IASC 25 years - Page 67

tion. It may be noted that later maps from, eg. Peter-
were divided by a sea strait, which they named
mann (1865) and Nansen (1897) still showed the
Bering Strait. A second expedition, which became
possibility of land in the central Arctic Ocean.
known as the Great Northern Expedition (1733-
4
5
1743), was sponsored by Peter the Great’s sucThe first comprehensive multidisciplinary descrip-
cessor, the Empress Anna; it included professionals
tions of the Arctic Regions were published by whal-
from the Imperial Academy of Science. It was again
ing captains Zorgdrager (1720, 1727),6 Martens
commanded by Bering, and to his dismay, because
(1765), and Scoresby (1820), who were inter-
of political and bureaucratic interference, it grew to
ested mainly in the commercial aspects of explor-
involve more than 3000 people and thousands of
atory voyages. However, from the sixteenth to the
horses.10 The scientists made plant collections and
eighteenth century, the progression of geographi-
the first scientific observations of birds and mam-
cal awareness and international communications
mals in central and eastern Siberia. Upon reaching
also led to increasing interest in factual knowledge
Kamchatka, Bering built new ships and crossed the
about the whole planet, including the Arctic regions.
North Pacific Ocean, making landfall on islands ad-
Universities, Academies of Learning, and Royal Soci-
jacent to the coast of Alaska, where the natural-
eties in several countries became centers or leaders
ist Steller made impressive first studies of plants,
in investigation of what became known as ‘science,’
birds, sea and land mammals of northwest North
whose ideas and findings were openly shared or
America.11 When the remnants of the expedition
debated without regard to national borders. This
returned to Siberia after ten years, Empress Anna
was rather distinct from the nationally-based geo-
had died, and there was no further support in Russia
graphical societies that also were developing at the
for northern scientific studies for several decades.
time, largely centered on geographical exploration,
Steller’s scientific records and journals were filed in
commerce, and empire-building. The phenomena
the Academy of Science and not published for many
of magnetism, the pull of gravity, tides and ocean
years, although some of his findings made their way
currents, patterns of weather, the precise shape of
into European scientific literature.
7
8
the planet itself and its distance from the sun and
the moon, were seen to be important subjects that
In 1765 and 1766, Empress Katarina (Catherine) the
could not be pursued only within national boundar-
Great revived Russian interest in the far north, and
ies nor directly restricted to commercial resources.
on the advice of the eminent scientist Lomonosov,
For many of these, investigations into remote parts
who maintained that sea ice could not persist in the
of the planet and to the Arctic regions was neces-
open ocean, sent an expedition commanded by Chi-
sary and logical.
cagov to find a northern sailing route to Asia. The
9
three ships of this expedition were unable to pro-
The Great Northern Expeditions
ceed beyond the latitude of Svalbard, but obtained
In the 18th century, interest in Arctic exploration
depth soundings in what is now known as Fram
and investigation was dominated by Russia and En-
Strait, and useful descriptions of the topography
gland. In Russia, Peter the Great, desirous to know
and nature of west Spitzbergen.12 As with Bering
the northern and eastern extent of his Empire, initi-
and Steller’s work, the information was not distrib-
ated an enterprise that became known as the First
uted outside Russia for many decades.
Kamchatka or Northern Expedition (1725-1730),
commanded by a competent Dane, Vitus Bering, to
explore, map, and describe the northeast coast of
Within a decade of the abortive expeditions sent
Siberia. The expedition, travelling overland across
out by Katarina the Great of Russia, the evolving
Siberia, reached the west coast of the Pacific Ocean
focus on scientific investigation as distinct from
and followed it north until Lat. 67°N, and proved
geographical discovery resulted in an expedition led
that the Eurasian and North American continents
66
00
The Phipps Expedition
by Capt. Constantine Phipps and undertaken by the
03 Contributions of Former IASC Presidents