According to the 2016 Census of Agriculture, total cropland area increased by 1% since the previous census, despite the amount of land included on census farms decreasing by 3%. In 2016 there were 2,022,199 acres of forage crops in Ontario. Since 2011, corn silage acres were up nearly 9% across the province. Acres for forage seed production fell by 29%. Alfalfa and alfalfa mixes dropped 17%, while all other hay and fodder crops fell 18% over those five years. Combined, Ontario has lost 14% of forage crop acres since 2011.

Total pasture area in 2016 was 1,297,734 acres. Between 2011 and 2016, area of tame and seeded pasture decreased 21%, while natural pasture land decreased 20%.

Alfalfa Winterkill and Stand Vigour

Dry conditions throughout the province in 2016 resulted in lower than average forage yields, although quality was very good. Many alfalfa fields were cut during the critical fall harvest period to increase the amount of stored forages going into the winter. These fields were at much higher risk for winterkill than those left unharvested or harvested after a killing frost. New seedings in many areas had poor vigour.

During the 2017 growing season, alfalfa weevil damaged some fields in the southwest. Cool, wet conditions in the spring suppressed parasitoids, allowing the weevil population to get ahead of its predators. Wet weather delayed first cut, which enabled weevil populations to reach threshold in some areas. In general, growers may want to consider spraying if there is 40 percent tip feeding, two or three active weevils per stem, and more than seven days to preferred harvest date (J. Bagg, 2013).

Potato leafhopper pressure was higher than average, and affected fields in central and eastern Ontario. Potato leafhopper caused severe damage on susceptible varieties – up to 50% yield loss in second and third cut – and affected resistant stands. Fields with serious hopper burn may have reduced survival over the winter of 2017-2018. Potato leafhoppers do not overwinter in Ontario.

Perennial Pasture

Rainfall grows grass, and 2017 was a good year for pasture growth. Overall, southern and northwestern Ontario received average amounts of rainfall, while the rest of the province experienced higher than average precipitation. In September, rust levels were above normal across the province. Rust is a fungus that infects grasses. It does not produce mycotoxins, but highly infected swards may have reduced palatability. Large amounts of rust spores may also cause respiratory irritation in livestock. If there is a concern with dusty hay, it can be soaked or diluted with other feedstuffs.

Hay and Haylage

In May and June, first cut was delayed by about two weeks in southwestern Ontario and up to three months in central and eastern Ontario due to higher than average rainfall. Wet field conditions made it challenging to harvest dairy hay and haylage at the optimal maturity, while short windows of dry weather limited opportunities to make quality horse hay. August and September brought average to dry conditions to most of the province, which enabled many farmers to catch up on harvest. In these cases, yields were good but quality was low to average. Many lots of forage were baled wet or rained on after they were cut, so farmers should test for moulds and mycotoxins.

During usual haying times, eastern Ontario, Grey and Bruce counties received between 150 to 200% of average rainfall (Figure 1). Reports indicated that many farmers in these areas were harvesting first, second, and sometimes third cut simultaneously as weather permitted. Rain delays pushed harvest in some areas into the critical fall harvest period, which may reduce winter survival of alfalfa and lower yields in 2018.

Figure 1. Percent of average precipitation over growing season in Ontario

Corn Silage

Planting dates were variable across the province as wet weather caused delays. An open fall added some of the heat units that were not received in June and July. Harvest began mid-September, and lasted longer than usual because of variable maturity. Some fields experienced frost damage prior to harvest. Overall, quality is variable. At press time, DON and vomitoxin levels in corn silage samples have been very low, but wet conditions increase incidence of ear moulds and sprouting, so farmers should still test for mycotoxins in this year`s corn silage.

Annual Forages

Quality of cereal silages (barley, oats, oat/pea, and rye) was consistently good. Ryegrass yields were very high and provided good quality forage. Cool conditions limited yield in warm-season grasses, like sorghum-sudangrass. Forage soybean acres were up from 2016, particularly in eastern Ontario.

In 2017, wet growing conditions have made it difficult to put up high quality forages. A wet spring delayed planting in many regions, and the cool summer and an early frost may prevent some soybeans from reaching their full potential as an oilseed crop. These circumstances may encourage producers to consider harvesting soybeans for silage.

Before committing to making silage, check the labels on all crop protection products that have been used on the soybeans. Some will list a pre-harvest interval (PHI) for silage. Other products will clearly state that the formula is not safe for use on feed, forage, or silage. There will be products that do not mention silage or feed on the label. These have not been tested for their effects on livestock, and crops treated with them should not be fed.

Once it has been determined whether the soybeans could be safely fed, the next step is to clear the change of purpose on insured acres with Agricorp (1-888-247-4999).

Soybeans can be ensiled right up to the R7 stage (full maturity), but highest feed quality is usually achieved at R3 (beginning pod) or R4 (full pod). Plants need to be wilted down to 60-65% moisture. Use of a roller-conditioner may speed drying time while minimizing losses. Soybeans have more buffer capacity than corn, and their low sugar/high oil content can make proper fermentation a challenge. Silage inoculants and added sugar – as grain corn or molasses – can increase the odds of success. Another strategy is to make soybean-corn silage by mixing the two crops in a 2:1 ratio before packing into the silo. The sugars and starches in the corn can help overcome the buffering tendencies of the soybeans.

The nutritional value of soybean is comparable to early bloom alfalfa, and this remains consistent as the plant matures although how it feeds out varies. As the oil content of the beans increases with maturity, later harvested plants may have lower fibre digestibility and reduced intakes. Soybean silage is often most palatable as no more than 50% of the ration (dry matter basis).

Soybeans were first introduced to Ontario as a forage crop, and are routinely used in some northeastern states as part of dairy rations. With a bit of planning, soybean silage can be used to increase the amount of quality forage available.

Despite the wet weather, potato leafhoppers (PLH) are thriving in many areas of the province. Hopperburn is evident in the second crop of alfalfa, though dry bean fields are also at risk, especially once insecticide seed treatments are no longer present in the plants. Unfortunately, once hopperburn is noticed, yield and quality has already been compromised. Though PLH-resistant varieties of alfalfa are available, new seedings are still vulnerable, as the glandular hairs are not fully expressed the first year. Use the conventional thresholds below for first year seedings of these resistant varieties.

Hopperburn from potato leafhopper. Photo: G. Quesnel

Scouting in alfalfa: Scout every 5–7 days. Take 20 sweeps from five areas of the field. Determine the average number of PLHs per sweep. Next, take 20 alfalfa stems at random and record the average plant height.

Scouting in dry beans: Walk in an “X” pattern. In 10 areas of the field, pick 10 trifoliate leaves that are newly and fully expanded from the centre of the plant canopy. It is important to note that PLH adults readily fly away when disturbed, which makes them difficult to count on excised leaves.

Thresholds For Potato Leafhopper on Alfalfa

Stem Height2

Number of PLHs per Sweep1

9 cm (3.5 in.)

0.2 adults

15 cm (6 in.)

0.5 adults

25 cm (10 in.)

1.0 adults or nymph

36 cm (14 in.)

2.0 adults or nymph

1 1 sweep = 180° arc.

2 The taller the alfalfa, the more leafhoppers can be tolerated before control is necessary.

Thresholds For Potato Leafhopper on Dry Edible Beans

Bean Growth Stage

# of Adults or Nymphs

per Trifoliate

unifoliate

0.2

2nd trifoliate

0.5

4th trifoliate

1.0

first bloom

2.0

Use a foliar insecticide if thresholds have been reached. A naturally occurring fungal pathogen helps reduce the populations of the PLH under warm, moist conditions but predators and parasites appear to play a minor role in controlling this pest.

True armyworm have been found in a few fields this weekend. Cereals, corn (especially, though not exclusive those fields planted into rye) and mixed forages are at risk and should be scouted every three or four days over the next three weeks. True armyworm identification was covered in a previous blog this spring (here).

Scouting Guidelines:The best time to scout for true armyworm is shortly after dusk when larvae are actively feeding. In corn, examine 20 plants in five areas in the field (100 plants total). In cereals and mixed forages, examine 10 areas of the field, assessing the number of larvae per 30 cm x 30 cm (1 ft2). Pay particular attention to the border area directly adjacent to other grassy host crops. During the day, if it is cloudy and overcast, you might be lucky enough to see larvae in the whorl, leaf axil, or on the head of the plant but on sunny days, they will be down on the ground among the crop debris or under soil clods. Brown frass may also be present on the plants and on the soil surface.

Always take the time to look for any white eggs that may be attached to the backs of the armyworm larvae. This is a sign that the larvae have been parasitized by one of its parasites which have done the job for you. Avoid treating with insecticides when large numbers of parasitized larvae are present.

Fly larvae emerging from an armyworm larva. T. Baute, OMAFRA

Threshold for Corn:Foliar insecticide may be warranted in seedling corn if there are two or more un-parasitized larvae per seedling or 10% or more of the plants have feeding and larvae are smaller than 2.5 cm (1 in.). For corn past the 6-leaf stage; if 50% of the plants have leaf feeding damage and are infested with larvae smaller than 2.5 cm (1 in.), insecticide treatment may be warranted. As long as the growing point of the plant is not damaged, the corn plant is usually able to recover from moderate feeding.

Threshold for Mixed Forages: Control is warranted when five or more larvae (smaller than 2.5 cm) per square foot are found. In seedling crops, two to three larvae (smaller than 2.5 cm) per square foot may warrant control. Avoid treating with insecticides when large numbers of parasitized larvae are present.

Threshold for Cereals: Chemical control is warranted if there are 4 to 5 un-parasitized larvae per 30 cm x 30 cm and the larvae are smaller than 2.5 cm. If a significant amount of wheat head clipping is occurring, spray may be warranted if larvae are still actively feeding, are smaller than 2.5 cm and as long as pre-harvest intervals have not been reached.

If the larvae are over 2.5 cm (1 in.) long, the insecticides will not provide adequate control.

Treatment may be confined to infested areas. If armyworm are migrating from adjacent cereal, mixed forages or corn fields, spraying an insecticide along the field border may be sufficient.

Pay close attention to pre-harvest intervals

]]>http://fieldcropnews.com/2017/06/true-armyworm-scouting-threshold-and-management-guidelines/feed/0Cereal Leaf Beetle and True Armyworm – the Next Threats for Wheat and Other Cropshttp://fieldcropnews.com/2017/05/cereal-leaf-beetle-and-true-armyworm-the-next-threats-for-wheat-and-other-crops/
http://fieldcropnews.com/2017/05/cereal-leaf-beetle-and-true-armyworm-the-next-threats-for-wheat-and-other-crops/#respondTue, 16 May 2017 17:15:50 +0000http://fieldcropnews.com/?p=13673

Cereal leaf beetle (CLB) is starting to show up in some fields in Ontario. Levels are still low but both adults, eggs and/or larvae are being found by scouts at various locations during routine scouting trips. A few locations tend to experience a higher frequency of infestations including fields near Dresden, Bolton, Stayner, Seaforth, and Clinton. But this does not mean that other fields in Ontario are not at risk. Susan Gowan, a crop consultant in Haldimand, for example. is finding CLB more easily in that county over the last few weeks than in previous years. Nothing of concern yet, but it does indicate that other areas not known for being a CLB hot spot should be scouted. A detailed post on CLB from 2016, including scouting and thresholds can be found here.

True armyworm larvae. T. Baute, OMAFRA

True armyworm is also expected to be a higher risk this year, given very early and higher than normal trap catches this spring, both here and in neighbouring states.

Moths prefer to lay their eggs on grassy vegetation, including grassy weed species, cereals, mixed forages and grassy species of cover crops. Larvae hatch from the eggs and feed at night for approximately a month. Full grown true armyworm are 4 cm (1 1⁄2 in.) long and are dull-green to brown in colour. No matter what colour they are, they always have white-bordered stripes running laterally along the body and to be true armyworm larvae, they must have dark diagonal bands at the top of each abdominal chubby proleg.

There are two to three generations but the first generation is the most problematic here in Ontario. Most feeding activity is done in June to early July but can start as early as late May. In corn, larvae strip the leaf margins, but as they grow in size and numbers, can leave only the midribs left on the plants. As long as the growing point of the plant is not damaged, the corn plant will be able to recover from moderate feeding. In cereals and mixed forages, feeding begins on the leaf margins, but larvae may quickly move up the plant to feed on the kernels and awns or clip the wheat, timothy or other small grains heads completely off of the stem. Clipped heads can be found on the soil surface and can impact yield if taking place in many areas of the field.

The best time to scout for true armyworm is shortly after dusk when larvae are actively feeding. In corn, examine 20 plants in five areas in the field (100 plants total). In cereals and mixed forages, examine 10 areas of the field, assessing the number of larvae per 30 cm2 (1 ft2). Pay particular attention to the border area directly adjacent to other grassy host crops. During the day, if it is cloudy and overcast, you might be lucky enough to see larvae in the whorl, leaf axil, or on the head of the plant but on sunny days, they will be down on the ground among the crop debris or under soil clods. Brown frass may also be present on the plants and on the soil surface.

Forage production in 2016 was challenging as the cool spring delayed early growth and was followed by a hot, dry summer before rains returned in August. While hay inventories are below average, most of the hay harvested was high quality. This year has seen an increase use of cover crops for emergency forage and fall grazing. More corn has been harvested for silage than originally planned. Farms that can utilize straw or corn stover are doing so in order to extend stored feed.

Alfalfa Winterkill and Stand Vigour

In 2016 there was very little winterkill observed across the province, mainly due to a very mild winter. The cool weather in March, April and into May reduced alfalfa growth and delayed first cut by approximately 7 to 10 days. This fall saw a lot of fields cut during the critical fall rest period. Depending on when the killing frost comes, fields that were harvested up to 6 weeks prior are at an increased risk of winterkil. Other risk factors such as 3 year old(or older) stands, low potassium or pH, poor soil drainage, fields that had disease or insect issues, weather, ponding, and lack of snow cover, can increase the risk of winterkill and fields with multiple risk factors should be monitored in the spring.

Fertility

Fertility levels on many fields continue to cause yield drag. Phosphorus levels less than 12ppm and potassium levels less than 120ppm can significantly lower yields. Sulphur has continued to show up in plant tissue tests as a yield limiting nutrient. If plant tissue tests were completed when the alfalfa was at normal mowing height and at the late bud stage, sulphur levels under 0.22%, indicate a deficiency. A soil sampling program should be implemented to monitor soil fertility levels. Fall applications of fertilizer or manure are most beneficial if applied directly after the final cut of forage and should be avoided in late fall when risk of snow and frozen conditions are increased.

New Seedings

A dry spring provided the opportunity for new seedings to be planted into good soil conditions. However, lack of rainfall resulted in variable establishment, especially where packing for good seed-to-soil contact was insufficient. Summer seedings completed during optimum seeding dates in August appear to have been very successful as there was adequate moisture. Summer seedings do not have the yield drag associated with first year forages and will produce to their potential next year.

First Cut Yields and Quality

First cut yields were fairly average across southern Ontario. Due to the cool dry weather in April and May, alfalfa maturity was delayed by 7 to 10 days. First cut quality was excellent. The dry weather provided the opportunity to cut at the proper maturity and the majority of the first cut was harvested without rain and at the correct moisture levels.

Second, Third and Fourth Cuts

Across most of Southern Ontario, second and third cut yields were extremely variable depending upon precipitation which varied widely across the province but were typically below average or non-existent. Quality of hay was excellent, as rainfall did not impact harvest timing and the hay was taken off at the correct moisture. When alfalfa was allowed to go to full bloom, quality declined and yield did not significantly increase from 10% bloom. After the rains returned in August, there were a lot of fields harvested one more time, and many of these were harvested during the critical fall harvest period as the need for high quality forage outweighed the risk. This cut had excellent yields for the time of year and made high quality forage.

Grazing

This spring saw farmers having winter rye for grazing, and animals were out on those fields up to 2 weeks before their permanent pastures were ready for grazing. Pasture regrowth was slow this year due to the hot and dry weather and the benefits of rotational grazing were very visible as they managed to graze longer before the pastures dried out. Pastures where the growth left behind was still 7-10cm (3-4in) when animals were moved after 1-3 days saw more regrowth over the course of the year and less hay fed. In order to accomplish this the rest period during the summer was 45 days or more. Farms on permanent pastures were supplementing feed for up to 12 weeks while intensively managed rotationally grazed pasture were supplementing hay for 2-3 weeks. During July there were reports of water holes drying up and cattle on pasture requiring additional water. Cover crops are being utilized to extend the grazing system into the fall and corn stalks are providing a forage source for a growing number of producers who prefer to graze. Grazing animals on corn stubble reduces feed costs, breaks down the stover and reduces the amount of hay required over the winter. Corn stalks can provide an excellent fibre source for non-lactating animals.

Corn Silage

Corn Silage production was very variable across the province, from very low to average yields. The grain content of the corn silage was also variable; with starch levels running from 5% to 35% (28% is normal). Silage with low starch levels has low grain content and will require additional supplementation. Silage with high starch levels is typically associated with lower yields or a high grain:stover ratio and needs to be managed to avoid acidosis. In areas short of hay, additional acres of corn were harvested for silage rather than grain.

Cover Crops

With the reduced forage yields, there has been an increased interest in the use of cover crops for emergency forage as haylage, balage and grazing. The most popular cover crops are small grains (generally oats, but also barley and triticale) or a small grain and pea mixture. Peas increase the protein and energy content of the feed. Italian ryegrass was also used as it produces a higher quality feed than small grains and can be harvested once in the fall and again in the spring. Turnips and brassicas were added to mixtures of cover cops that were destined to be grazed in the fall.

Fall rye and winter triticale are also seeing a boost in acres this fall as producers are looking for an early season forage. Fall rye and winter triticale can be planted following corn silage, grain corn or soybeans. They can be pastured in mid-to-late April if they are planted on dry ground, or cut for hay around mid-May.

With the dry weather this year and low forage yields across much of the province, many producers are looking for alternative forages. There is a lot of stressed corn that could be utilized as forage for livestock. The amount of moisture stress that the corn has been through can affect the quality of the silage and there can be great variability between fields and even within a field. In fields that were dry during tasseling or pollination and have reduced grain fill, the energy content of the silage will be reduced but forage quality should remain constant. When feeding this forage to animals, it is very important that a feed test is done so that the nutritional composition of the silage can be adjusted for in the ration.

When negotiating the price for selling standing corn as silage, the final price is typically somewhere between the net income that could be received from the grain and the value of the forage. The minimum price for corn silage would be the net income that could be obtained by selling the grain, and the value of the phosphorus and potassium that are being removed by the stover. When estimating yield, it is best to be realistic and look at different points in the field to take into account any variability. Corn silage pricing may also take into account the availability of other forage sources in the area, distance from field to storage, storage costs, and anticipated losses from fermentation and storage. Sellers with a potential Crop Insurance claim should contact Agricorp (1-888-247-4999) before harvest to determine how selling corn as silage will impact the claim.

Moisture stressed corn can be harvested either by grazing, green chopping or fermenting into corn silage. If the corn field has a good perimeter fence, then grazing moisture stressed corn may be an option. When grazing animals on corn stalks, they will eat the cobs first and then the leaves and the stalks above the cobs. The field should be strip grazed with pastures sized so the animals are allowed to have no more than 2 days worth of feed at a time. It is important to ensure that animals grazing corn stalks have mineral available and an adequate water supply. In certain cases it may be necessary to supplement with grain and/or hay. Any animals grazing corn need to be monitored for grain overload or acidosis.

When chopping stressed corn for silage, it is important that it is harvested at the right moisture level. Typically moisture level can be estimated from the milk line, but with the dry weather this year, the whole plant moisture will not correlate with milk line as closely as in a normal year. In order to obtain accurate moisture levels, at least 10 random plants should be sampled, chopped and then tested using a Koster tester, microwave test, or an accredited lab. Harvesting corn silage when it is too dry can result in insufficient packing, poor fermentation, heating, mould and spoilage. Moisture contents greater than 70% can cause seepage and clostridia fermentations that produce butyric acid, resulting in high fermentation losses, lower intakes, ketosis and poor cow performance.

When working with moisture stressed corn, it is necessary to monitor it for nitrate levels. Nitrate poisoning occurs when there are high levels of soil nitrates and environmental conditions that cause them to accumulate in plants. Nitrate poising is particularly highrisk during the 5 – 7 days following a rain that ends a severe dry period. Avoid grazing or green chopping during this period. Making silage from drought stressed corn can greatly reduce the risk of nitrate poisoning as the levels of nitrates are reduced during fermentation. When nitrate levels are high, they increase the level of nitrogen dioxide (silo gas) that is produced when corn is ensiled.

When animals consume nitrates, the rumen will convert them to nitrites. High levels of nitrites impair the ability of blood hemoglobin to carry oxygen. Symptoms of nitrate toxicity include rapid breathing, fast and weak heartbeat, difficult breathing, muscle tremors, staggering and death. If you suspect nitrate poisoning, keep the animals quiet and comfortable and call your veterinarian immediately. Less affected animals may be listless and show more subtle symptoms including poor appetite, reproductive problems (including abortion) and poor performance.

Feed samples can be taken to test for nitrate (NO3) or nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N). As a general rule nitrate-nitrogen levels should be less than 1,000 ppm (NO3 levels <0.44%) to be without risk. Levels greater than 4,000 ppm NO3-N (>1.76 % NO3) are potentially toxic and should not be fed. Rates between these two levels are somewhat toxic and should be carefully managed. Corn should not be grazed unless the nitrate levels are within safe levels. More information on nitrate levels can be found by checking the factsheet: Potential Nitrate Poisoning and Silo Gas When Using Corn Damaged by Dry Weather for Silage, Green Chop or Grazing (http://ontario.ca/cwo1 )

It’s springtime and we are anxious to get on the land and get our new forage seedings in the ground. There are a few common mistakes made that limit the success of new forage seedings and future yields and quality.

1. Not Seeding New Forage Stands Often Enough

Many alfalfa-based stands are simply too old, resulting in huge losses of forage yield. Alfalfa yields are usually at their maximum during the first year or two following the establishment year and then decrease. By the third year, yields have often declined by about 15-20%, and possibly 35% by the fourth year. That is a lot of yield to give up! There are many benefits from alfalfa in a rotation in addition to the improved soil health and environment, including: • 100 lb/ac (110 kg/ha) nitrogen credit to the corn crop following alfalfa in the rotation, and • 10 – 15% corn yield increase following alfalfa rather than corn after corn. The nitrogen credit is currently worth about $60. Even with $4 corn, the increased corn yield is close to $100. Adding these two corn crop benefits together, $160 goes a long way in paying the cost of forage establishment somewhere else in the rotation.

Forage stand rotation decisions should be based on forage yield potential, not on the cost of re-establishment. Establishment costs are typically less than 8% of the total cost-of-production (COP) of hay, with the seed costs often less than 4%. Land and harvest costs per acre change little as yields decline, so those costs increase dramatically on a lb of yield basis. Depending on where you farm in the province, the opportunity cost of land rental can represent over 40% of the COP. With high land and harvesting costs, lower yields cost much more than forage establishment costs. When in doubt, rotate!

2. Poor Packing Before and After the Drill

This is a big, but all too common mistake. Forage seed is very small, making good seed-to-soil contact essential for germination, particularly in dry soil conditions. A loose, lumpy seedbed dries out quickly, and lumps make the uniform emergence of young seedlings difficult. A firm, level, clod-free seedbed is very important for uniform seeding depth and good seed-to-soil contact. Avoid creating a soft, fluffy seedbed by deep tillage. Using a spike-tooth harrow before the drill loosens the soil rather than packing it. Soil should be firm enough at planting for a footprint to sink no deeper than 9 mm (3?8 inch). If necessary, pack before seeding, in addition to packing after the drill. Packing after seeding results in more rapid and even germination. Use press wheels or pull a packer behind the drill. Sprocket packers are preferable over smooth rollers to reduce the risk of crusting and to push any seed on the surface into the soil.

Over the years, with our newer drills we have somehow lost our ability or our willingness to band starter fertilizer in new forage seedings. Starter fertilizer can be especially advantageous in stands where P fertility levels are low to medium. Ideally, MAP starter should be placed 2.5 cm (1 inch) below the seed. Additional fertilizer required can be broadcast and incorporated before seeding. If sulphur is required, sulphate can be applied at establishment or elemental sulphur applied the previous year. (Sulphur On Alfalfa http://fieldcropnews.com/?p=9092)

4. Using Cheap Seed

Buying cheap forage seed is a poor way to save money. Significant performance differences exist between varieties. The cost of seed is only a very small percentage (typically < 4%) of the cost of producing forage. As land costs increase, the seed cost percentage decreases. The use of the best research proven forage varieties provides high yields of more persistent stands with better disease resistance and appropriate maturity. Using cheap seed has the potential to result in significant yield losses with more risk of disease and winterkill over the life of the stand. It takes very little extra yield to justify higher valued seed.

Certified seed sold under a variety name must meet specific requirements for germination and weed seed content. Forage seed may also be sold as “common seed” or as a “brand” that may be blends of different seed lots. Germination and weed seed content requirements are less rigorous than for certified seed. Common seed has no assurance of characteristics such as disease resistance or winter hardiness. The performance of stands established using common seed is unpredictable and will vary from year to year. The use of high performance, proven varieties, rather than unknown brands or common seed, is strongly suggested.

5. Poor Weed Control

Lack of weed control during the establishment period will impact yield and forage quality for the life of the stand. Perennial weeds should be eliminated before seeding. Herbicide control of broadleaf annual weeds at establishment is especially important in direct seedings. Determine the optimum time of spraying by the stage of development of the new seedlings. The risk of injury to alfalfa seedlings is greatly increased when 2,4-DB application is made outside of the first- to the third-trifoliate stage. 2,4-DB can suppress legume growth for a period of 2 – 3 weeks and severe injury can occur under drought or high temperatures. Uniform emergence as a result of good seedbed preparation and packing make it easier to properly time the herbicide application with reduced risk of legume injury. Target the first-trifoliate stage, where weeds are smaller and easier to control. Grower experience suggests that injury to seedling alfalfa plants can be minimized when reducing the lowest labelled rate of 2,4-DB by 25%. A reduced rate may reduce the level of weed control. (OMAFRA Publication 75, Guide To Weed Control. http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/pub75/pub75ch10.pdf)

A successful forage establishment is a uniform, weed free stand that will grow quickly and vigorously to provide high yields during that first year, and for the life of the stand. The most critical factors include packing a firm seedbed and proper seed placement.

Seedbed Preparation

The goals of forage seedbed preparation are:

to produce a fine, firm, level seedbed that allows good control of uniform seeding depth,

to leave a well packed seedbed with good seed-to-soil contact,

to eliminate residue that may harm establishment, and

to produce a smooth surface for future harvesting operations.

Forage seed is very small, making good seed-to-soil contact essential for germination, particularly in dry conditions. A loose, lumpy seedbed dries out quickly, and lumps make the uniform emergence of young seedlings difficult. A firm, level, clod-free seedbed is very important for uniform seeding depth and good seed-to-soil contact. Avoid creating a soft, fluffy seedbed by deep tillage. Using a spike-tooth harrow before the drill loosens the soil rather than packs it. Soil should be firm enough at planting for a footprint to sink no deeper than 9 mm (3?8 in.). If necessary, pack before seeding in addition to packing after the drill. Ideally, forage seedlings should be able to emerge without a rainfall.

Seeding Rates

The amount of seed suggested in OMAFRA Publication 811, Agronomy Guide, Table 3–3, Guidelines For Forage Mixtures for Stored Feed and Pasture, and Table 3–4, Guidelines For Seeding Rates for Legume and Pure Grass Stands are intended for average to good conditions. Do not expect very high seeding rates to compensate for poor conditions (a rough seedbed, heavy companion crop, etc.). Seed size can vary between varieties and between seed lots of the same variety. Seeder calibration will help avoid over- or under-seeding. (http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/pub811/3establishment.htm#rates)

Use proven certified varieties rather than common seed to provide better yield, persistence, disease resistance and appropriate maturity. Using cheap seed may result in very significant yield losses and increased risk over the life of a stand.

Seeding Depth

As a rule of thumb, seeding depth for most forages should be 6–12 mm (1?4 – 1?2 in.) on clay and loam soils, and 12–18 mm (1?2 – 3?4 in.) on sandy soils. Emergence declines significantly if forage seeds are planted more than 20 mm (3?4 in.) deep. Legume seed on the soil surface may establish if moisture conditions following seeding are ideal. Success of surface seeding is much greater with late-March-to-early-April seedings (including frost seeding) than in late-April or May.

Seeding Equipment

Grain Drill

The grain drill with a small (or fine) seed attachment is the most common method of seeding forages. The standard small seed box will handle legume seeds and smaller grass seeds, such as timothy and reed canarygrass, and low amounts of orchardgrass and festuoliums. Some drills have an additional large (or coarse) forage seed box with an agitator that is designed to seed larger fluffier seed, such as bromegrass and orchardgrass, that do not flow well through the standard box.

When seeding forage using most conventional grain drills, there should be 4-5 seeds/ sq ft visible on the soil surface, otherwise the placement may be too deep.

Where starter phosphate fertilizer can be applied through the drill, align the drop pipes so that seed is dropped in a row over the fertilizer placed by the disc opener. Drop the seed behind the disc opener to allow some soil to cover the fertilizer band before the seed is dropped. Starter fertilizer provides an advantage mainly where soil phosphorus fertility levels are low to medium.

Packing the soil after planting results in more rapid and even germination, particularly during dry weather and on lighter soils. Press wheels help cover the forage seeds and firm the soil around the seed. Alternately, a packer can be pulled behind the drill, or pack as soon as possible after seeding to prevent excessive moisture loss. Sprocket packers are preferable over smooth rollers to avoid potential crusting and to push any seed on the surface into the soil. Packing is not advised if the soil is wet, particularly on heavier soils, where crusting can be a problem.

Packer Seeders

Packer seeders, such as Brillion seeders, can be used successfully to seed forages. They are usually equipped with both small (fine) and large (coarse) seed boxes, and two rollers. The first roller firms, levels and grooves the soil. The seed is then dropped on this surface. The second roller covers the seed with soil and firms it around the seed. Packer seeders do an excellent job of controlling seed depth and firming the seedbed. Packer seeders do not work as well on very hard ground or on a sandy soil. Also, they cannot band apply starter fertilizer similar to some drills.

Broadcast Seeders

Broadcast seeders main advantage is increasing the speed and capacity of seeding. Control of seeding depth is a potential problem and packing is necessary to cover the seed. Sprocket packers are preferred over smooth rollers to push surface seed into the soil.

There are two types of broadcast seeders:

Seeders that use spinners can give uneven distribution, particularly under windy conditions or with seed mixtures containing light and heavy seeds. This seeding method often results in inferior stands.

Air-flow boom seeders overcome the problems of wind, seed segregation and spread pattern, while still permitting very rapid seeding. Another method successfully used by farmers mixes the forage seed with MAP for immediate application using an air-flow fertilizer spreader.

No-Till Drills

No-till seeding of forages has been quite successful where the soil conditions following the previous crop were smooth and level. Weed control and proper seed placement utilizing depth control and packing wheels are important. Where surface residue is heavy, slug damage to forage seedlings is a risk. Land susceptible to erosion will benefit from increased surface residue. However, seeding equipment must be able to handle the increased residue left by reduced tillage systems without compromising seed placement and adequate seed-to-soil contact. When the soil is too wet, the no-till seed furrow may not close properly, and poor seed-to-soil contact results.

Consider these guidelines:

Eliminate perennial weeds, including quackgrass, and winter annual weeds before seeding. Control broadleaf annual weeds with a herbicide in new seedings.

Seeding depth should be 6–12 mm (1?4 – 1?2 in.) on clay and loam soils, and 12–18 mm (1?2 – 3?4 in.) on sandy soils. Check that openers are placing seed into the soil, rather than into surface residue.

Direct Seeding Or Seeding With A Companion Crop?

Companion crops are sometimes also referred to as “nurse crops”. Forage seeding under a companion spring cereal crop (oats, triticale, barley, wheat) can suppress annual grass weeds and provide rapid protection from erosion on rolling land. The disadvantage of a companion crop is that it competes with the forages for moisture, light and fertility. If any of these items are deficient, the forage seeding will suffer before the cereal crop does. Direct-seeded forage stands are often thicker and more uniform, particularly with alfalfa, birdsfoot trefoil, and reed canarygrass, which do not tolerate heavy shading.

Direct Seedings

Early-spring direct seedings can usually be expected to provide 2 cuts (or possibly 3) of forage in the seeding year, yielding 50 – 65% of an established stand. Under good conditions, first-cut can be harvested 60 – 70 days after seeding.

Direct seedings are more common in Ontario where:

fields have a lower risk of soil erosion,

good drainage facilitates early spring seeding,

rotational weed control is good, and

on dairy farms where uniformly high nutrient quality haylage is required.

Direct seedings have not met with success on all farms. Weed competition can be a greater problem with direct seeding than with companion crop under-seeding. A cereal companion crop can provide some early protection to fields that have greater risk of erosion during the initial establishment period, including lighter soil types with slope. Direct seedings on heavier clay loam soils can require more skillful seedbed preparation and seeding. Direct seedings on clay soils are more vulnerable to crusting and seedling emergence problems if heavy rains follow seeding.

Harvesting The Companion Crop As Silage

Harvesting the companion cereal crop by combining it as grain is not a preferred practice because it reduces the establishment of the forage crop for the life of the stand. Harvesting the cereal crop at the boot-stage as haylage or baleage reduces the competition, enabling better forage establishment while still allowing weed suppression and erosion control, and providing additional forage. The companion crop is removed before it lodges or competes excessively for light and moisture. If the cereal crop is cut and lays in the swath for an extended period while wilting it has the potential to damage the new forage seeding.

Although some farmers use a full cereal seeding rate and apply nitrogen to maximize forage yield, the heavier growth can increase the risk to successful forage establishment. Seeding at reduced rates (50%) and avoiding N application usually improves the forage establishment.

Oats are typically the preferred forage cereal. Although rust is a potential concern, forage oats tend to out-yield barley (especially in poorer conditions and later seedings), with less cereal regrowth and heading in the second-cut, and without the awns. Peas are sometimes added to the cereals to improve forage nutrient quality. This eliminates having the option of herbicide weed control and can increase the risk of extended wilting that may damage the forage seeding.

Cereals can reach the boot stage in as early as 60 days, so if seeded before the first week of May they could be harvested in late-June or early-July. With reasonable soil moisture following harvest, it is quite possible to obtain another cut of forage during August in most areas. (Forage Production From Spring Cereals and Cereal-Pea Mixtures http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/98-041.htm)

Seeding Time

The most reliable time to seed forages is early spring. Seed as early as a seedbed can be prepared to increase the chances of adequate moisture during the critical germination and early growth period.

Summer seeding can be a viable alternative to spring seeding. It has the advantage of providing a full yield potential the following year. A summer seeding typically follows winter or spring cereal harvest, so volunteer cereal must be controlled in a timely manner. Companion crops are not recommended in summer seedings. (Summer Seeding Alfalfa http://fieldcropnews.com/?p=3316 )

Inoculation

Legume species (alfalfa, clover, birdsfoot trefoil) require their own specific strain of Rhizobium for proper nodulation. While many soils contain some rhizobia from previous crops, not all have adequate amounts. The cost of the Rhizobia is low in comparison to the cost of seed. If there is any doubt about the presence of Rhizobia in the soil, the seed should be inoculated. Most alfalfa seed is already pre-inoculated and also treated with metalaxyl fungicide to prevent some seedling diseases.

Fertility and pH

Suggested phosphate and potash rates for new seedings are provided in Table 3–7, Phosphate Recommendations for Forages, and Table 3–8, Potash Requirements for Forages. (http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/pub811/3fertility.htm) When direct-seeding on soils that require phosphate fertilizer, establishment can be improved by band placement of MAP starter fertilizer, ideally 2.5 cm.(1 inch) below the seed. Additional fertilizer required can be broadcast and incorporated before seeding. If sulphur is required, sulphate can be applied at establishment or elemental sulphur applied the previous year. (Sulphur On Alfalfa http://fieldcropnews.com/?p=9092)

Legumes are generally not tolerant of acid soil conditions, especially alfalfa. Low pH results in poor germination, slow seedling growth, poor Rhizobium nodulation and subsequent low yields. Lime fields for alfalfa to a pH of at least 6.7. Lime reacts slowly with acid soils, so they should be limed and incorporated 1 year before seeding at rates indicated by soil tests.

Weed Control

Perennial weeds should be eliminated before seeding. Herbicide control of broadleaf annual weeds at establishment is especially important in direct seedings. Determine the optimum time of spraying by the stage of development of the new seeding. The risk of injury to alfalfa seedlings is greatly increased when 2,4-DB application is made outside of the first- to the third-trifoliate stage window. Uniform emergence as a result of good seedbed preparation and packing make it easier to stage. Target the first-trifoliate stage, where weeds are smaller and easier to control. 2,4-DB can suppress legume growth for a period of 2 – 3 weeks and severe injury can occur under drought or high temperatures. Grower experience has been that injury to seedling alfalfa plants can be minimized when reducing the lowest labelled rate of 2,4-DB by 25%. A reduced rate may reduce the level of weed control. MCPA can be added to 2,4-DB where mustard is a problem. Refer to OMAFRA Publication 75, Guide To Weed Control.

New alfalfa seedings are very susceptible to PLH damage, including resistant varieties. PLH feeding causes reduced stem elongation, reduced root development, leaf damage, decreased vigour, and stunting. PLH damage in new seedings will permanently reduce yields for the life of the stand. Be prepared to apply an insecticide when PLH exceed threshold levels. (Potato Leafhopper In Alfalfa http://fieldcropnews.com/?p=3902)

Many of you are familiar with the forage variety performance brochure published annually by the Ontario Forage Crops Committee (OFCC). (www.goforages.ca) Due to recent changes to the Seeds Act, new support from producer organizations and seed companies will be needed for this third-party variety information to be available in the immediate future.

Farmers want top yielding varieties, but they also want assurance that registered perennial forage varieties are adapted to Ontario conditions and have adequate persistence. The forage variety brochure was developed each year since 1955 based on data from independent variety trials at various Ontario locations, including Elora, Kemptville, New Liskeard and Thunder Bay. As of this year, this type of official registration trial data and recommendations for forage variety registration is no longer required by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency.

The OFCC has proposed to continue performance testing of alfalfa varieties in the spring of 2015 on a voluntary, fee-for-service basis. Head-to-head data for individual sites will be publically available. Similar forage variety performance tests were offered to the industry in 2013 and 2014, but insufficient entries were received to seed the trials. In order for this proposal to succeed, sufficient varieties for head-to-head tests will need to be entered by the cooperating seed companies. In addition to entry fees paid by the companies, some funding will be required from farm organizations to help cover expenses. Seed companies respond to the needs of their customers. If there is insufficient interest by their farmer customers, seed companies are unlikely to participate.

While cutting alfalfa in the fall is often practiced in Ontario, it does create some risk to stand health, depending on the location, stand age, harvest frequency and other factors. The decision whether to cut alfalfa should weigh these factors and the immediate need for forage against the increased risk of winterkill and reduced yields the following year. Everyone’s situation and comfort with risk is different. When faced with forage inventory shortfalls and low agronomic risk, taking a fall cutting is understandable. In situations where forage inventories are more than adequate, increasing the risk of winterkill by fall cutting may be far less acceptable. Decide what is an acceptible risk for your situation. Of course, if the field is to be rotated the following spring, take the final cut anytime.

Fall Cutting Consequences

It can be very tempting to cut some alfalfa for haylage or baleage in the fall, particularly when supplies are tight or there is a lot of growth. If you do decide to cut, consider leaving some check strips that you can use for comparison next year. There are essentially 3 things that can and do happen as a result of taking a fall harvest of alfalfa:

Nothing …. all is good.

This is most likely to occur where management is good and plant stresses are minimal – with good soil drainage, fertility and pH; a young, vigorous (1-3 year old) stand with minimal disease and insect pressure. Some luck with adequate snow cover and no ice sheeting will help.

Winterkill and/or visible winter injury.

If diagnosed early in the spring, the crop rotation can be modified with a new alfalfa seeding being made, but there is an “establishment year yield loss” associated with that. Even where winterkill does not occur, stressed, weakened stands are at a greater risk of continued decline and poor yield.

No apparent injury, but with a reduced 1st-cut yield the following spring.

Fall harvests are usually not very high yielding. Even when winterkill does not occur, research shows the extra yield harvested during the critical harvest period is often offset by reduced vigour and lower1st-cut yield the following spring. It can sometimes be difficult to observe, but still be significant.

Critical Fall Harvest Period

The Critical Fall Harvest Period for alfalfa is the 6-week period (450 Growing Degree Days) preceeding the average date of killing frost. Not cutting during this period allows alfalfa plants to re-grow and build up sufficient root reserves to survive the winter and grow more aggressively in the spring. When cut, early in the period, the alfalfa will use the existing root reserves for regrowth, “emptying the tank”. Later in the period, the alfalfa uses photosynthesis to produce carbohydrates and stores them as root reserves, “refilling the tank”. Cutting in the middle of the Critical Period (3rd or 4th week is higher risk than cutting at the beginning or end of the period.

The Critical Fall Harvest Period begins as early as August 10th in northern Ontario, August 25 – 30th for eastern and central Ontario, and September 4th in the southwest. However, it is difficult to predict when that killing frost will actually occur. The actual date seldom occurs on the average date, so the beginning of the Critical Fall Harvest Period is a guideline only.

Risk Factors

Some areas of the province, such as the Ottawa Valley, have a higher historical risk of winterkill. Flat, heavier soils that “pond” in the winter when tiles are frozen are at greater risk of winterkill. From time to time, fall cutting has contributed to alfalfa winterkill and injury in areas that are typically considered low risk, including western Ontario. We can never accurately predict what the weather will bring, but wet saturated soils in the fall reduce winter hardening and contribute to winterkill.

Aggressive cutting schedules with cutting intervals of less than 30 days between cuts increases the risk of winterkill, while intervals over 40 days (allowing flowering), reduces the risk. When harvest schedules are delayed by a late start or difficult weather, harvesting the normal number of cuts without cutting in the fall is not possible. Disappointing 1st-cut yields where 4th cut was taken the preceeding fall are sometimes observed.

In addition, fields with:

older stands (3 years or greater),

low potassium soil tests (< 100 ppm),

low pH (< 6.5),

poor soil drainage,

poor varieties, or

insect pressure (potato leafhopper), and

disease (root and crown rots)

are also at increased risk of winterkill and are poor candidates for fall harvesting, unless you are planning to rotate.

Late Fall Cuttings At The End Of The Critical Fall Harvest Period

If fall harvesting, the risk of winterkill can be reduced (but not eliminated) by cutting towards the end of alfalfa growth, close to a killing frost. Little root reserves will be depleted by regrowth, but lack of stubble to hold snow to insulate the alfalfa crowns against cold weather damage and heaving may be a problem. Leaving at least 6 inches of stubble will help. Stubble will also protrude through winter ice sheeting, should that occur.

Try to limit late cuttings to fields that are otherwise lower risk – well drained, good fertility, healthy crowns and roots, etc. A killing frost occurs when temperatures reach -4°C for several hours. After a killing frost, alfalfa feed value will quickly decline, as leaf loss occurs and rain leaches nutrients quickly.

Smothering?

There is always the question of smothering in heavy forage stands that are left unharvested. Heavy stands of grasses or red clover can sometimes smother over the winter because the top growth forms a dense mat. In contrast, alfalfa loses most of its leaves as soon as there is a hard frost, and the remaining stems remain upright and seldom pose any risk of smothering.

Sulphur (S) received from atmospheric sulphur dioxide emissions (acid rain) in Ontario has steadily declined by over 50% during the last 25 years. We are beginning to see yield responses in more situations when applying S to alfalfa. Sometimes the response is dramatic, while in other situations there is no response. Tissue sampling of alfalfa is a useful diagnostic tool in predicting whether there will be an economic response to applying S.

Sulphate on alfalfa (right) at FarmSmart Expo lpots.

S availability varies from site-to-site and from year-to-year according to temperature and rainfall. Soil organic matter plays an important role in providing available S to plants. Sulphate is very mobile in soils, similar to nitrate, and can be leached into the subsoil and become unavailable to plants (but not as easily as nitrate). S deficiencies have also increased due to some reductions in organic matter, and higher crop and protein yields. There is considerable S in manure. S deficiencies are more likely to occur on low organic matter soils, and soils that have not had a manure application within a couple of years. Within fields, sulphur deficiency symptoms may show up first on eroded knolls and other low organic matter areas.

What Does S Deficiency In Alfalfa Look Like?

Alfalfa has the highest S requirements of any of the field crops. A 4 ton/acre crop of alfalfa removes about 20 lbs/ac of S. S deficient alfalfa plants will be spindly and uniformly light green or yellowish (as opposed to a yellow top and green bottom, etc), with weak growth. (Figure 1)

There currently is not a reliable soil test for S in Ontario. Sulphate levels are quite variable, and may be leached from the soil between soil sampling and plant growth.

Tissue testing of alfalfa (at mid-bud to early-flower stage) is considered a suitable diagnostic approach for determining S deficiencies. Sample the top 6 inches of 35 stems and send them to a laboratory for tissue analysis. The critical level below which alfalfa is considered S deficient and may benefit from applying sulphur is 0.25%. If a check is desired, take a similar sample from an area with no visual S-deficiency symptons.

A 2012 field survey of Ontario alfalfa stands indicated that 21% of fields had S- tissue analysis below this level. Put another way, 79% of these fields would have been unlikely to have an economic response to applying sulphur. It is also noteworthy that 37% of these fields tested below the critical K value of 1.7%, almost twice as many than were S deficient. Neglecting K fertility, while attempting to improve S fertility is not an effective strategy.

What Form of S?

What is the most economical source of S to use with alfalfa? The sulphur must be in the sulphate form to be taken up by the plant. Sulphate fertilizers include:

ammonium sulphate 21 – 0 – 0 – 24)

potassium sulphate (0 – 0 – 50 – 18)

sulphate of potash magnesia (Sul-Po-Mag or K-Mag) (0 – 0 – 22 – 20)

calcium sulphate (gypsum) (0 – 0 – 0 – 17)

All are equally effective as sources of sulphate. Depending on what assumptions you make, current prices make S in the sulphate form worth about $0.90 or more per lb S. To determine the most economical source of sulphate, get some local price quotes and do the math.

Ammonium sulphate provides nitrogen which should not be needed by the alfalfa. K-mag and potassium sulphate also provide potassium which is usually also required in alfalfa, but potassium sulphate is difficult to source and more expensive in some areas. Gypsum can be a good source of sulphate, but has no advantage in improving soil pH. Thiosulphate liquid forms, ammonium thiosulphate (12-0-0-26) and potassium thiosulphate (0-0-25-17), are readily available, but liquids are less convenient for fertilizing alfalfa and generally more costly per unit of S than dry forms.

Elemental sulphur (0-0-0-90) consists of finely ground sulphur that has been pelletized, and must be converted by oxidation to sulphate by soil bacteria before plants can utilize it. The rate of availability depends on particle size, method of application and moisture. Incorporating it into the soil before establishment makes it more readily available. In some circumstances, 50% of the sulphur may be available in the year of application, while the remainder is more slowly available. Elemental sulphur is currently worth about $0.35 per lb S. Applying a single application of elemental sulphur rather than sulphate, supplies a cheaper S source over a longer period of time and reduces the need for annual applications. An application of 50 lbs/ac of S should last the life of a productive 3 year alfalfa stand.

When Should I Apply It?

Sulphate-S should ideally be applied in the spring at green-up to improve plant utilization, minimize losses due to leaching, and receive a first-cut yield boost (Figure 2). Elemental sulphur can be applied by:

incorporating it into the soil with other fertilizer at establishment (Figure 3) , or

blending it with P and K (and possibly boron) and broadcasting it after a cut.

How Much S Should I Apply?

A general thumb rule for S application on alfalfa is 5 lb/ac per ton of dry matter yield. Some S is still available in reduced amounts from atmospheric deposition and organic matter. The University of Wisconsin recommends 15 – 25 lbs/ac of S in the sulphate form broadcast on established stands annually, or 25 – 50 lbs/ac of elemental S incorporated at seeding. Research is required to verify these numbers in Ontario.

Ontario Research

Sulphur deficiencies in alfalfa have been more common in the mid-western US and north-western Ontario, because they are located upwind of much of the sulphur producing industrial pollution that has been cleaned up. Ontario research on sulphur rates, source, and timing for alfalfa has been more limited. Results from recent research trials applying sulphate to alfalfa have been mixed. Some sites have shown no response to applying sulphur. However, the most responsive site showed a dramatic yield increase in an alfalfa-grass mix of 1.55 ton/ac, a crude protein increase of 4 percentage points, and a percentage of alfalfa in the harvested forage improved from 33 to 56%.

To confirm that an actual yield response has occurred, farmers may want to leave a test strip where no S is applied. (Figure 4)

Tissue test alfalfa fields showing potential deficiency symptoms to determine if S should be applied, especially fields with low organic matter soils and those that do not receive manure. Applying elemental-S bulk blended with other fertilizer is the most cost effective method of providing S. Spring applications of sulphate can provide a more immediate yield response.

With winterkill, winter injury and low first-cut yields in many parts of Ontario as well as higher land costs, there is interest in following winter wheat and other cereals with a forage crop to help supplement inventories. Not only can this approach produce some extra feed, it also provides cover crop benefits. There are a few double-crop forage options that can provide some cheaper, good quality forage. Summer seeding alfalfa rather than waiting until next spring can provide the benefit of a full yield next year without the usual establishment year yield loss. Each option has its advantages and disadvantages, and every situation is different.

The challenge is getting the wheat harvested, the volunteer wheat controlled, and the next crop seeded in a timely manner. Competition from volunteer wheat can be a significant problem. Without vernalization winter wheat will not form a stem in the fall to provide significant growth and yields are very limited. A lot of volunteer wheat can result when light grain goes through the combine, such as fusarium infection situations. One approach to reduce the problem is to do some light tillage (at least behind the combine swath) to encourage the grain to germinate. A burndown with glyphosate 7 – 10 days later will remove much of the volunteer grain. Of course this takes time, and as the calandar gets later some options are lost.

Italian ryegrass can produce very high quality, leafy, palatable forage suitable for high producing dairy cows. As a cool-season bunch grass, it is best adapted to cool, moist conditions. It does not grow as well in hot, dry summer weather. In Ontario it has been seeded in early spring (April, early-May) for harvesting that year. More recently, it has been seeded in August for harvest in late-fall and then again during the following year. This can provide an excellent double-crop option, but the risk of winterkill must be managed.

Italian ryegrass is noted for its high fibre digestibility (NDFD), high relative forage quality (RFQ), palatability, ease of establishment, and its yield response to nitrogen. Ryegrass is characterized by a glossy appearance of the underside of the leaves. Do not confuse cereal rye (Secale cereale) with ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum or L. perenne), as they are totally different grass species with distinctly different characteristics.

Italian Vs Westerwold Ryegrass

Although they are sometimes lumped together as “annual ryegrass”, there are two types that are actually quite different:

Westerwold ryegrass is a true annual that will aggressively produce seed heads the year of seeding, and will be killed by winter. Westerwold seed is cheaper and is more commonly used as a cover crop.

Italian ryegrass is actually a winter annual that has a vernalization requirement (exposure to cold temperatures similar to winter wheat) for flowering, so it will not form a stem and or go to seed the year of seeding. It will produce a seed head the following spring if allowed to mature before harvest. Italian ryegrass is sometimes confused as an annual when it is killed by winter. Newer varieties have been developed and selected with more winterhardiness.

An advantage of Italian ryegrass in that it will stay vegetative the year of seeding. It will not form stems and head out the year of seeding, with the subsequent dramatic drop in forage quality. When seeded in the spring and harvested throughout the year, Italian ryegrass rarely survives the winter.

If seeded in early-August, Italian ryegrass can provide a late-fall harvest and some early season forage the following spring. A single cut can be taken in May, after which the field is replanted to corn silage, soybeans, edible beans or sorghum-sudangrass. An alternative is to keep taking multiple cuts until the stand becomes unproductive. Because it is so leafy with a unique texture, Italian ryegrass is more difficult to make into dry hay than other grasses, including Westerwolds. Dry hay is easier to make with Italian ryegrass in July and August. It can be made into haylage anytime, and makes excellent baleage.

Perennial ryegrass is also grown in forage mixtures in Ontario, although it has some issues with persistence. Some ryegrasses are intermediate in characteristics between Westerwold, Italian and perennial, so it is important to buy a reputable variety or brand.

Forage Nutrient Quality

Italian ryegrass produces excellent forage quality with high digestible energy, RFQ, palatability and intakes. Nutrient quality will be dependent on the cutting schedule. Ryegrasses are higher in nutrient quality than other cool-season grasses at the same maturity. Fibre digestibility (NDFD) and intake are exceptionally high, enabling higher forage diets be fed to high producing dairy cows. If fertilized with nitrogen, crude protein levels are much higher than what many expect from a grass species. High in sugar content and soft textured, it is extremely palatable and usually limit fed with other forage in the ration.

Varieties

There are variety trait differences, including yield, maturity, cold tolerance and persistence. Ontario Forage Crops Committee variety data is available at www.goforages.ca , but there is very little on ryegrass.

There are diploid and tetraploid varieties. Diploid varieties tend to have more dense tillering and better winter survival. Tetraploids have faster germination and regrowth, higher yields, and greater rust resistance. Some seed companies sell brands that contain blends of both diploid and tetraploid varieties in order to balance persistence with yield and quality.

Establishment

Italian ryegrass is very quick to establish with good seedling vigor, with germination taking 7 – 10 days. The seed is light and fluffy. Packing and good seed-to-soil contact is essential. Seed into a fine, firm, level seedbed as early as practical in the spring, or in early-August if the intention is to over winter the stand. A brillion seeder works very well. It could also be planted with a conventional or no-till drill at a depth of ¼ inch (½ inch if soil conditions are dry)., Roll or pack the field after planting. Broadcasting or air seeding onto a well tilled seedbed and packing is another option. Sprocket packers are preferred over flat rollers.

The recommended seeding rate is generally 35 – 40 lbs/acre. When it is no-tilled in the spring into an old or winter injured alfalfa stand to boost yield, it is seeded at about 15 – 30 lbs/acre. Phosphorus and potassium should be applied in the rotation according to soil test results. Manure can be applied before establishment. Because ryegrass establishes quickly and grows thick and aggressively, herbicide weed control is usually not required. (“Guide To Weed Control, OMAFRA Publication 75, http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/pub75/pub75ch10.pdf ).

Nitrogen

Ryegrass responds well to nitrogen (N), with both a large yield increase and an increase in crude protein. Regular N applications are essential to high yields. For establishment, apply 50 lb/ac of actual N either by broadcasting and incorporating it prior to seeding, or broadcasting 3 weeks after planting. Apply an additional 50 lb/ac of N again after cutting for each additional cut. For fall seeded Italian ryegrass, apply 50 lb/ac of N at green-up in the spring (April).

Cutting Height

Italian ryegrass is normally ready to cut at 8 weeks after seeding with about 14 – 18 inches of growth in a thick dense stand. A cutting height of 4 inches allows for faster regrowth by leaving energy stored in crowns and leaf area for photosynthesis. Because ryegrass is so leafy, disc mowers work much better than sickle bar mowers.

Fall Seeded Italian Ryegrass

Italian ryegrass can offer a good double-crop forage option by seeding after winter wheat or cereal harvest in August or early-September for a fall harvest, subsequent over-wintering, and then cutting again in May. Early-August is the optimum time to seed to allow for more growth and an earlier harvest. There is always a risk of winterkill which can be partially mitigated by variety selection and fall cutting management. There was a higher incidence of winterkill following the harsh winter of 2014. When winterkill does occur, consider that the ryegrass has provided excellent winter cover crop benefits, and possibly also some late-fall forage. Nothing has been lost, as there is still the opportunity to plant an alternate crop in that field in the spring.

Because Italian ryegrass will not elongate a stem and produce a seed head in the year of seeding, the fall growth will be all leaf, short but very thick. It can be harvested at a 4 inch cutting height about 8 -10 weeks after seeding. Harvested in October or very early-November, it will be difficult to wilt and will need to be harvested at a high moisture level.

To reduce the risk of winterkill, avoid excessive fall growth going into winter. Growth of about 4 – 6 inches is ideal. Either too much growth or not enough can result in winterkill. If a fall harvest is not planned, seeding should be delayed until mid- to late-September to limit excessive growth.

After going through the winter, fall-seeded Italian ryegrass has become vernalized and will head out, so it should be cut aggressively for high forage quality. First-cut should be timed in late-May before the boot stage to avoid a rapid decline in forage quality. For high quality forage, it is important that subsequent cuttings be at 28 day intervals.

Yield Expectations

Yields of Italian ryegrass are quite variable, and are very influenced by seeding dates, rainfall, temperature and fertility (especially N). With good management, spring seeded Italian ryegrass can often yield 2.5 – 3.5 tonnes/acre of dry matter over 3 cuts. When late-summer seeded, a fall cutting plus one cut the following May can provide similar yields of 2.5 – 3.5 tonnes/acre. Depending on moisture, subsequent summer cuts can each yield an additional 0.5 – 1.0 tonne/acre of dry matter.

Companion Crop With Alfalfa

Italian ryegrass is sometimes used as a companion crop with spring seeded alfalfa. Similar to oats, it establishes easily providing early erosion control and weed suppression. Italian ryegrass does not yield as well as oats, but nutrient quality and palatability is greater, making it more suitable as high producing dairy cow feed. However, in optimum cool, wet conditions, the ryegrass can be too competitive with the alfalfa, reducing establishment and damaging the stand. In droughty conditions, ryegrass may not provide enough cover. Recommended seeding rates based on research at the University of Wisconsin are 2 – 4 lbs/acres.

Bottom Line

Italian ryegrass can provide good yields of very palatable, high quality forage when seeded in either early-spring or late-summer, but careful management is required. It has been used successfully by emergency seeding into winter injured alfalfa stands to boost yields. If the intention is to seed in late-summer or fall for harvest the following year there is a risk of winterkill, so careful attention must be made to variety selection and fall-cutting management.

August seeded Italian ryegrass cut in the fall and again May 24th (shown). (Photo credit Glen McNeil)

August seeded Italian ryegrass cut in the fall and again May 24th (shown). (Photo credit Glen McNeil)

Many horse owners are finding it increasingly challenging to find and purchase suitable “horse quality” hay at a price they can afford. Low hay yields due to dry weather in 2012 were followed by poorer quality hay as a result of rainy haying weather in 2013. However, there are also long term economic factors in play that are limiting hay production. Tighter supplies of quality horse hay may be the new reality of the future. Horse owners need to become astute hay buyers, develop good business relationships with hay producers and dealers, learn how to manage large bales on their farm, and minimize hay storage and feeding losses.

Weather and Agronomic Problems

Hay production was extremely challenging in 2012, with low yields and tight forage inventories. Yields were frequently reported at 50 – 75% of normal. Other agronomic factors that significantly reduced yields included winterkill and spring frost damage, as well as insect damage from alfalfa weevil, white grubs, armyworm and potato leafhopper. Yields were much better in 2013, but wet weather during first-cut resulted in considerable amounts being either rain-damaged or mouldy as a result of being baled at too high a moisture. Following a long hard winter and alfalfa winterkill in some parts of the province in the spring of 2014, inventories of quality horse hay may be tight again depending on the upcoming weather.

Longer Term Economic Trends

Economics determines the long term supply and price of hay. Hay will be available, but not necessarily at the prices we are used to paying. Historically, there have been surpluses of hay and a buyer’s market existed. This kept hay prices down to a level that was often below the farmer’s actual cost of production. However, economics have changed with the increased world demand and prices for crops such as corn, soybeans and wheat. Land rental rates have increased dramatically. Farmers have responded by growing less hay and more grain and oilseed crops. With declining beef cow numbers, the market for poorer quality cull hay has also declined. Corn and soybeans also have advantages over hay of more effective risk management from adverse weather, more hedging and marketing options, and assurance of payment by licenced elevators.

Significant reductions in forage acres in Ontario occurred between the 2006 to 2011 Census years, of 500,000 acres of hay and 250,000 acres of pasture. That’s a lot of hay! Export demand for quality hay to the US is strong. Higher prices will be necessary for farmers to make the decision to grow more hay and increase acreage. The days of cheap hay sold at or below the true cost of production are likely over. Horse owners will need to deal with that new reality.

Hay Production Costs

Hay producers have bills to pay too. Hay prices are up, but the costs of producing hay, including fertilizer, land, machinery, buildings and labour, are also up. On a “cents per lb” of hay basis, the price of phosphorus and potassium fertility removed from the soil in hay is equivalent to about 1.5 – 2¢/lb. Land costs can range from 1¢/lb on land that rents for $60/acre and yields a 3 ton crop, up to 4¢/lb on land that rents for $320/acre for a 4 ton crop. Establishment costs (seeding, weed control, etc) are typically about 0.5¢/lb. Harvest costs (cutting, raking, baling, handling, etc) can add up to over 2 – 2.5¢/lb (using custom rates), while storage costs can add up to another 1¢/lb. Adding up these costs can bring the cost of production to over 6 – 9¢/lb of hay, before any return to risk, management and profit. Quality hay must sell at a premium to compensate for rain-damaged mouldy hay sold at a discounted price. Returns for producing hay must be similar to competing crops or else farmers will simply grow those other crops instead.

Trend To Large Round and Large Square Bales

The production of small square bales is decreasing and large square bales are increasing. For hay producers, not only is more labour required to handle small squares, but this system also has less production capacity. A lot less hay can be made in a day with a small square baler. This means less hay can be made during those limited weather windows with no rain in the forecast. Horse owners switching to large bales will need a tractor and loader to move bales, and possibly a feed cart to be used in the barn. However, this can provide more hay options as small square bales get more difficult to source.

Large round bales are very common, but tend to be made to be fed on-farm or sold locally where they can be moved by tractor and wagon rather than a truck. They are usually less expensive and can work very well if fed outside in hay feeders, but caution needs to be used to avoid the risk of respiratory issues.

The use of large square balers is increasing because they increase production capacity, and also because large square bales are more dense and more easily transported than large round bales. For horse owners, large square bales also have the advantage over large rounds in that they can be “flaked” and more easily pulled apart if being fed inside. This is especially true if the balers are fitted with “pre-cutter knives”, where the hay is partially cut going into the baler chamber.

More Use of Hay Preservatives

In order to manage the risks of rain-damage, or mouldy hay from hay that must be baled before it is quite dry enough, many hay producers are using hay preservatives, such as commercially available buffered propionate products. Refer to “Preventing Mouldy Hay Using Propionate Preservatives” (http://fieldcropnews.com/?p=3655 ). Hay preservative use tends to be greater in “rainy” years, and with large square bales. There is no scientific evidence that CFIA registered hay preservatives are harmful to horses, but the health risks from feeding mouldy, dusty hay is well documented. Horse owners that choose not to feed hay treated with a hay preservative will find untreated hay increasingly difficult to source.

Hay Sources and Price Determination

Hay prices often move with perceived supply and demand. They peaked at unprecedented highs during the dry summer of 2012. Prices for quality 2013 crop hay remained strong, but at the same time prices for poorer quality hay returned to more traditional levels. Prices for this year’s hay will be dependent on yields and quality. Small square bales usually bring a premium price, whereas large round bales are discounted because they are more difficult to handle, store and transport. Hay prices are widely variable depending on quality, species, bale type, and location.

Horse owners should seek to develop and maintain good business relationships with reliable hay producers and dealers that can provide a quality product. Making prompt payment is important. Bale size, density and weights vary significantly. If possible, price comparisons and hay purchases should be made on a “per lb” basis, rather than a price “per bale”. Learn what hay quality criteria are “deal breakers”, such as mould and dust, as opposed to factors that can be forgiven, such as sun bleaching on the outside of bales.

Minimizing Storage and Feeding Losses

It always amazes me that even with high hay prices I still see hay stored outside uncovered on the ground, and fed outside without hay feeders. Significant losses result. Inside hay storage is preferable, and pays for itself in the long term by reducing hay spoilage. Bottom bales exposed to a concrete or dirt floor will spoil from moisture. Storing bales on pallets or a layer of straw or other material will prevent this spoilage. As a minimum, bales stored outside should be placed on pallets and covered with a bale tarp, but even then some spoilage typically results. Unprotected bales will be damaged by rainfall, but also absorb moisture from the ground like a sponge, resulting in significant spoilage, mould and dust.

Using proper hay feeders outside will also save a lot of hay. A study at the University of Minnesota by Dr Krishona Martinson looked at the amount of feeding waste with several different horse hay feeder designs. Hay wasted by feeding hay on the ground without a feeder was 57%. Hay losses using a feeder ranged from 5% to 33% depending on the type of feeder. With high hay prices, well designed hay feeders pay for themselves very quickly. (“Selecting A Round-bale Feeder For Horse Use” http://www.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/horse/nutrition/selecting-a-round-bale-feeder/)

Summary

Hay prices are quite variable depending on the weather and growing season, but underlying economic trends are pointing towards longer term tighter hay supplies and higher prices than what we are used to. Horse owners should become astute hay buyers and develop strategies for securing quality hay and reducing storage and feeding losses.