The President, Counciw and Fewwows of de Royaw Society of London for Improving Naturaw Knowwedge,[1] commonwy known as de Royaw Society, is a wearned society. Founded on 28 November 1660, it was granted a royaw charter by King Charwes II as "The Royaw Society".[1] It is de owdest nationaw scientific institution in de worwd.[2] The society is de United Kingdom's and Commonweawf of Nations' Academy of Sciences and fuwfiws a number of rowes: promoting science and its benefits, recognising excewwence in science, supporting outstanding science, providing scientific advice for powicy, fostering internationaw and gwobaw co-operation, education and pubwic engagement.

The society is governed by its Counciw, which is chaired by de Society's President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Counciw and de President are ewected from and by its Fewwows, de basic members of de society, who are demsewves ewected by existing Fewwows. As of 2016, dere are about 1,600 fewwows, awwowed to use de postnominaw titwe FRS (Fewwow of de Royaw Society), wif up to 52 new fewwows appointed each year. There are awso royaw fewwows, honorary fewwows and foreign members, de wast of which are awwowed to use de postnominaw titwe ForMemRS (Foreign Member of de Royaw Society). The Royaw Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up de post on 30 November 2015.[3]

In wetters in 1646 and 1647, Boywe refers to "our invisibwe cowwege" or "our phiwosophicaw cowwege". The society's common deme was to acqwire knowwedge drough experimentaw investigation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[6] Three dated wetters are de basic documentary evidence: Boywe sent dem to Isaac Marcombes (Boywe's former tutor and a Huguenot, who was den in Geneva), Francis Tawwents who at dat point was a fewwow of Magdawene Cowwege, Cambridge,[7] and London-based Samuew Hartwib.[8]

[Cassini] makes, den, Mr Owdenburg to have been de instrument, who inspired de Engwish wif a desire to imitate de French, in having Phiwosophicaw Cwubs, or Meetings; and dat dis was de occasion of founding de Royaw Society, and making de French de first. I wiww not say, dat Mr Owdenburg did rader inspire de French to fowwow de Engwish, or, at weast, did hewp dem, and hinder us. But 'tis weww known who were de principaw men dat began and promoted dat design, bof in dis city and in Oxford; and dat a wong whiwe before Mr Owdenburg came into Engwand. And not onwy dese Phiwosophic Meetings were before Mr Owdenburg came from Paris; but de Society itsewf was begun before he came hider; and dose who den knew Mr Owdenburg, understood weww enough how wittwe he himsewf knew of phiwosophic matter.[13]

Mace granted by Charwes II.

On 28 November 1660, de 1660 committee of 12 announced de formation of a "Cowwege for de Promoting of Physico-Madematicaw Experimentaw Learning", which wouwd meet weekwy to discuss science and run experiments. At de second meeting, Sir Robert Moray announced dat de King approved of de gaderings, and a royaw charter was signed on 15 Juwy 1662 which created de "Royaw Society of London", wif Lord Brouncker serving as de first president. A second royaw charter was signed on 23 Apriw 1663, wif de king noted as de founder and wif de name of "de Royaw Society of London for de Improvement of Naturaw Knowwedge"; Robert Hooke was appointed as Curator of Experiments in November. This initiaw royaw favour has continued and, since den, every monarch has been de patron of de society.[14]

The society's earwy meetings incwuded experiments performed first by Hooke and den by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in deir subject area, and were bof important in some cases and triviaw in oders.[15] The society awso pubwished an Engwish transwation of Essays of Naturaw Experiments Made in de Accademia dew Cimento, under de Protection of de Most Serene Prince Leopowd of Tuscany in 1684, an Itawian book documenting experiments at de Accademia dew Cimento.[16] Awdough meeting at Gresham Cowwege, de Society temporariwy moved to Arundew House in 1666 after de Great Fire of London, which did not harm Gresham but did wead to its appropriation by de Lord Mayor. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673.[17]

There had been an attempt in 1667 to estabwish a permanent "cowwege" for de society. Michaew Hunter argues dat dis was infwuenced by "Sowomon's House" in Bacon's New Atwantis and, to a wesser extent, by J. V. Andreae's Christianopowis, dedicated research institutes, rader dan de cowweges at Oxford and Cambridge, since de founders onwy intended for de society to act as a wocation for research and discussion, uh-hah-hah-hah. The first proposaw was given by John Evewyn to Robert Boywe in a wetter dated 3 September 1659; he suggested a grander scheme, wif apartments for members and a centraw research institute. Simiwar schemes were expounded by Bengt Skytte and water Abraham Cowwey, who wrote in his Proposition for de Advancement of Experimentaw Phiwosophy in 1661 of a "'Phiwosophicaw Cowwege", wif houses, a wibrary and a chapew. The society's ideas were simpwer and onwy incwuded residences for a handfuw of staff, but Hunter maintains an infwuence from Cowwey and Skytte's ideas.[18] Henry Owdenburg and Thomas Sprat put forward pwans in 1667 and Owdenburg's co-secretary, John Wiwkins, moved in a counciw meeting on 30 September 1667 to appoint a committee "for raising contributions among de members of de society, in order to buiwd a cowwege".[19] These pwans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anyding, given de wack of contributions from members and de "unreawised—perhaps unreawistic"—aspirations of de society.[20]

Lord Hardwicke, weader of de "Hardwicke Circwe" dat dominated society powitics during de 1750s and '60s

During de 18f century, de gusto dat had characterised de earwy years of de society faded; wif a smaww number of scientific "greats" compared to oder periods, wittwe of note was done. In de second hawf, it became customary for His Majesty's Government to refer highwy important scientific qwestions to de counciw of de society for advice, someding dat, despite de non-partisan nature of de society, spiwwed into powitics in 1777 over wightning conductors. The pointed wightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Frankwin in 1749, whiwe Benjamin Wiwson invented bwunted ones. During de argument dat occurred when deciding which to use, opponents of Frankwin's invention accused supporters of being American awwies rader dan being British, and de debate eventuawwy wed to de resignation of de society's president, Sir John Pringwe. During de same time period, it became customary to appoint society fewwows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, someding dat stiww continues.[21]

The 18f century featured remedies to many of de society's earwy probwems. The number of fewwows had increased from 110 to approximatewy 300 by 1739, de reputation of de society had increased under de presidency of Sir Isaac Newton from 1703 untiw his deaf in 1727,[22] and editions of de Phiwosophicaw Transactions of de Royaw Society were appearing reguwarwy.[23] During his time as president, Newton arguabwy abused his audority; in a dispute between himsewf and Gottfried Leibniz over de invention of infinitesimaw cawcuwus, he used his position to appoint an "impartiaw" committee to decide it, eventuawwy pubwishing a report written by himsewf in de committee's name.[22] In 1705, de society was informed dat it couwd no wonger rent Gresham Cowwege and began a search for new premises. After unsuccessfuwwy appwying to Queen Anne for new premises, and asking de trustees of Cotton House if dey couwd meet dere, de counciw bought two houses in Crane Court, Fweet Street, on 26 October 1710.[24] This incwuded offices, accommodation and a cowwection of curiosities. Awdough de overaww fewwowship contained few noted scientists, most of de counciw were highwy regarded, and incwuded at various times John Hadwey, Wiwwiam Jones and Hans Swoane.[25] Because of de waxness of fewwows in paying deir subscriptions, de society ran into financiaw difficuwty during dis time; by 1740, de society had a deficit of £240. This continued into 1741, at which point de treasurer began deawing harshwy wif fewwows who had not paid.[26] The business of de society at dis time continued to incwude de demonstration of experiments and de reading of formaw and important scientific papers, awong wif de demonstration of new scientific devices and qweries about scientific matters from bof Britain and Europe.[27]

Some modern research has asserted dat de cwaims of de society's degradation during de 18f century are fawse. Richard Sorrenson writes dat "far from having 'fared ingworiouswy', de society experienced a period of significant productivity and growf droughout de eighteenf century", pointing out dat many of de sources criticaw accounts are based on are in fact written by dose wif an agenda.[28] Whiwe Charwes Babbage wrote dat de practice of pure madematics in Britain was weak, waying de bwame at de doorstep of de society, de practice of mixed madematics was strong and awdough dere were not many eminent members of de society, some did contribute vast amounts – James Bradwey, for exampwe, estabwished de nutation of de Earf's axis wif 20 years of detaiwed, meticuwous astronomy.[29]

Powiticawwy widin de society, de mid-18f century featured a "Whig supremacy" as de so-cawwed "Hardwicke Circwe" of Whig-weaning scientists hewd de society's main Offices. Named after Lord Hardwicke, de group's members incwuded Daniew Wray and Thomas Birch and was most prominent in de 1750s and '60s. The circwe had Birch ewected secretary and, fowwowing de resignation of Martin Fowkes, de circwe hewped oversee a smoof transition to de presidency of Earw Maccwesfiewd, whom Hardwicke hewped ewect.[30] Under Maccwesfiewd, de circwe reached its "zenif", wif members such as Lord Wiwwoughby and Birch serving as vice-president and secretary respectivewy. The circwe awso infwuenced goings-on in oder wearned societies, such as de Society of Antiqwaries of London. After Maccwesfiewd's retirement, de circwe had Lord Morton ewected in 1764 and Sir John Pringwe ewected in 1772.[31] By dis point, de previous Whig "majority" had been reduced to a "faction", wif Birch and Wiwwoughby no wonger invowved, and de circwe decwined in de same time frame as de powiticaw party did in British powitics under George III, fawwing apart in de 1780s.[32]

In 1780, de society moved again, dis time to Somerset House. The property was offered to de society by His Majesty's Government and, as soon as Sir Joseph Banks became president in November 1778, he began pwanning de move. Somerset House, whiwe warger dan Crane Court, was not satisfying to de fewwows; de room to store de wibrary was too smaww, de accommodation was insufficient and dere was not enough room to store de museum at aww. As a resuwt, de museum was handed to de British Museum in 1781 and de wibrary was extended to two rooms, one of which was used for counciw meetings.[33]

The earwy 19f century has been seen as a time of decwine for de society; of 662 fewwows in 1830, onwy 104 had contributed to de Phiwosophicaw Transactions. The same year, Charwes Babbage pubwished Refwections on de Decwine of Science in Engwand, and on Some of Its Causes, which was deepwy criticaw of de Society. The scientific Fewwows of de Society were spurred into action by dis, and eventuawwy James Souf estabwished a Charters Committee "wif a view to obtaining a suppwementary Charter from de Crown", aimed primariwy at wooking at ways to restrict membership. The Committee recommended dat de ewection of Fewwows take pwace on one day every year, dat de Fewwows be sewected on consideration of deir scientific achievements and dat de number of fewwows ewected a year be wimited to 15. This wimit was increased to 17 in 1930 and 20 in 1937;[21] it is currentwy[when?] 52.[34] This had a number of effects on de Society: first, de Society's membership became awmost entirewy scientific, wif few powiticaw Fewwows or patrons. Second, de number of Fewwows was significantwy reduced—between 1700 and 1850, de number of Fewwows rose from approximatewy 100 to approximatewy 750. From den untiw 1941, de totaw number of Fewwows was awways between 400 and 500.[35]

The period did wead to some reform of internaw Society statutes, such as in 1823 and 1831. The most important change dere was de reqwirement dat de Treasurer pubwish an annuaw report, awong wif a copy of de totaw income and expenditure of de Society. These were to be sent to Fewwows at weast 14 days before de generaw meeting, wif de intent being to ensure de ewection of competent Officers by making it readiwy apparent what existing Officers were doing. This was accompanied by a fuww wist of Fewwows standing for Counciw positions, where previouswy de names had onwy been announced a coupwe of days before. As wif de oder reforms, dis hewped ensure dat Fewwows had a chance to vet and properwy consider candidates.[36] The Society's financiaw troubwes were finawwy resowved in 1850, when a government grant-in-aid of £1,000 a year was accepted. This was increased to £4,000 in 1876, wif de Society officiawwy acting merewy as de trustee for dese funds, dowing dem out to individuaw scientists.[37] This grant has now grown to over £47 miwwion, some £37 miwwion of which is to support around 370 fewwowships and professorships.[38][39]

By 1852, de congestion at Somerset House had increased danks to de growing number of Fewwows. Therefore, de Library Committee asked de Counciw to petition Her Majesty's Government to find new faciwities, wif de advice being to bring aww de scientific societies, such as de Linnean and Geowogicaw societies, under one roof. In August 1866, de government announced deir intention to refurbish Burwington House and move de Royaw Academy and oder societies dere. The Academy moved in 1867, whiwe oder societies joined when deir faciwities were buiwt. The Royaw Society moved dere in 1873, taking up residence in de East Wing.[40] The top fwoor was used as accommodation for de Assistant Secretary, whiwe de wibrary was scattered over every room and de owd caretaker's apartment was converted into offices. One fwaw was dat dere was not enough space for de office staff, which was den approximatewy eighty. When, for exampwe, de Society organised de British contribution to de Internationaw Geophysicaw Year in 1954, additionaw faciwities had to be found for de staff outside Burwington House.[41]

On 22 March 1945, de first femawe Fewwows were ewected to de Royaw Society. This fowwowed a statutory amendment in 1944 dat read "Noding herein contained shaww render women inewigibwe as candidates", and was contained in Chapter 1 of Statute 1. Because of de difficuwty of co-ordinating aww de Fewwows during de Second Worwd War, a bawwot on making de change was conducted via de post, wif 336 Fewwows supporting de change and 37 opposing.[42] Fowwowing approvaw by de Counciw, Marjory Stephenson, Kadween Lonsdawe and Edif Büwbring were ewected as Fewwows.[42]

The bwazon for de shiewd in de coat of arms of de Royaw Society is in a dexter corner of a shiewd argent our dree Lions of Engwand, and for crest a hewm adorned wif a crown studded wif fworets, surmounted by an eagwe of proper cowour howding in one foot a shiewd charged wif our wions: supporters two white hounds gorged wif crowns, wif de motto of nuwwius in verba. John Evewyn, interested in de earwy structure of de society, had sketched out at weast six possibwe designs, but in August 1662 Charwes II towd de society dat it was awwowed to use de arms of Engwand as part of its coat and de society "now resowv'd dat de armes of de Society shouwd be, a fiewd Argent, wif a canton of de armes of Engwand; de supporters two tawbots Argent; Crest, an eagwe Or howding a shiewd wif de wike armes of Engwand, viz. 3 wions. The words Nuwwius in verba". This was approved by Charwes, who asked Garter King of Arms to create a dipwoma for it, and when de second charter was signed on 22 Apriw 1663 de arms were granted to de president, counciw and fewwows of de society awong wif deir successors.[43]

The hewmet of de arms was not specified in de charter, but de engraver sketched out a peer's hewmet on de finaw design, which is used. This is contrary to de herawdic ruwes, as a society or corporation normawwy has an esqwire's hewmet; it is dought dat eider de engraver was ignorant of dis ruwe, which was not strictwy adhered to untiw around 1615, or dat he used de peer's hewmet as a compwiment to Lord Brouncker, a peer and de first President of de Royaw Society.[44]

The society's motto, Nuwwius in verba, is Latin for "Take nobody's word for it". It was adopted to signify de fewwows' determination to estabwish facts via experiments and comes from Horace's Epistwes, where he compares himsewf to a gwadiator who, having retired, is free from controw.[45]

The society's core members are de fewwows: scientists and engineers from de United Kingdom and de Commonweawf sewected based on having made "a substantiaw contribution to de improvement of naturaw knowwedge, incwuding madematics, engineering science and medicaw science".[46] Fewwows are ewected for wife and gain de right to use de postnominawFewwow of de Royaw Society (FRS). The rights and responsibiwities of fewwows awso incwude a duty to financiawwy contribute to de society, de right to stand for counciw posts and de right to ewect new fewwows.[47] Up to 52 fewwows are ewected each year and in 2014 dere were about 1,450 wiving members in totaw.[34] Ewection to de fewwowship is decided by ten sectionaw committees (each covering a subject area or set of subjects areas) which consist of existing fewwows.

The society awso ewects royaw fewwows, honorary fewwows and foreign members. Royaw fewwows are dose members of de British Royaw Famiwy, representing de British monarchy's rowe in promoting and supporting de society, who are recommended by de society's counciw and ewected via postaw vote. There are currentwy[when?] five royaw fewwows: The Duke of Edinburgh, The Prince of Wawes, The Duke of Kent, de Princess Royaw, and The Duke of Cambridge.[48] Honorary fewwows are peopwe who are inewigibwe to be ewected as fewwows but neverdewess have "rendered signaw service to de cause of science, or whose ewection wouwd significantwy benefit de Society by deir great experience in oder wawks of wife". Six honorary fewwows have been ewected to date, incwuding Baroness O'Neiww of Bengarve.[49] Foreign members are scientists from non-Commonweawf nations "who are eminent for deir scientific discoveries and attainments". Eight are ewected each year by de society and awso howd deir membership for wife. Foreign members are permitted to use de post-nominaw ForMemRS (Foreign Member of de Royaw Society) and currentwy[when?] number about 140.[50]

The appointment of fewwows was first audorised in de second charter, issued on 22 Apriw 1663, which awwowed de president and counciw, in de two monds fowwowing de signing, to appoint as fewwows any individuaws dey saw fit. This saw de appointment of 94 fewwows on 20 May and 4 on 22 June; dese 98 are known as de "Originaw Fewwows". After de expiration of dis two-monf period any appointments were to be made by de president, counciw and existing fewwows.[51] Many earwy fewwows were not scientists or particuwarwy eminent intewwectuaws; it was cwear dat de earwy society couwd not rewy on financiaw assistance from de king, and scientificawwy trained fewwows were few and far between, uh-hah-hah-hah. It was derefore necessary to secure de favour of weawdy or important individuaws for de society's survivaw.[52] Whiwe de entrance fee of £4 and de subscription rate of one shiwwing a week shouwd have produced £600 a year for de society, many fewwows paid neider reguwarwy nor on time.[53] Two-dirds of de fewwows in 1663 were non-scientists; dis rose to 71.6% in 1800 before dropping to 47.4% in 1860 as de financiaw security of de society became more certain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[54] In May 1846, a committee recommended wimiting de annuaw intake of members to 15 and insisting on scientific eminence; dis was impwemented, wif de resuwt being dat de society now consists excwusivewy of scientific fewwows.[55]

The society is governed by its counciw, which is chaired by de society's president, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of counciw, de president and de oder officers are ewected from and by its fewwowship.

The counciw is a body of 21 fewwows, incwuding de officers (de president, de treasurer, two secretaries—one from de physicaw sciences, one from wife sciences—and de foreign secretary),[56] one fewwow to represent each sectionaw committee and seven oder fewwows.[57] The counciw is tasked wif directing de society's overaww powicy, managing aww business rewated to de society, amending, making or repeawing de society's standing orders and acting as trustees for de society's possessions and estates. Members are ewected annuawwy via a postaw bawwot, and current standing orders mean dat at weast ten seats must change hands each year.[58] The counciw may estabwish (and is assisted by) a variety of committees,[58] which can incwude not onwy fewwows but awso outside scientists.[57] Under de charter, de president, two secretaries and de treasurer are cowwectivewy de officers of de society.[59] The current officers [60] are:

The President of de Royaw Society is head of bof de society and de counciw. The detaiws for de presidency were set out in de second charter and initiawwy had no wimit on how wong a president couwd serve for; under current society statute, de term is five years.[61]

The current president is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took over from Pauw Nurse on 30 November 2015.[62] Historicawwy, de duties of de president have been bof formaw and sociaw. The Cruewty to Animaws Act 1876 weft de president as one of de few individuaws capabwe of certifying dat a particuwar experiment on an animaw was justified. In addition, de president is to act as de government's chief (awbeit informaw) advisor on scientific matters. Yet anoder task is dat of entertaining distinguished foreign guests and scientists.[63]

The society is assisted by a number of fuww-time paid staff. The originaw charter provided for "two or more Operators of Experiments, and two or more cwerks"; as de number of books in de society's cowwection grew, it awso became necessary to empwoy a curator. The staff grew as de financiaw position of de society improved, mainwy consisting of outsiders, awong wif a smaww number of scientists who were reqwired to resign deir fewwowship on empwoyment.[64] The current senior members of staff are:[65]

The Royaw Society Cowwections at de University of London History Day, 2016.

The Society has a variety of functions and activities. It supports modern science by disbursing nearwy £42 miwwion to fund approximatewy 600 research fewwowships for bof earwy and wate career scientists, awong wif innovation, mobiwity and research capacity grants.[66] Its Awards, prize wectures and medaws aww come wif prize money intended to finance research,[67] and it provides subsidised communications and media skiwws courses for research scientists.[68] Much of dis activity is supported by a grant from de Department for Business, Innovation and Skiwws, most of which is channewwed to de University Research Fewwowships (URF).[38] In 2008, de Society opened de Royaw Society Enterprise Fund, intended to invest in new scientific companies and be sewf-sustaining, funded (after an initiaw set of donations on de 350f anniversary of de Society) by de returns from its investments.[69]

Through its Science Powicy Centre, de Society acts as an advisor to de UK Government, de European Commission, de United Nations on matters of science. It pubwishes severaw reports a year, and serves as de Academy of Sciences of de United Kingdom.[70] Since de middwe of de 18f century, government probwems invowving science were irreguwarwy referred to de Society, and by 1800 it was done reguwarwy.[71]

The premises at 6–9 Carwton House Terrace is a Grade I wisted buiwding and de current headqwarters of de Royaw Society, which had moved dere from Burwington House in 1967.[72] The ground fwoor and basement are used for ceremonies, sociaw and pubwicity events, de first fwoor hosts faciwities for Fewwows and Officers of de Society, and de second and dird fwoors are divided between offices and accommodation for de President, Executive Secretary and Fewwows.[73]

When George became King, he audorised de demowition of Carwton House, wif de reqwest dat de repwacement be a residentiaw area. John Nash eventuawwy compweted a design dat saw Carwton House turned into two bwocks of houses, wif a space in between dem.[74] The buiwding is stiww owned by de Crown Estates and weased by de Society; it underwent a major renovation from 2001 to 2004 at de cost of £9.8 miwwion, and was reopened by de Prince of Wawes on 7 Juwy 2004.[14]

Carwton House Terrace underwent a series of renovations between 1999 and November 2003 to improve and standardise de property. New waiting, exhibition and reception rooms were created in de house at No.7, using de Magna Boschi marbwe found in No.8, and greenish grey Statuario Venato marbwe was used in oder areas to standardise de design, uh-hah-hah-hah.[73] An effort was awso made to make de wayout of de buiwdings easier, consowidating aww de offices on one fwoor, Fewwows' Rooms on anoder and aww de accommodation on a dird.[75]

In 2009 Chichewey Haww, a Grade I wisted buiwding wocated near Miwton Keynes, was bought by de Royaw Society for £6.5 miwwion, funded in part by de Kavwi Foundation.[76] The Royaw Society spent severaw miwwion on renovations adapting it to become de Kavwi Royaw Society Internationaw Centre, a venue for residentiaw science seminars. The centre hewd its first scientific meeting on 1 June 2010 and was formawwy opened on 21 June 2010.

The Royaw Society presents numerous awards, wectures and medaws to recognise scientific achievement.[67] The owdest is de Croonian Lecture, created in 1701 at de reqwest of de widow of Wiwwiam Croone, one of de founding members of de Royaw Society. The Croonian Lecture is stiww awarded on an annuaw basis, and is considered de most important Royaw Society prize for de biowogicaw sciences.[90] Awdough de Croonian Lecture was created in 1701, it was first awarded in 1738, seven years after de Copwey Medaw. The Copwey Medaw is de owdest Royaw Society medaw stiww in use and is awarded for "outstanding achievements in research in any branch of science".[91]

Miwwer, David Phiwip (1998). "The 'Hardwicke Circwe': The Whig Supremacy and Its Demise in de 18f-Century Royaw Society". Notes and Records of de Royaw Society. 52 (1): 73. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1998.0036.

A.C.S. (1938). "Notes on de Foundation and History of de Royaw Society". Notes and Records of de Royaw Society of London. 1 (1): 32. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1938.0006.

Sorrenson, Richard (1996). "Towards a History of de Royaw Society in de Eighteenf Century". Notes and Records of de Royaw Society of London. 50 (1): 29. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1996.0003.

Sprat, Thomas (1722). The history of de Royaw Society of London: for de improving of naturaw knowwedge. By Tho. Sprat. Samuew Chapman, uh-hah-hah-hah. OCLC475095951.

Stark, Ryan, uh-hah-hah-hah. "Language Reform in de Late Seventeenf Century," in Rhetoric, Science, and Magic in Seventeenf-Century Engwand (Washington, DC: The Cadowic University of America Press, 2009), 9–46.

Summerson, John (1967). "Carwton House Terrace". Notes and Records of de Royaw Society of London. 22 (1): 20. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1967.0003.