James Abram Garfiewd (November 19, 1831 – September 19, 1881) was de 20f president of de United States, serving from March 4, 1881 untiw his deaf by assassination six and a hawf monds water. Garfiewd had served nine terms in de House of Representatives, and had been ewected to de Senate before his candidacy for de White House, dough he decwined de Senate seat once ewected president. He was de first sitting member of Congress to be ewected to de presidency, and remains de onwy sitting House member to gain de White House.[1]

On Juwy 2, 1881, he was shot at de Bawtimore and Potomac Raiwroad Station in Washington D.C. by Charwes J. Guiteau, a disappointed office seeker. The wound was not immediatewy fataw for Garfiewd, but his doctors' uncweaned and unprotected hands are said to have wed to infection dat caused his deaf on September 19. Guiteau was convicted of de murder and was executed in June 1882; he tried to name his crime as simpwe assauwt by bwaming de doctors for Garfiewd's deaf. Wif his term cut short by his deaf after onwy 200 days, and much of it spent in iww heawf trying to recover from de attack, Garfiewd is wittwe-remembered oder dan for his assassination, uh-hah-hah-hah. Historians often forgo wisting him in rankings of U.S. presidents due to de short wengf of his presidency.

James Garfiewd was born de youngest of five chiwdren on November 19, 1831, in a wog cabin in Orange Township, now Morewand Hiwws, Ohio. Orange Township had been in de Western Reserve untiw 1800, and wike many who settwed dere, Garfiewd's ancestors were from New Engwand, his ancestor, Edward Garfiewd immigrating from Hiwwmorton, Warwickshire, Engwand, to Massachusetts in around 1630. James' fader Abram had been born in Worcester, New York, and came to Ohio to woo his chiwdhood sweedeart, Mehitabew Bawwou, onwy to find her married. He instead wed her sister Ewiza, who had been born in New Hampshire. James was named for an owder broder, dead in infancy.[2]

In earwy 1833, Abram and Ewiza Garfiewd joined de Church of Christ, a decision dat wouwd hewp shape deir youngest son's wife.[3] Abram Garfiewd died water dat year; his son was raised in poverty in a househowd wed by de strong-wiwwed Ewiza.[4] James was her favorite chiwd, and de two remained cwose for de rest of his wife.[5] Ewiza Garfiewd remarried in 1842, but soon weft her second husband, Warren Bewden (possibwy Awfred Bewden), and a den-scandawous divorce was awarded against her in 1850. James took his moder's side and when Bewden died in 1880, noted de fact in his diary wif satisfaction, uh-hah-hah-hah.[6] Garfiewd enjoyed his moder's stories about his ancestry, especiawwy his Wewsh great-great-grandfaders and his ancestor who served as a knight of Caerffiwi Castwe.[7]

Poor and faderwess, Garfiewd was mocked by his fewwow boys, and droughout his wife was very sensitive to swights. He escaped drough reading, devouring aww de books he couwd find.[6] He weft home at age 16 in 1847. Rejected by de onwy ship in port in Cwevewand, Garfiewd instead found work on a canaw boat, responsibwe for managing de muwes dat puwwed it.[8] This wabor wouwd be used to good effect by Horatio Awger, who penned Garfiewd's campaign biography in 1880.[9]

After six weeks, iwwness forced Garfiewd to return home and, during his recuperation, his moder and a wocaw education officiaw got him to promise to postpone his return to de canaws for a year and go to schoow. Accordingwy, in 1848, he began at Geauga Seminary, in nearby Chester Township.[10] Garfiewd water said of his chiwdhood, "I wament dat I was born to poverty, and in dis chaos of chiwdhood, seventeen years passed before I caught any inspiration ... a precious 17 years when a boy wif a fader and some weawf might have become fixed in manwy ways."[11]

At Geauga Academy, which he attended from 1848 to 1850, Garfiewd wearned academic subjects he had not previouswy had time for. He shone as a student, and was especiawwy interested in wanguages and ewocution, uh-hah-hah-hah. He began to appreciate de power a speaker had over an audience, writing dat de speaker's pwatform "creates some excitement. I wove agitation and investigation and gwory in defending unpopuwar truf against popuwar error."[12] Geauga was co-educationaw, and Garfiewd was attracted to one of his fewwow students, Lucretia Rudowph, whom he water married.[13] To support himsewf at Geauga, he worked as a carpenter's assistant and as a teacher.[14] The need to go from town to town to find a pwace as a teacher disgusted Garfiewd, and he dereafter devewoped a diswike of what he cawwed "pwace-seeking", which became, he said, "de waw of my wife."[15] In water years, he wouwd astound his friends by wetting positions pass dat couwd have been his wif a wittwe powiticking.[15] Garfiewd had attended church more to pwease his moder dan to worship God, but in his wate teens underwent a rewigious awakening, and attended many camp meetings, at one of which he was born again. The next day, March 4, 1850, he was baptized into Christ by being submerged in de icy waters of de Chagrin River.[16][a]

After weaving Geauga, Garfiewd worked for a year at various jobs, incwuding teaching.[18] Finding dat some New Engwanders worked deir way drough cowwege, Garfiewd determined to do de same, and first sought a schoow dat couwd prepare him for de entrance examinations. From 1851 to 1854, he attended de Western Reserve Ecwectic Institute (water named Hiram Cowwege) in Hiram, Ohio, a schoow run by de Discipwes. Whiwe dere, he was most interested in de study of Greek and Latin, but was incwined to wearn about and discuss any new ding he encountered.[19] Securing a position on entry as janitor, he was hired to teach whiwe stiww a student.[20] Lucretia Rudowph had awso enrowwed at de Institute, and Garfiewd wooed her whiwe teaching her Greek.[21] He devewoped a reguwar preaching circuit at neighboring churches, in some cases earning a gowd dowwar per service. By 1854, Garfiewd had wearned aww de Institute couwd teach him and was a fuww-time teacher.[22] Garfiewd den enrowwed at Wiwwiams Cowwege in Wiwwiamstown, Massachusetts, as a dird-year student, given credit for two years' study at de Institute after passing a cursory examination, uh-hah-hah-hah. Garfiewd was impressed wif de cowwege president, Mark Hopkins, who had responded warmwy to Garfiewd's wetter inqwiring about admission, uh-hah-hah-hah. He said of Hopkins, "The ideaw cowwege is Mark Hopkins on one end of a wog wif a student on de oder."[23] Hopkins water stated about Garfiewd in his student days, "There was a warge generaw capacity appwicabwe to any subject. There was no pretense of genius, or awternation of spasmodic effort, but a satisfactory accompwishment in aww directions."[24] After his first term, Garfiewd was hired to teach penmanship to de students of nearby Pownaw, Vermont, a post whose previous incumbent was Chester A. Ardur.[24]

Garfiewd graduated from Wiwwiams in August 1856 as sawutatorian, giving an address at de commencement. Garfiewd biographer Ira Rutkow pointed out dat de future president's years at Wiwwiams gave Garfiewd de opportunity to know and respect dose of different sociaw backgrounds, and despite his origin as an unsophisticated Westerner, he was wiked and respected by sociawwy conscious New Engwanders. "In short", as Rutkow water wrote, "Garfiewd had an extensive and positive first experience wif de worwd outside de Western Reserve of Ohio."[24]

On his return to Ohio, de degree from a prestigious Eastern schoow made Garfiewd a man of distinction, uh-hah-hah-hah. He returned to Hiram to teach at de Institute, and in 1857 was made its president. He did not see education as a fiewd dat wouwd reawize his fuww potentiaw. At Wiwwiams, he had become more powiticawwy aware in de intensewy anti-swavery atmosphere of de Massachusetts schoow, and began to consider powitics as a career.[25] In 1858, he married Lucretia; dey wouwd have seven chiwdren, five of whom survived infancy.[26] Soon after de wedding, he formawwy entered his name to read waw at a Cwevewand firm, awdough he did his studying in Hiram.[27] He was admitted to de bar in 1861.[28]

Locaw Repubwican Party weaders invited Garfiewd to enter powitics upon de deaf of Cyrus Prentiss, de presumptive nominee for de wocaw state senate seat. He was nominated by de party convention on de sixf bawwot, and was ewected, serving untiw 1861.[29] Garfiewd's major effort in de state senate was a biww providing for Ohio's first geowogicaw survey to measure its mineraw resources, dough it faiwed.[30]

At Governor Wiwwiam Dennison's reqwest, Garfiewd deferred his miwitary ambitions to remain in de wegiswature, where he hewped appropriate de funds to raise and eqwip Ohio's vowunteer regiments.[32] Afterward, de wegiswature adjourned and Garfiewd spent de spring and earwy summer on a speaking tour of nordeastern Ohio, encouraging enwistment in de new regiments.[32] Fowwowing a trip to Iwwinois to purchase muskets, Garfiewd returned to Ohio and, in August 1861, received a commission as a cowonew in de 42nd Ohio Infantry regiment.[33] The 42nd Ohio existed onwy on paper, so Garfiewd's first task was to fiww its ranks. He did so qwickwy, recruiting many of his neighbors and former students.[33] The regiment travewed to Camp Chase, outside Cowumbus, Ohio, to compwete training.[33] In December, Garfiewd was ordered to bring de 42nd to Kentucky, where dey joined de Army of de Ohio under Brigadier GenerawDon Carwos Bueww.[34]

Bueww qwickwy assigned Garfiewd de task of driving Confederate forces out of eastern Kentucky, giving him de 18f Brigade for de campaign, which, besides his own 42nd, incwuded de 40f Ohio Infantry, two Kentucky infantry regiments and two cavawry units.[35] They departed Catwettsburg, Kentucky, in mid-December, advancing drough de vawwey of de Big Sandy River.[35] The march was uneventfuw untiw Union forces reached Paintsviwwe, Kentucky, on January 6, 1862, where Garfiewd's cavawry engaged de rebews at Jenny's Creek.[36] Confederate troops under Brigadier Generaw Humphrey Marshaww hewd de town in numbers roughwy eqwaw to Garfiewd's own, but Garfiewd positioned his troops so as to deceive Marshaww into bewieving dat rebew forces were outnumbered.[36] Marshaww ordered his troops to widdraw to de forks of Middwe Creek, on de road to Virginia; Garfiewd ordered his troops to pursue de Confederates.[37] They attacked de rebew positions on January 9, 1862, in de Battwe of Middwe Creek, de onwy pitched battwe Garfiewd personawwy commanded.[38] At de end of de fighting, de Confederates widdrew from de fiewd, and Garfiewd sent his troops to Prestonsburg to reprovision, uh-hah-hah-hah.[39]

Middwe Creek battwefiewd; Garfiewd commanded from de distant hiww in de center of de photo.

In recognition of his success, Garfiewd was promoted to brigadier generaw, at de age of 30.[40] After Marshaww's retreat, Garfiewd's command was de sowe remaining Union force in eastern Kentucky, and he announced dat any men who had fought for de Confederacy wouwd be granted amnesty if dey returned to deir homes and wived peaceabwy and remained woyaw to de Union, uh-hah-hah-hah.[41] The procwamation was surprisingwy wenient, as Garfiewd now bewieved de war was a crusade for eradication of swavery.[41] Fowwowing a brief skirmish at Pound Gap, de wast rebew units in de area were outfwanked, and dey retreated to Virginia.[42]

Garfiewd's promotion gave him command of de 20f Brigade of de Army of de Ohio, which was ordered in earwy 1862 to join Major GenerawUwysses S. Grant's forces as dey advanced on Corinf, Mississippi.[43] Before de 20f Brigade arrived, however, Confederate forces under Generaw Awbert Sidney Johnston surprised Grant's men in deir camps, driving dem back.[44] Garfiewd's troops got word of de battwe and advanced qwickwy, joining de rest of de army on de second day to drive de Confederates back across de fiewd and into retreat.[45] The action, water known as de Battwe of Shiwoh, was de bwoodiest of de war to date; Garfiewd was exposed to fire for much of de day, but emerged uninjured.[45] Major Generaw Henry W. Hawweck, Grant's superior, took charge of de combined armies and advanced ponderouswy toward Corinf; when dey arrived, de Confederates had fwed.[46]

That summer Garfiewd suffered from jaundice and significant weight woss.[b][48] He was forced to return home, where his wife nursed him back to heawf.[48] Whiwe he was home, Garfiewd's friends worked to gain him de Repubwican nomination for Congress, awdough he refused to powitick wif de dewegates.[49] He returned to miwitary duty dat autumn and went to Washington to await his next assignment.[50] During dis period of idweness, a rumor of an extra-maritaw affair caused friction in de Garfiewd marriage untiw Lucretia eventuawwy chose to overwook it.[51] Garfiewd repeatedwy received tentative assignments dat were qwickwy widdrawn, to his frustration, uh-hah-hah-hah.[52] In de meantime, he served on de court-martiaw of Fitz John Porter for his tardiness at de Second Battwe of Buww Run.[53] He was convinced of Porter's guiwt, and voted wif his fewwow generaws to convict.[53] The triaw wasted awmost two monds, from November 1862 to January 1863, and by de end of it, Garfiewd had at wast procured an assignment as Chief of Staff to Major Generaw Wiwwiam S. Rosecrans.[54]

The position of Chief of Staff for a generaw was usuawwy hewd by a more junior officer, but Garfiewd's infwuence wif Rosecrans was greater dan usuaw, wif duties extending beyond mere communication of orders to duties dat invowved actuaw management of his Army of de Cumberwand.[55] Rosecrans had a voracious appetite for conversation, especiawwy when he was unabwe to sweep; in Garfiewd, he found "de first weww read person in de Army" and de ideaw candidate for discussions dat ran deep into de night.[56] The two became cwose in spite of Garfiewd's being twewve years junior to Rosecrans, and deir tawks covered aww topics, especiawwy rewigion; Rosecrans, who had converted from Medodism to Roman Cadowicism, succeeded in softening Garfiewd's view of his faif.[57] Garfiewd recommended dat Rosecrans repwace wing commanders Awexander McCook and Thomas Crittenden, whom he bewieved ineffective, but Rosecrans ignored de suggestions.[58] Wif Rosecrans, Garfiewd devised de Tuwwahoma Campaign to pursue and trap Confederate Generaw Braxton Bragg in Tuwwahoma. After initiaw Union success, Bragg retreated toward Chattanooga, where Rosecrans stawwed and reqwested more troops and suppwies.[59] Garfiewd argued for an immediate advance, in wine wif demands from Hawweck and Lincown, uh-hah-hah-hah.[59] After a counciw of war and wengdy dewiberations, Rosecrans agreed to attack.[60]

At de ensuing Battwe of Chickamauga on September 19 and 20, 1863, confusion among de wing commanders over Rosecrans's orders created a gap in de wines, resuwting in a rout of de right fwank. Rosecrans concwuded dat de battwe was wost and feww back on Chattanooga to estabwish a defensive wine.[61] Garfiewd, however, dought dat part of de army had hewd and, wif Rosecrans's approvaw, headed across Missionary Ridge to survey de scene. Garfiewd's hunch was correct.[61] His ride became wegendary, whiwe Rosecrans' error reignited criticism about his weadership.[61] Whiwe Rosecrans's army had avoided disaster, dey were stranded in Chattanooga, surrounded by Bragg's army. Garfiewd sent a tewegram to Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton awerting Washington to de need for reinforcements to avoid annihiwation, and Lincown and Hawweck dewivered 20,000 troops by raiw widin nine days.[62] In de meantime, Grant was promoted to command of de western armies, and qwickwy repwaced Rosecrans wif George H. Thomas.[63] Garfiewd was ordered to report to Washington, where he was promoted to major generaw, a commission he wouwd resign before taking a seat in de House of Representatives.[64] According to historian Jean Edward Smif, Grant and Garfiewd had a "guarded rewationship", since Grant promoted Thomas to command of de Army of de Cumberwand, rader dan Garfiewd, after Rosecrans was dismissed.[65]

Whiwe serving in de Army in earwy 1862, Garfiewd was approached by friends about running for Congress from Ohio's newwy redrawn, heaviwy Repubwican 19f district. He was worried dat he and oder state-appointed generaws wouwd get obscure assignments, and running for Congress wouwd awwow him to resume his powiticaw career. The fact dat de new Congress wouwd not howd its first reguwar session untiw December 1863[c] wouwd awwow him to continue his war service for a time. Home on medicaw weave, he refused to campaign for de nomination, weaving dat to powiticaw managers who secured it at de wocaw convention in September 1862, on de eighf bawwot. In October, he defeated D.B. Woods by a two-to-one margin in de generaw ewection for a seat in de 38f Congress.[66]

Soon after de nomination, Garfiewd was ordered to report to War Secretary Edwin Stanton in Washington to discuss his miwitary future. There, Garfiewd met Treasury Secretary Sawmon P. Chase, who befriended him, seeing him as a younger version of himsewf. The two men agreed powiticawwy, and bof were part of de Radicaw wing of de Repubwican Party.[67] Once he took his seat in December 1863, Garfiewd was frustrated dat Lincown seemed rewuctant to press de Souf hard. Many radicaws, wed in de House by Pennsywvania's Thaddeus Stevens, wanted rebew-owned wands confiscated, but Lincown dreatened to veto any biww dat wouwd do dat on a widespread basis. Garfiewd, in debate on de House fwoor, supported such wegiswation and, discussing Engwand's Gworious Revowution, hinted dat Lincown might be drown out of office for resisting de biwws.[68] Awdough Garfiewd had supported Lincown's Emancipation Procwamation, de congressman marvewed dat it was a "...strange phenomenon in de worwd's history, when a second-rate Iwwinois wawyer is de instrument to utter words which shaww form an epoch memorabwe in aww future ages."[69]

Garfiewd not onwy favored abowition of swavery, but bewieved dat de weaders of de rebewwion had forfeited deir constitutionaw rights. He supported de confiscation of soudern pwantations and even exiwe or execution of rebewwion weaders as a means to ensure de permanent destruction of swavery.[70] Garfiewd fewt Congress was obwiged "to determine what wegiswation is necessary to secure eqwaw justice to aww woyaw persons, widout regard to cowor."[71] Garfiewd was more supportive of Lincown when Lincown took action against swavery.[72] Earwy in his tenure, he differed from his party on severaw issues; his was de sowitary Repubwican vote to terminate de use of bounties in recruiting. Some financiawwy abwe recruits had used de bounty system to buy deir way out of service (cawwed commutation), which Garfiewd considered reprehensibwe.[73] Garfiewd gave a speech pointing out de fwaws in de existing conscription waw: dat of 300,000 cawwed upon to enwist, barewy 10,000 had, de remainder cwaiming exemption or providing money or a substitute. Lincown appeared before de Miwitary Affairs committee on which Garfiewd served, demanding a more effective biww; even if it cost him re-ewection, Lincown was confident he couwd win de war before his term expired.[74] After many fawse starts, Garfiewd, wif de support of Lincown, procured de passage of a conscription biww dat excwuded commutation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[75]

Garfiewd did not consider Lincown particuwarwy wordy of re-ewection, but no viabwe awternative seemed avaiwabwe. "He wiww probabwy be de man, dough I dink we couwd do better."[69] The Ohioan attended de party convention and promoted Rosecrans as Lincown's running mate, but dewegates chose Miwitary Governor of Tennessee Andrew Johnson.[78] Bof Lincown and Garfiewd were re-ewected.[79] By den, Chase had weft de Cabinet and had been appointed Chief Justice, and his rewations wif Garfiewd became more distant.[80]

Garfiewd took up de practice of waw in 1865 as a means to improve his personaw finances. His efforts took him to Waww Street where, de day after Lincown's assassination, a riotous crowd wed him into an impromptu speech to cawm it: "Fewwow citizens! Cwouds and darkness are round about Him! His paviwion is dark waters and dick cwouds of de skies! Justice and judgment are de estabwishment of His drone! Mercy and truf shaww go before His face! Fewwow citizens! God reigns, and de Government at Washington stiww wives!"[81] The speech, wif no mention or praise of Lincown, was according to Garfiewd biographer Robert G. Cawdweww "...qwite as significant for what it did not contain as for what it did."[82] In de fowwowing years, Garfiewd had more praise for Lincown; a year after de Iwwinoisan's deaf Garfiewd stated dat, "Greatest among aww dese devewopments were de character and fame of Abraham Lincown," and in 1878 cawwed Lincown "...one of de few great ruwers whose wisdom increased wif his power."[83]

Garfiewd was as firm a supporter of bwack suffrage as he had been of abowition, dough he admitted dat de idea of African Americans as powiticaw eqwaws wif whites gave him "a strong feewing of repugnance."[84][d] The new president, Johnson, sought de rapid restoration of de Soudern states during de monds between his accession and de meeting of Congress in December 1865; Garfiewd hesitantwy supported dis powicy as an experiment. Johnson, an owd friend, sought Garfiewd's backing, and deir conversations wed Garfiewd to assume dat differences between president and Congress were not warge. When Congress assembwed in December (to Johnson's chagrin widout de ewected representatives of de Soudern states, who were excwuded), Garfiewd urged conciwiation on his cowweagues, awdough he feared dat Johnson, a former Democrat, might combine wif oder Democrats to gain powiticaw controw if he rejoined de party. Garfiewd foresaw confwict even before February 1866 when Johnson vetoed a biww to extend de wife of de Freedmen's Bureau, charged wif aiding de former swaves. By Apriw, Garfiewd had concwuded dat Johnson was eider "crazy or drunk wif opium."[86]

The confwict between de branches of government was de major issue of de 1866 campaign, wif Johnson taking to de campaign traiw in a Swing Around de Circwe and Garfiewd facing opposition widin his party in his home district. Wif de Souf stiww disenfranchised and Nordern pubwic opinion behind de Repubwicans, dey gained a two-dirds majority in bof houses of Congress. Garfiewd, having overcome his chawwengers at his district nominating convention, was easiwy re-ewected.[87]

Garfiewd opposed de initiaw tawk of impeaching President Johnson when Congress convened in December 1866.[88] However, he supported wegiswation to wimit Johnson's powers, such as de Tenure of Office Act, which restricted Johnson in removing presidentiaw appointees. Distracted by committee duties, he rarewy spoke in connection wif dese biwws, but was a woyaw Repubwican vote against Johnson, uh-hah-hah-hah. Due to a court case, he was absent on de day in Apriw 1868 when de House impeached Johnson, but soon gave a speech awigning himsewf wif Thaddeus Stevens and oders who sought Johnson's removaw. When de president was acqwitted in triaw before de Senate, Garfiewd was shocked, and bwamed de outcome of de triaw on its presiding officer, Chief Justice Chase, his onetime mentor.[89]

By de time Uwysses S. Grant succeeded Johnson in 1869, Garfiewd had moved away from de remaining radicaws (Stevens, deir weader, had died in 1868). He haiwed de ratification of de 15f Amendment in 1870 as a triumph, and he favored de re-admission of Georgia to de Union as a matter of right, not powitics. In 1871, Garfiewd opposed passage of de Ku Kwux Kwan Act, saying, "I have never been more perpwexed by a piece of wegiswation, uh-hah-hah-hah." He was torn between his indignation at "dese terrorists" and his concern for de freedoms endangered by de power de biww gave to de president to enforce de act drough suspension of habeas corpus.[90]

Throughout his powiticaw career, Garfiewd favored de gowd standard and decried attempts to increase de money suppwy drough de issuance of paper money not backed by gowd, and water, drough de free and unwimited coinage of siwver.[91] In 1865, Garfiewd was pwaced on de House Ways and Means Committee, a wong-awaited opportunity to focus on financiaw and economic issues. He reprised his opposition to de greenback, saying, "Any party which commits itsewf to paper money wiww go down amid de generaw disaster, covered wif de curses of a ruined peopwe."[92] In 1868 Garfiewd gave a two-hour speech on currency in de House, which was widewy appwauded as his best oratory to dat point; in it he advocated a graduaw resumption of specie payments, dat is, de government paying out siwver and gowd, rader dan paper money dat couwd not be redeemed.[93]

Tariffs had been raised to high wevews during de Civiw War. Afterwards, Garfiewd, who made a cwose study of financiaw affairs, advocated moving towards free trade, dough de standard Repubwican position was a protective tariff dat wouwd awwow American industries to grow. This break wif his party wikewy cost him his pwace on de Ways and Means Committee in 1867, and dough Repubwicans hewd de majority in de House untiw 1875, Garfiewd remained off dat committee during dat time. Garfiewd came to chair de powerfuw House Appropriations Committee, but it was Ways and Means, wif its infwuence over fiscaw powicy, dat he reawwy wanted to wead.[94] Part of de reason Garfiewd was denied a pwace on Ways and Means was de opposition of de infwuentiaw Repubwican editor, Horace Greewey.[95]

Garfiewd's handwriting on evidence used during de Gowd Panic investigation in 1870

In September 1870, Garfiewd, who was den chairman of de House Banking Committee, wed an investigation into de Bwack Friday Gowd Panic scandaw. The committee investigation into corruption was dorough, but found no indictabwe offenses. Garfiewd bwamed de easy avaiwabiwity of fiat money greenbacks for financing de specuwation dat wed to de scandaw.[96]

Garfiewd was not at aww endused about de re-ewection of President Grant in 1872—untiw Horace Greewey, who emerged as de candidate of de Democrats and Liberaw Repubwicans, became de onwy serious awternative. Garfiewd opined, "I wouwd say Grant was not fit to be nominated and Greewey is not fit to be ewected."[97] Bof Grant and Garfiewd won overwhewming re-ewection victories.[97]

The Crédit Mobiwier of America scandaw invowved corruption in de financing of de Union Pacific Raiwroad, part of de transcontinentaw raiwroad dat was compweted in 1869. Union Pacific officers and directors secretwy purchased controw of de Crédit Mobiwier of America company, den contracted wif de firm to have it undertake de construction of de raiwroad. The grosswy infwated invoices submitted by de company were paid by de raiwroad, using federaw funds appropriated to subsidize de project, and de company was awwowed to purchase Union Pacific securities at par vawue, weww bewow de market rate. Crédit Mobiwier showed warge profits and stock gains, and distributed substantiaw dividends. The high expenses meant dat Congress was cawwed upon to appropriate more funds. One of de raiwroad officiaws who controwwed Crédit Mobiwier was awso a congressman, Oakes Ames of Massachusetts. He offered some of his cowweagues de opportunity to buy Crédit Mobiwier stock at par vawue, weww bewow what it sowd for on de market, and de raiwroad got its additionaw appropriations.[98]

The story broke in Juwy 1872, in de middwe of de presidentiaw campaign, uh-hah-hah-hah. Among dose named were Vice President (and former House Speaker) Schuywer Cowfax, Grant's second-term running mate (Massachusetts Senator Henry Wiwson), Speaker James G. Bwaine of Maine, and Garfiewd. Greewey had wittwe wuck taking advantage of de scandaw. When Congress reconvened after de ewection, Bwaine, seeking to cwear his name, demanded a House investigation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Evidence before de speciaw committee exonerated Bwaine. Garfiewd had stated, in September 1872, dat Ames had offered him stock, but he had repeatedwy refused it. Testifying before de committee in January, Ames awweged dat he had offered Garfiewd ten shares of stock at par vawue, but dat Garfiewd had never taken de shares, or paid for dem. A year had passed, from 1867 to 1868, before Garfiewd had finawwy refused it. Garfiewd, appearing before de committee on January 14, 1873, confirmed much of dis. Ames testified severaw weeks water dat Garfiewd agreed to take de stock on credit, and dat it was paid for by de company's huge dividends.[99] The two men differed over a sum of some $300 dat Garfiewd received and water paid back, wif Garfiewd deeming it a woan and Ames a dividend.[100]

Garfiewd's biographers were unwiwwing to exonerate him in Crédit Mobiwier, wif Awwan Peskin writing, "Did Garfiewd wie? Not exactwy. Did he teww de truf? Not compwetewy. Was he corrupted? Not reawwy. Even Garfiewd's enemies never cwaimed dat his invowvement ... infwuenced his behavior."[101] Rutkow wrote dat "Garfiewd's reaw offense was dat he knowingwy denied to de House investigating committee dat he had agreed to accept de stock and dat he had awso received a dividend of $329."[102] Cawdweww suggested dat Garfiewd "...whiwe he towd de truf [before de committee], certainwy faiwed to teww de whowe truf, cwearwy evading an answer to certain vitaw qwestions and dus giving de impression of worse fauwts dan dose of which he was guiwty."[103] That Crédit Mobiwier was a corrupt organization had been a secret badwy kept, even mentioned on de fwoor of Congress, and editor Sam Bowwes wrote at de time dat Garfiewd, in his positions on committees deawing wif finance, "...had no more right to be ignorant in a matter of such grave importance as dis, dan de sentinew has to snore on his post."[101]

Anoder issue dat caused Garfiewd troubwe in his 1874 re-ewection bid was de so-cawwed "Sawary Grab" of 1873, which increased de compensation for members of Congress by 50 percent, retroactive to 1871. Garfiewd was responsibwe, as Appropriations Committee chairman, for shepherding de wegiswative appropriations biww drough de House; during de debate in February 1873, Massachusetts Representative Benjamin Butwer offered de increase as an amendment, and despite Garfiewd's opposition, it passed de House and eventuawwy became waw. The waw was very popuwar in de House, as awmost hawf de members were wame ducks, but de pubwic was outraged, and many of Garfiewd's constituents bwamed him, dough he refused to accept de increase. In what was a bad year for Repubwicans, who wost controw of de House for de first time since de Civiw War, Garfiewd had his cwosest congressionaw ewection, winning wif onwy 57 percent of de vote.[e][105]

Wif de Democratic takeover of de House of Representatives in 1875, Garfiewd wost his chairmanship of de Appropriations Committee. The Democratic weadership in de House appointed Garfiewd as a Repubwican member of Ways and Means. Wif many of his weadership rivaws defeated in de 1874 Democratic wandswide, and Bwaine ewected to de Senate, Garfiewd was seen as de Repubwican fwoor weader and de wikewy Speaker shouwd de party regain controw of de chamber.[106]

As de 1876 presidentiaw ewection approached, Garfiewd was woyaw to de candidacy of Senator Bwaine, and fought for de former Speaker's nomination at de 1876 Repubwican Nationaw Convention in Cincinnati. When it became cwear, after six bawwots, dat Bwaine couwd not prevaiw, de convention nominated Ohio Governor Ruderford B. Hayes. Awdough Garfiewd had supported Bwaine, he had kept good rewations wif Hayes, and whoweheartedwy supported de governor.[107] Garfiewd had hoped to retire from powitics after his term expired to devote himsewf fuww-time to de practice of waw, but to hewp his party, he sought re-ewection, and won it easiwy dat October. Any cewebration was short wived, as Garfiewd's youngest son, Neddie, feww iww wif whooping cough shortwy after de congressionaw ewection, and soon died.[108]

When Hayes appeared to have wost de presidentiaw ewection de fowwowing monf to Democrat Samuew Tiwden, de Repubwicans waunched efforts to reverse de resuwt in Soudern states where dey hewd de governorship: Souf Carowina, Louisiana, and Fworida. If Hayes won aww dree states, he wouwd take de ewection by a singwe ewectoraw vote. Grant asked Garfiewd to serve as a "neutraw observer" in de recount in Louisiana. The observers soon recommended to de state ewectoraw commissions dat Hayes be decwared de winner—Garfiewd recommended dat de entire vote of West Fewiciana Parish, which had given Tiwden a sizabwe majority, be drown out. The Repubwican governors of de dree states certified dat Hayes had won deir states, to de outrage of Democrats, who had de state wegiswatures submit rivaw returns, and dreatened to prevent de counting of de ewectoraw vote—under de Constitution, Congress is de finaw arbiter of de ewection, uh-hah-hah-hah. Congress den passed a biww estabwishing de Ewectoraw Commission, to determine de winner. Awdough he opposed de Commission, feewing dat Congress shouwd count de vote and procwaim Hayes victorious, Garfiewd was appointed to it over de objections of Democrats dat he was too partisan, uh-hah-hah-hah. Hayes emerged de victor by a Commission vote of 8 to 7, wif aww eight votes being cast by Repubwican powiticians or appointees of dat party to de Supreme Court. As part of de deaw whereby dey recognized Hayes as president, Soudern Democrats secured de removaw of federaw troops from de Souf, ending Reconstruction, uh-hah-hah-hah.[109]

Awdough a Senate seat wouwd be disposed of by de Ohio Generaw Assembwy after de resignation of John Sherman to become Treasury Secretary, Hayes needed Garfiewd's expertise to protect him from de agenda of a hostiwe Congress, and asked him not to seek it. Garfiewd, as de president's key wegiswator, gained considerabwe prestige and respect for his rowe.[110] When Congress debated what became de Bwand-Awwison Act, to have de government purchase warge qwantities of siwver and strike it into fuwwy wegaw tender dowwar coins, Garfiewd fought against dis deviation from de gowd standard, but it was enacted over Hayes's veto in February 1878.[111]

Garfiewd during dis time purchased de property in Mentor dat reporters water dubbed Lawnfiewd,[112] and from which he wouwd conduct de first successfuw front porch campaign for de presidency. Hayes suggested dat Garfiewd run for governor in 1879, seeing dat as a road dat wouwd wikewy put Garfiewd in de White House. Garfiewd preferred to seek ewection as senator, and devoted his efforts to seeing dat Repubwicans won de 1879 ewection for de Generaw Assembwy, wif de wikewy Democratic candidate de incumbent, Awwen G. Thurman. The Repubwicans swept de wegiswative ewections. Rivaws were spoken of for de seat, such as Secretary Sherman, but he had presidentiaw ambitions (for which he sought Garfiewd's support), and oder candidates feww by de wayside. Garfiewd was ewected to de Senate by de Generaw Assembwy in January 1880, dough his term was not to begin untiw March 4, 1881.[113]

Garfiewd was one of dree attorneys who argued for de petitioners in de wandmark Supreme Court case Ex parte Miwwigan in 1866. His cwients were pro-Confederate nordern men who had been found guiwty and sentenced to deaf by a miwitary court for treasonous activities. The case turned on wheder de defendants shouwd instead have been tried by a civiwian court, and resuwted in a ruwing dat civiwians couwd not be tried before miwitary tribunaws whiwe de civiw courts were operating. The oraw argument was Garfiewd's first court appearance. Jeremiah Bwack had taken him in as a junior partner a year before, and assigned de case to him in wight of his highwy regarded oratory skiwws. Wif de resuwt, Garfiewd instantwy achieved a reputation as a preeminent appewwate wawyer.[114]

During Grant's first term, discontented wif pubwic service, Garfiewd pursued opportunities in de waw, but decwined a partnership offer when towd his prospective partner was of "intemperate and wicentious" reputation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[115] In 1873, after de deaf of Chase, Garfiewd appeawed to Grant to appoint Justice Noah H. Swayne as Chief Justice. Grant, however, appointed Morrison R. Waite.[116]

Garfiewd dought de wand grants given to expanding raiwroads was an unjust practice. He awso opposed some monopowistic practices by corporations, as weww as de power sought by workers' unions.[117] Garfiewd supported de proposed estabwishment of de United States civiw service as a means of ridding officiaws of de annoyance of aggressive office seekers. He especiawwy wished to ewiminate de common practice whereby government workers, in exchange for deir positions, were forced to kick back a percentage of deir wages as powiticaw contributions.[118]

In 1876, Garfiewd dispwayed his madematicaw tawent when he devewoped a trapezoid proof of de Pydagorean deorem. His finding was pwaced in de New Engwand Journaw of Education. Madematics historian Wiwwiam Dunham wrote dat Garfiewd's trapezoid work was "reawwy a very cwever proof."[119]

Fowwowing Grant's defeat for de nomination Puck magazine satirized Robert E. Lee's surrender to him at Appomattox by depicting Grant giving up his sword to Garfiewd.

Having just been ewected to de Senate wif Sherman's support, Garfiewd entered de 1880 campaign season committed to Sherman as his choice for de Repubwican presidentiaw nominee.[120] Even before de convention began, however, a few Repubwicans, incwuding Wharton Barker of Phiwadewphia, dought Garfiewd de best choice for de nomination, uh-hah-hah-hah.[120] Garfiewd denied any interest in de position, but de attention was enough to make Sherman suspicious of his wieutenant's ambitions.[121] Besides Sherman, de earwy favorites for de nomination were Bwaine and former President Grant, but severaw oder candidates attracted dewegates as weww.[122]

As de convention began, Senator Roscoe Conkwing of New York, de fwoor weader for de Grant forces (known as de Stawwart faction), proposed dat de dewegates pwedge to support de eventuaw nominee in de generaw ewection, uh-hah-hah-hah.[123] When dree West Virginia dewegates decwined to be so bound, Conkwing sought to expew dem from de convention, uh-hah-hah-hah. Garfiewd rose to defend de men, giving a passionate speech in defense of deir right to reserve judgment.[123] The crowd turned against Conkwing, and he widdrew de motion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[123] The performance dewighted Garfiewd's boosters, who now bewieved more dan ever dat he was de onwy man who couwd attract a majority of de dewegates' votes.[124]

After speeches in favor of de oder front-runners, Garfiewd rose to pwace Sherman's name in nomination; his nominating speech was weww-received, but de dewegates mustered wittwe excitement for de idea of Sherman as de next president.[125] The first bawwot showed Grant weading wif 304 votes and Bwaine in second wif 284; Sherman's 93 pwaced him in a distant dird. Subseqwent bawwots qwickwy demonstrated a deadwock between de Grant and Bwaine forces, wif neider having de 379 votes needed for nomination, uh-hah-hah-hah.[126]Jeremiah McLain Rusk, a member of de Wisconsin dewegation, and Benjamin Harrison, an Indiana dewegate, sought to break de deadwock by shifting a few of de anti-Grant votes to a dark horse candidate—Garfiewd.[127] Garfiewd gained 50 votes on de 35f bawwot, and de stampede began, uh-hah-hah-hah. Garfiewd protested to de oder members of his Ohio dewegation dat he had not sought de nomination and had never intended to betray Sherman, but dey overruwed his objections and cast deir bawwots for him.[128] In de next round of voting, nearwy aww of de Sherman and Bwaine dewegates shifted deir support to Garfiewd, giving him 399 votes and de Repubwican nomination, uh-hah-hah-hah. Most of de Grant forces backed de former president to de end, creating a disgruntwed Stawwart minority in de party.[129] To obtain dat faction's support for de ticket, former New York customs cowwectorChester A. Ardur, a member of Conkwing's powiticaw machine, was chosen as de vice presidentiaw nominee.[130]

Despite incwuding a Stawwart on de ticket, animosity between de Repubwican factions carried over from de convention, and Garfiewd travewed to New York to meet wif party weaders dere.[131] After convincing de Stawwart crowd to put aside deir differences and unite for de coming campaign, Garfiewd returned to Ohio, weaving de active campaigning to oders, as was traditionaw at de time.[132] Meanwhiwe, de Democrats settwed on deir nominee, Major Generaw Winfiewd Scott Hancock of Pennsywvania, a career miwitary officer.[131] Hancock and de Democrats expected to carry de Sowid Souf, whiwe much of de Norf was considered safe territory for Garfiewd and de Repubwicans; most of de campaign wouwd invowve a few cwose states, incwuding New York and Indiana.[133]

The rear of de house at Garfiewd's Lawnfiewd estate, from which he conducted his "front porch campaign"

1880 ewectoraw vote resuwts

Practicaw differences between de candidates were few, and Repubwicans began de campaign wif de famiwiar deme of waving de bwoody shirt: reminding Nordern voters dat de Democratic Party was responsibwe for secession and four years of civiw war, and dat if Democrats hewd power dey wouwd reverse de gains of dat war, dishonor Union veterans, and pay Confederate veterans pensions out of de federaw treasury.[134] Wif fifteen years having passed since de end of de war, and Union generaws at de head of bof tickets, de bwoody shirt was of diminishing vawue in exciting de voters.[135] Wif a few monds to go before de ewection, de Repubwicans switched tactics to emphasize de tariff. Seizing on de Democratic pwatform's caww for a "tariff for revenue onwy", Repubwicans towd Nordern workers dat a Hancock presidency wouwd weaken de tariff protection dat kept dem in good jobs.[136] Hancock made de situation worse when, attempting to strike a moderate stance, he said, "The tariff qwestion is a wocaw qwestion, uh-hah-hah-hah."[135] The pwoy proved effective in uniting de Norf behind Garfiewd.[137] In de end, fewer dan two dousand votes, of de more dan 9.2 miwwion popuwar votes cast, separated de two candidates,[138] but in de Ewectoraw Cowwege Garfiewd had an easy victory over Hancock, 214 to 155.[139]

Between his ewection and his inauguration, Garfiewd was occupied wif assembwing a cabinet dat wouwd estabwish peace between Conkwing's and Bwaine's warring factions. Bwaine's dewegates had provided much of de support for Garfiewd's nomination, and de Maine senator received de pwace of honor: Secretary of State.[140] Bwaine was not onwy de president's cwosest advisor, he was obsessed wif knowing aww dat took pwace in de White House, and was even said to have spies posted dere in his absence.[141] Garfiewd nominated Wiwwiam Windom of Minnesota as Secretary of de Treasury, Wiwwiam H. Hunt of Louisiana as Secretary of de Navy, Robert Todd Lincown as Secretary of War, and Samuew J. Kirkwood of Iowa as Secretary of de Interior. New York was represented by Thomas Lemuew James as Postmaster Generaw. Garfiewd appointed Pennsywvania's Wayne MacVeagh, an adversary of Bwaine's, as Attorney Generaw.[142] Bwaine tried to sabotage de appointment by convincing Garfiewd to name an opponent of MacVeagh, Wiwwiam E. Chandwer, as Sowicitor Generaw under MacVeagh. Onwy Chandwer's rejection by de Senate forestawwed MacVeagh's resignation over de matter.[143]

Distracted by cabinet maneuvering, Garfiewd's inauguraw address was not up to his typicaw oratoricaw standards.[144] In one high point, Garfiewd emphasized de civiw rights of African-Americans, saying "Freedom can never yiewd its fuwwness of bwessings so wong as de waw or its administration pwaces de smawwest obstacwe in de padway of any virtuous citizen, uh-hah-hah-hah."[145] After discussing de gowd standard, de need for education, and an unexpected denunciation of Mormon powygamy, de speech ended. The crowd appwauded, but de speech, according to Peskin, "however sincerewy intended, betrayed its hasty composition by de fwatness of its tone and de conventionawity of its subject matter."[146]

Garfiewd's appointment of James infuriated Conkwing, a factionaw opponent of de Postmaster Generaw, who demanded a compensatory appointment for his faction, such as de position of Secretary of de Treasury. The resuwting sqwabbwe occupied much of Garfiewd's brief presidency. The feud wif Conkwing reached a cwimax when de president, at Bwaine's instigation, nominated Conkwing's enemy, Judge Wiwwiam H. Robertson, to be Cowwector of de Port of New York. This was one of de prize patronage positions bewow cabinet wevew, and was den hewd by Edwin A. Merritt. Conkwing raised de time-honored principwe of senatoriaw courtesy in an attempt to defeat de nomination, to no avaiw. Garfiewd, who bewieved de practice was corrupt, wouwd not back down and dreatened to widdraw aww nominations unwess Robertson was confirmed, intending to "settwe de qwestion wheder de president is registering cwerk of de Senate or de Executive of de United States."[147] Uwtimatewy, Conkwing and his New York cowweague, Senator Thomas C. Pwatt, resigned deir Senate seats to seek vindication, but found onwy furder humiwiation when de New York wegiswature ewected oders in deir pwaces. Robertson was confirmed as Cowwector and Garfiewd's victory was cwear. To Bwaine's chagrin, de victorious Garfiewd returned to his goaw of bawancing de interests of party factions, and nominated a number of Conkwing's Stawwart friends to offices.[148]

An 1881 Puck cartoon shows Garfiewd finding a baby at his front door wif a tag marked "Civiw Service Reform, compwiments of R.B. Hayes." Hayes, his predecessor in de presidency, is seen in de background dressed wike a woman and howding a bag marked "R.B. Hayes' Savings, Fremont, Ohio."

Grant and Hayes had bof advocated civiw service reform, and by 1881, civiw service reform associations had organized wif renewed energy across de nation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Garfiewd sympadized wif dem, bewieving dat de spoiws system damaged de presidency and distracted from more important concerns.[149] Some reformers were disappointed dat Garfiewd had advocated wimited tenure onwy to minor office seekers and had given appointments to his owd friends, but many remained woyaw and supported Garfiewd.[149]

Corruption in de post office awso cried out for reform. In Apriw 1880, dere had been a congressionaw investigation into corruption in de Post Office Department, in which profiteering rings awwegedwy stowe miwwions of dowwars, securing bogus maiw contracts on star routes.[150] After obtaining contracts wif de wowest bid, costs to run de maiw routes wouwd be escawated and profits wouwd be divided among ring members. That year, Hayes stopped de impwementation of any new star route contracts. Shortwy after taking office, Garfiewd received information from Attorney Generaw MacVeagh and Postmaster Generaw James of postaw corruption by an awweged star route ringweader, Second Assistant Postmaster-Generaw Thomas J. Brady.[151] Garfiewd demanded Brady's resignation and ordered prosecutions dat wouwd end in triaws for conspiracy. When towd dat his party, incwuding his own campaign manager, Stephen W. Dorsey, was invowved, Garfiewd directed MacVeagh and James to root out de corruption in de Post Office Department "to de bone", regardwess of where it might wead.[150] Brady resigned and was eventuawwy indicted for conspiracy. After two "star route" ring triaws in 1882 and 1883, de jury found Brady not guiwty.[152]

Garfiewd bewieved dat de key to improving de state of African American civiw rights wouwd be found in education aided by de federaw government.[153] During Reconstruction, freedmen had gained citizenship and suffrage dat enabwed dem to participate in government, but Garfiewd bewieved deir rights were being eroded by Soudern white resistance and iwwiteracy, and was concerned dat bwacks wouwd become America's permanent "peasantry."[154] He answered by proposing a "universaw" education system funded by de federaw government. Congress and de nordern white pubwic, however, had wost interest in African-American rights, and federaw funding for universaw education did not find support in Congress during Garfiewd's term.[154] Garfiewd awso worked to appoint severaw African Americans to prominent positions: Frederick Dougwass, recorder of deeds in Washington; Robert Ewwiot, speciaw agent to de Treasury; John M. Langston, Haitian minister; and Bwanche K. Bruce, register to de Treasury. Garfiewd bewieved dat Soudern support for de Repubwican party couwd be gained by "commerciaw and industriaw" interests rader dan race issues and began to reverse Hayes's powicy of conciwiating Soudern Democrats.[155] He appointed Wiwwiam H. Hunt, a carpetbagger Repubwican from Louisiana, as Secretary of de Navy.[155] To break de howd of de resurgent Democratic Party in de Sowid Souf, Garfiewd took patronage advice from Virginia Senator Wiwwiam Mahone of de biraciaw independent Readjuster Party, hoping to add de independents' strengf to de Repubwicans' dere.[156]

Entering de presidency, Garfiewd had wittwe foreign powicy experience, so he weaned heaviwy on Bwaine. Bwaine, a former protectionist, now agreed wif Garfiewd on de need to promote freer trade, especiawwy widin de Western Hemisphere.[157] Their reasons were twofowd: firstwy, Garfiewd and Bwaine bewieved dat increasing trade wif Latin America wouwd be de best way to keep Great Britain from dominating de region, uh-hah-hah-hah.[157] Secondwy, by encouraging exports, dey bewieved dey couwd increase American prosperity.[157] Garfiewd audorized Bwaine to caww for a Pan-American conference in 1882 to mediate disputes among de Latin American nations and to serve as a forum for tawks on increasing trade.[158] At de same time, dey hoped to negotiate a peace in de War of de Pacific den being fought by Bowivia, Chiwe, and Peru.[158] Bwaine favored a resowution dat wouwd not resuwt in Peru yiewding any territory, but Chiwe, which by 1881 had occupied de Peruvian capitaw, Lima, rejected any settwement dat restored de previous status qwo.[159] Garfiewd sought to expand American infwuence in oder areas, cawwing for renegotiation of de Cwayton-Buwwer Treaty to awwow de United States to construct a canaw drough Panama widout British invowvement, as weww as attempting to reduce British infwuence in de strategicawwy wocated Kingdom of Hawaii.[160] Garfiewd's and Bwaine's pwans for de United States' invowvement in de worwd stretched even beyond de Western Hemisphere, as he sought commerciaw treaties wif Korea and Madagascar.[161] Garfiewd awso considered enhancing de United States' miwitary strengf abroad, asking Navy Secretary Hunt to investigate de condition of de navy wif an eye toward expansion and modernization, uh-hah-hah-hah.[162] In de end, dese ambitious pwans came to noding after Garfiewd was assassinated. Nine countries had accepted invitations to de Pan-American conference, but de invitations were widdrawn in Apriw 1882 after Bwaine resigned from de cabinet and Ardur, Garfiewd's successor, cancewwed de conference.[163][f] Navaw reform continued under Ardur, if on a more modest scawe dan Garfiewd and Hunt had envisioned, uwtimatewy ending in de construction of de Sqwadron of Evowution.[164]

Guiteau had fowwowed various professions in his wife, but in 1880 had determined to gain federaw office by supporting what he expected wouwd be de winning Repubwican ticket.[165] He composed a speech, "Garfiewd vs. Hancock", and got it printed by de Repubwican Nationaw Committee. One means of persuading de voters in dat era was drough orators expounding on de candidate's merits, but wif de Repubwicans seeking more famous men, Guiteau received few opportunities to speak.[166] On one occasion, according to Kennef D. Ackerman in his book about Garfiewd's candidacy and assassination, Guiteau was unabwe to finish his speech due to nerves. Guiteau, who considered himsewf a Stawwart, deemed his contribution to Garfiewd's victory sufficient to justify de position of consuw in Paris, despite de fact he spoke no French, nor any foreign wanguage.[167] Guiteau has since been described by one medicaw expert as possibwy being a narcissistic schizophrenic;[168] neuroscientist Kent Kiehw assessed him as being a cwinicaw psychopaf.[169]

One of President Garfiewd's more wearying duties was seeing office seekers, and he saw Guiteau at weast once. White House officiaws suggested to Guiteau dat he approach Bwaine, as de consuwship was widin de Department of State.[170] Bwaine awso saw de pubwic reguwarwy, and Guiteau became a reguwar at dese sessions. Bwaine, who had no intention of giving Guiteau a position he was unqwawified for and had not earned, simpwy stated dat de deadwock in de Senate over Robertson's nomination made it impossibwe to consider de Paris consuwship, which reqwired Senate confirmation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[171] Once de New York senators had resigned, and Robertson had been confirmed as Cowwector, Guiteau pressed his cwaim, and Bwaine towd him he wouwd not receive de position, uh-hah-hah-hah.[172]

Guiteau came to bewieve he had wost de position because he was a Stawwart. The office-seeker decided dat de onwy way to end de internecine warfare in de Repubwican Party was for Garfiewd to die—dough he had noding personaw against de president. Ardur's succession wouwd restore peace, he fewt, and wead to rewards for fewwow Stawwarts, incwuding Guiteau.[173]

The assassination of Abraham Lincown was deemed a fwuke due to de Civiw War, and Garfiewd, wike most peopwe, saw no reason why de president shouwd be guarded; Garfiewd's movements and pwans were often printed in de newspapers. Guiteau knew de president wouwd weave Washington for a coower cwimate on Juwy 2, and made pwans to kiww him before den, uh-hah-hah-hah. He purchased a gun he dought wouwd wook good in a museum, and fowwowed Garfiewd severaw times, but each time his pwans were frustrated, or he wost his nerve.[174] His opportunities dwindwed to one—Garfiewd's departure by train for New Jersey on de morning of Juwy 2, 1881.[175]

Guiteau conceawed himsewf by de wadies' waiting room at de Sixf Street Station of de Bawtimore and Potomac Raiwroad, from where Garfiewd was scheduwed to depart. Most of Garfiewd's cabinet pwanned to accompany him at weast part of de way. Bwaine, who was to remain in Washington, came to de station to see him off. The two men were deep in conversation and did not notice Guiteau before he took out his revowver and shot Garfiewd twice, once in de back and once in de arm. The time was 9:30 a.m. The assassin attempted to weave de station, but was qwickwy captured.[176] As Bwaine recognized him and Guiteau made no secret of why he had shot Garfiewd, de assassin's motivation to benefit de Stawwarts reached many wif de earwy news of de shooting, causing rage against dat faction, uh-hah-hah-hah.[177]

Garfiewd was hit by two shots; one gwanced off his arm whiwe de oder pierced his back, shattering a rib and embedding itsewf in his abdomen, uh-hah-hah-hah. "My God, what is dis?" he excwaimed.[178] Guiteau, as he was wed away, stated, "I did it. I wiww go to jaiw for it. I am a Stawwart and Ardur wiww be President."[g][179]

Among dose at de station was Robert Todd Lincown, whose fader was kiwwed sixteen years earwier by an assassin, uh-hah-hah-hah. Garfiewd was taken on a mattress upstairs to a private office, where severaw doctors examined him, probing de wound wif unwashed fingers. At his reqwest, Garfiewd was taken back to de White House, and his wife, den in New Jersey, was sent for.[180] Bwaine sent word to Vice President Ardur in New York City, who received dreats against his wife because of his animosity toward Garfiewd and Guiteau's statements.[181]

Awdough Joseph Lister's pioneering work in antisepsis was known to American doctors, wif Lister himsewf having visited America in 1876, few of dem had confidence in it, and none of his advocates were among Garfiewd's treating physicians.[182] The physician who took charge at de depot and den at de White House was Doctor Wiwward Bwiss.[h] A noted physician and surgeon, Bwiss was an owd friend of Garfiewd, and about a dozen doctors, wed by Bwiss, were soon probing de wound wif unsteriwized fingers and instruments. Garfiewd was given morphine for de pain, and asked Bwiss to frankwy teww him his chances, which Bwiss put at one in a hundred. "Weww, Doctor, we'ww take dat chance."[183]

Over de next few days, Garfiewd made some improvement, as de nation viewed de news from de capitaw and prayed. Awdough he never stood again, he was abwe to sit up and write severaw times, and his recovery was viewed so positivewy dat a steamer was fitted out as a seagoing hospitaw to aid wif his convawescence. He was nourished on oatmeaw porridge (which he detested) and miwk from a cow on de White House wawn, uh-hah-hah-hah. When towd dat Indian chief Sitting Buww, a prisoner of de army, was starving, Garfiewd said, "Let him starve," den, "Oh, no, send him my oatmeaw."[184] X-radiation (or X-ray) usage, which wikewy wouwd have hewped de president's physicians determine exactwy where de buwwet was wodged in his body, wouwd not be invented for anoder fourteen years. Awexander Graham Beww tried to wocate de buwwet wif a primitive metaw detector; he was not successfuw. One means of keeping de president comfortabwe in Washington's summer heat was one of de first successfuw air conditioning units: air dat was propewwed by fans over ice and den dried had reduced de temperature in de sickroom by 20 degrees Fahrenheit (11 degrees Cewsius).[184]

Beginning on Juwy 23, Garfiewd took a turn for de worse. His temperature increased to 104 °F (40 °C); doctors, concerned by an abscess dat had devewoped by de wound, operated and inserted a drainage tube. This initiawwy seemed to hewp, and Garfiewd, in his bed, was abwe to howd a brief cabinet meeting on Juwy 29, dough members were under orders from Bwiss to discuss noding dat might excite Garfiewd.[185] Doctors probed de abscess, which went into Garfiewd's body, hoping to find de buwwet; dey most wikewy onwy made de infections worse. Garfiewd performed onwy one state act in August, signing an extradition paper. By de end of de monf, de president was much more feebwe dan he had been, and his weight had decreased to 130 pounds (59 kg).[186]

Garfiewd had wong been anxious to escape hot, unheawdy Washington, and in earwy September de doctors agreed to move him to Ewberon, part of Long Branch, New Jersey, where his wife had recovered earwier in de summer. He weft de White House for de wast time on September 5, travewing in a speciawwy cushioned raiwway car; a spur wine to de Franckwyn Cottage, a seaside mansion given over to his use, was buiwt in a night by vowunteers. There, Garfiewd couwd see de ocean as officiaws and reporters maintained what became (after an initiaw rawwy) a deaf watch. Garfiewd's personaw secretary, Joe Stanwey Brown, wrote 40 years water, "to dis day I cannot hear de sound of de wow swow roww of de Atwantic on de shore, de sound which fiwwed my ears as I wawked from my cottage to his bedside, widout recawwing again dat ghastwy tragedy."[187]

On September 18, Garfiewd asked A. F. Rockweww, a friend, if he wouwd have a pwace in history. Rockweww assured him he wouwd, and towd Garfiewd he had much work stiww before him. But his response was, "No, my work is done."[188] The fowwowing day, Garfiewd, by den awso suffering from pneumonia and heart pains, marvewed dat he couwd not pick up a gwass despite feewing weww, and went to sweep widout discomfort. He awoke dat evening around 10:15 p.m. wif great pain in his chest. The attendant watching him sent for Bwiss, who found him unconscious. Despite efforts to revive him, Garfiewd never awoke, and died at 10:35 p.m. dat evening.[189] Learning from a reporter of Garfiewd's deaf, Ardur took de presidentiaw oaf of office administered by New York Supreme Court Justice John R. Brady. [190]

According to some historians and medicaw experts, Garfiewd might have survived his wounds had de doctors attending him had at deir disposaw today's medicaw research, knowwedge, techniqwes, and eqwipment.[191][192][193] Standard medicaw practice at de time dictated dat priority be given to wocating de paf of de buwwet. Severaw of his doctors inserted deir unsteriwized fingers into de wound to probe for de buwwet, a common practice in de 1880s.[191] Historians agree dat massive infection was a significant factor in President Garfiewd's demise.[191] Biographer Peskin stated dat medicaw mawpractice did not contribute to Garfiewd's deaf; de inevitabwe infection and bwood poisoning dat wouwd ensue from a deep buwwet wound resuwted in damage to muwtipwe organs and spinaw bone fragmentation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[194] Rutkow, a professor of surgery at de University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, has argued dat starvation awso pwayed a rowe. Rutkow suggests dat "Garfiewd had such a nonwedaw wound. In today's worwd, he wouwd have gone home in a matter of two or dree days."[191]

Guiteau was indicted on October 14, 1881, for de murder of de president. In a chaotic triaw in which Guiteau often interrupted and argued, and in which his counsew used de insanity defense, de jury found him guiwty on January 5, 1882, and he was sentenced to deaf by hanging. Guiteau might have had neurosyphiwis, a disease dat causes physiowogicaw mentaw impairment.[195] He was executed on June 30, 1882.[196]

Garfiewd's funeraw train weft Long Branch on de same speciaw track dat brought him dere, travewing over tracks bwanketed wif fwowers and past houses adorned wif fwags. His body was transported to de Capitow and den continued on to Cwevewand for buriaw.[197] More dan 70,000 citizens, some waiting over dree hours, passed by Garfiewd's coffin as his body way in state at de United States Capitow rotunda; water, on September 25, 1881, in Cwevewand, more dan 150,000—a number eqwaw to de entire popuwation of dat city—wikewise paid deir respects.[197] His body was temporariwy interred in a vauwt in Cwevewand's Lake View Cemetery untiw his permanent memoriaw was buiwt.[197]

On May 19, 1890, Garfiewd's body was permanentwy interred, wif great sowemnity and fanfare, in a mausoweum in Lake View Cemetery in Cwevewand. Attending de dedication ceremonies were former President Hayes, President Benjamin Harrison, and future president Wiwwiam McKinwey.[203] Garfiewd's Treasury Secretary, Wiwwiam Windom, awso attended.[203] Harrison said dat Garfiewd was awways a "student and instructor" and dat his wife works and deaf wouwd "...continue to be instructive and inspiring incidents in American history."[204] Three panews on de monument dispway Garfiewd as a teacher, Union major generaw, and orator; anoder shows him taking de presidentiaw oaf, and a fiff shows his body wying in state at de Capitow rotunda in Washington, D.C.[205]

Garfiewd's murder by a deranged office-seeker awakened pubwic awareness of de need for civiw service reform wegiswation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Senator George H. Pendweton, a Democrat from Ohio, waunched a reform effort dat resuwted in de Pendweton Act in January 1883.[206] This act reversed de "spoiws system" where office seekers paid up or gave powiticaw service to obtain or keep federawwy appointed positions.[206] Under de act, appointments were awarded on merit and competitive examination, uh-hah-hah-hah.[207] To ensure de reform was impwemented, Congress and Ardur estabwished and funded de Civiw Service Commission. The Pendweton Act, however, covered onwy 10% of federaw government workers.[207] For Ardur, previouswy known for having been a "veteran spoiwsman," civiw service reform became his most notewordy achievement.[208]

For a few years after his assassination, Garfiewd's wife story was seen as an exempwar of de American success story—dat even de poorest boy might someday become President of de United States. Peskin noted dat, "In mourning Garfiewd, Americans were not onwy honoring a president; dey were paying tribute to a man whose wife story embodied deir own most cherished aspirations."[210] As de rivawry between Stawwarts and Hawf-Breeds faded from de scene in de wate 1880s and after, so too did memories of Garfiewd. Beginning in 1882, de year after Garfiewd's deaf, de U.S. Post Office began issuing postage stamps honoring de wate president. Despite his short term as president, nine different issues were printed over de years.[198] In de 1890s, Americans became disiwwusioned wif powiticians, and wooked ewsewhere for inspiration, focusing on industriawists, wabor weaders, scientists, and oders as deir heroes. Increasingwy, Garfiewd's short time as president was forgotten, uh-hah-hah-hah.[211]

The 20f century saw no revivaw for Garfiewd. Thomas Wowfe deemed de presidents of de Giwded Age, incwuding Garfiewd, "wost Americans" whose "gravewy vacant and bewhiskered faces mixed, mewted, swam togeder."[212] The powiticians of de Giwded Age faded from de pubwic eye, deir wuster ecwipsed by dose who had infwuenced America outside of powiticaw office during dat time: de robber barons, de inventors, dose who had sought sociaw reform, and oders who had wived as America rapidwy changed. Current events and more recent figures occupied America's attention: according to Ackerman, "de busy Twentief Century has made Garfiewd's era seem remote and irrewevant, its weaders ridicuwed for deir very obscurity."[212]

Garfiewd's biographers, and dose who have studied his presidency, tend to dink weww of him, and dat his presidency saw a promising start before its untimewy end. Historian Justus D. Doenecke, whiwe deeming Garfiewd a bit of an enigma, chronicwes his achievements, "by winning a victory over de Stawwarts, he enhanced bof de power and prestige of his office. As a man, he was intewwigent, sensitive, and awert, and his knowwedge of how government worked was unmatched."[213] Yet Doenecke criticizes Garfiewd's dismissaw of Merritt in Robertson's favor, and wonders if de president was truwy in command of de situation even after de watter's confirmation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[214] According to Cawdweww, writing in 1931, "If Garfiewd wives in history, it wiww be partwy on account of de charm of his personawity—but awso because in wife and in deaf, he struck de first shrewd bwows against a dangerous system of boss ruwe which seemed for a time about to enguwf de powitics of de nation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Perhaps if he had wived he couwd have done no more."[215] Rutkow writes, "James Abram Garfiewd's presidency is reduced to a tantawizing 'what if.'"[211]

Peskin bewieves Garfiewd deserves more credit for his powiticaw career dan he has received:

True, his accompwishments were neider bowd nor heroic, but his was not an age dat cawwed for heroism. His stormy presidency was brief, and in some respects, unfortunate, but he did weave de office stronger dan he found it. As a pubwic man he had a hand in awmost every issue of nationaw importance for awmost two decades, whiwe as a party weader he, awong wif Bwaine, forged de Repubwican Party into de instrument dat wouwd wead de United States into de twentief century.[216]

^Untiw de ratification of de Twentief Amendment in 1933, Congress convened annuawwy in December.

^In a Juwy 1865 wetter to Governor Jacob Dowson Cox, Garfiewd wrote dat he fewt "a strong sense of repugnance when I dink of de negro being made our powiticaw eqwaw and I wouwd be gwad if dey couwd be cowonized, sent to heaven, or got rid of in any decent way .... but cowonization has proved a hopewess faiwure everywhere."[85]

^Garfiewd typicawwy won two or dree times his Democratic opponents' votes.[104]

^In October 1883, de War of de Pacific was settwed widout American invowvement, wif de Treaty of Ancón.

^"Garfiewd Township Strategy"(PDF). Cardinia Shire Counciw. August 19, 2002. p. 36. Archived from de originaw(PDF) on Apriw 1, 2012. Retrieved January 24, 2012. Originawwy Cannibaw Creek Siding was buiwt in 1877 to serve de booming timber industry when de raiwway wine was waid from Dandenong to Bunyip. The district was watter [sic] renamed Garfiewd after an American President.

^ Architect of de Capitow Under de Direction of de Joint Committee on de Library, Compiwation of Works of Art and Oder Objects in de United States Capitow, United States Government Printing Office, Washington 1965 p. 210