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Recreational use of AM-2201 in the United States has led to it being specifically listed in a proposed 2011 amendment to the Controlled Substances Act, aiming to add a number of synthetic drugs into Schedule I.[4] The acute toxicity and long term side effects associated with the use of AM-2201 are acute kidney failure, brain damage, strokes, convulsions, seizures, rhabdomyolysis, and death.[5][6][7][8][9]

1.
Recreational drug use
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Recreational drug use is the use of a psychoactive drug to alter ones mental state in a way that modifies emotions, perceptions, and feelings for recreational purposes. When a substance enters the body, it brings on an intoxicating effect. Generally, people use drugs that fall into three categories, depressants, stimulants, and psychedelic drugs. In popular usage, it is considered to be a tolerated social behaviour rather than a serious medical condition such as self-medication. The substances classified as controlled and illegal drugs vary by country, in 2009 it was estimated that about 3% to 6% of people aged 15 to 65 had used illegal drugs at least once. International and domestic law enforcement agencies are perpetually occupied with interdiction efforts against illegal use, manufacture. Many researchers have explored the etiology of recreational drug use, there has not been agreement around any one single cause. Instead, experts tend to apply the biopsychosocial model, any number of these factors are likely to influence an individual’s drug use as they are not mutually exclusive. Regardless of genetics, mental health or traumatic experiences, social factors play a role in exposure to and availability of certain types of drugs. According to addiction researcher Martin A. Plant, many go through a period of self-redefinition before initiating recreational drug use. They tend to view using drugs as part of a lifestyle that involves belonging to a subculture that they associate with heightened status. Plant says, “From the users point of there are many positive reasons to become part of the milieu of drug taking. The reasons for drug use appear to have as much to do with needs for friendship, pleasure, becoming a drug taker, to many people, is a positive affirmation rather than a negative experience. ”Anthropological research has suggested that humansmay have evolved to counter-exploit plant neurotoxins. The ability to use chemicals to serve the function of endogenous neurotransmitters may have improved survival rates. A typically restrictive prehistoric diet may have emphasised the apparent benefit of consuming psychoactive drugs, severity and type of risks that come with recreational drug use vary widely with the drug in question and the amount being used. There are many factors in the environment and within the user interact with each drug differently. Overall, some studies suggest that alcohol is one of the most dangerous of all drugs, only heroin, crack cocaine. Researcher David Nutt stated that studies showing benefits for moderate alcohol consumption lacked control for the variable of what the subjects were drinking

2.
Northeastern University
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Northeastern University is a private research university in Boston, Massachusetts, established in 1898. It is categorized as an R1 institution by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, the university offers undergraduate and graduate programs on its main campus in the Fenway-Kenmore, Roxbury, South End, and Back Bay neighborhoods of Boston. The university has satellite campus in Charlotte, North Carolina, Seattle, Washington, an additional satellite campus will open in Toronto, Ontario, Canada in late 2016. The universitys enrollment is approximately 18,000 undergraduate students and 7,000 graduate students, Northeastern features a cooperative education program that integrates classroom study with professional experience on seven continents and a comprehensive study abroad program. In 2011, the university opened the George J. Kostas Research Institute for Homeland Security, the Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering Complex opened in early 2017. Northeastern is a large, highly residential university, most students choose to live on campus but upperclassmen have the option to live off campus. More than 75% of Northeastern students receive some form of financial aid, in the 2015–16 school year, the university offered $239 million in grant and scholarship assistance. The universitys sports teams, the Northeastern Huskies, compete in NCAA Division I as members of the Colonial Athletic Association in 18 varsity sports, mens Track and Field has won the CAA back to back years in 2015 and 2016. In 2013, mens basketball won its first CAA regular season championship, mens soccer won the CAA title for the first time, in 1903, the first Automobile Engineering School in the country was established followed by the School of Commerce and Finance in 1907. In 1916, a bill was introduced into the Massachusetts Legislature to incorporate the institute as Northeastern College, after considerable debate and investigation it was passed in March 1916. On March 30,1917, Frank Palmer Speare was inaugurated as the new Colleges first President, five years later the school changed its name to Northeastern University to better reflect the increasing depth of its instruction. In March 1923, the University secured general degree granting power from the Legislature, with the exception of the A. B. the S. B. the College of Liberal Arts was added in 1935. Two years later the Northeastern University Corporation was established, with a board of trustees composed of 31 University members and 8 from the YMCA, in 1948 Northeastern separated itself completely from the YMCA. Following World War II Northeastern began admitting women, in the postwar educational boom the University created the College of Education, University College, and the Colleges of Pharmacy and Nursing. The College of Criminal Justice followed, then the College of Computer Science, by the early 1980s the one-time night commuter school had grown to nearly 60,000 enrollees. By 1989–1990 University enrollment had reduced to about 40,000 full, part-time, and evening students, following the retirement of President Kenneth Ryder 1989 the University adopted a slow and more thoughtful approach to change. Historically, it had been accepting between 7,500 and 10,000 students per year based on applications of about 15,000 to 20,000 with acceptance rates between 50% and 75% depending on program. Attrition rates were huge, with a 25% freshmen dropout rate and graduation rate below 50%, when President John Curry left office in 1996 the university population had been systematically reduced to about 25,000

3.
Alkane
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In organic chemistry, an alkane, or paraffin, is an acyclic saturated hydrocarbon. In other words, an alkane consists of hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a structure in which all the carbon-carbon bonds are single. Alkanes have the chemical formula CnH2n+2. The alkanes range in complexity from the simplest case of methane, CH4 where n =1, in an alkane, each carbon atom has 4 bonds, and each hydrogen atom is joined to one of the carbon atoms. The longest series of linked carbon atoms in a molecule is known as its skeleton or carbon backbone. The number of atoms may be thought of as the size of the alkane. One group of the alkanes are waxes, solids at standard ambient temperature and pressure. They can be viewed as molecular trees upon which can be hung the more functional groups of biological molecules. The alkanes have two main sources, petroleum and natural gas. Saturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons having only single covalent bonds between their carbons, according to the definition by IUPAC, the former two are alkanes, whereas the third group is called cycloalkanes. Saturated hydrocarbons can also combine any of the linear, cyclic and branching structures, the formula is CnH 2n−2k+2. Alkanes are the ones, corresponding to k =0. Alkanes with more than three carbon atoms can be arranged in different ways, forming structural isomers. The simplest isomer of an alkane is the one in which the atoms are arranged in a single chain with no branches. This isomer is called the n-isomer. However the chain of atoms may also be branched at one or more points. The number of possible isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms, for example, 3-methylhexane and its higher homologues are chiral due to their stereogenic center at carbon atom number 3. In addition to the alkane isomers, the chain of atoms may form one or more loops

4.
Metabolism
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Metabolism is the set of life-sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of living organisms. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, usually, breaking down releases energy and building up consumes energy. The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical. Enzymes act as catalysts that allow the reactions to proceed more rapidly, enzymes also allow the regulation of metabolic pathways in response to changes in the cells environment or to signals from other cells. The metabolic system of a particular organism determines which substances it will find nutritious, for example, some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient, yet this gas is poisonous to animals. The speed of metabolism, the rate, influences how much food an organism will require. A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the metabolic pathways. These striking similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their appearance in evolutionary history. Most of the structures that make up animals, plants and microbes are made from three classes of molecule, amino acids, carbohydrates and lipids. These biochemicals can be joined together to make such as DNA and proteins. Proteins are made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain joined together by peptide bonds, many proteins are enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions in metabolism. Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions, such as those that form the cytoskeleton, Proteins are also important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, active transport across membranes, and the cell cycle. Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals and their main structural uses are as part of biological membranes both internal and external, such as the cell membrane, or as a source of energy. Lipids are usually defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic biological molecules but will dissolve in organic solvents such as benzene or chloroform, the fats are a large group of compounds that contain fatty acids and glycerol, a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid esters is called a triacylglyceride. Several variations on this structure exist, including alternate backbones such as sphingosine in the sphingolipids. Steroids such as cholesterol are another class of lipids. Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketones, with hydroxyl groups attached. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of energy, the basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides and include galactose, fructose, and most importantly glucose

5.
Jmol
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Jmol is computer software for molecular modelling chemical structures in 3-dimensions. Jmol returns a 3D representation of a molecule that may be used as a teaching tool and it is written in the programming language Java, so it can run on the operating systems Windows, macOS, Linux, and Unix, if Java is installed. It is free and open-source software released under a GNU Lesser General Public License version 2.0, a standalone application and a software development kit exist that can be integrated into other Java applications, such as Bioclipse and Taverna. A popular feature is an applet that can be integrated into web pages to display molecules in a variety of ways, for example, molecules can be displayed as ball-and-stick models, space-filling models, ribbon diagrams, etc. Jmol supports a range of chemical file formats, including Protein Data Bank, Crystallographic Information File, MDL Molfile. There is also a JavaScript-only version, JSmol, that can be used on computers with no Java, the Jmol applet, among other abilities, offers an alternative to the Chime plug-in, which is no longer under active development. While Jmol has many features that Chime lacks, it does not claim to reproduce all Chime functions, most notably, Chime requires plug-in installation and Internet Explorer 6.0 or Firefox 2.0 on Microsoft Windows, or Netscape Communicator 4.8 on Mac OS9. Jmol requires Java installation and operates on a variety of platforms. For example, Jmol is fully functional in Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Opera, Google Chrome, fast and Scriptable Molecular Graphics in Web Browsers without Java3D

6.
JWH-018
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JWH-018 or AM-678 is an analgesic chemical from the naphthoylindole family that acts as a full agonist at both the CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors, with some selectivity for CB2. John W. Huffman, an organic chemist at Clemson University, JWH-018 is one of these compounds, with studies showing an affinity for the cannabinoid receptor five times greater than that of THC. Cannabinoid receptors are found in brain and spleen tissue, however. An analysis of samples acquired four weeks after the German prohibition of JWH-018 took place found that the compound had been replaced with JWH-073. JWH-018 is a full agonist of both the CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors, with a binding affinity of 9.00 ±5.00 nM at CB1 and 2.94 ±2.65 nM at CB2. JWH-018 has an EC50 of 102 nM for human CB1 receptors, JWH-018 produces bradycardia and hypothermia in rats at doses of 0. 3–3 mg/kg, suggesting potent cannabinoid-like activity. JWH-018 administered to rats resulted in the excretion of an indole-N-desalkyl metabolite as well as several hydroxylated metabolites in urine, the highest signals were observed for the hydroxylated N-desalkyl metabolites. Hydroxylation took place on the chain and in both aromatic systems, the naphthalene and the indole rings, as could be shown by mass shift of the corresponding fragments. Human metabolites were similar although most metabolism took place on the ring and pentyl side chain. At least one case of JWH-018 dependence has been reported by the media, the user consumed JWH-018 daily for eight months. Withdrawal symptoms were similar to those experienced as a result of cannabis dependence, JWH-018 has been shown to cause profound changes in CB1 receptor density following administration, causing desensitization to its effects more rapidly than related cannabinoids. On October 15,2011, Anderson County coroner Greg Shore attributed the death of a South Carolina college basketball player to drug toxicity, compared to THC, which is a partial agonist at CB1 receptors, JWH-018, and many synthetic cannabinoids, are full agonists. THC has been shown to inhibit GABA receptor neurotransmission in the brain via several pathways, JWH-018 may cause intense anxiety, agitation, and, in rare cases, has been assumed to have been the cause of seizures and convulsions by inhibiting GABA neurotransmission more effectively than THC. Cannabinoid receptor full agonists may present serious dangers to the user when used to excess, various physical and psychological adverse effects have been reported from JWH-018 use. One study reported psychotic relapses and anxiety symptoms in well-treated patients with mental illness following JWH-018 inhalation, JWH-018 usage is readily detected in urine using spice screening immunoassays from several manufacturers focused on both the parent drug and its omega-hydroxy and carboxyl metabolites. JWH-018 will not be detected by older methods employed for detecting THC, determination of the parent drug in serum or its metabolites in urine has been accomplished by GC-MS or LC-MS. Serum JWH-018 concentrations are generally in the 1–10 μg/L range during the first few hours after recreational usage, the major urinary metabolite is a compound that is monohydroxylated on the omega minus one carbon atom of the alkyl side chain. A lesser metabolite monohydroxylated on the position was present in the urine of 6 users of the drug at concentrations of 6–50 μg/L

7.
Regulation of therapeutic goods
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The regulation of therapeutic goods, that is drugs and therapeutic devices, varies by jurisdiction. In some countries, such as the United States, they are regulated at the level by a single agency. In other jurisdictions they are regulated at the level, or at both state and national levels by various bodies, as is the case in Australia. The role of therapeutic goods regulation is designed mainly to protect the health, regulation is aimed at ensuring the safety, quality, and efficacy of the therapeutic goods which are covered under the scope of the regulation. In most jurisdictions, therapeutic goods must be registered before they are allowed to be marketed, there is usually some degree of restriction of the availability of certain therapeutic goods depending on their risk to consumers. Therapeutic goods in Australia are regulated by the Therapeutic Goods Administration, there are 5 main categories, Normal Medicines - Cough, cold and fever medicines, antiseptics, vitamins and others. Sold freely in pharmacies and some large supermarkets, red Stripe Medicines - These medicines are sold only with medical prescription. Antibiotics, Anti allergenics, Anti inflammatories, and other medicines, in Brazil, governmental control is loose on this type, it is not uncommon to buy this type of prescription medicine over the counter without a prescription. Red Stripe Psychoactive Medicines - These medicines are only with a Special Control white medical prescription with carbon copy. The original must be retained by the pharmacist after the sale, Drugs include anti-depressants, anti-convulsants, some sleep aids, anti-psychotics and other non-habit-inducing controlled medicines. Though some consider them habit inducing, anabolic steroids are also regulated under this category, black Stripe Medicines - These medicines are sold only with the Blue B Form medical prescription, which is valid for 30 days and must be retained by the pharmacist after the sale. Includes sedatives, some anorexic inducers and other habit-inducing controlled medicines, includes amphetamines and other stimulants, opioids and other strong habit-forming controlled medicines. In Canada, regulation of goods are governed by the Food and Drug Act. In addition, the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act requires additional regulatory requirements for controlled drugs, the regulation of drugs in Burma is governed by the Food and Drug Administration and Food and Drug Board of Authority. The regulation of drugs in China is governed by the China Food, Medicines for Human Use in the United Kingdom are regulated by the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. The availability of drugs is regulated by classification by the MHRA as part of marketing authorisation of a product, Medicines in the Republic of Ireland are regulated according to the Misuse of Drugs Regulations 1988. Controlled drugs are divided into five categories based on their potential for misuse, cD1, cannabis, lysergamide, coca leaf, etc. Use prohibited except in limited circumstances where a license has been granted, CD2, amphetamine, methadone, morphine, fentanyl, oxycodone, tapentadol, etc

8.
Cannabinoid receptor type 1
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The cannabinoid receptor type 1, often abbreviated as CB1, is a G protein-coupled cannabinoid receptor located primarily in the central and peripheral nervous system. These receptors may exist as homodimers or form heterodimers or other GPCR oligomers when coexpressed with one or more classes of G-protein-coupled receptors, observed heterodimers include A2A–CB1, CB1–D2, OX1–CB1, while many more may only be stable enough to exist in vivo. The CB1 receptor possesses an allosteric binding site. The CB1 receptor is a pre-synaptic heteroreceptor that modulates neurotransmitter release when activated in a dose-dependent, stereoselective, the CB1 receptor is activated by cannabinoids, generated naturally inside the body or introduced into the body as cannabis or a related synthetic compound. Research suggests that the majority of CB1 receptors are coupled through Gi/o proteins, alternatively, in some rare cases CB1 receptor activation may be coupled to Gs proteins, which stimulate adenylate cyclase. As presynaptic calcium entry is a requirement for vesicle release, this function will decrease the transmitter that enters the synapse upon release, the relative contribution of each of these two inhibitory mechanisms depends on the variance of ion channel expression by cell type. The CB1 receptor can also be modulated by allosterically synthetic ligands in a positive and negative manner, in vivo exposure to THC impairs long-term potentiation and leads to a reduction of phosphorylated CREB. In summary, CB1 receptor activity has been found to be coupled to ion channels, in the following manner, Positively to inwardly rectifying. Negatively to D-type outward potassium channels Negatively to N-type and P/Q-type calcium channels, the CB1 receptor is encoded by the gene CNR1, located on human chromosome 6. Two transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been described for this gene, CNR1 orthologs have been identified in most mammals. The CB1 receptor is expressed pre-synaptically at both glutaminergic and GABAergic interneurons and, in effect, acts as a neuromodulator to inhibit release of glutamate, repeated administration of receptor agonists may result in receptor internalization and/ or a reduction in receptor protein signalling. The inverse agonist MK-9470 makes it possible to produce in vivo images of the distribution of CB1 receptors in the brain with positron emission tomography. CB1 receptors are expressed most densely in the nervous system and are largely responsible for mediating the effects of cannabinoid binding in the brain. These receptors are located in cornu ammonis pyramidal cells, which are known to release glutamate. Cannabinoids suppress the induction of LTP and LTD in the hippocampus by inhibiting these glutamatergic neurons and these receptors are highly expressed by GABAergic interneurons as well as glutamatergic principal neurons. However, a density is found within GABAergic cells. This means that, although synaptic strength/frequency, and thus potential to induce LTP, is lowered, in addition, CB1 receptors in the hippocampus indirectly inhibit the release of acetylcholine. This serves as the modulatory axis opposing GABA, decreasing neurotransmitter release, an undetermined complex fractal-based, feedforward network allows the brain to weaken specific synapses while others are enhanced, allowing long-range structure to be formed

9.
Simplified molecular-input line-entry system
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The simplified molecular-input line-entry system is a specification in form of a line notation for describing the structure of chemical species using short ASCII strings. SMILES strings can be imported by most molecule editors for conversion back into two-dimensional drawings or three-dimensional models of the molecules, the original SMILES specification was initiated in the 1980s. It has since modified and extended. In 2007, a standard called OpenSMILES was developed in the open-source chemistry community. Other linear notations include the Wiswesser Line Notation, ROSDAL and SLN, the original SMILES specification was initiated by David Weininger at the USEPA Mid-Continent Ecology Division Laboratory in Duluth in the 1980s. The Environmental Protection Agency funded the project to develop SMILES. It has since modified and extended by others, most notably by Daylight Chemical Information Systems. In 2007, a standard called OpenSMILES was developed by the Blue Obelisk open-source chemistry community. Other linear notations include the Wiswesser Line Notation, ROSDAL and SLN, in July 2006, the IUPAC introduced the InChI as a standard for formula representation. SMILES is generally considered to have the advantage of being slightly more human-readable than InChI, the term SMILES refers to a line notation for encoding molecular structures and specific instances should strictly be called SMILES strings. However, the term SMILES is also used to refer to both a single SMILES string and a number of SMILES strings, the exact meaning is usually apparent from the context. The terms canonical and isomeric can lead to confusion when applied to SMILES. The terms describe different attributes of SMILES strings and are not mutually exclusive, typically, a number of equally valid SMILES strings can be written for a molecule. For example, CCO, OCC and CC all specify the structure of ethanol, algorithms have been developed to generate the same SMILES string for a given molecule, of the many possible strings, these algorithms choose only one of them. This SMILES is unique for each structure, although dependent on the algorithm used to generate it. These algorithms first convert the SMILES to a representation of the molecular structure. A common application of canonical SMILES is indexing and ensuring uniqueness of molecules in a database, there is currently no systematic comparison across commercial software to test if such flaws exist in those packages. SMILES notation allows the specification of configuration at tetrahedral centers, and these are structural features that cannot be specified by connectivity alone and SMILES which encode this information are termed isomeric SMILES

10.
Cannabinoid receptor
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Cannabinoid receptors are of a class of cell membrane receptors under the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily. As is typical of G protein-coupled receptors, the receptors contain seven transmembrane spanning domains. Cannabinoid receptors are activated by three groups of ligands, endocannabinoids, produced by the mammillary body, plant cannabinoids. All of the endocannabinoids and plant cannabinoids are lipophilic, such as fat soluble compounds, there are currently two known subtypes of cannabinoid receptors, termed CB1 and CB2. The CB1 receptor is expressed mainly in the brain, but also in the lungs, liver, the CB2 receptor is expressed mainly in the immune system and in hematopoietic cells. Mounting evidence suggests there are novel cannabinoid receptors that is, non-CB1 and non-CB2. In 2007, the binding of cannabinoids to the G protein-coupled receptor GPR55 in the brain was described. The protein sequences of CB1 and CB2 receptors are about 44% similar, when only the transmembrane regions of the receptors are considered, amino acid similarity between the two receptor subtypes is approximately 68%. In addition, minor variations in each receptor have been identified, cannabinoids bind reversibly and stereo-selectively to the cannabinoid receptors. Subtype selective cannabinoids have been developed which theoretically may have advantages for treatment of diseases such as obesity. Cannabinoid receptor type 1 receptors are thought to be one of the most widely expressed G protein-coupled receptors in the brain, endocannabinoids released from the depolarized post-synaptic neuron bind to CB1 receptors in the pre-synaptic neuron and cause a reduction in GABA release. They are also found in parts of the body. For instance, in the liver, activation of the CB1 receptor is known to increase de novo lipogenesis, a 2004 study suggested that the endocannabinoids and their cannabinoid receptors play a major role during pre- and postnatal development. In another recent study a group of researchers combined stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy, CB2 receptors are mainly expressed on T cells of the immune system, on macrophages and B cells, and in hematopoietic cells. They also have a function in keratinocytes and they are also expressed on peripheral nerve terminals. These receptors play a role in antinociception, or the relief of pain, in the brain, they are mainly expressed by microglial cells, where their role remains unclear. Other molecular biology studies have suggested that the orphan receptor GPR55 should in fact be characterised as a cannabinoid receptor, subsequent studies showed that GPR55 does indeed respond to cannabinoid ligands. GPR119 has been suggested as a fifth possible cannabinoid receptor, cannabinoid receptors are activated by cannabinoids, generated naturally inside the body or introduced into the body as cannabis or a related synthetic compound

11.
SDB-005
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SDB-005 is an indazole-based synthetic cannabinoid that has been sold online as a designer drug. It is presumed to be an agonist of the CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors, SDB-005 is the indazole core analogue of PB-22 where the 8-hydroxyquinoline has also been replaced with a naphthalene group. The code number SDB-005 was originally used for a different compound and this compound is a potent agonist of the CB1 receptor and CB2 receptor. Consequently, there are now two distinct, yet closely related cannabinoid compounds, which may both be referred to under the code SDB-005. 5F-PB-22 AM-2201 BB-22 JWH-018 NM-2201 NNE1

Alkylation is the transfer of an alkyl group from one molecule to another. The alkyl group may be transferred as an …

Alkylation of alkenes (shown in red is propene) by isobutane is a major process in refineries to produce higher octane "alkylate" for gasoline blending, in this example yielding isoheptane. It is catalysed by strong acids such as hydrofluoric acid (HF) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4).