Early Man in AzerbaijanWhen
Ancient Stones Speak by Ronnie Gallagher
and Abbas Islamov

Traces of prehistoric man may be found
throughout the hills and slopes of Azerbaijan's Absheron Peninsula,
from ancient burial sites to rock petroglyphs to cart ruts, carved
right into the stone. Take a good look around, and you're bound
to find visible evidence of the early cultures that once lived
there.

On many weekends, archaeology hobbyists Ronnie Gallagher and
Abbas Islamov do just that - explore the countryside, searching
for clues to Azerbaijan's distant past. At first, they began
these field trips to feed their curiosity; two years later, they
realize that their efforts are critical for identifying and protecting
Azerbaijan's ancient landmarks.

Early man had many settlements in the
region, but these millennia-old sites have yet to be preserved,
or even studied. In the following article, Gallagher and Islamov
stress the importance of establishing official governmental protection
for Azerbaijan's ancient sites, with support from the international
community. They're convinced that the results of scientific investigation
extend beyond the borders of Azerbaijan and can help provide
the world with a better understanding of early civilization.

For professional and amateur
archaeologists alike, Azerbaijan is still very much virgin territory.
When you consider the number and scope of ancient artifacts that
could be discovered here, it seems that present-day researchers
have barely begun to scratch the surface. Opportunities abound
to examine early human development, beginning with the Ice Age
and the dawn of civilization, up to the point when humans began
to settle down from nomadic, hunter-gatherer societies into an
agricultural-based lifestyle requiring less moving.

GobustanLeft: At first glimpse, it just looks like
a rocky, typical landscape but closer study reveals evidence
of Early Man. Gray Mountain outside of Baku.

Say the word "archaeology"
in Azerbaijan today, and most people automatically think of the
prehistoric Gobustan reserve. Located about 54 km southwest of
Baku, this area and its ancient rock carvings provide striking
evidence of how early humans interacted with their environment,
perhaps even as far back as 5,000 to 10,000 years ago.

Visitors to Gobustan marvel at the site's unique rock carvings
and petroglyphs that provide a snapshot of prehistoric life and
culture, with images of reed boats, women dancing and hunters
chasing their prey. Here are wonderful depictions of wildlife,
including many species of antelope and wild bulls that are now
extinct. These petroglyphs show that prehistoric humans had great
ingenuity and a certain level of sophistication - not to mention
an amazing ability to survive amidst primitive conditions. The
late Norwegian anthropologist Thor Heyerdahl (1914­2002)
was fascinated by the carvings at Gobustan, especially the images
of reed boats. Heyerdahl himself was famous for building boats
of balsa wood, papyrus and marsh reeds, and then taking them
"out for a spin" on long trans-oceanic expeditions.
He made four such journeys demonstrating that early humans were
equipped to travel great distances and interact with people in
distant lands. (See Thor Heyerdahl's account of his Tigris expedition
in this issue.)

Gobustan, as a center of prehistoric life and culture, clearly
did not exist in isolation. And yet, up until recently, very
little has been done to study the reserve and the ancient humans
who once lived there. No doubt our knowledge of the area's history
will increase once resources become available to facilitate professional
archaeological studies.

Below: Left top: Evidence of walls from an earlier archeological
period. So much archeological excavation and study needs to be
carried out in Azerbaijan.

Left bottom: Cart ruts on the Absheron Peninsula
are believed to pre-date the wheel.Right: Top and bottom: Gobustan-Gizildash region. Foreground
may have been water collection system from the Bronze Age. The
background shows a cistern that possibly dates to the Silk Road
era.

Already, international oil companies have begun carrying out
archaeological studies in order to determine the impact that
proposed pipelines will have upon the environment. Local and
expatriate archaeologists have begun to explore various areas
along the new oil BTC (Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan) pipeline route, beginning
at the Sangachal terminal, which is located within the larger
scope of the Gobustan reserve, and running along some 1,700 km
of pipeline through Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey. Their findings
suggest that Gobustan is really just the tip of the iceberg,
and that this entire area has the potential to provide us with
a wealth of information about early humans.

Pre-Wheel TechnologyLeft: Ronnie Gallagher (left) and Abbas Islamov
examine some of the cupmarks and water channels carved out on
the stone surface, evidence of Early Man.

Our curiosity about
early man was sparked by the cart ruts that Abbas Islamov and
I discovered on the Absheron Peninsula.

What were these strange parallel grooves? How were they used?
Was this some kind of ancient roadway? When we first saw the
tracks on the surface of the ground, it was difficult to figure
out whether they had been manmade or not. Like so many clues
about early life, the evidence can easily be overlooked by the
untrained eye. But upon studying the cart ruts more carefully,
we noticed that they all led from stone quarries directly to
the sea. And they were clearly hewn out of rock by hand.

Since then, we have learned that similar cart ruts can be found
throughout the Mediterranean, along the seacoasts of Malta, Greece,
Italy and southern France. Archaeologists hypothesize that cart
ruts may date back as far as the Neolithic Age (10,000­8,000
BC) or at least from the Bronze Age (5,000­4,000 BC). It's
quite likely that they predate the invention of the wheel. Some
scholars suggest that the cart ruts themselves were lubricated,
which would have enabled sledges, laden with heavy limestone
blocks, to have been dragged from quarry to distant building
sites.

Below:left: This stone was probably
lying horizontal in the past, but then fell on its side. Some
holes are large enough to hold a sufficient amount of water.
Other holes cannot yet be explained. Myriad questions remain.
Right: Petroglyphs at Gobustan which date back between
5,000 to 10,000 years ago.

What exactly was being built back
then, you may ask? Since the water level of the Caspian would
have been much lower during certain time periods, we suspect
that there are sunken buildings located along the Caspian shoreline
that would provide clues if only they could be investigated.
At least such construction has been found in other countries.
But we have yet to prove our supposition. [For more on cart ruts,
see "Cart
Ruts and Stone Circles: Key Evidence from the Past is Endangered"
in AI 10.3 (Autumn 2002). Search at AZER.com.]

Discovering the cart ruts spurred us on to head to the hills
during our leisure hours, in search of more evidence of prehistoric
man. Even as passionate amateurs, there's so much that we can
do to locate, identify and even begin to interpret some of the
features at various sites. And most of all, we hope to stimulate
scholars to get involved in research projects here in Azerbaijan.

Below:
five photos: Cupmarks are
believed to have been made by man during the Stone Age period.
So many questions remain. Why are some cupmarks larger than others?
Why are some round, while others are square? Why are some connected
wtih channels, while others aren't? Why do some of them always
appear with the same design across a vast territory? Why are
some of them found on top of mountains? Why...why...why?We've been photographing and mapping
all of the sites that we've visited, using satellite geographical
positioning system (GPS) coordinates. In its own small way, this
work may prove to be the beginning of a database for future study
and safeguarding of ancient sites.

Identifying the locations of these sites on a map is critical
for their protection and for the heritage of the country. Sadly,
in Azerbaijan, as elsewhere in the world, ancient Stone Age monuments
can easily be damaged and destroyed - often unwittingly by stone
quarry workers or developers. For example, the world-class petroglyphs
of Gobustan were discovered quite by accident in the 1950s when
quarry workers started to drill into some of the boulders that
provided cave shelter for these early inhabitants.

Once an ancient site is lost, it can never be replaced. Information
about the whereabouts of these landmarks is essential, particularly
for planning and development purposes. But this information will
only be made available if Azerbaijan's Ministry of Culture -
whose responsibility it is to protect national monuments - can
provide sufficient resources. The more we discover, the more
we see the necessity for developing a national database of archaeological
sites and implementing effective protective measures. Education
and awareness programs are essential so that the Azerbaijani
public can appreciate and value the ancient heritage that is
located right in their own backyard.

Signs of Ancient
History

Throughout the months we concentrated on locating likely sites
based on location, rock formations and an elevated sea level
explorations, we have found abundant evidence of what we believe
to be Stone Age and Bronze Age sites and settlements. So far,
we've focused on coastal areas from the Absheron Peninsula to
Besh Barmag (Five-Fingered Mountain) north of Baku, and then
inland to the region of Shamakhi and down to Alyat. Many of these
sites, like Gobustan, reflect a time when the level of the Caspian
Sea was higher than it is today.

At first, when we were hiking through the fields and hills, it
was hard for us to discern any evidence of early man. Quite soon
however, we began to learn what to look for, and started identifying
patterns of settlement. It helped to consider where ancient peoples
would have looked for shelter, especially for protection from
the prevailing north wind.

Discolorations in the landscape became
a tell tale sign of previous habitation. If a landscape appears
discolored, for instance, this may be a sign that the soil has
a different chemistry due to a buildup of nutrients. Perhaps
sheep were kept in an enclosure close to an ancient habitation;
as a result, the nutrient-rich land in that specific area supports
a different kind of flora today. Something similar happens when
a body is buried, as the nutrients that are released favor the
growth of certain plants. Certain species often indicate gravesites.

It's also quite easy to locate sites and artifacts in areas where
the soil is thin. Semi-desert soil conditions are especially
helpful. We've found many sites located inland. With thin soil
or a rocky landscape, everything is exposed and easy to find.
In other areas where the soil has built up, evidence is buried
and harder to find. Take the cart ruts, for example. In some
areas, these are quite , but we are aware that the ruts continue
for several tens of meters due their imprint on the land. Here
in-filled channels act as water traps and so support various
types of vegetation.

Stone Age Artifacts
Although the cart ruts are a significant find, we've also discovered
various stone circles, megalithic boulders, caves and rock dwellings.
There are many structures related to ancient tombs, such as simple
stone mounds, more elaborate round barrows, long barrows and
chambered cairns - mounds of stones which are erected as a memorial.

We've located dolmens - that is, prehistoric
megalithic structures consisting of two or more upright stones
with a capstone, typically forming a chamber. Likewise, we've
been able to identify water collection channels and watering
holes. Curiously, we've also noted animal tethering points and
a wide range of associated artifacts, such as fishing weights,
flints, cutting tools, stone mallets and primitive pottery -
to name but a few.

Since stone is virtually indestructible, the artifacts that we've
come across have probably remained unchanged, and perhaps even
untouched, down through the ages. Objects like a discarded flint
shard or a stone mallet may have gone untouched by a human hand
for several thousand years. It's fascinating to think that some
of the sites we've stumbled across are like time capsules, just
waiting to reveal their secrets.

Stone technology was certainly robust and prevalent for a long
period of time. No doubt that's why archaeologists have named
this era the "Stone Age." However, this term is a bit
of a misnomer, since stone artifacts were still being used well
into the Bronze and Iron ages. At the same time, ancient humans
obviously did not rely solely on stone. No doubt, early man was
also skillful in creating tools out of other materials, such
as bone, wood, antlers and leather - all of which would likely
have disintegrated long ago.

Many of the stone features that we've come across are depressions
or holes that have been bored out of boulders and outcrops. These
include rock holes for cooking, water channels and pot holes,
possible sacrificial holes, site markers, tethering points, and
- for want of a better term - holes that are termed "cup
marks." Obviously, these features were manmade and served
a certain purpose. But many of them mystify us. What were they
really used for? Some are easy to understand and interpret; others
are more enigmatic and pose riddles that have yet to be solved.
In any case, it may be a long time before they are understood
- if ever.

Water Channels
and Pot Holes

Left:Water basin, unknown date.

Today it's hard to imagine the coastal landscape of Azerbaijan
at a time when Gobustan was inhabited, but without a doubt, it
was an era when the level of the Caspian was much higher, due
to water that melted during the Ice Age. This, in turn, means
that the low-lying hills we see today would likely have appeared
as small islands. As such, many would have lacked natural flowing
streams. Early man had to use his ingenuity to catch and store
rare and precious rainwater. By carefully studying the rocks
in these areas, we've discovered that he was quite adept at it.

However, it should be noted that there were periods of time during
the ice ages, when the sea level would have been much lower than
it is today. Evidence of human occupation from those periods
would be hidden from view today.

For instance, we've seen channels that were strategically cut
into the limestone surface to capture the water and then direct
it to collection holes, or cisterns, or possibly a collection
vessel such as a leather or clay pot. These systems were so effective
that they continue to function today, benefiting both wildlife
and trees. For example, we've seen birds drinking from these
same holes, leaving their telltale signs of nutrient enrichment
to the benefit of a particular orange lichen that is common to
the region. In some locations where a channel sheds off a rock,
perhaps aiming at one time for a collection vessel, trees can
now be found growing and thriving.

Access to the water traps was not always simple. Sometimes the
sloped rock that was used for water collection was too high for
humans to reach. Consequently, they built primitive stairs to
reach it. Water channels are often found next to rock shelters
or caves.

Channels and pot holes are simple ideas that - at least in one
case - have been adapted by later residents. At a site to the
north of a ruined caravanserai in the Gobustan-Gizildash region,
we came across a vaulted arched building that turned out to be
a modern cistern. Located in front of the cistern is what appears
to be a water collecting system from the Bronze Age. Three major
water channels lead into the building, which contains a water
pit that is about 2m x 5m x 1m. The pit has been cut into the
limestone and is accessible via a stairway.

We feel it is reasonable to assume that this well-designed building,
with its intriguing entrance and overflow pipe, may have been
constructed as a watering hole for Silk Road travelers. This
cistern - apparently unknown to Azerbaijan's Institute of Archaeology
- merits detailed investigation, as it bears witness to an obvious
technological link to the distant past.

We know that early man used fire to cook and keep warm. This
is apparent from the number of hearthstones and ceilings covered
with smoke in the rock shelters that we have found. But the question
remains: without metal pots, how did early humans heat water?
The answer is simple. From the site at Gobustan, we know that
they made holes in the rocks, filled them partially with water
and then added hot stones from their fires. Such holes are a
prime feature of settlement sites.

We've also found water holes that were apparently for animals.
One example was specifically set up so that a goat or horse could
be tethered and thereby prevented from wandering away. The thoughtful
owner had had the foresight to provide a nearby supply of drinking
water for the animal.

Holes for Sacrifices
At each settlement site, it's common to see a rock with a depression
and two short channels running into it. These holes are typically
found on rocks that are quite flat. We've also noticed that such
patterns are often located at a slight distance from the settlement
and sometimes even overlooking it. As the channels leading into
the hole are rather short, it seems unlikely that they were related
to water collection. Rather, we think that they may have had
some practical use associated with collecting liquids - perhaps
for milking animals or collecting the blood of a sacrificed goat
or lamb. Perhaps these sacrifices were made as offerings to the
gods.

Curiously, the design of the channels leading to the holes appears
to be consistent, meaning that there is a great likelihood that
some ritual was associated with them. In every case, the channel
on the right is relatively straight, whereas the one on the left
has a distinct bend or angle to it.

Wine Presses
We've also found evidence that early man had a taste for refined
beverages and was actively engaged in winemaking. Simple rectangular
- shaped grape presses cut from the bed rock have been found
on the Absheron Peninsula at the cart rut site near the town
of Turkan. It's difficult to say how old these presses are. They
may only date back a few hundred years, but the fact that several
of these presses were found suggests a thriving industry, and
perhaps an ancient practice.

According to Dr. Idris Aliyev of the Institute of Archaeology,
the soil on the Absheron Peninsula is ideal for vineyards and,
indeed, you find many of them there today. Apparently the Absheron
area - and in particular, the site of the old village of Absheron,
located in a military area near the town of Dubendi - may well
have been a center for winemaking.

Burial Sites
As in most societies, early humans in Azerbaijan took special
care of their dead and built special structures for their burial.
At one of these vaults, we saw two holes drilled through the
end wall. Dr. Victor Kvachidze of Azerbaijan's History Museum
identified these holes as being used to allow the spirits of
the deceased to leave the burial chamber and enter the afterlife.
This indicates that early inhabitants had a spiritual dimension
to their lives and deep - rooted religious beliefs. This comes
as no surprise, for in Azerbaijan - a land full of mystery, fire
and mud volcanoes - religious practices can be traced back to
antiquity.

On another expedition, we found a tomb made of limestone slabs,
which dated back to the Bronze Age. Originally, it had a capstone
and was buried below soil and stone to form a small round hillock
or mound, called a barrow. Unfortunately, grave robbers opened
the tomb long ago and stole any artifacts that were inside. Grave
robbing is a serious concern today. The artifacts found inside
could provide invaluable information about the life and habits
of early man. But the people who rob and destroy these graves
are instead depriving Azerbaijani society of its heritage and
history. This is all the more reason why these sites need to
be identified and protected.

Cup Marks
The patterns that we call "cup marks" have been difficult
to interpret. Generally, these examples date from the Stone Age
and are simple, fairly hemispherical depressions 2-10 cm in diameter
and 3 cm deep. These kinds of cup marks have been reported throughout
Europe in association with megalithic sites. They've been found
on large boulders, rocky outcrops and on a number of separate
cup-marked stones. We have found them in great abundance here
in Azerbaijan. Often they appear in groups. In one case, we found
more than 100 indentions appearing in a random pattern on a single
stone.

Some cup marks even appear on the sides of stones and boulders,
which makes it even more difficult for us to figure out exactly
what they were used for. Obviously, they could not have been
used to hold objects or liquid.
Some of the literature about European cup marks associates them
with Bronze Age burials or cult practices, but we have not been
able to find a definitive answer as to what they were really
used for. Perhaps they served a variety of purposes. It is equally
possible that they may date to later eras than the time when
the megalithic site was first used. Still, the multitude of cup
marks at Azerbaijan sites leave us intrigued and baffled.

Border Markers
Some cup marks can be found on rather remote, yet prominent stones
in the settlement. Perhaps these indentations served as border
markers. In this category, we have grouped holes into two distinct
types: those found on the tops of hills and others found on outlying
rocks in open areas.

There is clearly some logic in marking such prominent spots.
Unlike a stone mound or cairn, which can easily be damaged or
destroyed, a cup mark is permanent and, if searched for, can
easily be found. These cup marks may have served as a signal
that the territory was occupied.

Link to Spirit
World
Another interpretation of the cup marks is that they were associated
with burials. According to Dr. Farid Alakbarov, medieval medical
texts indicate that pulverized material from ancient stone was
believed to cure disease. Similarly, a small bag filled with
stone fragments or powder taken from the grave of an ancestor
or another holy place may have served as a talisman. Perhaps
individuals carried the stone dust with them at all times, as
a reminder of their heritage and of the community to which they
belonged.

According to Alakbarov, the "Tibbname" (Book of Medicine),
which was written in 1712, documents centuries - old cures, including
the belief that consuming powdered stone from a grave marker
served as a remedy against falling in love. Being "too much
in love" was perceived as a form of madness, as depicted
in the legend of "Leyli and Majnun", a story similar
to "Romeo and Juliet" but which preceded it in oral
tradition by at least 1,000 years.

According to Alakbarov, the very fact that this superstition
was recorded in the "Tibbname," a medieval book written
in an Islamic environment that rejected beliefs in spirits, powers,
fetishes and idols, tells us how widespread the tradition was.

To comprehend the "cup mark" phenomena, we have to
understand one thing very clearly: the "Other World"
- the world of spirits, "deceased", "powers"
and "ghosts" - was perceived as being absolutely real
for ancient people.

In turn, these cup marks are markedly concentrated at or around
burial places, whether they be mounds, stone circles, cairns
or dolmens. These are the sacred places where the "powers"
or "energies" were believed to be the most concentrated.
Cup marks also seem to be associated with places that were not
related to burials, but served religious or ritualistic purposes.
These include standing stones, temples and other places that
had sacred meaning.

Untapped Riches
Much has yet to be learned about Stone Age, Neolithic and Bronze
Age archaeology in Azerbaijan. Clearly, these untapped archaeological
riches need to be identified, protected and studied. For us,
as amateurs, getting out into the countryside to make observations
and take photographs is proving to be a very worthwhile, enjoyable
and fascinating pastime. We do feel, however, that with the right
level of protection, and the wealth of techniques available to
modern archaeologists, the history, ancient lifestyles and development
of man in this region will become demystified.

This is a challenge that cannot be undertaken by Azerbaijan alone.
It will require considerable involvement and resources, not only
from the Azerbaijan government, but also the international community.
We are sure the Institute of Archaeology would welcome such offers
of support.

We think there's a story here to be told. How significant it
is to our understanding of early man, only time will tell.

Ronnie Gallagher has been working
in Baku for the past several years as BP's Environmental Manager
in Baku. Abbas Islamov has been Safety Advisor at BP for the
past four years. They both have been involved with BP's Archaeological
Baseline Survey in relationship to the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline
currently under construction. Contact Ronnie Gallagher at: gallagher_ronnie@yahoo.co.uk;
contact Abbas Islamov at: abbasislam@msn.com.