The contraction of skeletal muscles is an energy-requiring process. In order to perform the mechanical work of contraction, actin and myosin utilize the chemical energy of the molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is synthesized in muscle cells from the storage polysaccharide glycogen, a complex carbohydrate composed of hundreds of covalently linked molecules of glucose (a monosaccharide or simple carbohydrate). In a working muscle, glucose is released from the glycogen reserves and enters a metabolic pathway called glycolysis, a process in which glucose is broken down and the energy contained in its chemical bonds is harnessed for the synthesis of ATP. The net production of ATP depends on the level of oxygen reaching the muscle. In the absence of oxygen (anaerobic conditions), the products of glycolysis are converted to lactic acid, and relatively little ATP is produced. In the presence of oxygen (aerobic conditions), the products of glycolysis enter a second pathway, the citric acid cycle, and a large amount of ATP is synthesized by a process called oxidative phosphorylation.

In addition to carbohydrates, fats supply a significant amount of energy for working muscles. Fats are stored in the body as triglycerides (also called triacylglycerols). A triglyceride is composed of three fatty acid molecules (nonpolar hydrocarbon chains with a polar carboxyl group at one end) bound to a single glycerol molecule. If the fat deposits are required for energy production, fatty acids are released from the triglyceride molecules in a process called fatty acid mobilization. The fatty acids are broken down into smaller molecules that can enter the citric acid cycle for the synthesis of ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. Therefore, the utilization of fats for energy requires the presence of oxygen.

An important protein of muscle cells is the oxygen-binding protein myoglobin. Myoglobin takes up oxygen from the blood (transported by the related oxygen-binding protein hemoglobin) and stores it in the muscle cells for oxidative metabolism. The structure of myoglobin includes a nonprotein group called the heme ring. The heme ring consists of a porphyrin molecule bound to an iron (Fe) atom. The iron atom is responsible for the binding of oxygen to myoglobin and has two possible oxidation states: the reduced, ferrous form (Fe2+) and the oxidized, ferric form (Fe3+). In the Fe2+ state iron is able to bind oxygen (and other molecules). However, oxidation of the iron atom to the Fe3+ state prevents oxygen binding.

Postmortem muscle

Once the life of an animal ends, the life-sustaining processes slowly cease, causing significant changes in the postmortem (after death) muscle. These changes represent the conversion of muscle to meat.

pH changes

Normally, after death, muscle becomes more acidic (pH decreases). When an animal is bled after slaughter (a process known as exsanguination), oxygen is no longer available to the muscle cells, and anaerobic glycolysis becomes the only means of energy production available. As a result, glycogen stores are completely converted to lactic acid, which then begins to build up, causing the pH to drop. Typically, the pH declines from a physiological pH of approximately 7.2 in living muscle to a postmortem pH of approximately 5.5 in meat (called the ultimate pH).

Protein changes

When the energy reserves are depleted, the myofibrillar proteins, actin and myosin, lose their extendability, and the muscles become stiff. This condition is commonly referred to as rigor mortis. The time an animal requires to enter rigor mortis is highly dependent on the species (for instance, cattle and sheep take longer than hogs), the chilling rate of the carcass from normal body temperature (the process is slower at lower temperatures), and the amount of stress the animal experiences before slaughter.

Eventually the stiffness in the muscle tissues begins to decrease owing to the enzymatic breakdown of structural proteins (i.e., collagen) that hold muscle fibres together. This phenomenon is known as resolution of rigor and can continue for weeks after slaughter in a process referred to as aging of meat. This aging effect produces meats that are more tender and palatable.

Chemistry and nutrient composition

Regardless of the animal, lean muscle usually consists of approximately 21 percent protein, 73 percent water, 5 percent fat, and 1 percent ash (the mineral component of muscle). These figures vary as an animal is fed and fattened. Generally, as fat increases, the percentages of protein and water decrease. The Table provides a comparison of the nutrient composition of many meat products.

Protein

Meat is an excellent source of protein. As is explained above, these proteins carry out specific functions in living muscle tissue and in the conversion of muscle to meat. They include actin and myosin (myofibrillar proteins), glycolytic enzymes and myoglobin (sarcoplasmic proteins), and collagen (connective tissue proteins). Because the proteins found in meat provide all nine essential amino acids to the diet, meat is considered a complete source of protein.

Fat

Fats, in the form of triglycerides, accumulate in the fat cells found in and around the muscles of the animal. Fat deposits that surround the muscles are called adipose tissue, while fat that is deposited between the fibres of a muscle is called marbling.

In the diet the fats found in meat act as carriers for the fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and supply essential fatty acids (fatty acids not supplied by the body). In addition to their role as an energy reserve, fatty acids are precursors in the synthesis of phospholipids, the main structural molecules of all biological membranes.

Fatty acids are classified as being either saturated (lacking double bonds between their carbon atoms), monounsaturated (with one double bond), or polyunsaturated (containing several double bonds). The fatty acid composition of meats is dependent on several factors. In animals with simple stomachs, called nonruminants (e.g., pigs), diet can significantly alter the fatty acid composition of meat. If nonruminants are fed diets high in unsaturated fats, the fat they deposit in their muscles will have elevated levels of unsaturated fatty acids. In animals with multichambered stomachs, called ruminants (e.g., cattle and sheep), fatty acid composition found in the lean muscle is relatively unaffected by diet because microorganisms in the stomach alter the chemical composition of the fatty acids before they leave the digestive tract.

A beneficial characteristic of saturated fatty acids is that they do not undergo oxidation when exposed to air. However, the double bonds found in unsaturated fatty acids are susceptible to oxidation, and this oxidation promotes rancidity in meat. Therefore, products higher in saturated fats can generally be stored for a longer time without developing unpleasant flavours and odours.

Vitamins and minerals

Meat contains a number of essential vitamins and minerals. It is an excellent source of many of the B vitamins, including thiamine, choline, B6, niacin, and folic acid. Some types of meat, especially liver, also contain vitamins A, D, E, and K.

Meat is an excellent source of the minerals iron, zinc, and phosphorus. It also contains a number of essential trace minerals, including copper, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, chromium, and fluorine. The Table provides a comparison of the vitamin and mineral content of different types of meat.

Cholesterol

Cholesterol is a constituent of cell membranes and is present in all animal tissues. Leaner meats typically are lower in cholesterol. Veal, however, is an exception: it is lower in fat than mature beef but has significantly higher cholesterol levels.

Carbohydrates

Meat contains virtually no carbohydrates. This is because the principal carbohydrate found in muscle, the complex sugar glycogen, is broken down in the conversion of muscle to meat (see above Postmortem muscle: pH changes). Liver is an exception, containing up to 8 percent carbohydrates.

Water

Water is the most abundant component of meat. However, because adipose tissue contains little or no moisture, as the percentage of fat increases in a meat cut, the percentage of water declines. Therefore, lean young veal may be as much as 80 percent water, while fully fattened beef may be as little as 50 percent. Because water is lost when meats are cooked, the percentages of protein and fat in cooked meats are usually higher than in their raw counterparts.

Colour

In well-bled animals approximately 80 to 90 percent of the total meat pigment is due to the oxygen-binding protein myoglobin. Colour differences in meat are related to the myoglobin content of muscle fibres and to the chemical state of the iron atom found in the myoglobin molecule.

Britannica Web sites

Animal tissue suitable for use as food is called meat. While meat can be obtained from nearly every species of animal, most of the meat consumed by humans comes from domesticated and aquatic animals. In the United States, meat from domesticated animals is generally subdivided into two categories: red meat and poultry. Red meat, the largest category, consists of beef, pork, veal, lamb, and mutton. Poultry meat is the flesh of domesticated birds. It includes chickens, turkeys, geese, ducks, and guinea fowl (see poultry). Seafood includes fish, lobsters, oysters, clams, and crabs (see fish). Another type, game meat, consists of the flesh of all nondomesticated animals. In many countries humans eat the meat of horses, water buffalo, camels, goats, llamas, and rabbits.

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