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Contents

Soon after establishment in 1948, the emerging state of Israel found itself lacking in both food and foreign currency; in just three and a half years, the Jewish population of Israel had doubled, increased by nearly 700,000 immigrants. Consequently, the Israeli government instigated measures to control and oversee distribution of necessary resources to ensure equal and ample rations for all Israeli citizens.

In addition to the problems with the provision of food, national austerity was also required because the state was lacking in foreign currency reserves. Export revenues covered less than a third of the cost of imports, and less than half of the consequent deficit was covered by the Jewish loan system known as Magbiyot (Hebrew: מגביות‎, lit. Collections). Most financing was obtained from foreign banks and gas companies, which, as 1951 drew to an end, refused to expand the available credit; in order to supervise austerity, the prime minister, David Ben-Gurion, ordered the establishment of the Ministry of Rationing and Supply (Hebrew: משרד הקיצוב והאספקה‎, Misrad HaKitzuv VeHaAspaka), headed by Dov Yosef.

A Wonder Pot (right), a top-of-the-stove baking utensil invented during the austerity period to help homemakers bake cakes and casseroles without an oven.

At first this rationing was set for staple foods alone—oil, sugar and margarine, for instance—but it was later expanded to furniture and footwear. Each month, each citizen would get food coupons worth 6 Israeli pounds, and each family was allotted a given amount of foodstuffs, the diet chosen, fashioned after that used in the United Kingdom during World War II, allowed a meager 1,600 calories a day for Israeli citizens, with additional calories for children, the elderly, and pregnant women.

The enforcement of austerity required the establishment of a bureaucracy of quite some proportions, which nonetheless proved ineffective in preventing the emergence of a black market in which rationed products—often smuggled from the countryside—were sold at higher prices. To counter this, the government established in September 1950 the Office for Fighting the Black Market (Hebrew: מטה למלחמה בשוק השחור‎, Mate LeMilhama BaShuk HaShahor), whose goal it was to combat the forming of such a market. Yet despite the increased supervision, and the specially summoned courts, all such attempts at suppression proved ineffective.[citation needed]

In 1952 the reparations agreement was signed with Germany, compensating the Jewish state for confiscation of Jewish property during the Holocaust, the resulting influx of foreign capital was a huge boost to the state's struggling economy, and led to the cancellation of most restrictions in 1953. In 1956, the list of rationed goods was narrowed to just fifteen goods, and it shrank to eleven in 1958. Shortly afterwards, it was abolished for all goods except jam, sugar and coffee; in 1959, rationing was abolished altogether.

Economically, austerity proved a failure, mostly due to the enormous government deficit, covered by bank loans, creating an increase in the amount of money use. Throughout austerity unemployment remained high, and inflation grew as of 1951. Yet austerity did have its advantages – living standards were preserved at tolerable levels, while the resources saved were made available to feed and clothe and shelter the entire population adequately, while at the same time integrating and successfully resettling over 700,000 Jewish refugees from European, Arab, and Muslim lands.

1.
History of Israel
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The History of Israel encompasses the Jewish history in the Land of Israel, as well as the history of the modern State of Israel. Modern Israel and the West Bank are roughly located on the site of the ancient kingdoms of Israel and it is the birthplace of the Hebrew language and of the Abrahamic religions, and contains sites sacred to Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Samaritanism, Druze and Baháí Faith. Although coming under the sway of various empires and home to a variety of ethnicities, the area became increasingly Christian after the 3rd century and then largely Muslim following the 7th century conquest and until the middle of the 20th century. A Jewish national movement, Zionism, emerged in the late-19th century, Israeli independence in 1948 was marked by massive migration of Jews from both Europe and the Muslim countries to Israel, and of Arabs from Israel, followed by the extensive Arab–Israeli conflict. About 43% of the worlds Jews live in Israel today, the largest Jewish community in the world, since about 1970, the United States has become the principal ally of Israel. In 1979 an uneasy Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty was signed, based on the Camp David Accords, in 1993, Israel signed Oslo I Accord with the Palestine Liberation Organization, followed by establishment of the Palestinian National Authority and in 1994 Israel–Jordan peace treaty was signed. Despite efforts to finalize the agreement, the conflict continues to play a major role in Israeli and international political, social. The economy of Israel was initially primarily socialist and the country dominated by social democratic parties until the 1970s, since then the Israeli economy has gradually moved to capitalism and a free market economy, partially retaining the social welfare system. Between 2.6 and 0.9 million years ago, at least four episodes of dispersal from Africa to the Levant are known. The oldest evidence of humans in the territory of modern Israel. The flint tool artifacts have been discovered at Yiron, the oldest stone tools found anywhere outside Africa, other groups include 1.4 million years old Acheulean industry, the Bizat Ruhama group and Gesher Bnot Yaakov. Other notable Paleolithic sites include caves Qesem and Manot, the oldest fossils of anatomically modern humans found outside Africa are the Skhul and Qafzeh hominids, who lived in northern Israel 120,000 years ago. Around 10th millennium BCE, the Natufian culture existed in the area, during the 2nd millennium BCE, Canaan, part of which later became known as Israel, was dominated by the New Kingdom of Egypt from c.1550 to c. The first record of the name Israel occurs in the Merneptah stele, erected for Egyptian Pharaoh Merneptah c.1209 BCE, Israel is laid waste and his seed is not. William G. Dever sees this Israel in the highlands as a cultural and probably political entity. Ancestors of the Israelites may have included Semites native to Canaan, the first use of grapheme-based writing originated in the area, probably among Canaanite peoples resident in Egypt. All modern alphabetical writing systems are descended from this writing, written evidence of the use of Classical Hebrew exists from about 1000 BCE. It was written using the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet, villages had populations of up to 300 or 400, which lived by farming and herding, and were largely self-sufficient, economic interchange was prevalent

2.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam

3.
Austerity
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In most macroeconomic models austerity measures generally increase unemployment as government spending falls, reducing jobs in the public and/or private sector. Meanwhile, tax increases reduce household disposable income, thus reducing spending, countries which have benefited from austerity such as Ireland have in subsequent research shown to have suffered. Since government spending contributes to the Gross Domestic Product, reducing the spending may result in a higher debt-to-GDP ratio, in the case of excess capacity, however, the stimulus may result in an increase in employment and output. Austerity measures are typically pursued if there is a threat that a government cannot honour its debt obligations and this may occur when a government has borrowed in foreign currencies, or if it has been legally forbidden from issuing its own currency. International financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund may demand austerity measures as part of Structural Adjustment Programmes when acting as lender of last resort. Austerity policies may also appeal to the class of creditors, who prefer low inflation. More recently austerity has been pursued after governments became highly indebted by assuming private debts following banking crises, Austerity is grounded in liberal economists views that state and sovereign debt are deeply problematic. On the basis of classic liberal ideas austerity emerged as a doctrine of neoliberalism in the 20th Century, economist David M Kotz suggests that the implementation of austerity measures following the financial crisis of 2007–08 was an attempt to preserve the neoliberal capitalist model. In the 1930s during the Great Depression, anti-austerity arguments gained more prominence, john Maynard Keynes became a well known anti-austerity economist, arguing that The boom, not the slump, is the right time for austerity at the Treasury. Contemporary Keynesian and New Keynesian economists argue that budget deficits are appropriate when an economy is in recession, to reduce unemployment, according to Paul Krugman, since a government is not like a household, reductions in government spending during economic downturns worsen the crisis. Across an economy, one persons spending is another persons income, in other words, if everyone is trying to reduce their spending, the economy can be trapped in what economists call the paradox of thrift, worsening the recession as GDP falls. An important component of economic output is business investment, but there is no reason to expect it to stabilize at full utilization of the economys resources, high business profits do not necessarily lead to increased economic growth. Economists Kenneth S. Rogoff and Carmen M and our consistent advice has been to avoid withdrawing fiscal stimulus too quickly, a position identical to that of most mainstream economists. To help improve the U. S.9 and 1.7. In other words, a 1% GDP fiscal consolidation would reduce GDP between 0. 9% and 1. 7%, in so doing inflicting far more economic damage than the 0.5 previously estimated in IMF forecasts. In many countries, little is known about the size of multipliers, for these countries, Nicoletta Batini, Luc Eyraud and Anke Weber propose a simple method — dubbed the bucket approach — to come up with reasonable multiplier estimates. Different tax and spending choices of equal magnitude have different economic effects, For example, congressional Budget Office estimated that the payroll tax has a higher multiplier than does the income tax. In other words, raising the tax by $1 as part of an austerity strategy would slow the economy more than would raising the income tax by $1

4.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it

5.
Rationing
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Rationing is the controlled distribution of scarce resources, goods, or services, or an artificial restriction of demand. Rationing controls the size of the ration, which is ones allowed portion of the resources being distributed on a day or at a particular time. Rationing is often done to keep price below the price determined by the process of supply. Thus, rationing can be complementary to price controls, an example of rationing in the face of rising prices took place in the various countries where there was rationing of gasoline during the 1973 energy crisis. A reason for setting the lower than would clear the market may be that there is a shortage. High prices, especially in the case of necessities, are undesirable with regard to those who cannot afford them, traditionalist economists argue, however, that high prices act to reduce waste of the scarce resource while also providing incentive to produce more. Rationing using ration stamps is only one kind of non-price rationing, for example, scarce products can be rationed using queues. This is seen, for example, at amusement parks, where one pays a price to get in, similarly, in the absence of road pricing, access to roads is rationed in a first come, first served queueing process, leading to congestion. Authorities which introduce rationing often have to deal with the goods being sold illegally on the black market. Rationing has been instituted during wartime for civilians, for example, each person may be given ration coupons allowing him or her to purchase a certain amount of a product each month. Rationing often includes food and other necessities for which there is a shortage, including materials needed for the war such as rubber tires, leather shoes, clothing. Rationing of food and water may become necessary during an emergency. In the U. S. the Federal Emergency Management Agency has established guidelines for civilians on rationing food, according to FEMA standards, every person should have a minimum of 1 US quart per day of water, and more for children, nursing mothers and the ill. Military sieges have often resulted in shortages of food and other essential consumables, in such circumstances, the rations allocated to an individual are often determined based on age, sex, race or social standing. During the Siege of Lucknow a woman received three quarters the food ration a man received and children received only half, during the Siege of Ladysmith in the early stages of the Boer War in 1900 white adults received the same food rations as soldiers while children received half that. Food rations for Indian people and black people were significantly smaller, the first modern rationing systems were brought in during the First World War. In Germany, suffering from the effects of the British blockade, although Britain did not suffer from food shortages, as the sea lanes were kept open for food imports, panic buying towards the end of the war prompted the rationing of first sugar and then meat. It is said to have in the most part benefited the health of the country, to assist with rationing, ration books were introduced on 15 July 1918 for butter, margarine, lard, meat and sugar

6.
Tel Aviv
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Tel Aviv-Yafo is a major city in Israel, located on the countrys Mediterranean coastline. It is the center and the technology hub of Israel, with a population of 432,892. Tel Aviv is the largest city in the Gush Dan region of Israel, Tel Aviv is also a focal point in the high-tech concentration known as the Silicon Wadi. Tel Aviv is governed by the Tel Aviv-Yafo Municipality, headed by Ron Huldai, Tel Aviv is a global city, and is the thirty eighth most important financial center in the world. Tel Aviv is known to have the third-largest economy of any city in the Middle East after Abu Dhabi and Kuwait City, the city receives over a million international visitors annually. Known as The City that Never Sleeps and a party capital, it has a lively nightlife, the city was founded in 1909 by Jewish immigrants on the outskirts of the ancient port city of Jaffa. It is named after the Hebrew translation of Theodor Herzls 1902 novel, Altneuland, the modern citys first neighbourhoods had already been established in 1886, the first being Neve Tzedek. Immigration by mostly Jewish refugees meant that the growth of Tel Aviv soon outpaced Jaffas, Tel Aviv and Jaffa were merged into a single municipality in 1950, two years after the establishment of the State of Israel. Tel Avivs White City, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003, Tel Aviv is the Hebrew title of Theodor Herzls Altneuland, translated from German by Nahum Sokolow. The name was chosen in 1910 from several suggestions, including Herzliya and it was found fitting as it embraced the idea of a renaissance in the ancient Jewish homeland. Aviv is Hebrew for spring, symbolizing renewal, and tel is a man-made mound accumulating layers of civilization built one over the other and symbolizing the ancient. Although founded in 1909 as a settlement on the sand dunes North of Jaffa. The marketing pamphlets advocating for its establishment in 1906, wrote, In this city we will build the streets so they have roads and sidewalks and electric lights. Every house will have water wells that will flow through pipes as in every modern European city. Since 1886, Jewish settlers had founded new neighborhoods outside Jaffa on the current territory of Tel Aviv, the first was Neve Tzedek, built on lands owned by Aharon Chelouche and inhabited primarily by Mizrahi Jews. Other neighborhoods were Neve Shalom, Yafa Nof, Achva, Ohel Moshe, Kerem HaTeimanim, once Tel Aviv received city status in the 1920s, those neighborhoods joined the newly formed municipality, now becoming separated from Jaffa. The Second Aliyah led to further expansion, in 1906, a group of Jews, among them residents of Jaffa, followed the initiative of Akiva Aryeh Weiss and banded together to form the Ahuzat Bayit society. The societys goal was to form a Hebrew urban centre in an environment, planned according to the rules of aesthetics

7.
Declaration of Independence (Israel)
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It declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz-Israel, to be known as the State of Israel, which would come into effect on termination of the British Mandate at midnight that day. The event is celebrated annually in Israel with a national holiday Yom Haatzmaut on 5 Iyar of every year according to the Hebrew calendar, the possibility of a Jewish homeland in Palestine had been a goal of Zionist organizations since the late 19th century. After World War I, the United Kingdom was given a mandate for Palestine, in the face of increasing violence after World War II, the British handed the issue over to the recently established United Nations. The result was Resolution 181, a plan to partition Palestine into Independent Arab and Jewish States, the Jewish state was to receive around 56% of the land area of Mandate Palestine, encompassing 82% of the Jewish population, though it would be separated from Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by most of the Jewish population, the result was 33 to 13 in favour of the resolution, with 10 abstentions. Resolution 181, PART I, Future constitution and government of Palestine, TERMINATION OF MANDATE, PARTITION AND INDEPENDENCE, Clause 3 provides, Independent Arab and Jewish States and the Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem. Shall come into existence in Palestine two months after the evacuation of the forces of the mandatory Power has been completed. The first draft of the declaration was made by Zvi Berenson, a revised second draft was made by three lawyers, A. Beham, A. Hintzheimer and Z. E. Baker, and was framed by a committee including David Remez, Pinchas Rosen, Haim-Moshe Shapira, Moshe Sharett, a second committee meeting, which included David Ben-Gurion, Yehuda Leib Maimon, Sharett and Zisling produced the final text. On 12 May 1948, the Minhelet HaAm was convened to vote on declaring independence, three of the thirteen members were missing, with Yehuda Leib Maimon and Yitzhak Gruenbaum being blocked in besieged Jerusalem, while Yitzhak-Meir Levin was in the United States. The meeting started at 1,45 in the afternoon and ended after midnight, the decision was between accepting the American proposal for a truce, or declaring independence. The latter option was put to a vote, with six of the ten members present supporting it, For, David Ben-Gurion, Moshe Sharett, Peretz Bernstein, Haim-Moshe Shapira, Mordechai Bentov, against, Eliezer Kaplan, David Remez, Pinchas Rosen, Bechor-Shalom Sheetrit. Chaim Weizmann, chairman of the World Zionist Organization and soon to be the first President of Israel, endorsed the decision, after reportedly asking What are they waiting for, the idiots. The draft text was submitted for approval to a meeting of Moetzet HaAm at the JNF building in Tel Aviv on 14 May. The meeting started at 13,50 and ended at 15,00, an hour before the declaration was due to be made, during the process, there were two major debates, centering on the issues of borders and religion. On the border issue, the draft had declared that the borders would be that decided by the UN partition plan. While this was supported by Rosen and Bechor-Shalom Sheetrit, it was opposed by Ben-Gurion and Zisling, with Ben-Gurion stating, We accepted the UN Resolution and they are preparing to make war on us. If we defeat them and capture western Galilee or territory on both sides of the road to Jerusalem, these areas become part of the state

8.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי‎ ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו‎, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס‎, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד‎ Yid, ייִדן‎, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group

9.
Aliyah
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Aliyah is the immigration of Jews from the diaspora to the Land of Israel. Also defined as the act of going up—that is, towards Jerusalem—making Aliyah by moving to the Land of Israel is one of the most basic tenets of Zionism, the opposite action, emigration from the Land of Israel, is referred to in Hebrew as yerida. The State of Israels Law of Return gives Jews and their descendants automatic rights regarding residency, the large-scale immigration of Jews to Palestine began in 1882. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, more than 3 million Jews have moved to Israel, as of 2014, Israel and the Palestinian territories together contain 42. 9% of the worlds Jewish population. Successive waves of Jewish settlement are an important aspect of the history of Jewish life in Israel, Eretz Yisrael is the Hebrew name for the region known in English as Israel. This traditional Hebrew toponym, in turn, has lent its name to the modern State of Israel, pre-Zionist Aliyah refers to small-scale return migration of Diaspora Jews to the Land of Israel. Since the birth of Zionism, its advocates have striven to facilitate the settlement of Jewish refugees in Ottoman Palestine, Mandatory Palestine, Aliyah in Hebrew means ascent or going up. Jewish tradition views traveling to the land of Israel as an ascent, anyone traveling to Eretz Israel from Egypt, Babylonia or the Mediterranean basin, where many Jews lived in early rabbinic times, climbed to a higher altitude. Visiting Jerusalem, situated 2,700 feet above sea level, Aliyah is an important Jewish cultural concept and a fundamental component of Zionism. It is enshrined in Israels Law of Return, which accords any Jew and eligible non-Jews, someone who makes aliyah is called an oleh or olah. Many religious Jews espouse aliyah as a return to the Promised land, and regard it as the fulfillment of Gods biblical promise to the descendants of the Hebrew patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, nachmanides includes making aliyah in his enumeration of the 613 commandments. In the Talmud, at the end of tractate Ketubot, the Mishnah says, A man may compel his entire household to go up with him to the land of Israel, but may not compel one to leave. Sifre says that the mitzvah of living in Eretz Yisrael is as important as all the other mitzvot put together, there are many mitzvot such as shmita, the sabbatical year for farming, which can only be performed in Israel. In Zionist discourse, the term includes both voluntary immigration for ideological, emotional, or practical reasons and, on the other hand. The vast majority of Israeli Jews today trace their familys recent roots to outside the country, while many have actively chosen to settle in Israel rather than some other country, many had little or no choice about leaving their previous home countries. While Israel is commonly recognized as a country of immigrants, it is also, in large measure, a country of refugees. 2 Chronicles 36,23 Thus saith Cyrus king of Persia, All the kingdoms of the earth hath the LORD God of heaven given me, and he hath charged me to him an house in Jerusalem. Who among you of all his people, the LORD his God with him, and let him go up

10.
Credit (finance)
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In other words, credit is a method of making reciprocity formal, legally enforceable, and extensible to a large group of unrelated people. The resources provided may be financial, or they may consist of goods or services, Credit encompasses any form of deferred payment. Credit is extended by a creditor, also known as a lender, to a debtor, Credit does not necessarily require money. The credit concept can be applied in barter economies as well, based on the exchange of goods. However, in societies, credit is usually denominated by a unit of account. Bank issued credit makes up the largest proportion of credit in existence, the traditional view of banks as intermediaries between savers and borrower is incorrect. Modern banking is about credit creation, Credit is made up of two parts, the credit and its corresponding debt, which requires repayment with interest. The majority of the money in the UK economy is created as credit, when the debt is fully repaid, the credit and debt are cancelled, and the money disappears from the economy. Meanwhile, the debtor receives a cash balance, but also an equivalent negative liability to be repaid to the bank over the duration. Most of the credit created goes into the purchase of land and property, creating inflation in those markets, when a bank creates credit, it effectively owes the money to itself. If a bank issues too much bad credit, the bank will become insolvent, if it fails to do this it risks bankruptcy. In this instance, the bank uses sale of the collateral to reduce its liabilities, examples of secured credit include consumer mortgages used to buy houses, boats etc. and PCP credit agreements for automobile purchases. Movements of financial capital are normally dependent on credit or equity transfers. The global credit market is three times the size of global equity, Credit is in turn dependent on the reputation or creditworthiness of the entity which takes responsibility for the funds. Credit is also traded in financial markets, the purest form is the credit default swap market, which is essentially a traded market in credit insurance. There are many types of credit, including but not limited to bank credit, commerce, consumer credit, investment credit, international credit, public credit, in commercial trade, the term trade credit refers to the approval of delayed payment for purchased goods. Credit is sometimes not granted to a buyer who has financial instability or difficulty, companies frequently offer trade credit to their customers as part of the terms of a purchase agreement. Organizations that offer credit to their customers frequently employ a credit manager, Consumer debt can be defined as money, goods or services provided to an individual in the absence of immediate payment

11.
David Ben-Gurion
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David Ben-Gurion was the primary founder of the State of Israel and the first Prime Minister of Israel. Ben-Gurions passion for Zionism, which early in life, led him to become a major Zionist leader. On 14 May 1948, he proclaimed the establishment of the State of Israel, and was the first to sign the Israeli Declaration of Independence. Ben-Gurion led Israel during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, and united the various Jewish militias into the Israel Defense Forces, subsequently, he became known as Israels founding father. Following the war, Ben-Gurion served as Israels first Prime Minister and Minister of Defense, as Prime Minister, he helped build the state institutions, presiding over various national projects aimed at the development of the country. He also oversaw the absorption of vast numbers of Jews from all over the world, a centerpiece of his foreign policy was improving relationships with the West Germans. He worked very well with Konrad Adenauers government in Bonn, in 1954 he resigned as both Prime Minister and Minister of Defense, although he remained a member of the Knesset. However, he returned as Minister of Defense in 1955 after the Lavon Affair resulted in the resignation of Pinhas Lavon, later in the year he became Prime Minister again, following the 1955 elections. He stepped down from office in 1963, and retired from life in 1970. He then moved to Sde Boker, a kibbutz in the Negev desert, posthumously, Ben-Gurion was named one of Time magazines 100 Most Important People of the 20th century. David Ben-Gurion was born in Płońsk in Congress Poland – then part of the Russian Empire and his father, Avigdor Grün, was a lawyer and a leader in the Hovevei Zion movement. His mother, Scheindel, died when he was 11 years old, Ben-Gurions birth certificate, when rediscovered in Poland in 2003, indicated that he had a twin brother who died shortly after birth. At the age of 14 he and two formed a youth club, Ezra, promoting Hebrew studies and emigration to the Holy Land. In 1905, as a student at the University of Warsaw and he was arrested twice during the Russian Revolution of 1905. Ben-Gurion discussed his hometown in his memoirs, saying, For many of us, I personally never suffered anti-Semitic persecution. Płońsk was remarkably free of it, nevertheless, and I think this very significant, it was Płońsk that sent the highest proportion of Jews to Eretz Israel from any town in Poland of comparable size. We emigrated not for reasons of escape but for the positive purpose of rebuilding a homeland. Life in Płońsk was peaceful enough, there were three main communities, Russians, Jews and Poles

12.
Dov Yosef
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Dov Yosef was an Israeli politician and statesman. He served as governor of Jerusalem during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. He held ministerial positions in nine Israeli governments, bernard Joseph was born in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. He attended McGill University, Université Laval, and the University of London, Yosef immigrated to Palestine in 1918 with the Canadian Jewish Legion which he helped organize. After the end of World War I, Yosef worked as an attorney in Mandatory Palestine, during Israels War of Independence he served Military Governor of Jerusalem during the Blockade. In 1933 Yosef joined David Ben-Gurions Mapai party, three years later he became legal adviser to the Political Department of the Jewish Agency. He became a member of the Jewish Agency Executive Committee and a member of the World Zionist Organisations Political Committee, in December 1947 the Jewish Agency appointed him head of the Jerusalem Emergency Committee and in August 1948 he became Military Governor of Jerusalem. He was elected to the first Knesset in January 1949 and he was initially appointed Minister of Rationing and Supply in the first government, a key position during the austerity period. In June 1949 he was also appointed Agriculture Minister, the first government collapsed in October 1950 due to wranglings over refugee camps and religious education, but also because Ben-Gurion wanted the Rationing and Supply Ministry closed down. The Prime Minister got his way, and in the new government Yosef was moved to the transportation ministry. He retained his seat in the 1951 elections, and was appointed as both Minister of Justice and Minister of Minister of Trade and Industry, losing the former portfolio in June 1952. He retained this position in the new government formed by Moshe Sharett after Ben-Gurion had resigned to go, after Sharett resigned and formed a new government again in 1955, Yosef remained Development Minister, but also became Minister of Health. He retained his seat again in the 1955 elections, but was not appointed to a ministerial post and he lost his seat in the 1959 elections, and never regained MK status. However, during the fifth Knesset he was appointed Minister of Justice by Ben-Gurion despite being outside the Knesset, when Ben-Gurion was replaced by Eshkol he remained Justice Minister, but was not reappointed after the 1965 elections. Yosef caused a scandal when he published in 1960 an autobiographic book, The Faithful City. He claimed that David Shaltiel, the commander of Jerusalem gave him a picture of the situation in the city. Dov Yosef on the Knesset website The Central Zionist Archives in Jerusalem site, office of Dov Joseph and Louis Arieh Pincus

13.
Wonder Pot
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Wonder Pot is an Israeli invention for baking on top of a gas stove rather than in an oven. A Wonder Pot can be used to bake cakes, casseroles, rice, potatoes, apples, the Wonder Pot gained popularity during Israels era of national austerity in the 1950s, when most citizens did not own an oven. The concept was based on models from Germany and Eastern Europe, later the Wonder Pot was manufactured by other companies in the Haredi sector, including the Matlum company, which continues to produce the item today. The Wonder Pot retained its popularity through the 1970s, especially new immigrants who did not have ovens. During its heyday, the Wonder Pot spawned its own bestselling cookbook, the introduction of the microwave oven and a national desire to dissociate with the austerity mentality put an end to its widespread use. Today the Wonder Pot is considered a nostalgic Israeli kitchen item and it is still sold in traditional housewares stores, via marketing outlets, and in Haredi communities such as Bnei Brak and Jerusalem. In the late 2000s decade, a housewares store calling itself Seer Peh-leh opened in the Talpiot neighborhood of Jerusalem. The Wonder Pot is effective at baking on top of the stove for three reasons, its material, its hole, and the metal disc separating it from the flame. The aluminium material allows heat to spread uniformly, the center hole of the pot focuses the flame and creates heat dispersion around the inside of the cake. The metal disc lifts the pot off the fire, reducing and focusing the flame, baking in the Wonder Pot without the metal disc will produce a cake that is dry on the bottom and thick and wobbly in the center. The metal disc is sold in different thicknesses and diameters to accommodate different baking times, the lid of the Wonder Pot is perforated with small holes to release steam. Baking time in a Wonder Pot varies from 40 to 50 minutes, the Wonder Pot produces high and airy cakes. In addition to baking, the Wonder Pot is a medium for cooking vegetables, legumes. It can also be used to cook kugels, casseroles, pasta dishes, meat, de Wonderpan Wonder Pot recipes for Passover Omnia Stove Top Oven Where Can I buy a Wonderpot

14.
Baking
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Baking is a method of cooking food that uses prolonged dry heat, normally in an oven, but also in hot ashes, or on hot stones. The most common baked item is bread but many types of foods are baked. Heat is gradually transferred from the surface of cakes, cookies, as heat travels through it transforms batters and doughs into baked goods with a firm dry crust and a softer centre. Baking can be combined with grilling to produce a hybrid barbecue variant by using both methods simultaneously, or one after the other, Baking is related to barbecuing because the concept of the masonry oven is similar to that of a smoke pit. Because of historical social and familial roles, baking has traditionally performed at home by women for domestic consumption and by men in bakeries. When production was industrialized, baking was automated by machines in large factories, the art of baking remains a fundamental skill and is important for nutrition, as baked goods, especially breads, are a common but important food, both from an economic and cultural point of view. A person who prepares baked goods as a profession is called a baker, all types of food can be baked, but some require special care and protection from direct heat. Various techniques have developed to provide this protection. In addition to bread, baking is used to prepare cakes, pastries, pies, tarts, quiches, cookies, scones, crackers, pretzels, and more. Larger cuts prepared without stuffing or coating are often roasted. Roasting, however, is suitable for finer cuts of meat. One of these is the known as en croûte, which protects the food from direct heat. Meat, poultry, game, fish or vegetables can be prepared by baking en croûte, the en croûte method also allows meat to be baked by burying it in the embers of a fire – a favourite method of cooking venison. In this case, the casing is made from a paste of flour. Salt can also be used to make a protective crust that is not eaten, another method of protecting food from the heat while it is baking, is to cook it en papillote. In this method, the food is covered by baking paper to protect it while it is being baked, the cooked parcel of food is sometimes served unopened, allowing diners to discover the contents for themselves which adds an element of surprise. Eggs can also be used in baking to produce savoury or sweet dishes, in combination with dairy products especially cheese, they are often prepared as a dessert. For example, although a baked custard can be made using starch, baked custards, such as crème caramel, are among the items that need protection from an ovens direct heat, and the bain-marie method serves this purpose

15.
Cooking oil
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Cooking oil is plant, animal, or synthetic fat used in frying, baking, and other types of cooking. It is also used in preparation and flavouring not involving heat, such as salad dressings and bread dips. Cooking oil is typically a liquid at room temperature, although some oils that contain saturated fat, such as oil, palm oil. Oil can be flavoured with aromatic foodstuffs such as herbs, chillies or garlic, a guideline for the appropriate amount of fat—a component of daily food consumption—is established by regulatory agencies like the Food and Drug Administration. The recommendation is that 10% or fewer of daily calories should be from saturated fat, other meta-analyses based on cohort studies and on controlled, randomized trials found a positive, or neutral, effect from consuming polyunsaturated fats instead of saturated fats. Mayo Clinic has highlighted certain oils that are high in saturated fats, including coconut, palm oil and those having lower amounts of saturated fats and higher levels of unsaturated fats like olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, soy and cottonseed oils are generally healthier. One study showed that consumption of non-hydrogenated unsaturated oils like soybean, peanut oil, cashew oil and other nut-based oils may present a hazard to persons with a nut allergy. Unlike other dietary fats, trans fats are not essential, the consumption of trans fats increases ones risk of coronary heart disease by raising levels of bad LDL cholesterol and lowering levels of good HDL cholesterol. Trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils are more harmful than naturally occurring oils, several large studies indicate a link between the consumption of high amounts of trans fat and coronary heart disease, and possibly some other diseases. The United States Food and Drug Administration, the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, heating an oil changes its characteristics. Palm oil contains more saturated fats than canola oil, corn oil, linseed oil, soybean oil, safflower oil, therefore, palm oil can withstand the high heat of deep frying and is resistant to oxidation compared to highly unsaturated vegetable oils. To delay the onset of rancidity, a blanket of an inert gas, in a cool, dry place, oils have greater stability, but may thicken, although they will soon return to liquid form if they are left at room temperature. To minimize the effects of heat and light, oils should be removed from cold storage just long enough for use. Refined oils high in monounsaturated fats, such as oil, keep up to a year, while those high in polyunsaturated fats, such as soybean oil. Rancidity tests have shown that the life of walnut oil is about 3 months. Lighter, more refined oils tend to have a higher smoke point, experience using an oil is generally a sufficiently reliable guide. Although outcomes of empirical tests are sensitive to the qualities of particular samples, smoking oil indicates a risk of combustion, and left unchecked can also set off a fire alarm. When using any cooking oil, should it begin to smoke, the cook should be fully prepared to extinguish a burning oil fire before beginning to heat the oil, by having on hand the lid to place on the pan, or having on hand the proper fire extinguisher

16.
Sugar
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Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD

17.
Margarine
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Margarine is an imitation butter spread used for spreading, baking, and cooking. Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès created it in France, in 1869 and he was responding to a challenge by Emperor Napoleon III to create a butter substitute for the armed forces and lower classes. Whereas butter is made from the butterfat of milk, modern margarine is made mainly of refined oil and water. In some places in the United States it is referred to as oleo. Margarine, like butter, consists of an emulsion, with tiny droplets of water dispersed uniformly throughout a fat phase in a stable crystalline form. In some jurisdictions margarine must have a fat content of 80% to be labelled as such. Colloquially in the United States, the term margarine is used to describe non-dairy spreads like Country Crock, Margarine can be used for spreading, baking, and cooking. It is also used as an ingredient in other food products, such as pastries, doughnuts and cookies. Margarine originated with the discovery by French chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul in 1813 of margaric acid, scientists at the time regarded margaric acid, like oleic acid and stearic acid, as one of the three fatty acids that, in combination, form most animal fats. In 1853, the German structural chemist Wilhelm Heinrich Heintz analyzed margaric acid as simply a combination of stearic acid, Emperor Napoleon III of France offered a prize to anyone who could make a satisfactory butter alternative, suitable for use by the armed forces and the lower classes. French chemist Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès invented a substance he called oleomargarine, which shortened to the trade name margarine. Mège-Mouriès patented the concept in 1869 and expanded his initial manufacturing operation from France but had commercial success. In 1871, he sold the patent to the Dutch company Jurgens, in the same year a German pharmacist, Benedict Klein from Cologne, founded the first margarine factory Benedict Klein Margarinewerke, producing the brands Overstolz and Botteram. In John Steeles 1850 California gold miners journal, he wrote, I became acquainted with Mr. Dainels, from Baltimore, manufactured butter from tallow and lard, and it looked and tasted so much like real butter, that. I could not tell the difference, however, he deceived no one, but sold it for just what it was. He never explained the process of its manufacturer, and whether he was the originator of oleomargarine I do not know, the principal raw material in the original formulation of margarine was beef fat. In 1871, Henry W. Bradley of Binghamton, New York received U. S, patent 110,626 for a process of creating margarine that combined vegetable oils with animal fats. The depression of the 1930s, followed by the rationing of World War II, led to a reduction in supply of animal fat, while butter that cows produced had a slightly yellow color, margarine had a white color, making the margarine look more like lard

18.
Furniture
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Furniture refers to movable objects intended to support various human activities such as seating, eating, and sleeping. Furniture is also used to hold objects at a convenient height for work, Furniture can be a product of design and is considered a form of decorative art. In addition to furnitures functional role, it can serve a symbolic or religious purpose and it can be made from many materials, including metal, plastic, and wood. Furniture can be using a variety of woodworking joints which often reflect the local culture. People have been using natural objects, such as stumps, rocks and moss. Archaeological research shows that from around 30,000 years ago, people began constructing and carving their own furniture, using wood, stone, early furniture from this period is known from artwork such as a Venus figurine found in Russia, depicting the goddess on a throne. The first surviving extant furniture is in the homes of Skara Brae in Scotland, complex construction techniques such as joinery began in the early dynastic period of ancient Egypt. This era saw constructed wooden pieces, including stools and tables, sometimes decorated with valuable metals or ivory. The evolution of furniture design continued in ancient Greece and ancient Rome, with thrones being commonplace as well as the klinai, multipurpose couches used for relaxing, eating, the furniture of the Middle Ages was usually heavy, oak, and ornamented. Furniture design expanded during the Italian Renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth century, the seventeenth century, in both Southern and Northern Europe, was characterized by opulent, often gilded Baroque designs. The nineteenth century is defined by revival styles. The first three-quarters of the century are often seen as the march towards Modernism. One unique outgrowth of post-modern furniture design is a return to natural shapes and textures, the English word furniture is derived from the French word fourniture, the noun form of fournir, which means to supply or provide. Thus fourniture in French means supplies or provisions, the practice of using natural objects as rudimentary pieces of furniture likely dates to the beginning of human civilisation. Early humans are likely to have used tree stumps as seats, rocks as rudimentary tables, during the late palaeolithic or early neolithic period, from around 30,000 years ago, people began constructing and carving their own furniture, using wood, stone, and animal bones. The earliest evidence for the existence of constructed furniture is a Venus figurine found at the Gagarino site in Russia, a similar statue of a Mother Goddess was found in Catal Huyuk in Turkey, dating to between 6000 and 5500 BC. The inclusion of such a seat in the figurines implies that these were already common artefacts of that age, a range of unique stone furniture has been excavated in Skara Brae, a Neolithic village in Orkney, Scotland. Each house shows a degree of sophistication and was equipped with an extensive assortment of stone furniture, ranging from cupboards, dressers and beds to shelves, stone seats

19.
Footwear
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Footwear refers to garments worn on the feet, which originally serves to purpose of protection against adversities of the environment, usually regarding ground textures and temperature. Footwear in the manner of shoes therefore primarily serves the purpose to ease the locomotion, secondly footwear can also be used for fashion and adornment as well as to indicate the status or rank of the person within a social structure. Socks and other hosiery are typically worn additionally between the feet and other footwear for further comfort and relief, cultures have different customs regarding footwear. These include not using any in some situations, usually bearing a symbolic meaning and this usually takes place in situations of captivity, such as imprisonment or slavery, where the groups are among other things distinctly divided by whether or whether not footwear is being worn. In these cases the use of footwear categorically indicates the exercise of power as against being devoid of footwear, Footwear is in use since earliest human history, archeological finds of complete shoes date back to the copper age. Some ancient civilizations, such as Egypt however saw no practical need for footwear due to convenient climatic and landscape situations and used primarily as ornaments. The Romans saw clothing and footwear as unmistakable signs of power and status in society, and most Romans wore footwear, while slaves and peasants remained barefoot. The Middle Ages saw the rise of high-heeled shoes, also associated with power, and the desire to look larger than life, officials like prosecutors, judges but also slave owners or passive bystanders were usually portrayed wearing shoes. In some cultures, people remove their shoes before entering a home, bare feet are also seen as a sign of humility and respect, and adherents of many religions worship or mourn while barefoot. Some religious communities explicitly require people to remove shoes before they enter holy buildings, in several cultures people remove their shoes as a sign of respect towards someone of higher standing. In a similar context deliberately forcing other people to go barefoot while being shod oneself has been used to clearly showcase, practitioners of the craft of shoemaking are called shoemakers, cobblers, or cordwainers. In the 15th century, chopines were created in Turkey, and were usually 7-8 inches high and these shoes became popular in Venice and throughout Europe, as a status symbol revealing wealth and social standing. During the 16th century, royalty such as Catherine de Medici, by 1580, men also wore them, and a person with authority or wealth might be described as, well-heeled. In modern society, high-heeled shoes are a part of fashion and are widespread in certain countries around the world. Modern footwear is made up of leather or plastic. In fact, leather was one of the materials used for the first versions of a shoe. The soles can be made of rubber or plastic, sometimes having a sheet of metal inside, roman sandals had sheets of metal on their soles so that it would not bend out of shape. More recently, footwear providers like Nike, have begun to source environmentally friendly materials, whereas in 2005, there were about 27,000 firms, in 2008 there were only 24,000

20.
Israeli pound
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Until 1952, the name used on the notes of the Anglo-Palestine Bank was Palestine pound, in Hebrew לירה אי. In Arabic, the name was given as junayh filisţīnī, in 1952, the Anglo-Palestine Bank changed its name to Bank Leumi Le-Yisrael and the currency name became, lira yisraelit in Hebrew, junayh isrāīlī in Arabic, and Israel pound in English. From 1955, after the Bank of Israel was established and took over the duty of issuing banknotes, only the Hebrew name was used, banknotes in circulation were issued by the Palestine Currency Board, which was subject to the British Secretary of State for the Colonies. Israel inherited the Palestine pound but, shortly after the establishment of the state, the new coins were the first to bear the new states name, while the banknotes said The Anglo-Palestine Bank Limited. While the first coins minted by Israel still bore the name mil, a second series of banknotes was issued after the Anglo-Palestine Bank moved its headquarters to Tel Aviv and changed its name to Bank Leumi. The pegging to the UK Pound was abolished on January 1,1954, and in 1960, the sub-division of the pound was changed from 1000 prutot to 100 agorot. During the 1960s, a debate over the name of the Israeli currency resulted in a law ordering the Minister of Finance to change the name pound into a Hebrew name. The law allowed the minister to decide on a date for the change. The law did not come into effect until February 1980, when the Israeli government decided to change the monetary system, israels first coins were aluminium 25 mil pieces, dated 1948 and 1949, which were issued in 1949 before the adoption of the pruta. Later in 1949, coins were issued in denominations of 1,5,10,25,50,100 and 250 prutah, the coins were conceived, in part, by Israeli graphic designer Otte Wallish. In 1960, coins were issued denominated in agora, there were 1,5,10 and 25 agorot pieces. In 1963, 1/2 and 1 pound coins were introduced, followed by 5 lirot coins in 1978, in 1948, the government issued fractional notes for 50 and 100 mils. The Anglo-Palestine Bank issued banknotes for 500 mils,1,5,10 and 50 lirot between 1948 and 1951, in 1952, the government issued a second series of fractional notes for 50 and 100 prutah with 250 prutah notes added in 1953. Also in 1952, the Bank Leumi Le-Israel took over paper money production, the Bank of Israel began note production in 1955, also issuing notes for 500 pruta,1,5,10 and 50 lirot. In 1968,100 lirot notes were introduced, followed by 500 lirot notes in 1975, in the third banknote issuing, released between 1973 and 1975, a feature was added for use in identifying denomination by visually impaired and blind people. Bank of Israel Economy of Israel Paul Kor Bank of Israel catalogue of Israeli currency since 1948 Israeli Lirah coins with pictures

21.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state‍—‌the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government

22.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan

23.
Kfar Saba
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Kfar Saba, officially Kefar Sava, is a city in the Sharon region, of the Central District of Israel. In 2015 it had a population of 96,922, the origins of the name are not known - in Hebrew it means grandfathers village. Kfar Saba also appears in the Talmud in connection to corn tithing, excavations on the site have revealed the remains of a large Roman bathhouse. In the Byzantine periods the ruins of the bathhouse were first converted into fish pools, in 1596, the Arab village of Kafr Saba was inhabited by 42 Muslim families. In the 1870s it was described as a mud village of moderate size with mud-ponds around it and good water in the wells of Neby Yemin, the Jewish town of Kfar Saba was established in 1898 on 7,500 dunams of land purchased from the Arab village. The Ottoman pasha of Nablus, to whose governorate the land belonged, refused to give building permits, therefore the first settlers lived in huts made of clay and they earned their living by growing almonds, grapes and olives. Most of the manual laborers on the land were peasants from Qalqilya, only in 1912 were permits given and the settlers moved to permanent housing. In the Palestine campaign of World War I, Kfar Saba was on the front line between General Allenbys British Army and the Ottoman army, and was destroyed, at the same time about a thousand residents of Tel Aviv and Jaffa came to live in the town. They had been deported from their homes by the Ottomans. Due to the Jaffa riots of 1921 these deportees returned to their original cities, in 1922 the original residents returned and in 1924 additional settlers joined them. In this period the cultivation of citrus fruit developed, the first elections for the local council were held. In August 1947, a Jewish man was shot to death outside the village. In December 1947, Arab and Jewish leaders in the area pledged to keep the peace between the local communities, in the months leading up to the 1948 war, Kfar Saba was attacked by local militia from Arab Kafr Saba. The Arab Liberation Army, an army consisting of volunteers from several neighboring Arab countries, in 1962 Kfar Saba was awarded city status, with head of the local council, Mordechai Surkis, becoming its first mayor. Located just across the Green Line from Kalkilya, Kfar Saba has been a frequent target of terrorist attacks, in May 2001, a Palestinian Arab suicide bomber wearing an explosive belt killed a doctor and wounded 50 at a bus stop in Kfar Saba. In March 2002, a Palestinian terrorist opened fire on passersby at an intersection, killing an Israeli girl. In April 2003, a Palestinian suicide bomber blew himself up at the Kfar Saba train station during the rush hour, killing a security guard. The census of 1922 listed the population of Kfar Saba as 14 Jews, by the census of 1931 it had grown to 1405 inhabitants, in 395 houses

24.
Black market
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Parties engaging in the production or distribution of prohibited goods and services are members of the illegal economy. Examples include the trade, prostitution, illegal currency transactions. Violations of the tax code involving income tax evasion constitutes membership in the unreported economy, because tax evasion or participation in a black market activity is illegal, participants will attempt to hide their behavior from the government or regulatory authority. Cash usage is the medium of exchange in illegal transactions since cash usage does not leave a footprint. Common motives for operating in markets are to trade contraband, avoid taxes and regulations. Typically the totality of such activity is referred to with the article as a complement to the official economies, by market for such goods and services. Black money is the proceeds of a transaction, on which income and other taxes have not been paid. Because of the nature of the black economy it is not possible to determine its size. There is no single underground economy, there are many and these underground economies are omnipresent, existing in market oriented as well as in centrally planned nations, be they developed or developing. Different types of activities are distinguished according to the particular institutional rules that they violate. Illegal economy participants engage in the production and distribution of prohibited goods and services, such as trafficking, arms trafficking. The unreported economy consists of economic activities that circumvent or evade the institutionally established fiscal rules as codified in the tax code. A summary measure of the economy is the amount of income that should be reported to the tax authority but is not so reported. A complementary measure of the economy is the tax gap. In the U. S. unreported income is estimated to be $2 trillion resulting in a tax gap of $450–$500 billion, the unrecorded economy consists of those economic activities that circumvent the institutional rules that define the reporting requirements of government statistical agencies. A summary measure of the economy is the amount of unrecorded income. Unrecorded income is a problem in transition countries that switched from a socialist accounting system to UN standard national accounting. New methods have been proposed for estimating the size of the unrecorded economy, but there is still little consensus concerning the size of the unreported economies of transition countries

25.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed

26.
The Holocaust
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The Holocaust, also referred to as the Shoah, was a genocide in which some six million European Jews were killed by Adolf Hitlers Nazi Germany, and the World War II collaborators with the Nazis. The victims included 1.5 million children, and represented about two-thirds of the nine million Jews who had resided in Europe, killings took place throughout German-occupied Europe, as well as within Nazi Germany, and across all territories controlled by its allies. Other victims of Nazi crimes included ethnic Poles and other Slavs, Soviet citizens and Soviet POWs, communists, homosexuals, Freemasons, Jehovahs Witnesses, some 42,500 detention facilities were utilized in the concentration of victims for the purpose of gross violations of human rights. Over 200,000 people are estimated to have been Holocaust perpetrators, the persecution was carried out in stages, culminating in the policy of extermination of European Jews termed the Final Solution to the Jewish Question. Following Hitlers rise to power, the German government passed laws to exclude Jews from civil society, starting in 1933 the Nazis began to establish a network of concentration camps. After the outbreak of war in 1939 both German and foreign Jews were herded into wartime ghettos, in 1941, as Germany began to conquer new territory in the East, all anti-Jewish measures radicalized. Specialized paramilitary units called Einsatzgruppen murdered around two million Jews in mass shootings actions in less than a year, by mid-1942, victims were being regularly transported by freight trains to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, most were systematically killed in gas chambers. This continued until the end of World War II in Europe in April–May 1945, the most notable exception was the Warsaw Ghetto uprising of 1943, when thousands of poorly-armed Jewish fighters held the Waffen-SS at bay for four weeks. An estimated 20, 000–30,000 Jewish partisans actively fought against the Nazis, French Jews took part in the French Resistance, which conducted a guerilla campaign against the Nazis and Vichy French authorities. Over a hundred armed Jewish uprisings took place, the term holocaust comes from the Greek adjective holókaustos, a variant of holókautos, referring to an animal sacrifice offered to a god in which the whole animal is completely burnt. Often used substantively in apposition with the noun thysia, the term appears in a fragment of pseudo-Callisthenes, writing in Latin, Jerome Latinized the Greek word as a neuter noun holocaustum, using it to translate references to the Jewish burnt offering in his translations of Exodus and Leviticus. In his Chronicon de rebus gestis Ricardi Primi, Richard of Devizes, the English poet John Milton had used the word to denote a conflagration in his 1671 poem Samson Agonistes and the word gradually developed to mean a massacre thereon. The term was used in the 1950s by historians as a translation of the Jewish word shoah to refer specifically to the Nazi genocide of Jews, the television mini-series Holocaust is credited with introducing the term into common parlance after 1978. The biblical word shoah, meaning calamity became the standard Hebrew term for the Holocaust as early as the 1940s, especially in Europe and Israel. Shoah is preferred by some Jews for several reasons including the offensive nature of the word holocaust which they take to refer to the Greek pagan custom. The Nazis used the phrase Final Solution to the Jewish Question, all branches of Germanys bureaucracy were engaged in the logistics that led to the genocides, turning the Third Reich into what one Holocaust scholar, Michael Berenbaum, has called a genocidal state. Every arm of the countrys sophisticated bureaucracy was involved in the killing process, as prisoners entered the death camps, they were made to surrender all personal property, which was catalogued and tagged before being sent to Germany to be reused or recycled. Berenbaum writes that the Final Solution of the Jewish question was in the eyes of the perpetrators, through a concealed account, the German National Bank helped launder valuables stolen from the victims

27.
Fruit preserves
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Fruit preserves are preparations of fruits, vegetables and sugar, often canned or sealed for long-term storage. Many varieties of fruit preserves are made globally, including sweet fruit preserves, such as made from strawberry or apricot. In English, the word, in form, preserves is used to describe all types of jams. The term preserves is usually interchangeable with jams, some cookbooks define preserves as cooked and gelled whole fruit, which includes a significant portion of the fruit. In the English speaking world, the two terms are more differentiated and, when this is not the case, the more usual generic term is jam. The singular preserve or conserve is used as a noun for high fruit content jam. Additionally, the name of the type of fruit preserves will also vary depending on the variant of English being used. A chutney is a pungent relish of Indian origin made of fruit, spices, mango chutney, for example, is mangoes reduced with sugar. Savory confits, such as made with garlic or fennel, may call for a savory oil, such as virgin olive oil. A conserve, or whole fruit jam, is a jam made of fruit stewed in sugar, in Romania they are known as dulceata. As a result of minimal cooking, some fruits are not particularly suitable for making into conserves. Currants and gooseberries, and a number of plums are among these fruits, because of this shorter cooking period, not as much pectin will be released from the fruit, and as such, conserves will sometimes be slightly softer set than some jams. An alternative definition holds that conserves are preserves made from a mixture of fruits and/or vegetables, Conserves may also include dried fruit or nuts. Fruit butter, in context, refers to a process where the whole fruit is forced through a sieve or blended after the heating process. Fruit butters are generally made from fruits, such as apples, plums. Cook until softened and run through a sieve to give a smooth consistency, add sugar and cook as rapidly as possible with constant stirring. … The finished product should mound up when dropped from a spoon, but should not cut like jelly. Neither should there be any free liquid. —Berolzheimer R et al, fruit curd is a dessert topping and spread usually made with lemon, lime, orange, or raspberry. The basic ingredients are beaten egg yolks, sugar, fruit juice and zest which are cooked together until thick and then allowed to cool, forming a soft, smooth

28.
Coffee
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Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted coffee beans, which are the seeds of berries from the Coffea plant. The genus Coffea is native to tropical Africa, and Madagascar, the two most commonly grown are the highly regarded arabica, and the less sophisticated but stronger and more hardy robusta. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried, dried coffee seeds are roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. Roasted beans are ground and brewed with boiling water to produce coffee as a beverage. Coffee is slightly acidic and can have an effect on humans because of its caffeine content. Coffee is one of the most popular drinks in the world and it can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways. It is usually served hot, although iced coffee is also served, the earliest credible evidence of coffee-drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century in the Sufi shrines of Yemen. It was here in Arabia that coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed in a way to how it is now prepared. Coffee seeds were first exported from East Africa to Yemen, as the coffea arabica plant is thought to have been indigenous to the former, yemeni traders took coffee back to their homeland and began to cultivate the seed. By the 16th century, it had reached Persia, Turkey, from there, it spread to Europe and the rest of the world. Coffee is an export commodity, it is the top agricultural export for numerous countries and is among the worlds largest legal agricultural exports. It is one of the most valuable commodities exported by developing countries, green coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world. Consequently, the markets for fair trade coffee and organic coffee are expanding. The first reference to coffee in the English language is in the form chaona, dated to 1598 and understood to be a misprint of chaoua, equivalent, in the orthography of the time, to chaova. This term and coffee both derive from the Ottoman Turkish kahve, by way of the Italian caffè and it has also been proposed that the source may be the Proto-Central Semitic root q-h-h meaning dark. Alternatively, the word Khat, a plant widely used as stimulant in Yemen and Ethiopia before being supplanted by coffee has been suggested as a possible origin, the expression coffee break was first attested in 1952. The term coffee pot dates from 1705, other accounts attribute the discovery of coffee to Sheikh Omar. According to the ancient chronicle, Omar, who was known for his ability to cure the sick through prayer, was exiled from Mocha in Yemen to a desert cave near Ousab

29.
Government budget balance
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Budget deficits redirects here, not to be confused with Government debt. A government budget is a financial statement presenting the governments proposed revenues, a positive balance is called a government budget surplus, and a negative balance is a government budget deficit. A budget is prepared for each level of government and takes into account public social security obligations, the government budget balance is further differentiated into the primary balance and the structural balance. The primary budget balance equals the government budget balance before interest payments, the structural budget balances attempts to adjust for the impacts of the real GDP changes in the national economy. The government fiscal balance is one of three major sectoral balances in the economy, the others being the foreign sector and the private sector. The sum of the surpluses or deficits across these three sectors must be zero by definition, the government sector includes federal, state and local governments. For example, the U. S. government budget deficit in 2011 was approximately 10% GDP, offsetting a capital surplus of 4% GDP and a private sector surplus of 6% GDP. Financial journalist Martin Wolf argued that sudden shifts in the sector from deficit to surplus forced the government balance into deficit. The collapse is explained by the shift of the private sector from financial deficit into surplus or, in other words. The sectoral balances derive from the sectoral analysis framework for analysis of national economies developed by British economist Wynne Godley. GDP is the value of all goods and services produced within a country during one year, GDP measures flows rather than stocks. Combining the two perspectives gives C + S + T = Y = C + I + G + and this implies the accounting identity for the three sectoral balances – private domestic, government budget and external, = +. Another way of saying this is that private savings is equal to private investment plus the public deficit plus net exports. In macroeconomics, the Modern Money Theory describes any transactions between the government sector and the non-government sector as a vertical transaction, in any given time period, the government’s budget can be either in deficit or in surplus. A deficit occurs when the government spends more than it taxes, sectoral balances analysis shows that as a matter of accounting, government budget deficits add net financial assets to the private sector. This is because a budget deficit means that a government has deposited more money, a budget surplus means the opposite, in total, the government has removed more money and bonds from private holdings via taxes than it has put back in via spending. Therefore, budget deficits, by definition, are equivalent to adding net financial assets to the private sector and this is represented by the identity, = − N X where NX is net exports. Hence, continual budget deficits are necessary for an economy that wants to avoid deflation

30.
Unemployment
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During periods of recession, an economy usually experiences a relatively high unemployment rate. According to International Labour Organization report, more than 200 million people globally or 6% of the workforce were without a job in 2012. There remains considerable debate regarding the causes, consequences and solutions for unemployment. Classical economics, new classical economics, and the Austrian School of economics argue that market mechanisms are reliable means of resolving unemployment, Keynesian economics emphasizes the cyclical nature of unemployment and recommends government interventions in the economy that it claims will reduce unemployment during recessions. This theory focuses on recurrent shocks that suddenly reduce aggregate demand for goods and services, Keynesian models recommend government interventions designed to increase demand for workers, these can include financial stimuli, publicly funded job creation, and expansionist monetary policies. Structural arguments emphasize causes and solutions related to disruptive technologies and globalization, Causes and solutions for frictional unemployment often address job entry threshold and wage rates. Behavioral economists highlight individual biases in decision making, and often involve problems and solutions concerning sticky wages, for centuries, experts have predicted that machines would make workers obsolete and increase unemployment. The state of being without any work both for an educated & uneducated person, for earning ones livelihood is meant by unemployment, some additional types of unemployment that are occasionally mentioned are seasonal unemployment, hardcore unemployment, and hidden unemployment. Though there have been several definitions of voluntary and involuntary unemployment in the economics literature, voluntary unemployment is attributed to the individuals decisions, whereas involuntary unemployment exists because of the socio-economic environment in which individuals operate. In these terms, much or most of frictional unemployment is voluntary, on the other hand, cyclical unemployment, structural unemployment, and classical unemployment are largely involuntary in nature. So, in practice, the distinction between voluntary and involuntary unemployment is hard to draw and this happens with cyclical unemployment, as macroeconomic forces cause microeconomic unemployment which can boomerang back and exacerbate these macroeconomic forces. Classical, or real-wage unemployment, occurs when real wages for a job are set above the market-clearing level causing the number of job-seekers to exceed the number of vacancies. On the other hand, some argue that as wages fall below a livable wage many choose to drop out of the labor market. This is especially true in countries where low-income families are supported through public welfare systems, in such cases, wages would have to be high enough to motivate people to choose employment over what they receive through public welfare. Wages below a livable wage are likely to result in lower labor market participation in above stated scenario, in addition it must be noted that consumption of goods and services is the primary driver of increased need for labor. Higher wages leads to workers having more available to consume goods. Therefore, higher wages increase general consumption and as a result need for labor increases, many economists have argued that unemployment increases with increased governmental regulation. For example, minimum wage laws raise the cost of some low-skill laborers above market equilibrium, laws restricting layoffs may make businesses less likely to hire in the first place, as hiring becomes more risky

31.
Inflation
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In economics, inflation is a sustained increase in the general price level of goods and services in an economy over a period of time resulting in a loss of value of currency. When the price rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods. Consequently, inflation reflects a reduction in the power per unit of money – a loss of real value in the medium of exchange. A chief measure of inflation is the inflation rate, the annualized percentage change in a general price index, usually the consumer price index. The opposite of inflation is deflation, Inflation affects economies in various positive and negative ways. Economists generally believe that high rates of inflation and hyperinflation are caused by a growth of the money supply. However, money supply growth does not necessarily cause inflation, some economists maintain that under the conditions of a liquidity trap, large monetary injections are like pushing on a string. Views on which factors determine low to moderate rates of inflation are more varied, low or moderate inflation may be attributed to fluctuations in real demand for goods and services, or changes in available supplies such as during scarcities. However, the view is that a long sustained period of inflation is caused by money supply growing faster than the rate of economic growth. Today, most economists favor a low and steady rate of inflation, the task of keeping the rate of inflation low and stable is usually given to monetary authorities. Rapid increases in quantity of the money or in the money supply have occurred in many different societies throughout history. By diluting the gold with other metals, the government could issue more coins without also needing to increase the amount of used to make them. When the cost of each coin is lowered in this way and this practice would increase the money supply but at the same time the relative value of each coin would be lowered. As the relative value of the coins becomes lower, consumers would need to give more coins in exchange for the same goods and these goods and services would experience a price increase as the value of each coin is reduced. Song Dynasty China introduced the practice of printing paper money in order to create fiat currency, during the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, the government spent a great deal of money fighting costly wars, and reacted by printing more money, leading to inflation. Fearing the inflation that plagued the Yuan dynasty, the Ming Dynasty initially rejected the use of paper money, historically, large infusions of gold or silver into an economy also led to inflation. This was largely caused by the influx of gold and silver from the New World into Habsburg Spain. The silver spread throughout a previously cash-starved Europe and caused widespread inflation, demographic factors also contributed to upward pressure on prices, with European population growth after depopulation caused by the Black Death pandemic

32.
Expulsions of Jews
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In Jewish history, Jews have experienced numerous mass expulsions or ostracism by various local authorities and have sought refuge in other countries. The Land of Israel was always regarded by Jews as the Jewish homeland and this law was intended to encourage Jews to return to their homeland in Israel. 722 BCE The Assyrians led by Shalmaneser conquered the Kingdom of Israel, ten of twelve Tribes of Israel are considered lost, but these tribes are not considered Jewish, rather than Samaritan. These tribes have been living since then near the city of Nablus in what is today the West Bank, in 537 BCE the Persians, who conquered Babylon two years earlier, allowed Jews to return and rebuild Jerusalem and the Temple. 70 The defeat of the Great Jewish Revolt, masses of Jews were sold to slavery across the Roman Empire, many fled. 119 Large Jewish communities of Cyprus, Cyrene and Alexandria become extinct after the Jewish defeat in Kitos War against Rome and this event caused a major demographic shift in the Levant and North Africa. 135 The Romans defeated Bar Kokhbas revolt, emperor Hadrian expelled hundreds of thousands Jews from Judea, wiped the name off the maps, replaced it with Syria Palaestina, forbade Jews to set foot in Jerusalem. 629 The entire Jewish population of Galilee is massacred or expelled, 7th century Muhammad expelled Jewish tribes Banu Qaynuqa and Banu Nadir from Medina, The Banu Qurayza tribe was slaughtered and the Jewish settlement of Khaybar was ransacked. All three tribes previously had a treaty with Muhammad, but they broke the treaty and sided with the opposition. The Banu Qurayza, not only sided with the opposing leaders,1095 - mid-13th century The waves of Crusades destroyed hundreds of Jewish communities in Europe and in the Middle East, including Jerusalem. Mid-12th century The invasion of Almohades brought to end the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain, among other refugees was Maimonides, who fled to Morocco, then Egypt, then Eretz Israel. 1276 Jews expelled from Upper Bavaria, 13th century The influential philosopher and logician Ramon Llull called for expulsion of all Jews who would refuse conversion to Christianity. Some scholars regard Llulls as the first comprehensive articulation, in the Christian West,1288 Naples issues first expulsion of Jews in Southern Italy. 1290 King Edward I of England issues the Edict of Expulsion for all Jews from England, the policy was reversed after 365 years in 1655 by Oliver Cromwell. 1293 Destruction of most of the Jewish communities in the Kingdom of Naples,1348 European Jews were blamed for poisoning wells during the Black Death. Many of those who survived the epidemic and pogroms were either expelled or fled,1392 Jews expelled from Bern, Switzerland. Although between 1408 and 1427 Jews were again residing in the city, the only Jews to appear in Bern subsequently were transients, chiefly physicians,1442 Jews again expelled from Upper Bavaria. 1491 Jews of Ravenna expelled, synagogues destroyed,1492 Ferdinand II and Isabella I issued the Alhambra decree, General Edict on the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain, from Sicily, from Portugal from Calabria Italy 1554

33.
Rationing in the United Kingdom
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Rationing was introduced temporarily by the British government several times during the 20th century, during and immediately after a war. The UK also imported more than 50 percent of its meat, the civilian population of the country was about 50 million. To deal with sometimes extreme shortages, the Ministry of Food instituted a system of rationing, to buy most rationed items, each person had to register at chosen shops and was provided with a ration book containing coupons. The shopkeeper was provided with food for registered customers. Purchasers had to take ration books with them when shopping, so the relevant coupon or coupons could be cancelled, in line with its business as usual policy during the First World War, the government was initially reluctant to try to control the food markets. It fought off efforts to try to introduce minimum prices in cereal production, when it did introduce changes, they were limited in their effect. In January 1917, Germany started using submarines to sink all ships headed to Britain in an attempt to starve Britain into submission, to meet this threat to the food supply voluntary rationing was introduced in February 1917. To facilitate the process, ration books were introduced in July 1918 for butter, margarine, lard, meat, for the most part, rationing benefited the health of the country. During the war, average energy intake decreased only three percent, but protein intake six percent, the government made preparations to ration food in 1925, in advance of an expected general strike and appointed Food Control Officers for each region. After the Second World War began in September 1939 the first commodity to be controlled was petrol, on 8 January 1940 bacon, butter and sugar were rationed. This was followed by successive ration schemes for meat, tea, jam, biscuits, breakfast cereals, cheese, eggs, lard, milk, and canned and dried fruit. In June 1942 the Combined Food Board was set up to coordinate the world supply of food to the Allies, with attention to flows from the U. S. Almost all foods apart from vegetables and bread were rationed by August 1942, strict rationing inevitably created a black market. Almost all controlled items were rationed by weight but meat was rationed by price, fresh vegetables and fruit were not rationed but supplies were limited. Some types of imported fruit all but disappeared, many people grew their own vegetables, greatly encouraged by the highly successful digging for victory motivational campaign. In 1942 numerous children between five and seven years old had become used to wartime restrictions, when questioned about bananas, many did not believe such items existed. Game meat such as rabbit and pigeon were not rationed but were not always available, a popular music-hall song, written 20 years previously but sung ironically, was Yes. During the food rationing, British biologists ate laboratory rat and this was partly in response to increasing public concerns that luxury off-ration foodstuffs were being unfairly obtained by those who could afford to dine regularly in restaurants

34.
Special Period
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The economic depression of the Special Period was at its most severe in the early to mid-1990s before slightly declining in severity towards the end of the decade. People were forced to live without many goods they had used to. The dissolution of the Soviet Union hit the Cuban economy severely, the country lost approximately 80% of its imports, 80% of its exports and its Gross Domestic Product dropped by 34%. Food and medicine imports stopped or severely slowed, the largest immediate impact was the loss of nearly all of the petroleum imports from the USSR, Cubas oil imports dropped to 10% of pre-1990 amounts. Before this, Cuba had been re-exporting any Soviet petroleum it did not consume to other nations for profit, entirely dependent on fossil fuels to operate, the major underpinnings of Cuban society—its transport, industrial and agricultural systems—were paralyzed. The early stages of the Special Period were defined by a breakdown in transportation and agricultural sectors, fertilizer and pesticide stocks. Organic agriculture was soon mandated by the Cuban government, supplanting the old industrialized form of agriculture Cubans had grown accustomed to. Relocalization, permaculture, and innovative modes of mass transit had to be rapidly developed, at the time, United States law allowed humanitarian aid in the form of food and medicine by private groups. Alternative transport, most notably the Cuban camels—immense 18-wheeler tractor trailers retrofitted as passenger buses meant to carry hundreds of Cubans each—flourished, food-wise, meat and dairy products, having been extremely fossil fuel dependent in their former factory farming methods, soon diminished in the Cuban diet. The Cuban government also focused more intensely on cooperation with Venezuela once the socialist Hugo Chávez was elected president in 1998, Cubans had to resort to eating anything they could find. In the Havana zoo, The peacocks, the buffalo and even the rhea were reported to have disappeared, Cuban domestic cats disappeared from streets to dinner tables. Cows in the island were eaten, before 1959, Cuba boasted as many cattle as people. Today meat is so scarce that it is a crime to kill, to combat illegal cow eating, the government established harsh penalties. A person can get more time for killing a cow than killing a human. Those who sell beef without government permission can get three to eight years in prison, eaters of illegal beef can get three months to one year in prison. The Special Periods malnutrition created epidemics, but it had positive effects too, a paper in the American Journal of Epidemiology, says that during 1997-2002, there were declines in deaths attributed to diabetes, coronary heart disease, stroke, and all causes. An outbreak of neuropathy and a modest increase in the death rate among the elderly were also observed. This was caused by how the population tried to reduce the energy store without reducing the value of the food

35.
Economy of Israel
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The economy of Israel is technologically advanced by global standards. The major economic sectors include high-technology and industrial manufacturing, the Israeli diamond industry is one of the centers for diamond cutting and polishing. Its central high technology hub Silicon Wadi is considered second in only to its Californian counterpart. Numerous Israeli companies have been acquired by global corporations for their reliable, each entrepreneur has each praised Israels economy and invested heavily across numerous Israeli industries beyond their traditional business activities and investments back in their home nations. Israel is also a major tourist destination, with 3.54 million foreign tourists visiting it in 2013, in September 2010, Israel was invited to join the OECD. The British Mandate that came into effect in 1923 aimed at restricting land purchases of previously Arab-owned land by Jewish immigrants, for this reason the Jewish population was initially more urban and had a higher share in industrial occupations than did the Arab majority. The first survey of the Dead Sea in 1911, by the Russian Jewish engineer Moshe Novomeysky, led to the establishment of Palestine Potash Ltd. in 1930, in 1923, Pinhas Rutenberg was granted an exclusive concession for the production and distribution of electric power. He founded the Palestine Electric Company, later the Israel Electric Corporation, in 1937, there were 86 spinning and weaving factories in the country, employing a workforce of 1,500. Capital and technical expertise were supplied by Jewish professionals from Europe, the Ata textile plant in Kiryat Ata, which went on to become an icon of the Israeli textile industry, was established in 1934. The industry underwent rapid development during World War II, when supplies from Europe were cut off while local manufacturers were commissioned for army needs, by 1943, the number of factories had grown to 250, with a workforce of 5,630, and output increased tenfold. From 1924, trade fairs were held in Tel Aviv, the Levant Fair was inaugurated in 1932. After statehood, Israel faced an economic crisis. As well as having to recover from the effects of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, it also had to absorb hundreds of thousands of Jewish refugees from Europe. Israel was financially overwhelmed and faced an economic crisis, which led to a policy of austerity from 1949 to 1959. Unemployment was high, and foreign reserves were scarce. Over the next 14 years, West Germany paid Israel 3 billion marks, the reparations became a decisive part of Israels income, comprising as high as 87. 5% of Israels income in 1956. In 1950, the Israeli government launched Israel Bonds for American and Canadian Jews to buy, in 1951, the final results of the bonds program exceeded $52 million. Additionally, many American Jews made private donations to Israel, which in 1956 were thought to amount to $100 million a year, in 1957, bond sales amounted to 35% of Israels special development budget

36.
Boycotts of Israel
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Boycotts of Israel are a systematic practice of avoiding economic, political and cultural ties with the State of Israel, with individual Israelis or with Israeli-based companies or organizations. Boycotts have been enacted or proposed around the world and these boycotts comprise economic measures such as divestment, a consumer boycotts of Israeli products or businesses that operate in Israel, and academic boycotts of Israeli universities. Some advocates of the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions campaign use the 1980s movement against South African apartheid as a model and this is due to the fact that boycotters consider Israels treatment of the Palestinians and its Arab minority as similar to the system of Apartheid in South Africa. The most severe attempt to boycott Jewish businesses was undertaken by the Arab Higher Committee, headed by Haj Amin al-Husayni in 1936, beginning the 1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine. An official organized boycott was adopted by the Arab League in December 1945, before the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, originally, the Arab boycott had a moderate negative impact on Israels economy and development. Inevitably the economies of participating Arab nations also suffered as the result of a deterioration in the direct investment climate in the Arab world. Whether or not the Arab nations in question were aware of the risks to their own economies is still unknown. Egypt, the Palestinian Authority, and Jordan signed peace treaties or agreements that ended their participation in the boycott of Israel, mauritania, which never applied the boycott, established diplomatic relations with Israel in 1999. Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia do not enforce the boycott, in present days, the Arab boycott is rarely applied. The move prompted a surge of investment in Israel, and resulted in the initiation of joint cooperation projects between Israel and Arab countries, according to a survey by Geocartography Knowledge, 85% of Palestinian residents in the West Bank are interested in cooperation with Israel. The PLO, its branches, Palestinian businesses and universities cooperate with Israel daily, in December 2005, the Sør-Trøndelag regional council of Norway passed a motion calling for a comprehensive boycott of Israeli goods. The council acted as a result of lobbying by Norwegian activists, the Congress of South African Trade Unions published a letter expressing their support for the CUPE boycott of Israel. The Toronto assembly of the United Church of Canada supports CUPEs boycott, in 2003, the Toronto assembly voted to boycott goods produced by Jewish settlements in the occupied territories. The national umbrella UCC declined to support a boycott at the time, in August 2012 the General Council of the United Church of Canada approved a recommendation to boycott products in Israeli settlements located within occupied Palestinian territory. The Church of England synod has voted for disinvestment from Israel, which was criticised by George Carey, Britains National Union of Journalists called for a boycott on 14 April 2007. The motions also supported divestment from those engaged in or profiting from the occupation of the West Bank. The FO reiterated its view that the settlements are illegal, include ensuring that goods from the settlements do not enter the UK without paying the proper duties and ensuring that goods are properly labelled. Sources near the talks say the United Kingdom is accusing some Israeli companies of fraud, Their labeling indicates that they manufacture in Israel, based on experience, there are concerns in Israel that the discussion on exports from the territories will affect all Israeli exports to Europe

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Arab boycott
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The boycott was later extended to boycott companies which trade with Israel. An official organized boycott of the Yishuv was adopted by the Arab League in December 1945, the boycott was designed to weaken Jewish industry in Palestine and to deter Jewish immigration to the region. Although the boycott undoubtedly hurt Israel to some extent, it failed to cripple the country economically, Israel managed to build one of the strongest economies in the region, and managed to evade the boycott and clandestinely trade with the Arab and Muslim world through a number of countermeasures. The implementation of the boycott has varied over time among member states, Egypt, the Palestinian Authority, and Jordan signed peace treaties or agreements that ended their participation in the boycott of Israel. Mauritania, which never applied the boycott, established relations with Israel in 1999. Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia do not enforce the boycott, in 1994, following the Oslo Peace Accords, the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf states, ended their participation in the Arab boycott against Israel. The move prompted a surge of investment in Israel, and resulted in the initiation of joint cooperation projects between Israel and Arab countries, in 1996, the GCC states recognized that total elimination of the boycott is a necessary step for peace and economic development in the region. In present days, the boycott is sporadically applied and ambiguously enforced, the boycott also negatively impacted other countries— particularly the United States during the Arab Oil Embargo in the 1970s. As part of the conflict in Mandatory Palestine, some Arab leaders sought to orchestrate anti-Jewish boycotts from 1922. The original boycott forswore with any Jewish-owned business operating in Mandatory Palestine, Palestinian Arabs who were found to have broken the boycott. Were physically attacked by their brethren and their merchandise damaged when Palestinian Arabs rioted in Jerusalem in 1929, another, stricter boycott was imposed on Jewish businesses in following the riots that called on all of the Arabs in the region to abide by its terms. The Arab League was formed on 22 March 1945 with six members, on 2 December 1945, it issued its first formal declaration of an economic boycott of the Jewish community of Palestine. The declaration, contained in Arab League Resolution 16, stated, the first body established for this purpose was the Permanent Boycott Committee, based in Cairo, Egypt. On 12 June the Boycott Committee adopted a recommendation in Arab League Resolution 70, member states of the Arab League began implementing these resolutions through legal and administrative measures. After the Partition of Palestine into Arab and Jewish states was introduced at the United Nations on 29 November 1947, efforts to apply the boycott were intensified. However, the boycott was unsuccessful, as established in the first annual report of the Boycott Committee, and trade between Palestine and Arab States neighboring Palestine continued to thrive. The Arab League cut off postal, telegraphic, and radio communications with Israel, and Arab States began to impose a land, sea, Israeli goods, shipped through Alexandria, Port Suez and Port Said, were confiscated by Egyptian inspectors. A prize court established in Alexandria in 1949 authorized the seizure of cargo destined for Israel

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Antisemitic boycotts
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Antisemitic boycotts, also known as anti-Jewish boycotts are organized boycotts directed against Jewish people to exclude them economical, political or cultural life. Antisemitic boycotts are often regarded as a manifestation of popular antisemitism, there were a variety of movements calling for boycotts of Jews and discrimination based round universities was particularly prevalent. In almost every country in Europe, boycotts ultimately led to the revocation of civil rights, murder, in Hungary, agitation for boycotts began in 1875 with an antisemitic speech from Győző Istóczy in the Hungarian House of Representatives. From the 1880s there were calls in some of the Catholic press for Jews to be boycotted, the government passed laws limiting Jewish economic activity from 1938 onwards. Quotas limited Jewish access to institutions and from 1892 they were banned from participation in local elections. In 19th century Austria, Karl Lueger, a mayor of Vienna who inspired Hitler. Jews were only allowed to live in Vienna from 1840, an organization called the Antisemitenbund campaigned against Jewish civil rights since 1919. Austrian campaigns tended to heighten around Christmas and became effective from 1932, in the Ukraine, there was a boycott of Jews in Galicia, alleging Jewish support for Poland, while Poles in Galicia boycotted Jews for supporting Ukraine. In 1921, the German student union, the Deutschen Hochschulring, since the bar was racial, it included Jews who had converted to Christianity. The bar was challenged by the government leading to a referendum in which 76% of students voted for the exclusion and it was the first of many measures against the Jews of Germany, which ultimately culminated in the Final Solution. It was a campaign of ever-increasing harassment, arrests, systematic pillaging, forced transfer of ownership to Nazi party activists. In Berlin alone, there were 50,000 Jewish owned businesses, by 1945 they all had Aryan owners. In Poland, the Endeks organized boycotts of Jewish businesses across Poland, in 1936 Prime Minister Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski called for economic struggle and economic boycott of the Jews became formal government policy from June 4,1936. Kosher slaughter was banned in Poland in 1936, in Germany in 1930 following the legislation enacted in many other European countries. In Palestine, the Arab leadership organized boycotts of Jewish businesses from 1929 onwards, the boycotts were publicized through anti-Semitic language and were accompanied by riots that the British authorities described as clearly anti-Jewish. In Quebec, French-Canadian nationalists organized boycotts of Jews in the thirties, in the USA, Nazi supporters, such as Father Charles Coughlin, agitated for a boycott of Jewish businesses. Coughlins radio show attracted tens of millions of listeners and his supporters organized Buy Christian campaigns, ivy League Universities restricted the numbers of Jews allowed admission. 3D Test of Antisemitism Hebrew labor Arab general strike Arab boycott Austerity in Israel

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Agriculture in Israel
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More than half of the land area is desert, and the climate and lack of water resources do not favor farming. Only 20% of the area is naturally arable. In 2008 agriculture represented 2. 5% of total GDP and 3. 6% of exports. While farmworkers made up only 3. 7% of the force, Israel produced 95% of its own food requirements, supplementing this with imports of grain, oilseeds, meat, coffee, cocoa. Israel is home to two types of agricultural communities, the kibbutz and moshav, which developed as Jews all over the world made aliyah to the country. The development of agriculture was closely tied to the Zionist movement. Jews who immigrated purchased land that was mostly semi-arid, although much had been rendered untillable by deforestation, soil erosion and they set about clearing rocky fields, constructing terraces, draining swampland, reforesting, counteracting soil erosion, and washing salty land. Since independence in 1948, the area under cultivation has increased from 408,000 acres to 1,070,000 acres. Agricultural production has expanded 16 times, three more than population growth. Water shortage is a major problem, rain falls between September and April, with an uneven distribution across the country, from 28 inches in the north to less than 1 inch in the south. Annual renewable water resources are about 5.6 billion cubic feet, the importance of agriculture in Israels economy has fallen over time, accounting for decreasing values of GDP. In 1979, it accounted for just under 6% of GDP, in 19855. 1%, in 1995, there were 43,000 farm units with an average size of 13.5 hectares. 19. 8% of these were smaller than 1 hectare,75. 7% were 1 to 9 hectares in size,3. 3% were between 10 and 49 hectares,0. 4% were between 50 and 190 hectares, and 0. 8% were larger than 200 hectares. Of the 380,000 hectares under cultivation in 1995,20. 8% was under permanent cultivation and 79. 2% under rotating cultivation, farm units included 160,000 hectares used for activities other than cultivation. Cultivation was based mainly in the coastal plains, the hills of the interior. In 2006, agricultural output fell by 0. 6% following a 3. 6% rise in 2005, between 2004 and 2006, vegetables accounted for around 35% of total agricultural output. Flowers made up around 20%, field crops made up around 18%, fruits, around 15%, in 2006,36. 7% of agricultural output was for domestic consumption,33. 9% for domestic manufacturing, and 22% for direct export. In 2006, 33% of vegetables, 27% of flowers, 16% of field crops,15. 5% of fruits other than citrus, the area of irrigated farmland has increased from 74,000 acres in 1948 to some 460,000 acres today

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Agricultural research in Israel
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Agricultural research in Israel is based on close cooperation and interaction between scientists, consultants, farmers and agriculture-related industries. Israels semi-arid to arid climate and shortage of quality water are major constraints facing Israeli agriculture. Through extensive greenhouses production, vegetables, fruits and flowers are grown for export to the European markets during the winter off-season, the Agricultural Experiment Station established in 1921 developed into the Agricultural Research Organization, widely known as the Volcani Institute. Dry farming on a level was practiced in the Land of Israel for over 2000 years. The forerunners of agricultural research in Palestine were the teachers and instructors of the Mikveh Israel agricultural school, the pioneers of many of the early farming settlements cultivated experimental plots supervised by an agronomist. Arriving in the country with little or no agricultural experience. Arab agriculture revolved primarily around dry farming, with barley, chickpeas, sesame, the few German Templer villages were based on relatively large farms of dry farming of wheat and barley. In 1906, Jewish agronomist Aaron Aaronsohn discovered wild emmer, believed to be the mother of the wheat and their mission was to conduct research leading to small farms with intensive agriculture, specializing in mixed farming of fruit trees, cattle, chicken, vegetables and cereals. The research station, headed by I, elazari-Volcani and located in Rehovot, was the first scientific institute in Palestine. It had departments for crop sciences, fruit and citrus, soil and irrigation, entomology and plant pathology, post-harvest, food technology, the station had an extension department and results of its research were quickly passed on to the farmers. Yields of grain under dryland conditions increased from 600 to 5000 kg per hectare, Research in storage of citrus fruit reduced spoilage during shipping to Europe due to fungal rots from 30% to 2-3%. The British government also established an agricultural research department with several stations in both Arab and Jewish areas. After 1948, with the establishment of the State of Israel, however, the extension and advisory service, previously part of the research station, now became an independent branch within the Ministry. In 1960 an attempt was made to merge the Agricultural Research Station with the Faculty of Agriculture of the Hebrew University, to form the National, the idea was based on the US model of the Land Grant Colleges). This attempt failed, mainly because the working conditions were not equalized before the merger. Nevertheless, a close cooperation exists between the two institutions, with the growth of the various disciplines in the Agricultural Research Station and the establishment of regional research stations, the organizational structure has changed over time. The Agricultural Research Organization was established in 1971, incorporating all agricultural research within the Ministry of Agriculture, within the ARO are six institutes, two commodity and four discipline oriented institutes. The ARO has two research centers – Gilat, in southern Israel and Neve Yaar in the north

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Israeli wine
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Israeli wine is produced by hundreds of wineries, ranging in size from small boutique enterprises to large companies producing over ten million bottles per year. Wine has been produced in the Land of Israel since biblical times, in 2011, Israeli wine exports totaled over $26.7 million. The modern Israeli wine industry was founded by Baron Edmond James de Rothschild, viticulture has existed in the land of Israel since biblical times. In the book of Deuteronomy, the fruit of the vine was listed as one of the seven blessed species of fruit found in the land of Israel, the location of Israel along a historic wine trading route between Mesopotamia and Egypt brought winemaking knowledge and influence to the area. Wine played a significant role in the religion of the early Israelites with images of growing, harvesting and winemaking often being used to illustrate religious ideals. In Roman times, wine from Israel was exported to Rome with the most sought after wines being vintage, todays wine production in Israel comes from grape varieties traced to French varieties. In 1848, a rabbi in Jerusalem founded the first documented winery in modern times, in 1870, the first Jewish agricultural college, Mikveh Israel, was founded and featured a course on viticulture. In 1882, he helped establish Carmel Winery with vineyards and wine production facilities in Rishon LeZion and Zikhron Yaakov near Haifa. Still in operation today, Carmel is the largest producer of Israeli wine and has been at the forefront of many technical and historical advances in winemaking and Israeli history. One of the first telephones in Israel was installed at Carmel, for most of its history in the modern era, the Israeli wine industry was based predominantly on the production of Kosher wines which were exported worldwide to Jewish communities. The quality of wines were varied, with many being produced from high-yielding vineyards that valued quantity over quality. Many of these wines were also somewhat sweet, in the late 1960s, Carmel Winery was the first Israeli winery to make a dry table wine. In 1989, the first boutique winery in Israel, Margalit Winery, was founded, by the 1990s, Israeli estates such as Golan Heights Winery and Domaine du Castel were winning awards at international wine competitions. The 1990s saw a subsequent boom in the opening of boutique wineries, by 2000 there 70 wineries in Israel, and by 2005 that numbered jumped to 140. Today, less than 15% of Israeli wine is produced for sacramental purposes, the three largest producers—Carmel Winery, Barkan Wine Cellars and Golan Heights Winery—account for more than 80% of the domestic market. The United States is the largest export destination, the country has also seen the emergence of a modern wine culture with upscale restaurants featuring international wines dedicated to an ever-increasing wine-conscious clientele. Israel has a distinctly Mediterranean climate, with the country located along roughly the latitude as San Diego. There are two primary seasons - a hot, humid summer season running from April to October with very little precipitation, during winter, average precipitation is around 20 inches with some areas seeing as much as 35 inches annually

The Merneptah Stele. While alternative translations exist, the majority of biblical archaeologists translate a set of hieroglyphs as "Israel," representing the first instance of the name in the historical record.