Tamil Nadustate of India, located in the extreme south of the subcontinent. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the east and south and by the states of Kerala to the west, Karnataka (formerly Mysore) to the northwest, and Andhra Pradesh to the north. Enclosed by Tamil Nadu along the north-central coast are the enclaves of Puducherry and Karaikal, both of which are part of Puducherry union territory. The capital is Chennai (Madras), on the coast in the northeastern portion of the state.

Tamil Nadu represents the Tamil-speaking area of what was formerly the Madras Presidency of British India. The Tamils are especially proud of their Dravidian language and culture, and they have notably resisted attempts by the central government to make Hindi (an Indo-Aryan language) the sole national language. While it has an industrial core in Chennai, the state is essentially agricultural. Area 50,216

square miles (

130,058

square km). Pop.

(2008 est

.

) 66,396,000.

Land

Relief, drainage, and soils

Tamil Nadu is divided naturally between the flat country along the eastern coast and the hilly regions in the north and west. The broadest part of the eastern plains is the fertile Kaveri (Cauvery) River delta; farther south are the arid flatlands surrounding the cities of Ramanathapuram and Madurai (Madura). The high peaks of the Western Ghats run along the state’s western border. Various segments of this mountain range— including the Nilgiri, Anaimalai, and Palni hills—have peaks exceeding 8,000 feet (2,400 metres) in elevation. Anai Peak, at 8,842 feet (2,695 metres) in the Anaimalai Hills, is the highest mountain in peninsular India. The lower peaks of the Eastern Ghats and their outliers—locally called the Javadi, Kalrayan, and Shevaroy hills—run through the centre of the region. Tamil Nadu’s major rivers—the Kaveri, the Ponnaiyar, the Palar, the Vaigai, and the Tambraparni—flow eastward from the inland hills.

Apart from the rich alluvial soil of the river deltas, the predominant soils of the state are clays, loams, sands, and red laterites (soils with a high content of iron oxides and aluminum hydroxide). The black cotton-growing soil known as regur is found in parts of the central, west-central, and southeastern regions of Tamil Nadu.

Climate

The climate of Tamil Nadu is essentially tropical. In May and June, the hottest months, maximum daily temperatures in Chennai average about 100 °F (38 °C), while minimum temperatures average in the low 80s F (upper 20s C). In December and January, the coolest months, temperatures usually rise from about 70 °F (21 °C) into the mid-80s F (about 30 °C) daily. The average annual precipitation, falling mainly between October and December, depends on the southwest and northeast monsoons and ranges between 25 and 75 inches (630 and 1,900 mm) a year. The mountainous and hilly areas, especially in the extreme western part of the state, receive the most precipitation, while the lower-lying southern and southeastern regions receive the least rainfall.

Plant and animal life

Forests cover roughly 15 percent of the state. At the highest elevations in the Western Ghats, the mountains support subalpine vegetation. Along the eastern side of the Western Ghats and in the hills of the northern and central districts, the plant life is a mixture of evergreen and deciduous species, some of which are markedly adapted to arid conditions.

Tamil Nadu has several national parks and more than a dozen wildlife and bird sanctuaries. Among the most notable of these protected areas are the Mudlumbai Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park in the Nilgiri Hills and the large Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park at the southern tip of the Western Ghats. These sanctuaries provide a safe habitat for a broad spectrum of fauna, including elephants, gaurs (wild cattle), Nilgiri tahrs (goatlike mammals), wild boars, sloth bears, and various species of deer. Tigers, leopards, and an assortment of primates, including macaques, langurs, and lorises, also inhabit these areas. Venomous king cobras are among the many species of reptiles that make their home in Tamil Nadu. Woodpeckers and flycatchers are common woodland birds; aquatic birds find a haven at the Vedantangal sanctuary in the south-central part of the state.

People

Population composition

The area’s population evidently has changed little over the centuries. As speakers of a Dravidian language, the Tamils, who constitute the majority of the population, are understood to be descendants of the early inhabitants of India (the so-called Dravidians), who were driven southward between about 2000 and 1500 bce when the Aryans (speakers of Indo-Aryan languages) descended into the Indian subcontinent. In addition to the Tamils, the population includes various indigenous communities, who live primarily in the hill regions; these people also speak Dravidian languages. In Tamil Nadu, as in the rest of the country, the caste system is strong, even though discrimination has been banned by the constitution of India. Members of Scheduled Castes (an official category embracing those groups that traditionally occupy low positions within the caste system) account for about one-fifth of the population. Scheduled Tribes (those indigenous peoples who fall outside the caste hierarchy) account for just a small fraction of Tamil Nadu’s residents.

Tamil, the official state language, is spoken by most of the people. Other Dravidian languages used within the state include Telugu, which is spoken by roughly one-tenth of the population, as well as Kannada and Malayalam, which are spoken by much smaller numbers. In the western region—near the convergence of the borders of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala—Kannada (and its dialect Badaga) and Malayalam are stronger. There also is a community of Urdu (an Indo-Aryan language) speakers. English is used as a subsidiary language.

The overwhelming majority of Tamil Nadu’s residents practice Hinduism. There are, however, notable minorities of Christians and Muslims, with a large concentration of Christians in the far southern segment of the state. A small community of Jains is found in northern Tamil Nadu, in and around the cities of Arcot and Chennai.

Settlement patterns

Although Tamil Nadu is one of the most urbanized states of India, more than half the population in the early 21st century continued to live in rural areas. The Chennai metropolitan region, covering the industrial areas, townships, and villages surrounding Chennai city, has the largest population. Other important urban agglomerations include Coimbatore in western Tamil Nadu, Madurai in the south-central region, and Tiruchchirappalli in the central part of the state.

Economy

Agriculture, fishing, and forestry

Agriculture is the mainstay of life for about half the working population of Tamil Nadu. Since very early times, Tamil farmers have skillfully conserved scarce rainwater in small and large irrigation reservoirs, or “tanks.” Government canals, tube wells, and ordinary wells also form part of the irrigation system. Because several of the river valley projects depend for water on rain brought by the erratic northeast monsoon, the government also taps subsoil water sources.

Agricultural practices have shown radical improvement since the mid-20th century through multiple cropping, the use of stronger and more productive strains of staple crops, and the application of chemical fertilizers; since the late 1960s the state has been self-sufficient in the production of food grains. The principal crops for domestic consumption are rice, millet, and other cereals, as well as peanuts (groundnuts) and pulses (such as chickpeas); sugarcane, cotton, cashews, and chilies are important cash crops. Many farmers in Tamil Nadu also raise livestock, primarily cows (especially for the dairy industry), poultry, goats, and sheep.

Tamil Nadu is one of India’s top fish producers, with most of the yield coming from marine operations, although there also are many inland fisheries. In addition, the state has an active forestry sector, with pulpwood, babul (a type of acacia that yields valuable tannin), firewood, bamboo, and teak among the primary products. Rubber, grown largely in plantations, is important as well.

Resources and power

The major minerals mined in Tamil Nadu are limestone, bauxite, gypsum, lignite (brown coal), magnesite, and iron ore. The opencast lignite mine at Neyveli, in the north-central part of the state, is among the largest in India, and its products are used to fuel a thermal-power plant that provides much of the state’s electricity. The bulk of Tamil Nadu’s energy comes from thermal stations, but hydroelectric plants—especially along the Kaveri River and its tributaries—provide an important secondary source of energy. The state also is a leader in wind-power generation.

Manufacturing

Tamil Nadu is one of the most industrialized of the Indian states, and the manufacturing sector accounts for more than one-third of the state’s gross product. Production of heavy vehicles—such as automobiles, agricultural equipment, military vehicles, and railway cars—is among the state’s major industries; the railway-coach factory at Perambur (near Chennai) is one of the largest in Asia. There is an oil refinery and petrochemical plant in Chennai. Other prominent manufacturing activities include textile milling, food processing, and the production of pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and electronic parts and equipment. Tamil Nadu also is rich in handicrafts, most notably brass, bronze, and copper ware, leather work, handloomed silk, kalamkari (hand-painted fabric, using natural dyes), and articles fashioned from carved wood, palm leaf, and cane.

Services

The services sector has grown especially rapidly since the late 20th century, and by the early 21st century it had become the largest contributor to Tamil Nadu’s economy. Expansion of the information-technology industry has been a priority of the state’s economic development policies. Tourism also has been an area of emphasis, with ongoing improvements in infrastructure, accommodations, restaurants, and cultural and recreational attractions.

Transportation

The transport system of the southern Indian states converges on Chennai. A well-developed road network makes express bus service available to all major towns and places of interest. Many railways also run through the state.

Two of India’s major seaports are located in Tamil Nadu—in the north at Chennai and in the south at Tuticorin. The international airport at Meenambakkam, near Chennai, is one of the largest airports in India. Domestic flights are available from a number of other cities, including Madurai, Coimbatore, and Tuticorin; the airport at Tiruchchirappalli offers domestic and limited international service.

Government and society

Constitutional framework

The structure of the government of Tamil Nadu, like that of most other states of India, is determined by the national constitution of 1950. The head of state is the governor, who is appointed by the president of India. The governor is aided and advised by the Council of Ministers, which is led by a chief minister and is responsible to the elected unicameral Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha). Most of the ministries are housed in the 17th-century Fort St. George in Chennai. The state’s judiciary is headed by the High Court in Chennai (Madras High Court), which has original jurisdiction for the city and appellate jurisdiction for the state; the High Court also may hear original cases of an extraordinary nature from other parts of Tamil Nadu. A bench of the High Court is located in Madurai. Lower courts include district and sessions courts, magistrates’ courts, and munsifs’ (subordinate judicial officers’) courts.

The state is divided into more than two dozen administrative districts, each administered by a district collector. Lower administrative and revenue units are called talukas, firkas, and villages. Panchayats (village councils) are responsible for local self-government and rural development.

Health

The medical needs of Tamil Nadu’s population are served by a large number of public and private hospitals, dispensaries, and primary health centres. Allopathic (Western), Ayurvedic and Siddha (traditional Indian), Unanī (a Muslim system using prescribed herbs and shrubs), and homeopathic medical treatments are all recognized and supported by the government and are available throughout the state. Among Tamil Nadu’s primary health concerns are cholera, malaria, filariasis (disease caused by infestation of the blood and tissues by parasitic worms), and HIV/AIDS infection. The state has largely brought leprosy under control, although thousands of cases are still treated annually.

Various government agencies sponsor programs to improve the housing, education, and economic status of the Scheduled Castes and other traditionally disadvantaged groups. The state also provides assistance to women, children, and people with disabilities. A special insurance program is available for those with autism, cerebral palsy, and other developmental disabilities.

Education

Tens of thousands of public and private primary, middle, and high schools are scattered across the state of Tamil Nadu. In addition, there are numerous arts and science colleges, medical colleges, engineering colleges, polytechnic institutes, and industrial training institutes. Among the most prominent of Tamil Nadu’s universities are the University of Madras (1857) and Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (1989), both in Chennai, Annamalai University (1929) in Chidambaram; Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (1971) in Coimbatore; and Madurai Kamaraj University (1966) in Madurai. The Dakshina Bharat Hindi Prachar Sabha (1918) in Chennai and the Gandhigram Rural University (1956) in Gandhigram, in southwest-central Tamil Nadu, are the two institutes of national importance that are engaged in popularizing the Hindi language and Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of rural higher education, respectively. Tamil University (1981) near Thanjavur (Tanjore), in the eastern part of the state, focuses on the study of Tamil language, literature, and culture.

Cultural life

Cultural milieu

Hinduism lies at the core of the culture of Tamil Nadu. Among the most famous of the state’s temples, which number in the tens of thousands, are the 7th- and 8th-century structures at Mamallapura, which were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984. The gopurams, or gateway towers, of such temples are dominant in most towns, particularly Chidambaram, Kanchipuram, Thanjavur, Madurai, and the Srirangam pilgrimage centre in Tiruchchirappalli. The Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Administration Department is responsible for the administration of the state’s temples and sanctuaries.

The cycle of temple festivals attracts large congregations of devotees. Noteworthy also are the car festivals, during which large chariots decorated with religious icons are taken in procession around the temple. In addition, Tamil Nadu is scattered with sectarian monastic institutions, or mathas—of which the most important are the Shankara Matha at Kumbakonam and the Vaishnava compound at Srirangam—which hold various activities; Hindu families typically owe allegiance to a number of such institutions.

The arts

Bharata natyam, one of India’s major classical dance forms, and Karnatak music (South Indian classical music) are both widely practiced. Painting and sculpture are less prominent, although there are schools that teach the art of sculpture in stone and bronze. Tamil literature rapidly adopted the Western literary forms of the novel and the short story. The poet Subrahmanya Bharati (1882–1921) was one of the first to modify traditional Tamil poetry by blending popular and scholastic literary styles. Motion pictures are the most prevalent form of mass entertainment. There are both touring and permanent movie theatres, and sentimental and spectacular films, often featuring music and dancing, are produced by the film studios situated largely around Chennai.

Media and publishing

Hundreds of periodicals are published in Tamil, most of them daily newspapers. The Dina Thanthi is the leading paper. Among English newspapers, The Hindu of Chennai is widely read and is respected for its high standard of journalism.