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A verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study that psychologists provide to people after they have participated in the study

Informed Consent

A written agreement to participate in a study made by a person who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail

Random Sampling

A technique for choosing participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample

Hypothesis

A specific and testable prediction that is usually derived from a theory

Theory

A hypothetical account of how and why a phenomenon occurs, usually in the form of a statement about the causal relationship between two or more properties. Theories lead to hypotheses

External validity

A characteristic of an experiment in which the independent and independent variables are operationally defined in a normal, typical, or realistic way

Internal Validity

The characteristic of an experiment that allows one to draw accurate inferences about the causal relationship between an independent and independent variable.

Randomization

A procedure to ensure that a participant’s inclusion in the experimental or control group is not determined by a third variable

Self-selection

The case in which a participant’s inclusion in the experimental or control group is determined by the participant

Dependent Variable

the variable that is measured in a study

Control group

One of the two groups of participants created by the manipulation of an independent variable in an experiment that is not exposed to the stimulus being studied

Experimental group

One of the two groups of participants created by the manipulation of an independent variable in an experiment; the experimental group is exposed to the stimulus being studied and the control group is not

Independent variable

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment

Manipulation

A characteristic of experimentation in which the researcher artificially creates a pattern of variation in an independent variable in order to determine its causal powers. Manipulation usually results in the creation of an experimental group and a control group

Experiment

A technique for establishing the causal relationship between variables

Third-variable problem

The fact that the causal relationship between two variables cannot be inferred from the correlation between them because of the ever-present possibility of third-variable correlation

Matched pairs

An observational technique that involves matching each participant in the experimental group with a specific participant in the control group in order to eliminate that a third variable and not the independent variable cause changes in the dependent variable

Matched samples

An observational technique that involves matching the average of the participants in the experimental and control groups in order to eliminate the possibility that a third variable and not the independent variable cause changes in the dependent variable

Third-variable correlation

The fact that two variables may be correlated only because they are both caused by a third variable

Natural Correlation

A correlation observed between naturally occurring variables

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure of the direction and strength of a correlation which is signified by the letter “R”

Law of large numbers

A statistical law stating that as sample size increases, the attributes of a sample will more closely reflect the attributes of a population from which it was drawn

Sample

The partial collection of people who actually were measured in a study

Population

The complete collection of participants who might possibly be measured

Case Method

A method of gathering scientific knowledge by studying a single individual

Power

The tendency for a measure to produce different results when it is used to measure different things

Reliability

The tendency for a measure to produce the same result whenever it is used to measure the same thing

Correlation

The “co-relationship” or pattern of covariation between two variables, each of which has been measured several times

Variable

A property whose value can vary or change

Double-Blind

An observation whose true purpose is hidden from the researcher as well as from the participant

Naturalistic Observation

A method of gathering scientific knowledge by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments

Demand Characteristics

Those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think an observer wants or expects them to behave

Range

The numerical difference between the smallest and the largest measurements in a frequency distribution

Median

the “middle” measurement in a frequency distribution. Half the measurements in a frequency distribution are greater than or equal to the median and half are less than or equal to the median

Mean

The average of the measurements in a frequency distribution

Mode

The “most frequent” measurement in a frequency distribution

Normal distribution (bell curve)

a frequency distribution in which most measurements are concentrated around the mean and fall off toward the tails, and the two sides of the distribution are symmetrical

Frequency distribution

a graphical representation of the measurements of a sample that are arranged by the number of times each measurement was observed

Predictive validity

The tendency for an operational definition to be related to other operational definitions

Construct validity

The tendency for an operational definition and a property to have a clear conceptual relation

Validity

The characteristic of an observation that allows one to draw accurate inferences from it

Electromyograph (EMG)

A device that measures muscle contractions under the surface of a person’s skin

Measure

A device that can detect the measurable events to which an operational definition refers

Operational Definition

A description of an abstract property in terms of a concrete condition that can be measured

Method

A set of rules and techniques for observation that allow researchers to avoid the illusions, mistakes, and erroneous conclusions that simple observation can produce

Empiricism

Originally a Greek school of medicine that stressed the importance of observation, and now generally used to describe any attempt to acquire knowledge by observing objects or events

Henry wanted to estimate the average height of men in the United States. He measured a sample of his friends on the basketball team, the men that live in his apartment complex, and male members of his family. What’s a central problem with Henry’s appr

He didn’t measure a representative sample

Ideally, a measurement should have validity, reliability, and ________ in order to be useful to scientists

Power

What identifys patterns of variation in a series of measurements?

Correlation

The mathematical way of summarizing the pattern of correlation between two variables is to compute:

A correlation coefficient

When the odds are acceptably low that random assignment hasn’t failed in an experiment, the results of the experiment are said to be:

Statistically significant

When an operational definition of a property is related to other operational definitions of that same property, it is said to be high in:

Predictive validity

Measures of central tendency and measures of validity are both examples of:

Descriptive statistics

Which of the following values for a correlation coefficient indicates the strongest degree of relationship: -.69, -.35, +.03, or +.59?

-.69 You are looking at the # not the sign.

If people respond unnaturally because they are aware of being observed or of participating in research, the method of observation employed is said to be high in:

Reactivity

Which of the following is not one of the major ethical principles that psychologists must follow when conducting research: informed consent, debriefing, risk-benefit analysis, or random sampling?

Random sampling

All variables that are _________ related are _________, but not all variables that are _________ are _________ related.

All variables that are causally related are correlated, but not all variables that are correlated are causally related.

Empiricism is a useful approach, but it provides no guarantee that observations of the world will be accurate. To help observers avoid mistakes and illusions in observation, all sciences need to develop:

Codes of conduct that observers must follow

Dr. Klinegen made it clear to her psychology students that if they didn’t participate in her research, they would receive a failing grade. What ethical principle has Dr. Klinegen violated?

Freedom from coercions

Correlation coefficients reveal both the _________ and the _________ of a correlation between two variables.

Direction; strength

What are the odds that psychologists typically use to determine if random assignment has failed in an experiment?

5% chance of failure

The two main features of an experiment are ____________ and ___________.

Randomization; manipulation

When the results of an experiment can be confidently attributed to the effects of the independent variable, the experiment is said to be high in:

Internal validity

Descriptive statistics include measures such as central tendency or variability. What is another group of statistics that is used to test whether conclusions can be drawn from an experiment?

Inferential statistics

The belief that accurate knowledge of the world requires observations of it is called:

Empiricism

The mode, median, and mean are all:

Measures of central tendency

When an operational definition of a property and the property itself share meaning, the operational definition is likely to be high in:

Construct validity

Why do neither matched pairs or matched samples effectively eliminate the possibility of a third-variable correlation?

Both techniques allow us to rule out a particular third variable as a casual agent, but not the possibility of other third variables.