deforestationthe clearing or thinning of forests, the cause of which is normally implied to be human activity. As such, deforestation represents one of the largest issues in global land use in the early 21st century. Estimates of deforestation traditionally are based on the area of forest cleared for human use, including removal of the trees for wood products and for croplands and grazing lands. In the practice of clear-cutting, all the trees are removed from the land, which completely destroys the forest. In some cases, however, even partial logging and accidental fires thin out the trees enough to change the forest structure dramatically.

Conversion of forests to land used for other purposes has a long history. The Earth’s croplands, which cover about 15 million square km (5.8 million square miles), are mostly deforested land. More than 11 million square km (4.2 million square miles) of present-day croplands receive enough rain and are warm enough to have once supported forests of one kind or another. Of these 11 million square km, only 1 million (390,000 square miles) are in areas that would have been cool boreal forests, as in Scandinavia and northern Canada. Two million square km (770,000 square miles) were once moist tropical forests. The rest were once temperate forests or subtropical forests including forests in eastern North America, western Europe, and eastern China.About another 3 million square km (1.2

The extent to which forests have become Earth’s grazing lands is much more difficult to assess. Cattle or sheep pastures in North America or Europe are easy to identify, and they support large numbers of animals. At least 2 million square km of such forests have been cleared for grazing lands. Less certain are the 5 to 9 million square km (1.9 to 3.5 million square miles) of humid tropical forests and some drier tropical woodlands that have been cleared for grazing. These often support only very low numbers of cattle, but they may still be considered grazing lands by national authorities. Almost half the world is made up of “drylands”—areas too dry to support large numbers of trees—and most are considered grazing lands. There, goats, sheep, and cattle may harm what few trees are able to grow.

Although most of the areas cleared for crops and grazing represent permanent and continuing deforestation, deforestation can be transient. About half of eastern North America lay deforested in the 1870s, almost all of it having been deforested at least once since European colonization in the early 1600s. Since the 1870s the region’s forest cover has increased, though most of the trees are relatively young. Few places exist in eastern North America that retain stands of uncut old-growth forests. In addition, while some forests are being cleared, some are being planted. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that there are approximately 1.3 million square km (500,000 square miles) of such plantations on Earth. These are often of eucalyptus or fast-growing pines—and almost always of species that are not native to the places where they are planted.

Elsewhere, forests are shrinking, the greatest deforestation . The FAO estimates that the annual rate of deforestation is about 1.3 million square km per decade. About half of that is primary forest—forest that has not been cut previously (or at least recently). The greatest deforestation is occurring in the tropics. A , where a wide variety of tropical forests exists. They range from rainforests that are hot and wet year-round to forests that are merely humid and moist, to those in which trees in varying proportions lose their leaves in the dry season, and to dry , open woodlands. Because boundaries between these categories are inevitably arbitrary, estimates differ in how much deforestation has occurred in the tropics.Nevertheless, it can be safely said that about 90 percent of the dry forests in the Caribbean, Central America, and the cerrado (savanna and scrub) of Brazil have been cleared. (The drier cerrado lies between the humid Amazon Rainforest and the humid forests along the Atlantic coast.)

Dry forests in general are easier to deforest and occupy than moist forests and so are particularly targeted by human actions. Worldwide, humid forests once covered an area of about 18 million square km (7 million square miles). Of this, about 10 million square km (3.9 million square miles) remained in the early 21st century. It is estimated that about 1.6 million square km (620,000 square miles) of tropical forest are cleared each decade. If deforestation continues at that rate, all tropical forests on Earth will be gone in less than a century.Given the current annual rates of deforestation, most of these forests will be cleared within the century. Indeed, in some places, such as West Africa and the coastal humid forests of Brazil, very little forest remains today.

The human activities that contribute to tropical deforestation include commercial logging and land clearing for cattle ranches and plantations of rubber trees, oil palms, and other economically valuable trees. Another major contributor is the practice of slash-and-burn agriculture, or swidden agriculture (see also shifting agriculture). Small-scale farmers clear forests by burning them and then grow their crops in the soils fertilized by the ashes. Typically, the land produces for only a only few years and then must be abandoned and new patches of forest burned.

The Amazon Rainforest is the largest remaining block of humid tropical forest, and about two-thirds of it is in Brazil. (The rest lies along that country’s borders to the west and to the north.) Detailed studies of Amazon deforestation from 1988 to 2005 show that the rate of forest clearing has varied from a low of about 11,000 square km (4,200 square miles) per year in 1991 to a high of about 30,000 sq square km (11,600 square miles) per year in 1995. The high figure immediately followed an El Niño, a repeatedly occurring global weather anomaly that causes the Amazon basin to receive relatively little rain and so makes its forests unusually susceptible to fires. Studies in the Amazon also reveal that 10,000–15,000 sq square km (3,900–5,800 square miles) are partially logged each year, a rate roughly equal to the low end of the forest clearing estimates cited above. In addition, each year fires burn an area about half as large as the areas that are cleared. Even when the forest is not entirely cleared, what remains is often a patchwork of forests and fields or, in the event of more intensive deforestation, "islands" of forest surrounded by a "sea" of deforested areas.

The effects of forest clearing, selective logging, and fires interact. Selective logging increases the flammability of the forest because it converts a closed, wetter forest into a more open, drier one. This leaves the forest vulnerable to the accidental movement of fires from cleared adjacent agricultural lands and to the killing effects of natural droughts. As fires, logging, and droughts continue, the forest can become progressively more open until all the trees are lost.

Although forests may recover regrow after being cleared and then abandoned, this is not always the case. About 400,000 square km (154,000 square miles) of tropical deforested land exists in the form of steep mountain hillsides. The combination of steep slopes, high rainfall, and the lack of tree roots to bind the soil can lead to disastrous landslides that destroy fields, homes, and human lives. Steep slopes aside, only about one-fourth of the humid forests that have been cleared are exploited as croplands. The rest are abandoned or used for grazing land that often can support only low densities of animals, because the soils underlying much of this land are extremely poor in nutrients. (To clear forests, the vegetation that contains most of the nutrients is often burned, and the nutrients literally “go up in smoke” or are washed away in the next rain.)

Deforestation has important global consequences. Forests sequester carbon in the form of wood and other biomass as the trees grow, taking up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (see carbon cycle). When forests are burned, their carbon is returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that has the potential to alter global climate (see greenhouse effect; global warming), and the trees are no longer present to sequester more carbon. In addition, most of the planet’s valuable biodiversity is within forests, particularly tropical ones. Moist tropical forests such as the Amazon have the greatest concentrations of animal and plant species of any terrestrial ecosystem. Perhaps two-thirds of Earth’s species live only in these forests. As deforestation proceeds, it has the potential to cause the extinction of increasing numbers of these species.