Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. American Psychological Association (2013), "the discipline embraces all aspects of the human experience — from the functions of the brain to the actions of nations, from child development to care for the aged" (para. 1). American Psychological Association (2013), "in every conceivable setting from scientific research centers to mental health care services, "the understanding of behavior" is the enterprise of psychologists" (para. 1).

Pages

Friday, April 26, 2013

Important lifestyle choices, such as exercising, reducing stress, healthy diets, and mental exercises can help one to protect his or her brain. As for exercise, scientific evidence points to it as the best way to protect the brain (Lee, 2013). Lee (2013), "brisk walking for 90 minutes a week — 15 minutes a day — has been associated with a lower risk of Alzheimer’s disease" (para. 10). Lee (2013), "tests on human subjects who have been injected with the stress hormone cortisol have shown that stress can temporarily impair learning and recall (para. 11). Reducing stress helps to not impair learning and recall. A Mediterranean diet, which consists of fish rich in Omega 3 fats, olive oil, fresh fruits vegetables and fruits that contain antioxidants, which are healthy for the brain (Lee, 2013). Mental exercises are just as important as physical exercises. Lee (2013), "after a two-week course of brain exercises, one woman’s performance on a memory test improved by 200 percent, Small noted" (para. 12).

Thursday, April 25, 2013

The most common
form of dementia, is Alzheimer's disease. Over time Alzheimer's disease
gradually gets worse. I think highly educated individuals have a reduce
incidence of Alzheimer's disease because higher education has an effect on the
level of cognitive function, memory, and thinking skills. Science Daily (2012),
"people with more education and more mentally demanding occupations may
have protection against the memory loss that precedes Alzheimer's disease,
according to a study published in the October 21, 2008, issue of Neurology, the
medical journal of the American Academy of Neurology" (para. 1). Higher
education protects or creates a buffer against the effects of dementia on
cognitive reserves, or on the brain (Science Daily, 2012).

Saturday, April 20, 2013

In 1957 the first psychological test occurred to determine if there was a biological explanation for homosexuality. This test was undertaken by American psychologist Karen Hooker (The Mother of the Homosexual Movement), who studied the relationship between psychological development and homosexuality and illness. By studying both heterosexuals and homosexuals, and matching their intelligence, educational levels, and ages, all subjects were then given three psychological tests, which were the Make-a-Picture-Story Test (MAPS), the Thematic Apperception Test, and the Rorschach (Boston University, 2012). With finding no major differences in the answers given by the groups of heterosexuals and homosexuals because of the similar scores, Hooker was able to concluded that sexuality is not based on environmental factors (Boston University, 2012). Boston University (2012), "in 1973, based on Hooker’s findings, the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Psychological Disorders and in 1975, released a public statement that homosexuality was not a mental disorder" (para. 3).
There have been other studies designed at determining whether homosexuality was or was not a genetic cause. Boston University (2012), "among the most notable were a series of studies Pillard and J. Michael Bailey, a professor of psychology at Northwestern University, conducted in the early 1990s that found that homosexuality is largely biologically determined, not environmentally influenced" (para. 4). In their identical twin, fraternal twin brothers, and adopted nonrelated brothers studies to determine if there was a genetics could explain homosexuality, they found that when one identical twin was gay there was a 52 percent chance that the other was also gay (Boston University, 2012). There was a 22 percent chance for fraternal twins, and only 5 percent for nonrelated adopted brothers (Boston University, 2012).

Thursday, April 18, 2013

Research has
shown that differences do exit between male and female brains, and the
differences are of distinctive ways. Simon Baron-Cohen of the University of Cambridge,
Bernard Crespi of Simon Fraser University, and LSE colleague Christopher
Badcock have pinpointed two distinctive ways that male and female brains differ
(Kanazawa, 2013). The male brain can be characterized by systemizing tendencies
and mechanistic thinking, and the female brain can be characterized by
empathizing tendencies or mentalistic thinking (Kanazawa, 2013). Systemizing is
the drive to explore, analyze, and construct a system (Kanazawa, 2013).
Empathizing is the drive to identify another person’s thoughts and emotions,
and to respond to those thoughts and emotions with an appropriate emotion
(Kanazawa, 2013). All men do not have a strong male brain, and all women do not
have a strong female brain, although the average differences between men and
women are that men are more likely to have the male brain and women are more
likely to have the female brain (Kanazawa, 2013).

As for size, the
male brain is 10% to 15% larger than the female brain. As for overall weight,
the average weight of male's brain weighs 11-12% more than the average female's
brain. Other differences between male and female brains are certain structural
differences, which researchers believe may help balance out the overall size
differences between males and females. Studies have shown that parts of the
frontal lobe, which are responsible for decision-making and problem-solving,
and the limbic cortex, which are responsible for regulating emotions, are
larger in the brains of women (Edmonds, 2013). In the brains of men the parietal
cortex, that is involved in space perception, and the amygdala, that regulates
social and sexual behavior are larger (Edmonds, 2013). The male brain have
approximately 6.5 times more gray matter than the brain of a female, but the
female brain has nearly 10 times more white matter than the brain of male
(Edmonds, 2013).

Another
difference is that in the brains of a female, neurons are packed in tighter
(closer together) than in the brains of a male. Edmonds (2013), "this
proximity, in conjunction with speedy connections facilitated by the white
matter, is another reason why women's brains work faster" (para. 4). In
some female's brains on certain layers of the cortex, there may be as many 12
percent more neurons (responsible for signals coming in and out of the brain)
than in the brain of a male (Edmonds, 2013). Although, this does not predict
intelligence or IQ scores, which scientists have determined by conducting
imaging studies on how women and men think. Further research may determine more
differences between male and female brains.

Sunday, April 14, 2013

Located within the cerebral hemispheres, it is a component of the
corpus striatum, and consists of the substantia nigra and subthalamic nucleus
(Bailey, 2013). Its functions are that it controls cognition, movement
coordination, and voluntary movement.

Corpus collosum

A thick band of nerve fibers, which divides the cerebrum
into right and left hemispheres, and connects the brain’s right and left sides,
which allows both hemispheres to communicate (Bailey, 2013). Also it transfers
sensory, motor, and cognitive information between hemispheres (Bailey, 2013).
Its function are that it controls communication between the brain hemispheres,
eye movement, maintains the balance of arousal and attention, and tactile
localization.

Temporal lobe

One of the four main lobes of cerebral cortex (Bailey,
2013). Its functions are auditory perception, memory, speech, and emotional
response.

Occipital lobe

One of the four main lobes of the cerebral cortex. Its
function is visual perception and color recognition.

Frontal lobe

One of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex. Its functions
are problem solving, decision-making, and planning.

Cerebrum

The most highly developed and largest portion of the brain,
consisting of gyri, which are folded bulges that create deep furrows (Bailey,
2013). Its functions involving the body include motor function, organization
and planning, touch sensation, determining intelligence, determining
personality, thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding language, and
interpretation of sensory impulses (Bailey, 2013).

Spinal cord

Composed of bundles of nerve fibers and it runs from the
brain through a canal, which is in the center of the bones of the spine
(University of Pittsburgh, 2013). Its functions are that of a neural transfer
network; it sends signals to and from the brain and the rest of the body, and
it is capable of regulating a certain amount of its own reflexes.

Cerebellum

Composed of white matter and a thin outer layer of folded
gray matter, and it contains numerous amounts of neurons used for data
processing (Bailey, 2013). Its functions
are that it controls movement coordination, maintains balance, and equilibrium.

Medulla

A portion of the hindbrain. Its functions are that it controls
autonomic functions, such as digestion, breathing, sneezing and swallowing,
heart and blood vessel functioning, coordination of body movement (Bailey,
2013). It also relays nerve signals and messages between the spinal cord and
the brain.

Pons

A portion of the hindbrain which connects the cerebral
cortex and the medulla oblongata (Bailey, 2013). Its functions are arousal,
sleep, controls autonomic functions, and it relays sensory information between
the cerebellum and cerebrum.

Hippocampus

A horseshoe shaped paired structure of the limbic system,
and its functions are navigation,
spatial orientation, emotional responses, the consolidation of new memories,
and acts as a memory indexer (Bailey, 2013).

Amygdala

It is an almond shaped mass of nuclei located within the temporal
lobe (Bailey, 2013). Its functions are memory, arousal, emotional responses,
hormonal secretions, and autonomic responses associated with fear (Bailey,
2013).

Pituitary gland

A small endocrine organ, which is divided into a posterior
lobe, intermediate lobe, and anterior lobe. Its functions are growth hormone
production, endocrine function regulation, production of hormones that act on
other endocrine glands and hormones that act on muscles and kidneys, and it
stores hormones that are produced by the hypothalamus (Bailey, 2013).

Hypothalamus

It is similar to the size of a pearl and is a structure of the
limbic system. Its functions are autonomic, endocrine, and motor function control,
homeostasis, water and food intake regulation, and sleep-wake cycle regulation
(Bailey, 2013).

Thalamus

A large dual lobed mass of grey matter located
under the cerebral cortex (Bailey, 2013). Its functions are motor control,
control of sleep and wake states, it relays sensory signals to the cerebral
cortex, and it receives visual, somatosensory, and auditory sensory signals.

What causes Parkinson's disease is still unknown today,
however with the development of an animal model of Parkinson’s disease much is
learned about the disease (Knierim, 2013). Knierim (2013), "Parkinson’s
disease results from the death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra
pars compacta" (para. 14). Which, is the cause of the damage to the motor
pathways in an individual with Parkinson's disease. When the substantia nigra
neurons are lost this puts a hold on or stops the output of motor cortex, which
inhibits voluntary motor commands from descending to the spinal cord and brain
stem (Knierim, 2013). Substantia nigra activity excites the direct pathway and
inhibits the indirect pathway (Knierim, 2013). The direct pathway excites the
motor cortex and the indirect pathway inhibits motor cortex. Which, disrupts
the inhibition and excitation balance in the basal ganglia and the excitation
of motor cortex is reduced. The resulting symptoms that occur include resting
tremors, and severe bradykinesia or akinesia. In the advanced cases of
individuals with Parkinson's disease there is difficulty initiating movements.
However, what may still be normal are involuntary, reflexive movements.

Experience plays a key role in object recognition and visual
perception. Visual perception is one sense of an individual's body that allows
his or her brain to interpret what is seen. Object recognition is an
individual's ability to recognize an object and its physical properties.
Experience shapes both object recognition and visual perception. An
individual's brain guesses at what that individual sees based on his or her
past experiences. Visual perceptions are hypotheses based on an individual's
stored information and past experiences. Through experiences an individual can
determine and understand what an object actual is, how it relates to him or her
as far as its purpose, and determine how it relates to the world instead of perceiving the object for what it
is not. Object recognition and visual perception differ from individual to
individual based on pervious past experiences.

Wednesday, April 10, 2013

Before one can understand which strategies one could use to
strengthen a relationship and know-how said relationship would be strengthened,
one must know when relationships begin and how they are developed. Relationships
begin and develop when one is an infant. This first relationship is a
development between an infant, the infant’s mother, or father, or both, or
caregiver. This relationship is based on the needs of the infant and how the
mother, or father, or both, or caregiver is available and responsive to said
needs. In this relationship love begins.

For one to strengthen a relationship the strategies that could be
used are to carve out time to talk, handle conflict constructively, express
admiration, show affection, create shared meaning, and model Michelangelo. If
one uses these strategies in their relationship and has their partner do the
same then said relationship can only grow stronger. The reason the relationship
will grow stronger is because by applying said strategies one shows a genuine
interest in their relationship and their partner. Which, pulls their partner
closer into the relationship for further development and growth. By using said
strategies one shows their partner they are willing to invest in themselves and
in their partner to strengthen and better their relationship.

One so willing to instill the strategies of carving out time to
talk, handling conflict constructively, expressing admiration, showing
affection, creating shared meaning, and modeling Michelangelo shows their true
commitment to themselves, their partner, and their relationship.

Positive psychology tries to build the human strengths by first assess
and understanding them. As human beings we all are creators of our own social
and personal worlds. We as humans have much to gain by seeing that we are self-aware
and by seeing that we are in charge of said means of building our own personal
and social worlds instead of waiting for external forces to build them for us. The
belief in the ability to have the choice, the chance to change, and control what
influences any goals that we set and how much effort that we use to pursue said
goals. People that are able to function with a high level of skill are the most
responsible when it come to owning and answering their own actions.

Creators and Creatures

We as humans are not just creators of our own personal and social
worlds, but we are creatures of them as well. Unlike other creatures we human
creatures are self-aware and use this self-awareness to draw from feedback from
a factor of biology that occur now and that occurred in our past. What occurred
in our past and what occurs now molds our behaviors. As creatures we need an
understanding of what affects us and how it affects us externally. So that we
are capable of making needed choices that will enable a state of well-being in
all factors of our lives.

Conclusion

By applying and using the scientific method one can use psychology
to see past all non-truths and determine all truths. This is keen to
determining and understanding of subjective well-being and civic virtue. Humans
as both creatures and creators have two main needs. These needs are of belonging
and of autonomy.

Reference

Caryle L. / The University
of Phoenix. (2004). Introduction. Retrieved
from Caryle L. / The University of Phoenix, PSY 220 website.

The public figure I have chosen that I think acted unwisely is
Senator John Edwards. Senator John Edwards was married to Elizabeth Edwards for
33 years and they had five children from their marriage, although one child
died. In 1998 John Edwards was elected
to the U.S. Senate from the state of North Carolina. In 2004 Senator Edwards became
the running mate of Senator John Kerry of Massachusetts as the Democratic
candidate for vice-president. George W. Bush was elected President that year,
so Senator proceeded to run for The President of the United States in 2008. During
2008 campaign Senator Edwards had an extramarital affair with Rielle Hunter,
who at the time was one of his campaign workers. This extramarital affair, lead
to the birth of a daughter and lead to Senator Edwards using campaign money for
personal use to pay Rielle Hunter and to cover up the affair.

Emotional Intelligence

Senator Edwards lacked and still may lack emotional intelligence.
Senators Edwards lack of emotional intelligence lead to him having an extramarital
affair with Rielle Hunter, fathering a child with her, and by the way he
abandoned his wife Elizabeth Edwards and their four children. Senator Edwards’ interpersonal
relationship with his wife and children he had with his wife showed a lack of insensitivity
toward their feelings and family status. Senator Edwards showed arrogant
behavior by having an extramarital affair in the first place, because he was
married with four children. Senator Edwards showed toward his wife and children
a lacked emotional perception and expression, emotional understanding, emotional
facilitation of thought, and emotional
management, because he forgot what it meant to be married and to have children
from said marriage.

Successful Intelligence

I think Senator Edwards
also lacked successful intelligence. As a lawyer, as a public figure, as a Senator,
and as a Presidential candidate Senator Edwards lacked successful intelligence.
By using public funded campaign funds to pay Rielle Hunter and to use said
funds to cover up his extramarital affair. Senator Edwards did not think wisely
in the three different ways that makes one successfully intelligent, which are analytically,
creatively, and practically.

Conclusion

Senator Edwards’ unwise judgments were the lack of emotional and successful intelligence.

The pro-nature and pro-nurture perspectives center on nature vs.
nurture, which may be the oldest debated issues in psychology. This centuries
old debate within psychology by psychologists remains an issue because there is
no definitive proof of either prospective. The issue at hand is weather behavioral
traits are inherited (inborn) or learned after birth. The belief of the pro-nature
perspective is that behavioral traits are inherited or also known as genetic
inheritance. While the belief of the pro-nurture perspective is that behavioral
traits are learned also believed to be the result of environmental factors. This
perspective is the belief that the brain begins as a blank slate, also known as
tabula rasa.

I think it is flawed to ask how much of a particular behavior is
because of genetics or experience; because there is not a definitive way to
determine if behavioral traits are the product of nature or nurture. I believe
nature and nurture both affect behaviors. Churchland asserts “the
physiological-or-psychological debate and the nature-or-nurture debate are
based on incorrect ways of thinking about the biology of behavior, and a new
generation of questions is directing the current boom in biopsychological
research” (as cited in Pinel, 2011). There may be one exception and that is if
one has a mental disorder at birth which will determine behaviors. One may become
aware that they seem to have the same behavioral traits as their parents, but
there is no definitive way to tell if those traits are inherited from one’s
parents or learned from interactions with one’s parents. It is appropriate to
separate the contributions of genetics and the experiences when measuring the
development of differences among individuals because not human creatures and
non-human creatures share the same environments or genes. Genes and
environmental differences will always very.

Our brain is divided into two main hemispheres, the left and the
right. Each hemisphere is dominant in certain functions. Click either the left
or the right hemisphere of the brain below and fill in the hemisphere’s
appropriate functions.

The
sodium amytal test of language lateralization is normally administrated to patients
before neurosurgery (Pinel, 2011). Neurosurgeons prepare and plan for surgery
after the results are ready from each patient’s sodium amytal test. The results
are important to avoid damaging any areas of the cortex; likely to be involved
in language (Pinel, 2011). When this test takes places the carotid arteries,
one at a time on both sides of one’s neck are the sites where a small amount of
sodium amytal is injected (Pinel, 2011). Pinel, (2011), “the injection
anesthetizes the hemisphere on that side for a few minutes, thus allowing the
capacities of the other hemisphere to be assessed” (p. 413). While this test is
administered twice separately, patients are asked to recite a different series
of phrases such as days of the week and to name pictures of common objects
(Pinel, 2011). Once the hemisphere normally the left hemisphere, which is specialized
for speech is anesthetized, the patient is rendered completely mute for a
minute or two and once the ability to talk returns, there are errors of serial
order and naming (Pinel, 2011).

·Dichotic Listening

The dichotic listening test is administered
to healthy patients because it is noninvasive (Pinel, 2011). During the standard
test three pairs of spoken digits are presented through earphones; the digits
of each pair are presented simultaneously, one to each ear (Pinel, 2011). This
is where a patient will hear digits like 1, 4, and 6 in one ear while hearing 7,
9, and 10 in the other ear; afterward the patient is asked to recite all digits
that were heard. Kimura found that most people report slightly more of the
digits presented to the right ear than the left, which is indicative of
left-hemisphere specialization for language; although patients identified by
the sodium amytal test as having right-hemisphere specialization for language performed
better with the left ear than the right (Pinel, 2011). Although sounds from each
ear are projected to both hemispheres, Kimura believed that contralateral connections
are stronger and take precedence when two different sounds are simultaneously
competing for access to the same cortical auditory centers (p. 414).

·Functional Brain Imaging

The use of functional brain-imaging is
how lateralization of function is studied. One’s activity in the brain is
monitored by positron emission tomography (PET) or functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI) while activities are achieved such as reading (Pinel, 2011). Functional
brain-imaging techniques show that there is significantly more activity in the
left hemisphere than in the right hemisphere through the use of language tests
(Pinel, 2011).

·Comparing effects of unilateral lesions

Lesions in the left-hemisphere are more
likely than lesions in the right-hemisphere lesions to produce ipsilateral motor
problems; although the effects of unilateral brain lesions indicates that the right
hemisphere is superior to the left as far as performance on some tests of
emotion (Pinel, 2011).

1.What
are the main differences between the recuperation and circadian theories?

The main belief of the recuperation theory is that if is awake
one’s homeostasis will be
disrupted in one’s body in one way or another and sleep is needed to restore it
(Pinel, 2011). The belief of the circadian theory is that one will sleep
according to a sleep-wake cycle. In this theory sleep does not have any effect
of physiological functioning.

2.Which
theory do you most agree with? Explain.

I agree more so with the recuperation theory. My beliefs are that
one’s physiological stability is
affected by sleep and is restored by sleep. This seems to point to the instance
that when one awakens their physiological stability is sound, but as they
remain awake this stability lessons and needs to be restored. I believe that
fatigue is brought on by a lack of energy, although food may restore the lack
of some energy; only sleep can fully restore it.

3. Describe the stages of sleep. In which stage do we dream?

As far as sleep there are four stages, also referred to as sleep
EEG. In stage 1 there is a low-voltage, high frequency signal that is similar to,
that of alert wakefulness, but slower than (Pinel, 2011). During stage 2, there
is slightly higher amplitude and a lower frequency than the stage 1, punctuated
by two characteristicwave
forms; K complexes and sleep spindles (Pinel, 2011). In stage 3, there is an
occasional presence of delta waves, and they are the largest and slowest EEG
waves, with a frequency of 1 to 2 Hz (Pinel, 2011). In stage 4, there is a
predominance of delta waves (Pinel, 2011). During sleep after one reaches stage
4, one will remain at stage 4 for a time; then one will retreat back through
the stages of sleep to stage 1 (Pinel, 2011). The majority of time when one
dreams is during REM sleep.

4. What are the five common beliefs about dreaming?

The five common beliefs about dreaming is the first, there are external
stimuli can become incorporated into their dreams (Pinel, 2011). Second, there
is a belief that dreams last only for an instant (Pinel, 2011). Third, there
are people who claim they have no dreams. Fourth, there is the common assumption
that penile erections are indicative of dreams that include sexual content
(Pinel, 2011). Last, there is a belief that sleeptalking and sleepwalking occur
only when one dreams (Pinel, 2011).

5. What are the two common theories about dreams? Which of the two theories do you agree with?

Two common theories about dreams are the Freudian theory of dreams
and Hobson’s activation-synthesis theory. I agree more so with the activation-synthesis
theory by Hobson, which states that the information provided to the cortex when
one is in REM sleep is random and that the resulting dream is the cortex’s effort
to make sense of these random signals (Pinel, 2012). As far as my dreams they
are always random and never just dreams of what I wish for and are rarely based
on sex. As for my children, who I asked their dreams are always random dreams
based on different subjects and never sexually based.

The nutritive density of the foods we eat play no role in
hunger/satiety.

8.

Fact

Myth

Set point theories are used to design fad diets and quick fix
diet schemes.

Part II—Applying What You Know

1.Sally asked,
“My parents were both obese. Is that why
I am?”

No this is not why you are obese. Although there is a genetic link
for obesity, there is no guarantee that you will be obese because your parents
are; obese people are those whose energy intake has exceeded their energy
output (Pinel, 2011). Your parents, and you may just need to consume more
energy than others which is a sign for a preference for the taste of
high-calorie foods (Pinel, 2011). Rodin, (1985) asserts “some consume more
because they were raised in families and/or cultures that promote excessive
eating; and some consume more because they have particularly large
cephalic-phase responses to the sight or smell of food” (as cited in Pinel,
2011).

2.Bob asked,
“My girlfriend and I eat together for every meal. We eat the same amounts and types of foods,
but she never gains weight like I do.
Why is that?”

Bob, your girlfriend and you seem to have differences in energy
input and energy output. She may eat the same amount of as you, but her energy
intake may not exceed her energy output. Were as, your energy input exceeds
your energy output. As well as she dissipates excess consumed energy faster
than you. There are also other factors that may affect your girlfriend and you;
like not enough exercise, basal metabolic rate, the ability not to react to fat
increases by diet-induced thermogenesis, and NEAT, which stands for
non-exercise activity thermogenesis (Pinel, 2011). Bob the genetic differences
in you and your girlfriend also factor into energy metabolism and body weight.

3.Suzy asked,
“I have been seriously dieting for several months. I don’t eat much now because every time I do,
I just feel sick. Do you know why this
is?

Suzy, you seem to be suffering from the disorder called anorexia
nervosa. Brooks and Melnik assert “aversive effects of meals are much greater
in people who have been eating little” (as cited in Pinel, 2011). You have not
been eating enough so there will be adverse effects such as you feeling sick. Adverse
effects of eating are signs that you have undergone food deprivation. Any meal
or amounts of food you consume may produce a variety of conditioned taste
aversions that reduce the motivation to eat (Pinel, 2011). Suzy, you seem to be
severely undernourished.

4.Talia asked,
“My mom says that I became anorexic because I have been reading too many Cosmo
magazines and want to look like those girls.
Maybe I did, but I really just don’t crave food. What do you think it is?”

Talia, you may be suffering from either the disorders calledanorexia nervosa and
bulimia nervosa. Although you do not seem to suffer the adverse affects of
eating like those who suffer from anorexia nervosa. Although bulimics are less
capable of controlling their appetites, this may be why you do not crave food.
You seem to have entered into a cycle of starvation, but I am not sure if you
are bingeing and purging (Pinel, 2011). You seem to have a distorted body image.
You may see yourself as less attractive and maybe fatter then the girls in
Cosmo magazine. You also may be suffering from a combination of both disorders
or from one then the other and vice versa.

Personality psychology is the centerpiece of psychology as a whole,
and it is with reference to individual persons that many of the most important
theories, findings, and applications in psychology must be oriented (McAdams,
2009).

First Period of Personality Psychology

The first period of personality psychology was from approximately 1930
to 1950 was marked by the establishment of the field and the development of a
number of general systems (McAdams, 2009). Comprehensive conceptual systems for
understanding the person were proposed by personality psychologists during the
1930s and 1940s (McAdams, 2009). During this first period of personality
psychology personality was established as a vigorous field of scientific
inquiry in university settings by Gordon W. Allport and his greatest
contribution is probably the textbook he published in 1937: Personality: A
Psychological Interpretation (McAdams, 2009). The importance of this first
period can be seen as the establishment and development of personality
psychology and Gordon W. Allport’s work still defines personality psychology
today.

Second Period of Personality Psychology

The second period of personality psychology was from 1950 to 1970.
Departments of psychology are more specialized and have grown, spanning professional
specializations in personality-related areas as counseling, clinical, and in industrial/organizational
psychology (McAdams, 2009). During this period research efforts were focused on
elaborating and the examination of certain personality constructs. These were the
need for achievement, anxiety, extraversion, as well as needs, motives, and
traits. The importance of this was the ability to measure and the impact on
behavior could be observed. During this period grand theories of personality
psychology established in the 1930s and 1940s were put to the side in order for
more focus on controversies and problems which concerned personality
measurement. The importance of this was issue was that it brought about debates
in personality psychology over the efficacy of trait-based versus
situation-based approaches to predicting and understanding social behavior
(McAdams, 2009).

Third Period of Personality Psychology

The third period of
personality psychology started around 1970 and is still present today. Buss,
Cantor, Hogan, Johnson, Briggs, Maddi, McAdams, Pervin, and West asserted “the
phase began with critique and pervasive doubt concerning the legitimacy and
worth of personality studies, but it evolved by the mid-1980s into a broad
sense of renewal and revitalization” (as cited in McAdams, 2009). Personality
research has and will continue to be sensitive and more sensitive to external
situational factors and complex interactions of internal personality variables in
the prediction of behavior (McAdams). Now there are new research methodologies
in place that further the scientific study of people. The importance of this
third and continuing period is that there has been growth and a need for further
growth and understanding in personality psychology.

Conclusion

All three periods have provided key roles in the development and
advancement of personality psychology.

McAdams (2009), “Erik Erikson’s theory of
psychosocial development lays out eight stages of life through which
individuals progress, from birth to death” (p. 348). The first stagetrust vs. mistrust takes place at the age
of infancy. The second stage autonomy vs. shame and doubt takes place at the
age of early childhood. The third stage initiative vs. guilt takes place at the
age of childhood or play age. The fourth stage industry vs. inferiority takes
place at the age of childhood or school age. The fifth stage identity vs. role
confusion takes place at the age of adolescence and young adulthood. The sixth stage
intimacy vs. isolation takes place at the age of young adulthood. The seventh
stage generativity vs. stagnation or self-absorption takes place at the age of
mature adulthood. The eighth stage ego integrity vs. despair takes place at old
age. These stages set forth an agenda for psychological individuality by
specifying the central psychosocial concerns one faces during that period in
his or her life (McAdams, 2009).

As of today, I find myself in the sixth stage intimacy vs.
isolation of Erikson’s eight stages of life. This stage takes place during
young adulthood, between the ages of 18 to 40. I am close to the end of this
stage, seeing that I will be 38 at the end of this year. The psychosocial issue
of this stage is of course intimacy vs. isolation. The associated virtue of
this stage is love. Although I am in the
intimacy vs. isolation stage the identity vs. role confusion stage contributed
to my current stage. In the identity vs. role confusion stage two questions
were asked; “how do I fit into the adult world” and “who am I” which enabled me
to have a fully formed sense of self (Cherry, 2012). Having a fully formed
sense of self was essential for me to form intimate relationships (Cherry, 2012). Therefore
I answered the question of this stage “how can I love” unconsciously.

I knew one day I wanted love and wanted children of my own to love.
I unconsciously knew I could love by loving someone else. I believe I
unconsciously have loved others by just forming intimate relationships with
them. Unconsciously love has happened like with my ex-wife, I unconsciously
knew I could love her by fostering intimacy with her. Three times now I have
had children and each time I have unconsciously just loved them when they were
born without thinking to love them. I once was married and had three children,
but now I am a single father of three children. I may indeed become married
again or at least form an intimate relationship with a significant other
therefore, I choose intimacy over isolation.

My youngest child of three children Xavier, who is 4, is in the
third stage initiative vs. guilt. This coming fall Xavier will enter preschool
or Head Start at the same school that my other two children his brother and
sister attend. What Xavier experienced in the autonomy vs. shame and doubt
stage contributes to his current stage. In this stage the psychosocial issue is
of course initiative vs. guilt. The associated virtue of this stage is purpose.
During this stage Xavier has started to assert his power and control over the
environment through directing play and other social interactions
(Cherry, 2012). He can do this by taking initiative through planning
activities, accomplishing tasks, and facing challenges (Cherry, 2012). In
this stage, I as a parent and caregiver need to encourage his exploration and
help him to make the appropriate choices (Cherry, 2012).

I know I can never be discouraging or dismissive of him, because I
do not want him to feel ashamed and become too dependent of others. Xavier’s play
and imagination are an important role of this stage and his sense of initiative
will be reinforced by giving him the freedom and encouragement to play (Cherry, 2012).
“How can I be powerful” is the central question of this stage (McAdams, 2009). I believe Xavier unconsciously has answered
this question. Although he has asked several times how he can be strong like me,
his father and even tells me he is strong like me. At his age I think he has
become powerful in his actions as a loving son and brother, actions of powerful
friendships, imagination, thoughts, skills, and awareness of who he is within
our family. I believe he answered the question unconsciously, but I may be
wrong, and he may have indeed answered it consciously. Xavier’s success in this
stage will lead to his sense of purpose, and failure will result in a sense of
guilt (Cherry, 2012).

In my life I have gone through six stages of Erik Erikson’s theory
of psychosocial development. Each stage has contributed to the next stage. I am
nearly at the end of the sixth stage intimacy vs. isolation, and it will contribute
to the next stage generativity vs. stagnation or self-absorption. Throughout
these six stages I have gone through and experienced six psychosocial issues, six
central questions, and six associated virtues. If time is on my side I have two
more stages to experience of psychosocial issues, central questions and associated
virtues.

Walt Kowalski, portrayed by Clint Eastwood, in “Grand Torino” is a
Polish American, Korean War veteran who served in the US Army veteran and is a
retired Ford factory worker. Walt was recently widowed after 50 years of
marriage and starts to isolate himself from the rest of his family, namely his
son’s, their wives, and children. All the while Walt has to deal with a bad
cough resulting in blood every time he coughs and is dealing with an invasion
of Hmong descendent into his long time neighborhood. A Hmong family named the Vang
Lors, moves next door which really puts Walt on edge, a man living alone except
with the company of Daisy, a labrador retriever.

Neuroticism can best describe Walt Kowalski when Grand Torino begins.
He seems to be dealing with depression from losing of his wife, who he loved
dearly for 50 years. Along with his depression comes angry hostility, because
of his wife’s death and from the pressure of his son’s who seem to be distant
and non-understanding of Walt’s pain. On top of that angry hostility surfaces
as well because Walt believes he is losing his beloved neighborhood to an
invasion of Hmong residents and the local Catholic priest is constantly visiting
Walt and tries to convince him to open him up to talking about his pains and
tries to convince Walt to come to church. Although Walt does display conscientiousness
because, he was a war veteran, a dedicated Ford factory worker and devoted
husband. He is self-discipline and orderly, because he resists the temptation
of letting his life fall apart because the world around him is changing vastly
and dramatically. A recently deceased wife and new unknown neighbors of an
unfamiliar origin is quite much to handle.

As Grand Torino continues Walt displays openness to experience as
he becomes familiar with his new neighbors the Vang Lors and by spending time
with Sue Vang Lor, the daughter of the Vang Lors and comes to terms with the
death of his wife. Feelings and actions are shown by Walt toward the Vang Lors as
he has sympathy for the young Hmong neighbor Thao Vang Lor, who tries to steal
his prized Ford Grand Torino. Instead of turning the young man in to the
authorities Walt teaches him values of what it is to be a man and a provider
for one’s family. Walt also teaches the Thao skills and trades that help him
obtain a job with one of Walt’s friends. Walt displays agreeableness as he
opens his heart to the Vang Lors and shows modesty as he starts to realize he
is the same as his neighbors just another human being living life as one’s sees
fit. He develops trust with the Vang Lors and starts to come to their aid
whenever help is need. He also allows the Thao to drive his prized Ford Grand
Torino when he has a date with a young woman.

Life seems to be progressing along for Walt and his neighbors in
positive ways and extraversion flourishes in Walt. Warmth has filled Walt’s
heart and he shows warmth and gregariousness to the Vang Lor’s and considers Thao
and Sue his own children. Positive emotions encompass Walt’s life again, until one
fateful day Fong "Spider" a relative of the Vang Lor’s and his gang
member friends continue to cause trouble for the Thao and Sue. These gang
members are those whose idea it was to still Walt’s car in the first place. The
gang members take action against Walt and the Vang Lors by first performing a
drive-by style shooting by firing shots into the Vang Lor’s home, then they kidnap,
beat, and rape Sue the sister of Thao. Walt is ready to take action against the
gang members in order to free the Vang Lors for the oppression of the gang and
allow Thao and Sue freedom. Walt shows a level of altruism rarely seen by going
to the gang member’s home and baiting them to shot and kill him by pretending
to pull a gun out of his jacket, but it was only a lighter. Walt sacrificed his
life for others, for the well being of the Vang Lors.

Walt Kowalski displayed angry hostility and was a depressed man
until the Vang Lors changed his life. Walt had a reason to live life again and
a reason to share his life with others. As the relationship grew between Walt
and the Vang Lors he grew into a tender-minded and gregarious neighbor and
father figure who is the definition of altruism. In Walt’s will he left all his
worldly possessions to the church his wife attended, to the Vang Lors, and left
his prized Ford Grand Torino to Thao Vang Lor.

When an issue or problem arises it needs to be explored by any scientist
in any of one’s field of science, in which field of science the issue or
problem relates to. A scientist will use the scientific process which is the means
to explore an issue or problem by using a three step process. McAdams, (2009) stated
“science generally proceeds according to three steps: (1) unsystematic
observation, (2) building theories, and (3) evaluating propositions” (p. 12). The
first step, unsystematic observation is how one uses tools or one’s senses to develop
a scientific understanding. The second step, building theories is how one makes
a theory by organizing the observations from step one. McAdams, (2009) stated
“scientists organize the various observations collected in Step 1 into a
more-or-less coherent system that explains the phenomenon of interest” (p. 14).
Step three, evaluating propositions one will attempt to evaluate or even
justify what is true of a given statement which is proposed by a given theory, (McAdams,
2009). Reichenbach asserts “the theories of Step 2 that derive from the observations
of Step 1 must be empirically tested in Step 3 as the scientist moves from the
context of discovery to the context of justification” (as cited in McAdams,
2009).

1. What is the fundamental process of selfhood, according to
Loevinger?

This is a general process by which each of
us synthesizes or puts together our experience as our own (McAdams, 2009).

2. From what paradigm does Loevinger’s model come?

It comes from the cognitive developmental
paradigm in personality psychology (McAdams, 2009).

3. Which assessment test is used to measure Loevinger’s ego
stages?

The assessment test is the Washington
University Sentence Completion Test for Ego Development (WUSCTED).

4. Name and define the four statuses defined by Marcia.

(1) Identity achievement defines one who has
explored identity options and subsequently made identity commitments (McAdams,
2009). (2) Moratorium defines one who is currently exploring identity options
but has not yet made commitments (McAdams, 2009). (3) Foreclosure defines one
who did not explore options but made commitments to childhood or conventional
modes of being (McAdams, 2009). (4) Diffusion defines one who has not explored
options and has not yet made commitments (McAdams, 2009).

5. The capacity to cope adequately with the conflicts of the
individualistic level occurs at which stage? (Loevinger)

This occurs at the autonomous (I-5) stage
of ego development.

6. Why is Loevinger’s assessment not given to young
children/infants?

Loevinger’s assessment is not given to
young children/infants because Loevinger’s method of assessment does not enable
her to measure the development of the ego in the earliest years (McAdams,
2009).

7. At which Loevinger stage of ego development does the ego
develop a greater tolerance for the individuality of others and greater
awareness of the conflict between heightened individuality and increased
emotional dependence?

This occurs at the individualistic (I-4/5)
stage of ego development.

8. When elderly people reflect upon the past in order to settle
accounts, what are they undertaking? (Erikson)

Erikson described it as integrity and
Butler agreed and said it was a life review.

9. According to Loevinger, the self of early child is locked in
what stage?

The self of early childhood is locked in
an impulsive (I-2) stage (McAdams, 2009).

10. Which Loevinger stage of ego development emerges with the
capacity to cope adequately with the conflicts of the individualistic level?

This capacity to cope adequately occurs at
the autonomous (I-5) stage of ego development.

11. In which Loevinger stage does the child move from an
egocentric frame of reference to an identification of one’s own welfare with
that of a group?

This move from an egocentric frame of
reference to an identification of one’s own welfare with that of a group occurs
in the conformist (I-3) stage.

12. At which of Loevinger’s stages does the individual have an
appreciation of the worlds’ rules?

An appreciation of the worlds’ rules
occurs in the self-protective (delta) stage of ego development.

In response to the question “what else might change,” McAdams proposed
two responses that do not just state yes and no, but give a brief detailed
response. The first response to the question was: No, we should not expect to
see more change, once we realize just how hard it is to change, (McAdams, 2009).
The second answer to the question was: Sure, people change, but not so much
their traits, (McAdams, 2009). When I asked myself “what else might change,” and
which response I agreed with it was: Sure, people change, but not so much their
traits, (McAdams, 2009).

I believe the truth is significant personality change may occur,
but that change may not be captured in a person’s trait scores, (McAdams,
2009). One’s personality and behaviors are able to change and those changes can
affect personality traits, but no change in traits occur. Traits are inherited,
but personalities and behaviors are not, therefore changes only occur in said personalities
and behaviors. Changes in personalities and behaviors sometimes occur because
of problems and issues, characteristic desires and wants, goals and motives,
life plans, values and beliefs, coping strategies, developmental concerns, hopes,
wishes, expectations for intimate relationships, vision for the future,
understanding of the past, but these reasons for change are not traits,
therefore traits do not change, (McAdams, 2009).

A personal example is of a breakup of a long-term relationship I
shared with another. She and I both made mistakes in the relationship. After
the breakup I realized I needed to make changes in my personality and behaviors.
My traits were not the cause of the breakup; in fact the cause was partially to
do with my personality and behaviors. Some aspects of my personality and the
behaviors displayed in the relationship did not truly reflect my traits. Therefore
I have and had to make changes to prepare for a future relationship.

No, we should not expect to see more change, once we realize just
how hard it is to change, is a response I do not agree with, (McAdams, 2009). I
however do agree with: Sure, people change, but not so much their traits,
McAdams, 2009). People do change and changes happen because of reasons in one’s
life. However traits which are inherited do not change.

Concerning motivations there are three theories. These three theories
are the psychoanalytic view mainly founded by Sigmund Freud. The humanistic
view partially developed by Carl Rogers. Then there is the diversity view and the
best known representative of the diversity tradition in the study of human
motivation is Henry Murray’s theory of needs, (McAdams, 2009). Of these three theories
I agree with the diversity view the most.

I strongly agree with the diversity view of human motivation,
which posits a large number of different motives or needs, (McAdams, 2009). The
reason I agree with the diversity view is because of Henry Murray’s theory of
needs. The directedness of human lives becomes apparent over time, therefore it
takes more than one situation to understand behavior; and it will be understood
through one’s life through time, (McAdams, 2009). This is how behavior can be
understood as a part of a purposeful sequence of one’s actions. One’s life’s characteristic
direction and purpose is provided by time-binding. Human beings organize their
lives and bind their time because of forces that reside within where physiological
and psychological needs are located and within one’s environment where various
situational constraints and opportunities for need expression or press,
(McAdams, 2009). Through an extended period of time when a certain need
constantly interacts with a certain press forms a thema. According to McAdams,
2009 “therefore, human motivation must be understood in terms of the
interaction of needs and press to produce themas” (p. 280).

I least agree with the psychoanalytic view. According to McAdams,
(2009) “the psychoanalytic view of human motivation suggests that behavior is
ultimately determined by unconscious sexual and aggressive drives and by the
complex intrapsychic conflicts that arise in daily life” (p. 298-299). The main
founder of this theory Sigmund Freud insisted that human beings are not in
control of their own fate and believed that there was another force making the
moves for human beings. This is an issue I strongly disagree with. I believe human
life and human behaviors are not as simple as unforeseen forces which there is
little control over, but more complex.

Through my own life’s experiences, through interactions of other
human beings, and through my limited, but important study and knowledge of
psychology I cannot agree exactly with either of the motivation theories of
psychoanalytic and humanistic views. These two theories share the belief that human
behavior is motivated not by human beings themselves but by forces which humans
have little control over. However I stand firmly behind the diversity view,
which puts forth the common-sense proposition concerning motives and goals,
everybody is different, (McAdams, 2009).