Geography

History

In 1947, the UN adopted a partition plan for a two-state solution in the remaining territory of the mandate, the plan was accepted by the Jewish leadership but rejected by the Arab leaders, and Britain refused to implement the plan. On the eve of final British withdrawal, the Jewish Agency for Israel declared the establishment of the State of Israel according to the proposed UN plan, the Arab Higher Committee did not declare a state of its own and instead, together with Transjordan, Egypt, and the other members of the Arab League of the time, commenced military action resulting in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. During the war, Israel gained additional territories that were designated to be part of the Arab state under the UN plan. Egypt occupied the Gaza Strip and Transjordan occupied the West Bank. Egypt initially supported the creation of an All-Palestine Government, but disbanded it in 1959. Transjordan never recognized it and instead decided to incorporate the West Bank with its own territory to form Jordan, the annexation was ratified in 1950 but was rejected by the international community. The Six-Day War in 1967, when Egypt, Jordan, and Syria fought against Israel, ended with Israel being in occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, besides other territories.

In 1964, when the West Bank was controlled by Jordan, the Palestine Liberation Organization was established there with the goal to confront Israel, the Palestinian National Charter of the PLO defines the boundaries of Palestine as the whole remaining territory of the mandate, including Israel. Following the Six-Day War, the PLO moved to Jordan, but later relocated to Lebanon after Black September in 1971.

The October 1974 Arab League summit designated the PLO as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people" and reaffirmed "their right to establish an independent state of urgency."[29] In November 1974, the PLO was recognized as competent on all matters concerning the question of Palestine by the UN General Assembly granting them observer status as a "non-state entity" at the UN,[30][31] after the 1988 Declaration of Independence, the UN General Assembly officially acknowledged the proclamation and decided to use the designation "Palestine" instead of "Palestine Liberation Organization" in the UN.[32][33] In spite of this decision, the PLO did not participate at the UN in its capacity of the State of Palestine's government.[34]

In 1979, through the Camp David Accords, Egypt signaled an end to any claim of its own over the Gaza Strip; in July 1988, Jordan ceded its claims to the West Bank—with the exception of guardianship over Haram al-Sharif—to the PLO. In November 1988, the PLO legislature, while in exile, declared the establishment of the "State of Palestine"; in the month following, it was quickly recognised by many states, including Egypt and Jordan. In the Palestinian Declaration of Independence, the State of Palestine is described as being established on the "Palestinian territory", without explicitly specifying further, because of this, some of the countries that recognised the State of Palestine in their statements of recognition refer to the "1967 borders", thus recognizing as its territory only the occupied Palestinian territory, and not Israel. The UN membership application submitted by the State of Palestine also specified that it is based on the "1967 borders",[3] during the negotiations of the Oslo Accords, the PLO recognised Israel's right to exist, and Israel recognised the PLO as representative of the Palestinian people. Between 1993 and 1998, the PLO made commitments to change the provisions of its Palestinian National Charter that are inconsistent with the aim for a two-state solution and peaceful coexistence with Israel.

As envisioned in the Oslo Accords, Israel allowed the PLO to establish interim administrative institutions in the Palestinian territories, which came in the form of the PNA, it was given civilian control in Area B and civilian and security control in Area A, and remained without involvement in Area C. In 2005, following the implementation of Israel's unilateral disengagement plan, the PNA gained full control of the Gaza Strip with the exception of its borders, airspace, and territorial waters.[iii] Following the inter-Palestinian conflict in 2006, Hamas took over control of the Gaza Strip (it already had majority in the PLC), and Fatah took control of the West Bank. From 2007, the Gaza Strip was governed by Hamas, and the West Bank by Fatah.

On 29 November 2012, in a 138–9 vote (with 41 abstentions and 5 absences),[41] the United Nations General Assembly passed resolution 67/19, upgrading Palestine from an "observer entity" to a "non-member observer state" within the United Nations system, which was described as recognition of the PLO's sovereignty.[25][26][42][43][44] Palestine's new status is equivalent to that of the Holy See,[45] the UN has permitted Palestine to title its representative office to the UN as "The Permanent Observer Mission of the State of Palestine to the United Nations",[46] and Palestine has instructed its diplomats to officially represent "The State of Palestine"—no longer the Palestinian National Authority.[44] On 17 December 2012, UN Chief of Protocol Yeocheol Yoon declared that "the designation of 'State of Palestine' shall be used by the Secretariat in all official United Nations documents",[47] thus recognising the title 'State of Palestine' as the state's official name for all UN purposes, as of 14 September 2015, 136 (7001705000000000000♠70.5%) of the 193 member states of the United Nations have recognised the State of Palestine.[43][48] Many of the countries that do not recognise the State of Palestine nevertheless recognise the PLO as the "representative of the Palestinian people", the PLO's Executive Committee is empowered by the Palestinian National Council to perform the functions of government of the State of Palestine.[49]

a. Data from Jerusalem includes occupied East Jerusalem with its Israeli population

The governorates in the West Bank are grouped into three areas per the Oslo II Accord. Area A forms 18% of the West Bank by area, and is administered by the Palestinian government.[55][56] Area B forms 22% of the West Bank, and is under Palestinian civil control, and joint Israeli-Palestinian security control.[55][56]Area C, except East Jerusalem, forms 60% of the West Bank, and is administered by the Israeli Civil Administration, except that the Palestinian government provides the education and medical services to the 150,000 Palestinians in the area.[55] More than 99% of Area C is off limits to Palestinians.[57] There are about 330,000 Israelis living in settlements in Area C,[58] in the Judea and Samaria Area, although Area C is under martial law, Israelis living there are judged in Israeli civil courts.[59]

East Jerusalem, the proclaimed capital of Palestine, is administered as part of the Jerusalem District of Israel, but is claimed by Palestine as part of the Jerusalem Governorate, it was annexed by Israel in 1980,[55] but this annexation is not recognised by any other country.[60] Of the 456,000 people in East Jerusalem, roughly 60% are Palestinians and 40% are Israelis.[55][61]

Foreign relations

Representation of the State of Palestine is performed by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). In states that recognise the State of Palestine it maintains embassies, the Palestine Liberation Organization is represented in various international organizations as member, associate or observer. Because of inconclusiveness in sources[62] in some cases it is impossible to distinguish whether the participation is executed by the PLO as representative of the State of Palestine, by the PLO as a non-state entity or by the PNA.

As of 14 September 2015, 136 (7001705000000000000♠70.5%) of the 193 member states of the United Nations have recognised the State of Palestine. Many of the countries that do not recognise the State of Palestine nevertheless recognise the PLO as the "representative of the Palestinian people", the PLO's executive committee is empowered by the PNC to perform the functions of government of the State of Palestine.[49]

On 3 October 2014, new Swedish Prime Minister Stefan Löfven used his inaugural address in parliament to announce that Sweden would recognise the state of Palestine, the official decision to do so was made on 30 October, making Sweden the first EU member state outside of the former communist bloc to recognise the state of Palestine. Most of the EU's 28 member states have refrained from recognising Palestinian statehood and those that do – such as Hungary, Poland and Slovakia – did so before accession.[64][65][66]

On 13 October 2014, the UK House of Commons voted by 274 to 12 in favour of recognising Palestine as a state,[67] the House of Commons backed the move "as a contribution to securing a negotiated two-state solution" – although less than half of MPs took part in the vote. However, the UK government is not bound to do anything as a result of the vote: its current policy is that it "reserves the right to recognise a Palestinian state bilaterally at the moment of our choosing and when it can best help bring about peace".[68]

On 2 December 2014, the French parliament voted by 331 to 151 in favour of urging their government to recognise Palestine as a state, the text, proposed by the ruling Socialists and backed by left-wing parties and some conservatives, asked the government to "use the recognition of a Palestinian state with the aim of resolving the conflict definitively".[69]

On 31 December 2014, the United Nations Security Council voted down a resolution demanding the end of Israeli occupation and statehood by 2017. Eight members voted for the Resolution (Russia, China, France, Argentina, Chad, Chile, Jordan, Luxembourg), however following strenuous US and Israeli efforts to defeat the resolution,[70] it did not get the minimum of nine votes needed to pass the resolution. Australia and the United States voted against the resolution, with five other nations abstaining.[71][72][73]

On 10 January 2015, the first Palestinian embassy in a western European country is open in Stockholm, Sweden.[74]

On 13 May 2015, the Vatican announced it was shifting recognition from the PLO to the State of Palestine, confirming a recognition of Palestine as a state after the UN vote of 2012.[75] Monsignor Antoine Camilleri, Vatican foreign minister, said the change was in line with the evolving position of the Holy See, which has referred unofficially to the State of Palestine since Pope Francis's visit to the Holy Land in May 2014.[76]

On 23 December 2015 the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution demanding Palestinian sovereignty over the natural resources in the Palestinian territories under Israeli occupation, it called on Israel to desist from the exploitation, damage, cause of loss or depletion and endangerment of Palestinian natural resources, the right of Palestinians to seek restitution for extensive destruction. The motion was passed by 164 votes to 5, with Canada, Federated States of Micronesia, Israel, Marshall Islands, and the United States opposing.[77]

Raising the flag at the UN

In August 2015, Palestine's representatives at the UN presented a draft resolution that would allow the non-member observer states Palestine and the Holy See to raise their flags at the United Nations headquarters. Initially, the Palestinians presented their initiative as a joint effort with the Holy See, which the Holy See denied.[78]

In a letter to the Secretary General and the President of the General Assembly, Israel’s Ambassador at the UN Ron Prosor called the step "another cynical misuse of the UN ... in order to score political points".[79]

After the vote, the US Ambassador Samantha Power said that "raising the Palestinian flag will not bring Israelis and Palestinians any closer together".[80] US state department spokesman Mark Toner called it a "counterproductive" attempt to pursue statehood claims outside of a negotiated settlement.[81]

Legal status

There are a wide variety of views regarding the status of the State of Palestine, both among the states of the international community and among legal scholars, the existence of a state of Palestine, although controversial, is a reality in the opinions of the states that have established bilateral diplomatic relations.[82][83][84][85]

Security

The State of Palestine has a number of security forces, including a Civil Police Force, National Security Forces and Intelligence Services, with the function of maintaining security and protecting Palestinian citizens and the Palestinian State.

Demographics

According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, the State of Palestine had population of 4,420,549 people in 2013.[86] Within an area of 6,220 square kilometres (2,400 sq mi), there is a population density of 731 people per square kilometre.[citation needed] To put this in a wider context, the average population density of the world was 53 people per square kilometre based on data from July 5, 2014.[citation needed]

Economy

Tourism

Tourism in the Palestinian territories refers to tourism in East Jerusalem, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. In 2010, 4.6 million people visited the Palestinian territories, compared to 2.6 million in 2009. Of that number, 2.2 million were foreign tourists while 2.7 million were domestic.[91] Most tourists come for only a few hours or as part of a day trip itinerary; in the last quarter of 2012 over 150,000 guests stayed in West Bank hotels; 40% were European and 9% were from the United States and Canada.[92] Lonely Planet travel guide writes that "the West Bank is not the easiest place in which to travel but the effort is richly rewarded."[93] In 2013 Palestinian Authority Tourism minister Rula Ma'ay'a stated that her government aims to encourage international visits to Palestine, but the occupation is the main factor preventing the tourism sector from becoming a major income source to Palestinians.[94] There are no visa conditions imposed on foreign nationals other than those imposed by the visa policy of Israel. Access to Jerusalem, the West Bank, and Gaza is completely controlled by the Government of Israel. Entry to the occupied Palestinian territories requires only a valid international passport.[95]

Transportation

Water supply and sanitation

Water supply and sanitation in the Palestinian territories are characterized by severe water shortage and are highly influenced by the Israeli occupation, the water resources of Palestine are fully controlled by Israel and the division of groundwater is subject to provisions in the Oslo II Accord.

Generally, the water quality is considerably worse in the Gaza strip when compared to the West Bank. About a third to half of the delivered water in the Palestinian territories is lost in the distribution network. The lasting blockade of the Gaza Strip and the Gaza War have caused severe damage to the infrastructure in the Gaza Strip.[96][97] Concerning wastewater, the existing treatment plants do not have the capacity to treat all of the produced wastewater, causing severe water pollution,[98] the development of the sector highly depends on external financing.[99]

Education

The literacy rate of Palestine was 96.3% according to a 2014 report by the United Nations Development Programme, which is high by international standards. There is a gender difference in the population aged above 15 with 5.9% of women considered illiterate compared to 1.6% of men.[100] Illiteracy among women has fallen from 20.3% in 1997 to less than 6% in 2014.[100]

See also

Notes

i.

^ Note that the name Palestine can commonly be interpreted as the entire territory of the former British Mandate, which today also incorporates Israel. The history was expressed by Mahmoud Abbas in his September 2011 speech to the United Nations: "... we agreed to establish the State of Palestine on only 22% of the territory of historical Palestine – on all the Palestinian Territory occupied by Israel in 1967."[101] The name is also officially used as the short-form reference to the State of Palestine[4] and this should be distinguished from other homonymous uses for the term including the Palestinian Authority,[102] the Palestine Liberation Organization,[32] and the subject of other proposals for the establishment of a Palestinian state.

^ abLapidoth, Ruth (2011). "Jerusalem: Some Legal Issues"(PDF). The Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies. p. 26. Archived(PDF) from the original on 5 June 2014. Retrieved 5 June 2014. The attitude of the Palestinians was expressed inter alia in 1988 and 2002. When the Palestine National Council proclaimed in November 1988 the establishment of a Palestinian State, it asserted that Jerusalem was its capital; in October 2002, the Palestinian Legislative Council adopted the Law on the Capital, which stipulates that Jerusalem is the capital of the Palestinian State, the main seat of its three branches of government. The State of Palestine is the sovereign of Jerusalem and of its holy places. Any statute or agreement that diminishes the rights of the Palestinian State in Jerusalem is invalid, this statute can be amended only with the consent of two-thirds of the members of the Legislative Council. The 2003 Basic Law also asserts that Jerusalem is the capital of the State of Palestine. Reprinted from: Wolfrum, Rüdiger (ed.) (online 2008, print 2011). The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Oxford University Press.

^Miskin, Maayana (5 December 2012). "PA Weighs 'State of Palestine' Passport". israelnationalnews.com. Arutz Sheva. Archived from the original on 7 December 2012. Retrieved 8 June 2014. A senior PA official revealed the plans in an interview with Al-Quds newspaper. The change to 'state' status is important because it shows that 'the state of Palestine is occupied,' he said.

^According to Article 4 of the 1994 Paris Protocol. The Protocol allows the Palestinian Authority to adopt multiple currencies; in the West Bank, the Israeli new sheqel and Jordanian dinar are widely accepted; while in the Gaza Strip, the Israeli new sheqel and Egyptian pound are widely accepted.

^ abcdSayigh, Yezid (1999). Armed Struggle and the Search for State: The Palestinian National Movement, 1949–1993 (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 624. ISBN9780198296430. "The Palestinian National Council also empowered the central council to form a government-in-exile when appropriate, and the executive committee to perform the functions of government until such time as a government-in-exile was established."

^[http://www.miftah.org/PrinterF.cfm?DocId=18244 PLO Body Elects Abbas 'President of Palestine'] November 25, 2008. Agence France-Presse (via MIFTAH). Retrieved August 12, 2017. "'I announce that the PLO Central Council has elected Mahmud Abbas president of the State of Palestine. He takes on this role from this day, November 23, 2008,' the body's chairman Salem al-Zaanun told reporters."

^"Palestinian National Council (PNC)". European Institute for Research on Mediterranean and Euro-Arab Cooperation. Medea Institute. Archived from the original on 6 August 2011. Retrieved June 16, 2014. The Palestinian National Council (PNC), Parliament in exile of the Palestinian people, is the most important institution of the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO). The PNC elects the Executive Committee of the organization which makes up the leadership between sessions.

^Kearney, Michael and Denayer, Stijn, Al-Haq Position Paper on Issues Arising from the Palestinian Authority's Submission of a Declaration to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court Under Article 12(3) of the Rome Statute (24 December 2009), para 43.a.

^Israel's Disengagement Plan: Renewing the Peace Process: "Israel will guard the perimeter of the Gaza Strip, continue to control Gaza air space, and continue to patrol the sea off the Gaza coast. ... Israel will continue to maintain its essential military presence to prevent arms smuggling along the border between the Gaza Strip and Egypt (Philadelphi Route), until the security situation and cooperation with Egypt permit an alternative security arrangement."

1.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation

Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.

2.
Flag of Palestine
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The Palestinian flag is based on the Flag of the Arab Revolt, and is used to represent the State of Palestine and the Palestinian people. The flag is a tricolor of three horizontal stripes overlaid by a red triangle issuing from the hoist. Prior to being the flag of the Palestinian people, it was the flag of the short lived Arab Federation of Iraq, the flag of the Arab Revolt had the same graphic form, but the colours were arranged differently. The flag used by the Arab Palestinian nationalists in the first half of the 20th century is the flag of the 1916 Arab Revolt, the origins of the flag are the subject of dispute and mythology. Yet another version is that the flag was designed by Sir Mark Sykes of the British Foreign Office, whatever the correct story, the flag was used by Sharif Hussein by 1917 at the latest and quickly became regarded as the flag of the Arab national movement in the Mashriq. On October 18,1948, the flag of the Arab Revolt was adopted, a modified version has been used in Palestine at least since the late 1930s and was officially adopted as the flag of the Palestinian people by the Palestine Liberation Organization in 1964. On November 15,1988 the PLO adopted the flag as the flag of the State of Palestine, on the ground the flag became widely used since the Oslo Agreements, with the establishment of the Palestinian Authority in 1993. Today the flag is flown widely by Palestinians and their supporters, in 1967, immediately following the Six Day War, the State of Israel banned the Palestinian flag in the occupied Gaza Strip and West Bank. A1980 law forbidding artwork of political significance banned artwork composed of its four colours, since the signing of the Oslo Peace Accords in 1993, the ban has been abolished

3.
East Jerusalem
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East Jerusalem or Eastern Jerusalem is the sector of Jerusalem that was not part of Israeli-held West Jerusalem at the end of the 1948–1949 Arab–Israeli War. Despite its name, East Jerusalem includes neighborhoods to the north, east and south of the Old City and this arrangement was formalized in the Rhodes Agreement in March 1949. A week after David Ben-Gurion presented his partys assertion that Jewish Jerusalem is an organic, inseparable part of the State of Israel in December 1949 and these decisions were confirmed respectively in the Knesset in January 1950 and the Jordanian Parliament in April 1950. On being captured by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War, East Jerusalem, with expanded borders, in the Palestine Liberation Organization s Palestinian Declaration of Independence of 1988, Jerusalem is stated to be the capital of the State of Palestine. East Jerusalem has been occupied by Israel since 1967 and was annexed by Israel in 1980. On 27–28 June 1967, East Jerusalem was integrated into Jerusalem by extension of its borders and was placed under the law. In a unanimous General Assembly resolution, the UN declared the measures trying to change the status of the city invalid, following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Jerusalem was divided into two parts. The western portion, populated primarily by Jews, came under Israeli rule, while the eastern portion, populated mainly by Muslim and Christian Palestinians, following the 1967 Six-Day War, the eastern part of Jerusalem came under Israeli rule, along with the entire West Bank. Shortly after the Israeli takeover, East Jerusalem was annexed to West Jerusalem, in November 1967, United Nations Security Council Resolution 242 was passed, calling for Israel to withdraw from territories occupied in the recent conflict in exchange for peace treaties. This declaration was determined to be null and void by United Nations Security Council Resolution 478, East Jerusalem is a term heavy with political implications. Israelis call the Arab populated part of the city East Jerusalem because of its location in the part of the single larger Jerusalem city unit. The term East Jerusalem is ambiguous and may be used to refer to either of the following, Jerusalem was to be an international city under the 1947 UN Partition Plan. It was not included as a part of either the proposed Jewish or Arab states, during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the western part of Jerusalem was captured by Israel, while East Jerusalem was captured by Jordan. The war came to an end with the signing of the 1949 Armistice Agreements, upon its capture, the Jordanians immediately expelled all the Jewish residents of the Jewish Quarter. The ancient Jewish cemetery on Mount of Olives was desecrated, Jordan also destroyed the Jewish villages of Atarot and Neve Yaakov just north of Jerusalem. East Jerusalem absorbed some of the refugees from West Jerusalems Arab neighborhoods that came under Israeli rule, thousands of Arab refugees who were displaced from their homes in Israeli-held West Jerusalem were settled in the previously Jewish areas of East Jerusalem. In 1950 East Jerusalem, along with the rest of the West Bank, was annexed by Jordan. During the period of Jordanian rule, East Jerusalem lost much of its importance, as it was no longer a capital and it even saw a population decrease, with merchants and administrators moving to Amman

4.
Gaza City
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Gaza, also referred to as Gaza City, is a Palestinian city in the Gaza Strip, with a population of 515,556, making it the largest city in the State of Palestine. Inhabited since at least the 15th century BC, Gaza has been dominated by different peoples and empires throughout its history. The Philistines made it a part of their pentapolis after the Ancient Egyptians had ruled it for nearly 350 years, under the Romans and later the Byzantines, Gaza experienced relative peace and its port flourished. In 635 AD, it became the first city in Palestine to be conquered by the Rashidun army, however, by the time the Crusaders invaded the city in the late 11th century, it was in ruins. In later centuries, Gaza experienced several hardships—from Mongol raids to floods and locusts, reducing it to a village by the 16th century, when it was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire. During the first half of Ottoman rule, the Ridwan dynasty controlled Gaza, the municipality of Gaza was established in 1893. Gaza fell to British forces during World War I, becoming a part of Mandatory Palestine, as a result of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Egypt administered the newly formed Gaza Strip territory and several improvements were undertaken in the city. Gaza was captured by Israel in the Six-Day War in 1967, but in 1993, in the months following the 2006 election, an armed conflict broke out between the Palestinian political factions of Fatah and Hamas, resulting in the latter taking power in Gaza. Egypt and Israel consequently imposed a blockade on the Gaza Strip, Israel eased the blockade allowing consumer goods in June 2010, and Egypt reopened the Rafah border crossing in 2011 to pedestrians. The primary economic activities of Gaza are small-scale industries and agriculture, however, the blockade and recurring conflicts has put the economy under severe pressure. The majority of Gazas inhabitants are Muslim, although there is also a Christian minority, Gaza has a very young population with roughly 75% under the age of 25. The city is administered by a 14-member municipal council. The name Gaza is first known from records of Thutmose III of Egypt in the 15th century BC. In Semitic languages, the meaning of the city name is fierce, other proper Arabic transliterations for the Arabic name are Ghazzah or Ġazzah. Accordingly, Gaza might be spelled Gazza in English, although the z is double in Arabic, it was transliterated into Greek as a single zeta, and the voiced velar or uvular fricative at the beginning was transliterated with a gamma. The Hebrew name of the city is Aza – the ayin at the beginning of the word represented a velar fricative in Biblical Hebrew. Gazas history of habitation dates back 5,000 years, making it one of the oldest cities in the world, settlement in the region of Gaza dates back to Tell es-Sakan, an Ancient Egyptian fortress built in Canaanite territory to the south of present-day Gaza. The site went into decline throughout the Early Bronze Age II as its trade with Egypt sharply decreased, another urban center known as Tell al-Ajjul began to grow along the Wadi Ghazza riverbed

Gaza City
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Skyline of Gaza, 2007
Gaza City
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Gaza skyline
Gaza City
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Muslims studying the Qur'an with Gaza in the background, painting by Harry Fenn
Gaza City
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Painting of Gaza by David Roberts, 1839

5.
Arabic language
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested

Arabic language
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The Galland Manuscript of One Thousand and One Nights, 14th century
Arabic language
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al-ʿArabiyyah in written Arabic (Naskh script)
Arabic language
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Bilingual traffic sign in Qatar.
Arabic language
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Examples of how the Arabic root and form system works.

6.
Palestinian people
–
Despite various wars and exoduses, roughly one half of the worlds Palestinian population continues to reside in historic Palestine, the area encompassing the West Bank, the Gaza Strip and Israel. Of the Palestinian population who live abroad, known as the Palestinian diaspora, the history of a distinct Palestinian national identity is a disputed issue amongst scholars. Palestinian was used to refer to the nationalist concept of a Palestinian people by Palestinian Arabs in a limited way until World War I, Modern Palestinian identity now encompasses the heritage of all ages from biblical times up to the Ottoman period. Founded in 1964, the Palestine Liberation Organization is an organization for groups that represent the Palestinian people before the international community. Since 1978, the United Nations has observed an annual International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People, herodotus also employs the term as an ethnonym, as when he speaks of the Syrians of Palestine or Palestinian-Syrians, an ethnically amorphous group he distinguishes from the Phoenicians. Herodotus makes no distinction between the Jews and other inhabitants of Palestine, the Greek word reflects an ancient Eastern Mediterranean-Near Eastern word which was used either as a toponym or ethnonym. In Ancient Egyptian Peleset/Purusati has been conjectured to refer to the Sea Peoples, among Semitic languages, Akkadian Palaštu is used of Philistia and its 4 city states. Biblical Hebrews cognate word Plištim, is usually translated Philistines, the Arabic word Filastin has been used to refer to the region since the time of the earliest medieval Arab geographers. It appears to have used as an Arabic adjectival noun in the region since as early as the 7th century CE. The Arabic newspaper Falasteen, published in Jaffa by Issa and Yusef al-Issa, the first Zionist bank, the Jewish Colonial Trust, was founded at the Second Zionist Congress and incorporated in London in 1899. The JCT was intended to be the instrument of the Zionist Organization. On 27 February 1902, a subsidiary of this Trust called the Anglo-Palestine Company was established in London with the assistance of Zalman David Levontin and this Company was to become the future Bank Leumi. Following the 1948 establishment of Israel, the use and application of the terms Palestine and Palestinian by, for example, the English-language newspaper The Palestine Post, founded by Jews in 1932, changed its name in 1950 to The Jerusalem Post. Jews in Israel and the West Bank today generally identify as Israelis, Arab citizens of Israel identify themselves as Israeli and/or Palestinian and/or Arab. Anyone born, after that date, of a Palestinian father – whether in Palestine or outside it – is also a Palestinian. Thus, the Jews of Palestine were/are also included, although limited only to the Jews who had resided in Palestine until the beginning of the Zionist invasion. The Charter also states that Palestine with the boundaries it had during the British Mandate, is a territorial unit. The although the timing and causes behind the emergence of a distinctively Palestinian national consciousness among the Arabs of Palestine are matters of scholarly disagreement

Palestinian people
Palestinian people
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A depiction of Syria and Palestine from CE 650 to 1500
Palestinian people
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UN stamp to commemorate the Palestinian struggle.
Palestinian people
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Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni, leader of the Army of the Holy War in 1948.

7.
Politics of Palestine
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The president of the State of Palestine is the highest-ranking political position in the Palestinian National Authority. The president is elected by popular elections, the prime minister is appointed by the president and thus not directly elected by the Palestinian Legislative Council or Palestinian voters. Unlike the prime ministers office in other nations, the Palestinian prime minister does not serve as a member of the legislature while in office. Instead, the appointment is made independently by the ruling party, the prime minister is expected to represent the majority party or ruling coalition in the parliament. The Palestinian Legislative Council is the legislature of the Palestinian Authority and it is not to be confused with the Palestine National Council, which remains the national legislature of the Palestinian people as a whole. Parliamentary elections took place on 25 January 2006, initial exit polling indicated that Fatah won the most seats, though without a majority, but the results were different. After the signing of the Oslo Accords, the West bank, area A refers to the area under PA security and civilian control. Area B refers to the area under Palestinian civilian and Israeli security control, area C refers to the area under full Israeli control such as settlements. It was admitted as a member of the Asia group on 2 April 1986. After the 1988 Palestinian Declaration of Independence, the PLOs representation was renamed Palestine, on 7 July 1998, this status was extended to allow participation in General Assembly debates, though not in voting. On Thursday,29 November 2012, In a 138-9 vote UN General Assembly resolution 67/19 passed, the new status equates Palestines with that of the Holy See. The change in status was described by The Independent as de facto recognition of the state of Palestine. The vote was a benchmark for the sovereign State of Palestine and its citizens, it was a diplomatic setback for Israel. It shall permit Palestine to claim rights over its territorial waters. The UN has permitted Palestine to title its representative office to the UN as The Permanent Observer Mission of the State of Palestine to the United Nations, the Palestinian Basic Law - A collection of various proposals and amendments to the Basic Law of Palestine

8.
Parliamentary system
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In a parliamentary system, the head of state is usually a different person from the head of government. Since ancient times, when societies were tribal, there were councils or a headman whose decisions were assessed by village elders, eventually these councils have slowly evolved into the modern Parliamentary system. The first parliaments date back to Europe in the Middle Ages, for example in 1188 Alfonso IX, the modern concept of parliamentary government emerged in the Kingdom of Great Britain and its contemporary, the Parliamentary System in Sweden. In England, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments, the first, in 1258, stripped the King of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns. Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution, in the Kingdom of Great Britain, the monarch, in theory, chaired cabinet and chose ministers. In practice, King George Is inability to speak English led the responsibility for chairing cabinet to go to the minister, literally the prime or first minister. By the nineteenth century, the Great Reform Act of 1832 led to parliamentary dominance, with its choice invariably deciding who was prime minister, hence the use of phrases like Her Majestys government or His Excellencys government. Nineteenth century urbanisation, industrial revolution and, modernism had already fueled the political struggle for democracy. In the radicalised times at the end of World War I, a parliamentary system may be either bicameral, with two chambers of parliament or unicameral, with just one parliamentary chamber. Scholars of democracy such as Arend Lijphart distinguish two types of parliamentary democracies, the Westminster and Consensus systems, the Westminster system is usually found in the Commonwealth of Nations and countries which were influenced by the British political tradition. These parliaments tend to have a more style of debate. The Australian House of Representatives is elected using instant-runoff voting, while the Senate is elected using proportional representation through single transferable vote, regardless of which system is used, the voting systems tend to allow the voter to vote for a named candidate rather than a closed list. The Western European parliamentary model tends to have a more consensual debating system, Consensus systems have more of a tendency to use proportional representation with open party lists than the Westminster Model legislatures. The committees of these Parliaments tend to be more important than the plenary chamber, some West European countries parliaments implement the principle of dualism as a form of separation of powers. In countries using this system, Members of Parliament have to resign their place in Parliament upon being appointed minister, ministers in those countries usually actively participate in parliamentary debates, but are not entitled to vote. Some countries such as India also require the prime minister to be a member of the legislature, the head of state appoints a prime minister who will likely have majority support in parliament. The head of state appoints a minister who must gain a vote of confidence within a set time. The head of state appoints the leader of the party holding a plurality of seats in parliament as prime minister

9.
Semi-presidential republic
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A semi-presidential system is a system of government in which a president exists alongside a prime minister and a cabinet, with the latter two being responsible to the legislature of a state. There are two subtypes of semi-presidentialism, premier-presidentialism and president-parliamentarism. Under the premier-presidential system, the minister and cabinet are exclusively accountable to parliament. The president chooses the prime minister and cabinet, but only the parliament may remove them from office with a vote of no confidence, the president does not have the right to dismiss the prime minister or the cabinet. However, in cases, the president can circumvent this limitation by exercising the discretionary power of dissolving the assembly. This subtype is used in Burkina Faso, France, Georgia, Lithuania, Madagascar, Mali, Mongolia, Niger, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Senegal, Sri Lanka and Ukraine. Under the president-parliamentary system, the minister and cabinet are dually accountable to the president. The president chooses the prime minister and the cabinet but must have the support of the parliament majority for his choice. In order to remove a prime minister or the cabinet from power. This form of semi-presidentialism is much closer to pure presidentialism and it is used in Armenia, Georgia between 2004 and 2013, Mozambique, Namibia, Russia, Taiwan and Ukraine between 1996 and 2005, and again from 2010 to 2014. It was used in Germany during the Weimarer Republik, as the regime between 1919 and 1933 is called unofficially. The powers that are divided between president and prime minister can vary greatly between countries and it is up to the president to decide, how much autonomy he leaves to his prime minister to act on his own. Semi-presidential systems may experience periods in which the President and the Prime Minister are from differing political parties. This is called cohabitation, a term originated in France when the situation first arose in the 1980s. In most cases, cohabitation results from a system in which the two executives are not elected at the time or for the same term. For example, in 1981, France elected both a Socialist president and legislature, which yielded a Socialist premier, but whereas the presidents term of office was for seven years, the National Assembly only served for five. When, in the 1986 legislative election, the French people elected a right-of-centre Assembly, however, in 2000, amendments to the French Constitution reduced the length of the French Presidents term from seven to five years. This has significantly lowered the chances of occurring, as parliamentary

10.
President of the State of Palestine
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The President of the State of Palestine is the head of the State of Palestine. He is also the President of the Palestinian National Authority, both functions were held by Yasser Arafat from 1988 and continued by his successor Mahmoud Abbas. In May 2005, the PLO Central Council asked Abbas to carry out the duties of the President of the State of Palestine, in November 2008, the PCC approved the continuation of Abbas function as President of the State of Palestine. On 15 November 1988, the Palestine Liberation Organization proclaimed the State of Palestine, Yasser Arafat, as Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization assumed the title of President of Palestine. The United Nations recognized the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people, the PLO established a parliament and a government in exile, both representing the Palestinian people worldwide. The Oslo Accords established parallel the Palestinian National Authority and a parliament, from 1994, Yasser Arafat assumed the title of President of the Palestinian National Authority, which was consolidated by the 1996 Presidential elections. Since then, both functions were simultaneously executed by a single person, unlike the function of President of the PA, the President of the State of Palestine is not validated by democratic elections, but rather by the PLO. In 1989, the PLO Central Council elected Yasser Arafat the first President, at the time, the organization who elected him was led by Yasser Arafat himself. After Arafats death in November 2004, the function was vacant, in May 2005, the PLO asked Mahmud Abbas to be acting President of State of Palestine. On 23 November 2008, the PLO Central Council formalized the function by electing Abbas President of the State of Palestine, the PLO organs who appointed Mahmud Abbas in 2005 and 2008 were and still are led by Mahmud Abbas himself. On 15 November 1988, Yasser Arafat became the symbolic President of the State of Palestine declared by the Palestine Liberation Organization, in 1994, he also became the President of the Palestinian National Authority upon the PAs formal inauguration on 5 July. He exercised limited self-government over part of the occupied Palestinian territories, following the Oslo I Accord, from 1993, an independent State of Palestine was envisioned on the West Bank, including East Jerusalem and Gaza, but Arafat never saw his dream realized. Arafat remained President until his death on 11 November 2004, in May 2005, the PLO Central Council asked Abbas to carry out the duties of the President of the State of Palestine. In November 2008, the PCC appointed Abbas as President of the State of Palestine

President of the State of Palestine
President of the State of Palestine
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State of Palestine
President of the State of Palestine

11.
Mahmoud Abbas
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Mahmoud Abbas, also known by the kunya Abu Mazen, is the President of the State of Palestine and Palestinian National Authority. He has been the Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization since 11 November 2004, Abbas is a member of the Fatah party. As a result, Fatahs main rival, Hamas, announced that it would not recognize the extension or view Abbas as the rightful president. Abbas was chosen as the President of the State of Palestine by the Palestine Liberation Organizations Central Council on 23 November 2008, Abbas served as the first Prime Minister of the Palestinian Authority from March to September 2003. Before being named prime minister, Abbas led the PLO Negotiations Affairs Department, mahmoud Abbas was born on 26 March 1935 in Safed, in the Galilee region of Mandatory Palestine. His family fled to Syria during the 1948 Palestine war, before going to Egypt, Abbas graduated from the University of Damascus where he studied law. Abbas later entered graduate studies at the Patrice Lumumba University in Moscow and his doctoral dissertation was The Other Side, The Secret Relationship Between Nazism and Zionism, a conspiracy theory about the Holocaust. He is married to Amina Abbas and they have had three sons, the eldest, Mazen Abbas, ran a building company in Doha and died in Qatar of a heart attack in 2001 at the age of 42. The kunya of Abu Mazen means father of Mazen and their second son is Yasser Abbas, a Canadian businessman who was named after former PA leader Yasser Arafat. The youngest son is Tareq, a business executive, Abbas has eight grandchildren, six of whom are part of the Seeds of Peace initiative bringing them in touch with young Israelis. While there in 1961, he was recruited to become a member of Fatah, at the time, Arafat was establishing the groundwork of Fatah by enlisting wealthy Palestinians in Qatar, Kuwait, and other Gulf States. According to Abu Daoud, part of the funds raised by Abbas were used, without the latters knowledge and he was among the first members of Fatah to call for talks with moderate Israelis, doing so in 1977. In a 2012 interview, he recalled, because we took up arms, Abbas has performed diplomatic duties, presenting a moderating contrast to the PLOs revolutionarypolicies. In the Oslo I Accord, Abbas was the signatory for the PLO on 13 September 1993 and he published a memoir, Through Secret Channels, The Road to Oslo. In 1995, he and Israeli negotiator Yossi Beilin wrote the Beilin-Abu Mazen agreement, Palestinian officials replied that at the time in question, the PLO collaborated with Moscow, and that Abbas was their liaison man in the Palestinian-Soviet friendship foundation. By early 2003, as Israel and the United States refused to negotiate with Yasser Arafat, Abbass reputation as a pragmatist garnered him favor with the West and some members of the Palestinian legislature. Under international pressure, on 19 March 2003, Arafat appointed Abbas Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority, according to Gilbert Achcar, the United States imposed Abbas on Arafat, the democratically elected leader, though the majority of Palestinians thought of the former as a Quisling. However, a struggle for power between Arafat and Abbas followed, Abbass term as prime minister was characterised by numerous conflicts between him and Arafat over the distribution of power

12.
Rami Hamdallah
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Rami Hamdallah is a Palestinian politician and academic. He is the Prime Minister of the State of Palestine and the president of An-Najah National University in Nablus, on 2 June 2013, the Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas named him to succeed Salam Fayyad as prime minister. His appointment was not recognized by Hamas, who were not consulted in the decision and he is a member of Fatah, however, the BBC states that he is a political independent. On 20 June 2013, Hamdallah tendered his resignation, which Abbas accepted on 23 June, six weeks after that, Abbas asked Hamdallah to form a new government, which he did on 19 September 2013. He was appointed the head of the Palestinian government of 2014 on 2 June 2014, rami Hamdallah was born in Anabta in the northern Palestine on 10 August 1958. He graduated from the University of Jordan in 1980 and received his MA from the University of Manchester in 1982, Hamdallah completed a PhD in linguistics at Lancaster University in 1988. Hamdallah, widely known as Abu Walid is a professor at An-Najah National University and he was appointed president of the university in 1998. During his 15 years term, he tripled the student enrollment and he also opened a 400-bed teaching hospital. He served as the general of Palestinian Central Elections Commission from 2002 to 2013. He was the deputy chairman in 2011. He sworn in as minister on 6 June 2013 and replaced Salam Fayyad in the post. Only two weeks into the job, however, Hamdallah tendered his resignation, reportedly as result of interference with Hamdallahs authority by Abbas aides, on 23 June 2013, Abbas accepted Hamdallahs resignation, but appointed him as the head of the interim government. Hamdallahs resignation was praised by Mohammed Dajani, the founder of the Wastia Movement of Moderate Islam in the West Bank and they thought he would be window dressing and he would not accept that. Six weeks after Hamdallahs resignation, Abbas asked him to form a new government, three of his children, 11-year-old twins and a 9-year-old boy, were killed in a car accident. He believes the only investment Palestinians can make is in education

Rami Hamdallah
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Rami Hamdallah

13.
West Bank
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The West Bank shares boundaries to the west, north, and south with Israel, and to the east, across the Jordan River, with Jordan. The West Bank also contains a significant section of the western Dead Sea shore, the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, has a land area of 5,640 km2 plus a water area of 220 km2, consisting of the northwest quarter of the Dead Sea. As of July 2015 it has an population of 2,785,366 Palestinians, and approximately 371,000 Israeli settlers. The international community considers Israeli settlements in the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, illegal under international law and this annexation was recognized only by Britain, Iraq and Pakistan. The term was chosen to differentiate the west bank of the River Jordan from the east bank of this river, the neo-Latin name Cisjordan or Cis-Jordan is the usual name for the territory in the Romance languages and Hungarian. The name West Bank, however, has become the standard usage for this entity in English. The analogous Transjordan has historically used to designate the region now roughly comprising the state of Jordan. From 1517 through 1917, the now known as the West Bank was under Ottoman rule as part of the provinces of Syria. At the 1920 San Remo conference, the victorious Allied powers allocated the area to the British Mandate of Palestine, the San Remo Resolution adopted on 25 April 1920 incorporated the Balfour Declaration of 1917. It and Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations were the basic documents upon which the British Mandate for Palestine was constructed. Faced with the determination of Emir Abdullah to unify Arab lands under the Hashemite banner, the West Bank area, was conquered by Jordan during the 1948 war with the new state of Israel. In 1947, it was designated as part of a proposed Arab state by the United Nations partition plan for Palestine. 1949 Armistice Agreements defined the boundary between Israel and Jordan. In 1950, Transjordan annexed the area west of the Jordan River, naming it West Bank or Cisjordan, Jordan ruled over the West Bank from 1948 until 1967. Jordans annexation was never recognized by the international community, with the exception of the United Kingdom. King Abdullah of Jordan had been crowned King of Jerusalem by the Coptic Bishop on 15 November 1948. and granted Palestinian Arabs in the West Bank, in June 1967, the West Bank and East Jerusalem were captured by Israel as a result of the Six-Day War. With the exception of East Jerusalem and the former Israeli-Jordanian no mans land, the Israeli settlements were, on the other hand, administered subsequently as Judea and Samaria Area directly by Israel. Since the 1993 Oslo Accords, the Palestinian Authority officially controls a geographically non-contiguous territory comprising approx, 11% of the West Bank which remains subject to Israeli incursions

West Bank
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City of Salfit, West Bank
West Bank
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City of Bethlehem, West Bank
West Bank
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The Cave of the Patriarchs is one of the most famous holy sites in the region.
West Bank
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City of Jericho, West Bank

14.
Gaza Strip
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Gaza, together with the West Bank, comprise the Palestinian territories claimed by the Palestinians as the State of Palestine. The territories of Gaza and the West Bank are separated from each other by Israeli territory, both fall under the jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority, but Gaza has since June 2007 been governed by Hamas, a Palestinian Islamic organization which came to power in free elections in 2006. It has been placed under an Israeli and U. S. -led international economic, the territory is 41 kilometers long, and from 6 to 12 kilometers wide, with a total area of 365 square kilometers. With around 1.85 million Palestinians on some 362 square kilometers, an extensive Israeli buffer zone within the Strip renders much land off-limits to Gazas Palestinians. Gaza has a population growth rate of 2. 91%, the 13th highest in the world. The population is expected to increase to 2.1 million in 2020, by that time, Gaza may be rendered unliveable, if present trends continue. Due to the Israeli and Egyptian border closures and the Israeli sea and air blockade, Sunni Muslims make up the predominant part of the Palestinian population in the Gaza Strip. Israel maintains direct control over Gaza and indirect control over life within Gaza, it controls Gazas air and maritime space. It reserves the right to enter Gaza at will with its military, Gaza is dependent on Israel for its water, electricity, telecommunications, and other utilities. When Hamas won the Palestinian legislative election,2006, Fatah refused to join the proposed coalition, when this collapsed under joint Israeli and United States pressure, the Palestinian Authority instituted a non-Hamas government in the West Bank while Hamas formed a government on its own in Gaza. Further economic sanctions were imposed by Israel and the European Quartet against Hamas, a brief civil war between the two groups had broken out in Gaza when, apparently under a U. S. -backed plan, Fatah contested Hamas’s administration. Hamas emerged the victor and expelled Fatah-allied officials and members of the PAs security apparatus from the Strip, since 2007, the Gaza Strip has been de facto governed by Hamas, which claims to represent the Palestinian National Authority and the Palestinian people. Israel maintains direct control over Gaza and indirect control over life within Gaza, it controls Gazas air and maritime space. It reserves the right to enter Gaza at will with its military, Gaza is dependent on Israel for its water, electricity, telecommunications, and other utilities. The Gaza Strip acquired its current northern and eastern boundaries at the cessation of fighting in the 1948 war, article V of the Agreement declared that the demarcation line was not to be an international border. At first the Gaza Strip was officially administered by the All-Palestine Government, All-Palestine in the Gaza Strip was managed under the military authority of Egypt, functioning as a puppet state, until it officially merged into the United Arab Republic and dissolved in 1959. From the time of the dissolution of the All-Palestine Government until 1967, Israel captured the Gaza Strip from Egypt in the Six-Day War in 1967. In 2005, Israel withdrew from the Gaza Strip under their unilateral disengagement plan, in July 2007, after winning the 2006 Palestinian legislative election, Hamas became the elected government

15.
Demographics of Palestine
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At mid-year 2009 as 10.7 million persons as follows,3.9 million in the Palestinian territories,1.2 million in Israel,5.0 million in Arab countries,0.6 million in foreign countries. There were 3.76 million Palestinians in the West Bank, Gaza and East Jerusalem, according to the U. S. Census, population growth mid-1990-2008 in Gaza and West Bank was 106% from 1.9 million to 3.9 million persons. According to the United Nations, the Palestinian population was 4.4 million in 2010, according to the PCBS, population density in 2009 was 654 capita/km2, of which 433 capita/km2 in the West Bank including Jerusalem and 4,073 capita/km2 in Gaza Strip. In the mid-2009, the share of less than 15 years was 41. 9%. Births and deaths The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook,2,731,052 including East Jerusalem population in the West Bank, including Jews. 83% of the population is Palestinian Arab, 17% is Jewish, definition, age 15 and over can read and write total population,92. 4% male,96. 7% female, 88% The following demographic statistics come from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Adlakha, Kevin G. Kinsella and Marwan Khawaja, available at Population Bulletin of ESCWAs website

16.
List of countries by GDP (PPP)
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This article includes a list of countries by their gross domestic product, the value of all final goods and services produced within a state in a given year. Countries are sorted by nominal GDP estimates from financial and statistical institutions, the GDP dollar data given on this page are derived from purchasing power parity calculations. It is however limited when measuring financial flows between countries, PPP is often used to gauge global poverty thresholds and is used by the United Nations in constructing the human development index. These surveys such as the International Comparison Program include both tradable and non-tradable goods in an attempt to estimate a representative basket of all goods. The first table includes estimates for the year 2016, for all current 187 International Monetary Fund members, as well as Hong Kong, data are in millions of international dollars and were calculated by the IMF. Figures were published in April 2015, the second table includes data mostly for the year 2015 for 180 of the 193 current United Nations member states, as well as the two Chinese Special Administrative Regions. Data are in billions of dollars and were compiled by the World Bank. The third table is a tabulation of the CIA World Factbook Gross Domestic Product data update of 2016, the data for GDP at purchasing power parity have also been rebased using the new International Comparison Program price surveys and extrapolated to 2007. Click on one of the triangles in the headings to re-order the list according to that category. ^a Chinas PPP is based on prices for 11 administrative regions, extrapolated to the country. Chinas entry does not include the two administrative regions, namely Hong Kong and Macau. List of Muslim Countries by GDP Purchasing Power Parity at Materia Islamica

List of countries by GDP (PPP)
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World Share of GDP (PPP) according to data released by the IMF, October 2014

17.
List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita
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The gross domestic product per capita figures on this page are derived from PPP calculations. Such calculations are prepared by various organizations, including the International Monetary Fund and this is why GDP per capita is often considered one of the indicators of a countrys standard of living, although this can be problematic because GDP per capita is not a measure of personal income. Several economies which are not considered to be sovereign states are included in the list because they appear in the sources and these economies are not ranked in the following tables, but are listed in sequence for comparison. Non-sovereign entities, former countries or other groupings are marked in italics. All figures are in current Geary–Khamis dollars, more known as international dollars

List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita

18.
Gini coefficient
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The Gini coefficient is a measure of statistical dispersion intended to represent the income or wealth distribution of a nations residents, and is the most commonly used measure of inequality. It was developed by the Italian statistician and sociologist Corrado Gini, the Gini coefficient measures the inequality among values of a frequency distribution. A Gini coefficient of zero expresses perfect equality, where all values are the same, a Gini coefficient of 1 expresses maximal inequality among values. However, a greater than one may occur if some persons represent negative contribution to the total. For larger groups, values close to or above 1 are very unlikely in practice, the exception to this is in the redistribution of wealth resulting in a minimum income for all people. When the population is sorted, if their distribution were to approximate a well known function. The Gini coefficient was proposed by Gini as a measure of inequality of income or wealth, the global income Gini coefficient in 2005 has been estimated to be between 0.61 and 0.68 by various sources. There are some issues in interpreting a Gini coefficient, the same value may result from many different distribution curves. The demographic structure should be taken into account, Countries with an aging population, or with a baby boom, experience an increasing pre-tax Gini coefficient even if real income distribution for working adults remains constant. Scholars have devised over a dozen variants of the Gini coefficient, the line at 45 degrees thus represents perfect equality of incomes. The Gini coefficient can then be thought of as the ratio of the area lies between the line of equality and the Lorenz curve over the total area under the line of equality. It is also equal to 2A and to 1 - 2B due to the fact that A + B =0.5. If all people have non-negative income, the Gini coefficient can theoretically range from 0 to 1, in practice, both extreme values are not quite reached. If negative values are possible, then the Gini coefficient could theoretically be more than 1, normally the mean is assumed positive, which rules out a Gini coefficient less than zero. An alternative approach would be to consider the Gini coefficient as half of the mean absolute difference. The effects of income policy due to redistribution can be seen in the linear relationships. An informative simplified case just distinguishes two levels of income, low and high, if the high income group is u % of the population and earns a fraction f % of all income, then the Gini coefficient is f − u. An actual more graded distribution with these same values u and f will always have a higher Gini coefficient than f − u, the proverbial case where the richest 20% have 80% of all income would lead to an income Gini coefficient of at least 60%

Gini coefficient
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Graphical representation of the Gini coefficient The graph shows that the Gini coefficient is equal to the area marked A divided by the sum of the areas marked A and B, that is, Gini = A / (A + B). It is also equal to 2* A due to the fact that A + B = 0.5 (since the axes scale from 0 to 1).

19.
List of countries by Human Development Index
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This is a list of all the countries by the Human Development Index as included in a United Nations Development Programmes Human Development Report. The latest report was released on 21 March 2017 and compiled on the basis of estimates for 2015, in the 2010 Human Development Report a further Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index was introduced. While the simple HDI remains useful, it stated that the IHDI is the level of human development. The Human Development Index is a statistic of life expectancy, education. A country scores higher HDI when the life expectancy at birth is longer, the period is longer. It is used to distinguish whether the country is a developed, the average HDI of regions of the World and groups of countries are also included for comparison. Countries fall into four broad human development categories, Very High Human Development, High Human Development, Medium Human Development, because of the new methodology adopted since the 2010 Human Development Report, the new reported HDI figures appear lower than the HDI figures in previous reports. From 2007 to 2010, the first category was referred to as developed countries, the original high human development category has been split into two as above in the report for 2007. The country with the largest decrease in HDI since 1998 is Zimbabwe, the country with the largest decrease since 2009 is Cape Verde, which decreased by 0.170. The only year without a Human Development Report since 1990 was 2012, the latest report was launched on 21 March 2017

List of countries by Human Development Index
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0.900 and over

20.
Egyptian pound
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The Egyptian pound is the currency of Egypt. It is divided into 100 piastres, or ersh, or 1,000 millimes, the Egyptian pound is frequently abbreviated as LE or L. E. which stands for livre égyptienne. E£ and £E are commonly used on the internet, the name Genēh is derived from the Guinea coin, which had almost the same value of 100 piastres at the end of the 19th century. In 1834, a Khedival Decree was issued providing for the issuing of an Egyptian currency based on a base, i. e. based on gold. The Egyptian pound, known as the geneih, was introduced, the piastre continued to circulate as 1⁄100 of a pound, with the piastre subdivided into 40 para. In 1885, the para ceased to be issued, and the piastre was divided into tenths and these tenths were renamed milliemes in 1916. The legal exchange rates were fixed by force of law for important foreign currencies which became acceptable in the settlement of internal transactions, eventually this led to Egypt using a de facto gold standard between 1885 and 1914, with E£1 =7.4375 grams pure gold. At the outbreak of World War I, the Egyptian pound was pegged to the British pound sterling at EG£0.975 per GB£1. Egypt remained part of the Sterling Area until 1962, when Egypt devalued slightly and switched to a peg to the United States dollar and this peg was changed to 1 pound =2.55555 dollars in 1973 when the dollar was devalued. The pound was devalued in 1978 to a peg of 1 pound =1.42857 dollars. However, until 2001, the float was tightly managed by the Central Bank of Egypt and foreign exchange controls were in effect. The Central Bank of Egypt voted to end the regime and allowed the pound to float freely on 3 November 2016. The Egyptian pound was used in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan between 1899 and 1956, and Cyrenaica when it was under British occupation and later an independent emirate between 1942 and 1951. The National Bank of Egypt issued banknotes for the first time on 3 April 1899, the Central Bank of Egypt and the National Bank of Egypt were unified into the Central Bank of Egypt in 1961. Several unofficial popular names are used to refer to different values of Egyptian currency and these include nekla for 2 milliemes, tarifa for 5 milliemes, shelen for 5 piastres, bariza for 10 piastres, and reyal for 20 piastres. Since the piaster and millieme are no legal tender, the smallest denomination currently minted being the 50-piaster coin. A few have survived to refer to pounds, bariza now refers to a ten-pound note and reyal can be used in reference to a 20-pound note. Different sums of EGP have special nicknames, for example,1,000 EGP baku pack,1,000,000 EGP arnab rabbit,1,000,000,000 EGP feel elephant

21.
Israeli new shekel
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The new shekel is divided into 100 agora. The new shekel has been in use since 1 January 1986, the currency sign for the new shekel ⟨ ₪ ⟩ is a combination of the first Hebrew letters of the words shekel and ẖadash. Alongside the shekel sign, the abbreviations of NIS, שח. The origin of the shekel is from the ancient biblical currency by the same name. Shekel is any of several ancient units of weight or of currency in ancient Israel, initially, it may have referred to a weight of barley. In ancient Israel, the shekel was known to be about 180 grains, from the formation of the modern State of Israel on 14 May 1948 through 1952 banknotes continued to be issued by the Anglo-Palestine Bank as Palestine pound which was pegged to the British Pound. In 1952, the Anglo-Palestine Bank changed its name to Bank Leumi Le-Yisrael, the Israeli pound was the currency of the State of Israel from June 1952 until 23 February 1980, when it was replaced with the shekel on 24 February 1980. From 1955, after the Bank of Israel was established and took over the duty of issuing banknotes, only the Hebrew name was used, along with the symbol I£. The pegging to the British Pound was abolished on 1 January 1954, and in 1960, during the 1960s, a debate over the non-Hebrew name of the Israeli currency resulted in a law ordering the Minister of Finance to change the name pound into a Hebrew name, Shekel. The law allowed the minister to decide on a date for the change. The law did not come into effect until February 1980, when the Israeli government decided to change the monetary system, the shekel, now known as the old shekel, was the currency of the State of Israel between 24 February 1980 and 31 December 1985. The Israeli pound and its successor, the old shekel, all experienced frequent devaluations against foreign currencies during the 1960s and 70s and this trend culminated in the old shekel experiencing hyperinflation in the early 1980s. After inflation was contained as a result of the 1985 Economic Stabilization Plan, as a result of these factors, inflation has been relatively low and the country now maintains a positive balance of payments, with a current account surplus equivalent to about 3% of its GDP in 2010. Since 1 January 2003, the new shekel has been a freely convertible currency, since 7 May 2006, new shekel derivative trading has also been available on the Chicago Mercantile Exchange. This makes the new one of only twenty or so world currencies for which there are widely available currency futures contracts in the foreign exchange market. It is also a currency that can be exchanged by consumers in parts of the world. On 26 May 2008, CLS Bank International announced that it would settle payment instructions in new shekels, since 20 March 2003, the new shekel has gained more than 30% in value against the US dollar. In 1985, coins in denominations of 1,5, and 10 agora and ₪½, in 1990, ₪5 coins were introduced, followed by ₪10 coins in 1995

Israeli new shekel
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Face of the two 20 shekel notes, left one is paper and the right one is made of polypropylene.
Israeli new shekel
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1 shekel coin
Israeli new shekel
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Back of the two 20 shekel notes, left one is paper and the right one is made of polypropylene. The additional red text on the polypropylene note reads "60 Years to the State of Israel". It was only featured in a limited run, close to the mentioned celebration, it is not present on a majority of notes.
Israeli new shekel
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20 new-sheqalim bill

22.
Jordanian dinar
–
The Jordanian dinar is the currency of Jordan. It is also used alongside the Israeli shekel in the West Bank. The dinar is divided into 10 dirham,100 qirsh or 1000 fulus, from 1927 to 1950, the Palestine Currency Board issued the Palestine pound as the official currency in both Mandatory Palestine and the Emirate of Transjordan. After Jordan became an independent kingdom on 25 May 1946, the idea of issuing a national currency arose, under this Act, the Jordan Currency Board was formed, which became the sole authority entitled to issue Jordanian currency in the kingdom. The London-based entity consisted of a president and four members, as of 1 July 1950, the Jordanian dinar became the kingdom’s official currency, and use of the Palestine pound ceased in the kingdom on 30 September 1950. Although issued by the Jordan Currency Board, the bear the countrys official name. Until 1992, coins were denominated in Arabic using fils, qirsh, dirham and dinar but in English only in fils, since 1992, the fils and dirham are no longer used in the Arabic and the English denominations are given in dinar and either qirsh or piastres. Coins were introduced in 1949 in denominations of 1,5,10,20,50 and 100 fils. The first issue of 1 fils were mistakenly minted with the denomination given as 1 fil.20 fils coins were minted until 1965, with 25 fils introduced in 1968, the 1 fils coin was last minted in 1985. In 1996, smaller 1⁄4 dinar coins were introduced alongside 1⁄2 and 1 dinar coins. Rubia is Arabic for piece of four or quarter nuus is Arabic for piece of two or half In 1949, banknotes were issued by the government in denominations of 1⁄2,1,5,10 and 50 dinars. From 1959, the Central Bank of Jordan took over note production,20 dinar notes were introduced in 1977, followed by 50 dinars in 1999. 1⁄2 dinar notes were replaced by coins in 1999, since October 23,1995, the dinar has been officially pegged to the IMFs special drawing rights. In practice, it is fixed at 1 U. S. dollar =0.709 dinar most of the time, the Central Bank buys U. S. dollars at 0.708 dinar, and sell U. S. dollars at 0.710 dinar. Economy of Jordan Economy of the Palestinian territories Coins of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan Banknotes of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan The banknotes of Jordan

Jordanian dinar
–
1 dinar
Jordanian dinar

23.
.ps
–
. ps is the Internet country code top-level domain ccTLD officially assigned to the State of Palestine. It is administered by the Palestinian National Internet Naming Authority, registrations are processed by certified registrars. The Internationalized country code top-level domain for the State of Palestine is. فلسطين, registrations can be made at the second-level as well as at seven third-level domain names. ps, Any Palestinian Commercial or Personal Entity. Gov. ps, institutions of the PNA and Government, sec. ps, for security organizations of Palestine. It has also used in domain hacks, for example meetu. ps for meetups on the website Meetup. Official website nic. ps PNINA Official website pnina. ps PNINA List of. ps certified registrars IANA. ps whois information CR for. PS

.ps
–
.ps

24.
Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics
–
The Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics is the official statistical institution of the State of Palestine. Its main task is to provide credible statistical figures at the national and international levels and it is a state institution that provides service to the governmental, non – governmental and private sectors in addition to research institutions and universities. It is established as an independent statistical bureau, the PCBS publishes the Statistical Yearbook of Palestine and the Jerusalem Statistical Yearbook annually. Besides general statistics, such as the Retail Price Index, the PCBS also carries out special projects and it conducted the first Palestinian census in 1997, although Israel prevented the national census team from surveying the population in East Jerusalem. In 2007, the census was carried out. In the 2007 census, a census was carried out in East Jerusalem. Also, the PCBS provided the 2003 Survey on the Impact of separation Wall on the Location Where it Passed Through, the PCBS publishes the Statistical Yearbook of Palestine and the Jerusalem Statistical Yearbook annually. The PCBS has its office in the Balua area of Ramallah. In October 2001, the building was raided by the Israeli Defence Forces, the soldiers confiscated hard drives and vandalized a number of the offices. In March and April 2002, its Fieldwork section in downtown Ramallah was raided four times, Dr. Hasan Abu Libdeh Dr. Luay Shabeneh Ola Awad Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics Statistical Yearbook of Palestine 2013, December 2013

25.
Israeli-occupied territories
–
The Israeli-occupied territories are the territories occupied by Israel during the Six-Day War of 1967. Originally, those included the Syrian Golan Heights, the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula and Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip. Withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict, termination of all claims or states of belligerency and respect for the right of every state in the area to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries. From 1967 to 1982, the four areas were governed under the Israeli Military Governorate, the IMG was dissolved in 1982, after the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty. Between 1998 and 2012, the term Palestinian territories, Occupied was used to refer to territories controlled by the Palestinian Authority in the West Bank, the International Court of Justice, the UN General Assembly and the United Nations Security Council regards Israel as the Occupying Power. UN Special Rapporteur Richard Falk called Israels occupation an affront to international law, the Israeli High Court of Justice has ruled that Israel holds the West Bank under belligerent occupation. Israeli governments have preferred the term disputed territories in the case of the West Bank, officially Israel maintains that the West Bank is disputed territory. Israel asserts that since the disengagement of Israel from Gaza in 2005, the significance of the designation of these territories as occupied territory is that certain legal obligations fall on the occupying power under international law. Under international law there are laws of war governing military occupation, including the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. In 2015, over 800,000 Israelis resided over the 1949 Armistice Lines, Israel captured the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt in the 1967 Six-Day War. It established settlements along the Gulf of Aqaba and in the northeast portion and it had plans to expand the settlement of Yamit into a city with a population of 200,000, though the actual population of Yamit did not exceed 3,000. The Sinai Peninsula was returned to Egypt in stages beginning in 1979 as part of the Israel–Egypt Peace Treaty, as required by the treaty, Israel evacuated Israeli military installations and civilian settlements prior to the establishment of normal and friendly relations between it and Egypt. Israel dismantled eighteen settlements, two air bases, a naval base, and other installations by 1982, including the only oil resources under Israeli control. The evacuation of the population, which took place in 1982, was done forcefully in some instances. The settlements were demolished, as it was feared that settlers might try to return to their homes after the evacuation, since 1982, the Sinai Peninsula has not been regarded as occupied territory. Israels stated purpose for the Security Belt was to create a space separating its northern border towns from terrorists residing in Lebanon, during the stay in the security belt, the IDF held many positions and supported the SLA. The SLA took over daily life in the security zone, initially as the force of the Free Lebanon State. Notably, the South Lebanon Army controlled the prison in Khiam, in addition, United Nations forces and the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon were deployed to the security belt

Israeli-occupied territories
–
Map of the Golan Heights since 1974
Israeli-occupied territories
–
1916–22 Proposals: Three proposals for the post World War I administration of Palestine. The red line is the "International Administration" proposed in the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement, the dashed blue line is the 1919 Zionist Organization proposal at the Paris Peace Conference, and the thin blue line refers to the final borders of the 1923–48 Mandatory Palestine.
Israeli-occupied territories
–
Greater Jerusalem, May 2006. CIAremote sensing map showing East Jerusalem, the Green Line and Jerusalem's city limits which were unilaterally expanded by Israel, 28 June 1967, annexed by Knesset (30 July 1980), and modified and expanded in February 1992.
Israeli-occupied territories
–
The settlement Elon Moreh, 2008

26.
Replacement character
–
Specials is a short Unicode block allocated at the very end of the Basic Multilingual Plane, at U+FFF0–FFFF. Of these 16 codepoints, five are assigned as of Unicode 9, U+FFFD � REPLACEMENT CHARACTER used to replace an unknown, unrecognized or unrepresentable character U+FFFE <noncharacter-FFFE> not a character. FFFE and FFFF are not unassigned in the sense. They can be used to guess a texts encoding scheme, since any text containing these is by not a correctly encoded Unicode text. The replacement character � is a found in the Unicode standard at codepoint U+FFFD in the Specials table. It is used to indicate problems when a system is unable to render a stream of data to a correct symbol and it is usually seen when the data is invalid and does not match any character, Consider a text file containing the German word für in the ISO-8859-1 encoding. This file is now opened with an editor that assumes the input is UTF-8. The first and last byte are valid UTF-8 encodings of ASCII, therefore, a text editor could replace this byte with the replacement character symbol to produce a valid string of Unicode code points. The whole string now displays like this, f�r, a poorly implemented text editor might save the replacement in UTF-8 form, the text file data will then look like this, 0x66 0xEF 0xBF 0xBD 0x72, which will be displayed in ISO-8859-1 as fï¿½r. Since the replacement is the same for all errors this makes it impossible to recover the original character, a better design is to preserve the original bytes, including the error, and only convert to the replacement when displaying the text. This will allow the text editor to save the original byte sequence and it has become increasingly common for software to interpret invalid UTF-8 by guessing the bytes are in another byte-based encoding such as ISO-8859-1. This allows correct display of both valid and invalid UTF-8 pasted together, Unicode control characters UTF-8 Mojibake Unicodes Specials table Decodeunicodes entry for the replacement character

Replacement character
–
Replacement character

27.
Sovereign state
–
A sovereign state is, in international law, a nonphysical juridical entity that is represented by one centralized government that has sovereignty over a geographic area. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined territory, one government, and it is also normally understood that a sovereign state is neither dependent on nor subjected to any other power or state. The existence or disappearance of a state is a question of fact, States came into existence as people gradually transferred their allegiance from an individual sovereign to an intangible but territorial political entity, of the state. States are but one of political orders that emerged from feudal Europe, others being city states, leagues. Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of sovereignty based on territoriality. It is a system of states, multinational corporations. Sovereignty is a term that is frequently misused and that position was reflected and constituted in the notion that their sovereignty was either completely lacking, or at least of an inferior character when compared to that of civilised people. Lassa Oppenheim said There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is a fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning which was universally agreed upon. In the opinion of H. V. Evatt of the High Court of Australia, sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all. The right of nations to determine their own status and exercise permanent sovereignty within the limits of their territorial jurisdictions is widely recognized. The Westphalian model of sovereignty has increasingly come under fire from the non-west as a system imposed solely by Western Colonialism. What this model did was make religion a subordinate to politics and this system does not fit in the Islamic world because concepts such as separation of church and state and individual conscience are not recognised in the Islamic religion as social systems. Nation denotes a people who are believed to or deemed to share common customs, religion, language, origins, however, the adjectives national and international are frequently used to refer to matters pertaining to what are strictly sovereign states, as in national capital, international law. State refers to the set of governing and supportive institutions that have sovereignty over a definite territory, State recognition signifies the decision of a sovereign state to treat another entity as also being a sovereign state. Recognition can be expressed or implied and is usually retroactive in its effects. It does not necessarily signify a desire to establish or maintain diplomatic relations, There is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. In actual practice, the criteria are mainly political, not legal, in international law, however, there are several theories of when a state should be recognised as sovereign

Sovereign state
–
Member states of the United Nations, all of which are sovereign states, though not all sovereign states are necessarily members

28.
Middle East
–
The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous

29.
United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine
–
The United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was a proposal by the United Nations, which recommended a partition of Mandatory Palestine at the end of the British Mandate. On 29 November 1947, the UN General Assembly adopted the Plan as Resolution 181, the resolution recommended the creation of independent Arab and Jewish States and a Special International Regime for the city of Jerusalem. Part I of the Plan stipulated that the Mandate would be terminated as soon as possible, the new states would come into existence two months after the withdrawal, but no later than 1 October 1948. The Plan sought to address the objectives and claims of two competing movements, Palestinian nationalism and Jewish nationalism, or Zionism. The Plan also called for Economic Union between the states, and for the protection of religious and minority rights. The Plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, despite its perceived limitations, immediately after adoption of the Resolution by the General Assembly, a civil war broke out and the plan was not implemented. The British administration was formalized by the League of Nations under the Palestine Mandate in 1923, the Mandate reaffirmed the 1917 British commitment to the Balfour Declaration, for the establishment in Palestine of a National Home for the Jewish people, with the prerogative to carry it out. A British census of 1918 estimated 700,000 Arabs and 56,000 Jews, the Commission concluded that the Mandate had become unworkable, and recommended Partition into an Arab state linked to Transjordan, a small Jewish state, and a mandatory zone. The Jewish leaders, Chaim Weizmann and David Ben-Gurion, persuaded the Zionist Congress to lend provisional approval to the Peel recommendations as a basis for further negotiations. In a letter to his son in October 1937, Ben-Gurion explained that partition would be a first step to possession of the land as a whole, the same sentiment, that acceptance of partition was a temporary measure beyond which the Palestine would be redeemed. In its entirety, was recorded by Ben-Gurion on other occasions, such as at a meeting of the Jewish Agency executive in June 1938, the British Woodhead Commission was set up to examine the practicality of partition. The Peel plan was rejected and two alternatives were considered. Representatives of Arabs and Jews were invited to London for the St. James Conference, with World War II looming, British policies were influenced by a desire to win Arab world support and could ill afford to engage with another Arab uprising. However, the League of Nations commission held that the White Paper was in conflict with the terms of the Mandate as put forth in the past, the outbreak of the Second World War suspended any further deliberations. The Jewish Agency hoped to persuade the British to restore Jewish immigration rights, aliyah Bet was organized to spirit Jews out of Nazi controlled Europe, despite the British prohibitions. The White Paper also led to the formation of Lehi, a small Jewish organization which opposed the British, the Jewish community rejected the restriction on immigration and organized an armed resistance. These actions and United States pressure to end the policy led to the establishment of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry. N. U. S. endorsed the Commission findings concerning Jewish immigration and land purchase restrictions, in effect the British continued to carry out its White Paper policy

United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine
–
UNSCOP (3 September 1947; see green line) and UN Ad Hoc Committee (25 November 1947) partition plans. The UN Ad Hoc Committee proposal was voted on in the resolution.
United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine
–
Map showing Jewish-owned land as of 31 December 1944, including land owned in full, shared in undivided land and State Lands under concession. This constituted 6% of the total land area or 20% of cultivative land, of which more than half was held by the JNF and PICA
United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine
–
Land ownership
United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine
–
Population distribution

30.
Corpus separatum (Jerusalem)
–
Corpus separatum is a term used to describe the Jerusalem area in the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine. According to the plan the city would be placed under international regime, the corpus separatum was one of the main issues of the Lausanne Conference of 1949, besides the other borders and the question of the right of return of Palestinian refugees. With its many places and its association with three world religions, Jerusalem had international importance. The United Nations wanted to preserve this status after termination of the British Mandate, therefore, the General Assembly proposed a corpus separatum, as described in Resolution 181. It was to be under an international regime and shall be administered by the United Nations. The administering body would be the United Nations Trusteeship Council, one of the five UN Charter organs, ) The corpus separatum covered a rather wide area. The Arabs actually wanted to restore the status as an open city under Arab sovereignty. Israel rejected the plan and supported merely a limited international regime, in May 1948, Israel told the Security Council that it regarded Jerusalem outside its territory, but now it claimed sovereignty over Jerusalem except the Holy Places. The plan was proposed in UN General Assembly Resolution 181 of 29 November 1947. It provided that Independent Arab and Jewish States and the Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem, shall come into existence in Palestine two months after the evacuation of the armed forces of the mandatory Power has been completed but in any case not later than 1 October 1948. All the residents would become citizens of the City of Jerusalem. As implementation of the plan failed due to the Arab-Israeli conflict. Its task was, inter alia, to implement the international regime for the Jerusalem area, Resolution 194 provided the following directives in the articles 7,8 and 9, Resolves that the Holy Places. in Palestine should be protected and free access to them assured. The plan envisioned a demilitarised Jerusalem divided into a Jewish and an Arab zone, the commentary notices that the Committee had abandoned the original principle of a corpus separatum. Jerusalem would be the capital of neither Israel nor the Arab state, on 1 September 1949, the Conciliation Commission, chaired by the United States of America, submitted the plan to the General Assembly. The General Assembly did not accept the plan and it was not discussed, on 5 December 1949, Ben-Gurion declared Jewish Jerusalem part of the State of Israel. The resolution requested the Trusteeship Council to complete the preparation of the Statute of Jerusalem without delay, on 4 April 1950, the Trusteeship Council approved a draft statute for the City of Jerusalem, which was submitted to the General Assembly on 14 June 1950. The statute conformed to the plan of 29 November 1947

31.
All-Palestine Government
–
The All-Palestine Government was established by the Arab League on 22 September 1948 during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War to govern the Egyptian-controlled enclave in Gaza. It was soon recognized by all Arab League members except Transjordan, though jurisdiction of the Government was declared to cover the whole of the former Mandatory Palestine, its effective jurisdiction was limited to the Gaza Strip. The Prime Minister of the Gaza-seated administration was Ahmed Hilmi Pasha, shortly thereafter the Jericho Conference named King Abdullah I of Transjordan King of Arab Palestine. The Congress called for the union of Arab Palestine and Transjordan, the other Arab League member states opposed Abdullahs plan. The All-Palestine Government is regarded by some as the first attempt to establish an independent Palestinian state and it was under official Egyptian protection, but it had no executive role. The government had political and symbolic implications. Its importance gradually declined, especially after the relocation of its seat of government from Gaza to Cairo following the Israeli invasion in late 1948, though the Gaza Strip remained under Egyptian control through the war the All-Palestine Government remained in exile in Cairo, managing Gazan affairs from outside. Egypt, however, both formally and informally renounced any and all claims to Palestinian territory. At the end of World War I, Great Britain occupied the Ottoman territory of Palestine, the boundaries of the occupied land were not well defined. Britain and France, the main Allied Powers with a long-term interest in the area, Britain sought to legitimize the occupation by obtaining the British Mandate of Palestine from the League of Nations. In the mandated territory, Britain set up two separate administrations - Palestine and Transjordan - with the objective that they would in the course of time become fully independent. There was opposition from the Arab population of Palestine to the set out in the mandate. Various attempts were made to reconcile the Arab community with the growing Jewish population without success, the United Nations proposed the Partition Plan of 1947 which proposed that the Gaza area would become part of a new Arab Palestinian state. The Arab states rejected the United Nations plan, which heralded the start of the 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine, some countries continued to dispute its independent status. Israel declared its independence on 14 May 1948, the day before the expiration of the Mandate, on 15 May 1948, the Egyptian army invaded the territory of the former British Mandate from the south, starting the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. An Egyptian Ministerial order dated 1 June 1948 declared that all laws in force during the Mandate would continue to be in force in the Gaza Strip. On 8 July 1948, the Arab League decided to set up a civil administration in Palestine. This plan was opposed by King Abdullah I of Transjordan and received only half-hearted support from the Arab Higher Committee

32.
Arab League
–
The Arab League, formally the League of Arab States, is a regional organization of Arab countries in and around North Africa, the Horn of Africa and Arabia. It was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945 with six members, Kingdom of Egypt, Kingdom of Iraq, Transjordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Yemen joined as a member on 5 May 1945. Currently, the League has 22 members, but Syrias participation has been suspended since November 2011, the League has served as a platform for the drafting and conclusion of many landmark documents promoting economic integration. One example is the Joint Arab Economic Action Charter, which outlines the principles for economic activities in the region, each member state has one vote in the League Council, and decisions are binding only for those states that have voted for them. Furthermore, the signing of an agreement on Joint Defence and Economic Cooperation on 13 April 1950 committed the signatories to coordination of military defence measures. In March 2015, the Arab League General Secretary announced the establishment of a Joint Arab Force with the aim of counteracting extremism, the decision was reached while Operation Decisive Storm was intensifying in Yemen. Participation in the project is voluntary, and the army intervenes only at the request of one of the member states. The growing militarization of the region and the increase in violent civil wars as well as terrorist movements are the reason behind the creation of the JAF, financed by the rich Gulf countries. In the early 1970s, the Economic Council of the League of Arab States put forward a proposal to create the Joint Arab Chambers of Commerce across the European states and that led, under the decree of the League of Arab States no. Following adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945 and it aimed to be a regional organisation of Arab states with a focus to developing the economy, resolving disputes and coordinating political aims. Other countries later joined the league, each country was given one vote in the council. It was followed by the creation of a defence treaty two years later. A common market was established in 1965, the Arab League member states cover over 13,000,000 km2 and straddles two continents, Africa and Asia. The area largely consists of deserts, such as the Sahara. The area comprises deep forests in southern Arabia and parts of the worlds longest river, the Charter of the Arab League, also known as the Pact of the League of Arab States, is the founding treaty of the Arab League. Adopted in 1945, it stipulates that the League of Arab States shall be composed of the, starting with only six members in 1945, the Arab League now occupies an area spanning around 14 million km² and counts 22 members, and 4 observer states. The 22 members today include three of the largest African countries and the largest country in the Middle East, there was a continual increase in membership during the second half of the 20th century, with an additional 15 Arab states being admitted. Syria was suspended following the 2011 uprising, as of 2016, there are a total of 22 member states

33.
Sinai Peninsula
–
The Sinai Peninsula or simply Sinai is a peninsula in Egypt, situated between the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Red Sea to the south, serving as a land bridge between Asia and Africa. It is the part of Egyptian territory located in Asia. Sinai has an area of about 60,000 km2. The bulk of the peninsula is divided administratively into two of Egypts 27 governorates, the Sinai Peninsula has been a part of Egypt from the First Dynasty of ancient Egypt. In periods of occupation, the Sinai was, like the rest of Egypt, also occupied and controlled by foreign empires, in more recent history the Ottoman Empire. Israel invaded and occupied Sinai during the Suez Crisis of 1956, on 6 October 1973, Egypt launched the Yom Kippur War to retake the peninsula, which was the site of fierce fighting between Egyptian and Israeli forces. Today, Sinai has become a tourist destination due to its setting, rich coral reefs. Mount Sinai is one of the most religiously significant places in Abrahamic faiths, in addition to its formal name, Egyptians also refer to it as Arḍ ul-Fairūz. The ancient Egyptians called it Ta Mefkat, or land of turquoise, Sinai is triangular in shape, with northern shore lying on the southern Mediterranean Sea, and southwest and southeast shores on Gulf of Suez and Gulf of Aqaba of the Red Sea. It is linked to the African continent by the Isthmus of Suez,125 kilometres wide strip of land, the eastern isthmus, linking it to the Asian mainland, is around 200 kilometres wide. The peninsulas eastern shore separates the Arabian plate from the African plate, the southernmost tip is the Ras Muhammad National Park. Most of the Sinai Peninsula is divided among the two governorates of Egypt, South Sinai and North Sinai, together, they comprise around 60,000 square kilometres and have a population of 597,000. Three more governates span the Suez Canal, crossing into African Egypt, Suez is on the end of the Suez Canal, Ismailia in the centre. The largest city of Sinai is Arish, capital of the North Sinai, other larger settlements include Sharm el-Sheikh and El-Tor, on the southern coast. Inland Sinai is arid, mountainous and sparsely populated, the largest settlements being Saint Catherine, Sinai is one of the coldest provinces in Egypt because of its high altitudes and mountainous topographies. Winter temperatures in some of Sinais cities and towns reach −16 °C, the mines were worked intermittently and on a seasonal basis for thousands of years. Modern attempts to exploit the deposits have been unprofitable and these may be the first historically attested mines. According to the Hebrew Bible, the peninsula was crossed by the Israelites during the Exodus from Egypt and this included numerous halts over a 40-year period of travel sometime towards the end of the Bronze Age

Sinai Peninsula
–
Dahab in Southern Sinai is a popular beach and diving resort in Sinai
Sinai Peninsula
–
Relief map of the Sinai Peninsula.
Sinai Peninsula
–
St. Catherine's Monastery is the oldest working Christian monastery in the world and the most popular tourist attraction on the peninsula.
Sinai Peninsula
–
Egypt-Israel border. Looking north from the Eilat Mountains

34.
Governance of the Gaza Strip
–
The governance of the Gaza Strip is carried out by the Hamas administration, led by Ismail Haniyeh, from 2007, until 2014 and again from 2016. The Hamas administration is referred to as the Hamas government in Gaza. After the takeover in Gaza by Hamas on 14 June 2007, Palestinian Authority Chairman Abbas dismissed the Hamas-led government, both administrations – the Fatah government in Ramallah and the Hamas government in Gaza– regard themselves as the sole legitimate government of the Palestinian National Authority. The international community and Palestine Liberation Organization, however, recognize the Ramallah administration as the legitimate government, since the division between the two parties, there have been conflicts between Hamas and similar factions operating in Gaza, and with Israel, most notably the Gaza War of 2008-2009. Despite the peace plan, Palestinian sources were quoted in January 2012 as saying that the May joint elections would not be possible, a unity government was sworn on 2 June 2014. Conflict between Fatah and Hamas began simmering when Hamas won the Palestinian legislative elections in January 2006, major conflict erupted in Gaza in December 2006, when the Hamas executive authority attempted to replace the Palestinian police as the primary authority in Gaza. On 8 February 2007 Saudi-sponsored negotiations in Mecca produced an agreement on a Palestinian national unity government, the agreement was signed by Mahmoud Abbas on behalf of Fatah and Khaled Mashal on behalf of Hamas. In March 2007, the Palestinian Legislative Council established a national unity government, with 83 representatives voting in favor, Government ministers were sworn in by Mahmoud Abbas, the president on the Palestinian National Authority, at ceremonies held in Gaza and Ramallah. In June that year, Hamas took control of the Gaza Strip from the unity government after forcing out Fatah. On 14 June 2007, Mahmoud Abbas announced the dissolution of the unity government. He dismissed Ismail Haniya as prime minister and appointed Salam Fayyad in his place, Palestinian police chief Kamal el-Sheikh ordered his men in the Gaza Strip not to work or obey Hamas orders. Many Fatah members fled the Gaza Strip to the West Bank, Palestinian legislator Saeb Erekat said the Palestinian National Authority officially has no control in the Gaza Strip. Hamas and Fatah accused each other of a coup détat, neither recognizes the authority of the other government, the United States, EU, and Israel have not recognized the Hamas government, but support Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas and Prime Minister Salam Fayyads government in the West Bank. Although the US does not officially recognize the Hamas government, it holds it fully and entirely responsible for the Gaza Strip, in 2009, a radical Salafist cleric declared an Islamic Emirate in Gaza, accusing Hamas of failing to implement full Sharia law. Reports in March 2010 suggested that Ahmed Jabari described the security situation in Gaza as deteriorating, nevertheless, the Hamas continued to execute its authority. In April 2011, Hamas conducted another crackdown, this one on a Salafist group reportedly involved in Vittorio Arrigonis murder, Hamas praised the Arab Spring, but its offices in Damascus were directly affected by the Syrian Civil War. The Hamas leader Khaled Mashal eventually relocated to Jordan, and Hamas began to distance itself from the Syrian government in the backdrop of the Syrian civil war, essentially, the Doha deal does not reflect any real reconciliation among the factions of the Hamas Government. On July 2012, reports circulated that the Hamas Government in Gaza Strip was considering declaring the independence of the Gaza Strip with the help of Egypt

35.
Hamas
–
Hamas is a Palestinian Sunni-Islamic fundamentalist organization. It has a service wing, Dawah, and a military wing, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades. Hamass military wing objected to the truce offer, analysts have said that it seems clear that Hamas knows that many of its conditions for the truce could never be met. The attacks on civilians have been condemned as war crimes and crimes against humanity by human rights such as Human Rights Watch. In the January 2006 Palestinian parliamentary elections, Hamas won a plurality in the Palestinian Parliament, Hamas rejected those changes, which led to the Quartet suspending its foreign assistance program and Israel imposing economic sanctions on the Hamas-led administration. In March 2007, a unity government headed by Prime Minister Ismail Haniyeh of Hamas was briefly formed. Israel and Egypt then imposed a blockade of the Gaza Strip. In 2011, Hamas and Fatah announced an agreement that provides for creation of a joint caretaker Palestinian government. Progress stalled, until an April 2014 agreement to form a unity government. It is not regarded as a terrorist organization by Iran, Russia, Norway, Switzerland, Turkey, China, an EU court found the EUs earlier designation flawed, but its decision has been appealed by the European Council. It is a point of debate in political and academic circles over whether or not to classify Hamas as a terrorist group, Hamas is an acronym of the Arabic phrase حركة المقاومة الاسلامية or Harakat al-Muqāwama al-Islāmiyya, meaning Islamic Resistance Movement. The Arabic word hamas means courage or zeal, the Hamas covenant interprets its name to mean strength and bravery. Hamas, as its name implies, aims to liberate Palestine from the Israeli occupation by resisting it, Hamas inherited from its predecessor a tripartite structure that consisted in the provision of social services, of religious training and military operations under a Shura Council. Traditionally it had four distinct functions, a social welfare division, a military division for procuring weapons and undertaking operations, a security service. The exact nature of the organization is unclear, secrecy being maintained for fear of Israeli assassinations, formally, Hamas maintains the wings are separate and independent. Matthew Levitt maintains this is a public myth, davis argues that they are both separate and combined for reasons of internal and external political necessity. Communication between the political and military wings of Hamas is difficult, owing to the thoroughness of Israeli intelligence surveillance, after the assassination of Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi the occasional political direction of the militant wing diminished, with field commanders given discretional autonomy on operations. The governing body is the Majlis al-Shura, the principle behind the Council is based on the Quranic concept of consultation and popular assembly, which Hamas leaders argue provides for democracy within an Islamic framework

Hamas
–
Current leader, Khaled Meshaal
Hamas
Hamas
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August 2001 Sbarro pizza restaurant bombing in Jerusalem, in which 15 Israeli civilians were killed. Hamas said the attack was in response to Israel's assassination of its officials, including two senior leaders.
Hamas
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Hamas rally in Bethlehem

36.
Israeli disengagement from Gaza
–
Four settlements in the northern West Bank were also evacuated. The disengagement was proposed in 2003 by Prime Minister Ariel Sharon, adopted by the Government in June 2004, approved by the Knesset in February 2005 and enacted in August 2005. The eviction of all residents, demolition of the residential buildings, the eviction and dismantlement of the four settlements in the northern West Bank was completed ten days later. A total of 8,000 Jewish settlers from all 21 settlements in the Gaza Strip were relocated, the average settler received compensation of over U. S $200,000. Post-disengagement, Israel continued to control over the external perimeter of Gaza, including seaports, air space. In his book Sharon, The Life of a Leader, Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharons son Gilad wrote that he gave his father the idea of the disengagement. Sharon suggested his disengagement plan for the first time on December 18,2003 at the Fourth Herzliya Conference. ″ It was at time that he began to use the word occupation. Effectively, this package called the Palestinian state, with all that it entails, has been removed indefinitely from our agenda. And all this with authority and permission, all with a presidential blessing and the ratification of both houses of Congress. You know, the peace process is a bundle of concepts and commitments. The peace process is the establishment of a Palestinian state with all the security risks that entails, the peace process is the evacuation of settlements, its the return of refugees, its the partition of Jerusalem. And all that has now been frozen, what I effectively agreed to with the Americans was that part of the settlements would not be dealt with at all, and the rest will not be dealt with until the Palestinians turn into Finns. That is the significance of what we did, Sharon formally announced the plan in his April 14,2004 letter to U. S. President George W. Bush, stating that there exists no Palestinian partner with whom to advance peacefully toward a settlement. On June 6,2004, Sharons government approved an amended disengagement plan, on February 16,2005, the Knesset finalized and approved the plan. Failing to gain support from senior ministers, Sharon agreed that the Likud party would hold a referendum on the plan in advance of a vote by the Israeli Cabinet. Commentators and the described the rejection of the plan as a blow to Sharon. Sharon himself announced that he accepted the Likud referendum results and would take time to consider his steps and he ordered Minister of Defense Shaul Mofaz to create an amended plan which Likud voters could accept. On June 6,2004, Sharons government approved an amended disengagement plan, following the approval of the plan, it was decided to close the Erez industrial zone and move its factories to cities and towns in Israel such as Ashkelon, Dimona, Yeruham, and Sderot

Israeli disengagement from Gaza
–
Israeli-Palestinian coordination effort, 2005
Israeli disengagement from Gaza
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Residents protest against the evacuation of the Israeli community Kfar Darom. The sign reads: " Kfar Darom will not fall twice!". August 18, 2005
Israeli disengagement from Gaza
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A group of residents refuses to evacuate the Israeli settlement Bedolach. August 17, 2005
Israeli disengagement from Gaza
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Residents of Elei Sinai camping in Yad Mordechai, just over the border from their former homes.

37.
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
–
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation is an international organization founded in 1969, consisting of 57 member states, with a collective population of over 1.6 billion as of 2008. The OIC has permanent delegations to the United Nations and the European Union, the official languages of the OIC are Arabic, English, and French. Since the 19th century, some Muslims had aspired to ummah to serve their political, economic. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the Caliphate after World War I left a vacuum for a pan-Islamic institution, the al-Aqsa fire is regarded as one of the catalysts for the formation of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference in 1972. Leaders of Muslim nations met in Rabat to establish the OIC on 25 September 1969, the emblem of the OIC contains three main elements that reflect its vision and mission as incorporated in its new Charter. These elements are, the Kaaba, the Globe, and the Crescent, in June 2008, the OIC conducted a formal revision of its charter. The revised charter set out to promote human rights, fundamental freedoms, the revisions also removed any mention of the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam. Within the revised charter, the OIC has chosen to support the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, according to the UNHCR, OIC countries hosted 18 million refugees by the end of 2010. Since then OIC members have absorbed refugees from conflicts, including the uprising in Syria. In May 2012, the OIC addressed these concerns at the Refugees in the Muslim World conference in Ashgabat, on 28 June 2011 during the 38th Council of Foreign Ministers meeting in Astana, Kazakhstan the organisation changed its name from Organisation of the Islamic Conference to its current name. The OIC also changed its logo at this time, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation has 57 members,56 of which are also member states of the United Nations. Some, especially in West Africa, are – though with large Muslim populations – not necessarily Muslim majority countries. A few countries with significant Muslim populations, such as Russia and Thailand, sit as Observer States, while others, the collective population of OIC member states is over 1.6 billion as of 2008. The Parliamentary Union of the OIC Member States was established in Iran in 1999, only OIC members are entitled to membership in the union. On 27 June 2007, then-United States President George W. Bush announced that the United States would establish an envoy to the OIC. Bush said of the envoy, Our special envoy will listen to and learn from representatives from Muslim states, as of June 2015, Arsalan Suleman is acting special envoy. He was appointed on 13 February 2015, the OIC, on 28 March 2008, joined the criticism of the film Fitna by Dutch lawmaker Geert Wilders, which features disturbing images of violent acts juxtaposed with alleged verses from the Quran. In March 2015, the OIC announced its support for the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen against the Shia Houthis, the OIC supports a two-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict

38.
International Olympic Committee
–
The International Olympic Committee is the supreme authority of the worldwide Olympic movement. It is an international, non-profit, non-governmental organization based in Lausanne and its mission is enshrined in the Olympic Charter, to support the development of competitive sport by ethical and environmentally sustainable means. The IOC was created by Pierre de Coubertin, on 23 June 1894 with Demetrios Vikelas as its first president, today its membership consists of 100 active members,32 honorary members, and 1 honour member. The IOC is the authority of the worldwide modern Olympic movement. The IOC organises the modern Olympic Games and Youth Olympic Games, held in summer and winter, the first Summer Olympics organised by the IOC was held in Athens, Greece, in 1896, the first Winter Olympics was in Chamonix, France, in 1924. Until 1992, both Summer and Winter Olympics were held in the same year, the first Summer Youth Olympics were in Singapore in 2010 and the first Winter Youth Olympics were held in Innsbruck in 2012. In 2009, the UN General Assembly granted the IOC Permanent Observer status and this decision enables the IOC to be directly involved in the UN Agenda and to attend UN General Assembly meetings where it can take the floor. This has provided the possibility to promote sport at a new level, during each proclamation at the Olympics, announcers speak in different languages, French is always spoken first followed by an English translation and the dominant language of the host nation. The stated mission of the International Olympic Committee is to promote Olympic throughout the world and it is the IOC’s supreme organ and its decisions are final. Extraordinary Sessions may be convened by the President or upon the written request of at least one third of the members, among others, the powers of the Session are, To adopt or amend the Olympic Charter. To elect the members of the IOC, the Honorary President, to elect the President, the Vice-Presidents and all other members of the IOC Executive Board. To elect the host city of the Olympic Games, the Olympic Laurel is awarded to individuals for promoting education, culture, development, and peace through sport. For most of its existence, the IOC was controlled by members who were selected by other members, countries that had hosted the Games were allowed two members. When named, they did not become the representatives of their countries to the IOC. The membership of IOC members ceases in the circumstances, Resignation. Non re-election, any IOC member ceases to be a member without further formality if they are not re-elected, age limit, any IOC member ceases to be a member at the end of the calendar year during which they reach the age of 80. Failure to attend Sessions or take part in IOC work for two consecutive years. Transfer of domicile or of main center of interests to an other than the country which was theirs at the time of their election

39.
Palestine (region)
–
Palestine is a geographic region in Western Asia between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. It is sometimes considered to include adjoining territories, the name was used by Ancient Greek writers, and was later used for the Roman province Syria Palaestina, the Byzantine Palaestina Prima, and the Islamic provincial district of Jund Filastin. The region comprises most of the claimed for the biblical regions known as the Land of Israel. Historically, it has known as the southern portion of wider regional designations such as Canaan, Syria, ash-Sham. The boundaries of the region have changed throughout history, today, the region comprises the State of Israel and the Palestinian territories in which the State of Palestine was declared. Modern archaeology has identified 12 ancient inscriptions from Egyptian and Assyrian records recording likely cognates of Hebrew Pelesheth, the term Peleset is found in five inscriptions referring to a neighboring people or land starting from c.1150 BCE during the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt. Neither the Egyptian nor the Assyrian sources provided clear regional boundaries for the term, approximately a century later, Aristotle used a similar definition for the region in Meteorology, in which he included the Dead Sea. The term is accepted to be a translation of the Biblical name Peleshet. The term is used in the Septuagint, who used a transliteration Land of Phylistieim different from the contemporary Greek place name Palaistínē. Following the Muslim conquest, place names that were in use by the Byzantine administration generally continued to be used in Arabic, Modern archaeologists and historians of the region refer to their field of study as Levantine archaeology. The region was among the earliest in the world to see human habitation, agricultural communities, during the Bronze Age, independent Canaanite city-states were established, and were influenced by the surrounding civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, and Syria. Between 1550–1400 BCE, the Canaanite cities became vassals to the Egyptian New Kingdom who held power until the 1178 BCE Battle of Djahy during the wider Bronze Age collapse. The region became part of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from c.740 BCE, in 539 BCE, the Babylonian empire was replaced by the Achaemenid Empire. In the 330s BCE, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great conquered the region and it ultimately fell to the Seleucid Empire between 219–200 BCE. In 116 BCE, a Seleucid civil war resulted in the independence of certain regions including the Hasmonean principality in the Judaean Mountains, from 110 BCE, the Hasmoneans extended their authority over much of Palestine, creating a Judaean–Samaritan–Idumaean–Ituraean–Galilean alliance. The Judaean control over the region resulted in it also becoming known as Judaea. Between 73–63 BCE, the Roman Republic extended its influence into the region in the Third Mithridatic War, conquering Judea in 63 BCE, and splitting the former Hasmonean Kingdom into five districts. The three-year Ministry of Jesus, culminating in his crucifixion, is estimated to have occurred from 28–30 CE, in 70 CE, Titus sacked Jerusalem, resulting in the dispersal of the citys Jews and Christians to Yavne and Pella

Palestine (region)
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A 1759 map entitled The Holy Land, or Palestine, showing not only the Ancient Kingdoms of Judah and Israel in which the 12 Tribes have been distinguished, but also their placement in different periods as indicated in the Holy Scriptures by Tobias Conrad Lotter, Geographer. Augsburg, Germany
Palestine (region)
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Depiction of Biblical Palestine in c. 1020 BCE according to George Adam Smith 's 1915 Atlas of the Historical Geography of the Holy Land. Smith's book was used as a reference by Lloyd George during the negotiations for the British Mandate for Palestine.
Palestine (region)
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Herod's Temple in Jerusalem functioned as the spiritual center of the various sects of Second Temple Judaism until it was destroyed in 70 CE. This picture shows the temple as imagined in 1966 in the Holyland Model of Jerusalem.
Palestine (region)
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The Dome of the Rock, the world's first great work of Islamic architecture, constructed in 691.

40.
Mediterranean Sea
–
The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water. The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning inland or in the middle of land and it covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2, but its connection to the Atlantic is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar. In oceanography, it is called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has a depth of 1,500 m. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia and it is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, the seas average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km. The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, has an area of approximately 2,510,000 square km. The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade, the history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri, the term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning amid the earth or between land, as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios, is similarly from μέσο, between + γη, land, earth) and it can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia, meaning between rivers. The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names, for example, the Carthaginians called it the Syrian Sea and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum, and occasionally Mare Internum. Another name was the Sea of the Philistines, from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites, the sea is also called the Great Sea in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, in Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon, the Middle Sea, reflecting the Seas name in ancient Greek, Latin, and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr al-Mutawassiṭ, in Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, the White Sea since among Turks the white colour represents the west. Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food for numerous communities throughout the ages, due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history. Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states, later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum

Mediterranean Sea
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Circa the 6th century BCE: In ancient times the Mediterranean provided sources of food and local commerce and direct routes for trade and communications, colonisation, and war. Numerous cities and colonies were situated at its shores or within the basin: Greek (red) and Phoenician (yellow) colonies in antiquity; and other cities (grey), including the provincial "Rom".
Mediterranean Sea
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Map of the Mediterranean Sea
Mediterranean Sea
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With its highly indented coastline and large number of islands, Greece has the longest Mediterranean coastline.
Mediterranean Sea
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The Battle of Lepanto, 1571, ended in victory for the European Holy League against the Ottoman Turks.

41.
Syria
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Syrias capital and largest city is Damascus. Religious groups include Sunnis, Christians, Alawites, Druze, Mandeans, Shiites, Salafis, Sunni Arabs make up the largest religious group in Syria. Its capital Damascus and largest city Aleppo are among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, in the Islamic era, Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt. The post-independence period was tumultuous, and a number of military coups. In 1958, Syria entered a union with Egypt called the United Arab Republic. Syria was under Emergency Law from 1963 to 2011, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens, Bashar al-Assad has been president since 2000 and was preceded by his father Hafez al-Assad, who was in office from 1970 to 2000. Mainstream modern academic opinion strongly favours the argument that the Greek word is related to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, Assyria, in the past, others believed that it was derived from Siryon, the name that the Sidonians gave to Mount Hermon. However, the discovery of the inscription in 2000 seems to support the theory that the term Syria derives from Assyria. The area designated by the word has changed over time, since approximately 10,000 BC, Syria was one of centers of Neolithic culture where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the first time in the world. The following Neolithic period is represented by houses of Mureybet culture. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gyps, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations. Cities of Hamoukar and Emar played an important role during the late Neolithic, archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth, perhaps preceded by only those of Mesopotamia. The earliest recorded indigenous civilisation in the region was the Kingdom of Ebla near present-day Idlib, gifts from Pharaohs, found during excavations, confirm Eblas contact with Egypt. One of the earliest written texts from Syria is an agreement between Vizier Ibrium of Ebla and an ambiguous kingdom called Abarsal c.2300 BC. The Northwest Semitic language of the Amorites is the earliest attested of the Canaanite languages, Mari reemerged during this period, and saw renewed prosperity until conquered by Hammurabi of Babylon. Ugarit also arose during this time, circa 1800 BC, close to modern Latakia, Ugaritic was a Semitic language loosely related to the Canaanite languages, and developed the Ugaritic alphabet. The Ugarites kingdom survived until its destruction at the hands of the marauding Indo-European Sea Peoples in the 12th century BC, Yamhad was described in the tablets of Mari as the mightiest state in the near east and as having more vassals than Hammurabi of Babylon. Yamhad imposed its authority over Alalakh, Qatna, the Hurrians states, the army of Yamhad campaigned as far away as Dēr on the border of Elam

42.
Ancient Greece
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Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th-9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and this was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a influence on ancient Rome. For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization. Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is considered to have begun in the 8th century BC. Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages and this period is succeeded, around the 8th century BC, by the Orientalizing Period during which a strong influence of Syro-Hittite, Jewish, Assyrian, Phoenician and Egyptian cultures becomes apparent. The end of the Dark Ages is also dated to 776 BC. The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC, Ancient Periods Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may be subdivided into five major periods. The earliest of these is the Archaic period, in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff, the Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens and the start of Athenian Democracy in 508 BC. It was followed by the Classical period, characterized by a style which was considered by observers to be exemplary, i. e. classical, as shown in the Parthenon. This period saw the Greco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon, following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period, during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest, Herodotus is widely known as the father of history, his Histories are eponymous of the entire field. Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato, most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities. Their scope is limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic. In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization, literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. The Lelantine War is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period and it was fought between the important poleis of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, a mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC

Ancient Greece
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The Parthenon, a temple dedicated to Athena, located on the Acropolis in Athens, is one of the most representative symbols of the culture and sophistication of the ancient Greeks.
Ancient Greece
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Dipylon Vase of the late Geometric period, or the beginning of the Archaic period, c. 750 BC.
Ancient Greece
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Political geography of ancient Greece in the Archaic and Classical periods

43.
Phoenicians
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The enterprising, sea-based Phoenician civilization spread across the Mediterranean between 1500 BC and 300 BC. Their civilization was organized in city-states, similar to those of Ancient Greece, perhaps the most notable of which were Tyre, Sidon, Arvad, Berytus and Carthage. Each city-state was an independent unit, and it is uncertain to what extent the Phoenicians viewed themselves as a single nationality. In terms of archaeology, language, lifestyle, and religion there was little to set the Phoenicians apart as markedly different from other Semitic Canaanites. The Phoenicians were the first state-level society to make use of alphabets. By their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to Anatolia, North Africa, and Europe, where it was adopted by the Greeks, the name Phoenicians, like Latin Poenī, comes from Greek Φοίνικες. The word φοῖνιξ phoînix meant variably Phoenician person, Tyrian purple, the word may be derived from φοινός phoinós blood red, itself possibly related to φόνος phónos murder. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the ethnonym, the oldest attested form of the word in Greek may be the Mycenaean po-ni-ki-jo, po-ni-ki, possibly borrowed from Ancient Egyptian fnḫw Asiatics, Semites, although this derivation is disputed. The folk-etymological association of Φοινίκη with φοῖνιξ mirrors that in Akkadian which tied kinaḫni, the land was natively known as knʿn and its people as the knʿny. In the Amarna tablets of the 14th century BC, people from the region called themselves Kenaani or Kinaani, the ethnonym survived in North Africa until the 4th century AD. Herodotus account refers to the myths of Io and Europa, according to the Persians best informed in history, the Phoenicians began the quarrel. The Greek historian Strabo believed that the Phoenicians originated from Bahrain, Herodotus also believed that the homeland of the Phoenicians was Bahrain. The people of Tyre in South Lebanon in particular have long maintained Persian Gulf origins, however, there is little evidence of occupation at all in Bahrain during the time when such migration had supposedly taken place. Canaanite culture apparently developed in situ from the earlier Ghassulian chalcolithic culture, Byblos is attested as an archaeological site from the Early Bronze Age. The Late Bronze Age state of Ugarit is considered quintessentially Canaanite archaeologically, fernand Braudel remarked in The Perspective of the World that Phoenicia was an early example of a world-economy surrounded by empires. The high point of Phoenician culture and sea power is usually placed c, archaeological evidence consistent with this understanding has been difficult to identify. A unique concentration in Phoenicia of silver hoards dated between 1200 and 800 BC, however, contains hacksilver with lead isotope ratios matching ores in Sardinia and Spain. This metallic evidence agrees with the memory of a western Mediterranean Tarshish that supplied Solomon with silver via Phoenicia

Phoenicians
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Sarcophagus of Eshmunazor II, Phoenician King of Sidon found near Sidon, in southern Lebanon
Phoenicians
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Map of Phoenicia and its Mediterranean trade routes
Phoenicians
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Assyrian warship (probably built by Phoenicians) with two rows of oars, relief from Nineveh, c. 700 BC
Phoenicians
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A naval action during the siege of Tyre (350 BC). Drawing by André Castaigne, 1888–1889.

44.
Histories (Herodotus)
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The Histories of Herodotus is now considered the founding work of history in Western literature. Although not an impartial record, it remains one of the Wests most important sources regarding these affairs. Moreover, it established the genre and study of history in the Western world, Herodotus portrays the conflict as one between the forces of slavery on the one hand, and freedom on the other. The Histories was at some point divided into the nine books that appear in modern editions, Herodotus claims to have traveled extensively around the ancient world, nearly all these territories were directly under the Persian Empire, conducting interviews and collecting stories for his book. At the beginning of The Histories, Herodotus sets out his reasons for writing it, The rapes of Io, Europa, and Medea, the subsequent Trojan War is marked as a precursor to later conflicts between peoples of Asia and Europe. Colchis, Colchians and Medea. mit. edu full text of all books George Campbell Macaulay,1904, full text,1, full text, vol.2 Project Gutenberg Alfred Denis Godley,1921, full text, librivox audiobook, vol. 1-3 The Histories unabridged online audiobook, Herodotus Histories, the 28 logoi Sheridan, Paul. Books 5-8 by A. D. Godley translation with footnotes, The Histories

45.
History of the State of Palestine
–
The history of the State of Palestine describes the creation and evolution of the State of Palestine in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. During the Mandatory period, numerous plans of partition of Palestine were proposed, in 1947, the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was voted. This triggered the 1948 Palestine war, which established a Jewish state, since then there have been proposals to establish a Palestinian state. In 1969, for example, the PLO proposed the establishment of a state over the whole of the former British Mandate territory. This proposal was rejected by Israel, as it would have amounted to the disbanding of the state of Israel, in the Middle East, Syria came under French control, while Mesopotamia and Palestine were allotted to the British. However, the case of Palestine remained problematic, Arab nationalism was on the rise after World War II, possibly following the example of European nationalism. Pan-Arabist beliefs called for the creation of a single, secular state for all Arabs, in 1917 the British Government issued the Balfour Declaration which declared British support for the creation in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people. At the same times, many Arab leaders maintained that Palestine should join a larger Arab state covering the region of the Levant. These hopes were expressed in the Faisal–Weizmann Agreement, which was signed by soon-to-be Iraqi ruler Faisal I, the movement gained steam through the 1920s and 1930s as Jewish immigration picked up. Under pressure from the arising nationalist movement, the British enforced the White Papers, a series of laws greatly restricting Jewish immigration and the sale of lands to Jews. The laws, passed in 1922,1930, and 1939, varied in severity, on 24 October 1915, McMahon sent to Hussein a note which the Arabs came to regard as their Declaration of Independence. With the above modification, and without prejudice of our existing treaties with Arab chiefs, the exemptions from Arab control of certain areas set out in the McMahon note were to seriously complicate the problems of peace in the Near East. At the time, the Arab portions of the Ottoman Empire were divided into units called vilayets. Palestine was divided into the sanjuks of Acre and Nablus, both of which were a part of the vilayet of Beirut, and an independent sanjak of Jerusalem. The areas exempted from Arab control by the McMahon note included Syria lying to the west of the districts of Damascus, Homs, Hama, between 1916–20, the British government interpreted these commitments as including Palestine in the Arab area. However, in the Churchill White Paper they argued instead that Damascus meant the vilayet and not the city of Damascus, the British entered into the secret Sykes–Picot Agreement on 16 May 1916 and the commitment of the Balfour Declaration of 1917, for example, on that understanding. The Arabs, however, insisted at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference at the end of the war that Damascus meant the city of Damascus – which left Palestine in their hands. However, in 1915, these problems of interpretation did not occur to Hussein, despite Arab objections based in part on the Arab interpretation of the McMahon correspondence noted above, Britain was given the League of Nations Mandate for Palestine

History of the State of Palestine
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Administrative units in the Levant under the Ottoman Empire, until c. 1918

46.
History of Palestine
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Other terms for the same area include Canaan, Zion, the Land of Israel, Southern Syria, Jund Filastin, Outremer, and the Holy Land. The region was among the earliest in the world to see human habitation, agricultural communities, during Late Bronze Age 1550–1400 BCE, the Canaanite cities became vassals to the Egyptian New Kingdom who held power until the 1178 BCE Battle of Djahy during the wider Bronze Age collapse. The region became part of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from c.740 BCE, in 116 BCE, a Seleucid civil war resulted in the independence of certain regions including the minor Hasmonean principality in the Judean Mountains. From 110 BCE, the Hasmoneans extended their authority over much of the area, the Judean control over the wider region resulted in it also becoming known as Judaea, a term that had previously only referred to the smaller region of the Judean Mountains. During 73–63 BCE, the Roman Republic extended its influence into the region in the Third Mithridatic War, conquering Judea in 63 BCE, in 70 CE, Titus sacked Jerusalem, resulting in the dispersal of the citys Jews and Christians to Yavne and Pella. As a result, many Jewish landowners converted to the Ebionim to maintain their properties, during 259–272, the region fell under the rule of Odaenathus as King of the Palmyrene Empire. Persecution of Ebionites led to their dispersion to Arabia and the Parthian Empire, Palestine became a center of Christianity, attracting numerous monks and religious scholars. Also the Samaritan Revolts during this period caused their near extinction, in 661 CE, with the assassination of Ali, Muawiyah I became the uncontested Caliph of the Islamic World after being crowned in Jerusalem. In 691, the Dome of the Rock became the worlds first great work of Islamic architecture, the Umayyad were replaced by the Abbasids in 750. From 878 Palestine was ruled from Egypt by semi-autonomous rulers for almost a century, beginning with Ahmad ibn Tulun, over these centuries many heretical Christians had converted to Islam. The Fatimids conquered the region in 969, in 1073 Palestine was captured by the Great Seljuq Empire, only to be recaptured by the Fatimids in 1098, who then lost the region to the Crusaders in 1099. Their control of Jerusalem and most of Palestine lasted almost a century until defeat by Saladins forces in 1187, after which most of Palestine was controlled by the Ayyubids. A rump Crusader state in the coastal cities survived for another century, but, despite seven further Crusades. The Mamluk Sultanate was indirectly created in Egypt as a result of the Seventh Crusade, in 1486, hostilities broke out between the Mamluks and the Ottoman Turks and the Ottomans captured Palestine in 1516. In 1832, the region was conquered by Muhammad Alis Egypt, the turbulent period of Egyptian rule experienced two major revolts and a significant demographic change in coastal areas, populated by Egyptian Arab peasants and former soldiers of Ali. The end of the 19th century saw the beginning of Zionist immigration, increasing Jewish immigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries added considerably to the Jewish communities in Jerusalem, Safed, Tiberias and Jaffa. During World War I the British government issued the Balfour Declaration of 1917, the British captured Jerusalem a month later. The League of Nations formally awarded Britain a mandate over Palestine in 1922, the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine was a nationalist uprising by Palestinian Arabs against British colonial rule and mass Jewish immigration

History of Palestine
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A dwelling unearthed at Tell es-Sultan, Jericho
History of Palestine
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The Seleucid Empire in c. 200 BCE
History of Palestine
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Extent of the Roman Empire under Augustus, 30 BCE – 6 CE
History of Palestine
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The Byzantine Empire in 476

47.
State of Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,940 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam

48.
Arab Higher Committee
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The Arab Higher Committee or the Higher National Committee was the central political organ of the Arab Palestinians in Mandatory Palestine. The Committee was outlawed by the British Mandatory administration in September 1937 after the assassination of a British official, a committee of the same name was reconstituted by the Arab League in 1945, but went to abeyance after it proved ineffective during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. It was sidestepped by Egypt and the Arab League with the formation of the All-Palestine Government in 1948, the first Arab Higher Committee was formed on 25 April 1936, and National Committees were formed in all of the towns and some of the larger villages, during that month. Initially, the Committee included representatives of the rival Nashashibi and al-Husayni clans, the Committee was formed after the 19 April call for a general strike of Arab workers and businesses, which marked the start of the 1936-39 Arab revolt. On 15 May 1936, the Committee endorsed the strike, calling for an end to Jewish immigration. Raghib al-Nashashibi, of the Nashashibi clan and member of the National Defence Party soon withdrew from the Committee, in November 1936, and with the prospects of war in Europe increasing, the British government set up the Peel Royal Commission to investigate the causes of the disturbances. The strike had been called off in October 1936 and the violence abated for about a year while the Peel Commission deliberated. The Commission was impressed by the fact that the Arab national movement, sustained by the Committee, was a far more efficient, all the political parties presented a common front and their leaders sit together on the Arab Higher Committee. Christian as well as Muslim Arabs were represented on it, with no opposition parties, the Commission reported in July 1937 and recommended the partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab states. The Arabs emphatically rejected the principle of awarding any territory to the Jews, the Conference rejected both the partition and establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine. After the rejection of the Peel proposals, the revolt resumed, members of the Nashashibi family began to be targeted, as well as the Jewish community and British administrators. Raghib Nashashibi was forced to flee to Egypt after several attempts on him. On 26 September 1937, the Acting British District Commissioner of Galilee, the next day Britain outlawed the Arab Higher Committee, and began to arrest its members. On 1 October 1937, the National Bloc, the Reform Party, yaqub al-Ghusayn, Al-Khalidi and Ahmed Hilmi Pasha were arrested and then deported. Jamal al-Husayni escaped to Syria, as did Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni, Amin al-Husayni managed to escape arrest, but was removed from the presidency of the Supreme Muslim Council. The Committee was banned by the Mandate administration and three members were deported to the Seychelles and the moved into voluntary exile in neighbouring countries. Awni Abd al-Hadi, who was out of the country at the time, was not allowed to return, the National Defence Party, which had withdrawn from the AHC soon after its formation, was not outlawed, and Raghib al-Nashashibi was not pursued by the British. When the Committee was outlawed in September 1937, six of its members were deported, its president Amin al-Husayni managed to escape arrest, three other members were deported to the Seychelles, and other members moved into voluntary exile in neighbouring countries

49.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם‎, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian

50.
Camp David Accords
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The Camp David Accords were signed by Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin on 17 September 1978, following twelve days of secret negotiations at Camp David. The two framework agreements were signed at the White House, and were witnessed by United States President Jimmy Carter, the second of these frameworks led directly to the 1979 Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty. Due to the agreement, Sadat and Begin received the shared 1978 Nobel Peace Prize, the first framework, which dealt with the Palestinian territories, was written without participation of the Palestinians and was condemned by the United Nations. The Camp David Accords were the result of 14 months of efforts by Egypt, Israel. The efforts initially focused on a resolution of disputes between Israel and the Arab countries, gradually evolving into a search for a bilateral agreement between Israel and Egypt. Upon assuming office on January 20,1977, President Carter moved to rejuvenate the Middle East peace process that had stalled throughout the 1976 presidential campaign in the United States, the Yom Kippur War further complicated efforts to achieve the objectives written in United Nations Security Council Resolution 242. Israels Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and his successor, Menachem Begin, were skeptical of an international conference. Even earlier, Begin had not been opposed to returning the Sinai, Carter visited the heads of state on whom he would have to rely to make any peace agreement feasible. By the end of his first year in office, he had met with Anwar El Sadat of Egypt, King Hussein of Jordan, Hafez al-Assad of Syria. Hafez al-Assad, who had no particular interest in negotiating peace with Israel, also refused to come to the United States, the Prime Minister had not yet arrived at his office and the caller spoke to Mr. Yechiel Kadishai, a Begin staff head. Kadishai said that no one was speaking with anyone and we expect a war in October and he also told the caller that if any high level talks were to occur the caller could be assured that they would be using his approach. Begin arrived, was informed of the plan, and contacted Sadat who agreed to the plan on that day, on the next day, Secretary of State Cyrus Vance traveled to the Middle East to obtain firsthand confirmation of the agreement between Israel and Egypt. The following day, Tuesday,8 August, the Camp David meeting was scheduled to take place in exactly 4 weeks time, the plan was that Israel agreed on 6 August to return the land to Egypt. Sadat’s then waning popularity would be enhanced as a result of such an achievement. Israels security was insured by the activities to take place during the transition period. Those activities also were included in the idea for peace communicated to Begins office on 6 August. President Anwar El Sadat came to feel that the Geneva track peace process was more show than substance and he also lacked confidence in the Western powers to pressure Israel after a meeting with the Western leaders. On 9 November 1977, President Sadat startled the world by announcing to parliament his intention to go to Jerusalem, shortly afterward, the Israeli government cordially invited him to address the Knesset in a message passed to Sadat via the US ambassador to Egypt

51.
Israeli settlement
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Such settlements within Palestinian territories currently exist in Area C of the West Bank and in East Jerusalem, and within Syrian territory in the Golan Heights. Israel dismantled 18 settlements in the Sinai Peninsula in 1982, while in 2005 all 21 settlements in the Gaza Strip were dismantled, but only four in the West Bank. In the West Bank, however, Israel continues to expand its remaining settlements as well as settling new areas, the International Court of Justice also says these purportedly annexed settlements are illegal in a 2004 advisory opinion. Similar criticism was advanced by the EU and the US, Israel disputes the position of the international community and the legal arguments that were used to declare the settlements illegal. Most of the spending goes to the security of the Israeli citizens living there, on 30 June 2014, according to the Yesha Council,382,031 Israeli citizens lived in the 121 officially recognised Israeli settlements in the West Bank, almost exclusively Jewish citizens of Israel. In January 2015 the Israeli Interior Ministry gave figures of 389,250 Israeli citizens living in the West Bank, settlements range in character from farming communities and frontier villages to urban suburbs and neighborhoods. The four largest settlements, Modiin Illit, Maale Adumim, Beitar Illit, Ariel has 18,000 residents, while the rest have around 37,000 to 55,500 each. The 1967 Six-Day War left Israel in control of the entire West Bank of the Jordan River, the entire Sinai Peninsula up to the Suez Canal, and the Gaza strip. Most of the Golan Heights, since 1981, administered under the Golan Heights Law, as early as 1967, Israeli settlement policy was started by the Labor government of Levi Eshkol. The basis for Israeli settlement in the West Bank became the Allon Plan and it implied Israeli annexation of major parts of the Israeli-occupied territories, especially East Jerusalem, Gush Etzion and the Jordan Valley. The settlement policy of the government of Yitzhak Rabin, was derived from the Allon Plan. The first settlement was Kfar Etzion, in the southern West Bank, many settlements began as Nahal settlements. They were established as military outposts and later expanded and populated with civilian inhabitants, Ariel Sharon declared in the same year that there was a plan to settle 2 million Jews in the West Bank by 2000. Since 1967, government-funded settlement projects in the West Bank are implemented by the Settlement Division of the World Zionist Organization, though formally a non-governmental organization, it is funded by the Israeli government and leases lands from the Civil Administration to settle in the West Bank. It is authorized to create settlements in the West Bank on lands licensed to it by the Civil Administration, traditionally, the Settlement Division has been under the responsibility of the Agriculture Ministry. Since the Olso Accords, it was housed within the Prime Ministers Office. In 2007, it was moved back to the Agriculture Ministry, in 2009, the Netanyahu Government decided to subject all settlement activities to additional approval of the Prime Minister and the Defense Minister. In 2011, Netanyahu sought to move the Settlement Division again under the control of PMO

52.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 242
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United Nations Security Council Resolution 242 was adopted unanimously by the UN Security Council on November 22,1967, in the aftermath of the Six-Day War. It was adopted under Chapter VI of the UN Charter, the resolution was sponsored by British ambassador Lord Caradon and was one of five drafts under consideration. Egypt, Jordan, Israel and Lebanon entered into consultations with the UN Special representative over the implementation of 242, after denouncing it in 1967, Syria conditionally accepted the resolution in March 1972. Syria formally accepted UN Security Council Resolution 338, the cease-fire at the end of the Yom Kippur War, I am also authorized to reaffirm that we are willing to seek agreement with each Arab State on all matters included in that resolution. In September 1993, the PLO agreed that Resolutions 242 and 338 should be the basis for negotiations with Israel when it signed the Declaration of Principles. Resolution 242 is one of the most widely affirmed resolutions on the Arab–Israeli conflict and these led to Peace Treaties between Israel and Egypt and Jordan, as well as the 1993 and 1995 agreements with the Palestinians. Upon presenting the draft resolution to the Security Council, the U. K. representative Lord Caradon said, none of us wishes a temporary truce or a superficial accommodation. We could never advocate a return to uneasy hostility, as to the second operative paragraph, there is I believe no vestige of disagreement between us all that there must be a guarantee of freedom of navigation through international waterways. There must be a just settlement of the refugee problem, there must be a guarantee and adequate means to ensure the territorial inviolability and political independence of every State in the area. In the French version, which is authentic, it says withdrawal de territory. We also wanted to leave open demilitarization measures in the Sinai, but we never contemplated any significant grant of territory to Israel as a result of the June 1967 war. On that point we and the Israelis to this day remain sharply divided and this situation could lead to real trouble in the future. Our best answer is that we stand by that pledge, the tough question is whether wed force Israel back to 4 June borders if the Arabs accepted terms that amounted to an honest peace settlement. Secretary Rusk told the Yugoslav Foreign Minister, The US had no problem with frontiers as they existed before the outbreak of hostilities, if we are talking about national frontiers--in a state of peace--then we will work toward restoring them. But we all know that could lead to a tangle with the Israelis, Rusk met with Foreign Minister Nikezic on August 30,1967. We have no preconceptions on frontiers as such, what we believe to be important is that the frontiers be secure. For this the single most vital condition is that they be acceptable to both sides and it is a source of regret to us that the Arabs appear to misunderstand our proposal and misread our motives. Furthermore, Secretary Rusks Telegram dated March 2,1968 to the U. S, interests Section of the Spanish Embassy in Cairo summarizing Undersecretary of State for Political Affairs Eugene Rostow’s conversation with Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin states, Rostow said

53.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 338
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The resolution stipulated a cease fire to take effect within 12 hours of the adoption of the resolution. The appropriate auspices was interpreted to mean American or Soviet rather than UN auspices and this third clause helped to establish the framework for the Geneva Conference held in December 1973. The resolution was passed at the 1747th UNSC meeting by 14 votes to none, with one member, the fighting continued despite the terms called for by the resolution, brought Resolution 339 which resulted in a cease fire. The alleged importance of resolution 338 in the Arab–Israeli conflict supposedly stems from the word decides in clause 3 which is held to make resolution 242 binding. The argument continues, Article 25 of the United Nations Charter says that UN members agree to accept, scholars applying this doctrine on the resolution assert that the use of the word decide makes it a decision of the Council, thus invoking the binding nature of article 25. The more obvious need for the use of Resolution 338 is that it requires all parties to fire and states when that should occur. Some scholars have advanced the position that the resolution was passed as a non-binding Chapter VI recommendation, other commentators assert that it probably was passed as a binding Chapter VII resolution. The resolution contains reference to neither Chapter VI nor Chapter VII, Egypt and Israel accepted on October 22 Resolution conditions. Syria, Iraq, and, Jordan rejected the Resolution, an October 22 United Nations-brokered ceasefire quickly unraveled, with each side blaming the other for the breach. According to some sources, Egypt broke the cease-fire first, The cease fire soon violated because Egypts Third Army Corps tried to free of the Israeli Armys encirclement. It provided the basis for ending the war, calling for a cease-fire to be in place within twelve hours, implementation of Resolution 242 in all its parts. This marked the first occasion the Soviets had endorsed direct negotiations between the Arabs and Israel without conditions or qualifications, Meir, who was not consulted, was offended by this fait accompli, though she had little option but to comply. Nevertheless, Meir was determined to gain the maximum advantage before the final curtain came down on the conflict. Given the entanglement of the Egyptian and Israeli armies, the temptation was too great for the Israelis to resist, after a final push in the Sinai expelled the Egyptians, Meir gave the order to cross the Canal. Israels refusal to stop fighting after a United Nations cease-fire was in place on October 22 nearly involved the Soviet Union in the military confrontation. org

United Nations Security Council Resolution 338
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Territorial changes during the Yom Kippur War

54.
Fatah
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Fataḥ, formerly the Palestinian National Liberation Movement is a Palestinian nationalist political party and the largest faction of the confederated multi-party Palestine Liberation Organization. Fatah is generally considered to have had an involvement in revolutionary struggle in the past and has maintained a number of militant groups. Fatah had been identified with the leadership of its founder Yasser Arafat. Since Arafats departure, factionalism within the ideologically diverse movement has become more apparent, in the 2006 parliamentary election, the party lost its majority in the Palestinian parliament to Hamas. However, the Hamas legislative victory led to a conflict between Fatah and Hamas, with Fatah retaining control of the Palestinian National Authority in the West Bank, the full name of the movement is حركة التحرير الوطني الفلسطيني ḥarakat al-taḥrīr al-waṭanī al-Filasṭīnī, meaning the Palestinian National Liberation Movement. From this was crafted the reverse acronym Fatḥ meaning opening, conquering, the word fatḥ or fatah is used in religious discourse to signify the Islamic expansion in the first centuries of Islamic history –as in Fatḥ al-Sham, the conquering of the Levant. Fatah also has significance in that it is the name of the 48th sura of the Quran which, according to major Muslim commentators. (During the peaceful two years after the Hudaybiyyah treaty, many converted to Islam, increasing the strength of the Muslim side and it was the breach of this treaty by the Quraysh that triggered the conquest of Mecca. This Islamic precedent was cited by Yasser Arafat as justification for his signing the Oslo Accords with Israel. The founders included Yasser Arafat, then head of the General Union of Palestinian Students at Cairo University, Salah Khalaf, Khalil al-Wazir, Fatah became the dominant force in Palestinian politics after the Six-Day War in 1967. Fatah joined the Palestine Liberation Organization in 1967 and it was immediately allocated 33 of 105 seats in the PLO Executive Committee. Founder Yasser Arafat became Chairman of the PLO in 1969, after the position was ceded to him by Yahya Hammuda. According to the BBC, Mr Arafat took over as chairman of the committee of the PLO in 1969. The towns name is the Arabic word for dignity, which elevated its symbolism to the Arab people, the operation was in response to attacks against Israel, including rockets strikes from Fatah and other Palestinian militias into the occupied West Bank. Knowledge of the operation was well ahead of time. On the night of 21 March, the IDF attacked Karameh with heavy weaponry, armored vehicles, Fatah held its ground, surprising the Israeli military. As Israels forces intensified their campaign, the Jordanian Army became involved, by the end of the battle, nearly 150 Fatah militants had been killed, as well as twenty Jordanian soldiers and twenty-eight Israeli soldiers. Despite the higher Arab death toll, Fatah considered themselves victorious because of the Israeli armys rapid withdrawal, after their victory in the Battle of Karameh, Fatah and other Palestinian militias began taking control of civil life in Jordan

Fatah
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Yasser Arafat was the main founder of Fatah and led the movement until his death in 2004.
Fatah
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Fatah فتح

55.
Palestinian Authority
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Following elections in 2006 and the subsequent Gaza conflict between the Fatah and Hamas parties, its authority had extended only in areas A and B of the West Bank. Since January 2013, the Fatah-controlled Palestinian Authority uses the name State of Palestine on official documents, the Palestinian Authority was formed in 1994, pursuant to the Oslo Accords between the Palestine Liberation Organization and the government of Israel, as a five-year interim body. Further negotiations were then meant to place between the two parties regarding its final status. The remainder of the territories, including Israeli settlements, the Jordan Valley region, East Jerusalem was excluded from the Accords. In the Palestinian legislative elections on 25 January 2006, Hamas emerged victorious, however, the national unity Palestinian government effectively collapsed, when a violent conflict between Hamas and Fatah erupted, mainly in the Gaza Strip. The move wasnt recognized by Hamas, thus resulting in two separate administrations – the Fatah-led Palestinian Authority in the West Bank and a rival Hamas government in the Gaza Strip. The reconciliation process to unite the Palestinian governments achieved some progress over the years, the PA received financial assistance from the European Union and the United States. All direct aid was suspended on 7 April 2006, as a result of the Hamas victory in parliamentary elections, shortly thereafter, aid payments resumed, but were channeled directly to the offices of Mahmoud Abbas in the West Bank. In November 2012, the United Nations voted to recognize Palestine as a non-member UN observer state, the Palestinian Authority was created by the Gaza–Jericho Agreement, pursuant to the 1993 Oslo Accords. The administrative responsibilities accorded to the PA were limited to civil matters and internal security, Palestinians in the diaspora and inside Israel were not eligible to vote in elections for the offices of the Palestinian Authority. General elections were held for its first legislative body, the Palestinian Legislative Council, the expiration of the bodys term was 4 May 1999, but elections were not held because of the prevailing coercive situation. Bush stated that the establishment of a Palestinian state by the end of 2005 was unlikely due to instability and we will give the Palestinian Authority technical help by sending equipment, training people. We will give the Palestinian Authority helicopters and also communication equipment, the Palestinian Authority became responsible for civil administration in some rural areas, as well as security in the major cities of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. This increased the percentage of land in the Gaza Strip nominally governed by the PA from 60 percent to 100 percent, Palestinian legislative elections took place on 25 January 2006. Hamas was victorious and Ismail Haniyeh was nominated as Prime Minister on 16 February 2006, Hamas rejected these demands, which resulted in the Quartet suspension of its foreign assistance program and Israel imposed economic sanctions. In an attempt to resolve the financial and diplomatic impasse, the Hamas-led government together with Fatah Chairman Mahmoud Abbas agreed to form a unity government, as a result, Haniyeh resigned on 15 February 2007 as part of the agreement. The unity government was formed on 18 March 2007 under Prime Minister Ismail Haniyeh and consisted of members from Hamas, Fatah and other parties. The situation in the Gaza strip however quickly deteriorated into a feud between the Hamas and Fatah, which eventually resulted in the Brothers War

56.
Palestinian government of 2014
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The Palestinian Unity Government of June 2014 was a national unity government from 2 June 2014 to 17 June 2015 under Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas. The Palestinian National Authority government was formed after an agreement between the Fatah and Hamas parties, the ministers were nominally independent, but overwhelmingly seen as loyal to President Mahmoud Abbas and his Fatah movement or to smaller leftist factions. None was believed to have ties to Hamas. In fact, this government was illegal, as it was not approved by the Legislative Council, before the agreement, there were two separate governments, one ruled by Fatah in the West Bank and the other by Hamas in the Gaza Strip. Although this unity government formally was a government representing both Fatah and Hamas, the two parties remained hostile to other as numerous reconciliation attempts have failed so far. The international community agreed to work with the new government, while the US reaction was reserved, the Israeli Government condemned the unity government. On 17 June 2015, the government resigned under protest of Hamas, in July and December 2015, Abbas unilaterally reshuffled the cabinet and appointed new ministers, which was denounced by Hamas. In October 2016, Hamas reshuffled its Vice-Ministers of the unity government, with no consent of the Ramallah administration, since 2007, Gaza has de facto been ruled by Hamas alone. It would be led by President Mahmoud Abbas, after the implementation of the agreement had been stalled, allegedly because Hamas leaders had refused to allow the registration of new voters in Gaza, a new agreement was signed in May 2012. Eventually, a unity government did not materialize and President Abbas established a new Palestinian Authority Government in the West Bank on 6 June 2013, headed by Rami Hamdallah. On 23 April 2014, Fatah and Hamas concluded the 2014 Fatah–Hamas Gaza Agreement to form a unity government within five weeks. An Israeli official declared that the Israeli decision to scrap the release of prisoners came after Palestinian UN envoy Riyad Mansour had announced to join the 15 UN conventions, the Government was inaugurated on 2 June 2014 following the agreement between Fatah and Hamas. The new government was composed of technocratic members, the ministers were nominally independent, but overwhelmingly seen as loyal to President Mahmoud Abbas and his Fatah movement or to smaller leftist factions. None was believed to be affiliated with Hamas, in March 2016, senior Hamas official Mahmoud Al-Zahar said that Hamas had agreed with a government without Hamas as a coexistence between different programmes rather than a mix of interests. He said the task was to improve electricity and rebuild the Gaza Strip. Improve the situation of the Palestinians in Gaza and prepare for elections was the condition for not being part of any government. Like the former emergency governments after June 2007, which were installed by presidential decree, without the cooperation of all parties, however, it was not possible to get the necessary quorum to put a vote. The agreement that led to the formation of the government also calls for reforming the PLO

Palestinian government of 2014
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Riyad Al-Maliki the foreign minister swear in front of the Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas, at Al-Muqata'a H.Q. in Ramallah.(By/Mustafa Bader)

57.
Palestinian government
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The Palestinian government is the government of the State of Palestine. The ruling power was split into two separate administrations, the first was the Fatah-dominated Palestinian government of 2013, which rules the West Bank areas A and B and is generally referred to as the Palestinian Authority. The other was the Hamas government of 2012, which was ruling the Gaza Strip, on September 25,2014, Hamas agreed to let the Palestinian Authority resume control over the Gaza Strip and its border crossings with Egypt and Israel. The following organizations have claimed or executed authority over the people in the past, Arab Higher Committee and it was established on 25 April 1936 and sidestepped by the All-Palestine Government in 1948. First Committee 1936-1937 Second Committee 1945-1948 All-Palestine Government, a Palestinian entity set-up by the Arab League in Egyptian occupied Gaza Strip on September 22,1948 and it was dissolved by Egypt in 1959. Palestine Liberation Organization, the representative of the Palestinian people before the international community from 1964 until it was transformed into Palestinian Authority in 1993. A Palestinian unity government of 2014 was sworn in the aftermath of Hamas-Fatah Gaza accord on reconciliation

58.
Politics of the Palestinian National Authority
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The president of the State of Palestine is the highest-ranking political position in the Palestinian National Authority. The president is elected by popular elections, the prime minister is appointed by the president and thus not directly elected by the Palestinian Legislative Council or Palestinian voters. Unlike the prime ministers office in other nations, the Palestinian prime minister does not serve as a member of the legislature while in office. Instead, the appointment is made independently by the ruling party, the prime minister is expected to represent the majority party or ruling coalition in the parliament. The Palestinian Legislative Council is the legislature of the Palestinian Authority and it is not to be confused with the Palestine National Council, which remains the national legislature of the Palestinian people as a whole. Parliamentary elections took place on 25 January 2006, initial exit polling indicated that Fatah won the most seats, though without a majority, but the results were different. After the signing of the Oslo Accords, the West bank, area A refers to the area under PA security and civilian control. Area B refers to the area under Palestinian civilian and Israeli security control, area C refers to the area under full Israeli control such as settlements. It was admitted as a member of the Asia group on 2 April 1986. After the 1988 Palestinian Declaration of Independence, the PLOs representation was renamed Palestine, on 7 July 1998, this status was extended to allow participation in General Assembly debates, though not in voting. On Thursday,29 November 2012, In a 138-9 vote UN General Assembly resolution 67/19 passed, the new status equates Palestines with that of the Holy See. The change in status was described by The Independent as de facto recognition of the state of Palestine. The vote was a benchmark for the sovereign State of Palestine and its citizens, it was a diplomatic setback for Israel. It shall permit Palestine to claim rights over its territorial waters. The UN has permitted Palestine to title its representative office to the UN as The Permanent Observer Mission of the State of Palestine to the United Nations, the Palestinian Basic Law - A collection of various proposals and amendments to the Basic Law of Palestine

59.
Palestinian Legislative Council
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The Palestinian Legislative Council was the parliament of the Palestinian inhabitants of the Palestinian territories. It was a body with 132 members, elected from 16 electoral districts of the Palestinian National Authority in the West Bank. The PLC was inaugurated for the first time on 7 March 1996, the PLC had limited power and responsibilities, restricted to civil matters and internal security in Area A of the West Bank and in Gaza. With the possible reconciliation of Hamas and Fatah, it would be re-assembled to become the Parliament of the State of Palestine, the Palestinian Legislative Council passed a law in June 2005, increasing the number of members from 88 to 132. It stipulated that half be elected under a system of proportional representation, the last parliamentary elections took place on 25 January 2006. The next election was intended to take place sometime in 2014 but has been delayed because of disagreements between Hamas and Fatah, the emblem used for the Palestinian Legislative Council is referred to as the Eagle of Saladin. Every single detail regarding the elections was led down in Annex II, Oslo II determines that only residents of the Occupied Palestinian Territories may vote or be elected. The power and responsibilities of the PLC are limited to civil matters and internal security and public order, the PLC is excluded from the negotiations process with Israel. The PLC was inaugurated for the first time on 7 March 1996, the Council was predestined to replace the Arafat/Fatah-controlled Palestinian Authority, which was established as a temporary organ, pending the inauguration of the Council. The PA, however, never transferred its power, while the PLC is elected by the Palestinians residing in the Palestinian territories, it is not the parliament of the State of Palestine. Accordingly, the Palestinian Authority is not the government of the State of Palestine, on the contrary, PLO is recognized by the United Nations as the Government of the State of Palestine. The PLO has its own parliament, the Palestinian National Council, accordingly, the Executive Committee, formally elected by the PNC, is the official government of the State of Palestine on behalf of the PLO. Pursuant to the PAs 1995 Elections Law No,13, the 132 PLC members would automatically become members of the PNC. This was revoked, however, by the 2005 Elections Law No,9, which does not mention the PNC at all. 2, issued in a decree from President Abbas, re-instated the determination, as this PA legislation was neither enacted by the PLO or the PNC, their legal validity are questioned in a PLO document. While both PLC and PNC are virtually defunct, the functions of both parliaments are performed by the PLOs Central Council and they had to obtain a permit from the Israeli authorities for every single travel, valid for very short periods and sometimes refused. In 2001, the European Parliament noticed in a resolution that The Palestinian Legislative Council is more often than not hindered from attending the sessions Isolation from the outer world, Israel prevents official contacts with the outer world. Even the visit of members of the European Parliament to Gaza were denied, Israeli interference with the composition of the PLC

Palestinian Legislative Council
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PLC building, Ramallah
Palestinian Legislative Council
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Palestinian Legislative Council المجلس التشريعي الفلسطيني Al-Majlis al-Tashrī'iyy al-Filasṭīniyy
Palestinian Legislative Council
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The destroyed Palestinian Legislative Council building in Gaza City in September 2009.

60.
Palestinian Central Council
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The Palestinian Central Council, also known as PLO Central Council, is one of the institutions of the Palestine Liberation Organization. The PCC makes policy decisions when the Palestinian National Council is not in session, the PCC is acting as a link between the PNC and the PLO Executive Committee. The PCC is elected by the PNC after nomination by the PLO Executive, the membership has risen from 42,55,72,107,95 to 124. As of April 1996, the PCC consisted of 124 members from the PLO Executive Committee, PNC, PLC, on 5 January 2013, it was announced that the PLO had delegated the duties of the Palestinian Authority’s government and parliament to the Central Council

61.
Palestinian National Covenant
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The Palestinian National Covenant or Palestinian National Charter is the covenant or charter of the Palestine Liberation Organization. The Covenant is a paper, written in the early days of the PLO. The first version was adopted on 28 May 1964, in 1968 it was replaced by a comprehensively revised version. In April 1996, a number of articles, which were inconsistent with the Oslo Accords, were wholly or partially nullified. The first official English translation rendered al-Mithaq as covenant, while later versions have tended to use charter, the Charter is concerned mainly with the aims of the Palestine Liberation Organization, while the Fundamental Law is more concerned with the structure and procedures of the organization. The Charter was extensively amended, with seven new articles, in 1968 in the wake of the Six Day War and given its current name. Compared to its predecessor, it focused more on the independent national identity and vanguard role of the Palestinian people, led by the PLO, Article 7 of the earlier document was changed from Jews of Palestinian origin are considered Palestinians. To being restricted only to those who had resided in Palestine until the beginning of the Zionist invasion. The final article providing that it can only be amended by a vote of a majority of the Palestinian National Council at a special session convened for that purpose was left unchanged. Israel dismissed these statements of moderation from Arafat and the PNC resolution in Algiers,1988 as deceptive propaganda exercises because, in August 1993, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin insisted on changes to the Charter as part of the Oslo Accords. The decision was adopted by a vote of,504 in favor,54 against, the official English translation used by Israel, the PLO and the United States reads, A. The Palestinian National Charter is hereby amended by canceling the articles that are contrary to the letters exchanged between the P. L. O. and the Government of Israel 9–10 September 1993. Assigns its legal committee with the task of redrafting the Palestinian National Charter in order to present it to the first session of the Palestinian Central Council, an earlier version of the above translation is still available on the website of Palestinian American Council. Second, The PNC authorizes the Legal Committee to draft a new charter to be presented at the first meeting to be held by the Central Council and this earlier version had appeared on the Palestine Minister of Informations website. Many commentators noted that the text only indicated a decision to amend the charter, official Palestinian websites have since replaced the vague translation with the concrete version quoted above. Yasser Arafat wrote letters to President Clinton and Prime Minister Blair in January 1998 explicitly listing the articles of the Charter referred to in the PNCs 1996 vote. The operative language of Arafats letter to Clinton reads, The Palestine National Councils resolution, all of the provisions of the Covenant which are inconsistent with the P. L. O. commitment to recognize and live in peace side by side with Israel are no longer in effect. Observers who had previously been skeptical of Palestinian claims that the Charter had been amended continued to voice doubts, for they were the ideological underpinnings of a struggle renounced at Oslo

62.
Jenin
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Jenin is a Palestinian city in the northern West Bank. It serves as the center of the Jenin Governorate and is a major center for the surrounding towns. In 2007 the city had a population of 39,004, Jenin is under the administration of the Palestinian Authority. Jenin was known in ancient times as the village of Ein-Jenin or Tel Jenin, tell Jenin, is located at the center of what is today Jenins business district. The word ayn means water spring in Arabic and Hebrew, and the word Jenin might be related to the Hebrew word גַּן‎, the Arabicized name Jenin ultimately derives from this ancient name. The association of Jenin with the city of Ein-Ganim was recognized by Ishtori Haparchi. Jenin has been identified as the place Gina mentioned in the Amarna letters from the 14th century BCE, four terracotta lamps of Phoenician origin dated to the 8th century BCE were discovered in Ain Jenin by archaeologist G. I. Harding, and are interpreted as attesting to some form of contact, during the Roman era, Jenin was called Ginae, and was settled exclusively by Samaritans. The people of Galilee were disposed to pass through their city during the pilgrimages to Jerusalem. Dimashki, writing around year 1300, said that after the rise of Turk power, Jenin was listed as one of the places belonging to the Kingdom centred at Safad. Yaqut described Jenin as a small and beautiful town, lying between Nabulus and Baisan, in the Jordan Province, there is much water, and many springs are found here, and often have I visited it. During Ottoman rule in Palestine, Jenin, Lajjun and the Carmel area, were for part of the 17th century ruled by the Bedouin Turabay family, in the mid-18th century, Jenin was designated the administrative capital of the combined districts of Lajjun and Ajlun. There are indications that the area comprising Jenin and Nablus remained functionally autonomous under Ottoman rule, in the late 19th century, some members of the Jarrar family, who formed part of the mallakin in Jenin, cooperated with merchants in Haifa to set up an export enterprise there. During the Ottoman era, Jenin was plagued by warfare between members of the same clan. The French explorer Guérin visited in 1870, in 1882, the Palestine Exploration Funds Survey of Western Palestine described Jenin as The capital of the district, the seat of a Caimacam, a town of about 3,000 inhabitants, with a small bazaar. The houses are built of stone. There are two families of Roman Catholics, the remainder are Moslems, a spring rises east of the town and is conducted to a large masonry reservoir, near the west side, of good squared stonework, with a long stone trough. This reservoir was built by And el Hady, Mudir of Acre, in the first half of the century, north of the town is the mosque of Ezz ed Din, with a good- sized dome

Jenin
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General view of Jenin, 2007
Jenin
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Painting of Jenin by David Roberts, 1839
Jenin
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Street scene in Jenin, 1917. An Ottoman Army soldier (center left) with a local resident (center right)
Jenin
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Buildings in Jenin dynamited by British forces, 1938

63.
Tulkarm Governorate
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The Tulkarm governorate is an administrative district and one of 16 Governorates of Palestine located in the northwestern West Bank. The governorates land area is 268 square kilometers, according to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, the governorate had a population of 172,800 inhabitants. The muhfaza or district capital is the city of Tulkarm, the Tulkarm Governorate has 51 localities and two refugee camps. The towns and cities mentioned below have populations of over 1,000, anabta Attil Bala Baqa ash-Sharqiyya Beit Lid Deir al-Ghusun Qaffin Tulkarm Palestinian National Authority Palestinian territories

64.
Nablus Governorate
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The Nablus Governorate is an administrative district of the Palestine located in the Central Highlands of the West Bank,53 km north of Jerusalem. It covers the area around the city of Nablus which serves as the muhfaza of the governorate, the governor of the district is Mahmoud Aloul. Nablus The following localities have populations over 4,000 and municipal councils of 11-15 members, aqraba Asira ash-Shamaliya Beita Huwara Jammain Qabalan Sebastia Beit Furik The following localities have populations above 1,000 and village councils of 3 to 9 members. Askar Balata Ein Beit al-Ma Governorates of Palestine Administrative divisions in the Palestinian Territories Nablus Governorate Website

65.
Nablus
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Nablus is a city in the northern West Bank, approximately 49 kilometers north of Jerusalem, with a population of 126,132. The city was named by the Roman Emperor Vespasian in 72 CE as Flavia Neapolis, since then, Nablus has been ruled by many empires over the course of its almost 2, 000-year-long history. In 636, Neapolis, along with most of Palestine, came under the rule of the Islamic Arab Caliphate of Umar ibn al-Khattab, its name Arabicized to Nablus. In 1099, the Crusaders took control of the city for less than a century, leaving its mixed Muslim, after Saladins Ayyubid forces took control of the interior of Palestine in 1187, Islamic rule was reestablished, and continued under the Mamluk and Ottoman empires to follow. Following its incorporation into the Ottoman Empire in 1517, Nablus was designated capital of the Jabal Nablus district, when Ottoman rule was firmly reestablished in 1841, Nablus prospered as a center of trade. After the city was captured by British forces during World War I, during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the city was captured and occupied by Transjordan, which subsequently annexed it unilaterally, until its occupation by Israel during the 1967 Six-Day War. Today, the population is predominantly Muslim, with small Christian and Samaritan minorities, since 1995, the city has been governed by the Palestinian National Authority. In the Old City, there are a number of sites of archaeological significance, culturally, the city is known for its kanafeh, a popular sweet throughout the Middle East, and its soap industry. Flavia Neapolis was named in 72 CE by the Roman emperor Vespasian and applied to an older Samaritan village, variously called Mabartha or Mamorpha. Located between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim, the new city lay 2 kilometers west of the Biblical city of Shechem which was destroyed by the Romans that same year during the First Jewish-Roman War, holy places at the site of the citys founding include Josephs Tomb and Jacobs Well. Due to the citys strategic position and the abundance of water from nearby springs, Neapolis prospered, accumulating extensive territory. Insofar as the topography of the site would allow, the city was built on a Roman grid plan and settled with veterans who fought in the victorious legions. In the 2nd century CE, Emperor Hadrian built a theater in Neapolis that could seat up to 7,000 people. Coins found in Nablus dating to this period depict Roman military emblems and gods and goddesses of the Greek pantheon such as Zeus, Artemis, Serapis, Neapolis was entirely pagan at this time. Justin Martyr who was born in the city c.100 CE, came into contact with Platonism, the city flourished until the civil war between Septimius Severus and Pescennius Niger in 198–9 CE. Having sided with Niger, who was defeated, the city was stripped of its legal privileges by Severus. In 244 CE, Philip the Arab transformed Flavius Neapolis into a Roman colony named Julia Neapolis and it retained this status until the rule of Trebonianus Gallus in 251 CE. The Encyclopaedia Judaica speculates that Christianity was dominant in the 2nd or 3rd century and it is known for certain that a bishop from Nablus participated in the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE

Nablus
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Nablus, 2014
Nablus
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Municipal Seal of Nablus
Nablus
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Ruins from antiquity in a residential area in Nablus, 2008
Nablus
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Minaret and entrance of 10th century Great Mosque of Nablus, 1908

66.
Qalqilya
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Qalqilya, is a Palestinian city in the West Bank. Qalqilya serves as the center of the Qalqilya Governorate. In the official 2007 census the city had a population of 41,739, Qalqilya is surrounded by the Israeli West Bank barrier with a narrow gap in the east controlled by the Israeli military and a tunnel to Hableh. The vicinity of Qalqilya has been populated since prehistoric times, as attested to by the discovery of flint tools. In 1596, Qalqilya appeared in Ottoman tax registers as a village in the nahiya of Bani Sab in the Liwa of Nablus and it had a population of 13 Muslim households and paid taxes on wheat, barley, summercrops, olives, and goats or beehives. In 1882, Qalqilya was described as A large somewhat straggling village, with cisterns to the north, according to the Qalqilya Municipality, the modern city was founded in 1893 by residents of nearby Baqat al-Hatab. A municipal council to administer Qalqilya was established in 1909, in the 1922 census of Palestine conducted by the British Mandate authorities, Qalqilya had a population of 2,803, increasing in the 1931 census to 3,867, in a total of 796 houses. In 1945 the population of Qalqilya was 5,850, all Arabs, of this,3701 dunams were for citrus and bananas,3,232 were plantations and irrigable land,16,197 used for cereals, while 273 dunams were built-up land. In the wake of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, and after the 1949 Armistice Agreements, during the war, many inhabitants from nearby and currently depopulated villages, including Kafr Saba, Abu Kishk, Miska, Biyar Adas and Shaykh Muwannis fled to Qalqilya as refugees. On the night of 10 October 1956 the Israeli army launched a raid against Qalqilya police station, the attack was ordered by Moshe Dayan and involved several thousand soldiers. During the fighting a paratroop company was surrounded by Jordanian troops, eighteen Israelis and between 70 and 90 Jordanians were killed in the operation. Qalqilya was occupied by Israeli forces during the Six-Day War in 1967, after the conquest of Qalqilya in 1967, dozens of its inhabitants were evicted by Israel to Jordan, and at least 850 buildings were razed. In his memoirs, Moshe Dayan described the destruction as a punishment that was designed to chase the inhabitants away, the villagers were eventually allowed to return and the reconstruction of damaged houses was financed by the military authorities. In September 1967, a census found 8,922 persons, as part of the 1993 Oslo Accords between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization, control of Qalqilya was transferred to the Palestinian National Authority on 17 December 1995. In 2003, the Israeli West Bank barrier was built, encircling the town, in November 2015, Israel arrested what it alleged to be a network of 24 Hamas militants active in the city. Qalqilya is located in the northwestern West Bank, straddling the border with Israel, Qalqilya has an average elevation of 57 meters above sea level. The average annual rainfall 587.4 millimeters and the annual temperature is 19 degrees Celsius. The 1997 census by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics recorded Qalqilyas population to be 22,168, the majority of the inhabitants were Palestinian refugees or their descendants

67.
Salfit
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Salfit, also spelled Salfeet, is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank. Salfit is located at an altitude of 570 meters adjacent to the Israeli settlement of Ariel, according to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, Salfit had a population of 8,796 in 2007. According to the Salfit Chamber of Commerce, the word Salfit is a Canaanite word which means basket of grapes, palmer in 1881 suggested the name was possible from levelled sown field. Pottery sherds from the Iron Age I, Iron Age II, Persian, Hellenistic, according to Ronnie Ellenblum, Salfit was re-established during early Muslim rule and continued to exist through the Crusader period. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Salfit was inhabited by Muslims, pottery sherds from the Crusader, Ayyubid and Mamluk eras have been found. Salfit was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517 with all of Palestine, in 1596 the village appeared in Ottoman tax registers under the name of Salfit al-Basal as being in the Nahiya of Jabal Qubal, part of the Liwa of Nablus. It had a population of 118 households and 2 bachelors, all Muslim and its residents paid taxes on wheat, barley, summer crops, olives, goats and/or beehives. In 1882 the Palestine Exploration Funds Survey of Western Palestine, Salfit was described as a village, on high ground, with olive groves round it. It is apparently an ancient site with rock-cut tombs and it further noted that there were two springs to the west of the village. By 1916, towards the end of Ottoman rule in Palestine, at the time there were tensions between the residents of the village and the merchants of the administrative center of Nablus. The boys school had about 100 pupils while the school had 10 pupils. One of the reasons for the disparity was the locust attack on Salfits crop earlier the year which had destroyed the villages harvest. Because of the consequent poverty and state of demise, parents kept their daughters at home to care for the family. In 1945 the population was 1,830, all Muslims, while the land area was 23,117 dunams, according to an official land. Of this,10,853 were allocated for plantations and irrigable land,3,545 for cereals, in 1948 Salfit was the center of the Palestine Communist Party. Throughout the 1950s it became a stronghold for the communist movement. By 1989 Salfit was still a communist stronghold, consequently, according to historian Glenn E. Other agricultural products such as potatoes, eggplants, peppers, cauliflower, unlike in previous years, Salfit had supplied Nablus with vegetables while that city was under Israeli curfew

68.
Jericho Governorate
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The Jericho Governorate is one of 16 Governorates of Palestine. It is located along the areas of the West Bank, along the northern Dead Sea. The governorate spans west to the mountains east of Ramallah and the slopes of Jerusalem. The population of the Jericho Governorate is estimated to be 31,501, agriculture is important to the economy in the district, especially in the valley near Jericho, its capital. Jericho is often considered the oldest continuous settlement in the world, its many historic, elishias Park is an oasis in the Jericho District that is home to orchards, palm groves, banana plantations, and other flora. Jericho al-Auja al-Jiftlik Fasayil an-Nuwayimah Ein ad-Duyuk at-Tahta Ein ad-Duyuk al-Foqa az-Zubaidat Aqabat Jaber Ein as-Sultan

69.
Jericho
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Jericho is a city in the Palestinian Territories and is located near the Jordan River in the West Bank. It is the seat of the Jericho Governorate, and is governed by the Fatah faction of the Palestinian National Authority. In 2007, it had a population of 18,346, the city was occupied by Jordan from 1949 to 1967, and has been held under Israeli occupation since 1967, administrative control was handed over to the Palestinian Authority in 1994. It is believed to be one of the oldest inhabited cities in the world and it was thought to have the oldest stone tower in the world as well, but excavations at Tell Qaramel in Syria have discovered stone towers that are even older. Copious springs in and around the city have attracted human habitation for thousands of years, Jericho is described in the Hebrew Bible as the City of Palm Trees. Jerichos Arabic name, ʼArīḥā, means fragrant and also has its roots in Canaanite Reaẖ, the first excavations of the site were made by Charles Warren in 1868. Ernst Sellin and Carl Watzinger excavated Tell es-Sultan and Tulul Abu el-Alayiq between 1907–1909 and in 1911, and John Garstang excavated between 1930 and 1936, extensive investigations using more modern techniques were made by Kathleen Kenyon between 1952 and 1958. Lorenzo Nigro and Nicolo Marchetti conducted excavations in 1997-2000, the earliest settlement was located at the present-day Tell es-Sultan, a couple of kilometers from the current city. In both Arabic and Hebrew, tell means mound - consecutive layers of habitation built up a mound over time, as is common for ancient settlements in the Middle East, Jericho is the type site for the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B periods. Jericho has evidence of settlement dating back to 10,000 BCE, during the Younger Dryas period of cold and drought, permanent habitation of any one location was impossible. However, the Ein es-Sultan spring at what would become Jericho was a camping ground for Natufian hunter-gatherer groups. Pre-Pottery Neolithic A The first permanent settlement on the site of Jericho developed near the Ein es-Sultan spring between 9,500 and 9000 BCE, as the world warmed up, a new culture based on agriculture and sedentary dwelling emerged, which archaeologists have termed Pre-Pottery Neolithic A. At Jericho, circular dwellings were built of clay and straw bricks left to dry in the sun, each house measured about 5 metres across, and was roofed with mud-smeared brush. Hearths were located within and outside the homes, by about 9400 BCE, the town had grown to more than 70 modest dwellings. The Pre-Pottery Neolithic A phase at Tell es-Sultan is sometimes called Sultanian and this tower and the even older ones excavated at Tell Qaramel in Syria are the oldest ever to be discovered. The wall may have served as a defence against flood-water, with the used for ceremonial purposes. The wall and tower were built during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A period around 8000 BCE, for the tower, carbon dates published in 1981 and 1983 indicate that it was built around 8300 BCE and stayed in use until ca.7800 BCE. The wall and tower would have taken a hundred men more than a hundred days to construct, the town contained round mud-brick houses, yet no street planning

Jericho
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The city of Jericho from the ruins of the old walls
Jericho
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An aerial view of Jericho, showing the ruins of Tell es-Sultan
Jericho
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Dwelling foundations unearthed at Tell es-Sultan in Jericho
Jericho
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Yarmukian pottery with fishbone decoration

70.
Positions on Jerusalem
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There is significant disagreement in the international community on the legal and diplomatic status of Jerusalem. Legal scholars disagree on how to resolve the dispute under international law, many United Nations member states formally adhere to the United Nations proposal that Jerusalem should have an international status. The chief dispute revolves around the status of East Jerusalem. As a result, foreign embassies are located in Tel Aviv. Jerusalem is one of the key issues in the Israeli–Palestinian peace process, both Israelis and the Palestinians want it as their capital. The European Union has stated that Jerusalems status is that of corpus separatum, from 1517 until the First World War, Jerusalem was part of the Ottoman Empire. Since the 1860s, Jews have formed the largest religious group in the city and since around 1887, in the 19th century, European powers vied for influence in the city, usually on the basis of extending protection over Christian churches and Holy Places. A number of countries also established consulates in Jerusalem. In 1917 and following the First World War, Great Britain was in control of Jerusalem, however, the Arab and Jewish communities in Palestine were in mortal dispute and Britain sought United Nations assistance in resolving the dispute. Jewish representatives accepted the plan, however, representatives of the Palestinian Arabs, in May 1948, the Jewish community in Palestine issued the declaration of the establishment of the State of Israel. The new state was quickly recognised de facto by the United States, Iran, Guatemala, Iceland, Nicaragua, Romania, and Uruguay. The Soviet Union was the first nation to fully recognize Israel de jure on 17 May 1948, followed by Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Ireland, the United States extended official recognition after the first Israeli election, on 31 January 1949. Israel became a member of the United Nations on 11 May 1949, the states recognizing Israel did not recognize its sovereignty over Jerusalem generally citing the UN resolutions which called for an international status for the city. With the declaration of the establishment of the State of Israel and the subsequent invasion by surrounding Arab states, the 1949 Armistice Agreements left Jordan in control of the eastern parts of the city, while the western sector was held by Israel. Each side recognised the de facto control of their respective sectors. Soon after Israel declared that Jerusalem was a part of the State of Israel. In 1950, Jordan annexed eastern Jerusalem, following the 1967 war, Israel declared that Israeli law would be applied to East Jerusalem and enlarged its eastern boundaries, approximately doubling its size. The action was deemed unlawful by other states who did not recognize it and it was condemned by the UN Security Council and General Assembly who described it as an annexation in violation of the rights of the Palestinian population

71.
Bethlehem
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Bethlehem is a Palestinian city located in the central West Bank, Palestine, about 10 km south of Jerusalem. Its population is approximately 25,000 people and it is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate. The earliest known mention of the city was in the Amarna correspondence of 1350–1330 BCE during its habitation by the Canaanites. The Hebrew Bible, which says that the city of Bethlehem was built up as a city by Rehoboam, identifies it as the city David was from. The New Testament identifies Bethlehem as the birthplace of Jesus, the church was badly damaged by the Samaritans, who sacked it during a revolt in 529, but was rebuilt a century later by Emperor Justinian I. Bethlehem became part of Jund Filastin following the Muslim conquest in 637, Muslim rule continued in Bethlehem until its conquest in 1099 by a crusading army, who replaced the towns Greek Orthodox clergy with a Latin one. In the mid-13th century, the Mamluks demolished the citys walls, control of Bethlehem passed from the Ottomans to the British at the end of World War I. Bethlehem came under Jordanian rule during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and was captured by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War. Since the 1995 Oslo Accords, Bethlehem has been administered by the Palestinian Authority, Bethlehem now has a Muslim majority, but is still home to a significant Palestinian Christian community. Bethlehems chief economic sector is tourism, which peaks during the Christmas season when Christians make pilgrimage to the Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem has over 30 hotels and 300 handicraft workshops. Rachels Tomb, an important Jewish holy site, is located at the entrance of Bethlehem. The earliest reference to Bethlehem appears in the Amarna correspondence, let the king hear the words of your servant Abdi-Heba, and send archers to restore the imperial lands of the king. It is thought that the similarity of name to its modern forms indicates that this was a settlement of Canaanites who shared a Semitic cultural. Lachmo was the Chaldean god of fertility, worshipped by the Canaanites as Lachama, some time in the 3rd millennium BCE, they erected a temple to worship the god on the hill now known as the Hill of the Nativity. The town was known as Beit Lachama, meaning House of Lachama, the Philistines later established a garrison there. The archaeologists were able to identify at least 30 tombs, the Bible also calls it Beth-Lehem Judah, and the New Testament describes it as the City of David. It is first mentioned in the Tanakh and the Bible as the place where the matriarch Rachel died and was buried by the wayside, Rachels Tomb, the traditional grave site, stands at the entrance to Bethlehem. According to the Book of Ruth, the valley to the east is where Ruth of Moab gleaned the fields and it was the home of Jesse, father of King David of Israel, and the site of Davids anointment by the prophet Samuel

72.
Jabalya
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Jabalia also Jabalya is a Palestinian city located 4 kilometers north of Gaza City. It is under the jurisdiction of the North Gaza Governorate, in the Gaza Strip, according to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, Jabalia had a population of 82,877 in mid‑2006. The Jabalia refugee camp is adjacent to the city to the north, the nearby town of Nazla is a part of the Jabalia municipality. The city is ruled by a Hamas administration. A large cemetery dating to the 8th century CE was found near Jabalia, the workmanship indicates that the Christian community in Gaza was still very much in existence in the early Islamic era of rule in Palestine, and capable of artistic achievements. The remains of the pavement spared by the iconoclasts show depictions of wild game, birds, the late dating of the mosaic pavement proves that the intervention of the iconoclasts, after 750, is later than previously thought and is associated with Abbasid conservatives. While working on the Salah al-Din Road, laborers accidentally uncovered a monastery from the Byzantine period, the site was excavated by the Palestinian Department of Antiquities. Now the stunning Byzantine mosaics of the monastery are covered with sand to shield them from erosion caused by the impact of the winter rain. Byzantine ceramics have also been found, Jabalia was known for its fertile soil and citrus trees. The Mamluk Governor of Gaza Sanjar al-Jawli ruled the area in the early 14th-century, in Jabalia is the medieval Omeri Mosque. No structures from the ancient part of the mosque remain, except the portico, the rest of the mosque is of modern construction. The portico consists of three arcades supported by four stone columns, the arcades have pointed arches and the portico is covered by crossing vaults. Incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517 with all of Palestine and it had a population of 331 households, all Muslim, who paid taxes on wheat, barley, vine yards and fruit trees. In 1863, the French explorer Victor Guérin found in the fragments of old constructions. An Ottoman village list from about 1870 found that the village had a population of 828, in a total of 254 houses, though the population count included men, only. In the Palestine Exploration Funds 1883 Survey of Western Palestine, Jabalia was described as being a large village, with gardens. It had a mosque named Jamia Abu Berjas, in 1945, Jabalia had a population of 3,520, all Muslims, with 11,497 dunams of land, according to an official land and population survey. Of this,138 dunams were for citrus and bananas,1,009 for plantations and irrigable land,1,036 for cereals, while 101 dunams were built-up land

Jabalya
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House in Azbet, Jabalia, destroyed by Israel in 2009

73.
Gaza Governorate
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According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, the districts population was 505,700 in 2006. All of its seats were won by Hamas members in the 2006 parliamentary elections and it is governed by Mohammed Qadoura. The governorate consists of one city, three towns and a number of refugee camps, Gaza City Al-Zahra Juhor ad-Dik Madinat al-Awda Al-Mughraqa Al-Shati Gaza Governorate Localities

74.
Khan Yunis
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Khan Yunis is a city in the southern Gaza Strip. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, Khan Yunis had a population of 142,637 in 2007 and 202,000 in 2010 and 350,000 in 2012, the Constituency of Khan Yunis had five members on the Palestinian Legislative Council. Following the Palestinian legislative election,2006, there were three Hamas members, including Yunis al-Astal, and two Fatah members, including Mohammed Dahlan, the city is now under the Hamas administration of Gaza. Before the 14th century, Khan Yunis was a known as Salqah. To protect caravans, pilgrims and travelers a vast khan was constructed there by the emir Yunus al-Nûrûzi in 1387-88, the khan and the growing town surrounding it were named Khan Yunis after him. In 1389 Yunus was killed in battle, Yunus ibn Abdallah an-Nuzuri ad-Dawadar was the executive secretary, one of the high-ranking officials of the Mamluk sultan Barquq. The town became an important center for trade and its weekly Thursday market drew traders from neighboring regions, the khan served as resting stop for couriers of the barid, the Mamluk postal network in Palestine and Syria. In late 1516 Khan Yunis was the site of a battle in which the Egypt-based Mamluks were defeated by Ottoman forces under the leadership of Sinan Pasha. The Ottoman sultan Selim I then arrived in the area where he led the Ottoman army across the Sinai Peninsula to conquer Egypt, during the 17th and 18th centuries the Ottomans assigned an Azeban garrison associated with the Cairo Citadel to guard the fortress at Khan Yunis. Pierre Jacotin named the village Kan Jounes on his map from 1799, in 1863 French explorer Victor Guérin visited Khan Yunis. He found it had about a thousand inhabitants, and that many fruit trees, at the end of the 19th-century the Ottomans established a municipal council to administer the affairs of Khan Yunis, which had become the second largest town in the Gaza District after Gaza itself. In 1945 Khan Yunis had a population of 11,220,11,180 Muslims and 40 Christians, with 2,302 and 53,820 dunams of land, according to an official land and population survey. Of this,4,172 dunams were plantations and irrigable land,23,656 used for cereals, during the night of 31 August 1955, three Israeli paratroop companies attacked the British-built Tegart fort in Khan Yunis from where attacks had been carried out against Israelis. The police station, a station and several buildings in the village of Abasan were destroyed, as well as railway tracks. In heavy fighting,72 Egyptian soldiers were killed, one Israeli soldier was killed and 17 were wounded. The operation led to a ceasefire on September 4, forcing President Gamal Abdel Nasser, one of the mechanized companies was commanded by Rafael Eitan. Before the Suez War, Khan Yunis was officially administered by the All-Palestine Government, seated in Gaza, after a fierce firefight, the Sherman tanks of the IDF 37th Armored Brigade broke through the heavily fortified lines outside of Khan Yunis held by the 86th Palestinian Brigade. It was the site in the Gaza strip where the Egyptian army put up any resistance to the Israeli invasion of Gaza

75.
Rafah
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Rafah is a Palestinian city and refugee camp in the southern Gaza Strip. It is the capital of the Rafah Governorate, located 30 kilometers south of Gaza City. Rafahs population of 152,950 is overwhelmingly made up of Palestinian refugees, Rafah camp and Tall as-Sultan camp form separate localities. When Israel withdrew from the Sinai in 1982, Rafah was split into a Gazan part, the core of the city was destroyed by Israel and Egypt to create a large buffer zone. Rafah is the site of the Rafah Border Crossing, the crossing point between Egypt and the State of Palestine. Gazas only airport, Yasser Arafat International Airport, was located just south of the city, the airport operated from 1998 to 2001, until it was bombed and bulldozed by the Israeli military after the killing of Israeli soldiers by members of Hamas. After World War I Palestine was also under British control, from the mid-1930s the British enhanced the border control and Rafah evolved as a small boundary town which functioned as a trade and services centre for the semi-settled Beduin population. During the Second World War it became an important British base, following the Armistice Agreement of 24 February 1949, Rafah was located in Egypt-occupied Gaza and consequently, a Gaza–Egypt border did no longer exist. Rafah could grow without any consideration being taken of the old 1906 international boundary, in the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel conquered the Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip from Egypt and all of the city now was under Israeli occupation. In 1979, Israel and Egypt signed a treaty that returned the Sinai. In the Peace Treaty, the re-created Gaza–Egypt border was drawn across the city of Rafah, Rafah was divided into an Egyptian and a Palestinian part, splitting up families, separated by barbed-wire barriers. Families were separated, property was divided and many houses and orchards were cut across and destroyed by the new boundary, bulldozed, Rafah became one of the three border points between Egypt and Israel. In 1922, Rafahs population was 599, which increased to 2,220 in 1945, in 1982, the total population was approximately 10,800. In the 1997 Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics census, Rafah and its adjacent camp had a population of 91,181. Refugees made up 80. 3% of the entire population, in the 1997 census, Rafahs gender distribution was 50. 5% male and 49. 5% female. In the 2006 PCBS estimate, Rafah city had a population of 71,003, Rafah camp and Tall as-Sultan form separate localities for census purposes, having populations of 59,983 and 24,418, Rafah has a history stretching back thousands of years. It was first recorded in an inscription of Egyptian Pharaoh Seti I, from 1303 BCE as Rph, and as the first stop on Pharaoh Shoshenq Is campaign to the Levant in 925 BC. In 720 BCE it was the site of the Assyrian king Sargon IIs victory over the Egyptians, Rafah is mentioned in Strabo, the Antonine Itinerary, and is depicted on the Map of Madaba

Rafah
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Mosque in Rafah, destroyed during the Gaza War
Rafah
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Rafah is at the bottom of map.

76.
Jerusalem District
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The Jerusalem District is one of six administrative districts of Israel. The Jerusalem District has an area of 652 km². The population of 910,300 is 67. 8% Jewish and 30. 6% Arab, a fifth of the Arabs in Israel live in the Jerusalem District, which includes both East and West Jerusalem. Israels annexation of East Jerusalem has not been recognized by the international community, the majority of Arabs in the Jerusalem District are Palestinians, eligible for citizenship under Israeli law, but non-citizens by collective choice. The non-Jewish population is 28. 3% Muslims,1. 8% Christians and 1. 4% unclassified by religion, the Jerusalem Municipality, including East Jerusalem and other annexed parts of the West Bank, constituted with 125 km² about 19% of the Jerusalem District in 2008. Jerusalem Governorate List of cities in Israel Arab localities in Israel Positions on Jerusalem Timeline of Jerusalem Elah Valley Judean Mountains

77.
UN General Assembly resolution 67/19
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United Nations General Assembly resolution 67/19 is a resolution upgrading Palestine to non-member observer state status in the United Nations. The draft resolution was proposed by Palestines representative at the United Nations and it, however, maintains the status of the Palestinian Liberation Organization as the representative of the Palestinian people within the United Nations system. Though strongly contested by the United States and the government of Israel, the motion was seen as largely symbolic, though it could allow Palestine to start proceedings at the International Criminal Court against Israel. The new status equates Palestine with that of the Holy See within the United Nations system, on 22 November 1974, the United Nations General Assembly adopted resolution 3237, inviting the Palestine Liberation Organization to participate at UNGA sessions in the capacity of an observer entity. The resolution also invited the PLO to participate in the work of all international conferences convened under the auspices of the UNGA, in resolution 43/177 of 15 December 1988, the UNGA acknowledged the proclamation of the state of Palestine by the Palestine National Council on 15 November 1988. In 2011, at the session of the United Nations General Assembly Fatahs Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas asked to join as a full member of the United Nations. The admission of any state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. However, the Palestine 194 initiative never went to a vote in the United Nations Security Council, furthermore, the United States indicated an intention to veto the resolution should it come to a vote. On 31 October 2011, the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, the decision took effect on 23 November 2011 when Palestine ratified the UNESCO constitution. Begin a process of redemption and healing in Palestine. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said that resolution would make the goal of a state of Palestine more distant, Peace is only achieved through negotiations, not by unilateral declarations. He told the Menachem Begin Heritage Center, The Palestinians must recognize the Jewish state and these words were echoed by Ambassador Ron Prosor. Foreign Ministry spokesman Yigal Palmor said Israeli reaction would be measured by Palestines reaction to the vote, Israeli former Prime Minister Ehud Olmert wrote, I believe that the Palestinian request from the United Nations is congruent with the basic concept of the two-state solution. Therefore, I see no reason to oppose it and it is time to give a hand to, and encourage, the moderate forces amongst the Palestinians. Abu-Mazen and Salam Fayyad need our help, There was a rally in support of the Palestinian bid in Tel Avivs Rothschild Boulevard, which was organised by Gush Shalom, Peace Now, Hadash and Meretz. Former Foreign Ministry director Dr. Alon Liel said, As of today there is a Palestinian state, as of today we no longer control the life of a nation but the life of a separate state. Former Meretz MK Mossi Raz said, We call on Lieberman and Netanyahu, order the ambassador to say Israel yes. Netanyahu later downplayed the importance of the vote in saying that the decision at the United Nations will change nothing on the ground and it will not advance the establishment of a Palestinian state

78.
Pope Francis
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Pope Francis is the 266th and current Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, a title he holds ex officio as Bishop of Rome, and sovereign of Vatican City. He chose Francis as his name in honor of Saint Francis of Assisi. Born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Bergoglio worked briefly as a chemical technologist and he was ordained a Catholic priest in 1969, and from 1973 to 1979 was Argentinas provincial superior of the Society of Jesus. He became the Archbishop of Buenos Aires in 1998 and was created a cardinal in 2001 by Pope John Paul II and he led the Argentine Church during the December 2001 riots in Argentina, and the administrations of Néstor Kirchner and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner considered him a political rival. Following the resignation of Pope Benedict XVI on 28 February 2013, throughout his public life, Pope Francis has been noted for his humility, emphasis on Gods mercy, concern for the poor, populist causes and commitment to interfaith dialogue. He maintains that the church should be open and welcoming. He does not support unbridled capitalism, Marxism, or Marxist versions of liberation theology, Francis maintains the traditional views of the church regarding abortion, euthanasia, contraception, homosexuality, ordination of women, and priestly celibacy. He opposes consumerism, irresponsible development, and supports taking action on climate change, in international diplomacy, he helped to restore full diplomatic relations between the U. S. and Cuba. Jorge Mario Bergoglio was born on 17 December 1936 in Flores and he was the eldest of five children of Mario José Bergoglio and Regina María Sívori. Mario Bergoglio was an Italian immigrant accountant born in Portacomaro in Italys Piedmont region, Regina Sívori was a housewife born in Buenos Aires to a family of northern Italian origin. Mario Josés family left Italy in 1929, to escape the fascist rule of Benito Mussolini, María Elena Bergoglio, the Popes only living sibling, confirmed that their emigration was not for economic reasons. His other siblings were Alberto Horacio, Oscar Adrián and Marta Regina, two great-nephews, Antonio and Joseph, died in a traffic collision. In the sixth grade, Bergoglio attended Wilfrid Barón de los Santos Ángeles and he attended the technical secondary school Escuela Técnica Industrial N°27 Hipólito Yrigoyen, named after a past President of Argentina, and graduated with a chemical technicians diploma. He worked for a few years in that capacity in the section at Hickethier-Bachmann Laboratory where his boss was Esther Ballestrino. Before joining the Jesuits, Bergoglio worked as a bar bouncer and as a janitor sweeping floors, in the only known health crisis of his youth, at the age of 21 he suffered from life-threatening pneumonia and three cysts. He had part of a lung excised shortly afterwards, Bergoglio has been a lifelong supporter of San Lorenzo de Almagro football club. Bergoglio is also a fan of the films of Tita Merello, neorealism, Bergoglio found his vocation to the priesthood while he was on his way to celebrate the Spring Day. He passed by a church to go to confession, and was inspired by the priest

Pope Francis
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Pope Francis
Pope Francis
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Jorge Mario Bergoglio (fourth boy from the left on the third row from the top) at age 12, while studying at the Salesian College.
Pope Francis
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Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio in 2008
Pope Francis
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Pope Francis with Argentine president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner.

79.
Ron Prosor
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Ron Prosor is an Israeli diplomat, writer, and columnist. He served as Israels Permanent Representative to the United Nations from 2011 to 2015 and he has previously served as Israels Ambassador to the United Kingdom, and Director-General of Israels Foreign Ministry. As an officer in the Artillery Division of the IDF, Prosor attained the rank of Major and he holds a masters degree in Political Science from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, graduating with distinction. Prosor and his wife Hadas have three children – Lior, Tomer and Oren – and two grandchildren, Amit and Daniel, with almost three decades of experience at the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Prosor has carved out an international reputation as one of Israel’s most distinguished diplomats. His overseas service also includes roles in Washington, Bonn, between 2004 and 2007 Prosor served as the Director General of the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, overseeing the work of the Foreign Ministry during the disengagement from Gaza in 2005. Prosor also addressed a range of audiences throughout the country, including at universities. Since becoming Israel’s Permanent Representative to the United Nations, Prosor has continued to be a proponent for the State of Israel. A prolific writer and commentator, Prosor has published in leading international publications, since becoming Israel’s envoy to the UN, Prosor has held a series of notable positions, including Vice President of the General Assembly and Chair of the United Nations Human Rights Committee. On June 8,2012 Ambassador Prosor was elected as a Vice President of the United Nations General Assembly, Prosor is known as an outspoken diplomat and delivers speeches on a wide range of topics. He frequently publishes articles in a variety of publications on Israel’s domestic policy. He often attacks Hamas and seeks to raise awareness in the community on the necessity to stop. In the summer of 2014, during the most recent conflict in Gaza, on several occasions, Prosor has framed the recognition of Israels statehood as an existential right for Israel and the Jewish people. According to Prosor, failing to recognize Israel is the greatest obstacle to peace in the region, therefore, he stressed the necessity for Arab states and the Palestinian Authority to recognize Israel. In his speech to the UN General Assembly in November 2014 and he faulted the UN for singling out Israel on a variety of issues, for example, human rights, while not addressing more oppressive regimes. He also complains about weapons smuggling over the Egyptian border, as well as black market items. Each of his commentaries lambastes Hamas for its use of attacks and small-arms fire. In an article appeared on The Telegraph in 2009, Prosor emphasized the failure of the community to counter Hamas’ fundamentalism. He further argued that extremist regimes like Hamas pose a threat to the prosperity and stability of the Middle East, Prosor compared Qatar’s support for Hamas to Iranian military support to terrorism against Israel and more generally to terrorist activities in the Middle East

80.
Demographics of the Palestinian territories
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At mid-year 2009 as 10.7 million persons as follows,3.9 million in the Palestinian territories,1.2 million in Israel,5.0 million in Arab countries,0.6 million in foreign countries. There were 3.76 million Palestinians in the West Bank, Gaza and East Jerusalem, according to the U. S. Census, population growth mid-1990-2008 in Gaza and West Bank was 106% from 1.9 million to 3.9 million persons. According to the United Nations, the Palestinian population was 4.4 million in 2010, according to the PCBS, population density in 2009 was 654 capita/km2, of which 433 capita/km2 in the West Bank including Jerusalem and 4,073 capita/km2 in Gaza Strip. In the mid-2009, the share of less than 15 years was 41. 9%. Births and deaths The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook,2,731,052 including East Jerusalem population in the West Bank, including Jews. 83% of the population is Palestinian Arab, 17% is Jewish, definition, age 15 and over can read and write total population,92. 4% male,96. 7% female, 88% The following demographic statistics come from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Adlakha, Kevin G. Kinsella and Marwan Khawaja, available at Population Bulletin of ESCWAs website

Demographics of the Palestinian territories

81.
Population
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A population is the number of all the organisms of the same group or species, which live in a particular geographical area, and have the capability of interbreeding. In sociology, population refers to a collection of humans, Demography is a social science which entails the statistical study of human populations. This article refers mainly to human population, in population genetics a sexual population is a set of organisms in which any pair of members can breed together. This means that they can regularly exchange gametes to produce normally-fertile offspring and this also implies that all members belong to the same species. If the gamodeme is very large, and all gene alleles are uniformly distributed by the gametes within it, however, there may be low frequencies of exchange with these neighbours. This may be viewed as the breaking up of a sexual population into smaller overlapping sexual populations. The overall rise in homozygosity is quantified by the inbreeding coefficient, note that all homozygotes are increased in frequency – both the deleterious and the desirable. The mean phenotype of the collection is lower than that of the panmictic original – which is known as inbreeding depression. It is most important to note, however, that some lines will be superior to the panmictic original, while some will be about the same. The probabilities of each can be estimated from those binomial equations, in plant and animal breeding, procedures have been developed which deliberately utilise the effects of dispersion. It can be shown that dispersion-assisted selection leads to the greatest genetic advance and this is so for both allogamous and autogamous gamodemes. In ecology, the population of a species in a certain area can be estimated using the Lincoln Index. As of todays date, the population is estimated by the United States Census Bureau to be 7.496 billion. The US Census Bureau estimates the 7 billion number was surpassed on 12 March 2012, according to papers published by the United States Census Bureau, the world population hit 6.5 billion on 24 February 2006. The United Nations Population Fund designated 12 October 1999 as the day on which world population reached 6 billion. This was about 12 years after world population reached 5 billion in 1987, the population of countries such as Nigeria, is not even known to the nearest million, so there is a considerable margin of error in such estimates. Researcher Carl Haub calculated that a total of over 100 billion people have probably been born in the last 2000 years, Population growth increased significantly as the Industrial Revolution gathered pace from 1700 onwards. In 2007 the United Nations Population Division projected that the population will likely surpass 10 billion in 2055

Population
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The years taken for every billion people to be added to the world's population, and the years that population was reached. (with future estimates). See also alt. chart
Population
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The distribution of human world population in 1994

82.
Square kilometre
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Square kilometre or square kilometer, symbol km2, is a multiple of the square metre, the SI unit of area or surface area. For example,3 km2 is equal to 3×2 =3,000,000 m2, topographical map grids are worked out in metres, with the grid lines being 1,000 metres apart. 1,100,000 maps are divided into squares representing 1 km2, each square on the map being one square centimetre in area, for 1,50,000 maps, the grid lines are 2 cm apart. Each square on the map is 2 cm by 2 cm, for 1,25,000 maps, the grid lines are 4 cm apart. Each square on the map is 4 cm by 4 cm, in each case, the grid lines enclose one square kilometre. The area enclosed by the walls of many European medieval cities were about one square kilometre, the approximate area of the old walled cities can often be worked out by fitting the course of the wall to a rectangle or an oval. Examples include Delft, Netherlands 52°0′54″N 4°21′34″E The walled city of Delft was approximately rectangular, the approximate length of rectangle was about 1.30 kilometres. The approximate width of the rectangle was about 0.75 kilometres, a perfect rectangle with these measurements has an area of 1. 30×0.75 =0.9 km2 Lucca 43°50′38″N 10°30′2″E The medieval city is roughly rectangular with rounded north-east and north-west corners. The maximum distance from east to west is 1.36 kilometres, the maximum distance from north to south is 0.80 kilometres. A perfect rectangle of these dimensions would be 1. 36×0.80 =1.088 km2, Brugge 51°12′39″N 3°13′28″E The medieval city of Brugge, a major centre in Flanders, was roughly oval or elliptical in shape with the longer or semi-major axis running north and south. The maximum distance from north to south is 2.53 kilometres, the maximum distance from east to west is 1.81 kilometres. A perfect ellipse of these dimensions would be 2.53 ×1.81 × =3.597 km2. Chester United Kingdom 53°12′1″N 2°52′45″W Chester is one of the smaller English cities that has a city wall. The distance from Northgate to Watergate is about 855 metres. The distance from Eastgate to Westgate is about 589 metres, a perfect rectangle of these dimensions would be × =0.504 km2. Parks come in all sizes, a few are almost exactly one kilometre in area. Here are some examples, Riverside Country Park, UK. Brierley Forest Park, rio de Los Angeles State Park, California, USA Jones County Central Park, Iowa, USA. Using the figures published by golf course architects Crafter and Mogford, assuming a 6,000 metres 18-hole course, an area of 80 hectares needs to be allocated for the course itself

Square kilometre
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Part of an Ordnance Survey map, published 1952. The grid lines are at one kilometre intervals giving each square an area of one square kilometre. The map shows that the area of the island is about two square kilometres.
Square kilometre
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Map of Delft, Netherlands dated 1659. The walls enclosed an area of about 1 square kilometre

83.
Population density
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Population density is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume, it is a quantity of type number density. It is frequently applied to living organisms, and most of the time to humans and it is a key geographical term. Population density is population divided by land area or water volume. Low densities may cause a vortex and lead to further reduced fertility. This is called the Allee effect after the scientist who identified it, commonly this may be calculated for a county, city, country, another territory, or the entire world. The worlds population is around 7,000,000,000, therefore, the worldwide human population density is around 7,000,000,000 ÷510,000,000 =13.7 per km2. If only the Earths land area of 150,000,000 km2 is taken into account and this includes all continental and island land area, including Antarctica. If Antarctica is also excluded, then population density rises to over 50 people per km2, thus, this number by itself does not give any helpful measurement of human population density. Several of the most densely populated territories in the world are city-states, microstates, cities with high population densities are, by some, considered to be overpopulated, though this will depend on factors like quality of housing and infrastructure and access to resources. Most of the most densely populated cities are in Southeast Asia, though Cairo, for instance, Milwaukee has a greater population density when just the inner city is measured, and the surrounding suburbs excluded. Arithmetic density, The total number of people / area of land, physiological density, The total population / area of arable land. Agricultural density, The total rural population / area of arable land, residential density, The number of people living in an urban area / area of residential land. Urban density, The number of people inhabiting an urban area / total area of urban land, ecological optimum, The density of population that can be supported by the natural resources. S. States by population density Selected Current and Historic City, Ward & Neighborhood Density

Population density
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Monaco in South Europe, currently holds the record for being the most densely populated nation in the world.
Population density
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Mongolia is the least densely populated country in the world.

84.
Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion

85.
Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin

86.
William Henry Bartlett
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William Henry Bartlett was a British artist, best known for his numerous steel engravings. Bartlett was born in Kentish Town, London in 1809 and he was apprenticed to John Britton, and became one of the foremost illustrators of topography of his generation. He travelled throughout Britain, and in the mid and late 1840s he travelled extensively in the Balkans and he made four visits to North America between 1836 and 1852. In 1835, Bartlett first visited the United States to draw the buildings, towns, american Scenery was published by George Virtue in London in 30 monthly installments from 1837 to 1839. Bound editions of the work were published from 1840 onward, in 1838 Bartlett was in the Canadas producing sketches for Willis Canadian scenery illustrated, published in 1842. Bartlett made sepia wash drawings the exact size to be engraved and his engraved views were widely copied by artists, but no signed oil painting by his hand is known. Engravings based on Bartletts views were used in his posthumous History of the United States of North America, continued by Bernard Bolingbroke Woodward. William Henry Bartlett died of fever on board of a French ship off the coast of Malta returning from his last trip to the Near East, Bartletts primary concern was to render lively impressions of actual sights, as he wrote in the preface to The Nile Boat

William Henry Bartlett
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Self portrait of W H Bartlett, from the cover of his book Working A Canoe Up A Rapid.
William Henry Bartlett
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View from Mount Holyoke (Massachusetts). The Oxbow, Connecticut River, 1835
William Henry Bartlett
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Citadel of Kingston. Ink print. 1839—1842.
William Henry Bartlett
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Eastport and Passamaquoddy Bay, 1839

87.
Ahmadiyya
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Ahmadiyya is an Islamic religious movement founded in Punjab, British India, near the end of the 19th century. He claimed to have been appointed as the Mujaddid of Islam. The adherents of the Ahmadiyya movement are referred to as Ahmadi Muslims or simply Ahmadis, Ahmadiyya adherents believe that Ahmad appeared in the likeness of Jesus, to end religious wars, condemn bloodshed and reinstitute morality, justice, and peace. Thus, Ahmadis view themselves as leading the revival and peaceful propagation of Islam, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad founded the movement on 23 March 1889. The Ahmadis have a strong tradition and were among the earliest Muslim communities to arrive in Britain. Currently, the community is led by its Caliph, Mirza Masroor Ahmad, the population is almost entirely contained in the single, highly organized and united movement. In this sense there is one major branch. Some Ahmadiyya-specific beliefs have been thought of as opposed to contemporary mainstream Islamic thought since the movements birth, many Muslims consider Ahmadi Muslims as either kafirs or heretics. In a manifesto dated 4 November 1900, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad explained that the name did not refer to himself but to Ahmad, the alternative name of Muhammad. According to Ahmad, these names refer to two aspects or phases of Islam, and in later times it was the latter aspect that commanded greater attention. He also called it the Ahmadiyya madhab, And it is permissible that this also be referred to as ‘Muslims of the Aḥmadī way. Ahmadi beliefs are more aligned with the Sunni tradition, than they are with the Shia tradition, such as The Five Pillars of Islam and The Six articles of Islamic Faith. Likewise, Ahmadis accept the Quran as their text, face the Kaaba during prayer, practice the Sunnah. These are the central beliefs constituting Ahmadi Muslim thought, the distinguishing feature of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community is their belief in Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as the Promised Messiah and Mahdi, as prophesied by the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Through the proclamation of truth and by putting an end to conflicts, I should bring about peace. I am called upon to demonstrate spirituality which lies buried under egoistic darkness and it is for me to demonstrate by practice, and not by words alone, the Divine powers which penetrate into a human being and are manifested through prayer or attention. All this will be accomplished, not through my power, but through the power of the Almighty God, Who is the God of heaven and he believed that his message had special relevance for the Western world, which, he believed, had descended into materialism. The message which the founders of these religions brought was, therefore, essentially the same as that of Islam, the completion and consummation of the development of religion came about with the advent of Muhammad

88.
Religion
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Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may be preserved in sacred scriptures, and symbols and holy places, that aim mostly to give a meaning to life. Religions may contain symbolic stories, which are said by followers to be true, that have the side purpose of explaining the origin of life. Traditionally, faith, in addition to reason, has considered a source of religious beliefs. There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide, about 84% of the worlds population is affiliated with one of the five largest religions, namely Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or forms of folk religion. With the onset of the modernisation of and the revolution in the western world. The religiously unaffiliated demographic include those who do not identify with any religion, atheists. While the religiously unaffiliated have grown globally, many of the religiously unaffiliated still have various religious beliefs, about 16% of the worlds population is religiously unaffiliated. The study of religion encompasses a variety of academic disciplines, including theology, comparative religion. Theories of religion offer various explanations for the origins and workings of religion, Religion is derived from the Latin religiō, the ultimate origins of which are obscure. One possible interpretation traced to Cicero, connects lego read, i. e. re with lego in the sense of choose, go over again or consider carefully. The medieval usage alternates with order in designating bonded communities like those of monastic orders, we hear of the religion of the Golden Fleece, of a knight of the religion of Avys. In the ancient and medieval world, the etymological Latin root religio was understood as a virtue of worship, never as doctrine, practice. In the Quran, the Arabic word din is often translated as religion in modern translations and it was in the 19th century that the terms Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, and Confucianism first emerged. Max Müller characterized many other cultures around the world, including Egypt, Persia, what is called ancient religion today, they would have only called law. Some languages have words that can be translated as religion, but they may use them in a different way. For example, the Sanskrit word dharma, sometimes translated as religion, throughout classical South Asia, the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions. Medieval Japan at first had a union between imperial law and universal or Buddha law, but these later became independent sources of power. There is no equivalent of religion in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities

89.
Tourism in the Palestinian territories
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Tourism in the Palestinian territories refers to tourism in East Jerusalem, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. In 2010,4.6 million people visited the Palestinian territories, of that number,2.2 million were foreign tourists while 2.7 million were domestic. This number of visits is misleading, however, since most tourists come for only a few hours or as part of a day trip itinerary. In the last quarter of 2012 over 150,000 guests stayed in West Bank hotels, 40% were European and 9% were from the United States, major travel guides write that the West Bank is not the easiest place in which to travel but the effort is richly rewarded. The Palestinian Authority and Israeli tourism ministries have attempted to work together on tourism in the Palestinian territories in a Joint Committee, recent cooperation to share access to foreign tourists has not proven successful in Palestine for many reasons. Israel controls the movement of tourists into the West Bank, former Palestinian Authority Tourism Minister Kholoud Diibes has commented that Israel collects 90% of pilgrim-related revenue. Foreign tourism has been restricted to East Jerusalem and the West Bank since the August 2013 indefinite closing of the Rafah crossing located between Egypt and the Hamas controlled Gaza Strip. There is essentially no tourist flow to Gaza since 2005 because of the ongoing Israeli military land, air, there are no visa conditions imposed on foreign nationals other than those imposed by the visa policy of Israel. Access to Jerusalem, the West Bank, and Gaza is completely controlled by the Government of Israel, entry to the occupied Palestinian territories requires only a valid international passport. These groups of tourists are subject to delay, interrogation, or even, denial of access to lawyers, consular officers, and family, the tourist industry in the West Bank collapsed after the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, but recovered by the 1990s, especially after the Oslo Accords. In 2007 there were over 300,000 guests at Palestinian hotels, nGOs including the Alternative Tourism Group promote tourism to the West Bank. Tourism between Egypt and Gaza was active before the 1967 war, and Gaza was a resort with hotel casinos, a recession in Israel in the mid-80s again reduced tourism in Gaza to almost none. Before the second intifada, Gaza could be reached by tourists by taking a private taxi via the Erez crossing point from Israel, the airport has been unusable since Israeli bombings in 2002. A small runway exists near the UNRWA Khan Younis refugee camp, Gaza City attractions included the Palestine Square bazaar and the beach area, which had hotels, restaurants, and a fishing market. Israeli Arabs and Jews visited beaches in Gaza, and there were popular nightclubs, today, about 67% of tours to the occupied Palestinian territories are by religious Christians, mostly from North America and Europe. These modern day pilgrims visit major religious and tourist sites related to Biblical history, many traditional religious tours are now arranging meetings with Palestinian Christians for personal interaction. Many travelers to this region feel that security concerns are overstated, there are many walking tours in the West Bank, and a celebrity chefs recent visit to Israel, the West Bank, and Gaza was followed by a show devoted to the local cuisine. A growing number of tourist groups visit the holy sites but expand their trips to learn about Palestinian culture, Biblical history

90.
Palestinian territories
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Palestinian territories and occupied Palestinian territories are descriptions often used to describe the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, which are occupied or otherwise under the control of Israel. Israeli governments have maintained that the area involved is within territorial dispute, the extent of the territories, while subject to future negotiations, have frequently been defined by the Green Line. In December 2012, UN Secretariat communications replaced this by the term State of Palestine, the ISO adopted the name change in 2013. But, as of August 2015, the UN Security Council continues to treat Palestine as a non-sovereign entity, Israel occupied the territories of the West Bank and Gaza Strip in the Six-Day War of 1967 and has since maintained control. Previously, these territories had been occupied by Jordan and Egypt, respectively, in 1980, Israel officially absorbed East Jerusalem and has proclaimed the whole of Jerusalem to be its capital. The inclusion, though never formally amounting to legal annexation, was condemned internationally and declared null, the Palestinian National Authority never exercised sovereignty over the area, although it housed its offices in Orient House and several other buildings as an assertion of its sovereign interests. Israel shut them down in response to the Sbarro restaurant suicide bombing, Israeli sovereignty, however, has not been recognized by any country, since the unilateral annexation of territory occupied during war contravenes the Fourth Geneva Convention. The cost of the occupation for Israel over four decades is estimated to amount to $50 billion, the World Bank estimates the annual cost in 2013 to the Palestinian economy of Israeli occupation at $3.4 billion. In 1988, with the Palestine Liberation Organization intention to declare a Palestinian State, Jordan renounced all claims to the West Bank. Since the Palestinian Declaration of Independence in 1988,135 UN Member Nations have recognized the State of Palestine and it has not been recognized by Israel and some Western nations, including the United States. In 1993, following the Oslo Accords, parts of the territories politically came under the jurisdiction of the Palestinian National Authority, Israel still exercises full military control and, civil control over 61% of the West Bank. The Oslo Accords established access to the sea for Gaza within 20 nautical miles from the shore, the Berlin Commitment of 2002 reduced this to 12 miles. In October 2006 Israel imposed a 6-mile limit, and at the conclusion of the Gaza War restricted access to a 3-nautical-mile limit, as a result, more than 3,000 Palestinian fishermen are denied access to 85% of the maritime areas agreed to in 1995. The majority of the Dead Sea area is off-limits to Palestinian use, Israel disengaged from the Gaza Strip in 2005, however the international community considers the West Bank and the Gaza Strip still to be occupied by Israel. The Hamas takeover of Gaza in 2007 divided the Palestinian territories politically, abbass Fatah largely ruled the West Bank and was recognized internationally as the official Palestinian Authority. In 2014, the two groups agreed to hold elections and form a compromise unity government. The 2014 Israel-Gaza conflict intervened, however, the unity government survived, there are disagreements over what the Palestinian territories should be called. Other terms used to describe these areas include the disputed territories

91.
Gaza strip
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Gaza, together with the West Bank, comprise the Palestinian territories claimed by the Palestinians as the State of Palestine. The territories of Gaza and the West Bank are separated from each other by Israeli territory, both fall under the jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority, but Gaza has since June 2007 been governed by Hamas, a Palestinian Islamic organization which came to power in free elections in 2006. It has been placed under an Israeli and U. S. -led international economic, the territory is 41 kilometers long, and from 6 to 12 kilometers wide, with a total area of 365 square kilometers. With around 1.85 million Palestinians on some 362 square kilometers, an extensive Israeli buffer zone within the Strip renders much land off-limits to Gazas Palestinians. Gaza has a population growth rate of 2. 91%, the 13th highest in the world. The population is expected to increase to 2.1 million in 2020, by that time, Gaza may be rendered unliveable, if present trends continue. Due to the Israeli and Egyptian border closures and the Israeli sea and air blockade, Sunni Muslims make up the predominant part of the Palestinian population in the Gaza Strip. Israel maintains direct control over Gaza and indirect control over life within Gaza, it controls Gazas air and maritime space. It reserves the right to enter Gaza at will with its military, Gaza is dependent on Israel for its water, electricity, telecommunications, and other utilities. When Hamas won the Palestinian legislative election,2006, Fatah refused to join the proposed coalition, when this collapsed under joint Israeli and United States pressure, the Palestinian Authority instituted a non-Hamas government in the West Bank while Hamas formed a government on its own in Gaza. Further economic sanctions were imposed by Israel and the European Quartet against Hamas, a brief civil war between the two groups had broken out in Gaza when, apparently under a U. S. -backed plan, Fatah contested Hamas’s administration. Hamas emerged the victor and expelled Fatah-allied officials and members of the PAs security apparatus from the Strip, since 2007, the Gaza Strip has been de facto governed by Hamas, which claims to represent the Palestinian National Authority and the Palestinian people. Israel maintains direct control over Gaza and indirect control over life within Gaza, it controls Gazas air and maritime space. It reserves the right to enter Gaza at will with its military, Gaza is dependent on Israel for its water, electricity, telecommunications, and other utilities. The Gaza Strip acquired its current northern and eastern boundaries at the cessation of fighting in the 1948 war, article V of the Agreement declared that the demarcation line was not to be an international border. At first the Gaza Strip was officially administered by the All-Palestine Government, All-Palestine in the Gaza Strip was managed under the military authority of Egypt, functioning as a puppet state, until it officially merged into the United Arab Republic and dissolved in 1959. From the time of the dissolution of the All-Palestine Government until 1967, Israel captured the Gaza Strip from Egypt in the Six-Day War in 1967. In 2005, Israel withdrew from the Gaza Strip under their unilateral disengagement plan, in July 2007, after winning the 2006 Palestinian legislative election, Hamas became the elected government

92.
Al-Aqsa TV
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Al-Aqsa TV is the official Hamas-run television channel. Its programming includes news and propaganda promoting Hamas, childrens shows and it is currently directed by Palestinian Legislative Council member Fathi Hamad. The station began broadcasting in the Gaza Strip on January 9,2006 after Hamas won a victory in Palestinian parliamentary elections. On December 29,2008, during the Gaza War, Israeli aircraft repeatedly bombed the al-Aqsa television station headquarters in Gaza City, the television station continued to broadcast, but the radio station went silent. The radio station has come back on the air. Despite Barghoutis call, Tomorrows Pioneers went on the air as usual, assoud, in turn, was martyred and replaced by Nassur the bear. In May 2008, Bassem Naeem, the minister of health in the Hamas government in Gaza, in his letter to The Guardian, Naeem stated that the Al-Aqsa Channel is an independent media institution that often does not express the views of the Hamas government or the Hamas movement. About reporting, Ibrahim Daher, a director at Al-Aqsa media operation, Al-Aqsa Foundation Al Fateh, Hamas web site for children Al Manar Official website Al-Aqsa TV on Facebook Al-Aqsa TV on Twitter AlaqsaTVChannels channel on YouTube

Al-Aqsa TV
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AL-AQSA TV

93.
Palestine national football team
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The Palestine national football team is the national football team of Palestinian National Authority and represents the Authority in international football. Palestine has yet to qualify for the World Cup and they first qualified for the Asian Cup in May 2014, after beating the Philippines 1–0 in the AFC Challenge Cup final. At the finals in Australia, they were eliminated in the group stage, the team reached an all-time high position of 85th in the FIFA ranking in July 2014 after winning the 2014 AFC Challenge Cup. In recognition of their efforts the Palestinian Football Federation was awarded FIFAs inaugural Development Award, Palestine applied to, and was admitted into FIFA in 1998. They played their first friendly matches against Lebanon, Jordan and Syria in July 1998, Palestines first attempt to qualify for the 2000 AFC Asian Cup and the 2002 FIFA World Cup were unsuccessful, but saw victories against Hong Kong and Malaysia. In 2002, the PFA hired Nicola Hadwa Shahwan as manager and these players made their debuts in the 2002 Arab Nations Cup. The team exited in the stage but managed draws against group winners Jordan, hosts Kuwait. In 2004, two more Latin Americans joined the Palestinian national team Hernán Madrid and the Argentine-born Alejandro Naif, after an unsuccessful Asian Cup qualifying campaign, the PFA hired Austrian coach Alfred Riedl to lead the team in the 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifications. Palestine were drawn in a group alongside Uzbekistan, Iraq and Chinese Taipei, in their first match, Palestine recorded an historic 8–0 win against the Taiwanese, two months later a 1–1 draw against Iraq put Palestine in first place in the group. Preparation for the third game, away to Uzbekistan, were hampered after the Israeli authorities refused travel permits for nearly half the squad. Barely able to put together a team, Palestine sank to a 3–0 defeat. Palestine were drawn in a group in Asian Cup qualifying for the 2007 tournament alongside 2004 finalists China, eventual winners Iraq, Palestine still had a chance of qualifying until the penultimate round, after a 1–0 win against Singapore and a 2–2 draw against Iraq. In the summer of 2006, Palestine achieved its highest ever FIFA ranking at 115, the team remained without a manager for most of 2007 and preparations for World Cup Qualifying were severely lacking. Palestine lost the first leg of a two-legged play-off against Singapore 0–4, Palestine received the inaugural FIFA Development Award in recognition of the achievement. Two and a years later, in March 2011, Palestine played its first ever competitive home game. The game, at the Faisal Al-Husseini International Stadium, was the leg of a qualifier for the 2012 Olympic Games. Thailand had won the first leg 1–0 in Bangkok, Palestine won the second 1–0 with a goal by Abdelhamid Abuhabib in the 43rd minute, the draw on aggregate led to a penalty shootout, where Palestine lost by 5–6. However, as Thailand was ordered to forfeit the first match because of fielding an ineligible player, in the next round against Bahrain, although Palestine won the first leg at Bahrain National Stadium by 1–0, they lost the return leg by 1–2 and eliminated by away goals rule

Palestine national football team
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Palestine

94.
British Mandate for Palestine
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The Mandate of Palestine was superseded with UN Charter, Chapter XII, Article 80 UN Trusteeship Agreement, UNGA181 of November 29,1947. The Palestine Mandate was administrated by the United Kingdom from September 29,1922 to November 29,1947, Government of the State of Israel was proclaimed over parts of this territory on 14 May,1948. The approximate northern border with the French Mandate was agreed upon in the Paulet–Newcombe Agreement of 23 December 1920, Transjordan had been a no mans land following the July 1920 Battle of Maysalun. The Trans-Jordan Memorandum provided the detail to support Article 25 of the Mandate and it also established a separate Administration of Trans-Jordan for the application of the Mandate, under the general supervision of Great Britain. Transjordan became largely autonomous under British tutelage according to an agreement of February 20,1928, the League of Nations welcomed the end of the mandate in Transjordan on 18 April 1946. The conquest of Palestine became part of British strategies aimed at establishing a bridge between the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf. This would enable rapid deployment of troops to the Gulf, then the line of defence for British interests in India. A land bridge was also an alternative to the Suez Canal, the committee considered various scenarios and provided guidelines for negotiations with France, Italy, and Russia regarding the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. The Committee recommended in favour of the creation of a decentralised, at the same time, the British and French also opened overseas fronts with the Gallipoli and Mesopotamian campaigns. In Gallipoli, the Turks successfully repelled the British, French and Australian, from 1915, Zionist leader and anglophile Zeev Jabotinsky was pressing the British to agree to the formation of a Zionist volunteer corps that would serve under the aegis of the British army. The British eventually agreed to set up the Zion Mule Corps, after Lloyd George was made prime minister during the war, the British waged the Sinai and Palestine Campaign under General Allenby. This time the British agreed to a Jewish Legion, which participated in the invasion, russian Jews regarded the German army as a liberator and the creation of the Legion was designed to encourage them to participate in the war on Britains side. At the same time, British intelligence officer T. E. Lawrence was encouraging an Arab Revolt led by the Sharif of Mecca. The British defeated Ottoman Turkish forces in 1917 and occupied Ottoman Syria, the land remained under British military administration for the remainder of the war, and beyond. The Ottoman Empire capitulated on 30 October 1918, and on 23 November 1918, the Middle East was divided into three OETAs. Occupied Enemy Territory Administration South extended from the Egyptian border of Sinai into Palestine and Lebanon as far north as Acre and Nablus, a temporary British military governor Major General Sir Arthur Wigram Money would administer this sector. In October 1919, British forces in Syria and the last British soldiers stationed east of the Jordan were withdrawn and the region came under exclusive control of Faisal bin Hussein from Damascus. In 1916, Britain and France concluded the Sykes–Picot Agreement, which proposed to divide the Middle East between them into spheres of influence, with Palestine as an international enclave, the British made two potentially conflicting promises regarding the territory it was expecting to acquire

British Mandate for Palestine
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Map presented by TE Lawrence to the Eastern Committee of the War Cabinet in November 1918
British Mandate for Palestine
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British Command Paper 1785, December 1922, containing the Mandate for Palestine and the Transjordan memorandum
British Mandate for Palestine
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British memorandum on Palestine ahead of the Paris Peace Conference
British Mandate for Palestine
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British Cabinet map showing boundaries of the proposed mandates in early 1921, including those areas not yet delimited

95.
Palestinian Law
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Palestinian law is the law administered by the Palestinian National Authority within the territory pursuant to the Oslo Accords. It has an unusually unsettled status, as of 2014, due to the legal history of the area, the overlapping jurisdictions. Palestinian law includes many of the regimes and precepts used in Palestinian ruled territory and administered by the Palestinian Authority and Hamas. It is also to discuss the domestic and international positions on which set of laws are controlling in Palestinian ruled territory today. Due to the usages of the terms Palestine and Palestinian throughout history. Examples include the discussion of the Talmudic interpretation of laws from Palestine before 70 C. E, such references to ancient Palestinian law do not apply to the Palestinian legal situation since at least 1948. Essentially, says one scholar, the legal system in Palestine consists of layer upon layer of law that almost all remain in effect. The major issue is the, question of whether the state of Palestine will be capable of overseeing a system of rule of law. This debate is important not only in the arena but in the legal arena as well, since a viable state must have a legal system that is functional. To determine how this may be possible, we must look at what laws currently exist in the Palestinian territories, the law applied in different parts of the West Bank and Gaza strip is a combination of the various laws imposed on said areas throughout this century. Instead of each new law superseding the previous law, almost all of these remain in effect in the territories. Therefore, one would have to research multiple legal systems and codes to determine the law in one area and this is quite a confusing situation. The Palestinian legal system can be compared to a salad, with layers of different laws. This situation in the Palestinian Territories is perhaps unprecedented in modern history, the laws that applied come from many jurisdictions through history, Customary Law. Israeli law and even the informal strictures of the intirsial, fadah, and finally, the subject of sovereignty is both controversial and unsettled, neither the PLO nor the PA is recognized as a sovereign state by the United States. The Basic law, established in 2002, is the constitution of a future Palestinian state. According to one report, Palestinians had been requesting that the law be signed into effect since 1997 and it was enacted by the PLC and signed by Yasser Arafat. It was amended on March 19,2003 to allow the creation of the Prime Minister Position in the Palestinian National Authority, the Basic Law is based loosely on Sharia, According to Article 4, Islam is the official religion in Palestine

Palestinian Law

96.
Tel Aviv
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Tel Aviv-Yafo is a major city in Israel, located on the countrys Mediterranean coastline. It is the center and the technology hub of Israel, with a population of 432,892. Tel Aviv is the largest city in the Gush Dan region of Israel, Tel Aviv is also a focal point in the high-tech concentration known as the Silicon Wadi. Tel Aviv is governed by the Tel Aviv-Yafo Municipality, headed by Ron Huldai, Tel Aviv is a global city, and is the thirty eighth most important financial center in the world. Tel Aviv is known to have the third-largest economy of any city in the Middle East after Abu Dhabi and Kuwait City, the city receives over a million international visitors annually. Known as The City that Never Sleeps and a party capital, it has a lively nightlife, the city was founded in 1909 by Jewish immigrants on the outskirts of the ancient port city of Jaffa. It is named after the Hebrew translation of Theodor Herzls 1902 novel, Altneuland, the modern citys first neighbourhoods had already been established in 1886, the first being Neve Tzedek. Immigration by mostly Jewish refugees meant that the growth of Tel Aviv soon outpaced Jaffas, Tel Aviv and Jaffa were merged into a single municipality in 1950, two years after the establishment of the State of Israel. Tel Avivs White City, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003, Tel Aviv is the Hebrew title of Theodor Herzls Altneuland, translated from German by Nahum Sokolow. The name was chosen in 1910 from several suggestions, including Herzliya and it was found fitting as it embraced the idea of a renaissance in the ancient Jewish homeland. Aviv is Hebrew for spring, symbolizing renewal, and tel is a man-made mound accumulating layers of civilization built one over the other and symbolizing the ancient. Although founded in 1909 as a settlement on the sand dunes North of Jaffa. The marketing pamphlets advocating for its establishment in 1906, wrote, In this city we will build the streets so they have roads and sidewalks and electric lights. Every house will have water wells that will flow through pipes as in every modern European city. Since 1886, Jewish settlers had founded new neighborhoods outside Jaffa on the current territory of Tel Aviv, the first was Neve Tzedek, built on lands owned by Aharon Chelouche and inhabited primarily by Mizrahi Jews. Other neighborhoods were Neve Shalom, Yafa Nof, Achva, Ohel Moshe, Kerem HaTeimanim, once Tel Aviv received city status in the 1920s, those neighborhoods joined the newly formed municipality, now becoming separated from Jaffa. The Second Aliyah led to further expansion, in 1906, a group of Jews, among them residents of Jaffa, followed the initiative of Akiva Aryeh Weiss and banded together to form the Ahuzat Bayit society. The societys goal was to form a Hebrew urban centre in an environment, planned according to the rules of aesthetics

Tel Aviv
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תל אביב-יפו
Tel Aviv
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The ancient port of Jaffa —according to the Bible, where Jonah set sail into the Mediterranean before being swallowed by a fish
Tel Aviv
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Port of Jaffa in 1906
Tel Aviv
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Lottery for building plots in Tel Aviv, 1909

97.
Central Intelligence Agency
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As one of the principal members of the U. S. Intelligence Community, the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is focused on providing intelligence for the President. Though it is not the only U. S. government agency specializing in HUMINT and it exerts foreign political influence through its tactical divisions, such as the Special Activities Division. Despite transferring some of its powers to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a result of the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in fiscal year 2010, the CIA has increasingly expanded its roles, including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center, has shifted focus from counter-terrorism to offensive cyber-operations, when the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis. Today its primary purpose is to collect, analyze, evaluate, and disseminate foreign intelligence, warning/informing American leaders of important overseas events, with Pakistan described as an intractable target. Counterintelligence, with China, Russia, Iran, Cuba, the Executive Office also supports the U. S. military by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperates on field activities. The Executive Director is in charge of the day to day operation of the CIA, each branch of the military service has its own Director. The Directorate has four regional groups, six groups for transnational issues. There is a dedicated to Iraq, regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia, Russia and Europe, and the Asian Pacific, Latin American. The Directorate of Operations is responsible for collecting intelligence. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U. S. intelligence community with their own HUMINT operations. This Directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, in spite of this, the Department of Defense recently organized its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service, under the Defense Intelligence Agency. This Directorate is known to be organized by regions and issues. The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to the military services. For example, the development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force, the U-2s original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union. It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities, subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency

98.
Internal waters
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It includes waterways such as rivers and canals, and sometimes the water within small bays. In inland waters, sovereignty of the state is equal to that which it exercises on the mainland, the coastal state is free to make laws relating to its internal waters, regulate any use, and use any resource. When a foreign vessel is authorized to enter inland waters, it is subject to the laws of the coastal State, with one exception and this extends to labor conditions as well as to crimes committed on board the ship, even if docked at a port. Offences committed in the harbor and the crimes committed there by the crew of a foreign vessel always fall in the jurisdiction of the coastal State, the claim by one state of a waterway as internal waters has led to disputes with other states. The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, which was formed in 1994, has the power to settle disputes between party states

Internal waters
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Schematic map of maritime zones.

99.
Google Books
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Books are provided either by publishers and authors, through the Google Books Partner Program, or by Googles library partners, through the Library Project. Additionally, Google has partnered with a number of publishers to digitize their archives. The Publisher Program was first known as Google Print when it was introduced at the Frankfurt Book Fair in October 2004, the Google Books Library Project, which scans works in the collections of library partners and adds them to the digital inventory, was announced in December 2004. But it has also criticized for potential copyright violations. As of October 2015, the number of scanned book titles was over 25 million, Google estimated in 2010 that there were about 130 million distinct titles in the world, and stated that it intended to scan all of them. Results from Google Books show up in both the universal Google Search as well as in the dedicated Google Books search website, if Google believes the book is still under copyright, a user sees snippets of text around the queried search terms. All instances of the terms in the book text appear with a yellow highlight. The four access levels used on Google Books are, Full view, Books in the domain are available for full view. In-print books acquired through the Partner Program are also available for full view if the publisher has given permission, usually, the publisher can set the percentage of the book available for preview. Users are restricted from copying, downloading or printing book previews, a watermark reading Copyrighted material appears at the bottom of pages. All books acquired through the Partner Program are available for preview and this could be because Google cannot identify the owner or the owner declined permission. If a search term appears many times in a book, Google displays no more than three snippets, thus preventing the user from viewing too much of the book. Also, Google does not display any snippets for certain reference books, such as dictionaries, Google maintains that no permission is required under copyright law to display the snippet view. No preview, Google also displays search results for books that have not been digitized, in effect, this is similar to an online library card catalog. Google also stated that it would not scan any in-copyright books between August and 1 November 2005, to provide the owners with the opportunity to decide which books to exclude from the Project. It can let Google scan the book under the Library Project and it can opt out of the Library Project, in which case Google will not scan the book. If the book has already been scanned, Google will reset its access level as No preview and this information is collated through automated methods, and sometimes data from third-party sources is used. This information provides an insight into the book, particularly useful when only a view is available

100.
Agence France-Presse
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Agence France-Presse is an international news agency headquartered in Paris, France. Founded in 1944, AFP is the third largest news agency in the world, after the Associated Press, journalists of the French Resistance established the AFP in the headquarters of the former Office Français dInformation, a Vichy news agency, following the liberation of Paris. Currently, the CEO is Emmanuel Hoog and the News Director is Michèle Léridon, AFP has regional offices in Nicosia, Montevideo, Hong Kong, and Washington, D. C. and bureaux in 150 countries. AFP transmits news in French, English, Arabic, Portuguese, Spanish, the Agence Havas was founded in 1835 by a Parisian translator and advertising agent, Charles-Louis Havas as Agence Havas. Two of his employees, Paul Reuter and Bernhard Wolff, later set up rival news agencies in London and Berlin respectively and this arrangement lasted until the 1930s, when the invention of short-wave wireless improved and cut communications costs. To help Havas extend the scope of its reporting at a time of international tension. Established as an enterprise, AFP devoted the post-war years to developing its network of international correspondents. One of them was the first Western journalist to report the death of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin on March 6,1953, AFP was keen to shake off its semi-official status, and on January 10,1957 the French Parliament passed a law establishing its independence. Since that date, the proportion of the revenues generated by subscriptions from government departments has steadily declined. Such subscriptions represented 115 million Euros in 2011, in 1982, the agency began to decentralize its editorial decision-making by setting up the first of its five autonomous regional centres, in Hong Kong, then a British Crown colony. Each region has its own budget, administrative director and chief editor, in September 2007, the AFP Foundation was launched to promote higher standards of journalism worldwide. The Mitrokhin archive identified six agents and two confidential KGB contacts inside Agence France-Presse who were used in Soviet operations in France, in 1991, AFP set up a joint venture with Extel to create a financial news service, AFX News. It was sold in 2006 to Thomson Financial, in October 2008, the Government of France announced moves to change AFPs status, including the involvement of outside investors. On February 24,2010, Pierre Louette unexpectedly announced his intention to resign as CEO by the end of March, AFP is a government-chartered public corporation operating under a 1957 law, but is officially a commercial business independent of the French government. One is named by the minister, another by the minister of finance. The board elects the CEO for a term of three years. The AFP also has a council charged with ensuring that the agency operates according to its statutes, editorially, AFP is governed by a network of senior journalists. The primary client of AFP is the French government, which purchases subscriptions for its various services, in practice, those subscriptions are an indirect subsidy to AFP

101.
Cable News Network
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The Cable News Network is an American basic cable and satellite television news channel owned by the Turner Broadcasting System division of Time Warner. It was founded in 1980 by American media proprietor Ted Turner as a 24-hour cable news channel, upon its launch, CNN was the first television channel to provide 24-hour news coverage, and was the first all-news television channel in the United States. While the news channel has numerous affiliates, CNN primarily broadcasts from the Time Warner Center in New York City and its headquarters at the CNN Center in Atlanta is only used for weekend programming. CNN is sometimes referred to as CNN/U. S. to distinguish the American channel from its sister network. As of August 2010, CNN is available in over 100 million U. S. households, broadcast coverage of the U. S. channel extends to over 890,000 American hotel rooms, as well as carriage on cable and satellite providers throughout Canada. Globally, CNN programming airs through CNN International, which can be seen by viewers in over 212 countries and territories, as of February 2015, CNN is available to about 96,289,000 cable, satellite, and telco television households in the United States. The Cable News Network was launched at 5,00 p. m. Eastern Time on June 1,1980, after an introduction by Ted Turner, the husband and wife team of David Walker and Lois Hart anchored the channels first newscast. Burt Reinhardt, the vice president of CNN at its launch, hired most of the channels first 200 employees, including the networks first news anchor. Since its debut, CNN has expanded its reach to a number of cable and satellite providers, several websites. The company has 36 bureaus, more than 900 affiliated local stations, the channels success made a bona-fide mogul of founder Ted Turner and set the stage for conglomerate Time Warners eventual acquisition of the Turner Broadcasting System in 1996. A companion channel, CNN2, was launched on January 1,1982, on January 28,1986, CNN carried the only live television coverage of the launch and subsequent break-up of Space Shuttle Challenger, which killed all seven crew members on board. On October 14,1987, Jessica McClure, an 18-month-old toddler, fell down a well in Midland, CNN quickly reported on the story, and the event helped make its name. This was before correspondents reported live from the capital while American bombs were falling. Before Saddam Hussein held a press conference with a few of the hundreds of Americans he was holding hostage. Before the nation watched, riveted but powerless, as Los Angeles was looted and burned, before O. J. Simpson took a slow ride in a white Bronco, and before everyone close to his case had an agent and a book contract. This was uncharted territory just a time ago. The moment when bombing began was announced on CNN by Bernard Shaw on January 16,1991, as follows, lets describe to our viewers what were seeing. The skies over Baghdad have been illuminated, were seeing bright flashes going off all over the sky

102.
UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005

UNESCO
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UNESCO offices in Brasília
UNESCO
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UNESCO
UNESCO
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UNESCO Institute for Water Education in Delft
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The Garden of Peace, UNESCO headquarters, Paris. Donated by the Government of Japan, this garden was designed by American-Japanese sculptor artist Isamu Noguchi in 1958 and installed by Japanese gardener Toemon Sano.

103.
Al Jazeera America
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Al Jazeera America was an American basic cable and satellite news television channel owned by the Al Jazeera Media Network, Doha. The channel was launched on August 20,2013 to compete with CNN, HLN, MSNBC, Fox News Channel, the channel was Al Jazeeras second entry into the U. S. television market, after the launch of beIN Sport in 2012. The channel, which had low ratings, announced in January 2016 that it would close on April 12,2016. The channel was headquartered and run from studios on the first floor of the Manhattan Center in New York City, the channel was the sister channel of Al Jazeeras international English language news channel Al Jazeera English. Current TV, by coincidence, was formerly Newsworld International, a news channel similar to Al Jazeera America run by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. On July 22,2013, Al Jazeera America named former ABC News Vice President Kate OBrian as president of the network, and Ehab Al Shihabi as interim CEO in charge of business affairs. In addition, former CNN veteran David Doss was named Vice President of News Programming, former MSNBC executive Shannon High-Bassalik was named Senior Vice President of Documentaries and Programs. Al Jazeera said it received more than 21,000 job applications for 400 positions at its U. S. network, approximately 200 Current TV employees, including some 50 in editorial, were absorbed by the new operation. It planned to have a total of 800 employees at the channels launch, Al Jazeera America also announced that the channel would employ well-known veteran journalists, anchors, and producers. On July 3,2013, Ali Velshi confirmed that Al Jazeera Americas launch would take place on August 20,2013, the launch took place at 3,00 p. m. Eastern Time on that date, with an hour-long preview special entitled This is Al Jazeera. News coverage began immediately afterward at 4,00 p. m, Al Jazeera Americas website launched on August 8,2013. It was also reported that this closure would lead to the loss of about 700 jobs, however, the network experienced low viewership ratings, averaging between 20,000 and 40,000 viewers on a typical day. Following the networks shutdown, Al Jazeera Media Network is planning on expanding its presence in the United States though ventures such as United States-based AJ+. On February 26,2016, the Al Jazeera America website ceased operations, on March 27,2016, CNN correspondents Brian Stelter and Tom Kludt wrote an in-depth analysis of Al Jazeera Americas closure. Among the many reasons for the closure cited in the article were low viewership, but the article also pointed to more deeper-rooted problems. These problems included poor decision making and management on behalf of Al Jazeera higher-ups – specifically CEO Ehab Al Shihabi, the article stated that they lacked a business plan, and made faulty branding choices such as refusing to change the name Al Jazeera. Stelter and Kludt also suggested that political issues could have played into the channels demise, during the Bush administration, the President and other officials openly criticized Al Jazeera for airing messages from Al-Qaeda figures. This could have part of the reason why Al Jazeera America struggled to get major cable providers like Comcast

104.
Al Jazeera Media Network
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Al Jazeera Media Network is a Middle Eastern multinational multimedia conglomerate, and is the parent company of Al Jazeera and its related networks. The chairman is Sheikh Hamad bin Thamer Al Thani, the acting director general is Dr. Mostefa Souag. The BBC channel had closed after a year and a half when the Saudi government attempted to thwart a documentary pertaining to executions under sharia law, Al Jazeeras first day on the air was 1 November 1996. It offered 6-hours of programming per day, this would increase to 12-hours by the end of 1997 and it was broadcast to the immediate neighborhood as a terrestrial signal, and on cable, as well as through satellites. 1 January 1999 was Al Jazeeras first day of 24-hour broadcasting, employment had more than tripled in one year to 500 employees, and the agency had bureaux at a dozen sites as far as EU and Russia. Its annual budget was estimated at about $25 million at the time, in 2003, Al Jazeera hired its first English-language journalists, among whom was Afshin Rattansi, from the BBCs Today Programme. In March 2003, it launched an English-language website, on 4 July 2005 Al Jazeera officially announced plans to launch a new English-language satellite service to be called Al Jazeera International. The new channel started at 12h GMT on 15 November 2006 under the name Al Jazeera English and has broadcast centers in Doha, London, Kuala Lumpur and Washington D. C. The channel is a 24-hour, 7-days-a-week news channel, with 12 hours broadcast from Doha, and four each from London, Kuala Lumpur. Among its staff were hired from ABCs Nightline and other top news outfits. Josh Rushing, a former media handler for CENTCOM during the Iraq war, agreed to provide commentary, David Frost was also on board. In an interesting technical feat, the broadcast of the new operation was handed off between bases in Doha, London, Washington, D. C. and Kuala Lumpur on a daily cycle. The new English language venture faced considerable regulatory and commercial hurdles in the North America market for its sympathy with extremist causes. At the same time, others felt Al Jazeeras competitive advantage lay in programming in the Arabic language, if the venture panned out, it would extend the influence of Al Jazeera, and tiny Qatar, beyond even what had been achieved in the stations first decade. In an interesting twist of fate, the BBC World Service was preparing to launch its own Arabic language station in 2007. In 2013 they announced the creation of Al Jazeera Türk, a version of Al Jazeera that will be in the Turkish language stationed in Istanbul catering to, on January 22,2014 Al Jazeera Turks website launched with news content. The move made Al Jazeera Turk the first 24-hour news operation to go digital before broadcast, Al Jazeera America was an American version of Al Jazeera English. The channel launched on 20 August 2013 exclusively on cable and satellite systems in the United States, on 2 January 2013, Al Jazeera Media Network announced that it purchased Current TV in the United States and would be launching an American news channel

105.
World Bank Group
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The World Bank Group is a family of five international organizations that make leveraged loans to developing countries. It is the largest and most famous development bank in the world and is an observer at the United Nations Development Group. The bank is based in Washington, D. C. and provided around $61 billion in loans and assistance to developing, the banks stated mission is to achieve the twin goals of ending extreme poverty and building shared prosperity. Total lending as of 2015 for the last 10 years through Development Policy Financing was approximately $117 billion, the IBRD and IDA provide loans at preferential rates to member countries, as well as grants to the poorest countries. Loans or grants for projects are often linked to wider policy changes in the sector or the countrys economy as a whole. The World Bank has received various criticisms over the years and was tarnished by a scandal with the banks then President Paul Wolfowitz and his aide, Shaha Riza, in 2007. The WBG came into existence on 27 December 1945 following international ratification of the Bretton Woods agreements. It also provided the foundation of the Osiander Committee in 1951, commencing operations on 25 June 1946, it approved its first loan on 9 May 1947. All of the 193 UN members and Kosovo that are WBG members participate at a minimum in the IBRD, as of May 2016, all of them also participate in some of the other 4 organizations, IDA, IFC, MIGA, ICSID. Together with four affiliated agencies created between 1957 and 1988, the IBRD is part of the World Bank Group, the Groups headquarters are in Washington, D. C. It is an organization owned by member governments, although it makes profits. Membership gives certain voting rights that are the same for all countries, the President of the World Bank is nominated by the President of the United States and elected by the Banks Board of Governors. As of 15 November 2009 the United States held 16. 4% of total votes, Japan 7. 9%, Germany 4. 5%, the United Kingdom 4. 3%, and France 4. 3%. As changes to the Banks Charter require an 85% super-majority, the US can block any change in the Banks governing structure. The term World Bank generally refers to just the IBRD and IDA, the World Bank Institute is the capacity development branch of the World Bank, providing learning and other capacity-building programs to member countries. The IBRD has 189 member governments, and the institutions have between 153 and 184 members. The institutions of the World Bank Group are all run by a Board of Governors meeting once a year, each member country appoints a governor, generally its Minister of Finance. On a daily basis the World Bank Group is run by a Board of 25 Executive Directors to whom the governors have delegated certain powers, each Director represents either one country, or a group of countries

World Bank Group
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The World Bank Group Building in Washington D.C.
World Bank Group
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The World Bank Sign on the building
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A young World Bank protester in Jakarta, Indonesia.
World Bank Group
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World Bank / IMF protesters smashed the windows of this PNC Bank branch located in the Logan Circle neighborhood of Washington, D.C.

106.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946

The New York Times
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Cover of The New York Times (November 15, 2012), with the headline story reporting on Operation Pillar of Defense.
The New York Times
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First published issue of New-York Daily Times, on September 18, 1851.
The New York Times
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The Times Square Building, The New York Times ‍ '​ publishing headquarters, 1913–2007
The New York Times
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The New York Times newsroom, 1942

107.
Philadelphi Route
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The Philadelphi Route, also called Philadelphia Corridor, refers to a narrow strip of land,14 km in length, situated along the border between Gaza Strip and Egypt. Under the provisions of the Israeli-Egyptian peace treaty of 1979, it was established as a buffer zone controlled and patrolled by Israeli forces, one purpose of the Philadelphi Route was to prevent the movement of illegal materials and people between Egypt and the Gaza Strip. Palestinians, in cooperation with some Egyptians, have built smuggling tunnels under the Philadelphi Route to move these into the Gaza Strip, after the 1995 Oslo Accords, Israel was allowed to retain the security corridor. The Palestinian side of the border was controlled by Palestinian Authority, the joint authority for the Rafah border crossing was transferred to the Palestinian Authority and Egypt for restricted passage by Palestinian ID card holders, and by others by exception. The new border cut across Rafah, dividing the town and leaving families separated on both sides of the border, Rafah would be the main border crossing in Gaza. It was agreed that the area near the border would be demilitarized, in 2004, the Knesset passed a resolution to unilaterally withdraw all Israeli citizens and forces from the Gaza Strip, which went into force in August 2005. Under the Philadelphi Accord, Egypt was authorized to deploy border guards along the Philadelphi route to patrol the border on Egypts side, part of the agreement was a continuous coordination between Israel and Egypt regarding operations and intelligence. Much opposition arose within the “Israeli defense establishment” to vacating the Philadelphi route for strategic reasons, the primary concern was the militarization of Gaza and the threat to Israeli security that its militarization would pose. However, it was decided to vacate the corridor in order to prevent Israeli-Palestinian friction which could destabilize the region further, Israel’s decision to withdraw from the Phildelphi Route also posed a threat to the neighboring Egyptians through the potential militarization of Gaza. It was feared that Israel’s departure would create a vacuum that the weak Palestinian leadership would not be able to fill. The Accord itself contains 83 clauses and specifically describes the mission and obligations of the parties, including the types of machinery, weaponry. Under the Philadelphi Accord, Egypt was authorized to deploy 750 border guards along the route to patrol the border on Egypts side. The agreement specified that the Egyptian force is a force for the combating of terrorism and infiltration across the border. The parties acknowledge that the BGF deployment and these Agreed Arrangements, rather they constitute additional mission-oriented security measures agreed upon by the parties. -Philadelphi Accord, Article 9 Instead, it “enhance Egypt’s capability to fight smuggling along the border, the Philadelphi Accord created the Egyptian Border Guard Force composed of 750 ground personnel divided between headquarters and four companies. Heavy armored vehicles, fortification, military-style intelligence-gathering equipment, and weaponry, a number of scholars have looked into the legal issue of whether or not the Philadelphi Accord needed to be passed by the Knesset. Generally, the Knesset approves of major treaties either before or after their passage, the issue arose because the Philadelphi Accord would partially militarize Area C of the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty, changing the treaty and hence needing Knesset approval. On July 6,2005, the Attorney General ruled that the government was not bound to seek Knesset approval for the treaty, following the disengagement from Gaza, Israel signed with the Palestinian Authority the Agreement on Movement and Access on 15 November 2005

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IDF soldiers uncover a tunnel near the Philadelphi Route shortly before the disengagement
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The Philadelphi Route is located along the Egypt-Gaza border

108.
Human Rights Watch
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Human Rights Watch is an American-founded international non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights. C. and Zurich. The organizations annual expenses totaled $50.6 million in 2011, Human Rights Watch was founded by Robert L. Bernstein as a private American NGO in 1978, under the name Helsinki Watch, to monitor the former Soviet Unions compliance with the Helsinki Accords. Helsinki Watch adopted a practice of naming and shaming abusive governments through media coverage. Americas Watch was founded in 1981 while bloody civil wars engulfed Central America, asia Watch, Africa Watch, and Middle East Watch were added to what was known as The Watch Committees. In 1988, all of these committees were united under one umbrella to form Human Rights Watch, pursuant to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Human Rights Watch opposes violations of what it considers basic human rights. This includes capital punishment and discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, HRW advocates freedoms in connection with fundamental human rights, such as freedom of religion and freedom of the press. These reports are used as the basis for drawing attention to abuses and pressuring governments. HRW has documented and reported violations of the laws of war. Human Rights Watch also supports writers worldwide, who are being persecuted for their work and are in need of financial assistance. The Hellman/Hammett grants are financed by the estate of the playwright Lillian Hellman in funds set up in her name and that of her long-time companion, the novelist Dashiell Hammett. In addition to providing assistance, the Hellman/Hammett grants help raise international awareness of activists who are being silenced for speaking out in defense of human rights. Each year, Human Rights Watch presents the Human Rights Defenders Award to activists around the world who demonstrate leadership, the award winners work closely with HRW in investigating and exposing human rights abuses. Human Rights Watch was one of six international NGOs that founded the Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers in 1998, Human Rights Watch is a founding member of the International Freedom of Expression Exchange, a global network of non-governmental organizations that monitor censorship worldwide. It also co-founded the Cluster Munition Coalition, which brought about an international convention banning the weapons, HRW employs more than 275 staff—country experts, lawyers, journalists, and academics – and operates in more than 90 countries around the world. The current executive director of HRW is Kenneth Roth, who has held the position since 1993, Roth conducted investigations on abuses in Poland after martial law was declared 1981. He later focused on Haiti, which had just emerged from the Duvalier dictatorship, roth’s awareness of the importance of human rights began with stories his father had told about escaping Nazi Germany in 1938. Roth graduated from Yale Law School and Brown University, HRW has been criticized for perceived bias by the national governments it has investigated for human rights abuses, and by NGO Monitor, and HRWs founder, and former Chairman, Robert L. Bernstein. Bias allegations include undue influence by United States government policy, HRW has routinely publicly responded to, and often rejected, criticism of its reporting and findings

109.
University of Virginia School of Law
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The University of Virginia School of Law was founded in Charlottesville in 1819 by Thomas Jefferson as one of the original subjects taught at his academical village, the University of Virginia. Virginia Law is the fourth-oldest active law school in the United States, the law school offers the J. D. LL. M. and S. J. D. degrees in law and hosts visiting scholars, visiting researchers and a number of legal research centers. Virginia Law is perennially regarded as one of the 10 most prestigious law schools in the United States. U. S. News & World Report currently ranks Virginia Law as tied for eighth in the nation with Michigan, in 2018, in the 2010 Super Lawyers Law School Rankings, Virginia Law ranks fourth in the nation. In the 2015 Above the Law rankings, Virginia Law ranked sixth in the nation, a 2013 Above the Law report also notes that Virginia is second in the number of graduates leading the nations top 100 firms. A study published in the Journal of Legal Education ranked Virginia Law fourth in the number of partners in the National Law Journals top 100 firms, Virginia Law also places high in clerkships, recently ranking behind only Harvard Law School and Yale Law School. The 2016 QS World University Rankings for law school, places Virginia Law in the range of 51–100 worldwide, Virginia Law recently completed an eight-year capital campaign, raising $173.9 million to enhance the student experience. The Judge Advocate Generals Legal Center and School operated by the United States Army is located next to UVA, Virginia Law is among the most selective law schools in the nation. For the class entering in the fall of 2016,297 out of 4,811 J. D. applicants matriculated, the 25th and 75th LSAT percentiles for the 2016 entering class were 164 and 170, respectively, with a median of 169. The 25th and 75th undergraduate GPA percentiles were 3.48 and 3.94, respectively, the Class of 2019 come from 39 states, the District of Columbia, and 138 undergraduate institutions. The age range was 20 to 37, 55% of the class was male, 45% female, and 24% identified themselves as people of color. 59% of the class had work experience after college, the total cost of attendance for first-year law students at Virginia Law for the 2016-2017 academic year is $78,002 for Virginia residents and $81,002 for nonresidents. The Law School maintains a roster of student organizations, including chapters of the Federalist Society, the American Constitution Society. The Virginia Law Weekly, the Law Schools student-run weekly newspaper, has published since 1948. The paper has been cited in court cases including the U. S. Supreme Court case Patterson v. New York. In addition to its news content, the VLW also contains student-submitted content which often includes humorous, the Law Weekly has won the American Bar Associations previous three Best Newspaper Awards, in 2006,2007, and 2008. Each spring over a hundred students write, direct and perform in The Libel Show and its performers roast Law School professors, student stereotypes and life in Charlottesville throughout each of its three nightly showings. Professors write and sing their response to the jokes at the penultimate performance

University of Virginia School of Law
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The University of Virginia School of Law.
University of Virginia School of Law
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University of Virginia School of Law
University of Virginia School of Law
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Clay Hall and Caplin Pavilion
University of Virginia School of Law
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Spies Garden

110.
State University of New York Press
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The State University of New York Press, is a university press and a Center for Scholarly Communication. The Press is part of the State University of New York system and is located in Albany, SUNY Press was founded in 1966 in order to support the State University of New York’s commitments to teaching, research, and public service. Historically, the Press publishes scholarly works that further research in a variety of fields. The Press publishes around 160-180 books per year, making it one of the larger university presses by output. The Press utilizes the latest advances in communication to offer a range of print and electronic publications to fulfill the evolving needs of scholars, students, authors. Joseph Natoli In 2008 the Press started an imprint called Excelsior Editions. This imprint publishes popular works for all readers and also showcases the diversity of the peoples, histories, and natural beauty of New York, State University of New York Press SUNY Press at Facebook State University of New York

State University of New York Press
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University centers
State University of New York Press
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State University of New York Press