For this exercise, students will need to bring in a photograph. Any photograph will
work--a family snapshot, a photograph from a magazine or newspaper, a portrait from a
photo booth, a passport picture, a postcard, a copy of a photograph in a book, or a
photograph downloaded from the Internet. They will use their image to answer questions
about the ways in which photographs represent the world. These questions can be used
for class discussion or for a writing exercise.

1. What is the relationship between a photograph and the subject it represents? Does a
photograph simply copy the world? Is it always accurate, or truthful? Can photographs
lie? Can photographs reveal the feelings of the photographer?

2. How do we classify photographs? Ask students to describe the criteria they use to
recognize and evaluate different kinds of pictures. How do we distinguish a family
snapshot from a formal portrait? Pose? Lighting? Setting? Number of people in the
picture? What can we tell about this group (or this person) from the things we see in the
picture? What kind of information does not appear?

3. How do we distinguish a factual document from a persuasive advertisement? Color? Composition? Choice of subject matter? (Would you photograph a desert to advertise a
mountain resort? On the other hand, what kind of resort would want to advertise its desert
location?) How does a caption change our perception of the subject?

4. Is this a work of art? What makes a photograph a work of art? If it hangs in a
museum, does that make it art? Can a photograph express the feelings of the
photographer? How can photographers express emotion by depicting the world that
already exists? How does a photographer change and manipulate what he or she sees?

Ask students to answer these questions by looking at their pictures. Have them back up
statements with specific references and identify the precise aspects of the picture that
support the argument.

Classroom Extension 2

The Art of the Photograph: Composition and the Decisive Moment

1. How does a photographer compose a photograph?

Some photographers make a shot and make adjustments later, in the darkroom. They find
the most important part of the picture, and print only that portion. They cut out parts of
the picture that interfere with the message they want to convey. Take a picture and crop it
with a pair of scissors, or use blank paper to cover up portions of the image until you see
only the part that seems most important to you. How does the picture change when the
frame changes? What happens when the edges come very close to the subject? What
happens when the subject of the picture is surrounded by large empty spaces?

Cropping makes it easy to change the shape of the image itself--it can be square, round,
or rectangular; it can be long and thin or flat and wide. How does the shape influence the
message that the picture conveys?

Henri Cartier-Bresson never crops his pictures. He believes that subject cannot be
separated from composition. He uses the rectangular shape of the 35 mm negative and
organizes his material inside the frame. For him, the picture emerges from the process of
finding the right way to frame the subject. Everything within the frame helps him tell his
story. At the moment he snaps the shutter, the whole picture comes together, and he call
this "the decisive moment."

2. What makes a decisive moment?

To see how this process works for Henri Cartier-Bresson, analyze one of his photographs.
Begin by naming everything in the picture--don't forget any details, and look closely at
the edges of the frame. Look for the physical relationships between people, or between
people and animals. Do they touch each other? Do they look at each other? Do you know
what will happen next?

Then describe the way these objects are organized within the frame. Think of the
image as a flat piece of paper, try to forget about the subject as its exists in the three-dimensional world. Look at the dark and light. Look for abstract shapes. Do you see
squares, rectangles, circles? Do you see diagonal lines? Do you see shapes that repeat
within the frame? How do these abstract shapes reinforce (or contradict) the message you
see in the subject alone?

What does this image tell you about the photographer himself? What do you know
about the person who made this photograph? What does he notice? What does he ignore?
What can his pictures tell you about the world? What do these pictures leave out?

Henri Cartier-Bresson's images suggest that the world is a great place to see and
explore, but this approach leaves out the kind of information that other photographers find
essential. There are very few words, and very brief captions. These images tell nothing
about the historical circumstances of the portrait, and rarely contain any evidence about
why Cartier-Bresson chose to make the portrait, other than wanting to preserve this
meeting, and this moment, in a photograph.

Whereas a painter masters paint and brushes to put ideas on canvas, a photographer relies
upon a camera and light-sensitive materials to create photographic images, whether the
materials are sensitized metal plates that create daguerreotypes, negatives made on paper,
glass or film used to print on photographic paper to make conventional photographs, or
today's digitally recorded data that is used to produce images on a computer screen or is
printed with ink on a page. From 1839 to the present, photographic technology has
steadily changed--cameras have grown smaller and lighter, and paper and negatives have
grown more sensitive and easier to manipulate. As these tools change, photographers
make new kinds of pictures. In fact, the whole history of photography can be seen as a
dialogue between technological progress and aesthetic achievement.

Early photographic materials were bulky and time-consuming to use. Cameras were large
constructions of wood with metal fittings, leather bellows, and large lenses that had to rest
on a tripod. Like the first daguerreotypes, the first negatives, whether of paper or glass,
needed a lot of light to register an image. They also remained sensitive to light only when
the chemical emulsion was still wet, which meant that a photographer had to carry
chemicals and glass on every expedition out of the studio. Once the plate was ready and
loaded in the camera, the photographer simply removed the cap from the lens and counted
the seconds while light shone through the lens onto the negative, replacing the lens cap
when the exposure was complete.

Many different technological changes contributed to the development of small, fast
cameras. During the middle third of the nineteenth century, lens-makers learned to make
stronger lenses that could shine more light onto the negative, and camera-makers
developed mechanical shutters that allowed photographers to limit exposure time to a
mere fraction of a second. At the same time, photochemists sought ways to make
negatives that would record light while dry; by the end of the 1880s, "dry plates" were
manufactured and sold around the country. It was also important to make negatives more
sensitive to light, to allow a short exposure time. Finally, camera-makers developed
handheld cameras that allowed photographers to work out of doors. But as late as 1880,
"instantaneous views" remained difficult to make. They were especially prized by
amateurs, who made endless efforts to seize spontaneous expressions or stop motion in
midair. While all the steps became simpler, amateurs still needed the same skills used by
professionals, because they developed their own film and printed their own negatives. But
in 1889, George Eastman replaced glass plates with a winding reel of celluloid negatives,
which he loaded into the handheld camera that he named "Kodak," and promised
amateurs, "You push the button, we do the rest." Amateur photographers eagerly
purchased his cameras loaded with unexposed film. After shooting the roll of film, one
simply sent the whole camera back to Eastman, who returned the photographs along with
the camera, now loaded with fresh film. Serious photographers called this a toy, and for
many years continued to use conventional handheld cameras and glass plates.

Photographs made with Kodaks or other handheld cameras were still famously awkward
and often funny, in part because the cameras, bulky by today's standards, remained
difficult to use and control. The brief snapshot exposure could distort facial expressions
or place a body in an improbable position, and the edge of the photograph often sliced
people or things apart in a way that most artists would avoid. Skilled amateur
photographers often adjusted these errors in the darkroom, isolating the successful parts
of the negative and cropping away the rest. A small group of artists also used handheld
cameras, especially to work outside the studio, making landscapes, city views, and travel
pictures. Still, most professional photographers preferred to use large cameras on tripods.

Photographic technology jumped forward again in the 1920s, when a new group of
European manufacturers, including Ermanox and Leitz, developed cameras not much
larger than a hand. Small, light, and loaded with rolls of 35mm film that advanced
smoothly and quietly on sprockets--like the film used to make moving pictures--these
cameras brought photographers great new opportunities. Photographers could now move
freely and work quickly, and they could also plan their pictures with great precision
because of the advent of "rangefinders." Just as George Eastman brought together a
handheld camera, roll film, and the processing plant to cause a great explosion in amateur
photography, the Leitz company and its Leica camera brought a revolution in
photographic practice. With the Leica, a photographer could use the camera as an
extension of the human eye.

Journalists exploited this new technology to make photographs behind the scenes,
undetected by officials or celebrities who were accustomed to large, obtrusive cameras of
the past. In addition, the new size, speed, and flexibility allowed photographers to pursue
subjects that had been too difficult to capture with older equipment. Athletes became
thrilling new subjects as photographers caught them in motion. With cameras suddenly
easy to transport, photography of distant, exotic places and people became immediate and
fresh.

At the same time, demand for photographic images increased dramatically as changes in
printing technology made it possible to inexpensively reproduce photographs on
magazine pages, and with pleasing results. Picture magazine editors clamored for material
to fill their pages, and photographers found new ways to comply. The new partnership of
photography with the printed page created a new form of reporting that produced such
influential magazines as Vu in Paris, Berliner Illustrierte Zeitung in Germany, and Life
and Look in the United States.

Big Cameras vs. Small Cameras

How do different cameras influence the kind of work photographers produce?

In a studio, the photographer has complete control of everything that comes before the
camera's lens. The photographer can arrange the subject, set the lights, choose the
background, and repeat each shot until he or she gets the desired results. The method
remains very much the same whether shooting a still life or a portrait. Many
photographers in fashion and advertising work with these strict controls.

1. Using magazines or newspapers, find photographs that have been made in a studio.
(Hint: look for fashion, advertising, and celebrity portraits.) What signs suggest that this
image was made in the studio? What is in the background? Where does the light come
from? Where are the shadows? What are the ways in which you can recognize a studio
photograph?

2. Pretend you are in a studio and construct an image. Choose a subject, arrange (or pose)
the subject, place the lights, examine the background, etc.

With a 35mm camera, the photographer is free to work in the world, but has little control
over events. Yet thanks to the small, light, fast camera, the photographer can respond
quickly to events as they take shape. Henri Cartier-Bresson compares this kind of work to
fishing or hunting, requiring great patience and flawless reflexes.

3. Again using magazines and newspapers, find an image that was made with a 35mm
outside the studio. What tells you this was not made in a studio? What kind of camera
would you prefer? Why?

Classroom Extension 4

Henri Cartier-Bresson, His Contemporaries, and His Legacy

Photography in the 1930s

Photography was a booming profession in the 1930s. Many photographers worked for the
magazines and the press. Others worked for government agencies in this country and in
Europe, making national records and promoting government programs. To learn more
about the various forms of photojournalism and documentary photography, study
monographs or biographies about individual photographers such as Margaret Bourke-White and Alfred Eisenstaedt, who worked for Life, and Walker Evans, who worked for
Fortune and for the Farm Services Administration of the United States government. Also
see the work of other FSA photographers, including Russell Lee, Marion Post Wolcott,
Dorothea Lange, Arthur Rothstein, Esther Bubley, and John Vachon. Do they seem to
look for decisive moments, or are these images staged and planned? How can you tell?
Who is in charge? The photographer? The magazine? The subject?

Henri Cartier-Bresson, Magnum, and "Concerned Photography"

After World War II, Henri Cartier-Bresson, along with his friends Robert Capa and
George Rodger, formed their own picture agency in order to control and protect their
work. They named the agency after the large bottle that holds wine or champagne, a
magnum. This agency was run as a cooperative venture, with all members contributing
fees to give themselves freedom and support. Over the years, Magnum welcomed new
members, including Bruce Davidson, Eve Arnold, Elliott Erwitt, Josef Koudelka, Ernst
Haas, Inge Morath, and David Seymour (known as "Chim"). Some were members of the
co-op for only a short time, including Danny Lyons, Mary Ellen Mark, and Eugene
Smith. Many of these photographers have published books devoted to their photographs.
Compare their work to that of Henri Cartier-Bresson. How has his work influenced these
photographers? Is there a "Magnum" style?

1935: Lives in the United States; studies motion pictures with Paul Strand.

1936: With Jacques Becker and Andre Zvoboda, assists director Jean Renoir on film Partie de
campagne ("A Day in the Country").

1937: Films documentary Victoire de la vie ("Return to Life") about medical aid to hospitals in
Spain during civil war; photographs with Robert Capa and Chim (David Seymour) in France;
marries Ratna Mohini.

1938: Photographs in London during coronation.

1939: Assists Jean Renoir on film La Regle du jeu ("The Rules of the Game"); photographs
Hype Park series in London; drafted into the French army at outbreak of war.

1940: Serves as corporal in French army's Film and Photo Unit.

1940-43: Captured; spends three years as prisoner of war in Germany; escapes back to France.

1943: Works on farm in Touraine; moves to Paris with false papers; works for underground
organization for ex-prisoners of war; makes portraits of writers and painters--including Claudel,
Bonnard, Braque, and Matisse--for publisher Pierre Braun.

1944-45: Organizes group of professionals to photograph occupation of France and liberation of
Paris.

1945: Films documentary for United States Office of War Information--LeRetour ("The
Return")--on return to France of prisoners of war and deportees; works on series in England for
Harper's Bazaar.

1946: Visits New York to prepare exhibition of his work at Museum of Modern Art; travels to
New Orleans for Harper's Bazaar.

1947: Founds cooperative agency Magnum with Robert Capa, Chim, and George Rodger.

1948: Receives overseas Press Club Award for reportage on the death of Gandhi; also wins
awards in 1954, 1960, and 1964 for best reportage of the year.

------. "L'Imaginaire d'après Nature." In Henri Cartier-Bresson: His Archive of 390
Photographs from the Victoria and Albert Museum. Edinburgh: Scottish Arts Council, in
association with the Victoria and Albert Museum, 1978.