IL-1 produced by macrophage when engulfs pathogen
Activate signal for helper cells
Binding of T-lymphocyte to antigen > furthers activation
Interleukins produced
Tells B-Cells to divide and differentiate into plasma cells that make antibodies

explains how the immune systems reacts to Ag overtime
Helpful for understanding how active immunization functions
Helps anser:
Why after having a particular infectious disease you are immune from getting same disease later
Introduce new type of immune system cell - memory cell

Primary response : 1st exposure to antigen

Lag period/ latent period : no antibodies produced > interleukins produced
Antibody goes up... goes down

Most work by interfering with production of peptidoglycan
Work best on young actively growing cells
Examples : Penicillin, prevents protein crosslinks from forming. Bacitracin, prevents subunits from being transported

Because of similarities between all membranes, drugs tend to be more toxic
are effective against all age cells and relatively inactive cells
Examples:
> Polymixins: disupts membrane surface by interacting with phospholipids of gram negative bacteria
> Polyenes: form complexes with sterol lipids in fungal cell membranes > abnormal openings

Antiviral Drugs
Problems

Selective toxicity hard to obtain (drugs that effect viral replication dirupt living cells)
> viruses are not living but rely on living cells to replicate
No definitive treatment for viral infection ( no antiviral drug by itself can elimainte a patients viral infection) > slow viruses so persons immune system can heal self

Antiviral drugs viral uncoatin

includes durgs to treat influenza

Antiviral drugs slow disrupt neulceic acid synthesis

includes nucleic acid analogs
includes drugs to treat herpes and HIV infections
Inhibit assembly and release of virus
> includes protease inhibitorts to treat HIV

Antimicrobial Drug Resistance

The ability of microorganisms to resist the effect of certain drugs
Microorganisms develop particular mechansim over time
new drug > little or no resistance
As drug used > more and more microbes become resistance

How do microbe acquire drug resistance ? mutation

Rapid reproduction of bacteria can produce beneficial mutations
acquiring the trait from another microbe already resistant to the drug ( intermicrobial gene transfer)

Microbes resistant to more than one antibiotic
Certain mechanisms of restance work against multiple antibiotics
Example: an efflux pump may be able to remove several types of antibiotic from bacteria
Example: a change in proins may keep several antibitotics from entering cell
Some isolates of certain bacterial species are resistant to all available drugs

Preventing rthe spread of drug resistance

Use antimcrobial drugs only when indicated
Reserve potent antimicrobials for serious infections
Use proper dose and treat for apporpriate length of time
Limit use as growth additive for food animal proudction
-animals grow if given cheap antibiotics but makes vulnerable to exposure to bacteria