Suspension of disbelief is a well known mental process whereby a
person engaged by a fictional story temporarily surrenders his
rational logic. This intensifies a story's emotional impact,
particularly when it is too implausible for the intellect to accept.
For those engaged in scientific investigation, a similar mental
exercise is required in order for one to interpret evidence
objectively. Rather than suspend one's logical discernment, one must
lay aside all assumptions and biases that might distort or limit
one's field of vision. This might be called the suspension of
BELIEF(s).

The German philosopher Arthur
Schopenhauer once said, "The discovery of truth is prevented more
effectively, not by the false appearance things present and which
mislead into error, not directly by weakness of the reasoning
powers, but by preconceived opinion, by prejudice." The most
fundamental "prejudice" that has directed the space sciences for
decades is the belief that space is electrically inert. Throughout
the Space Age, every new discovery has been interpreted through a
lens that views gravity and gravity alone as the force that shapes
the heavens.

When the first space probes returned
images of the Moon, they revealed a surface heavily pockmarked with
craters and riddled with long-sinuous channels (or rilles).
Scientists seeking to interpret these features were constrained by
the traditional geologic toolkit. The "debate" over the lunar
craters only included two possible causative agents: volcanism, or
impact. Eventually, a consensus was reached that meteoric impacts
were the primary source of lunar craters.

But more than forty years ago, the
British journal Spaceflight published the laboratory experiments of
Brian J. Ford, an amateur astronomer who raised the possibility that
most of the craters on the moon were carved by cosmic electrical
discharge. (Spaceflight 7, January, 1965).

In the cited experiments Ford used a
spark-machining apparatus to reproduce in miniature some of the most
puzzling lunar features, including craters with central peaks, small
craters preferentially perched on the high rims of larger craters,
and craters strung out in long chains. He also observed that the
ratio of large to small craters on the Moon matched the ratio seen
in electrical arcing.

Unfortunately (but not surprisingly),
no one in the scientific mainstream followed up on Ford's
investigation. To consider an electric source to the lunar craters,
scientists would have to entertain electrical discharge events more
energetic than anything they could envision. The notion of planetary
instability and violent electric arcing between planets and moons is
totally incompatible with most everything astronomers believe about
space physics and celestial mechanics.

Ironically, even as astronomers
codified the electrically neutral solar system, the leading pioneers
of plasma science were observing stupendous electric forces in
space, and documenting the analogs in laboratory discharge
phenomena. The father of plasma science, Hannes Alfven, when
receiving the Noble prize in physics in 1970, admonished astronomers
and cosmologists for ignoring the role of electric currents in the
evolution of cosmic bodies.

But when considering planetary
history, astronomers are handicapped in two ways: 1) For reasons
that are perfectly understandable, they assume that the present
serenity and predictable movements of planets and moons can be
projected backwards indefinitely. 2) Since most have little or no
training in electrodynamics and plasma discharge, their concepts of
electricity in space are limited to elementary electrostatics and
magnetism, a weakness that has fostered great confusion in the space
sciences. They cannot imagine how the inert "vacuum" of space could
give rise to the high-energy events investigated in specialized
plasma discharge experiments.

For today's electrical theorists, no
small adjustment to perception will suffice. A sweeping revision is
necessary, one that recognizes the predictable effect when a charged
planet or moon moves through an electrified plasma. Where field
strength is high, the result will be global electric discharge, as
cosmic "thunderbolts" rake across the surface, creating entirely new
topography.

Allow this possibility, and the
exploration of solar system history is radically altered. Suddenly,
plasma discharge and electrical arcing experiments (which have been
excluded from planetary science) will be permitted to shed their
light on thousands of features left unexplained by traditional
theory.

On every solid body in space, we have
observed craters lacking any conventional explanation. In fact, on
close observation, many craters show distinct features that are not
associated with volcanic or impact craters, but are easily created
by electric arcs in the laboratory and by electric discharge
machining (EDM) used in industrial applications.

Craters in the laboratory

In laboratory experiments using
electric arcs, plasma physicist C. J. Ransom produced the craters in
the above photo. This cratered surface duplicates many
characteristics of planetary geology. The craters tend to clump
according to size, and to fall in lines and arcs. Notice also that
the ground appears burnt or discolored where the discharge was
strongest and the craters the densest -- not unlike the surface of
Mars and other rocky bodies in the solar system. The centers of some
of the craters have bumps, as do many enigmatic craters on the Moon,
Mars, and other surfaces. Also of interest are the dark streaks from
two larger craters close to the center of the picture, a pattern
similar to the "wind"-streaked craters found on Mars.

The similarity between craters on
cosmic bodies and craters in the lab does not prove that the craters
seen in space were created by electric arcs. But it is a very good
reason to not exclude that possibility. In other words, it is only
reasonable to examine cratering patterns more carefully. It is
indeed ironic that, as NASA spends billions of tax dollars each
year, seeking to unravel the mysteries of planetary surfaces,
individuals with no NASA connections (or funds!), have begun to
explore electrical explanations.

The shallow craters in Dr. Ransom's
experiments above have interesting parallels in cratering
experiments undertaken by Zane Parker, using nothing more than dust
on an electrified CRT screen. The image below, showing shallow
craters with accumulation at the rim and highlighted centers is just
one of several promising research directions opened up by his simple
experiments.

On hearing of Parker's work, James
St. Pe experimented with the dust collector on an ionic breeze air
purifier, finding that static discharge produced both sharply
defined craters either "randomly" distributed or in linear chains,
depending on conditions. (See discussion of crater chains and rilles
below).

Hexagonal Craters

It goes without saying that hexagonal
cratering patterns are difficult, if not impossible, to explain with
the impact hypothesis. And incredibly, many dozens of such
formations have been imaged on planetary surfaces. Above, you see
just three of the many observed on Mars (a comprehensive collection
can be viewed
here
). The unique morphology is of special interest, because it links
directly to experimental work with plasma discharge in the
laboratory. In recent years, plasma scientists have observed
hexagonal patterns in a dielectric barrier discharge streamer (see
Lifang Dong et al 2004 Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 13 164-165
doi:10.1088/0963-0252/13/1/021).

The significance of these experiments
is underscored by the fact that studies of impacts have never
suggested any kinetic force that might generate such a hexagonal
pattern.

It must be emphasized that the
mystery of hexagonal craters extends well beyond the Martian
surface. Above, we see Saturn’s tiny moon Mimas dominated by a giant
hexagonal crater, also with the telltale central “bump” typical of
so many electric discharge craters.

Also of interest, in electrical
terms, is the “bizarre” atmospheric hexagon encircling Saturn’s
north pole. In this regard, scientists have connected the hexagon to
experiments in which the rotational motion of fluids in a cylinder
gives rise to a hexagonal form. Rotational motion is characteristic
of an electric discharge as well, but would have no plausible link
to the mechanics of impact cratering.

Craters With "Twin Peaks"

The image above -- provided by
Michael Gmirkin and NASA's World Wind 3D software -- shows two
dominating Martian craters that share "inconceivable" similarities.
These supposed "impact" craters are placed side by side, both with
central peaks terminating in CRATERS.

Although the 3D visualization
exaggerates depth, the impact hypothesis faces apparently
insurmountable difficulties. No formative process envisioned by
planetary science ever anticipated central peaks of craters
terminating in a second crater, as seen above. The craters are found
in a region of Mars that planetary scientists believe to be
dominated by "impacts." But the impact theory seems totally unable
to account for the forms seen here.

Scientists have been able to produce
clumpy "rebound" elevations in explosion craters. They also have a
theoretical "analogy" in the rebound effect that occurs in thick
fluids into which an object is dropped. But they have no reasonable
analog for the steep peaks witnessed above, and the idea of two
secondary impacts striking these peaks head-on is simply beyond
belief. It should be obvious, therefore, that the presence of two
craters exhibiting the same anomaly, and standing side-by-side,
categorically excludes the impact hypothesis.

Electrical discharge experiments
readily produce craters with central peaks. So it is not a stretch
to envision a discharge event excavating the kind of craters seen
above, including the pinnacles in their centers. More specifically,
electrical theorist Wallace Thornhill envisions twin Birkeland
filaments rotating "like a corkscrew around a center" to create
these "dished" peaks in the same process that formed the crater. He
likens the symmetrically shaped "bowl" at the top of the peaks to
the levees created by electrical arcs when they move across the
surface to carve out channels or rilles.

"Bulls-eye" Craters

The two craters in the above image
show all of the features one expects of depressions cut by electric
discharge: typical flat floors, steep sides, pinched up rims, and
terraces around their walls. But instead of central peaks, they have
central CRATERS. Two more craters that are similar lie to the
southwest.

Thunderbolts colleague Michael
Gmirkin, in pointing out these craters, has labeled them "bull's eye
craters," in reference to the middle concentric circles of a dart
board, emphasizing the difficulty of hitting the precise center
consistently.

Under the impact interpretation,
central craters could only be caused by a second impact that
coincidentally struck exactly in the center of the previous impact.
The impactors that created the craters would have to hit a perfect
"bull's eye" to create this effect. It might happen once. Twice in
close proximity is extremely unlikely. But four times in the same
neighborhood stretches the meaning of "coincidental" beyond the
covers of the dictionary!!

If the arcs that machined the large
craters persisted until they pinched down into a very small
diameter, or if a second return stroke followed the ionized path
left by the first and persisted long enough, the central peaks (if
they were not already machined away) would have been "drilled down,"
perhaps even to a depth below the original craters' floors. Such an
event would not be the norm, but several "bull's-eye craters" in a
particular area would not be surprising. It may be significant that
the four examples noted here lie on the plain just south of Valles
Marineris -- seen by the electric theorists as the largest EDM
channel (from a traveling arc) in the Solar system.

Rampart Craters

"Rampart"ť craters and "pedestal"ť
craters on Mars are virtually impossible to explain with the impact
model. Pedestal craters, including their bottoms, stand ABOVE the
elevation of the surrounding terrain. Rampart craters, like the one
shown in the above THEMIS image, are surrounded by a "moat" (red
arrow) that's deeper than the original ground level and an outer
"rampart" (blue arrow) that's higher than both the moat and the
surrounding terrain. The outer rampart seems to have "flowed" away
from the crater, rather than to have been ejected.

From an Electric Universe point of
view, these craters are enormous "fulgamites," raised blisters like
those found on the metal caps of lightning arrestors after a
lightning strike. Because the whole blister is lifted above the
surface by the lightning arc, the crater at the top is not
necessarily deeper than the elevation of the original surface around
it. The material forming the raised fulgamite is scavenged from the
surroundings, leaving a "moat" below the surface level.

The radial flow features have been
produced in the laboratory when an arc strikes a moist clay surface.
The arc appears to draw water to the surface and then to drive it
away from the crater, generating a distinctive flow pattern. Thus,
the rampart craters, combined with laboratory experiments, add to
the evidence that Mars had water in the past.

Domed Craters

The top images above show large
craters on Mars that contain mysterious spherical domes. The bottom
images show spheres and craters in Dr. C. J. Ransom's electrical
discharge experiments.

Dr. Ransom was compelled to explore a
possible electric explanation to the Martian "blueberries" -- tiny,
bb-like spherules embedded by the trillions in the Martian surface.
He obtained a quantity of hematite -- an iron-rich material that is
the primary constituent of the soil surrounding the blueberries --
and blasted it with an electric arc. The embedded spheres created by
the arc appear to replicate the features of the blueberries on Mars.

Dr. Ransom's experiments have
profound ramifications for our understanding of Mars. In simple
appearance, the embedded spheres created by Ransom also look
surprisingly similar to the enormous Martian craters and "domes" in
the top pictures above. This is significant because of the
well-known SCALABILITY of electric discharge -- what occurs on a
small scale also occurs on larger scales. In contrast to the rover
"blueberry" images, the "domed craters" on Mars range in size from
kilometers in diameter down to a hundred meters or less.

At the present time, Ransom's
electrical discharge experiments have provided the only fact-based
explanation for these anomalous formations. It must be asked,
therefore, if the "blueberries" and the domed craters were produced
by the same electrical force, acting on widely different scales.

Amazingly, NASA images at the south
polar region of Mars have revealed even larger domed craters, as
seen
here. The area surrounding the ice cap is peppered with craters,
many of them several kilometers in diameter, most notably, the
formation in the upper left that exhibits a dome-shaped central
feature within a crater. It should go without saying that there is
no known geologic process producing such features.

Aligned Craters

Above is an image of three aligned
craters in the Noachis Terra region on Mars. In interpreting these
craters, NASA follows the accepted impact theory: "[T]hree aligned
meteor impact craters on the floor of a much larger crater in the
Noachis Terra region. The craters may have formed together from a
single event in which the impactor (the meteor) was broken into
three pieces."

A single event is required because
there is no rubble on the floors of the craters from adjacent
impacts. The blast force would have had to act simultaneously to
displace laterally the ejecta situated between the impacts. But the
only imaginable way to get three craters in a single event is to
have the impactor break into three pieces. And then the problem
returns to the first observation of three ALIGNED craters: It's
unlikely that a meteor breaking up under the forces of heat and
shock in the atmosphere will produce pieces that travel abreast to
the surface. The theory has bitten itself on the ankle and is
hobbling around in a circle.

From the Electric Universe
perspective, these aligned craters are better explained as
electrical discharge scars. An electric arc impinging on a surface
will "machine" out a circular hole, much like a router bit. Often,
the bottom will be fairly flat; the sides will be steep; the removed
material will be lifted away, leaving a clean excavation.

Crater Chains and "Rilles"

The networks of channels or rilles
discovered on planetary surfaces constitute one of the great
mysteries in planetary science. But they are also a crucial test of
the electrical model because the model identifies the force creating
most rilles as the same force that caused the dominant cratering
patterns.

Look at the above image of Jupiter's
moon Ganymede. Try to imagine an impacting body breaking up to form
a neatly graded and spaced line of objects that might create this
series of overlapping craters. Common sense tells us that the chance
of this happening is virtually zero.

But crater chains are an observed
effect of electric arcs passing over a cathode (negatively charged)
surface, as discussed above (Craters in the Laboratory). With slight
variations in the current or in surface composition, the arc may
stop jumping from one crater to the next and cut a trench instead.

In other words, within the electric
model, there is a full range of connections that must be explored
between channels and craters. And yet mainstream science, while
spending billions on space exploration, appears to have spent not a
penny on exploring the power of electricity to create a wide range
of enigmatic features observed in space.

In the picture of the Jovian moon
Ganymede above, the craters overlap so closely that the distinction
between "crater chain" and "straight rille" blurs. There are
sections of this crater chain that could pass for a rille. When
examined closely, the image also includes smaller rilles with
scalloped sections that could pass for overlapping craters. Notice
that the sizes of the craters are similar, with an increase toward
the middle. From an Electric Universe point of view, this size
gradation is a reflection of the initial increase in current as an
arc becomes established, followed by a decrease as the arc quenches.
In lightning strikes with multiple strokes, the middle strokes are
usually the strongest.

Notice also that many of the craters
retain their central peaks -- a common effect in craters created in
the lab by electric discharge. The arc that carves a crater is a
Birkeland current consisting of a pair of filaments that rotate
around the current's axis. If the crater is large enough, the two
filaments will not meet in the center, leaving a central spire
intact.

Melting is another defining
characteristic of electrical erosion. Although extensive melting is
ascribed to impacts, impacts in fact produce little melting. The
particles of rubble may be immersed in hot gases from the impact,
but the heat dissipates too quickly for conduction to carry much of
it into the particles. Electrical erosion, on the contrary,
generates heat inside the eroded particles, in the manner of a
heating element on an electric stove. A general expectation of the
Electric Universe is that the floors of craters and rilles will show
extensive glassification. Unfortunately, it can only be confirmed by
on-site observations.

A final observation is that many
craters appear to have their rims "pinched up," rather than "rolled
over" or splattered as would be expected from debris thrown out by
an impact. Many rilles, too, have "pinched up" dikes along their
edges. This emphasizes the indication from missing debris that the
erosional forces were directed upward.

To see the relationship between
crater formation and rilles, it's useful to observe the more extreme
cases in which the standard explanation fails completely. Often,
planetary scientists can only guess as to the force generating
channels on Mars. Sometimes, they will "see" flowing liquid (water
or lava), and other times they will "see" wind erosion, and still
other times they will see cracks. In all of these cases, the visible
link to craters will pose enigmas. Consider the extraordinary image
above of the Martian surface, called Avernus Colles. The network of
channels observed from space was certainly not caused by flowing
liquid, and on the face of it, it is not surprising that planetary
scientists identified the channels as cracks or "fractures." When
viewed more closely, however, the "obvious" explanation evaporates.
A small section of the region above shows unequivocally the
relationship between a cratering process and the enigmatic channels.
To appreciate the scope of the mystery, one should view the entire
THEMIS image, available
here.

Once the inseparable relationship of
craters to channels is fully appreciated, planetary scientists will
begin to see the essential connection of the same electric force to
massive "surface etching"ť on Mars -- a process that has continued
to baffle NASA investigators.

Subterranean Structure Beneath Craters

In examining the credibility of the
electrical cratering hypothesis, space exploration will provide
increasing opportunities to test the hypothesis against standard
theory. In standard theory, a crater is born from a high-velocity
impact, when the colliding object penetrates deeply into the soil,
then explodes. The one certainty in the impact hypothesis is that
the subsurface terrain will be massively disturbed.

In the electric model, however,
subsurface material may be pulled upward toward the center of the
crater to create a central bump or peak. That is the only
disturbance that would be expected. Therefore, it was of great
interest to the electrical theorists when Australian researcher Dave
Smith noted an image returned to Earth from the Cassini probe of
Saturn and its moons. A close-up of Saturn's moon Dione showed a
surface exhibiting numerous craters, but also a sharply cut trench
bisecting at least two craters. When Cassini captured the bissected
craters from an angle, the subsurface layers were clearly exposed.
It could be seen that no disturbances of the sort required by the
impact hypothesis occurred in the event that gave birth to the
crater.

Visible in the image is a layer of
light material, and beneath that material, a layer of dark material.
No disturbance can be seen in the boundaries between the two layers,
though such disturbance would have been massive if in fact an
impactor had created the depression.

The evidence cited above includes
only several of thousands of craters most reasonably explained by
the electric force. Of course, this is also typical of many of
Earth's most famous craters:
Richat Crater in the Saharan desert, whose uplifted terrain,
circularity, concentric terraces, and layered sedimentary rock defy
both the impact and volcanic theories of cratering;
Aorounga Crater also in the Sahara, whose parallel grooves and
intersecting ridges (which run through the surrounding landscape as
well as the crater itself) have been described as "implausible" by
geologists; Meteor Crater in Arizona, a 4,000 foot wide depression
now regarded by science as an "impact" crater despite the
UNDISTURBED rock beds
below the crater; and
Chicxulub Crater, the famous alleged site of the "asteroid"
impact thought to have killed off the dinosaurs. Chicxulub is up to
300 km across, with multiple concentric rings, and the added mystery
of Upper Cretaceous fossils found in UNDISTURBED layers -- fossils
of the creatures that the impact was supposed to have wiped out.

Craters on bodies in space tell us a
story that can revise our understanding of the Universe and our
place in it. But this story cannot be seen or understood when vision
is distorted by prejudice and assumption. If scientists can suspend
these distorting assumptions, the story will become both obvious and
revolutionary. The planets and moons in our Solar System are the
war-torn remnants of a violent age. The force that battered them is
the same force that gives exquisite structure to nebulae and
galaxies, powers the Sun, and causes the spectacular displays of
comets. That force is electricity.

______

For your best gateway to the Electric Universe, see
Thunderbolts.info. And for a highly-acclaimed 60 minute video
introduction to the Electric Universe, see
Thunderbolts of the Gods on Google Video.