Oncology

Build up your expertise in oncology!

Dr. Carlo Raj, a board review expert, will let you know the answer to this and many other relevant questions concerning the topic of oncology.

He will review high-yield principles and topics that may appear in Step 2 or Shelf exams.

Learn about:

Principles of Neoplasia and Carcinogenesis

Neoplasms of the Endocrine System

Neoplasms of the Reproductive System

Neoplasms of the Gastrointestinal System

Dr. Carlo Raj will make sure you understand even the most difficult topics by explaining them in a clear and structured manner. His explanations are accompanied by lots of graphics, clinical pearls and mnemonics as well.

Enhance your learning by writing notes on our downloadable material while watching lectures. You can also take quizzes to track your learning progress. You can even study on the go on your phone or tablet, online or offline.

Step up your exam prep game with Lecturio today and see what's in it for you!

Content

The small and large bowels are parts of the digestive tract, they are responsible for digestion and absorption. The large intestine plays a large role in fecal formation and storage, as well as absorption of water, minerals, and vitamins. Any alterations in the integrity of this region of the digestive tract can result in subsequent issues. One of the most prevalent conditions that could lead to this is the development of new growths or neoplasms in any of the layers of the intestines. Among the two, neoplasms occur more commonly in the large intestine. In this article, we shall look into different types of polyps and cancerous growths, particularly hamartomatous polyps and the Lynch syndrome.

Tumor malignancy is the second leading cause of death in the United States today with increasing incidence. Furthermore, the general public usually associates the term with disease leading to death. Not every diagnosis of a tumor, however, translates to a shortened lifespan in actuality. The following article will define the word “tumor”, will shed light on the mechanism of tumor development and detail means of classification with respect to treatment plans.

Malignant neoplasms are among the leading causes of death in recent US statistic: death from malignancy is currently only second to cardiovascular diseases. As an aspiring medical professional, you will find cancer in nearly every clinical field. As widely varied as tumors can be, characterization through staging and grading is virtually universally applicable. Both indicators help to make statements regarding prognosis and treatment. Here you will learn the appropriate terminology, and how to classify and differentiate between them.

The carcinoid syndrome describes the signs and symptoms associated with unregulated vasoactive hormone production by neuroendocrine tumors. Carcinoid tumors can be found anywhere throughout the body, but these will not result in carcinoid syndrome unless they form in the liver as a primary tumor or as a metastasis. Symptoms of carcinoid syndrome include flushing, diarrhea, and wheezing. VIPomas usually form in the pancreas and release vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) which results in profound chronic diarrhea with concomitant hypokalemia and dehydration, wheezing, and flushing (similar to carcinoid syndrome). VIPomas are often associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MENI). Diagnosis is based off blood or urine measurements of serotonin and VIP. Treatment consists of minimizing symptoms with medication and complete surgical removal of the tumor.

Colorectal cancer originates from the colon and rectum in the body. It is a very common type of cancer in the United States. The molecular pathogenesis of colorectal cancer involves complex pathways. There are different types of colonic polyps associated with colorectal cancer; mostly are precancerous in nature. In this article, different pathological mechanisms, colonic polyps, symptoms, diagnostic tests, treatment and prognosis of colorectal cancer will be discussed in detail.

Cancer is one of the most widespread and most feared diseases in the world. Its onset is often insidious and initially proceeds without any noticeable symptoms. For treatment to be successful, an early detection is necessary. However, every year about 225,000 people worldwide lose this race against the clock. Tumor markers in the blood—are they an alarm signal of the organism? Are regular blood tests the best prophylaxis against cancer? Read more about this topic in the following article.

Hodgkin's disease is one of the first cancerous diseases for which effective treatment options have been developed. While this disease still ended lethally earlier, the prognosis is very good today. This is particularly due to the radiation sensitivity of lymphoma. 80 % of the patients can be cured permanently. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the hematologic disease, the symptoms, diagnosis and therapeutic principles.

Iodine deficiency is a major cause of goiter development. However, there are many other causes that can lead to an increase or change in the consistency of the thyroid gland. In order to be able to come to an unambiguous assessment, differential diagnostic skills are essential. Therefore, the following article may help you learn more about the etiology and differential diagnosis of goiter.

If diagnosed and treated in time, a patient with esophageal carcinoma can be cured. However, the symptoms are often non-specific and only appear once the tumor is already advanced. Therefore, it is all the more important not to overlook any relevant indications in clinical practice. Questions about esophageal carcinoma occasionally come up in exams, especially on etiology and clinical symptoms. Therefore, it pays to read on to learn more!

Thyroid cancer is an uncommon cancer that can be managed well if detected early enough. It arises from follicular or parafollicular cells within the thyroid. There are subtypes of cancer depending on the cell involved and the mutations that occur. The most common cure for this cancer is surgical removal of the thyroid, along with chemotherapy or radiotherapy.

The pancreas is an organ that actually consists of two glands: one exocrine and one endocrine gland. The glandular epithelium is a specialized epithelial tissue which produces and excretes substances to control our bodily functions. The exocrine gland secretes its fluids via ducts (into the intestinal lumen), while the endocrine gland secretes its substances via the extracellular space into the vascular- and the lymphatic-system. The two parts of the pancreas differ both in structure and function. The following article should give you an overview about the histological features of the two glandular parts.

During pregnancy, it is possible for the tissue surrounding the embryo to degenerate. Such degeneration typically manifests itself in hydatidiform moles and choriocarcinoma. These tumors are difficult to diagnose and are associated with an increased level of beta hCG. Treatment involves the complete removal of the tumorous growth. The characteristics of the tumors are described in more detail below.

Chronic myelogenous leukemia, also called chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), is an acquired monoclonal expansion of white blood cells of myeloid lineage. It is common in middle and old age accounting for 20% of adult leukemia. It is sometimes diagnosed incidentally on routine blood investigations or the presence of splenomegaly on examination. CML is classically associated with the Philadelphia chromosome (BCR-ABL fusion gene) and has excellent prognosis with modern therapy.

Over the past several years, more and more individuals attract malignant gastric cancer. In many cases, however, the initial symptoms of the disease are so non-specific that the tumor is not diagnosed until it is in an advanced stage, resulting in the prognosis being worse. Which risk factors promote the development of gastric cancer, and what are the treatment options once the diagnosis of gastric carcinoma has been made? In the following article, you will find out everything you need to know about gastric cancer.

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia is a malignant neoplastic disease that arise from lymphoid cell lines. It is the most malignancy in childhood. The disease manifests quickly over a span of days or weeks. Excessive proliferation of immature blasts replaces the normal bone marrow cells resulting in bruises, bleeding and infection that associated with fever. Diagnosis of ALL is established by complete blood count (CBC) which shows leukocytosis , bone marrow study which shows more than 20% blast cells. It has a good prognosis.

Acute myeloid leukemia is due to a malignant transformation of the hematopoietic stem cells. It is predominantly seen in the age group of 50 – 60 years and is characterized by the arrest of leukocyte development in the early stage of development. Diagnosis is based on the presence of blast cells in the peripheral circulation. It is treated by chemotherapy, which includes treatment of remission and post-induction remission. Refractory cases of acute myeloid leukemia are treated by bone marrow transplants. Complications of AML include anemia, infections and bleeding, along with acute medical emergencies such as necrotizing enterocolitis, hyperleukocytosis and tumor lysis syndrome.

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) affects the B-cells of the immune system and is, as the most common leukemia in adults, an important hematological differential diagnosis. It often hardly progresses for years and therefore a CLL does not always need immediate therapy. In the past years especially, a lot has happened with regard to diagnostic options and treatment, so that being informed about cytogenetic diagnostics and new treatment methods is extremely important.

As mammary carcinoma is the most frequent malignant disease in women, early detection is important. There are numerous diagnostic tools available, the mammogram being the gold standard. The next step would be developing a treatment plan that is individualized for the patient and the type of carcinoma. The following article will teach you to accurately diagnose mammary carcinoma and to initiate the appropriate therapy.

Breast cancer (mastocarcinoma) is the most common form of cancer among women. Consequently, it will be encountered by doctors as part of their work in hospitals and medical practice. This disease exhibits a heterogeneous pattern including different histological subtypes, which may differ considerably in their degree of malignity and, consequently, in their clinical symptoms and therapy. The following article helps you to understand the clinical picture of mastocarcinoma, identify its symptoms and to classify its histology correctly.

The multiple endocrine syndromes are inherited autosomal dominantly and consist of two superior groups (I and II). The second group can be further divided into three subgroups (IIa, IIb and FMTC-only). The respective upper groups have different causes on moleculargenetic level. Characteristic signature diseases i.a. appear as part of these syndromes.

Colpitis and bacterial vaginoses are diseases of the vagina. Apart from the symptoms themselves, there is always the risk of an ascending infection. Also inflammations of the outer genitals are an important clinical issue. For one thing, vulvitis is very frequent and ubiquitous. Furthermore, the outer genitals are so sensitive that diseases can cause great discomfort for the patient, even if they often are harmless. Here you can read all about pathogens, diagnostics and treatment.

The pancreas is two in one: exocrine and endocrine gland. It is essential for digestion and the carbohydrate metabolism. Thus, a loss in pancreatic function leads to severe clinical symptoms. In this article, you will get a compact overview of the structure, functions, and diseases of the pancreas.

The liver (Latin: Iecur, Greek: Hepar) is the generalist among all organs – acting universally as center of metabolism, storage unit, detoxifying- and excreting organ. Medical staff is frequently confronted with diseases such as liver cirrhosis, hepatitis and fatty liver. Therefore, anatomical and biochemical knowledge of the liver is part of every medicine student`s basic training. Read this compact overview on structure, functions and diseases of the liver.

Testicular tumors are common and potentially annihilating to the male population. With a brief prologue to testicular tumors; this article focuses on the significant, relevant types of testicular tumors such as Germ Cell Tumors (GCTs) and Non-Germ Cell Tumors (NGCT).Various clinical, patho-physiological and prognostic aspects of the same have been expatiated.

Burkitt lymphoma (small non-cleaved cell lymphoma) is one of the most aggressive and rapidly growing non-Hodgkin's lymphomas, with obvious predominance in children and young adults. This type of tumor requires urgent therapeutic intervention as the CNS and the bone marrow are involved in the malignant process since early stages of the disease.

Plasma cells neoplasms are the cancers of plasma cells that are responsible for producing antibodies in our bodies. These abnormal plasma cells proliferate rapidly in the bone marrow causing extensive bone destruction. They also produce increased quantities of monoclonal immunoglobulins (M-protein) that build up in our body, leading to the thickening of the blood and damaging our kidneys.

Splenomegaly is the enlargement of the spleen. The spleen is an integral part of the immune system that provides efficient immunosurveillance (production of WBCs defending the body from various infections) and hematopoiesis (“cemetery” for damaged and worn off erythrocytes). The spleen is allocated in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen behind the ribs 9-11, on the left from the stomach, and the tail of the pancreas, above the left kidney, the splenic flexure of the colon.

Leukemia is blood cancer, this condition is characterized by exceeded amount of immature white blood cells in the blood stream (blasts), which normally remain in the bone marrow for their further maturity or sent to special organs (spleen, thymus) to get ready for their proper functioning. White blood cells are responsible for the adequate immune reaction of the body to various antigens (infections, malignant cells, foreign bodies, allergens); hence, immature cells cannot cover this function fully and fail to perform in the way m proper white cell do. Thus, the body easily contracts different infections as it is not capable to fight them, as the disease advances the bone morrow becomes exhausted shooting even more damaged cells or stops producing blood cells at all (hemogenic collapse).

Lymphoid neoplasms are divided into the two main groups: Hodgkin and Non-Hodgkin Lymphomas. The former ones are the most curable due to the specific pathogenesis of the ailment and recent advance in the methods of treatment (5 years survival for the patients with favorable prognosis 98 % and 85 % with a less benign one). The malignant cells form in the lymphatic system; mainly, they are represented by white blood cells, namely, immature B-lymphocytes. HL may take place in any part of the lymphatic system. This disease was described by Dr. Thomas Hodgkin in 1832 as a type of cancer of the lymph nodes.

There are two types of lymphomas - Hodgkin Lymphoma (Hodgkin`s Disease) and Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma. The follicular lymphoma belongs to the second group. It is a slow-growing B-cell lymphoma, and the second most common sub-type of NHL; most often occurs due to chromosomal translocation t(14;18) causing bcl-2 gene rearrangement. Most of the patients with FL are asymptomatic; hence they remain undiagnosed for years and usually detected in the advanced stages.

Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), accounting for one-third of all NHLs in the western world. It is a very aggressive, fast-growing neoplasm unless diagnosed and treated timely (survival is less than one year without a cure). This illness is characterized by painless enlarged lymph nodes. It has a very close affiliation with genetic issues, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and immunocompromised conditions (congenital and acquired: HIV, AIDS).

Non-Hodgkin's lymphomas (NHL) are hematological malignancies with high prevalence worldwide (accounts for about 4 % of all cancer cases and 2.7 % of all cancer deaths). They are cancers of the lymphatic tissues (mainly lymph nodes), affecting the lymphocytes, either B-cells (70 %) or T-cells/NK cells (30 %). NHLs are five times more common than the Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL). The following article discusses both B-cell type NHLs and T-cell type NHLs.

Chemotherapy (chemo) is the specific systematic treatment administered in oncological practice for malignant neoplasms in order to destroy chaotically dividing abnormal cells. Chemo is a part of anticancer treatment along with radiotherapy, immunotherapy and surgery. The drugs used in chemotherapeutic protocols cannot be purchased over the counter; they can be taken with prescription only. Cancer drugs influence and actions are directed to the malignant cell reproduction, cure, control, palliation or chemoprevention.

The thymus is an important part of our immune system, located in the anterior mediastinum. Due to this fact, the diagnostics, access, and management of its neoplasms (thymomas) are somewhat difficult. The thymomas often involve the contiguous organs and are also frequently associated with other paraneoplastic conditions, making the condition even more complicated.

Abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB) is calamitous for many women. With a brief prologue to AUB, this article focuses on the significantly relevant causes of AUB, such as endometrial polyp, leiomyoma and leiomyosarcoma.

Endometrial hyperplasia is abnormal growth of the endometrium in the uterus. It is caused by excess estrogen unopposed by progesterone. Pathology shows an increased gland-to-stroma ratio and can show atypia. Atypia is linked to endometrial cancer, the most common gynecological malignancy in the developed world. Treatment includes progesterone therapy and if there is atypic hysterectomy is recommended. Lynch syndrome has a high lifetime risk of developing endometrial cancer.

Ductal papillomas are commonly identified in women presenting with pathological nipple discharge. However, pathological nipple discharge can also be identified in patients with breast cancer. Patients with ductal papillomas can have either a solitary lesion or multiple papillomas. Solitary papillomas are usually central and large, while multiple papillomas tend to be peripheral and small in size. Whereas large solitary papillomas are not thought to be precancerous, small multiple papillomas seem to increase the risk of breast cancer. Patients with a single papilloma might benefit from microductectomy while those who have multiple papillomas are possible candidates for surgical intervention due to their increased risk of developing breast cancer.

Ovarian cancer is becoming challenging every year due to the ever increasing number of new diagnoses. It is considered the 5th leading cause of cancer deaths among women; with about 14,000 deaths and more than 20,000 new cases every year.

Testicular cancer is an uncommon malignancy. Most of testicular cancers are of the germ cell tumor type and they can be classified into seminomas or nonseminomas. The most common presentation of testicular cancer is a painless testicular nodule. Alpha-fetoprotein can be elevated in nonseminomas, while beta-human chorionic gonadotropin is usually elevated in both seminomas and nonseminomas. Radical inguinal orchiectomy along with retroperitoneal lymph node dissection helps in confirming the diagnosis and can be curative in early stages of testicular seminomas.

Non-invasive breast cancer can be either ductal carcinoma in situ or less commonly lobular carcinoma in situ. Ductal carcinoma in situ is of epithelial type, and there is usually no basement membrane invasiveness. Because of the lack of invasiveness, these tumors are unlikely to metastasize by the lymphatics or blood vessels. Ductal carcinoma in situ is usually diagnosed by a mammography and not by physical examination. Microcalcifications on mammography are the most common presenting feature. Local excision of the lesion is recommended to obtain histopathologic data and guide treatment. Total mastectomy or breast conservation therapy are the two options for the treatment of ductal carcinoma in situ.

When the physicist and Nobel Prize winner Marie Curie died in 1934, her blood was flooded by white blood cells. During her work as a researcher and the years of contact with radioactive substances, she had developed a leukemia. There are various causes and forms for the disease, which is also known as blood cancer. Learn here about these and you will be well versed in the popular examination topic Leukemia.

Fallopian tube tumors are rare with an incidence of 3.6 per one million. Fallopian tube carcinoma is of epithelial origin and share similar pathogenesis mechanisms with epithelial ovarian cancer. Early obstruction of the fallopian tube results in rapid onset of symptoms such as abdominal pain and distension and patients with fallopian tube carcinoma usually present at an early stage. Treatment of choice for early stage fallopian tube carcinoma is surgical removal of the tumor and any involved pelvic structures.

Ovarian cancer is of epithelial origin in 60% of the patients. Most patients present at an advanced stage due to the lack of specific symptoms except for mucinous ovarian cancer where abdominal distension is so severe that patients present very early in the disease. Once ovarian cancer is suspected, the patient usually undergoes a transvaginal ultrasonography, abdomen-pelvic CT scan and CA-125 concentration measurement. If an ovarian cyst or mass is identified, its characteristics will be noted and a risk of malignancy index can be calculated. Treatment involves neoadjuvant platinum-based chemotherapy with or without surgery. Newer treatments include antiangiogenic antivascular endothelial growth factor bevacizumab and pazopanib.

Polycystic ovary syndrome or disease is a multisystem endocrinological disorder where there is hyperandrogenism, ovarian dysfunction, obesity, menstrual abnormalities and multiple ovarian cysts. The most common presenting features are hirsutism, acne, metabolic syndrome and biochemical hyperandrogenism. Patients also have hyperlipidemia and an impaired glucose metabolism. Treatment involves oral contraceptive pills for menstrual abnormalities and hyperandrogenism, metformin for hyperandrogenism and infertility and clomiphene for infertility. Infertile women who do not respond to clomiphene might benefit from gonadotropins or laparoscopic ovarian drilling (LOD).

Pancreatic pseudocysts are a complication of acute pancreatitis, and they are more common when the etiology is alcohol-related. These pseudocysts do not have an epithelial wall, and their fluid content is rich in amylase, lipase and trypsin. Abdominal CT scan is the diagnostic modality of choice to confirm the diagnosis of pancreatic pseudocysts and exclude complications. MRI or ERCP can be used to assess communication between the pseudocyst and the pancreatic duct, and if present, transpapillary drainage of the pseudocyst can be attempted.

Bronchogenic carcinomas include small cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, large-cell carcinoma and undifferentiated carcinoma. Bronchogenic carcinoma is clearly associated with tobacco smoking. Once the diagnosis of bronchogenic carcinoma is confirmed by a biopsy study, disease staging with CT or FDG-PET is indicated because treatment is stage-based. While stage I and II disease benefit from surgical lobectomy, chemotherapy is essential for patients with stage III and IV.

Malignant neoplasms have the ability to invade adjacent structures, spread through the lymphatic system or metastasize to distant organs by the bloodstream. In order for tumorous cells to be able to metastasize, they should first become motile and be able to migrate. This is achieved by altered cell-to-cell and cell-to-matrix adhesion properties in addition to an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transformation process. In addition to this, angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis play an important role in metastatic disease by providing access for the tumor cells to the bloodstream and lymphatic system respectively.

Teratomas are germ-cell tumors and can be mature “benign” or immature “malignant”. They usually arise in the sacrococcygeal region, ovaries, testes or mediastinum. Sacrococcygeal teratomas can be diagnosed antenatally, while teratomas in other locations are usually diagnosed postnatally. The treatment of teratomas is surgical. Complete excision of benign teratomas can virtually result in a cure with minimal risk of recurrence in the majority of the cases.

Red blood cells perform an important function of supplying adequate oxygen to all tissues. Increased synthesis of these red blood cells, arising either de novo or secondary to other conditions, is called polycythemia. Read on to find out more about the different types of polycythemia and how they may present.

The lung is the major organ of the respiratory system and used to inhale oxygen and remove the metabolic waste in the form of CO2 from the body. Malfunctioning of the lungs can lead to serious complications and disturbs the normal living conditions. Lung cancer is one of the severe conditions which have a relatively high mortality risk. Previously, it was the leading cause of death among men in more than 25 developed countries. Now it has become a worldwide cause of death among men. Most common cause of lung cancer is smoking, especially in men. Prognosis of this condition is still poor for malignant tumors. Read everything important about it here.

Liver tumors are some of the more common neoplasms and are classified as either primary or secondary. Management varies depending on several factors such as type, size, and the spread of the cancer. Continue to read this article to learn key facts about the tumors of the liver including incidence, pathology, clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment.

The retinoblastoma is a tumor of infancy and childhood and accounts for about 2 % of all malignant neoplasia in children. Experts recommend a simple screening test to diagnose retinoblastomas early: The frontal photography of an infant using flash reveals the most common symptom of retinoblastoma – leukocoria – and can be essential for an early diagnosis in order to facilitate adequate therapy.

As an elastic and muscular hollow organ, the esophagus supports food intake. Disorders particularly affect the passage of food and the functioning of the sphincters. Cardinal symptoms of esophageal diseases are dysphagia, regurgitation, pyrosis, retrosternal pain, and coughing.

This article explains basic facts about tumors of the CNS. It includes neuroepithelial tumors like astrocytomas and fibrillary astrocytomas. It also runs through oligodendroglioma, medulloblastoma and meningeal tumors like meningioma and primary CNS lymphoma. The article covers the definition, epidemiology, etiology and causes of CNS tumors, in addition to classification, pathophysiology, symptoms, diagnosis (including history and examination), therapy and prognosis.

Seborrhoeic dermatitis is a common chronic papulosquamous dermatosis with distinct infantile and adult forms, easily recognised clinically. Owing to its frequent recurrence in patients with HIV and AIDS, a careful evaluation of this pathology is warranted. The disease varies from mild to severe exhibiting a variety of forms including psoriasiform, pityriasiform and erythroderma.

A nevus is a condition which occurs due to the increase in the number of melanocytes. The occurrence of the melanocytes can be both congenital, as well as acquired, and the melanin pigmentation can also be hypo- or hyper-pigmentation. The atypical mole differs from the benign nevus by the irregularity of shape, as well as an increase in size and number. The biopsy is required for diagnosis in doubtful cases and in which the confirmation is required. The treatment varies from observation (in the majority of cases) to medical (chemical peels using beta-hydroxy and retinoic acid) and, lastly, surgical treatment for the removal of the nevus.

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma represents one of the most common malignancies in humans. The malignant tumour arises from suprabasal epidermal keratinocytes that invade the dermis and together with basal cell carcinoma, forms the most common malignancies of skin to affect humans. But unlike basal cell carcinoma that is thought to arise de novo, this non-melanoma skin cancer is thought to evolve from precursor lesions of actinic keratosis (AK) and Bowen’s disease. The clinical appearance is highly variable but a strong suspicion must be kept in mind if a non-healing lesion presents, specially on sun exposed areas. Histopathological evidence helps in establishing the diagnosis. While a multitude of treatment options are available, prevention in patients with predispositions should attract more attention.

Neoplasms of the skin can be hard to differentiate clinically, but nevertheless they can result in entirely different consequences. While the colloquially called “white skin cancer” describes rather harmless changes of the skin, the “black skin” cancer is feared. As other doctors from different specialties, other than dermatologist, are also consulted when discussing diagnostic findings of their patients’ skins, it pays off to know the most common types of skin cancer.

There are two types of catecholamine secreting tumors: pheochromocytomas which arise from the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla and paragangliomas which arise from the sympathetic ganglia or other cells derived from the neural crest. Catecholamines include epinephrine and norepinephrine, and both are released upon the stimulation of the sympathetic preganglionic nerve fibers during times of stress or sympathetic activation.

Paraneoplastic syndromes are rare disorders caused by a change in immune system response to a neoplasm. It is a disorder that produce a nonmetastic impact on systemic organs due to production of substances by the remote tumor cells in the body.
Carcinogenesis, also known as tumorigenesis which stands for the process of transforming a normal cell into a cancerous cell. Strictly defined carcinogenesis represents the initiation of a tumor-forming process, while oncogenesis represents maintenance of the tumorous state in cells that have already changed into a cancerous state. The process is largely dependent on the imbalance between proliferation and programmed cell death (apoptosis) in the cell division pattern.

Skin lesions have a broad range of etiology and can be complex in diagnosis due to their similar appearance on inspection. Cutaneous T-Cell lymphoma is a rare skin disease that presents with several distinct manifestations. Most common of this manifestation is Mycosis Fungoides and Sezary syndrome. Mycosis fungoides is a slow progressing set of mushroom shaped skin lesions, while Sezary syndrome is a rapidly progressing generalized skin disease with a worse prognosis.

Dermatofibroma, or benign fibrous histiocytoma, is a common cutaneous nodule that may be superficial or deep. It is the most common painful skin tumor, mostly affecting women. Although, the precise underlying etiology and mechanism for the development of this skin pathology is not well known, it is believed to be a neoplastic process owing to its clonal proliferation growth. While the patients may usually be asymptomatic, the tumor growth may exhibit rapid growth or may remain static for several years. An intervention is not called for unless the patient is symptomatic.

Lung cancer is notoriously one of the most common lethal tumors in the medical world. It is essential to be accustomed with the basic details about this disease. In this article, you will gain all exam-relevant information about the epidemiology, pathogenesis and clinical recognition of lung cancer.

Your Educators of course Oncology

Carlo Raj, MD

You probably know MD Edward Goljan and his Rapid Review Pathology Series. But do you know the "new" Goljan? His name is Carlo Raj and he is currently following his mentor's footsteps by presenting you pathology as you have never experienced before.

Carlo Raj has earned his MD at the Medical University of the Americas (MUA) and continued his medical career as professor of Pathophysiology at the Becker Professional Education, Chicago, USA, and as an international lecturer and author—both assisting MD Edward Goljan and later on his own. Today he teaches at Becker Professional Education and is also CEO of Indus Intellect, whose goal it is to spread medical knowledge across the globe.

Kevin Pei, MD

Dr. Kevin Pei is Assistant Professor of Surgery at Yale School of Medicine, Associate Director of Surgery Clerkships and Associate Director of Resident Education at the Yale Center for Medical Simulation. He is passionate about curriculum development and improving patient outcomes through creative education and simulation.

Mohammad Hajighasemi-Ossareh, MD, MBA

After graduating Summa Cum Laude with a Bachelor of Science degree in Biology, Dr. Ossareh obtained his Doctorate of Medicine (M.D.) degree at the University of California, Irvine in 2016. Dr. Ossareh is currently completing his Neurology residency at the LAC+USC Medical Center in Los Angeles, California.

Throughout his years of academic and clinical training, Dr. Ossareh has created and continues to operate the original YouTube Channel for pre-med and medical students with over 60,000 subscribers and over 4 million views. Given Dr. Ossareh's years of experience in medical education, viewers will benefit from his practical knowledge base and obtain unique insights into the life of a medical student and receive priceless pearls of wisdom.

User reviews

(53)
4,0 of 5 stars

5 Stars

34

4 Stars

6

3 Stars

2

2 Stars

2

1 Star

9

Clear and organized

By Victoria W. on 03. March 2019 for Types of Tumors: Tissue, Benign and Malignant – Neoplasia

He's pretty funny and has a clear lecture style. Very clearly laid out

Great intro

By Victoria W. on 03. March 2019 for Neoplasia, Dysplasia, Tumor and Cancer: Differentiating Definitions– Neoplasia

Well taught and succinct. I enjoyed his style of lecturing, as he uses good intonations.

As a Danish medical student, with English only as my second language, I admit, I had to spend some time "tuning in" on Dr. Raj's way of speaking. See, he's an extremely fast speaker, but as I did get used to this, I really learned to appreciate his way of teaching. Actually, his way of speaking kind of peaks my attention and focus, since my brain has to work harder for it.
Thanks, Dr.!

User reviews

(53)
4,0 of 5 stars

5 Stars

34

4 Stars

6

3 Stars

2

2 Stars

2

1 Star

9

Clear and organized

By Victoria W. on 03. March 2019 for Types of Tumors: Tissue, Benign and Malignant – Neoplasia

He's pretty funny and has a clear lecture style. Very clearly laid out

Great intro

By Victoria W. on 03. March 2019 for Neoplasia, Dysplasia, Tumor and Cancer: Differentiating Definitions– Neoplasia

Well taught and succinct. I enjoyed his style of lecturing, as he uses good intonations.

As a Danish medical student, with English only as my second language, I admit, I had to spend some time "tuning in" on Dr. Raj's way of speaking. See, he's an extremely fast speaker, but as I did get used to this, I really learned to appreciate his way of teaching. Actually, his way of speaking kind of peaks my attention and focus, since my brain has to work harder for it.
Thanks, Dr.!

Nice presentation

By Dvsvb R. on 04. January 2019 for Esophageal Cancer

Every aspect is accurate and explained well In all aspects

Lecture is precise. MCQ section is very helpful.

By Nusrat N. on 28. November 2018 for Gastric Polyps

Thank you so much for the lectures.
This is pretty thorough and easy to understand.

Good

By victoria a. on 25. November 2018 for Ionizing Radiation – Carcinogenesis

By Charlie J. on 22. September 2018 for Types of Tumors: Tissue, Benign and Malignant – Neoplasia

concise and dramatic. Simple presentation well presented. A little spice in illustrations.

Importance of knowledge with clinical application.

By SULBHA S. on 15. September 2018 for Benign Neoplasm and Teratoma – Neoplasia

I love the clinical application. It makes it so much more exciting to learn and remember because as Dr Carlos Raj points out it's not just memorising. I must say his way of speaking makes it even more exciting :) On a serious note though-mentioning how serious it is to act on dysplasia or when the BM is involved-we should be saying omg, and not looking at him. Looking forward to more lectures-wish he was lecturing the subjects to keep that interest and significance of the subject and our job.

Poor

By Max G. on 20. August 2018 for Neoplasia, Dysplasia, Tumor and Cancer: Differentiating Definitions– Neoplasia

I don't like Carlo's style of presentation. It is also at odds with Robbins and Cotran. The worst video on Lecturio

thank you Dr Raj your lessons are a great help for the study

By stan s. on 12. August 2018 for Neoplasms of the Reproductive System

thank you Dr Raj your lessons are a great help for the study

outdated

By Marco A. on 05. August 2018 for Malignant Melanoma

60 % of stage 4 patients develop metastasis in the brain. Why is it missing?
Target-therapy with BRAFi Vermurafenib or Dabrafenib should be given in combination with MEK inhibitors.
Both modern immunotherapy treatments are missing (CTLA4, PD-1).
That are just the basics. Melanoma research developed fast and this video should be replaced by an updated version.

This videos and Carlo made me like Pathology

By Juan C. on 13. July 2018 for Neoplasia, Dysplasia, Tumor and Cancer: Differentiating Definitions– Neoplasia

I will going to enter to the world of pathology next semester and i really didn't think i would like it but this videos might have changed my mind, Thanks Carlo for this material

Excellent explanation

By Fauwad A. on 01. July 2018 for Pancreatic Cancer

Excellently explained everything. I was looking for alternative to Kaplan and I think this is it.

i don't like how professor articulate the words

By antonio p. on 10. May 2018 for Breast Cancer Classification

there is a higher difficulty to understand english for non-english people like me i prefer other professor.

By Tauheedul A. on 03. November 2017 for Neoplasia, Dysplasia, Tumor and Cancer: Differentiating Definitions– Neoplasia

I find his lectures natural and easy to follow. He tells us areas we must take note of and what we absolutely need to remember. Complicated aspects are broken down and summarised simply. Will continue to listen to these lectures.

Simple and easy to understand. Dr. Raj explains it well & gives pointers for remembering.

don't" like it

By Ibrahim A. on 11. October 2017 for Morphology of Breast Carcinoma

don't" like it
deficient
im sorry Dr. Raj but this is my opinion

Bad lecture

By Ibrahim A. on 11. October 2017 for Breast Cancer: Mammographic Signs

not good at all
poor presentation
lack of information
sorry but this is the truth

Bad lecture

By Ibrahim A. on 11. October 2017 for Breast Cancer Classification

most of Dr. Raj lectures are very bad presented (( i dont like it at all ))

No musculoskeletal and connective tissue pathology covered!!!

By jii l. on 01. October 2017 for Malignant Melanoma

This playlist was named: Musculoskeletal, Skin, and Connective Tissue—Pathology.
But only skin pathology is covered, there are no musculoskeletal and connective tissue pathology videos...
and they can't be found elswhere either.

Clear, concise, and even fun

By Eunbi C. on 08. September 2017 for Neoplasia, Dysplasia, Tumor and Cancer: Differentiating Definitions– Neoplasia

I disagree with the comment below. I think he is a very good lecturer. Clear and concise. Yes, he does he have his unique gestures and tones, but so what? It's just different from the traditional, not wrong or anything. I found his lecture interesting. I don't think he was mocking anyone.

This course is very well organized. I am doing all my best to learn from it as much as I can.

By Alexander W. on 24. August 2017 for Neoplasia, Dysplasia, Tumor and Cancer: Differentiating Definitions– Neoplasia

This course is very well organized. I am doing all my best to learn from it as much as I can.

Thank you

By Svetlana K. on 24. August 2017 for Breast Cancer Classification

I really thought that the lecture was right on point and stressed the most important "boards" material. It was very well organized and presented! I am taking my USMLE step 2 CK in couple of days, and after months of intensive preparation for the exam, I realized that I have learned and reviewed so much that It sort of hard to keep it all organized and compartmentalized in my head. These videos definitely put things in perspective for me.
Thank you, Lana

I like it very much!

By Jiayong L. on 22. August 2017 for Diagnosis of Cancer – Neoplasia

Very nice and great lecture! The questions were very help recall the main points. Thanks!

Too short videos with too many repetitive nonsense statements.

By Wei M. on 15. August 2017 for Small Lung Cancer

Most videos by this speaker are too short sometimes cut in the middle. Also, too many repetitive nonsense statements.

Excellent Course

By Hannah S. on 14. August 2017 for Lung Cancer

Simple and to-the-point, but also explains concepts in enough detail as to provide context so it's easier to remember. I also enjoyed the corny jokes peppered throughout.

better performance wanted

By HASSAN E. on 16. July 2017 for Neoplasia, Dysplasia, Tumor and Cancer: Differentiating Definitions– Neoplasia

Couple of mistakes were made and he sounds as if he is mocking the audience

The lectures were great. It clearly explains the information and the pictures/presentation went well with him. It was easy to follow along not to fast were you get lost but not to slow were you are falling asleep

Exceptional teaching

By Rizal H. on 19. April 2017 for Malignant Neoplasm: Invasion and Metastasis – Neoplasia

Your lectures are exceptional, it makes reading the books much easier. Thank you

Well taught content

By Vincent B. on 27. March 2017 for Neoplasia, Dysplasia, Tumor and Cancer: Differentiating Definitions– Neoplasia

Carlo makes the content interesting and manageable with intonation and examples.

What about Focal Nodular Hyperplasia

By Hamed S. on 15. March 2017 for Benign Liver Tumors

Missed another important benign tumour of the liver that would have been worthwhile covering

This is fail about teaching in detail about leukemia . The detailed PBS and Bonemarrow is fewer than expected .
More over for the hematology lesson , this is not a concise approach to the leukemia patient . Not enough knowledge to take care of leukemia Patient too .
This chapter is far away lower standard than the pulmonology or cardiology chapter .

This was a dense, clinically-relevant presentation of material that will very likely be on Step 1. Dr. Raj has a way of presenting that keeps my attention and gives me a sense of primacy that I don't get from other kinds of videos.

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