40 Social Mechanics for Social Games (Raph Koster)

What are we going to
do?Go very fast.Over 160 slides.I could not restrain myself. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 3

What are we going to
do?Go very fast.Over 160 slides.I could not restrain myself. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 4

What are we going to
do?The core 40 mechanics of multiplayer games. • Yes, all of them. • No further design required -- ever.* GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 5

What are we going to
do?The core 40 mechanics of multiplayer games. • Yes, all of them. • No further design required -- ever.** For certain values of “ever.” GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 6

What are we going to
do?They’ll be marked like this: For your tweeting convenience! GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 7

What are we going to
do?They’ll be marked like this: For your tweeting convenience! GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 8

What are we going to
do?We will touch briefly on game grammar… GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 9

What are we going to
do?…and on economic theory… GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 10

What are we going to
do?…The famed psychologist Stanley Milgram… GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 11

What are we going to
do?…1940’s science fiction… GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 12

What are we going to
do?…a game called Werewolf…And… GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 13

What are we going to
do? …a somewhat lengthy discursion into structuralist anthropology,for which I apologize, but not as much as for the time spent on… GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 14

What are we going to
do?…a little Derrida. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 15

But first…“A good game should
focus entirely on its single-player aspect first and foremost. Then if its a simple game like a shooter or racer, use the remaining time and space to fit in a multi-player aspect to it… In other words, multi-playing should never take away from the single-player aspect of the game. Pure multi-player games really should be few and far between.” -- the unfortunately named New Troll, Escapist Forums, 23 June 2009 GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 16

Defining a “single player game”A
game that is not played in opposition to, or in parallel with, or collaboratively with, someone else. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 19

Defining a “single player game”A
game that is not played in opposition to, or in parallel with, or collaboratively with, someone else. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 20

Defining a “single player game”A
game that is not played in opposition to, or in parallel with, or collaboratively with, someone else. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 21

Defining a “single player game”A
game that is not played in opposition to, or in parallel with, or collaboratively with, someone else. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 22

Defining a “single player game”A
game that is not played in opposition to, or in parallel with, or collaboratively with, someone else. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 23

Defining a “single player game”A
game that is not played in opposition to, or in parallel with, or collaboratively with, someone else. (In other words, hardly anything.) GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 24

BoundariesThe true boundary of a
game is based on where actions that can legally affect gameplay stop. Training yes, doping no. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 28

BoundariesThe true boundary of a
game is based on where actions that can legally affect gameplay stop. Training yes, doping no. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 29

Helping The simplest form of
multiplayer, present even in single- player games, is simple advice and assistance. An outgrowth of “spectating.”GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 30

Helping The simplest form of
multiplayer, present even in single- player games, is simple advice and assistance. An outgrowth of “spectating.”GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 31

Helping The simplest form of
multiplayer, present even in single- player games, is simple advice and assistance. An outgrowth of “spectating.”GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 32

A hypothetical arcade gameThe player
is playing nested games of… 1. Steering the ship 2. Hitting the asteroids with lasers 3. Dodging asteroids and bullets and UFOs 4. Getting advice from her friend over the shoulder 5. Getting as high a score as she can 6. To brag to her friend that she beat him 7. And competing against everyone who has played this particular arcade machineThis nesting quality will be important… GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 42

Scaling parallelScaling parallel symmetric play
to large numbers is hard to do in a time-bounded way. • For example, a few people can play an arcade game one after the other and compare… • …or an infinite amount can play against everyone ever via the high score table…But how do you do a medium size number? GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 43

Rival and non-rival goodsA rival
good is something that cannot be used by someone else at the same time. A non-rival good is stuff like information, or the public park. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics fo Social Games 49

Gutschera’s termsAt GDC 2009 K.
Robert Gutschera used different terms than mine:• Orthogames: games with a statistical rating outcome• Parallel symmetric games: races (OK, same term here)• Brawls: gluing together 2 player orthogames.• Politics start when you have a choice of whom to interact with. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 59

Social effects depend on humanizationNumerous
social science experiments have found that a variety of psychological effects only occur when we think the interlocutor is human, or “like us.”• The Milgram buzzer experiment• Zimbardo’s work(Mirror neurons are all the rage.) GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 67

Social effects depend on humanizationNumerous
social science experiments have found that a variety of psychological effects only occur when we think the interlocutor is human, or “like us.”• The Milgram buzzer experiment• Zimbardo’s work(Mirror neurons are all the rage.) GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 68

Gamesmaster patternA multiplayer game that
relies on a third party to direct the game – an evolution of the non-mechanic “referee.”Leads directly (Us in thisto… room) GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 80

WerewolfAka Mafia, etcA game where
players have secret roles • Villager, werewolf, various other small optional ones GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 82

WerewolfAka Mafia, etcA game where
players have secret roles • Villager, werewolf, various other small optional ones GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 83

WerewolfAka Mafia, etcA game where
players have secret roles • Villager, werewolf, various other small optional ones GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 84

WerewolfWolves get to kill off
villagers, Villagers get to lynch anyone • Tons of these mechanics are present: deception, Prisoner’s Dilemma, brawls, gamemaster… GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 85

WerewolfWolves get to kill off
villagers, Villagers get to lynch anyone • Tons of these mechanics are present: deception, Prisoner’s Dilemma, brawls, gamemaster… GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 86

FunctionalismSociology and anthropology used to
see all of group interaction as being about structure: groups as “organs” that make the “body” work.Today the field has moved on, but it’s a useful lens for multiplayer game designers! GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 94

Ritualism and lifecyclesCompare Robert Merton’s
theory of deviance to player lifecycles: 1. First, users try to conform to the rules as they work to understand them. 2. Then they try to innovate and reach the goals in new ways. 3. Then they keep doing things “the right way” but stop caring about the objective. This is called ritualism, and he has a great Hopi rain dance example. 4. Then they retreat and stop caring about the goal or the method. 5. Finally, they rebel and start doing their own thing. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 95

Common rituals• Transitions of state
(birth, marriage, death, levelling up)• Holidays (environmental transitions, commemoration of individual transitions of state)• Religious (requests for intervention)These are often marked by mechanics such as• Changes of uniform• Gatherings• But above all… gifts. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 96

Common rituals• Transitions of state
(birth, marriage, death, levelling up)• Holidays (environmental transitions, commemoration of historic or individual transitions of state)• Religious (requests for intervention)These are often marked by mechanics such as• Changes of uniform• Gatherings• But above all… gifts. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 97

Common rituals• Transitions of state
(birth, marriage, death, levelling up)• Holidays (environmental transitions, commemoration of historic or individual transitions of state)• Religious (requests for intervention, comfort)These are often marked by mechanics such as• Changes of uniform• Gatherings• But above all… gifts. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 98

Common rituals• Transitions of state
(birth, marriage, death, levelling up)• Holidays (environmental transitions, commemoration of historic or individual transitions of state)• Religious (requests for intervention, comfort)These are often marked by mechanics such as• Changes of uniform• Gatherings• But above all… gifts. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 99

Common rituals• Transitions of state
(birth, marriage, death, levelling up)• Holidays (environmental transitions, commemoration of historic or individual transitions of state)• Religious (requests for intervention, comfort)These are often marked by mechanics such as• Changes of uniform• Gatherings• But above all… gifts. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 100

Gifts are ubiquitousWe “give away”
the brideWe give gifts at major holidaysWe gift the land with a bride at solstice GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 103

Gifts are ubiquitousWe “give away”
the brideWe give gifts at major holidaysWe gift the land with a bride at solsticeWe give gifts to the dead to take with them GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 104

Gifts are ubiquitousWe “give away”
the brideWe give gifts at major holidaysWe gift the land with a bride at solsticeWe give gifts to the dead to take with themWe give gifts at weddings GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 105

Gifts are ubiquitousWe “give away”
the brideWe give gifts at major holidaysWe gift the land with a bride at solsticeWe give gifts to the dead to take with themWe give gifts at weddingsWe give gifts to babies GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 106

Gifts are ubiquitousWe “give away”
the brideWe give gifts at major holidaysWe gift the land with a bride at solsticeWe give gifts to the dead to take with themWe give gifts at weddingsWe give gifts to babiesWe throw t-shirts at hockey games GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 107

Gift theoryMarcel Mauss in “Essai
sur le Don” • Gifts are never “free” to either party. • Reciprocal exchange is typical. • Failure to return a gift in Polynesia costs you mana. • There are three steps: give, receive, reciprocate. Each can fail and each can have consequences.Gifts are inalienable… they always retain their source. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 110

Kashmiri anecdote “A Kashmiri tale
tells of two Brahmin women who tried to fulfill their obligations for alms-giving simply by giving alms back and forth to one another. On their deaths they were transformed into two poisoned wells from which no one could drink, reflecting the barrenness of this weak simulacrum of giving.” -- Wikipedia, summarizing an anecdote itself summarized in Lewis Hyde’s The Gift: Imagination and the Erotic Life of Property, who got it from who knows whereGDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 111

Tiers of economyNon-market economies: no
concept of priceGeneralized reciprocity: just give, whee, no expectations! • Reciprocity resides in satisfaction, social closeness. In western society this tends to be gifting between family members, etcBalanced reciprocity: expectation of a return gift at an undefined future date. • Still pretty informal. This is where social game gifting tends to reside.Negative reciprocity: barter systems, which enable transactions between strangers. • A way to establish friendly relations when meeting strangers. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 114

Mentoring & twinking Onboarding and
socializing group members via the gifting of rivalrous or non-rivalrous goods. • Giving a car at graduation • Or Mickey Mouse ears when you join Disney. An asymmetric exchange: I get social obligation, you get value.GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 115

Mentoring & twinking Onboarding and
socializing group members via the gifting of rivalrous or non-rivalrous goods. • Giving a car at graduation • Or Mickey Mouse ears when you join Disney. An asymmetric exchange: I get social obligation, you get value.GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 116

Mentoring & twinking Onboarding and
socializing group members via the gifting of rivalrous or non-rivalrous goods. • Giving a car at graduation • Or Mickey Mouse ears when you join Disney. An asymmetric exchange: I get social obligation, you get value.GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 117

IdentityMeans of displaying status and
role via rivalrous goods. • Extremely important with groups, from skins vs shirts to class gear, etc. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 118

ClusteringUntil now we have talked
about groups, which kind of look like this:In social networking theory, these are called clusters. • And they often have weak ties to other clusters. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 121

ClusteringUntil now we have talked
about groups, which kind of look like this:In social networking theory, these are called clusters. • And they often have weak ties to other clusters. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 122

ClusteringUntil now we have talked
about groups, which kind of look like this:In social networking theory, these are called clusters. • And they often have weak ties to other clusters. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 123

NetworksTechnical term: scale-free networks. Oddly,
social network games make very poor use of social network theoryA very particular sort of structural pattern – and universal in human society. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 125

Power lawsThe mathematical distribution of
“popularity” of link destinations.There are consequences to this distribution. • Median lower than the mean • Unknowability of the network • Unequal information dissemination • Network longevity and hub vulnerability GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 128

Bose-Einstein condensateA phase transition where
a network’s power law gets so extremely kinked that a single hub dominates: • Windows operating system • Tiger Woods’ win-loss record earlier in his career • The winning kingdom in Shadowbane GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 129

Channel capacity & sympathy groupsLots
of evidence to suggest that your “knowable” part of the network is limited • Robin Dunbar, “monkeysphere” etcThis leads to special mechanics when dealing with nodes at different graph distances. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 130

TrustTrust up close – and
it’s non-transitive! Reputation at midrange Faith at a distance (aka social contract) GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 131

TrustTrust up close – and
it’s non-transitive! Reputation at midrange Faith at a distance (aka social contract) GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 132

HomogeneityTightly linked nodes tend to
be homogeneous – liking the same things • This also introduces interesting liabilities in gameplayAs those with kids know, one’s peer group carries more social weight than authorityCombined with trust and other network characteristics, we get… GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 133

Impact of scaleDifferent social structures
at different scales: Dozens Hundreds Thousands Bands Tribes Chiefdoms No fixed home A single home Many homes "Egalitarian" or "big-man" Castes and classes "Egalitarian" leadership Organized resource extraction Cronyism & monarchs No real bureaucracy Bureaucracy & laws Still unstratified No laws Taxes, indentured labor, and Unstratified culture slavery Public architecture Luxuries for elites GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 137

Impact of scaleDifferent social structures
at different scales: Dozens Hundreds Thousands Bands Tribes Chiefdoms No fixed home A single home Many homes "Egalitarian" or "big-man" Castes and classes "Egalitarian" leadership Organized resource extraction Cronyism & monarchs No real bureaucracy Bureaucracy & laws Still unstratified No laws Taxes, indentured labor, and Unstratified culture slavery Public architecture Luxuries for elites GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 138

ExclusivityThe use of identity and
other earlier mechanics to manipulate the value of rivalrous and non-rivalrous goods.Also known as “velvet rope.” GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 140

ExclusivityThe use of identity and
other earlier mechanics to manipulate the value of rivalrous and non-rivalrous goods.Also known as “velvet rope.” GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 141

OK, I have to stop
and say this.Social games have the largest game canvas in all of HISTORY. And yet social games are designed primarily at the single-player level, with Massive groups minor multiplayer mechanics. Designing games at the societal levelFrom here on up, it’s uncharted territory. But it is also the potential and the future and the GLORY of social games.

Swapping modelsThe functionalist way to
look at things is:Game systems that are “problems of control and coordination at a societal level” -- Herbert SpencerResource distribution, goods production, etc. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 144

StructuralismThe sequel to functionalism! More
of an emotional model, also now out of favor: “Meaning produced and reproduced via practices and activities that are systems of signification” -- Claude Lévi-Strauss (Such as games) GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 145

MMOs versus social gamesMMOs developed
stronger social structures than social games, because they had shared economic participation • despite not having constancy.Social games usually have constancy without shared economic participation! GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 149

Anthony GiddensSocial structure as game
rules • “Ant farming” or “goldfish bowl”Structure, Modality, Interaction • Structure is the rules and resources • Modality how structures become action. • Interaction what the actor actually doesThis analogizes directly to the forms of rules in Rules of Play, or to the MDA framework. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 150

Post-structural thinkingA challenge:A lot of
post-structural thinking is about seeing past dualities and to shades of gray.Moving beyond dualities such as neighbor and not, tribe or not.Games do this poorly. But… GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 151

The PASES modelFive general ways
of building large, shades-of-gray social structures in multiplayer games: Politics Arts Science Economics SociologyGDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 152

ElectionsActors of any distance from
theinteraction apply a rivalrous good towardsan objective metric that appliesnetwork-wide. Politics -- or American Idol, the largest MMO in the world. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 154

Structure vs agencyThe big question:
are we locked into the game design? • Structure creates habitus – a structure of mind, a set of acquired schemata… “what goes without saying” for a group -- Pierre BourdieuThe same question as socialization vs autonomy. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 158

StructurationAnthony Giddens in 1984 had
an answer: • Social life is both the small and the big • People constantly reinforce and extend the structure through actions • And the structure constrains what they can doSo there’s a reflexive action that makes things change overall, slowly.Which leads to interesting game problems such as… GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 159

Public goodsLike a multiple player
prisoner’s dilemma. Public goods are non-rivalrous, so there is a temptation to enjoy the good with no contribution. For example, breathing. Public parks. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 160

Tragedy of the CommonsFlip side
of public goods: if they are rivalrous, then they can get used up. Classic example, the commons in a village…. Or spawns, territory, etc. The game is in solving the unsolvable. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 161

Tragedy of the CommonsFlip side
of public goods: if they are rivalrous, then they can get used up. Classic example, the commons in a village…. Or spawns, territory, etc. The game is in solving the unsolvable. And finally… GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 162

CommunityWhere we start playing games
on YOU. A properly managed community is structuration in action, and becomes the ultimate political game for users. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 163

ARGs and PuzzlesRidiculously complex puzzles
can be solved by hive brains.ARG puzzles such as image-based steganography hidden in white noise in a poster. Combat system algorithms in an MMO. “Underlying logical rules discovered via experimental method” equals… GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 165

Interdependence and scaling issuesScale-free networks
are highly insulated from failure.But collapse occurs if hubs are suddenly removed.If your game design has hubs and one breaks… • (cf Star Wars Galaxies, Pirates of the Burning Sea)… GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 170

Fundamental multiplayer dilemmaThe game equivalent
of psychology’s Fundamental Attribution Error. The basic premise of economics is mutual improvement and optimal distribution of resources. It’s a way for a group to level up. This is anathema to games. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 172

ServicesClasses and roles can be
seen as forms of asymmetric trade.Even mechanic #1, “helping” is a service! So are numerous others on the list.In other cases, mechanics are premised in unequal contributions.• All of these are generally non-quantifiable. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 174

The act of invention Games
Are “…solving statistically varied challenge situations presented by an opponent who may or may not be algorithmic within a framework that is a defined systemic model.” -- meStatistical variations are handcrafted, randomized or… GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 180

User generated content• Forums.• Character
art.• Roleplay narratives.• Fan fiction.• Player conventions.• Weddings.• Game maps. The game has to be designed to encompass and permit this sort of activity. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 181

User generated content• Forums.• Character
art.• Roleplay narratives.• Fan fiction.• Player conventions.• Weddings.• Game maps. The game has to be designed to encompass and permit this sort of activity. GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 182

Remember the quote?“A good game
should focus entirely on its single-player aspect first and foremost. Then if its a simple game like a shooter or racer, use the remaining time and space to fit in a multi-player aspect to it… In other words, multi-playing should never take away from the single-player aspect of the game. Pure multi-player games really should be few and far between.” -- the unfortunately named New Troll, Escapist Forums, 23 June 2009 GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 184

Derrida“As a turning toward the
presence, lost or impossible, of the absent origin, this structuralist thematic of broken immediateness is thus the sad, negative, nostalgic, guilty, Rousseauist facet of the thinking of freeplay of which the Nietzschean affirmation-the joyous affirmation of the freeplay of the world and without truth, without origin, offered to an active interpretation-would be the other side. This affirmation then determines the non-center otherwise than as loss of the center. And it plays the game without security. For there is a sure freeplay: that which is limited to the substitution of given and existing, present, pieces. In absolute chance, affirmation also surrenders itself to genetic indetermination, to the seminal adventure of the trace.” -- “Structure, Sign, and Play in the Human Sciences” GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 185

Derrida“As a turning toward the
presence, lost or impossible, of the absent origin, this structuralist thematic of broken immediateness is thus the sad, negative, nostalgic, guilty, Rousseauist facet of the thinking of freeplay of which the Nietzschean affirmation-the joyous affirmation of the freeplay of the world and without truth, without origin, offered to an active interpretation-would be the other side. This affirmation then determines the non-center otherwise than as loss of the center. And it plays the game without security. For there is a sure freeplay: that which is limited to the substitution of given and existing, present, pieces. In absolute chance, affirmation also surrenders itself to genetic indetermination, to the seminal adventure of the trace.” -- “Structure, Sign, and Play in the Human Sciences” GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 186

GriefingGriefing can be an act
of game literacy: engaging in the ultimate transgressive play with the system, Or the act of “virtual sociopathy.” GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 187

Hidden info• For brawls and
races, see Characteristics of Multiplayer Games: Lessons from the World of Paper Gaming, K. Robert Gutschera, GDC2009.• The MDA framework is described in MDA: A Formal Approach to Game Design and Game Research by Hunicke, LeBlanc, and Zubek.• I recommend Linked by Albert-Lazslo Barabasi for an intro to social networks, and Influence by Robert Cialdini for more on influence structures. And of course you read Rules of Play and Designing Virtual Worlds right?• For more on network structures, I refer you to my GDC2003 presentation Small Worlds: Competitive and Cooperative Structures in Online Worlds and its extensive bibliography. There’s a series “On Trust” on my blog as well.• I would start with Wikipedia for reading up on sociology and anthropology.• You can read Randy Farmer’s KidTrade: A Design for an eBay-resistant Virtual Economy on his website at http://habitatchronicles.com/Habitat/KidTrade.pdf• More on interdependence’s issues at http://www.next-gen.biz/news/what-went-wrong-with-pirates-mmo• You can read Derrida’s “Structure, Sign and Play” at http://hydra.humanities.uci.edu/derrida/sign-play.html or in Writing and Difference. If you really, really, really want to. All the art came from http://icons.mysitemyway.com in the royalty-free Rounded Glossy Black Icons set. Special Thanks to John Donham & Jenny Kropko and Patrick Ferland (for PASES)• This presentation and dozens more are available in various formats on my website:• http://www.raphkoster.com GDC 2011: Raph Koster, Social Mechanics for Social Games 188