monarch butterflyDanaus plexippusfamiliar member of the milkweed butterfly group (subfamily Danainae, order Lepidoptera), known for its large size, its orange and black wings, and its long annual migrations. Monarchs are concentrated in North, Central, and South America but can also be found in Australia, Hawaii, India, and other locations, albeit intermittently in some. Two subspecies of monarch butterfly have been recognized. The subspecies D. plexippus plexippus is a migratory monarch found primarily in North America and occasionally on islands in the Caribbean region. The subspecies D. plexippus megalippe is a nonmigratory form that occurs on the Cayman Islands in the Caribbean.

The monarch’s wingspan averages 90 to 100 mm (about 4 inches). The coloration of the orange wings, marked by black veins and a black border with two rows of spots, warns predators of the insect’s bad taste. The viceroy butterfly (see brush-footed butterfly) and the monarch share similar coloration. Indeed, like the monarch, the viceroy is unpalatable to some of its predators. Hence, it is believed that the two noxious organisms resemble one another as a form of defense against predators and that the relationship between them serves as an example of Müllerian mimicry.

In North America thousands of monarchs gather in autumn and migrate southward, sometimes traveling almost 3,000 km (about 1,800 miles) to overwinter on the California coast or in the mountains of the oyamel fir forest in Mexico. The monarchs begin to return north in the spring, feeding on nectar along the way. Eggs are laid only on milkweed plants, and a new generation hatches, matures, and continues the northward trip.

The monarch caterpillar is easily recognized by its vertical stripes of black, white, and yellow-green. After several molts, it attains a length of 45 mm (almost 2 inches). The caterpillar usually leaves its milkweed plant to pupate elsewhere as a pale green, golden-spotted chrysalis. Adults live only a few weeks, except for those that migrate south and overwinter in Mexico, which live seven to nine months. Thus, about four generations of monarchs occur annually.

Studies of different populations of monarchs in North and Central America and on certain islands have revealed differences in wing and body morphology in relation to migration patterns and breeding behaviour. For example, monarch populations in eastern North America, which undertake long-distance migrations, possess large bodies and large angular forewings. In contrast, nonmigratory monarchs found in Puerto Rico, southern Florida, Costa Rica, and Hawaii have smaller bodies and smaller forewings. Monarchs found in western North America possess small bodies and large wings, an adaptation that scientists believe may be associated with a reliance on gliding flight. Research has shown that the various body traits and wing traits of monarchs are inherited, indicating that they have evolved in response to a combination of factors, including migratory influences, genetic drift, and breeding behaviour.

The overwintering forests of the monarch are protected within the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, a UNESCO World Heritage site. Although logging is banned there, illegal logging and degradation of the forest have threatened the survival of monarch populations. Likewise, ongoing land development in areas along the monarch’s different migratory routes is considered a serious threat to the species’s ability to successfully perform its annual migratory feat. Some researchers also suspect that a loss of milkweed plants associated with the expansion in the early 21st century of the use of genetically modified herbicide-resistant crops in the United States has further placed the monarch’s long-term survival in jeopardy. But while the threats are many, evidence indicating that monarch populations are in decline is sparse. Scientists’ ability to determine the monarch’s population status has been challenged by difficulties in monitoring populations accurately and by a limited knowledge of naturally occurring annual and geographical population fluctuations.