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2 A Short Guide to Adaptive Learning in English Language Teaching Philip Kerr

3 A round publication Philip Kerr All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the authors. Please contact us at for more information. Cover design by Mark Bain Edited by Luke Meddings

4 A Short Guide to Adaptive Learning in English Language Teaching CONTENTS Foreword Introduction Simple models of adaptive learning Gamification Big data and analytics Platforms and more complex adaptive systems The selling points of adaptive learning The next 4 to 5 years of adaptive learning in ELT: 10 predictions Theory, research and practice Neoliberalism and solutionism Find out more Glossary

5 Foreword Sometimes you have a bad feeling about something, and sometimes you just sense a change in the weather. In each case, it's worth finding out if there's anything behind it, and what lies ahead. Buzzwords in education often set off alarm bells at The Round, especially when they arrive on a wave of hype and are endorsed by big business interests. But critique needs to temper passion with research. There must be a point of view, but also reference points. This is why Philip Kerr's pamphlet, based on his blog, is so welcome. Rather than relying on sentiment or gut reaction, Philip takes a term that's so hot right now - adaptive learning - and submits it to rigorous yet readable enquiry. Blending professional instinct with investigative journalism, he traces a path that leads from the classroom to the boardroom, from education to corporation. Why is adaptive learning a buzzword, he asks - and what interests lie behind it? Reading this pamphlet will give you a sense of where our profession may be headed, but also of the wider technological, societal and business trends that will shape its trajectory. Big data, big mistake? Read this and make up your own mind. CritiquEd is a series of pamphlets commissioned by the editors of The Round and published at no cost for free distribution. Luke Meddings and Lindsay Clandfield

6 Introduction This short book is intended to be a guide to adaptive learning in English language teaching (ELT). It is, necessarily, a rather speculative account because adaptive learning in ELT has yet to happen at least in any meaningful sense. It is a new technology and it is evolving rapidly, so it is no surprise to find that the term means different things to different people. What is clear, however, is that it will have a major impact on the professional lives of English language teachers, especially those working in post- secondary education where the technology will be rolled out first. We can expect to see the first significant adaptive products in ELT appearing in According to Time magazine, adaptive learning is a hot concept, embraced by education reformers, which is poised to reshape education 1. According to the educational news website, Education Dive, there is no hotter segment in ed tech right now 2. Major ELT publishers are moving away from traditional printed coursebooks towards the digital delivery of courses that will contain adaptive learning elements. Their investments in the technology are colossal. Universities in many countries, especially the US, are moving in the same direction again with huge investments. National and regional governments, intergovernmental organisations (such as UNESCO, the OECD, the EU and the World Bank), big business and hugely influential private foundations (such as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation) are all lined up in support of the moves towards the digital delivery of education. This delivery will inevitably involve elements of adaptive learning, and will in turn impact massively on the world of English language teaching. This guide will explain in simple terms what adaptive learning is, and what it is likely to become. I take an unashamedly critical look at the subject: much writing about EdTech is so unashamedly positive that dissenting voices are needed. I hope that exploring this development will encourage you to think about a range of issues including: the role of technology the nature of learning, and the politics of educational change. Whatever else it may be, adaptive learning is certainly an extremely useful lens through which to peer at the world of language teaching. 1 adaptive- learning- revolution/ June 6, 2013 (last accessed 2 April 2014) 2 learning- the- best- approaches- weve- seen- so- far/187875/ October 31, 2013 (last accessed 2 April 2014)

7 Simple models of adaptive learning Adaptive learning, as I observed in the introduction, can mean rather different things to different people. Before looking at the more sophisticated models that will soon appear in ELT, it may be helpful to consider some simple versions of adaptive learning that are already available. Online teach- yourself language programs have become extremely popular, and some have tens of millions of users. The most well known of these, like Rosetta Stone, Duolingo and Babbel, use adaptive learning software. Others, like busuu, are in the process of incorporating this software into their products. Despite appreciable differences between them, the approach in each case is very similar. A relatively simple example of adaptive language learning is Duolingo, a free online service that currently offers seven languages, including English, with over 20 million users in March The grammar and vocabulary of the target language is organized into a syllabus, much as it is in a standard ELT coursebook. In the case of Duolingo, this syllabus is called a skill tree, although knowledge tree might be a more apt description. Learners progress through a series of translation, dictation and multiple choice exercises, but are allowed to some extent to choose their own path up the tree. As with many computer games, higher levels can only be unlocked when certain tasks have been completed at lower levels. The software tracks learners performance and uses the data it collects to plan future lessons and to select tasks that are relevant to individual needs. The Duolingo blog describes the process in the following terms: similar to how an online store uses your previous purchases to customize your shopping experience, Duolingo uses your learning history to customize your learning experience 3. Duolingo is essentially a kind of memory trainer, and there are a number available on the market. One of the most well- known is Cerego s cloud- based iknow!, which describes itself as a memory management platform. iknow! is particularly strong in Japan: corporate and individual customers pay a monthly subscription to access its English, Chinese and Japanese language programs. Like Duolingo, Cerego s algorithms decide which items will be presented, and select the frequency and timing of opportunities for review. The program can be accessed through ordinary computers, as well as iphone and Android apps. The platform has been designed in such a way as to allow other content to be imported, and then presented and practised in a similar way. In a similar vein, the Rosetta Stone software also uses spaced repetition to teach grammar and vocabulary. It describes its adaptive learning as Adaptive Recall : according to their website, this provides review activities for each lesson at intervals that are determined by your performance in that review. Exceed the program's expectations for you and the review gets pushed out further. Fall short and you'll see it sooner. The program gives you a likely date and automatically notifies you when it's time to take the review again 4. Rosetta Stone has won numerous awards and claims that over 20,000 educational institutions around the world have formed partnerships with them. These include the US military, the University of Barcelona and Harrogate Grammar School in the UK. 3 data- driven- approach- to- education (last accessed 23 April 2014) 4 (last accessed 23 April 2014)

8 For anyone with a background in communicative language teaching, the experience with many of these programmes can be slightly surreal. Two features in particular stand out. First of all, little thought appears to have been given to the selection of items in the vocabulary syllabus. In iknow! s Erudite English course (i.e. advanced level), I was presented with a list of words that included defalcate, fleer and kvetch. In contrast, an advanced level English lesson with Voxy (another online provider) included in its target vocabulary list bus, common and otherwise. These examples may not be representative, but they do suggest that these course providers need to think more about their target language. The second feature that may come as a shock to experienced English language teachers is the use of strange decontextualized sentences to illustrate the meaning of vocabulary items. Sentences from Duolingo that I encountered include The dog eats the bird and Bread has salt. Cerego s iknow! offered Michael arrogates a slice of carrot cake, unbeknownst to his sister and She found a place in which to posit the flowerpot. It is reasonable to conclude that course providers such as these have invested more time and money in their technology than in educational expertise. Yet despite their limitations, products such as these are proving extremely popular and there is some evidence that language learning can result. Drop- out rates are very high (as with all online learning), but one study into Duolingo reported that those who persevere can make a semester s worth of progress in 34 hours 5. 5 Vesselinov, R. & Grego, J Duolingo effectiveness study study (last accessed 23 April 2014)

9 Gamification An integral part of adaptive learning programs, both the simple models already described and the much more complex systems that are currently under development, is an element of gamification. The term refers to the incorporation of points, levels (analogous to the levels in a typical computer game) and badges into the learning experience. In Duolingo, for example, users have a certain number of lives that they can afford to lose without failing an exercise. In addition, they can compare their performance with that of other users, and they can win lingots, a kind of in- game currency which allows them to buy lost lives or to compensate for a day of inactivity. Gamification and adaptive learning work together hand in glove because of the data that is generated by the adaptive software (see the next section for more on this). Adaptive learning revolves around a comparison of the performance of different students so score cards, leader boards and so on are hardly surprising. The idea behind this, in case it needs pointing out, is that it can make learning fun: students will be more motivated to do the work, which will seem more like play. It is a much hyped idea in education: the eltjam blog referred to the snowballing sexiness of the term. In an ELT context, most references to gamification have been very positive, and interest in gamification in ELT would appear to be on the rise. An attractive infographic singing the praises of gamification is available at the Knewton blog ( education/). Not everyone, however, is so positive. Gamification has been described by some writers and researchers as the pointsification of everything the reductionist process of assigning all actions points and increased personal scores (see, for example, Neil Selwyn, 2013, Distrusting Educational Technology, p.101). The motivation it may generate is clearly extrinsic, and this may not be a good long- term bet. It is also a solitary affair and adults (myself included) get bored of gamification elements very quickly. For both adults and younger learners, once you ve figured out how to play the system and get extra points (and there s always a way of finding shortcuts to do this), interest can wane quickly. And once gamification becomes a standard feature of educational experiences (and not just English language learning), its novelty value will disappear. These reservations are also shared by gamification enthusiasts like Graham Stanley ( and Paul Driver ( They argue, convincingly, that the gamification elements that can be found in adaptive learning programmes are only the most superficial aspects of what is, potentially, a much richer field.

10 Big data and analytics In order to understand more complex models of adaptive learning, it is necessary to take a step aside from the world of language learning. Businesses have long used analytics the analysis of data to find meaningful patterns in insurance, banking and marketing. With the exponential growth in computer processing power and memory capacity, businesses now have access to volumes of data of almost unimaginable size. This is known as big data and has been described as a revolution that will transform how we live, work and think (Mayer- Schönberger & Cukier, Big Data, 2013). Frequently cited examples of the potential of big data are Amazon s success in analyzing and predicting purchase patterns, and the use of big data analysis in Barack Obama s 2012 presidential re- election. Business commentators are all singing the same song on the subject, and the following quotes are typical of current discourse: The high- performing organisation of the future will be one that places great value on data and analytical exploration (The Economist Intelligence Unit, In Search of Insight and Foresight: Getting more out of big data 2013, p.15); Almost no sphere of business activity will remain untouched by this movement, (McAfee & Brynjolfsson, Big Data: The Management Revolution, Harvard Business Review (October 2012), p. 65). With the growing bonds between business and education it is unsurprising that language learning / teaching materials are rapidly going down the big data route. In comparison to what is now being developed for ELT, the data that is analyzed in the adaptive learning models I described earlier is very limited, and the algorithms used to shape the content are very simple. The volume and variety of data and the speed of processing are now of an altogether different order. Jose Ferreira, CEO of Knewton, one of the biggest players in adaptive learning in ELT, spells out the kind of data that can be tapped: At Knewton, we divide educational data into five types: one pertaining to student identity and onboarding, and four student activity- based data sets that have the potential to improve learning outcomes. They re listed below in order of how difficult they are to attain: 1) Identity Data: Who are you? Are you allowed to use this application? What admin rights do you have? What district are you in? How about demographic info? 2) User Interaction Data: User interaction data includes engagement metrics, click rate, page views, bounce rate, etc. These metrics have long been the cornerstone of internet optimization for consumer web companies, which use them to improve user experience and retention. This is the easiest to collect of the data sets that affect student outcomes. Everyone who creates an online app can and should get this for themselves. 3) Inferred Content Data: How well does a piece of content perform across a group, or for any one subgroup, of students? What measurable student proficiency gains result when a certain type of student interacts with a certain piece of content? How well does a question actually assess what it intends to? Efficacy data on instructional materials isn t easy to generate it requires algorithmically normed assessment items. However it s possible now for even small companies to norm small quantities of items. (Years ago, before we developed more sophisticated methods of norming items at scale, Knewton did so using Amazon s Mechanical Turk service.) 4) System- Wide Data: Rosters, grades, disciplinary records, and attendance information are all examples of system- wide data. Assuming you have permission (e.g. you re a teacher or principal), this information is easy to acquire locally for a class or school. But it isn t very helpful at small scale

11 because there is so little of it on a per- student basis. At very large scale it becomes more useful, and inferences that may help inform system- wide recommendations can be teased out. 5) Inferred Student Data: Exactly what concepts does a student know, at exactly what percentile of proficiency? Was an incorrect answer due to a lack of proficiency, or forgetfulness, or distraction, or a poorly worded question, or something else altogether? What is the probability that a student will pass next week s quiz, and what can she do right this moment to increase it? 6 Software of this kind keeps complex personal profiles, with millions of variables per student, on as many students as necessary. The more student profiles (and therefore students) that can be compared, the more useful the data is. Big players in this field, such as Knewton, are aiming for student numbers in the tens to hundreds of millions. Once data volume of this order is achieved, the analytics, or the algorithms that convert data into actionable insights (J. Spring, Education Networks (New York: Routledge, 2012), p.55) become much more reliable. The use of big data in education is not the future, but the present. In the US, organisations such as Pearson, Edmodo and the Khan Academy already hold data on tens of millions of high school students. This data, it is claimed, can help us move towards a more evidence- based approach to education, towards much more personalized learning programmes, and help teachers understand better their students needs. In the language of big data proponents, the promise is of game- changing outcomes and a radical transformation of education. The problem with data collection of this kind is that privacy is inevitably compromised. Protestations from data holders that they would never disclose confidential information about students have failed to reassure. Experience has already shown us that organisations as diverse as the CIA and the British National Health Service cannot protect their data. A frank appraisal of the realities of data storage led one organisation, inbloom, to acknowledge that it cannot guarantee the security of the information stored or that the information will not be intercepted when it is being transmitted. Privacy concerns have led to much debate in the US: an article in The Atlantic in March 2014 entitled Your High School Transcript Could Haunt You Forever 7 sets the tone for much of the discussion. There have been statements on the subject from Arne Duncan, the American Secretary of Education, and numerous new laws are under consideration. Concerns about privacy have also led, in part, to the demise of inbloom (referred to above). InBloom was set up by the Gates Foundation and News Corp as a way of aggregating data on millions of students. This was to include students names, birthdates, addresses, social security numbers, grades, test scores, disability status, attendance, and other confidential information. Under US federal law, this information could be shared with private companies selling educational technology and services. Unfortunately for inbloom and their backers, a tide of public opinion was swelling against such data aggregation and, one by one, the states that had agreed to work with inbloom pulled out. In April 2014, the CEO of inbloom announced that the organisation would be wound down. Whilst this might seem like a victory for those who have been campaigning against the use of big data in education, it is unlikely that educational big data will go away. The reality is that it s going to be done, says Eva Baker of the Center for the Study of Evaluation at UCLA. Educational big data is not going to be a small part of the future of education, she continues, it s going to be a big part. And 6 jose/2013/07/18/big- data- in- education/ (last accessed 23 April 2014) 7 high- school- transcript- could- haunt- you- forever/284346/ (last accessed 23 April 2014)

12 it s going to be put in place partly because it s going to be less expensive than doing professional development. A further concern with the arrival of big data is highlighted by Neil Selwyn in Distrusting Educational Technology (2013, p.59-60). Dataveillance, he writes, also functions to decrease the influence of human experience and judgement, with it no longer seeming to matter what a teacher may personally know about a student in the face of his or her dashboard profile and aggregated tally of positive and negative events. As such, there would seem to be little room for professional expertise or interpersonal emotion when faced with such data. In these terms, institutional technologies could be said to be both dehumanizing and deprofessionalizing the relationships between people in an education context be they students, teachers, administrators or managers.

13 Platforms and more complex adaptive systems For some years now, universities and other educational institutions around the world have been using online learning platforms, also known as Learning Management Systems (LMSs) or Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs).Well- known versions of these include Blackboard and Moodle. The latter is used by over 50% of higher education establishments in the UK (Dudeney, G. & N. Hockly, How to Teach English with Technology Harlow, Essex: Pearson, 2007, p.53). These platforms allow course content lectures, videos, activities, etc. to be stored and delivered, and they allow institutions to modify courses to fit their needs. In addition, they usually have inbuilt mechanisms for assessment, tracking of learners, course administration, social networking and other communication ( , chat, blogs, etc.). While these platforms can be used for courses that are delivered exclusively online, more commonly they are used to manage blended- learning courses (i.e. a mixture of online and face- to- face teaching). The platforms make the running of such courses relatively easy, as they bring together under one roof everything that the institution or teacher needs: tools that have been designed to work together and have the same design ethos, both pedagogically and visually (Sharma & Barrett, Blended Learning Oxford: Macmillan, 2007, p.108). The major ELT publishers all have their own LMSs, sometimes developed by themselves, sometimes developed in partnership with specialist companies. One of the most familiar, because it has been around for a long time, is the Macmillan English Campus. Campus offers both ready- made courses and a mix- and- match option drawing on the thousands of resources available (for grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and language skills development). Other content can also be uploaded. The platform also offers automatic marking and mark recording, ready- made tests and messaging options. In the last few years, the situation has changed rapidly. In May 2013, Knewton, the world s leading adaptive learning technology provider, announced a partnership with Macmillan to build next- generation English Language Learning and Teaching materials. In September 2013, it was the turn of Cambridge University Press to sign their partnership with Knewton to create personalized learning experiences in [their] industry- leading ELT digital products. In both cases, Knewton s adaptive learning technology will be integrated into the publisher s learning platforms. Pearson, which is also in partnership with Knewton (but not for ELT products), has invested heavily in its MyLab products. Exactly what will emerge from these new business partnerships and from the continuously evolving technology remains to be seen. The general picture is, however, clearer. We will see an increasing convergence of technologies (administrative systems, educational platforms, communication technologies, social networking, big data analytics and adaptive learning) into integrated systems. This will happen first in in- company training departments, universities and colleges of higher education. It is already clear that the ELT divisions of companies like Pearson and Macmillan are beginning to move away from their reliance on printed textbooks for adult learners. This was made graphically clear at the 2013 IATEFL conference in Liverpool when the Pearson exhibition stand had absolutely no books on it (although Pearson now acknowledge this was a mistake and brought along a few books the following year).

14 The selling points of adaptive learning Adaptive has become a buzzword in the marketing of educational products. Chris Dragon, President of Pearson Digital Learning, complained on the Pearson Research blog ( learning/lost- in- translation- finding- the- meaning- of- adaptive- learning) that there are so many EdTech providers claiming to be adaptive that you have to wonder if they are not using the term too loosely. He talks about semantic satiation, the process whereby temporary loss of meaning [is] experienced when one is exposed to the uninterrupted repetition of a word or phrase. But adaptive learning, as an idea, also has to be marketed and sold. The marketing message is packaged in different ways, depending on the target audience, but it is possible to identify three main key selling points. 1 Individualised learning In the vast majority of contexts, language teaching is tied to a one- size- fits- all model. This is manifested in institutional and national syllabuses which provide lists of structures and / or competences that all students must master within a given period of time. It is usually actualized in the use of coursebooks, often designed for global markets. Reaction against this model has been common currency for some time, and has led to a range of suggestions for alternative approaches (such as Dogme), without really impacting the mainstream. The advocates of adaptive learning programs have tapped into this zeitgeist and promise truly personalized learning. Atomico, a venture capital company that focuses on consumer technologies, and a major investor in Knewton, describes the promise of adaptive learning in the following terms: Imagine lessons that adapt on- the- fly to the way in which an individual learns, and powerful predictive analytics that help teachers differentiate instruction and understand what each student needs to work on and why 8. This is a seductive message and is often framed in such a way that disagreement seems impossible. A post on one well- respected blog, eltjam, which focuses on educational technology in language learning, argued the case for adaptive learning very strongly in July 2013: Adaptive Learning is a methodology that is geared towards creating a learning experience that is unique to each individual learner through the intervention of computer software. Rather than viewing learners as a homogenous collective with more or less identical preferences, abilities, contexts and objectives who are shepherded through a glossy textbook with static activities/topics, AL attempts to tap into the rich meta- data that is constantly being generated by learners (and disregarded by educators) during the learning process. Rather than pushing a course book at a class full of learners and hoping that it will (somehow) miraculously appeal to them all in a compelling, salubrious way, AL demonstrates that the content of a particular course would be more beneficial if it were dynamic and interactive. When there are as many responses, ideas, personalities and abilities as there are learners in the room, why wouldn t you ensure that the content was able to map itself to them, rather than the other way around? 9 I will look later at the nature of this content and the extent to which it is personalized, but for the time being, it is worth noting the prominence that this message is given in the promotional discourse. It is a message that is primarily directed at teachers. It is more than a little disingenuous, however, because teachers are not the primary targets of the promotional discourse, for the simple reason that they are not the ones with purchasing power. The slogan on the homepage of the 8 investment- in- knewton (last accessed 23 April 2014) 9 learning/ (last accessed 23 April 2014)

15 Knewton website shows clearly who the real audience is: Every education leader needs an adaptive learning infrastructure Learning outcomes and testing Education leaders, who are more likely these days to come from the world of business and finance than the world of education, are currently very focused on two closely interrelated topics: the need for greater productivity and accountability, and the role of technology. They generally share the assumption of other leaders in the World Economic Forum that ICT is the key to the former and the key to a better tomorrow (J. Spring, Education Networks, 2012, p.52). We re at an important transition point, said Arne Duncan, the US Secretary of Education in 2010, we re getting ready to move from a predominantly print- based classroom to a digital learning environment (quoted by Spring, 2012, p.58). Later in the speech, which was delivered at the same time as the release of the new National Education Technology Plan, Duncan said just as technology has increased productivity in the business world, it is an essential tool to help boost educational productivity. The plan outlines how this increased productivity could be achieved: we must start with being clear about the learning outcomes we expect from the investments we make (Office of Educational Technology, Transforming American Education: Learning Powered by Technology, US Department of Education, 2010). The greater part of the plan is devoted to discussion of learning outcomes and assessment of them. Learning outcomes (and their assessment) are also at the heart of Asking More: the Path to Efficacy (Barber and Rizvi (eds), Asking More: the Path to Efficacy Pearson, 2013), Pearson s blueprint for the future of education. According to John Fallon, the CEO of Pearson, our focus should unfalteringly be on honing and improving the learning outcomes we deliver (Barber and Rizvi, 2013, p.3). High quality learning is associated with a relentless focus on outcomes (ibid, p.3) and words like measuring / measurable, data and investment are almost as salient as outcomes. A sister publication, edited by the same team, is entitled The Incomplete Guide to Delivering Learning Outcomes (Barber and Rizvi (eds), Pearson, 2013) and explores further Pearson s ambition to become the world s leading education company and to deliver learning outcomes. It is no surprise that words like outcomes, data and measure feature equally prominently in the language of adaptive software companies like Knewton. Adaptive software is premised on the establishment and measurement of clearly defined learning outcomes. If measurable learning outcomes are what you re after, it s hard to imagine a better path to follow than adaptive software. If your priorities include standards and assessment, it is again hard to imagine an easier path to follow than adaptive software, which was used in testing long before its introduction into instruction. As David Kuntz, VP of research at Knewton and, before that, a pioneer of algorithms in the design of tests, points out, when a student takes a course powered by Knewton, we are continuously evaluating their performance, what others have done with that material before, and what [they] know 11. Knewton s claim that every education leader needs an adaptive learning infrastructure has a powerful internal logic. 3 New business models 10 (last accessed 23 April 2014) 11 MIT Technology Review, November 26, surround- software- that- adapts- to- students/ (last accessed 23 April 2014)

16 Adapt or die (a phrase originally coined by the last prime minister of apartheid South Africa) is a piece of advice that is often given these days to both educational institutions and publishers. British universities must adapt or die, according to Michael Barber, author of An Avalanche is Coming 12 (a report commissioned by the British Institute for Public Policy Research), Chief Education Advisor to Pearson, and editor of the Pearson Efficacy document (see above). ELT publishers must change or die, reported the eltjam blog 13, and it is a message that is frequently repeated elsewhere. The move towards adaptive learning is increasingly often seen as one of the necessary adaptations for both these sectors. The problems facing universities in countries like the UK are acute. Basically, as the introduction to An Avalanche is Coming puts it, the traditional university is being unbundled. There are a number of reasons for this, including the rising cost of higher education provision, greater global competition for the same students, funding squeezes from central governments, and competition from new educational providers (such as MOOCs). Unsurprisingly, universities (supported by national governments) have turned to technology, especially online course delivery, as an answer to their problems. There are two main reasons for this. Firstly, universities have attempted to reduce operating costs by looking for increases in scale (through mergers, transnational partnerships, international branch campuses and so on). Mega- universities are growing, and there are thirty- three in Asia alone (Selwyn Education in a Digital World New York: Routledge 2013, p.6). Universities like the Turkish Anadolu University, with over one million students, are no longer exceptional in terms of scale. In this world, online educational provision is a key element. Secondly, and not to put too fine a point on it, online instruction is cheaper (Spring, Education Networks 2012, p.2). All other things being equal, why would any language department of an institute of higher education not choose an online environment with an adaptive element? Adaptive learning, for the time being at any rate, may be seen as the much needed key to the Iron Triangle that poses a conundrum to HE providers; cost, access and quality. Any attempt to improve any one of those conditions impacts negatively on the others. If you want to increase access to a course you run the risk of escalating costs and jeopardising quality, and so on 14. Meanwhile, ELT publishers have been hit by rampant pirating of their materials, spiralling development costs of their flagship products and the growth of open educational resources. An excellent blog post by David Wiley 15 explains why adaptive learning services are a heaven- sent opportunity for publishers to modify their business model. While the broad availability of free content and open educational resources have trained internet users to expect content to be free, many people are still willing to pay for services. Adaptive learning systems exploit this willingness by 12 Published March 11, avalanche- is- coming- higher- education- and- the- revolution- ahead (last accessed 1 May 2014) 13 Eltjam August 28, collective- consciousness- what- can- we- learn- from- the- questions- we- ask/ (last accessed 1 May 2014) 14 Tim Gifford Taking it Personally: Adaptive Learning July 9, learning/ (last accessed 1 May, 2014) 15 David Wiley, Buying our Way into Bondage: the risks of adaptive learning services March 20, (last accessed 1 May, 2014)

17 deeply intermingling content and services so that you cannot access one [without] using the other. Naturally, because an adaptive learning service is comprised of content plus adaptive services, it will be more expensive than static content used to be. And because it is a service, you cannot simply purchase it like you used to buy a textbook. An adaptive learning service is something you subscribe to, like Netflix. [ ] In short, why is it in a content company s interest to enable you to own anything? Put simply, it is not. When you own a copy, the publisher completely loses control over it. When you subscribe to content through a digital service (like an adaptive learning service), the publisher achieves complete and perfect control over you and your use of their content. Although the initial development costs of building a suitable learning platform with adaptive capabilities are high, publishers will subsequently be able to produce and modify content (i.e. learning materials) much more efficiently. Since content will be mashed up and delivered in many different ways, author royalties will be cut or eliminated. Production and distribution costs will be much lower, and sales and marketing efforts can be directed more efficiently towards the most significant customers. The days of ELT sales reps trying unsuccessfully to get an interview with the director of studies of a small language school or university department are becoming a thing of the past. As with the universities, scale will be everything.

18 The next 4 to 5 years of adaptive learning in ELT 10 predictions The technological and business landscapes are changing so rapidly that making predictions about adaptive learning is a hazardous game. However, given what we know from the statements and claims of the major publishers and software providers, there are a number of strong probabilities that can be identified. 1 Major publishers will move gradually away from traditional coursebooks (whether in print or ebook format) towards the flexible delivery of learning content on learning platforms. At its most limited, this will be in the form of workbook- style material with an adaptive element. At its most developed, this will be in the form of courses that can be delivered entirely without traditional coursebooks. These will allow teachers or institutions to decide the extent to which they wish to blend online and face- to- face instruction. 2 The adaptive elements of these courses will focus primarily or exclusively on discrete item grammar, vocabulary, functional language and phonology, since these lend themselves most readily to the software. These courses will be targeted mainly at lower level (B1 and below) learners. 3 The methodological approach of these courses will be significantly influenced by the expectations of the markets where they are predicted to be most popular and most profitable: South and Central America, the Arabian Gulf and Asia. 4 These courses will permit multiple modifications to suit local requirements. They will also allow additional content to be uploaded. 5 Assessment will play an important role in the design of all these courses. Things like discrete item grammar, vocabulary, functional language and phonology, which lend themselves most readily to assessment, will be prioritized over language skills, which are harder to assess. Assessment, itself, will be moving towards online and adaptive delivery. 6 The discrete items of language that are presented will be tagged to level descriptors, using scales like the Common European Framework, English Profile or the Pearson Global Scale of English. 7 Language skills work will be included, but only in the more sophisticated (and better- funded) projects will these components be closely tied to the adaptive software. 8 Because of technological differences between different parts of the world, adaptive courses will co- exist with closely related, more traditional print (or ebook) courses. 9 Training for teachers (especially concerning blended learning) will become an increasingly important part of the package sold by the major publishers. 10 These courses will more than ever be driven by the publishers perceptions of what the market wants. There will be a concomitant decrease in the extent to which individual authors, or author teams, influence the material.

19 Theory, research and practice One could be forgiven for thinking that there are no problems associated with adaptive learning in ELT. Type the term into a search engine and you ll mostly come up with enthusiasm or sales talk. There are, however, a number of reasons to be deeply sceptical about the whole business. In this section, I will look at issues concerned with learning and teaching. In the next, I will be considering the political background. 1 Learning theory Jose Ferreira, the CEO of Knewton, spoke, in an interview with Digital Journal 16 in October 2009, about getting down to the granular level of learning. He was referencing, in an original turn of phrase, the commonly held belief that learning is centrally concerned with gaining knowledge, knowledge that can be broken down into very small parts that can be put together again. In this sense, the adaptive learning machine is very similar to the teaching machine of B.F. Skinner, the psychologist who believed that learning was a complex process of stimulus and response. But how many applied linguists would agree, firstly, that language can be broken down into atomised parts (rather than viewed as a complex, dynamic system), and, secondly, that these atomised parts can be synthesized in a learning program to reform a complex whole? Human cognitive and linguistic development simply does not work that way, despite the strongly- held contrary views of folk theories of learning (Selwyn Education and Technology 2011, p.3). The consensus view of applied linguists is summarised by Dave Willis when he says that it is actually impossible to separate one [bit of language] and say, This is an item. You may do it for the purposes of syllabus specification, but it is a very artificial exercise, because [language] only has meaning when in relation with other items. (Willis, D. Introduction to syllabus design Lecture presented at David English House, Hiroshima, Japan. August 14) Breaking down a language into atomized parts assumes that they can be learnt in a linear fashion. Dave Willis, again, summarises the consensus view of researchers: All that we know about the way people learn languages may not be a great deal, but we know how people don t learn languages, and they don t learn them like that... they don t learn them by adding on one little bit at a time. [ibid.] Even if an adaptive system delivers language content in personalized and interesting ways, it is still premised on a view of learning where content is delivered and learners receive it. The actual learning program is not personalized in any meaningful way: it is only the way that it is delivered that responds to the algorithms. Adaptive software can only personalize to the extent that the content of an English language learning programme allows it to do so. It may be true that each student using adaptive software gets a more personalized experience no matter whose content the student is consuming, as Knewton s David Liu 17 puts it. But the potential for any really meaningful personalization depends crucially on the nature and extent of this content, along with the possibility of variable learning outcomes. For this reason, we are not likely to see any truly personalized large- scale adaptive learning programs for English any time soon. Despite the claims that adaptive learning can offer truly differentiated or personalized instruction, its real strength is in offering better 16 _campaign=feed%3a+frc+(first+round+capital+news) (last accessed 1 May 2014) 17 data- and- competitive- advantage- knewton- interview- part- 2/ (last accessed 1 May 2014)

20 managed information processing. This is a far cry from the continuing process of participation (Selwyn, Education and Technology 2011, p.4) that educationalists would like to see. Finally, adaptive learning (of the more complex kind) is also premised on the idea that learners have particular learning styles, that these can be identified by the analytics (even if they are not given labels), and that actionable insights can be gained from this analysis (i.e. the software can decide on the most appropriate style of content delivery for an individual learner). Although the idea that teaching programs can be modified to cater to individual learning styles continues to have some currency among language teachers (for example, with those who espouse Neuro- Linguistic Programming or Multiple Intelligences Theory), it is not an idea that has much currency in the research community. This is not to say that different people do not learn in different ways at different times. However, after more than 30 years of research, no consensus has been reached about the most effective instrument for measuring learning styles and no agreement about the most appropriate pedagogical interventions 18. It might be the case that adaptive learning programs will work with some or even many learners, but it would be wise to carry out more research (see the section on Research below) before making grand claims about its efficacy. If adaptive learning can be shown to be more effective than other forms of language learning, it will either be because our current theories of language learning are all wrong, or because the learning takes place despite the theory (and not because of it). 2 Practical problems However good technological innovations may sound, they can only be as good, in practice, as the way they are implemented. Language laboratories and interactive whiteboards both sounded like very good ideas at the time, but they both fell out of favour long before they were technologically superseded. The reasons are many, but one of the most important is that classroom teachers did not understand sufficiently the potential of these technologies or, more basically, how to use them. Given the much more radical changes that seem to be implied by the adoption of adaptive learning, we would be wise to be cautious. The following is a short, selective list of questions that have not yet been answered. Language teachers often struggle with mixed ability classes. If adaptive programs (as part of a blended program) allow students to progress at their own speed, the range of abilities in face- to- face lessons may be even more marked. How will teachers cope with this? Teacher- student ratios are unlikely to improve! Who will pay for the training that teachers will need to implement effective blended learning and when will this take place? How will teachers respond to a technology that will be perceived by some as a threat to their jobs and their professionalism, and as part of a growing trend towards the accommodation of commercial interests (see Neoliberalism and Solutionism, below) How will students respond to online (adaptive) learning when it becomes the norm, rather than something different? 3 Research Technological innovations in education are rarely, if ever, driven by solidly grounded research, but they are invariably accompanied by grand claims about their potential. Motion pictures, radio, 18 Nel, C Learning styles and good language learners (p.56) in Griffiths, C. (ed.) Lessons from Good Language Learners (Cambridge University Press, 2008)

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