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They are about 1 mm apart. In fact, the advice to stamp a slightly different spot is superfluous, as the inherent randomness of the action ensures a high statistical probability that the needles don't go into the exact same spot (the skin holes close immediately - before the next stamping). I quoted from the manufacturers' instructions but there is no way you could prick the exact same spot accurate by a 0.01 mm twice in a row - it would be nearly impossible even if you tried to do it on purpose.

If you stamp skin without scars - for skin rejuvenation - then a single press is more or less sufficient. If you press on scars, wrinkles or stretch marks then multiple presses "stamps" are advisable. Our dermastamp has 35 needles and covers an area of approx 1 cm2 approximately. If you stamp three times, you will get 105 pricks per cm2. Do not stamp three times on exactly the same spot but very slightly move/rotate the stamp with each stamping to ensure you don't stamp into the same holes.

Vit. C dissolves much better in warm water, but it also dissolves much better when the crystals have been ground into a fine powder (due to the extremely enlarged surface area).

We bought a special grinder (480 dollars excl. shipping and taxes..) and we now sell ultra-fine vit. C powder ground with that grinder.

I have never seen brown discoloration with vit. C dissolved in water and I presume this is caused by using water with a lot of dissolved minerals ("hard" water).

I don't think oxidized vit. C has a noticeable color, so it may be that the acidic vit. C combined with a Mg or Ca to form a visible compound.

Vit. C does degrade by Oxygen, so a good idea would be to take a pan, boil some water, let it cool until it is still warm and then dissolve the fine vit. C powder into it.

Boiling the water will expel all dissolved gasses, including O2.

If you have hard water where you live, use demineralized water. This is cheaper than distilled water and just as good. Demineralized water is water suitable for use in old-style car batteries and steam irons. It's sold in pharmacies and car accessory shops.

Vit. E does not dissolve in water (but in oil) so it can't be mixed with water unless you use an emulsifier. So no, you can't mix them.

Vit. C is very stable in crystal form but it is always a good idea to keep it in an airtight container.

Vit. C is actually reasonably stable in boiling water or even frying oil. Its degradation is brought about mainly at lukewarm temperatures due to food enzymes. That's why it's best not to start boiling food in cold water, but put it straight into boiling water, so that the enzymes do not get the chance to be active.

I definitely do recommend single needling acne scars, including the ice pick type ones.

They are difficult to treat so you have to be patient. Ice-pick scars have an atrophied epidermis and dermis and their depth is usually irregular.

They will slowly start to change their shape and partially fill in by triggered collagen induction after repeated needling.

Pre-treat with exfoliation, vit. C and A-Ret.

Directly before needling, take a facial steambath to soften the skin's keratin. It will facilitate needle penetration. Disinfect the skin. Stretch the scarred skin between your fingers. Needle the scar from different angles, to different depths and do the edges as well.

You do not have to insert the full length of the needle but do needle densely. Crush the hardened collagen - this will soften the scar. You should get some pinpoint bleeding. Our needles are approx. 2 mm long, which is enough even for very deep scars. Remodeling of a needled scar takes a long time. Do not get prematurely discouraged. Do not needle the same scar more than once a month. You can needle every day but do a different scar each day. Once a month, roll the entire area with a 1.5 mm dermaroller.

Indeed, if your scars are very mild and shallow, dermarolling without single needling is sufficient.

Concerning the scar under your eye: You have to be extra careful.

When you put your finger under your eye, you'll feel a bone. Do NOT roll/needle closer to your eye than where that bone is. Pull/stretch your skin downwards from the eye with your other hand and roll it with the other.

Usually, hyperpigmentation is a result of locally uneven/excessive melanin production. Melanin is the pigment that determines the color of our skin. When our skin is exposed to the sun, the skin produces more melanin as a natural protection – melanin absorbs UV. On sun exposure, the pigmentation might re-appear or get worse.

Uneven/excessive melanin production can also be the result of skin trauma - burns, acne, cuts, bug bites etc.

Melanin is produced by cells called melanocytes. Dark skinned individuals do not have more melanocytes than lighter skinned persons but their melanocytes are just more active. A dark complexion is more prone to hyperpigmentaion = localized areas with excessive melanin deposits.

You have to concentrate on products that reduce melanin production.

Make a homemade vit. C serum according to our dermarolling guidelines and apply it to your skin every second day. Vit. C is a mild tyrosinase inhibitor. Tyrosinase is the enzyme that converts tyrosine to melanin, making vit. C therefore a mild skin lightener. It is also an anti-inflammatory, which should help with the residual inflammation from acne.

You can try this: thoroughly clean a lemon skin. Using a fork, make the skin leak its juice and apply it on your hyperpigmentations. Cover it with plastic foil. Follow this procedure twice a week. If it irritates the skin, stop using it.Lemon juice also contains tyrosinase inhibitors.

Hydroquinone is a strong tyrosinase inhibitor. It is safe for dark skin individuals in concentration not exceeding 2%.

Do not use Tri-Luma (it contains hydroquinone) but it also contains a steroid. Steroids inhibit collagen synthesis and act as anti-inflammatory. TriLuma is intended for Melasma where inflammation is involved and it is useful in this case, but applying steroids on your skin without a good reason (you do not have Melasma) is a very bad idea.

You can use a 0.2 mm or a 0.5 mm dermaroller to enhance the penetration of hydroquinone to the dermis but do not do it for a prolonged time. The best protocol is 3 month on, 1 month off

Retinoids such as A-Ret even out melanin distribution in the skin.

Lactic acid or Arbutin are lowering melanin production as well.

I am not aware of Shea butter having an effect on melanogenesis but it is a good moisturizer and it soothes the skin.

Regarding vit. E, there are some preliminary studies that certain forms of vit. E affect melanogenesis:

Comparison of the inhibitory effects of vitamin E analogues on melanogenesis in mouse B16 melanoma cells:

A 0.5 mm dermaroller is very good for pigmentation because "ordinary" hyperpigmentation s usually not so deep. Rolling speeds up the skin's turnover and thus help diminishing pigmentation. You should roll two or three times a week with 0.5 mm and protect your skin from the sun as much as you can. Under no circumstance should you go outside in the sun immediately after rolling. Roll before going to bed and apply a high factor sunscreen in the morning.

We have customers who improved their hyperpigmentation even with a 0.2 mm roller. This took about 6 months.

There is a new skin lightening topical called Elure that works in a different way than hydroquinone.

Elure contains an enzyme ( lignin peroxidase) that breaks down existing pigment. Hydroquinone prevents formation of a new pigment.

The results with Elure were disappointing in many cases and successful in a few. I don't want to comment on its efficacy because I truly can't say anything else about it except that it's extremely expensive.

Also, when you use a sunscreen (I hope you do), use one that has only physical blockers and no chemical blockers.

Physical ones reflect UV whereas chemical ones absorb UV and convert it to heat, which can make melasma and other pigmentation worse.

To read about the difference between physical and chemical filters, read this:

In the skin, Retinyl acetate or palmitate is easily converted by esterase enzymes into Retinol. Retinol is oxidized into Retinoic acid.

Retinyl acetate penetrates the epidermis more efficiently than Retinoic acid and is more stable.

Retinyl acetate (Infadolan ointment contains it) is much less irritating for the skin therefore it is much more suitable to apply directly after dermarolling.

Retinoic acid (A-Ret cream or gel contains it) is not suitable to be used on the face right after dermarolling. Retinoic acid should be used prior to dermarolling and you can restart application when the skin is healed from dermarolling.

I would also give preference to Retinyl acetate or palmitate on sensitive areas such as around the eyes.

If Retinoic acid is too irritating for you, replace it with vit. A esters (Retinyl acetate or palmitate) or Retinol. However, do not give up with Retinoic acid too soon. In most cases, the skin will gradually get used to it. Do not overuse it. A pea size amount is enough for the entire face. If your skin is irritated, apply less, and less frequently. In case of Retinoids the more is not the better.

Regarding your question: There are too many variables to consider. Retinyl palmitate is cheap, stable, non-irritable but it is a large molecule so it may not penetrate the skin easily. Retinyl acetate is stable, easily penetrative, non- irritable. Retinol is unstable and more irritating. Retinoic acid is unstable and rather irritating. They are all efficient and useful, some more than others in specific situations (such as directly after dermarolling, or specifically for acne etc). They are converted to Retinoic acid in the skin.

In Keratosis Pilaris, hair follicles are clogged by keratin. Keratin is an extremely tough protein (nails, horns and hooves are for the most part made of keratin). It really would require significant abrasion to remove it. The best is to use keratolytics (they soften keratin) such as salicylic acid, urea or retinoids and mechanically remove keratin plugs with pumice (dry pumice on dry skin).

The skin will get a little red and slightly irritated but it will subside very quickly. Do not apply any acidic product after pumice – it would sting. Soothe it with some coconut/almond oil.