1.
Pfizer
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/ˈfaɪzər/ is an American global pharmaceutical corporation headquartered in New York City, with its research headquarters in Groton, Connecticut. It is among the worlds largest pharmaceutical companies and it is listed on the New York Stock Exchange, and its shares have been a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average since 2004. Pfizer develops and produces medicines and vaccines for a range of medical disciplines, including immunology, oncology, cardiology, diabetology/endocrinology. Pfizer was founded in 1849 by cousins Charles Pfizer and Charles F. Erhart in New York City as a manufacturer of fine chemicals and its discovery of Terramycin in 1950 put it on a path towards becoming a research-based pharmaceutical company. It has made numerous acquisitions, including Warner–Lambert in 2000, Pharmacia in 2003, in 2016, Pfizer Inc. was expected to merge with Allergan plc, in a deal that would have been worth $160 billion, to create the Ireland-based Pfizer plc. The merger was called off in April 2016 due to recent new rules from the United States Treasury against inversions, Pfizer is named after German-American Charles Pfizer who co-founded the company with his cousin Charles F. Erhart. There, they produced an antiparasitic called santonin and this was an immediate success, although it was the production of citric acid that really kick-started Pfizers growth in the 1880s. Pfizer continued to buy property to expand its lab and factory on the bounded by Bartlett Street, Harrison Avenue, Gerry Street. Pfizers original administrative headquarters was at 81 Maiden Lane in Manhattan, by 1906, sales totaled $3.4 million. World War I caused a shortage of calcium citrate that Pfizer imported from Italy for the manufacture of citric acid, Pfizer chemists learned of a fungus that ferments sugar to citric acid and were able to commercialize production of citric acid from this source in 1919. As a result, Pfizer developed expertise in fermentation technology, in the 1940s, penicillin became very inexpensive. As a result, Pfizer searched for new antibiotics with greater profit potential, Pfizers discovery and commercialization of Terramycin in 1950 changed the company from a manufacturer of fine chemicals to a research-based pharmaceutical company. To augment its research in technology, Pfizer developed a drug discovery program focusing on in vitro synthesis. Pfizer also established a health division in 1959 with an 700-acre farm and research facility in Terre Haute. By the 1950s, Pfizer had established offices in Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Cuba, Mexico, Panama, Puerto Rico, in 1960, the company moved its medical research laboratory operations out of New York City to a new facility in Groton, Connecticut. In 1980 Pfizer launched Feldene, a prescription medication that became Pfizers first product to reach one billion United States dollars in total sales. During the 1980s and 1990s, Pfizer Corporation growth was sustained by the discovery and marketing of Zoloft, Lipitor, Norvasc, Zithromax, Aricept, Diflucan, in this decade, Pfizer grew by mergers, including those with Warner–Lambert, Pharmacia, and Wyeth. In 2003, the company acquired Esperion Therapeutics for $1.3 billion, in 2004, Pfizer announced it would acquire Meridica for $125 million

2.
European Chemicals Agency
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ECHA is the driving force among regulatory authorities in implementing the EUs chemicals legislation. ECHA helps companies to comply with the legislation, advances the safe use of chemicals, provides information on chemicals and it is located in Helsinki, Finland. The Agency, headed by Executive Director Geert Dancet, started working on 1 June 2007, the REACH Regulation requires companies to provide information on the hazards, risks and safe use of chemical substances that they manufacture or import. Companies register this information with ECHA and it is freely available on their website. So far, thousands of the most hazardous and the most commonly used substances have been registered, the information is technical but gives detail on the impact of each chemical on people and the environment. This also gives European consumers the right to ask whether the goods they buy contain dangerous substances. The Classification, Labelling and Packaging Regulation introduces a globally harmonised system for classifying and labelling chemicals into the EU. This worldwide system makes it easier for workers and consumers to know the effects of chemicals, companies need to notify ECHA of the classification and labelling of their chemicals. So far, ECHA has received over 5 million notifications for more than 100000 substances, the information is freely available on their website. Consumers can check chemicals in the products they use, Biocidal products include, for example, insect repellents and disinfectants used in hospitals. The Biocidal Products Regulation ensures that there is information about these products so that consumers can use them safely. ECHA is responsible for implementing the regulation, the law on Prior Informed Consent sets guidelines for the export and import of hazardous chemicals. Through this mechanism, countries due to hazardous chemicals are informed in advance and have the possibility of rejecting their import. Substances that may have effects on human health and the environment are identified as Substances of Very High Concern 1. These are mainly substances which cause cancer, mutation or are toxic to reproduction as well as substances which persist in the body or the environment, other substances considered as SVHCs include, for example, endocrine disrupting chemicals. Companies manufacturing or importing articles containing these substances in a concentration above 0 and they are required to inform users about the presence of the substance and therefore how to use it safely. Consumers have the right to ask the retailer whether these substances are present in the products they buy, once a substance has been officially identified in the EU as being of very high concern, it will be added to a list. This list is available on ECHA’s website and shows consumers and industry which chemicals are identified as SVHCs, Substances placed on the Candidate List can then move to another list

3.
Mebeverine
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Mebeverine is a drug whose major therapeutic role is in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome and the associated abdominal cramping. It works by relaxing the muscles in and around the gut and it is a musculotropic antispasmodic drug without anticholinergic side effects. The drug is indicated for treatment of gastrointestinal spasm secondary to organic disorder. It is also an inhibitor of calcium-depot replenishment, musculotropic compounds act directly on the gut muscles at the cellular level to relax them. This relieves painful muscle spasms of the gut, without affecting its normal motility, mebeverine is used to relieve symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome and related intestinal disorders that are the result of spasms in the intestinal muscles. These include colicky abdominal pain and cramps, diarrhoea alternating with constipation, most reactions consisted of urticaria or maculopapular rash, sometimes accompanied by fever, polyarthritis, thrombocytopenia or angioedema. Very rarely, people taking this medicine may develop allergic reactions, mebeverine passes into breast milk, but the amount is considered too small to be harmful to a nursing infant. Mebeverine is unlikely to affect the ability to operate machinery or to drive and it was first registered in 1965. Mebeverine is a drug and is available internationally under many brand names

4.
Chemical formula
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These are limited to a single typographic line of symbols, which may include subscripts and superscripts. A chemical formula is not a name, and it contains no words. Although a chemical formula may imply certain simple chemical structures, it is not the same as a full chemical structural formula. Chemical formulas can fully specify the structure of only the simplest of molecules and chemical substances, the simplest types of chemical formulas are called empirical formulas, which use letters and numbers indicating the numerical proportions of atoms of each type. Molecular formulas indicate the numbers of each type of atom in a molecule. For example, the formula for glucose is CH2O, while its molecular formula is C6H12O6. This is possible if the relevant bonding is easy to show in one dimension, an example is the condensed molecular/chemical formula for ethanol, which is CH3-CH2-OH or CH3CH2OH. For reasons of structural complexity, there is no condensed chemical formula that specifies glucose, chemical formulas may be used in chemical equations to describe chemical reactions and other chemical transformations, such as the dissolving of ionic compounds into solution. A chemical formula identifies each constituent element by its chemical symbol, in empirical formulas, these proportions begin with a key element and then assign numbers of atoms of the other elements in the compound, as ratios to the key element. For molecular compounds, these numbers can all be expressed as whole numbers. For example, the formula of ethanol may be written C2H6O because the molecules of ethanol all contain two carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen atom. Some types of compounds, however, cannot be written with entirely whole-number empirical formulas. An example is boron carbide, whose formula of CBn is a variable non-whole number ratio with n ranging from over 4 to more than 6.5. When the chemical compound of the consists of simple molecules. These types of formulas are known as molecular formulas and condensed formulas. A molecular formula enumerates the number of atoms to reflect those in the molecule, so that the formula for glucose is C6H12O6 rather than the glucose empirical formula. However, except for very simple substances, molecular chemical formulas lack needed structural information, for simple molecules, a condensed formula is a type of chemical formula that may fully imply a correct structural formula. For example, ethanol may be represented by the chemical formula CH3CH2OH

5.
Phosphodiesterase inhibitor
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The potential for selective phosphodiesterase inhibitors as therapeutic agents was predicted as early as 1977 by Weiss and Hait. This prediction meanwhile has proved to be true in a variety of fields, vinpocetine EHNA BAY 60-7550 Oxindole PDP Inamrinone, milrinone and Enoximone are used clinically for short-term treatment of cardiac failure. These drugs mimic sympathetic stimulation and increase cardiac output, anagrelide Cilostazol is used in the treatment of intermittent claudication. Pimobendan is FDA approved for use in the treatment of heart failure in animals. PDE3 is sometimes referred to as cGMP-inhibited phosphodiesterase, piclamilast, a more potent inhibitor than rolipram. Luteolin, supplement extracted from peanuts that also possesses IGF-1 properties, crisaborole, used to treat atopic dermatitis. PDE4 is the major cAMP-metabolizing enzyme found in inflammatory and immune cells, PDE4 inhibitors have proven potential as anti-inflammatory drugs, especially in inflammatory pulmonary diseases such as asthma, COPD, and rhinitis. They suppress the release of cytokines and other signals. PDE4 inhibitors may have effects and have also recently been proposed for use as antipsychotics. On October 26,2009, The University of Pennsylvania reported that researchers at their institution had discovered a link between elevated levels of PDE4 in sleep deprived mice, treatment with a PDE4 inhibitor raised the deficient cAMP levels and restored some functionality to Hippocampus-based memory functions. Sildenafil, tadalafil, vardenafil, and the newer udenafil and avanafil selectively inhibit PDE5 and these phosphodiesterase inhibitors are used primarily as remedies for erectile dysfunction, as well as having some other medical applications such as treatment of pulmonary hypertension. This results in added benefit when given together with NO or statins, recent studies have shown Quinazoline type PDE7 inhibitor to be potent anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective agents. Papaverine, an alkaloid, has been reported to act as a PDE10 inhibitor. PDE10A is almost exclusively expressed in the striatum and subsequent increase in cAMP and cGMP after PDE10A inhibition is a novel therapeutic avenue in the discovery of antipsychotics

6.
Drugs.com
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Drugs. com is an online pharmaceutical encyclopedia which provides drug information for consumers and healthcare professionals primarily in the USA. The domain Drugs. com was registered by Bonnie Neubeck in 1994. In 1999 at the height of the boom, Eric MacIver purchased an option to buy the domain from Neubeck. com. Venture Frogs sold the drugs. com domain name to an investor in June 2001. The Drugs. com website is owned and operated by the Drugsite Trust, the Drugsite Trust is a privately held Trust administered by two New Zealand pharmacists, Karen Ann and Phillip James Thornton The Drugs. com website was officially launched in September 2001. Stedmans, AHFS, Harvard Health Publications, Mayoclinic, North American Compendiums, in March 2008, Drugs. com announced the release of Mednotes —an online personal medication record application which connected to Google Health. In May 2010, U. S. FDA announced a collaboration with Drugs. com to distribute consumer health updates on the Drugs. com website, Drugs. com is certified by the TRUSTe online privacy certification program and the HONcode Health on the Net Foundation

7.
ChemSpider
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ChemSpider is a database of chemicals. ChemSpider is owned by the Royal Society of Chemistry, the database contains information on more than 50 million molecules from over 500 data sources including, Each chemical is given a unique identifier, which forms part of a corresponding URL. This is an approach to develop an online chemistry database. The search can be used to widen or restrict already found results, structure searching on mobile devices can be done using free apps for iOS and for the Android. The ChemSpider database has been used in combination with text mining as the basis of document markup. The result is a system between chemistry documents and information look-up via ChemSpider into over 150 data sources. ChemSpider was acquired by the Royal Society of Chemistry in May,2009, prior to the acquisition by RSC, ChemSpider was controlled by a private corporation, ChemZoo Inc. The system was first launched in March 2007 in a release form. ChemSpider has expanded the generic support of a database to include support of the Wikipedia chemical structure collection via their WiChempedia implementation. A number of services are available online. SyntheticPages is an interactive database of synthetic chemistry procedures operated by the Royal Society of Chemistry. Users submit synthetic procedures which they have conducted themselves for publication on the site and these procedures may be original works, but they are more often based on literature reactions. Citations to the published procedure are made where appropriate. They are checked by an editor before posting. The pages do not undergo formal peer-review like a journal article. The comments are moderated by scientific editors. The intention is to collect practical experience of how to conduct useful chemical synthesis in the lab, while experimental methods published in an ordinary academic journal are listed formally and concisely, the procedures in ChemSpider SyntheticPages are given with more practical detail. Comments by submitters are included as well, other publications with comparable amounts of detail include Organic Syntheses and Inorganic Syntheses

8.
ChEMBL
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ChEMBL or ChEMBLdb is a manually curated chemical database of bioactive molecules with drug-like properties. It is maintained by the European Bioinformatics Institute, of the European Molecular Biology Laboratory, based at the Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, the database, originally known as StARlite, was developed by a biotechnology company called Inpharmatica Ltd. later acquired by Galapagos NV. The data was acquired for EMBL in 2008 with an award from The Wellcome Trust, resulting in the creation of the ChEMBL chemogenomics group at EMBL-EBI, the ChEMBL database contains compound bioactivity data against drug targets. Bioactivity is reported in Ki, Kd, IC50, and EC50, data can be filtered and analyzed to develop compound screening libraries for lead identification during drug discovery. ChEMBL version 2 was launched in January 2010, including 2.4 million bioassay measurements covering 622,824 compounds and this was obtained from curating over 34,000 publications across twelve medicinal chemistry journals. ChEMBLs coverage of available bioactivity data has grown to become the most comprehensive ever seen in a public database, in October 2010 ChEMBL version 8 was launched, with over 2.97 million bioassay measurements covering 636,269 compounds. ChEMBL_10 saw the addition of the PubChem confirmatory assays, in order to integrate data that is comparable to the type, ChEMBLdb can be accessed via a web interface or downloaded by File Transfer Protocol. It is formatted in a manner amenable to computerized data mining, ChEMBL is also integrated into other large-scale chemistry resources, including PubChem and the ChemSpider system of the Royal Society of Chemistry. In addition to the database, the ChEMBL group have developed tools and these include Kinase SARfari, an integrated chemogenomics workbench focussed on kinases. The system incorporates and links sequence, structure, compounds and screening data, the primary purpose of ChEMBL-NTD is to provide a freely accessible and permanent archive and distribution centre for deposited data. July 2012 saw the release of a new data service, sponsored by the Medicines for Malaria Venture. The data in this service includes compounds from the Malaria Box screening set, myChEMBL, the ChEMBL virtual machine, was released in October 2013 to allow users to access a complete and free, easy-to-install cheminformatics infrastructure. In December 2013, the operations of the SureChem patent informatics database were transferred to EMBL-EBI, in a portmanteau, SureChem was renamed SureChEMBL. 2014 saw the introduction of the new resource ADME SARfari - a tool for predicting and comparing cross-species ADME targets

9.
Pinner reaction
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The Pinner reaction is an organic reaction of a nitrile with an alcohol using an acid catalyst, for instance, sulfuric acid. The product formed is the acid salt of an imino ester or an alkyl imidate. The reaction is a sequence of nucleophilic additions and these salts can react with an excess of alcohol to form the orthoester RC3, with ammonia or an amine to form an amidine or with water to form an ester. It should be appreciated that the Pinner reaction refers specifically to an acid catalyzed process, the two approaches can be complementary, with nitriles which are unreactive under acid conditions often giving better results in the presence of base, and vice versa. The determining factor is typically how electron-rich or poor the nitrile is, for example, an electron-poor nitrile is a good electrophile but a poor nucleophile and would therefore be expected to react more readily under basic rather than acidic conditions. Stephen aldehyde synthesis - essentially the same reaction but including a reduction and with water as the nucleophile, generates the aldehyde

10.
Camylofin
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Camylofin is a smooth muscle relaxant with both anticholinergic action as well as direct smooth muscle action. Anticholinergic action is produced by inhibiting the binding of acetylcholine to muscarinic receptors, direct smooth muscle relaxation is achieved by inhibiting phosphodiesterase type IV, which leads to increased cyclic AMP and eventually reduced cytosolic calcium. Thus camylofin has an action to relieve smooth muscle spasm. It is used to treat stomach ache in infants and children, usually it is given in combination with paracetamol to treat stomach ache, as well as pyrexia