Transcription

1 Dimensions of Creative Evaluation: Distinct Design and Reasoning Strategies for Aesthetic, Functional and Originality Judgments Bo T. Christensen Copenhagen Business School, Copenhagen, Denmark Linden J. Ball University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK Abstract: The datasets provided as part of DTRS-10 all relate to what may broadly be labeled as design critiques in an educational context. As such, we chose to center our theoretical analysis on the evaluative reasoning taking place during expert appraisals of the design concepts that were being produced by industrial design students throughout the design process. This overall framing for our research allowed us to pursue a series of research questions concerning the dimensions of creative evaluation in design and their consequences for reasoning strategies and suggestions for moving further in the creative progress. Our transcript coding and analysis focused on three key dimensions of creativity, that is, originality, functionality and aesthetics. Each dimension was associated with a particular underpinning logic that determined the distinctive ways in which these dimensions were seen to be evaluated in practice. In particular, our analysis clarified the way in which design dimensions triggered very different reasoning strategies such as running mental simulations, or making suggestions for design improvement, ranging from definitive go/kill decisions right through to loose recommendations to continue to work on a concept for a period of time without any further directional steer beyond this general appraisal. Overall, we believe that our findings not only advance a theoretical understanding of evaluation behaviour that arises in design critiques, but also have important practical implications in terms of alerting expert design evaluators to the nature and consequences of their critical appraisals. Keywords: Design critique, design reasoning, design evaluation, evaluative practices, mental simulation, design judgment 1. Introduction Evaluative practices are an important aspect of all creative industries, where key individuals are invited to comment on and evaluate products in-the-making during initial creative stages as well as products that are finalized and ready to be communicated to the market (Moeran & Christensen, 2014). Most creative industries have therefore formalized specific roles both for individuals who are helping to advance the creative process and for domain experts who are evaluating the final outcome at gates, reviews or screenings. In this respect the design critique that is a key feature of design education can be viewed as a friendly critical appraisal based 1

2 around interactions between designers aimed partly at evaluating the potential, novelty and value of the product in-the-making, but equally importantly as a means to spur the pursuit of new directions, angles and lines of creative inquiry. The critique presents students with opportunities to develop their own design values and preferences and to become more aware of their own design sensibilities (McDonnell, 2014). Design critiques may play out in many different designer relationships, from master-apprentice to peer critiques, using a variety of modalities, including speech, gesture and sketching (see Oh, Ishizaki, Gross, & Do, 2013, for an overview). The outcome of such a design critique may occasionally be a discarded project, but more frequently the critique will initiate a series of further investigations and creative processes in order to strengthen the project. Within a design critique the dialogue that arises (typically between an experienced designer and one or more less experienced designers) may take the form of an exploratory process that has as its input so-called preinventive structures (e.g., sketches, more or less formalized ideas or concepts, and prototypes), in line with the conceptualization of the creative process offered in the Geneplore model of creativity (e.g., Finke, Ward, & Smith, 1992; see also Finke, 1990). In this respect it is noteworthy that the Geneplore model considers exploratory processes (e.g., contextual shifting and form-before-function reasoning) as being inherently creative in nature. The implication of this view is that exploratory processes should not be overlooked and that the commonly held belief that creativity primarily concerns generation as opposed to exploration is mistaken by virtue of being an overly-narrow conceptualisation of creative activity. We also note that the design critique typically involves a dedicated and formalized role for the design evaluator, who is presented with a preinventive structure to evaluate and to help advance. A typical design critique, then, allows for a relatively clear distribution of roles: (1) a designer (or sometimes a group or team) who has constructed an initial preinventive structure; and (2) another designer (frequently more experienced) who is exploring and evaluating that preinventive structure. The present research utilizes this relatively clear distribution of roles in order to examine the different dimensions of creative evaluation in industrial design education as well as the design strategies employed to attain elevated levels of creativity. While the present dataset revolved around experienced designers critiquing students, the present analysis first and foremost examined how distinct evaluation type logics affect the reasoning and progression suggestions of the experienced designer. In relation to the theme of creativity we note that the literature has tended to reach a consensus that for a product to be deemed to be creative it needs to display the properties of both novelty and usefulness to some domain (e.g., Amabile, 1996; Mayer, 1999). While novelty is typically seen as the hallmark of creativity, the arguments for including a second dimension revolve around the observation that originality is not enough: schizophrenic ramblings, although novel, are not in themselves creative as they lack domain value or usefulness. The creative property of usefulness or domain value is, however, conceptually vague, and needs further specification in order to make sense in any concrete domain. For the design domain, Nelson and Stolterman (2012) have listed multiple important judgment types operating under what they term design judgments. While they do not claim to have derived an exhaustive list, sample types include framing judgments, appearance judgments, quality judgments, compositional judgments, and navigational judgments. For the present purposes, we wish merely to illustrate that evaluative types differ in terms of the underlying evaluation logic, leading to differences in reasoning strategies and proposed ways forward in the design process. So, for the present purposes it 2

3 suffices to claim minimally that two high level and important values in industrial design are functional value and aesthetic value. Note, however, that there may well be other high level evaluation dimensions in industrial design than the ones we have chosen here, and that the chosen dimensions may be separated into more fine-grained sub-categories. Below we seek to theorize on the nature of these three dimensions of creativity in industrial design (i.e., originality, functionality and aesthetics), and how they may predict differential behavior for the designers and evaluators who are traversing through their creative processes. The previous creativity literature has tended to ignore the question of the logic behind these distinct dimensions of creativity and how this logic may relate to the way in which these dimensions are evaluated in practice. In the context of design, for example, it is clearly possible to evaluate design objects from the perspective of different value systems, such as functional value or aesthetic value, such that the actual process of reasoning about value may take several distinct forms. In the present research we sought to explore such different types of reasoning and the progression of design ideation (if any) that takes place in evaluating functional value (e.g., usability), aesthetic value (e.g., visual form), and originality value (e.g., consumer-perceived novelty or domain changing potential). While these value dimensions may frequently be entangled in practical creative evaluation (with multiple dimensions co-occuring, some foregrounded and others backgrounded in concrete evaluative statements), in the present study they are analyzed as distinct entities in their pure form in order to draw out their core differences and respective relation to reasoning strategies. 1.1 The logics of creative dimensions Originality evaluation Evaluations of originality assume that ideas and products exist in objective temporal reality, and that it is possible to analyze the history and development of concepts. Value is placed especially on domain-specific originality that may later spark off multiple, fruitful variants in the domain in question in a germ-like manner. This implies a heavy emphasis on the value of a design arising from its being the first of a (new) kind. Given that originality is basically seeking novelty of kind, dismissal of a design due to lack of originality should frequently lead to a rapid rejection of the whole concept, rather than leading to suggestions on how to improve the concept s originality. In other words, an unoriginal concept needs to be discarded, rather than developed. Two modes of originality judgments may exist, one valuing the perceived originality by consumers (e.g., as practiced by marketers; see Dahl & Moreau, 2002; Moldovan, Goldenberg, & Chattopadhyay, 2011), while the other values the factual originality for the domain in question (e.g., as practiced by domain gatekeepers or experts; cf. Czikszentmihalyi 1990; Amabile, 1982). This logic of the dimension of originality ties it closely to go/kill design decisions for whole concepts. In a design process such evaluations and decisions revolve around the birth of ideas, and are made in the early stages of the design process. Functional evaluation Functional evaluation assumes an objective physical reality against which a design concept may ultimately be tested. Much functional evaluation involves mentally simulating whether the prescribed requirements are met to a satisfactory degree, and whether the design object performs 3

4 as specified. A mental model run is a change made to a mentally constructed model that allows for reasoning about new possible states (e.g., see Ball & Christensen, 2009; Ball, Onarheim, & Christensen, 2010; Christensen & Schunn, 2009; Wiltschnig, Christensen, & Ball, 2013). As a consequence, a great deal of functional evaluation focuses on detecting and resolving errors or shortcomings of design elements. While much evaluative design dialogue may revolve around mentally reducing functional uncertainty and turning that uncertainty into approximate answers (e.g., see Ball & Christensen, 2009; Christensen & Schunn, 2009), ultimately the real challenge for functional value is whether the design object operates as required when put to the test in the laboratory or in real-world trials and experiments. As such, functional design evaluation is fundamentally distinct from socially-oriented consensual agreement that is described in much of the creativity evaluation literature (e.g., Amabile, 1996; Czikszentmihalyi 1990) given the insistence that physical reality remains the ultimate challenge for the functional value of design ideas. Functional evaluation will frequently lead to identification of misbehaving sub-parts that may be improved upon in an incremental manner through the design development process. The focus therefore rests on the life of ideas and concepts, that is, design as a process of continual improvement rather than design as a number of units that are simply screened and selected or discarded. Aesthetic evaluation While it has been claimed that beauty is fundamentally in the eye of the beholder, research has identified multiple dimensions influencing aesthetic judgments, some relating more clearly to the object in question (e.g., symmetry, complexity and contrast), some to the prevalence of similar objects (e.g., prototypicality and familiarity), some to the classification of the object (e.g., style or content), and some to qualities of the perceiver (e.g., cognitive mastery, expertise, personal taste and interests) with both cognitive and affective dimensions (Leder et al., 2004). Controversies among art appreciation theorists date back millennia, rendering it unwise to make solid claims about the fundamental nature of aesthetics. Nonetheless, certain qualities of aesthetic judgments in industrial design may be highlighted when making comparisons to functionality and originality judgments. In particular, aesthetic evaluation seems to have a much clearer emotional or hedonic tone compared to judgments of originality or functionality. Given that important dimensions of aesthetic evaluation rest on qualities of a particular perceiver (an individual) or a particular class of perceivers (a social or cultural group), then the possibility for variance in taste can presumably be considered higher for aesthetic evaluation compared to the other two types of evaluation used here. Likewise, aesthetic evaluation may be subject to greater temporal shifts in appreciation (i.e., in line with the existing social consensus relating to taste or style). Finally, compared to the other evaluation types, aesthetic evaluation rests to a larger degree on the affective and cognitive dimensions associated with perceiving the object. The actual perceptual performance seems less important in evaluating originality and functionality, whereas one has to perceive the object with one s own senses in order to judge aesthetic pleasure. This also implies that judging the aesthetic pleasure of non-perceptual ideas (e.g., designed objects only conveyed through words) is extremely difficult. Materiality matters to aesthetic appreciation, both to the evaluator of aesthetic objects, but equally so to the creator in the creative process, where the actual construction and interaction with the designed object is important as the object talks back as it takes shape. 4

5 1.2 Propositions and hypotheses Given the qualities of the three evaluative types that have been selected for the present analysis it is important to question what design strategies might be applied in relation to each of these evaluation types. What might we expect in terms of reasoning and suggestions for design idea progression for each of these evaluation types? Based on the aforementioned descriptions of the core differences between the evaluation of originality, aesthetics and functionality, three basic propositions were derived that contextualized the present analysis, as follows: 1. The three types of evaluation diverge on what may be described at the ontological basis of the evaluation. Here functionality evaluation stands out given the ability ultimately to test and simulate the capacity for the design to meet certain objective criteria or requirements. Admittedly, functionality evaluation may sometimes be assessed against more subjective criteria, such as the usefulness of the design, but the important point here is that frequently function is a matter of objectively testable threshold values. As such, functionality evaluation should more frequently lead to suggestions for experimentation and testing of the design when compared to either originality evaluation or aesthetic evaluation. Furthermore, as a mental shortcut to replace detailed experimental testing it would be expected that mental simulation of proposed designs would be used as a heuristic strategy. 2. The three evaluation types diverge when it comes to the conception of what an idea entails in creative or innovative processes. In general, creativity theories dissociate in terms of whether ideas are perceived as units or as processes. The inclination in originality judgments is for designers to identify and compare designs as entities whilst looking for novel concepts, which may be contrasted with the procedural understanding of design that is particularly sought in functionality evaluation, but also in aesthetic evaluation, where designs are viewed mainly in terms of continuous development. While originality evaluation maintains a focus on the birth of ideas and the choice amongst alternative design entities, we contend that aesthetic and functionality evaluation focus on the life of ideas, and the continual improvement of design though the development of elements by means of additions and changes. 3. Finally, the three evaluation types diverge in terms of the importance of the perception of the design object as well as interaction with the object during the evaluation process. Aesthetic evaluation stands out in this respect in that aesthetic evaluation or aesthetic development seem to demand direct perceptual interaction with the design object in question, especially in order to be able to draw out the emotional responses to the object. This need may spill over into strategic suggestions for advancing design improvements in that further recommendations may be given to continue design development even without specific guidance as to which particular parameters to change. That is, a concept is perhaps more likely to be identified as having potential or to be of interest in relation to aesthetic judgments, without the ability to verbalize exactly how, or in what direction, the concept should be taken. Similarly, it may be more difficult in aesthetic evaluation than in functional evaluation to mentally simulate variations of a design, particularly 5

6 in light of the difficulty to pick up on the hedonics or emotional tone of a design merely on the basis of non-physical and non-sketched ideation. These three aforementioned propositions as to how originality, functional and aesthetic evaluation differ can be rephrased as specific hypotheses for each possible evaluation pairing, as follows: Comparing aesthetic evaluation to functionality evaluation we predict in the former more suggestions for development through trial and error (H1a), less mental simulation (H1b) and fewer suggestions for testing the concept (H1c). Comparing originality evaluation to aesthetic evaluation we predict in the former less mental simulation (H2a), more go/kill decisions for whole concepts (H2b) and fewer suggestions for development through trial and error (H2c). Comparing functionality evaluation to originality evaluation we predict in the former more suggestions for changing elements or forms (H3a), more mental simulation (H3b), fewer go/kill decisions (H3c) and more concept testing suggestions (H3d). In addition to these formal hypotheses, we also wanted to explore potential differences between the three chosen evaluation types in terms of their overall level of epistemic uncertainty, and valence. We believe it is the first time that the logics behind these three types of design evaluation have been theorized upon and compared in design critiques. A further implication of the present argument is that distinct creative domains are likely to diverge in the proportions of the three chosen evaluation types in actual design practice. As argued by other papers from the DTRS10 symposium, the literature on how creativity and creative evaluation varies across disciplines is sparse (Mann & Araci, 2014; Yilmaz & Daly, 2014). Examining the differential proportions of originality evaluation, aesthetic evaluation and functional evaluation across domains is, however, beyond the scope of the present paper, but we nevertheless believe it highly likely that these types of logics may help explain differences in creative evaluation practice, for example, between artistic domains and technical or scientific domains. 2 Methods The present study focused on the coding and analysis of design critique data from undergraduate and graduate industrial design courses at a public university deriving from the DTRS-10 dataset (Adams & Siddiqui, 2013). The data that we analysed consisted of 13 supervisor/student interactions across 39 transcripts, covering all stages of the design process within an educational setting (i.e., first review/d-search; second review/concept review; client review; look like/concept reduction; final review). The data were segmented according to turn-taking during spoken dialogue, resulting in a total of 4316 segments, ranging from for each student, and for each design critique session. Below we describe the detailed approach that we adopted to code the transcripts. 2.1 Transcript coding 6

7 The transcribed industrial design critiques were independently coded by three student coders who were unaware of the hypotheses underpinning this study. Each student coder coded a subset of the data. The coders were first trained in the analysis of verbal transcripts and were familiarized with the videos and datasets. They then applied six different codes during five iterations of going through the datasets. 2.2 Coding of evaluation episodes Initially, all statements were identified involving evaluations that were uttered by the evaluator (i.e., in the present dataset, a senior designer). For the purposes of this analysis a statement of evaluation was defined as any statement that comments on or that evaluates (either positively or negatively) the designed product or a design idea. The coding excluded any evaluations that commented on the design process, on presentation techniques (e.g., PowerPoint visuals of no importance to actual design ideas) or on the capabilities of the student designer (so long as these were also unrelated to the designed object). In this way the focus of the coding was specifically on the evaluation of design products or ideas. Examples of comments that were coded as statements of evaluation included: that s cool, great idea, I don t like the x component and this bit might not work. Following the identification of a statement of evaluation, a block of segments relating to this evaluation was identified, which contained descriptions and/or explanations of the design idea (usually uttered before the statement of evaluation) as well as segments involving further development or reasoning concerning the evaluation (usually uttered after to the statement of evaluation). An episode of evaluation was then coded, covering both the design explanation, the statement of evaluation, and the reasoning/development taking place subsequently. In principle, a single segment could be coded as an episode in itself, but most typically an episode spanned multiple segments. Coding of evaluation valence All statements of evaluation (see above) were coded in a binary manner for their valence, that is, they were designated as possessing a positive or a negative valence (see Tables 1 and 2 for examples). In situations where the statement of evaluation contained both positive and negatively valenced utterances, then the evaluation episode was coded as both positive and negative. Table 1. Transcript extracts that show positively valenced evaluations Simon: (Undergraduate; Addison; Final review; line 26) But I kinda like I don t know what to call it underwear or bikini or whatever you wanna call that (Undergraduate; Lynn; First review; line 19) Excellent, excellent. 7

8 (Undergraduate; Todd; First review; Line 28) Yeah, this is, this is pretty neat. This would be great. This would probably be fiberglass or molded plastic. Table 2. Transcript extracts that show negatively valenced evaluations Simon: (Undergraduate; Lynn; First review; line 121) Um, the bad thing about these is these, these actually um, may not really be too stable, though, you know (Graduate; Eva; Concept review; line 22) I missed the anti-gravity. Where is it? Oh, vacuum environment. But a vacuum environment doesn't make things float. Darren: (Undergraduate; Lynn; Client review; line 9) Wha-, well, personally, personally I don t see that once again, I don t see that as a marketable model. I don t think it will be used in the way you think it is. Coding of evaluation types All statements of evaluation were also coded for whether they pertained to design aesthetics, to design function or usage or to the originality of the design. Evaluations relating to design appearance or form were coded as aesthetic evaluations (e.g., as arising in relation to the look, feel or smell of the designed object; see Table 3 for examples). Evaluations relating to design usage or technical function were coded as functionality evaluations (e.g., this functional element needs to be changed, it s probably not going to work or users will probably not appreciate this element ; see Table 4 for examples). Evaluations relating to the distinctiveness or novelty of the design were coded as originality evaluations (e.g., this has been seen before, this design is unique, it s radically different, this is the safe option or the design is quite different ; see Table 5 for examples). Table 3. Transcript extracts that show examples of aesthetic evaluations Darren: (Undergraduate; Addison; Client Review; line 16) Well you ve got a very different, uh, progression from what we see in the top to the bottom. I think they re both valid. You know I guess my question was - was that part of your thought 8

9 process because both forms are really nice? (Undergraduate; Alice; 2 nd review; line 121) This was save this for another this one's kinda neat. I really loved how this curved around. Table 4. Transcript extracts that show examples of functionality evaluations Peter: (Graduate; Mylie; Client review; line 92) Ya' know, I love the idea of having accessories that, that can hang from the branches that allow you to customize it and, ya' know, it supports different functionality. Simon: (Graduate; Walter; Concept review; line ) Yeah, the water will be everywhere and there's no point in - why even have it then? But I do like it as three separate containers and -... your, your basket is what goes into the machine. it could be - course you always have to wash all - you have to wash everything. Table 5. Transcript extracts that show examples of originality evaluations (Undergraduate; Alice; 2nd review; line 66) medium, and extreme to some degree. That's, that's kinda it helps them. So this is if you wanted to design something really similar to what everybody else has done, this is what I'd recommend. But your goal as a designer is they're not hiring you to, to, ah, to analyze the market. I mean they're doing that. They're not analyzing they're not hiring you to do CAD. Chuck: (Graduate; Eva; Client review; line 77) This one seems a little far-fetched. I mean, like I like I said, I appreciate the, uh, I appreciate the out, ya know, the thinking outside the box, but it s, I mean, maybe we re too in too much reality. Coding of mental simulation The codes pertaining to the presence of mental simulation were based on those developed by Christensen and Schunn (2009; see also Ball & Christensen, 2009; Ball et al., 2010; Wiltschnig et al., 2013), which were, themselves, adapted from research reported by Trickett and Trafton (2002; see also Trickett and Trafton, 2007). Within this coding scheme a mental model run is viewed as being a mentally constructed model of a situation, object or system of objects that is 9

10 grounded either in the designer s memory or in the designer s mental modification of design objects that are physically present. As such, mental simulation enables designers to reason about new possible states of a design object in terms of its qualities, functions, features or attributes, but without the need for actual physical manipulation of the object itself. It should be noted that mental simulations are not merely limited to technical design properties, but can also relate to imagining other kinds of dynamic situations relating to the designed object. Such situations might extend to envisaging changes arising from end-user interactions with the object or to imagining an individual s aesthetic appreciation in relation to altered aspects of the object. Whatever its end goal, the key feature of a mental simulation is that it involves a simulation run that alters a mental representation to produce a change of state (e.g., Trickett and Trafton, 2007; see also Richardson & Ball, 2009). What this means is that a mental simulation necessitates a specific sequence of representational changes, commencing with the creation of an initial representation, progressing to the running of that representation (where it is transformed by additions, deletions and modification), and finishing off with a final, changed representation (e.g., Christensen & Schunn, 2009). These three components of the mental simulation (i.e., the initial representation, the simulation run, and the changed representation) are not conceptualised as being mutually exclusive, but can occur in the same transcript segment, although typically they extend over several segments. Examples of mental simulations are shown in Table 6. Table 6. Transcript extracts that show examples of mental simulations Sheryl: (Undergraduate; Adam; 2nd review; line 35-37) Yeah, and then you've got this sort of element. Now one of things when it goes on the floor, um, you may consider maybe that's a have some semi-soft machinable plastic pieces of material. Um, or maybe it could be, um, a maybe a metal piece or something. I don t know. But, anyway, we need to have some kind of structure. You won t, you won t have narrow enough fabric to the floor even if slightly, maybe like wood. Um, so then this, this could be uh wood piece that could be, could be fabric in here maybe it comes down, or something just, keep just, just keeps the [clears throat] fabric from touching the floor and it's already kind of moisture or whatever at least it s, maybe it could be waterproof or more durable. Otherwise, you again, and this could, this could just be like three-quarter, half inch, but something you never see because maybe step it back a little bit and be maybe something that and these details you can work out later. (Undergraduate; Sheryl; Look like; line 68-72) Well, I'd get some stretch fabric to where you maybe hide 'em back on the side on the inside. Oh, yeah, like oh, what is that fabric called that you see these like book covers with? Do you know what I'm talking about high school? [Laughs] No, but I mean go to a fabric store and get the stretchiest fabric you can get, ah 10

11 Sheryl: Okay. And, and you realize that maybe it's time maybe it's the bottom where you pull everything in and then you, you, ah, you hot melt glue it or something. In fact, you may want to you build that where, you know, the bottom piece of your multiple layers of cardboard up a little higher, so that way 'cause fabric's always, always gonna gather. So maybe you, you have a little bit of play in there, maybe a half-inch on the bottom that you could bring it under and say, well, this is, this is just for decorative. Obviously, they will figure out how to make it work. Coding of epistemic uncertainty Epistemic uncertainty refers to a metacognitive state that arises during a design process on occasions when a designer is unsure about some aspect of their on-going design work such as their understanding of elements of the problem or their confidence in the effectiveness of solution ideas (e.g., see Ball & Christensen, 2009). Previous design research has demonstrated that the manifest expression of epistemic uncertainty by designers is often associated with strategic shifts in behavior such as increases in mental simulation and analogising (e.g., Ahmed & Christensen, 2009; Ball & Christensen, 2009; Christensen & Schunn, 2007, 2009) as well as increases in problem solution co-evolution activity (Wiltschnig et al., 2013). In the present analysis the coding of epistemic uncertainty was achieved using a syntactic approach adapted from Trickett et al. (2005) and Christensen and Schunn (2009) which makes use of hedge words to search for segments within the transcript that contain expressions of uncertainty. In the present analysis these hedge words included terms like probably, sort of, guess, maybe, possibly, don t know, and believe. Text segments containing these words or phrases were located and were coded as uncertainty present if it was also apparent that the hedge words were not being used by the speaker merely as politeness markers (see Table 7 below, which shows extracts from the transcripts where uncertainty was present). Any segment that were not coded as uncertainty present was coded as uncertainty absent Table 7. Extracts from the transcripts where uncertainty was present (as designated using bold and underlined font) Alice: (Undergraduate; Alice; 2nd review; line 85) Okay. 'Cause here, I was playing with this idea of having [unintelligible] think, and then maybe it could be, could be upside down. (Undergraduate; Esther; Look like; line 106) So you probably want to do that, 'cause you can build up your layers and then you ll need something else. (Undergraduate; Lynn; First review; line 172) Okay. And maybe there's, maybe there's some simple geometry. You gotta maybe, 11

12 maybe it's more straight Sheryl: (Undergraduate; Sheryl; Look like; line 83) I don t know. That's what I was gonna ask. What do you think is best? Coding of design idea progression suggestions This set of codes captures suggestions for progression of design ideas that are made when an experienced designer evaluates one or more design concepts. Each segment of the transcript was assessed in terms of whether it contained a design idea progression suggestion (DIPS) by the experienced designer. Five distinct types of DIPS were coded, as follows: Go/kill idea: This arose whenever one or more ideas were selected or highlighted as having more or less potential over other ideas (e.g., go with this idea ; go with these two ideas, but not this one, kill idea 3 ; see Table 8). Table 8. Transcript extracts that show examples of go/kill DIPS Peter: Peter: Peter (Graduate; Julian; Client review; line 29) I think you have other stronger concepts. (Graduate; Sydney; Client review; line 21) Okay. Uh, I would say you re probably gonna do 41. Can you go back to that slide? (Graduate; Walter; Client review; line 99) Those are the two I think strongest ones. Change element or form: This occurred when a functional or form element was added, removed, or changed for a particular concept or idea (e.g., please change the base to another kind of material, I would drop this particular bit of your idea, you should consider adding this bit, these dimensions should be scaled, why not add some color to this bit ; see Table 9). Table 9. Transcript extracts that show examples of change form or function DIPS Chuck: (Graduate; Mylie; Client review; line 60) And, ya' know, maybe you add the fragrance thing in and kinda' take it from there. 12

13 Chuck: (Graduate; Sydney; Client review; line 40) -- you have shown on the left. It ll probably be a smaller type thing and the air can come from the dryer when you re, ya know, when you re drying the other clothes. That could be cool and it could just, ya know, the hot air could kinda come up and help, help dry those clothes. Peter: (Graduate; Julian; Client review; line 61) It could be something smaller. Test concept: This arose when the experienced designer suggested testing the concept (e.g., through experimentation or by testing it on users; see Table 10). Table 10. Transcript extracts that show examples of test concept DIPS (Undergraduate; Todd; Look like; line 65) Talking about get a dowel and drill through the drill through the bottom all the way up, and, and then, ah, with a drill press and then, ah, gotta dowel and see if it actually functions. Peter: (Graduate; Julian; Client review; line 52) So I, I would do, ya' know, I, I would concentrate on this, but I, I don't think it's as easy as what you have drawn here with the variation in clothing, it's gonna take some, ya' know, it's gonna take some experimenting on your side. Search for more information: This was when the experienced designer suggested searching for new or additional information for the design (Table 11). Table 11. Transcript extracts that show examples of search for more information DIPS Simon: Peter: (Graduate; Julian; Concept reduction; line 157) Okay. So you gotta do a little research. (Graduate; Sydney; Client review; line 28) Okay? That s a that s a I mean, that s something different that at least I haven t seen. Again, you might wanna look out there. Just Google search or patent search foldable hangers you might see there. I think there s a lot of people that could benefit from something like this and it seems so simple and elegant a solution. Trial and error: Thus occurred whenever the experienced designer asked the student to play with the concept, try out different things, or work on the concept for a specified time, without further specifying what the outcome might be (e.g., play with it, play 13

14 with the dimensions a bit, try different things out, work with it for a few hours ; see Table 12). Table 12. Transcript extracts that show examples of trial and error DIPS (Undergraduate; Alice; 2 nd review; line 177) So play with your forms and dimensions, and then these others which are really, really exciting as independent pieces, that's really refreshing. Both these are really fun. Both of 'em have great merit. [Clears throat] This, um, you could play around with the height on this thing. (Undergraduate; Lynn; First review; line 184) But, again, you, you've got you've I'll give you my input and you're the designer. If you're passionate about something and, ah, you could appropriate the time for it, just go for it. This is something that you really like, so take it to a level, but I would maybe spend a couple of hours on it, trying to dial in the geometry. Inter-coder reliability checks In order to undertake a reliability check of the transcript coding we selected a set of transcripts of interactions between a single student and supervisor, which covered three sessions (client review, look like and final review). The transcripts involved a total of 210 segments (i.e., approximately 5% of the full dataset). Two individuals coded the transcript independently, and reliability was then estimated using Cohen s Kappa measure. In case of insufficient reliability, the coding scheme was revised, the coders re-trained, the data re-coded, and a new round of reliability checking was conducted. Following the achievement of sufficient reliability, all disagreements were resolved through discussion between the coders. As shown in Table 13, all codes reached a satisfactory level of inter-rater agreement. Mental simulation and design idea progression suggestion can be characterized as fair-to-good agreement, while the remaining codes had excellent inter-coder agreement according to the rule-of thumb provided by Fleiss et al. (1981; see also Fleiss, 1981). Table 13. Kappa coefficients for inter-coder reliability Code Kappa coefficient Mental Simulation.71 Evaluation Episodes.75 Design Idea Progression Suggestion.68 Evaluation Valence.86 Evaluation Type.85 Uncertainty.90 14

15 3 Results 3.1 Evaluation episodes Across the transcripts we identified 157 unique evaluation episodes, which ranged from 1 to 49 segments, averaging 9.9 segments per episode. Evaluation episodes thus made up 36.2 % of the segments in the transcripts, which is not surprising given that the essence of design critique is centrally focused on the evaluation of concepts. Following each student across the sessions in the design process showed that evaluation episodes received by each of the students ranged from 0 to 32, with an average of 12.1 episodes per student. 3.2 Evaluation types Of the 157 evaluation episodes, 42% pertained to aesthetic evaluation, 46.5% to functional evaluation, and 11.5% to evaluation of the originality of concepts. A chi-square analysis of the distribution of the three types of evaluation by session (Figure 1) was prohibited due to the presence of expected counts less than 5. As a consequence, the final review (Session 5) was excluded from the analysis and Session 3 (client review) and Session 4 (look like; concept reduction) were merged into a single session (see Table 14). The resulting chi-square analysis revealed significant differences in the distribution of evaluation types by session, χ² (4) = 18.34, p <.001. Follow-up 2 x 2 chi-square tests revealed that when comparing the first session to later sessions, originality evaluations, χ² (1) = 7.47, p <.007, and aesthetic evaluations, χ² (1) = 12.45, p <.001, arose more frequently in the first session than later sessions relative to functionality evaluations. However, aesthetic evaluations and originality evaluations did not differ from one another in this respect, χ² (1) = 0.01, ns. Figure 1: The frequency of evaluation types across sessions 15

16 Table 14. Contingency table showing the frequency of evaluation types by session (note that Session 5 was omitted from the analysis while Sessions 3 and 4 were combined in order to apply a chi-square test) Session Evaluation Type Aesthetic Functionality Originality Evaluation valence Of the 157 evaluation episodes, 69.4% were positively valenced, 15.9% were negatively valenced, and the remaining 14.7% of the episodes contained both positive and negative evaluations within the same episode (see Table 15 for frequency data). When excluding episodes containing both positive and negative evaluations it was observed that evaluation types differed significantly in terms of their valence, χ² (2) = 24.76, p <.001. Subsequent 2 x 2 Fisher s exact tests revealed that aesthetic evaluations (p <.001) and originality evaluations (p <.004) were significantly more often positive (indeed, almost entirely so) when compared to functional evaluations, while aesthetic evaluations and originality evaluations did not differ from each other in their valence (p = 1.00). The surprisingly large proportion of positively valenced evaluative statements (given the context of a design critique session) may be seen in the light of Oak and Lloyd s (2014) key point that during a critique the institutional context, the associated roles of participants, and the management of face, all contribute to shaping what can be said and how it is said. As Oak and Lloyd show in detailed analyses of single critique encounters, the instructor Simon maintains a rather explicit vocabulary of what is to take place during the design critique (stating that he tore into the students work ), which is somewhat in contrast to the somewhat gentle remarks actually offered during the critique. Table 15. Contingency table showing the frequency of evaluation types by evaluation valence Valence Evaluation Type Positive Negative Total Aesthetic Functionality Originality Total

17 3.4 Epistemic uncertainty The transcripts contained a total of 751 segments with epistemic uncertainty present, amounting to 17.4% of the data. For each individual student/evaluator pair, there was an average of 57.8 segments with uncertainty present, ranging from uncertainty segments per pair. A oneway ANOVA revealed that the three evaluation episode types did not differ significantly in terms of their level of epistemic uncertainty, F(2, 156) =.488, p = Mental simulation A total of 113 mental simulations were identified across the transcripts. For each individual student/evaluator pair, an average of 8.9 mental simulations were carried out, ranging from 0-18 mental simulations per pair. Simulation segments occurred much more frequently inside evaluation episodes than outside (Table 16), attesting to the tight coupling between mental simulations and evaluation episodes in the present transcripts, χ² (1) = , p <.001). Only 15 of the 113 mental simulations did not relate to an evaluation episode in at least one segment. Table 16. Contingency table showing the number of segments when simulation was resent and when simulation was absent within evaluation episodes versus outside evaluation episodes Within evaluation Outside evaluation Total episode episode Simulation present Simulation absent Total As has been found previously (e.g., Ball & Christensen, 2009; Christensen & Schunn, 2009; Ball et al., 2010; Wiltschnig et al., 2013), the analysis of the present transcripts revealed that mental simulations were run in situations of elevated epistemic uncertainty. Simulation segments thus contained epistemic uncertainty far more frequently than non-simulation segments, χ² (1) = , p <.001 (Table 17). Table 17. Contingency table showing the number of segments when simulation was present and when simulation was absent that revealed the presence versus absence of uncertainty Uncertainty present Uncertainty absent Total Simulation present Simulation absent Total

18 3.6 Design idea progression suggestions Across the evaluation episodes there were a total of 153 design idea progression suggestions (DIPS) within episodes. These were distributed as follows: 45 go/kill DIPS; 67 changes to form or function DIPS; 10 test concept DIPS; 9 search for information DIPS; and 22 trial and error DIPS. To examine whether the three evaluation types differed in terms of progression suggestions and mental simulation runs we applied logistic regression analyses. Logistic regression enabled us to predict the probability that an evaluation type was linked to a particular type of DIPS or to the occurrence of mental simulation. The predictor variables were therefore the five DIPS (i.e., go/kill; change form or function; test concept; search for information; trial and error) as well as mental simulation, with all predictor variables coded dichotomously. In order to test the hypotheses, three binary logistic regression models were run for each evaluation type pair, as described in the following sub-sections. Modeling aesthetic to functionality evaluation types For the aesthetic and functionality evaluation pair we carried out a stepwise regression (Wald forward), which left two variables in the final equation (i.e., test concept DIPS and trial and error DIPS). An evaluation of the final model versus a model with intercept only was statistically significant, χ² (2, N = 138) = 13.03, p <.001. The model was able to classify correctly with an overall success rate of 58%. Table 18 shows the logistic regression coefficient, Wald test, and odds ratio for each of the final predictors. The odds ratio indicates that a functional evaluation compared to an aesthetic evaluation is times more likely to suggest testing the concept and 4.37 (i.e., 1/0.23) times less likely to request trial and error behavior along the lines of playing with the concept. Table 18. Logistic regression (final model) predicting evaluation type (aesthetic vs. functional) from design idea progression suggestions and mental simulation B SE Wald df Sig Exp(B) DIPS Test concept Step 2 DIPS Trial and error Constant Modeling aesthetic to originality evaluation types For the aesthetic and originality evaluation pair we again carried out a stepwise regression (Wald forward), leaving two variables in the final equation (i.e., go/kill DIPS and mental simulation). A test of the final model versus a model with intercept only was statistically significant, χ² (2, N = 85) = 10.16, p <.007. The model was able correctly to classify with an overall success rate of 78% (see table 19) The odds ratio indicates that an aesthetic evaluation compared to an 18

19 originality evaluation is 3.28 times less likely to suggest selecting or killing the concept and 3.70 (i.e., 1/0.27) times more likely to be associated with the performance of mental simulation. Table 19. Logistic regression (final model) predicting evaluation type (aesthetic vs. originality) from design idea progression suggestions and mental simulation B SE Wald df Sig Exp(B) DIPS Go/kill Step 2 Mental simulation Constant Modeling originality to functionality evaluation types For the originality and functionality evaluation pair, Stepwise regression (Wald forward) was once again carried out, leaving three variables in the final equation (i.e., go/kill DIPS, search for information DIPS and change form or function DIPS). A test of the final model versus a model with intercept only was statistically significant, χ² (3, N = 85) = 20.78, p <.001. The model was able correctly to classify with an overall success rate of 82% (see Table 20). The odds ratio indicates that an originality evaluation compared to a functional evaluation is 5.39 times more likely to suggest go/kill decisions by selecting or killing the concept, times more likely to suggest searching for more information, and (1/0.114) = 8.77 times less likely to suggest changing elements of the form or function of the design concept. Table 20. Logistic regression (final model) predicting evaluation type (originality vs functionality) from design idea progression suggestions and mental simulation B S.E. Wald df Sig. Exp(B) DIPS Go/kill Step 3 DIPS Search for information DIPS Change form or function Constant Collinearity checks Given our hypothesis that mental simulation should be related more to functionality evaluation than to originality evaluation, it was surprising that mental simulation did not become a significant predictor in the final model reported in the previous analysis. One possible confound in this analysis is that some of the independent variables may display collinearity, in particular 19

Author manuscript, published in "Scientometrics 74, 3 (2008) 439-451" 1 On the ratio of citable versus non-citable items in economics journals Tove Faber Frandsen 1 tff@db.dk Royal School of Library and

PHL 317K 1 Fall 2017 Overview of Weeks 1 5 We officially started the class by discussing the fact/opinion distinction and reviewing some important philosophical tools. A critical look at the fact/opinion

Acoustic Prosodic Features In Sarcastic Utterances Introduction: The main goal of this study is to determine if sarcasm can be detected through the analysis of prosodic cues or acoustic features automatically.

RHYTHM IN MUSIC PERFORMANCE AND PERCEIVED STRUCTURE 1 On time: the influence of tempo, structure and style on the timing of grace notes in skilled musical performance W. Luke Windsor, Rinus Aarts, Peter

Investigation of Aesthetic Quality of Product by Applying Golden Ratio Vishvesh Lalji Solanki Abstract- Although industrial and product designers are extremely aware of the importance of aesthetics quality,

Technical Appendix May 2016 DREAMBOX LEARNING ACHIEVEMENT GROWTH in the Howard County Public School System and Rocketship Education Abstract In this technical appendix, we present analyses of the relationship

Intelligible Matter in Aristotle, Aquinas, and Lonergan by Br. Dunstan Robidoux OSB In his In librum Boethii de Trinitate, q. 5, a. 3 [see The Division and Methods of the Sciences: Questions V and VI of

Hugh Dubberly Interview 1 Transcription Hugh Dubberly: What do you guys think design is? Interviewer 1: Things get made, but no one knows how it gets made. Hugh: And so what do you think design is? Interviewer

DOES MOVIE SOUNDTRACK MATTER? THE ROLE OF SOUNDTRACK IN PREDICTING MOVIE REVENUE Haifeng Xu, Department of Information Systems, National University of Singapore, Singapore, xu-haif@comp.nus.edu.sg Nadee

Detecting Musical Key with Supervised Learning Robert Mahieu Department of Electrical Engineering Stanford University rmahieu@stanford.edu Abstract This paper proposes and tests performance of two different

Computer Coordination With Popular Music: A New Research Agenda 1 Roger B. Dannenberg roger.dannenberg@cs.cmu.edu http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~rbd School of Computer Science Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh,

Methodologies for Expressiveness Modeling of and for Music Performance by Giovanni De Poli Center of Computational Sonology, Department of Information Engineering, University of Padova, Padova, Italy About

1 Introduction and Overview Invention has always been central to rhetorical theory and practice. As Richard Young and Alton Becker put it in Toward a Modern Theory of Rhetoric, The strength and worth of

Lecture 3 Kuhn s Methodology We now briefly look at the views of Thomas S. Kuhn whose magnum opus, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), constitutes a turning point in the twentiethcentury philosophy

Discrete, Bounded Reasoning in Games Level-k Thinking and Cognitive Hierarchies Joe Corliss Graduate Group in Applied Mathematics Department of Mathematics University of California, Davis June 12, 2015

Action, Criticism & Theory for Music Education The refereed journal of the Volume 9, No. 1 January 2010 Wayne Bowman Editor Electronic Article Shusterman, Merleau-Ponty, and Dewey: The Role of Pragmatism

KINDS (NATURAL KINDS VS. HUMAN KINDS) Both the natural and the social sciences posit taxonomies or classification schemes that divide their objects of study into various categories. Many philosophers hold

-1- Watch Mushrooms Grow Lisa Sindorf East Gallery - Formative Evaluation February 2011 THIS IS NOT A DEFINITIVE FINAL REPORT FORMATIVE evaluation studies like this one often: are conducted quickly, which

Intimacy and Embodiment: Implications for Art and Technology Sidney Fels Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of British Columbia Vancouver, BC, Canada ssfels@ece.ubc.ca ABSTRACT People

"HOW TO CHOOSE A STATIC MIXER TO PROPERLY MIX A 2-COMPONENT ADHESIVE" BY David W. Kirsch Choosing a static mixer requires more than reading a sales catalog and selecting a part number. Adhesive manufacturers

The final chapter of the book is devoted to the question of the epistemological status of holistic pragmatism itself. White thinks of it as a thesis, a statement that may have been originally a very generalized

Journal of Philosophy of Life Vol.6, No.2 (June 2016):51-58 [Essay] Reality According to Language and Concepts Ben G. Yacobi * Abstract Science uses not only mathematics, but also inaccurate natural language

CARROLL ON THE MOVING IMAGE Thomas E. Wartenberg (Mount Holyoke College) The question What is cinema? has been one of the central concerns of film theorists and aestheticians of film since the beginnings

Turning On and Tuning In: Is There a Price Premium for Energy Efficient Televisions? Jeremy Eddy and Mike Ting, Itron ABSTRACT Televisions are ubiquitous in American homes and are significant consumers

Three lessons that use emojis Lesson 1 Thinking about subtexts, tone and ambiguity in literary texts Tweets and texts are a short form of communication somewhere between talk and writing. They have many

Best Practice for Peer Review of Scholarly Books National Scholarly Book Publishers Forum of South Africa February 2017 1 Definitions A scholarly work can broadly be defined as a well-informed, skilled,

Geological Magazine Guidelines for reviewers We very much appreciate your agreement to act as peer reviewer for an article submitted to Geological Magazine. These guidelines are intended to summarise the

Authentication of Musical Compositions with Techniques from Information Theory. Benjamin S. Richards Abstract It is an oft-quoted fact that there is much in common between the fields of music and mathematics.

Barbara Tversky using space to represent space and meaning Prologue About public representations: About public representations: Maynard on public representations:... The example of sculpture might suggest

Course Curriculum Big Idea 1: Artists manipulate materials and ideas to create an aesthetic object, act, or event. Essential Question: What is art and how is it made? LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1.1: Students differentiate

Foucault's Archaeological method In discussing Schein, Checkland and Maturana, we have identified a 'backcloth' against which these individuals operated. In each case, this backcloth has become more explicit,

RECORD REISSUES--AN AMERICAN PERSPECTIVE; AN INTERVIEW WITH JOHN PFEIFFER, RCA RECORDS Pfeiff er: How did you come to RCA; what was your background; how did you first start with the Company? Well, it came

MITOCW watch?v=6wud_gp5wee The following content is provided under a Creative Commons license. Your support will help MIT OpenCourseWare continue to offer high quality educational resources for free. To

Candice Bergen Transcript 7/18/06 Candice, thank you for coming here. A pleasure. And I'm gonna start at the end, 'cause I'm gonna tell you I'm gonna start at the end. And I may even look tired. And the

Kant: Notes on the Critique of Judgment First Moment: The Judgement of Taste is Disinterested. The Aesthetic Aspect Kant begins the first moment 1 of the Analytic of Aesthetic Judgment with the claim that

Allstar Somebody once told me the world is gonna roll me I ain't the sharpest tool in the shed She was looking kind of dumb with her finger and her thumb In the shape of an "L" on her forehead Well the

THE EFFECT OF EXPERTISE IN EVALUATING EMOTIONS IN MUSIC Fabio Morreale, Raul Masu, Antonella De Angeli, Patrizio Fava Department of Information Engineering and Computer Science, University Of Trento, Italy

Aristotle s Metaphysics Book Γ: the study of being qua being First Philosophy Aristotle often describes the topic of the Metaphysics as first philosophy. In Book IV.1 (Γ.1) he calls it a science that studies

Texas Music Education Research Reports of Research in Music Education Presented at the Annual Meetings of the Texas Music Educators Association San Antonio, Texas Robert A. Duke, Chair TMEA Research Committee

WHAT MAKES FOR A HIT POP SONG? WHAT MAKES FOR A POP SONG? NICHOLAS BORG AND GEORGE HOKKANEN Abstract. The possibility of a hit song prediction algorithm is both academically interesting and industry motivated.

392 Article On the Nature of & Relation between Formless God & Form: Part 2: The Identification of the Formless God Steven E. Kaufman * ABSTRACT What is described in the second part of this work is what

APPLICATIONS NOTE Considerations for Blending LED Phosphors January 2013 Introduction: Phosphor is used in conjunction with blue emitting LEDs to create white light or other desired color points. While

Aesthetic Judgment and Perceptual Normativity HANNAH GINSBORG University of California, Berkeley, U.S.A. Abstract: I draw a connection between the question, raised by Hume and Kant, of how aesthetic judgments

BIBLIOMETRIC REPORT Bibliometric analysis of Mälardalen University Final Report - updated April 28 th, 2014 Bibliometric analysis of Mälardalen University Report for Mälardalen University Per Nyström PhD,

BitWise. Instructions for New Features in ToF-AMS DAQ V2.1 Prepared by Joel Kimmel University of Colorado at Boulder & Aerodyne Research Inc. Last Revised 15-Jun-07 BitWise (V2.1 and later) includes features

SURVEYS FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE These surveys are designed to help teachers collect feedback from students about their use of the forty-one elements of effective teaching. The high school student survey

Do you read them? Why read them? Why write them? What can they do? How are they different from novels? What do you like about them? Do you have any favourites? What things from individual stories appeal