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Description

Lecture 24
• Hormonal influence on the metabolism; insulin and glucagon
o Endocrine function of the pancreas:
▪ Islets of langerthans produce three different hormones which are placed in an
anatomical position that allows them to sense the change in the glucose of the
blood
• Beta islet: insulin
• Alpha islet: glucagon
o Insulin:
▪ Released by the beta islet cells into the blood when the glucose levels are high
to stimulate the uptake of glucose in muscle and adipose tissue
▪ Increased uptake in the liver would be indirectly
▪ Glycogenesis would increase in liver and muscle and decrease in glycogenolysis
▪ Gluconeogenesis would decrease (production of glucose from molecules other
than carbohydrates such as carbon skeleton of a.a)
▪ Uptake of fatty acids and triglycerides would increase by the fat cells
▪ Increase in lipogenesis from glucose due to its abundance
▪ Decrease in lipolysis
▪ Decrease in ketone bodies
▪ Increase uptake of a.a by muscle and liver
▪ Increase protein synthesis and decrease in protein degradation
o Increasing the hexokinase in glycolysis would increase the uptake of glucose directly in
muscles and adipose tissue and indirectly in liver
o Indirect control and mechanisms for the rest
• Facilitated diffusion through GLUT , there are 14 genes for GLUT
o Every cell has at least one of the transporters and many have more than one
o GLUT1 and 3 in brain
o GLUT 2 in liver, kidney, intestine and pancreatic beta cells (in mice, they have GLUT 2 in
pancreatic cells, in humans beta has GLUT 2 and 1)
o GLUT 4 in fat and muscle
• Resting skeletal muscles and adipose tissue; increase in insulin would increase the glucose
uptake by RTK activation  that activates the GLUT4 addition into the plasma membrane 
glucose can be up taken through its concentration gradient using facilitated diffusion
• In active skeletal muscles: GLUT 4 can be regulated through an insulin independent manner
(depending on the concentration of ATP/AMP that would activate AMPKinase) low ATP nd high
AMP would activate AMPK that would increase the GLUT4 in the plasma membrane that
increases the uptake of glucose.
• Hepatocytes (liver cells): GLUT2 is non-regulated form of glucose transporter which is not
regulated by insulin.
o Absence of insulin due to low level of glucose: glucose would diffuse from high