1917 Bath Riots

El Paso Disinfection station and Mexicans Waiting to be de-loused at the international bridge at the US Immigration Station

Side view of the El Paso disinfecting plant and yard of the US Immigration Station

Clothing being readied for steam de-lousing at the El Paso disinfection plant of the US Immigration Station

Women’s baths at the El Paso disinfecting plant of the US Immigration Station

1917 Bath Riots occurred in January 1917 at the Santa Fe Bridge between El Paso, Texas and Juárez, Mexico. The riots lasted from January 28 to January 30 and were sparked by new immigration policies at the El Paso–JuárezImmigration and Naturalization Service office, requiring Mexicans crossing the border to take de-lousing baths and be vaccinated. Reports of nude photography of women bathers and fear of potential fire from the kerosene baths led Carmelita Torres to refuse to submit to the procedure. Denied a refund of her transport fare, she began yelling at the officials and convinced other riders to join her. After three days, the discontent subsided, but the disinfections of Mexicans at the U.S. border continued for forty years.

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By 1914, Venustiano Carranza had been sworn into office as Mexico's head of state ending the main fighting of the Mexican Revolution. President Woodrow Wilson, tired of the fighting and more concerned with events unfolding in Europe and World War I, withdrew American forces from Mexico. Pancho Villa refused to give up the fight and continued to execute border skirmishes.[1] Between 1915 and 1917, typhus (which was sometimes reported as typhoid fever) spread from Mexico City to the provinces from Veracruz to Jalisco.[2] In September 1916, Carranza called for a constitutional convention to end the conflict and bring peace to Mexico.[3] The convention ended simultaneously with the end of the riots, on January 31, 1917,[4] and subsequently the new constitution was signed on February 5.[5]

During the same period, Thomas Calloway Lea, Jr. was elected as mayor of El Paso, Texas. Lea sent telegrams to U.S. Senators in Washington demanding a quarantine be put in place to stem the tide of "dirty lousey destitute Mexicans" who would spread typhus into El Paso.[6] Though the Public Health Service Officer for El Paso, Dr. B. J. Lloyd, admitted there was little danger and opposed a quarantine, he suggested opening de-lousing plants.[7] U.S. officials quickly adopted a policy of sanitizing Mexican immigrants at a disinfecting station in El Paso. The policy initially applied to all Mexicans entering the United States at El Paso,[8] but soon spread to the Laredo–Nuevo Laredo crossing, as well as all along the U.S. Mexico border.[9]

Men and women were separated, with any children accompanying the women, into separate buildings, where they were stripped of all clothing and valuables. Clothing and valuables were steamed, while items like shoes, hats or belts, which might be damaged by steam were exposed to cyanogen gas. Attendants examined the nude persons for lice. If lice were found, men's hair was clipped close to the head and the clippings were burned. Women's hair was doused in a mixture of vinegar and kerosene, wrapped in a towel, and left on the hair for at least 30 minutes. If re-inspection indicated all nits had not been removed, the process was repeated. Once attendants declared the lice test had been "passed", the naked people were gathered in a bathing area and sprayed with a liquid soap made of soap chips and kerosene oil.[8] After collecting their sanitized clothing and dressing, incomers were evaluated by a foreman, vaccinated and given a certificate that they had completed the procedure. From the disinfecting area, migrants then entered the Immigration and Naturalization Service building for processing.[10]

Around 7:30 a.m.[11] on January 28, 1917, the riot began when inspectors attempted to remove Mexican women from their trolley, which they were riding to work. Ordered to disembark and submit to the disinfection process, Carmelita Torres refused, having heard reports that nude women were being photographed while in the baths.[12] Reports had also circulated that bathers might be set on fire, as had happened the previous year when gasoline baths at the El Paso City Jail had resulted in the death of 28 inmates when a cigarette ignited bathers.[13] She requested permission to enter without submitting to bathing and was refused. She then demanded a refund of her fare and upon refusal of a refund convinced the other women on her cable car to protest. The women began shouting and hurling stones at health and immigration officials, sentries and civilians, who had gathered to watch the disturbance. The majority of the early protesters were young, domestic workers employed in homes in El Paso but as the crowd grew to several thousand a mixture of people became involved. Four trolley's which had made early morning runs to collect workers on the Juárez side were seized and did not return to the El Paso side until mid-afternoon.[12]

Around 10 o'clock, General Andrés G. García drove to the center of the bridge to try to quiet the mob and was only partially successful, as the mob tried to prevent his car from leaving the Mexican side. By the afternoon, when it was clear that those who had entered the baths were not being harmed, the crowds were finally dispersed by mounted soldiers on each side of the border.[12] One cable car motorman and a mail coach driver were reported to have been beaten by rioters and several media movie makers were attacked.[14] Despite rumors that someone had been shot, Mexican authorities denied the event and reported that no serious injuries resulted.[15]

On the 29th rioting continued, but this time, the majority of rioters were men. Newspapers reported that the men were taking advantage of the bath disturbance to protest the Carranza regime and voice support for his rival Pancho Villa. Juárez Police Chief Maximo Torres ordered all rioters arrested and the Mexican cavalry dispersed the rioters from the bridge.[16] Business owners and households who were without laborers consulted with the Chamber of Commerce to resolve the issues promptly as most workers refused to come to work. Officials clarified that those who were not infected could be passed without having to bathe and that certificates were valid for a week.[17]

By January 30, precautionary measures taken by authorities on both sides of the border had quelled the rioting.[18] Two men and one woman were arrested at the American side of the bridge for assaulting a customs officer and an infantryman, but no further violence was reported.[19] Policemen from Juárez monitored the southern end of the bridge crossing, a Mexican health inspector Andrés García was present to maintain respectful treatment at the disinfection plant, and street car service between the two cities was suspended.[18] Notices had been posted in Juárez to advise that the inspectors in El Paso would accept health certificates issued by Mexican health inspectors.[20]

Though hailed by some as the "Latina Rosa Parks", Carmelita Torres was mostly forgotten and her actions had little lasting effect.[7] The Immigration Act of 1917 passed just days after the riot and imposed barriers for Mexican laborers entering the United States. For the first time in history, workers were required to pass literacy tests, pay a head tax and were forbidden to perform contract labor.[21] Business owners in the Southwest pressed Congress to exempt Mexican workers from contract labor restrictions and head taxes. After the U.S. entered World War I businessmen were able to lift the 1917 Immigration terms for Mexican workers and the exemption lasted until 1921.[22] However, the bathing and fumigations, which later used insecticides and DDT continued into the 1950s.[7] A similar riot the following year was averted when prompt action by Mexican authorities intervened with American authorities. Reports of a typhus death in Juárez were denied by Mexicans and the port and trolleys were temporarily closed to prevent altercations.[23]

In 2006, David Dorado Romo published Ringside Seat to a Revolution which brought the story back to the attention of the public and Chicano scholars.[7][24]National Public Radio featured a story on the riots in 2006.[7]

1.
El Paso, Texas
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El Paso is the seat of El Paso County, Texas, United States. The city is situated in the far corner of the U. S. state of Texas. El Paso stands on the Rio Grande river across the Mexico–United States border from Ciudad Juárez, the region of over 2.9 million people constitutes the largest bilingual and binational work force in the Western Hemisphere. The city hosts the annual Sun Bowl college football post-season game, El Paso has a strong federal and military presence. William Beaumont Army Medical Center, Biggs Army Airfield, and Fort Bliss call the city home, Fort Bliss is one of the largest military complexes of the United States Army and the largest training area in the United States. Also headquartered in El Paso are the DEA domestic field division 7, El Paso Intelligence Center, Joint Task Force North, Border Patrol El Paso Sector, and U. S. In 2010, El Paso received an All-America City Award, El Paso has been ranked the safest large city in the U. S. for four consecutive years and has ranked in the top three since 1997. As of July 1,2015, the estimate for the city from the U. S. Census was 681,124. Its U. S. metropolitan area covers all of El Paso and Hudspeth counties in Texas, the El Paso MSA forms part of the larger El Paso–Las Cruces CSA, with a population of 1,053,267. The El Paso region has had human settlement for thousands of years, the evidence suggests 10,000 to 12,000 years of human habitation. The earliest known cultures in the region were maize farmers, when the Spanish arrived, the Manso, Suma, and Jumano tribes populated the area. These were subsequently incorporated into the Mestizo culture, along with immigrants from central Mexico, captives from Comanchería, the Mescalero Apache were also present. El Paso del Norte was founded on the bank of the Río Bravo del Norte. El Paso remained the largest settlement in New Mexico until its cession to the U. S. in 1848, the Texas Revolution was generally not felt in the region, as the American population was small, not being more than 10% of the population. However, the region was claimed by Texas as part of the treaty signed with Mexico, during this interregnum, 1836–1848, Americans nonetheless continued to settle the region. The present Texas–New Mexico boundary placing El Paso on the Texas side was drawn in the Compromise of 1850, El Paso County was established in March 1850, with San Elizario as the first county seat. The United States Senate fixed a boundary between Texas and New Mexico at the 32nd parallel, thus largely ignoring history and topography, a military post called The Post opposite El Paso was established in 1854. Further west, a settlement on Coons Rancho called Franklin became the nucleus of the future El Paso, a year later, pioneer Anson Mills completed his plan of the town, calling it El Paso

2.
Immigration and Naturalization Service
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The United States Immigration and Naturalization Service was an agency of the U. S. Department of Justice from 1933 to 2003. Referred to by some as former INS and by others as legacy INS, the agency ceased to exist under that name on March 1,2003, prior to 1933, there were separate offices administering immigration and naturalization matters. The INS was established on June 10,1933, merging these previously separate areas of administration, reflecting changing governmental concerns, immigration was transferred to the purview of the United States Department of Commerce and Labor after 1903 and the Department of Labor after 1913. In 1940, with increasing concern about security, immigration and naturalization was organized under the authority of the Department of Justice. S. The investigative and enforcement functions of the INS were combined with the U. S. Customs investigators to create U. S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. The border functions of the INS, which included the Border Patrol and INS Inspectors, were combined with U. S. Customs Inspectors to create U. S. Customs, the INS also adjudicated applications for permanent residency, change of status, naturalization, and similar matters. At the head of the INS was an appointed by the President who reported to the Attorney General in the Department of Justice. The INS worked closely with the United Nations, the Department of State, the INS was a very large and complex organization that had four main divisions—Programs, Field Operations, Policy and Planning, and Management—that were responsible for operations and management. The operational functions of the INS included the Programs and Field Operations divisions, the Field Operations division was responsible for overseeing INS many offices operating throughout the country and the world. The Field Operations division implemented policies and handled tasks for its three offices, which in turn oversaw 33 districts and 21 border areas throughout the country. Internationally, the Field Operations division oversaw the Headquarters Office of International Affairs which in turn oversaw 16 offices outside the country, managerial functions of the INS included the Policy and Planning and Management divisions. The Office of Policy and Planning coordinated all information for the INS and communicated with other cooperating government agencies, the office was divided into three areas, the Policy Division, the Planning Division, and the Evaluation and Research Center. These duties were handled by the offices of Information Resources Management, Finance, Human Resources and Administration, and Equal Employment Opportunity. Shortly after the U. S. Civil War, some started to pass their own immigration laws. The Immigration Act of 1891 established an Office of the Superintendent of Immigration within the Treasury Department and this office was responsible for admitting, rejecting, and processing all immigrants seeking admission to the United States and for implementing national immigration policy. Immigrant Inspectors, as they were called then, were stationed at major U. S. ports of entry collecting manifests of arriving passengers and its largest station was located on Ellis Island in New York harbor. Among other things, a tax of fifty cents was collected on each immigrant. This made immigration more a matter of commerce than revenue. S, each year, the U. S. State Department issued a limited number of visas, only those immigrants who could present valid visas were permitted entry

3.
Venustiano Carranza
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He secured power in Mexico, serving as head of state 1915-1917. With the promulgation of a new revolutionary Mexican Constitution of 1917, he was elected president, known as the Primer Jefe or First Chief of the Constitutionalists, Carranza was a shrewd politician rather than a military man. Maderos challenge to the Díaz regime in the 1910 elections and Maderos Plan de San Luis Potosí to nullify the elections and he was appointed governor of his home state of Coahuila by Madero. When Madero was murdered in February 1913, Carranza drew up the Plan de Guadalupe, Carranza became the leader of northern forces opposed to Huerta. He went on to lead the Constitutionalist faction to victory and become president of Mexico and he was far more conservative than either Southern peasant leader Emiliano Zapata or Northern revolutionary general Pancho Villa. Once firmly in power in Mexico, Carranza sought to eliminate his political rivals, Carranza won recognition from the United States, but took strongly nationalist positions. During his administration, the current constitution of Mexico was drafted and adopted, in the 1920 election, in which he could not succeed himself, he attempted to impose a virtually unknown, civilian politician, Ignacio Bonillas, as president of Mexico. Northern generals, who held power, rose up against Carranza under the Plan of Agua Prieta. Carranza was born in the town of Cuatro Ciénegas, in the state of Coahuila, in 1859, to an upper middle-class cattle-ranching family. His father, Jesús Carranza Neira, had been a rancher and mule driver until the time of the Reform War, in which he fought against the Indians, during the Franco-Mexican War, Jesús Carranza became a colonel and was Benito Juárezs main contact in Coahuila. There was a personal connection between the two, with Carranza lending Juárez money while Juárez was in exile. Following the ouster of the French, Juárez rewarded Carranza with land, because of his familys wealth, Venustiano, the eleventh of fifteen children, was able to attend excellent schools in Saltillo and Mexico City. Venustiano studied at the Ateneo Fuente, a famous Liberal school in Saltillo, in 1874, he went to the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria in Mexico City, where he had aspirations to be a doctor. Díazs troops defeated Lerdos, and Díaz and his armies marched into Mexico City in triumph, upon completion of his studies, Carranza returned to Coahuila to raise cattle, since he had an eye disease that prevented him becoming a doctor. He married Virginia Salinas in 1882, and the couple had two daughters, the Carranzas had high ambitions for Venustiano, who would use the family money to advance his political career. In 1887, at age 28, he became president of Cuatro Ciénegas. Carranza remained a Liberal who idolized Benito Juárez, at the same time, he grew disillusioned with the increasingly authoritarian character of the rule of Porfirio Díaz during this period. In 1893,300 Coahuila ranchers organized a resistance to oppose the re-election of Porfirio Díazs supporter José María Garza Galán as Governor of Coahuila

4.
Mexican Revolution
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The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle c. 1910–1920 that radically transformed Mexican culture and government. Although recent research has focused on local and regional aspects of the Revolution and its outbreak in 1910 resulted from the failure of the 35-year long regime of Porfirio Díaz to find a managed solution to the presidential succession. This meant there was a crisis among competing elites and the opportunity for agrarian insurrection. Madero challenged Díaz in 1910 presidential election, and following the rigged results, armed conflict ousted Díaz from power and a new election was held in 1911, bringing Madero to the presidency. The origins of the conflict were broadly based in opposition to the Díaz regime, with the 1910 election, elements of the Mexican elite hostile to Díaz, led by Madero, expanded to the middle class, the peasantry in some regions, and organized labor. In October 1911, Madero was overwhelmingly elected in a free, Huerta remained in power from February 1913 until July 1914, when he was forced out by a coalition of different regional revolutionary forces. Then the revolutionaries attempt to come to a political agreement following Huertas ouster failed, Zapata was assassinated in 1919, by agents of President Carranza. The armed conflict lasted for the part of a decade, until around 1920. Revolutionary forces unified against Huertas reactionary regime defeated the Federal forces, although the conflict was primarily a civil war, foreign powers that had important economic and strategic interests in Mexico figured in the outcome of Mexicos power struggles. The United States played a significant role. Out of Mexicos population of 15 million, the losses were high, perhaps 1.5 million people died, nearly 200,000 refugees fled abroad, especially to the United States. Politically, the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 is seen by scholars as the end point of the armed conflict. The period 1920–1940 is often considered to be a phase of the Revolution, during which power was consolidated, after the presidency of his ally, General Manuel González, Díaz ran for the presidency again and legally remained in office until 1911. The constitution had been amended to allow presidential re-election, Díazs re-election was ironic, since he had challenged Benito Juárez on the platform no re-election. During the Porfiriato there were regular elections although there were contentious irregularities, the contested 1910 election, was a key political event that led to the Mexican Revolution. As Díaz aged, the question of succession became increasingly important. In 1906, the office of president was revived, with Díaz choosing his close ally Ramón Corral from among his Cientifico advisers to serve in the post. By the 1910 election, the Díaz regime had become highly authoritarian and he had been a national hero, opposing the French Intervention in the 1860s and distinguishing himself in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862

5.
Woodrow Wilson
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Thomas Woodrow Wilson was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921. Born in Staunton, Virginia, he spent his years in Augusta, Georgia and Columbia. In 1910, he was the New Jersey Democratic Partys gubernatorial candidate and was elected the 34th Governor of New Jersey, while in office, Wilson reintroduced the spoken State of the Union, which had been out of use since 1801. Leading the Congress that was now in Democratic hands, he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933. The Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, through passage of the Adamson Act that imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads, he averted a railroad strike and an ensuing economic crisis. Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality, Wilson faced former New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes in the presidential election of 1916. By a narrow margin, he became the first Democrat since Andrew Jackson elected to two consecutive terms, Wilsons second term was dominated by American entry into World War I. In April 1917, when Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and sent the Zimmermann Telegram, the United States conducted military operations alongside the Allies, although without a formal alliance. During the war, Wilson focused on diplomacy and financial considerations, leaving military strategy to the generals, loaning billions of dollars to Britain, France, and other Allies, the United States aided their finance of the war effort. On the home front, he raised taxes, borrowing billions of dollars through the publics purchase of Liberty Bonds. In his 1915 State of the Union Address, Wilson asked Congress for what became the Espionage Act of 1917, the crackdown was intensified by his Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to include expulsion of non-citizen radicals during the First Red Scare of 1919–1920. Wilson staffed his government with Southern Democrats who implemented racial segregation at the Treasury, Navy and he gave department heads greater autonomy in their management. Following his return from Europe, Wilson embarked on a tour in 1919 to campaign for the treaty. The treaty was met with concern by Senate Republicans, and Wilson rejected a compromise effort led by Henry Cabot Lodge. Due to his stroke, Wilson secluded himself in the White House, disability having diminished his power, forming a strategy for re-election, Wilson deadlocked the 1920 Democratic National Convention, but his bid for a third-term nomination was overlooked. Wilson was a devoted Presbyterian and Georgist, and he infused his views of morality into his domestic and he appointed several well known radically progressive single taxers to prominent positions in his administration. His ideology of internationalism is now referred to as Wilsonian, an activist foreign policy calling on the nation to promote global democracy and he was the third of four children of Joseph Ruggles Wilson and Jessie Janet Woodrow. Wilsons paternal grandparents immigrated to the United States from Strabane, County Tyrone, Ireland and his mother was born in Carlisle, England, the daughter of Rev. Dr. Thomas Woodrow from Paisley, Scotland, and Marion Williamson from Glasgow

6.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany

7.
Pancho Villa
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Francisco Pancho Villa was a Mexican Revolutionary general and one of the most prominent figures of the Mexican Revolution. As commander of the División del Norte in the Constitutionalist Army, given the areas size and mineral wealth, it provided him with extensive resources. Villa was also provisional Governor of Chihuahua in 1913 and 1914, Villa can be credited with decisive military victories leading to the ousting of Victoriano Huerta from the presidency in July 1914. Villa then fought his erstwhile leader in the coalition against Huerta, Villa was in alliance with southern revolutionary Emiliano Zapata, who remained fighting in his own region of Morelos. The two revolutionary generals briefly came together to take Mexico City after Carranzas forces retreated from it, later, Villas heretofore undefeated División del Norte engaged the military forces of Carranza under Carrancista general Álvaro Obregón and was defeated in the 1915 Battle of Celaya. Villa was again defeated by Carranza,1 November 1915, at the Second Battle of Agua Prieta 1 November 1915, after which Villas army collapsed as a significant military force. Villa subsequently led a hit and run raid against the small U. S. -Mexican border town in the Battle of Columbus 9 March 1916, the U. S. government sent U. S. Army General John J. In 1923, as elections approached, he re-involved himself in Mexican politics. Shortly thereafter he was assassinated, most likely on the orders of Obregón, after his death, he was excluded from the pantheon of revolutionary heroes until the Sonoran generals Obregón and Calles, whom he battled during the Revolution, were gone from the political stage. Villas exclusion from the narrative of the Revolution might have contributed to his continued posthumous popular acclaim. He was celebrated during the Revolution and long afterward by corridos, movies about his life, in 1976, his remains were reburied in the Monument to the Revolution in Mexico City in a huge public ceremony not attended by his widow Luz Corral. Villa told a number of conflicting stories about his early life, according to most sources, he was born on 5 June 1878, and named José Doroteo Arango Arámbula at birth. His father was a sharecropper named Agustín Arango, and his mother was Micaela Arámbula and he grew up at the Rancho de la Coyotada, one of the largest haciendas in the state of Durango. The familys residence now houses the Casa de Pancho Villa historic museum in San Juan del Rio, Doroteo later claimed to be the son of the bandit Agustín Villa, but according to at least one scholar, the identity of his real father is still unknown. He wasthe oldest of five children, as a child, he received some education from a local church-run school, but was not proficient in more than basic literacy. He quit school to help his mother after his father died and he became a bandit at some point early on, but also worked as a sharecropper, muleskinner, butcher, bricklayer, and foreman for a U. S. railway company. However, the veracity of this story is questionable, eventually, he became a member of a bandit band headed by Ignacio Parra, one of the most famous bandits in Durango at the time. As a bandit, he went by the name Arango, in 1902, the rurales, the crack rural police force of President Porfirio Díaz, arrested Pancho for stealing mules and for assault

8.
Mexico City
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Mexico City, or City of Mexico, is the capital and most populous city of Mexico. As an alpha global city, Mexico City is one of the most important financial centers in the Americas and it is located in the Valley of Mexico, a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 metres. The city consists of sixteen municipalities, the 2009 estimated population for the city proper was approximately 8.84 million people, with a land area of 1,485 square kilometres. The Greater Mexico City has a domestic product of US$411 billion in 2011. The city was responsible for generating 15. 8% of Mexicos Gross Domestic Product, as a stand-alone country, in 2013, Mexico City would be the fifth-largest economy in Latin America—five times as large as Costa Ricas and about the same size as Perus. Mexico’s capital is both the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Amerindians, the other being Quito. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán, Mexico City served as the political, administrative and financial center of a major part of the Spanish colonial empire. After independence from Spain was achieved, the district was created in 1824. Ever since, the left-wing Party of the Democratic Revolution has controlled both of them, in recent years, the local government has passed a wave of liberal policies, such as abortion on request, a limited form of euthanasia, no-fault divorce, and same-sex marriage. On January 29,2016, it ceased to be called the Federal District and is now in transition to become the countrys 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state. Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution, however, as the seat of the powers of the federation, it can never become a state, the city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325. According to legend, the Mexicas principal god, Huitzilopochtli indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its beak. Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city-states around Lake Texcoco, when the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica, touching both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. After landing in Veracruz, Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the native peoples. Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest, hoping to rule through him, the Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected a new king, Cuitláhuac, but he soon died, the next king was Cuauhtémoc. Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521, for three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island, the Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during the final siege of the conquest. Cortés first settled in Coyoacán, but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order and he did not establish a territory under his own personal rule, but remained loyal to the Spanish crown

9.
Veracruz
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It is divided in 212 municipalities and its capital city is Xalapa-Enríquez. This state is located in Eastern Mexico and it is bordered by the states of Tamaulipas to the north, San Luis Potosí and Hidalgo to the west, Puebla to the southwest, Oaxaca and Chiapas to the south, and Tabasco to the southeast. On its east, Veracruz has a significant share of the coastline of the Gulf of Mexico, the state is noted for its mixed ethnic and indigenous populations. Its cuisine reflects the cultural influences that have come through the state because of the importance of the port of Veracruz. In addition to the city, the states largest cities include Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, Córdoba, Minatitlán, Poza Rica, Boca Del Río. The full name of the state is Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave, Veracruz was named after the city of Veracruz, which was originally called the Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. The suffix is in honor of Ignacio de la Llave y Segura Zevallos, the state’s seal was authorized by the state legislature in 1954, adapting the one used for the port of Veracruz and created by the Spanish in the early 16th century. The state is a strip of land wedged between the Sierra Madre Oriental to the west and the Gulf of Mexico to the east. Its total area is 78,815 km2, accounting for about 3. 7% of Mexico’s total territory and it stretches about 650 km north to south, but its width varies from between 212 km to 36 km, with an average of about 100 km in width. Veracruz shares common borders with the states of Tamaulipas, Oaxaca and Chiapas, Tabasco, and Puebla, Hidalgo, Veracruz has 690 km of coastline with the Gulf of Mexico. The topography changes drastically, rising from the coastal plains to the highlands of the eastern Sierra Madre. Elevation varies from sea level to the Pico de Orizaba, Mexico’s highest peak at 5,636 m above sea level, the coast consists of low sandy strips interspersed with tidewater streams and lagoons. Most of the coastline is narrow and sandy with unstable dunes, small shifting lagoons. The mountains are of the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, major peaks include Pico de Orizaba, Cofre de Perote, Cerro de Tecomates, Cerro del Vigía Alta and Cerro de 3 Tortas. The Pico de Orizaba is covered in snow year round, the Cofre de Perote is covered in winter, major valleys include the Acultzingo, Córdoba, Maltrata, Orizaba and San Andrés. All of the rivers and streams cross the state begin in the Sierra Madre Oriental or in the Central Mesa. The largest in terms of discharge are the Pánuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan, Coazocoalcos. The Panuco, Tuxpan, Papaloapan and Coatzacoalcos are navigable, two of Mexicos most polluted rivers, the Coatzacoalcos and the Río Blanco are located in the state

10.
Jalisco
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Jalisco, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Jalisco, is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is located in Western Mexico and divided into 125 municipalities, Jalisco is one of the most important states in Mexico because of its natural resources as well as its history. Many of the traits of Mexican culture, particularly outside Mexico City, are originally from Jalisco, such as mariachi, ranchera music, birria, tequila, jaripeo. Hence, the motto, Jalisco es México. Economically, it is ranked third in the country, with industries centered in the Guadalajara metropolitan area, the state is home to two significant indigenous populations, the Huichols and the Nahuas. There is also a significant foreign population, mostly retirees from the United States and Canada, living in the Lake Chapala, with a total area of 78,599 square kilometers, Jalisco is the seventh-largest state in Mexico, accounting for 4. 1% of the countrys territory. Jalisco is made up of a terrain that includes forests, beaches, plains. Altitudes in the state vary from 0 to 4,300 meters above sea level, over 52% of the bird species found in Mexico live in the state, with 525, 40% of Mexicos mammals with 173 and 18% of its reptile species. There are also 7,500 species of veined plants, one reason for its biodiversity is that is lies in the transition area between the temperate north and tropical south. Its five natural regions are, Northwestern Plains and Sierras, Sierra Madre Occidental, Central Plateau, Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, which covers most of the state, and it has an average altitude of 1,550 meters MASL, but ranges from 0–4,300 m. Most of the territory is semi-flat between 600–2,050 m, followed by rugged terrain of between 900–4,300 m and a percentage of flat lands between 0–1,750 m. Jalisco has several river basins with the most notable being that of the Lerma/Santiago River, the Lerma River enters extends from the State of Mexico and empties into Lake Chapala on the east side. On the west, water flows out in the Santiago River, tributaries to the Santiago River include the Zula, the Verde River, the Juchipila and the Bolaños. About three quarters of the population lives near this river system. In the southwest of the state, there are a number of rivers that empty directly into the Pacific Ocean. The most important of these is the Ameca, with its one main tributary and this river forms the state’s border with Nayarit and empties into the Ipala Bay. The Tomatlán, San Nicolás, Purificación, Marabasco-Minatitlán, Ayuquila, Tuxcacuesco, Armería and Tuxpan rivers flow almost perpendicular to the Pacific Ocean, another river of this group is the Cihuatlán River, which forms the boundary between Jalisco and Colima emptying into the Barra de Navidad Bay. The southeastern corner belongs to the Balsas River basin and this includes the Ayuqila and Tuxcacuesco, which join to form the Armería and the Tuxpan

11.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures

12.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing

13.
Quarantine
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A quarantine is used to separate and restrict the movement of persons, it is a state of enforced isolation. This is often used in connection to disease and illness, such as those who may possibly have been exposed to a communicable disease. The term is often used to mean medical isolation, which is to separate ill persons who have a communicable disease from those who are healthy. Quarantine can be applied to humans, but also to animals of various kinds, for example, an article entitled Daily News workers quarantined describes a brief quarantine that lasted until people could be showered in a decontamination tent. The February/March 2003 issue of HazMat Magazine suggests that people be locked in a room until proper decon could be performed, but Capt. Chmiel said local health authorities have certain powers to quarantine people. It can also be used to limit exposure, as well as eliminate a vector, the first astronauts to visit the Moon were quarantined upon their return at the specially built Lunar Receiving Laboratory. Infected people were separated to prevent spread of disease among the ancient Israelites under the Mosaic Law, the word quarantine originates from the Venetian dialect form of the Italian quaranta giorni, meaning forty days. This is due to the 40-day isolation of ships and people entering the city of Dubrovnik in Croatia. This was practiced as a measure of disease related to the Black Death. Between 1348 and 1359, the Black Death wiped out an estimated 30% of Europes population, later, isolation was prolonged to 40 days and was called quarantine. Other diseases lent themselves to the practice of quarantine before and after the devastation of the plague, Venice took the lead in measures to check the spread of plague, having appointed three guardians of public health in the first years of the Black Death. The next record of preventive measures comes from Reggio in Modena in 1374, the first lazaret was founded by Venice in 1403, on a small island adjoining the city. In 1467, Genoa followed the example of Venice, and in 1476 the old hospital of Marseille was converted into a plague hospital. The great lazaret of Marseilles, perhaps the most complete of its kind, was founded in 1526 on the island of Pomègues, the practice at all the Mediterranean lazarets was not different from the English procedure in the Levantine and North African trade. On the approach of cholera in 1831 some new lazarets were set up at ports, notably a very extensive establishment near Bordeaux. Since 1852 several conferences were held involving European powers, with a view to uniform action in keeping out infection from the East, all but that of 1897 were concerned with cholera. The principal countries which retained the old system at the time were Spain, Portugal, Turkey, Greece, the aim of each international sanitary convention had been to bind the governments to a uniform minimum of preventive action, with further restrictions permissible to individual countries. The minimum specified by international conventions was very nearly the same as the British practice, an additional convention was signed in Paris on 3 December 1903

14.
United States Public Health Service
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The Office of the Surgeon General was created in 1871. The PHS comprises all Agency Divisions of Health and Human Services, the Assistant Secretary for Health oversees the PHS and the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps. Members of the Commissioned Corps often serve on the frontlines in the fight against disease, as one of the United States seven uniformed services, the PHS Commissioned Corps fills public health leadership and service roles within federal government agencies and programs. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps is to protect, promote, and advance the health and safety of the United States. The origins of the Public Health Service can be traced to the passage, by the 5th Congress of the United States, of An Act for the Relief of Sick and this act created Marine Hospitals to care for sick seamen. At the time this act was passed the east coast was the shore with harbors. As the boundaries of the United States expanded, and harbors were built on other coasts, in the 1830s and 1840s they were built along inland waterways, the Great Lakes, and the Gulf of Mexico. After the acquisition of the Oregon Territory and California hospitals were built in 1850s at Pacific Coast harbors, funding for the hospitals was provided by a mandatory tax of about 1% of the wages of all maritime sailors. A reorganization in 1870 converted the loose network of locally controlled hospitals into a centrally controlled Marine Hospital Service, with its headquarters in Washington. The position of Supervising Surgeon was created to administer the Service and he moved quickly to reform the system and adopted a military model for his medical staff, putting his physicians in uniforms, and instituting examinations for applicants. Woodworth created a cadre of mobile, career service physicians, who could be assigned as needed to the various Marine Hospitals, the commissioned officer corps was established by legislation in 1889, and signed by 22nd/24th President Grover Cleveland. It is now known as the Commissioned Corps of the U. S, starting in the mid-14th century, ships entering harbors were quarantined when any of the crew was sick. This practice was normal procedure at United States harbors, with originally a function of the individual states. The National Quarantine Act of 1878 vested quarantine authority to the Marine Hospital Service, and the National Board of Health. The National Board was not reauthorized by Congress in 1883 and its powers reverted to the Marine Hospital Service, over the next half a century, the Marine Hospital Service increasingly took over quarantine functions from individual state authorities. As immigration increased dramatically in the late 19th Century, the Federal Government also took over the processing of immigrants from the individual states, the Marine Hospital Service was assigned the responsibility for the medical inspection of arriving immigrants at sites such as Ellis Island in New York Harbor. Commissioned officers played a role in fulfilling the Services commitment to prevent disease from entering the country. Because of the broadening responsibilities of the Service, its name was changed in 1902 to the Public Health, the Service continued to expand its public health activities as the Nation entered the 20th Century, with the PHSs Commissioned Corps leading the way

15.
Sanitation
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These hazards may be physical, microbiological, biological or chemical agents of disease. Wastes that can cause problems include human and animal excreta, solid wastes, domestic wastewater, industrial wastes. Hygienic means of prevention may involve engineering solutions, simple technologies, or even simply by behavior changes in personal hygiene practices, providing sanitation to people requires a systems approach, rather than only focusing on the toilet or wastewater treatment plant itself. The experience of the user, excreta and wastewater collection methods, transportation or conveyance of waste, treatment, the main objective of a sanitation system is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment and breaking the cycle of disease. The World Health Organization defines the term sanitation as follows, Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the disposal of human urine. The word sanitation also refers to the maintenance of conditions, through services such as garbage collection. There are some variations on the definition of sanitation in use. For example, for many organisations, hygiene promotion is seen as an part of sanitation. Despite the fact that sanitation includes wastewater treatment, the two terms are often use side by side as sanitation and wastewater management, Sanitation should be regarded with a systems approach in mind which includes collection/containment, conveyance/transport, treatment, disposal or reuse. Effective sanitation systems provide barriers between excreta and humans in such a way as to break the transmission cycle. This aspect is visualised with the F-diagram where all routes of fecal-oral disease transmission begin with the letter F, feces, fingers, flies, fields, fluids. Container-based sanitation is usually provided as a service involving provision of types of portable toilets. In most cases, CBS is based on the use of urine-diverting dry toilets, the term dry sanitation is somewhat misleading as sanitation includes hand-washing and can never be dry. A more precise term would be dry excreta management, when people speak of dry sanitation they usually mean sanitation systems with dry toilets with urine diversion, in particular the urine-diverting dry toilet. Put in other words, Ecosan systems safely recycle excreta resources to crop production in such a way that the use of resources is minimised. Ecosan is also called resource-oriented sanitation, environmental sanitation encompasses the control of environmental factors that are connected to disease transmission. Subsets of this category are solid waste management, water and wastewater treatment, industrial waste treatment and noise, improved sanitation and unimproved sanitation refers to the management of human feces at the household level. This terminology is the used to describe the target of the Millennium Development Goal on sanitation, by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply

16.
Louse
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Louse is the common name for members of the order Phthiraptera, which contains nearly 5,000 species of wingless insect. Lice are obligate parasites, living externally on warm-blooded hosts which include species of bird and mammal, except for monotremes, pangolins, bats. Lice are vectors of diseases such as typhus, chewing lice live among the hairs or feathers of their host and feed on skin and debris, while sucking lice pierce the hosts skin and feed on blood and other secretions. They usually spend their life on a single host, cementing their eggs. The eggs hatch into nymphs, which three times before becoming fully grown, a process that takes about four weeks. Humans host three species of louse, the louse, the body louse and the pubic louse. The body louse has the smallest genome of any known insect, Lice were ubiquitous in human society until at least the Middle Ages. They appear in folktales, songs such as The Kilkenny Louse House and they commonly feature in the psychiatric disorder delusional parasitosis. A louse was one of the subjects of microscopy, appearing in Robert Hookes 1667 book. Humans host three different kinds of lice, head lice, body lice, and pubic lice, Lice infestations can be controlled with lice combs, and medicated shampoos or washes. Sucking lice are wingless insects ranging from 0.5 to 5 mm in length. They have narrow heads and oval, flattened bodies and they have no ocelli, and their compound eyes are reduced in size or absent. Their antennae are short with three to five segments, and their parts, which are retractable into their head, are adapted for piercing and sucking. There is a pump at the start of the gut. The mouthparts consist of a proboscis which is toothed, and a set of stylets arranged in a cylinder inside the proboscis, contaiing a salivary canal and a food canal. The thoracic segments are fused, the segments are separate. Chewing lice are also flattened and can be larger than sucking lice. They are similar to sucking lice in form but the head is wider than the thorax, there are no ocelli and the mouthparts are adapted for chewing

17.
Vinegar
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Vinegar is a liquid consisting of about 5–20% acetic acid, water, and other trace chemicals, which may include flavorings. The acetic acid is produced by the fermentation of ethanol by acetic acid bacteria, Vinegar is now mainly used as a cooking ingredient, or in pickling. As the most easily manufactured mild acid, it has historically had a variety of industrial, medical. Commercial vinegar is produced either by a fast or a slow fermentation processes, in general, slow methods are used in traditional vinegars where fermentation proceeds slowly over the course of a few months or up to a year. The longer fermentation period allows for the accumulation of a non-toxic slime composed of acetic acid bacteria, fast methods add mother of vinegar to the source liquid before adding air to oxygenate and promote the fastest fermentation. In fast production processes, vinegar may be produced between 20 hours to three days, the conversion of ethanol and oxygen to acetic acid takes place by the following reaction, CH3CH2OH + O2 → CH3COOH + H2O Vinegar has been made and used by people for thousands of years. Traces of it have been found in Egyptian urns from around 3000 BC, apple cider vinegar is made from cider or apple must, and has a brownish-gold color. It is sometimes sold unfiltered and unpasteurized with the mother of vinegar present and it can be diluted with fruit juice or water or sweetened for consumption. Balsamic vinegar is an aged vinegar produced in the Modena. The original product—Traditional Balsamic Vinegar—is made from the juice, or must. It is very dark brown, rich, sweet, and complex, with the finest grades being aged in casks made variously of oak, mulberry, chestnut, cherry, juniper. Regardless of how it is produced, balsamic vinegar must be made from a grape product, a high acidity level is somewhat hidden by the sweetness of the other ingredients, making it very mellow. It ranges from yellow to golden brown in color, and has a mellow flavor, similar in some respects to rice vinegar. Because it contains no sugar, it is no sweeter than any other vinegar. In the Philippines, it often is labeled as sukang maasim, cane vinegars from Ilocos are made in two different ways. One way is to simply place sugar cane juice in large jars, the other way is through fermentation to produce a local wine known as basi. Low-quality basi is then allowed to undergo acetic acid fermentation that converts alcohol into acetic acid, a white variation has become quite popular in Brazil in recent years, where it is the cheapest type of vinegar sold. It is now common for other types of vinegar to be mixed with cane vinegar to lower the cost

18.
Kerosene
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Kerosene, also known as paraffin, lamp oil and coal oil, is a combustible hydrocarbon liquid which is derived from petroleum, widely used as a fuel in industry as well as households. Its name derives from Greek, κηρός meaning wax, and was registered as a trademark by Abraham Gesner in 1854 before evolving into a genericized trademark and it is sometimes spelled kerosine in scientific and industrial usage. Liquid paraffin is a more viscous and highly refined product which is used as a laxative, paraffin wax is a waxy solid extracted from petroleum. Kerosene is widely used to power jet engines of aircraft and some rocket engines, in parts of Asia, where the price of kerosene is subsidized, it fuels outboard motors on small fishing boats. World total kerosene consumption for all purposes is equivalent to about 1.2 million barrels per day, to prevent confusion between kerosene and the much more flammable and volatile gasoline, some jurisdictions regulate markings or colorings for containers used to store or dispense kerosene. For example, in the United States, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania requires that portable containers used at retail service stations be colored blue and it is miscible in petroleum solvents but immiscible in water. The American Society for Testing and Materials standard specification D-3699-78 recognizes two grades of kerosene, grades 1-K and 2-K, regardless of crude oil source or processing history, kerosenes major components are branched and straight chain alkanes and naphthenes, which normally account for at least 70% by volume. Aromatic hydrocarbons in this range, such as alkylbenzenes and alkylnaphthalenes. Olefins are usually not present at more than 5% by volume, the flash point of kerosene is between 37 and 65 °C, and its autoignition temperature is 220 °C. The pour point of kerosene depends on grade, with aviation fuel standardized at −47 °C. 1-K grade kerosene freezes around -40 °C, heat of combustion of kerosene is similar to that of diesel fuel, its lower heating value is 43.1 MJ/kg, and its higher heating value is 46.2 MJ/kg. In the United Kingdom, two grades of heating oil are defined, BS2869 Class C1 is the lightest grade used for lanterns, camping stoves, wick heaters, and mixed with gasoline in some vintage combustion engines as a substitute for tractor vaporising oil. BS2869 Class C2 is a heavier distillate, which is used as heating oil. Premium kerosene is sold in 5 or 20 liter containers from hardware, camping. Standard kerosene is usually dispensed in bulk by a tanker and is undyed, National and international standards define the properties of several grades of kerosene used for jet fuel. Flash point and freezing point properties are of particular interest for operation and safety, the process of distilling crude oil/petroleum into kerosene, as well as other hydrocarbon compounds, was first written about in the 9th century by the Persian scholar Rāzi. In his Kitab al-Asrar, the physician and chemist Razi described two methods for the production of kerosene, termed naft abyad, using an apparatus called an alembic, one method used clay as an absorbent, whereas the other method used ammonium chloride. The distillation process was repeated until all most of the volatile hydrocarbon fractions had been removed, Kerosene was also produced during the same period from oil shale and bitumen by heating the rock to extract the oil, which was then distilled

19.
Cable car (railway)
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A cable car is a type of cable transportation used for mass transit where rail cars are hauled by a continuously moving cable running at a constant speed. Individual cars stop and start by releasing and gripping this cable as required, the first cable-operated railway, employing a moving rope that could be picked up or released by a grip on the cars was the Fawdon railway in 1826, a Colliery railway line. The London and Blackwall Railway, which opened for passengers in east London, England, the rope available at the time proved too susceptible to wear and the system was abandoned in favour of steam locomotives after eight years. In America, the first cable car installation in operation probably was the West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway in New York City, the cable technology used in this elevated railway involved collar-equipped cables and claw-equipped cars, and proved cumbersome. The line was closed and rebuilt, and reopened with steam locomotives, beauregard demonstrated a cable car at New Orleans and was issued U. S. Other cable cars to use grips were those of the Clay Street Hill Railroad, the building of this line was promoted by Andrew Smith Hallidie with design work by William Eppelsheimer, and it was first tested in 1873. The success of these grips ensured that this became the model for other cable car transit systems. In 1881 the Dunedin cable tramway system opened in Dunedin, New Zealand, both of these innovations were generally adopted by other cities, including San Francisco. In Australia the Melbourne cable tramway system operated from 1885 to 1940 and it was one of the most extensive in the world with 1200 trams and trailers operating over 15 routes with 103 km of track. Sydney also had a few cable tram routes, Cable cars rapidly spread to other cities, although the major attraction for most was the ability to displace horsecar systems rather than the ability to climb hills. Thus, for a period, economics worked in favour of cable cars even in relatively flat cities, for example, the Chicago City Railway, also designed by Eppelsheimer, opened in Chicago in 1882 and went on to become the largest and most profitable cable car system. As with many cities, the problem in flat Chicago was not one of grades and this caused a different approach to the combination of grip car and trailer. After 1896 the system was changed to one on which a car was added to each train to maneuver at the terminals, while en route. On 25 September 1883 a test of a cable car system was held by Liverpool United Tramways and Omnibus Company in Kirkdale and this would have been the first cable car system in Europe, but the company decided against implementing it. Instead the distinction went to the 1884 route from Archway to Highgate, north London, the installation was not reliable and was replaced by electric traction in 1909. Other cable car systems were implemented in Europe, though, among which was the Glasgow District Subway, the first underground cable car system, in 1896. For a while hybrid cable/electric systems operated, for example in Chicago where electric cars had to be pulled by grip cars through the loop area, due to the lack of trolley wires there. In the last decades of the 20th century cable traction in general has seen a revival as automatic people movers, used in resort areas, airports, huge hospital centers

20.
Fare
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A fare is the fee paid by a passenger for use of a public transport system, rail, bus, taxi, etc. In the case of air transport, the term airfare is often used, fare structure is the system set up to determine how much is to be paid by various passengers using a transit vehicle at any given time. A linked trip is a trip from the origin to the destination on the transit system, even if a passenger must make several transfers during a journey, the trip is counted as one linked trip on the system. The fare paid is a contribution to the costs of the transport system involved. The portion of operating costs covered by fares - the farebox recovery ratio - typically varies from 30%-60% in North America and Europe, the rules regarding how and when fares are to be paid and for how long they remain valid are many and varied. In the case of taxis and other vehicles for hire, payment is made at the end of the ride. Some systems use a hybrid of both, such as a system which requires prepayment of the minimum fare in advance. Some systems allow free transfers, that is to say that a single payment permits travel within a geographical zone or time period. Such an arrangement is helpful for people who need to transfer from one route to another in order to reach their destination, sometimes transfers are valid in one direction only, requiring a new fare to be paid for the return trip. Penalty fares are fares issued for passengers without tickets, standard fare is a term with similar meaning. This is currently a minimum of £20 or twice the fare for the journey made. In Canada, the Toronto Transit Commission charges $500 for people evading the $3 fare, a device used to collect fares and tickets on streetcars, trains and buses upon entry, replacing the need for a separate conductor. Nearly all major metropolitan transit agencies in the United States and Canada use a farebox to collect or validate fare payment, the first farebox was invented by Tom Loftin Johnson in 1880 and was used on streetcars built by the St. Louis Car Company. Early models would catch coins and then sort them once the fare was accepted or rung up, later models after World War II had a counting function that would allow the fares to be added together so that a total per shift could be maintained by the transit revenue department. Fareboxes did not change again until around 1984, when fares in many larger cities reached $1.00, in 2006, new fareboxes had the capability of accepting cash, credit, or smartcard transactions, and issuing day passes and transfers for riders

21.
Maid
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A maid, or housemaid or maidservant, is a female person employed in domestic service. Although now usually only in the most wealthy of households, in the Victorian era domestic service was the second largest category of employment in England and Wales. In the contemporary Western world, comparatively few households can afford live-in domestic help, Maids perform typical domestic chores such as cooking, ironing, washing, cleaning the house, grocery shopping, walking the family dog, and taking care of children. In many places in some countries, maids often take on the role of a nurse in taking care of the elderly. Many maids are required by their employers to wear a uniform, legislation in many countries makes certain living conditions, working hours, or minimum wages a requirement of domestic service. Nonetheless, the work of a maid has always been hard, involving a full day, the word maid itself is short for maiden, meaning virgin. Maids traditionally have a position in the hierarchy of the large households. House-maid or housemaid, a term for maids whose function was chiefly above stairs, and were usually a little older. Where a household included multiple House Maids they were often sub-divided as below, head house-maid, the senior house maid, reporting to the Housekeeper. Parlour maid, the parlour maids cleaned and tidied reception rooms and living areas by morning, and often served refreshments at afternoon tea and they tidied studies and libraries, and answered bells calling for service. Chamber maid, the chamber maids cleaned and maintained the bedrooms, ensured fires were lit in fireplaces, laundry maid, the laundry maids maintained bedding and towels. They also washed, dried, and ironed clothes for the whole household, under house parlour maid, the general deputy to the house parlour maid in a small establishment which had only two upstairs maids. Nursery maid, also a maid, but one who worked in the childrens nursery, maintaining fires, cleanliness. Reported to the Nanny rather than the Housekeeper, kitchen maid, a below stairs maid who reported to the Cook, and assisted in running the kitchens. Head kitchen maid, where multiple kitchen maids were employed, the kitchen maid was effectively a deputy to the cook. Under kitchen maid, where multiple kitchen maids were employed these were the staff who prepared vegetables, peeled potatoes, in more modest households a single maid-of-all-work or skivvy was often the only staff. It is possible this word originates from the Italian for slave, one of the most in-depth and enduring representations of the lives of several types of maid was seen in the 1970s television drama Upstairs, Downstairs, set in England between 1903 and 1936. Another representation of the lives of maids is seen nowadays in Downton Abbey, set in England between 1912 and 1926

22.
Motorman
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See Operation Motorman for the British Army operation in Northern Ireland A motorman is the title for a person who operates an electrified trolley car, tram, light rail, or rapid transit train. The term refers to the person who is in charge of the motor in the sense as a railroad engineer is in charge of the engine. Though motormen have historically been male, females in the position were also called motormen as a job title. The term has been replaced by neutral ones, as gender-specific job titles have fallen into disuse. On the New York City Subway and London Underground, the position is now called train operator, the operator of an electric locomotive or an electric multiple unit train on a commuter or mainline railroad is typically called an engineer or driver. The term may refer to a person on a locomotive-hauled train when the train is being propelled by the locomotive. In the petroleum industry, a motorman is the member of the crew who is responsible for the maintenance

23.
Mail coach
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In Great Britain, the mail coach or post coach was a horse-drawn carriage that carried mail deliveries, from 1784. In Ireland, the first mail coach service from Dublin in 1789. The coach was drawn by four horses and had seating for four passengers inside, further passengers were later allowed to sit outside with the driver. The mail was held in a box to the rear, where a Royal Mail post office guard stood, the mail coach was faster than the stage coach as it only stopped for delivery of mail and generally not for the comfort of the passengers. They were slowly phased out during the 1840s and 1850s, their role being replaced by trains as the network expanded. The riders were frequent targets for robbers, and the system was inefficient, under the old system the journey had taken up to 38 hours. The coach, funded by Palmer, left Bristol at 4pm on 2 August 1784, impressed by the trial run, Pitt authorised the creation of new routes. By the end of 1785 there were services from London to Norwich, Liverpool, Leeds, Dover, Portsmouth, Poole, Exeter, Gloucester, Worcester, Holyhead and Carlisle. A service to Edinburgh was added the year and Palmer was rewarded by being made Surveyor. Initially the coach, horses and driver were all supplied by contractors, there was strong competition for the contracts as they provided a fixed regular income on top of which the companies could charge fares for the passengers. By the beginning of the 19th century the Post Office had their own fleet of coaches with black, the mail coaches continued unchallenged until the 1830s but the development of railways spelt the end for the service. The first rail delivery between Liverpool and Manchester took place on 11 November 1830, by the early 1840s other rail lines had been constructed and many London-based mail coaches were starting to be withdrawn from service, the final service from London was shut down in 1846. Regional mail coaches continued into the 1850s, but these too were replaced by rail services. The mail coaches were designed for a driver, seated outside. The guard travelled on the outside at the next to the mail box. Later a further passenger was allowed outside, sitting at the front next to the driver, travel could be uncomfortable as the coaches travelled on poor roads and passengers were obliged to dismount from the carriage when going up steep hills to spare the horses. The coaches averaged 7 to 8 mph in summer and about 5 mph in winter, fresh horses were supplied every 10 to 15 miles. Stops to collect mail were short and sometimes there would be no stops at all with the throwing the mail off the coach

24.
Rosa Parks
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Rosa Louise McCauley Parks was an activist in the Civil Rights Movement, whom the United States Congress called the first lady of civil rights and the mother of the freedom movement. On December 1,1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, Parks refused to obey bus driver James F. Blakes order to give up her seat in the section to a white passenger, after the white section was filled. Parks was not the first person to resist bus segregation, Parks act of defiance and the Montgomery Bus Boycott became important symbols of the modern Civil Rights Movement. She became an icon of resistance to racial segregation. At the time, Parks was secretary of the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP and she had recently attended the Highlander Folk School, a Tennessee center for training activists for workers rights and racial equality. She acted as a private citizen tired of giving in, although widely honored in later years, she also suffered for her act, she was fired from her job as a seamstress in a local department store, and received death threats for years afterwards. Shortly after the boycott, she moved to Detroit, where she found similar work. From 1965 to 1988 she served as secretary and receptionist to John Conyers and she was also active in the Black Power movement and the support of political prisoners in the US. After retirement, Parks wrote her autobiography and continued to insist that the struggle for justice was not over, in her final years, she suffered from dementia. Upon her death in 2005, she was the first woman and her birthday, February 4, and the day she was arrested, December 1, have both become Rosa Parks Day, commemorated in California and Missouri, and Ohio and Oregon. Rosa Parks was born Rosa Louise McCauley in Tuskegee, Alabama, on February 4,1913, to Leona, a teacher, and James McCauley, a carpenter. She was of African ancestry, though one of her great-grandfathers was Scots-Irish and she was small as a child and suffered poor health with chronic tonsillitis. When her parents separated, she moved with her mother to Pine Level, just outside the state capital and she grew up on a farm with her maternal grandparents, mother, and younger brother Sylvester. They all were members of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, an independent black denomination founded by free blacks in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. McCauley attended rural schools until the age of eleven, as a student at the Industrial School for Girls in Montgomery, she took academic and vocational courses. Bus and train companies enforced seating policies with separate sections for blacks, School bus transportation was unavailable in any form for black schoolchildren in the South, and black education was always underfunded. Parks recalled going to school in Pine Level, where school buses took white students to their new school and black students had to walk to theirs. But to me, that was a way of life, we had no choice, the bus was among the first ways I realized there was a black world and a white world

25.
Immigration Act of 1917
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The Immigration Act of 1917 was the most sweeping immigration act the United States had passed until that time. It was the first bill aimed at restricting, as opposed to regulating, immigrants, the law imposed literacy tests on immigrants, created new categories of inadmissible persons, and barred immigration from the Asia-Pacific Zone. It governed immigration policy until amended by the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 also known as the McCarran–Walter Act, various groups, including the Immigration Restriction League had supported literacy as a prerequisite for immigration from its formation in 1894. In 1895, Henry Cabot Lodge had introduced a bill to the United States Senate to impose a mandate for literacy for immigrants, though the bill passed, it was vetoed by President Grover Cleveland in 1897. In 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt lent support for the idea in his first address, though the resulting proposal was defeated in 1903. Literacy was introduced again in 1912 and though it passed, it was vetoed by President William Howard Taft, by 1915, yet another bill with a literacy requirement was passed. It was vetoed by President Woodrow Wilson because he felt that literacy tests denied equal opportunity to those who had not been educated. The Immigration Act of 1882 prohibited entry to the U. S. for convicts, indigent people who could not provide for their own care, prostitutes, after the assassination of William McKinley, several immigration Acts were passed which broadened the defined categories of undesireables. The Immigration Act of 1903 expanded barred categories to include anarchists, epileptics, laws restricting Asian immigration to the United States had first appeared in California as state laws. With the enactment of the Naturalization Act of 1870, which denied citizenship to Chinese immigrants and forbade all Chinese women, Exclusion of women aimed to cement a bachelor society, making Chinese men unable to form families and thus, transient, temporary immigrants. Barred categories expanded with the Page Act of 1875, which established that Chinese, Japanese and Oriental bonded labor, convicts, and prostitutes were forbidden entry to the U. S. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 barred Chinese from entering the U. S. on February 5,1917, the United States Congress passed the Immigration Act of 1917 with an overwhelming majority, overriding President Woodrow Wilsons December 14,1916, veto. For the first time, a law of the U. S. impacted European immigration with the provision barring all immigrants over the age of sixteen who were illiterate. Literacy was defined by being able to read 30-40 words of their own language from an ordinary text, the Act reaffirmed the ban on contracted labor, but made a provision for temporary labor, which allowed laborers to obtain temporary permits, because they were inadmissible as immigrants. The waiver program, enabled continued recruitment of Mexican agricultural and railroad workers, legal interpretation on the terms mentally defective and persons with constitutional psychopathic inferiority effectively included a ban on homosexual immigrants who admitted their orientation. One section of the law designated an Asiatic Barred Zone, from which people could not immigrate, and included much of Asia and the Pacific Islands. The zone was described on longitudinal and latitudinal lines, excluding immigrants from Afghanistan, the Arabian Peninsula, Central Asia, India, Malaysia, Myanmar, neither Japan nor the Philippines were included in the banned zone. The law also increased the tax to $8 per person

26.
Southwestern United States
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The population of the area is around 11 million people, with over half that in Arizona, the most populous cities are Phoenix, El Paso, Las Vegas, Albuquerque, and Tucson. Most of the area was part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain in the Spanish Empire before becoming part of Mexico and it became part of the United States through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the Gadsden Purchase. The deserts dominate the southern and western reaches of the area, the two major rivers of the region are the Colorado River, running in the northern and western areas, and the Rio Grande, running in the south. Formed approximately 8000 years ago, the Chihuahuan Desert is a dry desert. The Chihuahuan Desert spreads across the portion of the region, covering from southeastern Arizona, across southern New Mexico. While it is the second largest desert in the United States, only a third of the desert is within the United States, El Paso is the major city in this desert, with other smaller cities being Las Cruces and Roswell in New Mexico. The Chihuahuan is a rain shadow desert, formed two mountain ranges which block oceanic precipitation from reaching the area. The most prolific plants in this region are agave, yucca and creosote bushes, when people think of the desert southwest, the landscape of the Sonoran Desert is what mostly comes to mind. Rainfall averages between 4–12 inches per year, and the deserts most widely known inhabitant is the saguaro cactus and it is bounded on the northwest by the Mojave Desert, to the north by the Colorado Plateau and to the east by the Arizona Mountains forests and the Chihuahuan Desert. The portion of the Sonora Desert which lies in the Southwestern United States is the most populated area within the region. Six of the top ten major population centers of the region are found within its borders, Phoenix, Tucson, Mesa, Chandler, Glendale, also within its borders are Yuma and Prescott Arizona. The most northwest portion of the American Southwest is covered by the Mojave Desert, bordered on the south by the Sonoran Desert and the east by the Colorado Plateau, its range within the region makes up the southeast tip of Nevada, and the northwestern corner of Arizona. In terms of topography, the Mojave is very similar to the Great Basin Desert, the Mojave is the smallest, driest and hottest desert within the United States. The Mojave gets less than six inches of rain annually, the most prolific vegetation is the tall Joshua tree, which grow as tall as 40 feet, and are thought to live almost 1000 years. Other major vegetation includes the Parry saltbush and the Mojave sage, the Colorado Plateau varies from the large stands of forests in the west, including the largest stand of ponderosa pine trees in the world, to the Mesas to the east. Although not called a desert, the Colorado Plateau is mostly made up of high desert, the Plateau is characterized by a series of plateaus and mesas, interspersed with canyons. The most dramatic example is the Grand Canyon, but that is one of many dramatic vistas included within the Plateau, which includes spectacular lava formations, painted deserts, sand dunes, and badlands. One of the most distinctive features of the Plateau is its longevity, the Plateau can be divided into six sections, three of which fall into the Southwest region

27.
Insecticide
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An insecticide is a substance used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and by consumers. Insecticides are claimed to be a factor behind the increase in agricultural 20th centurys productivity. Nearly all insecticides have the potential to significantly alter ecosystems, many are toxic to humans, Insecticides can be classified in two major groups, systemic insecticides, which have residual or long term activity, and contact insecticides, which have no residual activity. Furthermore, one can distinguish three types of insecticide, natural insecticides, such as nicotine, pyrethrum and neem extracts, made by plants as defenses against insects. Organic insecticides, which are chemical compounds, mostly working by contact. The mode of action describes how the pesticide kills or inactivates a pest and it provides another way of classifying insecticides. Mode of action is important in understanding whether an insecticide will be toxic to unrelated species, such as fish, birds, Insecticides are distinct from insect repellents, which do not kill. Systemic insecticides become incorporated and distributed throughout the whole plant. When insects feed on the plant, they ingest the insecticide, systemic insecticides produced by transgenic plants are called plant-incorporated protectants. For instance, a gene that codes for a specific Bacillus thuringiensis biocidal protein was introduced into corn, the plant manufactures the protein, which kills the insect when consumed. Contact insecticides are toxic to insects upon direct contact and these can be inorganic insecticides, which are metals and include arsenates, copper and fluorine compounds, which are less commonly used, and the commonly used sulfur. Contact insecticides can be organic insecticides, i. e. organic chemical compounds, synthetically produced, or they can be natural compounds like pyrethrum, neem oil etc. Contact insecticides usually have no residual activity, efficacy can be related to the quality of pesticide application, with small droplets, such as aerosols often improving performance. Many organic compounds are produced by plants for the purpose of defending the host plant from predation, a trivial case is tree rosin, which is a natural insecticide. Specific, the production of oleoresin by conifer species is a component of the response against insect attack. Many fragrances, e. g. oil of wintergreen, are in fact antifeedants, the technique has been expanded to include the use of RNA interference RNAi that fatally silences crucial insect genes. RNAi likely evolved as a defense against viruses, midgut cells in many larvae take up the molecules and help spread the signal

28.
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
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Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane is a colorless, crystalline, tasteless, and almost odorless organochlorine known for its insecticidal properties and environmental impacts. First synthesized in 1874, DDTs insecticidal action was discovered by the Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller in 1939 and it was used in the second half of World War II to control malaria and typhus among civilians and troops. After the war, DDT was also used as an insecticide and its production. Müller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery of the efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods in 1948. In 1962, Rachel Carsons book Silent Spring was published, the book claimed that DDT and other pesticides had been shown to cause cancer and that their agricultural use was a threat to wildlife, particularly birds. Its publication was an event for the environmental movement and resulted in a large public outcry that eventually led, in 1972. DDT is similar in structure to the insecticide methoxychlor and the acaricide dicofol and it is highly hydrophobic and nearly insoluble in water but has good solubility in most organic solvents, fats and oils. It is produced by the reaction of chloral with chlorobenzene in the presence of an acid catalyst. DDT has been marketed under names including Anofex, Cezarex, Chlorophenothane, Clofenotane, Dicophane, Dinocide, Gesarol, Guesapon, Guesarol, Gyron, Ixodex, Neocid, Neocidol. Commercial DDT is a mixture of several closely–related compounds, the major component is the p, p isomer. The o, p isomer is present in significant amounts. Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane make up the balance, DDE and DDD are the major metabolites and environmental breakdown products. In the United States, it was manufactured by some 15 companies, including Monsanto, Ciba, Montrose Chemical Company, Pennwalt, production peaked in 1963 at 82,000 tonnes per year. More than 600,000 tonnes were applied in the US before the 1972 ban, usage peaked in 1959 at about 36,000 tonnes. In 2009,3,314 tonnes were produced for malaria control, India is the only country still manufacturing DDT and is the largest consumer. In insects it opens sodium ion channels in neurons, causing them to fire spontaneously, insects with certain mutations in their sodium channel gene are resistant to DDT and similar insecticides. Genomic studies in the model genetic organism Drosophila melanogaster revealed that high level DDT resistance is polygenic, DDT was first synthesized in 1874 by Othmar Zeidler under the supervision of Adolf von Baeyer. It was further described in 1929 in a dissertation by W. Bausch, the insecticide properties of multiple chlorinated aliphatic or fat-aromatic alcohols with at least one trichloromethane group were described in a patent in 1934 by Wolfgang von Leuthold

29.
NPR
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NPR produces and distributes news and cultural programming. Individual public radio stations are not required to broadcast all NPR programs that are produced and its content is also available on-demand via the web, mobile, and podcasts. The organizations legal name is National Public Radio and its brand is NPR. Is NPR has been used by its hosts for many years. However, National Public Radio remains the name of the group. National Public Radio replaced the National Educational Radio Network on February 26,1970 and this act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, and established the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, which created the Public Broadcasting Service in addition to NPR. A CPB organizing committee under John Witherspoon first created a Board of Directors chaired by Bernard Mayes, the board then hired Donald Quayle to be the first president of NPR with 30 employees and 90 charter member stations, and studios in Washington, D. C. NPR aired its first broadcast in April 1971, covering United States Senate hearings on the Vietnam War, a month later, the afternoon drive-time newscast All Things Considered began, on May 3,1971, first hosted by Robert Conley. NPR was primarily a production and distribution organization until 1977, when it merged with the Association of Public Radio Stations, NPR suffered an almost fatal setback in 1983 when efforts to expand services created a deficit of nearly US$7 million. After a congressional investigation and the resignation of NPRs president, Frank Mankiewicz, NPR also agreed to turn its satellite service into a cooperative venture, making it possible for non-NPR shows to get national distribution. It took NPR approximately three years to pay off the debt, delano Lewis, the president of C&P Telephone, left that position to become NPRs CEO and president in January 1994. In November 1998, NPRs board of directors hired Kevin Klose, NPR spent nearly $13 million to acquire and equip a West Coast 25, 000-square-foot production facility, NPR West, which opened in Culver City, Los Angeles County, California, in November 2002. C. In November 2003, NPR received US$235 million from the estate of the late Joan B, Kroc, the widow of Ray Kroc, founder of McDonalds Corporation. This was the largest monetary gift ever to a cultural institution, in 2004 NPRs budget increased by over 50% to US$153 million due to the Kroc gift. US$34 million of the money was deposited in its endowment, the endowment fund before the gift totaled $35 million. NPR will use the interest from the bequest to expand its news staff, the 2005 budget was about US$120 million. In August 2005, NPR entered podcasting with a directory of over 170 programs created by NPR, by November of that year, users downloaded NPR and other public radio podcasts 5 million times

30.
CounterPunch
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CounterPunch is a bi-monthly magazine published in the United States that covers politics in a manner its editors describe as muckraking with a radical attitude. It has been described as left-wing by both supporters and detractors, topics include critical coverage of both Democratic and Republican politicians and extensive reporting of environmental and trade union issues, American foreign policy, and the Israeli-Arab conflict. The newsletter was established in 1994 by the Washington, D. C. -based investigative reporter Ken Silverstein and he was soon joined by the journalists Cockburn and St. Clair. In 1996, Silverstein left the publication and Cockburn and St. Clair became co-editors, other entries include 1998, several in 2000 and others in 20012003 and 2004. He has also written and co-written articles for CounterPunch on what he alleges to be a campaign of harassment against Assange, one of these articles, Assange Betrayed, made allegations against a plaintiff in a Swedish rape case against Assange that were widely circulated in the media. The allegations in CounterPunch were the topic of controversy in the mainstream media, CounterPunch publishes articles from contributors critical of conventional wisdom on certain topics, under its slogan muckraking with a radical attitude. Others include Jonathan Cook and 2016 Green Vice-presidential candidate Ajamu Baraka, within the broader area of American foreign policy, contributors include Ajamu Baraka, William Blum and Patrick Cockburn. CounterPunch also has a tradition of criticizing US financial and economic policy. In this area contributors include former Financial Times and Forbes editor Eamonn Fingleton, Paul Craig Roberts, Winslow T. Wheeler, on environmental issues, contributors include Joshua Frank and Harvey Wasserman. Some more frequent contributors, such as Dave Lindorff and Saul Landau, in 2003, The Observer described the CounterPunch website as a popular political sources in America, with a keen following in Washington. Other sources have variously described CounterPunch as a left-wing, extreme or radical a political newsletter, the Anti-Defamation League in 2007 described CounterPunch as an anti-Zionist radical left newsletter. The pro-Israel media watchdog group Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America in 2007 described CounterPunch. org as an extremist anti-Israel web site, the management of the Daily Kos considers CounterPunch to have engaged in a persistent pattern of antisemitism. CounterPunch was also criticized for an interview with Pink Floyds Roger Waters in which he made comments on Israel. In 2004, Max Boot described CounterPunch as an extreme conspiracy-mongering website, the same article was also referred to by James Taranto of the Wall Street Journal as similarly permitting the dismissal of CounterPunch. Lindorff has defended his article against this characterization, in 2016, Adrian Chen of The New Yorker called CounterPunch a respected left-leaning publication following accusations that CounterPunch promoted a pro-Russian agenda. CounterPunch Books, an imprint of AK Press, has published a number of books, typically works by individual CounterPunch contributors, of the former book, CounterPunch said Is this the most controversial book of 2003. It was denounced by liberals and neocons alike, numerous reviews in mainstream papers were quashed by editors, R. Grace and Companys role in Libby, Montana. A Dimes Worth of Difference, Beyond the Lesser of Two Evils, official website CounterPunch complete 1993–2011 archives

31.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker

32.
National Public Radio
–
NPR produces and distributes news and cultural programming. Individual public radio stations are not required to broadcast all NPR programs that are produced and its content is also available on-demand via the web, mobile, and podcasts. The organizations legal name is National Public Radio and its brand is NPR. Is NPR has been used by its hosts for many years. However, National Public Radio remains the name of the group. National Public Radio replaced the National Educational Radio Network on February 26,1970 and this act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, and established the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, which created the Public Broadcasting Service in addition to NPR. A CPB organizing committee under John Witherspoon first created a Board of Directors chaired by Bernard Mayes, the board then hired Donald Quayle to be the first president of NPR with 30 employees and 90 charter member stations, and studios in Washington, D. C. NPR aired its first broadcast in April 1971, covering United States Senate hearings on the Vietnam War, a month later, the afternoon drive-time newscast All Things Considered began, on May 3,1971, first hosted by Robert Conley. NPR was primarily a production and distribution organization until 1977, when it merged with the Association of Public Radio Stations, NPR suffered an almost fatal setback in 1983 when efforts to expand services created a deficit of nearly US$7 million. After a congressional investigation and the resignation of NPRs president, Frank Mankiewicz, NPR also agreed to turn its satellite service into a cooperative venture, making it possible for non-NPR shows to get national distribution. It took NPR approximately three years to pay off the debt, delano Lewis, the president of C&P Telephone, left that position to become NPRs CEO and president in January 1994. In November 1998, NPRs board of directors hired Kevin Klose, NPR spent nearly $13 million to acquire and equip a West Coast 25, 000-square-foot production facility, NPR West, which opened in Culver City, Los Angeles County, California, in November 2002. C. In November 2003, NPR received US$235 million from the estate of the late Joan B, Kroc, the widow of Ray Kroc, founder of McDonalds Corporation. This was the largest monetary gift ever to a cultural institution, in 2004 NPRs budget increased by over 50% to US$153 million due to the Kroc gift. US$34 million of the money was deposited in its endowment, the endowment fund before the gift totaled $35 million. NPR will use the interest from the bequest to expand its news staff, the 2005 budget was about US$120 million. In August 2005, NPR entered podcasting with a directory of over 170 programs created by NPR, by November of that year, users downloaded NPR and other public radio podcasts 5 million times

33.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial

34.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR

35.
El Paso Herald-Post
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The El Paso Herald-Post was an afternoon daily newspaper in El Paso, Texas, USA. It was the successor to the El Paso Herald, first published in 1881, the papers merged in 1931 under Scripps ownership. The Herald-Post was nominated for two Pulitzer Prizes in 1987 for a story about a Mexican drug lord and for its literacy campaign and it later launched the El Paso areas first online news site in 1996. When the Scripps-Howard newspaper chain shut the paper down in 1997, it cited a decline in circulation. On August 24,2015 a former local news employee revived the El Paso Herald-Post brand by launching a website with the same name, however, the online only publication has no affiliation with the newspaper. Texas largest afternoon daily newspaper publishes final edition, Associated Press, El Paso Herald-Post homepage from 1996, hosted by the Internet Archive

36.
The News-Sentinel
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The News-Sentinel is a daily newspaper based in Fort Wayne, Indiana. The afternoon News-Sentinel is politically independent, the News-Sentinel traces its origins to 1833, when The Sentinel was established as a weekly paper. The Sentinel was owned for a year and half in 1878-79 by Fort Wayne native William Rockhill Nelson who went on to found, in 1918, The Sentinel merged with another local paper, The Fort Wayne Daily News, to form The News-Sentinel. She was a new college graduate, but she studied mathematics, in 1935, her father named her to the board of directors, expecting her to advance into his shoes when he retired – but in October 1936, he died unexpectedly. She became the youngest publisher of a daily newspaper in the United States. She was up to the challenge, though, increasing circulation about 20% – from 56,700 to 67,800 – in just five years, in 1950, Foellinger formed a joint operating agreement with the rival morning newspaper, The Journal Gazette. On the strength of The News-Sentinel, they ended up with a 55% share of Fort Wayne Newspapers, in 1983, the The News-Sentinel was awarded a Pulitzer Prize for its courageous and resourceful coverage of a devastating flood in March 1982. It was also honoured in 1992 as the Blue Ribbon Newspaper of the Year by the Hoosier State Press Association. In the 1980s, The News-Sentinel was still the dominant newspaper in Fort Wayne, with circulation in excess of 60,000. Moreover, their circulation was largely concentrated in Fort Wayne, making it attractive to city merchants. Circulation for large newspapers, particularly evening newspapers, has dropped in recent years. Today, The News-Sentinel has a circulation of 31,213 while The Journal Gazette has used its Sunday edition to build daily circulation to 73,058. In 2003, a 30-year extension to the joint operating agreement was inked, at that point, Knight Ridder boosted its ownership from 55% to 75%, at a cost of $42 million. Fort Wayne Newspapers is spending $34.8 million to upgrade their printing presses, in 1997, Knight Ridder bought The Kansas City Star, completing a circle of sorts. Knight Ridder was bought by The McClatchy Company in June 2006, on March 14,2006, McClatchy announced that it would sell 12 of the Knight Ridder newspapers, including The News-Sentinel, that are in markets not growing rapidly. Current and former News-Sentinel staffers disagreed on the significance, mary Jacobus, publisher of The News-Sentinel, joined The Boston Globe on January 2006 as president and general manager. During her four-year tenure, newsroom employment dropped 29%, like The News-Sentinel, The Boston Globe was experiencing tough times, with 8% losses in daily and Sunday circulation in the prior year. McClatchy reached an agreement to sell The News-Sentinel to Ogden Newspapers Inc. of West Virginia, michael J. Christman, who was publishing two newspapers in Parkersburg, West Virginia was named the new publisher

37.
Heritage Microfilm, Inc.
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Heritage Microfilm, Inc. is a preservation microfilm and microfilm digitization business located in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. The company began in 1996 when the division of Cedar Rapids-based Crest Information Technologies was sold to Christopher Gill. The microfilm division was responsible at the time for preserving newspapers, the business document filming portion of the business was soon dropped in favor of the newspaper microfilming division. In 1999, Heritage Microfilm began digitizing newspaper microfilm and launched NewspaperARCHIVE. com, soon after, it began creating smaller branded newspaper archive websites in collaboration with publishing partners. The Syracuse Post-Standard and Stars and Stripes are among its clients for both microfilm and digital archives, the firm works with ANSI/AIIM standards for preservation microfilming. It has a humidity and temperature-controlled storage facility and it is a Kodak ImageGuard facility. One of its specializations is damaged microfilm recovery and it has an Extek 3441 microfilm duplicator, which duplicates at low speeds to prevent damage to Redox or Vinegar-Syndrome microfilm. It uses Kodak silver halide microfilm for master film and primary duplications and it discontinued the use of vesicular film for duplications, due to the poor quality film available from distributors. It claims to use Kodak BrownToner, a film treatment. NewspaperArchive. com is an online database of digitized newspapers. The site was launched in 1999 by Heritage Microfilm, as of June 2008, NewspaperArchive said it provided full text search for 909 million articles on 85 million pages over 240 years that represented 2,875 publication titles in more than 748 cities. S. Searches can be conducted by keyword, date, and location, results are free, but access to the newspaper articles available to download in PDF format requires a subscription. Searching is available directly from newspaperarchive or via news. google. com/archivesearch, the company says that it follows the Automated Content Access Protocol in which its clients have a say in what is available online. The digitized newspapers that are available and OCRd represent a fraction of the 150 million pages of historical documents that Heritage Microfilm maintains in its microform archive. According to NewspaperArchive, it is microfilming 2.5 million pages of each month and has 180,000 reels of microfilm. The resource has had its share of criticism. As of August 1,2014, Newspaper Archive, Inc. had a rating of F from Better Business Bureau, Heritage Archives, Inc. is related company in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, that specializes in microfilming of newspapers that was also founded by Christopher Gill. Clients include the state of Florida and the Boston Public Library, the filing with the state of Iowa also include a dba name of CONVERXION SA DE CV

38.
Open access
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Open access refers to online research outputs that are free of all restrictions on access and free of many restrictions on use. These additional usage rights are granted through the use of various specific Creative Commons licenses. There are multiple ways authors can provide access to their work. One way is to publish it and then self-archive it in a repository where it can be accessed for free, such as their institutional repository and this is known as green open access. Some publishers require delays, or an embargo, on when an output in a repository may be made open access. Several initiatives provide an alternative to the American and English language dominance of existing publication indexing systems, including Index Copernicus, SciELO and Redalyc. A second way authors can make their work open access is by publishing it in such a way that makes their research output immediately available from the publisher. This is known as open access, and within the sciences this often takes the form of publishing an article in either an open access journal. Pure open access journals do not charge fees, and may have one of a variety of business models. Many, however, do charge an article processing fee, widespread public access to the World Wide Web in the late 1990s and early 2000s fueled the open access movement, and prompted both the green open access way and the creation of open access journals. Conventional non-open access journals cover publishing costs through access tolls such as subscriptions, some non-open access journals provide open access after an embargo period of 6–12 months or longer. The Budapest statement defined open access as follows, There are many degrees, despite these statements emerging in the 2000s, the idea and practise of providing free online access to journal articles began at least a decade before the term open access was formally coined. Computer scientists had been self-archiving in anonymous ftp archives since the 1970s, the Subversive Proposal to generalize the practice was posted in 1994. Gratis OA refers to online access, and libre OA refers to free online access plus some additional re-use rights. The Budapest, Bethesda, and Berlin definitions had corresponded only to libre OA, the re-use rights of libre OA are often specified by various specific Creative Commons licenses, these almost all require attribution of authorship to the original authors. Open access itself began to be sought and provided worldwide by researchers when the possibility itself was opened by the advent of Internet, the momentum was further increased by a growing movement for academic journal publishing reform, and with it gold and libre OA. Electronic publishing created new benefits as compared to paper publishing but beyond that, rather than applying traditional notions of copyright to academic publications, they could be libre or free to build upon. The intended audience of research articles is usually other researchers, Open access helps researchers as readers by opening up access to articles that their libraries do not subscribe to

39.
El Paso Times
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The El Paso Times is the newspaper for the U. S. city of El Paso, Texas. The paper was founded in 1881 by Marcellus Washington Carrico and it originally started out as a weekly but within a years time, it became the daily newspaper for the frontier town. The newspaper has a daily circulation of 65,000 and 125,000 on Sundays. Because of declining newspaper circulations nationwide, the El Paso Times has recently expanded its online capabilities, Gannett bought the Times in 1972. In 2003, Gannett and MediaNews Group formed a partnership between the Times and MediaNews New Mexico papers, with Gannett as the managing partner. In December 2005, Gannett became a minority partner in the El Paso Times, handing the majority of the partnership, in 2015, Gannett acquired full ownership of the Texas-New Mexico Newspapers Partnership from MediaNews successor Digital First Media. Barbara Funkhouser served as editor of the El Paso Times from 1980 to 1986 and she remains the only female editor in the newspapers history. The El Paso Times prints news in several sections, A-section, all-local news cover page, with national, Mexico, borderland, the metro news page has an all-local cover page as well as neighborhood, New Mexico and Texas news. Sports, local and national sports, with an emphasis in high-school, business, local and national business news. Living, local and national feature stories including rotating sections covering seniors, religion, pop culture, tiempo, weekly entertainment guide published on Fridays. It includes concerts, movies, galleries, restaurant reviews and other entertainment related stories, the El Paso Times publishes several other weekly, biweekly and monthly publications. El Paso y Más, bi-weekly Spanish news coverage, TV y Más, weekly television guide and Spanish entertainment magazine. Cars & Trucks, weekly auto trader guide, E. Pete Snelson, sports editor, later member of both houses of the Texas State Legislature from Midland Steve Almond, American short story writer and essayist. Paul Salopek, American journalist and writer, Times prices are $1 daily & $2 Sunday/Thanksgiving Day. Official Newspaper Website Official Newspaper Mobile Website El Paso Times hosted by the Portal to Texas History

40.
Ancestry.com
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Ancestry. com LLC is a privately held Internet company based in Lehi, Utah, United States. The largest for-profit genealogy company in the world, it operates a network of genealogical and historical record websites focused on the United States, as of June 2014, the company provided access to approximately 16 billion historical records and had over 2 million paying subscribers. User-generated content tallies to more than 70 million family trees, and subscribers have added more than 200 million photographs, scanned documents, and written stories. Ancestrys brands include Ancestry, AncestryDNA, AncestryHealth, AncestryProGenealogists, Archives. com, Family Tree Maker, Find a Grave, Fold3, Newspapers. com, and Rootsweb. Under its subsidiaries, Ancestry. com operates foreign sites that provide access to services and these include Australia, Canada, China, Japan, Brazil, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and several other countries in Europe and Asia. In 1990, Paul B. Allen and Dan Taggart, two Brigham Young University graduates, founded Infobases and began offering Latter-day Saints publications on floppy disks, in 1988, Allen had worked at Folio Corporation, founded by his brother Curt and his brother-in-law Brad Pelo. Infobases chose to use the Folio infobase technology, which Allen was familiar with, Infobases first products were floppy disks and compact disks sold from the back seat of the founders car. In 1994, Infobases was named among Inc. magazines 500 fastest-growing companies and their first offering on CD was the LDS Collectors Edition, released in April 1995, selling for $299.95, which was offered in an online version in August 1995. Ancestry officially went online with the launched Ancestry. com in 1996, with its roots as a genealogy newsletter started in 1983 by John Sittner, and became an established publishing company in 1984. Ancestry was relaunched as a magazine in January 1994, and went online in 1996, on January 1,1997, Infobases parent company, Western Standard Publishing, purchased Ancestry, Inc. publisher of Ancestry magazine and genealogy books. Western Standard Publishings CEO was Joe Cannon, one of the owners of Geneva Steel. In July 1997, Allen and Taggart purchased Western Standards interest in Ancestry, at the time, Brad Pelo was president and CEO of Infobases, and president of Western Standard. Less than six months earlier, he had been president of Folio Corporation, in March 1997, Folio was sold to Open Market for $45 million. The first public evidence of the change in ownership of Ancestry Magazine came with the July/August 1997 issue and that issues masthead also included the first use of the Ancestry. com web address. More growth for Infobases occurred in July 1997, when Ancestry, Inc. purchased Bookcraft, Infobases had published many of Bookcrafts books as part of its LDS Collectors Library. Pelo also announced that Ancestrys product line would be expanded in both CDs and online. Alan Ashton, an investor in Infobases and founder of WordPerfect, was its chairman of the board. Allen and Taggart began running Ancestry, Inc. independently from Infobases in July 1997, included in the sale were the rights to Infobases LDS Collectors Library on CD

41.
Iowa City Press-Citizen
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The Iowa City Press-Citizen is a daily newspaper published in Iowa City, Iowa, USA, that serves most of Johnson County and portions of surrounding counties. Its primary competitors are The Gazette of Cedar Rapids, which has a bureau in Iowa City, and The Daily Iowan. The Press-Citizen was formed in 1920 from the merger of two newspapers, the Democratic Iowa State Press, founded in 1860, and the Republican Iowa City Citizen, merritt Spiedel bought the Press-Citizen in 1921, Spiedels company merged with the Gannett Company in 1977. In 1937, Spiedel hired architect Henry L. Fisk as consulting architect for a new Streamline Moderne style building for the paper, located at 319 E. Washington Street, the building also housed a mural by artist Mildred W. Pelzer, Symphony of Iowa. In 1966, the mural was restored by Forrest Bailey, who was commissioned by Richard Feddersen for the work, the painting was later donated by Fedderson to the Cedar Rapids Museum of Art. The Press-Citizen switched from afternoon to morning publication on September 15,1997, on February 15,2015, the Press-Citizen announced that it would be discontinuing the Sunday edition on March 1 of the same year. Iowa City Press-Citizen Mobile phone edition

42.
Richmond Times-Dispatch
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The Richmond Times-Dispatch is the primary daily newspaper in Richmond, the capital of Virginia, United States. It is also the newspaper of record for the state of Virginia. The Times-Dispatch has the second-highest circulation of any Virginia newspaper, after Norfolks The Virginian-Pilot, in addition to the Richmond area, the Times-Dispatch has substantial readership in Charlottesville, Lynchburg, and Waynesboro. As the primary paper of the capital, the Times-Dispatch serves as a newspaper of record for rural regions of the state that lack large local papers. The RTD has existed in form for more than 150 years. In 1850, a called the Daily Dispatch was founded. In 1886, a competitor, the Richmond Daily Times was founded by Lewis Ginter, a year later, Joseph Bryan bought the Daily Times from Ginter, beginning the papers long association with the Bryan family. In 1890, the Daily Times changed its name to the Richmond Times, in 1896, Bryan acquired the eight-year-old Manchester Leader and launched the Evening Leader. In 1899, the evening Richmond News was founded, john L. Williams, owner of the Dispatch, bought the News in 1900. By 1903, it was obvious Richmond was not big enough to support four papers and that year, Williams and Bryan agreed to a merger of Richmonds main newspapers. The morning papers merged to become the Richmond Times-Dispatch under Bryans ownership, Bryan bought the News Leader in 1908. After he died later that year, the land for Richmonds Joseph Bryan Park was donated by his widow, Isobel Stewart Bryan, john Stewart Bryan became owner and publisher of the two papers after his fathers death. That conglomeration is now known as Media General, the Richmond Times-Dispatch drew national attention for its coverage of a December 21,2004, attack by a suicide bomber on an American military base in Mosul, Iraq. Stories and photographs about the attack by a Times-Dispatch reporter embedded with the 276th were read, heard and seen across the nation. In 1990, The RTD borrowed an idea from an entrepreneur, Barry Mad Dog Gottlieb, to encourage a Tacky Christmas Lights Tour. Every week, the RTD lists the addresses of houses where the most tacky Christmas lights can be found and this tradition has begun to spread to other cities, like Fairfax, Virginia as well as San Francisco and Los Angeles. Diane Cantor, the wife of former House Majority Leader Republican Eric Cantor and this drew some conflict-of-interest allegations because the RTD serves much of the congressmans 7th district, but no evidence surfaced that she was involved in the papers content. Her association with the paper was noted at the end of Times-Dispatch stories about Rep. Cantor, on May 17,2012, Media General announced the sale of its newspaper division to BH Media, a subsidiary of Warren Buffetts Berkshire Hathaway company

Bernardo Reyes (1850-1913), Porfirio Díaz's "man in the north". Carranza formed a personal friendship with Reyes, and Reyes' patronage was responsible for Carranza's election to the Mexican Congress in 1898.

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is a colorless, tasteless, and almost odorless crystalline organochlorine known …

Commercial product concentrate containing 50% DDT, circa 1960s

Commercial product (Powder box, 50 g) containing 10% DDT; Néocide. CibaGeigy DDT; "Destroys parasites such as fleas, lice, ants, bedbugs, cockroaches, flies, etc.. Néocide Sprinkle caches of vermin and the places where there are insects and their places of passage. Leave the powder in place as long as possible." "Destroy the parasites of man and his dwelling". "Death is not instantaneous, it follows inevitably sooner or later." "French manufacturing"; "harmless to humans and warm-blooded animals" "sure and lasting effect. Odorless."

Isolating a village in Romania whose inhabitants believe that doctors poison those suspected of cholera.

Quarantine of the convict ship ''Surry'' on the North Shore of Sydney Harbour in 1814, the first quarantine in Australia

Signal flag "Lima" called the "Yellow Jack" which when flown in harbor means ship is under quarantine. A simple yellow flag (also called the "Yellow Jack") had historically been used to signal quarantine (it stands for Q among signal flags), but now indicates the opposite, as a signal of a ship free of disease that requests boarding and inspection.