Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) can be converted to
degrees Fahrenheit (°F), and conversely, by use of the following equations:

°F=(1.8 x°C) +32 °C=(°F-32)
x 0.5555

VERTICAL DATUM

Sea level: In this report, "sea level" refers to
the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD) of 1929)—a geodetic
datum derived from a general adjustment of the first-order level nets of both
the United State and Canada, formerly called Sea Level Datum of 1929.

FOREWORD

The mission of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
is to assess the quantity and quality of the earth resources
of the Nation and to provide information that will assist
resource managers and policymakers at Federal, State,
and local levels in making sound decisions. Assessment
of water-quality conditions and trends is an important
part of this overall mission.

One of the greatest challenges faced by water-resources scientists is acquiring reliable information that
will guide the use and protection of the Nation's water
resources. That challenge is being addressed by Federal,
State, interstate, and local water-resource agencies and
by many academic institutions. These organizations are
collecting water-quality data for a host of purposes that
include: compliance with permits and water-supply standards; development of remediation plans for a specific
contamination problem; operational decisions on industrial, wastewater, or water-supply facilities; and research
on factors that affect water quality. An additional need
for water-quality information is to provide a basis on
which regional- and national-level policy decisions can
be based. Wise decisions must be based on sound information. As a society we need to know whether certain
types of water-quality problems are isolated or ubiquitous, whether there are significant differences in conditions among regions, whether the conditions are
changing over time, and why these conditions change
from place to place and over time. The information can
be used to help determine the efficacy of existing water-quality policies and to help analysts determine the need
for and likely consequences of new policies.

To address these needs, the U.S. Congress appropriated funds in 1986 for the
USGS to begin a pilot program in seven project areas to develop and refine the
National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program. In 1991, the USGS began full
implementation of the program. The NAWQA Program builds upon an existing base
of water-quality studies of the USGS, as well as those of other Federal, State,
and local agencies. The objectives of the NAWQA Program are to:

Describe current water-quality conditions for a large part of the Nation's
freshwater streams, rivers, and aquifers.

Describe how water quality is changing over time.

Improve understanding of the primary natural and human factors that affect
water-quality conditions.

This information will help support the development
and evaluation of management, regulatory, and monitoring decisions by other Federal, State, and local agencies
to protect, use, and enhance water resources.

The goals of the NAWQA Program are being
achieved through investigations of 59 of the Nation's
most important river basins and aquifer systems, which
are referred to as study units. These study units are distributed throughout the Nation and cover a diversity of
hydrogeologic settings. More than two-thirds of the
Nation's freshwater use occurs within the 59 study units
and more than two-thirds of the people served by public
water-supply systems live within their boundaries.

National synthesis of data analysis, based on aggregation of comparable information obtained from the
study units, is a major component of the program. This
effort focuses on selected water-quality topics using
nationally consistent information. Comparative studies
will explain differences and similarities in observed
water-quality conditions among study areas and will
identify changes and trends and their causes. The first
topics addressed by the national synthesis are pesticides,
nutrients, volatile organic compounds, and aquatic biology. Discussions on these and other water-quality topics
will be published in periodic summaries of the quality of
the Nation's ground and surface water as the information
becomes available.

This report is an element of the comprehensive body
of information developed as part of the NAWQA Program. The program depends heavily on the advice, cooperation, and information from many Federal, State,
interstate, Tribal, and local agencies and the public. The
assistance and suggestions of all are greatly appreciated.

Robert M. Hirsch

Chief Hydrologist

Ground-Water Quality in the Appalachian Plateaus,
Kanawha River Basin, West Virginia

By Charlynn J. Sheets and Mark D. Kozar

Abstract

Water samples collected from 30 privately-owned
and small public-supply wells in the Appalachian
Plateaus of the Kanawha River Basin were analyzed for a wide range of constituents, including
bacteria, major ions, nutrients, trace elements,
radon, pesticides, and volatile organic compounds. Concentrations of most constituents from
samples analyzed did not exceed U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) standards.

Constituents that exceeded drinking-water
standards in at least one sample were total
coliform bacteria, Escherichia coli (E. coli), iron,
manganese, and sulfate. Total coliform bacteria
were present in samples from five sites, and E.
coli were present at only one site. USEPA secondary maximum contaminant levels (SMCLs) were
exceeded for three constituents -- sulfate
exceeded the SMCL of 250 mg/L (milligrams per
liter) in samples from 2 of 30 wells; iron exceeded
the SMCL of 300 µg/L (micrograms per liter) in
samples from 12 of the wells, and manganese
exceeded the SMCL of 50 µg/L in samples from
17 of the wells sampled.

None of the samples contained concentrations of nutrients that exceeded the USEPA maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for these
constituents. The maximum concentration of
nitrate detected was only 4.1 mg/L, which is
below the MCL of 10 mg/L. Concentrations of
nitrate in precipitation and shallow ground water
are similar, potentially indicating that precipitation may be a source of nitrate in shallow ground
water in the study area.

Radon concentrations exceeded the recently proposed maximum contaminant level
of 300 pCi/L at 50 percent of the sites sampled. The median concentration of
radon was only 290 pCi/L. Radon-222 is a naturally occurring, carcinogenic,
radioactive decay product of uranium. Concentrations, however, did not exceed
the alternate maximum contaminant level (AMCL) for radon of 4,000 pCi/L in any
of the 30 samples.

Arsenic concentrations exceeded the proposed MCL of 5µg/L at 4 of the
30 sites. No samples exceeded the current MCL of 50 µg/L.

Neither pesticides nor volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were prevalent in
the study area, and the concentrations of the compounds that were detected did
not exceed any USEPA MCLs. Pesticides were detected in only two of the 30 wells
sampled, but four pesticides -- atrazine, carbofuran, DCPA, and deethylatrazine
-- were detected in one well; molinate was detected in the other well. All of
the pesticides detected were at estimated concentrations of only 0.002 µg/L.
Of the VOCs detected, trihalomethane compounds (THMs), which can result from
chlorination of a well, were the most common. THMs were detected in 13 of the
30 wells sampled. Gasoline by-products, such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene
and xylene (BTEX compounds) were detected in 10 of the 30 wells sampled. The
maximum concentration of any of the VOCs detected in this study, however, was
only 1.040 µg/L, for the THM dichlorofluoromethane.

Water samples from 25 of the wells were
analyzed for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) to estimate the apparent age of ground water. The analyses indicated that age of water ranged from 10 to
greater than 57 years, and that the age of ground
water could be correlated with the topographic
setting of the wells sampled. Thus the apparent
age of water in wells on hilltops was youngest
(median of 13 years) and that of water in wells in
valleys was oldest (median of 42 years). Water
from wells on hillsides was intermediate in age
(median of 29 years). These data can be used to
define contributing areas to wells, corroborate or
revise conceptual ground-water flow models, estimate contaminant travel times from spills to other
sources such as nearby domestic or public supply
wells, and to manage point and nonpoint source
activities that may affect critical aquifers.

Introduction

As part of the National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program, the U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS) investigated ground-water quality in the Appalachian
Plateaus Physiographic Province portion of the Kanawha River Basin in West Virginia
(fig. 1). The overall goal of the NAWQA Program is to describe the status and
trends in the quality of the ground- and surface-water resources of the United
States and to develop an understanding of the natural and human factors that
affect the quality of these resources (Hirsch and others, 1988). The NAWQA Program
integrates water-quality information from local and regional scale studies to
address national issues. Major components of the ground-water part of the program
are to assess the quality of ground water in major ground-water regions throughout
the United States and to determine the factors that affect the quality of water
in these aquifer systems. This goal is achieved primarily by conducting "land-use
surveys" and "study-unit surveys." Land-use surveys link the quality of shallow
ground water to natural and human factors that affect the quality of water within
the aquifer. Study-unit surveys assess the areal occurrence and distribution
of water-quality constituents within an aquifer.

The Appalachian Plateaus Physiographic Province was chosen for investigation due to the lack of
data in the region, especially with respect to organic
compounds such as pesticides and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs). Also, approximately 35.1% of
rural home owners in the region obtain their water
from wells completed in fractured bedrock aquifers
throughout the region (McColloch and Kramer, 1993).
The 30 wells selected for sampling were chosen randomly, by use of a computer randomization program.
As a result of field inventories, wells of appropriate
construction within a two mile radius of points determined by the randomization program were selected.
Thus, wells selected were not chosen on the basis of
particular land-use settings.

Purpose and Scope

This report describes the occurrence and distribution
of water-quality constituents in ground water within
the Appalachian Plateaus portion of the Kanawha
River Basin. Thirty wells were sampled within the
region for the following constituents: bacteria, major
ions, trace elements, nutrients, selected radioactive
elements, pesticides, volatile organic compounds, and
dissolved organic carbon. Analyses of water-quality
data were used to determine the prevalence of these
constituents in ground water. Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) were collected to determine the ages of ground
water sampled from wells. Finally, water-quality data
were evaluated with respect to geochemical processes
and human activities.

Description of Study Area

The Kanawha River Basin drains 8,424 mi2 in West Virginia and includes
3,809 mi2 drained by the New River in Virginia and North Carolina
(Eychaner, 1994). The basin consists of the Appalachian Plateaus, Blue Ridge,
and Valley and Ridge Physiographic Provinces. The area of the study described
here is the 7,262 mi2 area of the basin that lies within the Appalachian
Plateaus Physiographic Province in West Virginia. The Appalachian Plateaus are
characterized by relatively flat-lying but intensely eroded bedrock, which results
in a mountainous terrain capped by resistant layers of bedrock with a dendritic
drainage pattern (Fenneman, 1938; Fenneman and Johnson, 1946). The Appalachian
Plateaus portion of the basin was selected for study because of the relative
lack of water-quality data (especially for organic constituents) available for
characterizing water-quality conditions in the region. Also, the Potomac NAWQA
conducted extensive investigations of ground-water quality in the Valley and
Ridge Physiographic Province. Priority was therefore given to the Appalachian
Plateaus portion of the basin.

Land-use data were collected in the early 1970's to characterize land use and
land cover in West Virginia. The dominant land use in the study area is deciduous
forest, which covers 60 percent of the land. Mixed forest, which consists of
evergreen and deciduous trees, covers 24 percent of the study area. Crop-land
and pastures cover 10 percent of the study area, and urban or residential areas
cover almost 2 percent. Strip mines, quarries, and gravel pits cover only
1
percent of the study area (U.S. Geological Survey, 1990).

Sampling and Analytical Methods

Ground-water samples were collected in May and June, 1997, from 30 wells (fig.
1). The wells selected for sampling were relatively new (less than 25 years
old), of good construction (casings were not deteriorated or corroded), and
distant from any known significant sources of contamination. The wells had reported
yields of at least 5 gallons per minute (gpm), and adequate plumbing, pitless
adaptors, and a clean spigot for sample collection. The sampling point was located
as close to the well as possible, prior to any water-treatment systems or softeners,
to avoid potential contamination (Lapham and others, 1995). Water levels were
monitored throughout the purging and sampling process. Of the 30 wells sampled,
seven are small public-supply wells, and the other 23 are privately owned household
wells. All of the wells are drilled in fractured bedrock and have short casings.
The median depth is 119 ft, and the median depth to water is 40 ft. All the
wells sampled contained a submersible pump; were pumped to remove standing water,
and then sampled according to USGS NAWQA protocols (Koterba and others, 1995).
Quality-assurance and quality-control guidelines and protocols (Koterba and
others, 1995) were followed to provide representative and accurate water-quality
data and to assess sampling and analytical variability.

Figure 1. Location of the Appalachian Plateaus Physiographic
Province within the Kanawha River Basin in West Virginia and location of
wells sampled during the study.

Field measurements of specific conductance,
pH, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, oxidation-reduction
potential, and water temperature were made at the time
of sampling. Samples for fecal and total coliform bacteria, Escherichia coli, and alkalinity (carbonate and
bicarbonate) were analyzed on site. All samples for
bacteria analysis were collected and analyzed according to standard USGS protocols -- mFC agar for fecal
coliform, mEndo agar for total coliform, and NAMUG agar for Escherichia coli (U. S. Geological Survey, 1997). Samples were analyzed for major ions,
nutrients, trace elements, radon-222, uranium, pesticides, and VOCs at the USGS National Water-Quality
Laboratory in Arvada, Colorado. To determine the relative age of ground water in the study area, 25 of the
30 sites were sampled for chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs). CFC analyses were completed by the USGS
CFC laboratory in Reston, Va. Samples for CFC analysis were collected and analyzed according to standard
guidelines and protocols (Busenberg and Plummer,
1998).

In addition to the collection of environmental samples, quality-assurance samples
were also collected. Blanks were collected three times during sample collection
for trace elements, common ions, nutrients, pesticides, volatile organic compounds,
and dissolved organic carbon. Most constituents were not detected in the blanks.
Trace-element blanks, however, had 1 detection of calcium (0.006 mg/L), chromium
(0.28 µg/L), and zinc (1.8 µg/L). Aluminum was detected in
all three blanks and was reported at concentrations close to the minimum reporting
level. The range of aluminum concentrations detected in the blanks was 1.8 µg/L
- 2.5 µg/L. Common ions had low level detections of dissolved solids,
silica, and iron (2 mg/L, 0.017 mg/L, and 3.7 µg/L, respectively). Of
the six nutrient compounds analyzed, two were detected in the blank samples.
Ammonia was detected at a concentration of 0.022 mg/L, and nitrate was detected
at a concentration of 0.054 mg/L.

There were no detections of pesticides in any of
the blank samples analyzed. Of the 86 VOCs analyzed, three compounds were detected in both blank
and environmental samples. Chloroform (0.01 µg/L),
carbon disulfide (0.004 µg/L), and m-p- xylene (0.010
µg/L) were each detected in one of the three blank
samples; these concentrations are much less than the
respective reporting levels of 0.050, 0.080, and 0.064
µg/L (table 1). Dissolved organic carbon was detected
in the three blank samples at concentrations similar to
concentrations in the environmental samples. The
detections ranged from 0.1 mg/L - 0.2 mg/L.

Table 1. Volatile organic compounds
detected in quality-assurance blank samples collected in the Appalachian
Plateaus portion of the Kanawha River Basin, West Virginia

Volatile organic
compound

Non-detect value

Units of
measurement

Number of
detections

Maximum
concentration

Chloroform

0.050

µg/L

1

E0.010

Carbon-disulfide

0.050

µg/L

1

E0.004

l- and p-xylene

0.050

µg/L

1

E0.010

Quality-control samples were collected to quantify measurement bias and variability
associated with the data-collection process (Koterba and others, 1995). Spikes
and replicates were also collected as quality-control samples. A VOC and pesticide
spike were collected, as well as two radon replicates. The spike recovery concentrations
for the VOCs, pesticides, and radon replicates were all considered normal. Although
there were a few low level detections of DOC and aluminum at concentrations
near the minimum reporting level, the quality-assurance data do not indicate
problems with any data except possibly for chloroform, which is a common laboratory
and environmental contaminant.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the residents of West Virginia who allowed the USGS
access to their properties for the collection of water samples and water-level
measurements. This study could not have been completed without their cooperation.

Geohydrologic Setting

The streams in the Appalachian Plateaus flow in a dendritic drainage pattern
and have eroded the flatlying sedimentary rocks into steep, sloping hills and
narrow valleys and ridges. Ground water flows near the surface and moves through
a series of fractures composed of joints, faults, and bedding planes. This section
describes the geologic strata, a conceptual model of ground-water flow, ground-water
age, and the depth of circulation.

Geohydrologic Framework

The Appalachian Plateaus consists of rugged, deeply
incised mountainous terrain with uplifted plateaus
capped by resistant layers of sandstone with shale
(Fenneman, 1938; Fenneman and Johnson, 1946; and
U.S. Geological Survey, 1970). This part of the Plateaus has moderate to high relief (300 to 1,000 ft)
marked by deep, V-shaped valleys (Berg and others,
1989).

The generalized hydrogeologic framework of the Kanawha River Basin in West
Virginia (fig. 2) is based on a stratigraphic succession of Mississippian, Pennsylvanian,
and Permian age clastic rocks forming the predominate outcropping units in West
Virginia (Schneider and others, 1965, sheet 3). The Pennsylvanian and Permian
age units consist of sandstone, conglomerate, siltstone, shale, coal, limestone,
and dolomite. The thickness of the stratigraphic column ranges from 3,000 to
3,800 ft in West Virginia and contains more than 68 separate coal seams (Ehlke
and others, 1982). Structurally, the bedrock is almost horizontal to slightly
folded with fractures and joints, and has a regional dip to the northwest. The
Pennsylvanian and Permian clastic rocks are commonly overlain by a thin layer
of regolith. Mississippian age strata in the study area consist primarily of
sandstone and shale with a few thin limestone layers. The massive Mississippian
age limestones of the Greenbrier Group also crop out within the study area.

Figure 2. Surficial geologic formations in the study area.

Ground-water flow in the Appalachian Plateaus is affected by geology and weathering
processes. Topography, lithology, and structural geology control the occurrence,
movement, storage, and flow of ground water and also affect ground-water quality.
Ground-water flowpaths are short and confined to two principal aquifer systems:
unconsolidated alluvial aquifers, composed of sand, silt, clay, and gravel;
and fractured bedrock aquifers, composed of sedimentary rocks (Puente, 1984).
The major-ion chemistry, pH, and hardness of ground water varies with the mineralogy
of the sandstone, shale, coal, limestone and other bedrock which constitute
the fractured bedrock aquifers of the region.

Regionally, coal deposits accompany Pennsylvanian to Lower Permian clastic rocks of the Appalachian Plateaus (fig. 2). The Lower Pennsylvanian
Pocahontas, New River, and Kanawha Formations
generally contain less pyrite and sulfur than coal-bearing rocks in the Upper Pennsylvanian Allegheny Formation, Conemaugh, and Monongahela Groups and
Permian Dunkard Group (Watts and others, 1994). The
boundary between the high and low sulfur coal
regions, referred to as the "hinge line," trends northeast to southwest from Tucker County, through
Charleston to Wayne County, West Virginia and into
Kentucky (Keystone Coal Industry Manual, 1994).
Coal from the southern coal fields contains low total
sulfur (less than 1.5 percent), although the sulfur content of coal can vary significantly within a single mine.
Most of the wells sampled as part of this study are
south of the hinge line, in or adjacent to the southern
coal fields.

Conceptual Model of Ground-Water Flow

Ground-water flow in the Appalachian Plateaus is not
fully understood, but two conceptual models have
been formulated (Wyrick and Borchers, 1981; Harlow
and LeCain, 1993). The models vary somewhat in
their representation of ground-water flow in the
region. According to the first model, ground water in
the Appalachian Plateaus flows primarily in bedding-plane separations beneath valley floors and in nearly
vertical and horizontal slump fractures along valley
walls (Wyrick and Borchers, 1981). The fractures are
formed primarily from the release of overburden
stress, which results from isostatic rebound. As valleys
are formed by erosion, the unloading of compressional
stress, known as "stress relief," results in upward arching of rocks near the center of the valley, causing
enlargement of bedding-plane separations that can
increase secondary permeability. Stress relief also
causes nearly vertical and horizontal fractures and
slumping of the valley walls. Ground water, therefore,
flows primarily near the surface along a network of
fractures in the valley and hillsides. This theory does
not fully explore the possibility that ground water can
flow in lower permeability bedding-plane separations,
faults, or joints that are present deep beneath the surface in the core of the hillside or mountain. It assumes
that ground-water flow is primarily a shallow process.

According to the second model for typical
sequences of sandstone, siltstone, shale, and coal
throughout the Appalachian Plateaus, transmissivity
decreases with increasing depth (Harlow and LeCain,
1993). Most rocks are permeable (transmissivity
greater than 0.001 ft2/d) to a depth of approximately
100 ft. Coal seams, however, can be permeable at
depths greater than 200 ft. Additionally, ground-water
flow in coal seams is primarily horizontal because of
greater hydraulic conductivity in the coal seam, rather
than vertical connection with adjacent sandstone, silt-stone, or shale layers. Potentiometric head measurements indicate that recharge occurs primarily in
topographically high areas (ridges) and ground water
flows laterally and downward through shallow fractures in the bedrock. Vertical hydraulic conductivity
can be negligible, resulting in lateral ground-water
flow that discharges as springs and seeps in hillsides
and in valleys. Where vertical and horizontal hydraulic
conductivity are variable, ground water flows through
a stair-step pattern alternating among vertical joints,
faults, fractures, and horizontal bedding-plane separations. Ground water flows from ridges towards valleys, but can also recharge underlying coal seams.
Because overburden pressure beneath ridges can be
high, hydraulic conductivity of coal seams and fractured bedrock can be relatively low in these areas.
Ground-water flow patterns in the Appalachian Plateaus are most likely affected by all the processes discussed in these conceptual ground-water flow models.

To understand ground-water flow in the Appalachian Plateaus, the distinction
between local and regional aquifers must also be made. Local aquifers can be
and commonly are components of larger regional aquifer systems. Ground water
can flow in deep regional aquifer systems as well as in local shallow aquifers
(Heath, 1983). Local fractured-bedrock aquifers of less than 0.5 to 5.0 mi2
in area are common within the Appalachian Plateaus. Each small valley contains
a separate disconnected aquifer that discharges ground water to a nearby stream.
The ridges surrounding the valley define the lateral boundaries and the principal
recharge area of the local aquifer. Depth to saline water (brines) has been
used to infer the depth of aquifers containing potable fresh ground water (Foster,
1980). The depth to saline water ranges from a maximum in excess of 1,700 ft
near the southwestern part of the study area to a minimum of less than 50 ft
in the northwestern part of the study area. Most regional aquifers are susceptible
to contamination by saline water, especially in the northwestern part of the
study area, so larger regional aquifers are not typically used for domestic
or public supply. The fresh and saline water interface may indicate the boundary
between regional and sub-regional aquifers. Small local aquifers, therefore,
provide most of the ground water used by rural home owners and businesses. Not
all the water in the local aquifers discharges to nearby streams. Some water
from these small disconnected aquifers is believed to recharge deeper and larger
sub-regional or regional aquifers. Smaller, local disconnected aquifers typically
discharge to small headwater streams or to sub-regional aquifers, and regional
aquifers discharge to larger streams or rivers. The conceptual model of ground-water
flow in the Appalachian Plateaus in West Virginia is summarized in figure 3.

The ground-water-age data used to corroborate the conceptual model of ground-water
flow is based on CFC data from 25 wells that range in depth from 46 to 523 ft.
The ground-water-age data are considered indicative of the local ground-water
flow system, but are not applicable to shallow ground water present in the unsaturated
zone, the regolith, or in sub-regional or regional aquifers. Ground water in
the unsaturated zone and regolith probably is younger, and water in regional
aquifers probably is much older than the age estimates presented in this report.
Further study, however, is needed to determine the age of ground water in these
systems.

Ground-Water Age and Depth of Circulation

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are relatively stable, synthetic compounds that
can be used for determining the age of young ground water. Chlorofluorocarbons
were first manufactured and introduced to the environment in 1930, and today
are used as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, cleaning agents, and solvents
(Dunkle and others, 1993). The analysis of water samples for chlorofluorocarbons
was used to estimate apparent ages of ground water, which is based on the time
since recharge was isolated from the atmosphere. Water in fractured bedrock
aquifers of the study area exists primarily in thin zones of nearly vertical
stress-relief fractures, horizontal bedding planes, and coal seams. Ground water
can flow both vertically and horizontally, commonly in a stair-step pattern.
The age of water from 25 selected wells ranged from 10 years to greater than
57 years, with a median age of 30 years, and is much older than previously believed.
Statistical analyses of available well-construction, CFC, and water-quality
data show that topographic setting is the only factor that correlates with ground-water
age (Kozar, 1998). Water from hilltop wells was the youngest, having a median
age of 13 years. Water from hillside wells was older, with a median apparent
age of 29 years. Water from valley wells was oldest, having a median apparent
age in excess of 42 years (Kozar, 1998).

Estimates of circulation depth were analyzed with respect to topographic setting
(Kozar, 1998). Depth of ground-water circulation was found to be greatest in
valley wells (median circulation depth of 317 ft). Hilltop wells had the shallowest
depths of ground-water circulation (median circulation depth of 133 ft). Hillside
wells had an intermediate depth of ground-water circulation (median circulation
depth of 200 ft) (Kozar, 1998). This data can be used to better define ground-water
contributing areas, confirm or revise ground-water flow models, estimate contaminant
travel times from spills to nearby water-supply wells, and to better manage
point- and nonpoint-source activities that may affect critical aquifers.

Figure 3. Revised conceptual model of
ground-water flow in an Appalachian Plateaus fractured-bedrock aquifer
including apparent age of ground water (Modified from Wyrick and Borchers,
fig. 3.2-1, 1981 and
Kozar, 1998).

Ground-Water Quality

The data collected from wells sampled in the Appalachian Plateaus portion of the Kanawha River Basin
were used to assess the quality of water in aquifers
within the study area and to assess the effects of land
use on ground-water quality. These data are statistically summarized in table 2 and are described in the
following sections of this report.

Bacteria

Ground-water samples were tested for fecal coliform
bacteria, total coliform bacteria, and Escherichia coli
(E. coli). These microorganisms are indicators of
potential contamination by feces of warm-blooded
animals or humans, which can introduce harmful bacteria, viruses, or other pathogens to the ground-water
system. E. coli is a particular concern because it can
cause health problems such as fever and diarrhea.
Fecal coliforms were not detected in samples from any
of the 30 wells sampled in the study area (table 2).
Total coliforms were detected in five wells at concentrations of 1, 1, 3, 4, and 420 col/100 mL. The sample
from one well contained E. coli at a concentration of 1
col/100 mL (Sheets and Kozar, 1997).

Table 2. Summary
of water-quality data for 30 wells sampled in the study area

The absence of bacteria in the water from most
of the wells sampled is probably due to a lack of fecal
source material near the wells and general good condition of the wells. Most
of the wells sampled were recently constructed and were generally less than
25
years old. The casings of the wells sampled were in
good condition. Currently, state regulations do not
require domestic wells be grouted, but do require that
a concrete pad be installed around the casing at the
surface (West Virginia Bureau for Public Health,
1984). Proper grouting and sealing of wells at the surface by installation of
a concrete pad helps to reduce contamination of wells by retarding the transport
of
fecally contaminated soil or other contaminants along
the annular space between the well and casing. Only
12 percent of grouted wells had bacteria present. Of
the ungrouted wells, 31 percent contained indicator
bacteria. These findings suggest that proper grouting
and sealing of the wells can reduce bacterial contamination. Of the 30 wells sampled, 57 percent were
grouted, and 43 percent of the wells were not grouted.
Bacteria data from the 30 wells sampled show no significant bacteriological problems
in ground water
within the study area.

Inorganic Constituents

Water samples from the 30 wells were analyzed for inorganic constituents including
trace elements, major ions, nutrients, and radioactive elements. Sulfate exceeded
the USEPA SMCL of 250 mg/L at two wells, and no nutrients were found in the
ground water at concentrations exceeding maximum contaminant levels (MCLs).
Of the trace elements, only iron and manganese typically exceeded the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency secondary maximum contaminant level (SMCL) of 50 and 300 µg/L,
respectively (table 2).

Major Ions and Constituents. Moderately hard water with a hardness between
61-120 mg/L as CaCO3 was present in 43 percent of the wells sampled.
Soft water (0-60 mg/L) was common in 27 percent of sampled wells, hard water
(121-180 mg/L) in 17 percent of the wells, and only four wells (13 percent)
had very hard water (>180 mg/L) with a maximum hardness of 560 mg/L (table
2).

Concentrations of dissolved sulfate exceeded
the SMCL of 250 mg/L at only 2 (7 percent) of the 30
wells sampled (fig. 4). The maximum concentration of
sulfate was 410 mg/L with a median of 8.6 mg/L. Dissolved chloride and fluoride did not exceed USEPA
drinking-water standards (fig. 4). Dissolved bromide
does not have a USEPA drinking-water standard. Bromide was detected at 27 of the 30 sites sampled at a
maximum concentration of only 0.37 mg/L and a
median of 0.033 mg/L (fig. 4). The composition of
water from wells sampled in the study area was primarily a calcium or sodium bicarbonate type (fig. 5),
which may suggest a sodium for calcium cation
exchange process.

Figure 4. Concentrations
of major ions, hardness, and dissolved solids in groundwater from 30 wells
sampled in the study area.

Figure 5. Diagram
showing the composition of ground water in the study area.

Nutrients. None of the samples contained concentrations of nutrients that exceeded the USEPA
MCLs for these constituents. The maximum nitrate
concentration detected was only 4.1 mg/L as N, which
is below the MCL of 10 mg/L (fig. 6). Ammonia was
detected in 73 percent of the sites sampled, and concentrations ranged from 0.031 - 0.960 mg/L as N.
Phosphorus was detected in 53 percent of the sites
sampled, and concentrations ranged from 0.010 -0.199 mg/L (fig. 6).

Figure 6. Concentrations
of nutrients in ground water from 30 wells sampled in the study area.

Trace Elements. Of the trace elements analyzed, only iron and manganese exceeded USEPA
SMCLs. Iron was detected in 80 percent of the sites
sampled, and 40 percent of sites sampled had concentrations greater than the SMCL of 300 µg/L (fig. 7).
Manganese was detected at 87 percent of the sites, and
57 percent of the sites sampled had concentrations
higher than the SMCL of 50 µg/L (fig. 7). The drinking-water standards established for iron and manganese by the USEPA are to prevent the staining of
plumbing fixtures, discoloration of water, and to eliminate questionable taste (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1996). In West Virginia, concentrations
of iron and manganese in ground water commonly
exceeded the USEPA secondary maximum contaminant level (Ferrell, 1986). In this study area, lead was
detected at only two sites, at concentrations of 1.1 µg/
L and 1.2 µg/L, respectively. The USEPA has a maximum contaminant level goal for lead of 0 µg/L, but an
action level is set at 15 µg/L (table 2) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1998).

Figure 7. Concentrations
of trace metals in ground water from 30 wells sampled in the study area.

On May 24, 2000, USEPA proposed changing
the permissible maximum contaminant level of arsenic
in public drinking-water supplies from 50 µg/L to

5µg/L. Water samples from 4 of the 30 wells in this
study, or 13 percent, contained more than 5µg/L of
arsenic. Arsenic concentrations of at least 1 µg/L were
detected in samples from 11 of the wells (37 percent)
(table 2). Arsenic in ground water commonly results
from natural minerals in rock units, which can differ at
a local scale. The proposed standard reflects the previously unknown potential
of arsenic to cause several
cancers and other diseases. Current information on
arsenic regulations for public drinking-water supplies
can be found at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/arsenic.html.

Radon. Radon-222, a radioactive gas, is a
naturally occurring decay product of uranium. Radon
can destroy lung tissue and cause lung cancer (Otton
and others, 1993). Radon gas dissolved in water can
enter homes when water valves are opened, especially
when showers are in use. Granitic rocks, some volcanic rocks, dark shales, sedimentary rocks that contain
phosphate, and metamorphic rocks derived from these
rocks can have high uranium content (Otton and others, 1993). Uranium content, grain size, permeability,
and the extent of fracturing in the host rock are factors
that affect the accumulation and movement of radon.

In 1999, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) reinstated a proposed
maximum contaminant level (PMCL) for radon in drinking water of 300 picocuries
per liter (pCi/L), but an alternate maximum contaminant level (AMCL) was also
proposed at a level of 4,000 pCi/L (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1999).
The drinking-water standard that would apply for a public water system would
depend on whether or not the State or public water system (PWS) develops a radon
mitigation program. If a PWS serves 10,000 persons and either the State or the
system has an approved radon mitigation program, then the 4,000 pCi/L AMCL would
apply, otherwise the 300 pCi/L standard would apply. Radon concentrations exceeded
the proposed USEPA MCL of 300 pCi/ L for water in 15 of 30 (50 percent) wells
sampled in the study area. The maximum concentration was 2,500 pCi/L with a
median of 290 pCi/L. At six of the 30 sites, radon was not detected (Kozar and
Sheets, 1997). None of the samples collected contained concentrations of radon
greater than 4,000 pCi/L.

In the mid-Atlantic region, radon was sampled
by the NAWQA Program in the Potomac and Lower
Susquehanna River Basins of Pennsylvania, Maryland,
Virginia, and West Virginia. Typically, median radon
concentrations in the Kanawha-New River study area
are among the lowest in the entire mid-Atlantic region.
Of 267 samples collected in the mid-Atlantic region,
80 percent had concentrations greater than the 300
pCi/L PMCL, and 31 percent had concentrations
greater than 1,000 pCi/L (Lindsey and Ator, 1996).

Only 50 percent of the 30 wells sampled as part of the
Kanawha River Basin contained radon in concentrations greater than 300 pCi/L and, only 20 percent had
concentrations greater than 1,000 pCi/L.

Organic Compounds

Water samples were also analyzed for organic constituents as part of the assessment of ground-water quality
within the study area. The samples were analyzed for
pesticides, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and
dissolved organic carbon (DOC). None of the pesticides or VOCs detected exceeded USEPA drinking-water standards; however, only 2 of 5 pesticides and
11 of 16 VOCs detected have an MCL or health advisory level. Also, the effects of co-occurrence of contaminants was not addressed but should be considered
when evaluating water-quality of an individual well.

Pesticides. Water samples collected from each well were analyzed for
47 pesticides (Ward and others, 1998). Five of the 47 pesticides were detected
at two of the 30 sites sampled. Atrazine, carbofuran, DCPA, and deethyl atrazine
were detected at estimated concentrations of 0.002 µg/L at one site (table
2). An estimated concentration of 0.002 µg/L of molinate was detected
at the second site. These concentrations are much lower than the USEPA MCLs
of 3 µg/L for atrazine and 40 µg/L for carbofuran. The infrequent
detection of pesticides in water from the 30 wells sampled reflects the land
use within the study area. From a 1970 land-use census, only 10 percent of the
land in the study area was considered cropland and pasture. Most of the study
area was classified as deciduous and evergreen forest (U.S. Geological Survey,
1990), land on which pesticide usage is minimal.

Volatile Organic Compounds. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and dissolved
organic carbon were collected at each of the 30 sites. Of 86 VOCs analyzed,
16 compounds were detected at very low concentrations (table 3). The complete
suite of VOCs analyzed for this study is listed in the 1997 Water Resources
Data report for West Virginia (Ward and others, 1998). At least one VOC was
detected at 23 of the 30 sites. Many compounds were detected, but at concentrations
below the reporting limit; thus their concentrations are shown as "estimated"
in table 3. The majority of VOCs detected were components of two classes, trihalomethanes,
and BTEX compounds.

Table
3. Detections of volatile organic compounds in water samples collected from 30
wells sampled in the study area

Trihalomethanes (THMs) are compounds such as bromodichloromethane, bromoform,
chloroform, and dibromochloromethane, which form as by-products of chlorination.
THMs were detected in 11 of the 30 (37 percent) wells sampled. All were detected,
however, at very low concentrations (table 3). The maximum concentration of
any THM detected was for bromoform at a concentration of only 0.424 µg/L.
The maximum sum for combined THMs detected in a single well was only 1.36 µg/L,
almost 74 times lower than the combined THM MCL of 100 µg/L.

Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is considered a potential source of carbon for
the formation of THMs. DOC concentrations measured in this study ranged from
0.1 to 1.8 mg/L, with a median of 0.35 mg/L. No correlation between dissolved
organic carbon and the formation of trihalomethanes was seen in data collected
for this study.

The compounds benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene (BTEX), and the fuel oxygenate
methyl tert-butyl-ether (MTBE) also were commonly detected. The BTEX compounds
and MTBE are common components of gasoline. The maximum detection among these
compounds was methyl tert-butyl-ether at an estimated concentration of only
0.060 µg/L. BTEX compounds and MTBE were detected in 8 (27 percent) of
the 30 wells sampled.

Carbon disulfide, present in 12 of the 30 (40
percent) wells sampled, was the most frequently
detected VOC in the study area. It is widely used in the
chemical industry in the manufacturing of flotation
devices, cellophane, soil disinfectants, herbicides,
grain fumigants, and as a solvent for fats, resins, phosphorus, sulfur, bromine,
iodine, and rubber (Montgomery and Welkom, 1990). But concentrations of carbon
disulfide were typically low; the maximum
concentration was only 0.226 µg/L.

The results of VOC analyses of ground water
from the Kanawha River Basin are compared to a
recent NAWQA Program study of national VOC data
collected nationally between 1985-1995. A reporting
level of 0.2 µg/L was used to maintain consistency
with national VOC data, although most concentrations
for this study were quantified as being less than 0.2
µg/L. Study area results are consistent with the
national summary information for areas with similarly
low population densities. In data from 2,542 wells in
rural environments that were summarized in the
national study, at least one VOC was detected in 14
percent of the wells. The Kanawha River Basin has a
low population density and is considered a rural area.
At least one VOC was detected at 10 percent of the
wells sampled, which is comparable to the national
data. Nationally, sites with two or more VOC detections were detected in 6 percent of the samples. Two or
more VOCs were detected at only 3 percent of the
sites sampled in the Kanawha River study area. Only 1.5 percent of the sites in the national summary
exceeded drinking-water criteria; none of the samples
collected in the study area exceeded drinking-water
criteria (Paul Squillace and others, U.S. Geological
Survey, written commun. 1999).

Factors Affecting Water Quality

The quality of ground water in the Appalachian Plateaus portion of the study
area is affected by a combination of geochemical and anthropogenic factors.
Geochemical factors, the distribution and amount of chemical elements in minerals,
ore, rock, soil, and the atmosphere, affect water quality in the hydrologic
cycle as the chemical elements react with ground water. The most common geochemical
processes occur as ground water comes in contact with rocks and dissolution
of minerals takes place. These processes include pyrite oxidation, resulting
in sulfate production; radioactive decay of uranium and its daughter products,
causing radon in ground waters; reduction of iron and manganese oxyhydroxide
minerals, and dissolution of carbonate rock within bedrock aquifers, creating
high concentrations of iron, manganese, and alkalinity in ground water. Anthropogenic
factors include acid deposition, which results in a lower pH and conductivity
of ground water on hilltops; use of organic chemicals, fertilizers, manure,
and pesticides for agriculture, which can introduce fecal bacteria, nitrate,
ammonia, and pesticide contamination into the ground water; and septic-system
effluent discharge to ground-water reservoirs, which also may result in bacterial
contamination of aquifers.

Geochemical Factors

Water is sometimes referred to as the universal solvent
because it has the ability to dissolve almost anything
that it contacts. The presence of dissolved substances
in ground water is affected by the chemical composition of precipitation, by biological and chemical reactions occurring in the soil zone, and by the mineral
composition of the bedrock (Heath, 1983). Because of
differences in these factors, ground water contains
varying amounts of dissolved solids.

Hardness is primarily due to dissolved calcium and magnesium ions in ground
water that are derived from weathering and dissolution of minerals in rock such
as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum (Heath, 1983). Most ground water in the study
area (43 percent of the sites sampled) is classified on a water hardness scale
(table 2) as moderately hard (61-120 mg/L as CaCO3). Of the remaining
wells sampled, 27 percent had soft water (0-60 mg/L), 17 percent had hard water
(121-180 mg/L), and only 13 percent had very hard water (greater than 180 mg/L).

In inland areas, sodium and chloride may be
derived from brines, seawater trapped in sediments at
the time of deposition. Dissolved calcium and magnesium can exchange for sodium in aquifers close to
brines (Heath, 1983). Water with high concentrations
of sodium and chloride tastes salty, increases the corrosiveness of water, and can affect people with cardiac
difficulties and hypertension.

Cation and anion concentrations were converted
to milliequivalents per liter and used to identify water
types present in the study area. These water types
include: calcium bicarbonate, calcium sulfate, sodium
bicarbonate, and magnesium bicarbonate. Water type
was compared to topographic setting of the well (table 4). Wells in valleys primarily had a sodium bicarbonate water. Water from wells on hillsides and hilltops
was primarily a calcium bicarbonate type. The dominance of sodium bicarbonate waters in valley settings
and calcium bicarbonate water on hillsides and hilltops suggests that cation exchange is occurring
between calcium from calcium-rich recharge water
and sodium present at shallow depths in brines
beneath valleys.

Table
4. Water type with respect to topographic setting for 30 wells sampled in the study
area

Topographic
setting

Calcium
bicarbonate
number of sites
(%)

Calcium sulfate
number of sites
(%)

Sodium
bicarbonate
number of sites
(%)

Magnesium
bicarbonate
number of sites
(%)

Hilltop

3
(10)

0
(0)

0
(0)

1
(3)

Hillside

7
(23)

1
(3)

3
(10)

0
(0)

Valley

5
(17)

1
(3)

9
(30)

0
(0)

The topographic setting of each well was compared to the calcium/sodium ratio
of the water (fig. 8). The water in valley wells has a lower calcium/sodium
ratio (higher sodium content) than water in hilltop and
hillside wells, possibly indicating cation exchange
processes are occurring in valley settings. Because of
their topographic location, valley wells are closer to
underlying connate brines, allowing for an easier
exchange of calcium for sodium. As ground water
infiltrates down hillsides into valleys it has an increasingly longer contact
time with the rocks and soils,
which allows minerals to be dissolved. Water in hillside wells has high calcium
concentrations and high calcium to sodium ratios. Probably no cation exchange
between calcium and sodium takes place on hillsides.
Calcium is most likely being dissolved from the calcium-carbonate cement and
minerals in the rocks as
the ground water travels through the fractures, bedding-plane separations, and
joints in the bedrock. Hilltop wells have a higher ratio of calcium to sodium
(lower sodium content) than valley wells. Like hillside
wells, there most likely is no cation exchange occurring in hilltop wells.

Figure 8. Ratio of calcium to sodium in ground water compared
to topographic setting for 30 wells sampled in the study area.

Precipitation is most likely a minor source of
dissolved minerals in hilltop wells. The conductivity
of rain water is usually low, with a median of only 22
µS/cm (table 5). Although calcium, magnesium,
sodium, and potassium concentrations in precipitation
are low, they may, to varying degrees and primarily in
hilltop settings, affect ground-water quality (National
Atmospheric Deposition Program, 1999). Median
concentrations of ammonia and nitrate in precipitation
are actually higher than those in ground water, indicating that precipitation may be a major source of these
constituents in shallow recharge. Sulfate concentrations in precipitation, although not as high as those
found in ground water, are significant enough to consider precipitation as a major source of sulfate in shallow ground water.

Table 5. Statistical summary of concentrations
of selected chemical constituents in 30 wells sampled in the study area
and in precipitation from Babcock State Park, West Virginia

Anthropogenic Factors

Human activities can affect ground-water quality in an area. Nitrate is a common
contaminant in ground water. Nitrate is a primary form of nitrogen and commonly
is derived from human sewage, animal wastes, and fertilizers. Rainfall, however,
can be a significant source of nitrate in ground water (Kozar, 1996). The median
concentration of nitrate in precipitation sampled during the past 10 years by
the National Atmospheric Deposition Program Monitoring Station at Babcock State
Park north of Beckley, West Virginia, is about six times greater than median
concentrations typical of water in wells in hilltop settings and 26 times greater
than median concentrations typical of water in wells in hillside and valley
settings within the study area (table 5).

Low-level concentrations of nutrients in ground
water could be due to atmospheric deposition (acid
rain) of airborne nitrogen compounds emitted by
industry and automobiles. Once nitrate dissolves into
the water, it easily passes through soil and can persist
for decades, accumulating to high concentrations in
ground water (Nolan and others, 1998). Ingesting
water with high concentrations of nitrate (greater than
10 mg/L) is not hazardous to adults, but may be fatal
to infants by lowering oxygen levels in their blood, a
condition known as methemoglobinemia, or "blue
baby" syndrome (Nolan and Ruddy, 1996).

Of the 47 pesticides analyzed for in water samples from the 30 wells, only five were detected, but at
concentrations below the analytical method reporting
level. Atrazine, carbofuran, DCPA, and deethyl atrazine, a degradation by-product of atrazine, were
detected in one well; molinate was detected in another
well. Nationwide, as part of NAWQA investigations,
atrazine was detected more frequently than any other
pesticide. This widespread detection could be due to
the slow rate of atrazine transformation in the environment (Kolpin and others, 1998). Since the early
1970's, atrazine has been the most extensively used
herbicide across the country. Carbofuran enters ground
water from the leaching of soil fumigants used on
corn, potatoes, alfalfa, rice, sorghum and other crops
(Wangsness and Gilliom, 1997). Carbofuran can cause
problems with blood and the nervous system and can
cause reproductive difficulties (U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1998). Based on a nationwide data
base of 2,600 ground-water wells sampled, carbofuran
was detected only 17 times, at concentrations ranging
from less than 0.003 to 2.8 µg/L (Wangsness and Gilliom, 1997). In the study area, carbofuran was detected
in only one sample at a concentration of 0.002 µg/L.
The virtual absence of pesticides detected in the thirty
wells sampled reflects minimal pesticide use within
the study area.

VOCs were more commonly detected than pesticides. Most of the VOCs detected were components
of two classes: trihalomethanes and BTEX compounds
(benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene). Trihalomethanes form as by-products of disinfection (chlorination). Disinfection of rural domestic wells by
addition of bleach (sodium hypochlorite) is a common
practice and may be a potential process for production
of THMs within the study area. BTEX compounds, as
well as the fuel additive MTBE (methyl tert-butyl
ether), are all common components of gasoline.

These compounds may be responsible for minor, local
ground-water contamination. Whether the BTEX compounds are entering ground water
in precipitation or as a result of spills near the well head is not known.
No
VOCs, including the THM and BTEX compounds,
were found in concentrations that exceeded USEPA
drinking-water standards. MTBE and chloroform are
two VOCs that were frequently detected in a recent
national aggregation of NAWQA VOC data. (Paul
Squillace and others, written commun., 1999). MTBE
was detected at one site within the study area at an
estimated concentration of 0.60 µg/L. Point sources
that contribute MTBE to ground water are leaking
underground gasoline storage tanks and gasoline spills
on land. MTBE, however, also has been detected in
precipitation. Once MTBE enters ground water, it is
more resistant to decay than other gasoline components, such as benzene (Snow
and Zogorski, 1995).
MTBE is not required to be added to gasoline in West
Virginia; therefore, it is infrequently detected in
ground water within the study area.

Relation Between Precipitation and Ground Water

Nitrogen, although present in rocks in trace amounts, may also be derived from
atmospheric sources and from human activities. Sources of nitrogen include production
and use of synthetic fertilizers, septic systems, and nitrogenous organic waste
from farm animals. The combustion of fossil fuels in gasoline and diesel engines
releases nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. In the atmosphere, chemical processes
alter the nitrogen oxides into nitrate and nitric acid (Hem, 1992). These processes
can lower the pH in precipitation, which eventually recharges the ground water.
Water from wells located on hilltops have higher nitrate concentrations than
ground water from wells in hillside and valley settings (fig. 9).

Figure 9. Nitrate concentrations
in ground water sampled from 30 wells in hilltop, hillside, and valley
settings compared with precipitation data from Babcock State Park, West
Virginia.

Rainfall analysis can provide an understanding of
precipitation's effect on ground-water quality. Chemical data for precipitation samples collected at Babcock
State Park were used to compare nitrate and other constituents in ground water to rainfall (table 5). Precipitation samples collected weekly at the park from 1988
to 1997 were analyzed for calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, ammonia, nitrate, chloride, sulfate, pH,
and specific conductance. Precipitation at Babcock
State Park has lower concentrations of these major
ions, except for nitrate, than concentrations of these
ions in ground water in the study area. Nitrate concentration is usually much higher in precipitation than in
ground water; therefore, nitrate affects ground-water
quality, especially in hilltop recharge areas (fig. 9).
The highest concentration of nitrate detected in either
ground water or precipitation was detected in water
sampled from a hillside well (fig. 9) completed in the
karst Greenbrier limestone aquifer. The karst Green-brier aquifer system is highly susceptible to contamination and is not characteristic of most wells sampled
in the study area.

A comparison of chemical data for precipitation
at Babcock State Park to similar data for ground water
in various topographic settings in the study area shows
that median concentrations of most constituents are
highest in valley settings, and lowest and most similar
to precipitation in hilltop settings. These data suggest
that recharge from precipitation takes place primarily
on hilltops and hillsides, and as ground water travels
down hillsides through fractures in the bedrock and
soils towards valleys, minerals are dissolved and concentrations of ions increase in ground water (table 5).
This finding is supported by apparent median ground-water ages for ground water in hilltop, hillside, and
valley settings of 13, 29, and 42 years, respectively.

Summary and Conclusions

The Appalachian Plateaus in the Kanawha River Basin
of West Virginia were studied by the U.S. Geological
Survey to determine water-quality characteristics of
ground water. The Appalachian Plateaus are underlain
by flat-lying, Pennsylvanian age sedimentary rocks.
Ground water primarily flows down slopes to the valley through faults, joints, bedding-plane separations,
and other fractures.

The results of analysis of samples for chlorofluorocarbons were used to determine the apparent age
and depth of circulation of potable ground water. Statistical analysis shows that ground-water age and
depths of ground-water circulation correlate with topo-graphic setting. Hilltop wells had water with a median
age of 13 years, and had the shallowest depth of circulation (median circulation depth of 133 ft). Water from
hillside wells had a median age of 29 years and an
intermediate circulation depth (median = 200 ft). Valley wells had the oldest water, with a median apparent
age of 42 years and also had the deepest circulation
depths of the three topographic settings
(median = 317 ft).

Bacteria were not routinely detected in ground water within the study area.
Only five of the 30 sites sampled tested positive for the presence of total
coliform bacteria, and only one site tested positive for Escherichia coli
(E. coli). None of the sites sampled tested positive for fecal
coliform bacteria. The general lack of agriculture in the study area explains
the lack of bacterial contamination of ground water in the study area

Radon is another contaminant commonly found in ground water in the study area.
Of the 30 sites sampled, 50 percent exceeded the proposed USEPA MCL of 300 pCi/L
but none exceeded the 4,000 pCi/L proposed alternate maximum contaminant level
(AMCL). The concentrations of radon are variable in the Appalachian Plateaus
because of varying bedrock lithology within the region.

Arsenic is also a contaminant found in ground water. Of the 30 sites sampled,
4 samples exceeded the proposed MCL of 5 µg/L. No samples exceeded the
current MCL of 50 µg/L.

Manganese concentrations exceeded the USEPA SMCL of 50 µg/L in 57 percent
of the sites sampled and 40 percent of iron concentrations exceeded the USEPA
SMCL of 300 µg/L. The primary source of manganese, iron, and other dissolved
constituents in ground water from the study area is minerals in the bedrock.

Precipitation is potentially a source of nitrate in ground water. Recently
recharged shallow ground water located in hilltop wells has higher concentrations
of nitrate than hillside or valley wells and is similar to nitrate concentrations
in precipitation. Median nitrate concentrations were approximately six times
higher in precipitation than in shallow ground water.

Pesticides and VOCs can enter ground water as a result of anthropogenic activities.
Of 47 pesticides analyzed from 30 sites, five were detected, all at very low
concentrations. Of the 30 sites sampled, only two had pesticide detections,
but 23 (77 percent) had detections of at least one VOC. VOC detections were
at very low concentrations or at estimated concentrations. BTEX and THMs were
the most common VOCs detected. None of the pesticides or VOCs detected exceeded
USEPA drinking-water standards, but only 2 of 5 pesticides and 11 of 16 VOCs
detected have an MCL or health advisory level.

Kozar, M.D., and Sheets, C.J., 1997, Radon in ground water in the
Kanawha-New River Basin, West Virginia, Virginia, and North Carolina: The Ohio
Basin Consortium for Research & Education: 13th Annual Scientific Symposium,
November 2-4, 1997, session III, p. 2.

Sheets, C.J., and Kozar, M.D., 1997, Bacteria in water from domestic
wells in fractured bedrock within the Kanawha-New River Basin in West Virginia,
Virginia, and North Carolina: The Ohio River Basin Consortium for Research &
Education: 13th Annual Scientific Symposium, November 2-4, 1997, session III,
p. 3.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1998, Current drinking water
standards, national primary and secondary drinking water regulations: Office
of Ground Water and Drinking Water, accessed March 22, 1999, at URL http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/wot/appa.html

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1999, Proposed Radon in Drinking
Water Rule: Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, accessed January 27,
2000 at URL http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/standard/pp/ radonpp.htm

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive
purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.

For additional information write to:

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U.S. Geological Survey

11 Dunbar Street

Charleston, WV 25301

Copies of this report can be purchased from:

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Branch of Information Services

Box 25286

Denver, CO 80225-0286

Information regarding the National Water-Quality Assessment
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