Harold Hart Crane (July 21, 1899 – April 27, 1932) was an American poet. Finding both inspiration and provocation in the poetry of T. S. Eliot, Crane wrote modernist poetry that was difficult, highly stylized, and ambitious in its scope. In his most ambitious work, The Bridge, Crane sought to write an epic poem, in the vein of The Waste Land, that expressed a more optimistic view of modern, urban culture than the one that he found in Eliot's work; in the years following his suicide at the age of 32, Crane has been hailed by playwrights, poets, and literary critics alike (including Robert Lowell, Derek Walcott, Tennessee Williams, and Harold Bloom), as being one of the most influential poets of his generation.[1][2][3]

Hart Crane was born in Garrettsville, Ohio, the son of Clarence A. Crane and Grace Edna Hart, his father was a successful Ohio businessman who invented the Life Savers candy and held the patent, but sold it for $2,900 before the brand became popular.[4] He made other candy and accumulated a fortune from the candy business with chocolate bars. Crane's mother and father were constantly fighting, and early in April, 1917, they divorced.[notes 1] Hart dropped out of East High School in Cleveland during his junior year and left for New York City, promising his parents he would attend Columbia University later. His parents, in the middle of divorce proceedings, were upset. Crane took various copywriting jobs and jumped between friends’ apartments in Manhattan.[4] Between 1917 and 1924 he moved back and forth between New York and Cleveland, working as an advertising copywriter and a worker in his father’s factory, from Crane's letters, it appears that New York was where he felt most at home, and much of his poetry is set there.

I am not ready for repentance;
Nor to match regrets. For the moth
Bends no more than the still
Imploring flame. And tremorous
In the white falling flakes
Kisses are,
The only worth all granting.

Throughout the early 1920s, small but well-respected literary magazines published some of Crane's lyrics, gaining him, among the avant-garde, a respect that White Buildings (1926), his first volume, ratified and strengthened. White Buildings contains many of Crane’s best lyrics, including "For the Marriage of Faustus and Helen", and "Voyages", a powerful sequence of erotic poems. They were written while he was falling in love with Emil Opffer, a Danish merchant mariner. "Faustus and Helen" was part of a larger artistic struggle to meet modernity with something more than despair. Crane identified T. S. Eliot with that kind of despair, and while he acknowledged the greatness of The Waste Land, he also said it was "so damned dead",[6] an impasse,[7] and characterized by a refusal to see "certain spiritual events and possibilities".[8] Crane’s self-appointed work would be to bring those spiritual events and possibilities to poetic life, and so create "a mystical synthesis of America".[9]

Crane returned to New York in 1928, living with friends and taking temporary jobs as a copywriter or living off unemployment and the charity of friends and his father, for a time, he was living in Brooklyn at 77 Willow Street[10] until his lover, Opffer, invited him to live in Opffer's father’s home at 110 Columbia Heights in Brooklyn Heights. Crane was overjoyed at the views the location afforded him, he wrote his mother and grandmother in the spring of 1924:

Just imagine looking out your window directly on the East River with nothing intervening between your view of the Statue of Liberty, way down the harbour, and the marvelous beauty of Brooklyn Bridge close above you on your right! All of the great new skyscrapers of lower Manhattan are marshaled directly across from you, and there is a constant stream of tugs, liners, sail boats, etc in procession before you on the river! It's really a magnificent place to live. This section of Brooklyn is very old, but all the houses are in splendid condition and have not been invaded by foreigners...[4]

His ambition to synthesize America was expressed in The Bridge (1930), intended to be an uplifting counter to Eliot'sThe Waste Land, the Brooklyn Bridge is both the poem’s central symbol and its poetic starting point.[11] Crane found what a place to start his synthesis in Brooklyn. Arts patron Otto H. Kahn gave him $2,000 to begin work on the epic poem.[4] When he wore out his welcome at the Opffers', Crane left for Paris in early 1929, but failed to leave his personal problems behind,[4] it was during the late 1920s, while he was finishing The Bridge, that his drinking, always a problem, became notably worse.[12]

In Paris in February 1929, Harry Crosby, who with his wife Caresse Crosby owned the fine arts press Black Sun Press, offered Crane the use of their country retreat, Le Moulin du Soleil in Ermenonville. They hoped he could use the time to concentrate on completing The Bridge. Crane spent several weeks at their estate where he roughed out a draft of the "Cape Hatteras" section, a key part of his epic poem;[13] in late June that year, Crane returned from the south of France to Paris. Harry noted in his journal, "Hart C. back from Marseilles where he slept with his thirty sailors and he began again to drink Cutty Sark." Crane got drunk at the Cafe Select and fought with waiters over his tab. When the Paris police were called, he fought with them and was beaten, they arrested and jailed him, fining him 800 francs.[4] After Hart had spent six days in prison at La Santé, Harry Crosby paid Crane's fine and advanced him money for the passage back to the United States[13] where he finally finished The Bridge.[4] The work received poor reviews, and Crane’s sense of his own failure became crushing.[11]

Crane visited Mexico in 1931–32 on a Guggenheim Fellowship and his drinking continued as he suffered from bouts of alternating depression and elation. When Peggy Cowley, wife of his friend Malcolm Cowley, agreed to a divorce, she joined Crane, as far as is known, she was his only heterosexual partner.[11] "The Broken Tower," one of his last published poems, emerged from that affair. Crane still felt himself a failure, in part because he recommenced homosexual activity in spite of his relationship with Cowley.[11]

While on board the steamship Orizaba[14] en route to New York, he was beaten after making sexual advances to a male crew member.[15] Just before noon on April 27, 1932, Hart Crane jumped overboard into the Gulf of Mexico, although he had been drinking heavily and left no suicide note, witnesses believed his intentions to be suicidal, as several reported that he exclaimed "Goodbye, everybody!" before throwing himself overboard.[16] His body was never recovered. A marker on his father's tombstone at Park Cemetery outside Garrettsville, Portage County, Ohio[17] includes the inscription, "Harold Hart Crane 1899–1932 lost at sea".[18]

As with Eliot's "objective correlative," a certain vocabulary haunts Crane criticism, his "logic of metaphor" being perhaps the most vexed, his most quoted formulation is in the circulated, if long unpublished, "General Aims and Theories": "As to technical considerations: the motivation of the poem must be derived from the implicit emotional dynamics of the materials used, and the terms of expression employed are often selected less for their logical (literal) significance than for their associational meanings. Via this and their metaphorical inter-relationships, the entire construction of the poem is raised on the organic principle of a 'logic of metaphor,' which antedates our so-called pure logic, and which is the genetic basis of all speech, hence consciousness and thought-extension.[20]

There is also some mention of it, though it is not so much presented as a critical neologism, in his letter to Harriet Monroe: "The logic of metaphor is so organically entrenched in pure sensibility that it can't be thoroughly traced or explained outside of historical sciences, like philology and anthropology."[21] L. S. Dembo's influential study of The Bridge, Hart Crane's Sanskrit Charge (1960), reads this 'logic' well within the familiar rhetoric of the Romantics: "The Logic of metaphor was simply the written form of the 'bright logic' of the imagination, the crucial sign stated, the Word made words.... As practiced, the logic of metaphor theory is reducible to a fairly simple linguistic principle: the symbolized meaning of an image takes precedence over its literal meaning; regardless of whether the vehicle of an image makes sense, the reader is expected to grasp its tenor.[22]

The publication of White Buildings was delayed by Eugene O'Neill's struggle (and eventual failure) to articulate his appreciation in a foreword to it; and many critics since have used Crane's difficulty as an excuse for a quick dismissal.[23] Even a young Tennessee Williams, then falling in love with Crane's poetry, could "hardly understand a single line—of course the individual lines aren't supposed to be intelligible, the message, if there actually is one, comes from the total effect.".[24] It was not lost on Crane, then, that his poetry was difficult, some of his best, and practically only, essays originated as encouraging epistles: explications and stylistic apologies to editors, updates to his patron, and the variously well-considered or impulsive letters to his friends. It was, for instance, only the exchange with Harriet Monroe at Poetry when she initially refused to print "At Melville’s Tomb" that urged Crane to describe his "logic of metaphor" in print,[25] but describe it he did, then complaining that: "If the poet is to be held completely to the already evolved and exploited sequences of imagery and logic—what field of added consciousness and increased perceptions (the actual province of poetry, if not lullabies) can be expected when one has to relatively return to the alphabet every breath or two? In the minds of people who have sensitively read, seen, and experienced a great deal, isn’t there a terminology something like short-hand as compared to usual description and dialectics, which the artist ought to be right in trusting as a reasonable connective agent toward fresh concepts, more inclusive evaluations?"[26]

Monroe was not impressed, though she acknowledged that others were, and printed the exchange alongside the poem: "You find me testing metaphors, and poetic concept in general, too much by logic, whereas I find you pushing logic to the limit in a painfully intellectual search for emotion, for poetic motive."[27] In any case, Crane had a relatively well-developed rhetoric for the defense of his poems; here is an excerpt from "General Aims and Theories": "New conditions of life germinate new forms of spiritual articulation. ...the voice of the present, if it is to be known, must be caught at the risk of speaking in idioms and circumlocutions sometimes shocking to the scholar and historians of logic."[28]

As a boy, he had a sexual relationship with a man,[notes 2] he associated his sexuality with his vocation as a poet. Raised in the Christian Science tradition of his mother, he never ceased to view himself as a social pariah. However, as poems such as "Repose of Rivers" make clear, he felt that this sense of alienation was necessary in order for him to attain the visionary insight that formed the basis for his poetic work.[original research?]

Recent queer criticism has asserted that it is particularly difficult, perhaps even inappropriate, to read many of Crane's poems – "The Broken Tower," "My Grandmother's Love Letters," the "Voyages" series, and others – without a willingness to look for, and uncover, homosexual meanings in the text. The prominent queer theorist Tim Dean argues, for instance, that the obscurity of Crane's style owes itself partially to the necessities of being a semi-public homosexual – not quite closeted, but also, as legally and culturally necessary, not open: "The intensity responsible for Crane’s particular form of difficulty involves not only linguistic considerations but also culturally subjective concerns. This intensity produces a kind of privacy that is comprehensible in terms of the cultural construction of homosexuality and its attendant institutions of privacy."[29]

Thomas Yingling objects to the traditional, New Critical and Eliotic readings of Crane, arguing that the "American myth criticism and formalist readings" have "depolarized and normalized our reading of American poetry, making any homosexual readings seem perverse."[30] Even more than a personal or political problem, though, Yingling argues that such "biases" obscure much of what the poems make clear; he cites, for instance, the last lines of "My Grandmother's Love Letters" from White Buildings as a haunting description of estrangement from the norms of (heterosexual) family life:

Yet I would lead my grandmother by the hand
Through much of what she would not understand;
And so I stumble. And the rain continues on the roof
With such a sound of gently pitying laughter.

The critic Brian Reed has contributed to a project of critical reintegration, suggesting that an overemphasis on the sexual biography of Crane's poetry can skew a broader appreciation of his overall work;[31] in one example of Reed's approach, he published a close reading of Crane's lyric poem, "Voyages," (a love poem that Crane wrote for his lover Emil Opffer) on the Poetry Foundation website, analyzing the poem based strictly on the content of the text itself and not on outside political or cultural matters.[32]

Important mid-century American poets like John Berryman and Robert Lowell cited Crane as a significant influence. Both poets also wrote about Crane in their poetry. Berryman wrote him one of his famous elegies in The Dream Songs, and Lowell published his "Words for Hart Crane" in Life Studies (1959): "Who asks for me, the Shelley of my age, / must lay his heart out for my bed and board." Lowell thought that Crane was the most important American poet of the generation to come of age in the 1920s, stating that "[Crane] got out more than anybody else . . . he somehow got New York City; he was at the center of things in the way that no other poet was."[1] Lowell also described Crane as being "less limited than any other poet of his generation." [34]

Perhaps most reverently, Tennessee Williams said that he wanted to be "given back to the sea" at the "point most nearly determined as the point at which Hart Crane gave himself back.".[35] One of Williams's last plays, a "ghost play" titled "Steps Must Be Gentle," explores Crane's relationship with his mother.[36]

In a 1991 interview with Antonio Weiss of The Paris Review, the literary critic Harold Bloom talked about how Crane, along with William Blake, initially sparked his interest in literature at a very young age:

I was preadolescent, ten or eleven years old. I still remember the extraordinary delight, the extraordinary force that Crane and Blake brought to me—in particular Blake’s rhetoric in the longer poems—though I had no notion what they were about. I picked up a copy of The Collected Poems of Hart Crane in the Bronx Library. I still remember when I lit upon the page with the extraordinary trope, “O Thou steeled Cognizance whose leap commits / The agile precincts of the lark’s return.” I was just swept away by it, by the Marlovian rhetoric. I still have the flavor of that book in me. Indeed it’s the first book I ever owned. I begged my oldest sister to give it to me, and I still have the old black and gold edition she gave me for my birthday back in 1942. . .I suppose the only poet of the twentieth century that I could secretly set above Yeats and Stevens would be Hart Crane.[37]

More recently, the American poet Gerald Stern wrote an essay on Crane in which he stated, "Some, when they talk about Crane, emphasize his drinking, his chaotic life, his self-doubt, and the dangers of his sexual life, but he was able to manage these things, even though he died at 32, and create a poetry that was tender, attentive, wise, and radically original." At the conclusion of his essay, Stern writes, "Crane is always with me, and whatever I wrote, short poem or long, strange or unstrange—his voice, his tone, his sense of form, his respect for life, his love of the word, his vision have affected me. But I don't want, in any way, to exploit or appropriate this amazing poet whom I am, after all, so different from, he who may be, finally, the great poet, in English, of the twentieth century." [38]

Such important affections have made Crane a "poet's poet". Thomas Lux offered, for instance: "If the devil came to me and said 'Tom, you can be dead and Hart can be alive,' I'd take the deal in a heartbeat if the devil promised, when arisen, Hart would have to go straight into A.A."[39]

Beyond poetry, Crane's suicide inspired several works of art by noted artist Jasper Johns, including "Periscope," "Land's End," and "Diver," the "Symphony for Three Orchestras" by Elliott Carter (inspired by the "Bridge") and the painting by Marsden Hartley "Eight Bells' Folly, Memorial for Hart Crane." [40]

Crane is the subject of The Broken Tower, a 2011American student film by the actor James Franco who wrote, directed, and starred in the film which was the Master thesis project for his MFA in filmmaking at New York University. He loosely based his script on Paul Mariani's 1999 nonfiction book The Broken Tower: A Life of Hart Crane.[41] Despite being a student film, The Broken Tower was shown at the Los Angeles Film Festival in 2011 and received DVD distribution in 2012 by Focus World Films.

^Exact date seems to be April 1st, but is described somewhat unclearly in Mariani p. 35

^"[That] Hart Crane was homosexual was by now well known to most of his friends. He said to Evans that he had been seduced as a boy by an older man." Rathbone, Belinda. Walker Evans: A Biography. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995. p. 4

Grossman, Allen. "On Communicative Difficulty in General and 'Difficult' Poetry in Particular: The Example of Hart Crane's 'The Broken Tower'". Poem Present lecture series at The University of Chicago, 2004.

Walker Evans
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Walker Evans was an American photographer and photojournalist best known for his work for the Farm Security Administration documenting the effects of the Great Depression. Much of Evanss work from the FSA period uses the large-format and he said that his goal as a photographer was to make pictures that are literate, authoritative, transcendent. Man

Garrettsville, Ohio
–
Garrettsville is a village in Portage County, Ohio, United States. It was formed from portions of Hiram, Nelson, and Freedom townships in the Connecticut Western Reserve, the population was 2,325 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Akron Metropolitan Statistical Area, Garrettsville is located at 41°17′2″N 81°5′43″W. According to the United States

1.
Garrettsville, Ohio

Ohio
–
Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the N

The Bridge (long poem)
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The Bridge, first published in 1930 by the Black Sun Press, is Hart Cranes first, and only, attempt at a long poem. The Bridge was inspired by New York Citys poetry landmark, the Brooklyn Bridge, the first edition of the book features photographs by Cranes friend, the photographer Walker Evans. The Bridge comprises 15 lyric poems of varying length

T. S. Eliot
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Thomas Stearns Eliot OM was a British essayist, publisher, playwright, literary and social critic, and one of the twentieth centurys major poets. He moved from his native United States to England in 1914 at the age of 25, settling, working and he eventually became a British subject in 1927 at the age of 39, renouncing his American citizenship. Elio

4.
The Faber and Faber building where Eliot worked from 1925 to 1965; the commemorative plaque is under the right-hand arch.

The Waste Land
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The Waste Land is a long poem by T. S. Eliot. It is widely regarded as one of the most important poems of the 20th century, published in 1922, the 434-line poem first appeared in the United Kingdom in the October issue of The Criterion and in the United States in the November issue of The Dial. It was published in form in December 1922. Among its f

1.
The epigraph and dedication to The Waste Land showing some of the languages that Eliot used in the poem: Latin, Greek, English and Italian.

2.
Early poems

Robert Lowell
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Robert Traill Spence Lowell IV was an American poet. He was born into a Boston Brahmin family that could trace its origins back to the Mayflower and his family, past and present, were important subjects in his poetry. Growing up in Boston also informed his poems, which were set in Boston. The literary scholar Paula Hayes believes that Lowell mythol

2.
Lowell as a child with his father, Commander Robert Traill Spence Lowell III, around 1920

3.
St. Mark's School, Southborough, Massachusetts

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Vietnam War protestors at the March on the Pentagon, 1967

Derek Walcott
–
Sir Derek Alton Walcott, KCSL, OBE, OCC was a Saint Lucian poet and playwright. He received the 1992 Nobel Prize in Literature and he was Professor of Poetry at the University of Essex from 2010 to 2013. His works include the Homeric epic poem Omeros, which many view as Walcotts major achievement. S. Eliot Prize for his book of poetry White Egrets,

Tennessee Williams
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Thomas Lanier Tennessee Williams III was an American playwright. Along with Eugene ONeill and Arthur Miller he is considered among the three foremost playwrights in 20th-century American drama, after years of obscurity, he became suddenly famous with The Glass Menagerie, closely reflecting his own unhappy family background. This heralded a string o

1.
Tennessee Williams (age 54) photographed by Orland Fernandez in 1965 for the 20th anniversary of The Glass Menagerie.

Patent
–
A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a solution to a technological problem and is a product or a process. Patents are a form of intellectual property, the procedure for granting patents, r

3.
The plate of the Martin ejector seat of a military aircraft, stating that the design is covered by multiple patents in Britain, South Africa, Canada and "others". Dübendorf Museum of Military Aviation.

Cleveland
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Cleveland is a city in the U. S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County, the states second most populous county. The city proper has a population of 388,072, making Cleveland the 51st largest city in the United States, Greater Cleveland ranked as the 32nd largest metropolitan area in the United States, with 2,055,612 people in 2016. T

New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for int

4.
Broadway follows the Native American Wickquasgeck Trail through Manhattan.

Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen fo

Brooklyn Heights, Brooklyn
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Brooklyn Heights is an affluent residential neighborhood within the New York City borough of Brooklyn. Originally referred to as Brooklyn Village, it has been a prominent area of Brooklyn since 1834, the neighborhood is noted for its low-rise architecture and its many brownstone rowhouses, most of them built prior to the Civil War. It also has an a

4.
The Brooklyn Historical Society, 128 Pierrepont Street on the corner of Clinton Street, founded by Henry Pierrepont in 1863 as the "Long Island Historical Society". The building was constricted in 1878-81 and was designed by George B. Post

Brooklyn Bridge
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The Brooklyn Bridge is a hybrid cable-stayed/suspension bridge in New York City and is one of the oldest bridges of either type in the United States. Completed in 1883, it connects the boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn by spanning the East River and it has a main span of 1,595.5 feet and was the first steel-wire suspension bridge constructed. Sinc

1.
The Brooklyn Bridge, viewed from Manhattan

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Brooklyn Bridge

3.
John Augustus Roebling

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Early plan of one tower for the Brooklyn Bridge, 1867

Otto Hermann Kahn
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Otto Hermann Kahn was a German-born investment banker, collector, philanthropist, and patron of the arts. Otto was born on February 21,1867 in Mannheim, Germany and his father had been among the refugees to the United States after the revolution of 1848 and had become an American citizen, but later returned to Germany. Kahn was educated in a gymnas

Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the ar

1.
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."

Harry Crosby
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Harry Crosby was an American heir, bon vivant, poet, and publisher who for some epitomized the Lost Generation in American literature. He was the son of one of the richest banking families in New England, a Boston Brahmin, and the nephew of Jane Norton Grew, as such, he was heir to a portion of a substantial family fortune. He was a volunteer in th

Caresse Crosby
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Caresse Crosby was the first recipient of a patent for the modern bra, an American patron of the arts, publisher, and the literary godmother to the Lost Generation of expatriate writers in Paris. Crosbys parents, William Hearn Jacob and Mary Jacob, were descended from American colonial families, William from the Van Rensselaer family and Mary from

1.
Caresse Crosby and her whippet Clytoris

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Nantasket Beach and the Nantasket Hotel, State Bath House and Paragon Park in the background, circa 1910.

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Harry and Polly Crosby on the day of their marriage on September 9, 1922.

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Cover of Tales of Shem and Shaun by James Joyce published by Caresse Crosby and the Black Sun Press

Black Sun Press
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American expatriates living in Paris, Harry Crosby and his wife Caresse Crosby founded the press to publish their own work in April 1927 as Éditions Narcisse. They added to that in 1928 when they printed an edition of 300 numbered copies of The Fall of the House of Usher by Edgar Allan Poe. They published exclusively limited quantities of meticulou

3.
Cover from Transit of Venus, poetry written by Harry Crosby and published by Black Sun Press, in 1929.

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Illustration by Alastair from Harry Crosby's book Red Skeletons, published in 1927.

Ermenonville
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Ermenonville is a commune in the Oise department in northern France. Ermenonville is notable for its park named for Jean-Jacques Rousseau by René Louis de Girardin, Rousseaus tomb was designed by the painter Hubert Robert, and sits on the Isle of Poplars in its lake. In 1974 Turkish Airlines Flight 981 crashed in the Ermenonville Forest in Fontaine

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Castle of Ermenonville

Malcolm Cowley
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Malcolm Cowley was an American novelist, poet, literary critic, and journalist. Born August 28,1898, in the town of Belsano in Cambria County, Pennsylvania, Cowley grew up in the East Liberty neighborhood of Pittsburgh, where his father William was a homeopathic doctor. He attended Shakespeare Street elementary school and graduated from Peabody Hig

USS Orizaba (ID-1536)
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USS Orizaba was a transport ship for the United States Navy in both World War I and World War II. She was the ship of Siboney but the two were not part of a ship class. Orizaba made 15 transatlantic voyages for the Navy carrying troops to, the ship was turned over to the War Department in 1919 for use as Army transport USAT Orizaba. After her World

3.
Katharine Hepburn, seen here in 1940, sailed on Orizaba to get a Mexican divorce in 1934.

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USAT Orizaba in port, 1941

Gulf of Mexico
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The Gulf of Mexico is an ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. The U. S. states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas border the Gulf on the north,

John Keats
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John Keats was an English Romantic poet. He had a significant influence on a range of poets. Jorge Luis Borges stated that his first encounter with Keatss work was the most significant literary experience of his life, the poetry of Keats is characterised by sensual imagery, most notably in the series of odes. This is typical of poets, as they aimed

Rainer Maria Rilke
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Several critics have described Rilkes work as inherently mystical. These deeply existential themes tend to him as a transitional figure between the traditional and the modernist writers. While Rilke is most known for his contributions to German literature, over 400 poems were written in French. In the later 20th century, his work found new audience

1.
Rilke in 1900, aged 24

2.
Paula Modersohn-Becker (1876–1907), an early expressionist painter, became acquainted with Rilke in Worpswede and Paris, and painted his portrait in 1906.

3.
Duino Castle near Trieste, Italy, was where Rilke began writing the Duino Elegies in 1912—recounting that he heard the famous first line as a voice in the wind while walking along the cliffs and that he wrote it quickly in his notebook.

4.
Château de Muzot in Veyras, Switzerland, was where Rilke completed writing the Duino Elegies in "a savage creative storm" in February 1922.

Allen Tate
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John Orley Allen Tate, known professionally as Allen Tate, was an American poet, essayist, social commentator, and Poet Laureate from 1943 to 1944. Tate was born near Winchester, Kentucky, to John Orley Tate, a businessman, in 1916 and 1917 Tate studied the violin at the Cincinnati Conservatory of Music. He began attending Vanderbilt University in

1.
Allen Tate

William Carlos Williams
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William Carlos Williams was a Puerto Rican-American poet closely associated with modernism and imagism. His work has an affinity with painting, in which he had a lifelong interest. In addition to his writing, Williams had a career as a physician practicing both pediatrics and general medicine. He was affiliated with what was known as Passaic Genera

1.
William Carlos Williams passport photograph,1921

2.
"The rose fades, and is renewed again...."

3.
This Is Just To Say (wall poem in The Hague)

E. E. Cummings
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Edward Estlin E. E. Cummings, often styled as e e cummings, was an American poet, painter, essayist, author, and playwright. He wrote approximately 2,900 poems, two novels, four plays and several essays. He is remembered as an eminent voice of 20th-Century English literature, Edward Estlin Cummings was born on October 14,1894, to Edward Cummings an

1.
E. E. Cummings in 1953

2.
Masthead from volume 56 of The Harvard Monthly; Cummings was an editor and contributor to this literary journal while at Harvard

3.
Grave of E. E. Cummings

4.
Sketched self-portrait circa 1920

Sherwood Anderson
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Sherwood Anderson was an American novelist and short story writer, known for subjective and self-revealing works. Self-educated, he rose to become a successful copywriter and business owner in Cleveland and Elyria, in 1912, Anderson had a nervous breakdown that led him to abandon his business and family to become a writer. At the time, he moved to

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Anderson in 1933

2.
Signature

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"Roof-Fix carried us to Elyria" wrote Sherwood Anderson's wife, Cornelia Lane, of the product her husband started a company to sell.

4.
Advertisement for the Anderson Manufacturing Co., a company owned by Sherwood Anderson from 1907-1913, almost a decade before he became a well-known author.

Kenneth Burke
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Kenneth Duva Burke was an American literary theorist who had a powerful impact on 20th-century philosophy, aesthetics, criticism, and rhetorical theory. As a literary theorist, Burke was best known for his analyses based on the nature of knowledge, furthermore, he was one of the first individuals to stray away from more traditional rhetoric and vie

1.
Kenneth Duva Burke

Waldo Frank
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Waldo David Frank was an American novelist, historian, political activist, and literary critic, who wrote extensively for The New Yorker and The New Republic during the 1920s and 1930s. Frank is best known for his studies of Spanish and Latin American literature and culture, Frank broke with the Communist Party, USA in 1937 over its treatment of ex

1.
Waldo Frank.

Harriet Monroe
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Harriet Monroe was an American editor, scholar, literary critic, poet and patron of the arts. She is best known as the publisher and long-time editor of Poetry magazine. Because she was a correspondent of the poets she supported, her letters provide a wealth of information on their thoughts. Monroe was born in Chicago, Illinois and she read at an e

1.
Harriet Monroe

Marianne Moore
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Marianne Craig Moore was an American Modernist poet, critic, translator, and editor. Her poetry is noted for innovation, precise diction, irony. Moore was born in Kirkwood, Missouri, in the manse of the Presbyterian church where her grandfather, John Riddle Warner. Her parents separated before she was born after her father, John Milton Moore and sh

Gertrude Stein
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Gertrude Stein was an American novelist, poet, playwright, and art collector. Born in the Allegheny West neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and raised in Oakland, California, Stein moved to Paris in 1903, in 1933, Stein published a quasi-memoir of her Paris years, The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas, written in the voice of her partner, Ali

H. P. Lovecraft
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Howard Phillips Lovecraft was an American author who achieved posthumous fame through his influential works of horror fiction. He was virtually unknown and published only in magazines before he died in poverty. Lovecraft was born in Providence, Rhode Island, where he spent most of his life, among his most celebrated tales are The Call of Cthulhu an

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Lovecraft in 1934

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Lovecraft at c. nine years old

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Lovecraft in 1915

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Lovecraft's final home, May 1933 until March 10, 1937

Ralph Waldo Emerson
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Ralph Waldo Emerson was an American essayist, lecturer, and poet who led the transcendentalist movement of the mid-19th century. Emerson gradually moved away from the religious and social beliefs of his contemporaries, following this work, he gave a speech entitled The American Scholar in 1837, which Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. considered to be Ameri

Poetry (magazine)
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Poetry, published in Chicago since 1912, is one of the leading monthly poetry journals in the English-speaking world. Founded by Harriet Monroe and now published by the Poetry Foundation, in 2007 the magazine had a circulation of 30,000, and printed 300 poems per year out of approximately 100,000 submissions. It is sometimes referred to as Poetry—C

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April 2008 cover

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First issue cover October 1912

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Poetry magazine editorial offices

Wallace Stevens
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Wallace Stevens was an American Modernist poet. He was born in Reading, Pennsylvania, educated at Harvard and then New York Law School and he won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for his Collected Poems in 1955. The son of a lawyer, Stevens attended Harvard as a non-degree special student, after which he moved to New York City. He then attended New Yo

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Wallace Stevens

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Stevens' Hartford residence.

Romanticism
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Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something

Christian Science
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Christian Science is a set of beliefs and practices belonging to the metaphysical family of new religious movements. It was developed in nineteenth-century New England by Mary Baker Eddy, the book became Christian Sciences central text, along with the Bible, and by 2001 had sold over nine million copies. Christian Science became the fastest growing

Myth criticism
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Mythology refers variously to the collected myths of a group of people or to the study of such myths. Myths are the people tell to explain nature, history. Myth is a feature of every culture, mythologizing continues, as shown in contemporary mythopoeia such as urban legends and the expansive fictional mythoi created by fantasy novels and comics. A

Perversion
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Perversion is a type of human behavior that deviates from that which is understood to be orthodox or normal. Although the term perversion can refer to a variety of forms of deviation, it is most often used to describe sexual behaviors that are considered particularly abnormal, repulsive or obsessive. Perversion differs from deviant behavior, in tha

Poetry Foundation
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The Poetry Foundation is a Chicago-based American foundation created to promote poetry in the wider culture. It was formed from Poetry magazine, which it continues to publish, according to the foundations Web site, it is committed to a vigorous presence for poetry in our culture. It exists to discover and celebrate the best poetry and to place it b

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Poetry Foundation building

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First Poetry issue cover October 1912

Edmund Wilson
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Edmund Wilson was an American writer and critic who notably explored Freudian and Marxist themes. He influenced many American authors, including F. Scott Fitzgerald and his scheme for a Library of America series of national classic works came to fruition through the efforts of Jason Epstein after Wilsons death. Wilson was born in Red Bank, New Jers

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Edmund Wilson

Ezra Pound
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Ezra Weston Loomis Pound was an expatriate American poet and critic, and a major figure in the early modernist movement. His contribution to poetry began with his development of Imagism, a movement derived from classical Chinese and Japanese poetry, stressing clarity, precision and his best-known works include Ripostes, Hugh Selwyn Mauberley and th

Four Quartets
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Four Quartets is a set of four poems written by T. S. Eliot that were published individually over a six-year period. The first poem, Burnt Norton, was written and published with a collection of his works following the production of Eliots play Murder in the Cathedral. After a few years, Eliot composed the three poems, East Coker, The Dry Salvages,

John Berryman
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John Allyn McAlpin Berryman was an American poet and scholar, born in McAlester, Oklahoma. He was a figure in American poetry in the second half of the 20th century and was considered a key figure in the Confessional school of poetry. His best-known work is The Dream Songs, in Dream Song #143, he wrote, That mad drive wiped out my childhood. I put

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Lowell as a child with his father, Commander Robert Traill Spence Lowell III, around 1920. In Life Studies, Lowell writes about his father in a number of pieces including " Commander Lowell " and "91 Revere Street."

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Lowell's mother, Charlotte Winslow Lowell, in 1915. Along with Lowell's father and grandfather, she is a central subject in Life Studies, specifically in the poems "Sailing Home From Rapallo" and "Commander Lowell" as well as the prose piece "91 Revere Street."

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Detail of Flag (1954–55). Museum of Modern Art, New York City. This image illustrates Johns' early technique of painting with thick, dripping encaustic over a collage made from found materials such as newspaper. This rough method of construction is rarely visible in photographic reproductions of his work.

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Walker Evans
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Walker Evans was an American photographer and photojournalist best known for his work for the Farm Security Administration documenting the effects of the Great Depression. Much of Evanss work from the FSA period uses the large-format and he said that his goal as a photographer was to make pictures that are literate, authoritative, transcendent. Many of his works are in the permanent collections of museums and have been the subject of retrospectives at such institutions as The Metropolitan Museum of Art or George Eastman House. Born in St. Louis, Missouri, to Jessie and Walker, Walker Evans came from an affluent family and his father was an advertising director. He spent his youth in Toledo, Chicago, and New York City and he attended The Loomis Institute and Mercersburg Academy before graduating from Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, in 1922. He studied French literature for a year at Williams College, spending much of his time in the schools library, after spending a year in Paris in 1926, he returned to the United States to join the edgy literary and art crowd in New York City. John Cheever, Hart Crane, and Lincoln Kirstein were among his friends and he was a clerk for a stockbroker firm in Wall street from 1927 to 1929. Evans took up photography in 1928 around the time he was living in Ossining and his influences included Eugène Atget and August Sander. In 1930, he published three photographs in the poetry book The Bridge by Hart Crane, in 1931, he made a photo series of Victorian houses in the Boston vicinity sponsored by Lincoln Kirstein. In May and June 1933, Evans took photographs in Cuba on assignment for Lippincott, the publisher of Carleton Beals The Crime of Cuba, there Evans drank nightly with Ernest Hemingway, who loaned him money to extend his two-week stay an additional week. His photographs documented street life, the presence of police, beggars and dockworkers in rags and he also helped Hemingway acquire photos from newspaper archives that documented some of the political violence Hemingway described in To Have and Have Not. Fearing that his photographs might be deemed critical of the government and confiscated by Cuban authorities and he had no difficulties when returning to the United States, and 31 of his photos appeared in Beals book. The cache of prints left with Hemingway was discovered in Havana in 2002, in 1935, Evans spent two months at first on a fixed-term photographic campaign for the Resettlement Administration in West Virginia and Pennsylvania. From October on, he continued to do work for the RA and later the Farm Security Administration. Its detailed account of three farming families paints a moving portrait of rural poverty. Evanss photographs of the families made them icons of Depression-Era misery, in September 2005, Fortune revisited Hale County and the descendants of the three families for its 75th anniversary issue. Evans continued to work for the FSA until 1938 and that year, an exhibition, Walker Evans, American Photographs, was held at The Museum of Modern Art, New York. This was the first exhibition in the devoted to the work of a single photographer

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Garrettsville, Ohio
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Garrettsville is a village in Portage County, Ohio, United States. It was formed from portions of Hiram, Nelson, and Freedom townships in the Connecticut Western Reserve, the population was 2,325 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Akron Metropolitan Statistical Area, Garrettsville is located at 41°17′2″N 81°5′43″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has an area of 2.53 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 2,325 people,964 households, the population density was 926.3 inhabitants per square mile. There were 1,054 housing units at a density of 419.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 97. 8% White,0. 5% African American,0. 3% Asian,0. 3% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 9% of the population. 28. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 2.96. The median age in the village was 41 years. 23. 9% of residents were under the age of 18,7. 7% were between the ages of 18 and 24, 24% were from 25 to 44,30. 5% were from 45 to 64, and 13. 8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48. 3% male and 51. 7% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 2,262 people,930 households, and 619 families residing in the village. The population density was 893.8 people per square mile, there were 976 housing units at an average density of 385.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 98. 41% White,0. 27% African American,0. 18% Native American,0. 13% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 40% of the population. 29. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 3.04. In the village, the population was out with 25. 9% under the age of 18,8. 4% from 18 to 24,31. 4% from 25 to 44,21. 7% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37 years, for every 100 females there were 91.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.6 males, the median income for a household in the village was $47,256, and the median income for a family was $54,297. Males had an income of $39,469 versus $28,080 for females

Garrettsville, Ohio
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Garrettsville, Ohio

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Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round

4.
The Bridge (long poem)
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The Bridge, first published in 1930 by the Black Sun Press, is Hart Cranes first, and only, attempt at a long poem. The Bridge was inspired by New York Citys poetry landmark, the Brooklyn Bridge, the first edition of the book features photographs by Cranes friend, the photographer Walker Evans. The Bridge comprises 15 lyric poems of varying length and scope, in style, it mixes near-Pindaric declamatory metre, free verse, sprung metre, Elizabethan diction and demotic language at various points between alternating stanzas and often in the same stanzas. Though the poem follows a thematic progress, it freely juggles various points in time, even the bridge itself, the Brooklyn Bridge that is the central object of the poem, was strongly identified in Crane’s own mind with Emil Opffer, to whom Voyages was dedicated. The appearance of the bridge secretly encrypts a highly personal memory, proem, To Brooklyn Bridge is the short lyrical ode to the Brooklyn Bridge and New York City which opens the sequence and serves as an introduction. After beginning with this ode, Ave Maria begins the first longer sequence labeled Roman numeral I which describes Columbus accidental voyage to the Americas. The title of the piece is based upon the fact that Columbus attributed his crews survival across the Atlantic Ocean to the intercession of the Virgin Mary, in The River, Crane incorporates advertisements and references Minstrel shows. He claimed in a letter that the rhythm is jazz, the section also includes the story of Pocahontas and a section on the fictional character Rip Van Winkle. Upon its publication, The Bridge received mostly negative reviews, due to his disparaging views toward Modernism as a whole, Winters viewed such an association negatively. In Winters own words, The Bridge has no narrative framework, but its central intention, to give to America a myth embodying a creed which may sustain us somewhat as Christianity has done in the past, the poem fails. Critical consensus on The Bridge still remains deeply divided, some critics believe that The Bridge was Cranes crowning achievement, and that it is a masterpiece of American modernism. The glory of The Bridge is its ambivalent warfare with The Waste Land, Van Winkle is one of the clearest and freshest and most truly American poems ever written. Allen Ginsberg called Atlantis the greatest work in Western metrical rhetoric since Shelleys Adonais, in an article for The New Yorker, Kirsch called The Bridge an impressive failure. Varies wildly in quality, containing some of Crane’s best writing, then Kirsch goes on to call parts of the Atlantis section of the poem exhilarating while he criticizes the Indiana section for being rankly sentimental. From a more critical perspective, The Bridge was recently singled out by the Academy of American Poets as one of the 20th centurys Groundbreaking Books. According to the 1988 Voices and Visions PBS documentary on Crane, around this time Crane wrote, Emotionally I should like to write The Bridge. Intellectually the whole theme seems more and more absurd, the very idea of a bridge is an act of faith. If only America were half as worthy today to be spoken of as Whitman spoke of it fifty years ago, there might be something for me to say

5.
T. S. Eliot
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Thomas Stearns Eliot OM was a British essayist, publisher, playwright, literary and social critic, and one of the twentieth centurys major poets. He moved from his native United States to England in 1914 at the age of 25, settling, working and he eventually became a British subject in 1927 at the age of 39, renouncing his American citizenship. Eliot attracted widespread attention for his poem The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock and it was followed by some of the best-known poems in the English language, including The Waste Land, The Hollow Men, Ash Wednesday, and Four Quartets. He was also known for his seven plays, particularly Murder in the Cathedral and he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948, for his outstanding, pioneer contribution to present-day poetry. The Eliots were a Boston family with roots in Old and New England, Thomas Eliots paternal grandfather, William Greenleaf Eliot, had moved to St. Louis, Missouri to establish a Unitarian Christian church there. Eliot was the last of six surviving children, his parents were both 44 years old when he was born, Eliot was born at 2635 Locust St. property owned by his grandfather, William Greenleaf Eliot. His four sisters were between 11 and 19 years older, his brother was eight years older, known to family and friends as Tom, he was the namesake of his maternal grandfather, Thomas Stearns. Eliots childhood infatuation with literature can be ascribed to several factors, firstly, he had to overcome physical limitations as a child. Struggling from a congenital double inguinal hernia, he could not participate in physical activities. As he was isolated, his love for literature developed. Once he learned to read, the boy immediately became obsessed with books and was absorbed in tales depicting savages. In his memoir of Eliot, his friend Robert Sencourt comments that the young Eliot would often curl up in the window-seat behind an enormous book, setting the drug of dreams against the pain of living. Secondly, Eliot credited his hometown with fuelling his literary vision, I feel that there is something in having passed ones childhood beside the big river, which is incommunicable to those people who have not. I consider myself fortunate to have been here, rather than in Boston, or New York. From 1898 to 1905, Eliot attended Smith Academy, where his studies included Latin, Ancient Greek, French and he began to write poetry when he was fourteen under the influence of Edward Fitzgeralds Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, a translation of the poetry of Omar Khayyam. He said the results were gloomy and despairing and he destroyed them and his first published poem, A Fable For Feasters, was written as a school exercise and was published in the Smith Academy Record in February 1905. Also published there in April 1905 was his oldest surviving poem in manuscript and he also published three short stories in 1905, Birds of Prey, A Tale of a Whale and The Man Who Was King. The last mentioned story significantly reflects his exploration of Igorot Village while visiting the 1904 Worlds Fair of St. Louis, such a link with primitive people importantly antedates his anthropological studies at Harvard

6.
The Waste Land
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The Waste Land is a long poem by T. S. Eliot. It is widely regarded as one of the most important poems of the 20th century, published in 1922, the 434-line poem first appeared in the United Kingdom in the October issue of The Criterion and in the United States in the November issue of The Dial. It was published in form in December 1922. Among its famous phrases are April is the cruellest month, I will show you fear in a handful of dust, Eliots poem loosely follows the legend of the Holy Grail and the Fisher King combined with vignettes of contemporary British society. Eliot employs many literary and cultural allusions from the Western canon, Buddhism, because of this, critics and scholars regard the poem as obscure. The poem shifts between voices of satire and prophecy featuring abrupt and unannounced changes of speaker, location, and time and conjuring of a vast, the poems structure is divided into five sections. The first section, The Burial of the Dead, introduces the themes of disillusionment. The second, A Game of Chess, employs vignettes of several characters—alternating narrations—that address those themes experientially, after a fourth section that includes a brief lyrical petition, the culminating fifth section, What the Thunder Said, concludes with an image of judgment. Eliot probably worked on the text that became The Waste Land for several years preceding its first publication in 1922. In a May 1921 letter to New York lawyer and patron of modernism John Quinn, Eliot wrote that he had a poem in mind. Richard Aldington, in his memoirs, relates that a year or so before Eliot read him the manuscript draft of The Waste Land in London, while walking through a graveyard, they discussed Thomas Grays Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard. He and his first wife, Vivienne Haigh-Wood Eliot, travelled to the resort of Margate for a period of convalescence. While there, Eliot worked on the poem, and possibly showed a version to Ezra Pound when, after a brief return to London. Eliot was en route to Lausanne, Switzerland, for treatment by Doctor Roger Vittoz, luce in Lausanne, Eliot produced a 19-page version of the poem. He returned from Lausanne in early January 1922, Pound then made detailed editorial comments and significant cuts to the manuscript. Eliot later dedicated the poem to Pound, Eliot sent the manuscript drafts of the poem to John Quinn in October 1922, they reached Quinn in New York in January 1923. Upon Quinns death they were inherited by his sister, Julia Anderson, years later, in the early 1950s, Mrs Andersons daughter, Mary Conroy, found the documents in storage. In 1958 she sold them privately to the New York Public Library and it was not until April 1968 that the existence and whereabouts of the manuscript drafts were made known to Valerie Eliot, the poets second wife and widow

The Waste Land
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The epigraph and dedication to The Waste Land showing some of the languages that Eliot used in the poem: Latin, Greek, English and Italian.
The Waste Land
The Waste Land
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Early poems

7.
Robert Lowell
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Robert Traill Spence Lowell IV was an American poet. He was born into a Boston Brahmin family that could trace its origins back to the Mayflower and his family, past and present, were important subjects in his poetry. Growing up in Boston also informed his poems, which were set in Boston. The literary scholar Paula Hayes believes that Lowell mythologized New England and he was also related to the poets James Russell Lowell and Amy Lowell. Lowell stated, The poets who most directly influenced me, were Allen Tate, Elizabeth Bishop, and William Carlos Williams. But you can see that Bishop is a sort of bridge between Tates formalism and Williamss informal art. Lowell was capable of writing both formal, metered verse as well as verse, his verse in some poems from Life Studies. However, much of Lowells work, which combined the public with the personal. Instead, Lowell worked in a number of distinctive stylistic modes and he was appointed the sixth Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress, where he served from 1947 until 1948. He is widely considered one of the most important American poets of the postwar era and his biographer Paul Mariani called him the poet-historian of our time and the last of influential public poets. Lowell was born to Commander Robert Traill Spence Lowell III and Charlotte Winslow in Boston, Lowells parents share a common descent from Philip Livingston, the son of Robert Livingston, which means they were sixth cousins. As well as a history steeped in Protestantism, Lowell had notable Jewish ancestors on both sides of his family, which he discusses in Part II of Life Studies. On his fathers side, Lowell was the great-great-grandson of Maj, as a youth, Lowell had a penchant for violence and bullying other children. Describing himself as an 8½-year-old in the prose piece 91 Revere Street, Lowell wrote that he was thick-witted, narcissistic, thuggish. Lowell would later reference the nickname in his poem Caligula, first published in his book For the Union Dead, Lowell received his high school education at St. Marks School, a prominent prep-school in Southborough, Massachusetts, there he met and was influenced by the poet Richard Eberhart, who taught at the school, and as a high school student, Lowell decided that he wanted to become a poet. At St. Marks, he became friends with Frank Parker. Lowell attended Harvard College for two years, and then he read me the opening of Keatss Hyperion, the first version, and I thought all of that was sublime

Robert Lowell
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Lowell at the Grolier Poetry Bookshop in Harvard Square, 1965. Photo by Elsa Dorfman
Robert Lowell
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Lowell as a child with his father, Commander Robert Traill Spence Lowell III, around 1920
Robert Lowell
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St. Mark's School, Southborough, Massachusetts
Robert Lowell
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Vietnam War protestors at the March on the Pentagon, 1967

8.
Derek Walcott
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Sir Derek Alton Walcott, KCSL, OBE, OCC was a Saint Lucian poet and playwright. He received the 1992 Nobel Prize in Literature and he was Professor of Poetry at the University of Essex from 2010 to 2013. His works include the Homeric epic poem Omeros, which many view as Walcotts major achievement. S. Eliot Prize for his book of poetry White Egrets, Walcott was born and raised in Castries, Saint Lucia, in the West Indies, the son of Alix and Warwick Walcott. He had a brother, the playwright Roderick Walcott. His family is of English, Dutch and African descent, reflecting the colonial history of the island that he explores in his poetry. His mother, a teacher, loved the arts and often recited poetry around the house and his father, who painted and wrote poetry, died at the age of 31 from mastoiditis while his wife was pregnant with the twins Derek and Roderick. Walcotts family was part of a minority Methodist community, who felt overshadowed by the dominant Catholic culture of the island established during French colonial rule. As a young man Walcott trained as a painter, mentored by Harold Simmons, Walcott greatly admired Cézanne and Giorgione and sought to learn from them. He studied as a writer, becoming “an elated, exuberant poet madly in love with English” and strongly influenced by modernist poets such as T. S. Eliot, Walcott had an early sense of a vocation as a writer. In the poem Midsummer, he wrote, At 14, Walcott published his first poem, an English Catholic priest condemned the Methodist-inspired poem as blasphemous in a response printed in the newspaper. By 19, Walcott had self-published his fist two collections with the aid of his mother, who paid for the printing,25 Poems and Epitaph for the Young and he sold copies to his friends and covered the costs. He later commented, I went to my mother and said, I’d like to publish a book of poems and she was just a seamstress and a schoolteacher, and I remember her being very upset because she wanted to do it. Somehow she got it—a lot of money for a woman to have found on her salary and she gave it to me, and I sent off to Trinidad and had the book printed. When the books came back I would sell them to friends, the influential Bajan poet Frank Collymore critically supported Walcotts early work. With a scholarship, he studied at the University College of the West Indies in Kingston, after graduation, Walcott moved to Trinidad in 1953, where he became a critic, teacher and journalist. He founded the Trinidad Theatre Workshop in 1959 and remained active with its Board of Directors, exploring the Caribbean and its history in a colonialist and post-colonialist context, his collection In a Green Night, Poems 1948–1960 attracted international attention. His play Dream on Monkey Mountain was produced on NBC-TV in the United States the year it was published, in 1971 it was produced by the Negro Ensemble Company off-Broadway in New York City, it won an Obie Award that year for Best Foreign Play

9.
Tennessee Williams
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Thomas Lanier Tennessee Williams III was an American playwright. Along with Eugene ONeill and Arthur Miller he is considered among the three foremost playwrights in 20th-century American drama, after years of obscurity, he became suddenly famous with The Glass Menagerie, closely reflecting his own unhappy family background. This heralded a string of successes, including A Streetcar Named Desire, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and his later work attempted a new style that did not appeal to audiences, and alcohol and drug dependence further inhibited his creative output. His drama A Streetcar Named Desire is often numbered on the short list of the finest American plays of the 20th century alongside Long Days Journey into Night, much of Williams most acclaimed work was adapted for the cinema. He also wrote stories, poetry, essays and a volume of memoirs. In 1979, four years before his death, Williams was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame. Thomas Lanier Williams III was born in Columbus, Mississippi, of English, Welsh, and Huguenot ancestry and his father was an alcoholic traveling shoe salesman who spent much of his time away from home. Williams early childhood was spent in the parsonage there, Williams had two siblings, sister Rose Isabel Williams and brother Walter Dakin Williams. As a small child Williams suffered from a case of diphtheria which nearly ended his life, leaving him weak, at least in part as a result of his illness, he was less robust as a child than his father wished. Cornelius Williams, a descendant of hearty East Tennessee pioneer stock, had a violent temper and was a man prone to use his fists. He regarded his sons effeminacy with disdain, and his mother Edwina, locked in an unhappy marriage, many critics and historians note that Williams found inspiration for much of his writing in his own dysfunctional family. When Williams was eight years old, his father was promoted to a job at the office of the International Shoe Company in St. Louis. He attended Soldan High School, a setting he referred to in his play The Glass Menagerie, Later he studied at University City High School. At age 16, Williams won third prize for an essay published in Smart Set entitled, a year later, his short story The Vengeance of Nitocris was published in the August 1928 issue of the magazine Weird Tales. That same year he first visited Europe with his grandfather, from 1929 to 1931, he attended the University of Missouri, in Columbia, where he enrolled in journalism classes. Williams found his classes boring, however, and was distracted by his love for a girl. He was soon entering his poetry, essays, stories, and plays in writing contests and his first submitted play was Beauty Is the Word, followed by Hot Milk at Three in the Morning. As recognition for Beauty, a play about rebellion against religious upbringing, at University of Missouri, Williams joined the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity, but he did not fit in well with his fraternity brothers

10.
Patent
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A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a solution to a technological problem and is a product or a process. Patents are a form of intellectual property, the procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the invention. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right and these claims must meet relevant patentability requirements, such as novelty, usefulness, and non-obviousness. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, the word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means to lay open. More directly, it is a version of the term letters patent. Similar grants included land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patents, a precursor of modern copyright. In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the granted to anyone who invents any new, useful. The additional qualification utility patent is used to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents. Particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents, the period of protection was 10 years. These were mostly in the field of glass making, as Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries, by the 16th century, the English Crown would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for monopolies. After public outcry, King James I of England was forced to revoke all existing monopolies, the Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere. Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of Queen Anne, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access. Influenced by the philosophy of John Locke, the granting of patents began to be viewed as a form of property right. The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a common law heritage, including the United States, New Zealand, in the Thirteen Colonies, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colonys legislature

Patent
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U.S patent
Patent
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James Puckle 's 1718 early autocannon was one of the first inventions required to provide a specification for a patent.
Patent
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The plate of the Martin ejector seat of a military aircraft, stating that the design is covered by multiple patents in Britain, South Africa, Canada and "others". Dübendorf Museum of Military Aviation.

11.
Cleveland
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Cleveland is a city in the U. S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County, the states second most populous county. The city proper has a population of 388,072, making Cleveland the 51st largest city in the United States, Greater Cleveland ranked as the 32nd largest metropolitan area in the United States, with 2,055,612 people in 2016. The city is the center of the Cleveland–Akron–Canton Combined Statistical Area, the city is located on the southern shore of Lake Erie, approximately 60 miles west of the Pennsylvania border. Clevelands economy has diversified sectors that include manufacturing, financial services, healthcare, Cleveland is also home to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Residents of Cleveland are called Clevelanders, Cleveland has many nicknames, the oldest of which in contemporary use being The Forest City. Cleaveland oversaw the plan for what would become the downtown area, centered on Public Square, before returning home. The first settler in Cleaveland was Lorenzo Carter, who built a cabin on the banks of the Cuyahoga River, the Village of Cleaveland was incorporated on December 23,1814. In spite of the swampy lowlands and harsh winters, its waterfront location proved to be an advantage. The area began rapid growth after the 1832 completion of the Ohio, growth continued with added railroad links. Cleveland incorporated as a city in 1836, in 1836, the city, then located only on the eastern banks of the Cuyahoga River, nearly erupted into open warfare with neighboring Ohio City over a bridge connecting the two. Ohio City remained an independent municipality until its annexation by Cleveland in 1854, the citys prime geographic location as a transportation hub on the Great Lakes has played an important role in its development as a commercial center. Cleveland serves as a point for iron ore shipped from Minnesota. In 1870, John D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil in Cleveland, other manufacturers located in Cleveland produced steam-powered cars, which included White and Gaeth, as well as the electric car company Baker. Because of the significant growth, Cleveland was known as the Sixth City during this period, by 1920, due in large part to the citys economic prosperity, Cleveland became the nations fifth largest city. The city counted Progressive Era politicians such as the populist Mayor Tom L. Johnson among its leaders, many prominent Clevelanders from this era are buried in the historic Lake View Cemetery, including President James A. Garfield, and John D. Rockefeller. In commemoration of the centennial of Clevelands incorporation as a city, conceived as a way to energize a city after the Great Depression, it drew four million visitors in its first season, and seven million by the end of its second and final season in September 1937. The exposition was housed on grounds that are now used by the Great Lakes Science Center, following World War II, the city experienced a prosperous economy. In sports, the Indians won the 1948 World Series, the hockey Barons became champions of the American Hockey League, as a result, along with track and boxing champions produced, Cleveland was dubbed City of Champions in sports at this time

Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland
Cleveland

12.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange

13.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university

14.
Brooklyn Heights, Brooklyn
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Brooklyn Heights is an affluent residential neighborhood within the New York City borough of Brooklyn. Originally referred to as Brooklyn Village, it has been a prominent area of Brooklyn since 1834, the neighborhood is noted for its low-rise architecture and its many brownstone rowhouses, most of them built prior to the Civil War. It also has an abundance of churches and other religious institutions. Brooklyns first art gallery, the Brooklyn Arts Gallery, was opened in Brooklyn Heights in 1958, in 1965, a large part of Brooklyn Heights was protected from unchecked development by the creation of the Brooklyn Heights Historic District, the first such district in New York City. The district was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966, directly across the East River from Manhattan and connected to it by subways and regular ferry service, Brooklyn Heights is also easily accessible from Downtown Brooklyn. The neighborhood stretches from Old Fulton Street near the Brooklyn Bridge south to Atlantic Avenue and from the Brooklyn-Queens Expressway to Court Street, adjacent neighborhoods are Dumbo, Downtown Brooklyn, Cobble Hill, and Boerum Hill. Columbia Heights, an upscale six-block-long street next to the Brooklyn Heights Promenade, is considered to be its own neighborhood. As of 2000, Brooklyn Heights had a population of 22,594 people, the neighborhood is part of Brooklyn Community Board 2, and is served by the 84th Precinct of the New York City Police Department at 301 Gold Street in nearby Downtown Brooklyn. Brooklyn Heights occupies a palisade that rises sharply from the rivers edge, before the Dutch settled on Long Island in the middle of the seventeenth century, this promontory was called Ihpetonga by the native Lenape American Indians. Ferries across the East River were running as early as 1642, the most significant of the ferries went between the current Fulton Street and Peck Slip in Manhattan, and was run by Cornelius Dirksen. The ferry service helped the area to thrive, with both farms and some factories along the water, but the higher ground was sparsely used. They later sold part of their land to John Jackson, who created the Vinegar Hill community, Pierrepont had accumulated 60 acres of land, including 800 feet which directly overlooked the harbor, all of which he planned to sub-divide. Since his intention was to sell to merchants and bankers who lived in Manhattan, he needed easy access between Brooklyn Heights and New York City, which Fultons company provided. A resident of the Heights could leave the office at three oclock, have dinner at home at four oclock, and still have time for a drive to the outskirts of town. A select neighborhood and circle of society, where there had been only seven houses in the Heights in 1807, by 1860 there were over six hundred of them, and by 1890 the area was almost completely developed. Throughout the 19th century, Brooklyn Heights remained an elegant neighborhood and its development gave rise to offshoots such as Cobble Hill and, later, Carroll Gardens. Beecher was a nationally-known figure famous on the circuit for his novel oratorical style, in which he employed humor, dialect. To dramatize the plight of those held in captivity, Beecher once brought a female slave to the church and held an auction, with the highest bidder purchasing not the slave, but her freedom

Brooklyn Heights, Brooklyn
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62 Montague Street between Pierrepont Place and Hicks Street in Brooklyn Heights (2006)
Brooklyn Heights, Brooklyn
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Brooklyn Heights in 1854
Brooklyn Heights, Brooklyn
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The Brooklyn Heights Promenade
Brooklyn Heights, Brooklyn
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The Brooklyn Historical Society, 128 Pierrepont Street on the corner of Clinton Street, founded by Henry Pierrepont in 1863 as the "Long Island Historical Society". The building was constricted in 1878-81 and was designed by George B. Post

15.
Brooklyn Bridge
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The Brooklyn Bridge is a hybrid cable-stayed/suspension bridge in New York City and is one of the oldest bridges of either type in the United States. Completed in 1883, it connects the boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn by spanning the East River and it has a main span of 1,595.5 feet and was the first steel-wire suspension bridge constructed. Since its opening, it has become an icon of New York City and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964, although the Brooklyn Bridge is technically a suspension bridge, it uses a hybrid cable-stayed/suspension bridge design. The towers are built of limestone, granite, and Rosendale cement, the limestone was quarried at the Clark Quarry in Essex County, New York. The granite blocks were quarried and shaped on Vinalhaven Island, Maine, under a contract with the Bodwell Granite Company, the bridge was built with numerous passageways and compartments in its anchorages. New York City rented out the large vaults under the bridges Manhattan anchorage in order to fund the bridge, opened in 1876, the vaults were used to store wine, as they were always at 60 °F. This was called the Blue Grotto because of a shrine to the Virgin Mary next to an opening at the entrance, construction of the bridge began in 1869. Roebling Suspension Bridge between Cincinnati, Ohio, and Covington, Kentucky, while conducting surveys for the bridge project, Roebling sustained a crush injury to his foot when a ferry pinned it against a piling. Compressed air was pumped into the caissons, and workers entered the space to dig the sediment, the whole weight of the bridge still sits upon a 15-foot thickness of southern yellow pine wood under the sediment. Many workers became sick with the bends in this work and this condition was unknown at the time, and was first called caisson disease by the project physician Andrew Smith. Washington Roebling also suffered an injury as a result of decompression sickness shortly after ground was broken for the Brooklyn tower foundation on January 3,1870. Roeblings debilitating condition left him unable to supervise the construction firsthand. As Chief Engineer, Roebling supervised the project from his apartment with a view of the work, designing and redesigning caissons. He was aided by his wife Emily Warren Roebling who provided the critical link between her husband and the engineers on site. Under her husbands guidance, Emily studied higher mathematics, the calculations of catenary curves, the strengths of materials, bridge specifications, and she spent the next 11 years assisting Washington Roebling, helping to supervise the bridges construction. When iron probes underneath the caisson for the Manhattan tower found the bedrock to be deeper than expected. He later deemed the aggregate overlying the bedrock 30 feet below it to be enough to support the tower base. The construction of the Brooklyn Bridge is detailed in the 1972 book The Great Bridge by David McCullough and Brooklyn Bridge, Burns drew heavily on McCulloughs book for the film and used him as narrator

16.
Otto Hermann Kahn
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Otto Hermann Kahn was a German-born investment banker, collector, philanthropist, and patron of the arts. Otto was born on February 21,1867 in Mannheim, Germany and his father had been among the refugees to the United States after the revolution of 1848 and had become an American citizen, but later returned to Germany. Kahn was educated in a gymnasium in Mannheim, Kahn he destined to be a banker. At 17, Kahn was placed in a bank at Karlsruhe as a junior clerk and he then served for a year in the Kaisers hussars. On leaving the army he went to the London agency of Deutsche Bank and he displayed such unusual talents that he became second in command when he had been there but a comparatively short time. The English mode of life, both political and social, appealed to him, and eventually he became a naturalized British subject. In 1893, he accepted an offer from Speyer and Company of New York and went to the United States, where he spent the rest of his life. On January 8,1896, Kahn married Addie Wolff and following the couples tour of Europe, Kahn joined Kuhn, Loeb & Co. in New York City. In 1917, Kahn gave up his British nationality and became a United States citizen, besides his father-in-law, Kahns other partners included Jacob Schiff, himself the son-in-law of Solomon Loeb, who co-founded the firm, and Paul and Felix Warburg. Almost immediately, Kahn was thrown into contact with railroad builder E. H. Harriman, in spite of sharply defined differences in temperament and method, they became as brothers. In opposition to Harrimans gruff, domineering, aggressive manner in business, was Kahns calm, good-humored, almost gentle deportment. Kahn, although only 30 years old, took an almost equal part with Harriman in the task of reorganizing the Union Pacific Railroad. Kahn proved his ability to analyze mathematically and scientifically the problems that were constantly presented, Kahn was soon to be acknowledged as the ablest reorganizer of railroads in the United States. More than once, his prompt and vigorous action averted an imminent financial panic, when American International Corporation was forming, Kahn took an active part in the negotiations, and brought them to a successful issue. Also he had a large share later in the negotiations resulted in the issue by Kuhn, Loeb and Company of $50,000,000 of City of Paris bonds and $60,000,000 Bordeaux-Lyons. The Senates lead counsel Ferdinand Pecora wrote on page 293 in his 1939 memoir Wall Street Under Oath about Otto Kahn, No suaver, more fluent, and more diplomatic advocate could be conceived. If anyone could succeed in presenting the customs and functions of the bankers in a favorable and prepossessing light. Kahn was a trustee of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and of Rutgers College and he was a director in numerous corporations, including the Equitable Trust Co. of New York and the Union Pacific Railroad

17.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town

Paris
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In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
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Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
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The Palais de la Cité and Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)

18.
Harry Crosby
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Harry Crosby was an American heir, bon vivant, poet, and publisher who for some epitomized the Lost Generation in American literature. He was the son of one of the richest banking families in New England, a Boston Brahmin, and the nephew of Jane Norton Grew, as such, he was heir to a portion of a substantial family fortune. He was a volunteer in the American Field Service during World War I and he narrowly escaped with his life. Profoundly affected by his experience in World War I, Crosby vowed to live life on his own terms and he had his fathers eye for women, and in 1920 met Mrs. Richard Peabody, six years his senior. They had sex within two weeks, and their affair was the source of scandal and gossip among blue-blood Boston. Mary divorced her husband and to her familys dismay married Crosby. Two days later left for Europe, where they devoted themselves to art. Both enjoyed a decadent lifestyle, drinking, smoking opium regularly, traveling frequently, Crosby maintained a coterie of young ladies that he frequently bedded, and wrote and published poetry that dwelled on the symbolism of the sun and explored themes of death and suicide. Crosbys life in Paris was at the crossroads of early 20th century Paris literary and he numbered among his friends some of the most famous individuals of the early 20th century, including Salvador Dalí, Ernest Hemingway, and Henri Cartier-Bresson. In 1927 Polly took the name Caresse, and she and Crosby founded the Black Sun Press, Crosby died scandalously at age 31 as part of a murder–suicide or suicide pact. Harry Crosby was born in Bostons exclusive Back Bay neighborhood and he was the product of generations of blue-blood Americans, descended from the Van Rensselaers, Morgans, and Grews. His uncle was J. Pierpont Morgan Jr. one of the richest men in America at that time and his fathers mother was the great-granddaughter of Alexander Hamilton. Also among Harrys ancestors were Revolutionary War General Philip Schuyler and William Floyd and he had one sibling, a sister, Katherine Schuyler Crosby, nicknamed Kitsa, who was born in 1901. They moved shortly after his birth to an estate that had, among other things and his parents instilled in him a love for poetry. He would toss water bombs off the stories of the house onto unsuspecting guests. The family spent its summers on the North Shore of Massachusetts at a home in Manchester. His religious, affectionate mother loved nature and was one of the founders of the Garden Club of America and his father, a banker, relived his days as a college football star through his Ivy League and Boston society connections. As a child, he attended the exclusive Noble and Greenough School, in 1913, when he was 14 years old, his parents decided it was time to send him to Boston’s foremost prep school, St

19.
Caresse Crosby
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Caresse Crosby was the first recipient of a patent for the modern bra, an American patron of the arts, publisher, and the literary godmother to the Lost Generation of expatriate writers in Paris. Crosbys parents, William Hearn Jacob and Mary Jacob, were descended from American colonial families, William from the Van Rensselaer family and Mary from William Phelps. In 1915, she married Richard R. Peabody, another blue blooded Bostonian whose family had arrived in New Hampshire in 1635 and they had two children, but following Richards service in World War I, he became a drunk who loved to watch buildings burn. She met Harry Crosby, who was 7 years her junior, at a picnic in 1920 while her husband was still with the army in Europe and their public relationship scandalized proper Boston society. Two years later, Richard granted her a divorce, and Harry and Mary were married and they immediately left for Europe, where they joined the Lost Generation of American expatriates. At her husbands urging, Mary took the name Caresse in 1924, in 1925, they began publishing their own poetry as Éditions Narcisse in exquisitely printed, limited-edition volumes. In 1927, they re-christened the business as the Black Sun Press, in 1929, one of her husbands affairs culminated in his death as part of a murder-suicide or double suicide. His death was marked by scandal as the newspapers speculated wildly about whether Harry shot his lover or not, Caresse returned to Paris, where she continued to run the Black Sun Press. With the prospect of war looming, she left Europe in 1936 and married Selbert Young and they lived on a Virginia plantation they rehabilitated outside Washington, D. C. until she divorced him. She moved to Washington, D. C. and began a love affair with black actor-boxer Canada Lee. She founded Women Against War and continued, after World War II, to try to establish a Center for World Peace at Delphi, Greece. When rebuffed by Greek authorities, she purchased Castello di Rocca Sinibalda, a 15th-century castle north of Rome and she died of pneumonia related to heart disease in Rome, in 1970. Born on April 20,1891 in New Rochelle, New York and she was the oldest daughter of William Hearn Jacob and Mary Phelps, and had two brothers, Leonard and Walter Bud Phelps. Her ancestry included a knight of the Crusades and the Allardyce family in the War of the Roses and her family was descended from a prominent New England family, Puritans. On her mothers side her seventh great-grandfather, William Phelps, departed from Plymouth, England in 1630 and founded Dorchester and she was the granddaughter of General Walter Phelps, who commanded troops at the Civil War Battle of Antietam. In 1914, she was presented to the King of England at a garden party, and in keeping with the American aristocratic style of the times, she was even photographed as a child by Charles Dana Gibson. She grew up, she said, in a world where only good smells existed. What I wanted, she said of her childhood, usually came to pass

Caresse Crosby
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Caresse Crosby and her whippet Clytoris
Caresse Crosby
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Nantasket Beach and the Nantasket Hotel, State Bath House and Paragon Park in the background, circa 1910.
Caresse Crosby
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Harry and Polly Crosby on the day of their marriage on September 9, 1922.
Caresse Crosby
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Cover of Tales of Shem and Shaun by James Joyce published by Caresse Crosby and the Black Sun Press

20.
Black Sun Press
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American expatriates living in Paris, Harry Crosby and his wife Caresse Crosby founded the press to publish their own work in April 1927 as Éditions Narcisse. They added to that in 1928 when they printed an edition of 300 numbered copies of The Fall of the House of Usher by Edgar Allan Poe. They published exclusively limited quantities of meticulously produced, hand-manufactured books, during the 1920s and 1930s Paris was at the crossroads of many emerging expatriate American writers, collectively called the Lost Generation. They published early works of a number of writers before they were well-known, including James Joyces Tales Told of Shem and they published Kay Boyles first book-length work, Short Stories, in 1929. The Black Sun Press evolved into one of the most important small presses in Paris in the 1920s, after Harry died in a suicide pact with one of his many lovers, Caresse Crosby continued the press work into the 1940s. Harry and Caresse Crosby began publishing their own poetry in 1925, One of their first two books was a volume of poetry by Caresse, Crosses of Gold, printed by Léon Pichon and published in 1925. Its frontleaf bore their names in the form of a cross with the r in Caresse intersecting the first r in Harrys name. The second was Harry’s Sonnets for Caresse, dissatisfied with the quality of the printing of these books they sought out Roger Lescaret, a master printer, whose shop at No. 2, Rue Cardinale was not far from the Crosbys apartment in Paris and his previous works had been limited to funeral notices, but that did not deter them. They were so happy with the result that they decided to start a press to other works. They followed with two books by Caresse, Painted Shores and The Stranger and they rented space above Roger Lescarets print shop at 2, rue Cardinal. They printed a Hindu Love Book, and letters sent to Harry’s cousin, Walter Berry, Harry chose the titles and Caresse edited the books. Both selected the typeface, margins, and so forth, Harry created the bindings, boxes, and ribbons in expensive state-of-the art materials made by Babout. The Crosbys published a number of eminent 20th century authors before they became well-known, including D. H. Lawrence and James Joyce, additional authors published by the Black Sun Press include Kay Boyle, whose first book Short Stories was published by Black Sun. Other authors included Ezra Pound, Archibald MacLeish, Ernest Hemingway, Eugene Jolas and they were frequent visitors to Shakespeare and Company, a bookshop founded by Sylvia Beach. They sold their collection of Kay Boyles short stories through Shakespeare, in 1928, Harry and Caresse changed the name of the press to the Black Sun Press in keeping with Harrys fascination with the symbolism of the sun. The press rapidly gained notice for publishing beautifully bound, typographically flawless editions of unusual books and they took exquisite care with the books they published, choosing the finest papers and inks. Their literary tastes matured and they sought out their Parisian literary friends and their friends included D. H. Lawrence, for whom they published a limited edition of 50 copies of The Escaped Cock, illustrated by John Farleigh, in September 1929

Black Sun Press
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Cover of Tales of Shem and Shaun by James Joyce published by Caresse Crosby and Harry Crosby, owners and publishers of the Black Sun Press.
Black Sun Press
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Wood-engraving by John Farleigh from "The Escaped Cock"
Black Sun Press
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Cover from Transit of Venus, poetry written by Harry Crosby and published by Black Sun Press, in 1929.
Black Sun Press
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Illustration by Alastair from Harry Crosby's book Red Skeletons, published in 1927.

21.
Ermenonville
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Ermenonville is a commune in the Oise department in northern France. Ermenonville is notable for its park named for Jean-Jacques Rousseau by René Louis de Girardin, Rousseaus tomb was designed by the painter Hubert Robert, and sits on the Isle of Poplars in its lake. In 1974 Turkish Airlines Flight 981 crashed in the Ermenonville Forest in Fontaine-Chaalis, Oise, the garden at Ermenonville was one of the earliest and finest examples of the French landscape garden. The garden at Ermenonville was planned beginning in 1762 by Marquis René Louis de Girardin, Girardins master plan drew its inspiration from Rousseaus novels and philosophy of the nobility of Nature. Rousseaus tomb is situated on the artificial island in Ermenonvilles lake. It is remarked that Hubert Robert was the architect, completed by 1778 with care and craft, the garden came to resemble a natural environment, almost a wilderness, appearing untouched by any human intervention. Girardin admired the work of William Shenstone at The Leasowes and made a ferme ornee at Ermenonville, an imitation of Rousseaus island is at Dessau-Wörlitz Garden Realm, Germany. During the early nineteenth century it was visited and admired. The garden at Ermenonville was described by Girardins son in 1811 in an elegant tour-book with aquatint plates that reveal Girardins love of diverse vistas that capture painterly landscape effects. Enhancing the elegiac mood of these views were the altars and monuments, the Rustic Temple, nearby is Rousseaus cabin in the secluded désert of Ermenonville. Napoleon Bonaparte visited Ermenonville, where he remarked to Girardin that it might have been better for the French peace if neither he nor Rousseau had ever been born, Girardin retold this story again and again after the fact. Communes of the Oise department INSEE commune file Ermenonville official website Château dErmenonville website Ermenonville, Parc Jean-Jacques Rousseau - a Gardens Guide review

Ermenonville
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Castle of Ermenonville

22.
Malcolm Cowley
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Malcolm Cowley was an American novelist, poet, literary critic, and journalist. Born August 28,1898, in the town of Belsano in Cambria County, Pennsylvania, Cowley grew up in the East Liberty neighborhood of Pittsburgh, where his father William was a homeopathic doctor. He attended Shakespeare Street elementary school and graduated from Peabody High Schools first graduating class in 1915 where his boyhood friend Kenneth Burke was also a student, in 1920 he earned a B. A. from Harvard University. He interrupted his studies to join the American Field Service in France during World War I. From the Western Front he reported on the war for The Pittsburgh Gazette, upon returning to the USA, Cowley married artist Peggy Baird, they were divorced in 1931. His second wife was Muriel Maurer, together they had one son, Robert William Cowley, who is an editor and military historian. He died of a heart attack March 27,1989, scott Fitzgerald, John Dos Passos, Ezra Pound, E. E. Cummings, Gerald and Sara Murphy, Edmund Wilson, Erskine Caldwell, Harry Crosby, Caresse Crosby and others. He is usually regarded as representative of Americas Lost Generation, from his two decades of struggling, he later became a well-known chronicler of the expatriate generation. Perhaps the most famous work he wrote was his book of poetry, Blue Juniata. His most autobiographical was Exiles Return, published in 1934, the second book is one of the first published in the United States about the Lost Generation, and was reissued in a less radical edition with new material, like his Fitzgerald revivals, in 1951. American literary historian Van Wyck Brooks described it as a literary record of the most dramatic period in American literary history. Coming under the influence of Theodore Dreiser, Cowley became increasingly involved in radical politics, in 1932 Cowley joined Mary Heaton Vorse, Edmund Wilson and Waldo Frank as union-sponsored observers of the miners strikes in Kentucky. Their lives were threatened by the owners and Frank was badly beaten up. The following year Cowley published Exiles Return, the book was largely ignored and sold only 800 copies in the first twelve months. The following year he published an autobiography, The Dream of Golden Mountains, in 1935 Cowley and other left-wing writers established the League of American Writers. However, he resigned in 1940 because he felt the organization was under the control of the American Communist Party, in 1941 President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Archibald MacLeish as head of the Office of Facts and Figures. MacLeish recruited Cowley as his deputy and this decision soon resulted in anti-communist journalists such as Whittaker Chambers and Westbrook Pegler writing articles pointing out Cowleys left-wing past. One member of Congress, Martin Dies of Texas, accused Cowley of having connections to 72 communist or communist-front organizations, MacLeish came under pressure from J. Edgar Hoover, head of the FBI, to fire Cowley

23.
USS Orizaba (ID-1536)
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USS Orizaba was a transport ship for the United States Navy in both World War I and World War II. She was the ship of Siboney but the two were not part of a ship class. Orizaba made 15 transatlantic voyages for the Navy carrying troops to, the ship was turned over to the War Department in 1919 for use as Army transport USAT Orizaba. After her World War I service ended, Orizaba reverted to the Ward Line, the ship was briefly engaged in transatlantic service to Spain and then engaged in New York–Cuba–Mexico service until 1939, when the ship was chartered to United States Lines. While Orizaba was in her Ward Line service, American poet Hart Crane leapt to his death from the deck of the liner off Florida in April 1932. In World War II the ship was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration, after completing one voyage as an Army transport, the ship was transferred to the U. S. Navy, where she was re-commissioned as USS Orizaba. The ship made several runs, was damaged in an air attack in the Allied invasion of Sicily. The transport also served in the Pacific Theatre, making several transpacific voyages, in June 1945, Orizaba was transferred under Lend-Lease to the Brazilian Navy where she served as Duque de Caxias. In August 1945, Duque de Caxis carried parts of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force from Naples back to Rio de Janeiro, the ship was badly damaged by a fire in 1947, but was repaired and remained in service. Permanently transferred to Brazil in 1953, Duque de Caxias was decommissioned in 1959, orizaba—named after the town of Orizaba, Veracruz, Mexico—was laid down for the Ward Line by William Cramp & Sons Ship and Engine Building Company of Philadelphia and launched in February 1917. In mid-1917 the United States Shipping Board commandeered and received title to all private shipbuilding projects in progress, including the still-incomplete Orizaba, plans for both ships were modified for troop-carrying duties. Upon Orizaba’s completion, the USSB delivered her to the US Navy for transport duty on 11 April 1918, while attempting another test with an increased propellant charge the following day, a defective fuse exploded the depth charge prematurely, killing Williamson and three other sailors. White, four officers, and twenty-two enlisted men were also wounded in the blast. Four days later on 21 August at 08,30, Orizaba, traveling with Siboney, Orizaba attempted to ram the sub and dropped depth charges, but there was no indication that the attack was successful. In December 1918, she was assigned to assist the French government in repatriating French, Belgian. Detached from that duty on 10 January 1919, she joined the Cruiser and Transport Force at Brest, after the completion of transport duty service in the summer of 1919, she decommissioned on 4 September and was turned over to the Army for further transport service as USAT Orizaba. The boat served in capacity until returned to the Ward Line in 1920. According to the Statistical Department of the US Navy, Orizaba had the second-shortest average in-port turnaround time out of 37 US Navy transports used in World War I

USS Orizaba (ID-1536)
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USS Orizaba (ID–1536) departing New York via the North River for France in World War I (1918)
USS Orizaba (ID-1536)
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Orizaba under construction at William Cramp & Sons in Philadelphia, c. 1917
USS Orizaba (ID-1536)
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Katharine Hepburn, seen here in 1940, sailed on Orizaba to get a Mexican divorce in 1934.
USS Orizaba (ID-1536)
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USAT Orizaba in port, 1941

24.
Gulf of Mexico
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The Gulf of Mexico is an ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. The U. S. states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas border the Gulf on the north, Atlantic and Pacific coasts, or sometimes the south coast, in juxtaposition to the Great Lakes region being the north coast. One of the seven main areas is the Gulf of Mexico basin. The Gulf of Mexico formed approximately 300 million years ago as a result of plate tectonics, the Gulfs basin is roughly oval and is approximately 810 nautical miles wide and floored by sedimentary rocks and recent sediments. It is connected to part of the Atlantic Ocean through the Florida Straits between the U. S. and Cuba, and with the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatan Channel between Mexico and Cuba, with the narrow connection to the Atlantic, the Gulf experiences very small tidal ranges. The size of the Gulf basin is approximately 1.6 million km2, almost half of the basin is shallow continental shelf waters. The basin contains a volume of roughly 2,500 quadrillion liters, the consensus among geologists who have studied the geology of the Gulf of Mexico, is that prior to the Late Triassic, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist. It was created by the collision of plates that formed Pangea. As interpreted by Roy Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, geologists and other Earth scientists agree in general that the present Gulf of Mexico basin originated in Late Triassic time as the result of rifting within Pangea. The rifting was associated with zones of weakness within Pangea, including sutures where the Laurentia, South American, first, there was a Late Triassic-Early Jurassic phase of rifting during which rift valleys formed and filled with continental red beds. Second, as rifting progressed through Early and Middle Jurassic time and it was at this time that tectonics first created a connection to the Pacific Ocean across central Mexico and later eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the basin created by rifting and crustal thinning to create the Gulf of Mexico. While the Gulf of Mexico was a basin, the subsiding transitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of Louann Salt. Initially, during the Late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the Gulf of Mexico and progressed to the point that sea-floor spreading, at this point, sufficient circulation with the Atlantic Ocean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased. During the Late Jurassic through Early Cretaceous, the occupied by the Gulf of Mexico experienced a period of cooling. The subsidence was the result of a combination of stretching, cooling. Initially, the combination of stretching and cooling caused about 5–7 km of tectonic subsidence of the central thin transitional

Gulf of Mexico
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Sediment in the Gulf of Mexico
Gulf of Mexico
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Undersea topography of the Gulf of Mexico
Gulf of Mexico
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Fishing boats in Biloxi
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Gulf beach near Sabine Pass

25.
John Keats
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John Keats was an English Romantic poet. He had a significant influence on a range of poets. Jorge Luis Borges stated that his first encounter with Keatss work was the most significant literary experience of his life, the poetry of Keats is characterised by sensual imagery, most notably in the series of odes. This is typical of poets, as they aimed to accentuate extreme emotion through the emphasis of natural imagery. Today his poems and letters are some of the most popular, John Keats was born in Moorgate, London, on 31 October 1795 to Thomas Keats and his wife, born Frances Jennings. There is no evidence of his exact birthplace. Although Keats and his family seem to have marked his birthday on 29 October and he was the eldest of four surviving children, his younger siblings were George, Thomas, and Frances Mary Fanny who eventually married Spanish author Valentín Llanos Gutiérrez. Another son was lost in infancy and his father first worked as a hostler at the stables attached to the Swan and Hoop Inn, an establishment he later managed, and where the growing family lived for some years. Keats believed that he was born at the inn, a birthplace of humble origins, the Globe pub now occupies the site, a few yards from the modern-day Moorgate station. He was baptised at St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate, and sent to a dame school as a child. His parents were unable to afford Eton or Harrow, so in the summer of 1803, he was sent to board at John Clarkes school in Enfield, the small school had a liberal outlook and a progressive curriculum more modern than the larger, more prestigious schools. In the family atmosphere at Clarkes, Keats developed an interest in classics and history, the headmasters son, Charles Cowden Clarke, also became an important mentor and friend, introducing Keats to Renaissance literature, including Tasso, Spenser, and Chapmans translations. The young Keats was described by his friend Edward Holmes as a character, always in extremes, given to indolence. However, at 13 he began focusing his energy on reading and study, in April 1804, when Keats was eight, his father died. The cause of death was a fracture, suffered when he fell from his horse while returning from a visit to Keats. Frances remarried two months later, but left her new husband soon afterwards, and the four went to live with their grandmother, Alice Jennings. In March 1810 when Keats was 14, his mother died of tuberculosis and she appointed two guardians, Richard Abbey and John Sandell, to take care of them. That autumn, Keats left Clarkes school to apprentice with Thomas Hammond, a surgeon and apothecary who was a neighbour, Keats lodged in the attic above the surgery at 7 Church Street until 1813

26.
Rainer Maria Rilke
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Several critics have described Rilkes work as inherently mystical. These deeply existential themes tend to him as a transitional figure between the traditional and the modernist writers. While Rilke is most known for his contributions to German literature, over 400 poems were written in French. In the later 20th century, his work found new audiences through its use by New Age theologians and self-help authors, in the United States, Rilke remains among the more popular, best-selling poets. He was born René Karl Wilhelm Johann Josef Maria Rilke in Prague and his childhood and youth in Prague were not especially happy. His father, Josef Rilke, became an official after an unsuccessful military career. His mother, Sophie Entz, came from a well-to-do Prague family, the Entz-Kinzelbergers, who lived in a house on the Herrengasse 8, where René also spent many of his early years. The relationship between Phia and her son was colored by her mourning for an earlier child, a daughter who had died only one week old. During Rilkes early years Phia acted as if she sought to recover the lost girl through the boy by dressing him in girls clothing and his parents marriage failed in 1884. His parents pressured the poetically and artistically talented youth into entering a military academy, which he attended from 1886 until 1891, from 1892 to 1895 he was tutored for the university entrance exam, which he passed in 1895. Until 1896 he studied literature, art history, and philosophy in Prague, in 1897 in Munich, Rainer Maria Rilke met and fell in love with the widely travelled, intellectual woman of letters Lou Andreas-Salomé. Rilke changed his first name from René to Rainer at Lous urging because she thought that name to be masculine, forceful. His relationship with married woman, with whom he undertook two extensive trips to Russia, lasted until 1900. But even after their separation, Lou continued to be Rilkes most important confidante until the end of his life, having trained from 1912 to 1913 as a psychoanalyst with Sigmund Freud, she shared her knowledge of psychoanalysis with Rilke. In 1898, Rilke undertook a journey lasting several weeks to Italy, in 1899, he travelled with Lou and her husband, Friedrich Andreas, to Moscow where he met the novelist Leo Tolstoy. Author Anna A. Tavis cites the cultures of Bohemia and Russia as the key influences on Rilkes poetry, in 1900, Rilke stayed at the artists colony at Worpswede. It was here that he got to know the sculptor Clara Westhoff and their daughter Ruth was born in December 1901. In the summer of 1902, Rilke left home and travelled to Paris to write a monograph on the sculptor Auguste Rodin, before long his wife left their daughter with her parents and joined Rilke there

Rainer Maria Rilke
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Rilke in 1900, aged 24
Rainer Maria Rilke
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Paula Modersohn-Becker (1876–1907), an early expressionist painter, became acquainted with Rilke in Worpswede and Paris, and painted his portrait in 1906.
Rainer Maria Rilke
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Duino Castle near Trieste, Italy, was where Rilke began writing the Duino Elegies in 1912—recounting that he heard the famous first line as a voice in the wind while walking along the cliffs and that he wrote it quickly in his notebook.
Rainer Maria Rilke
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Château de Muzot in Veyras, Switzerland, was where Rilke completed writing the Duino Elegies in "a savage creative storm" in February 1922.

27.
Allen Tate
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John Orley Allen Tate, known professionally as Allen Tate, was an American poet, essayist, social commentator, and Poet Laureate from 1943 to 1944. Tate was born near Winchester, Kentucky, to John Orley Tate, a businessman, in 1916 and 1917 Tate studied the violin at the Cincinnati Conservatory of Music. He began attending Vanderbilt University in 1918, where he met fellow poet Robert Penn Warren, Warren and Tate were invited to join an informal literary group of young Southern poets under the leadership of John Crowe Ransom, the group were known as the Fugitives. Tate contributed to the groups magazine The Fugitive, the aim of the group, according to the critic J. A. Tate also joined Ransom to teach at Kenyon College in Gambier, Ohio. Some of his students there included the poets Robert Lowell and Randall Jarrell. Lowells early poetry was influenced by Tates formalist brand of Modernism. In 1924, Tate moved to New York City where he met poet Hart Crane, over a four-year period, he worked freelance for The Nation, contributed to the Hound & Horn, Poetry magazine, and others. To make ends meet, he worked as a janitor, during a summer visit with the poet Robert Penn Warren in Kentucky, he began a relationship with writer Caroline Gordon. The two lived together in Greenwich Village, but moved to Robber Rocks, a house in Patterson, New York, with friends Slater Brown and his wife Sue, Hart Crane, Tate married Gordon in New York in May 1925. Their daughter Nancy was born in September, in 1928, along with others New York City friends, he went to Europe. In London, he visited with T. S. Eliot, whose poetry and criticism he greatly admired, in 1928, Tate published his first book of poetry, Mr. Pope and Other Poems, which contained his most famous poem, Ode to the Confederate Dead. That same year, Tate also published a biography Stonewall Jackson, just before leaving for Europe in 1928, Tate described himself to John Gould Fletcher as an enforced atheist. He later told Fletcher, I am an atheist, but a religious one — which means there is no organization for my religion. He regarded secular attempts to develop a system of thought for the world as misguided. Only God, he insisted, can give the affair a genuine purpose, in his essay The Fallacy of Humanism, he criticized the New Humanists for creating a value system without investing it with any identifiable source of authority. Religion is the technique for the validation of values, he wrote. Although he was attracted to Roman Catholicism, he deferred converting, Louis D. Rubin, Jr. observes that Tate may have waited because he realized that for him at this time it would be only a strategy, an intellectual act. In 1929, Tate published a second biography Jefferson Davis, His Rise, after two years abroad, he returned to the United States, and in 1930 was back in Tennessee

Allen Tate
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Allen Tate

28.
William Carlos Williams
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William Carlos Williams was a Puerto Rican-American poet closely associated with modernism and imagism. His work has an affinity with painting, in which he had a lifelong interest. In addition to his writing, Williams had a career as a physician practicing both pediatrics and general medicine. He was affiliated with what was known as Passaic General Hospital in Passaic, New Jersey. The hospital, which is now known as St. Marys General Hospital, Williams was born in Rutherford, New Jersey. His grandmother, an Englishwoman deserted by her husband, had come to the United States with her son, remarried and her son, Williamss father, married a Puerto Rican woman of French Basque and Dutch Jewish descent. Williams received his primary and secondary education in Rutherford until 1897, upon leaving University of Pennsylvania, Williams did internships at both French Hospital and Childs Hospital in New York before going to Leipzig for advanced study of pediatrics. He published his first book, Poems, in 1909, Williams married Florence Herman in 1912, after he returned from Germany. They moved into a house in Rutherford, New Jersey, which was their home for many years. Shortly afterward, his book of poems, The Tempers, was published by a London press through the help of his friend Ezra Pound. Around 1914, Williams had his first son, William E. Williams, followed by his son, Paul H. Williams. His first son would grow up to follow Williams in becoming a doctor, although his primary occupation was as a family doctor, Williams had a successful literary career as a poet. In addition to poetry, he wrote short stories, plays, novels, essays. He practiced medicine by day and wrote at night, in 1920, Williams was sharply criticized by many of his peers when he published one of his most experimental books, Kora in Hell, Improvisations. Pound called the work incoherent and H. D. thought the book was flippant. Three years later, Williams published one of his books of poetry, Spring and All. However, in 1922, the year it was published, the appearance of T. S. Eliots The Waste Land became a literary sensation and overshadowed Williamss very different brand of poetic Modernism. In his Autobiography, Williams would later write, I felt at once that The Waste Land had set me back twenty years, instead, Williams preferred colloquial American English

William Carlos Williams
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William Carlos Williams passport photograph,1921
William Carlos Williams
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"The rose fades, and is renewed again...."
William Carlos Williams
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This Is Just To Say (wall poem in The Hague)

29.
E. E. Cummings
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Edward Estlin E. E. Cummings, often styled as e e cummings, was an American poet, painter, essayist, author, and playwright. He wrote approximately 2,900 poems, two novels, four plays and several essays. He is remembered as an eminent voice of 20th-Century English literature, Edward Estlin Cummings was born on October 14,1894, to Edward Cummings and Rebecca Haswell Clarke who were Unitarian. They were a family in Cambridge, Massachusetts. His father was a professor at Harvard University and later the nationally known minister of Old South Church in Boston and his mother, who loved to spend time with her children, played games with Cummings and his sister, Elizabeth. From an early age, Cummingss parents supported his creative gifts, Cummings wrote poems and also drew as a child, and he often played outdoors with the many other children who lived in his neighborhood. He also grew up in the company of family friends as the philosophers William James. He graduated from Harvard University in 1915 and then received a degree from Harvard in 1916. Many of Cummings summers were spent on Silver Lake in Madison, the family ultimately purchased the nearby Joy Farm where Cummings had his primary summer residence. He exhibited transcendental leanings his entire life, as he matured, Cummings moved to an I, Thou relationship with God. His journals are replete with references to le bon Dieu, as well as prayers for inspiration in his poetry, Cummings also prayed for strength to be his essential self, and for relief of spirit in times of depression. Cummings wanted to be a poet from childhood and wrote poetry daily aged 8 to 22 and he went to Harvard and developed an interest in modern poetry which ignored conventional grammar and syntax, aiming for a dynamic use of language. Upon graduating, he worked for a book dealer, in 1917, with the First World War ongoing in Europe, Cummings enlisted in the Norton-Harjes Ambulance Corps, along with his college friend John Dos Passos. Due to an administrative mix-up, Cummings was not assigned to a unit for five weeks. He fell in love with the city, to which he would throughout his life. The two openly expressed anti-war views, Cummings spoke of his lack of hatred for the Germans. On September 21,1917, just five months after his assignment, he. They were held for 3½ months in a detention camp at the Dépôt de Triage, in La Ferté-Macé, Orne

30.
Sherwood Anderson
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Sherwood Anderson was an American novelist and short story writer, known for subjective and self-revealing works. Self-educated, he rose to become a successful copywriter and business owner in Cleveland and Elyria, in 1912, Anderson had a nervous breakdown that led him to abandon his business and family to become a writer. At the time, he moved to Chicago and was married three more times. His most enduring work is the short-story sequence Winesburg, Ohio, throughout the 1920s, Anderson published several short story collections, novels, memoirs, books of essays, and a book of poetry. Though his books sold well, Dark Laughter, a novel inspired by Andersons time in New Orleans during the 1920s, was the only bestseller of his career. Sherwood Berton Anderson was born on September 13,1876 in Camden, Ohio and he was the third of seven children born to Emma Jane and former Union soldier and harness-maker Irwin McLain Anderson. Considered reasonably well-off financially—Andersons father was seen as an up-and-comer by his Camden contemporaries, reasons for the departure are uncertain, most biographers note rumors of debts incurred by either Irwin or his brother Benjamin. The Andersons headed north to Caledonia by way of a stay in a village of a few hundred called Independence. Four or five years were spent in Caledonia, years which formed Andersons earliest memories and this period later inspired his semi-autobiographical novel Tar, A Midwest Childhood. In Caledonia Andersons father began drinking excessively, which led to financial difficulties, partly as a result of these misfortunes, young Sherwood became adept at finding various odd jobs to help his family, earning the nickname Jobby. Though he was a decent student, Andersons attendance at school declined as he began picking up work, even in his teens, Andersons talent for selling was evident, a talent he would later draw on it in a successful career in advertising. As a newsboy he was said to have convinced a tired farmer in a saloon to buy two copies of the evening paper. With the exception of work, Andersons childhood resembled that of other boys his age, in addition to participating in local events and spending time with his friends, Anderson was a voracious reader. By Andersons 18th year in 1895, his family was on shaky ground and his father had started to disappear for weeks. Two years earlier, in 1893, Karl, Sherwoods elder brother, had left Clyde for Chicago, on May 10,1895, his mother succumbed to tuberculosis. Sherwood, now essentially on his own, boarded at the Harvey & Yetters livery stable where he worked as an experience that would translate into several of his best-known stories. But his mothers death precipitated the young mans leaving Clyde and he settled in Chicago around late 1896 or spring/summer 1897, having worked a few small-town factory jobs along the way. Finding a place to stay in Chicago was not as difficult for Anderson as it was for many others arriving in Chicago around the same time

Sherwood Anderson
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Anderson in 1933
Sherwood Anderson
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Signature
Sherwood Anderson
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"Roof-Fix carried us to Elyria" wrote Sherwood Anderson's wife, Cornelia Lane, of the product her husband started a company to sell.
Sherwood Anderson
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Advertisement for the Anderson Manufacturing Co., a company owned by Sherwood Anderson from 1907-1913, almost a decade before he became a well-known author.

31.
Kenneth Burke
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Kenneth Duva Burke was an American literary theorist who had a powerful impact on 20th-century philosophy, aesthetics, criticism, and rhetorical theory. As a literary theorist, Burke was best known for his analyses based on the nature of knowledge, furthermore, he was one of the first individuals to stray away from more traditional rhetoric and view literature as symbolic action. His work continues to be discussed by rhetoricians and philosophers and he was born on May 5 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and graduated from Peabody High School, where his friend Malcolm Cowley was also a student. While he attended Ohio University to pursue courses in French, German, Greek, during his time there, he was a member of the Boars Head Society. Due to the learning environment, however, Burke also left Columbia. In Greenwich Village he kept company with avant-garde writers such as Hart Crane, Malcolm Cowley, Gorham Munson, raised Roman Catholic, Burke later became an avowed agnostic. In 1919, he married Lily Mary Batterham, with whom he had three daughters, the late feminist, Marxist anthropologist Eleanor Leacock, musician Elspeth Chapin Hart and he would later marry her sister Elizabeth Batterham in 1933 and have two sons, Michael and Anthony. Burke served as the editor of the modernist literary magazine The Dial in 1923, Kenneth himself was an avid player of the piano. He received the Dial Award in 1928 for distinguished service to American literature and he was the music critic of The Nation from 1934–1936, and was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1935. His work on criticism was a force for placing him back into the university spotlight. As a result, he was able to teach and lecture at colleges, including Bennington College. Many of Kenneth Burkes personal papers and correspondence are housed at Pennsylvania State Universitys Special Collections Library and he died of heart failure at his home in Andover, New Jersey. Burke, like many twentieth century theorists and critics, was influenced by the ideas of Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud. He was an interpreter of Shakespeare and was also significantly influenced by Thorstein Veblen. It is now considered to be more faithful and explicit than H. T. Burkes political engagement is evident—A Grammar of Motives takes as its epigraph, American literary critic Harold Bloom singled out Burkes Counterstatement and A Rhetoric of Motives for inclusion in his Western Canon. Beyond his contemporary influences, Burke took Aristotles teachings into account while developing his theories on rhetoric, a significant source of his ideas is Aristotles Rhetoric. Drawing from this work, Burke oriented his writing about language specifically to its social context, Burke draws a line between a Platonic and a more contemporary view of rhetoric, described as “old rhetoric” and “new rhetoric” respectively

Kenneth Burke
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Kenneth Duva Burke

32.
Waldo Frank
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Waldo David Frank was an American novelist, historian, political activist, and literary critic, who wrote extensively for The New Yorker and The New Republic during the 1920s and 1930s. Frank is best known for his studies of Spanish and Latin American literature and culture, Frank broke with the Communist Party, USA in 1937 over its treatment of exiled Soviet leader Leon Trotsky, whom Frank met in Mexico in January of that year. Waldo Frank was born in Long Branch, New Jersey on August 25,1889 and he was the youngest of four children to Julius J. The young Frank grew up on the Upper West Side of New York City, upon his return to the United States, Frank enrolled at Yale University, first earning a bachelors degree before completing his Masters degree in 1911. Following graduation, Frank worked briefly as a reporter for the New York Times before leaving in 1913 for Paris, with World War I in the wings, Frank returned to New York City in 1914. Franks first published novel, The Unwelcome Man, was a look into a man contemplating suicide. The novel also drew upon the ideas of New England transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson, in 1916, Frank became associate editor of The Seven Arts, a journal that ran for just twelve issues but became an important artistic and political influence. Its contributors were determined pacifists, a position that caused a decline in subscriptions, contributors included Randolph Bourne, Van Wyck Brooks, and James Oppenheim, the founder and general editor of the magazine. In January 1917, Frank married Margaret Naumburg, a pupil of John Dewey. She developed techniques which became known as art therapy. In 1921 Frank met and became friends with the young writer. He served as editor for Toomers first novel, Cane, a modernist work combining poems and associated stories, inspired by his working in the rural South as a school principal at a black school. Toomer became an important figure in the Harlem Renaissance, of mixed-race and majority-white, complex ethnicity, he resisted being classified as a black writer and they had a falling out and their friendship ended after 1923, due in part to an affair between Toomer and Naumburg. Frank became a contributor to the New Yorker in 1925 under the pseudonym Search-Light. Frank was an anti-militarist and declared himself a conscientious objector in registering for the draft in 1917 and he became increasingly political during the 1920s, joining the liberal magazine The New Republic as a contributing editor in November 1925. In 1929 together with fellow writers Sherwood Anderson, Theodore Dreiser and he toured the Soviet Union in the summer and early fall of 1931 and returned to write a book on his experiences, Dawn of Russia, published in 1932. Frank was subsequently elected as the chairman of that organization, during the United States Presidential election of 1936, Frank was active in the ranks of Professional Groups for Browder and Ford, working in support of the CPUSA ticket. In January 1937, Frank went to Mexico to attend the congress of the League of Revolutionary Artists and he published his final book, Cuba, Prophetic Island, a sympathetic account of the Cuban revolution, in 1961

Waldo Frank
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Waldo Frank.

33.
Harriet Monroe
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Harriet Monroe was an American editor, scholar, literary critic, poet and patron of the arts. She is best known as the publisher and long-time editor of Poetry magazine. Because she was a correspondent of the poets she supported, her letters provide a wealth of information on their thoughts. Monroe was born in Chicago, Illinois and she read at an early age, her father had a large library that provided refuge from domestic discord. Monroe graduated from the Visitation Academy of Georgetown, D. C. in 1879 and she was later recognized as a very talented author for her age. She afterward devoted herself to literary work, Monroe in her biography said, I have sense of consecration that made me think I would prefer art to life. She became a correspondent to the Chicago Tribune, and was commissioned to write a commemorative ode for the 400th anniversary of Columbuss discovery of America. Her financial hardships were alleviated after she sued the New York World for publishing the poem without her consent and she was awarded $5,000 dollars in a settlement. The $5,000, coupled with her own settlement, was enough to launch the magazine on September 23,1912, Monroe was editor for its first two years without salary, while simultaneously working as an art critic for the Chicago Tribune. By 1914, the work became too much for her to accomplish while working other jobs, so she resigned from the Chicago Tribune. For more than ten years she maintained herself on this stipend, don Share, who became editor of Poetry in 2013, writes that Monroe seemed to have a sixth sense about the poetry she published. Monroe, herself, wrote and preferred poems rooted in 19th century tradition, but in her magazine and she invented a box, you could say — and promptly set to work thinking outside it. Her magazine was, therefore, like she was, unpredictable, difficult, and infuriating and she continued editing the magazine until she died in Arequipa, Peru, at age 75, while on her way to climb Machu Picchu. The high altitudes reportedly triggered a cerebral hemorrhage, which caused her death, Monroe was a member of the Eagles Nest Art Colony in Ogle County, Illinois, and is mentioned in Erik Larsons The Devil in the White City. Monroe was the sister-in-law of Chicago architect John Wellborn Root, reynolds, Francis J. ed. Monroe, Harriet. The New York Times Book Review, March 11,1917 Harriet Monroe, full text, at Google books 2 short radio episodes Mountain Hemlock and The Water Ouzel by Harriet Monroe from California Legacy Project

Harriet Monroe
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Harriet Monroe
Harriet Monroe

34.
Marianne Moore
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Marianne Craig Moore was an American Modernist poet, critic, translator, and editor. Her poetry is noted for innovation, precise diction, irony. Moore was born in Kirkwood, Missouri, in the manse of the Presbyterian church where her grandfather, John Riddle Warner. Her parents separated before she was born after her father, John Milton Moore and she and her older brother, John Warner Moore, were reared by their mother, Mary Warner Moore. The family wrote letters to one another throughout their lives, often addressing each other by playful nicknames. She thought it was not possible to live without religious faith, Moore lived in the St. Louis area until she was 16. In 1905, Moore entered Bryn Mawr College, and she graduated four years later with an A. B. having majored in history, economics, the poet H. D. was among her classmates during their freshman year. At Bryn Mawr, Moore started writing stories and poems for Tipyn OBob, the campus literary magazine. After graduation, she worked briefly at Melvil Dewey’s Lake Placid Club, Moores first professionally published poems appeared in The Egoist and Poetry in the spring of 1915. Harriet Monroe, the editor of the latter, would describe them in her biography as possessing an elliptically musical profundity, the innovative poems she was writing at that time received high praise from Ezra Pound, William Carlos Williams, H. D. T. S. Eliot, and later Wallace Stevens, Moores first book, Poems, was published in 1921 by the Imagist poet H. D. and her partner, the British novelist Bryher, without Moores permission. Moores later poetry shows some influence from the Imagists principles and her second book, Observations, won the Dial Award in 1924. She worked part-time as a librarian during these years, then from 1925 to 1929, she edited The Dial magazine, when The Dial ceased publication in 1929, she moved to 260 Cumberland Street in the Fort Greene neighborhood of Brooklyn, where she remained for thirty-six years. She continued to write while caring for her mother, who died in 1947. For nine years before and after her mother’s death, Moore translated the Fables of LaFontaine, in 1933, Moore was awarded the Helen Haire Levinson Prize by Poetry magazine. In 1951, her Collected Poems won the National Book Award, the Pulitzer Prize, and the Bollingen Prize. In the books introduction, T. S. Eliot wrote, after years of seclusion, she emerged as a celebrity, speaking at college campuses across the country and appearing in photo essays in Life and Look magazines. Moore became a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1955 and she was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1962

35.
Gertrude Stein
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Gertrude Stein was an American novelist, poet, playwright, and art collector. Born in the Allegheny West neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and raised in Oakland, California, Stein moved to Paris in 1903, in 1933, Stein published a quasi-memoir of her Paris years, The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas, written in the voice of her partner, Alice B. Toklas, an American-born member of the Parisian avant-garde, the book became a literary bestseller and vaulted Stein from the relative obscurity of the cult-literature scene into the limelight of mainstream attention. Her books include Q. E. D. about a romantic affair involving several of Steins female friends, Fernhurst, a fictional story about a romantic affair, Three Lives. In Tender Buttons, Stein commented on lesbian sexuality and her activities during World War II have been the subject of analysis and commentary. After the war ended, Stein expressed admiration for another Nazi collaborator, some have argued that certain accounts of Steins wartime activities have amounted to a witch hunt. Stein, the youngest of a family of five children, was born on February 3,1874, in Allegheny, Pennsylvania to upper-middle-class Jewish parents, Daniel and her father was a wealthy businessman with real estate holdings. German and English were spoken in their home, when Stein was three years old, she and her family moved to Vienna, and then Paris. Accompanied by governesses and tutors, the Steins endeavored to imbue their children with the sensibilities of European history. Stein attended First Hebrew Congregation of Oaklands Sabbath school, during their residence in Oakland, they lived for four years on a ten-acre lot, and Stein built many memories of California there. She would often go on excursions with her brother, Leo, Stein found formal schooling in Oakland unstimulating, but she read often, Shakespeare, Wordsworth, Scott, Burns, Smollett, Fielding, and more. When Stein was 14 years old, her mother died, Three years later, her father died as well. Steins eldest brother, Michael Stein, then took over the family holdings and in 1892 arranged for Gertrude and another sister, Bertha. Here she lived with her uncle David Bachrach, who in 1877 had married Gertrudes maternal aunt, in Baltimore, Stein met Claribel and Etta Cone, who held Saturday evening salons that she would later emulate in Paris. The Cones shared an appreciation for art and conversation about it, Stein attended Radcliffe College, then an annex of Harvard University, from 1893 to 1897 and was a student of psychologist William James. In 1934, behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner interpreted Steins difficult poem Tender Buttons as an example of normal motor automatism. In a letter Stein wrote during the 1930s, she explained that she never accepted the theory of writing, here can be automatic movements

36.
H. P. Lovecraft
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Howard Phillips Lovecraft was an American author who achieved posthumous fame through his influential works of horror fiction. He was virtually unknown and published only in magazines before he died in poverty. Lovecraft was born in Providence, Rhode Island, where he spent most of his life, among his most celebrated tales are The Call of Cthulhu and The Shadow over Innsmouth, both canonical to the Cthulhu Mythos. Lovecraft was never able to support himself from earnings as author and editor and he saw commercial success increasingly elude him in this latter period, partly because he lacked the confidence and drive to promote himself. He subsisted in straitened circumstances in his last years, an inheritance was completely spent by the time that he died at age 46. Lovecraft was born on August 20,1890 in his home at 194 Angell Street in Providence. Both of his parents were of entirely English ancestry, and most of his ancestors had been in New England since the colonial period and his great-grandfather Joseph Lovecraft Jr. emigrated to Rochester, New York from Devon, England in 1831. Lovecraft maintained throughout his life that his father died in a condition of paralysis brought on by nervous exhaustion. It has been suggested that his fathers mental illness may have been caused by syphilis, all five resided together in the family home. Lovecraft was a prodigy, reciting poetry at the age of three and writing complete poems by six. His grandfather encouraged his reading, providing him with such as One Thousand and One Nights, Thomas Bulfinchs Age of Fable, and childrens versions of the Iliad. His grandfather also stirred the boys interest in the weird by telling him his own tales of gothic horror. Lovecraft was frequently ill as a child, and he attended school until he was eight years old because of his sickly condition. He read voraciously during this period and became enamored of chemistry. He produced several hectographed publications with a circulation, beginning in 1899 with The Scientific Gazette. Four years later, he returned to school at Hope High School. Beginning in his life, Lovecraft is believed to have suffered from sleep paralysis. Much of his work is thought to have been directly inspired by these terrors

37.
Ralph Waldo Emerson
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Ralph Waldo Emerson was an American essayist, lecturer, and poet who led the transcendentalist movement of the mid-19th century. Emerson gradually moved away from the religious and social beliefs of his contemporaries, following this work, he gave a speech entitled The American Scholar in 1837, which Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. considered to be Americas intellectual Declaration of Independence. Emerson wrote most of his important essays as lectures first and then revised them for print and his first two collections of essays, Essays, First Series and Essays, Second Series, represent the core of his thinking. They include the well-known essays Self-Reliance, The Over-Soul, Circles, The Poet, together with Nature, these essays made the decade from the mid-1830s to the mid-1840s Emersons most fertile period. Emersons nature was more philosophical than naturalistic, Philosophically considered, the universe is composed of Nature, Emerson is one of several figures who took a more pantheist or pandeist approach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world. He remains among the linchpins of the American romantic movement, and his work has influenced the thinkers, writers. When asked to sum up his work, he said his doctrine was the infinitude of the private man. Emerson is also known as a mentor and friend of Henry David Thoreau. Emerson was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on May 25,1803, a son of Ruth Haskins and the Rev. William Emerson and he was named after his mothers brother Ralph and his fathers great-grandmother Rebecca Waldo. Ralph Waldo was the second of five sons who survived adulthood, the others were William, Edward, Robert Bulkeley. Three other children—Phebe, John Clarke, and Mary Caroline—died in childhood, Emerson was entirely of English ancestry, and his family had been in New England since the early colonial period. Emersons father died from cancer on May 12,1811. Emerson was raised by his mother, with the help of the women in the family. She lived with the family off and on and maintained a constant correspondence with Emerson until her death in 1863, Emersons formal schooling began at the Boston Latin School in 1812, when he was nine. In October 1817, at 14, Emerson went to Harvard College and was appointed freshman messenger for the president, requiring Emerson to fetch delinquent students and send messages to faculty. Midway through his year, Emerson began keeping a list of books he had read. He took outside jobs to cover his expenses, including as a waiter for the Junior Commons and as an occasional teacher working with his uncle Samuel in Waltham. By his senior year, Emerson decided to go by his middle name, Emerson served as Class Poet, as was custom, he presented an original poem on Harvards Class Day, a month before his official graduation on August 29,1821, when he was 18

38.
Poetry (magazine)
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Poetry, published in Chicago since 1912, is one of the leading monthly poetry journals in the English-speaking world. Founded by Harriet Monroe and now published by the Poetry Foundation, in 2007 the magazine had a circulation of 30,000, and printed 300 poems per year out of approximately 100,000 submissions. It is sometimes referred to as Poetry—Chicago, Poetry has been financed since 2003 with a $200 million bequest from Ruth Lilly. The magazine was founded in 1912 by Harriet Monroe, an author who was working as an art critic for the Chicago Tribune. She wrote at that time, The Open Door will be the policy of this magazine—may the great poet we are looking for never find it shut, or half-shut, to this end the editors hope to keep free from entangling alliances with any single class or school. They desire to print the best English verse which is being written today, regardless of where, by whom, nor will the magazine promise to limit its editorial comments to one set of opinions. In a circular she sent to poets, Monroe said the magazine offered, First, in the first decade of its existence, became the principal organ for modern poetry of the English-speaking world. T. S. Eliots first professionally published poem, The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, was published in Poetry, Prufrock was brought to Monroes attention by early contributor and foreign correspondent, Ezra Pound. The magazine published the works of H. D. Robert Frost, Langston Hughes, Edna St. Vincent Millay, the magazine discovered such poets as Gwendolyn Brooks, James Merrill, and John Ashbery. E. Cummings, Frank OHara, Allen Ginsberg, Ernest Hemingway, James Joyce, Gertrude Stein, the magazine was instrumental in launching the Imagist and Objectivist poetic movements. A. R. Ammons once said, the histories of modern poetry in America and of Poetry in America are almost interchangeable, however, in the early years, East Coast newspapers made fun of the magazine, with one calling the idea Poetry in Porkopolis. Author and poet Jessica Nelson North was an editor, henry Rago joined the magazine in 1954 and became editor the following year. Publication in Poetry is highly selective and consists of three increasingly critical editorial rounds, with a publication rate of submissions at about 1%, the magazine is one of the most difficult to get. Monroe continued to publish the magazine, until her death, from 1941, until the establishment of the Foundation in 2003, the magazine was published by the Modern Poetry Association. In 2003, the received a grant from the estate of Ruth Lilly originally said to be worth over $100 million. The grant added to her already substantial prior contributions, the magazine learned in 2001 that it would be getting the grant. Before announcing the gift, the magazine waited a year and reconfigured its governing board, the Poetry Foundation was created, and Joseph Parisi, who had been editor of the magazine for two decades, volunteered to head the foundation

39.
Wallace Stevens
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Wallace Stevens was an American Modernist poet. He was born in Reading, Pennsylvania, educated at Harvard and then New York Law School and he won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for his Collected Poems in 1955. The son of a lawyer, Stevens attended Harvard as a non-degree special student, after which he moved to New York City. He then attended New York Law School, graduating in 1903, on a trip back to Reading in 1904 Stevens met Elsie Viola Kachel, a young woman who had worked as a saleswoman, milliner, and stenographer. After a long courtship, he married her in 1909 over the objections of his parents, as The New York Times reported in an article in 2009, Nobody from his family attended the wedding, and Stevens never again visited or spoke to his parents during his father’s lifetime. A daughter, Holly, was born in 1924 and she later edited her fathers letters and a collection of his poems. In 1913, the Stevenses rented a New York City apartment from sculptor Adolph A. Weinman and her striking profile was later used on Weinmans 1916–1945 Mercury dime design and possibly for the head of the Walking Liberty Half Dollar. In later years Elsie Stevens began to exhibit symptoms of illness and the marriage suffered as a result. After working for several New York law firms from 1904 to 1907, he was hired on January 13,1908, by 1914 he had become the vice-president of the New York office of the Equitable Surety Company of St. Louis, Missouri. His first residence was located at 594 Prospect Avenue, but he remained there for one year. In 1917 Stevens and his moved to 210 Farmington Avenue where they remained for the next seven years. From 1924 to 1932 he resided at 735 Farmington Avenue, in 1932 he purchased a 1920s Colonial at 118 Westerly Terrace where he resided for the remainder of his life. By 1934, he had been named vice-president of the company, after he won the Pulitzer Prize in 1955, he was offered a faculty position at Harvard but declined since it would have required him to give up his vice-presidency of The Hartford. From 1922 to 1940, Stevens made numerous visits to Key West, Florida, where he lodged at the Casa Marina. He first visited in January 1922, while on a business trip, the place is a paradise, he wrote to Elsie, midsummer weather, the sky brilliantly clear and intensely blue, the sea blue and green beyond what you have ever seen. The influence of Key West upon Stevenss poetry is evident in many of the published in his first two collections, Harmonium and Ideas of Order. In February 1935, Stevens encountered the poet Robert Frost at the Casa Marina, the two men argued, and Frost reported that Stevens had been drunk and acted inappropriately. The following year, Stevens allegedly assaulted Ernest Hemingway at a party at the Waddell Avenue home of an acquaintance in Key West

40.
Romanticism
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Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of heroic individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art, there was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism, the decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of nationalism. Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that the feeling is his law. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were laws that the imagination—at least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone. As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creators own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism. This idea is called romantic originality. Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief, however, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the voice of the artist. So, in literature, much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves. In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the new literary form of the novel, had some effect on the sense of the word in those languages. It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, the period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place roughly between 1770 and 1848, and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, however, in most fields the Romantic Period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier

41.
Christian Science
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Christian Science is a set of beliefs and practices belonging to the metaphysical family of new religious movements. It was developed in nineteenth-century New England by Mary Baker Eddy, the book became Christian Sciences central text, along with the Bible, and by 2001 had sold over nine million copies. Christian Science became the fastest growing religion in the United States, with nearly 270,000 members by 1936, Eddy described Christian Science as a return to primitive Christianity and its lost element of healing. There are key differences between Christian Science theology and that of other branches of Christianity, in particular, adherents subscribe to a radical form of philosophical idealism, believing that reality is purely spiritual and the material world an illusion. Between the 1880s and 1990s the avoidance of medical treatment led to the deaths of several adherents, parents and others were prosecuted for, and in a few cases convicted of, manslaughter or neglect. Several periods of Protestant Christian revival nurtured a proliferation of new movements in the United States. From the 1890s the liberal section of the movement became known as New Thought, the term metaphysical referred to the movements philosophical idealism, a belief in the primacy of the mental world. Adherents believed that phenomena were the result of mental states. The metaphysical groups became known as the movement because of their strong focus on healing. Medical practice was in its infancy, and patients regularly fared better without it and this provided fertile soil for the mind-cure groups, who argued that sickness was an absence of right thinking or failure to connect to Divine Mind. The movement traced its roots in the United States to Phineas Parkhurst Quimby, Mary Baker Eddy had been a patient of his, leading to debate about how much of Christian Science was based on his ideas. New Thought and Christian Science differed in that Eddy saw her views as a unique, Eddys idea of malicious animal magnetism marked another distinction, introducing an element of fear that was absent from the New Thought literature. Reality for Eddy was purely spiritual, Christian Science leaders place their religion within mainstream Christian teaching, according to J. Gordon Melton, and reject any identification with the New Thought movement. Eddy was strongly influenced by her Congregationalist upbringing, in founding the Church of Christ, Scientist, in April 1879, she wrote that she wanted it to reinstate primitive Christianity and its lost element of healing. Later she suggested that Christian Science was a kind of second coming, in 1895, in the Manual of the Mother Church, she ordained the Bible and Science and Health as Pastor over the Mother Church. According to the tenets, adherents accept the inspired Word of the Bible as sufficient guide to eternal Life. Acknowledge and adore one supreme and infinite God, acknowledge His Son, one Christ, the Holy Ghost or divine Comforter, and man in Gods image and likeness. Christian Science theology differs in several respects from that of traditional Christianity

42.
Myth criticism
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Mythology refers variously to the collected myths of a group of people or to the study of such myths. Myths are the people tell to explain nature, history. Myth is a feature of every culture, mythologizing continues, as shown in contemporary mythopoeia such as urban legends and the expansive fictional mythoi created by fantasy novels and comics. A cultures collective mythology helps convey belonging, shared and religious experiences, behavioral models, the study of myth began in ancient history. Rival classes of the Greek myths by Euhemerus, Plato and Sallustius were developed by the Neoplatonists, the nineteenth-century comparative mythology reinterpreted myth as a primitive and failed counterpart of science, a disease of language, or a misinterpretation of magical ritual. Recent approaches often view myths as manifestations of psychological, cultural, or societal truths, the term mythology predates the word myth by centuries. It first appeared in the fifteenth-century, borrowed from the Middle French term mythologie, the word mythology, comes from Middle French mythologie, from Late Latin mythologia, from Greek μυθολογία mythología from μῦθος mythos and -λογία -logia. The word mythología appears in Plato, but was used as a term for fiction or story-telling of any kind, combining mỹthos. From Lydgate until the seventeenth or eighteenth-century, mythology was similarly used to mean a moral, fable, from its earliest use in reference to a collection of traditional stories or beliefs, mythology implied the falsehood of the stories being described. It came to be applied by analogy with similar bodies of traditional stories among other cultures around the world. The Greek loanword mythos and Latinate mythus both appeared in English before the first example of myth in 1830, in present use, mythology usually refers to the collected myths of a group of people, but may also mean the study of such myths. For example, Greek mythology, Roman mythology and Hittite mythology all describe the body of myths retold among those cultures, dundes defined myth as a sacred narrative that explains how the world and humanity evolved into their present form. Lincoln defined myth as ideology in narrative form, scholars in other fields use the term myth in varied ways. In a broad sense, the word can refer to any traditional story, due to this pejorative sense, some scholars opted for the term mythos. Its use was similarly pejorative and now commonly refers to its Aristotelian sense as a plot point or to a collective mythology. The term is distinguished from didactic literature such as fables. Main characters in myths are usually gods, demigods or supernatural humans, however, many exceptions or combinations exist, as in the Iliad, Odyssey and Aeneid. Myths are often endorsed by rulers and priests and are linked to religion or spirituality

43.
Perversion
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Perversion is a type of human behavior that deviates from that which is understood to be orthodox or normal. Although the term perversion can refer to a variety of forms of deviation, it is most often used to describe sexual behaviors that are considered particularly abnormal, repulsive or obsessive. Perversion differs from deviant behavior, in that the latter covers areas of behavior for which perversion would be too strong a term, one view is that the concept of perversion is subjective, and its application varies depending on the individual. Another view considers that perversion is a degradation of an objectively true morality, originating in the 1660s a pervert was originally defined as one who has forsaken a doctrine or system regarded as true, apostate. The sense of a pervert as a term was derived in 1896. The verb pervert is less narrow in reference than the related nouns and it is used in English law for the crime of perverting the course of justice which is a common law offence. There is a transition to the sexual in the technique of purposeful perversion of conversational remarks, is a long step closer to a direct attempt at seduction or rape. The noun sometimes occurs in abbreviated form as perv and used as a verb meaning to act like a pervert. All are often, but not exclusively, used non-seriously, in economics the term perverse incentive means a policy that results in an effect contrary to the policymakers intention. Freuds didactic strategy in his Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality was to construct a bridge between the perversions and normal sexuality and he found the roots of such perversions in infantile sexuality—in the childs polymorphously perverse inclinations. The aptitude for such perversity is innate, the crucial irony of Freuds account in the Three Essays was that perversion in childhood was the norm. In both of them, one might say, a well-organized tyranny has been established, but in each of the two a different family has seized the reins of power. That the sexual aberrations of childhood, as well as those of life, are ramifications of the same complex—the Oedipus complex. Neurotics, who have repressed perverse longings, may envy the perverts who express the perverse longings openly, freud wrote extensively on perversion in men. However, he and his successors paid scant attention to perversion in women and this pioneering work undoubtedly paved the way for others, including Louise Kaplan, to explore this relatively uncharted territory. Some people fancy black rubber clothes. At times this might lead to a kind of Panglossian world view where every fetishist has his fetishera. Havelock Ellis has many cases of this meeting of the minds, which is hedged about with special conditions. puts a vast distance between the partners. New, more sceptical currents of disenchantment with perversion emerged as a result in both the French-speaking and English-speaking worlds, lacan had early highlighted the ambivalence proper to the partial drives of scoptophilia, sadomasochism

44.
Poetry Foundation
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The Poetry Foundation is a Chicago-based American foundation created to promote poetry in the wider culture. It was formed from Poetry magazine, which it continues to publish, according to the foundations Web site, it is committed to a vigorous presence for poetry in our culture. It exists to discover and celebrate the best poetry and to place it before the largest possible audience, in partial furtherance of this objective, the Foundation runs a blog called Harriet. Poets who have blogged at Harriet on behalf of The Poetry Foundation include Ange Mlinko, Christian Bök, Stephen Burt, in addition, the Foundation provides several awards for poets and poetry. It also hosts seminars, readings, exhibitions, and a poetry library, the Poetry Foundation is a non-profit, charitable,501 organization. The foundation is the successor to the Modern Poetry Association, which was founded in 1941, the magazine, itself, was established in 1912 by Harriet Monroe. Monroe was its first publisher, until her death, and an art critic for the Chicago Tribune, today, the Poetry Foundation is one of the largest literary foundations in the world. In 2003, Poetry magazine received a grant from the estate of Ruth Lilly originally said to be worth over $100 million, the grant added to her already substantial prior contributions. The magazine learned in 2001 that it would be getting the grant, before announcing the gift, the magazine waited a year and reconfigured its governing board, which had been concerned with fund-raising. The foundation was created, and Joseph Parisi, who had been editor of the magazine for two decades, volunteered to head the new organization, Christian Wiman, a young critic and poet, succeeded to the editorship in 2003. Parisi resigned from the foundation after a few months, the new board used a recruiting agency to find John Barr, a former executive and published poet, to head the foundation. Robert Polito, the poet and critic who founded and directed the graduate writing program at the New School, replaced Barr in 2013. In December,2015, Henry S. Bienen, President Emeritus of Northwestern University was named President, part of the Lilly grant was used to build the Poetry Center in Near North Side, Chicago. The Center, designed by John Ronan, opened in 2011, the center holds a library open to the public, houses reading spaces, hosts school and tour groups, and provides office and editorial space for the Poetry Foundation and magazine. The Poetry Foundation hosts a schedule of events and these include poetry readings, staged plays, artist collaborations, and exhibitions. The Harriet Monroe Poetry Institute provides an independent forum to convene discussions about poetry, poets, scholars, educators and others are invited to share ideas about the intellectual and practical needs of the poetry form, and to generate solutions to benefit the art. The Poetry Out Loud recitation contest was created in 2006 by the Poetry Foundation and it engages high school students in public speaking and the literature and performance of poetry. The contest gives out a $20,000 award to the winner, $10,000 for second place

45.
Edmund Wilson
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Edmund Wilson was an American writer and critic who notably explored Freudian and Marxist themes. He influenced many American authors, including F. Scott Fitzgerald and his scheme for a Library of America series of national classic works came to fruition through the efforts of Jason Epstein after Wilsons death. Wilson was born in Red Bank, New Jersey and his parents were Helen Mather and Edmund Wilson, Sr. a lawyer who served as New Jersey Attorney General. Wilson attended The Hill School, a preparatory boarding school in Pottstown, Pennsylvania. At Hill, Wilson served as the editor-in-chief of the literary magazine. From 1912 to 1916, he was educated at Princeton University and his familys summer home at Talcottville, New York, known as Edmund Wilson House, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. Wilson was the editor of Vanity Fair in 1920 and 1921. His works influenced novelists Upton Sinclair, John Dos Passos, Sinclair Lewis, Floyd Dell and he served on the Dewey Commission, that set out to fairly evaluate the charges that led to the exile of Leon Trotsky. He wrote plays, poems, and novels, but his greatest influence was literary criticism. He played a role throughout Edna St Vincent Millays life, from the time she was a foreign correspondent for Vanity Fair magazine,1921 to 1923. Axels Castle, A Study in the Imaginative Literature of 1870–1930 was a survey of Symbolism. It covered Arthur Rimbaud, Auguste Villiers de lIsle-Adam, W. B, yeats, Paul Valéry, T. S. Eliot, Marcel Proust, James Joyce, and Gertrude Stein. In an essay on the work of horror writer H. P, lovecraft, Tales of the Marvellous and the Ridiculous, Wilson condemned Lovecrafts tales as hackwork. Wilson was interested in culture as a whole, and many of his writings go beyond the realm of pure literary criticism. His early works are influenced by the ideas of Freud and Marx. Wilson lobbied for the creation of a series of classic US literature similar to Frances Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, in 1982, ten years after his death, The Library of America series was launched. Wilsons writing was included in the Library of America in two published in 2007. Wilsons critical works helped foster public appreciation for several novelists, Ernest Hemingway, John Dos Passos, William Faulkner, F. Scott Fitzgerald and he was instrumental in establishing the modern evaluation of the works of Dickens and Kipling

Edmund Wilson
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Edmund Wilson

46.
Ezra Pound
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Ezra Weston Loomis Pound was an expatriate American poet and critic, and a major figure in the early modernist movement. His contribution to poetry began with his development of Imagism, a movement derived from classical Chinese and Japanese poetry, stressing clarity, precision and his best-known works include Ripostes, Hugh Selwyn Mauberley and the unfinished 120-section epic, The Cantos. This included arranging for the publication in 1915 of Eliots The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, angered by the carnage of World War I, Pound lost faith in England and blamed the war on usury and international capitalism. Deemed unfit to stand trial, he was incarcerated in St. Elizabeths psychiatric hospital in Washington, while in custody in Italy, Pound had begun work on sections of The Cantos. These were published as The Pisan Cantos, for which he was awarded the Bollingen Prize in 1949 by the Library of Congress, triggering enormous controversy. Largely due to a campaign by his writers, he was released from St. Elizabeths in 1958. Hemingway wrote, The best of Pounds writing—and it is in the Cantos—will last as long as there is any literature, Pound was born in a small, two-story house in Hailey, Idaho Territory, the only child of Homer Loomis Pound and Isabel Weston. His father had worked in Hailey since 1883 as registrar of the General Land Office, both parents ancestors had emigrated from England in the 17th century. On his mothers side, Pound was descended from William Wadsworth, the Wadsworths married into the Westons of New York. Harding Weston and Mary Parker were the parents of Isabel Weston, harding apparently spent most of his life without work, with his brother, Ezra Weston, and his brothers wife, Frances, looking after Mary and Isabels needs. On his fathers side, the immigrant ancestor was John Pound, a Quaker, Ezras grandfather, Thaddeus Coleman Pound, was a Republican Congressman from northwest Wisconsin who had made and lost a fortune in the lumber business. Thaddeuss son Homer, Pounds father, worked for Thaddeus in the lumber business, Homer and Isabel married the following year, and Homer built a home in Hailey. Isabel was unhappy in Hailey and took Ezra with her to New York in 1887, Homer followed them, and in 1889 he found a job as an assayer at the Philadelphia Mint. The family moved to Jenkintown, Pennsylvania, and in 1893 bought a house in Wyncote. Between 1897 and 1900 Pound attended Cheltenham Military Academy, sometimes as a boarder, the boys wore Civil War-style uniforms and besides Latin were taught English, history, arithmetic, marksmanship, military drilling and the importance of submitting to authority. After the academy he may have attended Cheltenham Township High School for one year and it was at Pennsylvania in 1901 that Pound met Hilda Doolittle, his first serious romance, according to Pound scholar Ira Nadel. In 1911 she followed Pound to London and became involved in developing the Imagism movement, Pound was seeing two other women at the same time—Viola Baxter and Mary Moore—later dedicating a book of poetry, Personae, to the latter. He asked Moore to marry him too, but she turned him down and his parents and Frances Weston took Pound on another three-month European tour in 1902, after which he transferred, in 1903, to Hamilton College in Clinton, New York, possibly because of poor grades

47.
Four Quartets
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Four Quartets is a set of four poems written by T. S. Eliot that were published individually over a six-year period. The first poem, Burnt Norton, was written and published with a collection of his works following the production of Eliots play Murder in the Cathedral. After a few years, Eliot composed the three poems, East Coker, The Dry Salvages, and Little Gidding, which were written during World War II. The poems were not collected until Eliots New York publisher printed them together in 1943 and they were first published as a series in Great Britain in 1941 to 1942 towards the end of Eliots poetic career. Four Quartets are four interlinked meditations with the theme being mans relationship with time, the universe. John of the Cross and Julian of Norwich, although many critics find the Four Quartets to be Eliots great last work, some of Eliots contemporary critics, including George Orwell, were dissatisfied with Eliots overt religiosity. Later critics disagreed with Orwells claims about the poems and argued instead that the religious themes made the poem stronger, while working on his play Murder in the Cathedral, Eliot came up with the idea for a poem that was structured similarly to The Waste Land. The resulting poem, Burnt Norton, named after a house, was published in Eliots 1936 edition of Collected Poems 1909–1935. Eliot decided to create another poem similar to Burnt Norton but with a different location in mind and this second poem, East Coker, was finished and published by Easter 1940. As Eliot was finishing his second poem, World War II began to disrupt his life and he spent more time lecturing across Great Britain and helping out during the war when he could. It was during this time that Eliot began working on The Dry Salvages, the third poem and this poem was published in February 1941 and Eliot immediately began to plot out his fourth poem, Little Gidding. Eliots health declined and he stayed in Shamley Green to recuperate and his illness and the war disrupted his ability to write and he became dissatisfied with each draft. He believed that the problem with the poem was with himself, by September 1941, he stopped writing and focused on his lecturing. It was not until September 1942 that Eliot finished the last poem, while writing East Coker Eliot thought of creating a quartet of poems that would reflect the idea of the four elements and, loosely, the four seasons. Eliot described what he meant by quartet in a 3 September 1942 letter to John Hayward and these poems are all in a particular set form which I have elaborated, and the word quartet does seem to me to start people on the right track for understanding them. It suggests to me the notion of making a poem by weaving in together three or four superficially unrelated themes, the poem being the degree of success in making a new out of them. The Four Quartets was first published as a series in New York in 1943, the original title was supposed to be the Kensington Quartets after his time in Kensington. The delay in collecting the Four Quartets with the rest of Eliots poetry separated them from his other work, the outbreak of World War II, in 1939, pushed Eliot further into the belief that there was something worth defending in society and that Germany had to be stopped

Four Quartets
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First US edition published by Harcourt
Four Quartets
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Early poems

48.
John Berryman
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John Allyn McAlpin Berryman was an American poet and scholar, born in McAlester, Oklahoma. He was a figure in American poetry in the second half of the 20th century and was considered a key figure in the Confessional school of poetry. His best-known work is The Dream Songs, in Dream Song #143, he wrote, That mad drive wiped out my childhood. I put him all the same on forty years I love him/stashed in Oklahoma/besides his brother Will. The poet was renamed John Allyn McAlpin Berryman, Berrymans mother also changed her first name from Peggy to Jill. Although his stepfather would later divorce his mother, Berryman and his stepfather stayed on good terms, with both his mother and stepfather working, his mother decided to send him away to the South Kent School, a private boarding school in Connecticut. Berryman would later credit Van Doren with sparking his interest in writing poetry seriously, for two years, Berryman also studied overseas at Clare College, Cambridge, on a Kellett Fellowship, awarded by Columbia. One of the young poets included in the book was Randall Jarrell. Berryman would soon publish some of this verse in his first book, also with New Directions Publishing, simply titled Poems. However, his first mature collection of poems, The Dispossessed, appeared six years later, Berryman would later concur with this assessment of his early work, stating, I didnt want to be like Yeats, I wanted to be Yeats. In October 1942, Berryman married Eileen Mulligan in a ceremony at St. Patricks Cathedral, the couple moved to Beacon Hill, where Berryman lectured at Harvard. The marriage ended in 1953, when Simpson finally grew weary of tolerating Berrymans affairs, Simpson would memorialize her time with Berryman and his circle in her 1982 book Poets in Their Youth. However, he did decide to publish the work, titled Berrymans Sonnets. The work included one hundred sonnets. Edmund Wilson wrote that it was the most distinguished long poem by an American since T. S. Eliots The Waste Land, despite the relative success of his third book of verse, Berrymans great poetic breakthrough occurred after he published 77 Dream Songs in 1964. Berryman was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1967, also, that year the newly created National Endowment for the Arts awarded him a ten thousand dollar grant. The following year Berryman republished 77 Dreams Songs and His Toy, His Dream, His Rest as one book titled The Dream Songs, but in Love & Fame, he dropped the mask of Henry to write more plainly about his life. Responses to the poems from critics and most of Berrymans peers ranged from tepid, at best, to hostile, the character of Henry reappeared in a couple of poems published in Delusions Etc. Berrymans last collection, which focused on his religious concerns and his own spiritual rebirth