Contents

25 March – Lord Nicholas de Verdun is buried at Drogheda"with great splendour and solemn rites and with many in the procession to the convent."

"On the same day at Kilkenny, Lady Isabella Palmer, who had build the front of the friars choir, was committed to the earth; she had reached a praiseworthy old age and, having lived about 70 years religiously and honourably in her widowhood and in virginity, as it was said and believed, she passed from this life."

11 November – "The earldom of Ormond and its regalities was granted to James Butler, the younger, by the King."

2 December – "The confraternity of the Friars Minor of Kilkenny is established for the purpose of erecting a new bell tower and for repairing the church."

25 December – "At Christmas, Domhnall Ó Ceinnéidigh, son of Phillip, conspired with the Irish of Munster, Connacht, Meath and Leinster, and they burnt and destroyed the town of Nenagh and the whole neighbourhood and all the Ormond castles except the castle of Nenagh." (see also 28 March 1348 and 2 June 1348).

"Maurice Fitz Thomas, Earl of Kildare, and Lord Fulk de la Freigne, having been called and invited by the King entered France for the Siege of Calais that lasted from the preceding feast of the nativity of blessed Mary right up to the feast of St. Laurence, martyr. And then after many attacks and dreadful and incredible famine the French were compelled to submit they keys of the city and themselves to the mercy of the King of England."

"The Friars Preachers of Ireland obtained an exemption and permission to eat flesh outside (the priory) from the lord Pope Clement VI, that from the beginning of their religious (life) they did not have before."

"Friar Richard, Bishop of Ossory, obtained exemption from the jurisdiction and supremacy of the archbishop of Dublin at the Roman Curia."

"Ferghal son of Ualgharc Ua Ruairc, was killed by the son of Cathal Mac Donnchaidh the Cleric."

"Brian Mac Diarmata, one fit to be king of Magh-Luirg, was killed in the town of Ros-Comain, whilst he was with the bishop Ua Finachta, with one shot of an arrow. And the person to whom the discharge of the shot was brought home was mangled and killed therefor, namely, Ruaidhri Ua Donnchadha of the Chamber."

"Brian Ua Briain was killed in treachery by the sons of Mac Ceothach"

"Aedh, son of Aedh Ua Concobuir the Brefnian, king of Connacht, was killed by Aedh Ua Ruairc on Magh-Enghaide."

"The church of Kilronan was re-erected by Farrell O'Duigenan."

"Maurice Mac Dermot was slain by John Roe Mac David Burke."

"Teige Mac Rannall, Chief of Muintir-Eolais, was taken prisoner by the Clann-Murtough O'Conor."

1.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time

2.
Drogheda
–
Drogheda is one of the oldest towns in Ireland, known for its tourism and as a centre of industry, and medical care. It is located in County Louth on the Dublin-Belfast corridor on the east coast of Ireland,49 km or 30 miles north of Dublin. It is the last bridging point on the River Boyne before it enters the Irish Sea. The UNESCO World Heritage Site of Newgrange is located 8 km to west of the town. As the River Boyne divides the dioceses of Armagh and Meath, in 1412 these two towns were united and Drogheda became a County Corporate, styled as the County of the Town of Drogheda. With the passing of the County of Louth and Borough of Drogheda Provisional Order,1976, the boundary was further altered in 1994 by the Local Government Regulations 1994. The 2007–2013 Meath County Development Plan recognises the Meath environs of Drogheda as a growth centre on a par with Navan. In recent years Droghedas economy has diversified from its traditional industries, with an number of people employed in the retail, services. The town also has a community of independent artists and musicians who have been looking to the economy rather than Dublin for employment. Drogheda was also selected to host Fleadh Cheoil na hÉireann 2018, Drogheda has a hinterland of 70, 000+ within a 15 kilometres radius covering County Louth and County Meath. According to the 2011 Irish Census, there are 30,393 in Drogheda town, the results of the numerous and often large-scale excavations carried out within the area of the medieval town in the past ten years appear to have confirmed this statement. The wall on the east side of Rosemary’s Lane is the oldest stone structure in Drogheda and it was completed in 1234 as the west wall of the first castle guarding access to the northern crossing point of the Boyne. The earliest known charter is that granted to Drogheda-in-Meath by Walter de lacy in 1194. In the 1600s the name of the town was also spelled Tredagh in keeping with the common pronunciation, Drogheda was an important walled town in the English Pale in the medieval period. It frequently hosted meetings of the Irish Parliament at that time and it later came to light, that the Queen herself was implicated in the orders given. The parliament was moved to the town in 1494 and passed Poynings Law, the most significant legislation in Irish history and this effectively subordinated the Irish Parliaments legislative powers to the King and his English Council. The town was besieged twice during the Irish Confederate Wars, in his own words after the siege of Drogheda, When they submitted, their officers were knocked on the head, and every tenth man of the soldiers killed and the rest shipped to Barbados. The Earldom of Drogheda was created in the Peerage of Ireland in 1661, the Battle of the Boyne,1690, occurred some 6 km west of the town, on the banks of the River Boyne, at Oldbridge. In 1790 Drogheda Harbour Commissioners established, later Drogheda Port Company In 1825 the Drogheda Steam Packet Company was formed in the town, in 1837 the population of Drogheda area was 17,365 of whom 15,138 lived in the town

3.
Kilkenny
–
Kilkenny is a city in south-east part of Ireland and the county town of County Kilkenny. It is on banks of the River Nore in the province of Leinster. The boroughs population is 8,711, but the majority live outside the borough boundary, Kilkenny is a popular tourist destination. In 2009 the City of Kilkenny celebrated its 400th year since the granting of city status in 1609, though referred to as a city, Kilkenny is the size of a large town relative to Irish urban population centres. Kilkenny is well known for its culture with craft and design workshops, annual events include Kilkenny Arts Festival, the Cat Laughs comedy festival and music at the Rhythm and Roots festival and the Source concert. It is a base for exploring the surrounding towns, villages. Controversy exists at the moment around the Kilkenny Central Access Scheme which is a proposed to be built through the town centre. Kilkenny began with a sixth century ecclesiastical foundation within the kingdom of Ossory. Following Norman invasion of Ireland, Kilkenny Castle and a series of walls were built to protect the burghers of what became a Norman merchant town, William Marshall, Lord of Leinster, gave Kilkenny a charter as a town in 1207. By the late thirteenth century Kilkenny was under Norman-Irish control, the Statutes of Kilkenny passed at Kilkenny in 1367, aimed to curb the decline of the Hiberno-Norman Lordship of Ireland. In 1609 King James I of England granted Kilkenny a Royal Charter giving it the status of a city. Following the Rebellion of 1641, the Irish Catholic Confederation, also known as the Confederation of Kilkenny, was based in Kilkenny, Kilkenny was a famous brewing centre from the late seventeenth century, and houses multiple breweries still. In the late twentieth century Kilkenny is a tourist and creative centre, the Heritage Council offices are at Church Lane. The seat of the Roman Catholic Bishop of Ossory is at St. Marys Cathedral, nearby larger cities include Waterford 45 kilometres south-southeast, Limerick 93 kilometres west and Dublin 101 kilometres northeast. Kilkenny is the version of the Irish Cill Chainnigh, meaning Cell/Church of Cainneach or Canice. This relates to a built in honour of St. Canice on the hill now containing St. Canices Cathedral. This seems to be the first major settlement, the early Christian origin of the round tower suggests an early ecclesiastical foundation at Kilkenny. The Annals of the Four Masters recorded Kilkenny in 1085, prior to this time the early 6th century territory was known as Osraighe, referring to the whole district or the capital

4.
Nenagh
–
Nenagh is the county town and second largest town in County Tipperary in Ireland. It is a parish in the historical barony of Ormond Lower. It is also an Ecclesiastical parish in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Killaloe, Nenagh was originally a market town, and its name in Irish means The Fair of Ormond – a reference to the Ormond Fair, of which it was the site. Nenagh is today a commercial town and is governed by Nenagh Town council. The Silvermine Mountain range lies to the south of the town, the Silvermines have been intermittently mined for silver and base metals for over seven hundred years. Traces of 19th century mine workings remain, the towns historic attractions include Nenagh Castle, the Heritage Centre and the ruined Franciscan abbey. It has a climate, with the average daily maximum in July of 19 °C. Nenagh is located in the Barony of Ormond Lower which was the territory of the OKennedys prior to the Norman invasion of Ireland. This land was included in the grant made by King John of England to Theobald, Theobald was subsequently appointed Chief Butler of Ireland. Nenagh Castle was built c.1216 and was the castle of the Butler family before they moved to Gowran. The family later purchased Kilkenny Castle which was to be the seat of their power for the next 500 years. The town was one of the ancient manors of the Butlers who received the grant of a fair from Henry VIII of England and they also founded the medieval priory and hospital of St John the Baptist, just outside the town at Tyone. A small settlement grew up around the castle, but it never seems to have been of any great importance other than as a market throughout the medieval period. The Abbey was in use for six hundred years, Fr. Patrick Harty, the Butlers who descended from the 1st Baronlater became Earls of Ormond. Nenagh remained their principal seat until 1391 when it was moved to Kilkenny Castle, in the rebellion of 1641 Neagh Castle was garrisoned by Sir George Hamilton for the twelfth Earl. After the Restoration, Sir William Flower came along in 1660 on behalf of the Marchioness of Ormond who had the ownership of the Manor on her marriage settlements, the last Marquess died in 1997. Without a male heir the marquessate became extinct, while the earldom is dormant, the town seems to have been refounded in the 16th century. In 1550 the town and friary were burned by OCarroll, in 1641 the town was captured by Red Owen ONeill, but shortly afterwards it was recaptured by Lord Inchiquin

5.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks

6.
Ballymote Castle
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Ballymote Castle is a large rectangular keepless castle, built around 1300. It is located in the townland of Carrownanty on the outskirts of Ballymote in southern County Sligo and this area was known historically as Átha Cliath an Chorainn, which roughly translates as The Ford of the Hurdles of Corran. It is the last of the Norman castles in Connacht and it was probably built in order to protect the newly won possessions of Richard Óg de Burgh, 2nd Earl of Ulster, in County Sligo, some distance from an earlier motte. Ballymote castle is an enclosure castle, the most symmetrical of all the Irish keepless castles. It has many similarities with Beaumaris Castle, in Anglesey, Wales, the entrance, with a double towered gate, is in the north wall and had twin D-shaped towers. It has a typical of the period, the outer portions of which have almost completely disappeared. The castle, however, remains an impressive structure, the interior measures about 30 square metres. There are three-quarter round towers at all four corners and also in the middle of the east and west walls. A postern gate, which was planned for the centre of the wall, was never completed, probably because of the events of 1317. A small square tower had protected this gate, the walls are about 3.0 metres thick and flanked with six noble towers. No traces of the domestic buildings survive. The Red Earl is also credited with building the ancient road from Boyle, County Roscommon to Collooney, known as Bóthar an Corran, the castle changed hands many times since construction. It was captured by the OConnors of Sligo in 1317, but was taken by the Mac Diarmada, during the course of local struggles, by 1381 it had passed to the McDonaghs. In 1577, the fell into English hands for a short period and then more permanently in 1584. A lack of occupation levels implies that the building was abandoned during the above period. The OConnors, OHartes and ODowds sacked the castle in 1588, the English surrendered it in 1598 to the MacDonaghs who sold it shortly afterwards to Red Hugh ODonnell. It was from here that Red Hugh ODonnell marched to the disastrous Battle of Kinsale in 1601, when the O Donnells surrendered it to the English in 1602, it was already in a bad state of repair. In 1633, the Taaffes owned it for a short time, in the Williamite wars the castle was held by Captain Terence MacDonagh for King James II, but he had to surrender it to Lord Granard in the face of an artillery attack in 1690

7.
Pope Clement VI
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Clement VI, born Pierre Roger, was pope from 7 May 1342 to his death in 1352. He was the fourth Avignon pope, Clement is the pope who reigned during the first visitation of the Black Death, during which he granted remission of sins to all who died of the plague. Pierre Roger was born in the château of Maumont, today part of the commune of Rosiers-dÉgletons, Corrèze, in Limousin, Pierre also had two sisters, Delphine, who married Jacques de Besse, and Alienor, who married Jacques de la Jugie. His brother Guillaume became Seigneur de Chambon, thanks to his wifes dowry, Roger entered the Benedictine order as a boy in 1301, at the Abbey of La Chaise-Dieu in the diocese of Clermont in the Auvergne. After six years there, he was directed to higher studies by the Bishop of Le Puy, Jean de Cumenis, in 1307 he took up studies in Paris at the College de Sorbonne, where he entered the Collège de Narbonne. To support him, beyond what was supplied by his bishop and his abbot, Pierre was in his thirty-first year. He lectured publicly on the Sententiae of Peter Lombard, and defended and promoted the works of Thomas Aquinas and he was appalled by the Defensor Pacis of Marsilius of Padua, and wrote a treatise in 1325 condemning its principles and defending Pope John XXII. He was granted the priory of St and he held the position until 1329. Pierre Roger was called to Avignon through the influence of his friend and protector, Cardinal Pierre de Mortemart, unfortunately, King Charles IV died on 1 February 1328, the last Capetian king of France in the direct line. He received no reply, however, from King Edward, and was forced to return to France, on 3 December 1328 Peter Roger was named Bishop of Arras, in which capacity he became a royal councilor of King Philip VI. He held the diocese of Arras only until 24 November 1329, less than a year and he held the Archbishopric of Sens for one year and one month, until his promotion to the See of Rouen on 14 December 1330. Obviously he was a man in the very highest favor with Pope John XXII, many propositions were put forward against ecclesiastical jurisdiction, which were ably argued by Pierre de Cugnières. Pierre Roger made the rejoinders on 22 December 1329, on behalf of the ecclesiastical authority, when Pierre Roger became Archbishop of Rouen in December 1330, he was expected to swear allegiance to his feudal overlord. He therefore asked the King for time to consider his position, later in the year, in Paris in the Prés des Clercs, the King received the cross personally from the hands of Archbishop Roger. It is said that he was promoted to the office of Chancellor of France, the earliest claim that he was Chancellor is made by Alfonso Chacon. In 1333, the issue of the Beatific Vision, which had been discussion since a sermon of Pope John XXII in 1329. The French Royal Court had been hearing complaints from various quarters, the King privately informed the Pope of their opinions, but the Pope harshly responded to the King that he should stop favoring an opinion which the Pope had not yet definitively settled. The Pope ordered the Archbishop of Rouen, Pierre Roger, to set the Popes view down in writing, ironically, Pierre Roger was not on the Popes side of the argument

8.
Duke of Leinster
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Duke of Leinster is a title in the Peerage of Ireland and the premier dukedom in that peerage. The viscounty of Leinster is in the Peerage of Great Britain, the barony of Kildare in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, the courtesy title of the eldest son and heir of the Duke of Leinster is Marquess of Kildare. The family seat now is Oakley Park, near Abingdon, Oxfordshire and this branch of the Welsh-Norman FitzGerald dynasty, which came to Ireland in 1169, were initially created Earls of Kildare. The earldom was created in 1316 for John FitzGerald, Two senior FitzGeralds, Garret Mór FitzGerald and his son, Garret Óg FitzGerald served as Lords Deputy of Ireland. The tenth Earl, Thomas FitzGerald, known as Silken Thomas, was attainted, in 1554, Thomass half-brother and only male heir, Gerald FitzGerald, was created Earl of Kildare in the Peerage of Ireland. He was subsequently restored to the original Patent in 1569, as 11th earl, the second earldom became extinct in 1599, although the original earldom survived. The family was based in Maynooth Castle in Maynooth in County Kildare. In later centuries the family owned estates in Waterford with their country residence being a Georgian house called Carton House which had replaced the castle in County Kildare, in Dublin, the Earl built a large townhouse residence on the southside of Dublin called Kildare House. When the Earl was awarded a dukedom and became Duke of Leinster, one of its occupants was Lord Edward FitzGerald, who became an icon for Irish nationalism through his involvement with the Irish Rebellion of 1798, which ultimately cost him his life. Leinster House was sold by the Leinsters in 1815, in 1924 it bought the building for parliamentary use. It has remained the parliament house of the Irish state, the Dukes of Leinster had by the early 20th century lost all their property and wealth. Their Carton House seat was sold, as later on was their residence in Waterford. The family now live in a property in Ramsden, Oxfordshire. A controversial claim by the descendants of the 5th Duke was made and failed. Paul FitzGerald and his supporters claimed that Lord Desmond faked his death, instead, it was passed down through her fathers brothers family. It was alleged that an archivist had acknowledged the package had once existed, the Baron Falconer of Thoroton, Lord Chancellor, and Harriet Harman, Minister of State in the Department for Constitutional Affairs, gave due consideration to this claim. The claim was dismissed by Lord Falconer despite a 30-year campaign by Paul FitzGeralds family reputedly costing £1.3 million, the Lord Chancellor adjudicated that the title was to remain with the existing holder, the 9th Duke, Maurice FitzGerald. Paul FitzGerald has a right of appeal against the Lord Chancellors verdict by petitioning Her Majesty The Queen, in 2010, however, DNA evidence was presented that indicates that Paul FitzGerald is related to the wife of the 5th Duke, the former Lady Hermione Duncombe

9.
Curia
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A curia, plural curiae, is an assembly, council, or court, in which public, official, or religious issues are discussed and decided. In ancient Rome, the populace was divided into 30 curiae, which met in order to confirm the election of magistrates, witness the installation of priests, the making of wills, lesser curiae existed for other purposes. The word curia came to denote the places of assembly, especially the senate. Similar institutions existed in towns and cities of Italy. In medieval times, a council was often referred to as a curia. Today, the most famous curia is the Curia of the Roman Catholic Church which assists the Roman Pontiff in the government of the Church. The word curia is thought to derive from Old Latin coviria, in this sense, any assembly, public or private, could be called a curia. In addition to the Roman curiae, voting assemblies known as curiae existed in towns of Latium. During the republic, local curiae were established in Italian and provincial municipia, in imperial times, local magistrates were often elected by municipal senates, which also came to be known as curiae. By extension, the word came to mean not just a gathering. The most important curiae at Rome were the 30 that together made up the comitia curiata, traditionally ascribed to the kings, each of the three tribes established by Romulus, the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, was divided into ten curiae. In theory, each gens belonged to a curia, although whether this was strictly observed throughout Roman history is uncertain. Each curia had a name, said to have been derived from the names of some of the Sabine women abducted by the Romans in the time of Romulus. However, some of the curiae evidently derived their names from districts or eponymous heroes. The curiae were probably established geographically, representing specific neighborhoods in Rome, only a few of the names of the 30 curiae have been preserved, including Acculeia, Calabra, Faucia, Foriensis, Rapta, Veliensis, Tifata, and Titia. Each curia had its own sacra, in which its members, known as curiales, worshipped the gods of the state and other deities specific to the curia, each curia had a meeting site and place of worship, named after the curia. Originally, this may have been an altar, then a sacellum. The curia was presided over by a curio, who was always at least 50 years old, the curio undertook the religious affairs of the curia

10.
Philosopher
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A philosopher is someone who practices philosophy, which involves rational inquiry into areas that are outside of either theology or science. The term philosopher comes from the Ancient Greek φιλόσοφος meaning lover of wisdom, the coining of the term has been attributed to the Greek thinker Pythagoras. Typically, these brands of philosophy are Hellenistic ones and those who most arduously commit themselves to this lifestyle may be considered philosophers. The separation of philosophy and science from theology began in Greece during the 6th century BC, thales, an astronomer and mathematician, was considered by Aristotle to be the first philosopher of the Greek tradition. While Pythagoras coined the word, the first known elaboration on the topic was conducted by Plato, in his Symposium, he concludes that Love is that which lacks the object it seeks. Therefore, the philosopher is one who seeks wisdom, if he attains wisdom, therefore, the philosopher in antiquity was one who lives in the constant pursuit of wisdom, and living in accordance to that wisdom. Disagreements arose as to what living philosophically entailed and these disagreements gave rise to different Hellenistic schools of philosophy. In consequence, the ancient philosopher thought in a tradition, as the ancient world became schism by philosophical debate, the competition lay in living in manner that would transform his whole way of living in the world. Philosophy is a discipline which can easily carry away the individual in analyzing the universe. The second is the change through the Medieval era. With the rise of Christianity, the way of life was adopted by its theology. Thus, philosophy was divided between a way of life and the conceptual, logical, physical and metaphysical materials to justify that way of life, philosophy was then the servant to theology. The third is the sociological need with the development of the university, the modern university requires professionals to teach. Maintaining itself requires teaching future professionals to replace the current faculty, therefore, the discipline degrades into a technical language reserved for specialists, completely eschewing its original conception as a way of life. In the fourth century, the word began to designate a man or woman who led a monastic life. Gregory of Nyssa, for example, describes how his sister Macrina persuaded their mother to forsake the distractions of life for a life of philosophy. Later during the Middle Ages, persons who engaged with alchemy was called a philosopher - thus, many philosophers still emerged from the Classical tradition, as saw their philosophy as a way of life. Among the most notable are René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Nicolas Malebranche, with the rise of the university, the modern conception of philosophy became more prominent