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1 Option C 15 Imaging ESSENTIAL IDEAS The progress of a wave can be modelled using the ray or the wavefront. The change in wave speed when moving between media changes the shape of the wave. Optical microscopes and telescopes utilize similar physical properties of lenses and mirrors. Analysis of the universe is performed both optically and by using radio telescopes to investigate different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Total internal reflection allows light or infrared radiation to travel along a transparent fibre. However, the performance of a fibre can be degraded by dispersion and attenuation effects. The body can be imaged using radiation generated from both outside and inside. Imaging has enabled medical practitioners to improve diagnosis with fewer invasive procedures (C1: Core) Introduction to imaging the progress of a wave can be modelled via the ray or the wavefront; the change in wave speed when moving between media changes the shape of the wave How we see images We see an object when light from it enters our eyes. Some objects emit light, but we are able to see most things because the light waves striking them are scattered in all directions and some of the waves spreading away from a particular point on the object are brought back together to a point in our eyes. Figure 15.1 shows this using rays to represent the directions in which the waves are travelling. The representation of an object that our eyes and brain see is called an image. The term object is generally used to describe the thing that we are looking at. cornea + lens point image light spreads in all directions from a point object eye (not to scale) Figure 15.1 The eye focusing light to form an image The eye uses refraction to bring light rays diverging from a point on an object back to a point on the image. This process is called focusing the light to form an image. Additional Perspectives Understanding the human eye Figure 15.2 shows the basic structure of the human eye. Light rays are refracted as they pass into the eye through the cornea. Further refraction then takes place at surfaces of the lens. As a result the rays are focused on the back of the eyeball (retina) where the image is formed. The iris controls the amount of light entering the eye. The aperture (opening) through which the light passes is called the pupil. In bright light the iris decreases the size of the pupil to protect the eye, while at night the pupil dilates (gets larger) so that more light can

2 2 15 Imaging lens aqueous humour cornea pupil iris vitreous humour retina fovea blind spot ligaments ciliary muscle optic nerve Figure 15.2 Physical features of the human eye be received by the retina in order to see clearly. The aqueous humour is a watery liquid between the cornea and the lens; the vitreous humour is a clear gel between the lens and the retina. The ciliary muscles can change the shape of the lens; this is how the eye is able to focus on objects that are at different distances away. 1 If images are not formed on the surface of the retina, the eye will not be able see clearly. Suggest possible reasons why this may happen. 2 Suggest the purpose of the optic nerve. a b Figure 15.3 How curved interfaces between transparent media affect wavefronts and rays We know from Chapter 4 that when wavefronts enter a different medium and their speed changes, they can refract and change direction. If the interface (boundary) between the two media has a curved surface, then the refracted wavefronts will change shape. Figures 15.3a and 15.3b show plane wavefronts (parallel rays) crossing an interface into a medium where they travel slower. Rays showing the direction of travel of the wavefronts are also included (rays are always drawn perpendicular to wavefronts). In 15.3a the incident waves arrive at a convex surface and the transmitted wavefronts and rays converge. In 15.3b the waves are incident on a concave surface and the transmitted wavefronts and rays diverge. Converging and diverging lenses The eye contains a lens that helps to focus the light. Manufactured lenses made of transparent materials (such as glass or plastic) use the effect shown in Figure 15.3 to focus light and form images. This usually involves light travelling from an object through air and then through a transparent lens that has two smooth, curved surfaces. Refraction then occurs at both surfaces as shown in Figure 15.4, which shows the effects of the two basic types of lens on plane wavefronts. The wavefronts inside the lenses have not been included in these diagrams. Light rays will refract and change direction at both surfaces of the lens, unless they are incident along a normal. However, in the rest of this chapter we will usually simplify the diagrams in order to show the rays changing direction only once in the centre of the lens.

3 15.1 (C1: Core) Introduction to imaging 3 Figure 15.4 Two basic types of lens and how they affect light waves (and rays) a converging rays wavefronts converging (convex) lens image formed at focus b wavefronts diverging (concave) lens diverging rays In Figure 15.4a the wavefronts converge to a focus for this reason this type of lens is often called a converging lens. Because of the shape of its surface, this type of lens is also called a convex lens. Despite their name, converging lenses do not always converge light (magnifying glasses are the exception). Figure 15.4b shows the action of a diverging lens (concave surface). Lenses are made in a wide variety of shapes and sizes, but all lenses can be described as either converging/convex or diverging/concave. Lenses have been in use for thousands of years in many societies around the world. The oldest were crafted from naturally occurring translucent rock (see Figure 15.5). They may have been used for magnification or for starting fires. Figure 15.5 The oldest known lens (found at the Assyrian palace at Nimrud); it is now in the British Museum in London

4 4 15 Imaging Thin lenses Although real lenses will not behave exactly as the idealized descriptions and equations presented in this chapter, lens theory can be applied confidently to thin lenses (which have surfaces with small curvatures) and for light incident approximately perpendicularly (normally) close to the middle of such lenses. Terminology Figure 15.6 illustrates the basic terms used to describe lenses. Figure 15.6 converging (convex) lens Defining the basic terms used to a focal point, F describe lenses principal axis F' principal axis focal length, f focal length, f b more powerful lens focal point, F principal axis F' principal axis focal length, f focal length, f c diverging (concave) lens principal axis F' F principal axis focal point focal length, f Figure 15.6 shows ray diagrams, and for the rest of this chapter we will continue to use rays because they are usually the easiest way of representing the behaviour of optical systems. However, as an example, Figure 15.7 shows how the behaviour of the converging lenses shown in Figure 15.6b could be represented using wavefronts. Figure 15.7 Wavefronts being focused by a converging lens wavefronts focal point

5 15.1 (C1: Core) Introduction to imaging 5 The principal axis of a lens is defined as the (imaginary) straight line passing through the centre of the lens, which is perpendicular to the surfaces. Light rays may be focused in different places depending on how close the object is to the lens, but a lens is defined in terms of where it focuses parallel rays of light that are incident on it. The focal point of a converging lens is defined as the point through which all rays parallel to the principal axis converge, after passing through the lens. For a diverging lens the focal point is the point from which the rays appear to diverge after passing through the lens. The focal point is sometimes called the principal focus. A lens has two focal points, the same distance from the centre of the lens on either side. These are shown as F and F in Figure The focal length, f, of a lens is defined as the distance along the principal axis between the centre of the lens and the focal point. Focal length is typically measured in centimetres, although the SI unit is metres. The focal length of a lens is the essential piece of information about a lens that tells us how it affects light passing through it. The longer the focal length of a lens, the less effect it has on light. The shorter the focal length of the lens, the bigger the refraction of the light, and the lens is described as being more powerful. For reasons that will be explained later, the focal lengths of diverging lenses are given negative values. To determine the focal length of a lens experimentally it is necessary to use parallel rays of light. These are conveniently obtained from any distant object spherical wavefronts from a point source become effectively parallel if they are a long distance from their origin. The focal length of a lens depends on the curvature of the surfaces and the refractive index of the material(s) from which the lens is made. Simple lenses have surfaces that are spherical the same shape as part of a sphere. A lens with a smaller radius of curvature, or a higher refractive index, will have a shorter focal length and be more powerful (see Figure 15.6b). Eyes are able to focus objects at different distances away by slightly changing their shape and, therefore, their focal lengths (a process called accommodation). People who work with lenses, such as optometrists and opticians, usually classify different lenses according to their (optical) power, a term that is not connected in any way to the more general meaning of power as the rate of transfer of energy. Optical power is defined by: 1 power = focal length P = 1 f This equation is given in the Physics data booklet. The unit for (optical) power is the dioptre, D, which is defined as the power of a lens with a focal length of 1 m. That is: 1 P (D) = f (m) When two lenses are placed close together, their combined power is equal to the sum of their individual powers.

6 6 15 Imaging Worked example 1 What are the powers of lenses that have focal lengths of: a +2.1 m b +15 cm c 50 cm? a P = 1 f = = D b P = 1 f = = +6.7 D c P = 1 f = = 2.0 D 1 a What is the focal length of a convex lens with a power of +2.5 D? b Make a sketch of a lens (of power +2.5 D) and then next to it draw a lens of the same diameter that has a much shorter focal length. c What assumption did you make? 2 a Calculate the power of a lens with a diameter of 4.0 cm and a focal length of 80 mm. b How is it possible that another lens of exactly the same shape could have a focal length of 85 mm? 3 A lens of what focal length can be combined with a lens of power +5 D to make a combined power of +25 D? 4 A pair of reading glasses (spectacles) have a power of +1.5 D. a What kind of lenses do they contain? b What is the focal length of the lenses? c If the focal length of the focusing system in the eye is +18 mm, what is the combined power of the eye and the reading glasses? 5 Make large copy of Figure 15.6c and then add wavefronts passing through the system. Forming images with converging lenses The properties of an image formed by a converging lens can be investigated using an illuminated object and moving a screen (and/or the object) until a well-focused image is observed. Variations in the image can be observed as the lens is moved, or if the lens is exchanged for another with a different focal length. The properties of an image An image can be fully described by listing these properties: its position whether it is upright or inverted (the same way up as the object or upside down) its size (and whether it is magnified or diminished) whether it is real or virtual. Real and virtual images Real images are formed where rays of light actually converge. Virtual images are formed when diverging rays enter the eye and the image is formed where the rays appear to have come from. (For example, the images seen when looking at ourselves in a plane mirror or using a magnifying glass are virtual.) Nature of Science Deductive logic By definition, a virtual image cannot be observed directly. Knowledge about virtual images must come from logical reasoning and assessment of other known facts (by deduction). Because it is evidently true that (real) images are formed where rays that originated at a point on an object are brought back together at another point, it is logical to conclude that when we can see a virtual image, the image is formed in a similar way (by rays diverging from a virtual point). Deductive reasoning (logic) produces specific conclusions from generalized true statements. For example, because we know that all forces occur in pairs (from Newton s third law), we can deduce that a gun must recoil when it is fired.

7 Linear and angular magnification 15.1 (C1: Core) Introduction to imaging 7 The magnification of an image tells us how much bigger or smaller the image is compared to the object, but this can be expressed in two different ways. Linear magnification, m The linear magnification, m, of an image is defined as the ratio of the height of the image, h i, to the height of the object, h o. m = h i h o This equation is given in the Physics data booklet. Because m is a ratio it has no unit. If m is larger than one, the image is magnified; if m is smaller than one, the image is diminished (smaller). Angular magnification, M Sometimes the dimensions of an object and/or an image are not easily determined, or sometimes quoting a value for a linear magnification may be unhelpful or misleading. For example, an image of the Moon that had a diameter of 1 m would be impressive, but its linear magnification would be m = h i /h o = 1/( ) = In such cases the concept of angular magnification becomes useful. See Figure Figure 15.8 The concept of angular magnification top rays from object θ o bottom eye top rays from image formed by optical instrument θ i bottom eye Angular magnification, M, is defined as the angle subtended at the eye by the image, θ i, divided by the angle subtended at the eye by the object, θ o. Because it is a ratio, it has no unit. M = θ i θ o This equation is given in the Physics data booklet. Returning to the example of an image of the Moon, if a 1 m diameter image of the Moon was viewed from a distance of 2 m, it would subtend an angle of 1 rad (or 29 ) at the eye. The Moon is 2 an average distance of m from Earth, so it subtends an angle of ( )/( ) = rad at our eyes. The angular magnification is found from M = 0.50/ = 54.

8 8 15 Imaging 6 When a magnifying glass was used to look at a small insect it appeared to have a length 3.7 mm. If the linear magnification of the lens was 4.6, what was the real length of the insect? 7 A picture of width 4.0 cm and height 2.5 cm is projected on to a screen so that it is 83 cm wide. a What is the linear magnification? b How tall is the image? c By what factor has the area of the image increased? 8 The angular magnification of a telescope was 12 when it was used to look at a tree 18 m tall. If the tree was 410 m away, what angle was subtended by the image of the tree at the eye of the observer? Predicting the properties of real images formed by converging lenses The position and properties of an image can be predicted theoretically by using one of two methods: scale drawing (ray diagrams) the (thin lens) equation, which links the object and image positions to the focal length of the lens. Using ray diagrams Figure 15.9a shows rays that are coming from the top of an extended object (that is, it is not a point object) being focused to form an image. All rays incident on the lens are focused to the same point. If part of the lens was covered, an image would still be formed at the same point by the remaining rays. The predictable paths of three rays coming from the top of the object are highlighted. These same three rays can be used to locate the image in any situation. A ray parallel to the principal axis passes through the focal point. A ray striking the centre of the lens is undeviated. A ray passing through the focal point emerges from the lens parallel to the principal axis. Figure 15.9 Predicting the paths of rays between an object and its image using three standard rays a A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through the focal point (not to scale) object F 2F 2F' F' image A ray passing through the focal point is refracted parallel to the principal axis A ray passing through the centre of the lens is undeviated b (not to scale) F 2F 2F' F'

9 15.1 (C1: Core) Introduction to imaging 9 Note that the vertical scale of the diagram is misleading a light ray striking the centre of a small thin lens from an object some distance away will be incident almost normally, which is not apparent in this diagram. Of course, all the light from an object does not come from one point at the top. Figure 15.9b also shows the paths of three rays going from the middle of the object to the middle of the image. In the example shown in Figure 15.9, we can see from the ray diagram that the image is between the positions F and 2F (the point 2F is a distance 2f from the centre of the lens) and it is diminished, inverted and real. If the lens shown was replaced by a less powerful lens, the image would be further away, bigger and dimmer (but it would remain inverted and real). If a lens and object are brought closer together, the image stays real and inverted but becomes larger and further away from the lens (as well as dimmer). But if the object is placed at the focal point, the rays will emerge parallel and not form a useful real image (it is at infinity). Figure represents these possibilities in a series of diagrams for easy comparison. Object further than 2F' object 2F' F' F Image is real, diminished and inverted 2F image Object at 2F' object F Image is real, same size as object and inverted 2F 2F' F' image Object between F' and 2F' object F 2F Image is real, magnified and inverted 2F' F' image Object at F' Image is at infinity object F 2F 2F' F' Figure How the image changes when a converging lens moves closer to an object

10 10 15 Imaging If an object is placed closer to the lens than the focal point, the emerging rays diverge and cannot form a real image. Used in this way, a lens is acting as simple magnifying glass, and a virtual, magnified image can be seen by an eye looking through the lens, as shown in Figure 15.12, which will be discussed later in this chapter. 9 a Draw a ray diagram to determine the position and size of the image formed when an object 10 mm tall is placed 8.0 cm from a convex lens of focal length 5.0 cm. b What is the linear magnification of the image? 10 a Draw a ray diagram to determine the position and size of the image formed when an object 20 cm tall is placed 1.20 m from a convex lens of power 2.0 D. b What is the linear magnification of the image? 11 Construct a ray diagram to determine where an object must be placed in order to project an image of linear magnification 10 on to a screen that is 2.0 m from the lens. 12 An image of an object 2.0 cm in height is projected on to a screen that is 80 cm away from the object. Construct a ray diagram to determine the focal length of the lens if the linear magnification is a Describe the properties of images that are formed by cameras. b Draw a sketch to show a camera forming an image of a distant object. c How can a camera focus objects that are different distances away? Using the thin lens equation The thin lens equation provides a mathematical alternative to scale drawings for determining the position and properties of an image. In this equation the symbol u is used for the distance between the object and the centre of the lens (called the object distance) and the symbol v is used for the distance between the image and the centre of the lens (the image distance), as shown in Figure object h o F' F image h i f f object distance, u image distance, v Figure Object and image distances The thin lens equation is given in the Physics data booklet: 1 f = 1 v + 1 u It is possible to put in values for f and u (when u < f) that would lead to a negative value for the image distance, v, so we need to understand what that means. A negative image distance means that the image is virtual (we will discuss virtual images again in the next section). More generally, we need to make sure that when inputting data into the thin lens equation we use the correct signs, as summarized in the real is positive convention: Real is positive convention Converging lenses have positive focal lengths. Distances to real objects and images are positive.

11 Upright images have positive linear magnifications. Diverging lenses have negative focal lengths. Distances to virtual images are negative. Inverted images have negative linear magnifications (C1: Core) Introduction to imaging 11 Looking at the two similar triangles with marked angles in Figure 15.11, it should be clear that: h o u = h i v or h i = v h o u Therefore, the magnitude of the linear magnification, m, (= h i ) can also be calculated from v h o u, but a negative sign is added because of the real is positive convention : m = v u This equation is listed in the Physics data booklet. ToK Link Conventions Could sign convention, using the symbols of positive and negative, emotionally influence scientists? The real is positive convention is used in this course, but there is another widely used alternative (which is not included). There are other situations in physics were we need to decide on a convention (for example, current flowing from positive to negative). And the choice of positive charge for protons and negative for electrons could easily have been the other way around. Provided that everyone understands the convention that is being used, it is not of great significance which system is used, although through cultural influences we may subjectively be inclined to wrongly believe that positive is more important than negative. Worked example 2 a Use the thin lens formula to calculate the position of the image formed by a converging lens of focal length 15 cm when the object is placed 20 cm from the lens. b What is the linear magnification? c Is the image upright or inverted? a 1 f = 1 v + 1 u 1 15 = v v = 60 cm b m = v u = = 3.0 c The negative sign confirms that the image is inverted. Sometimes it is convenient to be able to calculate magnification from simply knowing how far an object is from a lens of known focal length; m = (v/u) can be combined with the lens equation to show that: f m = u f This equation is not given in the Physics data booklet.

12 12 15 Imaging Additional Perspectives Deriving the thin lens equation Consider Figure again. The ray passing through the focal point on the right-hand side of the lens forms the hypotenuse of two similar right-angled triangles. Comparing these two triangles, we can write: h o f = h i v f h i = v f h o f But we have already that h i = v h o u. Comparing the two equations, it is clear that: v u = v f f vf = uv uf, or vf + uf = uv Dividing by uvf, we get: 1 f = 1 v + 1 u The important simplifying assumptions made in this derivation are that: the ray parallel to the principal axis changes direction in the middle of the lens the ray passing through the middle of the lens does not deviate because it is incident normally. These assumptions are only valid for rays striking a thin lens close to the principal axis. 1 Draw a ray diagram showing the formation of a real image by the refraction of rays at both surfaces of a converging lens. Use the thin lens formula to answer the following questions about forming real images with convex lenses. 14 In an experiment investigating the properties of a converging lens, image distances were measured for a range of different object distances. a Sketch the shape of a graph that would directly represent the raw data. b How would you process the data and draw a graph that would enable an accurate determination of the focal length? 15 a Determine the position of the image when an object is placed 45 cm from a converging lens of focal length 15 cm. b Calculate the linear magnification. 16 a Where must an object be placed to project an image on to a screen 2.0 m away from a lens of focal length 20 cm? b What is the linear magnification? 17 An object is placed 10 cm away from a converging lens and forms an image with a linear magnification of 3.5. What is the focal length of the lens? 18 What power lens is needed to produce an image on a screen 12 cm away, so that the length of the image is 10 per cent of the length of the object? 19 a Derive the equation m = f/(u f). b What focal length of converging lens will produce a magnification of 2 when an object is placed 6.0 cm away from the lens?

13 15.1 (C1: Core) Introduction to imaging 13 The range of normal human vision The adult human eyeball is between 2 cm and 3 cm in diameter and the focal length of its lens system must be a similar length so that parallel light from distant objects is focused on the back of the eye (the retina). Muscles in the eye alter the shape of the lens in order to change its focal length (power) so that objects at different distances can be focused on the retina. These muscles are more relaxed when viewing distant objects and most strained when viewing close objects. However, the normal human eye is not powerful enough to focus light from an object that is closer than about 25 cm. A ray diagram, or the use of the thin lens formula, will confirm that the images formed on the retina are always real, inverted and diminished. The nearest point to the human eye at which an object can be clearly focused (without straining) is called its near point. The distance from the eye to the near point for a person with normal eyesight (without any aid) is usually assumed to be 25 cm. This distance is often given the symbol D. The furthest point from the human eye that an object can be clearly focused (without straining) is called its far point. A normal eye is capable of focusing objects that are a long way away (although they cannot be seen in detail). The far point is assumed to be at infinity for normal vision. Simple magnifying glass In order to see an object in more detail we can move it closer to our eyes, but it will not normally be in focus if the distance to the eye is less than 25 cm. The use of a single converging lens can help to produce a magnified image. Figure shows the use of a converging lens as a simple magnifying glass. It produces both an angular magnification and a linear magnification. Image at the near point h i virtual image at near point object F' h o θ i θi F u v = D Figure A simple magnifying glass forming an image at the near point of the eye (not to scale) The object must be placed closer to the lens than the focal point, so that the rays diverge into the eye, which then sees an upright virtual image. The image distance v is equal to D, assuming that the lens is close to the eye.

14 14 15 Imaging Worked example 3 A converging lens of focal length 8.0 cm is used to magnify an object 2.0 mm tall. a Where must the object be placed to form an image at the near point (v = 25 cm)? b What is the height of the image? c Is the image upright or inverted? This question could be answered by drawing a ray diagram, but we will use the thin lens formula. a 1 f = 1 v + 1 u = remembering that a virtual image must be given a negative image distance u u = 6.1 cm b m = v u = = 4.1 so the height of the image is = 8.2 mm c The magnification is positive, which means that the image is upright. But the height of the image cannot be measured directly, so we are usually more concerned about the angular magnification, M, of a magnifying glass than its linear magnification, m. angle subtended at the eye by the image formed at the near point M near point = angle subtended at the eye by the object placed at the near point Looking at Figure 15.12: M near point = θ i θ o = h i / D h o /D = h i h o Note that this is numerically the same as the linear magnification, m (= v/u), but because the height of a virtual image is not easily measurable we need to find an alternative method of calculating the magnification, and it is also desirable to be able to calculate the possible magnification directly from a knowledge of the focal length of the lens. Looking at the similar triangles in Figure containing the angle θ i, we see that: M near point = h i = D h o u But we want an equation that gives us the angular magnification in terms of f, not u. Multiplying the lens equation ( 1 f = 1 v + 1 ) throughout by v gives us: u v f = v v + v u Remember that in this situation v = D (the negative sign is included because the image is virtual), so we get: or D f = 1 M near point M near point = D f + 1 This equation is given in the Physics data booklet. Using the data from Worked example 3 gives M near point = = 4.1, as before. 8 Image at infinity Forming an image at the near point provides the largest possible magnification, but the image can also be formed at infinity and this allows the eye to be more relaxed. Figure shows that the object must be placed at the focal point.

15 15.1 (C1: Core) Introduction to imaging 15 virtual image at infinity h o F' θi θ i F f Figure A simple magnifying glass with the image at infinity From Figure we see that θ i = h o, so that: M infinity = θ i θ o = h o f h o D f M infinity = D f This equation is given in the Physics data booklet. By adjusting the distance between the object and the lens, the angular magnification can be adjusted from D to D + 1, but the lens aberrations (see later) of high-power (small f) lenses f f limit the magnification possible with a single lens. A typical focal length for a magnifying glass is about 10 cm, which will produce an angular magnification between 2.5 and 3.5. More magnification would require a lens of greater curvature and too many aberrations. 20 a Draw an accurate ray diagram to show the formation of the image when an object is placed 5.0 cm away from a converging lens of focal length 8.0 cm. b Use the diagram to determine the linear magnification. 21 Use the thin lens formula to predict the nature, position and linear magnification of the image formed by a converging lens of power +20 D when it is used to look at an object 4.0 cm from the lens. 22 What is the focal length of a converging lens that produces a virtual image of length 5.8 cm when viewing a spider of length 1.8 cm placed at a distance of 6.9 cm from the lens? 23 a Calculate the angular magnification produced by a converging lens of focal length 12 cm when observing an image at the near point. b In what direction would the lens need to be moved in order for the image to be moved to infinity and for the eye to be more relaxed? c When the lens is adjusted in this way, what happens to the angular magnification? 24 What power lens will produce an angular magnification of 3.0 of an image at infinity? 25 Two small objects that are 0.10 mm apart can just be distinguished as separate when they are placed at the near point. What is the closest they can be together and still be distinguished when a normal human eye views them using a simple magnifying glass that has a focal length of 8.0 cm? 26 a Where must an object be placed for a virtual image to be seen at the near point when using a lens of focal length 7.5 cm? b Calculate the angular magnification in this position. Predicting properties of virtual images formed by diverging lenses Because they do not form real images, diverging lenses have fewer uses than converging lenses. However, ray diagrams and the thin lens equation can be used for them in the same way as for converging lenses.

16 16 15 Imaging Worked example 4 A 2.0 cm tall object is placed 6.0 cm from a diverging lens of focal length 4.0 cm. Determine the properties of the image by: a using a ray diagram b using the lens equation. a Figure shows an image that is virtual, upright, 0.8 cm tall and 2.4 cm from the centre of the lens. O F' I F Figure Virtual upright image formed by a diverging lens (not to scale) 1 b f = 1 v + 1 u = 1 v v = 12 = 2.4 cm 5 The negative sign represents a virtual image. m = v u = 2.4 = +0.40; so the image size = = 0.80 cm 6.0 The positive sign represents an upright image. Combining lenses If two lenses are used in an optical system, the final image can be predicted by treating the image formed by the first lens as the object for the second lens. Figure shows an example in which the virtual image formed by the diverging lens in Figure is used to form a second, real image by a converging lens of focal length 3.0 cm with its centre 3.1 cm from the centre of the diverging lens. The blue lines are just construction lines used to locate the top of the final image. Figure Combining lenses (not to scale) F I 2 O I 1 From a scale drawing we can see that the final image is real and inverted. It is located 6.6 cm from the converging lens and its size is 1.0 cm.

17 15.1 (C1: Core) Introduction to imaging 17 Alternatively, we can locate the image using the lens equation: = 1 v + 1 ( ) v = 6.6 cm The positive sign represents a real image. so: m = v u = = 1.2 final image size = = 0.96 cm The negative sign represents an inverted image. Optical powers of lens combinations When two or more thin lenses are placed close together, the optical power of the combination is approximately equal to the sum of their individual powers. For example, combining a +4 D lens with a 1.5 D lens will produce a combined power of +2.5 D. In terms of focal lengths, combining a converging lens of focal length 25 cm with a diverging lens of focal length 67 cm will have a combined focal length of 40 cm. Utilizations Correcting vision defects The distance between the lens and the retina in an adult human eye is typically about 1.7 cm. This means that a normal human eye has a focal length of about 1.7 cm when viewing a distant object (at the far point), which is equivalent to a power of about +60 D. The shape of the lens can be controlled so that the power can be varied in order to focus objects that are different distances away. For example, when observing an object 25 cm from the eye (at the standard near point) the focal length needs to be 1.5 cm, which is equivalent to a power of +67 D. In other words, the eye needs to accommodate objects at different distances by changing its power by up to +7 D. Younger people can normally use the muscles in their eyes to change the power of their eyes by approximately +10D, but as people get older most of them gradually lose this ability, and by the age of 70 many are unable to achieve a wide range of focus. Most commonly, older eyes have insufficient optical power to be able focus on close objects and need spectacles with converging lenses to provide the extra power needed for reading. 4 D +63 D retina Figure Correcting short-sight (the red lines show the paths that the rays would follow without the lens) Figure shows a common eye defect in younger people. Light from a distant object is focused slightly in front of the retina. A simplified interpretation might be that the lens is too powerful to form an image on the retina because it has a focal length of, for example, 1.6 cm instead of the required 1.7 cm (a power of +63 D instead of +59 D). This defect can be corrected by using spectacles of power 4 D (diverging lenses). 1 Find out how laser eye surgery can be used to correct vision defects and the circumstances under which it may be considered suitable or unsuitable. Spherical and chromatic aberrations Aberration is the term we use to describe the fact that, with real lenses, all the light coming from the same place on an object does not focus in exactly the same place on the image (as simple optics theory suggests). There are two principal kinds of aberration spherical and chromatic.

18 18 15 Imaging Figure represents spherical aberration. This is the inability of a lens, which has surfaces that are spherically shaped, to focus parallel rays that strike the lens at different distances from the principal axis to the same point. Spherical aberration results in unwanted blurring and distortion of images (see Figure 15.18), but in good-quality lenses the effect is reduced by adjusting the shape of the lens. However, this cannot completely remove aberration for all circumstances. The effects can also be reduced by only letting light rays strike close to the centre of the lens. In photography the size of the aperture (opening) through which light passes Figure Spherical aberration of monochromatic before it strikes the lens can be decreased to reduce the effects light (exaggerated) of spherical aberration. This is commonly known as stopping down the lens, but it has the disadvantage of reducing the amount of light passing into the camera and may also produce unwanted diffraction effects. Figure represents chromatic aberration. Chromatic aberration is the inability of a lens to refract parallel rays of light of different colours (wavelengths) to the same focal point. Any transparent medium has slightly different refractive indices for light of different frequencies, so that white light may be dispersed into different colours when it is refracted. Typically, chromatic aberration leads to the blurring of images and gives images red or blue/violet edges. white light object image Figure Typical distortion produced by spherical aberration (exaggerated) Figure Chromatic aberration Chromatic aberration can be reduced by combining two or more lenses together. For example, a converging lens can be combined with a diverging lens (of a different refractive index), so that the second lens eliminates the chromatic aberration caused by the first (see Figure 15.20). Figure Combining lenses of different refractive indices to correct for chromatic aberration white light diverging lens converging lens In the modern world we are surrounded by optical equipment capable of capturing video and still pictures and the quality of lenses has improved enormously in recent years. The quality of the images produced by the best modern camera lenses is highly impressive (Figure 15.21) and the improved detection of low light levels has meant that lenses (in mobile phones for example) can be very small, so that aberrations are less significant.

19 15.1 (C1: Core) Introduction to imaging 19 Figure This lens achieves top-quality images by having a large number of lens elements 27 a What is the focal length of a diverging lens that will produce an image 8.0 cm from its centre when an object is placed 10.0 cm from the lens? b List the properties of the image. 28 Suggest how the focal length of a diverging lens can be determined experimentally. 29 Two converging lenses with focal lengths of 10 cm and 20 cm are placed with their centres 30 cm apart. What is the linear magnification produced by this system when an object is placed 75 cm from the midpoint between the two lenses? Does this question have two different answers? 30 Make a copy of Figure and show on it where a screen would have to be placed to obtain an image with blue edges. 31 Draw a diagram(s) to illustrate the improved focusing achieved by stopping down a lens. 32 Suggest why lens aberrations tend to be worse for higher-power lenses. 33 In order to reduce chromatic aberration a converging lens of power +25 D was combined with a diverging lens of power 12 D. What is the focal length of this combination? a b centre of curvature F converging (concave) mirror focal length, f radius of curvature diverging (convex) mirror focal length, f radius of curvature Figure Reflection by spherical surfaces F normals centre of curvature principal axis principal axis Converging and diverging mirrors Mirrors with curved surfaces can also be used to focus images. The terminology and the principles involved are very similar to those already discussed concerning lenses. Figure shows the action of spherically shaped reflecting surfaces on parallel wavefronts represented by rays. Once again, the theory will assume that the rays are close to the principal axis and strike the mirror almost perpendicularly (the diagrams are exaggerated for clarity). The directions of the reflected rays can be predicted using the law of reflection (angle of incidence = angle of reflection). The concave surface (a) reflects the rays so that they converge to a real focal point, F, so the mirror is described as a converging mirror. The convex surface (b) reflects the rays so that they diverge from a virtual focal point, F, so the mirror is described as a diverging mirror. The distance from the centre of curvature of the spherical surface to the surface of the mirror is equal to twice the focal length, 2f. The properties of the image formed by a converging mirror can be investigated using an illuminated object and moving a screen (and/or the object) until a well-focused image is observed. Variations in the image can be observed when the mirror is moved, or if the mirror is exchanged for another with a different focal length.

20 20 15 Imaging Using ray diagrams to predict the properties of images in converging mirrors As with lens diagrams, there are three rays, the paths of which we can always predict. An incident ray parallel to the principal axis will be reflected through the focal point, or be reflected so that it appears to come from the focal point. An incident ray passing through the focal point will be reflected parallel to the principal axis. An incident ray passing through (or directed towards) the centre of curvature will be reflected back along the same path. Figure uses these rays to predict the properties of images in a converging mirror. Figure How the image changes as an object is brought closer to a converging mirror O C F I O C I F O I C F O C F image at infinity O I C F

21 15.1 (C1: Core) Introduction to imaging 21 Figure shows us that as the object gets closer to the lens, the real inverted image gets larger and further away from the lens. But if the object is closer than the focal point the image is virtual, upright and magnified. Linear magnification, m = h i h o = v u (as with lenses) Angular magnification, M = θ i θ o (as with lenses) Worked example 5 When a 3.2 cm tall object is placed 5.1 cm from a converging mirror, a magnified virtual image is formed 9.7 cm from the mirror. a What is the linear magnification? b How tall is the image? a m = v u = = 1.9 b m = h i h o 1.9 = h i 3.2 h i = = 6.1 cm Diverging mirrors Figure show the formation of a diminished, upright, virtual image by a diverging mirror. This can be very useful when we need to see a wide field of vision, Figure shows one application a car s wing mirror. O small, upright virtual image C F F C Figure Producing small virtual images using a diverging mirror Figure Wide field of vision produced by a car s wing mirror mirror A O Mirror combinations Ray diagrams for locating the image formed by two curved mirrors can be difficult to draw because they usually do not share the same single principal axis. Figure shows an example. The object, O, forms a real, magnified, inverted image, I A, after the light has been reflected by the converging mirror, A. The principal axis of A has been drawn in two positions, the second of which is also the principal axis of the diverging mirror, B. Remember that in ray tracing we always assume that the rays are close to the principal axis and strike the mirror perpendicularly, even though this may not be represented well in the diagrams. F A F A F B I A mirror B I B F B C B Figure Forming an image using two curved mirrors

22 22 15 Imaging I A then provides the object that produces the (still) inverted, virtual image, I B, when the rays reflect off the diverging mirror, B. (The blue line is a construction line used to determine the position of the top of the image.) Spherical aberration in mirrors We have been assuming that spherical surfaces produce perfect focuses, and that is an acceptable assumption for rays close to the principal axis striking the surface almost perpendicularly, but for many applications (especially for larger mirrors) we need to be more realistic. Figure shows the effect of diverse reflections from a large spherical surface (the shape seen is often called a caustic curve). Spherical aberration can be overcome by adapting the shape of the reflecting surface. Parabolic reflectors can produce much better focuses than spherical surfaces see Figure Receiving dishes for satellite broadcasts are a good example of this kind of converging reflector. Figure Spherical aberration prevents a perfect focus Figure A parabolic surface can produce a good focus The same idea can be used in reverse. If a point source of light (or other radiation) is placed at, or near, the focus of a parabolic reflector, the emerging beam will be parallel, or have a low divergence. The beams from a torch, car headlight or spotlight (Figure 15.29) are good examples of beams with only small divergence, which are produced by parabolic reflecting surfaces. Figure The low divergence beam from a spotlight

23 15.2 (C2: Core) Imaging instrumentation Draw a ray diagram to determine the properties of the image formed when an object 1.5 cm tall is placed 7.0 cm from a converging mirror of focal length 5 cm. 35 a Draw a ray diagram of a diverging lens forming an image of an object placed between the mirror and its focal point. b Describe the properties of the image. 36 a A make-up/shaving mirror uses a curved mirror. Describe the image seen. b What kind of mirror is used, and typically how far away would a face be when using such a mirror? c Suggest a suitable focal length for such a mirror. 37 Draw a ray diagram to locate the final image formed by the following optical arrangement. An object is placed 20 cm away from a large converging mirror of focal length 8 cm; the image formed is located 4 cm in front of a small converging mirror of focal length 5 cm. The two mirrors face each other. 38 Draw ray diagrams to represent: a spherical aberration in a diverging mirror b the production of the light beam from a car headlight (C2: Core) Imaging instrumentation optical microscopes and telescopes utilize similar physical properties of lenses and mirrors; analysis of the universe is performed both optically and by using radio telescopes to investigate different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum In this section we will look at how lenses and/or mirrors can be combined to produce optical images better than can be seen by the eye or by the use of a single lens. Similar ideas can then be applied to the use of other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum for imaging, in particular the use of radio waves in astronomy. Extending the range of human senses in these ways has contributed enormously to our expanding knowledge of both the microscopic world and the rest of the universe. Optical compound microscopes If we want to observe an image of a nearby object with a higher magnification than can be provided with a single lens, a second converging lens can be used to magnify the first image (see Figure 15.30). The lens closer to the object is called the objective lens and the second lens, closer to the eye, is called the eyepiece lens. Two lenses used in this way are described as a compound microscope. Note that the size of the lenses and their separation are not drawn to scale. objective lens eyepiece lens object F o real, magnified image produced by the objective F e construction line F e F o final inverted, magnified, virtual image D Figure Compound microscope with the final image at the near point (normal adjustment)

24 24 15 Imaging bright light Figure Investigating a model microscope eyepiece lens translucent screen objective lens The object to be viewed under the microscope is placed just beyond the focal point of the objective lens, so that a real image is formed between the two lenses with a high magnification. The eyepiece lens is then used as a magnifying glass, and its position is adjusted to give as large an image as possible with the final virtual image usually at, or very close to, the near point of the eye. This is called normal adjustment. To locate the image by drawing you need to find the point where the construction line through the centre of the eyepiece from the top of the first image meets the extension of the ray from the first image that passes through the focal point. A model of a simple compound microscope can be investigated in a darkened room as shown in Figure To begin with, a converging lens with a focal length of about 5 cm is used to form an inverted image of a brightly illuminated object (e.g. graph paper) on a translucent screen. Then, the position of a second, less-powerful lens is adjusted until a second (virtual) image of the first image is seen when looking through this eyepiece. The screen can then be removed and the two lenses used together to observe the scale, so that the magnification of the image can be estimated. As with many optical experiments, keeping the eye and all the components aligned is important for success. Angular magnification The angular magnification produced by a compound microscope is equal to the product of the linear magnification of the objective lens multiplied by the angular magnification of the eyepiece lens. For an image at the near point: M overall = m objective M eyepiece = v u objective D f + 1 eyepiece This equation is not given in the Physics data booklet. If the final image is at infinity (for less eye strain) the +1 term can be omitted. Worked example 6 A compound microscope contains an objective lens of focal length 0.80 cm and an eyepiece lens of focal length 5.4 cm. The microscope is adjusted to form a final image at the near point of the eye for an object placed 0.92 cm in front of the objective. a Determine the distance between the two lenses. b What is the angular magnification of the image? a First find the image distance for the objective: 1 = 1 f v + 1 u = 1 v v = 6.1 cm Then find the object distance for the eyepiece: = u (remembering that virtual image distances are negative) u = 4.4 cm distance between lenses = v + u = = 10.5 cm b M = ( v u) ( D objective f + 1 ) eyepiece M = ( ) ( ) = 37

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