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Genetic diversity – refers to variety of genomes within a population; different sets of genes produce different characteristics within the same species Introduction Seeds of the bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean) reflect the genetic diversity within the species. Farmers in Swaziland, South Africa, take advantage of this by planting seeds of mixed colors, shapes and sizes. This way, they avoid having their crop wiped out in the event of a pest attack. Photo:

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Species diversity – refers to the variety that exists within a community of plants and animals Introduction An artists rendition of an African watering hole. Such a gathering is not possible of course. Photo: format-jigsaw-puzzle-memories.html?js=n

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Are all forms of life equally important? (Miller 2001) Introduction Indicator species Keystone species Endemics

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Indicator species – serve as early warning devices for an ongoing disturbance that is damaging the natural balance of an ecosystem. They are very sensitive to pollution and are the first to be affected. Introduction Frogs are useful indicators since their sensitive skin makes them susceptible to even small amounts of pollutants. In addition, they live on both land and water and so serve as barometers of good environmental health for both ecosystems. Photo:

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Keystone species – not necessarily the most abundant in a community, these species perform ecological functions on which the whole ecosystem depends. Without them, everything collapses. Introduction With their massive bodies and tusks, elephants can effectively dig the ground in search of water during the dry season. The holes they make then become watering holes for other animals. Photo:

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Endemics – these are species that are unique to a locality. The conservation of endemics takes top priority since they are found nowhere else on the planet. Introduction Photo: Gernot Vogel in The Gold-ringed Cat Snake (Boiga dendrophila divergens) is one of the largest snakes in the world (6-8 feet in length). They are found only in Luzon and are classified as Vulnerable because their mangrove habitats are being destroyed.

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Speciation: Darwin revisited Phloeomys pallidus (Northern slender-tailed cloud rat, Bu-ot) At 2.5 kilos, these cloud rats are the largest in the world. Endemic to Benguet, Kalinga-Apayao, Bataan/Zambales Large and meaty, cloud-rats are heavily hunted Photo by: WLR Oliver in

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What is speciation? Speciation: Darwin revisited There is a grandeur to this view of life.. that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on.. endless forms most beautiful and wonderful have been and are being evolved. (Charles Darwin as quoted in Miller 2001)

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What is a species? (Campbell and Reece 2002) Speciation: Darwin revisited How do species evolve? Reproductive isolation Symaptric vs allopatric speciation Figure: _concepts_allopatry_and_s.php Speciation begins with isolation. A population may be divided by geographic barriers (allopatric speciation) or by chromosomal mutations (sympatric speciation).

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Mountain ecosystems Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity Most Philippine islands have prominent mountains. Mountains harbor distinct forest types based on differences in temperature & rainfall. Map: Each forest type produces its own unique set of plants and animals. Humus, the sponge-like- flood-controlling layer of decomposing plant material, becomes more abundant the higher one goes up a mountain.

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Forest types in Philippine mountains – Lowland forest Photo: Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity Lowland forest in Pasonanca Natural Park, Zamboanga Peninsula, Southwestern Mindanao. The largest trees (2-3 meters diameter, m tall) are found in the lowland forests. Most of these trees are dipterocarps which are known for their beautiful, lustrous wood collectively known as Philippine mahogany. Lianas and other vines reach from the forest floor to the canopy providing a natural highway for monkeys, squirrels, civet-cats and monkeys.

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Photo: ia.org/wiki/File:Dipteroc arpus_grandiflorus_Blan co2.263-original.png Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity The Apitong (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus) produces, aside from its timber, an oily resin used in lamps and varnishing compounds.

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Photo: Dipterocarps take 40 years to produce their first seeds (above) and about 100 years to reach marketable size. Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity Most lowland forests have been decimated and nearly all Philippine species are threatened with extinction. Of the 45 native Philippine dipterocarps, nearly half are found nowhere else on Earth. Photo:

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Forest types in Philippine mountains – Montane forest Photo: Montane forest in Mt. Polis, Ifugao, Luzon. Montane forest trees are shorter (max of 25 m) and are much more decorated with vines, pandans, pitcher plants and orchids. The montane forest receives 2 to 3 times more rain than the lowlands. Rain is well distributed throughout the year. Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity

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Photo: Greg Allikas in Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity Considered as the Queen of Philippine orchids, the Waling- waling (Vanda sanderiana) is nearly extinct in the wild forests of Mindanao due to over collection. Montane forests feature an abundant array of orchids and pitcher plants.

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Forest types in Philippine mountains – Mossy forest Photo: Lower mossy forest in Mt. Pulag, the highest peak in Luzon. Mossy forests are the wettest places in the Philippines receiving as much as 5 times more rainfall than at sea level. Combined with a cool temperature, the abundant rain fosters an explosion of plant life (mostly mosses, ferns, and orchids). Trees are kept small (2-3 m) and are often gnarled and twisted by the wind. Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity

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Photo: Origins and dimensions of Philippine biodiversity The sunbirds are the hummingbirds of the Philippines. Shown here is the Apo sunbird (Aethopyga boltoni) found only in Mindanao. Mossy forests feature abundant species of birds, rodents and apmhibians.

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The study of biodiversity (Stiling 2002) The study of biodiversity Species richness – total number of species Species evenness – distribution of individuals per species Field studies (A need for real heroes!) – field studies are financially and physically challenging, sometimes even life-threatening

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What are hotspots? Philippine biodiversity in peril Hotspots are the richest and most threatened reservoirs of plant and animal life on Earth. (Carr and Langhammer 2010) There are 34 hotspots in the world. The Philippines is ranked by many as the hottest.

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Culprit or scapegoat? (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998) Philippine biodiversity in peril Habitat loss is the immediate cause of extinction. Commercial logging and farming Mining Subsistence farming Over population is the favorite suspect.

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Negros: an ordinary example of environmental devastation (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998) Philippine biodiversity in peril 1850s Smallpox vaccine and other medicines Hacienda system began Triangular social caste emerged Population boomed: from 30,000 to 500,000

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Negros: an ordinary example of environmental devastation (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998) Philippine biodiversity in peril 1900s American colonial government (1898) Granted the 1 st logging concessions Subsidized the sugar industry Population: from 500,000 to 3M by end of 1900s

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Magat Dam, Isabela, Luzon The cost of loss Photo: Photo: magat-dam Designed to operate for 90 years, Magat dam was built in 1983 at a cost of 6.5 B pesos. Siltation from the denuded watershed forest has now reduced its operational life by half.

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The Ormoc Tragedy (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998) The watershed forests were cleared for plantations owned by only 6 families (including the mayor). November 1991: River water rose 10 ft in just 3 hrs. 7,000 people died. Main roads, bridges, crops were destroyed. Ormoc Bay was filled with muddy water. The cost of loss

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The Ormoc Tragedy The cost of loss Photo: surveys-the-grim-de

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The Ormoc Tragedy (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998) A year later, no reforestation efforts have begun. According to a city councilor: We are still waiting for a plan for reforestation that will not disrupt the economy. To make reforestation attractive, the landowners must be convinced that the economic value of the trees will be commensurate to the value of the sugar cane. The cost of loss

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The cost of loss (Heaney and Regalado, Jr. 1998) The cost of loss Deforestation worsens drought conditions. The groundwater system is not renewed. Panay is one of the most deforested island. 450km 2 of farmland affected; 118,000 tons of rice lost. Starving farmers cut trees for charcoal. Water in Iloilo city is rationed (4 days a wk).