Research Article FUNCTIONING AND VALIDITY OF A COMPUTERIZED

DEPRESSION
AND
ANXIETY 25:E182–E194 (2008)
Research Article
FUNCTIONING AND VALIDITY OF A COMPUTERIZED
ADAPTIVE TEST TO MEASURE ANXIETY (A-CAT)
Janine Becker, Ph.D.,1 Herbert Fliege, Dr. rer nat,1 Rüya-Daniela Kocalevent, Ph.D.,1,2 Jakob B. Bjorner, M.D.,3,4
Matthias Rose, M.D.,3,4 Otto B. Walter, M.D.,5 and Burghard F. Klapp, M.D.1
Background: The aim of this study was to evaluate the Computerized Adaptive
Test to measure anxiety (A-CAT), a patient-reported outcome questionnaire
that uses computerized adaptive testing to measure anxiety. Methods: The ACAT builds on an item bank of 50 items that has been built using conventional
item analyses and item response theory analyses. The A-CAT was administered
on Personal Digital Assistants to n 5 357 patients diagnosed and treated at the
department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Charite´ Berlin,
Germany. For validation purposes, two subgroups of patients (n 5 110 and 125)
answered the A-CAT along with established anxiety and depression questionnaires. Results: The A-CAT was fast to complete (on average in 2 min, 38 s)
and a precise item response theory based CAT score (reliability4.9) could be
estimated after 4–41 items. On average, the CAT displayed 6 items (SD 5 4.2).
Convergent validity of the A-CAT was supported by correlations to existing tools
(Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale-A, Beck Anxiety Inventory, Berliner
Stimmungs-Fragebogen A/D, and State Trait Anxiety Inventory: r 5.56–.66);
discriminant validity between diagnostic groups was higher for the A-CAT than
for other anxiety measures. Conclusions: The German A-CAT is an efficient,
reliable, and valid tool for assessing anxiety in patients suffering from anxiety
disorders and other conditions with significant potential for initial assessment
and long-term treatment monitoring. Future research directions are to explore
content balancing of the item selection algorithm of the CAT, to norm the tool to
a healthy sample, and to develop practical cutoff scores. Depression and Anxiety
25:E182–E194, 2008.
r 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Key words: item response theory (IRT); computerized adaptive test (CAT);
anxiety; measurement; questionnaire; validity
A
INTRODUCTION
nxiety is one of the most frequent mental disorders.
Average life-time prevalence ranges between 17%
worldwide[1–3] and 29% for the US[4,5] with substantial
heterogeneity across studies. Four to 66% of patients
1
Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy,
Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
2
AB Prävention und Gesundheitsforschung, FB Erziehungswissenschaften und Psychologie, Freie Universität, Berlin,
Germany
3
QualityMetric Incorporated (QM), Lincoln, Rhode Island
4
Health Assessment Lab (HAL), Waltham, Massachusetts
5
Institute of Psychology, University of Münster, Germany
r 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Contract grant sponsor: Department of Psychosomatics and
Psychotherapy, Charité Berlin, Humboldt University Hospital,
Germany.
Correspondence to: Janine Becker, Department of Psychoso-
matic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Charité Universitätsmedizin
Berlin, Luisenstrasse 13 A, D–10117 Berlin, Germany. E-mail:
[email protected]
Received for publication 23 May 2007; Revised 19 October 2007;
Accepted 8 January 2008
DOI 10.1002/da.20482
Published online 31 October 2008 in Wiley InterScience (www.
interscience.wiley.com).
Research Article: Functioning and Validity of the A-CAT
in primary-care settings have been reported to have at
least one concurrent anxiety disorder in addition to a
medical condition or depression.[6,7] Comorbidity of
anxiety disorders in patients suffering from diabetes,
cancer, cardiovascular disease, and irritable bowel
syndrome ranges between 11 and 40%.[7–12] Anxiety
disorders represent about 30% of total expenditures for
mental illnesses, and health-care expenditure doubles
when a comorbid mental illness like anxiety is
present.[13] Further, studies have also shown that
anxiety symptoms are predictive for the treatment
outcome of other medical conditions.[14–20]
Thus, clinicians face a major challenge in recognizing, diagnosing, and treating anxiety syndromes.[6] A
literature search using the key words ‘‘anxiety’’ and
‘‘test’’ or ‘‘questionnaire’’ or ‘‘inventory’’ in the titles of
all articles stored in the databases Psyndex, PsycInfo,
Psyndex, and PubMed between 1950 and 2006
identified that more than 50 questionnaires have been
used over the past three decades to measure anxiety.
The most popular anxiety questionnaires—defined by
the number of articles found—are currently the State
Trait Anxiety Inventory [STAI; 136 articles],[21] the
Beck Anxiety Inventory [BAI; 40 articles],[22] the
Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale [HADS; 28
articles],[23] and the Zung Anxiety Scale [9 articles].[24]
Almost all questionnaires have been developed on the
basis of ‘‘classical test theory’’ [CTT][25] and are
available as paper-and-pencil surveys. For such conventional questionnaires, a large number of items are
usually needed particularly in test batteries applied in
clinical settings to cover a wide range of constructs
such as anxiety with a high measurement precision.
This causes test developers to compromise between
measurement precision and response burden when
developing a tool. The combination of a modern
measurement approach called item response theory
[IRT][26–28] with computerized adaptive testing
[CAT][29–31] technology has the potential to provide
shorter questionnaires without compromising on measurement precision or test validity.
IRT techniques are based on a family of models,[26–28] which model a non-linear probabilistic
relationship of an item response to the underlying
latent trait. This approach differs from CTT, which
assumes a deterministic relationship between items and
a ‘‘true score’’ being measured together with an error
term.
IRT employs a probabilistic function called item
response category function, which is determined by
two item parameters: the item difficulty (in IRT terms:
location parameter) and the item discrimination (in
IRT terms: slope parameter). The item response
category functions can be plotted as item response
curves. To help understand the IRT-modeling see the
item response curves of an exemplary Computerized
Adaptive Test to measure anxiety (A-CAT) item in
Figure 1. The curves in the graph show the probability
of responding using a specific response option in
E183
Figure 1. Item response curves of an exemplary computerized
adaptive test to measure anxiety item.
relation to the latent trait (z-scores). The more anxious
a subject (high latent trait score), the more likely he/she
responds to the question ‘‘Have you been anxious,
worried or nervous during the past month?’’ with the
response option ‘‘4’’ (very much), and the less likely he/
she responds using the response option ‘‘1’’ (not at all).
IRT-modeling is useful for in-depth item analyses for
test construction by evaluating the contribution of each
item to overall test precision[32,99,100]and allowing
comparison of item properties (like item precision
and measurement range) across population subgroups
(also called test of differential item functioning[33]).
Further, IRT-modeling has been used to re-evaluate
existing questionnaires like the Beck Depression
Invetory[34,35] or the Hare Psychopathology Checklist.[36]
In CAT administrations IRT models enable selection
of the most informative items for a particular range of
anxiety and allow for estimation of comparable test
scores from any combination of items along with
individual assessment of measurement precision.[37]
These features are not available by conventional (CTT)
methods, because CTT assumes measurement precision to be the same across the measurement range. The
assessment of measurement precision is critical for
specifying CAT stopping rules. Finally, IRT methods
allow for cross-calibrating different questionnaires
measuring the same construct like anxiety on one
common standard metric. This feature has been
explored in several articles within the health
field[32,38–43] and may have revolutionary effect in the
field of measurement. Such metric—once established
for scales measuring the same construct—would give
clinicians a decision toolkit at hand for selecting those
items/established questionnaires most appropriate for
their sample [healthy, anxiety patients, etc].[42,44,45]
An IRT-based CAT selects only those items that are
most informative for individual measurement combining the information given by previous item parameter
estimations and the actual response of a patient to a
question to choose this most informative/tailored
item.[29–31] Thus, CATs provide the potential to realize
Depression and Anxiety
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Becker et al.
a substantially shorter, less burdensome, and more
precise measurement of anxiety.[46]
It should be mentioned that IRT is only one way of
realizing a CAT, other ways are, for example,
the countdown method described by Butcher.[47] This
method classifies individuals into one of the two groups
on the basis of whether they exceed or do not exceed a
cutoff criterion on a given scale. If they reach a specific
scale score after a set of static items, then a next set of
static questions may be applied, if not the test ends.
This method is less computational demanding, but also
less adaptive than IRT-based CATs, the latter selecting
items adaptively after each item response.
In 2004, our research group built a German A-CAT
on the basis of IRT exploring some of the advantages
noted above. The item bank of 50 items underlying the
A-CAT had been built using items of a set of
established questionnaires administered to 2,348 psychosomatic patients combining CTT and IRT-based
methods for test construction as described elsewhere.[37,48] In previous studies the A-CAT had been
tested for functioning and validity in small patient
samples and simulation studies showing good reliability (r4.9), convergent (rA-CAT/HADS-A 5 .76;
rA-CAT/BAI 5 .55; rA-CAT/NEO-PI-Neuroticism 5 .55) and
discriminative validity across diagnostic groups
(F 5 35.6, df 5 2, pr.001).[49]
This study aims at evaluating the functioning and
validity of the A-CAT in a large patient sample in
clinical practice.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
SAMPLE
A sample of 357 consecutive patients treated at the department of
psychosomatic medicine and psychotherapy, Charité Berlin, Germany, were administered the A-CAT. Data were collected between
07/2005 and 01/2006 during routine care. All patients were
diagnosed by medical doctors specialized in internal medicine and
psychotherapy with a background of several years of clinical
experience. Patients constituting the sample were seeking health care
in one of three settings: (a) in a psychosomatic medicine outpatient
center (20.4%), (b) in a psychosomatic medicine liaison service at a
general hospital (5.3%), or (c) during a psychosomatic medicine
inpatient treatment (74.2%). They were approached by a nurse or an
internee and asked, whether they were willing to participate in a study
aiming at evaluating a new computerized test. Study consent had no
implications on the treatment and no incentives were given.
Sociodemographic and diagnostic characteristics are summarized
in Table 1. The sample is on average middle-aged (42 years),
overrepresented by females (2/3), with most subjects being married
(42%) or single, without a partner (25%). A third was employed
(35%) while roughly another third was either retired (24%) or
unemployed (14%).
Clinical diagnoses were given either after the outpatient or liaison
visit or after a 2–8 weeks psychosomatic inpatient treatment (average:
19 days). Diagnoses were based on the clinical information gathered
according to the criteria of the international classification of diseases
[ICD-10 F][50] and supported by a diagnostic coding software
(Diacoss, Berlin, Germany). Main clinical diagnoses according to
ICD-10 F are illustrated in Table 1. About a fifth of the patients were
Depression and Anxiety
TABLE 1. Sociodemographics
Age (in years)
Mean
SD
Range
Gender (in %)
Female
Male
Family status (in %)
Married
Single without partner
Single with partner
Divorced
Widowed
NA
Occupation (in %)
Employee
Retired
Student/trainee
Unemployed
Self-employed
Housewife/man
Worker
NA
Clinical diagnoses ICD-10 Fa (in %)
F43 adjustment disorders
F3 depressive disorders
F45 somatoform disorders
F50 eating disorders
F40/41 anxiety disorders
F1 substance abuse/addiction
F44 dissociative [conversion] disorders
F6 disorders of personality and behavior
F42 obsessive–compulsive disorders
F0 disorders due to physiological conditions
F2 psychotic disorders
No F-diagnoses
Total (N)
42.6
15.3
18–76
68
32
42.3
25.2
16.8
12.9
3.7
0.6
34.8
24.4
14.6
14.3
4.5
3.4
2.2
1.8
21.6
18.8
16.0
15.7
9.5
2.5
2.5
0.8
0.8
0.3
0.6
10.9
357
SD: standard deviation. ICD: international classification of diseases.
Clinical diagnoses were given after an outpatient or liaison,
visit or after 2–8 weeks of psychosomatic inpatient treatment.
Diagnoses listed are primary diagnoses of the patients.
diagnosed as having an adjustment disorder (21.6%) or a depressive
disorder (18.8%). Other frequent diagnoses were somatoform
disorders (16.0%), eating disorders (15.7%), or anxiety disorders
(9.5%).
There was a subgroup of patients having no primary F-diagnosis,
but a somatic main diagnosis. It needs to be noted that there was an
overlap in syndromes between the subgroups because most patients
had one or more ancillary F-diagnoses.
A subsample of 125 inpatients completed the A-CAT and two
established mood questionnaires in addition to the CAT: BAI,[22] and
HADS.[23] Finally, out of the 125 patients, 110 patients also
completed the Berlin Mood Questionnaire ‘‘Berliner StimmungsFragebogen’’ [BSF][51] and the STAI.[21] The assignment to the
subsamples was at random.
MEASURES
Anxiety-CAT (A-CAT). The A-CAT was administered
drawing from an item bank of 50 items, which were the most
informative for the individual taking the CAT. The item bank had
Research Article: Functioning and Validity of the A-CAT
been developed by re-analyzing 81 existing items given to n 5 2,348
patients in a former study.[37] Re-analyses included the evaluation of
item properties by confirmatory factor analysis, item response curves,
and IRT-estimated item parameters].[52,53] Fifty items showing the
best item properties were selected to build the A-CAT item bank.
The final A-CAT item bank covers emotional (e.g. ‘‘being anxious’’),
cognitive (e.g. ‘‘being concerned’’), and vegetative aspects (e.g. ‘‘being
cramped’’) of anxiety.
First simulation studies of the A-CATshowed that anxiety could be
estimated with 6.972.6 items (M7SD), and the CAT algorithm
having a higher discriminative power for patients at high and low
levels of anxiety compared to conventional CTT-based sum scores
[STAI].[37,48]
As illustrated in Figure 2 the A-CAT starts with the algorithm
selecting and presenting the item (2) with the highest item
information for the average score of the sample as the best initial
score estimate (1). The first item given by the A-CAT is plotted in
Figure 1. Then, the CAT algorithm uses the subject’s response (3) to
this item to estimate his/her CAT score including the CAT score
precision (confidence interval) using the ‘‘expected a posteriori’’
method (4).[54] Once the CAT score is estimated, the CAT selects the
next item based on the maximum information algorithm. This
algorithm picks the item (2), which is most informative for the just
estimated CAT score level using known item information parameters.
After the next item administration (3), the CAT score and its precision
are estimated again (4). The estimations are again used to pick the
next most informative item and so forth (steps 2–4). The adaptive item
selection and CAT score estimation is an iterative process stopping
E185
only when the individual CAT score precision reaches a pre-set target
precision defined as the stopping criterion of the CAT (5). We decided
to stop the test (6) when the standard error of measurement (SE) was
at or below 0.32 SD units (equivalent to a reliability of 40.9). For
further information on a CAT process, see Wainer.[31]
For illustrative purposes, see Figure 3 for screen shots of the ACAT. The figure captures the first screen (instruction text of the ACAT), two exemplary items (‘‘anxious, concerned, or nervous’’;
‘‘counterbalanced and self-confident’’) with chosen (highlighted)
response options, and the last A-CAT screen (‘‘thank you very much
for completing the survey’’). Please note that the A-CAT is in
German and usually takes on average 6 items to complete.
Validation instruments. For validation instruments, the
HADS, BAI, BSF, and STAI were given to subsamples. We chose
those instruments to investigate how the A-CAT relates to conventional anxiety instruments differing in content and construct
definition. In addition to the BSF, which is regularly administered
for treatment monitoring at the hospital where the study was carried
out, we chose the HADS and BAI due to their different content focus
(BAI: somatic; HADS: anhedonic aspects of anxiety), and the STAI
due to its wide use in research.
The HADS is a 14-item survey including an anxiety and a
depression scale with 7 items. The anxiety scale covers somatic,
cognitive, and emotional aspects of anxiety. Reliability for the anxiety
scale has been estimated at .80 [Cronbach’s a].[23] The BAI is a 21item questionnaire, mostly assessing somatic symptoms of anxiety. Its
reliability has been estimated from .85 to 4.90.[55] The BSF is a 30item survey comprising a 5-item scale of anxious/depressed mood in
addition to five other scales (cheerful mood, engagement, anger,
fatigue, apathy). The reliability of the subscale anxious/depressed
mood is r 5 .98.[51] The STAI is a 40-item survey measuring anxiety
as a more temporary state and/or more stable trait on two distinct,
but empirically and conceptually overlapping scales. It has been
mostly used for research purposes with a Cronbach’s a of .88 (STAIState) and .91 [STAI-Trait].[56]
Patients’ acceptance. The acceptance of the A-CAT was
tested by measuring the completion time of the survey for each
patient and administering a 10-item patients’ acceptance survey,
which was developed by the authors to evaluate the technical
handling of the device (5 items) and patients’ opinion about using a
computer device (5 items). Questions about the technical handling
included items asking about difficulties reading the screen, handling
the pen, or other technical issues, questions about the patients’
opinion included items asking about the preference of a computer
device over a paper–pencil survey, and whether the device had an
impact on the concentration level. The items were displayed with
four response options (1: very easy/not at all; 2: easy/a little; 3:
difficult/some; 4: very difficult/very much).
DATA COLLECTION
Figure 2. Flowchart of a computer adaptive test.
All questionnaires were given on pocket PC’s (‘‘Personal Digital
Assistants’’, PDAs), which have been implemented in the routine
diagnostic procedure of our department since 1990.[57] The configuration of the PDA runs on Windows Mobile, the program language
of the A-CAT is C11. They were either given to outpatients on their
first visit while patients sit in the waiting area or to inpatients during
their inpatient treatment. In the outpatient setting, the secretary sets
the PDAs up with the patients ID, handed the PDAs to the patient
and gives instructions for the survey completion, in the inpatient
setting this job is performed by trainees/interns or nurses. On survey
completion, the patients hand the pocket PC back and the secretary/
trainee/intern or nurse plugs a cable into the PDAs connecting it to a
stand-alone computer, which is used to transfer the survey data to the
internal clinic network. The results of the questionnaire data were
Depression and Anxiety
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Becker et al.
Figure 3. Screen shots of the computerized adaptive test to measure anxiety.
instantly reported on the screen, printed, and added to the patients’
electronic medical record, which includes the physicians’ diagnoses.
This record is used by psychometrically trained clinicians to facilitate
diagnosing by complementing the diagnostic interview at the start of
any treatment and to support monitoring treatment outcome. For the
purposes of this study, data were systematically retrieved from the
clinic intranet and analyzed.
DATA ANALYSES
Functioning of the CAT was evaluated by records of the number
and content of items displayed to the respondent as well as by
inspecting the CAT score distribution. Measurement precision of
each respondents CAT score was recorded (SE) and compared to the
precision of the validation instruments (Cronbach’s a). Acceptance of
the A-CAT was evaluated by responses to the patients’ acceptance
survey. Response burden was explored by examining the completion
time of the CAT compared to the other measures.
Convergent validation of the tool was performed by investigating
the association between the A-CAT score and the sum scores of
established instruments (HADS, BAI, BSF, and STAI) using scatter
plots and correlational statistics (Pearsons’ product moment correlation coefficient). Discriminant validity of the A-CATwas evaluated by
analysis of variance statistics to test the mean score difference of the
A-CAT score between patients with physician-diagnosed anxiety,
mood or adjustment disorder, and patients with other mental (ICDDepression and Anxiety
10 F-diagnosis) or medical disorders (no ICD-10 F-diagnosis). The
latter one was included for comprehensiveness despite low clinical
group sizes. Because comorbidity between anxiety and depression or
adjustment disorders was high, a group called ‘‘anxiety and
comorbidity’’ was included in the analyses. In addition, to specifically
inspect pure differences between anxiety, depression, and adjustment
disorders, those diagnostic groups were built without in-between
comorbidity (‘‘anxiety only,’’ ‘‘depression only,’’ and ‘‘adjustment
disorder only’’). The remaining categories of patients with further
comorbidities (e.g. somatic disorders with mental disorders, etc.)
were not included in the analyses to avoid confusion. Thus,
diagnostic group sizes do not sum up to total sample sizes.
RESULTS
CAT FUNCTIONING: ITEM NUMBER,
SCORE DISTRIBUTION, AND CONTENT
The A-CAT needed between 4 and 41 items to
achieve the specified measurement precision (Fig. 4).
On average 6 items were displayed (SD 5 4.2 items).
A-CAT scores were transformed from IRT-based zscores to t-scores ranging on a 0–100 scale with an
average of 50 and a SD 5 10. The A-CAT is scored in
the direction that high scores mean high levels of
Research Article: Functioning and Validity of the A-CAT
E187
‘‘very easy’’ to ‘‘easy’’. More than 80% had no technical
problems using the device. The only major point of
criticism on the device was that 21% of the patients
thought the font size of the text on the screen was ‘‘too
small’’. About 60% responded that they would prefer
the computer survey over a paper–pencil survey, more
than 30% said that they have no preference, and 10%
would have preferred a paper–pencil survey. Eightyfive percent responded that the computer ‘‘did not’’ or
‘‘hardly’’ disturbed their concentration, whereas 12%
said that they were ‘‘a little’’ disturbed, and 3% said
they were ‘‘very’’ disturbed.[101]
RESPONSE BURDEN
Figure 4. Number of items administered by the computerized
adaptive test to measure anxiety as a function of the CAT score.
anxiety. About 90% of all patients completed 4–18
items (CAT score 440 and o70, see light gray shaded
area in Fig. 4). Nine percent were given 4–9 items
scoring in the lower (CAT score r40), and 2%
answered 17–41 items scoring in the higher (i.e. more
anxious) range (CAT score Z70).
The A-CAT score average for the psychosomatic
patients investigated here is 52.5 (SD 5 8.4). The score
distribution was skewed to the right with 75% scoring
higher than 49 (75 percentile), i.e. most psychosomatic
patients are more anxious than the average. Cut-scores
for clinical meaningful interpretation beyond the
norm-based comparisons need to be developed yet.
Four items accounted for 45% of all item administrations. Those items displayed in Table 2 asked for
emotional aspects of anxiety such as ‘‘being anxious,
worried, or nervous’’, ‘‘being counterbalanced’’, ‘‘being
driven by anxiety and trouble,’’ and ‘‘feeling secure’’.
Among all items presented, half of them were reversed
scored (r.) asking for ‘‘being counterbalanced and selfconfident’’, ‘‘feeling secure,’’ or ‘‘calm’’.
MEASUREMENT PRECISION
In our study the standard error of all CAT scores was
on average SE 5 0.30 ranging steadily on a low level
between SE 5 .27 and .32. This translates into a
reliability range between .93 and .95. For comparison
of reliability, Cronbach’s a of the other validation
instruments calculated using the study data here was
lower ranging between .83 and .93 (HADS-A: .83; BAI:
.93; BSF-AD: .87; STAI-S: .90; STAI-T: .89).
ACCEPTANCE
The CAT process was well accepted by patients. For
9 out of 10 questions on the patients’ acceptance of the
device, 80% of the subjects chose a positive response
option: they perceived the handling of the mobile
computer/pen, and the readability of the screen as
Overall, the CAT survey was fast to complete.
Respondents took on average 2 min, 38 s to complete
the survey. For comparison the completion of the
validation instruments were STAI (40 items): 4 min,
49 s; BAI (21 items): 2 min 47 s; HADS (14 items):
3 min 24 s; BSF (30 items): 3 min 26 s (for HADS and
BSF only completion times of the whole scale
including the anxiety subscale were recorded).
VALIDITY
Convergent validity of the A-CAT was supported by
moderate correlations to existing tools as illustrated in
Figure 5. The A-CAT correlated the highest with the
STAI-S (r 5 .66). Close inspections of the scatter
plots between established anxiety measures and the ACAT revealed a substantial amount of variance of
scores. Correlations between the A-CAT to discriminant constructs as measured by the remaining five
scales of the BSF (cheerful mood, engagement, anger,
fatigue, apathy) range between: r(BSF-cheerful mood/A-CAT) 5
.47 and r(BSF-anger/A-CAT) 5 .39. Those results are in line
with discriminant correlations of the other anxiety tools
and the BSF scales ranging between r(BSF-cheerful mood/
HADS-A) 5 .63 and r(BSF-anger/STAI-S) 5 .49.
Discriminant validity of the A-CAT was overall
somewhat better than for the other instruments (see
Fig. 6). Not surprisingly, patients in the ‘‘anxiety and
comorbidity’’ group had the highest anxiety scores in
all validation instruments investigated: MA-CAT 5 58.2
(7SD 5 6.9); MHADS-A 5 58.3 (7SD 5 19.4); MBAI 5
57.5 (7SD 5 19.9); MBSF-AD 5 53.0 (7SD 5 19.9);
(7SD 5 14.9);
MSTAI-T 5 53.8
MSTAI-S 5 65.5
(7SD 5 14.1). The A-CAT seemed good in discriminating between patients with an anxiety diagnosis
(M 5 58.27SD 5 6.9) and patients without a F-diagnosis,
i.e.
with
somatic
diagnoses
only
(M 5 41.97SD 5 10.7, Po.001). The mean differences
for the anxiety disorders and somatic diagnoses only
group were significant for the A-CAT (Po.001), the
STAI scales (STAI-S: P 5.009, STAI-T: P 5.011), and
the BSF-AD (P 5 0.002), but non-significant for the
other measures (HADS-A: P 5.902; BAI: P 5.463).
No anxiety instrument showed huge differences
between clinical groups of anxiety only and depression
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Becker et al.
TABLE 2. Overall item usage of the A-CAT (left) and list of items not used by the A-CAT (right)
Used items
Unused items
Abbreviated content
Subdomain
Being anxious, worried or nervous
Being counterbalanced and self-confident (r.)
Driven by anxiety and trouble
Feeling secure (r.)
Being calm and even-tempered (r.)
Looking on the black side causes panic
Being excited
Being strained
Being relaxed or agitated (r.)
Feeling nervous
Being light-hearted (r.)
Feeling relaxed (r.)
Feeling released (r.)
Feeling concerned
Complaints due to inner fear
E
E
E
E
E
C
E
V
V
V
E
E
E
C
V
Percent
Abbreviated content
15.8
10.8
10.2
7.9
5.8
5.5
4.6
4.3
4.0
3.6
3.0
2.9
2.1
1.5
1.4
Having fear
Feeling insecure
Being afraid, sth. will go wrong
Feeling insecure in groups
Keeping calm in the face of problems (r.)
Being calm (r.)
Feeling counterbalanced (r.)
Feeling self-confident (r.)
Feeling calm (r.)
Crowds scare me
Feeling secure and protected (r.)
Feeling of not existing
Feeling like a stranger
Feeling well (r.)
Being frightened of the future
Being worried
Being concerned
Feeling worried
Being afraid of not achieving goals
Having lots of trouble
Being concerned about one’s health
Feeling antsy
Being fidgety
Feeling tense
Being cramped
Being overwrought
Feeling numb
Able to making oneself comfortable/relax (r.)
Being released (r.)
Being nervous
Feeling tense
Body seems strange
Problems to relax
Lump in throat, pokiness or choking
Being nervous
Subdomain
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
C
C
C
C
C
C
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
Subdomains: E: emotional, C: cognitive, and V: vegetative aspects of anxiety; (r.): reversed scoring.
only
(MA-CAT 5 52.3/53.5,
MHADS-A 5 46.2/46.1,
MBAI 5 38.6/39.1). The mean differences for the
anxiety versus depression groups were not significant
for all measures (A-CAT: P 5.468; STAI-S: P 5.193;
STAI-T: P 5.404; HADS-A: P 5.991; BAI: P 5.950).
For some instruments (BAI, BSF, STAI), the
‘‘depression only’’ group scored slightly higher on the
anxiety scales than the ‘‘anxiety only’’ group
MSTAI-S 5 62.7/50.3,
MSTAI(MBSF 5 54.4/39.2,
T 5 57.6/49.7). However, as expected the anxiety group
scored higher (i.e. more anxious) on the A-CAT than
the depression group (MA-CAT 5 58.2/53.5); thus supporting the discriminant validity of the A-CAT.
DISCUSSION
This study investigated the functioning and validity
of one of the first IRT-based mental health CATs for
Depression and Anxiety
clinical practice: the Anxiety-CAT.[37] Major findings of
this study were that (A) the A-CAT was functioning
well and accepted among patients, (B) response burden
was low, and (C) validity was comparable to or better
than established anxiety questionnaires.
(A) The A-CAT functioned well and was favorably
perceived by the patients. As expected, the CAT
algorithm selected the most informative items for each
level and calculated IRT-based test scores and test
takers precision. This led to a reduction in the number
of items displayed (on average 6 items), while maintaining high measurement precision (reliability 4.9).
Eighty percent of respondents perceived the A-CAT in
9 out of 10 questions very positive, responding that the
handling of the mobile computer/pen, and the readability of the screen were ‘‘very easy’’ to ‘‘easy.’’ The
CAT acceptance is in line with previous literature on
computerized questionnaires reporting increasing
Research Article: Functioning and Validity of the A-CAT
E189
Figure 5. Scatter plots of the relation of the CAT score to established anxiety measures.
popularity of computerized tools.[57–59] Several authors
demonstrate that they are less time consuming, more
efficient, and very feasible of fitting into a routine
clinical work flow.[60–62] Good acceptance of the ACAT is also in line with a number of studies on the
acceptance and even preference over paper–and-pencil
surveys.[63–66]
(B) Response burden of the A-CAT was low.
Although most anxiety questionnaires consist of 7–40
items, the A-CAT administered on average only 6 items
similar to anxiety subscales of the HADS (7 items) and
the BSF (5 items). This is in line with previous CAT
studies reporting average test length reduction to 5[46]
to 10 items[67,68] without a substantial loss of information compared to full-length CAT-item banks holding
23–71 items.
Concerning completion time, the A-CAT on average
saved half the time that is needed to fill out a more
extensive questionnaire like the STAI. However, no
substantial time-saving compared to the shorter scales
such as the BAI or the HADS is to be expected.
Overall the CAT literature reports item savings
ranging between 50 and 92%,[63,69,70] and time-savings
compared to full-length questionnaires ranging between 21 and 83% [Diabetes CAT, Osteoarthritis CAT,
Headache CAT, PEDI-CAT: Pediatric Evaluation of
Disability Inventory CAT, CKD-CAT: Chronic Kidney
Disease.[68,71,72] High response burden in CATs mainly
occurs at the extremes of the range, when there is a lack
of informative items. The A-CAT compensates for this
by administering more items. If more items were
developed that were particularly relevant for very high
or very low anxiety, the total response burden for the
A-CATcould be diminished. Alternatively, the stopping
rules could be made more flexible by criteria combining precision and number of items.
(C) Results suggest satisfactory content, convergent,
and discriminant validity of the A-CAT. The item bank
Depression and Anxiety
E190
Becker et al.
Figure 6. Discrimination of the computerized adaptive test to measure anxiety and other anxiety measures between diagnostic groups.
covers emotional, cognitive, and vegetative aspects of
anxiety. Most frequently the A-CAT presented items
asking for emotional aspects of anxiety-one of four
aspects formulated in the four-factor model proposed
by Beck et al.[22] It may need to be discussed, whether
items asking for cognitive or vegetative aspects of
anxiety should be displayed more often to counterbalance the frequent display of items assessing mainly
the emotional aspect of anxiety to increase content
validity. This can be achieved by using contentDepression and Anxiety
balancing item selection rules,[31,73] and by adding
new items to the item pool, two directions we will take
up in our work.
Convergent validity was indicated by moderate
correlations to existing anxiety measures. The correlation of the A-CAT to the STAI was the highest, most
likely because the A-CAT includes items similar to the
STAI; whereas the correlation to the BAI was the
lowest, most likely because 13 out of 21 BAI items
assess physiological/somatic symptoms of anxiety,[74]
Research Article: Functioning and Validity of the A-CAT
which are not covered by the A-CAT. The BAI has
been criticized for over-emphasizing panic attack
symptoms.[75,76] From our study results, we may
conclude that the A-CAT (like the STAI) may be more
responsive to cognitive and affective components of
anxiety, whereas the BAI may be more responsive to
somatic components of anxiety. That may imply that
patients, who are able to communicate emotional and
cognitive aspects of anxiety may benefit more from the
A-CAT, whereas patients, who have difficulties reflecting and communicating emotions or may tend to
somatize them (for example, patients with somatoform
disorders) may benefit more from the BAI. However,
this needs to be further explored. We are currently
discussing whether to cover somatic symptoms of
anxiety by a separate CAT. When building the ACAT item bank,[37] items asking for specific somatic
symptoms of anxiety like sweating, flushing, trembling,
dyspnea, problems swallowing, pain in breast or
stomach, diarrhea or obstipation, tachycardia, dizziness, sleep disturbances, weakness or hot flashes needed
to be excluded to fit unidimensionality.1[48] It is an
ongoing discussion about what degree of unidimensionality for fitting IRT-models is sufficient, and a few
authors[77] discuss whether unidimensional IRT-modeling may not fare well with mental constructs being
more frequently conceptualized as multidimensional
constructs. Exploring multidimensional IRT-models is
a promising way for further research in this field.[58]
Discriminant validity of the A-CAT was good in
terms of differentiating between patients with anxiety
and those without a mental diagnosis (no ICD-10 F).
Discrimination between groups differing in mental
disorders was not great, but still better than for other
measures. This relates to a wider discussion about the
justification of a general distinction between those
concepts, which is questioned by high comorbidities
between anxiety and depression disorders.[78–80] Alternative conceptualizations are discussed within the
tripartite model, which assumes one global negative
affective factor overlapping anxiety and depression,
plus two specific factors, namely one specific to panic
attacks, i.e. more vegetative anxiety symptoms, and one
specific to depression, i.e. lack of positive mood
(anhedonia) and hopelessness.[81–83]
Further, it was not surprising that the depressed
patients scored higher on many of the anxiety
measures, as several of these measures tend to assess
general demoralization, rather than anxiety, specifically. That the A-CAT scores were still slightly higher
for the anxiety group compared to the depression
group may be an indication that adaptive procedures
yield a more accurate picture than full-scale administration.
1
Fit indices for a one-factor model: Comparitive Fit Index 5 0.77–0.78, Tucker–Lewis Index 5 0.75–0.76, Root-MeanSquare Approximation 5 0.10; this fit is only moderate applying
cutoff criteria of fit indices.[97,98]
E191
The principal limitation of our study is that so far
only psychosomatic patients were included, thus data
collection of healthy subjects or those who visit GP
offices is needed. Another limitation is the small sample
sizes for some diagnostic groups, calling for further
replication of results. Though the routine clinical use
of CATs is still rare, a wide dissemination will most
likely occur within the next years due to a US
nationwide initiative funded by the National Institute
of Health called Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System.[45,84] Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System aims ‘‘to
revolutionize the way patient-reported outcome tools
are selected and employed in clinical research and
practice evaluation’’ (www.nihpromis.org) by developing IRT-based CAT item banks for five central health
domains: mental health, physical functioning, pain,
fatigue, and role functioning. Those CATs will be
tested and validated across seven US primary research
sites led by a statistical coordinating center and become
publicly available in 2009.
Following the successful A-CAT development, our
group has more recently also built CATs for measuring
depression[85] and stress perception and reaction.[86]
Although IRT-based CATs have been implemented in
large-scale ability testings for decades[67,87] [for example, SAT: www.collegeboard.com], applying CAT to
clinical measurement is a fairly new scientific effort.
Since 2000 other research groups shared this effort to
develop CATs measuring (a) mental health,[58] (b)
personality traits [Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory-2:[77,88,89] NEO Personality Inventory-Revised:[42] Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive
Personality,[63] (c) quality of life impact of headaches,
osteoarthritis, and fatigue among cancer patients
[Headache Impact Test:[53,69] Osteoarthritis Impact
CAT][71,90], and (d) physical functioning[91,92] [MobCAT][93] among others.
One of the most recent CAT developments in the
field of personality testing is the CAT built Forbey and
Ben-Porath.[77] In contrast to our study, they used the
countdown method to explore two computerized
adaptive versions of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2. Similar to our study, they report
substantial item and time-savings as well as external
criterion validity of both CAT versions. In addition,
they showed score comparability to the full-length
scales (anxiety/psychasthenia scale: r 5 .66–r 5 .82),
which we have shown for the A-CAT in previous
simulation studies [r 5 .97].[37] Their study is among
the first larger studies (n 5 517) supporting reliability
and validity of a CAT for personality testing.
The absence of similar large-scale clinical studies on
CATs and new theoretical questions on unidimensionality and item fit being posed by IRT and CAT
technology contribute to several authors questioning
the appropriateness of adopting IRT and CATs for
measuring mental health or personality testing. More
large-scale validation studies on IRT-based CATs in
Depression and Anxiety
E192
Becker et al.
mental health/personality measurement are needed to
advance this field.
Overall, our study suggests that the A-CAT is a short,
precise, and valid tool for assessing anxiety in patients
suffering from anxiety disorders and/or other medical
conditions. It holds the potential for routine screening
and monitoring to improve the recognition of anxiety
disorder in clinical settings,[94] for improving doctor–patient communication,[95,96] tailoring treatment, facilitating referral to specialists, and monitoring outcome.
Future research directions include exploring techniques for content-balancing the item selection algorithm, developing healthy norms, and practical cutoff
scores of the A-CAT.
Practical challenges remaining are the integration of
CATs into comprehensive IT systems in hospitals and
training clinicians to apply and interpret CAT scores in
daily clinical routine.
Acknowledgments. We especially thank all patients and colleagues at the Department of Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, Charité Berlin, Humboldt
University Hospital, Germany, who helped in realizing
this project.
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