BIO306: Botany

Recall from B101 that all cells utilize ATP as the universal energy
source or “currency.” Metabolic reactions are driven using the energy
produced by breaking the terminal phosphate bond of ATP. The cellular
organelles that produce ATP are the chloroplast (in plant cells) and the
mitochondrion (in plant and animal cells).

The production of ATP in the chloroplast occurs by the process of
photosynthesis and is covered in subunit 2.1. The production of ATP in
the mitochondrion occurs by the process of respiration and is covered in
subunit 2.2. In subunit 2.3, you will learn about transpiration, or how
a plant utilizes water. In subunit 2.4, you will learn about a plant’s
nutritional needs and how it meets them. In the remaining sections of
this unit, you will learn about the life cycle of plants, which consists
of growth, development, and reproduction.

Unit 2 Time Advisory
This unit will take you approximately 45.5 hours to complete.

☐ Subunit 2.1: 10.5 hours

☐ Introduction: 2 hours

☐ Subunit 2.1.1: 3.5 hours

☐ Subunit 2.1.2: 1.5 hours

☐ Subunit 2.1.3: 2.5 hours

☐ Subunit 2.1.4: 1 hour

☐ Subunit 2.2: 4 hours

☐ Readings: 2 hours

☐ Assignments/Assessments: 2 hours

☐ Subunit 2.3: 3 hours

☐ Subunit 2.4: 3 hours

☐ Subunit 2.5: 11 hours

☐ Subunit 2.5.1: 5.5 hours

☐ Readings: 3.5 hours

☐ Lectures: 2 hours

☐ Subunit 2.5.2: 3.5 hours

☐ Subunit 2.5.3: 1 hour

☐ Subunit 2.5.4: 0.5 hour

☐ Subunit 2.5.5: 0.5 hour

☐ Subunit 2.6: 14 hours

☐ Introduction: 0.25 hour

☐ Subunit 2.6.1: 3.75 hours

☐ Subunit 2.6.2: 5 hours

☐ Subunit 2.6.3: 2.5 hours

☐ Subunit 2.6.4: 2.5 hours

☐ Subunit 2.6.5: 1 hour

Unit2 Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this unit, the student will be able to:
- Identify the anatomical structures of the plant leaf and
chloroplast.
- Identify the chemical structure, properties and synthesis of
chlorophyll.
- Identify the light and dark reactions of photosynthesis, and compare
and contrast these reactions.
- Describe in detail the three reactions of cellular respiration;
glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport chain.
- Describe transpiration and how it responds to changes in the
environment.
- Define how a plant meets its nutritional needs.
- Describe how a plant grows and develops.
- Describe how a plant reproduces.

Instructions: Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are the
processes by which plants produce energy. As an introduction to
this topic, “bioenergetics,” please watch this entire lecture (about
50 minutes) by UC Berkeley’s Professor Doudna. This lecture will
prepare you for the material of subunits 2.1 (Photosynthesis) and
2.2 (Respiration).

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2.1.1 The Chloroplast2.1.1.1 Anatomy of a Leaf
- Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “The Mesophyll Is the Main Assimilation Tissue of
Leaves”
The Saylor Foundation does not yet have materials for this portion
of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

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2.1.1.1.1 Cuticle
- Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “The Cuticle, Cutin, Suberin, & Waxes-1” (HTML), “The
Cuticle, Cutin, Suberin, & Waxes-2” (HTML), and “The Cuticle, Cutin,
Suberin, & Waxes-3” (HTML)
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of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

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2.1.1.1.2 EpidermisNote: This topic is covered by the resources in subunit 2.1.1.1,
above.

2.1.1.1.3 MesophyllNote: This topic is covered by the resources in subunit 2.1.1.1,
above.

Instructions: Read this entire chapter, which covers in detail the
subject of chloroplasts and photosynthesis. Note that this lecture
will cover the topics outlined in subunits 2.1.1.2 through
2.1.4.3.

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2.1.1.2.1 MembranesNote: This topic is covered by the resources in subunit 2.1.1.2,
above.

2.1.1.2.2 ThylakoidsNote: This topic is covered by the resources in subunit 2.1.1.2,
above.

2.1.1.2.3 GranaNote: This topic is covered by the resources in subunit 2.1.1.2,
above.

2.1.1.2.4 StromaNote: This topic is covered by the resources in subunit 2.1.1.2,
above.

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2.1.3.1.1 Carbon FixationNote: This topic is covered by the reading in Subunit 2.1.3.1. Carbon
Fixation occurs during the first part of the Calvin cycle when carbon,
in the form of CO2, is attached (“fixed”) to the three-carbon molecule,
ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, by the carboxylase activity of the enzyme
RuBisCO (ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase).

2.1.3.1.2 Glucose FormationNote: This topic is covered by the reading in Subunit 2.1.3.1. Glucose
formation occurs during the later part of the Calvin cycle, when two
molecules of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate combine to form the six-carbon
molecule, glucose.

Instructions: Read this chapter on the photorespiration and C3
carbon fixation. As its name implies, the enzyme RuBisCO can also
fix O2. This process is called Photorespiration. Many plants,
especially important agricultural ones like soybeans and wheat,
significantly reduce the efficiency of Calvin cycle-carbon fixation
by photorespiration when CO2/O2 ratios are high. This occurs during
periods of water stress and heat, when the stomata close, reducing
amount of available CO2. No one knows why this seemingly (to us)
wasteful biochemical process has persisted.

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Instructions: Read this chapter on the C4 and CAM cycles. These
are two evolutionary adaptations by plants to avoid
photorespiration. C4 plants, usually of tropical origin, fix carbon
by joining CO2 to a three-carbon compound. The resulting
four-carbon compound is then quickly shuttled into specialized
bundle sheath cells where they are used to form glucose via the
Calvin cycle. Plants that fix carbon via the CAM pathway live in
arid climates, such as deserts. To conserve water, they open their
stomata only during the cooler night hours. However, this prevents
the normal gas exchange during the day when photosynthesis is
occurring. To get around this problem, CAM plants combine CO2 at
night with a three-carbon compound to form a four-carbon compound,
which is then stored in leaf vacuoles. During the day, while
photosynthesis is occurring and the stomata are closed, CO2 may be
made available by removing it from the four-carbon compound as
needed.

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2.1.3.4 Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM)Note: This topic is covered by the reading in subunit 2.1.3.3.

Instructions: To access this online interactive exercise on
photosynthesis, first click on the link above to go to Professor
Gregory’s General Biology 1 menu. In the first column entitled
“Reading and Lecture Notes,” scroll down to “12 --Photosynthesis”
and select “Interactive Exercise.” A new browser window will
appear. Follow the instructions displayed. Note that this activity
will cover the material you need to know for subunits 2.1.4.1
through 2.1.4.3.

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Instructions: Test your knowledge of photosynthesis by answering
the questions for this online assessment. After you answer each
question, click on the provided hyperlinks for the answers. These
review questions cover material you have read in this Subunit 2.1.4
and address the topics outlined in Subunits 2.1.4.1-2.1.4.3.

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2.1.4.1 Breaking of Water MoleculeNote: This topic is covered by the resources below subunit 2.1.4.

2.1.4.2 Release of OxygenNote: This topic is covered by the resources below subunit 2.1.4.

2.1.4.3 Formation of GlucoseNote: This topic is covered by the resources below subunit 2.1.4.

Instructions: Please read these two chapters on cellular
respiration, the process into which the products of photosynthesis
flow. You have already covered the topic of cellular respiration in
BIO101, so this should all be review.

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Instructions: Watch this 4-minute video introduction to
glycolysis and cellular respiration. Though the video shows animals
(including humans), remember these processes are occurring in
plants, utilizing the glucose synthesized from sunlight via
photosynthesis. Note that this video covers material you need to
know for subunits 2.2.1 through 2.2.3.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use
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Instructions: To access this online interactive exercise on
cellular respiration, first click on the link above to go to
Professor Gregory’s General Biology 1 menu. In the first column
entitled “Reading and Lecture Notes,” scroll down to “11 – Cellular
Respiration” and select “Interactive Exercise.” A new browser
window will appear. Follow the instructions displayed. Note that
this activity will cover the material you need to know for subunits
2.2.1 through 2.2.3.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use
displayed on the webpage above.

Instructions: Test your knowledge of photosynthesis by answering
the questions for this online assessment. After you answer each
question, click on the provided hyperlinks for the answers. Note
that this assessment will cover the material you need to know for
subunits 2.2.1 through 2.2.3.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use
displayed on the webpage above.

Instructions: To access this assessment on cellular respiration,
first click on the link above to go to Professor Gregory’s General
Biology 1 menu. In the first column entitled “Reading and Lecture
Notes,” scroll down to “11 – Cellular Respiration” and select
“Active Learning Exercise (questions)” and download the Word file.
Note that this assessment will cover the material you need to know
for subunits 2.2.1 through 2.2.3.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use
displayed on the webpage above.

Instructions: To access this assessment answer key on cellular
respiration, first click on the link above to go to Professor
Gregory’s General Biology 1 menu. In the first column entitled
“Reading and Lecture Notes,” scroll down to “11 – Cellular
Respiration” and select “Active Learning Exercise (answers).”
Review any questions you may have missed. Note that this assessment
will cover the material you need to know for subunits 2.2.1 through
2.2.3.

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2.2.1 GlycolysisNote: This topic is covered by the resources below subunit 2.2.

2.2.2 Krebs CycleNote: This topic is covered by the resources below subunit 2.2.

Instructions: Read these chapters on the movement of water into
and within the plant. Transpiration refers to the movement of water
(solvent), whereas translocation refers to the movement of dissolved
nutrients (solutes).

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displayed on the webpage above.

Instructions: Click on the above link to go to the webpage for
Professor Feldman’s 2011 Biology 1B course. Scroll down and click
on the PDF file entitled “Outline 13.” Please print this out, if
possible, or keep the outline open to use in conjunction with
Professor Feldman’s video lectures 13 (below) and 14 (Subunit
2.4.1).

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Instructions: Please click on the link above, and read this
material dealing with desert plant adaptations.
Studying this reading should take approximately 15 minutes to
complete.
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Instructions: Read this chapter on mineral requirements. As you
have learned, plants obtain (or “fix”) carbon by photosynthesis.
Minerals are not present in the atmosphere, and, thus, must be
obtained from the soil via the roots.

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Instructions: Please watch this entire lecture (46:36 minutes) in
which Professor Feldman covers plants and their relationship with
water and mineral nutrients. In this lecture, he focuses on mineral
requirements.

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2.4.1.1 PotassiumNote: This topic is covered by the reading and video lecture in subunit
2.4.1.

2.4.1.2 PhosphorusNote: This topic is covered by the reading and video lecture in subunit
2.4.1.

2.4.1.3 NitrogenNote: This topic is covered by the reading and video lecture in subunit
2.4.1.

2.4.1.4 Trace MineralsNote: This topic is covered by the reading and video lecture in subunit
2.4.1.

2.4.1.5 Mineral DeficienciesNote: This topic is covered by the reading and video lecture in subunit
2.4.1.

2.4.2 Nitrogen Metabolism
- Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “Nitrogen Fixation”
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of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

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2.4.2.1 Nitrogen FixationNote: This topic is covered by the resources below subunit 2.4.2.

2.4.2.2 AssimilationNote: This topic is covered by the resources below subunit 2.4.2.

Instructions: Please read all the chapters linked above on
carnivorous plants. Browse any species that interest you, but make
sure to read and learn about the following example species:
Dionaea sp., Drosera sp., Sarracenia sp.,and Utricularia sp.
What type of trap does each species use? How do carnivorous plants
differ from “normal” plants? What are the disadvantages of being
carnivorous? What are the advantages?

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2.4.3.1 Why Carnivorous?Note: This topic is covered by the resources below Subunit 2.4.3.

2.4.3.2 Typical HabitatNote: This topic is covered by the resources below Subunit 2.4.3.

2.4.3.3 Types of TrapsNote: This topic is covered by the resources below Subunit 2.4.3.

2.4.3.4 Example SpeciesNote: This topic is covered by the resources below Subunit 2.4.3.

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Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “Phytohormones (Plant Hormones) and other Growth
Regulators” and “Plant Hormones”
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of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

Instructions: Click on the above link to go to the webpage for
Professor Feldman’s 2011 Biology 1B course. Scroll down and click
on the PDF file entitled “Outline 10.” Please print this out, if
possible, or keep the outline open to use in conjunction with
Professor Feldman’s lecture below. Note that this reading will
cover the topics outlined in sections 2.5.1.1 through 2.5.1.5.

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Instructions: Please watch this entire lecture (about 49 minutes)
in which Professor Feldman begins the first of two lectures covering
plant growth substances. Here, he talks about auxins and
gibberellins.Note that this lecture will cover the topics outlined
in sections 2.5.1.1 through 2.5.1.5.

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displayed on the webpage above.

Instructions: Click on the above link to go to the webpage for
Professor Feldman’s 2011 Biology 1B course. Scroll down and click
on the PDF file entitled “Outline 11.” Please print this out, if
possible, or keep the outline open to use in conjunction with
Professor Feldman’s lecture below. Note that this reading will
cover the topics outlined in sections 2.5.1.1 through 2.5.1.5.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use
displayed on the webpage above.

Instructions: Please watch this entire lecture (about 50 minutes)
in which Professor Feldman continues his presentation on plant
growth substances. Here, he talks about cytokinins, ethylene, and
abscisic acid. Note that this lecture will cover the topics
outlined in sections 2.5.1.1 through 2.5.1.5.

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Instructions: Please read these chapters on auxins, which are
responsible for phototropism (growing toward light). You will read
more on phototropism in Subunit 2.5.3.

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Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “Auxins”
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of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

Instructions: Please read this chapter on the growth hormones
called gibberellins.

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displayed on the webpage above.

Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “Gibberellins”
The Saylor Foundation does not yet have materials for this portion
of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

Instructions: Please read this chapter on the growth hormones
called cytokinins.

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Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online - The Internet
Hypertextbook: “Cytokinins”
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of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

Instructions: Please read this chapter on the growth hormone,
ethylene.

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Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “Ethylene”
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of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

Instructions: Please read this chapter on the growth hormone,
dormin, also called abscisic acid.

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Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “Abscisic Acid”
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of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

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2.5.1.6 Jasmonic Acid
- Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “Jasmonic Acid”
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of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

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2.5.1.7 Further Growth RegulatorsNote: This topic on the further growth regulators (Oligosaccharines,
Calcium Ions, and Synthetics) is also covered by the resources below
subunit 2.5.1.

2.5.1.7.1 Oligosaccharines
- Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “Oligosaccharines”
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of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
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submit it here.

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2.5.1.7.2 Calcium Ions
- Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “Calcium Ions”
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of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

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2.5.1.7.3 Synthetics
- Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “Synthetic Growth Regulators and Growth Inhibitors”
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of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

Instructions: Please read this chapter on plant development. Note
that this lecture will cover the topics outlined in subunits 2.5.2.1
through 2.5.2.3. You have already read about meristems in the
reading for Subunit 1.2.1 (Roots).

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Instructions: Please read the chapter on photoperiodism. Then,
read the chapter on phytochrome, the molecule plants use to detect
the length of day.

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displayed on the webpage above.

Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “Photomorphogenesis, Phytochrome” and “Photoperiodism
and Stimulation of Flowering, Phytochrome”
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of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

Instructions: Please read this chapter on phototropism. There are
three major classes of plant growth movements: phototropism;
directional growth of a plant caused by light, gravitropism; plant
growth in response to the direction of gravity, and, thigmotropism;
plant growth in response to contact with a solid object.

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Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “Phototaxis”
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of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

Instructions: Read this section on the three tropisms:
Phototropism, Gravitropism, and Thigmotropism. Note that this
reading covers the material you need to know for subunits 2.5.3,
2.5.4, and 2.5.5.

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2.5.4 Gravitropism
- Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “Geotropism or Gravitropism”
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of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

Instructions: Watch this short video (40 seconds) showing
thigmotropism in a vine shoot.

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Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “Seismonasty”
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of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

Instructions: Please click on the link above, and read Dr.
Kimball’s section on life cycles and alternations of generations in
plants.
Studying this resource should take approximately 30 minutes to
complete.
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Instructions: Please click on the link above, and read the text
from the section on “Pollination” to the end of the webpage to learn
about pollination, fertilization, and the development of seeds and
fruits.

Studying this resource should take approximately 15 minutes to
complete.

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Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “Interactions of Pollen and Stigman”
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of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

Instructions: Now that you have read about how flowering plants
pollinate, look at these high resolution photographs of the
structures specifically adapted to different means of pollination.
Click on the images for higher resolution.

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2.6.3.1 Self-Pollination
- Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “Self-Incompatibility (SI)”
The Saylor Foundation does not yet have materials for this portion
of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

Instructions: On the U.S. Forest Service website, please read the
animal pollination introduction. Then, on the menu on the left side
of the webpage, click on the links for “Ants” through “Wasps;” read
these pages on animal pollination. After, click on the “Plant
Strategies” link , and read the introductory information on the
webpage. Under the “Plant Strategies” heading on the left side of
the webpage, click on the links and read the webpages for the
following topics on flower plants: “Visual Cues,” “Scent,” “Food,”
Mimicry,” and Entrapment.”

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Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use
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Reading: University of Hamburg: Professor Alice Bergfeld, Rolf
Bergmann, and Peter v. Sengbusch’s Botany Online: The Internet
Hypertextbook: “Fruits and Seeds”
The Saylor Foundation does not yet have materials for this portion
of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to
fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please
submit it here.

Instructions: Read this chapter on the plant life cycle, along with
all embedded hyperlinks. Note that this reading contains the
material you need to know for units 2.6.5.1 and 2.6.5.2.

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2.6.5.1 Haploid PhaseNote: This topic is covered by the reading belowsubunit 2.6.5.
Plants have an alternation of generations: the diploid spore-producing
plant (sporophyte) alternates with the haploid gamete-producing plant
(gametophyte). Here, focus your attention on the gametophyte.

2.6.5.2 Diploid PhaseNote: This topic is covered by the reading belowsub-subunit 2.6.5.Plants have an alternation of generations: the diploid spore-producing
plant (sporophyte) alternates with the haploid gamete-producing plant
(gametophyte). Here, focus your attention on the sporophyte.