habitable zonethe orbital region around a star in which an Earth-like planet can possess liquid water on its surface and possibly support life. Liquid water is essential to all life on Earth, and so the definition of a habitable zone is based on the hypothesis that extraterrestrial life would share this requirement. This is a very conservative (but observationally useful) definition, as a planet’s surface temperature depends not only on its proximity to its star but also on such factors as its atmospheric greenhouse gases, its reflectivity, and its atmospheric or oceanic circulation. Moreover, internal energy sources such as radioactive decay and tidal heating can warm a planet’s surface to the melting point of water. These energy sources can also maintain subsurface reservoirs of liquid water, so a planet could contain life without being within its star’s habitable zone. Earth, for instance, has a thriving subsurface biosphere, albeit one that is composed almost exclusively of simple organisms that can survive in oxygen-poor environments. Jupiter’s moon Europa has a liquid water ocean tens of kilometres below its surface that may well be habitable for some organisms.

The Kepler satellite

has discovered 54

discovered a planet, Kepler-22b, with a radius 2.4 times that of Earth, orbiting within the habitable zone of a star like the Sun. Kepler also found 48 possible planets within the habitable zones of their stars, and

five

10 of those possible planets are less than two Earth radii in size. Astronomers have also used simulations of the climates of other extrasolar planets such as HD 85512b and Gliese 581d to determine that they could have surface water under the right climatic conditions.

Boundaries

The inner boundary of a habitable zone is where water would be lost as a result of a runaway greenhouse effect, in which greenhouse gases in a planet’s atmosphere would trap incoming infrared radiation, leading to the planet’s becoming hotter and hotter until the water boiled away. The outer boundary is where such greenhouse warming would not be able to maintain surface temperatures above freezing anywhere on the planet. Astronomers have calculated the extent of the habitable zone for many different types of stars. For example, at present, the habitable zone of the Sun is estimated to extend from about 0.9 to 1.5 astronomical units (the distance between Earth and the Sun).

The location of a star’s habitable zone depends upon its luminosity. Because a star’s luminosity increases with time, both the inner and outer boundaries of its habitable zone move outward. Thus, a planet that is in the habitable zone when a star is young may subsequently become too hot. Venus may have been such a planet; however, because it is geologically active, its current surface is too young to show any evidence that a more clement climate may have existed billions of years ago. Other planets could be too cold for liquid water to exist when their star is young but might warm up enough to have liquid water on their surface later as their star’s luminosity increases. This may happen to Mars a few billion years hence. Thus, the most promising region to find Earth-like life would be in a “continuously habitable zone,” where liquid water could have been present from early in the star’s life up to the current epoch. The continuously habitable zone of the Sun (from four billion years ago to the present) is from about 0.9 to 1.2 astronomical units.

Changes in the Sun’s habitable zone

Earth has had liquid water on its surface for much of the past four billion years. However, four billion years ago the Sun’s luminosity was only about 75 percent as intense as it is at present, and climate models suggest that Earth should have been frozen over at such a low solar luminosity. This apparent disagreement between theory and observation is known as the “faint young Sun problem.” Another planet to which the faint young Sun problem might apply is Mars. On that planet the oldest regions of the surface show signs of running water while younger regions do not, which suggests that Mars had a warmer and thicker atmosphere in the past, when the Sun was less luminous, than it has now that the Sun is brighter. The warmth of Earth and Mars during their early periods (and thus the solution to the faint young Sun problem) can be attributed to the presence of abundant greenhouse gases in their atmospheres, with carbon dioxide, water, and possibly ammonia and methane playing major roles.

Habitable zones for high- and low-mass stars

The location of a star’s habitable zone also depends upon its mass. Smaller stars like the Sun survive far longer than do high-mass stars. High-mass stars have lifetimes of only millions of years, whereas advanced life took billions of years to develop on Earth. Thus, even if Earth-like planets formed around high-mass stars at distances where liquid water was stable, it is unlikely that benign conditions would exist long enough on these planets for life to form and evolve into advanced organisms.

At the other end of the mass spectrum, the smallest, faintest stars can last for trillions of years. However, these cool dwarf stars emit almost all of their luminosity at infrared wavelengths, which may be difficult for life to harness, and they typically display larger luminosity variations than do Sun-type stars. In addition, in order for a planet to remain within the habitable zone of a faint star, it would have to orbit so close that tidal forces raised on the planet would cause the same hemisphere always to face the star (just as the Moon’s near side always faces Earth). As a result, there would be no day-night cycle, and the planet’s atmosphere, unless it was sufficiently thick, would freeze onto the surface of the cold, perpetually dark hemisphere. (However, if the planet had a sufficiently massive atmosphere, winds would redistribute heat and the atmosphere would not freeze.) Moreover, the high temperatures within the habitable zones of faint stars suggest that such planets are likely to lack the atmospheric gases required by life.

Galactic habitable zone

The concept of a stellar habitable zone has been extended to a planet’s location in the Milky Way Galaxy. Near the centre of the Milky Way, stars are typically much closer to one another than they are farther out on the spiral arms, where the Sun is located. At the galactic centre, therefore, phenomena such as supernovae might present a greater hazard to life than they would in the region where Earth is located. On the other hand, in the outer regions of the Milky Way beyond the location of Earth, there are fewer stars. Since the bulk of a terrestrial planet is composed of chemical elements that were produced within stars, the material out of which new stars are being formed may not have enough of those elements necessary for Earth-like planets to grow. Considerations of this type have led to the concept of a galactic habitable zone, analogous to a stellar habitable zone. The concept of a galaxy’s habitable zone may well be viable, but the extent and boundaries of such a region are far more difficult to quantify than those of a star’s habitable zone.