James Joseph Sylvester, (born September 3, 1814, London, England—died March 15, 1897, London) British mathematician who, with Arthur Cayley, was a cofounder of invariant theory, the study of properties that are unchanged (invariant) under some transformation, such as rotating or translating the coordinate axes. He also made significant contributions to number theory and elliptic functions.

In 1837 Sylvester came second in the mathematical tripos at the University of Cambridge but, as a Jew, was prevented from taking his degree or securing an appointment there. In 1838 he became a professor of natural philosophy at University College, London (the only nonsectarian British university). In 1841 he accepted a professorship of mathematics at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, U.S., but resigned after only three months following an altercation with a student for which the school’s administration did not take his side. He returned to England in 1843. The following year he went to London, where he became an actuary for an insurance company, retaining his interest in mathematics only through tutoring (his students included Florence Nightingale). In 1846 he became a law student at the Inner Temple, and in 1850 he was admitted to the bar. While working as a lawyer, Sylvester began an enthusiastic and profitable collaboration with Cayley.

From 1855 to 1870 Sylvester was a professor of mathematics at the Royal Military Academy in Woolwich. He went to the United States once again in 1876 to become a professor of mathematics at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. While there he founded (1878) and became the first editor of the American Journal of Mathematics, introduced graduate work in mathematics into American universities, and greatly stimulated the American mathematical scene. In 1883 he returned to England to become the Savilian Professor of Geometry at the University of Oxford.

Sylvester was primarily an algebraist. He did brilliant work in the theory of numbers, particularly in partitions (the possible ways a number can be expressed as a sum of positive integers) and Diophantine analysis (a means for finding whole-number solutions to certain algebraic equations). He worked by inspiration, and frequently it is difficult to detect a proof in what he confidently asserted. His work is characterized by powerful imagination and inventiveness. He was proud of his mathematical vocabulary and coined many new terms, although few have survived. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1839, and he was the second president of the London Mathematical Society (1866–68). His mathematical output includes several hundred papers and one book, Treatise on Elliptic Functions (1876). He also wrote poetry, although not to critical acclaim, and published Laws of Verse (1870).

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