HANDBOOK
No. 07-6 Oct 06
Southern Afghanistan
COIN Operations
Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures
Center for Army Lessons Learned (CALL)
http://call.army.mil
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
Foreword
Originally written as an information paper by members of the 1st Battalion, 3rd
Special Operations Forces Group Alpha, proudly known as the “Desert Eagles,”
CALL Handbook 07-6 provides a strategy for conducting counterinsurgency in
southern Afghanistan. Observations, insights, and lessons; best practices; and
tactics, techniques, and procedures compiled by these combat veterans over four
deployments in support of Operation Enduring Freedom form the basis for this
publication. This handbook is tailored for commanders and staffs of combined-arms
formations, but contains lessons pertinent to commanders and staffs of civil affairs,
engineer, and combat support units as well. Of particular note is the balance of
nonlethal and lethal operations integrated into a single, seamless operation. Like the
sergeant first class of 1/3, commanders at all levels need to determine the defeat
framework they will use against the enemy and ensure that all actions, from Soldier
to commander, support that framework. This handbook is an example of how to do
that in actual operations.
Steven Mains
Colonel, Armor
Director
Center for Army Lessons Learned
SOUTHERN AFGHANISTAN COIN OPERATIONS
Southern Afghanistan Counterinsurgency Operations
Table of Contents
Introduction 1
Chapter 1. Familiarize Yourself with the Enemy 3
Chapter 2. Planning 9
Chapter 3. Nonlethal as a Decisive Operation 19
Chapter 4. Combat Operations Applying Lethal Means 41
Chapter 5. Logistics 51
Chapter 6. Special Considerations 55
Chapter 7. Training 61
Chapter 8. Fire Base Construction 63
Center for Army Lessons Learned
Director Colonel Steven Mains
Managing Editor George J. Mordica II
CALL Analyst Ralph D. Nichols
JRTC Analyst Thomas P. Odom
JRTC Special Operations
Training Detachment MAJ Richard Reese
Production Manager Valerie Tystad
Editor Jenny Solon
Graphic Artist Eric Eck
Publication Liaison Carrie Harrod
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CENTER FOR ARMY LESSONS LEARNED
The Secretary of the Army has determined that the publication of this periodical is
necessary in the transaction of the public business as required by law of the
Department. Use of funds for printing this publication has been approved by
Commander, U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command, 1985, IAW AR 25-30.
Unless otherwise stated, whenever the masculine or feminine gender is used, both
are intended.
Note: Any publications referenced in this newsletter (other than the CALL
newsletters), such as ARs, FMs, and TMs, must be obtained through your pinpoint
distribution system.
This information was deemed of immediate value to forces engaged in
the Global War on Terrorism and should not be necessarily construed
as approved Army policy or doctrine.
This information is furnished with the understanding that it is to be
used for defense purposes only, that it is to be afforded essentially the
same degree of security protection as such information is afforded by
the United States, that it is not to be revealed to another country or
international organization without the written consent of the Center for
Army Lessons Learned.
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SOUTHERN AFGHANISTAN COIN OPERATIONS
Introduction
This handbook provides guidance to the commanders and staffs of combined-arms
forces that have a primary mission of eliminating insurgent forces and discusses the
nature of organized guerrilla units and underground elements and their supporters.
This handbook provides information on organization; training; and tactics,
techniques, and procedures (TTP) combined-arms forces, in conjunction with civil
agencies, can employ to destroy large, well-organized insurgent forces in active
counterinsurgency (COIN) conflicts. The focal point is the COIN fight in southern
Afghanistan. Many of the examples in this handbook are derived from actual
experiences of a United States Special Forces task force during its four
deployments in support of Operation Enduring Freedom.
The term insurgent broadly refers to all types of unconventional forces and
operations (insurgent forces, insurgent activities, and COIN operations) and
includes guerrilla; partisan; insurgent; subversive; resistance; terrorist;
revolutionary; and similar personnel, organizations, and methods. Insurgent
activities include acts of a military, political, psychological, and economic nature
conducted predominantly by inhabitants of a nation for the purpose of eliminating
or weakening the authority of the local government or an occupying power and
using primarily insurgent and informal groupings and measures.
An insurgent force is the outward manifestation of a resistance movement against
the local government by some portion of the population of an area. Therefore, the
growth and continuation of an insurgent force depends on support furnished by the
population, even if the insurgent force also receives support from an external
power. When an insurgent force is in its formative stage, it may be eliminated by
the employment of civil law enforcement measures and removal of the factors that
motivate the resistance movement. Once formed, an insurgent force is usually too
strong to be eliminated by such measures. A stronger force, such as a military unit,
can destroy the insurgent force, but the resistance movement will, when convinced
that it is militarily feasible to do so, reconstitute the insurgent force unless the
original causative factors are also removed or alleviated. This handbook provides
proven strategies that address insurgent forces, their formation, and motivations.
Note: The majority of the material in this handbook is derived from technical
and tactical knowledge obtained from Field Manual (FM) 31-15, Operations
Against Irregular Forces; FM 31-20, Operations Against Guerrilla Forces; and
TTP adapted through the experience of four years of combating COIN forces
throughout Afghanistan. Additional data was compiled from multiple sources for
the purpose of creating a single-source document for reference by leaders.
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SOUTHERN AFGHANISTAN COIN OPERATIONS
Chapter 1
Familiarize Yourself with the Enemy
Understanding the Enemy
The fundamental cause of large-scale resistance movements stems from the
dissatisfaction of some portion of the population, whether real, imagined, or incited,
with the prevailing political, social, or economic conditions. This dissatisfaction is
usually centered on a desire for one or more of the following:
• National independence.
• Economic and social improvement.
• Elimination of foreign occupation or exploitation. *1
• Relief from actual or alleged oppression. *
• Elimination of corruption.
• Religious expression. *
In-country factors may cause a resistance movement to form locally, or
out-of-country elements that create and sponsor such a movement as a means of
promoting their own cause may inspire a resistance movement. Sometimes another
country will lend support to an in-country resistance movement and attempt to
control it to further its own aims.
Resistance movements begin to form when dissatisfaction occurs among strongly
motivated individuals who cannot further their cause by peaceful and legal means.
Under appropriate conditions, the attitudes and beliefs of these individuals spread to
family groups and neighbors. The population of entire areas may soon evidence
widespread discontent. When legal recourse is denied, discontent grows into
disaffection, and members of the population participate in insurgent activities.
Small dissident groups living and working within the established order gradually
organize into underground elements that conduct covert insurgent activities. As
members of underground organizations are identified and as the spirit of resistance
grows, overt guerrilla bands form in secure areas and become the military arm of
the insurgent force.
Characteristically, the scope of insurgent activities progress in this order: passive
objection, individual expression of opposition, sabotage, individual violent action,
and organized group violent action. Once individuals have participated in insurgent
activities, should there be any change of heart, they are usually forced to continue,
either by pressure from their comrades or by being designated criminals by local
authorities.
The organization of insurgent forces varies according to purpose; terrain; character
and density of population; availability of food, medical supplies, arms and
equipment; quality of leadership; amount and nature of external support and
direction; and the countermeasures used against them. Units or elements may vary
in size from a few saboteurs to organized paramilitary units of division size or
larger with extensive support organizations. A large insurgent force normally
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consists of three organized elements: a guerrilla element, which operates overtly; an
underground element, which operates covertly or clandestinely; and an auxiliary
element, which operates covertly. Members of large guerrilla units are usually
severed from their normal civilian pursuits, while members of small guerrilla bands
may alternately be either guerrillas or apparently peaceful citizens.
Members of the underground usually maintain their civilian pursuits. Individuals
and small groups who may or may not be formal members of either element but
who furnish aid in intelligence, evasion and escape, and supplies usually support
both elements. Such supporters are often considered to be a part of the
underground. An individual may be a member of two or more organizations and
may participate in many forms of insurgent activity. The underground elements of
an insurgent force must conduct the majority of their activities covertly because of
the countermeasures used against them, and they are usually found in all resistance
areas. Cells established for security reasons compartment successful organizations.
The cellular organization prevents a captured member from compromising the
entire organization.
Organized guerrilla units are usually found in areas where the terrain restricts the
mobility, surveillance, and firepower advantage of the opposing force.2 Guerilla
units vary from small groups, who are lightly armed, to large paramilitary units of
division size or larger with extensive support organizations. Large organizations
normally include guerilla and auxiliary elements for combat, assassination, and
terrorism and underground elements for intelligence and counterintelligence,
civilian control, and supply. Guerrilla units are composed of various categories of
personnel:
• Civilian volunteers and those impressed by coercion.
• Military leaders and specialists.
• Deserters.
• In time of active war, military individuals or small groups such as those
who have been cut off, deliberate stay-behinds, escaped prisoners of war,
and downed airmen.
An insurgent force presents an elusive target since it will usually disperse before
superior opposition and then re-form to strike again. However, as the guerrilla
elements of an insurgent force grow and approach parity with regular units in
organization, equipment, training, and leadership, their capabilities and tactics
likewise change and become similar to those of a regular unit. Clandestine
insurgent activities include:
• Acts of destruction against public and private property, transportation,
and communications systems.
• Raids and ambushes against military and police headquarters, garrisons,
convoys, patrols, and depots.
• Terrorism by assassination, bombing, torture, mutilation, and kidnapping.
• Provocation of incidents, reprisals, and holding of hostages.
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SOUTHERN AFGHANISTAN COIN OPERATIONS
• Denial activities such as arson, flooding, demolition, use of chemical or
biological agents, or other acts designed to prevent use of an installation,
area, product, or facility.
• Espionage.
• Criminal acts such as assassination, armed robbery, extortion, blackmail,
theft, and counterfeiting.
• Dissemination of propaganda and rumors, delaying or misdirecting
orders, issuing false or misleading orders or reports, and identifying
individuals for terrorist attack.
Insurgent TTP
Insurgent tactics vary from force to force and area to area. Some TTP are common
to nearly all insurgent forces.
Guerrilla tactics
The tactics used by the guerrilla are designed to weaken his enemy and to gain
support of the population. Guerrilla tactics follow well-known precepts:
• If the enemy attacks, “disappear.”3
• If the enemy defends, “harass.”4
• If the enemy withdraws or at any time is vulnerable, “attack.”5
Guerrilla tactics are primarily small-unit, infantry-type tactics, which make full use
of accurate intelligence; detailed planning and rehearsal; simple techniques of
maneuver, speed, surprise, infiltration, specialization in night operations; and the
undermining of enemy morale.
Speed is a relative thing and is usually accomplished by such actions as marching
rapidly two or three nights to reach the area of attack. Think of this type of action as
swarming.
Surprise is gained by the combined elements of speed, secrecy, selection of
unsuspected objectives, and deliberate deception.
Infiltration is a basic tactic of successful guerrilla units, and they quickly develop
great skill in infiltrating areas occupied by military units.
By specializing in night operations, a guerrilla force effectively reduces its
vulnerability to air and artillery attack.
Enemy morale is undermined by constant harassment; exhibition of a violent
combative spirit; fanaticism; self-sacrifice; and extensive use of propaganda,
threats, blackmail, and bribery.
Guerrillas immediately attempt to break out by force at a single point or disband
and exfiltrate individually when surrounded or cut off. If both fail, individual
guerrillas attempt to hide or mingle with the peaceful civilian population.
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CENTER FOR ARMY LESSONS LEARNED
Guerrilla base areas are carefully guarded by a warning net 6 consisting of guerrillas
and civilian supporters. Warning stations, which are relocated frequently, cover all
avenues of approach into the guerrilla area.
Indigenous activities
Facilitators include acts of groups of the population who are easily deceived by
promises and communications systems. Raids and sabotage are common to all
underground groups. Terrorist attacks such as assassination 7 challenge police or
military control. Ideological propaganda8 is disseminated by implanting rumors;
distributing leaflets and placards; taking hostages; and promoting demonstrations,
riots,9 strikes, and work slowdowns.
Auxiliary activities
The auxiliary will seek to provide a supporting network for activities of the other
segments of the insurgency. They will focus on providing the framework by which
these forces can arm themselves in safety through early warning. Materials and
services will be provided for operations. They will not seek to engage coalition
forces, but rather avoid contact and activity that will bring attention to themselves.
However, wherever there is insurgent activity, there will be a support auxiliary
network to logistically support operations and spread the ideology of the insurgency
movement.
Leadership
The present anti-coalition militant (ACM) leadership has evolved tribally by
promulgating religious ideology in pursuit of extremist Islamic beliefs. Over time
provincial tribal dominance has facilitated the acquisition of influence and power
by a few individuals who ultimately have exploited Islam for their purpose.
As the Taliban regime fell, senior leaders sought refuge in Pakistan and formed the
foundation of their shadow government. They have established regional and local
leaders that reside in Afghanistan and travel in and out of their areas of operation to
acquire orders, supplies, training, and some minimal force structure from the senior
leadership. They select and promote tribally related individuals who are
predominantly Pashtun and supported by Barakzi, Norzi, and Baluchi sub-tribes
that form the auxiliary networks.
The cellular structure throughout each province enables ACM forces to conduct
random but focused and deliberate operations. Mid-level leaders are able to enter,
occupy an area, recruit a force, and then begin organized operations to effect
popular support and pursue strategic directives from their senior leadership. When
leaders are killed or captured, delays in operational activities result, as witnessed by
the killing of Pai Mohammed, the Oruzgan Province battalion ACM commander.
Six months passed before a new leader was appointed and operations were
reorganized. This is not to say that the cellular structure of the leadership did not
permit local area actions from occurring as witnessed in Char Cineh. Most senior
and mid-level leaders have familial and tribal ties to Oruzgan and Helmand
provinces and understand this is the ground they must retain for narcotics traffic,
their primary source of capital and sanctuary. The leadership understands if this
area is lost, their capacity to sustain their cause is in jeopardy.
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SOUTHERN AFGHANISTAN COIN OPERATIONS
As a result of consistent combined kinetic and non-kinetic efforts, TF 31 has
learned that ACM activity only decreases in those areas where their leaders
perceive it is too costly in manpower and local popular support to continue. In areas
where they are able to reorganize and influence the populace without significant
loss, they continue to prolong the fight to achieve their strategic political objectives.
Using the reconciliation program, ACM leadership is beginning to integrate into the
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (IROA). Where this is not possible, they use
pre-existing tribal and mujahideen-forged relationships to influence appointed and
elected IROA leaders. This integration and influence is a very precarious situation
and in the long term will be defined primarily by self-interest and tribal loyalties.
Units must thoroughly understand political and governmental architecture to
facilitate appropriate stewardship of the developing government as well as to assess
the influence of the ACM. This understanding is a critical supporting effort to
Afghanistan national security forces combined kinetic operations.
Endnotes
1. * Denotes Afghani insurgent force motivations.
2. Afghanistan sanctuary areas such as the Oruzgan, Northern Kandahar, and Zabol
Provinces within Regional Command (RC) South.
3. For example: withdraw, using terrain to their advantage; assimilate into the local
population within urban areas; use hiding techniques such as thick blankets to
shield against advanced coalition thermal sights.
4. For example: improvised explosive devices, rockets, mortars, hit-and-run tactics
against bases, sniper operations.
5. For example: direct attacks on fixed bases, ambush of convoys/patrols.
6. ACM early warning signals range from something as rudimentary as releasing
birds, smoke signals, mirrors, and runners (often children) to more advanced
techniques of flashlights, flares, integrated communication radios, cellular and
satellite phones.
7. Many pro-coalition mullahs and political candidates have been assassinated
throughout Afghanistan for the purpose of destabilizing the central government,
discouraging support of the central government, and demonstrating the
insurgency’s ability to exert its power on key leaders.
8. Ideological propaganda includes night letters, comments by mullahs, countering
the coalition psychological operations leaflets.
9. In the summer of 2005 a riot was instigated by a few dissidents after an operation
near Bagram Airfield. This activity demonstrated the power of the insurgency to
rapidly mobilize or press people into achieving their goals. A riot cannot be ignored
and is typically widely reported by the press.
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SOUTHERN AFGHANISTAN COIN OPERATIONS
Chapter 2
Planning
Operations against insurgent forces are designed to establish control within the
resistance area; eliminate the insurgent force; and assist in the reconstruction,
rehabilitation, and re-education necessary for peaceful living. These goals are
concurrent, but in specific instances priorities may be established. The specific
actions required to attain each goal are often the same and even when different
usually planned and conducted concurrently.
Lines of Operations
While eliminating anti-coalition militants (ACM) is a central theme throughout all
efforts, planning will be focused on three primary areas:
1. Security
2. Governance and justice
3. Economic and strategic reconstruction
By providing this detailed focus, operations will be synchronized and have a unity
of effort. Special Forces are primarily focused on establishing security. By
establishing this center axis of focus, the other flanking axis will be able to flourish.
However, attempting to achieve the other lines of effort before a solid foundation of
security is established will result in failure. By applying a full-spectrum approach to
planning and operations, all three lines of operations can be addressed in the daily
activities and operations of a Special Forces team.
Security Operations
Planning for security operations can be further broken down into several categories:
• Creating a capacity in the security sector.
• Defeating the insurgency.
• Posturing for long-term growth and development.
Creating a capacity in the security sector
Building a competent and capable Afghan National Security Force (ANSF) is the
lasting legacy that Special Forces seek to achieve. All operations must take into
consideration the use of the ANSF and how they can be best employed to develop
them for eventually taking over operations. The greatest threat to Afghanistan is not
from overland invasion from a neighboring country, but rather from within in the
form of insurgents who wish to impose their religious ideals and ideology. The
primary security forces are the Afghan National Army (ANA), Afghan National
Police (ANP), Afghan Highway Patrol (AHP), and the Afghan Border Police
(ABP).
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Defeating the insurgency
Operations against insurgent forces are planned according to these basic
considerations:
• The majority of operations consist of small-unit actions. Small, mobile
units are able to react quickly and decisively throughout their area of
operations (AO). Combined with ANSF, units are able to quickly and
decisively evaluate and affect situations.
• Operations are primarily offensive in nature, intelligence driven,
encompassing full-spectrum decentralized operations. Once initiated, they
are continued without halt to prevent ACM reorganization and resupply. 1
• Lulls in activities or failure to establish contact with ACM may reflect
inadequate measures in the conduct of operations rather than complete
success.
• Conducting operations that are limited to specific goals and are repetitive
to the point of being predictable may allow the ACM to template friendly
forces operations.
• Operations are designed to find the enemy. Once contact is made, forces
must continue to pressure and pursue the ACM forces to fix and finish
them.
• The primary vehicle by which operations are conducted in Afghanistan is
the combat reconnaissance patrol. It is important to understand that
intelligence drives operations. Time, resources, and efforts must be
focused towards specific areas during the combat reconnaissance patrol to
gain the maximum effect sought.
• Operations are designed to minimize the insurgent force’s strengths and
to exploit their weaknesses.
º The greatest strengths of an insurgent force lie in its inner political
structure and identification with a popular cause, its ability to
conceal itself within the civil population, the strong motivation of
its members, and their knowledge of the resistance area.2
º The greatest weaknesses of an insurgent force lie in its
dependence upon support by the civil population; its lack of a
reliable supply system for food, arms, and ammunition;3 and its
lack of transportation,4 trained leadership,5 and communications.
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SOUTHERN AFGHANISTAN COIN OPERATIONS
Figure 2-1: Afghanistan is composed of 70% mountainous terrain,
which provides ample sanctuary areas for insurgent forces
to regroup, train, and base operations.
Posturing for long-term growth and development
Operations must set the stage for further expansion and development. That means
that operational planners must consider all of the elements of combat power at their
disposal.
Use of fires: Coalition forces enjoy a large advantage in the availability of
fires, indirect and aerial, to influence the battle. Using such fires wisely can
dramatically affect the outcome of tactical engagements and offer a tool,
which with careful use can alter the strategic outcome of the fight against
the ACM. But careful use is an overarching consideration that must be
carefully weighed and judged. In a fight for the support of the larger Afghan
population, the damage from collateral casualties can far outweigh the
benefits of resultant ACM losses.
Artillery: Terrain and the dispositions and tactics of guerrilla forces usually
limit the effectiveness of artillery. However, the demoralizing effect of
artillery fire on guerrillas often justifies its use even though there is little
possibility of inflicting material damage. Ingenuity and a departure from
conventional concepts often make artillery support possible under the most
adverse circumstances.
Close air support (CAS): The use of CAS offers the best venue for
bringing combined arms to bear on ACM forces. CAS is delivered by three
methods: high, medium, and low altitude. High-altitude approaches are
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performed by B-52s utilizing joint direct attack munitions to provide
precision and pinpoint munitions on targets. Bombing runs are usually long
in approach and do not allow the aircraft to visually identify the target they
are engaging, thus relying solely on the ground maneuver element to call for
fire. Medium-level CAS is derived in the form of A-10s, GR-7s, and other
fixed wing aircraft of this type. These aircraft are visually in contact with
ground units and provide other capabilities of intelligence, surveillance, and
reconnaissance (ISR). The visual and audible effect of these aircraft makes a
significant impact on the morale of ACM forces. Low-altitude CAS is
provided by rotary wing AH-64s. These aircraft are able to provide flexible
and responsive CAS and ISR. Terrain throughout the AO will dictate the
type of CAS applied. Steep terrain can dictate the use of particular platforms
to be able to engage ACM forces while safeguarding friendly units. All
units should conduct detailed analysis of the best type of CAS to support
missions and have a full understanding of the capabilities and limitations of
CAS.
Mobility: The rough terrain and limited road networks are limiting factors
in mobility. Methods of moving on the battlefield are by rotary wing air, by
vehicle, and by foot. The ability to interface with the local populace should
be considered in all movements. By interacting, units are able to offset the
ideology and show a firm presence by establishing a more secure
environment. However, because of early warning networks, movement by
ground presents a loss of surprise. Rotary wing aircraft can mitigate this
effect, but because of the limited number of air frames, operations lack the
flexibility required to maintain an aggressive pursuit of the ACM.
Ground mobility: Movement by vehicle can be accomplished by
performing operations in ground-mobility (GMV), uparmored, and
non-standard tactical vehicles. Each vehicle has advantages and
disadvantages to operations. Clearly, using the GMV provides a mixture of
heavy weapons, communications, visibility, and mobility for operations.
With the new armament added on to the vehicles, this system is the
preferred choice. Some operations require movement into the green zones.6
Narrow roads require the more narrow vehicles. Movement by foot is
mandatory throughout the mountainous regions to gain the upper hand on
enemy forces and seize the high grounds to prevent lookouts and
overwatches. During summer months, body armor and helmets will severely
limit friendly rates of movement and hinder Soldier loads, while requiring
increased water consumption rates.
Aerial mobility: The helicopter has wide application when used against
insurgent forces, subject to the usual limitations of weather and visibility. Its
capability for delivering troops, supplies, and suppressive fires and its
ability to fly at low speed, to land in a small clearing, and to hover make it
highly useful. The helicopter used in the CAS role is very effective,
particularly in the mountainous regions where fast moving CAS has limited
effects. For troop movement, infiltration is an excellent method, but is
limited to the amount of blade time per flight, which decreases overall
flexibility in operations. Logistics is by far the largest consumer of rotary
wing aircraft. Medium lift aircraft fly on a routine cycle supplying all the
outlying fire bases with materials and personnel, movements that would
otherwise be difficult to achieve by ground methods.
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Morale and continuity of effort: Morale of forces engaged in operations
against insurgent forces presents some planning considerations not
encountered in other types of combat. Operations against a force that
seldom offers a target, disintegrates before opposition, and then re-forms
and strikes again where it is least expected may induce strong feelings of
futility among Soldiers and dilute their sense of purpose. Activities between
adjacent commands must be coordinated to ensure unity of effort.7 If a
command in one area carries out vigorous operations while a neighboring
command is passive, guerrilla elements will move into the quiet area until
danger has passed. Underground and auxiliary elements will either remain
quiet or transfer their efforts temporarily. Coordination and synchronization
between units is the key to overcoming the unity of effort. The reciprocal
risk must also be considered. Allowing ACM forces to escape into quiet
zones can only boost the enemy’s morale. Allowing this to happen allows
the enemy to regain the tactical and operational initiative. Denying the
enemy such sanctuary will degrade his morale.
Specific areas of operational responsibility: Responsibilities for the entire
AO must be specified, using clearly defined boundaries to subdivide the
area. Boundaries should not prevent hot pursuit of insurgent force elements
into an adjacent area. Coordination should, however, be accomplished
between affected commands at the earliest practicable opportunity.
Boundaries should be well defined and should not bisect swamps, dense
forests, mountain ridges, or other key terrain features used by guerrilla
elements for camps, headquarters, or bases. Similarly, well-defined
boundaries should be used to divide urban areas to ensure complete
coverage. The enemy has no boundaries, but will attempt to use our
boundaries to their advantage.
Planning Factors
Planning for operations against insurgent forces requires a detailed analysis of the
area concerned and its population. Close attention is given to both the civil
(diplomatic, information, military, and economic [DIME]) and the military
situations. The following specific factors are considered in the commander’s
estimate:
• The motivation and loyalties of various segments of the population,
identification of hostile and friendly elements, vulnerability of friendly or
potentially friendly elements to coercion by terror tactics, and
susceptibility to enemy and friendly propaganda. Particular attention is
given to the following:
º Farmers and other rural dwellers.
º Criminal elements.
º Adherents to the political philosophy of the insurgent force or to
similar philosophies.
º Former members of armed forces.
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º Existence of strong personalities capable of organizing an
insurgent force and their activities.
• Existing policies and directives regarding legal status and treatment of the
civil population and insurgent force members.
• Terrain and weather to include:
º Suitability of terrain and road and trail net for both insurgent force
and friendly force operations.
º Location of all possible hideout areas for guerrillas.
º Location of possible drop zones and fields suitable for the
operation of aircraft used in support of guerrilla units.
• Resources available to the insurgent force, including:
º Capability of the area to furnish food.
º Capability of friendly forces to control the harvest, storage, and
distribution of food.
º Availability of water and fuels.
º Availability of arms, ammunition, demolition materials, and other
supplies.
• Insurgent force relations with any external sponsoring power, including:
º Direction and coordination of insurgent activities.
º Communication with the insurgent force.
º Capability to deliver organizers and supplies by air, sea, and land.
• Extent of insurgent force activities and the force organization to include:
º Origin and development.
º Strength and morale.
º Personality of the leaders.
º Relations with the civil population.
º Effectiveness of organization and unity of command.
º Status of equipment and supplies.
º Status of training.
º Effectiveness of communications.
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º Effectiveness of intelligence, including counterintelligence.
• Size and composition of forces available for counter operations to
include:
º Own forces.
º Other military units within the area.
º Civil police, paramilitary units, and self-defense units.
• The communication facilities available to allow effective control of forces
engaged in counter operations.
The Targeting Process
With all of the planning factors considered, units must develop a targeting process
and strategy in order to successfully synchronize intelligence and operations and
take the fight to the enemy. The following model is a depiction of TF-31’s targeting
model used during their 2005-2006 rotation to Afghanistan.
Guidance Objectives
Command: Conduct Command: Conduct operations
and employ systems that:
search, attack, and assist
operations to find, fix, and •Attack enemy combatants
TA
finish enemy, as well as to Auxiliary •Counter ideological support
CT
counter ideological
I
Underground
CA
G CO Sub-System: •Find HVT/MVT targets
L
O
support to the enemy
PE
Sub-System: CO G Function: Logistics support
RA
Critical •Disrupt underground and
combatants
T
IO
Vulnerabilities auxiliary subsystems
NA
Function: C3I, political 1. Leaders Components: drugs,
L
infrastructure, plans, 2. Ideological
dollars, guns, caches,
training, recruiting, support LOCs, populace,
intelligence 3. Safe havens transportation
4 Communication Vulnerabilities:
Components: Safe and movement
house/sanctuary, 5. Access to Weaknesses:
leaders, planners, IO targets Intelligence Analysis
6. Funding
Vulnerabilities: • Fill in names, places, times
7. Weapons
Weaknesses: (patterns)
8. Fighters
• ID Vulnerabilities, weaknesses
COG • ID Critical nodes
Guerrillas
• ID Aim points for attack
Sub-System:
T
CT
IN
• A – R – D – A Loop
IM
Function: Military action
LE
T,
(ambush, IED, check points)
L
IN
CO
G
Components: Foot soldiers,
SI
T,
sanctuary, guns, IEDs,
IN
Vulnerabilities:
M
U
S3
H
Weaknesses:
• SOF Mission criteria
S2/OCE/OGA/DHS/DEA/OTHERS - Appropriate mission?
- Operationally feasible?
Direct intelligence against the - Resources available?
overlaps (PIR and collection plan)
- Outcome justifies risk?
Identify critical nodes (overlaps)
Figure 2-2: ACM graphics
The targeting process must remain ahead of the enemy’s decision cycle
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The targeting process supports this strategy. As depicted in the above graphic, the
process begins with intelligence collection efforts that are refined by command
guidance and clarified by strategic objectives. Collection efforts, refined command
guidance, and clear strategic objectives combine to filter the ACM subsystems of
the underground, the auxiliary, and the guerillas to produce the targeting centers of
gravity. By focusing on these centers of gravity, units are able to conduct tactical
operations that have strategic impact. The targeting process is continuous and
undergoes ongoing scrutiny from intelligence analysis systems to ensure that
targeting efforts remain relevant and always considerate of the special operations
force mission criteria.
Lethal and Nonlethal Strategy
The strategy of search, attack, and assist is a cyclic model, combining lethal and
nonlethal activities to achieve the desired effects on the enemy throughout the
battlespace. By balancing lethal and nonlethal activities, one is able to achieve
similar results regardless of what the enemy chooses to do. If the ACM elects to
fight, a lethal strategy is prepared and postured to fix and finish them. Should the
enemy elect to hide, a nonlethal strategy is prepared and postured to counter and
find them.
Moreover, each facet of the strategy is complementary. One may conduct an attack
that leads to a new search. One may conduct a search that leads us to an operation
to assist. Each facet supports the next. The entire lethal and nonlethal strategy is
predicated on a partnership with the Afghan National Army (ANA). In everything
the units do, they must attempt to move from operations that have an “Afghan face”
to operations that are truly “Afghan led,” enabling the ANA to eventually provide a
safe, secure, and stable environment for the Afghan people. Below is a model of
several TTP that may be used in a lethal and nonlethal strategy.
Figure 2-3
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Endnotes
1. Pressure, pursue, and punish the insurgent forces through relentless and
continuous offensive operations.
2. This is especially true with southern Afghanistan, the heart of religious
factionalism and home of the Taliban during their rule of the country.
3. Much of the insurgent forces' resupply of weapons and ammunition within
Afghanistan comes from caches throughout the country that have been established
from the mujahideen days of fighting the Russians. Much of their resupply of food
comes from the local populace or Couchi tribes and their flocks of sheep and goats
(walking meat market).
4. The main form of transportation for the insurgent soldier is by foot, while
leadership often rely on motorcycles and merchant vehicles for transportation.
Many ACM forces move with Couchi tribes, normally by force, as a deceptive
measure.
5. The ACM have made great strides in training their leadership both from within
and from foreign influences. Expect higher-ranking personnel to seek training and
funding from outside sources.
6. The green zones are referred to in The Bear Came Over the Mountain, LTC (U.S.
Army, Retired) Les Grau, Foreign Military Studies Office, and other military books
as the areas located along river basins. These areas typically house people in long
extending villages and promote the growth of trees and other agricultural crops.
Because of this lush growth, these areas are called “green zones.”
7. Simultaneous combat operations must be synchronized to maximize effects upon
the insurgent forces.
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SOUTHERN AFGHANISTAN COIN OPERATIONS
Chapter 3
Nonlethal as a Decisive Operation
It is no longer sufficient to think purely in lethal terms. Friendly forces must think
of nonlethal events and opportunities for execution across the entire battlespace.
Executing traditionally focused combat operations and concentrating on training
local security forces works, but only for the short term. In the long term, doing so
hinders true progress and, in reality, promotes the growth of the insurgent forces
working against campaign objectives.
The Objective is the Population
Training and doctrine reinforce the simple, direct-action approach to accomplishing
military objectives. Unfortunately, given the complexity of the counterinsurgency
(COIN) and the dynamic between the Afghans that openly support the insurgency
and those within the area of influence otherwise known as “fence-sitters,” a strict
focus only on direct action or training the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF)
will lead to one result – pushing those on the fence into the insurgent category
rather than into the support category. In effect, by offering no viable alternative,
short-term wins ultimately cause the insurgency to grow. The ideology of an
insurgent can be drastically affected if nonlethal activities are employed effectively.
Simultaneous lethal and nonlethal
The reality is that there are cultural mechanisms at play that demand a more
integrated plan. It is no longer acceptable to think sequentially through stability
operations and support operations, believing that if you first establish the security
environment, you can work sequentially toward establishing critical infrastructure
and governmental legitimacy and then drive toward economic independence.
If the only approach to a COIN is to kill bad guys and train others to kill bad guys,
the only effect accomplished is moving more people from the fence to the insurgent
category – there remains no opportunity to grow the support base. While killing
insurgents is the best method of removing them from affecting the populace, failing
to consider and counter their ideology as the root cause of an insurgency will serve
to boost it and increase their recruiting base. Friendly forces should seek to always
make conditions in the environment as inhospitable to the insurgency as possible
through populace resource control methods, which will allow other lines of
operations to be directed at countering the root cause and set long-term conditions
which ensure success.
Practical offsets ideological
Practical operations that assist the local populace serve to counter ideology. These
projects can provide medical assistance in areas lacking care or build schools and
infrastructure to better living conditions while raising education levels. All
assistance operations are directed at helping those in need. Assistance must be
rendered on a conditional basis to the most deserving. Failure to identify the
deserving will result in a haphazard approach to assistance and provide care to the
insurgents. Assistance can be used as a reward-type system in areas that provide
intelligence or as a way to sway support in areas that are neutral. When possible,
assistance should be tied to larger systems to create a networking effect across the
entire battlespace. This network would serve to promote commerce and assist in
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security. Building bridges, roads, clinics, and schools serves to counter ideology
and build support for the government.
Enticing support
Long-term success in defeating the insurgency will only be achieved if the local
populace supports the government of Afghanistan, the ANSF, and the coalition by
revealing insurgent cells and denying the enemy sanctuary. To achieve this end, it
is imperative to shape the populace by providing positive options through clear
improvement in quality of life. Create symbols of progress by establishing basic
local services, demonstrating good governance, and providing employment
opportunities within villages and districts that are known for insurgent recruiting
sanctuaries.
Population Security
Population security is the platform on which all other efforts must rest; nonlethal
operations are decisive in winning the support of the population. The security of
that population must be addressed to allow such nonlethal efforts to bear fruit. The
insurgents recognize this truism. It is therefore important to keep an insurgency
under control, as insurgent activities typically match exactly the actions being taken
to stabilize an environment. The operational area, military forces, civil forces, and
the population must be organized to provide the following:
• Military and civil area administration.
• Static security posts and combat bases to facilitate operations from a
secure base.
• Security detachments for protecting critical military and civil
installations, essential routes of communication, and key communities.
• Task forces for conducting police operations against underground
elements.
• Task forces for conducting combat operations against guerrilla elements.
• Civil self-defense units for protecting individual villages and small towns.
Military and civil area administration
The operational area is subdivided into geographic sectors or sectors coinciding
with internal political subdivisions. Specific sector responsibility for administration
and local operations should be delegated to a single authority, either military or
civil.
Static security posts and combat bases
Static security posts and combat bases are established to facilitate operations and
not as the main focus of such operations. If operations become focused on simply
preserving such posts and bases, units surrender all initiative to the anti-coalition
militia (ACM).
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Static security posts: Static security posts are established to:
• Protect installations, routes of communication, and communities.
• Maintain control in rural areas.
• Serve as bases for local reaction operations.
No attempt is made to cordon or cover an area with strong points, as this
strategy immobilizes forces, surrenders the initiative to the insurgent force,
and invites defeat in detail. Static security posts are organized to be as
self-sufficient as possible, reducing dependence on vulnerable land routes of
communication.
Combat bases: Combat bases are established as needed to facilitate the
administration and support of company and battalion-size combat units.
Combat bases are ideally located in a secure area within or immediately
adjacent to the units’ area of operation (AO) and are placed within
established static security posts when practicable. A combat base is moved
as often as necessary to remain within effective striking range of guerrilla
elements and concentrically expand the secure area. Air and ground vehicles
are employed extensively for deployment and support of troops to reduce
the number of required combat bases. All static security posts and combat
bases are organized as both tactical and administrative entities to facilitate
local security, rapid assembly, administration, and discipline.
Maintaining an offensive posture
The ultimate objective of operations against an insurgent force is to eliminate the
insurgent force and prevent its resurgence. To attain this objective, the following
tasks must be accomplished:
• Establishment of an effective intelligence system to furnish detailed,
accurate, and current knowledge of the insurgent force.
• Physical separation of guerrilla elements from each other, their support
base in the local population, underground elements, and any sponsoring
power.
• Destruction of insurgent force elements by the defection, surrender,
capture, or death of individual members.
• Provision of political, economic, and social necessities and the
ideological re-education of dissident elements of the population to
prevent resurgence of the insurgent force.
Installation and Community Security
Critical military and civil installations and local communities must be secured
against sabotage and guerrilla attack. Security is the key event that must take place
to protect these vital areas to allow other operations to be taken against the enemy
in sanctuary areas. An active defense is the best method to provide security through
frequent patrolling and counter reconnaissance.
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Security measures
Special attention is given to the security of food supplies, arms, ammunition, and
other equipment of value to the insurgent force. Maximum use is made of natural
and manmade obstacles, alarms, illumination, electronic surveillance devices, and
restricted areas. Fields of fire are cleared, and field fortifications are constructed for
guards and other local security forces. The local security system is supplemented by
vigorous patrolling using varying schedules and routes. Patrolling distance from the
installation or community is at least that of light mortar range. Specially trained
dogs may be used with guards and patrols. As a defense against espionage and
sabotage within installations, rigid security measures are enforced on native labor,
to include screening, identification, and supervision. All security measures are
maintained on a combat basis, and all personnel keep their weapons available for
instant use. The routine means of securing an installation are altered frequently to
prevent insurgent forces from obtaining detailed accurate information about the
composition and habits of the defense. Consider inner and outer perimeter
requirements. Use local military forces to assist with guarding the areas that are
loyal to friendly forces. Make sure they are properly trained and supervised.
Understand that the pay of local guard forces may differ substantially from the pay
of national army forces, and this situation may have a long-term impact on
recruiting and retaining individuals for service. Do not allow the armed force to
commit unlawful acts that may be misconstrued by the local populace as connected
to and condoned by coalition forces.
Security detachments
The mission, size, composition, and effectiveness of the hostile force and the
attitude of the civil population dictate the size, organization, and equipment of local
security forces. Security detachments in remote areas normally are larger than those
close to supporting forces. Patrol requirements also influence the size of security
detachments. Remote detachments maintain a supply level to meet the contingency
of isolation from their base for long periods and should be independent of the local
population for supply. Balanced against the desirability for self-sufficient
detachments is the certainty that well-stocked remote outposts will be considered as
prime targets for guerrilla forces as a source of arms and ammunition. Reliable
communication between the responsible headquarters and security detachments is
essential.
Defense
Outlying installations are organized and prepared for all-round defense. Adequate
guards and patrols are used and precautions are taken to prevent guards from being
surprised and overpowered before they can sound the alarm. Concealed and
covered approaches to the position are mined and booby-trapped, with due
consideration for safety of the civil population. Areas from which short-range fire
can be placed on the position are cleared and mined. Personnel are provided with
auxiliary exits and covered routes from their shelters to combat positions. Buildings
used for shelters are selected with care. Generally, wooden or other light structures
are avoided. If they must be used, the walls are reinforced for protection against
small-arms fire. Supplies are dispersed and placed in protected storage. Adequate
protection is provided for communication installations and equipment. Individual
alertness is maintained by frequent practice alerts that may include full-scale
rehearsal of defense plans. Local civilians, including children, are not permitted to
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enter the defensive positions. Civilian informants and observation and listening
posts are established along routes of approach to the installations.
Security of Surface Lines of Communication (LOCs)
LOCs between fire bases and key towns should be secured to prevent guerrilla
attacks and sabotage if at all possible. Improvised explosive devices (IEDs) are the
favored method of creating disruption and fear. Long-surface LOCs cannot be
completely protected against a determined insurgent force without committing an
excessive number of troops. When a railroad, canal, pipeline, or highway must be
utilized, the following measures may be required.
Standing security measures
Regular defensive measures are taken to protect control and maintenance
installations, repair and maintenance crews, and traffic. Vulnerable features such as
major cuts in mountain passes, underpasses, tunnels, bridges, locks, pumping
stations, water towers, power stations, and roundhouses require permanent guards
or continuous surveillance of approaches. If necessary, the right-of-way of
highways, railroads, canals, and pipelines are declared and posted as a restricted
zone. The zone includes the area 300 meters on each side of the right-of-way.
Civilian inhabitants are evacuated from the zone, underbrush is cleared, and
wooded areas are thinned to permit good visibility.
Random security measures
Frequent air and ground patrols are made at varying times, night and day, along the
right-of-way and to the flanks to discourage trespassing and to detect mines,
sabotage, and hostile movements. Armored vehicles, aircraft, and armored railroad
cars are used by patrols when appropriate. Use the local police force as much as
possible to create a presence and familiarity with the local populace to provide
security and identify people who are out of place.
Convoys and convoy escort
Lone vehicles, trains, and convoys that cannot provide their own security are
grouped if practicable and escorted through danger areas by armed security
detachments. All traffic is controlled and reported from station to station.
Movement of supplies should be guarded to prevent capture from enemy elements
and use against friendly forces.
Principles of Operation
In executing the above tasks, Special Forces adhere to certain operational
principles.
Unity of command/authority
Direction of the military and civil effort at each level is vested in a single authority,
either military or civil, and coordinated and synchronized from the village level to
the provincial level, tying together entire regions to create a unity of effort instead
of competing requirements. These efforts must be aimed at individual events tied to
systems to connect the region. Empower the host nation (HN) capabilities.
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Rule of law
Military actions are conducted in consonance with specified civil rights, liberties,
and objectives.
Take and maintain the initiative
Operations are planned to be predominantly offensive operations. Aggressive
operations are conducted to find, fix, disrupt, and finish the enemy and remove
sanctuary environments while countering the ideology support to the enemy.
Conduct full-spectrum combined-arms operations
Police, combat, and civic action operations are conducted simultaneously.
Operations that are lethal should be offset by nonlethal events or immediately
followed up by aid actions to prevent the enemy from capitalizing on the
destruction. Police should be at the front of COIN efforts when possible to help
legitimize operations with the local populace.
Maximize speed and mobility
Task forces employed against guerrilla elements are organized to have a higher
degree of aggressiveness and mobility than guerrilla elements. Ability to respond
quickly and decisively is vitally important to pressure, pursue, and punish enemy
forces. Decision cycles must be tailored to be supportive of ground commanders.
Boundaries and Control Measures
Considerations must be made along the lines of established civil boundaries that
existed before the conflict began. Borders with neighboring countries are points of
concern and may require additional forces to secure. Established towns may be
recognized as the informal seats of government within areas beyond the designated
governmental seats of authority. Tribal lines also may follow geographical features
and terrain. Identifying tribal boundaries is necessary to understand what lines and
areas the local populace recognizes for guidance. Failure to understand where these
areas are will result in a loss of situational awareness and respect from the local
populace.
Using existing roads is another method of separating areas for operations; however,
these roads are usually built into the centers of populations and are used to connect
areas, not to determine boundaries. Be aware that former occupations may have
drawn boundary lines that contradict local customs or ideals. For instance, borders
may be drawn along the tops of mountains and ridge lines; however, the local
populace may recognize the rivers and valleys as the boundaries. Additionally,
boundaries may have been drawn to separate people instead of allowing them to be
together.
Basing Strategy
The ultimate goal of a basing strategy is to develop bases that are ultimately turned
over to the national army for continued operations and presence. These bases are
critical for facilitating civil and military operations. Withdrawal back to main bases
or consolidating efforts will have a negative effect and create pockets or safe zones
for enemy forces to exploit, both operationally and through informational means.
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Bases can be used for conducting multiple types of missions and will serve as
strong points for bringing initial public services such as medical care into regions
where they are lacking. The presence of military forces deters insurgent activity and
creates zones in which infrastructure and good governance can flourish.
Establishing a single base or a series of bases requires careful consideration of the
following:
Force array
Bases must be developed according to a plan that seeks to fulfill a strategy. Absent
such a plan and strategy, bases are targets. Forces are arrayed to fulfill the
following strategy:
• Intelligence, like fires, should overlap; bases offer a means to this end.
• Bases offer mutually supporting spheres of combat power.
• Reaction forces operating from such bases can exert control over an AO.
• Bases must enjoy supportable LOCs and support those LOCs.
Locations
Each base must bring specific advantages to the their AO.
• Base must allow unit to project power.
• Base must support civil-military operations (CMO) and information
operations (IO).
• Base must promote the HN government.
• Base must create a stable, safe, secure environment.
Protection
The Afghan National Army (ANA) must be able to protect itself from the threat.
• Base must be defensible and on defensible terrain.
• Base must have strong walls and adequate protection.
• Base must control the area.
• Base must support an offensive focus for forces operating from the base
and in its support.
Garrison
The Soldiers inside are the most important elements in establishing a base.
• Soldiers must be well trained.
• Soldiers must focus on all elements of COIN operations.
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• Soldiers must earn the respect of the locals.
• Soldiers must serve as role models in all that they do.
Flag
Flags have been around for centuries for good reason. The national flag works as a
symbol to rally support and fosters nationalism instead of tribalism.
Size and Composition of Forces
Command and control
The measures that U.S. military commanders may use to tailor coalition forces
against insurgent forces during hostilities and in occupied enemy territory are
limited to those which are authorized by the laws of land warfare (Field Manual
[FM] 27-10, The Law of Land Warfare). Army operations against insurgent forces
in a general or limited war will be conducted within the command structure
established for the particular theater. The senior headquarters conducting the
operation may be joint, combined, or single service. Overall, the most successful
and responsive headquarters structure is one that is decentralized to the lowest
level. Higher headquarters should establish a unified, clear, and concise strategy for
obtaining its desired end state. All special operations forces will be placed under
the command and control of a combined joint special operations force command.
This structure will ensure a proper array and seamless strategy is employed with all
special operations forces in country. If an established communications zone exists,
control of operations against an insurgent force in this area will normally be a
responsibility of the theater Army logistical command or the appropriate section
headquarters. Continuity of commanders and staff officers and retention of the
same units within an area are desirable to permit commanders, staffs, and troops to
become thoroughly acquainted with the terrain, the local population, and the
insurgent force organization and its techniques of operations.
Military forces
Size: The initial force assigned to combat an insurgent force must be
adequate to complete their elimination. Initial assignment of insufficient
forces may ultimately require use of a larger force than would have been
required originally. The size and composition of the force will depend on
the size of the area, topography, civilian attitude, and hostile insurgent
force. Historically, required forces have ranged from a company to a large
field army. Organization will usually require forming battalion or battle
group-size task forces, which will be given an area responsibility.
Full-spectrum capabilities: Special Forces units are best suited for combat
against guerrillas because of their full-spectrum approach to operations
while building HN capacity and capabilities. Infantry, armored cavalry, and
airborne units, while limited in their abilities to approach the full spectrum,
are also capable of being effectively employed against insurgent forces,
particularly by providing a layered effect and assistance to Special Forces.
However, many other military units, when re-equipped and retrained, can be
employed effectively.
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Rotation and rest: In active war situations, combat units withdrawn from
the line for rest and rehabilitation or fresh units preparing for commitment
should not be assigned a COIN force mission except in emergencies. The
enemy, in an asymmetric, noncontiguous approach, may employ insurgent
forces across the battlespace.
Reaction forces: A mobile force that is capable of rapidly engaging
reported hostile elements or reinforcing outer friendly forces is based at
each static security post and combat base. This reaction force ranges in size
from a reinforced platoon to a reinforced company and is capable of rapid
movement by foot, truck, or aircraft. Typically, a reaction force should be
composed of both coalition and HN forces. It is imperative to build the
credibility of the HN forces by assisting them in conducting operations.
Bolstering their presence will assist in building capacity for them to assume
command and control. All forces at all fire bases should be prepared to react
on short notice to respond to any situation, both lethal and nonlethal.
Patrolling: The extensive use of patrols is required to assist in local
security of installations and to locate and keep the insurgent force on the
defensive.
• Patrols are used in urban and rural areas to augment or replace civil
police and their functions. These patrols may vary from two men to a
squad in size. Military police units are ideally suited for employment in
such a role, and light combat units are quite capable of performing the
same functions with little additional training.
• Regular combat reconnaissance patrols are formed and employed in a
conventional and unconventional manner and for harassing operations in
areas of extensive guerrilla activity. These patrols are used to confirm or
deny enemy presence and to pressure and pursue the enemy in order to
find, fix, and finish.
• Extended combat patrols are employed in difficult terrain some distance
from static security posts and combat bases. Extended combat patrols
must be capable of employing guerrilla tactics and remaining committed
from one to two weeks; being supplied by air for the period of
commitment; and being equipped to communicate with base, aircraft, and
adjacent patrols. Such operational detachment alpha (ODA) patrols may
vary with HN forces from squad to company in size and have the mission
of conducting harassing operations and making planned searches of the
area so that no secure areas exist in which guerrilla forces can rest,
reorganize, and train. The effectiveness of most missions can be increased
immeasurably by appropriate civilian augmentation, such as local police
forces or constabulary, acting as guides, trackers, and representatives in
conjunction with HN military forces.
A balance between combat reconnaissance patrols and direct action
missions must be achieved to combine activities of searching for the enemy,
attacking the enemy, assisting the local populace, and developing the
ANSF. This balance will help to achieve the desired effects against the
insurgency, promote nation building, and reduce crime and corruption.
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ial Operati
Spec Forces ons
Figure 3-1
Civil forces and local individuals
To minimize the requirement for military units, unit leaders make maximum use of
civil police, paramilitary units, and local individuals who are sympathetic to the
friendly cause. The use and control of such forces is predicated upon national and
local policy agreements and suitable screening to satisfy security requirements.
Their capabilities and limitations are carefully evaluated so as to realize their full
effectiveness.
Because of low pay, corruption and crime may be factors influencing operations of
local police forces. Illegal checkpoint operations and extortion may be a means of
support for them. Understanding the dynamics of these forces will preclude the
legitimate populace from aligning coalition forces with corrupt police forces.
When policy and the situation permit, local individuals who have had experience or
training as soldiers, police, or guerrillas should be organized into auxiliary police
and village self-defense units. Those without such experience may be employed
individually as laborers, informants, guards, guides and trackers, interpreters, and
translators. Civil forces will usually require assistance and support by the military
force. Assistance is normally required in an advisory capacity for organization,
training, and planning operations. Support is normally required in supplying arms,
ammunition, food, transportation, and communication equipment.
Police: Local and regional police are employed primarily to assist in
establishing and maintaining order in urban areas. Local police are most
effective in areas that are densely populated. Local police have a greater
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familiarity with the area than ANA from other regions of Afghanistan.
Police live in the areas they enforce; therefore, they have a vested interest in
protecting their village or areas. An understanding of the true capabilities of
the police to maneuver, communicate, and support operations is critical to
working with these forces. The Army forces and police forces will most
likely have differing capabilities that must be understood.
Self-defense units: Organizing, equipping, and training self-defense units
may provide in whole or in part for the defense of communities against
guerrilla raids and terrorist attacks. Self-defense units are comprised of local
inhabitants, and their organization is based on villages, counties, and
provinces. A self-defense unit must be capable of repelling guerrilla attacks;
if not, immediate reinforcement must be available to preclude loss of
supplies and equipment to guerrillas. Supplemental forces may be armed for
particular events, like elections, to augment established forces. Care must be
taken to arm these forces so they are capable; however, they should not
possess capabilities beyond other forces in the area that would upset the
regional balance. Leaders must consider the long-term effects of arming the
populace versus disarming the populace in order to reduce violence.
Paramilitary forces: Gendarmerie or other national paramilitary units are
particularly effective in establishing and maintaining order in rural and
remote areas. Because of their organization, training, and equipment, they
may also be employed in small-scale combat operations.1
Friendly guerrilla forces: Friendly guerrilla units that have operated in the
same area as hostile guerrilla units are usually willing to assist in the
counter-guerilla effort. Such units may be effectively employed in extended
combat patrol harassing missions. In addition, members of friendly guerrilla
units can serve as trackers, guides, interpreters, translators, and espionage
agents and can man observation posts and warning stations. When friendly
guerrilla units are employed, they must be supported logistically and should
be subordinate to the military force commander. The military force
commander maintains control and communication by furnishing a liaison
party to remain with the friendly guerrilla force and by controlling the
support furnished. Special Forces ODAs are ideally suited for this purpose.
It is important to understand the long-term implications of the transition
between these forces and demobilization of these forces in the continuum.
While initially this is a good approach for conducting operations, in the long
term independent militias may have a negative effect on the establishment
and legitimate recognition of a HN military. Typically, their agendas will be
suited towards achieving their personal goals and not that of the
government.
Civil-Military Operations (CMO)
Civic action and civil assistance
Civic action and civil assistance projects aimed directly at the promotion of good
governance and justice, economic expansion and reconstruction, and
communication and education will ensure the appropriate balance between lethal
and nonlethal activities. In addition, these projects foster an environment that
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demonstrates to the people of Afghanistan tangible signs of progress within a
legitimate context, therefore, optimizing the support.
Civic action is designed to secure the economic or social betterment of the civilian
community. Civic action can contribute to the development of favorable public
opinion and the defeat of the insurgent force. Military commanders are encouraged
to participate in local civic action projects wherever such participation does not
seriously detract from accomplishing their primary mission. (See FM 41-5, Joint
Manual of Civil Affairs/Military Government; and FM 41-10, Civil Affairs/Military
Government Operations.)
Construction and reconstruction: Civic action can include assistance to
the local population as construction or rehabilitation of transportation and
communication means, schools, hospitals, and churches; assisting in
agricultural improvement programs, crop planting, harvesting, or
processing; and furnishing emergency food, clothing, and medical aid in
periods of natural disaster.
Target unemployment: Civic action programs are often designed to
employ the maximum number of civilians until a suitable economy is
established. The energies of civilians should be directed into constructive
channels and toward ends that support the purpose of the campaign.
Unemployed and discontented masses of people lacking the bare necessities
of life are a constant hindrance and may preclude successful
accomplishment of the mission.
Encourage activism: Civic action is an instrument for fostering active
civilian opposition to the insurgent force and active participation in and
support of operations. The processes for achieving awareness in civilian
populations of their obligation to support stated aims should begin early.
Commanders should clearly indicate that civil assistance by the military unit
is not simply a gift, but is also action calculated to enhance the civilians’
ability to support the government. Civil affairs units of the TOE 41-series
are employed to assist in the conduct of civic action projects and in the
discharge of civic responsibilities.
Provincial reconstruction teams (PRTs)
PRTs enhance the ability of local, district, and provincial governments to govern
and develop legitimacy among the Afghan populace. There are currently 22 U.S. or
International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) PRTs. PRTs conduct CMO within
the given province in order to extend the reach and legitimacy of the Government
of Afghanistan (GOA) by:
• Promoting good governance and justice.
• Enabling an effective Afghan security apparatus through training and
mentorship.
• Facilitating reconstruction, development, and economic growth.
These conditions will ultimately create the conditions for self-sufficiency; enduring
prosperity; and a safe, secure, and stable environment in the province.
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The map below identifies the PRTs arrayed across Afghanistan.
PRT Locations
Feyzabad
Mazar --E Sharif
Mazar E Sharif Konduz
Konduz
Pule-Khumri
Maimana
Maimana
X X Panjshir
X
Qala Naw
Qala Naw Bagram Asadabad
Asadabad
Bagram
– Chaghcharan
Chaghcharan
Bamian
Bamian Methar Lam
Kabul
Kabul
Herat
Herat
Jalalabad
Jalalabad
Parachinar
Gardez
Gardez
Ghazni
Ghazni Salerno
Salerno
Khowst
Khowst
Sharona
Sharona
X
X
X
X
Lwara
Farah
Farah
X Tarin Kowt
Tarin Kowt
Qalat
Qalat
Lashkar Gah
Lashkar Gah Kandahar
Kandahar
Figure 3-2
The PRTs, especially in the southern Provinces of Afghanistan, namely Uruzgan,
Zabol, Kandahar, and Helmand, are also supported with additional civil affairs
teams-alpha to extend their operational reach into semi-permissive or
nonpermissive areas. Using a “carrot and stick” strategy, PRTs in these locations
could potentially shift the populace from the insurgents to the coalition.
The implementation of programs such as the Commander’s Emergency Response
Program or the United States Agency for International Development-sponsored
“cash for work” program aids in developing essential services at the village level.
Again, through the effective usage of civil assistance, creating symbols of true
progress by establishing basic local services and providing employment within
villages ripe for insurgent recruitment and sanctuary directly disrupts the
insurgency support base. Furthermore, visible infrastructure projects, recognized by
the populace as legitimate progress of the GOA, can be leveraged to support the
overall IO campaign. The likelihood of Afghans supporting the resumption of
violence in the face of clear signs of progress is low.
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INFRASTRUCTURE CONTINUUM
VILLAGE
ODA
Government Authority
AREA OF INFLUENCE
DISTRICT
PRT
PROVINCIAL
Figure 3-3
Infrastructure continuum: Much emphasis is focused on the establishment
of governmental authority in the country. This is a significant component of
the provincial reconstruction strategy. The PRTs largely expand upon the
development at the provincial levels, with some nesting taking place among
the inclusive districts. Moreover, the U.S. Special Forces ODAs, which are
habitually located at fire bases within a given district, provide the extended
outreach into the more remote villages where they must identify the inverse
relationship between the expansion of government authority and the area of
influence. Significant opportunities exist at the village level to affect the
population and counter ideological support to the ACM through
infrastructure development and economic expansion. The “carrot and stick”
strategy functions at this level and provides significant leverage in the
COIN fight. For example: When a fire base was being rocketed almost
nightly, a team leader at the district shura meeting used the “carrot and
stick” strategy by offering routine medical care and cash-for-work programs
as incentives for information leading to the identification of the source of
these rocket attacks. The rocketing of the fire base ceased. Teams shape an
environment where the insurgency can no longer rely on support from the
local population, as the local population shifts their loyalty to the national
army and friendly forces who can provide a better, safer, more stable
alternative.
Developmental curve: The developmental curve highlights the optimum
combination of horizontal and vertical infrastructure building. Immediately
upon the defeat of the Taliban in 2001, the remaining infrastructure and
governance was nonexistent and served as the starting point. Currently, with
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the efforts of the GOA, United States, and coalition, significant
accomplishments have taken place, culminating with the National Assembly
elections held in September 2006. Additionally, the continued expansion
and success of the PRTs has taken hold, although with one caveat. The pace
and integration of efforts across provinces still remains limited. Clearly, a
synchronized strategy that includes the development both within and among
neighboring provinces is the optimum solution for long-term stability and
economic expansion.
Development Curve
HIGH
Sub-optimal due to
lack of HORIZONTAL
Provincial – District - Village
integration NT
RRE
CU Horizontally
Integrated and
Vertically
developed
M
MU
TI
OP
Sub-optimal due to
LOW
lack of VERTICAL
Dysfunctional
develpment
LOW Provincial Integration HIGH
Figure 3-4
Normality indicators assist in assessing the infrastructure across the different
economic levels in Afghanistan, beginning with the villages and ending with the
province. These indicators, synonymous with stability indicators, illustrate how a
society is developing and provide mile markers in the development of functioning
governments.
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NORMALITY INDICATORS
Relative measures of the state of normalcy
characterizing an element of the civil
environment, through data collected.
ENERGY PUBLIC SAFETY
GOVERNMENT SECURITY
PUBLIC FACILITIES LEADERSHIP
ECONOMY AND COMMERCE
Figure 3-5
Psychological Operations (PSYOP)
Face-to-face
PSYOP uses face-to-face interaction as its primary means of communication. There
is an extremely low literacy rate in Afghanistan, especially in the rural areas;
therefore, written products can be counterproductive. Some villages may have only
one literate person to translate the written product for the other villagers.
Depending on that person’s motives, he may or may not translate the product
accurately. Therefore, TF 31 PSYOP does not drop leaflets and is very selective
when disseminating written products. Most written products can be understood by
looking at the pictures, and one does not need to read the text to understand the
message.
Listen to the radio
Radio is the most effective means of disseminating a message to a large number of
people instantly. Radios have the ability to reach out to large audiences across a
wide and remote area to broadcast messages. Unlike leaflets, the people themselves
can decide on the message without relying on the insurgents to translate the
message or bend the intended message towards their ideological interest. Kaito
radios that can receive FM, AM, and shortwave broadcasts are excellent methods to
reach large audiences without information being filtered by the insurgency. They
operate on battery, solar, or wind-up power.
Rolling radio stations
One limitation of radio is that most of the broadcasts are targeted at people in the
major cities. Much of their programming is fed from Kabul; therefore, it is hard to
target messages to specific villages. The main limitation for radio is that some of
the more rural areas cannot receive radio broadcasts because they are either too
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remote or mountains block the line of sight necessary to receive the signal. Forces
are currently in the process of buying mobile radio stations that can be put in the
more rural areas to negate this limitation. These mobile stations will only have a
broadcast range of approximately 8-10 kilometers. With sufficient numbers of these
radios, main population centers and centers of gravity can pass messages on to the
most remote villages through word of mouth, allowing friendly forces to tailor
messages and programming to specific villages. In addition, mobile stations have
the capability to announce locations for citizens to pick up humanitarian assistance
supplies in the event of a natural disaster.
Themes and messages
When coalition forces (CF) leave, these radio stations will be turned over to
Afghans. Currently, radio stations broadcast command information, deception
messages, and PSYOP messages that follow approved themes. An example of a
typical command IO would be: “Coalition forces will be operating in your area in
cooperation with the legitimate government of Afghanistan.” A deception message
might broadcast that CF will be operating in one area when, in fact, they will be
operating somewhere else. This deception may induce ACM to move along a
known route, thus allowing CF to ambush them or catch them if they flee to the
actual area of operations, or trick the ACM into setting up ambushes in the wrong
place. Approved PSYOP theme messages such as “Support the Afghan National
Army/Government of Afghanistan,” “Report ACM criminal activity,” or “The
Government of Afghanistan has done such and such for you, what have the ACM
criminals done?” are the most common messages.
Billboards: TF 31 PSYOP built eight billboards throughout Kandahar City.
The messages on these billboards can be changed every four to six months.
The billboards foster a sense of pride among the ANSF soldiers for their
service and encourage them to reenlist. However, the current funding that
pays for these billboards can only be used to support the ANSF. Therefore,
the message on the billboard must promote a pro-ANSF theme, a message
necessary in Kandahar where very few people join the ANSF, meaning very
few Pashtuns join the security forces. This failure to enlist Pashtuns leads
some people to claim that the ANSF is not a truly national army.
Mobile mullah: Another effective tool used by TF 31 PSYOP is the
“mobile mullah.” TF 31 currently uses one Pashtun malowi (district
religious leader) and one Tajik mullah (local religious leader). These
religious leaders are held in the highest regard among the Afghan people,
making them extremely influential. Their words are considered to be the
words of Allah, which is why ACM use so many mullahs in their own
PSYOP/IO campaign. The differing tribal affiliations of the malowi and
mullah add to their credibility, especially when trying to encourage Afghans
to end their tribal fighting in support of a peaceful nation. Having these two
religious leaders work hand in hand with CF and ANSF counters the ACM
message that CF forces are there to take Islam away from the Afghan
people.
TF 31’s current strategy for employment of the “mobile mullahs” is to
pre-position them during combat operations as part of a CMO package. This
CMO package consists of a medical team (including female medics) to
conduct a MEDCAP, any GOA leadership that may be available (such as
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the governor), a CF PSYOP representative (along with an ANA counterpart
[to be discussed later]), approximately four interpreters, and a CF civil
affairs representative (along with an ANA counterpart). On a conditional
basis, this CMO package infiltrates into the AO immediately following
major combat operations. CMO is only offered to villages on a quid pro quo
basis. If villages report ACM activity and refuse to voluntarily support the
ACM, the TF provides them with CMO. CMO cannot be used to support the
ACM. By prepositioning this CMO flex-package, the TF is able to get
inside the ACM IO turnaround time (no more than 2 to 4 hours) and to
simultaneously counter their ideology that CF and ANSF are evil infidels.
Loudspeaker messages: TF 31 PSYOP employs several types of
loudspeaker messages, including deception operations, surrender appeals,
and noninterference messages.
• Deception operations. The TF plays gunfire, helicopter, or airplane
sounds. Although not always very effective, the deception sometimes
causes them to fire on CF, which identifies their location, or the deception
may cause an increase in integrated communications chatter, which also
helps identify their location. The ACM also monitors ANSF radio chatter,
so sometimes the ANSF are directed to say: “Let’s link up at Point X,”
when actually they will be meeting at “Point Y.”
• Surrender appeals. Surrender appeals are used infrequently. Usually, if
the TF is on a mission to capture or kill, they do not want or expect the
ACM to surrender, and by using a surrender appeal, they lose whatever
element of surprise they might otherwise have achieved.
• Noninterference messages. Noninterference messages are often used
during cordon and search missions and inform locals that if they
cooperate, they will not be harmed. Often times, this is an effective way
to conduct a cordon and search operation without firing a single shot.
• Program Tokem-e-Sol: A program called “Program Tokem-e-Sol”
(PTS), operated by the GOA, encourages ACM to turn themselves in and
agree to stop conducting ACM attacks and support the legitimate GOA.
This program is not successful in southern Afghanistan. Most of the
ACM in southern Afghanistan are Taliban and religiously motivated.
Their allegiance is rooted in fanatical Islamic beliefs that are not going to
change. Their only reason for participating in PTS would be to stop CF
from targeting them, which would allow them to survive until CF leave
and they could reestablish themselves. PTS could also be used to
facilitate their election to positions of political power and set up a shadow
government that could eventually overthrow the existing government.
PTS may be effective against the low-level members of the ACM who
only participate to feed their families, but it is not effective against
guerilla, underground, or auxiliary Taliban leadership.
Dissemination Operations for Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF)
TF 31 PSYOP implemented a training program for the ANSF to teach them
“dissemination operations.” Since it is illegal to teach the ANA PSYOP, TF 31
coined the term AIDO or Afghan National Army Information Dissemination
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Operations. These hand-picked Afghan soldiers received skill-level 1 training to
teach them to pass out novelty items and PSYOP products and to conduct
loudspeaker messages. This training falls under the foreign internal defense portion
of the special operation force mission and is a vital part of the TF 31 PSYOP
campaign. Using the ANSF builds message credibility with the Afghans in ways
that Americans could never achieve.
The following is an outline of current PSYOP objectives, themes to stress/avoid,
and actions to stress/avoid:
Approved PSYOP objectives
• PO A: Increase acceptance and support of coalition partners (CP).
• PO B: Decrease civilian interference with CP.
• PO C: Increase support for the GOA as an independent, legitimate, and
viable government.
• PO D: Increase support for ANSF as a capable and legitimate force.
• PO E: Decrease popular support for ACM leadership.
• PO F: Reduce the combat effectiveness of ACM.
• PO G: Decrease the incidence of injury or death among the civilian
population due to mines or unexploded ordnance (UXO).
• PO H: Decrease illness caused by poor sanitation or personal hygiene.
Themes to stress
• Safety and self-preservation.
• Report ACM activity to the nearest local authority or CF.
• U.S. forces and CF do not target civilians.
• Coalition and law enforcement agencies will intrude as little as possible
while attempting to ensure the safety of all by defeating ACM.
• ACM depend on your silence to allow them to attack others.
• Inevitability.
• ANA, Afghan National Police, and the international coalition will employ
military forces where required to defeat ACM.
• Now is the time to stop fighting and rejoin your families.
• PTS is the way to peace and prosperity.
• Divisiveness.
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• ACM are preventing progress and destroying communities.
• ACM offer only violence and death without the promise of resolution.
• Members of ACM have brought foreigners and outside violence into your
society.
• ACM have resorted to terrorism against unarmed citizens who seek only
to earn a living and contribute to a viable future for their country and
land.
• ACM leaders hide in Pakistan while sending the sons of Afghanistan to
die.
• Participate in the rebuilding of your country.
• Legitimacy.
• U.S. and coalition partners are committed to remaining reliable,
responsive, and capable security partners for the region.
• U.S. and coalition partners are present at the request and support of the
national government.
• Reconstruction and infrastructure improvements are significantly
enhancing life in Afghanistan.
• Government of Afghanistan is a legitimate government, elected by the
people of Afghanistan.
Themes to avoid
• Implication of superiority of western culture, methods, or military
prowess.
• Support for the interests of a particular ethnic group in the region.
• Atrocity themes.
• Criticism of Islam, local cultures, customs, or traditions.
• Reference to United States/Israeli ties.
• References to the Arab-Israeli disputes.
• Political commitments or policy announcements without prior approval of
the U.S. Central Command commander.
• Themes denigrating local cultures, customs, and beliefs.
Actions to stress
• Learn and respect religious beliefs, culture, customs, traditions, and
property of the local populace.
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• Seek out and consult with local officials; allow them to make appropriate
decisions and public statements.
• Coordinate and conduct combined action with allied host country military
forces.
• Play a low-key, supporting role whenever possible to enhance local
confidence in HN institutions.
• Alleviate suffering of the civilian population through correct and humane
treatment of displaced persons, refugees, and evacuees.
• Rigorously observe international conventions with respect to the
treatment of enemy prisoners of war and civilians.
Actions to avoid
• Unnecessary damage to private property, crops, livestock, or water
resources.
• Disrespectful behavior toward religious persons, customs, or buildings
and/or damage or violation of holy shrines, mosques, or structures.
• Mistreatment of detainees or civilian populace.
• Actions that undermine the credibility or authority of legitimate local
leadership or HN institutions.
Endnotes
1. Afghan National Security Forces are utilized throughout Afghanistan to augment
other forces. As governmental security forces have grown, these forces have been
reduced in mission and size. Original mission sets were offensive in nature, but
have been reduced to defensive force protection roles around the fire bases.
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Chapter 4
Combat Operations Applying Lethal Means
The best method of separating an insurgent force from the populace is by killing the
insurgent. Until the root cause of the insurgency is addressed, insurgents will be
replaced. Killing insurgents is not always feasible. Collateral casualties create
insurgents faster than units can kill them; therefore, friendly forces seek to create an
environment that is as inhospitable to the insurgency by gaining the support of the
populace so that other actions can address the root causes.
Combat Operations Overview
Find, fix, destroy
Combat operations are employed primarily against the guerrilla elements of an
insurgent force. However, underground elements sometimes attempt to incite
large-scale organized riots to seize and hold areas in cities and large towns or fire
bases; combat operations are usually required to quell such uprisings. Rapid
employment of civil affairs and psychological operations can be decisive in
engaging these elements. Combat tactics used against guerrillas are designed to find
the enemy in order to seize the initiative and destroy the guerrilla force by fixing
and finishing. Defensive measures alone provide the guerrillas an opportunity to
unify, organize, train, and employ their tactics. A defensive attitude or failure to
patrol outside of the area near fire bases also permits the guerrillas to concentrate
superior forces, inflict severe casualties, and lower morale. However, the deliberate
use of a defensive attitude in a local area as a deceptive measure may prove
effective. Constant pressure is maintained against guerrilla elements by vigorous
combat reconnaissance patrolling and continuing attack until they are eliminated.
This keeps the guerrillas on the move, disrupts their security and organization,
separates them from their sources of support, weakens them physically, destroys
their morale, denies them the opportunity to conduct operations, and counters the
attempt to spread their ideology. Once contact is made with a guerrilla unit, it is
maintained until that guerrilla unit is destroyed. Surprise is sought in all operations,
but against well-organized guerrillas it is difficult to achieve, as networks are active
and usually provide early warning.
Surprise
Surprise may be gained by attacking at night, in bad weather, or in difficult terrain;
by employing operational detachments alpha (ODAs) with national army elements;
by varying operations in important particulars; and by unorthodox or unusual
operations. Counterintelligence measures are exercised throughout the planning,
preparation, and execution of operations to prevent the guerrillas from learning the
nature and scope of plans in advance. Lower echelons, upon receiving orders, are
careful not to alter their dispositions and daily habits too suddenly. Tactical cover
and deception plans are exposed to guerrilla intelligence to deceive the guerrillas as
to the purpose of necessary preparations and movements.
Force oriented
The military force attacks targets such as guerrilla groups, camps, sanctuary areas,
lines of communication (LOC), and supply sources. Unlike normal combat
operations, the capture of ground contributes little to the attainment of the objective
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since, upon departure of friendly forces, the guerrillas will re-form in the same area.
Specific objectives are sought that will force the guerrillas to concentrate
defensively in unfavorable terrain and facilitate the surrender, capture, or death of
the maximum number of guerrillas. Those guerrilla elements willing to fight in
open battle are isolated to prevent escape and immediately attacked. Guerrilla
elements that avoid open battle are forced into areas that permit containment. Once
fixed in place, they are attacked and destroyed.
Holding cleared areas
When the guerrilla area is too large to be cleared simultaneously, it is divided into
sub-areas that are cleared individually in turn. This technique requires sealing off
the sub-area for the main effort to prevent the escape of guerrilla groups. Once a
sub-area is cleared, the main combat force moves to the next sub-area and repeats
the process. Sufficient forces remain in the cleared area to prevent the development
of new guerrilla groups and to prevent the infiltration of guerrillas from uncleared
areas. Pending the concentration of a main effort in a sub-area, sufficient forces are
employed to gain and maintain contact with guerrilla units to harass them and to
conduct reaction operations. Presence is important to countering ideological support
to the enemy.
Cordon Operations
The encirclement (cordon) of guerrilla forces is usually the most effective way to
fix them in position to permit their complete destruction. If terrain or inadequate
forces preclude the effective encirclement of the entire guerrilla held area, then the
most important part of the area is encircled. The encirclement is made in depth,
with adequate reserves and supporting elements to meet possible guerrilla attack in
force and to block all avenues of escape.
Surprise
The planning, preparation, and execution of the operation are aimed at sudden,
complete encirclement that will totally surprise the guerrillas. The move into
position and the encirclement is normally accomplished at night to permit
maximum security and surprise. The encirclement should be completed by
daybreak to permit good visibility for the remainder of the operation. Support and
reserve units are committed as required to ensure sufficient density and depth of
troops and to establish and maintain contact between units.
Speed
Speed is emphasized throughout the early phases of the advance to the line of
encirclement. Upon arriving on the line of encirclement, units occupy defensive
positions. The most critical period in the operation is the occupation of the line of
encirclement, especially if the operation is at night. Large guerrilla formations may
be expected to react violently upon discovering that they have been encircled. The
guerrillas will probe for gaps and attack weak points to force a gap. Escape routes
may be deliberately established as ambushes. Units organizing the line of
encirclement deploy strong patrols to their front. Air reconnaissance is used to
supplement ground reconnaissance. Use of helicopters provides flexibility and a
third dimension for cordoning off areas. Aerial reaction forces can be employed to
quickly deny insurgents escape routes. Reserves are committed if guerrilla forces
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succeed in breaking through or infiltrating the line of encirclement. Aerial reaction
forces can be brought to bear against personnel or vehicles that have escaped.
Finishing the enemy
Once the encirclement is firmly established, the guerrilla force is methodically and
thoroughly eliminated. A carefully controlled contraction of the perimeter may be
conducted in any one of three ways: (1) Simultaneous, controlled contraction of the
encirclement; (2) Driving a wedge through the guerrilla force to divide the area,
followed by the destruction of the guerrillas in each sub-area; and (3) Establishing a
blocking force on one or more sides of the perimeter and tightening the others
against the blockade. Do not underestimate terrain as a blocking force. It is
effective, but must be carefully considered since the local populace and guerrilla
forces will have intimate knowledge of how to cross natural barriers and block your
effective response.
Looking under rocks: Units advancing from the initial line of encirclement
must thoroughly comb every possible hiding place to locate guerrilla
personnel and equipment. Successive echelons comb all the terrain again.
Areas that appear totally inaccessible, such as swamps, rivers, fields with
crops, rocky terrain, and other areas, must be thoroughly searched. Guerrilla
ruses discovered during the operation are reported promptly to all
participating units and agencies. All local individuals, including men,
women, and children, found in the area are held in custody and are released
only after identification and on orders from appropriate authority. After a
successful attack on a guerrilla formation, the area is combed for concealed
guerrilla personnel and equipment. Documents and records are collected for
intelligence analysis. Ambushes are retained along trails in the area for
extended periods to kill or capture escapees and stragglers from the guerrilla
force.
Anticipate: Lack of time, inadequate forces, or the terrain may prevent
encirclement operations. Surprise attacks followed by aggressive pursuit
may prove successful in these cases. The position, probable escape routes,
and strength of the guerrilla forces must be ascertained before launching the
operation. Ambushes should be established early on possible escape routes.
Patrolling should be conducted in a manner designed to confuse the
guerrillas as to specific plans or intentions. Chances of achieving surprise
are increased by using airmobile and by inducing trustworthy local guides
who are thoroughly familiar with the terrain and guerrilla disposition to
collaborate and guide the attacking force over concealed routes.
Search, Attack, Assist, Harass, and Deny
The most effective strategy for rooting out an insurgency and defeating them is by
an aggressive search, attack, and assist operational strategy. This strategy maintains
a strong focus on disrupting insurgent activities and countering their ideology. By
setting a continuous tempo of searching and attacking followed by assisting,
friendly forces can set conditions for security in a relatively short period of time.
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Search operations
Search operations are designed to locate and identify enemy elements and areas of
enemy support. The method most frequently used for conducting this operation is
the combat reconnaissance patrol. A patrol is given latitude to patrol an area to
conduct a proper assessment. During these patrols, forces typically meet with local
village elders, establishing rapport and gathering intelligence. Based on what is
learned during search operations, forces are able to continue offensive operations or
assist the local populace. Searching operations are nonlethal; however, the posture
maintained allows an immediate transition to lethal methods should the situation
require or opportunity present itself.
Attack operations
Based on intelligence gathered or information from search operations, friendly
forces may choose to attack enemy forces to inflict loss and destroy materials. The
only true method of separating an insurgent from the population is by killing him.
Attack operations are lethal-focused operations. While these operations are
typically planned in extensive detail, they may also result from enemy contact or a
react-to-contact situation. When permitted, attack operations are planned,
synchronized, de-conflicted, and coordinated with all proper levels of command
and resourced to the maximum extent. Operations that involve rotary wing aircraft
give additional flexibility during initial infiltration for repositioning forces, but may
have limiting effects because of changes in the situation on the ground resulting in
extraction before full exploitation of the objective area.
Assist operations
Assist operations are designed to provide assessment, assistance, and support to the
populace. The primary objective during this operation is to counter the ideology of
the enemy and gain support from the populace. Typical operations include medical
assistance and veterinary assistance to help the people in areas where there is
limited or no infrastructure. Other operations assess populace and villages for
projects eligible for Commander’s Emergency Relief Program. These programs
typically provide wells for fresh drinking water, new or refurbished schools, or
electrical generation. The goal is to design and provide lasting infrastructure to the
villages to offset the effects of enemy activity. Assist operations are also a positive
method of interacting with village elders and leadership.
Harass operations
Harass operations prevent guerrillas from resting and regrouping, inflict casualties,
and gain detailed knowledge of the terrain. Extended combat patrols and larger
combat units execute these operations. Specific harassing missions include:
• Reconnaissance patrols to locate guerrilla units and camps.
• Raids against guerrilla camps,1 supply installations,2 patrols, and outposts.
• Ambushes.
• Marking targets.
• Assisting major combat forces sent to destroy guerrilla groups.
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Harass operations are conducted night and day.3 Operations at night are directed at
guerrillas moving about on tactical and administrative missions. Operations during
the day are directed at guerrillas in their encampments while resting, regrouping, or
training.
Denial operations
Operations to deny guerrilla elements contact with and support by an external
sponsoring power are initiated simultaneously with other measures. Denial
operations require effective measures to secure extensive border or seacoast areas
and to preclude communications and supply operations between a sponsoring
power and guerrilla units. The method of contact and delivery of personnel,
supplies, and equipment whether by air, water, or land must be determined at the
earliest possible time. Border areas are secured by employing border control static
security posts, reaction forces, ground and aerial observers, listening posts equipped
with electronic devices, and patrols. When time and resources permit, wire and
other obstacles, cleared areas, illumination, and extensive informant nets are
established throughout the border area. Radio direction finding and jamming and
Navy or Air Force interdiction or blockade elements may be required.
Police Operations
Commanders and friendly forces will usually be required to deal with local civil
authorities and indigenous military personnel. When the local civil government is
ineffective, the military commander will play a major role in keeping order. When
possible, efforts geared towards creating a recognized, legitimate civil authority
will greatly assist in setting conditions for autonomous rule. Failure to develop
competent police and other emergency services will result in increased crime,
corruption, and a failure to provide security, safety, and stability.
Civil population controls
The activities and movements of the civil population are restricted and controlled,
as necessary, to maintain law and order and to prevent guerrilla forces from
mingling with and receiving support from the civil population. Guerrilla forces will
attempt to create underground and auxiliary support and spread their ideology when
possible to support operations. When the military commander is not authorized to
exercise direct control of civilians, he must tailor every legitimate action to
influence the appropriate authorities to institute necessary measures. Either military
or civil forces or a combination of both may conduct police-type operations.
Essential and enforceable: Restrictive measures are limited to those that
are absolutely essential and can be enforced. Every effort is made to gain
the willing cooperation of the local population to comply with controls and
restrictions. Free movement of civilians is normally confined to their local
communities. Exceptions should be made to permit securing food, attending
public worship, and traveling as necessary in the event of illness.
Rational and understandable: Punishment of civilians for criminal-type
activities, when authorized by the HN government, must be applied with
realistic discretion. If the people become frustrated and alienated as a result
of unjust punishment, the purpose is defeated. Take care to punish the true
offender, since subversive acts are often committed to provoke unjust
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retaliation against individuals or communities cooperating with friendly
forces. Local police forces should be the force to distribute any punishment
or law enforcement in these situations. Be aware that local customs for
punishment may conflict with the rules of engagement and Western values.
Instituting human rights training and serving as role models are important to
help develop a legitimate local HN force that is respected and supported.
TTP: Police operations employ roadblocks and patrol, search and seizure,
surveillance, and apprehension techniques. The following list is
representative of the police-type controls and restrictions that may be
necessary:
• Prevention of illegal political meetings or rallies.
• Registration and documentation of all civilians.
• Inspection of individual identification documents, permits, and passes.
• Restrictions on public and private transportation and communication
means.
• Curfew.
• Censorship.
• Controls on the production, storage, and distribution of foodstuffs and
protection of food-producing areas.
• Controlled possession of arms, ammunition, demolition material, drugs,
medicines, and money.
Patrolling operations
Patrolling maintains surveillance of urban and rural areas, both night and day. Foot
patrols are similar to normal police patrols, but are usually larger. Vehicle patrols
are used to conserve troops and to afford speed in reacting to incidents. Helicopters
are employed to maintain overall surveillance in the form of aerial reaction forces
and to move patrols rapidly. Improvised landing pads such as roofs of buildings,
parks, vacant lots, and streets are used. Be careful not to destroy property or upset
livestock in populated areas. A patrol is a show of force and must always reflect
high standards of precision and disciplined bearing. Its actions are rigidly
controlled to preclude unfavorable incidents. Understanding local customs and
utilizing village elders with interpreters is an excellent approach when feasible.
Surveillance operations
Surveillance of persons and places is accomplished both night and day by using a
combination of the techniques employed by military and civil police and
counterintelligence agencies. Most surveillance activities are clandestine in nature
and may require more trained agent personnel than are normally assigned or
attached to army units. Surveillance operations must be highly coordinated among
all participating agencies.
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Detention operations
Facilities for screening civilians and interrogating suspects are established and
maintained. The requirements are similar to those for handling refugees, line
crossers, and prisoners of war. Organization is on a team basis and normally
consists of military and civil police, interpreters/translators, prisoners of war,
interrogators, and counterintelligence agents. Each team is capable of operating at
temporary locations to support operations against civil disturbances and large-scale
search and seizure operations. Take care to ensure all rules and regulations are
followed. Following up with medical assistance can offset the effects of detaining
people.
Search and Seizure Operations
Search and seizure operations are conducted to screen a built-up area; apprehend
insurgent force members; and uncover and seize illegal arms, communication
means, medicines, and supplies. Search and seizure operations may be conducted at
any hour of night or day. Establishing cordons is the key to preventing forces from
escaping. Search operations may be conducted in daylight, nighttime, or following
troops in contact situations.
Limit inconvenience
A search and seizure operation is intended to be a controlled inconvenience to the
population concerned. The persons whose property is searched and whose goods
are seized should be irritated and frightened to such an extent that they will neither
harbor insurgent force members nor support them in the future. Conversely, the
action must not be so harsh as to drive them to collaboration with the insurgent
force because of resentment. When possible, use the village elders together with
local HN police forces and HN military forces to assist and, if trained and
developed enough, lead in this process. Use interpreters to explain to the local
populace the purpose of the search to help prevent unrest or misguided perceptions
against forces.
Methodology
A built-up area to be searched is divided into block square zones. A search party is
assigned to each zone, and each party is divided into three groups: a search group to
conduct the search; a security group to encircle or cordon the area to prevent
ingress/egress, apprehend and detain persons, and secure the open street areas to
prevent all unauthorized movement; and a reserve group to assist as needed. The
population may or may not be warned to clear the streets and to remain indoors
until permission is given to leave. Force is used as needed to ensure compliance.
Each head of household or business is directed to assemble all persons in one room
and then to accompany the search party to forestall charges of looting or vandalism.
Be aware of cultural issues such as segregating females from the population or the
searching of them. Religious buildings and materials should be handled in
accordance with local customs. Buildings that have been searched are clearly
marked by a coded system to prevent false clearances.
Combat in Urban Areas
Underground elements in cities and towns often incite organized rioting, seize
block-wide areas, erect street barricades, and resist any attempts to enter the area.
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Nonparticipants caught in the area are usually held as hostages. The objectives of
these operations are to commit the countering force to actions against the civil
population that will result in a gain of sympathizers for the insurgent force and
make it appear that the insurgent force is promoting a popular cause. All of this
serves to bolster the ideology of enemy forces and to sway people who are neutral
for recruiting purposes.
When an urban area has been seized, it must be reduced as soon as possible to
prevent an apparent success or victory by the insurgent force, to maintain popular
support for the friendly cause, and to free troops for use elsewhere. The operations
required to reduce it resemble normal street and house-to-house fighting. Overall,
the methodology used to deal with insurgents in urban or built-up areas is to isolate,
sweep, cordon, and search. The following tactics are employed:
• A cordon is established to surround and seal the barricaded area. The
cordon is established at the next street or road out from the barricaded
area that offers good visibility, fields of fire, and ease of movement. All
unauthorized personnel are cleared from the intervening area. The cordon
controls all movements into and out of the encircled area.
• An announcement is made, by loudspeakers and radio, to the insurgents
that the area will be attacked at a given time unless they lay down their
arms, return their hostages safely, and surrender peacefully. Amnesty and
protection may be offered to those who surrender prior to the attack.
When possible, contact the village elder for cooperation and assistance in
conducting any type of search. Use of interpreters and national army
forces to conduct the searches builds legitimacy and demonstrates their
capabilities.
• Maneuver elements attack at the stated time and clear the area, as rapidly
as possible, with a minimum of killing and destruction of property. Avoid
collateral damage. The cordon remains in place to maintain security,
support the attack by fire where possible, and receive prisoners and
rescued hostages from the attacking elements. Use of helicopters to
provide aerial cordon is effective and can also compensate for controlling
anyone who evades the cordon.
• If the area is large, it is divided into sectors for control purposes. As each
sector is cleared, the cordon moves in to exclude it; close surveillance of
cleared areas is maintained in case underground passageways are used as
escape routes. Succeeding sectors are attacked and cleared one at a time.
Clear marking and understanding of maneuver forces are critical, more
so, to prevent fratricide when national military forces from the army and
police are involved.
Roadblocks or Traffic Control Points (TCPs)
TCPs
TCPs are employed to control illegal possession and movement of goods, check the
adequacy of other controls, apprehend members of the insurgent force, and prevent
free movement of insurgents along LOC. They help establish a presence of law and
order throughout populated areas and secure LOC and logistics. TCPs can prevent
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the free movement of enemy soldiers and resources and can inhibit the
emplacement of improvised explosive devices (IEDs).
Roadblocks
Roadblocks are designed to halt traffic for search or to pass traffic as desired. They
are established as surprise checks because insurgent force members and their
sympathizers soon devise ways of circumventing permanent checkpoints. Teams
are trained and rehearsed to be capable of establishing roadblocks in a matter of
minutes at any hour. Local officials may be called on for assistance, to include the
use of official interpreters, translators, interrogators, and local women to search
women and girls. When possible, use local police or national military to conduct
these operations to help establish legitimacy and show a national presence.
Roadblocks are established at locations that have suitable areas for assembling
people under guard and for parking vehicles for search. Troops are concealed at the
block and along the paths and roads leading to the block for the purpose of
apprehending those attempting to avoid the block.
Note: Conventional forces define roadblocks as barriers to stop all traffic. All
others are considered TCPs.
Inspection teams: Inspecting documents and searching persons and
vehicles must be rapid and thorough. The attitude of personnel performing
these duties must be impersonal and correct because many of the people
searched will be friendly or neutral. When possible, use local police or
national army troops to conduct inspections. Ensure uniformity and visible
presence.
Duration: Consider how long it will take to establish the TCP. Some areas
are desirable for emplacing permanent checkpoints while others are
temporary depending on the situation. Permanent checkpoints or blocks can
establish a firm presence of law and order in areas and help set conditions
for long lasting security. The legitimacy provides the population with a
sense of a responsible government that is concerned with their welfare.
Temporary checkpoints serve as unpredictable measures in establishing
safety and security. Carefully random TCPs will disrupt insurgents and
supporting activities. All TCPs most be monitored to prevent undue
pressures on the local population and to prevent any type of extortion which
would serve the ideology of an insurgent by showing that the government is
repressive and overbearing.
Block Control
Block control is the constant surveillance and reporting of personnel movements
within a block or other small, populated area by a resident of that block or area who
has been appointed and is supervised by an appropriate authority. Because of the
civil authority and lengthy time required to establish a block control system, it is
normally instituted and controlled by civil agencies. An established block control
system should be supported by the military force and, in turn, be exploited for
maximum benefit. Be aware of the tribalism that may exist in areas and how this
plays into the lines of division throughout the area. Block control typically works
better in built-up areas.
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Zones
Block control is established by dividing each block or like area into zones, each of
which includes all the buildings on one side of a street within a block. A resident
zone leader is appointed for each zone, and a separate resident block leader is
appointed for each block. Heads of households and businesses in each zone are
required to report all movements of people to the zone leader, to include arrivals
and departures of their own families or employees, neighbors, and strangers. Zone
leaders report all movements in their zone to the block leader. The block leader
reports daily to an appointed authority on normal movements; the presence of
strangers and other unusual circumstances are reported immediately.
Informants
The cooperation of leaders is secured by appealing to patriotic motives, by pay, or
through coercion. Informants are established separately within each block to submit
reports as a check against the appointed block and zone leaders. An informant net
system is established using key informants for the covert control of a number of
block informants.
Endnotes
1. The ACM normally stay in remote villages deep within the sanctuary areas
unless they are conducting deliberate operations. Raids either require air assets for
infiltration or night-dismounted movements in order to cordon off the objective
prior to the main combat force clearing the area.
2. Most of ACM supplies are kept in caches within the mountains near villages;
rarely are large caches kept within villages due to the random cordon and search
operations conducted by the ANSF.
3. Due to the political constraints of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
government, deliberate night operations within urban areas or villages are
prohibited unless approved for high-level targets and only by higher headquarters.
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Chapter 5
Logistics
Supply and Maintenance
Adjust supply data to the operational environment
These type operations may occur in a wide variety of environments not reflected in
the supply planning data. Consumption factors, basic loads, stockage levels, and
bases of issue must be adjusted to fit the area of operation. Similar factors must be
developed for civil forces that may be supported in whole or part from military
stocks. The possible need for special items of material must be taken into
consideration early. Local procurement should be practiced to reduce transportation
requirements. It frequently will be necessary to establish and maintain stockage
levels of supply at echelons below those where such stockage is normally
maintained. Static security posts and combat bases are examples of localities where
stockage will be necessary on a continuing basis. Training host nation (HN)
personnel in logistical support must be conducted.
Military support to civilians
The military force must be prepared to provide essential items of supply to civilian
victims of insurgent force attacks, isolated population centers, and groups which
have been relocated or concentrated for security reasons. These supplies may
initially be limited to Class I items and other survival necessities such as medical
supplies, clothing, construction materials, and fuel. The distribution of indigenous
supplies destined for civilian consumption must be supervised.1 Because these
supplies could be used by insurgent forces, assembly, storage, and issue of these
items to the civilian population must be strictly controlled. Local civilians are
employed in these distribution functions to the maximum extent possible, but in
some situations all or part of the effort may fall on the military agencies. Civil
affairs units are organized and trained for this purpose (see Civil-Military
Operations in Chapter 3 for details).
Security of supplies
Security of supply installations is more critical than in normal combat operations.
Not only must supplies be conserved for friendly consumption, but their use must
be denied to insurgent force elements.2 Supply personnel must be trained and
equipped to protect supplies against insurgent force attack and to guard against
pilferage of supplies by the civilian population.
Maintenance
Because the very nature of operations precludes the use of elaborate maintenance
and support, emphasize preventive maintenance. Provide time before and after each
mission to effect repair and replacement. Direct support units (DSU) or direct
support elements must provide rapid maintenance support at each static security
post 3 and combat base. Although emphasis is upon repair by replacement (direct
exchange), effort is made to repair items without complete overhaul or rebuild. In
planning for float items, ensure that only fast-moving, combat-essential items are
stocked. Emergency repair teams, elements of the DSU, are employed to meet
special requirements usually experienced in reaction and harassing operations. DSU
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teams accompany the combat elements and provide on-the-spot minor repair and
limited direct exchange.
Transportation
Key issues
Special transportation problems result primarily from the following factors:
• Abnormal distances between static security posts, combat bases, and
combat units operating in the field.
• Difficult terrain and lack of signals communications in underdeveloped
areas where operations against guerrillas are apt to occur.
• Probability that movements of troops and supplies will be subject to
attack, harassment, and delay. 4
Use all available sources
Organic transportation means may require augmentation from both military and
local sources. Depending on the command conditions, provision of adequate
transportation may require such measures as:
• Recruiting indigenous bearer units for man pack operations.
• Organizing provisional animal pack units to include the necessary
logistical support.
• Exploitation of available waterways and indigenous land transportation to
include railway and highway equipment.
Security considerations
Security will normally be provided to all surface movements. Appropriate security
measures include:
• Intensive combat drivers training and arming vehicles involved.
• Aircraft route reconnaissance (pending availability of aircraft).
• Convoy escorts.
Aircraft will frequently be the most effective means of resupply because of their
speed, relative security from ground attack, and lack of sensitivity to terrain
conditions. Army aviation and aviation of other Services are utilized; the terrain,
tactical situation, and landing area availability may require employment of
parachute delivery5 as well as air-landed delivery. Rotary wing assets deliver a
large portion of the supplies to the outstations within the sanctuary areas where
ground delivery is more dangerous.
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Medical: Evacuation and Hospitalization
Medical service organization and procedures will require adaptation to the type of
operations envisioned. Medical support is complicated by:
• Distances between the installations where support must be provided.
• Use of small mobile units in independent or semi-independent combat
operations in areas through which ground evacuation may be impossible
or from which aerial evacuation of patients cannot be accomplished or
will be significantly delayed.
• Vulnerability of ground evacuation routes to guerrilla ambush.
There are several factors and measures that may be utilized to overcome the
complicating factors. The following are examples of such measures:
• Establish aid stations with a treatment and holding capacity at lower
echelons, including static security posts and combat bases. Patients to be
evacuated by ground transport may be held until movement by secure
means is possible. Use forward-stationed surgical teams for area medical
support of both U.S. and HN patients.
• Provide sufficient air or ground transportation to move medical elements
rapidly to establish or reinforce existing treatment and holding
installations where patients have been unexpectedly numerous (i.e., mass
casualty situations).
• Maximize use of air evacuation, both casualty evacuation and medical
evacuation, to include both scheduled and on-call evacuation support of
static installations and combat elements in the field.
• Provide small medical elements to augment extended combat patrols.
• Assign specially trained enlisted medical personnel (Special Forces
medical sergeants, independent duty corpsman, etc.) who are capable of
operating medical treatment facilities for short periods of time with a
minimum of immediate supervision.
• Use HN medical assistance for supervised work and formation of
indigenous litter bearer teams.
• Strictly supervise sanitation measures, maintenance of individual medical
equipment (both personal aid items and combat lifesaver kits/vehicle
kits), and advanced first-aid training (combat lifesavers or equivalent)
throughout the command.
• Increase emphasis on basic combat training of medical service personnel,
arming medical service personnel, and using armored carriers for ground
evacuation where feasible.
• Use indigenous medical resources and capabilities when available and
professionally acceptable (not acceptable in current situation in
Afghanistan).
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• Establish medical clinics at each fire base. Establishing and running
medical clinics at each fire base affords trauma-level treatment to
stabilize wounded until medical evacuation can occur. Additionally,
clinics can serve to assist the local populace in areas where there is no
medical support or affordable care.
Endnotes
1. This supervision is critical due to the corrupt and skimming mentality of the
people of Afghanistan.
2. We do not want to create an environment of well-fed and hydrated ACMs.
3. Many of the camp/fire base locations now have civilian contractor mechanics to
fill the maintenance needs of the forward units.
4. ACM targets of opportunity.
5. Parachute delivery of supplies has been used in various circumstances within
Afghanistan and range from emergency resupply of troops in contact to relief
efforts during winter storms where ground and rotary wing assets are not a viable
option.
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Chapter 6
Special Considerations
Intelligence
General
Accurate, detailed, and timely intelligence is mandatory for successful operations
against insurgent forces. The insurgent force is normally ever changing,
compartmented, and difficult to identify, and it usually conducts extremely
effective intelligence and counterintelligence (CI) programs. Consequently, more
intelligence and CI personnel are often needed than would be required for normal
combat operations. The nature of the enemy, the tactical deployment of troops, and
the presence of both friendly and hostile civilians in the area dictate modification of
normal collection procedures. Intelligence is the driving force in a
counterinsurgency (COIN) environment.
Intelligence activities are characterized by extensive coordination with and
participation in police, detection, and penetration-type operations such as:
• Search and seizure operations.
• Establishing and operating checkpoints and roadblocks to curtail enemy
movement.
• Documenting civilians for identification with central files.
• Psychological operations (PSYOP) to counter the enemy’s ideology.
• Physical and electronic surveillance and tracking of suspects and meeting
places.
• Maintaining extensive databases on events, personalities, and locations.
• Using funds and supplies to obtain information, both from sources and
cooperative villages.
• Intensive tactical interrogation of captured guerrillas or underground
suspects.
Local knowledge
Conducting intelligence operations requires an intimate knowledge of local
customs, languages, cultural background, and personalities. Indigenous police,
security, and military and governmental organizations are usually the best available
sources for this knowledge. Individual civilian liaison personnel, interpreters,
guides, trackers, and clandestine agents are almost always required. Key personnel
must be trained in the proper use of indigenous liaison personnel and interpreters.
The loyalty and reliability of such persons must be firmly established (CI vetting
process) and periodic checks made to guard against their subsequent defection.
Special effort is made to collect information that will lead to the capture of
insurgent force leaders, since they play a vital part in maintaining insurgent force
morale and effectiveness.
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Terrain intelligence
Coalition military force knowledge of the terrain must equal that of the insurgent
forces. Terrain information is continuously collected and processed, and the
resulting intelligence is promptly disseminated. Current topographic and photo
maps, along with an extensive overhead imagery database, are maintained and
reproduced. Terrain models are constructed and used to brief staffs and troops.
Intelligence planning should provide for suitable substitutes such as large scale
photo coverage. Particular effort is made to collect the following information:
• Areas likely to serve as guerrilla hideouts. Such areas usually have the
following characteristics:
º Difficult access (mountains, box valleys, or remote canyons).
º Easily concealed from air reconnaissance (caves).
º Covered withdrawal routes.
º Located within one day’s foot movement of small settlements that
could provide food, intelligence, information, and warning; the
more isolated and uneducated the populace, the better.
º Adequate water supply.
º Adjacent to lucrative targets.
• Roads and trails approaching, traversing, and connecting suspected or
known guerrilla areas.
• Roads and trails near friendly installations and lines of communication
(LOC).
• Location of fords, bridges, and ferries across water barriers.
• Location of all small settlements and farms in or near suspected guerrilla
areas.
When insurgent force elements are known or suspected to have contact with an
external power, border areas must be sealed to prevent the enemy infiltrating from a
sanctuary nation (denied territory).
Insurgent data
Targeting packets on leaders and other key members of the insurgent force should
be maintained and carefully studied. Frequently, some of these individuals develop
patterns which, if recognized and analyzed, may aid materially in the conduct of
operations against them. Efforts are made to obtain rosters and organization data of
insurgent force elements. This information should be charted to graphically display
the chains of command. Whenever possible, derive the names and locations of
families, relatives, and friends of known members. These persons are valuable as
sources of information, and traps can be laid for other members contacting them. In
communities friendly to guerrillas, some persons are usually engaged in collecting
food and providing other aid such as furnishing message drops and safe houses for
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guerrilla couriers (auxiliary). Every effort is made to discover and apprehend such
persons; however, it may be preferable in certain cases to delay their arrest in order
to watch their activities and learn the identity of their contacts. It is sometimes
possible to recruit these persons as informants, thereby gaining valuable
information concerning the insurgent force organization and its communication
system.
Overt collection
Intelligence personnel, troop units, and special information services assisted by
civilian agencies and individuals provide a large part of the intelligence required for
operations against insurgent forces.
Reconnaissance and surveillance (R&S)
R&S is indispensable to operations against the guerrilla elements. Great care must
be exercised, however, so that such activities do not alert the guerrillas and warn
them of planned operations. Whenever possible, reconnaissance missions should be
assigned to units with a routine mission in the area of operations in order not to
alert guerrillas of forthcoming operations. Tactical assets such as Special
Operations Team-Alpha (low-level voice intercept) and small unmanned aerial
vehicles can be used by ground forces to gain situational awareness in their
immediate vicinity. Extensive use is made of national-level reconnaissance assets
using all types of sensors (signals intelligence and imagery intelligence), with
means for speedy exploitation of the interpreted results of such coverage and a
method for forwarding that information to forward operating bases in a timely
manner.
Every Soldier is an intelligence agent and a CI agent when operating against an
insurgent force. Each man must be observant and alert to everything he sees and
hears. He reports anything unusual that concerns the civil population and the
insurgent force, no matter how trivial.
Clandestine collection
Clandestine collection means are a necessary source of information. Every effort is
made to infiltrate the insurgent force with friendly agents. Indigenous agents are
usually the only individuals capable of infiltrating an insurgent force. Such agents
are carefully screened to ensure they are not double agents and will not relate
information gained about friendly forces to the insurgent force. The most intensive
clandestine operations possible must be developed consistent with time, available
means, and established policy. Agents are recruited among local residents of the
operational area who have an intimate knowledge of the local populace, conditions,
and terrain. Local residents also often have prior knowledge of or connections with
members of the insurgent force. If targeting a force that operates a base from denied
territory (sanctuary nation), take care in selecting sources that are capable of
conducting cross-border collection. This type of collection will be crucial in
determining enemy preparations and operations in and from sanctuary.
CI
Insurgent forces depend primarily upon secrecy and surprise to compensate for the
superior combat power available to the countering military force. Since the degree
of surprise will depend largely on the effectiveness of the intelligence gained by the
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insurgent force, intensive effort must be made to expose, thwart, destroy, or
neutralize the insurgent force intelligence system. CI measures may include:
• Background investigation of personnel in sensitive assignments.
• Screening civilian personnel employed by the military.
• Surveillance of known or suspected insurgent force agents.
• Censorship, monitoring, or suspension of civil communications.
• Control of civilian movement, as required.
• Checks on the internal security of all installations.
• Indoctrination of military personnel in all aspects of security.
• Apprehension and re-employment of insurgent force agents.
• Security classification and control of plans, orders, and reports.
CI operations are complicated by the degree of reliance placed on local
organizations and individuals, the difficulty in distinguishing between friendly and
hostile members of the population, and political considerations that frequently
hinder proper CI operations. Over the last several conflicts, CI agents have served
primarily as members of tactical human intelligence teams (THTs); however, the
mission of any CI member or THT member remains the same: to neutralize spies,
deter espionage, and safeguard the forces of the U.S. Army.
Primary missions of a CI/THT:
• Aggressive subversion and espionage directed against the U.S. Army
(SAEDA) education/briefing program. In addition, investigations should
be initiated by tactical CI agents and then passed up to elements working
under the CI theater umbrella concept.
• Conduct screenings and debriefings of local nationals working and
visiting U.S. bases.
• Conduct threat vulnerability assessments on U.S. bases.
• Surveillance of possible foreign agents spying on U.S. forces (U.S.
Special Forces in multinational coalition task forces are always subject to
monitoring by other members).
• General elicitation. Being the eyes and ears on the ground for the
commander by being at medical civic action programs (MEDCAPs), local
government meetings, and during convoys/patrols.
• Interviewing/debriefing walk-ins that come to the base with information.
• Working with police chiefs/officers, local officials, warlords, and tribal
elders.
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• Conducting CI force protection source operations (meeting sources to
obtain priority intelligence requirements, specific information
requirements, and tactical force protection intelligence information).
• Providing a human intelligence perspective for the intelligence
preparation of the battlefield (IPB).
• Using and employing the biometrics automated tool set (BATS) system.
All CI personnel should be trained on this system.
• Maintaining a database of personalities and enemy targets in the area of
operations and then conducting research in preparation for future
missions (in support of IPB).
• Preparing and aiding the capturing unit with detainee handling procedures
and reports for enemy combatants.
Communications
The extreme dispersion (distances to be covered are greater than the normal area
communication responsibility) of units in operations against insurgent forces places
a strain on communications means throughout a command. Augmentation by signal
teams and equipment are invariably required to answer basic needs.
Radio
Radio is the primary means of communication, and radio nets are established
between all echelons and, as needed, between military and civil agencies.
Ground-air radio communication is established for all airborne, airmobile, and
air-supported ground operations. Typically, radio nets are set up utilizing satellite
communications (SATCOM) and high-frequency communications. Both of these
forms of communications can be used to cover large distances and overcome
obstacles such as large mountain ranges. SATCOM is the preferred method for
special operations forces as it is simple to use and can operate on the move. Visual
communication can supplement radio communication between small units for
ground-to-air signaling and marking. The use of flags, lights, smoke, pyrotechnics,
heliographs, and panels finds considerable application in such operations.
Internet
For daily base operations all fire bases use the Secure Internet Protocol Router
Network (SIPRNET). The standard setup at most fire bases requires that SIPR
traffic be encrypted and sent over the Internet to the headquarters location, where it
is decrypted. This setup allows e-mail and file sharing of large file sizes that was
not possible in the past.
Communication equipment
Additional radios are required in most situations to meet basic communication
requirements. Requirements for equipment are determined based on the distances
between units, terrain, and the operations plan:
• Short-range, portable frequency modulated (FM) radios for
ground-to-ground and ground-to-aircraft communications.
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• Medium-range and long-range, portable and mobile SATCOM radios for
ground-to-ground and ground-to-aircraft communication.
• Signaling flags and lights.
• Panel sets for ground-to-air signaling and marking.
Electronic countermeasures
Well-developed insurgent forces normally depend on radio communication for
communicating with a sponsoring power and for control and coordination between
major elements. In addition, radios and radio repeaters may be employed by an
insurgent force to extend the range of their communications. Maximum effort is
made to intercept transmissions for communication intelligence purposes, locate
insurgent force elements by direction finding, deceive or mislead by false
transmissions, locate rendezvous points, and jam radio transmissions when
desirable. Repeaters are often homemade kits powered by solar panels and placed
on the highest piece of terrain in the area.
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Chapter 7
Training
General
All troops committed to operations against insurgent forces must be trained to
appreciate the effectiveness of insurgent forces and the active and passive measures
to be employed. Foreign internal defense training must be focused and directed
against the threat, the insurgency. Training can also be performed during the
conduct of operations against insurgents. Troops who are seasoned can be
employed more rapidly in these situations. As time passes, the unit develops a
reputation and ability to perform. The challenge will be to train new troops who
arrive at the unit.
Your Enemy is Competent
Troops must never underestimate the guerrillas. To look down on guerrilla forces as
inferior, poorly equipped opponents breeds carelessness, which can result in severe
losses. Training for operations against insurgent forces is integrated into field
exercises and maneuvers as well as in individual and small-unit training programs.
Aggressor force tactics in training exercises should include insurgent activities,
both clandestine and overt. Normal individual and small-unit training should
emphasize the following:
• Physical conditioning.
• Tactics, techniques, and procedures appropriate to urban areas, remote
villages, mountains, and deserts.
• Extended combat patrol operations using only such supplies as can be
transported by the patrol.
• Immediate reaction to unexpected combat situations.
• Employment of Army aviation, to include techniques of airmobile assault
and casualty loading.
• Aerial resupply by Army and Air Force aircraft, to include drop and
landing zone marking and materiel recovery techniques.
• Day and night operations.
• Techniques of raids, ambushes, and defensive and security measures
against these types of operations.
• Riot control.
• Police-type patrolling and the operation of roadblocks and checkpoints.
• Cross-training on all communications equipment available within the type
unit and in communication techniques.
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• Cross-training on all individual and crew-served light weapons available
within the type unit.
• Marksmanship.
• Target identification.
Specialized Training
When the characteristics of the area of operations and the insurgent forces are
known, further specialized training is required in subjects such as:
• Use of animal transport for weapons and logistical support.
• Movement techniques; field craft; and improvisation for fighting and
living in mountains, jungles, or swamps.
• Cold-weather movement, to include ski and sled operations.
• Using water as a means to gain access into areas occupied by insurgent
forces.
• Survival techniques, to include manner and technique of living off the
land for short periods.
• Indoctrination in the ideological and political fallacies of the resistance
movement.
• Cross-country movement at night and under adverse weather conditions,
to include tracking and land navigation.
• Police-type search-and-seizure techniques, counterintelligence, and
interrogation measures.
• Convoy escort and security.
• Advanced first aid, personal hygiene, and field sanitation.
• Use and detection of mines, demolitions, and booby traps.
• Small-unit standing operating procedure immediate-action drills.
Prior to entry into an area of operations, all troops must receive an orientation on
the nature of the terrain and climate, unusual health hazards, customs of the
population, and their relations with the civil population. Training for specific
operations often requires detailed rehearsals. Rehearsals are conducted in a manner
that will not compromise actual operations, but are conducted under like conditions
of terrain and time of day or night.
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Chapter 8
Fire Base Construction
General
Building and creating a fire base is a complex task that must be well thought out
and have a clear vision for expansion and development from inception. Multiple
factors are involved. This chapter will focus on actual general planning and
construction factors. The long-term goal is to build a base that can be handed over
to the Government of Afghanistan for continued security, safety, and stability in the
area. The number of personnel will initially determine the size of the fire base.
Surge factors will allow for additional personnel and the growth and development
of the fire base. Several planning factors for size are the number of U.S. Special
Forces, attachments, coalition partners, Afghan National Army units, Afghan
National Security Forces (ANSF), and other base support requirements.
Force Protection
Site selection will play a large role in the security requirements and manning of the
fire base, both external checkpoints and internal security. Most fire bases are
situated to allow for standoff from local population centers yet provide easy access
to lines of communication. These factors must be balanced to achieve the overall
desired effects. Fire base walls are typically initially constructed of HESCOs
(prefabricated, multi-cellular defense systems), but the goal is to replace the
HESCOs with block walls to withstand the elements. Covering dead space and
creating enough of a safety zone to prevent rocket attacks, mine emplacements
along routes, and observation must account for enemy considerations. The HESCO
wall surrounding the living and working area is 8 feet high with two 4-foot high
bases. Concrete block guard towers are positioned at each corner and reinforced
with sandbags. Chainlink screens are used to cover positions from rocket-propelled
grenades and hand grenades. Subsequent fighting positions are constructed within
the fire base and along the main wall. Vehicle fighting positions are created to bring
to bear the most casualty-producing weapons into the fight. All living spaces are
built within the inner perimeter. Personnel within the compound are safe from
small-arms fire, but vulnerable to rocket fire and indirect fire. If possible, a
helicopter-landing zone within the compound provides options for exfiltration,
infiltration, resupply, and medical evacuation. Buildings must be built to improve
the quality of life and protect personnel from the seasonal elements as well as from
the threat of attack. Buildings made of concrete and I-beam construction provide
the best overall structures.
Terrain
Terrain must be considered in the areas to provide maximum standoff, best fields of
fire and view, and ultimate fire base expansion. Most fire bases use outer security
checkpoints manned by ANSF. Near the fire base, concertina wire is strung to
canalize in traditional fashions. Most terrain in Afghanistan is open, rocky terrain
that is undulating with micro lines of drift. Areas that support helicopter operations,
possibly fixed wing unimproved runways, and ranges for medium-caliber weapons
and indirect fire assets must be considered. The enemy’s point of view of terrain
must be strongly considered.
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Electrical
Generators provide power generation. Initial development of fire bases must be
envisioned for the proper wiring and layout of zone power girds. Use of contracted
electricians and construction workers can assist greatly in the development of this
system. Establishing zones allows for proper wiring, growth, and development. If
possible, a primary and alternate generation site should be established in the event
of a fire or direct hit.
Plumbing
Field sanitation is paramount to the health and safety of personnel on the fire base.
Bulk water from locally drilled wells is typically the primary source of water. If
possible, an alternate well should be drilled to have a backup source. Well water is
used for laundry, showers, and sewage. All cooking and drinking water comes from
bottled water. Planning considerations should be made to accommodate the number
of personnel, including surges, for showers, cooking, and waste disposal. Showers
can be constructed as part of existing buildings or as separate facilities. Wiring,
piping, and hot-water heaters will be the primary requirements for these facilities.
When possible, bringing in American-made products will provide the reliability and
long-lasting capability needed. Locally purchased products do not have the same
quality control standards. Waste treatment may take the form of septic tanks or burn
barrels. The soil type will determine the system used. Most remote fire bases do not
have access to local sewage systems or water systems. Portable toilet services are
typically not available throughout these regions.
Fuel
Fuel stands are required for storing and distributing bulk fuel. Force protection of
fuel assets is critical. Use established standards for handling and storing petroleum
products to prevent contamination of the fuel and local drinking water. Initially,
fuel is typically stored in 55-gallon drums and pumped with hand cranks.
Emplacing fuel bladders is an effective technique for larger quantities of fuel.
Developed fire bases have emplaced sealed containers express (CONEXs)
underground and put in fuel pumps for delivery. Separate primary and alternate fuel
sources in the event of an attack or direct hit. If possible, provide overhead cover.
Base Equipment
Standard equipment for the base includes kitchen sets, motor pool assets, gym sets,
power generators, and earth-moving equipment. Priorities of work as well as access
will determine how quickly these resources flow into the base camp. As facilities
are developed, more equipment is brought into the base to continue improvements
and quality of life. Accountability for these items on in-country property books is a
requirement, as most of this equipment is handed over from one rotation to another.
Storage
Storage is immediately created by using Military-Owned Demountable Containers
(MILVANs). MILVANs are used to ship in base equipment, materials, and other
goods for building and sustaining the base. As these containers come in, they can be
further used for storing and handling items. Common items requiring storage are
munitions, team equipment, lumber and building material, and any other item that
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must be secured. MILVANs have also been used for bunkers, portable housing, and
work units.
Work Areas
Work areas must be separated from sleeping and eating areas for sanitation and
health concerns. A basing strategy that projects where facilities will be located and
identifies areas for expansion is required.
Figure 8-1
Above is a template for a fire base construction plan.
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SOUTHERN AFGHANISTAN COIN OPERATIONS
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