. A sliding ruler, making reading easier, was an additional piece
of equipment of the support. The keyboard was placed in front of the
desk, below its surface.

(2) A traditional model with a lateral arrangement of operator, keyboard,
screen and with data to be entered either on the right or on the left of
the keyboard.
The test carried out to compare the two arrangements proved the assumption that
there is a difference in operators' efficiency depending on the type of
arrangement used. While operating the straight-line VDT stand operators were
more efficient than when using the lateral one and found the former arrangement
more comfortable.

The Swedish Telecommunications Administration (STA) has designed and
marketed ComforTable, a generic workstation for visual display terminals
(VDTs). Among its features are pushbutton, electrically operated height
adjustment for the table top and a digital display showing the operational
height in centimetres. ComforTable meets current user needs and demands for
flexibility, and it is designed to accommodate the newer models of VDTs in
Sweden, virtually all of which come with tiltable, height-adjustable screens
and thin, detachable keyboards. This paper presents a rationale for the
development and use of this generic workstation.

Ergonomic design of computer workstations requires an understanding of user
needs by manufacturers and employers. Manufacturers must develop equipment
allowing users to maximize their efficiency while minimizing stress. Employers
must arrange proper workstation configurations. The 'best' design can fail if
it is not appropriate for the task or the specific population of users. At one
company requesting an evaluation of its adjustable computer workstations,
employer and manufacturer failed to address simple user requirements. Job
analyses were not adequately performed, and test procedures comparing
workstations were probably biased. Casually questioning workers revealed
little preference for these newer workstations compared with their older, more
traditional, workstations. Recommendations for this company stressed task
requirements, likely future changes in task demands and user needs. Emphasis
on single factors, such as the universal use of adjustable desks, was
substituted for a more coherent picture of the entire job and its requirements.

Activity and photoergonomic analysis was carried out on 21 VDTs, while the
operators were performing usual VDT tasks, at three computer centres in Bombay.
Studies confirmed that failure to apply the knowledge of ergonomics to the
design of workstations results in unnecessary fatigue and discomfort. Among
the various factors which contribute to the efficiency, comfort and well-being
of operators, the postural and visual factors are closely related (inseparable)
and are important. Document holders, though very important, are not used at
all. The aim of the workstation design was to obtain maximum postural/visual
efficiency, bearing in mind environmental, manufacturing and marketing
constraints.

Ergonomics in India: A Case Study on Workspace Design for an Alphacomp
Phototypesetting Machine

Ergonomics in India is a newly emerging discipline -- having made inroads to
the people of India very recently. Most of the Indians are absolutely unaware
of using ergonomics to achieve an efficient man-machine-environment system for
better productivity with less human cost. The present case study on workspace
design for a phototypesetting machine in India indicates that people from the
printing sector are ready to spend money importing modern machinery to achieve
twofold objectives; (i) improvement of printing quality and (ii) faster
publication. However, lack of ergonomic awareness hinders the design of a
proper work environment, without which they cannot reach their goals.
The present study is aimed at designing a proper workplace for an Alphacomp
model K-II phototypesetting machine, which is going to be imported by several
organizations in Bombay in the near future. The equipment consists of a
printer, a floppy-disc drive, a keyboard and a power-supply unit. Only a
single set-up out of three existing set-ups in Bombay was studied. As well as
the existing workplace arrangement, three other concepts of arranging the
equipment were generated and evaluated through mock-up studies. Evaluations
were based on time-movement analysis, postural problems and anthropometric
requirements by using video technique, questionnaires and personal
observations. Strains imposed on thighs, lumbar and shoulder regions in
existing conditions were eliminated by redesigning the workspace. The time
required to complete the same task in different reorganized workspace
arrangements was about 14-20 min less than that of the existing condition.
Considering the existing machine design as constrained and based on concept 1,
a prototype for a working table has been fabricated from the viewpoint of
industrial design which will be patented in the near future.

Fundamental to the development was accurate research in the form of an
analysis of the requirements of actual and future needs to be satisfied and an
outline (resulting from the analysis) of the ergonomical and functional design
options. The design of Elan Scala incorporates the following guidelines: (i)
plain-level system, (ii) column system, (iii) furniture not machine, (iv)
tendency and application=increased use of data equipment. The main functional
options were leg freedom, height and inclination adjustability, freedom of
movement for body and hands and for the data equipment to be placed on an
independent, well-defined position.

This paper examines some of the practical issues involved in the effective
integration of technology and environment. User-research data are presented,
including the development of a new office facilities questionnaire aimed at
obtaining empirical evidence to determine what factors are associated with
employee satisfaction with the office facility. A second, large-scale survey
on seating comfort suggests that the current levels of dysfunction are
significantly higher than one could reasonably regard as satisfactory. A
series of illustrated case studies demonstrate how the user-related factors
identified above contribute to the creation of dysfunctional environment and
the erosion of employee satisfaction with the total office environment. The
paper concludes with a review of the major areas in which office furniture is
able to assist in the more effective integration of technology and environment,
specifically: correct of dysfunction; productivity improvement; responsiveness
to change; compensation for building inadequacy and, organization development.