1.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population

2.
Bagpipes
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Bagpipes are a wind instrument using enclosed reeds fed from a constant reservoir of air in the form of a bag. The term bagpipe is equally correct in the singular or plural, though pipers usually refer to the bagpipes as the pipes, a set of bagpipes minimally consists of an air supply, a bag, a chanter, and usually at least one drone. Many bagpipes have more than one drone in various combinations, held in place in stocks—sockets that fasten the various pipes to the bag, the most common method of supplying air to the bag is through blowing into a blowpipe, or blowstick. In some pipes the player must cover the tip of the blowpipe with their tongue while inhaling, an innovation, dating from the 16th or 17th century, is the use of a bellows to supply air. In these pipes, sometimes called cauld wind pipes, air is not heated or moistened by the players breathing, the bag is an airtight reservoir that holds air and regulates its flow via arm pressure, allowing the player to maintain continuous even sound. The player keeps the bag inflated by blowing air into it through a blowpipe or pumping air into it with a bellows, materials used for bags vary widely, but the most common are the skins of local animals such as goats, dogs, sheep, and cows. More recently, bags made of materials including Gore-Tex have become much more common. A drawback of the bag is the potential for fungal spores to colonise the bag because of a reduction in necessary cleaning. An advantage of a bag is that they have a zip which allows the user to fit a more effective moisture trap to the inside of the bag. Bags cut from larger materials are usually saddle-stitched with an extra strip folded over the seam, holes are then cut to accommodate the stocks. The chanter is the pipe, played with two hands. Almost all bagpipes have at least one chanter, some pipes have two chanters, particularly those in North Africa, the Balkans in Southern Europe, and Southwest Asia. A chanter can be bored internally so that the walls are parallel for its full length. The chanter is usually open-ended, so there is no way for the player to stop the pipe from sounding. Thus most bagpipes share a constant, legato sound where there are no rests in the music, primarily because of this inability to stop playing, technical movements are used to break up notes and to create the illusion of articulation and accents. Because of their importance, these embellishments are often highly technical systems specific to each bagpipe, a few bagpipes have closed ends or stop the end on the players leg, so that when the player closes the chanter becomes silent. A practice chanter is a chanter without bag or drones, allowing a player to practice the instrument quietly, the term chanter is derived from the Latin cantare, or to sing, much like the modern French word chanteur. The note from the chanter is produced by a reed installed at its top, the reed may be a single or double reed

3.
Greece
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Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens

4.
Crete
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Crete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, 88th-largest island in the world and the fifth-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, and Corsica. Crete and a number of surrounding islands and islets constitute the region of Crete, the capital and the largest city is Heraklion. As of 2011, the region had a population of 623,065, Crete forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece, while retaining its own local cultural traits. It was once the centre of the Minoan civilization, which is regarded as the earliest recorded civilization in Europe. The island is first referred to as Kaptara in texts from the Syrian city of Mari dating from the 18th century BC, repeated later in Neo-Assyrian records and it was also known in ancient Egyptian as Keftiu, strongly suggesting a similar Minoan name for the island. The current name of Crete is thought to be first attested in Mycenaean Greek texts written in Linear B, through the words

5.
Tsampouna
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The tsampouna is a Greek folk instrument of the bagpipe family. It is a bagpipe, with no drone, and is inflated by blowing by mouth into a goatskin bag. The instrument is widespread in the Greek islands, the word is a reborrowing of zampogna, the word for the Italian double chantered pipes. Tsampouna is etymologically related to the Greek sumfōnia, meaning concord or unison of sound, however, a partial revival in the use of the tsampouna is occurring among traditional musicians on the island of Ikaria. Where, in recent years, it has become common for the tsampouna to be played at Ikarian festivals. In the 21st century interest in the tsabouna is growing and re-oriented, although its tradition emerged from a now obsolete social context, current reality is giving birth to a new tradition. This new tradition goes side by side with the old one that is carried on. At the same time it breaks the latters closer bond with local communities, Greek musical instruments Askomandoura Gaida Dankiyo Musipedia, τσαμπούνα Traditional Greek instruments, Tσαμπούνα La Ponta-Venetian tower, Greek Bagpipe exhibition-workshop Santorini Greece

6.
Aerophone
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Aerophones categorically comprise the largest and most complex group of instruments in the Americas. The first class includes instruments which, when played, do not contain the vibrating air and this class includes free reed instruments, such as the harmonica, but also many instruments unlikely to be called wind instruments at all by most people, such as sirens and whips. The second class includes instruments which contain the air when being played. This class includes almost all instruments generally called wind instruments — including the didgeridoo, brass instruments, additionally, very loud sounds can be made by explosions directed into, or being detonated inside of resonant cavities. Detonations inside the calliope, as well as the pyrophone might thus be considered as class 42 instruments, according to Ardal Powell, flute is a simple instrument found in numerous ancient cultures. There are three legendary and archeologically verifiable birthplace sites of flutes, Egypt, Greece and India, of these, the transverse flute appeared only in ancient India, while the fipple flutes are found in all three. It is likely, states Powell, that the modern Indian bansuri has not changed much since the medieval era. Archaeological studies have found examples of globular flutes in ancient Mexico, Colombia and Peru, the use of shells of Conches as an aerophone have also been found to be prevalent in areas such as Central America and Peru. Examples of aerophone type instruments in China can be dated back to the Neolithic period, fragments of bone flutes can be found at the burial sites of the Jiahu settlements of ancient China, and they represent some of the earliest known examples of playable instruments. The instruments were carved from the wing bone of the red-crowned crane. The flutes were efficient enough to sound in a nearly accurate octave. Examples of flutes made out of bamboo in China date back to 2nd Century BC and these flutes were known as Dizis or simply Di and typically had 6 holes for playing melodies that were framed by scale-modes. Flutes including the famous Bansuri, have been a part of Indian classical music since 1500 BC. A major deity of Hinduism, Krishna, has been associated with the flute, some early flutes were made out of tibias. Free aerophones are instruments where the air is not enclosed by the instrument itself. The air-stream meets a sharp edge, or an edge is moved through the air. Occasionally called percussive aerophones, plosive aerophones are sounded by percussion caused by a single compression, an example of a plosive aerophone is the scraper flute which has tubes with ridged or serrated edges so that they can be scraped with a rod to produce sound. Non-free aerophones are instruments where the air is contained within the instrument

7.
Cretan music
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The music of Crete, also called kritika, refers to traditional forms of Greek folk music prevalent on the island of Crete in Greece. Cretan traditional music includes instrumental music, a capella songs known as the rizitika, Erotokritos, Cretan urban songs, as well as other miscellaneous songs, historically, there have been significant variations in the music across the island. Some of this continues today and in the late-twentieth and early-twenty-first centuries has received greater attention by scholars. Nonetheless, over the course of the twentieth-century, the sense of a single, much Cretan music includes the use of instruments. Lyra, violin, and laouto predominate, but other instruments include the mandolin, oud, thiampoli, askomandoura, classical guitar, boulgari. There is also an instrument known as the viololyra, a hybrid of the violin and lyra, Cretan music has been largely heterophonic in texture or accompanied by drones and fifth chords on Cretan lute, classical guitar, mandolin, boulgari, and so forth. Drones are also played simultaneously on melody instruments such as the lyra and it is much more common today for the lyra to be accompanied by one or more other instruments, and for lyra players to employ a violin bow. Like fiddle tunes in various traditions, Cretan dance music often involves repeated melodies or repeated pairings of melodies. Another musical construction common to Cretan music is the taximi, a rhythmically free, much Cretan music is improvisational, especially in terms of its lyrics. Each line of a mantinada is divided into two hemistichs, the first of eight syllables and the second of seven, and separated by a caesura. For this reason, sometimes when mantinadas are transcribed, they are broken into four lines in a rhyme scheme of ABCB as opposed to the traditional form of a couplet. There may be variations in meter. For example, Τα κρητικά τα χώματα, όπου και αν τα σκάψεις, αίμα παλικαριών θα βρείς, ta Kritika ta chomata opou kai an ta skapseis Aima palikarion tha vreis, kokala tha ksethapseis. ΅Wherever you happen to dig in Cretan soil, You will find the blood of stout-hearted men, mantinadas are written about a variety of subjects. Many focus on love, employ pastoral imagery, and use Cretan idiomatic Greek, numerous folklorists since the early twentieth century have published large collections of mantinadas. Since the mid-twentieth century, some prolific mantinada composers have published their mantinadas. Some mantinadas are excerpted as stand-alone rhyming couplets from longer poems, particularly the Erotokritos, singers, professional and amateur alike, frequently improvise in the moment which mantinadas they sing or improvise entirely new ones on the spot. Sometimes a certain pairing of a particular mantinada with a particular melody will also congeal among much of the population, a common musical accompaniment for the improvisation of large numbers of mantinadas is called a kontilia, a four-measure melody

8.
Cretan lyra
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The Cretan lyra is a Greek pear-shaped, three-stringed bowed musical instrument, central to the traditional music of Crete and other islands in the Dodecanese and the Aegean Archipelago, in Greece. The Cretan lyra is considered as the most popular surviving form of the medieval Byzantine lyra, the Cretan lyra is closely related to the bowed Byzantine lyra, the ancestor of many European bowed instruments and of rabāb found in Islamic empires of that time. At that time, noble families from Constantinople were sent to settle on Crete to inject new life and replenish the Greek population, who introduced many Byzantine traditions from Constantinople. The lyra was introduced into the islands traditions as a popular element of the Byzantine music and tradition. The common lyra, popular in the island today, designed after the combination of lyraki with the violin. The influence of the violin caused the transformation of many features of the old form of Cretan Lyra into the contemporary lyra, including its tuning, performance practice, and repertory. In 1920, the viololyra was developed in an effort of local instrument manufacturers to give the sound, twenty years later a new combination of lyraki and violin gave birth to the common lyra. Other types include the four-stringed lyra, in 1990, Ross Daly designed a new type of Cretan lyra which incorporates elements of lyraki, the Byzantine lyra and the Indian sarangi. The result was a lyra with three playing strings of 29 cm in length, and 18 sympathetic strings which resonate on Indian-styled jawari bridges, Lyra has a body with a pear-shaped soundboard, or one which is essentially oval in shape, with two small semi-circular soundholes. The body and neck are carved out of one piece of aged wood, traditionally the bodys wood was sourced from trees growing in Crete such as walnut, mulberry and asfadamos, the local plane tree, today it is mostly imported. In the past, the strings were made of animal bowels, in the past, the bows arc usually had a series of spherical bells, gerakokoudouna, to provide rhythmic accompaniment to the melody when the bow was moving. Today, most lyras are played with violin bows, a method for the vibration analysis and characterization of the Cretan lyre top plates was reported recently. The old model of the Cretan lyra, is tuned 5-1-4, the performer plays the melody on the 1st and 3rd string, using the 2nd string as a drone, similarly to the Byzantine lyras from ca.1190 AD, found in the excavations of Novgorod. The contemporary lyra replaces the drone strings with three strings in succession, the contemporary lyra modelled after Stagakis design is tuned in fifths, and like the violin, it uses no drone string, and all strings may be fingered and used as melody strings. The Cretan lyra is still used in Crete, in some islands of the Dodecanese. Today in Rhodes, Yiannis Kladakis is known for reviving this type of lyra in the island, georgia Dagaki is known for playing the instrument at the current shows of rock singer Eric Burdon. Anoyanakis, Fivos, Elliniká laiká mousiká órgana,1976 Anthony Baines, The Oxford Companion to Musical Instruments. Oxford University Press,1990, p.109 Magrini, Tullia, the Cretan Lyra and the Influence of Violin

9.
Greek music
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The music of Greece is as diverse and celebrated as its history. Greek music separates into two parts, Greek traditional music and Byzantine music, with more eastern sounds, Music is a significant aspect of Hellenic culture, both within Greece and in the diaspora. Greek musical history extends far back into ancient Greece, since music was a part of ancient Greek theater. Later influences from the Roman Empire, Eastern Europe and the Byzantine Empire changed the form, in the 19th century, opera composers, like Nikolaos Mantzaros, Spyridon Xyndas and Spyridon Samaras and symphonists, like Dimitris Lialios and Dionysios Rodotheatos revitalized Greek art music. In ancient Greece, men usually performed choruses performed for entertainment, celebration, Instruments included the double-reed aulos and the plucked string instrument, the lyre, especially the special kind called a kithara. Music was an important part of education in ancient Greece, due to Romes reverence for Greek culture, the Romans borrowed the Greek method of enchiriadic notation to record their music, if they used any notation at all. In his lexicographical discussion of instruments, the Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih cited the lūrā as an instrument of the Byzantines along with the urghun, shilyani. These genres have certainly reached a degree of evolution. They were forms of a music that had many elements of ancient Greek origin but also. By the beginning of the 20th century, music-cafés were popular in Greek cities like Constantinople and Smyrna, the bands were typically led by a female vocalist and included a violin. The improvised songs typically exclaimed amán amán, which led to the name amanédhes or café-aman, Greek musicians of this period included Marika Papagika, Rosa Eskenazi and Rita Abatzi. This period also brought in the Rebetiko movement, which had local Smyrnaic, Greek folk traditions are said to derive from the music played by ancient Greeks. There are said to be two musical movements in Greek folk music, Acritic songs and Klephtic songs, akritic music comes from the 9th century akrites, or border guards of the Byzantine Empire. Following the end of the Byzantine period, klephtic music arose before the Greek Revolution, developed among the kleftes, Klephtic music is monophonic and uses no harmonic accompaniment. Many of the earliest recordings were done by Arvanites like Yiorgia Mittaki, instrumentalists include clarinet virtuosos like Petroloukas Halkias, Yiorgos Yevyelis and Yiannis Vassilopoulos, as well as oud and fiddle players like Nikos Saragoudas and Yiorgos Koros. Nisiotika is a term denoting folk songs from the Greek islands. Among the most popular types of them is Ikariótiko traghoúdhi, song from Ikaria, ikariótikos is a traditional type of dance, and also the name of its accompanying type of singing, originating in the Aegean island of Ikaria. At first it was a slow dance, but today Ikariotikos is a very quick dance

10.
Aulos
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An aulos or tibia was an ancient Greek wind instrument, depicted often in art and also attested by archaeology. An aulete was the musician who performed on an aulos, the ancient Roman equivalent was the tibicen, from the Latin tibia, pipe, aulos. There were several kinds of aulos, single or double, the most common variety was a reed instrument. Archeological finds, surviving iconography and other evidence indicate that it was double-reeded, like the modern oboe, a single pipe without a reed was called the monaulos. A single pipe held horizontally, as the flute, was the plagiaulos. A pipe with a bag to allow for sound, that is a bagpipe, was the askaulos. Like the Great Highland Bagpipe, the aulos has been used for martial music and it was the standard accompaniment of the passionate elegiac poetry. It also accompanied physical activities such as wrestling matches, the broad jump, plato associates it with the ecstatic cults of Dionysus and the Korybantes, banning it from his Republic but reintroducing it in Laws. It appears that some variants of the instrument were loud, shrill, sometimes a second strap was used over the top of the head to prevent the phorbeiá from slipping down. Aulos players are depicted with puffed cheeks. The playing technique almost certainly made use of breathing, very much like the Sardinian launeddas and Armenian duduk. Nevertheless, such musicians could achieve fame, the Romano-Greek writer Lucian discusses aulos playing in his dialogue Harmonides, in which Alexander the Greats aulete Timotheus discusses fame with his pupil Harmonides. Timotheus advises him to impress the experts within his profession rather than seek popular approval in big public venues, if leading musicians admire him, popular approval will follow. However, Lucian reports that Harmonides died from excessive blowing during practicing, in myth, Marsyas the satyr was supposed to have invented the aulos, or else picked it up after Athena had thrown it away because it caused her cheeks to puff out and ruined her beauty. But Apollo and his lyre beat Marsyas and his aulos, and since the pure lord of Delphis mind worked in different ways from Marsyass, he celebrated his victory by stringing his opponent up from a tree and flaying him alive. King Midas was cursed with donkeys ears for judging Apollo as the lesser player, Marsyass blood and the tears of the Muses formed the river Marsyas in Asia Minor. This tale was a warning against committing the sin of hubris, or overweening pride, some of this is a result of 19th century AD classical interpretation, i. e. Apollo versus Dionysus, or Reason opposed to Madness. In the temple to Apollo at Delphi, there was also a shrine to Dionysus, and his Maenads are shown on drinking cups playing the aulos, so a modern interpretation can be a little more complicated than just simple duality

11.
Pan flute
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The pan flutes are a group of musical instruments based on the principle of the closed tube, consisting of multiple pipes of gradually increasing length. Multiple varieties of panflutes have long been popular as folk instruments, the pipes are typically made from bamboo, giant cane, or local reeds. Other materials include wood, plastic, metal and ivory, the pan flute is named after Pan, the Greek god of nature and shepherds often depicted with such an instrument. The pan flutes tubes are stopped at one end, at which the wave is reflected giving a note an octave lower than that produced by an open pipe of equal length. In the traditional South American style, pipes are fine-tuned to correct pitch by placing small pebbles or dry corn kernels into the bottom of the pipes, contemporary makers of curved Romanian-style panpipes use wax to tune new instruments. Special tools are used to place or remove the wax, corks and rubber stoppers are also used, and are easier to quickly tune pipes. The pan flute is an end-blown flute, sound is produced by the vibration of an air-stream blowing across an open hole at the end of a resonating tube. The length of the tube determines the fundamental frequency, an overblown harmonic register is near a 12th above the fundamental in cylindrical tubes, but can approach an octave jump if a decreasing taper is used. According to the Fundamental Principle for pan flutes, the frequency, every time the pitch goes up one octave, the frequency doubles. Because there are 12 notes in a scale or a full octave. By this, it is possible to calculate the length of any pipe, the formula for calculating the length of a pan flute pipe is L = /4. Because of a property of compression within the tube, the length must be a little shorter to correct flat pitch, the extra length is helpful for a maker, who can use a cork or plug at the bottom to adjust the pitch. Some instruments use wax or pellets to tune the fundamental pitch of each tube, a tube that has a diameter 1/10 of its length yields a typical tone colour. An inner diameter range between 1/7 and 1/14 of the length L is acceptable, a narrow tube will sound reedy, while a wide one will sound flutey. If you are a perfectionist, multiply the bore diameter by 0.82 and this compensates for internal compression slowing frequency and the lips partially covering the voicing. Only tiny adjustments will be needed then to adjust fundamental pitch for air density, the pan flute is played by blowing horizontally across an open end against the sharp inner edge of the pipes. Each pipe is tuned to a keynote, called the fundamental frequency, by overblowing, that is, increasing the pressure of breath and tension of lips, odd harmonics, near a 12th in cylindrical tubes, may also be produced. The Romanian pan flute has the pipes arranged in a curved array, an advanced player can play any scale and in any key

12.
Pandura
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The pandura was an ancient Greek string instrument belonging in the broad class of the lute and guitar instruments. Musical instruments of this class have been observed in ancient Greek artwork from the 3rd or 4th century BC onward, lute-class instruments were present in Mesopotamia since the Akkadian era, or the third millennium BCE. The ancient Greek pandoura was a medium or long-necked lute with a resonating chamber. It commonly had three strings, such an instrument was known as the trichordon. Renato Meucci suggests that the some Italian Renaissance descendants of Pandura type were called chitarra italiana, information about Roman pandura-type instruments comes mainly from ancient Roman artwork. The word pandura was rare in classical Latin writers, there were at least two distinct varieties of pandura. One type was pear-shaped, used in Assyria and Persia, in this type the body had graceful inward curves which led up gradually from base to neck. These curves changed at the end off the instrument to a more sloping outline. The oval type, an instrument of the Egyptians, was also found in ancient Persia. From the ancient Greek word pandoura, an instrument is found in modern Chechnya and Ingushetia. In Georgia the panduri is a fretted instrument. The modern Georganian panduri instrument is in the tanbur class, tambouras Panduri Baglamas Mandora Bandura Tanbur Bouzouki Mandolin J. W. McKinnon Pandoura in New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments Vol 3 p 10 ed S. Sadie. Picture of a pandura, originally published 1947 in the book The Great Palace of the Byzantine Emperors by David Talbot Rice, henry George Farmer calls the instrument a three-stringed pandoura in his 1949 article An Early Greek Pandore. Website that has a history of Pandura with some good photos

13.
Salpinx
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A salpinx was a trumpet-like instrument of the ancient Greeks. The salpinx consisted of a straight, narrow bronze tube with a mouthpiece of bone and a bell of variable shape and size, extant descriptions describe conical, bulb-like, each type of bell may have had a unique effect on the sound made by the instrument. The instrument has been depicted in classical era vases as employing the use of a phorbeia. Though similar to the Roman tuba, the salpinx was shorter than the approximately 1.5 meter long Roman tuba and this salpinx is over 1.57 m long dwarfing the common salpinx which is estimated to have been around 0.8 –1.20 m long. The trumpet is found in early civilizations and therefore makes it difficult to discern when. References to the salpinx are found frequently in Greek literature and art, early descriptions of the sound of the salpinx can be found in Homer’s Iliad, however, this Archaic reference is exceptional and frequent references are not found until the Classical period. Similar instruments can be found in Anatolia, Mesopotamia, and Egypt, bronze instruments were important among the Etruscans and as a people they were held in high regard by the Greeks for their musical contributions. The salpinx as an Etruscan invention is thus supported by the Greeks and various descriptions can be found among the authors Aeschylus, Pollux, when encountered in Greek art and literature, the salpinx is usually depicted as being played by a soldier. Fifth century authors frequently associated its piercing sound with war, the instrument often being used for signalling, summoning crowds and beginning chariot races. This is supported in the writing of Aristotle who, in De Audibilibus, explained that salpinges were used as. instruments of summons in war, at the games, aristides Quintilianus described the necessity of the salpinx and salpingtis in battle in his treatise, On Music. He explains that each command to troops was given using specific tones or melodies played on the salpinx. This action allowed for an army to receive a command at once as well as provide a level of secrecy as these salpinx calls were specific to a group. This is why the salpinx was primarily used before battle to summon men to prepare for battle and it is suggested here that the salpinx may have found use in festive occasions as well as war. This notion is corroborated by Nikos Xanthoulis in his article The Salpinx in Greek Antiquity, here, he draws particular attention to Aristotles statement that. participants of a komos unbend the tension of the exhaling air in the salpinx, in order to make the sound smoother. The komos, a festival with music and dance, would require an unbending of tension in order to create a more pleasing tone thus indicating a usage for the instrument outside of the military. Another more universal function of the salpinx was to use it as a means of bringing silence to a crowd or at a large gathering. This was both useful in a setting in places such as large assemblies and as a tool to quiet soldiers while a general addressed his men. Due to the complexity of this process, the ASTRA project uses grid computing on hundreds of computers throughout Europe to model the sounds

14.
Water organ
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The water organ or hydraulic organ is a type of pipe organ blown by air, where the power source pushing the air is derived by water from a natural source or by a manual pump. Consequently, the organ lacks a bellows, blower, or compressor. The hydraulic organ is often confused with the hydraulis. The hydraulis is the name of a Greek instrument created by Ctesibius of Alexandria, the hydraulis has a reservoir of air which is inserted into a cistern of water. The air is pushed into the reservoir with hand pumps, the reservoir is open on the bottom, allowing water to maintain the pressure on the air as the air supply fluctuates from either the pumps pushing more air in, or the pipes letting air out. The hydraulis in ancient Greek is often imagined as an automatic organ, one of the oldest automatic instruments known is the automatic flute player invented by Banū Mūsā brothers in 9th-century Arabia. A hydraulis is a type of pipe organ that operated by converting the dynamic energy of water into air pressure to drive the pipes. Hence its name hydraulis, literally water pipe and it is attributed to the Hellenistic scientist Ctesibius of Alexandria, an engineer of the 3rd century BC. The hydraulis was the worlds first keyboard instrument and was, in fact, both water and air arrive together in the camera aeolis. Here, water and air separate and the air is driven into a wind-trunk on top of the camera aeolis. Two perforated ‘splash plates’ or ‘diaphragms’ prevent water spray from getting into the organ pipes, the water, having been separated from the air, leaves the camera aeolis at the same rate as it enters. It then drives a water wheel, which in turn drives the musical cylinder, to start the organ, the tap above the entry pipe is turned on and, given a continuous flow of water, the organ plays until the tap is closed again. Many water organs had simple water-pressure regulating devices, at the Palazzo del Quirinale, the water flows from a hilltop spring, coursing through the palace itself into a stabilizing ‘room’ some 18 metres above the camera aeolis in the organ grotto. This drop provides sufficient wind to power the restored six-stop instrument, among Renaissance writers on the water organ, Salomon de Caus was particularly informative. It also includes an example of music for water organ. Water organs were described in the writings of the famous Ctesibius, Philo of Byzantium. Like the water clocks of Platos time, they were not regarded as playthings but might have had a significance in Greek philosophy. Hydraulically blown organ pipes were used to imitate birdsong, and musicologists Susi Jeans, ord-Hume have suggested that it was used to create the sounds of the Vocal Memnon

15.
Lyre
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The lyre is a string instrument known for its use in Greek classical antiquity and later periods. The lyre is similar in appearance to a small harp but with distinct differences, the word comes via Latin from the Greek, the earliest reference to the word is the Mycenaean Greek ru-ra-ta-e, meaning lyrists and written in the Linear B script. The lyres of Ur, excavated in ancient Mesopotamia, date to 2500 BC, the earliest picture of a lyre with seven strings appears in the famous sarcophagus of Hagia Triada. The sarcophagus was used during the Mycenaean occupation of Crete, the recitations of the Ancient Greeks were accompanied by lyre playing. The lyre of classical antiquity was ordinarily played by being strummed with a plectrum, the fingers of the free hand silenced the unwanted strings in the chord. However, later lyres were played with a bow in Europe, one example from Wales that has been resurrected recently is the crwth. In organology, lyres are defined as yoke lutes, being lutes in which the strings are attached to a yoke which lies in the plane as the sound-table. A classical lyre has a body or sound-chest, which. Extending from this sound-chest are two raised arms, which are hollow, and are curved both outward and forward. They are connected near the top by a crossbar or yoke, an additional crossbar, fixed to the sound-chest, makes the bridge which transmits the vibrations of the strings. They were stretched between the yoke and bridge, or to a tailpiece below the bridge, according to ancient Greek mythology, the young god Hermes stole a herd of sacred cows from Apollo. In order not to be followed, he made shoes for the cows which forced them to walk backwards, Apollo, following the trails, could not follow where the cows were going. Along the way, Hermes slaughtered one of the cows and offered all, from the entrails and a tortoise/turtle shell, he created the Lyre. Apollo, figuring out it was Hermes who had his cows, Apollo was furious, but after hearing the sound of the lyre, his anger faded. Apollo offered to trade the herd of cattle for the lyre, hence, the creation of the lyre is attributed to Hermes. Other sources credit it to Apollo himself, locales in southern Europe, western Asia, or north Africa have been proposed as the historic birthplace of the genus. The instrument is played in north-eastern parts of Africa. Some of the cultures using and developing the lyre were the Aeolian and Ionian Greek colonies on the coasts of Asia bordering the Lydian empire, some mythic masters like Musaeus, and Thamyris were believed to have been born in Thrace, another place of extensive Greek colonization

16.
Barbiton
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The barbiton, or barbitos, is an ancient stringed instrument known from Greek and Roman classics related to the lyre. The barbat or barbud, also sometimes called barbiton, is an unrelated lute-like instrument derived from Persia. The Greek instrument was a version of the kithara, and belonged in the zither family, but in medieval times. Anacreon sings that his barbitos only gives out erotic tones, pollux calls the instrument barbiton or barymite, an instrument producing very deep sounds which comes out of the soundbox. The strings were twice as long as those of the pectis and it had fallen into disuse in the days of Aristotle, but reappeared under the Romans. Aristotle said that this instrument was not for educational purposes. Often Sappho is also depicted playing the barbitos, which has longer strings and it is closely associated with the poet Alcaeus and the island of Lesbos, the birthplace of Sappho, where it is called a barmos. The music from this instrument was said to be the lyre for drinking parties and is considered an invention of Terpander, the word barbiton was frequently used for the kithara or lyre. From the Greek writers we know that it was an instrument having some feature or features in common with the lyre, and kithara, which warranted classification with it. In outline it resembles a large lute with a neck. Most authors in reproducing these sculptures showing the barbiton represent the instrument as boat-shaped and without a neck, as, for instance, the barbat, or barbiton, pictured to the right is unlike the instrument depicted on Greek vase paintings. At some period not yet determined, which we can but conjecture, an instrument called barbiton was known in the early part of the 16th and during the 17th century. It was a kind of theorbo or bass-lute, but with one neck only, the people called it theorbo, but the scholar having identified it with the instrument of classic Greece and Rome called it barbiton. The barbiton had nine pairs of gut strings, each pair being in unison, dictionaries of the 18th century support Fludds use of the name barbiton. Claude Perrault, writing in the 18th century, states that les modernes appellent notre luth barbiton, constantijn Huygens declares that he learnt to play the barbiton in a few weeks, but took two years to learn the cittern. The barbat was a variety of rebab, an instrument, differing only in size. The word barbud applied to the barbiton is said to be derived from a musician living at the time of Chosroes II. Who excelled in playing upon the instrument, mr Ellis, of the Oriental Department of the British Museum, has kindly supplied the original Persian names translated above, i. e. barbut, chang, rubāb, nei

17.
Chelys
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The chelys, was a stringed musical instrument, the common lyre of the ancient Greeks, which had a convex back of tortoiseshell or of wood shaped like the shell. The word chelys was used in allusion to the oldest lyre of the Greeks, which was said to have been invented by Hermes. According to the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, he came across a tortoise near the threshold of his mothers home, the word has been applied arbitrarily since classic times to various stringed instruments, some bowed and some twanged, probably owing to the back being much vaulted. Athanasius Kircher applied the name of chelys to a kind of viol with eight strings, numerous representations of the chelys lyre or testudo occur on Greek vases, in which the actual tortoiseshell is depicted. A good illustration is given in Le Antichità di Ercolano, propertius calls the instrument the lyra testudinea. Joseph Justus Scaliger was probably the first writer to draw attention to the difference between the chelys and the kithara, the acoustics of an authentically reconstructed ancient Greek tortoise-shell lyre, known as chelys, was investigated recently. Modern experimental methods were employed, such as electronic speckle pattern laser interferometry and impulse response, to extract the behavior of the instrument. Additionally, the sound from the instrument was recorded, under controlled conditions. The experimental results validate the historical evidence that chelys was used in Greek antiquity as an accompaniment instrument to the human voice and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Schlesinger, Kathleen

18.
Cithara
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The cithara or kithara was an ancient Greek musical instrument in the lyre or lyra family. In modern Greek the word kithara has come to mean guitar, the kithara was a professional version of the two-stringed lyre. As opposed to the lyre, which was a folk-instrument. The kitharas origins are likely Asiatic, the barbiton was a bass version of the kithara popular in the eastern Aegean and ancient Asia Minor. In the Middle Ages, cythara was used generically for stringed instruments including lyres. The use of the name throughout the Middle Ages looked back to the original Greek cithara, the kithara had a deep, wooden sounding box composed of two resonating tables, either flat or slightly arched, connected by ribs or sides of equal width. At the top, its strings were knotted around the crossbar or yoke or to rings threaded over the bar, the other end of the strings was secured to a tail-piece after passing over a flat bridge, or the tail-piece and bridge were combined. The kithara was played primarily to accompany dances and epic recitations, rhapsodies, odes and it was also played solo at the receptions, banquets, national games, and trials of skill. The music from this instrument was said to be the lyre for drinking parties and is considered an invention of Terpander, aristotle said that these string instruments were not for educational purposes but for pleasure only. The kithara was the instrument, generally known as taking a great deal of skill. Sappho is closely associated with music, especially string instruments like the kithara and she was a woman of high social standing and composed songs that focused on the emotions. A Greek mythology story goes that she ascended the slopes of Mount Parnassus where she was welcomed by the Muses. She wandered through the grove and came upon the cave of Apollo. The sacred nymphs danced while she stroked the strings with much talent to bring forth sweet musical melodies from the resonant kithara, Music and Image in Classical Athens, New York, Cambridge University Press Schlesinger, Kathleen. MMA staff, The Kithara in Ancient Greece | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, retrieved 2016-10-25 Hagel, Stefan, Ancient Greek Music, Oeaw. ac. In its recording DEuripide aux premiers chretiens, musique de lantiquité grecque et romaine, pictures of its instruments can be seen on their website

19.
Phorminx
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Phorminx is also a genus of cylindrical bark beetles. The phorminx was one of the oldest of the Ancient Greek stringed musical instruments and it consisted of two to seven strings, richly decorated arms and a crescent-shaped sound box. It mostly probably originated from Mesopotamia, while it seems to have been common in Homers day, accompanying the rhapsodes, it was supplanted in historical times by the seven-stringed kithara. Nevertheless, the term continued to be used as an archaism in poetry

20.
Sistrum
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A sistrum is a musical instrument of the percussion family, chiefly associated with ancient Iraq and Egypt. It consists of a handle and a U-shaped metal frame, made of brass or bronze, when shaken the small rings or loops of thin metal on its movable crossbars produce a sound that can be from a soft clank to a loud jangling. Its name in the ancient Egyptian language was sekhem and sesheshet, sekhem is the simpler, hoop-like sistrum, while sesheshet is the naos-shaped one. The sistrum was an instrument in ancient Egypt. It was also shaken to avert the flooding of the Nile, isis in her role as mother and creator was depicted holding a pail symbolizing the flooding of the Nile, in one hand and a sistrum in the other. The goddess Bast too is often depicted holding a sistrum, symbolizing her role as a goddess of dance, joy, Sistra are still used in the Alexandrian Rite and Ethiopic Rite. Besides the depiction in Egyptian art with dancing and expressions of joy, the hieroglyph for the sistrum is shown. The ancient Minoans also used the sistrum, and a number of made of local clay have been found on the island of Crete. Five of these are displayed at the Archaeological Museum of Agios Nikolaos, a sistrum is also depicted on the Harvester Vase, an artifact found at the site of Agia Triada. The sistrum has remained a liturgical instrument in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church throughout the centuries and is played during the dance performed by the debtera on important church festivals and it is also occasionally found in NeoPagan worship & ritual. The sistrum was occasionally revived in 19th century Western orchestral music, nowadays, however, it is replaced by its close modern equivalent, the tambourine. The effect produced by the sistrum in music - when shaken in short, sharp, rhythmic pulses - is to arouse movement, the barcoo dog, a sheep herding tool used in Australian bush band music, is a type of sistrum. Sistrum Media related to Sistra at Wikimedia Commons Sistrum

21.
String instrument
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String instruments, stringed instruments, or chordophones are musical instruments that produce sound from vibrating strings when the performer plays or sounds the strings in some manner. Musicians play some string instruments by plucking the strings with their fingers or a plectrum—and others by hitting the strings with a wooden hammer or by rubbing the strings with a bow. In some keyboard instruments, such as the harpsichord or piano, with bowed instruments, the player rubs the strings with a horsehair bow, causing them to vibrate. With a hurdy-gurdy, the musician operates a wheel that rubs the strings. Bowed instruments include the string instruments of the Classical music orchestra. All of the string instruments can also be plucked with the fingers. Some types of string instrument are mainly plucked, such as the harp, in the Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification, used in organology, string instruments are called chordophones. Other examples include the sitar, rebab, banjo, mandolin, ukulele, in most string instruments, the vibrations are transmitted to the body of the instrument, which often incorporates some sort of hollow or enclosed area. The body of the instrument also vibrates, along with the air inside it, the vibration of the body of the instrument and the enclosed hollow or chamber make the vibration of the string more audible to the performer and audience. The body of most string instruments is hollow, some, however—such as electric guitar and other instruments that rely on electronic amplification—may have a solid wood body. Archaeological digs have identified some of the earliest stringed instruments in Ancient Mesopotamian sites, like the lyres of Ur, the development of lyre instruments required the technology to create a tuning mechanism to tighten and loosen the string tension. During the medieval era, instrument development varied from country to country, Middle Eastern rebecs represented breakthroughs in terms of shape and strings, with a half a pear shape using three strings. Early versions of the violin and fiddle, by comparison, emerged in Europe through instruments such as the gittern, a four stringed precursor to the guitar and these instruments typically used catgut and other materials, including silk, for their strings. String instrument design refined during the Renaissance and into the Baroque period of musical history, violins and guitars became more consistent in design, and were roughly similar to what we use in the 2000s. At the same time, the 19th century guitar became more associated with six string models. In big bands of the 1920s, the guitar played backing chords. The development of guitar amplifiers, which contained a power amplifier, the development of the electric guitar provided guitarists with an instrument that was built to connect to guitar amplifiers. Electric guitars have magnetic pickups, volume control knobs and an output jack, in the 1960s, larger, more powerful guitar amplifiers were developed, called stacks

22.
Byzantine lyra
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The Byzantine lyra or lira was a medieval bowed string musical instrument in the Byzantine Empire. In its popular form the lyra was an instrument with three to five strings, held upright and played by stopping the strings from the side with fingernails. Remains of two examples of Byzantine lyras from the Middle ages have been found in excavations at Novgorod. The first known depiction of the instrument is on a Byzantine ivory casket, a notable example is the Italian lira da braccio, a 15th-century bowed string instrument which is considered by many as the predecessor of the contemporary violin. The Byzantine lyra had rear tuning pegs set in a flat peg similarly to the fiddle and unlike the rabāb. However, the strings were touched by the nails laterally and not pressed from above with the flesh of the such as in the violin. The lyra depicted on the Byzantine ivory casket of Museo Nazionale, the soundboard is depicted without soundholes and as a distinct and attached piece, however this might be due to stylistic abstraction. The lyras of Novgorod are closer morphologically to the present bowed lyras, they were pear-shaped and 40 cm long, they had semi-circular soundholes, the lyra of the Byzantine empire survives in many post-Byzantine regions until the present day even closely to its archetype form. The gudok, a historical Russian instrument that survived until the 19th century, is also a variant of the Byzantine lyra, the slightly rounded body of the lyra is prolonged by a neck ending on the top in a block which is also pear-shaped or spherical. In that, are set the pegs facing and extending forward, the soundboard is also carved with a shallower arch and has two small semi-circular, D-shaped soundholes. The Cretan lyra is probably the most widely used surviving form of the Byzantine lyra, currently, numerous models tend to integrate the shape of the scroll, the finger board and other morphology of some secondary characteristics of the violin. On Concepts and Classifications of Musical Instruments, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-42548-7 Grillet, Laurent, Les ancetres du violon v.1, Paris

23.
Baglamas
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For the instrument used in Turkish music, see Bağlama. Musically, the baglamas is most often found supporting the bouzouki in the Piraeus city style of rebetiko, the body is often hollowed out from a piece of wood or else made from a gourd, but there are also baglamas with staved backs. Its small size made it popular with musicians who needed an instrument transportable enough to carry around easily or small enough to shelter under a coat. During parts of the 20th century, players of the bouzouki and baglamas were persecuted by the government, the name comes from Turkish bağlama, a similar instrument. Bouzouki Pandura Tambouras Cretan lyra Tzouras

24.
Bouzouki
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A mainstay of modern Greek music, the front of the body is flat and is usually heavily inlaid with mother-of-pearl. The instrument is played with a plectrum and has a metallic sound, reminiscent of a mandolin. There are two types of bouzouki. The trichordo has three pairs of strings, and the tetrachordo has four pairs of strings and it is in the same instrumental family as the mandolin and the lute. The type of the instrument used in Rembetika music was a three-stringed instrument, the Greek bouzouki is a plucked musical instrument of the lute family, called the thabouras or tambouras family. The tambouras has existed in ancient Greece as pandoura, and can be found in sizes, shapes, depths of body, lengths of neck. The bouzouki and the baglamas are the direct descendants, the Greek marble relief, known as the Mantineia Base, dating from 330-320 BC, shows a muse playing a variant of the pandoura. From Byzantine times it was called pandouras and then tambouras, on display in the National Historical Museum of Greece is the tambouras of a hero of the Greek revolution of 1821, General Makriyiannis. Other sizes have appeared and include the Greek instrument tzouras, an instrument smaller in size than standard bouzouki, following the 1919–1922 war in Asia Minor and the subsequent exchange of populations between Greece and Turkey, the ethnic Greeks fled to Greece. The early bouzoukia were mostly three-string, with three courses and were tuned in different ways, as to the scale one wanted to play, at the end of the 1950s, four-course bouzoukia started to gain popularity. The four-course bouzouki was made popular by Manolis Chiotis, who used a tuning akin to standard guitar tuning. However it allowed for greater virtuosity and helped elevate the bouzouki into a popular instrument capable of a wide range of musical expression. Recently the 3 course bouzouki has gained in popularity, the first recording with the 4-course instrument was made in 1956. This is the style of bouzouki, introduced around 1900. It has fixed frets and 6 strings in three pairs, in the lower-pitched course, the pair consists of a thick wound string and a thin string, tuned an octave apart. The conventional modern tuning of the bouzouki is D3 D4•A3 A3•D4 D4. This tuning was called the European tuning by Markos Vamvakaris, who mentioned several other tunings, or douzenia, the illustrated bouzouki was made by Karolos Tsakirian of Athens, and is a replica of a trichordo bouzouki made by his grandfather for Markos Vamvakaris. The absence of the heavy mother-of-pearl ornamentation often seen on modern bouzoukia is typical of bouzoukia of the period and it has tuners for eight strings, but has only six strings, the neck being too narrow for eight

25.
Laouto
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The laouto is a long-neck fretted instrument of the lute family, found in Greece and Cyprus, and similar in appearance to the oud. The name comes from the lute and it is played in most respects like the oud. Unlike the oud and other short-necked lutes, the laouto has a higher string tension due to its longer neck, the laouto also tends to have only one sound hole whereas the oud family tend to have three. In this respect and because the use of frets, the laouto more closely resembles the lute. The soundboard is made of spruce or cedar wood, while the body is usually made of a harder wood such as maple or walnut. This is a consonant with the construction of other lutes. The 11 frets of the neck are removable and made of nylon, up to 9 wooden frets, mounted on the soundboard, are fixed. The intervals of the frets may be more frequent than that of a guitar to permit the playing of maqams as found in the music of Byzantium, the strings of the laouto were traditionally of gut, although the modern laouto has steel strings similar to those of the bouzouki. The laoutos eight strings are paired, tuned an octave apart, the interval from one pair to the next is tuned in fifths. The Laouto has a re-entrant tuning, Gg tuned a fourth lower than Cc, the two primary contemporary variants of the laouto, one somewhat smaller than the other, are to be found on mainland Greece and on the island of Crete. In Cyprus, Cypriot laouto is tuned C - G - D - A, the role of the laouto in Greek traditional music is primarily that of accompaniment. The laouto is often played in a duo with the Cretan lyra or with the violin, lavta http, //www. we-love-crete. com/cretan-music. html Atlas of plucked musical instruments Solo Cretan laouto video

26.
Lavta
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The lavta is a plucked string instrument from Istanbul. The bridge usually has mustache-shaped ends, the fingerboard is flush with the soundboard, which is often unvarnished, and has a carved and inlaid rosette. Some lavta have a pegbox like the oud, others more like a guitar, the tuning pegs are shaped like those of the violin, with 3 on the right side and 4 on the left side of the open tuning head. It was gradually replaced by the oud and survived until this day, from the 1980s there has been a revival of interest in this instrument, and now you can find the lavta again both in Turkey and in Greece. Right hand technique is similar to an oud, with a long thin plectrum, laouto Rud Shahrud Kobza Nautilauta http, //www. atlasofpluckedinstruments. com/middle_east. htm

27.
Mandola
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The mandola or tenor mandola is a fretted, stringed musical instrument. It is to the mandolin what the viola is to the violin, the four courses of strings tuned in fifths to the same pitches as the viola. The mandola, although now rarer, is the ancestor of the mandolin, the name mandola may originate with the ancient pandura, and was also rendered as mandora, the change perhaps having been due to approximation to the Italian word for almond. The instrument developed from the lute at a date, being more compact and cheaper to build. Historically related instruments include the mandore, mandole, vandola, bandola, bandora, however, significantly different instruments have at times and places taken on the same or similar names, and the true mandola has been strung in several different ways. The mandola has four courses of metal strings, tuned in unison rather than in octaves. The scale length is typically around 42 cm, the mandola is typically played with a plectrum. The double strings accommodate a sustaining technique called tremolando, an alternation of the plectrum on a single course of strings. The mandola is commonly used in folk music—particularly Italian folk music and it is sometimes played in Irish traditional music, but the instruments octave mandola, Irish bouzouki and modern cittern are more commonly used. It is tuned like a viola CGDA, like the guitar, the mandola can be acoustic or electric. Attila the Stockbroker, punk poet and frontman of Barnstormer, uses an electric mandola as his main instrument, alex Lifeson, guitarist of Rush, has also featured the mandola in his work. Mandolas are often played in orchestras, along with other members of the mandolin family, mandolin, mandocello. Sometimes the octave mandolin is included as well, Mandolin Mando-bass Octave mandola - Tuned an octave below the mandolin Mandocello - Tuned an octave below the mandola Irish bouzouki Troughton, John. Mandolin Manual, The Art, Craft and Science of the Mandolin, united States, Crowood Press, Limited, The. The Tenor Mandola Chord Bible, CGDA Standard Tuning 1,728 Chords, Chords for Mandolin, Irish Bango, Bouzouki, Mandola, Mamdocello. — A chord book featuring 20 pages of popular chords, the Mandolin Page theMandolinTuner, a mandolin site focusing on mandolin tuning, chords and tabs

28.
Mandolin
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A mandolin is a musical instrument in the lute family and is usually plucked with a plectrum or pick. It commonly has four courses of doubled metal strings tuned in unison, although five, the courses are normally tuned in a succession of perfect fifths. It is the member of a family that includes the mandola, octave mandolin, mandocello. There are many styles of mandolin, but three are common, the Neapolitan or round-backed mandolin, the mandolin and the flat-backed mandolin. The round-back has a bottom, constructed of strips of wood. The carved-top or arch-top mandolin has a shallower, arched back. The flat-backed mandolin uses thin sheets of wood for the body, each style of instrument has its own sound quality and is associated with particular forms of music. Neapolitan mandolins feature prominently in European classical music and traditional music, carved-top instruments are common in American folk music and bluegrass music. Flat-backed instruments are used in Irish, British and Brazilian folk music. Some modern Brazilian instruments feature a fifth course tuned a fifth lower than the standard fourth course. There has also been a type and an instrument with sixteen-strings. Much of mandolin development revolved around the soundboard, pre-mandolin instruments were quiet instruments, strung with as many as six courses of gut strings, and were plucked with the fingers or with a quill. However, modern instruments are louder—using four courses of metal strings, the modern soundboard is designed to withstand the pressure of metal strings that would break earlier instruments. The soundboard comes in many shapes—but generally round or teardrop-shaped, sometimes with scrolls or other projections, there is usually one or more sound holes in the soundboard, either round, oval, or shaped like a calligraphic f. A round or oval sound hole may be covered or bordered with decorative rosettes or purfling, Mandolins evolved from the lute family in Italy during the 17th and 18th centuries, and the deep bowled mandolin, produced particularly in Naples, became common in the 19th century. Dating to around c.13,000 BC, a painting in the Trois Frères cave in France depicts what some believe is a musical bow. From the musical bow, families of stringed instruments developed, since each string played a note, adding strings added new notes, creating bow harps, harps. In turn, this led to being able to play dyads and chords, another innovation occurred when the bow harp was straightened out and a bridge used to lift the strings off the stick-neck, creating the lute

29.
Psaltery
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A psaltery is a stringed instrument of the zither family. The psaltery of Ancient Greece is a harp-like instrument, the psaltery was originally made from wood, and relied on natural acoustics for sound production. In the Christian era, a psaltery consisting of a soundboard with several pre-tuned strings that are usually plucked came into use and it was also known by the name canon from the Greek word κανών, which means rule, principle, and also mode. The modern Greek folk instrument is called by its diminutive, kanonaki, the instrument is usually small enough to be portable, its shape and range vary. From the 12th through the 15th centuries, psalteries are widely seen in manuscripts, paintings and they vary widely in shape and the number of strings. In the 19th century, several related zithers came into use, notably the guitar zither, in the 20th century, the bowed psaltery came into wide use. It is set up in a format so that the end portion of each string can be bowed. Similar instruments include the large cimbalom and the smaller dulcimer, both played using small hammers to hit the strings. Gusli Kantele Nevel Psalterium Santur Zither Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Psaltery, Psaltery Discussion of psalteries, with image from the exhibition Making Musical Instruments, The making of musical instruments in Canada by the Canadian Museum of Civilisation

30.
Tambouras
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The tambouras is a Greek traditional string instrument of Byzantine origin. It has existed since at least the 10th century, when it was known in Assyria, at that time, it might have between two and six strings, but Arabs adopted it, and called it a Tanbur. The characteristic long neck and two strings, tuned 5 notes apart and it also similar instrument Tambur in Turkish and each of them have same origin. It is considered that the ancestor is the ancient Greek pandouris, also known as pandoura, pandouros or pandourida. Since modern Greek words do not have a transliteration into the Latin alphabet. Even the final -s may be dropped at the transliteration, since it marks the nominative in Greek. Variations of the word are to be found in Greece, tsambouras, the word ταμπουράς comes from Turkish tambur from Arabic ṭanbūr or Persian tunbūra. The tambouras is a fretted instrument of the lute family, close to Turkish saz. It has movable frets that permit playing tunes in the Greek traditional modes and it was also known as Pandouris, Pandoura and Fandouros in the Byzantine Empire. When the tambouras was tempered, it gave rise to the bouzouki, which is, in fact, a recent development of the tambouras

31.
Tzouras
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The Tzouras, is a Greek stringed musical instrument related to the Bouzouki. Its name comes from the Turkish Cura and it has 6 strings in 3 courses and is tuned D3 D4, A3 A3, D4 D4 or D4 D3, A3 A3, D4 D4. The strings are made of steel, saro Tribastone Mikal Cronin Greek musical instruments Greek music Pandura Cretan lyra

32.
Cimbalom
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The cimbalom is a concert hammered dulcimer, a type of chordophone composed of a large, trapezoidal box with metal strings stretched across its top. It is also popular in Greece, the cimbalom is played by striking two beaters against the strings. The steel treble strings are arranged in groups of 4 and are tuned in unison, the bass strings which are over-spun with copper, are arranged in groups of 3 and are also tuned in unison. The Hornbostel-Sachs musical instrument classification system registers the cimbalom with the number 314. 122-4,5, moreover, the instrument name “cimbalom” also denotes earlier, smaller versions of the cimbalom, and folk cimbaloms, of different tone groupings, string arrangements, and box types. In English, the spelling is the most common, followed by the variants, derived from Austria-Hungary’s languages, cimbál, cymbalom, cymbalum, țambal, tsymbaly. The first representation of a simple struck chordophone which we categorize as a hammered dulcimer can be found in the Assyrian bas-relief in Kyindjuk dated back to 3500 BC, the peoples of the Mediterranean all had versions of this instrument under different names, as did many peoples in Asia. The fourth edition of the first textbook for the concert cimbalom by Géza Allaga, use of the instrument spread by the end of the 19th century and took the place of the cobza in Romanian and Moldovan folk ensembles. In Wallachia it is used almost as a percussion instrument, in Transylvania and Banat, the style of playing is more tonal, heavy with arpeggios. Folk hammered dulcimers are usually referred to by their regional names and these instruments can differ from each other in size, tuning, number of strings and method of holding and moving the hammers or beaters. They are smaller and more portable than the concert cimbalom, in performance they were often carried by a single musician, typically using a strap around the players neck and leaning one edge of the instrument against the waist. Like the concert cimbalom, the folk hammered dulcimer / small cimbalom is played by striking the strings with two beaters, however, these are generally much shorter than the beaters used with the concert cimbalom, and often without soft coverings over the area which strikes the string. These instruments also lacked damper mechanisms, therefore, the hand, fingers, tunings are often partially chromatic or even diatonic rather than the fully chromatic tuning of the concert cimbalom, and they can vary regionally. Construction of these instruments is closely related to the particular style of music played on them than is the case with the concert cimbalom. The Schunda cimbalom was equipped with a frame for more stability. It included many more string courses for extended range and incorporated a damper pedal which allowed for more dynamic control, Four detachable legs were added to support this much larger instrument. The concert cimbalom continues to be played primarily with beaters although other playing techniques are used, concert instruments from Schunda onward are fully chromatic. The Schunda tuning system established a standard range of four octaves plus a major 3rd. The concert cimbalom eventually found its way to areas of the Austro-Hungarian empire, such as Romania and Ukraine

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Percussion instrument
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A percussion instrument is a musical instrument that is sounded by being struck or scraped by a beater, struck, scraped or rubbed by hand, or struck against another similar instrument. The percussion family is believed to include the oldest musical instruments, the percussion section of an orchestra most commonly contains instruments such as timpani, snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle and tambourine. However, the section can also contain non-percussive instruments, such as whistles and sirens, percussive techniques can also be applied to the human body, as in body percussion. On the other hand, keyboard instruments, such as the celesta, are not normally part of the percussion section, Percussion instruments may play not only rhythm, but also melody and harmony. Percussion is commonly referred to as the backbone or the heartbeat of an ensemble, often working in close collaboration with bass instruments. In jazz and other popular ensembles, the pianist, bassist, drummer. Most classical pieces written for full orchestra since the time of Haydn and Mozart are orchestrated to place emphasis on the strings, woodwinds, however, often at least one pair of timpani is included, though they rarely play continuously. Rather, they serve to provide additional accents when needed, in the 18th and 19th centuries, other percussion instruments have been used, again generally sparingly. The use of percussion instruments became more frequent in the 20th century classical music, in almost every style of music, percussion plays a pivotal role. In classic jazz, one almost immediately thinks of the rhythm of the hi-hats or the ride cymbal when the word swing is spoken. Because of the diversity of instruments, it is not uncommon to find large musical ensembles composed entirely of percussion. Rhythm, melody, and harmony are all represented in these ensembles, music for pitched percussion instruments can be notated on a staff with the same treble and bass clefs used by many non-percussive instruments. Music for percussive instruments without a pitch can be notated with a specialist rhythm or percussion-clef. The word percussion has evolved from Latin terms, percussio, as a noun in contemporary English it is described in Wiktionary as the collision of two bodies to produce a sound. Hornbostel–Sachs has no high-level section for percussion, Most percussion instruments are classified as idiophones and membranophones.1 Concussion idiophones or clappers, played in pairs and beaten against each other, such as zills and clapsticks. 111.2 Percussion idiophones, includes many percussion instruments played with the hand or by a mallet, such as the hang, gongs and the xylophone. 21 Struck drums, includes most types of drum, such as the timpani, snare drum, (Included in most drum sets or 412. Stringed instruments played with such as the hammered dulcimer

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Tambourine
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The tambourine is a musical instrument in the percussion family consisting of a frame, often of wood or plastic, with pairs of small metal jingles, called zils. Classically the term denotes an instrument with a drumhead, though some variants may not have a head at all. Tambourines are often used with regular percussion sets and they can be mounted, for example on a stand as part of a drum kit, or they can be held in the hands and played by tapping or hitting the instrument. Tambourines come in shapes with the most common being circular. It is found in forms of music, Turkish folk music, Greek folk music, Italian folk music, classical music, Persian music, samba, gospel music, pop music. Tambourines originated in Egypt, where they were known as the kof to the Hebrews, from the Middle Persian word tambūr lute, drum. There are several ways to achieve a tambourine roll, the easiest method is to rapidly rotate the hand holding the tambourine back and forth, pivoting at the wrist. An advanced playing technique is known as the thumb roll, the finger or thumb is moved over the skin or rim of the tambourine, producing a fast roll from the jingles on the instrument. This takes more skill and experience to master, the thumb or middle finger of the hand not holding the tambourine is run around the head of the instrument approximately one centimeter from the rim with some pressure applied. If performed correctly, the thumb should bounce along the head rapidly, usually, the end of the roll is articulated using the heel of the hand or another finger. In the 2000s, the roll may be performed with the use of wax or resin applied to the outside of the drum head. This resin allows the thumb or finger to bounce more rapidly and forcefully across the head producing an even sound, a continuous roll can be achieved by moving the thumb in a figure of 8 pattern around the head. By drummers – Drummers such as Larry Mullen, Jr. of U2 mount a tambourine above the cymbals of their hi-hat stand, tambourines in rock music are most often headless, a ring with jangles but no drum skin. The Rhythm Tech crescent-shaped tambourine and its derivatives are popular, the original Rhythm Tech tambourine is displayed in the Museum of Modern Art. Jack Ashfords distinctive tambourine playing was a dominant part of the section on Motown records. The tambourine was featured in Green Tambourine, a song with which The Lemon Pipers. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was among the earliest western composers to include the tambourine in his compositions, gustav Holsts seven-movement orchestral suite The Planets also features the tambourine in several places throughout the suite, especially in the Jupiter movement. Originated in Galicia or Portugal, the pandeiro was brought to Brazil by the Portuguese settlers and it is a hand percussion instrument consisting of a single tension-headed drum with jingles in the frame

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Tympanum (hand drum)
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In ancient Greece and Rome, the tympanum or tympanon, was a type of frame drum or tambourine. It was circular, shallow, and beaten with the palm of the hand or a stick, some representations show decorations or zill-like objects around the rim. The instrument was played by worshippers in the rites of Dionysus, Cybele, the instrument came to Rome from Greece and the Near East, probably in association with the cult of Cybele. The first depiction in Greek art appears in the 8th century BC, the tympanum is one of the objects often carried in the thiasos, the retinue of Dionysus. The instrument is played by a maenad, while wind instruments such as pipes or the aulos are played by satyrs. The performance of frenzied music contributed to achieving the state that Dionysian worshippers desired. From the 6th century BC, the iconography of Cybele as Meter may show her with the tympanum balanced on her arm, usually seated. The Homeric Hymn to the Great Mother says that the goddess loves the sound of the tympanum, the drum continued to feature as an attribute of Cybele into the Roman Imperial era