DEFINITION OF EPILEPSY
n epileptic seizure is a transient occurrence of signs and/or symptoms due to abnormal excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain. Epilepsy is a disorder of the brain characterized by an enduring predisposition to generate epileptic seizures, and by the neurobiological, cognitive, psychological, and social consequences of this condition. The definition of epilepsy requires the occurrence of at least one epileptic seizure.

herefore, a seizure is the event and epilepsy is the disorder. By definition, one seizure does not make epilepsy, nor does a small series of seizures that have an immediate precipitating factor, for example, alcohol withdrawal seizures. The seizures must be spontaneous and recurrent to represent epilepsy. eizures result from an electrochemical disorder in the brain. Brain cells use chemical reactions to produce electrical discharges. Each brain cell either excites or inhibits other brain cells with its discharges. When the balance of excitation and inhibition in a region of brain is moved too far in the direction of excitation, then a seizure can result. he type of seizure depends upon several factors. One of the most important factors is where in the brain the abnormal electrical discharge occurs. Figure 1 shows the four lobes of the brain (frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital) and where key regions of the brain are located. Strength and sensation are laid out along the border of the frontal and parietal lobes, with strength more toward the front (frontal) and skin sensation more toward the back (parietal) of the strip.

oving laterally and down the brain are control areas for trunk, arm, hand, fingers, face, lips, and tongue, with tongue most laterally and inferiorly on the motor strip. The progression of electrical activity during a seizure can march through this area activating each muscle group in sequence over seconds to minutes. A talking center, called Broca‟s area, is located in the left frontal lobe in front of the motor strip, and a speech comprehension area called Wernicke‟s area in the left temporal-parietal region for most right-handers. Speech centers may be on the right or both sides for left-handers. Visual perception is governed from the posterior poles of the occipital lobes. In general, brain functions are crossed: the left side of the brain receives information from, and gives information to, the right side of the body, and vice versa. The reason for this

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Figure 1: Brain Regions

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crossed wiring is lost in evolution, but it started when we were fish. he undersurface of the temporal lobe is particularly prone to have seizures. The temporal lobes include the parts of the brain most commonly involved in adult epilepsy. Such temporal structures are given Greek names, such as “amygdala” (almond) and “hippocampus” (seahorse). The amygdala and hippocampus are targets for surgical removal in surgery for epilepsy (see discussion later). These structures are also involved in expression of emotionality and in ability to form memories.

volume 6, page 115. Let's consider a few examples of famous people with seizures, divided into categories.

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n simple terms, if an abnormal electrical discharge originates in motor cortex: the patient will experience a motor seizure; if in sensory cortex: a sensory perception; if in visual cortex: lights, flashes, or jagged lines. Seizures in deep temporal lobe structures present with arrest of activities, loss of memory or awareness, and automatic (robotlike) behavior. If a seizure spreads to all regions of brain, then a tonic-clonic (grand mal) seizure results, with loss of consciousness, stiffening and jerking. Before discussing the details of seizures and epilepsy, it is worth making the point that epilepsy is common. Because of the social stigma of this disease, many people with epilepsy do not make it publically known.

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World Leaders:
 Julius Caesar is portrayed as having epilepsy. In the epic movie, Caesar and Cleopatra, starring Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor, Caesar expresses his fear of having an attack while he is addressing the Roman populace. The online encyclopedia, Wikipedia, says that Caesar had four documented episodes that might have represented complex partial seizures, and may have had seizures in his youth. However, other conditions have been argued, such as low blood sugar or shaking chills from malaria. Alexander the Great, who lived from 356 to 323 BC and conquered much of the known world, may have had epilepsy, but evidence is unsubstantial. He was reported to collapse once after taking a strong medicine for a respiratory ailment brought about by swimming in an icy river, but there is no definite historical record for epilepsy. Czar Peter the Great, father of modern Russia, developed a brain infection (encephalitis) at age 21 and thereafter developed seizures with twitching of his left face and left body, and sometimes loss of consciousness. Charles V, King of Austria and Holy Roman Emperor in the mid-1500‟s suffered from epilepsy, but reportedly even more so from gout. Another Charles, Charles II of Spain was said to be "short, lame and epileptic." Yet another Charles, King Charles II of England developed convulsive status epilepticus in 1685. The treatments he underwent included: "let-

WHO GETS EPILEPSY?

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pilepsy is a very common condition. The risk for epilepsy among the U.S. population in general is one percent. Up to 5% or more of the population may have at least one seizure from any cause in their lifetime. Anyone can get epilepsy, from young babies to old men and women. We are learning that epilepsy may have its onset in old age as well as in childhood.

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ll of the individuals in the figure below had seizures, but not all had epilepsy, defined as spontaneously recurrent seizures. ince epilepsy affects approximately 1% of the world‟s population, it is not surprising to learn that several public and historical figures have had seizures. Particularly for those who lived long ago, the historical record can be uncertain, leading to speculation rather than fact. For others, a diagnosis of seizures is more secure. Some of the public figures probably had acute symptomatic seizures, for example from alcohol withdrawal or a severe medical illness. This would not lead in modern times to a diagnosis of epilepsy, which requires spontaneously recurrent seizures. A few others may have had psychologically generated episodes that imitated seizures. For a scholarly historical review of the subject, see an article by Prof. John Hughes in the journal Epilepsy & Behavior 2005, 

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ting" of one pint of blood; an enema of antimony, sacred bitters, rock salt, marrow leaves, violets, beetroot, chamomile flowers, fennel seeds, linseed, cinnamon, cardamon seeds, and aloe; and having his head shaved and blistered. This concoction was not successful.  Prince John was the youngest son of King George V of England around the time of World War I. Because of the prince's epilepsy, he was hidden away from the public, until dying from an epileptic seizure at age 13.

Writers and Artists:
Many writers, composers and artists have been thought to have had epilepsy.  Dostoevsky wrote letters speaking of his own epilepsy, which was present by time of his release from a Siberian prison, if not before. Dostoevsky instilled characters with epilepsy into at least four of his novels, and gave detailed descriptions of fictional seizures. Another Russian writer, Leo Tolstoy, had convulsions in his last months of life in 1910, as part of a terminal illness. Painter Vincent van Gogh is on poster charts for epilepsy organizations as an example of a historical figure with seizures. It is indeed likely that he had seizures, possibly resulting from consumption of potent forms of absinthe liquor (in those years containing toxins) in Paris at the end of the 19th century. He additionally had bouts of manic-depressive illness that could have been mistaken for seizures. The author of the novel Mme. Bovary, Gustav Flaubert, had either epileptic or psychogenic seizures. The poet, Lord Byron, had several episodes of shaking, foaming at the mouth and unresponsiveness, believed to be either epileptic or psychogenic seizures.

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 Napoleon Bonaparte is said by Prof. Hughes (Epilepsy & Behavior 2003, volume 4, page 793) to have had symptomatic seizures resulting from kidney failure as well as psychogenic seizures resulting from stress. Pope Pius IX, who in the 1800‟s became the longest serving pontiff in history, is said by Wikipedia to have had childhood epilepsy and to have died from a heart attack resulting from a seizure. Martha Parke Custis, the step-daughter of George Washington, had uncontrolled seizures, and our first president attempted to help her control them with the valerian root, mercury, spring water and bloodletting. US President James Madison was said to have either epilepsy or psychogenic seizures, with historian R.A. Rutland (1987) reporting Madison to have monthly “high fevers, diarrhea, and seizures similar to those suffered by epileptics.” Vladimir Lenin, revolutionary founder of the Soviet Union, developed seizures in his later years and died from status epilepticus recorded as lasting 50 minutes. In 1919, an assassination attempt left a bullet in his right neck. Three years later it was removed, and shortly thereafter he had three strokes which may have been the cause of his epilepsy. However, other historians argue that he had seizures for years, which were publically ignored because of his political position. Senator Ted Kennedy first manifested his brain tumor by having a seizure. Subsequently, he had others.  US Supreme Court Chief Justice John Roberts had generalized seizures in 1993 and 2007, with no cause released to the public.  

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Actors:
Several modern actors have been observed to have seizures.  Richard Burton could consume multiple bottles of vodka in a day, and his seizures may have been from alcohol withdrawal. It was ironically with some personal experience that he acted having a seizure in the film Caesar and Cleopatra. Bud Abbott, the skinny straight man in the Abbott and Costello comedy team, had epileptic seizures throughout his life, and is said to have attempted to camouflage them with bouts of heavy alcohol consumption. Danny Glover, star of many movies including the Lethal Weapon series, has been public about his previous history of epilepsy. Mr. Glover says that he developed "a way of concentrating so that seizures wouldn't happen," and he has been seizure free since age 35.

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Hugo Weaving, who played the leader of the Elves in Lord of the Rings, and the nearly invincible virtual villain in The Matrix, indicates that he has been treated for epilepsy since age 13. Margot Hemingway, actress, was the granddaughter of Ernest Hemingway and sister to Mariel Hemingway. Margot Hemingway was taking phenobarbital for lifelong epilepsy, and in possibly died from the combination of phenobarbital and alcohol.

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Truman Capote, writer of Breakfast at Tiffany's and In Cold Blood had seizures. He was a heavy drinker and the cause may have been alcohol withdrawal. Tony Coelho is the former Democratic minority whip of the US House of Representatives. His lifelong experience with epilepsy motivated him to author the landmark legislation Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. He also served as campaign manager for Al Gore's presidential run. Mr. Coello is the honorary life chair of the Epilepsy Foundation. Singer Neil Young, of Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, thrived despite numerous medical problems, including seizures. He once had a seizure during a concert performance, but he persevered, later remarked commenting, "The aneurysm, polio, epilepsy - all those things are just part of the landscape.” Entertainer Prince, told interviewer Tavis Smiley in 2009 that he was "born epileptic" and "used to have seizures" but was cured by an angel. DJ Hapa is a famous scratch disk jockey with epilepsy. He serves as a spokesperson for the Epilepsy Therapy Project. Jet Travolta, son of John Travolta and Kelly Preston, tragically died from a seizure in 2009. Equally tragic was the death of the 6 year-old son of David Cameron, the Prime Minister of the UK.

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Athletes:
 Florence Griffith Joyner (FloJo) was a world record setting sprinter. Possibly because of abnormal brain blood vessels called cavernous angiomas, she developed seizures and passed away during her sleep from a seizure. At least three NFL football stars have publically discussed their seizures. Baltimore Ravens cornerback Samari Rolle indicated that he missed parts of the NFL season because of epilepsy. Jason Snelling was diagnosed with epilepsy at age 15, but still made it to the starting lineup for the Atlanta Falcons. Alan Faneca, the Pittsburgh Steelers Pro Bowl guard, has had epilepsy since his teens. He does extensive volunteer work for the Epilepsy Community. Chanda Gunn was goalie in the 2006 Winter Olympics US women's hockey team. She has had seizures since age 9, and serves as a spokesperson for epilepsy and the Epilepsy Therapy Project. Bobby Jones, was an NBA basketball player for 13 years, with four years in the All-Stars. He took medications for epilepsy during his athletic career.

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Other public figures:
 Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite, and founder of the Nobel Prize once wrote of probable childhood febrile seizures: "I scarce could muster strength to drain the breast, and the convulsions that followed, till I gasped upon the brink of nothingness." It is, however, difficult to find evidence for seizures later in his life. Peter Tchaikovsky died from cholera with convulsions at the end of the terminal illness. It has been speculated that blank periods of distraction with automatic behavior earlier in life represented partial seizures, but this cannot be proven.

t is safe to say that many more famous people have epilepsy, but do not reveal it in public because of the ongoing stigma associated with the condition. What lessons can be learned from a list such as the above? Epilepsy can strike anybody at any station of life or level of accomplishment. Epilepsy can be deadly and devastating to a person's life, even if they enjoy other successes. Lastly, epilepsy does not exclude the possibility of major accomplishments and contributions.

SEIZURE CLASSIFICATION
n order to communicate about types of seizures, epilepsy specialists have developed a classification system for seizures. This system is not based on any fundamental property of seizures, but rather on committee-generated conventions of terminology. As such, the classification will change with changes in knowledge about epilepsy. Since the seizure classification describes behaviors during seizures, it is easiest to learn the different types of seizures by watching videotapes of seizures. This is not possible in

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and we will therefore give brief descriptions of the main seizure types. the patient is “post-ictal”:
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Generalized Seizures
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eneralized seizures are divided into several categories as listed in Table 1. During the complex partial seizure patients may fumble or perform automatic fragments of activity such as lip smacking.
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Absence seizures previously were called petit mal seizures. Simple partial seizures can be motor seizures with twitching. All such simple partial seizures will be in clear consciousness and with full recall on the part of the patient. then the seizure is classified as a complex partial seizure. nausea. typical or atypical (petit mal) Tonic-Clonic (grand mal) Myoclonic Atonic Tonic Unclassifiable
Partial Seizures
artial seizures are further divided into simple partial seizures with no alteration of consciousness or memory. TABLE 1: SIMPLIFIED INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF SEIZURES Partial Seizures (Focal. flushing. Absence seizures usually have onset in childhood. sounds or smells. picking at their clothes. About 75% of people with complex partial seizures have automatisms. Generalized tonic-clonic seizures usually last one to three minutes. not because of pain. Complex partial seizures may have an aura. “temporal lobe seizures” or “limbic seizures”.
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bout half of the patients do not have any remembered aura. abnormal sensations. typically a familiar feeling (deja vu). walking around aimlessly. Partial seizures have onset on one side of the brain. Absence seizures usually are briefer and permit quicker recovery. These words are all synonyms.
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Tonic-Clonic Seizures eneralized tonic-clonic seizures previously were called grand mal seizures. If the patient becomes confused or cannot remember what is happening during the seizure.
Absence Seizures
. resulting in focal symptomatology such as twitching in an arm or face. These seizures can be difficult to distinguish from complex partial seizures that also may result in staring. Seizures are divided first into two categories: partial (focal) and generalized. or complex partial seizures with alteration of consciousness or memory. tingling. stare and blank out for a few seconds to minutes. Complex Partial Seizures omplex partial seizures previously were called “psychomotor seizures”. These purposeless activities are called automatisms. sometimes in conjunction with eyelid fluttering or head nodding. The EEG also helps to distinguish an absence from a complex partial seizure (see below). Seizure activity can spread to the autonomic nervous system. or saying nonsense phrases over and over again. Absence seizures present with staring spells lasting several seconds. These seizures start with sudden loss of consciousness and tonic activity (stiffening) followed by clonic activity (rhythmic jerking) of the limbs. After the seizure. a sensory change. but because of contraction of the respiratory muscles against a closed throat. heat or tingling. epilepsy specialists believe that generalized seizures originate in deep structures of the brain and travel to the cortical surface where we can see the manifestations of the seizure emerge relatively simultaneously. In fact. which is a warning for the seizure. able 1 shows the international classification of seizures. The seizure itself is called an ictus. or even the focal type of change in memory that occurs with temporal lobe seizures.a written text. abnormal visions. Generalized seizures apparently start on both sides of the brain. The patient‟s eyes will roll up at the beginning of the seizure and the patient will typically emit a cry. or distortion of sensory perceptions. or nausea. and distortions of perception. start in one place) Simple (no loss of consciousness/memory) Sensory Motor Sensory-Motor Psychic (abnl thoughts / perceptions) Autonomic (Heat. Those who do not simply stop. GI) Complex (loss of consciousness / memory) With or without aura (warning) With or without automatisms Secondarily generalized (spreads) Generalized Absence. but they can persist into adulthood. resulting in flushing.

Other specialized seizure types occasionally are encountered. This is a broader classification. Arms or legs may extend forward or up into the air. During flexor spasms. whereas. the clonic (jerking) phase is absent. However. but a few specific epileptic syndromes are worthy of individual discussion. Anti-
yndrome names employ the terms “symptomatic. associated with sudden epileptic flexor spasms and a high risk for cognitive impairment. primarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures are not surgical candidates. The episode is over within seconds. because stiffening is a feature of many complex partial seizures. Consciousness may or may not be lost. primary generalized tonic-clonic seizures about 20%. from those that start focally and secondarily generalize.sluggish. absence about 10% and other seizure types for 10%. not just a description of the seizure type. Tonic seizures. Seizure surgery is discussed below. variably for hours. Football helmets are sometimes required to protect against serious injuries. cause. Cryptogenic implies that a symptomatic cause is suspected. absence seizures occupy a greater proportion. Secondarily generalized seizures arise from a part of the brain that is focally abnormal. depending upon the cause and location of the focal brain abnormality. flex forward at the trunk and emit a cry. with high voltage
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. however.” and “cryptogenic. generalized from the start. severity. for example.
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Localization-Related Epilepsy
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ocalization-related epilepsy connotes partial (focal) seizures.” Symptomatic implies that the seizures have a known underlying cause. In a pediatric population. Patients with secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures may be candidates for curative epilepsy surgery (see below). are much less common than are complex partial or tonic-clonic seizures. By definition.
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Tonic Seizures onic seizures involve stiffening of muscles as the primary seizure manifestation. see below) pattern is hypsarhythmia.
What Types are Common?
omplex partial seizures account for about 40% of all seizure types in adults. sleepy and confused. More on this later. It is important. Simple partial seizures account for about 20%. Spasms appear in children. the child may suddenly extend his or her limbs. the term has taken on the meaning of epilepsy with genetic causes. among epilepsy specialists. Secondarily Generalized Seizures eizures that begin focally can spread to the entire brain. in which case a tonic-clonic seizure ensues. People with atonic seizures suddenly become limp and may fall to the ground. age 3 months to about 3 years. but not yet found. for example. to a complex partial seizure (when the patient becomes confused). Mixed Seizure Types atients can have more than one seizure type.
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Classification of Epilepsy Syndromes
seizure classification does not specify much about the clinical condition of the patients.
Infantile spasms / West’s syndrome
nfantile spasms are a type of symptomatic generalized epilepsy.
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Myoclonic Seizures myoclonic seizure is a brief un-sustained jerk or series of jerks. The whole classification will not be given here. Idiopathic literally means without known cause. and no known structural brain abnormality. Drugs used to treat primarily and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures are different. One seizure type may progress into another as the electrical activity spreads throughout the brain. An additional classification system therefore has been developed to classify epileptic syndromes. or prognosis. Classification can be difficult. but can recur multiple times per hour. to a secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizure (when the electrical activity has spread throughout the entire brain). Any seizure can have a postictal period.
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Atonic Seizures tonic seizures are epileptic drop attacks. however. a prior stroke. Atonic seizures typically occur in children or adults with widespread brain injuries.
epileptic medications enhance the ability of the brain to limit spread of a seizure. because there is no seizure origin site (focus) to remove. less organized than the rhythmic jerks seen during a generalized tonic-clonic seizure.” “idiopathic. An associated electroencephalographic (EEG. The EEG pattern typically shows a focal electrical abnormality. The brain has control mechanisms to keep seizures localized. A typical progression is from a simple partial seizure. but information about the clinical features of the whole patient. Prognosis is highly variable. to distinguish those that are true grand mal. since it includes.

A few patients may respond to vagus nerve stimulators or the ketogenic diet (see below). Patients typically have myoclonus (limb jerking). 3. Onset usually is in childhood.spikes and a disordered high-voltage background. Since the epilepsy usually is widespread in the brain. vigabatrin. Many pediatric neurologists believe that treatment of febrile seizures is worse than the occasional seizure. not because individual seizures are minor.
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Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy
uvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME) is the most common generalized seizure syndrome in young adults. officially called corpus callosotomy. The large majority of children who have febrile seizures will not go on to have lifelong epilepsy. Phenobarbital is the usual medication used to prevent febrile seizures. Depending upon severity of seizures. can reduce the sudden onset of seizures and prevent injuries. ACTH. and occasional generalized tonic-clonic seizures. Unfortunately. but are not very effective. zonisamide. zonisamide. Among the newer medications. around age 6 to 16 years old. complex partial (previously called psychomotor or temporal
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. so treatment usually should be life-long. but therapy remains unsatisfactory. but there is no good evidence that trying to prevent febrile seizures reduces this risk. BRE may or may not be treated with antiepileptic medications. levetiracetam. Responsiveness to medications. Daily phenobarbital produces hyperactivity. behavior and learning problems in a significant fraction of children.
agents other than phenobarbital have not been encouraging. felbamate. is believed to minimize the risk for life-long mental retardation and ameliorate the seizures. What are these causes? he medical word for “cause” is “etiology. auras. it is easy to understand the old superstitions that ascribed seizures to supernatural forces. The term “benign “is used.
Benign Rolandic Epilepsy
enign Rolandic epilepsy (BRE) is a seizure type usually appearing in children or adolescents. Lennox-Gastaut epilepsy is very difficult to treat. Early and vigorous treatment of the seizures with the corticosteroid stimulating hormone. Although alarming to parents. whether it starts focally in one part of the brain or whether it is apparently generalized all over the brain at the start. EEG shows a 3-6 per second generalized spike-wave pattern. The split-brain operation. A few trials of
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CAUSES (ETIOLOGIES) OF SEIZURES:
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he most common question in an initial epilepsy clinic visit is “Why do I have seizures”? Since seizures come like bolts from the blue. topiramate. motor-sensory junction. Seizures at this region usually produce twitching or tingling of a face or hand. and topiramate appear to have a possible role in treatment of infantile spasms.
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Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome
he Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. topiramate. it must be taken daily.g. usually including atonic or tonic seizures. since by the time of a recognized fever. since seizure medications can impair a child‟s learning and personality. JME represents a type of idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Seizures in BRE can secondarily generalize to tonic-clonic seizures. the seizure usually already has happened. The Rolandic region is the area of the brain at the frontal-parietal. Brain MRI is expected to be normal. Examples of partialonset seizures are simple partial (e. EEGs usually show prominent spikes over the central and temporal areas. lamotrigine. is a relatively rare disorder with the following criteria: 1. Seizures are more common upon falling asleep. a symptomatic generalized epilepsy. Variable degrees of cognitive impairment (but not all are impaired). Abnormal EEG with a slow spike-wave pattern. such as valproic acid. Valproate.
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Febrile seizures
febrile seizure is a seizure that is provoked by fever. the prognosis for outgrowing seizures in JME is relatively poor. Febrile seizures tend to present as convulsions (tonicclonic) in children age 6 months to 6 years of age. benzodiazepines. but because the long-term prognosis for outgrowing the seizures by age 21 (usually even earlier) is very good. To work. febrile seizures usually are benign. Multiple seizure types. Treatment of febrile seizures remains controversial. and in others to chromosome 20. a focal surgical procedure is not a good option.. The clinician must distinguish a febrile seizure from a seizure with fever caused by some underlying serious condition. focal motor). rufinamide and felbamate have been tried in this condition. The genetic abnormality has been localized (at least in some families) to chromosome number 6. with only 10-20% of patients showing a satisfactory response. levetiracetam or benzodiazepines is good. Valproic acid and benzodiazepines also are used. But seizures and epilepsy (the condition of spontaneously recurrent seizures) have natural physical causes. It represents an idiopathic localization-related epilepsy. but adults also suffer from this syndrome. vigabatrin (Sabril).” Etiology of seizures varies with the type of seizure. 2. lamotrigine. such as meningitis. and other associated EEG changes. lamotrigine. Occurrence of a febrile seizure is a mild risk factor for later development of complex partial epilepsy. This is an important issue. and advise no therapy.

Tumors (Neoplasms) Head Trauma
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he bumps on the head and the falls from the swings that all children experience are usually too mild to produce epilepsy. A malformation of arteries and veins is called an arteriovenous malformation (AVM). which grows from the cellophane-like lining of the brain and pushes on the brain. ependymoma and glioblastoma.com/node/3007. The brain cells near the malformation may be irritated by bleeding or lack of oxygen.lobe seizures) and secondarily generalized seizures. If the bug infects the lining of the brain. with headache. getting hit in the head by a soccer ball. Our presumption is that many of these are a consequence of a brain injury from a previous stroke. Related to strokes is brain hemorrhage. Organisms that can cause seizures include bacteria. but these early seizures often do not lead to later seizures. such as radiation. Some of those viral “colds” or “flu‟s” that we had in the past. A special exception is an immediate seizure from minor head trauma. fungi or parasites (most importantly cysticercosis. and may be detected only by a CT or MRI brain scan. But epilepsy can result from head trauma severe enough to produce many hours of loss of consciousness or amnesia.
Infection
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. for example. A brain injury may generate an immediate (defined loosely as being within one week of an injury) seizure. viruses.com at http://www.
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Causes for Focal Seizures
orldwide.
Stroke
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e are increasingly recognizing seizures that occur for the first time in senior citizens. Some of these strokes may be so small as to have gone unnoticed. a microscopic worm from bad pork).epilepsy. leading later to seizures. myoclonic (sudden jerk) seizures.
Vascular Malformations
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bnormal blood vessels in the brain are common causes of epilepsy. may have included brain infections. If the brain is infected.
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ocal seizures are caused by injury or malfunctioning of one or more parts of the brain. atonic (drop attacks). tonic-clonic (grand mal). The onset of seizures after a brain injury often occurs after such a delay.com/epilepsy/types_seizures and the video series at http://www. and then is carried out by veins. brain cells die or are injured by blockage of blood flow to a part of the brain. This is called a concussive convulsion. Generalized-onset seizures include absence (petit mal). Brain tumors can be benign. During a stroke. A malformation of capillaries is called a cavernous malformation or cavernous angioma. It flows into small capillaries. ganglioglioma. More information on types of seizures can be found on epilepsy. malignant or sometimes in the borderland between the two. penetrating injury of the brain or bleeding in the brain. The brain makes an attempt to fix the injury by growing new connections. Seizures may occur at the time of a brain infection or after a delay. where oxygen is transferred to the brain cells. but the result is a circuit that is more electrically excitable and prone to produce seizures.epilepsy. A common benign tumor is a meningioma (see figure). oligodendroglioma. it is called encephalitis. These etiologies often (but not always!) can be revealed by a brain MRI. Tumors growing from brain include those named astrocytoma. causing irritation and seizures. the condition is meningitis. If recurrent seizures arise more than a week after an injury. The response to this irritation can be seizures. then the condition is considered epilepsy. which also can be an etiology for epilepsy. and it rarely leads to subsequent seizures. A seizure after a stroke does not mean that there has been another stroke. A tumor that arises outside the brain can metastasize to brain. fever and confusion. These malformations can be inborn or acquired after brain stresses. Here are some of the common brain injuries or conditions that may lead to epilepsy. infection is probably the most common cause for focal seizures. Blood is brought to the brain by arteries. even of many years. but most seizures do not result from brain tumors.
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brain tumor is a much-feared cause of seizures. About 10% of strokes lead to subsequent epilepsy. Researchers believe that this delay results from reorganization of nerve connections in the injured areas.

When only on one side. about 60% of all seizures are idiopathic. MTS commonly is associated with complex partial seizures.
Idiopathic (cause unknown)
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Causes for Generalized Seizures
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eneralized seizures result from brain cell networks on both side of the brain being activated apparently at once. low blood sodium. EEG or MRI as being abnormal. As MRI and other forms of imaging the brain continues to improve.
diopathic seizures are those whose cause is unknown. low blood calcium. infection.” As frustrating as this may be. Stelazine. Causes for generalized seizures fall into three broad categories. stroke. First. but let your doctor know that you have a seizure condition. As just a few examples. buproprion (Welbutrin or Zyban). are important causes of seizures in young children. which do not get into the brain). hyperthyroid disease and toxemia of pregnancy. since the seizures result from an immediate provoking factor. kidney or liver failure. bromocriptine (Parlodel). Patients and families are mystified by the absence of answers. A partial list of such medications includes: antihistamines (but not Claritin or Allegra. Norpramine.
ou should be aware that certain over-the-counter or prescription drugs can provoke seizures in people who are susceptible. alcohol or sedative medication withdrawal. low blood sugar. typified by the common refrain: “The doctor‟s told me everything was normal. the genetic or metabolic abnormality is unidentified. no tumor. onset of seizures can be delayed until much later in life. With generalized seizures. more and more causes of seizures will be identified. Metabolic causes produce seizures. Thorazine.
Medication Reactions
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Dysplasia
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dysplasia is a birth defect in the brain. Genetics are most relevant to generalized seizures. Dysplasias do not grow or spread. some cancer chemotherapy agents. haloperidol (Haldol).
Genetic Causes of Seizures
cientists and clinicians increasingly recognize the importance of genetic factors in the origin of epilepsy. amitriptyline. high-dose meperidine (Demerol). Dysplasias are identified by MRI scans.or prescription drug overdoses. or a gene abnormality in concert with an environmental trigger. including absence. nortriptyline). two points should be reassuring. we can list low oxygen. we do not need to know the cause to use medicines to treat the seizures. In the case of focal seizures. clozapine (Clozaril). you may still be able to take it. MTS can develop on the left. provided other testing confirms seizure origin from the region of MTS. Second. If you need one of these medicines. ciprofloxacin (Cipro). we presume that there is an irritation to or scar on some part of the brain. often on a genetic basis.
Mesial Temporal Sclerosis
his term literally means “inner temporal lobe scarring. Avoid over-the-counter remedies containing phenylpropanolamine or ephedrine (Ephedra. but the scar is invisible to MRI. This list is far from complete. Defects in genes do not lead directly to epilepsy. right or both sides of the brain. but for unclear reasons. but they can alter the excitability of brain in a way to predispose to seizures. tricyclic antidepressants (Elavil. vascular malformation or other problem was found. but not epilepsy. metronidazol (Flagyl). generalized tonic-clonic. tramadol (Ultram). Researchers debate whether MTS is a cause or a consequence of seizures. Development of epilepsy can require multiple gene abnormalities. it may suggest the possibility of a surgical cure for the epilepsy. Unlike focal seizures. no one place in the brain can be identified by neurological exam. Enzyme deficiencies. which is a seizure-prone structure in the inner temporal lobe. certain recreational
. and myoclonic seizures. consisting of abnormal but non-cancerous brain cells.” It shows on an MRI as a small bright hippocampus. digoxon (Lanoxin). verapamil (Calan). theophyline (aminophyline). Hundreds of gene defects
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Metabolic
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wide variety of medical conditions can cause generalized seizures. namely the metabolic derangement. Unfortunately. lithium (Lithobid). Ma-Huang).

But the majority of children with epilepsy do not have seizures when playing video games or when exposed to flashing lights or patterns. Therefore. White light flashes are usually brightest. for example moving stripes. TV programs and public displays or events involve flashing lights that can provoke seizures in susceptible individuals. pharmaceutical companies and “gene therapists” will be able to design antiepileptic medications targeted to these deficits. or moving dots may bring on a seizure. but if you are susceptible. these countries now screen video broadcast material for a potential to provoke seizures. It is impossible to prescreen every pathway that someone might take a while playing a particular game. at least 25%. issue 9. No systematic method to do so is currently used in the United States. Faulty fluorescent lighting that flickers visibly or intentionally flashing lights in a discotheque are other environmental examples. particularly if the mother has a generalized type of epilepsy. This can happen with light coming through window blinds or shimmering on a water surface. except by not playing the game. Children who are not known to be susceptible to photosensitive seizures probably shouldn't have to endure the additional stigma of avoiding videogames. About 3% of people with epilepsy overall will have photosensitivity that can be seen in their brainwave pattern (electroencephalogram or EEG) when lights are flashed. but it does not create epilepsy. and the other is flickering of content that is shown on TV programs. Only a few of these are now recognized. but this is one of the fastest growing areas of medicine. They provide warnings for susceptible individuals and work with videogame content creators to minimize the chances that a game could provoke a seizure.
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and blue flashes. One is the flickering of the picture itself.000 adults and 1 in 4000 children might actually have a seizure sometime from flashing lights. which is built into the characteristics of the person with epilepsy. Epilepsy is the tendency to have spontaneously recurring seizures. the population risk is low.
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Photosensitive Seizures
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any games. but the flash frequency has been reduced to less than three per second. Because of highly publicized television-induced seizures in Japan and the United Kingdom.
hree common sources lead to possible photosensitive seizures: the environment. it can happen to you. The major video game manufacturers are aware of the potential of videogames for producing seizures. Safety of particular games or TV shows can be known from personal experience or from testing the child with bright light flashes during recording of an electroencephalogram. Among an unselected population of all people in the community. until it occurs. although individual studios and broadcast networks have their own safety screening programs. An example of seizures from the environment would be sunlight flashing through rows of trees as you drive by. Here are some non-technical summary facts about photosensitive seizures and what you can do to avoid them. Flashing lights simply provoke seizures in susceptible individuals. Flashing fire alarms can provoke seizures.
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hotosensitive seizures can happen in people who do not even know that they have a seizure tendency.
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he most common stimulus that can provoke a seizure is bright light flashes at frequencies between 10 and 25 flashes per second. so this is now unlikely.
ideo games are harder to regulate than are TV broadcasts because people can play the game in so many different ways. Television can provide flashing in two ways.
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photosensitive seizure is defined as a seizure produced by flashing lights or certain visual patterns. If you make a character jump up and down in front of the sun it may produce repetitive flashing while playing the game. pages 1423-1425) but these are in a technical format. These consensus opinions were published in the scientific journal Epilepsia a few years ago (2005. about 1 in 10. volume 46. This has to be an individual decision made
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. Such red and blue flashes in the so-called "rocket launch sequence" of a Pokémon cartoon in 1997 sent about 700 Japanese schoolchildren to the hospital with immediate seizures or other reactions. under the sponsorship of the Epilepsy Foundation of America. Light stimulation can provoke seizures. arents with epilepsy worry whether their children will have epilepsy. but some people are particularly susceptible to red light flashes or alternation between red
hat can a person with epilepsy or parent of a child with epilepsy do to minimize the risk of a photosensitive seizure? One possibility is to eliminate videogames and TV. I had the opportunity to participate in the formulation of consensus opinions of experts on photosensitive seizures. Some photosensitive individuals react more to patterns than to flashing lights. The answer usually is no. but their children are at higher risk than baseline. Flashing scenes in movies have not been as much of a problem because movies are overall darker than TV pictures. when all their friends are playing them. Not all people who have photosensitivity in their EEG will actually have a seizure in real life from flashing lights. The light must be bright and close enough to fill a large part. When we have a better picture of the genetic predisposition for seizures. in which case hereditary risk is about 5-20%.eventually will be related to epilepsy. Some people are susceptible to flash frequencies as low as one per second and some as high as sixty per second. television and video games. of the person's visual space. Vertical moving stripes. But that risk cannot be reduced to zero.

This is called convulsive syncope and is not epilepsy. for example by an eye patch. 3. can result in loss of consciousness. consciousness may be lost. 4. Patients have come to me for epilepsy surgery who did not have epilepsy. TIAs may result from transient blood clots (emboli) or lasting circulation blockages in blood vessels to brain. People usually experience lightheadedness. nausea and other physical symptoms before losing consciousness from hypoglycemia. with no more than one hour straight playing at a time. Since head trauma also may cause amnesia. with a bruise on the head it may be unclear whether the person first loss consciousness and then fell. restricts blood flow to a particular region of the brain fed by one or a few blood vessels. or the blood rushing to and pooling in the muscles. Playing a videogame with one eye covered. A TIA. Play in a well-lighted room so the contrast of the TV or videogame with background lighting is not too high. Like fainting. Seizures can present with sudden loss of consciousness. and when the person is found unconscious. child and the child's physician. a TIA results from decreased blood flow to the brain. Avoid bright flashing lights in the frequency range 10-25 per second. This is a serious condition that should be evaluated immediately. Sit back at least 2 m (about 6 feet) from the TV screen or videogame screen. blood loss.
Medical Imitators of Seizures
ot everything that looks like a seizure is a seizure: there are many look-alike imitators. The first question I consider when someone is referred to my clinic for seizures is whether they are in fact having seizures. Avoid playing when very tired. intermittent confusion or abnormal movements. When a person falls asleep inappropriately. they are not. This may be mistaken for a seizure.
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o not overreact with blanket prohibitions that may be unnecessary for a particular person. Others have been referred for adjustments of antiepileptic medication regimens of decade‟s duration. however. resulting in low blood sugar. Fainting can reflect a problem with the heart‟s ability to pump blood adequately because of heart failure or an abnormal heart rhythm. As with so many things pertaining to epilepsy.
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oss of consciousness: The start of a loss of consciousness episode may not be observed. either because of a blockage in circulation. because these are more likely times to have a seizure. is useful to avoid lightinduced seizures. the person experiencing the trauma may not remember the blow to the head. followed by a 15 minute break. they may be thought to be having seizures. Sleep apnea interferes with breathing at night and causes a person to be very sleepy during the daytime. Here are some reasonable general precautions: 1. Syncope results from sudden reduction of blood flow to the brain. Questioning will
. hunger. Making a correct diagnosis and instituting treatment could prevent a serious stroke. Drug or alcohol intoxication is another cause of loss of consciousness that might be confused with seizures. Look away or cover your eyes when exposed to such flashes. A useful way to categorize imitators is by the presentation of the main symptom. a medical condition called hypoglycemia. The hypoglycemia can either be from inadequate food or from a high carbohydrate meal. since bright flashes often penetrate the closed eyelids. Bad sleep habits or shift-changing work may also produce excessive daytime sleepiness.
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eizures come in many different types and therefore a wide variety of medical. dehydration. 2. can produce confusion or speech problems without leading to full loss of consciousness.
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ead trauma can produce loss of consciousness.
xtremely low blood sugar. which then provokes the pancreas to release too much insulin. If the blood loss is in a critical area such as the brain stem. the question arises: was it a seizure? The
arcolepsy is a condition of uncontrollable sleepiness. described above. but seizures can. Several types of sleep disorders may be confused with seizures. Take breaks from game-playing. or when first arising in the morning.
onfusion episodes: Many conditions can produce intermittent confusion. 5. with no evidence that the person had seizures in the first place. Covering one or both eyes is more effective than is closing the eyes. An open mind as to the diagnosis can have dramatic benefits. Avoid playing video games that have precipitated seizures in the past. but the time course of each overlaps. Some people who faint will have a few jerks of their arms and legs as a response to the brain's low levels of blood and oxygen.
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warning stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA) can lead to loss of consciousness.among parent. know what is safe for yourself or your child and guide your behavior accordingly. Seizures usually lasts seconds to minutes and TIA's minutes to a few hours. If a person is found on the ground unconscious. Oftentimes. sweating. or fell and then lost consciousness. for which the medical term is syncope. A TIA. TIAs do not produce rhythmical jerking or twitching. neurological and psychological conditions can imitate seizures.
most common cause for loss of consciousness is fainting.

the most difficult to differentiate are those that mimic the psychological aspects of a seizure. and what others observe you to do. such as a neurologist or a neurologist with special expertise in epilepsy. toxicity from medications or recreational drugs. a detailed description of the nature of your episodes. also distinguishing it from seizures.reveal the irresistible sleepiness before each of the episodes.
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bnormal movements: Abnormal movements are produced when seizure activity involves the motor centers of the brain. The
n EEG can disclose abnormal electrical activity of a type correlated with having seizures. Sydenham's chorea from streptococcal infections. Old memories are preserved. Second. Dystonia refers to an abnormal sustained posture. This is the origin of the old phrase "getting weak at the knees. if at all possible. abnormal electrolytes. This description should include what you subjectively feel during an attack. This is particularly true since many people have headaches after their seizures. Another symptom of narcolepsy is the condition known as cataplexy. then diagnosis of a migraine can be difficult. The cause might be a brain infection. what exactly you did during the episode. A tic is a semi-voluntary twitching movement of a limb. grimacing. A limb tremor that comes and goes can be mistaken for a motor seizure. for periods of seconds or minutes. twitching/jerking of a limb and loss of muscle tone. Dystonia is a confusing symptom. medical testing can be helpful. The intervals of poor function may be mistaken for seizures. Many types of movement disorders can resemble the movements occurring during a seizure. Third. but movement disorders are not associated with EEG (brainwave) changes. Unfortunately. because it can be a symptom of several movement disorders. where more widespread impairment of mental functions tends to be the case. indeed looks like swimming or writhing movements of the arms. chorea of pregnancy (chorea gravidarum). Duration typically is a few hours. An MRI or brain CT scan may show a structural abnormality of a type known likely to produce seizures. movement disorders and nerve-related pain. But an abnormal EEG study never rules out seizures occurring at other times. crying out.
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. a diagnosis of epilepsy is fairly straightforward. but at the expense of building up emotional tension and more vigorous tics when the control is relaxed.
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hysicians diagnosis a condition called encephalopathy. as well as a toxic reaction to drugs. In most cases. A clinician experienced in seizure disorders. Such a description may. It usually occurs a few times and then stops. brain dysfunction from seizures. The person inappropriately asleep may be awakened. What were the conditions that brought it on? Fasting might provoke hypoglycemia or fainting.
Psychological Imitators of Epilepsy
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hile many medical conditions can be confused for epilepsy. and the nature of the aftermath. Athetosis. longer than the typical seizure. No other neurological functions besides recent memory are impaired during TGA. make it clear that you fainted or fell asleep. known as an epileptologist. Some conditions affect the mind in a way that produces symptoms similar to seizures and can provide real diagnostic difficulties for doctors. usually with the hands. With effort. confusion and abnormal movements . such as depression. although the start and finish of the confusion is rarely so clear in encephalopathy as in a seizure. They will repeat the same questions over and over. numbness. can best put the history. it may not. but probably not a seizure. Encephalopathy waxes and wanes. When the headache is not as prominent as are these other symptoms. never learning the answers. Fourth. the doctor must have available. low oxygen. tingling and other neurological symptoms as part of the headache syndrome. it can be controlled. which refers to globally poor functioning of the brain due to a medical cause.loss of consciousness. the condition of spontaneously recurrent seizures. because some seizures do not respond to antiepileptic medications and many other conditions. the physician must have an open mind to considering other diagnoses. Possible movements during a seizure include stiffening of a limb.
ow can your physician know that you truly have epilepsy. and not one of the imitators? First. eyelid or part of the face.
head may be twisted to the side or an arm may be stiff.
ll three presentations of possible seizures . but also part of a true epileptic seizure." It is not a seizure. uring the condition known as transient global amnesia (TGA) a person suddenly becomes unable to register new memories. exam and test findings in the best context to come up with a correct diagnosis. response to antiepileptic medication may be diagnostically useful. in which a person will suddenly fall to the ground when startled or emotionally agitated. may respond to seizure medicines. That will be the subject of a future column. Seizures should have a relatively clear start and finish and last seconds to minutes. It is important how you felt leading up to the episode. Chorea and athetosis can be seen in neurological conditions such as Huntington's chorea. or one of many other possible medical causes.can also be produced by the psychological imitators of epilepsy. Many of the imitators exceed these boundaries. Chorea is a type of fidgeting. either they are intractable seizures (see prior column) or they are not seizures at all. It may be time to rethink the diagnosis. headaches.
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igraine headaches sometimes produce periods of confusion. even to doctors. which in Greek means swimming. If your seizures are not responding the way you and your doctor think they should. which is not true for a person in the midst of a seizure. for example.

such as slowing of the heart rate when the eyes are rubbed. That's why everybody needs to be evaluated and treated individually. Excessive breathing may lead to low levels of carbon dioxide in the blood. The cause of BHS is not known. a BHS begins with a provoking event. Also. even dating back to childhood. personality disorders or rarely even psychotic disorders. n occasion. The children may have hyperactivity of the normal protective responses that the body automatically activates when oxygen levels begin to fall. It is seen most often among children aged 2 to 6. The children rarely remember the episodes. such as frustration. adjustment disorders. sychogenic nonepileptic seizures or PNES‟s are complicated because. anger or fear. including pseudoseizures. children will let out blood-curdling screens during sleep. but the children do not hold their breath voluntarily. This is not the case.
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uring the psychogenic nonepileptic event. nonepileptic seizures are as real as are epileptic seizures.O
ne such psychological imitator. While the breath-holding spells and night terrors can be frightening. Any seizure-like event requires appropriate diagnosis and medical care. People with PNES are a very mixed group. because an EEG occasionally can be normal during epileptic seizures as well." it on intentionally. Family and friends of people with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures should realize that the person having the problem is not "faking. Other times. is a type of episode that occurs in childhood. Sometimes the stressors that lead to a PNES involve extreme pressure to succeed in an area of one's life. In a breath-holding spell (BHS) a child appears to hold his or her breath. which is shown by its EEG pattern.
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rognosis of BHS is very good. numbness and confusion and may appear similar to symptoms of seizures. loses awareness. A PNES is a seizure-like event that is caused by psychological factors. not by abnormal electrical charges in the brain. they are generally benign. but it must be said that rare cases of injury have been reported. Generally. remains normal. which a
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ne especially confusing psychological imitator of epilepsy is called a psychogenic nonepileptic seizure or PNES. These traumas can remain from years past. time solves the problem. psychosomatic seizures. Some have mental disorders such as depression. unresolved stressors often manifest as physical symptoms. surprise. They are even more potent if something happens today to bring back the feelings of yesterday. a facial color change is evident. n occasion. psychological seizures. Ultimately. psychogenic seizures.
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psychogenic nonepileptic seizure (PNES) is a seizurelike event that is produced. as it may suggest that children hold their breath on purpose. becomes pale or blue. and may lose consciousness. Some attacks result from hyperactive normal reflexes. at which time. Crying or whimpering ensues and then pauses.
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night terror is another common condition that mimics epilepsy. but that it is an involuntary medical condition. as do epileptic seizures. while they look like seizures. the person experiencing a PNES is not aware of these factors and cannot control them. PNES'do not
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. This means that having an event that is provoked by stress does not necessarily mean that the person is having a PNES. called the breath-holding spell. other people with PNES have no obvious underlying mental problems whatsoever. ulcers. Once diagnosed. Treatment consists of reassurance. Then again. although it may result from a voluntary or semi-voluntary act causing the child to become emotional. This point can be confusing even to doctors. making diagnosis even more difficult. Typically. If the episode persists. a person can have both nonepileptic and epileptic seizures. This causes dizziness. Because thoughts and feelings have impact upon our physical being. becoming limp and falling. PNES‟s do not result from abnormal electrical discharges in the brain. It is a reflex. the brain's electrical activity. Hyperventilating may be the result of pain. and old psychological issues can live on. and not epilepsy. be they headaches. physical or sexual abuse. the child will become poorly responsive. Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures go by many names. and then. involuntary act. a psychogenic nonepileptic seizure may result from result from unresolved stress and psychological tension dating back years. Breathing may stop in some BHS. remember that the EEG is often normal between seizures in people who do have epilepsy. which is essentially breathing fast at a rate in excess of what the body needs. Therefore. since breath-holding spells are outgrown by mid-childhood. The term “breath-holding” causes confusion. they are dictated by psychological events. skin rashes or shaking and blackouts that look like seizures. but the parents do. panic attacks can generally be controlled with a combination of medication and psychological care. stressors are consequences of mental. The unconscious brain does not treat time in the same way that the conscious brain does. or when the child tries to breathe or scream against a closed throat (the Valsalva response). Instead. if severe. but by psychological factors of which the patient is not fully aware and cannot control. and recognition that the episodes are rarely in the child‟s control. panic and anxiety can lead to episodes that mimic seizures. During the night terror.
come from electrical discharges of the brain.
t's important to note that people with epileptic seizures list stress as one of the most common provoking factors. To those who have them or see them in a loved one. With anxiety can come hyperventilating. anxiety or a panic attack.

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reating PNES‟s is often complicated. an experienced doctor can tell whether the attack has the characteristics of an epileptic seizure. high-doses of Demerol). but a few people claim individual sensitivity. foods. flashing lights. Klonopin.patient cannot control. Commonly used medications or drugs that can lead to seizures in susceptible people include: stimulants such as cocaine or diet pills. Effectively diagnosing PNES‟s begins with the physician considering the possibility that a person‟s seizure‐ like events may not be epileptic seizures. These possible factors include: missing seizure medications. Nembutal.
f someone in your family experiences PNES‟s. TV or video games. antidepressant medications (amitriptyline and related drugs).
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lcohol and alcohol withdrawal are common triggers for seizures. without rhyme or reason. this prognosis depends upon the patient's motivation. you should protect from injury.
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person having ongoing PNES is generally not safe to drive. Psychotherapy can be useful to help a patient explore. major tranquilizers (Thorazine. Stress is everywhere. In cases where the patient's history is unclear and the event cannot be recorded. Stelazine and relatives). pregnancy. not all psychiatrists and neurologists are familiar with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. treatment is very specialized and ideally should involve a partnership among a psychiatrist. Cipro. After the episodes are controlled this can change. In the absence of epileptic seizures. Tranxene. sensory inputs or changes in temperature. Mellaril.
Circumstances that Provoke Seizures
ost seizures come “out-of-the-blue”. Work with your physician. or Nutra-Sweet (aspartame) causes seizures. but this relationship is inexact. because sudden withdrawal can be dangerous. migraine headaches.
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f you or someone close to you is having either epileptic or psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Mysoline) or benzodiazepines (Valium. You can find physicians who are by contacting an epilepsy center at a university medical center near you. although caution is needed. because many patients with the condition are given heavy doses of antiepileptic medications. then the diagnosis may remain uncertain. remember that you should never stop taking a medication on your own. try to keep calm. Of course. times of the menstrual cycle in women. how severe the underlying psychological or physical disorders are. Why some stress does. certain pain medicines (Ultram. Librium. antihistamines (the prescription antihistamines. and most of the time it does not provoke seizures. and some does not. and others). If there is thrashing or physical activity.
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nce a diagnosis of PNES‟s is made. certain asthma medications (aminophylline). However. for exam-
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. But even experienced epilepsy specialists can be fooled by descriptions alone. as is withdrawal from barbiturates (phenobarbital. People report individual and highly unusual provoking factors. The good news is that over half the people who experience psychogenic nonepileptic seizures can become episode-free. understand and manage the stressors that led to PNES‟s. provoke seizures is unknown. general physical illness. the treatment must be individualized because everyone is unique. please contact a physician. Many people list stress as a provoking factor for seizures. Ativan.
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hen a patient finds the right treatment team. a neurologist and the patient's primary care physician. and remember that a psychogenic nonepileptic seizure does not harm the brain. do not provoke seizures). No scientific evidence documents that caffeine. Seconal. Haldol. and some antibiotics (Flagyl. missing sleep. In the long-term. you can help by encouraging participation in psychiatric care and their relaxation exercises. However. However. rarely certain sounds. An accurate diagnosis often can be made by recording the episode with a video and an EEG in an epilepsy monitoring unit. Allegra and Claritin. By listening to a careful description of the events or looking at a home video of the episode. but if your presence seems to prolong the attack it may be best to leave the person alone. Patients also can train themselves to use relaxation exercises and mental imagery of a pleasant relaxing scene at the start of their events. be quietly reassuring. Xanax). these medications just produce side effects and make life even more difficult. cigarettes. some people with epilepsy list factors that contributes to their seizures. Floxin. in order to make them less intense. and whether good medical help can be obtained.

which is a little different for each seizure type. In epilepsy. Medications may be discontinued to provoke seizures for analysis. uring a seizure. or abnormal blood vessels. the EEG demonstrates a rhythmical build-up of electrical activity (Fig. A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan is more detailed and useful for seizure diagnosis than is the older CT scan. Unless seizure activity is very frequent. liver and kidney function. 50-80% of individuals have some abnormal EEG patterns. low blood calcium.
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uring a seizure the brain shows a high voltage rhythmical pattern of activity. Most seizures do not have provoking factors.
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he electroencephalogram (EEG) has special importance in the diagnosis of epilepsy. or drugs or toxins in the blood. The place at which this activity begins can help to identify the seizure focus. old stroke. platelets. The abnormal electricity appears in a certain region of the brain which can give a clue to what part of the brain has the seizure focus. taking detailed information on the nature of the patient‟s episodes.
Tests for Epilepsy
he most important diagnostic test in epilepsy is a careful history. The physician will then perform a physical and neurological examination looking for evidence of brain injury that might give a clue as to the cause and location of the seizure focus. a certain type of smells or specific kinds of music. because interictal means between seizures. Second. low oxygen. and some factors are falsely blamed due to coincidence. Such spikes are also called interictal
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. such as low blood sugar. EEGs would not be very useful if they required recording during a seizure. EEG never makes a diagnosis of epilepsy. called spikes. Blood tests are also important as a baseline if antiepileptic medications are to be used.ple. and to classify and localize the type of seizures. a prolonged EEG recording session may be required to capture a seizure. To an experienced clinician. If a patient has a good story for seizures. Some people may have abnormal spikes in their EEG but never have a seizure and should not be diagnosed as having epilepsy. Normal brain electrical patterns can be recognized by experienced electroencephalographers. A TV camera records behavior. The EEG can also help classify the type of seizures. he physician may get an x-ray of the brain to see if there is an underlying structural cause of the seizures such as tumor. Such video-EEG monitoring is done in patients who are being evaluated for possible curative seizure surgery.
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here are a few important things to know about EEG. the EEG may be normal between seizures in people with epilepsy.
spikes. in between seizures. kidney failure or liver failure. Therefore. then a physician may perform a lumbar puncture (spinal tap) to rule out this condition. the events should sound like seizures. but individual doctors may choose one over the other. red blood counts. or the thinking of certain thoughts. Absence (petit mal) seizures have a pattern known as spike-waves with spikes and after going slow waves. since they indicate baseline normality of white blood counts.
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lood tests will be done to look for infectious or chemical causes of seizures. the EEG is helpful as additional information to secure a diagnosis of epilepsy. In such a procedure the EEG is left attached for several days to the patient who can wander freely around the room on a cable. or place of origin. These are brief high voltage discharges in the EEG which may mark a tendency for seizures and a place where seizures originate. or other structural causes. Fortunately.
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ometimes it is important to record behavior and EEG during a seizure. In this case a patient may undergo inpatient video-EEG monitoring. Patients do not have much in the way of symptoms from spikes because they are so brief. Video monitoring may also be done in patients where there is a question as to whether the patient is suffering from epilepsy or one of the imitators of epilepsy (see below). blood clot. If there is any question of infectious meningitis causing the seizure. The EEG measures electrical activity of the brain. abscess. however. It is only an adjunctive test to support a clinical history which is consistent with epileptic seizures. 7). Fortunately for diagnosis. First. the history is usually more important than the physical examination. The most important thing to learn from this is what type of electrical activity is present at the start of a seizure and where in the brain it occurs. diagnosis and treatment with medicines (as opposed to surgery) usually does not require recording of a seizure. a negative EEG should not discourage the clinician from treating the patient for those seizures.

6). Therefore. helpful to add additional support to a diagnosis of epilepsy. A history of seizure-like events would be required to diagnose epilepsy. the EEG cannot rule out epilepsy. Medications may be discontinued to provoke seizures for analysis. since EEG can be normal between seizures in people with epilepsy.
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For the following two days after that seizure. although physically I continue with my daily duties. In such a procedure.
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Postictal: The Aftermath of a Seizure
Fig. Video monitoring may also be done in patients where there is a question as to whether the patient is suffering from epilepsy or one of the imitators of epilepsy (see below). 5: EEG of interictal spikes Fig. the EEG is left attached for several days to the patient who can wander freely around the room on a cable. Contrarily. for those two days. Energy level during those two days is way down. I cannot. with special cassette recorders. EG in isolation never establishes a diagnosis of epilepsy. to do things like I normally would. since a few percent of the normal population has EEG spikes. remember to call friends. the EEG is a adjunctive test.
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. 6: EEG of spike-waves The following quote is from a 22 year-old ski instructor with epilepsy. If a patient has a good story for seizures. The ideas don't come in as fast as they normally would to do things. The most important thing to learn from this is what type of electrical activity is present at the start of a seizure and where in the brain it occurs. and I just kinda stay at home and perform things at home. and to help to classify and localize the type of seizures. Video-EEG monitoring is done in patients who are being evaluated for possible curative seizure surgery. A TV camera records behavior. clinician will refer a patient for specialized EEG testing when prolonged recording or correlation of EEG and behavior are required. I just kinda feel out of it. My mood is kind of just down and I kinda enjoy being by myself. Ambulatory EEG monitoring also can be accomplished in the outpatient setting. a negative EEG should not discourage the clinician from treating the patient for those seizures.Fig. 7: EEG of a right temporal seizure (arrow) Absence (petit mal) seizures have a pattern known as “spike-waves” with spikes and after going slow waves (Fig.

It is part of your medical condition. For poorly understood reasons.
ostictal Psychosis: The most mysterious and troublesome seizure aftermath is a condition called postictal psychosis. The head seems “fuzzy. We have no drug to safely and reliably reverse the condition. The quote above illustrates three possible aspects of the postictal state: physical. it must take a great effort to function well at work or school. A seizure and resulting paralysis rightly cause patients.
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ostictal psychiatric problems are least often recognized. sometimes paranoid suspicions. Some patients have likened it to having a hangover. and adapt your routine to allow time for recovery.
hat can be done? The first need is to recognize the existence of a postictal condition. or any symptoms of psychosis. Beneath this increased energy often lies irritability and a temper on a short fuse. 50 percent some element of postictal depression. the treatment for postictal problems is symptomatic. for example.
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s a rough estimate based on personal experience and review of literature. Delirium is a condition of disorientation. some people develop postictal hypomania.
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he unintentional philosopher and baseball catcher. the aftermath of a seizure is worse than the seizure itself. Complex partial and other seizures can lead to headaches. Postictal psychiatric symptoms can be very debilitating. after a 19th century British physician who described it. Onset of a postictal psychosis is delayed for a few days after a seizure.” The effects of seizures may not be over for a long time. Second.” Postictal psychosis typically persists for a few days to a few weeks. or the need to take more medicines.” For some people with epilepsy. suspension of driving. So far. A component of postictal depression may be a reaction to problems caused by having the seizure. Yogi Berra.
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ostictal thinking problems come on suddenly and resolve over time.
MEDICATIONS FOR EPILEPSY
ost epilepsy specialists use several principles to govern the treatment of seizures with antiepileptic medications. words and ideas. This phenomenon is called Todd‟s paralysis. The mood can be low for days. Don‟t make that Grand Canyon climb right after a seizure. pointed out “It ain‟t over till it‟s over. These include delirium. recognize his/her own name or follow instructions. a seizure was called “ictal. sounds. for example. cognitive (thinking) and psychiatric problems. depression. Then the person seems to be mentally recovered. Lastly. But are they? A less obvious impairment of thinking may in fact continue for days. about 75 percent of people with seizures will experience postictal delirium. It is common immediately after a complex partial or generalized tonic-clonic seizure. know your own pattern. 10 percent postictal hypomania and 3 percent postictal psychosis. visions. yet. Third.no postictal state. It can be treated symptomatically with antipsychotic medications. Tonic-clonic (grand mal) seizures often produce muscle soreness. The mood may swing between depression and hypomania. skin sensations or smells). In psychosis. In the immediate aftermath of a seizure.” and so the time period after a seizure is “postictal. and this is a subject in much need of more research. do your best to control your seizures: no seizures -. mania and postictal psychosis. sedatives and lot of reassurance that it will go away. or a bitten tongue. For those who have prolonged postictal impairment of thinking. These are listed in Table 3. Take a break from work or school rather than turning in a befuddled performance. voices. the temporary paralysis can result from a seizure alone. doctors and families to worry about an underlying stroke. providing a so-called “lucid interval. the opposite of depression. Fortunately. in which case it will have no lasting consequences. level of absent-mindedness is high. the right arm. dizziness. ongoing pain.D
efinition: In the ancient Greek language. the seizures may not yet be fully over). extreme or prolonged confusion (in this case. can leave that arm partly paralyzed for hours or days. Brain chemistry changes produced by a seizure and affecting the system of neurotransmitters and receptors also contribute to postictal depression. Sleep is near impossible.” words are elusive. You are not necessarily to blame for acting and feeling the way you do after a seizure. this severe disability usually lasts only minutes. get help from your medical team if you have injuries. not all of which are logical.
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TABLE 3 PRINCIPLES OF AED THERAPY Decide whether to treat Decide how long to treat Use monotherapy where possible Use simple regimens Encourage compliance
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. a person is out of touch with reality. even when temporary. Mood may be inappropriately happy or excited. bruises and other injuries. but the recovery to normal functioning can take hours or even days. Postictal depression is under-recognized. a person may not be able to speak. sometimes with agitation and occasionally aggressive behavior. A prolonged seizure in one part of the body. The seizure may last a minute.
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hysical problems are the most obvious. delusions (false ideas) or hallucinations (false perceptions. stomach upset and fatigue. may come in a torrent. experiencing illogical thinking.

The generic usually is cheaper. Effects on internal organs: All seizure medicines can cause problems with blood counts (white cells.carbamazepine (Tegretol) . unsteadiness. and all have various side effects. Every seizure medicine can sometimes cause side effects of fatigue. Detailed information is provided by the pharmacy as a package insert for new prescriptions and refills.lamotrigine (Lamictal) .com/node/3007 ). No one medicine dominates for effectiveness. focal. Robert Fisher. Dr. 4. dizziness. then at individually determined times. All seizure
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his summary represents the opinion of the author.Choose the best drug for a seizure type
and doctor to know about medication substitution and consider whether generic substitution is safe.phenytoin (Dilantin) . Broad spectrum AEDs additionally have some effectiveness for a wide variety of seizures (partial plus absence myoclonic seizures). The package insert often has recommendations. zonisamide (Zonegran) and felbamate (Felbatol). The most important concern when taking generic drugs is to be sure the tablets are made by the same manufacturer for each refill. Narrow-spectrum AEDs: . convenience of use. Brand vs. headaches. who is an epilepsy specialist. with changes of pill manufacturers. 5. 3. Children are treated on the basis of their weight (mg per kg dosing basis). 6. Blood can be tested when starting a medicine to get a baseline.clonazepam (Klonopin) .oxcarbazepine (Trileptal) . The desirable level depends upon the type and number of seizures. or liver or other internal organs.topiramate (Topamax) . The titration (starting) schedules are those of the author.Check with pharmacy or package insert sources!
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here is no formula to choose which seizure medicine to use for a particular patient. This reflects what testing evidence has been presented to the FDA .gabapentin (Neurontin) . even though this delays helping the seizures. sometimes by quite a lot.not all AEDs have gone through the required two clinical studies to show effectiveness in monotherapy. This may produce breakthrough seizures or side effects. Some types of seizure are difficult to treat with any AED. myoclonic seizures). Blood levels: Target blood levels are broad guides to clinical use. not a full list. 2. gabapentin (Neurontin).rufinamide (Banzel)
General Points
1. For medicines introduced in recent years.levetiracetam (Keppra) . every few months to yearly thereafter. Starting schedule: Many AEDs have to be started slowly to minimize side effects. but there are no universal rules about when to test blood. see http://www.lacosamide (Vimpat) . blurry vision. Monotherapy: Some AEDs have approval for monotherapy (to be used alone) and others only as adjunctive (add-on) therapy to another AED. Every medicine has a brand and a generic name. side effects. An important start is to know which AEDs work for which seizure types. Weight gain tends to occur with valproic acid (Depakote). generic. A generic medicine usually works well. DO NOT TRUST DRUG
DOSAGES IN THIS DOCUMENT . patent ( or “market exclusivity”) protection may block the sale of generic versions. The narrow spectrum AEDs mostly work for specific types of seizures (such as partial. Weight loss tends to occur with topiramate (Topamax). the blood levels can change. cost and physician experience. Therefore. reduced resistance to colds. The current author supports the right of the patient
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. pregabalin (Lyrica) and carbamazepine (Tegretol. so doctors usually order blood tests to screen for these problems. Actual blood levels differ for different laboratories. Side effects: Side effects listed below are a brief compilation of the most common and most worrisome. Dosages are all for adults. red cells and platelets). and it is not necessarily the official drug description that can be found in the package insert.epilepsy. and may be slower than is the schedule recommended in the package insert.phenobarbital .pregabalin (Lyrica) . These are not mentioned separately in each section. Carbatrol). (To learn what these seizures types are.zonisamide (Zonegran) .valproic acid (Depakote) . after a few months on the drug. but it may not generate the same blood levels as does the brand name or an alternative generic medicine. Doctors and patients choose AEDs after considering which side effects should be avoided in particular cases. taking one vs. AEDs not proven effective in monotherapy still probably work well as single medications and are used that way by epilepsy doctors on a case-by-case basis where the benefit seems to exceed the risk. multiple drugs and other clinical factors. memory and thinking problems.vigabatrin (Sabril) Broad-spectrum AEDs: . stomach upset. Switching from one generic manufacturer to another could result in different amount of active drug in each pill. or absence. unless they are especially common with the medicine. No drug companies have paid for or reviewed these opinions.

See http://www. Side effects include dizziness. Not a cure: Although AEDs are called “antiepileptic.5-1.” they do not cure epilepsy. I start my patients with 200 mg bid and each week.com/medications/b_vimpat_intro lamotrigine (brief) (Lamictal): A broad-spectrum alternative to VPA. and if they are not too sleepy the next day. to which diazepam (Valium). I will increase to 0. blurred vision. serine. increase to 0. Side effects of clonazepam include sedation. swollen lymph nodes. More so than most. fatigue. lorazepam (Ativan).5 mg at night.5 mg
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. to the recommended maintenance dosage of 100-200 mg twice a day. it takes a couple of months to get up to the typical adult dose of 200 mg twice a day. sedatives. mood changes. Typical adult dose is 400 mg tid. Vimpat may affect the internal organs.epilepsy. low blood counts. the brain‟s main excitatory neurotransmitter. See http://www. is not metabolized in the liver and it does not bind to blood proteins. a slow starting dose is especially important if the patient also takes valproic acid (Depakote). and increase by 200 mg daily to about 400 mg three times a day. rash. especially if the dose is increased too fast. called the hypersensitivity syndrome. but doses can be up to 1200 mg three times a day.com/medications/b_carbatrol_intro clonazepam (brief) (Klonopin): Clonazepam is a member of the drug class known as benzodiazepines. However. the brain‟s main inhibitory neurotransmitter. It has no drug interactions. possible liver injury and confusion 7. its effects wear off over time. One.epilepsy. The practical side effect issue is rash. Typical adult dose is 300-600 mg three times a. The recommended starting dose is 50 mg twice daily. Potential side effects include GI upset. Clonazepine is more long-acting against seizures than are diazepam or lorazepam. See http://www. dizziness. fluid accumulation. Mechanism: Mechanisms of action in the brain for antiepileptic drugs are described in simple form: most AEDs have multiple mechanisms of action to block seizures. weight gain. I often start at 300 mg per day. I usually start my patients at low doses. occurring in 5-10% of people who take it. 9. fatigue.com/medications/b_carbamazepine_intro and http://www.com/medications/b_gabapentin_intro lacosamide (brief) (Vimpat): Lacosamide is a new (2009) antiepileptic drug . with a better side effect profile. sometimes even the dangerous rash called Stevens-Johnson syndrome. Lamotrigine is also used for mood stabilization. Carbamazepine causes a rash rate of a few percent.epilepsy. however. and inhibits rapid firing of brain cells. but these potentially serious side effects are infrequent. Carbamazepine affects sodium channels. All people taking them should be aware of and report any serious depression or suicidal thinking to their doctor. Lamotrigine works by several mechanisms including blocking release of glutamate. 8. adding one 25 mg pill daily each week on a two-timesa-day schedule until taking 100 mg twice a day. and this block reduces brain excitability. produces fever.com/medications/b_clonazepam_intro gabapentin (brief) (Neurontin): Gabapentin has the reputation of being a safe but not particularly powerful AED. increased each week by an extra 100 mg. thinking/memory impairment. and increase over a month or two to the full dose. tranquilizers and muscle relaxants.epilepsy. nausea or vomiting. alprazolam (Xanax) also belong.epilepsy. Gabapentin often is used also for chronic pains of certain types.
three times a day. low blood sodium (hyponatremia). for partial and secondarily generalized seizures.epilepsy. Benzodiazepines increase the effectiveness of GABA. It is chemically related to the amino acid. but just suppress seizures while the medications are in the body. sometimes in one dose or with 100 mg pills. Vimpat blocks sodium channels (but in a different way from other seizure medicines). blood counts or heart rhythm. See http://www. A week later. A typical adult dose is 0. if seizures persist. weight gain. Suicide warning: The US FDA has required a suicide warning on all seizure medications as a general class. memory or mood problems.5 mg twice a day. headache. The effectiveness criticism probably is because it is often prescribed at too low a dose. Long-acting forms such as Carbatrol or Tegretol-XR can be given once a day. but the actual risk for suicide due to AEDs is quite low. I usually start my patients with 0. If there is no rash at that time. Severe medical side effects are unusual. LTG may not be as effective for myoclonic seizures. People of Asian descent with HLA-B*1502 antigen are more at risk. usually mild cognitive (thinking) impairment. Benzodiazepines are used as anti-seizure drugs. Carbatrol): A favorite partial seizure medicine in the developed world. The drug probably works by influencing transport of GABA and effects on calcium channels.0 mg three times a day. This is slower than the package insert suggested starting dose. to reduce risk for rash. Side effects are unsteadiness. Therefore. It has the usual side effects of dizziness and fatigue. clorazepate (Tranxene). one is unlikely. I then switch my patients to 100 mg pills and increase to 200 mg twice a day over the next few weeks.com/medications/b_lamictal_intro
Brief Summary of Antiepileptic Drugs
carbamazepine (brief) (Tegretol. See http://www. double vision. addiction.medicines can produce either mild or severe allergic reactions.

so the blood levels can be hard to regulate. See http://www. should not take Banzel. It is inexpensive. sometimes even the dangerous rash called Stevens-Johnson syndrome. Phenytoin alters brain cell sodium channels. can be taken as 1 ml liquid under the tongue in urgent situations. It has no drug interactions. Common side effects are unsteadiness and moderate cognitive problems. except for more risk for low blood sodium (hyponatremia). is not metabolized in the liver and it does not bind to blood proteins. less so by epilepsy doctors. but avoid sedation.com/medications/b_trileptal_intro phenobarbital (brief) (Luminal): The old-timer: very inexpensive and effective in a single daily dose. I start my patients with 150 mg twice a day. A typical adult dose is 600 mg twice a day. and may have fewer side effects.5-2.. I usually start my patients with 250 mg twice a day and increase the next week to 500 mg twice a day. to allow for future dosage flexibility. and can be started at 500 mg twice a day. no protein binding.com/medications/b_phenobarbital_intro phenytoin (brief) (Dilantin): The most used AED by general physicians in the US. This may occur to some degree in up to a third of those taking the medicine. then the week after to 1000 mg twice a day. but the more troublesome problem can be irritability and mood changes.epilepsy.” a rare heart rhythm irregularity. as well as partial seizures. no liver metabolism. The drug comes as 200 and 400 mg tablets. rufinamide (brief) (Banzel.com/medications/b_keppra_intro lorazepam (brief) (Ativan): Lorazepam is similar to clonazepam in dosage and action. double vision and tremor (trembling). insomnia. Phenobarbital increases the effect of GABA. It works reasonably quickly when taken orally and anti-seizure effect lasts for 2-6 hours. A typical adult dose is 500 . Phenytoin causes a rash rate of a few percent.epilepsy. See http://www. The target serum level is 10-20 mcg per ml. treats all types of seizures). and can be given twice a day.600 mg per day. adding 50 mg each week on a twice a day basis until taking 300 . it is at least as effective.0 mg orally or as needed. Small changes in phenytoin dose can cause large changes in serum drug levels. Phenobarbital is mildly addictive and requires slow withdrawal. then the next week to 1000 mg in the am plus 500 mg in the pm.com/medications/b_banzel_intro topiramate (brief) (Topamax): A good broad-spectrum AED (i. because of the side effects. Children will usually be started at doses of approximately 10 mg/kg/day administered in two equally divided doses. which is an effective dose. See http://www. Pregabalin often is used also for chronic pains of certain types.com/EPILEPSY/epilepsy_lennoxgastaut ). Typical adult dose is 150 .1500 mg twice a day. See http://www. Common side effects include headache. The most common side effects are dizziness. dizziness. An immediate switch from carbamazepine to full-dose oxcarbazepine is possible in some cases. until the child is taking 45 mg/kg/day or a maximum of 3200 mg/day. tonic (stiffening) seizures. Dosing can increase by adding additional 10 mg/kg amounts every two days. and increase by 150 mg daily each week.com/medications/b_phenytoin_intro pregabalin (brief) (Lyrica): A relative of gabapentin. Typical adult dose is 300-400 mg per day. including
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. 2 or 3 at bedtime.epilepsy. thinking/memory problems and depression. The target serum level is 10-40 mcg per ml.epilepsy. there is a significant rate of birth defects. usually with 100 mg pills. or a large dose of capsules if an immediate effect is required. See http://www. divided into two doses each day.600 mg bid. I start my patients with 30 mg pills. There are long-term potential cosmetic (body/face hair growth. it may be better.epilepsy. and similar side effects to gabapentin.epilepsy. 2 mg per ml. fatigue and sleepiness. has a relatively low incidence of causing thinking/memory problems. Banzel works on sodium channels in brain cells. Watch for sedation. myoclonic (brief jerking) seizures. Pregabalin has no drug interactions. Topiramate has several mechanisms. Inovelon in Europe): Banzel is approved for add-on treatment of children age 4 and older and adults with the Lennox Gastaut Syndrome (see http://www. Phenytoin can be started quickly in an emergency with intravenous administration. This is slower than the package insert suggested starting dose. in a way to make them less excitable. It is usually used as a „rescue medication‟ for patients who frequently have clusters of seizures. Some believe that it is more effective against seizures than is gabapentin. It is more expensive than generic carbamazepine. Typical adult dose is around 100 mg per day. During pregnancy. This is slower than the package insert suggested starting dose. This is slower than the package insert suggested starting dose. skin problems). Typical adult dose is 0. oxcarbazepine (brief) (Trileptal): Slightly different from carbamazepine. but it is not as long-acting. or staring (absence) seizures. This syndrome can include seizure types such as atonic (drop) seizures. Phenobarbital can cause long-term bone problems. A lorazepam concentrate.l
levetiracetam (brief) (Keppra): Levetiracetam is one of the more used medicines in seizure clinics because it probably is effective for a broadspectrum of seizures types. I usually start my patients with 50 mg daily.e. fatigue. People who have the “short QT syndrome. the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. and bone problems (osteoporosis). which has the effect of limiting rapid firing of the brain cells.

which compared phenytoin. Table 5 gives the opinion of the author about drugs useful for particular types of seizures. except glaucoma is not usually listed.
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arbamazepine and phenytoin are drugs of choice for partial seizures. Typical adult dose is 250 mg . and familiarity by the treating physician. The most important of these are the two VA Cooperative Studies. phenobarbital. but is slightly less effective than is carbamazepine for partial seizures. diazepam rectal gel (Diastat).500 mg three times a day. zonisamide and lacosamide all have activity against partial seizures. and valproic acid for treatment of simple partial seizures. adding 25 mg each week on a twotimes-a-day schedule until taking 100 mg twice a day. Side effects include thinking and memory problems in about 1/3rd. If there are no significant side effects. Nevertheless. Table 4 lists brand names and generic names for drugs used to treat seizures in the United States. the brain‟s main inhibitory neurotransmitter. carbamazepine. Typical adult dose is 150-200 mg twice a day.epilepsy. Release in the US was delayed because the drug is toxic to the retina of the eye in up to 30% of people who take it long-term. Levetiracetam. Some find less cognitive impairment than with topiramate but this is individual and dose-dependent. See http://www.epilepsy. but dose can be higher.epilepsy. It also may be very effective for infantile spasms. hepatic or pancreatic injury. side effects. with or without secondary generalization. Where cost is not a key factor.” made to block metabolism of GABA. ethosuximide (Zarontin). a serious type of seizures in young children.epilepsy.
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Table 4: Drugs used to treat seizures Brand Name Ativan Banzel Carbatrol Celontin Cerebyx Depacon Depakene Depakote Depakote-ER Diamox Diastat Dilantin Diprivan Generic Name lorazepam rufinamide carbamazepine methsuximide fosphenytoin VPA injectable valproic acid divalproex Valproic acid acetazolamide rectal diazepam phenytoin propofol
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. primidone. hair loss. I usually start my patients with one 25 mg pill daily. Table 4 gives brand names and generics of the seizure medications. This toxicity can result in permanent loss of peripheral vision. and a neurotransmitter called NPY to block seizures. Typical adult dose is 100-300 mg twice a day. Sabril has been used for over a decade in many countries. I then switch my patients to 100 mg pills and increase to 200 mg twice a day over the next few weeks. GI upset. See http://www. which affects the acidity of brain tissue.com/medications/b_zonisamide_intro
others (brief) acetazolamide (Diamox). rare cases of glaucoma (increased eye pressure) and weight loss. adding another pill each week on a twotimes-a-day schedule until taking 100 mg twice a day. pregabalin. Regular vision testing is required for all people on this drug. See http://www.blocking the enzyme carbonic anhydrase. More acidity (to a point) suppresses seizures. blood count decreases.com . most of the medications are close in efficacy. If there are no significant side effects. and maybe also on calcium channels. zonisamide (brief) (Zonegran): Zonisamide is rather similar in its coverage and side effects to topiramate. tremor. and can increase over a month or two to 1500 mg twice a day. oxcarbazepine may be a good substitute for carbamazepine. An extended release form can be taken once a day. bone weakness over time (osteoporosis). Topiramate also is used for migraine headache prevention.com/medications/b_valproicacid_intro vigabatrin (brief) (Sabril): Vigabatrin is a “designer drug. birth defects in up to 10% (folic acid can help to prevent them). primidone (Mysoline). renal stones in 1-2%. VPA has effects on GABA (at least in very high doses). topiramate. I usually start my patients with one 25 mg pill daily. VPA has significant side effects: weight gain. Medicines in this group can be chosen for ease of use. tiagabine (Gabitril) can be searched individually on www. cost.com/medications/b_topamax_intro valproic acid (brief) (Depakote): This is the standard broad-spectrum AED (treats all types of seizures) and no other AED is more effective for generalized seizure types. and it is effective for partial seizures.
ANTIEPILEPTIC DRUG SELECTION
cientifically controlled comparative studies of seizure medicines are few. I then switch my patients to 100 mg pills and increase to 200 mg twice a day over the next few weeks. felbamate (Felbatol). Valproic acid is a drug of choice for primary generalized seizures. A typical regimen begins with 500 mg twice a day.

2 mg. 20 mg. 5 mg/ml injectable.2 mg/kg (5-20 mg).5 mg bid.5. This can happen when individuals know one seizure is likely to lead to another. and do not require a loading dose. 7. Load in emergency: Diazepam and lorazepam can be given intravenously and midazolam i. Pediatric dose is 0.m. The rectal gel can be administered when swallowing pills is not possible. Maintenance is not relevant. In addition. The gel is absorbed rapidly from the rectal mucosa. rather than reading. injectable forms such as intravenous diazepam or intravenous lorazepam are typical drugs of choice for treatments of status epilepticus.
Benzodiazepines:
he benzodiazepines consist of the “Valium-like” drugs such as Valium itself (diazepam). A typical dose of diazepam (Valium) would be 2-5 mg every 4-6 hours for seizures. 4 mg/ml injectable. 5.25. 2 mg. Ativan may be given in 0. taken for a single dose or a day or two. with the exception of treatment for atonic. Chronic use of benzodiazepines usually is discouraged. 22. 10 mg pills. 15 mg pills. or at times like the menstrual period for women. is designed to be given for clusters of seizures (”serial seizures”). diazepam 6-15 mg/d
The section below gives more details on individual AEDs.3 mg/kg for 5-20 years. Ativan 2 mg/ml.see texts and package insert for details. since Diastat is an acute rescue medicine. in doses of 2. However.v. Tranxene 3. repeated as needed to stop seizures up to about 4 mg per day. Clonazepam (Klonopin) usually is given as 0. their effectiveness tends to wear off after a few weeks of use. Tranxene (clorazepate). 5.75. 1. alprazolam (Xanax). called Diastat. Benzodiazepines can be useful as booster therapy for clusters of seizures.5. myoclonic or completely intractable seizures. Versed (midazolam) 1 mg/ml. Increase to target for clonazepam or lorazepam of 1.5 mg hs. The usual adult does is 0. then 0. Liquid for oral: Valium solution 5 mg/ml Injectable: Valium 5 mg/ml injectable. Typical adult dose: clonazepam or lorazepam.
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Summary data for BDZs Pill sizes: Klonopin 0. test dose of 0. a blood pressure medicine.
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e aware of the sound-alike drug.nih. the dose may be repeated once in 4-12 hours.cfm and enter drug name in the search box. Used chronically.5-1.5 mg/kg for ages 2-5 and 0. Ativan (lorazepam). clonidine. Tranxene slow release 11.5.5-2. Diastat comes packaged in adjustable dose syringes without needles. Klonopin (clonazepam).nlm. 1.3 mg/d divided into 3 doses. or i. Ativan 0.gov/dailymed/about. Valium 2. for emergencies .0 mg boosters. increasing doses are sometimes required.5. 15. clobazam (Frisium). These medicines are
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. Therefore. and is meant for reference. where few alternatives exist.0 mg orally three times per day. 10. sometimes mistakenly substituted for Klonopin! rectal gel form of diazepam.Felbatol Frisium Gabitril Keppra Klonopin Lamictal Luminal Lyrica Mebaral Mesantoin Mysoline Neurontin Peganone Phenurone Sabril Tegretol Tegretol-XR Topamax Tranxene Trileptal Valium Versed Vimpat Zarontin Zonegran
felbamate clobazam tiagabine levetiracetam clonazepam lamotrigine phenobarbital pregabalin mephobarbital mephenytoin primidone gabapentin ethotoin phenacemide vigabatrin carbamazepine carbamazepine topiramate clorazepate oxcarbazepine diazepam midazolam lacosamide ethosuximide zonisamide
effective as quick-acting antiepileptic medications that work within minutes to hours.5 mg pills. More information can be found in the package insert for each medicine: see http://dailymed.5 .

Drugs that lower CLN levels: rifampin CLN increases sedative effects of: antihistamines.g. antipsychotics. CLN decreases effects of other drugs: none listed Dangerous side effects: respiratory depression or arrest. Typical adult dose: Start with 100 mg twice a day. Novartis.active metabolite about 48 hours.75 – 20 mg/d in 2 or 3 divided doses.
carbamazepine easily are measured and an increase in dose produces a smooth increase in blood levels. sometimes limiting its use. GI upset (rare). No drug has been shown to be more effective for partial seizures. Therapeutic plasma concentrations: diazepam 150-700 nanograms/ml. At least as many people are allergic to carbamazepine as to phenytoin: in one European study over 10% of people started on carbamazepine monotherapy developed a rash. Carbamazepine is metabolized to the 10. cognitive impairment. low blood pressure (hypotension). atonic or myoclonic seizures..5 – 60 mg per day in 2 or 3 doses. lightheadedness. 11-epoxide. Therapeutic serum levels range 4 . Neither Tegretol-XR nor Carbatrol should be cut into pieces. each of which can be taken twice daily. bathrooms) or in the sun. but particularly with carbamazepine. Increase 100 mg every 3-7 days to 400 – 1600 mg per day. Tegretol-XR 100 mg (round orange pill with a T) 200 mg (round red pill with a T) 400 mg (round brown pill with a T) Carbatrol 200 mg (turquoise/black & “200”) 300 mg (turquoise/black & “300”) Liquid for oral: suspension 100 mg/5 ml. Drugs that raise CLN levels: nafazodone.divided into 3 doses. These doses can safely be exceeded for intractable epilepsy patients. Common side effects: Sedation. speckled white. but still in need of following. moist environments (e. constipation. Other side effects: behavior and personality changes. Typical pediatric dose of clonazepam: 3. Injectable: None available. Carbamazepine can cause GI upset and double vision. It can lead to reversible decreases in white count. opiates. impairment of consciousness.
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isadvantages of carbamazepine include the need to dose on a three or four times daily basis. tricyclics. he typical carbamazepine dose in adults is 600 – 1. Carbamazepine is less sedating than are the barbiturates. rash or itching. since the intact capsule confers the slow release. Serum sodium declines in about 5% of people on chronic carbamazepine. headaches. Carbamazepine does not produce cosmetic side effects. Carbatrol)
arbamazepine has been in use in Europe since the 1950's and the United States since the 1960's. Advantages of carbamazepine include its effectiveness in partial and secondarily generalized seizures. clorazepate . Rare cases of liver toxicity necessitate monitoring of blood tests. phenobarbital. Metabolism: various routes via liver and kidney. clorazepate 7. This problem can occur with all seizure medications. Clonazepam (Klonopin) will be used as an example of BDZ drug interactions. clonazepam 20-80 nanograms/ml. chewable).600 mg orally divided into 3 or 4 doses. distinct from aplastic anemia. attention deficit and hyperactivity.
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If you use the Tegretol-XR form. which may contribute to hidden toxicity to the medication. dizziness. Blood levels of
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. sexual dysfunction. Half-life: clonazepam – 24 to 48 hours. and probably primarily generalized seizures.12 mg/L. blood or liver injury. and it probably is equivalent to phenytoin in this regard. antifungals. you should know that empty pills are excreted in the stool – this is normal. birth defects.
Carbamazepine (Tegretol. other BDZs. It is not effective for absence. diazepam – 24 to 48 hours. Pregnancy: Category D – believed able to cause birth defects in humans. Carbamazepine tablets inactivate easily in hot. This problem is partially obviated by the Tegretol-XR or the Carbatrol dosing forms. 200 mg (oblong and pink). Summary data for carbamazepine Pill sizes: Tegretol 100 mg (round. trazodone. It is not practical to load CBZ in an emergency.

The drug was almost withdrawn from the market. Gabapentin also has an indication for neuropathic pain. Gabapentin is useful for treatment of partial and secondarily generalized seizures. in the range of 900-1800 mg. It should only be used when all other reasonable alternatives have been tried and found inadequate. and tendency to induce behavior problems. Thirty-one cases of aplastic anemia (serious injury to the blood and bone marrow) were reported.3600 mg per day). Pregnancy: Category C – can cause birth defects in animals. This may be particularly useful for the elderly.
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isadvantages of gabapentin include the short half-life which requires a three times daily regimen. Summary data for felbamate Pill sizes: 400 . these studies were done at low doses of the medicine.medication is in the field. weight loss. along with several cases of liver failure. Gabapentin has a reputation for being less effective than other medications against partial seizures. as well as rare other side effects. sleepiness and uncommonly GI side effects. Serum levels: not established.
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dvantages of gabapentin include its lack of drug interactions. 600 (scored) mg tan capsules. A typical adult dose of felbamate is 400-1200 mg orally three times per day (total of 1200 . The risk of a serious. sexual dysfunction. increase as tolerated up to 45 mg/kg/d.
Felbamate indications were broad spectrum for a variety of seizure types. There is an unproven. so it does not interact at the level of the liver. as well as partial and secondarily generalized seizures. anxiety. atonic seizures or myoclonic seizures. and potentially fatal. insomnia. it became clear that complications were occurring. It has efficacy against atonic seizures. particularly in mentally impaired children and adults. occasionally producing dizziness. phenobarbital. As the drug approached 100. Other side effects: behavior and personality changes (especially in children). unknown in humans.
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Dangerous side effects: aplastic anemia. Liquid for oral: suspension 600 mg/5ml. Half-life: 12-18 hours. Injectable: none Typical adult dose: 900 mg divided as ½ of a 600 mg tablet three times per day. Dosing can go as high as 3.000 patient years of exposure. It is not effective for absence. carbamazepine epoxide. headache. blurred vision. which make it difficult to use in conjunction with other medications. Some individuals who are troubled by weight gain and sleepiness find felbamate particularly useful. It is cleared by the kidney. In fairness to gabapentin. rash or itching.
Drugs that raise FLB levels: Valproate Drugs that lower FLB levels: phenytoin.
Gabapentin (Neurontin)
abapentin was the second new antiepileptic medication released in the wave of new medicines in the mid 1990‟s. A few of these complications were fatal. Common side effects: GI upset. Patients may feel better on gabapentin than they do on other older antiepileptic medications. weight loss. although it clearly is effective. but the FDA decided to let it stay with stern labeling. insomnia. it was evident that felbamate had a unique profile of common side effects. dizziness. It does not change levels of other seizure medications. FLB decreases effects of other drugs: oral contraceptives. Frequent monitoring of blood counts and liver tests are necessary if felbamate is to be used. unsteadiness. unsteadiness. liver failure. rior to the concern about aplastic anemia. depression. carbamazepine (but raises epoxide metabolite levels). but
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. Metabolism: 50% by various liver systems and 50% kidney and other routes. complication is estimated at 1-in-2000.800 mg divided into 3 doses. who are quite drug sensitive. altered taste. including GI upset. Gabapentin is normally very well-tolerated. Increase 300 mg daily every 3-7 days to a target dose of 1. This reputation comes from a typical responder rate (the fraction of patients whose seizures are cut in half or better) in the range of 20-30%. Typical pediatric dose: 15 mg/kg/d in 3 divided doses. phenytoin. and individuals who are on the verge of not wanting to be treated at all. valproate.600 mg per day. FLB increases effects of: phenobarbital. and as add-on therapy in cases of very hard-to-treat seizures. since it was the only effective drug for some individuals with epilepsy. Felbamate has substantial drug interactions.

increase as tolerated up to 60 mg/kg/d. Two other commonly-used seizure medications. possible birth defects. Summary data for gabapentin Pill sizes: Capsules 100 mg (white) 300 mg (yellow) 400 mg (orange) Tablets 600 mg (oval. Drugs that raise GPN levels: none Drugs that lower GPN levels: antacids (minor effect) GPN increases effects of: carbamazepine (increased dizziness through unknown action) GPN decreases effects of other drugs: none known. white. GI problems. brain cells are forced to work much more rapidly than normal. but how it might help to control seizures is unknown. muscle aches. GPN does not affect oral contraceptives. During a seizure. via the kidneys. One mechanism appears to be an effect on the sodium channels in the brain that control firing rates of nerve cells. In the United States. Can also start 900 mg divided into 3 doses. Typical pediatric dose: start with 10-15 mg/kg/d in 3 divided doses. Serum levels: 2-20 mcg/L. weight gain. phenytoin (Dilantin) and carbamazepine (Tegretol) affect nerve cell sodium channels. 900 mg day 3 divided into 3 doses. unknown in humans. unsteadiness. tan. 600 m day two. Other side effects: cognitive problems. fatigue. Common side effects: dizziness. The dose may be increased at weekly intervals by 100 mg/day given as two divided doses to a daily dose of 200 to 400 mg/day. fluid retention and edema. Half-life: 12-18 hours. your doctor will tell you to start by taking 50 mg twice daily (100 mg/day). How Vimpat helps prevent brain cells from working as fast as a seizure requires is still being investigated. Metabolism: After taking Vimpat tablets. peak blood levels are reached in 1-4 hours. not scored) 800 mg (oval. slurred speech. Serum levels are not very useful. Maintenance is 900 – 4800 mg/d divided into 3 or 4 doses. Vimpat is partially metabolized in the liver by the enzyme system called CYP2C19. Vimpat acts on a slower-acting component of the sodium channel. The half-life of Vimpat (the amount of time it takes for the blood level to fall by 50%) is generally around 13 hours.plausible belief that efficacy is better at doses up to 3600 or even 4800 mg of gabapentin per day. Vimpat is usually taken two times a day. Injectable: none Typical adult dose: 300 mg day one. the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved lacosamide in 2008 to be used seizure medicine in adults with partial-onset epilepsy. This protein controls growth of nerve cell processes. Typical pediatric dose: not established. Metabolism: excreted unchanged in the kidney. Action on CRMP-2 so far seems to be unique among seizure medications. People with poor kidney func-
27
. Pregnancy: Category C – can cause birth defects in animals. not scored) Liquid for oral: suspension 250 mg/5ml. not very useful. Vimpat also works on a protein in nerve cells called collapsin response mediator protein-2 (CRMP-2). Dangerous side effects: very rare reduction of blood counts. Gabapentin often is used as an add-on medication to another seizure medicine. Brain cells need to work (fire) at a certain rate to function normally. mood changes. and it is then cleared from the body in the urine.
Lacosamide (Vimpat)
V
impat (VIM-pat) is the brand name used in the United States and some other countries for the seizure medicine lacosamide (la-COS-a-mide). but in a different way. such as axons. based on how well it works and how well you tolerate it. Summary data for lacosamide Pill sizes: 50 mg (pink) 100 mg (dark yellow) 150 mg (salmon) 200 mg (blue) film-coated tablets Liquid for Oral: None Injectable 200 mg/20 mL single-use vial for intravenous use Typical adult dose: Usually.

as well as a variety of other less common side effects. and increase to 100 mg in the am and 200 mg in the pm for a week. As with gabapentin. Does not affect oral contraceptives. then 200 mg in the am and pm (400 mg/d). need to take lamotrigine twice a day. Pregnancy: Category C – can cause birth defects in animals. Dangerous side effects: rare effects on cardiac (heart) conduction. sometimes mistakenly substituted for Lamictal! Summary data for lamotrigine Pill sizes: 2. Clinical experience has demonstrated higher responder rates in less severely affected patients. A few patients had lowering of blood counts which could potentially lead to anemia or lowering of resistance to infection. 25 mg chewable-dispersible tablets Tablets. suggests a potentially more serious type of rash. but field use has gone to 800 mg. I then switch to 100 mg pills. tiagabine. then 100 mg/d divided into two doses for 2 weeks. Clinical studies were performed in the 300-500 mg per day range. double vision. tremor. and the rash). then increase by 100 mg daily every two weeks. Metabolism: liver. its very good tolerance profile (with occasional problems of dizziness. Serum levels: not established. imbalance.6 mg/kg/d. fatigue. Drugs interactions: Minimal. rare decrease of red blood cells. I cut the above dosages in half and aim for 150-250 mg/d in 1 or 2 doses. In the United States. Rash typically begins as itchy or blotchy red regions on the face. vomiting.tion usually need to take less Vimpat and may take it less often. headache. increase over 1-2 months to 5-15 mg/kg/d in 1-2 divided doses. unknown in humans. the manufacturer recommends starting with 50 mg/d divided into two dose for 2 weeks. Advantages of lamotrigine include its broad spectrum. with prolongation of the PR or QT intervals. then the risk of rash is further increased. lamotrigine is a true broadspectrum anti-seizure medication and may have its most dramatic successes in treatment of generalized seizures. arms or trunk. felbamate.
L
I
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n clinical trials of lamotrigine. Other side effects: behavior change. 6-sided “shields” 25 mg (white) 100 mg (orange) 150 mg (peach-tan) 200 mg (blue) Liquid for oral: none.15 mg/kg/d and increase over 2-3 months to 1-5 mg/kg/d. and resolves in 1-2 weeks. in the 20-30% range for
. The rash usually improves within three days of stopping lamotrigine (or sometimes even with reduction of dose). and in patients with generalized seizures. the drug has an indication for partial and secondarily generalized seizures. responder rates were similar to those of gabapentin. Blood tests sometimes show abnormalities in patients taking Vimpat. and then increase each week by 25 mg daily (1 pill) on a twice a day schedule until at 100 mg (4 pills) twice a day. few intractable patients became seizure free when lamotrigine was used as add-on therapy. zonisamide. Liver abnormalities were seen in blood tests of 7 of 935 patients (0. carbamazepine. nausea. sleepiness. phenobarbital. because it stays in their body longer. 5. Nevertheless. Lamisil. ataxia. or GI upset. liver injury. Typical adult dose: In patients not on valproate. The use of the medication has been limited by an approximately 5-15% incidence of rash. The serious rash. In patients on valproate. diarrhea. If on valproate. or other inducers of liver metabolism. start at 0. may require hospitalization. vision blurred. heart rhythm problems. dependent upon the rate lamotrigine is started: with more rash at faster initiation rates. called Stevens-Johnson syndrome or toxic epidermal necrosis. Lamotrigine has the advantage of single daily dosing. anxiety.
add-on therapy in patients with uncontrolled seizures. Rash on mucous membranes such as mouth. or even higher. but patients also taking phenytoin.
Lamotrigine (Lamictal)
amotrigine was the third drug (after felbamate and gabapentin) in the wave of new antiepileptic medications introduced in the mid-1990‟s. I find it simpler and better tolerated to start with 25 mg per day for a week. sleepiness. and rarely has been fatal. The slow titration mandated by the risk of rash makes it difficult to achieve therapeutic doses of lamotrigine in less than a month. or any blistering of skin. Typical pediatric dose: If not on valproate start 0. Injectable: none. eyes or genital regions. Serious adverse events other than rash are quite rare. topiramate. an overthe-counter anti-fungal medicine. This is an unusual type of rash. the N-glucuronidation pathway.
B
e aware of the sound-alike drug. If the patient is already on valproic acid.7%). memory loss. Common side effects: Dizziness.

Mysoline. Drugs that lower LTG levels: Dilantin. rare liver injury. fatigue. headache. Other side effects: usually few.000 mg daily (500 mg twice a day). Trileptal. production of myoclonic seizures with toxic doses. does not involve the liver. toxic epidermal necrolysis). I split the capsules and begin with 500 mg per day in two divided doses. Drugs that raise LTG levels: VPA. Dangerous side effects: Rare psychiatric side effects. may occasionally get headache or blurred vision. Dangerous side effects: serious rash (Stevens-Johnson syndrome. Pregnancy: Category C – can cause birth defects in animals. Tegretol. scored)
M
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. This may be an effective dose right from the start.
Liquid for oral: none. longer with kidney dysfunction. dizziness. unsteadiness. sertraline. Since Keppra is a new drug. LVT increases effects of: None known. scored) 750 mg (orange tab. Typical adult maintenance dose is 1. but at least levetiracetam appears to have minimal deleterious effects on thinking. Common side effects: rash in 5-10%. Half-life: 6-8 hours. In most cases. Levetiracetam is not metabolized in the liver and it has very few drug interactions. Common side effects: Usually few or no side effects. unknown in humans.
Levetiracetam (Keppra)
evetiracetam (Keppra) was introduced in 2000. dizziness. not very useful. such as hallucinations. This allows rapid titration to efficacy. Pregnancy: Category C – can cause birth defects in animals. Serum levels: unknown. Injectable: none. but can have sleepiness. unknown in humans. Trileptal. Tegretol. Other side effects: behavior change. especially early in use. In individuals who are sensitive to medicine side effects. rare decrease of red blood cells.000 mg divided into two doses. Experience is suggesting that it may have broad-spectrum action against all seizure types. which is used in Europe to improve cognition. Celontin is a broad-spectrum drug. but has a different profile of action.000 mg/d in two divided doses. phenobarbital. LVT decreases effects of other drugs: None known. with actions against partial seizures and absence (petit mal) seizures. Drugs that raise LVT levels: None known. Does not affect oral contraceptives. 72 hours with valproate Serum levels: 2-20 mcg/L. delusions. other rare serious side effects might emerge. if no rash. Zarontin LTG usually does not raise or lower levels of other AEDs (thought the reverse does occur). GI upset. the dug appears to be quite effective with a low incidence of significant side effects. Drugs that lower LVT levels: None known. Typical adult dose: Manufacturer recommends 1. including partial seizures with secondary generalization.Half-life: about 24 hours in monotherapy. It is chemically related to ethosuximide (Zarontin). Piracetam and levetiracetam probably do not improve cognition to any significant extent. anxiety. typically used as a third-string agent when other drugs have failed. that resolve within 1-2 weeks after stopping drugs. LTG decreases effects of other drugs: VPA.000 – 3.
L
Methsuximide (Celontin)
ethsuximide (Celontin) is an old antiepileptic drug. phenobarbital. It is chemically based upon a drug called piracetam. The initial dose of 1. somnolence. scored) 500 mg (yellow tab. Does not affect oral contraceptives.
Summary data for levetiracetam Pill sizes: 250 mg (blue tab. Levetiracetam is approved as an add-on medicine for partial seizures. may be a therapeutic dosage for some. Typical pediatric dose: not established. Metabolism: mainly processed in the kidney. 12 hours in conjunction with Dilantin.

Given that oxcarbazepine has similar effectiveness to that of carbamazepine. Common side effects: GI upset.
T
side effect seen more with Trileptal than Tegretol is hyponatremia. scored tablets. The blood sodium is low. hiccups. Drugs that lower MSM levels: Tegretol (but increases the epoxide metabolite) MSM increases effects of: Dilantin. This oxygen molecule prevents metabolism to the epoxide form of the drug. The reasons against using it in all patients (versus the more traditional Tegretol or Dilantin) are higher cost and less of a long-term track record. Half-life: The NDM metabolite has a half-life of 24-72 hours. phenobarbital.Summary data for methsuximide Pill sizes: 150. or low blood sodium. possibly better therapeutic ratio. Injectable: none. N-desmethylmethsuximide (NDM). phenobarbital. has been proven to be more effective than is carbamazepine (Tegretol) for partial seizures. less interference with oral contraceptives. although the active metabolite. Drugs that raise MSM levels: Dilantin. with or without secondary generalization. Since the epoxide form accounts for some of the toxicity of Tegretol. Oxcarbazepine is structurally identical to carbamazepine (Tegretol). it stands out as a first-line dug for many patients.
A
o drug. Typical adult dose: Initial 150-300 mg/d. dizziness. Typical pediatric dose: Start with 150 mg/d. but is a drug of some importance in the treatment of partial and secondarily generalized seizures. increased over a few weeks to a target of 150-1.200 mg/d in 1-2 divided doses. 300 mg (yellow) capsules. The side effects of oxcarbazepine are similar to those of carbamazepine. at least in some users. but because of greater retention of water. Metabolism: liver metabolism via the CYP 2C9 system to the active metabolite. Effects tend to be more severe in cases of rapid reduction of sodium.
N
Summary data for oxcarbazepine
Oxcarbazepine (Trileptal)
xcarbazepine (Trileptal) is not yet well known in the US medical community. Normal serum sodium is 135-145 mEq/L. old or new. Trileptal is not effective against absence or myoclonic seizures. monohydroxy derivative has been in clinical trials for intravenous use. and whether there are good alternatives. rileptal is a different drug from Tegretol / Tegretol-XR / Carbatrol. Liquid for oral: 300 mg/5 ml suspension. sleepiness. skin rash. increased over a few weeks to a target dose of 300 – 1. I sometimes use it as a first drug of choice for partial seizures. not from a deficiency of salt. Serum levels: 10-40 mcg/ml of the NDM metabolite. At serum sodium concentrations less than 120 mEq/L. Excessively rapid correction of low sodium also can cause problems.
for a double-bond oxygen molecule (a keto group) on the 10-11 position of the triple-ring structure. unknown in humans. I usually reduce or discontinue Trileptal or Tegretol for serum sodium less than 125 mEq/L. except
Pill sizes: 150. Felbatol. The FDA has approved use of Trileptal as a firstline drug in monotherapy (as a single drug). Trileptal may have a better therapeutic/toxic profile.
O
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. less autoinduction in the liver (the phenomenon of lower blood levels on constant dose because of increased liver clearance in the first 2 months of use). Liquid for oral: none. Advantages of Trileptal over the older carbamazepines include: fewer drug interactions. need to take only twice daily. 300 600 mg all tan.200 mg/d in 1-2 divided doses. which dilutes the sodium. although in the same family. headache Other side effects: Behavior changes. Pregnancy: Category C – can cause birth defects in animals.but each case should be considered in the context of how much the drug is helping the seizures. irritability. and may have fewer side effects (except for hyponatremia). compared to declines over many weeks. people can become confused and experience worsening of seizures. carbamazepine epoxide MSM decreases effects of other drugs: Dangerous side effects: rare blood count problems. Injectable: None.

The injection can be given i. levels will build up slowly over weeks. Metabolism: Metabolized outside the liver to the monohydroxy derivative (MHD). 65. Serum levels: MHD metabolite 12-30 mcg/ml.5 mg/kg). unknown in humans. Half-life: 2-5 days. The injectable form can be given i. Verapamil. The MHD then is eliminated by glucuronidation in the liver. it is a sedating medication and
P
Drugs that lower PBB levels: phenytoin (sometimes)
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. henobarbital was invented in 1912. My experience is that this results in excessive toxicity. oral contraceptives. particularly in a population that already is prone to depression. increase to 1. OXC increases effects of: Dilantin. Metabolism: metabolized by the liver (CYP 2C9).known to cause birth defects in humans. and lingers a long time when the pills are stopped. meaning that the medicine takes a long time to get into and out of the system.
P
Summary data for phenobarbital Pill sizes: 15. dizziness. Other side effects: behavior or mood changes. If a patient is on Tegretol. Epilepsy specialists usually consider it a second-line drug. inactivation of birth control pills. OXC decreases effects of other drugs: Lamotrigine. Pregnancy: Category C – can cause birth defects in animals. Dangerous side effects: Worsening of seizures (especially atypical absence) with toxic doses. First. Typical adult dose: Start with 30-100 mg per day. not requiring a lot of blood tests for checks of blood counts and liver function. safe.2. dihydropyridine calcium blockers. Drugs that raise OXC levels: Drugs that lower OXC levels: Dilantin. and over the next few weeks. the drug is sedative. The half-life of phenobarbital is long.
Phenobarbital (Luminal)
Drugs that raise PBB levels: valproate. 20. Common side effects: blurred vision. 30. Typical pediatric dose: 3-7 mg/kg/d. headaches. To load in an emergency: 10-20 mg/kg intravenously. and is perhaps the most used medicine worldwide because it can be given in a single daily dose and it costs less than $5. Nevertheless.m. used with a single daily dose. 100 mg – all little white pills (DO NOT mix up sizes!) Liquid for oral: 15. Disadvantages are several. unsteadiness. Pregnancy: Category D . 60..v. felbamate. GI upset. and increase 150 mg per week to a target daily dose of 1.
produces a significant incidence of depression and cognitive problems.00 per hundred pills. I begin with 300 mg/d (150 mg twice a day). Depression can be significant with barbiturates and an appreciable risk for suicide can emerge. although by long-standing and unnecessary practice it often is divided into 30 mg three times a day. felodipine. and available in both oral and injectable forms. 97. The dose does not need to be split. Half-life: The active MHD metabolite has a half-life of 810 hrs. Injectable: 30 mg/ml. Without a loading dose the medication takes up to two weeks to come to steady state levels. Plasma concentrations: 15-40 mcg/ml.Typical adult dose: The manufacturer recommends a starting dose of 600 mg per day. Because of the long half-life of phenobarbital.v. and increase over several weeks to 20-50 mg/kg/d.400 mg/d. which is the active compound. 60. henobarbital has the advantage of being cheap. rash.200 – 2. Increase over a week to 60-200 mg/d (1-3. 16. phenobarbital. 130 mg/5 ml. 32. A typical dose of phenobarbital is 100 mg per day. 65. It often impairs thinking and memory. tricyclic antidepressants. longer in patients with kidney disease. but it is irritating intramuscularly. If seizures are not very severe or frequent.5 times the daily milligrams of Tegretol. excreted in the urine. carbamazepine. 30. 130 mg/ml. 60 mg/ml. sedation. Typical pediatric dose: Start with 8-10 mg/kg/d (maximum 600 mg/d). or i. then I immediately switch to approximately the same daily milligrams of Trileptal.

corticosteroids. no need for a taper-up schedule. sertraline. Other side effects: sedation.known to cause birth defects in humans. lamotrigine. phenobarbital (sometimes).
min. zonisamide. Injectable: 50 mg/ml injectable i. ritoniavir. bone weakening. A moderate number of people are allergic to phenytoin. thyroid hormone. occasionally leading to anemia and bone problems. max 50 mg/min. three times a day. suicide. It is the most popular drug in the United States for treatment of partial and secondarily generalized seizures. dizziness. cognitive impairment. oral contraceptives. sexual dysfunction. Dangerous side effects: severe depression. ticlopidine. rifampin. hyperactivity. short-acting) 100 mg (white capsule / orange stripe. carbamazepine. load 20 mg per kg. cyclosporine. The therapeutic serum level of phenytoin is 10-20 mg/L. only (not a Pfizer product). diltiazem. Commonest side effects: sleepiness. People who are on phenytoin for years may benefit from a daily multivita-
A
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. but with brand name Dilantin the half-life is 24 hours and the medication can usually be tolerated in a single daily 300 mg dose. Metabolism: Liver (CYP 2C9). and one in ten thousand suffer the serious Stevens-Johnson allergic skin reaction. rare worsening of seizures with toxic doses. cimetidine. methsuximide. hand contractions). The medication can have unpleasant cosmetic side effects. valproate. Therapeutic plasma concentrations: 10-20 mcg/ml. Typical adult dose: 300 mg per day (no titration only). relatively quick disappearance of the medication after stopping. and may be less likely than is phenytoin to produce cardiac arrhythmias. Coumadin (interaction lowers INR. blood count suppression. Half-life: around 24 hours. hyperactivity in children and elderly.
P
dvantages of phenytoin include long experience. trimethaprim. liver injury. antipsychotics. Pregnancy: Category D . topiramate. StevensJohnson rash. neuropathy-numbness. phenytoin. fluoxetine. metronidazole. single daily dose regimen for good compliance. omeprazole. but the 50 mg chewable Infa-tab is short-acting. acne. connective tissue growth (frozen shoulder. which may be felt as numbness and tingling or weakness in the feet and fingers. undesired hair growth. attention deficit. and tissues. rash or itching. erythomycins. vomiting. Drugs that raise PHT levels: amiodarone. since the B complex may counteract neuropathy. antihistamines. fatigue. anemia. oxcarbazepine. sensitivity to the sun. A typical phenytoin dose is 100 mg orally.v. mall increases in phenytoin dose sometimes produce skyrocketing levels with toxicity. benzodiazepines. Note that the 100 mg and 30 mg brand-name pill are long-acting. Typical pediatric dose: 5-10 mg/kg/d. Preferable to give fosphenytoin 20 mg phenytoin equivalent/kg load at <150 mg/min. nausea. with a target maintenance of 200-500/day in 1-3 divided doses. opiates. administration is needed. Phenytoin can cause a deficiency of folate (folic acid. behavior and personality changes. cognitive impairment. Drugs that lower PHT levels: antacids. such as thickening of skin. doxyrubicin. methylphenidate. Some of these cosmetic side effects may not be reversible after stopping medication. and gum swelling. Note that generic phenytoin may show variable absorption and half-life. more expensive. depression. divided into two. sucralfate
Phenytoin (Dilantin)
henytoin was introduced in 1938 as the first nonsedating antiepileptic medication. Decreases effects of other drugs: buproprion. It is. which can be fatal. protease inhibitors.
S
Summary data for phenytoin Pill sizes: 30 mg (white capsule / pink stripe. Disadvantages include mild to moderate sedation and cognitive effects. isoniazid. primidone.PBB increases effects of: acetaminophen. topiramate.v. Phenytoin also can produce a peripheral neuropathy. depression. Oral load 20 mg/kg in 3 divided doses over a day. Load in emergency: i. increases clotting). modafenil. a vitamin) and vitamin D. long-acting) Liquid for oral: 125 mg/5 ml. the D the bony changes. and the folic acid a tendency of phenytoin to reduce that vitamin. ciprofloxin. buspirone. doxyrubicin. worsening of porphyria. antidepressants. oxcarbazepine. the fosphenytoin (Cerebyx) form is less irritating to veins. phenobarbital (sometimes). quinidine.v. birth defects. fluconazole. Therapeutic unbound (free) concentrations: 1-2 mcg/ml. inactivates birth control pills. addiction. long-acting) 50 mg (triangular chewable tab. In an acute situation where i. however. theophylline.

Mysoline is useful for partial seizures with or without secondary generalization. In clinical trials. zonisamide Dangerous side effects: Blood toxicity. It does not undergo hepatic metabolism. nausea (uncommon). inactivation of birth control pills. Stevens-Johnson skin rash. worsening of certain seizure types (atypical absence). acetaminophen PHT decreases effects of other drugs: antipsychotics. provided that the patient did not discontinue Mysoline because of sleepiness. The responder rate (% with at least a 50% reduction in seizure frequency) was about 50% for patients on doses of 600 mg per day. Typical adult dose: 150 – 600 mg/day divided into two or three doses. primidone exceeded the ability of phenytoin. because it is metabolized to phenobarbital. weakening of the bones from vitamin D block. lamotrigine. primidone is used to reduce hand and head tremor. Primidone is itself an active antiepileptic drug. weight gain. mild cognitive slowing. For intractable seizures. carbamazepine. quetiapine. theophylline. clozapine. Dose should be reduced for patients with renal failure. skin rash. Primidone also has all of the side effects of phenobarbital. blurred vision. birth defects. 150. quinadine. cosmetic problems increased face/body hair and coarser skin). Pregnancy: Category C. dry mouth. Injectable: None. can cause birth defects in test animals.
T
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. confusion. except a few studies have shown mild increase of phenytoin levels. neuromuscular blockers. sexual dysfunction. felbamate. behavior and personality changes. headache. anemia (rare). gum overgrowth. 225. increases clotting). tremor Other side effects: double or blurry vision. unsteadiness. and also has shown efficacy for seizures and neuropathic pain. It is indicated for partial onset seizures. swollen lymph nodes (rare). tremor (uncommon). PGB decreases effects of other drugs: none known.PHT increases effects of: Coumadin (interaction sometimes raises INR. and 51% reduction with 600 mg. fever. unsteadiness. rare muscle-joint pains. In another arena. Dangerous side effects: rare anaphylaxis. Coumadin (interaction usually lowers INR. It may be better than is phenobarbital for myoclonic seizures. with or without secondary generalization. topiramate. carbamazepine and phenobarbital to control secondarily generalized tonic-clonic (grand mal) seizures. cyclosporin.
Primidone (Mysoline) Pregabalin (Lyrica)
regabalin is chemically similar to gabapentin (Neurontin). thyroid hormone. buspirone. worsening of heart failure. cognitive or memory impairment. then they can progress to the 250 mg pills. Most patients should try a single test-dose of primidone 50 mg to see if they have an excessive degree of sedation.
P
P
Summary data for pregabalin Pill sizes: 25. Drugs that lower PGB levels: none known. tricyclics. acne. rare severe reduction of blood counts. short-acting). rimidone (Mysoline) is an older antiepileptic medication with similarity to phenobarbital. headaches. Other side effects: Dizziness. neuropathy (tingling/numbness). It is metabolized to phenobarbital (long-lasting) and PEMA (phenyl-ethyl-malonic acid. such as juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. a median reduction of partial seizures was seen in 37% of subjects taking 300 mg per day. corticosteroids. Common side effects: unsteadiness. PGB increases effects of: none known. Half-life: 6-7 hours. this is a good responder rate in add-on trials. If they do not. sleepiness. most of the drug is excreted unchanged in the urine.
I
he limiting factor in primidone use is sedation. rare worsening of seizures with toxic doses.
n the VA Cooperative Study of Antiepileptic Drugs.
Metabolism: Negligible metabolism. narcotics. buproprion. rare serious skin reaction. not known to cause birth defects in people. 200. Commonest side effects: dizziness. liver toxicity. 50. Drugs that raise PGB levels: none known. protease inhibitors. lupus-like syndrome. slurred speech. oral contraceptives. antifungals. mifepristone. sensitivity to the sun. 100. mild fatigue. 300 Liquid for oral: None. sleepiness. 75. decreases clotting). valproate. two additional antiepileptic drugs. tiagabine.

antipsychotics. How Banzel helps prevent brain cells from working as fast as a seizure requires is still being investigated. Pregnancy: Category D – can cause birth defects in humans. insomnia. neuropathy-numbness. Typical pediatric dose: 10-25 mg/kg/d in 3 divided doses. then 125 mg at night for 3-7 days. rash or itching. If OK. depression. phenytoin (Dilantin) and carbamazepine (Tegretol) also affect nerve cell sodium channels. blood count suppression. Brain cells (neurons) need to work (fire) at a certain rate to function normally. Injectable: none. tapering should be very slow. Cognitive impairment or intellectual delay can accompany the syndrome. inactivates oral contraceptives. Drugs that lower PRM levels: phenobarbital. Primidone is a habit-forming drug. vomiting. hyperactivity. Other side effects: sedation. protease inhibitors. but you and
34
. using the 50 mg pills to decrease slowly. tonic (stiffening). hyperactivity in children and elderly. Dilantin. Unless side effects mandate rapid withdrawal. hand contractions). phenobarbital metabolite 2-5 days. doxyrubicin. but can substitute phenobarbital if unable to take primidone. including atonic (drop). opiates. but it may slow down rapidly firing neurons. scored 400 mg pink. antidepressants. with withdrawal symptoms of seizures. Commonest side effects: sleepiness. depression. but more sedation): severe depression. oblong. tonic-clonic (stiffening and jerking). It can comprise multiple seizure types. cognitive impairment. INH. grey. Felbamate. Tegretol. During a seizure.000 mg/d in divided doses of 3-4 times per day. Stevens-Johnson rash. brain cells are forced to work much more rapidly than normal. liver injury. oblong. nausea. One mechanism appears to be an effect on the sodium channels in the brain that control firing rates of nerve cells. PRM decreases effects of other drugs: buproprion. Half-life: primidone 8-24 hr. oral contraceptives. sensitivity to the sun. birth defects. addiction. oxcarbazepine. topiramate. Coumadin (interaction lowers INR. phenytoin. PRM increases effects of: acetaminophen. anxiety. Typical adult dose: 50 mg test dose to check for excessive sleepiness. suicide.
Summary data for primidone Pill sizes: 50 mg (square tab. bone weakening. behavior and personality changes. inactivates birth control pills. fatigue. yellow. rare worsening of seizures with toxic doses. sexual dysfunction. the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved rufinamide in 2008 to be used as an add-on (adjunctive) seizure medicine in children 4 years and older and adults with the Lennox-Gastaut (LGS) syndrome. scored) 250 mg (square tab. worsening of porphyria. connective tissue growth (frozen shoulder. scored Liquid for oral: none.
Rufinamide (Banzel)
Banzel (BAN-zel) is the brand name used in the United States and some other countries for the seizure medicine rufinamide (ru-FIN-a-mide). Summary data for rufinamide Pill sizes: 200 mg pink. and tremor. cognitive impairment. scored) Liquid for oral: None. dizziness. The LGS is an epilepsy syndrome that usually is difficult to treat. The conversion is 10-to-1: 250 mg of primidone for 25 mg of phenobarbital. lamotrigine. Typical adult starting dose: For adults. Metabolism: half excreted unchanged in the kidney and half metabolized in the liver to PEMA and phenobarbital. Drugs that raise PRM levels: Valproate. thyroid hormone. over an interval of many months. antihistamines.iscontinuation of primidone can be very difficult.
D
Dangerous side effects (similar to phenobarbital. absence (staring) and other seizure types. theophylline. Two other commonly-used seizure medications. quinidine. cyclosporine. corticosteroids. Injectable: None. zonisamide. the manufacturer recommends a starting dose of 200 mg twice a day. buspirone. phenobarbital 15-40 mcg/ml. increases clotting). attention deficit. then increase by 125 mg every 3-7 days to target dose of 750 – 2. PEMA 10-24 hr. benzodiazepines. In the United States. Serum levels: primidone 5-12 mcg/ml. anemia.

The half-life of Banzel (the amount of time it takes for the blood level to fall by 50%) is generally around 8 hours. imbalance. and may precipitate kidney stones.
and a few serious psychiatric complications. peak blood levels are reached in 4-6 hours. dizziness. Drug interactions: Can increase phenytoin levels. Drugs that lower TGB levels: Dilantin. Absorption may be faster when Banzel is taken with food. Summary data for tiagabine Pill sizes: 2 mg tablet 4 mg (yellow tablet. vomiting. GABA. fatigue.”. it produces occasional allergic reactions. like acetazolamide (Diamox) andtzonisamide. Topiramate is a substantially effective medication. until the child is taking 45 mg/kg/day or a maximum of 3200 mg/day. seizures are harder to initiate and sustain. blurred vision. but doses of 45 mg/kg/d produced serum levels of 5-50 micrograms/ml. Scattered reports have detailed paradoxical worsening of seizures from tiagabine. When more GABA accumulates in the brain. not scored) 20 mg (pink tablet. so absorption is slow compared to many other drugs. not scored) 12 mg (green tablet. tremor. Injectable: none. Typical adult dose: Begin with 4 mg at bedtime for a week. which will produce some peaks and valleys in the blood levels of the drug. nausea. abnormal thinking. anxiety. stomach upset. but has been documented to be effective on a twice-daily basis. Dangerous side effects: rare induction of nonconvulsive status epilepticus (prolonged confusional seizures). Rufinamide levels can be decreased by several other antiepileptic drugs. As such. constipation. It is a sulfa. to a maximum of 1600 mg twice a day (3200 mg per day total). divided into two doses each day. unknown in humans. not scored) Liquid for oral: none. via the kidneys. unknown in humans. then increase 4 mg each week to 16-56 mg/d in two divided doses. dizziness. The side effect profile is acceptable. Serum levels: not established. with some sedation. thinking difficulty. not scored) 16 mg (blue tablet. It also has the advantage of being a broad-spectrum antiepileptic medication. Metabolism: liver metabolism by the CYP 3A4 system.
Tiagabine (Gabitril)
iagabine is a “designer drug. Despite being cleared by the kidneys. phenobarbital. and dizziness. Pregnancy: Category C – can cause birth defects in animals. with responder rates in the 50% range in intractable epilepsy. Half-life: 4-10 hours. Typical pediatric dose: Children will usually be started at doses of approximately 10 mg/kg/day administered in two equally divided doses. Typical pediatric dose: 4-32 mg/d in 2-4 divided doses. people with kidney disease were found to have about the same blood levels of rufinamide as people with normal kidney function. Serum levels: not established. Banzel is extensively metabolized (but not by the usual liver cytochrome CYP system) then cleared from the body in the urine. Other side effects: personality change. Common side effects: sleepiness. sleepiness. Tegretol. It is not effective for absence or myoclonic seizures.related drug. Pregnancy: Category C – can cause birth defects in animals. unsteadiness.
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Topiramate (Topamax)
opiramate was just released in 1997.your doctor may choose to start more slowly or more rapidly to fit your particular needs. tremor. rare psychosis or hallucinations. Gabitril is useful for partial and secondarily generalized seizures. Tiagabine has a short half-life. in a
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. formulated to block inactivation (uptake) of the brain‟s main inhibitory neurotransmitter. abdominal pain. Banzel is usually taken two times a day. Dosing can increase by adding additional 10 mg/kg amounts every two days. Common side effects: Headache. Metabolism: After taking Banzel tablets. Dosing can be increased by adding an extra 200 (or 400) mg twice a day every two days.

sleepiness. then increase over a month or two to 5-9 mg/kg/d. and atonic seizures. Common side effects: Thinking impairment. not scored) Depakote 250 mg (peach tab. 25 mg (round white tablet. longer with kidney failure. and Depacon for intravenous use in emergencies. but more complex with polypharmacy.
Serum levels: not established Pregnancy: Category C – can cause birth defects in animals. Cognitive problems are more common in people taking doses of topiramate higher than 400 mg per day. sleepiness and unsteadiness. not scored) 100 mg (round peach tablet. This makes it a “broad spectrum” antiepileptic medication. including true grand mal. a risk for kidney stones. Some do better on as little as 100-200 mg/d. Depacon)
alproic acid is particularly useful for the primary generalized epilepsies.
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dvantages of valproic acid are efficacy for generalized seizures and the broad spectrum. I use topiramate when I want a powerful. Some people like the common weight loss side effect of topiramate. Subtle impairments. Dangerous side effects: Severe thinking impairment. and a relatively high incidence of liver problems. Drugs that lower TPM levels: Dilantin. kidney stones (2-3%). Diamox (more kidney stone risk). zonisamide. typically in doses of 200-400 mg total per day. It also has some action in partial and secondarily generalized seizures. 25 mg sprinkle capsule. which sometimes covers more than one seizure type with one medication. phenoarbital TPM increases effects of: Dilantin.category with valproic acid. Metabolism: 70% unchanged in the kidney when the only drug. lamotrigine. Typical adult starting dose: 25-50 mg in 1-2 divided doses. 200 mg (400 mg/d) as a target dose. Typical doses for adults are in the range of 250-1000 mg three times a day (750 . not scored) Depakote 500 mg (pink tab. Depakene. dizziness. others find it to be a problem. during initiation of the drug. and benzodiazepines. Tegretol. not scored) 200 mg (round salmon tablet.3000 mg per day). In addition. glaucoma and the need to start the drug slowly. and evidence is accumulating that doses in the 100-200 mg per day range may be effective without as many side effects. and in people on topiramate in combination with other AEDs (polypharmacy). Typical adult dose: 400-600 mg per day in 2 divided doses. Summary data for valproic acid Pill sizes: Depakene 250 mg (orange capsule) Depakote 125 mg (blue-white sprinkle capsule) Depakote 125 mg (dark orange tab. precipitation of acute glaucoma. Disadvantages include significant GI upset in many patients. unsteadiness. Other side effects: Dizziness.
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. not scored) Depakote-ER 500 mg extended-release tab. then 200. and increase by 25 mg daily each week to 200 mg in a twice-daily dose. I then switch to 100 mg pills and move to 100. Because of kidney stone risk. Depakote-ER can be used for a twice-daily extended release pill. Zonegran (more kidney stone risk). TPM decreases effects of other drugs: Oral contraceptives. but its use is limited by a relatively high incidence of thinking problems. 200 mg per day for a week. topiramate theoretically probably should not be used in conjunction with zonisamide (Zonegran) or acetazolamide (Diamox). this typical dose may in fact be too high. unknown in humans. weight loss. numbness. behavior problems. not scored) Liquid for oral: none. However. such as slow thinking and slow talking. absence not responsive to ethosuximide. Topiramate is given in a twice-daily dosing regimen. Summary data for topiramate Pill sizes: 15.
Valproic Acid (Depakote. GI upset. Injectable: none. Half-life: 12-30 hours. I usually start with 25 mg per week. The usual side effects include dizziness. Liver problems are particularly a danger in children under five years of age on multiple medications. noticed mainly by family may occur in even more. Typical pediatric dose: Start 1-3 mg/kg/d. which requires monitoring of liver tests in the blood. broad-spectrum AED. the need to ease people into the drug slowly to avoid side effects. the medication produces temporary impairment of thinking and memory in about 30% of full doses. although no actual proof exists for high kidney stone risk with such combination therapy.

Accumulation of GABA inhibits seizures. elevation of blood ammonia levels. blood toxicity. cholestyramine. Drugs that lower VPA levels: carbamazepine. etc. then 1. water retention and lowered sodium.known to cause birth defects in humans. A few percent of treated patients develop depression or other serious psychiatric problems. increased bleeding/bruising. FDA has denied release of vigabatrin because of visual field changes. sexual dysfunction. Visual field changes result from a toxic effect of vigabatrin on the retina. even after stopping vigabatrin. Vigabatrin has apparently good efficacy as an add-on drug for intractable partial seizures. the visual loss involves central fields of vision. Injectable: Depacon 100 mg/ml. VPA increases effects of: carbamazepine (increased epoxide). VPA decreases effects of other drugs: clozapine. Other side effects: rash. lamotrigine.
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Summary data for vigabatrin Pill sizes: 500 mg Liquid for oral: none. such as infantile spasms. joint aches and pains.000 – 3. ritonavir. but GI side effects might require splitting the dose. as loss of peripheral vision. then 500 mg in the am and 1. birth defects (especially open spine) Common side effects: GI upset. headaches. unsteadiness. which can cause problems with reading and gross seeing. Therapeutic plasma concentrations: 50 – 125 mcg/ml. phenytoin. Drugs that raise VPA levels: aspirin (also can increase bleeding risk). because of effects of the drug on vision and the retina. Half-life would permit daily dosing.000 mg/d divided into two doses. sensitivity to the sun. primidone. behavior and personality changes. weight loss.
igabatrin is marketed in most major countries around the world. rifampin. use of the drug requires demonstration that no alternatives are effective for the seizures. felbamate. then twice a day for a week. in up to 30% of people who take vigabatrin for more than a year. felbamate. zidovudine. cimetidine. Target dose is 1. menstrual irregularities. significant weight gain. Half-life: 8-15 hours. Load over 1 hour.000 mg in the pm for a week. phenytoin (increases free levels). ethosuximide. phenobarbital. where regulatory approval has not been forthcoming. isoniazid. and mild thinking or memory impairment. and eye tests are important. tremor. Typical adult dose: 750 – 4000 mg/d Typical pediatric dose: 15-60 mg/kg/d divided in 2-4 doses. excluding the United States and Japan.
Vigabatrin (Sabril)
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. Increase every 3-7 days by 125 mg daily.000 mg twice a day for a week. Pregnancy: Category D . Visual field changes can be permanent. phenobarbital. thinning or loss of hair. which reverses when the medication is discontinued. blurred vision. erythromycins.000 mg per day divided into two daily doses. Metabolism: Liver metabolism by the glucuronidation system. but specialize ophthalmological testing can disclose the inability to see in patches outside the central regions of one or both eyes. Sabril is effective for partial and secondarily generalized seizures.
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ypical side effects of vigabatrin include dizziness. These visual field changes may or may not be noticed by the patient. I prefer to start with 500 mg at night for a week. naproxyn. but thinking is usually clearer than with many of the older medications. coumadin. fluoxitene. Typical adult dose: the manufacturer recommends 1. but it also has efficacy in certain pediatric syndromes. The U. the brain‟s main inhibitory neurotransmitter. Load in emergency: Depacon 10-15 mg/kg or a dose equivalent to the oral dose.” that works by blocking metabolism of GABA. Therefore. Dangerous side effects: liver toxicity. Vigabatrin is another “designer drug. nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen. Typical adult starting dose: 125 mg three time a day. which are very difficult to treat with other medications.Liquid for oral: 250 mg/5ml syrup.S. Rarely. sleepiness. (increased bleeding risk). pancreatitis. Regular checking of visual fields by historical queries. clinical exams. Injectable: none. lamotrigine. with half of people having seizures reduced by at least 50%.

000 mg/d. zonisamide should not be used in conjunction with topiramate (Topamax). Pregnancy: Category C – can cause birth defects in animals. which lasts about 5 days. Metabolism: VGB irreversibly inhibits GABAtransaminase. rash (rare). rare blood count or liver problems. Tegretol. but no such action has been found in humans. acetazolamide (Diamox). and increase over several weeks to 500 – 2.
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arly clinical trials with zonisamide in the US were halted because of a high incidence of kidney stones. double vision. weight loss. Dangerous side effects: Kidney stones in 2-4%. Other side effects: headache. a condition allied to multiple sclerosis.
Zonisamide (Zonegran)
onisamide (Zonegran) is a sufonamide-related drug. Common side effects: cognitive (thinking) problems. Typical pediatric dose: Pediatric dosing is difficult because of the limited dosage forms. onisamide. Serum levels: not relevant. phenobarbital. Dangerous side effects: Retinal toxicity. but the incidence of cognitive problems probably
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. Half-life: The relevant effect is inhibition of GABAtransaminase. but GI side effects might require splitting the dose. GI upset. like topiramate.) 1-2 days. it could theoretically inactivate oral contraceptives. Vigabatrin is mainly cleared by the kidney. Serum levels: 10 – 30 mcg/ml. US trials were resumed and the drug was shown to be relatively safe and effective. absence. phenobarbital. useful for partial. blurred vision. secondarily generalized. With enzyme inducers (Dilantin. whereby the kidney stone risk was determined to be 2-4%. Other side effects: ordinary skin rash. rare heat stroke. Liquid for oral: none. personality changes. dizziness. Half-life: In monotherapy 2-3 days. or other drugs know to provoke stones. can cause cognitive (thinking) problems in a significant minority of those taking the drug. Vigabatrin causes loss of nerve linings (myelin) in animal models. Tegretol. Zonisamide may control myoclonic seizures in cases for which all other drugs have failed. In older children. Trials continued in Japan and elsewhere. Metabolism: one-third excreted unchanged in the kidney. unknown in humans. Common side effects: sleepiness. viewed favorably by some patients. unsteadiness. two-thirds metabolized in the liver by the CYP 3A4 system and acetylation. then increase by 100 mg daily every 2 weeks to a target dose of 200 – 600 mg/d in 1 or 2 daily doses. GI upset. ZNS decreases effects of other drugs: Since it is metabolized by the CYP 3A system. by an unknown mechanism. primidone. rare induction of myoclonic or nonconvulsive seizures with toxic doses. Because of the theoretical additive risk for kidney stones. similar in many ways to topiramate. sleepiness. depression. birth control pill failure. unfavorably by others. Weight loss is common. Half-life would permit daily dosing. rare psychiatric side effects including psychosis and hallucinations.
is a little lower than with topiramate (at least in the approved dosages). serious rash (Stevens-Johnson syndrome or toxic epidermal necrolysis).Typical pediatric dose: I start with 250 mg per day. insomnia. Injectable: none. Typical adult dose: start with 100 mg at night for 2 weeks. headaches. Zonegran is a broad-spectrum antiepileptic drug. Summary data for zonisamide Pill sizes: 100 mg red-white capsule. with visual loss. the key enzyme for breaking down GABA. personality change. and myoclonic seizure types. Drugs that lower ZNS levels: Dilantin. Pregnancy: Category C – can cause birth defects in animals. unknown in humans. dizziness. VGB decreases effects of other drugs: Can lower efficacy of Dilantin. can start with 2-4 mg/kg/d and increase over weeks to a few months to a target of 4-8 mg/kg/d. etc.

but this requires time and paperwork. competing for the same group of patients with intractable partial and secondarily generalized seizures. Your doctors office may have some free samples. The companies charge enough on those that do to make their money back (and some profit as well). Doctors usually do not know what insurance plans cover which medicines. traditionally abbreviated as “Rx. the number of pills to be dispensed. since this could leave you without any medication. The insurers all have formularies that list their preferred medications. most pharmacists do accept intra-State prescriptions for non-controlled medications. because there are so many plans. Medicines in the formulary are better covered by insurance than are medicines not in the formulary. certain highly controlled drugs. the number of doses and amounts to be given each time of day. Sometimes they pay a certain amount minus a co-pay of $5-35 dollars per prescription. Abbreviations on a prescription.
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atients often request large supplies of seizure medicines.Other Medications
long and growing list of other antiepileptic medications are under various stages of development. for emergencies. or extra medicines to take on trips. and therefore is beyond your ability to afford. but needs a form called a “Treatment Authorization Request” (TAR) for approval of use of the newer medications.”
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Explaining Prescriptions
he prescription. novel mechanism. The reason for these high prices is that invention of a new medication costs the drug companies hundreds of millions of dollars. then cost accumulates to very high levels. etc. safety. third-party payers will allow only one-month supply at a time. commonly include the following: qd = once a day bid = twice a day tid = three times a day qid = four tmes a day qod = every other day qam = every morning qpm = every evening qhs = every hour of sleep (at bedtime) qac = before each meal qpc = after each meal prn = as needed po = by mouth pr = rectally sl = sublingually iv = intravenously im = intramuscularly sc = subcutaneously in = intranasally gtt = drops
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f your doctor has prescribed a medicine that is not on your plan. This can be renewed. may require written prescriptions. Most of the time. It is not likely that all of these drugs will survive in the marketplace. DO NOT take the approach of dropping the issue. for example. Drug companies sometimes have compassio-
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. Prescriptions can be communicated over the phone to the pharmacy with no writing at all. two vetical lines with a horizontal bar and two dots over it means “2. ask your insurance representative what seizure medicines are covered. the number of milligrams in each pill or liquid. ease-of-use. If a patient is on multiple medications. it is the instructions and doctor‟s signature that make it legal. A medical license to prescribe drugs is given by the State. a large political issue. Physicians typically give between 2-11 monthly automatic renewals. Then contact your doctor‟s office to see if any of these are reasonable alternatives. such as narcotics. However. based upon ancient Latin terminology. Most new medicines never make it to market. depending upon frequency of visits and how stable the patient is on a particular medication. not the printing. Medicaid (Medical in California) covers most of the seizure medicines. so a prescription might not be honored across State lines. tolerance. Prescriptions can be written on pre-printed pads or plain pieces of paper. The newer seizure medicines can cost $300 per month. The medical team is sympathetic to such requests. In practice. The prescription also specifies whether brand name drugs or cheaper generic drugs should be used (see discussion below). Any new drug will have to have an obvious benefit in terms of efficacy.
os = left eye od = right eye umbers are written with vertical bars and redundant dots above the bars. but only enough to get you started. but it usually is up to the insurance company paying for the pills. such as phenobarbital and Dilantin. ost seizure medicines are expensive.
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prescription specifies the name of the drug. and the number of automatic refills allowed. This makes sense once a regimen is well established. or cost. Insurance companies may or may not pay for prescription medicines. the exceptions being the old-timers. Sometimes physicians can get individual permission to use a medicine for a particular patient. Ordinary Medicare does not cover prescription drugs at all.” is the means by which the doctor communicates with the pharmacy. Sometimes patients can purchase bulk quantities of medicines. Some of the HMO Medicare plans trade other benefits or increased cost for some prescription coverage.

If the doctor does not specify “brand name. In effect. and so on. Most trials have provisions to provide the active drug to all participants at some point (usual-
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. Even if a seizure medication is not working as desired. My belief is that generics usually are reliable. Neither the patient nor the medical team know who is getting a placebo. but not all.
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cation is causing an allergy or other severe side effects. but generic seizure medicines are not as reliable as are the brand name medications. sometimes called a “sugar pill”. or more attention paid to people during a trial. Emergence of a new drug on the marketplace is not. Generics become available when the brand-name patent expires. However. how fast it should be started. It is another to switch from one medicine to another. the pharmacy then has the right to charge the patient the difference in cost between what the insurance company will pay and the cost of the brand drug. The protocol specifies all details of treatment with the experimental drug: who is eligible to get it. Trileptal in place of Tegretol.
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rug trials are not like regular therapy. The patient and the physician always have the right to quit a trial at any point. during which a person is on more medication. introduces an unknown. The value of generics is controversial. You will be helping the community of people with epilepsy. If a medi-
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any. where the doctor and patient can tailor. you should seriously consider doing so. Typical change regimens decrease the old pills and increase the new pills every 3. Adding any new medicine. but they do not have the right to alter the rules of the protocol. then brand name seizure drugs are more reliable. The main problem is how much medicine gets absorbed into your system. under what conditions it should be stopped. what other medications are allowed during the testing. Some patients in the trial receive the real drug and some receive the placebo. If your seizures are infrequent and your payment plan mandates much higher cost for brand drugs. adjust. since reaction of the individual to a new medication is not entirely predictable.” in most states the pharmacist can substitute a generic drug. If asked to volunteer for a trial of a new drug. eneric medications are less expensive alternatives to brand name medicines. this could lead to a 40% fluctuation in serum levels of antiepileptic drugs. how and when doctor visits must take place. or both. license is granted to use the drug only under very specific conditions. Doctors can specify on a prescription that the brand name drug is required. The patient and family should have a written schedule detailing changes day-by-day or week-by-week. desire to please. then sudden discontinuation may be the only good alternative. Phone access to the treating physician or nurse is very useful during seizure medication changes. which could produce unexpected side effects. how long the drug can be used. The placebo is required by FDA rules of testing to eliminate drugs that really do not work. in itself. Since pharmacies may stock different generic drugs each week. The disadvantage is the uncertainty that it has been manufactured as well as has the original brand name medicine. The new drug usually cannot be added in full protective dose until a build-up schedule allows a person‟s system to become used to the drug. a good reason to initiate a change. what tests are done. 14. although the information is made available by the drug company in case of an emergency that requires knowledge of treatment. or 30 days. The FDA requires that bioavailability (the amount available to be absorbed into your body) of a generic drug be plus-orminus 20% of the bioavailability of the brand name drug. excessive side effects. 7. or change the drug regimen to obtain the best effect in an individual patient. side effects and the properties of the drugs being changed. because the medical team is obliged to give medication according to a protocol.
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Switching medicines
t is one thing to describe the pros and cons of individual medications. Ask your doctor about these programs. This is different from use of a regular prescription drug. by the sponsoring company and regulatory bodies. A switch of seizure medication therefore comprises a few potentially unpleasant weeks. Usually these reasons include inadequate seizure control. The rate of switch will be individualized according to the severity of seizures. Sudden discontinuation of an old drug can lead to withdrawal seizures. then generics are the best alternative. If you have uncontrolled seizures. for example. The advantage of generic medicines is the lower cost. A few exceptions exist for which sudden changes are reasonable. with free medicines for patients who cannot afford them. removing it can produce withdrawal seizures. A placebo. and subject to withdrawal symptoms. is an inactive pill made to look like the study drug. but just make people think that they work because of excessive optimism.
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ost switches of seizure medicines require a period of overlap. Changes of medicine regimens are complicated. it must be tried in people with seizures. and you may help yourself by getting a good new drug that is not available by any other means. Therefore. no matter how safe in general. potentially enough to cause seizures or medication side effects.
Research Testing of New Drugs
t some point in the development of every promising new drug for epilepsy. what dose or doses of drug should be used. The protocol is developed before opening the trial to patients.nate use programs. the patient should perceive a clear reason to change medications. drug trials require the use of a placebo.

there is probably little long-term risk of an attempted AED withdrawal leading to worsening seizure disorder. Even the idea of needing medicine and the associated stigma is philosophically distasteful to some people." (Gowers 1881). Many seizure medicines interact with other drugs. On the pro side is reduction in side effects or the possibility of future side effects from the AEDs. the majority of the seizure-free adults studied in the British Medical Research Council Drug Withdrawal study (Chadwick et al. Tegretol (carbamazepine) and Depakote (valproic acid). Some people are given AEDs to cover them over a few months of an acute illness that provoked a seizure. The modern view. Each participant will be asked to read and sign a document of “informed consent” which lists the reasons for doing the testing. 1996) chose to remain on AEDs. advise not to drive when tapering that last AED. No one should ever be forced to participate in drug trials. there are both pros and cons to stopping therapy. however. or when none exist. particularly with the older AEDs such as Dilantin (phenytoin). However. Perhaps for these reasons. the rare tragedy of sudden unexplained death in epilepsy.
hould a seizure be prevented at all cost. because one seizure renders the next more likely? As claimed over a century ago by Sir William Gowers: ". . does not mean that you need to participate. is there an exit strategy? Or are AEDs forever? s with so many aspects of epilepsy care. such as juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. called an “Institutional Review Board” or IRB. you may incur injury. Not all side effects are immediately evident.
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bviously. If there is a conflict between following a protocol and keeping an individual patient safe or well. the tendency of the disease [epilepsy] is toward self-perpetuation. is that treatment of the seizure does not influence the long-term prognosis (Sander 1993. or put your job at risk. making general medical care more complex. Shinnar and Berg 1996). for at least three months from the start of the taper. since it is unfair to volunteer without ever having a chance to try the drug. and all possible safeguards are in place in case of unexpected problems. British Medical Journal 1993): 22% of patients who continued antiepileptic drug treatment had a recurrence of seizures within two years compared to 41% who slowly
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. once you are on AEDs. Therefore. and what to do if you have problems. or perhaps you have been taking them for 30 years. but also not forever. Every drug has side effects. the answers depend upon individual circumstances. If the trial seems right for you. and it may take some time to do so. to pack them. who do not notice that their thinking and memory is impaired by sedative medicines. You should be offered alternative treatments. And a seizure may precipitate suspension of your driving license.ly after a test phase). Some people. many doctors. or even in the worse case SUDEP. no treatment at all. At the other extreme is therapy for a potentially life-long hereditary condition. including me. it may be a struggle to regain seizure control once it is lost. with the most definitive study being the Medical Research Council study of over a 1013 patients (MRC Study Group. and new drugs can have unexpected side effects. and to renew them every month. although still somewhat controversial. it may provide a useful treatment to you years earlier than you would otherwise be able to get it. You may embarrass yourself. From such a seizure. Chronic loss of bone density.
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ow often does withdrawal succeed? Relapse rates among various published studies range from 12 – 63% (Britton 2002). If fact. that verifies that the drug appears to be safe. Either way. All protocols are reviewed by an objective body. occurs silently over decades. then the safety issue must be addressed first. feel much sharper once they are off the medicine. because of the lack of driving and employment issues in children. Most treatment plans fall in the middle. Just because you are eligible. what are the risks. not brief. he main concern in all drug trials is safety of the study participants.
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Y
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our doctor has prescribed antiepileptic drugs (AEDs).
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Stopping Seizure Medicines
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re antiepileptic drugs forever?
rrayed against this long list of potential benefits of stopping AEDs is one big “con” – the increased risk of having a seizure. and then the treatment may comprise only a few months. each attack facilitates the occurrence of the next by increasing the instability of the nerve elements. Perhaps you are holding a first-time prescription. AEDs can be expensive. the protocol is well-designed. what you can expect to happen during the testing. The risk to lifestyle of children caused by withdrawing AEDs may be less than that to adults. predisposing to osteoporosis and fractures. what are the possible benefits. which tends not to disappear. . And important for some is the bother of having to remember to take the pills. such as phenobarbital.

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ne randomized. there is no time when you can conclude you are “home free. Seizures can be uncontrolled for three broad reasons: 1. A study of 531 patients with epilepsy (Lamdhade and Taori 2002) showed these factors to be associated with seizures coming back: seizure onset late in life. Ultimately. the patient worries about seizures more than about medications. and number of AED drugs used. focal neurological deficits such as partial numbness or paralysis. on the other hand. among patients seizure-free on AEDs for 2-4 years. antiepileptic medication taper can be worthwhile after at least 2-5 years of freedom from seizures. Seizures that do not come under control are called “intractable. 2.
zures. compared to 105 patients who chose to continue therapy. and 68% at 60 months. you have about a two-thirds chance of remaining seizure-free for another five years. 2008) emphasized the trade-off. epilepsy-associated findings on the electroencephalogram (EEG). People whose AEDs were tapered after being seizure-free for two years improved their neuropsychological test scores compared with those who stayed on medicines. and from experiences in epilepsy monitoring units (Yen et al. Unfortunately. and must be willing to accept about a one-third risk of relapsing with a seizure.” or “refractory.stopped treatment. 80% at 36 months. But those who tapered AEDs had a 2. have none of the negative risk factors mentioned above. after at least two-years of freedom from sei-
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n incorrect diagnosis of epilepsy is more common than most people might think. and most of that risk is probably within the first few months. it is your choice. Calculated relative risk was 2. You should be free of these as well before tapering medications. In a general sense. and you go off your AEDs.com video. 2002) compared outcome for 225 patients who chose to discontinue AEDs. In this analysis. The diagnosis is wrong. Patients should not have an ongoing brain abnormality or genetic predisposition for seizures. then continuation of AEDs likely will minimize the risk for future seizures. they must be willing to refrain from driving for at least three months from the start of the taper (some argue for longer).
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s a rule of thumb. as discussed in the epilepsy. Tennison and coworkers (1994) randomized children being withdrawn from AEDs to a 6-week or 9-month course of taper. In a study from Turkey (Aktekin 2006). For many. Do not stop your seizure medications suddenly unless there is an emergency need to stop. and 7% at 36 months. then a reasonable first question is: “Are the episodes really seizures?” A large number of conditions can imitate seizures.
n conclusion. If seizures are not controlled.
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hen do seizures return after AED withdrawal? One study (Berg and Shinnar 1994) of relapse rate showed that. 75% remained seizure-free at one year and 71% at two years after discontinuing the medications. seizure frequency.” The definition of control is variable. 2001). 4% at 6 months. the simple partial. the smaller the chances that they will return. Conversely. 14% at 3 months. patients on barbiturates and benzodiazepines were not adequately studied in this series. Be aware of small seizures. One chart review study by Smith and colleagues in England concluded that 13% of patients referred for refractory epilepsy did not have epilepsy. and additional caution is warranted for these drugs. The probability of being seizure-free was 88% at 6 months.” Seizures can come back many years after withdrawing AEDs. Most of the risk of having a seizure is within the first two years of stopping medicines. However. Not predictive of whether tapering AEDs would succeed were gender. a positive family history of epilepsy. Overall. All had been seizurefree for at least two years. seizures are refractory if they are frequent and severe enough or the required therapy for them troublesome enough. A study (Specchio et al. If an adult. to seriously interfere with quality of life. controlled study from Norway (Lossius and colleagues. obvious seizures. and the patient a decision-maker. 1-in-3 will have a seizure with medication discontinuation. The seizures do not respond to the best diagnosis and treatment
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ow quickly should medications be tapered? Anecdotal experience from patient-initiated discontinuations. suggest that severe seizures or even status epilepticus can result from immediate discontinuation of therapeutic doses of medications. if you have been seizure-free for 2-5 years. the probability of having a seizure after tapering AEDs was 29% at 1 month. The groups did not differ in relapse rates.5-fold increased risk of having a seizure. and underlying ongoing structural or genetic causes for having seizures. 7% at 12 months. 82% at 24 months. The treatment is wrong. If. 60-80% of the recurrences occurred within one year. thereby favoring the easier 6-week course. not just the big. one seizure a year is far too many. complex partial or absence (petit mal) episodes.9-fold greater for patients coming completely off medicines. The longer you go without a seizure. 3. 18% at 24 months.
Uncontrolled (Refractory) Epilepsy
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eizures come under control with medicines in about 2 of 3 people with epilepsy. This is another area in which the clinician can be an educator. more than 30 total seizures. others are not bothered by one a week. 50% of the patients who stopped medications had a seizure. should not have had major prior problems withdrawing from medications.
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. versus 28% who remained on treatment. seizures for more than three years. and should not have epilepsy-like activity on a recent EEG. It could be dangerous to stop suddenly! Work with your doctor to design a tapering schedule.

Information about the seizure medicines can be found on epilepsy. Carbamazepine (Tegretol).com for more information on compliance and strategies for remembering to take epilepsy medicine. The doctor can reevaluate the diagnosis and the medication therapy. the menstrual cycle. A stimulator is implanted under the skin of the chest and connected to the left vagus nerve in the neck. Multiple drug resistance is a condition in which people are resistant to multiple medications. missing sleep. People whose seizures are not under control should be referred to an Epilepsy Center. then non-medication therapy for the epilepsy can be considered. not necessity. In this situation. or so high as to cause severe side effects. a seizure breakthrough is preceded by one of these. Medications can be used in the wrong dose: too low to protect against seizures. Epilepsy surgery is elective surgery. The KD alters the chemistry of the brain in an as yet poorly understood way. high protein and very low carbohydrate diet. device or surgical procedures may be a good option. sleep deprivation or extreme stress.
and then becomes ineffective. If is used mainly for children with uncontrolled seizures. Individual precipitating factors include alcohol. taking certain medications. various courses of action become available to physicians and to patients. Serious complications occur with about 1 in every 50 surgeries. polypharmacy can lead to drug interactions that limit effectiveness or increase side effects of another drug.
hen medications do not work. for example is usually good for treating complex partial seizures. but not absence seizures. such as illness. developing medication tolerance. Seizures that might be easy to treat with medicine become hard to treat when the most effective medicines result in allergy or intolerable side effects. psychological and social problems associated with seizures. VNS also is approved by the FDA for depression that does not respond to other treatments. similar to the Atkins Diet used for weight loss.com. You can look up epilepsy physician specialists and epilepsy centers near you at epilepsy.
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hen confronted with refractory seizures. if any. It rarely stops seizures entirely. but the result is fewer seizures. It can make a real difference! omplicating factors. Supervision and safety controls are extensive. then participation in an experimental trial of new medications. If a trial is successful. Success rates for cessation or near-cessation of seizures ranges from about 50-90%. flashing lights or certain visual patterns.
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olypharmacy is the employment of several medications at once to treat the same condition. factors. including hoarseness and coughing. depending upon the cause of seizures and their brain location. you may receive a useful new therapy years before it becomes available to the public. Since absence and complex partial seizures can occasionally be confused with each other.A
second reason for uncontrolled seizures is suboptimal treatment.” or as it is officially known. Epilepsy surgery is a reasonable option for people with refractory epilepsy. Considerable information is available on epilepsy. but it has also been useful for some adults. Refer to epilepsy. there is a chance for using an ineffective medicine. If other alternatives are not attractive. An Epilepsy Center takes a comprehensive approach to medical.com.com about epilepsy surgery. but not complex partial seizures.com. but additional AEDs rarely lead to complete freedom from seizures. one good treatment for refractory seizures in people taking polypharmacy is a streamlining of medicines. but there still is an element of risk and the unknown. Some people require more than one drug to control their epilepsy. Therefore. Patients taking polypharmacy may have so many side effects that it is difficult to increase dosage for any of their AEDs to an effective level. Side effects of VNS are usually mild. exercise. or by intolerance of medication. The person with epilepsy can consider strategies for remembering to take medications and reduction of precipitating factors.
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rue intractable epilepsy can result from seizures that are “too strong” to be controlled by medication. These again vary with the individual. a new drug works for a few months
he ketogenic diet is a high fat.
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issing medication is a cause of breakthrough seizures. The cycle repeats with each new medication. Ethosuximide (Zarontin) is good for absence. meaning that it is a matter of personal choice. Furthermore. mostly while becoming use to the stimulation.
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agus nerve stimulation (VNS) is another option for refractory seizures. New therapies are developed by clinical trials. heavy breathing (hyperventilation). Some medicines are not right for some types of seizures. recreational drugs. but it provides significant help in about half of the people who try it. and stress. general illness. causing them to be less effective. Another common experience in treating refractory epilepsy is “honeymooning. provided that the seizure origin in the brain can be localized to one region. missing medications.
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. can make seizures more difficult to control. See the Ketogenic Diet section of epilepsy. but this is an issue to be discussed with your medical care team. or other personally relevant. xperimental trials. and that region is safe to remove. All too often. The newer seizure medicines often have fewer side effects than do the older seizure medicines. Some people with multiple drug resistance have a type of metabolism that quickly inactivates or isolates drugs.

getting good sleep. with the evaluation process. EEGs
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. But even when all seems hopeless for control. because removal of both temporal lobes would create severe and permanent memory problems. such as epilepsy surgery. Since only a few thousand operations are done each year. availability of epilepsy treatment resources and expense. restricts the quality of life. There are always grounds for hope. Over a three-year follow-up period. there is hope for improvement. Second. However. The individual with epilepsy needs to look at things they can do to better control their seizures. long history of intractable seizures and previous status epilepticus. and not to be complacent about the limitations imposed by occasional seizures. may be good options for some patients.” But such a seizure frequency can have a major impact on the quality of life of people with epilepsy. with physicians who believe that a seizure or two every month or even every few months is not “too bad. pay for epilepsy surgery in qualified candidates. Most insurance agencies. In some states. at any numerical frequency. Part of the challenge of epilepsy specialists is to encourage treating physicians and patients to strive for better control of seizures.I
ntractable epilepsy does not always remain intractable. Temporal lobe is the most seizure-prone of the four lobes of the brain. Unfavorable predictors of control were chronic cognitive impairment. Jacqueline French and associates studied 246 patients from their clinic with at least one seizure per month and inadequate relief from at least two antiepileptic drugs. The biggest hope is for new therapies to prevent and cure epilepsy. State Medical Assistance programs and private carriers. But even in the absence of specific therapies or life changes. minimizing stress and avoiding seizure-precipitating conditions. seizures are not in good control if their occurrence. Counts of potentially eligible candidates range in the 20. Most EEGs are obtained between seizures. staying generally healthy. Secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures will stop if the focal point of origin is removed. such as remembering medicines. abnormalities are seen in about half of people with epilepsy.
ome people who cannot be controlled with medications are candidates for surgery to cure their epilepsy. including Medicare. This is an issue of education. individuals may be able to modify precipitating factors or their lifestyle to help to control the seizures.
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EG (electroencephalogram. economic analyses taking into account the direct and indirect medical costs of uncontrolled seizures indicate that the money can be recovered over several years.
ood candidates for epilepsy surgery meet the following criteria:  The diagnosis of epilepsy is secure  Seizures are not adequately controlled after trying at least two antiepileptic drugs  The onset site for seizures (the “seizure focus”) can be localized to one place in brain  The seizure focus is in an area of brain that is safe to remove  General health and social support systems (family. vagus nerve stimulation or experimental clinical trials. 5% of these patients each year became seizure-free for at least six months.
Candidates for Epilepsy Surgery
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efractory (uncontrolled) epilepsy is a heavy burden. by demonstrating abnormal electrical activity.000 in the United States. approaching 80% after four EEGs. Seizures that emanate from both temporal lobes are not amenable to surgery. an individual cannot obtain a driver‟s license if he or she has had a seizure within one year. but the percentage of significant findings increases with repeated EEG recordings. A physician needs to make certain that the diagnosis of epilepsy is correct and that the proper medicines are being used in the best way for that person. although surgery can be performed in any lobe of the brain. etc. With a single EEG.000 range in the United States.100. The concept of good seizure control is elusive. How long must a person go without a seizure before control is considered good? This is a matter of individual opinion. Between seizures. First.
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EPILEPSY SURGERY
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nti-epileptic drug therapy is effective in approximately two-thirds of people with epilepsy. and recovery phase typically costing more than $50. The standard is often set too low. brain waves) can help to localize the seizure focus. 5% of people (1 out of 20) with refractory epilepsy getter better each year. where seizures apparently start.000 . Epilepsy surgery is costly. Good control might therefore represent being seizure-free for one year. it is apparent that surgery for epilepsy is under-utilized. implying that one-in-three do not obtain good seizure control or have unacceptable side effects from medications. Conceptually. one of the treatments listed above may prove effective.) will allow surgery and recovery  The person or caregiver understands the likely benefits and risks and desires surgery
Pre-surgical evaluation
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ne key to successful epilepsy surgery is accurate localization of the seizure focus. surgery. Non-drug therapies.

the operation to remove the seizure focus is done during the same procedure. Surgical candidates usually undergo video-EEG monitoring in a hospital epilepsy monitoring unit in order to record brain activity and behavior during several seizures.epilepsy. Brain electrodes come in the form of thin wires to be be inserted into brain tissue or plastic sheets of electrodes. and that it is located in a safe place for surgery. abnormal blood vessels. but the seizure focus cannot be precisely localized with the above tests. scarring from a prior infection. The hope is to find that all seizures come from the same region (the seizure focus). an old stroke. Grids can be used to electrically stimulate the area underneath the contact points and map the function of the brain at that region. or a form of scarring in the temporal lobe called mesial temporal sclerosis. but it can be helpful where the location of the seizure focus remains unclear after videoEEG monitoring and MRI. MRI shows greater detail than does CT. usually reflecting injury to the dominant left brain (in right-handers). Neuropsychological testing also can screen for depression. Every serious candidate for epilepsy surgery needs a high quality brain MRI. because it suggests that there could be
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. Brain electrodes often show where seizures originate. depending on how soon seizures occur. Each type is useful in different circumstances. The most common location for a seizure focus is in the inner portions of the temporal lobe. deep to the left or right ear. Glucose is the energy supply for the brain. but use of these electrodes does entail some risk for bleeding. It can be thought of as a “dry run” for surgery. These individuals may undergo invasive monitoring with electrode wires placed into regions of brain suspected of harboring a seizure focus. face and shape memory impairments. or picture. which usually reflects right brain damage. The grid usually is left in place for about a week. When it is removed. since the goal is improvement of quality of life. A PET scan is not required for every epilepsy surgery evaluation.
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ositron emission tomography (PET) scan is a neuroimaging procedure that looks at glucose (sugar) consumption in the brain. Surgery can be performed on the temporal lobe of the speech-dominant side. infection or injury to brain. However. This procedure is used when the seizure focus is likely very close to a speech or sensory-motor area of brain and precise delineation of boundaries is required. MRIs fail to disclose a cause of epilepsy in more than half of cases.
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ther specialized tests.
he Wada intracarotid hemispheric dominance test is done to localize speech and memory functions in candidates for epilepsy surgery. Inpatient video-EEG monitoring can take from 1 to 14 days. called strips or grids.
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europsychological tests are performed to determine whether a patient has speech or comprehension impairments.
ome patients appear to be surgical candidates. A personal account of video-EEG monitoring can be read at http://www. Medications may be temporarily withheld to provoke seizures for recording. The majority of people with a temporal lobe seizure focus demonstrate low glucose consumption in the region of a seizure focus. A portion of the brain on the left or the right is anesthetized by injection of a quickacting sedative into the internal carotid artery. Only a few percent of patients with epilepsy undergoing surgery will need mapping with a grid.can show spikes or sharp waves. These are pointy waveforms reflecting hyper-excitability of the underlying brain. such as magnetoencephalograpy (MEG). for example. These tests may show an underlying cause of the seizures. a tumor. magnetic resonance spectroscopy and cerebral angiography are useful in some particular circumstances. Speech and memory then are tested.
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agnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or computed tomography (CT) provide structural images of brain.com/epilepsy/journal/issue1/videoeeg. to be place on top of brain tissue (figure). rather than just elimination of seizures. a birth defect (called dysplasia). but not as much brain can safely be removed as on the non-dominant side. which is highly prevalent in this population. via a catheter placed in the femoral vein at the groin. Extensive amnesia after injecting one internal carotid artery is a danger signal for surgery. Psychosocial adjustment after epilepsy surgery is important to the success of the procedure. but not required in all cases.

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he portion of brain removed never grows back. A patch of hair over the temple is shaved. no person should be pushed into having epilepsy surgery. exposing the temporal lobe. Finger at top gives perspective as to size. The swelling increases to a peak 2-4 days after surgery. with the operation itself requiring about 3-4 hours. An overnight stay in intensive care is common to provide close nursing monitoring. and other therapies currently being researched.
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pon completion of evaluation to localize the seizure focus. however. Portions of the temporal lobe are removed by suction. Patients should plan on staying at home with assistance for a week. The membrane over the brain. but it is not necessary to shave the entire head (some prefer a full shave to an uneven trimming).
Temporal Lobectomy Surgical Procedure
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emoval of the inner seizure-prone portions of the left or right temporal lobe is called partial temporal lobectomy. walk with assistance. Common postoperative side effects in the first few days include nausea from the anesthesia. and it is the most commonly performed operation for epilepsy. Seizure medicines may have to be given by vein until pills can be swallowed. Surgery may. By 2-3 days after surgery.severe memory problems after the operation. Hospital discharge happens 3-7 days after surgery. Alternatives include continuing with conventional anti-epileptic medications. the patient. The reason is that not all scars are alike. Closure of the surgical field occurs in reverse order to the opening. a temporary switch to one that does may be required. and doctor will discuss whether to proceed with surgery. Patients sometimes wonder why replacing a seizure-producing scar with a surgical scar is beneficial. this bone will be hard-wired back in place and eventually will calcify to seal to the skull. then is opened. the dura mater. top of the temporal lobe forward. sometimes longer. The space that it previously occupied immediately fills with the cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the brain. At the end of the procedure. Several nickel-sized holes are drilled in a circular pattern. but no one technique is proven superior to the others. the ketogenic diet. since the brain has a soft consistency.
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atients typically are in the operating room and recovery room for 6-8 hours. vagus nerve stimulation. and require 2-3 months post-operative rest. and staying off work or heavy activities for a month. The patient is lying with right side up. family. swelling and bruising of the forehead and around the eye on the side of surgery. most patients are able to sit in a chair. A bone-saw cuts between the holes to remove a circle of bone about the circumference of a coffee cup.
Figure: Portion of brain removed in temporal lobectomy. The family should be prepared for the patient to be disoriented for a day postoperatively. The amount usually removed ranges between the size of a golf ball and a small lemon. trying new medications. Different surgeons use different techniques and approaches. depending upon preference and training. A few patients have persistent headache or fatigue.
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. The “clean” scar left by neurosurgery rarely leads to seizures. be the most effective way to eliminate seizures in people whose seizures are not controlled by medications. Headache is common. The Wada test usually does not require overnight hospitalization. and eat. Skin is cut in a “C”shaped partial circle above the ear. Since not every medicine has an intravenous form. but over-medication is avoided to allow the patient to wake up. deep brain stimulation. representing less than half the volume of the temporal lobe (figure). a sore throat from the breathing tube in the operating room. Epilepsy surgery is elective.
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fter the patient is positioned and asleep. the surgery begins.

Children who recover well from a hemispherectomy grow up with only a clumsy hand and a limp. Benefit of surgery may fall short of a complete cure . skull indentations or other cosmetic defects. Epilepsy surgery is always elective and it is not for everyone. but may slow down spread of the seizures and allow time for a warning in time to sit down.
The Ketogenic Diet
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Surgery Conclusion
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pilepsy surgery eliminates disabling seizures about twothirds of the time. psychosis Death (0. a small tumor or an abnormal blood vessel. the success rate is not 100% and serious complications occur in about 1 in 50 people undergoing surgery for their epilepsy. Seizures during the postoperative months do not necessarily mean that the operation was a failure. certified by the National Association of Epilepsy Centers. and a variety of other problems. rather than a cure for seizures.
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esionectomy involves removal of a lesion. You should discuss the potential benefits and risks of surgery with your surgeon. including as a partial list: Speech problems Reading difficulties Stroke.asp.) separates the major band of fibers inter-connecting the left and the right hemisphere of brain. Although the children are initially weak on the side of the body opposite surgery after the procedure. Unfortunately.1 – 0. as the brain heals.
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ideos on epilepsy surgery and interviews with people who have had surgery can be viewed at http://my. minor loss of upper peripheral vision on the side opposite the surgery. and produces partial improvement in an additional percentage. partial paralysis or numbness Personality change Deterioration of memory ability Partial loss of vision Depression.com/mmc/video . can be found at http://www. usually because not all of the focus could be removed or because the seizures were in fact located at several places in the brain (multifocal). and thereby allow reduction of seizure medication.epilepsy. usually children. which is a visible structural abnormality causing the seizures. Some patients do not respond favorably to seizure surgery. Patients may be completely cured of their epilepsy and be able to go off all medications. Recovery is more complete for younger children (< age 6) than for those in the teens or beyond. typically a year or two after the surgery. and give what is known as “informed consent” for the procedure if you agreed to have surgery. Others still require medication. transient depression. This radical procedure is employed in individuals. in which the local damage to a hemisphere is progressive over years. who have severe damage to one hemisphere. This rarely cures seizures. since seizures may settle down with healing. function usually partially recovers. epilepsy surgery can eliminate or greatly reduce seizures.org/locator/default2. infection of the surgical site. Candidates may suffer from a type of encephalitis called Rasmussen‟s encephalitis.
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eizures occasionally flare up for 1-2 months after seizure surgery. The split-brain operation can be viewed as a procedure to prevent injuries from seizures. but sometimes it is the best way to control seizures and improve the quality of life. It is been performed at Academic Epilepsy Centers where a multidisciplinary team can evaluate and treat the patient. This procedure can be very effective in cases where the whole lesion and a small surrounding margin of brain can safely be removed. such as deterioration of word-finding ability for a few months after surgery.
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Other Surgical Procedures
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ther specialized procedures are performed less often than is partial temporal lobectomy. persistent headaches.
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pilepsy surgery is a specialized type of neurosurgery.
pilepsy surgery is sometimes a good option for people whose seizures cannot be controlled by medication. agitation. pain-itching around the skin scar (especially as it heals). for example.C
omplications of temporal lobectomy occur in about 2% of patients (one-in-fifty) who have this surgery. Each of these first requires tests to localize the place of origin of seizures in the brain. Temporal lobectomy is the most common epilepsy surgery procedure and lesionectomy the next.patients may still have occasional auras (warnings) or rare breakthrough seizures at times of great stress. drooping of eyelid or forehead on the surgical side.naeclocator. The corpus callosum resection (colloquially known as the split-brain operation.
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ess serious complications occur more often. A list of such centers. Complications can be serious.5%) Others
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emispherectomy entails removal of the majority of one hemisphere (half) of the brain. In properly selected candidates.

few people with medically-uncontrollable seizures will become seizure-free with VNS. Relaxation may help some people with seizures. but still seems to produce some benefit against seizures. bowel and other visceral organs. The diet is very low in carbohydrates (bread. In some cases. fruits. The diet can be tried with anti-seizure medications. Batteries in the stimulator last from about 3 – 6 years. inhibit growth and weaken bones. Some people turn to natural remedies. People can reduce their chances of having a seizure by regularly taking their seizure medications. which can lead to greater degrees of relaxation. with no protruding wires. researchers discovered that stimulation of the vagus nerve could influence electrical activity (EEG) of the brain. in another minor surgical procedure. heart. or nightshade) can provoke seizures. ephedrine. Some patients find that the seizures that remain are less intense or prolonged. avoiding sleep deprivation and staying in good general health. depending upon the intensity and frequency of stimulation. The vagus nerve is part of the parasympathetic. autonomic nervous system that regulates automatic functions such as breathing. they should of course be avoided. and is very high in fat and protein. Even one piece of bread will destroy the needed chemical changes for at least two days. You should not stop your standard seizure medications in favor of alternative treatments without discussing this with your doctor!
Vagus Nerve Stimulation
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he vagus nerve is a nerve running from brainstem through the neck to lung. Unfortunately. Most insurance plans do not pay for biofeedback. also known as alternative medicines: herbs. where it wraps around the vagus nerve. Partial adherence to the diet is not useful . In the simplest form.
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timulation of only the left vagus nerve causes few effects on breathing. the vagus nerve in the neck is used as a route to feed electrical activity into the brain. Long-term safety of this diet has not been established. vegetables. Since they
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mplantation of a stimulator is done by a surgeon. No specific diet is known (other than the ketogenic diet described above) that reliably will stop seizures. a machine is used to help people control their muscle tension or body temperature. or on its own.n the early part of the 1900's. Over a year or two. this benefit may increase to about 50% improvement. usually as a simple (about 2 hour) outpatient procedure. Another form of biofeedback uses EEG machines to try to teach the patient to change some aspect of their brainwave pattern. Years ago. and few can eliminate their medicines. A wire travels under the skin. if they stay on the diet. Two scars result: one on the chest and one on the neck. Some adults also can benefit. heartbeat and digestion.
Biofeedback for Seizures
everal types of biofeedback have been tried for control of seizures. but has not yet been proven effective in scientific studies. acupuncture. The patient ends up with a stimulator pack about the size of a thin cigarette lighter above the left breast. each person must make his or her own decision about trying alternative medical remedies.
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. Clinical trials of left vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) showed an average of about 25% improvement in seizures. The ketogenic diet is designed to imitate the chemistry of the fasting state.). such as alcohol or flashing lights are known. Responses vary with the individual. Medicare and most insurance companies. etc. A decision to try biofeedback must be individualized.
What Can a Person do to Control Seizures?
ost people can not stop their seizures.it is all the way or nothing. so that some may get no benefit from VNS. Tests in laboratory models of epilepsy showed that vagus nerve stimulation reduced the likelihood of having a seizure. Biofeedback is harmless. by depriving the brain of sugar. Ephedra. according to the FDA. If trigger factors. a few people noticed that their children‟s seizures improved during times of fasting. The ketogenic diet can raise blood fats and cholesterol. The resulting body chemistry changes make the brain more resistant to seizures. and others may have substantial benefits. No brain surgery is involved in the procedure. Families should not attempt this diet on their own!
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are not scientifically proven. Although there have been some wellpublicized dramatic successes from the ketogenic diet. heart or digestion. Human trials therefore were begun. over the collar bone to the left neck. The VNS is considered to be proven therapy. Natural products containing stimulants (for example. but others do not. the diet can be stopped after two years and seizures do not return. A few people report that these treatments are useful. The entire device is under the skin (subcutaneous). homeopathy and allied treatments. the majority of people will not benefit from the diet. stomach. replacement is done by replacing the whole stimulating device on the chest. It seems to work best for children under the age of 12 with drop (atonic or tonic) seizures. The guidance of an experienced medical team is crucial. sugar. Some can reduce their doses of medicines. When batteries die. Be aware that many “natural remedies” are in fact drugs by another name.

If immediate attention is needed. Therefore. and so it is not a substitute for other epilepsy surgeries that have a good chance to cure. specify which you had. Note any possible triggering factors. Others may turn it off. then you should receive it from your doctor or from medical personnel covering for the doctor. but only that you and she/he do not have the right “chemistry” to work together well. If you have more than one seizure type.) is a possible side effect of the seizure medication. or even on continuously. VNS make little sense if seizures are easily controlled by medicines. Nurse clinicians can be a great help by gathering history and providing information. but who are not candidates for curative surgery. However. and requires immediate attention.
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The Patient-Doctor Relationship
ou should be comfortable with your medical team. In such instances. Write down the dates and times of your seizures on a calendar or a piece of paper.
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hanges in the VNS current intensity or cycle time are done by a physician with by a paddle programmer held against the chest. Remember that they are working for you.
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he main side effects of VNS are hoarseness of voice when the stimulator is on and possible coughing or irritation of the throat. Many of them are very knowledgeable regarding seizures and antiepileptic medications. etc. the surgical site becomes infected or irritated. our doctor will rely on you to tell of unexpected problems from a treatment. by taping a magnet against the stimulator. VNS is quite safe and well-tolerated. such as on for 30 seconds and off for 30 seconds. in order to avoid hoarseness. Turning the current up slowly at two-week intervals can allow the patient to become used to the side effects. Seizures and side effects remain unpredictable. If you wish to change doctors. stomach upset. Problems with breathing. and not general medical problems. After implantation. it can be removed by a surgeon. joint pain. to ask if a general medical problem (for example. Occasionally.
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SOCIAL ISSUES IN EPILEPSY:
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ost neurologists find seizure calendars helpful. Higher currents may be better against seizures.E
arly testing of VNS showed benefit against seizures lasting for 5-10 minutes. and your health is the key issue. and this is within the expertise of a neurologist. Intermittent stimulation preserves battery life. chances that a treatment will produce seizure control or side effects can only be expressed as probabilities. A doctor can never
doctor should never object to the forwarding of records to other doctors (although there may be a small charge for doing so). some patients have more benefit with rapid cycling. but can turn the stimulator on or off at a given time by holding a strong magnet against the device. however. that is your right. for example. but VNS may be useful for other types of seizures as well. clinical trials tested the VNS with the stimulation on for 30 seconds and off for every five minutes.
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NS is not curative therapy. for the duration of a phone call. You have to make a judgment as to whether a problem is minor and can wait for the next scheduled visit. but also more irritating to the throat. the physician should help you to determine where you can turn for help. and can best be used for neurological problems. headaches and various other conditions. In addition. You should prioritize your questions and concerns. This usually is because forces outside the doctor‟s control limit visit time.5 mA. Partial (focal) seizures are the types of seizures most studied. sexual dysfunction. and may be less irritating to the vagus nerve. lacking the side effects of many antiepileptic drugs. excessive fatigue. missing medications or the start of a menstrual period. heatbeat. No needles or discomfort are required to reprogram the stimulator. rash. Several visits may be needed to cover all the territory. since not everything can be addressed in one visit. Stimulation current ranges from about 0. digestion or other autonomic nervous system problems can happen. a doctor has the right to refuse to treat a patient. but are surprisingly rare.2 – 3. the stimulator is turned up slowly. The patient cannot do reprogramming. Changing physicians does not mean that the physician is a bad doctor. Our clinic finds the VNS most useful for people who do not respond to or cannot tolerate medicines.
guarantee a result. You should not worry about offending your doctor. or to a second opinion. Bring this information with you to clinic visits. Do not hesitate. Sometimes it is.
he most common complaint against physicians is that they do not spend enough time listening and explaining. except in an emergency. Conversely. or whether it is urgent. If a VNS is not helping. In general. A few patients find that turning the VNS on at the time of a seizure warning is useful. you are the customer. pain. for example. Recognize that your neurologist is a specialist. studies are underway to evaluate possible benefit of VNS for depression. Communication should be honest and open.

and results of testing. and sometimes a three-way conversation among employee. They want to know how seizures are going to affect their ability to get or keep a good job. For obscure historical reasons. Such safety features might allow working around potentially dangerous machinery. I recommend that you do not lie. They want to know what seizures will mean for their social life. marriage. What do you need to disclose when you apply for a job? What are your rights if you are let go because of seizures or your employer‟s fear of you having a seizure? Are there some jobs that you cannot do? Let‟s take these questions one by one. Asking questions about a disability on an application form or in an interview is
an you do any job? The answer unfortunately is no. An accommodation might comprise a desk job instead of a driving job. If you do choose to disclose your epilepsy. in their clinic encounters with patients. for example. or in some cases even evil. or succeed in school. The second is to contact the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (http://eeoc. which generally is fairly sophisticated about disability and discrimination issues. Successful treatment of people with epilepsy requires an approach to these social issues. An accommodation might include provisions for recovery breaks after a seizure.gov) in your region. Your third option is to hire a disability attorney to advocate or sue on your behalf.
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Employment
f you believe that you have been discriminated against. Most states make it the responsibility of the person with epilepsy to notify the motor vehicle division. talk most about seizure frequency. Perhaps. They want to know what seizures will do to their driver‟s license and independence.
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illegal. Some manufacturing or construction jobs . decide to send a letter to or file an action against the company allegedly discriminating against you. employer and physician. along with a discussion of how epilepsy will not limit your productivity. medication side effects. but well over 90% of jobs should not be limited by epilepsy. an employer will need to be prepared to document attempts to arrange a reasonable accommodation. or if the seizures have a prolonged and consistent warning that would allow someone to pull safely over. because it encourages dishonesty with the physician about the occurrence of seizures. but people with infrequent seizures may be allowed to drive as a risk that is comparable to those taken with other medical conditions. Before terminating an employee with epilepsy. chemicals.
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hat is the impact of seizures on employment? Most people with epilepsy can and do work.roofer. Different states have different seizure-free intervals. and theoretically encourage honesty in their reporting of seizures. you are not hearing the official company view. The EEOC may.
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hat to disclose? When you apply for a job. The most relevant to people with epilepsy is the Federal 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). If a person with epilepsy cannot perform a job because of seizures or other limitations related to their disability. medications or disabilities. unless the condition will make it impossible for you to fulfill the requirements of the job. This is a potentially expensive endeavor. Epilepsy is associated with considerable fear. you have three general options.
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uch discussion occurs about driving. The shorter time intervals allow people with epilepsy to make other arrangements for work or driving. might be unwise for someone with uncontrolled seizures. Such businesses cannot discriminate on the basis of a disability. but the EEOC may not choose to pursue your case. it usually is best to do so in person at an interview. or stable hourly shifts instead of changing shifts with sleep deprivation. Individualized judgment. People with seizures can obtain exemptions allowing driving if the seizures are restricted to times of sleep. epilepsy is viewed by the public as a disorder linked to insanity. Most physicians disagree with the required reporting. many of which will apply equally well to people at risk for having seizures. who is public about his own struggle with epilepsy. They want to know how to deal with the embarrassment of a seizure. The ADA was amended in 2008 to clarify and extend who qualifies as being disabled. Failure to report can result in criminal prosecution. then the employer must attempt to make a “reasonable accommodation” for them within the framework of their employment. The first is to talk to the Human Resources office of the company.he most important issues for patients with epilepsy are social. But the modern workplace has safety requirements to protect all workers. People with frequent seizures should not drive. authored by then Representative Tony Coelho. Although physicians. heat or on heights. is needed to decide whether the risks of the job are too high even
. or who operate with Federal funding. California is one of the six states that require seizure reporting by patients and doctors as a matter of law. The ADA applies to businesses that employ 15 or more people. If you are asked. especially in the current economic climate. you do not need to reveal any medical conditions. patients may have a different set of concerns. Absence of a driver‟s license would prohibit employment requiring an on-the-road component.
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hat are your rights? Several federal and state laws pertain to rights of people with disabilities. a family. but having epilepsy doesn‟t make it any easier. misinformation and stigma. childbearing and raising. which may prevent their adequate treatment. Such actions typically are at no charge. varying from three months to two years. or if seizures are of a type that does not affect driving. after hearing your story. you can decline to answer or decide to seek work at a more informed and enlightened establishment.

The baseline rate of birth defects.
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Pregnancy
Women with epilepsy can become pregnant. and by underlying general health problems. energy. Pregnancies may be higher risk for women with epilepsy. The rate of miscarriages is higher in women with epilepsy. Despite these risk factors. Short of removing all seizure medicines. may be desirable. Changing AEDs in the midst of a pregnancy can be problematic.
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. AEDs do not affect efficacy of condoms. A person with medication side effects should explore with his or her medical team whether a change in medications would make it easier to work.
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ome work limitations may derive from side effects of seizure medicines that limit balance. mood. streamlining to a few of the newer medicines. Oral contraceptives containing the equivalent of 35 micrograms or less of the female hormone ethinyl estradiol are particularly likely to be rendered less effective by AEDs. This birth defect risk increases to about 3-15% among women with epilepsy. and does not have an ongoing condition predisposing to seizures.with safety features. but not statistically different from the background risk rate. A period of at least six months before pregnancy is optimal to adjust medications. however. The desire to engage in sex (libido) can be reduced in association with epilepsy and also by AEDs. Looked at positively. This is known because birth defect risk is higher in women taking AEDs for conditions other than epilepsy.
regarding epilepsy and pregnancy (http://professionals.html). Another major factor is anti-epileptic medications.
School
hildren with epilepsy can do well in school. which can impact negatively on learning and behavior. with lower birth defect risks. can be caused both by seizures and by antiepileptic medications. memory. page 2163). especially Depakote (valproic acid). is about 2% for American women. many people with epilepsy are outstanding employees. and to a smaller extent other AEDs. and participate fully in parenthood. A balance must be struck between the need for seizure control and the side effects of medications on schooling. because more powerful seizures can emerge after tapering or reducing AEDs. but it is better for a woman with epilepsy to plan and prepare for pregnancy. Epilepsy sometimes coexists with brain injuries that impose their own limits on potential for employment. foams. but some do not. but enough is known to provide useful advice in several areas. IUDs or tubal ligation. then it might be possible to eliminate seizure medicines prior to pregnancy. but the rate of injuries is not significantly increased.com/page/ar_1191430420.
lanning: About half of pregnancies in the US are unplanned. published in 1997 in the Journal of the American Medical Association (volume 278. this requires caution. In general. This can result in unexpected pregnancy. Many questions remain. patches or injections to become less effective by inducing the liver to eliminate hormones faster from the bloodstream. This was 58% higher than the expected number. large or small. the large majority of women with epilepsy can become pregnant and carry the baby successfully to term. Dilantin. Certain seizures are very minor and may allow medication tapering for pregnancy. The message is that injuries can happen on (or off) the job in people with epilepsy. epilepsy does not mean unemployable. An irregular menstrual cycle and certain hormonal disorders. Risks are higher with consumption of multiple AEDs during pregnancy (polytherapy).
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ertility: Women with epilepsy have a slightly lower fertility rate than average. This may be because of social and peer pressure factors and factors of self-image and expectations. such as the condition called polycystic ovaries. Tegretol. have normal children. and that brain injury may impair their ability to learn. This is particularly true for barbiturate medications. phenobarbital. more than 90% of women will have healthy babies. The Epilepsy Therapy Project has had a special interest in this issue. In a large study of working people with disabilities by Zwerling and colleagues. If a woman has been seizurefree for 2-5 years.
B
irth defect risk: Birth defects occur at a rate a few percent higher in women with epilepsy than in the general population. but the main birth defect risk is from antiepileptic medications. because of the possibility of problems from seizures during pregnancy and because of effects of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) on the fetus. 3 of 209 workers with epilepsy experienced on on-the-job injury. Some contribution to the birth defect risk is made by seizures.epilepsy. compared to one (monotherapy). Other children have epilepsy because of an underlying injury to brain. can cause birth control pills. and a few years ago established the Health Outcomes in Pregnancy and Epilepsy (HOPE) Forum with nine international working groups to identify important unanswered questions
ffect on contraception: The older seizure medicines. mental sharpness or ability to function under stress.

leading to a bleeding tendency in the baby. Occasionally. B = safety in animal studies. for example. two pills per day for the final month of pregnancy. 1 mg. AEDs that are
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. they can be treated by the usual medical methods. Trileptal. The usual pregnancy safety concerns also apply.4-1.aspx 1800-069-722 (Australia) Gabapentin (Neurontin) Pregnancy Registry 617638-7751 Lamotrigine (Lamictal) Pregnancy Registry http://pregnancyregistry. most epilepsy doctors prescribe folic acid for women who might become pregnant while on antiepileptic medications. however.
regnancy registries: Several pregnancy registries track safety of AEDs. but quantities range from 0. Trileptal and sometimes other AEDs.
P
B
irth defects can cause a wide range of problems in the baby. are category D. phenobarbital. Folic acid usually produces no side effects but in high doses can lead to gastrointestinal or sleep problems.org (for physicians) The Australian Pregnancy Registry http://www. and this should be monitored. but they are just as likely to improve or remain stable. Neurontin. and the benefits usually outweigh the risks from trace amounts of seizure medicine present in the breast milk. if dose is not adjusted as needed.uk 0800-3891248 (UK) EURAP's www.” such as fingernail malformations. to a smaller extent carbamazepine (Tegretol. for example. for example. C = problems in animal studies. Seizures during delivery are rare. but no scientific study specifies a “safest” AED.massgeneral. The newer AEDs.epilepsyaustralia. can cause the liver to metabolize blood clotting factors faster. Tegretol or. Topamax. Depakote.eurap. or mild facial feature distortions.0 mg per day reduces risk for open-spine birth defects among populations of women without neurological disease. DO NOT stop or change your seizure medications on your own – serious problems can result for you and the future baby. or heart malformations. are linked to open spine problems. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) categorizes all medicines with respect to safety during pregnancy: A = has good evidence of safety during pregnancy. women should be followed by their physicians. Valproic acid (Depakote) and. Women of child-bearing potential should take folic acid every day. and a few researchers have speculated about heart or cancer problems for very high doses of folic acid. Tegretol.4 mg (400 micrograms) of folic acid.
or medication side effects.
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reastfeeding: Breastfeeding is beneficial.com/node/572 . The mother should recognize that the child already has been exposed for nine months to the medicine in the placental bloodstream. The best rule is to use the single medicine that is most effective in treating the woman's seizures. X = known to cause birth defects in humans. Carbatrol). Dilantin. judicious exercise. a growing belief that phenobarbital and valproic acid (Depakote) should used with special caution during pregnancy. Phenobarbital or valproate (Depakote) during pregnancy may affect future intelligence of the child. However.com/lamotrigene. but with some bias toward the newer FDA category C antiepileptic drugs.gsk. that often resolve by age five years. A list and links can be found at http://my.net/Australian_Pregnan cy_Register/Australian_Pregnancy_Register. Babies usually receive a vitamin K injection after birth. face. can decrease by more than half during pregnancy and increase within two weeks of delivery. Participation is free and the registry will both provide you with information and help the epilepsy community to better understand the safety of AEDs during pregnancy. Vimpat. By analogy. The older AEDs. no large scientific study has validated this practice. Lyrica. or other skull. such as good diet. but this can occur with other AEDs as well. We recommend that you contact one of the registries if you have epilepsy and are pregnant. AED blood levels may change in a way to produce unexpected breakthrough seizures
leeding and vitamin K: Some of the seizure medications.5 mg per day.org/aed 1-888-233-2334 The UK Epilepsy and Pregnancy Registry http://www. This can be counteracted by vitamin K. Lamictal. using only necessary medications. at best involving joint management by an obstetrician and a neurologist with expertise in epilepsy. Most over-the-counter daily vitamins contain 0. The best dose is not known. D = known to cause birth defects in humans. for example.T
he best AED to use during pregnancy has been debated.co. Decreased blood levels also can occur with Keppra. and most prenatal vitamins.
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hat to do during pregnancy: During pregnancy. with uncertainty in humans. and benefits are unlikely to outweigh risks. so some doctors prescribe Mephyton (Vitamin K) 5 mg pills. These include:
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he Antiepilepsy Drug (AED) Pregnancy Registry www. seizures may increase during pregnancy. Dilantin. are category C. phenobarbital. Obstetricians usually advise women to take their AEDs up to time of delivery.epilepsy. but benefits may outweigh risks. Zonegran. Phenytoin (Dilantin) and barbiturates can cause cleft lip or palate. There is. Keppra. but if they occur.epilepsyandpregnancy. Many other birth defects are possible. Carbamazepine can cause “minor defects. since many women are not aware that they are pregnant during the critical first six weeks.4 . and avoiding alcohol and smoking.html 1800-336-2176
F
olic acid: Supplementation with the vitamin folic acid (folate) 0. Lamictal (lamotrigine) blood levels. During pregnancy.

highly bound to blood proteins. not the doctor.
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eizures entail some risk.
Burn safety
f you have uncontrolled seizures. During pregnancy. be very careful around heat or flames. Do not leave a baby in bathwater. Women with the category of epilepsy called primary generalized (with absence. near heat or other dangerous objects or chemicals. but take specific action based upon consultation with your personal medical team. 6. the actual risk depends upon the specific type of epilepsy. which is good advice for other reasons as well. Don‟t smoke. If seizures are frequent. carry a child successfully through pregnancy. on heights. The DMV sometimes requires a road test and a fee to reinstate the license after a medical suspension. special care should be taken to avoid injury to the baby during lapses of attention. Pennsylvania. Still.
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Take safety precautions in caring for the baby
Risks of Epilepsy
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aring for the baby: If a mother's seizures are not in control. buy a plastic shower chair and a flexible water hose. Some of the antiepileptic drugs can make hormonal contraceptives less effective. since medication changes during pregnancy can be risky. Let the buddy know that you have seizures. others. so that you can minimize them. do have measurable concentrations in breast milk. A child in the general population has about a 1% risk of developing epilepsy.5-3% risk. Cook on the back burner . makes the decision on driving in most states. Nevada. having children may be a poor decision. Use the buddy system for swimming. Delaware and New Jersey laws require that medical personnel report a diagnosis of epilepsy to the State authorities. for example Keppra. Mysoline and Zonegran. while children of fathers have a 1.
Driving
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ill the baby have epilepsy? Most children of mothers or fathers with epilepsy do not develop epilepsy. Tegretol and Depakote do not significantly travel into breast milk. keep in close touch with your doctor and do not change medications on your own.
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onclusion. if your seizures are uncontrolled and may affect safety on the road. Change the baby's diaper on the floor. or major accompanying medical problems. The Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV). including Dilantin. Find a safe method to carry the baby. a child may have side effects such as drowsiness or failure to thrive from seizure medications in breast milk. For a minority of women with severe and uncontrolled seizures. wood stoves or radiators. depending on circumstances and doctor‟s recommendations. Exceptions can be made for seizures that do not affect mental condition and ability to control a car. please contact your medical care team. If you wish to talk to someone about seizure safety. The patient also has a personal legal obligation to report seizures to the DMV. breastfeed and be terrific mothers. as does the treatment or prevention of seizures. Put guards on open fireplaces. Longer restrictions may apply for commercial driving. You should be aware of these risks. Set the maximum house hot water temperature to 110 degrees Fahrenheit. Safety comes first!  Be honest with the DMV (use their driving form). Oregon.  Be honest with your doctor about your seizures. although the risk is slightly higher. Planning is key. although it is not usually required to report every seizure after initial reporting. phenobarbital. initially generalized tonic-clonic and myoclonic seizures) are more likely to have children with epilepsy than are those with partial (focal) seizures. Take showers instead of baths. Rarely. since advice should come from someone who knows you. States typically require that you be seizure free for either 3. and then should be switched to formula feedings. 12 or 24 months from the date of the seizure (3-12 in California). It may protect you legally if problems later occur. California.
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.  Plan ahead and optimize medications  Recognize possible effect of seizure medicines on contraception  Do not change AEDs without talking with your doctor  Take folic acid if you might become pregnant  Have AED levels monitored more closely during pregnancy  Your doctor may give vitamin K in the final month  Breast feeding is usually OK  Participate in a pregnancy registry
very State restricts driving in people with seizures. or that occur 100% during sleep. Do not drive. Here are some general suggestions regarding epilepsy and pregnancy. with or without the baby. Children of mothers with epilepsy have a 3-9% risk.you are less likely to lean on the burner or turn over the soup during a seizure.
Water Safety
Y I
ou could drown during a seizure that occurs in water. Folic acid should be taken by all women who may become pregnant. pregnancy: Most women with epilepsy can become pregnant. We recommend:  Do not drive if you are having seizures that would be dangerous on the road.


Child Care Safety
lepsyfoundation. this FDA warning is just something to know. chopping and drilling equipment should have safety guards to avoid inadvertent injury.com or epi-
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his is important information because doctors and patients need to know the possible side effects of medicines. but it can happen. but we recommend:  Know the main side effects of your seizure medicines. but use one of the slings/papooses. call your medical providers immediately. Depression occurs in about 10% or more of people with epilepsy.863 patients taking epilepsy medicines.2% (1 in 500) for those given placebos. Nevertheless.863 is a very small percentage.
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Medication Side Effects
o be approved for prescription use. Insurance plans and pharmacies sometimes switch to generics without patient or doctor approval. We think this is most likely due to heart arrhythmias (irregular beats) or breathing problems caused by a seizure.Heights
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ccasional use of ladders and going up and down stairs is a reasonable risk.

Equipment and Power Tools
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utting.  If you are thinking seriously about suicide. It is tragic when it happens. But it needs to be put in perspective and certainly is no reason for panic. Generic medications are less expensive. The FDA recently took a look at their database of clinical studies of people taking epilepsy medicines.  If you have symptoms of depression. Do not bathe the baby in water deep enough for the mouth to be underwater. but had thoughts of suicide. Be aware that some side effects occur from drug interactions among all your medications. Do not use chain saws. For people with uncontrolled seizures we recommend:  Do not suddenly stop your seizure medication. or call 911. Interactions can involve prescription medicines. but not a reason to change medicines. seizure medicines must pass strict safety testing. but the mechanism is debated. otherwise. versus none in patients taking placebo (an inactive pill). but most of these will never occur in an individual. If you fall with some of your seizures.  Do not be overly worried about SUDEP. Breastfeeding is usually considered beneficial. some of which are potentially serious or even lethal. even though small amounts of seizure medicines come out in the breast milk. do not carry your child in your arms.4% (1 in 250) for those taking epilepsy medications and 0. the risk for suicidal thoughts and behavior was about 0. We recommend the following. herbal remedies and even some foods. The risks of medications must be balanced against the risks of seizures.
Seizure medicines and suicide
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Sudden Unexplained Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP)
t is rare for people to die from a seizure. Change the baby on the floor. they all have side effects. so a decision can be made about whether antidepressant medication or referral to a psychotherapist would be useful. The 4 suicides in 27. A full discussion of possible medicine side effects is not possible here.
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f you have uncontrolled seizures. but may not produce the same blood levels as do brand name drugs or even other generics. over-the-counter medicines.
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. then do not work on ladders or unprotected heights for more than brief minutes. Be cautious if you are switching or being switched to generics.  Do not stop your seizure medicine. Put in carpets.  For most people. and it is impossible to be sure the epilepsy drugs were the cause. then fallproof your environment. Combined. It may work out fine (and it often is a lot less expensive). Their finding was 4 suicides in 27. even independent of medications. The package insert provided with your prescription lists full information on side effects. Your doctor is the best source for individual information. cover sharp corners. but a blood test to check levels might be useful. Another is the poorly understood condition called sudden unexplained death in epilepsy (SUDEP). Do not use mowers lacking automatic stop switches. Let the package insert inform you. Web sites such as epilepsy. but also to make others worse. but it is uncommon and there are currently no preventive measures other than working toward the best seizure control. and consider wearing a protective helmet in some circumstances.863 who did not commit suicide. One way is trauma or a car crash from a seizure. Grapefruit juice is an example of a seemingly benign food that can raise levels of carbamazepine or other drugs. If your seizures are not in control.
I
eizure medicines have long been known to help some people with depression. It could be dangerous.org or the website of the drug manufacturer have good information. since this can be a risk factor for SUDEP. such as crying and low mood. please discuss them at your clinic visits. They reported 105 people of the 27. do not use it if your seizures are not fully controlled. but not scare you.

Taiwan. We recommend:  Do not stop your seizure medications because of this issue. carbamazepine (Tegretol. Depakene). and rarely lamotrigine (Lamictal) and topiramate (Topamax) in high doses. but can include stomach upset or concentration problems. This is most problematic with phenytoin (Dilantin). do not stop your seizure medication without discussing your concerns with your doctor.4 . Carbatrol).  You should be able to go at least 3 months without a seizure to participate in medium-risk activities.  If you have been taking carbamazepine for at least 3 months. People of Asian descent can be screened before starting carbamazepine. but it also can be an issue for men and younger women. One of the common types of birth defects is a malformed lower spinal column (spinal bifida).Carbamazepine in Asians and Rash Risk
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arbamazepine (Tegretol. swimming with the buddy system. Philippines. which can result in unexpected pregnancy. About 15% of people from China. leading to broken bones later in life.  Periodic bone density screening may be helpful to show existence or progression of bone thinning. Use common sense.we do not yet know. These
f having a seizure during a recreational activity would cause you significant harm.
Recreation
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Birth control pills
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ome seizure medicines lower effectiveness of birth control pills. elliptical trainers. Risk is increased with a genetic marker on blood cells called HLA-B*1502.
Bone health
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Folic acid to protect from birth defects
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eizure medications can increase the risk of birth defects from a baseline risk of about 2% to a risk in the range of 4-15%. raise this issue with your doctor. there is no need to worry. even if the seizures are not in control. then do not do the activity.  Calcium. with swelling of the mucous membranes around mouth. It is best for folic acid to be in the woman‟s system from the start of pregnancy. primidone (Mysoline) and possibly valproate/valproic acid (Depakote. As a general guideline for starting discussion with your medical team. These include walking.
medicines include phenytoin (Dilantin). running. confer with your neurologist. but we think it reasonable to give folic acid to women with epilepsy who might become pregnant. basketball. The vitamin folic acid (also called folate) can decrease this risk in a general population of childbearing women.4 mg per day in a single daily dose is the usual range. In these cases. Sometimes this rash becomes severe. Confer with your medical team for individual restrictions. Carbatrol) can cause an allergic rash in susceptible individuals. baseball. Carbatrol). If someone has been on carbamazepine for 3 months already. From 0. weight training with machines or spotters. We do not have studies proving benefit specifically in women taking epilepsy medicines.4 mg (400 micrograms) of folate. volleyball. there is said to be little risk of SJS. Malaysia or Indonesia have this marker. Doses of 1 mg and over require a prescription. Confirm this with your medical care team. oxcarbazepine (Trileptal). or blistering of the skin. but may occur with carbamazepine (Tegretol. These include
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. vitamin D3 supplementation and regular exercise may be helpful to maintain bone health. we recommend:  Low-risk recreation usually can be done by most people with seizures. and you and your doctor will decide what to do. treadmills with spotters.  If you might become pregnant and you are taking seizure medicines. which means taking it all the time. This is a larger concern for women in mid-life or older. versus 3% in people from India and 1% in people from Japan or Korea. Side effects are rare. We recommend:  Do not stop your seizure medicines or your birth control pill because of this issue. which can be tested for in a blood test. Further studies might indicate a similar situation for other antiepileptic drugs . discuss taking folic acid with your medical team. phenobarbital. Your doctor may recommend other medications for bone health as well.  If starting carbamazepine and you are of Asian descent. Recent research shows that people of Asian descent have a higher risk for SJS from carbamazepine. golf. but confirm this interval with your doctor. phenobarbital and primidone (Mysoline). The negative effect of seizure medicines on birth control pills is more likely with low-dose birth control pills: those containing less than the equivalent of 50 micrograms of ethinyl estradiol. gynecologist or primary care doctor to make sure the dose of the BCP is adequate. eyes or genitals.  If you are taking birth control pills and seizure medicines.  This potential problem is not an emergency and occurs over months to years.  Do not suddenly stop your seizure medicines. bowling. An over-the-counter multiple vitamin usually has 0. the rash is called the Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS). potentially resulting in walking and bowel-bladder problems. soccer. We recommend the following.
everal of the older antiseizure medications may cause thinning of bones with long-term use.

pay special attention to heights.
For more Information
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he Epilepsy Therapy project provides www. horseback riding and boating.org. mountain or rock climbing and SCUBA diving. If you wish.
A
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. High-risk activities include hang gliding. put barriers in front of fireplaces or hot stoves. ice skating. treatment.
football. hockey.
Safety Proof Your Environment
A
rrange your home and if possible. by contacting one of the above sites.
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nd remember: safety first! Prevention of injury is better than treatment. and cure of epilepsy.com.epilepsyfoundation. motor sports. gymnastics.epilepsy.
Develop a Seizure Safety Plan
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lan ahead for what you and family should do during a seizure. Pad sharp corners.epilepsy. bike racing. competitive skateboarding. tremendous amount of research is focused on the diagnosis.com. www. The Northern California branch of the Foundation is the Epilepsy Foundation of Northern California 510-893-6272 or 800-6323532. The Stanford Comprehensive Epilepsy Center can be reached at 650-725-6648. you can help with this effort. railings and nearby pools or bodies of water. If you wander confused during or after a seizure. Ask your medical team whether it is safe to engage in high-risk recreation. to be safe should you have a seizure. skiing. An excellent source of information is the Epilepsy Foundation (of America). You can find a worksheet to construct a plan on www. efnca@epilepsynorcal. You should be seizure free for more than a year to perform high-risk activities.org. and become involved in the Epilepsy movement. the world‟s most visited website for information about epilepsy. prevention. although some doctors recommend not ever engaging in high-risk recreational activities if you have epilepsy. 301459-3700. include a non-trip/non-slip carpet. work or study space.