The Growth Potential of Startups over the Business Cycle

Transcription

1 The Growth Potential of Startups over the Business Cycle Petr Sedláček University of Bonn Vincent Sterk University College London September 18, 2014 Abstract This paper shows that employment of U.S. firm cohorts is strongly influenced by aggregate conditions at the time of their entry. Employment variations across cohorts are found to be persistent and largely driven by differences in average firm size, rather than the number of firms. To disentangle startup composition from postentry choices, we estimate a general equilibrium firm dynamics model. We find that aggregate conditions at birth drive the vast majority of employment variation across cohorts through their effect on the proportion of startups with high growth potential. In the aggregate, startup conditions result in large slow-moving fluctuations in employment. Keywords: Firm Dynamics, Heterogeneous Agents, Maximum Likelihood, DSGE JEL Codes: E32, D22, L11, M13 We thank Eric Bartelsman, Christian Bayer, Francisco Buera, Mariacristina De Nardi, Philip Jung, Leo Kaas, Patrick Kehoe, Javier Miranda, Fabien Postel-Vinay, Morten Ravn, Aysegul Sahin, Moritz Schularick, Kjetil Storesletten, Emily and Robert Swift as well as seminar participants in Adelaide, Bocconi, Edinburgh, Frankfurt, Konstanz, Manchester, Melbourne, Surrey, Sydney, Warwick and at the ANU, De Nederlansche Bank, the Ifo, and UCL for helpful comments. All errors are our own. Department of Economics, Department of Economics and Centre for Macroeconomics, 1

2 1 Introduction The number of firm startups in the U.S. fell sharply during the Great Recession. 1 Given the importance of startups for aggregate job creation, this raises concerns about a long-lasting drag on aggregate employment and output. While such worries are valid, this paper shows that in addition we should be concerned with the roughly 2 million startups that did enter during the latest downturn. We document that recession-born firms tend to remain persistently smaller on average, even when the aggregate economy recovers. Underlying this pattern are changes in the types of startups with respect to their potential to grow large. Moreover, rather than fading out over time, decisions taken at the entry phase leave an increasingly large footprint on the macro-economy as startups age. Using newly developed Business Dynamics Statistics (BDS) we follow cohorts of firms, starting from their year of entry. The data span all sectors in the U.S. private economy and cover the years from 1979 until We document three new stylized facts: (i) variations in entrant employment are large and pro-cyclical, (ii) to a great extent these variations persist as firm cohorts age (sharply contrasting the strong mean-reversion in aggregate employment) and (iii) the majority of variation in cohort-level employment is driven by changes in average firm size, rather than by the number of firms within a cohort. The empirical patterns suggest that cohorts born at different stages of the business cycle are composed of different types of firms, giving rise to long-lasting effects. However, the composition of startups is unobserved and firm size fluctuations across cohorts are also driven by variations in post-entry decisions made by a given mix of firms. To disentangle the two and to quantify the impact of compositions changes, we estimate a general equilibrium firm dynamics model using both aggregate and cohort-level data. The model features heterogeneous firms, endogenous entry, postentry growth subject to adjustment costs and aggregate uncertainty. Importantly, depending on aggregate conditions at the time of entry, startups choose a production technology affecting their ability to grow large. 1 According to the Business Dynamic Statistics, the number of startups in 2009 was 30% below its pre-crisis level in

3 The estimated model implies that conditions in the year of birth drive at least 90 percent of the variation in employment across cohorts of a given age, even for older firms. The importance of the birth stage for long-term outcomes stems from the composition of cohorts with respect to firms chosen production types. Initially, changes in the composition of startups have only a moderate effect since all firms enter relatively small. But as the cohort ages, a fraction of firms grows large and the composition effect on cohort-level employment becomes increasingly pronounced. Comparing for example the cohorts born in 2006 and 2008 our model predicts that, due to differences in composition alone, firms born in 2008 grow to be on average 13 percent smaller at age 5 (amounting to a reduction of 300 thousand jobs). By the age of 20, the predicted gap grows to almost 20 percent. Using the model we also show that macroeconomic conditions at the startup phase are important for fluctuations in aggregate employment. In particular, the contribution of startup conditions to aggregate employment fluctuations evolves in a strikingly similar way to the trend component of the employment rate, often discarded in business cycle analysis. Our framework thus opens up an avenue for future research aiming to understand the drivers of macroeconomic fluctuations at a more complete range of frequencies. Furthermore, we show that general equilibrium effects associated with fluctuations in entry decisions are strong, particularly in the long run. An important pre-requisite of our analysis is the estimation of the model using Maximum Likelihood. It is well known that solving heterogeneous firm models with aggregate uncertainty is a complex problem because the aggregate state includes entire distributions of firm-specific variables. A key methodological contribution of this paper is designing a novel computational strategy, based on first-order perturbation around firms steady state growth paths, allowing the model to be solved quickly. 2 We identify changes in startup composition by exploiting the model s implication that a cohort s composition reveals itself through its increasing influence on average firm size as the cohort ages. The use of cohort-level data, observed at different points in time, is therefore paramount to our estimation. 2 Campbell (1998) pioneered the use of perturbation methods to solve heterogeneousagents models, replacing functional equations with quadrature approximations. Our setup avoids the need for such approximations because the economic state is large but finite-dimensional, preserving exact aggregation. 3

4 The model incorporates two novel features in order to suit our empirical focus. First, the model allows for heterogeneity in returns-to-scale in production. This contrasts standard firm dynamics models in which heterogeneity is introduced purely through variations in total factor productivity (TFP) across firms. A motivating factor behind our choice is that we apply the model to the entire cross-section of private employers in the economy rather than to confined industries, in which returns to scale are arguably more homogeneous. 3 Moreover, only a small degree of heterogeneity in returns to scale is sufficient for our model to fit the size distribution of firms in the data, conditional on age. That said, we show that a version of the model in which firms differ only in TFP delivers very similar results. The second novel feature of our framework is the modeling of the firm entry phase. Aspiring entrants are free to choose any of the given number of business opportunities, each associated with a certain technology type. However, highly scalable businesses are relatively valuable, provoking intense competition for these opportunities among aspiring startups. Strong competition reduces the probability of successfully starting up and encourages entry of firms that have little potential to grow large, of which we see many in the data. 4 What arises is a natural equilibrium relation between the value of a firm and the number of startups of a particular technology type. This modeling framework is akin to the directed search literature (see e.g. Moen, 1997) and similar in spirit to models of innovation and research and development (see e.g. Klette and Kortum, 2004). The composition of startups, therefore, responds endogenously to aggregate shocks through their differential impact on the values of firms of different types. In addition, startup composition is affected directly by a shock to the distribution of business opportunities across firm types, resembling shocks in models of vintage technologies (see e.g. Campbell, 1998; Gilchrist and Williams, 2000). The set of microfoundations one can give to this shock is, however, more general. In the Appendix we show how various 3 Even so, Holmes and Stevens (2012) provide evidence of substantial heterogeneity in returns to scale even within narrowly defined industries. Basu and Fernald (1997) provide evidence in favor of heterogeneity in returns to scale across sectors. 4 In 2007, the fraction of firms with 10 or fewer employees among firms between 21 and 25 years of age was about two thirds. This is also consistent with empirical evidence that many starting entrepreneurs have low growth expectations, see Campbell and De Nardi (2009) and Hurst and Pugsley (2011). 4

5 frictions related to uncertainty and financial and product markets map into outcomes which are observationally equivalent to our setup. The advantage of our approach is that we are able to quantify the overall impact of composition changes. Nonetheless, we explore to what extent proxies of these frictions comove with our estimated measure of startup composition and find that product market frictions may be an additional driver. The empirical results complement the analysis in Haltiwanger, Jarmin, and Miranda (2013), who emphasize the importance of young firms for aggregate job creation on average. Cyclical patterns in firm entry are studied in Campbell (1998) and Lee and Mukoyama (2013) who analyze the behavior of entering and exiting firms in the manufacturing sector. Unlike these studies, we exploit the newly developed BDS data to follow cohorts of firms as they age, enabling us to investigate how their later job creation is affected by aggregate conditions at the time of their birth. 5 We are not the first to study firm dynamics and variations in entrant size. However, in contrast to existing studies we use our general equilibrium firm dynamics model as an empirical tool to uncover an unobservable state of the aggregate economy: the distribution of entrant types with respect to their growth potential. Moreover, our analysis focuses on the aggregate economy rather than industry-level outcomes. Our framework builds on a rich literature of structural firm dynamics models. A workhorse model of firm dynamics (without aggregate uncertainty) is presented in Hopenhayn and Rogerson (1993). Abbring and Campbell (2004) estimate a partial equilibrium firm dynamics model without aggregate uncertainty and find that pre-entry scale decisions are important for the variation in sales across firms. Campbell (1998) and more recently Lee and Mukoyama (2013) and Clementi and Palazzo (2014) use the Hopenhayn-Rogerson framework to study the role of entry and exit decisions in the propagation of aggregate shocks in the manufacturing industry. 5 Earlier studies using BDS data include Moscarini and Postel-Vinay (2012) and Fort, Haltiwanger, Jarmin, and Miranda (2013) who study the cyclical sensitivities of large versus small and younger versus older firms, but do not focus on entrants or cohorts. Decker, Haltiwanger, Jarmin, and Miranda (2013) use BDS data to document a downward trend in the pace of business dynamism, and find that a secular decline in the number of startups accounts for much of this trend decline. Also related is Bartelsman, Haltiwanger, and Scarpetta (2009) who use a cross-country data set to study average post-entry behavior of young firms. 5

6 The organization of the remainder of this paper is as follows. Section 2 describes the data and presents empirical stylized facts. The model and its parametrization are described in Sections 3 and 4, respectively. Section 5 presents the model results and elaborates on potential additional drivers of the compositional fluctuations uncovered by the estimated model. Concluding remarks are made in Section 6. 2 Empirical evidence Startups are widely recognized to be important drivers of aggregate job creation on average, at least since Haltiwanger, Jarmin, and Miranda (2013). This section documents cyclical patterns in employment by young U.S. firms over time, without imposing any model structure. Our units of analysis are cohorts, that is, aggregates over firms born in the same year. We exploit newly developed Business Dynamics Statistics (BDS) data, described in the next subsection, which covers all sectors in the private economy. The findings can be summarized by three stylized facts: Fact 1. Entrant job creation is volatile and pro-cyclical. Fact 2. Cohort-level employment is largely determined in the year of birth. Fact 3. Average size is the main driver of variations in cohort-level employment with an increasing importance as cohorts age. We aim to contribute to a rich empirical literature that tries to understand the dynamics of firms and differences across firms, as surveyed in Bartelsman and Doms (2000) and Syverson (2011). In particular, our first stylized fact complements empirical evidence presented in Campbell (1998), and Lee and Mukoyama (2013), who find that the number and job creation of new plants is pro-cyclical in the manufacturing sector. Our analysis, by contrast, is not confined to a single industry and applies to firms rather than establishments. 6,7 To the best of our knowledge, our sec- 6 Appendix D presents within-industry findings and makes a more detailed comparison of the cyclical patterns we find in the BDS relative to those of Lee and Mukoyama (2013) who use data from the Longitudinal Research Database provided by the Census Bureau. 7 Appendix B shows that our results remain to hold also for establishments. An 6

7 ond and third stylized facts have no precedent in the empirical literature on firm job creation. 2.1 Data and definitions The BDS database is based on administrative records and covers 98 percent of US private employment. This is an important advantage over alternative data sources, especially given our objective to study implications for aggregate outcomes. We use the available annual information on the number of firms and their job creation broken down into age categories, for the period 1979 until The available age breakdown in the BDS allows us to follow cohorts of new firms for up to five years after they enter the economy. 9 The BDS groups older firms into age categories spanning five years. However, we find that our stylized facts continue to hold for averages for firms 6-10 and years of age. Additionally, Appendix C presents a robustness check using establishment-level micro-data underlying the BDS, which we use to construct data for (1-year) cohorts up to the age of 15. The documented aggregate patterns hold far beyond the age of five, reinforcing our results. We introduce the following notation. Let M a,t bethenumberoffirmsin a cohort of age a in year t. Following the BDS notation, startups enter with age a = 0. Similarly, let N a,t be the employment level of a cohort of firms of age a in year t. The employment level of a given cohort is measured as cumulative net job creation since birth, i.e. N a,t = a i=0 NJC i,t a+i, where NJC a,t is the net number of jobs created in firms of age a in year t. 10 establishment is defined as a single physical location where business is conducted or where services or industrial operations are performed. A firm is a business organization consisting of one or more establishments that were specified under common ownership or control. 8 The data represents a snapshot taken in March of each year. The data starts in 1977 but we drop the initial two years following Moscarini and Postel-Vinay (2012), who cast doubt on the quality of the initial two years. 9 Appendix A.3 shows that our patterns are not driven by a particular cohort by analyzing a two year moving average of the data. 10 Alternatively, one could use the employment stock data presented in the BDS. These employment numbers do not equal the sum of net job creation because the net job creation data is cleaned from observed entrants that are not believed to be true startups, while the employment data is not. BDS documentation states that:...it may be determined that an establishment s entry/exit as shown by the data is not credible. These establishments are excluded from the change calculations in a given year 7

8 Table 1: Correlations of entrant job creation with business cycle indicators linear trend HP filter levels e-rate GDP e-rate GDP e-rate ΔGDP NJC entrants Notes: The table reports correlation coefficients between the variables in the columns and job creation of entrants for various de-trending methods. e-rate stands for employment rate, defined as 1 minus the unemployment rate (the correlation with the employment-to-population ratio is between 0.92 and 0.98, depending on the detrending method). ΔGDP is the growth rate of real GDP. All variables are logged prior to detrending and entrant job creation is treated in the same way as the given business cycle indicator. 2.2 The cyclicality of startup job creation To visualize the cyclicality of cohort-level employment, Figure 1 displays HP-filtered employment levels between 1979 and 2011 of (i) cohorts of startups, (ii) cohorts of five year old firms, where the time series is shifted back to the year of their birth and (iii) the aggregate economy. 11 Several patterns stand out. First, fluctuations in cohort-level employment are large (more than 3 times larger than that of aggregate employment). Also, the cohort-level volatility does not appear to diminish with age. Second, job creation by entrants and aggregate employment move together and drop during recession years, indicated by shaded areas. Table 1 presents more formal measures of cyclicality by correlating employment in startups with several business cycle indicators and using several detrending methods. In all cases the correlations are positive and statistically significant, confirming the strong pro-cyclical nature of entrant job creation. (http://www.census.gov/ces/dataproducts/bds/faqs.html). Thus, the net job creation data are superior, at least for our purpose. Nevertheless, Appendix A.2 shows that our results are robust to other ways of constructing employment levels. 11 All variables are logged prior to de-trending. Because our analysis deals with time series of different lengths (e.g. information on five year old firms starts only in 1984), we always de-trend the given data over the longest possible sample with the earliest starting point in Throughout the paper, the smoothing parameter in the HP filter is set to 100 to leave no obvious cyclical pattern. Appendix A.1 confirms robustness of our results to alternative detrending methods. Where possible, aggregate variables are averages over March-to-March periods, consistent with the BDS timing. 8

9 Figure 1: Cohort-level employment at age 0 and 5 by year of birth and aggregate employment by year % deviations entrants age 5 aggregate year/year of birth Notes: Cohort-level and aggregate employment are plotted in percentage deviations from an HP-trend. Shaded areas are the NBER recessions. Source: BDS, BLS. 2.3 The year of birth and cohort-level employment To quantify the persistence of cohort-level employment, we correlate entrant employment in year t with the employment level in t + a in the same cohort. Figure 2 plots the correlation coefficients for ages a =1to a = 5 both for the individual cohorts, as well as for aggregate employment. 12 While cohort-level employment at birth and 5 years into existence are highly correlated, with a correlation coefficient of 0.68, its aggregate counterpart displays no persistence after two years. Thus, there is no evidence of convergence across cohorts. Turning our attention to older firms (grouped in 5-year bins), we find that the persistence is at least as strong. In particular, for cohorts in the age category we find that the correlation of their current employment level with the level 10 years earlier is 0.89 (not plotted). 13 A formal alternative to the reported autocorrelations is presented in 12 While cohort-level employment does not display a trend, aggregate employment does and therefore we choose to HP-filter both time series. For the aggregate series we simply correlate period t employment with employment in years t + a. 13 To be able to compute this number we use the employment level reported in the BDS, rather than net job creation. We use the same de-trending methods as before. 9

10 Figure 2: Autocorrelations corr(n t,n t+age ) cohort aggregate age Notes: Correlation coefficients of employment in year t =0andinyeart + age, with age =1, 2, 3, 4, 5, at both the level of a cohort born in period t = 0 and at the aggregate level. Source: BDS, BLS. Appendix A.4, which estimates panel regression of cohort-level employment at different ages on entrant job creation and explicitly controls for age and also current entrant employment (a measure of current aggregate startup conditions). The implied elasticities of employment at different ages with respect to employment in the year of entry correspond closely with the autocorrelation coefficients reported in Figure Decomposing cohort-level employment variation The previous paragraphs established that the number of jobs created by cohorts of startups upon entry largely persists into later years of their existence and that the fluctuations in these numbers are large. We now investigate whether the observed variation of cohort-level employment is driven primarily by variation in the number of firms within the cohort (extensive margin), or by persistent differences in the growth potential of startups (intensive margin). To this end, we decompose the natural logarithm of cohort-level em- 10

11 ployment as: ln N a,t =lns 0,t a + a ln γ j,t a+j +lnm 0,t a + j=1 a ln δ j,t a+j, where S a,t is average firm size within the cohort, M a,t is again the number of firms, γ j,t S j,t S j 1,t 1 denotes average size growth and δ j,t M j,t M j 1,t 1 denotes the average firm survival rate. Based on the above expression, the variance of employment can be decomposed as: var( ˆN a,t )=cov( ˆN a,t, Ŝ0,t a)+ j=1 a cov( ˆN a,t, ˆγ j,t a+j ) + cov( ˆN a,t, ˆM 0,t a )+ j=1 } {{ } intensive margin a cov( ˆN a,t, ˆδ j,t a+j ) +η t, j=1 } {{ } extensive margin where a hat indicates deviations from an HP-filter trend of a logged variable and η t is a residual term coming from the detrending method. 14 The first two terms on the right-hand side jointly capture the contribution of the intensive margin (average size) to the total variance. The first term individually captures the contribution of average size in the year of entry alone. The third and fourth terms capture the contributions of the extensive margin. The importance of the intensive margin is made clear by Figure 3, which displays the variance decomposition by age. The total shaded area represents the contributions of average size variations to cohort-level employment fluctuations, at different ages. The white area accounts for the contribution of variation in the number of firms. 15 It is clear that the contribution of average firm size variation is increasing as the cohort ages (accounting for about 50% at birth and 64% at age 5). 16 Extending the 14 In our case, the residual η is negligible, not exceeding 0.01%. 15 The vast majority of the contribution of the number of firms is due to the number of startups. The contribution of changes in the number of firms after startup, i.e. fluctuations in firm survival rates, account for only 3% on average for firms aged 1 to The intensive margin also becomes increasingly important for the average level of cohort employment as the cohort ages (i.e. ln S 0,t a + a ln γ j,t a+j increases relative j=1 to ln M 0,t a + a ln δ j,t a+j ). Especially in the initial years following birth, many firms j=1 exit whereas those that continue grow rapidly on average. These patterns have been labeled up-or-out dynamics by Haltiwanger, Jarmin, and Miranda (2013) and will play an important role in the structural model we estimate in the next section. In partic- 11

12 Figure 3: Contribution of average size to employment variation 100 number of firms (0Y-5Y) size growth 4Y-5Y size growth 3Y size growth 2Y contribution to employment variance size growth 1Y entrant size cohort age Notes: Contributions of average firm size at different ages and the number of firms to the variation in cohort-level employment as a percentage of its total variation. Source: BDS. analysis to older firms reveals that average size remains very important in determining fluctuations in cohort-level employment, accounting for 70% among 11 to 15 year old firms (not plotted). Within the total shaded area in Figure 3, different shades break down the contribution of the intensive margin by age, with the lightest shade denoting startup size. Clearly, the contribution of startup size variation is large and does not die out as the cohort ages, but plateaus at around 35%. Although startup size emerges as a persistently important contributor to employment variations across cohorts, we need to be careful in interpreting it as a measure of compositional effects. Changes in entrant size may represent fluctuations in post-entry decisions by a given mix of firm types, rather than composition. Conversely, post-entry employment growth of a cohort is affected by its composition. We revisit the variance decomposition in Section using our estimated model and precisely quantify the contribution of composition effects. The established stylized facts paint a picture in which firm characteristics at the entry stage are crucial in determining a cohort s potency to ular, they will imply that compositional variations across cohorts become increasingly pronounced with age. 12

13 create jobs, both initially and later in its life. One can think of several plausible explanations for why the composition of entrants may fluctuate over the business cycle. One possibility is that during recessions job creation within newborn cohorts declines because of a reallocation of activity between sectors. Appendix D documents, however, that our stylized facts continue to hold, with a few exceptions, also within sectors. 17 Another possibility is that our findings are driven by fluctuations in the entry of very small firms. Several studies emphasize the role of entrepreneurship as a way to escape unemployment ( necessity entrepreneurs ). Such businesses are likely to remain very small. 18 However, Appendix E shows that the vast majority of employment variation of five year old firms is driven by large firms, rather than small ones. 3 The Model The empirical evidence presented in the previous section suggests that fluctuations in the composition of startups are important for cohort-level employment in later years. However, the data alone does not allow us to quantify the importance of composition fluctuations, since we do not directly observe the distribution of cohorts with respect to firm types. For the same reason, the empirical facts can provide only limited information on the aggregate implications of decisions made at the entry stage. To address these issues, this section proposes a general equilibrium model of firm dynamics in which startups can choose the technology type affecting the scalability of their aspired businesses. The model further features endogenous firm entry, labor adjustment costs and several sources of aggregate uncertainty. To quantify the contribution of composition effects and post-entry employment choices for the evolution of cohort-level employment in later years, we estimate the aggregate shocks using information about average size from the BDS. While post-entry shocks have a transitory impact on average firm size, the impact of changes in the com- 17 The exceptions are the mining sector and transportation, communication, and public utilities in which entrant job creation is counter- and a-cyclical, respectively. Also, the extensive margin dominates employment variations in retail trade and construction. 18 See e.g. Hurst and Pugsley (2011) and Poschke (2012). However, note that the BDS data do not include self-employed individuals. 13

14 position of startups increases as the cohort ages. Therefore, using data on both average firm size at birth and at a later age enables us to sharply identify fluctuations in the composition of cohorts of entrants. The estimation procedure also delivers predicted values of the distribution of firms with respect to age and type in each period. The knowledge of this distribution enables us to investigate the aggregate implications of firm decisions made at the entry stage. We thus actively use the large aggregate state of our model in the quantitative analysis. The model is designed for an application to cohort-level and aggregate data, rather than for analyzing individual firms. We therefore abstract from firm-specific technology shocks and associated endogenous exit after entry. Instead, we model an age-dependent exit rate calibrated using BDS data. Clearly, such an assumption is a simplification as exit rates are known to vary over time and to be related to firm productivity (see e.g. Bartelsman and Doms, 2000). Therefore, in Appendix G we show that allowing for stochastic variation in exit rates consistent with the data does not substantially affect our results. 19 The model economy is populated by an infinitely-lived representative household and a continuum of heterogeneous firms. All agents have rational expectations. Firms and households trade on a goods market and a labor market, both of which are perfectly competitive Existing firms There is an endogenous mass of heterogeneous firms which produce a homogeneous good. Before describing the entry decision, which is key to our analysis, we lay out how incumbent firms behave. While all firms in the economy use labor as the only factor of production, the production technology itself differs across firms. In particular, there is a finite number of technology types, indexed by i =1, 2,..., I. Existing firms grow only gradually towards their optimal sizes due to costs related to adjusting their 19 This is supported by the variance decomposition in Subsection 2.4 which implied that variation in exit rates explains on average only 3% of fluctuations in cohort-level employment for firms aged 1-5 years. 20 Firm dynamics models with more detailed descriptions of the labor market include e.g. Elsby and Michaels (2013), Kaas and Kircher (2011), and Sedláček (2014). 14

15 employment levels. Finally, firms face an exogenous, but age-dependent probability of shutting down, denoted ρ a. By symmetry, all firms of the same type and age make the same decisions and we therefore index them only by technology type and age. Technology types differ in the degrees of returns to scale and/or total factor productivity. In particular, a firm of age a and with technology type i is characterized by the following production function y i,a,t = A t z i n α i i,a,t, where A t is an exogenous and stochastic aggregate TFP variable with mean one, n i,a,t is the firm s level of employment, z i is a technology-specific TFP parameter, and α i is a technology-specific returns to scale parameter. In our quantitative simulations we parameterize α i (0, 1) for each technology type i, i.e. returns to scale are decreasing. As a result, there exists a typespecific optimal size beyond which further growth is undesirable. Firms are subject to costs of adjusting labor, Q t ζ(δn i,a,t ), where ζ(.) is strictly increasing and strictly convex and Δ is the first difference operator. 21 Q t is an aggregate shock variable with mean one. Since firms in the model are typically on an upward growth path, we label Q t an expansion cost shock. Given that firm expansion is a form of investment, Q t resembles an investment-specific technology shock that features prominently in the DSGE literature and is sometimes interpreted as a stand-in for time-varying financial frictions. The functional form we specify for ζ(.) implies a negative relationship between firm age and employment growth, which is widely documented in the BDS data. 22 Such a cost specification, which is independent of current size, has been used in many models, see e.g. Cooper, Haltiwanger, and Willis (2007) and Kaas and Kircher (2011) for an extensive discussion. 21 It is assumed that firms that shut down do not pay adjustment costs and that new-born firms have an initial employment level of zero. 22 See e.g. Haltiwanger, Jarmin, and Miranda (2013). In the quantitative application we choose a cost that is quadratic in the absolute change in employment. Alternatively, one could specify cost to be convex in employment growth, but such a specification implies a roughly constant growth rate as firms age. 15

16 Firms maximize the expected present value of profits: V i,a (n i,a 1,t 1, F t )=max n i,a,t [ y i,a,t W t n i,a,t Q t ζ(δn i,a,t ) +(1 ρ a ) E t Λ t,t+1 V i,a+1 (n i,a,t, F t+1 ) ], (1) where V i,a (n i,a 1,t 1, F t ) is the asset value of a firm of type i and age a, E t is the conditional expectations operator and F t is the aggregate state to be described later. W t is the economy-wide wage rate, Λ t,t+1 is the firm s stochastic discount factor between period t and t+1. The first-order necessary condition for the firm s optimal choice of labor can be written as y i,a,t W t + Q t ζ ni,a,t (Δn i,a,t )=α i + βλ t,t+1 (1 ρ a )E t Q t+1 ζ ni,a,t (Δn i,a+1,t+1 ), n i,a,t (2) where ζ ni,a,t (.) denotes the derivative with respect to current employment. The condition simply equates the marginal costs of firm expansion to the marginal benefits. Marginal costs consist of the wage and the marginal expansion cost. Marginal benefits equal the sum of the marginal product of labor and the expected discounted marginal reduction in expansion costs to be paid next period. 3.2 Entry decisions At the heart of the model are variations in the types of business opportunities seized by startups. We therefore model the selection of firm types at the entry phase as the outcome of endogenous choices made by potential startups. Given the striking prominence of small firms in the BDS data, it is important to design a setup in which many startups endogenously choose a business type that has little potential to grow large. 23 Our approach therefore differs from standard firm dynamics models along the lines of Hopenhayn and Rogerson (1993), in which a firm s technology type is randomly drawn from an exogenous distribution. Before we describe the specifics of our setup, let us first provide the intuition of the resulting equilibrium outcomes. 23 In the data there is a large fraction of firms that remain small even after many years of continuous operation. For example, in 2011 about 60 percent of firms in the BDS older than 25 years had fewer than 10 employees. 16

17 We consider an equilibrium with positive entry in which the number of startups of type i, denoted m i,0,t, is determined by the following relation: m i,0,t = γ 0 V i,0 (0, F t ) γ 1 ψ i,t, (3) where γ 0,γ 1 > 0 are functions of structural parameters unrelated to firm type. This relation states that the number of startups in type i is determined by two factors. The first is the value of a startup of this type, V i,0 (0, F t ). If a business cycle shock triggers an increase in V i,0 (0, F t )relative to the values of other firm types, a larger fraction of startups is drawn into type i. Thus, composition shifts among startups arise endogenously via differential fluctuations in firm values across types. Note also that an overall increase in firm values increases the total number of entrants. The second factor determining the number of startups is a variable ψ i,t, which fluctuates exogenously and stochastically. The microeconomic foundations that lead up to the above equilibrium relationship are as follows. Starting up a firm requires the sacrifice of a cost χ>0, capturing initial costs of doing market research, formulating a business plan etc. Upon paying this cost, a potential entrant chooses one business opportunity from a finite measure of possibilities given by ψ i,t. Each business opportunity allows for at most one successful startup. 24 It is assumed that potential entrants cannot coordinate on which business opportunities to select. That is, not all individual opportunities are seized whereas others are pursued by several aspiring startups. This results in m i,0,t being strictly smaller than both the number of business opportunities, ψ i,t, and the number of startup attempts, denoted e i,t. It follows that an attempted startup of a business type i is successful only with probability m i,0,t e i,t. Unsuccessful startups exit before production takes place. This way of modeling firm entry is similar in spirit to models of innovation and research and development (see e.g. Klette and Kortum, 2004; Saint-Paul, 2002). Free entry implies that in equilibrium the cost of a startup attempt 24 At a deeper level, the exclusivity of business opportunities could arise from patents claimed by individual firms. Alternatively, exclusivity could be generated by market size limitations coupled with fixed costs in production. For tractability, we do not model these factors explicitly. 17

18 equals the expected benefits: χ = m i,0,t e i,t V i,0,t (0, F t ), for i =1, 2,.., I, (4) From the above it follows that firm types associated with high values on average attract more entry attempts, lowering the success probability m i,0,t e i,t. This in turn encourages entry of firm types with less potential to grow large, of which we see many in the data. In equilibrium aspiring entrants are indifferent between selecting any of the business opportunities, akin to models of directed search. The coordination friction among aspiring startups is concisely summarized by an entry matching function, borrowed from the search and matching literature. This function relates the number of startups within each type to the respective number of startup attempts and business opportunities. It is assumed to be increasing in both arguments and to display constant returns to scale. In particular, m i,0,t = e φ i,t ψ1 φ i,t where φ (0, 1) is the elasticity with respect to the number of startup attempts. 25 Returning to the reduced form relationship in (3), it is straightforward to verify that it holds with γ 0 = χ φ/(φ 1) and γ 1 = φ. Given that the 1 φ matching function elasticity φ is the same across firm types, it controls not only the strength of composition effects but also the volatility of overall firm entry, which is helpful when we calibrate the model. While the total measure of business opportunities, denoted by Ψ = i ψ i,t > 0, is assumed to be constant, its composition with respect to technology types is allowed to vary stochastically over time. This happens according to an exogenous composition shock X t. This shock is a technological fundamental and will be specified in detailed in Section 3.4. However, the reduced-form Equation (3) is sufficiently general to nest a variety of alternative microfoundations for the composition shock. In particular, type-specific shocks to the entry cost are observationally equivalent in this equation. Appendix I explicitly describes three models with alternative frictions leading to such changes in the (effective) entry cost and Section 5.3 explores empirically their link to our estimated composition 25 See Saint-Paul (2002) for a similar specification in the context of firms research and development. 18

19 changes. 3.3 Households There is a representative household which consists of a continuum of members, some of which supply labor on a perfectly competitive market. The household maximizes the expected present value of life-time utility, subject to its budget constraint: max E 0 {C t,n t} t=0 t=0 ( C 1 σ ) β t t 1 νz t N t 1 σ s.t. C t = W t N t +Π t, (5) where C t is the total amount of goods purchased by the household, N t denotes total employment within the household, σ>0 is the coefficient of risk aversion, ν>0 is a parameter capturing the disutility of labor, Z t is a stochastic preference shock, Π t denotes firm profits and β (0, 1) is the household s subjective discount factor. Following the indivisible labor models as in Rogerson (1985), we assume that utility is linear with respect to labor supply. Profits and the wage are taken as given by the household. The optimal employment choice takes on the familiar form: ν W t = Z t. (6) Ct σ The first-order condition makes clear that Z t drives a wedge between the marginal product of labor and the households intratemporal marginal rate of substitution. Hence it has been labeled a labor wedge in the literature and is typically thought of as a shock that may capture time-varying labor market frictions. 3.4 Shock processes Before implementing the model quantitatively, we fill in the final details of the shock processes. First, we specify precisely how the composition shock affects the distribution of business opportunities. Assume, without loss of generality, that technology types reflect the degree of returns to 19

20 scale in increasing order, such that i = 1 is associated with the lowest and i = I with the highest degree of returns to scale. Finally, let ι be the median technology type. 26 The measure of business opportunities of type i in period t is given by ψ i,t = X t ψ i if i<ι, (7) Ψ ψ ι X ι 1 t j=1 ψ i,t = ψ ψ j i I j=ι+1 ψ if i>ι, (8) j where a bar indicates steady state values and Ψ = i ψ i,t. The composition shock thus shifts mass from the upper half of returns to scale technologies to the lower half, in proportion to the respective steady state levels. We assume that all four aggregate shocks follow an AR(1) process: J t =1 ρ J + ρ J J t 1 + ɛ J t, (9) where ρ J is a persistence parameter and ɛ J t are i.i.d. innovations distributed normally with mean zero and standard deviation σ J,forJ = A, Q, X, Z. 3.5 Equilibrium Let N be the set of natural numbers, including zero. Using that all firms of the same age and technology type take the same decisions, the aggregate resource constraint, the labor market clearing condition and the law of motion for the measure of firms by age and technology type can be written, respectively, as: I m i,a,t (y i,a,t Q t ζ(δn i,a,t )) i=1 a N I e i,t χ = C t, (10) i=1 I m i,a,t n i,a,t = N t (11) i=1 a N m i,a,t =(1 ρ a 1 ) m i,a 1,t 1 for a N >0 and i =1, 2,.., I. (12) 26 In the quantitative simulations, the number of technology types is odd. However, allowing for an even number of technology types is straightforward. 20

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