Solar Radiation

Solar radiation is becoming increasingly appreciated because of its
influence on living matter and the feasibility of its application for
useful purposes. It is a perpetual source of natural energy that,
along with other forms of renewable energy, has a great potential for
a wide variety of applications because it is abundant and
accessible. Solar radiation is rapidly gaining ground as a supplement
to the nonrenewable sources of energy, which have a finite supply.

Recent developments in the areas of photochemistry and photobiology
have also helped in bringing attention to solar radiation. The
significant depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer, which shields
the earth from much of the biologically injurious solar ultraviolet
radiation (UVR), is apparently due to human activity and has now
become a popular topic. Adverse biological effects of UVR on man
include, among others, sunburn (erythema), conjunctivitis, and skin
cancer (WHO 1979). In contrast, the vital phenomenon of photosynthesis
is an example of the beneficial effects of sunlight in the natural
environment. Other beneficial and harmful effects on a variety of
living beings, especially microorganisms, are well documented (Jagger
1976; Chamberlin and Mitchell 1978; Harm 1980; Senger 1980). Solar
radiation has, therefore, a prominent ecological role.

Most photobiological investigations have been confined to laboratory
work based on the use of monochromatic UVR produced
artificially. Because these model studies do not completely reflect
the natural situation, the recent trend is to supplement them with
experimental work employing sunlight as a natural UV source. This
gives results with more realistic, practical values. However, the
polychromatic nature of solar radiation, its variable intensity, and
the limited knowledge of its distribution at the local level tend to
hamper such efforts and complicate the interpretation of the results.

The solar radiation spectrum

The electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun shows a wide range of
wavelengths. It can be divided into two major regions with respect to
the capability of ionizing atoms in radiation-absorbing matter:
ionizing radiation (X-rays and gamma-rays) and nonionizing radiation
(UVR, visible light, and infrared radiation). Fortunately, the highly
injurious ionizing radiation does not penetrate the earth's
atmosphere.

Solar radiation is commonly divided into various regions or bands on
the basis of wavelength (Table 1). Ultraviolet radiation is that part
of the electromagnetic spectrum between 100 and 400 nm. It is, in
turn, divided rather arbitrarily from the viewpoint of its biological
effects into three major components (Fig. 1). Table 1. Spectral bands
of incoming solar energy and atmospheric effects.

Atmospheric interventions

Solar radiation is partially depleted and attenuated as it traverses
the atmospheric layers, preventing a substantial portion of it from
reaching the earth's surface. This phenomenon is due to absorption,
scattering, and reflection in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere),
with its thin layer of ozone, and the lower atmosphere (troposphere),
within which cloud formations occur and weather conditions manifest
themselves (Table 1) (Brooks and Miller 1963, McVeigh 1977 Sabins
1978; Michels 1979; WHO 1979).

The stratospheric ozone layer has a strong absorption affinity for
solar UVR, depending on wavelength. Absorption, being more effective
for the shorter wavelengths, tends to reach its peak at 250 nm and
drops rapidly with an increase in wavelength, even beyond 350
nm. Thus, the biological harmful radiations below 280 nm (vacuum UV and
UV-C) are completely shielded by the ozone layer; only a fraction of
the UV-B and UV-A wavelength bands reach ground level. Depletion of the
protective ozone layer beyond the critical level by certain
atmospheric pollutants (fluorocarbons and nitrogen oxides) that
interact photochemically with ozone will promote the transmission of
highly injurious UVR (El-Hinnawi and Hashmi 1982).

The troposphere is an attenuating medium. The solar radiation is
reflected and scattered primarily by clouds (moisture and ice
particles), particulate matter (dust, smoke, haze, and smog), and
various gases. The two major processes involved in tropospheric
scattering are determined by the size of the molecules and particles
and are known as selective scattering and nonselective
scattering. Selective scattering is caused by smoke, fumes, haze, and
gas molecules that are the same size, or smaller, than the incident
radiation wavelength. Scattering in these cases is inversely
proportional to wavelength and is most effective for the shortest
wavelengths. The degree of scattering decreases in the following
order: UV-B > UV-A > violet > blue > green > yellow
> orange > red > infrared. When the atmosphere is clear and
relatively transparent, selective scattering is less severe than when
it is extensively polluted. Selective scattering of sunlight in the
blue region of the spectrum under clear-sky conditions accounts for
the blue sky when the degree of scattering is sufficiently high. This
is determined by the length of the atmospheric path traversed by
sunlight. With the sun overhead at noon, the sky appears white because
little scattering occurs at the minimum atmospheric path length. At
sunrise and sunset, however, the solar disc appears red because of the
increased atmospheric path associated with blue light scattering and
relatively little scattering of the red component. Selective
scattering may range from 10% in the early morning to 20% in the late
afternoon (McVeigh 1977).

Nonselective scattering is caused by dust, fog, and clouds with
particle sizes more than 10 times the wavelength of the incident
radiation. As scattering in this case is not wavelength-dependent, it
is equal for all wavelengths. Because of this, clouds appear
white. Clouds also reflect incident solar radiation back into space;
this varies with their thickness and albedo (ratio of reflected to
incident light). Thin clouds may reflect less than 20% of the incident
solar radiation, whereas a thick and dense cloud may reflect over
80%. Absorption of radiation by even thick cloud formations is less
than 10%. Whereas gases, water vapour, and particulate matter cause
depletion mainly in the short-wave region of the spectrum, atmospheric
gases and clouds deplete absorption at specific wavelength intervals
called absorption bands. These occur largely in the longer-wave region
and are in contrast to the intervening regions characterized by their
transmission bands, or atmospheric windows. The gases involved in the
absorption phenomenon in the red and infrared regions are ozone and
carbon dioxide (Table 1).

The total solar radiation received at ground level consists of direct
and indirect radiation (scattered, diffused, or reflected). The UVR
component does not exceed 5% of the total incident radiation at sea
level under cloudless atmospheric conditions. The intensity of
sunlight at ground level varies with latitude, geographic location,
season, cloud coverage, atmospheric pollution, elevation above sea
level, and solar altitude. The 23.5° tilt of the earth's axis affects
the angle of incidence of solar radiation on the earth's surface and
causes seasonal and latitudinal variations in day length. At high
altitudes, the intensity of UVR is significantly higher than at sea
level. The spectral distribution of solar energy at sea level is
roughly 3,44, and 53% in the UV, visible, and infrared regions,
respectively. In practice, therefore, these variables need to be
considered for the use of solar energy, including its UVR component.

Transmission through different media

Solar energy impinging upon a transparent medium or target is partly
reflected and partly absorbed; the remainder is transmitted. The
relative values are dependent upon the optical properties of the
transparent object and the solar spectrum (Dietz 1963).

Transmission of the incident solar energy through glass is a function
of the type and thickness of the glass, the angle of incidence, and
the specific wavelength bands of radiation. Ordinary glass of the
soda-lime-silica type (window or plate glass) can transmit more than
90% of the incident radiation in the UV-A and visible regions of the
spectrum, provided the Fe2O3 content is lower than 0.035%; if it is
higher, the transmittance is somewhat decreased. Increased thickness
of glass diminishes transmittance. The transmittance is uniform at a
high level for angles of incidence ranging from 0 to 40° and drops
sharply as the angle approaches 90° (Dietz 1963). Ordinary glass is
opaque to radiation in the UV-B and UV-C regions; Pyrex glass
(borosilicate type) is opaque to radiation in the UV-B band and
attains a maximum transmission level at 340 nm and beyond (Acra et
al. 1984). The coefficient of transparency for borosilicate glass, 1.0
cm in thickness, is 0.08 at 310 nm, rises sharply to 0.65 at 330 nm,
and attains a peak level of 0.95-0.99 from 360 to 500 nm (Weast
1972). The transmission properties of Pyrex are exceeded only by
quartz (Dietz 1963; Kreidl and Rood 1965; Weast 1972).

Transparent plastic materials such as Lucite and Plexiglas are good
transmitters in the UV and visible ranges of the spectrum (Dietz
1963). Translucent materials such as polyethylene can also transmit
the germicidal components of sunlight (Fujioka and Narikawa 1982).
Solar energy passing through water is also attenuated by reflection
and absorption. The proportion of transmitted sunlight in water
depends on water depth; turbidity caused by organic and inorganic
particles in suspension; optical properties as modified by the
presence in solution of light-absorbing substances such as colouring
materials, mineral salts, and humates; and wavelength of the incident
radiation. Up to 10% of the solar UV-B intensity at the surface of
clear seawater may penetrate to a depth of 15 m (Calkins 1974),
inactivating Escherichia coli to a depth of 4 m (Gameson and Saxon
1967). The exponential attenuation values of UVR (200-400 nm) in
distilled water are less than in seawater and range from 10/m at 200
nm to a minimum of 0.05/m at 375 nm. Values rise sharply in the
visible and infrared regions of the spectrum, showing that solar UV-A
has a greater penetration power in water than UV-B or visible light
(Stewart and Hopfield 1965). The absorption of UVR (210-300 nm) by
materials in natural water seems to be related to chemical oxygen
demand (Ogura 1969). At the surface of tertiary sewage lagoons, for
example, the solar UV-B intensity drops exponentially to 20% at a
depth of 10 cm,3% at 20 cm, 0.6% at 30 cm, and 0.1 % at 40 cm (Moeller
and Calkins 1980). Most of the UV-B absorbance in wastewater effluents
is caused by the dissolved humic substances, whereas the suspended
particles absorb and scatter UVR and protect bacteria during UV
disinfection (Qualls et al. 1983).

Textiles used in clothing are not necessarily complete absorbers of
natural UVR and may give a false sense of security against sunburn and
skin cancer. The average white shirts worn by men may transmit 20% of
the solar UVR, whereas lighter weaves favoured by women may allow up
to 50% to penetrate to the covered skin (WHO 1979). Transmission of
UVR through various samples of fabrics ranges from 64% for 100% nylon
to 5% for black cotton, the values being reduced by thickness and dyes
and increased with the intensity of UVR (Hutchinson and Hall
1984). The depths of penetration of UVR and visible light into the
human skin are as follows: 0.01-0.1 mm for UV-B, 0.1-1.0 mm for UV-A,
and 1.0-10.0 mm for the visible spectrum (Largent and Olishifski
1983).

Artificial sources of ultraviolet radiation

Artificial sources of UVR are often used for a variety of purposes,
ranging from experimenting to suntanning. Gas-discharge arcs,
fluorescent lamps, and incandescent sources are some of the common
artificial UVR sources, and their potential health hazards are
attributable to the significant amounts of biologically effective UVR
emitted (WHO 1979; Harvey et al. 1984; Pierce et al. 1986).

Photobiological research has been confined largely to laboratory work
based on the use of UVR produced artificially in preference to solar
radiation. The recent trend, however, is toward the use of sunlight as
a supplementary source in radiation experiments.

Relevant units

In accordance with the International System of Units, the units for
the intensity of solar radiation, or any of its biologically active
components, are watts per square metre (W/m2), or joules
per square metre (J/m2) (WHO 1979). Wavelength (lambda)
is expressed in nanometres (1 x 109). For photobiological
research, the term UV fluence (F) is recommended instead of UV
dose (Harm 1980) and its units are watts per hour per square metre
(W/h per m2). Fluence is quantitatively the product of
radiation intensity (I) and exposure time (T) (F =
IT). Another photobiological unit of recent origin is the sun unit
(SU), related to the erythemal effect of UV-B radiation (WHO 1979).

World distribution of solar radiation

Solar radiation is unevenly distributed throughout the world because
of such variables as solar altitude, which is associated with latitude
and season, and atmospheric conditions, which are determined by cloud
coverage and degree of pollution. The following guidelines are useful
for the broad identification of the geographic areas with favourable
solar energy conditions in the Northern Hemisphere based on the
collection of the direct component of sunlight. Similar conditions
apply for the Southern Hemisphere (Acra et al. 1984).

The most favourable belt (15-35° N) encompasses many of the developing
nations in northern Africa and southern parts of Asia. It has over
3 000 h/year of sunshine and limited cloud coverage. More than 90% of
the incident solar radiation comes as direct radiation.

The moderately favourable belt (0-15° N), or equatorial belt, has
high atmospheric humidity and cloudiness that tend to increase the
proportion of the scattered radiation. The global solar intensity is
almost uniform throughout the year as the seasonal variations are only
slight. Sunshine is estimated at 2 500 h/year.

In the less favourable belt (35-45° N), the scattering of the solar
radiation is significantly increased because of the higher latitudes
and lower solar altitude. In addition, cloudiness and atmospheric
pollution are important factors that tend to reduce sharply the solar
radiation intensity. However, regions beyond 45° N have less
favourable conditions for the use of direct solar radiation. This is
because almost half of it is in the form of scattered radiation, which
is more difficult to collect for use. This limitation, however, does
not strictly apply to the potentials for solar UVR applications.

World maps illustrating the isolines of the mean global solar
radiation (both direct and diffuse radiations) and solar UVR impinging
on a horizontal plane at ground level are available (Landsberg 1961;
Schulze 1970; WHO 1979). A set of values for average daily influx of
solar UVR as a function of wavelength, latitude, and time of year have
also been published (Johnson et al. 1976). The tabulated data pertain
to sea level and clear-sky conditions and are distributed at intervals
of latitude from 0 to 65° N and S for selected wavelengths from 285 to
340 nm. The calculated values for the erythemal effect corresponding
to 307 and 314 nm have been included for comparison. These data
indicate that for all UVR wavelengths from 285 to 340 nm, the solar
UVR flux decreases as the latitude increases. Assuming cloudless
conditions, the solar UVR intensity at sea level is expected
theoretically to be significantly greater at the equator than at the
higher latitudes. In addition, at each latitude, the maximum intensity
would be reached in summer; the minimum, in winter. A similar pattern
will be followed by the erythemal-response wavelengths of 307 and 314
nm. The variation with latitude or season in the calculated influx is
much sharper for shorter wavelengths.

These data (Johnson et al. 1976) were transcribed into values relative
to those pertaining to the equator. Relative values (ratios) for the
solar UV-A component at 340 nm as a function of latitude are shown in
Fig. 2. The important inferences include the following:

the latitudinal trends vary with season and solar angle,
attaining a minimum declination in December (winter solstice) and a
maximum inclination in June (summer solstice);

the trends for the other months fall within these two limits; and

the annual mean values show a declining trend.

These phenomena are dictated by the solar angle and its variation as a
function of latitude and month (Fig. 3). Also illustrated are the
seasonal variations in the angles of the earth's tilt and of the sun's
altitude at noon, indicating the minimum and maximum levels attained
worldwide and at 34° N in Beirut. Computations are based on the
following relationships (Michels 1979):

At equinoxes: solar altitude = 90° - latitude

At solstices: solar altitude = (90° - latitude) + 23.5°

This means that, for any latitude, the relative intensity in each
month is appreciably greater for the longer UV-A wavelengths than it is
for the shorter ones (Fig. 4).