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Wednesday, September 7, 2011

Animal Husbandry

Sheep Farming

1. Why Sheep Farming ?
Sheep with its multi-facet utility for wool, meat, milk, skins and manure,
form an important component of rural economy particularly in the arid,
semi-arid and mountainous areas of the country. It provides a dependable source
of income to the shepherds through sale of wool and animals. The advantages of
sheep farming are :
i)Sheep do not need expensive buildings to house them and on the other hand
require less labour than other kinds of livestock.
ii)The foundation stock are relatively cheap and the flock can be multiplied
rapidly.
iii)Sheep are economical converter of grass into meat and wool.
iv)Sheep will eat varied kinds of plants compared to other kind of
livestock. This makes them excellent weed destroyer.
v)Unlike goats, sheep hardly damage any tree.
vi)The production of wool, meat and manure provides three different sources
of income to the shepherd.
vii)The structure of their lips helps them to clean grains lost at harvest
time and thus convert waste feed into profitable products.
viii)Mutton is one kind of meat towards, which there is no prejudice by any
community in India and
further development of superior breeds for mutton production will have a great
scope in the developing economy of India.2. Scope for Sheep Farming and Its National Importance
2.1 The country has 56.8 million sheep as per 1997 livestock
census and ranks sixth in the world. The statewise sheep population are given
in Annexure I. During 2001-02 wool production stands at the modest level of
50.709 million, skin with wool sheep 524 MT, sheep and goat meat 700500 MT in
2001-02, sheep fresh 52380 MT. The export earnings from different woollen
products during 1994-95 was Rs.25773 million. The contribution of sheep to total
meat production in the country is around 14 percent. The contribution of sheep
through export of meat is 8 percent of the total export value of agricultural
and processed food products. Live sheep are also exported for meat purpose.
Sheep skin in the form of leather and leather products is also exported.
2.2 Sheep make a valuable contribution to the livelihood of the economically
weaker sections of the society. Amongst the livestock owners the shepherds are
the poorest of the lot.
2.3 Realising the importance of sheep in Agrarian economy the Central
Government had established the Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute
(CSWRI) at Avikanagar in Rajasthan. Number of sheep breeding farms were
established during various plan periods throughout the country for evolving (i)
new fine wool breeds for different agro-climatic regions capable of producing
2.5 kg. of greasy wool per annum. (ii) new mutton breeds capable of attaining
30 kg. live weight at 6 months of age under intensive feeding conditions. Sheep
development activities were initiated under :
DPAP, MFAL and SFDA programmes. Intensive Sheep Development Projects
(ISDP's) were introduced in many of the sheep rearing districts. Setting up of
wool boards in important wool producing states was envisaged and States of
Jammu & Kashmir and Karnataka have already set up these boards. Some of the
states have set up wool development corporations / federations. The states
having such organisations are given in Annexure II. 3.0 Financial assistance available from banks / NABARD for sheep
farming
3.1 NABARD is an apex institution for all matters relating to policy,
planning and operation in the field of agricultural credit. It serves as
refinancing agency for the institutions providing investment and production credit
for agriculture and rural development. It promotes development through a well
organised Technical Services Department at the Head Office and Technical Cells
at each of the Regional Offices.
3.2 Loan from banks with refinance facility from NABARD is available for
starting sheep farming. For obtaining bank loan, the farmers should apply to
the nearest branch of a Commercial, Co-operative or Regional Rural Bank in
their area in the prescribed application form which is available in the
branches of financing bank. The Technical officer attached to or the Manager of
the bank can help / give guidance to the farmers in preparing the project
report to obtain bank loan.
3.3 For sheep development schemes with very large outlays, detailed reports
will have to be prepared. The beneficiaries may utilise the services of NABARD
Consultancy Services (nabcons) having good experience in developing livestock
projects for preparation of the project report to avail the bank loan for the
items such as purchase of breeding animals, construction of sheds, purchase of
equipments etc. The cost of land is not considered for loan. 4.0 Scheme Formulation
A scheme can be prepared by a beneficiary after consulting local technical
persons of State Animal Husbandry Department, DRDA, Sheep development
Corporation, Sheep Co-operative society / union / federation and commercial
farmers. If possible, the beneficiaries should also visit progressive sheep
farmers and government / agricultural university Sheep farms in the vicinity
and discuss the profitability of sheep farming. A good practical training and
experience in sheep farming will be highly desirable. The sheep co-operative
societies established in the villages as a result of efforts by the Sheep
Development Department of State Government / Sheep Development Board would
provide all supporting facilities, particularly marketing of live animals and
wool. Nearness of the sheep farm to such a society, veterinary aid and breeding
centre should be ensured.
The scheme should include information on land, livestock markets,
availability of water, feeds, fodder, veterinary aid, breeding facilities,
marketing aspects, training facilities, experience of the farmer and the type
of assistance available from State Government, Sheep society / union /
federation.
The scheme should also include information on the number of and types of
animals to be purchased, their breeds, production performance, cost and other
relevant input and output costs with their description. Based on this, the
total cost of the project, margin money to be provided by the beneficiary,
requirement of bank loan, estimated annual expenditure, income, profit and loss
statement, repayment period, etc. can be worked out and included in the scheme.
5.0 Requirements of a Good Project
A check list prepared by NABARD for formulation of sheep development schemes
is given in Annexure III. The scheme so formulated should be submitted to the
nearest branch of bank. The bank's officers can assist in preparation of the
scheme or filling in the prescribed application form. The bank will then
examine the scheme for its technical feasibility and economic viability. A) Technical Feasibility - This would briefly include
(a)Nearness of the selected area to veterinary aid, breeding cover and wool
collection centre and the financing bank's branch.
(b)Availability of good quality animals in nearby livestock markets. The
distribution of sheep breeds in India
are given in Annexure IV-a, while the wool production and quality in IV-b.
(c)Source of training facilities. The major institutions providing training
in Sheep farming are given in Annexure V.
(d)Availability of good grazing ground / lands.
(e)Availability of green/dry fodder, concentrate feed, medicines etc.
(f)Availability of veterinary aid / breeding centres and marketing
facilities near the scheme area.B) Economic Viability - This would briefly include
(a)Unit Cost - The average cost of Sheep units for some of the States is
given in Annexure VI.
(b)Input cost for feeds and fodders, veterinary aid, insurance, shearing
etc.
(c)Output costs i.e. sale price of animals, wool, penning etc.
(d)Income-expenditure statement and annual gross surplus.
(e)Cash flow analysis.
(f)Repayment schedule i.e. repayment of principal loan amount and interest.
Other documents such as loan application forms, security aspects, margin
money requirements etc. are also examined. A field visit to the scheme area is
undertaken for conducting a techno-economic feasibility study for appraisal of
the scheme. The economics of sheep farming is given in Annexure VII. 6.Sanction of Bank Loan and its Disbursement
After ensuring technical feasibility and economic viability, the scheme is
sanctioned by the bank. The loan is disbursed in stages against creation of
specific assets such as construction of sheds, purchase of equipments and
animals. The end use of the loan is verified and constant follow-up is done by
the bank. 7. Lending Terms - General7.1 Unit cost
Each regional office (R.O.) Of NABARD has constituted a State Level Unit
Cost Committee under the chairmanship of RO-in-charge and with the members from
developmental agencies, commercial banks and cooperative banks to review the
unit cost of various investments once in six months. The same is circulated
among the banks for their guidance. 7.2 Interest Rate for ultimate borrowers
Banks are free to decide the rate of interest within the overall RBI
guidelines. However for working out financial viabilility and bankability
of the model project we have assumed the rate of interest as 12% p.a.7.3 Margin Money
NABARD has defined the farmers into three different categories and where
subsidy is not available the minimum down payment to be contributed by the
beneficiaries are given in the following table.

Sr.No.

Category of Farmer

Beneficiary's Contribution

A

Small farmers

5%

B

Medium farmers

10%

C

Large farmers

15%

7.4 Security
Security will be as per NABARD / RBI guidelines issued from time to time. 7.5 Repayment Period of Loan
Repayment period depends upon the gross surplus generated. The loans will be
repaid in suitable half yearly / annual instalments usually within a period of
about 5-6 years with a grace period of one year. 8. Package of Common Management Practices Recommended
for Sheep Farmers
Modern and well established scientific principles, practices and skills
should be used to obtain maximum economic benefits from sheep farming. Some of
the major norms and recommended practices are given here under 8.1. Selection and purchase of Animal
i) It is necessary to select suitable improved breed of sheep available in
particular area.
ii)Crossbred sheep are available for purchase from state Government /
Government of India sheep breeding farms.
iii) Ewes can be purchased in regular sheep markets or from breeders in
villages, while male sheep (rams) of exotic / crossbred from Government farms.
iv) A purchase committee, consisting of the borrower, the financing bank's
representative and a veterinary assistant surgeon may be constituted or else
cash payments could be done to borrower to select his own animals.
v) It is desirable to purchase healthy animals of 12-18 months of age.
vi) A certificate regarding age and health of sheep is obtained from
the veterinary assistant surgeon.
vii)The animals purchased have to be identified by fixing ear tags.
viii) Sheep should be vaccinated for important diseases like sheep-fox and
entero-toxaemia.
ix) The price of sheep depends on breed, age and health status.
x) An entrepreneur should have a unit of 20-30 ewes and one ram.8.2 Pregnant, Parturient and Lactating Ewes
Careful management of the pregnant, parturient and lactating ewes will have
a marked influence on the percentage of lambs dropped and reared successfully.
So, the following steps may be taken to afford proper attention to these
animals.
i)Do not handle the pregnant ewes too frequently.
ii)Separate the advanced pregnant ewes from the main flock and take
effective care in their feeding and management.
iii)Extra feed during the later part of pregnancy (3-4 weeks before
parturition) will be beneficial for the condition of the pre-parturient ewes
which will help in improving milk production of ewes, birth weight and growth
of lambs.
iv) Inadequate and poor nutrition may result in pregnancy, toxaemia,
abortions and premature births of weak lambs.
v) Bring lambing ewes into lambing corals 4-6 days before parturition and
provide maximum comfort. If possible, provide soft, clean bedding and
individual lambing pens.
vi)Watch gestation length which ranges from 142 to over 150 days. Early
maturing breeds have slightly shorter gestation period.
vii) Save parturient ewes from cold and chilly weather.8.3 Care at Lambing / Parturition
An ewe about to lamb prefers to leave the flock. She is restless, the udder
is often distended and external genital are in a flushed and flaccid condition.
Generally in a healthy ewe parturition is normal. Still the following
precautions may be taken during and after parturition.
i)Keep a vigilant eye for dystokia or difficult birth.
ii)Maiden ewes in poor condition or small-framed ewes mated to big rams will
generally have difficulty in parturition and will have to be assisted.
iii)Seek prompt veterinary aid and advice from an experienced shepherd or
stockman in case of dystokia.
iv) Newborn lambs. after being licked by the mother generally stand on their
legs and start seeking for teats and suckle milk. If they are not able to do so
after sufficient time, provide help to them in suckling colostrum (the first
milk) which is very essential for health and survivability of lambs.
v)Save newborn lambs from cold, rain and winds.
vi)Resort to artificial milk feeding or arrange foster mothers to disowned
or orphan lambs. Goats can serve as excellent foster mother but ewes which have
lost their lamb early after birth may also be utilized.
vii) Ligate, sever and antiseptically dress the naval cord of the lamb.
viii)Give a teaspoonful of castor-oil or liquid paraffin to the lamb to
facilitate defecation and passing out of meconium easily.
ix) Do not handle lambs too frequently immediately after birth and let the
dams lick and recognize them properly.
x) Allow newborn lambs to be with their mothers all the 24 hours for first
week or so.
xi) Feed sufficient quantity of good-quality hay and concentrates (if
possible) to the lactating ewes for meeting nutritional requirements for early
lactation.
xii) Provide plenty of clean fresh drinking water as the lactating ewes
drink surprisingly higher amount of water during lactation.8.4 Care of Lambs
The lamb should be taken care of the maximum extent during early period of
life. This will also ensure better survival. The following steps may be taken
for ensuring better growth and survival.
i) Ensure proper suckling of lambs. Examine udders for blindness of teats or
mastitis.
ii)Take care of indifferent mothers and arrange suckling of lambs by
restraining such type of ewes.
iii)Provide creep feed (good quality hay with or without concentrate
mixture) to suckling lambs in addition to suckling of milk from tenth day to
weaning age.
iv) If possible, make available green leguminous fodder or fresh tree leaves
to lambs to nibble during suckling period.
v)Lambs may be ear-tagged or tattooed on the ear for identification
(tattooing forceps and ear-tagging forceps should also be cleaned and
sterilized at the time of use). Tail docking and castration may also be done in
first week or so by placing elastrator (strong rubber band) at the
intervertebral space and not on the vertebra.
vi) Alternatively use sterilized and clean knife for castration and docking
and resort to proper ligation and antiseptic dressing at the roof of scrotum
with testicles before it.
vii) During castration keep the lambs on perfectly dry, clean and hygienic
site so as to minimize the risks of losses from tetanus.8.5 Weaning and Care of Weaners
The management of Weaners plays an important part in good sheep husbandry.
The following steps are important in proper care and management of weaners.
i) Weaning should preferably be done at 90 days, although in breeds with
low milk production or where re-breeding is desired it can be done around 60
days.
ii) Supplementary feeding and good clean pastures for growing weaners should
be provided. The nutrient requirements for growing lambs and adult ewes are
given in Annexure VII-a.
iii) Weaned lambs should be drenched against gastro-intestinal parasites by
first month; and vaccinated against enterotoxaemia and sheep-pox.
iv) Weaners should not be grazed on poor burry and thorny types of pasture
since it could cause skin irritation, injury to the eyes and damage to wool.
v) They should be protected against vagaries of climates and predation.8.6 Housing and Shelter Management

i) Normally sheep do not require elaborate housing facilities but
minimum provisions will definitely increase productivity, especially protection
against inclement weather conditions (sun, rain and winds) and predation. Shed
could be provided with gunny bags or temporary or removable protections made of
thatching material and bamboos. The roof of the shed should be made of the
asbestos sheet supported by tubular or angular steel, but wooden rafters and
thatching material could also be used.
ii) Exotics should be provided 0.9-1.1 m2 and native and crossbred sheep
0.8-0.9 m2 space per head. Sheds measuring 18m x 6m can accommodate about 120
sheep.
iii) A chain link fencing or thorny bush enclosure of 12m x 6m can be
provided for night paddocking of sheep on each side of the shed.8.7 Culling
Culling of sheep is very important for the development of a good flock. It
helps to remove undesirable animals and breeding from those which are most
approximating the ideal sheep. About 10-20 per cent culling should be practised
annually to develop a good flock. The flock size should be maintained by
replacing culled ewes by ewe lambs born in the flock. 8.8 Maintenance of Records
It is very essential to maintain the necessary records at an organised
(experimental or commercial) sheep farm to know obout the inputs and outputs.
This helps in working out the economy of sheep production per unit of area and
per animal. The following records should be maintained : livestock strength,
breeding, lambing, shearing, wool production, mortality, purchase of animal
feeds, medicines, sale of animals and wool. 8.9 Identification
The shepherds commonly practice notching or phunching holes in the ears for
identification of lambs. Tattooing is also satisfactory but is more expensive.
Metal or plastic ear-tags with stamped letters and numbers are most suitable
although they are relatively expensive and heavy for the ears of the smaller
native sheep. These ear-tags are applied with the help of a clincher. 8.10 Dipping
To control the ectoparasites the sheep should be dipped a few weeks after
shearing when they have grown sufficient new wool to hold the chemical
substance. There are standard designs for sheep dips and there are many
products effective against ectoparasites. A foot-bath may also be provided at
the entrance of the farm to prevent the spread of contagious diseases like
foot-and-mouth and footrot. 8.11Health Management
The health management calendar given in Annexure VIII may be followed for
better health of stock. 8.12 Shearing
i)Shearing is done mechanically either with clippers, a pair of scissors or
by power-operated machines depending upon the size of operations.
ii)Most flocks are usually shorn twice a year, i.e. March-April after
the winter and September-October after the rains. In some states like Jammu
& Kashmir and Rajasthan sheep are shorn thrice a year.9. Marketing of Wool and Animals
i)The wool and meat sector in the country is small and widely scattered.
This is the sector, where organised sector and decentralised sector run
complimentary to each other towards meeting the requirements of all sections of
the domestic market as well as export. The sector is very loosely knit and
heterogenous. Taking the due cognizance of these complexities in the wool
sector the Government of India has constituted the Central Wool Development
Board in the Ministry of Texties for the overall growth and development of this
sector. The State Governments have also set up separate corporation/Federation
to encorage the sector.
ii) Shepherds generally market wool and animals, through rural agents
on the basis of rough estimates of weights. The animals are also sold in
village weekly markets, where shepherds are exploited to a great extent.
iii) State Governments through sheep corporation, board and federation
have also set up sheep co-operative societies which also purchase wool and
animals on weight basis and shepherds are paid better prices.

B) Techno economic parameters
Veterinary expenses have been assumed as adult Rs..........., young Rs.............
1.The present unit cost of one year Ewes and ram is taken at Rs ............. and
Rs................... respectively.
2.Lambing interval is taken as 12 months with lambing percentage of 75 and
sex ratio of 50:50.
3.Mortality is considered as 10 % and 5 % among lambs and adults.
4.All female lambs are retained in the flock and males are sold at 8 to 9
months of age.
5.The culling rate among ewes is 20 % and above from third year onwards.
6.Grazing charges @ Rs ........... per adult per year.
7.Cost of concentrate feed per pregnant Ewe for 30 days @ 250 gms/animal
costing Rs ............./kg.
8.Insurance is 4 % per year and cost of veterinary aid is Rs ..... & ...... per
adult and young animal per year.
9.Shearing will be done twice a year. The adult sheep will yield 1.2 kg wool
per year and the lamb will yield 600 gm. per year. The shearing charges are Rs
...../kg and the price of wool is Rs ...... per kg.
10. Sale
price is Rs. ...... per ram lamb, Rs......... per adult ewe and RS. ......... per adult
ram. The sale value of closing stock is considered for working out cash flow
analysis.
11.Penning charges are Rs ..... per adult animal per month for 6 months in a
year.
12. The economics have been worked out basing on the opening stock.

Lambing (%) : 75, Adult mortality (%) : 5, Lamb mortality (%) :
10
Ewe culling Minimum 20 from third year onwards
Ram culling The old ram will be replaced after every two years by fresh
purchase Sale of
lambs All female lambs will be retained and male lambs of 8-9 months will be
sold
Lambing interval One year
R-Ram E-Ewe ML-Male lamb FL-Female lambD. CASH FLOW ANALYSIS (2000-01)

Few
countries in the world have no sheep. They are found in tropical countries
and in the arctic, in hot climates and in the cold, on the desert and in
humid areas. There are over 800 breeds of sheep in the world, in a variety of
sizes, shapes, types and colours.

Sheep
were domesticated long before the dawn of recorded history. Wool fibres have
been found in remains of primitive villages of Switzerland that date back an
estimated 20000 years. Egyptian sculpture dating 4000-5000 B.C. portrays the
importance of this species to people. Much mention is made in the Bible of
flocks, shepherds, sacrificial lambs, and garments made of wool. The Roman empire prized sheep, anointed them with special
oils, and combed their fleece to produce fine quality fibres that were woven
into fabric for the togas of the elite.

Perhaps
the first ruminants domesticated by man along with goats, sheep are a very
valuable and important asset to mankind.

"It
is hard to imagine a wild animal more readily tamed than wild sheep"

Little
is known about the original selection and domestication of sheep, but they
are thought to have descended from wild types like the Moufflon, a
short-tailed sheep. Wild varieties in Europe and Asia
probably served as foundation stock to produce wool, meat, skins and milk. It
appears that selection practices not only removed most of the wild instincts,
leaving the species completely dependant on people for management and
protection, but the tail also lengthened. Nearly all domestic sheep today
have long tails before docking.

As
weaving and felting began to develop as an important element in the
advancement of civilization, more definite types and breeds of sheep began to
emerge to produce quality fibres at the expense of other traits. The Merino
breed of Spain
developed into one of the first recognizable fine wool breeds. It was so
prized that the King of Spain made it a crime punishable by death to send any
out of the country without his permission.

The
English also developed many breeds very early that would adapt to their
varying climate. Domestic sheep were foreign to the New World and were first
introduced by Columbus on his second voyage in
1493 to the West Indies. Cortez brought
sheep into Mexico
in 1519, and Spanish missionaries contributed to their popularity through the
teaching of weaving arts to the Indians.

The
taxonomy and nomenclature of sheep and goats is very complicated, esp. that
of sheep where altogether at least 40 wild races have been described. There
are, however, eight basic taxonomic groups of sheep that may be summarized as
follows:

Ovis nivicola (Siberian snow
sheep)

Ovis aries (domestic sheep)

Ovis musimon (European mouflon)

Ovis orientalis (Asiatic mouflon)

Ovis dalli (dall or thin-horned sheep)

Ovis canadensis (bighorn sheep)

Ovis ammon (arkhar-argali / Marco Polo sheep)

Ovis vignei (urial)

Sheep
in India and Arabia have
originated from their wild ancestor Ovis orientale vignei …
domesticated in the mountains of Iran, Turkistan &
Balochistan. Reference to their role in the economy of mankind is found in
the history of civilization of Mesopotamia, Mohenjodaro and Harappa.

Wild
sheep of various races have similar social behaviour. Males older than two
years are normally found in groups of their own, segregated from the females
and juveniles. They follow the largest horned ram in their band and females
follow one of the mature lambed females.

Advantages of sheep farming:-

1.Multi-faceted utility
: meat, wool, skin, manure, and to some extent milk & transport … helps it
to play an important role in the Indian agrarian economy

2.The production of
wool, meat and manure provides three different sources of income per year

3.Since the two major
products of sheep (wool and mutton) are entirely different in their production
and utilization, the price of one may not necessarily have a bearing on the
other. Wool may be stored and held for higher prices or sold at shearing time.
A crop of lambs may be marketed from 5-6 months onwards (preferably before one
year), bringing rather a quick return.

4.Mutton is one kind of
meat towards which there is no prejudice by any community in India

5.In addition to wool,
mutton and to some extent milk, sheep provide employment to about 3 million
people in the form of self-employment, as hired labour for tending flocks
during migration, and persons engaged in wool shearing and in wool and skin
processing. Furthermore, sheep farming is a logical source of livelihood in arid
zones where crop production is an uncertainty and thus it suitably fits into
desert development programmes in vogue by protecting them from the vagaries of
drought and famine.

6.Most suitable of the
small ruminants to utilize the sparse vegetation in dryland areas through
rangeland management and developed (reseeded) pasture

7.Unlike goats, sheep
hardly damage any tree

8.Better adapted to
arid and semi-arid tropics with marginal and sub-marginal lands, otherwise
unfit for crops, due to their superior water & feed (esp. protein) economy

9.Since sheep eat more
different type of plants than any other kind of livestock, they can turn waste
into profit and at the same time improve the appearance of many farms (i.e.
excellent weed destroyer).

10.Sheep dung is a valuable
fertilizer, and since they are grazed on sub-marginal lands, their droppings
are the only means of improving the growth of plants in such areas

Unique characteristics of sheep:-

1.Strong herd instincts
of sheep make them excellent ranch animals as they keep together in tight and
easily managed flocks and do not disperse widely all over the available land,
which would make it difficult to protect them from predators and difficult to
round up.

2.Excellent ability to
survive over a prolonged period of drought and semi-starvation

3.Sheep have the
ability to produce prime carcasses on roughage alone, thus they are well
adapted to many areas unable to produce grain profitably.

4.The structure of
their lips helps them to clean grains lost at harvest time, and thus convert
waste feed into profitable products

5.Less prone to extreme
weather conditions, ectoparasites as well as other diseases

6.Unique ever-growing
fibre which allows ventilation and also protects the skin from the hot sun,
rain and abrasions

7.Sheep can also
constrict or relax blood vessels in the face, legs and ear for control of heat
loss

8.Their visual sense is
exceedingly well-developed ….. they can discern movement far better than
humans, but cannot distinguish shapes as well as man

9.Sheep do not need
expensive buildings to house them

10.Sheep require less labour than
other kinds of livestock

Because
of their hardiness and adaptability to dry conditions, the north-western and
southern peninsular regions of the country have a large concentration of sheep.
In the tropics, they are non-seasonal breeders and can be made to lamb
throughout the year.

Because
of their close grazing nature and ability to utilize very low-set vegetation
which no other animal can utilize and their capacity to cover long distances in
search of forage and water, they have often been generally associated with
desertification. In reality, it is not the sheep but the man who owns the
sheep, who is to be blamed for the misconceived management of the grazing
lands, leading to desertification. Rather, a controlled and judicious grazing
on the non-cultivable land could prevent soil erosion and make it fertile and
suitable for crop production through sheep dropping collected over the years.

There
is great variation in the external characteristics of sheep, manifested in the
number and form of horns in the shape and size of ears, in an arching of nasal
bones in some types, in length of tail and in the development of great masses
of fat at the base of the tail and other posterior parts of the body. There are
extreme variations too in colour of the face and other parts not covered with
wool. Great variations exist in the quality and colour of the fleece. These
variations have provided the basis for improving sheep for different products
viz. wool, mutton and pelt. Variations in wool were pronounced with respect to
colour, staple length, fineness and other characteristics. The wool on the
shoulder is finer than that grows on the thigh, belly and around the tail. Wool
that grows on the folds in the skin is likely to be considerably coarser than
that which grows between the folds.

IMPORTANCE
OF SHEEP PRODUCTION IN NATIONAL ECONOMY

Sheep
is a important livestock species of India. They contribute greatly to
the agrarian economy, especially in the arid/semi-arid and mountainous areas
where crop and /or dairy farming are not economical. They play an important
role in the livelihood of a large percentage of small and marginal farmers and
landless labourers engaged in sheep rearing. A number of rural-based industries
use wool and sheep skins as raw material. Sheep manure is an important source
of soil fertility, especially in southern states.

Sheep
in India are mostly maintained on natural vegetation on common grazing lands,
wastelands and uncultivated (fallow) lands, stubbles of cultivated crops and
top feeds (tree loppings). Rarely are they kept on grain, cultivated fodder or
crop residue.

Sheep
are mostly reared for wool and meat. Sheep skins and manure constitute
important sources of earning, the latter particularly in southern India. Milk
from sheep is of limited importance and that too in very limited areas of Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Indian sheep are not regarded as dairy sheep.

The
productivity of Indian sheep is lower than those of agriculturally more
advanced countries. Yet considering their nutritional and physical environment,
their productivity cannot be considered as inefficient. The major reasons for
low productivity are inadequate grazing resources, diseases causing high
mortality, morbidity and consequent reduced production, and serious lack of
organized effort for bringing genetic improvement.

Sheep
production regions of India

Sl. No.

Particulars

Northern temperate

North-western arid & semi-arid

Southern Peninsular

Eastern

1

States

J&K, Himachal
Pradesh and hilly regions of UP

P&H, plains of UP,
Rajasthan, Gujarat and MP

Maharashtra, AP, Karnataka, TN
& Kerala

Bihar, W.B., Orissa, Assam
and other eastern states

2

Population (millions)

3.99

15.42

19.64

4.87

3

Population (%)

9.64

40.25

40.2

9.96

4

Wool prodn (million kg)

4.52

28.12

8.6

1.76

5

Wool prodn (%)

12.33

64

28

3.67

6

Meat prodn (million kg)

12.72

49.15

62.59

15.54

7

Skin prodn (million kg)

2.82

10.88

13.86

3.44

8

Remarks

Sizeable proportion of
sheep in this region, esp. J&K, consists of crosses between indigenous
breeds and exotic fine wool breedsKashmir Merino has
evolved from higher crosses of indigenous and exotic fine wool breeds

Deccani/Bellary, Mandya
& Coimbatore produce extremely coarse and hairy fleecesNilgiris (produced by
crossing indigenous hairy breeds with exotic breeds like CapeMerino,
Southdown, Cheviot etc) produce fine woolOther breeds do not
produce any wool and are primarily used for meat production

Wool is extremely
coarse and hairy, except in Arunachal Pradesh where a small number of better
wool quality sheep are available

9

Staple length (cm)

5.33-10.27

3.80-8.66

6.11-6.95

4.60-4.70

10

Fibre diameter (µ)

25.14-33.11

28.00-52.00

26.88-55.00

66.40-66.66

11

Medullation (%)

5.47-17.59

18.31-85.14

11.37-64.10

88.00-99.00

12

Wool quality (counts)

36-58/80

36-54

34.5-36

<36

Productivity

Sheep
in the Northern temperate region produce wool of good apparel quality.
Similarly, in climatically alike areas of southern hills, the Nilgiri sheep
also produce wool of similar quality. This, however, goes down as we move from
Northern temperate to North-western region where sheep produce wool of superior
to coarse quality. Sheep of Southern peninsular region either produce no wool
or very little of 36s quality and are primarily used for meat production. Same
is the position in Eastern region as the area is of very high humidity and is
not suitable for extensive sheep raising, especially for wool.

Colour
of fleece is generally white in the North-western hilly region, though black is
not uncommon. Black and brown colour appears in greater proportion as we move
towards North-west. In North-western plains containing arid and semi-arid
sub-tropical conditions, fleece colour is again predominantly white with black
and brown mostly on non-fleece points such as head and neck. In this region,
problems of canary colouration of wool (non-scourable golden yellow colour) is
usually observed in the autumn season. This results in almost 82% canary
staining of the autumn clip which fetches 8-20% lower price resulting into a
loss of about 1.5 crores per annum. A biological phenomenon of this colouration
is presumed to be a sequel to an adaptive thermo-regulatory mechanism in hot
and humid climatic conditions which requires dissipation of body heat through
cutaneous evaporative cooling. The alkaline sweat under the conditions of high
temperature and humidity reacts with wool fibres and thus causes the yellow
colouration.

Grazing management and Migratory patterns

In
spite of a number of sheep development activities in operation in different
states of the country, sheep rearing still continues to be a nomadic/backward
proposition and thus mostly concerned to poor and landless people. For scanty
suitable grazing lands in most of the states, the shepherds keep on migrating
their flocks over extensive areas within or even in the neighbouring states.
Sheep rearing is thus practiced in a diversified form depending upon the region
and the location. In Rajasthan, around 5 lakh sheep are in permanent migration
where the flocks do not return to their home tract at any time of the year. The
shepherds, however, keep on relieving one another and return home in turn.
These sheep are mainly grazed in MP, UP and parts of Rajasthan.

Generally
there are two types of migratory flocks:-

a)Truly nomadic flocks
with no fixed centres but following seasonal migratory routes to grazing areas;
they are largely governed by the availability of foraging and drinking water
resources.

b)Flocks on the fallow
land, but following definite migratory routes to the season pastures and
returning to their permanent abodes during other seasons.

·Sheep are grazed on
fallow lands during monsoon and after the Kharif crops are harvested on
stubbles in the harvested fields

·During the later part
of the year starting from Sep-Oct, they are mostly grazed on uncultivated areas
where the flocks are non-migratory

·In the case of
migratory flocks, the animals are grazed on the harvested fields and the
reserve forests in their migratory tracts on nominal fees from Nov-Feb

·Shepherds also book
harvested fields where the cost of grazing on stubbles and gram husk in minimal

·In both the migratory
and non-migratory flocks, top feeding by lopping tree branches and shaking of
pods is also common

·During extreme summer
months of the year, the flocks are grazed in the cooler hours of the day;
grazing starts in the late hours of the day and the animals are brought to the
water points some time in the noon hours of the following day. Animals are
rested during the hotter part of the day between noon to around 4-5 PM.

§About 5 million households in the
country are engaged in the rearing of small ruminants (sheep, goats &
rabbits) and other allied activities. (2003 census)

§The main reasons for low productivity are poor exploitation of genetic
potential of indigenous animals, low absorption of available technology,
inadequate resource of feed and fodder, insufficient health cover, inadequate
marketing and credit support etc.

GOAT PRODUCTION IN INDIA

India possesses the second-largest goat
population in the world. In the prevailing socio-economic conditions in the
country where per capita land holding is hardly 0.2 Ha, goat rearing becomes an
inseparable component of mixed farming system. Goat farming has been
recommended as the best choice for the rural people in developing countries
because of the low investment, wide adaptability, high fertility and fecundity,
low feed and management needs, high feed conversion efficiency, quick pay-off
and low risk involved. Goats play an important role in income generation,
capital storage, employment generation and improving household nutrition.

Goat
rearing is the backbone of the economy of small and landless farmers in India. It is an
insurance against crop failure and provides alternate source of livelihood to
the farmers all year round. Goats provide dependable source of income to 40% of
the rural population who are below the poverty line.

The
controversy over goats is on damage it causes to the environment, predominantly
due to its browsing nature. On one hand, the goat is accused as the major cause
of deforestation and soil erosion, and on the other hand, it is claimed as a
useful animal for poor people and is responsible for clearing the bushes and
making the land worthy of cultivation. The goat’s bad reputation arises mainly
from its mismanagement by man rather than any inherent fault. Nevertheless, the
trend is slowly changing, and several states are now encouraging goat
husbandry.

Production Systems

In
our country, goats are reared by men and women with diverse working and
professional background. The production systems are as numerous as the
socio-economic and varied agricultural situations in the country. However, they
can be broadly classified into the following:-

a)Tethering : This is common in the
sub-humid and humid zones, where probably because of intensive cropping, it is
a convenient means of rearing goats from the stand point of control, minimum
labour input and utilization of feed in situ. It is thus a sedentary
system. A variation of this method is combining tethering with grazing up to 5
goats at a time, led by ropes held by women and children.

b)Extensive production : This
involves low carrying capacity in situations where land is marginal and is
plentiful. It is characterized by low rainfall and various browse plants. The
system is used by nomadic people, usually in very low rainfall areas or during
winter months when crop resides are available.

c)Intensive production : The goats
are fed in confinement with limited access to land. It involves high labour and
cash inputs. Cultivated grasses and agro-industrial byproducts are fed in
situ. This system also has the advantage of allowing control over the
animals.

d)Semi-intensive production : This
system is practiced to some degree in most of the situations, but the nature
and extent of integration depend on the type of crops grown and their
suitability to goats. The advantages of this system are increased fertility of
land via the return of dung and urine, control of waste herbage growth, reduced
fertilizer usage, easier crop management, increased crop yields, and greater
economic returns.

Status of Goat industry

The
goat industry in India
has yet to be firmly laid down on scientific lines. Goat keepers are
maintaining goats in all kinds of situations depending upon the ecology and
their circumstances. The minimum goat unit could consist of one goat and the
maximum could go to a few hundreds under range management. Goat farming in the
country is mainly based on ‘zero input’. The fear of mortality has perhaps been
largely responsible for not starting many large-scale goat farms. However,
large-scale goat farms have successfully running since over last 30 years at
the CSWRI Avikanagar, MPKVV Rahuri, and at Leh.

Constraints of the Goat industry

The
following could be considered as the technical constraints for securing a
thriving goat industry in the country:-

a)Non-availability of
high-yielding breeding stock.

b)Low level of
nutrition and managerial efficiency.

c)Lack of definition of
the production objectives.

d)Limited attention to
application of the modern techniques for improving the reproductive efficiency,
eg. AI, synchronization of estrous, semen freezing etc.

e)Limited use of
outstanding exotic breeds for improvement.

f)Inadequate control of
diseases and parasites due to non-availability of prophylactic vaccines against
important contagious diseases.

g)Lack of knowledge on
successful rearing of kids. Kid mortality is very high when weaning is
practiced at a very young age.

h)Lack of knowledge on
silvi-pastoral system.

i)Housing for goats in
different eco-zones requires a very elaborate and systematic study.

j)Organized marketing
is very limited. This has resulted in unscrupulous exploitation by the
middle-man who is often seen moving with the goats along the migratory routes.

Common terms used in Sheep:-

Adult
male
Ram/Tup

Adult
female
Ewe

New
born
Lamb

Young
male
Ram
lamb/Tup lamb

Young
female
Ewe lamb/Gimmer lamb

Castrated
male
Wether/Wedder

Castrated
female Spayed

Yearlings Hogget

Female
with offspring
Suckling

Act
of
parturition Lambing

Act
of
mating Tupping

Pregnancy
Gestation

Sound
produced
Bleating

Group
Flock/herd/mob

Species
called
as Ovine

Meat
Mutton

Common terms used in Goat:-

Adult
male
Buck

Adult
female
Doe

New
born
Kid

Young
male
Buckling

Young
female
Goatling

Castrated
male
Wether/castrated goat

Castrated
female
Spayed

Female
with offspring
Suckling

Act
of
parturition
Kidding

Act
of
mating
Serving

Pregnancy
Gestation

Sound
produced
Bleating

Group
Flock/band

Species
called
as Caprine

Meat
Chevon

The country
has about 40 breeds of sheep out of which 24 are distinct. They vary from the
non-woolly breeds of sheep in the Southern Peninsular region mainly kept for
mutton and manure to the reasonably fair apparel wool breeds of the Northern
temperate region.

If we follow
the breed classification in strict sense, there are no specific breeds, as
majority of them lack characteristics of a fixed nature. Neither are there
breeding societies nor agencies to register animals of particular breeds,
maintain flock books and ensure purity of the breeds. Animals with distinct characters
localized to a place and different from those of other places are termed as
breeds and give some local name. There have been little efforts to conserve and
improve the native breeds except for some Govt farms. Some important breeds of
sheep are maintained for pure-breeding and producing stud rams for distribution
to the farmers. Most of the breeds of sheep in India have evolved through natural
adaptation to agro-ecological conditions, followed by some limited artificial
selection for particular requirements. Most of the breeds have generally been
named after their place of origin and on the basis of prominent characters.
Among the most widely distributed native sheep breeds, Marwari and Deccani are
most prevalent.

Based on
utility, Indian breeds of sheep can be classified into the following:-

Medium-sized; Black face with colour extending upto the lower part
of the neck; Ears are extremely small and tubular; Both sexes are polled; Tail
is short, medium & thin.

Fleece is white and not very dense.

(4)Magra ( Bikaneri, Bikaneri Chokla,
Chakri)

Although the breed is largely found in Bikaner,
Jaisalmer and Churu districts of Rajasthan, animals true to breed type are
found only in the eastern and southern parts of Bikaner district.

Medium-to large in size; White face with brown patches around the
eyes are characteristic; Skin colour is pink; Ears are small to medium and
tubular; Both sexes are polled; Tail is medium in length and thin.

Fleece is of medium carpet quality, extremely white and lustrous
and not very dense; Bikaneri Chokla strains have extremely white and lustrous
fleeces and are suitable for good quality carpets.

(5)Jaisalmeri

Jaisalmer, Barmer and Jodhpur
districts of Rajasthan.

Tall, well-built, largest breed in Rajasthan; Black or dark brown
face with the colour extending upto the neck; Typical Roman nose, long drooping
ears generally with a cartilaginous appendage; Both sexes are polled; Tail is
medium to long.

Fleece colour is white, of medium carpet quality and not very
dense.

(6)Pugal

Home tract is Pugal area of Bikaner
district; also distributed over Bikaner & Jaisalmer districts.

Fairly well-built; Black face with small light brown strips on
either side above the eyes; lower jaws are typically light brown in colour;
black colour may extend to neck; Ears are short and tubular; Bothe sexes are
polled; Tail is short to medium and thin.

Fairly well-built with long legs; Light brown face; Ears are short
and tubular, with a small cartilaginous appendage on the upper side; Both sexes
are polled; Tail is medium to long and thin.

Fleece is white, extremely coarse and hairy. Belly and legs are
devoid of wool.

(8)Sonadi

Mainly found in Udaipur and
Dungarpur districts of Rajasthan, it also extends to northern Gujarat.

Fairly well-built but somewhat smaller to Malpura; Long legs;
Light brown face with colour extending to the middle of the neck; ears are
large, flat and drooping and generally have a cartilaginous appendage; Tail is
long and thin; Both sexes are polled; Udder is fairly well-developed.

Fleece is white, extremely coarse and hairy. Belly and legs are
devoid of wool.

(9)Patanwadi ( Desi, Kutchi, Kathiawari,
Vadhiyari, Charotari)

The breed includes three distinct strains

- non-migratory, red-faced animals with small bodies, yielding
relatively finer fleeces; these are typical Patanwadis and are located in
north-eastern Saurashtra.

- migratory type with larger body and long legs, typical Roman
nose and long tubular ears; produces coarser fleece; found in western and
northern Gujarat.

- meat type, with big body, low stature and coarser fleeces, found
in Saurashtra, Kutch and Mehsana districts of Gujarat.

Medium to large in size; The breed is one of the largest and very
well adapted to irrigated areas. Face lines are slightly convex; Face and body
are white with occasional patches of brown or black; ears and face are
occasionally black; Both sexes are polled; males sometimes contain rudimentary
horns; Ears are long and drooping; Tail is extremely long and reaches fetlock.

Fleece is white, coarse and open. Belly and legs are devoid of
wool.

(11)Jalauni

Jalaun, Jhansi and Lalitpur districts of UP.

Medium-sized; Straight nose line; Both sexes are polled; Ears are
large, flat and drooping; Tail is thin and medium in length; Belly and legs are
devoid of wool.

Fleece is coarse, short-stapled and open, generally white.

(12)Hissardale

The breed was synthesized in the earlier part of the century at
The Government Livestock Farm, Hissar (Haryana) through crossing Australian
Merino rams with Bikaneri (Magra) ewes by stabilizing the exotic inheritance to
about 75%.

Small, with short legs, giving them a low-set appearance;
Leaf-like medium-sized ears. Most animals are polled; colour is predominantly
white, although some brown or black patches can also be observed.

This fine-wool breed was evolved by crosses of indigenous breeds
with Rambouillet and Merino. Wool obtained is 4.2 kg, 21µ dia and 7.3 cm staple
length.

(15)Avikalin

This superior carpet wool breed was evolved at the CSWRI,
Avikanagar through interbreeding and selection of Rambouillet x Malpura
halfbreds.

b)Southern region

This region (semi-arid in central peninsular and hot humid along
the coast) comprises of Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Majority of wool produced is below
36s (the exception being Nilgiri sheep which produce wool above 48s). About 50%
of the population of sheep in this region does not produce any wool and the
rest produce very coarse, hairy and coloured fleeces.

(1)Deccani

The breed is spread over the greater part of the Central
Peninsular region, comprising the semi-arid areas of Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. It covers the major part of Maharashtra, esp. the
Pune Division; parts of Kurnool, Medak, Hyderabad, Mehboobnagar, Nalgonda,
Nizamabad, Anantpur & Warangal districts in AP; Bidar, Bijapur,
Gulbarga & Raichur districts in Karnataka.

Medium-sized, predominantly black with white markings; White and
brown/fawn animals are also seen. Rams are horned but ewes are polled; Ears are
medium, long, flat and drooping; Tail is short and thin.

Fleece is extremely coarse, hairy and open. Belly and legs are
devoid of wool.

(2)Bellary

Mostly found in Bellary
district. This breed is not very different from the Deccani. Animals found to
the north of the Tungabhadra river are called “Deccani” and those to the south
of it “Bellary”.

Medium-sized; Body colour ranging from white to black with various
combinations; One-third of the males are horned, females are generally polled;
Ears are medium, long, flat and drooping.

Fleece is extremely coarse, hairy and open. Belly and legs are
devoid of wool.

(3)Nellore

Nellore district and neighbouring areas of Prakasam and Ongole
districts of AP.

Based on the coat colour, three varieties of the breed are :
“Palla” – completely white or white with light brown spots on head, neck, back
and legs; “Jodipi/Jodimpu” – white with black spots, particularly around the
lips, eyes and lower jaw, but also on belly and legs; and “Dora” – completely
brown.

Animals are relatively tall with little hair except at brisket,
withers and breech; Rams are horned but ewes are almost always polled; Earls
are long and drooping; Tail is short and thin; 86% of the animals carry
wattles.

(4)Mandya (Bannur, Bandur)

Mandya district and bordering Mysore district of Karnataka.

Relatively small in size; White in colour, but in some cases, the
face is light brown, which may extend upto the neck; Possess a compact body
with a typical reversed U-shaped wedge from the rear. Ears are long, leaf-like
and drooping; Tail is short and thin; A large percentage of the animals carry
wattles; Slightly Roman nose; Both sexes are polled; Coat is extremely coarse
and hairy.

It is the best meat breed of the country. There is a high
incidence of cryptorchidism.

(5)Hassan

Hassan district of Karnataka.

Small-sized; White body with light brown or black spots; Ears are
medium long and drooping; 39% of males are horned; females are usually polled.

Fleece is white, extremely coarse and open. Belly and legs are
generally devoid of wool.

(6)Mecheri (Maiylambadi, Thuvaramchambali)

Salem and Coimbatore districts of TN.

Medium-sized; Light brown in colour; Ears are medium sized; Both
sexes are polled; Tail is short and thin. Body is covered with very short hair
which is not shorn.

Tall; Colour is white with irregular redand fawn patches all over
the body; Ears are medium-sized and drooping; Tail is short and thin; Males are
horned but ewes are polled; Body is covered with very short hair which is not
shorn.

(9)Coimbatore (Kurumbai)

Coimbatore and Madurai
districts of TN and bordering areas of Kerala and Karnataka.

Medium-sized; White colour with black or brown spots; Ears are
medium in size and directed outward and backward; Tail is short and thin; 38%
males are horned but females are polled.

Fleece is white, coarse, hairy and open.

(10)Nilgiri

Nilgiri hills of TN.

Evolved during the 19th Century, the breed has
originated from a crossbred base and contains an unknown level of inheritance
of Coimbatore,
Tasmanian Merino, Cheviot and South Down.

Medium-sized; Body colour is generally white with exceptions
having brown patches on face and body; Face line is convex, giving a typical
Roman nose. Ears are broad, flat and drooping; Males have horn buds and scurs
but the females are polled. Tail is medium and thin.

Fleece is fine and dense. The breed produces fine fleece but there
is little organized shearing and marketing of wool. The breed is mostly
maintained for manure by tea planters and other flock owners.

(11)Ramand White

Ramand district and adjoining areas of Tirunelveli district of TN.

Medium-sized. Predominantly white, though some animals have fawn
or black markings over the body. Ears are medium-sized and directed outward and
downward. Males have twisted horns but females are polled. Tail is short and
thin.

(12)Madras Red

Chingalpet and Madras districts of TN.

Medium-sized. Body colour is predominantly brown and its intensity
varies from light tan to dark brown. Some animals have white markings on the
forehead, inside the thighs and on the lower abdomen. Ears are medium-long.
Males have twisted horns but females are polled. Body is covered with very
short hair which is not shorn.

(13)Tiruchi Black (Tiruchi Karungurmbai)

Parts of Tiruchi, South Arcot, North Arcot and Dharmapuri
districts of TN.

Small-sized. Completely black body. Males are horned but ewes are
polled. Ears are short and directed downward and forward. Tail is short and
thin.

Medium-sized. Body colour is mostly dark brown, but colours
ranging from white to black with spots of different shades are also not
uncommon. Males are horned but the females are generally polled.

c)Eastern region

This region, which is predominantly hot and humid, includes Bihar,
WB, Orissa, Assam and othe eastern states.
Sheep primarily produce wool of below 36s quality. Sheep of this region are
primarily of meat type with the exception of Arunachal Pradesh which has a
small number of better wool-type sheep. The wool produced by the sheep of this
region is extremely coarse, coloured and of hairy quality.

Small, light-weight animals. Light grey and brown in colour. Ears
are small and parallel to the head. Tail is short and thin. Both sexes are
polled.

Fleece is coarse, hairy and open and is generally not clipped.

(2)Shahabadi

Shahabad, Patna & Gaya districts of Bihar.

Medium-sized, leggy animals. Fleece colour is mostly grey,
sometimes with black spots. Ears are medium sized and drooping. Tail is
extremely long and thin. Both sexes are polled. Fleece is extremely coarse,
hairy and open. Belly and legs are devoid of wool.

Medium-sized. White or light brown or of mixed colours; few
animals are black. Ears are small and stumpy. Males are horned and females
polled. Tail is medium long and thin. Fleece is extremely coarse, hairy and
open. Belly and legs are devoid of wool.

(4)Ganjam

Koraput, Phulbani and part of Puri district of Orissa.

Medium-sized. Coat colour ranging from brown to dark tan; some
have white spots on the face and body. Ears are medium-sized and drooping. Nose
line is slightly convex. Tail is medium long and thin. Males are horned but
females polled. Fleece is short and hairy and is not shorn.

(5)Tibetan

Northern Sikkim and Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh. Medium-sized. Mostly
white with black or brown face, and brown and white spots on the body. Both
sexes are horned. Roman nose. Ears are small, broad and drooping.

Tall, leggy and well-built. Fleece colour ranges from complete
white to complete black with a number of intermediary tones. Ears are small and
tubular. Both sexes are horned. Tail is short and thin. Fleece is coarse, hairy
and open. Belly and legs are devoid of wool.

d)Northern Temperate region

This region comprises J&K, HP and hilly parts of UP. About 25%
of the wool produced in this region is of 36-48s quality, suitable for carpets
and the rest is above 48s and is suitable for apparel and superior quality
carpets. Around 1/3rd of the sheep in J&K and about 15-20% in
other parts of this region are crosses of native breeds with exotic fine wool
breeds.

Medium-sized. Fleece colour is predominantly white, but brown,
black and tan colour are also seen in varying proportions. Ears are long and
drooping. Roman nose. Males are horned but most of the females are polled.

Fleece is of medium quality and dense. Legs, belly and face are
devoid of wool.

(3)Bhakarwal

The breed has derived its name from a nomadic tribe which rears
these sheep. Due to its entirely migratory nature, there is no distinct home
tract of this breed.

Medium-sized. Roman nose. Generally white, although coloured
fleeces are occasionally observed; all animals are spotted, fawn or grey. Rams
are horned and ewes polled. Ears are long and drooping. Tail is short and thin.
Fleece is coarse and open.

(4)Poonchi

Poonch and part of Rajouri district of Jammu.

Animals are similar in appearance to Gaddi except being lighter in
weight. Predominantly white in colour but spotted sheep varying from brown to
light black are also seen. Ears are medium long. Tail is short and thin. Legs
are short giving a low-set conformation.

Wool is of medium to fine quality, mostly white in colour.

(5)Karnah

Distributed in Karnah, a mountainous tehsil in N.
Kashmir.

Large animals. Rams have large, curved horns and a prominent nose
line.

Wool is generally white in colour.

(6)Gurez

Gurez area of N. Kashmir.

Largest sheep breed of J&K. Generally white in colour,
although some animals are brown or black or have brown or black spots. A small
proportion of animals have small, pointed horns. Tail is short and thin. Ears
are long, thin and pointed.

Fleece is generally coarse and hairy.

(7)Kashmir Merino

This breed has originated from crosses of different Merino types
(at first Delaine Merinos, and subsequently Rambouillet and Soviet Merinos)
with predominantly migratory native sheep breeds, viz. Gaddi, Bhakarwal and
Poonchi. The level of inheritance in the crossbred animals included in Kashmir Merino predominantly varied from 50-75% but may
vary from very low to almost 100% Merino. As the animals are highly diversified
because of a number of native breeds involved, no definite descriptions of the
breed can be given.

(8)Changthangi

Changthang region of Ladakh in J&K.

Strongly built, large framed. Good fleece cover of an
extraordinarily long staple.

Wool is of a good carpet/medium apparel quality. Animals are
usually shorn twice a year, generally in May/June and Sep/Oct.

Exotic
Breeds of Sheep

Over the
years, many exotic breeds of sheep of fine wool, mutton, dual-purpose and pelt
have been introduced in India
for improving/grading-up indigenous sheep.

(a)Fine Wool breeds

These produce fine and crimpy wool. Their fleece is heavy, dense
and of good quality. It contains a large amount of yolk. These have a strong
banding instinct and the ability to graze on poor quality range. Of the exotic
fine wool breeds imported in India,
Rambouillet and Soviet Merinos have done well as purebreds. Their crosses with
indigenous breeds have shown improvement in wool quality and also in
production.

(1)Merino

The origin of various strains and breeds of fine wool sheep of the
present time traces to sheep of Spain.
Selection within the Merino group has resulted in large varieties of breeds and
strains. In addition, Merino has been widely used in the development of many
other crossbred wool breeds.

Merino is s a thin-tailed, fine wool breed that is adapted to arid
environment. Because of their banding instinct, they are easy to herd. They are
good grazers and are able to forage over large areas of poor and sparse
rangelands. Merinos have a strong constitution and are known for hardiness and
longevity. Their face and legs are white and skin is pink. Rams mostly have
heavy, spiral horns, whereas ewes are polled. Head and legs are generally
covered with wool. They have long been bred for wool production and do not
carry the straight line and compactness of mutton breeds.

Mature rams weigh about 75 kg and ewes about 65 kg. height of ram
and ewe is about 70 cm and 60 cm, respectively. Fleece production varies widely
depending on the environmental conditions and time of breeding, but average is
4-5 kg for rams and 3-4 kg for ewes. The staple length is 5-10 cm. Merino tends
to be a seasonal breeder and this results in low prolificacy and poor lamb
crop.

India has imported Stavriopol and Grossney strains of Soviet Merino
from USSR.
These have more grease in the fleece, large skin folds and close face
(excessive wool on face resulting in wool blindness) which are not desirable
characters.

(2)Rambouillet

This breed has descended from the old Spanish Merino. It was
developed as a breed in France.
There are two types B & C, depending upon the skin folds. The C-type has
been consistently improved for both meat and fleece, whereas the B-type has
largely disappeared.

Modern Rambouillet are large, rugged and fast growing sheep. They
are hardy and apparently adapted to a wide range of climatic and soil
conditions. They are almost free from skin folds, with acceptable mutton
conformation, and are good wool producers. The wool is of long staple, fair
density, uniformity and moderate shrinkage. The rams may have large, spiral
horns or are polled. Ewes are polled. They have a large head with white hair
around nose and ears. Face and legs are white and skin is pink. Ewes are good
mothers, quite prolific and are unequalled for range qualities.

Mature rams and ewes weigh 100-125 kg and 60-90 kg, respectively.
Wool has good uniformity and fineness. India has imported the majority of
Rambouillets from Texas, USA.
The Rambouillet as purebreds and in crosses with Indian breeds have generally
performed better than Soviet Merinos.

(3)Polwarth

This breed originated at Tarndwarncoort in Victoria. It was evolved by mating first
cross Lincoln
Merino ewes with Merino rams. The sheep resembles a plain-bodied extra-long
stapled wool Merino. They have fairly level frame, clear eyes, soft face, pink
nose and are free from skin folds. They may be horned or polled. Although the
animals are bulky in appearance, they are neat and have symmetrical lines.
Their fleece is of even quality of about 58s count and average length of the
staple is not less than 10 cm. The value of the fleece is almost the same as
that of Merino and produced is of desirable quality.

(b)Mutton breeds

Mutton production is largely based upon the appearance of the animal.
Specialized mutton breeds mature fast, have high prolificacy, higher body weigh
gains, high feed conversion efficiency, high carcass yield and produce good
quality mutton. They are usually maintained under more intensive management as
compared to wool breeds. In India,
mutton breeds have been imported from time to time from UK, Australia and other countries for
bringing about improvement in mutton production in indigenous breeds.

(1)Suffolk

It is a medium-wool type which is native of Suffolk
and surrounding counties of England
and has a long reputation as a superior quality of meat. It was developed
through the use of Southdown rams on an old strain known as Norfolk.

They have straight legs and are large in size. Face is black. Ears
are long and pointed and are generally carried at a very slight droop or
horizontally. The head and ears are entirely free of wool and the black hair
extends to a line on the back base of the ears. There is no wool below the
knees and hocks. Both rams and ewes are polled although males frequently have
scurs.

Fleece is moderately short, dense and fine with 50-58s count.
Greasy wool yield is 2.75-3.25 kg. The breed is the foremost mutton breed. The
carcass is full of lean meat evenly marbled and with no waste fat and the
flavour is excellent. Purebred or graded Suffolks have the capacity of rapid
growth because of abundant milk of their mothers. As a grazer, Suffolk is among the best because of its
activeness and rustling qualities. Suffolk
ewes are prolific. Mature rams and ewes weigh 100-135 and 70-100 kg,
respectively.

Suffolk imported in India have performed relatively poorly as
producers, especially in reproduction and survivability as compared to Polled Dorsets.

(2)Dorset

The breed is native of southern England,
especially to the counties of Dorset and Somerset.
The origin of the breed is clouded in obscurity, but it has largely developed
through selection. There are horned and polled strains of Dorset,
named Dorset Horn (both sexes horned) and Polled Dorset (both sexes polled)

.

Medium-sized. Body is moderately low-set, compact and of medium
degree of smoothness and quality. Back is generally strong and the breed is
generally deep-bodied. Face, ears and legs are white in colour and practically
free from wool. Ears of medium size, thin, silky and carried well forward.
Nostrils, lips and skin are pink. Hooves are white.

Carcass is medium weight, fine-boned and of superior quality meat.
Fleece weight is 2.75-3.25 kg and the wool is short, close, fine and of 52-58s
quality. Mature rams and ewes weigh 80-100 and 50-80 kg, respectively. The
breed is prolific, hardy and capable of doing well under most conditions.

(3)Southdown

This is one of the oldest breeds of sheep. The native place in the
Southdown chalk hills in south-east England.The best specimens closely approach
the ideal mutton type in form. The body is compactly made and there is
exceptional fullness of the hind quarters together with a smoothness of outline
few specimens of other breeds equal. The body is oval or rounded on top, wide,
deep and covered with firm flesh. Legs are short. This is one of the smallest
breeds.

Face, ears and legs are mouse coloured or light brown and the skin
is bright pink. The breed is polled, although scurs are found sometimes on
rams. Eyes are large, bright and prominent and ears are of medium size and
covered with short wool. The ewes are not too prolific with 125-150 lambs per
100 ewes and produce only average milk. The animals mature early.

The dual-purpose breeds combine meat production with wool
production qualities. Corriedale is the only important dual-purpose breed
imported in India.

(1)Corriedale

This breed had its origin in New
Zealand and Australia where both mutton and
wool production are sought for in a single animal. By interbreeding Merinos and
Lincolns and
careful selection, a uniform type was established that produced a good balance
of mutton and wool. These sheep were named after the Corriedale estate of Otago
where the experimental crossbreeding was done. Corriedales are known for their
outstanding efficiency to produce more kg of lamb and wool per kg of body
weight as compared to other range breeds. In India,
Corriedales have mostly been imported from Australia.

Mature rams and ewes weigh 80-100 and 55-80 kg, respectively. On
an average, they produce 4.5-5.5 kg greasy wool of 56-58s quality annually. The
face, ears and legs are covered with white hair, although black spots are
sometimes present. Both sexes are polled although rams sometimes have horns.
Ewes are fair in prolificacy and milking ability.

(d)Pelt breeds

Pelt breeds are reared for the lamb pelts used for the manufacture
of garments. These sheep are generally poor in mutton quality and the fleece
from mature animal is of coarse carpet type fetching relatively lower price.
Karakul is the chief pelt type of sheep.

(1)Karakul

These sheep are bred primarily for lamb pelts used for garments.
At birth and for a few days thereafter, the lamb pelts have characters that
make them suitable for use as furs. Karakul is often spoken of as a “fur-bearing
sheep”. This property of the lamb pelts and the hardiness of the sheep are the
two most useful features. The majority of karakul lamb pelts are produced in
Bokhara (USSR), Afghanistan, South-west
Africa, Iran and
Iraq.
The best pelts come from Bokhara, where the
sheep is a fat-tailed, coarse carpet wool type of breed.

Karakul is very well adapted to the extreme climatic conditions
and sparse vegetation resources. The lamb pelts are produced through the
slaughter of lambs within 24-48 hrs of birth or through killing of unborn lambs
removed by slaughter/abortion of mothers at around 130-140 days of pregnancy.
The latter type of pelts, known as “broad (fat) tailed Persian” are twice more
valuable than the best type produced by the former method. The quality of the
pelt is determined by the ornamental type of curls, size and tightness of
curls, lustre and weight of pelt.

Mature Karakuls are angular, upstanding and of very poor mutton
conformation. Mature rams and ewes weigh 90 kg and 65 kg, respectively. Rams
have horns whereas ewes are polled. Face, ears and legs are black or brown.
Ears are drooping.

In India,
lamb pelts are in good demand in J&K for the manufacture of caps, collars,
ladies and children’s coats and other garments for indigenous use as well as
for export. Karakuls were first imported in India in 1975. They have done well
under both pure-breeding and cross-breeding programmes with indigenous breeds
(Malpura, Sonadi and Marwari), and have shown a good adaptation to hot and cold
arid conditions.

Genetic improvement of sheep in India

The production characteristics of Indian sheep with respect to
quality and quantity of wool and mutton are very poor in comparison to improved
breeds in the advanced countries.

IndiaAdvanced countries

- average annual wool production
(kg)
0.7
5.4-6.7

- mutton
(kg)
9.6
22.0

- lamb crop per 100
ewes
60-70
120-140

Thus it is evident that the sheep rearing industry in this country
still remains in its primitive stage, and there is tremendous scope for
improvement through the application of breeding principles. Sheep research and
development activity was taken up as early as in the early 19th
century by the East India Company, which imported exotic breeds of sheep for
crossbreeding with indigenous breeds. Subsequently, the Imperial (now Indian)
Council of Agricultural Research took up selective breeding with indigenous
breeds and cross-breeding them with exotic fine wool breeds. Major emphasis on
sheep R&D was, however, given after the country started the Five Year
Development Plans. During the Third Five Year Plan, a large number of sheep and
wool extension centres were established. Wool grading and marketing programme
was initiated in Rajasthan which was subsequently taken up in a number of other
states.

Realizing the importance of sheep in agrarian economy, the central
Govt. established the Central Sheep & Wool Research Institute (CSWRI) at
Avikanagar, Rajasthan along with its regional stations in 1962 under an UNDP
& GOI project to take up fundamental and applied research in sheep
production and wool utilization and imparting post-graduate training in sheep
and wool sciences.

During the Fourth Plan, a large Sheep Breeding Farm in
collaboration with the Australian Govt. was established at Hissar for
pure-breeding Corriedale sheep. Corriedale stud rams are being distributed from
this farm to a number of states for cross-breeding for improving wool and
mutton production. Another seven large sheep breeding farms were established in
J&K, UP, MP, Bihar, AP and Karnataka for
producing exotic pure-bred or cross-bred rams.

The ICAR started two All India Coordinated Research Projects on
Sheep for Fine Wool with centres at Sheep Breeding Farm, Tal, Hamirpur (HP),
Sheep Breeding Research Station, Sandynallah (TN) GujaratAgriculturalUniversity, Dentiwada,
CSWRI Avikanagar (Rajasthan); and for Mutton with centres at Livestock Research
Station, APAU, Palamner, National Goat Research Institute, Makhdoom, Mahatma
Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri and CSWRI Avikanagar. These projects aim at
evolving (i) new fine wool breeds for different agro-climatic regions capable
of producing 2.5 kg of greasy wool annually of 58-64s count, (ii) new mutton
breeds capable of attaining 30 kg live weight at 6 months under intensive
feeding conditions.

During the Fifth Five Year Plan, a large number of breeding farms
were envisaged to be established in the Central and State sectors for producing
genetically superior breeding stock. Setting up of wool boards in important
wool producing states was also envisaged and states of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Karnataka have already set up these boards.

A centrally sponsored scheme for conservation of threatened breeds
was started during Tenth Five Year Plan, which included Bannur and Bonpala
breeds of sheep.

Selection
and judging of the breeding stock are the first and foremost steps to start
with any breeding programme. Appearance of the animal alone is not is not
always a reliable guide to its breeding value as its appearance depends on the
inheritance it has received from its parents and on the environment in which it
grows up. It is, therefore, necessary to correctly estimate the breeding value
of the individual which depends on the accuracy in selecting the animals as per
the defined objectives.

a)Selection and judging of sheep for fine
wool production

1.Body type and conformation

It should be true to the characteristics of the breed chosen.
examples of fine wool breeds : Hissardale, Deccani-Merino, Avivastra, Nali and
Chokla synthetics, Bharat Merino, Nilgiri synthetic and other crossbred types
available in J&K, HP and hilly regions of UP.

1.Quantity of wool

i)Density of fleece (no. of fibes/sq.cm of skin surface)

ii)Staple length (>75mm is superior quality)

iii)Completeness of the covering (i.e. uniformity)

1.Quality of wool

i)Fineness of fibre (diameter) : measured only under protein
microscope/lanometer; at the field level, one can differentiate between coarse
and fine wool by spreading the fleece on the body of the sheep.

ISI standards :
≤
34.4µ
:
A grade

34.4-37.0
µ
:
B grade

37.1-40.0
µ
:
C grade

≥ 40.0
µ
:
D grade

ii)Medullation percentage : can only be adjudged under a
lanometer; no field-level visual method

Fine wool
:
no medullation

Carpet wool
:
10-20% medullation

iii)Staple/fibre length : ≥ 3.5 cm can successfully be processed
on the worsted system

iv)Soundness : healthy and uniform growth of wool on the skin
surface

1.Condition of wool

i)Purity : judged by the absence of hair, kemp, black and dark
fibres; in selection of sheep for fine wool production, due care should be
taken to ascertain presence of only pure fibres, esp. in breeding stock

ii)Presence of foreign matter : this is a disqualification in
grading of wool. Classification based on the extent of vegetable matter
content:-

<
3%
:
Light
burr

3-5%
:
Medium burr

>15%
:
Heavy burr

Apart from vegetable matter, fleece may be contaminated with dust
and other matter. Though the contamination is mostly related to faulty
management practices, but all the same, these are to be kept in view while
selecting the animals.

iii)Amount and distribution of yolk : A yellow wool fat
"yolk" which accumulates on the wool fibres as a protective
layer making the wool more resistant to water and snow, is important in
determining the condition of wool.

iv)Colour of the fleece : The colour of the wool should be
white and any deviation from it is regarded as disqualification except for the
entire colours which are required for some specific purposes. In grading of
wool, the colur is given the weightage as tinged white (TW), light yellow (LY),
heavy yellow (HY) and other colours in order of merit.

The method of selection to be applied directly depends on the
genetic parameters of the characters and the population concerned. As most of
the characters related to fleece characterization are highly heritable, their
weighted heritability estimates in Indian breeds of sheep are as follows:-

Greasy fleece weight
:
0.210 ± .050

Average fibre diameter :
0.453 ± .447

Medullation percentage
:
0.661 ± .556

Staple
length
:
0.400 ± .050

·Since the heritability of these traits are moderate to very
high, individual selection of sheep based on their own performance should
result into their genetic improvement.

·Open-faced ewes have been reported to produce more lambs
than ewes whose faces are covered with wool

·Selection of open-faced ewes adds to their productivity

·Based on the estimates of heritability and genetic and
phenotypic correlations among body weights at different ages, six months body
weight perhaps seems to be the best selection criteria for improving market
weight (9-12 months body weight) and adult body size.

·For improving the quantity and quality of wool, an emphasis
on combining the greasy fleece weight with a positive weightage and medullation
percentage with a negative weightage would improve both the yield and quality
of carpet wool.

·Under the project on improvement of indigenous breeds of
sheep for carpet wool by selection at the Division of Carpet Wool & Karakul
Pelt Production, Bikaner, emphasis was laid on improving the Marwari breed to
produce 2.0 kg greasy fleece weight per annum of 30 µ diameter and 20%
medullation.

·Since the body and fleece weights are positively genetically
correlated, the selection for the former should also improve the latter. The
same stands true for staple length and fleece weight.

b)Selection and judging of sheep for
mutton

The mutton type in characterized by a deep, wide, blocky body with
symmetry, balance, breed character, thick fleshing, a strong constitution and
quality. In selection of the mutton quality animal one should actually look for
the carcass characteristics which are defined by the tenderness and juiciness
of the mutton, high proportion of lean to fat, higher proportion of meat to
bone ratio etc. Since these characteristics may not be known till the animals
are slaughtered, the animal breeder has to depend on indirect measurements of
such qualities.

1.Breed type : refers to the breed chosen
for the mutton production

2.Fleece and skin : these are of minor
importance. Pink skin is supposed to be a sign of good health, quality and a
god feeder. A long, clean, bright and dense fleece with a medium amount of
crimp and pink skin is usually an acceptable type among most medium wool
breeds.

3.Constitution : It is evidenced by
strong head with breed characters, strong back and loin, and by all four evenly
placed legs.

4.Natural fleshing and finish : While fleshing
is an inherited character, finish is the result of proper feeding. A lamb
should have a deep covering of natural fleshing and fat which spreads firmly
and fully over the shoulder, ribs, back, lion, rump and legs.

5.Quality : includes:-

- clean-cut, well-shaped head covered with fine wool

- bone of ample size and clean joints

- firm and evenly distributed flesh

- good, light, dense fleece

- symmetrically balanced body

1.Sex characteristics : Rams with
masculine characters should have strong, bold head and neck, massive and
powerful appearance, and bold carriage for being a potent sire. A sheep with
feminine characters should throughout have fineness of features with maternal
instinct.

2.Balance : It is defined as blending
together of all the components of an individual in harmonious fashion which
should be uniform in width, depth, fleshing, character and quality.

3.Type : It is manifested by an erect and
well-set head and neck alert action and pleasing disposition

4.Size : It should be proper as per age,
sex and breed

The breeder should supplement the information by indirect judging
with the information on full-sibs, for utilization in selection. Progeny
testing of rams may also be useful. As mutton traits are highly heritable,
individual selection should be used for fat lamb production.

c)Selection and judging of sheep for pelt
production

Till 1975, there was no organized programme for lamb pelt
production in the country. After the import of 250 Karakul sheep in 1975,
experimental work under hot and cold arid conditions was initiated at CSWRI, Bikaner and Kumbhathang,
near Kargil in Ladakh Dist. (J&K). The ¾ crossbreds of Malpura, Sonadi and
Marwari with Karakul have produced pelts comparable with those of purebred
Karakuls. Mature purebred Karakul lambs weigh 80-105 kg and ewes 60-75 kg. Wool
is of low quality, coarse, brown/black in colour, and grades as carpet wool.
The pelts taken from the lambs are usually classified as Broad tail, Persian
and Caucasian.

Grades of the pelt should be given a primary weight in selection.

Traits of
economic importance

a)Prolificacy : includes both regularity of lambing and the
frequency of twinning. Twinning in sheep is generally more desirable because
ewes that wean twins produce 15-18 kgs more lambs than ewes that wean only one
lamb. But in areas where grazing conditions are very poor, twins may be a
disadvantage.

b)Birth weight : As such birth weight is of little value
except that it is related to vigour at birth and rate of gain.

c)Weaning weight : The age at weaning can vary according to
the conditions under which the animals are reared, but 120 days has been taken
as the standard. This measure, though taken individually, can also be used to
express lamb production of ewes on a per head basis or per 100 kg ewe-weight
basis, depending on conditions. Lambs can be weighed at 120 days age or in case
they are weaned earlier, the weaning weights are corrected to 120 days age.
This is done by multiplying the daily average weight gain with 120 and adding the
product to the birth weight. Similarly, adjustment has to be made for twins and
triplets as their weaning weights are likely to be less than that of singles,
due to less availability of milk ad maternal care. Weaning weight may be
adjusted to single-lamb-basis by for the purpose of valid genetic studies by
multiplying the adjusted 120 day weight by the factors 1.0529 for twins and
1.0923 for triplets. Ram lambs and lambs of mature dams have been observed to
have higher weaning weight.

d)Post-weaning gain in body weight : This is medium to highly
heritable. Therefore, mass selection based on this trait can be effective.
Annual or semi-annual weights of breeding stock will be quite useful if they
are used to evaluate productivity in relation to body weight.

e)Type and conformation : Type and finish of lams at weaning
reflect market value to a great extent. With sheep, attention should be given
to wool characteristics in addition to mutton production and rate and
efficiency of gains. Subjective appraisals of type through a system of scoring
remains still the most popular means of evaluating these traits. Animals with
defects such as wool blindness, skin folds, over-shot jaws, under-shot jaws,
black wool shallow bodies etc. should be culled from the flock.

f)Carcass traits : Tenderness juiciness and good flavour are
traits relished universally. In advanced countries, there is a preference for
greater proportion of lean to fat. As carcass quality can be tested at present
only by slaughtering the animal (thus making it unusable for breeding), the
next-best method will be to measure these traits in close relatives like twins,
full-sibs or half-sibs.

Fleece characteristics : Roughly 20% of the income from
sheep enterprise is from wool. Thus, wool production is an important component
from the economic standpoint. Fleece with high wool weight, long staple length
and uniformly fine fibres will be most valuable. Increase in staple length has
been associated with increase in fleece weight. For every 1cm increase in
staple length, approx. 0.27 kg increase in grease wool and 0.18 kg increase in
clean wool has been observed. Selection of heavy fleece weights has been found
to improve ability of feed consumption and feed efficiency for wool production.
Excessive growth of wool on the face covers the eyes, causing wool blindness,
which affects ha animal's grazing ability. Wool-blind sheep have been found to
produce less number of lambs and wean less kilograms of lamb than open-faced
sheep.

Salient features of a good milch goat :-

a)Head :
It should be long and of moderate width, with a full and well-developed muzzle
and prominent nostrils. It should be naturally hornless or disbudded. The head
in the doe should be well carried and should bear a feminine appearance. The
eyes should be large and bright, set well apart, indicating docility and some
capacity for understanding.

b)Neck
& shoulders : The neck should be long and slim, and of good depth, with the
tassels, if present, evenly hung. The withers and the shoulders should be fine
in appearance, and connect the neck with the body with little break in
continuity. A considerable thickness in the shoulders or a drop immediately
between the shoulder blades is undesirable.

c)Chest :
This should be moderately deep and of good width, giving the appearance of
strength without coarseness.

d)Forelegs
: They should be straight, strong and possess good bone.

e)Feet :
The animal should stand well on its legs without the tendency to “turn toes” or
“walk on its heels”. The hairy growth covering the hoof should be kept trimmed
to the ‘sole’ of the foot, leaving the latter bare underneath.

f)Body :
Good depth is an important feature. It should drop in a gradual curve from the
point where the abdomen unites with the chest, i.e. a little way behind the
forelegs, and then rise slightly again to meet the udder. The back should be
level from the shoulders to the hips and then drop slightly at the tail region.
The hips are often slightly higher than the shoulder, but this need not be
regarded as a defect. An excessive dip in the back, however, is highly
undesirable. Plenty of length from the head to the tail is a desirable feature.

g)Ribs :
The ribs should be well sprung so as to give a barrel effect; flat sides are a
common fault. The abdomen should not be protruding beyond the width of the
ribs, so that its roundness is not affected.

h)Hind-quarters
: There should be sufficient width across the hips and the rump, and between
the pin bone and the hocks. The hind-legs should face straight forward and not
outward; the latter tendency is one of the commonest defects in goats resulting
in the so-called ‘cow hocks’. There should be a slight rise from the back to
the hips and a gradual drop from the rump to the tail. A sharp drop from the
hips to the tail is regarded as a defect.

i)Hind-legs
: Bones should give the appearance of strength with the hocks slightly bent.
The pastern should be short, its joint showing no sign of weakness that might
result in dropped pastern.

j)Udder
and teats : The udder should be carried well under the body. When viewed from
the side it should be in front of the hind-legs. It should be large, but its
size should be proportional to the size of the goat. The skin of the udder is
usually covered partly with fine, soft and pliable hair. The texture of the
udder should be reasonably soft. Heavy milk production is associated with the
amount of milk-secreting tissue. The udder should undergo considerable
shrinkage after milking. Milk ducts and teats should be entirely free from hard
lumps (indicating chronic inflammation), these being sometimes discovered only
after milking. The teats should be quite separate from the udder with a distinct
line of demarcation, point downward and slightly forward, and be of moderate
length and of suitable size to be conveniently held in the hand during milking.
Large milk-veins should be present under the belly and lead to the udder. These
veins, although usually better developed in old goats, indicate superior milch
quality. The shape of the udder in the Indian breeds varies considerably. The
occurrence of four milking quarters, all lending themselves to being used in
milking, is not uncommon in Jamunapari goats.

k)Skin
and hair : The skin should be soft, supple and loose. The coat varies in
different breeds, but is generally glossy, with fine, short hair.

CARE OF
YOUNG STOCK

Purpose : Young lambs and
kids should be taken care of to the maximum extent during the early period of
life. Efforts should be made to have maximum care for optimum growth during
early period of life of lamb. This will ensure better survival and future
growth.

1.Ensure proper
suckling of the lambs. Examine udders for blindness of teats or mastitis.

2.Take care of
indifferent mothers and arrange suckling of lambs by restraining such types of
ewes.

3.Provide creep feed
(good quality hay with or without concentrate mixture) to suckling lambs in
addition to suckling of milk from tenth day to weaning age.

4.If possible, make
available green leguminous fodder or fresh tree leaves to lambs to nibble
during suckling period.

5.Perform 'lamb
marking' operation (comprising ear tagging/tattooing, tail docking and castration
of male lambs) at the age of 2-4 weeks.

6.Weaning should
preferably be done at 90 days, although in breeds with low milk production or
where re-breeding is desired, it can be done around 60 days.

7.Supplementary
feeding and good clean pastures must be provided.

8.Weaned lambs should
be drenched against gastro-intestinal parasites by the first month, and
vaccinated against enterotoxaemia and sheep pox.

9.Weaners should not
be grazed on poor, burry and thorny types of pasture since it could cause skin
irritation, injury to the eyes and damage to the wool.

10.They should be protected against
predation and the vagaries of climate.

Castration : Surplus males are
castrated to check indiscriminate mating, to make the males more docile and to
make mutton of superior quality. However, in India, the market demand most often
favours the intact male. Castration is usually done by using a castrating
knife, Burdizzo castrator/emasculatome or elastrator.

1.Burdizzo/emasculatome
method

§Secure the lamb and place it on its rumps with tail placed along the
floor.

§Manipulate the testes and slightly pull out the scrotum.

§Hold the spermatic cords tightly on both sides making sure that it does
not slip.

§Apply tincture iodine at the site.

§Place the jaws of the emasculatome over the spermatic cords and press
the handles completely; hold for a few moments before releasing.

§Repeat the process about 1 cm below the first crush.

§Apply additional antiseptic and watch the animal for infection for a few
days.

§Precautions : The emasculatome must be clean and disinfected, and its
jaws must be clean and smooth. The testes must be protected from injury.
The scrotal skin folds must not be crushed.

2.Elastrator method

§As this method is bloodless and painless, it is the most preferred.

§Secure the lamb and make it lie down on one side.

§Place the rubber ring with the help of the elastrator over the spermatic
cord, a little above the testes.

§The constant pressure shuts off the blood supply to the testes and
causes testicular atrophy and sloughing off in about 2-3 weeks.

3.Incision method

§Secure the lamb on a clean floor and make it lie down on one side.

§Disinfect the surgical site and make an incision on the lower side of
the scrotum with a sharp knife.

§Remove the testes and as much of the spermatic cord as possible.

§Disinfect thoroughly and take adequate post-operative care.

Docking : Docking or removal
of the tail is not common in India.
That part of the tail remaining on the body is referred to as the dock. This
process is necessary in most sheep breeds for the following reasons:-

a)To improve sanitary
conditions, since the long wool on the tail will become saturated with feces
and urine and become a target for fly strikes or screwworm infestation.

b)To increase
productivity in ewes, in which the tail may interfere with breeding and
lambing.

c)To improve the
appearance of sheep for exhibition in the show ring.

d)To increase the
value of market lambs.

For best results,
lambs should be docked before they are 2 weeks of age. Docking is accomplished
by severing the tail, preferably between the vertebrae. The tail should be
removed at the end of the caudal folds on the underside of the tail, one inch
from the body. Docking can be done in a number of different ways viz. a sharp
pocket knife, an emasculator, emasculatome (Burdizzo), elastrator (rubber
rings), hot docking irons and "All-in-one" pliers and pruning shears.

1.Elastrator method

·It is best if practiced within 2-3 days
of birth.

·Place the rubber ring about 2-3 cm from
the root of the tail.

·The resultant lack of blood supply causes
drying off and falling of the tail within a fortnight.

2.Surgical method

·It should preferably be performed at
about 10 days of age of the lamb.

·Secure the lamb and hold its dorsal side
on the floor/table.

·Push the tail skin towards the body so
that some surplus skin will be left over to cover the stub.

·Mark the tail at a point about 1-1½"
from the body as measured on the underside.

·Disinfect the surgical site and cut the
tail quickly.

·Use cautery or ligation in case of
excessive bleeding.

·Apply antiseptic powder and bandage the
wound.

FEEDING MANAGEMENT

The feeding
and grazing conditions vary from place to place. The most favorable grazing
time is soon after the onset of monsoon till the onset of winter. Grazing
resources become extremely poor during summer months. During this period
supplementary feeding should be done. Sheep generally thrive well on pasture.
Attention should be paid on pasture improvement and management. Rotational
grazing should be followed to avoid worm infection and unthriftiness, and to ensure
availability of good pasture all the time. The fodder should be conserved in
the form of hay and silage for the lean period. Fodder trees should be planted
in the pasture to provide shade and fodder during the lean period to the
grazing flocks. Supplementary feeding of concentrate should be done depending
upon the physiological status and availability of grazing resource in the
pasture.

Water : Water requirement
of sheep very depending upon its physiological status and ambient temperature
in different seasons. The sheep should be watered at least once a day at the
rate of 2-3 litres per head per day. The requirement of water for crossbreds
during summer months will be slightly more and may range between 5-6 litres.
The younger ones may require 1-2 litres of water every day. Sheep breeds in
arid regions have good adaptation to water restriction upto 48 hrs. Watering
should be done in metallic troughs or cements channels.

The flock
should be weighed at least once in a week to the extent of at least 10% prior
to being turned out for grazing. This work may be distributed over the week.

1)Feeding lambs up to two weeks : There is
no feed equal to the ewe’s milk for putting rapid gains on young lamb because
dam’s milk yield is closely related to early growth of lamb. Lambs depend
entirely on dam’s milk upto 2 weeks. Colostrum is rich in fat, protein,
vitamins etc. and contains antibodies to protect the lamb from infections. If
the ewes are fed good ration during the last six weeks of gestation, it enhances
milk production.

2)Feeding lambs beyond two weeks : The
recommended rations are given below:-

Feed ingredients (%)

Pre-weaning period

(upto 3 months)

Growing period

(3-6 months)

Finisher ration

1.

Ground maize

65

27

25

2.

Groundnut cake

10

35

20

3.

Wheat bran

12

35

52

4.

Fish meal

10

-

-

5.

Common salt

1

1

1

6.

Min. mix.

2

2

2

Expected growth rate
per day (gms)

110-125

100-120

100-120

Rate of feeding/day (approx) :-

Body weight (kgs)

Concentrate (gms)

Roughages (kgs)

when leguminous fodder is
available

when leguminous fodder is not
available

1

12-15

50

300

ad lib.

2

15-25

100

400

ad lib.

3

25-35

150

600

ad lib.

3)Feeding suckling ewes : During suckling
period, ewes should be fed good milk producing ration. She should be fed good
legume hay or oat hay with little or no grain for a week. After she’s milking
freely and her bowels are functioning normally with no sign of constipation,
the amount of grains may be increased. If pasture is available, hay is not
needed. The following rations can be used :-

Feed ingredients

Ration – I

Ration – II

1

Grain mixture

400gm

400gm

2

Legume hay

700gm

1400gm

3

Green fodder/silage

1400gm

-

4)Feeding adult sheep : Roughage part may
be taken care by grazing, but 150 gm of concentrate (as for suckling ewes) with
mineral mixture and salt must be fed. The nutritional requirements of various
categories of sheep are as under :-

Body wt.

(kg)

Dry matter intake

(as % of live wt.)

DCP

(gm)

TDN

(gm)

Ca

(gm)

P

(gm)

Growing
lambs

5

4.0

38.0

180

2.4

2.0

10

3.3

33.0

230

2.5

2.2

15

3.3

44.1

320

2.6

2.4

20

3.3

52.8

400

2.8

2.5

25

3.4

59.5

510

2.8

2.6

30

3.3

65.0

550

2.9

2.5

35

3.2

67.2

670

3.0

2.7

40

3.0

66.0

720

3.0

2.7

Ewes – non lactating
and in first 15 weeks of pregnancy

20

3.0

27.0

300

2.8

2.2

30

3.0

36.0

450

2.9

2.3

40

2.8

44.8

560

3.0

2.4

50

2.6

52.0

650

3.2

2.5

60

2.5

60.0

750

3.3

2.6

Ewes – during last 6
weeks of pregnancy

20

5.0

54.0

600

3.8

2.8

30

4.0

58.5

720

3.9

2.9

40

3.7

68.4

760

4.0

3.0

50

3.4

74.8

850

4.2

3.1

60

3.0

81.7

950

4.3

32

Ewes – during last
first 10 weeks of lactation

20

5.2

57.8

680

5.8

4.3

30

4.6

69.0

900

5.9

4.4

40

4.3

77.4

1030

6.0

4.5

50

4.0

90.0

1100

6.2

4.6

60

3.6

97.2

1190

6.3

4.7

Ewes – during last 14
weeks of lactation

20

5.0

56.0

600

4.2

3.1

30

4.0

65.0

720

4.3

3.2

40

3.7

68.4

760

4.4

3.3

50

3.4

76.5

850

4.6

3.4

60

3.2

85.5

950

4.7

3.5

Ram lambs

20

3.6

46.8

470

2.9

2.6

30

3.5

63.0

650

2.9

2.6

40

3.5

79.8

840

3.0

2.7

50

3.5

80.5

960

3.0

2.7

60

3.3

79.2

990

3.0

2.7

70

3.0

79.8

1050

3.0

2.7

Fattening lambs

15

5.0

51.8

410

2.6

1.4

20

5.0

70.0

560

2.9

2.6

25

4.5

78.8

680

3.0

2.7

30

4.5

81.0

810

3.0

2.7

35

4.3

90.0

900

3.0

2.7

Note : Daily requirement of common salt is 2-8 gm, and carotene is
2-8 mg.

Flushing : Ewes which are to be bred should be underfed for about 45 days
prior to breeding in order to prevent fat accumulation which reduces fertility.
Two weeks prior to breeding, the ewes should be fed about 150-200 gm
concentrate mixture daily along with good quality forages (cowpea, oat, doob
grass, berseem). It conditions the animal and induces maturation of more number
of follicles, and thus improves conception and twinning rate.

Purpose : As pasture is a valuable fodder
for sheep and the cheapest source of nutrients necessary for maintenance and
production, proper grazing management and care of pastures is essential for
ensuring higher yields.

Characteristics of sheep feeding under
range conditions:-

1.Sheep have a small
muzzle and split upper-lip which enables them to nibble tiny blades of
vegetation which cannot be eaten by larger animals.

9.Lambs should be
grazed separately from adults to prevent parasitic infestation.

10.Rotation of pastures should be
should be adopted to prevent under- or over-grazing.

11.Growing lambs should be allowed to
graze first, followed by pregnant and lactating ewes, and dry stock at the
last. (If cattle, sheep and goats are to graze on the same pasture, it will be
desirable to allow goats first, followed by cattle and sheep, in that order).

15.Even a good pasture does not meet
the dietary requirements of advanced pregnant and lactating ewes, and hence
additional concentrate feed of 250-300 gm/day should be given.

Pasture improvement
and management:-

1.Pasture lands in India are poor
and meager and need to be improved by protecting them from biotic factors,
conserving good natural grasses, choosing the best fodder trees and shrubs,
removing non-edible grasses, weeds and shrubs, and re-seeding with nutritious
and perennial grasses and legumes.

2.Natural legumes
like Rhynochosia minima, Indigofera endecaphylla and Tribulus
terrestris are very useful and should be preserved.

3.Grazing lands
should be re-seeded with nutritious perennial grasses like Cenchrus ciliaris,
Cenchrus setigerus, Lasirus sindicus and Dichanthium annulatum
in arid and semi-arid plains; Sehima nervosum in sub-humid plains; and
fescue, rye grass and kikyu grass in the temperate and sub-temperate regions.

4.Perennial legumes
like Dolichos lablab, Clitoria ternatea, Macroptelium
atropurpureum, Atylosia scarabacoides and Stylosanthus
species should be incorporated in the regenerated or reseeded pastures.

5.Combined production
of grass and legumes can increase forage production by 20-30 per cent as
compared to that of grass alone. The legumes, besides being rich in protein
content, are more palatable and digestible, enrich the soil by nitrogen
fixation, and help in checking soil erosion.

6.During the first
year of pasture establishment, grazing should not be allowed; the fodder must
be harvested, conserved as hay, and fed during the lean period.

7.Rotational grazing,
i.e. dividing the pasture into four equal compartments and allowing grazing
sequentially, helps the grasses to regenerate, checks soil erosion caused by
over-grazing and allows agricultural operations to be carried out.

8.Pastures should be
top dressed with sufficient quantities of farmyard and inorganic fertilizers at
regular intervals.

9.Pest control by means
of spraying and dusting with pesticides should be done as and when required.
Sheep should not be allowed to graze for 2-3 weeks after spraying.

10.Timely hoeing and weeding operations
will not only improve the forage yield but will also help in checking the
growth of undesired bushes and weeds, and prevent worm infestations.

11.Protection of pasture, removal of
undesirable bushes and weeds, soil and water conservation, application of
fertilizers, proper stocking rate and grazing system (rotational or deferred
rotational) are essential components of good pasture management.

Silviculture:-

1.Fodder trees serve
as a potential source of feed for sheep during December to June when the
grazing resources become scarce.

3.Fodder trees should
be planted in well-managed pastures after the first monsoon rains at a spacing
of 20 x 10 metres (approx. 50 trees/hectare).

4.Lopping can be done
twice a year in Oct-Nov (conserved) and May-Jun (fed green) in such a manner
that the top branches are left in situ; yielding about 8-10 quintals of
good quality green fodder/hectare.

5.The pods of many
trees, esp. babool (Acacia arabica) and khejri (Prosopis cineraria)
are very nutritious and palatable, and serve as a good source of feed for
flushing ewes.

REPRODUCTIVE
MANAGEMENT IN SHEEP AND GOATS

Purpose : Reproductive management,
comprising of detection of estrus, mating, identifying pregnant animals, care
of pregnant animals, care at parturition and care of the male, plays a major
role in the profitability of a sheep or goat farm. Effective managerial
interventions can increase reproductive health, incidence of twinning/triplets
and lamb/kid livability.

A. SHEEP

Age at mating : Sheep normally
attain good growth at about 24 months (range 18-36) of age. Breeding too young
ewes results in more weaklings and higher lamb losses. It is desirable to use
rams for mating from the age of 2 years till the age of 7 years.

Mating season and
estrus cycle : Sheep are seasonally polyestrus. In India, there
are three main breeding seasons viz. summer (Mar-Apr), autumn (Jun-Jul) and
post-monsoon (Sep-Oct). In general, higher fertility is observed in autumn
season in the plains and in summer season in the hilly areas. The ewes usually
come in heat about 2 months after lambing. The duration of the estrus cycle is
17 days (range 14-19) and heat period lasts for 27 hours (2-60). Ovulation
occurs about 12 hours before the end of heat period.

Preparations for
breeding :-

1.Flushing : Feeding extra
grain or lush pasture 2-3 weeks prior to the breeding season for the purpose of
increasing the number of ova shed from the ovary and increase the incidence of
twinning. Feeding about 250 gms grains daily to each ewe results in an increase
in the lamb crop by about 10-20 per cent.

2.Tagging : This
refers to the shearing the locks of wool and dirt from the dock of the ewes,
thus facilitating mating by the ram.

3.Eyeing : This
refers to the clipping of excess wool around the eyes to prevent wool blindness
in some breeds.

4.Ringing : This
refers to shearing of wool from the body of the ram, especially in the neck,
belly and sheath region prior to the breeding season.

Detection of estrus
: As
sheep in heat show few external indications of estrus other than standing to be
mounted, heat is generally detected with the help of a teaser. Wet paint (dye
mixed in grease or linseed oil) can be smeared on the brisket of the teaser ram
to spot the ewes in estrus. The colour of the dye should be changed every 16-18
days so that the repeaters can be discovered. Other indications of estrus are
vulvar swelling, frequent urination, restlessness and reduced appetite.

Mating : Asfar as
possible, rams should be kept away from the ewes and the two should be brought
together only for breeding. Natural breeding is done either by flock mating,
pen mating or hand mating.

§In flock mating, breeding rams are usually turned out in the flock
during the mating season at the rate of 2-3 per cent of the ewes all through
day and night.

§In semi-flock breeding or pen mating, rams are turned out for service
with the flock in the pen during night, and confined and stall-fed or grazed
separately during the day time in order to conserve their energy and give them
rest.

§Hand mating is practiced when exotic purebred sires are used, or when it
is considered desirable to extend the services of the ram over much larger
flocks.

Identifying
pregnant ewes : Identification of pregnant ewes is essential for the
re-breeding of empty ewes and efficient management of pregnant ewes. Pregnancy
can be diagnosed by observing for cessation of estrus cycle, abdominal
ballotment (from third month onwards) and by means of a chemical test.

Care of pregnant
ewes : Careful management of pregnant ewes will have a marked influence on the
percentage of lambs dropped.

§Do not handle the pregnant animals too frequently.

§House the pregnant ewes in separate enclosures and protect from
inclement weather and extremes of temperature.

§Crutching is done 7-10 days prior to lambing to avoid lambs suckling
dung.

§Separate the advanced pregnant animals form the main flock and take
effective care in their feeding and management.

§Extra feed during the later part of pregnancy (3-4 weeks before
parturition) will be beneficial for the condition of pre-parturient ewes, thus
improving milk production of ewes, and birth weight and growth of lambs.
Inadequate and poor nutrition may result in pregnancy toxaemia, abortions and
premature births of weak lambs.

Care at lambing : An ewe about to
lamb prefers to leave the flock. She is restless, the udder is often distended
and external genitals are in a flushed and flaccid condition. Normally there is
no necessity of assisting the ewes at the time of lambing except in the case of
dystokia. The following precautions may be taken at lambing:-

§Maiden ewes in poor condition or small-framed ewes mated to big rams
will generally have difficulty in parturition and will have to be assisted.

§Ensure that the nose and mouth are free of membranes and mucoid fluid
immediately after birth.

§Ligate, sever and antiseptically dress the navel cord of the lamb.

§Do not handle lambs too frequently immediately after birth and let the
dams lick and recognize them properly.

§Newborn lambs, after being licked by their mother, generally stand on
their legs and start seeking for teats and suckle milk. In case they are not
able to do so, assist them in suckling colostrum.

§Take up artificial milk feeding or arrange foster mother for disowned or
orphan lambs. These lambs can either be reared on goat milk or by foster
mothers. To aid the adoption of the orphan lambs by the foster mother, rub its
milk on the rump of the orphan and the nose of the foster mother, keep both
animals in close proximity to each other. Orphan lambs can also be reared by
hand using a clean bottle and nipples, feeding about 30 gm milk at two hourly
intervals for the first two days, and increasing the quantity and decreasing
the frequency subsequently.

§Give a teaspoonful of castor oil or liquid paraffin to the lamb to
facilitate defecation and easy passing out of meconium.

§Allow newborn lambs to be with their dams all day long during the first
week.

§Protect newborn lambs from adverse climatic conditions.

§Feed sufficient quantity of good quality hay and concentrates to the
lactating ewes for meeting the nutritional requirements of early lactation.

§Provide plenty of clean, fresh drinking water as the lactating ewes
drink higher amounts of water.

B. GOATS

Age at mating : Does may be mated
at 12-15 months age so that they kid at the age of 17-20 months. The average
gestation period is 151±3 days. Bucks of 18-24 months of age may be used to
serve 25-30 does; and when they attain full maturity at the age of 2-2½
years, may be allowed to serve 50-60 does in a breeding season.

Mating season and
estrus cycle : Thedoes are more or less continuous breeders. It is
better to breed the female once a year. Some goats can be made to kid twice in
18 months. Most does come in heat in September and March. The buck is sexually
more active in winter and spring. The duration of the estrus cycle varies from
18-21 days. Duration of estrus is about 36 hours. The best time of
mating/insemination is 10-12 hours after the onset of heat and a second service
again after 10 hours if heat continues.

Detection of estrus : The signs of heat
in the doe usually are uneasiness, redness and swelling of the vulva, frequent
wagging of the tail, loss of appetite and reduced feed intake, frequent
urination, frequent bleating, mounting by other does, sudden drop in milk yield
and mucous discharge from the vulva.

Normally sheep and
goats do not require elaborate housing facilities, but minimum provisions will
definitely increase productivity, especially protection against inclement
weather conditions and predation. Often, the flocks are penned in the open
during fair weather and some temporary shelters are made use of in monsoon and
winter. Sheep can be economically reared under ranch system. Requirements of
building units are more or less the same for sheep and goats, except that
additional buildings are required for goats reared for milk.

The shed site
should be easily approachable and spacious, dry, elevated, well-drained and
protected from strong winds. An East-West orientation ensures cooler
environment. A “lean-to” type of shed, located against the side of an existing
building, is the cheapest form of building. Loose housing is more advantageous
as compared to conventional/stall-fed sheds because it is suitable for
semi-arid regions and large-sized flocks, it involves less expenditure, it
provides more comfort to the animals, it is less labour-intensive, and it
provides freedom of movement and gives the benefit of exercise. Stilted housing
is common in areas with heavy rainfall.

Floor space
requirements :-

Sl. No.

Type of animal

Minimum floor
space (m2)

1.

Ram or buck in groups

1.8

2.

Ram or buck, individual

3.2

3.

Lamb or kids in groups

0.4

4.

Weaner in groups

0.8

5.

Weaner, individual

0.9

6.

Yearling, individual

0.9

7.

Yearlings in groups

0.9

8.

Ewe or doe in groups

1.0

9.

Ewe or doe, individual

1.2

10.

Ewe with lamb

1.5

Types of sheds :-

Sl. No.

Type of shed

Size (m)

Height (m)

Maximum animals

1.

Ewe/doe shed

15 x 4

3

60

2.

Ram/buck shed

4 x 2.5

3

3

3.

Lambing/kidding shed

1.5 x 1.2

3

3

4.

Lamb/kid shed

7.5 x 4

3

75

5.

Weaner shed

7.5 x 4

3

75

6.

Yearling shed

10 x 5

3

50

7.

Sick animal shed

3 x 2

3

1

8.

Shearing shed and store room

6 x 2.5

3

9.

Shepherd’s room

6 x 4

3

RECORD KEEPING IN SHEEP AND GOAT FARMS

Purpose : Farm records are essential for ascertaining
the pedigree, implementing the breeding programme for improvement of the herd,
keeping track of various farm efficiency indicators, economical feeding of
animals, culling of under-productive animals, stocking and sale of products,
and computation of financial data.

1.Individual ewe history sheet

ID no.

Flock no.

Date of birth/

purchase

Single/

Twin

Description

Sire no.

Dam no.

Disposal

Growth Data

Date

Reasons

Remarks

Date

Age

Wt

Remarks

Lambing Data

Date

ID no.

Sex

Birth wt.

Type of birth

Sire no.

Condition of birth

Weaning

Disposal

Age

Weight

Date

Mode

Wool Production

Date

Wool growth

(days)

Sides

Shoulder

Belly

Thigh

Total yield

Grease weight

% of yield

Clean weight

Fineness

Yield

Fineness

Yield

Fineness

Yield

Fineness

Yield

Health Record

Slaughter Data

Date

Condition

Treatment

Remarks

Date

Live weight

Ante-mortem

features

Dressed

weight

Dressing

%

Weight of skin

Remarks

2.Ewe record

Ewe no.

Sire no.

Dam no.

Date

of birth

Birth

weight

Type of

birth

Type of

rearing

Age and weight

at weaning

Shorn fleece

weight

Lamb details

Remarks

3.Ram
record

Ram

no.

Sire no.

Dam no.

Date

of birth

Birth

weight

Type of

birth

Type of

rearing

Age and weight

at weaning

Shorn fleece

weight

Progeny

performance

Remarks

4.Lamb
crop register

Year

Season

Date ram turned in

Date ram turned out

Ram used

Ewe no.

Date of lambing

Lamb no.

Sex

Birth weight

Type of birth

Nursed by (ewe no.)

Date weaned

Date castrated

120 days weight

Market weight

Disposal mode

Disposal date

Remerks

5.Wool
production register

Year

Season

Date

Sheep no.

Days of growth

Sides

Shoulder

Belly

Thigh

Total staple yield length

Grade

Remarks

Fineness

Yield

Fineness

Yield

Fineness

Yield

Fineness

Yield

6.Health
register

Date

Animal no.

Complaint

Treatment

Remarks

7.Roll
call register

Date

Rams

Ewes

Ram lambs

Ewe lambs

Total

Reason for variation

Remarks

DIPPING, POURING
AND SPRAYING

A. Dipping

Purpose : To eradicate
ectoparasites, cure and prevent spread of sheep scab, ward off attacks by sheep
blow-flies, remove waste material and dung from the fleece prior to shearing,
thus facilitating production of clean wool.

Time : In India, sheep can be dipped
immediately before the post-winter shearing and/or before the post-autumn
shearing. In addition, they can be dipped 1-4 weeks after shearing, when the
fleece has grown long enough to retain dip solution and also allow cuts and
scratches incidental to shearing time to heal.

a)Hand bath : In case
of small flocks, a tank of galvanized iron (1.2 x 1.0 x 0.5 m) can be used.
Sheep can be lifted one by one into the bath and kept for two minutes. The
sheep are removed and placed on a drain board to drain off surplus dip back
into the dip tank.

b)Swim bath : In
large flocks, the dipping tank can be constructed of metal or concrete. It
should be 12 feet long at the top and 6 feet long at the bottom, with a incline
for the other 6 feet. The tank should be 2 feet wide at the top, sloping to one
foot at the bottom, and it should be 6 feet high. The sheep should be
completely immersed in the liquid (including their heads and ears).

Precautions :-

Follow the manufacturer's instructions thoroughly for preparation
of the dip as well as its disposal.

Always water and rest the sheep before dipping to avoid their
drinking of dipping solution.

Choose a bright, sunny day (neither too hot nor too cold) so that
the treated animals will dry quickly and the insecticide will not be
diluted by rain.

Avoid dipping of sheep in advanced stage of pregnancy.

Avoid dipping of sick animals, sheep with wounds, young lambs (less
than one month old) and stock being sent for slaughter.

Avoid dipping of rams in breeding season to guard against injury to
penis or scalding of thigh.

Keep sheep in the holding pen for at least five to ten minutes so
that they drain properly, thus avoiding wastage of dip and resultant
pollution of the environment.

Complete each day's dipping by 4 PM so that the sheep will have
some hours to dry before nightfall.

Do not return treated sheep to the shed from which they came until
it is completely cleaned.

B. Pouring

When an individual sheep is affected with
scab or badly affected with maggots and has open wounds, dipping is not
advisable. In such animals, a small quantity of dip is poured into the
fleece along the back, sides and belly to achieve the objectives of dipping.

C. Spraying

Spraying sheep with a fly repellant
insecticide solution over the backs and sides is an effective method of
controlling ectoparasites in tropical countries. In developed countries,
fly-repellant solution is sprayed in the form of a fine mist through a series
of nozzles into a roomy tunnel through which the sheep are forced to pass.
However, spraying can be done with the help of a power sprayer or hand sprayer
in case of small flocks. Spraying is not as economical or efficient as dipping
and is recommended only for young lambs which cannot be dipped.

EXAMINATION FOR
DISEASE AND PARASITES

Purpose : Identification of
animals in the early stages of sickness can aid the farm manager in restricting
the spread of disease in the flock and initiating treatment at the earliest.

The study of farm routines enables proper
scheduling of various farm activities on a sheep and goat farm. It also aids in
the optimum utilization of labour and resources, and higher returns through
efficient management practices.

Daily schedule of activities on a sheep / goat farm:-

Approx. time

Farm operations

0700

1.Turning out the
animals for grazing. This can be delayed during the winter months.

2.Observe and
isolate sick animals.

0800

1.Feed half of the
daily concentrate ration to nursing females and fattening lambs/kids

2.Watering of the
animals on the grazing lands

0830

1.Feed chopped
green and dry fodder to penned sheep/goats

2.Cleaning of all
the sheds and disposal of manure

0900-1500

Special activities like record keeping, weighing and
marketing of lambs and kids, shearing, vaccination and preventive health
care, disbudding; grading, sorting, storage and marketing of wool etc.

1600

1.Return of sheep
and goats to their pens

2.Feeding the other
half of the daily concentrate ration to nursing females and fattening
lambs/kids

3.Feeding chopped
green and dry fodder to all the animals

Note : On a goat farm, the milch does should be milked
twice a day at convenient timings.

Monthly schedule of sheep farm operations:-

The monthly schedule of various sheep farm
operations with twice a year lambing or shearing pattern under semi-arid
conditions on an organized farm is given below:-

Morbidity
and mortality are the two important factors resulting in heavy losses in sheep
production and improvement programmes. Prevention is always better than cure as
it is a lot cheaper. This has special significance with sheep as they seem to
respond less to treatment when sick than other livestock species. Diseases in
sheep can be broadly classified as non-infectious and infectious.

a)Non-infectious
diseases

Approximately 80% of deaths in lambs have been estimated
due to non-infectious causes. Starvation, primarily from mismothering and
behaviour, nutritional and environmental stress, reproductive problems and
predation are the major causes reported.

(1)Pneumonia

It is one of the most common and important pathological
conditions in sheep. It is characterized clinically by increased respiration,
coughing and abdominal breathing. A toll of 20-40% of the mortality has been
reported at organized sheep farms due to pneumonia of bacterial or viral
origin. Another type of pneumonia is “aspiration” or “drenching” pneumonia
caused to wrong and forceful drenching operations. If some fluid has
erroneously entered the animal’s respiratory tract, its head should be lowered
immediately and slapped a few times.

(2)Ruminal tympany
(Bloat)

It is the over-distension of the left flank either due to
free gas or froth. This is generally encountered in “greedy feeders” when lush
green pasture is available. Tying a bitter (eg. neem) stick in the mouth as a
bit to increase secretion of saliva is the most practical and can be done
immediately. Oral administration of sweet oil with turpentine oil or at times
with formalin is advised.

(3)Rumen acidosis

Ingestion of large amounts of highly fermentable
carbohydrate feeds causes an acute illness due to excess production of lactic
acid in the rumen. Clinically, the disease is manifested by dehydration,
blindness, recumbency, complete rumen stasis and a high mortality rate. Normal
saline, sodium bicarbonate and antihistaminics are advised.

(4)Intussusception

It occurs commonly due to nodular worms, change in feed
and local intestinal problems. The animal is dull, off-feed, kicking at the
belly with no rise of temperature, frequent straining with no defaecation,
colic symptoms, and at later stages, recumbency. Emergency surgery is the only
rational treatment.

(5)Deficiency diseases

Young sheep grazing on drought-stricken pastures can
suffer serious depletion of reserves of minerals and vitamins.

2.Calcium, Phosphorous
& Vit. D : The daily requirement of Ca, P & Vit. D for an adult sheep
is about 2.5 gm, 1.5 gm and 300-500 units, respectively. Deficiency may result
in rickets in lambs and osteomalacia in adults. Mineral supplementation in diet
is essential to prevent this deficiency.

3.Vitamin A : Vit. A
deficiency occurs in sheep on dry countryside during periods of drought.
Symptoms include night blindness, corneal keratinization, ptyriasis, hoof
defects, loss of weight and infertility. Congenital defects are common in the
offspring of deficient dams. Animals should have access to green pasture and
should be supplied with Vit. A in feed to prevent deficiency.

(6)Pregnancy toxaemia
(Ketosis)

It is a highly fatal disease caused due to a decline in
the plane of nutrition and short periods of starvation (40 hrs) during the last
two months of pregnancy. Hypoglycaemia and hyperketonemia are the primary
metabolic disturbances. It is primarily a disease of intensive farming systems.
Symptoms include separation from the flock, apparent blindness, constipation,
grinding of teeth, drowsiness, tremors of the head, twitching of lips,
in-coordination, ketonic breath, leading to coma and death. Treatment comprises
intravenous administration of 50% glucose. Supply of molasses in the ration and
provision of additional concentrate in the last two months of pregnancy helps
prevent the condition.

(7)Poisoning

1.Organochlorine
compounds : This group includes DDT, BHC, lindane, aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane,
toxaphane, methocychlor etc. which are used as pesticides on crops and as
ectoparasiticides on sheep. Toxicity symptoms include increased excitability
and irritability followed by muscle tremors, weakness, paralysis etc. Treatment
consists of administering antidote, usually short-acting barbiturates.

3.Snake bite : Sheep
are usually bitten on the scrotum or udder. The presence of hair may obscure
the typical fang marks. Prolonged pain, muscular weakness, impaired vision,
nausea and paralysis are generally exhibited along with symptoms of shock. If
anti-venin is not available and the bite is located in an area where a
tourniquet cannot be applied, excision of an area of skin and sub-cutaneous
tissue can be life-saving.

(8)Wounds

During the monsoon season, a large number of animals
suffer from wounds at various sites esp. around the ear, sternum and fore- and
hind-legs. The main reason seems to be the awns of Aristidia and Heteropogon
species of grasses, which initially break the continuity of the skin, which is
then attacked by flies making the wound infected and maggoty. It causes great
stress in young lambs, and may also lead to conjunctivitis, corneal opacity and
blindness.

(9)Dystokia

The common causes are insufficient opening of the cervical
canal, heavy lambs (esp. crossbreds), abnormal fetal position and uterine
torsion. The condition can be relieved surgically.

b)Infectious
diseases

(1)Blackleg

It is an acute, infectious disease caused by Clostridium
chauvoei and characterized by inflammation of muscles, severe toxaemia and
high mortality (approaching 100%). All age groups are susceptible. Increased
protein feeding of sheep increases their susceptibility. The spores are highly
resistant to the environment and the portal of entry is through the alimentary
mucosa. Infection in sheep generally takes place through skin wounds following
shearing and docking. Symptoms include high fever, anorexia, discolouration of
skin, crepitation and depression. Penicillin is the drug o choice for
treatment.

(2)Enterotoxaemia (pulpy
kidney)

It is an acute disease of sheep of all ages, but primarily
of lambs. It affects animals in a high state of nutrition on a lush feed, grass
or grain. Morbidity rates seldom exceed 10% but mortality rate approximates
100%. It is caused by Clostridium perfringens type D which normally
inhabits the alimentary tract of sheep. Under certain conditions, the organism
proliferated rapidly in the intestines and produces lethal quantity of toxin.
In lambs, the course of illness is very short, often less than 2 hours and
never more than 12 hours, and many are found dead without manifesting early
signs. Symptoms include green, pasty diarrhea, staggering, recumbency,
opisthotonus, and acute, clonic convulsions with frothing at the mouth. A
history of sudden death of several big lambs justifies a tentative diagnosis of
enterotoxaemia. Suphadimidine may be effective for treatment. Two major control
measures include reduction in the feed intake and vaccination.

It is an acute, infectious disease manifested by tonic
convulsions of the voluntary muscles. In sheep, it commonly follows routine
operations such as shearing, docking, castration and even vaccination. Clostridium
tetani form spores which are capable of persisting in soil for a number of
years. The portal of entry is usually through deep, puncture wounds. Symptoms
include stiffness of limbs, lock jaw, opisthotonus, followed by death due to
asphyxiation. Tetanus antitoxin is usually administered but is of little value
when the signs have appeared.

(4)Pasteurellosis

It is primarily caused by Pasteurella haemolytica
in sheep and usually occurs in pneumonic form, although a septicaemic form is
not uncommon in lambs. Morbidity and mortality rates may be as high as 40%.
Transmission occurs by the inhalation or ingestion of the infected material.
Symptoms include pyrexia, mucopurulent discharge from the eyes and nose,
coughing, depression and anorexia. Preventive vaccination is recommended, after
which the animals should not be sent out for grazing for 2-3 days.

(5)Paratuberculosis
(Johne’s disease)

It is a chronic, wasting disease caused by Mycobacteirum
paratuberculosis and characterized by progressive emaciation and a
thickening and corrugation of the intestinal wall. Mortality rate may be as
high as 10%. The disease causes severe economic losses in infected flocks. As
the progress of the disease is slow, it is mostly seen in older animals. No
treatment is successful.

(6)Sheep pox

It is a highly contagious viral disease characterized by
development of vesicles and pustules on the skin and internal lesions. Spread
may be by contact with infected animals and contaminated articles, or by
inhalation. It often causes death in 50% of affected animals. Infection of the
pustules by secondary organisms may cause pyrexia and other complications. The
course of the disease is 3-4 weeks, during which time the sheep becomes
emaciated and may shed their wool. Vaccination is the best control.

(7)Foot and mouth
disease

It is an extremely contagious, acute viral disease
characterized by development of vesicles in the oral cavity and in the
interdigital space. Mortality is usually low (3%), but the economic loss is
chiefly due to the loss in condition of the affected animal. Transmission is by
contact with the diseased animal and incubation period is less than 24 hrs.
Antibiotics are recommended to check secondary infections. Vaccination is the
best control.

(8)Contagious ecthyma

It is a viral disease characterized by the formation of
papules and pustules and the piling up of thick crusts on the lesions. The
virus gains entry through unobserved wounds on the lips. The incubation period
is dependant on the amount of virus introduced. The lesions are mostly found on
the commissures of the lips and are covered by scabs. The course of the disease
is 1-4 weeks. Antibiotics are recommended to check secondary infections.

(9)Blue tongue

It is an infectious but non-contagious, exotic disease of sheep.
Natural transmission takes place through insect vectors viz. Culicoides
and Aedes species, and sheepked Melophagus ovinus. Incubation
period is less than a week. Pyrexia upto 106oF is the common initial
symptom.. The disease has three clinical forms : abortive, acute and sub-acute.
The abortive form mostly goes unnoticed. In the acute form, there is fever
lasting for 5-6 days with nasal discharge, frothing, marked salivation, highly
congested and cyanotic nasal and oral mucosa, epithelial excoriation in the
oral cavity and purplish discolouration of the interdigital space, pasterns and
coronets. Symptoms are less severe in the sub-acute from. Morbidity rate may be
50% or more whereas mortality rates very widely. Antibiotics are recommended to
check secondary infections.

VACCINATION OF
SHEEP AND GOATS

Purpose : Prevention of disease plays a
major role in increasing profitability in a sheep or goat farm. Vaccination
against infectious diseases is an important component of health management.

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