In this issue, not without some
embarrassment, we digest a contribution from our own. The main objective of
this study is to ascertain the presence and visibility of Latin American
repositories in Google and Google Scholar through the application of page count
and visibility indicators. For a sample of 127 repositories, the results
indicate that the indexing ratio is low in Google, and virtually non-existent
in Google Scholar. A complete lack of correspondence between the repository
records and the data produced by these two search tools are indicated as well.
These results are mainly attributable to limitations arising from the use of
description schemas that are incompatible with Google Scholar (repository
design) and the reliability of web indicators (search engines). We conclude
that neither Google nor Google Scholar accurately represent the actual size of
open access content published by Latin American repositories; this may indicate
a non-indexed, hidden side to OA, which could be limiting the dissemination and
consumption of open access scholarly literature.1. DIGEST

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

§How
many Latin American institutional repositories documents are indexed by Google
and Google Scholar?

§What
is the web impact of content published in Latin American institutional
repositories?

§The size of the repositories
in number of items hosted is obtained from the information provided by the
platform itself.

§The total number of items
listed in Google and Google Scholar is calculated with the command site (<site:domain.com>;
<site:domain.com filetype:pdf>).

§Mention values were obtained
from the search engine Open Site Explorer. This retrieves both the number of
external links for each repository (measured at the aggregate domain level,
i.e., all external links from the same domain are counted only once), and the
MzRank indicator at subdomain level, which provides an estimated value for
the popularity of the websites analysed.

§Additionally, the number of
mentions for each URL was calculated from Google, which gave an estimated
indicator of the number of external links (<“domain.com” –site:domain.com
–inurl:domain.com>)

§A correlation analysis was
conducted for all indicators (given the unequal distribution of web data, the
Spearman correlation coefficient was applied) as was a principal component
analysis (PCA).

Measures

§Number of documents hosted
by the repository (ITE)

§Number of files indexed in Google
(Gtot)

§Number of PDF files indexed
in Google (Gpdf)

§Number of files indexed in
Google Scholar (GStot)

§Number of PDF files indexed
in Google Scholar (GSpdf)

§Number of times the URL is
mentioned (URL)

§Number of external links
grouped by domain (V)

§Link popularity score (0 to
10) (Mz)

Period analyzed: All

Data collection date:October 2013

RESULTS

Errors in the functionality of search engines

Page
count values for the repository are lower than those shown for the search
engines (these errors vary according to the source).

·In the case of Google, 109 URLs whose size is
greater than the number of items were located. For PDF values, the number of
URLs with this error is lower at 47, which indicates that this query is more
accurate than that for overall size. It therefore seems clear that the search
engine is retrieving not only items from the repository but also other files
hosted on the domain (including those pertaining to the application used to
manage the repository).

·In the case of Google Scholar, there are even
fewer errors. Total page count yields 11 URLs with page count values greater
than those for the repositories, while for PDF files there are only three). In
this case, the errors are directly related to errors in the indexing of
resources, but they are practically non-existent and are, in any case,
detectable and easily controlled.

Google and
Google Scholar Coverage

·If we circumscribe the coverage analysis to
only those documents in PDF files, a low coverage in Google (48.3%) and
virtually nonexistent in Google Scholar (2.5%) is detected (Figure 1).

·If the search is extended to all file types
indexed on Google and Google Scholar, the results indicate that Google
indexes 100% of the documents and Google Scholar only 34.2%.

Impact of the repositories: mention indicators

·URL
mentions: the values obtained are exceptionally high, especially for
<tesis.usp.br> (5,380,000 hits). Although search engines round up these
values, it is evident that extra noise is high, despite using the
<-inurl> command to exclude certain types of spam. Even so, we detected
some exceptions in some URLs, which, despite having high page count values
(for items both in the repository and indexed by Google), made hardly any
impact in URL mentions.

·Referring domains: the achieved impact was very
low: only 4 URLs achieved more than 100 domains linking in, while 21 did not
return any result. These data correspond to the MzRank values (which depend
directly on the quantity and quality of inbound external links on the
analysed websites). In this case, no URL scored more than 5 points (the
maximum is 10). Moreover, 23 URLs obtained a “0” value.

Correlation between page count and impact

·The
number of items retrieved directly from the platform (ITE) correlated
significantly with various mention indicators, especially with PDF file page
count in Google (r=.75) and total page count in Scholar (r=.68). However, a
very low correlation was obtained with PDF page count in Google Scholar
(r=.31), when it was precisely this indicator which should have been the most
accurate in capturing the number of articles deposited in an institutional
repository; it returned very low indexing ratios.With regard to the correlation of ITE with mention
indicators, unexpectedly significant results were achieved with the number of
URL mentions (r=.63), which demonstrates that despite the document noise of
this indicator, the results do have certain value.

·Finally, almost no correlation was observed
between ITE and indicators related to hyperlinks, both for the number of
referring domains (r=.26) and for MzRank (r=.22).

·The PCA clearly shows the separation between
performance in page count and visibility, and how the URL mention indicator
seems closer to the page count than to the visibility indicators, when by
their nature the opposite should be true.

2. DISCUSSION

The complete lack of
correspondence between the repository records and the data provided by the
Google & Google Scholar should be noted. Equally striking are the highly
marked discrepancies in information between the search engines themselves: they
only coincide in their extremely low indexing values for PDF documents.

This raises a preliminary
question about the reliability and validity of the data search and recovery
process (“site” command), the technical indexing mechanisms of the robots used
by Google and Google Scholar and/or the deficient web architecture of the
repositories themselves, which could well be the cause that lies behind the
other aspects. Similarly, the design of the database of some of the
repositories may prevent the accurate retrieval of indicators by search engine bots
(a concept known as the invisible internet), although the development of
applications such as DSpace (widely used in the installation of this study’s
sample repositories) has eliminated this problem.

With regard to Google (which
should, in principle, index everything to achieve its goal of making the
world’s information universally accessible), the inordinately high page count
data (well above real values) must be due to the counting of files that are not
specifically items of the collection studied, i.e., files pertaining to the
software itself or other information hosted by the server being analysed
(easily verifiable by manually browsing through the results returned for the
“site” query in the search engine).

Regarding the number of PDF
documents, although exact figures for this document type in the repositories
under study are not known, such a low indexing ratio is very strange. The
pervasive use of the PDF format is an irrefutable fact in academia (Aguillo
2009), and it is very odd that academic repositories such as those studied
here, which often contain scholarly output – theses, articles, reports and
other academic documents (course syllabi, teaching materials) –have such a low
percentage, save a few notable exceptions (<lume.ufrgs.br>,
<repositorio.ufsc.br>). It is therefore plausible to conclude that Google
underrepresents the scientific and academic content of the repositories.

By contrast, the total
number of documents indexed in Google Scholar, contrary to Google, is well
below what was expected. The low item indexing ratios in Google Scholar (whose
database is not the same as Google’s) are consistent with those obtained
previously by Arlitsch and O’Brian (2012), who detected low indexing ratios in
the United States for repository articles in Google Scholar, where only 30% of
documents stored in the 21 repositories that formed their sample were included
indexed in Google Scholar. Using the same methodology (the query: "site:
repositoryURL") in this study, the indexing rate was only 34.2%. Lower (17.1%) is the indexing
ratio we found in June 2014 for the documents on the World Bank's Open
Knowledge Repository (Martín-Martín et al, 2014).

First, because the “site”
operator does not return all the items that Google Scholar has indexed for a
repository (special caution should be taken with URLs where the suffix PDF does
not appear explicitly), which means it is not exhaustive. Second, because the
system of grouping multiple versions of an article operates in such a way that
one version is taken as the “primary” version. This process is done
automatically, although authors may also manually select which is the main
version of the article. The “site” command theoretically only returns data for
the main version (though this not always happens). This means that if an
article is hosted on different platforms (e.g. journal and repository), and if
the primary version is the one published in the journal, the “site” operator
applied to the repository will not count the item and vice versa, although it
is indexed on both platforms.

This is the reason behind
the fact that the indexation rate of the World Bank's Open Knowledge Repository
has been much lower than the Latin-American repositories. This repository
contains a large number of articles published in journals (over 10%) and
related documents, whose versions appear and subsumed in other URLs.

Whenever the search strategy
consists of a sample of papers searched individually, the indexing rate
increases significantly. This corroborates the known issue of the
underrepresentation of the number of results Google Scholar yields when a
“site” command search is conducted. According to the study conducted by
Doemeland and Trevino (2014), which uses the former methodology, almost 75% of
the sample was indexed in Google Scholar. In our previous Digest (GoogleScholar Digest, n 2) we already confirmed this.

This particularly affects
the accuracy of Google Scholar in measuring the performance of repositories
with this indicator, and largely explains the low values. It also opens up a
future research line which should consider whether the repositories with better
indexing ratios in Google Scholar are also those with higher numbers of primary
versions amongst their items, which may explain the better results of some
repositories compared to others.

What does stand to reason is
that Google Scholar indexes far fewer PDF documents than Google, given the
requirements and recommendations that this search engine provides institutional
repository webmasters for indexing documents. These include the following:

v“If
you’re a university repository, we recommend that you use the latest version of
Eprints (eprints.org), Digital Commons (digitalcommons.bepress.com), or DSpace
(dspace.org) software to host your papers.

vTo
be included, your website must make either the full text of the articles or
their complete author-written abstracts freely available and easy to see when
users click on your URLs in Google search results.

vAutomatic
crawlers need to be able to discover and fetch the URLs of all your articles,
as well as to periodically refresh their content from your website. Browse
interface is necessary for the search robots to discover the URLs of your
articles. We recommend that the URL of every article is reachable from the
homepage by following at most ten simple HTML links.

vYour
website must not require users (or search robots) to sign in, install special
software, accept disclaimers, dismiss popup or interstitial advertisements,
click on links or buttons, or scroll down the page before they can read the
entire abstract of the paper.

vSites
that show login pages, error pages, or bare bibliographic data without
abstracts will not be considered for inclusion and may be removed from Google
Scholar.

vSince
Google refers users to your website to read the papers, your webpages must be
available to both users and crawlers at all times. The search robots will visit
your webpages periodically in order to pick up the updates, as well as to
ensure that your URLs are still available. If the search robots are unable to
fetch your webpages, e.g., due to server errors, misconfiguration, or an overly
slow response from your website, then some or all of your articles could drop
out of Google and Google Scholar.

vYour
files need to be either in the HTML or in the PDF format. PDF files must have
searchable text, i.e., you must be able to search for and find words in the
document using Adobe Acrobat Reader.

vEach
file must not exceed 5MB in size. To index larger files, or to index scanned
images of pages that require OCR, please upload them to Google Book Search.”

Arlitsch and O’Brian (2012),
while noting the limitations of the “site” command, found that the main causes
are the metadata schema used and the navigability and information architecture
features, which do not help the search engine robots carry out the indexing processes
correctly. Indeed, they applied various changes to the description schema
(rejecting Dublin Core in favour of other schemas recommended by Google
Scholar, such as Highwire Press), and then indexing ratios improved
significantly over time.

These limitations of Google
Scholar in measuring the presence of repository contents also contrast with the
policy of certain products of this company, such as Google Scholar Metrics,
which quantifies the scholarly impact of repositories (Delgado López-Cózar &
Robinson-García 2012).

In short, it may be
concluded that the low repository content indexing ratios are mainly due to
these two limitations: the use of description schemas that are not compatible
with Google Scholar (repository design) and the reliability of the web
indicators (search engines).

Finally, it was found that
the queries that combined the overall page count with the PDF file type in
Google were those that achieved more optimal results, and that were most
similar to the data that the repositories themselves indicated with regard to
the size of their collections. This may have been determined by the fact that
primary versions are not accounted for in the search – whereas in Scholar they
are – which clearly underrepresents the presence of repositories when measured
by the “site” command.

The final conclusions of this study highlight the
insufficient dissemination of open access scholarly literature (crucially in
terms of web visibility) in a medium (the Web) that is by definition its
natural environment, and in a context (Latin America), in which scholarly production
requires extra visibility because it lies outside the academic mainstream (i.e.
not published in journals indexed in WoS or Scopus).

Given the weight of the
green route in the dissemination of OA scholarly literature, and the importance
of Google (and Google Scholar) to the search and use of academic information,
the low visibility of the contents could significantly affect the real use of
OA by end users. It would appear to be generating a great hidden mass of open
access content, from institutional repositories, which neither Google, in the
first instance, or users, in the last instance, can locate.

The lack of web visibility
of the analysed repositories is determined by the low indexing ratios of their
content (both in Google and Google Scholar), since a low web presence
determines a corresponding low web visibility.

These low indexing ratios
are, in turn, determined by the use of description schemas that are ill-suited
to Google and inadequate web navigability, factors already outlined by Arlitsch
and O’Brien (2012). Additionally, this study has also identified certain
technical limitations in the use of web indicators in Google and Google Scholar
to measure this indexing.

Therefore, we consider that
neither Google nor Google Scholar are accurate or representative of the actual
page count of open access content published by Latin American repositories;
this may indicate the existence of a hidden, non-indexed side of OA.

In any case, the technical
limitations of Google Scholar, in only counting primary versions of articles,
tilt the balance towards the use of Google to measure page count, despite the
fact that the document noise is greater. However, a thorough analysis of the
real influence of the primary version search and accuracy of the “site” command
in repository performance in Google Scholar (which requires an item by item
analysis of each collection) is deemed necessary.

Much of the solution to
these problems is purely technical, and should be addressed in the short term
to ensure the visibility of repositories, to which institutions are now devoting
significant financial and human resources. This must include a rethinking of
the goals that must be achieved to guarantee the success of a repository, for
which presence and visibility in search engines must bear greater weight.

However, the results come
from the analysis of a small sample of repositories, and should be widened in
the future to larger samples in order to draw more definitive conclusions.