Origins News!

Neanderthal baby attacks evolutionary
dogma

Stepping out 29,000 years from the past, a Neanderthal baby has taught
evolutionists a thing or two about human origins, and strengthened the case for
special creation. In a just published study, scientists extracted Genetic material found in mitochondria, the organelles that generate energy for the cell.mtDNA from a
Neanderthal infant skeleton found in the northern Caucasus near the Black Sea and laid to rest any question of
whether Neanderthals could have been our ancestors. A previous study had examined a 397 Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.base pair Neanderthal Genetic material found in mitochondria, the organelles that generate energy for the cell.mtDNA fragment and compared
it with a Genetic material found in mitochondria, the organelles that generate energy for the cell.mtDNAThe order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule, or the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.sequenceof 986 One of the structural components, or building blocks, of DNA and RNA. A nucleotide consists of a base plus a molecule of sugar and one of phosphate.nucleotide pairs from living humans of diverse ethnic backgrounds. The
results showed an enormous 26 nucleotide Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.base pair difference between the
Neanderthal and Human Genetic material found in mitochondria, the organelles that generate energy for the cell.mtDNA (a 6.5% difference, which is almost as much as the average difference
between human Genetic material found in mitochondria, the organelles that generate energy for the cell.mtDNA and chimpanzee Genetic material found in mitochondria, the organelles that generate energy for the cell.mtDNA, which is 8.9%).
In this region of the Genetic material found in mitochondria, the organelles that generate energy for the cell.mtDNA, modern humans differ from one another in an average
of eight Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.base pairs, and those differences were completely independent of the 26
observed for the Neanderthal fossil. In the current study, a 357 Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.base pairThe order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule, or the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.sequence of Genetic material found in mitochondria, the organelles that generate energy for the cell.mtDNA was
examined and found to vary from modern
human The order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule, or the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.sequences at 23 bases (6.4%), nineteen of which were identical to those of
the first Neanderthal. A summary of the findings of the two studies can be found
in the table below:

Sequence Differences Between
Modern Humans and Neanderthals

Genetic material found in mitochondria, the organelles that generate energy for the cell.mtDNA
Sample

The analysis of the infant's Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA was extremely important, since it was dated
at 29,000 years ago - only 1000 years before the last Neanderthal disappeared. If Neanderthals and humans had interbred, one should have expected to see
this in the last remnants of the Neanderthals. In addition, since the two
Neanderthal fossils were separated geographically by over 2,500 km, it shows
that Neanderthals were a homogeneous species that was distinct from ancient
humans. In fact, the differences in Genetic material found in mitochondria, the organelles that generate energy for the cell.mtDNAThe order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule, or the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.sequences compared to modern humans were so great that
calculations indicated that the last common ancestor between modern humans and
Neanderthal must have been at least 365,000-850,000 years ago.

One of the two sex chromosomes, carried by males (1 copy) and females (2 copies) in mammals.X chromosomeThe order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule, or the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.sequence variability 4 times
greater in chimps than humans

Previous studies have shown that the Of or referring to the mitochondria, the organelles that generate energy for the cell.mitochondrialDeoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA (Genetic material found in mitochondria, the organelles that generate energy for the cell.mtDNA)The order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule, or the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.sequencesin chimpanzees are more variable than those in humans (1-3). A recent study has
examined a 10,154-Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.base pairThe order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule, or the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.sequence on the chimpanzeeX chromosome
and found that The order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule, or the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.sequence variability is four times greater in chimpanzees than
humans (4), indicating a last common ancestor at least three times earlier than
humans.

Henrik Kaessmann, H., V. Wiebe, and S. P��bo. 1999. Extensive Nuclear
Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA Sequence Diversity Among Chimpanzees. Science 286:1159-1162.

Early Origin of Eukaryotes

Molecular fossils of biological lipids from 2700-million-year-old shales in
Pilbara Craton, Australia have demonstrated that Eukaryotes (organisms whose
cells contain a nucleus, probably cyanobacteria) arose at least 1 billion years
before the first physical fossils indicated their existence. Collaborating
evidence includes the presence of the Hamersley Range in Western Australia,
which is a 2500 million year old oxidized iron formation, probably formed as the
result of activity of early eukaryotes that produced oxygen through
photosynthesis.

Nucleic Acid
Origins

Molecular biology has progressed enough so that scientists can begin to ask
some "why" questions for the basic design of life's genetic code.
Their intent is not to look for intelligent design, but to ask why life evolved
to use Ribonucleic acid: a chemical that directs the manufacture of proteins and sometimes codes for the genetic material within certain organisms.RNA and Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA instead of some other molecule. Scientists first asked why
the Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.base pairs were linked together the way there were. Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.Base pairs are linked
between the 3' and 5' carbons of the ring. When this was changed to the 2' and
5' carbons, base pairing strength decrease markedly and the strand itself was
susceptible to hydrolytic cleavage. Scientists then constructed an alternative
form of Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA, using a six-membered sugar ring instead of the usual five-membered
ribose. They discovered that some of the new "Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA's" exhibited
purine-purine pairing (pairing must be complimentary for it to work as a genetic
system). Other constructed "Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA's" exhibited reduced A purine base found in DNA and RNA, which pairs with cytosine in both DNA and RNA.guanine-A pyrimidine base found in DNA and RNA, which pairs with guanine in both DNA and RNA.cytosinepairing that was strongly dependent on the The order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule, or the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.sequence of Two nucleotides on opposite complementary DNA or RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds.base pairs. All these
problems made the alternate "Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA" unacceptable as a genetic system.
Next, scientists constructed Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA's using alternate five-ring sugars. These
alternate "Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA's" had a much more rigid backbone structure and
enhanced base-pair bonding. However, these characteristics prevent these
molecules from being a viable alternative to standard Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA.

Is It Time to Uproot
the Tree of Life?

The above is the title of a recent article in Science. Molecular
biology is allowing evolutionists to examine the relatedness of numerous
bacterial species, and recent results are nothing less than startling. Darwinian
theory requires that all organisms are, ultimately, related to one another.
Therefore, the Functional and physical units of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein.genes of living species should demonstrate similarity based upon
the point at which the species diverged from a common ancestor. Different kinds
of Functional and physical units of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein.genes (rRNA, in addition to the entire The order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule, or the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.sequences of a couple dozen species of
microorganisms) from the microbial kingdoms have been analyzed in the attempt to
provide molecular evidence for macroevolution. An initial publication last year
showed that "Comparisons of the All the DNA contained within species of organisms, which includes both the chromosomes within the nucleus and the DNA in mitochondria.genomes then available not only didn't
clarify the picture of how life's major groupings evolved, they confused
it." Current taxonomy classifies all living organisms into three kingdoms;
eubacteria ("common" bacteria), Archaea ("ancient bacteria that
are best known for living in extreme environments) and eukaryotes (all other
living forms, including us). The current crisis involves the classification of
species of eubacteria and Archaea. Some of the data suggest that certain
eubacteria are more closely related to Archaea, and that certain Archaea are not
related at all. In an examination of 13 fully Determining the order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule, or the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.sequencedAll the DNA contained within species of organisms, which includes both the chromosomes within the nucleus and the DNA in mitochondria.genomes, including those
of bacteria, Archaea, and the eukaryote, yeast, scientists found that each
microbe shares between 77% and 17% of its Functional and physical units of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein.genes with another organism, with no
clear relationships between species. The results are so confused that some
researchers are proposing a complete restructuring of the tree of life,
including breaking up the Archaea and redistributing them among the eubacteria.
Other researchers have suggested that eukaryotes are more primitive than
prokaryotes (both eubacteria and Archaea). However, the fossil record does not
support such an interpretation (prokaryotes clearly appeared before eukaryotes).
Several researchers have blamed The functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein.gene transfer between diverse bacterial species,
and even The functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein.gene transfer between eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Many evolutionists
are now suggesting that The functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein.gene transfers were so common in the past (a convenient
non-provable hypothesis) that a tree of life for microbial species can never be
discerned from existing species. Such proposals remove evolutionary theory from
being tested, and remove it from scientific criticism.

Pennisi, E. 1999. Is It Time to Uproot the Tree of Life? Science 284:
1305-1307.

One dinosaur species
found on multiple continents separated by hundreds of miles of ocean!

Scientists have found a dinosaur species, Allosaurus fragilis, dated
to have lived in Colorado some 150 million years ago, also lived on the other
side of the Atlantic Ocean, in Portugal, at about the same time. The new fossil
was discovered by paleontologist Bernardino Perez-Moreno of the Universidad Aut�noma
de Madrid and colleagues in 150-million-year-old rock formations in Leira, 155
kilometers north of Lisbon. The skeleton, of a juvenile dino, is incomplete, but
has telltale bones such as the pelvis, vertebrae, and fragments of leg bones,
including "unmistakable pelvic features unique to A. fragilis."
One puzzle is how the Allosaurus wound up on two continents: The
supercontinent of Pangea had broken up tens of millions of years earlier, and by
170 million years ago Portugal was separated from North America by a sea
hundreds of miles wide. Geologist Alan Smith of Cambridge University, who
specializes in reconstructing ancient geography said, "you cannot get rid
of the central Atlantic between Africa and America at this time--the evidence is
incontrovertible." No reasonable explanations are available from our
evolutionist friends. Water wings anybody?

Staff writer. 1999. Random Samples. Science 284: 903.

Martian Microbes - Not
Again!

The group that announced the remains of Martian microbes in a Martian
meteorite two years ago (which has since been thoroughly discredited
scientifically) has announced "possible bacteria" in a second Martian
meteorite. According to the prestigious scientific journal Science,
"The latest announcement... so far has left colleagues underwhelmed."
(Science 283:1841)

Japanese Origins

Data presented at a recent scientific conference in Japan revealed new
information about the origins of the Japanese ancestors. Previous studies had
suggested that the two people groups, the Jomonese and the Yayoi, who were
ancestors of the Japanese had entered the Japanese islands from the South.
However, recent Y-chromosome studies suggest that the Yayoi actually entered
Japan from the North and spread south as their Functional and physical units of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein.genes mixed with those of the
Jomonese. It is hypothesized that the Jomonese crossed into Japan 30,000 years
ago by a land bridge that existed until 12,000 years ago. The Yayoi likely
developed rice paddy agriculture ~8,000 years ago and sailed to the northern
islands of Japan ~2,300 years ago.

Native American Origins

New genetic studies (using Y-chromosomes) indicate that up to 85% of all
Native Americans come from a common ancestor who lived ~20,000 years ago (95%
confidence interval from 13,700 to 58,700 years). These data fit well into the
archeological evidence that the first humans settled in the Americas 12,500
years ago after crossing the Bering land bridge that existed shortly before that
time. (De Mendoza, D.H. and R. Braginski. 1999. One of the two sex chromosomes that determines maleness in mammals, carried and passed down from males to males.Y Chromosomes point to Native
American Adam. Science 283: 1439-1440.)

Humans Really Are
Different!

A newly released book, Three Seductive Ideas, by Harvard University
psychologist, Jerome Kagan, makes the claim (and backs it up with experimental
evidence) that humans are radically different from every other species of life
on earth. Dr. Kagan refutes the ideas of evolutionary pyschologists, including
"infant determinism" (the idea that all human behavior is set by age
2) hedonism (the idea that all human behavior is motivated by a desire to
maximize pleasure and minimize pain), and "abstractionism" (the idea
that all human behavior is controlled by a limited set of laws or rules). He
points out that men who committed terrible atrocities had loving parents during
their childhood years and that "evolutionary arguments are used to cleanse
greed, promiscuity, and abuse of stepchildren of moral taint." Instead, Dr.
Kagan shows that humans are a special creation, endowed with a spiritual nature,
and motivated by a desire to maintain a feeling of virtue, which is unique among
sentient animals. He points out that there are no non-human animal models for
human pride, shame, and guilt. Humans also appreciate the difference between
moral right and wrong. According to Dr. Kagan, "Not even the cleverest ape
could be conditioned to be angry upon seeing one animal steal food from
another." According to a recent review of the book in Science,
"The idea of the duality of human nature (of meaning over and above
mechanism, or mind over and above mechanism, of angel over and above beast), and
of the remarkable discontinuity of human natuire from everything that came
before, is alive and well for Kagan precisely because he has such a high regard
for facts." (For a complete review see Shweder, R.A. 1999. Humans Really
Are Different. Science 283: 798.)

Species sorting = species
extinction

Punctuated equilibrium is dependent upon the accumulation of Permanent structural alterations in DNA, consisting of either substitutions, insertions or deletions of nucleotide bases.mutations within
a large population that gets "sorted" into an isolated small
population that interbreeds the new Permanent structural alterations in DNA, consisting of either substitutions, insertions or deletions of nucleotide bases.mutations. A new study destroys this idea.
Instead of becoming a new species, populations that suffer drastic reductions in
numbers are characterized by decreased genetic variability and an expression of
detrimental Functional and physical units of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein.genes. This happens because normally Possessing two different forms of a particular gene, one inherited from each parent.heterozygous (containing 2
different Variant forms of a gene at a particular locus, or location, on a chromosome.alleles of each gene) individuals become Possessing two identical forms of a particular gene, one inherited from each parent.homozygous, due to
inbreeding. As a result, detrimental, non-expressed, A genetic disorder that appears only in patients who have received two copies of a mutant gene, one from each parent.recessiveFunctional and physical units of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein.genes become
Possessing two identical forms of a particular gene, one inherited from each parent.homozygous and, therefore, are expressed, resulting in a less fit population.
The study examined the effect of a 35-year population decline of greater prairie
chickens on their fitness and fertility. The results showed that population
decline and isolation of the prairie chicken led to decreased genetic
variability, reduced egg viability (from near 100% to less than 80%), and a
decline of fertility rates (from 93% to 74%). Only after human intervention
(which brought in genetically diverse individuals from other areas) did the
population begin to recover. This study calls into serious question the
punctuated equilibrium concept of species sorting. (Soul�, M.E. and L.S. Mills.
November 27, 1998. No need to isolate genetics. Science
282: 1658 and Wetermeirer, R.L., J.D. Brawn, S.A. Simpson, T.L. Esker, R.W.
Jansen, J.W. Walk, E.L. Kershner, J.L. Bouzat, and K.N. Paige. November 27,
1998. Tracking the long-term decline and recovery of an isolated population. Science
282: 1695.)

Design of small Organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain, joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of the adjacent amino acid residues.proteins

Scientists have been attempting to be able to determine a An organic compound made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain, joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of the adjacent amino acid residues.protein's native
conformation (or folding) by examining the A group of 20 different kinds of small molecules that link together in long chains to form proteins. Often referred to as the "building blocks" of proteins.amino acidThe order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule, or the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.sequence. Despite years of
study, the ability to do this using even the fastest computers is beyond our
reach. For example, for a typical 100 A group of 20 different kinds of small molecules that link together in long chains to form proteins. Often referred to as the "building blocks" of proteins.amino acidAn organic compound made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain, joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of the adjacent amino acid residues.protein (moderate to small in
size) could exist in any of 3200 possible backbone configurations.
Using a super fast computer (1015 computations/sec) it would take 1080
seconds, which exceed the age of the universe by a factor of 60 orders of
magnitude! This fact alone may give you a better perspective on the mind of God.

Berendsen, H.J.C. 1998. Perspectives: An organic compound made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain, joined together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of the adjacent amino acid residues.Protein Folding. A Glimpse of the Holy
Grail? Science
282: 642-643.

Human racial diversity: no clear
genetic lines

This story is going to be disconcerting to racists, who pride themselves on
"genetic purity." According to geneticists and anthropologists,
genetic diversity appears to fall along a continuum, with no clear breaks
delineating different racial groups. It will be good to finally do away with
physical differences, when we see each other in heaven. "There is neither
Jewnor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in
Christ Jesus" (Galatians 3:28).

Marshall, E. 1998. CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY: Deoxyribonucleic acid: the chemical inside the nucleus of a cell that carries the genetic instructions for making living organisms.DNA Studies Challenge the Meaning
of Race. Science
282: 654-655

Death of the hydrogen-based microbes
theory

A number of theories have proposed that hydrogen may supply the energy
requirements of microorganisms that have been found living deep within the
subsurface of the Earth's crust. Proposals have suggested that such a supply
would allow for such lifeforms on other planets and may have accounted for the
beginning of life on Earth. However, a recent report demonstrates that no
hydrogen is produced from basalt-ground-water interactions at evironmentally
relevant pH. By lowering the pH, the authors of the study were able to get
transitory hydrogen production, which they concluded, "cannot be sustained
over geologically significant time frames."

Sudden appearance of mammals

At the recent meeting of the International Symposium on the Origin of
Mammalian Orders, scientists presented evidence testifying of the rapid
appearance of mammals in the fossil record during the beginning of the Tertiary
period. During the first 16 million years of the Tertiary period, 18 orders of
mammals appeared. Many scientist had claimed that gaps in the fossil record
could account for the apparent sudden appearance of mammals. However, Dr. David
Archibald (San Diego State University), looked at the numbers of fossil site
spanning the period of 5 million years before and after the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary. Dr. Archibald found that sampling was equal for periods before and
after the boundary, although only 11 genera were found in the 5 million years
before the beginning of the Tertiary compared to 139 genera in the 5 million
years following. As he stated, "Something happened to cause this explosion
of speciation." The results of the fossil record are not confirmed by
molecular clocks reported earlier this year. Dr. John Allroy, a paleontologist
at the National Museum of Natural History (Washington D.C.) stated, "If
molecular analysts can't find evidence of this explosion in speciation, then
they don't know anything about the evolutionary process."

Whales lose ancestors?

The discovery of two 50-million-year-old whales from the family Pakicetidae
suggest that the previously thought link between the mesonychians and whales
seems unlikely, according to Dr. Hans Thewissen (Northeastern Ohio Universities
College of Medicine). The fact that these fossils have more primitive teeth than
the mesonychians from which they were supposed to have evolved led Dr. Thewissen
to conclude that there was "considerable doubt" that cretaceans
(whales) are closely related to mesonychians. Paleontologists now are attempting
to link whales with the hippopotamus (artiodactyls). However, Dr. Maureen
O'Leary (State University of New York) stated, "it's difficult to connect
hippos with whales in the fossil record."

No link between ecology and evolution?

Evolutionary theory predicts that ecology should profoundly effect evolution
within groups of related species. A recent study examined the ecological
dominance of two bryozoan clades (Cyclostomata and Cheilostomata) and how that
related to evolutionary success over the last 140 million years. The results
indicated that "evolutionary success and ecological dominance can be
decoupled and profoundly different, even over tens of millions of years."
Previous studies had shown that the Permium and Triassic mass extinctions had
removed other byrozoan clades that had much higher ecological diversities
(Taylor, P.D., and G.P. Larwood, in Extinction and Survival in the Fossil
Record, G.P. Larwood, Ed. (Clarendon, Oxford, 1988), pp. 99-119), which is
counterintuitive to evolutionary theories.

Missing bird-dinosaur link found?

Archaeopteryx has been described as a link between birds and
dinosaurs, although it is remarkably similar to modern birds. Attempts to find
more primitive intermediates have been unsuccessful - until now - so say a group
of paleontologists (see the July, 1998 issue of National Geographic).
The group has found two turkey-sized dinosaurs that have both downy and modern
flight feathers on their arms and tail. Their skeletal structure is similar to
theropod dinosaurs (short arms - too short to be useful in flight, serrated
teeth, theropod-like pelvis, etc.). The conclusions are obvious. Right? However,
other researchers dispute the claims. They point to shortened tail and fused
sternum, arguing that they are more advanced than Archaeopteryx. These
researchers believe that the intermediates are actually flightless birds. Oh,
did I mention that the new fossils are dated to have appeared at least 20
million years after the appearance of the first Archaeopteryx? Those
little details do get in the way of evolutionary theory, don't they! For more
information on some of the controversies, see Demise of
the "Birds are Dinosaurs" Theory, located on this site.

The Human Brain Drain

Modern humans have brain sizes larger than any other placental mammal
relative to body size. The human brain uses a tremendous amount of energy - up
to 60% of total energy consumed in newborns. A recent study suggests that the
large increase in brain size was balanced by a similar reduction in the size of
the gastrointestinal tract. However, other mammals, such as pigs, with small
intestines don't have brains as large as ours. In addition, the theory doesn't
hold for birds or bats. The presence of large brains in humans presents a
problem to evolutionists, since it presents a large energy drain upon the
species, especially before the advent of agriculture and reliable food supplies.

More
(or less) on Brains

One of the problems in the theories of human evolution has been the huge
difference between the brain capacity of our genus (Homo) and the genus
of our supposed ancestors (Australopithecus). A recent discovery of a
large Australopithecine skull was anticipated to lessen the gap between the two
genera. However, a recent
study, using computerized tomography technology has determined that the new
skull (Stw 505) has a brain capacity no larger than the size of the largest
published value. However, in doing the measurements and checking their validity,
the group determined that nearly all of the brain capacities of
Australopithecine skulls is inflated. In reality, many Australopithecine skulls
have brain capacities no larger than those of chimpanzees. Thus, there exists a
huge difference between the brain capacity of the oldest Homo specimen
and the largest Australopithecine skull.

The earth's largest extinction (at the end of the Permium period) now appears
to have taken place over a period as short as 10,000 years and not millions, as
previously thought. During this time nearly 90% of all species became extinct.
Even so, life reappeared rapidly after this catastrophic event. The new study
examined the ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-14 in the rocks, the layers of which
were dated by the uranium-lead method. A rapid shift in carbon-13 to carbon-14
ratio over a short period of time indicated that much of the carbon originally
associated with living organisms became part of the inorganic carbon pool for a
short period of time associated with the end of the Permium period. A rapid
restoration of the carbon-13 to carbon-14 ratio indicates that living organisms
rapidly repopulated the earth after this catastrophic extinction event.

Limits to Evolution

Irreducible complexity is something many evolutionists say does not exist in
nature. The "reductionists" believe that there are no limits to an
organism's variability and its ability to evolve. However, a new report
demonstrates that when three characters are affected by a The functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein.gene, the The functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein.gene cannot
change, but is constrained by the dependency of the other characteristics.
Therefore, evolution is now falsifiable if organisms can be found that have
broken this principle. In addition, this study demonstrates that the ability of
organisms to evolve is limited.

Molecular Biology has greatly added to our ability to understand the how the
cell functions at the molecular level. A recent report used genetic selection
and "directed molecular evolution" to redesign a bacterial A protein that encourages a biochemical reaction, usually speeding it up.enzyme (chorismate
mutase) from its natural dimeric (2 subunit) structure to a monomeric complexly
folded A protein that encourages a biochemical reaction, usually speeding it up.enzyme with nearly identical activity to the natural A protein that encourages a biochemical reaction, usually speeding it up.enzyme. The
surprising thing to the researchers was that of all the The order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule, or the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.sequences they designed,
only 0.05% of those redesigned Proteins that encourage a biochemical reactions, usually speeding them up.enzymes expressed appreciable enzymatic activity.
What does this tell us? Since evolution is based upon random A permanent structural alteration in DNA, consisting of either a substitution, insertion or deletion of nucleotide bases.mutation, the
probability of randomly designing this A protein that encourages a biochemical reaction, usually speeding it up.enzyme is extremely unlikely. It is
probable that other Proteins that encourage a biochemical reactions, usually speeding them up.enzymes will be designed to similar levels of precision.