“Inquiry-based teaching” can include a diverse range of practices, from conducting practical experiments to encouraging students to create their own questions.

McKinsey’s research found that if all students experienced this blend of instruction, average Pisa scores in Europe would be significantly higher, a rise equivalent to more than half a school year of learning.

Supporters of reforms being rolled out at second-level as part of the junior cycle say the changes are aimed at precisely this type of balanced learning.

The study also indicates that student “mindsets” can have more influence on outcomes than socioeconomic background.

It found that students from poorer backgrounds who were focused on doing more than was expected and working on tasks until everything was perfect performed better than students from the most affluent areas who had poor motivation.