who is credited as the founder of sociology, began to analyze the bases of the social order. Although he stressed that the scientific method should be applied to the study of society, he did not apply it himself.

Herbert Spencer

sometimes called the second founder of sociology, coined the term “survival of the fittest”; he thought that helping the poor was wrong, that this merely helped the “less fit” survive.

Karl Marx

believed that the roots of human misery lay in class conflict, the exploitation of workers by those who own the means of production. Social change, in the form of the overthrow of the capitalists by the workers(proletariat), was inevitable from Marx’s perspective. Although Marx did not consider himself a sociologist, his ideas have influenced many sociologists, particularly conflict theorists.

Proletariat

Marx’s term for the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of production

Social integration

the degree to which members of a group or a society feel united by shared values and other social bonds; also known as social cohesion

Emile Durkheim

contributed many important concepts to sociology. His comparison of the suicide rates of several countries revealed an underlying social factor; people are more likely to commit suicide if their ties to others in their communities are weak. His identification of the key role of social integration in social life remains central to sociology today

Max Weber

was another early sociologist who left a profound impression on sociology. He used cross-cultural and historical materials to trace the causes of social change and to determine how social groups affect people’s orientations to life.

W.E.B. Du Bois

spent his lifetime studying relations between African Americans and whites. Like many early North Americans sociologists, Du Bois combined the role of academic sociologist with that of social reformer. He was also the editor of Crisis, an influential journal of the time.

Applied sociology

the use of sociology to solve problems- from the micro level of family relationships to the macro level of global pollution

Theory

a statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work; an explanation of how two or more facts are related to one another

Symbolic interactionism

a theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another

Functional analysis

a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of various parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society’s equilibrium; also known as functionalism and structural functionalism

Conflict theory

a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups that are competing for scarce resources

Macro level

an examination of large-scale patterns of society

Micro level

an examination of small-scale patterns of society

Social interaction

What people do when they are in one another’s presence

Nonverbal interaction

communication without words through gestures, use of space, silence, and so on

Hypothesis

a statement of how variable are expected to be related to one another, often according to predictions from a theory

Variables

a factor thought to be significant for human behavior, which can vary (or change) from one case to another