Sample records for measuring energy deposition

A calorimetric sensor with several novel design features has been developed. These sensors will provide an accurate sampling of thermal power density and energydeposition from proton beams incident on target components of accelerator-based systems, such as the Accelerator Production of Tritium Project (APT) and the Spallation Neutron Source (SNS). A small, solid slug (volume = 0.347 cc) of target material is suspended by kevlar fibers and surrounded by an adiabatic enclosure in an insulating vacuum canister of stainless steel construction. The slug is in thermal contact with a low-mass, calibrated, 100-k{Omega} thermistor. Power deposition caused by the passage of radiation through the slug is calculated from the rate of temperature rise of the slug. The authors have chosen slugs composed of Pb, Al, and LiAl.

Measurements of the precipitation of electrons and positive ions (in the keV to MeV range) detected aboard eight rockets launched from Northern Scandinavia are reported together with corresponding satellite data. The downgoing integral fluxes indicate the temporal fluctuations during each flight. Height profiles of the energydeposition into the atmosphere at different levels of geomagnetic disturbance are given.

A comprehensive description of the accomplishments of the DOE grant titled, ''Local Measurement of Fuel EnergyDeposition and Heat Transfer Environment During Fuel Lifetime using Controlled Calorimetry''.

Energydeposition in ionization chambers has been theoretically studied for tritium measurements in gaseous form. A one-dimension model is introduced to establish the quantitative relationship between energydeposition rate and many factors, including carrier gas, gas pressure, wall material, chamber size, and gas temperature. Energydeposition rate has been calculated at pressure varying from 5 kPa to 500 kPa based on some approximations. It is found that energydeposition rate varies greatly for different parameters, especially at low gas pressure. For the same chamber, energydeposition rate in argon is much higher than in deuterium, as much as 70.7% higher at 5 kPa. Gold plated chamber gives highest energydeposition rate in the calculations while aluminum chamber results in the lowest. As chamber size gets smaller, β ray emitted by tritium will deposit less energy in the sensitive region of the chamber. For chambers flowing through with the same gas, energydeposition rate in a 10 L chamber is 23.9% higher than in a 0.05 L chamber at 5 kPa. Gas temperature also places slight influence on energydeposition rate, and 373 K will lead to 6.7% lower deposition rate than 233 K at 5 kPa. In addition, experiments have been performed to obtain energydeposition rate in a gold plated chamber, which show good accordance with theoretical calculations.

Energydeposition in ionization chambers has been theoretically studied for tritium measurements in gaseous form. A one-dimension model is introduced to establish the quantitative relationship between energydeposition rate and many factors, including carrier gas, gas pressure, wall material, chamber size, and gas temperature. Energydeposition rate has been calculated at pressure varying from 5 kPa to 500 kPa based on some approximations. It is found that energydeposition rate varies greatly for different parameters, especially at low gas pressure. For the same chamber, energydeposition rate in argon is much higher than in deuterium, as much as 70.7% higher at 5 kPa. Gold plated chamber gives highest energydeposition rate in the calculations while aluminum chamber results in the lowest. As chamber size gets smaller, β ray emitted by tritium will deposit less energy in the sensitive region of the chamber. For chambers flowing through with the same gas, energydeposition rate in a 10 L chamber is 23.9% higher than in a 0.05 L chamber at 5 kPa. Gas temperature also places slight influence on energydeposition rate, and 373 K will lead to 6.7% lower deposition rate than 233 K at 5 kPa. In addition, experiments have been performed to obtain energydeposition rate in a gold plated chamber, which show good accordance with theoretical calculations.

Energydeposition in ionization chambers for tritium measurements has been theoretically studied using Monte Carlo code MCNP 5. The influence of many factors, including carrier gas, chamber size, wall materials and gas pressure, has been evaluated in the simulations. It is found that β rays emitted by tritium deposit much more energy into chambers flowing through with argon than with deuterium in them, as much as 2.7 times higher at pressure 100 Pa. As chamber size gets smaller, energydeposition decreases sharply. For an ionization chamber of 1 mL, β rays deposit less than 1% of their energy at pressure 100 Pa and only 84% even if gas pressure is as high as 100 kPa. It also indicates that gold plated ionization chamber results in the highest deposition ratio while aluminum one leads to the lowest. In addition, simulations were validated by comparison with experimental data. Results show that simulations agree well with experimental data.

This invention provides a system and method for measuring an energy differential that correlates to quantitative measurement of an amount mass of an applied localized material. Such a system and method remains compatible with other methods of analysis, such as, for example, quantitating the elemental or isotopic content, identifying the material, or using the material in biochemical analysis.

The internal energydeposited in both on- and off-resonance collisional activation in Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry is measured with ion nanocalorimetry and is used to obtain information about the dissociation energy and entropy of a protonated peptide. Activation of Na(+)(H(2)O)(30) results in sequential loss of water molecules, and the internal energy of the activated ion can be obtained from the abundances of the product ions. Information about internal energydeposition in on-resonance collisional activation of protonated peptides is inferred from dissociation data obtained under identical conditions for hydrated ions that have similar m/z and degrees-of-freedom. From experimental internal energydeposition curves and Rice-Ramsperger-Kassel-Marcus (RRKM) theory, dissociation data as a function of collision energy for protonated leucine enkephalin, which has a comparable m/z and degrees-of-freedom as Na(+)(H(2)O)(30), are modeled. The threshold dissociation energies and entropies are correlated for data acquired at a single time point, resulting in a relatively wide range of threshold dissociation energies (1.1 to 1.7 eV) that can fit these data. However, this range of values could be significantly reduced by fitting data acquired at different dissociation times. By measuring the internal energy of an activated ion, the number of fitting parameters necessary to obtain information about the dissociation parameters by modeling these data is reduced and could result in improved accuracy for such methods.

In this work, the energetic conditions at the substrate were investigated in dc magnetron sputtering (DCMS), pulsed dc magnetron sputtering (pDCMS), and high power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS) discharges by means of an energy flux diagnostic based on a thermopile sensor, the probe being set at the substrate position. Measurements were performed in front of a titanium target for a highly unbalanced magnetic field configuration. The average power was always kept to 400 W and the probe was at the floating potential. Variation of the energy flux against the pulse peak power in HiPIMS was first investigated. It was demonstrated that the energy per deposited titanium atom is the highest for short pulses (5 {mu}s) high pulse peak power (39 kW), as in this case, the ion production is efficient and the deposition rate is reduced by self-sputtering. As the argon pressure is increased, the energydeposition is reduced as the probability of scattering in the gas phase is increased. In the case of the HiPIMS discharge run at moderate peak power density (10 kW), the energy per deposited atom was found to be lower than the one measured for DCMS and pDCMS discharges. In these conditions, the HiPIMS discharge could be characterized as soft and close to a pulsed DCMS discharge run at very low duty cycle. For the sake of comparison, measurements were also carried out in DCMS mode with a balanced magnetron cathode, in the same working conditions of pressure and power. The energy flux at the substrate is significantly increased as the discharge is generated in an unbalanced field.

A new calorimetric technique has been developed for measuring electron energydeposition profiles in one dimension. The experimental procedures and theoretical analyses required in the application of the new method are reviewed. Extensive results are presented for electron energydeposition profiles in semi-infinite homogeneous and multilayer configurations. These data cover a range of elements from beryllium through uranium at source energies from 0.3 to 1.0 MeV (selected data at 0.5 and 0.1 MeV) and at incident angles from 0/sup 0/ to 60/sup 0/. In every case, the experimental profiles are compared with the predictions of a coupled electron/photon Monte Carlo transport code. Overall agreement between theory and experiment is very good. However, there appears to be a tendency for the theoretical profiles to be higher near the peaks and lower near the tails, especially in high-Z materials. There is also a discrepancy between theory and experiment in low-Z materials near high-Z/low-Z interfaces.

We derive rates of energydeposition in the mesosphere due to the absorption of solar ultraviolet radiation by ozone. The rates are derived directly from measurements of the 1.27-microns oxygen dayglow emission, independent of knowledge of the ozone abundance, the ozone absorption cross sections, and the ultraviolet solar irradiance in the ozone Hartley band. Fifty-six months of airglow data taken between 1982 and 1986 by the near-infrared spectrometer on the Solar-Mesosphere Explorer satellite are analyzed. The energydeposition rates exhibit altitude-dependent annual and semi-annual variations. We also find a positive correlation between temperatures and energydeposition rates near 90 km at low latitudes. This correlation is largely due to the semiannual oscillation in temperature and ozone and is consistent with model calculations. There is also a suggestion of possible tidal enhancement of this correlation based on recent theoretical and observational analyses. The airglow-derived rates of energydeposition are then compared with those computed by multidimensional numerical models. The observed and modeled deposition rates typically agree to within 20%. This agreement in energydeposition rates implies the same agreement exists between measured and modeled ozone volume mixing ratios in the mesosphere. Only in the upper mesosphere at midlatitudes during winter do we derive energydeposition rates (and hence ozone mixing ratios) consistently and significantly larger than the model calculations. This result is contrary to previous studies that have shown a large model deficit in the ozone abundance throughout the mesosphere. The climatology of solar energydeposition and heating presented in this paper is available to the community at the Middle Atmosphere Energy Budget Project web site at http://heat-budget.gats-inc.com.

Transition edge sensors (TES) have a wide variety of applications in particle ∖astrophysics for detecting incoming particles with high energy resolution. In TES design, the need for sufficient heat capacity to avoid saturation limits the ultimate energy resolution. Building on the TES model developed for SuperCDMS by Yen et al. for tungsten TESs deposited next to aluminum collection fins, we outline a time-domain non-linear optimal filter method for reconstructing energydepositions in TES films. This allows us to operate devices into their saturation region while taking into account changing noise performance and loss of energy collection. We show how this method has improved our understanding of quasiparticle diffusion and energy collection in our superconducting sensors.

A tissue-equivalent spherical proportional counter is used with a modified amplifier system to measure specific energydeposited from a uniform radiation field for short periods of time ({approximately}1 {micro}s to seconds) in order to extrapolate to dose in sub-micron tissue volumes. The energydeposited during these time intervals is compared to biological repair processes occurring within the same intervals after the initial energydeposition. The signal is integrated over a variable collection time which is adjusted with a square-wave pulse. Charge from particle passages is collected on the anode during the period in which the integrator is triggered, and the signal decays quickly to zero after the integrator feedback switch resets; the process repeats for every triggering pulse. Measurements of energydeposited from x rays, {sup 137}Cs gamma rays, and electrons from a {sup 90}Sr/{sup 90}Y source for various time intervals are taken. Spectral characteristics as a function of charge collection time are observed and frequency plots of specific energy and collection time-interval are presented. In addition, a threshold energy flux is selected for each radiation type at which the formation of radicals (based on current measurements) in mammalian cells equals the rate at which radicals are repaired.

Intentional runaway electron (RE) plateau-wall strikes with different initial impurity levels are used to study the effect of background plasma relativistic electron Z (as well as plasma resistivity for slow electrons) on RE-wall loss dynamics. RE wall loss time is found to be close to the avalanche time (meC/eE| |) 1 nλ √{ 3 (Z + 5) / π } , consistent with REs being lost by a series of MHD reconnection events, with timescale limited by current profile filling via avalanche. Local kinetic energydeposition is estimated with both hard x-ray emission and with infra-red imaging. At higher plasma impurity levels Z 10 , energydeposition appears to be consistent with power balance estimates, as long as collisional dissipation during the final loss event is included. At low impurity levels Z 1 , however, local energydeposition appears around 10 × less than expected, indicating that the energy dissipation at low Z is still poorly understood. Work supported by the US DOE under DE-FG02-07ER54917, DE-AC05-00OR22725, DE-AC52-07NA27344, DE-FC02-04ER54698.

Liulin type detectors are recently used in a wide range of cosmic radiation measurements, e.g. at alpine observatories, onboard aircrafts and spacecrafts. They provide energydeposition spectra up to 21 MeV, higher energydeposition events are stored in the last (overflow) channel. Their main advantages are portability (about the same size as a pack of cigarettes) and ability to record spectra as a function of time, so they can be used as personal dosimeters. Their well-known limitations are: (i) the fact that they are not tissue equivalent, (ii) they can be used as LET spectrometer only under specific conditions (e.g. broad parallel beam), and (iii) that the energydeposition event from particles of LETH20¿35 keV/µm is stored in the overflow bin only so the spectral information is missing. Tissue equivalent proportional counter (TEPC) Hawk has no of these limitations but on the other hand, it cannot be used as personal dosimeter because of its big size (cylinder of 16 cm diameter and 34 cm long). An important fraction of dose equivalent onboard spacecrafts is caused by heavy ions. This contribution presents results from intercomparison measurements with Liulin and Hawk at Heavy Ion Medical Accelerator in Chiba (HIMAC) and cyclotron beams, and related calculations with PHITS (Particle and Heavy-ion Transport code System). Following particles/ions and energies were used: protons 70 MeV, He 150 MeV, Ne 400 MeV, C 135 MeV, C 290 MeV, and Fe 500 MeV. Calculations of LET spectra by PHITS were performed for both, Liulin and Hawk. In case of Liulin, the dose equivalent was calculated using simulations in which several tissue equivalent materials were used as active volume instead of the silicon diode. Dose equivalents calculated in such way was compared with that measured with Hawk. LET spectra measured with Liulin and Hawk were compared for each ion at several points behind binary filters along the Brag curve. Good agreement was observed for some configurations; for

On the nights of October 21 and 28, 1987 (UT), two Nike Orion payloads (NASA 31.066 and 31.067) were launched from Andoya, Norway, as part of the MAC/Epsilon campaign, to study auroral energetics and their effect on the middle atmosphere. Each payload carried instrumentation to measure relativistic electrons from 0.1 to 1.0 MeV in 12 differential channels, and Bremsstrahlung X-rays from greater than 5 to greater than 80 KeV in 5 integral channels. In addition, instrumentation to measure ion densities and electric fields were also included on these and, in the case of 31.066, on other near simultaneous payloads. The first flight, 31.066, was launched under pre-magnetic midnight conditions during relatively stable auroral conditions. Flight 31.067 was launched during post-breakup conditions at which time pulsations of approx. 100 seconds duration were evident. The measured radiations including their spectral characteristics are compared for these two events, to appraise their effect on the electrodynamic properties of the middle atmosphere as determined by other rocket-borne measurements.

In this paper, the ability of the Hinode/EIS instrument to detect radiative signatures of coronal heating is investigated. Recent observational studies of active region cores suggest that both the low and high frequency heating mechanisms are consistent with observations. Distinguishing between these possibilities is important for identifying the physical mechanism(s) of the heating. The differential emission measure (DEM) tool is one diagnostic that allows us to make this distinction, through the amplitude of the DEM slope coolward of the coronal peak. It is therefore crucial to understand the uncertainties associated with these measurements. Using proper estimations of the uncertainties involved in the problem of DEM inversion, we derive confidence levels on the observed DEM slope. Results show that the uncertainty in the slope reconstruction strongly depends on the number of lines constraining the slope. Typical uncertainty is estimated to be about {+-}1.0 in the more favorable cases.

The proton induced charge deposition in a well characterized silicon P-i-N focal plane array is analyzed with Monte Carlo based simulations. These simulations include all physical processes, together with pile up, to accurately describe the experimental data. Simulation results reveal important high energy events not easily detected through experiment due to low statistics. The effects of each physical mechanism on the device response is shown for a single proton energy as well as a full proton space flux.

The nuclear heating measurements in Material Testing Reactors (MTRs) are crucial for the study of nuclear materials and fuels under irradiation. The reference measurements of this nuclear heating are especially performed by a differential calorimeter including a graphite sample material and two calorimetric cells. Then these measurements are used for other experimental conditions in order to predict the nuclear heating and thermal conditions induced in the irradiation devices. This paper will present simulations with MCNP5 Monte-Carlo transport code (using ENDF/B-VI nuclear data library) to evaluate the nuclear heating inside the calorimeter during irradiation campaigns of the CARMEN-1P mock-up inside OSIRIS reactor periphery (MTR based on Saclay, France). The whole complete geometry of the sensor has been considered. The calculation method corresponds to a calculation in two steps. Consequently, we used as an input source in the model, the neutron and photon spectra calculated in various experimental locations tested during the irradiation campaign (H9, H10, H11, D9). After a description of the differential calorimeter sensor, the MCNP5 model used for the calculations of nuclear heating inside the calorimeter elements is introduced by two quantities: KERMA and energydeposition rate per mass unit. The Charged Particle Equilibrium (CPE) inside the calorimeter elements is studied. The contribution of prompt gamma and neutron is determined. A comparison between this total nuclear heating calculation and the experimental results in a graphite sample will be made. Then parametric studies performed on the influence of the various calorimeter components on the nuclear heating are presented and discussed. The studies of the influence of the nature of materials, the sensor jacket, the source type and the comparison of the results obtained for the two calorimetric cells leads to some proposals for the sensor improvement.

A compact retarding field analyzer with embedded quartz crystal microbalance has been developed to measuredeposition rate, ionized flux fraction, and ion energy distribution arriving at the substrate location. The sensor can be placed on grounded, electrically floating, or radio frequency (rf) biased electrodes. A calibration method is presented to compensate for temperature effects in the quartz crystal. The metal deposition rate, metal ionization fraction, and energy distribution of the ions arriving at the substrate location are investigated in an asymmetric bipolar pulsed dc magnetron sputtering reactor under grounded, floating, and rf biased conditions. The diagnostic presented in this research work does not suffer from complications caused by water cooling arrangements to maintain constant temperature and is an attractive technique for characterizing a thin film deposition system.

In our study we present the ionizing energydepositions in a 300 μm thick silicon layer after fast neutron impact. With the Time-of-Flight (ToF) technique, the ionizing energydeposition spectra of recoil silicons and secondary charged particles were assigned to (quasi-)monoenergetic neutron energies in the range from 180 keV to hundreds of MeV. We also show and interpret representative measuredenergy spectra. By separating the ionizing energy losses of the recoil silicon from energydepositions by products of nuclear reactions, the competition of ionizing (IEL) and non-ionizing energy losses (NIEL) of a recoil silicon within the silicon lattice was investigated.more » Furthermore, the data give supplementary information to the results of a previous measurement and are compared with different theoretical predictions.« less

In our study we present the ionizing energydepositions in a 300 μm thick silicon layer after fast neutron impact. With the Time-of-Flight (ToF) technique, the ionizing energydeposition spectra of recoil silicons and secondary charged particles were assigned to (quasi-)monoenergetic neutron energies in the range from 180 keV to hundreds of MeV. We also show and interpret representative measuredenergy spectra. By separating the ionizing energy losses of the recoil silicon from energydepositions by products of nuclear reactions, the competition of ionizing (IEL) and non-ionizing energy losses (NIEL) of a recoil silicon within the silicon lattice was investigated. Furthermore, the data give supplementary information to the results of a previous measurement and are compared with different theoretical predictions.

Measurement of the global rate of energydeposition in the ionosphere via auroral particle precipitation is one of the primary goals of the Polar UVI program and is an important component of the ISTP program. The instantaneous rate of energydeposition for the entire month of January 1997 has been calculated by applying models to the UVI images and is presented by Fillingim et al. in this session. Magnetic indices, such as Kp, AE, and Dst, which are sensitive to variations in magnetospheric current systems have been constructed from ground magnetometer measurements and employed as measures of activity. The systematic study of global energydeposition raises the possibility of constructing a global magnetospheric activity index explicitly based on particle precipitation to supplement magnetic indices derived from ground magnetometer measurements. The relationship between global magnetic activity as measured by these indices and the rate of total global energy loss due to precipitation is not known at present. We study the correlation of the traditional magnetic index of Kp for the month of January 1997 with the energydeposition derived from the UVI images. We address the question of whether the energydeposition through particle precipitation generally matches the Kp and AE indices, or the more exciting, but distinct, possibility that this particle-derived index may provide an somewhat independent measure of global magnetospheric activity that could supplement traditional magnetically-based activity indices.

During asteroid entry, energy is deposited in the atmosphere through thermal ablation and momentum-loss due to aerodynamic drag. Analytic models of asteroid entry and breakup physics are used to compute the energydeposition, which can then be compared against measured light curves and used to estimate ground damage due to airburst events. This work assesses and compares energydeposition results from four existing approaches to asteroid breakup modeling, and presents a new model that combines key elements of those approaches. The existing approaches considered include a liquid drop or "pancake" model where the object is treated as a single deforming body, and a set of discrete fragment models where the object breaks progressively into individual fragments. The new model incorporates both independent fragments and aggregate debris clouds to represent a broader range of fragmentation behaviors and reproduce more detailed light curve features. All five models are used to estimate the energydeposition rate versus altitude for the Chelyabinsk meteor impact, and results are compared with an observationally derived energydeposition curve. Comparisons show that four of the five approaches are able to match the overall observed energydeposition profile, but the features of the combined model are needed to better replicate both the primary and secondary peaks of the Chelyabinsk curve.

The main influence factors of exploding bridge foil were studied in order to improve energy utilization of the explosion foil initiator. "Square" and "curving" shaped bridge foils were fabricated using magnetron sputtering and chemical etching techniques, and the key dimension of the bridge foil was measured using surface profiler. Commercial software MATLAB was employed to calculate the burst current, burst voltage, and energydeposition. Simulation results were in good agreement with experiment data. In this study, the energydeposition ratio of "square" shaped bridge is between 45%-50%, while the value of "curving" shaped bridge is between 55%-75%.

The measured spectrum of energydepositions in a Water Cherenkov Detector (WCD) prototype for the Pierre Auger Observatory is presented. A WCD (area 10 m2 )is located in the Puebla University campus at a depth of 800 g/cm2 (2200 m above sea level). Differential and integral spectra in a wide energydeposition range (0.5 - 150 of vertical equivalent muons) are presented. The problem of the WCD "self calibration" procedure (by rate of the muon events) is discussed. The characteristic change of the slopes of the differential spectrum at the transition from single muon signals to EAS signals is also discussed. The measuredenergydeposition spectrum at extreme signals is used to estimate the linearity of the response of the WCD PMTs. Key words: Auger array, water Cherenkov detector, extensive air showers

Time-resolved measurements of deposition in current tokamaks are crucial to gain a predictive understanding of deposition with a view to mitigating tritium retention and deposition on diagnostic mirrors expected in next-step devices. Two quartz crystal microbalances have been installed on NSTX at a location 0.77m outside the last closed flux surface. This configuration mimics a typical diagnostic window or mirror. The deposits were analyzed ex-situ and found to be dominantly carbon, oxygen, and deuterium. A rear facing quartz crystal recorded deposition of lower sticking probability molecules at 10% of the rate of the front facing one. Time resolved measurements over a 4-week period with 497 discharges, recorded 29.2 {micro}g/cm{sup 2} of deposition, however surprisingly, 15.9 {micro}g/cm{sup 2} of material loss occurred at 7 discharges. The net deposited mass of 13.3 {micro}g/cm{sup 2} matched the mass of 13.5 {micro}g/cm{sup 2} measured independently by ion beam analysis. Monte Carlo modeling suggests that transient processes are likely to dominate the deposition.

Auroral electron precipitation forms a complex and dynamic energy input into the high-latitude ionosphere and thermopshere. Rapid changes in plasma density due to electron impact ionization create correspondingly rapid changes in conductivity which in turn change the magnitude and altitude profile of magnetospheric current closure in the E- and F-region. Modeling these changes in the ionosphere and their effects on the local or regional upper atmosphere requires detailed input over wide regions. In support of the AMISR PINOT campaign and several rocket campaigns (CASCADES-2, MICA, ASSP) we have developed and tested a method to determine the characteristics of auroral energy input using purely ground-based optical measurements in geometries away from magnetic zenith. Using the N2+ first negative emissions at 427.8 nm reproduces the total energy flux over a wide region, but alone does not indicate the altitude profile of this energydeposition. Using temperature maps of the E-region collected by a Scanning Doppler Imager (SDI) observing the auroral green-line emission is a proxy for the characteristic energy of the precipitating electrons. While in some cases the energy determination underestimates the average energy it still is a good proxy for understanding when the electron distribution changes. We examine two seasons worth of auroral observations and determine the spatial and temporal variability of auroral energydeposition in comparison to solar wind and geophysical activity parameters. We also compare the results with well-known empirical models of electron energydeposition and show that they underestimate the peak local energydeposition rates by as much as a factor of 30.

A formalism for target fragment transport is presented with application to energy loss spectra in thin silicon devices. A nuclear data base is recommended that agrees well with the measurements of McNulty et al. using surface barrier detectors. High-energy events observed by McNulty et al., which are not predicted by intranuclear cascade models, are well represented by the present work.

Energydeposition in a Pb spallation target irradiated by high energetic protons was calculated by PHITS2.52 code. The validation of the energydeposition and neutron production calculated by PHITS code was performed. Results show good agreements between the simulation results and the experimental data. Detailed comparison shows that for the total energydeposition, PHITS simulation result was about 15% overestimation than that of the experimental data. For the energydeposition along the length of the Pb target, the discrepancy mainly presented at the front part of the Pb target. Calculation indicates that most of the energydeposition comes from the ionizations of the primary protons and the produced secondary particles. With the event generator mode of PHITS, the depositenergy distribution for the particles and the light nulclei is presented for the first time. It indicates that the primary protons with energy more than 100 MeV are the most contributors to the total energydeposition. The energydepositions peaking at 10 MeV and 0.1 MeV, are mainly caused by the electrons, pions, d, t, 3He and also α particles during the cascade process and the evaporation process, respectively. The energydeposition density caused by different proton beam profiles are also calculated and compared. Such calculation and analyses are much helpful for better understanding the physical mechanism of energydeposition in the spallation target, and greatly useful for the thermal hydraulic design of the spallation target.

A summary of measurements of the precipitation of electrons and positive ions (in the keV-MeV range) detected aboard eight rockets launched within the Energy Budget Campaign from Northern Scandinavia is given, together with corresponding satellite data. In some cases strong temporal variations of the downgoing integral fluxes were observed. The fluxes provide the background for the calculated ion production rates and altitude profiles of the energydeposition into the atmosphere at different levels of geomagnetic disturbance and cosmic noise absorption. The derived ion production rates by eneretic particles are compared to other night-time ionisation sources.

Assessing the effects of atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition on surface water quality requires accurate accounts of total N deposition (wet, dry, and cloud vapor); however, dry deposition is difficult to measure and is often spatially variable. Affordable passive sampling methods...

A combined computational and experimental study was performed to investigate the effect of a single laser energy pulse on the transition from a Mach Reflection (MR) to a Regular Reflection (RR) in the Dual Solution Domain (DSD). The freestream Mach number is 3.45 and two oblique shock waves are formed by two symmetric 22° wedges. These conditions correspond to a point midway within the DSD wherein either an MR or an RR is possible. A steady MR was first obtained experimentally and numerically, then a single laser pulse was deposited above the horizontal center plane. The experiment showed that the Mach stem height decreased to 30% of its original height due to the interaction with the thermal spot generated by the laser pulse and then returned to its original height by 300μs. That the Mach stem returned to its original height was most likely due to freestream turbulence in the wind tunnel. The numerical simulation successfully predicted the reverse transition from a stable MR to a stable RR and the stable RR persisted across the span. This study showed the capability of a laser energy pulse to control the reverse transition of MR → RR within the Dual Solution Domain.

Most of Titan's atmospheric organic and nitrogen chemistry, aerosol formation, and atmospheric loss are driven from external energy sources such as Solar UV, Saturn's magnetosphere, solar wind and galactic cosmic rays. The Solar UV tends to dominate the energy input at lower altitudes of approximately 1100 km but which can extend down to approximately 400 km, while the plasma interaction from Saturn's magnetosphere, Saturn's magnetosheath or solar wind are more important at higher altitudes of approximately 1400 km, but the heavy ion plasma [O(+)] of approximately 2 keV and energetic ions [H(+)] of approximately 30 keV or higher from Saturn's magnetosphere can penetrate below 950km. Cosmic rays with energies of greater than 1 GeV can penetrate much deeper into Titan's atmosphere with most of its energydeposited at approximately 100 km altitude. The haze layer tends to dominate between 100 km and 300 km. The induced magnetic field from Titan's interaction with the external plasma can be very complex and will tend to channel the flow of energy into Titan's upper atmosphere. Cassini observations combined with advanced hybrid simulations of the plasma interaction with Titan's upper atmosphere show significant changes in the character of the interaction with Saturn local time at Titan's orbit where the magnetosphere displays large and systematic changes with local time. The external solar wind can also drive sub-storms within the magnetosphere which can then modify the magnetospheric interaction with Titan. Another important parameter is solar zenith angle (SZA) with respect to the co-rotation direction of the magnetospheric flow. Titan's interaction can contribute to atmospheric loss via pickup ion loss, scavenging of Titan's ionospheric plasma, loss of ionospheric plasma down its induced magnetotail via an ionospheric wind, and non-thermal loss of the atmosphere via heating and sputtering induced by the bombardment of magnetospheric keV ions and electrons. This

The experimental approach considered requires the measurement of energy-absorption distributions for a set of pathlengths which define a biological volume. A suitable folding procedure is necessary to produce composite energy-absorption distributions. The investigation is concerned with the quality of the prediction of energy-deposition distributions, taking into account distributions measured with a proportional counter.

The fabrication of porous nanocomposites is key to the advancement of energy conversion and storage devices that interface with electrolytes. Bismuth vanadate, BiVO4 , is a promising oxide for solar water splitting where the controlled fabrication of BiVO4 layers within porous, conducting scaffolds has remained a challenge. Here, the atomic layer deposition of bismuth vanadates is reported from BiPh3 , vanadium(V) oxytriisopropoxide, and water. The resulting films have tunable stoichiometry and may be crystallized to form the photoactive scheelite structure of BiVO4 . A selective etching process was used with vanadium-rich depositions to enable the synthesis of phase-pure BiVO4 after spinodal decomposition. BiVO4 thin films were measured for photoelectrochemical performance under AM 1.5 illumination. The average photocurrents were 1.17 mA cm(-2) at 1.23 V versus the reversible hydrogen electrode using a hole-scavenging sulfite electrolyte. The capability to deposit conformal bismuth vanadates will enable a new generation of nanocomposite architectures for solar water splitting.

For a hard parton moving through a dense QCD medium, we compute self-consistently the energy loss and the fraction deposited into the medium due to showering and rescattering of the shower, assuming weak coupling between probe and medium. The same transport coefficients thus determine both the energy loss and its deposition into the medium. This allows a parameter free calculation of the latter once the former are computed or measured. We compute them for a weakly interacting medium. Assuming a short thermalization time for the depositedenergy, we determine the medium's hydrodynamical response and obtain a conical pattern that is strongly enhanced by showering.

An experimental study aimed at the characterization of energydeposition of nanosecond Dielectric Barrier Discharge (ns-DBD) plasma actuators was carried out. Special attention was given on the effect of the thickness and material used for dielectric barrier. The selected materials for this study were polyimide film (Kapton), polyamide based nylon (PA2200), and silicone rubber. Schlieren measurements were carried out in quiescent air conditions in order to observe density gradients induced by energydeposited. Size of heated area was used to qualify the energydeposition coupled with electrical power measurements performed using the back-current shunt technique. Additionally, light intensity measurements showed a different nature of discharge based upon the material used for barrier, for a fixed thickness and frequency of discharge. Finally, a characterisation study was performed for the three tested materials. Dielectric constant, volume resistivity, and thermal conductivity were measured. Strong trends between the control parameters and the energydeposited into the fluid during the discharge were observed. Results indicate that efficiency of energydeposition mechanism relative to the thickness of the barrier strongly depends upon the material used for the dielectric barrier itself. In general, a high dielectric strength and a low volumetric resistivity are preferred for a barrier, together with a high heat capacitance and a low thermal conductivity coefficient in order to maximize the efficiency of the thermal energydeposition induced by an ns-DBD plasma actuator.

In this dissertation work, a computer simulation model based on the Geant4 simulation package has been designed and developed to study the energydeposition and track structures of cosmic muons and their secondary electrons in tissue-like materials. The particle interactions in a cubic water volume were first simulated. To analyze the energydeposition and tracks in small structures, with the intention of studying the energy localization in nanometric structures such as DNA, the chamber was sliced in three dimentions. Validation studies have been performed by comparing the results with experimental, theoretical, and other simulation results to test the accuracy of the simulation model. A human body phantom in sea-level muon environment was modeled to measure the yearly dose to a human from cosmic muons. The yearly dose in this phantom is about 22 millirems. This is close to the accepted value for the yearly dose from cosmic radiation at sea level. Shielding cosmic muons with a concrete slab from 0 to 2 meters increased the dose received by the body. This dissertation presents an extensive study on the interactions of secondary electrons created by muons in water. Index words. Radiation Dosimetry Simulation, Track Structures, Sea-Level muon Flux, EnergyDeposition

Direct energydeposition is an additive manufacturing technique that involves the melting of metal powder with a high-powered laser beam and is used to build a variety of components. In laser-assisted metal deposition, the mechanical and metallurgical properties achieved are influenced by many factors. This paper addresses methods for selecting an appropriate layer thickness setting, which is an important parameter in layer-by-layer deposition manufacturing. A new procedure is proposed for determining the layer thickness setting for use in slicing of a part based on the single-layer height for a given depositing condition. This procedure was compared with a conventional method that uses an empirically determined layer thickness and with a feedback control method. The micro-hardness distribution, location of the melting pool, and microstructures of the deposited layers after deposition of a simple target shape were investigated for each procedure. The experimental results show that even though the feedback control method is the most effective method for obtaining the desired geometry, the deposited region was characterized by inhomogeneity of micro-hardness due to the time-variable depositing conditions involved. The largest dimensional error was associated with the conventional deposition procedure, which produced a rise in the melting zone due to over-deposition with respect to the slicing thickness, especially at the high laser power level considered. In contrast, the proposed procedure produced a stable melting zone position during deposition, which resulted in the deposited part having reasonable dimensional accuracy and uniform micro-hardness throughout the deposited region.

In this study, an electron-tracking Monte Carlo algorithm developed by us is combined with established photon transport models in order to simulate all primary and secondary particle interactions in water for incident photon radiation. As input parameters for secondary electron interactions, electron scattering cross sections by water molecules and experimental energy loss spectra are used. With this simulation, the resulting energydeposition can be modelled at the molecular level, yielding detailed information about localization and type of single collision events. The experimental emission spectrum of I-125 seeds, as used for radiotherapy of different tumours, was used for studying the energydeposition in water when irradiating with this radionuclide.

The global images made by the Ultraviolet Imager (UVI) aboard the IASTP/Polar Satellite are used to derive the global auroral energydeposited in the ionosphere resulting from electron precipitation. During a substorm onset, the energydeposited and its location in local time are compared to the solar wind IMF conditions. Previously, insitu measurements of low orbiting satellites have made precipitating particle measurements along the spacecraft track and global images of the auroral zone, without the ability to quantify energy parameters, have been available. However, usage of the high temporal, spatial, and spectral resolution of consecutive UVI images enables quantitative measurement of the energydeposited in the ionosphere not previously available on a global scale. Data over an extended period beginning in January 1997 will be presented.

The experimental data of energydeposition distribution along discharge chamber of lightning protection multichamber system in initial stage of discharge process aimed to model lightning current impulse up to 10 kA is presented. A multichamber system is a series connection of discharge chambers. According to our experiments the shock wave formation occurs during the breakdown phase between electrodes located at the bottom of discharge chamber. The consequent energydeposition during discharge development goes in the whole volume bounded by shock wave front.

The expansion of a high-temperature fusion plasma through an expanding magnetic field is a process common to most fusion propulsion concepts. The propulsive efficiency of this process has a strong bearing on the overall performance of fusion propulsion. In order to simulate the expansion of a fusion plasma, a concept has been developed in which a high velocity plasma is first stagnated in a converging magnetic field to high (100s of eV) temperatures, then expanded though a converging/diverging magnetic nozzle. As a first step in constructing this experiment, a gigawatt magnetoplasmadynamic plasma accelerator was constructed to generate the initial high velocity plasma and has been characterized. The source is powered by a 1.6 MJ, 1.6 ms pulse forming network. The device has been operated with currents up to 300 kA and power levels up to 200 MWe. These values are among the highest levels reached in an magnetoplasmadynamic thruster. The device operation has been characterized by quasi-steady voltage and current measurements for helium mass flow rates from 0.5 to 27 g s-1. Probe results for downstream plasma density and electron temperature are also presented. The source behavior is examined in terms of current theories for magnetoplasmadynamic thrusters.

This software requires inputs of simple system inventory information and calculates the energy and cost benefits of various retrofit opportunities. This tool includes energy conservation measures for: fixing steam leaks. This tool calculates energy savings, demand reduction, cost savings, and building life cycle costs including: simple payback, discounted payback, net-present value, and savings to investment ratio. In addition this tool also displays the environmental benefits of a project.

Solutions to the energy-independent (gray) radiative transfer equations are compared to results of Monte Carlo simulations of the Ni-56 and Co-56 decay gamma-ray energydeposition in supernovae. The comparison shows that an effective, purely absorptive, gray opacity, kappa(sub gamma) approximately (0. 06 +/- 0.01)Y(sub e) sq cm/g, where Y is the total number of electrons per baryon, accurately describes the interaction of gamma-rays with the cool supernova gas and the local gamma-ray energydeposition within the gas. The nature of the gamma-ray interaction process (dominated by Compton scattering in the relativistic regime) creates a weak dependence of kappa(sub gamma) on the optical thickness of the (spherically symmetric) supernova atmosphere: The maximum value of kappa(sub gamma) applies during optically thick conditions when individual gamma-rays undergo multiple scattering encounters and the lower bound is reached at the phase characterized by a total Thomson optical depth to the center of the atmosphere tau(sub e) approximately less than 1. Gamma-ray deposition for Type Ia supernova models to within 10% for the epoch from maximum light to t = 1200 days. Our results quantitatively confirm that the quick and efficient solution to the gray transfer problem provides an accurate representation of gamma-ray energydeposition for a broad range of supernova conditions.

Auroral images obtained by the Spin Scan Auroral Imager (SAI) aboard the DE-1 satellite were used to derive auroral energydeposition rate, characteristic electron energy, and ionospheric parameters. The principles involved in the imaging technique and the physical mechanisms that underlie the relationship between the spectral images and the geophysical parameters are discussed together with the methodology for implementing such analyses. It is shown that images obtained with the SAI provide global parameters at 12-min temporal resolution; the spatial resolution is limited by the field of view of a pixel. The analysis of the 12-min images presented yielded a representation of ionospheric parameters that was better than can be obtained using empirical models based on local measurements averaged over long periods of time.

A set of detailed atomic cross sections has been used to obtain the spatial deposition of energy by 1-20-eV electrons in molecular hydrogen by a Monte Carlo simulation of the actual trajectories. The energydeposition curve (energy per distance traversed) is quite peaked in the forward direction about the entry point for electrons with energies above the threshold of the electronic states, but the peak decreases and broadens noticeably as the electron energy decreases below 10 eV (threshold for the lowest excitable electronic state of H2). The curve also assumes a very symmetrical shape for energies below 10 eV, indicating the increasing importance of elastic collisions in determining the shape of the curve, although not the mode of energydeposition.

An observational study has been conducted concerning atmospheric dewfall and fog-droplet deposition with application to the formation and maintenance of fog layers. The relationship between dew and fog is discussed together with the challenges and requirements to measure representative values of their deposition to the surface. A practical instrument developed at the UK Met Office Research Unit, Cardington, is described. The instrument is a small portable device that uses a load cell to measure the weight of a pan upon which various types of natural and artificial canopies can be placed, and can measure dewfall and fog-droplet deposition to an accuracy of 0.0005 mm. Dewfall results from this device are shown for a selection of nights under varying conditions. On a given night the overriding factor determining the amount of dew deposition appears to be location. Several dewmeter devices were placed at different locations around the 18 ha Cardington field site for various clear nights and it was found that dew amounts varied significantly, depending on location: canopies with a more open aspect experienced more deposition by up to a factor of two. The results also suggest that the hygroscopic effect of a canopy, whereby water is absorbed into the canopy and topsoil layer before dew formation begins, is also important for the removal of atmospheric water vapour. Results indicate this effect can be of a similar magnitude to dew deposition. Measurements of fog-droplet deposition showed total water deposition rates did not change when thin radiation fog formed. When optically thick adiabatic fog formed, deposition rates were seen to decrease with time or be generally lower than for thinner radiation fog. Further observations are required to establish if the behaviours found are typical for all fogs.

This paper describes a technique developed to make in situ, time-resolved measurements of the effective thermal conductivity of ash deposits formed under conditions that closely replicate those found in the convective pass of a commercial boiler. Since ash deposit thermal conductivity is thought to be strongly dependent on deposit microstructure, the technique is designed to minimize the disturbance of the natural deposit microstructure. Traditional techniques for measuringdeposit thermal conductivity generally do not preserve the sample microstructure. Experiments are described that demonstrate the technique, quantify experimental uncertainty, and determine the thermal conductivity of highly porous, unsintered deposits. The average measured conductivity of loose, unsintered deposits is 0.14 {+-} 0.03 W/(m K), approximately midway between rational theoretical limits for deposit thermal conductivity.

A system for measuring gamma-ray radial energydeposition is provided for use in conjunction with a semiconductor detector. The detector comprises two electrodes and a detector material, and defines a plurality of zones within the detecting material in parallel with the two electrodes. The detector produces a charge signal E(t) when a gamma-ray interacts with the detector. Digitizing means are provided for converting the charge signal E(t) into a digitized signal. A computational means receives the digitized signal and calculates in which of the plurality of zones the gamma-ray depositedenergy when interacting with the detector. The computational means produces an output indicating the amount of energydeposited by the gamma-ray in each of the plurality of zones.

Over the past fifteen years, a number of intensive field campaigns and measurement networks have provided valuable information on the estimated rates of mercury wet deposition to sensitive ecosystems throughout the world. In contrast, the ability to place bounds on the rates of mercury dry deposition has been hampered by the relative lack of direct measurements of this process. Recently, a number of researchers have performed measurements of mercury dry deposition using a variety of direct and indirect measurement techniques. While these studies have provided important information regarding the potential rates of mercury dry deposition to natural surfaces, little is known about the comparability of the results utilizing these different measurement approaches. During the month of August 2008, a mercury dry depositionmeasurement methods comparison was conducted in Ann Arbor, Michigan over a nine-day period. Seven research groups participated in the study, with the following measurement approaches: water, cation exchange membrane, chemically treated filter and turf surrogate surfaces; and several micrometeorological modeling methods. Continuous monitoring was conducted for ambient meteorological conditions and elemental, oxidized and particulate mercury concentrations. Preliminary results suggest that study-average mercury dry deposition estimates ranged from 0.17 to 0.59 ng/m2/hour for the group of pure-water surrogate surfaces, the cation exchange membrane and a micrometeorological flux gradient approach. The turf surrogate surface, BrCl spiked-water surface and a gold-coated quartz fiber filter surface resulted in significantly higher mercury dry deposition estimates, with the latter two approaches having been designed to measure total mercury dry deposition. Given that the turf surrogate surface and the cation exchange membrane samplers were designed for long-term deployment (up to one week), these methods were deployed for an additional series of four one

Measurements of the dry deposition velocity (Vd) of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and total organic peroxides (ROOH) were made during four experiments at three forested sites. Details and uncertainties associated with the measurement of peroxide...

Ten years of successful operation of the multi-instrument CHAMP satellite mission at a unique orbit altitude of about 400 km revealed many interesting features of the coupling between the thermosphere and ionosphere. Different processes contribute to the deposition of solar and magnetospheric energy into the thermosphere. One important venue is heating through thermal electrons transferring energy by collisions with ions and neutrals. In the ionospheric F region thermal electrons are heated primarily through photoelectrons by local or non-local processes. At high latitudes soft precipitation and electromagnetic heating play a major role. The energydeposition can be quantified by a family of chemo-physical equations (Schunk and Nagy, 2009) that depend on plasma and neutral densities and temperatures. One important indicator for the energy transfer is the difference between electron and ion- and neutral- temperatures. Electron cooling leads to thermospheric heating and and we expect that this process leads to a local enhancement of mass density (air drag). Sizable electron cooling rates in the F region have been published from EISCAT radar observations in the ionospheric cusp. Based on CHAMP observation of electron density and temperature we estimate the energydeposit in the F-region through cooling of the thermal electron gas caused by elastic and inelastic processes. We find that a significant deposition is present during day at mid latitudes. At low latitudes the energy flux remains important until midnight. Observed heating rates depend on the satellite altitudes, but they are globally available from the CHAMP data. Missing observations in the CHAMP dataset, e.g., ion temperature, are derived from empirical models as IRI or MSIS. We investigate the global distribution of the electron cooling rate, we quantify the contributions of the different processes (equations) to the total energy transfer, e.g., depending on height, and we intend to compare our results

The Canadian Hydrogen Intensity Mapping Experiment (CHIME) is a new radio transit interferometer currently being built at the Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory (DRAO) in Penticton, BC, Canada. We will use the 21 cm emission line of neutral hydrogen to map baryon acoustic oscillations between 400-800 MHz across 3/4 of the sky. These measurements will yield sensitive constraints on the dark energy equation of state between redshifts 0.8 - 2.5, a fascinating but poorly probed era corresponding to when dark energy began to impact the expansion history of the Universe. I will describe theCHIME instrument, the analysis challenges, the calibration requirements, and current status.

The National Atmospheric Deposition Program/Mercury Deposition Network (MDN) provides long-term, quality-assured records of mercury in wet deposition in the USA and Canada. Interpretation of spatial and temporal trends in the MDN data requires quantification of the variability of the MDN measurements. Variability is quantified for MDN data from collocated samplers at MDN sites in two states, one in Illinois and one in Washington. Median absolute differences in the collocated sampler data for total mercury concentration are approximately 11% of the median mercury concentration for all valid 1999-2004 MDN data. Median absolute differences are between 3.0% and 14% of the median MDN value for collector catch (sample volume) and between 6.0% and 15% of the median MDN value for mercury wet deposition. The overall measurement errors are sufficiently low to resolve between NADP/MDN measurements by ??2 ng??l-1 and ??2 ????m-2?? year-1, which are the contour intervals used to display the data on NADP isopleths maps for concentration and deposition, respectively. ?? Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2007.

Concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) emit massive amounts of ammonia (NH3) to the atmosphere. Current measurements of NH3 are generally conducted far away from the sources (satellites, airplanes, etc.). There is insufficient knowledge about the dry deposition rate of NH3 near the sources, which might contribute to the large discrepancies between measured concentrations at CAFOs and those from models. During the 2014 NASA DISCOVER-AQ campaign, we designed a series of tests to measure the deposition rate of NH3 by utilizing a suite of sensors, including a LICOR LI-7700 methane sensor and Princeton University's custom open path NH3 sensor, which was mounted on top of a small SUV. Our mobile sampling technique enables us to follow feedlot emission plumes to see how ambient NH3 concentration decays as gases moves away from the CAFO. The mobile platform is used to perform upwind and downwind sampling to characterize the NH3 emission source. We tracked the change of the enhancement of NH3 concentration relative to the enhancement of CH4 concentration (ΔNH3:ΔCH4), while transecting the plume of individual cattle feedlots. Measured data shows that the high concentration of NH3 seen at the source decreases quickly as one moves further downwind from it. A time constant of approximately ten minutes has been calculated from the decay of the ΔNH3:ΔCH4 ratios while moving away from the sources. We also will compare our measurements with those of NASA's P-3B aerosol measurements to show that the majority must be lost to dry deposition. This rapid deposition suggests that large amounts of NH3 are being deposited in very close proximity to these CAFOs, which is consistent with previous findings of locally high soil pH near NH3 sources. Our results will be used to better characterize nitrogen deposition from cattle feedlots and estimate NH3 lifetime.

We report on strong nonuniformities in target heating with intense, laser-produced proton beams. The observed inhomogeneity in energydeposition can strongly perturb equation of state (EOS) measurements with laser-accelerated ions which are planned in several laboratories. Interferometric measurements of the target expansion show different expansion velocities on the front and rear surfaces, indicating a strong difference in local temperature. The nonuniformity indicates at an additional heating mechanism, which seems to originate from electrons in the keV range.

We report on strong nonuniformities in target heating with intense, laser-produced proton beams. The observed inhomogeneity in energydeposition can strongly perturb equation of state (EOS) measurements with laser-accelerated ions which are planned in several laboratories. Interferometric measurements of the target expansion show different expansion velocities on the front and rear surfaces, indicating a strong difference in local temperature. The nonuniformity indicates at an additional heating mechanism, which seems to originate from electrons in the keV range.

The absorbed energy density (eV/cm3) deposited by extreme ultraviolet (EUV) photons and electron beam (EB) high-keV electrons is proposed as a metric for characterizing the sensitivity of EUV resist films. Simulations of energydeposition are used to calculate the energy density as a function of the incident aerial flux (EUV: mJ/cm2, EB: μC/cm2). Monte Carlo calculations for electron exposure are utilized, and a Lambert-Beer model for EUV absorption. The ratio of electron flux to photon flux which results in equivalent energy density is calculated for a typical organic chemically amplified resist film and a typical inorganic metal-oxide film. This ratio can be used to screen EUV resist materials with EB measurements and accelerate advances in EUV resist systems.

X-ray reflectivity using energy dispersive X-ray detection, a nondestructive probe of surface roughness over the region of [approximately] 1--50 [Angstrom], has been used to investigate the characteristicsof vacuum deposited thin films. With a surface roughness sensitivity better than 1 [Angstrom] X-ray reflectivity is sensitive to interfaces between different materials for sample thicknesses up to approximately2000 [Angstrom] (depending on material density). We have investigated discrete Cr/Al deposits on quartz substrates and determined the surface roughness at the interfaces. We have also monitored the evolution ofthe Cr/Al interface following annealing. The experimental data is presented and discussed. The use of the technique for studying thin film deposits is addressed.

X-ray reflectivity using energy dispersive X-ray detection, a nondestructive probe of surface roughness over the region of {approximately} 1--50 {Angstrom}, has been used to investigate the characteristicsof vacuum deposited thin films. With a surface roughness sensitivity better than 1 {Angstrom} X-ray reflectivity is sensitive to interfaces between different materials for sample thicknesses up to approximately2000 {Angstrom} (depending on material density). We have investigated discrete Cr/Al deposits on quartz substrates and determined the surface roughness at the interfaces. We have also monitored the evolution ofthe Cr/Al interface following annealing. The experimental data is presented and discussed. The use of the technique for studying thin film deposits is addressed.

Results of detailed Monte Carlo energydeposition and radiological studies performed for the LBNF hadron absorber with the MARS15 code are described. The model of the entire facility, that includes a pion-production target, focusing horns, target chase, decay channel, hadron absorber system – all with corresponding radiation shielding – was developed using the recently implemented ROOT-based geometry option in the MARS15 code. Both normal operation and accidental conditions were studied. Results of detailed thermal calculations with the ANSYS code helped to select the most viable design options.

We report on laboratory studies of the effectiveness of directed energy planetary defense as a part of the DESTAR (Directed Energy System for Targeting of Asteroids and exploRation) program. DE-STAR [1][5][6] and DE-STARLITE [2][5][6] are directed energy "stand-off" and "stand-on" programs, respectively. These systems consist of a modular array of kilowatt-class lasers powered by photovoltaics, and are capable of heating a spot on the surface of an asteroid to the point of vaporization. Mass ejection, as a plume of evaporated material, creates a reactionary thrust capable of diverting the asteroid's orbit. In a series of papers, we have developed a theoretical basis and described numerical simulations for determining the thrust produced by material evaporating from the surface of an asteroid [1][2][3][4][5][6]. In the DE-STAR concept, the asteroid itself is used as the deflection "propellant". This study presents results of experiments designed to measure the thrust created by evaporation from a laser directed energy spot. We constructed a vacuum chamber to simulate space conditions, and installed a torsion balance that holds an "asteroid" sample. The sample is illuminated with a fiber array laser with flux levels up to 60 MW/m2 which allows us to simulate a mission level flux but on a small scale. We use a separate laser as well as a position sensitive centroid detector to readout the angular motion of the torsion balance and can thus determine the thrust. We compare the measured thrust to the models. Our theoretical models indicate a coupling coefficient well in excess of 100 μN/Woptical, though we assume a more conservative value of 80 μN/Woptical and then degrade this with an optical "encircled energy" efficiency of 0.75 to 60 μN/Woptical in our deflection modeling. Our measurements discussed here yield about 45 μN/Wabsorbed as a reasonable lower limit to the thrust per optical watt absorbed.

The authors report results from an experimental study that examines the influence of sintering and microstructure on ash deposit thermal conductivity. The measurements are made using a technique developed to make in situ, time-resolved measurements of the effective thermal conductivity of ash deposits formed under conditions that closely replicate those found in the convective pass of a commercial boiler. The technique is designed to minimize the disturbance of the natural deposit microstructure. The initial stages of sintering and densification are accompanied by an increase in deposit thermal conductivity. Subsequent sintering continues to densify the deposit, but has little effect on deposit thermal conductivity. SEM analyses indicates that sintering creates a layered deposit structure with a relatively unsintered innermost layer. They hypothesize that this unsintered layer largely determines the overall deposit thermal conductivity. A theoretical model that treats a deposit as a two-layered material predicts the observed trends in thermal conductivity.

The power deposited in the anode of a quasi-steady MPD accelerator has been measured directly by thermocouples attached to the inside surface of a shell anode which provide a local measurement of anode heat flux. The results over a range of arc currents from 5.5 to 44 kiloamperes and argon mass flows from 1 g/sec to 48 g/sec show that the fraction of the total input power deposited in the anode decreases drastically from 50% at an arc power of 200 kW to 10% at 20 MW, and that anode power is not uniformly deposited in the anode. A theoretical model of the anode heat transfer, including effects of anode work function, electron thermal energy, and anode sheath, can be brought into reasonable agreement with the measurements, provided the effective range of the conduction electrons from within the discharge plasma to the anode surface is properly acknowledged.

The structure, dynamics, chemistry, and evolution of planetary upper atmospheres are in large part determined by the available sources of energy. In addition to the solar EUV flux, the solar wind and solar energetic particle (SEP) events are also important sources. Both of these particle populations can significantly affect an atmosphere, causing atmospheric loss and driving chemical reactions. Attention has been paid to these sources from the standpoint of the radiation environment for humans and electronics, but little work has been done to evaluate their impact on planetary atmospheres. At unmagnetized planets or those with crustal field anomalies, in particular, the solar wind and SEPs of all energies have direct access to the atmosphere and so provide a more substantial energy source than at planets having protective global magnetic fields. Additionally, solar wind and energetic particle fluxes should be more significant for planets orbiting more active stars, such as is the case in the early history of the solar system for paleo-Venus and Mars. Therefore quantification of the atmospheric energy input from the solar wind and SEP events is an important component of our understanding of the processes that control their state and evolution. We have applied a full Lorentz motion particle transport model to study the effects of particle precipitation in the upper atmospheres of Mars and Venus. Such modeling has been previously done for Earth and Mars using a guiding center precipitation model. Currently, this code is only valid for particles with small gyroradii in strong uniform magnetic fields. There is a clear necessity for a Lorentz formulation, hence, a systematic study of the ionization, excitation, and energydeposition has been conducted, including a comparison of the influence relative to other energy sources (namely EUV photons). The result is a robust examination of the influence of energetic ion transport on the Venus and Mars upper atmosphere which

Measurements of the dry deposition velocity of ozone have been made by the eddy correlation method during ESCOMPTE (Etude sur Site pour COntraindre les Modèles de Pollution atmosphérique et de Transport d'Emissions). The strong local variability of natural ecosystems was sampled over several weeks in May, June and July 2001 for four sites with varying surface characteristics. The sites included a maize field, a Mediterranean forest, a Mediterranean shrub-land, and an almost bare soil. Measurements of nitrogen oxide deposition fluxes by the relaxed eddy correlation method have also been carried out at the same bare soil site. An evaluation of the deposition velocities computed by the surface module of the multi-scale Chemistry and Transport Model MOCAGE is presented. This module relies on a resistance approach, with a detailed treatment of the stomatal contribution to the surface resistance. Simulations at the finest model horizontal resolution (around 10 km) are compared to observations. If the seasonal variations are in agreement with the literature, comparisons between raw model outputs and observations, at the different measurement sites and for the specific observing periods, are contrasted. As the simulated meteorology at the scale of 10 km nicely captures the observed situations, the default set of surface characteristics (averaged at the resolution of a grid cell) appears to be one of the main reasons for the discrepancies found with observations. For each case, sensitivity studies have been performed in order to see the impact of adjusting the surface characteristics to the observed ones, when available. Generally, a correct agreement with the observations of deposition velocities is obtained. This advocates for a sub-grid scale representation of surface characteristics for the simulation of dry deposition velocities over such a complex area. Two other aspects appear in the discussion. Firstly, the strong influence of the soil water content to the plant

Among the many additive manufacturing technologies, the directed energydeposition (DED) process has attracted significant attention because of the application of metal products. Metal deposited by the DED process has different properties than wrought metal because of the rapid solidification rate, the high thermal gradient between the deposited metal and substrate, etc. Additionally, many operating parameters, such as laser power, beam diameter, traverse speed, and powder mass flow rate, must be considered since the characteristics of the deposited metal are affected by the operating parameters. In the present study, the effect of energy input on the characteristics of H13 and D2 steels deposited by a direct metal tooling process based on the DED process was investigated. In particular, we report that the hardness of the deposited H13 and D2 steels decreased with increasing energy input, which we discuss by considering microstructural observations and thermodynamics.

The frequency distributions of event size in the deposition of energy over small pathlengths have been measured after penetration of 44.3 MeV protons through various thicknesses of tissue-equivalent material. Results show that particle energy straggling of an initially monoenergetic proton beam after passage through an absorber causes the frequency distributions of energydeposited in short pathlengths of low atomic number materials to remain broad. In all cases investigated, the ratio of the most probable to the average energy losses has been significantly less than unity.

Results of detailed Monte Carlo energydeposition studies performed for the LBNE absorber core and the surrounding shielding with the MARS15 code are described. The model of the entire facility, that includes a pion-production target, focusing horns, target chase, decay channel, hadron absorber system – all with corresponding radiation shielding – was developed using the recently implemented ROOT-based geometry option in the MARS15 code. This option provides substantial flexibility and automation when developing complex geometry models. Both normal operation and accidental conditions were studied. Various design options were considered, in particular the following: (i) filling the decay pipe with air or helium; (ii) the absorber mask material and shape; (iii) the beam spoiler material and size. Results of detailed thermal calculations with the ANSYS code helped to select the most viable absorber design options.

Recently, generation of external magnetic fields of a few kT has been reported [Fujioka et al. Scientific Reports 2013 3 1170]. These fields can be used in fast ignition to mitigate the large fast electron divergence. In this summary, two fast ignition applications are briefly outlined. The first one deals with electron guiding by external B-fields applied at the end of the shell implosion of a re-entrant cone target. Preliminary results show that the B-field strength at the time of peak ρR may be sufficiently high for fast electron guiding. The second application deals with guiding of fast electrons in magnetized wires surrounded by plasma. Results show a significant enhancement of electron energydeposition at the end of the wire, which is particularly important for low-Z wires.

An experimental examination of energydeposition in self-field, coaxial plasma thrusters revealed that the thrust efficiency ranged from 2-9 percent and that the dominant losses resulted from electrode heating and propellant ionization. Sensible enthalpy and radiative losses were negligible. Thruster specific impulse increased with current, ranging from 550-1750 seconds. Spectroscopic studies of the plume plasma showed that the electron temperature ranged from 0.5-2.5 eV and that the dominant species were singly and doubly ionized argon. Attempts to raise thruster efficiency by increasing the chamber pressure resulted in reduced electrode losses and lowered I(sp), but the thrust efficiency decreased because of a current redistribution that lowered the thrust beyond expectations.

Flexible and electrically conductive nanocomposite films are essential for small, portable and even implantable electronic devices. Typically, such film synthesis and conductivity measurement are carried out sequentially. As a result, optimization of filler loading and size/morphology characteristics with respect to film conductivity is rather tedious and costly. Here, freshly-made Ag nanoparticles (nanosilver) are made by scalable flame aerosol technology and directly deposited onto polymeric (polystyrene and poly(methyl methacrylate)) films during which the resistance of the resulting nanocomposite is measured in situ. The formation and gas-phase growth of such flame-made nanosilver, just before incorporation onto the polymer film, is measured by thermophoretic sampling and microscopy. Monitoring the nanocomposite resistance in situ reveals the onset of conductive network formation by the deposited nanosilver growth and sinternecking. The in situ measurement is much faster and more accurate than conventional ex situ four-point resistance measurements since an electrically percolating network is detected upon its formation by the in situ technique. Nevertheless, general resistance trends with respect to filler loading and host polymer composition are consistent for both in situ and ex situ measurements. The time lag for the onset of a conductive network (i.e., percolation) depends linearly on the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the host polymer. This is attributed to the increased nanoparticle-polymer interaction with decreasing Tg. Proper selection of the host polymer in combination with in situ resistance monitoring therefore enable the optimal preparation of conductive nanocomposite films.

The fundamentals of energydeposition, heat flow, and rapid solidification during energydeposition from lasers and electron beams is reviewed. Emphasis is placed on the deposition of energy from pulsed sources (10 to 100 ns pulse duration time) in order to achieve high heating and cooling rates (10/sup 8/ to 10/sup 10/ /sup 0/C/s) in the near surface region. The response of both metals and semiconductors to pulsed energydeposition is considered. Guidelines are presented for the choice of energy source, wavelength, and pulse duration time.

A nanosecond capillary discharge in pure nitrogen at moderate pressures is used as an experimental tool for plasma kinetics studies at conditions of high specific depositedenergy up to 1 eV/molecule. Experimental observations based on electrical (back current shunts, capacitive probe) and spectroscopic measurements (quenching rates; translational, rotational and vibrational temperature measurements) demonstrate that high specific depositedenergy, at electric fields of 200-300 Td, can significantly change gas kinetics in the discharge and in the afterglow. The numerical calculations in 1D axially symmetric geometry using experimental data as input parameters show that changes in the plasma kinetics are caused by extremely high excitation degree: up to 10% of molecular nitrogen is electronically excited at present conditions. Distinctive features of kinetics of plasma at high specific energydeposition as well as details of the experimental technique and numerical calculations will be present. The work was partially supported by French National Agency, ANR (PLASMAFLAME Project, 2011 BS09 025 01), AOARD AFOSR, FA2386-13-1-4064 grant (Program Officer Prof. Chiping Li), LabEx Plas@Par and Linked International Laboratory LIA KaPPA (France-Russia).

The Geant4-based Monte Carlo model for Heavy-Ion Therapy (MCHIT) was extended to study the patterns of energydeposition at sub-micrometer distance from individual ion tracks. Dose distributions for low-energy (1)H, (4)He, (12)C and (16)O ions measured in several experiments are well described by the model in a broad range of radial distances, from 0.5 to 3000 nm. Despite the fact that such distributions are characterized by long tails, a dominant fraction of depositedenergy (∼80%) is confined within a radius of about 10 nm. The probability distributions of clustered ionization events in nanoscale volumes of water traversed by (1)H, (2)H, (4)He, (6)Li, (7)Li, and (12)C ions are also calculated. A good agreement of calculated ionization cluster-size distributions with the corresponding experimental data suggests that the extended MCHIT can be used to characterize stochastic processes of energydeposition to sensitive cellular structures.

This paper presents a study of the effect of a single laser energy pulse on the transition from a Mach Reflection (MR) to a Regular Reflection (RR) in the Dual Solution Domain (DSD). The freestream Mach number is 3.45 and two oblique shock waves are formed by two symmetric 22 degree wedges. These conditions correspond to a point midway within the DSD. A steady MR was first obtained experimentally and numerically, then a single laser pulse was deposited above the horizontal center plane. For the steady MR, the simulation showed the variation of Mach stem height along the span due to side effects. The predicted spanwise averaged Mach stem height was 1.96 mm within 2 percent of the experimental value of 2 mm. The experiment showed that the Mach stem height decreased to 30 percent of its original height due to the interaction with the laser spot and then returned to its original height by 300 microsec. That the Mach stem returned to its original height was most likely due to freestream turbulence in the wind tunnel. The numerical simulation successfully predicted the reverse transition from a stable MR to a stable RR and the stable RR persisted across the span. This study showed the capability of a laser energy pulse to control the reverse transition of MR -> RR within the Dual Solution Domain.

Measurements of the Joule energydeposition into exploding wire and its relation with condition of the expanding wire core are presented. Wires of nine different metals with diameters of 10-30 microns, have been exploded by fast 150A/ns and slow 20A/ns pulses, in vacuum and in air. It has been shown by interferometry and light emission that expanding wire core has different conditions. The substances with small atomization enthalpy (Ag, Al, Cu, Au) demonstrate full vaporization of the wire core. The refractory metals (Ti, Pt, Mo, W) demonstrates that core consists from vapor and small and hot microparticles. In this case we observe "firework effect" when large radiation from the wire exceed the energydeposition time in a three order of magnitude. For non-refractory metals radiation dropping fast in 100 ns time scale due to effective adiabatic cooling. It is possible if main part of the metal core was vaporized. The interferometrical investigation of the refraction coefficient of expanding metal core is proof this conclusion. It has been shown that energydeposition before surface breakdown dependent strongly from current rate, surface coatings, environment, wire diameter and radial electric field. The regime of wire explosion in vacuum without shunting plasma shell has been realized for fast exploding mode. In this case we observe anomaly high energydeposition in to the wire core exceeding regular value in almost 20 times. The experimental results for Al wire have been compared with ALEGRA 2D MHD simulations. *Sandia is a multi-program laboratory operated by Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed Martin Company, for the United States Department of Energy under Contract DE-AC04-94AL8500.

A novel, high-resolution technique has been developed for the measurement of erosion and deposition in solid material surfaces. The technique uses a combination of nuclear reaction analysis (NRA) and Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS) to determine the change in depth of a previously implanted marker layer consisting of 7Li. A scoping study shows that 7Li is an ideal marker candidate due to a high Q (∼18 MeV) nuclear reaction, 7Li(p,α)4He. Net erosion or deposition is measured by NRA of modified alpha energy passing through the bulk material. The reaction's high cross-section provides for the fast time resolution needed to measure erosion from high flux plasmas, and a highly penetrating proton beam provides for a large range of erosion/depositionmeasurements. Additionally, the implantation of low-Z Li leads to relatively low vacancy concentrations in the solid material due to implantation. This technique thus provides greater assurance that the measured erosion rate is indicative of the solid material: due to both the low vacancy production and the fact that no films or deposits are involved. Validation was performed by comparing the measured and predicted amount of erosion based on previously measured sputtering yields; the two were found to agree, within the uncertainty of the experiment. The depth resolution of the techniques is ∼60 nm at a net erosion depth of about 1 μm. The benefits of this technique are summarized as: short time scales (minutes) to obtain results, the marker layer can be used in any solid material, greater assurance that the measured erosion is indicative of the unperturbed solid material, and the continuous monitoring of the surface composition for contaminants and/or identification of deposited species using RBS simultaneous with the NRA.

To appraise the ratio of energydeposition into kinetic and thermal modes in plasma accelerators, a parallel-plate plasma accelerator has been operated in the quasi-steady mode with current pulses in the range of 10 to 100 kilo-amperes (kA), durations of the order of one millisecond, and argon mass flows up to 100 grams/sec. From photographic observations, spectroscopic measurements of velocity and electron density, and pressure measurements with a fast-rise piezoelectric transducer it is found that, for currents between 50 and 90 kA, the accelerated argon plasma is supersonic with ion velocities of 5 to 6 kilometers/sec.

Internal or autogenic sedimentary-system dynamics act as a filter that can dampen or obliterate signals of environmental perturbations, such as changes in climate and tectonics. Additionally, the transfer of material into the sedimentary archive can further degrade environmental signals. Presently we have a poor understanding of the rates, scales, and types of sedimentary processes that influence the stratigraphic filter in natural systems. A set of statistical tools has been developed for estimating the spatial and temporal scales over which the sedimentary filter operates from preserved stratigraphy. These tools, such as the compensation index, have been applied to experimental data and numerical models, with only limited use on outcrop data. Experimental datasets commonly have several orders of magnitude more data than even the most well exposed ancient outcrops; consequently, the ability to confidently use tools in natural systems is limited. Here we present an evaluation of the suitability of the compensation index for measuring and interpreting sedimentary outcrops. In order to constrain uncertainty due to data-set-size limitations, we model the degree to which measurement error, small data sets, and incomplete sampling influence attempts to quantify stratigraphic architecture. We demonstrate the potential for measuring the stratigraphic filter in ancient deposits by evaluating well-exposed deltaic deposits in the Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway that have been interpreted as having different degrees of to wave, tide, and river influence. Ultimately our results underscore how powerful quantitative tools developed in experimental and model datasets must be applied and interpreted with care in ancient deposits where data availability is limited.

Metallic films are grown with a "spongelike" morphology in the as-deposited condition using planar magnetron sputtering. The morphology of the deposit is characterized by metallic continuity in three dimensions with continuous and open porosity on the submicron scale. The stabilization of the spongelike morphology is found over a limited range of the sputter deposition parameters, that is, of working gas pressure and substrate temperature. This spongelike morphology is an extension of the features as generally represented in the classic zone models of growth for physical vapor deposits. Nickel coatings were deposited with working gas pressures up 4 Pa and for substrate temperatures up to 1000 K. The morphology of the deposits is examined in plan and in cross section views with scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The parametric range of gas pressure and substrate temperature (relative to absolute melt point) under which the spongelike metal deposits are produced appear universal for other metals including gold, silver, and aluminum.

Using ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS), we have measured the energy level offset at the planar interface between poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and C{sub 61}-butyric acid methylester (PCBM). Gradual deposition of PCBM onto spin-coated P3HT in high vacuum was made possible by using electrospray vacuum deposition (EVD). The UPS measurement of EVD-prepared planar interface resulted in the energy level offset of 0.91 eV between P3HT HOMO and PCBM LUMO, which is considered as the upper limit of V{sub oc} of the organic photovoltaic cells.

Measurement of the global rate of energydeposition in the ionosphere via auroral particle precipitation is one of the primary goals of the Polar UVI program and is an important component of the ISTP program. The instantaneous rate of energydeposition for the entire month of January 1997 has been calculated by applying models to the UVI images and is presented by Fillingim et al. In this session. A number of parameters that predict the rate of coupling of solar wind energy into the magnetosphere have been proposed in the last few decades. Some of these parameters, such as the epsilon parameter of Perrault and Akasofu, depend on the instantaneous values in the solar wind. Other parameters depend on the integrated values of solar wind parameters, especially IMF Bz, e.g. applied flux which predicts the net transfer of magnetic flux to the tail. While these parameters have often been used successfully with substorm studies, their validity in terms of global energy input has not yet been ascertained, largely because data such as that supplied by the ISTP program was lacking. We have calculated these and other energy coupling parameters for January 1997 using solar wind data provided by WIND and other solar wind monitors. The rates of energy input predicted by these parameters are compared to those measured through UVI data and correlations are sought. Whether these parameters are better at providing an instantaneous rate of energy input or an average input over some time period is addressed. We also study if either type of parameter may provide better correlations if a time delay is introduced; if so, this time delay may provide a characteristic time for energy transport in the coupled solar wind-magnetosphere-ionosphere system.

When energy is deposited in a thin-film cryogenic detector, such as from the absorption of an X-ray, an important feature that determines the energy resolution is the amount of athermal energy that can be lost to the heat bath prior to the elementary excitation systems coming into thermal equilibrium. This form of energy loss will be position-dependent and therefore can limit the detector energy resolution. An understanding of the physical processes that occur when elementary excitations are generated in metal films on dielectric substrates is important for the design and optimization of a number of different types of low temperature detector. We have measured the total energy loss in one relatively simple geometry that allows us to study these processes and compare measurements with calculation based upon a model for the various di.erent processes. We have modeled the athermal phonon energy loss in this device by finding an evolving phonon distribution function that solves the system of kinetic equations for the interacting system of electrons and phonons. Using measurements of device parameters such as the Debye energy and the thermal di.usivity we have calculated the expected energy loss from this detector geometry, and also the position-dependent variation of this loss. We have also calculated the predicted impact on measured spectral line-shapes, and shown that they agree well with measurements. In addition, we have tested this model by using it to predict the performance of a number of other types of detector with di.erent geometries, where good agreement is also found.

The intensity of far ultraviolet auroral emissions at all local times during the three substorm phases has been monitored by the Ultraviolet Imager (UVI) on the Polar spacecraft for many substorms. Changes in the energy flux and characteristic energy of the precipitating electrons can be derived from these observations by modeling of the spectral emission processes. The global and local energydeposition is a new parameter that can be used in substorm studies since it provides a measure of energy transfer from the tail to the ionosphere due to precipitating electrons at a time resolution of three minutes. The polar cap area and area of auroral emissions can also be determined at high time resolution during substorms from the UVI images. An example of a substorm that appears to be driven by solar wind dynamic pressure alone will be presented. The polar cap area and other parameters do not indicate a growth phase prior to substorm onset. In another example, the slow growth phase followed by a very rapid increase in energydeposition during the expansion phase will be shown. This substorm was preceded by a southward IMF orientation. In these two examples, the role the solar wind in determining polar cap area is discussed. The time development of the area of auroral emissions is also discussed in relation to substorm phase and energydeposition. If the auroral emissions occur on closed field lines then the area of auroral emissions may provide an indication of changes in the thickness of the plasma sheet during each substorm phase.

A semiconductor doping process which enhances the dopant incorporation achievable using the Gas Immersion Laser Doping (GILD) technique is disclosed. The enhanced doping is achieved by first depositing a thin layer of dopant atoms on a semiconductor surface followed by exposure to one or more pulses from either a laser or an ion-beam which melt a portion of the semiconductor to a desired depth, thus causing the dopant atoms to be incorporated into the molten region. After the molten region recrystallizes the dopant atoms are electrically active. The dopant atoms are deposited by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) or other known deposition techniques. 2 figs.

A semiconductor doping process which enhances the dopant incorporation achievable using the Gas Immersion Laser Doping (GILD) technique. The enhanced doping is achieved by first depositing a thin layer of dopant atoms on a semiconductor surface followed by exposure to one or more pulses from either a laser or an ion-beam which melt a portion of the semiconductor to a desired depth, thus causing the dopant atoms to be incorporated into the molten region. After the molten region recrystallizes the dopant atoms are electrically active. The dopant atoms are deposited by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) or other known deposition techniques.

A semiconductor doping process which enhances the dopant incorporation achievable using the Gas Immersion Laser Doping (GILD) technique. The enhanced doping is achieved by first depositing a thin layer of dopant atoms on a semiconductor surface followed by exposure to one or more pulses from either a laser or an ion-beam which melt a portion of the semiconductor to a desired depth, thus causing the dopant atoms to be incorporated into the molten region. After the molten region recrystallizes the dopant atoms are electrically active. The dopant atoms are deposited by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) or other known deposition techniques.

The transfer of gaseous methyl iodide (CH/sub 3/I) to raindrops and the initial retention by vegetation of CH/sub 3/I in raindrops have been studied in a laboratory experimental program. The measured air-to-drop transfer parameters and initial retention factors both affect the wet deposition of methyl iodide onto vegetation. No large effects on the air-to-drop transfer due to methyl iodide concentration, temperature, acidity, or rain type were observed. Differences between laboratory measurements and theoretical values of the mass transfer coefficient were found. Pasture grass, lettuce, and alfalfa were used to study the initial retention of methyl iodide by vegetation. Only a small fraction of the incident CH/sub 3/I in raindrops was held by any of the three vegetation types.

Temperature sweeps of cheeses using small amplitude oscillatory shear tests produced values for activation energy of flow (Ea) between 30 and 44 deg C. Soft goat cheese and Queso Fresco, which are high-moisture cheeses and do not flow when heated, exhibited Ea values between 30 and 60 kJ/mol. The ...

Three papers are presented discussing the labor and energy impacts of energy-conservation measures, namely: Generation of the Industry/Occupation Wage Matrix and Related Matters, by Carole Green; Job Shifts from Energy Conservation (Salary Distribution Effects), by Robert A. Herendeen; and Energy and Labor Implication of Improving Thermal Integrity of New Houses, by John Joseph Nangle. A separate abstract was prepared for each paper.

In this paper, an integrated experimental system is established to study the influence of depositedenergy on the intensity of the shock wave induced by underwater pulse discharge. Considering the time varying behavior of the arc, the calculation methods of the depositedenergy into the plasma channel and the average arc resistance are proposed and presented. The effect of the breakdown process on the depositedenergy and the shock wave is analyzed. It can be concluded that the shock wave intensity can be improved by depositing more energy in the first half oscillation period and increasing the arc resistance. It is also found that the energydeposition and the shock wave intensity are significantly influenced by the breakdown time delay and the shape of the initial plasma channel.

The effects of elastic and inelastic interactions induced by cumulative alpha decay on the hardness of R7T7-type nuclear containment glass were investigated on actinide-doped glass specimens and by external irradiation of inactive glass by light and heavy ions. Vickers microindentation and nanoindentation hardness measurements showed that in the depositedenergy range investigated (below 3 × 10 22 keV/cm 3) inelastic effects have no influence on the plastic response of the glass. Conversely, identical hardness variations versus the nuclear energydeposited in the material were observed on curium-doped glass and on glass irradiated by ion bombardment. The observed hardness variation stabilized after the depositedenergy reached about 3 × 10 20 keV nucl/cm 3. These findings indicate that the change in the plastic response of the glass is a consequence of ballistic effects.

The contribution of ions to the growth of microcrystalline silicon thin films has been investigated in the well-known high-pressure-depletion (HPD) regime by coupling thin-film analysis with plasma studies. The ion flux, measured by means of a capacitive probe, has been studied in two regimes, i.e., the amorphous-to-microcrystalline transition regime and a low-to-high power regime; the latter regime had been investigated to evaluate the impact of the plasma power on the ion flux in collisional plasmas. The ion flux was found not to change considerably under the conditions where the deposited material undergoes a transition from the amorphous to the microcrystalline silicon phase; for solar-grade material, an ion-to-Si deposition flux of ∼0.30 has been determined. As an upper-estimation of the ion energy, a mean ion energy of ∼19 eV has been measured under low-pressure conditions (<1 mbar) by means of a retarding field energy analyzer. Combining this upper-estimate with an ion per deposited Si atom ratio of ∼0.30, it is concluded that less than 6 eV is available per deposited Si atom. The addition of a small amount of SiH{sub 4} to an H{sub 2} plasma resulted in an increase of the ion flux by about 30% for higher power values, whereas the electron density, deduced from optical emission spectroscopy analysis, decreased. The electron temperature, also deduced from optical emission spectroscopy analysis, reveals a slight decrease with power. Although the dominant ion in the HPD regime is SiH{sub 3}{sup +}, i.e., a change from H{sub 3}{sup +} in pure hydrogen HPD conditions, the measured larger ion loss can be explained by assuming steeper electron density profiles. These results, therefore, confirm the results reported so far: the ion-to-Si deposition flux is relatively large but has neither influence on the microcrystalline silicon film properties nor on the phase transition. Possible explanations are the reported high atomic hydrogen to deposition flux ratio

In this work we have investigated the effect of substrate temperature on the growth rate and properties of nanocrystalline diamond thin films deposited by hot filament chemical vapor deposition (HFCVD). Mixtures of 0.5 vol% CH4 and 25 vol% H2 balanced with Ar at a pressure of 50 Torr and typical deposition time of 12 h. We present the measurement of the activation energy by accurately controlling the substrate temperature independently of other CVD parameters. Growth rates have been measured in the temperature range from 550 to 800 degrees C. Characterization techniques have involved Raman spectroscopy, high resolution X-ray difractometry and scanning electron microscopy. We also present a comparison with most activation energy for micro and nanocrystalline diamond determinations in the literature and propose that there is a common trend in most observations. The result obtained can be an evidence that the growth mechanism of NCD in HFCVD reactors is very similar to MCD growth.

With the recent emphasis in performing multiphysics calculations using Monte Carlo transport codes such as MC21, the need for accurate estimates of the energydeposition-and the subsequent heating - has increased. However, the availability and quality of data necessary to enable accurate neutron and photon energydeposition calculations can be an issue. A comprehensive method for handling the nuclear data required for energydeposition calculations in MC21 has been developed using the NDEX nuclear data processing system and leveraging the capabilities of NJOY. The method provides a collection of data to the MC21 Monte Carlo code supporting the computation of a wide variety of energy release and deposition tallies while also allowing calculations with different levels of fidelity to be performed. Detailed discussions on the usage of the various components of the energy release data are provided to demonstrate novel methods in borrowing photon production data, correcting for negative energy release quantities, and adjusting Q values when necessary to preserve energy balance. Since energydeposition within a reactor is a result of both neutron and photon interactions with materials, a discussion on the photon energydeposition data processing is also provided. (authors)

This present work deals with a collaborative program called GAMMA-MAJOR 'Development and qualification of a deterministic scheme for the evaluation of GAMMA heating in MTR reactors with exploitation as example MARIA reactor and Jules Horowitz Reactor' between the National Centre for Nuclear Research of Poland, the French Atomic Energy and Alternative Energies Commission and Aix Marseille University. One of main objectives of this program is to optimize the nuclear heating quantification thanks to calculation validated from experimental measurements of radiation energydeposition carried out in irradiation reactors. The quantification of the nuclear heating is a key data especially for the thermal, mechanical design and sizing of irradiation experimental devices in specific irradiated conditions and locations. The determination of this data is usually performed by differential calorimeters and gamma thermometers such as used in the experimental multi-sensors device called CARMEN 'Calorimetric en Reacteur et Mesures des Emissions Nucleaires'. In the framework of the GAMMA-MAJOR program a new calorimeter was designed for the nuclear energydeposition quantification. It corresponds to a single-cell calorimeter and it is called KAROLINA. This calorimeter was recently tested during an irradiation campaign inside MARIA reactor in Poland. This new single-cell calorimeter differs from previous CALMOS or CARMEN type differential calorimeters according to three main points: its geometry, its preliminary out-of-pile calibration, and its in-pile measurement method. The differential calorimeter, which is made of two identical cells containing heaters, has a calibration method based on the use of steady thermal states reached by simulating the nuclear energydeposition into the calorimeter sample by Joule effect; whereas the single-cell calorimeter, which has no heater, is calibrated by using the transient thermal response of the sensor (heating and cooling steps). The paper will

In this paper, the authors compare and contrast three powerful methods for experimentally measuring bond energies in polyatomic molecules. The methods are: radical kinetics; gas phase acidity cycles; and photoionization mass spectroscopy. The knowledge of the values of bond energies are a basic piece of information to a chemist. Chemical reactions involve the making and breaking of chemical bonds. It has been shown that comparable bonds in polyatomic molecules, compared to the same bonds in radicals, can be significantly different. These bond energies can be measured in terms of bond dissociation energies.

In this paper the authors compare and contrast three powerful methods for experimentally measuring bond energies in polyatomic molecules. The methods are: radical kinetics; gas phase acidity cycles; and photoionization mass spectroscopy. The knowledge of the values of bond energies are a basic piece of information to a chemist. Chemical reactions involve the making and breaking of chemical bonds. It has been shown that comparable bonds in polyatomic molecules, compared to the same bonds in radicals, can be significantly different. These bond energies can be measured in terms of bond dissociation energies.

To improve radiation protection dosimetry for low-energy neutron fields encountered in nuclear power reactor environments, there is increasing interest in modeling neutron energydeposition in metrological instruments such as tissue-equivalent proportional counters (TEPCs). Along with these computational developments, there is also a need for experimental data with which to benchmark and test the results obtained from the modeling methods developed. The experimental work described in this paper is a study of the energydeposition in tissue-equivalent (TE) medium using an in-house built graphite-walled proportional counter (GPC) filled with TE gas. The GPC is a simple model of a standard TEPC because the response of the counter at these energies is almost entirely due to the neutron interactions in the sensitive volume of the counter. Energydeposition in tissue spheres of diameter 1, 2, 4 and 8 µm was measured in low-energy neutron fields below 500 keV. We have observed a continuously increasing trend in microdosimetric averages with an increase in neutron energy. The values of these averages decrease as we increase the simulated diameter at a given neutron energy. A similar trend for these microdosimetric averages has been observed for standard TEPCs and the Rossi-type, TE, spherical wall-less counter filled with propane-based TE gas in the same energy range. This implies that at the microdosimetric level, in the neutron energy range we employed in this study, the pattern of average energydeposited by starter and insider proton recoil events in the gas is similar to those generated cumulatively by crosser and stopper events originating from the counter wall plus starter and insider recoil events originating in the sensitive volume of a TEPC.

Rocket data have been used to evaluate the characteristics of precipitating relativistic electrons and their effects on the electrodynamic structure of the middle atmosphere. These data were obtained at Poker Flat, Alaska, on May 13 and 14, 1990, during a midday, highly relativistic electron (HRE) precipitation event. Solid state detectors were used to measure the electron fluxes and their energy spectra. An X ray scintillator was included on each flight to measure bremsstrahlung X rays produced by energetic electrons impacting on the upper atmosphere. However, these were found the be of negligible importance for this particular event. The energydeposition by the electrons has been determined from the flux measurements and compared with in situ measurements of the atmospheric electrical response. The electrodynamic measurements were obtained by the same rockets and additionally on May 13, with an accompanying rocket. The impact flux was highly irregular, containing short-lived bursts of relativistic electrons, mainly with energies below 0.5 MeV and with fluxes most enhanced between pitch angles of 0 deg - 20 deg. Although the geostationary counterpart of this measured event was considered to be of relatively low intensity and hardness, energydeposition peaked near 75 km with fluxes approaching an ion pair production rate in excess of 100/cu cm s. This exceeds peak fluxes in relativistic electron precipitation (REP) events as observed by us in numerous rocket soundings since 1976. Conductivity measurements from a blunt probe showed that negative electrical conductivities exceeded positive conductivities down to 50 km or lower, consistent with steady ionization by precipitating electrons above 1 MeV. These findings imply that the electrons from the outer radiation zone can modulate the electrical properties of the middle atmosphere to altitudes below 50 km. During the decline and activity minimum of the current solar cycle, we anticipate the occurence of similar

This document provides standard definitions of performance metrics and methods to determine them for the energy performance of building interior lighting systems. It can be used for existing buildings and for proposed buildings. The primary users for whom these documents are intended are building energy analysts and technicians who design, install, and operate data acquisition systems, and who analyze and report building energy performance data. Typical results from the use of this procedure are the monthly and annual energy used for lighting, energy savings from occupancy or daylighting controls, and the percent of the total building energy use that is used by the lighting system. The document is not specifically intended for retrofit applications. However, it does complement Measurement and Verification protocols that do not provide detailed performance metrics or measurement procedures.

A single crystal chemical vapor deposition (scCVD) diamond detector has been characterized and employed for the neutron measurement at the HL-2A tokamak device. The scCVD diamond detector has been deposited with 5 μm of lithium fluoride (LiF) layer to enhance the sensitivity to thermal neutrons. Time stability of the detector has been studied with α-source and good performance has been found for more than 12 h. Neutron irradiations have been performed in four quasi-monoenergetic neutron fields in the energy range from 2.50 MeV to 16.03 MeV. The measured response function of the scCVD diamond detector to 14.13 MeV neutrons shows a narrow 12C (n, α)9Be reaction peak which is well isolated from other structures by about 1 MeV in energy, indicating the great potential as a fast neutron spectrometer. Neutron measurement of deuterium plasma discharge was established at the HL-2A tokamak device, and good consistence has been revealed among this detector signal and other related signals.

The CLUST-EVAP is a Monte Carlo simulation of the interaction of high energy (25 - 400 MeV) protons with silicon nuclei. The initial nuclear cascade stage is modeled using the CLUST model developed by Indiana University over 30 years ago. The second stage, in which the excited nucleus evaporates particles in random directions, is modeled according to the evaporation algorithm provided by H. H. K. Tang of IBM. Using the CLUST-EVAP code to model fragment produ6tion and the Vavilov-Landau theory to model fluctuations in direct ionization in thin silicon layers, we have predicted energydeposition in silicon components for various geometrical configurations. We have compared actual measurements with model predictions for geometry's such as single, thin silicon particle detectors, telescopic particle detectors flown in space to measure the environment, and thin sensitive volumes of modern micro-electronic components. We have recently compared the model predictions with actual measurements made by the DOSTEL spectrometer flown in the Shuttle payload bay on STS-84. The model faithfully reproduces the features and aids in interpretation of flight results of this instrument. We have also applied the CLUST-EVAP model to determine energydeposition in the thin sensitive volumes of modern micro-electronic components. We have accessed the ability of high energy (200 MeV) protons to induce latch-up in certain devices that are known to latch up in heavy ion environments. However, some devices are not nearly as susceptible to proton induced latch-up as expected according to their measured heavy ion latch-up cross sections. The discrepancy is believed to be caused by the limited range of the proton-silicon interaction fragments. The CLUST-EV AP model was used to determine a distribution of these fragments and their range and this is compared to knowledge of the ranges required based on the known device structure. This information is especially useful in accessing the risk to on

A slug calorimetric sensor with several novel design features was developed to measure the power deposition in a cylindrical test article with lead, aluminum, polyethylene and tungsten components. A small, solid slug (volume = 347.5 mm{sup 3}) was suspended by Kevlar fibers and surrounded by an adiabatic enclosure in an insulating vacuum canister of stainless steel construction. A small, calibrated, 100-kOhm thermistor was placed in the slug to monitor the temperature. Power deposition caused by the passage of radiation through the slug was measured from the rate of temperature rise. Lead, tungsten, and Inconel-718 slugs were placed on the beam axis of the test article and were irradiated with an 800 MeV proton beam. The data from these sensors will provide an accurate determination of thermal power density and energydeposition from proton beams incident on target/blanket components of accelerator-based systems, such as the Accelerator Production of Tritium (APT) and the Spallation Neutron Source (SNS).

In this paper, we expand on previous validation work by Dixon and Hughes. That is, we present a more complete suite of validation results with respect to to the well-known Lockwood energydeposition experiment. Lockwood et al. measuredenergydeposition in materials including beryllium, carbon, aluminum, iron, copper, molybdenum, tantalum, and uranium, for both single- and multi-layer 1-D geometries. Source configurations included mono-energetic, mono-directional electron beams with energies of 0.05-MeV, 0.1-MeV, 0.3- MeV, 0.5-MeV, and 1-MeV, in both normal and off-normal angles of incidence. These experiments are particularly valuable for validating electron transport codes, because they are closely represented by simulating pencil beams incident on 1-D semi-infinite slabs with and without material interfaces. Herein, we include total energydeposition and energydeposition profiles for the single-layer experiments reported by Lockwood et al. (a more complete multi-layer validation will follow in another report).

In these SEGR experiments, three identical-oxide MOSFET types were irradiated with six ions of significantly different ranges. Results show the prime importance of the total energydeposited in the epitaxial layer.

In this paper, we study thin films of chromium deposited on stainless steel-304 substrates using a low energy (1.6 kJ) plasma focus device. The films of chromium are likewise deposited with 25 focus shots each at various axial distances from the top of the anode (3, 5, 7, 9 and 11 cm). We also consider different angular positions with respect to the anode axis (0°, 15° and 30°) at a distance of 5 cm from the anode tip to deposit the chromium films on the stainless steel substrates. To characterize the structural properties of the films, we benefit from X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) are applied as well to study the surface morphology of these deposited films. Furthermore, we make use of Vicker's micro-hardness measurements to investigate the mechanical properties of chromium thin films. The XRD results show that the degree of crystallinity of chromium thin films depends on the substrate axial and angular positions. The AFM images illustrate that the film deposited at the distance of 5 cm and the angular position of 0° has quite a uniform surface with homogeneous distribution of grains on the film surface. From the hardness results, we observe that the sample deposited at the axial distance of 5 cm from the anode tip and at the angle of 0° with respect to the anode axis, is harder than the other deposited films.

Understanding hot electron generation and coupling is important for the high-intensity shock ignition (SI) inertial confinement fusion concept. Recent hard x-ray experimental data from a SI-relevant platform on OMEGA-60 suggest that <100 keV hot electrons may augment shock pressure by depositing their energy in the solid density region behind the ablation front. These results deduced from simulation are convincing support for electron assisted SI. To further investigate beneficial hot electron characteristics from both high intensity UV and IR lasers in this relevant regime, we performed a joint OMEGA-60/OMEGA EP experiment in the spherical geometry. 60 UV laser beams (18 kJ, 1.8 ns, up to 1015 W/cm2) irradiated a low-density Cu foam ball target with a CH ablator followed by a single IR short pulse laser (2.6 kJ, 100 ps, 1017 W/cm2) at various delays. The electron spatial energydeposition was diagnosed via imaging Cu K α emission with a spherical crystal imager; total K α photon yield and bremsstrahlung radiation were also measured to infer electron spectra. Experimental results are compared with radiation hydrodynamic modeling and will be presented at the meeting. Work supported by the U.S. DOE under contracts DE-NA0002730 (NLUF) and DE-SC0014666.

In addition to a successful program of readily implemented conservation actions for reducing building energy consumption at Kennedy Space Center, recent detailed analyses have identified further substantial savings for buildings representative of technical facilities designed when energy costs were low. The techniques employed for determination of these energy savings consisted of facility configuration analysis, power and lighting measurements, detailed computer simulations and simulation verifications. Use of these methods resulted in identification of projected energy savings as large as $330,000 a year (approximately two year break-even period) in a single building. Application of these techniques to other commercial buildings is discussed

The total laser energydeposition of multi-laser-beam irradiation is not only associated with the dynamic behavior of capsule but also the time-dependent angular distribution of the energydeposition of each beam around its axis. The dynamic behavior of laser energydeposition does not linearly respond to the dynamic behavior of laser irradiation. The laser energydeposition uniformity determines the symmetry of implosion. The dynamic behavior of laser energydeposition non-uniformity in OMEGA for laser with square beam shape intensity profile is investigated. In the case of smaller laser spot, the initial non-uniformity caused by laser beam overlap is very high. The shell asymmetry caused by the high initial laser irradiation non-uniformity is estimated by the extent of distortion of shock front which is not as severe as expected before the shock driven by main pulse arrives. This suggests that the large initial non-uniformity due to smaller laser spot is one of the elements that seed disturbance before the main pulse. The rms of laser energydeposition during the main pulse remains above 2%. Since the intensity of main driving pulse usually is several times higher than that of picket pulses, the non-uniformity in main pulse period may jeopardize the symmetrical implosion. When dynamic behavior of capsule is considered, the influence of beam pointing error, the target positioning error, and beam-to-beam power unbalance is quite different for the case of static capsule.

The total laser energydeposition of multi-laser-beam irradiation is not only associated with the dynamic behavior of capsule but also the time-dependent angular distribution of the energydeposition of each beam around its axis. The dynamic behavior of laser energydeposition does not linearly respond to the dynamic behavior of laser irradiation. The laser energydeposition uniformity determines the symmetry of implosion. The dynamic behavior of laser energydeposition non-uniformity in OMEGA for laser with square beam shape intensity profile is investigated. In the case of smaller laser spot, the initial non-uniformity caused by laser beam overlap is very high. The shell asymmetry caused by the high initial laser irradiation non-uniformity is estimated by the extent of distortion of shock front which is not as severe as expected before the shock driven by main pulse arrives. This suggests that the large initial non-uniformity due to smaller laser spot is one of the elements that seed disturbance before the main pulse. The rms of laser energydeposition during the main pulse remains above 2%. Since the intensity of main driving pulse usually is several times higher than that of picket pulses, the non-uniformity in main pulse period may jeopardize the symmetrical implosion. When dynamic behavior of capsule is considered, the influence of beam pointing error, the target positioning error, and beam-to-beam power unbalance is quite different for the case of static capsule.

Low energy polyatomic ion deposition is attractive for selective surface modification of advanced materials. Surface modification by fluorocarbon (FC) thin film deposition is widely used for many technological applications. Thus, polymer surface modification by FC thin film deposition was carried out using mass-separated low energy FC ion beams. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy and air/water contact angles were employed to examine how the FC film chemistry, morphology, and long term stability depend on incident ion structure, kinetic energy, and fluence. Molecular dynamics simulations were performed to support experimental data. 25--100 eV CF3+ and C3F 5+ ion deposition on polystyrene (PS) surface was examined. CF3+ and C3F5+ each formed a distribution of different FC functional groups on PS in amounts dependent upon the incident ion energy, structure, and fluence. Both ions deposited mostly intact upon the surface at 25 eV. The total fluorine and fluorinated carbon content were increased with ion energy. The fluorination efficiency was higher for the larger ion. The simulations revealed that the fragmentation behavior depends on the incident ion structure and its energy. The simulations also confirmed that FC ions only penetrated a few angstroms into the surface. The compositional changes of 25--100 eV CF3+ and C3F5+ ion-modified PS surfaces were examined after being exposed to atmosphere for four and eight weeks. The FC films oxidized in atmospheric conditions. Oxygen incorporation into the ion-modified surfaces increased with ion energy due to higher surface bond breakage and active site formation at high collision energy. Overall, the aging process of these ion-deposited films appeared similar to that of plasma-deposited films. Mass-selected 50 eV C3F5+ ion deposition was employed to create chemical gradient thin films on polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) by variation of the ion fluence across the substrate surface. The surface chemistry

Observations in quantum mechanics are subject to complex restrictions arising from the principle of energy conservation. Determining such restrictions, however, has been so far an elusive task, and only partial results are known. In this Letter, we discuss how constraints on the energy spectrum of a measurement device translate into limitations on the measurements which we can effect on a target system with a nonconstant energy operator. We provide efficient algorithms to characterize such limitations and, in case the target is a two-level quantum system, we quantify them exactly. Our Letter, thus, identifies the boundaries between what is possible or impossible to measure, i.e., between what we can see or not, when energy conservation is at stake.

The main study purpose is to develop a device capable of translating exercise energy into hot or icy drinkable water. This device can accurately measureenergy consumption during exercise, transform it, and apply it to a heating and refrigerating system. Traditional energymeasurements were based on the amount of exercise load from the human body. The research tapped into this non-electric form of energy transmission to run a heating and refrigerating system. The energy requirement was 50.6 kcal. When compared to 57.9 kcal, which the body consumes based actual calorie test, the difference was within a 15% striking range. In terms of energy comparisons, this study demonstrates potential R & D value with this innovative design. It complied with carbon emission requirements by producing 2,000 cc of energy at 47°C of hot water and 1,300 cc of energy at 6.6°C of ice water, all without the use of conventional energy sources. As the paper shows, this device is an innovative and environmentally conscious design. In an upcoming low-carbon emissions future, its research potential is definitely worth evaluating.

Recent developments in plasma synthesis of hard materials using energetic ions are described. Metal Plasma Immersion Ion Implantation and Deposition (MePIIID) has been used to prepare several hard films: from diamondlike carbon (DLC) to carbides, from nitrides to oxides. The energy of the depositing species is controlled to maximize adhesion as well as to change the physical and chemical properties of the films. Adhesion is promoted by the creation of a graded interface between the film and the substrate. The energy of the depositing ions is also used to modify and control the intrinsic stresses and the microstructure of the films. The deposition is carried out at room temperature, which is important for temperature sensitive substrates. A correlation between intrinsic stresses and the energetics of the deposition is presented for the case of DLC films, and means to reduce stress levels are discussed.

Recent developments in plasma synthesis of hard materials using energetic ions are described. Metal Plasma Immersion Ion Implantation and Deposition (MePIIID) has been used to prepare several hard films: from diamondlike carbon (DLC) to carbides, from nitrides to oxides. The energy of the depositing species is controlled to maximize adhesion as well as to change the physical and chemical properties of the films. Adhesion is promoted by the creation of a graded interface between the film and the substrate. The energy of the depositing ions is also used to modify and control the intrinsic stresses and the microstructure of the films. The deposition is carried out at room temperature, which is important for temperature sensitive substrates. A correlation between intrinsic stresses and the energetics of the deposition is presented for the case of DLC films, and means to reduce stress levels are discussed.

A process for stabilizing laser energy density on a target surface during pulsed laser deposition of thin films controls the focused laser spot on the target. The process involves imaging an image-aperture positioned in the beamline. This eliminates changes in the beam dimensions of the laser. A continuously variable attenuator located in between the output of the laser and the imaged image-aperture adjusts the energy to a desired level by running the laser in a "constant voltage" mode. The process provides reproducibility and controllability for deposition of electronic thin films by pulsed laser deposition.

In 1976, 1977, and 1978, a series of three balloon flights was conducted to measure the energy spectra of cosmic ray nuclei. A gas Cerenkov detector with different gas thresholds of 8.97, 13.12, and 17.94 GeV/n was employed to extend these measurements to high energies. The total collection factor for these flights is more than 20 sq m ster-hr. Individual charge resolution was achieved over the charge range Z equals 4-26, and overlapping differential spectra were obtained from the three flights up to approximately 100.0 GeV/n.

Abstract: Energy is a key requirement for a healthy, productive life and a major driver of the emissions leading to an increasingly warm planet. The implications of a doubling and redoubling of per capita incomes over the remainder of this century for energy use are a critical input into understanding the magnitude of the carbon management problem. A substantial controversy about how the Special Report on Emssions Scenarios (SRES) measured income and the potential implications of how income was measured for long term levels of energy use is revisited again in the McKibbin, Pearce and Stegman article appearing elsewhere in this issue. The recent release of a new set of purchasing power estimates of national income, and the preparations for creating new scenarios to support the IPCC’s fifth assessment highlight the importance of the issues which have arisen surrounding income and energy use. Comparing the 1993 and 2005 ICP results on Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) based measures of income reveals that not only do the 2005 ICP estimates share the same issue of common growth rates for real income as measured by PPP and US $, but the lack of coherence in the estimates of PPP incomes, especially for developing countries raises yet another obstacle to resolving the best way to measure income. Further, the common use of an income term to mediate energy demand (as in the Kaya identity) obscures an underlying reality about per capita energy demands, leading to unreasonable estimates of the impact of changing income measures and of the recent high GDP growth rates in India and China. Significant new research is required to create both a reasonable set of GDP growth rates and long term levels of energy use.

The transport of nuclear fragmentation recoils produced by high-energy nucleons in the region of the bone-tissue interface is considered. Results for the different flux and absorbed dose for recoils produced by 1 GeV protons are presented in a bidirectional transport model. The energydeposition in marrow cavities is seen to be enhanced by recoils produced in bone. Approximate analytic formulae for absorbed dose near the interface region are also presented for a simplified range-energy model.

Here we demonstrate the first on-chip silicon-integrated rechargeable transient power source based on atomic layer deposition (ALD) coating of vanadium oxide (VOx) into porous silicon. A stable specific capacitance above 20 F g-1 is achieved until the device is triggered with alkaline solutions. Due to the rational design of the active VOx coating enabled by ALD, transience occurs through a rapid disabling step that occurs within seconds, followed by full dissolution of all active materials within 30 minutes of the initial trigger. This work demonstrates how engineered materials for energy storage can provide a basis for next-generation transient systems and highlights porous silicon as a versatile scaffold to integrate transient energy storage into transient electronics.Here we demonstrate the first on-chip silicon-integrated rechargeable transient power source based on atomic layer deposition (ALD) coating of vanadium oxide (VOx) into porous silicon. A stable specific capacitance above 20 F g-1 is achieved until the device is triggered with alkaline solutions. Due to the rational design of the active VOx coating enabled by ALD, transience occurs through a rapid disabling step that occurs within seconds, followed by full dissolution of all active materials within 30 minutes of the initial trigger. This work demonstrates how engineered materials for energy storage can provide a basis for next-generation transient systems and highlights porous silicon as a versatile scaffold to integrate transient energy storage into transient electronics. Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available: (i) Experimental details for ALD and material fabrication, ellipsometry film thickness, preparation of gel electrolyte and separator, details for electrochemical measurements, HRTEM image of VOx coated porous silicon, Raman spectroscopy for VOx as-deposited as well as annealed in air for 1 hour at 450 °C, SEM and transient behavior dissolution tests of uniformly coated VOx on

We exploit inverse Raman scattering and solvated electron absorption to perform a quantitative characterization of the energy loss and ionization dynamics in water with tightly focused near-infrared femtosecond pulses. A comparison between experimental data and numerical simulations suggests that the ionization energy of water is 8 eV, rather than the commonly used value of 6.5 eV. We also introduce an equation for the Raman gain valid for ultra-short pulses that validates our experimental procedure.

Regimes of chemical reaction wave propagating in reactive gaseous mixtures, whose chemistry is governed by chain-branching kinetics, are studied depending on the characteristics of a transient thermal energydeposition localized in a finite volume of reactive gas. Different regimes of the reaction wave propagation are initiated depending on the amount of deposited thermal energy, power of the source, and the size of the hot spot. The main parameters which define regimes of the combustion waves facilitated by the transient deposition of thermal energy are acoustic time scale, duration of the energydeposition, ignition time scale, and size of the hot spot. The interplay between these parameters specifies the role of gasdynamical processes, the formation and steepness of the temperature gradient, and speed of the spontaneous wave. The obtained results show how ignition of one or another combustion regime depends on the value of energy, rate of the energydeposition, and size of the hot spot, which is important for the practical use and for risk assessment.

This document presents the most cost effective Energy Savings Measure Packages (ESMP) for existing mixed-fuel and all electric homes to achieve 15% and 30% savings for each BetterBuildings grantee location across the United States. These packages are optimized for minimum cost to homeowners for source energy savings given the local climate and prevalent building characteristics (i.e. foundation types). Maximum cost savings are typically found between 30% and 50% energy savings over the reference home; this typically amounts to $300 - $700/year.

This document presents the most cost effective Energy Savings Measure Packages (ESMP) for existing mixed-fuel and all electric homes to achieve 15% and 30% savings for each BetterBuildings grantee location across the US. These packages are optimized for minimum cost to homeowners for given source energy savings given the local climate and prevalent building characteristics (i.e. foundation types). Maximum cost savings are typically found between 30% and 50% energy savings over the reference home. The dollar value of the maximum annual savings varies significantly by location but typically amounts to $300 - $700/year.

Total energydeposition in the northern latitudes is used in models to determine the state of the magnetosphere. It is known that on occasion, a series of intensifications of the aurora occur that are regularly spaced. The energy profile of the total energydeposited reflects this occurance. What can be said of the state of the magnetosphere based on these profiles. We present the result of a study which looks at several of these periods when a series of intensifications occur. Conclusions as to what the magnetosphere may be doing are presented.

Single event gate rupture (SEGR) was studied using three types of power MOSFET devices with ions having incident linear energy transfers (LETs) in silicon from 26 to 82 MeV{center{underscore}dot}cm{sup 2}/mg. Results are: (1) consistent with Wrobel's oxide breakdown for V{sub DS} = 0 volts (for both normal incidence and angle); and (2) when V{sub GS} = 0 volts, energydeposited near the Si/SiO{sub 2} interface is more important than the energydeposited deeper in the epi.

Energy consumption constraints on computing systems are more important than ever. Maintenance costs for high performance systems are limiting the applicability of processing devices with large dissipation power. New solutions are needed to increase both the computation capability and the power efficiency. Moreover, energy efficient applications should balance performance vs. consumption. Therefore power data of components are important. This work presents the most remarkable alternatives to measure the power consumption of different types of computing systems, describing the advantages and limitations of available power measurement systems. Finally, a methodology is proposed to select the right power consumption measurement system taking into account precision of the measure, scalability and controllability of the acquisition system. PMID:23778191

Particle colliders operating at high luminosities present challenging environments for high energy physics event reconstruction and analysis. We discuss how timing information, with a precision on the order of 10 ps, can aid in the reconstruction of physics events under such conditions. We present calorimeter based timing measurements from test beam experiments in which we explore the ultimate timing precision achievable for high energy photons or electrons of 10 GeV and above. Using a prototype calorimeter consisting of a 1.7×1.7×1.7 cm3 lutetium–yttrium oxyortho-silicate (LYSO) crystal cube, read out by micro-channel plate photomultipliers, we demonstrate a time resolution of 33.5±2.1 ps for an incoming beam energy of 32 GeV. In a second measurement, using a 2.5×2.5×20 cm3 LYSO crystal placed perpendicularly to the electron beam, we achieve a time resolution of 59±11 ps using a beam energy of 4 GeV. We also present timing measurements made using a shashlik-style calorimeter cell made of LYSO and tungsten plates, and demonstrate that the apparatus achieves a time resolution of 54±5 ps for an incoming beam energy of 32 GeV.

Aimed at improving the calculation accuracy when calculating the energydeposition of electrons traveling in solids, a method we call optimal subdivision number searching algorithm is proposed. When treating the energydeposition of electrons traveling in solids, large calculation errors are found, we are conscious of that it is the result of dividing and summing when calculating the integral. Based on the results of former research, we propose a further subdividing and summing method. For β particles with the energy in the entire spectrum span, the energy data is set only to be the integral multiple of keV, and the subdivision number is set to be from 1 to 30, then the energydeposition calculation error collections are obtained. Searching for the minimum error in the collections, we can obtain the corresponding energy and subdivision number pairs, as well as the optimal subdivision number. The method is carried out in four kinds of solid materials, Al, Si, Ni and Au to calculate energydeposition. The result shows that the calculation error is reduced by one order with the improved algorithm.

The effect of low-energy ions on deposition of cubic boron nitride (cBN) films in an inductively coupled plasma with the chemistry of fluorine is studied in terms of ion energy, ion flux, and ion to boron flux ratio onto the substrate. The ion energy and the ion to boron flux ratio are determined from the sheath potential and the ratio of incident ion flux to net deposited boron flux, respectively. For negative substrate biases where sp2-bonded BN phase only or no deposit is formed, both the ion energy and the ion to boron flux ratio are high. For positive substrate biases where cBN phase is formed, the ion energy and the ion to boron flux ratio are estimated in the range of a few eV to 35 eV and 100 to 130, respectively. The impact of negative ions is presumed to be negligible due to their low kinetic energy relative to the sheath potential over the substrate surface. The impact of positive ions with high ion to boron flux ratios is primarily responsible for reduction of the ion energy for cBN film deposition. Work supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B), a Funding Program for Next Generation World-Leading Researchers, and an Industrial Technology Research Grant Program 2008.

In this study, the MCNPX code has been used to simulate a proton therapy in thyroid gland, in order to calculate the proton energydeposition in the target region. As well as, we have calculated the photon and neutron production spectra due to proton interactions with the tissue. We have considered all the layers of tissue, from the skin to the thyroid gland, and an incident high energy pencil proton beam. The results of the simulation show that the best proton energy interval, to cover completely the thyroid tissue, is from 42 to 54 MeV, assuming that the thyroid gland has a 14 mm thickness and is located 11.2mm under the skin surface. The most percentage of depositedenergy (78%) is related to the 54 MeV proton energy beam. Total photon and neutron production are linear and polynomial second order functions of the proton energy, respectively.

Molecules exposed to strong laser fields may coherently absorb multiple photons and deposit the energy into electrons and nuclei, triggering the succeeding dynamics as the primary stage of the light-molecule interaction. We experimentally explore the electron-nuclear sharing of the absorbed photon energy in above-threshold multiphoton single ionization of multielectron molecules. Using CO as a prototype, vibrational and orbital resolved electron-nuclear sharing of the photon energy is observed. Different from the simplest one- or two-electron systems, the participation of the multiple orbitals and the coupling of various electronic states in the strong-field ionization and dissociation processes alter the photon energydeposition dynamics of the multielectron molecule. The population of numerous vibrational states of the molecular cation as the energy reservoir in the ionization process plays an important role in photon energy sharing between the emitted electron and the nuclear fragments.

Odor emissions during manure spreading events have become a source of concern, particularly where farms are located nearby urban areas. The objective of the present study was to compare odor concentrations and odor emission rates due to pig manure application using two different types of applicators, a sub-surface deposition system and a conventional splash-plate applicator. Air samples were collected using a Surface Isolation Flux Chamber and the "bag-in-vacuum chamber" techniques, at 0.5, 1.5 and 2.5 hours after manure application. A three-station forced-choice dynamic dilution olfactometer was used by an odor panel for determining odor concentration. Preliminary results indicated that with the sub-surface deposition system applicator odor emission rate was reduced by 8% to 38% compared to that of the conventional splash-plate applicator. The highest reduction in odor strength and odor emission rate was observed in the most offensive period after manure application. The sub-surface deposition system may be a solution for hog producers who wish to reduce odor complaints from applying manure without the cost and problems associated with deep injection systems.

Electron beam lithography is one of the most important tools for nanofabrication. Electron beam lithography has consistently been able to offer higher resolution, typically better than 10 nm or so, compared to other techniques. In this work the contribution of electron-substrate interaction to pattern resolution is investigated. In electron beam lithography the incident beam is scattered in the resist-substrate stack by a combination of elastic and inelastic events which is described by the point spread function. Using a Vistec VB300 Gaussian beam lithography tool operating at 100 keV the experimental point spread function is investigated by a technique called point exposure distribution measurements. The experimental results indicate that the scattering in the sub-100 nm range shows several orders of the magnitude difference with that obtained via Monte Carlo simulations. In high energy electron beam lithography where forward scattering in small, contribution of secondary electrons generated by the primary beam must be taken into account. The chemical change leading to resist exposure is through bond scission, which is typically a low energy event between 3 -- 5 eV. Compared to the primary beam, the secondary electrons have a significantly higher probability of scission due to their lower energy. These secondary electrons are also generated with large emission angles and can travel several nanometers, leading to an increase in observed line widths compared to the size of the beam. An analytical model developed here, that considers the energydeposited by the secondary electrons, is able to predict the dependence of dose on observed diameter to within a reasonable accuracy. This technique used in conjunction with the knowledge of resist contrast is also indicative of pattern resolution limits in high energy electron beam lithography. It is also found that for negative resists, backscatter effects and resist contrast significantly degrade the resolution for large

With the rapid advances being made in novel high-energy ion-beam techniques such as proton beam writing, single-ion-event effects, ion-beam-radiation therapy, ion-induced fluorescence imaging, proton/ion microscopy, and ion-induced electron imaging, it is becoming increasingly important to understand the spatial energy-deposition profiles of energetic ions as they penetrate matter. In this work we present the results of comprehensive yet straightforward event-by-event Monte Carlo calculations that simulate ion/electron propagation and secondary electron ( δ ray) generation to yield spatial energy-deposition data. These calculations combine SRIM/TRIM features, EEDL97 data and volume-plasmon-localization models with a modified version of one of the newer δ ray generation models, namely, the Hansen-Kocbach-Stolterfoht. The development of the computer code DEEP (deposition of energy due to electrons and protons) offers a unique means of studying the energy-deposition/redistribution problem while still retaining the important stochastic nature inherent in these processes which cannot be achieved with analytical modeling. As an example of an application of DEEP we present results that compare the energy-deposition profiles of primary MeV protons and primary keV electrons in polymethymethacrylate. Such data are important when comparing proximity effects in the direct write lithography processes of proton-beam writing and electron-beam writing. Our calculations demonstrate that protons are able to maintain highly compact spatial energy-deposition profiles compared with electrons.

Modification of surface and bulk properties of solids by irradiation with ion beams is a widely used technique with many applications in material science. In this study, we show that nano-hillocks on CaF2 crystal surfaces can be formed by individual impact of medium energy (3 and 5 MeV) highly charged ions (Xe22+ to Xe30+) as well as swift (kinetic energies between 12 and 58 MeV) heavy xenon ions. For very slow highly charged ions the appearance of hillocks is known to be linked to a threshold in potential energy (Ep) while for swift heavy ions a minimum electronic energy loss per unit length (Se) is necessary. With our results we bridge the gap between these two extreme cases and demonstrate, that with increasing energydeposition via Se the Ep-threshold for hillock production can be lowered substantially. Surprisingly, both mechanisms of energydeposition in the target surface seem to contribute in an additive way, which can be visualized in a phase diagram. We show that the inelastic thermal spike model, originally developed to describe such material modifications for swift heavy ions, can be extended to the case where both kinetic and potential energies are deposited into the surface.

Modification of surface and bulk properties of solids by irradiation with ion beams is a widely used technique with many applications in material science. In this study, we show that nano-hillocks on CaF2 crystal surfaces can be formed by individual impact of medium energy (3 and 5 MeV) highly charged ions (Xe(22+) to Xe(30+)) as well as swift (kinetic energies between 12 and 58 MeV) heavy xenon ions. For very slow highly charged ions the appearance of hillocks is known to be linked to a threshold in potential energy (Ep) while for swift heavy ions a minimum electronic energy loss per unit length (Se) is necessary. With our results we bridge the gap between these two extreme cases and demonstrate, that with increasing energydeposition via Se the Ep-threshold for hillock production can be lowered substantially. Surprisingly, both mechanisms of energydeposition in the target surface seem to contribute in an additive way, which can be visualized in a phase diagram. We show that the inelastic thermal spike model, originally developed to describe such material modifications for swift heavy ions, can be extended to the case where both kinetic and potential energies are deposited into the surface.

A gas monitor detector was implemented and characterized at the Soft X-ray Research (SXR) instrument to measure the average, absolute and pulse-resolved photon flux of the LCLS beam in the energy range between 280 and 2000 eV. The detector is placed after the monochromator and addresses the need to provide reliable absolute pulse energy as well as pulse-resolved measurements for the various experiments at this instrument. This detector provides a reliable non-invasive measurement for determining flux levels on the samples in the downstream experimental chamber and for optimizing signal levels of secondary detectors and for the essential need of data normalization. The design, integration into the instrument and operation are described, and examples of its performance are given. PMID:25931075

A gas monitor detector was implemented and characterized at the Soft X-ray Research (SXR) instrument to measure the average, absolute and pulse-resolved photon flux of the LCLS beam in the energy range between 280 and 2000 eV. The detector is placed after the monochromator and addresses the need to provide reliable absolute pulse energy as well as pulse-resolved measurements for the various experiments at this instrument. This detector provides a reliable non-invasive measurement for determining flux levels on the samples in the downstream experimental chamber and for optimizing signal levels of secondary detectors and for the essential need of data normalization. The design, integration into the instrument and operation are described, and examples of its performance are given.

A gas monitor detector was implemented and characterized at the Soft X-ray Research (SXR) instrument to measure the average, absolute and pulse-resolved photon flux of the LCLS beam in the energy range between 280 and 2000 eV. The detector is placed after the monochromator and addresses the need to provide reliable absolute pulse energy as well as pulse-resolved measurements for the various experiments at this instrument. This detector provides a reliable non-invasive measurement for determining flux levels on the samples in the downstream experimental chamber and for optimizing signal levels of secondary detectors and for the essential need of datamore » normalization. The design, integration into the instrument and operation are described, and examples of its performance are given.« less

Ion measurements in the energy range 0.1-30 keV observed during the 'Substorm Phenomena' and 'Porcupine' campaigns are summarized. Acceleration of the ions by an electrostatic field aligned parallel to the magnetic field is identified and found to be accompanied by intense electron precipitation. On the other hand, deceleration of the ions is observed in other field-aligned current sheets which are indicated by the electron and magnetic field measurements. Temporal successive monoenergetic ion variations suggest energy dispersion and a location of the source region at 9 earth radii. What is more, ion fluxes higher than those of the electrons are measured at pitch angles parallel to the magnetic field. It is noted that each of the examples was observed during different flights.

The article is devoted to experimental and numerical studies of the efficiency of microwave energydeposition into a supersonic flow around the blunt cylinder at different Mach numbers. Identical conditions for energydeposition have been kept in the experiments, thus allowing to evaluate the pure effect of varying Mach number on the pressure drop. Euler equations are solved numerically to model the corresponding unsteady flow compressed gas. The results of numerical simulations are compared to the data obtained from the physical experiments. It is shown that the momentum, which the body receives during interaction of the gas domain modified by microwave discharge with a shock layer before the body, increases almost linearly with rising of Mach number and the efficiency of energydeposition also rises.

We present FLUKA and MARS simulation studies of the pion production and energydeposition in the Neutrino Factory baseline target station, which consists of a 4 MW proton beam interacting with a liquid mercury jet target within a 20 T solenoidal magnetic field. We show that a substantial increase in the shielding is needed to protect the superconducting coils from too much energydeposition. Investigations reveal that it is possible to reduce the magnetic field in the solenoid capture system without adversely affecting the pion production efficiency. We show estimates of the amount of concrete shielding that will be required to protect the environment from the high radiation doses generated by the target station facility. We also present yield and energydeposition results for alternative targets: gallium liquid jet, tungsten powder jet, and solid tungsten bars.

The effect of high electronic energydeposition in amorphous germanium has been studied experimentally by Au irradiation with ion energies of up to 185 MeV and different angles of incidence and by molecular dynamics computer simulations. In both cases, the energydeposition leads to void formation accompanied by strong swelling of the amorphous germanium. The simulation results prove that the formation of the voids is mainly based on a shock wave mechanism and the swelling is determined by the competing processes of the formation and growth of voids on the one hand and the shrinking and annihilation of voids on the other hand. In full agreement between experiment and simulation, the amount of the swelling is a linear function of the total energydeposited into electronic processes and there exists a threshold value of the electronic energy loss per ion and depth for swelling. A comparison of the threshold values obtained by the experiment and the simulation suggests that approximately 20% of the energydeposited into electronic processes is converted into atomic motion.

It has been suggested that fast electrons may play a beneficial role in the formation of the ignitor shock in shock ignition owing to the high areal density of the fuel at the time of the ignitor pulse. In this paper, we extend previous studies which have focused on monoenergetic electron sources to populations with extended energy distributions. In good agreement with analytic scalings, we show that strong shocks can be produced with peak pressures of a few hundred Mbar to over 1 Gbar using fast electron intensities of 1–10 PW/cm{sup 2} in a uniform deuterium-tritium plasma at 10 g/cm{sup 3}. However, the length required for shock formation increases with fast electron temperature. As this shock formation distance becomes comparable to the target size, the shock is not able to fully develop, and this implies a limit on the ability of fast electrons to aid shock formation.

including optical windows, geophysical solids, polymers , composites, etc.) to intense impulsive loading is central to many Air Force pro- grams and...picture of dielectric breakdown at dc to optical frequencies has dramatically changed in the last five years due to the work of Fischetti, DiMaria, Cartier ...and co-workers at IBM and our group at Washington State University. Cartier et al.6 were able to measure the electron-photon scattering rates in

Kinetic energy from the oscillatory impacts of the grass stalk against a stationary object was measured with a kinetic energymeasuring device. These energy inputs were measured as part of a resuspension experiment of uniform latex microspheres deposited on a single rye grass see...

The impact of a thermal bubble produced by energydeposition on the near-field pressure over a Mach 1.7 free-flight model was experimentally investigated using an aeroballistic range. A laser pulse from a transversely excited atmospheric (TEA) CO2 laser was sent into a test chamber with 68 kPa ambient pressure, focused 10 mm below the flight path of a conically nosed cylinder with a diameter of 10 mm. The pressure history, which was measured 150 mm below the flight path along the acoustic ray past the bubble, exhibited precursory pressure rise and round-off peak pressure, thereby demonstrating the proof-of-concept of sonic boom alleviation using energydeposition.

A scanning tunneling microscope (STM) has been used to measureenergy gaps in the charge-density-wave (CDW) phases of the layer-structure dichalcogenides and in the high-temperature superconductor Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8. Measured values of ΔCDW at 4.2 K for 2H-TaSe2, 2H-TaS2, and 2H-NbSe2 are 80, 50, and 34 meV giving values of 2ΔCDW/kBTc equal to 15.2, 15.4, and 23.9, indicating strong coupling in these CDW systems. Measured values of ΔCDW at 4.2 K in 1T-TaSe2 and 1T-TaS2 are ~150 meV for both materials giving 2ΔCDW/kBTc~=5.8. STM scans of Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8 at 4.2 K resolve atoms on the BiOx layer and show possible variations in electronic structure. The energy gap determined from I versus V and dI/dV versus V curves is in the range 30-35 meV giving values of 2Δ/kBTc~=8. Spectroscopy measurements with the STM can exhibit large zero-bias anomalies which complicate the analysis of the energy-gap structure, but adequate separation has been accomplished.

The study of possible defects generated by low-energy ions during partially ionized beam (PIB) depositions was performed. No defects were observed when acceleration voltage was set lower than 1 kV. Surprisingly, several deep levels were detected up to the depth of 4000 A in the 3-kV sample. However, these levels can be annealed out at a relatively low temperature of 400 /sup 0/C. It is concluded in this study that, by properly choosing the ion energy range, PIB deposition will not cause severe damage to the substrate and can be a viable technique for growing heterostructures.

Energydeposition in and dynamic responses of the terrestrial atmosphere to solar flare-generated shocks and other physical processes - such as particle precipitation and local heating - are investigated self-consistently in the context of hydrodynamics, the problem being treated as an initial boundary-value problem. It is extremely difficult to construct a general model for the line solar activity-magnetosphere-atmosphere; however, a limited model for this link is possible. The paper describes such a model, and presents some results on energydeposition into the earth's atmosphere due to solar activity-generated disturbances. Results from the present calculations are presented and discussed.

The synergistic interaction of electronic energy loss by ions with ion-induced defects created by elastic nuclear scattering processes has been investigated for single crystal SrTiO3. An initial pre-damaged defect state corresponding to a relative disorder level of 0.10–0.15 sensitizes the SrTiO3 to amorphous track formation along the ion path of 12 and 20 MeV Ti, 21 MeV Cl and 21 MeV Ni ions, where Ti, Cl and Ni ions otherwise do not produce amorphous or damage tracks in pristine SrTiO3. The electronic stopping power threshold for amorphous ion track formation is found to be 6.7 keV/nm for the pre-damaged defectmore » state studied in this work. Lastly, these results suggest the possibility of selectively producing nanometer scale, amorphous ion tracks in thin films of epitaxial SrTiO3.« less

The paper discusses selected problems related to application of energy harvesting (that is, generating electricity from surplus energy present in the environment) to supply autonomous ultra-low-power measurement systems applicable in high voltage engineering. As a practical example of such implementation a laboratory model of a remote temperature sensor is presented, which is self-powered by heat generated in a current-carrying busbar in HV- switchgear. Presented system exploits a thermoelectric harvester based on a passively cooled Peltier module supplying micro-power low-voltage dc-dc converter driving energy-efficient temperature sensor, microcontroller and a fibre-optic transmitter. Performance of the model in laboratory simulated conditions are presented and discussed.

The Dead Sea is a unique place on earth. It is a terminal hypersaline lake, located at the lowest point on earth with a lake level of currently -429 m above mean sea level (amsl). It is located in a transition zone of semiarid to arid climate conditions, which makes it highly sensible to climate change (Alpert1997, Smiatek2011). The Virtual Institute DEad SEa Research Venue (DESERVE) is an international project funded by the German Helmholtz Association and was established to study coupled atmospheric hydrological, and lithospheric processes in the changing environment of the Dead Sea. At the moment the most prominent environmental change is the lake level decline of approximately 1 m / year due to anthropogenic interferences (Gertman, 2002). This leads to noticeable changes in the fractions of the existing terrestrial surfaces - water, bare soil and vegetated areas - in the valley. Thus, the partitioning of the net radiation in the valley changes as well. To thoroughly study the atmospheric and hydrological processes in the Dead Sea valley, which are driven by the energy balance components, sound data of the energy fluxes of the different surfaces are necessary. Before DESERVE no long-term monitoring network simultaneously measuring the energy balance components of the different surfaces in the Dead Sea valley was available. Therefore, three energy balance stations were installed at three characteristic sites at the coast-line, over bare soil, and within vegetation, measuring all energy balance components by using the eddy covariance method. The results show, that the partitioning of the energy into sensible and latent heat flux on a diurnal scale is totally different at the three sites. This results in gradients between the sites, which are e.g. responsible for the typical diurnal wind systems at the Dead Sea. Furthermore, driving forces of evapo-transpiration at the sites were identified and a detailed analysis of the daily evaporation and dew deposition rates

The Florida Everglades Dry-Deposition Study (FEDDS) was designed to test the viability of using new and existing measurement techniques in the estimation of the dry-depositional loading of speciated mercury (elemental gaseous, reactive gaseous and particulate) to a mixed sawgrass...

Measurements taken in 1979 are used to assess the Nimiuktuk deposit; combined models suggest that the orebody contains a total mass of >1.5M metric tons of high-grade barite. The anomaly associated with Nimiuktuk suggests that gravity exploration could locate other massive deposits.-after Authors

We present significant results in recent advances in the measurement of neutron energy. Neutron energymeasurements are a small but significant part of radiological emergency response applications. Mission critical information can be obtained by analyzing the neutron energy given off from radioactive materials. In the case of searching for special nuclear materials, neutron energy information from an unknown source can be of importance. At the Remote Sensing Laboratory (RSL) of National Security Technologies, LLC, a series of materials, viz., liquid organic scintillator (LOS), Lithium Gadolinium Borate (LGB) or Li6Gd(BO3)3 in a plastic matrix, a recently developed crystal of Cesium Lithium Yttrium Chloride, Cs2LiYCl6: Ce (called CLYC)[1], and normal plastic scintillator (BC-408) with 3He tubes have been used to study their effectiveness as a portable neutron energy spectrometer. Comparisons illustrating the strengths of the various materials will be provided. Of these materials, LGB offers the ability to tailor its response to the neutron spectrum by varying the isotopic composition of the key constituents (Lithium, Gadolinium [Yttrium], and Boron). All three of the constituent elements possess large neutron capture cross section isotopes for highly exothermic reactions. These compounds of composition Li6Gd(Y)(BO3)3 can be activated by Cerium ions Ce3+. CLYC, on the other hand, has a remarkable gamma response in addition to superb neutron discrimination, comparable to that of Europium-doped Lithium Iodide (6LiI: Eu). Comparing these two materials, CLYC has higher light output (4500 phe/MeV) than that from 6LiI: Eu and shows better energy resolution for both gamma and neutron pulse heights. Using CLYC, gamma energy pulses can be discriminated from the neutron signals by simple pulse height separation. For the cases of both LGB and LOS, careful pulse shape discrimination is needed to separate the gamma energy signals from neutron pulses. Both analog and digital

Physical vapor deposition was employed to prepare amorphous samples of indomethacin and 1,3,5-(tris)naphthylbenzene. By depositing onto substrates held somewhat below the glass transition temperature and varying the deposition rate from 15 to 0.2 nm/s, glasses with low enthalpies and exceptional kinetic stability were prepared. Glasses with fictive temperatures that are as much as 40 K lower than those prepared by cooling the liquid can be made by vapor deposition. As compared to an ordinary glass, the most stable vapor-deposited samples moved about 40% toward the bottom of the potential energy landscape for amorphous materials. These results support the hypothesis that enhanced surface mobility allows stable glass formation by vapor deposition. A comparison of the enthalpy content of vapor-deposited glasses with aged glasses was used to evaluate the difference between bulk and surface dynamics for indomethacin; the dynamics in the top few nanometers of the glass are about 7 orders of magnitude faster than those in the bulk at Tg - 20 K.

To apply the high hardness of TiN film to soft and hard multilayer composite sheets, we constructed a new type of composite structural material with ultra-high strength. The strain of crystal and cohesive energy between the atoms in the eight structures of N atom, Ti atom, 2N2Ti island and TiN rock salt deposited on the Al(001) surface were calculated with the first-principle ultra-soft pseudopotential approach of the plane wave based on the density functional theory. The calculations of the cohesive energy showed that N atoms could be deposited in the face-centered-cubic vacancy position of the Al(001) surface and results in a cubic structure AlN surface. The TiN film could be deposited on the interface of β-AlN. The calculations of the strains showed that the strain in the TiN film deposited on the Al(001) surface was less than that in the 2N2Ti island deposited on the Al(001) surface. The diffusion behavior of interface atom N was investigated by a nudged elastic band method. Diffusion energy calculation showed that the N atom hardly diffused to the substrate Al layer.

In this paper we describe the method for monitoring the progress of electrochemical deposition process. The procedure allows to control the deposition of metals as well as conductive polymers on metallic seed layer. The method is particularly useful to very thin layers (1-10 nm) of deposited medium which mechanical or optical methods are troublesome for. In this method deposit is grown on the target and on the test silicon micro-cantilever with a metal pad. Galvanic deposition on the cantilever causes the change of its mass and consequently the change of its resonance frequency. Changes of the frequency is measured with laser vibro-meter then the layer thicknesses can be estimated basing on the cantilever calibration curve. Applying this method for controlling of gold deposition on platinum seed layer, for improving the properties of the biochemical sensors, is described in this paper.

The size of cloud droplets is a factor in the variability of coastal low clouds and fog. The relationship between cloud droplet size and volume of fog water collected as a function of position over land may provide useful information for fog related mechanisms such as water deposition via fog drip, aerosol scavenging, and cloud top radiation flux. We derive landscape-level estimates of cloud top droplet size through the application of a three channel-based algorithm on geostationary operational environmental satellite (GOES) data. The result retrieves cloud top droplet size, cloud top temperature, cloud optical depth, emissivity, and cloud top height. Comparable information on droplet size has been used for years in ocean experiments accompanied by observations from ships and aircraft, but it has not been explored for use in coastal environments. Retrievals are still experimental and are confined to daytime hours of about 1000 - 1600 hours local time. We are exploring the use of cloud-top GOES derived droplet size data to better understand fog water deposition along the central California coast through comparative analysis with 1) ground-based volumetric fog water data collected from several 1.00 square meter fog collectors deployed in Marina, CA and active fog water samplers inland at Pepperwood Preserve ; 2) droplet size distributions (between 2 - 50 μm) sampled with an optical spectrometer along a coast to inland transect, and 3) trajectory swaths from the three cloud-aerosol LIDAR instrument system (CALIPSO) coincident in location with #1 and #2. Satellite-derived coastal drop size data show large droplet size at the coast and smaller droplet sizes inland. The data observed may provide information on the relationship between the fog droplet diameter and the volume of fog water collected as a function of location from the coast.

Experimental investigations on the electrical explosion of aluminum wire using negative polarity current in vacuum are presented. Current pulses with rise rates of 40 A/ns, 80 A/ns, and 120 A/ns are generated for investigating the influence of current rise rate on energydeposition. Experimental results show a significant increase of energydeposition into the wire before the voltage breakdown with the increase of current rise rate. The influence of wire dimension on energydeposition is investigated as well. Decreasing the wire length allows more energy to be deposited into the wire. The energydeposition of a 0.5 cm-long wire explosion is ∼2.5 times higher than the energydeposition of a 2 cm-long wire explosion. The dependence of the energydeposition on wire diameter demonstrates a maximum energydeposition of 2.7 eV/atom with a diameter of ∼18 μm. Substantial increase in energydeposition is observed in the electrical explosion of aluminum wire with polyimide coating. A laser probe is applied to construct the shadowgraphy, schlieren, and interferometry diagnostics. The morphology and expansion trajectory of exploding products are analyzed based on the shadowgram. The interference phase shift is reconstructed from the interferogram. Parallel dual wires are exploded to estimate the expansion velocity of the plasma shell.

The component of energydeposition due to radiative processes (bremsstrahlung component) in absorbers irradiated by electron beams has been computed together with the total energydeposition by using the ITS Monte Carlo system version 3.0. Plane-parallel electron beams with energies from 0.1 to 100 MeV have been assumed to be incident normally on the slab absorber, whose thickness is 2.5 times the continuous slowing-down approximation (csda) range of the incident electrons. Absorber materials considered are elemental solids with atomic numbers between 4 and 92 (Be, C, Al, Cu, Ag, Au and U). An analytic formula is given to express the depth profile of the bremsstrahlung component as a function of scaled depth (depth in units of the csda range), incident-electron energy and absorber atomic number. It is also applicable to compounds.

In the Neutrino Factory and Muon Collider muons are produced by firing high energy protons onto a target to produce pions. The pions decay to muons which are then accelerated. This method of pion production results in significant background from protons and electrons, which may result in heat deposition on superconducting materials and activation of the machine preventing manual handling. In this paper we discuss the design of a secondary particle handling system. The system comprises a solenoidal chicane that filters high momentum particles, followed by a proton absorber that reduces the energy of all particles, resulting in the rejection of low energy protons that pass through the solenoid chicane. We detail the design and optimization of the system and energydeposition and shielding analysis in MARS15.

This effort analyzed the low-energydeposition Pulse Height Analyzer (PHA) data from the Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite (CRRES). The high-energydeposition data had been previously analyzed and shown to be in agreement with spallation reactions predicted by the Clemson University Proton Interactions in Devices (CUPID) simulation model and existing environmental and orbit positioning models (AP-8 with USAF B-L coordinates). The scope of this project was to develop and improve the CUPID model by increasing its range to lower incident particle energies, and to expand the modeling to include contributions from elastic interactions. Before making changes, it was necessary to identify experimental data suitable for benchmarking the codes; then, the models to the CRRES PHA data could be applied. It was also planned to test the model against available low-energy proton or neutron SEU data obtained with mono-energetic beams.

Indium tin oxide (ITO) thin films deposited using the oblique angle deposition (OAD) technique exhibit a strong correlation between structural and optical properties, especially the optical bandgap energy. The microstructural properties of ITO thin films are strongly influenced by the tilt angle used during the OAD process. When changing the tilt angle, the refractive index, porosity, and optical bandgap energy of ITO films also change due to the existence of a preferential growth direction at the interface between ITO and the substrate. Experiments reveal that the ITO film's optical bandgap varies from 3.98 eV (at normal incident deposition) to 3.87 eV (at a 60° tilt angle)

Vanadium dioxide is a thermochromic material that undergoes a semiconductor to metal transitions at a critical temperature of 68 °C. This phase change from a low temperature monoclinic structure to a higher temperature rutile structure is accompanied by a marked change in infrared reflectivity and change in resistivity. This ability to have a temperature-modulated film that can limit solar heat gain makes vanadium dioxide an ideal candidate for thermochromic energy efficient glazing. In this review we detail the current challenges to such glazing becoming a commercial reality and describe the key chemical vapour deposition technologies being employed in the latest research. - Graphical abstract: Schematic demonstration of the effect of thermochromic glazing on solar radiation (red arrow represents IR radiation, black arrow represents all other solar radiation). - Highlights: • Vanadium dioxide thin films for energy efficient glazing. • Reviews chemical vapour deposition techniques. • Latest results for thin film deposition for vanadium dioxide.

Atmospheric deposition is one of the major sources of nutrients bringing trace metals to remote marine biota. In this study, total atmospheric deposition and crustal aerosol concentrations were monitored at Kerguelen Islands (49°18'S; 70°07'E) in the Southern Ocean during a short campaign in early 2005 and then continuously for about 2 years (2009-2010). Results show very low levels of atmospheric dust and trace metals concentrations but higher deposition fluxes than expected. The averaged total dust deposition flux as derived from Al depositionmeasurements is 659 μg m-2 d-1. Simultaneously measured Fe and Co deposition fluxes are respectively 29 μg m-2 d-1 (520 nmol m-2 d-1) and 0.014 μg m-2 d-1 (0.24 nmol m-2 d-1), giving typically crustal elemental ratios to Al of 0.54 and 2.6 10-4. Measured dust deposition is in relatively good agreement with those simulated by current atmospheric models, but suggest that previous indirect calculations from field experiments are too low by a factor of 20. Observations and model results show that dust is transported above the marine atmospheric boundary layer to Kerguelen Islands, and thus that surface concentrations are not representative of the total dust column. Indeed, using surface concentrations leads to very large computed wet scavenging ratios, and to the conclusion that it is not appropriate to derive deposition fluxes from surface concentrations at remote ocean sites.

The Deposit Removal Project was undertaken with the support of the U. S. Department of Energy at the East Tennessee Technology Park (ETTP) formerly the Oak Ridge K-25 Site. The project team performed the safe removal of the hydrated uranyl fluoride (UO{sub 2}F{sub 2}) deposits from the K-29 Building of the former Oak Ridge Gaseous Diffusion Plant. The deposits had developed as a result of air leakage into UF{sub 6} gas process pipes; UO{sub 2}F{sub 2} became hydrated by moisture from the air and deposited inside the pipes. The mass, its distribution, and the hydrogen content [that is, the ratio of H to U (H/U)], were the key parameters that controlled the nuclear criticality safety of the deposits. Earlier gamma-ray spectrometry measurements in K-29 had identified the largest deposits in the building. The first and third largest deposits in the building were measured in this program. The first deposit, found in the Unit 2, Cell 7, B-Line Outlet process pipe (called the ''Hockey Stick'') was about 1,300 kg ({+-} 50% uncertainty) at 3.34 wt% {sup 235}U enrichment ({+-}50% uncertainty) and according to the gamma-ray spectroscopy was uniformly distributed. The second deposit (the third-largest deposit in the building), found in the Unit 2, Cell 6, A-Line Outlet process pipe (called the ''Tee-Pipe''), had a uranium deposit estimated to be about 240 kg ({+-} 50% uncertainty) at 3.4 wt % {sup 235}U enrichment ({+-} 20% uncertainty). Before deposit removal activities began, the Deposit Removal Project team needed to survey the inside of the pipes intrusively to assess the nuclear criticality safety of the deposits. Therefore, the spatial distribution of the deposits, the total uranium deposit mass, and the moderation level resulting from hydration of the deposits, all of which affect nuclear criticality safety were required. To perform the task safely and effectively, the Deposit Removal Project team requested that Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) characterize the two

Electrode materials play a decisive role in almost all electrochemical energy storage devices, determining their overall performance. Proper selection, design and fabrication of electrode materials have thus been regarded as one of the most critical steps in achieving high electrochemical energy storage performance. As an advanced nanotechnology for thin films and surfaces with conformal interfacial features and well controllable deposition thickness, atomic layer deposition (ALD) has been successfully developed for deposition and surface modification of electrode materials, where there are considerable issues of interfacial and surface chemistry at atomic and nanometer scale. In addition, ALD has shown great potential in construction of novel nanostructured active materials that otherwise can be hardly obtained by other processing techniques, such as those solution‐based processing and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) techniques. This review focuses on the recent development of ALD for the design and delivery of advanced electrode materials in electrochemical energy storage devices, where typical examples will be highlighted and analyzed, and the merits and challenges of ALD for applications in energy storage will also be discussed. PMID:27840793

The depositional environments of the wave-dominant successions in the middle to late Miocene Belait and Sandakan Formations in northwestern and northern Borneo, respectively, were determined based on grain size distributions, sedimentary structures and facies successions, as well as trace and microfossil assemblages. Generally, progradational shoreface successions in the Belait Formation were deposited in very low wave energy environments where longshore currents were too weak to generate trough cross-bedding. Shoreface sands are laterally continuous for several km and follow the basin contours, suggesting attached beaches similar to the modern Brunei coastline. In contrast, trough cross-bedding is common in the coarser Sandakan Formation and back-barrier mangrove swamp deposits cap the progradational succession as on the modern northern Dent Peninsula coastline, indicating barrier development and higher wave energy conditions than in the Belait Formation. The Borneo examples indicate that barrier systems that include significant tidal facies form under higher wave energy conditions than attached beaches with virtually no tidal facies. Also, Borneo's low latitude climate promotes back-barrier mangrove which reduces tidal exchange and reduces tidal influence relative to comparable temperate climate systems. The results of the study indicate that depositional systems on low energy, wave-dominated coasts are highly variable, as are the sand bodies and facies associations they generate.

Electrode materials play a decisive role in almost all electrochemical energy storage devices, determining their overall performance. Proper selection, design and fabrication of electrode materials have thus been regarded as one of the most critical steps in achieving high electrochemical energy storage performance. As an advanced nanotechnology for thin films and surfaces with conformal interfacial features and well controllable deposition thickness, atomic layer deposition (ALD) has been successfully developed for deposition and surface modification of electrode materials, where there are considerable issues of interfacial and surface chemistry at atomic and nanometer scale. In addition, ALD has shown great potential in construction of novel nanostructured active materials that otherwise can be hardly obtained by other processing techniques, such as those solution-based processing and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) techniques. This review focuses on the recent development of ALD for the design and delivery of advanced electrode materials in electrochemical energy storage devices, where typical examples will be highlighted and analyzed, and the merits and challenges of ALD for applications in energy storage will also be discussed.

In this paper, some details of the GAMMA-400 trigger system construction are presented. The comparison between relativistic electron, proton, and gamma-ray energydeposition is described and methods of on-board triggers and trigger markers formation for discrimination between each of other are proposed.

A rigorous treatment of energydeposition in a Monte Carlo transport calculation, including coupled transport of all secondary and tertiary radiations, increases the computational cost of a simulation dramatically, making fully-coupled heating impractical for many large calculations, such as 3-D analysis of nuclear reactor cores. However, in some cases, the added benefit from a full-fidelity energy-deposition treatment is negligible, especially considering the increased simulation run time. In this paper we present a generalized framework for the in-line calculation of energydeposition during steady-state Monte Carlo transport simulations. This framework gives users the ability to select among several energy-deposition approximations with varying levels of fidelity. The paper describes the computational framework, along with derivations of four energy-deposition treatments. Each treatment uses a unique set of self-consistent approximations, which ensure that energy balance is preserved over the entire problem. By providing several energy-deposition treatments, each with different approximations for neglecting the energy transport of certain secondary radiations, the proposed framework provides users the flexibility to choose between accuracy and computational efficiency. Numerical results are presented, comparing heating results among the four energy-deposition treatments for a simple reactor/compound shielding problem. The results illustrate the limitations and computational expense of each of the four energy-deposition treatments. (authors)

Atmospheric nitrogen (N) dry deposition is an important component in total N deposition. However, uncertainty exists in the assessment of global dry deposition. Here, we develop empirical models for estimating ground N concentrations using NO2 satellite measurements from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) and ground measurements from 555 monitoring sites. Global patterns and trends in the fluxes of NO2, HNO3, NH4+, and NO3− were assessed for 2005–2014. Moreover, we estimated global NH3 dry deposition directly using data from 267 monitoring sites. Our results showed that East Asia, the United States, and Europe were important regions of N deposition, and the total annual amount of global inorganic N deposition was 34.26 Tg N. The dry deposition fluxes were low in Africa and South America, but because of their large area, the total amounts in these regions were comparable to those in Europe and North America. In the past decade, the western United States and Eurasia, particularly eastern China, experienced the largest increases in dry deposition, whereas the eastern United States, Western Europe, and Japan experienced clear decreases through control of NOx and NH3 emissions. These findings provide a scientific background for policy-makers and future research into global changes. PMID:26813440

Atmospheric nitrogen (N) dry deposition is an important component in total N deposition. However, uncertainty exists in the assessment of global dry deposition. Here, we develop empirical models for estimating ground N concentrations using NO2 satellite measurements from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) and ground measurements from 555 monitoring sites. Global patterns and trends in the fluxes of NO2, HNO3, NH4+, and NO3‑ were assessed for 2005–2014. Moreover, we estimated global NH3 dry deposition directly using data from 267 monitoring sites. Our results showed that East Asia, the United States, and Europe were important regions of N deposition, and the total annual amount of global inorganic N deposition was 34.26 Tg N. The dry deposition fluxes were low in Africa and South America, but because of their large area, the total amounts in these regions were comparable to those in Europe and North America. In the past decade, the western United States and Eurasia, particularly eastern China, experienced the largest increases in dry deposition, whereas the eastern United States, Western Europe, and Japan experienced clear decreases through control of NOx and NH3 emissions. These findings provide a scientific background for policy-makers and future research into global changes.

We have isolated the effect of kinetic energy of depositing species from the effect of flux pulsing during pulsed-laser deposition (PLD) on surface morphology evolution of Ge(001) homoepitaxy at low temperature (100 deg. C). Using a dual molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) PLD chamber, we compare morphology evolution from three different growth methods under identical experimental conditions except for the differing nature of the depositing flux: (a) PLD with average kinetic energy 300 eV (PLD-KE); (b) PLD with suppressed kinetic energy comparable to thermal evaporation energy (PLD-TH); and (c) MBE. The thicknesses at which epitaxial breakdown occurs are ranked in the order PLD-KE>MBE>PLD-TH; additionally, the surface is smoother in PLD-KE than in MBE. The surface roughness of the films grown by PLD-TH cannot be compared due to the early epitaxial breakdown. These results demonstrate convincingly that kinetic energy is more important than flux pulsing in the enhancement of epitaxial growth, i.e., the reduction in roughness and the delay of epitaxial breakdown.

The collisional dynamics of a relativistic electron jet in a magnetized plasma are investigated within the framework of kinetic theory. The relativistic Fokker-Planck equation describing slowing down, pitch angle scattering, and cyclotron rotation is derived and solved. Based on the solution of this Fokker-Planck equation, an analytical formula for the root mean square spot size transverse to the magnetic field is derived and this result predicts a reduction in radial transport. Some comparisons with particle-in-cell simulation are made and confirm striking agreement between the theory and the simulation. For fast electron with 1 MeV typical kinetic energy interacting with a solid density hydrogen plasma, the energydeposition density in the transverse direction increases by a factor 2 for magnetic field of the order of 1 T. Along the magnetic field, the energydeposition profile is unaltered compared with the field-free case.

During or immediately following the transit of Hurricane Andrew (August 23-24, 1992) across the northern part of the Great Bahama Bank, thin laminated beds of carbonate mud were deposited in high-energy subtidal channels (4 m depth) through the ooid shoals of south Cat Cay and Joulters Cays. Thicker, more cohesive (and therefore older) mud beds and angular mud fragments associated with ooids from Joulters Cays have similar characteristics but lack fresh plant fragments. We infer that these older beds were similarly deposited and thus record the passage of previous hurricanes or tropical storms. -from Authors

Chemical reactions of thiophene with organic molecules are of interest to modify thermally deposited coatings of conductive polymers. Here, energy barriers for reactions involving thiophene and small hydrocarbon radicals are identified. Enthalpies of formation involving reactants are also calculated using the B3LYP, BMK, and B98 hybrid functionals within the G AUSSIAN03 program. Experimental values, G3, and CBS-QB3 calculations are used as standards, due to their accurate thermochemistry parameters. The BMK functional is found to perform best for the selected organic molecules. These results provide insights into the reactivity of several polymerization and deposition processes.

Long-term measurements of mass and elemental dry deposition (MG, Al, V, Cr, Mn, Ni, Co, Cu, Zn, As, Sr, Mo, Cd, Sb, Ba, and Pb) were made with an automated dry deposition sampler (Eagle II) containing knife-edge surrogate surfaces during the Lake Michigan Mass Balance/Mass Budget Study. Measurements were made over a roughly 700-day period in Chicago, IL; in South Haven and Sleeping Bear Dunes, MI; and over Lake Michigan on the 68th Street drinking water intake cribs from December 1993 to October 1995. Average mass fluxes in Chicago, South Haven, Sleeping Bear Dunes, and the 68th Street crib were 65, 10, 3.6, and 12 mg m{sup {minus}2} day{sup {minus}1}, respectively. Primarily crustal elemental fluxes were significantly smaller than the mass fluxes but higher than primarily anthropogenic elemental fluxes. For example, the average elemental flux of Al in Chicago, South Haven, Sleeping Bear Dunes, and the 68th Street crib were 1.0, 0.34, 0.074, and 0.34 mg m{sup {minus}2}day{sup {minus}1}, respectively. The average Pb fluxes in Chicago, South Haven, Sleeping Bear Dunes, and the 68th Street crib were 0.038, 0.023, 0.035, and 0.032 mg m{sup {minus}2}day{sup {minus}1}, respectively. The measured fluxes at the various sites were used to calculate the dry deposition loadings to the lake. These estimated fluxes were highest for Mg and lowest for Cd.

The plant cell wall responds dynamically during interaction with various pathogens. Upon recognition of "nonself" components, plant cells deploy a variety of immune responses including cell wall fortification. Callose, a β-(1, 3)-D-glucan polymer, is a component of the material deposited at the site of infection between the plasma membrane and the preexisting cell wall that is hypothesized to serve as a physical barrier and platform for directed antimicrobial compound deposition. The defense-associated function of callose deposition is supported by its induction during pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMP)-triggered immunity (PTI) and its inhibition by defense suppressing virulence effectors. Thus, callose deposition is a commonly monitored read-out in plant defense. This protocol describes the use of aniline blue staining and fluorescent microscopy to measure callose deposition in bacteria-infected or elicitor-challenged Arabidopsis leaf tissues.

The basal plane cleavage energy (CE) of graphite is a key material parameter for understanding many of the unusual properties of graphite, graphene and carbon nanotubes. Nonetheless, a wide range of values for the CE has been reported and no consensus has yet emerged. Here we report the first direct, accurate experimental measurement of the CE of graphite using a novel method based on the self-retraction phenomenon in graphite. The measured value, 0.37±0.01 J m−2 for the incommensurate state of bicrystal graphite, is nearly invariant with respect to temperature (22 °C≤T≤198 °C) and bicrystal twist angle, and insensitive to impurities from the atmosphere. The CE for the ideal ABAB graphite stacking, 0.39±0.02 J m−2, is calculated based on a combination of the measured CE and a theoretical calculation. These experimental measurements are also ideal for use in evaluating the efficacy of competing theoretical approaches. PMID:26314373

It has long been believed that most of energy transferred from the magnetosphere and deposited in the ionosphere-thermosphere system occurs in the auroral zone, the region of strong field-aligned current density. Recent observations of the Poynting flux to the ionosphere and theoretical investigations of the magnetosphere-ionosphere coupling show that the strongest energy transfer may be in the polar cap proper where the plasma flow speed is high and not where the flow reverses. This implies that the field-aligned current is not the primary agent of the energy transfer into the ionosphere-thermosphere system and that other physical progresses are at play. Recent simulation studies using an inductive-dynamic approach (including self-consistent solutions of Faraday's law and retaining inertia terms in the ion momentum equations) on the magnetosphere-ionosphere-thermosphere coupling indicate that the energy transfer is through Alfven waves propagating to the ionosphere/thermosphere and the energydeposition is via the frictional heating caused by relative motion between ions and neutrals. In this study we assess the locations of the energy transfer and deposition by employing a self-consistent inductive-dynamic ionosphere-thermosphere model. In a 2-D numerical simulation (dawn-dusk meridian plane), we solve the continuity, momentum, and energy equations for multiple species of ions and neutrals including photochemistry and Maxwell's equations. By simulating responses of the ionosphere-thermosphere system to enhanced magnetosphere convection, we show that the strongest energy transfer occurs in the polar cap proper instead of the auroral zone.

Particle deposition in ventilation ducts influences particle exposures of building occupants and may lead to a variety of indoor air quality concerns. Experiments have been performed in a laboratory to study the effects of particle size and air speed on deposition rates of particles from turbulent air flows in galvanized steel and internally insulated ducts with hydraulic diameters of 15.2 cm. The duct systems were constructed of materials typically found in commercial heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. In the steel duct system, experiments with nominal particle sizes of 1, 3, 5, 9 and 16 {micro}m were conducted at each of three nominal air speeds: 2.2, 5.3 and 9.0 m/s. In the insulated duct system, deposition rates of particles with nominal sizes of 1, 3, 5, 8 and 13 {micro}m were measured at nominal air speeds of 2.2, 5.3 and 8.8 m/s. Fluorescent techniques were used to directly measure the deposition velocities of monodisperse fluorescent particles to duct surfaces (floor, wall and ceiling) at two straight duct sections where the turbulent flow profile was fully developed. In steel ducts, deposition rates were higher to the duct floor than to the wall, which were, in turn, greater than to the ceiling. In insulated ducts, deposition was nearly the same to the duct floor, wall and ceiling for a given particle size and air speed. Deposition to duct walls and ceilings was greatly enhanced in insulated ducts compared to steel ducts. Deposition velocities to each of the three duct surface orientations in both systems were found to increase with increasing particle size or air velocity over the ranges studied. Deposition rates measured in the current experiments were in general agreement with the limited observations of similar systems by previous researchers.

Pyroclastic deposits on the Moon are associated with many types of volcanic constructs, including rilles, pits and linear fractures, and small domes. Prior radar data have revealed buried flows and rocks within some pyroclastics deposits (e.g. Aristarchus), while other deposits have radar polarimetry values that suggest very thick mounds of fine (centimeter-or-less sized) material (Campbell et. al., Geology, 36, 135, 2008; Carter et al., JGR, 114, E11004, doi:10.1029/2009JE003406, 2009). Radar can detect buried blocks or buried structures and provide a measure of roughness, while thermal infrared data provides complimentary information on the surface and near-surface rock abundance. The two wavelength ranges are also sensitive to different sized rocks, and the combined data sets provide the best way to make quantitative measurements of the upper structure of pyroclastic deposits. We use imaging radar data from Arecibo Observatory and the Green Bank Telescope, Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) Mini-RF data, and LRO Diviner rock abundance and regolith temperature maps, to investigate a range of pyroclastic deposits associated with different types of volcanic structures, including Aristarchus, Rima Hyginus, and domes in Mare Tranquillitatis. Thick pyroclastic deposits have low rock abundance in both radar and infrared data, but in many cases (e.g. lunar domes, Aristarchus buried flows), the radar reveals rocks and structures that are not visible in the Diviner data sets. The derived column structure maps will provide an improved estimate of the thickness and degree of regolith mixing of pyroclastic deposits.

Carbon nanotube paper, sometimes referred to as bucky paper, is a random arrangement of carbon nanotubes meshed into a single robust structure, which can be manipulated with relative ease. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes were used to make the nanotube paper, and were subsequently modified with platinum using an electroless deposition method based on substrate enhanced electroless deposition. This involves the use of a sacrificial metal substrate that undergoes electro-dissolution while the platinum metal deposits out of solution onto the nanotube paper via a galvanic displacement reaction. The samples were characterized using SEM/EDS, and Hall-effect measurements. The SEM/EDS analysis clearly revealed deposits of platinum (Pt) distributed over the nanotube paper surface, and the qualitative elemental analysis revealed co-deposition of other elements from the metal substrates used. When stainless steel was used as sacrificial metal a large degree of Pt contamination with various other metals was observed. Whereas when pure sacrificial metals were used bimetallic Pt clusters resulted. The co-deposition of a bimetallic system upon carbon nanotubes was a function of the metal type and the time of exposure. Hall-effect measurements revealed some interesting fluctuations in sheet carrier density and the dominant carrier switched from N- to P-type when Pt was deposited onto the nanotube paper. Perspectives on the use of the nanotube paper as a replacement to traditional carbon cloth in water electrolysis systems are also discussed.

Zinc oxide thin films were deposited on soda lime glass substrates by pulsed laser deposition in an oxygen-reactive atmosphere at 20 Pa and a constant substrate temperature at 300 °C. A pulsed KrF excimer laser, operated at 248 nm with pulse duration 10 ns, was used to ablate the ceramic zinc oxide target. The structure, the optical and electrical properties of the as-deposited films were studied in dependence of the laser energy density in the 1.2-2.8 J/cm 2 range, with the aid of X-ray Diffraction, Atomic Force Microscope, Transmission Spectroscopy techniques, and the Van der Pauw method, respectively. The results indicated that the structural and optical properties of the zinc oxide films were improved by increasing the laser energy density of the ablating laser. The surface roughness of the zinc oxide film increased with the decrease of laser energy density and both the optical bang gap and the electrical resistivity of the film were significantly affected by the laser energy density.

Energy flux measurements by a calorimetric probe in a rf-magnetron plasma used for the deposition of super-hard c-BN coatings are presented and discussed. Argon as working gas is used for sputtering a h-BN target. Adding a certain amount of N2 is essential for the formation of stoichiometric BN films, since a lack of nitrogen will lead to boron rich films. Subsequently, the contributions of different plasma species, surface reactions, and film growth to the resulting variation of the substrate temperature in dependence on nitrogen admixture are estimated and discussed. In addition, SRIM simulations are performed to estimate the energy influx by sputtered neutral atoms. The influence of magnetron target power and oxygen admixture (for comparison with nitrogen) to the process gas on the total energy flux is determined and discussed qualitatively, too. The results indicate that variation of the energy influx due to additional nitrogen flow, which causes a decrease of electron and ion densities, electron temperature and plasma potential, is negligible, while the admixture of oxygen leads to a drastic increase of the energy influx. The typical hysteresis effect which can be observed during magnetron sputtering in oxygen containing gas mixtures has also been confirmed in the energy influx measurements for the investigated system. However, the underlying mechanism is not understood yet, and will be addressed in further investigations.

The deposition rates of radon daughters on indoor surfaces have been measured by exposing the window of a proportional counter to the air of a house with high concentrations of radon and its daughters. Deposition velocities for unattached RaA and RaB of approximately 4 mm sec/sup -1/ were obtained by dividing the deposition rates by the concentrations of unattached daughters in the air. These results agree with those obtained by other workers but are dependent on the assumptions made about the fractions of the daughters which are attached to the atmospheric aerosol.

Pulsed laser deposition (PLD) has developed during the past decade from a fast but limited preparation tool towards a competitive thin film deposition technique. One of the advantages above other techniques is the possibility of growth at relative high background pressure. There is a large freedom in choosing which kind of gas. Moreover, in a number of applications, the gaseous species in the background pressure are part of the elements to be grown, e.g., oxygen in the case of high Tc superconductors. However, the advantage of relative high pressures leads to restrictions of using standard diagnostics and monitoring of the film growth, e.g., reflective high energy electron diffraction (RHEED). Here, a PLD chamber including an in-situ RHEED system is presented, which makes it possible to monitor and study the growth at standard PLD parameters. Using a two-stages differential pumped, magnetically shielded, extension tube mounted at the electron gun side and a special designed phosphor screen including CCD camera, real time monitoring by observation of RHEED oscillations could be established at pressures up to 50 Pa. In this paper the latest results on applying this technique on SrTiO 3 and YBa 2Cu 3O 7 will be presented. Additional to the usual diagnostics performed with RHEED, another phenomena can be observed. The pulsed way of deposition, characteristic for PLD, leads to relaxations in the intensity of the diffracted pattern due to the mobility of the deposited material. These relaxation times give extra information about relaxation, crystallization, and nucleation of the deposited material. The presented technique leads to a better understanding of the growth during pulsed laser deposition and, because of the possibility to monitor the growth, will make PLD competitive with other deposition techniques.

A complete set of electrons scattering cross sections by water molecules over a broad energy range, from the me V to the Me V ranges, is presented in this study. These data have been obtained by combining experiments and calculations and cover most relevant processes, both elastic and inelastic, which can take place in the considered energy range. A new Monte Carlo simulation programme has been developed using as input parameter these cross sectional data as well as experimental energy loss spectra. The simulation procedure has been applied to obtain electron tracks and energydeposition plots in water when irradiated by a Ru-106 plaque as those used for brachyteraphy of ocular tumours. Finally, the low energy electron tracks provided by the present model have been compared with those obtained with other codes available in the literature

The Casimir free energy and pressure of thin metal films deposited on metallic plates are considered using the Lifshitz theory and the Drude and plasma model approaches to the role of conduction electrons. The bound electrons are taken into account by using the complete optical data of film and plate metals. It is shown that for films of several tens of nanometers thickness the Casimir free energy and pressure calculated using these approaches differ by hundreds and thousands percent and can be easily discriminated experimentally. According to our results, the free energy of a metal film does not vanish in the limiting case of ideal metal if the Drude model approach is used in contradiction with the fact that the fluctuating field cannot penetrate in its interior. Numerical computations of the Casimir free energy and pressure of Ag and Au films deposited on Cu and Al plates have been performed using both theoretical approaches. It is shown that the free energy of a film can be both negative and positive depending on the metals used. For a Au film on a Ag plate and vice versa the Casimir energy of a film changes its sign with increasing film thickness. Applications of the obtained results for resolving the Casimir puzzle and the problem of stability of thin films are discussed.

The Light Initiated High Explosive facility utilized a spray deposited coating of silver acetylide - silver nitrate explosive to impart a mechanical shock into targets of interest. A diagnostic was required to measure the explosive deposition in - situ. An X - ray fluorescence spectrometer was deployed at the facility. A measurement methodology was developed to measure the explosive quantity with sufficient accuracy. Through the use of a tin reference material under the silver based explosive, a field calibration relationship has been developed with a standard deviation of 3.2 % . The effect of the inserted tin material into the experiment configuration has been explored.

Determination of the respiratory tract deposition of airborne particles is critical for risk assessment of air pollution, inhaled drug delivery, and understanding of respiratory disease. With the advent of nanotechnology, there has been an increasing interest in the measurement of pulmonary deposition of nanoparticles because of their unique properties in inhalation toxicology and medicine. Over the last century, around 50 studies have presented experimental data on lung deposition of nanoparticles (typical diameter≤100 nm, but here≤300 nm). These data show a considerable variability, partly due to differences in the applied methodologies. In this study, we review the experimental techniques for measuring respiratory tract deposition of nano-sized particles, analyze critical experimental design aspects causing measurement uncertainties, and suggest methodologies for future studies. It is shown that, although particle detection techniques have developed with time, the overall methodology in respiratory tract deposition experiments has not seen similar progress. Available experience from previous research has often not been incorporated, and some methodological design aspects that were overlooked in 30-70% of all studies may have biased the experimental data. This has contributed to a significant uncertainty on the absolute value of the lung deposition fraction of nanoparticles. We estimate the impact of the design aspects on obtained data, discuss solutions to minimize errors, and highlight gaps in the available experimental set of data.

Abstract Determination of the respiratory tract deposition of airborne particles is critical for risk assessment of air pollution, inhaled drug delivery, and understanding of respiratory disease. With the advent of nanotechnology, there has been an increasing interest in the measurement of pulmonary deposition of nanoparticles because of their unique properties in inhalation toxicology and medicine. Over the last century, around 50 studies have presented experimental data on lung deposition of nanoparticles (typical diameter≤100 nm, but here≤300 nm). These data show a considerable variability, partly due to differences in the applied methodologies. In this study, we review the experimental techniques for measuring respiratory tract deposition of nano-sized particles, analyze critical experimental design aspects causing measurement uncertainties, and suggest methodologies for future studies. It is shown that, although particle detection techniques have developed with time, the overall methodology in respiratory tract deposition experiments has not seen similar progress. Available experience from previous research has often not been incorporated, and some methodological design aspects that were overlooked in 30–70% of all studies may have biased the experimental data. This has contributed to a significant uncertainty on the absolute value of the lung deposition fraction of nanoparticles. We estimate the impact of the design aspects on obtained data, discuss solutions to minimize errors, and highlight gaps in the available experimental set of data. PMID:24151837

We use 21 Hubble parameter versus redshift data points from Simon et al., Gaztanaga et al., Stern et al., and Moresco et al. to place constraints on model parameters of constant and time-evolving dark energy cosmologies. The inclusion of the eight new measurements results in H(z) constraints more restrictive than those derived by Chen and Ratra. These constraints are now almost as restrictive as those that follow from current Type Ia supernova (SNIa) apparent magnitude versus redshift data, which now more carefully account for systematic uncertainties. This is a remarkable result. We emphasize, however, that SNIa data have been studied for a longer time than the H(z) data, possibly resulting in a better estimate of potential systematic errors in the SNIa case. A joint analysis of the H(z), baryon acoustic oscillation peak length scale, and SNIa data favors a spatially flat cosmological model currently dominated by a time-independent cosmological constant but does not exclude slowly evolving dark energy.

One dimensional simulations of various initial average density aluminum foams (modeled as slabs of solid metal separated by low density regions) heated by volumetric energydeposition are conducted with a Lagrangian hydrodynamics code using a van der Waals equation of state (EOS). The resulting behavior is studied to facilitate the design of future warm dense matter (WDM) experiments at LBNL. In the simulations the energydeposition ranges from 10 to 30 kJ/g and from 0.075 to 4.0 ns total pulse length, resulting in temperatures from approximately 1 to 4 eV. We study peak pressures and temperatures in the foams, expansion velocity, and the phase evolution. Five relevant time scales in the problem are identified. Additionally, we present a method for characterizing the level of inhomogeneity in a foam target as it is heated and the time it takes for a foam to homogenize.

One dimensional simulations of various initial average density aluminum foams (modeled as slabs of solid metal separated by low density regions) heated by volumetric energydeposition are conducted with a Lagrangian hydrodynamics code using a van der Waals equation of tate (EOS). The resulting behavior is studied to facilitate the design of future warm dense matter (WDM) experiments at LBNL. In the simulations the energydeposition ranges from 10 to 30 kJ/g and from 0.075 to 4.0 ns total pulse length, resulting in temperatures from approximately 1 o 4 eV. We study peak pressures and temperatures in the foams, expansion velocity, and the phase evolution. Five relevant time scales in the problem are identified. Additionally, we present a method for characterizing the level of inhomogeneity in a foam target as it is heated and the time it takes for a foam to homogenize.

The 14 TeV center of mass proton-proton collisions in the LHC produce not only debris interesting for physics but also showers of particles ending up in the accelerator equipment, in particular in the superconducting magnet coils. Evaluations of this contribution to the heat, that has to be transported by the cryogenic system, have been made to guarantee that the energydeposition in the superconducting magnets does not exceed limits for magnet quenching and the capacity of the cryogenic system. The models of the LHC base-line are detailed and include description of, for energydeposition, essential elements like beam-pipes and corrector magnets. The evaluations made using the Monte-Carlo code FLUKA are compared to previous studies using MARS. For the consolidation of the calculations, a dedicated comparative study of these two codes was performed for a reduced setup.

pp. 1344-1347 2 Kuga et al., “Novel Optical Trap of Atoms with a Doughnut Beam,” Physical Review Letters 78, (1997), pp. 4713-4716 3 Dotsenko et...other provision of law, no person shall be subject to any penalty for failing to comply with a collection of information if it does not display a ...Technical Paper 3. DATES COVERED (From - To) 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5a. CONTRACT NUMBER EnergyDeposition into a Collisional Gas from

A number of deposition models for humans, as well as experimental animals, have been described. However, no breath-by-breath depositionmeasurement in rats has been reported to date. The objective of this study is to determine lung deposition of micrometer-sized particles as a function of breathing parameters in the adult rat lung. A new aerosol photometry system was designed to measuredeposition of nonhygroscopic, 2-mum sebacate particles in anesthetized, intubated, and spontaneously breathing 90-day-old Wistar-Kyoto rats placed in a size-adjusted body plethysmograph box. Instrumental dead space of the system was minimized down to 310 microl (i.e., approximately 20% of respiratory dead space). The system allows continuous monitoring of particle concentration in the respired volume. Breathing parameters, such as respiratory rate (f), tidal volume (Vt), as well as inspiration/expiration times, were also monitored at different levels of anesthesia. The results showed that Vt typically varied between 1.5 and 4.0 ml for regular breathing and between 4.0 and 10.0 ml for single-sigh breaths; f ranged from 40 to 200 breaths/min. Corresponding deposition values varied between 5 and 50%, depending on breath-by-breath breathing patterns. The best fit of deposition (D) was achieved by a bilinear function of Vt and f and found to be D = 11.0 - 0.09.f + 3.75.Vt. We conclude that our approach provides more realistic conditions for the measurement of deposition than conventional models using ventilated animals and allows us to analyze the correlation between breath-specific deposition and spontaneous breathing patterns.

The function of the Neutrino Factory front end is to reduce the energy spread and size of the muon beam to a manageable level that will allow reasonable throughput to subsequent system components. Since the Neutrino Factory is a tertiary machine (protons to pions to muons), there is an issue of large background from the pion-producing target. The implications of energydeposition in the front end lattice for the Neutrino Factory are addressed. Several approaches to mitigating the effect are proposed and discussed, including proton absorbers, chicanes, beam collimation, and shielding.

The energydeposited by gamma radiation from the Cs-137 isotope into body tissues (bone and muscle), tissue-like medium (water), and radiation shielding materials (concrete, lead, and water), which is of interest for radiation dosimetry, was obtained using a simple Monte Carlo algorithm. The algorithm also provides a realistic picture of the distribution of backscattered photons from the target and the distribution of photons scattered forward after several scatterings in the scatterer, which is useful in studying radiation shielding. The presented method in this work constitutes an attempt to evaluate the amount of energy absorbed by body tissues and shielding materials.

The energy loss of highly charged ions in dense plasmas is investigated. The applied model includes strong beam-plasma correlation via a quantum T-matrix treatment of the cross sections. Dynamic screening effects are modeled by using a Debye-like potential with a velocity dependent screening length that guarantees the known low and high beam velocity limits. It is shown that this phenomenological model is in good agreement with simulation data up to very high beam-plasma coupling. An analysis of the stopping process shows considerably longer ranges and a less localized energydeposition if strong coupling is treated properly.

Being aware that conventionally exploitable natural gas resources are limited, research concentrates on the development of new technologies for the extraction of methane from gas hydrate deposits in subsea sediments. The quantity of methane stored in hydrate form is considered to be a promising means to overcome future shortages in energy resources. In combination with storing carbon dioxide (CO2) as hydrates in the deposits chances for sustainable energy supply systems are given. The combustion of hydrate-based natural gas can contribute to the energy supply, but the coupled CO2 emissions cause climate change effects. At present, the possible options to capture and subsequently store CO2 (CCS-Technology) become of particular interest. To develop a sustainable hydrate-based energy supply system, the production of natural gas from hydrate deposits has to be coupled with the storage of CO2. Hence, the simultaneous storage of CO2 in hydrate deposits has to be developed. Decomposition of methane hydrate in combination with CO2 sequestration appears to be promising because CO2 hydrate is stable within a wider range of pressure and temperature than methane hydrate. As methane hydrate provides structural integrity and stability in its natural formation, incorporating CO2 hydrate as substitute for methane hydrate will help to preserve the natural sediments' stability. Regarding the technological implementation, many problems have to be overcome. Especially heat and mass transfer in the deposits are limiting factors causing very long process times. Within the scope of the German research project »SUGAR«, different technological approaches are evaluated and compared by means of dynamic system simulations and analysis. Detailed mathematical models for the most relevant chemical and physical effects are developed. The basic mechanisms of gas hydrate formation/dissociation and heat and mass transport in porous media are considered and implemented into simulation programs like

The distributions of energydepositions of electrons in semi-infinite bulk protein and the radial dose distributions of point-isotropic mono-energetic electron sources [i.e., the so-called dose point kernel (DPK)] in protein have been systematically calculated in the energy range below 20 keV, based on Monte Carlo methods. The ranges of electrons have been evaluated by extrapolating two calculated distributions, respectively, and the evaluated ranges of electrons are compared with the electron mean path length in protein which has been calculated by using electron inelastic cross sections described in this work in the continuous-slowing-down approximation. It has been found that for a given energy, the electron mean path length is smaller than the electron range evaluated from DPK, but it is large compared to the electron range obtained from the energydeposition distributions of electrons in semi-infinite bulk protein. The energy dependences of the extrapolated electron ranges based on the two investigated distributions are given, respectively, in a power-law form. In addition, the DPK in protein has also been compared with that in liquid water. An evident difference between the two DPKs is observed. The calculations presented in this work may be useful in studies of radiation effects on proteins.

An APL program which numerically evaluates the probability density function (PDF) for the energydeposited in a thin absorber by a charged particle is proposed, with application to the construction, pointing, and control of spacecraft. With this program, the PDF of the restricted energy loss distribution of Watts (1973) is derived, and Vavilov's (1957) distribution is obtained by proper parameter selection. The method is demonstrated with the example of the effect of charged particle induced radiation on the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) pointing accuracy. A Monte Carlo study simulates the photon noise caused by charged particles passing through the photomultiplier tube window, and the stochastic variation of energy loss is introduced into the simulation by generating random energy losses from a power law distribution. The program eliminates annoying loop procedures, and model parameter sensitivity can be studied using the graphical output.

A time-resolved tunable diode-laser (DL) induced fluorescence (TR-TDLIF) technique has been used to identify different populations of atoms (on different stages of transport) to determine their corresponding depositedenergy and flux. The temporal dimension permits the splitting of the processes of sputtering during the discharge and particles transport in the post-discharge where atoms and flux velocity distribution functions (AVDF, FVDF) of each population were measured varying the discharge parameters (power, voltage, pressure, and distance from target). Tungsten (W) was chosen, being an interesting case in terms of sputtered atom transport, considering its weight which implies weak changes of directivity or energy transfer after collisions with the buffer gas. The high temporal and spectral resolutions of TR-TDLIF are the keys for the distinction of the atoms populations and the stage corresponding to the transition from the ballistic to diffusive regime of transport was observed for the first time and named quasi-diffusive regime. Thus, the ability to dissociate populations of atoms and to determine their deposited flux and energy may be of great interest to adjust film properties as desired for applications.

Laser plasma drag reduction is a new method to reduce the wave drag of hypersonic flight. The research of the laser plasma drag reduction performance is an important work. The purpose of this paper is investigating laser plasma drag reduction by numerical simulation to enhance the understanding of the drag reduction mechanism, get the drag reduction performance in different conditions, and provide references for laser plasma drag reduction experiment in the future. Based on summarizing correlative references systematically, through building the model of energydeposition and comparison the simulated results to the empirical formula and computation results to verify the program correctness, the influence of laser energy parameters to laser plasma drag reduction were simulated numerically for optimize the performance. The follow conclusions were got by numerical simulation: The computation program can well simulate the interacting of LSDW(laser supported detonation wave) to the bow shock in front of the blunt body. Results indicate that the blunt body drag could be decreased by injecting laser energy into the incoming hypersonic flow. The correctness of program was verified by compare result to the experiment and computation results. Blunt body drag will be greatly decreased with injected laser power increased, The bigger laser power is injected, the more drag decreases. There's an energy saturation value for each laser power level, the injecting laser power effectiveness values are never quite high for all laser power level. There is an optimized energydeposition location in upstream flow, this location is right ahead of the blunt body. When the distance from deposition location to the surface of blunt body is 5 times the blunt radius, blunt body drag decreased the most. This paper investigated the parameters which primary influence the performance of drag reduction. The numerical simulation data and obtained results are meaningful for laser plasma drag reduction

Thermal spraying is widely employed to deposit hydroxyapatite (HA) and HA-based biocomposites on hip and dental implants. For thick HA coatings (>150 μm), problems are generally associated with the build-up of residual stresses and lack of control of coating crystallinity. HA/polymer composite coatings are especially interesting to improve the pure HA coatings' mechanical properties. For instance, the polymer may help in releasing the residual stresses in the thick HA coatings. In addition, the selection of a bioresorbable polymer may enhance the coatings' biological behavior. However, there are major challenges associated with spraying ceramic and polymeric materials together because of their very different thermal properties. In this study, pure HA and HA/poly-ɛ-caprolactone (PCL) thick coatings were deposited without significant thermal degradation by low-energy plasma spraying (LEPS). PCL has never been processed by thermal spraying, and its processing is a major achievement of this study. The influence of selected process parameters on microstructure, composition, and mechanical properties of HA and HA/PCL coatings was studied using statistical design of experiments (DOE). The HA deposition rate was significantly increased by the addition of PCL. The average porosity of biocomposite coatings was slightly increased, while retaining or even improving in some cases their fracture toughness and microhardness. Surface roughness of biocomposites was enhanced compared with HA pure coatings. Cell culture experiments showed that murine osteoblast-like cells attach and proliferate well on HA/PCL biocomposite deposits.

We propose a method for thermal conductivity measurements of high energy density matter based on differential heating. A temperature gradient is created either by surface heating of one material or at an interface between two materials by different energydeposition. The subsequent heat conduction across the temperature gradient is observed by various time-resolved probing techniques. Conceptual designs of such measurements using laser heating, proton heating, and x-ray heating are presented. The sensitivity of the measurements to thermal conductivity is confirmed by simulations.

We propose a method for thermal conductivity measurements of high energy density matter based on differential heating. A temperature gradient is created either by surface heating of one material or at an interface between two materials by different energydeposition. The subsequent heat conduction across the temperature gradient is observed by various time-resolved probing techniques. Conceptual designs of such measurements using laser heating, proton heating, and x-ray heating are presented. As a result, the sensitivity of the measurements to thermal conductivity is confirmed by simulations.

We propose a method for thermal conductivity measurements of high energy density matter based on differential heating. A temperature gradient is created either by surface heating of one material or at an interface between two materials by different energydeposition. The subsequent heat conduction across the temperature gradient is observed by various time-resolved probing techniques. Conceptual designs of such measurements using laser heating, proton heating, and x-ray heating are presented. The sensitivity of the measurements to thermal conductivity is confirmed by simulations.

Purpose: The present study introduces a new method to establish a direct correlation between biologically related physical parameters (i.e., stopping and damaging cross sections, respectively) for an Auger-electron emitting radionuclide decaying within a target molecule (e.g., DNA), so as to evaluate the efficacy of the radionuclide at the molecular level. These parameters can be applied to the dosimetry of Auger electrons and the quantification of their biological effects, which are the main criteria to assess the therapeutic efficacy of Auger-electron emitting radionuclides. Methods: Absorbed dose and stopping cross section for the Auger electrons of 5–18 eV emitted by{sup 125}I within DNA were determined by developing a nanodosimetric model. The molecular damages induced by these Auger electrons were investigated by measuring damaging cross section, including that for the formation of DNA single- and double-strand breaks. Nanoscale films of pure plasmid DNA were prepared via the freeze-drying technique and subsequently irradiated with low-energy electrons at various fluences. The damaging cross sections were determined by employing a molecular survival model to the measured exposure–response curves for induction of DNA strand breaks. Results: For a single decay of{sup 125}I within DNA, the Auger electrons of 5–18 eV deposit the energies of 12.1 and 9.1 eV within a 4.2-nm{sup 3} volume of a hydrated or dry DNA, which results in the absorbed doses of 270 and 210 kGy, respectively. DNA bases have a major contribution to the depositedenergies. Ten-electronvolt and high linear energy transfer 100-eV electrons have a similar cross section for the formation of DNA double-strand break, while 100-eV electrons are twice as efficient as 10 eV in the induction of single-strand break. Conclusions: Ultra-low-energy electrons (<18 eV) substantially contribute to the absorbed dose and to the molecular damage from Auger-electron emitting radionuclides; hence, they should

Several groups worldwide have proposed various concepts for improving megavoltage (MV) radiotherapy that involve irradiating patients in the presence of a magnetic field-either for image guidance in the case of hybrid radiotherapy-MRI machines or for purposes of introducing tighter control over dose distributions. The presence of a magnetic field alters the trajectory of charged particles between interactions with the medium and thus has the potential to alter energydeposition patterns within a sub-cellular target volume. In this work, we use the MC radiation transport code PENELOPE with appropriate algorithms invoked to incorporate magnetic field deflections to investigate electron energy fluence in the presence of a uniform magnetic field and the energydeposition spectra within a 10 microm water sphere as a function of magnetic field strength. The simulations suggest only very minor changes to the electron fluence even for extremely strong magnetic fields. Further, calculations of the dose-averaged lineal energy indicate that a magnetic field strength of at least 70 T is required before beam quality will change by more than 2%.

Radiation quality effects are largely determined by energydeposition in small volumes of characteristic sizes less than 10 nm representative of short-segments of DNA, the DNA nucleosome, or molecules initiating oxidative stress in the nucleus, mitochondria, or extra-cellular matrix. On this scale, qualitatively distinct types of molecular damage are possible for high linear energy transfer (LET) radiation such as heavy ions compared to low LET radiation. Unique types of DNA lesions or oxidative damages are the likely outcome of the energydeposition. The frequency distribution for energy imparted to 1-20 nm targets per unit dose or particle fluence is a useful descriptor and can be evaluated as a function of impact parameter from an ions track. In this work, the simulation of 1-Gy irradiation of a cubic volume of 5 micron by: 1) 450 (1)H(+) ions, 300 MeV; 2) 10 (12)C(6+) ions, 290 MeV/amu and 3) (56)Fe(26+) ions, 1000 MeV/amu was done with the Monte-Carlo simulation code RITRACKS. Cylindrical targets are generated in the irradiated volume, with random orientation. The frequency distribution curves of the energydeposited in the targets is obtained. For small targets (i.e. <25 nm size), the probability of an ion to hit a target is very small; therefore a large number of tracks and targets as well as a large number of histories are necessary to obtain statistically significant results. This simulation is very time-consuming and is difficult to perform by using the original version of RITRACKS. Consequently, the code RITRACKS was adapted to use multiple CPU on a workstation or on a computer cluster. To validate the simulation results, similar calculations were performed using targets with fixed position and orientation, for which experimental data are available [5]. Since the probability of single- and double-strand breaks in DNA as function of energydeposited is well know, the results that were obtained can be used to estimate the yield of DSB, and can be extended

Polytetrafluoroethylene films have been deposited for use as low dielectric constant materials. Deposition is performed through pyrolysis of hexafluoropropylene oxide (HFPO) to produce CF2, which can then polymerize and deposit as a thin film. The variation of CF2 concentration as a function of reactor conditions has been characterized by ultraviolet absorption spectroscopy. CF2 concentration is observed to go through a maximum with respect to both pressure and pyrolysis temperature when it is present in large amounts (~1014 cm-3). A one-dimensional model including known kinetic reactions for HFPO decomposition and CF2 recombination and multi-component diffusive transport has been applied to the parallel plate system. The result is seen to overestimate the measured concentration and does not capture the maxima observed versus pressure and temperature. An additional mechanism of particle formation, by CF2 insertion into (CF2)n oligomers, has been introduced to produce a kinetic model that explains the CF2 concentration measurements.

Pollutants deposited on road surfaces and distributed in the environment are a source of nonpoint pollution. Field data are traditionally hard to collect from roads because of constant traffic. In this study, in cooperation with the traffic administration, the dry deposition on and road runoff from urban roads was measured in Taipei City and New Taipei City, Taiwan. The results showed that the dry deposition is 2.01-5.14 g/m(2) · day and 78-87% of these solids are in the 75-300 µm size range. The heavy metals in the dry deposited particles are mainly Fe, Zn, and Na, with average concentrations of 34,978, 1,519 and 1,502 ppm, respectively. Elevated express roads show the highest heavy metal concentrations. Not only the number of vehicles, but also the speed of the traffic should be considered as factors that influence road pollution, as high speeds may accelerate vehicle wear and deposit more heavy metals on road surfaces. In addition to dry deposition, the runoff and water quality was analyzed every five minutes during the first two hours of storm events to capture the properties of the first flush road runoff. The sample mean concentration (SMC) from three roads demonstrated that the first flush runoff had a high pollution content, notably for suspended solid (SS), chemical oxygen demand (COD), oil and grease, Pb, and Zn. Regular sweeping and onsite water treatment facilities are suggested to minimize the pollution from urban roads.

Atmospheric depositions of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were monitored at three sites in the vicinity of a steel making plant, located in an Italian alpine valley. A high variability in the deposition of PCDD/Fs was observed. The influence of the plant was noticeable at two of the sampling sites. However, as the congener profiles demonstrated, wood burning for domestic heating is an additional source of PCDD/Fs for the area under investigation, and this interferes with the characterization of the emissions from the steel plant. The influence of the plant, in terms of PCDD/F deposition, was not noticeable at the most distant site (2km), where an extremely high peak of PCDD/F deposition was measured during the period from 12 January-22 February 2012. The comparison between the congener distribution of PCDD/Fs observed in this sample and the fingerprints of different sources could justify the attribution of this anomalous peak to a possible episode of domestic waste combustion. In order to find a better correlation between the deposition to soil and emissions from the plant, the congener distribution of PCBs was studied. The PCB profiles observed at the three sites well reproduced the average profile found in samples of ash retained by the bag filter of the plant. Thus the monitoring of PCB deposition is an interesting starting point to calibrate dispersion models to assess the impact of steel making activities.

Steam systems consume approximately one third of energy applied at U.S. industrial facilities. To reduce energy consumption, steam system energy assessments have been conducted on a wide range of industry types over the course of five years through the Energy Savings Assessment (ESA) program administered by the U.S. Department of Energy (U.S. DOE). ESA energy assessments result in energy efficiency measure recommendations that are given potential energy and energy cost savings and potential implementation cost values. Saving and cost metrics that measure the impact recommended measures will have at facilities, described as percentages of facility baseline energy and energy cost, are developed from ESA data and used in analyses. Developed savings and cost metrics are examined along with implementation and rejection rates of recommended steam system energy efficiency measures. Based on analyses, implementation of steam system energy efficiency measures is driven primarily by cost metrics: payback period and measure implementation cost as a percentage of facility baseline energy cost (implementation cost percentage). Stated reasons for rejecting recommended measures are primarily based upon economic concerns. Additionally, implementation rates of measures are not only functions of savings and cost metrics, but time as well.

Selected aspects of National Atmospheric Deposition Program / National Trends Network (NADP/NTN) protocols are evaluated in four studies. Meteorological conditions have minor impacts on the error in NADP/NTN sampling. Efficiency of frozen precipitation sample collection is lower than for liquid precipitation samples. Variability of NTN measurements is higher for relatively low-intensity deposition of frozen precipitation than for higher-intensity deposition of liquid precipitation. Urbanization of the landscape surrounding NADP/NTN sites is not affecting trends in wet-deposition chemistry data to a measureable degree. Five NADP siting criteria intended to preserve wet-deposition sample integrity have varying degrees of effectiveness. NADP siting criteria for objects within the 90 degrees cones and trees within the 120 degrees cones projected from the collector bucket to sky are important for protecting sample integrity. Tall vegetation, fences, and other objects located within 5 meters of the collectors are related to the frequency of visible sample contamination, indicating the importance of these factors in NADP siting criteria.

using a Twyman -Green interferometer with one leg in the vacuum deposition chamber ........ ...................... .. 14 Figure 3. Deomonstration of...of beam current and voltage. 13 b) I Figure 2. Photographs of interference pattern produced using a Twyman -Green interferometer with one leg in the...Measurements of optical surface roughness were made versus milling depth for various ion beam conditions and geometry arrangements. A Twyman -Green

Vanadium pentoxide V2O5 thin films were grown on glass substrates by the LAMBD deposition system with different laser energies. The structure, composition and optical properties of the films have been investigated with atomic force microscopy, x-ray photoemission spectroscopy, ellipsometry and the transmittance analysis. Upon the increase of laser energy, the results showed that the changes in the optical constants are consistent with the thickness changes of the film. The refractive index increases and the absorption coefficient increases when the laser energy increases. The AFM analysis showed a change of the roughness and structure of the deposited films at different laser energies. The prepared films deposited by LAMBD showed interesting properties with correct V2O5 phase without need of annealing after deposition.

The tapered element oscillating microbalance (TEOM), an ultrasensitive mass measurement device which is suitable for both particulate and vapor depositionmeasurements is described. The device can be used in contamination measurements, surface reaction studies, particulate monitoring systems or any microweighing activity where either laboratory or field monitoring capability is desired. The active element of the TEOM consists of a tube or reed constructed of a material with high mechanical quality factor and having a special taper. The element is firmly mounted at the wide end while the other end supports a substrate surface which can be composed of virtually any material. The tapered element with the substrate at the free (narrow) end is set into oscillation in a clamped free mode. A feedback system maintains the oscillation whose natural frequency will change in relation to the mass deposited on the substrate.

In the E-167 plasma wakefield acceleration experiment, electrons with an initial energy of 42GeV are accelerated in a meter-scale lithium plasma. Particles are leaving plasma with a large energy spread. To determine the spectrum of the accelerated particles, a two-plane spectrometer has been set up.

Radioactive material deposited in multiple organs of the body is likely to confound a result of an in vivo measurement performed over the lungs, the most frequently monitored organ for occupational exposure. The significance of this interference was evaluated by measuring anthropometric torso phantoms containing lungs, liver, skeleton, and axillary lymph nodes, each with a precisely known quantity of 241Am uniformly distributed in the organs. Arrays of multiple high-resolution germanium detectors were positioned over organs within the torso phantom containing 241Am or over proximal organs without activity to determine the degree of measurement confounding due to photons emitted from other source organs. A set of four mathematical response functions describes the measured count rate with detectors positioned over each of the relevant organs and 241Am contained in the measured organ or one of the other organs selected as a confounder. Simultaneous solution of these equations by matrix algebra, where the diagonal terms of the matrix are calibration factors for a direct measurement of activity in an organ and the off-diagonal terms reflect the contribution (i.e., interference or cross-talk) produced by 241Am in a confounding organ, yields the activity deposited in each of the relevant organs. The matrix solution described in this paper represents a method for adjusting a result of 241Am measured directly in one organ for interferences that may arise from 241Am deposited elsewhere and represents a technically valid procedure to aid in evaluating internal dose based upon in vivo measurements for those radioactive materials known to deposit in multiple organs.

The non-resonant heating of gases by laser irradiation and plasma formation has been under investigation since the development of 100 megawatt peak power, Q-switched, nanosecond pulse duration lasers and the commensurate discovery of laser air sparks. More recently, advances in mode-locking and chirped pulse amplification have led to commercially available 100 gigawatt peak power, femtosecond pulse duration lasers with a rapidly increasing number of applications including remote sensing, laser spectroscopy, aerodynamic flow control, and molecular tagging velocimetry and thermometry diagnostics. This work investigates local energydeposition and gas heating produced by focused, non-resonant, nanosecond and femtosecond laser pulses in the context of flow control and laser diagnostic applications. Three types of pulse configurations were examined: single nanosecond pulses, single femtosecond pulses and a dual pulse approach whereby a femtosecond pre-ionizing pulse is followed by a nanosecond pulse. For each pulse configuration, optical and laser diagnostic techniques were applied in order to qualitatively and quantitatively measure the plasmadynamic and hydrodynamic processes accompanying laser energydeposition. Time resolved imaging of optical emission from the plasma and excited species was used to qualitatively examine the morphology and decay of the excited gas. Additionally, Thomson scattering and Rayleigh scattering diagnostics were applied towards measurements of electron temperature, electron density, gas temperature and gas density. Gas heating by nanosecond and dual pulse laser plasmas was found to be considerably more intense than femtosecond plasmas, irrespective of pressure, while the dual pulse approach provided substantially more controllability than nanosecond pulses alone. In comparison, measurements of femtosecond laser heating showed a strong and nonlinearly dependence on focusing strength. With comparable pulse energy, measurements of maximum

Vanadium dioxide is a thermochromic material that undergoes a semiconductor to metal transitions at a critical temperature of 68 °C. This phase change from a low temperature monoclinic structure to a higher temperature rutile structure is accompanied by a marked change in infrared reflectivity and change in resistivity. This ability to have a temperature-modulated film that can limit solar heat gain makes vanadium dioxide an ideal candidate for thermochromic energy efficient glazing. In this review we detail the current challenges to such glazing becoming a commercial reality and describe the key chemical vapour deposition technologies being employed in the latest research.

Molecular dynamics simulations have been performed to model 5-keV C60 and Au3 projectile bombardment of an amorphous water substrate. The goal is to obtain detailed insights into the dynamics of motion in order to develop a straightforward and less computationally demanding model of the process of ejection. The molecular dynamics results provide the basis for the mesoscale energydeposition footprint model. This model provides a method for predicting relative yields based on information from less than 1 ps of simulation time.

An accurate description of interaction between a nanosecond laser pulse and a wide band gap dielectric, such as fused silica, requires the understanding of energydeposit induced by temperature changes occurring in the material. In order to identify the fundamental processes involved in laser-matter interaction, we have used a 1D computational model that allows us to describe a wide set of physical mechanisms and intended for comparison with specially designed “1D experiments.” We have pointed out that suprathermal electrons are very likely implicated in heat conduction, and this assumption has allowed the model to reproduce the experiments.

Deposited particles are transported into and within buildings by adhering to and releasing from people's shoes. To better understand transport of deposited particulate contaminants and exposures to these materials, experimental data on tracking by foot traffic are needed. Laboratory experiments measured uptake and downlay mass transfer efficiencies of particles between shoes and floors in a step-simulation chamber. Equilibrium uptake transfer fractions, the net mass fraction transferred from floors to shoes after several steps, were also measured. Single-step uptake and downlay transfer efficiencies ranged from 0.02 to 0.22 and equilibrium uptake transfer fractions were 0.10-0.40. Particle size, particle loading, shoe type, floor type, step pressure, and step sequence were all investigated. Experiments demonstrated that single-step downlay transfer efficiencies decrease with each successive step onto clean floors. A simple empirical model is proposed to estimate these transfers as a function of step number. Simulations using the transfer efficiency values measured here illustrate the spread of deposited particles by people walking in a hypothetical hallway. These simulations show that in locations where a few people walk over the same area each minute, tracking can spread deposited material over length scales comparable to building dimensions in just a few hours.

carried out. A preliminary analysis shows that the numerical results overestimate the measurements by about 20 %. A new approach has been developed in order to estimate the nuclear heating by two methods (energydeposition or KERMA) by considering the whole complete geometry of the sensor. This new approach will contribute to the interpretation of the irradiation campaign and will be useful to improve the out-of-pile calibration procedure of the sensor and its thermal response during irradiations. The aim of this paper is to present simulations made by using MCNP5 Monte-Carlo transport code (using ENDF/B-VI nuclear data library) for the nuclear heating inside the different parts of the calorimeter (head, rod and base). Calculations into two steps will be realized. We will use as an input source in the model new spectra (neutrons, prompt-photons and delayed-photons) calculated with the Monte Carlo code TRIPOLI-4{sup R} inside different experimental channels (water) located into the OSIRIS periphery and used during the CARMEN-1P irradiation campaign. We will consider Neutrons- Photons-Electrons and Photons-Electrons modes. We will begin by a brief description of the differential-calorimeter device geometry. Then the MCNP5 model used for the calculations of nuclear heating inside the calorimeter elements will be introduced. The energydeposition due to the prompt-gamma, delayed-gamma and neutrons, the neutron-activation of the device will be considered. The different components of the nuclear heating inside the different parts of the calorimeter will be detailed. Moreover, a comparison between KERMA and nuclear energydeposition estimations will be given. Finally, a comparison between this total nuclear heating Calculation and Experiment in graphite sample will be determined. (authors)

Additive manufacturing of metal components through directed energydeposition or powder bed fusion is a complex undertaking, often involving hundreds or thousands of individual laser deposits. During processing, conditions may fluctuate, e.g. material feed rate, beam power, surrounding gas composition, local and global temperature, build geometry, etc., leading to unintended variations in final part geometry, microstructure and properties. To assess or control as-deposited quality, researchers have used a variety of methods, including those based on sensing of melt pool and plume emission characteristics, characteristics of powder application, and layer-wise imaging. Here, a summary of ongoing process monitoring activities at Penn State is provided, along with a discussion of recent advancements in the area of layer-wise image acquisition and analysis during powder bed fusion processing. Specifically, methods that enable direct comparisons of CAD model, build images, and 3D micro-tomographic scan data will be covered, along with thoughts on how such analyses can be related to overall process quality.

This procedure is intended to provide a standard method for measuring and characterizing the energy performance of commercial buildings. The procedure determines the energy consumption, electrical energy demand, and on-site energy production in existing commercial buildings of all types. The performance metrics determined here may be compared against benchmarks to evaluate performance and verify that performance targets have been achieved.

We presented measurements of wet deposition of NH(4)(+)-N and NO(3)(-)-N from 1986 to 2006 in Shenzhen City, China. Over the past 20 years, NO(3)(-)-N concentration had significantly increased, but a reverse trend was found for NH(4)(+)-N. The main form of total inorganic nitrogen (TIN) was NH(4)(+)-N and the average NH(4)(+)-N/NO(3)(-)-N ratio was 1.57 in this area. The contribution of NO(3)(-)-N to TIN increased from 28-42% in the period of 1986-2000 to 50-63% during 2001-2006. The increased deposition flux of NO(3)(-)-N resulted in the increasing trend of TIN, although NH(4)(+)-N showed a decreasing trend over time. Average deposition flux of TIN during 1986-2006 was 13.24 kg/ha/year, with a minimum value of 6.03kg/ha/year in 1988 and a maximum value of 20.52 kg/ha/year in 1997. Wet deposition fluxes of N appeared to vary with season, 81% occurred in the warm season (from April to September). The wet deposition of TIN to the Shenzhen Reservoir reached 8,902 kg in 2006, which contributed 9.95% of the total nonpoint pollution to the reservoir and will be increased in the future.

The topic of this study is related to airborne particle dynamics in indoor environments. Lab-scale experiments have been performed to investigate particle deposition velocity to six different surfaces orientations (with respect to gravity) for fully developed turbulent flow in horizontal large circular ventilation ducts. Monodispersed aerosol particles (1-6 μm) were used in the deposition experiments. A very low particle mass (40 ng) was measured reliably above background level on duct surfaces by a means of a nondestructive stencil technique associated with fluorescence analysis. For 2-6 μm particles (diffusion and impaction regime), deposition rates to floors were much greater than rates to the ceiling and greater than rates to the wall. For 1-μm particles, the effect of surface orientation to particle deposition was not significant. Results were compared to the very few similar and published studies. This work was conducted in the frame of the CleanAirNet project which aimed at producing new knowledge, models, and techniques to help controlling the safety food stuffs, through a better control of aerosol particle (bioaerosols) transport and deposition in the ventilation networks of the food industry.

Linear energy transfer (LET) is an average quantity, which cannot display the stochastics of the interactions of radiation tracks in the target volume. For this reason, microdosimetry distributions have been defined to overcome the LET shortcomings. In this paper, model calculations of frequency distributions for energydepositions in nanometre size targets, diameters 1-100 nm, and for a 1 μm diameter wall-less TEPC, for electrons, protons, alpha particles and carbon ions are reported. Frequency distributions for energydepositions in small-size targets with dimensions similar to those of biological molecules are useful for modelling and calculations of DNA damage. Monte Carlo track structure codes KURBUC and PITS99 were used to generate tracks of primary electrons 10 eV to 1 MeV, and ions 1 keV µm(-1) to 300 MeV µm(-1) energies. Distribution of absolute frequencies of energydepositions in volumes with diameters of 1-100 nm randomly positioned in unit density water irradiated with 1 Gy of the given radiation was obtained. Data are presented for frequency of energydepositions and microdosimetry quantities including mean lineal energy, dose mean lineal energy, frequency mean specific energy and dose mean specific energy. The modelling and calculations presented in this work are useful for characterisation of the quality of radiation beam in biophysical studies and in radiation therapy.

Thin film capacitors on areas up to 6 mm2 have been measured regarding capacitance density, relative permittivity, and electrical breakdown. The maximum storable energy density of the thin film capacitors will be discussed as a parameter to evaluate the thin film capacitors applicability. Therefore the measurements of the layer thickness, capacitance density, and the breakdown voltage were combined to achieve the maximum storable areal and volume energy density depending on the dielectric layer thickness. Thickness dependent volume energy densities of up to 50 J/cm3 for pure Al2O3 and 60 J/cm3 for Al2O3/TiO2 nanolaminates were reached.

In numerous experiments, magnetic energy coupled to strongly radiating Z-pinch plasmas exceeds the thermalized kinetic energy, sometimes by a factor of 2-3. An analytical model describing this additional energydeposition based on the concept of macroscopic magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) turbulent pinch heating proposed by Rudakov and Sudan [Phys. Reports 283, 253 (1997)] is presented. The pinch plasma is modeled as a foam-like medium saturated with toroidal ''magnetic bubbles'' produced by the development of surface m=0 Rayleigh-Taylor and MHD instabilities. As the bubbles converge to the pinch axis, their magnetic energy is converted to thermal energy of the plasma through pdV work. Explicit formulas for the average dissipation rate of this process and the corresponding contribution to the resistance of the load, which compare favorably to the experimental data and simulation results, are presented. The possibility of using this enhanced (relative to Ohmic heating) dissipation mechanism to power novel plasma radiation sources and produce high K-shell yields using long current rise time machines is discussed. (c) 2000 American Institute of Physics.

The possibility is studied of growing thin silicon oxynitride films by e-gun evaporation of SiO and SiO2 together with concurrent bombardment with low energy N2+ ions from a cyclotron resonance (ECR) source at room temperature of substrates. The degree of nitridation and oxidation of the films is investigated by means of X-ray spectroscopy. The optical characteristics of the films, their environmental stability and adhesion to different substrates are examined. The results obtained show than the films deposited are transparent. It is found that in the case of SiO evaporation with concurrent N2+ ion bombardment, reactive implantation of nitrogen within the films takes place at room temperature of the substrate with the formation of a new silicon oxynitride compound even at low ion energy (150-200 eV).

Here we demonstrate the first on-chip silicon-integrated rechargeable transient power source based on atomic layer deposition (ALD) coating of vanadium oxide (VOx) into porous silicon. A stable specific capacitance above 20 F g(-1) is achieved until the device is triggered with alkaline solutions. Due to the rational design of the active VOx coating enabled by ALD, transience occurs through a rapid disabling step that occurs within seconds, followed by full dissolution of all active materials within 30 minutes of the initial trigger. This work demonstrates how engineered materials for energy storage can provide a basis for next-generation transient systems and highlights porous silicon as a versatile scaffold to integrate transient energy storage into transient electronics.

This program was aimed at creating a quantitative physical description, at the micrometer and nanometer levels, of the physical interactions of the alpha particles from radon and its daughters with cells at risk in the bronchial epithelium. The authors calculated alpha-particle energy spectra incident upon the cells and also energydeposition spectra in micrometer- and nanometer-sized sites as a function of cell depth, site size, airway diameter, activities of {sup 218}Po and {sup 214}Po, and other parameters. These data are now being applied, using biophysical models of radiation effects, to predict cell killing, mutations, and cell transformation. The model predictions are then compared to experimental biophysical, biochemical, and biological information. These studies contribute to a detailed understanding of the mechanisms of the biological effectiveness of the radiations emitted by radon and its progeny.

This report describes an energy coupling model that considers electron reflection losses during electron beam heating experiments. This model is embodied on the REFLEX computer code, written in standard FORTRAN 77. REFLEX currently models energydeposition phenomena in three different sample geometries. These configurations include flat, cylindrical shell, and hemispherical shell surfaces. Given the electron beam operating parameters, REFLEX calculates the heat flux profile over a sample's surface, the total amount of energydeposited into a sample, and the percentage of the electron beam energy that is transferred to a sample. This document describes the energydeposition equations used in the REFLEX code; the program is described and detailed instructions are given regarding the input. Results are given for each geometry and possible experimental applications are presented. 3 refs., 20 figs., 11 tabs.

Locusts jump by using a catapult mechanism in which energy produced by slow contractions of the extensor tibiae muscles of the hind legs is stored in distortions of the exoskeleton, most notably (1) the two semi-lunar processes at each knee joint and (2) the tendons of the extensor muscles themselves. The energy is then suddenly released from these stores to power the rapid, propulsive movements of the hind legs. The reliance on the mechanical storage of energy is likely to impact on jumping because growth occurs by a series of five moults, at each of which the exoskeleton is replaced by a new one. All developmental stages (instars) nevertheless jump as a means of forward locomotion, or as an escape movement. Here, I show that in each instar, resilin is added to the semi-lunar processes and to the core of the extensor tendons so that their thickness increases. As the next moult approaches, a new exoskeleton forms within the old one, with resilin already present in the new semi-lunar processes. The old exoskeleton, the tendons and their resilin are discarded at moulting. The resilin of the semi-lunar processes and tendons of the new instar is initially thin, but a similar pattern of deposition results in an increase of their thickness. In adults, resilin continues to be deposited so that at 4 weeks old the thickness in the semi-lunar processes has increased fourfold. These changes in the energy stores accompany changes in jumping ability and performance during each moulting cycle.

Using the Pd/D co-deposition technique, we have obtained evidence (i.e., heat generation, hot spots, mini-explosions, radiation, and tritium production) suggestive that nuclear reactions can and do occur within the Pd lattice. It was found that these reactions are enhanced in the presence of either an external electric or magnetic field. SEM analysis of the cathodes shows morphological features suggestive of localized melting of the palladium. EDX analysis of these features show the presence of new elements which result form transmutation. To verify that these new elements are indeed nuclear in origin, experiments have been conducted using CR-39 detectors, a commonly used etch-track detector for recording the emission of high energy particles such as alphas and protons. When the co-deposition reaction was conducted in either an external electric or magnetic field, numerous tracks due to high energy particles were clearly observed on the CR-39 detector in those areas where the cathode is in direct contact with the detector. S. Szpak et al, J. Electroanal. Chem., v 580, 284(2005). S. Szpak et al, Naturwissenschaften, v 92, 394-397(2005).

One of the more promising technologies for developing minimal-length insertion devices for linac-driven, single-pass Free Electron Lasers (FELs) operating in the x-ray range is based on the use of superconducting (SC) materials. In recent FEL simulations, for example, a bifilar helical SC device with a 2 cm period and 1.8 T field was found to require a 30 m saturation length for operation at 1.5{Angstrom} on a 15 GeV linac, more than 40% shorter than an alternative hybrid/permanent magnet (hybrid/PM) undulator. AT the same time, however, SC technology is known to present characteristic difficulties for insertion device design, both in engineering detail and in operation. Perhaps the most critical problem, as observed, e.g., by Madey and co-workers in their initial FEL experiments, was the frequent quenching induced by scattered electrons upstream of their (bifilar) device. Postulating that this quenching was precipitated by directly-scattered or bremsstrahlung-induced particle energydeposited into the SC material or into material contiguous with it, the importance of numerical and experimental characterizations of this phenomenon for linac-based, user-facility SC undulator design becomes evident. In this paper we discuss selected prior experimental results and report on initial EGS4 code studies of scattered and bremsstrahlung induced particle energydeposition into SC structures with geometries comparable to a small-bore bifilar helical undulator.

Nanostructured carbon is widely used in energy storage devices (e.g., Li-ion and Li-air batteries and supercapacitors). A new method is developed for the generation of carbon nanoflakes on various metal oxide nanostructures by combining atomic layer deposition (ALD) and glucose carbonization. Various metal oxide@nanoflake carbon (MO@f-C) core-branch nanostructures are obtained. For the mechanism, it is proposed that the ALD Al2 O3 and glucose form a composite layer. Upon thermal annealing, the composite layer becomes fragmented and moves outward, accompanied by carbon deposition on the alumina skeleton. When tested as electrochemical supercapacitor electrode, the hierarchical MO@f-C nanostructures exhibit better properties compared with the pristine metal oxides or the carbon coating without ALD. The enhancement can be ascribed to increased specific surface areas and electric conductivity due to the carbon flake coating. This peculiar carbon coating method with the unique hierarchical nanostructure may provide a new insight into the preparation of 'oxides + carbon' hybrid electrode materials for energy storage applications.

An experiment that seeks to investigate buoyancy driven mixing of miscible fluids by microwave volumetric energydeposition is presented. The experiment involves the use of a light, non-polar fluid that initially rests on top of a heavier fluid which is more polar. Microwaves preferentially heat the polar fluid, and its density decreases due to thermal expansion. As the microwave heating continues, the density of the lower fluid eventually becomes less than that of the upper, and buoyancy driven Rayleigh-Taylor mixing ensues. The choice of fluids is crucial to the success of the experiment, and a description is given of numerous fluid combinations considered and characterized. After careful consideration, the miscible pair of toluene/tetrahydrofuran (THF) was determined as having the best potential for successful volumetric energydeposition buoyancy driven mixing. Various single fluid calibration experiments were performed to facilitate the development of a heating theory. Thereafter, results from two-fluid mixing experiments are presented that demonstrate the capability of this novel Rayleigh-Taylor driven experiment. Particular interest is paid to the onset of buoyancy driven mixing and unusual aspects of the experiment in the context of typical Rayleigh-Taylor driven mixing.

Metal alkylamide compounds, such as tetrakis(ethylmethylamido) hafnium (TEMAH), represent a technologically important class of metalorganic precursors for the deposition of metal oxides and metal nitrides via atomic layer deposition (ALD) or chemical vapor deposition. The development of in situ diagnostics for processes involving these compounds could be beneficial in, e.g., developing deposition recipes and validating equipment-scale simulations. This report describes the performance of the combination of two techniques for the simultaneous, rapid measurement of the three major gas phase species during hafnium oxide thermal ALD using TEMAH and water: TEMAH, water, and methylethyl amine (MEA), the only major reaction by-product. For measurement of TEMAH and MEA, direct absorption methods based on a broadband infrared source with different mid-IR bandpass filters and utilizing amplitude modulation and synchronous detection were developed. For the measurement of water, wavelength modulation spectroscopy utilizing a near-IR distributed feedback diode laser was used. Despite the relatively simple reactor geometry employed here (a flow tube), differences were easily observed in the time-dependent species distributions in 300 mL/min of a helium carrier gas and in 1000 mL/min of a nitrogen carrier gas. The degree of TEMAH entrainment was lower in 300 mL/min of helium compared to that in 1000 mL/min of nitrogen. The capability to obtain detailed time-dependent species concentrations during ALD could potentially allow for the selection of carrier gas composition and flow rates that would minimize parasitic wall reactions. However, when nitrogen was employed at the higher flow rates, various flow effects were observed that, if detrimental to a deposition process, would effectively limit the upper range of useful flow rates.

A solar energy control system for a hot air type solar energy heating system wherein thermocouples are arranged to sense the temperature of a solar collector, a space to be heated, and a top and bottom of a heat storage unit is disclosed. Pertinent thermocouples are differentially connected together, and these are employed to effect the operation of dampers, a fan, and an auxiliary heat source. In accomplishing this, the differential outputs from the thermocouples are amplified by a single amplifier by multiplexing techniques. Additionally, the amplifier is corrected as to offset by including as one multiplex channel a common reference signal.

Plasma Enhanced Pulsed Laser Deposition (PE-PLD) is an advanced way of depositing thin films of oxide materials by using a laser to ablate a target, and passing the resulting plasma plume through a background Inductively-Coupled Plasma (ICP), instead of a background gas as is done in traditional PLD. The main advantage of PE-PLD is the control of film stoichiometry via the direct control of the reactive oxygen species in the ICP instead of relying on a neutral gas background. The aim is to deposit zinc oxide films from a zinc metal target and an oxygen ICP. In this work, we characterise the range of compositions of the reactive oxygen species achievable in ICPs; in particular the atomic oxygen density. The density of atomic oxygen has been determined within two ICPs of two different geometries over a range of plasma powers and pressures with the use of Energy Resolved Actinometry (ERA). ERA is a robust diagnostic technique with determines both the dissociation degree and average electron energy by comparing the excitation ratios of two oxygen and one argon transition. Alongside this the electron densities have been determined with the use of a hairpin probe. This work received financial support from the EPSRC, and York-Paris CIRC.

The development of a calorimeter that measured the power within an ultrasonic cleaning tank is presented. The principle involved is explained. Several types of calorimeter that were tested are described. Measurement of the power in an ultrasonic cleaner permits: (1) comparing different ultrasonic cleaners; (2) monitoring the performance of a specific cleaner; (3) measuring the distribution of power in a cleaning tank, and (4) evaluating the effects of process variables on the power.

Implementing energy conservation measures in buildings can reduce energy costs and environmental impacts, but such measures cost money to implement so intelligent investment strategies require the ability to quantify the energy savings by comparing actual energy used to how much energy would have been used in absence of the conservation measures (known as the baseline energy use). Methods exist for predicting baseline energy use, but a limitation of most statistical methods reported in the literature is inadequate quantification of the uncertainty in baseline energy use predictions. However, estimation of uncertainty is essential for weighing the risks of investing in retrofits. Most commercial buildings have, or soon will have, electricity meters capable of providing data at short time intervals. These data provide new opportunities to quantify uncertainty in baseline predictions, and to do so after shorter measurement durations than are traditionally used. In this paper, we show that uncertainty estimation provides greater measurement and verification (M&V) information and helps to overcome some of the difficulties with deciding how much data is needed to develop baseline models and to confirm energy savings. We also show that cross-validation is an effective method for computing uncertainty. In so doing, we extend a simple regression-based method of predicting energy use using short-interval meter data. We demonstrate the methods by predicting energy use in 17 real commercial buildings. We discuss the benefits of uncertainty estimates which can provide actionable decision making information for investing in energy conservation measures.

Assessment of respiratory tract deposition of nanoparticles is a key link to understanding their health impacts. An instrument was developed to measure respiratory tract deposition of nanoparticles in a single breath. Monodisperse nanoparticles are generated, inhaled and sampled from a determined volumetric lung depth after a controlled residence time in the lung. The instrument was characterized for sensitivity to inter-subject variability, particle size (22, 50, 75 and 100 nm) and breath-holding time (3–20 s) in a group of seven healthy subjects. The measured particle recovery had an inter-subject variability 26–50 times larger than the measurement uncertainty and the results for various particle sizes and breath-holding times were in accordance with the theory for Brownian diffusion and values calculated from the Multiple-Path Particle Dosimetry model. The recovery was found to be determined by residence time and particle size, while respiratory flow-rate had minor importance in the studied range 1–10 L/s. The instrument will be used to investigate deposition of nanoparticles in patients with respiratory disease. The fast and precise measurement allows for both diagnostic applications, where the disease may be identified based on particle recovery, and for studies with controlled delivery of aerosol-based nanomedicine to specific regions of the lungs. PMID:27819335

Assessment of respiratory tract deposition of nanoparticles is a key link to understanding their health impacts. An instrument was developed to measure respiratory tract deposition of nanoparticles in a single breath. Monodisperse nanoparticles are generated, inhaled and sampled from a determined volumetric lung depth after a controlled residence time in the lung. The instrument was characterized for sensitivity to inter-subject variability, particle size (22, 50, 75 and 100 nm) and breath-holding time (3–20 s) in a group of seven healthy subjects. The measured particle recovery had an inter-subject variability 26–50 times larger than the measurement uncertainty and the results for various particle sizes and breath-holding times were in accordance with the theory for Brownian diffusion and values calculated from the Multiple-Path Particle Dosimetry model. The recovery was found to be determined by residence time and particle size, while respiratory flow-rate had minor importance in the studied range 1–10 L/s. The instrument will be used to investigate deposition of nanoparticles in patients with respiratory disease. The fast and precise measurement allows for both diagnostic applications, where the disease may be identified based on particle recovery, and for studies with controlled delivery of aerosol-based nanomedicine to specific regions of the lungs.

One of the most used dielectric films for amorphous indium zinc oxide (IZO) based thin films transistor is HfO2. The estimation of the valence band discontinuity (ΔEV) of HfO2/IZO heterostructure grown using the pulsed laser deposition technique, with In/(In + Zn) = 0.79, was obtained from X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurements. The binding energies of Hf 4d5, Zn 2p3 and In 3d5 core levels and valence band maxima were measured for thick pure films and for a very thin HfO2 film deposited on a thick IZO film. A value of ΔEV = 1.75 ± 0.05 eV was estimated for the heterostructure. Taking into account the measured HfO2 and IZO optical bandgap values of 5.50 eV and 3.10 eV, respectively, a conduction band offset ΔEC = 0.65 ± 0.05 eV in HfO2/IZO heterostructure was then obtained.

Pacific Northwest Laboratory performed a two-step process to characterize the current beta measurement practices at DOE facilities. PNL issued a survey questionnaire on beta measurement practices to DOE facilities and reported the results. PNL measured beta doses and spectra at seven selected DOE facilities and compared selected measurement techniques in the facility environment. This report documents the results of the radiation field measurements and the comparison of measurement techniques at the seven facilities. Data collected included beta dose and spectral measurements at seven DOE facilities that had high beta-to-gamma ratios (using a silicon surface barrier spectrometer, a plastic scintillator spectrometer, and a multielement beta dosimeter). Other dosimeters and survey meters representative of those used at DOE facilities or under development were also used for comparison. Field spectra were obtained under two distinct conditions. Silicon- and scintillation-based spectrometer systems were used under laboratory conditions where high beta-to-gamma dose ratios made the beta spectra easier to observe and analyze. In the second case, beta spectrometers were taken into actual production and maintenance areas of DOE facilities. Analyses of beta and gamma spectra showed that /sup 234/Th- /sup 234m/Pa, /sup 231/Th, /sup 137/Cs, and /sup 90/Sr//sup 90/Y were the major nuclides contributing to beta doses at the facilities visited. Beta doses from other fission products and /sup 60/Co were also measured, but the potential for exposure was less significant. 21 refs., 64 figs., 18 tabs.

Previous calculations from Solodov et al. (2008) indicate that classical stopping and scattering dominate electrons energydeposition and transport when the electrons reach the dense plasma in FSI inertial confinement fusion concept [1]. Our calculations show that, by using quasi- two temperature electrons energy distribution function [2] in comparison with exponential [3] or monoenergetic distribution function and also increasing fast electrons energy to about 7 MeV, the ratio of beam blooming to straggling definitely decreases. Our analytical analysis shows that for fuel mass more than 1 mg and for fast ignitor wavelength λif > 0.53 μ m, straggling and beam blooming increases. Meanwhile, by reducing fast ignitor wavelength from 0.53 to 0.35 micron, and for fuel mass about 2 mg, electron penetration into the dense fuel slightly increases. Therefore, reduction of scattering (blooming and straggling) of electrons and enhancement of electron penetration into the dense fuel, can be obtained in relativistic regime with high energy fast electrons of the order of 5 Mev and more. Such derivations can be used in theoretical studies of the ignition conditions and PIC simulations of the electron transport in fast ignition scenario.

Critical Deposition Velocity (CDV) is an important design and operational parameter in slurry transport. Almost all existing correlations that are used to predict this parameter have been obtained experimentally from slurry transport tests featuring single solid species in the slurry mixture. No correlations have been obtained to describe this parameter when the slurry mixture contains more than one solid species having a wide range of specific gravities, particle size distributions, and volume concentrations within the overall slurry mixture. There are no physical or empirical bases that can justify the extrapolation or modification of the existing single species correlations to include all these effects. New experiments must be carried out to obtain new correlations that would be suited for these types of slurries, and that would clarify the mechanics of solids deposition as a function of the properties of the various solid species. Our goal in this paper is to describe a robust experimental technique for the accurate determination of the critical deposition velocity associated with the transport of slurries in horizontal or slightly inclined pipes. Because of the relative difficulty encountered during the precise determination of this useful operational parameter, it has been the practice to connect it with some transitional behavior of more easily measurable flow parameters such as the pressure drop along the slurry pipeline. In doing so, the critical deposition velocity loses its unique and precise definition due to the multitude of factors that influence such transitional behaviors. Here, data has been obtained for single species slurries made up of washed garnet and water and flowing through a 1- inch clear pipe. The selected garnet had a narrow particle size distribution with a mean diameter of 100 mm, approximately. The critical deposition velocity was measured for garnet/water slurries of 10, 20, and 30 percent solids concentration by volume.

Several craters on Mars are partially filled by material emplaced by post-impact processes. Populations of such craters include those in the circumsouth polar cap region, in Arabia Terra, associated with the Medusae Fossae Formation, and in the northern lowlands proximal to the north polar cap. In this study, crater fill material refers to an interior mound, generally separated from the interior walls of the crater by a trough that may be continuous along the crater s circumference (i.e. a ring-shaped trough), or may only partially contact the crater walls (i.e. a crescent-shaped trough). The fill deposit is frequently off-center from the crater center and may be asymmetric, (i.e. not circular) in plan view shape. Here we test the hypothesis that asymmetries in volatile fill shape, profile, and center-location within a crater result from asymmetries in local energy balance within the crater due mainly to variation of solar insolation and radiative effects of the crater walls over the crater interior. We first focus on Korolev crater in the northern lowlands. We can then apply this model to other craters in different regions. If asymmetry in morphology and location of crater fill are consistent with radiative-dominated asymmetries in energy budget within the crater, then 1) the volatile-rich composition of the fill is supported (this process should not be effective at shaping volcanic or sedimentary deposits), and 2) the dominant factor determining the observed shape of volatile-rich crater fill is the local radiative energy budget within the crater (and erosive processes such as eolian deflation are not necessary).

Combining high air-recirculation rates and energy-intensive processes, cleanrooms are 20 to 100 times as costly to operate on a per-square-foot basis as conventional commercial buildings. Additionally, they operate 24 hr a day, seven days a week, which means their electricity demand always is contributing to peak utility-system demand, an important fact given increasing reliance on time-dependent tariffs.

Describes the construction of a calorimeter to be used in an experiment which consists of measuring the rate at which ground level solar radiation raises the temperature of the metal in the calorimeter. (GS)

Although it has been suggested that atmospheric deposition alone can result in detectable levels of pesticides in wetlands of the Pairie Pothole Region of Canada, this is the first field study to compare the masses of pesticides entering wetlands by atmospheric deposition with those concentrations of pesticides detected in the water-column of prairie wetlands. Weekly air and bulk deposition samples were collected from May 26th to Sept. 15th, 2008 at the Manitoba Zero Tillage Research Association (MZTRA) Farm, Brandon, Manitoba, with four on-site wetlands (approximate sizes 0.15-0.45 ha) monitored every second week. Twelve pesticides were detected in the air, with MCPA (one of the three pesticides applied on the farm in 2008 in addition to clopyralid and glyphosate), triallate, and γ-HCH being detected every week. Calculations were performed to predict wetland pesticide concentrations based on bulk deposits alone for those pesticides that had detectable concentrations in the bulk deposition samples (in order of the highest total seasonal deposition mass to the lowest): MCPA, glyphosate, 2,4-D, clopyralid, bromoxynil, atrazine, dicamba, metolachlor, and mecoprop. The estimated concentrations were closest to actual concentrations for MCPA (Pearson correlation coefficient's = 0.91 to 0.98; p-values < 0.001) and predictions were also reasonable for a range of other herbicides, but a source other than atmospheric deposition was clearly relevant to detections of clopyralid in the wetland water-column. Although the types and levels of pesticides detected in the wetlands of the current study suggest that regional pesticide applications can contribute to pesticide surface water contamination following atmospheric transport and deposition, the greater frequency and concentrations of clopyralid, MCPA, and glyphosate detections in wetlands confirm that on-farm pesticide applications have a greater impact on on-site water quality. Beneficial management practices that reduce

Design of the LIGHT target based on an electron heat conductivity smoothing and hydrodynamical compensation of the nonuniformities of energydeposition of a small quantity laser beams is discussed. 2D distribution of absorbed laser energydeposition in an undercritical low-Z absorber of LIGHT target under propagation of a super sonic electron heat conductivity waves and 2D implosion of target with ablator having special initially given distributions of mass are presented. Numerical simulations show the flexibility of LIGHT target ignition at the laser energy of (200-300) kJ and quantity of beams 6.

This paper aims to study the manufacturing of the AlSi10Mg alloy with direct energydeposition (DED) process. Following fabrication, the macro- and microstructural evolution of the as-processed specimens was initially investigated using optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Columnar dendritic structure was the dominant solidification feature of the deposit; nevertheless, detailed microstructural analysis revealed cellular morphology near the substrate and equiaxed dendrites at the top end of the deposit. Moreover, the microstructural morphology in the melt pool boundary of the deposit differed from the one in the core of the layers. The remaining porosity of the deposit was evaluated by Archimedes' principle and by image analysis of the polished surface. Crystallographic texture in the deposit was also assessed using electron backscatter diffraction and x-ray diffraction analysis. The dendrites were unidirectionally oriented at an angle of 80° to the substrate. EPMA line scans were performed to evaluate the compositional variation and elemental segregation in different locations. Eventually, microhardness (HV) tests were conducted in order to study the hardness gradient in the as-DED-processed specimen along the deposition direction. The presented results, which exhibited a deposit with an almost defect free structure, indicate that the DED process can suitable for the deposition of Al-Si-based alloys with a highly consolidated structure.

Modeling studies show that the darkening of snow and ice by black carbon deposition is a major factor for the rapid disappearance of arctic sea ice, mountain glaciers and snow packs. This study provides one of the first direct measurements for the efficient removal of black carbon from the atmosphere by snow and its subsequent deposition to the snow packs of California. The early melting of the snow packs in the Sierras is one of the contributing factors to the severe water problems in California. BC concentrations in falling snow were measured at two mountain locations and in rain at a coastal site. All three stations reveal large BC concentrations in precipitation, ranging from 1.7 ng/g to 12.9 ng/g. The BC concentrations in the air after the snow fall were negligible suggesting an extremely efficient removal of BC by snow. The data suggest that below cloud scavenging, rather than ice nuclei, was the dominant source of BC in the snow. A five-year comparison of BC, dust, and total fine aerosol mass concentrations at multiple sites reveals that the measurements made at the sampling sites were representative of large scale deposition in the Sierra Nevada. The relative concentration of iron and calcium in the mountain aerosol indicates that one-quarter to one-third of the BC may have been transported from Asia.

New measurements of the high energy deuteron photodisintegration differential cross section were made at the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility in Newport News, Virginia. Two experiments were performed. Experiment E96-003 was performed in experimental Hall C. The measurements were designed to extend the highest energy differential cross section values to 5.5 GeV incident photon energy at forward angles. This builds upon previous high energymeasurements in which scaling consistent with the pQCD constituent counting rules was observed at 90 degrees and 70 degrees in the center of mass. From the new measurements, a threshold for the onset of constituent counting rule scaling seems present at transverse momentum approximately 1.3 GeV/c. The second experiment, E99-008, was performed in experimental Hall A. The measurements were designed to explore the angular distribution of the differential cross section at constant energy. The measurements were made symmetric about 90 degrees

This report examines several different measures of industrial output for use in constructing estimates of industrial energy efficiency and discusses some reasons for differences between the measures. Estimates of volume-based measures of output, as well as 3 value-based measures of output (value of production, value of shipments, and value added), are evaluated for 15 separate 4-digit industries. Volatility, simple growth rate, and trend growth rate estimates are made for each industry and each measure of output. Correlations are made between the volume- and value-based measures of output. Historical energy use data are collected for 5 of the industries for making energy- intensity estimates. Growth rates in energy use, energy intensity, and correlations between volume- and value-based measures of energy intensity are computed. There is large variability in growth trend estimates both long term and from year to year. While there is a high correlation between volume- and value-based measures of output for a few industries, typically the correlation is low, and this is exacerbated for estimates of energy intensity. Analysis revealed reasons for these low correlations. It appears that substantial work must be done before reliable measures of trends in the energy efficiency of industry can be accurately characterized.

The energymeasurement of high energy laser is converts incident laser energy into heat energy, calculates energy utilizing absorber temperature rise, thus the energy value can be gained. Temperature measurement of high-energy laser energy meter and energy loss compensation during the course of the measurement were studied here. Firstly, temperature-resistance characteristics of resistance wire was analyzed, which was winded on exterior surface of the absorbing cavity of high-energy laser energy meter and used in temperature measurement. Least square method was used to process experiment data and a compensation model was established to calibrate the relationship of temperature vs. resistance. Experiment proved that, error between resistance wire and Pt100 is less than 0.01Ω and temperature error is less than 0.02°C. This greatly improves accuracy of the high energy meter measurement result. Secondly, aimed to the compensation of laser energy loss caused by absorbing cavity's heat exchange, the heat energy loss of absorbing cavity, resulted from thermal radiation, heat convection and heat conduction was analyzed based on heat transfer theory. Its mathematics model was established. Least square method was used to fit a curve of experiment data in order to compensate energy loss. Repetitiveness of measurement is 0.7%, which is highly improved.

Radical-enhanced atomic layer deposition uses oxygen radicals generated by a remote microwave-induced plasma as an oxidant to change the surface reactions of the alternately supplied trimethylaluminum precursor and oxygen radicals on a Ge substrate, which leads to the spontaneous formation of an aluminum germanate layer. In this paper, the effects that low-energy ions, supplied from a remote microwave plasma to the substrate along with the oxygen radicals, have on the surface reactions were studied. From a comparative study of aluminum oxide deposition under controlled ion flux irradiation on the deposition surface, it was found that the ions enhance the formation of the aluminum germanate layer. The plasma potential measured at the substrate position by the Langmuir probe method was 5.4 V. Assuming that the kinetic energy of ions arriving at the substrate surface is comparable to that gained by this plasma potential, such ions have sufficient energy to induce exchange reactions of surface-adsorbed Al atoms with the underlying Ge atoms without causing significant damage to the substrate. This ion-induced exchange reaction between Al and Ge atoms is inferred to be the background kinetics of the aluminum germanate formation by radical-enhanced atomic layer deposition.

Chemical bath deposition techniques for bismuth sulfide, bismuth selenide, antimony sulfide, and antimony selenide thin films of about 0.20 - 0.25 micrometer thickness are reported. All these materials may be considered as solar absorber films: strong optical absorption edges, with absorption coefficient, (alpha) , greater than 104 cm-1, are located at 1.31 eV for Bi2Se3, 1.33 eV for Bi2S3, 1.8 eV for Sb2S3, and 1.35 eV for Sb2Se3. As deposited, all the films are nearly amorphous. However, well defined crystalline peaks matching bismuthinite (JCPDS 17- 0320), paraguanajuatite (JCPDS 33-0214), and stibnite (JCPDS 6-0474) and antimony selenide (JCPDS 15-0861) for Bi2S3, Bi2Se3, Sb2S3 and Sb2Se3 respectively, are observed when the films are annealed in nitrogen at 300 degrees Celsius. This is accompanied by a substantial modification of the electrical conductivity in the films: from 10-7 (Omega) -1 cm-1 (in as prepared films) to 10 (Omega) -1 cm-1 in the case of bismuth sulfide and selenide films, and enhancement of photosensitivity in the case of antimony sulfide films. The chemical deposition of a CuS/CuxSe film on these Vx- VIy films and subsequent annealing at 300 degrees Celsius for 1 h at 1 torr of nitrogen leads to the formation of p-type films (conductivity of 1 - 100 (Omega) -1 cm-1) of multinary composition. Among these, the formation of Cu3BiS3 (JCPDS 9-0488) and Cu3SbS4 (JCPDS 35- 0581), CuSbS2 (JCPDS 35-0413) have been clearly detected. Solar energy applications of these films are suggested.

The Building Energy Data Group at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, California, compiles measuredenergy data on retrofitted buildings and new buildings designed to be energy-efficient. Currently in the database are data from 89 elementary schools, 31 secondary schools, and 14 colleges. (MLF)

Energy literacy is a broad term encompassing content knowledge as well as a citizenship understanding of energy that includes affective and behavioral aspects. This article presents explicit criteria that will serve as a foundation for developing measurable objectives for energy literacy in three dimensions: cognitive (knowledge, cognitive…

We report on the first experimental observation and model validation of the spatial energydeposition of fast electrons into the imploded, high-density core of integrated cone-in-shell fast ignition experiments on OMEGA. Spatial energydeposition was characterized via fast electron produced K α fluorescence from a Cu tracer added to the CD shell. 2-D images of the Cu K α fluorescence were obtained using a spherically bent Bragg crystal imager. 54 of the 60 OMEGA beams (18 kJ) were used for fuel assembly, and the high intensity EP beam (10 ps, 0.5--1.5 kJ, Ip >1019 W/cm2) , was focused onto the inner cone tip to produce fast electrons. Cu K α emission from a 300 μm region surrounding the cone tip correlated well with the predicted core size from radiation-hydrodynamic simulations of the shell implosion. The emission also emanated from as far back as 100 μm from the cone tip, indicative of an electron source position with a large standoff distance from the cone tip, consistent with the presence of an extended pre-plasma from the EP pre-pulse. We observed a simultaneous increase in both K α yield (up to 70%) and thermal neutron number (up to 2×) with increasing EP beam energy. K α yield data also show an improved energy coupling using the high contrast EP pulse. Comprehensive simulations of the electron production within the cone and subsequent transport into the imploded core have been performed using the implicit PIC code LSP and the hybrid-PIC code ZUMA. These simulations explain the observed K α shape and yield trends and identify parameters that constrain energy coupling into the compressed core. This work was performed under the auspices of U.S. DOE under Contracts DE-FC02-04ER54789 (FSC), DE-FG02-05ER54834 (ACE) and DE-NA0000854 (NLUF).

Total aerosol deposition in the lung was measured in 100 subjects with various lung conditions. The subjects consisted of 40 normals (N), 15 asymptomatic smokers (S), 10 smokers with small airway disease (SAD), 20 with chronic simple bronchitis (SB), and 15 with chronic obstructive bronchitis (COPD), and a relationship of total aerosol deposition to degree of lung abnormality was investigated. The subjects were categorized by medical history and a battery of pulmonary function tests, including spirometry, body plethysmography, and single and multiple N2 washout measurements. Subjects repeatedly breathed a monodisperse test aerosol (1.0 micron diam) from a collapsible rebreathing bag (0.5 liter volume) at a rate of 30 breaths/min, while inhaled and exhaled aerosol concentrations were continuously monitored by a laser aerosol photometer in situ and recorded on a strip-chart recorder. The number of rebreathing breaths resulting in 90% aerosol loss from the bag (N90) was determined, and percent predicted N90 values were then determined from the results of computer simulation and used as a deposition index. The percent predicted N90 values were 99.7 +/- 14, 86.5 +/- 15, 66.9 +/- 17, 51 +/- 12, and 30.9 +/- 9, respectively, for N, S, SAD, SB, and COPD. All of these values were significantly different from each other (P less than 0.05). There was no difference between male and female but percent predicted N90 values were slightly higher in young than in old normals. Percent predicted N90 values showed a strong linear correlation with spirometric measurements of forced expiratory volume in 1 s and maximum midexpiratory flow rate. However, many of the SAD and SB with normal spirometry showed abnormal N90. These results suggest that total lung aerosol deposition is a sensitive index of lung abnormality and may be of potential use for nonspecific general patient screening.

We present an experimental setup for the investigation of the processes occurring during the deposition of mass-selected clusters on a well-defined surface. The sample is analyzed in situ by two complementary methods: thermal energy atom scattering (TEAS) and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). TEAS is used to study the dynamical processes during the deposition and to gather statistical information about the resulting structures on the surface. Subsequent STM measurements allow us to investigate the collision outcome on an atomic scale. The setup is highly versatile and guarantees ultra-high-vacuum conditions and cryogenic temperatures (≈30 K) of the sample at all times even during sample transfer. Clusters are produced in a CORDIS-type cluster source. A new compact multichannel effusive He source in combination with a new Wien-filter-based He detector are used for TEAS measurements. The new low-temperature STM allows measurements in a temperature range between 8 and 450 K. Atomic resolution on the Pt(111) surface is regularly observed at Tsample=8 K. The performances of the setup are illustrated by STM images obtained after the deposition of Ag7+ clusters with Ekin=95 and 1000 eV on bare Pt(111) and by measurements made of the deposition of Ag7+ clusters with Ekin=20 eV in a Xe-rare-gas matrix adsorbed on Pt(111).

Historical, seismic and vibracore data were used to determine the geologic framework of sand deposits along the predominantly muddy coastline of eastern Barataria Bight, Louisiana. Three inlet types with distinct sand body geometries and morphologies were identified and are found 1) at flanking barrier island systems spread laterally across the front of interdistributary bays; 2) in old distributary channels; 3) at overwash breaches; or 4) combination of these. Barataria Bight, a sheltered barrier island shoreline embayment with limited sand supply, minimal tidal range (36 cm) and low wave energies (30 cm) can be used to show examples of each inlet type. Barataria Pass and Quatre Bayou Pass are inlets located in old distributary channels. However, Barataria Pass has also been affected by construction between barrier islands. Pass Ronquille is located where the coastline has transgressed a low area in the delta plain. This breach is situated in a hydraulically efficient avenue between the Gulf and Bay Long behind it. Pass Abel is a combination of a low-profile barrier breach and the reoccupation of an old distributary channel. Shelf and shoreline sands are reworked from abandoned deltaic distributaries and headlands. Inner shelf sands are concentrated in thick (10 m) shore-normal relict distributary channels with fine grained cross-bedded and ripple laminated sand overlain by burrowed shelf muds. Shoreface sand deposits occur as 2-3 m thick, fine-grained, coarsening upward and burrowed ebb-tidal delta sequences and shore-parallel relict tidal inlet channels filled through lateral accretion.

This paper reports a high-performance piezoelectric energy harvester (EH) fabricated with xPb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)-(l-x)PbTiO3 (PMN-PT) by aerosol deposition method. The result indicates that PMN-PT based EH owns 1.8 times output power which is higher than traditional PbZrxTi1- xO3 (PZT) based EH. In order to compare the output performance of EH fabricated with PMN- PT compared with PZT, the similar thickness of PMN-PT and PZT thin film is deposited on stainless steel subtracted. The experimental results show that PZT-based EH had a maximum output power of 4.65 μW with 1.11 Vp-p output voltage excited at 94.4 Hz under 0.5g base excitation, while the PMN-PT based device has a maximum output power of 8.42 μW with 1.49 Vp-p output voltage at a vibration frequency of 94.8 Hz and the same base excitation level. The volumetric power density was 82.95 μW/mm3 and 48.05 μW/mm3 for the device based on PMN- PT and PZT materials, respectively. All the results demonstrate that PMN-PT has better output performance than PZT.

Here we use single-molecule imaging to determine coarse-grained intrinsic energy landscapes for nucleosome deposition on model DNA substrates. Our results reveal distributions that are correlated with recent in silico predictions, reinforcing the hypothesis that DNA contains some intrinsic positioning information. We also show that cis-regulatory sequences in human DNA coincide with peaks in the intrinsic landscape, whereas valleys correspond to non-regulatory regions, and we present evidence arguing that nucleosome deposition in vertebrates is influenced by factors not accounted for by current theory. Finally, we demonstrate that intrinsic landscapes of nucleosomes containing the centromere-specific variant CenH3 are correlated with patterns observed for canonical nucleosomes, arguing that CenH3 does not alter sequence preferences of centromeric nucleosomes. However, the non-histone protein Scm3 alters the intrinsic landscape of CenH3-containing nucleosomes, enabling them to overcome the otherwise exclusionary effects of poly(dA–dT) tracts, which are enriched in centromeric DNA. PMID:19734899

In the conventional method of measuring photon-energy albedo using a scintillation detector coupled with a multichannel analyzer, tedious efficiency correction by the inverse matrix method was needed. The indigenously designed proportional-response photon counter, with its detection efficiency proportional to energy of incident photons, was used in the present investigation. Use of the proportional-response photon counter makes the measurement straightforward and more accurate. Measurements of energy albedo from stratified layers of aluminum, iron, lead, and concrete using 662-keV and 1250-keV photon energies are reported.

Shear fracture energy has been measured for a granite and a limestone using a torsional method. We monitor failure with periodic stiffness determinations and measure strain energy released by integrating the load-displacement record. Values of strain energy release rate (G3C) obtained for zero normal stress lie in the range 10²-10³ Jm-2. These fall between the values of G1C from tensile experiments and of shear fracture energymeasured under high normal stress in triaxial tests.

Since its discovery during the 1930s the Čerenkov effect (light emission from charged particles traveling faster than the local speed of light in a dielectric medium) has been paramount in the development of high-energy physics research. The ability of the emitted light to describe a charged particle's trajectory, energy, velocity, and mass has allowed scientists to study subatomic particles, detect neutrinos, and explore the properties of interstellar matter. However, to our knowledge, all applications of the process to date have focused on the identification of particles themselves, rather than their effect upon the surroundings through which they travel. Here we explore a novel application of the Čerenkov effect for the recovery of the spatial distribution of ionizing radiation energydeposition in a medium and apply it to the issue of dose determination in medical physics. By capturing multiple projection images of the Čerenkov light induced by a medical linear accelerator x-ray photon beam, we demonstrate the successful three-dimensional tomographic reconstruction of the imparted dose distribution.

In this paper we present a method for the measurement of alpha particle energy using polycarbonate materials as nuclear track detectors (NTDs). This method is based on the interaction of the radiation with the solid-state materials, using the relationship between the energydeposited in the material by the ionising particle and the track developed after an established chemical process. The determination of the geometrical parameters of the formed track, such as major axis, minor axis and overall track length, permit determination of the energy of the alpha particle. The track analysis is performed automatically using a digital image system, and the data are processed in a PC with commercial software. In this experiment 148Gd, 238U, 230Th, 239Pu and 244Cm alpha particle emitters were used. The values for alpha particle energy resolution, the linear response to energy, the confidence in the results and the automatisation of the procedure make this method a promising analysis system.

A comprehensive field intercomparison at four different types of European sites (two rural, one urban and one industrial) comparing three different collectors (wet only, bulk and Bergerhoff samplers) was conducted in the framework of the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) to create an European standard for the deposition of the four elements As, Cd, Ni and Pb. The purpose was to determine whether the proposed methods lead to results within the uncertainty required by the EU's daughter directive (70%). The main conclusion is that a different sampling strategy is needed for rural and industrial sites. Thus, the conclusions on uncertainties and sample approach are presented separately for the different approaches. The wet only and bulk collector ("bulk bottle method") are comparable at wet rural sites where the total deposition arises mainly from precipitation, the expanded uncertainty when comparing these two types of sampler are below 45% for As, Cd and Pb, 67% for Ni. At industrial sites and possibly very dry rural and urban sites it is necessary to use Bergerhoff samplers or a "bulk bottle+funnel method". It is not possible to address the total deposition estimation with these methods, but they will give the lowest estimate of the total deposition. The expanded uncertainties when comparing the Bergerhoff and the bulk bottle+funnel methods are below 50% for As and Cd, and 63% for Pb. The uncertainty for Ni was not addressed since the bulk bottle+funnel method did not include a full digestion procedure which is necessary for sites with high loads of undissolved metals. The lowest estimate can however be calculated by comparing parallel Bergerhoff samplers where the expanded uncertainty for Ni was 24%. The reproducibility is comparable to the between sampler/method uncertainties. Sampling and sample preparation were proved to be the main factors in the uncertainty budget of depositionmeasurements.

Cluster-assembled Tb-Fe nanostructured films were prepared by the low energy cluster beam deposition method. The microstructure, magnetization and magnetostriction were investigated for the films. It is shown that the film is assembled by monodisperse spherical nanoparticles with average diameter of ∼30 nm which are distributed uniformly. The cluster-assembled Tb-Fe nanostructured films exhibit good magnetization and possess giant magnetostriction with saturation value of ∼1060 × 10(-6), much higher than that of the common Tb-Fe films. The origin of good magnetization and giant magnetostriction for the cluster-assembled Tb-Fe nanostructured film was discussed. The present work opens a new avenue to produce the nanostructured magnetostrictive alloy in application of a nano-electro-mechanical system.

Atomic layer deposition (ALD) is a thin film technology that in the past two decades rapidly developed from a niche technology to an established method. It proved to be a key technology for the surface modification and the fabrication of complex nanostructured materials. In this Progress Report, after a short introduction to ALD and its chemistry, the versatility of the technique for the fabrication of novel functional materials will be discussed. Selected examples, focused on its use for the engineering of nanostructures targeting applications in energy conversion and storage, and on environmental issues, will be discussed. Finally, the challenges that ALD is now facing in terms of materials fabrication and processing will be also tackled.

Several different Monte Carlo codes are currently being used at proton therapy centers to improve upon dose predictions over standard methods using analytical or semi-empirical dose algorithms. There is a need to better ascertain the differences between proton dose predictions from different available Monte Carlo codes. In this investigation Geant4 and MCNPX, the two most-utilized Monte Carlo codes for proton therapy applications, were used to predict energydeposition distributions in a variety of geometries, comprising simple water phantoms, water phantoms with complex inserts and in a voxelized geometry based on clinical CT data. The gamma analysis was used to evaluate the differences of the predictions between the codes. The results show that in the all cases the agreement was better than clinical acceptance criteria. PMID:22996039

A field study was conducted to compare methods for sampling and analysis of atmospheric constituents that are important contributors to acidic dry deposition. Three multicomponent samplers were used: the Canadian filter pack (FP), the annular denuder system (ADS), and the transition flow reactor (TFR). A tunable diode laser absorption spectrometer (TDLAS) provided continuous reference measurements of NO2 and HNO3. Nitrogen dioxide was also monitored with continuous luminol-based chemiluminescence monitors and with passive sampling devices (PSDs). The study was designed to provide a database for statistical comparison of the various methods with emphasis on the multicomponent samplers under consideration for use in a national dry deposition network. The study was conducted at the EPA dry deposition station in Research Triangle Park, NC between 29 September and 12 October, 1986. Daily averaging and/or sampling times were employed for the 13-day study; weekly samples were also collected, but results from these samples are not compared in the paper. Different measurements of ambient concentrations of the following constituents are compared: total particulate and gaseous NO3(-), HNO3, NO2, total particulate NH4(-), NH3, total particulate SO4(-), and SO2.

A Quartz Microbalance (QMB) system was implemented in the inner divertor region of JET in order to measure in situ and time resolved (minimum exposure time â‰¥0.1 s) material fluxes (mainly carbon) and layer deposition. The system has been developed to operate at temperatures up to 200Â°C. The aim is to investigate carbon transport to the remote areas, and hence the tritium retention in dependence on plasma conditions. This question is still a major concern for the ITER operation. The mass sensitivity of the system is Sm = 1.5 A~— 10-8 [g/Hz cm2]. First reliable measurements were made during the C5 campaign (Marchâ€“May 2002; â‰e1000 plasma discharges). The results presented are based on 74 selected exposures (694 s) under various conditions (strike point position, input power, neutral pressure, ELM frequency). Most influencing on the carbon deposition in the remote area seems to be the geometry i.e. the strike point position on the divertor tiles. In average 1.9 A~— 10-4 C-atom are deposited per deuterium ion flowing into the inner divertor.

Ammonia has recently gained importance for its increasing atmospheric concentrations and its role in the formation of aerosols. Studies have shown increasing atmospheric concentration levels of NH3 and NH 4+, especially in the regions of concentrated animal feeding operations. Atmospheric inputs of reduced nitrogen as ammonia and ammonium by dry and wet deposition may represent a substantial contribution to the acidification of semi natural ecosystems and could also affect sensitive coastal ecosystems and estuaries. The anaerobic lagoon and spray method, commonly used for waste storage and disposal in confined animal feeding operations (CAFO), is a significant source of ammonia emissions. An accurate emission model for ammonia from aqueous surfaces can help in the development of emission factors. Study of dispersion and dry deposition patterns of ammonia downwind of a hog farm will help us to understand how much ammonia gets dry deposited near the farm, and how remaining ammonia gets transported farther away. An experimental and modeling study is conducted of emissions, dispersion and dry deposition of ammonia taking one swine farm as a unit. Measurements of ammonia flux were made at 11 swine facilities in North Carolina using dynamic flow-through chamber system over the anaerobic waste treatment lagoons. Continuous measurements of ammonia flux, meteorological and lagoon parameters were made for 8-10 days at each farm during each of the warm and cold seasons. Ammonia concentrations were continuously measured in the chamber placed over the lagoon using a Thermo Environmental Instrument Incorporated (TECO) Model 17c chemiluminescnce ammonia analyzer. A similar ammonia analyzer was used to measure ammonia concentrations at selected locations on the farm. Barn emissions were measured using open-path Fourier transform infrared (OP-FTIR) spectroscopy. A 10 m meteorological tower was erected at each site to measure wind speed and direction, temperature, relative humidity

This guidance provides state and local air quality officials with valuable information on how to incorporate energy efficiency and renewable energy (EE/RE) measures into their air quality plan, also known as the State Implementation Plan (SIP).

An indirect proton flux measuring tool based on discrimination of the energydeposited by protons in 128×128 pixel EIT CCD areas outside the solar disk images is presented. Single pixel intensity events are converted into proton incident energy flux using modeled energydeposition curves for angles of incidence ± 60° in four EIT spatial areas with different proton stopping power. The extracted proton flux is corrected for both the loss of one-pixel events in the range of angles of incidence as well as for the contribution to the single pixel events resulting from scattered middle-energy protons (low-energy or high-energy particles are stopped by the EIT components or pass through them, accordingly). A simple geometrical approach was found and applied to correct for a non-unique relation between the proton-associated CCD output signal and the incident proton energy. With this geometrical approximation four unique proton incident energy ranges were determined as 45-49, 145-154, 297-335, and 390-440 MeV. The indirect proton flux measuring tool has been tested by comparing Solar Energetic Particles (SEP) flux temporal profiles extracted from the EIT CCD frames and downloaded from the GOES database for the Bastille Day (BD) of 2000 July 14 and the more recent 2005 January 20 events. The SEP flux temporal profiles and proton spectra extracted from the EIT in the relatively narrow energy ranges between 45 and 440 MeV reported here are consistent with the related GOES profiles. The four additional EIT extracted ranges provide higher energy resolution of the SEP data.

Phosphogypsum (PG) is a waste product (residue) from the production of phosphoric acid characterized by technologically enhanced natural radioactivity. Croatia's largest PG deposition site is situated at the edge of Lonjsko Polje Nature Park, a sensitive ecosystem possibly endangered by PG particles. This field study investigates two aspects relevant for the general radiological impact of PG: risk assessment for the environment and risk assessment for occupationally exposed workers and local inhabitants. Activity concentrations of natural radionuclides ((238)U, (235)U, (232)Th, (226)Ra, (210)Pb, and (40)K) were measured in the PG (at the deposition site), soil, and grass samples (in the vicinity of the site). The ERICA Assessment Tool was used to estimate the radiological impact of PG particles on non-human biota of the Lonjsko Polje Nature Park. The average annual effective dose for occupationally exposed workers was 0.4 mSv which was within the worldwide range.

As part of the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP), the U. S. Geological Survey is cooperating with other agencies to test the effects of acid deposition on building stone. A 10-year test-site study has been organized for the purpose of correlating possible stone deterioration with environmental factors. In Summer 1984, slabs of building stone, 3 by 2 by 2 inches, were exposed to the atmosphere at four test sites where the pH of precipitation and other meteorological variables are continuously monitored. This paper examines the development of one experimental technique used in this study - the application of diffuse spectral reflectance methods for laboratory and in situ measurement of those properties of stone which may be affected by acid deposition.

Ion-beam cancer therapy is a promising technique to treat deep-seated tumors; however, for an accurate treatment planning, the energydeposition by the ions must be well known both in soft and hard human tissues. Although the energy loss of ions in water and other organic and biological materials is fairly well known, scarce information is available for the hard tissues (i.e., bone), for which the current stopping power information relies on the application of simple additivity rules to atomic data. Especially, more knowledge is needed for the main constituent of human bone, calcium hydroxyapatite (HAp), which constitutes 58% of its mass composition. In this work the energy loss of H and He ion beams in HAp films has been obtained experimentally. The experiments have been performed using the Rutherford backscattering technique in an energy range of 450-2000 keV for H and 400-5000 keV for He ions. These measurements are used as a benchmark for theoretical calculations (stopping power and mean excitation energy) based on the dielectric formalism together with the MELF-GOS (Mermin energy loss function-generalized oscillator strength) method to describe the electronic excitation spectrum of HAp. The stopping power calculations are in good agreement with the experiments. Even though these experimental data are obtained for low projectile energies compared with the ones used in hadron therapy, they validate the mean excitation energy obtained theoretically, which is the fundamental quantity to accurately assess energydeposition and depth-dose curves of ion beams at clinically relevant high energies. The effect of the mean excitation energy choice on the depth-dose profile is discussed on the basis of detailed simulations. Finally, implications of the present work on the energy loss of charged particles in human cortical bone are remarked.

The authors report operation of a laser-diode side-pumped Nd:YAG laser with a novel pumping geometry that ensures efficient conversion of pump energy into the TEM00 mode. Significant enhancement of thermally induced lensing due to the near-Gaussian energydeposition profile of the pump radiation was observed. An induced lens of approximately 3.2-m focal length was measured at average incident pump powers of only 3.2 W (corresponding to a 0.6 W heat load).

When policy makers propose new policies, there is a need to assess the costs and benefits of the proposed policy measures, to compare them to existing and alternative policies, and to rank them according to their effectiveness. In the case of equipment energy efficiency regulations, comparing the effects of a range of alternative policy measures requires evaluating their effects on consumers’ budgets, on national energy consumption and economics, and on the environment. Such an approach should be able to represent in a single framework the particularities of each policy measure and provide comparable results. This report presents an integrated methodological framework to assess prospectively the energy, economic, and environmental impacts of energy efficiency policy measures. The framework builds on the premise that the comparative assessment of energy efficiency policy measures should (a) rely on a common set of primary data and parameters, (b) follow a single functional approach to estimate the energy, economic, and emissions savings resulting from each assessed measure, and (c) present results through a set of comparable indicators. This framework elaborates on models that the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has used in support of its rulemakings on mandatory energy efficiency standards. In addition to a rigorous analysis of the impacts of mandatory standards, DOE compares the projected results of alternative policy measures to those projected to be achieved by the standards. The framework extends such an approach to provide a broad, generic methodology, with no geographic or sectoral limitations, that is useful for evaluating any type of equipment energy efficiency market intervention. The report concludes with a demonstration of how to use the framework to compare the impacts estimated for twelve policy measures focusing on increasing the energy efficiency of gas furnaces in the United States.

This paper describes the development of a new artificial turf surrogate surface (ATSS) sampler for use in the measurement of mercury (Hg) dry deposition. In contrast to many existing surrogate surface designs, the ATSS utilizes a three-dimensional deposition surface that may more...

Here we investigate the effects of absorbing media on plasmon-enhanced near-field optical energydeposition. We find that increasing absorption by the medium results in increased particle scattering at the expense of particle absorption, and that much of this increased particle scattering is absorbed by the medium close to the particle surface. We present an analytical method for evaluating the spatial distribution of near-field enhanced absorption surrounding plasmonic metal nanospheres in absorbing media using a new point-by-point method. We propose criteria to define relevant near-field boundaries and calculate the properties of the local absorption enhancement, which redistributes absorption to the near-field and decays asymptotically as a function of the distance from the particle to background levels. Using this method, we performed a large-scale parametric study to understand the effect of particle size and wavelength on the near-field absorption for gold nanoparticles in aqueous media and silicon, and identified conditions that are relevant to enhanced local infrared absorption in silicon. The presented approach provides insight into the local energy transfer around plasmonic nanoparticles for predicting near-field effects for advanced concepts in optical sensing, thin-film solar cells, nonlinear imaging, and photochemical applications.

Many experimental studies report reduced wave drag when thermal energy is deposited in the supersonic flow upstream of a body. Though a large amount of research on this topic has been accumulated, the exact mechanism of the drag reduction is still unknown. This paper is to fill the gap in the understanding connecting multiple stages of the observed phenomena with a single mechanism. The proposed model provides an insight on the origin of the chain of subsequent transformations in the flow leading to the reduction in wave drag, such as typical deformations of the front, changes in the gas pressure and density in front of the body, the odd shapes of the deflection signals, and the shock wave extinction in the plasma area. The results of numerical simulation based on the model are presented for three types of plasma parameter distribution. The spherical and cylindrical geometry has been used to match the data with the experimental observations. The results demonstrate full ability of the model to exactly explain all the features observed in the drag reduction experiments. Analytical expressions used in the model allow separating out a number of adjustment parameters that can be used to optimize thermal energy input and thus achieve fundamentally lower drag values than that of conventional approaches.

Liquefaction has been a source of major damages during severe earthquakes. To evaluate this phenomenon there are several stress, strain and energy based approaches. Use of the energy method has been more focused by researchers due to its advantages with respect to other approaches. The use of the energy concept to define the liquefaction potential is validated through laboratory element and centrifuge tests as well as field studies. This approach is based on the hypothesis that pore pressure buildup is directly related to the dissipated energy in sands which is the accumulated areas between the stress-strain loops. Numerous investigations were performed to find a relationship which correlates the dissipated energy to the soil parameters, but there are not sufficient studies to relate this dissipated energy, known as demand energy, concurrently, to the seismological and the soil parameters. The aim of this paper is to investigate the dependency of the demand energy in sands to seismological and the soil parameters. To perform this task, an effective stress analysis has been executed using FLAC finite difference program. Finn model, which is a built-in constitutive model implemented in FLAC program, was utilized. Since an important stage to predict the liquefaction is the prediction of excess pore water pressure at a given point, a simple numerical framework is presented to assess its generation during a cyclic loading in a given centrifuge test. According to the results, predicted excess pore water pressures did not closely match to the measured excess pore water pressure values in the centrifuge test but they can be used in the numerical assessment of excess pore water pressure with an acceptable degree of preciseness. Subsequently, the centrifuge model was reanalyzed using several real earthquake acceleration records with different seismological parameters such as earthquake magnitude and Hypocentral distance. The accumulated energies (demand energy) dissipated in

The performance of sewer networks has important consequences from an environmental and social point of view. Poor functioning can result in flood risk and pollution at a large scale. Sediment deposits forming in sewer trunks might severely compromise the sewer line by affecting the flow field, reducing cross-sectional areas, and increasing roughness coefficients. In spite of numerous efforts, the morphological features of these depositional environments remain poorly understood. The interface between water and sediment remains inefficiently identified and the estimation of the stock of deposit is frequently inaccurate. In part, this is due to technical issues connected to difficulties in collecting accurate field measurements without disrupting existing morphologies. In this paper, results from an extensive field campaign are presented; during the campaign a new survey methodology based on acoustic techniques has been tested. Furthermore, a new algorithm for the detection of the soil-water interface, and therefore for the correct esteem of sediment stocks is proposed. Finally, results in regard to bed topography, and morphological features at two different field sites are presented and reveal that a large variability in bed forms is present along sewer networks.

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory maintains an in vivo measurement program designed to identify and evaluate the activity of radionuclides deposited in the body. Two types of systems are primarily used for the routine monitoring of radiation workers, the lung counting system and the scanning bed whole body counting system. The lung counting system is comprised of two Canberra ACTII detector sets. Each ACTII set contains two planar germanium detectors with carbon composite end windows optimized to measure low energy photon emitting radionuclides. The ACTII detectors are placed on the upper torso over the lungs for the direct measurement of internally deposited radionuclides in the lungs that emit low energy photons. A correction for the thickness of the chest wall is applied to the efficiency. Because the thickness of the chest wall is a key factor in the measurement of low energy photon emitting radionuclides in the lung, the minimum detectable activity is a function of the chest wall thickness. The scanning bed whole body counting system is comprised of a thin air mattress on top of a carbon fiber bed that slowly scans over four high purity germanium detectors. The scanning system is designed to minimize variations in detected activity due to radionuclide distribution in the body. The scanning bed detection system is typically used for the measurement of internally deposited radionuclides that emit photons above 100 to 200 keV. MDAs have been generated for radionuclides that provide energies above 80 keV since the lowest calibration energy for the system is approximately 86 keV. The following charts and table provide best determination of minimum detectable activity using human subjects as controls for the background contributions. A wide variety of radionuclides are used throughout the laboratory and the following pages represent several of the radionuclides that have been encountered at the Whole Body and Spectroscopy Laboratories within Hazards Control.

Aim Evaluation of energydeposition of protons in human brain and calculation of the secondary neutrons and photons produced by protons in proton therapy. Background Radiation therapy is one of the main methods of treating localized cancer tumors. The use of high energy proton beam in radiotherapy was proposed almost 60 years ago. In recent years, there has been a revival of interest in this subject in the context of radiation therapy. High energy protons suffer little angular deflection and have a well-defined penetration range, with a sharp increase in the energy loss at the end of their trajectories, namely the Bragg peak. Materials and methods A slab head phantom was used for the purpose of simulating proton therapy in brain tissue. In this study simulation was carried out using the Monte Carlo MCNPX code. Results By using mono energetic proton pencil beams, energydepositions in tissues, especially inside the brain, as well as estimating the neutron and photon production as a result of proton interactions in the body, together with their energy spectra, were calculated or obtained. The amount of energy escaped from the head by secondary neutrons and photons was determined. Conclusions It was found that for high energy proton beams the amount of escaped energy by neutrons is almost 10 times larger than that by photons. We estimated that at 110 MeV beam energy, the overall proton energy “leaked” from the head by secondary photons and neutrons to be around 1%. PMID:25337410

For local measurement of radial ion thermal transport, we developed a novel time-resolved gridded ion energy analyzer. The turbulent thermal flux is obtained by correlating fluctuations of ion temperature, plasma density and plasma velocity. The simultaneous measurement of the ion current fluctuations from an ion energy analyzer tilde I_{IEA} (t) and the fluctuation of ion saturation current from a conventional Langmuir probe tilde I_{LP} (t) allow us to determine local fluctuations of ion temperature tilde T_i (t). To reduce the effect of plasma potential fluctuations in the energy analyzer measurements, we use special a compensative circuit loop.

An important commitment in the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change is to conduct mitigation analysis and to communicate climate change measures and policies. In major part reducing CO{sub 2} as well as the other greenhouse gas emissions in Kazakstan, can be a side-product of measures addressed to increasing energy efficiency. Since such measures are very important for the national economy, mitigation strategies in the energy sector of Kazakstan are directly connected with the general national strategy of the energy sector development. This paper outlines the main measures and technologies in energy sector of Kazakstan which can lead to GHG emissions reduction and presents the results of current mitigation assessment. The mitigation analysis is addressed to energy production sector. A baseline and six mitigation scenarios were developed to evaluate the most attractive mitigation options, focusing on specific technologies which have been already included in sustainable energy programs. According to the baseline projection, Kazakstan`s CO{sub 2} emissions will not exceed their 1990 level until 2005. The potential for CO{sub 2} emission reduction is estimated to be about 11 % of the base line emission level by the end of considered period (in 2020). The main mitigation options in the energy production sector in terms of mitigation potential and technical and economical feasibility include rehabilitation of thermal power plants aimed to increasing efficiency, use of nuclear energy and further expansion in the use of hydro energy based on small hydroelectric power plants.

The efficiency of LHCD on Alcator C-Mod drops exponentially with line average density. At reactor relevant densities (> 1 · 1020 [m{sup −3}]) no measurable current is driven. While a number of causes have been suggested, no specific mechanism has been shown to be responsible for the loss of current drive at high density. Fast modulation of the LH power was used to isolate and quantify the LHCD deposition within the plasma. Measurements from these plasmas provide unique evidence for determining a root cause. Modulation of LH power in steady plasmas exhibited no correlated change in the core temperature. A correlated, prompt response in the edge suggests that the loss in efficiency is related to a edge absorption mechanism. This follows previous results which found the generation of n{sub ||}-independent SOL currents. Multiple Langmuir probe array measurements of the conducted heat conclude that the lost power is deposited near the last closed flux surface. The heat flux induced by LH waves onto the outer divertor is calculated. Changes in the neutral pressure, ionization and hard X-ray emission at high density highlight the importance of the active divertor in the loss of efficiency. Results of this study implicate a mechanism which may occur over multiple passes, leading to power absorption near the LCFS.

Solid compounds of water and gaseous hydrocarbons are known as gas hydrates, clathrates, or cryohydrates. They occur naturally in offshore and terrestrial environments, in the areas where temperature is at least seasonally low (i.e. close to or below freezing), bathymetric, geostatic, ice, or permafrost pressure is sufficiently high, and the source of hydrocarbons is available. These factors (regional and local geological conditions of 21 locations grouped into 13 study regions worldwide offshore and one in permafrost environments with proven, reported, and inferred presence of gas hydrates) have been recently researched by Geoexplorers International, Inc. Conservative estimations from Geoexplorers International suggest that the world's total gas hydrates may contain 7,000 to 50,000 tcf of natural gas. Although at this time exploitation of gas trapped in the hydrate zone and below is not economically viable, because estimated reserves are enormous, they should be seriously considered as potential energy resource. Smaller, but less dispersed massive gas hydrate deposits associated with fault zones may be the first offshore gas resource to become economic. This research, particularly of the Messoyakh gas field, has proved that the presence of gas hydrates provides very useful information in exploration for conventional oil and gas deposits. Gas hydrates indicate ongoing hydrocarbon generation in the sediments. Hydrates are valuable to assess the present heat flow and thermal history of a region. Since gas hydrates exist only under a very limited range of pressure and temperature, deviation in patterns of their occurrence can be related to changes in pore water chemistry, hydrocarbon composition, or pressure and temperature gradient anomalies.

We develop analytic and numerical models of the properties of super-Eddington stellar winds, motivated by phases in stellar evolution when super-Eddington energydeposition (via, e.g. unstable fusion, wave heating, or a binary companion) heats a region near the stellar surface. This appears to occur in the giant eruptions of luminous blue variables (LBVs), Type IIn supernovae progenitors, classical novae, and X-ray bursts. We show that when the wind kinetic power exceeds Eddington, the photons are trapped and behave like a fluid. Convection does not play a significant role in the wind energy transport. The wind properties depend on the ratio of a characteristic speed in the problem v_crit˜ (dot{E} G)^{1/5} (where dot{E} is the heating rate) to the stellar escape speed near the heating region vesc(rh). For vcrit ≳ vesc(rh), the wind kinetic power at large radii dot{E}_w ˜ dot{E}. For vcrit ≲ vesc(rh), most of the energy is used to unbind the wind material and thus dot{E}_w ≲ dot{E}. Multidimensional hydrodynamic simulations without radiation diffusion using FLASH and one-dimensional hydrodynamic simulations with radiation diffusion using MESA are in good agreement with the analytic predictions. The photon luminosity from the wind is itself super-Eddington but in many cases the photon luminosity is likely dominated by `internal shocks' in the wind. We discuss the application of our models to eruptive mass-loss from massive stars and argue that the wind models described here can account for the broad properties of LBV outflows and the enhanced mass-loss in the years prior to Type IIn core-collapse supernovae.

To determine atmospheric deposition of anthropogenic contaminants to the Great Lakes, the US and Canada established the Integrated Atmospheric Deposition Network (IADN), designed to collect regional data representative of the air over the lakes. In this paper, the authors present an update of atmospheric loadings to the Great Lakes for seven organochlorine pesticides, four polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners and total-PCBs, four polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and four trace metals. Calculations are based on gas, particle, and precipitation samples obtained in 1993 and 1994 at the five master IADN sampling stations. Air-water exchange is the dominant process for most organochlorines and lower molecular weight PAHs. Within the uncertainty in the data given here, current atmospheric loadings are indistinguishable from air-water equilibrium having been achieved over the lakes. In other words, the deposition of most organochlorine compounds into the Great Lakes is about balanced by the evaporation of these compounds from the lakes. Uncertainties in gas-transfer loadings are due to the inexact knowledge of physiochemical parameters, averaging of data over long time scales, and insufficient data for nonatmospheric sources.

Characterization of a hydrated uranyl fluoride (UO{sub 2}F{sub 2}{center_dot}nH{sub 2}O) deposit in a 17-ft-long, 24-in.-OD process pipe at the former Oak Ridge Gaseous Diffusion Plant was successfully performed by using {sup 252}Cf-source-correlated time-of-flight (TOF) transmission measurements. These measurements of neutrons and gamma rays through the pipe from an external {sup 2521}Cf fission source were used to measure the deposit profile and its distribution along the pipe, the hydration (or H/U), and the total uranium mass. The measurements were performed with a source in an ionization chamber on one side of the pipe and detectors on the other. Scanning the pipe vertically and horizontally produced a spatial and time-dependent radiograph of the deposit in which transmitted gamma rays and neutrons were separated in time. The cross-correlation function between the source and the detector was measured with the Nuclear Weapons Identification System. After correcting for pipe effects, the deposit thickness was determined from the transmitted neutrons and H/U from the gamma rays. Results were consistent with a later intrusive observation of the shape and the color of the deposit; i.e., the deposit was annular and was on the top of the pipe at some locations, demonstrating the usefulness of this method for deposit characterization.

Energy improvements in a home are often approached as one concerted effort, beginning with a simple walk-through assessment or more in-depth energy audit and followed by the installation of recommended energymeasures. While this approach allows for systems thinking to guide the efforts, comprehensive energy improvements of this nature are undertaken by a relatively small number of the households in our nation compared to more piecemeal remodeling efforts. Even when programs like the Weatherization Assistance Program and Home Performance with ENERGY STAR are considered, homes that have had a comprehensive energy makeover still represent a small fraction of the 111.1 million households. In this report, the U.S Department of Energy Building America Retrofit Alliance research team looks at the improvement of a home's energy performance in an opportunistic way: it examines what can be done to incorporate energy efficiency measures into general remodeling work and home repair projects. This allows for the possibility for people who would not normally pursue energy efficiency but will remodel their kitchen or re-side their home to improve their home's performance at the same time. There are challenges to this approach, not the least of which being that the work will take place over time in potentially many separate projects. The opportunity to improve a home's energy efficiency at one time expands or contracts with the scope of the remodel. As such, guidance on how to do each piece thoughtfully and with consideration for potential future projects, is critical.

One of the main issues of low-energy internal emitters concerns the very short ranges of the beta particles, versus the dimensions of the biological targets. Depending on the chemical form, the radionuclide may be more concentrated either in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus of the target cell. Consequently, since in most cases conventional dosimetry neglects this issue it may overestimate or underestimate the dose to the nucleus and hence the biological effects. To assess the magnitude of these deviations and to provide a realistic evaluation of the localized energydeposition by low-energy internal emitters, the biophysical track-structure code PARTRAC was used to calculate nuclear doses, DNA damage yields and fragmentation patterns for different localizations of radionuclides in human interphase fibroblasts. The nuclides considered in the simulations were tritium and nickel-63, which emit electrons with average energies of 5.7 (range in water of 0.42 μm) and 17 keV (range of 5 μm), respectively, covering both very short and medium ranges of beta-decay products. The simulation results showed that the largest deviations from the conventional dosimetry occur for inhomogeneously distributed short-range emitters. For uniformly distributed radionuclides selectively in the cytoplasm but excluded from the cell nucleus, the dose in the nucleus is 15% of the average dose in the cell in the case of tritium but 64% for nickel-63. Also, the numbers of double-strand breaks (DSBs) and the distributions of DNA fragments depend on subcellular localization of the radionuclides. In the low- and medium-dose regions investigated here, DSB numbers are proportional to the nuclear dose, with about 50 DSB/Gy for both studied nuclides. In addition, DSB numbers on specific chromosomes depend on the radionuclide localization in the cell as well, with chromosomes located more peripherally in the cell nucleus being more damaged by short-ranged emitters in cytoplasm compared with chromosomes

Neutrons produced from the interaction between galactic cosmic rays and spacecraft materials are responsible for a very important portion of the dose received by astronauts. The neutron energy spectrum depends on the incident charged particle spectrum and the scattering environment but generally extends to beyond 100 MeV. Tissue-equivalent proportional counters (TEPC) are used to measure the dose during the space mission, but their weight and size are very important factors for their design and construction. To achieve ideal neutron dosimetry, the wall thickness should be at least the range of a proton having the maximum energy of the neutrons to be monitored. This proton range is 0.1 cm for 10 MeV neutrons and 7.6 cm for 100 MeV neutrons. A 7.6 cm wall thickness TEPC would provide charged particle equilibrium (CPE) for neutrons up to 100 MeV, but for space applications it would not be reasonable in terms of weight and size. In order to estimate the errors in measured dose due to absence of CPE, MCNPX simulations of energydeposited by 10 MeV and 100 MeV neutrons in sites with wall thickness between 0.1 cm and 8.5 cm were performed. The results for 100 MeV neutrons show that energydeposition per incident neutron approaches a plateau as the wall thickness approaches 7.6 cm. For the 10 MeV neutrons, energydeposition per incident neutron decreases as the wall thickness increases above 0.1 cm due to attenuation.

In this study, to foster the transition to more sustainable energy systems, policymakers have been approving measures to improve energy efficiency as well as promoting smart grids. In this setting, building managers are encouraged to adapt their energy operations to real-time market and weather conditions. Yet, most fail to do so as they rely on conventional building energy management systems (BEMS) that have static temperature set points for heating and cooling equipment. In this paper, we investigate how effective policy measures are at improving building-level energy efficiency compared to a smart BEMS with dynamic temperature set points. To this end, we present an integrated optimisation model mimicking the smart BEMS that combines decisions on heating and cooling systems operations with decisions on energy sourcing. Using data from an Austrian and a Spanish building, we find that the smart BEMS results in greater reduction in energy consumption than a conventional BEMS with policy measures.

Gaseous oxidized mercury (GOM) dry depositionmeasurements using aerodynamic surrogate surface passive samplers were collected in central and eastern Texas and eastern Oklahoma, from September 2011 to September 2012.The purpose of this study was to provide an initial characteriza...

The energy loss and penetration of multi-megelectronvolt protons into a uniform deuterium-tritium (DT) plasma has been calculated. The effects of nuclear elastic scattering and Coulomb interactions are treated from a unified point of view. In general, multiple scattering enhances the proton linear-energy transfer along the initial proton direction, thus the energydeposition increases near the end of its range. The net effect of multiple scattering is to reduce the penetration from 1.20 to 1.02 g cm-2 for 12 MeV protons in a ρ=500 g cm-3 plasma at T=5 keV. These results should have relevance to proton fast ignition, specifically to energydeposition calculations that critically assess quantitative ignition requirements.

Free-energy landscapes govern the behavior of all interactions in the presence of thermal fluctuations in the fields of physical chemistry, materials sciences, and the biological sciences. From the energy landscape, critical information about an interaction, such as the reaction kinetic rates, bond lifetimes, and the presence of intermediate states, can be determined. Despite the importance of energy landscapes to understanding reaction mechanisms, most experiments do not directly measureenergy landscapes, particularly for interactions with steep force gradients that lead to premature jump to contact of the probe and insufficient sampling of transition regions. Here we present an atomic force microscopy (AFM) approach for measuringenergy landscapes that increases sampling of strongly adhesive interactions by using white-noise excitation to enhance the cantilever's thermal fluctuations. The enhanced fluctuations enable the recording of subtle deviations from a harmonic potential to accurately reconstruct interfacial energy landscapes with steep gradients. Comparing the measuredenergy landscape with adhesive force measurements reveals the existence of an optimal excitation voltage that enables the cantilever fluctuations to fully sample the shape and depth of the energy surface.

Free-energy landscapes govern the behavior of all interactions in the presence of thermal fluctuations in the fields of physical chemistry, materials sciences, and the biological sciences. From the energy landscape, critical information about an interaction, such as the reaction kinetic rates, bond lifetimes, and the presence of intermediate states, can be determined. Despite the importance of energy landscapes to understanding reaction mechanisms, most experiments do not directly measureenergy landscapes, particularly for interactions with steep force gradients that lead to premature jump to contact of the probe and insufficient sampling of transition regions. Here we present an atomic force microscopy (AFM) approach for measuringenergy landscapes that increases sampling of strongly adhesive interactions by using white-noise excitation to enhance the cantilever’s thermal fluctuations. The enhanced fluctuations enable the recording of subtle deviations from a harmonic potential to accurately reconstruct interfacial energy landscapes with steep gradients. Comparing the measuredenergy landscape with adhesive force measurements reveals the existence of an optimal excitation voltage that enables the cantilever fluctuations to fully sample the shape and depth of the energy surface. PMID:27911778

An energetic vacuum deposition system has been used to study depositionenergy effects on the properties of niobium thin films on copper and sapphire substrates. The absence of working gas avoids the gaseous inclusions commonly seen with sputtering deposition. A biased substrate holder controls the depositionenergy. Transition temperature and residual resistivity ratio of the niobium thin films at several depositionenergies are obtained together with surface morphology and crystal orientation measurements by AFM inspection, XRD and TEM analysis. The results show that niobium thin films on sapphire substrate exhibit the best cryogenic properties at depositionenergy around 123 eV. The TEM analysis revealed that epitaxial growth of film was evident when depositionenergy reaches 163 eV for sapphire substrate. Similarly, niobium thin film on copper substrate shows that film grows more oriented with higher depositionenergy and grain size reaches the scale of the film thickness at the depositionenergy around 153 eV.

A recoverable payload instrumented for twilight airglow studies was launched by an Aerobee 150 from the White Sands Test Range on Feb. 8, 1971 at 13.56 UT. The payload included a low energy electron spectrometer (HARP) and a cylindrical Langmuir probe. The HARP electron spectrometer is a new device designed to make high resolution differential electron flux measurements. Measurements of ionospheric electron energy distribution in the range from about 0.2 to 4.0 eV are presented.

The nature of dark energy can be probed not only through its equation of state but also through its microphysics, characterized by the sound speed of perturbations to the dark energy density and pressure. As the sound speed drops below the speed of light, dark energy inhomogeneities increase, affecting both cosmic microwave background and matter power spectra. We show that current data can put no significant constraints on the value of the sound speed when dark energy is purely a recent phenomenon, but can begin to show more interesting results for early dark energy models. For example, the best fit model for current data has a slight preference for dynamics [w(a){ne}-1], degrees of freedom distinct from quintessence (c{sub s{ne}}1), and early presence of dark energy [{Omega}{sub de}(a<<1){ne}0]. Future data may open a new window on dark energy by measuring its spatial as well as time variation.

Renewable energy sources offer a viable solution to the growing energy demand while mitigating concerns for greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. This has led to a tremendous momentum towards solar and wind-based energy harvesting technologies driving efficiencies higher and costs lower. However, the intermittent nature of these energy sources necessitates energy storage technologies, which remain the Achilles heel in meeting the renewable energy goals. This dissertation focusses on two approaches for addressing the needs of energy storage: first, targeting direct solar to fuel conversion via photoelectrochemical water-splitting and second, improving the performance of current rechargeable batteries by developing new electrode architectures and synthesis processes. The aerosol chemical vapor deposition (ACVD) process has emerged as a promising single-step approach for nanostructured thin film synthesis directly on substrates. The relationship between the morphology and the operating parameters in the process is complex. In this work, a simulation based approach has been developed to understand the relationship and acquire the ability of predicting the morphology. These controlled nanostructured morphologies of TiO2 , compounded with gold nanoparticles of various shapes, are used for solar water-splitting applications. Tuning of light absorption in the visible-light range along with reduced electron-hole recombination in the composite structures has been demonstrated. The ACVD process is further extended to a novel single-step synthesis of nanostructured TiO2 electrodes directly on the current collector for applications as anodes in lithium-ion batteries, mainly for electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles. The effect of morphology of the nanostructures has been investigated via experimental studies and electrochemical transport modelling. Results demonstrate the exceptional performance of the single crystal one-dimensional nanostructures over granular

The adsorption energies of submonolayer amounts of one metal on the surface of another metal have been measured for decades by temperature programmed desorption. However, that method fails for metals that alloy. We report here the first measurement of the adsorption energy for any such metal-on-metal combination that forms a bulk alloy. The adsorption and interfacial energetics of vapor deposited Cu onto Pt(111) at 300 K has been studied using single crystal adsorption calorimetry (SCAC) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The Cu grows as 2D pseudomorphic islands in the first layer and its heat of adsorption decreased linearly from 358 to 339 kJ/mol. This is attributed to increasing lattice strain with island size, associated with the small lattice mismatch (8%). It adsorbs 2 kJ/mol more weakly in the 2nd layer than above 3 ML, where it reaches the bulk heat of sublimation of Cu(solid), 337 kJ/mol. The adhesion energy of multilayer Cu onto Pt(111) is 3.76 J/m2. The extra stability of the first Cu monolayer compared to bulk Cu measured here is 12 kJ/mol, compared to a difference of 83 kJ/mol for underpotential deposition of Cu on a Pt(111) electrode, with the difference attributed to stronger bonding of Cu to the solvent and double layer compared to Pt.

A single crystal chemical vapor deposition (scCVD) diamond detector has been successfully employed for neutron measurements in the EAST (Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak) plasmas. The scCVD diamond detector coated with a 5 μm 6LiF (95% 6Li enriched) layer was placed inside a polyethylene moderator to enhance the detection efficiency. The time-dependent neutron emission from deuteron plasmas during neutral beam injection (NBI) heating was obtained. The measured results are compared with that of fission chamber detectors, which always act as standard neutron flux monitors. The scCVD diamond detector exhibits good reliability, stability and the capability to withstand harsh radiation environments despite its low detection efficiency due to the small active volume. supported by the National Magnetic Confinement Fusion Science Program of China (Nos. 2013GB106004 and 2012GB101003) and National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 91226102)

A study was conducted to determine the effects of salt spray drift from pilot technologies employed by the US Bureau of Reclamation on deposition rates of various air-born ions. An enhanced evaporation system (EES) was tested in the field at the Salton Sea, California. Dry deposition of NO3-, NH4+, SO42-, Cl-, Ca2+, Na+, K+ and Se was assessed by using nylon filters and branches of natural vegetation exposed for one-week long periods. The simultaneous exposure of both lyophilized branches and branches of live plants offered important information highlighting the dynamics of deposited ions on vegetation. The EES significantly increased the deposition rates of Cl-, SO42- and Na+ in an area of about 639-1062 m surrounding the sprayers. Similarly, higher deposition of Ca 2+ and K+ caused by the EES was detected only when deposition was assessed using nylon filters or lyophilized branches. Deposition fluxes of NO3-, NH4+ and Se were not affected by the spraying system. Techniques for measuring dry deposition and calculating landscape-level depositional loads in non-forested systems need further development. ?? 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A common approach to studying β-delayed proton emission is to measure the energy of the emitted proton and corresponding nuclear recoil in a double-sided silicon-strip detector (DSSD) after implanting the β-delayed proton-emitting (βp) nucleus. However, in order to extract the proton-decay energy, the measuredenergy must be corrected for the additional energy implanted in the DSSD by the β-particle emitted from the βp nucleus, an effect referred to here as β-summing. We present an approach to determine an accurate correction for β-summing. Our method relies on the determination of the mean implantation depth of the βp nucleus within the DSSD by analyzing the shape of the total (proton + recoil + β) decay energy distribution shape. We validate this approach with other mean implantation depth measurement techniques that take advantage of energydeposition within DSSDs upstream and downstream of the implantation DSSD.

The uptake of water from the surface of the leaves, called foliar uptake, is common when rainfall is scarce and non-meteoric water (dew or fog) is the only source of water. However, many species have very water repellent leaves. Past studies have not differentiated between the uptake of water and the impact of the droplets on the energy balance of the leaf, which we call 'foliar shielding'. Leaves of the hydrophobic Colocasia esculenta were misted with isotopically enriched water in order to mimic non-meteoric water deposition. The leaf water potential and water isotopes were monitored for different water-stress conditions. A new protocol was developed for the fast analysis of leaf water isotopes using the Picarro induction module coupled to a laser spectrometer. Comparing the isotopic composition of the bulk leaf water at the end of the experiment, the misted leaves exhibit a d-excess higher by c. 63‰ than the control ones (P < 0.001). Low d-excess values are commonly associated with a high transpiration rate. Linking isotopic enrichment with leaf transpiration rate, we find a c. 30% decrease in transpiration rate for the treated leaves compared to the control (P < 0.001). Water-stressed leaves that were misted regularly exhibit a c. 64% smaller decline in water potential than water-stressed leaves that did not get misted (P < 0.05). Three possible mechanisms are proposed for the interaction of water droplets with the leaf energy and water balance. Comparing three previous foliar uptake studies to our results, we conclude that foliar shielding has a comparable yet opposite effect to foliar uptake on leaf water isotopes and that it is necessary to consider both processes when estimating foliar uptake of fog water.

The effects on surface-water quality of atmospheric pollutants that are generated during energy production are reviewed and evaluated. Atmospheric inputs from such sources to the aquatic environment may include trace elements, organic compounds, radionuclides, and acids. Combustion is the largest energy-related source of trace-element emissions to the atmosphere. This report reviews the nature of these emissions from coal-fired power plants and discusses their terrestrial and aquatic effects following deposition. Several simple models for lakes and streams are developed and are applied to assess the potential for adverse effects on surface-water quality of trace-element emissions from coal combustion. The probability of acute impacts on the aquatic environment appears to be low; however, more subtle, chronic effects are possible. The character of acid precipitation is reviewed, with emphasis on aquatic effects, and the nature of existing or potential effects on water quality, aquatic biota, and water supply is considered. The response of the aquatic environment to acid precipitation depends on the type of soils and bedrock in a watershed and the chemical characteristics of the water bodies in question. Methods for identifying regions sensitive to acid inputs are reviewed. The observed impact of acid precipitation ranges from no effects to elimination of fish populations. Coal-fired power plants and various stages of the nuclear fuel cycle release radionuclides to the atmosphere. Radioactive releases to the atmosphere from these sources and the possible aquatic effects of such releases are examined. For the nuclear fuel cycle, the major releases are from reactors and reprocessing. Although aquatic effects of atmospheric releases have not been fully quantified, there seems little reason for concern for man or aquatic biota.

Organic-inorganic materials have been the object of intense research due to their wide range of properties and therefore innumerous applications. We prepared organic-inorganic hybrid materials by direct energydeposition on a mixture of polydimethylsiloxane silanol terminated (33 wt% fixed content), tetraethylorthosilicate and a minor content of zirconium propoxide that varied from 1 to 5 wt% using gamma radiation from a Co-60 source. The samples, dried in air at room temperature, are bulk, flexible and transparent. Their nanostructure was investigated by small angle neutron scattering. It was found that the inorganic oxide network has fractal structure, which becomes denser as the zirconium propoxide content decreases. The results suggest that oxide nanosized regions grow from the OH terminal group of PDMS which are the condensation seeds. Their number and position remains unaltered with the variation of zirconium propoxide content that only affects their microstructure. A model is proposed for the nanostructure of the oxide network that develops in the irradiation processed hybrid materials.

A computer program called ECPVER (Energy Consumption Program - Verification) was developed to simulate all energy loads for any number of buildings. The program computes simulated daily, monthly, and yearly energy consumption which can be compared with actual meter readings for the same time period. Such comparison can lead to validation of the model under a variety of conditions, which allows it to be used to predict future energy saving due to energy conservation measures. Predicted energy saving can then be compared with actual saving to verify the effectiveness of those energy conservation changes. This verification procedure is planned to be an important advancement in the Deep Space Network Energy Project, which seeks to reduce energy cost and consumption at all DSN Deep Space Stations.

ATIC (Advanced Thin Ionization Calorimeter) is a balloon-borne experiment to measure the spectra and composition of primary cosmic rays in the region of total energy from 100 GeV to near 100 TeV for Z from 1 to 26. ATIC consists of a pixelated silicon matrix detector to measure charge plus a fully active BGO calorimeter, to measureenergy, located below a carbon target interleaved with three layers of scintillator hodoscope. The ATIC instrument had a second (scientific) flight from McMurdo, Antarctica from 12/29/02 to 1/18/03, yielding 20 days of good data. The GEANT 3.21 Monte Carlo code with the QGSM event generator and the FLUKA code with the DPMJET-II event generator were used to convert energydepositionmeasurements to primary energy. We present the preliminary energy spectra for the abundant elements C, O, Ne, Mg, Si and Fe and compare them with the results of the first (test) flight of ATIC in 2000-01 and with results from the HEAO-3 and CRN experiments.

We investigated transport of intense proton beams from a petawatt laser in uncompressed or compressed Cu foam. The LFEX laser (1 kJ on target, 1.5 ps, 1053 nm, I >2×1019 W/cm2) irradiated a curved C foil to generate the protons. The foil was in an open cone 500 μm from the tip where the focused proton beam source was delivered to either of two Cu foam sample types: an uncompressed cylinder (1 mm L, 250 µm ϕ) , and a plastic-coated sphere (250 µm ϕ) that was first driven by GXII (9 beams, 330 J/beam, 1.3 ns, 527 nm) to achieve similar ρϕ to the cylinder sample's ρL as predicted by 2D radiation hydrodynamic simulations. Using magnetic spectrometers and a Thomson parabola, the proton spectra were measured with and without the Cu samples. When included, they were observed using Cu K-shell x-ray imaging and spectroscopy. This paper will present comparison of the experimentally measured Cu emission shape and proton spectrum changes due to deposition in the Cu with particle-in-cell simulations incorporating new stopping models. This work was made possible by laser time Awarded by the Japanese NIFS collaboration NIFS16KUGK107 and performed under the auspices of the US AFOSR YIP Award FA9550-14-1-0346.

A central endeavor of thermodynamics is the measurement of free energy changes. Regrettably, although we can measure the free energy of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium, typically all we can say about the free energy of a nonequilibrium ensemble is that it is larger than that of the same system at equilibrium. Herein, we derive a formally exact expression for the probability distribution of a driven system, which involves path ensemble averages of the work over trajectories of the time-reversed system. From this we find a simple near-equilibrium approximation for the free energy in terms of an excess mean time-reversed work, which can be experimentally measured on real systems. With analysis and computer simulation, we demonstrate the accuracy of our approximations for several simple models.

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) performed an energy and water evaluation of selected buildings on the Hanford Site during the months of May and June 2012. The audit was performed under the direction of the U.S. Department of Energy, Sustainability Performance Office to identify key energy conservation measures (ECMs) and water conservation measures (WCMs). The evaluations consisted of on-site facility walk-throughs conducted by PNNL staff, interviews with building-operating personnel, and an examination of building designs and layouts. Information on 38 buildings was collected to develop a list of energy and water conservation measures. Table ES.1 is a summary of the ECMs, while table ES.2 is a summary of the WCMs.

An important goal of cosmic ray research is to measure the elemental energy spectra of galactic cosmic rays up to 10(exp 16) eV. This goal cannot be achieved with an ionization calorimeter because the required instrument is too massive for space flight. An alternate method will be presented. This method is based on measuring the primary particle energy by determining the angular distribution of secondaries produced in a target layer. The proposed technique can be used over a wide range of energies (10 (exp 11) -10 (exp 16) eV) and gives an energy resolution of 60% or better. Based on this technique, a conceptual design for a new instrument (KLEM) will be presented. Due to its light weight, this instrument can have a large aperture enabling the direct measurement of cosmic rays to 1016 eV.

In this paper, we present measurements of the ortho-positronium (ortho-Ps) emission energy in vacuum from mesoporous films using the time-of-flight technique. We show evidence of quantum mechanical confinement in the mesopores that defines the minimal energy of the emitted Ps. Two samples with different effective pore sizes, measured with positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy, are compared for the data collected in the temperature range 50-400 K. The sample with smaller pore size exhibits a higher minimal energy (73{+-}5 meV), compared to the sample with bigger pores (48{+-}5 meV), due to the stronger confinement. The dependence of the emission energy with the temperature of the target is modeled as ortho-Ps being confined in rectangular boxes in thermodynamic equilibrium with the sample. We also measured that the yield of positronium emitted in vacuum is not affected by the temperature of the target.

Through the Chicagoland Single Family Housing Characterization and Retrofit Prioritization report, the Partnership for Advanced Residential Retrofit research team characterized 15 housing types in the Chicagoland region based on assessor data, utility billing history, and available data from prior energy efficiency programs. Within these 15 groups, a subset showed the greatest opportunity for energy savings based on BEopt Version 1.1 modeling of potential energy efficiency package options and the percent of the housing stock represented by each group. In this project, collected field data from a whole-home program in Illinois are utilized to compare marketplace-installed measures to the energy saving optimal packages previously developed for the 15 housing types. Housing type, conditions, energy efficiency measures installed, and retrofit cost information were collected from 19 homes that participated in the Illinois Home Performance with ENERGY STAR program in 2012, representing eight of the characterized housing groups. Two were selected for further case study analysis to provide an illustration of the differences between optimal and actually installed measures. Taken together, these homes are representative of 34.8% of the Chicagoland residential building stock. In one instance, actual installed measures closely matched optimal recommended measures.

Energy resolved dosimetry offers a potential path to single detector based proton imaging using scanned proton beams. This is because energy resolved dose functions encrypt the radiological depth at which the measurements are made. When a set of predetermined proton beams 'proton imaging field' are used to deliver a well determined dose distribution in a specific volume, then, at any given depth x of this volume, the behavior of the dose against the energies of the proton imaging field is unique and characterizes the depth x. This concept applies directly to proton therapy scanning delivery methods (pencil beam scanning and uniform scanning) and it can be extended to the proton therapy passive delivery methods (single and double scattering) if the delivery of the irradiation is time-controlled with a known time-energy relationship. To derive the water equivalent path length (WEPL) from the energy resolved dose measurement, one may proceed in two different ways. A first method is by matching the measuredenergy resolved dose function to a pre-established calibration database of the behavior of the energy resolved dose in water, measured over the entire range of radiological depths with at least 1 mm spatial resolution. This calibration database can also be made specific to the patient if computed using the patient x-CT data. A second method to determine the WEPL is by using the empirical relationships between the WEPL and the integral dose or the depth at 80% of the proximal fall off of the energy resolved dose functions in water. In this note, we establish the evidence of the fundamental relationship between the energy resolved dose and the WEPL at the depth of the measurement. Then, we illustrate this relationship with experimental data and discuss its imaging dynamic range for 230 MeV protons.

Energy resolved dosimetry offers a potential path to single detector based proton imaging using scanned proton beams. This is because energy resolved dose functions encrypt the radiological depth at which the measurements are made. When a set of predetermined proton beams ‘proton imaging field’ are used to deliver a well determined dose distribution in a specific volume, then, at any given depth x of this volume, the behavior of the dose against the energies of the proton imaging field is unique and characterizes the depth x. This concept applies directly to proton therapy scanning delivery methods (pencil beam scanning and uniform scanning) and it can be extended to the proton therapy passive delivery methods (single and double scattering) if the delivery of the irradiation is time-controlled with a known time-energy relationship. To derive the water equivalent path length (WEPL) from the energy resolved dose measurement, one may proceed in two different ways. A first method is by matching the measuredenergy resolved dose function to a pre-established calibration database of the behavior of the energy resolved dose in water, measured over the entire range of radiological depths with at least 1 mm spatial resolution. This calibration database can also be made specific to the patient if computed using the patient x-CT data. A second method to determine the WEPL is by using the empirical relationships between the WEPL and the integral dose or the depth at 80% of the proximal fall off of the energy resolved dose functions in water. In this note, we establish the evidence of the fundamental relationship between the energy resolved dose and the WEPL at the depth of the measurement. Then, we illustrate this relationship with experimental data and discuss its imaging dynamic range for 230 MeV protons.

Energy improvements in a home are often approached as one concerted effort, beginning with a simple walk-through assessment or more in-depth energy audit and followed by the installation of recommended energymeasures. While this approach allows for systems thinking to guide the efforts, comprehensive energy improvements of this nature are undertaken by a relatively small number of U.S. households compared to piecemeal remodeling efforts. In this report, the U.S Department of Energy Building America Retrofit Alliance research team examines the improvement of a home’s energy performance in an opportunistic way by examining what can be done to incorporate energy efficiency measures into general remodeling work and home repair projects. This allows for energy efficiency upgrades to occur at the same time as remodeling proejcts. There are challenges to this approach, not the least of which being that the work will take place over time in potentially many separate projects. The opportunity to improve a home’s energy efficiency at one time expands or contracts with the scope of the remodel. As such, guidance on how to do each piece thoughtfully and with consideration for potential future projects, is critical.

Gamma spectrometry without any self-absorption correction was developed to measure low energy gamma rays emitted by uranium and actinium series radionuclides in rock samples and groundwater residues collected at the Koongarra ore deposit, Australia. Thin samples were prepared to minimize the self-absorption by uranium in the samples. The present method gave standard deviations of 0.9 to 18% for the measurements of concentrations of uranium and actinium series radionuclides. The concentrations of {sup 238}U, {sup 230}Th and {sup 235}U measured by gamma spectrometry were compared with those by alpha spectrometry that requires a complicated chemical separation procedure. The results obtained by both methods were in fairly good agreement, and it was found that the gamma spectrometry is applicable to rock and groundwater samples having uranium content sup to 8.1% (10{sup 3} B1/g) and 3 Bq/l of {sup 238}U, respectively. The detection limits were calculated to be of the order of 10{sup {minus}2} Bq/g for rock samples and 10{sup {minus}1} Bq/l for groundwater samples. The concentrations of uranium and actinium series radionuclides can be determined precisely in these samples using gamma spectrometry without any self-absorption correction.

Atmospheric nitrogen deposition is one of the main threats for biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Measurement techniques like ion-exchange resin collectors (IECs), which are less expensive and time-consuming than conventional methods, are gaining relevance in the study of atmospheric deposition and are recommended to expand monitoring networks. In the present work, bulk and throughfall deposition of inorganic nitrogen were monitored in three different holm oak forests in Spain during two years. The results obtained with IECs were contrasted with a conventional technique using bottle collectors and with a literature review of similar studies. The performance of IECs in comparison with the conventional method was good for measuring bulk deposition of nitrate and acceptable for ammonium and total dissolved inorganic nitrogen. Mean annual bulk deposition of inorganic nitrogen ranged 3.09-5.43 kg N ha(-1) according to IEC methodology, and 2.42-6.83 kg N ha(-1) y(-1) using the conventional method. Intra-annual variability of the net throughfall deposition of nitrogen measured with the conventional method revealed the existence of input pulses of nitrogen into the forest soil after dry periods, presumably originated from the washing of dry deposition accumulated in the canopy. Important methodological recommendations on the IEC method and discussed, compiled and summarized.

High-energy neutrons are a ubiquitous and often poorly measured background. Below ground, these neutrons could potentially interfere with antineutrino based reactor monitoring experiments as well as other rare-event neutral particle detectors. We have designed and constructed a transportable fast neutron detection system for measuring neutron energy spectra and flux ranging from tens to hundreds of MeV. The spectrometer uses a multiplicity technique in order to have a higher effective area than traditional transportable high-energy neutron spectrometers. Transportability ensures a common detector-related systematic bias for future measurements. The spectrometer is composed of two Gd containing plastic scintillator detectors arranged around a lead spallation target. A high-energy neutron may interact in the lead producing many secondary neutrons. The detector records the correlated secondary neutron multiplicity. Over many events, the response can be used to infer the incident neutron energy spectrum and flux. As a validation of the detector response, surface measurements have been performed; results confirm agreement with previous experiments. Below ground measurements have been performed at 3 depths (380, 600, and 1450 m.w.e.); results from these measurements will be presented.

The island of Bonaire is part of the Leeward Netherlands Antilles and lies 90 km off the Venezuelan coast. It mainly consists of two upper cretaceous cores of basalt, andesite, and dacite, fringed by a sequence of Quaternary marine limestone terraces. These well-defined platforms formed by in-situ growth of coral reefs and deposition of coral debris during high stands of sea level and subsequent exposure due to slow tectonic uplift. Bonaire has a semi-arid climate with an average annual precipitation of less than 500 mm, though large year-to-year variation occurs. Due to its peripheral position within the Caribbean hurricane belt the island rarely experiences severe storm events. Nevertheless, along the eastern windward coast several high-energy wave impacts of mid- to late Holocene age have created a well-diversified sedimentary record. Broad ramparts of imbricated coral rubble north of Lac Bai are 4 m high, proceed up to 400 m inland, and follow the shore over a distance of 12 km. Reef communities of the island's eastern sublittoral obviously never regenerated after their destruction during extreme wave events. Furthermore, massive boulders of up to 260 tons are distributed over the broad elevated Pleistocene reef platform deriving from the foreshore zone (Scheffers et al., 2008). The windward nearshore morphological depressions provide excellent conditions for preserving sedimentary inputs of exceptionally large wave impacts. We carried out numerous vibracorings and gravity corings inside shallow sinkholes on the Pleistocene terrace north of Lac Bai and the landward floodplain of the Lagun embayment at Washikemba. Several vibracorings of up to 5 m below surface at Lagun show multiple interruptions of continuous sedimentation patterns by poorly-sorted shell hash within a carbonate-rich matrix of marine origin. The lowermost bioclastic unit dates back before 6000 BP. Within a superimposed layer of pure mangrove peat another cluster of shells, partly broken, is

Energetics research is central to the field of human biology. Energy is an important currency for measuring adaptation, because both its acquisition and allocation for biological processes have important implications for survival and reproduction. Recent technological and methodological advances are now allowing human biologists to study variation in energy dynamics with much greater accuracy in a wide variety of ecological contexts. This article provides an overview of the methods used for measuring human energy expenditure (EE) and considers some of the important ecological and evolutionary questions that can be explored from an energetics perspective. Basic principles of calorimetry are first presented, followed by an overview of the equipment used for measuring human EE and work capacity. Methods for measuring three important dimensions of human EE-resting metabolic rate, working/exercising EE, and total EE-are then presented, highlighting key areas of ongoing research.

The accurate measurement of low energy (less than 100 eV) particle properties in the magnetosphere has been difficult, partly because of the low density of such particles, but more particularly because of spacecraft interference effects. Some early examples of how these phenomena have affected particle measurements on an OGO spacecraft are presented. Data obtained with the UCSD particle detectors on ATS-6 are then presented showing how some of these difficulties have been partially overcome. Future measurements of low energy particles in the magnetosphere can be improved by: (1) improving the low energy resolution of detectors; (2) building electrostatically clean spacecraft; (3) controlling spacecraft potential; and (4) using auxiliary measurements, particularly wave data.

The aim of this research was to measure, analyze, and model the pressure distribution characteristics of powder deposition into rectangular and circular shallow dies using four filling methods. The feed shoe, the rotational rainy, the point feed, and the pneumatic filling methods were used to investigate the deposition characteristics into shallow dies. In order to evaluate the pressure distribution during filling of shallow dies, factors influencing powder deposition were studied. The factors included particle size and shape, particle size distribution, feed shoe speed, and tube cross-section (in case of feed shoe filling) and deposition rates (in case of rotational rainy, point feed, and pneumatic filling). A battery powder mixture (BPM) and microcrystalline cellulose (Avicel PH102) with median size of 84 and 600mum, respectively, were used to fill a shallow rectangular die 32x30 mm and 6.5 mm deep and a shallow circular die 35 mm in diameter and 6.5 mm deep. The second generation of pressure deposition tester (PDT-II) with circular and square feed shoe tube cross-sections was used to measure the two powders' pressure distribution characteristics. An innovative rotational rainy filling device was designed and fabricated. This versatile device can be used to measure filling characteristics at different rotational speeds (1-10 rpm) for various powders. The point feed (funnel fill) method with a funnel of 30 mm inlet diameter and 4.2 mm outlet diameter opening was used to fill the rectangular and circular shallow dies. The pneumatic filling method was designed and fabricated to fill the die using air as the conveying medium in a rectangular cross-section tube. The pneumatic filling device was limited to using only the BPM powder, since the Avicel powder generated substantial quantity of airborne dust during the test. Symmetry analysis, variance metrics, and uniformity analysis were used to quantify the deposition characteristics. The results showed that: (1) filled

The measurement of the dynamic power consumption is an important task in the field of energy harvesting regarding the characterization and optimization of low power systems. This paper reports on the development and characterization of a computer-controlled measurement system for the measurement of the dynamic current consumption of low power systems in a range from 100 nA to 100 μA, with a time resolution down to 1 μs.

Electret ion chambers are inexpensive, lightweight, robust, commercially available, passive, charge-integrating devices for accurate measurement of different ionizing radiations. In an earlier work a chamber of dimensions larger than the range of alpha particles having aluminized Mylar windows of different thickness was used for measurement of alpha radiation. Correlation between electret mid-point voltage, alpha particle energy, and response was developed and it was shown that this chamber could be used for estimating the effective energy of an unknown alpha source. In the present study, the electret ion chamber is used in the windowless mode so that the alpha particles dissipate their entire energy inside the volume, and the alpha particle energy is determined from the first principles. This requires that alpha disintegration rate be accurately known or measured by an alternate method. The measuredenergies were within 1 to 4% of the true values for different sources (230Th, 237Np, 239Pu, 241Am, and 224Cm). This method finds application in quantitative determination of alpha energy absorbed in thin membrane and, hence, the absorbed dose.

Peveler, WW, Sanders, GJ, Marczinski, CA, and Holmer, B. Effects of energy drinks on economy and cardiovascular measures. J Strength Cond Res 31(4): 882-887, 2017-The use of energy drinks among athletes has risen greatly. Caffeine and taurine are the 2 primary performance enhancing ingredients found in energy drinks. The number of emergency department visits involving energy drinks doubled over the past 5 years. Reviews of the health complications have highlighted adverse cardiovascular events. The literature reveals that caffeine is known to moderately increase blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR). The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of 3 different energy drinks on cardiovascular and performance measures. Fifteen recreational runners completed 5 trials. The first trial consisted of a graded exercise protocol. The 4 remaining trials consisted of 15-minute economy trials at a treadmill speed consistent with 70% of subject's V[Combining Dot Above]O2max. An hour before subjects ingested 1 of the 3 energy drinks or a placebo. HR, BP, V[Combining Dot Above]O2, and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded during the 15-minute trial. Mean values for dependent measures were compared using repeated-measures analysis of variance. Fifteen-minute systolic BP readings were significantly lower in the placebo trials (156.93 ± 15.50) in relation to the 3 energy drink trials (163.87 ± 13.30, 166.47 ± 13.71, and 165.00 ± 15.23). There were no significant differences in diastolic BP and HR. There were no significant differences found in V[Combining Dot Above]O2 or RPE measures. Ingestion of energy drinks demonstrated no change in V[Combining Dot Above]O2 or RPE during the economy trials. The findings show no performance benefits under the conditions of this study. However, there does appear to be a significant increase in systolic BP.

The response of a tissue equivalent proportional counter (TEPC) in a mixed radiation field with a neutron energy distribution similar to the radiation field at commercial flight altitudes has been studied. The measurements have been done at the CERN-EU High-Energy Reference Field (CERF) facility where a well-characterised radiation field is available for intercomparison. The TEPC instrument used by the ARC Seibersdorf Research is filled with pure propane gas at low pressure and can be used to determine the lineal energy distribution of the energydeposition in a mass of gas equivalent to a 2 microm diameter volume of unit density tissue, of similar size to the nuclei of biological cells. The linearity of the detector response was checked both in term of dose and dose rate. The effect of dead-time has been corrected. The influence of the detector exposure location and orientation in the radiation field on the dose distribution was also studied as a function of the total dose. The microdosimetric distribution of the absorbed dose as a function of the lineal energy has been obtained and compared with the same distribution simulated with the FLUKA Monte Carlo transport code. The dose equivalent was calculated by folding this distribution with the quality factor as a function of linear energy transfer. The comparison between the measured and simulated distributions show that they are in good agreement. As a result of this study the detector is well characterised, thanks also to the numerical simulations the instrument response is well understood, and it's currently being used onboard the aircrafts to evaluate the dose to aircraft crew caused by cosmic radiation.

The PISCES facility is used to conduct controlled plasma-surface interaction experiments. Plasma parameters typical of those found in the edge plasmas of major fusion confinement experiments are produced. In this work, the energy distribution of the ion flux incident on a material surface is measured using a gridded energy analyzer in place of a material sample. The full width at half maximum energy distribution of the ion flux is found to vary from 10 eV to 30 eV both hydrogen and deuterium plasmas. Helium plasmas have a much lower FWHM energy spread than hydrogen and deuterium plasmas. The FWHM ion energy spread is found to be linearly related to the electron temperature. The most probable ion energy is found to be linearly related to the bias applied to the energy analyzer. Other plasma parameters have a weak influence upon the energy distribution of the ion flux. Two possible physical mechanisms for producing the observed results are introduced and suggestions for further work are made. The impact of the reported measurements on the materials experiments conducted in the PISCES facility are discussed and recommendations for future experiments are made. 11 refs., 13 figs.

Interfacial fixed charge or interfacial dipoles are present at many semiconductor-dielectric interfaces and have important effects upon device behavior, yet the chemical origins of these electrostatic phenomena are not fully understood. We report the measurement of changes in Si channel conduction in situ during atomic layer deposition (ALD) of aluminum oxide using trimethylaluminum and water to probe changes in surface electrostatics. Current-voltage data were acquired continually before, during, and after the self-limiting chemical reactions that result in film growth. Our measurements indicated an increase in conductance on p-type samples with p{sup +} ohmic contacts and a decrease in conductance on analogous n-type samples. Further, p{sup +} contacted samples with n-type channels exhibited an increase in measured current and n{sup +} contacted p-type samples exhibited a decrease in current under applied voltage. Device physics simulations, where a fixed surface charge was parameterized on the channel surface, connect the surface charge to changes in current-voltage behavior. The simulations and analogous analytical relationships for near-surface conductance were used to explain the experimental results. Specifically, the changes in current-voltage behavior can be attributed to the formation of a fixed negative charge or the modification of a surface dipole upon chemisorption of trimethylaluminum. These measurements allow for the observation of fixed charge or dipole formation during ALD and provide further insight into the electrostatic behavior at semiconductor-dielectric interfaces during film nucleation.

Carbon films are deposited on various substrates (polymers, polyester fabrics, polyester yarns, metal alloys) both for experimental and technological motivations (medical devices, biocompatible coatings, food package and so on). Computational studies of the penetration of electron beams in supported thin film of carbon are very useful in order to compare the simulated results with analytical techniques data (obtained by scanning electron microscopy and/or Auger electron spectroscopy) and investigate the film characteristics. In the present paper, the few keV electron depth distribution and backscattering coefficient for the special case of film of carbon deposited on aluminium are investigated, by a Monte Carlo simulation, as a function of the incidence angle and primary electron energy. The simulated results can be used as a way to evaluate the carbon film thickness by a set of measurements of the backscattering coefficient.

"Measurement of Dry Deposition of S and N Compounds on Natural Surfaces (leaves) and Their Parameterization" Ranjit Kumar, Abha Rani, K. Maharaj Kumari and S.S. Srivasta* Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Daylabgh, Agra-282005 (INDIA), E-mail: sssdei@yahoo.com ABSTRACT Promotion of rapid economic growth and urbanization have led to the increasing emissions of acidifying sulphur and nitrogen compounds in the atmosphere which are most potent for injury to vegetation, deterioration of monuments and acidifications of lakes, soils. Dry deposition appears to be an important process by which, air pollutants can be delivered to sensitive surfaces in the form of gases or particulates from the atmosphere as dry conditions prevail for maximum period in this geographical region. The studies reported for deposition of acidifying sulphur and nitrogen compounds on natural surfaces are limited and none from India. Direct measurement of dry deposition on natural surfaces is lacking. This paper deals with measurements of rate of dry deposition of S as sulphate and N as nitrate on natural surfaces (Ashok and Cassia leaves) at Dayalbagh, Agra in India and estimate the total input of S and N compounds. The mean annual dry deposition rate of SO4 and NO3 on Ashok leaf was found to be 1.07± 0.64 mg m-2 d-1 and 0.76± 0.58 mg m-2 d-1 while on Cassia leaf values were found to be 1.11 ±0.75 and 0.81 ± 0.56 mg m-2 d-1. The deposition of SO4 includes both the deposition due to gaseous SO2 and particulate SO42- while deposition of NO3 include deposition contributed by HNO3 vapor and particulate NO3-. The high deposition rates on Cassia leaf may be due to large number of leaf hairs and stomatal pores on leaf surface as compared to Ashok leaf as observed by Scanning Electron Microscopic photographs. The dry deposition rates for SO4 and NO3 were highest during the monsoon followed by winter and summer. The annual input of S was found to be 3.89 kg

The structure of the nucleon has many important features that are yet to be uncovered. Of current interest is the nucleon spin-structure which can be measured by doing double-polarization experiments with photon beams of medium energies (0.1 to 2 GeV). One such experiment uses dispersion relations, applied to the Compton scattering amplitude, to relate measurement of the total reaction cross section integrated over the incident photon energy to the nucleon anomalous magnetic moment. At present, no single facility spans the entire range of photon energies necessary to test this sum rule. The Laser-Electron Gamma Source (LEGS) facility will measure the double-polarization observables at photon energies between 0.15--0.47 MeV. Either the SPring8 facility, the GRAAL facility (France), or Jefferson Laboratory could make similar measurements at higher photon energies. A high-precision measurement of the spin-polarizability and the Drell-Hearn-Gerasimov sum rule is now possible with the advent of high-polarization solid HD targets at medium energy polarized photon facilities such as LEGS, GRAAL and SPring8. Other facilities with lower polarization in either the photon beam or target (or both) are also pursuing these measurements because of the high priority associated with this physics. The Spin-asymmetry (SASY) detector that will be used at LEGS has been briefly outlined in this paper. The detector efficiencies have been explored with simulations studies using the GEANT software, with the result that both charged and uncharged pions can be detected with a reasonable efficiency (> 30%) over a large solid angle. Tracking with a TPC, which will be built at LEGS over the next few years, will improve the capabilities of these measurements.

We report on the surface stoichiometry of Ga-polar GaN films grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition as studied by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. GaN film surfaces are found to be Ga-rich, with Ga:N ratios ranging from 1.3:1 to 3.2:1. In vacuo ion-beam sputter/annealing studies show that these treatments drive the apparent Ga:N surface composition farther from unity, either through a decrease in surface contamination, oxidation of the surface, or both. Simple annealing experiments decrease the Ga:N ratio. The measured GaN ratio is correlated with the GaN growth time, suggesting that residual Ga precursor after growth interacts with the GaN surface as it cools.

Quantum measurement is a physical process. A system and an apparatus interact for a certain time period (measurement time), and during this interaction, information about an observable is transferred from the system to the apparatus. In this study, we quantify the energy fluctuation of the quantum apparatus required for this physical process to occur autonomously. We first examine the so-called standard model of measurement, which is free from any non-trivial energy-time uncertainty relation, to find that it needs an external system that switches on the interaction between the system and the apparatus. In such a sense this model is not closed. Therefore to treat a measurement process in a fully quantum manner we need to consider a "larger" quantum apparatus which works also as a timing device switching on the interaction. In this setting we prove that a trade-off relation (energy-time uncertainty relation), τ \\cdot Δ H_A ≥ π /4, holds between the energy fluctuation Δ H_A of the quantum apparatus and the measurement time τ . We use this trade-off relation to discuss the spacetime uncertainty relation concerning the operational meaning of the microscopic structure of spacetime. In addition, we derive another trade-off inequality between the measurement time and the strength of interaction between the system and the apparatus.

Solar Energetic Particles (SEPs) are thought to be accelerated at the Sun by solar flares or by the shocks formed by Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs). Even more elusive is the origin of the highest energy SEPs in so-called Ground Level Enhancements (GLEs). At these energies, the effects of transport are often minimal, providing an opportunity to investigate the problem of particle acceleration. However, the effects of transport en route to Earth often obscure the acceleration process(es). The Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics (PAMELA) instrument provides new data that aid in separating the effects of acceleration and transport. Furthermore, PAMELA bridges a critical gap in energy between the low-energy space-based and highest-energy ground-based measurements. We report on recent PAMELA observations of high-energy SEPs and illustrate some of the governing effects of acceleration and transport with the first GLE of solar cycle 24, i.e., 2012 May 17. The PAMELA data of 2012 May 17 reveal two distinct spectral components, a low-energy SEP component that exhibits significant scattering or redistribution, accompanied by a high-energy component that reaches the Earth relatively unaffected by dispersive transport effects. We postulate that the scattering or redistribution at low energies takes place locally providing one of the first opportunities to witness the effects of SEP transport in the Earth's magnetosheath.

Summary Focused electron beam induced deposition (FEBID) is a single-step, direct-write nanofabrication technique capable of writing three-dimensional metal-containing nanoscale structures on surfaces using electron-induced reactions of organometallic precursors. Currently FEBID is, however, limited in resolution due to deposition outside the area of the primary electron beam and in metal purity due to incomplete precursor decomposition. Both limitations are likely in part caused by reactions of precursor molecules with low-energy (<100 eV) secondary electrons generated by interactions of the primary beam with the substrate. These low-energy electrons are abundant both inside and outside the area of the primary electron beam and are associated with reactions causing incomplete ligand dissociation from FEBID precursors. As it is not possible to directly study the effects of secondary electrons in situ in FEBID, other means must be used to elucidate their role. In this context, gas phase studies can obtain well-resolved information on low-energy electron-induced reactions with FEBID precursors by studying isolated molecules interacting with single electrons of well-defined energy. In contrast, ultra-high vacuum surface studies on adsorbed precursor molecules can provide information on surface speciation and identify species desorbing from a substrate during electron irradiation under conditions more representative of FEBID. Comparing gas phase and surface science studies allows for insight into the primary deposition mechanisms for individual precursors; ideally, this information can be used to design future FEBID precursors and optimize deposition conditions. In this review, we give a summary of different low-energy electron-induced fragmentation processes that can be initiated by the secondary electrons generated in FEBID, specifically, dissociative electron attachment, dissociative ionization, neutral dissociation, and dipolar dissociation, emphasizing the

Focused electron beam induced deposition (FEBID) is a single-step, direct-write nanofabrication technique capable of writing three-dimensional metal-containing nanoscale structures on surfaces using electron-induced reactions of organometallic precursors. Currently FEBID is, however, limited in resolution due to deposition outside the area of the primary electron beam and in metal purity due to incomplete precursor decomposition. Both limitations are likely in part caused by reactions of precursor molecules with low-energy (<100 eV) secondary electrons generated by interactions of the primary beam with the substrate. These low-energy electrons are abundant both inside and outside the area of the primary electron beam and are associated with reactions causing incomplete ligand dissociation from FEBID precursors. As it is not possible to directly study the effects of secondary electrons in situ in FEBID, other means must be used to elucidate their role. In this context, gas phase studies can obtain well-resolved information on low-energy electron-induced reactions with FEBID precursors by studying isolated molecules interacting with single electrons of well-defined energy. In contrast, ultra-high vacuum surface studies on adsorbed precursor molecules can provide information on surface speciation and identify species desorbing from a substrate during electron irradiation under conditions more representative of FEBID. Comparing gas phase and surface science studies allows for insight into the primary deposition mechanisms for individual precursors; ideally, this information can be used to design future FEBID precursors and optimize deposition conditions. In this review, we give a summary of different low-energy electron-induced fragmentation processes that can be initiated by the secondary electrons generated in FEBID, specifically, dissociative electron attachment, dissociative ionization, neutral dissociation, and dipolar dissociation, emphasizing the different

Energy intake (EI) and physical activity energy expenditure (PAEE) are key modifiable determinants of energy balance, traditionally assessed by self-report despite its repeated demonstration of considerable inaccuracies. We argue here that it is time to move from the common view that self-reports of EI and PAEE are imperfect, but nevertheless deserving of use, to a view commensurate with the evidence that self-reports of EI and PAEE are so poor that they are wholly unacceptable for scientific research on EI and PAEE. While new strategies for objectively determining energy balance are in their infancy, it is unacceptable to use decidedly inaccurate instruments, which may misguide health care policies, future research, and clinical judgment. The scientific and medical communities should discontinue reliance on self-reported EI and PAEE. Researchers and sponsors should develop objective measures of energy balance. PMID:25394308

Swift heavy-ion (SHI) irradiation of amorphous germanium (a-Ge) layers leads to a strong volume expansion accompanied by a nonsaturating irreversible plastic deformation (ion hammering), which are consequences of the high local electronic energydeposition within the region of the a-Ge layer. We present a detailed study of the influence of SHI irradiation parameters on the effect of plastic deformation and structural modification. Specially prepared a-Ge layers were irradiated using two SHI energies and different angles of incidence, thus resulting in a variation of the electronic energydeposition per depth {epsilon}{sub e} between 14.0 and 38.6 keV nm{sup -1}. For all irradiation parameters used a strong swelling of the irradiated material was observed, which is caused by the formation and growth of randomly distributed voids, leading to a gradual transformation of the amorphous layer into a sponge-like porous structure as established by cross-section scanning electron microscopy investigations. The swelling depends linearly on the ion fluence and on the value of {epsilon}{sub e}, thus clearly demonstrating that the structural changes are determined solely by the electronic energydeposited within the amorphous layer. Plastic deformation shows a superlinear dependence on the ion fluence due to the simultaneous volume expansion. This influence of structural modification on plastic deformation is described by a simple approach, thus allowing estimation of the deformation yield. With these results the threshold values of the electronic energydeposition for the onset of both structural modification and plastic deformation due to SHI irradiation are determined. Furthermore, based on these results, the longstanding question concerning the reason for the structural modification observed in SHI-irradiated crystalline Ge is answered.

The unitary moving mirror model is one of the best quantum systems for checking the reasoning of the original firewall paradox of Almheiri et al. [J. High Energy Phys. 02 (2013) 062] in quantum black holes. Though the late-time part of radiations emitted from the mirror is fully entangled with the early part, no firewall exists with a deadly, huge average energy flux in this model. This is because the high-energy entanglement structure of the discretized systems in almost maximally entangled states is modified so as to yield the correct description of low-energy effective field theory. Furthermore, the strong subadditivity paradox of firewalls is resolved using nonlocality of general one-particle states and zero-point fluctuation entanglement. Due to the Reeh-Schlieder theorem in quantum field theory, another firewall paradox is inevitably raised with quantum remote measurements in the model. We resolve this paradox from the viewpoint of the energy cost of measurements. No firewall appears, as long as the energy for the measurement is much smaller than the ultraviolet cutoff scale.

The maximum energy production (MEP) principle suggested by Paltridge (1975) is applied to separate the satellite-inferred required total transports into the atmospheric and the oceanic components within a two-dimensional (2D) framework. For this purpose, the required 2D energy transports (Sohn and Smith, 1991) are imposed on Paltridge's energy balance model which is then solved as a variational problem. The results provide separated atmospheric and oceanic transports on a 2D basis such that the total divergence is equal to the net radiation measured from a satellite.

The beam energymeasurement system is of great importance for both BEPC-II accelerator and BES-III detector. The system is based on measuring the energies of Compton back-scattered photons. In order to meet the requirements of data taking and improve the measurement accuracy, the system has continued to be upgraded, which involves the updating of laser and optics subsystems, replacement of a view-port of the laser to the vacuum insertion subsystem, the use of an electric cooling system for a high purity germanium detector, and improvement of the data acquisition and processing subsystem. The upgrade system guarantees the smooth and efficient measurement of beam energy at BEPC-II and enables accurate offline energy values for further physics analysis at BES-III. Supported in part by National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)(11375206, 10775142, 10825524, 11125525, 11235011), the Ministry of Science and Technology of China (2015CB856700, 2015CB856705), State key laboratory of particle and detection and electronics; and the CAS Center for Excellence in Particle Physics (CCEPP); the RFBR grant(14-02-00129-a), U.S. Department of Energy (DE-FG02-04ER41291, DE-FG02-05ER41374, DE-FG02-94ER40823, DESC0010118), U.S. National Science Foundation, part of this work related to the design of ZnSe viewports is supported by the Russian Science Foundation (14-50-00080)

We develop a solution to the two-temperature diffusion equation in axisymmetric cylindrical coordinates to model heat transport in thermoreflectance experiments. Our solution builds upon prior solutions that account for two-channel diffusion in each layer of an N-layered geometry, but adds the ability to deposit heat at any location within each layer. We use this solution to account for non-surface heating in the transducer layer of thermoreflectance experiments that challenge the timescales of electron-phonon coupling. A sensitivity analysis is performed to identify important parameters in the solution and to establish a guideline for when to use the two-temperature model to interpret thermoreflectance data. We then fit broadband frequency domain thermoreflectance (BB-FDTR) measurements of SiO{sub 2} and platinum at a temperature of 300 K with our two-temperature solution to parameterize the gold/chromium transducer layer. We then refit BB-FDTR measurements of silicon and find that accounting for non-equilibrium between electrons and phonons in the gold layer does lessen the previously observed heating frequency dependence reported in Regner et al. [Nat. Commun. 4, 1640 (2013)] but does not completely eliminate it. We perform BB-FDTR experiments on silicon with an aluminum transducer and find limited heating frequency dependence, in agreement with time domain thermoreflectance results. We hypothesize that the discrepancy between thermoreflectance measurements with different transducers results in part from spectrally dependent phonon transmission at the transducer/silicon interface.

Fundamental limits for photon counting and photon energymeasurement are reviewed for CCD and CMOS imagers. The challenges to extend photon counting into the visible/nIR wavelengths and achieve energymeasurement in the UV with specific read noise requirements are discussed. Pixel flicker and random telegraph noise sources are highlighted along with various methods used in reducing their contribution on the sensor's read noise floor. Practical requirements for quantum efficiency, charge collection efficiency, and charge transfer efficiency that interfere with photon counting performance are discussed. Lastly we will review current efforts in reducing flicker noise head-on, in hopes to drive read noise substantially below 1 carrier rms.

In the perspective of building an open source simulation platform dedicated to the modelling of early biological molecular damages due to ionising radiation at the DNA scale, the general-purpose Geant4 Monte Carlo simulation toolkit has been recently extended with specific very low energy electromagnetic physics processes for liquid water medium. These processes - also called “Geant4-DNA” processes - simulate the physical interactions induced by electrons, hydrogen and helium atoms of different charge states. The present work reports on the energydeposit distributions obtained for incident electrons, protons and alpha particles in nanometre-size volumes comparable to those present in the genetic material of mammalian cells. The frequency distributions of the energydeposition obtained for three typical geometries of nanometre-size cylindrical targets placed in a spherical phantom are found to be in reasonable agreement with prior works. Furthermore, we present a combination of the Geant4-DNA processes with a simplified geometrical model of a cellular nucleus allowing the evaluation of energydeposits in volumes of biological interest.

Environmental concerns and rising fossil fuel prices have prompted rapid development in the renewable energy sector. Wind energy, in particular, has become increasingly popular in the United States. However, the intermittency of available wind energy makes it difficult to integrate wind energy into the power grid. Thus, the expansion and successful implementation of wind energy requires accurate wind resource assessments and wind power forecasts. The actual power produced by a turbine is affected by the wind speeds and turbulence levels experienced across the turbine rotor disk. Because of the range of measurement heights required for wind power estimation, remote sensing devices (e.g., lidar) are ideally suited for these purposes. However, the volume averaging inherent in remote sensing technology produces turbulence estimates that are different from those estimated by a sonic anemometer mounted on a standard meteorological tower. In addition, most lidars intended for wind energy purposes utilize a standard Doppler beam-swinging or Velocity-Azimuth Display technique to estimate the three-dimensional wind vector. These scanning strategies are ideal for measuring mean wind speeds but are likely inadequate for measuring turbulence. In order to examine the impact of different lidar scanning strategies on turbulence measurements, a WindCube lidar, a scanning Halo lidar, and a scanning Galion lidar were deployed at the Southern Great Plains Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) site in Summer 2013. Existing instrumentation at the ARM site, including a 60-m meteorological tower and an additional scanning Halo lidar, were used in conjunction with the deployed lidars to evaluate several user-defined scanning strategies. For part of the experiment, all three scanning lidars were pointed at approximately the same point in space and a tri-Doppler analysis was completed to calculate the three-dimensional wind vector every 1 second. In another part of the experiment, one of

Lengthy straw/stalk of biomass may not be directly fed into grinders such as hammer mills and disc refiners. Hence, biomass needs to be preprocessed using coarse grinders like a knife mill to allow for efficient feeding in refiner mills without bridging and choking. Size reduction mechanical energy was directly measured for switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), wheat straw (Triticum aestivum L.), and corn stover (Zea mays L.) in an instrumented knife mill. Direct power inputs were determined for different knife mill screen openings from 12.7 to 50.8 mm, rotor speeds between 250 and 500 rpm, and mass feed rates from 1 to 11 kg/min. Overall accuracy of power measurement was calculated to be 0.003 kW. Total specific energy (kWh/Mg) was defined as size reduction energy to operate mill with biomass. Effective specific energy was defined as the energy that can be assumed to reach the biomass. The difference is parasitic or no-load energy of mill. Total specific energy for switchgrass, wheat straw, and corn stover chopping increased with knife mill speed, whereas, effective specific energy decreased marginally for switchgrass and increased for wheat straw and corn stover. Total and effective specific energy decreased with an increase in screen size for all the crops studied. Total specific energy decreased with increase in mass feed rate, but effective specific energy increased for switchgrass and wheat straw, and decreased for corn stover at increased feed rate. For knife mill screen size of 25.4 mm and optimum speed of 250 rpm, optimum feed rates were 7.6, 5.8, and 4.5 kg/min for switchgrass, wheat straw, and corn stover, respectively, and the corresponding total specific energies were 7.57, 10.53, and 8.87 kWh/Mg and effective specific energies were 1.27, 1.50, and 0.24 kWh/Mg for switchgrass, wheat straw, and corn stover, respectively. Energy utilization ratios were calculated as 16.8%, 14.3%, and 2.8% for switchgrass, wheat straw, and corn stover, respectively. These

Recent observations of the net Poynting flux deposition to the ionosphere showed that the strongest energy input from the magnetosphere is in the polar cap where the plasma flow speed is high and not where the flow reverses, implying that the field-aligned current is not the primary agent of the energy transfer and that other physical progresses are at play. In this study we assess locations of the energy transfer and deposition by a simulation conducted with a self-consistent inductive-dynamic (including self-consistent solutions of Faraday's law and retaining inertia terms in the plasma momentum equations) ionosphere-thermosphere model. In a 2-D global geometry (dawn-dusk meridian plane), we solve the multifluid-collisional-Hall MHD equations including photochemistry. The preliminary simulation results demonstrate propagation and evolution of the field-aligned currents and the dynamic processes of the formation of the ionospheric Pedersen currents. By comparing locations of the field-aligned currents and ionosphere/thermosphere heating driven by the magnetospheric convection we show that the energy input to the IT system and the energy dissipation occurs in the polar cap instead of regions where the field-aligned currents reside. The implication of these results is that the field-aligned currents are not the primary agent of the energy transfer from the magnetosphere to the IT system.

Whether solar energetic particles (SEP) attain energies in excess of a GeV through flare reconnection or through CME-driven shocks is still in debate today. Observations of the properties of SEPs relate both to the acceleration mechanisms at play but also to the influences experienced during transport. The Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics (PAMELA) instrument, provides new observations of SEPs that uniquely set apart the affects of acceleration from those of transport. PAMELA detects the composition and the angular distribution of the particles about the magnetic field, i.e. pitch angle distribution, over a broad energy range (from ~80 MeV to beyond one GeV) -- bridging a critical gap between space-based measurements and ground-based. We report on the observation of high-energy SEP data from PAMELA acquired during the 2012 May 17 ground level enhancement (GLE). These data exhibit differential anisotropies and thus transport features over the instrument rigidity range. SEP protons exhibit two distinct pitch angle distributions; a low-energy population that extends to 90° and a population that is beamed at high energies (> 1 GeV), consistent with neutron monitor measurements. The arrival of SEPs over a broad range in energy at Earth within 20 minutes sets strong constraints on the pitch angle distribution of SEPs originating at the Sun. To explain a low-energy SEP population that exhibits significant scattering or redistribution accompanied by a high-energy population that reaches the Earth relatively unaffected by dispersive transport effects, we postulate that the scattering or redistribution takes place locally. We believe these are the first comprehensive measurements of the effects of solar energetic particle transport in the Earth's magnetosheath.

SELENE (SELenological and Engineering satellite) is a Japanese lunar orbiter that will be launched in 2006. The main purpose of this satellite is to study the origin and evolution of the moon by means of global mapping of element abundances, mineralogical composition, and surface geographical mapping from 100km altitude. PACE (Plasma energy Angle and Composition Experiment) is one of the scientific instruments onboard the SELENE satellite. PACE consists of 4 sensors: ESA (Electron Spectrum Analyzer)-S1, ESA-S2, IMA (Ion Mass Analyzer), and IEA (Ion Energy Analyzer). ESA-S1 and S2 measure three-dimensional distribution function of low energy electrons below 17keV. ESA basically employs a method of a top hat electrostatic analyzer with angular scanning deflectors at the entrance and toroidal electrodes inside. IMA and IEA measure the three-dimensional distribution function of low energy ions below 28keV/q. IMA has an ability to discriminate the ion mass with high mass resolution. IMA consists of an energy analyzer that is basically the same as ESA and an LEF (Linear Electric Field) TOF (Time Of Flight) ion mass analyzer. IEA consists of only an energy analyzer that is the same as the energy analyzer of IMA. Each sensor has hemi-spherical field of view (FOV). With two pairs of sensors ESA-S1 & IMA, and ESA-S2 & IEA, which are installed on the +Z and -Z surface of the spacecraft, three-dimensional distribution function of low energy electrons and ions are observed. The scientific objectives of PACE are 1) to measure the ions sputtered from the lunar surface and the lunar atmosphere, 2) to measure the magnetic anomaly on the lunar surface using two ESAs and a magnetometer onboard SELENE simultaneously as an electron reflectometer, 3) to resolve the moon - solar wind interaction, 4) to resolve the moon - Earth's magnetosphere interaction, and 5) to observe the Earth's magnetotail. Sputtered ions from the lunar surface will be measured for the first time. Recently, ground

The energy demand in most countries is growing at an alarming rate and identifying economically feasible building retrofit solutions to decrease the need for fossil fuels so as to mitigate their environmental and societal impacts has become imperative. Two approaches are available for identifying feasible retrofit solutions: 1) the implementation of energy conservation measures; and 2) the production of energy from renewable sources. This thesis focuses on the development of retrofit software planning tools for the implementation of solar photovoltaic systems, and lighting system retrofits for mid-Michigan institutional buildings. The solar planning tool exploits the existing blueprint of a building's rooftop, and via image processing, the layouts of the solar photovoltaic arrays are developed based on the building's geographical location and typical weather patterns. The resulting energy generation of a PV system is estimated and is utilized to determine levelized energy costs. The lighting system retrofit analysis starts by a current utilization assessment of a building to determine the amount of energy used by the lighting system. Several LED lighting options are evaluated on the basis of color correlation temperature, color rendering index, energy consumption, and financial feasibility, to determine a retrofit solution. Solar photovoltaic installations in mid-Michigan are not yet financially feasible, but with the anticipated growth and dynamic complexity of the solar photovoltaic market, this solar planning tool is able to assist building proprietors make executive decisions regarding their energy usage. Additionally, a lighting system retrofit is shown to have significant financial and health benefits.

The theory supporting the use of vegetation indices derived from LANDSAT data for the direct measurement of biomass is reviewed. The use of multispectral data to measure biomass is a natural and viable application since the photosynthetic production of biomass gives vegetation its unique spectral properties. Vegetation indices also perform a normalization function which tends to make them insensitive to atmospheric and soil color variations. Optical and digital LANDSAT products are discussed relative to the use of vegetation indices to monitor drought impact. Based on results obtained in Colorado, operational use of LANDSAT to monitor drought is cost effective, practical and ready for implementation today. The direct measurement of biomass energy resources may also benefit from LANDSAT technology. Measurement of total biomass and annual primary production may be feasible. Identification of that component of biomass resources available for energy use will require other sources of information, however.

Precision measurements of the positron component in the cosmic radiation provide important information about the propagation of cosmic rays and the nature of particle sources in our Galaxy. The satellite-borne experiment PAMELA has been used to make a new measurement of the cosmic-ray positron flux and fraction that extends previously published measurements up to 300 GeV in kinetic energy. The combined measurements of the cosmic-ray positron energy spectrum and fraction provide a unique tool to constrain interpretation models. During the recent solar minimum activity period from July 2006 to December 2009, approximately 24,500 positrons were observed. The results cannot be easily reconciled with purely secondary production, and additional sources of either astrophysical or exotic origin may be required.

Fulfilling the Commitments on UN FCCC through the U.S. Country Studies Program, Kazakstan has developed the national GHG Inventory, vulnerability and adaptation assessment and estimated the possibility of mitigation measures in certain sectors. Next step is developing National Climate Change Action Plan. That process includes such major steps as setting priorities in mitigation measures and technologies, their comprehensive evaluation, preparation implementation strategies, developing the procedure of incorporation of the National Action Plan into other development plans and programs. This paper presents programs and measures that can reduce GHG emissions in non-energy sector. Measures in land-use change and forestry, agriculture and coal mining are considered. Current situation in non-energy sector of Kazakstan is discussed. The amount of GHG emissions reduction and cost analysis presented in this paper was developed with the use of IPCC recommendations.

MINOS is a long-baseline neutrino oscillation experiment. A neutrino beam is created at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Illinois and fired down through the Earth. Measurements of the energy spectra and composition of the neutrino beam are made both at the source using the Near detector and 735 km away at the Soudan Underground Laboratory in Minnesota using the Far detector. By comparing the spectrum and flavour composition of the neutrino beam between the two detectors neutrino oscillations can be observed. Such a comparison depends on the accuracy of the relative calorimetric energy scale. This thesis details a precise measurement of the calorimetric energy scale of the MINOS Far detector and Calibration detector using stopping muons with a new ''track window'' technique. These measurements are used to perform the relative calibration between the two detectors. This calibration has been accomplished to 1.7% in data and to significantly better than 2% in the Monte Carlo simulation, thus achieving the MINOS relative calibration target of 2%. A number of cross-checks have been performed to ensure the robustness of the calorimetric energy scale measurements. At the Calibration detector the test-beam energy between run periods is found to be consistent with the detector response to better than 2% after the relative calibration is applied. The muon energy loss in the MINOS detectors determined from Bethe-Bloch predictions, data and Monte Carlo are compared and understood. To estimate the systematic error on the measurement of the neutrino oscillation parameters caused by a relative miscalibration a study is performed. A 2% relative miscalibration is shown to cause a 0.6% bias in the values of Δm2 and sin2(2θ).

We investigate auroral energydeposition by using a nonhydrostatic global atmospheric model coupled to a two-stream electron transport model. We present several electron beam study cases, discussing energy flux and electron energy effects on the ion and neutral densities, the atmospheric thermal profile, H3+ and hydrocarbon infrared (IR) emissions, H2 far ultraviolet (FUV) emissions and color ratios, and vibrationally excited molecular hydrogen. Using the nonhydrostatic Jupiter Global Ionosphere-Thermosphere Model, we find that FUV spectral characteristics consistent with previous Hubble Space Telescope results derive primarily from electrons with energies above 10 keV, over energy fluxes of 10-100 erg/cm2 s, while IR emissions are predominantly due to electrons with energies below 10 keV, over energy fluxes of 10-100 erg/cm2 s. Electrons with energies below about 10 keV produce enough H2(ν) to deplete the H+ population, modifying the ionospheric composition, and consequently the H3+ emissions, which can be used to directly relate H2 vibrational excitation to auroral observations. New observations by Juno will provide better electron energy distributions to constrain the electron energy spectrum and magnitude at the upper boundary of the model and simultaneously provide a determination of the FUV and IR spectra that can be cross-correlated with the observations.

In spot-scanning intensity-modulated proton therapy, numerous unmodulated proton beam spots are delivered over a target volume to produce a prescribed dose distribution. To accurately model field size-dependent output factors for beam spots, the energydeposition at positions radial to the central axis of the beam must be characterized. In this study, we determined the difference in the central axis dose for spot-scanned fields that results from secondary particle doses by investigating energydeposition radial to the proton beam central axis resulting from primary protons and secondary particles for mathematical point source and distributed source models. The largest difference in the central axis dose from secondary particles resulting from the use of a mathematical point source and a distributed source model was approximately 0.43%. Thus, we conclude that the central axis dose for a spot-scanned field is effectively independent of the source model used to calculate the secondary particle dose.

Hydroxyapatite is an attractive biomaterial mainly used in bone and tooth implants because it closely resembles human tooth and bone mineral and has proven to be biologically compatible with these tissues. In spite of this advantage of hydroxyapatite it has also certain limitation like inferior mechanical properties which do not make it suitable for long term load bearing applications; hence a lot of research is going on in the development of hydroxyapatite coating over various metallic implants. These metallic implants have good biocompatibility and mechanical properties. The aim of the present work is to deposit hydroxyapatite coating over stainless steel grade 316 L by pulse laser deposition technique by varying laser energy. To know the effect of this variation, the coatings were than characterized in detail by X-ray diffraction, finite emission-scanning electron microscope, atomic force microscope and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy.

A coherent Doppler lidar based on an injection seeded Ho:Tm:YLF pulsed laser was developed for wind measurements. A transmitted pulse energy over 75 mJ at 5 Hz repetition rate has been demonstrated. Designs are presented on the laser, injection seeding, receiver, and signal processing subsystems. Sample data of atmospheric measurements are presented including a wind profile extending from the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) to the free troposphere.

A method has been proposed to utilize the well-known Compton scattering process as a tool to measure the centroid energy of a high energy electron beam at the 0.01% level. It is suggested to use the Compton scattering of an infrared laser off the electron beam, and then to measure the energy of the scattered gamma-rays very precisely using solid-state detectors. The technique proposed is applicable for electron beams with energies from 200 MeV to 16 GeV using presently available lasers. This technique was judged to be the most viable of all those proposed for beam energymeasurements at the nearby Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). Plans for a prototype test of the technique are underway, where the main issues are the possible photon backgrounds associated with an electron accelerator and the electron and laser beam stabilities and diagnostics. The bulk of my ASEE summer research has been spent utilizing the expertise of the staff at the Aerospace Electronics Systems Division at LaRC to assist in the design of the test. Investigations were made regarding window and mirror transmission and radiation damage issues, remote movement of elements in ultra-high vacuum conditions, etc. The prototype test of the proposed laser backscattering method is planned for this December.

The objective of this study is to quantitatively evaluate variations of dose distributions deposited in mobile target by measurement and modeling. The effects of variation in dose distribution induced by motion on tumor dose coverage and sparing of normal tissues were investigated quantitatively. The dose distributions with motion artifacts were modeled considering different motion patterns that include (a) motion with constant speed and (b) sinusoidal motion. The model predictions of the dose distributions with motion artifacts were verified with measurement where the dose distributions from various plans that included three-dimensional conformal and intensity-modulated fields were measured with a multiple-diode-array detector (MapCheck2), which was mounted on a mobile platform that moves with adjustable motion parameters. For each plan, the dose distributions were then measured with MapCHECK2 using different motion amplitudes from 0-25 mm. In addition, mathematical modeling was developed to predict the variations in the dose distributions and their dependence on the motion parameters that included amplitude, frequency and phase for sinusoidal motions. The dose distributions varied with motion and depended on the motion pattern particularly the sinusoidal motion, which spread out along the direction of motion. Study results showed that in the dose region between isocenter and the 50% isodose line, the dose profile decreased with increase of the motion amplitude. As the range of motion became larger than the field length along the direction of motion, the dose profiles changes overall including the central axis dose and 50% isodose line. If the total dose was delivered over a time much longer than the periodic time of motion, variations in motion frequency and phase do not affect the dose profiles. As a result, the motion dose modeling developed in this study provided quantitative characterization of variation in the dose distributions induced by motion, which

The surface stress associated with the underpotential deposition (upd) of bismuth on (111)-textured Au is examined, using the wafer curvature method, in acidic perchlorate and nitrate supporting electrolyte. The surface stress is correlated to Bi coverage by independent nanogravimetric measurements using an electrochemical quartz crystal nanobalance. The mass increase measured in the presence of perchlorate is consistent with the (2 x 2) and (p x square root 3)-2Bi adlayers reported in the literature. ClO(4)(-) does not play a significant role in the upd process. The complete Bi monolayer causes an overall surface stress change of about -1.4 N m(-1). We attribute this compressive stress to the formation of Bi-Au bonds which partially satisfy the bonding requirements of the Au surface atoms, thereby reducing the tensile surface stress inherent to the clean Au surface. At higher Bi coverage, an additional contribution to the compressive stress is due to the electrocompression of the (p x square root 3)-2Bi adlayer. In nitric acid electrolyte, NO(3)(-) coadsorbs with Bi over the entire upd region but has little fundamental impact on adlayer structure and stress.

Today, many large commercial buildings use sophisticated building automation systems (BASs) to manage a wide range of building equipment. While the capabilities of BASs have increased over time, many buildings still do not fully use the BAS’s capabilities and are not properly commissioned, operated or maintained, which leads to inefficient operation, increased energy use, and reduced lifetimes of the equipment. This paper investigates the energy savings potential of several common HVAC system re-tuning measures on a typical large office building, using the Department of Energy’s building energy modeling software, EnergyPlus. The baseline prototype model uses roughly as much energy as an average large office building in existing building stock, but does not utilize any re-tuning measures. Individual re-tuning measures simulated against this baseline include automatic schedule adjustments, damper minimum flow adjustments, thermostat adjustments, as well as dynamic resets (set points that change continuously with building and/or outdoor conditions) to static pressure, supply-air temperature, condenser water temperature, chilled and hot water temperature, and chilled and hot water differential pressure set points. Six combinations of these individual measures have been formulated – each designed to conform to limitations to implementation of certain individual measures that might exist in typical buildings. All the individual measures and combinations were simulated in 16 climate locations representative of specific U.S. climate zones. The modeling results suggest that the most effective energy savings measures are those that affect the demand-side of the building (air-systems and schedules). Many of the demand-side individual measures were capable of reducing annual total HVAC system energy consumption by over 20% in most cities that were modeled. Supply side measures affecting HVAC plant conditions were only modestly successful (less than 5% annual HVAC energy

Purpose: Currently, there is no accepted standard for measuring breast density. Dual energy mammography, which has demonstrated accurate measurement in phantoms, has been proposed as one possible method. To examine the use of chemical analysis as a possible means to validate breast density measurements from dual energy mammography, a bovine tissue model was investigated. Known quantities of lean and adipose tissue were compared with composition values measured from dual energy images and chemical analysis. Methods: Theoretical simulations were performed to assess the impact variations in breast composition would have on measurement of breast density from a single calibration. Fourteen ex-vivo tissue samples composed of varying amounts of pure lean tissue and pure adipose tissue (lean percentage) from 0 to 100%, in increments of 10%, were imaged using dual energy mammography. This was followed by chemical analysis based on desiccation, trituration, and fat extraction with petroleum ether to determine water, lipid, and protein content. The volumetric lean percentage (VLP) as measured from images (VLPI) and as derived from chemical analysis data (VLPCA) were compared with the VLP calculated from measurements of sample mass with a scale (VLPM). Finally, data from the bovine tissue model in this study were compared to compositional data from a previous report of human tissue composition. Results: The results from simulation suggest a substantial impact on measuring breast density is likely due to changes in anatomical breast composition. VLPI was related to the VLPM by VLPI = 1.53 VLPM + 10.0 (r2>0.99). VLPCA was related to VLPM by VLPCA = 0.76 VLPM + 22.8 (r2>0.99). VLPI was related to VLPCA by VLPI = 2.00 VLPCA − 35.6 (r2>0.99). Bovine adipose tissue was shown to be very similar to human adipose tissue in terms of water, lipid, and protein content with RMS differences of 1.2%. Bovine lean tissue was shown to be very similar to human skeletal

We propose a novel generalized method for mass measurements based on phase space singularity structures that can be applied to any event topology with missing energy. Our method subsumes the well-known end point and transverse mass methods and yields new techniques for studying 'missing particle' events, such as the double chain production of stable neutral particles at the LHC.

The role of fracture-velocity, microstructure, and fracture-energy barriers in elastic wave radiation during a dynamic fracture was investigated in experiments in which dynamic tensile cracks of two fracture cofigurations of double cantilever beam geometry were propagating in glass samples. The first, referred to as primary fracture, consisted of fractures of intact glass specimens; the second configuration, referred to as secondary fracture, consisted of a refracture of primary fracture specimens which were rebonded with an intermittent pattern of adhesive to produce variations in fracture surface energy along the crack path. For primary fracture cases, measurable elastic waves were generated in 31 percent of the 16 fracture events observed; the condition for radiation of measurable waves appears to be a local abrupt change in the fracture path direction, such as occurs when the fracture intersects a surface flaw. For secondary fractures, 100 percent of events showed measurable elastic waves; in these fractures, the ratio of radiated elastic wave energy in the measured component to fracture surface energy was 10 times greater than for primary fracture.

One of the strongest arguments for increasing the nominal CEBAF beam energy to equal or exceed 6 GeV is that one would be able to make quality high Q{sup 2} measurements of the charged pion form factor.

In this paper, we report the development of an automated system for energy bandgap and resistivity measurement of a semiconductor sample using Four-Probe method for use in the undergraduate laboratory of Physics and Electronics students. The automated data acquisition and analysis system has been developed using National Instruments USB-6008 DAQ…

SELenological and ENgineering Explorer (SELENE) is a Japanese lunar orbiter that will be launched in 2007. The main purpose of this satellite is to study the origin and evolution of the Moon by means of global mapping of element abundances, mineralogical composition, and surface geographical mapping from 100 km altitude. Plasma energy Angle and Composition Experiment (PACE) is one of the scientific instruments onboard the SELENE satellite. The scientific objectives of PACE are (1) to measure the ions sputtered from the lunar surface and the lunar atmosphere, (2) to measure the magnetic anomaly on the lunar surface using two electron spectrum analyzers (ESAs) and a magnetometer onboard SELENE simultaneously as an electron reflectometer, (3) to resolve the Moon-solar wind interaction, (4) to resolve the Moon-Earth's magnetosphere interaction, and (5) to observe the Earth's magnetotail. PACE consists of four sensors: ESA-S1, ESA-S2, ion mass analyzer (IMA), and ion energy analyzer (IEA). ESA-S1 and S2 measure the three-dimensional distribution function of low energy electrons below 15 keV, while IMA and IEA measure the three-dimensional distribution function of low energy ions below 28 keV/q.

Scintillating nanoparticles (NPs) in combination with X-ray or γ-radiation have a great potential for deep-tissue cancer therapy because they can be used to locally activate photosensitizers and generate singlet oxygen in tumours by means of the photodynamic effect. To understand the complex spatial distribution of energydeposition in a macroscopic volume of water loaded with nanoscintillators, we have developed a GEANT4-based Monte Carlo program. We thus obtain estimates of the maximum expected efficiency of singlet oxygen production for various materials coupled to PS, X-ray energies, NP concentrations and NP sizes. A new parameter, ηnano, is introduced to quantify the fraction of energy that is deposited in the NPs themselves, which is crucial for the efficiency of singlet oxygen production but has not been taken into account adequately so far. We furthermore emphasise the substantial contribution of primary interactions taking place in water, particularly under irradiation with high energy photons. The interplay of all these contributions to the photodynamic effect has to be taken into account in order to optimize nanoscintillators for therapeutic applications.Scintillating nanoparticles (NPs) in combination with X-ray or γ-radiation have a great potential for deep-tissue cancer therapy because they can be used to locally activate photosensitizers and generate singlet oxygen in tumours by means of the photodynamic effect. To understand the complex spatial distribution of energydeposition in a macroscopic volume of water loaded with nanoscintillators, we have developed a GEANT4-based Monte Carlo program. We thus obtain estimates of the maximum expected efficiency of singlet oxygen production for various materials coupled to PS, X-ray energies, NP concentrations and NP sizes. A new parameter, ηnano, is introduced to quantify the fraction of energy that is deposited in the NPs themselves, which is crucial for the efficiency of singlet oxygen production but

High LET radiation from GCR (Galactic Cosmic Rays) consisting mainly of high charge and energy (HZE) nuclei and secondary protons and neutrons, and secondaries from protons in SPE (Solar Particle Event) pose a major health risk to astronauts due to induction of DNA damage and oxidative stress. Experiments with high energy particles mimicking the space environment for estimation of radiation risk are being performed at NASA Space Radiation Laboratory at BNL. Experiments with low energy particles comparing to high energy particles of similar LET are of interest for investigation of the role of track structure on biological effects. For this purpose, we report results utilizing the Tandem Van de Graaff accelerator at BNL. The primary objective of our studies is to elucidate the influence of high vs low energydeposition on track structure, delta ray contribution and resulting biological responses. These low energy ions are of special relevance as these energies may occur following absorption through the spacecraft and shielding materials in human tissues and nuclear fragments produced in tissues by high energy protons and neutrons. This study will help to verify the efficiency of these low energy particles and better understand how various cell types respond to them.

A video microscopic visualization system and image processing and data extraction and processing method for in situ detailed quantification of the deposition of sub-micrometer particles onto an arbitrary surface and determination of their concentration across the bulk suspension. The extracted data includes (a) surface concentration and flux of deposited, attached and detached colloids, (b) surface concentration and flux of arriving and departing colloids, (c) distribution of colloids in the bulk suspension in the direction perpendicular to the deposition surface, and (d) spatial and temporal distributions of deposited colloids.

Thin films of metals and other materials are often grown by physical vapor deposition. To understand such processes, it is desirable to measure the adsorption energy of the deposited species as the film grows, especially when grown on single crystal substrates where the structure of the adsorbed species, evolving interface, and thin film are more homogeneous and well-defined in structure. Our group previously described in this journal an adsorption calorimeter capable of such measurements on single-crystal surfaces under the clean conditions of ultrahigh vacuum [J. T. Stuckless, N. A. Frei, and C. T. Campbell, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 69, 2427 (1998)]. Here we describe several improvements to that original design that allow for heat measurements with ˜18-fold smaller standard deviation, greater absolute accuracy in energy calibration, and, most importantly, measurements of the adsorption of lower vapor-pressure materials which would have previously been impossible. These improvements are accomplished by: (1) using an electron beam evaporator instead of a Knudsen cell to generate the metal vapor at the source of the pulsed atomic beam, (2) changing the atomic beam design to decrease the relative amount of optical radiation that accompanies evaporation, (3) adding an off-axis quartz crystal microbalance for real-time measurement of the flux of the atomic beam during calorimetry experiments, and (4) adding capabilities for in situ relative diffuse optical reflectivity determinations (necessary for heat signal calibration). These improvements are not limited to adsorption calorimetry during metal deposition, but also could be applied to better study film growth of other elements and even molecular adsorbates.

Thin films of metals and other materials are often grown by physical vapor deposition. To understand such processes, it is desirable to measure the adsorption energy of the deposited species as the film grows, especially when grown on single crystal substrates where the structure of the adsorbed species, evolving interface, and thin film are more homogeneous and well-defined in structure. Our group previously described in this journal an adsorption calorimeter capable of such measurements on single-crystal surfaces under the clean conditions of ultrahigh vacuum [J. T. Stuckless, N. A. Frei, and C. T. Campbell, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 69, 2427 (1998)]. Here we describe several improvements to that original design that allow for heat measurements with ∼18-fold smaller standard deviation, greater absolute accuracy in energy calibration, and, most importantly, measurements of the adsorption of lower vapor-pressure materials which would have previously been impossible. These improvements are accomplished by: (1) using an electron beam evaporator instead of a Knudsen cell to generate the metal vapor at the source of the pulsed atomic beam, (2) changing the atomic beam design to decrease the relative amount of optical radiation that accompanies evaporation, (3) adding an off-axis quartz crystal microbalance for real-time measurement of the flux of the atomic beam during calorimetry experiments, and (4) adding capabilities for in situ relative diffuse optical reflectivity determinations (necessary for heat signal calibration). These improvements are not limited to adsorption calorimetry during metal deposition, but also could be applied to better study film growth of other elements and even molecular adsorbates.

The development and validation of a new version of the Hull Acid Rain Model (HARM12.1) is described in the context of changes in emissions and deposition estimates supplied by the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (CEH) Edinburgh based on the available measurement networks. Major changes to the model include greater vertical resolution, the adoption of new background concentrations and ecosystem-specific deposition velocities. HARM output for 1998-2000 is compared with data from the rural SO 2, NO 2 and NH 3 networks and results from the nitric acid and aerosol network. The ability to reproduce deposition estimates based on measurements is key to a regional-scale model like HARM. Changes in these estimates between 1995-97 and 1998-2000 are discussed. Comparing HARM modelled deposition and the CEH data indicates that the new version of the model performs better in this respect than its predecessor (HARM11.5). The trend in deposition over the time period does not seem to reflect the marked reduction in emissions. The possible reasons for this are explored with particular emphasis on changes in precipitation. 1995-97 was unusually dry, while 1998-2000 was wet. Changes in rainfall concentration and unmodified deposition are presented for comparison with HARM and CEH estimates. It is clear that the impact of precipitation variability on modelled acid deposition requires further investigation. Finally, we compare HARM12.1 and HARM 11.5 deposition in 2010 following emissions reductions to meet the terms of the National Emissions Ceilings Directive.

The atmospheric dry deposition fluxes of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been measured, for the first time, in the tropical and subtropical Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. Depositional fluxes for fine (0.7-2.7 μm) and coarse (>2.7 μm) aerosol fractions were simultaneously determined with the suspended aerosol phase concentrations, allowing the determination of PAH deposition velocities (vD). PAH dry deposition fluxes (FDD) bound to coarse aerosols were higher than those of fine aerosols for 83% of the measurements. Average FDD for total (fine + coarse) Σ16PAHs (sum of 16 individual PAHs) ranged from 8.33 ng m(-2)d(-1) to 52.38 ng m(-2)d(-1). Mean FDD for coarse aerosol's individual PAHs ranged between 0.13 ng m(-2)d(-1) (Perylene) and 1.96 ng m(-2)d(-1) (Methyl Pyrene), and for the fine aerosol fraction these ranged between 0.06 ng m(-2)d(-1) (Dimethyl Pyrene) and 1.25 ng m(-2)d(-1) (Methyl Chrysene). The estimated deposition velocities went from the highest mean vD for Methyl Chrysene (0.17-13.30 cm s(-1)), followed by Dibenzo(ah)Anthracene (0.29-1.38 cm s(-1)), and other high MW PAHs to minimum values of vD for Dimethyl Pyrene (<0.04 cm s(-1)) and Pyrene (<0.06 cm s(-1)). Dry depositional processes depend on the concentration of PAHs in the suspended aerosol, but also on physicochemical properties and environmental variables (vapor pressure, wind speed, and on the affinity of aerosols for depositing to the sea surface). Empirical parametrizations are proposed to predict the dry depositional velocities of semivolatile organic compounds to the global oceans.

In this study, to foster the transition to more sustainable energy systems, policymakers have been approving measures to improve energy efficiency as well as promoting smart grids. In this setting, building managers are encouraged to adapt their energy operations to real-time market and weather conditions. Yet, most fail to do so as they rely on conventional building energy management systems (BEMS) that have static temperature set points for heating and cooling equipment. In this paper, we investigate how effective policy measures are at improving building-level energy efficiency compared to a smart BEMS with dynamic temperature set points. To this end,more » we present an integrated optimisation model mimicking the smart BEMS that combines decisions on heating and cooling systems operations with decisions on energy sourcing. Using data from an Austrian and a Spanish building, we find that the smart BEMS results in greater reduction in energy consumption than a conventional BEMS with policy measures.« less

Particle size data are holding crucial information on the sedimentary environment at the time the aeolian dust deposits were accumulated. Various aspects of aeolian sedimentation (wind strength, distance to source(s), possible secondary source regions and modes of sedimentation and transport) can be reconstructed from proper grain size distribution data. Laser diffraction methods provide much more accurate and reliable information on the major granulometric properties of wind-blown sediments compared to the sieve and pipette methods. The Fraunhofer and Mie scattering theories are generally used for laser diffraction grain size measurements. () The two different approaches need different 'background' information on the medium measured. During measurements following the Fraunhofer theory, the basic assumption is that parcticles are relatively large (over 25-30 µm) and opaque. The Mie theory could offer more accurate data on smaller fractions (clay and fine silt), assuming that a proper, a'priori knowledge on refraction and absorption indices exists, which is rarely the case for polymineral samples. This study is aimed at determining the effects of different optical parameters on grain size distributions (e.g. clay-content, median, mode). Multiple samples collected from Hungarian red clay and loess-paleosol records have been analysed using a Malvern Mastersizer 3000 laser diffraction particle sizer (with a Hydro LV unit). Additional grain size measurements have been made on a Fritsch Analysette 22 Microtec and a Horiba Partica La-950 v2 instrument to investigate possible effects of the used laser sources with different wavelengths. XRF and XRD measurements have also been undertaken to gain insight into the geochemical/mineralogical compositions of the samples studied. Major findings include that measurements using the Mie theory provide more accurate data on the grain size distribution of aeolian dust deposits, when we use a proper optical setting. Significant

In this work we construct a unified model of dark energy and dark matter. This is done with the following three elements: a gravitating scalar field, φ with a non-conventional kinetic term, as in the string theory tachyon; an arbitrary potential, V(φ); two measures — a metric measure ((−g){sup 1/2}) and a non-metric measure (Φ). The model has two interesting features: (i) For potentials which are unstable and would give rise to tachyonic scalar field, this model can stabilize the scalar field. (ii) The form of the dark energy and dark matter that results from this model is fairly insensitive to the exact form of the scalar field potential.

Shear wave elasticity imaging (SWEI) has found success in liver fibrosis staging. This work evaluates hepatic SWEI measurement success as a function of push pulse energy using two mechanical index (MI) values (1.6 and 2.2) over a range of pulse durations. Shear wave speed (SWS) was measured in the livers of 26 study subjects with known or potential chronic liver diseases. Each measurement consisted of eight SWEI sequences, each with different push energy configurations. The rate of successful SWS estimation was linearly proportional to the push energy. SWEI measurements with higher push energy were successful in patients for whom standard push energy levels failed. The findings also suggest that liver capsule depth could be used prospectively to identify patients who would benefit from elevated output. We conclude that there is clinical benefit to using elevated acoustic output for hepatic SWS measurement in patients with deeper livers.

The accurate measurement of energy in the application of lidar system for CO2 measurement is critical. Different techniques of energy estimation in the online and offline pulses are investigated for post processing of lidar returns. The cornerstone of the techniques is the accurate estimation of the spectrum of lidar signal and background noise. Since the background noise is not the ideal white Gaussian noise, simple average level estimation of noise level is not well fit in the energy estimation of lidar signal and noise. A brief review of the methods is presented in this paper.

Laser-driven magnetic fields are of interest in particle confinement, fast ignition, and ICF platforms as an alternative to pulsed power systems to achieve many times higher fields. A comprehensive model describing the mechanism responsible for creating and maintaining magnetic fields from laser-driven coils has not yet been established. Understanding the scaling of key experimental parameters such as spatial and temporal uniformity and duration are necessary to implement coil targets in practical applications yet these measurements prove difficult due to the highly transient nature of the fields. We report on direct voltage measurements of laser-driven coil targets in which the laser energy spans more than four orders of magnitude. Results suggest that at low energies, laser-driven coils can be modeled as an electric circuit; however, at higher energies plasma effects dominate and a simple circuit treatment is insufficient to describe all observed phenomenon. The favorable scaling with laser power and pulse duration, observed in the present study and others at kilojoule energies, has positive implications for sustained, large magnetic fields for applications on the NIF. This work was performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under Contract DE-AC52-07NA27344.

In this paper, a technique for improving the accuracy of a dissipated energymeasurement based on the phase information—called the phase 2f lock-in infrared method—is proposed. In the conventional 2f lock-in infrared method, the dissipated energy is obtained as the double frequency component of the measured temperature change. In this work, a phase analysis of the double frequency component has been conducted. It is found that the double frequency component includes the influence of the energy dissipation and harmonic vibration of the fatigue testing machine, and the phase difference between the thermoelastic temperature change and the double frequency component is a specific value. The phase 2f lock-in method utilizes a specific phase of the dissipated energy and is effective for removing the noise component such as the thermoelastic temperature change due to the harmonic vibration of fatigue testing machine. This method provides an improvement in the accuracy of the fatigue-limit estimate and the detection of future crack initiation points based on the dissipated energy.

The purpose of this study was to validate a wireless network of accelerometers and compare it to a hip-mounted accelerometer for predicting energy expenditure in a semi-structured environment. Adults (n = 25) aged 18-30 engaged in 14 sedentary, ambulatory, exercise, and lifestyle activities over a 60-min protocol while wearing a portable metabolic analyser, hip-mounted accelerometer, and wireless network of three accelerometers worn on the right wrist, thigh, and ankle. Participants chose the order and duration of activities. Artificial neural networks were created separately for the wireless network and hip accelerometer for energy expenditure prediction. The wireless network had higher correlations (r = 0.79 vs. r = 0.72, P 0.05) to the hip accelerometer. Measured (from metabolic analyser) and predicted energy expenditure from the hip accelerometer were significantly different for the 3 of the 14 activities (lying down, sweeping, and cycle fast); conversely, measured and predicted energy expenditure from the wireless network were not significantly different for any activity. In conclusion, the wireless network yielded a small improvement over the hip accelerometer, providing evidence that the wireless network can produce accurate estimates of energy expenditure in adults participating in a range of activities.

A large aperture, balloon borne cosmic ray detector was designed to measure the energy spectra of individual cosmic ray species with Z greater than 8 in the energy range 0.3GeV/N to 400GeV/N. The energy dependence of the abundance spectrum extending up to such high energies will provide valuable data for determining the nature of the origin and propagation of cosmic rays in the Galaxy. The properties of cosmic ray nuclei and the interpretation of the energy dependence of the abundance spectrum are discussed. The design and response of the BUGS IV cosmic ray detector are described. The measurement techniques used are gas scintillation, gas proportional scintillation and Cerenkov radiation from both gases and solids. The light collection properties of the detector and several experimental investigations of the light collection efficiency of the drift chamber region are described. The expected signals from the gas scintillation and gas Cerenkov emissions are predicted and the choice of a suitable scintillating gas mixture for minimizing the uncertainty in the charge and energymeasurements is considered. The theoretical aspects of electron drift and diffusion in gases and several experimental investigations on the electron drift in the BUGS IV drift chamber are given. Also some preliminary results from a uniform field drift chamber are included which demonstrate the sensitivity of the electron drift velocity in inert gas mixtures to water vapor contamination. The expected overall performance of BUGS IV and the results of an experimental simulation of the parachute landing of the detector are given.

continuously at about the velocity of the flow, and even low flows can transport large amounts of fine sediment. Hence, the discharge of fine sediments, being largely dependent on the availability of fine sediment upstream rather than on the properties of the sediment and of the flow at a cross section, can seldom be computed from properties, other than concentrations based directly on samples, that can be observed at the cross section. Sediment particles continually change their positions in the flow; some fall to the streambed, and others are removed from the bed. Sediment deposits form locally or over large areas if the volume rate at which particles settle to the bed exceeds the volume rate at which particles are removed from the bed. In general, large particles are deposited more readily than small particles, whether the point of deposition is behind a rock, on a flood plain, within a stream channel, or at the entrance to a reservoir, a lake, or the ocean. Most samplers used for sediment observations collect a water-sediment mixture from the water surface to within a few tenths of a foot of the streambed. They thus sample most of the suspended sediment, especially if the flow is deep or if the sediment is mostly fine; but they exclude the bedload and some of the suspended sediment in a layer near the streambed where the suspended-sediment concentrations are highest. Measured sediment discharges are usually based on concentrations that are averages of several individual sediment samples for a cross section. If enough average concentrations for a cross section have been determined, the measured sediment discharge can be computed by interpolating sediment concentrations between sampling times. If only occasional samples were collected, an average relation between sediment discharge and flow can be used with a flow-duration curve to compute roughly the average or the total sediment discharges for any periods of time for which the flow-duration c

The deposition dose and site of inhaled particles within the lung are the key determinants in health risk assessment of particulate pollutants. Accurate dose estimation, however, is a formidable task because aerosol transport and deposition in the lung are governed by many factor...

Provides a physical description of semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs), both in terms of their characteristic nature in the atmosphere and the processes which control their deposition. Contains a summary of the requirements for a full assessment of atmospheric SVOCs and their deposition. (LZ)

Recent developments in statistical mechanics have allowed the estimation of equilibrium free energies from the statistics of work measurements during processes that drive the system out of equilibrium. Here a different class of processes is considered, wherein the system is prepared and released from a nonequilibrium state, and no external work is involved during its observation. For such "clamp-and-release" processes, a simple strategy for the estimation of equilibrium free energies is offered. The method is illustrated with numerical simulations and analyzed in the context of tethered single-molecule experiments.

Constraints on dark energy from current observational data are sensitive to how distances are measured from Type Ia supernova (SN Ia) data. We find that flux averaging of SNe Ia can be used to test the presence of unknown systematic uncertainties, and yield more robust distance measurements from SNe Ia. We have applied this approach to the nearby+SDSS+ESSENCE+SNLS+HST set of 288 SNe Ia, and the 'Constitution' set of 397 SNe Ia. Combining the SN Ia data with cosmic microwave background anisotropy data from Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe 5 yr observations, the Sloan Digital Sky Survey baryon acoustic oscillation measurements, the data of 69 gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) , and the Hubble constant measurement from the Hubble Space Telescope project SHOES, we measure the dark energy density function X(z){identical_to}{rho}{sub X}(z)/{rho}{sub X}(0) as a free function of redshift (assumed to be a constant at z>1 or z>1.5). Without the flux averaging of SNe Ia, the combined data using the Constitution set of SNe Ia seem to indicate a deviation from a cosmological constant at {approx}95% confidence level at 0 < or apporx. z < or approx. 0.8; they are consistent with a cosmological constant at {approx}68% confidence level when SNe Ia are flux averaged. The combined data using the nearby+SDSS+ESSENCE+SNLS+HST data set of SNe Ia are consistent with a cosmological constant at 68% confidence level with or without flux averaging of SNe Ia, and give dark energy constraints that are significantly more stringent than that using the Constitution set of SNe Ia. Assuming a flat Universe, dark energy is detected at >98% confidence level for z{<=}0.75 using the combined data with 288 SNe Ia from nearby+SDSS+ESSENCE+SNLS+HST, independent of the assumptions about X(z{>=}1). We quantify dark energy constraints without assuming a flat Universe using the dark energy figure of merit for both X(z) and a dark energy equation-of-state linear in the cosmic scale factor.

We apply a statistical method, information-based energy, to quantify informative symbolic sequences. To apply this method to literary texts, it is assumed that different words with different occurrence frequencies are at different energy levels, and that the energy-occurrence frequency distribution obeys a Boltzmann distribution. The temperature within the Boltzmann distribution can be an indicator for the author's writing capacity as the repertory of thoughts. The relative temperature of a text is obtained by comparing the energy-occurrence frequency distributions of words collected from one text versus from all texts of the same author. Combining the relative temperature with the Shannon entropy as the text complexity, the information-based energy of the text is defined and can be viewed as a quantitative evaluation of an author's writing performance. We demonstrate the method by analyzing two authors, Shakespeare in English and Jin Yong in Chinese, and find that their well-known works are associated with higher information-based energies. This method can be used to measure the creativity level of a writer's work in linguistics, and can also quantify symbolic sequences in different systems.

The thickness-dependent surface states of MoS2 thin films grown by the chemical vapor deposition process on the SiO2-Si substrates are investigated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Raman and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy suggest the thicknesses of MoS2 films to be ranging from 3 to 10 layers. Both the core levels and valence band edges of MoS2 shift downward ∼0.2 eV as the film thickness increases, which can be ascribed to the Fermi level variations resulting from the surface states and bulk defects. Grainy features observed from the atomic force microscopy topographies, and sulfur-vacancy-induced defect states illustrated at the valence band spectra imply the generation of surface states that causes the downward band bending at the n-type MoS2 surface. Bulk defects in thick MoS2 may also influence the Fermi level oppositely compared to the surface states. When Au contacts with our MoS2 thin films, the Fermi level downshifts and the binding energy reduces due to the hole-doping characteristics of Au and easy charge transfer from the surface defect sites of MoS2. The shift of the onset potentials in hydrogen evolution reaction and the evolution of charge-transfer resistances extracted from the impedance measurement also indicate the Fermi level varies with MoS2 film thickness. The tunable Fermi level and the high chemical stability make our MoS2 a potential catalyst. The observed thickness-dependent properties can also be applied to other transition-metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), and facilitates the development in the low-dimensional electronic devices and catalysts.

We have measured the inclusive deep inelastic scattering of muons on nucleons in iron using beams of 93 and 215 GeV muons. To perform this measurement, we have built and operated the Multimuon Spectrometer (MMS) in the muon beam at Fermilab. The MMS is a magnetized iron target/spectrometer/calorimeter which provides 5.61 kg/cm/sup 2/ of target, 9% momentum resolution on scattered muons, and a direct measure of total hadronic energy with resolution sigma/sub nu/ = 1.4..sqrt..nu(GeV). In the distributed target, the average beam energies at the interaction are 88.0 and 209 GeV. Using the known form of the radiatively-corrected electromagnetic cross section, we extract the structure function F/sub 2/(x,Q/sup 2/) with a typical precision of 2% over the range 5 < Q/sup 2/ < 200 GeV/sup 2//c/sup 2/. We compare our measurements to the predictions of lowest order quantum chromodynamics (QCD) and find a best fit value of the QCD scale parameter ..lambda../sub LO/ = 230 +- 40/sup stat/ +- 80/sup syst/ MeV/c, assuming R = 0 and without applying Fermi motion corrections. Comparing the cross sections at the two beam energies, we measure R = -0.06 +- 0.06/sup stat/ +- 0.11/sup syst/. Our measurements show qualitative agreement with QCD, but quantitative comparison is hampered by phenomenological uncertainties. The experimental situation is quite good, with substantial agreement between our measurements and those of others. 86 references.

Maize is wind pollinated and produces huge amounts of pollen. In consequence, the Cry toxins expressed in the pollen of Bt maize will be dispersed by wind in the surrounding vegetation leading to exposure of non-target organisms (NTO). NTO like lepidopteran larvae may be affected by the uptake of Bt-pollen deposited on their host plants. Although some information is available to estimate pollen deposition on host plants, recorded data are based on indirect measurements such as shaking or washing off pollen, or removing pollen with adhesive tapes. These methods often lack precision and they do not include the necessary information such as the spatial and temporal variation of pollen deposition on the leaves. Here, we present a new method for recording in situ the amount and the distribution of Bt-maize pollen deposited on host plant leaves. The method is based on the use of a mobile digital microscope (Dino-Lite Pro, including DinoCapture software), which can be used in combination with a notebook in the field. The method was evaluated during experiments in 2008 to 2010. Maize pollen could be correctly identified and pollen deposition as well as the spatial heterogeneity of maize pollen deposition was recorded on maize and different lepidopteran host plants (Centaurea scabiosa, Chenopodium album, Rumex spp., Succina pratensis and Urtica dioica) growing adjacent to maize fields.

Emittance and energy of an electron beam in the range of 8 to 22 MeV were measured via optical transition radiation (OTR) techniques. The beam divergence effect on observations of the far-field OTR image at low energies was studied by means of numerical analysis. The numerical analysis indicates that if the beam divergence is under 1.5 mrad, a simultaneous single-shot measurement of emittance and energy is possible. The results of the single-shot experiment agree with independent measurements conducted using the quadrupole scan method and an electron spectrometer. The experiments were performed with an S-band linac at the Nuclear Engineering Research Laboratory, The University of Tokyo (UTNL).

The plasma source ion implantation (PSII) process can be used for the treatment of the interior surfaces of tubes. Typically, this is done with higher ion energies of 10 keV or more. The resulting film thickness and the properties of the DLC film usually show a dependence on position, i.e. the distance from the edge of the tube. In order to investigate whether this effect is also present with lower energies (and if so, to what extent), deposition was carried out at negative pulse voltages of -5 kV. A diamond-like carbon (DLC) film was deposited by using acetylene as the plasma gas. The substrate consisted of stainless steel tubes with an inner diameter of 20 mm and a length of 100 and 200 mm, respectively. The distribution of the thickness, film composition, structure, surface morphology and friction coefficient as a function of the position inside the tube were investigated. The results of this low energy treatment were compared with investigations which employed higher ion energies.

The ``Living Bridge'' project plans to install a tidal turbine at Memorial Bridge in the Piscataqua River at Portsmouth, NH. A spatio-temporal tidal energy resource assessment was performed using long term bottom-deployed Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers ADCP. Two locations were evaluated: at the planned deployment location and mid-channel. The goal was to determine the amount of available kinetic energy that can be converted into usable electrical energy on the bridge. Changes in available kinetic energy with ebb/flood and spring/neap tidal cycles and electrical energy demand were analyzed. A system model is used to calculate the net energy savings using various tidal generator and battery bank configurations. Differences in the tidal characteristics between the two measurement locations are highlighted. Different resource evaluation methodologies were also analyzed, e.g., using a representative ADCP ``bin'' vs. a more refined, turbine-geometry-specific methodology, and using static bin height vs. bin height that move w.r.t. the free surface throughout a tidal cycle (representative of a bottom-fixed or floating turbine deployment, respectively). ADCP operating frequencies and bin sizes affect the standard deviation of measurements, and measurement uncertainties are evaluated. Supported by NSF-IIP grant 1430260.

An important feature that determines the energy resolution of any type of thin film microcalorimeter is the fraction of athermal energy that can be lost to the heat bath prior to the device coming into thermal equilibrium.

We present an analytical model to evaluate in a fast, simple and effective manner the energy delivered by proton beams moving through a cell model made of nucleus and cytoplasm, taking into account the energy carried by the secondary electrons generated along the proton tracks. The electronic excitation spectra of these subcellular compartments have been modelled by means of an empirical parameterization of their dielectric properties. The energy loss rate and target ionization probability induced by swift protons are evaluated by means of the dielectric formalism. With the present model we have quantified the energy delivered, the specific energy, and the number of ionizations produced per incoming ion in a typical human cell by a typical hadrontherapy proton beam having energies usually reached around the Bragg peak (below 20 MeV). We find that the specific energy per incoming ion delivered in the nucleus and in the cytoplasm are rather similar for all the proton energy range analyzed.

We report measurements of the fracture energies of hexagonal honeycomb structured silica/polymer composite films that were produced through an evaporation induced self-assembly process. These films exhibit large anisotropy with their hexagonal pore axes aligned with the dip-coating direction. The experimental strategy included depositing films onto a flexible Kapton substrate and then straining them, in situ, under a microscope. To study the effect of the anisotropic microstructure on the fracture energy, cracks were propagated both parallel and perpendicular to the cylindrical pore axis directions. For both cases, the geometries of the evolving crack patterns with loading were micrographically recorded and the desired energy release rates were calculated using a two-dimensional steady-state channeling crack model. The model was implemented using the ANSYS finite element program. The experimental observations showed significant inelastic film deformation prior to crack propagation. These deformations were fully captured in the model, with properties obtained directly from the experiments. The calculated energy release rates were 12.3±0.5 J/m2 for the parallel direction and 6.7±0.5 J/m2 for the perpendicular direction. These numbers are significantly larger than the bulk silica value of roughly 4 J/m2, indicating the role of the local nanostructure in blunting and deflecting the crack tips. Experimental validation of the highly anisotropic energy release rates was obtained through transmission electron microscopy images of fractured films.

Fundamental limits for photon counting and photon energymeasurement are reviewed for CCD and CMOS imagers. The challenges to extend photon counting into the visible/nIR wavelengths and achieve energymeasurement in the UV with specific read noise requirements are discussed. Pixel flicker and random telegraph noise sources are highlighted along with various methods used in reducing their contribution on the sensor’s read noise floor. Practical requirements for quantum efficiency, charge collection efficiency, and charge transfer efficiency that interfere with photon counting performance are discussed. Lastly we will review current efforts in reducing flicker noise head-on, in hopes to drive read noise substantially below 1 carrier rms. PMID:27187398

Because some workers have a high potential for significant neutron exposure, the Savannah River Plant (SRP) contracted with Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL) to verify the accuracy of neutron dosimetry at the plant. Energy spectrum and neutron dose measurements were made at the SRP calibrations laboratory and at several other locations. The energy spectra measurements were made using multisphere or Bonner sphere spectrometers,/sup 3/He spectrometers, and NE-213 liquid scintillator spectrometers. Neutron dose equivalent determinations were made using these instruments and others specifically designed to determine dose equivalent, such as the tissue equivalent proportional counter (TEPC). Survey instruments, such as the Eberline PNR-4, and the thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD)-albedo and track etch dosimeters (TEDs) were also used. The TEPC, subjectively judged to provide the most accurate estimation of true dose equivalent, was used as the reference for comparison with other devices. 29 refs., 43 figs., 13 tabs.

This paper is intended as an investigation is that to measure the amount of energy consumption can be consumed by riding bikes and also could recycle the consuming energy during exercising. Exercisers ride the bicycle inputting the driving force through a compressor of refrigeration system, which can circulate the refrigerant in the system and calculate the calorific capacity from the spread of the condenser. In addition, we can make up chiller water in the evaporator. Experiments were performed to prove the hypotheses. Therefore, this experiment has designed the sports goods which reach the purpose of doing exercise, measuring accurately the consuming calorific capacity and having the function of making chiller water. After exercising, you can drink the water producing during exercise and apply on the system of air conditioner, which attains two objectives.

Gaseous oxidized mercury (GOM) dry depositionmeasurements using surrogate surface passive samplers were collected in the Four Corners area and eastern Oklahoma from August, 2009–August, 2011. Using data from a six site area network, a characterization of the magnitude and spatia...

A nondispersive infrared (NDIR) gas analyzer that utilizes a mid-infrared light emitting diode (LED) source was demonstrated for monitoring the metal alkylamide compound tetrakis(dimethylamido) titanium (TDMAT), Ti[N(CH3)2]4. This NDIR gas analyzer was based on direct absorption measurement of TDMAT vapor in the C-H stretching spectral region, a spectral region accessed using a LED with a nominal emission center wavelength of 3.65 μm. The sensitivity of this technique to TDMAT was determined by comparing the absorbance measured using this technique to the TDMAT density as determined using in situ Fourier transform IR (FT-IR) spectroscopy. Fourier transform IR spectroscopy was employed because this technique could be used to (1) quantify TDMAT density in the presence of a carrier gas (the presence of which precludes the use of a capacitance manometer to establish TDMAT density) and (2) distinguish between TDMAT and other gas-phase species containing IR-active C-H stretching modes (allowing separation of the signal from the LED-based optical system into fractions due to TDMAT and other species, when necessary). During TDMAT-only delivery, i.e., in the absence of co-reactants and deposition products, TDMAT minimum detectable molecular densities as low as ≈4 × 10(12) cm(-3) were demonstrated, with short measurement times and appropriate signal averaging. Reactions involving TDMAT often result in the evolution of the reaction product dimethylamine (DMA), both as a thermal decomposition product in a TDMAT ampoule and as a deposition reaction product in the deposition chamber. Hence, the presence of DMA represents a significant potential interference for this technique, and therefore, the sensitivity of this technique to DMA was also determined by measuring DMA absorbance as a function of pressure. The ratio of the TDMAT sensitivity to the DMA sensitivity was determined to be ≈6.0. To further examine the selectivity of this technique, measurements were also

The NASA/GE Energy Efficient Engine (E3) static noise levels were measured in an acoustic arena on the Integrated Core and Low Spool Test System. These measured levels were scaled to the appropriate size to power four study aircraft and were projected to flight for evaluation of noise levels relative to FAR36, Stage III limits. As a result of these evaluations, it is predicted that the NASA/GE E3 engine with a wide spacing cut-on blade/vane ratio fan and a forced mixer nozzle can meet FAR36 Stage III limits with sufficient design margin.

The initial rate of rise of the central electron density during {approximately}100 keV deuterium neutral beam injection is found to agree well with calculations of the beam deposition rate. The best agreement is with beam deposition calculations using older tabulations of the atomic cross-sections; the effects of using new tabulations or including multi-step ionization processes appear to approximately cancel. The neutral-beam deposition profile is a strong function of both the magnitude and the shape of the target plasma density. Peaked heating profiles can be achieved at high target densities only from peaked target density profiles. 15 refs., 4 figs.

A facilitated electrochemical reaction at the surface of electrodes is crucial for highly efficient energy conversion and storage. Herein, various nanoparticles (NPs) including Au, Pt, Pd, Ru, and RuO(2), were synthesized in situ and directly deposited on the ionic liquid (IL)-functionalized reduced graphene oxides (RGOs) in a controlled manner. The size, amount, and crystalline structures of discrete NPs were readily controlled, giving rise to enhanced methanol oxidation and pseudocapacitance. The well-defined nanostructure of decorated NPs and the favorable interaction between ILs and RGOs (or NPs) facilitated the electrochemical reaction, where NPs acted as electrocatalysts for energy conversion and played the role of redox-active electrodes for energy storage.

Deposition of colloidal- and nano-scale particles on surfaces is critical to numerous natural and engineered environmental, health, and industrial applications ranging from drinking water treatment to semi-conductor manufacturing. Nano-scale surface roughness-induced hydrodynamic impacts on particle deposition were evaluated in the absence of an energy barrier to deposition in a parallel plate system. A non-linear, non-monotonic relationship between deposition surface roughness and particle deposition flux was observed and a critical roughness size associated with minimum deposition flux or “sag effect” was identified. This effect was more significant for nanoparticles (<1 μm) than for colloids and was numerically simulated using a Convective-Diffusion model and experimentally validated. Inclusion of flow field and hydrodynamic retardation effects explained particle deposition profiles better than when only the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) force was considered. This work provides 1) a first comprehensive framework for describing the hydrodynamic impacts of nano-scale surface roughness on particle deposition by unifying hydrodynamic forces (using the most current approaches for describing flow field profiles and hydrodynamic retardation effects) with appropriately modified expressions for DLVO interaction energies, and gravity forces in one model and 2) a foundation for further describing the impacts of more complicated scales of deposition surface roughness on particle deposition.

Deposition of colloidal- and nano-scale particles on surfaces is critical to numerous natural and engineered environmental, health, and industrial applications ranging from drinking water treatment to semi-conductor manufacturing. Nano-scale surface roughness-induced hydrodynamic impacts on particle deposition were evaluated in the absence of an energy barrier to deposition in a parallel plate system. A non-linear, non-monotonic relationship between deposition surface roughness and particle deposition flux was observed and a critical roughness size associated with minimum deposition flux or “sag effect” was identified. This effect was more significant for nanoparticles (<1 μm) than for colloids and was numerically simulated using a Convective-Diffusion model and experimentally validated. Inclusion of flow field and hydrodynamic retardation effects explained particle deposition profiles better than when only the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) force was considered. This work provides 1) a first comprehensive framework for describing the hydrodynamic impacts of nano-scale surface roughness on particle deposition by unifying hydrodynamic forces (using the most current approaches for describing flow field profiles and hydrodynamic retardation effects) with appropriately modified expressions for DLVO interaction energies, and gravity forces in one model and 2) a foundation for further describing the impacts of more complicated scales of deposition surface roughness on particle deposition. PMID:26658159

Coherent lidars at 2-micron wavelengths from holmium or thulium solid-state lasers have been in use to measure wind for applications in meteorology, aircraft wake vortex tracking, and turbulence detection [1,2,3] These field-deployed lidars, however, have generally been of a pulse energy of a few millijoules, limiting their range capability or restricting operation to regions of high aerosol concentration such as the atmospheric boundary layer. Technology improvements in the form of high-energy pulsed lasers, low noise detectors, and high optical quality telescopes are being evaluated to make wind measurements to long ranges or low aerosol concentrations. This research is aimed at developing lidar technology for satellite-based observation of wind on a global scale. The VALIDAR project was initiated to demonstrate a high pulse energy coherent Doppler lidar. VALIDAR gets its name from the concept of validation lidar, in that it can serve as a calibration and validation source for future airborne and spaceborne lidar missions. VALIDAR is housed within a mobile trailer for field measurements.

Measurements have been made of charged fusion products produced in D ^3He-filled targets irradiated on OMEGA. Comparing the energy shifts of four particle types has probed two distinct physical processes: electrostatic acceleration in the low-density corona and energy loss in the high-density target. When the burn occurred during the laser pulse, particle energy shifts were dominated by acceleration effects. Using a simple mode, the time history of the target's electrostatic potential was found and shown to decay to zero soon after laser irradiation was complete. When the burn occurred after the pulse, particle energy shifts were dominated by energy losses in the target, allowing charged-particle stopping-power predictions to be tested. The results provide the first verification of the general form of stopping power theories over a wide velocity range. This work was supported by the U.S. DOE Office of ICF under Coop. Agreem. No. DE-FC03-92SF19460.

Bulk deposition samples were collected at three elevated summits in different parts of the Alps from 2005 to 2010. Deposition samples were analyzed for a wide range of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs). HCHs, DDT, DDD, DDE, chlordanes, cis-heptachlor, HCB, dieldrin and endrin were found in all samples, only aldrin was found less frequently. Differences in the mean deposition rates between the three sites reflect the different amounts of precipitation at these sites. At the northern edge of the Alps with the highest annual total precipitations, mean annual deposition rates were at least twice those at the Swiss site for most of the investigated OCP. Average annual deposition of α-HCH amounted to 602, 461 and 216 ng m-2 year-1, the sum of DDT, DDD and DDE to 579, 210 and 144 ng m-2 year-1 and the sum of trans- and cis-chlordane to 35, 47, 16 ng m-2 year-1 at Zugspitze, Sonnblick, and Weissfluhjoch, respectively. A quite distinct seasonal pattern of OPC deposition was observed at all three locations. For most of the HCH isomers, higher deposition rates were observed in summer than in winter at all three sites, which may be caused by enhanced re-volatilization due to higher summer temperatures and the ongoing application of HCH-containing products in some regions as well. For the other investigated OCPs, higher summer deposition rates were found only at Weissfluhjoch. This site is more often affected by air masses crossing the river Po basin than the other two sites, an area exhibiting higher summer temperatures compared to other regions adjacent to the Alps.

Metal nanowires show promise in a broad range of applications, but many synthesis techniques require complex methodologies. We have developed a method for depositing patterned aluminum nanowires (Al NWs) onto Cu, Ni, and stainless steel substrates using low-pressure decomposition of trimethylamine alane complex. The NWs exhibited an average diameter in the range from 45 to 85 nm, were crystalline, and did not contain a detectable amount of carbon impurities. Atomic layer deposition of 50 nm of vanadium oxide on the surface of Al NW allows fabrication of supercapacitor electrodes with volumetric capacitance in excess of 1400 F·cc(-3), which exceeds the capacitance of traditional activated carbon supercapacitor electrodes by more than an order of magnitude.

An in situ stress measurement setup using an optical 2-beam curvature technique is described which is compatible with the stringent growth conditions of pulsed laser deposition (PLD) of perovskite oxides, which involves high substrate temperatures of 1000 K and oxygen partial pressures of up to 1 × 10{sup −4} millibars. The stress measurements are complemented by medium energy electron diffraction (MEED), Auger electron spectroscopy, and additional growth rate monitoring by a quartz microbalance. A shielded filament is used to allow for simultaneous stress and MEED measurements at high substrate temperatures. A computer-controlled mirror scans an excimer laser beam over a stationary PLD target. This avoids mechanical noise originating from rotating PLD targets, and the setup does not suffer from limited lifetime issues of ultra high vacuum (UHV) rotary feedthroughs.

The National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NADP) was established in 1977 to investigate atmospheric deposition and its effects on the environment. Since its establishment, precipitation records have been obtained at all NADP sites using a gage developed approximately 50 years ago-the Belfort 5-780 mechanical rain gage. In 1998 and 1999, a study was done by the U.S. Geological Survey to evaluate four recently developed, technologically advanced rain gages as possible replacement candidates for the mechanical gage currently (2002) in use by the NADP. The gage types evaluated were the Belfort 3200, Geonor T-200, ETI Noah II, and the OTT PLUVIO. The Belfort 5-780 was included in the study to compare the performance of the rain gage currently (2002) used by NADP to the performance of the more recently developed gages. As a reference gage, the NovaLynx Model 260-2510 National Weather Service type stick gage also was included in the study. Two individual gages of each type were included in the study to evaluate precision between gages of the same type. A two-phase evaluation was completed. Phase I consisted of indoor bench tests with known amounts of simulated rainfall applied in 20 individual tests. Phase II consisted of outdoor testing by collecting precipitation during a 26-week period near Bay St. Louis, Mississippi. The ETI Noah II, OTT PLUVIO, and NovaLynx stick gages consistently recorded depths more commensurate with the amounts of applied simulated rainfall in Phase I testing than the Geonor T-200, Belfort 5-780, and Belfort 3200 gages. Gages where both the median difference between the measured and applied simulated rainfall and the interquartile range of all of their measured minus applied simulated rainfall differences were small (less than or equal to 0.01 inch) were judged to have performed very well in Phase I testing. The median and interquartile-range values were 0.01 inch or less for each of the ETI Noah II gages, OTT PLUVIO gages, and NovaLynx stick

We examined the use of external measurements and relative fat deposition of adult feral raccoons (Procyon lotor) to develop relative indices of body fat deposition in post-growth feral raccoons. From March 2006 to March 2010, 288 adult raccoon carcasses (110 males, 178 females) collected in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, which were determined to be 24 months old, were subjected to external measurements of body weight (BW), girth measurement (GM), and body mass index (BMI). To assess relative body fat deposition, we visually classified abdominal subcutaneous fat into three grades (Visible Fat Index [VFI]: I-III). Significant differences in the means of BW (both sexes:P<0.01), GM (females: P<0.05, males: P<0.01), and BMI (both sexes: P<0.01) were detected between seasons. Notably, the means of BW, GM, and BMI (all, both sexes: P<0.01) differed significantly between VFI grades. However, by discriminant analysis with BW, GM, and BMI as independent variables, we obtained a significant discriminant function (both sexes: P<0.01) for distinguishing VFI I from higher VFI grades, but no significant equation was obtained for distinguishing between VFI II and VFI III. Based on the obtained structure matrix of discriminant analysis, BMI was the most valuable component for the discrimination of VFI grades. Thus, we conclude that BMI is a suitable complementary index for assessing relative body fat deposition of adult feral raccoons in Kanagawa Prefecture and may be generalizable to populations in other areas.

The mechanical properties of ultrathin films synthesized by atomic layer deposition (ALD) are critical for the liability of their coated devices. However, it has been a challenge to reliably measure critical properties of ALD films due to the influence from the substrate. In this work, we use the laser acoustic wave (LAW) technique, a non-destructive method, to measure the elastic properties of ultrathin Al{sub 2}O{sub 3} films by ALD. The measured properties are consistent with previous work using other approaches. The LAW method can be easily applied to measure the mechanical properties of various ALD thin films for multiple applications.

Linac4, a 160 MeV normal-conducting H- linear accelerator, is the first step in the upgrade of the beam intensity available from the LHC proton injectors at CERN. The Linac4 Low Energy Beam Transport (LEBT) line from the pulsed 2 MHz RF driven ion source, to the 352 MHz RFQ (Radiofrequency Quadrupole) has been built and installed at a test stand, and has been used to transport and match to the RFQ a pulsed 14 mA H- beam at 45 keV. A temporary slit-and-grid emittance measurement system has been put in place to characterize the beam delivered to the RFQ. In this paper a description of the LEBT and its beam diagnostics is given, and the results of beam emittance measurements and beam transmission measurements through the RFQ are compared with the expectation from simulations.

Linac4, a 160 MeV normal-conducting H{sup −} linear accelerator, is the first step in the upgrade of the beam intensity available from the LHC proton injectors at CERN. The Linac4 Low Energy Beam Transport (LEBT) line from the pulsed 2 MHz RF driven ion source, to the 352 MHz RFQ (Radiofrequency Quadrupole) has been built and installed at a test stand, and has been used to transport and match to the RFQ a pulsed 14 mA H{sup −} beam at 45 keV. A temporary slit-and-grid emittance measurement system has been put in place to characterize the beam delivered to the RFQ. In this paper a description of the LEBT and its beam diagnostics is given, and the results of beam emittance measurements and beam transmission measurements through the RFQ are compared with the expectation from simulations.

One of the parameters affecting the feasibility of Inertial Fusion Energy (IFE) devices is the number of shots per unit time, i.e. the repetition rate. The repetition rate limits the achievable power that can be obtained from the reactor. To obtain an estimate of the allowable time between shots, a code named RECON was developed to model the response of the reaction chamber to the pellet explosion. This paper discusses how the code treats the thermodynamic response of the cavity gas and models the condensation/evaporation of this vapor to and from the first wall. A large amount of energy from the pellet microexplosion is carried by the pellet debris and the x-rays generated in the fusion reaction. Models of x-ray attenuation and ion slowing down are used to estimate the fraction of the pellet energy that is absorbed in the vapor. A large amount of energy is absorbed into the cavity gas, which causes it to become partially ionized. The ionization complicates the calculation of the temperature, pressure, and the radiative heat transfer from the gas to the first wall. To treat this problem, methods developed by Zel`dovich and Raizer are used in modeling the internal energy and the radiative heat flux. RECON was developed to run with a relatively short computational time, yet accurate enough for conceptual reactor design calculations.

We use two independent methods to forecast the dark energymeasurements achievable by combining future galaxy redshift surveys based on the radio HI emission line with cosmic microwave background (CMB) data from the Planck satellite. In the first method, we focus on the `standard ruler' provided by the baryon acoustic oscillation (BAO) length-scale. In the second method, we utilize additional information encoded in the galaxy power spectrum including galaxy bias from velocity-space distortions and the growth of cosmic structure. We find that a radio synthesis array with about 10 per cent of the collecting area of the Square Kilometre Array (SKA), equipped with a wide (10-100 deg2) field of view, would have the capacity to perform a 20000 deg2 redshift survey to a maximum redshift zmax ~ 0.8 and thereby produce dark energymeasurements that are competitive with surveys likely to be undertaken by optical telescopes around 2015. There would then be powerful arguments for adding collecting area to such a `Phase 1' SKA because of the square-law scaling of survey speed with telescope sensitivity for HI surveys, compared to the linear scaling for optical redshift surveys. The full SKA telescope should, by performing a 20000 deg2 HI redshift survey to zmax ~ 2 around 2020, yield an accurate measurement of cosmological parameters independent of CMB data sets. Combining CMB (Planck) and galaxy power spectrum (SKA) measurements will drive errors in the dark energy equation-of-state parameter w well below the 1 per cent level. The major systematic uncertainty in these forecasts is the lack of direct information about the mass function of high-redshift HI-emitting galaxies. `Stacking experiments' with SKA pathfinders will play an important role in resolving this uncertainty.

We report on laboratory studies of the effectiveness of directed energy planetary defense as a part of the DE-STAR (Directed Energy System for Targeting of Asteroids and exploRation) program. DE-STAR and DE-STARLITE are directed energy "stand-off" and "stand-on" programs, respectively. These systems consist of a modular array of kilowatt-class lasers powered by photovoltaics, and are capable of heating a spot on the surface of an asteroid to the point of vaporization. Mass ejection, as a plume of evaporated material, creates a reactionary thrust capable of diverting the asteroid's orbit. In a series of papers, we have developed a theoretical basis and described numerical simulations for determining the thrust produced by material evaporating from the surface of an asteroid. In the DESTAR concept, the asteroid itself is used as the deflection "propellant". This study presents results of experiments designed to measure the thrust created by evaporation from a laser directed energy spot. We constructed a vacuum chamber to simulate space conditions, and installed a torsion balance that holds a common space target sample. The sample is illuminated with a fiber array laser with flux levels up to 60 MW/m2 , which allows us to simulate a mission level flux but on a small scale. We use a separate laser as well as a position sensitive centroid detector to readout the angular motion of the torsion balance and can thus determine the thrust. We compare the measured thrust to the models. Our theoretical models indicate a coupling coefficient well in excess of 100 μN/Woptical, though we assume a more conservative value of 80 μN/Woptical and then degrade this with an optical "encircled energy" efficiency of 0.75 to 60 μN/Woptical in our deflection modeling. Our measurements discussed here yield about 45 μN/Wabsorbed as a reasonable lower limit to the thrust per optical watt absorbed. Results vary depending on the material tested and are limited to measurements of 1 axis, so

In December 1983 the first Spacelab mission was launched for a duration of 10 days. Aboard was the Kiel experiment Isotopic Stack designed for measurement of heavy cosmic ray nuclei with nuclear charge equal to or greater than 3 and energies up to some 100MeV/nuc. One part of the stack was rotated in well defined steps registered by an angle encoder to receive information on impact times of the nuclei. Using this time resolving system geomagnetically forbidden particles can be detected. The chemical composition and energy spectra of mainly CNO particles are examined using a rotated 300 microns m thick CR-39 foil beneath a fixed 100 microns m thick Kodak-Cellulose Nitrate foil. About 600 sq cm have been scanned yielding nearly 100 nuclear tracks within an energy range of approximately 8 to 30 MeV/nuc. The calibration is done by means of a postflight irradiation with 410 MeV/nuc Fe-56 at Berkeley Laboratory, California, USA. Relative abundances and energy spectra are presented.

Neutron spectroscopy is important for a variety of applications to nuclear energy, national security, and basic science research. Currently, organic scintillator neutron detectors are used as a diagnostic tool for neutron spectroscopy in DT fusion research. However, these neutron measurements generate contaminants in common organics from deuteron or carbon break-up that affects the light output spectrum. A potential solution to this problem is to use a He-4 fast neutron gas scintillator detector system. He-4 has excellent gamma rejection due to a low charge density, pulse shape discrimination, and lower light yield and depositedenergy from gamma interactions. The detector will also not degrade due to high intensity background gamma radiation. The detector was irradiated with 14.1 MeV neutrons at the Edwards Accelerator Lab at Ohio University. We report on the effectiveness of the He-4 detector system to measure the resulting high energy neutrons and compare this spectrum to other neutron spectra taken with this detector.

The measurement for charge distributions of fragments in spontaneous fission 252Cf has been performed by using a unique style of detector setup consisting of a typical grid ionization chamber and a ΔΕ-Ε particle telescope, in which a thin grid ionization chamber served as the ΔΕ-section and the E-section was an Au-Si surface barrier detector. The typical physical quantities of fragments, such as mass number and kinetic energies as well as the deposition in the gas ΔΕ detector and E detector were derived from the coincident measurement data. The charge distributions of the light fragments for the fixed mass number A2* and total kinetic energy (TKE) were obtained by the least-squares fits for the response functions of the ΔΕ detector with multi-Gaussian functions representing the different elements. The results of the charge distributions for some typical fragments are shown in this article which indicates that this detection setup has the charge distribution capability of Ζ:ΔΖ>40:1. The experimental method developed in this work for determining the charge distributions of fragments is expected to be employed in the neutron induced fissions of 232Th and 238U or other low energy fission reactions.

PURPOSE Multiple equations exist for predicting resting energy expenditure (REE). The accuracy of these for estimating caloric requirements of critically ill patients is not clear, especially for obese patients. We sought to compare REE, calculated with published formulas, with measured REE in a cohort of mechanically-ventilated subjects. MATERIALS AND METHODS We retrospectively identified all mechanically-ventilated patients with measured body mass index (BMI) who underwent indirect calorimetry (IC) in the ICU. Limits of agreement and Pitman’s test of difference in variance were performed to compare REE by equations with REE measured by IC. RESULTS 927 patients were identified, including 401 obese patients. There was bias and poor agreement between measured REE and REE predicted by the Harris-Benedict, Owen, ACCP, and Mifflin equations (p > 0.05). There was poor agreement between measured and predicted REE by the Ireton-Jones equation, stratifying by gender. Ireton-Jones was the only equation which was unbiased, for men and those in weight categories I and II. In all cases except Ireton-Jones, predictive equations underestimated measured REE. CONCLUSION None of these equations accurately estimated measured REE in this group of mechanically-ventilated patients, most underestimating caloric needs. Development of improved predictive equations for adequate assessment of energy needs is needed. PMID:22425340

The additive manufacturing technique of laser direct metal deposition allows multiple tracks of full density metallic material to be built to form complex parts for rapid tooling and manufacture. Practical results and theoretical models have shown that the geometries of the tracks are governed by multiple factors. Original work with single layer cladding identified three basic clad profiles but, so far, models of multiple layer, powder-feed deposition have been based on only two of them. At higher powder mass flow rates, experimental results have shown that a layer's width can become greater than the melt pool width at the substrate surface, but previous analytical models have not been able to accommodate this. In this paper, a model based on this third profile is established and experimentally verified. The model concentrates on mathematical analysis of the melt pool and establishes mass and energy balances based on one-dimensional heat conduction to the substrate. Deposition track limits are considered as arcs of circles rather than of ellipses, as used in most established models, reflecting the dominance of surface tension forces in the melt pool, and expressions for elongation of the melt pool with increasing traverse speed are incorporated. Trends in layer width and height with major process parameters are captured and predicted layer dimensions correspond well to the experimental values.

Ultrashort laser pulse tissue ablation has demonstrated advantages of greatly reduced required energy and collateral damage. These advantages stem directly from the fact that laser energy is absorbed nonlinearly in a time too hsort for significant thermal dn hydrodynamic response. The high peak power and short pulse duration both have implications for practical fiber delivery systems.

The primary function of the fiber-matrix interface in composite materials is to transmit stress from the polymer matrix to the high strength reinforcing fibers. When a fiber filament breaks, cracks will propagate from the broken fiber end either by interfacial debonding, transverse and conical matrix cracking or combinations of the three modes. The strength of the interface has been characterized using micromechanical tests, such as the single fiber fragmentation test and a variety of single fiber pull-out tests. Results are generally analyzed in terms of an {open_quotes}interfacial shear stress{close_quotes}, {tau}, or a critical energy release rate, G{sub c}. It is the objective of this study to measure directly the strain energy release rate, G{sub c} associated with each observable fracture mode and to determine the effect of constituent physical properties and interfacial adhesion on its magnitude.

We present measurements of the recoil proton polarization for the d(polarized y, polarized p)n reaction at thetac.m. = 90 degrees for photon energies up to 2.4 GeV. These are the first data in this reaction for polarization transfer with circularly polarized photons. The induced polarization py vanishes above 1 GeV, contrary to meson-baryon model expectations, in which resonances lead to large polarizations. However, the polarization transfer Cx does not vanish above 1 GeV, inconsistent with hadron helicity conservation. Thus, we show that the scaling behavior observed in the d(y,p)n cross sections is not a result of perturbative QCD. These data should provide important tests of new nonperturbative calculations in the intermediate energy regime.