Native American groups
like the Cherokee and Creek were instrumental in the early economic development
of the South Carolina backcountry during the colonial period. The backcountry
extended approximately 50 miles inland from the Atlantic coast to the Blue Ridge
Mountains (Figure 1). In addition to previous archaeological studies that have
investigated colonial period Native American material culture and communities,
backcountry research has also focused upon sites occupied by European Americans
who participated in the Indian trade. Previous research has explored two
interrelated types of European-American sites associated with the Indian trade,
represented by forts established as part of government policy and privately
operated trading posts.

During the first quarter
of the 18th century when deerskins were a leading export commodity, the British
colonial government in South Carolina attempted to regulate trade relations with
local Native Americans, such as the Cherokee and Creek. Regulation of the
Indian trade centered upon two main objectives. The first goal was designed to
maintain amicable trade relations between local indigenous groups and both
government and private traders. The second objective pursued by the colonial
government was to maintain a monopoly on the trade and prevent external groups
in nearby colonies, such as Virginia traders, from infiltrating the South
Carolina frontier economy. An additional objective of the government was to
maintain peaceful relations among the Native Americans which would encourage
settlement of the frontier by colonists. To regulate the Indian trade, the
British government authorized the creation of two early frontier posts in the
South Carolina backcountry, consisting of Fort Moore, near Augusta, and Old Fort
Congaree, near present day Columbia.

In addition to early
fortified trade complexes maintained by the South Carolina colonial government,
numerous privately owned and licensed trading posts also existed in the
backcountry, especially after an act in 1721 legalized private participation in
the Indian trade among colonists. It was not uncommon for individual households
to maintain small stores of goods for trade with local Native Americans and
neighboring settlers. Besides small scale trading posts that supplied local
communities, very substantial commercial trading operations that supplied entire
regions also developed in the interior frontier during the 1730s and 1740s.
Galphin's trading post and Ninety Six are two examples of substantial, regional
level trading establishments that existed in the backcountry. Galphin's trading
post (site 38AK7), later called Silver Bluff plantation, is located adjacent to
the Savannah River in Aiken County near Jackson. The site is an important, if
not an atypical, example of a very large, privately owned post that initially
catered to the Indian trade and later supplied settler households with
manufactured goods. The post's strategic location adjacent to the Savannah
River provided Galphin direct access to Native Americans via water
transportation such as canoes (Figure 1). Also, deerskins and other frontier
commodities could be shipped directly down river from Silver Bluff to Savannah
on riverboats. Goods were also transported overland to Charleston and Pensacola
from Silver Bluff.

Figure 1. The South
Carolina backcountry.

Silver Bluff was established by George Galphin, originally a native of Northern
Ireland, as early as 1739 or during the 1740s. Galphin, the son of a weaver,
left Ireland early in his life in 1737 and served as an Indian interpreter for
the colonial government during the 1740s. By mid-century, Galphin was
conducting a very lucrative business in the deerskin trade and was also involved
in land speculation. Besides the trade complex at Silver Bluff, Galphin also
operated another post, called Old Town, along the Ogeechee River in east-central
Georgia by the 1760s. His early success in the Indian trade later allowed
Galphin to expand his commercial operations, and he quickly established a large
plantation at Silver Bluff. By the 1760s, substantial quantities of corn,
indigo, and tobacco were being produced at the plantation. Upon his death in
1780, Galphin owned thousands of acres in South Carolina and Georgia along with
128 enslaved African Americans.

Silver Bluff is significant archaeologically because it is a relevant example of
a large-scale frontier trading post. The site is also important because it
illustrates in miniature the economic transition from an early frontier trading
post to a large, colonial-era plantation. Hence, the landscape history
associated with the site should reflect this economic trajectory. Although a
great deal of documentary information has survived to the present-era concerning
Galphin's business activities at Silver Bluff, specifics concerning the spatial
organization and landscape history associated with the trading post and
plantation remain sketchy. For example, it is known that the plantation
contained at least two brick dwellings at different locations, one of which was
possibly a two-story structure. Galphin owned 128 slaves, so presumably the
dwellings associated with a large slave community also existed at Silver Bluff,
in addition to a trade complex and the above mentioned brick residences.

Today, circa 3,000 acres of Galphin's original property encompassing the trading
post and plantation are maintained as the Silver Bluff Plantation Sanctuary by
the National Audubon Society. The preserve was established in the 1970s. Two
previous episodes of systematic site survey have been conducted at Silver Bluff
by personnel with the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology (SCIAA),
University of South Carolina. In 1999, block excavations were also conducted at
the site. The first field effort at Silver Bluff was conducted by SCIAA
personnel and volunteers with the University of South Carolina, Aiken, the
Archaeological Society of South Carolina, and the Augusta Archaeological Society
between November 1979 and March 1980. The objective of site survey was to
define the location and spatial distribution of colonial-period archaeological
resources at Silver Bluff. This goal was accomplished by systematically
collecting artifacts on the ground surface from approximately 52 randomly
distributed sampling units. The collection units were 10 x 10 m in size.

Results from the first episode of fieldwork at Silver Bluff indicate that the
site contains a substantial Mississippian-period prehistoric occupation located
west of the main access road. More importantly, the colonial-period occupation
at the site encompasses an approximately rectangular area located immediately
east of the main access road. The historic occupation at the site appears to be
concentrated in an area approximately 50 x 100 m in size. Field data from the
first episode of survey also indicates that the center area of the site, based
on the spatial distribution of brick fragments, probably contains the remains of
one or more brick structures (Figure 2). Conversely, the southern portion of
the site adjacent to the Savannah River contains a very prominent concentration
of bottle glass and tobacco pipe fragments--consumption related artifacts
associated with leisure time or social activities--suggesting trade activities
probably occurred in the area near the river bluff and presumed river landing.
The southern portion of the site also contains high concentrations of nails and
comparatively low proportions of brick fragments, further suggesting wooden
frame storehouses or warehouses may have been located in this area of the trade
complex.

Figure 2. Distribution of brick
fragments at Silver Bluff defined by site survey conducted between 1979 and
1980.

A
second episode of site survey and testing was later conducted at Silver Bluff by
personnel with the SRARP, University of South Carolina, beginning in 1996. This
effort, conducted by David Crass, Tammy Forehand, and Bruce Penner, focused upon
the 50 x 100 m area previously defined during site survey between 1979 and
1980. Site investigations during 1996 included systematic, close-interval
shovel tests and a ground- penetrating radar survey. These efforts located a
large number of subsurface features and anomalies at the site, further
demonstrating the archaeological research potential of Silver Bluff. The
information recovered from subsurface sampling was subsequently analyzed using
computer mapping techniques. Spatial analysis in turn provided very
fine-grained distribution maps of material at the site. The results of spatial
analysis (Figures 3 and 4) indicate that at least six structures, probably
dwellings, were located in the large field near the river landing.
Interestingly, the structures appear to form a large, rectangular compound with
the length of the compound oriented on a north‑south axis.

Figure 4. Conjectural spatial arrangement of Silver Bluff based on current
archaeological information.

Structure 1, located in the northeast corner of the rectangle, was initially
discovered during the shovel test survey when personnel located and subsequently
excavated a root cellar associated with the dwelling. The structure is probably
of heavy frame, post‑in‑ground or earthfast construction. Based on the low
occurrence of architectural artifacts associated with the dwelling and its
insubstantial character, it may have been the residence of house slaves.
Structures 2 and 3 are located in the northwest quarter of the compound and were
identified by a very heavy concentration of brick and domestic debris apparent
in the spatial analysis results. It was assumed that Structure 2, the larger
concentration of brick, may have been the principal dwelling in the compound.
Further, Structure 3, the smaller brick cluster located to the southwest of
Structure 2, may be the location of a detached kitchen or other type of
outbuilding. Structures 4 and 5, located near the southeast corner of the
field, appear to be additional domestic residences, based on the moderate
concentrations of architectural material and domestic refuse. These structures
are similar in size to Structure 1, suggesting they may have also been slave
dwellings or public houses. Structure 6, containing the densest concentration
of artifacts yet defined at the site, is located in the southeast corner of the
field. The structure appears to have been an important building at the site,
based on the very abundant concentration of consumption related
artifacts—ceramics, bottle glass, and tobacco pipe fragments. The identified
artifact distribution indicates a very substantial amount of food, beverage, and
tobacco consumption occurred near the river landing in the vicinity of Structure
6. The structure may have been inhabited by one of Galphin's sons or his nephew
who helped supervise the trading activities that occurred near the river
landing. Structure 6 was also perhaps the main trade house or store where
business was conducted. The large number of nails and very small amount of
brick fragments recovered on the ground surface in the general vicinity of
Structure 6 during the 1979 surface survey suggest it was constructed of wood
rather than brick.

Site
investigations were conducted again at Silver Bluff between May 12 and June 15,
1999 and focused upon block excavations in the area encompassing Structure 2,
the heavy concentration of brick fragments identified through computer spatial
analysis. Excavations at the site were conducted through a field school
sponsored by Augusta State University and the SRARP. The field school was
directed by Mark Groover, at the time an instructor in the Department of History
and Anthropology at Augusta State University, and Tammy Forehand, Curator of
Collections for the SRARP. Immediately prior to the field school, a systematic
steel probe survey was conducted in the area encompassing the Structure 2 brick
concentration. This survey resulted in the identification of a large subsurface
brick feature, presumed to have been a cellar or chimney base. The location of
the brick feature was subsequently investigated during the field school through
the excavation of a 4 x 5 m block of units (Figures 5 and 6). The feature
turned out to be the remains of a brick chimney base (Feature 18). A builder's
trench for a brick wall was not present near the chimney base. Interestingly,
however, several large structural postholes were located immediately adjacent to
the chimney base, suggesting the structure was perhaps a half-timbered earthfast
dwelling with brick-filled walls and a brick chimney. The assumption of a brick
dwelling is based on the high occurrence of brick fragments identified from
spatial analysis. Also, Galphin's will mentions that at least two of the
dwellings at Silver Bluff were of brick construction.

Additional effort is certainly required to fully clarify
the architectural details associated with the dwelling. However, if the
current, initial interpretation is correct, then Structure 2 at Silver
Bluff possibly represents the first example of an earthfast dwelling with
brick-filled walls identified for contexts associated with the interior
frontier of South Carolina (Figure 7). The few earthfast dwellings in the
backcountry that have been investigated to date were clad in clapboards or
possessed woven wattle walls that were plastered with daub. The use of
brick in combination with impermanent architecture, especially
half-timbered earthfast dwellings, upon first consideration appears very
contradictory and inefficient, especially since bricks could have been
used as a sill or foundation for the framing elements. This construction
technique would have prevented the posts from rotting and having to be
replaced. However, this composite construction method, on the other hand,
is consistent with what would be expected for a transitional vernacular
form between impermanent and permanent structures, especially in a
frontier setting. Likewise, the seemingly contradictory use of brick in
combination with earthfast construction methods also perhaps reveals both
Galphin's humble background and the nouveau riche orientation that he
adopted later in his life after financial success. Put another way, the
use of earthfast construction by Galphin illustrates reliance on an
economical construction method familiar to middling households during the
colonial period. In turn, brick construction undoubtedly conveyed
Galphin's economic success among visitors to the site and was certainly a
very atypical construction material in the backcountry until after the
Revolutionary War. A few examples of colonial-period timber-and-brick
dwellings are preserved in Old Salem, North Carolina (Figure 8). Hence,
this architectural style is consistent with the period of site occupation
and also conveyed the economic resources of the landowner, albeit the
construction method possibly illustrates a fascinating juxtaposition of
architectural methods.

Figure 8.
Sketch of an extant 18th-century timber-and-brick dwelling in Old Salem, North
Carolina.

In addition to the
chimney base and postholes associated with Structure 2, a section of
defensive palisade trench was also encountered a few meters west of the
dwelling in the excavation block (Feature 19). A 1-x- 8 m section of
units was then subsequently excavated immediately north of the main
excavation block encompassing Structure 2. Excavation of the palisade
adjacent to Structure 2 revealed a continuous trench that also contained
very large, intermittently spaced postholes for buttress posts. The large
size of the buttress posts substantiated the presumed defensive function
of the wooden wall. The palisade appears to have been of post-and-paling
construction and is very consistent with previously identified 17th- and
18th-century palisades, similar to examples identified in Virginia and
South Carolina. A section of palisade was first excavated in the main
block and contained a trench and two very large postholes. The two
postholes were spaced approximately 8 ft. apart. The trench also
contained several molds associated with smaller, driven pales.

Similar to a very
substantial picket fence, the palisade appears to have consisted of
post-and-paling construction with large buttress posts seated in
substantial postholes. The spaces between the buttress posts were in turn
filled with pales made from split rails that were seated in the trench.
The vertical pales would have been supported with horizontal spanners that
extended between the buttress posts (Figure 9). As revealed by the units
located north of the original block, the palisade extends north from the
dwelling. A palisade corner with a bastion was also possibly located
during excavation that appears to align with Structure 1 (Figure 4).
Extant information tentatively suggests that the site structure at Silver
Bluff may consist of a large rectangular compound enclosed by a
substantial palisade. The north wall may have possessed a corner bastion
in the northwest corner of the compound, whereas Structure 1 and Structure
5 may have been located near the northeast and southeast corners,
respectively. Structure 6 may have been located near the southwest corner
of the compound.

Figure 9. Illustration of a
defensive palisade constructed with buttress posts and pales.

Additional
information on the excavations at Silver Bluff can be found in the
following article:

Forehand, Trammy R., Mark D. Groover,
David C. Crass, and Robert Moon 2004 Bridging the Gap Between
Archaeologists and the Public: Excavations at Silver Bluff Plantation, the
George Galphin Site. Early Georgia 32(1):51-73.