THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE1.Steady State Theory – based on the perfect cosmological principle that the universe looks the same from any location at anytime. This theory holds that the universe is unchanging, it has no beginning and no end. 2.Big Bang Theory – presupposes that the vast universe grew out of something where all matter and energy were compressed to infinite density and heated to trillions of degrees (a beginning which was an immensely small particle of high-density state. The four basic forces of nature – gravity, electromagnetism, strong and weak atomic forces – were unified in that tiny particle. This particle exploded into a great fire ball releasing the basic forces. Rapid expansion took place and then the fire ball started to cool and slow down.

Of these two theories discussed, the Big Bang theory is the most popular. What are the evidences for the Big Bang Theory?1.The universe had a beginning – Einstein’s theory of gravity (which has been thoroughly validated by extensive experimental confirmation) preclude an eternal universe. We now know beyond a reasonable doubt that the universe began at some point in the finite past. 2.The universe is expanding – (Edwin Hubble, 1929) Observed a Red Shift when looking at the spectrum light coming from distant galaxies. All light from these galaxies is shifted towards longer wavelengths, i.e.. toward red light. This is the Doppler effect and could only occur if the galaxies were moving away from each other at very high speeds. In fact they are moving away from each other at a rate proportional to the distance between them. ORDER OF EVENTS INTO THE FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE ACCORDING TO THE BIG BANG THEORY 1. Big Bang (infinitely small universe)

* Four Basic Forces of Nature were united - Grand Unified Theory (GUT Theory) * Gravity – the weakest force. It is always attractive, and acts between any two pieces of matter in the Universe since mass is its source.

•Weak Atomic Force – responsible for radioactive decay and neutrino interactions. It has a very short range and, as it name indicates, it is weak. •Electromagnetic force – causes electric and magnetic effects such as the repulsion between like electrical charges or the interaction of bar magnets. It is long ranged but much weaker than the strong force. •Strong Atomic Force – is very strong. This force holds the atomic nucleus together. This is the “glue” which binds the protons and neutrons in a nucleus. 2. Gravity separates from the four basic forces.

3.Strong nuclear forces separate out (quarks/electrons and antimatter form). 4.Quarks combine to form protons/neutrons (this forms the universe according to the theory). 5.Electromagnetic and weak atomic forces have separated.

6.Hydrogen and Helium nuclei formed7.Electrons combine with nuclei and create whole H/He atoms. 8.Expansion and cooling continued and nuclear reactions stopped. 9.The universe became matter-dominated rather than radiation-dominated. 10.The radiation continued to cool as the universe expanded. 11.Matter in the universe formed clouds and groups of clouds that eventually collapsed to form galaxies and clusters of galaxies. In the galaxies were formed the stars, planets and other bodies. THE END OF THE UNIVERSE

Basic question to such topic: Is the universe open or closed? 1.If the universe is “open” – it will have no definite end. It will just gradually dissipate as temperatures will continue to decline until they reach absolute zero. Hydrogen will be consumed by about 10 years after the birth of the universe and all the stars will burn out. Galaxies will disintegrate and their constituent stars will be lost to galactic space in 10 years. 2.If the universe is “closed” – some 50 billion years from now, it will stop...

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...The Origin of the Earth, One of God’s Hidden Secrets
“Much of geology is pure speculation and is as such on the same basis as philosophy, or must be accepted on faith, as the truths of theology” (Rehwinkel 177). For geologists this means that any theory of how the Earth, atmosphere and life originated, takes faith to believe, whether it is the evolutionist’s view or the creationist’s view. Creationists believe that the Earth was created 6000-7000 years ago. This number is based on what the Bible says. Evolutionists believe that the Earth was formed 4.6 billion years ago. (Tarbuck 598) This number is based on the subjective choice of scientific evidence. Creationists have faith that the Bible is true and that there is an Almighty God who created everything. Evolutionists have faith in their theories about how the world works. Using theories based on how the world words today they try determine how the world worked in the pat.
What do Evolutionists say about the Origin of the Earth?
Where did the Geological Column of Earth come from?
According to evolutionists, the universe started from a single catastrophic event now called the Big Bang. Protons, neutrons, and electrons were formed, and they bonded to form helium and hydrogen. Helium and hydrogen collided and underwent nuclear fusion, creating stars in which the lighter elements were made. When the stars...

...The Earth is one of eight major planets and a host of minor planets that circle a fairly average, middle-aged, main-sequence star. It formed from the accretion of residual material from the gravitational collapse of the solar nebula that produced the Sun. Based on their specific distances from the Sun, the planets formed into groups of similar chemical compositions, sizes, and densities. The four smaller inner planets are of higher density and are composed of a mixture of rock and metal. In contrast, the next four planets are massive gas giants with lower densities and larger sizes. The final grouping consists of small, low-density, icy worlds. Unlike the other inner planets, the Earth has remained a geologically active planet and has undergone continuous change since its formation. It is a planet dominated by the presence of liquid water. Throughout its long history, the Earth has evolved from a lifeless world into one that is populated by an uncountable number of species.
Based on radiometric dating analyses of moon rocks and meteorites, the Earth is believed to be about 4.5 billion years old. Many scientists believe that the Earth originated as a cold, undifferentiated body that internally heated up from the energy released through giant impacts, radioactive isotope decay, and the mass of the Earth itself. Once the appropriate melting temperatures were reached, heavy metallic elements...

...AP/IB 11 Biology
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There are multiple theories as to how life began on earth, beginning with the findings of various revolutionary scientists. This paper will discuss various scientists' theories and experiments as they strove to discover how life began, and the processes that might have occurred in order to develop and create the world we are now familiar with today.
Recent discovered functions of RNA have suggested that RNA provides a crucial framework in the evolution of the first cells, which may have been assembled from RNA comprised of nucleotides. Sidney W. Fox, a scientist at the University of Miami produced membrane-bound structures known as proteinoid microspheres. These microspheres can carry out some chemical reactions that resemble real living cells. They grow slowly and eventually bud off smaller microspheres. They're not living cells, but they are key in determining the kinds of processes that could have given rise to “self-sustaining protein entities”. It has even been hypothesized that comets and meteorites containing carbonaceous material hit the Earth with great force, and may have been a source of organic compounds such as lipid-like materials. David W. Deamer at the University of California and his co-workers extracted these organic materials from the carbon containing meteorites. Inevitably, some of the molecules assembled into membrane-bound spheres, possibly...

...The Navajo creation story involves three underworlds where important events happened to shape the Fourth World where we now live.
The Navajo were given the name Ni’hookaa Diyan Diné by their creators. It means "Holy Earth People". Navajos today simply call themselves "Diné", meaning "The People". The Tewa Indians were the first to call them Navahu, which means "the large area of cultivated land". The Mexicans knew them as "Navajos de Apaches", known as a special group somewhat distinct from the rest of the Apaches. Alonso de Benavides changed the name to Navaho in a book written in 1630.
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...Origin of Earth and Evoluation of the Environment
MODULE - 1
Environment through Ages
1
ORIGIN OF EARTH AND EVOLUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT
We live on a beautiful planet called earth, along with a wide variety of plants, animals and other organisms. Our earth, however, is part of a vast universe. The universe is about 15 to 20 billion years old. The age of the earth is approximately 4 to 5 billion years, while human beings evolved only around 2 million years ago. In this lesson, you shall learn how the earth originated, how it got its own environment and in what ways human beings have been using the environmental resources for their welfare and development.
Notes
OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson, you will be able to: • • • • • trace the origin of the earth; list the conditions, which make the earth a unique planet for supporting life; describe the sequence of steps in the origin and evolution of life prior to the appearance of humans; explain the term environment; enumerate the various biotic and abiotic constituents of the environment.
1.1 EARTH AS PART OF THE UNIVERSE AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
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...Introduction:
Dr. Terry Mortenson in the article The Origin of Old- Earth Geology and its Ramifications on Life in the 21st Century, discusses a well know debate that goes back many years. In this review I will give a brief overview of what the article itself is about. Along with that, I will discuss some of the strengths and weaknesses that I have found and thought about. There are some very great points in this article, as well as weak points. I think it is important to discuss both.
Overview:
The Origin of Old-Earth Geology and its Ramifications on Life in the 21st Century is an article by Dr. Terry Mortenson. He discusses a well know debate that goes back many years. He mentions three French scientists, Comte de Buffon(1708-88), Pierre Laplace(1749-1827), Jean Lamarck(1744-1829), and how they were involved in the development of theories without the involvement of God. He defends his arguments with the mentioning of the four scriptural geologist, George Young(1777-1848), George Fairholme(1789-1846), John Murray(1786?-1851), William Rhind(1797-1874)(Mortenson, 2003) .
Strengths:
I think Dr. Terry Mortenson makes very good points in his article, with great detail. He mentions the French scientists, and give a brief overview of what they brought to the table. “Three French scientists were prominent in this development. In Epochs of Nature (1778), Comte de Buffon (1708–88), postulated that the earth...

...things to survive. A stable environment is the key to survival. Through-out many years, things Earths systems have been changing drastically. The outcomes of change can be good or bad. The Earth is warming faster than ever before, and humans are to blame. Ever since the industrial revolution, (which began during the mid-1800s) humans had affected the Earth’s atmosphere drastically. We have quickly attained a mass amount of geological force in terms of our ability to change the atmosphere so easily. Human population has been constantly escalating rapidly, ever since 1900. About 7 billion people are living right now! With such a large population, there has been an increasing need for products. Carbon Dioxide is a “Greenhouse Gas”. Greenhouse Gasses can trap heat in our atmosphere. Carbon Dioxide levels have increased by over 30% due to the large amount of coal and oil being burned. Adding more and more air pollution is making the air we breathe toxic. This is just one of the many examples of how the Earths systems are changing drastically.
﻿ Earth’s System Essay
Earth’s system and its changes contribute a lot to human life as we know it. There should be a balance in order for most living things to survive. A stable environment is the key to survival. Through-out many years, things Earths systems have been changing drastically. The outcomes of change can be good or bad. The Earth is warming faster...

...3.) List four facts that characterize the oceanic ridge system.
Four facts that characterize the oceanic ridge system are: firstly, it represents 20 percent of Earth’s surface, the oceanic ridge system winds through all major ocean basin like the seams on a baseball. Ridges vary in width from 600 miles to 2500 miles. The mid-ocean ridge represents an area where, lithospheric plates move apart and new crust is created by magma pushing up from the mantle . Also, the mid-ocean ridge system is an example of a divergent plate boundary.
4.) Briefly describe the process of continental rifting. Where is it occurring today?
As crust is pulled apart, rifts are formed and eventually become large enough for ocean to form. This is occurring today in the East African rift.
Page 224
2.) Compare a continental volcanic arc and volcanic island arc.
In a continental volcanic arc mountains formed in part by igneous activity associated with subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath a continent. In contrast, volcanic island arc is a chain of volcanic islands generally located a few hundred kilometers from a trench where active subduction of one oceanic slab beneath another is occurring.
Page 334
1.) What is the age of the oldest sediments recovered using deep-ocean drilling? How do the ages of these sediments compare to the ages of the oldest continental rocks?
The age of the oldest sediments recovered using deep-ocean drilling is 180 million years. The age of these sediments...

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