ecology of coral reefs

Water conditions favourable to the growth of reefs exist in tropical or near-tropical surface waters. Regional differences may result from the presence or absence of upwelling currents of colder waters or from the varying relation of precipitation to evaporation.

effect of trophic cascades

During the 1980s and ’90s a series of experiments demonstrated trophic cascades by adding or removing top carnivores, such as bass (
Micropterus) and yellow perch (
Perca flavescens), to or from freshwater lakes. Those experiments showed that trophic cascades controlled biomass and production of phytoplankton, recycling rates of nutrients, the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus...

importance of

crustaceans

Crustaceans play many roles in
aquatic ecosystems. The planktonic forms—such as the copepod
Calanus and the krill
Euphausia—graze on the microscopic plants floating in the sea and in turn are eaten by fishes, seabirds, and whales. Benthic (bottom-dwelling) crustaceans are a food source for fish, and some whales feed extensively on benthic amphipods. Crabs are important...

echinoderms

Echinoderms are efficient scavengers of decaying matter on the seafloor, and they prey upon a variety of small organisms, thereby helping to regulate their numbers. When present in large numbers, sea urchins can devastate sea-grass beds in the tropics, adversely affecting the organisms dwelling within. Sea urchins that burrow into rocks and along a shore can accelerate the erosion of...

microorganisms

...and are an essential component of the food chain in these environments. For example, the microbial flora of the sea comprises bacteria, algae, fungi, and protozoa. The microorganisms inhabiting aquatic environments are collectively referred to as plankton; phytoplankton refers to the photosynthetic microbes (primarily algae), whereas protozoa, and other small animals, are zooplankton....

perciforms

Perciforms include both predator and prey species and are thus of great importance within the ecological food chains. The diverse adaptations for feeding are partly responsible for the success of this abundant order. Many of the colourful perciforms that occur around coral reefs are herbivorous fishes, the food of which consists mainly of plankton, algae on corals, and other reef vegetation;...

influence on respiration and respiratory systems

...physical characteristics of water and air. Air contains about 20 times the amount of oxygen found in air-saturated water. In order to extract an equivalent amount of oxygen as an air breather, an aquatic animal may find it necessary to pass across the respiratory surfaces a relatively larger volume of the external medium. Moreover, the diffusion rate of oxygen is much lower in water than in...

The breathing patterns of most reptiles are not regular, usually consisting of a series of active inspirations and expirations followed by relatively long pauses. In aquatic reptiles diving occurs during these pauses, which may last an hour or more in some turtles and aquatic snakes. Even terrestrial reptiles show intermittent periods of breathing and breath holding. The metabolic rate of most...

major references

Marine waters cover two-thirds of the surface of the Earth. In some places the ocean is deeper than Mount Everest is high; for example, the Mariana Trench and the Tonga Trench in the western part of the Pacific Ocean reach depths in excess of 10,000 metres (32,800 feet). Within this ocean habitat live a wide variety of organisms that have evolved in response to various features of their...