tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/articlesThe Conversation – Articles (AU)2017-12-14T01:01:11Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/889402017-12-14T01:01:11Z2017-12-14T01:01:11ZInstead of congratulating ICAN on its Nobel Peace Prize, Australia is resisting efforts to ban the bomb<p>Earlier this week in Oslo, the 2017 Nobel Peace Prize was officially <a href="https://www.justsecurity.org/46249/persuaded-122-countries-ban-nuclear-weapons/">given</a> to the <a href="http://www.icanw.org/au/">International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons</a> (ICAN), a global campaign that was launched in Melbourne in 2007.</p>
<p>ICAN lobbied to establish a special <a href="http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/33">UN working group</a> on nuclear disarmament, campaigned for the UN General Assembly’s December 2016 <a href="http://www.icanw.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/N1646669.pdf">resolution</a> to launch negotiations on a prohibition treaty, and was an active presence at the UN conference that negotiated the treaty.</p>
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<p><em><strong>Read more</strong>: <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-melbourne-activists-launched-a-campaign-for-nuclear-disarmament-and-won-a-nobel-prize-85386">How Melbourne activists launched a campaign for nuclear disarmament and won a Nobel prize</a></em></p>
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<p>Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull failed to congratulate the Australian faces of ICAN, adding to the growing body of evidence of his flawed political judgement.</p>
<p>There were no political downsides to phoning ICAN, noting the difference of opinion on the timing and means to effective nuclear disarmament, but warmly congratulating ICAN for the global recognition of its noble efforts to promote nuclear peace.</p>
<h2>Out of step with the global nuclear order</h2>
<p>The global nuclear order has been regulated and nuclear policy directions set by the <a href="https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/npt/">Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty</a> (NPT) since 1968. </p>
<p>The 2015 <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-33521655">Iran nuclear deal</a> and North Korea’s unchecked nuclear and missile delivery <a href="http://www.news.com.au/technology/innovation/north-korea-working-on-an-advanced-version-of-an-icbm-to-reach-the-us/news-story/2213b48119336361041df2ab32e38c12">advances</a> show the benefits and limitations of the NPT respectively. </p>
<p>The transparency, verification and consequences regime mothballed <a href="http://www.policyforum.net/iran-deal-an-historic-compromise/">Iran’s bomb-making program</a> by enforcing its NPT non-proliferation obligations. These will remain legally binding even after the deal expires in 2030. </p>
<p>By contrast, the crisis over North Korea’s nuclear program has intensified within the NPT framework. Heightened geopolitical tensions in Europe, the Middle East and south and east Asia have further stoked nuclear fears. Meanwhile the NPT-recognised five <a href="https://ipfs.io/ipfs/QmXoypizjW3WknFiJnKLwHCnL72vedxjQkDDP1mXWo6uco/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons.html">nuclear weapon states</a> have no plan to abolish their nuclear arsenals. </p>
<p>Frustrated by the stubborn resistance of the nuclear weapon states to honour their NPT commitment to nuclear disarmament and alarmed by rising nuclear threats, on July 7 this year, 122 countries adopted a UN treaty to <a href="http://www.undocs.org/en/a/conf.229/2017/L.3/Rev.1">stigmatise and ban the bomb</a>.</p>
<p>The nine nuclear powers and all the NATO and Pacific allies who shelter under US extended nuclear deterrence dismissed the treaty as impractical, ineffective and dangerous. </p>
<p>Critics allege the treaty is a distraction that ignores international security realities, will damage the NPT, and could generate fresh pressures to weaponisation in some umbrella nations. Nuclear deterrence has kept the peace in Europe and the Pacific for seven decades. </p>
<p>They will argue that the ban treaty undermines strategic stability, jeopardises nuclear peace, and makes the world more unpredictable. It ignores the critical limitations of international institutions for overseeing and guaranteeing abolition and has polarised the international community.</p>
<h2>Australia still under the US nuclear umbrella</h2>
<p>The ban treaty is not compatible with nuclear sharing by NATO allies whereby nuclear weapons are stationed on their territory, nor with Australia’s policy of relying on US nuclear weapons for national security and nuclear-related co-operation with the US through the shared <a href="https://nautilus.org/publications/books/australian-forces-abroad/defence-facilities/pine-gap/pine-gap-intro/">Pine Gap</a> asset. </p>
<p>In a period of power transition in which China’s geopolitical footprint is <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-09-10/china-extends-its-influence-in-the-south-pacific/7812922">growing</a> while the US strategic footprint recedes, reliance on the security and political roles of US nuclear weapons by Australia, Japan and South Korea has increased, not diminished.</p>
<p>The most strident criticisms of the diplomatic insurgency have come from France, UK and US, while Australia has been among “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/23/un-panel-releases-draft-treaty-banning-possession-and-use-of-nuclear-weapons">the most outspoken of the non-nuclear states</a>”. </p>
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<p><em><strong>Read more</strong>: <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-stance-on-nuclear-deterrence-leaves-it-on-the-wrong-side-of-history-64163">Australia’s stance on nuclear deterrence leaves it on the wrong side of history</a></em></p>
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<p>Australia’s preferred approach does not challenge the social purposes and value of nuclear weapons nor question the legality and legitimacy of these weapons and the logic and practice of nuclear deterrence. It leaves nuclear agency entirely in the hands of the possessor states, accepting that they can safely manage nuclear risks by appropriate adjustments to warhead numbers, nuclear doctrines and force postures. </p>
<p>To critics, the nuclear powers are not so much possessor as possessed countries. Within the security paradigm, nuclear weapons are national assets for the possessor countries individually. In the ban treaty’s humanitarian reframing, they are a collective international hazard. </p>
<p>The known humanitarian consequences of any future use makes the very possibility of nuclear war unacceptable. Dispossession of nuclear weapons removes that future possibility. Stigmatisation and prohibition are normative steps on the path to nuclear disarmament.</p>
<p>The nuclear weapons states have instrumentalised the NPT to legitimise their own indefinite possession of nuclear weapons while enforcing non-proliferation on anyone else pushing to join their exclusive club. For them, the problem is who has the bomb. </p>
<p>But increasingly, the bomb itself is the problem. </p>
<h2>A curcuit breaker</h2>
<p>The ban treaty is a circuit-breaker in the search for a dependable, rules-based security order outside the limits of what the nuclear-armed countries are prepared to accept. </p>
<p>The step-by-step approach adopts a transactional strategy to move incrementally without disturbing the existing security order. The ban treaty’s transformative approach transcends the limitations imposed by national and international security arguments.</p>
<p>For Australia, nuclear disarmament is of lower priority than bolstering and indefinitely sustaining the legitimacy and credibility of nuclear deterrence. In its view, the ban treaty will neither promote nuclear disarmament nor strengthen national security. </p>
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<p><em><strong>Read more</strong>: <a href="https://theconversation.com/three-good-reasons-to-worry-about-trump-having-the-nuclear-codes-68576">Three good reasons to worry about Trump having the nuclear codes</a></em></p>
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<p>Australia’s instinct is to support incremental, verifiable and enforceable agreements and commitments. There is no detailed framework for actual elimination, verification and enforcement. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.fpwhitepaper.gov.au/">Foreign Policy White Paper</a> repeats the familiar mantra that a complex security environment requires a patient and pragmatic approach. It simply ignores the adoption of the ban treaty, pretending it does not exist.</p>
<h2>Australia should join global efforts to ban the bomb</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://www.icanw.org/treaty-on-the-prohibition-of-nuclear-weapons/">UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons</a> is a good faith effort by 122 countries to act on their NPT responsibility to take effective measures on nuclear disarmament. </p>
<p>A constructive approach would be for Australia to lead a collaborative effort with like-minded countries like Canada, Japan and Norway to explore strategic stability at low numbers of nuclear weapons and the conditions for serious and practical steps towards nuclear disarmament. </p>
<p>Instead, Australia has chosen to join the nattering nabobs of negativism.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88940/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ramesh Thakur does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Turnbull government has refused to congratulate ICAN on winning Australia's first homegrown Nobel Peace Prize. In doing so, it is working against international efforts to ban nuclear weapons.Ramesh Thakur, Professor of International Relations, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/890292017-12-13T19:08:19Z2017-12-13T19:08:19ZNot just heat: even our spring frosts can bear the fingerprint of climate change<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/199009/original/file-20171213-27565-e8m0vc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Frost affected many crops across WA during September 2016.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">WA Department of Primary Industry and Regional Development</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In recent years, scientists have successfully identified the <a href="https://theconversation.com/columns/andrew-king-103126">human fingerprint</a> on hot years, heatwaves, and a range of other temperature extremes around the world. But as everyone knows, climate change affects more than just temperature.</p>
<p>The “signal” of human-induced climate change is not always clear in other weather events, such as cold snaps or episodes of extreme rainfall.</p>
<p>Three new studies, released today as part of a <a href="https://www.ametsoc.org/ams/index.cfm/publications/bulletin-of-the-american-meteorological-society-bams/explaining-extreme-events-from-a-climate-perspective/">special edition</a> of the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, take a closer look at two such events, both of which happened in southern Australia in mid-2016: the frosts that hit Western Australia’s South West, and the extremely wet weather that hit much of southeastern Australia during that year’s winter and early spring.</p>
<p>Perhaps surprisingly, WA’s frosts showed a fingerprint of climate change, due to changes in weather patterns. Meanwhile, there was very little climate change signal in the extreme rainfall that hit the southeast.</p>
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<p><em><strong>Read more</strong>: <a href="https://theconversation.com/unnatural-disasters-how-we-can-spot-climates-role-in-specific-extreme-events-67695">Unnatural disasters: how we can spot climate’s role in specific extreme events</a></em></p>
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<p>While there is a <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-played-a-role-in-australias-hottest-october-and-tasmanias-big-dry-in-2015-70389">clear human-driven upward trend</a> in Australia’s average temperatures and the future of southern Australia is <a href="https://www.climatechangeinaustralia.gov.au/en/climate-projections/future-climate/regional-climate-change-explorer/super-clusters/?current=SSC&amp;tooltip=true&amp;popup=true%20ref%20link">projected to be dry in the cool seasons</a>, last year Australia experienced its <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/statements/scs58.pdf">wettest winter and September on record</a>. Meanwhile, September in WA’s South West brought up to 18 frost nights across the region – the most on record in some locations. </p>
<p>An increasing temperature trend would limit the number of extreme cold events, and broadly speaking this is <a href="https://theconversation.com/sure-winter-felt-chilly-but-australia-is-setting-new-heat-records-at-12-times-the-rate-of-cold-ones-35607">true for Australia</a>. So what caused the record frost risk in South West WA in September 2016?</p>
<p>For the northern hemisphere, a “wobbly” jet stream has been proposed as the cause of periodic blasts of extreme cold weather. In this theory, human-driven changes to atmospheric circulation cause Arctic air to temporarily extend southwards over populated areas, bringing Arctic weather in spite of the background warming trend. But this kind of theory hasn’t been examined in depth for Australia.</p>
<p>During southwestern WA’s bout of September frosts, the atmospheric pressure was generally very high, and the skies were clear. What’s more, that month featured a particularly persistent weather pattern of slow-moving high pressure west of Australia, which brought in cold air from the south. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198943/original/file-20171213-10602-15t6ocf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198943/original/file-20171213-10602-15t6ocf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
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<span class="caption">Persistent high pressure off the west coast brought cold, dry nights to WA’s southwest.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">BoM</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>The question is whether human-induced climate change is altering the circulation to make these conditions more likely. <a href="http://www.ametsoc.net/eee/2016/ch29.pdf">Research led by Michael Grose</a> addressed this question by comparing climate models that describe the current, human-altered climate, and ones that leave out the influence of human-produced greenhouse gases. </p>
<p>Their results suggest that human-induced climate change is indeed changing the circulation patterns in our region, making this particular pattern more likely. They also suggest that it’s a fine balance between increasing average temperatures and these altered circulation patterns in this part of Australia. </p>
<p>In the models, daily minimum temperatures were not colder in the current climate than in those models without a human influence. This suggests that the two effects may cancel out (as far as extreme frost is concerned), although more work is needed to understand this intriguing possibility.</p>
<h2>Record wet winter</h2>
<p>Raising the global temperature can <a href="http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/JCLI3990.1">also make air more humid</a> and therefore can result in more extreme rainfall events. The wettest day of the year is projected to <a href="https://www.climatechangeinaustralia.gov.au/media/ccia/2.1.6/cms_page_media/168/CCIA_2015_NRM_TR_Chapter%207.pdf">become wetter by the end of the century</a>. Are we already seeing an increase in extreme rain, and does it also hold true over the course of a month or a whole season?</p>
<p>September 2016 was by far the <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-climate-in-2016-a-year-of-two-halves-as-el-nino-unwound-70758">wettest September on record</a> in Australia’s southeast, including the Murray Darling Basin, Australia’s food bowl. The amount of moisture in the air column during that month was extremely high. The question is whether this could have happened in a climate without global warming.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198945/original/file-20171213-10584-1liuxdr.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198945/original/file-20171213-10584-1liuxdr.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
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<span class="caption">It was a soaking September for much of Australia’s east, including the Murray Darling Basin.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">BoM</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>Researchers led by Pandora Hope <a href="http://www.ametsoc.net/eee/2016/ch26.pdf">analysed</a> the local conditions for rainfall generation in forecasts of the event, under both the current climate and in a model that did not feature human greenhouse emissions. Air moisture levels were very high in both forecasts, but no higher in the current human-influenced climate than it might otherwise have been. </p>
<p>But there is more to rain generation than simply how much moisture there is in the air. Other factors are also important, such as weather patterns that cause moist air to accumulate in certain areas, and local atmospheric instability which is important for storms to form.</p>
<p>The results showed that under current climate conditions, those circulation factors were not as favourable to producing rainfall as they would be in a world without increased levels of carbon dioxide. </p>
<p>In other words, the local environment is generally becoming more stable, so it will be harder for these sorts of extreme rainfall events to develop.</p>
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<p><em><strong>Read more</strong>: <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-the-tropical-indian-ocean-to-blame-for-southern-australias-wet-winter-62817">Is the tropical Indian Ocean to blame for southern Australia’s wet winter?</a></em></p>
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<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-12674-z">During July to September 2016 the eastern tropical Indian Ocean was extremely warm</a>, a result of the coincidence of the year-to-year variability of the tropical oceans and a strong ongoing upward warming trend. Rainfall in southeast Australia is often increased when <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-the-tropical-indian-ocean-to-blame-for-southern-australias-wet-winter-62817">ocean temperatures to the northwest of Australia are unusually high</a>. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.ametsoc.net/eee/2016/ch27.pdf">Research by Andrew King</a> found that this association is indeed strong, and very important for the heavy rainfall through these months in 2016. But by analysing climate models both with and without the human influence on the climate, he found that human forcing had little influence on the intensity of this extreme rain event, consistent with the findings of the other study described above.</p>
<p>There is clearly still much left to learn about attributing the causes of extreme weather events. But these studies show that examining the effects of climate change on atmospheric circulation can help us better understand humans’ influence on Australian weather extremes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89029/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pandora Hope receives funding from the Australian Government&#39;s National Environmental Science Program&#39;s Earth Systems and Climate Change hub for this work; see: <a href="http://www.nespclimate.com.au">www.nespclimate.com.au</a>.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew King receives funding from the ARC Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eun-Pa Lim receives funding from the Australian Government&#39;s National Environmental Science Program&#39;s Earth Systems and Climate Change hub for this work; see <a href="http://www.nespclimate.com.au">www.nespclimate.com.au</a>. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Grose receives funding from the Australian Government&#39;s National Environmental Science Program&#39;s Earth Systems and Climate Change hub for this work; see <a href="http://www.nespclimate.com.au">www.nespclimate.com.au</a>.</span></em></p>We already know that climate change makes heatwaves hotter and longer. But a new series of research papers asks whether there is also a climate fingerprint on frosty spells and bouts of wet weather.Pandora Hope, Senior research scientist, Australian Bureau of MeteorologyAndrew King, Climate Extremes Research Fellow, University of MelbourneEun-Pa Lim, Senior research scientist, Australian Bureau of MeteorologyMichael Grose, Climate Projections Scientist, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/880782017-12-13T19:08:11Z2017-12-13T19:08:11ZIt's official: 2016's Great Barrier Reef bleaching was unlike anything that went before<p>It is no longer news that the Great Barrier Reef has suffered <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-much-coral-has-died-in-the-great-barrier-reefs-worst-bleaching-event-69494">extreme bleaching</a>. </p>
<p>In early 2016, we heard that the reef had suffered the worst bleaching ever recorded. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature21707">Surveys published in June that year</a> estimated that 93% of coral on the vast northern section of the reef was bleached, and 22% had already been killed. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/year-on-year-bleaching-threatens-great-barrier-reefs-world-heritage-status-74606">Further reports from this year</a> show that bleaching again occurred. The back-to-back bleaching hit more than two-thirds of the Great Barrier Reef and may <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-great-barrier-reef-isnt-listed-as-in-danger-but-its-still-in-big-trouble-80681">threaten its UNESCO World Heritage listing</a>. </p>
<p>After recent years of damage, what does the future hold for our priceless reef? </p>
<p>Our <a href="http://www.ametsoc.net/eee/2016/ch28.pdf">new research</a>, published in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society’s <a href="https://www.ametsoc.org/ams/index.cfm/publications/bulletin-of-the-american-meteorological-society-bams/explaining-extreme-events-from-a-climate-perspective/">special report on climate extremes</a>, shows the news isn’t good for the Great Barrier Reef’s future. </p>
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<p><em><strong>Read more</strong>: <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-work-out-which-coral-reefs-will-bleach-and-which-might-be-spared-84842">How to work out which coral reefs will bleach, and which might be spared</a></em></p>
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<p>Coral reefs are complex ecosystems that are affected by many factors. Changes in sea surface temperatures, rainfall, cloudiness, agricultural runoff, or <a href="https://theconversation.com/cloudy-issue-we-need-to-fix-the-barrier-reefs-murky-waters-39380">water quality</a> can affect a reef’s health and <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/great-barrier-reef-threats-series-17189">resilience to stress</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/great-barrier-reef-bleaching-would-be-almost-impossible-without-climate-change-58408">Early analysis</a> of the 2016 bleaching suggested that the Great Barrier Reef was suffering from thermal stress brought on by human-caused climate change. </p>
<p>Our study took a new and comprehensive approach to examine these multiple climatic and environmental influences.</p>
<p>We set out to answer the crucial question: could anything else have bleached the Great Barrier Reef, besides human-induced climate change? </p>
<h2>Clear fingerprint</h2>
<p>The results were clear. Using a suite of climate models, we found that the significant warming of the Coral Sea region was likely caused by greenhouse gases from human activities. This warming was the primary cause of the extreme 2016 bleaching episode. </p>
<p>But what about those other complex factors? The 2016 event coincided with an El Niño episode that was <a href="https://theconversation.com/el-nino-is-over-but-has-left-its-mark-across-the-world-59823">among the most severe ever observed</a>. The <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-el-nino-and-la-nina-27719">El Niño-Southern Oscillation system</a>, with its positive El Niño and negative La Niña phases, has been linked to bleaching of various coral reefs in the past. </p>
<p>Our study showed that although the 2016 El Niño probably also contributed to the bleaching, this was a secondary contributor to the corals’ thermal stress. The major factor was the increase in temperatures because of climate change. </p>
<p>We next analysed other environmental data. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00338-015-1350-7">Previous research</a> has found that corals at sites with better water quality (that is, lower concentrations of pollution particles) are more resilient and less prone to bleaching. </p>
<p>Pollution data used in our study show that water quality in 2016 may have been better than in previous bleaching years. This means that the Great Barrier Reef should have been at lower risk of bleaching compared to long-term average conditions, all else being equal. Instead, record bleaching hit the reef as a result of the warming temperature trend. </p>
<h2>Previous events</h2>
<p>The final part of our investigation involved comparing the conditions behind the record 2016 bleaching with those seen in previous mass bleaching episodes on the Great Barrier Reef, in 1997-98 and 2010-11.</p>
<p>When we analysed these previous events on the Reef, we found very different factors at play. </p>
<p>In 1997-98 the bleaching coincided with a <a href="https://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/magazine/enso/el_nino.html">very strong El Niño event</a>. Although an El Niño event also occurred in 2016, the two were very different in terms of the distribution of unusually warm waters, particularly in the eastern equatorial Pacific. In 1997-98, the primary cause of the bleaching – which was less severe than in 2016 – was El Niño. </p>
<p>In 2010-11, the health of the Great Barrier Reef was impaired by runoff. That summer brought <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/annual/aus/2011/">record high rainfall to eastern Australia</a>, causing widespread flooding across Queensland. As a result of the discharge of freshwater onto the reef reducing the salinity, bleaching occurred. </p>
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<p><em><strong>Read more</strong>: <a href="https://theconversation.com/feeling-helpless-about-the-great-barrier-reef-heres-one-way-you-can-help-76014">Feeling helpless about the Great Barrier Reef? Here’s one way you can help</a></em></p>
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<p>There have been many reports in recent years warning of trouble for the Great Barrier Reef. Sadly, our study is yet another warning about the reef’s future – perhaps the most comprehensive warning yet. It tells us that the 2016 bleaching differed from previous mass bleaching events because it was driven primarily by human-induced climate warming.</p>
<p>This puts the Great Barrier Reef in grave danger of future bleaching from further greenhouse warming. The local environmental factors that have previously helped to protect our reefs, such as good water quality, will become less and less able to safeguard corals as the oceans warm. </p>
<p>Now we need to take immediate action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and limit further warming. Without these steps, there is simply no future for our Great Barrier Reef.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88078/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sophie Lewis receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennie Mallela receives funding from The Australian Research Council and the Australian National University. </span></em></p>The 2016 bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef was the worst on record. Now a new analysis points the finger squarely at human-induced warming, and warns that the entire reef's future is at stake.Sophie Lewis, Research fellow, Australian National UniversityJennie Mallela, Research Fellow in Coral Reef Monitoring and Reef Health Appraisal, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/890722017-12-13T19:07:54Z2017-12-13T19:07:54ZAustralians working in China should expect fallout over questions of political interference<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198910/original/file-20171213-31668-pvfpg5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The People’s Daily, the official newspaper of the Chinese Communist Party, has let its displeasure over questions of influence in Australian politics be known.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Thomas Peter</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Despite Sam Dastyari <a href="https://theconversation.com/dastyari-quits-the-senate-after-pressure-over-his-china-links-89027">resigning this week</a> over ongoing allegations of promoting Chinese interests, and regular <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-12-09/malcolm-turnbull-says-he-will-stand-up-for-australia/9243274">denunciations</a> of Chinese interference in Australian politics, little has been said about what China makes of it all.</p>
<p>On Monday, we received the definitive answer: an authoritative condemnation of Australia, signed off at the highest levels.</p>
<p>A brief timeline of Chinese responses shows how the matter escalated.</p>
<p>Last week, the Chinese Embassy in Australia issued an unusually heated <a href="http://au.china-embassy.org/chn/sgfyrth/t1516872.htm">statement</a> criticising Australian media and politicians. Some politicians, it said, had made: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>… irresponsible comments that hurt mutual trust, and that we fully reject.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The statement included a translation of a statement from Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull that <a href="http://au.china-embassy.org/chn/sgfyrth/t1516872.htm">“Chinese influence is interfering with Australian politics”</a>.</p>
<p>The embassy in Canberra clearly <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-12-09/china-lodges-official-complaint-after-turnbulls-comments/9242630">reported</a> their displeasure to the foreign ministry in Beijing. Foreign ministry spokesmen at the <a href="http://au.china-embassy.org/eng/fyrth/t1517924.htm">Beijing press conferences</a> in the following days made similar statements. </p>
<p>The following day, <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/the-australian-people-stand-up-pm-defiant-over-chinese-political-interference">Turnbull said</a> “the Australian people stand up” to China, a phrase he said was inspired by Mao’s 1949 declaration that the Chinese people had stood up.</p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/dastyari-saga-shows-the-need-for-donations-reform-and-for-politicians-to-take-more-care-88382">Dastyari saga shows the need for donations reform, and for politicians to take more care</a></em></strong></p>
<hr>
<p>The matter then escalated. Following the comments being reported, and a meeting in Beijing (almost certainly the next day) to determine the official line, China launched a full rhetorical assault on December 11.</p>
<p>China’s official government spokesperson made a public <a href="http://melbourne.china-consulate.org/chn/fyrth/t1518396.htm">statement</a> that China:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… offer(s) Australia a word of advice: some of these people should stop saying things that hurt Australia’s image and Australia-China mutual trust.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Turnbull’s statement that Australian people “stand up” was the third-leading item on the national news put out by <a href="http://news.cctv.com/2017/12/11/ARTIeMd0BDUqvz9zTjc3aZWG171211.shtml">China’s state television broadcaster</a>. Most significantly of all, the People’s Daily, China’s official newspaper of record, had a special <a href="http://paper.people.com.cn/rmrb/html/2017-12/11/nw.D110000renmrb_20171211_4-03.htm">signed editorial</a> attacking Australia’s government and media. </p>
<p>Of these events, it is the People’s Daily editorial that is the most authoritative. </p>
<p>The People’s Daily is the official newspaper of the Communist Party that runs China. It has a number of different classes of editorial. This one is known as a “signed editorial”: it represents the “voice of China”. It must be signed off on by a member of China’s highest leadership committee, and drafted by a special group within the People’s Daily. It is the third-highest ranking editorial that can be released. The two highest-ranking editorials are only released for special occasions, roughly monthly.</p>
<p>Why is this editorial so important? Because it immediately signals to the entire Chinese political system, including roughly 90 million party members and 40 million public servants, that their top leaders are angry at Australia. </p>
<p>Based on the <a href="http://news.cctv.com/2017/12/11/ARTIeMd0BDUqvz9zTjc3aZWG171211.shtml">television broadcast</a> and the <a href="http://paper.people.com.cn/rmrb/html/2017-12/11/nw.D110000renmrb_20171211_4-03.htm">official editorial</a>, the issues appear to be with Australian media, the public discourse on China, and with the prime minister’s phrase that “the Australian people stand up” (which was described as <a href="http://news.ifeng.com/a/20171211/54045393_0.shtml">“laughable”</a>). </p>
<p>Next, the many ministries, departments, bureaux, businesses and Communist Party bodies of the massive Chinese state must determine how seriously they take this official displeasure. Chinese leaders rarely release specific orders with targets. Rather, they release exhortations and vague statements for which they then expect the lower level actors to provide specific solutions. So subordinate departments are to prepare and submit a response that is in line with the editorial so that the leaders may look favourably on them.</p>
<p>None of these measures threatens the Australian state, nor our economy. China will not launch a trade war over this. But we need to be clear: “breaching mutual trust”, as the Chinese government <a href="http://melbourne.china-consulate.org/chn/fyrth/t1518396.htm">describes it</a>, can be lived with as long as the benefits to Australia outweigh the costs. Based on the current official Chinese media, costs are highly probable.</p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/ban-on-foreign-political-donations-is-both-too-broad-and-too-narrow-and-wont-fix-our-system-88567">Ban on foreign political donations is both too broad and too narrow, and won’t fix our system</a></em></strong></p>
<hr>
<p>The last time that Australia received an official editorial condemning its actions was in 2009, when it refused official requests by China not to issue a visa to a dissident filmmaker (at the same time as the arrest of Australian citizen and Rio Tinto employee Stern Hu in China). A pointed <a href="http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/opinion/2009-08/19/content_8586007.htm">editorial</a>, albeit one of lower rank than the one issued on Monday, warned about “Australia’s Choice”.</p>
<p>Australia’s prime minister at that time was expert sinologist Kevin Rudd, who refused to intervene personally in the situation. Rudd was not personally criticised in the editorial. And China eventually sent the head of its government over to make an unusual joint public statement. As this statement would also have needed to be signed off at the highest levels, it sent a new signal to the Chinese system that Australia was out of the dog house.</p>
<p>So until a new line or editorial comes out of Beijing, Australian business and government representatives in China can probably expect some rather heavy-going. </p>
<p>Recent events are likely to be raised in many meetings. It very likely will also retard the progress of the next stage of the Australia-China free trade agreement. Finally, there is likely to be a reduction in the number of Chinese students allowed to study in Australia – the editorial argued that these students had been <a href="http://paper.people.com.cn/rmrb/html/2017-12/11/nw.D110000renmrb_20171211_4-03.htm">“significantly wounded”</a>.</p>
<p>There are some other factors that may reduce costs. This is the best time to incur the wrath of the Chinese government. Due to the delay between choosing new national Party leaders and then assigning them to their various government ministries (which occurs in March), government agencies tend to be less reactive to official media signals than usual.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89072/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ryan Manuel does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Official Chinese editorials give an insight into Beijing's reaction to the stories swirling around about Chinese influence – and it's not good news.Ryan Manuel, AsiaGlobal Fellow, University of Hong KongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/890172017-12-13T19:07:40Z2017-12-13T19:07:40ZA bubble? We don't even know how to value Bitcoin<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198884/original/file-20171212-31706-1cz9fe9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Is Bitcoin a bubble?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/ZUUVs3">Marco Verch/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Bitcoin is a “<a href="http://www.afr.com/technology/rba-governor-philip-lowe-says-bitcoin-is-a-speculative-mania-20171212-h02zf0">speculative mania</a>” according to the governor of the Reserve Bank of Australia. But it’s not so easy to say that Bitcoin is a bubble - we don’t know how to value it. </p>
<p>Recent price rises (<a href="https://www.coingecko.com/en/price_charts/bitcoin/aud">close to A$18,000</a> in the past three months) may be too great and can’t continue. But <a href="https://coincap.io/">the Bitcoin market</a> is only just maturing as an investment and as a currency, and so it may still have room to grow.</p>
<p>A bubble is when the price of an asset diverges from its “<a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/fundamentals.asp">fundamentals</a>” - the aspects of an asset that <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/articles/fundamental-analysis/09/five-must-have-metrics-value-investors.asp">investors use to value it</a>. These could be the income that can be earned from a stock over time, a company’s cash flow, the state of a country’s economy, or even the <a href="https://www.realcommercial.com.au/news/yield-definition-drives-commercial-real-estate-market">rent</a> from property. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-bitcoin-bubble-how-we-know-it-will-burst-88511">The Bitcoin bubble – how we know it will burst</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>But Bitcoin does not pay out profits (like shares) or rent (like property), and is not attached a national economy (like fiat currencies). This is part of the reason why it is hard to tell what the underlying value of Bitcoin is or should be. </p>
<p>In the search for fundamentals <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-bitcoin-bubble-how-we-know-it-will-burst-88511">some have suggested</a> we should look at the supply of Bitcoins in the market (which is regulated by the technology itself), the number of Bitcoin transactions through the market, or even the <a href="http://www.mauldineconomics.com/editorial/the-bitcoin-bubble-explained-in-4-charts">energy consumed by Bitcoin miners</a> (the computers that validate transactions and are rewarded with Bitcoins). </p>
<h2>Diverging from fundamentals</h2>
<p>If we take a close look, we can see how the price of Bitcoin may be diverging from these fundamentals. For instance, it is <a href="https://theconversation.com/bitcoin-mining-is-about-to-become-a-lot-less-profitable-58302">becoming less profitable</a> to be a miner, especially as <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-utopian-currency-bitcoin-is-a-potentially-catastrophic-energy-guzzler-88871">the energy required increases</a>. At some stage the cost may exceed the price of Bitcoin, making the network less worthwhile to both mine and invest. </p>
<p>Bitcoin may be the best known cryptocurrency but it is also <a href="https://coinmarketcap.com/charts/">losing marketshare</a> to other cryptocurrencies, such as <a href="https://www.ethereum.org/">Ethereum</a> and <a href="https://litecoin.com/">Litecoin</a>. Bitcoin currently accounts for 59.4% of the total global cryptocurrency market, but at the beginning of 2016 it was 91.3%. Many of these other cryptocurrencies have more functionality than Bitcoin (such as Ethereum’s ability to execute smart contracts), or are more efficient and use less energy (such as Litecoin).</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-happened-to-the-price-of-bitcoin-the-truth-behind-big-bubbles-and-crashes-88688">What happened to the price of Bitcoin? The truth behind big bubbles and crashes</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/chinas-crackdown-on-cryptocurrency-trading-a-sign-of-things-to-come-84014">Government policy</a>, such as taxation or the establishment of national digital currencies, may also make it riskier or less worthwhile to mine, transact or hold the cryptocurrency. China’s ban on Initial Coin Offerings <a href="https://www.coindesk.com/chinas-ico-ban-understandable-reasonable-probably-temporary/">earlier this year</a> reduced the value of Bitcoin by <a href="https://theconversation.com/four-factors-driving-the-price-of-bitcoin-87244">20% in 24 hours</a>.</p>
<p>Without these fundamentals the price of Bitcoin largely reflects speculation. And there is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2017/dec/02/bitcoin-is-it-a-bubble-waiting-to-burst-or-a-good-investment">some evidence</a> that people are simply buying and holding Bitcoin in the hope it will keep rising in value (also known as <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/greaterfooltheory.asp">Greater Fool investing</a>). Certainly, the cap on the total number (21 million) of Bitcoins that can exist, makes the currency inherently deflationary - the value of the currency relative to goods and services will keep increasing even without speculation and so there is a disincentive to spend it. </p>
<h2>Bitcoin still has room to grow</h2>
<p>Many big investors - including banks and hedge funds - <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-markets-bitcoin-institutional/big-money-stays-away-from-booming-bitcoin-idUSKBN1CS0EB">have not yet entered into the market</a>. The volatility and lack of regulation around Bitcoin are <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2017/09/21/bitcoin-volatility-how-digital-currency-can-overcome-wild-reputation.html">two reasons stopping these investors from jumping in</a>. </p>
<p>There are new financial products being developed, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/with-a-new-futures-market-bitcoin-is-going-mainstream-86852">futures contracts</a>, that may reduce the risk of holding Bitcoin and allow these institutional investors to get in. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-economics-has-to-say-about-housing-bubbles-74925">What economics has to say about housing bubbles</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>But <a href="https://www.coindesk.com/threat-bitcoin-futures/">Bitcoin futures contracts</a> - where people can place bets on the future price of stocks or markets - may also work against the price of Bitcoin. Just like gamblers place bets on horse races rather than buying a horse, investors may simply buy and sell the futures contracts rather than Bitcoin itself (<a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2017-12-11/bitcoin-futures-and-banky-thoughts">some contracts</a> are even settled in cash, rather than Bitcoin). All of this could lead to less actual Bitcoin changing hands, leading to less demand. </p>
<p>Although the rush to invest is apparently encouraging <a href="http://fortune.com/2017/12/12/bitcoin-investors-mortgages/">some people</a> to take out mortgages to buy Bitcoin, traditional banks won’t lend specifically for that purpose as the market is too volatile. </p>
<p>But it’s not just on the finance side that the Bitcoin market is set to expand. More infrastructure to support Bitcoin in the broader economy is rolling out, which should spur demand. </p>
<p>Bitcoin ATMs are <a href="https://www.itnews.com.au/news/three-thousand-bitcoin-atms-to-launch-across-australia-472448">being installed</a> in many countries, including Australia. Bitcoin lending is emerging on <a href="https://www.bitbond.com/">peer-to-peer platforms</a>, and <a href="https://www.thebalance.com/the-growth-of-bitcoin-exchanges-391276">new and more regulated marketplaces are being created</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://99bitcoins.com/who-accepts-bitcoins-payment-companies-stores-take-bitcoins">Many companies</a> are accepting Bitcoin as payment. That means that even if the speculation dies down, Bitcoin can still be traded for some goods and services. </p>
<p>And finally, although the fundamentals of Bitcoin are still up for debate, when it comes to transaction volume through the network there appears to be <a href="https://www.marketwatch.com/story/is-bitcoin-in-a-bubble-this-metric-suggests-theres-more-room-to-grow-2017-06-08">a lot of room for growth</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/price-hikes-in-ether-and-bitcoin-arent-the-signs-of-a-bubble-79350">Price hikes in Ether and Bitcoin aren’t the signs of a bubble</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>It’s good to remember that people have been calling Bitcoin a bubble for a long time, even when <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com.au/why-bitcoin-speculators-laugh-at-anyone-who-calls-it-a-bubble-2013-4?r=US&amp;IR=T">the price was just US$35</a> in 2013. </p>
<p>In the end, this is uncharted territory. We don’t know how to value Bitcoin, or what will happen. Historical examples may or may not apply.</p>
<p>What we do know is that the technology behind most cryptocurrencies is enabling new models of value transfer through secure global consensus networks, and that is causing excitement and nervousness. Investors should beware.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89017/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alicia (Lucy) Cameron owns 1.5 Bitcoin as well as Ethereum and Litecoin. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kelly Trinh does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If Bitcoin is a bubble, it will be because its price rises are too great and can't continue. If it isn't, it will be because the Bitcoin market is still expanding. We just don't know which one yet.Alicia (Lucy) Cameron, Senior Research Consultant, CSIROKelly Trinh, Data Scientist, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/873282017-12-13T19:07:24Z2017-12-13T19:07:24ZBetween innocence and experience: the sexualisation of girlhood in 19th century postcards<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194246/original/file-20171112-29374-1c71nia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">French postcard of Lili (before 1904), &#39;playing around&#39;.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>In our sexual histories series, authors explore changing sexual mores from antiquity to today.</em></p>
<p>We often hear that we are living in a <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/3347564/The-generation-of-damaged-girls.html">corrupting, visually saturated, consumer culture</a>, which threatens the innocence of girlhood. But representations of young girls in the European postcard trade at the turn of the 20th century cast doubt on this notion of an ideal, more innocent past.</p>
<p>From the mid-1890s until the first world war, Europeans had a love affair with collecting postcards. Created in 1874, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Postal_Union">Universal Postal Union</a> established standardised postal regulations at accessible rates for its member nations; this greatly contributed to the postcard craze. In bigger cities, cards needed just a few hours to arrive at their destinations. The world was at one’s fingertips.</p>
<p>Rival publishers vied for attention with collectors’ competitions, impressive exhibitions, and artistic innovations. It did not take long for alluring postcards to flourish in the light-hearted social context of the time. European publishers showed great ingenuity in avoiding local censorship. They played with the boundaries of what was socially and legally acceptable. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194245/original/file-20171112-29364-1v5gd6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194245/original/file-20171112-29364-1v5gd6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=237&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Postcard (c. 1900), published in Italy by C.R.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Yet the trend of erotic postcards did not just bring cheeky smiles and cheerful eroticism. A quick look at one Italian postcard (c. 1900) highlights more disturbing aspects. Elevated on a pedestal, a pre-pubescent model is the privileged object of our gaze. Side lightings magnify her blond mane, and sculpt her flawless skin. A neutral backdrop focuses the attention on her statuesque body. This little goddess is a work of art. </p>
<p>Let us study the precise nature of this ideal.</p>
<p>Three eggs hide the sitter’s bosom. They allude to the symbol of fertility, while playing with the visual resemblance between the shape of breasts and eggs. A deftly positioned piece of cloth emphasises her hips thereby defining an inviting triangle. This veil of modesty also denotes the art of teasing in a game of hide and seek. </p>
<p>The artist tainted the model’s lips with a vivid red, a similar hue to the plinth’s velvet. The colour conveys a brazen sexuality immediately contradicted by the candour of the model. What strikes one’s attention is precisely the discrepancy between these sexual innuendos and the sitter’s youthful naivety. She proudly smiles, unaware of the paedophilic gaze she may entice in the adult viewer. The end result is deeply unsettling and exploitative. </p>
<p>In another unattributed French postcard (before 1904), we follow the adventures of Lili who is described as “playing around”. The caption informs us that she has a springtime smile, and that she is ready to wear her bedside wreath. Her white apparel and the laced clothing convey the idea of virginal innocence and freshness.</p>
<p>Still, her inviting pose, coquettish manners, and bare shoulder leave the viewer perplexed. There is an uneasy tension between the artificiality of the setting and the model’s impression of spontaneous cheerfulness. It is difficult not to read in this staged vignette an eroticised performance for adults at the expense of the young model.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194246/original/file-20171112-29374-1c71nia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194246/original/file-20171112-29374-1c71nia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The full postcard of Lili ‘playing around’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The ‘erotic virgin’</h2>
<p>In both postcards, the sitters epitomise the photographers’ quest for both pristine morality and brazen sexuality. The ambivalent girl exemplifies what scholar Hanne Blank names, the “erotic virgin”. </p>
<p>In her book, <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/225909.Virgin">Virgin: The Untouched History</a>, Blank highlights a recurrent theme in pornographic tropes: “the tale of the skilled ‘conversion’ of resistant virgin into willing wench”. In these coded scripts, virgins hold a dormant sexuality ready to be activated by “the magic of the ‘right’ male wand”. </p>
<p>Blank links the modern fetishising of virginity to the rise of capitalism during the industrial revolution. Young girls left rural areas with the hope of finding better prospects in the city. Economically and socially vulnerable, they were easy prey for unscrupulous employers and brothel owners. The temptation of a pristine body was even greater as venereal diseases were rampant. </p>
<p>The burgeoning mass media culture played a pivotal role in establishing the virgin as an object of sexual lust. As the possibilities of reaching a wider audience increased, so did the virgin’s lucrative potential. By drawing on the dual characterisation of female sexuality as virtuous and vicious, the industry capitalised on fantasies of both innocence and experience.</p>
<p>This new eroticised visual culture drew the attention of legislators, philanthropic organisations, and religious groups. Concerns of child protection reformers ranged from the growing recognition of the child as a vulnerable being in need of protection to a more general fear of moral corruption. </p>
<p>Still, photographs of coquettes were risqué yet charming. Under the celebration of a candid femininity, they catered for both male and female audiences. More than a marginal phenomenon, the sexualisation of girlhood in the social fabric denotes a collective fascination with the young body as a modern ideal of femininity. </p>
<h2>A socially ingrained phenomenon</h2>
<p>The first world war sounded the death knell of the postcards age. During the conflict, <a href="https://www.bl.uk/world-war-one/articles/patriotism-and-nationalism">propaganda postcards</a> had helped feed the nationalistic fervour but overall, demand for postcards plunged. The attraction of youthful femininity though, did not wane. Another medium offered more exciting prospects and creative potential than serialized postcards: the cinema. </p>
<p>Tendentious 19th century postcards, Brooke Shields’s auctioned virginity in Louis Malle’s movie Pretty Baby (1978), and virginity pornography pervasive on the internet, all create the same sexual scenario. Their protagonist has been a little Eve who tempts Adam in the Garden of Eden.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/X11Zlw1NcVo?wmode=transparent&amp;start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Though technology evolves constantly, the sexualisation of girlhood is a socially ingrained phenomenon and the commodification of the female being as virgin and whore remains unchanged. </p>
<p><em>Tomorrow: Alastair Blanshard on the myth of the ancient Greek ‘gay utopia’.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87328/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elodie Silberstein receives funding from Monash University for a Graduate Research Scholarship.
She is a member of the Darebin Women’s Advisory Committee (DWAC) which provides guidance to the City of Darebin on gender policies.</span></em></p>Eroticised postcards featuring young girls in playful poses were collectables at the turn of the 20th century. These images challenge the notion that childhood was once more innocent than it is today.Elodie Silberstein, PhD candidate in Film, Media and Communications, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/886912017-12-13T19:07:07Z2017-12-13T19:07:07ZStructuring thought and imagination brick by brick, Lego is more than child's play<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198042/original/file-20171206-31546-1d5peaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Lego is not just a toy. The bricks are designed as a universal tool to make anything we can imagine. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You might think Lego is just a kids’ toy – one you played with as a child and now step on as you walk through the house as a parent. </p>
<p>These days, however, the bricks are showing up in all sorts of unexpected places – on display in museums, in street art, in home renovations and at work. Those playing with Lego are unexpected too, including artists like <a href="https://news.artnet.com/art-world/ai-weiwei-unveils-lego-project-390686">Ai Weiwei</a>, <a href="http://seriousplaypro.com/2016/05/03/what-companies-use-lego-serious-play/">corporate business people</a> facilitating a work function or engineers <a href="https://engineering.mit.edu/engage/ask-an-engineer/what-do-legos-have-to-do-with-engineering/">designing sophisticated robotics</a>. </p>
<p>Our recent book, <a href="https://www.amazon.com/LEGO-Philosophy-Constructing-Reality-Blackwell/dp/1119193974">LEGO and Philosophy</a>, offers a new perspective. These brightly coloured bricks are not mere child’s play. They raise important and challenging questions about creativity and play, conformity and autonomy, identity and culture.</p>
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<h2>Not just for kids</h2>
<p>Interest in Lego has recently extended beyond simple child’s play. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10803-004-2550-0">Sociologists</a>, <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1362361315621054">psychologists</a> and <a href="http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0103-65132017000200303">economists</a> have studied the use of Lego bricks as tools for achieving certain ends via Lego-based therapy and similar activities. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/blocks-are-still-the-best-present-you-can-buy-children-for-christmas-87171">Blocks are still the best present you can buy children for Christmas</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Tools are for using, building, working, thinking, teaching, imagining, playing and much else. In fact, tools can be for anything. As soon as we realise Lego is a tool, its uses beyond mere play are obvious. Indeed, it is a universal tool that can be used to make anything we can imagine. </p>
<p>The company Lego Group is well aware of the bricks’ role as a universal tool for the imaginination: one of its most successful advertisement campaigns carried the minimal tagline “imagine”. </p>
<h2>Structured thought, brick by brick</h2>
<p>This is also where we need to be more reflective, more critical and perhaps even wary of the largest toy company selling the primary tool for children’s minds. Do we really want a for-profit company, whose commercial and financial interests are front and centre, governing what our children think and <a href="http://journals.ama.org/doi/10.1509/jmr.13.0499?code=amma-site">directing how our children imagine</a>? Here are some of the highlights from our book, and areas of improvement, for Lego in its role as a tool for thinking.</p>
<p>Lego’s tagline, “imagine”, implies that one’s own imagination is the only limit to what you can build. Of course, that’s not quite right. One of the book chapters explores the ways in which Lego comes with some inbuilt constraints, and how those limits actually help inspire sophisticated Lego builders. </p>
<p>Some of those limits lie in the nature of the bricks. With each set, we can build a world of our own creation, both literally and metaphysically. Another chapter explores the similarities between Lego worlds and our own world, constructing a metaphysics of the bricks. </p>
<p>Instructions constitute another set of limits for Lego creations - assuming, at least, that you’re the kind of player who follows the rules. And here we come to a divide in Lego users between those who follow the rules dogmatically, and those who ditch them altogether, in favour of free play. The <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1490017/">Lego Movie</a> mocks these two kinds of Lego users in exaggerated characters. </p>
<p>Lego sets, complete with a metaphysics and rules, profoundly shape the world in which we live. Sometimes Lego does this well, but not always.</p>
<h2>Is Lego constructing your world?</h2>
<p>The problem of Lego shaping what and how we think has come to the fore recently with the company’s increased gender-based marketing, as <a href="https://www.woodbrooke.org.uk/learn/postgraduate-study/academic-staff/staff-rhiannon-grant/">Rhiannon Grant</a> and <a href="https://www.kent.ac.uk/history/staff/profiles/wainman.html">Ruth Wainman</a> worry in their <a href="https://books.google.co.nz/books?id=2scmDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA113&amp;lpg=PA113&amp;dq=Grant+%26+Wainman&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=KzfpYFZXNr&amp;sig=qFK-Ic_7my2Ke4s94zV31j0O8Q8&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwipycLozIHYAhVIvrwKHaMkBGcQ6AEILjAB#v=onepage&amp;q=Grant%20%26%20Wainman&amp;f=false">book chapter</a>.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>When Lego produces materials for children that assume girls are more interested in characters, stories and emotions, and boys are more interested in building, cars and explosions, they are both playing into a dominant cultural narrative that tells children how they should be, and helping to create a world in which children are shaped to fulfil those expectations.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This explains why so many objected in 2012 to the pink-and-purple Lego Friends, designed to appeal to girls’ feminine desire to care for animals or play house. As <a href="http://www.philosophie.uni-muenchen.de/lehreinheiten/philosophie_4/personen/gutwald/index.html">Rebecca Gutwald</a> reminds us:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… the problem with Friends is that they seem to be presented as the only options for girls in this Lego world and in the world in general.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The fact that Lego Friend characters are not designed to be attached to the regular blocks creates a literal gender divide during playtime. </p>
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<p>Of course, there is some good news: not long after Lego Friends were introduced, <a href="http://jaysbrickblog.com/2014/09/14/interview-ellen-kooijman-designer-lego-research-institute/">Ellen Kooijman’s</a> all-female research institute set (above) was allowed to go into production. But it was quickly retired and it nevertheless buys into a gender-based conception of girls’ play.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Apart from building the equipment and figures, no engineering or scientific skills are embedded in playing with the set.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Breaking down racial stereotypes</h2>
<p>That said, Lego has had more success with the issues around race and ethnicity. Its original all-yellow minifigures may seem to embody an idealistically well intentioned, racial neutrality, but Lego’s representation of race has tracked the changes in society’s own assumptions about race. The bricks and figures are tools for showing us how we think, and for encouraging us to change how we think about race. </p>
<p>This is an opportunity for Lego. If it is a tool for building anything, then it also is a tool for constructing new paradigms through which to think about race, gender and social justice. As <a href="https://cambridge.academia.edu/TylerShores">Tyler Shores</a> highlights in his chapter, Lego has the power to challenge the status quo, to encourage critical thinking and deep reflection about the world and to help children and adults alike to rethink the way we should inhabit this planet. </p>
<p>Now that would make the popular bricks a truly innovative and creative tool for the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88691/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sondra Bacharach does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In a new book, philosophers argue that Lego's coloured bricks are not just a toy, but a tool that raises challenging questions about creativity, conformity and culture.Sondra Bacharach, Associate Professor in Philosophy, Victoria University of WellingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/889452017-12-13T19:06:35Z2017-12-13T19:06:35ZCutting funding for hospital complications is unlikely to change patient care – here's why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198491/original/file-20171211-27698-7qqre1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Patients fear the penalties will end up reducing patient care.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/U4FyCp3-KzY"> Piron Guillaume</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Commonwealth government is implementing a contentious scheme to punish hospitals where patients suffer avoidable complications, by withholding funding. </p>
<p>The states fear the change will eat into hospital budgets when those budgets are already stretched thinly. Patients might rightly fear this is just another way for the Commonwealth to reduce its share of public hospital costs and will therefore end up reducing the quality of care rather than increasing it.</p>
<p>They needn’t worry. Despite appearances, individual states and hospitals will not be penalised by the new “quality adjustment” funding. To understand why, we need to delve into the complex system that governs public hospital funding in Australia.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Further reading: <a href="https://theconversation.com/withdrawing-funding-for-hospitals-mistakes-probably-wont-lead-to-better-patient-care-88241">Withdrawing funding for hospitals’ mistakes probably won’t lead to better patient care</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>The latest hospitals <a href="https://www.coag.gov.au/sites/default/files/communique/Heads%20of%20Agreement%20between%20the%20Commonwealth%20and%20the%20States%20on%20Public%20Hospital%20Funding%20-%201%20April%202016.pdf">funding agreement</a> between the Commonwealth and the states includes a new <a href="http://www.federalfinancialrelations.gov.au/content/npa/health/other/Addendum_to_the_National_Health_Reform.pdf">“safety and quality adjustment”</a>.</p>
<p>The first tranche of the scheme took effect on July 1 this year and focuses on a short list of “sentinel”, or catastrophic, events, such as “procedures involving the wrong patient or body part resulting in death”, or an “infant [being] discharged to the wrong family”. </p>
<p>The rhetoric is that these events should never occur and there should be no payment to hospitals if they do. <a href="http://www.pc.gov.au/research/ongoing/report-on-government-services/2013/2013/16-government-services-2013-chapter10.pdf">There are only about 100 such events across Australia</a> in any year.</p>
<p>The second tranche, the one that has the states nervous, is scheduled to take effect from July 1 next year. This expands the focus to more frequent complications – things like falls, infections and pressure injuries – which occur in about 2% of all admissions. </p>
<p>The rhetoric here is that hospital-acquired complications can be prevented with <a href="http://www.federalfinancialrelations.gov.au/content/npa/health/other/Addendum_to_the_National_Health_Reform.pdf">best clinical practice</a>, and there should be a financial penalty if they occur.</p>
<p>But the reality of how the so-called penalties will work won’t match the rhetoric. Here’s why.</p>
<h2>How ‘quality adjustment’ is supposed to penalise breaches</h2>
<p>Commonwealth funding to public hospitals has two components – a base amount, complemented by a growth component. The size of the growth component depends on the number and type of patients treated in public hospitals.</p>
<p>Under the growth component, payment for each type of hospital patient is based on the annual change in activity, measured in “<a href="https://www.ihpa.gov.au/what-we-do/national-weighted-activity-unit-nwau-calculators">national weighted activity units</a>” and paid for at the “<a href="https://www.ihpa.gov.au/what-we-do/national-efficient-price-determination">national efficient price</a>”.</p>
<p>The “national efficient price” is based on the average cost of the procedure, test or treatment. It is determined each year using data on public hospital costs from three years before, adjusted for inflation. The Commonwealth pays 45% of the cost for the increase in the number of patients treated since 2014-15.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/remind-me-again-whats-the-problem-with-hospital-funding-44965">Remind me again, what’s the problem with hospital funding?</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Under the new “quality adjustment” system, the <a href="https://www.ihpa.gov.au/what-we-do/national-weighted-activity-unit-nwau-calculators">funding</a> value for a treatment or procedure will be reduced where the patient suffers a <a href="https://www.safetyandquality.gov.au/our-work/indicators/hospital-acquired-complications/development-of-the-hospital-acquired-complications-hacs-list/">hospital-acquired complication</a>. </p>
<p>The size of the funding cut will reflect the expected extra treatment cost caused by the particular hospital acquired complications, adjusted for any characteristics of the patient which make him or her inherently more susceptible to a particular complication.</p>
<h2>Why it won’t penalise breaches</h2>
<p>Given the Commonwealth payment is based on the change in activity measured in “activity units”, a lower unit should mean a lower payment. But here’s the rub: the “quality adjustment” component of growth funding is modelled on data from the year prior to implementation; the “back-cast” year becomes the new base for measuring change. </p>
<p>Therefore, if the level of hospital-acquired complications remains the same between the years, there will actually be no impact on the Commonwealth growth funding to the state. That is, any penalty is only for the change in the incidence of hospital acquired complications from now on.</p>
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<span class="caption">If the rate of complications stays the same, the rate of funding will remain the same.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/yGUuMIqjIrU">Daan Stevens</a></span>
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<p>And there’s another hitch. From July 1 this year, the increase in Commonwealth payments nationally is capped at 6.5% each year, and each state has a notional cap, also set at 6.5%. </p>
<p>So if total activity across Australia increases by more than 6.5% in a year, those states which have contributed to that above-cap national growth rate by having growth of more than 6.5% themselves, will have their payments capped.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/punishing-medical-errors-wont-improve-hospital-safety-or-quality-74302">Punishing medical errors won’t improve hospital safety or quality</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>The effect of capping the Commonwealth contribution mitigates the impact of the complications-related activity unit adjustment.</p>
<p>If a state’s funded activity has grown at more than 6.5%, then any reduction in its total activity unit due to an increased incidence of hospital-acquired complications may have no financial impact on its funding from the Commonwealth.</p>
<p>Even if a state’s activity has grown at less than 6.5%, the effect of the “quality adjustment” to funding will be marginal at most – the incremental cost of the change in the incidence of hospital acquired complications.</p>
<h2>And anyway, equalisation funding washes it all away</h2>
<p>A final complication occurs because, regardless of their actual levels of hospital activity, all states receive GST funding to provide hospital services at a common standard, as assessed by an independent body, the <a href="https://cgc.gov.au/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=258&amp;Itemid=536">Commonwealth Grants Commission</a>. </p>
<p>A state’s share of GST is not affected by its rate of hospital-acquired complications. The way GST is allocated washes away any “quality” penalty a state might have initially faced. </p>
<p>The only impact of the “quality adjustment” changes in the medium term is therefore to affect the total amount of money available to be allocated across <em>all</em> states. Spread across all the nation’s hospitals, the amount per hospital would be trivial. </p>
<p>That’s why the states needn’t worry too much about the Commonwealth’s new scheme to punish poor-performing hospitals.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88945/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Grattan Institute began with contributions to its endowment of $15 million from each of the Federal and Victorian Governments, and $4 million from BHP Billiton. In order to safeguard its independence, Grattan Institute’s board controls this endowment. The funds are invested and Grattan uses the income to pursue its activities.</span></em></p>The reality of how the so-called penalties will work won’t match the rhetoric.Stephen Duckett, Director, Health Program, Grattan InstituteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/889522017-12-13T10:19:06Z2017-12-13T10:19:06ZDemocrat Doug Jones wins Alabama Senate byelection in stunning upset; Bennelong is tied 50-50<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198984/original/file-20171213-27565-jztyz5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Democrat candidate Doug Jones has had an unlikely win in the hard-fought Alabama Senate ballot.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/ Marvin Gentry</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>With all election-day votes counted, Democrat Doug Jones <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/elections/results/alabama-senate-special-election-roy-moore-doug-jones">defeated</a> Republican Roy Moore by a 49.9-48.4 margin to win the Alabama Senate byelection today. Once Jones is seated, Republicans will hold only a 51-49 Senate majority, down from their current 52-48.</p>
<p>Donald Trump <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_presidential_election_in_Alabama,_2016">crushed Hillary Clinton</a> by a 62-34 margin in Alabama at the 2016 Presidential election, so in Australian terms, this result is a swing to the Democrats of 14.6%.</p>
<p>The massive swing was partly due to Moore’s faults. His extreme right-wing views probably made him a liability even in a state as conservative as Alabama. <a href="https://theconversation.com/extreme-right-alabama-senate-candidate-accused-of-sexual-encounter-with-14-y-o-girl-87247">In November</a>, I wrote that Moore’s alleged sexual encounter with a 14-year-old girl, when he was 32, could damage him. Similar allegations against Moore were made by other women.</p>
<p>While Moore was a bad candidate, Trump and national Republicans can also be blamed for this result. <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/election/2017/results/alabama-senate">According to exit polls</a>, Trump’s approval with the Alabama electorate was split 48% approve, 48% disapprove, a large drop from his 2016 margin.</p>
<p>According to <a href="https://projects.fivethirtyeight.com/trump-approval-ratings/?ex_cid=rrpromo">FiveThirtyEight’s poll aggregate</a>, Trump’s national ratings are 37% approve, 57% disapprove, for a net of -20. Trump’s ratings have recently slipped back to near-record lows, probably as a result of the unpopular Republican tax plan.</p>
<p>This tax plan is unlikely to be derailed by Jones’ win. Different versions have already passed the House and Senate, and Republicans still have some time before Jones is seated to pass the same version through both chambers of Congress. The current Senate version was passed 51-49. Even if Jones is seated, there would be a 50-50 tie, which would be broken by Vice-President Mike Pence.</p>
<p>The last Democrat to win an Alabama Senate contest was Richard Shelby in 1992, and he became a Republican in 1994. Southern Democrats used to easily win Alabama and other conservative southern states, but these Democrats were nicknamed “Dixiecrats”, and were definitely not left-wing. Doug Jones may be the <a href="http://fivethirtyeight.com/live-blog/alabama-senate-election-results/?lpup=10116119#livepress-update-10116119">first genuinely left-wing</a> Senator from Alabama.</p>
<p>The Alabama result will be a massive morale boost for Democrats, as many will think that if Democrats can win Alabama, they can win anywhere. This should allow Democrats to recruit strong candidates for the 2018 midterm elections. </p>
<p>According to the <a href="https://projects.fivethirtyeight.com/congress-generic-ballot-polls/?ex_cid=rrpromo">FiveThirtyEight poll aggregate</a>, Democrats lead in the race for Congress by 47.2-37.5. If Democrats win the national popular vote by this margin next November, they should easily gain control of the House.</p>
<p>The Alabama result will make it more difficult for Republicans to pass legislation and get conservative judges approved. It also puts the Senate in play in November 2018, as Jones will not be up for election until 2020. Democrats now need to gain two seats in 2018 to take control, rather than three.</p>
<p>One-third of the Senate is up for election every two years, and Democrats won the 33 Senate seats up next year by a 25-8 margin in 2012. Republicans will only be defending eight seats, while Democrats defend 25. In these circumstances, two Senate seats are far easier to gain than three.</p>
<p>Most Alabama polls gave Moore a three-to-seven-point lead over Jones, with one at a nine-point Moore lead. <a href="https://www.realclearpolitics.com/epolls/2017/senate/al/alabama_senate_special_election_moore_vs_jones-6271.html">The Monmouth and Washington Post polls</a> (respectively tied and Jones by three) were the most accurate. Ironically, the Fox News poll was the most pro-Jones, giving him a ten-point lead.</p>
<h2>Bennelong Newspoll 50-50</h2>
<p>The Bennelong byelection will be held on Saturday, December 16. A <a href="http://cdn.newsapi.com.au/image/v1/0122c727287a6ed238c8d5ab04c7fc29?width=1024">Bennelong Newspoll</a>, conducted December 9-10 from a sample of 529, had a 50-50 tie, a ten-point swing to Labor from the 2016 election. Primary votes were 39% Liberal, 39% Labor, 9% Greens, 7% for Cory Bernardi’s Conservatives and 2% Christian Democrats.</p>
<p>Newspoll is assuming that Conservative and Christian Democrat preferences are as favourable to the Liberals as Greens preferences are for Labor.</p>
<p>At the <a href="https://theconversation.com/bennelong-polls-galaxy-50-50-reachtel-53-47-to-liberal-87725">start of the campaign</a>, more than three weeks ago, Galaxy had a 50-50 tie, while ReachTEL gave the Liberals a 53-47 lead. This Newspoll is the first publicly released Bennelong poll since then, though <em>The Australian</em> reported last week that <a href="https://www.pollbludger.net/2017/12/12/essential-research-54-46-labor-newspoll-50-50-bennelong/">internal Liberal polling</a> had them leading 54-46.</p>
<p>In past elections, individual seat polls have been inaccurate. There is some chance of a Labor win in Bennelong, but there is also some chance of a thumping Liberal win.</p>
<p>Newspoll asked about Labor candidate Kristina Keneally’s performance when she was NSW premier. 19% thought she was one of the worst premiers, 15% below average, 26% average, 23% better than average, and 10% one of the best. The Liberals have attacked Keneally on her record as premier, but this does not appear to have worked.</p>
<p>The national polls below indicate the media frenzy over Sam Dastyari has had little impact on voting intentions. Often issues that excite partisan voters have little resonance with the general public.</p>
<h2>Essential 54-46 to federal Labor</h2>
<p>The Coalition gained a point in <a href="http://www.essentialvision.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Essential-Report_121217.pdf">this week’s Essential</a>, but this was due to rounding. Labor led 54-46, from primary votes of 38% Labor, 35% Coalition, 10% Greens, 7% One Nation and 2% Nick Xenophon Team. Essential uses a two-week sample of about 1,800 for voting intentions. Additional questions use one week’s sample.</p>
<p>Despite Labor’s strong lead in voting intentions, Turnbull’s net approval improved from -12 in November to -3. Shorten’s net approval also improved from -13 to -9.</p>
<p>71% thought it is important that sexual harassment claims in the film and TV industry are exposed, while just 17% thought exposing these claims could unfairly harm reputations. 55% thought the current media attention on sexual harassment would bring about lasting change in the Australian workplace, while 30% thought it would soon be forgotten.</p>
<p>Considering energy policy, 37% said costs should be prioritised (up nine since June), 18% thought reliability should be prioritised (down three) and 15% carbon emissions (down four).</p>
<h2>YouGov primary votes: 35% Labor, 34% Coalition, 11% Greens, 8% One Nation</h2>
<p><a href="https://d25d2506sfb94s.cloudfront.net/cumulus_uploads/document/7f35zond0m/50AcresResults_171211_Wave17_w.pdf">This week’s YouGov</a>, conducted December 7-10 from a sample of 1,032, had primary votes of 35% Labor (up 3 since last fortnight), 34% Coalition (up 2), 11% Greens (up 1) and 8% One Nation (down 3). </p>
<p>Although this poll would be about 54-46 to Labor by 2016 election preferences, YouGov’s respondent allocated preferences are tied 50-50, a three-point gain for the Coalition.</p>
<p>By 40-39, voters thought Turnbull should stand down as prime minister and let someone else take over, rather than remain prime minister. 28% said Turnbull’s decision to go ahead with the banking royal commission gave them a more positive view of him, 15% more negative and 52% said it made no difference.</p>
<p>39% expected Labor to win the next federal election, 24% the Coalition, and 14% expected a hung parliament.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88952/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adrian Beaumont does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Doug Jones has won a tough battle to represent Alabama in the US Senate; meanwhile, the crucial byelection in Bennelong is neck-and-neck, with huge implications for the government if it loses.Adrian Beaumont, Honorary Associate, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/890872017-12-13T06:07:56Z2017-12-13T06:07:56ZWhy we removed an article on the My Health Record<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198959/original/file-20171213-27568-k2xycw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> </figcaption></figure><p>The Conversation published a story earlier today that was incorrect.</p>
<p>The story, titled “We have less than three months to opt out before the My Health Record system has our details, and no-one told us”, asserted that a three-month period to opt out of being registered for a My Health Record had already begun. </p>
<p>This is incorrect. According to the Australian Digital Health Agency, which is responsible for the My Health Record, the date the period begins has not yet been set.</p>
<p>In a statement to The Conversation, the Agency said:</p>
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<p>The opt out period will be set by a Notifiable Instrument which is anticipated to be around mid-2018 […] The Agency will implement a comprehensive communications strategy to advise Australians that a record will be created for them in 2018, unless they tell us they don’t want one. </p>
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<p>We are committed to providing accurate and reliable information. Where errors do occur, it’s our policy to correct them promptly and be transparent about what happened.</p>
<p>We apologise for this mistake and greatly appreciate the Australian Digital Health Agency bringing the error to our attention.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89087/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
The Conversation published a story earlier today that was incorrect. The story, titled “We have less than three months to opt out before the My Health Record system has our details, and no-one told us…Sasha Petrova, Deputy Editor: Health + MedicineLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/890832017-12-13T04:31:47Z2017-12-13T04:31:47ZThe off-topic Conversation #144<p>Welcome to The Conversation’s off-topic space. We’ve set this up as the place where you can discuss anything that isn’t related to a specific article. Please feel free to use this space to get to know each other and talk about news elsewhere and whatever else strikes your fancy.</p>
<p>This is also an opportunity to discuss broader issues about The Conversation, including moderation, community standards and editorial decisions. These threads will be read by Conversation staff, however we will keep our commenting to a minimum so that this can be your space.</p>
<p>Our community standards still apply and will be enforced, so please keep it nice and avoid personal attacks. Beyond that, this is your space. Enjoy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89083/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Our community standards still apply and will be enforced, so please keep it nice and avoid personal attacks. Beyond that, this is your space. Enjoy.Molly Glassey, Audience Development Manager, The ConversationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/886962017-12-13T03:32:18Z2017-12-13T03:32:18ZEngineers, philosophers and sociologists release ethical design guidelines for future technology<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198858/original/file-20171212-9392-lfkr48.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A team of technologists have joined forces with doctors, lawyers, economists and philosophers to make technology ethical.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/drawing-symbol-robot-arm-on-blue-320528222">from www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If kids spend hours a day speaking to digital personal assistant Alexa, how will this affect the way they connect to real people? When a self-driving car runs over a pedestrian, who do you take to court? Is it okay to manipulate people’s emotions if it’s making them happier? </p>
<p>Together with an international team of researchers in fields as diverse as philosophy, engineering and anthropology, we set out to tackle these questions. The result is a new set of guidelines focused on the ethical and social implications of autonomous and intelligent systems. That includes everything from big data and social media algorithms to autonomous weapons.</p>
<p>The report, <a href="https://ethicsinaction.ieee.org/">Ethically Aligned Design</a>, was released today by the <a href="https://www.ieee.org/">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers</a> (IEEE). It is the culmination of a year’s work by 250 world leaders in technology, law, social science, business and government spanning six continents.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-need-robots-that-can-improvise-but-its-not-easy-to-teach-them-right-from-wrong-87014">We need robots that can improvise, but it’s not easy to teach them right from wrong</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>IEEE is the world’s largest technical professional organisation. With over 420,000 members in 160 countries, it’s the global authority for professional standards related to technology. The latest report proposes a set of recommendations (suggestions) that are open to public feedback. </p>
<p>Once adopted, the guidelines in the report will be implemented by professional organisations, accreditation boards and educational institutions to ensure the next generation of engineers incorporate ethical considerations into their work. </p>
<h2>Guiding principles</h2>
<p>The big questions posed by our digital future sit at the intersection of technology and ethics. This is complex territory that requires input from experts in many different fields if we are to navigate it successfully. </p>
<p>To prepare the report, economists and sociologists researched the effect of technology on disempowered groups. Lawyers considered the future of privacy and justice. Doctors and psychologists examined impacts on physical and mental health. Philosophers unpacked hidden biases and moral questions. </p>
<p>The report suggests all technologies should be guided by five general principles:</p>
<ul>
<li>protecting human rights</li>
<li>prioritising and employing established metrics for measuring wellbeing</li>
<li>ensuring designers and operators of new technologies are accountable</li>
<li>making processes transparent</li>
<li>minimising the risks of misuse.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Sticky questions</h2>
<p>The report runs the spectrum from practical to more abstract concerns, touching on personal data ownership, autonomous weapons, job displacement and questions like “can decisions made by amoral systems have moral consequences?” </p>
<p>One section deals with a “lack of ownership or responsibility from the tech community”. It points to a divide between how the technology community sees its ethical responsibilities and the broader social concerns raised by public, legal, and professional communities.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/an-ai-professor-explains-three-concerns-about-granting-citizenship-to-robot-sophia-86479">An AI professor explains: three concerns about granting citizenship to robot Sophia</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Each issue tackled includes background discussion and a set of candidate recommendations. For example, the section on autonomous weapons recommends measures to ensure meaningful human control. The section on employment recommends the creation of an independent body to track the impact of robotics on jobs and economic growth. </p>
<p>A section on affective computing – an area that studies how computers can detect, express and even “feel” emotions – raises concerns about how long-term interaction with computers could change the way people interact with each other.</p>
<p>This brings us back to our question: if kids spend hours a day speaking to Siri or Alexa how will these interactions change them? </p>
<p>The report makes two recommendations on this point: </p>
<p>1) To acknowledge how much we don’t know (we need to learn much more before these systems become widely used); </p>
<p>2) That humans who witness negative impacts – parents, social workers, governments – learn to detect them and have ways to address them, or even shut technologies down. Experience shows this is not always easy – try forbidding your child from watching YouTube and see how well that flies. </p>
<p>Clearly affective computing is an area in which we are at a particular loss for evidence of its human impact.</p>
<h2>Consultation and feedback</h2>
<p>IEEE standards are developed iteratively and the organisation will use the findings in this report to build a definitive set of guidelines over time. </p>
<p>Early feedback on an earlier version of the report highlighted its Western-centric bias. As a result, a larger and more diverse panel was recruited. A number of new sections were added, including the section on affective computing, along with policy, classical ethics, mixed reality (including augmented reality technologies like Google Glass) and wellbeing. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/dear-prime-minister-wed-like-you-to-join-the-call-for-a-ban-on-killer-robots-86758">Dear Prime Minister: we’d like you to join the call for a ban on killer robot</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Over the next year, the final version will be released as a handbook with recommendations that technologists and policy makers can turn to, and be held accountable for, as our technological future unfolds. </p>
<p>This is an important step toward breaking the protective wall of specialisation that allows technologists to separate themselves from the impact of their work on society at large. It will demand that future tech leaders take responsibility for ensuring that the technology we build as humans genuinely benefits us and our planet.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88696/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rafael A Calvo receives funding from Australian Research Council, Asthma Australia, ReachOut Australia, Beyondblue, Google and Alertness and Productivity CRC. He is a Senior member of the Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dorian Peters does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A report released today by the world’s largest technical professional organisation is designed to help humanity avoid a robot apocalypse.Rafael A Calvo, Professor and ARC Future Fellow, University of SydneyDorian Peters, Creative Leader, Positive Computing Lab, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/890732017-12-13T03:31:32Z2017-12-13T03:31:32ZWestfield's history tracks the rise of the Australian shopping centre and shows what's to come<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198933/original/file-20171213-31684-156as2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;rect=436%2C992%2C950%2C628&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Westfield Burwood circa 1999, a year before being demolished to make way for a new Westfield building.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Westfield_Burwood.jpg">Wikimedia Commons (unknown author)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The sale of Westfield to the French property firm Unibail-Rodamco draws to a close (with a <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-12-12/westfield-lowy-family-sells-empire-for-32-billion/9250776">A$32 billion reward</a>) one of Australia’s greatest business success stories. But it also shows where Australian retail could be headed next.</p>
<p>Westfield has been at the heart of Australian retail innovation and development since Frank Lowy and Jeno Schwarcz (later John Saunders) formed a partnership in the mid-1950s. Both holocaust survivors, they arrived in Australia with next to nothing and built an empire.</p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-economics-of-the-money-back-guarantee-80876">The economics of the money-back guarantee</a></em></strong></p>
<hr>
<p>The early history of the firm is covered in Jill Margo’s <a href="http://www.harpercollins.com.au/9780732269074/">biography</a> of Lowy and Westfield’s own <a href="https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1980510">company history</a>. After operating a delicatessen in Blacktown in Sydney’s Western suburbs, the pair moved into residential and then retail property development, opening a small “American style” shopping centre in Blacktown, on July 2, 1959.</p>
<p>Westfield Place was one of the first shopping centres to open in Australia and was reflective of transformative changes occurring in retail at the time. Rapid growth in <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4102.0Main+Features40July+2013">car ownership</a>, and support for home ownership by both sides of politics brought a massive demographic shift as Australians <a href="http://splash.abc.net.au/home#!/media/153826/home-sweet-home-the-australian-dream-">flocked to the suburbs</a>.</p>
<p>This upended <a href="https://theconversation.com/history-says-department-stores-will-struggle-in-the-future-85527">established retail geographies</a>. City department stores had to open <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14490854.2014.11668500">suburban branches</a> to survive. At the same time, Coles and Woolworths, which began as variety store chains, were moving into food retailing by buying up traditional grocery chains.</p>
<p>These retail firms required sites in the suburbs big enough to house modern stores. They also needed space for parking. In America, similar trends had seen the emergence of a new retail form, <a href="http://www.acrwebsite.org/search/view-conference-proceedings.aspx?Id=7196">the shopping centre</a>.</p>
<h2>The rise of the shopping centre</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.scca.org.au/industry-information/australian-shopping-centre-industry/">Shopping centres</a> solved the problem of traffic congestion that was beginning to plague suburban high streets and offered a social space for people to congregate. These centres also provided a curated mix of shops that could be shaped to meet market needs, and facilitated the expansion of retail chains. Air conditioning added to their appeal.</p>
<p>Westfield was but one of numerous small developers seizing opportunities in a rapidly changing market. But from very early on the firm had higher ambitions.</p>
<p>By retaining the centres it built in an investment portfolio, Westfield obtained cash flow, security for finance, and assets that could be upgraded through expansion and redevelopment.</p>
<p>The other major early developers were retailers themselves. Department store firms like Myer, Grace Bros, Boans and David Jones <a href="https://theconversation.com/history-says-department-stores-will-struggle-in-the-future-85527">played an important role</a> in establishing large-scale shopping centres in Australia, and the supermarkets were also heavily involved in development. Over time, though, specialist developers, managers and landlords like Westfield and Lend Lease became the dominant players.</p>
<p>These firms proved highly adept at incorporating new retail models and entertainment formats into shopping centres: discount department stores <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aehr.12107/abstract">in the 1970s</a>; food courts and <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/urban-history/article/shopping-for-entertainment-malls-and-multiplexes-in-sydney-australia/469F326CB6286E1A978FD4C0BA4DB40E">cinemas</a> in the late-1980s; <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0024630197000757">category killers</a> in the 1990s; the recent shift to include more <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/business/retail/shopping-centres-bank-on-coffee-and-salons-amid-retail-slump-20170815-gxws0g.html">services and restaurants</a>.</p>
<p>Retail, though, is about access to goods. Shopping centres were an innovation in the middle of the last century that proved superior to other forms of distribution. Online retailing is proving similarly disruptive.</p>
<h2>Where to from here for shopping centres?</h2>
<p>The growth of online shopping means that many physical retailers as well as consumers, are no longer solely dependent on shopping centres and malls. This has resulted in the closure of many of the traditional anchor stores in large shopping centres. </p>
<p>Most obviously, department stores are suffering a <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/business/retail/department-stores-face-uncertain-future-as-sales-seen-shrinking-over-coming-years-20170301-gunxmh.html">prolonged and rather painful decline</a>. In response, <a href="https://www.insideretail.com.au/blog/2016/11/03/david-jones-boutique-offering-open-for-business/">David Jones</a> and UK retailer <a href="https://www.propertyobserver.com.au/finding/commercial-investment/retail/77094-debenhams-smaller-format-reveals-the-future-for-australian-department-stores.html">Debenhams</a> are rethinking their store format strategy and opening smaller, more carefully curated boutique stores in affluent suburbs. Touted as the <a href="http://www.afr.com/business/retail/debenhams-unveils-the-future-for-australian-department-stores-20171012-gyzdgd">future of Australian retailing</a>, these smaller formats do not rely on being located in shopping malls. </p>
<p>Clearly, shopping centres cannot compete with the huge product range and convenience of online shopping. But these centres are well-positioned to appeal to consumers by offering experiences and services that cannot be replicated online.</p>
<p>In the future we will see much more effort devoted to <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-shopping-centres-are-changing-to-fight-online-shopping-80056">attracting shoppers to malls</a> through a mix of leisure and entertainment options.</p>
<p>Australian centres will increasingly replicate malls in the UK, USA, Asia and Latin America. In addition to the various up-scale dining options and cinema complexes that are already part of Australian centres, many international malls feature concert venues, fitness clubs and day spas, art centres, galleries and even farmers markets.</p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-retailers-want-you-to-click-and-collect-83094">Why retailers want you to ‘click and collect’</a></em></strong></p>
<hr>
<p>Shopping centres are also trying to attract families to visit and spend more time in centres. To encourage this they are installing infrastructure and activities designed to appeal to parents and children such as the huge <a href="https://melbourne.legolanddiscoverycentre.com.au/">Legoland amusement park</a> housed in the Chadstone Shopping Centre in Melbourne.</p>
<p>Some malls are also attempting to recreate a <a href="http://www.news.com.au/finance/business/retail/shopping-centres-turn-to-village-life-as-retailers-feel-pinch/news-story/7b895c819d14bf478ab7db1b0747b607">village feel</a> through moving away from just shopping to using the public space in their centres, focusing on community activities such as libraries.</p>
<p>Although Australian centres will still continue to try and attract anchor tenants to drive foot traffic, we will see much more emphasis on new modes of retailing including <a href="https://www.commercialrealestate.com.au/news/pop-up-shops-theres-no-stopping-australias-latest-retail-boom/">pop up stores</a>, more small and independent stores as well as kiosks to increase the diversity of the offering and give customers more reasons to visit the mall. Westfield even <a href="http://www.westfieldpopup.com.au/">changed the name</a> of its casual leasing division to “pop-up department” to appeal to a new cohort of retailers and shoppers.</p>
<p>To address the digital disruption that is impacting on traditional retail, malls and centres will harness technology to assist shoppers during their visit. This will include <a href="https://www.insideretail.com.au/blog/2016/10/19/stockland-centres-smart-parking-system/">sensor technology for parking cars</a>, <a href="https://theblog.adobe.com/a-digital-shopping-experience-coming-soon-to-a-mall-near-you/">augmented reality for guiding shoppers</a> through centres and locating stores and <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2017/11/23/facial-recognition-is-tracking-customers-as-they-shop-in-stores-tech-company-says.html">face recognition technology</a> for providing customised offers and promotions as part of the shopping mall experience.</p>
<p>They key to future success for shopping centres will be in offering shoppers unique services and experiences that give them a reason to get off the internet and back into the mall. </p>
<p>There are few Australians alive with a better understanding of retail that Frank, Peter and Steven Lowy. The fact that they are moving out of physical store development to invest in <a href="https://www.onemarketnetwork.com/">innovative retail technology and big data</a> should be of significant interest to those pondering the future direction of retail in this country.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89073/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The fact that Westfield's founders are moving out of physical store development to invest in innovative retail technology shows what's to come in Australian retail.Louise Grimmer, Lecturer in Marketing, University of TasmaniaMatthew Bailey, Lecturer, Retail History, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/886982017-12-13T03:29:30Z2017-12-13T03:29:30ZWhat the robots of Star Wars tell us about automation, and the future of human work<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198708/original/file-20171212-9386-8xrbbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">BB-8 is an &quot;astromech droid&quot; who first appeared in The Force Awakens. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lucasfilm/IMDB</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Millions of fans all over the world are eagerly anticipating this week’s release of <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt2527336/">Star Wars: The Last Jedi</a>, the eighth in the series. At last we will get some answers to questions that have been vexing us since 2015’s <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt2488496/?ref_=tt_rec_tt">The Force Awakens</a>. </p>
<p>Throughout the franchise, the core characters have been accompanied by a number of much-loved robots, including C-3PO, R2-D2 and more recently, BB-8 and K2-SO. While often fulfilling the role of wise-cracking sidekicks, these and other robots also <a href="https://www.cbr.com/15-best-star-wars-droids-ever/">play an integral role in events</a>. </p>
<p>Interestingly, they can also tell us useful things about automation, such as whether it poses dangers to us and whether robots will ever replace human workers entirely. In these films, we see the good, bad and ugly of robots - and can thus glean clues about what our technological future might look like. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Q0CbN8sfihY?wmode=transparent&amp;start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe>
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<h2>The fear of replacement</h2>
<p>One major fear is that robots and automation will replace us, despite <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociotechnical_system">work design principles</a> that tell us technology should be used as a tool to assist, rather than replace, humans. In the world of Star Wars, robots (or droids as they are known) mostly assist organic lifeforms, rather than completely replace them. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198882/original/file-20171212-3148-ovkvao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198882/original/file-20171212-3148-ovkvao.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=237&amp;fit=clip"></a>
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<span class="caption">R2-D2 and C3PO in A New Hope.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lucasfilms/IMDB</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So for instance, C-3PO is a protocol droid who was designed to assist in translation, customs and etiquette. R2-D2 and the franchise’s new darling, BB-8, are both “astromech droids” designed to assist in starship maintenance. </p>
<p>In the most recent movie, <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt3748528/?ref_=nv_sr_1">Rogue One</a>, an offshoot of the main franchise, we were introduced to K2-SO, a wisecracking advanced autonomous military robot who was caught and reprogrammed to switch allegiance to the rebels. K2-SO mainly acts as a co-pilot, for example when flying a U-Wing with the pilot Cassian Andor to the planet of Eadu. </p>
<p>In most cases then, the Star Wars droids provide assistance – co-piloting ships, helping to fix things, and even serving drinks. In the world of these films, organic lifeforms are still relied upon for most skilled work.</p>
<p>When organic lifeforms are completely replaced, it is generally when the work is highly dangerous. For instance, during the duel between Annakin and Obi Wan on the planet Mustafar in <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0121766/?ref_=tt_rec_tt">Revenge of the Sith</a>, DLC-13 mining droids can be seen going about their work in the planet’s hostile lava rivers.</p>
<p>Further, droid armies act as the frontline in various battles throughout the films. Perhaps, in the future, we will be OK with losing our jobs if the work in question poses a significant risk to our health.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198710/original/file-20171212-9432-883jbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198710/original/file-20171212-9432-883jbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
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<span class="caption">K2-SO in Rogue One.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lucasfilm/IMDB</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>However, there are some exceptions to this trend in the Star Wars universe. In the realm of healthcare, for instance, droids have fully replaced organic lifeforms. In <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0080684/?ref_=tt_rec_tt">The Empire Strikes Back</a> a medical droid treats Luke Skywalker after his encounter with a Wampa, a yeti-like snow beast on the planet Hoth. The droid also replaces his hand following his battle with Darth Vadar on the planet Bespin. </p>
<p>Likewise, in <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0121766/?ref_=tt_rec_tt">Revenge of the Sith</a>, a midwife droid is seen delivering the siblings Luke and Leia on Polis Massa. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Droids assist the birth of Luke and Leia Skywalker in Revenge of the Sith.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Perhaps this is one area in which Star Wars has it wrong: here on earth, full automation is a long way off in healthcare. Assistance from robots in healthcare is the more realistic prospect and is in <a href="https://theconversation.com/marking-ten-years-of-surgical-robots-in-a-theatre-near-you-20285">fact, already here</a>. Indeed, robots have been assisting surgeons in operating theatres for some time now. </p>
<h2>Automated vehicles</h2>
<p>Driverless vehicles are currently flavour of the month – but will we actually use them? In Star Wars, despite the capacity for spacecraft and star ships to be fully automated, organic lifeforms still take the controls. The spaceship Millenium Falcon, for example, is mostly flown by the smuggler Han Solo and his companion Chewbacca. </p>
<p>Most of the Star Wars starship fleet (A-Wings, X-Wings, Y-Wings, Tie Fighters, Star Destroyers, Starfighters and more) ostensibly possess the capacity for fully automated flight, however, they are mostly flown by organic lifeforms. In <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0120915/?ref_=tt_rec_tt">The Phantom Menace</a> the locals on <a href="http://starwars.wikia.com/wiki/Tatooine">Tatooine</a> have even taken to building and manually racing their own “pod racers”. </p>
<p>It seems likely that here on earth, humans too will continue to prefer to drive, fly, sail, and ride. Despite the ability to fully automate, most people will still want to be able to take full control.</p>
<h2>Flawless, error proof robots?</h2>
<p>Utopian visions often depict a future where sophisticated robots will perform highly skilled tasks, all but eradicating the costly errors that humans make. This is unlikely to be true. </p>
<p>A final message from the Star Wars universe is that the droids and advanced technologies are often far from perfect. In our own future, costly human errors may simply be replaced by robot designer errors. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198881/original/file-20171212-3164-1ac8m0n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198881/original/file-20171212-3164-1ac8m0n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=237&amp;fit=clip"></a>
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<span class="caption">R5-D4, the malfunctioning droid of A New Hope.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lucasfilms/IMDB</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The B1 Battle Droids seen in the <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0121766/?ref_=tt_rec_tt">first</a> and <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0121765/?ref_=tt_rec_tt">second</a> Star Wars films lack intelligence and frequently malfunction. C-3PO is notoriously error prone and his probability-based estimates are often wide of the mark.</p>
<p>In the fourth film, <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0076759/?ref_=ttmi_tt">A New Hope</a>, R5-D4 (another astromech droid) malfunctions and explodes just as the farmer Owen Lars is about to buy it. Other droids are slow and clunky, such as the <a href="http://www.starwars.com/databank/gnk-droid">GNK Power droid</a> and <a href="http://starwars.wikia.com/wiki/HURID-327">HURID-327</a>, the groundskeeper at the castle of Maz Kanata in The Force Awakens. </p>
<p>The much feared <a href="https://theconversation.com/ask-the-experts-will-robots-take-over-the-world-16791">scenario</a>, whereby robots become so intelligent that they eventually take over, is hard to imagine with this lot.</p>
<p>Perhaps the message from the Star Wars films is that we need to lower our expectations of robot capabilities, in the short term at least. Cars will still crash, mistakes will still be made, regardless of whether humans or robots are doing the work.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88698/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Salmon receives funding from the Australian Research Council</span></em></p>Star Wars' robots are much-loved characters, who can shed light on the future of automation. In the films, they exist mostly to assist rather than replace humans - and like us, they are prone to errors.Paul Salmon, Professor of Human Factors, University of the Sunshine CoastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/889542017-12-13T01:50:23Z2017-12-13T01:50:23ZWhat is going rotten in the franchise businesses plagued by scandals<p>Judging by the scandals that have engulfed franchises in Australia including <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/7-eleven-20033">7-Eleven</a>, <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/business/workplace-relations/caltex-warned-its-service-station-owners-of-regulator-raids-20161102-gsg8qn.html">Caltex</a>, <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/interactive/2017/the-dominos-effect/">Domino’s</a> and most recently <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/business/retail/cup-of-sorrow-the-brutal-reality-of-australias-franchise-king-20171207-h00lbl.html">Retail Food Group</a>, it seems like the very business model of franchising is flawed. But there are franchises that thrive without problems like wage theft and fraught business relationships.</p>
<p>These franchises have a committed franchisor, a proven and evolving brand, and franchisees that are well supported. When any of these components is missing franchisees can quickly become unprofitable and things can turn ugly. </p>
<p>There are some hallmark problems within franchising in Australia and internationally and not all are within the franchisor’s or franchisees’ control.</p>
<h2>No transparency in the model and problems in the supply chain</h2>
<p>The first issue is in the supply chain. A good franchisor will source quality products and services that both the franchisees and their customers want, and make them available to franchisees on terms that are more competitive than the franchisee could obtain as a sole trader. </p>
<p>They wouldn’t let something like a rebate from the supplier stop them from replacing a bad supplier. They will not do as <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/business/retail/cup-of-sorrow-the-brutal-reality-of-australias-franchise-king-20171207-h00lbl.html">Michel’s Patisserie reportedly did</a> and require franchisees to sell spoiled cakes. </p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/franchisees-dont-do-their-homework-and-are-too-optimistic-about-risks-research-68333">Franchisees don’t do their homework and are too optimistic about risks: research</a></em></strong></p>
<hr>
<p>In a successful franchise, the franchisor’s own network of related entities and associates should be aligned with a franchisees’ success. But franchise operations have become attractive acquisition targets for venture capitalists. For example private equity firm <a href="http://www.afr.com/street-talk/permira-retreats-as-laser-clinics-sale-reaches-crunch-time-20170820-gy03tn">Permira</a> was considering buying the Laser Clinics Australia franchise. </p>
<p>Franchises are also commonly owned by public companies such as Godfreys, Acdent Group Limited and Yum! Brands. This gives rise to new problems for franchisees. </p>
<p>A franchisee might buy their business from one franchisor, but, following sale of the network, have to deal with a new franchisor with different motivations. Venture capitalists and public companies have shareholders <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/business/retail/retail-food-group-begs-shareholders-for-shortseller-mercy-20171130-gzwbms.html">who prioritise dividends and capital gain</a> ahead of ongoing success of franchisees’ businesses. </p>
<p>Under clause 17 of <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/F2017C00182">Australia’s Franchising Code</a> a franchisor has to let franchisees know about any materially relevant changes, such as change of ownership. In reality, once a franchisee has signed the franchise agreement and the seven day cooling off period has passed, there is no backing out. A franchisee wanting to make a material change needs to obtain the consent of the franchisor, but the franchisor needs no such consent from franchisees.</p>
<p>The Australian franchisor may be a master franchisee, this means they are an independent operator with responsibility for developing the Australian market for a foreign based franchisor. </p>
<p>One example is of a master franchisee is 7-Eleven in Australia. In this case the franchisor is a Japanese company. It seems the same issues that arose with the brand in Australia also <a href="http://www.bluemaumau.org/sites/default/files/NCASEF%20Complaint.Final_.pdf">allegedly</a> arose in California. So the system needs overhauling globally. </p>
<h2>Lack of lobbying and professional support</h2>
<p>Another problem in franchising is the franchisor and franchisees are unlikely to seek professional advice from the same sources. Well-resourced franchisors and master franchisees have large legal and accounting firms advising them.</p>
<p>There are many big law firms whose names are on franchise agreements and who run law suits for franchisors. Franchisor’s advisers offer expert advice drawing on a deep understanding of the sector. </p>
<p>Whereas <a href="https://www.cpaaustralia.com.au/%7E/media/corporate/allfiles/document/professional-resources/education/due-diligence-full-report.pdf?la=en">research</a> shows that franchisees are more likely to seek advice, if at all, from suburban solicitors and accountants or even to decline to seek legal or financial advice before signing. They may fear the cost, or be so keen to get going they don’t want any reality checks. </p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/are-some-franchises-more-likely-to-exploit-their-workers-49444">Are some franchises more likely to exploit their workers?</a></em></strong></p>
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<p>When it comes to making policy submissions, no sector representative body can fully represent both sides of franchising. Consequently, there is limited effective lobbying by the Franchise Council of Australia on franchisee issues where these conflict with franchisor preferences. </p>
<p>In a number of submissions to <a href="https://www.parliament.sa.gov.au/Committees/Pages/Committees.aspx?CTId=5&amp;CId=173">state</a> and <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Education_and_Employment/VulnerableWorkers/Submissions">federal</a> inquiries the Franchise Council of Australia has blamed franchisees for problems in franchises.</p>
<p>The motor trades franchisees have a committed lobbyist in the <a href="https://www.mtaa.com.au/">Motor Trades Association of Australia,</a> but other franchisees do not have a well funded franchisee member organisation to represent them in Canberra. </p>
<h2>The law and regulators are not off the hook</h2>
<p>Two laws potentially even up the imbalance of rights and power between franchisors and franchisees. There’s the <a href="http://consumerlaw.gov.au/">Australian Consumer Law</a> and the <a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/business/industry-codes/franchising-code-of-conduct">Franchising Code of Conduct 2014</a>. </p>
<p>Consumer Law gives franchisees that have been misled, deceived or treated unconscionably, or whose contract terms are unfair, the right to ask a court to sort things out. But court actions are slow and expensive and can end in business failure. </p>
<p>For example Allphones was successfully sued by a franchisee, Hoy Mobile in <a href="https://jade.io/article/78386">2008</a>, but their dispute had been brewing since 2005. In 2009 the ACCC successfully mounted a class action against Allphones on behalf of other franchisees who had <a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/media-release/3-million-in-damages-to-small-businesses">been treated unconscionably</a>. </p>
<p>Franchisors have access to system-wide evidence to use to mount their cases whereas franchisees have great difficulty accessing data like the cost of sales of other franchisees. This data would help them discover whether they had been singled out for attention or whether all franchisees in the system were in the same boat. Of course, franchise agreements may have also expired by the time judgements are handed down. </p>
<p>The Franchising Code entrenches rights into all franchise agreements, such as the right to have a mediator appointed to resolve franchise disputes. Although mediation is quick and effective, it has flaws. </p>
<p>There is no public information available about concluded mediations, whereas enforceable undertakings that franchisors reach with regulators, and court decisions are on the public record.</p>
<p>Parties to mediation parties sign confidentiality agreements. So, if a potential franchisee wants to know about the potential pitfalls of the system no one involved can talk about any disputes. </p>
<p>The Australian Consumer and Competition Commission (ACCC) and the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) are responsible for regulating different aspects of franchises. The ACCC administers Australian Consumer Law and the Franchising Code, whereas ASIC administers the Corporations Act. </p>
<p>Most franchisors and franchisees are corporations. When a franchisor <a href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/AdelLawRw/2013/17.pdf">fails</a> the overlap between the regulators is murky. For example the Code applies to administrators and this binds them to mediate with franchisees, but administrators’ duties under the Corporations Act trump the Code. Here, the law fails franchisees.</p>
<h2>A wish list to restore confidence in franchising</h2>
<p>Franchise disclosure documents should contain an organisation chart with the franchisor’s entire network named so franchisees could better conduct their due diligence. </p>
<p>Franchisees could also unionise to strengthen their position in collectively bargaining as a sector of potentially <a href="https://www.franchise.edu.au/home/research/franchise-australia/2016-survey-shows-franchising-on-the-rise-in-australia">79,000 members</a>. This would put them in a strong bargaining position against the 1200 or so franchisors operating in Australia.</p>
<p>The professions could lift their game to help franchisees access competent advisers. Many of Australia’s state and territory law societies have accreditation programs for specialists to become accredited in a field of law. It could help franchisees’ confidence in their advisers if there was specialist accreditation for franchise lawyers and financial advisers.</p>
<p>One of the regulators should set up a public database of franchisors to enable franchisees and their advisers to compare offerings, without having to pay a deposit and enter a selection process before they really know what alternatives are available. There are already databases in the United States in California, Minnesota and Wisconsin funded by government. Australia could follow this lead and keep a database up to date with each franchisors disclosure document and standard form of franchise agreement. </p>
<p>Franchisees should also be given a right to sell their business back to the franchisor at a fair price if the franchisor sells to a venture capitalist or lists on a stock market. Only when all these changes are working together can we expect to see a proper end to rotten behaviour in some franchises.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88954/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jenny Buchan receives funding from CPA Australia and Chartered Accountants ANZ. She is a member of the Small Business and Franchising Consultative Committee of the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, ARITA and the Law Society of NSW. </span></em></p>There are some hallmark problems within franchising in Australia and internationally and not all are within the franchisor's or franchisees' control to fix.Jenny Buchan, Professor, Business School, UNSWLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/826842017-12-13T01:38:03Z2017-12-13T01:38:03ZSexting: technology is changing what young people share online<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196246/original/file-20171124-21805-1yjg4ev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">For many children and young people, engaging with explicit material is not uncommon.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The revelation that New Zealand children as young as six or seven are <a href="http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&amp;objectid=11899811">posting sexually explicit images</a> of themselves online may come as a shock to many, especially parents. The reality is that for many teenagers today, engaging with explicit material is not uncommon. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/current%20series/tandi/501-520/tandi508.html">Research</a> conducted in Australia in 2015 found that 49% of a sample of 2,243 young people aged between 13 and 18 said they had sent a “sext”, a sexual picture or video of themselves, to another individual. More than two-thirds of the respondents had received sexual material. </p>
<h2>Media framing of teen sexting as scandal</h2>
<p>In New Zealand, <a href="https://www.tvnz.co.nz/one-news/new-zealand/new-research-reveals-nearly-one-in-five-kiwi-teens-asked-send-nude-pictures">sexting among teenagers</a> is becoming a growing issue. The evolution of technology has brought a change in how youth communicate with each other and how much they share. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="http://theconversation.com/how-sexting-is-creating-a-safe-space-for-curious-millennials-56453">How sexting is creating a safe space for curious millennials_</a></em></p>
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<p><a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2271378">Research</a> shows that almost one in every two teens sext but that few are harmed by the behaviour. In the media, however, we can see how language and phrasing can shape readers’ perceptions of teen sexting. </p>
<p>This is reflective of the wider attitudes and opinions around teens, technology and sex. This framing can be limiting as it denies scope for the formation of a critical discussion around sexting. </p>
<p>The framing of sexting has a particularly <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17482798.2011.587147">gendered dimension</a>, which tends to focus on girls as the protagonist and boys as passive recipients. This assumption is problematic, as the evidence is <a href="https://cyberbullying.org/school-climate-2-0-preventing-cyberbullying-and-sexting-one-classroom-at-a-time">inconclusive</a>. </p>
<h2>Rape culture and sexting</h2>
<p>Generally, there is little evidence to suggest girls send more sexts than boys. However, by creating the narrative, mainstream media are able to play into the wider moral panic about teenage girls and sexualisation. </p>
<p>According to the sexualisation perspective, girls who sext are victims of a hyper-sexualised popular culture and in <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1741659011429868">need of protection</a>. However, the problem with this approach is that it fails to take into account female autonomy and the possibility that sexting may be part of <a href="https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/catalog/48dtm4ka9780252038983.html">normal sexual expression</a>.</p>
<p>For boys, sexting is generally framed around the legal consequences. For example, overseas headlines frequently refer to boys receiving sexts and then being <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/david-emm/sexting_b_10713694.html">charged under child pornography laws</a>. However, in cases where boys send sexts, they are framed as “boys being boys”. </p>
<p>For example, early in 2017 the New Zealand soap opera <a href="https://www.tvnz.co.nz/shows/shortland-street">Shortland Street</a> had an episode in which a teenage boy, Harry, sends an intimate picture to his girlfriend. His dad discovers the picture and the episode ends with the <a href="http://www.nzherald.co.nz/entertainment/news/article.cfm?c_id=1501119&amp;objectid=11803464">now-infamous line</a>: “Please, tell me that is not your penis.” </p>
<p>Maxine Fleming, a producer on the show, said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>When I read the script, I was like, that is the cliffhanger of the year for me. It is a comedy story, but like all good comedy there’s a truth at the core of it, and it is social commentary, that story. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>While media commentary on the show did offer advice for how to keep teens safe online, it is difficult to imagine a sexting story where a female protagonist is portrayed in such a lighthearted way. </p>
<h2>Challenging the dominant narrative</h2>
<p>Several outlets have challenged society’s framing of sexting as inherently negative.</p>
<p>In 2015, comedian John Oliver ran a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PuNIwYsz7PI">story on online harassment</a>, which included “revenge porn”, on his HBO show Last Week Tonight. While the segment predominantly focuses on women whose images were sent without consent, Oliver highlights how our framing of sexting often fails to take into account the wider context of victim blaming and rape culture. </p>
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<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="http://theconversation.com/no-the-internet-is-not-actually-stealing-kids-innocence-80543">No, the internet is not actually stealing kids’ innocence</a></em></p>
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<p>It should also be noted that teenagers are challenging commonly held assumptions on sexting. For example, Teen Vogue’s UnSlut has dedicated several columns to sexting and distinguishes between <a href="https://www.teenvogue.com/story/sexting-not-a-health-risk">consensual and non-consensual forms of the behaviour</a>. The column also challenges society’s <a href="https://www.teenvogue.com/story/unslut-slut-shaming-parents-talk-to-them">expectations of teenage girls</a>. </p>
<p>In New Zealand, the website Em, which aims to help teenage girls combat sexual assault, also <a href="http://www.dearem.nz/empathise-1/2017/episode-1-sxt-pics-and-betrayal">challenges the dominant narratives</a> on sexting. Referring to the non-consensual sharing of images, the website maintains that the fault does not lie with the creator but rather the distributor.</p>
<h2>Sext education</h2>
<p>By creating space for these narratives and listening to teens it may be possible to create a new, more nuanced framework through which to view sexting. What we do know is that young people rarely get to talk about what they think about “sexy” media – the common message is that sexualised media is always harmful and dangerous for young people. </p>
<p>It is important that we, as adults, engage with this debate. We must continue to have open and honest conversations with our young people, no matter how tricky, and to support them. </p>
<p>It is abundantly clear that there is a place for pornography, sexting and similar in the New Zealand curriculum. Rather than be shocked, this revelation should be a wake-up call to all of us to listen to, inform and support our young people.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/82684/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>For many children and young people, engaging with explicit material is not uncommon – and not necessarily harmful.Claire Meehan, Lecturer in Criminology, University of AucklandEmma Wicks, Research Assistant to Dr Claire Meehan on teenagers and sexting, Victoria University of WellingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/890742017-12-13T01:14:50Z2017-12-13T01:14:50ZReporting a few cases of negative side effects from long-acting contraceptives is alarmist and damaging<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198899/original/file-20171213-31725-8bez8o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An unbalanced report failed to mention the experience of most women who use long acting reversible contraceptives. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last night ABC’s 7.30 featured a <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-12-12/spotlight-on-mirena-and-implanon-contraceptive-devices/9247960">report on long-acting reversible contraception</a> (LARC) that was unbalanced and alarmist. This could have a long-lasting detrimental impact on women’s reproductive health in Australia.</p>
<p>The segment focused on the contraceptive implant (Implanon NXT) and the intrauterine system (Mirena) and presented two cases of women who experienced adverse side effects from use of these methods. </p>
<p>The report completely failed to present the experience of the majority of women who are happy with these devices and reap many benefits. These include reduced period bleeding and pain, as well as reliable protection from unintended pregnancy.</p>
<p>In studies where women are followed up a year after commencing one of these methods, over 80% of women continue to use them. This reflects <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21508749">high levels</a> of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20541171">satisfaction</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/iuds-safe-effective-but-myths-live-on-10852">IUDs safe, effective but myths live on</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>The figures of adverse events quoted by the ABC demonstrate how uncommon any major complications are - affecting less than one in a thousand women. Large <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20541171">patient trials</a> have <a href="http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1110855">consistently found</a> these devices to be extremely safe and highly effective at preventing pregnancy.</p>
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<p>All consultations about contraception involve discussing the risks and benefits of different methods. Women should be able to make a fully informed decision that best suits their needs.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2910826/">large study in the US</a> (the CHOICE study) involving more than 7,000 women showed, when provided with evidence-based information, more than two-thirds of women chose a LARC method with high levels of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21508749">continuation</a> and <a href="http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1110855">satisfaction</a>. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18372257">body of evidence</a> in favour of the use of long-acting contraceptive methods is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21656970">so strong</a> the World Health Organisation supports strategies to <a href="https://www.nap.edu/read/12648/chapter/1">increase their uptake</a>. Increasing access to LARC methods is a health priority of governments in the US and UK.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/few-australian-women-use-long-acting-contraceptives-despite-their-advantages-44896">Few Australian women use long-acting contraceptives, despite their advantages</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>The reason for this widespread support for LARC methods comes from reports finding <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16772190">half of unintended pregnancies</a> result from use of contraceptive methods that require daily adherence such as pills and condoms. No interventions have been found to improve regularity or consistency of use of these methods, nor to lower unintended pregnancies.</p>
<p><blockquote class="twitter-tweet" lang="en">
<a href="https://twitter.com/ranzcog/status/940720253973118977"></a>
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<script async src="//platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script></p>
<p>Because of high fertility and less reliable adherence to contraceptive methods, <a href="https://www.guttmacher.org/journals/psrh/2001/11/differences-teenage-pregnancy-rates-among-five-developed-countries-roles">adolescents and young women</a> may be particularly susceptible to unintended pregnancy. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more – <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-are-the-options-for-birth-control-18613">Explainer: what are the options for birth control?</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>The <a href="http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1110855">CHOICE study in the US</a> reported that among all 14-45 year-old women, 67% chose to use an implant or an intrauterine device. When followed up for three years their risk of unintended pregnancy was 20 times lower compared with women who had chosen to use a contraceptive pill, patch or ring, which require taking or changing regularly.</p>
<p>This reporting by the ABC is irresponsible and detrimental to women’s health. Dedicated health professionals strive to improve the reproductive health outcomes of women in Australia and beyond, and unbalanced reporting could negatively affect progress in this area.</p>
<p>Unintended pregnancies have an enormous impact on the economic, social, psychological and physical aspects of women’s lives. International consensus supports the safety and efficacy of LARC as the most effective public health strategy to address this.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89074/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kirsten Black was part of a team that received funding from the National Health and Medical Council to conduct a randomised trial of LARC uptake in Australian women.</span></em></p>Long-acting reversible contraceptives are more reliable than other methods of contraception and most women are happy with them.Kirsten Black, Associate Professor & Joint Head of Discipline Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Neonatology, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/881322017-12-12T19:15:52Z2017-12-12T19:15:52ZNAPLAN 2017: results have largely flat-lined, and patterns of inequality continue<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198670/original/file-20171212-9396-1ho4xkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">NAPLAN results should also be considered in relation to other standardised assessments, which do not always tell the same story.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Today’s release of the <a href="http://www.nap.edu.au/results-and-reports/national-reports">2017 NAPLAN National Report</a> confirms <a href="https://theconversation.com/naplan-is-ten-years-old-so-how-is-the-nation-faring-81565">preliminary findings</a> released in August and offers deeper insights into achievement trends since the <a href="http://www.nap.edu.au/naplan">assessment program</a> began a decade ago.</p>
<p>The results paint an overall portrait of plateauing student achievement in literacy and numeracy, mixed with pockets of improvement and persistent inequalities between young people from different backgrounds.</p>
<h2>High level trends over the past decade</h2>
<p>NAPLAN takes place annually. It assesses Australian school students in years three, five, seven and nine across four domains: reading, writing, language conventions (spelling, and grammar and punctuation), and numeracy.</p>
<p>Nationally, NAPLAN results have flat-lined in most areas since testing was first conducted in 2008. There are no statistically significant differences in achievement across the majority of domains and year levels.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/naplan-is-ten-years-old-so-how-is-the-nation-faring-81565">NAPLAN is ten years old – so how is the nation faring?</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Improvements can be seen in a limited number of domains and year levels. There are statistically significant increases in spelling (years three and five), reading (years three and five), numeracy (year five), and grammar and punctuation (year three). </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198480/original/file-20171211-27719-1fb2tmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198480/original/file-20171211-27719-1fb2tmf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">National numeracy trends 2008-2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ACARA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Year seven writing is the only area to show a statistically significant decline. It remains <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-08-02/naplan-results-show-small-change-in-school-students-performance/8764994">a major area of concern</a>.</p>
<p>State and territory comparisons reveal good news for Queensland and Western Australia. Both show improvements across a number of domains and year levels. </p>
<p>New South Wales, Victoria and the Australian Capital Territory show high achievement, but results have plateaued. </p>
<p>The Northern Territory continues to lag significantly behind the rest of the nation across all domains and year levels.</p>
<p>The vast majority of young people meet the <a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/results-and-reports/how-to-interpret/standards">National Minimum Standards (NMS)</a>. NMS provide a measure of how many students are performing above or below the minimum expected level for their age across the domains.</p>
<p>NMS percentages are over 90% for the majority of domains and year levels. But NMS percentages vary widely. For example, only 55.7% of students in the Northern Territory meet the NMS for year seven writing, compared to 90.8% in Victoria.</p>
<h2>Background affects achievement</h2>
<p>This year’s results show clear patterns of achievement between young people from different backgrounds. In many cases, these differences reflect broader inequalities in Australian society. </p>
<p>Notable trends include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>gender differences</strong> are persistent. Female students perform significantly better than male students in writing, and grammar and punctuation across all year levels. For example, 88.1% of female students meet the NMS for year nine writing, compared to 75.4% of male students</p></li>
<li><p>students with a <strong>language background other than English</strong> (LBOTE) performed significantly better in spelling than non-LBOTE students across all year levels. LBOTE students have also shown gains since 2008 in reading (years three and five), grammar and punctuation (years three and seven), spelling (years three and five) and numeracy (year five)</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198514/original/file-20171211-27674-1fss2r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198514/original/file-20171211-27674-1fss2r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Year 5 spelling: students with a <strong>language background other than English</strong> (LBOTE) compared to non-LBOTE students.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ACARA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<ul>
<li><strong>Indigenous students</strong> have shown statistically significant gains since 2008 in reading (years three and five), spelling (years three and five), grammar and punctuation (years three and seven) and numeracy (years five and nine). But Indigenous students still trail significantly behind non-Indigenous students across all domains and years levels</li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198478/original/file-20171211-27674-v5oybp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198478/original/file-20171211-27674-v5oybp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Year 5 reading: achievement differences between Indigenous and non-Indigenous students.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ACARA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>parental education</strong> is a key factor determining student achievement. For example, in year three grammar and punctuation, the mean scale score for a young person whose parents have a Bachelor degree or above is 479.7, compared to 369.6 for students whose parents have a Year 11 equivalent or below. Similar patterns are reflected across all domains and year levels</p></li>
<li><p><strong>geographical location</strong> also has a major bearing on student achievement. For example, in year three grammar and punctuation, the mean scale score for young people in major cities was 450, compared to 284.6 for young people from very remote and 411.5 for outer regional locations.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>As always, tread cautiously with data</h2>
<p>NAPLAN is one useful measure of student achievement in Australian schooling. </p>
<p>When interpreted carefully, it can help policy makers, researchers, school leaders, teachers, students and parents better understand and debate literacy and numeracy achievements. It also serves to highlight pockets of underachievement and disadvantage, and can play an important role informing policy interventions and investments. </p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/evidence-based-education-needs-standardised-assessment-87937">Evidence-based education needs standardised assessment</a></em></strong></p>
<hr>
<p>But NAPLAN is not an oracle and <a href="https://theconversation.com/naplan-has-done-little-to-improve-student-outcomes-86049">can only tell us so much</a>. So we should treat these results carefully. </p>
<p>To get a more accurate picture of achievement trends, we need to take a number of indicators into consideration. This should go beyond the basics of literacy and numeracy, including achievements in ATAR subjects, year 12 attainment rates, and more.</p>
<p>NAPLAN results should also be considered in relation to other standardised assessments, which do not always tell the same story. </p>
<p>For example, the latest <a href="https://www.acer.org/pirls">Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS)</a> suggest reading achievement among Australian children has <a href="https://theconversation.com/international-study-shows-many-australian-children-are-still-struggling-with-reading-88646">improved significantly</a>, whereas the OECD’s <a href="http://www.oecd.org/pisa/">Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)</a> shows steadily declining Australian results in all areas, including reading.</p>
<p>It’s also important to analyse school and student level NAPLAN data, which will be released in March 2018. It will no doubt lead to another round of debates about the role of NAPLAN in our schools.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88132/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Glenn C. Savage receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>The results are in, and student achievement on NAPLAN has plateaued in literacy and numeracy, with some areas of improvement.Glenn C. Savage, Senior Lecturer in Education Policy and Sociology of Education, and ARC DECRA Fellow (2016-19), University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/881312017-12-12T19:15:45Z2017-12-12T19:15:45ZSchools are not adequately preparing young Australians to participate in our democracy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198656/original/file-20171211-9386-g1ceyf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">As young Australians approach voting age they need simple, clear and practical instructions about the mechanics of how government works and how to vote. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia’s youth are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2016/aug/12/young-people-are-more-politically-engaged-but-health-is-deteriorating-index">interested in politics</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/young-australians-are-engaged-in-political-issues-but-unsure-how-democracy-works-84360">are passionate about issues</a> but, unless we take note of the latest report into civics and citizenship education, their capacity to participate in democracy and shape society in future may be limited.</p>
<p>Since 2004, the National Assessment Program – Civics and Citizenship (<a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/nap-sample-assessments/civics-and-citizenship">NAP-CC</a>) has been administered every three years to a national sample of year six and ten students. It’s used to measure students’ level of knowledge about subjects including Australian government, judiciary and democratic processes, and explores their attitudes towards civic participation. </p>
<p>The 2016 NAP-CC report has just been released and the results show some concerning, but familiar, trends.</p>
<p>As with previous assessments, the percentage of Australian students achieving the proficient standard remains low. This is a point on a scale that represents what has been deemed as a challenging but reasonable expectation of student achievement for their year level. </p>
<p>The report shows 55% of year 6 students achieved at or above the standard. </p>
<p>More problematic is the fact the rate of year 10 students attaining this standard was just 38%. This is the lowest result on record.</p>
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<hr>
<h2>Civics and citizenship is a government priority</h2>
<p>Enhancing young people’s understanding of civics and citizenship has been a priority for <a href="http://www.curriculum.edu.au/verve/_resources/National_Declaration_on_the_Educational_Goals_for_Young_Australians.pdf">successive Australian governments</a>. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://v7-5.australiancurriculum.edu.au/humanities-and-social-sciences/civics-and-citizenship/curriculum/f-10?layout=3#page=3">Australian Curriculum: Civics and Citizenship</a> was developed in 2012/2013 to provide educators with tools to teach students about democracy and civic participation. This curriculum is delivered to students from Year 3 to Year 10. It’s based on the principle that informed and committed citizens will advance a robust democracy and schools play a vital role in preparing young people for the responsibilities of adult citizenship. </p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/national-curriculum-review-experts-respond-26913">National curriculum review: experts respond</a></em></strong></p>
<hr>
<p>This latest report into civics and citizenship education is the first opportunity for educators to see how students are performing under the new curriculum, and the results are disappointing. It shows by Year 10, Australian school students don’t possess the fundamentals deemed necessary to become active, informed citizens. </p>
<p>So what else should be done to help prepare our young people to participate in the democratic process?</p>
<h2>What do young people think?</h2>
<p>We have been undertaking research with recent school leavers aged 18 and 19 about their preparedness to participate in the Australian political process.</p>
<p>Many have told us they’re interested in political issues, but are uncertain about how the system works. </p>
<p>They also believe more could’ve been done to address this knowledge deficit while they were in school.</p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/young-australians-are-engaged-in-political-issues-but-unsure-how-democracy-works-84360">Young Australians are engaged in political issues, but unsure how democracy works</a></em></strong></p>
<hr>
<p>These high school graduates reported, while they could recall the subject being covered when they were in primary and early secondary school, they did not remember what had been taught. </p>
<p>The young people we spoke to suggested civics and citizenship education be extended through to Year 12. Interestingly, they wanted it to be viewed more as a life skill (similar to drug and alcohol education, for example) and not an academic subject. </p>
<p>They said young people need support when they’re approaching voting age and it would be useful for schools to assist with enrolment and provide basic information about the system of voting. </p>
<p>As one 18-year-old put it:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The last time that my high school spoke about politics I was in Year 9. I was 14 years old. I’m not voting yet, it’s not relevant to me, I’m not even 16. I can’t even go to the doctors by myself. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>A simple and clear explanation in late high school would help alleviate the feelings of uncertainty first-time voters can experience when they go to cast a vote at the ballot box.</p>
<p>As another 18-year-old said about her peers:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>So many of my friends said to me, “which box do I tick?” and, “what do you mean I have to go above the line and below the line?”. Basic definitions and terminology is really important.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Where to from here?</h2>
<p>The 2016 National Assessment Program – Civics and Citizenship report tells us by Year 10, a majority of school students have little knowledge about Australian civics and democracy. This is concerning, especially as many students don’t encounter the topic later in high school, yet they will be required to vote when they turn 18.</p>
<p>We need to ensure all young people have the basic skills required to engage in Australia’s political process. As young Australians approach voting age they need simple, clear and practical instructions about the mechanics of how government works and how to vote. </p>
<p>School is the best place to teach this and it should be covered in the senior years. Doing so would help more young people become confident and empowered participants in Australia’s democracy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88131/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zlatko Skrbis receives funding from The Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jacqueline Laughland-Booy and Zareh Ghazarian do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Results from the latest report into civics and citizenship education show by the time students hit year ten, the majority of them have little knowledge about Australian civics and democracy.Zareh Ghazarian, Lecturer, School of Social Sciences, Monash UniversityJacqueline Laughland-Booy, Research Associate in Sociology, Monash UniversityZlatko Skrbis, Senior Pro Vice-Chancellor (Academic), Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/888632017-12-12T19:15:33Z2017-12-12T19:15:33ZVocational education and training sector is still missing out on government funding: report<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198706/original/file-20171212-9386-1k56xdv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The uneven approach between VET and higher education in particular reflects an ongoing failure to conceive of the two as part of a single tertiary education system.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There is a stark difference between schools, VET and higher education spending in Australia, according to our research published today.</p>
<p>The Mitchell Institute’s <a href="http://www.mitchellinstitute.org.au/reports/expenditure-on-education-and-training-in-australia-2017">2017 report</a> shows that while spending on schools and higher education continues to grow, vocational education and training (VET) expenditure is going in the opposite direction. We are spending less on VET now than we were a decade ago, in real terms.</p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/government-spending-on-education-the-winners-and-losers-70264">Government spending on education: the winners and losers</a></em></strong></p>
<hr>
<p>The chart below shows the trends in expenditure over an 11-year period to 2015-16. This analysis uses 2005-06 as the base index year. Indexing enables comparison of change over time from a common starting point, which is 100 here. So, an increase from 100 to 102 would represent a 2% increase. All expenditure values are in 2015-16 dollars, converted to real terms using a GDP deflator.</p>
<hr>
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<hr>
<p>This analysis was done using Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/5512.0">data</a>. While more detailed data are available for each education sector through different collections, the ABS applies the same method for estimating expenditure for each sector. This makes it the best means of making a comparison across schools, VET and higher education. </p>
<p>The figures include all expenditure by government entities – meaning by governments (to both public and private education providers) and also by public schools, TAFEs and universities. This gives us an approximate picture of where the dollars are flowing, and how this is changing over time. </p>
<p>What’s important here is the increasing disparity in expenditure growth between the sectors, particularly between VET and higher education. </p>
<h2>VET missing out</h2>
<p>This comparison confirms <a href="http://www.bca.com.au/media/jennifer-westacott-national-press-club">widespread concerns</a> about VET going backwards. Expenditure in 2015-16 was 4.7% below the level in 2005-06.</p>
<p>This tells a worrying story about quality vocational education and training not being a priority for governments. </p>
<p>Key growth employment areas like aged care, early childhood education and hospitality <a href="http://lmip.gov.au/default.aspx?LMIP/EmploymentProjections">rely on vocational training</a> for skilled workers. Building up vocationally qualified workers in the growing service and caring industries will be essential, particularly as employment in the manufacturing sector declines. </p>
<h2>Universities going from strength to strength</h2>
<p>Higher education has followed a very different path. Spending has grown by 53% over the 11 years from 2005-06.</p>
<p>These figures include spending on more than just teaching and learning and universities have <a href="http://www.teqsa.gov.au/sites/default/files/key-financial-metrics-2017.pdf">other significant sources of revenue</a>, including international students.</p>
<p>Even so, it is clear that governments, and Australians collectively, are prioritising spending on university education over vocational training. </p>
<h2>Early years catching up</h2>
<p>This is the second time preschool has been included in this overview of education expenditure. </p>
<p>The chart below compares growth in expenditure on preschool, alongside the other education sectors over the same 11-year period. </p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="4eq95" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/4eq95/5/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<p>Although coming off a much lower base, preschool spending grew rapidly following the <a href="http://www.federalfinancialrelations.gov.au/content/npa/education/other/past/early_childhood_education_NP_2009.pdf">National Partnership Agreement on Universal Access to Early Childhood Education</a> in 2009. This growth reflects a growing awareness of the importance of the early years among governments. </p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/early-learning-report-card-australia-is-improving-rapidly-but-theres-more-work-to-do-83706">Early learning report card: Australia is improving rapidly, but there’s more work to do</a></em></strong></p>
<hr>
<h2>What this all means</h2>
<p>This comparison shows where we are focusing our education resources as a nation. </p>
<p>These diverging patterns of expenditure across the education sectors reflect our longstanding fragmented approach to policy and funding, particularly at the tertiary level. </p>
<p>Under current policy settings, it is not hard to imagine the already considerable discrepancy between VET expenditure and higher education and school expenditure continuing to grow. </p>
<p>This report, the fourth in <a href="http://www.mitchellinstitute.org.au/reports/">the series</a>, should prompt government to consider a more strategic approach to distributing resources across the education sector.</p>
<p>The uneven approach between VET and higher education in particular reflects an ongoing failure to conceive of the two as part of a <a href="http://www.mitchellinstitute.org.au/reports/financing-tertiary-education-in-australia-the-reform-imperative-and-rethinking-student-entitlements/">single tertiary education system</a>. </p>
<p>This blindspot continues to act as a barrier to the creation of the responsive, integrated education and training system <a href="http://www.bca.com.au/publications/future-proof-protecting-australians-through-education-and-skills">many are arguing</a> is needed to sustain economic growth in a changing world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88863/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New analysis of education expenditure shows spending on the vocational education and training sector has declined while other sectors have experienced growth.Sarah Pilcher, Policy Fellow, Mitchell Institute, Victoria UniversityKate Torii, Policy Analyst, Mitchell Institute, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/884772017-12-12T19:15:10Z2017-12-12T19:15:10ZThe growing skills gap between jobs in Australian cities and the regions<p>Over the past decade, the growth in high-skilled jobs has largely been confined to Australia’s biggest cities. Meanwhile, in rural and regional Australia lower-skilled jobs have been growing fastest. </p>
<p>This skills gap is increasing regional disparities in income and employment opportunities, despite the promises of technology and infrastructure as solutions to the tyranny of remoteness.</p>
<p>Data from the 2016 census allow us to see how the skills of the Australian workforce have changed over the past decade. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) classifies Australian occupations into skill groups based on the amount of training and experience required to do the job. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Previousproducts/C4BECE1704987586CA257089001A9181">High-skilled</a> jobs (such as teachers, accountants and scientists) generally require a bachelor’s degree as a minimum. This group accounts for 31.6% of the Australian workforce and has enjoyed the fastest growth rate since 2006, at 8.3%. </p>
<p>However, when we map employment growth over the past decade we see a stark difference between cities and regional areas. Growth in high-skilled jobs has exceeded the national average in the Northern Territory and Queensland (the areas in blue). In parts of Queensland, Victoria and New South Wales the growth in high-skilled jobs is in line with the national average (areas coloured white). By far the largest areas are where growth in high-skilled jobs is below the average (areas coloured red). </p>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-142" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/142/2e4d786115b556dff920c97a6521c9b039e2e2d2/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Virtually all the areas with above average growth in high-skilled jobs are found in the biggest cities. The smaller cities of Adelaide and Canberra hover around the average in terms of growth in high-skilled jobs, while Hobart and Darwin are below average. The sparsely populated Queensland and Northern Territory outback are the only regional areas that have recorded above-average growth in high-skilled jobs. </p>
<p>In contrast with the rest of Australia, workers in regional communities are increasingly moving into lower-skilled occupations. Lower-skilled jobs require vocational qualifications (for example a TAFE certificate), and they include occupations such as aged carers, baristas, drivers and sales assistants.</p>
<p>The growth rates of lower-skilled jobs are above the national average in regional areas and below the average in the centre of the big cities. </p>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-145" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/145/b1f642af426a4c53d2717213c0f2bd53c4a8a4ac/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.4225/08/58557df808f71">Our research</a> finds that jobs, particularly the highly skilled, white-collar kind, are becoming increasingly collaborative. Complex tasks and rapidly changing work environments have increased the need for workers who can collaborate with others to solve problems and who are <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/carolkinseygoman/2017/10/12/why-ibm-brought-remote-workers-back-to-the-office-and-why-your-company-might-be-next/#38dc08b616da">open to continuous learning</a>. </p>
<p>Roles for highly skilled workers, like big data analysts and social media marketing consultants, are becoming more specialised. This specialisation means more collaboration with other specialists and greater scope to service market niches.</p>
<p>The productive advantages of cities are self-reinforcing. Skilled workers benefit from the opportunity to learn from and add value with other skilled workers. The coordination costs of this collaborative work are reduced when team members are co-located. </p>
<p>Employers also benefit from proximity to similar firms because there is a larger pool of skilled candidates for new jobs and better access to potential business partners. All these advantages foster further specialisation and productivity gains, with the result that workers and business continue to concentrate around large city hubs. </p>
<p>The growing skills divide between urban and rural Australia reflects a paradox of the digital economy. While digital technology represents a channel for bridging geographic distance, highly skilled workers are increasingly crowding into cities. </p>
<p>The latest <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/censushome.nsf/home/2016">census data</a> shows no change in the rate of working from home, despite much-improved digital infrastructure in some areas. In time this may change, perhaps as video conferencing technology improves (or we get better at using it). However, while better technology might allow regional workers to interact with colleagues and clients in cities, it will also make it easier for city-based professionals to service regional areas.</p>
<h2>Bridging the city/country gap</h2>
<p>Employment is still growing in regional Australia. But the fact that cities make highly skilled workers more productive means the gap in skilled employment is likely to continue to widen. </p>
<p>Attempts to swim against this tide by moving skilled jobs to the country will be expensive. Currently, <a href="http://www.health.gov.au/internet/publications/publishing.nsf/Content/work-review-australian-government-health-workforce-programs-toc%7Echapter-4-addressing-health-workforce-shortages-regional-rural-remote-australia%7Echapter-4-rural-recruitment-retention-strategies">subsidies</a> are needed to attract and retain highly skilled health professionals to regional communities. Despite this, our analysis of the latest census data shows that the skills gap between regions and cities is still growing.</p>
<p>So these subsidies are not translating into sustainable, collaborative communities of high-skilled regional workers. Instead, regions need to focus on their strengths, and foster the entrepreneurship that can create new sources of gainful employment.</p>
<p>The government’s move towards more individualised funding arrangements in the <a href="https://www.myagedcare.gov.au/help-home/home-care-packages/consumer-directed-care-cdc">aged care</a> and <a href="https://www.ndis.gov.au/index.html">disability care</a> sectors will increasingly become a resilient source of income for workers and businesses in regional communities. Demand for aged care services is expected to increase dramatically in the coming decades, such that <a href="http://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/aged-care/report/aged-care-volume1.pdf">by 2050 some 3.5 million Australians will require aged care</a>. Adding to this, regional communities are experiencing <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/151AA7593B394934CA2573210018DA4A?Opendocument">population ageing</a> at a faster rate than the large capital cities. </p>
<p>These are important jobs which should be recognised as such. There will be opportunities for regional businesses to provide the technology and services (ranging from personalised transport to food services) which allow older people and Australians with disability to remain active and healthy. </p>
<p>Efforts to support regional economic development need to focus on <a href="https://jobsqueensland.qld.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/growing_opportunities_research_report.pdf">preparing regional communities to take advantage of future opportunities</a>. This will require investment in higher education and regional entrepreneurship.</p>
<p>Currently people from the regions who aspire to professional careers typically move to the city to study. In many cases they do not return. Here, technology may be part of the solution. Combining specialised online educational resources with good local support teachers could enable students to access a much wider range of courses from <a href="https://research.csiro.au/lifelong/vet-era-equipping-australias-workforce-future-digital-economy/">regional areas</a>. </p>
<p>Regional communities will also need entrepreneurs to develop the future industries and micro-businesses which improve the diversity and resilience of the local economy. However, start-ups and existing businesses are more likely to survive and scale-up when there is a <a href="http://www.iicie.com/uploads/White-Paper/1463601177Cooney_entrepreneurship_skills_HGF.pdf">supportive entrepreneurship ecosystem</a>, including access to relevant skills development opportunities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88477/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Growth in high-skilled jobs is highest in Australian cities and for the country its low-skilled jobs.Todd Sanderson, Research Scientist in Digital Economics, CSIROAndrew Reeson, Economist, Data61, CSIROClaire Mason, Data61 Senior Social Scientist, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/889502017-12-12T19:14:20Z2017-12-12T19:14:20ZThe government is miscounting greenhouse emissions reductions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198729/original/file-20171212-9410-trz6re.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some projects shouldn&#39;t be receiving funding from the government. Yet, lack of proper monitoring has caused huge amounts of wasted money.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.goodfreephotos.com/australia/western-australia/perth/perth-landfill-australia.jpg.php">www.goodfreephotos.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Emissions Reduction Fund (ERF), established in 2014 with funding of A$2.55 billion, is mostly spent. With just A$200 million left to be allocated, the Climate Change Authority this week released a <a href="http://climatechangeauthority.gov.au/review-emissions-reduction-fund">report on the fund’s progress</a> that can be best described as magnanimous. </p>
<p>The federal government claims that 189 million tonnes of emissions have been diverted or prevented from entering the atmosphere under the scheme. But research I have done with a co-author from Melbourne Law School has found serious issues, from giving unnecessary funds, to counting decade-old projects as new emissions “reductions”. </p>
<p>While the Authority <a href="http://climatechangeauthority.gov.au/sites/prod.climatechangeauthority.gov.au/files/files/CFI%202017%20December/ERF%20Review%20Report%20List%20of%20Recommendations.pdf">made 26 recommendations</a> for improvement, each is relatively low-impact. Most of the recommendations go towards increasing the fund’s transparency or removing barriers to participation. While these are laudable aims, there are deeper problems. </p>
<h2>How should the fund work?</h2>
<p>At its most basic, the ERF gives private companies and individuals a cash incentive to avoid or sequester greenhouse gas emissions. These businesses or people compete for funding by putting their projects forward at <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-does-todays-direct-action-reverse-auction-work-40152">reverse auctions</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-does-todays-direct-action-reverse-auction-work-40152">How does today’s Direct Action reverse auction work?</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>The fund is unique in Australia’s climate policy, in that the legislation that supports it has strong bipartisan support. Even if a change of federal government leads to a new policy for curbing emissions, it’s very likely that the basic ERF structure will be carried forward.</p>
<p>But despite the fund’s importance, there has been surprisingly little detailed academic analysis of it to date. In an effort to redress this, a colleague and I have a <a href="https://www.mq.edu.au/about/about-the-university/faculties-and-departments/faculty-of-arts/departments-and-centres/macquarie-law-school/our-research">paper forthcoming</a> that examines the underlying logic and effect of the fund. The paper focuses specifically on the path into the ERF for landfill operators, although the conclusions stretch further than just those projects. </p>
<p>Our conclusions are simple. With A$2.55 billion, the fund has considerable potential to crop the low-hanging fruit of Australia’s emissions profile. However, there are serious flaws in how some projects are assessed for funding.</p>
<p>Where support is granted to projects that would proceed without it, there is no benefit to the government’s intervention. Rather than lopping the low-hanging fruit, we are instead throwing money at the fruit that is already sitting in a bowl on the kitchen bench.</p>
<h2>How to avoid redundancy</h2>
<p>In the language of offsetting schemes, assessing a project to see if it needs extra funding to be commercially viable is known as an “additionality” test. The legislation that underpins the ERF contains <a href="http://www7.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ccfia2011355/s27.html">three such tests</a>, which are actually very strong:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>Newness</strong>: is a project new? Has work on it already begun? If it has, the project is ineligible, because it is considered already commercially viable. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Existing regulations</strong>: is a particular project or emissions abatement already required by law? If so, the project is ineligible for ERF funding. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Other government funding</strong>: does a project have access to other sources of government funding? If it does, the proponent should use those funds instead.</p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-biggest-emitters-opt-to-wait-and-see-over-emissions-reduction-fund-77160">Australia’s biggest emitters opt to ‘wait and see’ over Emissions Reduction Fund</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>If these three tests were mandated for all projects submitted to the ERF, it would be filled with projects that truly deliver new environmental benefit. But they’re not – and it isn’t.</p>
<p>There’s a simple reason why these tests aren’t used in all cases: there are 34 different ways of abating emissions recognised by the ERF (technically referred to as “methodologies”), from the destruction of methane from piggeries using engineered biodigesters, to avoiding deforestation.</p>
<p>Because these activities are so diverse, the legislation that underpins the ERF allows the Department of Environment and Energy to create methodology-specific tests instead, in consultation with industry stakeholders. They are then subject to ministerial approval.</p>
<p>In most cases, the replacements merely finesse the tests to make them more appropriate to the specific circumstances. For example, the existence of a <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/conservation/covenants">conservation covenant</a> (basically a promise to protect land) is not an obstacle to participation under the avoided deforestation methodology, despite these covenants being legally binding on present and future users of the land.</p>
<h2>The case of landfill gas</h2>
<p>Other instances are much less innocuous. One such area is landfill, where the gas created by decomposing rubbish can be captured and burned to create energy. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/capturing-the-true-wealth-of-australias-waste-82644">Capturing the true wealth of Australia’s waste</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>In the most egregious examples of “regulatory slippage” that either myself or my co-author have ever seen, the tests for whether landfill-related schemes should get ERF money have been completely neutered. </p>
<p>One of the largest Australian companies in this area is <a href="http://www.lms.com.au/">LMS Energy</a>. Their Rochedale <a href="https://www.energypower.com.au/case-studies/electric-power-projects/lms-generation.aspx">landfill gas project</a> should, under the tests in the Act, be thrice barred from participation. </p>
<p>First, it predates the ERF by a full decade. Second, the capture and disposal of methane from landfill sites is required by <a href="https://www.ehp.qld.gov.au/assets/documents/regulation/pr-co-landfill.pdf">Queensland’s air pollution laws</a>. Finally, it receives renewable energy certificates under the Commonwealth Renewable Energy Target, as power is often created by methane burned to drive a steam turbine. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, this project is funded by the ERF. It should be noted clearly that there is no suggestion that the project is engaged in any deception. Its operators are absolutely complying with regulations. The issue is that the regulations themselves have been watered down to a ludicrous degree.</p>
<p>Two of the three tests (no funding from other government programs and not legally required) have been replaced by an unbelievably tautological requirement that landfill gas and combustion projects fulfil the legislative definition of a landfill gas and combustion project. That is, in order to pass the tests, a landfill gas capture and combustion project must merely be a landfill gas capture and combustion project.</p>
<p>The newness requirement permits projects that were previously registered under schemes that predate the ERF, which includes most of the larger sites for the capture and combustion of landfill methane in Australia. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-much-landfill-does-australia-have-78404">Explainer: how much landfill does Australia have?</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Because this project already existed, its contributions are captured in measurements of Australia’s baseline emissions. While there’s a good argument for rewarding ecologically responsibly companies, that is not actually the point of the ERF. To state the obvious, we should not be paying to maintain the status quo, and then claim to be reducing emissions. </p>
<p>The Climate Change Authority has unfortunately not taken the opportunity to address these underlying problems, or the potential for similar issues in future legislation. </p>
<p>More immediately, we must take the government’s claim to have abated 189 million tonnes of emissions with a hefty grain of salt. The reality is that the scheme’s effect on Australia’s total emissions is considerably smaller.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88950/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aspects of this research funded by Australian Research Council Discovery Grant DP1200101485 entitled Carbon Offsets: Regulation for Success.</span></em></p>A review of the Emissions Reduction Fund has found it's performing well – but new research raises serious credibility issues.Tim Baxter, Researcher - Melbourne Law School, University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/890282017-12-12T19:12:55Z2017-12-12T19:12:55ZNew Zealand discovery of fossilised 'monster bird' bones reveals a colossal, ancient penguin<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198682/original/file-20171212-9386-3kjlfq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An artist&#39;s reconstruction of _Kumimanu biceae_, a giant ancient penguin, from fossils found in New Zealand.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reconstruction by G Mayr/Senckenberg Research Institute</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="http://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/emperor-penguin">emperor penguin</a> is an impressive bird – but it would have been relatively small in comparison with some of the giant penguins that lived in the distant past.</p>
<p>In a paper <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/doi:10.1038/s41467-017-01959-6">published today</a> we reveal an ancient giant penguin which might have been the largest to ever live.</p>
<p>We have named the new species <em>Kumimanu biceae</em>. <em>Kumimanu</em> means “monster bird” in Māori, and <em>biceae</em> honours my mother, Bice Tennyson, who fostered my interest in natural history.</p>
<h2>Jumbled bones reveal ancient giant</h2>
<p>Our team of researchers from New Zealand and Germany discovered the fossil in a boulder in Otago, in southern New Zealand. Painstaking extraction work slowly revealed that the rock contained a multitude of jumbled bones of a colossal penguin.</p>
<p>These fossilised remains of the extinct penguin help us understand the early evolution of penguins.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198683/original/file-20171212-9410-dcrgqi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The partly prepared skeleton of the giant penguin <em>Kumimanu biceae</em>. The rectangles emphasize the humerus and a bone from the shoulder girdle, which are shown separated from the original bone cluster.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">G Mayr/Senckenberg Research Institute</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Flipper, body and leg bones were preserved and all are truly huge. Based on these bones, we estimate that the bird in life would have stood 1.65m tall and weighed 100kg. In comparison, the emperor penguin is 1.1m tall and weighs 23kg. The ancient penguin would have been around the same height as an average human male, and significantly heavier.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198685/original/file-20171212-9392-16285bl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Artistic reconstruction of <em>Kumimanu biceae</em>, in comparison with a human.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reconstruction by G Mayr/Senckenberg Research Institute</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Two isolated fragments of <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn25990-extinct-mega-penguin-was-tallest-and-heaviest-ever/">fossil penguin bones from Antarctica</a> reported previously may be from a larger penguin, which has been estimated to be up to two metres long. But this New Zealand specimen has many bone elements, which show that its proportions were consistently large throughout its body.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/genetics-reveal-antarctica-was-once-too-cold-for-penguins-37800">Genetics reveal Antarctica was once too cold for penguins</a></em></p>
<hr>
<h2>Insights into penguin evolution</h2>
<p>The other startling thing about the new colossal fossil is its ancient age. At 55 to 60 million years old, it is nearly as old as the earliest penguin ancestors ever found. It would have lived during a geological period known as the Paleocene, just after the mass extinction 66 million years ago that wiped out non-bird dinosaurs. </p>
<p>Slightly older penguin fossils, found in Canterbury, New Zealand – in rocks that were 58 to 62 million years old – were from birds ranging in size from today’s yellow-eyed penguin, to the emperor penguin.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198684/original/file-20171212-9392-bd485s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The humerus (top) and a bone from the shoulder girdle of the giant penguin <em>Kumimanu biceae</em>, compared to the corresponding bones of one of the largest fossil penguins known to date (Pachydyptes ponderosus from the Eocene in New Zealand) and those of an emperor penguin (Aptendodytes forsteri).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">G Mayr/Senckenberg Research Institute</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our new fossil shows that extreme gigantism in penguins, in which the size of ancient species exceeded that of the largest living penguins, evolved at the dawn of penguin evolutionary history. Giant specimens, larger than emperor penguins, are well documented from about 50 to 20 million years ago, but well preserved older examples in more ancestral lineages have been lacking.</p>
<p>Based on the evolutionary relationships of the new species, we conclude that <em>Kumimanu biceae</em> represents an independent origin of giant size, which took place soon after the origin of penguins and the evolutionary transition from flight to diving.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198716/original/file-20171212-9383-8toehp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"><em>Kumimanu biceae</em> would have stood well above a modern-day emperor penguin.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tess Cole</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The new colossal bird shows that huge penguins were not unusual throughout most of penguin history. However, all these large kinds died out about 20 million years ago. We speculate that this may be because of the evolution of seals and toothed whales which ate them – or outcompeted them for food.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89028/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alan Tennyson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Fossilised bones discovered in New Zealand reveal an extinct penguin which may have been the largest to ever live, around the same height as an average man.Alan Tennyson, Curator of Vertebrates, Te Papa TongarewaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/803202017-12-12T19:12:46Z2017-12-12T19:12:46ZCurious Kids: Why do humans not have fur like chimpanzees and gorillas?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/176352/original/file-20170630-21076-19mdgta.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Why do humans have fur only on their heads? </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This is an article from <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a>, a series for children. The Conversation is asking kids to send in questions they’d like an expert to answer. All questions are welcome – serious, weird or wacky!</em> </p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>Why do humans not have fur like chimpanzees and gorillas? – Thomas, age 4, Darlington, NSW.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p>We know that at one point humans <em>did</em> have fur! But we don’t know why we lost it, so we have to guess. </p>
<p>Scientists think that our ancestors (so think of your grandmother’s grandmother’s grandmother’s grandmother but over a million years ago) experienced a very big change in the climate. The world became much hotter, and that meant that people had to start travelling further and further to find food. </p>
<p>Dr <a href="http://anth.la.psu.edu/people/ngj2">Nina Jablonski</a>, an expert on ancient humans, <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-naked-truth/">thinks</a> that slightly less hairy people may have been in better shape to travel these distances because they would have been able to keep cool more easily.</p>
<p>So if you’re less hairy, it means you can travel a long way, which means you can eat more food. If you’re more hairy, it means you can only travel a short way before you get too hot, which means you find less food and go hungry.</p>
<p>That means the people with less hair were the ones who stayed alive long enough to have kids. And just like how you might have the same eye or hair colour as one of your parents, those kids also inherited having less hair from their parents. That’s why nowadays you won’t see very furry humans. </p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-where-does-the-oxygen-come-from-in-the-international-space-station-and-why-dont-they-run-out-of-air-82910">Curious Kids: Where does the oxygen come from in the International Space Station, and why don’t they run out of air?</a></em></strong></p>
<hr>
<p>All mammals (warm-blooded animals) have body hair, which protects their skin from sunlight and means it won’t get cut or grazed as much, but every animal has different kinds of hair for different reasons, such as:</p>
<ul>
<li> The colour of hair can be very useful for animals like kangaroos and dingos because it can make the animal difficult to see. That makes it easier to hide from predators, and also easier for predators to stalk prey. </li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196258/original/file-20171124-21795-1rc3fhy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196258/original/file-20171124-21795-1rc3fhy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=237&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A lion’s fur blends in to its environment.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<ul>
<li><p>Most animals need hair for sun protection, but some animals, like naked mole rats which always live underground, have no fur because they don’t need any protection from the sun.</p></li>
<li><p>Whales and dolphins, mammals that live in the sea, have almost no hair because it is very difficult to swim if you are covered in fur.</p></li>
<li><p>Hair can help keep you very warm, which is helpful in a cold place. Sea otters have some of the warmest fur in the world because they live in freezing cold water next to the Arctic. </p></li>
<li><p>If you are a very small animal like a mouse you can get cold easily, so hair is very important. But if you are a big animal like an elephant you might not need the warmth of hair as much. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Staying warm is easier for bigger animals, which may explain why smaller primates like monkeys tend to have thicker hair than bigger ones like chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. (But that doesn’t explain why human hair is so fine and short… so there are still lots of questions that even scientists can’t always answer.)</p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-do-x-rays-see-inside-you-85895">Curious Kids: How do x-rays see inside you?</a></em></strong></p>
<hr>
<h2>Did you know?</h2>
<p>When we lost our hair it meant that nothing was protecting our skin against the sun. We think that we lost our hair at the same time as when people started getting darker skin (because darker skin protects you from the sun better than paler skin).</p>
<p>One person who studies genes (the instructions that your body gets from your parents) is geneticist Alan Rogers. He <a href="http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/381006">estimated</a> that the gene (or instruction) that makes dark skin is just over 1 million years old. So we think this is when our ancestors were also losing their fur.</p>
<p>I hope you aren’t disappointed that we can’t give you a simple answer. On the other hand, we still have an interesting mystery to solve.</p>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Have you got a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to us. They can:</em></p>
<p><em>* Email your question to curiouskids@theconversation.edu.au
<br>
* Tell us on <a href="https://twitter.com/ConversationEDU">Twitter</a> by tagging <a href="https://twitter.com/ConversationEDU">@ConversationEDU</a> with the hashtag #curiouskids, or
<br>
* Tell us on <a href="http://www.facebook.com/conversationEDU">Facebook</a></em></p>
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<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p><em>Please tell us your name, age, and which city you live in. You can send an audio recording of your question too, if you want. Send as many questions as you like! We won’t be able to answer every question but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/80320/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Elgar receives funding from the Australian Research Council, and the National Geographic Society. He is Field Chief Editor of Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution.
</span></em></p>Scientists say humans are pretty similar to chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. So why don't we have fur like they do?Mark Elgar, Professor of Evolutionary Biology, University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/885632017-12-12T19:12:14Z2017-12-12T19:12:14ZYoung workers are most likely to use their phones while driving – here's how we can change that<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197712/original/file-20171205-22989-d4qskj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">At any given moment, roughly 1-2% of Australian drivers are estimated to be using their mobile phone while driving.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Distracted driving is a significant contributor to road accidents and fatalities. Mobile phone use while driving is a particularly important form of driver distraction. It can increase the risk of traffic accidents by <a href="http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199702133360701">up to four times</a>. </p>
<p>At any moment, roughly <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00140130701318624">1-2% of Australian drivers</a> are using their mobile phone while driving. In 2016 alone, police in New South Wales charged <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-11-27/nsw-government-revamps-texting-campaign/9196436?utm_source=sfmc&amp;utm_medium=email&amp;utm_campaign=%3a8935&amp;user_id=1e780ed76acf35972a0a97115de6e66a4998c9a4edaa61939041ac55b142758c&amp;WT.tsrc=email&amp;WT.mc_id=Email%7c%7c8935&amp;utm_content=ABCNewsmail_topstories_articlelink">39,000 people</a> for doing so.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.unisa.edu.au/Global/business/centres/i4c/docs/MAC%20Mobile%20Phone%20Use.pdf">Our survey</a> of 413 South Australians revealed that young working people were those most likely to use their phones while driving. Our broader findings could help inform the design of public information campaigns run by road safety organisations to discourage dangerous driving behaviour.</p>
<h2>How prevalent is it?</h2>
<p>One in three respondents in our survey reported never using their phones while driving; one in two reported rare or occasional use; and one in five reported frequent use.</p>
<p>The chart below shows the frequency of engagement in different mobile phone use behaviours. Receiving incoming phone calls while driving was the most commonly reported behaviour: 61% reported having received at least one call while driving in the past two weeks.</p>
<p><iframe id="xmLXx" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/xmLXx/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Using a mobile phone while driving is illegal across Australia. When inside the car, the driver is only allowed to use a phone if it can be operated completely hands-free or while placed in a cradle. It is illegal for the driver to hold a phone in their hand for any purpose other than to pass it to a passenger, even if the car is temporarily stopped at an intersection. </p>
<p>The laws are stricter still for L- and P-platers. Some states ban all mobile phone use while driving for these drivers: hands-free, cradled, or otherwise.</p>
<p>Of our sample, only 43% reported having a hands-free headset. An even smaller 23% reported having a mobile phone cradle. </p>
<h2>Who is most likely to use their phones?</h2>
<p>Both popular media and academic studies have portrayed young adults as <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369847808000983">being particularly prone</a> to mobile phone use while driving.</p>
<p>However, our findings indicate that 18-29-year-olds are no more likely than average to use their mobile phones while driving. 30-39-year-olds report the greatest frequency of use, and those over 65 report the lowest frequency. </p>
<p>Employment was found to be a strong predictor of mobile phone use while driving. Stated use was highest among those who were employed full time. </p>
<p>Together, these findings indicate that young working people are most likely to use their phones while driving. Our study finds they are also most likely to feel socially pressured to use their phones while driving, and more likely to perceive benefits from doing it, through real-time communication and increased work productivity. </p>
<p>Road safety campaigns targeting mobile phone use among these people should emphasise how perceived social pressure is not an acceptable excuse for engaging in the behaviour. These campaigns should attempt to debunk some of the perceived benefits of the same.</p>
<p>More generally, those who are more likely to use their phones while driving have lower perceptions of risk with regard to the behaviour, and are therefore less likely to experience guilt or remorse over doing so. </p>
<p>Our findings are consistent with previous studies and support the use of campaigns focused on <a href="http://roadsafety.transport.nsw.gov.au/campaigns/get-your-hand-off-it/index.html">risks related with</a> mobile phone use while driving.</p>
<h2>Social disapproval doesn’t always work</h2>
<p>Our analysis reveals that those who feel strong social disapproval toward mobile phone use while driving are actually <em>more likely</em> to engage in it.</p>
<p>The use of normative messaging to foster safer and healthier behaviours has met with mixed results across different public health domains. In some cases, campaigns have <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01917.x">actually increased</a> the incidence of the undesirable behaviours they set out to change. </p>
<p>However, some public campaigns have <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4248563/">successful application</a> and have been credited with changing societal norms around the likes of smoking, drinking and driving, and safe-sex practices. </p>
<p>When used thoughtfully and based on evidence, public information campaigns can be effective policy instruments to encourage safer and healthier behaviours, both on the road and off it.</p>
<p>Road safety campaigns frequently use the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YcHxmzAg9us">perceived disapproval</a> of friends, family members and other peer groups as part of their strategy to foster changes in attitudes and behaviours. Our findings indicate that such strategies have the potential to backfire. They should be used carefully, if at all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88563/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Akshay Vij has received research funding in the past from the Motor Accident Commission of South Australia. </span></em></p>Road safety campaigns targeting mobile phone use among drivers should emphasise how perceived social pressure is not an acceptable excuse for engaging in the behaviour.Akshay Vij, Senior Research Fellow, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/888532017-12-12T19:11:55Z2017-12-12T19:11:55ZThe grim reality of the brothels of Pompeii<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198241/original/file-20171208-11315-1xc8pzv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Brothels in Pompeii were decorated with murals depicting erotic and exotic scenes: but the reality was far more brutal and mundane.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Pompeii_Brothel_%285949526900%29.jpg/1024px-Pompeii_Brothel_%285949526900%29.jpg">Thomas Shahan/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>In our series on sexual histories, authors explore changing sexual mores from antiquity to today.</em></p>
<p>Like the anxious men who began excavations at Pompeii in the 18th century and discovered more about the ancient Italians than they had bargained for – such as <a href="https://lavishlife.net/tag/naples/">phallic-shaped lamps</a> – historians of sex are regularly confronted with case studies from the past that challenge their own ethics. Those who worked the streets of Pompeii and served clients in the brothels lived hard lives, yet many of the murals that survive depict the women as erotic and exotic.</p>
<p>Murals from brothels and buildings that served as brothels (such as inns, lunch counters, and taverns) show fair-skinned women, naked (except for the occasional breast band), with stylised hair, in a variety of sexual positions with young, tanned, athletic men. The figures sport on beds that are sometimes ornate and festooned with decorative quilts.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198255/original/file-20171208-11291-q92f7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mural from a Pompeii brothel.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nikonvscanon/5770535405/in/photolist-9MVv8K-oDZjeq-8QVyhd-864MGy-gjbeyi-oX9Wgb-fkZkug-cDFrrd-peBqrL-pemN8v-peAEXb-c2DCaY-9REt5B-peCAJa-cDFfqJ-peCMGc-peCKWt-cDFmQG-peCyEa-fPWHXT-4wyyyq-pen1BP-7eNE58-oX9p2Y-cDFcey-pYk7J2-cDFjzm-oX8M7o-cDFo3f-oXajxV-oX8km4-peCxon-qdugjo-shwyB-peDqnM-peCDd8-cDFpcU-penkZB-oXa8Eo-9TWM28-Aedm67-wrNLB-g8t6k7-oX9yVf-dN7jG-pemSHH-qdgvy7-pPbaAt-wrMMS-cDFgpU">David Blaikie/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In buildings identified as brothels, the murals may have been intended to arouse clients. They may also have functioned as pictorial menus or even served as instruction manuals for more inexperienced customers. In buildings identified as private residences, the scenes were most likely decorative but also designed, perhaps, for titillation.</p>
<p>Contrary to the idealised images, the brothels themselves provide evidence that the women worked in cells, usually only big enough for a narrow bed. The absence of windows in most attests to the darkness of the cells, as well as limited air flow.</p>
<p>Excavations also suggest that the cells were usually without doors, which implies that the rooms may have been curtained. They have also revealed stone beds. Wooden beds as well as pallets were likely also used, but would have perished in the eruption of <a href="http://geology.com/volcanoes/vesuvius/">Mount Vesuvius</a> in AD 79.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198249/original/file-20171208-11299-h176bs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An excavated brothel room in Pompeii.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/chriswsn/10630275313/in/photolist-hcmWuR-7cJL9w-m4Fdgk-7eLSWn-7cJL1A-oX8RLT-7HAMkz-hcmXbk-3X9v9B-7cERPr-AuETEY-pcAGJy-oX9D1t-6ZqCX3-oXa7XF-4Z7bPX-BkoDs-3XdHh1-7cJKAU-a4JT51-Bkopd-7jdVh9-pcAGZU-c2DCD5-8QSvCT-dGvrS-92pkM1-a4G334-3X9seV-4Z7krg-cDFyGS-4ZbANf-92xqjE-cDFqj9-hscx4b-92phFY-oX9dg1-uPgsZ-861ACe-pemG5i-uPgsC-uPgsy-pcBCYq-53qrv9-3XThCZ-3XTeaV-pcB3mu-6ZmBTn-hscAab-9B9CXm">Chris Williamson</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The conditions in which the women worked were of no concern to brothel owners, clients or anyone else for that matter, as most sex workers in ancient Italy were slaves. As the ancient attitude towards slaves was one of indifference at best, and violent disdain at worst, the lives of women were no source of empathy to those outside their class.</p>
<p>The sex workers fulfilled a utilitarian function and nothing else. Confined to the premises by (usually) male pimps who provided them with only their most basic needs, the women were essentially cut off from the outside world. This rendered them vulnerable to the whims of both pimp and client alike.</p>
<p>Women who worked the streets in Pompeii often waited around archways and other standard locations such as graveyards and public baths. In larger towns and cities, where control of the sex trade was harder to manage, some of these women may have worked without pimps. Those who made up this percentage of workers were mostly freed slaves and poor freeborn women.</p>
<h2>Stories from graffiti</h2>
<p>The preservation of graffiti on the walls of Pompeii’s buildings also provides historians with details of the sex trade. Most of it is extremely graphic. It includes information on specific services and prices, clients’ appraisals of certain women and their abilities (or lack thereof), and some sexual advice.</p>
<p>Some graffiti are straight to the point:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Thrust slowly</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Others are advertisements:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Euplia was here<br>
with two thousand<br>
beautiful men</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Or list prices:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Euplia sucks for five dollars*</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Often the names of slaves and, by default, sex workers, had Greek origins. The name “Euplia”, for example, comes from a Greek word meaning “fair voyage”. Sex workers’ names sometimes denoted the function or physical features of the individual in question. In this case, Euplia promised her clients a fair voyage.</p>
<p>Graffiti also attests to male sex workers in Pompeii. As with the writings concerning women, this graffiti lists specific services offered and sometimes prices. As freeborn women were not permitted to have intercourse with anyone but their husbands, the clients who accessed male sex workers were almost exclusively men. The sexual mores of ancient Rome, catered for male-to-male sexual encounters if certain protocols were maintained (a citizen could not be penetrated, for example).</p>
<p>The few literary records that suggest there may have been female clients of sex workers are questionable, as they were usually written for satiric or comedic purposes. Still, it would be naïve to discount instances of wealthy, freeborn women accessing male sex workers or household slaves.</p>
<p>Similarly, it would be naïve to assume that male clients did not seek other men with whom they could participate in acts deemed socially unacceptable (essentially acts in which the citizen male would occupy a submissive role).</p>
<h2>Society and the sex trade</h2>
<p>At the time of the eruption of <a href="http://geology.com/volcanoes/vesuvius/">Vesuvius</a>, Pompeii was a town of modest size, with a population of around 11,000, and a <a href="http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/take-tour-pompeii-home-before-9016594">thriving community</a> with sophisticated architecture and infrastructure. Located in Campania, some 23 kilometres southeast of Naples, and near the port of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pozzuoli">Pozzuoli</a>, it enjoyed robust trade and economy, and had a multicultural demographic.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198266/original/file-20171208-11347-15m5v9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pompeii ruins with Mount Vesuvius in the background.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nikonvscanon/5771074270/in/photolist-9MYgjw-m3piXR-pdhTS6-pAYupC-9Fs1Ej-eivYiK-qb3au1-pjvUCn-pB1gWF-eiwBjB-bNNdM4-gZkkwk-mwRRhH-VYnLe5-dbgc8P-RJPgfe-929Bgv-U45TEh-eTteTS-eThq5P-dbgcun-SYKMER-eTuYwd-SPiHnU-u97bF-eSJRyJ-evYRXv-">David Blaikie/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The prosperity of the town and the continual presence of merchants ensured a strong market for sex. Indeed, the sex trade was integral to the successful functioning of society, particularly marriages. </p>
<p>As marriages, particularly those among the elite classes, were arranged and predominantly for the birth of male heirs, a husband would not seek sexual pleasures from his wife. Rather, out of respect for her, a man would pay for pleasurable sex, especially those acts that were not expected to be performed by a respectable woman.</p>
<p>Indeed, the graffiti attests to five different types of sex for sale: intercourse, cunnilingus, fellatio, active anal sex, and passive anal sex. Thus the sex trade performed a type of social and moral policing of the institution of marriage, as well as the preservation of an adult male’s reputation and masculinity. As
sex work was not illegal (being predominantly structured around slavery) but adultery was outlawed, this was another reason for paying for sex.</p>
<p>The layers of volcanic materials that covered Pompeii and most of its population to a depth of 25 metres left extensive evidence of the ancient Italians, their lifestyles, and their environments. Ironically, the eruption that trapped the inhabitants in both time and place has bestowed a strange immortality upon them. </p>
<p>These people whisper to us, and their tales are varied, joyous and sad. Their stories are sometimes shocking and even heartbreaking, but, like the lives of the sex workers, worthy of remembrance. </p>
<p><em>*Five dollars is a rough conversion of the value of ‘five asses’: the currency in the original graffiti.</em></p>
<p><em>Tomorrow: the sexualisation of girlhood in 19th century postcards.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88853/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marguerite Johnson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Though their activities were depicted alluringly in murals, the sex workers of Pompeii were slaves who lived hard lives.Marguerite Johnson, Professor of Classics, University of NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/881502017-12-12T19:11:40Z2017-12-12T19:11:40ZYour vagina cleans itself: why vagina cleaning fads are unnecessary and harmful<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198473/original/file-20171211-27689-k2apva.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">No, you don&#39;t need to douche yourself with a cucumber. Or anything for that matter. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A staggering variety of so-called feminine hygiene products seek to help with “vaginal odour” and discharge, and “keep you fresh”. From <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Best-Sellers-Health-Personal-Care-Feminine-Hygiene-Deodorant-Sprays/zgbs/hpc/3779521">deodorants</a> to <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bw020j-G_b8">cucumber cleanses</a>, <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Panty-Liners-Scented-Feminine-Care/s?ie=UTF8&amp;page=1&amp;rh=n%3A3779581%2Cp_n_theme_browse-bin%3A389598011">scented “panty liners”</a>, and the <a href="http://acupunctureplus.com.au/clinic/vaginal-steaming/">newest fad</a> “vaginal steaming”. These products actively promote the view that women’s vaginas should be discharge-free and either have no smell at all or exude the whiff of rose petals or vanilla pods.</p>
<p>Many women perceive vaginal discharge as undesirable and unnatural rather than physiological and normal. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25128928">Data suggest around half of all women</a> use “panty liners” to absorb discharge with up to 30% using them on a daily basis. While Australian women are generally not big fans of “douching”, a French term for washing out the vagina using a liquid spray, it’s important to understand why cleaning the vagina is not recommended.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more – <a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-what-is-normal-vaginal-discharge-and-whats-not-63815">Health Check: what is normal vaginal discharge and what’s not?</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<h2>What is vaginal discharge and why is it important?</h2>
<p>The vagina is self-cleaning, and vaginal discharge plays an important role in keeping the vagina healthy. From puberty, when oestrogen kicks in, the vagina becomes colonised with healthy bacteria from the <em>Lactobacillus</em> group which produce lactic acid.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198476/original/file-20171211-27698-17g264l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198476/original/file-20171211-27698-17g264l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many products are marketed as reducing vaginal odours. But the vagina isn’t supposed to smell like perfume.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This finely balanced vaginal ecosystem is referred to as the vaginal microbiome and the resulting acidity of the vagina provides protection against sexually transmissible infections. </p>
<p>Healthy vaginal discharge is made up of fluid from the vaginal walls, mucus from the cervix as well as the lactobacilli, and because the vaginal environment is hormonally influenced, variation in the amount of discharge throughout the month is to be expected and completely normal. </p>
<p>As well as providing a protective environment, vaginal discharge provides natural lubrication with between one and 4mls of fluid produced every 24 hours. Healthy vaginal discharge has a characteristic smell – and in some women this can become stronger because of the large number of sweat glands in the hair-bearing pubic area. So while washing inside the vagina is not recommended, it’s important to keep the outer skin clean.</p>
<h2>Disruption of the healthy vaginal environment</h2>
<p>Anything put in the vagina can potentially disrupt the vaginal environment and its balanced vaginal flora, including tampons, penises, condoms, semen, fingers and hygienic sex toys. Disruption in these cases is almost always temporary and the vagina quickly restores itself. </p>
<p>But this may not be so in the case of vaginal cleansing products, or repeated douching. Homemade douches usually contain water and vinegar and commercial products contain antiseptics and fragrances that can reduce the lactobacilli and reduce the protective effect of the discharge.</p>
<p>So what about the latest “v-treatment”, vaginal steaming? To quote a version promoted on <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/beauty/gwyneth-paltrow-advises-women-to-steamclean-their-vaginas-20150130-131xsp.html">Gwyneth Paltrow’s site GOOP</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>you sit on what is essentially a mini-throne, and a combination of infrared and mugwort steam cleanses your uterus, et al. It is an energetic release — not just a steam douche — that balances female hormone levels.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198474/original/file-20171211-27683-1hfssy2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198474/original/file-20171211-27683-1hfssy2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Steaming your vagina could be harmful.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://kingspa.com/chicago/v_steam.html">Screenshot, King Spa website</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Apart from the risk of burning and scalding, there are many other reasons not to v-steam. Not only will steam have a drying effect on the vagina, it’s likely to disrupt the vaginal microbiome and reduce the body’s natural barrier against infections. </p>
<p>While no steam may actually reach the uterus, blowing hot herbal fumes into this important organ has no benefits and could in fact do harm. There would certainly be no effect of this pseudo-scientific treatment on female hormone levels.</p>
<h2>When to seek medical advice</h2>
<p>While vaginal discharge is certainly normal, if you experience a significant change in the volume, colour or odour of discharge, you should seek medical advice. </p>
<p>A change in vaginal discharge can be a sign of infection, although the most bacterial STIs, including chlamydia and gonorrhoea, usually do not cause any change in discharge. </p>
<p>More common causes are candida (vaginal thrush) or bacterial vaginosis (BV) which occur when the vaginal flora becomes over-colonised with either yeast (candida) or other vaginal bacteria. Bacterial vaginosis is a condition in which the vagina is unable to return to its normal state and becomes more alkaline. The alkalinity of menstrual blood can be associated with bacterial vaginosis.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more – <a href="https://theconversation.com/recurrent-thrush-how-some-women-live-with-constant-genital-itching-46609">Recurrent thrush: how some women live with constant genital itching</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>The lactobacilli are reduced and replaced with other vaginal bacteria which can be associated with an increased greenish-greyish discharge and an unpleasant odour. Although the condition is not thought to be harmful, for women living with bacterial vaginosis, having a persistent and malodorous discharge can be debilitating and they should see their doctor to discuss how to manage the condition.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more - <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-need-a-cure-for-bacterial-vaginosis-one-of-the-great-enigmas-in-womens-health-50850">We need a cure for bacterial vaginosis, one of the great enigmas in women’s health</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>As doctors working in sexual health we are keen to help women work out what is normal and what is not. It’s crucial to reject practices that masquerade as clinical treatments but have no base in evidence. Vaginal discharge is healthy and plays an important role in the defence against infection. Trying to eliminate it makes no sense and is in fact harmful.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Dr Ellie Freedman, Medical Director of the Northern Sydney Sexual Assault Service Staff Specialist Clinic at Royal North Shore Hospital co-authored this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88150/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Deborah Bateson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The vagina is self-cleaning, and vaginal discharge plays an important role in keeping the vagina healthy.Deborah Bateson, Clinical Associate Professor, Discipline of Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Neonatology, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/871732017-12-12T19:11:13Z2017-12-12T19:11:13ZSurprise! Digital space isn't replacing public space, and might even help make it better<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196842/original/file-20171129-28917-9uclmv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Telstra and the City of Joondalup have joined forces in a trial of &#39;smart park&#39; applications at Tom Simpson Park. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>You’re on the train on your daily commute, head bowed, peering at your phone. A cavalcade of news stories, friends’ holiday snaps and random promoted images of trending slippers pops up on your social media feed, which you idly push along in search of something fresh. You look up. Most of the people around you are doing something similar. Connecting intensely with their smartphones, and not with anyone near them.</p>
<p>It’s a scene repeated across Australian cities every weekday morning. More and more of our daily lives – how we work, how we navigate, how we learn and how we entertain ourselves – take place through the interface of glowing rectangular screens. There is <a href="https://theconversation.com/your-brain-on-the-internet-a-response-to-susan-greenfield-8694">concern</a> about what smartphones are <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-technology-making-your-attention-span-shorter-than-a-goldfishs-42072">doing to our attention spans</a>, our <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-your-smartphone-making-you-shy-71605">capacity for random human interactions</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15738692">our self-esteem</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Further reading:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/connections-arent-conversations-while-technology-enables-it-can-also-interfere-51689">Connections aren’t conversations – while technology enables, it can also interfere</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>But what does the age of the smartphone mean for our cities, and for how we design our public spaces?</p>
<p>It’s a question that has intrigued tech futurists for decades. Australian-born architect Bill Mitchell trained a generation of digital urbanists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) to imagine and plan for the coming “city of bits”. In his 1995 book <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/city-bits">City of Bits</a>, he likened the impact of the infobahn to that of <a href="http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20130722-revolution-in-paris-street-design">Haussmann’s 19th-century Parisian boulevards</a>, in their capacity to radically reshape the city. </p>
<p>Unlike Haussmann’s network of avenues, parks and water infrastructure, the “invisible city” of the 21st century would, Mitchell argued, be shaped more by the logic of networked data. Places would be “constructed virtually by software instead of physically from stones and timbers”. </p>
<p>Mitchell wasn’t the only one who believed our digital future would dramatically reshape our cities. Media futurist Marshall McLuhan <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=1RwuDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT868&amp;lpg=PT868&amp;dq=%22the+city+as+a+form+of+major+dimensions%22&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=8RN3f8s8bW&amp;sig=cbyOZEp-rasEcH5Zbsl_syj-uf4&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwiktM-k0-LXAhUGabwKHY2hC8MQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&amp;q=%22the%20city%20as%20a%20form%20of%20major%20dimensions%22&amp;f=false">speculated in 1964</a> that the coming “global village” would mean that “the city as a form of major dimensions must inevitably dissolve like the fading shot in a movie”. Our need for groups of people to be near to each other, he believed, would become redundant as more and more of our connections would occur virtually.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/HeDnPP6ntic?wmode=transparent&amp;start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Marshall McLuhan – The World is a Global Village (CBC TV)</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Of course, the future didn’t quite turn out that way. Vibrant, productive physical places still matter. Architects and designers are still building places of “stones and timbers”. </p>
<p>Smartphone-equipped citizens need not be tethered to their desks to surf the infobahn. The <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-the-internet-of-things-16542">Internet of Things</a> (IoT) entails more and more urban services and infrastructure being connected via tiny distributed sensors. The virtual space of the internet has become increasingly interconnected with our urban fabric.</p>
<h2>Experimenting with the city of data</h2>
<p>The city of bits has become the city of data. The millions of daily interactions and transactions in cities – volumes of energy used; movements of people, traffic, water and waste; social media interactions; emails; financial and retail transactions; and multi-modal transport flows – are generating huge volumes of “data exhaust”. These data are increasingly being put to work in an attempt to better manage the pressures and challenges our cities face.</p>
<p>Many hope this age of big data will lead to smarter, more responsive cities. Australian cities have begun trialling smart technologies – parking apps, smart lighting trials, public Wi-Fi – to improve basic city services. The Australian government’s A$50 million <a href="https://cities.dpmc.gov.au/smart-cities-program">Smart Cities and Suburbs Program</a> will help scale up these investments to allow for more ambitious trials.</p>
<p>Many smart-city technologies are designed to help local governments better monitor services such as waste collection and roads maintenance. For example, the Western Australian city of <a href="http://www.joondalup.wa.gov.au/welcome/citynews/17-05-23/City_and_Telstra_build_Australia_s_smartest_park.aspx">Joondalup is partnering with Telstra</a> to test IoT technologies to better monitor environmental factors like temperature, humidity, pollution, light and noise levels in real time.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196845/original/file-20171129-28852-4zwzli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196845/original/file-20171129-28852-4zwzli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Telstra and the City of Joondalup are trialling real-time environmental monitoring applications at Tom Simpson Park.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The recently released <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-05-25/smarter-planning-saving-perth-council-millions/8559194">Smarter Planning Perth</a> (SPP) map allows government agencies and utilities involved in infrastructure works to better collaborate, share costs and co-ordinate timetables. This is a platform designed to minimise works congestion and cut project time frames, so the city’s road networks run more efficiently.</p>
<p>But what kinds of places will these smart technologies and services actually create? With a focus on data analytics, efficiency and automation, there is no guarantee that the latest data-driven technologies will necessarily help our public places thrive.</p>
<p>As the digital urbanist Rick Robinson wrote in a <a href="https://theurbantechnologist.com/2016/02/01/why-smart-cities-still-arent-working-for-us-after-20-years-and-how-we-can-fix-them/">2016 article</a>, commercial agendas for smart cities are:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>just as likely to reduce our life expectancy and social engagement by making it easier to order high-fat, high-sugar takeaway food on our smartphones to be delivered to our couches by drones whilst we immerse ourselves in multiplayer virtual reality games.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Places of ‘stone and timber’ still matter</h2>
<p>Data-driven technologies may make cities work more efficiently, but that may not always be the only thing we want out of places. One of the great lessons of the past two decades is that, despite our growing dependence on digital platforms of communication, spaces that enable us to connect and mingle in real life still matter. Our enduring connection to places of “stones and timber” surely reflects our all-too-human desire not only for seamless interfaces and swipeable apps, but also for places of disturbance, delight, random noises and chance encounters.</p>
<p>As the US urbanist Jane Jacobs observed many decades ago, good places are nourished by diversity and difference, not uniformity and efficiency.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Further reading:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-might-jane-jacobs-say-about-smart-cities-58278">What might Jane Jacobs say about smart cities?</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>We need, therefore, to ensure the new-found insights generated by all of our cities’ data works in the service of good places. How can this be done?</p>
<p>For a start, putting data to use may lead to a very analogue solution. For example, more fine-grained urban data that alerts us to temperature anomalies in different places should be used not only to monitor, but also to cool. This means more trees, not just more sensors.</p>
<p>Many cities have begun to design <a href="http://www.jcdecaux.com/blog/multi-faceted-bus-shelters-paris">smart bus stops</a> equipped with heat-responsive water misters and blinds, so these become places of respite and shelter for weary travellers. This approach uses digital technologies to artificially “switch on” natural services like water-cooling and shade in places that have, as a result of the use of materials like bitumen and concrete, become urban heat islands, exposing some of our most vulnerable to extremely hot conditions.</p>
<p>Digital technologies can also help us navigate and experience places through the events and characters that have shaped their unique identities. Digital overlays, soundscapes and augmented media can provide us with interactive experiences of the the built environments of today and their past “lives”. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Further reading:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/let-cities-speak-reclaiming-a-place-for-community-with-sounds-76998">Let cities speak: reclaiming a place for community with sounds</a></em></p>
<p><em><strong>Further reading:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/psychogeography-a-way-to-delve-into-the-soul-of-a-city-78032">Psychogeography: a way to delve into the soul of a city</a></em></p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196843/original/file-20171129-28869-134mtwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196843/original/file-20171129-28869-134mtwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=237&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Digital lighting technology allows residents of a building slated for demolition to express how they feel.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jessica Hromas</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These uses of technology allow for different, perhaps more intimate, interactions between people and places. Crucially, <a href="http://www.esemprojects.com/project/last-drinks/">augmented experiences of the history of a place</a> can help us recover what has been lost through decades of urban transformation.</p>
<p>Digital technologies can also be used to disrupt official narratives of place. At Sydney’s Waterloo public housing tower, slated for demolition in a new phase of urban renewal, community artists worked with public housing tenants to create a large-scale digital artwork that expresses the residents’ emotional connections to their homes. </p>
<p>Embedded digital technologies were used to subvert the usual mechanistic processes of community consultation managed by development agencies. The spectacular piece of digital art worked to highlight that residents should not be forgotten in the renewal process. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196844/original/file-20171129-28899-dofw18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196844/original/file-20171129-28899-dofw18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Feeling blue: Waterloo towers resident Fiona in her apartment.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nic Walker</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Further reading:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-live-here-how-do-residents-feel-about-public-housing-redevelopment-83422">We Live Here: how do residents feel about public housing redevelopment?</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Clearly, the possibilities of digital technologies can be used to confound and enlarge our experiences of and connections to place.</p>
<p>As McLuhan and Mitchell would no doubt have realised by now, with the rise of digital technologies public spaces have become more, not less, important to the experience of cities. As we design the digital interfaces and data-driven services to support our places and spaces, the evolving possibilities of place and digital publics will no doubt continue to surprise.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The Conversation is co-publishing articles with <a href="http://www.alva.uwa.edu.au/community/futurewest">Future West (Australian Urbanism)</a>, produced by the University of Western Australia’s Faculty of Architecture, Landscape and Visual Arts. These articles look towards the future of urbanism, taking Perth and Western Australia as its reference point, with the latest series focusing on the public domain. You can read other articles <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/future-west-30248">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87173/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Barns periodically consults to organisations involved in smart city strategies, including Arup Pty Ltd, CSIRO Data 61, and Urban Growth NSW. She is a member of the Smart Cities Council Australian and NZ (SCCANZ) Built Environment Task Force and leads a digital placemaking practice called Esem Projects. Between 2014-17 her postdoctoral research relating to digital strategies in the built environment was supported by the UK Urban Studies Foundation. </span></em></p>Public spaces have become more, not less, important to our experience of cities in the digital era. These technologies can be used to confound and enlarge our experiences of and connections to place.Sarah Barns, Engaged Research Fellow, Institute for Culture and Society, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/888762017-12-12T10:05:20Z2017-12-12T10:05:20ZModern science tackles a biblical secret -- the mystery ingredient in holy incense<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198461/original/file-20171211-27674-17t3oa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The ingredients of incense were detailed in the Old Testament.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/wideonet</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A predatory sea snail could be the source of a mystery ingredient in a holy incense recipe detailed in the Old Testament. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/murex-mollusk-family">Murex</a> whelks were just one of many suspected sources, but there was no evidence to support the claim. Until now.</p>
<p>In a <a href="http://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-17551-3">paper published today</a>, my colleagues and I report how we captured and analysed the fragrant chemicals in the smoke of whelk opercula – the trapdoor lid that protects the snail inside the shell. This provides evidence to help establish it as the most likely source of onycha, one of four major ingredients that make up holy incense.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198734/original/file-20171212-9426-11qofri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198734/original/file-20171212-9426-11qofri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pile of opercula collected from sea snails.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kirsten Benkendorff</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The ingredients are detailed in <a href="https://www.bible.com/bible/111/EXO.30.NIV">Exodus 30:34</a>, where Moses is tasked with making incense:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Take fragrant spices – gum resin, onycha and galbanum – and pure frankincense, all in equal amounts.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/did-they-mean-to-do-that-accident-and-intent-in-an-octopuses-garden-85462">Did they mean to do that? Accident and intent in an octopuses’ garden</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>The origin of three of the ingredients are well known essential oils or resins of botanical origin. But the onycha of antiquity had not been identified with certainty and there was <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02858295">much controversy</a> over its proposed animal versus plant origin. </p>
<h2>What is that smell?</h2>
<p>Defined as fingernail or claw, onycha is a Greek translation from the original Hebrew word shecheleth, which derives from “a tear, distillation or exudation”. </p>
<p>Whelk opercula are a protein exudation, similar to fingernails, and have to be torn from the flesh before further processing. Ancient texts refer to “Unguis odoratus” (sweet hoof) as the shell or scale of snails from the Red Sea that emit a pleasant smell when burned.</p>
<p>But shells – and opercula – do not smell nice when burned!</p>
<p>So after detaching the opercula from the flesh of the snail, it has to be processed. Ancient and modern practices include rubbing with alkaline solution or soaking in vinegar followed by strong wine, before burning the dried ground powder. </p>
<p>In our experiments, we replicated these procedures using clean acetic acid and alcohol. This helped remove the “fishy” smell from the opercula before drying and grinding into a powder for chemical analysis. We found that this pre-cleaning treatment was also important for removing <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/pyridine">pyridine</a> – a toxic compound – from the opercula smoke.</p>
<h2>The ‘unclean’</h2>
<p>The main argument against the identification of sea snail opercula as the onycha of antiquity is that creatures such these were described as “unclean” animals in the Bible. Even their carcasses were considered “<a href="https://www.bible.com/bible/111/LEV.11.niv">unclean</a>” or “<a href="https://www.bible.com/bible/1/LEV.11.kjv">an abomination</a>”, depending of your translation of Leviticus 11:9-12.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198679/original/file-20171212-9386-yvfyhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198679/original/file-20171212-9386-yvfyhd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Six species of purple dye-producing Muricidae molluscs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kirsten Benkendorff</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But one particular group of sea snails, the Muricidae or murex, were highly regarded as a source of Tyrian purple (shellfish purple) and tekhelet (biblical blue). In biblical times, these shellfish were the only known source of an insoluble purple dye. </p>
<p>The incorporation of purple and blue dyed yarn is prescribed for use in the tabernacle and garments worn by high priests (Exodus <a href="https://www.bible.com/bible/111/EXO.26.NIV">26</a> and <a href="https://www.bible.com/bible/111/EXO.28.NIV">28</a>). </p>
<p>This indicates that the spiritual leaders of the time were not opposed to using products from these sea snails for holy purposes. </p>
<h2>The lost knowledge</h2>
<p>It is likely the specific ingredients and process for making sacred incense was a closely guarded secret. The scriptures dictate that its use was purely for holy purposes. It was not to be made for personal use, at the risk of being cutoff from the entire community. </p>
<p>Until recently, the secret of dying with biblical blue from the snails was <a href="http://www.therarestblue.com">lost</a>, as a consequence of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Temple-of-Jerusalem">destruction of second holy temple</a> in Jerusalem in 70CE and the subsequent dispersal of Jews from their homeland. </p>
<p>Furthermore, with the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Fall-of-Constantinople-1453">fall of Constantinople</a> in 1453 AD, the purple shellfish dying industry collapsed and the tradition was lost in the Mediterranean region for many centuries. </p>
<h2>A modern analysis</h2>
<p>So how did we go about trying to provide chemical evidence to support the use of opercula from dye producing sea snails in holy incense? </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198675/original/file-20171212-9422-1043oh9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198675/original/file-20171212-9422-1043oh9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Kirsten Benkendorff preparing extracts from the opercula for analysis by gas chromatography mass spectrometry.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Craig Sillitoe</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We used a purpose built apparatus to burn the opercula in glass tubes. We then trapped the smoke in solvent using a vacuum, before drying down the extract for chemical analysis using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. </p>
<p>Our analyses revealed that when burnt, the opercula releases aromatic phenols – compounds that are often used in the fragrance industry as antioxidants. We also detected chlorinated phenols that have a medicinal scent at very low concentrations. </p>
<p>These smoke compounds are consistent with reported use of the opercula contributing to the long-lasting smell of incense. The medicinal fragrance of opercula smoke is also highly compatible with the use of sacred incense for purifying the holy temple and ritualised cleansing during spiritual ceremonies.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198680/original/file-20171212-9392-1wwa6jc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198680/original/file-20171212-9392-1wwa6jc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stages of processing the opercula (left to right): The opercula still attached to the foot of purple dye-producing sea snail Dicathais orbita; freshly detached opercula; opercula after crushing and soaking in acetic acid; dry ground opercula powder and vials contain extracts of the opercula smoke.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kirsten Benkendorff</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is impossible to conclusively identify the biblical onycha, without original samples for retrospective comparative analysis. But a multi-disciplinary perspective that takes into consideration the historical use of these snails – along with our new chemical information on the scent qualities of the smoke – provides strong support for the opercula from dye-producing whelks.</p>
<h2>Species decline</h2>
<p>Archaeological evidence indicates that the ancient demand for dye-producing sea snails led to <a href="https://www.ancient.eu/Tyrian_Purple/">over-exploitation</a> and an associated decline in the populations of some species.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198735/original/file-20171212-9396-26i8ce.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198735/original/file-20171212-9396-26i8ce.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Piles of shells from a purple dye producing Murex sea snails in a processing factory in Tuticorin, India.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kirsten Benkendorff</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/those-noisy-crested-pigeons-use-their-unique-feathers-to-sound-an-alarm-87085">Those noisy crested pigeons use their unique feathers to sound an alarm</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Similarly, modern demand for the shellfish dyes in regional artisan industries and the worldwide fishery for food and ornate shells, is <a href="https://maritimestudiesjournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/2212-9790-12-3">placing pressure on natural populations</a>.</p>
<p>While the opercula can be obtained as a byproduct from other fishing activities, many regional shell fisheries are not effectively monitored. This problem is exacerbated by uncertainty surrounding the impacts of ocean climate change and worldwide mass mortalities in shellfish resulting from disease events. </p>
<p>It is therefore essential that all sea snail fisheries are carefully managed and new opportunities for aquaculture are explored to ensure a sustainable supply to meet future demands.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88876/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kirsten Benkendorff does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The four ingredients for holy incense are listed in the Old Testament, but there was much debate over the origin of one of them -- onycha. Scientists think they've now confirmed the source.Kirsten Benkendorff, Associate Professor in Marine Biology, Southern Cross UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/883922017-12-12T03:59:42Z2017-12-12T03:59:42ZUniversities spend millions on accessing results of publicly funded research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198056/original/file-20171207-31552-nb47pq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Research findings are published in peer-reviewed academic journals, many of which charge universities subscription fees. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>University research is generally funded from the public purse. The results, however, are published in peer-reviewed academic journals, many of which charge subscription fees. </p>
<p>I had to use freedom of information laws to determine how much universities in New Zealand spend on journal subscriptions to give researchers and students access to the latest research - and I found they paid almost US$15 million last year to just four publishers.</p>
<p>There are additional costs, too. Paywalls on research hold up scientific progress and limit the public’s access to the latest information.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/not-just-available-but-also-useful-we-must-keep-pushing-to-improve-open-access-to-research-86058">Not just available, but also useful: we must keep pushing to improve open access to research</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>The project took more than three years because universities originally refused to release the information. I had to make a complaint to the Ombudsman, the government official charged with determining whether information from the state sector should be publicly disclosed. </p>
<p>The Ombudsman’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.5673583">final opinion</a> ruled unambiguously that the public’s right to know outweighs any commercial interests of the publishers and universities. </p>
<h2>The cost of knowledge</h2>
<p>The following points stand out in a preliminary analysis of spending by New Zealand universities on subscriptions to journals from Elsevier, Springer, Wiley and Taylor &amp; Francis between 2013 and 2016. </p>
<ul>
<li><p>The total amount spent on the four publishers is substantial, around US$14.9 million in 2016 (the total spending on all publishers is likely at least 2-3 times that). The University of Auckland, with 33000 students and 2200 academic and research staff, spent US$3.8 million, including US$1.6 million on Elsevier.</p></li>
<li><p>The mean expenditure per academic/research staff member in 2016 was around US$1800.</p></li>
<li><p>The University of Canterbury is getting a much worse deal than the others, 35% above the mean.</p></li>
<li><p>The rate of increase of subscription costs (17%) over the period clearly exceeds the Consumer Price Index inflation rate over the period (2-3% in New Zealand, USA and Europe).</p></li>
<li><p>The publisher with the highest percentage increase over the period was Taylor &amp; Francis (33%).</p></li>
</ul>
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<h2>Obtaining the information</h2>
<p>Many journal subscription prices are high (for example, the prominent biology journal Cell is over US$2000 per year), especially given that the funding for the research typically comes from public sources. </p>
<p>With the advent of the internet, many people predicted a major drop in expenditure on journals, but the opposite <a href="http://lj.libraryjournal.com/2017/04/publishing/new-world-same-model-periodicals-price-survey-2017/#_">has occurred</a>. One reason is that the main commercial publishers use anti-competitive practices such as bundling of unrelated journals (so-called “<a href="http://econ.ucsb.edu/%7Etedb/Journals/BundleContracts.html">Big Deals</a>”) and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4JsNT1gKe7I">confidentiality clauses in contracts</a>. </p>
<p>Price secrecy allows sellers to use differential pricing and weaken the negotiating situation of buyers, leading to market inefficiency. The fact that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingelfinger_rule">each journal has a monopoly</a> on its specific content means that journals cannot be easily substituted by others.</p>
<p>In 2014, Timothy Gowers and others used freedom of information laws to <a href="https://gowers.wordpress.com/2014/04/24/elsevier-journals-some-facts/">extract the relevant price information from universities in the UK</a>. In 2009, less extensive <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/111/26/9425.abstract">work in the USA</a> had also been done by Ted Bergstrom and colleagues. Data from <a href="https://avointiede.fi/web/openscience/publisher_costs">Finland</a> and <a href="http://www.vsnu.nl/en_GB/cost-of-publication">Netherlands</a> has recently been made public. </p>
<p>I requested data from seven of New Zealand’s eight universities, which collectively have around 8400 academic/research staff and 130000 students. The process was long and required persistence. Following the Ombudsman’s ruling, the universities complied, supplying me with data on spending on journals from Elsevier, Springer, Wiley and Taylor &amp; Francis. </p>
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<p>There are some subtleties, such as assumptions about exchange rate conversions and exactly which products from the listed publishers the money is spent on. Interested readers can consult the <a href="https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.5656054">raw data</a>.</p>
<h2>Is open access the answer?</h2>
<p>The restricted access inherent in the subscription model makes it hard for journalists, politicians and the general public to use scholarship for better evidence-based decision making.</p>
<p>Recently, open access journals have emerged. They place no barriers on readers but still have production costs. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_access#Journals:_gold_open_access">“Gold Open Access” model</a>, in which authors or funders typically pay for each article, has become popular with traditional publishers. They often set the article processing charge level at around US$2000 to US$3000. </p>
<p>The analysis above implies that wholesale conversion to such article processing charges will not save money for universities. <a href="http://bjoern.brembs.net/2017/11/is-a-cost-neutral-transition-to-open-access-realistic/">Several independent estimates</a> put a reasonable article processing charge at no more than US$500 (less in some disciplines).</p>
<p>The key problem is not the particular model of payment for journal article production and distribution, but the dysfunctional market in publishing services. Although they are a large part of the problem, commercial publishers are not entirely to blame. For example, the research community uses historical journal reputation to evaluate researchers, making it harder for new, better run journals to enter the market. </p>
<h2>The right kind of open access</h2>
<p>Even with the best will in the world, there is an inevitable time lag for new journals to become established. To make faster progress, it is necessary to decouple the ownership of current journal titles from the provision of editorial and publication services, so that competition among publishers helps to control prices. This reclaiming of community control is the most fundamental of the recently formalised <a href="http://fairoa.org">Fair Open Access Principles</a>. </p>
<p>New organisations such as <a href="http://mathoa.org/">MathOA</a>, <a href="http://psyoa.org">PsyOA</a>, <a href="http://lingoa.eu">LingOA</a> and the <a href="http://fairoa.org">Fair Open Access Alliance</a> have been set up to facilitate large-scale conversion of subscription journals to an open access model, with community control of journals and no direct author payments. This of course involves mass defections by editorial boards.</p>
<p>We expect that global savings of at least 75% of current payments to journals can be made by using modern publishing providers such as <a href="https://scholasticahq.com/">Scholastica</a> and <a href="https://www.ubiquitypress.com/">Ubiquity</a>, and by reallocating subscription payments toward article processing charges. What is the research community waiting for?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88392/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark C. Wilson is a board member for MathOA, and its delegate to the Fair Open Access Alliance. Both of these are nonprofit organizations registered in the Netherlands.</span></em></p>Universities in New Zealand spent close to US$15 million on subscriptions to just four publishers in 2016, data that was only released following a request to the Ombudsman.Mark C. Wilson, Senior Lecturer, Department of Computer Science, University of AucklandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/882342017-12-12T03:30:30Z2017-12-12T03:30:30ZHere's looking at Rachel Ruysch’s Still life with flowers in a glass vase<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196657/original/file-20171128-2016-1f9owd4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Detail from Rachel Ruysch, Still life with flowers in a glass vase, 1716, oil on canvas, 48.5 x 39.5 cm, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
</span> </figcaption></figure><p>Linda Nochlin’s provocative question “Why have there been no great women artists?”, posed in her groundbreaking 1971 essay of the same name, will resonate with visitors to the exhibition <a href="https://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/exhibitions/rembrandt/">Rembrandt and the Dutch golden age: masterpieces from the Rijksmuseum</a>. It presents a survey of 17th-century Dutch art, which includes only two women amongst the 50-or-so artists represented. </p>
<p>One of these artists, Rachel Ruysch, attracted much attention from visitors on the day I attended the exhibition. While few recognised her name, those I spoke with were more than prepared to label her painting, Still life with flowers in a glass vase of 1716, a “great” work of art. Why then have the talents of women artists like Ruysch not been more widely acknowledged? </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198493/original/file-20171211-27698-p0vkvi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198493/original/file-20171211-27698-p0vkvi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=237&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A portrait of Rachel Ruysch by Godfried Schalcken, circa 1706.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Partially, this is due to a long history of – at best – neglect of women artists. Until recently, women were regularly blocked from pursuing a career in the arts. Consequently, few managed to establish themselves as professional artists. Ruysch was one of the few successful women artists of her age. Born in the The Hague in 1664, she gained international renown as a painter. Such was her reputation that her paintings regularly garnered prices in excess of most of Rembrandt’s – the headliner for the Rijksmuseum show.</p>
<p>Knowing Ruysch’s reputation in her own lifetime challenges the notion that the neglect of women artists can somehow be located exclusively within the past, when, it may be presumed, people were less enlightened than we are now. We too are to blame. For generations of critics and historians have been unable to effectively establish artists like Ruysch within the key narratives of art history. </p>
<p>This is, in part, due to the fact that women had very different experiences from the majority of (male) artists. For instance, women rarely had access to the human body to make anatomical studies. This made it problematic for women to paint in some genres. Ruysch mostly painted bouquets of flowers – a subject matter that, to us, may seem less capable of providing deep commentary on the human condition than, say, a self portrait by Rembrandt.</p>
<p>Ruysch’s flowers are not beautiful distractions from a more serious art culture, however. They connect with deep cultural and philosophical values. A flourishing mercantile culture brought great wealth to the Dutch Republic, and with it, a taste for luxury goods. Tulip mania swept the Republic, with tulip bulbs fetching vast sums. Tulips could, almost unbelievably, sell for the same price as a house.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196659/original/file-20171128-2025-1oof2rp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/196659/original/file-20171128-2025-1oof2rp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The full painting: Rachel Ruysch, Still life with flowers in a glass vase, 1716, oil on canvas, 48.5 x 39.5 cm, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AGNSW</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ruysch’s family had a particular connection with flowers. Her father, Frederik Ruysch, was a renowned professor of anatomy and botany. Ruysch’s careful observation of the characteristics of flowers in her paintings speaks to a wider social investment in them, as well as the intellectual interests of her family, who valued innovations in empirical and scientific thinking.</p>
<p>Ruysch’s purpose in painting flowers is made clear through the recognition of a complex series of viewing experiences in Still life with flowers. Individual flower species are carefully rendered, to be easily identifiable.</p>
<h2>Complex symbolism</h2>
<p>The breathtaking accuracy in the technical aspect of Ruysch’s painting is the first thing to attract our attention. A deeper meaning awaits the viewer however. Complex symbolism runs through the work. </p>
<p>For example, the iris, depicted at the apex of her composition, refers to the Christian trinity, as iris petals form in groups of three. In Christian iconography, the trinity is typically depicted at the top of the composition. Ruysch, too, places her iris here. Furthermore, her flowers are often arranged into highly specific groupings to create a developed meaning for the viewer to decode. </p>
<p>This is the case with the white poppies and the Morning Glory at the centre left of the composition, which refer to the Crucifixion and Resurrection. White poppies are associated with sleep and death and Morning Glory (the blue and white flower behind the poppy, emerging from darkness into light) represents the Resurrection, as the flowers are know to open, from a previously dormant state, towards light at daybreak.</p>
<p>Further revelations come when, upon closer inspection, it is observable that the flowers in the painting are infested with insects. Insects, with their short life spans, speak to the fleeting nature of time. Insects also consume or destroy flowers. Their presence here calls into question the viewer’s initial delight in encountering the carefully manufactured loveliness of the work. </p>
<p>The appearance of the insects encourages the viewer to participate in the intellectual game that lies at the heart of the painting’s symbolism. At first we are attracted by its beauty – flowers shown in an ideal state of bloom – but only in order to recall the vanities of earthy life, fleeting in nature. Looking beyond these superficial interests, we discover deeper values and mores, as embodied in the Christian spiritual tradition.</p>
<p>As such, Ruysch’s work is valuable beyond its ornamental beauty. The painting creates an opportunity to look beyond surface meaning and engage in critical reflection.</p>
<p>Visitors to the exhibition certainly seemed to connect with Ruysch’s vision. They lingered in front of the work. They moved close to look at its details and stepped back to take in the full composition. From the conversations I had, it seemed there was a consensus that the painting was mesmerising and complex, rather than a simple, decorative depiction of flowers.</p>
<p><em>Rembrandt and the Dutch golden age masterpieces from the Rijksmuseum
is at the Art Gallery of New South Wales until February 18.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88234/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark De Vitis does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>During her lifetime, the paintings of Dutch artist Rachel Ruysch sold for higher prices than those of Rembrandt. Why, then, have her talents not been more widely acknowledged in the centuries since?Mark De Vitis, Lecturer in Art History , University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/890262017-12-12T02:40:31Z2017-12-12T02:40:31ZHow conservatives use identity politics to shut down debate<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198678/original/file-20171212-9392-1sdxnt9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">One of the worst examples of identity politics came from Malcolm Turnbull on Monday&#39;s Q&amp;A program.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">ABC News</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Conservatives are currently obsessed with identity politics. </p>
<p>Almost every issue of The Australian comes with a fusillade against the ways identity politics threaten civic discourse. And a <a href="http://www.afr.com/opinion/editorials/the-open-society-is-under-threat-20170926-gyosn4?login_token=ZUjbz-dVwigvhskFMZ9uixhbT93AFZAADtLOGSd-bKTmSAmDZ4pRy2pUe4E6XQrgnfBZQUv9PXVXfBl5Pzp1QA&amp;expiry=1513040566&amp;single_use_token=Q-XBT5jNUxcDEUH8F9Dq5i8KkI62qyQb6ozAllrld0YSSrV7FNPPg5brtCQp2wgM9qqQ_C8iLL3Q7DGbtQJIgA">Financial Review editorial</a> in September warned:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… thoughts, expression and questioning are now more likely to be silenced in the excess of identity politics, where race, gender, sexuality and group-think declarations have replaced class as the key political dividers.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Yet one of the worst examples of identity politics came from Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull in his <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/tv/qanda/txt/s4758471.htm">Q&amp;A appearance</a> on December 11. In opposing the idea of an elected Indigenous Advisory Council, he claimed that politicians such as <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Senators_and_Members/Parliamentarian?MPID=M3A">Ken Wyatt</a> and <a href="http://www.alp.org.au/linda_burney">Linda Burney</a> represent Indigenous Australians. In fact, they represent the electors of Hasluck and Barton – few of whom are Indigenous.</p>
<p>It is great that there are Indigenous politicians in parliament (Turnbull somehow forgot the two Labor senators, <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Senators_and_Members/Parliamentarian?MPID=SR5">Pat Dodson</a> and <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Senators_and_Members/Parliamentarian?MPID=122087">Malarndirri McCarthy</a>). But they are not there to “represent” Indigenous Australians any more than <a href="http://www.financeminister.gov.au">Mathias Cormann</a> is there to represent Belgian-Australians.</p>
<h2>Political party identities</h2>
<p>The primary identity of politicians in our system is their political party. Sometimes other identities will seem more important, as in the case of the four openly gay Liberal MPs who pushed their party toward a free vote on marriage equality, or <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Senators_and_Members/Parliamentarian?MPID=WF6">Michael Danby’s</a> support for Israel – which goes far beyond the views of his party.</p>
<p>What these cases suggest is the complex and overlapping nature of identities, and the trap of defining anyone by only one identity. Nor does belonging to a particular group, whether through race, ethnicity or gender, mean one automatically speaks “for” that group. <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/history/past-prime-ministers/margaret-thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a> or <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Senators_and_Members/Parliamentarian?MPID=SE4">Bronwyn Bishop</a> never sought to speak “for women”.</p>
<p>Identity politics, as we understand them, are often assumed to have emerged from the women’s, black and gay movements in the early 1970s. There is an earlier history, linked to the development of nationalist movements in 19th-century Europe, and the growth of anti-colonial movements across European empires.</p>
<p>Identity politics are born when people feel excluded because of something important to their sense of self – whether it be race, gender, sexuality or language. But they are also thrust upon people, as in the tragic case of those Jews who believed themselves to be 100% German until the Nazis came to power. </p>
<p>A sense of a shared history is crucial to empowering people who have been oppressed, and sometimes made invisible. When I was a schoolboy in Hobart we were taught that there were no Tasmanian Aborigines, who had effectively been wiped out by settlement. Today more than 4% of the state’s population identify as Indigenous.</p>
<h2>Not necessarily born this way</h2>
<p>Conservatives are particularly disturbed by the idea that gender identities might be fluid, which seemed their central concern in the marriage equality debate. </p>
<p>Ironically many of those who defend ideas of gender fluidity also believe their sexual identity is, in Lady Gaga’s words, “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wV1FrqwZyKw">born this way</a>”. In both cases the rhetoric ignores the evidence of both history and anthropology. </p>
<p>Identity politics are neither inherently left nor right. Some Marxists denounced the new social movements as threatening class unity, in terms rather like those who now see identity politics as fracturing a common polity.</p>
<p>One of the common <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/11/why-hillary-clinton-lost/507704/">criticisms</a> of Hillary Clinton’s US presidential campaign was that she spoke too often to specific groups, rather than in the language of inclusion. This is an odd argument given Donald Trump’s <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-elections/donald-trump-president-supporters-attack-muslims-hijab-hispanics-lgbt-hate-crime-wave-us-election-a7410166.html">blatant attacks</a> on Hispanics and Muslims, which were clearly an appeal to white Americans who felt their identities were under threat.</p>
<p>Most critics of identity politics speak as if they were above identity, when in practice their identities are those of the dominant group. <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Senators_and_Members/Parliamentarian?MPID=BK6">Pauline Hanson</a> excludes Aborigines, Asians and Muslims from her view of Australian identity, cloaked in the language of patriotism.</p>
<p>Like Hanson, those who attack identity politics are often most zealous in defending their own versions of identity. Current proposed changes to citizenship requirements are supported by an emphasis on “Australian values”, as if these are both self-evident and distinguishable from more universal values of political and civil rights. </p>
<p>On the same Q0&amp;A program Turnbull defined Australian values as based upon “multiculturalism”, which acknowledges that contemporary society is a mosaic of different and overlapping identities and communities. It is possible to argue that respect for cultural diversity is a national value, while ignoring the question whether Australian law treats all cultural values equally. </p>
<p>In practice, cultural diversity is clearly subordinate to a legal and political system heavily based on British precedents. A genuine multicultural identity might start by extending the term “ethnic” to include people of British ancestry, as much an “ethnicity” as any other. </p>
<h2>Identity as a means of exclusion</h2>
<p>Identity politics threaten democratic debate when they become a means of shutting down any comment that does not grow entirely out of experience. </p>
<p>Writers have been <a href="http://www.afr.com/lifestyle/arts-and-entertainment/books/the-new-and-troubling-debate-over-what-is-a-problematic-book-20171113-gzkluo">criticised</a> for creating characters who do not share their author’s race or gender; speakers shunned for expressing views that are deemed “insensitive”.</p>
<p>Writer Germaine Greer may have <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-10-25/germaine-greer-defends-views-on-transgender-issues/6883132">views</a> on transgender issues that should be opposed. But they should be met with rebuttal, not a refusal to listen. Critics of identity politics are right that zealousness in protecting identities can itself become repressive. </p>
<p>Identity politics become dangerous when they become an argument for exclusion. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, the most dangerous examples of exclusion come from those who clam to speak for “the people”, a term which itself depends upon a certain version of identity. The populists who attack identity politics do so while creating their own, limited image of national identity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89026/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dennis Altman does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Conservatives are often critical of 'identity politics' for silencing dissenting views. But on ABC's Q&A on Monday night Malcolm Turnbull presented a very narrow vision of national identity.Dennis Altman, Professorial Fellow in Human Security, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/883932017-12-12T02:39:45Z2017-12-12T02:39:45ZLucky winner: why this beach in WA claims the crown of Australia's whitest sand<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197087/original/file-20171130-12035-1e1cqvo.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The winner! Lucky Bay, Cape Le Grand National Park, Esperance WA. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Peter Masters</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In 2005, when I was chair of the <a href="http://www.soilscienceaustralia.org/ncst">National Committee on Soil and Terrain</a>, I started a debate: where is Australia’s whitest beach? This was a diversion from the committee’s normal business of looking at the sustainable management of Australia’s soils, but it led down a path I hadn’t expected.</p>
<p>What began as a bit of after-hours banter became a serious look across Australia in search of our whitest beaches. New South Wales had already laid claim to the title, arguing that Hyams Beach at Jervis Bay has the <a href="https://open.abc.net.au/explore/28273">whitest sand in the world</a>, purportedly backed up by Guinness World Records. </p>
<p>As it turned out, both claims were false. Guinness World Records has no such category, and the whitest beach (as we found) is actually elsewhere. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198664/original/file-20171211-9383-1x292qs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198664/original/file-20171211-9383-1x292qs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hyams beach in Jervis Bay, NSW, has been rumoured to have the whitest sand in Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kristina Kl./Flickr</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So we drafted terms of reference, and the search for <a href="http://www.whitestbeach.com">Australia’s Whitest Beach</a> began. Over the next year samples were collected across the nation. The criteria were simple: samples had to be taken from the swash zone (the gently sloping area between the water and the dunes) and the samples could not be treated in any way apart from air-drying. No bleaching. No sieving out of impurities. Marine environment only.</p>
<p>The results of the first judging in 2006 were startling. Of all the states and territories, the much promoted Hyams Beach in New South Wales came in fourth. Third was Victoria, second Queensland, and first Western Australia. </p>
<p>The other states and territories came in at Tasmania fifth, Northern Territory sixth, and South Australia seventh. The ACT didn’t have a beach to sample, although technically some of the Commonwealth lands around our coasts could possibly come in under their banner (but that’s another debate altogether). </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198662/original/file-20171211-9383-1y7qak8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198662/original/file-20171211-9383-1y7qak8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A sample of the main contenders for the whitest beach in Australia. Unfortunately, samples submitted from South Australia didn’t make the final cut.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo: Noel Schoknecht</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The winning beach was Lucky Bay in Cape Le Grand National Park on WA’s south coast, but in reality any of the beaches in this area could have been winners – Hellfire Bay, Thistle Cove and Wharton’s beach (just to name a few) are all magnificently white.</p>
<p>A quick qualification here: the southwestern end of Lucky Bay, where many people enter the beach, is covered with seaweed – not the whitest bit! I should also note that all of the finalists in the whitest beach challenge were in their own right fabulously white. But when compared side-by-side, some beaches are clearly whiter than others.</p>
<p>The Queensland team felt aggrieved, so in 2007 I carried out a repechage with new samples from Queensland at Whitehaven Beach in the Whitsundays, and Lake McKenzie on Fraser Island. Lake McKenzie was ultimately disallowed as it is a freshwater lake and the rules stipulated a marine environment. Meanwhile, Whitehaven didn’t quite cut the mustard in the judging and Lucky Bay in WA was again the winner.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198665/original/file-20171211-9416-v5kr92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198665/original/file-20171211-9416-v5kr92.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Whitehaven beach in Queensland just missed out on the top spot in the recount.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jared Yeh/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>So what makes a beach white, and is it important anyway?</h2>
<p>The assessments were based on a visual comparison, so to remove any possible visual bias after the 2007 challenge all the samples were scanned for their reflectance – how much light bounced off the sand, essentially – in the visible and infrared wavelengths. Our assumption was that higher reflectance throughout the visual spectrum correlates with greater whiteness. </p>
<p>As it turned out, the results from the scanning exactly correlated with the visual assessments. The eye is quite good at discerning small differences in colour and reflectance. (More background and the results from the competition are available <a href="http://www.whitestbeach.com">here</a>.)</p>
<p>So what makes a beach white? Obviously, a pristine environment helps. Another factor is the distance from rivers, which deliver coloured organic and clay contaminants to the coast. </p>
<p>The geology of the area and the source of the sand are also critical, with quartz seemingly a major requirement for fine sands. Most white sandy beaches are derived from granitic, or less commonly sandstone, geologies that weather to produce fine, frosted quartz sand grains. Interestingly, sands made from shell or coral fragments just aren’t as white.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198671/original/file-20171212-9392-1b85svb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198671/original/file-20171212-9392-1b85svb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The source of the sand is very important; sand made from shells or coral aren’t as white as quartz.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tracey Croke/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Is it important?</h2>
<p>While this competition began in fun, I do believe it’s important. Beaches are places of refuge in this crazy world, and a pristine white beach indicates a cleanliness that is worth striving for. The reflectance of light off these sands through shallow waters near the beach creates a surreal, magical turquoise colour. White beaches are like the canary in the coalmine – once they’re spoiled, we know we’re in trouble.</p>
<p>Even though this study was a first look at some of Australia’s whitest beaches, and sampling was limited, it did highlight the sheer number of wonderful sandy beaches that Australia has. </p>
<p>The story’s not finished though. There are many white beaches out there yet to be sampled, and if you’d like to alert me to your potentially award-winning beach please <a href="whitestbeachinaustralia@gmail.com">email me</a> or leave a comment on the <a href="https://whitestbeach.com/feedback/">whitest beach website</a>.</p>
<p>It’s our responsibility, and I believe honour, to protect these amazing places. I’m sure there are more wonderful beaches out there that we haven’t sampled which may defeat Lucky Bay. </p>
<p>Shelburne Bay in northern Queensland, for example, is a contender yet to be sampled, and there are some magnificent beaches on the east coast of Tasmania. Whatever the outcome, let’s celebrate the natural wonders that surround our country.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88393/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Noel Schoknecht is affiliated with Soil Science Australia</span></em></p>Lucky Bay on WA's south coast has been scientifically declared to have the whitest sand in Australia. But if you think your local beach can take the title, we want to hear from you.Noel Schoknecht, Senior research associate, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/868402017-12-12T01:49:57Z2017-12-12T01:49:57ZShould we eat breakfast like a king, lunch like a prince, and dinner like a pauper?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197068/original/file-20171130-12072-7mp1ox.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;rect=43%2C750%2C5708%2C2854&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">We&#39;re less able to burn fat and process carbs at night.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/431919016?size=huge_jpg">Shutterstock/Dean Drobot</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>We all know the adage “eat breakfast like a king, lunch like a prince, and dinner like a pauper”. But is there any truth behind this?</p>
<p>Eating a small dinner seems to makes sense if we think about our <a href="https://www.nigms.nih.gov/education/pages/Factsheet_CircadianRhythms.aspx">circadian rhythm</a> – our 24-hour body clock that helps us determine what time it is. It receives light from the eyes and tells us when we should wake up and when we should go to sleep. It also tells us the best time to digest food is during the day. </p>
<p>Yet dinner tends to be our largest meal and we eat almost <a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/84/5/1215.full">half our daily kilojoules in the evening</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more – <a href="https://theconversation.com/keeping-time-how-our-circadian-rhythms-drive-us-17">Keeping time: how our circadian rhythms drive us</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>When we eat during the night we burn less <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23174861">fat</a>. It’s still unclear why, but it may have something to do with how well <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14647218">fat is absorbed and transported</a> from our gut in the day and night. </p>
<p>Our body also finds it more difficult to process carbohydrates in the evening. This could be due to <a href="https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/5/716/2530790">reduced insulin sensitivity at night</a>. This is particularly pertinent to the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20122305">20% of the workforce</a> who are night shift workers and eat when they are meant to be sleeping. </p>
<p>The mismatch of sleep/wake cycles and eating is known as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24892891">circadian misalignment</a>, which can cause the post-meal levels of sugar and fat in our blood to be <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12097665">abnormally high</a>. For people who regularly work (and therefore eat) at night, this can lead to persistently high levels of sugar and fat in the blood, and an increased risk of developing <a href="http://www.bmj.com/content/345/bmj.e4800">diabetes, heart disease and stroke</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/power-naps-and-meals-dont-always-help-shift-workers-make-it-through-the-night-74745">Power naps and meals don’t always help shift workers make it through the night</a></em></strong></p>
<hr>
<p>The effects of <a href="https://www.waldeneatingdisorders.com/popular-searches/night-eating-syndrome-nes/">night eating</a> have led to the speculation that eating lighter dinners could be better for our weight too. Some <a href="https://fullplateliving.org/sites/default/files/recipes_ebook.pdf">health professionals</a> advise eating most of our kilojoules during the day and eating a smaller dinner as a way to lose weight. </p>
<p>To see whether eating most of our kilojoules in the evening is associated with excess weight, and if dieters lose more weight by eating a smaller dinners, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28967343">we reviewed</a> 18 studies that included more than 76,000 people. </p>
<p>When we examined all the evidence we found that overall, people who ate big dinners were not heavier than those who ate small dinners. Among dieters, we found that, on average, those who ate small dinners did not lose more weight than those who ate big dinners. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197456/original/file-20171203-5406-1ku9iol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Small dinner-eaters weren’t more likely to lose weight.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/foshydog/4270445346/in/photolist-7vn9C3-xafUR-WDiZsU-5ZcRH2-5nCNN9-79wuCg-aCasRn-nZtxUx-6Aynvq-5QeZhe-dXynWQ-6mAcNW-tN7yo-673C95-6XcGRq-9NzJVv-5Kguvx-HHYe2-cTYTrY-5GmmVR-5TERpg-VqERHh-dTggJ4-buoUGs-9ND4FA-7TCkTT-64qndv-b4LoX8-6gHaGR-7zu36u-xPEWS-9NA8FD-yPiXe-4Cryx-dVgjY4-VtpvRV-fapCpQ-eZ85ST-9NyoX4-yP8Ni-cKYaY5-67d5as-VqERF3-aCsk8a-6aBsjN-bUuxMe-4P9qke-4sVt5e-RkzPbS-6aBsku">Allan Foster/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The reasons are unclear, but perhaps the circadian rhythm of our metabolism is not be as straightforward as we thought. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26219416">Research</a> in healthy young people (aged 20 to 35) found metabolism was more efficient in the morning; while another <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0148607113482331?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&amp;rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&amp;rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed&amp;">study</a> of older, sick people (52 to 80 years) found that metabolism was actually higher at night. </p>
<p>If age and health status does affect the circadian rhythm of our metabolism, a blanket rule like eating dinner like a pauper may not be appropriate. </p>
<p>It could be that big-dinner eaters wake up feeling full and are “trained” to eat less during the day. This is called <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18187517">entrainment</a>, and would compensate for the extra food eaten at night.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more – <a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-is-breakfast-really-the-most-important-meal-of-the-day-31731">Health Check: is breakfast really the most important meal of the day?</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>It comes down to <em>what</em> and <em>how much</em> you eat over the day, rather than <em>when</em> you eat most of your food. Overindulging at breakfast and lunch and then eating a big dinner will make you <a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/kilojoules-and-calories">gain weight</a>. But the big dinner isn’t the only culprit, it’s the other meals as well that have pushed the kilojoule intake beyond the body’s needs.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.nutritionaustralia.org/national/resource/balancing-energy-and-out">Women need to eat around 8,000 kilojoules and men 9,900 kilojoules each day</a>. This will vary depending on your age and levels of physical activity. For a more specific estimate, you can calculate your kilojoule target <a href="http://www.8700.com.au/kj-explained/your-ideal-figure/">here</a>. </p>
<p>So eating a big dinner might be OK as long as you moderate your energy intake by eating less at other meals. Keep in mind that eating regular, moderately sized meals may help to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21123467">control your appetite</a> more effectively than gorging on fewer, larger meals.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/86840/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It comes down to what and how much you eat over the day, rather than when you eat most of your food.Mackenzie Fong, PhD Candidate in Obesity and Metabolism, University of SydneyClaire Madigan, Clinical Trials Manager/ Research Fellow Weight Management, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/890272017-12-12T01:30:57Z2017-12-12T01:30:57ZDastyari quits the Senate after pressure over his China links<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198677/original/file-20171212-9386-a9h31p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sam Dastyari leaves parliament but insists he is a patriotic Australian.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP/Ben Rushton</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Labor senator Sam Dastyari has succumbed to intense pressure to quit the Senate in the face of continued revelations that he had promoted Chinese interests. </p>
<p>Dastyari told a brief news conference, at which he took no questions, he had decided “the best service I can render to the federal parliamentary Labor Party is to not return to the Senate in 2018”.</p>
<p>He said his ongoing presence would detract from “the pursuit of Labor’s mission” and he wanted to spare the party “any further distraction”. </p>
<p>Earlier this week, it was revealed that in 2015 Dastyari tried to dissuade Labor’s then shadow foreign minister Tanya Plibersek from meeting a pro-democracy advocate during her trip to Hong Kong.</p>
<p>This followed an earlier revelation that Dastyari had tipped off his Chinese businessman benefactor, Huang Xiangmo – who is of interest to Australian security authorities – that his phone was likely tapped.</p>
<p>Opposition Leader Bill Shorten said that following their discussions, Dastyari had informed him he was resigning from the Senate. “I told him I thought this was the right decision.”</p>
<p>It is understood that Shorten had been in intensive talks with factional allies to resolve the Dastyari crisis. Labor had no power to force Dastyari out of parliament – and sources said he was reluctant to go.</p>
<p>In his statement, Dastyari strongly defended himself, saying he left parliament “knowing that I’ve always honoured my parliamentary oath”.</p>
<p>He said he had always acted with integrity “and I remain a loyal, patriotic Australian”.</p>
<p>Dastyari has been under sustained pressure to quit the Senate, with this week’s leak of his representations to Plibersek seen as part of the effort from within the ALP to get him out. On Monday <a href="https://theconversation.com/two-labor-frontbenchers-urge-sam-dastyari-to-consider-his-position-88949">two frontbenchers</a>, Linda Burney and Catherine King, made it clear he should consider his position.</p>
<p>Sources said some people in Labor’s right had been concerned about the precedent set by Dastyari having to resign – given that he had not done anything illegal.</p>
<p>The government had maintained a constant attack on Shorten for not forcing Dastyari to leave, casting the issue as a test of Shorten’s leadership.</p>
<p>Dastyari’s resignation comes in the dying days of the Bennelong byelection, which a <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/nation/bennelong-sits-on-knife-edge-as-voters-warm-to-kristina/news-story/37cffcb3ace703a1292df558f6c6bfa6">Newspoll</a> in Tuesday’s Australian shows as being extremely close. The Newspoll has the Labor and Liberal parties on a 50-50 two-party-preferred vote, and each on a 39% primary vote.</p>
<p>The byelection follows the resignation of the Liberals’ John Alexander in the citizenship crisis; he is being challenged by former New South Wales premier Kristina Keneally.</p>
<p>Keneally’s name has recently been mentioned as a possible replacement senator for Dastyari if she failed in her bid to win Bennelong.</p>
<p>Bennelong has a significant Chinese community, and the row about Dastyari and also more generally the concern about foreign interference in Australian politics, could have some influence in the byelection, although how those factors will play out there is unclear.</p>
<p>Dastyari entered the Senate in 2013. A former secretary of the NSW Labor Party, he has been a significant figure and numbers man in the NSW right faction. In parliament, he has been active on issues of banking and misconduct in that industry.</p>
<p>He said he would continue to be an active grassroots member of the Labor Party. </p>
<p>Shorten said that Dastyari could be proud of what he had achieved as a senator. “He has sought justice for the victims of banking misconduct, exposed the tax minimisations processes of international giants, pushed for a better deal for younger Australians and promoted an inclusive multicultural nation.”</p>
<p>Joseph Cheng Yu-Shek, the pro-democracy activist that Dastyari unsuccessfully tried to persuade Plibersek not to meet, told the ABC that Chinese authorities “operated a very powerful, very resourceful machinery trying to influence the policies of various foreign countries”.</p>
<p>“This machinery tries to cultivate ties with influential politicians, tries to persuade them to be friends of China, and as friends of China, they should avoid meeting enemies of China,” he said.</p>
<p>“If these situations become effective, the politicians concerned will be rewarded and then they will be pressured to do something even more compromising later,” he said.</p>
<iframe src="https://www.podbean.com/media/player/xac9s-7e77c6?from=site&amp;skin=1&amp;share=1&amp;fonts=Helvetica&amp;auto=0&amp;download=0" height="100" width="100%" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" data-name="pb-iframe-player"></iframe><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89027/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michelle Grattan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Sam Dastyari has given in to pressure from within his party and resigned from parliament, saying he had always acted with integrity.Michelle Grattan, Professorial Fellow, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/889482017-12-12T00:50:23Z2017-12-12T00:50:23ZInstead of rebuilding stadiums, the NSW government should focus on local sport and events<p>The <a href="https://sport.nsw.gov.au/news/20171124-world-class-stadiums">New South Wales government’s argument</a> for spending A$2 billion rebuilding stadiums is that Sydney is losing flagship events to other state capitals, leading to fewer tourists and less media exposure. But large investments in transportation and venues are a significant drain on the public purse, often for <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2804554">economic returns that rarely break even</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://festivalsproject.uow.edu.au/content/groups/public/@web/@sci/@eesc/documents/doc/uow060229.pdf">Our research</a> suggests that the NSW government should invest in smaller community events and sporting organisations that make use of existing facilities. We tracked 480 community events across Australia and found that they generated A$550 million in revenue. </p>
<p>These events also <a href="https://festivalsproject.uow.edu.au/content/groups/public/@web/@sci/@eesc/documents/doc/uow060229.pdf">contribute</a> more than A$10 billion a year to their local communities, support 100,000 jobs, and help build local business networks and skills. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198469/original/file-20171211-27705-2w9gzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198469/original/file-20171211-27705-2w9gzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=237&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Parkes Elvis Festival.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">John Connell and Chris Gibson (2017) Outback Elvis: The story of a festival, its fans &amp; a town called Parkes. Sydney: NewSouth Publishing</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The benefits of grassroots events</h2>
<p>In contrast to major, one-off events that require large infrastructure and marketing budgets, there are <a href="https://festivalsproject.uow.edu.au/content/groups/public/@web/@sci/@eesc/documents/doc/uow060229.pdf">thousands of small community events</a> across Australia every month. Each might only attract a few hundred people, but the revenue adds up. </p>
<p>Places that have consciously fostered <a href="https://search.proquest.com/openview/7d23592e18e916e4592302f48a70e266/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&amp;cbl=1036365">grassroots community events</a>, such as Ballarat and Hobart, enjoy healthy visitor numbers year-round, without overwhelming the local infrastructure.</p>
<p>Smaller community events make good use of existing facilities such as RSL clubs, showgrounds and parks. They tend to hire labour, PA systems, portaloos and catering from the local community, <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0739456X09354382">keeping dollars in circulation locally</a>. </p>
<p>In contrast to mega-events that subcontract management to large firms, community events integrate more participation from their local communities. This not only improves local business networks, but also <a href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/em/2015/00000019/00000004/art00002">enhances local skills and leadership</a>.</p>
<p><iframe id="IWy0y" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/IWy0y/4/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>The economics of large events doesn’t stack up</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2804554">evidence</a> also overwhelmingly shows that public investment in major events isn’t worth it. Promised benefits are often exaggerated, and in the words of a <a href="https://ideas.repec.org/p/cid/wpfacu/320.html">recent review</a> of the international research:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>…any increased economic activity resulting from the event is routinely dwarfed by additional public budgetary commitments.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/suspended-reality-the-ins-and-outs-of-rios-olympic-bubble-62692">Suspended reality: the ins and outs of Rio’s Olympic bubble</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Sydneysiders may have enjoyed the experience of hosting the 2000 Olympic Games, but increases in tourism and business investment <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07293682.2012.706960?src=recsys">failed to materialise</a>. Rio de Janeiro is <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/594d2320-5326-11e6-9664-e0bdc13c3bef">struggling with recession</a> in the wake of its 2016 Summer Olympics. The money spent on the Olympics would probably have been better spent upgrading hospitals and other infrastructure.</p>
<p>This is partly why cities are backing away from hosting major sporting events. When the International Olympic Committee opened the bidding for the 2024 Summer Olympic Games, all but two cities - Paris and Los Angeles - <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/feb/22/paris-los-angeles-olympics-budapest-withdrawal">withdrew their bids</a>.</p>
<p>The fact that no other city was prepared to bid shows that the justifications for lucrative mega-events are <a href="https://theconversation.com/sydneys-stadiums-debate-shows-sport-might-not-be-the-political-winner-it-once-was-88632">wearing thin</a>, both financially and politically. </p>
<h2>Misleading numbers</h2>
<p>The NSW government recently <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/latest-news/nsw-minister-defends-2b-stadium-spend/news-story/4cf3cc641e56ee3329227100c91f6d4f">defended its plan</a> to rebuild stadiums by arguing that the revenue generated by major sporting events will easily pay for itself within a few short years. Economists beg to differ. </p>
<p>Such estimates are typically based on conducting visitor surveys at events and asking punters to estimate their total spending. This is <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=O6xk6FU1s7MC&amp;lpg=PA74&amp;ots=lQDTtVl6Cq&amp;dq=info%3ABkKJyzMycN8J%3Ascholar.google.com&amp;lr&amp;pg=PA74#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false">not good research methodology</a>. </p>
<p>For one, people are <a href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cog/fmet/1996/00000004/F0020001/art00005">consistently inaccurate at estimating their spending</a> on the spot, only discovering the actual amount when they open their credit card statements. </p>
<p>It can also be hard for visitors to differentiate between money spent while at a specific event, and their spending elsewhere on their holiday. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198471/original/file-20171211-27677-i5kn9e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Visitors complete surveys at the Daylesford ChillOut Festival.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris Gibson</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also need to subtract all of the money that would have been spent whether or not a major event takes place. This <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/004728750104000110">includes</a> spending by people who live in the area, those who rescheduled travel plans to coincide with the event, and those who would have done some other activity (also known as “time-switching”) instead of going to the event. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/sydneys-stadiums-debate-shows-sport-might-not-be-the-political-winner-it-once-was-88632">Sydney’s stadiums debate shows sport might not be the political winner it once was</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>In other words, take all the Sydneysiders, casual visitors and time-switchers out of calculations of, say, weekly NRL game revenue at the Olympic or Sydney football stadia. The actual amount of “new” revenue for Sydney is much less impressive.</p>
<p>This is why a sober analysis of the true costs and benefits, and actual revenue numbers, are needed before governments rush to invest in major sports and event infrastructure.</p>
<p>If NSW truly wants to foster the events economy, the evidence suggests that money would be better spent on local community events and sporting organisations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88948/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Gibson receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>Research shows investment in large events doesn't pay off. There are thousands of community events across Australia that offer a better bang for buck.Chris Gibson, Director, UOW Global Challenges Program & Professor of Human Geography, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/887702017-12-12T00:05:05Z2017-12-12T00:05:05ZAs costs mount, the government should abandon the Cashless Debit Card<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198441/original/file-20171210-27677-12248fl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Cashless Debit Card trial disproportionately targets Indigenous people, despite what the government says.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP/Richard Milnes</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A Senate inquiry <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Community_Affairs/CashlessDebitCard/Report">has recommended</a> that trials of the Cashless Debit Card be continued and expanded to new sites in other states next year. This is despite <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Community_Affairs/CashlessDebitCard/Report/d01">Labor</a> and <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Community_Affairs/CashlessDebitCard/Report/d02">Greens</a> senators providing separate dissenting reports that rejected the recommendation that legislation for the bill should pass.</p>
<p>The majority report’s proposal dramatically contrasts with most of the <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Community_Affairs/CashlessDebitCard/Submissions">submissions accepted</a> by the inquiry raising significant concerns and arguing against the trials. These submissions outline a variety of serious issues that have been largely overlooked.</p>
<h2>What is the card?</h2>
<p>The trials for the Cashless Debit Card began in early 2016 in Ceduna, South Australia, and the East Kimberley in Western Australia. </p>
<p>The card quarantines 80% of social security payments received by all working-age people (between the ages of 15 and 64) in the trial sites. It attempts to restrict cash and purchases of alcohol, illegal drugs and gambling products. </p>
<p>The card compulsorily includes people receiving disability, parenting, carers, unemployed and youth allowance payments. People on the aged pension, on a veteran’s payment or earning a wage are not compulsorily included in the trial, but can volunteer to take part.</p>
<h2>The issues left unanswered</h2>
<p>The trial disproportionately targets Indigenous people, despite the government claiming the card is for both <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/DocumentStore.ashx?id=1fcbc7ab-effb-4092-bb42-9c743dadf7a5&amp;subId=560832">Indigenous and non-Indigenous</a> welfare recipients. This is disingenuous, given the card was first proposed as a key recommendation in mining magnate Andrew Forrest’s <a href="https://www.pmc.gov.au/resource-centre/indigenous-affairs/forrest-review">Review of Indigenous Training and Employment</a>. </p>
<p>This recommendation followed various other forms of income management, including a program that was part of the <a href="http://caepr.cass.anu.edu.au/highlights/evaluating-new-income-management-northern-territory-final-evaluation-report-and-summary">Northern Territory Intervention</a> in 2007.</p>
<p>The Intervention required the suspension of the Racial Discrimination Act to explicitly target all Indigenous people on welfare. <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/DocumentStore.ashx?id=5b3af532-0d22-44e2-9967-7731d0074a6f&amp;subId=561285">Concerns</a> about <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/DocumentStore.ashx?id=1fcbc7ab-effb-4092-bb42-9c743dadf7a5&amp;subId=560832">human rights</a> breaches continue, and most were overlooked by the <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Community_Affairs/CashlessDebitCard/Report">Human Rights Joint Committee’s commentary</a> on the Cashless Debit Card bill.</p>
<p>The trial of the card has increased hardship in people’s lives. This is not only because of the experiment’s disorganised and ill-conceived implementation, but also due to the trial’s design. </p>
<p>People are being compulsory included because there is an assumption that they engage in problematic behaviours, such as the over-consumption of alcohol, gambling, or the use of illegal drugs. But this is not the reality <a href="http://caepr.cass.anu.edu.au/research/publications/cashless-debit-card-trial-east-kimberley">for most people</a>.</p>
<p>Being put on the card has made people’s lives harder because limiting cash restricts people’s ability to undertake day-to-day activities to help their family’s wellbeing. This includes getting second-hand goods, paying for transport, and buying gifts. </p>
<p>This hardship is reflected in the <a href="https://www.dss.gov.au/about-the-department/feature/cashless-debit-card-trial-evaluation-final-evaluation-report">final evaluation of the trial</a>, in which 32% said their lives were worse since being on the card (only 23% said their lives were better). </p>
<p>Further, <a href="https://www.dss.gov.au/about-the-department/feature/cashless-debit-card-trial-evaluation-final-evaluation-report">48% of participants</a> reported that the card does not help them look after their children better. This is concerning, as recently completed research into income management programs indicates a correlation with <a href="https://www.menzies.edu.au/icms_docs/279201_Children_negatively_impacted_by_early_intervention_restrictions.pdf">negative impacts</a> on children – including a reduction in birth weight and school attendance.</p>
<p>Getting the assumptions wrong has pushed already vulnerable people into even more vulnerable situations. Medical specialists <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/DocumentStore.ashx?id=6d4e5cc9-7d8b-4567-bf87-9d10068d25ea&amp;subId=561286">have raised</a> concerns with the card being used to treat addiction.</p>
<p>Both crime and domestic assaults increased under the card in the East Kimberley. Superintendent Adams of the Kimberley Police District told the Senate inquiry that in the 12 months to June 30, 2016, there were 319 domestic assaults in Kununurra, but in the 12 months to June 30, 2017 (and the time of the trial), this figure had <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Community_Affairs/CashlessDebitCard/Report/d01">increased to 508</a>.</p>
<h2>Flawed evidence</h2>
<p>The government used both the interim and final evaluations as key evidence to justify extending the trials. </p>
<p>Both evaluations have been severely criticised as being <a href="http://caepr.cass.anu.edu.au/research/publications/cashless-debit-card-evaluation-does-it-really-prove-success">methodologically and analytically flawed</a>: from the way <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/sep/07/much-of-the-data-used-to-justify-the-welfare-card-is-flawed">interviews were conducted</a>, to having no baseline to test government claims of success, through to an over-emphasis on anecdotal improvements and discarding important issues such as the increase in crime and domestic violence.</p>
<p>The decision to implement the card was not a community decision that represents the regions’ diverse interests or population. And some have had more say than others. </p>
<p>For example, the Miriuwung Gajerrong Corporation <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/DocumentStore.ashx?id=9e59ccc9-b9e6-4fad-9fb6-2a992d84fd44&amp;subId=516467">noted</a> that, although the:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… Department of Social Services states that the Cashless Debit Card program was co-designed with local leaders in Kununurra … in reality, only four local leaders were consulted in relation to the introduction of the [card] in Kununurra. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Consultations themselves have not been about co-design, but have been tokenistic to <a href="http://caepr.cass.anu.edu.au/research/publications/cashless-debit-card-trial-east-kimberley">convince people to support the card</a>.</p>
<p>In a perverse twist, the only way people can get themselves off the trial is to get a job. Yet in both Ceduna and the East Kimberley, the biggest cause of unemployment is the lack of formal, dignified and secure jobs. Linking to unemployment, some people included in the trial are also subjected to the punitive <a href="http://regnet.anu.edu.au/research/publications/6984/modern-slavery-remote-australia">Community Development Program</a>. This compounds poverty, as the program’s nature induces high breaching rates.</p>
<p>Even if a few support the card, many more have suffered material and emotional hardship. The community has been fractured through <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/DocumentStore.ashx?id=98f47f0e-ff14-4156-ba37-5f25e05b43d9&amp;subId=561082">such heavy-handed intervention</a>. And the A$25 million spent on it has demonstrated no credible evidence of sufficient benefit to justify an ongoing rollout. </p>
<p>That the card continues to be pursued by government exposes its dogged obsession with implementing neocolonial and punitive policy for some imagined political gain at the expense of vulnerable people.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The author would like to thank professor Jon Altman and Sarouche Razi for comments on earlier drafts.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88770/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elise Klein receives funding from the British Academy. She gave evidence in the Senate&#39;s inquiry into the Cashless Debit Card. She is a member of the Australian Greens. </span></em></p>That the Cashless Debit Card continues to be pursued exposes a dogged obsession with implementing punitive policy at the expense of vulnerable people.Elise Klein, Lecturer in Development Studies, University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/886342017-12-11T19:15:16Z2017-12-11T19:15:16ZOlder people now less likely to fall into poverty<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198448/original/file-20171211-27686-1xnrbs9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;rect=107%2C95%2C1934%2C1174&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The incidence of poverty among people over 65 is decreasing in part because of increased labour force participation.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Col Ford and Natasha de Vere/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The risk of people past retirement age falling into poverty is now decreasing. There has been a substantial improvement compared to 15 years ago, when the incidence of poverty among the elderly was 32.4%.</p>
<p>People past retirement age are much more at risk of poverty compared to people of other ages. In 2014, 23% of people over 65 were identified as experiencing poverty, while among the general population this was 10.1%. </p>
<p>If we look at poverty in older age using three alternative, well-established, definitions: the Henderson Poverty Line, the OECD 50% poverty line and the OECD 60% poverty line, they all lead to very similar conclusions.</p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-we-could-make-the-retirement-system-more-sustainable-78185">How we could make the retirement system more sustainable</a></em></strong> </p>
<hr>
<p>The OECD 50% poverty line is defined as 50% of median household equivalent disposable income. Equivalised household income allows for differences in household composition, like the number of adults and children who live in the household. It therefore makes income comparable between households of different sizes. Someone is counted as poor if their equivalised disposable household income falls below this poverty line.</p>
<p>Applying this to data from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics Australia (HILDA) survey shows clear differences between ages. There’s a much larger incidence of poverty among people over 65, as well as a larger decrease in the poverty rate among those over 65. </p>
<p>Between 2000 and 2014, the prevalence of income poverty among older people declined by more than 9 percentage points, well above the decline of other age groups.</p>
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<p>There are a number of reasons for this decrease in the poverty rate. One is the increase in labour force participation from 6.9% to 12.5% for this older group, whereas for other age groups labour force participation has remained quite stable.</p>
<p>Another reason is the larger increase in pension rates (which is the typical social security payment for people over 65) compared to allowance rates (which is the typical social security payment for working-age people). From an already high base, the payment rates for the oldest age group clearly increased by the most.</p>
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<p>These two reasons combined account for over 75% of the decrease in poverty incidence. Increased private pensions account for a further large part of the decrease (nearly 41%), while changes in investment income would have increased the poverty rate. </p>
<h2>Why pensions are so important</h2>
<p>This shows just how important public and private pensions are for the standard of living of older people. Given that more and more people will be covered by superannuation, we expect that poverty rates will further decline in the future. However, maintaining the value of public pensions is equally important as a substantial proportion of people over 65 will remain dependent on these payments.</p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-can-we-prevent-financial-abuse-of-the-elderly-84991">How can we prevent financial abuse of the elderly?</a></em></strong> </p>
<hr>
<p>Those dependent on the age pension include people with a disability during their working life, and many women, as they remain the ones who are more frequently out of the labour force and working part time to raise children. As a result, these groups have less opportunity to build up sufficient superannuation. However, the age pension may perhaps be better targeted. </p>
<p>Although the largest increases in income support are for those classified as poor (with the largest average increase observed for those over 65), the non-poor population over 65 also receives a substantial increase in income support.</p>
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<p>The increase in payments for people who aren’t poor and over 65 is nearly as large as the increase for those classified as poor who are aged 15 to 64. Payments for working-age people have only been increased with inflation, while pensions increased at the same rate as average earnings which has generally been higher than inflation. </p>
<p>To better alleviate poverty for our whole population, government payments for working-age people need to keep up with average earnings like the pensions do. If the government is not prepared to direct more resources to income support payments, they need to treat different age groups more equally. This means better targeting payments among our older population and using any savings to increase payments for the working-age population at a similar rate as pensions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88634/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Guyonne Kalb does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There has been a substantial improvement compared to 15 years ago, when the incidence of poverty among the elderly was 32.4%.Guyonne Kalb, Professorial Research Fellow and Director of the Labour Economics and Social Policy Program, University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/885612017-12-11T19:15:00Z2017-12-11T19:15:00ZThree reasons Australians should be concerned that NGOs' voices are not being heard<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198479/original/file-20171211-27693-19krp0c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The government has been criticised for its appointment of Gary Johns to head up Australia&#39;s independent charities regulator.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP/Mick Tsikas</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A healthy democracy is built on the premise that public debate should allow for many and diverse voices to be heard as part of the contest for ideas that informs policymaking. If Australians want this to be the case, the current state of play offers three reasons for concern.</p>
<h2>NGOs are self-silencing</h2>
<p>The first is the finding in <a href="https://civilvoices.com.au/">our research</a>, released today, that Australian NGOs are self-silencing. Our data show that many not-for-profit organisations, representing some of Australia’s most disadvantaged people, are cautious about advocating dissenting views for fear of losing government funding and other forms of political retribution.</p>
<p>Of the 1,462 senior representatives of Australian NGOs surveyed, more than half think our political culture is not encouraging of political debate. </p>
<p>The survey identified the barriers to being heard included: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>fears of funding cuts</p></li>
<li><p>less access to policymaking processes than in the past</p></li>
<li><p>fewer resources available for advocacy</p></li>
<li><p>lack of media interest</p></li>
<li><p>restrictive clauses in government funding agreements that limit public commentary.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>More than 80% of respondents have deductible gift recipient (DGR) status. This means they can accept donations from the public. 40% directly linked the prospect of speaking out as a threat to their DGR status. </p>
<p>The result is a degree of self-silencing or “quiet advocacy”, where charities and not-for-profits attempt to minimise the risk of retribution by selectively choosing which battles to fight. </p>
<p>As one respondent said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>As a non-profit receiving government funding we are concerned about any negative perceptions that governments may form and possible repercussions.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Another wrote: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Advocacy could adversely impact relationships and government decision-making on funding and engagement. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>And: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>In general, our advocacy is quiet and within the government’s defined consultation frameworks. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Put more simply, another said we “pick our battles carefully”.</p>
<p>While the survey found that advocacy is not the foremost function of most not-for-profit organisations, advocacy matters. This is because, according to liberal-democratic theory, citizens should be able to encounter diverse and multiple viewpoints, including those of dissenting voices and those critical of the state.</p>
<h2>Trust in government fades</h2>
<p>Spanish sociologist <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0002716207311877">Manuel Castells</a> reminds us that, in a democracy, the relationship between the state and civil society is key, because:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… without an effective civil society capable of structuring and channelling citizen debates over diverse ideas and conflicting interests, the state drifts away from its subjects.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In other words, democratic representation is called into question. </p>
<p>This might go some way to explaining falling levels of public trust in government in many developed democracies – including Australia. In 2016, the ANU’s long-running <a href="http://www.australianelectionstudy.org/trends.html">Trends in Australian Political Opinion</a> survey found that 74% of respondents believed people in government look after themselves. This was up from 66% in 2013.</p>
<p>Our study had a similar finding: 71% of NGOs said people in government are more likely to look after themselves than be trusted to do the right thing. </p>
<p>But our findings were less bleak than the benchmark survey of the NGO sector <a href="http://www.tai.org.au/documents/dp_fulltext/DP65.pdf">undertaken in 2004</a>. It found that NGOs felt the government was undermining their credibility, shutting them out of civic discourse, defunding (or threatening to defund) organisations that were considered uncooperative, and micromanaging NGO activities by dismantling peak bodies.</p>
<p>Those historic findings have not-so-faint echoes of a second cause for concern: the Turnbull government’s <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2017/dec/07/charities-criticise-bizarre-appointment-of-anti-charities-campaigner-as-head-of-regulator">recent appointment</a> of Gary Johns to head the Australian Charities and Not-for-profits Commission (ACNC). </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Further reading: <a href="https://theconversation.com/charity-regulators-should-not-assume-that-donors-always-know-best-88926">Charity regulators should not assume that donors always know best</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>The former federal Labor MP and commentator with right-wing think-tank the Institute of Public Affairs has <a href="https://probonoaustralia.com.au/news/2017/12/who-is-gary-johns/">previously argued</a> that advocacy should not be considered a purpose of charities. In this regard he has singled out environmental not-for-profit groups.</p>
<h2>Uncertainty over the ACNC’s role</h2>
<p>A third issue is the ACNC’s <a href="http://kmo.ministers.treasury.gov.au/media-release/114-2017/">newly-expanded powers</a>.</p>
<p>While little detail has yet been provided of what the reform of “the administration and oversight of organisations with Deductible Gift Recipient (DGR) status” will involve, Revenue Minister Kelly O’Dwyer did make clear that the ACNC and the tax office will receive extra funding to “review a greater number of DGRs for ongoing eligibility”.</p>
<p>After his appointment, <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/opinion/columnists/gary-johns/charities-commission-my-job-is-to-keep-them-transparent-efficient/news-story/87062c8b28aef4a35b6e6afe335a610e">Johns said</a> the ACNC’s goal will be to help:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… the donor market drive the charity dollar to its most efficient and best uses. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>How he conceives “best uses” is a matter that time will tell. Until then, Australians have reason to be apprehensive that some civil voices are not being heard in our liberal democracy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88561/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrea Carson was commissioned to do this research by Probono Australia with the Human Rights Law Centre. Andrea did not personally receive any income or other material benefits from doing this research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Maddison was commissioned to do this research by Probono Australia with the Human Rights Law Centre. She did not personally receive any income or other material benefits from doing this research.</span></em></p>Australians have reason to be apprehensive that some civil voices are not being heard in our liberal democracy.Andrea Carson, Lecturer, Media and Politics, School of Social and Political Sciences; Honorary Research Fellow, Centre for Advancing Journalism, University of MelbourneSarah Maddison, Associate Professor, School of Social and Political Sciences, University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/888572017-12-11T19:14:33Z2017-12-11T19:14:33ZFacebook's new Messenger Kids app could be good for digital literacy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198444/original/file-20171211-27686-13teiaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Facebook&#39;s Messenger Kids has sparked debate about what age children should be using messaging apps.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/minsk-belarus-january-3-2017-boy-547520305">Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Facebook is trialling a new <a href="https://newsroom.fb.com/news/2017/12/introducing-messenger-kids-a-new-app-for-families-to-connect/">Messenger Kids</a> app in the United States. </p>
<p>The standalone app is aimed at under-13s, who aren’t currently eligible for a normal Facebook account. Parents are responsible for setting up the account and approving any contacts their children add. Kids can then use the app to video chat – both one-on-one or in a group – and send photos, videos and text messages. Currently only available in the US on Apple devices, <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/kathleenchaykowski/2017/12/04/facebook-debuts-new-messenger-app-thats-only-for-kids/#40cd4309722c">Facebook expects to extend it to a wider audience in the coming months</a>.</p>
<p>In the week since the app launched, headlines have focused on its potential downsides, amid concerns about <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/dec/10/data-hungry-facebook-seeks-younger-recruits-messenger-kids">data privacy</a>, <a href="https://quartzy.qz.com/1148385/why-i-wont-let-my-children-near-facebooks-messenger-for-kids/">tech addiction</a> and <a href="https://www.thriveglobal.com/stories/18263-facebook-s-messenger-app-just-for-kids-raises-a-lot-of-questions">kids’ well-being</a>.</p>
<p>But I argue that there is another side to this story: the fact that teaching kids about messaging at a young age is essential to preparing them for the hyper-connected world they will need to navigate in the future.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/scare-mongering-about-kids-and-social-media-helps-no-one-44902">Scare-mongering about kids and social media helps no-one</a></em></p>
<hr>
<h2>It’s already happening</h2>
<p>At the moment, there is relatively little research in Australia about toddlers’ and children’s use of digital technologies. But <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/650933/Literature_Review_Final_October_2017.pdf">studies in the UK</a> and <a href="http://journal.media-culture.org.au/index.php/mcjournal/article/view/1024/0">emerging Australian studies</a> suggest that kids are going online at ever earlier ages, and doing a much wider range of activities. </p>
<p>Children younger than 13 are already <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-06-28/social-media-stats/8660192">using social media</a>, and messaging functionality is increasingly built into the “communicative ecology” of families. </p>
<p>On a recent overseas work trip, I shared photos and messages with my nine-year-old daughter via her dad’s Facebook Messenger account. Like most kids her age in Australia, she <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-02-15/children-now-spend-more-time-online-than-watching-tv/8272708">has daily access to a mobile phone or tablet</a>.</p>
<p>And like the <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/8146.0">average Australian household</a> with children younger than 15, we have seven internet-enabled devices in our home. But we don’t have a landline, so web apps, including social messaging apps, are becoming more central to our family communication. </p>
<p>Messaging is also embedded in multi-player games used by older children, such as Minecraft and Clash of Clans. </p>
<p>There are both <a href="http://raisingchildren.net.au/articles/video_games.html">challenges and benefits</a> associated with kids connecting with others via games and apps, but the functionality is not going to go away. Learning how to navigate social media together is now a key feature of childhood and parenting. </p>
<h2>Messaging can be good for kids</h2>
<p>The Facebook app is an interesting innovation in the social media space precisely because it promotes learning about and using social media together with kids. The focus is on developing online skills by supporting communication with known relatives and friends, because kids can only connect with parent-approved contacts.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198464/original/file-20171211-27674-1uccv3e.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198464/original/file-20171211-27674-1uccv3e.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The app has parental controls built into its functionality that allow parents to approve contacts through their main Facebook app.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.fb.com/news/2017/12/introducing-messenger-kids-a-new-app-for-families-to-connect/">Facebook</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As leading kids and tech commentator <a href="https://www.netfamilynews.org/">Anne Collier has written</a>, the most significant thing about the app is that while it has plenty of parental controls built into it, the app itself is not actually a parental control tool. Rather, it is a service that kids and their families and friends will need to learn to use - and use well - together.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/text-messaging-isnt-like-ruining-young-peoples-grammar-28145">Text-messaging isn’t, like, ruining young people’s grammar</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p><a href="http://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/11803/1/Intergenerational-Attitudes-Towards-Social-Networking-and-Cybersafety.pdf">Evidence already exists</a> to show that social media can be good for mental health, building friendships, and resilience. </p>
<p>The app will evolve over time as kids and parents use it. What is important is that parents do not become complacent about the app as a “silver bullet” solution to educating children about the internet. Rather, we need to see it as just one tool to foster healthy, respectful relationships with our kids, and learn through the technology. </p>
<h2>Bullying and data privacy</h2>
<p>For now the Facebook Messenger Kids app features no ads, in-app purchases or sharing of data with other apps on the same device. But as with all websites and apps, this one will be fallible. Learning to think about what we share and how we share it (just like when you meet someone in a park) will still be important on this app.</p>
<p>Bullying can happen anywhere and it is possible – <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-parents-and-teens-can-reduce-the-impact-of-social-media-on-youth-well-being-87619">as we’ve seen before</a> – that the app could extend bullying beyond the schoolyard. But all contacts in the app must be pre-approved by parents, and it has reporting features with pop-up feedback, dedicated content moderation, and notifications to parent Facebook accounts. Those features should enable parents to stay better abreast of how kids are using it. Unlike Snapchat and other apps, content can’t be deleted. This will also help kids and parents review communication, and take necessary steps if someone is being mean or harassing.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/screen-time-is-about-more-than-setting-limits-79538">‘Screen time’ is about more than setting limits</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>There are <a href="https://zephoria.com/top-15-valuable-facebook-statistics/">more than 2 billion Facebook users</a> worldwide, and the chances are that our kids will soon add to those statistics. Facebook and other major platforms should be part of a broader effort to help kids and parents learn how to communicate safely and respectfully in a world saturated with social media. </p>
<p>And we should all develop critical digital literacy skills by <a href="https://theconversation.com/sorry-everyone-on-the-internet-youre-always-the-product-77235">learning about who is behind the apps and platforms we use, and what happens to our information and data</a>. If using the Facebook Messenger Kids app helps to promote these conversations, that is a very good thing.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88857/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Philippa Collin has received funding from the Australian Research Council, Google Australia/NZ and other government departments. However, the views expressed here are her own. </span></em></p>Many parents are fearful about their children being online. Messaging services for children could help both kids and parents learn how to communicate safely and respectfully in the digital space.Philippa Collin, Senior Research Fellow, Institute for Culture and Society, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/883212017-12-11T19:14:13Z2017-12-11T19:14:13ZDebauchery on the fatal shore: the sex lives of Australia's convicts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198490/original/file-20171211-27693-1i0hadv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A chain gang of convicts in Hobart</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">State Library of NSW</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Welcome to our series on sexual histories, in which our authors explore changing sexual mores from antiquity to today.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>In 1787, when Arthur Phillip was preparing to lead the First Fleet to establish the British colony in New South Wales he wrote to his superiors to sort out what powers he would have over convicts and the soldiers sent to guard them. At one point, he addressed his power of life and death. Only two offences, he thought, deserved the death penalty – murder and sodomy:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>For either of these crimes I would wish to confine the criminal until an opportunity offered of delivering him to the natives of New Zealand, and let them eat him. The dread of this will operate much stronger than the fear of death.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>It might not look like it, but Phillip was expressing a rather liberal point of view here. In Britain at this time, there were hundreds of offences that attracted the death penalty. In reducing his list to two he was flying in the face of all common sense. But it is striking that sodomy is on his little list.</p>
<p>While the administration took a dim view of same-sex desire, sex between men and between women flourished in Australia’s convict system - and thanks to the watchful eye of the colonial government, we know much about it. </p>
<h2>Crime and punishment</h2>
<p>Phillip’s views on sodomy were not an unreasonable position at the time. The Christian Bible was very clear that men who lay with men as with women were deserving of death; and the law – which had been instituted by Henry VIII, that great defender of the nation’s morals – agreed.</p>
<p>As it happened, Phillip, who served as governor until 1792, never got to put his policy into practice. There were no executions for sodomy; nor was anyone shipped off to New Zealand. Watkin Tench, a First Fleeter, opined that there were few “crimes of a deep dye” in the first four years of the colony and that “murder and unnatural sins rank not hitherto in the catalogue of [the convicts’] enormities”.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198496/original/file-20171211-27689-1p7iz8f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198496/original/file-20171211-27689-1p7iz8f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The convict ruins at Port Arthur.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The first prosecution only came in 1796 when Francis Wilkinson, a labourer, was charged with “that most horrid detestable and sodomitic crime (among Christians not to be named) called Buggery”. We don’t know his fate. The first execution for sodomy that we know of was of Alexander Brown in 1828. This execution is perhaps the first sign of a coming storm. Historian Robert French estimates that about 20 men were executed as sodomites between 1828 and 1863.</p>
<p>By the 1830s, the free settlers in NSW were desperate to put an end to the transportation of convicts to the colony. There were many reasons for this, but one most forcefully put was that it was undermining the moral development of the colony. In the thinking of the time, criminality, including sodomy, was seen as a physical degeneracy passed from generation to generation. So convicts were seen by very nature to be poor stock with which to colonise the country.</p>
<p>And the disproportion of men to women was seen as leaving the convict classes prey to the temptation of sodomy. The Chaplain of Fremantle Prison wrote in 1854,</p>
<blockquote>
<p>What will ensue when we have thousands of men cooped up in the colony without wives and unable to seek them elsewhere. Evil will be the result – too humiliating for the mind to dwell upon– too revolting to name. … That moral evil of far greater magnitude, which has of old brought down the signal judgment of Heaven, will result.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Love in plain sight</h2>
<p>But if the anxieties of the authorities had unleashed a wave of debate and discussion about the dangers of debauchery, it is important to be aware that there is another way of looking at this – recognising that sodomy was also part of the lived experience of convict men and women, and that their experience was not at all the same as that of the horrified authorities. </p>
<p>Where respectable colonists saw filth and moral evil, there is evidence that convict women and men experienced companionship, affection and attachment, which included sexual love. Consider this letter, written by a convict in 1846 on the eve of his being hanged:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I hope you wont forget me when I am far away and all my bones is moldered away I have not closed an eye since I lost sight of you your precious sight was always a welcome and loving charming spectacle. Dear Jack I value Death nothing but it is in leaving you my dear behind and no one to look after you … The only thing that grieves me love is when I think of the pleasant nights we have had together. I hope you wont fall in love with no other man when I am dead and I remain your True and loving affectionate Lover.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198492/original/file-20171211-27683-a2ksbv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198492/original/file-20171211-27683-a2ksbv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The convicts’ barracks at Hyde Park in Sydney.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/adam_jones/11215659254">Adam Jones/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We know quite a lot about love between convicts because they were being constantly monitored by the authorities. In 1841 there was an inquiry into a riot at the Launceston female factory (prison/workhouse) which discovered that sexual relationships between women were common – “depraved” behaviour, “unnatural connection” and the like. </p>
<p>One witness identified six female couples by name; others suggested there were anything from eight to 30 such couples. It was said that there were cases where a woman, sent out of the factory and into private service, would reoffend, so as to be sent back to where her lover was. When the authorities tried to break up couples, women would refuse to leave their cells, or even riot.</p>
<p>The medical superintendent of the Ross female factory – who habitually intercepted the women’s letters – reported on “warmth and impetuosity of the feelings excited in women towards each other, when allied in such unholy bonds”. (It is highly likely that he used the term “unholy bonds” having in mind the “holy bonds” of matrimony, suggesting that these women saw themselves as married).</p>
<p>An 1837 British parliamentary inquiry into the transportation system heard much evidence of the extent of debauchery among the convicts. The inquiry came to be believe there was a semi-underground subculture (a “demi-monde”) in existence. </p>
<p>New arrivals at the Hyde Park barracks, including younger men, put themselves selves under protection of older men – and adopted names such as Kitty, Nancy, Bett. On Norfolk Island, Robert Stuart reported as many as 150 male couples, who referred to themselves openly as “man and wife”. (Same-sex marriage is not as new as we might think).</p>
<p>Relationships among the convicts were of course many different things: situational – a desire for sexual outlet in the absence of the other sex - or coercive, expressing power over someone lower down the pecking order. </p>
<p>They may have been about the more desirable trading sex and affection for protection and advancement. All of these applied, of course, just as much to heterosexual relationships. But as with these, love between men or between women was often enough just that – love.</p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88321/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Graham Willett does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Governor Arthur Phillip regarded sodomy as one of the worst offences that convicts under his charge could commit. But sex between men and between women flourished in convict Australia.Graham Willett, Honorary Fellow, School of Historical and Philosophical Studies, University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/876132017-12-11T19:13:53Z2017-12-11T19:13:53ZSocial media can be bad for youth mental health, but there are ways it can help<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197714/original/file-20171205-23002-1gi00fs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;rect=0%2C14%2C4893%2C3237&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Studies have found scrolling through Instagram is linked with increased depression. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/0Uj1YZPAKNQ"> ANDRIK LANGFIELD PETRIDES/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Young people spend a lot of time on social media. They’re also more susceptible to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11860057">peer pressure</a>, <a href="https://www.sensis.com.au/about/our-reports/sensis-social-media-report">low</a> <a href="https://www.acma.gov.au/-/media/mediacomms/Report/pdf/Like-post-share-Young-Australians-experience-of-social-media-Quantitative-research-report.pdf?la=en">self-esteem</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17551351">mental ill-health</a>. A number of studies have found associations between increased social media use and <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563216307543">depression, anxiety</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27294324">sleep problems</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5003636/">eating concerns</a>, and <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2167702617723376">suicide risk</a>.</p>
<p>Certain characteristics of social media <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-social-media-to-blame-for-the-worsening-mental-health-of-teenage-girls-64333">may contribute</a> to these negative effects.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-social-media-to-blame-for-the-worsening-mental-health-of-teenage-girls-64333">Is social media to blame for the worsening mental health of teenage girls?</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<h2>Cyberbullying</h2>
<p>Cyberbullying has been linked to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20658375">depression</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27528471">anxiety</a>, <a href="https://www.ditchthelabel.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/The-Annual-Bullying-Survey-2017-1.pdf">social isolation</a>, and suicide. Compared to “traditional” forms of bullying, cyberbullying can be witnessed by a larger audience, the perpetrator can remain anonymous, and the victim may find it <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17405629.2016.1200461">difficult to escape</a>. </p>
<p>Social media platforms have taken steps to address cyberbullying (such as Facebook’s “<a href="https://www.facebook.com/safety/bullying/">bullying prevention hub</a>”), and almost all social media content can be reported to site administrators. But many victims <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284793882_Cyberbullying_Experiences_impacts_and_coping_strategies_as_described_by_Australian_young_people">don’t seek support</a>, and <a href="https://www.ditchthelabel.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/The-Annual-Bullying-Survey-2017-1.pdf">research suggests</a> 71% of young people don’t think social media platforms do enough to prevent cyberbullying.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197715/original/file-20171205-22996-vjhvch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197715/original/file-20171205-22996-vjhvch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cyberbullying can be witnessed by a larger audience, the perpetrator can remain anonymous, and the victim may find it difficult to escape.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Comparisons to unrealistic portrayals</h2>
<p>A <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0193397308001408">common social media activity</a> is viewing others people’s profiles. But these frequently portray <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260285535_Examining_Social_Networking_Site_Behaviors_Photo_Sharing_and_Impression_Management_on_Facebook">edited versions of people’s lives</a>, such as only displaying images in which the <a href="http://www.cdmc.ucla.edu/Published_Research_files/mggs-2008.pdf">person looks attractive</a> or is <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563208000204">seen enjoying themselves</a>. </p>
<p>So <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/aug/23/girls-and-social-media-you-are-expected-to-live-up-to-an-impossible-standard">young people</a> may develop an impression <a href="https://www.ditchthelabel.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/The-Annual-Bullying-Survey-2017-1.pdf">other people’s lives</a> are <a href="https://ai2-s2-pdfs.s3.amazonaws.com/8ec2/a88e39453b50ada493a79371b03be15a5299.pdf">preferable to their own</a>. </p>
<p>This can be made worse by the social endorsement provided by the number of “<a href="http://www.childpsych.theclinics.com/article/S1056-4993(16)30120-1/abstract">likes</a>” a post might get. <a href="https://www.ditchthelabel.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/The-Annual-Bullying-Survey-2017-1.pdf">In one study</a>, nearly one-fifth of respondents said they’d delete a post if it didn’t receive enough “likes”.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/with-teen-mental-health-deteriorating-over-five-years-theres-a-likely-culprit-86996">With teen mental health deteriorating over five years, there’s a likely culprit</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197716/original/file-20171205-22989-evyps3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197716/original/file-20171205-22989-evyps3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People post highly curated and edited versions of their life so their followers only see the good stuff.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/RGjg_IVCwsE">Ragnar Vorel/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Suicide and self-harm content</h2>
<p>The potential negative impact of social media on at-risk <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25702826">young people</a> is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28228064">receiving</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26613372">increasing</a> <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0077555">attention</a>. Risks identified include the potential for <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00031539.htm">contagion</a> or <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22562859">copycat events</a>; sharing <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19591000">information about suicide methods</a>; encouragement to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25313930">engage in suicidal behaviour</a>; and the normalisation of suicide-related behaviour as an <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1461445611403356">acceptable coping mechanism</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/to-talk-or-not-to-talk-the-dilemma-of-suicide-contagion-46434">To talk or not to talk? The dilemma of suicide contagion</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<h2>Some benefits</h2>
<p>There are <a href="https://theconversation.com/thumbs-up-facebook-might-actually-be-good-for-you-11889">also significant potential benefits</a> social media can provide. It can create a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18714907">sense of community</a>, and facilitate the <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03069881003600991?needAccess=true">support</a> <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13811118.2011.589675">from friends</a>. It can encourage people to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4372758/">seek help</a> and <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0743558416673717">share information and resources</a>. More frequent social media use <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563216303673">has been associated with</a> improved ability to share and understand the feelings of others.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more – <a href="https://theconversation.com/thumbs-up-facebook-might-actually-be-good-for-you-11889">Thumbs up: Facebook might actually be good for you</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>The reach, cost-effectiveness, and accessibility of social media means information, support, or treatment can reach people who might not otherwise have easy access. Clinical services are beginning to harness the benefits of social media to augment the care they provide. For example, colleagues at Orygen developed an <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23146146">online platform</a> for clients and their families to augment face-to-face treatment. It has been <a href="https://academic.oup.com/schizophreniabulletin/article-abstract/43/suppl_1/S206/3076066?redirectedFrom=fulltext">trialled</a> with <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304065203_Moderated_online_social_therapy_for_depression_relapse_prevention_in_young_people_pilot_study_of_a_'next_generation'_online_intervention_Online_depression_relapse_prevention">promising results</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28228065">Monitoring language</a> used in <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0061809">online posts</a> might also enable tracking and detection of <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352154617300384">people who may be at risk</a>. </p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2017/11/27/facebook-ai-suicide-prevention/">Facebook recently launched</a> “proactive detection” artificial intelligence technology that will scan all posts for patterns of suicidal thoughts, and when necessary send mental health resources to the user or their friends, or contact local first-responders.</p>
<p>But there are ethical implications, which include <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X16000063">privacy</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21945844">duty of care</a>. Social media’s rapidly evolving nature, reach and anonymity make rigorous evaluation of its risks and benefits <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25702826">challenging</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197719/original/file-20171205-22982-h7mbwh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197719/original/file-20171205-22982-h7mbwh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Does Facebook have a duty of care to its users?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Chicken or egg?</h2>
<p>Most <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27881357">studies</a> examining social media and mental health aren’t able to determine whether spending more time on social media leads to depression or anxiety, or if depressed or anxious young people spend more time on social media.</p>
<p>But the way social media is used is important. For example, active (compared to passive) <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25706656">social media use</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26075923">can be beneficial</a>. Although browsing Instagram <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29039700">has been associated with</a> increased depression, talking to others online <a href="https://scholars.opb.msu.edu/en/publications/how-does-online-social-networking-enhance-life-satisfaction-the-r-4">increases life satisfaction</a>.</p>
<p>And some individuals may be more susceptible to the negative aspects of social media than others. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27881357">Research suggests</a> <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563215003210">personality traits</a> and the <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563216308445">level of envy</a> felt towards others online influence whether one will be negatively impacted.</p>
<p>The pathways to mental illness are many and varied, and to suggest mental health problems can be attributed to social media alone would be an over-simplification. But we need to acknowledge the risks and <a href="https://theconversation.com/twitters-plan-to-help-young-people-not-get-too-overwhelmed-by-bad-news-doesnt-go-far-enough-76990">platform administrators</a>, parents, mental health organisations, schools and universities, and young people themselves have a role to play in minimising these risks. </p>
<p>It’s unlikely social media use will decrease in the near future, so we need to manage the risks and harness the potential benefits to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22357378">improve the mental health</a> of our young people.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87613/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>We often hear reports of the effect of social media on teens' mental health. So what does the science say about it?Jo Robinson, Senior Research Fellow, Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, University of MelbourneEleanor Bailey, Research Assistant, Orygen, the National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, University of MelbourneSadhbh Byrne, Research Assistant, Orygen, the National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/889472017-12-11T19:13:38Z2017-12-11T19:13:38ZTasmanian tigers were going extinct before we pushed them over the edge<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198462/original/file-20171211-27686-lrmoci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Gone since 1936, and ailing since long before that.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There’s no doubt that humans killed off the <a href="https://australianmuseum.net.au/the-thylacine">Tasmanian tiger</a>. But a new genetic analysis suggests this species had been on the decline for millennia before humans arrived to drive them to extinction.</p>
<p>The Tasmanian tiger, also known as the thylacine, was unique. It was the largest marsupial predator that survived into recent times. Sadly it was hunted to extinction in the wild, and the last known Tasmanian tiger died in captivity in 1936.</p>
<p>In a <a href="http://nature.com/articles/doi:10.1038/s41559-017-0417-y">paper published in Nature Ecology and Evolution today</a>, my colleagues and I piece together its entire genetic sequence for the first time. It tells us that thylacines’ genetic health had been declining for many millennia before they first encountered human hunters.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more</strong>: <a href="https://theconversation.com/will-we-hunt-dingoes-to-the-brink-like-the-tasmanian-tiger-19982">Will we hunt dingoes to the brink like the Tasmanian tiger?</a></em></p>
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<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198466/original/file-20171211-27693-1jgss5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198466/original/file-20171211-27693-1jgss5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=237&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hounded by hunters.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our research also offered the chance to study the origins of the similarity in body shape between the thylacine and dogs. The two are almost identical, despite having last shared a common ancestor more than 160 million years ago – a remarkable example of so-called “convergent evolution”. </p>
<p>Decoding the thylacine genome allowed us to ask the question: if two animals develop an identical body shape, do they also show identical changes in their DNA?</p>
<h2>Thylacine secrets</h2>
<p>These questions were previously difficult to answer. The age and storage conditions of existing specimens meant that most thylacine specimens have DNA that is highly fragmented into very short segments, which are not suitable for piecing together the entire genome.</p>
<p>We identified a 109-year-old specimen of a young pouch thylacine in the Museums Victoria collection, which had much more intact DNA than other specimens. This gave us enough pieces to put together the entire jigsaw of its genetic makeup.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198463/original/file-20171211-27708-kte384.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198463/original/file-20171211-27708-kte384.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The preserved young, thylacine with enough DNA to reveal its whole genome.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Museums Victoria</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Next, we made a detailed comparison of thylacines and dogs to see just how similar they really are. We used digital imaging to compare the thylacine’s skull shape to many other mammals, and found that the thylacine was indeed very similar to various types of dog (especially the wolf and red fox), and quite different from its closest living marsupial relatives such as the numbat, Tasmanian devil, and kangaroos. </p>
<p>Our results confirmed that thylacines and dogs really are the best example of convergent evolution between two distantly related mammal species ever described.</p>
<p>We next asked whether this similarity in body form is reflected by similarity in the genes. To do this, we compared the DNA sequences of thylacine genes with those of dogs and other animals too. </p>
<p>While we found many similarities between thylacines’ and dogs’ genes, they were not significantly more similar than the same genes from other animals with different body shapes, such as Tasmanian devils and cows.</p>
<p>We therefore concluded that whatever the reason why thylacines and dogs’ skulls are so similarly shaped, it is not because evolution is driving their gene sequences to be the same. </p>
<h2>Family ties</h2>
<p>The thylacine genome also allowed us to deduce its precise position in the marsupial family tree, which has been a controversial topic.</p>
<p>Our analyses showed that the thylacine was at the root of a group called the Dasyuromorphia, which also includes the <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=294">numbat</a> and <a href="http://www.parks.tas.gov.au/?base=387">Tasmanian devil</a>. </p>
<p>By examining the amount of diversity present in the single thylacine genome, we were able to estimate its effective population size during past millennia. This demographic analysis revealed extremely low genetic diversity, suggesting that if we hadn’t hunted them into extinction the population would be in very poor genetic health, just like today’s Tasmanian devils.</p>
<p>The less diversity you have in your genome, the more susceptible you are to disease, which might be why devils have contracted the facial tumour virus, and certainly why it has been so easily spread. The thylacine would have been at a similar risk of contracting devastating diseases.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198465/original/file-20171211-27698-1sg40zd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198465/original/file-20171211-27698-1sg40zd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The last thylacine alive.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This loss in population diversity was previously thought to have occurred as a population of thylacines (and devils) became isolated on Tasmania some 15,000 years ago, when the land bridge closed between it and the mainland. </p>
<p>But our analysis suggests that the process actually began much earlier – between 70,000 and 120,000 years ago. This suggests that both the devil and thylacine populations already had very poor genetic health long before the land bridge closed.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more</strong>: <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-curiosity-can-save-species-from-extinction-52006">How curiosity can save species from extinction</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Now that we know the whole genome of the Tasmanian tiger, we know much more about this extinct animal and the unique place it held in Australia’s marsupial family tree. We are expanding our analyses of the genome to determine how it came to look so similar to the dog, and to continue to learn more about the genetics of this unique marsupial apex predator.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88947/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Pask receives funding from Australian Research Council (ARC), National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), The University of Melbourne. </span></em></p>The new Tasmanian tiger genome reveals some fascinating facts about this extinct marsupial, including why they were so similar to dogs, and how they were growing more vulnerable to genetic disease.Andrew Pask, Associate Professor, University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/889262017-12-11T06:40:25Z2017-12-11T06:40:25ZCharity regulators should not assume that donors always know best<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198459/original/file-20171211-27689-1k3ag13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Whether charitable giving functions like a market is part of a broader and complex debate within the sector.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last week, the government <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2017/dec/07/charities-criticise-bizarre-appointment-of-anti-charities-campaigner-as-head-of-regulator">appointed</a> Gary Johns to head the <a href="http://www.acnc.gov.au/">Australian Charities and Not-for-profits Commission</a> (ACNC), the independent national charities regulator.</p>
<p>In an <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/opinion/columnists/gary-johns/charities-commission-my-job-is-to-keep-them-transparent-efficient/news-story/87062c8b28aef4a35b6e6afe335a610e">opinion piece</a> published in The Australian, Johns outlined some of his priorities in his new role. He wrote:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>At its core, the [charities] sector is a market in charitable intentions.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Based on this, he said the ACNC should “assist donors to fulfil their charitable intentions”, by “helping the donor market drive the charity dollar to its most efficient and best uses” by providing information to donors they can use to judge the “state of the market”.</p>
<p>Johns’ approach seems to reflect a view that altruistic behaviour like charitable giving is based on similar motivations and drivers as economic decisions such as purchasing a good or service.</p>
<p>Consequently, if donors are given the useful and accessible information about charities, they will make decisions that reward charities that perform better than others. In theory, this will lead to a more “efficient” charities “market”.</p>
<p>Whether charitable giving functions like a market is part of a broader and complex debate within the sector. It includes discussion about the role of <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-impact-of-impact-investing-87595">impact investing</a>, and using business-based approaches to tackle social challenges. Some ideas and approaches show great promise; others seem to not quite fit.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Further reading: <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-impact-of-impact-investing-87595">What is the impact of ‘impact investing’?</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Many of the challenges charities seek to tackle arise due to market failure in the first place, or the uneven distribution of the benefits of markets working like they are supposed to. Therefore, to aspire to build the charities sector in the market’s image may be a flawed starting point. And in relation to market-based approaches to charitable giving, the US experience is very relevant.</p>
<h2>Lessons from the US</h2>
<p>In 2014, the <a href="https://www.hewlett.org/">Hewlett Foundation</a>, a large US philanthropic organisation, decided to end its US$12 million Nonprofit Marketplace Initiative that started in 2006. Its ambitious goal was that, by 2015, 10% of individual donations in the US would be influenced by meaningful, high-quality information about charities’ performance.</p>
<p>As part of its strategy, it provided funding to “charity evaluators”, including <a href="https://www.charitynavigator.org/">Charity Navigator</a>, <a href="https://www.givewell.org/">GiveWell</a> and <a href="http://www.guidestar.org/">Guidestar</a>. They seek to assess charities’ financial and other information to give donors information they can use to guide their decisions.</p>
<p>The Hewlett Foundation’s own evaluation found that while the initiative succeeded at producing more information about charities, it did little to change donors’ decisions. Research undertaken in 2010, four years into the initiative, found that only 3% of individual donors compare information about relative performance when deciding which charity to support.</p>
<p>It also found that a majority of donors make giving decisions based on factors like loyalty, personal connections, and faith-based commitments.</p>
<p>Studies looking at the effectiveness of charity evaluators also back up these findings. They show just how problematic it is to expect donor behaviour to adhere to “market-based” frameworks.</p>
<p>A <a href="http://ideas.repec.org/p/nya/albaec/13-05.html">study</a> that examined how donors respond to ratings of charities such as those provided by Charity Navigator found that, in general, they have a minor and often insignificant impact on donor behaviour. Another <a href="http://faculty.washington.edu/aseem/charitywatchdogs.pdf">study</a> found that changes in charity ratings tend not to affect donor support.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.communitybusinesspartnership.gov.au/about/research-projects/giving-australia-2016/">Giving Australia 2016 report</a> echoes these findings. It <a href="https://philaus-my.sharepoint.com/personal/kseibert_philanthropy_org_au/Documents/Articles/KSeibert%20-%20Article%20for%20Alliance%20Magazine.docx?web=1">found</a> that “making a difference, personal values and relationships motivate givers”. Charity performance was far down the list of motivations for giving.</p>
<h2>What now for charities in Australia?</h2>
<p>Charitable giving takes many forms and is driven by numerous and complex motivations – from reflexive and generous responses at one end of the spectrum to planned and structured giving in pursuit of specific objectives at the other. The latter approach is what we generally think of when referring to “philanthropy”. </p>
<p>One of philanthropy’s strengths is that it <a href="https://theconversation.com/twiggy-forrest-donation-more-philanthropy-means-more-risk-taking-and-thats-good-78098">takes risks</a> to help drive social progress. The outcomes of this risk-taking can often then be used to inform government policy.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Further reading: <a href="https://theconversation.com/twiggy-forrest-donation-more-philanthropy-means-more-risk-taking-and-thats-good-78098">Twiggy Forrest donation: more philanthropy means more risk-taking – and that’s good</a></strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>The Hewlett Foundation’s experience in this regard should provide a valuable insight into the extent to which market-based approaches should be applied to charitable giving in Australia.</p>
<p>It does not mean that we should disregard the value of providing information about charities to donors: quite the opposite. Financial and performance information is important for due diligence purposes regarding the operations of a charity. But we should not overstate the influence of such information on donor decision-making, nor assume that such information will necessarily drive improvements in charity “efficiency”.</p>
<p>There are two developments the ACNC could drive that would provide great benefit to the Australian charities sector:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Johns says he wants “to have the ACNC develop and apply a taxonomy of charitable causes to the ACNC”. It would certainly be worthwhile to adopt a consistent terminology for charitable causes in Australia. The global gold standard for this is the Foundation Center’s <a href="http://taxonomy.foundationcenter.org/">Philanthropy Classification System</a>. <a href="https://www.ourcommunity.com.au/CLASSIE">CLASSIE</a> is an Australian taxonomy that builds on the Foundation Center’s.</p></li>
<li><p>Although charities must submit reports to the ACNC consistent with the Australian <a href="http://www.aasb.gov.au/Pronouncements/Current-standards.aspx">accounting standards</a>, there is great variation in how these standards are applied – for example, in relation to <a href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/81344/">fundraising expenditure</a>. This means meaningful comparisons of charities’ financial information is difficult. It would be beneficial to consider introducing charity-specific accounting standards in Australia, as <a href="https://www.frc.org.uk/accountants/accounting-and-reporting-policy/uk-accounting-standards/statements-of-recommended-practice-(sorps)">the UK has done</a>.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Whatever the next steps may be, the social challenges charities tackle are complex, and strategies to address them will take time to have an impact. Often conventional metrics of performance just don’t cut it when it comes to such long-term challenges.</p>
<p>And, in most cases, donors will have far less knowledge about social change than those working for the organisations they fund or the communities in which those organisations operate. </p>
<p>Donors provide the funding that brings to life the expertise and experience of those who receive it for the public benefit. Donors play a critical role supporting Australian charities, but we should not attribute them with more knowledge than they actually have.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88926/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Krystian Seibert was an adviser to a former Australian Assistant Treasurer, and in this role he was responsible for overseeing the establishment of the Australian Charities and Not-for-profits Commission. He is currently a Member of the Australian Charities and Not-for-profits Commission&#39;s &#39;Sector Advisory Group&#39; which is a consultative body comprising representatives from a broad range of charities. He works for Philanthropy Australia, the peak body for philanthropy in Australia.</span></em></p>Donors play a critical role supporting Australian charities, but we should not attribute them with more knowledge than they actually have.Krystian Seibert, Adjunct Industry Fellow, Centre for Social Impact, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/888712017-12-11T04:58:07Z2017-12-11T04:58:07ZThe 'utopian' currency Bitcoin is a potentially catastrophic energy guzzler<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198475/original/file-20171211-27719-sl548l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The recent upsurge in the price of Bitcoin seems to have finally awakened the world to the massively destructive environmental consequences of this bubble. </p>
<p>These consequences were pointed out as long ago as 2013 by Australian sustainability analyst and entrepreneur Guy Lane, executive director of the <a href="http://longfuture.org/">Long Future Foundation</a>. In recent months, the Bitcoin bubble has got massively bigger and the associated <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com.au/bitcoin-mining-electricity-usage-2017-11?r=UK&amp;IR=T">waste of energy</a> is now much more widely recognised.</p>
<p>In essence, the creation of a new Bitcoin requires the performance of a complex calculation that has no value except to show that it has been done. The crucial feature, as is common in cryptography, is that the calculation in question is very hard to perform but easy to verify once it’s done.</p>
<p>At present, the most widely used <a href="https://digiconomist.net/bitcoin-energy-consumption">estimate</a> of the energy required to “mine” Bitcoins is comparable to the electricity usage of New Zealand, but this is probably an underestimate. If allowed to continue unchecked in our current energy-constrained, climate-threatened world, Bitcoin mining will become an environmental disaster.</p>
<h2>The rising energy demands of Bitcoin</h2>
<p>In the early days of Bitcoin, the necessary computations could be performed on ordinary personal computers. </p>
<p>But now, “miners” use purpose-built machines optimised for the particular algorithms used by Bitcoin. With these machines, the primary cost of the system is the electricity used to run it. That means, of course, that the only way to be profitable as a Bitcoin miner is to have access to the cheapest possible electricity.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/demystifying-the-blockchain-a-basic-user-guide-60226">Demystifying the blockchain: a basic user guide</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Most of the time that means electricity generated by burning cheap coal in old plants, where the capital costs have long been written off. Bitcoin mining today is <a href="https://www.kaspersky.com/blog/bitcoin-blockchain-issues/18019/">concentrated in China</a>, which still relies heavily on coal. </p>
<p>Even in a large grid, with multiple sources of electricity, Bitcoin mining effectively adds to the demand for coal-fired power. Bitcoin computers run continuously, so they constitute a “baseload” demand, which matches the supply characteristics of coal.</p>
<p>More generally, even in a process of transition to renewables, any increase in electricity demand at the margin may be regarded as slowing the pace at which the dirtiest coal-fired plants can be shut down. So Bitcoin mining is effectively slowing our progress towards a clean energy transition - right at the very moment we need to be accelerating.</p>
<h2>How much energy is Bitcoin using?</h2>
<p>A widely used estimate by <a href="https://digiconomist.net/bitcoin-energy-consumption">Digiconomist</a> suggests that the Bitcoin network currently uses around 30 terawatt-hours (TWh) a year, or 0.1% of total world consumption – more than the individual energy use of more than 150 countries.</p>
<p>By contrast, in his 2013 analysis, Guy Lane estimated that a Bitcoin price of US$10,000 would see that energy use figure climb to 80 TWh. If the current high price is sustained for any length of time, Lane’s estimate will be closer to the mark, and perhaps even conservative.</p>
<p>The cost of electricity is around 5c per kilowatt-hour for industrial-scale users. Miners with higher costs have mostly gone out of business.</p>
<p>As a first approximation, Bitcoin miners will spend resources (nearly all electricity) equal to the price of a new Bitcoin. However, to be conservative, let’s assume that only 75% of the cost of Bitcoin mining arises from electricity. </p>
<p>Assuming an electricity price of 5c per kWh and a Bitcoin price of US$10,000, this means that each Bitcoin consumes about 150 megawatt-hours of electricity. Under current rules, the settings for Bitcoin allow the mining of 1,800 Bitcoins a day, implying daily use of 24,000MWh or an annual rate of nearly 100TWh – about 0.3% of all global electricity use.</p>
<p>Roughly speaking, each MWh of coal-fired electricity generation is associated with a tonne of carbon dioxide emissions, so a terawatt-hour corresponds to a million tonnes of CO₂. </p>
<h2>So much energy, so few users</h2>
<p>An obvious comparison is with the existing financial system. </p>
<p><a href="https://digiconomist.net/bitcoin-energy-consumption">Digiconomics</a> estimated that Visa is massively more efficient in processing transactions. A supporter of Bitcoin, Carlos Domingo, <a href="https://hackernoon.com/the-bitcoin-vs-visa-electricity-consumption-fallacy-8cf194987a50">hit back</a> with a calculation suggesting that the entire global financial system uses about 100TWh per year, or three times as much as the Diginconomics estimate for Bitcoin.</p>
<p>As a defence, this is far from impressive. First, as we’ve seen, if the current high price is sustained, total annual energy use from Bitcoin mining is also likely to rise to 100TWh. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-bitcoin-and-blockchain-energy-hogs-77761">The bitcoin and blockchain: energy hogs</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>More importantly, the global financial system serves the entire world. By contrast, the number of active Bitcoin investors has been estimated at 3 million. Almost all of these people are pure speculators, holding Bitcoin as an asset while using the standard financial system for all of their private and business transactions. </p>
<p>Another group is believed to use Bitcoin for illicit purposes such as drug dealing or <a href="https://www.coindesk.com/dea-report-bitcoin-used-trade-based-money-laundering/">money laundering</a>, before converting these funds into their own national currency. The number of people who routinely use Bitcoin as a currency for legitimate transactions might be in the low thousands or perhaps even fewer.</p>
<p>Shifting the whole global financial system to Bitcoin would require at least a 2000-fold increase, which in turn would entail increasing the the world’s electricity use by around 500%. With the current threat of climate change looming large globally - this constitutes an unthinkably large amount of energy consumption.</p>
<h2>Better alternatives to Bitcoin</h2>
<p>The disastrous nature of Bitcoin’s energy consumption should not lead us to abandon the associated idea of blockchain technology altogether. </p>
<p>There are alternatives to the “proof of work” method of validating changes to the blockchain, such as “proof of importance”, which is analogous to Google’s page ranking systems. Projects such as <a href="http://www.gridcoin.us">Gridcoin</a> are based on calculations that are actually useful to science. But these ideas are in their infancy.</p>
<p>For the moment, the problem is Bitcoin and how to deal with it. There is no obvious way to fix the inherent problems in its design. The sooner this collective delusion comes to an end, the better.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88871/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Quiggin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Bitcoin has been viewed as a liberating path out of the corporate monetary system. But the process of 'mining' the cryptocurrency is a massive energy drain - and potential environmental disaster.John Quiggin, Professor, School of Economics, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/889372017-12-11T03:34:04Z2017-12-11T03:34:04ZBitcoin may be reaching new heights, but the ASX shows the blockchain is reinventing business<p>Bitcoin may be the most famous example of a <a href="https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf">blockchain in use</a>, but it is actually a rather unimaginative way to use it. </p>
<p>The blockchain is finally starting to fulfil its promise as a game-changing technology, a kind of infrastructure for record-keeping. To facilitate movement of value (such as money) and changes in ownership (shares, for example), and even to <a href="https://www.ibm.com/blockchain/identity/">manage online identities</a>.</p>
<p>The Australian Stock Exchange (ASX) has <a href="http://www.asx.com.au/asxpdf/20171207/pdf/43pz030qxzdcvs.pdf">announced</a> that it will use a blockchain-based system to record who owns shares of listed companies, and to keep track of transactions and settlements when people buy and sell shares. </p>
<p>The move comes as the price of Bitcoin has <a href="https://www.coindesk.com/price/">risen more than US$14,000 in the past year</a>. Yet Bitcoin does not really exploit the new databases and record-keeping infrastructure that blockchain technology makes possible. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/demystifying-the-blockchain-a-basic-user-guide-60226">Demystifying the blockchain: a basic user guide</a></em></p>
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<p>The blockchain is also called a “public” or “distributed” ledger. Think of a spreadsheet that is publicly available to view, and simultaneously held on numerous computers. When someone transfers a Bitcoin, it is verified by the system, encrypted, and a new line (or “block”) is added to the spreadsheet. </p>
<p>The ASX’s blockchain will replace the ASX’s <a href="http://www.asx.com.au/services/settlement/asx-settlement.htm">CHESS</a> (Clearing House Electronic Sub-registry System) system. Currently, the ASX requires each trade to be verified against the ASX’s centralised database of ownership records and reconciled with payments. </p>
<p>So while trades take place in fractions of a second, the actual clearance (making sure who owns what) and settlement (the transfer of money and shares) is cumbersome, slow, expensive, and prone to human error. </p>
<p>The ASX’s blockchain will greatly simplify this process. Instead of having to reconcile trades against a centralised database, the verification of ownership and settling of accounts can be done directly between participants (as is done with Bitcoin trades). This is much simpler, faster and more secure.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-holding-up-the-blockchain-79038">What’s holding up the blockchain?</a></em></p>
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<h2>A monumental shift</h2>
<p>The fact that the ASX’s blockchain announcement made headlines <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/business-42261456">around the world</a> shows what a big leap forward this is. </p>
<p>The ASX’s blockchain will streamline the settlement process, improving productivity and therefore reducing costs in the Australian stock market. This means that our financial markets will work better, offering an immediate benefit to Australia’s economy.</p>
<p>Exchanges are also a global business, and the adoption of blockchain technology in Australia’s major exchange means that it has a competitive edge over other exchanges. </p>
<p>Companies choose where to list, based on a variety of factors including the quality of the exchange technology. More business for the ASX will translate into more local jobs.</p>
<p>One potential downside of the ASX adopting the blockchain, however, is that some workers who currently process settlements on the ASX may lose their jobs. Some financial companies that currently benefit from the slow settlement process, such as brokerage firms, will also lose out.</p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/blockchain-really-only-does-one-thing-well-62668">Blockchain really only does one thing well</a></em></p>
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<p>But the ASX’s move is just scratching the surface of what blockchain technology can do to the Australian financial sector.</p>
<p>The same argument that applies to the ASX - that the blockchain is more efficient and productive than existing record-keeping and transaction processes - can also be extended to other exchanges, such as bond markets. </p>
<p>In other words, the ASX’s blockchain is just the beginning of a technological transformation of Australia’s financial markets. </p>
<p>Blockchains will also make these exchanges more attractive to build services on, such as for managing wealth. This is a further benefit for consumers and the broader finance industry, not purely from lower prices also from the possibility of new products and services. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Read more:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-blockchain-does-not-eliminate-the-need-for-trust-86481">The blockchain does not eliminate the need for trust</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>But how is any of this even possible in the first place? Part of the credit must go to Australian regulators. They created the environment for this huge shift in technological practice.</p>
<p>Australia is now leading the adoption of the blockchain, despite it being a US-built technology. It is similar to how African telecommunications companies are <a href="https://www.safaricom.co.ke/personal/m-pesa">leading the way in mobile payments</a>, even though Finland created modern mobile phones with companies like Nokia.</p>
<p>Even if you’re not excited about new technology in the Australian finance industry, its global competitiveness, or even our regulatory agility, the ASX announcement is a harbinger of what adoption of blockchain technology will increasingly look like.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88937/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason Potts has received funding from the Australian Research Council. He is affiliated with the Institute of Public Affairs. </span></em></p>While everyone has heard of Bitcoin, the real potential in the blockchain is only just starting to be unlocked.Jason Potts, Professor of Economics, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/860662017-12-11T01:49:16Z2017-12-11T01:49:16ZWhy simple school sores often lead to heart and kidney disease in Indigenous children<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195398/original/file-20171120-18528-ltzud6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Impetigo happens when itching causes the skin to break and let in disease-causing bacteria.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Impetigo, also known as school sores, is a highly contagious bacterial skin infection that occurs in children far more frequently than adults. It is one of the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26317533">most common bacterial infections</a> in children aged two to five years. Impetigo happens when a break in the skin, from scratching an insect bite for instance, lets in disease-causing bacteria.</p>
<p>The bacteria responsible for impetigo are <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em> (<em>S. aureus</em> or staph) and <em>Streptococcus pyogenes</em> (<em>S. pyogenes</em> or group A strep). People with diabetes or other conditions that may affect the immune system, such as HIV infection, and those on medications that suppress immunity, are more susceptible.</p>
<p>While the infection itself is treatable, if left untreated it can lead to more serious conditions such as <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/cellulitis">cellulitis</a> (infection of the inner layers of skin) or <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/abscesses">abscess</a> (painful collections of pus that build up under the skin). It can also progress to kidney disease, or it could <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0000467">cause acute rheumatic fever</a>, which can affect the heart, joints, brain or skin.</p>
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<p><strong><em>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-chronic-kidney-disease-and-why-are-one-in-three-at-risk-of-this-silent-killer-81942">What is chronic kidney disease and why are one in three at risk of this silent killer?</a></em></strong></p>
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<p>Around 162 million children worldwide <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26317533">suffer from impetigo</a> at any one time. They mostly live in resource-poor tropical countries or underprivileged populations in developed countries. In Australia, about 15,000 Indigenous children are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26317533">estimated to suffer</a> from impetigo – representing 40% of children in Indigenous communities.</p>
<h2>Causes and symptoms</h2>
<p>Impetigo can occur on top of other skin conditions, particularly itchy ones like eczema, scabies, insect bites, and head lice. Scratching the skin can break it and let the disease-causing bacteria in. A sore can be infectious for as long as it is weeping fluid, as the fluid and crusts of the sore contain infectious bacteria. </p>
<p>The time between becoming infected and developing symptoms is around four to ten days. Contact with the sore, or with things that have been in contact with the sore, can spread the infection to other people. </p>
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<p><strong><em>Read more: <a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-how-do-you-catch-and-get-rid-of-head-lice-43699">How do you catch – and get rid of – head lice?</a></em></strong></p>
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<p>There are two forms of impetigo: non-bullous and bullous. Non-bullous, also known as the crusted form of impetigo, accounts for about 70% of all cases and can be <a href="http://www.aafp.org/afp/2014/0815/p229.html">caused by both</a> <em>S. aureus</em> and <em>S. pyogenes</em>. It has a thick, soft, yellow crust below which is often a wet, red area. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198074/original/file-20171207-31525-1oenrz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198074/original/file-20171207-31525-1oenrz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=237&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Crusted forms of impetigo are the most common.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Impetigo_crouteux_jambes.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Non-bullous <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1525-1470.1994.tb00092.x/abstract">impetigo spots grow slowly</a> and are smaller than the fully grown spots of bullous, or blistering, impetigo. They are not usually painful but can be itchy. The lesions generally appear on the face and extremities, often at the location of already broken skin, such as an insect bite or eczema.</p>
<p>The bullous (blistering) form of impetigo is <a href="http://www.mdedge.com/jfponline/dsm/1310/infectious-diseases/impetigo">characterised by the formation</a> of a large, fluid-filled irritating blister under the skin. It is caused exclusively by <em>S. aureus</em> and <a href="http://www.aafp.org/afp/2014/0815/p229.html">usually occurs</a> where two skin surfaces touch or rub together, such as the armpits. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198075/original/file-20171207-31525-7kgfv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198075/original/file-20171207-31525-7kgfv7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=237&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Blistering impetigo infections usually occur where two skin surfaces touch, like the armpits.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Impetigo.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>The blisters grow rapidly in size and number. They burst quickly and leave slightly wet or shiny areas with a brown crust at the edge. Those spots continue to grow quickly even after they break open and can be many centimetres wide. They are not usually painful but can be itchy. </p>
<h2>What are the treatments?</h2>
<p>As impetigo is highly contagious, good <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16253886">hygiene practices are essential</a> for stopping the spread of infection. These include washing hands with soap, washing of infected clothes and towels, and covering the sore with a sticking plaster. </p>
<p>It’s also recommended that the infected child be <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21976576">kept away from other children</a> and school for 24 hours after starting treatment. </p>
<p>Impetigo is generally considered a mild disease that can resolve without treatment after a few weeks. But because it can cause more serious conditions, the child should be examined by a doctor and treated with appropriate antibiotics. </p>
<p>Topical antibiotics (creams) like mupirocin are recommended for mild forms of the infection. Oral antibiotics are used in more <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/impetigo/symptoms-causes/syc-20352352">severe cases of impetigo</a>, such as when multiple sores are present, or when topical treatments have been ineffective. The treatment should continue until all sores are completely healed. With treatment, symptoms are likely to be improved or cleared up after seven days.</p>
<h2>What happens if it’s not treated?</h2>
<p>A possible consequence of untreated impetigo is an autoimmune kidney disease called acute post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (APSGN). It’s not frequently seen in developed countries but one <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16253886">estimate suggests</a> that more than 390,000 children in less developed countries are affected, compared with about 13,000 children in more developed countries.</p>
<p>In Australia, data collected from 1991-2008 in the Northern Territory revealed that 95% of cases occurred in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21976576">Indigenous Australians</a>, with 98% of affected individuals living in remote locations. The average age was seven years old, with children younger than 15 accounting for 88% of all cases. </p>
<p>Given the association between APSGN and chronic kidney disease, it is important that predisposing skin infections are treated promptly and appropriately, and the risk of transmission or recurrences is minimised. Around 97% of deaths from APSGN occur in resource-poor countries or communities.</p>
<p>Acute rheumatic fever is another potential consequence of untreated impetigo. It is an autoimmune response to an untreated group A strep infection, and repeated episodes can <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19962028">damage the heart</a>, leading to rheumatic heart disease. </p>
<p>Both rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease are preventable and generally not seen in industrialised countries. But rates of <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/heart-stroke-vascular-disease/rheumatic-heart-disease-and-acute-rheumatic-fever/contents/table-of-contents">rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart diseases</a> in Indigenous communities are up to 26 times those in non-Indigenous populations.</p>
<hr>
<p><strong><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/why-are-aboriginal-children-still-dying-from-rheumatic-heart-disease-63814">Why are Aboriginal children still dying from rheumatic heart disease?</a></em></strong></p>
<hr>
<p>Between 1997 and 2013, <a href="http://www.aafp.org/afp/2014/0815/p229.html">97% of patients</a> diagnosed with acute rheumatic fever in the NT were Indigenous, despite Indigenous Australians <a href="http://digitallibrary.health.nt.gov.au/prodjspui/bitstream/10137/649/1/NT%20Demography%20Factsheet%202015.pdf">representing about 30%</a> of the NT population. Similarly, 94% of people diagnosed with rheumatic heart disease during this time were Indigenous, and Indigenous patients were younger than the non-Indigenous patients.</p>
<p>Poor hygiene, close living and lack of access to medical care are associated with impetigo and its related complications. Resources that help lessen these risk factors will also reduce the burden of impetigo and the diseases that can develop as a consequence.</p>
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<p><em>Dr Kavya E. Baby, a basic physician trainee with ACT health, contributed to this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/86066/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jackson Thomas received funding from government e.g. RIRDC, ACT Gov, NSW Pharmacy Council, Goodwin aged care facilities, and consultant fee and/or grants from biotech companies</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Asha Bowen receives research funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia for research to reduce the burden of skin sores in remote Indigenous Australians. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erin Walker, Gregory Peterson, Julia K. Christenson, and Nathan M D&#39;Cunha do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>While school sores – or impetigo – is a treatable condition, if left untreated it can lead to much more serious illness such as kidney and heart disease.Jackson Thomas, Assistant Professor/Senior Lecturer in Pharmacy, University of CanberraErin Walker, Medical Science Research Fellow, University of CanberraGregory Peterson, Deputy Dean (Research) Faculty of Health, University of TasmaniaNathan M D'Cunha, Sessional Academic, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/889492017-12-11T01:09:12Z2017-12-11T01:09:12ZTwo Labor frontbenchers urge Sam Dastyari to consider his position<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/198458/original/file-20171211-27689-11no6ev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sam Dastyari is facing increased pressure to consider his position as a Labor senator.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP/Mick Tsikas</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Labor senator Sam Dastyari is under renewed pressure to quit after allegations that he repeatedly pressed the ALP’s then foreign affairs spokeswoman Tanya Plibersek not to meet an advocate for Chinese democracy in 2015. </p>
<p>ALP frontbencher Linda Burney told Sky News early on Monday: “It is now up to Mr Dastyari to consider his position … Sam Dastyari I’m sure is thinking very deeply about his role within the party”.</p>
<p>Shortly after, another Labor frontbencher, Catherine King, also said: “Sam needs to reflect upon his position”.</p>
<p>The new allegation comes after earlier revelations about Dastyari tipping off a Chinese benefactor who was of interest to Australian security services that his phone was likely tapped.</p>
<p>The latest <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/sam-dastyari-warned-tanya-plibersek-to-abandon-meeting-with-hong-kong-activist-sources-say-20171210-h01z5o.html">report in the Fairfax Media</a> said that in January 2015, Plibersek went to Hong Kong. There, her meetings included one with Joseph Cheng Yu-shek, a prominent academic with Australian citizenship. </p>
<p>Dastyari “repeatedly attempted to warn Ms Plibersek that her meetings in Hong Kong would upset figures in the Chinese community in Australia”, the report said. He left messages on her phone and contacted her office multiple times, it said.</p>
<p>But he was unable to reach her directly, because she had left her mobile phone at home for security reasons – although his messages were passed on to her, according to the report.</p>
<p>A spokesman for Dastyari said the claims were “complete rubbish”.</p>
<p>The latest claims against Dastyari, which appear to have come from within Labor, are thought to be part of an effort to get him to resign from the Senate.</p>
<p>Dastyari’s links with China have become a severe embarrassment to Opposition Leader Bill Shorten. The government is relentlessly pursuing Shorten over them. </p>
<p>After it was revealed that Dastyari alerted Chinese businessman Huang Xiangmo about his phone being probably tapped, and audio emerged of Dastyari reflecting China’s line on the South China Sea, Shorten stripped him of his position as deputy opposition whip in the Senate. </p>
<p>Late last week, Shorten said Dastyari’s career was “going nowhere, fast”. Dastyari was doing no media on Monday morning, but his office said he wasn’t quitting.</p>
<p>Labor cannot force him to resign from the parliament – it could only throw him out of the party. But any move against him by Shorten is complicated by Dastyari being a leading member of the New South Wales right, whose support Shorten needs. </p>
<p>Plibersek’s office has consistently declined to be drawn about Dastyari’s representations. Rumours about these have been circulating in Canberra for some time.</p>
<p>A spokesman said Plibersek’s “itinerary in Hong Kong, including a meeting with a prominent pro-democracy activist, went ahead precisely as scheduled – I think that speaks for itself”.</p>
<p>The Fairfax story put forward “one suggested explanation” for the Dastyari representations – that he contacted her office following an inquiry from a Sydney Chinese-language media outlet, which was preparing a critical story on her meetings.</p>
<p>Immigration Minister Peter Dutton accused Dastyari of being “a double agent”, saying “he can’t be in the Australian Senate and it is important that Linda Burney has called for him to go and now Bill Shorten should do the same”.</p>
<p>The latest controversy around Dastyari comes days after Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull introduced into parliament legislation to combat foreign interference in Australian politics. The government and the security agencies have become increasingly alarmed at the growing scale of this intervention. </p>
<p>But the new legislation, which includes a register for those lobbying for foreign governments and businesses, has sparked an angry backlash from China. It has also been criticised by former trade minister Andrew Robb, who now works for the Chinese company Landbridge Group.</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michelle Grattan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Sam Dastyari is again in hot water after allegations he pressed Tanya Plibersek not to meet an advocate for Chinese democracy in 2015.Michelle Grattan, Professorial Fellow, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/884702017-12-10T19:13:04Z2017-12-10T19:13:04ZPoliticians, stop pitching to the 'average' Australian; being middle class depends on where you live<p>Politicians are fond of <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2016/s4455653.htm">pitching to the “average Australian”</a> but judging by the income of Australians, whether you are middle class depends on where you live. And where we live tells a rich story of who we are as a nation – socially, culturally and economically.</p>
<p>Income is at the heart of access to services and opportunities, which are <a href="http://www.scenariosusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/HealthPlace_Bernard.pdf">differing and unequal</a> based on where you live.</p>
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<p>Our <a href="https://www.dss.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/indicators_of_social_and_family_functioning_full_report.pdf">ability</a> to afford housing that meets our needs largely determines where we live. In turn, where we live influences access to other important features of our lives which <a href="http://www.scenariosusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/HealthPlace_Bernard.pdf">shape</a> lifelong and intergenerational opportunities. For example, <a href="http://docs.acara.edu.au/resources/About_icsea_2014.pdf">student performance</a> is associated with everything from where a student lives to their parent’s occupation.</p>
<p>Household incomes in capital cities are typically among the highest, with incomes declining the further you live from major cities. So it’s understandable why Australians living outside or on the fringes of cities might feel somewhat <a href="https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/rouse-hill-times/timetable-turning-our-lives-upside-down-commuters/news-story/ca98f112636e75ec7fa72fb96dd41ec2">left behind</a>.</p>
<p>The Australian Bureau of Statistics presents “average” income as a range based on where you live. This range is marked by a lower number (30% of incomes) at the beginning and the higher number (80% of incomes) at the top.</p>
<p>This “average” income varies substantially between different rural areas from A$78,548 - A$163,265 in Forrest (ACT) to A$10,507 - A$26,431 in Thamarrurr (NT). This is actually an <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/2901.0Chapter31502016">equivalised household income</a> which factors in the economic resources like the number of people and their characteristics, between households.</p>
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<p>The difference between the top and bottom of this range of “average” household income also shows greater inequality within areas. </p>
<p>Even within the greater Sydney metropolitan area, there’s significant differences in household income between areas. The average household equivalised income in <a href="http://stat.abs.gov.au/itt/r.jsp?RegionSummary&amp;region=121041417&amp;dataset=ABS_REGIONAL_ASGS&amp;geoconcept=REGION&amp;datasetASGS=ABS_REGIONAL_ASGS&amp;datasetLGA=ABS_NRP9_LGA&amp;regionLGA=REGION&amp;regionASGS=REGION">Lavender Bay</a> is around A$40,000 - A$95,000 higher than it is in <a href="http://stat.abs.gov.au/itt/r.jsp?RegionSummary&amp;region=116011304&amp;dataset=ABS_REGIONAL_ASGS&amp;geoconcept=REGION&amp;measure=MEASURE&amp;datasetASGS=ABS_REGIONAL_ASGS&amp;datasetLGA=ABS_NRP9_LGA&amp;regionLGA=REGION&amp;regionASGS=REGION">Marayong</a>.</p>
<p>The difference in income is marked, and there are other differences too. People in Marayong are on average younger than Lavender Bay. Family size is smaller in Lavender Bay. Over half of the Lavender Bay residents hold university degrees, compared to a more skill-based workforce in Marayong.</p>
<h2>Why there is no one “average” Australian</h2>
<p>Cities offer access to myriad employment options. Industries associated with relatively high incomes are typically concentrated in cities to take advantage of <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00049182.2013.817033">global connections</a>. </p>
<p>Sydney, Melbourne and Canberra are notable standouts based on household income. So if you live close <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/tax-paid-by-postcode-highlights-forces-of-growth-and-decay/news-story/7e9e031f65b258446c94856fb6a89929">to these major cities</a> you’d be getting the most opportunities in terms of employment and income, given the you’re the right candidate.</p>
<p>But not everyone wants to live in the <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/109_what_matters_most.pdf">centre of cities</a>. Housing, lifestyle and neighbourhood preferences also play a role in where we live, but are still influenced by income and proximity to such things as employment and family and friends.</p>
<p>Also, infrastructure which supports social and economic wellbeing is essential in communities, regardless of where we live.</p>
<h2>What politicians should be talking about instead</h2>
<p>Improving the different and unequal access across areas requires better internet connectivity and advances in the way we work. Policies around housing and family-friendly workplaces go some way to supporting Australians in work.</p>
<p>Any measures to redress inequalities require understanding the needs and wants of communities. <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/lucy-turnbull-unveils-plan-for-three-sydneys-20171022-gz5un4.html">Proposed planning</a> to reconfigure the greater city of Sydney around population and socioeconomic infrastructure offers an example of a data-driven approach to planning. Whether the proposed reconfiguration of Sydney leads to <a href="https://theconversation.com/melbourne-shows-up-sydney-in-funding-the-most-disadvantaged-suburbs-82154">improvements or greater segmentation</a> will be revealed in practice.</p>
<p>Politicians rarely reflect the characteristics of the people they represent, particularly when we consider the <a href="http://www.remtribunal.gov.au/media/documents/2018/2017-determinations/2017-12-principal-determination-members-of-parliament-base-salary,-additional-salary-for-parliamentary-office-holders,-and-related-matters/2017-12-MPs-Base-Salary,-Additional-S">remuneration</a>, <a href="http://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/library/prspub/4618588/upload_binary/4618588.pdf;fileType=application/pdf">entitlements</a> and <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/national/investigations/liberal-andrew-robb-took-880k-china-job-as-soon-as-he-left-parliament-20170602-gwje3e.html">perks</a> of political office. The longer politicians are in office, and somewhat removed from the people they represent, the further they potentially become from gauging their electorate.</p>
<p>Yet politicians profess to know what the average Australians they represent needs and wants. They apply this to a range of things from service delivery to representation on <a href="http://www.canberratimes.com.au/act-news/act-liberal-senator-zed-seselja-backtracks-on-pledge-to-honour-samesex-marriage-vote-20171129-gzvcr6.html">political matters</a>. And this is within reason. </p>
<p>But without current experience we struggle to see things from perspectives other than <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797610367754">our own</a>. Take for example the way some have come to <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/i-refuse-to-be-silenced-mark-latham-resurrects-outsiders-news-program--on-facebook-20170403-gvctsh.html">label themselves outsiders</a> from the social and political elite to advance their credibility with average Australians.</p>
<p>Bringing politicians in touch with the diversity of needs and wants of Australians starts with a self-check and recognition of individual bias (<a href="https://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/physics/people/equality/Documents/ub-fact-sheet">conscious or unconscious</a>). This is the first step toward really understanding and connecting with Australians – be it in the “average” or otherwise.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88470/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Liz Allen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Use our calculator to work out whether you're an "average" Australian where you live.Liz Allen, Demographer, ANU Centre for Social Research and Methods, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/870942017-12-10T19:12:56Z2017-12-10T19:12:56ZRiding in cars with dogs: millions of trips a week tell us transport policy needs to change<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194761/original/file-20171115-19829-b52asq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=496&amp;fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Hving a pet dog turns out to be a highly car-dependent affair.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Dog owners depend very heavily on their cars to transport and care for their pets. Our recently published <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0965856417302161">study</a> estimates that dog owners make about 2.4 million dog-related trips a week in Sydney. We also found pet owners overwhelmingly want to be able to travel on public transport with their pets. So why are they still excluded?</p>
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<p><em><strong>Further reading:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-need-a-better-understanding-of-how-we-manage-dogs-to-help-them-become-better-urban-citizens-64749">We need a better understanding of how we manage dogs to help them become better urban citizens</a></em></p>
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<p>Our study, involving more than 1,250 Sydney dog owners, looked at popular activities owners do with their dogs and how often these require a trip by car. Typical activities include:</p>
<ul>
<li>walking</li>
<li>visiting the park or other recreational areas</li>
<li>dog training</li>
<li>going to cafés, bars or shops</li>
<li>visiting family, friends or the vet. </li>
</ul>
<p>On average, we found people walk their dog twice or more a week. While this confirms <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091743507003775">existing research</a>, we found that one in four dog walks actually began with a drive in a car. Of the more than 75% of dog owners who go to a recreational area twice or more a week, 45% get there by car. And of the two-thirds of people who go to the dog park three times a week, more than half travel by car.</p>
<p>This demonstrates a surprisingly high reliance on private cars for dog ownership. The table below clearly shows this. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/194753/original/file-20171115-19841-1c1ibfb.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Activities undertaken by dog owners and the number of dog-related car trips each week.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The survey also found that, on average, people visit a vet three times a year. They use a car for 86% of those trips. </p>
<p>However, 14% said lack of transport had prevented them from taking their dog to a vet. People who did not own a car were more likely to fall into this category.</p>
<h2>So, why does this matter?</h2>
<p>Our results indicate that enjoying and caring for a dog in Australian cities – which has <a href="https://theconversation.com/our-pets-strengthen-neighbourhood-ties-79755">proven health and social benefits</a> – is a relatively car-dependent affair. And car dependency is something urban <a href="https://theconversation.com/stuck-in-traffic-we-need-a-smarter-approach-to-congestion-than-building-more-roads-84774">planners want us to leave behind</a> for many reasons, including sustainability, health and <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/healthy-liveable-cities-44685%20in%20our%20cities">liveability</a>.</p>
<p>If we are trying to reduce car use, understanding activities that lead to car dependence is important. We are particularly interested in the unintentional, often negative, consequences for individuals who, by choice or circumstance, do not have access to a car. A compromised ability to enjoy and care for a dog is one such consequence.</p>
<p><figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197467/original/file-20171203-5392-1lre7jv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=1000&amp;fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/197467/original/file-20171203-5392-1lre7jv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&amp;q=45&amp;auto=format&amp;w=754&amp;fit=clip"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">All European cities allow dogs on public transport but most cities in the US and Australia do not.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/chihuahua-arms-travels-public-transport-615671681?irgwc=1&amp;utm_medium=Affiliate&amp;utm_campaign=TinEye&amp;utm_source=77643&amp;utm_term=">TIF Fotos/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure></p>
<p>A policy solution would be to allow dogs on public transport in Australian cities. Unsurprisingly, our survey of dog owners found an overwhelming 95% support this. </p>
<p>More than half indicated they would do more activities with their hound if this were allowed. And 20% said they would even consider getting by without one of their cars if they could take their dog on public transport.</p>
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<p><em><strong>Further reading:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-there-a-place-for-dogs-in-public-space-or-must-they-make-do-with-dog-parks-56147">Is there a place for dogs in public space, or must they make do with ‘dog parks’?</a></em></p>
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<h2>What are the rules in other countries?</h2>
<p>With these findings in mind, we investigated public transport policies on pets in 30 cities across Europe, the United States and Australia. We found all European cities allowed dogs on public transport. Most cities in the US and <a href="https://transportnsw.info/travel-info/using-public-transport/travelling-with-animals-pets">Australia</a> did not.</p>
<p>The policies allowing dogs vary. Some apply limits on where on the train, tram or bus a dog may travel, on travel during peak hours, and on the size of dog. In cities such as Paris, dogs must pass a “basket test” for riding in a carrier or small bag. </p>
<p>Most cities charge a fare for dogs at a concession or child price. Zurich has gone a step further by offering an <a href="https://www.sbb.ch/en/travelcards-and-tickets/tickets-for-switzerland/dogs.html">annual travel card</a> for dogs.</p>
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<p><em><strong>Further reading:</strong> <a href="https://theconversation.com/johnny-depps-dogs-show-evolving-ideas-of-animal-citizenship-41968">Johnny Depp’s dogs show evolving ideas of animal ‘citizenship’</a></em></p>
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<p>It is interesting that in cultures where private cars are dominant – such as Australia and the US – dogs are restricted from riding on public transport. In Europe, where car ownership and use are less common and public transport use is more the norm, dogs are welcome on trains and buses.</p>
<p>This perhaps says something about how we see public transport in Australia: it is for predictable and “clean” trips, such as the journey to work. </p>
<p>In reality, our lives are made up of messy trips, and to reduce car dependence we need to plan for this mess. This might include measures such as changes to timetables, making the interior of trains and buses more suitable for people carrying groceries, or allowing people to use the train to take their dog on an outing or to the vet. If public transport is for travel for all citizens and dogs are an important part of so many people’s lives, why should dogs be excluded from public transport?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87094/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Australian cities generally don't allow pet dogs on public transport. Instead, owners need their own vehicle to travel with their dogs, and it's a surprisingly important factor in our car dependency.Jennifer Kent, Research Fellow, University of SydneyCorinne Mulley, Professor; Chair in Public Transport, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.