Affixes: distinction from roots They do not form words by themselves n Their meaning is not as clear and specific as it the meaning of roots n The number of affixes is much restricted than that of roots n

Suffixation n n Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixes which primarily change the meaning of the stem, suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class. However, they may also add attached meaning to the stem.

Monomorphic and polymorphic composition of words n n n n Monomorphic words (simple) consist of one morpheme – the root morpheme only. dog, cat, boy, girl, etc. Polymorphic words consist of a root and one or several affixes or of two or several root morphemes. 1) derived words, which contain a root and one or several affixes: hardship, unbelievable. 2) compound words, which consist of at least two root morphemes: handbag, merry-go-round. 3) compound derivatives, or derivational compounds, which are constituted by two or more roots modified by an affix: old-maidish, long-nosed. Simplification of the stem (опрощение морфологической структуры слова) woman – OE wif+man, window – OE wind+eage

Levels of analysis of the morphological structure n n n n 1. Morphemic analysis states the number of morphemes in a word and their types. Friendliness - three morphemes: one root morpheme (friend) and two derivational morphemes (ly, ness). 2. Derivational analysis reveals the pattern according to which the word is built. Friendliness: built by adding to the stem friendly the suffix ness (not friend + liness as there is no suffix liness in English). Derivational analysis shows the structural correlation of the word with other words: friendly vs friendliness = happy vs happiness = easy vs easiness, etc. 3. Analysis into Immediate Constituents (непосредственные составляющие) reveals the history of the word, the stages of the process of its formation. The analysis is binary: at each stage we split the word into two constituents. friendliness =friendly + ness friendly = friend + ly. Ultimate Constituents (конечные составляющие) look this way: friend+ly+ness.

Productivity n n n n n The most productive ways of word-building in Modern English are: affixation conversion composition shortening back-formation blending The types of word-building that are less productive are sound imitation and reduplication. The ways of word-formation that are non-productive are sound and stress interchange.

Affixation n is building new words by adding affixes to the stem of the word (prefixation and suffixation).

Conversion (zero derivation) n n n is making a new word by changing the part of speech characteristics of the word without changing its morphemic shape. appeared in the 13 th century when the loss of inflexions made nouns and verbs look similar in form. The most productive pattern of conversion (конверсионная модель) is N→V: honeymoon→to honeymoon. Less productive is the pattern Adj→N: slow→to slow (us. to slow down – сбавлять скорость). The pattern V→N is much less frequent than the pattern N→V: to fall – a fall.

Conversion n Noun-verb conversion n n He elbowed his way through the crowd. Problems snowballed by the hour. The newspaper headlined his long record of accomplishments. Kissinger got the plans and helicoptered to Camp David.

Conversion n Verb-noun conversion n n He was admitted to the university after a three-year wait. This little restaurant is quite a find. It is a good buy. He took a close look at the machine. doubt, smell, desire, want, attempt, hit, reply, divide

Conversion n Verb-noun conversion Phrasal verb-noun conversion n Right branching Left branching Break down Break out Outbreak Pick up Pick-up Spill over Overspill Take over Take-over Start up Upstart Get together Get-together Put in Input Keep up upkeep Break through Breakthrough

Conversion n Adjective-noun conversion n Partial conversion n n Denoting a quality or a state common to a group of person: the deaf, the blind, the poor, the wounded Denoting peoples of a nation (ending in –sh, -se, -ch): the English, the Chinese, the Danish, the Scotch Denoting a quality in the abstract: a strong dislike for the sentimental, to distinguish the false and the true, from the sublime to the ridiculous Denoting a single person (converted from participles): the accused, the deceased, the deserted, the condemned

Conversion n Adjective-noun conversion n Complete conversion n n A native, two natives, a returned native He is a natural for the job. Tom is one of our regulars, he comes in for a drink about this time every night. To them she is not a brusque crazy, but appropriately passionate. They are the creatives in the advertising department.

Compounding n The definition of compounding n Composition or compounding is a wordformation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word. It is a common device which has been productive at every period of the English language. Today the largest number of new words are formed by compounding.

Compounding n Verb compounds n Formed by conversion n to blue-print, to cold-shoulder, to outline, to honeymoon, to snowball, to chain-smoke, to sweet-talk, to job-hop.

Shortening (Clipping or Curtailment) n Types of shortening or abbreviation n 1) clipped words: those created by clipping part of the word (usually a noun), leaving only a piece of the old word. The clipped form is normally regarded as informal.

Shortening n Types of shortening or abbreviation n 2) initialisms (инициальная аббревиатура): a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase; an initialism is pronounced letter by letter.

Shortening n Types of shortening or abbreviation n 3) acronyms: words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as words. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters.

Shortening Write out in full the following acronyms n n n TOFEL ROM NATO FIFA Aids radar n n n Test of English as a foreign language read only memory The North Atlantic Treaty organization Federation Internationale de Football Acquired Immune Deficiency syndrome Radio detecting and ranging

Blending Контаминация n The definition of blending n Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining parts of two words. The result of such a process is called a blend or telescopic word or portmanteau word. Blending is thus a process of both compounding and abbreviation.

Backformation (Обратное словообразование) n The definition of backformation n Back-formation is a process of wordformation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed suffix. It is also known as a reverse derivation.

Sound imitation (Onomatopoeia) n n is a way of word-formation which consists in imitating the sounds made by animals, birds, insects, men and different objects: bang, giggle, quack. Some scholars suggest that sounds have a certain meaning of their own

Reduplication (Repetition) n n n consists in a complete or partial repetition of the stem or of the whole word (bye-bye), often with a variation of the root vowel or consonant (ping-pong These words are always colloqual or slang, among them there many nursery words. 1) the words in which the same stem is repeated without any changes (pretty-pretty, goody-goody, never-never (утопия); 2) words with a vowel variation (chit-chat (сплетни), ping-pong, tip-top); 3) words with pseudomorphemes (rhyme combinations) (loveydovey, walkie-talkie, willy-nilly); the parts of such words don’t exist as separate words.

Ellipsis n is the omission of a word or words considered essential for grammatical completeness but not for the conveyance of the intended lexical meaning: pub←public house, daily←daily newspaper, sale←cutprice sale, taxi←taximotor cab (ellipsis+apocopy in the last word).

Non-productive ways of wordbuilding n n n Sound interchange : vowel-interchange (to sing – song, to live – live) and consonant-interchange (use – to use [z], advice – to advise). Consonant interchange may be combined with vowel interchange: bath – to bathe. Distinctive stress is found in groups like `present – pres`ent, `conduct – con`duct, `abstract – abstr’act, etc. These words were French borrowings with the original stress on the last syllable.