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1 POLICY INFORMATION REPORT An Uneven Start: Indicators of Inequality in School Readiness Statistics and Research Division Policy Information Center

2 CONTENTS Preface... 2 Acknowledgments... 2 Executive Summary... 3 Introduction... 6 Reading... 9 Recognizing the Letters of the Alphabet... 1 Understanding the Beginning Sounds of Words Understanding the Ending Sounds of Words This report was written by: Richard J. Coley Educational Testing Service The views expressed in this report are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the officers and trustees of Educational Testing Service. Additional copies of this report can be ordered for $15. (prepaid) from: Policy Information Center Mail Stop 4-R Educational Testing Service Rosedale Road Princeton, NJ (69) Copies can also be downloaded from: Copyright 22 by Educational Testing Service. All rights reserved. Educational Testing Service is an Affirmative Action/ Equal Opportunity Employer. Educational Testing Service, ETS, and the ETS logo are registered trademarks of Educational Testing Service. The modernized ETS logo is a trademark of Educational Testing Service. Recognizing Common Words by Sight Reading Words in Context Mathematics Identifying Numbers and Shapes Understanding Relative Size Understanding Ordinal Sequence... 4 Solving Addition/Subtraction Problems Solving Multiplication/Division Problems Home Reading Experiences Parents Reading to Children Children Looking at Picture Books Outside of School Conclusions Appendices March 22 1

3 PREFACE As we begin 22, the ETS Policy Information Center is releasing two important reports that focus on literacy in America. In The Twin Challenges of Mediocrity and Inequality: Literacy in the U.S. from an International Perspective, Andy Sum, Irwin Kirsch and Robert Taggart present a compelling perspective on adult literacy in the United States in comparison with other countries. Not only is our adult population somewhere in the middle of the pack of other developed countries, but we have a much wider distribution of skill levels than most other countries. That is, the United States has adults functioning at the highest literacy levels at the same time that we have many in the population functioning at the lowest levels. If we look at demographic trends, and the relative performance of our youngest adult cohorts, there is no sign that this state of affairs will improve. Indeed, without significant action, we are likely to find ourselves with lower levels of literacy overall, compounded with greater inequality within our society. In An Uneven Start: Indicators of Inequality in School Readiness, Richard Coley presents an analysis that can help guide us to action in improving the future literacy of our citizenry. By examining data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of , Coley provides a sobering view, but one that we can address in concrete and effective ways. This report describes the vast inequities that are apparent even when children enter school. Largely but not only related to socioeconomic status, we see a distribution of skills among 5-yearolds and 6-year-olds that mirrors the distribution of skills in our adult population. And, as you read this report, remember that this analysis does not even include students who have limited English proficiency skills, an increasing segment of our population. Without intervention, the future is already being scripted, and it looks to be very consistent with the present. But Coley goes beyond simply documenting differences in reading and mathematics literacy by looking at discrete skills and home practices associated with literacy development. The connections are obvious. We see significant differences in who reads how much and, not surprisingly, the patterns are consistent with literacy development levels. Of course, we know that outside reading is related to reading achievement in the later years. We clearly need to institute programs that will encourage reading by and to young children who do not currently have access to such opportunity. From this cross-sectional analysis, we begin to discern a developmental picture of skill development. There are certain skills that most kindergartners possess, but there are many others, such as being able to add and subtract, for which there is wide variation in skill attainment, variation that is often associated with gender, class and race/ ethnicity. These are the skills that we need to develop in all our young children. There are still other skills that only small segments of the kindergarten population possess. It will certainly be interesting to probe the relationship between early and advanced acquisition and later literacy skill as the ECLS continues. This report makes clear that the current federal emphasis on early reading development is well placed. If we, as a country, are successful in designing and implementing effective programs, then we not only have the possibility of improving substantially the lot of significant segments of our society but of improving opportunity, capacity, and equality for our entire nation. Drew Gitomer Senior Vice President, Statistics and Research ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The data analyzed in this report are from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of , conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), U.S. Department of Education. The report was reviewed by Jerry West of NCES, Kristin Denton of the Education Statistics Services Institute, W. Steven Barnett of Rutgers University, and Ted Chittenden, Judy Pollack, and Harold Wenglinsky of Educational Testing Service. Ting Lu provided data analysis, Lynn Jenkins was the editor, Carla Cooper provided desktop publishing, and Sue Beym designed the cover. Any errors of fact or judgment are the responsibility of the author. 2

4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY While school readiness has been a concern of educators and policymakers for more than four decades, little data have been available to assess that readiness across the national population of children. The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of (ECLS-K) is addressing this need by following a nationally representative sample of children from kindergarten through fifth grade. The study began in the Fall of 1998 with an assessment of the nation s kindergartners readiness for school. Specifically, the study addressed kindergartners performance on a variety of reading and mathematics tasks and gathered valuable contextual information on their home reading experiences. The first results from ECLS-K revealed a picture of inequality in reading and mathematics readiness for school. This report builds on that work by providing indicators of the types of children who may be educationally at-risk when they begin school. It also considers disparities in children s home reading experiences. The focus is on race/ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status (SES), and on the interaction of race/ethnicity and SES. Interactions among children s age, gender, and race/ethnicity are also examined. These analyses revealed differences in the school readiness of the nation s beginning kindergartners which are briefly summarized below. All differences discussed are statistically significant. Reading and children were more likely than children in other racial/ethnic groups to be proficient across all reading tasks. In some areas of reading, the differences among groups were substantial, exceeding one-half of a standard deviation. Overall, girls were more likely than boys to be proficient in letter recognition and in recognizing the beginning and ending sounds of words, although these differences were not large. Gender differences were also evident among kindergartners, but not within the other racial/ ethnic groups. There was no gender difference in recognizing words by sight and in recognizing words in context. SES was related to proficiency across all reading tasks. Children in higher SES groups were more likely to be proficient than children in lower SES groups. Nearly all racial/ethnic differences in reading disappeared when children were grouped into similar levels of SES. Age was related to reading proficiency for all kindergartners. Older students were more likely to demonstrate various skills than younger students. Within the same age groups, and children continued to outperform other children in letter recognition and in understanding the beginning and ending sounds of words. Racial/ethnic differences disappeared in recognizing words by sight and in understanding words in context, however, when age was taken into account. Mathematics and children were more likely than children in other racial/ethnic groups to be proficient across most mathematics tasks. Most of these differences were small. Overall, females were more likely than males to be proficient in recognizing numbers and shapes, while males were more likely than females to be proficient in addition and subtraction and multiplication and division. All of these differences were small. Within specific racial/ethnic groups, however, there were no gender differences in performance on the mathematics tasks. SES was related to proficiency across all mathematics tasks. Children in higher SES groups were more 3

5 likely to be proficient than were children in lower SES groups. Holding SES constant reduced the level of racial/ ethnic differences in mathematics proficiency, although and children still held a few small advantages. Age was related to mathematics proficiency among all kindergartners. Older students were more likely to be proficient than younger students. Within similar age groups, and children continued to outperform other children in recognizing numbers and shapes, relative size, and ordinal sequence. children also were more likely to be proficient in addition and subtraction than were,, and children, across all age groups. Few kindergartners were proficient in multiplication/ division. Children s Home Reading Experiences Parents reported reading to their kindergartners frequently. Almost half read to them every day. There were some racial/ethnic differences in kindergartners reading experiences. and parents were more likely to read to their children daily than were parents. parents were also more likely to read to their children daily than were parents. These differences were not large, however. Overall, parents read to girls more frequently than to boys. Among racial/ethnic groups, parents were more likely to read to girls every day than to boys. Again, these differences were not large. There were no gender differences for the other racial/ ethnic groups. Parents in higher SES groups were more likely to read every day to their children than were parents in the lower SES groups. The difference between the high- and low-ses groups was substantial, about one-half of a standard deviation. Racial/ethnic differences in at-home reading disappeared when children were grouped by SES. About one-half of kindergartners looked at picture books outside of school every day. looked at picture books more frequently than males did. Among racial/ethnic groups, this was true only for kindergartners. These gender differences were small. There were no racial/ethnic differences in the percentage of children looking at picture books outside of school on a daily basis. Kindergartners in high-ses groups were more likely to look at picture books outside of school every day than were kindergartners in low-ses groups, although the differences were small. At the lowest SES level, kindergartners were slightly more likely than kindergartners to look at picture books every day. Conclusion The data analyzed in this report clearly show that children come to kindergarten with a variety of preschool and home experiences, and accordingly, with varying levels of school readiness. In some areas of reading and mathematics, many kindergartners are proficient as they begin kindergarten, but significant differences in proficiency exist among different groups of children. In more advanced areas of reading and mathematics, few children from any demographic group have developed proficiency at the beginning of kindergarten. To reduce the inequalities in students success in school, it will therefore be necessary to 4

6 address these differences that exist among children before they start school. Identifying children who may be at-risk of school failure and making available quality preschool experiences that provide these students with the needed skills are essential if all children are to enter kindergarten ready to learn. In identifying and proposing ways to assist at-risk students, policymakers need to be sensitive to the complexities inherent in these data. Specifically, it is important to take into account interactions among race/ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, and age. Policymakers also need to recognize that a given group of students may be at-risk in one subject or area within a subject, and not in another. Further research needs to be undertaken to explain these inequalities and to identify and disseminate interventions and programs that might be effective in helping all children be ready for school and helping all schools be ready for children. 5

7 INTRODUCTION Policymakers have focused their attention on preparing children for their first year in school, or what is usually referred to as school readiness, for nearly four decades. In the 196s, the Head Start program was conceived as part of the war on poverty to provide children from less affluent backgrounds with the kinds of experiences that other children were more likely to receive in the home. In the 199s the National Education Goals included, as the first goal, that all children will start school ready to learn. Further, the education program unveiled by the Bush administration in 21 calls for a greater focus on school readiness, including increasing the academic content of early childhood programs such as Head Start. The rationale for this interest in school readiness lies in the evidence from various studies that greater school readiness is associated with subsequent school success. Researchers, for instance, have found that students who enter kindergarten with certain basic reading skills are more likely to advance rapidly in their reading abilities. Early childhood education, particularly the first year of schooling, provides the venue where children acquire the knowledge and skills that will be integral to their future success in school and in life. 1 Some researchers do question the appropriateness of an academic focus prior to kindergarten, suggesting that parents and early childhood educators need to balance academic with psychological, social, and physical development. But few question that school readiness, whatever its dimensions, is a critical first step toward academic success. 2 Until recently, little data were available to assess the readiness of children entering kindergarten in this country. There were relatively few high-quality assessments of kindergartners academic proficiency, and none that had been administered to a nationally representative sample of students. As part of the work on the National Education Goals, the Goals Panel called on the U.S. Department of Education to conduct a national longitudinal study of the academic, physical, and social development of America s children, beginning with their entry into kindergarten. This study, the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of (ECLS-K), will follow approximately 2, children in 1, public and private schools from kindergarten through fifth grade. The first wave of the survey, administered in the Fall of 1998, assessed the preparation of kindergartners in the areas of physical well-being, social development, cognitive skills and knowledge, and how they approached learning. Early findings from ECLS-K reveal substantial inequalities in children s school readiness. 3 Specifically, reports from the National Center for Education Statistics indicate that the cognitive and social skills of America s kindergartners vary by race/ethnicity, age, parents education, and family structure. Because of 1 For a review of related literature, see Jerry West, Kristin Denton, and Lizabeth M. Reaney, The Kindergarten Year: Findings from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of , U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2. 2 See, for example, Catherine E. Snow, M. Susan Burns, and Peg Griffin (Eds.), Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children, National Research Council, Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1998 and Learning to Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children, a joint position statement of the International Reading Association (IRA) and the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), adopted Several publications provide descriptions of ECLS-K and findings from the survey. See, for example, U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. America s Kindergartners, NCES 2-7, by Kristin Denton, Elvira Geronimo-Hausken. Project Officer, Jerry West, Washington, DC: 2 and U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. Entering Kindergarten: A Portrait of American Children When They Begin School: Findings from the Condition of Education 2. Nicholas Zill and Jerry West, NCES 21-35, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 21. The web site for ECLS-K is 6

8 the importance of school readiness for subsequent academic success, these reports suggest that being a minority student, a younger student, having parents with less education, and living in a single-parent household put a student at-risk of school failure. The purpose of this report is to build on this previous work by presenting indicators of precisely which students are at-risk with respect to school readiness. The picture of who enters school ready and who does not is potentially complex. Inequalities may exist along lines of race/ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, and age. In addition, inequalities may vary within any demographic group. For instance, gender inequalities may differ from one racial/ethnic group to the next. Another layer of complexity comes from defining school readiness. Leaving non-cognitive aspects of school readiness aside, cognitive school readiness involves multiple subjects each comprised of multiple skills. A given inequality may exist between one population and another in mathematics, but not in reading; alternatively, it may not exist for the most basic skills in a subject, but be substantial for the more advanced skills. This report will attempt to do justice to these complexities by identifying inequalities among various groups of children in reading and mathematics at various levels of skill. To identify inequalities, the report will draw on the 95 percent of the 2, children in the ECLS-K who entered kindergarten for the first time in the Fall of This analysis excludes children whose primary spoken language was not English (as determined by their teachers and schools) and who scored below a certain level on a screening assessment of language skills (approximately 19 percent of children and 29 percent of children were excluded for this reason; racial/ethnic differences, as a consequence, should be interpreted within this context). 4 Three measures of school readiness were used for this analysis: reading, mathematics, and home reading experiences. The reading measures are along a continuum from more basic to more advanced skills, ranging from the simple recognition of letters to understanding words in context. Likewise, the mathematics measures range from counting to multiplication and division. Finally, some home reading experiences were included to provide a sense of the inequalities in out-of-school learning opportunities, which may influence reading proficiency and other cognitive skills. The school readiness measures are compared across students grouped according to: gender race/ethnicity race/ethnicity and gender socioeconomic status (SES) 5 SES and race/ethnicity age age and gender age and race/ethnicity Thus, in addition to race/ethnicity and gender differences, this analysis will examine the interactions between gender and race/ethnicity, and between race/ethnicity and SES. Gender differences are 4 For a full description of the sample, see ECLS-K Base Year Public-Use Data Files and Electronic Code Book (http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2129). 5 SES is measured from a scale that reflects the education, income, and occupations of kindergartners parents or guardians. This scale is then divided into five quintiles for the purpose of making comparisons. Appendix Figure 1 shows the distribution of kindergartners by race/ethnicity and quintiles of SES. As the figure shows, kindergartners from several racial/ethnic groups are over-represented in the lower SES quintiles and under-represented in the higher SES groups. Since breaking each racial/ethnic group into five quintiles results in some cell sizes that are insufficient for reliable analyses for Native Hawaiian/Pacific Island and children (less than 5), they are excluded from this part of the analysis. Different SES measures, of course, might produce different results. 7

9 compared across racial/ethnic groups, and racial/ ethnic groups are compared while holding SES constant. The key question is, to what extent do any racial/ethnic differences disappear or diminish when kindergartners are compared to their peers with similar levels of SES? Finally, age differences are examined. There is considerable variation in the age of students beginning kindergarten. The age of beginning kindergarteners in ECLS-K examined in this report ranged from 54 months (4 1/2 years) to 79 months (just over 6 1/2 years). Among the more typical distribution (between the 95th and 5th percentiles), the range was 62 to 75 months, a difference of almost a year. Kindergartners at the 25th percentile (65 months) were six months younger than kindergartners at the 75th percentile (71 months). Furthermore, these age differences were found to be related to race/ethnicity and gender (p <.1). Kindergarten boys tend to be older than girls, on average. When racial/ethnic groups were broken down into quartiles of age, and American Indian/ Alaska Native kindergartners were more likely than other kindergartners to fall into the older age quartile. They were also less likely than other groups to be in the youngest quartile. Conversely,,, and children were more likely to be in the youngest quartile. The age distributions by race/ ethnicity are shown in Appendix Figure 2. 6 mathematics proficiency, results for each area of proficiency are also shown for all kindergartners by age, by gender and age, and by race/ethnicity and age. All differences discussed in this report are statistically significant at the.5 level as determined by the False Discovery Rate procedure for multiple comparisons. In addition, to understand of the size of the statistically significant differences between groups of children, the differences are related to the standard deviation of the distribution. 7 A difference of 2 to 5 percent of a standard deviation is usually considered small; differences of between 5 and 79 percent are usually considered medium; and differences of 8 percent of a standard deviation or higher are usually considered large. 8 Results for the reading assessment are presented first, followed by the mathematics results. The third section provides data on children s home reading experiences. The appendices provide weighted and non-weighted sample sizes, and standard errors and standard deviations for the data reported. All data are from the ECLS-K Base Year Public-Use Child File. Because these age differences by gender and race/ ethnicity are likely to have an impact on reading and 6 Because of insufficient cell sizes (less than 5) for Native Hawaiian/Pacific Island children, they are excluded from the age analyses. 7 The standard deviation is a statistic that indicates how tightly all the values in the distribution are clustered around the mean. One standard deviation away from the mean accounts for approximately 68 percent of the distribution. Two standard deviations account for roughly 96 percent of the people. 8 J. Cohen, Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,

10 READING The ECLS-K assessed numerous aspects of kindergartners reading proficiency: (1) identifying uppercase and lowercase letters of the alphabet by name; (2) associating letters with the sounds at the beginning of words; (3) associating letters with sounds at the end of words; (4) recognizing common words by sight; and (5) reading words in context. These five levels reflect a progression of skills and knowledge: if a child had mastered one of the higher levels, he or she most likely passed the items that comprised the earlier levels as well. 9 It should be noted that the five reading skills were intended to stretch across kindergarten and first grade. Thus, it was intended that only a small proportion of kindergartners would be proficient in the more advanced skills. Many of the children entering kindergarten for the first time in the Fall of 1998 were well on their way to developing basic reading skills. Overall: 65 percent could recognize the letters of the alphabet 3 percent could understand the beginning sounds of words 17 percent could understand the ending sounds of words 2 percent could read common words 1 percent could recognize words in context However, there were many differences among young children in the reading skills they brought to school. The following sections examine differences in each of the skill areas between boys and girls, among racial/ethnic groups, between boys and girls within each racial/ethnic group, among children grouped by SES, and among children grouped by age. 9 Zill and West, 21. 9

11 RECOGNIZING THE LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET As shown in Figure 1, 65 percent of the nation s kindergartners were able to recognize the letters of the alphabet in the Fall of the kindergarten year. There were major differences among racial/ethnic groups in this skill, however. children were more likely to be proficient in this area than all other children. In addition, children were more likely to be proficient in this area than,, multi-race, and children. While 8 percent of students and 71 percent of students were proficient in this reading skill, considerably smaller percentages of children in other racial/ethnic groups were. Some of these differences were quite large. For example, American Indian/ Alaska Native children were about one standard deviation below children. Girls were significantly more likely than boys to be proficient in letter recognition: 69 percent of female kindergartners demonstrated this skill, compared to 61 percent of males. This difference is small, about one-fifth of a standard deviation. This statistically significant gender difference existed only for kindergartners. There was no statistically significant gender difference for other racial/ethnic groups. There was a strong, direct relationship between being able to recognize letters and SES, as shown in the top portion of Figure 2. The higher the quintile of SES, the higher the percentage of kindergartners who were proficient in letter recognition. At the highest SES level, 85 percent of the children were proficient, compared to only 39 percent of the children at the lowest quintile of SES (a difference of more than a standard deviation). The lower portion of Figure 2 shows differences among racial/ethnic groups within the same SES grouping. Among similar SES groups, fewer differences were found. At the highest SES quintile, the only difference was between and kindergartners, where s were about one-half of a standard deviation higher. The only other racial/ethnic difference was found at the two lowest SES quintiles, where kindergartners were more likely to be proficient than kindergartners. This difference is small, however (about one-third of a standard deviation), but statistically significant. As shown in Figure 3, age was also related to kindergartners proficiency in letter recognition. 72 percent of the oldest kindergartners were proficient, compared to 58 percent of the youngest kindergartners (a difference of about one-third of a standard deviation). Across all age groups, females were more likely than males to be proficient in letter recognition (differences between males and females are about onefourth of a standard deviation or less). Racial/ethnic differences in letter-recognition skills persisted within various age groups. and children were more likely to be proficient across all four age groups. Many of these differences exceeded one-half of a standard deviation. 1

15 UNDERSTANDING THE BEGINNING SOUNDS OF WORDS As shown in Figure 4, 3 percent of kindergartners could understand the letter-sound relationship at the beginning of words. The percentage of kindergartners with this skill varied significantly across racial/ethnic groups, however. s were more likely to be proficient than kindergartners from all other groups. The difference between and and kindergartners was more than one-half of a standard deviation. kindergartners also outperformed and kindergartners, although by a smaller margin. This is another area of reading proficiency where girls outperformed boys, on average, although the difference was small. This small female advantage held true for kindergartners; but for the other racial/ethnic groups there were no statistically significant gender differences. There was a strong relationship between SES and understanding the beginning sounds of words, as shown in the top portion of Figure 5. About half (51 percent) of kindergartners in the highest quintile of SES were proficient in this area, compared to only 1 percent in the lowest quintile of SES, a difference of about one standard deviation. Racial/ethnic differences in proficiency within SES groupings are shown in the lower portion of Figure 5. No statistically significant differences among racial/ethnic groups were found when comparisons were made among kindergartners in similar SES groups. As shown in Figure 6, 37 percent of kindergartners in the highest age quartile were proficient in understanding the beginning sounds of words, compared to 22 percent in the youngest quartile (a difference of about one-half of a standard deviation). were more likely than males to be proficient in this reading area across all four age groups (by about one-quarter of a standard deviation or less). Age had no effect on racial/ethnic differences. Across all age groups, and kindergartners were more likely to be proficient than kindergartners in other racial/ethnic groups. 14

19 UNDERSTANDING THE ENDING SOUNDS OF WORDS Figure 7 shows that 17 percent of beginning kindergartners understood the letter-sound relationship at the ending of words. s outperformed all other racial/ethnic groups. In particular, they outperformed,, multirace, and kindergartners by more than one-half of a standard deviation. kindergartners also outperformed American Indian/Alaska Native,, and kindergartners by one-third of a standard deviation or more. Nineteen percent of girls were proficient in this reading area, compared to 15 percent of boys, a small but statistically significant difference. Although females outperformed their male counterparts by a small margin, there were no statistically significant gender differences within the other racial/ethnic groups. Here again, there was a strong, consistent relationship between SES and proficiency: 33 percent of high-ses kindergartners understood the ending sounds of words, compared to only 4 percent of low-ses kindergartners (a difference of about one standard deviation). These differences are shown in the top portion of Figure 8. Within similar SES groups, however, there were no statistically significant racial/ ethnic differences in proficiency. Figure 9 shows age differences in kindergartners understanding of the ending sounds of words. Roughly one-fourth (23 percent) of kindergartners in the highest age quartile were proficient in this skill area, compared to 11 percent in the youngest quartile (a difference of less than one-half of a standard deviation). were more likely than males to be proficient in this reading area only in one age group. Age had no effect on racial/ethnic performance differences. Across all age groups, and kindergartners were more likely than other kindergartners to be proficient in this area. Many of these differences exceeded one-half of a standard deviation. 18

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