Great Wall of ChinaChinese (Pinyin) Wanli Changcheng, or (Wade-Giles romanization) Wan-li Ch’ang-ch’eng , or (Pinyin) Wanli Changcheng (“10,000 Li Long Wall”), extensive bulwark erected in ancient China. It is one of the largest building-construction projects ever carried out, running (with all its branches) about 4,500 miles (7,300 km) east to west from Shan-hai Shanhai Pass near Po the Bo Hai (Gulf of Chihli) to Chia-yü Jiayu Pass (in modern Kansu Gansu province). Without its branches and other secondary sections, the wall extends for some 4,160 miles (6,700 km), often tracing the crestlines of hills and mountains as it snakes across the Chinese countryside. Large parts of the fortification date from the 7th through the 4th century BC. In the 3rd century BCShih huang-tiShihuangdi (Qin Shihuang), the first emperor of a united China (under the Qin dynasty), connected a number of existing defensive walls into a single system. Although lengthy sections of the wall are now in ruins or have disappeared completely, it is still one of the more remarkable structures on earth. The Great Wall was added to the designated a UNESCO World Heritage List site in 1987.

History of construction

The Great Wall developed from the disparate border fortifications and castles of individual Chinese kingdoms. For several centuries these kingdoms probably were as concerned with protection from their near neighbours as they were with the threat of “barbarian” invasions or raids.

Early building

About the 7th century BC the state of Ch’u Chu started to construct a permanent defensive system. Known as the “Square Wall,” this fortification was situated in the northern part of the kingdom’s capital province. From the 6th to the 4th century other states followed Ch’u’s Chu’s example. In the southern part of the Ch’i Qi state an extensive perimeter wall was gradually created using existing river dikes, newly constructed bulwarks, and areas of impassable mountain terrain. The Ch’i Qi wall was made mainly of earth and stone and terminated at the shores of the Yellow Sea. In the Chong-shan Zhongshan state a wall system was built to thwart invasion from the states of Chao Zhao and Ch’in Qin in the southwest. There were two defensive lines in the Wei state: the Ho-hsi Hexi (“West of the [YangtzeYellow] River”) and Ho-nan Henan (“South of the River”) walls. The Ho-hsi Hexi Wall was a fortification against the Ch’in Qin state and western nomads. Built during the reign of King Hui (370–335 BC), it was expanded from the dikes on the Luo River on the western border. It started in the south near Hsiang-yüan Xiangyuan Cave, east of Mount Hua, and ended at Ku-yang Guyang in what is now the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. Ho-nan Henan Wall, built to protect Ta-liang Daliang (the capital, now Kaifeng), was repaired and extended in King Hui’s later years. The Cheng Zheng state also built a wall system, which was rebuilt by the Han state after it conquered ChengZheng. The state of Chao Zhao completed a southern wall and a northern wall; its Ch’ang-fu (“Southern Wall”) the southern wall was built mainly as a defense against the Wei state.

After administrative reorganization was carried out by Shang Yang (d. (died 338 BC ) ) the Ch’in Qin state grew politically and militarily to become the strongest among the seven states, but it was frequently raided by the Tung-hu and Lou-fanDonghu and Loufan, two nomadic peoples from the north. Therefore, the Ch’in Qin erected a wall that started from Lin-t’iaoLintiao, went north along the Liu-p’an Liupan Mountains, and ended at the Huang Ho He (Yellow River).

In the Yen Yan state two separate defensive lines were prepared—the Northern Wall and the Yi-shui Yishui Wall—in an effort to defend the kingdom from attacks by such northern groups such as the Tung-hu, Lin-huDonghu, Linhu, and Lou-fanLoufan, as well as by the Ch’i Qi state in the south. The Yi-shui Yishui Wall was expanded from the dike of the Yi River as a defense line against Ch’i Qi and ChaoZhao, its two main rival states. It began southwest of Yi City, the capital, and ended south of Wen-anWen’an. In 290 BC the Yen Yan state built the Northern Wall along the Yen Yan Mountains, starting from the northeast in the area of Chang-chia-k’ou in HopehZhangjiakou in Hebei, passing over the Liao River, and extending to the ancient city of Hsiang-p’ing Xiangping (modern Liao-yangLiaoyang). This was the last segment in of the Great Wall to be erected during the Zhanguo (Warring States) period.

In 221 BCShih huang-tiShihuangdi, the first Ch’in Qin emperor, completed his annexation of Ch’i Qi and thus unified China. He ordered removal of the fortifications set up between the previous states because they served only as obstacles to internal movements and administration. In addition, he sent General Gen. Meng T’ien Tian to garrison the northern border against incursions of the nomadic Hsiung-nu Xiongnu and to link the existing wall segments in Ch’inQin, YenYan, and Chao Zhao into the so-called “10,000 Li Long Wall” (2 li equal approximately 0.6 mile [1 km]). This period of construction began about 214 BC and lasted a decade. Hundreds of thousands of soldiers and conscripted workers laboured on the project. With the fall of the Ch’in Qin dynasty after Shih huang-ti’s Shihuangdi’s death, however, the wall was left largely ungarrisoned and fell into disrepair.

The Han through Yüan Yuan dynasties

During the reign of the Han emperor Wu-ti (141/140–87/86 Wudi (141–87 BC) the wall was strengthened as part of an overall campaign against the Hsiung-nuXiongnu. From that period the Great Wall also contributed to the exploitation of farmland in northern and western China and to the growth of the trade route that came to be known as the Silk Road. In 121 BC a 20-year project of construction was started on the Ho-hsi Hexi Wall (generally known as the Side Wall) between Shui-teng Yongdeng (now in KansuGansu) in the east and Lake Luo-pu Lop Nur (now in SinkiangXinjiang) in the west. According to Chü-yen Han chien (“Chü-yen Juyan Hanjian (“Juyan Correspondence of the Han”), the strongpoints set up along the wall included “a beacon every 5 li, a tower every 10 li, a fort every 30 li, and a castle every 100 li.”

The main work on the wall during the Dong (Eastern(Tung) Han period (AD 25–220) took place during the reign of Liu Hsiu (Kuang-wu tiXiu (Guangwudi), who in 38 ordered the repair of four parallel lines of the Great Wall in the area south of the Ho-hsi Hexi Wall. The Great Wall served not only for defense but also for the centralized to centralize control of trade and travel.

The Great Wall in the Northern Wei kingdom During the Bei (Northern) Wei dynasty (AD 386–534/535), the Great Wall was repaired and extended as a defense against attacks from the JouJuan-jan juan and Ch’i-tan Khitan tribes in the north. According to Wei shu: Ming-yuan ti chiMingyuandi Ji(“History of Wei: Chronicle of Emperor Ming-yuan”Mingyuan”), in 417, the eighth year of the reign of Ming-yuan Mingyuandi (423409–423), a part of the Great Wall was built south of Ch’ang-shuanChangchuan, from Chi city Chicheng (now in HopehHebei) to Wu-yüan Wuyuan (now in Inner Mongolia) in the west, extending more than 620 miles (1,000 km). During the reign of T’ai-wu Taiwudi (423–452), a lower and thinner wall of rammed earth was built around the capital as a complement to the Great Wall. Starting from Kuang-ling Guangling in the east, it extended to the eastern side of the Huang HoHe, forming a circle around Ta-t’ungDatong. In 549, after the Eastern Wei kingdom moved its capital east to YehYe, it also built a segment of the Great Wall in the area of contemporary Shansi Shanxi province.

In order to strengthen its northern frontier and prevent invasion from the west by the Northern ChouZhou, the Bei (NorthernCh’i ) Qi kingdom (550–577) launched several big construction projects that were nearly as extensive in scope as the building projects of the Ch’in Qin dynasty. In 552 a segment was built on the northwestern border, and only three years later the emperor ordered the recruitment of 1.8 million workers to repair and extend other sections. The construction took place between the south entrance of Chü-yung Juyong Pass (near modern PekingBeijing) and Ta-t’ung Datong (in ShansiShanxi). In 556 a new fortification was set up in the east and extended to the Yellow Sea. The following year a second wall was built inside the Great Wall within modern ShansiShanxi, beginning in the vicinity of Lao-ying Laoying east of P’ien-kuanPianguan, extending to the east beyond Yen-men Yanmen Pass and P’ing-hsing Pingxing Pass, and ending in the area around Hsia-kuanXiaguan in Shanxi. In 563 the emperor Wu-ch’eng Wuchengdi of the Northern Ch’i Bei Qi had a segment repaired along the T’ai-hang Taihang Mountains. That is the part of the Great Wall found today in the area around Lung-kuan, Kuang-ch’angLongguan, Guangchang, and Fu-p’ing Fuping (in Shansi Shanxi and HopehHebei). In 565 the inner wall built in 557 was repaired, and a new wall was added that started in the vicinity of Hsia-kuanXiaguan, extended to the Chü-yung Juyong Pass in the east, and then joined to the outer wall. The segments repaired and added during the Northern Ch’i Bei Qi period totaled some 900 miles (1,500 km), and towns and barracks were established at periodic intervals to garrison the new sections. In 579, in order to prevent invasions of the Bei (NorthernChou ) Zhou kingdom by the T’u-chüeh Tujue (a group of eastern Turks) and the Ch’i-tanKhitan, the emperor Ching Jing started a massive rebuilding program on areas of the wall located in the former Northern Ch’i Bei Qi kingdom, starting at Yen-men Yanmen in the west and ending at E-shi Jieshi in the east.

During the Sui dynasty (581–618) the Great Wall was repaired and improved seven times in an effort to defend the country against attacks from the T’u-chüehTujue. After the T’ang Tang dynasty (618–907) replaced the Sui, the country grew much stronger militarily, defeating the T’u-chüeh Tujue in the north and expanding beyond the original frontier. Thus, the Great Wall gradually lost its significance as a fortification, and there was no need for repairs or additions. In During the Sung Song dynasty (960–1279), however, the Liao and Chin Jin peoples in the north were a constant threat. The Sung kingdom was Song rulers were forced to withdraw to the south of the lines of the Great Wall of built by the Ch’inQin, Han, and Northern dynasties. Many areas on both sides of the wall were subsequently taken over by the Liao (Khitan) dynasty (907–1125) and the Chin (Juchen) dynasty (Jin dynasties (1115–1234). When Sung sovereignty had fallen back the Song rulers had to retreat even farther—to the south of the Yangtze River—repairs to River (Chang Jiang)—repairs to the wall or extensions of the wall it were no longer feasible. Limited repairs were carried out on one occasion once (1056) during the Liao dynasty times but only in the area between the Ya-tzo and Hun-t’ung Yazi and Huntong rivers.

In 1115, after the Chin Jin dynasty was established, work was performed on two defensive lines at Ming-ch’angMingchang. The old wall there—previously called the Wu-shuWushu Wall, or Chin-yüan Fort, Wall—ran Jinyuan Fort—ran westward from a point north of Wu-lan-ha-taWulanhada, then wound through the Hai-la-t’u Hailatu Mountains, turning to the north and then to the west again, finally ending at the Nuan-shui Nuanshui River. The second of the lines was the new Ming-ch’ang Mingchang Wall, also called the Inner Chin Jin Wall or the Chin Jin Trench, which was constructed south of the old wall. It started in the west from a bend in the Huang Ho He and ended at the Sungari (Songhua) River.

During the Yüan Yuan (Mongol) dynasty (1206–1368), the Mongols controlled all of China, as well as other parts of Asia and sections of Europe. As a defense construction defensive structure the Great Wall was of little significance to them; however, some forts and key areas were repaired and garrisoned in order to control commerce and to limit the threat of rebellions from the Chinese (Han) and other nationalities.

The Ming dynasty to the present

In its 276 years of sovereignty Rulers during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) ceaselessly maintained and strengthened the Great Wall to prevent another Mongolian invasion. The majority of the work took place along the old walls built by the Northern Ch’i Bei Qi and Northern Bei Wei.

Most of the Great Wall that stands today is the result of work done during the reign of Hung-chih the Hongzhi emperor (1487–1505). Starting west of Chü-yung Juyong Pass, this part of the wall was split into south and north lines, respectively named the Inner and Outer walls. Along the wall were many strategic “passes” (i.e., fortresses) and gates. Among them were Chü-yung, Tao-maJuyong, Daoma, and Tzu-ching Zijing passes, the three closest to the Ming capital PekingBeijing. Together they were referred to as the Three Inner Passes. Farther west were Yen-men, Ning-wuYanmen, Ningwu, and P’ien-t’o Piantou passes, known as the Three Outer Passes. Both the Inner and Outer passes were of key importance in protecting the capital and were usually heavily garrisoned.

After the Ch’ing Qing (Manchu) dynasty (1644–1911/12) replaced the Ming, there was a change in ruling strategy called huai-jouhuairou(“mollification”), wherein the Ch’ing Qing tried to bring pacify the leaders and peoples of Mongolia, Tibet, and other nationalities under control through religious conversionby not interfering with local social, cultural, or religious life. Because of the success of that strategy, the Great Wall was repaired less frequently, and it gradually fell into ruin.

Design of the fortifications

The Great Wall had three major components: passes, signal towers (beacons), and walls.

Passes

Passes were major strongholds along the wall, usually located at such key positions as intersections with trade routes. The ramparts of many passes were faced with huge bricks and stones, with dirt and crushed stones as filler. The bastions measured some 30 feet (10 metres) high and 13 to 16 feet (4 to 5 metres) wide at the top. Within each pass were access ramps for horses and ladders for soldiers. The outside parapet was crenellated, and the inside parapet, or yü-ch’iang (nu-ch’iangyuqiang (nüqiang), was a low wall about 3 feet (1 metre) high that prevented people and horses from falling off the top. In addition to serving as an access point for merchants and other civilians, the gate within the pass was used as an exit for the garrison to counterattack raiders or to send out patrols. Under the gate arch there was typically a huge double door of wood. Bolts and locker rings were set in the inner panel of each door. On top of each gate there was a gate tower that served as a watchtower and command post. Usually it stood one to three stories (levels) high and was constructed either of wood or of bricks and wood. Built outside the gate, where an enemy was most likely to attack, was a weng-ch’engwengcheng, a semicircular or polygonal parapet that shielded the gate from direct assault. Extending beyond the most strategic weng-ch’engwengchengs was an additional line of protection, the luo-ch’engluocheng, which was often topped by a tower used to watch those beyond the wall and to direct troop movements in battles waged there. Around the gate entrance there was often a moat that was formed in the process of digging earth to build the fortifications.

Signal towers

Signal towers were also called beacons, beacon terraces, smoke mounds, mounds, or kiosks. They were used to send military communicationsby : beacon (fires or lanterns) during the night or by smoke signals in the daytime; other methods such as raising banners, beating clappers, or firing guns were also used. Signal towers, often built on hilltops for maximum visibility, were self-contained high platforms , or towers. The lower levels contained rooms for soldiers, as well as stables, sheepfolds, and storage areas.

Walls

The body of the wall itself was the key part of the defensive system. It usually stood 21.3 feet (6.5 metres) wide at the base and 19 feet (5.8 metres) at the top, with an average height of 23 to 26 feet (7 to 8 metres), or a bit lower on steep hills. The structure of the wall varied from place to place, depending on the availability of building materials. Walls were made of tamped earth sandwiched between wooden boards, adobe bricks, a brick and stone mixture, rocks, or pilings and planks. Some sections made use of existing river dikes; others used rugged mountain terrain such as cliffs and gorges to take the place of man-made structures.

In the western deserts the walls were often simple structures of rammed earth and adobe; many eastern ramparts, such as those near Pa-ta-lingBadaling, were faced with stone and included a number of secondary structures and devices. On the inner side of such walls, placed at small intervals, were arched doors called chüan doorsjuan, which were made of bricks or stones. Inside each chüanjuanwere stone or brick steps leading to the top of the battlement. On the top, on the side facing the enemyoutward, stood 7-foot- (2-metre-) high crenels called to-k’ouduokou. On the upper part of theto-k’ouduokouwere large openings used to watch and shoot at attackers, and on the lower part were small openings, or loopholes, through which defenders could also shoot. At an interval intervals of every about 650 to 980 1,000 feet (200 to 300 metres) there was a crenellated platform rising slightly above the top of the wall and protruding from the side that faced attackers. During battle the platform provided a commanding view and the convenience of shooting made it possible to shoot attackers from the side as they attempted to scale the wall with ladders. On several platforms were simply structured huts called p’u-fangpufang, which provided shelter for the guards during storms. Some platforms, as with signal towers, had two or three stories and could be used to store weapons and ammunition. Those at Pa-ta-ling Badaling commonly had two stories, with accommodations for more than 10 soldiers on the lower level. There were also drainage ditches on the walls to shield them from damage by excessive rainwater.

Military administration

Each major stronghold in along the defense line wall was hierarchically linked to a network of military and administrative commands. During the rule of Shih huang-tiShihuangdi, 12 prefectures were established along the wall, and in the Ming period the whole fortification was divided into 9 defense areas, or zones. A post chief (chung-ping-kuangzongbingguan) was assigned to each zone. Together they were known as the Nine Border Garrisons.

Tradition and conservation

The Great Wall has long been incorporated into Chinese mythology and popular symbolism, and in the 20th century it came to be regarded as a national symbol. Above the East Gate (Tung-menDongmen) at Shan-hai Shanhai Pass is an inscription attributed to the medieval historian Hsiao HsienXiao Xian, which is translated as “First Pass Under Heaven,” referring to the traditional division between Chinese civilization and the “barbarian” lands to the north.

Despite the wall’s cultural significance, roadways have been cut through it at several points, and vast sections have suffered centuries of neglect. In the 1970s a segment near Ssu-ma-t’ai Simatai (68 miles [110 km] northeast of PekingBeijing) was dismantled for building materials, but it was subsequently rebuilt. Other areas have also been restored. By the late 20th century reconstruction was carried out , including just northwest of Chia-yü Jiayu Pass at the western limit of the wall; at Huang-ya Huangya Pass, some 106 105 miles (170 km) north of TientsinTianjin; and at Mu-t’ien-yü, 56 Mutianyu, about 55 miles (90 km) northeast of PekingBeijing. The best-known section, at Pa-ta-ling Badaling (43 miles [70 km] northwest of PekingBeijing), was rebuilt in the late 1950sand ; it now attracts thousands of national and foreign tourists every day. The eastern limits of the wall, around Shan-hai Shanhai Pass, were also had been rebuilt by the 1990s.