At Correcting Roof Ventilation and at HOT ROOF DESIGNS: UN-VENTED ROOF SOLUTIONS we argued that while some experts like the "hot roof" design (right hand design in the sketch at left) that omits attic or under-roof ventilation entirely, that approach risks surprise rot, mold, or insect damage on buildings where leaks and moisture are trapped in building cavities and remain un-noticed.

Some buildings, by their shape or design, simply don't make it easy to install continuous intake venting at the eaves or lower roof edge, or continuous outlet venting along a ridge.

For example, a house which has no roof overhang at all makes intake venting at the eaves difficult. A house with a pyramid roof shape or complex roof shapes makes outlet venting at a ridge difficult.

Worries about the "hot roof" un-vented Cathedral Ceiling Designs

As explained in our "hot roof" discussion at HOT ROOF DESIGNS: UN-VENTED ROOF SOLUTIONS, we don't have confidence in the long term durability of "hot roof designs" because any future roof leak into this cavity produces trapped moisture and rot.

In particular, using fiberglass insulation in an un-vented cathedral ceiling is most likely to give way to discovery of advanced hidden damage and/or mold over the life of the building, and may give shorter roof shingle life as well as causing higher indoor temperatures than with a vented roof cavity design.

We call this a "hot roof" design because failing to vent the roof from below not only misses a chance to avoid ice dam leaks and condensation damage in cold climates. In hot climates the roof temperature will be much higher on an un-vented roof, resulting in shorter shingle life. This is less of a concern for slate and similar product roofs less affected by heat.

Foam-filled cathedral ceilings may make sense in some cases. In buildings where there is no roof venting anyway, and where ventilation is difficult or impossible to achieve, an un-vented, well insulated "hot roof" can provide a high-R-value ceiling and may be the second-best alternative to preventing ice dam related leaks in cold climates.

Watch out: Be sure to inspect the roof surface from outside for leaks and damage every year and to fix any damage quickly. Examples of trouble with un-vented hot roofs are
at HOT ROOF DESIGNS: UN-VENTED ROOF SOLUTIONS

The sketch above is provided ourtesy of Carson Dunlop Associates and shows the two basic strategies for ventilating cathedral ceilings or cathedral roofs.

When renovating an older home whose roof rafters are only 2x6" (really 5 1/2" x 1.5") in dimension, the available space for insulation and ventilation is limited, therefore limiting the options for a combination of good under-roof ventilation and high insulation R-values in the cathedral ceiling. Here are some older home cathedral ceiling roof insulation and ventilation options that you may consider:

2 Baffles: Provide double-baffles between the rafters, eaves to ridge (rafters are roughly 24” o.c.) – this solution will leave portions of the roof deck un-vented and risk future mold growth - not a very effective venting solution, especially where we have already had a mold problem

1 Baffle: Provide conventaional thin styrofoam single baffles between the rafters, eaves to ridge – this solution will leave even larger portions of the roof deck un-vented and risk future mold growth - not recommended

High labor: Nail 1” furring along every rafter side, against the roof deck; cut and insert 1” or thicker high-R foam insulation sheets (R-8 per inch) against the furring, giving a 1” or greater air path between the insulation and the roof deck under the cathedral ceiling. (In the knee wall area the insulation is in the floor and on the back of the knee wall).

Fill the remaining space with fiberglass or cellulose. With 2x6 rafters this will give about an R-19 roof, higher if you use thicker solid foam insulation. This gives the best air path, eaves to ridge, but costs more for the labor to nail furring and cut insulation into pieces to fit between rafters. – works well, costs more.

Solid Foam: Install solid foam spray-in insulation under the roof – a “hot roof” design. This eliminates the entire plan of ventilation, gives maximum R-value for the space, probably costs the most, and risks shorter shingle life (hotter roof) and future hidden damage if leaks occur into the roof cavity – works, not a solution we like as we prefer to ventilate roofs for longer shingle life and cooler house in summer.

When re-roofing from the building exterior: if the roof decking and possibly roof framing have been extensively damaged by leaks it is usually necessary to repair the roof from outside the building. Before replacing roof decking, consider re- decking the roof with insulated structural panels that include eaves to ridge ventilation in their design.

What about adding solid foam high-R insulation on top of the roof when re-roofing? Adding rooftop insulating foam is a common practice on flat roof commercial buildings.

The insulation used in those applications is tapered to provide positive roof drainage to roof drain points as well as to improve the building insulation system and cut energy costs.

We do not consider this a good design for a pitched roof on a residential building as it converts the roof to a "hot roof" design (shorter shingle life, hotter under-roof area in warm weather). Adding ventilation under a solid-foam insulated pitched roof in order to dry and cool the building interior would, in turn, lose the benefit of the roof top insulation.
See HOT ROOF DESIGNS: UN-VENTED ROOF SOLUTIONS

Other Cathedral Ceiling Insulation Tips

Tips for insulating a cathedral ceiling, take care to seal ceiling penetrations such as around light fixtures or ceiling-mounted hard-wired smoke detector. More moisture enters building cavities through these cuts in the ceiling (or wall) drywall than permeates through the drywall itself.

While fiberglass insulation is an excellent and effective product for insulating most building cavities, in areas where there is extra risk of trapping moisture (and thus rot or mold infections) such as crawl spaces and cathedral ceilings where roof venting may be absent or minimal, we prefer to use closed-cell foam insulation products or spray-in icynene foam insulation: these products can seal the cavity against drafts and they do not as readily pick up moisture nor do they readily form hidden mold reservoirs.

Ice and Water Shield: On roofs that are too difficult to vent, a second-best solution is to remove the shingles (or slates) from the lower 3 feet
of those slopes where leaks and ice dams have been recurrent, install a waterproof but nail-able membrane such as WR Grace's Ice and Water Shield (other product names from other manufacturers) which will prevent any ice dam
backup leaks from entering the building.

This is basically a sticky membrane that is applied to the roof decking and through which shingle or slate nails can be nailed back onto the roof; the membrane seals around the nails so
that those penetrations do not form leaks during a water or ice backup.

Un-Vented, Hot Roof Designs Indoors, finished attic: Where the attic space is finished with drywall or other ceiling materials installed against the underside of the roof rafters, while we prefer in-floor insulation,
here we'll have to insulate the roof cavity between the rafters.

In cases where there is no under-roof venting system (no soffit intake vents, no ridge vents), a "hot roof" design is followed: the roof cavity between rafters can be filled with insulation, followed by installation of a perfect vapor barrier, followed by finish surface of drywall or whatever else.

While we prefer to avoid ice dam leaks by good building design and good under-roof ventilation, where conditions require stopping ice dam leaks on an existing structure, proper installation of heating cables may be the fastest and cheapest solution.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Try the search box below or CONTACT US by email if you cannot find the answer you need at InspectApedia.

Question:
What is causing drip marks from leaks out of cathedral ceiling in a Northern California House?

wrote:
July 21, 2013
Hello,-->
I read through your very complete article about roofs, venting, etc. Thank you for all the info...it was very educational.
I'm not sure if I have answers to my specific issue solutions, so I'd like to give you some background and ask your opinion.
Northern California summer home in the mountains (about 4800 elevation)

Closed for winter months until about end of April, snow on roof melting at that time
Cathedral ceiling on upper floor (2-story house)

Discovered drips from center beam in interior (April was still dripping with liquid on horizontal surfaces, etc)
The builder replaced roof ridge with vented ridge (shingled roof) and sanded off drip marks on interior beams

A year or two later, drip marks on beams are back
(p.s. there is also a big bat problem that everyone here wants to have an air-tight home)

I don't want to replace roof yet, but what can I do in the winter? Leave central heat on low? Open some windows an inch or two?
I'm open for suggestions, and thank you very much! - J.H. 7/21/2013

Reply: Here are things to check to track down a roof leak vs. interior air and moisture leak

A competent onsite inspection by an expert usually finds additional clues that would permit a more accurate, complete, and authoritative answer than we can give by email alone. You will find additional depth and detail in articles at our website.

That said, I offer both a guess and some suggestions:

I agree that it makes no sense to replace the roof covering before we have a clear diagnosis of the cause of leakage; Worse you could be wasting a lot of money re-roofing only to discover that "leaks" continue because the cause was improper venting, soaked insulation, air leaks, or that there is moldy drywall and wet insulation that need replacement in the ceiling.

Guess: the home has either one or more leaks into the roof cavity (cathedral ceiling) or condensation accumulating in that cavity. In a cold climate and depending on the level of roof insulation, water entering the roof can freeze, accumulate as ice, and thus return to the interior as leaks and drips that continue for quite a while in thawing conditions. Worse, once the insulation has become wet the cavity has lost insulation value so the problem is likely to be worse, especially if the source is condensation from inside.

You said the house is shut down but did not say whether heat is left on or off. If heat is off and the house interior is at freezing temperature (not my first choice for building preservation), the water source in the ceiling is more likely to be an exterior leak.

If heat is left on the water source could be an exterior leak, ice dam leaks, or interior air leaks carrying moisture into the roof cavity.

If the water source in the roof cavity is from air and moisture leaks from the interior, the passage points into the roof are most often at penetrations such as around light fixtures. The percentage of moisture that moves directly through solid drywall into a building cavity has been shown to be quite small. The cure for such interior to roof air leaks is to seal penetrations and provide functional roof cavity ventilation. To that end, a ridge vent is ineffetive if there is not adequate soffit intake, and if the total ridge vent outlet is sufficient. For example a plastic mesh fabric type ridge vent covered by shingles does not move much air out. We also need enough air space between the insulation and the underside of the roof deck for air to flow freely. And the ridge vent needs to be tall enough to vent through snow cover.

I would first inspect the roof surface with care from outside to look for obvious leak points or damage; I would next determine exactly the state of under-roof ventilation: soffit intake, roof spacd, ridge outlet;

Then I would go to the two most-suspect areas in the roof cavity and make a test cut sufficient to inspect the insulation for signs of wetting and mold, the cavity side fo the drywall for water and mold, and the roof sheathing for water, mold, and to confirm the air space. In any event I would be cautious about leaving windows open in a home with heat off because of security risks, animal entry risks, blown snow and rain damage risks etc. I do like eaving heat on to keep the home above freezing, say at 40 or 45F which can avoid building damage that comes from extreme temperature swings inside - conditions that are not anticipated by most modern construction; But as I suggest, let's wait on the cure until we understand the disease.

When we've done enough inspecting that we are confident of the cause of the drips you describe, only then does it make sense to start "repairing".

Question: insulating cathedral ceilings in a Saskatchewan Bungalow

(Mar 13, 2014) Shane Harris said:
I'm updating insulation on my cathedral ceiling on a 1966 bungalow which currently has no vapour barrier. The shingles need replacing so I will be tackling this from the outside by removing the roof sheathing. I plan on using closed cell spray foam to provide the vapour barrier and insulation. How much foam do you recommend and what R value should I aim for? (rafters are 2x6, 16o.c.) Is their any way to prevent the thermal bridging through the rafters? Will spraying the sides of the rafter and adding some rigid board insulation between the rafter and sheeting work? Is it even worth the trouble versus the benefit or cost?

Shane Harris
Yorkton, Saskatchewan
Canada

Reply:

Shane,

You could add a layer of high-r foam insulation IF you are building a hot-roof unvented design. Otherwise the foam layer atop the rafters and under the roof sheathing will have its R-value wasted since ventilating air would be moving between the underside of the foam and the upper side of insulation between the rafters.

With 2x6 rafters (under-sized by modern standards) you can only get about 5 1/2" of insulation - not the greatest R value though the R varies by foam type.

If interior space permits I'd consider adding solid foam on the interior ceiling and new drywall over it to increase the total R.

I pose that the total project cost to R&R intact roof sheathing for this project is higher than insulating from the interior.

Check for bids from professional insulators.

Reader follow-up:

(Mar 13, 2014) Anonymous said:

I'm unable to tackle this from the inside do to decorative wood paneling in the cathedral part of the roof that I don't want to disturb. Should I look at going with only 2" of spray foam to provide the vapour barrier, add batting and then the rigid board insulation to cover the joists before sheeting? From your articles you still recommend a vented design to keep the roof cool in the summer and prevent premature wear on the shingles.

Shane

Okay, makes sense. Yes it's a cold climate , similar to Minot, ND. So, I have to use spray foam or rigid board(sealed around the edges) between the rafters vs the batting because of no vapour barrier correct?

Reply:

Rigid board between rafters -which I've done -is a lot of cutting and fitting and sealing, and costly compared with spray-foaming the whole cavity. Because it's just 2x6's, the addition of a layer of 1 or 2" solid foam Hi-R insulation improves the total R value; you'd secure the roof decking to the rafter tops through the Hi-R.

While we prefer the vapour barrier on the ceiling warm side, it's less critical than sealing around any ceiling penetrations on the inside (lights for example).

Question: drop ceilings, sagging from wet insulation

(June 22, 2014) Deborah said:
We have a drop down ceiling in our office about 1200 sq feet with only one wll return for the ac. The last 3 months we have notice a sewer smell. The ac is in a small 1/2 bath size room with a door. We've had a lot of ran, high temps and humidity. Also the insulation is now weighing down the ceiling tiles. Someone told us we needed to insulate the system and replace some of the tiles with plastic egg grates. This would allow the proper air flow and venting for the system. Please advise before I spend a lot of money?

Reply:

Deborah,

You need an onsite inspection by a competent HVAC or other building professional to first understand how your system is designed. If the office ceiling space above the drop ceiling is being used as a return air plenum you don't want to subvert the design by adding addtional vent openings.

Separately, if you are seeing sagging and moisture or condensation problems that is a potentially serious issue risking mold contamination and even ceiling collapse - conditions that need to be inspected as part of answering your question.

Question: low pitched dormer roof insulation

(Aug 15, 2014) jerry said:
I am located in Zone 4 . I have a second floor low pitched dormer where the HVAC is located. All the ducts are insulated (R-3) and I have R-48 fiberglass between the ceiling joists. The 3 inch furnace flue vent (not insulated) is in the attic. I have ridge vent and last year added more sofit vents so that I have a 12 inch vent every third rafter. I continue to have ice damning issues every winter. Considering two options; (i) foaming all of the HVAC ducts , better sealing all of the can lights and vents, then putting 4 inches of additional fiberglass (blown in) or extending the vent chutes to the ridge - in each rafter and spraying foam to the underside of the deck-removing the R-48 from the ceiling rafters. Thoughts, ideas recommendations?

Reply:

Thanks for the question Jerry.

As you still see ice damming we've got these topics to check out:

1. there may still be inadequate intake or outlet venting - I want continuous soffit vents not intermittent vents, and I want a continuous ridge vent. The "vent chutes" may also be inadequate - I'd like 2" of clear space between insulation top and under side of roof deck at the soffit openings - for the full width between every rafter pair. Some of the flexible vent chutes are too soft and may give just 3'4" of space.

2. there may be abnormal amounts of heat leaking into the roof space from below - sealing openings such as around lights (you may need to go to DCIC ceiling pot lights if you've got older recessed lights there) will addresses this

3. there may be too much in-attic or under roof heat generation or heat source from ducts or the metal exhaust vent.
Check first for duct leaks.
Next consider more duct insulation. R-3 isn't much in a cold climate. That will improve heat delivery to the occupied space, reducing heating costs too.

4. Finally: consider (but defer) using an insulated chimney from the ceiling up through the roof.

Keep us posted - what you find will help others.

Question: Big Beam House insulation

(Sept 10, 2014) Anonymous said:
I have a Big Beam house with all rooms, except bathrooms, with exposed ceilings of 2 x 6 Douglass Fir. The insulation on the roof is 2" solid foam with an attached nail based. There is no venting. I may have to re-roof - Has modern technology suggested a new method to vent a Big Beam home? Any recommendations? Thanks Jerry

Question: insulating or going to a hot roof cathedral ceiling after roof leaks

6 Feb 2015 Fred William said:
Just read your comments about hot roofs in cathedral ceilings and have a question. We recently bought a 1928 home that has a new addition. Last year we had water leaks from ice dams underthe older sections. From talking to 4 insulation contractors, one main problem is the tight space, only 4 inches, between the slanted ceilings in the 2nd floor closets that flank our staircase and the roof sheathing. 3 of the 4 contractors really don't want to deal with my problem, said they would get back to me, and never did. The 4th guy said he sees this all the time for older homes. His recommendation: blow in cellulose from the top down into this 4 inch wide space and then go into the closets and blow cellulose through the interior walls between each stud making a top and bottom hole. I just looked up R values and 4 inches of cellulose is only about 10; probably not good enough to prevent all future ice dams. But an R-10 is better than what I currently have which is zero. I called a general contractor and he said that I don't want to give up that flow of cold air from sofit vents to ridge vents by filling that space with insulation. Bottom line: if i go with this insulation contractor I will get some insulation but will eliminate the winter cold air ventilation that is also nice to have under the roof sheathing. (The contractor will also blow in cellulose throughout the house in all areas to stop heat from escaping into the attic. He said that he found gaps around the chimney, around lights and around ceiling fans) Your comments are appreciated, thank you.

Reply:

Certainly I would not do anything about your ceilings nor add insulation before doing some investigating. It would be a shame to simply blow insulation into a cavity only to find later that you have to remove the whole shebang to get rid of moldy drywall that nobody attended.

I'd go to the most-suspect point where leaks occurred and make a small opening, say 2x4" to look at the cavity side of the drywall, the wood framing, the existing insulation.

...

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Technical Reviewers & References

The National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST (nee National Bureau of Standards NBS) is a US government agency - see www.nist.gov

ASHRAE resource on dew point and wall condensation - see the ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook, available in many libraries. The following three ASHRAE Handbooks are also available at the InspectAPedia bookstore in the third page of our Insulate-Ventilate section:

Insulation Types, table of common building insulation properties from U.S. DOE. Readers should see INSULATION R-VALUES & PROPERTIES our own table of insulation properties that includes links to articles describing each insulation material in more detail.

The National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST (nee National Bureau of Standards NBS) is a US government agency - see www.nist.gov

Ice Dam Leaks in building attics and roof cavities, how to inspect for evidence of leaks, identify causes, and correct bad attic ventilation, improper roof venting, and these causes of attic mold or roof structure damage

ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act), Public Law 101-336. 7/26/90 is very often cited by other sources for good design of stairs and ramps etc. even where disabled individuals are not the design target.

ANSI A117.4 Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities (earlier version was incorporated into the ADA)

Asbestos products and their history and use in various building materials such as asphalt and vinyl flooring includes discussion which draws on Asbestos, Its Industrial Applications, D.V. Rosato, engineering consultant, Newton, MA, Reinhold Publishing, 1959 Library of Congress Catalog Card No.: 59-12535 (out of print).

Asbestos Identification and Testing References

Asbestos Identification, Walter C.McCrone, McCrone Research Institute, Chicago, IL.1987 ISBN 0-904962-11-3. Dr. McCrone literally "wrote the book" on asbestos identification procedures which formed
the basis for current work by asbestos identification laboratories.

Brick Nogging, Historical Investigation and Contemporary Repair, Construction Specifier, April 2006. Historical use of brick in timber-framed buildings, drawing on the investigations of the Kent Tavern in Calais, VT.
"Brick nogging is a European method of construction which was brought to the new world in the early-nineteenth century. It was a common construction method that employed masonry as infill between the vertical uprights of wood framing." -- quoting the web article review.

Building Research Council, BRC, nee Small Homes Council, SHC, School of Architecture, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, brc.arch.uiuc.edu. "The Small Homes Council (our original name) was organized in 1944 during the war at the request of the President of the University of Illinois to consider the role of the university in meeting the demand for housing in the United States. Soldiers would be coming home after the war and would be needing good low-cost housing. ... In 1993, the Council became part of the School of Architecture, and since then has been known as the School of Architecture-Building Research Council. ... The Council's researchers answered many critical questions that would affect the quality of the nation's housing stock.

How could homes be designed and built more efficiently?

What kinds of construction and production techniques worked well and which did not?

How did people use different kinds of spaces in their homes?

What roles did community planning, zoning, and interior design play in how neighborhoods worked

"Energy Savers: Air Sealing [copy on file as /interiors/Energy_Savers_Air_Sealing_1.pdf ] - ", U.S. Department of Energy

Falls and Related Injuries: Slips, Trips, Missteps, and Their Consequences, Lawyers & Judges Publishing, (June 2002), ISBN-10: 0913875430 ISBN-13: 978-0913875438"Falls in the home and public places are the second leading cause of unintentional injury deaths in the United States, but are overlooked in most literature. This book is unique in that it is entirely devoted to falls. Of use to primary care physicians, nurses, insurance adjusters, architects, writers of building codes, attorneys, or anyone who cares for the elderly, this book will tell you how, why, and when people will likely fall, what most likely will be injured, and how such injuries come about. "

Fiberglass: Indoor Air Quality Investigations: Health Concerns About Airborne Fiberglass: Fiberglass in Indoor Air from HVAC ducts, and Building Insulation

Humidity: What indoor humidity should we maintain in order to avoid a mold problem?

Lighting, proper use of: proper aiming of a good flashlight can disclose hard to see but toxic light or white mold colonies on walls.

Pergo AB, division of Perstorp AB, is a Swedish manufacturer or modern laminate flooring products. Information about the U.S. company can be found at http://www.pergo.com where we obtained historical data used in our discussion of the age of flooring materials in buildings.

Piquet Wall Construction: See this photo of
piquet wall construction - involving timber-framed wall construction with long top girts, diagonal timber bracing, and small diameter logs
placed vertically along with concrete chinking to fill in the wall plane.

Plank House Construction: weblog from plankhouse.wordpress.com/2009/01/25/plank-house-construction/ and where plank houses were built by native Americans, seeLarge 1:6 Scale Plank House Construction / P8094228,
Photographer: Mike Meuser
06/12/2007 documented at yurokplankhouse.com where scale model Museum quality Yurok Plank Houses are being sold to raise money for the Blue Creek - Ah Pah Traditional Yurok Village project.

Re-Bath, tub lining products is a bath tub relining manufacturer and distributor located in Tempe, Arizona - see rebath.com

Rubblestone Wall Filler: See this Lartigue House using exterior-exposed rubblestone filler between vertical timbers of a post and beam-framed Canadian building.

The Stairway Manufacturers' Association, (877) 500-5759, provides a pictorial guide to the stair and railing portion of the International Residential Code. [copy on file as http://www.stairways.org/pdf/2006%20Stair%20IRC%20SCREEN.pdf ] -

Lighting, proper use of: proper aiming of a good flashlight can disclose hard to see but toxic light or white mold colonies on walls.

Manufactured & Modular Homes: Modular Building Systems Association, MBSA, modularhousing.com, is a trade association promoting and providing links to contact modular builders in North America. Also see the Manufactured Home Owners Association, MHOAA, at www.mhoaa.us. The Manufactured Home Owners Association of America is a National Organization dedicated to the protection of the rights of all people living in Manufactured Housing in the United States.

Carson, Dunlop & Associates Ltd., 120 Carlton Street Suite 407, Toronto ON M5A 4K2. Tel: (416) 964-9415 1-800-268-7070 Email: info@carsondunlop.com. The firm provides professional home inspection services & home inspection education & publications. Alan Carson is a past president of ASHI, the American Society of Home Inspectors. Thanks to Alan Carson and Bob Dunlop, for permission for InspectAPedia to use text excerpts from The Home Reference Book & illustrations from The Illustrated Home. Carson Dunlop Associates' provides extensive home inspection education and report writing material.

The Illustrated Home illustrates construction details and building components, a reference for owners & inspectors.Special Offer: For a 5% discount on any number of copies of the Illustrated Home purchased as a single order Enter INSPECTAILL in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space.

TECHNICAL REFERENCE GUIDE to manufacturer's model and serial number information for heating and cooling equipment, useful for determining the age of heating boilers, furnaces, water heaters is provided by Carson Dunlop, Associates, Toronto - Carson Dunlop Weldon & AssociatesSpecial Offer: Carson Dunlop Associates offers InspectAPedia readers in the U.S.A. a 5% discount on any number of copies of the Technical Reference Guide purchased as a single order. Just enter INSPECTATRG in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space.

The Home Reference Book - the Encyclopedia of Homes, Carson Dunlop & Associates, Toronto, Ontario, 25th Ed., 2012, is a bound volume of more than 450 illustrated pages that assist home inspectors and home owners in the inspection and detection of problems on buildings. The text is intended as a reference guide to help building owners operate and maintain their home effectively. Field inspection worksheets are included at the back of the volume.

Special Offer: For a 10% discount on any number of copies of the Home Reference Book purchased as a single order. Enter INSPECTAHRB in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space. InspectAPedia.com editor Daniel Friedman is a contributing author.

Special Offer: Carson Dunlop Associates offers InspectAPedia readers in the U.S.A. a 5% discount on these courses: Enter INSPECTAHITP in the order payment page "Promo/Redemption" space. InspectAPedia.com editor Daniel Friedman is a contributing author.