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Introduction

The island of Iceland is one of the stepping-stones of land between the North American and European continents. It is located just south of the Arctic Circle about 180 miles (290 kilometers) southeast of Greenland, 620 miles (1,000 kilometers) west of Norway, and 500 miles (800 kilometers) northwest of Scotland. Over 80 percent of the island is unpopulated because the land is covered either with permanent snow and ice fields (glaciers) or has a volcanic surface, which has poor soils that are not suited to crop growing, sheep grazing, or other agricultural activities. Most of the people live in or near the capital city of Reykjavík in the extreme southwestern portion of the island. It is located on major shipping and air lanes of the North Atlantic Ocean, and it occupies a unique position in the world as one of the first independent, democratic republics. Area 39,777 square miles (103,022 square kilometers). Population (2017 est.) 341,300.

Land and Climate

The geological origin of Iceland is volcanic in nature and the surface has been formed by lava flows and other volcanic materials that come from numerous erupting volcanoes, some of which are still active. Hot lava is near the surface, and many geysers or hot springs are formed when water comes into contact with the lava-heated rocks. The steam or hot water created by this contact is used to heat the homes and buildings of Reykjavík as well as greenhouses, which produce flowers and vegetables. Active volcanoes, such as the 4,891-foot (1,491-meter) Hekla, erupt occasionally and sometimes cause considerable damage. The volcanic island of Surtsey off the southern coast was formed by eruptions that began in 1963. After nearly 190 years of dormancy, the Eyjafjallajökull volcano in southern Iceland erupted in March 2010; a second, much more powerful eruption occurred the following month, when the volcano spewed massive amounts of ash into the atmosphere that caused widespread disruptions to air travel.

Joe Capra—Scientifantastic

The extensive lava plateaus are largely covered by ice caps from which many glaciers move outward toward the sea. Rugged mountains are characteristic of the coastline, except for the plains area near Reykjavík in the southwest. Hvannadalshnúkur along the southern coast is the highest peak (6,952 feet; 2,119 meters). The irregular coast is indented by many fjords and bays except in the southwest.

Iceland Tourist Bureau

The Icelandic climate is rather moderate despite the island’s northerly latitude because of the relatively warm North Atlantic Drift waters that bathe the southern and western coasts. Nevertheless, the climate is cool throughout the year. The mean temperature at Reykjavík in January is 31° F (–0.6° C) and 52° F (11.2° C) in June. The northern coasts have colder water offshore for most of the year and the temperature there is normally 5.5° F (3° C) colder than the southern coast temperature in summer and 9° F (5° C) colder in winter. Along the northern coast drift ice and foggy conditions sometimes prevail during winter. The frost-free growing period is short, however, and snow remains at higher altitudes for six months or more. The average annual precipitation varies from 40 to 60 inches (1,000 to 1,500 millimeters) in the populated southwest. Extremes that range from less than 20 inches (500 millimeters) in the north to about 120 inches (3,000 millimeters) in the highlands have been measured.

Iceland Tourist Bureau

The country’s lava soils, climate, and poor drainage conditions are not favorable to tree growth. Most of the lower parts of the island were covered with trees that were either burned off by early settlers, cut for timber, or killed by sheep gnawing at the bark for food during winter. The present vegetation consists of cotton grass and other sedges and rushes in the marshy areas; small forested areas consisting of dwarf willows, birches, and mountain ash; and grass, moss, and lichens in the coastal valleys, the plains of the southwest, and the lower elevation lava plateaus.

The fox is the only native four-legged animal. The reindeer was introduced from Norway about 1770. About 100 species of birds, including many types of waterfowl, inhabit the island. Whales and seals are found along the coast. Trout and salmon inhabit the inland lakes and streams, and several commercial fish species are located in the surrounding waters. Especially numerous are herring and cod.

People and Culture

Irish monks established early isolated settlements in Iceland, but Norwegians arriving from ad 874 were primarily responsible for the island’s continuous occupation and population growth. In addition to the Norwegian stock, large numbers of the early settlers came from the British Isles. Traders from the Black Sea and Mediterranean areas also culturally influenced the island.

Icelandic culture is similar to that of the Scandinavian countries, especially Norway. The Icelandic language is primarily Old Norse or old Norwegian in character, although it varies considerably from modern Norwegian. The Evangelical Lutheran church is the state church, but the people are free to worship as they please. Education levels are high in Iceland, where more books and newspapers are published per person than in any other nation. The University of Iceland in Reykjavík, founded in 1911, is free to citizens. Schooling is required through age 16.

Despite the problems presented by Iceland’s natural environment, the standard of living is relatively high. The people receive a variety of social services from the government, including medical care, unemployment insurance, pensions for the elderly and handicapped, and free schooling. The homes in the cities are equipped with modern conveniences, such as refrigerators, stoves, radios, televisions, and indoor running water and plumbing. Most houses are constructed from concrete rather than wood, which is scarce. Fish and mutton, available locally, are leading foods. Most fruits and vegetables have to be imported, except for those grown in greenhouses. The cost of living is relatively high in Iceland because so many foods, other raw materials, and most manufactured products must be imported.

Literary works called sagas and Eddas provide Icelanders with a rich literary background dating back to the 12th and 13th centuries. The sagas are about Icelandic and Scandinavian heroes, and the Eddas are the stories of gods and heroes of the pre-Christian era in Northern Europe. Icelandic people in modern times have been important contributors of novels, poems, and musical compositions. In 1955 Halldór Laxness was awarded the Nobel prize for literature.

Economy

The few resources available in Iceland place limits on the economy. Fishing is a dominant occupation because of the rich fishing grounds for cod and herring in the waters that surround the island. Much of the processing—such as salting, freezing, and canning—of fish is done in Reykjavík. The fishery limits were extended to 200 nautical miles (370 kilometers) in 1975 in order to protect this crucial industry. The British raised strong objections to the extension of the fishery zone, because they have long regarded the waters off Iceland as an important fishing ground for their own fishing fleet.

Agriculture is based primarily on sheep and dairy cattle. Sheep graze the open, highland pastures during summer and are rounded up each fall. The cattle feed on lowland coastal pastures during summer and stored hay during winter. Less than 1 percent of Iceland is under cultivation. The threat of summer frosts, the cold summer temperatures, and the short growing season severely limit the variety and success of crop production.

Various manufacturing and service industries have become increasingly important to Iceland as the population has become more urban. More than 90 percent of the people live in cities and about 10 percent are employed in manufacturing. The Reykjavík area is the leading industrial center. In addition to fish processing plants, Icelanders work in textile and clothing factories, printing and publishing activities, food processing, chemical industries, and electrical equipment plants. All oil and coal must be imported to Iceland, but hydroelectric plants produce most of the country’s electricity. Tourism has made a significant contribution to the economy of Iceland. Many airline passengers visit the country while en route between the United States and Europe.

Transportation and Communications

Iceland has no train transportation, so motor vehicle traffic is important. By 2008 the country had more than 200,000 passenger cars and some 33,000 trucks and buses. A highway parallels the coast, but heavy traffic occurs only in the area of greater Reykjavík, which has morning and evening rush hours. The country has domestic air services and an international airline that regularly carries passengers to and from Scandinavia, the United Kingdom and other European countries, and the United States. Communications are well developed. Iceland is served by radio and television stations, and much of the country’s population regularly uses the Internet. Circulation of Icelandic daily newspapers stood at 218,000 in 2007.

Government and History

Iceland is a social democracy led by a president who is elected every four years. Cabinet officers, headed by the prime minister, administer the following areas: foreign affairs, justice, agriculture, education, fisheries and communications, trade and commerce, health and social security, finance, and energy and industry. The Althing, or parliament, consists of 63 members and is one of the oldest legislative assemblies in the world. Prominent political parties include the Independence, Progressive, Social Democratic Alliance, and the Left-Green Movement. The voting age is 18 years.

The earliest permanent settlers came to Iceland in ad 874, most of them from Norway. A representative form of government was established in 930 at Thingvellir with the Althing as the deliberating body. Norwegian missionaries introduced Christianity, which was adopted as the state religion in about 1000. The country existed as an independent republic until 1262, when the Althing voted that Iceland should come under the rule of Norway.

In 1380 Iceland and Norway were taken over by Denmark, and when Norway was separated from Denmark in 1814, Iceland remained a Danish possession. Home rule was obtained in 1904. Iceland became self-governing in 1918 but still was a protectorate of Denmark. In 1944 Iceland proclaimed itself an independent republic.

The island was occupied by British and then American troops during World War II in order to prevent German entry after the Germans had occupied Denmark. The American forces were withdrawn in 1946. Iceland became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) defense plan in 1949 and American troops returned in 1951. Membership in NATO is especially important because Iceland has neither an army nor a navy. An American air base operates at Keflavík in southwestern Iceland.

The country has endured many difficult periods. In the 1400s a plague reportedly killed a large percentage of the population. Volcanoes caused much destruction in Iceland in the 1600s and 1700s. In 1973 a volcanic eruption on the island of Heimaey necessitated the evacuation of 5,000 people.

Vigdís Finnbogadóttir was elected president on June 30, 1980. She became the world’s first elected woman president. She was reelected in 1984, 1988, and 1992. Worldwide attention was focused on Iceland in October 1986 when the country hosted arms-reduction talks between United States President Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in Reykjavík. Pope John Paul II visited Iceland in June 1989; it was the first visit ever by a pope to this largely Lutheran country.

By the early 21st century, Iceland’s banks and markets had become favored destinations for international investors; but, in the wake of the financial crisis that engulfed the global economy in 2008, foreign investors fled, and the country’s banking system collapsed. In early 2009 Iceland’s coalition government (led by the center-right Independence Party) resigned, and on February 1 a new coalition government of the Social Democrats and the Left-Greens came into office under Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir, Iceland’s first female prime minister and the world’s first openly gay head of government.

Additional Reading

Deady, K.W. Iceland (Children’s, 2004).Jacobsen, Peter and Kristensen, Preben. A Family in Iceland (Watts, 1986).Karlsson, Gunnar. The History of Iceland (Univ. of Minn. Press, 2000).Lacy, T.G. Ring of Seasons: Iceland—Its Culture and History (Univ. of Mich. Press, 1998).

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