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Chapter 5

Asia
CONTINENTAL ASIA

found in large numbers and appear adaptable to changed
landscapes. This is typified by the ring-necked parakeet,
which breeds well close to human habitation. However,
this should not lead to complacency about their future.
Trapping is thought to have led to declines of both Finsch’s
parakeet P. finschii and the blossom-headed parakeet P.
roseata in parts of Thailand (Juniper and Parr 1998) and
the increasing intensification of agriculture throughout
much of continental Asia may well impact on populations.

Overview
Philip McGowan
The distribution of Asia’s parrots falls into two categories:
species-poor continental Asia, and the species-rich islands
of the Philippine and Indonesian archipelagos. The latter
countries are so diverse, and contain such large numbers
of species that are (or have recently been) considered
threatened and face such acute conservation problems,
that they are treated separately below.
Continental Asia and Sri Lanka is home to few parrot
species with only species belonging to the genera Psittacula
and Loriculus occurring between Afghanistan in the west,
south China in the north-east, and the Malay Peninsula in
the south. These genera have large distributions and link
the African parrot fauna to that of the south-east Asian
islands. Only three of the 10 (Forshaw 1989) to 13 (Juniper
and Parr 1998) species of Loriculus occur in continental
Asia and Sri Lanka. As the threatened forms of Loriculus
are endemic to Indonesian islands, they are treated in
detail in that section.
There are 13 or 14 surviving species of Psittacula
parakeet (Forshaw 1989, Juniper and Parr 1998), including
the species of the Indian Ocean islands, covered in Chapter
6 of this Action Plan (e.g., echo parakeet P. eques). Two
other Indian Ocean species became extinct by the turn of
the century: the Seychelles parakeet P. wardi and Newton’s
parakeet P. exsul which was endemic to Rodriguez Island
(Forshaw 1989). In contrast, the ring-necked or roseringed parakeet P. krameri is arguably the most widespread
(naturally and as the result of introductions) parrot in the
world.
The only member of this genus considered threatened
is the intermediate parakeet P. intermedia of northern
India where it is only known from skins and bird markets:
no confirmed wild records exist. As indicated in the species
account below, a recent thorough evaluation of all available
evidence suggests that the “species” is in fact a hybrid. It
is retained here on the list of threatened parrots until this
evaluation is completed and published.

Species account
Intermediate parakeet
Psittacula intermedia
Contributor: Pamela Rasmussen.
Conservation status: IUCN: Vulnerable (D1).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: P. intermedia is known from six
(Biswas 1959) skins of unknown origin (Ali and Ripley
1987). Also, a small number of live birds, reputed to have
come from the plains of Uttar Pradesh, India, appeared in
Indian bird markets during the 1980s (Sane et al. 1986).
It is very rarely reported in bird markets. No published
records of free-flying wild birds are known (Inskipp and
Inskipp 1995). Originally described as a distinct species
(Rothschild 1895), it has been variously considered a
hybrid of P. himalayana and P. cyanocephala (Husain
1959, Forshaw 1989) or a distinct species (Biswas 1959,
Walters 1985), but work in progress corroborates the view
that it is of hybrid origin (P.C. Rasmussen in litt. 1997). It
is retained here until that work in progress is completed.
Threats: If a species, nothing is known of its habitat
requirements, status, and any threats, although it is
presumably rare. It is still reported that trappers offer the
bird for sale, although infrequently (Inskipp and Inskipp
1995).
Action: The nearly completed taxonomic reappraisal of
this species should indicate whether it is a distinct species
or a hybrid. If it is a distinct species, then survey work to
determine its distribution, status, and any threats is clearly
urgent.

Threats
There are few pressing conservation issues facing the
parrots of continental Asia because they are typically

58

INDONESIA

pesticides, the popular pastimes of shooting birds with airrifles, capture of birds for the domestic and international
trade, and, in east Indonesia, buying parrots as souvenirs
or pets. In Java, Indonesia’s most densely populated and
developed island, the red-breasted parakeet ( =moustached
parakeet) Psittacula alexandri and blue-crowned hangingparrot Loriculus galgalus are now rare birds. With the
increasing human population and development in east
Indonesia, other species may soon follow unless
preventative actions are started now.

Overview
Paul Jepson
(with boxed contributions by Stuart Marsden,
Jon Riley, Tim O’Brien, and Philip McGowan)
Indonesia, an archipelago of 13,500 islands spanning
5,000km2 of ocean and connecting the Oriental and
Australasian faunal realms, has an exceptionally diverse
Psittacine fauna; 76 species occur, of which 30 are endemic
to the Republic. Psittacines are prominent components of
the avifauna east of Wallace’s Line – in the Indonesian
bio-regions of Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, Maluku, and
Irian Jaya. Maluku, with 32 species (of which eight are
endemic), and Irian Jaya (the Indonesian territory on the
island of New Guinea), with 33 species (including three
endemics), are particularly diverse regions.

Conservation solutions
Obtaining sufficient information
Until recently, the knowledge base for setting parrot
conservation priorities in Indonesia was derived from the
largely anecdotal, qualitative, and sometimes prejudiced
reports of short-term visitors. Thus, some threat
assessments have underestimated the area of available
habitat and over-stated the impact of trade in wild caught
birds. Recently, systematic surveys have clarified the
conservation status of some of Indonesia’s parrots that
were thought to be most threatened. As a result, the
quality of information available for determining the risk
of extinction facing parrot species is quite variable, ranging
from detailed data, in a few cases, to, more commonly,
inferences drawn from patchy knowledge of habitat and
distribution.
Limited knowledge of species’ status and the pressures
that they face are often cited as major obstacles to
conservation. In Indonesia where there are many endemic
species distributed across many islands covering a huge
area, there is a need to improve the capacity to undertake
conservation-orientated psittacine studies (see Box 8).
Fieldwork by the Directorate-General of Forest
Protection and Nature Conservation (PHPA)/BirdLife
International-Indonesia Programme has confirmed that
yellow-crested cockatoo Cacatua sulphurea populations
have collapsed (see Box 9) and has also failed to locate the
blue-fronted lorikeet Charmosyna toxopei, for which no
confirmed reports exist since its discovery in 1927 (see Box
10). However, other status assessments by PHPA/BirdLife
in Maluku have revealed that white cockatoo Cacatua
alba, Tanimbar corella, and the chattering Lorius garrulus,
blue-streaked Eos reticulata, and violet-necked Eos
squamata lories, all once believed to be threatened by
trade, are still common birds within their limited ranges.
A recent York University, UK/Universitas Sam Ratulangi
expedition has found that Sangihe hanging-parrot
Loriculus catamene is widespread in plantations and
agricultural gardens, as well as in natural forest (University
of York 1995). Lambert (1997) estimated that the red-andblue lory population on Talaud numbers several thousand

Threats
At present, most of Indonesia’s parrot populations are
reasonably healthy, although 15 species have recently
been considered threatened, (four Endangered, 11
Vulnerable: Collar et al. 1994). One of these, the bluenaped parrot Tanygnathus lucionensis, which has a large
distribution in the Philippines and which in Indonesia
occurs only in the Talaud islands, is now thought to be less
at risk and has been removed from the list of threatened
birds. Nevertheless, Indonesia has the highest number of
threatened Psittacines of any country and around 15% of
the world total.
Indonesia is a rapidly developing nation and landscapes
are being fundamentally altered. It is preparing to feed an
extra 35 million people, making a total population of 235
million, by the year 2015. In Sulawesi, Maluku, and Irian
Jaya, Indonesia’s three most diverse parrot regions,
habitats in the lowland and coastal zone areas are being
converted to wet-rice cultivation, plantation and timber
crops, and shrimp-ponds. In addition, people are being
relocated from elsewhere in Indonesia to populate these
areas. Such changes will impact any Psittacine species with
specialist lowland habitat requirements. Furthermore, all
forest outside nature reserves, at altitudes below 1,000m,
and on slopes of a grade less than 40%, will have been
selectively logged by the year 2010. This may be critical for
some parrot populations because it involves the removal
of large trees, which may reduce nest site availability and
hence the reproductive potential of parrots.
As natural habitats decline or become degraded,
additional pressures associated with increased human
population and agricultural intensification may become
more significant. Such pressures include excessive use of

59

rather than just 500 as reported in the early 1990s. The
possibility that the hanging parrot population may be
dependent on recruitment from natural forest and that the
lory may be declining rapidly requires clarification (see
Box 11).
In the case of other species that are thought to be at
risk, notably the black-lored parrot Tanygnathus gramineus
(see Box 10), purple-naped lory Lorius domicella (see Box
12), Wallaces’ hanging-parrot Loriculus flosculus,
Moluccan cockatoo (see Box 12), Salvadori’s fig-parrot
Psittaculirostris salvadorii, and Pesquet’s parrot Psittrichas
fulgidus, the information cited to support “threatened”
status is inferential and based on limited field data.
Thorough status assessments of these species are needed.

Nine parrot species are protected in Indonesia,
including the sulphur-crested cockatoo Cacatua galerita
and the eclectus parrot Eclectus roratus, which are not
considered to be globally threatened. The Moluccan
cockatoo Cacatua moluccensis, Tanimbar corella
(=Goffin’s cockatoo) Cacatua goffini, and red-and-blue
lory Eos histrio are listed on CITES Appendix I, and
international trade (but not domestic trade) is prohibited
except under strict circumstances. The remainder of
Indonesia’s parrots are included on Appendix II of CITES
and the export of wild-caught parrots is subject to quotas.
Table 3 provides a list of threatened parrot species in
Indonesia.
Interventions to control or ban the capture and trade
of parrots should be carefully evaluated before they are
implemented. For example, recent studies by social
anthropologists of forest peoples in Seram and Halmahera
showed that parrot catching accounts for 25–30% of their
cash income (S. Badcock in litt. 1997). Among the Halafara
people of the Manusela valley, Seram, young men catch
and sell parrots to raise their bride price (S. Badcock in litt.
1997). Intervention without careful preparation runs the
risk of alienating non-government agencies which are
advocating the rights of traditional people and, in extreme
cases, unwittingly initiating new and unforeseen problems.
A good example of the latter is the case of the Tanimbar
corella. When the trade was open, farmers gained
compensation for crop damage by selling corellas snared
on their maize crop. Now that there is no market, they
have started burning tyres to keep the flocks away;
increasing the risk of wildfires in Tanimbar’s natural
vegetation of dry monsoon forests (D. Pursima pers.
comm. 1997).
The majority of Indonesia’s parrots are forest species
and Indonesia’s natural forest covers 1,090,000km2, of
which 303,000km2 is classed as protection forest and
167,000km 2 is contained within nature reserves.
Furthermore, several major reserves have been established
in key centres of psittacine diversity, notably the 25,000km2
Lorentz National Park in Irian Jaya, the 2,290km2 Lore
Lindu National Park in Sulawesi, and the 1,890km2
Manusela National Park in Maluku. Continued work to
ensure that all species are adequately represented in
protected areas is necessary.

Resource allocation and the parrot trade
Because of Indonesia’s size there will always be a need to
target scarce conservation resources to the richest parrot
areas, and the conservation of endemic island species is
likely to remain a key issue. For this reason a revision of
the taxonomic status of a number of species complexes is
highly desirable (see Box 13). Two examples illustrate
why.
The rainbow lorikeet Trichoglossus haematodus
superspecies extends from Lombok east to New Guinea
and New Caledonia, and to northern and eastern Australia,
including Tasmania, and has 21 recognised taxa (Forshaw
1989). The two taxa occurring in Australia are now classed
as separate species, but the 14 taxa occurring in Indonesia
are considered to be one species. Whilst the species group
is widespread and, in places, abundant, if any taxa is
sufficiently distinct (e.g., T. h. weberi on Flores) to merit
species status then they may require attention.
The Tanimbar corella illustrates the converse problem.
It has been considered as a subspecies of the little corella
C. sanguinea and split purely for convenience (see Forshaw
1989). Because it was classed as an endemic island species,
international attention focused on the levels of off-take
for the wild bird trade and it was assumed to be endangered.
This led to a damaging argument over the need for CITES
I listing, between the Indonesian government, trade and
animal welfare non-governmental organisations (NGOs),
and BirdLife International, which would probably have
never happened if goffini had been treated as a subspecies
with the super-abundant sanguinea, the favoured historical
approach. Subsequent surveys have shown that goffini,
like sanguinea, is an agricultural pest, although this
characteristic is unlikely to guarantee its survival. Other
superspecies and species groups where taxonomic reviews
are needed to help guide conservation planning are the
yellow and sulphur crested cockatoos, eclectus parrot,
black-capped lory Lorius lory, and Amboina king parrot
Alisterus amboinensis.

Recognition of cultural diversity
Conservation measures must bear in mind that Indonesia
has great cultural diversity and the values and perceptions
of many differ from those of western conservationists. For
example, many rural people in Indonesia are unaware that
birds have restricted distributions and have difficulty with
the concept of extinction; as a result they may rationalise
population declines in terms of birds moving into the hills

60

(which they may do if lowland forest is lost) or getting
“cleverer” and therefore harder to catch. Furthermore,
utilising and trading natural resources is fundamental to
Indonesian culture and economy.

reduce the impact of logging which removes nest trees by
providing artificial nest sites. There are a number of
professional and image-conscious logging companies in
Indonesia that might be interested in exploring restoration
approaches.
Sadly, human capacity or resources do not match
opportunities. It may be that fewer than 10 people in
Indonesia will look at this Action Plan. In general, the
Indonesian conservation community views parrots either
as a non-issue or a specialist and thankless conservation
activity that runs the risk of embroiling an agency in
politics. Opportunities for outside agencies and individuals
to make a useful contribution in Indonesia without a
strong local partner are limited. Regulations governing
foreign agencies and individuals wishing to conduct
surveys, research or other conservation activities are
complex. A collaborative conservation project (other than
short inputs such as training or an awareness poster) with
PHPA normally requires a formal agreement approved by
the Secretariat to the Cabinet of the Republic of Indonesia
which will involve a major investment over two years to
conclude.
For parrot conservation to move forward in Indonesia
there is a real need for different agencies and interest
groups to work together, to pool resources and
opportunities, and to recognise that no one agency can
succeed meaningfully alone.

Lateral and vertical approaches
Initiatives focusing on threatened species, such as those
outlined in this Action Plan, are important. In the longer
term, however, there is a need to widen the scope from
single-species, crisis-driven interventions to broad-based,
sustained efforts to create the conditions for psittacine
assemblages to flourish in the human dominated landscape
of the future. Such a reassessment of parrot conservation
priorities in Indonesia will be a challenging task and its
formulation will require a deeper understanding of areas
such as psittacine taxonomy and ecology, cultural
perceptions towards parrots, habitat status, development
planning, forestry and agricultural policy, and institutional
capacities. The current portfolio of conservation and
development projects in Indonesia is expanding the
knowledge base of the latter, general subject areas, but
progress in areas specific to parrots will require the initiation
of targeted projects.
Status assessments, taxonomic, and social anthropological studies will not in themselves save parrots in
Indonesia. The real challenge for the future is translating
knowledge into interventions with lasting impact. Promising
areas include public awareness, local-level spatial planning,
working with the forestry sector, and (for threatened species)
inter-agency recovery plans. In each of these areas there are
exciting opportunities to build parrot conservation into
ongoing activities. For example, the WWF-Indonesia
Programme distributes a “radio bulletin” which syndicates
environmental news stories to local-language radio stations;
WWF, BirdLife, and Conservation International are
developing projects to work with local planning agencies
on spatial planning; the eco-labelling of tropical hardwood
initiative has opened avenues to explore the potential of
working with forestry concessionaires on ways to reduce
the impact of logging on parrot populations; and BAPA/
BirdLife’s yellow-crested cockatoo recovery plan provides
an exciting model of how inter-agency support and
government resources can be mobilised for the protection
of an endangered parrot species. It may be possible to

Priority projects in Indonesia
•
•

•
•

•

•

61

Provision of training materials and courses in parrot
conservation in Indonesia. (Box 8)
Assessment of the ecological requirements and
populations dynamics of the yellow-crested cockatoo
Cacatua sulphurea and other parrots in the Lesser Sundas
and Sulawesi. (Box 9)
Search for the blue-fronted lorikeet and black-lored
parrot on Buru, Maluku Province, Indonesia. (Box 10)
A strategy for the conservation of the red-and-blue lory
Eos histrio and the Sangihe hanging-parrot Loriculus
catamene in the Talaud Islands, Indonesia. (Box 11)
Assessment of the conservation status and needs of the
Moluccan cockatoo and purple-naped lory on Seram,
Indonesia. (Box 12)
Clarification of parrot taxonomy in Indonesia. (Box 13)

Box 8. Provision of training materials and courses in parrot conservation in Indonesia.
Paul Jepson and Philip McGowan
Aim: To build local expertise within Indonesia to undertake extensive surveys and intensive research so that the status of parrot
populations can be determined reliably and the threats facing them understood.
Justification: Indonesia is home to 76 species of parrot (Andrew 1992), of which 14 species are considered threatened with
extinction. This comprises some 15% of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s threatened parrots and indicates the importance of conservation efforts in this
country during the next five years. A major obstacle to conservation in many countries is understanding whether species are at risk
and if so what are the limiting factors. This is especially so in Indonesia, a large country consisting of many islands which are home
to endemic species and subspecies. Consequently, there are many species that are believed threatened, have small ranges, and
are widely separated from each other. This means that the expertise existing within the country is not able to address the
conservation-orientated research needs of these species. Therefore, there is a great need to build local capacity for undertaking work
that will help our understanding of the plight facing Indonesiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s parrots and what might be done to ensure their survival.
Project description: Determining priority areas and personnel for a long-term training initiative should be undertaken in
collaboration with the BirdLife-Indonesia Programme, the Directorate-General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation
(PHPA), and the Indonesian Institute of Science (LIPI). Personnel from universities who are attached to Environmental Study
Centres (PSL), PHPA field offices (SSKSDA), and national parks should be offered the chance of field training. Training materials
could be distributed more widely to national level PHPA and LIPI staff together with universities and non-governmental
organisations. Establishing a parrot conservation capacity within a university might prove the most effective way of developing
skills within Indonesia.
Personnel thus identified will require resources to allow them to understand parrot status assessments. These resources
should include materials such as a parrot identification key (for all species, not just those which are threatened), pictures and
tapes, and a manual of field techniques. Provision of a set of standard packs could be supplemented by items specific to some
areas and/or species. The provision of stand-alone training packs should be supported by local training courses in which
general conservation issues are discussed. Within this context the plight of parrots can be raised and then training given in
techniques that can be used in understanding the problems in particular areas. For example, a survey and inventory workshop
might draw on staff from LIPI, BirdLife International-Indonesia Programme, and local NGO conservation biologists.
This initiative should be co-ordinated by a training officer whose responsibility it would be to bring together the materials
for the standard pack, consider the necessity for additional material for particular areas, and to draw up and begin the training
workshops. A period of one year would be sufficient to start the programme and thereafter it could co-ordinated by BirdLife
International-Indonesia Programme, PHPA, and LIPI.
Contact: BirdLife International-Indonesia Programme.

62

Box 9. Assessment of the ecological requirements and populations dynamics of the yellow-crested
cockatoo Cacatua sulphurea and other parrots in the Lesser Sundas and Sulawesi.
Stuart Marsden
Aims: i) To determine the effects of habitat alteration and direct harvesting on the population size and structure, and the nesting
ecology of the yellow-crested cockatoo; (ii) to use available data to identify strategies to ensure the long-term viability of
cockatoo and other parrot populations in Wallacea. (iii) to conduct experiments on the use of artificial nest boxes for the yellowcrested cockatoo.
Justification: The yellow-crested cockatoo Cacatua sulphurea has suffered large declines throughout much of its natural
range (see species account) and other parrots of the subregion, such as eclectus parrot Eclectus roratus and great-billed parrot
Tanygnathus megalorynchos, have also shown dramatic recent declines (Jones et al. 1995). The causes of these declines are
not properly understood, but populations have no doubt been seriously affected by habitat alteration and, in most cases (e.g.,
C. sulphurea and E. roratus), by direct harvesting of the birds themselves. Following recommendations made by the CITES
Animals Committee as a result of its review of significant trade in Appendix II listed animal species, Indonesia has instituted
an export moratorium pending surveys.
While very little detailed ecological work has been carried out on any of these species, studies of all three species on Sumba
have shown that all occurred at higher densities in primary forest than in disturbed forest (Marsden 1995); in all cases densities
in non-forested areas were extremely low. Effective strategies are to be developed for the long-term conservation of the yellowcrested cockatoo. Other species of parrot require a much greater understanding of the factors that naturally affect recruitment
and mortality. In addition, it is necessary to understand more fully the impacts of habitat alteration on population dynamics
(particularly in relation to loss of critical food sources and nesting trees), and the implications of different levels of harvesting.
Almost nothing is known of these critical factors in relation to any Indonesian parrot.
The population of the cockatoo is now at such a critically low level throughout its range that there is a need for innovative
conservation strategies, such as the provision of nest boxes. If nest sites are limiting population size, provision of acceptable
boxes should eliminate this limiting factor.
Project description: Work would be focused on the yellow-crested cockatoo, but data should also be collected on sympatric
species such as great-billed and eclectus parrots, and would concentrate on four study areas on Sumba, Sumbawa (Moyo),
Komodo, and Sulawesi. Preliminary data on population density, habitat associations, and nesting ecology of Sumbaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s parrots
are already available from previous studies (e.g., Marsden 1995, Marsden and Jones 1997) and should be built upon. Komodo,
with high cockatoo density (see species accounts), and the areas on Sumbawa where cockatoos still occur, provide a suitable
contrast to Sumbaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s low density. Comparatively little is known of the population status of cockatoos or other parrots on
Sulawesi.
Baseline data would be collected at all sites, including accurate assessments of population densities of all parrot species
(reassessed, in some cases), within different habitat types (following Jones et al. 1995; Marsden 1999). The densities of active
nest sites should be similarly assessed for cockatoos and other selected species, and their abundance determined in relation
to patterns of human habitat alteration (though not necessarily on all islands mentioned above). These data will allow an
assessment of current population levels for the selected species, as well as an indication of the proportion of non-breeders
in each population. In each area, a large sample of active nests should then be monitored to determine their productivity per
annum (eggs laid, young fledged). Characteristics of the nest site and variation in productivity should be related to habitat
characteristics and other environmental factors and patterns of human nest predation.
Data on population densities and structure in different habitats, nest availability, and productivity could be compared with
those data available for related species e.g., galah C. roseicapilla: (Rowley 1983); Carnabyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cockatoo Calyptorhynchus
funereus latirostris: (Saunders 1982, 1986); and three cockatoo species: (Smith and Saunders 1986). Combined with
information on bird capture patterns and harvest rates, these data can be used to develop a simple general population model,
sensitive to elements both of loss of nesting trees and direct illegal harvest. It is anticipated that this model could be used to
predict likely changes in the population size of cockatoos in relation to different levels of habitat loss and harvesting. The model
may also be used, with limited field data, for other populations of ecologically similar parrots in Indonesia: in this instance it
may help to identify those taxa at risk and help prevent unsustainable harvest from populations by taking account of current
habitat loss rates.
Using nest site data collected during the initial course of fieldwork, artificial nest boxes should be designed and tested in
appropriate localities in the field.
Contact: S. Marsden, BirdLife International-Indonesia Programme.
The project is designed to fit into the framework of the Yellow-crested cockatoo Cacatua sulphurea Recovery Plan that is being
developed by PHPA/BirdLife International.

63

Box 10. Search for the blue-fronted lorikeet and black-lored parrot on Buru, Maluku Province, Indonesia.
Philip McGowan and Stuart Marsden
Aim: To find one or more populations of the blue-fronted lorikeet and black-lored parrot and propose recommendations for
the long-term survival of these species.
Justification: The blue-fronted lorikeet Charmosyna toxopei and the black-lored parrot Tanygnathus gramineus are endemic
to Buru, an island of less than 2,500km2 to the east of Sulawesi in central Maluku Province, Indonesia. The only certain records
of the former species are seven specimens collected by Toxopeus using bird lime and described by Siebers (1930). The
specimens were caught to the west of Lake Rana, in the centre of the island and remain the only definitive records despite
intensive searches by the BirdLife International-Indonesia Programme in 1995 (Gunung Kelapat Mada proposed protected
area, Lake Rana, and Teluk Bay) and 1996 (central north-east Buru and in the mangroves of Kayeli Bay). The only trace of this
species followed claims by two hunters who reported catching it for food to the north-west of Lake Rana. Reports by Smiet
(1985) that the species was common in Teluk Bara in 1980 are thought questionable (e.g., Forshaw 1989) and were not
confirmed in either 1989 or 1995, although it may have been encountered above Teluk Bara in 1989 (Marsden et al. 1997). There
is only one recent record of the black-lored parrot (Smiet 1985) and it was not found during the 1989 survey, but calls which
may be this species were heard in western Buru in 1995 (BirdLife-IP in litt. 1997).
Project description: There is an urgent need to clarify the status of both species. The lack of records for these species might
suggest that they occur at very low densities, are nomadic or have very specific habitat requirements. In the case of the blacklored parrot, the fact that it is nocturnal is probably part of the reason for the lack of confirmed records. Consequently, any
survey should call on as much precise information as possible relating to locality, altitude, state of the habitat, time of year,
and time of day when planning searches. For example, the search for the lorikeet might concentrate north-west of Lake Rana
and in Teluk Bara, from where the only recent reports come from. Searches should be made at the same time of year as the
hunters claim to have caught birds and any additional information should be sought that might reveal aspects of behaviour
or ecology that make the birds difficult to detect. Results from as detailed a status assessment as is possible may then be used
to propose the next stage in conservation planning for this species and its habitat. For the black-lored parrot, searches might
concentrate in the Kelapat Mada Mountains at dusk.
Contact: BirdLife International-Indonesia Programme, Stuart Marsden.

64

Box 11. A strategy for the conservation of the red-and-blue lory Eos histrio and the Sangihe hanging-parrot
Loriculus catamene in the Talaud Islands, Indonesia.
Jon Riley
Aim: To ensure the survival of the red-and-blue lory and the Sangihe hanging-parrot in the Talaud Islands by: increasing
protection and reducing trapping levels of the red-and-blue lory on Karakelong and raising public awareness of its plight;
assessing the status of both species on Sangihe.
Justification: The Endangered red-and-blue lory was formerly found in great abundance in the Talaud Islands and large flocks
could regularly be seen moving between islands (Meyer and Wigglesworth 1898). It is now thought extinct from parts of its
former range. Its stronghold is Karakelong the largest of the Talaud Islands (Riley 1995, Lambert 1997), and the only island in
the Talaud group where trapping takes place. Trapping levels are very high, with at least several hundred birds trapped in a
year (Lambert 1997). Approximately 1,200 birds are estimated to have been shipped from the island in 1996 (Wardhill and Riley
1997). This level of trapping is likely to have played an important role in the decline of the species and is probably the most
immediate threat to its future. The species was included in CITES Appendix I in 1995.
Other potential factors are habitat loss, the use of the insecticide Azodrin and the potential for escaped captive birds to
transmit diseases to wild birds. Habitat loss is thought to be responsible for the species’ disappearance from Salibau and
Kabaruan. Several areas are scheduled for logging on Karakelong. The insecticide Azodrin is applied to coconut trees leaving
the coconuts unfit for human consumption for three months after application. Lories drink nectar from flowers in contaminated
trees and it is not known whether the insecticide has any effect.
The Sangihe hanging-parrot is widespread at low densities on Sangihe, to which it is endemic, and has been recorded in
small groups from a number of localities in different habitats. Almost all of Sangihe’s original vegetation has been replaced by
mixed crop plantations and secondary scrub although small remnant patches of forest survive on Mt. Sahengbalira in southern
Sangihe and on Mt. Awu in the north. It is unlikely that Sangihe will prove important for the red-and-blue lory, as fewer than
50 birds are thought to survive there (Riley 1995, Lambert 1997).
Project description: A conservation strategy for the red-and-blue lory should address the three threats outlined above
through:
i) Increasing protection: protection is required at two levels. Firstly the red-and-blue lory should be placed on the Indonesian
list of protected species. The legislation relating to this criteria should be strictly enforced; detailed recommendations are
given in Lambert (1997). Secondly the status of protected areas on Karakelong should be clarified and possibly revised.
Although the population on the island is centred on a hunting reserve, logging concessions have apparently been issued
for part of this site. Whilst this situation is being clarified, it may be considered appropriate to revise the status of this reserve
to a designation more compatible with the conservation requirements of this species.
ii) Raising public awareness: legislation designed to reduce trapping and improve habitat protection will require partnership
with district chiefs, village heads, and local communities. Workshops and educational material might concentrate on the
need to conserve threatened parrots and forest resources, and increasing awareness of existing protected areas. For the
lory specifically, its probable role as a controller of agricultural pests and in pollinating crop plants should be emphasised.
iii) Improving knowledge: wherever possible, additional information should be sought, both for monitoring purposes and to
provide an understanding of the species’ ecological requirements, and the impacts of potential threats. Field surveys
should be repeated and compared with Lambert (1997) after an appropriate time period. The numbers of birds recorded
in trade should also be monitored. Two potential threats should be investigated: the possible impact of the insecticide
Azodrin and whether escaped birds are transmitting diseases to wild birds.
A status assessment of both species on Sangihe is required, especially the hanging-parrot. This should involve determining
the distribution of the species across the island and quantifying habitat use, to be followed by ecological assessments
designed to understand factors currently affecting population size and identifying threats. For the hanging-parrot, this should
include clarification of whether the species depends on forest patches because although it appears to be faring well in
Sangihe’s plantations (it feeds from coconut inflorescences), it is not known whether all of its requirements are met by this
artificial habitat. Key factors are an assessment of its breeding success, roosting requirements, and determining whether any
agricultural practices (e.g., the use insecticide Azodrin) are having a negative impact. These data will provide for recommendations
concerning the appropriateness of habitat protection (including promoting the establishment of a protected area near Mt.
Sahengbalira) and agricultural practices.
Contact: Jon Riley, BirdLife International-Indonesia Programme.
Action Sampiri, a year long conservation project in the Talaud and Sangihe Islands, begun in 1998.

65

Box 12. Assessment of the conservation status and needs of the Moluccan cockatoo and purple-naped lory
on Seram, Indonesia.
Philip McGowan, Tim O’Brien and Paul Jepson
Aim: To assess the status of the Moluccan cockatoo and purple-naped lory on Seram and propose a strategy for their
conservation.
Justification: The Moluccan cockatoo Cacatua moluccensis is endemic to Seram and the smaller islands of Saparua, Hariku,
and Ambon in Maluku Province. The purple-naped lory Lorius domicella occurs only on Seram and Ambon. Most of Seram’s
forests, which are still extensive, are now under timber concessions and the island’s Regional Development priority status
means that forests over good soil may be converted to wet rice cultivation and other crops. At present far too little is known
of either species to be sure that they can withstand such changes. What little information does exist on habitat use is largely
anecdotal in nature, although it is known that they are unable to exist in wet rice cultivation.
Both species are forest inhabitants. The cockatoo is not thought to occur above 700m and does not tolerate selectively
logged forest (Marsden 1998). It may tolerate traditional forest/garden mosaics. Crucially, however, there are no data on
breeding success in either natural or human-modified habitats and so it is not known if they will survive in these altered habitats
in the long-term. The lory is considered uncommon in hill forest between approximately 400 and 900m. Both species are traded
and at least one species plays a significant part in the culture and economy of the inhabitants of Manusela National Park. For
both species, there is a clear lack of information upon which to base recommendations that will ensure their survival in concert
with regional development.
Project description: The first step is the assessment of the status of both species on Seram. Ideally this should attempt to
determine relative abundance by habitat. In addition, information on the size and distribution of habitat blocks, and on trapping
and timber extraction would be applicable to Regional Development Projects. These data would permit consideration of the
needs of these species in appropriate management strategies, such as advocation of reserve boundaries, land-use zoning,
and possible new provincial forestry and agriculture policies. Furthermore, it will provide an adequate baseline for monitoring
and a determination of the degree to which trade affects the status of the species. In response to the threat from international
trade, Cacatua moluccensis was included in CITES Appendix I in 1990.
During the status assessment, it should be determined whether it is feasible to assess the breeding success of both species
in different habitats. This is necessary before the species’ presence in man-modified habitats can be interpreted as an indicator
that it will survive in these habitats in the long-term.
Contacts: Wildlife Conservation Society-Indonesia Programme (lead agency on a planned survey), BirdLife InternationalIndonesia Programme, Stuart Marsden.

Box 13. Clarification of parrot taxonomy in Indonesia.
Paul Jepson and Philip McGowan
Aim: To clarify areas of uncertainty in the taxonomy of Indonesia’s parrots in order to ensure distinct threatened taxa are not
overlooked.
Justification: Knowledge of Indonesia’s parrot fauna is very poor indeed compared with some other areas of the world. Many
taxa have been recorded only a few times and much of their taxonomy is based on few specimens from an unevenly distributed
sample of sites. Whilst the standard taxonomy seems adequate for many species and their subspecies, it is apparent that in
some cases the existing nomenclature fails to reflect the variation in the “species” across its range. It is typically the degree
of variation in plumage that has led to questions of taxonomic validity.
Understanding the taxonomy of these complexes is important because scarce resources for conservation are more likely
to be targeted towards species than subspecies. Therefore, it is crucial to understand whether taxa described as species
accurately reflect genetic variation. There are several cases worthy of investigation among Indonesia’s parrots, but the
priorities are perhaps the rainbow lory Trichoglossus haematodius and the yellow or lesser sulphur-crested cockatoo Cacatua
sulphurea. The former is distributed from Bali eastwards through Indonesia to New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands, and
southwards to northern and eastern Australia. It has been assigned to 21 subspecies (Forshaw 1989), but the distinctness of
the forms that inhabit the Indonesian islands from Bali to Biak in particular require clarification. The key issue within the
subspecies of the lesser sulphur-crested cockatoo is whether C. s. citrinocristata from Sumba is sufficiently distinct to be
considered a species.
Other issues that require resolution include relationships within the pygmy parrots Micropsitta, fig parrots Cyclopsitta
(=Opopsitta), Desmarest’s fig-parrot Psittaculirostris desmaresti, blue-rumped parrot Psittinus cyanurus, painted parrot
Psittacella picta, red-cheeked and singing parrot Geoffroyus geoffroyus and G. heteroclitus, golden-mantled racquet-tail,
Prioniturus platurus, Amboina king parrot Alisterus amboinensis, and the eclectus parrot Eclectus roratus.
Project description: Comparisons of the base pair sequences in the rapidly evolving parts of the mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) provide an objective way of comparing degrees of genetic difference between populations within the same species,
by reference to another recognised species that is closely related (i.e., the control or outgroup). Suitable outgroups for the
rainbow lory forms might be T. h. moluccanus from Tasmania and the ornate lory T. ornatus from Sulawesi. With the lesser
sulphur-crested cockatoo, the monotypic salmon-crested Cacatua moluccensis or white cockatoo C. alba seem appropriate.
Ideally, blood or other fresh tissue samples from many individuals in each group are required to provide a sufficient sample
from their populations for these DNA tests. To achieve this in these cases, it will probably also be necessary to amplify minute
and degraded DNA samples from moulted feather shafts collected in the wild, and from captive birds (if they are known to be
pure and not hybridised).
Contact: Museum Zoologi Bogor, LIPI.

66

Species accounts
Table 3. A list of Indonesian parrot species that are considered threatened using IUCN Red List criteria.
Also included is one species removed from the Red List. Species are listed in alphabetical order by their scientific name, together with
their distribution and threat status. The criteria under which each species qualifies are given in the appropriate species account. Where
two English names are given, the first is that widely used in Australia and the second, in parentheses, is the name used in Birds to
Watch 2 (Collar et al. 1994). *Denotes changes from Birds to Watch 2 (and, therefore, the 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals),
which have been agreed to by BirdLife International who maintain the IUCN list of threatened birds.
Threat
English name
Scientific name
Distribution
category
White cockatoo
Moluccan cockatoo
(Salmon-crested cockatoo)
Yellow-crested cockatoo

Contributor: BirdLife International-Indonesia Programme.
Conservation status: IUCN: Vulnerable (A2c,d).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This species is endemic to
Halmahera, Bacan, Kasiruta, and Mandiole in the north
Moluccas, Indonesia (specimens from Bisa and Obi seem
most likely to derive from captive birds, or a feral
population on Bisa, now extinct; Lambert 1994a), where
it is found in primary and logged forest visiting tall trees
within recently cleared areas in the lowlands to 600m. It is
apparently absent from lowland forest areas, with few
records from forest over nutrient deficient soil near Foli
(Lambert 1994a), and no records from Gunung
Gamkonorna or in forest over super-alkaline soils inland
from Buli (BirdLife-IP in litt. 1997).
Survey work carried out in 1991 and 1992 resulted in a
population estimate of 49,765–212,430 birds (Lambert
1993a). It has been suggested that the proposed Lalobata
protected area on Halmahera may contain as many as

White cockatoo
Cacatua alba

67

Moluccan cockatoo
Cacatua moluccensis
(Salmon-crested cockatoo in Collar et al. 1994. Name
changed here to conform to Indonesian usage.)
Contributors: BirdLife International-Indonesia Programme
and Frank Lambert.
Conservation status: IUCN: Vulnerable (A1c,d; A2c,d;
B1+2c,e).
CITES: Appendix I.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This species was endemic to Seram
and its satellite islands (Saparua, Haruku, and Ambon), in
the Moluccas, Indonesia (White and Bruce 1986), but
apparent extinctions on Saparua and Haruku and the
persistence of only a small population in north-east Ambon
(see Poulsen and Jepson 1996) leaves it almost restricted to
Seram (BirdLife-IP in litt. 1997). It is found in lowland
forest to 1,000m.
Surveys in central and north-east Seram, including the
Manusela National Park, in 1989, found that it occurs at
highest densities in primary (9.1 ± 6.3 per km²) and
disturbed primary forest (9.8 ± 7.7 per km²), rather than in
secondary forest (6.4 ± 6.2 per km²) and much lower in
recently logged forest (1.9 ± 1.8 per km²) (Marsden 1992),
suggesting that large-scale logging could considerably
reduce its total population (Collar et al. 1994).

Threats: It is believed that the levels of legal and illegal
trade in this species in the early 1990s (a minimum of
5,120–7,500 individuals are estimated to have been captured
in 1991) were not sustainable, particularly when combined
with current levels of habitat loss and degradation (Lambert
1993a). There were 17,362 wild caught specimens recorded
in international trade between 1991 and 1995; 6,855 in
1991, 5,766 in 1992, 3,563 in 1993, 995 in 1994 and 183 in
1995 (CITES Annual Report database). Following an
export moratorium recommended by the CITES Animals
Committee as a result of their review of significant trade in
Appendix II listed species, PHPA revised its quota to the
level recommended by Lambert (1993a: see Collar et al.
1994). The export quota for 1997 was set at 720 individuals
(CITES Notification to the Parties No. 980, June 1997)
and reduced to 380 individuals for 1998 (CITES
Notification to the Parties No. 1998/07).

Threats: It is not clear whether the above figures reflect its
specialised habitat requirements or the pattern and volume
of bird capture: evidence that trade levels in this species
were not sustainable and that its population was declining

Action: The reduction of the CITES quota should help
reduce the number of wild white cockatoos in international
trade, but ways of reducing all exploitation (i.e., domestic
trade as well) should be found. A clear priority is improved
law enforcement, with all responsibility for quotas being
centralised at the Department of Forestry in Ambon
(Lambert 1993c). Additional approaches might include
provision of incentives for not overexploiting cockatoo
populations. This might be achieved through the
introduction of cockatoo concessions in which particular
areas would be allocated for cockatoo collection each
year. Such an approach should allow better monitoring
and would clearly involve considerable public awareness
input if it were to succeed (Lambert 1993c).

68

led to a complete ban on trade being imposed by CITES in
1989 (Marsden 1992; see Inskipp et al. 1988, Bowler and
Taylor 1989) and inclusion in Appendix I in 1992. The
species also received protected status in Indonesia (Collar
et al 1994). Illegal trade could, however, still be a threat
(Collar et al 1994) and still occurs (F. Lambert in litt.
1997). There were 235 wild caught specimens recorded in
international trade between 1991 and 1995, with an annual
maximum of 131 individuals in 1992 (CITES Annual
Report database). These refer mainly to movement of preCITES held birds and pets.
Action: The status of the species on Seram should be
clarified and relative abundance in each habitat type
determined. In addition, information on the size of and
distribution of habitat blocks, and on trapping and
timber extraction should be collected. Once such data
have been collected, future action should be considered.
These data will also provide an adequate baseline for
monitoring and a determination of the degree to which
trade affects the status of the species. A BirdLife/Wildlife
Conservation Society project is addressing these needs.
(See Box 12.)

Yellow-crested cockatoo
Cacatua sulphurea
Contributor: BirdLife International-Indonesia Programme.
Conservation status: IUCN: Endangered (A1c,d; A2c,d).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: The yellow-crested cockatoo is
endemic to Indonesia (and introduced to Singapore and
Hong Kong), where it occurs virtually throughout the
Lesser Sundas, on Sulawesi and its satellite islands, and off
Nusa Penida (off Bali) and the Masalembu islands (in the
Java Sea). It is found in forested habitat in the lowlands to
500m on Sulawesi and to 800m, sometimes 1,200m, in the
Lesser Sundas (White and Bruce 1986, MacKinnon and
Phillips 1993, Collar et al. 1994).
It was formerly locally common throughout much of
its range, but numbers have declined. It is extinct on
Lombok (BirdLife-IP in litt. 1997) and thought to be
potentially beyond recovery on Sulawesi (Andrew and
Holmes 1990, Collar et al. 1994). There is evidence of
substantial population declines in South Sulawesi
(Cahyadin et al. 1994a) and North Sulawesi (BirdLife-IP
in litt. 1997). It survives, but is rare, on Flores (Dutson
1995). In the Masalembo Islands in the Java Sea only 8â&#x20AC;&#x201C;10
individuals of the endemic subspecies abbotti were located
in 1993 and 1994 (Cahyadin et al. 1994b) and only three
breeding pairs now remain (BirdLife-IP in litt. 1997). On

Yellow-crested cockatoo
Cacatua sulphurea

Nusa Penida (where it may be irruptive) it was last recorded
in 1986 (see Collar et al. 1994). In the Lesser Sundas it was
thought very threatened on Sumba (Collar et al. 1994),
although this island might constitute one of its remaining
strongholds, along with Komodo and Sumbawa (BirdLifeIP in litt. 1997). However, the paucity of records from the
latter in Julyâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;September 1993 led to concerns about its
survival on the island (Butchart et al. 1996). It was still
common in the Komodo National Park in 1993 (Butchart
et al. 1996; see also Collar et al. 1994), and on Sumba the
endemic subspecies citrinocristata was estimated to number
2,376 birds in 1992 (Jones et al. 1995). Intensive studies on
Sumba indicate that the species select very large Datiscaceae
trees for nesting and that there is a significant positive
correlation between nest hole availability and cockatoo
abundance (Marsden and Jones 1997).

69

Threats: The reason for the continuing decline is believed
to be a combination of habitat destruction and the
unsustainable levels of trapping for the bird trade (see
Collar et al. 1994). Cockatoo nests seem to be safe from
trappers if they are sufficiently high and the lack of such
trees may have played an important role in the species’
decline (Marsden and Jones 1997). PHPA and BirdLife-IP
have an active conservation programme for the species
(BirdLife-IP in litt. 1997). There were 13,901 wild caught
specimens recorded in international trade between 1991
and 1995: 5,880 in 1991, 4,668 in 1992, 2,409 in 1993, 461
in 1994, and 483 in 1995 (CITES Annual Report database).
In March 1993, as part of the CITES Significant Trade
Process, the CITES Standing Committee recommended
countries to suspend imports from Indonesia, pending
field surveys to assess the status of the species (CITES
Notification to the Parties No. 737).

Buru and the mangroves of Kayeli Bay) failed to record
the species. The locals who brought the birds to Toxopeus
did not know other areas that the species inhabited. The
inhabitants of ten villages in western Buru were not
generally familiar with the species in 1996 (BirdLife-IP in
litt. 1997), although two hunters had caught it for food in
the mountains of the sacred Garan area north-west of
Lake Rana, an area which includes similar habitat to that
on the west of the lake (BirdLife-IP in litt. 1997). Smiet’s
(1985) records are thought uncertain: he described it as
quite common in plantations, secondary, and primary
forest around Teluk Bara in 1980 but intensive searches in
this area in 1989 and 1995 failed to find it (BirdLife-IP in
litt. 1997), although two flocks of five and six birds that
were seen were thought to be this species (Marsden et al.
1997). Smiet’s observations have also been attributed to
the more widespread red-flanked lorikeet C. placentis by
Forshaw (1989), but there is no firm evidence that the
latter occurs on Buru (Jepson 1993, see van Bemmel 1948).
The paucity of historical records suggests that C. toxopei
is rare, nomadic or is restricted to a specific habitat.
Marsden et al. (1997) considered that the species should be
treated as data deficient.

Action: Information relating to the effects of habitat
alteration and direct harvesting on the population size,
structure and nesting ecology are required. Baseline data
are required from selected sites. These data should include
accurate assessments of population and active nest densities
in each habitat type and in relation to habitat alteration.
This should allow an estimate of current population level,
proportion of non-breeding birds, and (if some nests are
monitored) productivity. Assessment of nest site
characteristics should aid the design of an experiment to
determine the use of artificial nest boxes. The data collected
from the study should be used to determine strategies for
the long-term viability of cockatoo. Some of these initiatives
are incorporated in the PHPA/BirdLife InternationalIndonesia Programme Yellow-crested cockatoo Cacatua
sulphurea Recovery Plan. (See Box 9)

Threats: If it proves to be confined to lowland forest, it
could be seriously threatened by deforestation (Jepson
1993). Despite the lack of recent reliable field records of
this species seven wild caught specimens were recorded in
international trade between 1991 and 1995, all in 1991
(CITES Annual Report database).
Action: Information is urgently required on the distribution
(including habitat use), status, and threats to this species.
(See Box 10)

Conservation status: IUCN: Vulnerable (A1c,d; B1+2c; C1).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: The black-winged lory is known
from Biak-Supiori, Numfor, Manim, and Meos Num
islands in Geelvink Bay, Irian Jaya, Indonesia (Beehler et
al. 1986). On Biak it is considered generally uncommon
(but sometimes in flocks of 40–60 individuals ), feeding in
inland forest (up to 460m) and thought to roost in coconut
plantations and nearby coastal forest (Collar et al. 1994).
It was thought to be quite common in January 1997
(BirdLife-IP in litt. 1997); on adjacent Supiori it was
common in 1982 along the coast and inland to

Distribution and status: The blue-fronted lorikeet is endemic
to Buru, Indonesia, where it is known from seven specimens
collected by Toxopeus on the west side of Lake Rana at
altitudes between 850 and 1,000m in the 1920s (Siebers
1930, White and Bruce 1986).
The seven specimens are thought to be the only definite
records of this species as intensive searches by BirdLife-IP
in 1995 (Gunung Kelapat Mada proposed protected area,
Lake Rana and Teluk Bara) and 1996 (central north-east

70

Red-and-blue lory
Eos histrio
Contributors: BirdLife International-Indonesia Programme,
Frank Lambert and Jon Riley.
Conservation status: IUCN: Endangered (A1c,d; A2c,d;
B1+2c,d,e; C1).
CITES: Appendix I (transferred from Appendix II in
1995).
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This species is known from Miangas
(although this is doubted: F.R Lambert in litt. 1997) and
Talaud and Sangihe Islands, between Sulawesi, Indonesia
and Mindanao, Philippines (White and Bruce 1986). It has
also been reported from the Nenusa Islands (Anon 1993).
In 1978, its status on Sangihe was reported to be
similar to that in the last century (White and Bruce 1986).
Since then several ornithologists have visited the islands
(Lambert 1997). The indigenous nominate subspecies was
not recorded until 1995 when a maximum of six birds were
seen in northern Sangihe (Riley 1995, University of York
1996). A proportion of these birds were escapees as ring
markings were observed and were of the subspecies E.h.
talautensis, rather than the native subspecies, which
probably numbers fewer than 50 birds (Lambert 1997)
and that are centred on Sangiheâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s only remaining forest on
Mt. Sahengbalira. Riley (in litt. 1997) reports that there
may only be one voice record from this area since 1995.
The species may now be extinct on the three other islands
in this group from which it was previously known, Siau,

Black-winged lory
Eos cyanogenia

approximately 200m, but less common at higher altitudes
(Bishop 1992). Like many lories it is thought to be highly
nomadic, making it difficult to assess true numbers.
Threats: The species is threatened by the destruction of
large areas of primary lowland forest on Biak (Collar et al
1994, see also Arndt 1992). It has been trapped for nearly
20 years (BirdLife-IP in litt. 1997). The effect this has had
on the population is unknown. There were 223 wild caught
specimens recorded in international trade between 1991
and 1995, with an annual maximum of 215 individuals in
1991 (CITES Annual Report database). Following a review
under the CITES Significant Trade Process, Indonesia
was recommended by the CITES Animals Committee in
1993 to suspend exports pending the development of a
population monitoring programme. This moratorium is
still in place.
Action: Information is urgently required on distribution
(including habitat use), status, and threats.

71

Annual Report database) and none in 1995 when the
species was listed in Appendix I.
Action: A conservation strategy for the red-and-blue lory
should address the threats outlined above through
legislation and raising public awareness, and by providing
appropriate ecological knowledge. The species should be
included on the Indonesian list of protected species and
the status of protected areas on Karakelong should be
clarified. A registration scheme for captive birds is also
desirable. Workshops and educational material designed
to raise public awareness might concentrate on the negative
impacts of over-exploitation such as the loryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s probable
role as a controller of agricultural pests and in pollinating
crop plants. Additional ecological information provides
the knowledge upon which to refine conservation strategies
and monitor populations. (See Box 11)

Ruang, and Tagulandang (Riley in litt. 1997). Karakelong,
in the Talaud Islands is the stronghold: the population was
estimated at less than 2,000 birds in the early 1990s (Collar
et al. 1994). In 1995 up to 250 birds were seen in a day
(Riley 1995) and in 1996 the population was estimated at
9,400â&#x20AC;&#x201C;24,160 individuals. A single bird was recorded from
Salebabu (Talaud Islands) in 1995 (Riley 1995) and six
birds which may be of this species were noted in November
1996 (Lambert 1997). No birds were found on Kabaruang
(Talaud Islands) in November 1996 (Lambert 1997) but
locals reported birds visiting the island for part of the year.
The species is thought unlikely to occur in the Nenusa
Islands or Miangas (Lambert 1997), the former being the
supposed range of the questionable third subspecies
challengeri (Riley in litt. 1997).

Distribution and status: This species is endemic to Sangihe
Island, north of Sulawesi, Indonesia (White and Bruce
Sangihe hanging-parrot
Loriculus catamene

Threats: Several hundred birds, perhaps as many as 700,
were being illegally traded in 1992 and early 1993 (Nash
1993). There are two estimates, both made in 1996, for
numbers trapped on Karakelong: Lambert (1997) estimated
that several hundred birds (possibly over 1,000) were trapped
each year and Riley (in litt. 1997), using figures provided by
trappers, estimated that some 1,335 individuals were trapped
in 1996. Logging may become a serious threat in the future
(operations were started on Karakelong in 1996: Riley in
litt. 1997). It has been speculated that insecticide may affect
the parrots directly in coconut plantations, and that disease
might be introduced to wild birds through releases of
captive birds (Lambert 1997). There were 648 wild caught
specimens in international trade between 1991 and 1995,
with an annual maximum of 475 individuals in 1992 (CITES

72

1986). In the mid-1980s, it was found to be not uncommon
outside forest and was regularly observed in coconut
groves (Collar et al 1994). At least two pairs were observed
on steep, tree-cropped, volcanic slopes in 1986, but further
investigation is required to determine whether it can survive
in purely secondary habitats (Bishop 1992). Recently it
has been considered widespread at low densities with
groups of one to six birds being most commonly
encountered, although 19 birds have been recorded in a
flock (Riley in litt. 1997). It was commonly seen and heard
in 1996 in the Mt. Awu and Mt. Sahengbalira areas (F.
Lambert in litt. 1997).
Threats: Sangihe’s original vegetation has been almost
completely replaced by coconut and nutmeg plantations,
and the secondary vegetation of abandoned gardens
(Whitten et al. 1987a,b). Although Riley (in litt. 1997) and
Lambert (1997) have recorded birds regularly in plantations
and cultivated areas adjacent to forest areas, it is not clear
whether birds can survive in the absence of forest. Other
possible threats include the accidental transmission of
disease from captive birds and the use of insecticides on
trees from which birds take nectar (Riley in litt. 1997).

Wallace’s hanging-parrot
Loriculus flosculus

one documented locality (Schmutz 1977, Forshaw 1989).
Surveys in 1993 found it to be locally common in primary
semi-evergreen rainforest between 450 and 1,000m (most
sightings in fruiting fig trees occurred between 850 and
1,000m) in the Tanjung Kerita Mese proposed protected
area, near Paku, west Flores (Butchart et al. 1996). It was
also seen at 1,000m on Gunung Egon in east Flores in
1987, and along a roadside in west Flores in 1995 (F.
Lambert in litt. 1997; see Butchart et al. 1996).

Action: Information is urgently required on distribution
(including habitat use), status, and threats to the species.
This should include clarification of whether the species
depends on forest patches because although it appears to
be faring well in Sangihe’s plantations (it feeds from
coconut inflorescences), it is not known whether all of its
requirements are met by this artificial habitat. Key tasks
include assessing its breeding success and roosting
requirements, and determining whether any agricultural
practices are having a negative impact. For example, use
of the insecticide Azodrin is a cause for concern for redand-blue lories on Karakelong; it should be determined
whether any chemicals applied to coconut trees on Sangihe
may be affecting L. catamene. These data will provide for
recommendations concerning the appropriateness of
habitat protection and agricultural practices. (See Box 11)

Threats: Little evergreen forest below 1,000m is included
within the gazetted protected areas on Flores (Collar et al
1994), so this species is vulnerable to habitat destruction
(Butchart et al. 1996). There were 55 wild caught specimens
recorded in international trade between 1991 and 1995, all
in 1991 (CITES Annual Report database). Following a
review under the CITES Significant Trade Process, in
1992, Indonesia was recommended by the CITES Animals
Committee to suspend exports pending the development
of a population monitoring programme, and this
moratorium is still in place.
Action: BirdLife-IP and WWF are undertaking biodiversity
surveys with the aim of strengthening the protected area
network on the island (BirdLife-IP in litt. 1997).

Distribution and status: Wallace’s hanging-parrot is
endemic to Flores in the Lesser Sundas, Indonesia (White
and Bruce 1986), where it was historically known from just

Distribution and status: The purple-naped lory is endemic
to Seram and Ambon in the Moluccas, Indonesia (White
and Bruce 1986).

73

Distribution and status: This species is endemic to the
north Moluccas, Indonesia where it is known from
Halmahera, Widi, Morotai, Rau, Bacan, Obi and possibly
Ternate (White and Bruce 1986). It is found in forest,
including logged forest, but not normally in agricultural
land, from the lowlands to 1,300m. It is rarely encountered
in forest on extremely alkaline soils (BirdLife-IP in litt.
1997).
The highest population densities are found in lowland
forest on rich volcanic soils (BirdLife-IP in litt. 1997).
Survey work carried out in 1991 and 1992 resulted in a
population estimate of 46,360–295,540 birds (Lambert
1993a). It has been suggested that the proposed Lalobata
protected area on Halmahera may contain as many as
56,600–105,900 individuals (MacKinnon et al. 1995) and
BirdLife International-Indonesia Programme (in litt. 1997)

Purple-naped lory
Lorius domicella

In Manusela National Park (central Seram) it is rare to
uncommon in hill forest within a narrow altitude range
from 400 to 900m (BirdLife-IP in litt. 1997). It was found
to be more common on ridges above 900m in the Way Bala
area of eastern Seram in 1996. Here 10–14 individuals
were recorded along 1–2km of ridge (Isherwood et al.
1996). The species is either very rare or extinct on Ambon
(BirdLife-IP in litt. 1997).
Threats: It is a popular cagebird in Maluku where it is
considered the most intelligent parrot. Although it has
been suggested that any external trade in this species
would pose a serious threat to its survival (Bowler and
Taylor 1989, Bishop 1992), as population size and volume
of trade have not been quantified it is not clear what the
impact of trade is (BirdLife-IP in litt. 1997). There were
three wild caught specimens reported in international
trade between 1991 and 1995, two in 1991 and one in 1994
(CITES Annual Report database).
Chattering lory
Lorius garrulus

Action: The status of the species on Seram should be
clarified and relative abundance in each habitat type
determined. In addition, information on the size and
distribution of habitat blocks, and on trapping and timber
extraction should be collected. Once such data have been
collected, future action should be considered. Furthermore,
it will provide an adequate baseline for monitoring and a
determination of the degree to which trade affects the
status of the species. (See Box 12)

reports similar figures. Four to six birds were seen on each
of six days in the Danau Mantis catchment in west Obi
(Linsley 1995).
Threats: This is a very popular cagebird throughout
Indonesia and is one of the target species for bird trappers
(it was not recorded in easily accessible areas: MacKinnon
et al. 1995, BirdLife-IP in litt. 1997) and it is believed that
the levels of legal and illegal trade in this species at that time
(a minimum of 9,600–9,927 are estimated to have been
captured in 1991) were not sustainable, particularly when
combined with current levels of habitat loss and degradation
(Lambert 1993a, BirdLife-IP in litt. 1997). However, PHPA
has revised its (legal) quota to the level recommended by
Lambert (1993a) (Collar et al 1994). There were 19,060 wild
caught specimens recorded in international trade between
1991 and 1995, with an annual maximum of 7,725
individuals in 1992 followed by 6,305 individuals in 1991
and 4,331 individuals in 1993 (CITES Annual Report
database). Following the CITES Significant Trade Review,
the Animals Committee made recommendations to
Indonesia to suspend exports pending establishment of a
population monitoring programme. In 1997 and 1998,
Indonesia established export quotas of 450 birds each year
for this species (CITES Notification to the Parties No. 994
and No. 1998/07).

Salvadori’s fig-parrot
Psittaculirostris salvadorii

Action: Approaches to reduce the exploitation of wild
chattering lories should be found. A clear priority is
improved law enforcement, with all responsibility for
quotas being centralised at the Department of Forestry in
Ambon (Lambert 1993c). Additional approaches might
include provision of incentives for not overexploiting
parrot populations. This might be achieved through the
introduction of parrot concessions in which particular
areas would be allocated for parrot collection each year.
Such an approach should allow better monitoring and
would clearly involve considerable public awareness input
if it were to succeed (Lambert 1993c).

Threats: Large numbers have been trapped for the cage
bird trade (Collar et al 1994). It is also likely to decline
locally owing to extensive logging and land clearance for
the increasing human population (the result of
transmigration policy) (Collar et al. 1994), although much
of its range is remote and inaccessible (Collar et al 1994).
There were 1,288 wild caught specimens in international
trade between 1991 and 1995, only 23 of which were traded
in the last two years (1994 and 1995: CITES Annual
Report database). Following the CITES Significant Trade
Review in 1993, the CITES Animals Committee
recommended that Indonesia inform the CITES Secretariat
of the biological basis for allowing exports. In 1998
Indonesia established an annual export quota of 190 birds
for this species (CITES Notification to the Parties No.
1998/07).

Salvadori’s fig-parrot
Psittaculirostris salvadorii
Conservation status: IUCN: Vulnerable (A2c,d).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This species occurs in northern
Irian Jaya, Indonesia, from the Cyclops Mountains to the
eastern shore of Geelvink Bay, where it inhabits evergreen
forest from the lowlands to 400m (Rand and Gilliard
1967, Beehler et al. 1986). It is locally common (Diamond
1985, Collar et al. 1994), for example in the flat lowlands
west of Jayapura (Collar et al 1994).

Action: Information is urgently required on distribution
(including habitat use), status, and threats to the species.

75

Iris lorikeet
Psitteuteles iris

During December 1995 many small flocks were noted in
lower montane Eucalyptus urophylla forest at 1,300m near
Lelobatan (R. Noske in litt. 1997). Several observers have
recorded it on Gunung Mutis (at 1,800m or higher) in
recent years. F. Verbelen (per R.Noske in litt. 1997) found
them with olive-headed lorikeets at Bipolo (30m altitude)
and Camplong (200m) in September–October 1995, but
they were not recorded at these sites in September 1996
when hundreds of olive-headed lorikeets were found feeding
on nectar of Syzigium flowers (R. Noske in litt. 1997).
These observations suggest that these birds are very mobile,
as is typical for nectarivores. During a two-week visit in
November 1997, only two were seen at Bipolo whilst huge
numbers of olive-headed lorikeets were recorded in lower
montane forest around Gunung Mutis (R. Noske 1998).
Although trapped, it is not considered uncommon in west
Timor (Noske 1995). It was not recorded on a short visit
to Wetar in 1990 (F. Lambert in litt. 1997), but extensive
forest remains there (see RePProT 1990). It is, however,
quite unobtrusive and so may have escaped detection in
the few areas visited (F. Lambert in litt. 1997). Also,
familiarity with the calls is required to distinguish them
from those of the olive-headed lorikeet (R. Noske in litt.
1997) as confusion is possible if birds are flying overhead.
However, separation is easy if birds are feeding (R. Noske
in litt. 1998).

Contributors: Frank Lambert and Richard Noske.
Conservation status: IUCN: Vulnerable (C1; C2a).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This species is endemic to Timor
and Wetar, Indonesia, in monsoon and evergreen forest
from the lowlands to 1,500m (White and Bruce 1986), but
more recently it has been recorded as high as 1,800m (R.
Noske in litt. 1997).
Collar et al. (1994) considered it scarce as it was seen at
only two localities during a nine-week survey of west
Timor’s remnant lowland forest in 1993 (Noske and Saleh
1993), but the species may occur at higher altitudes (R.
Noske in litt. 1997). Many were seen with olive-headed
lorikeets Trichoglossus euteles in June 1993 at 840m near
Kefamenanu in remnant evergreen and secondary forest.

Threats: Loss and fragmentation of the forests at lower
altitudes are two of the threats to this species. It is also
trapped; 510 wild caught specimens were recorded in
international trade between 1991 and 1995, 470 of which
were in caught 1991 and 1992 (CITES Annual Report
database). Following the CITES Significant Trade review,
in 1993, the Animals Committee made recommendations
to Indonesia to suspend exports pending establishment of
a population monitoring programme.
Action: A systematic assessment of the species’ status is
now required to build upon the information obtained.
This should seek to determine what the species’ distribution
is, and thus whether it is localised on the island, or whether
its apparent scarcity is a result of natural movement
patterns. The impact of habitat alteration at lower altitudes
should be determined.

Distribution and status: Pesquet’s parrot inhabits primary
and secondary forest, mostly at 600–1,200m in New Guinea

76

one wild caught specimen recorded in international trade
between 1991 and 1995, in 1991 (CITES Annual Report
database).
Action: Information is urgently required on distribution
(including habitat use), status, and threats to the species.

Black-lored parrot
Tanygnathus gramineus
Contributor: BirdLife International-Indonesia Programme.
Conservation status: IUCN: Vulnerable (D2).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Distribution and status: This species is endemic to Buru in
the Moluccas, Indonesia, where it is known from forest
above about 600m but has rarely (four times) been collected,
being at least partly nocturnal (Forshaw 1989).
It is not uncommonly heard in montane forest at night,
although there is only one recent record, of two birds
perched in treetops in daytime in 1980 (Smiet 1985, White
and Bruce 1986). It was not found during a one-month
survey in 1989, perhaps because suitable habitat was not
visited at night (Jepson 1993), so its current status remains
unknown. Large parrots perched in the canopy of tall
Agathis trees or flying downhill above the forest just after
dusk were commonly heard at 1,100–1,500m in the Kelapat
Mada Mountains, western Buru, during 1995; voice and
altitude suggesting that they belong to this species
(BirdLife-IP in litt. 1997).

Pesquet’s parrot
Psittrichas fulgidus

(Irian Jaya, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea), needing
to forage widely for fruits. It is patchily distributed and
absent from many areas. It was occasionally seen flying
over the Fly River and also along the Magazine Road
north of the town in Kiunga area, Western Province
(Gregory 1997).
Threats: Its absence from many areas is due to hunting for
feathers and food. This is especially true in Papua New
Guinea (Coates 1985, Beehler et al. 1986, Collar et al
1994), where skins are in high demand, being used as a
“bride” price in the highlands (Schmid 1993) and being
even more valuable than those of birds-of-paradise (Collar
et al 1994). The species is threatened to a lesser degree by
trapping for the bird trade (Collar et al 1994). There was

Black-lored parrot
Tanygnathus gramineus

77

varies between species and islands, but the one exacerbates
the other, forming a potent combination.
The ensuing drop in numbers and range has been
dramatic. The blue-winged racquet-tail was found to be
“exceedingly common” on Sulu Island in 1883 (see Collar
et al. 1998), but the species could not even be located on
Tawi Tawi and the Tandubas Island group in 1995 (see
Collar et al. 1998). On Palawan, anecdotal evidence suggests
that the Philippine cockatoo has declined by up to 90%
since 1980 (Lambert 1994b).
Almost all Philippine endemic psittacids are (at least
partially) dependent on forests, the dominant (and natural)
vegetation in the archipelago until recent decades. More
than 80% of the natural vegetation has been removed
(Forest Management Bureau 1988), and just 8% primary
forest remains (Danielsen et al. 1994) see Box 15. The
situation is particularly severe on the smaller islands, such
as Cebu, Negros, and Mindoro (Evans et al. 1993).
Commercial logging, whether under licence or illegal, and
subsistence shift-and-burn agriculture (locally known as
“kaingin”), play equally severe roles.

Logging
The psittacine fauna of the Philippines is characterised by
endemicity and endangerment. Of the 13 species that have
occurred in a wild state, all but three (all Tanygnathus
parrots) are endemic to the country, four are globally
threatened and four near-threatened. Almost all threatened
species were abundant and widespread at the turn of the
century, but subsequently have undergone a catastrophic
reduction in population and range. Although no species
have become extinct, there is a very strong possibility that
perhaps two (specifically the Philippine cockatoo Cacatua
haematuropygia [see Box 14] and perhaps the blue-winged
racquet-tail Prioniturus verticalis) will soon do so, unless
measures to conserve them are rapidly implemented. Table
4 provides a list of threatened parrot species in the
Philippines.
The preparation of conservation strategies, or even
recovery plans, for Philippines endemic parrots, is
problematic given the poor knowledge of their distribution,
status, and ecological requirements. Further surveys are
indicated in this plan (see also Collar et al. 1998). Yet, there
remains the real possibility that one or more of these target
species, figureheads for Filipino conservation, may no
longer be a part of the Philippines’ biological heritage by
the time such surveys take place.

The destruction of lowland forest, the first vegetation to
be decimated by human colonisation, has caused the green
racquet-tail Prioniturus luconensis to become locally extinct
in parts of Luzon (Poulsen 1995). The removal of low
elevation forests in the Sulu Islands leaves just a few
hundred Philippine cockatoos there (Lambert 1994b,
Collar et al. 1998). On Palawan, logging activities target
the same tree size and species in which the hole-nesting
cockatoo and the blue-naped parrot Tanygnathus
lucionensis breed (Lambert 1994b), and the incessant
clearance of mangroves on Palawan and other islands for
fishpond construction presents a further threat to the
former (Quinell and Balmford 1988, Collar et al. 1998).
Montane forest is not exempt from logging activities, with
forest generally only left on inaccessible mountain tops
and steep slopes. On Mt. Kitanglad, Mindanao, the
Mindanao racquet-tail Prioniturus waterstradti and the
Mindanao lorikeet Trichoglossus johnstoniae suffer from
large tracts of forest being cleared by immigrants to plant
crops such as potato and cabbage that do not thrive in
lowlands (Collar et al. 1998: see Box 16).

Trapping and hunting

Threats

Trapping pressure is substantial, afflicting all psittacids to
various degrees. Trade, both internal and international,
has a crucial deleterious effect on species with already low
and ever-declining populations. The green racquet-tail no
longer occurs close to population centres in Luzon’s Sierra

Parrots in the Philippines are threatened solely by human
activity, both direct (extraction of wild birds for trade and
food) and indirect (habitat destruction). The relative severity

78

Protected Areas Programme aims to afford de facto
protection to Mt. Pulog National Park, Luzon (where the
green racquet-tail occurs).
All but one threatened psittacid species occur in one or
more protected area; immediate intervention is required in
the Sulus to conserve remaining forests, and thus the bluewinged racquet-tail (see Box 17). Several protected areas
should be extended or otherwise modified, to conserve, for
example, montane forest in Palanan Wilderness Area,
Luzon, for the Luzon racquet-tail and the Babuyan valley,
adjacent to St Paul’s National Park, Palawan, for the
Philippine cockatoo.

Madre mountains (Poulsen 1995). Particularly susceptible
are the Philippine cockatoo and the blue-naped parrot: the
latter forms 55% of all birds traded in Palawan, and a
basketful of nestlings was being sold for Philippine Pesos
(PhP) 200 each in Cubao Farmers Market in December
1995 (Collar et al. 1998).
On Palawan, cockatoo chicks are taken from virtually
every known and accessible nest, with Palawan tribesmen
purposely leaving Koompasia excelsia nest-trees in
otherwise cleared land in order to harvest nestlings (and,
increasingly, adults) on an annual basis (Boussekey 1993,
Lambert 1994b). The cockatoo can be sold for up to 10
times the price of other hole-nesting birds such as the bluenaped parrot and the hill myna Gracula religiosa. In 1991,
the Manila street price reached US$640 (Lambert 1994b).
Parrots are also exploited directly for other ends, being
hunted for food (e.g., Philippine cockatoo: Lambert 1994b),
persecuted for their depredation of maize and rice fields
just prior to ripening (e.g., again, the cockatoo: see Collar
et al. 1998), and used for target practice by sportsmen and
the military (e.g., the unfortunately tame blue-winged
racquet-tail: Lambert 1993b).

Trade
Measures to combat trade have been of uncertain success.
The Philippine cockatoo has been included on Appendix
I of CITES since 1992. Palawan has been decreed a “game
reserve” in which it is illegal to capture wild animals.
However, the continuing illegal trade is likely to decline
only with the introduction of locally-based, economically
viable alternatives that lessen threats to birds and their
habitats. These could include financial rewards to those
who report and protect nest holes of the blue-naped parrot
and the cockatoo. More drastic measures, such as
Department of Natural Resources (DENR)-manned
controls at major transport terminals, may be required to
enforce CITES legislation for the cockatoo (Lambert
1994b, Collar et al. 1998).

Mining and disease
Other potential threats include the explorations of mining
companies, as may already be affecting the Mindanao
lorikeet and the Mindanao racquet-tail on Mt. Matutum,
Mindanao (Collar et al. 1998); and viscertropic velogenic
Newcastle disease which could spread into wild populations
of the Philippine cockatoo and the blue-headed racquettail Prioniturus platenae by the release of infected captive
birds (Lambert 1994b).

Education
Awareness campaigns are an urgent requirement of any
parrot conservation strategy. Such initiatives for the
cockatoo have met with considerable success on Palawan
and Mindanao (Tabaranza 1992, Low 1996). An expansion
of these projects, managed by an internationally funded
Philippine cockatoo Campaign Officer, and incorporating
components of the successful Amazona parrot projects in
the Caribbean (see Butler 1992), has been recommended
(Lambert 1994b, Collar et al. 1998).

Conservation solutions
Action to conserve the Philippines’ threatened parrot fauna
has taken several forms; all, however, need to be
strengthened if the extinction of one or more species is not
to result.

Protected areas
Captive breeding
Since December 1993, 200 sites covering nine percent of
the country’s land area have been incorporated into the
National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS).
The ten sites selected for priority action include the
Northern Sierra Madre, Luzon (important for the Luzon
racquet-tail Prioniturus montanus and the green racquettail), Mt. Kitanglad, and Mt. Apo (significant sites on
Mindanao for the Mindanao lorikeet and the Mindanao
racquet-tail). The subsequent National Integrated

Experiments with captive breeding are in their infancy,
and the cockatoo forms the main subject (Boussekey 1995,
Low 1996). There have been few successful breeding
attempts and, although an internationally co-ordinated
programme could complement in-situ conservation
initiatives, there is no guarantee that captive-bred birds
would survive once released into the wild (Lambert 1994b,
Collar et al. 1998).

Provision of a management plan for the parrots of Mt.
Kitanglad Range National Park and environs in
Mindanao, Philippines. (Box 16)
Assessment of the conservation needs of the parrot fauna
in the Sulu Archipelago, Philippines. (Box 17)

Box 14. Conservation of the Philippine cockatoo throughout the Philippines.
Based on Lambert (1994b)
Aim: To implement actions that are urgently required to save the Philippine cockatoo Cacatua haematuropygia from extinction.
Justification: The Philippine cockatoo is a Critically Endangered species that is endemic to the Philippines. It is one of the
most threatened parrots in the world and has already disappeared from many islands throughout its former range (Lambert
1994b). The species account in this Action Plan indicates the scarcity of recent records. Palawan Province is probably the
stronghold for this species with an important population on Tawi Tawi.
Whilst further information is necessary to build a long-term conservation plan for the cockatoo, there is the risk that the
species may disappear whilst such biological information is being collected. This is because the populations are so small and
fragmented and are continuing to be depleted by trapping. Although habitat destruction in the past has contributed
substantially to the species’ decline, the current level of exploitation for the pet trade is also now threatening the species’
survival in the immediate future.
Project description: Action on behalf of this species falls into three areas. First, is the clear need to raise awareness of the
species’ plight and the fact it is endemic to the Philippines. A poster campaign highlighting endemic species has been initiated
through Fauna and Flora International and includes the cockatoo. This should be expanded and followed up using the expertise
available in organisations such as the Haribon Foundation in Manila.
The second area where action is urgently needed is the protection of known breeding sites. These sites hold the key to
the species’ future as they are often in commercially valuable emergent dipterocarps (resinous hardwoods typically found in
Southeast Asia) (Lambert 1994b), and they are also the sites where birds can be caught for the pet trade. In some cases, nesting
trees are left uncut so that chicks can be regularly harvested. Although parents are now also being taken (Lambert 1994b), the
direct result of this chick harvesting can be seen in the increasing proportion of aged individuals in cockatoo populations.
Protecting these sites, either through law enforcement or by some sort of subsidy is crucial to the survival of the species. The
latter would also contribute to the protection of other hole-nesting species that are caught for trade, such as other parrots,
including the blue-naped parrot Tanygnathus lucionensis, the endemic Palawan hornbill Anthracoceros marchei, and the hill
myna Gracula religiosa. A proposed extension to St Paul’s Subterranean River National Park on Palawan should be
implemented urgently, as trade does not currently threaten this population of some 200 birds.
The third area of action involves addressing legislation designed to protect the cockatoo. This includes the listing on
Appendix I of CITES in 1992 and, in light of this, the drafting of new laws that will ban the export of the species unless individuals
are on the DENR inventory of birds held before the CITES listing. The cockatoo is also protected by the designation of Palawan
as a “Game Reserve”, under Presidential Proclamation 219, in which it is illegal to catch any wild animals. This legislation should
be implemented through establishment of DENR check-points at all major ports of entry to the key islands.
Contacts: Tom Brooks, Guy Dutson, Frank Lambert.

80

Box 15. Assessing extinction risk of Philippine parrot populations following deforestation.
Aim: To assess the tolerance of Philippine endemic parrots to deforestation, and to assess the rate at which parrot populations
are becoming extinct.
Justification: Only 24% of the Philippines’ rainforest remains, and clearance continues (Brooks et al. 1997). Since
deforestation inevitably opens forests up to allow access to trappers and hunters (e.g., Diamond 1984) all of the endemic
Philippine parrots are probably subject to some human pressure. Many Philippine parrots are also thought to make seasonal
movements (Dickinson et al. 1991) which may indicate that more than a single block of suitable habitat is required to meet all
of their needs.
Project description: Forest cover data available from the World Conservation Monitoring Centre in Cambridge, UK (on CDROM: Iremonger 1997) and the National Mapping Resource Information Agency, Manila, Philippines, should be obtained. With
this information, brief visits by skilled ornithologists should be paid to as many of the surviving forest tracts as possible, with
the aim of locating parrot populations. Intensive sites should be identified where repeat visits can be concentrated to
investigate within and between year movements. Surveys should concentrate on observation of parrots from vantage points
(e.g., hill-tops) supplemented by aural surveys and location of key feeding and roosting trees. All surveys should also include
interviews with residents to provide local reports and an indication of the extent of the parrot-trade on a local scale.
This project should be designed to complement other initiatives, such as the proposed Sulu Archipelago project (see Box
17), and should build upon the results of recent forest surveys on Luzon, Mindoro, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Siquijor, Bohol, Tawi
Tawi, and parts of Mindanao and Palawan. This will allow the most efficient use of resources so that areas not recently surveyed
may be covered, including forests on Samar and Leyte, Jolo, Basilan, and much of Mindanao and Palawan. This combination
of extensive surveys and intensive work at selected sites will provide an indication of the rate at which parrot populations are
lost as deforestation progresses throughout the Philippines.
Contact: T. Brooks.

Box 16. Provision of a management plan for the parrots of Mt. Kitanglad Range National Park and environs
in Mindanao, Philippines.
Philip McGowan
Aim: To survey the parrots of the Mt. Kitanglad area, assess their status and whether their conservation needs are being met.
A management plan for the protected area and surrounds should follow.
Justification: Two Lower Risk parrot species, the Mindanao lorikeet Trichoglossus johnstoniae and the Mindanao racquettail Prioniturus waterstradti are known from the recently gazetted Mt. Kitanglad Range National Park. Current information on
these species is patchy and leads to varying assessments of threat, the most pessimistic of which is that the species are at
risk. Coming into existence in 1990, the park covers over 10km2 (IUCN 1994) in the north-east of the island. Most of Mindanao’s
montane endemics have been recorded from this mountain range and, as such, it is probably one of the most important areas
for endemic birds on Mindanao (Lambert 1993a).
Both parrot species inhabit forest above 1,000m (Dickinson et al. 1991) and are suffering from forest destruction in the lower
altitudes of their range (Collar et al. 1994). On the southern slope of Mt. Kitanglad, especially in the Lantapan and Basak areas,
and in the neighbouring Pangantukan Mountains, “gardening technology” is considered a very serious threat (Collar et al.
1998). Brought by migrant Igarots from Luzon, this results in large tracts of montane forest being cleared and replaced with
crops that do not grow well in the lowlands. What is needed now is an assessment of how well this protected area is serving
the conservation of these threatened parrots, and other montane endemics, and recommendations for its future management.
In addition, other sites where these species are known to occur should be surveyed so that additional sites for their
conservation can be targeted.
Project description: Any management plan will rely on the findings of both extensive surveys and intensive research. For
surveys, suitable blocks of forest should be identified from existing vegetation maps. While some sites can be identified from
Kennedy et al. (1997), the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) should also be contacted. Each site thus identified
would then be visited and searched for the two parrots (as well as other montane endemics). The state of the forest should
be evaluated and pressures on the parrots determined.
Detailed ecological work will probably be centred on Mt. Kitanglad and will attempt to determine habitat use for various
activities, abundance of nesting sites and breeding success. Based on the results obtained and the numbers of birds on other
habitat patches (from the survey), predictions can be made about the survival of various populations. The most urgent needs
can be addressed through a management plan.
Contacts: Tom Brooks and Frank Lambert.

81

Box 17. Assessment of the conservation needs of the parrot fauna in the Sulu Archipelago, Philippines.
Des Allen, Tom Brooks, and Guy Dutson
Aim: To provide the biological information necessary for the survival of the Philippine cockatoo, blue-winged racquet-tail, and
blue-naped parrot in the Sulu Archipelago through the identification of key sites and the assessment of their management
needs.
Justification: Habitat destruction and trapping for the cagebird trade are problems facing parrots throughout the Philippines.
As forest loss continues and lowland forest birds become confined to increasingly isolated and ever smaller areas of suitable
habitat, the impact of trapping almost certainly increases on dwindling populations. The Philippine cockatoo Cacatua
haematuropygia is one of the most threatened parrots in the world (Collar et al. 1994). The blue-winged racquet-tail Prioniturus
verticalis is endemic to the Sulu Archipelago (Dickinson et al. 1991), where it is threatened by habitat destruction. The need
for an assessment of the status of these parrots should act as a catalyst for a systematic avifauna survey of Tawi Tawi and
adjacent islands and which should identify which areas could be protected. The Sulu Archipelago has no protected areas. See
Allen (1998).
Project description: A comprehensive effort to conserve these species in the Sulu Archipelago requires both extensive
surveys and intensive study, and attempts to minimise the effects of direct human exploitation (trapping, shooting, and habitat
loss). Such a project should also focus on the distinctive subspecies of the Philippine hanging-parrot Loriculus philippensis
bonepartei.
i). Further surveys. The key problem with understanding the distribution and abundance of these parrots and other bird
species throughout the Sulu Archipelago is the difficulty in travelling safely around Tawi Tawi and to other islands (Dutson
et al. 1996). What little area of Tawi Tawi that has been visited (the southern part of Tawi Tawi and Bongao) is known to
hold these species, but possibly in small numbers. However, the prevalence of cockatoos in captivity on the island, and
the difficulty of identifying the racquet-tail from calls alone in many areas, together with the extent of mangrove forest on
the island suggest that these species might be widespread in areas not yet visited. Consequently, surveys should target
areas known to hold suitable habitat, which possibly include mangroves adjacent to lowland forest.
Of the other islands, Tumindao, Manuk Manka, and Jolo may offer the best prospects for additional sites for the species;
unlike on Bongao, forest is thought to still remain here. However, contrasting reports suggest that Tumindao and Manuk
Manka have few trees left. Forest cover maps, if available (e.g., from the WCMC), should be consulted so that logistically
difficult surveys stand the best chance of locating these parrots. The easiest way of finding cockatoos is by checking maize
fields in the harvest season, which they can devastate. Information on feeding, roosting, and nesting sites, as well as the
level of exploitation for the cagebird trade, should be sought at each locality.
ii). Intensive studies. All nine racquet-tails are very poorly known and a study of the ecology (especially habitat use, feeding
requirements, breeding biology, and movements) of the blue-winged racquet-tail would serve as the basis for a
conservation plan for the species. Once a key site or sites have been found, intensive population surveys should be
instigated urgently. These would attempt to determine numbers of parrots in each forest type present, bearing in mind that
different forest blocks might be used for different activities. Subsequently, intensive study on roost and nest tree use, and
of food requirements could be used in conjunction with the results of the survey to make a preliminary appraisal about the
availability of these key resources throughout the islands and be used as the basis for proposing protected areas.
iii). Roost and nest sites should be protected from trappers, and it should be ensured that the impending development of the
island does not destroy remaining forest. In the long-term, survival of these species and their habitat will be dependent
upon raising public awareness and promotion of development that does not lead to habitat loss; for example, stimulation
of the agar-agar industry. Consequently, there is a need for a strategy that incorporates conservation of habitats into
development so that the global importance of this area can be reconciled with the real problems facing the human
population. Improving protection and public awareness for the Philippine cockatoo is so clearly needed, and such a high
priority, that a separate project is devoted to this issue (see Box 14).
Contacts: Des Allen, Tom Brooks, Guy Dutson, Frank Lambert.

82

Species accounts
Table 4. A list of Philippine parrot species that are considered threatened using IUCN Red List criteria.
Also included are four species removed from the Red List. Species are listed in alphabetical order by their scientific name, together with
the islands on which they occur, and their threat status. The criteria under which each species qualifies are given in the appropriate species
account. *Denotes changes from Birds to Watch 2 (and, therefore, the 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals), which arise from
BirdLife International and the Haribon Foundation’s work on Threatened birds of the Philippines (Collar et al. 1998). BirdLife International
maintains the IUCN list of threatened birds.
Threat
English name
Scientific name
Distribution
category
Philippine cockatoo

a total number of 45 areas) of the Philippines, but recent
visits to roughly half of these have shown that very reduced
and often possibly unviable numbers remain on as few as
ten islands, chief among them being Palawan and its
satellites, and Tawi Tawi (see below).
A six-week survey in August–September 1991 yielded
a population estimate for Palawan of 800–3,000 birds, of
which Pandanas, Bugsuk and Bancalan probably support
100–300 individuals and Dumaran 150–250 individuals,
with Tawi Tawi possibly holding several hundred more

83

(Lambert 1993b, 1994b). A single pair survived on Siquijor
in 1991 (Evans et al. 1993), a few remained at Mount
Isarog, Luzon, in 1988 (Goodman and Gonzales 1990),
and a few pairs reputedly hang on in Mindoro, chiefly at
Malpalon (Dutson et al. 1992). Birds were observed on
Masbate in 1993 (Curio 1994), and the species has been
recorded a few times in singles or small numbers in Rajah
Sikatuna National Park, Bohol since 1989 (Brooks et al.
1995b). Two pairs (G. Dutson in litt. 1997) were seen on
Tawi Tawi in 1994 and it was considered widespread on
Tawi Tawi in 1995/1996, although more often seen in
captivity than in the wild (two singles in Batu-Batu and a
single and a pair in Buan: D. Allen in litt. 1997). Three
birds were noted on Simunul in 1996 (D. Allen in litt. 1997:
see also Dutson et al. 1996), while a number of smaller
islands, and those such as Samar and Leyte that have not
been visited in recent years, may yet prove (or have been
reported) to hold birds. So, the total population may lie
between 1,000 and 4,000 birds (Lambert 1992, Tabaranza
1992). It is considered extinct on Cebu (Brooks et al.
1995a) and Negros (Brooks et al. 1992).

A poster campaign highlighting endemic species has
been initiated through Fauna and Flora International and
includes the cockatoo. Promoting sustainability amongst
those collectors who take every nestling for the trade is
imperative. Further work designed to protect nest sites is
crucial to the survival of the species and is likely to require
creative solutions, such as provision of a subsidy to local
collectors.

Green racquet-tail
Prioniturus luconensis
Contributor: Frank Lambert.

Threats: Intensive trapping (“the young of every known
accessible nest are taken for the pet trade”: Dickinson et al.
1991, Lambert 1992) combined with destruction of its
lowland forest habitat (amongst which mangrove may be
critically important) suggests that this species may soon
become extinct. Agriculture on Tawi Tawi has changed to
agar-agar cultivation from maize (D. Allen in litt. 1997)
and the possible beneficial impact of this should be
investigated; the shift in emphasis away from forested areas
to coastal ones may reduce habitat loss. Following the
CITES Significant Trade Review in 1992, the Animals
Committee made recommendations to the Philippines to
suspend exports pending population surveys. Subsequently,
the species was included in CITES Appendix I in 1992 and
the Philippines prohibited the export of all terrestrial wildlife
in 1997 (CITES Notification to the Parties No 980, 1997).

Green racquet-tail
Prioniturus luconensis

Action: Reducing the numbers of birds taken for the pet
trade is the single most important action required.
Achieving this is likely to require a combination of law
enforcement and raising awareness. The cockatoo is already
protected by the designation of Palawan as a “Game
Reserve”, in which it is illegal to catch any wild animals.
This legislation should be implemented, through
establishment of DENR checkpoints at all major ports of
entry to the key islands. It was listed in Appendix I of
CITES in 1992 and new laws will ban the export of the
species unless individuals are on the DENR inventory of
birds held before the CITES listing. The proposed extension
of St Paul’s Subterranean River National Park should be
implemented as a matter of urgency as it contains the only
population not immediately threatened by trapping (see
Box 14, and also Box 17).

Full justification of revision to IUCN threat category is
given in Collar et al. (1998).
Distribution and status: This species inhabits forest edge
and cultivated areas of the lowlands and foothills of
Luzon and Marinduque in the Philippines (Dickinson et
al. 1991).
Although there is no news of its status on Marinduque
(though it must be in very low numbers), evidence from
Luzon since 1988 suggests that (other than in Subic Bay
Naval Forest Reserve: Collar et al 1994) it is now very rare
throughout, with all records in the Sierra Madre originating
from 300–700m, and none near habitation (Collar et al.
1994, Danielson et al. 1994, Poulsen 1995). Recorded from
Subic Bay Forest Reserve and Quezon National Park,
where it is now very rare (F. Lambert in litt 1997). It has
been found recently in Aurora Province in small numbers
(F. Lambert in litt. 1997).

uncommon but regularly recorded in St Paul Subterranean
National Park (Collar et al 1994). It was regularly observed
in forests, including secondary forests in Palawan during
1991 (F. Lambert in litt. 1997).

Threats: Habitat loss and trapping for the cagebird trade
threaten this species (Collar et al. 1994). The export of wild
taken specimens of all flora and fauna from the Philippines
is prohibited (CITES Notification to the Parties No 980,
1997).

Threats: Rapid and extensive clearance of its habitat are
among the threats to this species (Collar et al. 1994). The
export of wild taken specimens of all flora and fauna from
the Philippines is prohibited (CITES Notification to the
Parties No 980, 1997).

Action: Information is urgently required on distribution
(including habitat use), status, and threats to the species.
A study of the species’ year-round ecological requirements
may elucidate limiting factors and, if undertaken at the
Subic Bay Naval Forest Reserve, could guide management
of what appears to be the only known large population
(see Collar et al. 1998).

Action: Roosts and nest sites should be protected from
trappers and a public awareness campaign should highlight
the scarcity of this Palawan Province endemic. A survey of
all remaining forest areas on the islands to determine the
distribution of the species and assessment of its ecological
needs are also required (see Box 15).

Distribution and status: This species inhabits lowland forest
and adjacent cultivation in the Calamian Islands, Palawan,
and Balabac in the Philippines (Dickinson et al. 1991).
The blue-headed racquet-tail is uncommon and
declining (Collar et al. 1994). It has been recorded from
Iwahig Penal Colony in 1990 (Collar et al. 1998) and is

Full justification of additional IUCN threat criteria is
given in Collar et al. (1998).

85

1997). There are extensive tracts of mangrove in the south
and east of the island (D. Allen in litt. 1997) which may
hold the species. No reports from Bongao, Tumindao, or
Manuk Manka since the turn of the century exist (Collar
et al. 1998). It is thought unlikely to survive on Bongao as
almost all of the mangroves have been lost, but forest may
still survive on Tumindao and Manuk Manka (D. Allen in
litt. 1997).
Threats: Threats to this species include habitat clearance
and previous use as target practice by men with high
powered rifles (Lambert 1993b), although the latter is no
longer thought to be a problem (T. Brooks in litt. 1997).
None were seen in captivity in 1994 (G. Dutson in litt.
1997). The export of wild taken specimens of all flora and
fauna from the Philippines is prohibited (CITES
Notification to the Parties No 980, 1997).

Blue-winged racquet-tail
Prioniturus verticalis

Action: The extent and quality of forest on all islands in the
Sulu Archipelago should be determined and considered
urgently for protection. As part of this assessment process,
forest patches should be surveyed for this and other
endemics, starting with mangrove forest on Tawi Tawi
and spreading to islands away from Tawi Tawi. Collar et
al. (1998) state that whilst the other six Endemic Bird
Areas in the Philippines now have protected areas, the
Sulu Archipelago still has none and an integrated
conservation strategy for these islands should consider the
needs of several threatened endemic species (such as the
Sulu Hornbill). (See Boxes 15 and 17)

Accounts for species removed
from the Red List
Luzon racquet-tail
Prioniturus montanus
Distribution and status: This species is endemic to the
islands of Tawi Tawi, Bongao, Manuk Manka, Tumindao,
Sanga Sanga, and Sibutu in the Philippines (Dickinson et
al. 1991). It may occur on Simunul (D. Allen in litt. 1998).
The blue-winged racquet-tail was reportedly abundant
in mangroves on Tawi Tawi a century ago (Dickinson et
al. 1991), where only a small part of its potential range has
been visited recently (D. Allen in litt. 1997). In this area,
the species was found only near undisturbed forest and in
small numbers in September 1991 (Lambert 1993b). Only
six racquet-tails were seen in August 1994 (Collar et al.
1994), and although none were recorded in July 1995 some
were seen in May 1996 and December 1996/January 1997
(D. Allen in litt. 1998). The speciesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; last patch of known
habitat is about to disappear (Collar et al. 1994). However,
the species is very difficult to see and calls can be difficult
to separate in the field from other parrots (D. Allen in litt.

Conservation status: IUCN: Lower Risk, nt (formerly
Vulnerable: A2b,c; C1; C2a).
CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Reason(s) for removal from the list: The species is now
believed to inhabit areas which are relatively inaccessible,
suggesting that its numbers are stable (Collar et al. 1998).
Distribution and status: The Luzon racquet-tail is endemic
to Luzon in the Philippines. It is possibly still common in
parts of the Cordillera Central and Sierra Madre in primary
forest above 700m (Collar et al. 1994).
Threats: The combination of habitat destruction, hunting,
and trapping for the cagebird trade are threats and require
continued monitoring (Danielson et al. 1994, Poulsen

86

Luzon racquet-tail
Prioniturus montanus

Mindanao racquet-tail
Prioniturus waterstradti

1995). The export of wild taken specimens of all flora and
fauna from the Philippines is prohibited (CITES
Notification to the Parties No 980, 1997).

CITES: Appendix II.
National protection status: Information unavailable.
Reason for removal from the list: The assessment that this
species is local and uncommon (Collar et al. 1994) has
been revised because of information contained in old and
new sources (see Collar et al. 1998). In addition, the species
habitat (montane forest) is relatively safe at present.

Distribution and status: The Mindanao racquet-tail is
known from nine mountain localities on Mindanao in the
Philippines (see Collar et al. 1998). It is generally restricted
to forest above 1,000m, but has been recorded at 820m and
is thought to make daily vertical migrations (Collar et al.
1994, 1998).
This species is thought to have been abundant in the
first half of the century (N. Collar in litt. 1997) and is still
found in good numbers in Mount Kitanglad National
Park. However it is now certainly local and uncommon,
apparently occurring at lower density than some of its
congeners (Dickinson et al. 1991, Collar et al. 1994). There
are recent records from several areas, including Mt. Apo
(F. Lambert in litt. 1997).

Conservation status: IUCN: Lower Risk, nt (formerly
Vulnerable: C2a).

Threats: This species is presumed to be threatened by
habitat destruction (Collar et al. 1994) although this is
now questioned (Collar et al. 1998) and should be
investigated (see Boxes 15 and 16). The export of wild
taken specimens of all flora and fauna from the Philippines
is prohibited (CITES Notification to the Parties No 980,
1997).

The species account for the blue-naped parrot in the
Philippines, is the same as that for Indonesia.

Reason for removal from the list: Determining this speciesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;
status is extremely problematic as it is thought to survive
in small pockets of habitat on the smaller islands in its
range (Collar et al. 1998). This makes assessment of
numbers and inference or prediction of population trends
difficult. However, its persistence in small numbers,
together with the conclusion that it is still fairly numerous
in some areas of Palawan and on Tawi Tawi (Lambert
1993, D. Allen per N. Collar in litt. 1997), and is found in
large numbers in a large tract of forest on Talaud (Riley
1997), suggest that it may be best considered Lower Risk,
nt (Collar et al. 1998).

Contributors: Des Allen, Nigel Collar, Frank Lambert,
and Jon Riley.

Distribution and status: The blue-naped parrot formerly
occurred in lowland forest up to 1,000m throughout the
Philippines (in the subspecies lucionensis on Luzon and
Mindoro, hybridus on Polillo, and salvadorii in the rest of
its range, including 45 Philippine islands), the Talaud
Islands, Indonesia, and islands off the north and east of
Sabah, East Malaysia (Dickinson et al. 1991).
The species was considered common on the larger
islands in the Sulu Archipelago in 1971 (du Pont and Rabor
1973) and on Salebabu, Talaud, in 1978 (White and Bruce
1986). It was seen occasionally on Talaud in 1996 where
suitable habitat exists on Karakelong, suggesting that the
island may support an important population (J. Riley per
N. Collar in litt. 1997). The species was noted on Ticao in
1993 (Curio 1994) and in 1996 a pair was recorded on both
Simunul and Sibutu. It was not uncommon around
Tawawakan Agricultural Research Station, Tawi Tawi
(considered widespread on Tawi Tawi: Dutson et al. 1996)
and may occur on the small offshore island of Buan (D.
Allen in litt. 1997). It was considered common wherever
remnant forest patches exist (mostly in the mountains)
around Mt. Awu and Mt. Sahengbalira on Sangihe in 1996
(F. Lambert in litt. 1997). Riley (in litt. 1997), however,
recorded only a single bird, which may have been an
escapee, in five months on Sangihe. Searches have failed to
find it on Negros and Siquijor (Evans et al. 1993). It was
thought rare on Mindoro (Dutson et al. 1992), although
subsequently was considered quite common in Siburan
Sub-prison of the Sablayan Prison and Penal Colony
(Brooks et al. 1995c). It is thought to be rare on Luzon and
elsewhere (Collar et al 1994), in every case as a result of
habitat loss and heavy trapping. It was seen regularly in
small numbers on Palawan in 1991 in small numbers
(especially in the southern half), in areas that still held small
patches of forest (F. Lambert in litt. 1997). It is found in
Bataan, Quezon, Minalungaw, and St Paul Subterranean
River National Parks (N. Collar in litt. 1997).

Blue-naped parrot
Tanygnathus lucionensis

88

Threats: Threats to this species include habitat loss and
targeting for the pet trade (Lambert 1993b). Occasional
sightings in cultivated areas on Talaud (Riley in litt. 1997)
and in heavily disturbed areas on Tawi Tawi suggest that
its tolerance to habitat alteration requires investigation.
This would also help with interpreting the speciesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; status
given its presence in small habitat patches on many small
islands. There were 22 wild caught specimens recorded in
international trade between 1991 and 1995, with an annual
maximum of 13 individuals in 1991 (CITES Annual Report
database). In 1998, the annual export quota from Indonesia
was for 190 birds (CITES Notification 1998/07). The
export of wild taken specimens of all flora and fauna from
the Philippines is prohibited (CITES Notification to the
Parties No 980, 1997).

Thought now to be reasonably secure, although its status
away from Mt. Kitanglad is not well known (F. Lambert
in litt. 1997).

Reason for removal from the list: The species is now
thought to be numerous in montane forest above
approximately 1,000m a habitat which is relatively secure
at present (Collar et al. 1998).

Threats: Forest destruction was previously considered a
problem (Collar et al. 1994), but is now thought unlikely
to be a significant threat (Collar et al. 1998). Clarification
of this would be useful (see Boxes 15 and 16). There were
eight wild caught specimens recorded in international
trade between 1991 and 1995, all in 1994 (CITES Annual
Report database). The export of wild taken specimens of
all flora and fauna from the Philippines is prohibited
(CITES Notification to the Parties No 980, 1997).

Distribution and status: The Mindanao lorikeet inhabits
montane forest and forest edge habitat including logged
and degraded areas, above 800m on Mindanao in the
Philippines. It occurs here as two subspecies, johnstoniae
on five mountains, pistra on one (Dickinson et al. 1991).