Theophrastus (Greek: Θεόφραστος; c. 371 – c. 287 BC[1]), a
Greek native of Eressos in Lesbos, was the
successor of Aristotle
in the Peripatetic school. He came to Athens at a young age, and
initially studied in Plato's school. After Plato's death he
attached himself to Aristotle. Aristotle bequeathed to Theophrastus
his writings, and designated him as his successor at the Lyceum. Theophrastus presided
over the Peripatetic school for thirty-five years, during which
time, the school flourished greatly. After his death, the Athenians
honoured him with a public funeral. His successor as head of the
school was Strato of Lampsacus.

The interests of Theophrastus were wide-ranging, extending from
biology and physics to ethics and metaphysics. His two surviving botanical works, Enquiry into
Plants and On the Causes of Plants, were an important
influence on medievalscience. There are also surviving works On
Moral Characters, On Sensation, On Stones,
and fragments on Physics and Metaphysics all
written in Greek. In philosophy, he studied grammar and language, and continued Aristotle's work on logic. He also regarded space as the mere arrangement and
position of bodies, time as an
accident of motion, and motion as a necessary consequence of
all activity. In ethics, he
regarded happiness as
depending on external influences as well as on virtue, and famously said that "life is ruled by
fortune, not wisdom."

Life

Most of the biographical information we have of Theophrastus was
provided by Diogenes Laërtius' Lives of the
Philosophers, written four hundred years after Theophrastus'
time, though "there is no intrinsic improbability in most of what
Diogenes records."[2]
He was a native of Eressos in Lesbos.[3] His
given name was Tyrtamus (Greek: Τύρταμος), but he later became known by the
nickname "Theophrastus", given to him, it is said, by Aristotle to
indicate the grace of his conversation (ancient Greek: Θεός = God
and φραστος = to phrase i.e divine expression).[4]

After receiving his first introduction to philosophy in Lesbos from one Leucippus or
Alcippus, he proceeded to Athens, and became a member of the Platonist
circle.[5] After
Plato's death he attached
himself to Aristotle,
and in all probability accompanied him to Stagira. The intimate friendship of
Theophrastus with Callisthenes,[6]
the fellow-pupil of Alexander the Great, the mention
made in his will of an estate belonging to him at Stagira,[7] and the
repeated notices of the town and its museum in the nine books of
his Enquiry into plants and his six books of Causes of
Plants point to this conclusion.[8]

Aristotle in his will made him guardian of his children,
including Nicomachus with whom he
was close.[9]
Aristotle likewise bequeathed to him his library and the originals
of his works,[10] and
designated him as his successor at the Lyceum on his own removal to Chalcis.[11]Eudemus of
Rhodes also had some claims to this position, and Aristoxenus is said to
have resented Aristotle's choice.[8]

Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for
thirty-five years,[12] and
died at the age of eighty-five according to Diogenes.[13] He is
said to have remarked "we die just when we are beginning to
live".[14]

Under his guidance the school flourished greatly— there were at
one period more than 2000 students, Diogenes affirms,[15]
and at his death, according to the terms of his will preserved by
Diogenes, he bequeathed to it his garden with house and colonnades
as a permanent seat of instruction. The comic poet Menander was among his
pupils.[15]
His popularity was shown in the regard paid to him by Philip, Cassander and Ptolemy, and by
the complete failure of a charge of impiety brought against
him.[16] He
was honoured with a public funeral, and "the whole population of
Athens, honouring him greatly, followed him to the grave."[17] He
was succeeded as head of the Lyceum by Strato of Lampsacus.

Writings

From the lists of Diogenes Laërtius, giving 227 titles,
it appears that the activity of Theophrastus extended over the
whole field of contemporary knowledge.[8]
His writing probably differed little from Aristotle's treatment of
the same themes, though supplementary in details. Like Aristotle,
most of his writings are lost works.[8]

Thus Theophrastus, like Aristotle, had composed a first and
second Analytic.[18]
He had also written books on Topics;[19] on
the refutation of fallacies;[20] as
well as books on the Principles of Natural Philosophy
(Physica Auscultatio), on Heaven, and on
Meteorological Phenomena.[21] The
work of Theophrastus On Affirmation and Denial seems to
have corresponded to that of Aristotle's On Judgment.

Frontispiece to the illustrated 1644 edition of the Enquiry
into Plants (Historia Plantarum)

In addition, he wrote on the Warm and the Cold,[6]
on Water, Fire,[22]the Sea,[22]
on Coagulation and Melting, on various phenomena of
organic and spiritual life,[22]
and on the Soul and Sensuous Perception.[23]
Likewise we find mention of monographs of Theophrastus on the early
Greek philosophers Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, Empedocles, Archelaus,[24]Diogenes of Apollonia, Democritus,[25]
which were made use of by Simplicius; and also on Xenocrates,[26]
against the Academics,[27] and a
sketch of the political doctrine of Plato.[25]
That he studied general history, as we see from the quotations in
Plutarch's lives of Lycurgus, Solon, Aristides, Pericles, Nicias, Alcibiades, Lysander, Agesilaus, and Demosthenes, which were probably borrowed
from the work on Lives.[18]
But his main efforts were to continue the labours of Aristotle in
Natural
History. This is testified not only by a number of treatises on
individual subjects of zoology, of which, besides the titles, only
fragments remain, but also by his books on Stones, his
Enquiry into Plants, and On the Causes of Plants,
which have come down to us entire. In politics, also, he seems to
have trodden in the footsteps of Aristotle. Besides his books on
the State, we find quoted various treatises on
Education,[28] on
Royalty,[29] on
the Best State, on Political Morals, and
particularly his works on the Laws, one of which,
containing a recapitulation of the laws of various barbarian as well as Greek states,[6]
was intended to be a companion to Aristotle's outline of
Politics, and must have been similar to it.[30] He
also wrote on oratory and poetry.[31]
Theophrastus, without doubt, departed further from Aristotle in his
ethical
writings,[32] as
also in his metaphysical investigations respecting motion, the
soul, and God.[33]

Besides these writings, Theophrastus was the author of several
collections of problems, out of which some things at least have
passed into the Problems which have come down to us under
the name of Aristotle,[34] and
commentaries,[35]
partly dialogues,[36] to
which probably belonged the Erotikos,[37]Megacles,[26]Callisthenes,[38] and
Megarikos,[6]
and letters,[39]
partly books on mathematical sciences and their
history.[40]

Many of his works which we do have, exist only in fragmentary
form. "The style of these works, as of the botanical books,
suggests that, as in the case of Aristotle, what we possess
consists of notes for lectures or notes taken of lectures," his
translator Arthur Hort remarks.[2]
"There is no literary charm; the sentences are mostly compressed
and highly elliptical, to the point sometimes of obscurity."[2]
The text of these fragments and extracts is often so corrupt that
there is a certain plausibility to the well-known story that the
works of Aristotle and Theophrastus were allowed to languish in the
cellar of Neleus of Scepsis and his
descendents.[41]

Advertisements

On Plants

Cotton ready for harvest

Banyan tree

The most important of his books are two large botanical
treatises, Enquiry into Plants, and On
the Causes of Plants, which constitute the most important
contribution to botanical science during antiquity and the Middle
Ages,[8]
the first systemization of the botanical world; on the strength of
these works some call him the "father of Botany".

The Enquiry into Plants was originally ten books, of
which nine survive. The work is arranged into a system whereby
plants are classified according to their modes of generation, their
localities, their sizes, and according to their practical uses such
as foods, juices, herbs, etc.[42]
The first book deals with the parts of plants; the second book with
the reproduction of plants and the times and manner of sowing; the
third, fourth and fifth books are devoted to trees, their types, their
locations, and their practical applications; the sixth book deals
with shrubs and spiny plants; the seventh book
deals with herbs; the eighth book deals with plants which produce
edible seeds; and the ninth book deals with plants which produce
useful juices, gums,
resins,
etc.[42]

Cinnamomum verum, from Koehler's Medicinal-Plants
(1887)

Myrrh

On the Causes of Plants was originally eight books, of
which six survive. It concerns the growth of plants; the influences
on their fecundity; the proper times they should be sown and
reaped; the methods of preparing the soil, manuring it, and the use of tools; of the smells, tastes,
and properties of many types of plants.[42]
The work deals mainly with the economical uses of
plants rather than their medicinal uses, although the latter is
sometimes mentioned.[42]

Although these works contain many absurd and fabulous
statements, as a whole they have many valuable observations
concerning the functions and properties of plants.[42]
Theophrastus detected the process of germination and realized the importance of
climate and soil to plants. Much of the information on the
Greek plants may have come from his own observations, as he is
known to have travelled throughout Greece, and to have had a
botanical garden of his own; but the works also profit from the
reports on plants of Asia brought back from those who followed Alexander
the Great:

Theophrastus' Enquiry into Plants was first published
in a Latin translation by Theodore Gaza, at
Treviso, 1483;[43] in
its original Greek it first appeared from the press of Aldus Manutius at
Venice, 1495-98, from a third-rate manuscript, which, like the
majority of the manuscripts that were sent to printers' workshops
in the fifteenth and sixteenth century, has disappeared.[44]Wimmer identified
two manuscripts of first quality, the Codex Urbinas in the
Vatican
Library, which was not made known to J. G. Schneider, who made the
first modern critical edition, 1818-21, and the excerpts in the
Codex Parisiensis in the Bibliothèque nationale de
France.

The
Characters

His book The Characters, if it is indeed his, deserves
a separate mention. The work contains thirty brief, vigorous and
trenchant outlines of moral types, which form a most valuable
picture of the life of his time, and in fact of human nature in
general.[8]
They are the first recorded attempt at systematic character
writing. The book has been regarded by some as an independent
work; others incline to the view that the sketches were written
from time to time by Theophrastus, and collected and edited after
his death; others, again, regard the Characters as part of
a larger systematic work, but the style of the book is against
this.[8]
Theophrastus has found many imitators in this kind of writing,
notably Joseph Hall (1608), Sir Thomas
Overbury (1614–16), Bishop Earle (1628) and Jean de
La Bruyère (1688), who also translated the
Characters.[8]George Eliot also
took inspiration from Theophrastus' Characters, most notably in her
book of caricatures, Impressions of Theophrastus Such. Writing the
"character
sketch" as a scholastic exercise also originated in
Theophrastus's typology.

On
Sensation

A treatise On Sense Perception and its objects is
important for a knowledge of the doctrines of the more ancient
Greek philosophers regarding the subject. A paraphrase and
commentary on this work was written by Priscian of Lydia in the 6th
century.[42]
With this type of work we may connect the fragments on
Smells, on Fatigue, on Dizziness, on
Sweat, on Swooning, on Palsy, and on
Honey.[41]

Physics

We also possess in fragments a History of Physics. To
this class of work belong the still extant sections on
Fire, on the Winds, and on the signs of
Waters, Winds, and Storms.[45]
Various smaller scientific fragments have been collected in the
editions of Johann Gottlob Schneider
(1818–21) and Friedrich Wimmer
(1842—62) and in Hermann Usener's Analecta
Theophrastea.

Metaphysics

The Metaphysics (nine chapters) was considered a fragment of a
larger work by Usener in his edition (Theophrastos
Metaphysica, Bonn, 1890) but according Ross and Fobes in
their edition (Theophrastus Metaphysica, Oxford, 1929) the
treatise is complete (p. X) and this opinion is now widely
accepted. There is no reason for assigning this work to some other
author because it is not noticed in Hermippus and Andronicus, especially as Nicolaus
of Damascus had already mentioned it.[41]

On Stones

We possess a treatise On Stones, in which Theophrastus
classified rocks based on their behavior when heated, further
grouping minerals by common properties, such as amber and magnetite which both have the power of
attraction.[46]
He also comments on the effect of heat on minerals, and their
different hardnesses.

He knew that pearls came from shell-fish, that coral came from India and speaks of the fossilized remains of
organic life.[46]
Theophrastus made the first known reference to the phenomenon of pyroelectricity, noting that the
mineral tourmaline
becomes charged when heated. He also considers the practical uses
of various stones, such as the minerals necessary for the
manufacture of glass; for the
production of various pigments of paint such as ochre; and for the manufacture of plaster.[46]
He discusses the use of the touchstone for assayinggold and gold alloys, an important property which
would require the genius of Archimedes to resolve in quantitative detail
when he was asked to investigate the suspected debasement of a
crown a few years later.

Bi-colored tourmaline crystal.

Many of the rarer minerals were found in mines, and he mentions
the famous copper mines of Cyprus and the even more famous
silver mines, presumably of Laurium near Athens, and upon which the wealth of the city
was based, as well as referring to gold mines. The Laurium
silver mines, which were the property of the state, were usually
leased for a fixed sum and a percentage on the working. Towards the
end of the 5th century the output fell, partly owing to the Spartan occupation of Decelea. But the mines
continued to be worked, though Strabo records that in his time the tailings
were being worked over, and Pausanias speaks of the mines as
a thing of the past. The ancient workings, consisting of shafts and
galleries for excavating the ore, and washing tables for extracting
the metal, may still be seen. Theophrastus wrote a separate work
On Mining,[6]
which like most of his writings is a lost work.

Pliny the
Elder makes clear references to his use of On Stones
in his Naturalis Historia of 77 AD, while updating
and making much new information available on minerals himself. Although
Pliny's treatment of the subject is more extensive, Theophrastus is
more systematic and his work is comparatively free from fable and
magic.[47] From
both these early texts was to emerge the science of mineralogy, and
ultimately geology. Pliny is
especially observant on crystal habit and mineral hardness for example.

Philosophy

How far Theophrastus attached himself to Aristotle's doctrines,
how he defined them more accurately, or conceived them in a
different form, and what additional structures of thought he placed
upon them, can be determined only partially due to the scantiness
of available statements.[41]

Logic

Theophrastus seems to have carried out still further the grammatical foundation of logic and rhetoric, since in his book on the elements of
speech, respecting what others
had written, he distinguished the main parts of speech from the
subordinate parts, and also direct expressions (kuria
lexis) from metaphorical expressions, and dealt with the
emotions (pathe) of speech.[48] He
further distinguished a twofold reference of speech
(schisis) to things (pragmata) and to the
hearers, and referred poetry
and rhetoric to the latter.[49]

Concerning judgment, he
wrote at length on its unity,[50] on
the different kinds of negation,[51] and
on the difference between unconditional and conditional
necessity.[52] In
his doctrine of syllogisms he brought forward the proof for
the conversion of universal affirmative judgments, differed from
Aristotle here and there in the laying down and arranging the
modi of the syllogisms,[53]
partly in the proof of them,[54]
partly in the doctrine of mixture, i.e. of the influence of the
modality of the premises upon the modality of the conclusion.[55] Then
in two separate works he dealt with the reduction of arguments to
the syllogistic form and on the resolution of them;[56] and
further, with hypothetical conclusions.[57] For
the doctrine of proof, Galen quotes the second
Analytic of Theophrastus, in conjunction with that of
Aristotle, as the best treatises on that doctrine.[58] In
different monographs he seems to have tried to expand
it into a general theory of science. To this too may have belonged the
proposition quoted from his Topics, that the
principles of opposites are themselves opposed, and cannot
be deduced from one and the same higher genus.[59] For
the rest, some minor deviations from the Aristotelian definitions
are quoted from the Topica of Theophrastus.[60]
Closely connected with this treatise was that upon ambiguous words
or ideas,[61]
which, without doubt, corresponded to book E of Aristotle's
Metaphysics.[41]

Physics
and metaphysics

Theophrastus introduced his Physics with the proof that all
natural existence, being corporeal and composite, requires
principles,[62] and
first and foremost, motion, as the basis of all change.[63]
Denying the substance of space,
he seems to have regarded it, in opposition to Aristotle, as the
mere arrangement and position (taxis and thesis)
of bodies.[64]Time he called an accident of motion,
without, it seems, viewing it, with Aristotle, as the numerical
determinant of motion.[65]

Aristotle

He departed more widely from Aristotle in his doctrine of
motion, since on the one hand he extended it over all categories, and did not limit it to those
laid down by Aristotle;[66] and
on the other hand, while he viewed motion, with Aristotle, as an
activity, not carrying its own goal in itself (ateles), of
that which only potentially exists,[67] and
therefore could not allow that the activity expended itself in
motion, he also recognised no activity without motion,[68] and
so referred all activities of the soul to motion: the desires and emotions
to corporeal motion, judgment (kriseis) and contemplation to
spiritual motion.[69] The
idea of a spirit entirely independent of organic activity, must
therefore have appeared to him very doubtful; yet he appears to
have contented himself with developing his doubts and difficulties
on the point, without positively rejecting it.[70] Other
Peripatetics, like Dicaearchus, Aristoxenus, and especially Strato,
developed further this sensualism in the Aristotelian doctrine.

Theophrastus seems, generally speaking, where the investigation
overstepped the limits of experience, to have shown more acuteness
in the development of difficulties than in the solution of them, as
is especially apparent in his Metaphysics.[41]
In a penetrating and unbiased conception of phenomena, in acuteness
of reflection and combination respecting them and within their
limits, in compass and certainty of experimental knowledge, he may
have stood near Aristotle, if he did not come quite up to him: the
incessant endeavour of his great master to refer phenomena to their
ultimate foundations, his greater insight in unfolding the internal
connections between the latter, and between them and phenomena,
were not possessed by Theophrastus.[41]
Hence even in antiquity it was a subject of complaint that
Theophrastus had not expressed himself with precision and
consistency respecting God, and had
understood it at one time as Heaven, at another an (enlivening) breath
(pneuma).[71]

Ethics

Theophrastus did not allow a happiness resting merely upon virtue,[72] or,
consequently, to hold fast by the unconditional value of morality, and had
subordinated moral requirements to the advantage at least of a friend,[73] and
had allowed in prosperity the existence of an influence injurious
to them. In later times, fault was found with his expression in the
Callisthenes, "life is ruled by fortune, not wisdom," (Latin: vitam regit fortuna non
sapientia).[74] That
in the definition of pleasure, likewise, he did not coincide with
Aristotle, seems to be indicated by the titles of two of his
writings, one of which dealt with pleasure generally, the other
with pleasure as Aristotle had defined it;[6]
and although, like his teacher, he preferred contemplative
(theoretical), to active (practical) life,[75] he
was at the same time disposed to set the latter free from the
restraints of family life, etc. in a manner of which Aristotle
would not have approved.[76]

The bust inscribed "Theophrastos Melanta Eresios"

Theophrastus was opposed to eating meat on the grounds that it robbed animals of life
and was therefore unjust. Non-human animals, he said, can reason,
sense, and feel just as human beings do.[77]

The "portrait" of
Theophrastus

The marble herm figure with
the bearded head of philosopher type, bearing the explicit
inscription must be taken as purely conventional. Unidentified
portrait heads did not find a ready market in post-Renaissance
Rome.[78] This
bust was formerly in the collection of marchese Pietro Massimi at
Palazzo Massimi, and belonged to marchese L. Massimi at the time
the engraving was made. It is now in the Villa Albani, Rome
(inv. 1034). The inscribed bust has often been illustrated in
engravings[79] and
photographs: a photograph of it forms the frontispiece to the Loeb
Classical LibraryTheophrastus: Enquiry into Plants
vol. I, 1916. André Thevet illustrated[80] in
his iconographic compendium, Les vraies Pourtrats et vies des
Hommes Illustres (Paris, 1584), an alleged portrait
plagiarized from the bust, supporting his fraud with the invented
tale that he had obtained it from the library of a Greek in Cyprus
and that he had seen a confirming bust in the ruins of Antioch.[81]

^
Diogenes Laërtius, v. 38: "Aristippus in the fourth book of his
treatise On Ancient Luxury asserts that he was enamoured
of Aristotle's son Nicomachus" - Robert Drew Hicks translation. Cf.
Suda, Nikomakhos, Theophrastos.

^
"It may we be that we owe to Theophrastus the publication of some
at least of his master's voluminous works." (Hort)

^
Diogenes Laërtius, v. 40; "He is made indeed to say in the probably
spurious Preface to the Characters that he is writing in
his ninety-ninth year; while St. Jerome's Chronicle asserts that he lived to the
age of 107" (Hort)

Theophrastus (Greek: Θεόφραστος; c. 371 – c. 287 BC[1]), a Greek native of Eresos in Lesbos, was the successor of Aristotle in the Peripatetic school. He came to Athens at a young age, and initially studied in Plato's school. After Plato's death he attached himself to Aristotle. Aristotle bequeathed to Theophrastus his writings, and designated him as his successor at the Lyceum. Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for thirty-six years, during which time, the school flourished greatly. After his death, the Athenians honoured him with a public funeral. His successor as head of the school was Strato of Lampsacus.

The interests of Theophrastus were wide-ranging, extending from biology and physics to ethics and metaphysics. His two surviving botanical works, Enquiry into Plants[2] and On the Causes of Plants, were an important influence on medievalscience. There are also surviving works On Moral Characters, On Sensation, On Stones, and fragments on Physics and Metaphysics all written in Greek. In philosophy, he studied grammar and language, and continued Aristotle's work on logic. He also regarded space as the mere arrangement and position of bodies, time as an accident of motion, and motion as a necessary consequence of all activity. In ethics, he regarded happiness as depending on external influences as well as on virtue, and famously said that "life is ruled by fortune, not wisdom."

Life

Most of the biographical information we have of Theophrastus was provided by Diogenes Laërtius' Lives of the Philosophers, written more than four hundred years after Theophrastus' time.[3]. He was a native of Eresos in Lesbos.[4] His given name was Tyrtamus (Greek: Τύρταμος), but he later became known by the nickname "Theophrastus", given to him, it is said, by Aristotle to indicate the grace of his conversation (ancient Greek: Θεός = God and φράζειν = to phrase i.e. divine expression).[5]

, Theophrastus, and Strato of Lampsacus. Part of a fresco in the National University of Athens]]
After receiving instruction in philosophy in Lesbos from one Alcippus, he moved to Athens, where he may have studied under Plato.[6] He became friends with Aristotle, and when Plato died (348/7 BC) Theophrastus may have joined Aristotle in his self-imposed exile from Athens. When Aristotle moved to Mytilene on Lesbos in 345/4, it is very likely that he did so at the urging of Theophrastus.[7] It seems that it was on Lesbos that Aristotle and Theophrastus began their research into natural science, with Aristotle studying animals and Theophrastus studying plants.[8] Theophrastus probably accompanied Aristotle to Macedonia when Aristotle was appointed tutor to Alexander the Great in 343/2.[7] Around 335 BC, Theophrastus moved with Aristotle to Athens where Aristotle began teaching in the Lyceum. When, after the death of Alexander, anti-Macedonian feeling forced Aristotle to leave Athens, Theophrastus remained behind as head (scholarch) of the peripatetic school,[7] a position he continued to hold after Aristotle's death in 322/1.

Aristotle in his will made him guardian of his children, including Nicomachus with whom he was close.[9] Aristotle likewise bequeathed to him his library and the originals of his works,[10] and designated him as his successor at the Lyceum.[11]Eudemus of Rhodes also had some claims to this position, and Aristoxenus is said to have resented Aristotle's choice.[12]

Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for thirty-five years,[13] and died at the age of eighty-five according to Diogenes.[14] He is said to have remarked "we die just when we are beginning to live".[15]

Under his guidance the school flourished greatly— there were at one period more than 2000 students, Diogenes affirms,[16] and at his death, according to the terms of his will preserved by Diogenes, he bequeathed to it his garden with house and colonnades as a permanent seat of instruction. The comic poet Menander was among his pupils.[16] His popularity was shown in the regard paid to him by Philip, Cassander and Ptolemy, and by the complete failure of a charge of impiety brought against him.[17] He was honored with a public funeral, and "the whole population of Athens, honouring him greatly, followed him to the grave."[18] He was succeeded as head of the Lyceum by Strato of Lampsacus.

Writings

From the lists of Diogenes Laërtius, giving 227 titles, it appears that the activity of Theophrastus extended over the whole field of contemporary knowledge.[12] His writing probably differed little from Aristotle's treatment of the same themes, though supplementary in details. Like Aristotle, most of his writings are lost works.[12]

Thus Theophrastus, like Aristotle, had composed a first and second Analytic.[19] He had also written books on Topics;[20] on the refutation of fallacies;[21] as well as books on the Principles of Natural Philosophy (Physica Auscultatio), on Heaven, and on Meteorological Phenomena.[22] The work of Theophrastus On Affirmation and Denial seems to have corresponded to that of Aristotle's On Judgment.
)]]
In addition, he wrote on the Warm and the Cold,[23] on Water, Fire,[24]the Sea,[24] on Coagulation and Melting, on various phenomena of organic and spiritual life,[24] and on the Soul and Sensuous Perception.[25] Likewise we find mention of monographs of Theophrastus on the early Greek philosophers Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, Empedocles, Archelaus,[26]Diogenes of Apollonia, Democritus,[27] which were made use of by Simplicius; and also on Xenocrates,[28] against the Academics,[29] and a sketch of the political doctrine of Plato.[27] That he studied general history, as we see from the quotations in Plutarch's lives of Lycurgus, Solon, Aristides, Pericles, Nicias, Alcibiades, Lysander, Agesilaus, and Demosthenes, which were probably borrowed from the work on Lives.[19] But his main efforts were to continue the labours of Aristotle in natural history. This is testified not only by a number of treatises on individual subjects of zoology, of which, besides the titles, only fragments remain, but also by his books on Stones, his Enquiry into Plants, and On the Causes of Plants, which have come down to us entire. In politics, also, he seems to have trodden in the footsteps of Aristotle. Besides his books on the State, we find quoted various treatises on Education,[30] on Royalty,[31] on the Best State, on Political Morals, and particularly his works on the Laws, one of which, containing a recapitulation of the laws of various barbarian as well as Greek states,[23] was intended to be a companion to Aristotle's outline of Politics, and must have been similar to it.[32] He also wrote on oratory and poetry.[33] Theophrastus, without doubt, departed further from Aristotle in his ethical writings,[34] as also in his metaphysical investigations respecting motion, the soul, and God.[35]

Besides these writings, Theophrastus was the author of several collections of problems, out of which some things at least have passed into the Problems which have come down to us under the name of Aristotle,[36] and commentaries,[37] partly dialogues,[38] to which probably belonged the Erotikos,[39]Megacles,[28]Callisthenes,[40] and Megarikos,[23] and letters,[41] partly books on mathematical sciences and their history.[42]

Many of his works which we do have, exist only in fragmentary form. "The style of these works, as of the botanical books, suggests that, as in the case of Aristotle, what we possess consists of notes for lectures or notes taken of lectures," his translator Arthur Hort remarks.[2] "There is no literary charm; the sentences are mostly compressed and highly elliptical, to the point sometimes of obscurity.[2] The text of these fragments and extracts is often so corrupt that there is a certain plausibility to the well-known story that the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus were allowed to languish in the cellar of Neleus of Scepsis and his descendents.[43]

On Plants

ready for harvest]]

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The most important of his books are two large botanical treatises, Enquiry into Plants, and On the Causes of Plants, which constitute the most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and the Middle Ages,[12] the first systemization of the botanical world; on the strength of these works some call him the "father of botany."[8]

The Enquiry into Plants was originally ten books, of which nine survive. The work is arranged into a system whereby plants are classified according to their modes of generation, their localities, their sizes, and according to their practical uses such as foods, juices, herbs, etc.[44] The first book deals with the parts of plants; the second book with the reproduction of plants and the times and manner of sowing; the third, fourth and fifth books are devoted to trees, their types, their locations, and their practical applications; the sixth book deals with shrubs and spiny plants; the seventh book deals with herbs; the eighth book deals with plants which produce edible seeds; and the ninth book deals with plants which produce useful juices, gums, resins, etc.[44], from Köhler's Medicinal Plants, (1887)]]
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On the Causes of Plants was originally eight books, of which six survive. It concerns the growth of plants; the influences on their fecundity; the proper times they should be sown and reaped; the methods of preparing the soil, manuring it, and the use of tools; of the smells, tastes, and properties of many types of plants.[44] The work deals mainly with the economical uses of plants rather than their medicinal uses, although the latter is sometimes mentioned.[44]

Although these works contain many absurd and fabulous statements, as a whole they have many valuable observations concerning the functions and properties of plants.[44] Theophrastus detected the process of germination and realized the importance of climate and soil to plants. Much of the information on the Greek plants may have come from his own observations, as he is known to have travelled throughout Greece, and to have had a botanical garden of his own; but the works also profit from the reports on plants of Asia brought back from those who followed Alexander the Great:

Theophrastus' Enquiry into Plants was first published in a Latin translation by Theodore Gaza, at Treviso, 1483;[45] in its original Greek it first appeared from the press of Aldus Manutius at Venice, 1495–98, from a third-rate manuscript, which, like the majority of the manuscripts that were sent to printers' workshops in the fifteenth and sixteenth century, has disappeared.[46]Wimmer identified two manuscripts of first quality, the Codex Urbinas in the Vatican Library, which was not made known to J. G. Schneider, who made the first modern critical edition, 1818–21, and the excerpts in the Codex Parisiensis in the Bibliothèque nationale de France.

The Characters

His book The Characters, if it is indeed his, deserves a separate mention. The work contains thirty brief, vigorous and trenchant outlines of moral types, which form a most valuable picture of the life of his time, and in fact of human nature in general.[12] They are the first recorded attempt at systematic character writing. The book has been regarded by some as an independent work; others incline to the view that the sketches were written from time to time by Theophrastus, and collected and edited after his death; others, again, regard the Characters as part of a larger systematic work, but the style of the book is against this.[12] Theophrastus has found many imitators in this kind of writing, notably Joseph Hall (1608), Sir Thomas Overbury (1614–16), Bishop Earle (1628) and Jean de La Bruyère (1688), who also translated the Characters.[12]George Eliot also took inspiration from Theophrastus' Characters, most notably in her book of caricatures, Impressions of Theophrastus Such. Writing the "character sketch" as a scholastic exercise also originated in Theophrastus's typology.

On Sensation

A treatise On Sense Perception and its objects is important for a knowledge of the doctrines of the more ancient Greek philosophers regarding the subject. A paraphrase and commentary on this work was written by Priscian of Lydia in the 6th century.[44] With this type of work we may connect the fragments on Smells, on Fatigue, on Dizziness, on Sweat, on Swooning, on Palsy, and on Honey.[43]

Physics

We also possess in fragments a History of Physics. To this class of work belong the still extant sections on Fire, on the Winds, and on the signs of Waters, Winds, and Storms.[47]
Various smaller scientific fragments have been collected in the editions of Johann Gottlob Schneider (1818–21) and Friedrich Wimmer (1842—62) and in Hermann Usener's Analecta Theophrastea.

Metaphysics

The Metaphysics (nine chapters) was considered a fragment of a larger work by Usener in his edition (Theophrastos Metaphysica, Bonn, 1890) but according Ross and Fobes in their edition (Theophrastus Metaphysica, Oxford, 1929) the treatise is complete (p. X) and this opinion is now widely accepted. There is no reason for assigning this work to some other author because it is not noticed in Hermippus and Andronicus, especially as Nicolaus of Damascus had already mentioned it.[43]

On Stones

We possess a treatise On Stones, in which Theophrastus classified rocks based on their behavior when heated, further grouping minerals by common properties, such as amber and magnetite which both have the power of attraction.[48] He also comments on the effect of heat on minerals, and their different hardnesses.

He knew that pearls came from shell-fish, that coral came from India and speaks of the fossilized remains of organic life.[48] Theophrastus made the first known reference to the phenomenon of pyroelectricity, noting that the mineral tourmaline becomes charged when heated. He also considers the practical uses of various stones, such as the minerals necessary for the manufacture of glass; for the production of various pigments of paint such as ochre; and for the manufacture of plaster.[48] He discusses the use of the touchstone for assaying gold and gold alloys, an important property which would require the genius of Archimedes to resolve in quantitative detail when he was asked to investigate the suspected debasement of a crown a few years later.

crystal.]]

Many of the rarer minerals were found in mines, and he mentions the famous copper mines of Cyprus and the even more famous silver mines, presumably of Laurium near Athens, and upon which the wealth of the city was based, as well as referring to gold mines. The Laurium silver mines, which were the property of the state, were usually leased for a fixed sum and a percentage on the working. Towards the end of the 5th century the output fell, partly owing to the Spartan occupation of Decelea. But the mines continued to be worked, though Strabo records that in his time the tailings were being worked over, and Pausanias speaks of the mines as a thing of the past. The ancient workings, consisting of shafts and galleries for excavating the ore, and washing tables for extracting the metal, may still be seen. Theophrastus wrote a separate work On Mining,[23] which like most of his writings is a lost work.

Pliny the Elder makes clear references to his use of On Stones in his Naturalis Historia of 77 AD, while updating and making much new information available on minerals himself. Although Pliny's treatment of the subject is more extensive, Theophrastus is more systematic and his work is comparatively free from fable and magic.[49] From both these early texts was to emerge the science of mineralogy, and ultimately geology. Pliny is especially observant on crystal habit and mineral hardness for example.

Philosophy

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The extent to which Theophrastus followed Aristotle's doctrines, or defined them more accurately, or conceived them in a different form, and what additional structures of thought he placed upon them, can only be partially determined because of the loss of so many of his writings.[43] Many of his opinions have to be reconstructed from the works of later writers such as Alexander of Aphrodisias and Simplicius.

Logic

Theophrastus seems to have carried out still further the grammatical foundation of logic and rhetoric, since in his book on the elements of speech, he distinguished the main parts of speech from the subordinate parts, and also direct expressions (kuria lexis) from metaphorical expressions, and dealt with the emotions (pathe) of speech.[50] He further distinguished a twofold reference of speech (schisis) to things (pragmata) and to the hearers, and referred poetry and rhetoric to the latter.[51]

He wrote at length on the unity of judgment,[52] on the different kinds of negation,[53] and on the difference between unconditional and conditional necessity.[54] In his doctrine of syllogisms he brought forward the proof for the conversion of universal affirmative judgments, differed from Aristotle here and there in the laying down and arranging the modi of the syllogisms,[55] partly in the proof of them,[56] partly in the doctrine of mixture, i.e. of the influence of the modality of the premises upon the modality of the conclusion.[57] Then in two separate works he dealt with the reduction of arguments to the syllogistic form and on the resolution of them;[58] and further, with hypothetical conclusions.[59] For the doctrine of proof, Galen quotes the second Analytic of Theophrastus, in conjunction with that of Aristotle, as the best treatises on that doctrine.[60] In different monographs he seems to have tried to expand it into a general theory of science. To this too may have belonged the proposition quoted from his Topics, that the principles of opposites are themselves opposed, and cannot be deduced from one and the same higher genus.[61] For the rest, some minor deviations from the Aristotelian definitions are quoted from the Topica of Theophrastus.[62] Closely connected with this treatise was that upon ambiguous words or ideas,[63] which, without doubt, corresponded to book E of Aristotle's Metaphysics.[43]

Physics and metaphysics

Theophrastus introduced his Physics with the proof that all natural existence, being corporeal and composite, requires principles,[64] and first and foremost, motion, as the basis of all change.[65] Denying the substance of space, he seems to have regarded it, in opposition to Aristotle, as the mere arrangement and position (taxis and thesis) of bodies.[66]Time he called an accident of motion, without, it seems, viewing it, with Aristotle, as the numerical determinant of motion.[67] He attacked the doctrine of the four classical elements and challenged whether fire could be called a primary element when it appears to be compound, requiring, as it does, another material for its own nutriment.[68]

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He departed more widely from Aristotle in his doctrine of motion, since on the one hand he extended it over all categories, and did not limit it to those laid down by Aristotle.[69] He viewed motion, with Aristotle, as an activity, not carrying its own goal in itself (ateles), of that which only potentially exists,[70] but he opposed Aristotle's view that motion required a special explanation, and he regarded it as something proper both to nature in general and the celestial system in particular:

Surely, then, if the life in animals does not need explanation or is to be explained only in this way, may it not be the case that in the heavens too, and in the heavenly bodies, movement does not need explanation or is to be explained in a special way?

—Theophrastus, Metaphysics, 10a.16-29

He recognised no activity without motion,[71] and so referred all activities of the soul to motion: the desires and emotions to corporeal motion, judgment (kriseis) and contemplation to spiritual motion.[72] The idea of a spirit entirely independent of organic activity, must therefore have appeared to him very doubtful; yet he appears to have contented himself with developing his doubts and difficulties on the point, without positively rejecting it.[73] Other Peripatetics, like Dicaearchus, Aristoxenus, and especially Strato, developed further this naturalism in Aristotelian doctrine.

Theophrastus seems, generally speaking, where the investigation overstepped the limits of experience, to have preferred to develop the difficulties rather than solve them, as is especially apparent in his Metaphysics.[43] He was doubtful of Aristotle's teleology and recommended that such ideas be used with caution:

With regard to the view that all things are for the sake of an end and nothing is in vain, the assignation of ends is in general not easy, as it is usually stated to be ... we must set certain limits to purposiveness and to the effort after the best, and not assert it to exist in all cases without qualification.

—Theophrastus, Metaphysics, 10a.22-24, 11a.1-3

He did not follow the incessant attempts by Aristotle to refer phenomena to their ultimate foundations, or his attempts to unfold the internal connections between the latter, and between them and phenomena.[43] In antiquity, it was a subject of complaint that Theophrastus had not expressed himself with precision and consistency respecting God, and had understood it at one time as Heaven, at another an (enlivening) breath (pneuma).[74]

Ethics

Theophrastus did not allow a happiness resting merely upon virtue,[75] or, consequently, to hold fast by the unconditional value of morality. He subordinated moral requirements to the advantage at least of a friend,[76] and had allowed in prosperity the existence of an influence injurious to them. In later times, fault was found with his expression in the Callisthenes, "life is ruled by fortune, not wisdom," (Latin: vitam regit fortuna non sapientia).[77] That in the definition of pleasure, likewise, he did not coincide with Aristotle, seems to be indicated by the titles of two of his writings, one of which dealt with pleasure generally, the other with pleasure as Aristotle had defined it.[23] Although, like his teacher, he preferred contemplative (theoretical), to active (practical) life,[78] he preferred to set the latter free from the restraints of family life, etc. in a manner of which Aristotle would not have approved.[79]
[[File:|thumb|upright|200px|The bust inscribed "Theophrastos Melanta Eresios"]]
Theophrastus was opposed to eating meat on the grounds that it robbed animals of life and was therefore unjust. Non-human animals, he said, can reason, sense, and feel just as human beings do.[80]

The "portrait" of Theophrastus

The marble herm figure with the bearded head of philosopher type, bearing the explicit inscription must be taken as purely conventional. Unidentified portrait heads did not find a ready market in post-Renaissance Rome.[81] This bust was formerly in the collection of marchese Pietro Massimi at Palazzo Massimi, and belonged to marchese L. Massimi at the time the engraving was made. It is now in the Villa Albani, Rome (inv. 1034). The inscribed bust has often been illustrated in engravings[82] and photographs: a photograph of it forms the frontispiece to the Loeb Classical LibraryTheophrastus: Enquiry into Plants vol. I, 1916. André Thevet illustrated[83] in his iconographic compendium, Les vraies Pourtrats et vies des Hommes Illustres (Paris, 1584), an alleged portrait plagiarized from the bust, supporting his fraud with the invented tale that he had obtained it from the library of a Greek in Cyprus and that he had seen a confirming bust in the ruins of Antioch.[84]

^ "Theophrastus is said to have studied first at Eresus under Alcippus, then at Athens under Plato. The latter report is problematic." "Theophrastus" entry in the Encyclopedia of classical philosophy (1997), page 552. Greenwood

^ Diogenes Laërtius, v. 38: "Aristippus in the fourth book of his treatise On Ancient Luxury asserts that he was enamoured of Aristotle's son Nicomachus" - Robert Drew Hicks translation. Cf. Suda, Nikomakhos, Theophrastos.

^ "It may we be that we owe to Theophrastus the publication of some at least of his master's voluminous works." (Hort)

^ Diogenes Laërtius, v. 40; "He is made indeed to say in the probably spurious Preface to the Characters that he is writing in his ninety-ninth year; while St. Jerome's Chronicle asserts that he lived to the age of 107" (Hort)

Sourced

The Unseasonable man is one who will go up to a busy person,
and open his heart to him. He will serenade his mistress when she
has a fever. He will address himself to a man who has been cast in
a surety-suit, and request him to become his security. He will come
to give evidence when the trial is over.