Deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning are two
different approaches to conducting scientific research. With deductive
reasoning, a researcher tests a theory by collecting and examining empirical
evidence to see if it is true. With inductive reasoning, a researcher first
gathers and analyzes data, then constructs a theory to explain her findings.

Within the field of sociology, researchers use both
approaches, and often, the two are used in combination when conducting research
and drawing conclusions from the results.

Deductive Reasoning Defined

Deductive reasoning is considered by many to be the standard
for scientific research. Using this method, one begins with theory and hypotheses, then conducts research in order
to test whether the theories and hypotheses can be proven true with specific
cases. As such, this form of research begins at a general, abstract level, and
then works its way down to a more specific and concrete level. With this form
of reasoning, if something is found to be true for a category of things, then
it is considered to be true for all things in that category in general.

By tracking professor responses and lack of responses to
imposter students, coded for race and gender by name, the researchers were able to
prove their hypothesis true. They concluded, based on this research, that
racial and gender biases are barriers that prevent equal access to
graduate-level education across the U.S.

Inductive Reasoning Defined

Inductive reasoning begins with specific observations or
real examples of events, trends, or social processes and progresses
analytically to broader generalizations and theories based on those observed
cases. This is sometimes called a “bottom up” approach because it starts
with specific cases on the ground and works its way up to the abstract level of
theory. With this method, once a researcher has identified patterns and trends
amongst a set of data, he or she can then formulate some hypotheses to test,
and finally develop some general conclusions or theories.

A classic example of inductive reasoning within sociology is
the premise of Émile Durkheim's study of suicide. Considered one
of the first works of social science research, the famous and widely taught book, Suicide,
details how Durkheim created a sociological theory of suicide -- as opposed to
a psychological one -- based on his scientific study of suicide rates among
Catholics and Protestants. Durkheim found that suicide was more common among
Protestants than Catholics, and he drew on his training in social theory to
create some typologies of suicide and a general theory of how suicide rates
fluctuate according to significant changes in social structure and norms.

However, while inductive reasoning is commonly used in
scientific research, it is not always logically valid because it is not always
accurate to assume that a general principle is correct based on a limited
number of cases. Some critics have suggested that Durkheim's theory is not
universally true because the trends he observed could possibly be explained by
other phenomena particular to the region from which his data came.

By nature, inductive reasoning is more open-ended and
exploratory, especially during the early stages. Deductive reasoning is more
narrow and is generally used to test or confirm hypotheses. Most social research,
however, involves both inductive and deductive reasoning throughout the
research process. The scientific norm of logical reasoning provides a two-way
bridge between theory and research.

In practice, this typically involves alternating between
deduction and induction.

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