Music piracy

"Illegal Music" redirects here. For the record label, see Illegal Musik.

A disc with a pirate symbol on it, a symbol for music piracy

Music piracy is the copying and distributing of copies of a piece of music for which the composer, recording artist, or copyright-holding record company did not give consent. It has a long history, as Beethoven was afflicted with pirated copies of his music, which reduced the income he could make from publishing.[1] In the contemporary legal environment, it is a form of copyright infringement, which is a civil wrong and, under certain circumstances, even a crime in many countries. The late 20th and early 21st centuries saw much controversy about copyright piracy, regarding the ethics of redistributing media content, how much production and distribution companies in the media were losing, and the very scope of what ought to be considered "piracy"—and cases involving the piracy of music were among the most frequently discussed in the debate.

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The invention of the internet and digital media created music piracy in its modern form. With the invention of newer technology that allowed for the piracy process to become less complicated, it became much more common. Users of the web began adding media files to the internet, and prior potential risks and difficulties to pirating music, such as the physicality of the process, were eliminated. It was much easier for people with little to no knowledge of technology and old piracy methods to gather media files.[2]

The first application that demonstrated the implications of music piracy was Napster. Napster enabled users to exchange music files over a common free server without any regard for copyright laws.[3] Napster was quickly shut down after lawsuits filed by Metallica and Dr. Dre and a separate lawsuit in regards to the Digital Millennium Copyright Act.[2][4] Other music sharing services such as Limewire continued to be a resource to those searching for free music files. These platforms were also removed after a few years of service due to copyright laws and the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. After finding some loopholes, piracy began to exist in more legal forms, an example being Pirate Bay. This technical legality was due to the format of the websites and their country of origin and administration. The websites were set up so that the site itself did not host any of the illegal files, but gave the user a map as to where they could access the files. Additionally, in Pirate Bay's case, the website was hosted under Swedish law, where this “map” was not illegal.[2]

In face of the growing encroachment on potential sales from internet piracy, industry associations like the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) have lobbied for stricter laws and stricter punishment of those breaking copyright law. Record companies have also turned to technological barriers to copying, such as DRM, to some controversy. These organizations have tried to add more controls to the digital copy of the music to prevent consumers from copying the music. For the most part, the industry has come to a consensus that, if not DRM, then some similar measures are necessary for them to continue to make a profit.

Critics of the record companies' strategy have proposed that the attempts to maintain sales rates are impeding the rights of legitimate listeners to use and listen to the music as they wish. When the US Congress passed the Copyright Act of 1909, it deliberately gave less copyright control to music composers than that of novelists: "Its fear was the monopoly power of rights holders, and that that power would stifle follow-on creativity".[5] According to the internationally established Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development,[6] "Existing laws and regulations may be too broad and general to deal adequately with the rapid technological developments that facilitate digital piracy, and policy makers may need to consider enacting some specific provisions to deal with these infringements. Such provisions should not unduly impede legitimate digital communications, nor unreasonably impact on the Internet as an effective communications platform, commercial channel and educational tool..."[6]

There have been several means of free access to copyrighted music for the general public including Napster, Limewire, and Spotify. Napster was a free file sharing software created by college student Shawn Fanning to enable people to share and trade music files in mp3 format. Napster became hugely popular because it made it so easy to share and download music files. However, the heavy metal band Metallica sued the company for copyright infringement.[7] This led to other artists following suit and shutting down Napster’s service. Likewise, Limewire was a free peer-to-peer file sharing software similar to that of Napster. The software enabled unlimited file sharing between computers and ended being one of the most popular sharing networks around. Like Napster, Limewire struggled through multiple legal battles and inevitably wound up being shut down.[8] Spotify and other on-demand streaming services are offering a way for consumers to still get their music for free while also contributing to the musician in a small way instead of simply illegally downloading the music, but it also moves customers away from buying hard copies of music or even legally downloading songs which is severely reducing artists' income. [9]

According to the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) since Shawn Fanning started the program file sharing program Napster in 1999 music revenue has gone down 53% from $14.6 billion to $7.0 billion in 2013.[10] A study done in 2007 by the Institute of Policy Innovation states that music piracy resulted in a loss of 71,060 U.S. jobs, out of which 23,860 would have been in the recording industry and 44,200 jobs in other unrelated industries.[11]

The RIAA, a powerful lobby for the recording industry, is responsible for carrying out most of the lawsuits against music piracy in the United States. Some claim that the enforcement against music piracy, which may cost copyright violators up to $150,000 per infringement,[5] is unreasonable, and that it may even violate United States constitutional protections against cruel and unusual punishment. Some have accused the RIAA of outright bullying, as when one of their lawyers, Matt Oppenheimer, told the defendant in one lawsuit, “You don’t want to pay another visit to a dentist like me".[5] In that same case, according to Lawrence Lessig, "the RIAA insisted it would not settle the case until it took every penny [the defendant] had saved".[5]

Further attempts at progress towards controlling the privacy of public media content by targeting the elimination of piracy were made when the highly anticipated yet often debated bill known as the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) was passed in recent years. The bill was first introduced in October 2011 by the United States House representative Lamar S. Smith.[12] The general scope of the law was to fulfill the goal of putting a stop to online piracy by expanding upon existing criminal laws regarding copyright violations. The essential goal of the bill was to protect intellectual property of content creators by raising awareness of the severity of punishments for copyright infringement. Naturally, the bill was met with considerable opposition from various parties. One instance of this was an article comment by Edward J. Black, president and CEO of the Computer & Communications Industry Association, who questioned the potential effectiveness of the bill by reasoning that the major pirate websites that SOPA attempts to eliminate could just as easily respawn under a different name if taken down as early as a few hours later.[13] Additionally, strong protest attempts were made across the internet when numerous high-profile online organizations including Tumblr, Facebook, Twitter, and participating in American Censorship Day on January 18, with some sites including Reddit and Wikipedia going as far as completely blacking out all of their pages, redirecting the user to SOPA protest messages.[14] Ultimately, as a result of aggressive protests and lack of consenting opinions within the congress, SOPA was tabled on January 20 by its creator, House representative Lamar Smith.[15]

Piracy's real effect on music sales is difficult to accurately assess. In neoclassical economics prices are determined by the combination of the forces of supply and demand, but the participators in the digital market do not always follow the usual motives and behaviors of the supply and demand system. First, the cost of digital distribution has decreased significantly from the costs of distribution by former methods. Furthermore, the majority of the filesharing community will distribute copies of music for a zero price in monetary terms, and there are some consumers who are willing to pay a certain price for legitimate copies even when they could just as easily obtain pirated copies,[6] such as with pay what you want vendors.

Another issue is that because many people in the world illegally download music because they cannot afford to purchase legitimate copies, not every illegal download necessarily equates to a lost sale. This has some effect on music sales, but as Lawrence Lessig points out, there is wide asymmetry between the estimated volume of illegal downloading and the projected loss of sales:

“

In 2002, the RIAA reported that CD sales had fallen by 8.9 percent, from 882 million to 803 million units; revenues fell 6.7 percent. This confirms a trend over the past few years. The RIAA blames Internet piracy for the trend, though there are many other causes that could account for this drop. SoundScan, for example, reports a more than 20 percent drop in the number of CDs released since 1999. That no doubt accounts for some of the decrease in sales... But let’s assume the RIAA is right, and all of the decline in CD sales is because of Internet sharing. Here’s the rub: In the same period that the RIAA estimates that 803 million CDs were sold, the RIAA estimates that 2.1 billion CDs were downloaded for free. Thus, although 2.6 times the total number of CDs sold were downloaded for free, sales revenue fell by just 6.7 percent... [So] there is a huge difference between downloading a song and stealing a CD.[5]

”

According to Woolley's introduction each year It is estimated that 12.5 billion dollars are lost due to file sharing and music piracy, and 5 billion of that is profits lost from the music industry directly. Due to this dramatic loss in profits the music industry has been forced to cut down their staffing. Music piracy has become such an issue that the industry is encouraged to adapt to this new era and change.[16]

The article, "The Music Industry On (The) Line? Surviving Music Piracy In A Digital Era" By Jelle Janssens, Stijn Vandaele, and Tom Vander Beken presents an analysis of the prevalence of piracy in music trade, which has affected the global sales of CDs. This article points out that technological development such as file sharing, MP3 players, and CDRs have increased music piracy. The most common forms of music piracy are Internet Piracy and compact disc piracy. It also discusses the association between music piracy and organized crime, which is defined as profit-driven illegal activities. The fact that digital products are virtual instead of physical affects the economic mechanisms behind the production and distribution of content, and how piracy works for digital as opposed to physical products: "the main consequence of the non-physical form of digital products is their virtually negligible marginal cost of reproduction and their ability to be digitally delivered."[6] The cost of burning a CD drastically lowered the overhead for record companies, as well as for music pirates, and with the growing tendency toward online distribution among legitimate and illicit distributors alike, the expense of distributing shrunk further from the costs of printing and transporting CDs to merely the costs of maintaining a website.[6] By sheer volume of file transfers, though, distributing music through traditional web servers and FTP servers were not as popular as peer to peer (P2P) now, because the traditional direct download method is slower.

The 2008 British Music Rights survey[17] showed that 80% of people in Britain wanted a legal P2P service. This was consistent with the results of earlier research conducted in the United States, upon which the Open Music Model was based.[18] In addition, the majority of filesharers in the survey preferred to get their music from "local sources" such as LAN connections, email, flash drives, sharing with other people they know personally.[6] The other most common method of filesharing was with P2P technologies. By 2007, P2P networks' popularity had grown so much that they used as much as 39% of the total volume of information exchanged over the internet.[6]

Alongside the RIAA and BPI's industry anti-piracy service sit a number of other independent companies offering anti-piracy solutions. These companies tend to have a better reach and success rate than the slower industry bodies and provide an alternative solution. Notable market leaders include AudioLock, Web Sheriff, Topple Track, Detecnet, Muso and Attributor.

There are ways to minimise music piracy on using the latest Google court decisions on the right to be forgotten as well as using some proven techniques relating to adding a watermark to the tracks and uploading the files yourself with promotional intent.[19]

A paper called the Music Anti-Piracy Best Practise Guidelines[20] has been published by music anti-piracy specialists AudioLock and endorsed by the Association of Independent Music, the Association For Electronic Music (AFEM), music distributors Believe Digital and Judge Jules (DJ and Lawyer). These guidelines give advice on how to minimise exposure to music-piracy and how best to utilise the solutions that are not available.

Statistics have shown that since the latter half the 2000s, there has been a decline in music piracy. According to a NPD survey, in 2012, approximately one in ten Internet users in the United States downloaded music through a file sharing service similar to BitTorrent or LimeWire. This number is significantly less than 2005, the peak of the piracy phenomenon, when one in five users used peer-to-peer networks to gather music files. The emergence of free streaming services has decreased the number of users who pirate music on the internet. Services such as Spotify and Pandora have easy-to-use interfaces and decrease the risk for computer viruses and spyware.[21] In comparison to the illegal software used by older music piracy networks such as Napster or Limewire, current music streaming services such as Spotify and Rdio offer cheap yet legal access to copyrighted music by paying the rights holders through money made off of payments made by premium users and through advertisements[22]

1.
Copyright infringement
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The copyright holder is typically the works creator, or a publisher or other business to whom copyright has been assigned. Copyright holders routinely invoke legal and technological measures to prevent and penalize copyright infringement, Copyright infringement disputes are usually resolved through direct negotiation, a notice and take down process, or litigation in civil court. Egregious or large-scale commercial infringement, especially when it involves counterfeiting, is sometimes prosecuted via the criminal justice system, estimates of the actual economic impact of copyright infringement vary widely and depend on many factors. The terms piracy and theft are often associated with copyright infringement, the original meaning of piracy is robbery or illegal violence at sea, but the term has been in use for centuries as a synonym for acts of copyright infringement. Theft, meanwhile, emphasizes the potential harm of infringement to copyright holders. However, copyright is a type of property, an area of law distinct from that which covers robbery or theft. Not all copyright infringement results in loss, and the U. S. Supreme Court ruled in 1985 that infringement does not easily equate with theft. The term piracy has been used to refer to the copying, distribution. The practice of labelling the infringement of rights in creative works as piracy predates statutory copyright law. Prior to the Statute of Anne in 1710, the Stationers Company of London in 1557, received a Royal Charter giving the company a monopoly on publication and those who violated the charter were labelled pirates as early as 1603. Copyright holders frequently refer to copyright infringement as theft, courts have distinguished between copyright infringement and theft. For instance, the United States Supreme Court held in Dowling v. United States that bootleg phonorecords did not constitute stolen property, instead, interference with copyright does not easily equate with theft, conversion, or fraud. The Copyright Act even employs a separate term of art to one who misappropriates a copyright. The term freebooting has been used to describe the unauthorized rehosting of online media, the term was coined by YouTuber Brady Haran in the podcast Hello Internet, which he co-hosts. Haran reappropriated the term in an attempt to find a more emotive than copyright infringement. For example, in 2013, the US Army settled a lawsuit with Texas-based company Apptricity, which makes software that allows the army to track their soldiers in real time. In 2004, the US Army paid US$4.5 million for a license of 500 users, while installing the software for more than 9000 users. Major anti-piracy organizations, like the BSA, conduct software licensing audits regularly to ensure full compliance and its just that they want to consume films online and theyre ready to consume films that way and were not necessarily offering them in that way

2.
Copyright
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Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights for its use and distribution. This is usually only for a limited time, the exclusive rights are not absolute but limited by limitations and exceptions to copyright law, including fair use. A major limitation on copyright is that copyright protects only the expression of ideas. Copyright is a form of property, applicable to certain forms of creative work. Some, but not all jurisdictions require fixing copyrighted works in a tangible form and it is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders. These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, copyrights are considered territorial rights, which means that they do not extend beyond the territory of a specific jurisdiction. While many aspects of copyright laws have been standardized through international copyright agreements. Typically, the duration of a copyright spans the authors life plus 50 to 100 years, some countries require certain copyright formalities to establishing copyright, but most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions. Most jurisdictions recognize copyright limitations, allowing fair exceptions to the exclusivity of copyright. Copyright came about with the invention of the press and with wider literacy. As a legal concept, its origins in Britain were from a reaction to printers monopolies at the beginning of the 18th century, Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, however, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se. Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the rights for a fixed period. The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist and it began, Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing. Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors. to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families

3.
Ludwig van Beethoven
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Ludwig van Beethoven was a German composer and pianist. A crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western art music, he one of the most famous. His best-known compositions include 9 symphonies,5 piano concertos,1 violin concerto,32 piano sonatas,16 string quartets, his great Mass the Missa solemnis, and one opera, Fidelio. At the age of 21 he moved to Vienna, where he began studying composition with Joseph Haydn and he lived in Vienna until his death. By his late 20s his hearing began to deteriorate, and by the last decade of his life he was almost completely deaf. In 1811 he gave up conducting and performing in public but continued to compose, many of his most admired works come from these last 15 years of his life. Beethoven was the grandson of Ludwig van Beethoven, a musician from the town of Mechelen in the Duchy of Brabant in the Flemish region of what is now Belgium, who at the age of twenty moved to Bonn. Ludwig was employed as a singer at the court of the Elector of Cologne, eventually rising to become, in 1761. The portrait he commissioned of himself towards the end of his life remained proudly displayed in his grandsons rooms as a talisman of his musical heritage. Ludwig had one son, Johann, who worked as a tenor in the musical establishment and gave keyboard. Johann married Maria Magdalena Keverich in 1767, she was the daughter of Johann Heinrich Keverich, Beethoven was born of this marriage in Bonn. There is no record of the date of his birth, however. Of the seven children born to Johann van Beethoven, only Ludwig, the second-born, caspar Anton Carl was born on 8 April 1774, and Nikolaus Johann, the youngest, was born on 2 October 1776. Beethovens first music teacher was his father and he later had other local teachers, the court organist Gilles van den Eeden, Tobias Friedrich Pfeiffer, and Franz Rovantini. Beethovens musical talent was obvious at a young age, some time after 1779, Beethoven began his studies with his most important teacher in Bonn, Christian Gottlob Neefe, who was appointed the Courts Organist in that year. Neefe taught Beethoven composition, and by March 1783 had helped him write his first published composition, Beethoven soon began working with Neefe as assistant organist, at first unpaid, and then as a paid employee of the court chapel conducted by the Kapellmeister Andrea Luchesi. His first three piano sonatas, named Kurfürst for their dedication to the Elector Maximilian Friedrich, were published in 1783, Maximilian Frederick noticed Beethovens talent early, and subsidised and encouraged the young mans musical studies. Maximilian Fredericks successor as the Elector of Bonn was Maximilian Francis, the youngest son of Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, echoing changes made in Vienna by his brother Joseph, he introduced reforms based on Enlightenment philosophy, with increased support for education and the arts

4.
Napster
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Napster was the name given to two music-focused online services. It was founded as a pioneering peer-to-peer file sharing Internet service that emphasized sharing digital files, typically songs. The company ran into difficulties over copyright infringement, ceased operations and was eventually acquired by Roxio. In its second incarnation Napster became a music store until it was acquired by Rhapsody from Best Buy on December 1,2011. Later companies and projects successfully followed its P2P file sharing example such as Gnutella, Freenet, Kazaa, Bearshare, some services, like LimeWire, Scour, Grokster, Madster, and eDonkey2000, were brought down or changed due to copyright issues. Napster was founded by Shawn Fanning, John Fanning, and Sean Parker, initially, Napster was envisioned as an independent peer-to-peer file sharing service by Shawn Fanning. The service operated between June 1999 and July 2001 and its technology allowed people to easily share their MP3 files with other participants. Although the original service was shut down by order, the Napster brand survived after the companys assets were liquidated and purchased by other companies through bankruptcy proceedings. At its peak the Napster service had about 80 million registered users, high-speed networks in college dormitories became overloaded, with as much as 61% of external network traffic consisting of MP3 file transfers. Many colleges blocked its use for this reason, even before concerns about liability for facilitating copyright violations on campus, the service and software program began as Windows-only. However, in 2000, Black Hole Media wrote a Macintosh client called Macster, Macster was later bought by Napster and designated the official Mac Napster client, at which point the Macster name was discontinued. Even before the acquisition of Macster, the Macintosh community had a variety of independently-developed Napster clients, the most notable was the open source client called MacStar, released by Squirrel Software in early 2000 and Rapster, released by Overcaster Family in Brazil. The release of MacStars source code paved the way for third-party Napster clients across all computing platforms, heavy metal band Metallica discovered a demo of their song I Disappear had been circulating across the network before it was released. This led to it being played on radio stations across the United States. On March 13,2000, they filed a lawsuit against Napster, separately, Metallica and Dr. Dre later delivered to Napster thousands of usernames of people whom they believed were pirating their songs. In March 2001, Napster settled both suits, after being shut down by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in a lawsuit from several major record labels. In 2000, Madonnas single Music was leaked out onto the web and Napster prior to its commercial release, verified Napster use peaked with 26.4 million users worldwide in February 2001. Napster was faced with the allegations from the music industry

5.
Metallica
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Metallica is an American heavy metal band based in San Rafael, California. The band was formed in 1981 in Los Angeles when vocalist/guitarist James Hetfield responded to an advertisement posted by drummer Lars Ulrich in a local newspaper, Metallicas current line-up comprises founding members Hetfield and Ulrich, longtime lead guitarist Kirk Hammett and bassist Robert Trujillo. Guitarist Dave Mustaine and bassists Ron McGovney, Cliff Burton and Jason Newsted are former members of the band, the bands fast tempos, instrumentals, and aggressive musicianship placed them as one of the founding big four bands of thrash metal, alongside Anthrax, Megadeth, and Slayer. The band expanded its musical direction and achieved commercial success with its eponymous fifth album Metallica. The album was also their first to debut at number one on the Billboard 200, in 2000, Metallica joined with other artists who filed a lawsuit against Napster for sharing the bands copyright-protected material without consent from the band. A settlement was reached and Napster became a pay-to-use service, the band returned to its original musical style with the release of Death Magnetic, and in 2009, Metallica was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Metallica has released ten albums, four live albums, five extended plays,26 music videos. The band has won eight Grammy Awards and six of its albums have debuted at number one on the Billboard 200. The bands eponymous 1991 album has sold over 16 million copies in the United States, Metallica ranks as one of the most commercially successful bands of all time, having sold over 110 million records worldwide. Metallica has been listed as one of the greatest artists of all time by many magazines, including Rolling Stone, in 2012, Metallica formed the independent record label Blackened Recordings and took full ownership of its albums and videos. The band is currently promoting Hardwired. to Self-Destruct, which was released on November 18,2016, guitarists James Hetfield and Hugh Tanner of Leather Charm answered the advertisement. Although he had not formed a band, Ulrich asked Metal Blade Records founder Brian Slagel if he could record a song for the upcoming compilation album Metal Massacre. Slagel accepted and Ulrich recruited Hetfield to sing and play rhythm guitar, the band was officially formed in October 1981, five months after Ulrich and Hetfield first met. Ulrich talked to his friend Ron Quintana, who was brainstorming names for a fanzine, Quintana had proposed the names MetalMania and Metallica. A second advertisement was placed in The Recycler for a position as lead guitarist, Dave Mustaine answered, Ulrich and Hetfield recruited him after seeing his expensive guitar equipment. In early 1982, Metallica recorded its first original song Hit the Lights for the Metal Massacre I compilation, Hetfield played bass on the song and Lloyd Grant was credited with a guitar solo. Metal Massacre I was released on June 14,1982, early pressings listed the band incorrectly as Mettallica, the bands first taste of live success came early, they were chosen to open for British heavy metal band Saxon at one gig of their 1982 US tour. Metallica recorded its first demo, Power Metal, an inspired by Quintanas early business cards in early 1982

6.
Dr. Dre
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Andre Romelle Young, better known by his stage name Dr. Dre, is an American rapper, record producer, and entrepreneur. He is the founder and current CEO of Aftermath Entertainment and Beats Electronics, Dre was previously the co-owner of, and an artist on, Death Row Records. He has produced albums for and overseen the careers of many rappers, including 2Pac, Snoop Dogg, Eminem, Xzibit, Knoc-turnal,50 Cent, The Game and Kendrick Lamar. He is credited as a key figure in the popularization of West Coast G-funk, in 1996, he left Death Row Records to establish his own label, Aftermath Entertainment. He produced an album titled Dr. Dre Presents the Aftermath in 1996. During the 2000s, he focused on production for other artists, Dr. Dre signed Eminem in 1998 and 50 Cent in 2002 to his record label respectively, while contributing production on their albums. He has won six Grammy Awards, including Producer of the Year, Dr. Dre has also had acting roles in movies such as Set It Off, The Wash and Training Day. Rolling Stone ranked Dre at 56 on their list of 100 Greatest Artists of All-Time, Young was born in Compton, California, the first child of Theodore and Verna Young. His middle name, Romelle, is derived from his fathers amateur R&B singing group and his parents married in 1964, separated in 1968, and divorced in 1972. His mother later remarried and had three children, sons Jerome and Tyree and daughter Shameka, in 1976, Young began attending Vanguard Junior High School in Compton, but due to gang violence, he transferred to the safer suburban Roosevelt Junior High School. Young is the cousin of producer Sir Jinx and he attended Centennial High School in Compton during his freshman year in 1979, but transferred to Fremont High School in South Central Los Angeles due to poor grades. Young attempted to enroll in a program at Northrop Aviation Company. Thereafter, he focused on his life and entertainment for the remainder of his high school years. Young fathered a son with Cassandra Joy Greene named Curtis, Curtis was brought up by his mother and first met his father 20 years later, when Curtis became rapper Hood Surgeon. Inspired by the Grandmaster Flash song The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel, he attended a club called Eve After Dark to watch many DJs. He subsequently became a DJ in the club, initially under the name Dr. J, based on the nickname of Julius Erving, at the club, he met aspiring rapper Antoine Carraby, later to become member DJ Yella of N. W. A. Soon afterwards he adopted the moniker Dr. Dre, a mix of previous alias Dr. J and his first name, Eve After Dark had a back room with a small four-track studio. In this studio, Dre and Yella recorded several demos, in their first recording session, they recorded a song entitled Surgery, with the lyrics calling Dr. Dre to surgery serving as the chorus to the song

7.
Digital Millennium Copyright Act
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The Digital Millennium Copyright Act is a United States copyright law that implements two 1996 treaties of the World Intellectual Property Organization. It criminalizes production and dissemination of technology, devices, or services intended to circumvent measures that control access to copyrighted works and it also criminalizes the act of circumventing an access control, whether or not there is actual infringement of copyright itself. In addition, the DMCA heightens the penalties for infringement on the Internet. The DMCAs principal innovation in the field of copyright is the exemption from direct and indirect liability of Internet service providers and this exemption was adopted by the European Union in the Electronic Commerce Directive 2000. The Copyright Directive 2001 implemented the 1996 WIPO Copyright Treaty in the EU, the treaties have two major portions. One portion includes works covered by treaties in U. S. copy prevention laws. For further analysis of this portion of the Act and of cases under it, see WIPO Copyright and Performances, the second portion is often known as the DMCA anti-circumvention provisions. The section contains a number of limitations and exemptions, for such things as government research. The section does not include a fair use exemption from criminality nor a scienter requirement, OCILLA also includes a counternotification provision that offers OSPs a safe harbor from liability to their users when users claim that the material in question is not, in fact, infringing. OCILLA also facilitates issuing of subpoenas against OSPs to provide their users identity, DMCA Title III modified section 117 of the copyright title so that those repairing computers could make certain temporary, limited copies while working on a computer. It reversed the precedent set in MAI Systems Corp. v. Peak Computer, DMCA Title IV contains an assortment of provisions, Clarified and added to the duties of the Copyright Office. Added ephemeral copy for broadcasters provisions, including certain statutory licenses, added provisions to facilitate distance education. Added provisions to assist libraries with keeping phonorecords of sound recordings, added provisions relating to collective bargaining and the transfer of movie rights. DMCA Title V added sections 1301 through 1332 to add a sui generis protection for boat hull designs, boat hull designs were not considered covered under copyright law because boats are useful articles whose form cannot be cleanly separated from their function. Exemptions are granted when it is shown that access-control technology has had an adverse effect on the ability of people to make non-infringing uses of copyrighted works. The exemption rules are revised every three years, Exemptions expire after three years and must be resubmitted for the next rulemaking cycle. Consequently, the issued in the prior rulemakings in 2000,2003,2006,2010 and 2013 are no longer valid. After much criticism, on December 29,2015, the Copyright Office initiated a study to assess the operation of section 1201 and this is different from usual public comments on exemption proposals

8.
Limewire
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LimeWire was a free peer-to-peer file sharing client program that ran on Windows, Mac OS X, Linux, and other operating systems supported by the Java software platform. LimeWire used the network as well as the BitTorrent protocol. A freeware version and an enhanced version were available. BitTorrent support is provided by libtorrent, a trial investigating the damages necessary to compensate the affected record labels was scheduled to begin in January 2011. As a result of the injunction, LimeWire stopped distributing the LimeWire software, however, version 5.5.10 and all prior versions of LimeWire remain fully functional and cannot be disabled unless a user upgrades to one of the newer versions. The program has been resurrected by the creators of WireShare, written in the Java programming language, LimeWire can run on any computer with a Java Virtual Machine installed. Installers were provided for Apples Mac OS X, Microsofts Windows, support for Mac OS9 and other previous versions was dropped with the release of LimeWire 4.0.10. From version 4.8 onwards, LimeWire works as a UPnP Internet Gateway Device controller in that it can set up packet-forwarding rules with UPnP-capable routers. LimeWire offers sharing of its library through the Digital Audio Access Protocol, as such, when LimeWire is running and configured to allow it, any files shared are detectable and downloaded on the local network by DAAP-enabled devices. Beginning with LimeWire 4.13.9, connections can be encrypted with Transport Layer Security, following LimeWire 4.13.11, TLS became the default connection option.95 with 6 months of updates, or $34.95 with 1 year of updates. The company claimed the paid version provides faster downloads and 66% better search results and this is accomplished by facilitating direct connection with up to 10 hosts of an identical searched file at any one time, whereas the free version is limited to a maximum of 8 hosts. Researchers at Cornell University developed a reputation management add-in called Credence that allows users to distinguish between genuine and suspect files before downloading them, an October 12,2005 report states that some of LimeWires free and open source software contributors have forked the project and called it FrostWire. LimeWire was the file sharing program after Frostwire to support firewall-to-firewall file transfers, a feature introduced in version 4.2. LimeWire also now includes BitTorrent support, but is limited to three torrent uploads and three torrent downloads, which coexist with ordinary downloads, LimeWire 5.0 added an instant messenger that uses the XMPP Protocol, an open source communication protocol. Users can now chat and share files with individuals or a group of friends in their buddy list, from version 5.5.1, LimeWire has added a key activation, which requires the user to enter the unique key before activating the Pro version of the software. This has stopped people from downloading the Pro versions. However, there are ways to bypass this security feature. The most recent stable version of LimeWire is 5.5.16, versions of LimeWire prior to 5.5

9.
Pirate Bay
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In some countries, Internet service providers have been ordered to block access to the website. Subsequently, proxy websites have been providing access to it, founders Svartholm, Neij, Sunde and Lundström were all released by 2015 after having served shortened sentences. The website faced several shutdowns and domain seizures, switching to a series of new web addresses to continue operating, the Pirate Bay was established in September 2003 by the Swedish anti-copyright organization Piratbyrån, it has been run as a separate organization since October 2004. The Pirate Bay was first run by Gottfrid Svartholm and Fredrik Neij and they have both been accused of assisting in making copyrighted content available by the Motion Picture Association of America. On 31 May 2006, the servers in Stockholm were raided and taken away by Swedish police. The Pirate Bay claims to be an entity based in the Seychelles. The Pirate Bay has been involved in a number of lawsuits, the defendants appealed the verdict and accused the judge of giving in to political pressure. On 26 November 2010, a Swedish appeals court upheld the verdict, decreasing the prison terms. On 17 May 2010, because of an injunction against their bandwidth provider, access to the website was later restored with a message making fun of the injunction on their front page. On 23 June 2010, the group Piratbyrån disbanded due to the death of Ibi Kopimi Botani, the Pirate Bay was hosted for several years by PRQ, a Sweden-based company, owned by creators of TPB Gottfrid Svartholm and Fredrik Neij. PRQ is said to highly secure, no-questions-asked hosting services to its customers. From May 2011, Serious Tubes Networks started providing network connectivity to The Pirate Bay, on 23 January 2012, The Pirate Bay added the new category Physibles. These are 3D files described as data objects that are able to become physical using a 3D printer, on 10 August 2013, The Pirate Bay announced the release of PirateBrowser, a free web browser used to circumvent internet censorship. The site was the most visited torrent directory on the World Wide Web from 2003 until November 2014, on 8 December 2014, Google removed most of the Google Play apps from its app store that have The Pirate Bay in the title. On 9 December 2014, The Pirate Bay was raided by the Swedish police, who seized servers, computers, several other torrent related sites including EZTV, Zoink, Torrage and the Istole tracker were also shut down in addition to The Pirate Bays forum Suprbay. org. Several copies of The Pirate Bay went online during the several days, most notably oldpiratebay. org. On 19 May 2015, the. se domain of The Pirate Bay was ordered to be seized following a ruling by a Swedish court, the site reacted by adding six new domains in its place. The judgment was appealed on 26 May 2015, on 12 May 2016 the appeal was struck down and the Court ruled the domains be turned over to the Swedish state

10.
Recording Industry Association of America
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The Recording Industry Association of America is a continental North and South American trade organization that represents the recording industry in the United States. Its members consist of record labels and distributors, which the RIAA says create, the RIAA headquarters is in Washington, D. C. The RIAA was formed in 1952 and its original mission was to administer recording copyright fees and problems, work with trade unions, and do research relating to the record industry and government regulations. Early RIAA standards included the RIAA equalization curve, the format of the record groove and the dimensions of 33 1/3 rpm,45 rpm. Since 2001, the RIAA has spent $2 to $6 million each year on lobbying in the United States, the RIAA also participates in the collective rights management of sound recordings, and it is responsible for certifying Gold and Platinum albums and singles in the United States. Cary Sherman has been the RIAAs chairman and CEO since 2011, Sherman joined the RIAA as its general counsel in 1997 and became president of the board of directors in 2001, serving in that position until being made chairman and CEO. Mitch Glazier has been the RIAAs senior executive vice president since 2011 and he served as executive vice president for public policy and industry relations from 2000 to 2011. The past RIAA chairman and CEO is Mitch Bainwol, who served from 2003 to 2011 and he left in 2011 to become president and CEO of the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers. The board of directors consists of 26 members of the board, the RIAA operates an award program for albums that sell a large number of copies. The program originally began in 1958, with a Gold Award for singles, the criterion was changed in 1975 to the number of copies sold, with albums selling 500,000 copies awarded the Gold Award. In 1976, a Platinum Award was added for one million sales, the awards are open to both RIAA members and non-members. Since 2000, the RIAA also operates a program for Latin music sales. Currently, a Disco De Oro is awarded for 30,000 units, the RIAA defines Latin music as a type of release with 51% or more of its content recorded in Spanish. In 2006, digital ringtones were added to branch of certification. In the same year, the RIAA introduced the Latin Digital Award for digital recordings in Spanish and this release format includes DVD and VHS releases, and certain live albums and compilation albums. The certification criteria is different from other styles. Gold,50,000 Platinum,100,000 Multi-Platinum,200,000 copies The RIAA opposes unauthorized sharing of its music, studies conducted since the association began its campaign against peer-to-peer file-sharing have concluded that losses incurred per download range from negligible to moderate. The association has commenced high-profile lawsuits against file sharing service providers and it has also commenced a series of lawsuits against individuals suspected of file sharing, notably college students and parents of file sharing children

11.
Digital rights management
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Digital rights management schemes are various access control technologies that are used to restrict usage of proprietary hardware and copyrighted works. DRM technologies try to control the use, modification, and distribution of copyrighted works, the use of digital rights management is not universally accepted. Furthermore, works can become permanently inaccessible if the DRM scheme changes or if the service is discontinued, the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the Free Software Foundation consider the use of DRM systems to be an anti-competitive practice. Worldwide, many laws have been created which criminalize the circumvention of DRM, communication about such circumvention, such laws are part of the United States Digital Millennium Copyright Act, and the European Unions Copyright Directive. The term DRM is also referred to as copy protection, technical protection measures, copy prevention, or copy control. The advent of digital media and analog-to-digital conversion technologies has vastly increased the concerns of copyright-owning individuals and these concerns are particularly prevalent within the music and movie industries, because these sectors are partly or wholly dependent on the revenue generated from such works. This, combined with the Internet and popular file-sharing tools, has made unauthorized distribution of copies of copyrighted digital media much easier, DRM technologies enable content publishers to enforce their own access policies on content, such as restrictions on copying or viewing. These technologies have been criticized for restricting individuals from copying or using the content legally, DRM is in common use by the entertainment industry. However, Apple dropped DRM from all iTunes music files around 2009, for instance, tractor companies try to prevent the DIY repairing by the owning farmers under usage of DRM-laws as DMCA. Digital Rights Management Techniques include, Restrictive Licensing Agreements, The access to materials, copyright. Some restrictive licenses are imposed on consumers as a condition of entering a website or when downloading software, encryption, Scrambling of expressive material and embedding of a tag, This technology is designed to control access and reproduction of information. This includes backup copies for personal use, computer games sometimes use DRM technologies to limit the number of systems the game can be installed on by requiring authentication with an online server. Most games with this restriction allow three or five installs, although some allow an installation to be recovered when the game is uninstalled. In mid-2008, the publication of Mass Effect marked the start of a wave of titles primarily making use of SecuROM for DRM, the use of the DRM scheme in 2008s Spore backfired and there were protests, resulting in a considerable number of users seeking an unlicensed version instead. This backlash against the limit was a significant factor in Spore becoming the most pirated game in 2008. Additionally, other games that use intrusive DRM such as BioShock, Crysis Warhead. Although Ubisoft has not commented on the results of the experiment, Ubisoft formally announced a return to online authentication on 9 February 2010, through its Uplay online gaming platform, starting with Silent Hunter 5, The Settlers 7, and Assassins Creed II. Silent Hunter 5 was first reported to have been compromised within 24 hours of release, the Uplay system works by having the installed game on the local PCs incomplete and then continuously downloading parts of the game-code from Ubisofts servers as the game progresses

12.
Digital right management
–
Digital rights management schemes are various access control technologies that are used to restrict usage of proprietary hardware and copyrighted works. DRM technologies try to control the use, modification, and distribution of copyrighted works, the use of digital rights management is not universally accepted. Furthermore, works can become permanently inaccessible if the DRM scheme changes or if the service is discontinued, the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the Free Software Foundation consider the use of DRM systems to be an anti-competitive practice. Worldwide, many laws have been created which criminalize the circumvention of DRM, communication about such circumvention, such laws are part of the United States Digital Millennium Copyright Act, and the European Unions Copyright Directive. The term DRM is also referred to as copy protection, technical protection measures, copy prevention, or copy control. The advent of digital media and analog-to-digital conversion technologies has vastly increased the concerns of copyright-owning individuals and these concerns are particularly prevalent within the music and movie industries, because these sectors are partly or wholly dependent on the revenue generated from such works. This, combined with the Internet and popular file-sharing tools, has made unauthorized distribution of copies of copyrighted digital media much easier, DRM technologies enable content publishers to enforce their own access policies on content, such as restrictions on copying or viewing. These technologies have been criticized for restricting individuals from copying or using the content legally, DRM is in common use by the entertainment industry. However, Apple dropped DRM from all iTunes music files around 2009, for instance, tractor companies try to prevent the DIY repairing by the owning farmers under usage of DRM-laws as DMCA. Digital Rights Management Techniques include, Restrictive Licensing Agreements, The access to materials, copyright. Some restrictive licenses are imposed on consumers as a condition of entering a website or when downloading software, encryption, Scrambling of expressive material and embedding of a tag, This technology is designed to control access and reproduction of information. This includes backup copies for personal use, computer games sometimes use DRM technologies to limit the number of systems the game can be installed on by requiring authentication with an online server. Most games with this restriction allow three or five installs, although some allow an installation to be recovered when the game is uninstalled. In mid-2008, the publication of Mass Effect marked the start of a wave of titles primarily making use of SecuROM for DRM, the use of the DRM scheme in 2008s Spore backfired and there were protests, resulting in a considerable number of users seeking an unlicensed version instead. This backlash against the limit was a significant factor in Spore becoming the most pirated game in 2008. Additionally, other games that use intrusive DRM such as BioShock, Crysis Warhead. Although Ubisoft has not commented on the results of the experiment, Ubisoft formally announced a return to online authentication on 9 February 2010, through its Uplay online gaming platform, starting with Silent Hunter 5, The Settlers 7, and Assassins Creed II. Silent Hunter 5 was first reported to have been compromised within 24 hours of release, the Uplay system works by having the installed game on the local PCs incomplete and then continuously downloading parts of the game-code from Ubisofts servers as the game progresses

13.
Copyright Act of 1909
–
The Copyright Act of 1909 was a landmark statute in United States statutory copyright law. 60–349 on March 4,1909 by the 60th United States Congress, the Act was repealed and superseded by the Copyright Act of 1976, but it remains effective for copyrighted works created before the Copyright Act of 1976 went into effect in January 1,1978. It allowed for works to be copyrighted for a period of 28 years from the date of publication, like the Copyright Act of 1790 before it, the copyrighted work could be renewed once for a second term of equal value. Before the 1909 Act, the last major revision to United States copyright law was the 1790 Act, methods of reproducing and duplicating works subject to copyright had significantly increased since the 1790 Act. Under the 1909 Act, federal copyright protection attached to original works only when those works were 1) published. Thus, state law governed protection for unpublished works, but published works. If no notice of copyright was affixed to a work and the work was published in a sense, the 1909 Act provided no copyright protection. In the report submitted by the House Committee on Patents, they designed the law not primarily for the benefit of the author. This decision on sheet music was superseded by the Act, in 1952, the Supreme Court held that the Act gave trial judges significant freedom in imposing legal remedies to discourage copyright infringement. Under this ruling, judges could penalize copyright infringers with repaying profits or paying compensation for damages, if damages could not be determined, judges could levy statutory damages instead. This ruling forced Shanleys Restaurant in New York to pay a fee to songwriter Victor Herbert who performed one of his songs during dinner and this decision helped the ASCAP adopt the royalty-payment mechanism known as a blanket license, which is still used today. Under a blanket license, signatory businesses such as restaurants have the right to any composition of an ASCAP artist for an annual fee. This amendment resulted in motion pictures being specifically added to the category of protected works, prior to this amendment, United States copyright law did not protect nor register motion picture films. Instead, most motion picture filmmakers would register their work as a collection of still photographs and this helped ease the deposit requirements of foreign authors. This amended section 8 of the Copyright Act of 1909 with the intention to preserve the right of authors during periods of emergency,1909 Act as originally passed and each revision

14.
Neoclassical economics
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Neoclassical economics is an approach to economics focusing on the determination of goods, outputs, and income distributions in markets through supply and demand. Neoclassical economics dominates microeconomics, and together with Keynesian economics forms the neoclassical synthesis which dominates mainstream economics today. – Veblen It was later used by John Hicks, George Stigler, and others to include the work of Carl Menger, William Stanley Jevons, Léon Walras, John Bates Clark, neoclassical economics is characterized by several assumptions common to many schools of economic thought. Individuals maximize utility and firms maximize profits, people act independently on the basis of full and relevant information. Heres how William Stanley Jevons presented the problem of Economics, from the basic assumptions of neoclassical economics comes a wide range of theories about various areas of economic activity. Utility maximization is the source for the theory of consumption, the derivation of demand curves for consumer goods. Market supply and demand are aggregated across firms and individuals and their interactions determine equilibrium output and price. The market supply and demand for each factor of production is derived analogously to those for market final output to determine equilibrium income, factor demand incorporates the marginal-productivity relationship of that factor in the output market. Neoclassical economics emphasizes equilibria, where equilibria are the solutions of agent maximization problems, regularities in economies are explained by methodological individualism, the position that economic phenomena can be explained by aggregating over the behavior of agents. Institutions, which might be considered as prior to and conditioning individual behavior, are de-emphasized, Classical economics, developed in the 18th and 19th centuries, included a value theory and distribution theory. The value of a product was thought to depend on the involved in producing that product. The explanation of costs in Classical economics was simultaneously an explanation of distribution, a landlord received rent, workers received wages, and a capitalist tenant farmer received profits on their investment. This classic approach included the work of Adam Smith and David Ricardo, however, some economists gradually began emphasizing the perceived value of a good to the consumer. They proposed a theory that the value of a product was to be explained with differences in utility to the consumer, the third step from political economy to economics was the introduction of marginalism and the proposition that economic actors made decisions based on margins. This differs from the decision making of classical political economy in that it explains how vital goods such as water can be cheap. The change in theory from classical to neoclassical economics has been called the marginal revolution. It is frequently dated from William Stanley Jevonss Theory of Political Economy, Carl Mengers Principles of Economics, in particular, Jevons saw his economics as an application and development of Jeremy Benthams utilitarianism and never had a fully developed general equilibrium theory. Jevons built on the conception of Bentham or of Mill

15.
Supply and demand
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In microeconomics, supply and demand is an economic model of price determination in a market. By contrast, responses to changes in the price of the good are represented as movements along unchanged supply, a supply schedule is a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity supplied. Under the assumption of perfect competition, supply is determined by marginal cost and that is, firms will produce additional output while the cost of producing an extra unit of output is less than the price they would receive. A hike in the cost of raw goods would decrease supply, shifting costs up, while a discount would increase supply, shifting costs down, by its very nature, conceptualizing a supply curve requires the firm to be a perfect competitor. This is true because each point on the curve is the answer to the question If this firm is faced with this potential price, how much output will it be able to. Economists distinguish between the curve of an individual firm and between the market supply curve. The market supply curve is obtained by summing the quantities supplied by all suppliers at each potential price, thus, in the graph of the supply curve, individual firms supply curves are added horizontally to obtain the market supply curve. Economists also distinguish the market supply curve from the long-run market supply curve. In this context, two things are assumed constant by definition of the run, the availability of one or more fixed inputs. In the long run, firms have a chance to adjust their holdings of physical capital, furthermore, in the long run potential competitors can enter or exit the industry in response to market conditions. For both of these reasons, long-run market supply curves are generally flatter than their short-run counterparts, the determinants of supply are, Production costs, how much a goods costs to be produced. Production costs are the cost of the inputs, primarily labor, capital, energy and they depend on the technology used in production, and/or technological advances. Following the law of demand, the curve is almost always represented as downward-sloping, meaning that as price decreases. Just like the supply curves reflect marginal cost curves, demand curves are determined by marginal utility curves, the demand schedule is defined as the willingness and ability of a consumer to purchase a given product in a given frame of time. It is aforementioned, that the curve is generally downward-sloping. Two different hypothetical types of goods with upward-sloping demand curves are Giffen goods, by its very nature, conceptualizing a demand curve requires that the purchaser be a perfect competitor—that is, that the purchaser has no influence over the market price. This is true because each point on the curve is the answer to the question If this buyer is faced with this potential price. If a buyer has market power, so its decision of how much to buy influences the price, then the buyer is not faced with any price

16.
Lawrence Lessig
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Lester Lawrence Larry Lessig III is an American academic, attorney, and political activist. He is the Roy L. Furman Professor of Law at Harvard Law School, Lessig was a candidate for the Democratic Partys nomination for President of the United States in the 2016 U. S. presidential election, but withdrew before the primaries. Lessig is a proponent of reduced legal restrictions on copyright, trademark, in 2001, he founded Creative Commons, a non-profit organization devoted to expanding the range of creative works available for others to build upon and to share legally. Prior to his most recent appointment at Harvard, he was a professor of law at Stanford Law School, where he founded the Center for Internet and Society, and at the University of Chicago. As a political activist, Lessig has called for state-based activism to promote reform of government with a Second Constitutional Convention. In May 2014, he launched a political action committee which he termed Mayday PAC with the purpose of electing candidates to Congress who would pass campaign finance reform. Lessig is also the co-founder of Rootstrikers, and is on the boards of MapLight and he serves on the advisory boards of the Democracy Café and the Sunlight Foundation. In August 2015, Lessig announced that he was exploring a candidacy for President of the United States. After accomplishing this, on September 6,2015, Lessig announced that he was entering the race to become a candidate for the 2016 Democratic Partys presidential nomination, Lessig has described his candidacy as a referendum on campaign finance reform and electoral reform legislation. He stated that, if elected, he would serve a term as president with his proposed reforms as his legislative priorities. In November 2015, he ended his campaign, Lessig started his academic career at the University of Chicago Law School, where he was Professor from 1991 to 1997. As co-director of the Center for the Study of Constitutionalism in Eastern Europe there, from 1997 to 2000, he was at Harvard Law School, holding for a year the chair of Berkman Professor of Law, affiliated with the Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society. He subsequently joined Stanford Law School, where he established the schools Center for Internet, Lessig returned to Harvard in July 2009 as Professor and Director of the Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics. In 2013, Lessig was appointed as the Roy L. Furman Professor of Law and Leadership, his lecture was titled Aarons Laws, Law. Lessig was portrayed by Christopher Lloyd in The Wake Up Call, Lessig has been politically liberal since studying philosophy at Cambridge in the mid-1980s. Posner would later call him the most distinguished law professor of his generation, Lessig has emphasized in interviews that his philosophy experience at Cambridge radically changed his values and career path. What was intended to be a year abroad at Cambridge convinced him instead to another two years to complete an undergraduate degree in philosophy and develop his changed political values. During this time, he traveled in the Eastern Bloc

17.
Overhead (business)
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In business, overhead or overhead expense refers to an ongoing expense of operating a business, it is also known as an operating expense. Overheads are the expenditure which cannot be traced to or identified with any particular cost unit. Therefore, overheads cannot be associated with the products or services being offered. However, overheads are still vital to business operations as they provide support for the business to carry out profit making activities. For example, overhead costs such as the rent for a factory workers to manufacture products which can then be sold for a profit. Such expenses are incurred for output generally and not for particular work order, e. g. wages paid to watch and ward staff, heating and lighting expenses of factory, overheads are also very important cost element along with direct materials and direct labor. Overheads are often related to accounting concepts such as fixed costs, overhead expenses are all costs on the income statement except for direct labour, direct materials, and direct expenses. Overhead expenses include accounting fees, advertising, insurance, interest, legal fees, labor burden, rent, repairs, supplies, taxes, telephone bills, travel expenditures, there are essentially two types of business overheads. Administrative overheads include items such as utilities, strategic planning, and these costs are treated as overheads due to the fact that they arent directly related to any particular function of the organization nor does it directly result in generating any profits. Instead, these costs simply take on the role of supporting all of the other functions. Universities regularly charge administrative overhead rates on research, in the U. S. the average overhead rate is 52%, which is spent on building operation, administrative salaries and other areas not directly tied to research. Academics have argued against these charges, an article written by Joshua Pearce in Science argued that overhead accounting practices hurt science by removing funds from research and discouraging the use of less-expensive open source hardware. He went into detail on the accounting showing how millions were wasted each year on overhead cash grabs by university administrators in ZME Science and this includes mainly monthly and annual salaries that are agreed upon. They are considered overheads as these costs must be paid regardless of sales, in addition, salary differs from wage as salary is not affected by working hours and time, therefore will remain constant. In particular, this would more commonly apply to more senior members as they are typically signed to longer tenure contracts. This includes office equipment such as printer, fax machine, computers, refrigerator and they are equipments that do not directly result in sales and profits as they are only used for supporting functions that they can provide to business operations. However, equipments can vary between administrative overheads and manufacturing overheads based on the purpose of which they are using the equipments, for example, for a printing company a printer would be considered a manufacturing overhead. This includes the cost of hiring external law and audit firms on behalf of the company and this would not apply if company has own internal lawyers and audit plans

18.
Website
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A website is a collection of related web pages, including multimedia content, typically identified with a common domain name, and published on at least one web server. A website may be accessible via a public Internet Protocol network, such as the Internet, or a local area network. Websites have many functions and can be used in various fashions, a website can be a website, a commercial website for a company. Websites are typically dedicated to a topic or purpose, ranging from entertainment and social networking to providing news. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web, while private websites, Web pages, which are the building blocks of websites, are documents, typically composed in plain text interspersed with formatting instructions of Hypertext Markup Language. They may incorporate elements from other websites with suitable markup anchors, Web pages are accessed and transported with the Hypertext Transfer Protocol, which may optionally employ encryption to provide security and privacy for the user. The users application, often a web browser, renders the page content according to its HTML markup instructions onto a display terminal. Hyperlinking between web pages conveys to the reader the site structure and guides the navigation of the site, Some websites require user registration or subscription to access content. As of 2016 end users can access websites on a range of devices, including desktop and laptop computers, tablet computers, smartphones, the World Wide Web was created in 1990 by the British CERN physicist Tim Berners-Lee. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to use for anyone, before the introduction of HTML and HTTP, other protocols such as File Transfer Protocol and the gopher protocol were used to retrieve individual files from a server. These protocols offer a directory structure which the user navigates and chooses files to download. Documents were most often presented as text files without formatting. Websites have many functions and can be used in various fashions, a website can be a website, a commercial website. Websites can be the work of an individual, a business or other organization, any website can contain a hyperlink to any other website, so the distinction between individual sites, as perceived by the user, can be blurred. Websites are written in, or converted to, HTML and are accessed using a software interface classified as a user agent. Web pages can be viewed or otherwise accessed from a range of computer-based and Internet-enabled devices of various sizes, including computers, laptops, PDAs. A website is hosted on a system known as a web server. These terms can refer to the software that runs on these systems which retrieves

19.
File Transfer Protocol
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The File Transfer Protocol is a standard network protocol used for the transfer of computer files from a server to a client using the Client–server model on a computer network. FTP is built on a model architecture and uses separate control. FTP users may authenticate themselves with a clear-text sign-in protocol, normally in the form of a username and password, for secure transmission that protects the username and password, and encrypts the content, FTP is often secured with SSL/TLS. SSH File Transfer Protocol is sometimes used instead, but is technologically different. The original specification for the File Transfer Protocol was written by Abhay Bhushan, until 1980, FTP ran on NCP, the predecessor of TCP/IP. The protocol was replaced by a TCP/IP version, RFC765 and RFC959. FTP may run in active or passive mode, which determines how the connection is established. In both cases, the client creates a TCP control connection from a random, usually an unprivileged, in active mode, the client starts listening for incoming data connections from the server on port M. It sends the FTP command PORT M to inform the server on which port it is listening, the server then initiates a data channel to the client from its port 20, the FTP server data port. In situations where the client is behind a firewall and unable to accept incoming TCP connections, both modes were updated in September 1998 to support IPv6. Further changes were introduced to the mode at that time. The server responds over the connection with three-digit status codes in ASCII with an optional text message. For example,200 means that the last command was successful, the numbers represent the code for the response and the optional text represents a human-readable explanation or request. An ongoing transfer of data over the data connection can be aborted using an interrupt message sent over the control connection. While transferring data over the network, four data representations can be used, ASCII mode, Data is converted, if needed, from the sending hosts character representation to 8-bit ASCII before transmission, and to the receiving hosts character representation. As a consequence, this mode is inappropriate for files that contain other than plain text. Image mode, The sending machine sends each file byte by byte, EBCDIC mode, Used for plain text between hosts using the EBCDIC character set. Local mode, Allows two computers with identical setups to send data in a format without the need to convert it to ASCII

20.
Peer to peer
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Peer-to-peer computing or networking is a distributed application architecture that partitions tasks or workloads between peers. Peers are equally privileged, equipotent participants in the application and they are said to form a peer-to-peer network of nodes. Peers are both suppliers and consumers of resources, in contrast to the traditional client-server model in which the consumption, while P2P systems had previously been used in many application domains, the architecture was popularized by the file sharing system Napster, originally released in 1999. The concept has inspired new structures and philosophies in many areas of human interaction, in such social contexts, peer-to-peer as a meme refers to the egalitarian social networking that has emerged throughout society, enabled by Internet technologies in general. While P2P systems had previously used in many application domains. The peer-to-peer movement allowed millions of Internet users to directly, forming groups and collaborating to become user-created search engines, virtual supercomputers. The basic concept of peer-to-peer computing was envisioned in earlier systems and networking discussions, reaching back to principles stated in the first Request for Comments. The early Internet was more open than present day, where two machines connected to the Internet could send packets to each other without firewalls and other security measures and this contrasts to the broadcasting-like structure of the web as it has developed over the years. As a precursor to the Internet, ARPANET was a successful client-server network where every participating node could request, however, ARPANET was not self-organized, and it lacked the ability to provide any means for context or content-based routing beyond simple address-based routing. Therefore, a messaging system that is often likened as an early peer-to-peer architecture was established. USENET was developed in 1979 and is a system that enforces a decentralized model of control, the basic model is a client-server model from the user or client perspective that offers a self-organizing approach to newsgroup servers. However, news servers communicate with one another as peers to propagate Usenet news articles over the group of network servers. In May 1999, with more people on the Internet, Shawn Fanning introduced the music. A peer-to-peer network is designed around the notion of equal peer nodes simultaneously functioning as both clients and servers to the nodes on the network. This model of network arrangement differs from the model where communication is usually to. Data is still exchanged directly over the underlying TCP/IP network, but at the application layer peers are able to communicate each other directly. Overlays are used for indexing and peer discovery, and make the P2P system independent from the network topology. Based on how the nodes are linked to each other within the overlay network, unstructured peer-to-peer networks do not impose a particular structure on the overlay network by design, but rather are formed by nodes that randomly form connections to each other

21.
Local area network
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By contrast, a wide area network, not only covers a larger geographic distance, but also generally involves leased telecommunication circuits or Internet links. An even greater contrast is the Internet, which is a system of globally connected business, Ethernet and Wi-Fi are the two most common transmission technologies in use for local area networks. Historical technologies include ARCNET, Token ring, and AppleTalk, the increasing demand and use of computers in universities and research labs in the late 1960s generated the need to provide high-speed interconnections between computer systems. A1970 report from the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory detailing the growth of their Octopus network gave an indication of the situation. A number of experimental and early commercial LAN technologies were developed in the 1970s, Cambridge Ring was developed at Cambridge University starting in 1974. Ethernet was developed at Xerox PARC in 1973–1975, and filed as U. S, in 1976, after the system was deployed at PARC, Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs published a seminal paper, Ethernet, Distributed Packet-Switching for Local Computer Networks. ARCNET was developed by Datapoint Corporation in 1976 and announced in 1977 and it had the first commercial installation in December 1977 at Chase Manhattan Bank in New York. The initial driving force for networking was generally to share storage and printers, there was much enthusiasm for the concept and for several years, from about 1983 onward, computer industry pundits would regularly declare the coming year to be, “The year of the LAN”. In practice, the concept was marred by proliferation of incompatible physical layer and network protocol implementations, typically, each vendor would have its own type of network card, cabling, protocol, and network operating system. Netware dominated the personal computer LAN business from early after its introduction in 1983 until the mid-1990s when Microsoft introduced Windows NT Advanced Server, of the competitors to NetWare, only Banyan Vines had comparable technical strengths, but Banyan never gained a secure base. During the same period, Unix workstations were using TCP/IP networking, early LAN cabling had generally been based on various grades of coaxial cable. This led to the development of 10BASE-T and structured cabling which is still the basis of most commercial LANs today, while fiber-optic cabling is common for links between switches, use of fiber to the desktop is rare. Many LANs use wireless technologies that are built into Smartphones, tablet computers, in a wireless local area network, users may move unrestricted in the coverage area. Wireless networks have become popular in residences and small businesses, because of their ease of installation, guests are often offered Internet access via a hotspot service. Network topology describes the layout of interconnections between devices and network segments, at the data link layer and physical layer, a wide variety of LAN topologies have been used, including ring, bus, mesh and star. At the higher layers, NetBEUI, IPX/SPX, AppleTalk and others were once common, simple LANs generally consist of cabling and one or more switches. A switch can be connected to a router, cable modem, a LAN can include a wide variety of other network devices such as firewalls, load balancers, and network intrusion detection. LANs can maintain connections with other LANs via leased lines, leased services, depending on how the connections are established and secured, and the distance involved, such linked LANs may also be classified as a metropolitan area network or a wide area network

22.
Email
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Electronic mail, or email, is a method of exchanging digital messages between people using digital devices such as computers and mobile phones. Email first entered use in the 1960s and by the mid-1970s had taken the form now recognized as email. Email operates across computer networks, which today is primarily the Internet, some early email systems required the author and the recipient to both be online at the same time, in common with instant messaging. Todays email systems are based on a store-and-forward model, Email servers accept, forward, deliver, and store messages. Originally an ASCII text-only communications medium, Internet email was extended by Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions to carry text in character sets. International email, with internationalized email addresses using UTF-8, has been standardized, the history of modern Internet email services reaches back to the early ARPANET, with standards for encoding email messages published as early as 1973. An email message sent in the early 1970s looks very similar to an email sent today. Email played an important part in creating the Internet, and the conversion from ARPANET to the Internet in the early 1980s produced the core of the current services, historically, the term electronic mail was used generically for any electronic document transmission. For example, several writers in the early 1970s used the term to describe fax document transmission, as a result, it is difficult to find the first citation for the use of the term with the more specific meaning it has today. This spelling also appears in most dictionaries, Mail was the form used in the original protocol standard, RFC524. The service is referred to as mail, and a piece of electronic mail is called a message. EMail is a form that has been used in RFCs for the Authors Address and is expressly required for historical reasons. E-mail is sometimes used, capitalizing the initial E as in similar abbreviations like E-piano, E-guitar, A-bomb, by 1968, AUTODIN linked more than 300 sites in several countries. With the introduction of MITs Compatible Time-Sharing System in 1961, multiple users could log in to a system from remote dial-up terminals. Informal methods of using this to pass messages were developed and expanded,1965 – MITs CTSS MAIL and it used the Unix mail client to send messages between system users. The concept was extended to communicate remotely over the Berkeley Network,1979 – EMAIL, an application written by Shiva Ayyadurai for the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey. 1979 – MH Message Handling System developed at RAND provided several tools for managing electronic mail on Unix, most of them only allowed communication between users logged into the same host or mainframe, although there might be hundreds or thousands of users within an organization. In the early 1980s, networked personal computers on LANs became increasingly important, server-based systems similar to the earlier mainframe systems were developed

23.
USB flash drive
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USB flash drives are typically removable and rewritable, and physically much smaller than an optical disc. Most weigh less than 30 grams, since first appearing on the market in late 2000, as with virtually all computer memory devices, storage capacities have risen while prices have dropped. As of March 2016, flash drives with anywhere from 8 to 256 GB are frequently sold, storage capacities as large as 2 TB are planned, with steady improvements in size and price per capacity expected. Some allow up to 100,000 write/erase cycles, depending on the type of memory chip used. USB flash drives are used for the same purposes for which floppy disks or CDs were once used, i. e. for storage, data back-up. They are smaller, faster, have thousands of times more capacity, additionally, they are immune to electromagnetic interference, and are unharmed by surface scratches.44 MB3. 5-inch floppy disk. The USB connector may be protected by a cap or by retracting into the body of the drive. Most flash drives use a standard type-A USB connection allowing connection with a port on a personal computer, USB flash drives draw power from the computer via the USB connection. Some devices combine the functionality of a media player with USB flash storage. Pua Khein-Seng from Malaysia is considered by many to be the Father of Pen Drive and he is notable for incorporating the worlds first single chip USB flash controller. Pua hails from Sekinchan, Selangor, Malaysia, pua founded Phison Electronics based in Taiwan with four other partners and is believed to have produced the worlds first USB flash drive with system-on-chip technology. Competing claims have made by Singaporean company Trek Technology and Chinese company Netac Technology, Both Trek Technology. Trek won a Singaporean suit, but a court in the United Kingdom revoked one of Treks UK patents, Trek Technology and IBM began selling the first USB flash drives commercially in 2000. IBMs USB flash drive became available on December 15,2000, in 2000, Lexar introduced a Compact Flash card with a USB connection, and a companion card read/writer and USB cable that eliminated the need for a USB hub. That is considerably slower than what a hard drive or solid-state drive can achieve when connected via the SATA interface. Transfer rates may be given in megabytes per second, megabits per second, or in optical drive multipliers such as 180X.1, which is limited to 12 Mbit/s with accounted overhead. The effective transfer rate of a device is significantly affected by the access pattern, for example. Like USB2.0 before it, USB3.0 dramatically improved data rates compared to its predecessor

24.
Judge Jules
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Judge Jules is a British dance music DJ, producer and entertainment lawyer. Known for his DJ activities, music production and popular show which achieved global success. He was voted the No.1 DJ in the World by DJ Magazine in 1995, during his time at university, Jules started hosting small parties where he was the DJ and also earned the nickname Judge Jules due to his field of study. Judge Jules began DJing professionally back in 1987 and he was quickly hired by the then-pirate radio station Kiss. He began his show with Radio 1 in October 1997, when he first arrived, his show went out between 17,00 and 19,00 on Saturday evenings, ahead of Danny Ramplings show. From 31 July 2004, after the departure of Seb Fontaine from the station, the show was widely advertised as, The UKs Saturday Warmup, or The Weekend Warm-Up. One of the most famous jingles used on the show during this time described it as, the show kept this slot until September 2007. During those years, his music policy ranged from playing commercial to underground tracks, the first segment of the show were taken by the Cut-Up Boys, who did a five or ten-minute mix featuring several dance tracks and a cappella tracks playing simultaneously. The rest of the first hour was taken up by house music and the second hour featured trance music, although if they were broadcasting the show outside the studio. In September 2007, the show was moved to 01,00 to 03,00 every Saturday morning, because of Jules DJ commitments on Friday evenings, his show was now pre-recorded instead of being broadcast live. From September 2008, the show was moved forward by 2 hours to 23,00 to 01,00 every Friday evening, the reason for the move was the departure of Dave Pearce, whose Dance Anthems show was moved to BBC Radio 6 Music. His show attracted an audience from around the world due to Radio 1s online internet connections. Through the radio show, he was responsible for launching many popular tunes and acts in the UK. Many people send their unreleased tracks to him, according to his own website, during the time when his show was being produced, he received between 250-300 promos per week. His Radio 1 show was produced by independent production company Somethin Else, Judge Jules presented his last show on Radio 1 on 30 March 2012. The Judge also often plays the Saxophone and recorded the Sax on the tune for the 1990s TV show. Jules produces his own music – his wife has appeared on a few of these and she provided vocals for the group Angelic, which was a grouping between Judge Jules and Darren Tate. They had two hits, Its My Turn in 2000 and Cant Keep Me Silent in 2001, in 2005, she appeared once more on the track Without Love, which was by Judge Jules himself

25.
Spotify
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Spotify is a music, podcast, and video streaming service, officially launched on 7 October 2008. It is developed by startup Spotify AB in Stockholm, Sweden and it provides digital rights management-protected content from record labels and media companies. Spotify is available in most of Europe, most of the Americas, Australia, New Zealand and it is available for most modern devices, including Windows, macOS, and Linux computers, as well as iOS and Android smartphones and tablets. Music can be browsed or searched for via various parameters, such as artist, album, genre, playlist, users can create, edit and share playlists, share tracks on social media, and make playlists with other users. Spotify provides access to over 30 million songs, as of June 2016, it has 100 million monthly active users, and as of March 2017, it has 50 million paying subscribers. They distribute approximately 70% of total revenue to rights holders, who then pay based on their individual agreements. Spotify operates under a freemium model, Spotify makes its revenues by selling premium streaming subscriptions to users and advertising placements to third parties. In December 2013, the company launched a new website, Spotify for Artists, Spotify gets its content from major record labels as well as independent artists, and pays copyright holders royalties for streamed music. The company pays 70% of its revenue to rights holders. Spotify for Artists states that the company does not have a fixed rate, instead considers factors such as the users home country. Rights holders received an average per-play payout between $.006 and $.0084, Spotify offers an unlimited subscription package, close to the Open Music Model —estimated economic equilibrium—for the recording industry. However, the incorporation of digital rights management protection diverges from the OMM and competitors such as iTunes Store, Spotify encourages people to pay for music, with subscriptions as its main revenue source. The subscription removes advertisements and limits, and increases song bitrates to 320 kbit/s, the website also claims that a Spotify customer is 1. 6x more financially valuable than the average adult non-Spotify U. S. music consumer. Additionally, the website includes a section entitled Spotifys impact on piracy as a response to the criticisms against the company regarding the exploitation of musicians. For example, in Norway, the figure of 1.2 billion unauthorized song downloads in 2008 is compared to a figure of 210 million from 2012, BBC Music Week editor Tim Ingham wrote, Unlike buying a CD or download, streaming is not a one-off payment. Hundreds of millions of streams of tracks are happening each and every day, which quickly multiplies the potential revenues on offer – and is a constant long-term source of income for artists. As of June 2016, the three Spotify subscription types, all offering unlimited listening time, are, In 2008, just after launch, in October 2010, Wired reported that Spotify was making more money for labels in Sweden than any other retailer online or off. Years after growth and expansion, a November 2012 report suggested strong momentum for the company

26.
Pandora Radio
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Pandora Internet Radio is a music streaming and automated music recommendation service powered by the Music Genome Project. The service, operated by Pandora Media, Inc. is available only in Australia, New Zealand, the service plays musical selections of a certain genre based on the users artist selection. The user then provides positive or negative feedback for songs chosen by the service, the service can be accessed either through a web browser or by downloading and installing application software on the users device such as a personal computer or mobile phone. In 2000, Pandora Media Inc. began as Savage Beast Technologies, the idea was to create a separate, individualized radio station for each user having just the good music on it, with none of the junk that other users like. The company quickly ran through its two million dollars in funding and in 2001 the company ran out of money. Founder Tim Westergren convinced the fifty employees of the company to work for two years without pay, initially the company pursued a transitional strategy of technology licensing to third parties including AOL, Best Buy, Barnes & Noble, and Tower Records. In 2004 the company returned to its vision of producing customized radio stations. The website began as only a service but quickly changed to an advertising service to make it also available free for users. In 2011, Pandora launched its IPO on the NYSE and is listed as P, on March 7,2013, Pandora chairman and chief executive Joseph J. Kennedy announced that he would be leaving the company after nine years. In April 2013, Pandora announced that their radio streaming service had passed 200 million users, by December 2013, Pandora was noted as accounting for 70% of all Internet radio and 8% of total radio listening in the United States. On September 1,2013, Pandora removed a 40-hour-per-month limitation for free mobile listening, in December 2013, iTunes was described as Pandoras biggest existential threat. In early 2015, Pandora removed lyrics from song pages, on April 16,2015, song samples were officially removed. At around the time, a new feature was introduced to give users the ability to receive notices about their favorite artists through the music player. They also redesigned the thumbs up/down feature to allow the listener to undo their action, by January 2015, songs played on Pandora had received over 50 billion thumbs up from users. On June 11,2013, Pandora announced that it would purchase the conventional FM radio station KXMZ in Rapid City, on October 7,2015, Pandora announced that it has acquired independent ticketing agency Ticketfly for $450 million. In November 2015, streaming music service Rdio, founded by Skype co-founders Janus Friis and Niklas Zennstroem, declared bankruptcy, Pandora brought on 100 Rdio employees, including Iain Morris and Rich Masio—who joined a growing Licensing department in pursuit of direct licenses with labels and publishers. A station is set by specifying an artist or song, or a combination of items of any kind in a single station. Listeners can tune into pre-made genre stations, other users stations, each track played can be responded to with favorable or unfavorable buttons, which determine if it should be played, and how much should similarly classified songs be played in the station

27.
Music industry
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The modern Western music industry emerged between the 1930s and 1950s, when records replaced sheet music as the most important product in the music business. In the commercial world, the recording industry–a reference to recording performances of songs and pieces, labels outside of these three major labels are referred to as independent labels. The largest portion of the music market for concerts and tours is controlled by Live Nation. Live Nation is a subsidiary of iHeartMedia Inc, which is the largest owner of radio stations in the United States. In the first decades of the 2000s, the industry underwent drastic changes with the advent of widespread digital distribution of music via the Internet. A conspicuous indicator of changes is total music sales, since 2000. In 2011, the largest recorded music retailer in the world was now a digital, Internet-based platform operated by a computer company, printed music in Europe, Music publishing using machine-printed sheet music developed during the Renaissance music era in the mid-15th century. The development of music followed the evolution of printing technologies that were first developed for printing regular books. After the mid-15th century, mechanical techniques for printing music were first developed. The earliest example, a set of chants, dates from about 1465. Prior to this time, music had to be copied out by hand, to copy music notation by hand was a very costly, labor-intensive and time-consuming process, so it was usually undertaken only by monks and priests seeking to preserve sacred music for the church. The few collections of music that are extant were commissioned and owned by wealthy aristocrats. Examples include the Squarcialupi Codex of Italian Trecento music and the Chantilly Codex of French Ars subtilior music, the use of printing enabled sheet music to reproduced much more quickly and at a much lower cost than hand-copying music notation. This helped musical styles to spread to cities and countries more quickly. With music printing, though, a composers music could be printed, as sheet music of major composers pieces and songs began to be printed and distributed in a wider area, this enabled composers and listeners to hear new styles and forms of music. A German composer could buy songs written by an Italian or English composer, and this led to more blending of musical styles from different countries and regions. The pioneer of music printing was Ottaviano Petrucci, a printer and publisher who was able to secure a twenty-year monopoly on printed music in Venice during the 16th century. Venice was one of the business and music centers during this period

28.
Legal aspects of file sharing
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File sharing is the practice of distributing or providing access to digital media, such as computer programs, multimedia, documents or electronic books. It involves various aspects as it is often used to exchange intellectual property that is subject to copyright law or licensing. File hosting services may be used as a means to distribute or share files without consent of the copyright owner, in such cases one individual uploads a file to a file hosting service, which others may download. Legal history is documented in case law, but in the legal case Atari Europe S. A. S. U. v. In January 2012 the United States Department of Justice seized and shut down the file hosting site Megaupload. com, a secondary liability case in Australia, under Australian law, was Universal Music Australia Pty Ltd v Sharman License Holdings Ltd FCA1242. In that case, the Court determined that the Kazaa file sharing system had authorized copyright infringement, the claim for damages was subsequently settled out of court. In the case of AFACT v iiNet which was out in the Federal Court. The case did not, however, create a precedent that Australian ISPs could never be held liable for the copyright infringement of their users by virtue of providing an internet connection. AFACT and other major Australian copyright holders have stated their intention to appeal the case, the legality of file Sharing in Canada is disputed, although in practice, file sharing is tolerated. In addition, in the 2004 case of BMG Canada Inc. v. John Doe, a disproportionate number of illegal sites are hosted on Canadian soil. The Peoples Republic of China is known for having one of the most comprehensive and extensive approaches to observing web activity, popular social networking sites such as Twitter and Facebook cannot be accessed via direct connection by its citizens. Mainland China requires sites that share video files to have permits and these permits last for three years and will need renewal after that time period. Web sites that any rules will be subject to a 5-year ban from providing videos online. One of the countrys most used file sharing programs, BTChina got shut down in December 2009 and it was shut down by the State Administration of Radio Film and Television for not obtaining a license to legally distribute media such as audio and video files. Alexa, a company that monitors web traffic, claims that BTChina had 80,000 daily users, being one of the primary file sharing websites for Chinese citizens, this shutdown affected the lives of many internet users in China. China has an population of 222.4 million people and 65. 8% are said to participate in some form of file-sharing on websites. On 5 June 2014, the Court of Justice of the European Union ruled that making temporary copies on the screen or in the users cache is not, in itself. The ruling relates to the British Meltwater case settled on that day, the Boy Genius Report weblog noted that As long as an Internet user is streaming copyrighted content online

29.
Anonymous (group)
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Anonymous is a loosely associated international network of activist and hacktivist entities. A website nominally associated with the group describes it as an Internet gathering with a very loose, the group became known for a series of well-publicized publicity stunts and distributed denial-of-service attacks on government, religious, and corporate websites. Anonymous originated in 2003 on the imageboard 4chan, representing the concept of online and offline community users simultaneously existing as an anarchic. Anonymous members can be distinguished in public by the wearing of Guy Fawkes masks in the style portrayed in the graphic novel, later targets of Anonymous hacktivism included government agencies of the U. S. Anons have publicly supported WikiLeaks and the Occupy movement. Some actions by members of the group have described as being anti-Zionist. It has threatened to cyber-attack Israel and engaged in the #OpIsrael cyber-attacks of Israeli websites on Yom HaShoah in 2013. Dozens of people have been arrested for involvement in Anonymous cyberattacks, in including the U. S. UK, Australia. Evaluations of the actions and effectiveness vary widely. Supporters have called the freedom fighters and digital Robin Hoods while critics have described them as a cyber lynch-mob or cyber terrorists. In 2012, Time called Anonymous one of the 100 most influential people in the world, Anonymous has no strictly defined philosophy, and internal dissent is a regular feature of the group. A website associated with the group describes it as an Internet gathering with a very loose, among those that do, opinions vary considerably. Broadly speaking, Anons oppose Internet censorship and control, and the majority of their actions target governments, organizations, Anons were early supporters of the global Occupy movement and the Arab Spring. Since 2008, a frequent subject of disagreement within Anonymous is whether members should focus on pranking, because Anonymous has no leadership, no action can be attributed to the membership as a whole. Some members protest using legal means, while others employ illegal measures such as DDoS attacks, olson, who formerly described Anonymous as a brand, stated in 2012 that she now characterized it as a movement rather than a group, anyone can be part of it. It is a crowd of people, a crowd of people, working together. The groups few rules include not disclosing ones identity, not talking about the group, members commonly use the tagline We are Anonymous. Journalists have commented that Anonymous secrecy, fabrications, and media awareness pose a challenge for reporting on the groups actions and motivations. Quinn Norton of Wired writes that Anons lie when they have no reason to lie and they weave vast fabrications as a form of performance

30.
File sharing
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File sharing is the practice of distributing or providing access to digital media, such as computer programs, multimedia, documents or electronic books. File sharing may be achieved in a number of ways, peer-to-peer file sharing is based on the peer-to-peer application architecture. Shared files on the computers of users are indexed on directory servers. P2P technology was used by services like Napster, Spotify. The most popular protocol for P2P sharing is BitTorrent, cloud-based file syncing and sharing services implement automated file transfers by updating files from a dedicated sharing directory on each users networked devices. Files placed in this folder also are accessible through a website and mobile app. Such services have become popular via consumer-oriented file hosting services such as Dropbox, rsync is a more traditional program released in 1996 which synchronizes files on a direct machine-to-machine basis. Data synchronization in general can use other approaches to share files, such as distributed filesystems, version control, files were first exchanged on removable media. Computers were able to access remote files using filesystem mounting, bulletin board systems, Usenet, Internet Relay Chat and Hotline enabled users to communicate remotely through chat and to exchange files. The mp3 encoding, which was standardized in 1991 and which reduced the size of audio files. In 1998, MP3. com and Audiogalaxy were established, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act was unanimously passed, in June 1999, Napster was released as an unstructured centralized peer-to-peer system, requiring a central server for indexing and peer discovery. It is generally credited as being the first peer-to-peer file sharing system, gnutella, eDonkey2000, and Freenet were released in 2000, as MP3. com and Napster were facing litigation. Gnutella, released in March, was the first decentralized file sharing network, in the gnutella network, all connecting software was considered equal, and therefore the network had no central point of failure. In July, Freenet was released and became the first anonymity network, in September the eDonkey2000 client and server software was released. In 2001, Kazaa and Poisoned for the Mac was released and its FastTrack network was distributed, though unlike gnutella, it assigned more traffic to supernodes to increase routing efficiency. The network was proprietary and encrypted, and the Kazaa team made substantial efforts to other clients such as Morpheus off of the FastTrack network. In July 2001, Napster was sued by several recording companies and lost in A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc. In the case of Napster, it has ruled that an online service provider could not use the transitory network transmission safe harbor in the DMCA if they had control of the network with a server

31.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

32.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding

Copyright infringement
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The copyright holder is typically the works creator, or a publisher or other business to whom copyright has been assigned. Copyright holders routinely invoke legal and technological measures to prevent and penalize copyright infringement, Copyright infringement disputes are usually resolved through direct negotiation, a notice and take down process

1.
An advertisement for copyright and patent preparation services from 1906, when copyright registration formalities were still required in the US

Copyright
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Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights for its use and distribution. This is usually only for a limited time, the exclusive rights are not absolute but limited by limitations and exceptions to copyright law, including fair use. A major limitation on copyright is that c

1.
The Statute of Anne came into force in 1710.

2.
The Copyright Act of 1790 in the Columbian Centinel.

3.
The Pirate Publisher—An International Burlesque that has the Longest Run on Record, from Puck, 1886, satirizes the then-existing situation where a publisher could profit by simply stealing newly published works from one country, and publishing them in another, and vice versa.

4.
A copyright certificate for proof of the Fermat theorem, issued by the State Department of Intellectual Property of Ukraine.

Ludwig van Beethoven
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Ludwig van Beethoven was a German composer and pianist. A crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western art music, he one of the most famous. His best-known compositions include 9 symphonies,5 piano concertos,1 violin concerto,32 piano sonatas,16 string quartets, his great Mass the Missa solemnis, and one opera

1.
Portrait by Joseph Karl Stieler, 1820

2.
Beethoven's birthplace at Bonngasse 20, now the Beethoven House museum

3.
Prince-Elector's Palace (Kurfürstliches Schloss) in Bonn, where the Beethoven family had been active since the 1730s

4.
A portrait of the 13-year-old Beethoven by an unknown Bonn master (c. 1783)

Napster
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Napster was the name given to two music-focused online services. It was founded as a pioneering peer-to-peer file sharing Internet service that emphasized sharing digital files, typically songs. The company ran into difficulties over copyright infringement, ceased operations and was eventually acquired by Roxio. In its second incarnation Napster be

Metallica
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Metallica is an American heavy metal band based in San Rafael, California. The band was formed in 1981 in Los Angeles when vocalist/guitarist James Hetfield responded to an advertisement posted by drummer Lars Ulrich in a local newspaper, Metallicas current line-up comprises founding members Hetfield and Ulrich, longtime lead guitarist Kirk Hammett

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Metallica in London in 2008. From left to right: Kirk Hammett, Lars Ulrich, James Hetfield and Robert Trujillo.

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Metallica during the Damaged Justice tour

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Ulrich, pictured in London in 2008, led the case against Napster.

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Robert Trujillo, pictured in London in 2008, was announced as Metallica's new bassist on February 24, 2003.

Dr. Dre
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Andre Romelle Young, better known by his stage name Dr. Dre, is an American rapper, record producer, and entrepreneur. He is the founder and current CEO of Aftermath Entertainment and Beats Electronics, Dre was previously the co-owner of, and an artist on, Death Row Records. He has produced albums for and overseen the careers of many rappers, inclu

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Dr. Dre in 2011

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Dr. Dre in 2008

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Dr. Dre performs at the 2012 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival.

Digital Millennium Copyright Act
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The Digital Millennium Copyright Act is a United States copyright law that implements two 1996 treaties of the World Intellectual Property Organization. It criminalizes production and dissemination of technology, devices, or services intended to circumvent measures that control access to copyrighted works and it also criminalizes the act of circumv

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Digital Millennium Copyright Act

Limewire
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LimeWire was a free peer-to-peer file sharing client program that ran on Windows, Mac OS X, Linux, and other operating systems supported by the Java software platform. LimeWire used the network as well as the BitTorrent protocol. A freeware version and an enhanced version were available. BitTorrent support is provided by libtorrent, a trial investi

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LimeWire 2

Pirate Bay
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In some countries, Internet service providers have been ordered to block access to the website. Subsequently, proxy websites have been providing access to it, founders Svartholm, Neij, Sunde and Lundström were all released by 2015 after having served shortened sentences. The website faced several shutdowns and domain seizures, switching to a series

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"Jubilee!" – on the homepage 31 January 2008

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The Pirate Bay logo

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Protestors showing support for The Pirate Bay on the first day of the trial

Recording Industry Association of America
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The Recording Industry Association of America is a continental North and South American trade organization that represents the recording industry in the United States. Its members consist of record labels and distributors, which the RIAA says create, the RIAA headquarters is in Washington, D. C. The RIAA was formed in 1952 and its original mission

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Recording Industry Association of America

Digital rights management
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Digital rights management schemes are various access control technologies that are used to restrict usage of proprietary hardware and copyrighted works. DRM technologies try to control the use, modification, and distribution of copyrighted works, the use of digital rights management is not universally accepted. Furthermore, works can become permane

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Defective by Design member protesting DRM on May 25, 2007.

Digital right management
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Digital rights management schemes are various access control technologies that are used to restrict usage of proprietary hardware and copyrighted works. DRM technologies try to control the use, modification, and distribution of copyrighted works, the use of digital rights management is not universally accepted. Furthermore, works can become permane

1.
Defective by Design member protesting DRM on May 25, 2007.

Copyright Act of 1909
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The Copyright Act of 1909 was a landmark statute in United States statutory copyright law. 60–349 on March 4,1909 by the 60th United States Congress, the Act was repealed and superseded by the Copyright Act of 1976, but it remains effective for copyrighted works created before the Copyright Act of 1976 went into effect in January 1,1978. It allowed

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Copyright Act of 1909

Neoclassical economics
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Neoclassical economics is an approach to economics focusing on the determination of goods, outputs, and income distributions in markets through supply and demand. Neoclassical economics dominates microeconomics, and together with Keynesian economics forms the neoclassical synthesis which dominates mainstream economics today. – Veblen It was later u

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World GDP (PPP) per capita by country (2014)

Supply and demand
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In microeconomics, supply and demand is an economic model of price determination in a market. By contrast, responses to changes in the price of the good are represented as movements along unchanged supply, a supply schedule is a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity supplied. Under the assumption of perfect

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For other uses, see Supply and demand (disambiguation).

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The price P of a product is determined by a balance between production at each price (supply S) and the desires of those with purchasing power at each price (demand D). The diagram shows a positive shift in demand from D 1 to D 2, resulting in an increase in price (P) and quantity sold (Q) of the product.

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Adam Smith

Lawrence Lessig
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Lester Lawrence Larry Lessig III is an American academic, attorney, and political activist. He is the Roy L. Furman Professor of Law at Harvard Law School, Lessig was a candidate for the Democratic Partys nomination for President of the United States in the 2016 U. S. presidential election, but withdrew before the primaries. Lessig is a proponent o

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Lessig and Aaron Swartz in 2002 at the launch party for Creative Commons

Overhead (business)
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In business, overhead or overhead expense refers to an ongoing expense of operating a business, it is also known as an operating expense. Overheads are the expenditure which cannot be traced to or identified with any particular cost unit. Therefore, overheads cannot be associated with the products or services being offered. However, overheads are s

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Overheads and direct costs, when combined, equals total expenses endured by a business.

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A Google Company Car

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The rent for factory buildings is considered a manufacturing overhead

Website
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A website is a collection of related web pages, including multimedia content, typically identified with a common domain name, and published on at least one web server. A website may be accessible via a public Internet Protocol network, such as the Internet, or a local area network. Websites have many functions and can be used in various fashions, a

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NASA.gov homepage as it appeared in April 2015

File Transfer Protocol
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The File Transfer Protocol is a standard network protocol used for the transfer of computer files from a server to a client using the Client–server model on a computer network. FTP is built on a model architecture and uses separate control. FTP users may authenticate themselves with a clear-text sign-in protocol, normally in the form of a username

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Illustration of starting a passive connection using port 21

Peer to peer
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Peer-to-peer computing or networking is a distributed application architecture that partitions tasks or workloads between peers. Peers are equally privileged, equipotent participants in the application and they are said to form a peer-to-peer network of nodes. Peers are both suppliers and consumers of resources, in contrast to the traditional clien

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A peer-to-peer (P2P) network in which interconnected nodes ("peers") share resources amongst each other without the use of a centralized administrative system

Local area network
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By contrast, a wide area network, not only covers a larger geographic distance, but also generally involves leased telecommunication circuits or Internet links. An even greater contrast is the Internet, which is a system of globally connected business, Ethernet and Wi-Fi are the two most common transmission technologies in use for local area networ

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A conceptual diagram of a local area network using 10BASE5 Ethernet

Email
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Electronic mail, or email, is a method of exchanging digital messages between people using digital devices such as computers and mobile phones. Email first entered use in the 1960s and by the mid-1970s had taken the form now recognized as email. Email operates across computer networks, which today is primarily the Internet, some early email systems

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The at sign, a part of every SMTP email address.

USB flash drive
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USB flash drives are typically removable and rewritable, and physically much smaller than an optical disc. Most weigh less than 30 grams, since first appearing on the market in late 2000, as with virtually all computer memory devices, storage capacities have risen while prices have dropped. As of March 2016, flash drives with anywhere from 8 to 256

Judge Jules
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Judge Jules is a British dance music DJ, producer and entertainment lawyer. Known for his DJ activities, music production and popular show which achieved global success. He was voted the No.1 DJ in the World by DJ Magazine in 1995, during his time at university, Jules started hosting small parties where he was the DJ and also earned the nickname Ju

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Julius O'Riordan in 2015

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Judge Jules at 'The Gallery'. Turnmills – Friday 22 September 2006

Spotify
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Spotify is a music, podcast, and video streaming service, officially launched on 7 October 2008. It is developed by startup Spotify AB in Stockholm, Sweden and it provides digital rights management-protected content from record labels and media companies. Spotify is available in most of Europe, most of the Americas, Australia, New Zealand and it is

Pandora Radio
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Pandora Internet Radio is a music streaming and automated music recommendation service powered by the Music Genome Project. The service, operated by Pandora Media, Inc. is available only in Australia, New Zealand, the service plays musical selections of a certain genre based on the users artist selection. The user then provides positive or negative

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Pandora homepage as of September 2011

Music industry
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The modern Western music industry emerged between the 1930s and 1950s, when records replaced sheet music as the most important product in the music business. In the commercial world, the recording industry–a reference to recording performances of songs and pieces, labels outside of these three major labels are referred to as independent labels. The

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The Sony Center at Potsdamer Platz in Berlin

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The online iTunes "Store" has become a popular way for listeners to find and buy music.

Legal aspects of file sharing
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File sharing is the practice of distributing or providing access to digital media, such as computer programs, multimedia, documents or electronic books. It involves various aspects as it is often used to exchange intellectual property that is subject to copyright law or licensing. File hosting services may be used as a means to distribute or share

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Demonstration in Sweden in support of file sharing, 2006.

Anonymous (group)
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Anonymous is a loosely associated international network of activist and hacktivist entities. A website nominally associated with the group describes it as an Internet gathering with a very loose, the group became known for a series of well-publicized publicity stunts and distributed denial-of-service attacks on government, religious, and corporate

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An image commonly associated with Anonymous. The "man without a head" represents leaderless organization and anonymity.

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KTTV Fox 11 investigative report on Anonymous. The report focused on what were then contemporary instances of internet bullying by Anonymous.

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Protesters outside a Scientology center on February 10, 2008

File sharing
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File sharing is the practice of distributing or providing access to digital media, such as computer programs, multimedia, documents or electronic books. File sharing may be achieved in a number of ways, peer-to-peer file sharing is based on the peer-to-peer application architecture. Shared files on the computers of users are indexed on directory se

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Demonstrators protesting The Pirate Bay raid, 2006.

International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning

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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code

OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online p

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A screenshot of Linux Mint running the Xfce desktop environment, Mozilla Firefox browsing Wikipedia, a calculator program, the built in calendar, Vim, GIMP, and the VLC media player, all of which are open-source software.

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The symbol of Kopimi, an anti-copyright initiative developed by the Piratbyrån, a Swedish organisation actively opposing modern copyright law and practices, and the previous operators of BitTorrent tracker The Pirate Bay, before it was spun off as an independent organisation.