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Gloria Macapagal Arroyo

1.
Learning Objectives
 Define solution, solute, solvent, solubility, soluble,
insoluble, miscible, and immiscible.
 Identify and explain the factors affecting solubility.
 Enumerate the factors that affect the rate of
dissolution.
 Differentiate a dilute from a concentrated solution
and among saturated, unsaturated, and
supersaturated solutions.
 Explain the difference among percent by weight,
percent by volume, and percent by weight/volume
 Solve problems involving different expressions of
concentration of a solution

2.
Smog in cities
 During the early industrial
revolution, coal was an
energy source that left
pollutants, like particulates
and carbon monoxide,
which stayed in the air
above the cities for a long
time. Breathing and
visibility became difficult.
The climate and topography
in certain cities, such as
London in England, caused
smog that killed thousands.

3.
Smog in cities
 Smog is the term applied to two different
types of air pollution. In cities with drier,
sunnier, climates and minimal industrial
activity, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides
from motor vehicles react to form a brownish
hazed called photochemical smog. In older
industrial cities with reverse climates,
particulates and sulfur oxides form industrial
smog.

4.
Types of Solutions
 The term “solution” is used in chemistry to describe
a system in which one or more substances are
homogeneously mixed or dissolved in another
substance. A solution has two components, a
solute and a solvent. The solute is the component
that is dissolved, or usually the least abundant
component in the solution. The solvent is the
dissolving agent, or the most abundant component
in the solution. Complex solutions containing more
than one solute are common.

5.
Types of Solutions
 From the three states of matter – solid, liquid,
gas – it is possible to have nine different types
of solutions. Of these, the most common
solutions are solids dissolved in liquids, liquids
dissolved in other liquid, gases dissolved in
liquid, and gases dissolved in others gases.

6.
Types of Solutions
 Many solids are really solid solutions. For
example, steel is a solid solution in which
carbon is dissolved in iron. The carbon
dissolves in the iron when the iron is melted.
When the iron cools and changes back into a
solid, the carbon remains dissolved in the
solid steel. Solid solutions are often called
alloys, like in brass (copper and zinc).

7.
Types of Solutions
 In a liquid solution, the solvent is usually
water. Water can dissolve more solutes than
any other liquid, so it is called the universal
solvent. Usually, a solid solute is dissolved in
a liquid solvent like a salt solution (sodium
chloride dissolved in water). Gases can also
dissolve in liquids to make a liquid solution.

9.
Pillar of Science
 Sir William Henry
Perkin started his
training as a chemist
when he was still a
young man. While
trying to synthesize
quinine, he stumbled
upon a purple
substance derived from
a coal tar fraction
containing aniline.

10.
Solubility
 Here are several
examples of Indus
Valley writing. It is
believed that the
Indus Valley people
may have also written
on palm leaves or
cloth but no evidence
of this has survived.

11.
Indus Valley Script
 Here are several
examples of Indus
Valley writing. It is
believed that the
Indus Valley people
may have also written
on palm leaves or
cloth but no evidence
of this has survived.

12.
Indus Valley Script
 Here are several
examples of Indus
Valley writing. It is
believed that the
Indus Valley people
may have also written
on palm leaves or
cloth but no evidence
of this has survived.

13.
Indus Valley Script
 Here are several
examples of Indus
Valley writing. It is
believed that the
Indus Valley people
may have also written
on palm leaves or
cloth but no evidence
of this has survived.

14.
Indus Valley Script
 Here are several
examples of Indus
Valley writing. It is
believed that the
Indus Valley people
may have also written
on palm leaves or
cloth but no evidence
of this has survived.

15.
The Indus Valley people had an advanced civilization with
large cities, running water and sewer systems. They built
walls around their cities which indicated that they might
have had to defend themselves against other people. We do
not know a lot about them because we cannot yet read their
writing.
The picture at the right shows an
example of Indus Valley
writing. Linguists are still trying
to decipher the language. We
know they traded with the
people of Mesopotamia and
Egypt so perhaps those people
knew how to read and speak this
language!

16.
This is a photograph of “The Great Bath” at Mohenjo Daro.
This is one of the earliest examples of a public bath or water
storage system found in the world. The Indus Valley people
were great architects and city planners.

17.
Here is a reconstruction of what the entrance to Mohenjo
Daro might have looked like.

20.
The Aryans brought with them their
own language, called Sanskrit and
religious and cultural beliefs. The
Indus Valley people eventually
became intermixed with the Aryan
people and the two cultures together
make up what is now much of the
culture of modern India. Hinduism,
the major religion of India, was a
mixture of Aryan and Indus Valley
beliefs. The caste system, which
keeps people in strict social classes,
was brought to India by the Aryans.

21.
Hindu Religion
The Aryans and the Indus
Valley culture eventually
produced what is known
today as Hinduism. This
religion is polytheistic,
which means believing in
many gods. We know
about this ancient
religion because of Aryan
books called “Vedas”
that record the beliefs of
the Aryans. Pictured
here is one of the many
gods of Hinduism,
Krishna.

22.
Hinduism dif f er s f r om ot her r eligions like
Chr ist ianit y, J udaism and I slam in t hat t her e is no one
single f ounder or one set of belief s t hat must be
f ollowed. Ther e ar e t housands of Hindu gods and
goddesses in Hinduism. Most of t he belief s of
Hinduism came f r om t he or al t r adit ions of t he Ar yans
which became t he Vedas—or holy wr it ings—of t he
Hindus.

23.
Reincarnation
 Central to Hinduism is the
belief in reincarnation.
Hindus believe that after a
person dies, they will be
re-born as some other
creature or thing. What
you are re-born as depends
on your “Karma” or the
deeds you did in your
previous life. If you did
good deeds, you will reborn
into a higher, better life. If
you had bad Karma, you
may be re-born as an
insect or even a tree.

24.
Caste System
 One social custom brought to
India by the Aryans was the
caste system. This system put
every person in society into a
certain class from which they
could never advance. The
caste system was very
effective in keeping social
order but it was rigid and
strict. Those in the lowest
caste were looked down on by
upper caste members and
could never change castes.

25.
Caste System
 India’s caste system is
divided into many
different classes,
each with its own job.
The highest class is
the Brahmans, or
priests. They have
great authority and
respect.

26.
Caste System
 The next level are the
warriors, or land-owners.
They are
often in the wealthy,
ruling class. In early
times, they were the
armies for the many
princes of India. They
are called Kshatriya.

27.
Caste System
 The Vaishya are the
merchants and
artisans. They are
the people who sell
products. They, like
all members of each
caste, cannot ever
change their caste.

28.
Caste System
 The lowest level are the
artisans and farmers.
They are called Shudra.
They are very
important because
they provide food and
goods for society. Like
members of every
caste, they must marry
within their own caste.

29.
Caste System
The lowest group
in India are the
Harijan. They are
also called the
“untouchables” or
“outcasts” because
they are not even
considered part of
the caste system.
Their job is to do
all the worst jobs in
the community
such as cleaning
latrines and sewers
and sweeping the streets. Members of the caste system were not even supposed to
have the shadow of an untouchable touch them. These people believed that the
only way to get out of their lot in life was to perform their jobs without complaint
so they could be born into a higher caste in the next life.

30.
Siddhartha Gautama
Around 566 BC, Siddhartha Guatama was born into the warrior
or Kshatriya caste. He was a prince who was kept isolated
inside a beautiful palace and not allowed to see the real world.
One day he left the walls of his palace and saw the pain and
misery of life. He decided from then on that he needed to find
a way of living that would allow people to find peace in life.
He spent many years trying different ways of life, following
different philosophies. Finally he came up with his own way,
which is now called Buddhism. Gautama became known as
Buddha, which means “enlightened one.” He developed the
Four Noble Truths and The Eightfold Path. These are rules to
live by that help people live morally and find the “middle
path,” without too much pain, or too much pleasure.

31.
Asoka
 Asoka was a famous ruler of India. He
became emperor in 268 BC. After
fighting a bloody battle, he sickened of
war and turned his life in a different
direction. He became a buddhist, or
someone who followed the teachings of
Buddha. He lived peacefully and built
roads for travelers, planted trees to give
shade, constructed rest houses and dug
wells. He considered all his subjects his
children and tried to care for them with
love and kindness. Many people
became buddhist after Asoka’s
example.

32.
Contributions
 Many advances in
science, medicine,
astronomy, and
mathematics came
out of India. This is a
depiction of an
ancient Indian book
that predicts eclipses
of the sun and moon.

33.
Contributions
India had many
advances in medicine.
One doctor from
Ancient India wrote a
book on how he rebuilt
noses through plastic
surgery. He no doubt
needed to do this often
since having one’s nose
cut off was one of the
punishments for
committing a crime.

34.
Contributions
 This is a sample of
elaborate mathematical
calculations taken from
an Indian text around 600
BC. An Indian named
Brahmagupta is credited
with inventing the idea of
“0”(zero). This changed
greatly how mathematics
could be used.

35.
Contributions
 Ancient India is also
credited with inventing
the magnetic compass.
Indians sailed the Indian
Ocean in boats the were
guided by a metal “fish”
floating in oil. The fish
pointed north, acting as a
compass for the boats.

36.
Ancient India
Ancient India brought inventions, ideas,
philosophies and social and cultural traditions
that have spread throughout many of the
world’s cultures. This huge subcontinent
with its rich and varied history was certainly
one of the greatest early civilizations in the
world.