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Constructivism Is an approach to teaching and learning based on the premise that cognition is the result of "mental construction". In other words, students learn by fitting new information together with what they already know. Is an approach to teaching and learning based on the premise that cognition is the result of "mental construction". In other words, students learn by fitting new information together with what they already know. Constructivists believe that learning is affected by the context in which an idea is taught as well as by students' beliefs and attitudes. Constructivists believe that learning is affected by the context in which an idea is taught as well as by students' beliefs and attitudes. The learner actively imposes organization and meaning on the surrounding environment and constructs knowledge in the process. The learner actively imposes organization and meaning on the surrounding environment and constructs knowledge in the process. The teacher's role is not only to observe and assess but to also engage with the students while they are completing activities, wondering aloud and posing questions to the students for promotion of reasoning. The teacher's role is not only to observe and assess but to also engage with the students while they are completing activities, wondering aloud and posing questions to the students for promotion of reasoning.

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Lev Semonovich Vygotsky Background Vygotsky was called "The Mozart of Psychology“. Vygotsky was called "The Mozart of Psychology“. He was born in same year He was born in same year as Piaget - in the small Russian town of Orsha. as Piaget - in the small Russian town of Orsha. Middle-class Jewish family. Middle-class Jewish family. He entered into a private all boys secondary school known as a gymnasium—a secondary school that prepared students for the university. He entered into a private all boys secondary school known as a gymnasium—a secondary school that prepared students for the university. In 1913 entered Moscow University through lottery. In 1913 entered Moscow University through lottery. In December of 1917, he graduated from Moscow University with a degree in law. In December of 1917, he graduated from Moscow University with a degree in law.

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Lev Semonovich Vygotsky Background Vygotsky completed 270 scientific articles, numerous lectures, and ten books based on a wide range of Marxist-based psychological and teaching theories. Vygotsky completed 270 scientific articles, numerous lectures, and ten books based on a wide range of Marxist-based psychological and teaching theories. He died on June 10, 1934, at the young age of thirty- seven after long battle with TB. He died on June 10, 1934, at the young age of thirty- seven after long battle with TB. Vygotsky’s work did not become known in the West until 1958, and was not published there until Vygotsky’s work did not become known in the West until 1958, and was not published there until 1962.

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Introduction The sociocultural theory: Did NOT focus on the individual child but on the child as a product of social interaction, especially with adults (parents, teachers). Did NOT focus on the individual child but on the child as a product of social interaction, especially with adults (parents, teachers). Focus on DYADIC INTERACTIONS (e.g., child being taught by a parent how to perform some culturally specific action), rather than child by himself. Focus on DYADIC INTERACTIONS (e.g., child being taught by a parent how to perform some culturally specific action), rather than child by himself. Social world mediates children's cognitive development. Cognitive development occurs as child's thinking is molded by society in the form of parents, teachers, and peers. This leads to peer tutoring as a strategy in classrooms. Social world mediates children's cognitive development. Cognitive development occurs as child's thinking is molded by society in the form of parents, teachers, and peers. This leads to peer tutoring as a strategy in classrooms. People's thinking differs dramatically between cultures because different cultures stress different things. People's thinking differs dramatically between cultures because different cultures stress different things.

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Theory’s Principles and Concepts Children construct their knowledge. Children construct their knowledge. Knowledge is not transferred passively, but is personally constructed. The learning is mediated. The learning is mediated. Cognitive development is not a direct result of activity, but it is indirect; other people must interact with the learner, use mediatory tools to facilitate the learning process, and then cognitive development may occur. Language plays a central role in mental development. Language plays a central role in mental development. The most significant sociocultural tool is language, as it is used to teach tool use and is vital in the process of developing higher psychological functions.

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Learning appears twice. Learning appears twice. First on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first between people (interpsychology), and then inside the child (intrapsychology). Development cannot be separated from its social context. Development cannot be separated from its social context. The context needed for learning is that where the learners can interact with each other and use the new tools. This means that the learning environment must be authentic, that is, it must contain the type of people who would use these types of tools such as concepts, language, symbols in a natural way. Theory’s Principles and Concepts

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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The difference between what a child can do independently and what the child needs help from a more knowledgeable person to do is the The difference between what a child can do independently and what the child needs help from a more knowledgeable person to do is the Theory’s Principles and Concepts Zone of Proximal Development

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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Distance Between Actual and Potential Knowledge potential potential knowledge knowledge potential potential actual actual knowledge actual knowledge actual Two children with the same actual knowledge travel different distances to their potential knowledge; therefore different ZPDs Two children with the same actual knowledge travel different distances to their potential knowledge; therefore different ZPDs Theory’s Principles and Concepts ZPD ZPD

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This is an example of how ZPD can work in the life of a child Like all children, Mo’men is constantly learning and exploring the world around him.

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For our example, we will look at Mo’men’s love of games. Over the years, Mo’men has developed skills and knowledge that enable him to play a variety of games. For each game, he is able to successfully strategize and solve problems independently. This is an example of how ZPD can work in the life of a child

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There is one game, however, that Mo’men has never learned. It’s the card game Yu-Gi-Oh. Mo’men knows his brother plays it very well. Mo’men would like to learn, but is unsure where to start.

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Mo’men finally asks his brother Ali for help. Ali agrees, and begins working with Mo’men in learning the game of Yu-Gi- Oh. Mo’men is learning in the region Vygotsky would call ZPD. This is an example of how ZPD can work in the life of a child

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In ZPD, Mo’men is doing something requiring the help of someone more capable. Without Ali’s help, Mo’men would be unable to play the game. Eventually, Mo’men will learn the game well enough to play the game by himself. This is an example of how ZPD can work in the life of a child

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Once Mo’men learns Yu-Gi-Oh, the skill moves out of the ZPD region and is added to all the other games Mo’men plays independently. In time, Mo’men becomes the more capable player, and begins to teach his sister. This is an example of how ZPD can work in the life of a child

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Scaffolding Scaffolding “role of teachers and others in supporting the learner’s development and providing support structures to get to the next stage or level” Vygotsky. “role of teachers and others in supporting the learner’s development and providing support structures to get to the next stage or level” Vygotsky. a knowledgeable participant can create by means of speech and supportive conditions in which the student (novice) can participate in and extend current skills and knowledge to a high level of competence. In an educational context, however, scaffolding is an instructional structure whereby the teacher models the desired learning strategy or task then gradually shifts responsibility to the students. Theory’s Principles and Concepts

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Scaffolding: Scaffolding: Provides supportProvides support Extends the range of what a learner can do.Extends the range of what a learner can do. Allows the learner to accomplish tasks otherwise impossibleAllows the learner to accomplish tasks otherwise impossible Used only when neededUsed only when needed Example : Example : An example of scaffolding in the classroom setting could include a teacher first instructing her children on how to write a sentence using commas and conjunctions. As the week goes on, she has her students practice writing these sentences with peers, gives students feedback and eventually has the kids to complete this skill without her guidance. An example of scaffolding in the classroom setting could include a teacher first instructing her children on how to write a sentence using commas and conjunctions. As the week goes on, she has her students practice writing these sentences with peers, gives students feedback and eventually has the kids to complete this skill without her guidance.

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Vygotsky and Piaget PiagetVygotsky Both agree children are active learners who actively construct knowledge Thinking develops in recognisable stages which depend on natural maturation Development of thinking is dependent upon language and culture Role of teacher important but use of “more-expert other” not central Use of “more-expert other” seen as fundamental part of cognitive development Readiness is a central concept in education – children need to be ready to progress in their learning Children should be actively encouraged to move through ZPD – do not need to be ready but should be given opportunity to engage in problems which are beyond current level of ability but within ZPD

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Vygotsky and Piaget PiagetVygotsky Scaffolding not a key conceptScaffolding is a central concept Language reflects level of cognitive development Language helps to develop cognitive abilities. This theory was very influential in education but has need revising and underestimation of children’s abilities still a problem This theory is still very influential in education

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Implementation A clear application of sociocultural theory principles in second language classroom is obvious in the task-based approach. This approach emphasises the importance of social and collaborative aspects of learning. sociocultural theory focuses on how the learner accomplishes a task and how the interaction between learners can scaffold and assist in the second language acquisition process (Turuk, 2008). Recent technologic advances have affected the application of constructivist theory in practice. Innovative interactive computer software programs allow students to synthesize the course material through active learning. Despite some minor disadvantages, this use of technology allows interaction with others that would normally be inaccessible through distance- education and Web-based courses.

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Conclusion Sociocultural theory considers learning as a semiotic process where participation in socially-mediated activities is essential. The theory regards instruction as crucial to cognitive development in the classroom. Instruction should be geared to the ZPD that is beyond the learner’s actual development level. Social instruction actually produces new, elaborate, advanced psychological processes that are unavailable to the organism working in isolation