The dualistic doctrine of human nature (soul separate from body) stems from an
established philosophical tradition dating back to Plato. But both the Old and New
Testaments posit a holistic alternative by viewing humans as unified wholes, Although
biblical anthropology thus appears to reject dualism, the historical Christian church has
often adopted soul/body schism, thereby encouraging human alienation from self,
others, and nature. Holism from a biblical perspective is offered here as an alternative.
Special attention is focused upon the many complex psychological and social realities
as addressed by a renewed ethic for the whole person.

Of what do humans consist: two separate essences, physical
and spiritual, or only one? Are we "ghosts in machines," as
the dualists suggest? It is certainly true that many people are
accustomed to considering the mind (or its theological counterpart, the soul) and the body as distinct entities. This
dualistic doctrine of human nature, in which soul (the
.1
ghost") and body (the "machine") exist separately and yet
interact with each other, has found such illustrious proponents from history as the following selected list of representative thinkers. (a)
Plato
viewed the body as "only an outer
garment which, as long as we live, prevents our soul from
moving freely and from living in conformity to its proper
eternal essence" (Cullmann, 1958, p. 19), and, in the
Timaeus,
blamed "disorders of the soul" on the "badness" of the body (c. 390--348 B.C./1952, p. 474). (b)
Augustine,
in the
City of God,
regarded the soul as an immaterial spiritual
substance that reigns supreme over its inferior counterpart,
the despicable body (c. 413-426/1952, pp. 379-380). (c)
Calvin,
in the
institutes,
referred to the human being as
consisting of a physical body in addition to a soul that he
described as "an immortal, yet created essence ... which rises
above the world" (1559/1949, pp. 203-204). (d)
Descartes,
in
his
Discourse on Method,
equated that which is purely
spiritual with the mind, which exists separate and apart from
the material realm of physical substance (1637/1952, p. 60).

A conflict has arisen, however, as those who study the Bible
have discovered within the language of the Scriptures certain
basic assumptions about human nature, assumptions that
seem to contradict the dualistic hypothesis. Among biblical
scholars there is a burgeoning consensus that biblical antbropology presents
homo sapiens
not as two distinct "substances"
but as a
unified whole.
Painstaking examination of both the
Old Testament Hebrew concepts and the New Testament
Greek terminology has pointed toward a more unanimously
accepted picture of
holistic,
not dualistic, humanity.

Although it is true that many within Christian circles,
particularly the academic-theological community, have
turned away from traditional philosophical/anthropological
formulations (due to the apparent lack of biblical relatedness
of such doctrines), such metaphysical conceptualizations of
personhood, primarily emanating from Platonic dualism, remain deeply entrenched within religious thought. As Norman Pittenger (1980) notes,

A good deal of so-called "religious" discussion has been conducted on
altogether too highly a spiritual plane, as if human beings were really
nothing but angels who for the time being happened to be resident in a
physical abode (i.e., the idea of an eternal "ghost" in an ephemeral
"machine"). Such a view would be more appropriate for proponents of
ancient gnostic theories, come alive in our day, than for those who profess
a biblical basis for their religion. None the less, much that has been taught
and preached in the Christian churches has resembled this heretical
theorizing. (p. 23)

In fact, it is this traditional concept of soul-body separatism
that has come to be viewed by the general populace as
the
Christian understanding of humans. Although not intending
to discount the worth of dualistic speculation on the philosophical level of striving for greater anthropological understandings, nor attempting to deny the consideration of metaphysical dualism as "a" religious view of humanity, I
nevertheless contend that this essentially unbiblical construct
is not the Christian understanding of human nature.

In this discussion I seek to demonstrate three ideas. (a) 10:33--34; Acts 8:32; 1 Peter 1:18-19).
Exposition of key word-concepts in the Bible shows that the
scriptural understanding of humans is far removed from the
dualism of not only Greek philosophy, but also much of
subsequent Christian speculation. (b) The historical cleavage
between a human's soul and a human's body, particularly
within the bounds of religious ethics, has served to encourage
a host of unbiblical actions as well as attitudes among
dualistically-oriented Christians. (c) A thorough-going
anthropology based upon biblical holism serves as a practical,
as well as theoretical, basis f or a renewed Christ-like emphasis
on ministry to the whole person.

Biblical Anthropology
In my conceptual exposition of numerous Old and NewTestament passages, particularly focusing on I Corinthians
15:35-58, 1 have reached several key conclusions (Weathers,
Note 1). One primary insight deals with Paul's use of soma (or
body) always to indicate humans as indivisible wholes as
contrasted with human beings existing in parts. Gerhard Kittel, the editor of the Theological Dictionary of the New
Testament
(1971), elaborates by declaring the following:

In fact (to Paul) soma means man in his confrontation with God or sin or
fellow-man. Soma is the place where faith lives and where man
surrenders to God's lordship. It is thus the sphere in which man serves
The I, then, cannot be divided up into an inwardness of soul, affection, or understanding on the one side and an outwardness of the body in
which one draws or neglects the consequences therefrom on the other.
(p. 1066; italics added)

Paul equates the holistic anthropos (or human being) with
soma. In opposition to the "spiritual" emphasis of his peers
(no less applicable to a similar phenomenon today by those
who overemphasize the transformed, "spiritualized," inward
nature of humanity without accompanying corporeal witness) Paul, in such pertinent passages as 11 Corinthians 5:1-10; Romans 6:12-14; Romans 8:12-14; Romans 8:11f.; I
Corinthians 4:14f; and Philippians 3:21, calls for humans to live their faith out not only in an intellectual or emotional manner, but in the comprehensive arena of "somatic"
existence. This willingness, to bear bodily witness to God's salva-
tion, most adequately defined in Isaiah's Old Testament depiction of the
Suffering Servant (cf. Isaiah 42:1-4; 49:1-6;
50:4-9; 52:13-53:12), is best exemplified in the New Testament by the "life-giving spirit" himself ... Jesus (cf. Mark
10:33-54, Acts 8:32, I Peter 1.18-19.

Another important word, psuche (cf. nephesh in Old Testament), or soul, represents in both testaments the individual being in totality. Paul, resisting attempts to equate the psuchikon human (or person "possessing" a soul) with some
extracorporeal metaphysical vision of a spiritualized entity,
posits psuche in a sense that is best epitomized by the modern
term "self."

In the Bible then, humans, as holistic vessels, possess no
"immortal" inner part that guarantees heavenly life.
Humanity's destiny is determined not by its nature, but by its
relation to God and to its fellow human beings. Salvation, seen
through this perspective, is not representative of a human
initiated retreat from one's "somatic" nature into the "spiritual." Rather one's bodily activities are drawn into a functional relationship of responsible complementarity with one's
mental activities, thus leading to a unified expression of life in
relationship to God. God redeems humanity, not by abolish
ing its human wholeness, but by calling the holistic person
into unison with his/her Creator (cf. Gatch, 1969, pp. 43-44;
Hick, 1973, pp. 99-100; Hick, 1976, p. 278).

Dualism and Religious Ethics

In contrast to this biblical concept of anthropological
holism, or psuche-soma indivisibility, stands the steadily
increasing impact of dualistic considerations upon much of
the Judaeo-Christian heritage. The impact of dualism on the
historically evidenced ministry of the Christian church can
most profitably be analyzed on three interrelated levels of
alienation: (a) alienation from oneself, (b) alienation from
one's fellow person, and (c) alienation from creation as a
whole (Ruether, 1972, p. 255).

Drawing from Gnosticism's renunciation of this world and man's presence in it, the early Christian church sometimes
"fostered a dualistic tendency in Christian anthropology by identifying man's true humanity as something outside history" (Childs, 1978, p. 20). From this understanding it was but a
brief step to the position that "whatever is a threat to my body is not a threat to me" (Evans, 1977, p. 104). This self
depiction of the Suffering Servant (cf. Isaiah 42:1-4; 49:1-6; alienating view of reality came to epitomize the classical

Robert S. Weathers is completing his doctoral studies in Clinical Psychology (with
a masters in theology) at Fuller Seminary. He received his B.A. with a double
major in psychology and Christian ministry from Fresno Pacific College (California) in 1979. His current interests include transpersonal approaches to psychology
as well as Eastern and Western contemplative traditions. Bob wishes to thank Mr.
John Fast and Dr. Al Dueck (both of Fresno Pacific College) and Dr. Clint
McLemore (Fuller Seminary) for their support and helpful advice in bringing this
project along to its current stage of development. He currently resides with his
wife Tammy in Pasadena, California.

Christian breed of spirituality.

Salvation came about through repression of the body: the sensual
appetities and feelings, and a flight to an inner spiritual self. Eating,
sleeping, even bathing, the delights of ear and eye, and most of all, sexual
pleasure, as the most intense bodily pleasure, were the seat of the
"enemy." This constituted literally a "death ethic" in which life-long
"Mortification" gained fulfillment in the separation of the "soul" from
the body. (Ruether, p. 255)

Just as asceticism under the guise of Christian servitude has
led irrevocably to self-alienation, so have the characteristic
forms of individualism (Dueek, Note 2) and dogmatism (cf.
Fowler, 1981, pp. 9-15). Here the words of a great Old
Testament prophet ring clearly:

I hate, I spurn your pilgrim-feasts;
I will not delight in your sacred ceremonies...
Spare me the sound of your songs;
I cannot endure the music of your lutes.
Let justice roll on like a river
and righteousness like an ever-flowing stream.
(Amos 5:21, 23, 24-New English Bible)

It is this traditional concept of soul-body separatism that has come to be viewed
by the general populace as
the
Christian understanding of humans.

Holders of the Orthodox position (based upon the aforementioned
dualistic presuppositions) have been guilty of neglecting the social
dimension of the Gospel entirely-seeking the salvation of souls but
allowing bodies to go to hell (p. 16).

As is evidenced today in such glaring crises as fuel shortages, carcinogenic radiation from malfunctioning nuclear
reactors, and choking fumes from all sorts of human-made
atmospheric pollutants, alienation in its third form, from
God's creation, is likewise an undeniable reality-yes, even
for (possibly, most especially for) the church of Jesus Christ.
By now it is apparent to the reader that a "dichotomy
between matter and spirit is not only anti-biblical but ecologically fatal" (Stagg, 1973, p. 59). As Stagg remarks,

if philosopby or religion teachers us to despise the material (a la dualism),
counting it worthless or even evil, the next step is to neglect it, abuse it,
deplete it, pollute it (pp. 59-60).

Christians, working more often than not from a dualistic
conceptualization of themselves in relation to God's universe,
have helped to perpetuate many of modern man's fallacious
assumptions and self-destructive behaviors in relation to the
material realm, including "God's good earth, the larger
'body'or 'house' ('ecology' is from oikos,'house') in which we
live" (Stagg, p. 59).

Human beings who accept a dualistic view of themselves
are indeed alienated from everything: themselves, their fellows, and creation as a whole. Never before has there been a
time in which the need for courage and introspection was
greater. The great question of our age is: "What changes are
necessitated in order for humans to once again focus on
accepting the gift of wholeness from God?"

Human
Health

The changes we accept in our ways of talking and thinking
about human nature are related to the problems we have to
solve (Dueck, Note 3). Reverting to the biblical model of
understanding human beings as whole units in relation to God
is imperative to the resolution of the problems that have
emanated from the dualistic milieu. only through a renewal
of emphasis upon the holistic person, who is called into God's
salvific covenantal family, can expectations for genuine
renewal by concerned Christians be realized within the
churches.

Biblical holism as an alternative to anthropological dualism
opens the door to human casting away of the bonds of
self-alienation. Redefining repentance is seen by some as an
integral part of the process of people getting back in touch
with both themselves and their Creator. As one author puts
it:

Repentance means . . . return(ing) to that true body-self in community
with our fellow persons and creation in an aspiration for that 'good land'
of messianic blessedness which makes all things whole (Ruether, pp.
253-257).

just as biblical holism affects one's body awareness (by
teaching one to accept, be good to, and attentively listen to
one's own body), such a view of human nature also shapes the
Christian view of sex. In his efforts to "demythologize" sex
within the context of biblical holism, Bruce Larson discusses
" sex not as an entity unto itself but as one dimension of life
which cannot be separated from the other aspects of human
personality" (Quebedeaux, pp. 103-104; underlining added).
More recently, Cliff and Joyce Penner (1981) assert a similarly holistic alternative to traditional Christian conceptions
of sex. The Penner's explicate the Bible's "prosexual message"
in careful detail. When the Bible speaks of human sexual
experience, it is "talking about that mystical union between
husband and wife that includes the emotional, physical, and
spiritual-the total person" (p. 41). As such, sex is to be
celebrated!

These last comments serve as a natural transition into a
discussion of biblical holism as a reply to dualism's inevitable
alienation of persons from their fellow human beings. just as self-alienation is such a direct corollary of dualistic notions
within religion, dualism also unquestionably "ignores (the)
social-cosmic character of sin" (Ruether,
p. 252).
Artificially
separating persons into two or more mutually exclusive
spheres of activity, which is exactly what dualism has propounded throughout history, has resulted in a marked tendency within Christianity to repeatedly fail to address social
complexities.

That "conversion, discipleship and social concern are inextricably linked together" seems to be a foregone conclusion of
the biblical writers (Quebedeaux,
p. 81).
As one example of
the very real implications involved in a holistic view of man,
consider biblical holism's response to the dichotomy between
church and state. A properly holistic view suggests

that the doctrine of separation of church and state has, in fact, been
misinterpreted, that it really pertains to the prohibition of government
interference in church affairs and does not forbid the churches to speak
and act prophetically when the state fosters political or social unrighteousness (Quebedeaux, p. 99).

Holism's response to a pervasive anti-black racism (constructed on a foundation of religious dualism) has been well
articulated by William Pannell and Tom Skinner. Pannell
(1970)
declares that "the sin of Evangelicalism is not that we
are un-American. It is rather that we are more American than
Christian"
(p. 31).
Pannell posits a tentative solution (not
inconsistent with holistic conceptualizations), as well as acknowledging the difficulties presented, even promulgated, in
today's church.

Here we clearly need to preach a Christ who moves alongside of
contemporary man, helping him to affirm his individuality and personal
worth. Unfortunately, He (Jesus) often comes through as Anglo-Saxon,
Protestant, suburban, Republican. Black young people simply cannot
identify with that kind of Christ in a racist society (p. 31).

Biblical holism opens the door to the church's realization of
the following rendition of Galatians
3:28:
"In Jesus there are
no 'niggers' or 'whiteys,' no 'freaks' or 'straights,' no male or
female because we are all one in Him" (cited in Quebedeaux,
P. 110).

Living out a holistic gospel is of necessity often demanding
upon the committed disciple. Such demands can be adequately met only by the one whose roots remain firmly
implanted in the redemptive acts of God. This form of
Christian radicalism is best summarized in the powerful
message of black evangelist Tom Skinner
(1971):

You will never be radical until you become part of that new order (God's
kingdom) and then go into a world that is enslaved, a world that is filled
with hunger and poverty and racism and all those things of the work of
the devil. Proclaim liberation to the captives, preach sight to the blind,
set at liberty them that are bruised, go into the world and tell men that
are bound mentally, spiritually and physically. 'The
liberator has
corne!'
(pp. 208-209).

Although the problems of self-alienation and alienation
from one's fellow humanity are indeed severe in the modern
church, perhaps the most pressing urgency lies in contemporary human interaction with the natural environment. Lynn
White, Jr. has described the etiology of the ecological crisis.

Finally, concluding on a more positive note, Henri
Nouwen directs the holistic Christian to a deeper appreciation of humankind's undeniable relatedness to all
of, creation.
"The closer we come to nature, the closer we touch the core of
life when we celebrate. Nature tells us that life is precious not
only because it is, but also because it does not have to be"
(1971, pp. 104-105).
As God's people, committed as a church
to right the many wrongs to be associated with philosophical
and practical roots of dualistic anthropology, we collectively
reject all forms of the "cheap grace" that Dietrich Bonhoeffer
so detested. Rather we seek, in God, the truly transcendent
foundation for humane ethics and wholesome personhood.