Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. American Psychological Association (2013), "the discipline embraces all aspects of the human experience — from the functions of the brain to the actions of nations, from child development to care for the aged" (para. 1). American Psychological Association (2013), "in every conceivable setting from scientific research centers to mental health care services, "the understanding of behavior" is the enterprise of psychologists" (para. 1).

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Tuesday, September 3, 2013

Operant Conditioning

B.F Skinner based his work on the work of Edward Thorndike who developed
the law of effect theory (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Through his work Skinner
went on to identify fundamental principles of learning, based on experiments
with pigeons and rats. From these experiments, Skinner developed an explanation
as for how humans learn behaviors or change behaviors, and went on to infer that
patterns of reinforcement shape behavior, which is operant conditioning. Comparing
and contrasting positive and negative reinforcement in operant conditioning gives
an understanding of how both are a necessity in operant conditioning. Both positive
and negative reinforcement are a necessity in operant conditioning; one form of
reinforcement is more effective than the other. Several reasons exist to why
one form of reinforcement is more effective than the other. A given scenario
can show how to apply operant conditioning to shape behavior and how the
creation of a reinforcement schedule can apply to a certain selected behavior.

Theory of Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner developed the “term” operant conditioning in 1937 (Staddon
& Cerutti, 2003). Skinner's theory of operant conditioning explains how organisms
acquire learned behaviors that they exhibit. The main focus of operant
conditioning is to use reinforcement as a reward or punishment to increase or
decrease the likelihood of behavior (Staddon & Cerutti, 2003). Operant conditioning
is a means or method of learning, which occurs through or by reward and punishment
for an organism’s behavior (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Basically, a learner
receives either reward or punishment for behavior. The learner actively has to participate
in and perform a certain type of behavior to receive either a reward or punishment.
In operant conditioning, behavior, and the resulting consequences of said
behavior are the emphasis. Therefore, there is an association in relation to behavior
and the consequence of said behavior.

A belief of Skinner was that reinforcement makes an organism what it
will be. Basically, he believed that reinforcement controlled behavior and that
there is a need of reinforcement to condition behavior. Reinforcement is either
a reward or punishment, depending on the displayed behavior. Skinner's theory of
operant conditioning explains how organisms acquire learned behaviors they
exhibit.

Positive and Negative Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, reinforcement is a means to either
increase or decrease the likelihood of which a behavior occurs again (Olson &
Hergenhahn, 2013). Reinforcement is a necessity of operant conditioning and a
necessity of the learning process. Basically, reinforcement is a tool of
operant conditioning either positive or negative. When positive reinforcement
occurs, the outcome of behavior is desirable, and as such, behavior strengthens
by a desirable outcome, as in the case of positive reinforcement following desirable
behavior. When negative reinforcement occurs, an increase in behavior occurs to
remove an averse stimulus, and said behavior strengthens when the removal of
the averse stimulus occurs. Therefore, a positive reinforcement is an addition
of a positive consequence that follows a certain behavior, although a negative
reinforcement is the removal of a negative consequence that follows a certain
behavior. Both positive and negative reinforcements foster the likelihood of
the reoccurrence of a behavior preceding a consequence.

Effective Reinforcement

It seems that positive reinforcement is a more effective type of
reinforcement, instead of negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement has a positive
emotional effect, and it identifies desirable behavior and consequences of
desired behavior. To institute a negative reinforcement, this first involves
the introduction of an averse stimulus between the operant, and the response
because the withdrawal of an averse stimulus is what makes negative
reinforcement effective. Therefore, a form of punishment or the introduction of
a negative reinforcer is necessary in a situation to remove the negative
reinforcer. One argument of Skinner was against the use of punishment because
punishment last only as long as one enforces it (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013).
Punishment does not always result in desirable behavior. Therefore, positive reinforcement
for desirable behavior is a more effective reinforcer.

Operant Conditioning
Scenario

As a divorced single parent of three children, ages 11, nine, and
five; often the opportunity arises to apply operant conditioning to shape
behavior. As the children are in school implementing rewards, and punishment to
reinforce desirable behavior and desirable grades in school is necessary. If
bad behavior was not reported by the children’s teachers and if the children received
weekly satisfactory grades on weekly assignments; weekly allowance was the
reward, and for satisfactory progress reports and report cards extra allowance
was the reward. The punishment is no allowance for bad behavior or
unsatisfactory grades. What occurs with the children is a form positive
reinforcement of operant conditioning. The desired behavior in school of each
of the children and the desirable grades increased in order for them to receive
a reward.

Reinforcement Schedule for
Scenario

As for the operant conditioning scenario, positive reinforcement
of desirable behavior and desirable grades receives a weekly reward of
allowance. This is an example of a continuing reinforcement schedule, which is an
effective reinforcement schedule because the children understood that desirable
behavior and desirable grades received a reward (allowance), and that
undesirable behavior and undesirable grades resulted in no reward (allowance)
or punishment. The emphasis in this scenario is on the reward of allowance instead
of the punishment of not receiving an allowance. This helps the children stay
focused on positive reinforcement (receiving a reward) instead of negative
punishment (not receiving a reward).

Conclusion

Skinner’s development of the operant conditioning theory was influential
in psychology at the time of its development and still to this day. Operant
conditioning, lead to the importance of how reinforcement as either a reward or
punishment increases or decreases the likelihood of behavior. Also in operant
conditioning through reward or punishment learning occurs. Two type of
reinforcement exist, which are positive and negative reinforcement. Both forms
help to increase or decrease the likelihood of behavior; positive reinforcement
is the more effective type of reinforcement. The given scenario is an example in
which applying operant conditioning shapes behavior. Creating a reinforcement
schedule for the selected behavior increases the future likelihood that the children’s
desirable behavior continues.