Friday, February 28, 2014

Art History Everyone Should Know: Renaissance Painting and the Substyle of Mannerism

Renaissance MannerismMannerism in PaintingItalian MANIERISMO (from maniera, "manner," or "style").Mannerism is a weird overly "stylized" style that is a
subset of the Italian Renaissance style and period. Its main qualities
are that it is a bit shocking in terms of the subject matter. Often,
although the themes are classical they are "sexy." However, although
they are a bit shocking and risqué, Mannerist artists still seem
to know the basic rules and get away with staying inside the boundaries
of good taste. So another quality of Mannerism is that Mannerist
artists seems to know the etiquette or "manner" of good taste but they
also bend the rules a bit.They tend to bend the rules also in terms of the formal
qualities. Mannerist art takes many of its schemas from Michelangelo
but they tend to exaggerate the qualities found in his art. The figures
always seem to be perched on the edge of action. Often they are portrayed
in the moment just before they rise up from a chair. They are nether
seated nor are they actually moving. Often the figures' anatomies
are weird, twisting and distorted. Heads are too small, figures seem
to float in ambiguous space and the color and value structure are often
over emphasized or exaggerated unnaturally.

Form: Correggio's style of painting is almost a shopping
list of what a Mannerist painting should look like. Correggio paints
the fantastic in an illusionistic and believable manner. The cloud,
which is Zeus in disguise, is rendered in a believable manner. The
figure of Io's anatomy is distorted. The head is a bit too small
and the torso is elongated but on first glance it seems believable.
The pose is somewhat improbable but again it looks real.The space he creates is also a twist on earlier depictions
of space. Here Correggio foregoes the illusion of deep space and
pushes the whole scene up against the picture plane and the space around
it is strange. The viewer after a closer look at the painting is
forced to ask themselves, "where is this taking place?"Iconography: Correggio even takes the idea of classicism
and the depiction of classical mythology and puts a spin on it.

Io was a priestess of the Roman goddess
Juno. Juno was the jealous wife of Jupiter, the king of the gods. Jupiter
was indeed very unfaithful. When Jupiter fell in love with Io, he transformed
himself into the shape of a dark cloud to hide himself from his jealous
wife. However, noticed the small cloud and suspected that the
cloud was one of Jupiter's tricks. Thus, she approached to check the true
nature of the cloud. As soon as Juno arrived, Jupiter immediately transformed
Io into a white cow to avoid his wife's wrath. But Juno guessed the intrigue
and asked if Jupiter wanted the cow as a gift. Jupiter could not refuse
such a little gift without giving himself away. Thus, Juno tied the poor cow and sent her faithful servant
Argus to watch over Io. Argus had a hundred eyes and only a few were ever
closed at any time. To free Io, Jupiter sent his son Mercury to sing and
tell boring stories to make Argus sleep with all his eyes. Mercury told
so many stories that finally Argus close all his hundred eyes. Only then
did Mercury kill Argus and untie Io, who ran home free. Yet when Juno discovered what had occurred, she was so
furious that she sent a vicious gadfly to sting the cow forever. Moreover,
to honor the memory of her faithful servant, Juno put the hundred eyes
of Argus on the tail of her favorite bird, the peacock. The hundred eyes
could not see any more but beautifully decorate the tail of the peacock. Meanwhile, Io, who was still prisoner into the shape of
a cow, could not get rid of the malicious gadfly. Finally, after Jupiter
vowed to no longer pursue his beloved Io, Juno released Io from her inhuman
prison, and Io settled in Egypt, becoming the first queen of Egypt.

This tale is not a moralizing one but rather an excuse to
show a semi erotic scene under the disguise, much like Titian's Venus of
Urbino, of a classical or humanistic theme. Context: Correggio and other Mannerist artists of
his day were catering to the new, somewhat controversial tastes of his
clients.

"At the height of his career while working for
the Duke of Mantua, Frederigo Gonzaga (1530-33), Correggio painted a group
of works for presentation to Emperor Charles V representing the loves of
Jupiter ("Leda", "Antiope", "Ganymede", and "Io")."

Form: As in Correggio's Jupiter and Io, this painting
of Ganymede contains the main elements of Mannerist painting. Correggio
paints the fantastic in an illusionistic and believable manner. He
shows us he has the traditional renaissance command of illusion.
In this painting the atmospheric perspective is quite clear and he shows
us how skillfully he is able to foreshorten the figures anatomy as if we
are looking at the scene from slightly above the horizon line, but this
changed vantage point is odd. On closer inspection Correggio gives
us a weird or distorted sense of space. The viewer is not firmly
on the ground but seems to be floating above the scene with the young boy
who is being abducted by the eagle. The figure of boy's anatomy is
distorted as in Jupiter and Io. The head is a bit too small
and the torso is elongated but on first glance it seems believable.
The pose is somewhat improbable but again it looks real.Correggio use of color is also somewhat "over the top."
His use of colors is highly saturated and high key. Meaning
that the colors are bright very pure and intense. This is also one
of the hallmarks or the Mannerist style.Iconography: Correggio even takes the idea of classicism
and the depiction of classical mythology and puts a spin on it.

Ganymede is the young, beautiful boy that became one
of Zeus’ lovers. One source of the myth says that Zeus fell in love with
Ganymede when he spotted him herding his flock on Mount Ida. Zeus then
came down in the form of an eagle or sent an eagle to carry Ganymede to
Mount Olympus where Ganymede became cupbearer to the gods. According to
other accounts, Eos kidnapped Ganymede, to be her lover, at the same time
she kidnapped Tithonus. Zeus then robbed Eos of Ganymede, in return granting
Eos the wish that Tithonus be immortal. Unthinkingly, Eos forgot to ask
that Tithonus remain youthful. Everyday, the faithful Eos watched over
Tithonus, until one day she locked him in a room and left him to get old
by himself. When Ganymede’s father, King Tros of Troy or Laomedon,
found out about Ganymede’s disappearance, he grieved so hard that Zeus
sent Hermes on his behalf to give Tros or Laomedon two storm footed horses.
In other accounts, Zeus gave Tros a golden vine and two swift horses that
could run over water. Hermes was also ordered to assure the bereaved father
that Ganymede was and would be immortal. Later, Heracles asked for the
two beautiful horses in exchange for destroying the sea monster sent by
Poseidon to besiege the city of Troy. Tros agreed and Heracles became the
owner of the bribe sent by Zeus to Tros. Upon hearing that Ganymede was to be cup bearer as well
as Zeus’ lover, the infinitely jealous Hera was outraged. Therefor Zeus
set Ganymede’s image among the stars as the constellation Aquarius, the
water carrier. Aquarius was originally the Egyptian god over the Nile.
The Egyptian god poured water not wine from a flagon. All of Zeus’ scandalous liaisons have allegorical meanings.
Zeus’ torrid affair with Ganymede was a religious justification for homosexuality
within the Greek culture. Before the popularity of the Zeus and Ganymede
myth spread, the only toleration for sodomy was an external form of goddess
worship. Cybele’s male devotees tried to achieve unity with her by castrating
themselves and dressing like women. Apollodorus argued that this myth emphasized the victory
of patriarchy over matriarchy. This showed that men did not need women
to exist, therefor they did not need the attentions of women. The philosopher
Plato used this myth to justify his sexual feelings towards male pupils.

Form: Bronzino's painting exhibits the Mannerist
flair for an intense distortion of anatomy, space, and color. The
figures, particularly that of the cupid on the left, exhibits an
almost grotesque distortion. Cupid is simultaneously showing us his
rump and his head. The fingers of Cupid's hand, which grasp Venus's
breast (his mother!) is posed in a very unnatural manner. (Try holding
your hand in such a manner.) The pose of the hand and his incredible
twist are almost impossible. Likewise, the two hands of the figure
behind the small child at right, are reversed. The space all of these jumbled figures exist in is almost
incomprehensible. Where are they are? What are they standing
on and why does it appear as if the picture plane is tilted forward and
that they will all tumble out of the picture towards us.The color is also very high key. The blues and purple
tones are almost garish and the flesh tones of the figures range from an
almost greenish hue (the figure grasping his head in the background)
to a naturalistic copper (Father Time pulling back the curtain) to a pale
unnatural vampirish glow of the figures in the foreground.Context and Iconography: Even Bronzino's name is
a kind of mannered twist. His original name was Agnolo, or Agniolo,
Di Cosimo but because his skin was a dark olive, his contemporaries nicknamed
him "Bronzino" which is the Italian word for bronze.

Iconography according to the National Gallery website:

The picture is almost certainly that mentioned
by Vasari in his 'Life of Bronzino' of 1568: "He made a picture of singular
beauty, which was sent to King Francis in France; in which was a nude Venus
with Cupid kissing her, and Pleasure on one side and Play with other Loves;
and and on the other, Fraud, Jealousy, and other passions of love."The figures of Venus, and Cupid, together with the old
man with wings and an hourglass on his shoulder who must be Time (not mentioned
by Vasari), are all clearly identifiable by their attributes. Agreement
on the identity of the other figures, and on the meaning of the picture
has not been reached.The howling figure on the left has variously been interpreted
as Jealousy, Despair and the effects of syphilis; the boy scattering roses
and stepping on a thorn as Jest, Folly and Pleasure; the hybrid creature
with the face of a girl, the back and tail of a reptile and the haunches
of a lion as Pleasure and Deceit; and the figure missing the back of its
head in the top left corner as Fraud and Oblivion.The composition was influenced by the work of Michelangelo,
especially his famous cartoon showing Venus and Cupid kissing, from which
a painting was made by Pontormo,
Bronzino's master. Bronzino was an accomplished poet as well as a painter.
The picture seems to reflect his interest both in the conventional oppositions
of Petrarchan love lyrics as well as more bawdy poetic genres.London
National Gallery

A Contextual Comparison:Although Mannerism
is an essentially Italian style of painting it did have its followers in
other countries. This is an example of a less accomplished French
style of Mannerism. Notice that it uses Bronzino's painting as its
schema yet it lacks some of the formal qualities that its Italian schema
has. It also lacks some of the "edge" or aggressive risqué
qualities of Bronzino's work in terms of how the iconography is used.
This painting is more or less a watered down imitation of its Italian counterpart.There is no known artist
for this work. Rather than that, this painting is ascribed to a school
or style of a group of painters called the "School of Fountainebleau."According to the San Francisco Museum Legion of Honor's
website,

"Fontainebleau is a royal palace of Francis I.
It was begun in 1528 and added to for the next 200 years. The Galerie François
I (1533-40) introduces the so-called "Fontainebleau style" of interior
decoration, a combination of sculpture, metalwork, painting, stucco and
woodwork. It was evolved by Italian artists Niccolo dell'Abbate, Primaticcio
and Rosso, who worked for Francis I from 1530 to 1560. The first School
of Fontainebleau introduced Mannerism to France. A decorative revival under
Henry IV, known as the second School of Fontainebleau, was less important."

In William Hazlitt’s essay, The Pleasure of Painting,
he wrote, "One is never tired of painting, because you have to set down,
not what you knew already, but what you have just discovered. There is
a continual creation out of nothing going on." Upon looking at Correggio's
1520 fresco,
The Assumption of the Virgin, one truly has the sense
that something was created out of nothing the effect of excellent trompe
l’oeil. Correggio (whose real name is Antonio Allegri) is not just another
artist and his mural is not just another example of an artist trying to
mislead the eyes of the viewer. By scrutinizing the fresco's form, iconography,
and history/background, one can conclude that Correggio's Parma Cathedral
dome is not only the epitome of Mannerist art, but also a foreshadowing
of the Baroque period (Encyclopedia Britannica).A formal analysis of Correggio's The Assumption of
the Virgin reveals many important details about this fantastic artwork.
The fresco is a spiraling tunnel with a bright light at the end of the
tunnel. Correggio draws everything in one-point perspective with the vanishing
point at the central bright light and uses chiaroscuro to give the dome
depth. To create space, Correggio also used foreshortening when drawing
the figures, making the limbs look long despite the small drawing space.
The combination of perspective, chiaroscuro, and foreshortening gives the
dome its trompe l’oeil characteristic and allows Correggio to fool the
viewer into thinking that there isn't a dome at all, but a tunnel upwards
toward a bright light. All the colors of the work are very bright, full
of yellow hues. This makes the viewer think that the light at the end of
the spiraling tunnel is a real light. The figures are what make The
Assumption of the Virgin the epitome of Mannerist art. The arms and
legs of many of the angels are elongated and their bodies are twisted in
physically impossible ways (serpenata). There is also much confusion over
where the body of an angel begins or ends. Correggio also includes a plethora
of nude figures. The figures and the entire fresco also have a sense
of movement. The angels and Apostles in the painting seem to move and spiral
upward.

The iconography of The Assumption of the Virgin
is also very exciting. Since Mannerism is a reaction to the Reformation,
the Mannerist artists are trying to recruit people and convince people
to hold on to religion by glorifying the religious stories. Correggio uses
icons to accomplish this task. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica,
Mary,
mother of Jesus, ascended into heaven after her death. This explains why
one sees a figure (mostly the legs) flying towards the lighted end of the
tunnel (heaven). The pendentives also have portraits of saints; the one
holding a lamb is Saint John the Baptist (Frieberg). The Apostles are at
the drum of the dome and the angels are flying all around the tunnel, playing
their lutes, flutes, and tambourines (CGFA). It seems as if they are making
way for Mary and celebrating Mary's ascension into heaven with music. The
pattern on the arches of the pendentives is a reference to classical art.
The same box-shaped spiral pattern can be found in the outside of the 13-19
BCE
Ara Pacis Augustae, a Roman altar.In addition to the forms and icons of The Assumption
of the Virgin,
the history and background of the fresco help prove
that Correggio is a master of Mannerism and the forefather of the Baroque
period. Historically, it is reasonable that Correggio would choose to portray
the religious Assumption scene in his art. The Assumption of Mary in art
stems from the late Middle Ages of western Europe. During this time, the
Church was a powerful force in people's lives and Mary was often worshipped
(Encyclopedia Britannica). In response to the Reformation, the break
from the Catholic Church in 1517 when Martin Luther posted his "Ninety-Five
Theses," Mannerist painters strove to return glory to the Catholic Church.
Thus, the beauty of this dome, in the true spirit of Mannerism, is an attempt
to impress people with the power of the Catholic Church and remind them
that the absolution they all seek can only be obtained through the Catholic
Church. Correggio also painted the Dome of the Parma Cathedral in 1520,
during the beginning of Mannerism. Even though The Assumption of the
Virgin is the epitome of Mannerist works since it embodies all the
aspects of Mannerism, this work also foreshadowed the ensuing Baroque period
(Gardner 510). Baroque works are typically very dramatic and lavish, just
like Correggio's The Assumption of the Virgin. The figures are all
in dramatic poses (some are dancing, some are dangling, etc.) and they
all show a lot of expression in their faces. The voluminous clouds and
light on the top of the dome also give the fresco a dramatic setting. And,
like Baroque art, the fresco is very extravagant because every space is
filled with an object, forming an intricate work of art.It is obvious that Correggio is a mast of Mannerism and
foretells many of Baroque art characteristics. The Assumption of the
Virgin has the Mannerist serpenata figures, distortion of the body,
and the sense of movement that is found in all Mannerist painting. Besides
having Mannerist qualities, Correggio's time period made him the founder
of future Baroque art. The drama and extravagance of the Parma Cathedral
dome is an indicator of Baroque art. However, even without the knowing
anything about Mannerism and Baroque art, the viewer is still overwhelmed
with the awe-inspiring fresco that fools you into thinking that there is
a tunnel up above and real light is coming from the end of that tunnel.
The scene and effects of this fresco is a memorable one and will stay with
the viewer forever. Keats’s words in Endymion, "A thing of beauty
is a joy forever," describes the effect of this dome on the viewer to perfection.

Form: This is sculpture with a mannered "twist."
Form is the most important element in this work. As a work of sculpture,
this work is really meant as a work of art "in the round." This means
that, unlike the works of sculpture that came before it that were frontally
oriented, this work was meant to be seen from all angles.The viewer is able to move completely around the sculpture
and maintain visual interest because the figures are designed to interrelate
and show an interesting view of the bodies in action from any angle.Iconography and Context: According to the Brittanica,
"First trained under Jacques Dubroeucq, a Flemish sculptor who worked in
an Italianate style, Giambologna went to Rome around 1555, where his style
was influenced by Hellenistic sculpture and the works of Michelangelo."
Like Michelangelo, the Laocoon groups influence was initially interesting
to Michelangelo and Giovanni because of its formal qualities rather than
its symbolic ones and this is born out in how often each artist uses the
basic poses of each figure as schemas for later works. We can see that
he probably was influenced by looking at sculptures like the Laocoon because
of its drama and the portrayal of anatomy and expression. Initially, the story of the "Rape of the Sabines" is unimportant
in terms of what the story itself signifies. One account of the naming
of this sculpture is that Giovanni did not name the work but some patrons
who were visiting his studio upon viewing the sculpture did and he accepted
the name. Therefore, the classical theme was really an excuse for
him to explore and play with anatomy and drama. This anecdote in
itself is almost more iconic in a way because it symbolizes what the Mannerist
artists' intentions were all about.

These figures seem to be perched on the edge of action
but from there poses and attitudes, we are not really sure what they are
doing or just about to do. The figures' anatomies are weird, twisting
and distorted. The figure of Christ is literally twisted in two directions.
His head and torso or facing the viewer while the legs are quite the opposite
and project back into space. The figure below Jesus, who holds his
legs, seems to have an extra vertebrae or joint in his spine. Try
to bend from the middle of your back! All the heads are a bit too
small and the bodies are a bit too elongated.Compositionally, the image is both a stable triangle but
also a whirling vortex. The image hinges on and swirls around a central
area in which three hands exist within a pocket of dark drapery.
The confusion of the composition and the space they exist in: where are
they and on what are they standing? These riddles are further
complicated by trying to figure whose hands go with whose bodies. The colors used are intense and saturated. They
are almost pastel in nature and are overly dramatic. The value structure
and chiaroscuro is exaggerated unnaturally and the viewer is left
wondering where the light is coming from.Iconographically this image is a cross between Giotto's
Lamentation
a Deposition scene and Leonardo's Pietà.

"The painting appears to represent the moment
in which the body of Christ, having been taken down from the cross, has
just been removed from the mother's lap. The Virgin, visibly distraught,
and perhaps on the point of fainting, still gazes longingly towards her
Son, and gestures with her right arm in that direction. In the center of
the painting, the moment of the separation is underlined by the subtle
contact of Mary's legs with those of Christ, now freed from his Mother's
last pathetic embrace. The twisted body of Christ is reminiscent of Michelangelo's
Vatican Pietà (1498)."http://rolfgross.topcities.com/Tuscany/Potormo/Jacopo%20Pontormo.htm

Form: The central figure of the Madonna seem to
be perched on the edge of her chair but there is no chair visible in the
image! Her feet rest on a cushion but the cushions are not compressed
and there is no sense of gravity to her figure. The figures' anatomies
are weird, twisting and distorted. Her fingers and neck is elongated
and taffy like and so is the "alien" looking child who looks as if he about
to spill from her lap. In particular, her anatomy is somewhat
accentuated by the wet drapery which stretches across her abdomen. All
the heads of each figure are a bit too small and the bodies are a bit too
elongated.Compositionally, the image is a stable triangle in the
mode of Leonardo, however, the confusion of the composition becomes
more evident when trying to figure out where they are and from what the
drapery is hung. The figures to the Madonna's right are bunched together
and there is not realistically enough space for them all to be standing.
The figure who irrationally holds a scroll out and looks away from it is
framed by a column or a set of columns that do not hold up
an entablature.The colors used are intense and saturated. They
are almost pastel in nature and are overly dramatic. The value structure
and chiaroscuro is exaggerated unnaturally and the viewer is left
wondering where the light is coming from.Iconography: Iconographically this image shares
much with earlier scenes which depict the Virgin but somehow this one is
a little "dirty." The breasts and abdomen of the figure are accentuated
by the wet drapery style and we can see this even in the Late Gothic/Early
Renaissance painting of the Madonna
Enthroned by Giotto but somehow, the tilt of her head adds what
my Professor Herbert Broderick of Lehman College referred to as a "coy
sensuality." See the "Venus
of Urbino" for a good comparison.Some of the iconography is almost straightforward in this
image. The vessel that the "angels" carry refers to standard iconographic
symbology such as in Martini's Annunciation,
but notice that the shape and the base are a bit wacky. The column
in the background is a reference to classicism but what is it holding up
and is it really a single column or many columns. The figure reading
the scroll looks away from the scroll he is reading. Is he a philosopher
or an angel like Gabriel in Martini's work? If he Gabriel and this
is part of the standard iconography of a "Annunciation" scene but it would
then be after the fact of Jesus' birth and therefore an anachronism (out
of a logical sequence of time).Context: Again with the twist on his name his nickname
was Parmigiano (he was from Parma). His original name was GIROLAMO FRANCESCO
MARIA MAZZOLA, OR MAZZUOLI, or Francesco Mazzola.Another twist! It took him six years to paint the
picture, he never finished it and he was thrown in jail for breach of contract
because he procrastinated working on some frescos in the church of Sta.
Maria della Steccata in Parma.

Form: This is a massive painting done in oil rather
than fresco. This is significant because monumental paintings in
the past was usually executed in fresco. Aside from the more obvious Mannerist distortions of the
figures' anatomies, this painting demonstrates a slight break with other
Mannerist's use of color in El Greco's use of a low key or earthtoned palette
for some of the regions of the painting. This use of color is almost
iconic.Iconography: Count de Orgaz was a significant and
important patron to the Church. In order to glorify his contributions
and patronage a monumental image was called for. The grandiosity
of the Count is further complimented by the supernatural vision of the
Heavens above which open to greet him. He is further complimented
by the company he keeps and by those important individuals who are attending
his funeral. The funeral is well attended by the Spanish nobility
of Orgaz's time but their faces are updated and replaced by members of
contemporary Toledo society. This is done much in the same way that
Raphael gives cameo appearances to his contemporaries in his School
of Athens. El Greco even includes his own son in the lower left
hand corner and provides him with a handkerchief monogrammed by the artist
himself. But the really honored guests are Saints Augustine and Stephen
who appear to be helping to entomb the Count.Heaven and earth are distinguished symbolically through
the use of color. Saints Augustine and Stephen and even the Counts
armor are depicted in colors that echo the ones in the heavenly scene above.
The earthbound participants are literally wearing earthtoned colors.Context: El Greco is a nickname which chronicles or traces
all the places where El Greco lived and where he was born. He was
born in Crete (then a Venetian possession but still considered a Greek
island by the Italians) Doménikos Theotokópoulos moved to
Venice since he was officially considered a citizen. There he acquired
the nickname of il Greco (the Greek.) After studying Venetian painting
and possibly realizing that the competition may have been a bit too steep,
Theotokópoulos moved to Spain in search of more commissions.
In Spain, it is possible that the "il" article in front of his name was
exchanged for the Spanish one of "El."

These two paintings by El Greco are in the Legion of
Honor Museum in San Francisco. Using all the things that you have
learned about Renaissance iconography and Mannerism's formal qualities
be ready to write an essay on how one of these works exemplifies these
qualities.

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About Me

I used to be a tenured professor of art history and studio art at Ohlone College in Fremont but in 2016 I decided to resign/retire to make art full time. I still "teach" on line and you can sign up for my art marketing and art history courses here: